diff --git a/.bumpversion.toml b/.bumpversion.toml
index b5098372c68..3ddd5d2eade 100644
--- a/.bumpversion.toml
+++ b/.bumpversion.toml
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 [tool.bumpversion]
-current_version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+current_version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 parse = "(?P<major>\\d+)\\.(?P<minor>\\d+)\\.(?P<patch>\\d+)(-(?P<prerelease>(beta|rc))\\.(?P<prerelease_num>\\d+))?"
 serialize = [
     "{major}.{minor}.{patch}-{prerelease}.{prerelease_num}",
@@ -55,6 +55,11 @@ filename = "Cargo.toml"
 search = 'lance-datagen = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
 replace = 'lance-datagen = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
 
+[[tool.bumpversion.files]]
+filename = "Cargo.toml"
+search = 'lance-derive = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
+replace = 'lance-derive = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
+
 [[tool.bumpversion.files]]
 filename = "Cargo.toml"
 search = 'lance-encoding = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
@@ -75,6 +80,11 @@ filename = "Cargo.toml"
 search = 'lance-index = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
 replace = 'lance-index = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
 
+[[tool.bumpversion.files]]
+filename = "Cargo.toml"
+search = 'lance-index-core = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
+replace = 'lance-index-core = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
+
 [[tool.bumpversion.files]]
 filename = "Cargo.toml"
 search = 'lance-io = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
@@ -92,13 +102,13 @@ replace = 'lance-namespace = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
 
 [[tool.bumpversion.files]]
 filename = "Cargo.toml"
-search = 'lance-namespace-datafusion = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
-replace = 'lance-namespace-datafusion = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
+search = 'lance-namespace-impls = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
+replace = 'lance-namespace-impls = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
 
 [[tool.bumpversion.files]]
 filename = "Cargo.toml"
-search = 'lance-namespace-impls = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
-replace = 'lance-namespace-impls = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
+search = 'lance-select = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
+replace = 'lance-select = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
 
 [[tool.bumpversion.files]]
 filename = "Cargo.toml"
@@ -115,6 +125,11 @@ filename = "Cargo.toml"
 search = 'lance-testing = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
 replace = 'lance-testing = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
 
+[[tool.bumpversion.files]]
+filename = "Cargo.toml"
+search = 'lance-tokenizer = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
+replace = 'lance-tokenizer = {{ version = "={new_version}"'
+
 [[tool.bumpversion.files]]
 filename = "Cargo.toml"
 search = 'fsst = {{ version = "={current_version}"'
@@ -145,4 +160,3 @@ replace = 'version = "{new_version}"'
 filename = "java/pom.xml"
 search = "<version>{current_version}</version>"
 replace = "<version>{new_version}</version>"
-
diff --git a/.cargo/config.toml b/.cargo/config.toml
index 1d9c9ecc9da..4fef1d7e0fa 100644
--- a/.cargo/config.toml
+++ b/.cargo/config.toml
@@ -9,12 +9,27 @@ debug = true
 codegen-units = 16
 lto = "thin"
 
+[profile.release-no-lto]
+inherits = "release"
+debug = true
+lto = false
+# Prioritize compile time when LTO is not relevant to the measurement.
+codegen-units = 16
+
 [profile.bench]
 inherits = "release"
 lto = "thin"
 codegen-units = 16
 
 [target.x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu]
+# The default target is haswell.  This is an old enough target
+# that portability is high but a new enough target that we gain
+# some of the most common SIMD optimizations.
+#
+# On certain paths we use explicit SIMD and runtime dispatch to
+# opt-in to even higher CPU targets.  The target specified here
+# is for all code that is NOT using explicit SIMD (still the large
+# majority of code).
 rustflags = ["-C", "target-cpu=haswell", "-C", "target-feature=+avx2,+fma,+f16c"]
 
 [target.aarch64-apple-darwin]
diff --git a/.coderabbit.yaml b/.coderabbit.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9779b0ff8e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.coderabbit.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+# yaml-language-server: $schema=https://coderabbit.ai/integrations/schema.v2.json
+language: en-US
+early_access: false
+reviews:
+  profile: quiet
+  high_level_summary: false
+  poem: false
+  review_status: true
+  auto_review:
+    enabled: true
+    auto_incremental_review: true
+    ignore_title_keywords:
+      - WIP
+      - Draft
+    drafts: false
+    base_branches:
+      - main
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
index 18cf7bed94a..a447781cffc 100644
--- a/.gitattributes
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -1 +1,4 @@
-notebooks/** linguist-vendored
\ No newline at end of file
+notebooks/** linguist-vendored
+Cargo.lock linguist-generated
+**/Cargo.lock linguist-generated
+rust/lance-file/test_data/**/*.lance binary
diff --git a/.github/CODEOWNERS b/.github/CODEOWNERS
index adfbf97021a..2a11c81a548 100644
--- a/.github/CODEOWNERS
+++ b/.github/CODEOWNERS
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ docs/src/format/file/ @file-spec-team
 
 # table specification
 protos/table.proto @table-spec-team
+protos/fragment_metadata.proto @table-spec-team
 protos/rowids.proto @table-spec-team
 docs/src/format/table/ @table-spec-team
 
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.yml b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0e7363697b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+name: Bug report
+description: Report incorrect, unexpected, or crashing behavior.
+labels: ["bug"]
+body:
+  - type: markdown
+    attributes:
+      value: |
+        Thanks for taking the time to file a bug report! Please search
+        [existing issues](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues) first to
+        avoid filing a duplicate.
+  - type: textarea
+    id: description
+    attributes:
+      label: Description
+      description: A clear and concise description of what the bug is.
+    validations:
+      required: true
+  - type: textarea
+    id: reproduction
+    attributes:
+      label: Steps to reproduce
+      description: >-
+        A minimal, self-contained code snippet or sequence of steps that
+        reproduces the problem. The more we can copy-paste and run, the faster
+        we can fix it.
+      placeholder: |
+        1. Write a dataset with `...`
+        2. Scan with filter `...`
+        3. Observe `...`
+      render: python
+    validations:
+      required: true
+  - type: textarea
+    id: expected
+    attributes:
+      label: Expected behavior
+      description: What did you expect to happen?
+    validations:
+      required: false
+  - type: input
+    id: lance-version
+    attributes:
+      label: Lance version
+      description: >-
+        Output of `python -c "import lance; print(lance.__version__)"`, or the
+        `lance`/`pylance` version from your `Cargo.toml` / `pyproject.toml`.
+      placeholder: "e.g. 0.40.0"
+    validations:
+      required: true
+  - type: dropdown
+    id: language
+    attributes:
+      label: Language binding
+      multiple: true
+      options:
+        - Python
+        - Rust
+        - Java
+        - Other / not sure
+    validations:
+      required: true
+  - type: input
+    id: environment
+    attributes:
+      label: Environment
+      description: OS, architecture, and storage backend (local, S3, GCS, Azure, ...).
+      placeholder: "e.g. Ubuntu 22.04, x86_64, S3"
+    validations:
+      required: false
+  - type: textarea
+    id: logs
+    attributes:
+      label: Logs / traceback
+      description: >-
+        Any relevant log output or stack trace. This will be automatically
+        formatted as code, so no need for backticks.
+      render: shell
+    validations:
+      required: false
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/config.yml b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/config.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..32389799971
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/config.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+blank_issues_enabled: true
+contact_links:
+  - name: Question / usage help
+    url: https://discord.gg/lance
+    about: >-
+      For questions and general discussion, please ask in the Lance Discord
+      rather than opening an issue.
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.md b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..41d6278fc02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.md
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+---
+name: Feature request
+about: Suggest a new capability or an improvement to an existing one.
+labels: feature
+---
+
+<!--
+Describe what you'd like Lance to do and why. There's no required format —
+mention the problem or use case, and a rough idea of the solution if you have
+one. Please search existing issues first to avoid duplicates.
+-->
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/performance_issue.md b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/performance_issue.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..65fcd0be6f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/performance_issue.md
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+---
+name: Performance issue
+about: Report slow operations, high memory use, or a performance regression.
+labels: performance
+---
+
+<!--
+Describe what's slow or memory-hungry. There's no required format, but concrete
+numbers (timings, memory, dataset shape) and a way to reproduce help a lot. If
+it's a regression, note the last version that performed well. Please search
+existing issues first to avoid duplicates.
+-->
diff --git a/.github/actions/setup-release-env/action.yml b/.github/actions/setup-release-env/action.yml
index c06f28271bb..8840ebfcb3b 100644
--- a/.github/actions/setup-release-env/action.yml
+++ b/.github/actions/setup-release-env/action.yml
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ runs:
   using: "composite"
   steps:
     - name: Set up Python
-      uses: actions/setup-python@v4
+      uses: actions/setup-python@7f4fc3e22c37d6ff65e88745f38bd3157c663f7c # v4
       with:
         python-version: "3.11"
 
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ runs:
         pip install bump-my-version packaging PyGithub PyYAML
 
     - name: Set up Rust
-      uses: actions-rs/toolchain@v1
+      uses: actions-rs/toolchain@16499b5e05bf2e26879000db0c1d13f7e13fa3af # v1
       with:
         toolchain: stable
         override: true
diff --git a/.github/dependabot.yml b/.github/dependabot.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..05bedad56a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/dependabot.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+version: 2
+updates:
+  # Rust — one grouped version-bump PR per directory each week, and security
+  # advisories that land together in a directory batched into a single PR
+  # instead of one PR per advisory.
+  - package-ecosystem: "cargo"
+    directories:
+      - "/"
+      - "/python"
+      - "/java/lance-jni"
+    versioning-strategy: lockfile-only
+    # Matches the 48h floor enforced by ci/check_dependency_age.py, so grouped
+    # bumps do not land a version that CI will then reject. Cooldown does not
+    # apply to security updates, which we still want as fast as possible.
+    cooldown:
+      default-days: 2
+    schedule:
+      interval: "weekly"
+      day: "wednesday"
+    groups:
+      cargo:
+        applies-to: version-updates
+        patterns:
+          - "*"
+      cargo-security:
+        applies-to: security-updates
+        patterns:
+          - "*"
+
+  # Python (uv) — same weekly-grouped + grouped-security treatment.
+  - package-ecosystem: "uv"
+    directory: "/python"
+    versioning-strategy: lockfile-only
+    schedule:
+      interval: "weekly"
+      day: "wednesday"
+    groups:
+      uv:
+        applies-to: version-updates
+        patterns:
+          - "*"
+      uv-security:
+        applies-to: security-updates
+        patterns:
+          - "*"
+
+  # Standalone Rust lockfiles for dev/test fixtures. Dependabot security updates
+  # scan these regardless of config, so we group them; open-pull-requests-limit: 0
+  # disables the (unwanted) weekly version bumps for these crates.
+  - package-ecosystem: "cargo"
+    directories:
+      - "/memtest"
+      - "/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen"
+    open-pull-requests-limit: 0
+    schedule:
+      interval: "weekly"
+      day: "wednesday"
+    groups:
+      cargo-fixtures-security:
+        applies-to: security-updates
+        patterns:
+          - "*"
+
+  # Java (Maven). Security updates fire regardless of config; group them and
+  # skip version bumps (limit 0) — we bump Java deps manually.
+  - package-ecosystem: "maven"
+    directory: "/java"
+    open-pull-requests-limit: 0
+    schedule:
+      interval: "weekly"
+      day: "wednesday"
+    groups:
+      maven-security:
+        applies-to: security-updates
+        patterns:
+          - "*"
+
+  # Python benchmark scripts (pip / requirements.txt). Group security updates
+  # and skip version bumps (limit 0).
+  - package-ecosystem: "pip"
+    directories:
+      - "/benchmarks/*"
+    open-pull-requests-limit: 0
+    schedule:
+      interval: "weekly"
+      day: "wednesday"
+    groups:
+      pip-security:
+        applies-to: security-updates
+        patterns:
+          - "*"
diff --git a/.github/labeler-area.yml b/.github/labeler-area.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2215c52bc19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/labeler-area.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+# Area labels (A-*) applied by actions/labeler@v5 based on changed paths.
+# See .github/workflows/labeler.yml. Title/body conventional-commit labels are
+# handled separately by srvaroa/labeler via .github/labeler.yml.
+#
+# A PR may carry multiple A-* labels (e.g. a Java + namespace change gets both).
+
+A-java:
+  - changed-files:
+      - any-glob-to-any-file:
+          - "java/**"
+          - "rust/lance-jni/**"
+
+A-namespace:
+  - changed-files:
+      - any-glob-to-any-file:
+          - "rust/lance-namespace*/**"
+
+A-index:
+  - changed-files:
+      - any-glob-to-any-file:
+          - "rust/lance-index/**"
+          - "rust/lance-linalg/**"
+          - "rust/lance-tokenizer/**"
+
+A-encoding:
+  - changed-files:
+      - any-glob-to-any-file:
+          - "rust/lance-encoding/**"
+          - "rust/lance-io/**"
+          - "rust/lance-file/**"
+
+# On-disk format: persisted proto definitions and the format spec docs. Keep the
+# explicit proto lists here in sync. Execution-plan schemas (ann,
+# filtered_read, and table_identifier) are intentionally excluded. Format docs
+# are excluded from A-docs (see below) so format changes get A-format only.
+A-format:
+  - changed-files:
+      - any-glob-to-any-file:
+          - "protos/encodings_v2_0.proto"
+          - "protos/encodings_v2_1.proto"
+          - "protos/file.proto"
+          - "protos/file2.proto"
+          - "protos/index.proto"
+          - "protos/index_old.proto"
+          - "protos/rowids.proto"
+          - "protos/table.proto"
+          - "protos/fragment_metadata.proto"
+          - "protos/transaction.proto"
+          - "docs/src/format/**"
+
+# Drives the format-spec vote gate (.github/workflows/format-vote-gate.yml):
+# any change to persisted proto definitions or the spec docs requires a PMC
+# vote. Execution-only wire schemas such as filtered_read.proto are not format
+# changes. A PMC member waives a trivial edit with the `format-waived` label.
+format-change:
+  - changed-files:
+      - any-glob-to-any-file:
+          - "protos/encodings_v2_0.proto"
+          - "protos/encodings_v2_1.proto"
+          - "protos/file.proto"
+          - "protos/file2.proto"
+          - "protos/index.proto"
+          - "protos/index_old.proto"
+          - "protos/rowids.proto"
+          - "protos/table.proto"
+          - "protos/fragment_metadata.proto"
+          - "protos/transaction.proto"
+          - "docs/src/format/**"
+
+# Lockfiles are intentionally not excluded: a pure dependency bump gets both
+# A-python and A-deps. Over-labeling beats dropping the area signal on PRs that
+# touch python code alongside a lockfile.
+A-python:
+  - changed-files:
+      - any-glob-to-any-file:
+          - "python/**"
+
+# Format spec docs (docs/src/format/**) are excluded so they get A-format only.
+# Caveat: a PR that touches both format docs and other docs in the same change
+# won't get A-docs, since the exclusion applies across all changed files.
+A-docs:
+  - all:
+      - changed-files:
+          - any-glob-to-any-file:
+              - "docs/**"
+          - all-globs-to-all-files:
+              - "!docs/src/format/**"
+
+A-ci:
+  - changed-files:
+      - any-glob-to-any-file:
+          - ".github/**"
+
+A-deps:
+  - changed-files:
+      - any-glob-to-any-file:
+          - "**/Cargo.lock"
+          - "**/uv.lock"
+          - "deny.toml"
+          - "**/pyproject.toml"
diff --git a/.github/labeler-issues.yml b/.github/labeler-issues.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..625b321cd6c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/labeler-issues.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+version: 1
+# Never remove labels a template or a human already applied.
+appendOnly: true
+# Content-based labels for issues, applied by srvaroa/labeler via
+# .github/workflows/issue-labeler.yml. This covers issues that bypass the
+# .github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE forms entirely — those filed via `gh issue create`,
+# the REST API, or an agent, which never see the web-UI template chooser.
+#
+# The primary signal is a leading marker in the title (e.g. "bug:", "[feature]",
+# "perf -"), which many people type by hand; a modest body keyword match is a
+# secondary fallback. Rules are OR'd (one label per matching entry), so an
+# unmatched issue gets no label and is left for human / LLM triage rather than
+# guessed at. appendOnly means matches stack harmlessly with template labels.
+labels:
+# --- Primary signal: a leading bug/feature/perf marker in the title ---
+- label: bug
+  title: "(?i)^\\s*[\\[(]?\\s*bug\\b"
+- label: feature
+  title: "(?i)^\\s*[\\[(]?\\s*(feature|feat)\\b"
+- label: performance
+  title: "(?i)^\\s*[\\[(]?\\s*(perf|performance)\\b"
+# --- Secondary fallback: keywords anywhere in the body ---
+- label: bug
+  body: "(?i)(panic|segfault|traceback|stack ?trace|crash|corrupt|incorrect result|wrong result)"
+- label: performance
+  body: "(?i)(regression|latency|throughput|\\bOOM\\b|out of memory|memory usage|too slow)"
+- label: feature
+  body: "(?i)(feature request|would be (nice|great|useful)|it would be nice|support for|add .+ support)"
diff --git a/.github/labeler.yml b/.github/labeler.yml
index 36431cc07e3..2b0bfbfd2c8 100644
--- a/.github/labeler.yml
+++ b/.github/labeler.yml
@@ -1,8 +1,11 @@
 version: 1
 appendOnly: true
-# Labels are applied based on conventional commits standard
+# Title/body labels based on the conventional commits standard
 # https://www.conventionalcommits.org/en/v1.0.0/
 # These labels are later used in release notes. See .github/release.yml
+#
+# Path-based area labels (A-*) are handled separately by actions/labeler.
+# See .github/labeler-area.yml and .github/workflows/labeler.yml.
 labels:
 # If the PR title has an ! before the : it will be considered a breaking change
 # For example, `feat!: add new feature` will be considered a breaking change
@@ -22,9 +25,3 @@ labels:
   title: "^ci(\\(.+\\))?!?:.*"
 - label: chore
   title: "^(chore|test|build|style)(\\(.+\\))?!?:.*"
-- label: java
-  files:
-    - "java\\/.*"
-- label: python
-  files:
-    - "python\\/.*"
diff --git a/.github/nextest/daily-code-coverage.toml b/.github/nextest/daily-code-coverage.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ee49194bd2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/nextest/daily-code-coverage.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+[profile.daily-code-coverage]
+slow-timeout = { period = "60s", terminate-after = 30, grace-period = "10s" }
+global-timeout = "5h30m"
diff --git a/.github/scripts/migrate-area-labels.sh b/.github/scripts/migrate-area-labels.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..1c13a8e3f6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/scripts/migrate-area-labels.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+#
+# One-time migration to the A-* area-label convention (issue #6986).
+#
+# Maps the existing area-ish labels onto the A-* names used by
+# .github/labeler-area.yml. GitHub preserves a label on all existing
+# issues/PRs through a rename, so 1:1 renames are non-destructive. Merges
+# (two old labels -> one A-* label) rename the higher-traffic label in place
+# and re-tag the smaller label's items onto it before deleting it.
+#
+# Run once, manually, by a maintainer with triage rights, AFTER the auto-labeler
+# is merged (actions/labeler applies existing labels but does not create them):
+#
+#   REPO=lance-format/lance ./.github/scripts/migrate-area-labels.sh
+#
+# Idempotent-ish: re-running skips steps whose target already exists.
+#
+# Not migrated (intentional):
+#   - ci, documentation: kept as title-based conventional-commit labels that
+#     feed release notes (.github/release.yml); A-ci / A-docs are separate
+#     path-based area labels created fresh below.
+#   - rust: left as-is; A-core was dropped, so core changes stay unlabelled.
+
+set -euo pipefail
+
+REPO="${REPO:-lance-format/lance}"
+AREA_COLOR="006b75" # shared color for the A-* family
+
+label_exists() {
+  gh label list --repo "$REPO" --limit 500 --json name -q '.[].name' | grep -Fxq "$1"
+}
+
+# rename_label OLD NEW DESCRIPTION
+rename_label() {
+  local old="$1" new="$2" desc="$3"
+  if label_exists "$new"; then
+    echo "skip rename: '$new' already exists"
+    return
+  fi
+  if ! label_exists "$old"; then
+    echo "skip rename: source '$old' not found"
+    return
+  fi
+  echo "rename '$old' -> '$new'"
+  gh label edit "$old" --repo "$REPO" --name "$new" --description "$desc" --color "$AREA_COLOR"
+}
+
+# ensure_label NAME DESCRIPTION
+ensure_label() {
+  local name="$1" desc="$2"
+  if label_exists "$name"; then
+    echo "update '$name'"
+    gh label edit "$name" --repo "$REPO" --description "$desc" --color "$AREA_COLOR"
+    return
+  fi
+  echo "create '$name'"
+  gh label create "$name" --repo "$REPO" --description "$desc" --color "$AREA_COLOR"
+}
+
+# merge_label SOURCE TARGET -- re-tag SOURCE's items onto TARGET, then delete SOURCE
+merge_label() {
+  local source="$1" target="$2"
+  if ! label_exists "$source"; then
+    echo "skip merge: source '$source' not found"
+    return
+  fi
+  if ! label_exists "$target"; then
+    echo "ERROR: merge target '$target' is missing; run the rename step first" >&2
+    exit 1
+  fi
+  echo "merge '$source' -> '$target'"
+
+  local issues prs
+  issues=$(gh issue list --repo "$REPO" --label "$source" --state all --limit 1000 --json number -q '.[].number')
+  prs=$(gh pr list --repo "$REPO" --label "$source" --state all --limit 1000 --json number -q '.[].number')
+
+  if [ "$(printf '%s\n' "$issues" | grep -c .)" -ge 1000 ] || [ "$(printf '%s\n' "$prs" | grep -c .)" -ge 1000 ]; then
+    echo "ERROR: '$source' has >=1000 items; re-tag manually to avoid truncation" >&2
+    exit 1
+  fi
+
+  for n in $issues; do
+    gh issue edit "$n" --repo "$REPO" --add-label "$target" >/dev/null
+  done
+  for n in $prs; do
+    gh pr edit "$n" --repo "$REPO" --add-label "$target" >/dev/null
+  done
+
+  gh label delete "$source" --repo "$REPO" --yes
+}
+
+# --- 1:1 renames (non-destructive) ---
+rename_label java "A-java" "Java bindings + JNI"
+rename_label python "A-python" "Python bindings"
+
+# --- merges: rename the higher-traffic label, fold in the smaller one ---
+rename_label vector "A-index" "Vector index, linalg, tokenizer"
+merge_label indexes "A-index"
+
+rename_label file-storage "A-encoding" "Encoding, IO, file reader/writer"
+rename_label format "A-format" "On-disk format: protos and format spec docs"
+
+rename_label dependencies "A-deps" "Dependency updates"
+merge_label "python:uv" "A-deps"
+
+# --- brand-new labels (no existing source) ---
+ensure_label "A-namespace" "Namespace impls"
+ensure_label "A-docs" "Documentation"
+ensure_label "A-ci" "CI / build workflows"
+
+echo "Done. Current A-* labels:"
+gh label list --repo "$REPO" --limit 500 --json name -q '.[].name' | grep '^A-' | sort
diff --git a/.github/workflows/approve-rc.yml b/.github/workflows/approve-rc.yml
index 622cd65a174..1ffff04c913 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/approve-rc.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/approve-rc.yml
@@ -13,6 +13,9 @@ on:
         default: false
         type: boolean
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   approve-rc:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
@@ -27,7 +30,7 @@ jobs:
       run: echo "${{ toJSON(github.event.inputs) }}"
 
     - name: Check out repository
-      uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       with:
         token: ${{ secrets.LANCE_RELEASE_TOKEN }}
         fetch-depth: 0
@@ -73,7 +76,7 @@ jobs:
 
     - name: Create GitHub Release (if not dry run)
       if: ${{ !inputs.dry_run }}
-      uses: softprops/action-gh-release@v2
+      uses: softprops/action-gh-release@a06a81a03ee405af7f2048a818ed3f03bbf83c7b # v2
       with:
         tag_name: ${{ steps.approve.outputs.STABLE_TAG }}
         name: ${{ steps.approve.outputs.STABLE_TAG }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/benchmark-comment-trigger.yml b/.github/workflows/benchmark-comment-trigger.yml
index 1259f4faa05..30aed29711d 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/benchmark-comment-trigger.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/benchmark-comment-trigger.yml
@@ -13,6 +13,10 @@ on:
   issue_comment:
     types: [created]
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+  pull-requests: read
+
 jobs:
   forward-to-bench:
     # Only process comments on PRs that mention @bench-bot and contain 'benchmark'
@@ -24,7 +28,7 @@ jobs:
     steps:
       - name: Get PR details
         id: pr
-        uses: actions/github-script@v7
+        uses: actions/github-script@f28e40c7f34bde8b3046d885e986cb6290c5673b # v7
         with:
           script: |
             const pr = await github.rest.pulls.get({
@@ -36,7 +40,7 @@ jobs:
             core.setOutput('head_sha', pr.data.head.sha);
 
       - name: Forward to lance-bench
-        uses: peter-evans/repository-dispatch@v2
+        uses: peter-evans/repository-dispatch@bf47d102fdb849e755b0b0023ea3e81a44b6f570 # v2
         with:
           token: ${{ secrets.LANCE_BENCH_DISPATCH_TOKEN }}
           repository: lancedb/lance-bench
diff --git a/.github/workflows/benchmarks.yml b/.github/workflows/benchmarks.yml
index e6b5a199001..7874d6fdee2 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/benchmarks.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/benchmarks.yml
@@ -3,6 +3,9 @@ name: Run benchmarks
 on:
   workflow_dispatch:
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   dataset:
     timeout-minutes: 30
@@ -11,12 +14,12 @@ jobs:
       matrix:
         dataset: ["sift"]
     steps:
-    - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+    - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       with:
         fetch-depth: 0
         lfs: true
     - name: Set up Python
-      uses: actions/setup-python@v4
+      uses: actions/setup-python@7f4fc3e22c37d6ff65e88745f38bd3157c663f7c # v4
       with:
         python-version: "3.10"
     - uses: ./.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel
@@ -32,7 +35,7 @@ jobs:
       run: |
         ./test_dataset.sh
     - name: Archive results
-      uses: actions/upload-artifact@v3
+      uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
       with:
         name: ${{ matrix.dataset }}-results
         path: |
diff --git a/.github/workflows/buf-publish.yml b/.github/workflows/buf-publish.yml
index 45e714ac8ed..b7b1acd8579 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/buf-publish.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/buf-publish.yml
@@ -11,16 +11,19 @@ on:
         default: ''
         type: string
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   push-module:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-    - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+    - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       with:
         ref: ${{ inputs.ref || github.ref }}
         fetch-depth: 0
         lfs: true
-    - uses: bufbuild/buf-setup-action@v1
-    - uses: bufbuild/buf-push-action@v1
+    - uses: bufbuild/buf-setup-action@a47c93e0b1648d5651a065437926377d060baa99 # v1.50.0
+    - uses: bufbuild/buf-push-action@a654ff18effe4641ebea4a4ce242c49800728459 # v1.2.0
       with:
         buf_token: ${{ secrets.BUF_TOKEN }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/action.yml b/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/action.yml
index 19098fcf0d4..d6e6e0f1ada 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/action.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/action.yml
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ name: build-linux-wheel
 description: "Build a manylinux wheel for lance"
 inputs:
   python-minor-version:
-    description: "9, 10, 11, 12"
+    description: "10, 11, 12, 13"
     required: true
   args:
     description: "--release"
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ runs:
         rm -f python/target/wheels/pylance-*.whl || true
     - name: Build x86_64 Manylinux2014 wheel
       if: ${{ inputs.arm-build == 'false' && inputs.manylinux == '2_17' }}
-      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@v1
+      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@04ac600d27cdf7a9a280dadf7147097c42b757ad # v1
       with:
         command: build
         working-directory: python
@@ -41,14 +41,12 @@ runs:
         args: ${{ inputs.args }}
         maturin-version: "1.10.2"
         before-script-linux: |
-          set -e
-          yum install -y openssl-devel \
-            && curl -L https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/releases/download/v24.4/protoc-24.4-linux-$(uname -m).zip > /tmp/protoc.zip \
-            && unzip /tmp/protoc.zip -d /usr/local \
-            && rm /tmp/protoc.zip
+          set -euo pipefail
+          yum install -y openssl-devel
+          bash "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/install-protoc.sh"
     - name: Build x86_64 Manylinux {manylinux} wheel
       if: ${{ inputs.arm-build == 'false' && inputs.manylinux != '2_17' }}
-      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@v1
+      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@04ac600d27cdf7a9a280dadf7147097c42b757ad # v1
       with:
         command: build
         working-directory: python
@@ -60,14 +58,12 @@ runs:
         args: ${{ inputs.args }}
         maturin-version: "1.10.2"
         before-script-linux: |
-          set -e
-          yum install -y openssl-devel clang \
-            && curl -L https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/releases/download/v24.4/protoc-24.4-linux-$(uname -m).zip > /tmp/protoc.zip \
-            && unzip /tmp/protoc.zip -d /usr/local \
-            && rm /tmp/protoc.zip
+          set -euo pipefail
+          yum install -y openssl-devel clang
+          bash "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/install-protoc.sh"
     - name: Build Arm Manylinux Wheel
       if: ${{ inputs.arm-build == 'true' }}
-      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@v1
+      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@04ac600d27cdf7a9a280dadf7147097c42b757ad # v1
       with:
         command: build
         working-directory: python
@@ -76,8 +72,6 @@ runs:
         args: ${{ inputs.args }}
         maturin-version: "1.10.2"
         before-script-linux: |
-          set -e
-          yum install -y openssl-devel clang \
-            && curl -L https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/releases/download/v24.4/protoc-24.4-linux-aarch_64.zip > /tmp/protoc.zip \
-            && unzip /tmp/protoc.zip -d /usr/local \
-            && rm /tmp/protoc.zip
+          set -euo pipefail
+          yum install -y openssl-devel clang
+          bash "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/install-protoc.sh"
diff --git a/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/install-protoc.sh b/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/install-protoc.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..2d5bf4ced40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel/install-protoc.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+set -euo pipefail
+
+version="${PROTOC_VERSION:-24.4}"
+install_dir="${PROTOC_INSTALL_DIR:-/usr/local}"
+machine="${1:-$(uname -m)}"
+
+case "${machine}" in
+  aarch64 | arm64)
+    asset_arch="aarch_64"
+    ;;
+  x86_64)
+    asset_arch="x86_64"
+    ;;
+  *)
+    echo "Unsupported protoc architecture: ${machine}" >&2
+    exit 1
+    ;;
+esac
+
+zip_path="/tmp/protoc-${version}-linux-${asset_arch}.zip"
+url="https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/releases/download/v${version}/protoc-${version}-linux-${asset_arch}.zip"
+
+for attempt in 1 2 3 4 5; do
+  rm -f "${zip_path}"
+
+  if curl -fsSL --connect-timeout 15 --max-time 120 -o "${zip_path}" "${url}" \
+    && unzip -tq "${zip_path}" >/dev/null; then
+    break
+  fi
+
+  if [[ "${attempt}" == "5" ]]; then
+    echo "Failed to download a valid protoc archive from ${url}" >&2
+    exit 1
+  fi
+
+  sleep "$((attempt * 2))"
+done
+
+unzip -q -o "${zip_path}" -d "${install_dir}"
+rm -f "${zip_path}"
+
+if [[ "$(uname -s)" == "Linux" ]]; then
+  "${install_dir}/bin/protoc" --version
+else
+  test -f "${install_dir}/bin/protoc"
+fi
diff --git a/.github/workflows/build_mac_wheel/action.yml b/.github/workflows/build_mac_wheel/action.yml
index 3a3af5917fd..0cac76c49cf 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/build_mac_wheel/action.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build_mac_wheel/action.yml
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ name: build_wheel
 description: "Build a lance wheel"
 inputs:
   python-minor-version:
-    description: "9, 10, 11, 12"
+    description: "10, 11, 12, 13"
     required: true
   args:
     description: "--release"
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ runs:
       run: |
         brew install protobuf
     - name: Build wheel
-      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@v1
+      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@04ac600d27cdf7a9a280dadf7147097c42b757ad # v1
       with:
         command: build
         args: ${{ inputs.args }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/build_windows_wheel/action.yml b/.github/workflows/build_windows_wheel/action.yml
index 28f13656110..94475059c75 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/build_windows_wheel/action.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build_windows_wheel/action.yml
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ name: build_wheel
 description: "Build a lance wheel"
 inputs:
   python-minor-version:
-    description: "9, 10, 11, 12"
+    description: "10, 11, 12, 13"
     required: true
   args:
     description: "--release"
@@ -22,12 +22,12 @@ runs:
         Add-Content $env:GITHUB_PATH "C:\protoc\bin"
       shell: powershell
     - name: Build wheel
-      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@v1
+      uses: PyO3/maturin-action@04ac600d27cdf7a9a280dadf7147097c42b757ad # v1
       with:
         command: build
         args: ${{ inputs.args }}
         working-directory: python
-    - uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
+    - uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
       with:
         name: windows-wheels
         path: python\target\wheels
diff --git a/.github/workflows/cargo-publish.yml b/.github/workflows/cargo-publish.yml
index ea9963315a7..bc3222d1c21 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/cargo-publish.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/cargo-publish.yml
@@ -11,11 +11,6 @@ on:
         description: "Tag to publish (e.g., v1.0.0)"
         required: true
         type: string
-      skip_check_repo:
-        description: "Skip checking if packages have been modified (useful for backfilling missed releases)"
-        required: false
-        type: boolean
-        default: false
 
 env:
   # This env var is used by Swatinem/rust-cache@v2 for the cache
@@ -24,11 +19,15 @@ env:
   CARGO_INCREMENTAL: "0"
   RUSTFLAGS: "-C debuginfo=0"
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   build:
     # Needs additional disk space for the full build.
-    runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-8x
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-8x
     permissions:
+      contents: read
       id-token: write
     timeout-minutes: 60
     env:
@@ -39,7 +38,7 @@ jobs:
       run:
         working-directory: .
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - name: Check if stable release
         id: check_version
         run: |
@@ -60,19 +59,20 @@ jobs:
             echo "Stable version detected: $TAG"
             echo "skip=false" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
           fi
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
         if: steps.check_version.outputs.skip != 'true'
         with:
           workspaces: rust
       - name: Verify and checkout specified tag
         if: github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch' && steps.check_version.outputs.skip != 'true'
         run: |
+          TAG="${{ github.event.inputs.tag }}"
           git fetch --all --tags
-          if git rev-parse ${{ github.event.inputs.tag }} >/dev/null 2>&1; then
-            git checkout ${{ github.event.inputs.tag }}
-            echo "Successfully checked out tag ${{ github.event.inputs.tag }}"
+          if git rev-parse "$TAG" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
+            git checkout "$TAG"
+            echo "Successfully checked out tag $TAG"
           else
-            echo "Error: Tag ${{ github.event.inputs.tag }} does not exist"
+            echo "Error: Tag $TAG does not exist"
             echo "Available tags:"
             git tag -l
             exit 1
@@ -85,14 +85,19 @@ jobs:
       # Wait until https://github.com/rust-lang/crates-io-auth-action/issues/51 fixed
       # - uses: rust-lang/crates-io-auth-action@v1
       #   id: auth
-      - uses: albertlockett/publish-crates@v2.2
+      # lance-arrow-stats and lance-arrow-scalar are versioned with Arrow
+      # (currently 58.0.0) and released on Arrow's cadence, not Lance's, so
+      # they are excluded from the per-release publish. Bump and publish them
+      # explicitly when their source changes.
+      - name: Publish crates
         if: steps.check_version.outputs.skip != 'true'
-        with:
-          # registry-token: ${{ steps.auth.outputs.token }}
-          registry-token: ${{ secrets.CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN }}
-          args: "--all-features"
-          path: .
-          check-repo: ${{ github.event_name != 'workflow_dispatch' || inputs.skip_check_repo != true }}
+        env:
+          CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN }}
+        run: |
+          cargo publish --workspace \
+            --exclude lance-arrow-stats \
+            --exclude lance-arrow-scalar \
+            --all-features
   report-failure:
     name: Report Workflow Failure
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
@@ -102,7 +107,7 @@ jobs:
       contents: read
       issues: write
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - uses: ./.github/actions/create-failure-issue
         with:
           job-results: ${{ toJSON(needs) }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci-benchmarks.yml b/.github/workflows/ci-benchmarks.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index ebe55cd146e..00000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/ci-benchmarks.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,75 +0,0 @@
-name: Run Regression Benchmarks
-
-on:
-  workflow_dispatch:
-  push:
-    branches:
-      - main
-
-jobs:
-  bench_regress:
-    timeout-minutes: 120
-    runs-on: warp-custom-gcp-storage-benchmark
-    env:
-      # Need up-to-date compilers for kernels
-      CC: clang-18
-      CXX: clang++-18
-    defaults:
-      run:
-        shell: bash
-        working-directory: python
-    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-        with:
-          fetch-depth: 0
-          lfs: true
-      - name: Authenticate with GCS
-        uses: "google-github-actions/auth@v2"
-        with:
-          credentials_json: "${{ secrets.GCLOUD_BENCH_STORAGE_USER_KEY }}"
-      - name: Install bencher
-        uses: bencherdev/bencher@main
-      - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
-        with:
-          python-version: 3.11 # Ray does not support 3.12 yet.
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
-        with:
-          workspaces: python
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
-      - name: Build
-        run: |
-          python -m venv venv
-          source venv/bin/activate
-          pip install maturin duckdb requests pytest pytest-benchmark datasets
-          maturin develop --locked --release --features datagen
-      - name: Build memtest
-        run: |
-          source venv/bin/activate
-          make -C ../memtest build-release
-      - name: Generate datasets
-        run: |
-          source venv/bin/activate
-          python python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/gen_all.py
-      - name: Run benchmarks
-        run: |
-          source venv/bin/activate
-          bencher run --project weston-lancedb --token ${{ secrets.LANCE_BENCHER_TOKEN }} --adapter python_pytest \
-                      --branch main --testbed google-genoa --err --file results.json "python -mpytest --benchmark-json \
-                      results.json python/ci_benchmarks"
-      - name: Run IO/memory benchmarks
-        run: |
-          source venv/bin/activate
-          LIB_PATH=$(lance-memtest)
-          LD_PRELOAD=$LIB_PATH pytest python/ci_benchmarks \
-            -k "io_mem_" \
-            --benchmark-stats-json io_mem_stats.json
-      - name: Upload IO/memory stats to bencher
-        run: |
-          source venv/bin/activate
-          bencher run --project weston-lancedb --token ${{ secrets.LANCE_BENCHER_TOKEN }} \
-            --adapter json --branch main --testbed google-genoa \
-            --err --file io_mem_stats.json
diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci-scripts.yml b/.github/workflows/ci-scripts.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..80ebff1589f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci-scripts.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+name: CI scripts
+
+# Tests for helper scripts under ci/ that aren't covered by the language test
+# suites (e.g. the format-spec vote gate logic).
+
+on:
+  push:
+    branches:
+      - main
+      - release/**
+  pull_request:
+    branches:
+      - main
+      - release/**
+    paths:
+      - ci/format_vote_gate.py
+      - ci/test_format_vote_gate.py
+      - ci/test_labeler_area.py
+      - ci/check_proto_comments.py
+      - ci/test_check_proto_comments.py
+      - ci/check_dependency_age.py
+      - ci/test_check_dependency_age.py
+      - .github/labeler-area.yml
+      - .github/workflows/format-vote-gate.yml
+      - .github/workflows/ci-scripts.yml
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
+jobs:
+  format-vote-gate:
+    name: Format vote gate unit tests
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - name: Checkout
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Set up Python
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
+        with:
+          python-version: "3.12"
+      - name: Install test dependencies
+        run: pip install pytest PyYAML
+      - name: Run tests
+        run: pytest ci/test_format_vote_gate.py ci/test_labeler_area.py ci/test_check_proto_comments.py ci/test_check_dependency_age.py
diff --git a/.github/workflows/claude-code-review.yml b/.github/workflows/claude-code-review.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index 691a6c6a3a3..00000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/claude-code-review.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,67 +0,0 @@
-name: Claude Code Review
-
-on:
-  pull_request_target:
-    types: [opened]
-    # Optional: Only run on specific file changes
-    # paths:
-    #   - "src/**/*.ts"
-    #   - "src/**/*.tsx"
-    #   - "src/**/*.js"
-    #   - "src/**/*.jsx"
-
-jobs:
-  claude-review:
-    # Optional: Filter by PR author
-    # if: |
-    #   github.event.pull_request.user.login == 'external-contributor' ||
-    #   github.event.pull_request.user.login == 'new-developer' ||
-    #   github.event.pull_request.author_association == 'FIRST_TIME_CONTRIBUTOR'
-
-    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    permissions:
-      contents: read
-      pull-requests: write
-      issues: write
-      id-token: write
-
-    steps:
-      - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
-        with:
-          fetch-depth: 1
-
-      - name: Run Claude Code Review
-        id: claude-review
-        uses: anthropics/claude-code-action@v1
-        with:
-          anthropic_api_key: ${{ secrets.CLAUDE_TOKEN }}
-          github_token: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
-          prompt: |
-            REPO: ${{ github.repository }}
-            PR NUMBER: ${{ github.event.pull_request.number }}
-
-            Please review this pull request and provide feedback on:
-            - Code quality and best practices
-            - Potential bugs or issues
-            - Performance considerations
-            - Security concerns
-            - Test coverage
-
-            Please note that the attention of contributors and maintainers is the MOST valuable resource.
-            Less is more: focus on the most important aspects.
-
-            - Your review output SHOULD be concise and clear.
-            - You SHOULD only highlight P0 and P1 level issues, such as severe bugs, performance degradation, or security concerns.
-            - You MUST not reiterate detailed changes in your review.
-            - You MUST not repeat aspects of the PR that are already well done.
-
-            Use the repository's CLAUDE.md for more guidance on style and conventions.
-
-            Use `gh pr comment` with your Bash tool to leave your review as a comment on the PR.
-
-          # See https://github.com/anthropics/claude-code-action/blob/main/docs/usage.md
-          # or https://code.claude.com/docs/en/cli-reference for available options
-          claude_args: |
-            --allowed-tools "Bash(gh issue view:*),Bash(gh search:*),Bash(gh issue list:*),Bash(gh pr comment:*),Bash(gh pr diff:*),Bash(gh pr view:*),Bash(gh pr list:*)"
-            --model "claude-opus-4-5"
diff --git a/.github/workflows/claude.yml b/.github/workflows/claude.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index 52198958deb..00000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/claude.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,49 +0,0 @@
-name: Claude Code
-
-on:
-  issue_comment:
-    types: [created]
-  pull_request_review_comment:
-    types: [created]
-  issues:
-    types: [opened, assigned]
-  pull_request_review:
-    types: [submitted]
-
-jobs:
-  claude:
-    if: |
-      (github.event_name == 'issue_comment' && contains(github.event.comment.body, '@claude')) ||
-      (github.event_name == 'pull_request_review_comment' && contains(github.event.comment.body, '@claude')) ||
-      (github.event_name == 'pull_request_review' && contains(github.event.review.body, '@claude')) ||
-      (github.event_name == 'issues' && (contains(github.event.issue.body, '@claude') || contains(github.event.issue.title, '@claude')))
-    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    permissions:
-      contents: read
-      pull-requests: write
-      issues: write
-      id-token: write
-      actions: read # Required for Claude to read CI results on PRs
-    steps:
-      - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
-        with:
-          fetch-depth: 1
-
-      - name: Run Claude Code
-        id: claude
-        uses: anthropics/claude-code-action@v1
-        with:
-          anthropic_api_key: ${{ secrets.CLAUDE_TOKEN }}
-          github_token: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
-
-          # This is an optional setting that allows Claude to read CI results on PRs
-          additional_permissions: |
-            actions: read
-
-          # Optional: Give a custom prompt to Claude. If this is not specified, Claude will perform the instructions specified in the comment that tagged it.
-          # prompt: 'Update the pull request description to include a summary of changes.'
-
-          claude_args: |
-            --allowed-tools "Bash(gh issue view:*),Bash(gh search:*),Bash(gh issue list:*),Bash(gh pr comment:*),Bash(gh pr diff:*),Bash(gh pr view:*),Bash(gh pr list:*)"
-            --model "claude-opus-4-5"
diff --git a/.github/workflows/codex-backport-pr.yml b/.github/workflows/codex-backport-pr.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1f917380954
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/codex-backport-pr.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,179 @@
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+name: Codex Backport PR
+
+on:
+  workflow_dispatch:
+    inputs:
+      pr_urls:
+        description: "Comma-separated PR URLs to backport in order (e.g., https://github.com/lancedb/lance/pull/1234,https://github.com/lancedb/lance/pull/5678)"
+        required: true
+        type: string
+      release_branch:
+        description: "Release branch to backport to (e.g., release/v2.0)"
+        required: true
+        type: string
+      guidelines:
+        description: "Additional guidelines for the backport (optional)"
+        required: false
+        type: string
+
+permissions:
+  contents: write
+  pull-requests: write
+  actions: read
+
+jobs:
+  backport:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-4x
+    timeout-minutes: 60
+    env:
+      CC: clang
+      CXX: clang++
+    steps:
+      - name: Show inputs
+        run: |
+          echo "pr_urls = ${{ inputs.pr_urls }}"
+          echo "release_branch = ${{ inputs.release_branch }}"
+          echo "guidelines = ${{ inputs.guidelines }}"
+
+      - name: Checkout Repo
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+        with:
+          fetch-depth: 0
+          persist-credentials: true
+
+      - name: Set up Node.js
+        uses: actions/setup-node@49933ea5288caeca8642d1e84afbd3f7d6820020 # v4
+        with:
+          node-version: 20
+
+      - name: Install Codex CLI
+        run: npm install -g @openai/codex
+
+      - name: Install Rust toolchain
+        uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@631a55b12751854ce901bb631d5902ceb48146f7 # stable
+        with:
+          toolchain: stable
+          components: clippy, rustfmt
+
+      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@725a8794d15fc7563f59595bd9556495c0564878 # v1
+
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+
+      - name: Install system dependencies
+        run: |
+          sudo apt-get update
+          sudo apt-get install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
+
+      - name: Set up Python
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
+        with:
+          python-version: '3.11'
+
+      - name: Install Python dependencies
+        run: |
+          pip install maturin ruff pytest pyarrow pandas polars
+
+      - name: Set up Java
+        uses: actions/setup-java@c1e323688fd81a25caa38c78aa6df2d33d3e20d9 # v4
+        with:
+          distribution: temurin
+          java-version: '11'
+          cache: maven
+
+      - name: Configure git user
+        run: |
+          git config user.name "lance-community"
+          git config user.email "community@lance.org"
+
+      - name: Run Codex to backport PRs
+        env:
+          PR_URLS: ${{ inputs.pr_urls }}
+          RELEASE_BRANCH: ${{ inputs.release_branch }}
+          GUIDELINES: ${{ inputs.guidelines }}
+          GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.LANCE_RELEASE_TOKEN }}
+          GH_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.LANCE_RELEASE_TOKEN }}
+          OPENAI_API_KEY: ${{ secrets.CODEX_TOKEN }}
+        run: |
+          set -euo pipefail
+
+          cat <<EOF >/tmp/codex-prompt.txt
+          You are running inside the lance repository on a GitHub Actions runner. Your task is to backport one or more merged PRs to a release branch.
+
+          Input parameters:
+          - PR URLs (comma-separated, apply in order): ${PR_URLS}
+          - Release branch: ${RELEASE_BRANCH}
+          - Additional guidelines: ${GUIDELINES:-"None provided"}
+
+          Follow these steps exactly:
+
+          1. Parse the comma-separated PR URLs into a list. Trim any whitespace around each URL. The URL format is https://github.com/lancedb/lance/pull/<number>.
+
+          2. For each PR URL in order, extract the PR number and use "gh pr view <number> --json state,mergeCommit,title,number" to verify the PR is merged. If any PR is not merged (state != "MERGED"), exit with an error message explaining that only merged PRs can be backported.
+
+          3. Store all PR numbers, titles, and merge commit SHAs for later use.
+
+          4. Verify the release branch exists with "git ls-remote --heads origin ${RELEASE_BRANCH}". If it doesn't exist, exit with an error.
+
+          5. Checkout the release branch: "git checkout ${RELEASE_BRANCH}" and pull latest: "git pull origin ${RELEASE_BRANCH}".
+
+          6. Create a new branch for the backport. If there's only one PR, use "backport/pr-<number>-to-${RELEASE_BRANCH//\//-}". If there are multiple PRs, use "backport/pr-<first_number>-and-more-to-${RELEASE_BRANCH//\//-}".
+
+          7. For each PR in order, cherry-pick its merge commit: "git cherry-pick -m 1 <merge_commit_sha>".
+             - If there are conflicts, try to resolve them. Inspect conflicting files with "git status" and "git diff".
+             - For simple conflicts, fix them and continue with "git add -A && git cherry-pick --continue".
+             - If conflicts are too complex to resolve automatically, abort and exit with a clear error message indicating which PR caused the conflict.
+
+          8. Run "cargo fmt --all" to ensure formatting is correct.
+
+          9. Run "cargo clippy --workspace --tests --benches -- -D warnings" to check for issues. Fix any warnings and rerun until clean.
+
+          10. Run ONLY the tests related to the changes in these PRs:
+              - Use "git diff --name-only ${RELEASE_BRANCH}...HEAD" to see all files changed across all cherry-picked commits.
+              - For Rust changes: Run tests for the affected crates only (e.g., "cargo test -p lance-core" if lance-core files changed).
+              - For Python changes (python/** files): Build with "cd python && make build" then run "uv run pytest" on the specific test files that were modified, or related test files.
+              - For Java changes (java/** files): Run "cd java && mvn test" for the affected modules.
+              - If test files themselves were modified, run those specific tests.
+              - Do NOT run the full test suite - only run tests related to the changed files.
+
+          11. If additional guidelines are provided, follow them as well when making decisions or resolving issues.
+
+          12. Stage any additional changes with "git add -A" and amend the last commit if needed: "git commit --amend --no-edit".
+
+          13. Push the branch: "git push origin <branch_name>". If the remote branch exists, delete it first with "gh api -X DELETE repos/lancedb/lance/git/refs/heads/<branch_name>" then push. Do NOT use "git push --force" or "git push -f".
+
+          14. Create a pull request targeting "${RELEASE_BRANCH}":
+              - If single PR: Title should be the same as the original PR title.
+              - If multiple PRs: Title should be "Backport multiple PRs to ${RELEASE_BRANCH}" or similar descriptive title.
+              - First, write the PR body to /tmp/pr-body.md using a heredoc (cat <<'PREOF' > /tmp/pr-body.md). The body should list all backported PRs:
+                "Backport of the following PRs:
+                - <PR_URL_1>
+                - <PR_URL_2>
+                ...
+
+                This PR backports the changes from the original PRs to the ${RELEASE_BRANCH} branch."
+              - Then run "gh pr create --base ${RELEASE_BRANCH} --title '<title>' --body-file /tmp/pr-body.md".
+
+          15. Display the new PR URL, "git status --short", and a summary of what was done including which PRs were backported.
+
+          Constraints:
+          - Use bash commands for all operations.
+          - Do not merge the PR.
+          - Do not modify GitHub workflow files.
+          - If any command fails, diagnose and attempt to fix the issue instead of aborting immediately.
+          - env "GH_TOKEN" is available, use "gh" tools for GitHub-related operations.
+          EOF
+
+          printenv OPENAI_API_KEY | codex login --with-api-key
+          codex --config shell_environment_policy.ignore_default_excludes=true exec --dangerously-bypass-approvals-and-sandbox "$(cat /tmp/codex-prompt.txt)"
diff --git a/.github/workflows/codex-fix-ci.yml b/.github/workflows/codex-fix-ci.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..70e4bdf6d98
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/codex-fix-ci.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,181 @@
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+name: Codex Fix CI
+
+on:
+  workflow_dispatch:
+    inputs:
+      workflow_run_url:
+        description: "Failing CI workflow run URL (e.g., https://github.com/lancedb/lance/actions/runs/12345678)"
+        required: true
+        type: string
+      branch:
+        description: "Branch to fix (e.g., main, release/v2.0, or feature-branch)"
+        required: true
+        type: string
+      guidelines:
+        description: "Additional guidelines for the fix (optional)"
+        required: false
+        type: string
+
+permissions:
+  contents: write
+  pull-requests: write
+  actions: read
+
+jobs:
+  fix-ci:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-4x
+    timeout-minutes: 60
+    env:
+      CC: clang
+      CXX: clang++
+    steps:
+      - name: Show inputs
+        run: |
+          echo "workflow_run_url = ${{ inputs.workflow_run_url }}"
+          echo "branch = ${{ inputs.branch }}"
+          echo "guidelines = ${{ inputs.guidelines }}"
+
+      - name: Checkout Repo
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+        with:
+          ref: ${{ inputs.branch }}
+          fetch-depth: 0
+          persist-credentials: true
+
+      - name: Set up Node.js
+        uses: actions/setup-node@49933ea5288caeca8642d1e84afbd3f7d6820020 # v4
+        with:
+          node-version: 20
+
+      - name: Install Codex CLI
+        run: npm install -g @openai/codex
+
+      - name: Install Rust toolchain
+        uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@631a55b12751854ce901bb631d5902ceb48146f7 # stable
+        with:
+          toolchain: stable
+          components: clippy, rustfmt
+
+      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@725a8794d15fc7563f59595bd9556495c0564878 # v1
+
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+
+      - name: Install system dependencies
+        run: |
+          sudo apt-get update
+          sudo apt-get install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
+
+      - name: Set up Python
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
+        with:
+          python-version: '3.11'
+
+      - name: Install Python dependencies
+        run: |
+          pip install maturin ruff pytest pyarrow pandas polars
+
+      - name: Set up Java
+        uses: actions/setup-java@c1e323688fd81a25caa38c78aa6df2d33d3e20d9 # v4
+        with:
+          distribution: temurin
+          java-version: '11'
+          cache: maven
+
+      - name: Configure git user
+        run: |
+          git config user.name "lance-community"
+          git config user.email "community@lance.org"
+
+      - name: Run Codex to fix CI failure
+        env:
+          WORKFLOW_RUN_URL: ${{ inputs.workflow_run_url }}
+          BRANCH: ${{ inputs.branch }}
+          GUIDELINES: ${{ inputs.guidelines }}
+          GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.LANCE_RELEASE_TOKEN }}
+          GH_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.LANCE_RELEASE_TOKEN }}
+          OPENAI_API_KEY: ${{ secrets.CODEX_TOKEN }}
+        run: |
+          set -euo pipefail
+
+          cat <<EOF >/tmp/codex-prompt.txt
+          You are running inside the lance repository on a GitHub Actions runner. Your task is to fix a CI failure.
+
+          Input parameters:
+          - Failing workflow run URL: ${WORKFLOW_RUN_URL}
+          - Branch to fix: ${BRANCH}
+          - Additional guidelines: ${GUIDELINES:-"None provided"}
+
+          Follow these steps exactly:
+
+          1. Extract the run ID from the workflow URL. The URL format is https://github.com/lancedb/lance/actions/runs/<run_id>.
+
+          2. Use "gh run view <run_id> --json jobs,conclusion,name" to get information about the failed run.
+
+          3. Identify which jobs failed. For each failed job, use "gh run view <run_id> --job <job_id> --log-failed" to get the failure logs.
+
+          4. Analyze the failure logs to understand what went wrong. Common failures include:
+             - Compilation errors
+             - Test failures
+             - Clippy warnings treated as errors
+             - Formatting issues
+             - Dependency issues
+
+          5. Based on the analysis, fix the issues in the codebase:
+             - For compilation errors: Fix the code that doesn't compile
+             - For test failures: Fix the failing tests or the code they test
+             - For clippy warnings: Apply the suggested fixes
+             - For formatting issues: Run "cargo fmt --all"
+             - For other issues: Apply appropriate fixes
+
+          6. After making fixes, verify them locally:
+             - Run "cargo fmt --all" to ensure formatting is correct
+             - Run "cargo clippy --workspace --tests --benches -- -D warnings" to check for issues
+             - Run ONLY the specific failing tests to confirm they pass now:
+               - For Rust test failures: Run the specific test with "cargo test -p <crate> <test_name>"
+               - For Python test failures: Build with "cd python && make build" then run "uv run pytest <specific_test_file>::<test_name>"
+               - For Java test failures: Run "cd java && mvn test -Dtest=<TestClass>#<testMethod>"
+               - Do NOT run the full test suite - only run the tests that were failing
+
+          7. If the additional guidelines are provided, follow them as well.
+
+          8. Inspect "git status --short" and "git diff" to review your changes.
+
+          9. Create a fix branch: "git checkout -b codex/fix-ci-<run_id>".
+
+          10. Stage all changes with "git add -A" and commit with message "fix: resolve CI failures from run <run_id>".
+
+          11. Push the branch: "git push origin codex/fix-ci-<run_id>". If the remote branch exists, delete it first with "gh api -X DELETE repos/lancedb/lance/git/refs/heads/codex/fix-ci-<run_id>" then push. Do NOT use "git push --force" or "git push -f".
+
+          12. Create a pull request targeting "${BRANCH}":
+              - Title: "ci: <short summary describing the fix>" (e.g., "ci: fix clippy warnings in lance-core" or "ci: resolve test flakiness in vector search")
+              - First, write the PR body to /tmp/pr-body.md using a heredoc (cat <<'PREOF' > /tmp/pr-body.md). The body should include:
+                - Link to the failing workflow run
+                - Summary of what failed
+                - Description of the fixes applied
+              - Then run "gh pr create --base ${BRANCH} --body-file /tmp/pr-body.md".
+
+          13. Display the new PR URL, "git status --short", and a summary of what was fixed.
+
+          Constraints:
+          - Use bash commands for all operations.
+          - Do not merge the PR.
+          - Do not modify GitHub workflow files unless they are the cause of the failure.
+          - If any command fails, diagnose and attempt to fix the issue instead of aborting immediately.
+          - If you cannot fix the issue automatically, create the PR anyway with a clear explanation of what you tried and what remains to be fixed.
+          - env "GH_TOKEN" is available, use "gh" tools for GitHub-related operations.
+          EOF
+
+          printenv OPENAI_API_KEY | codex login --with-api-key
+          codex --config shell_environment_policy.ignore_default_excludes=true exec --dangerously-bypass-approvals-and-sandbox "$(cat /tmp/codex-prompt.txt)"
diff --git a/.github/workflows/compat-pair.yml b/.github/workflows/compat-pair.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..07bb0f49741
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/compat-pair.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+# On-demand cross-version index compatibility run between two arbitrary refs.
+#
+# The scheduled path lives in nightly_run.yml (compat-sequence job), which ages the two
+# previous majors into HEAD nightly. This workflow is the manual escape
+# hatch for any other pairing: each ref (version, sha, branch, or tag) is provisioned by
+# the framework -- a published release installs a wheel, anything else is built from a
+# worktree via maturin -- so two arbitrary refs can be compared even when neither has a
+# published wheel. The suite ages an index under the writer ref and exercises it under the
+# reader, searching maintenance-op sequences for panics or correctness divergence.
+name: Compat (index ref pair)
+
+on:
+  workflow_dispatch:
+    inputs:
+      from_ref:
+        description: "Writer ref (version / sha / branch). Blank = 2nd most recent release."
+        required: false
+        default: ""
+      to_ref:
+        description: "Reader ref (version / sha / branch). Blank = most recent release."
+        required: false
+        default: ""
+      kinds:
+        description: "Comma-separated index kinds (INVERTED,BTREE,IVF_PQ,...) or 'all'."
+        required: false
+        default: "all"
+      max_length:
+        description: "Max maintenance-op sequence length to search (deeper = slower)."
+        required: false
+        default: "5"
+
+jobs:
+  compat-pair:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    timeout-minutes: 120
+    defaults:
+      run:
+        working-directory: python
+    env:
+      COMPAT_FROM_REF: ${{ inputs.from_ref }}
+      COMPAT_TO_REF: ${{ inputs.to_ref }}
+      COMPAT_MAX_LENGTH: ${{ inputs.max_length || '5' }}
+    steps:
+      # Full history so arbitrary refs can be checked out for builds.
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+        with:
+          fetch-depth: 0
+      - uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
+        with:
+          python-version: "3.11"
+      # Toolchain for the build-from-source provisioning path (refs without a wheel).
+      - uses: actions-rust-lang/setup-rust-toolchain@a0b538fa0b742a6aa35d6e2c169b4bd06d225a98 # v1
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
+      - name: Install host deps
+        run: pip install pytest pytest-xdist pyarrow packaging maturin
+      - name: Resolve kinds
+        id: kinds
+        env:
+          KINDS_IN: ${{ inputs.kinds }}
+        run: |
+          if [ -z "$KINDS_IN" ] || [ "$KINDS_IN" = "all" ]; then
+            echo "value=INVERTED,BTREE,BITMAP,LABEL_LIST,NGRAM,ZONEMAP,BLOOMFILTER,IVF_PQ" >> "$GITHUB_OUTPUT"
+          else
+            echo "value=$KINDS_IN" >> "$GITHUB_OUTPUT"
+          fi
+      # Oversubscribe (4x cores): each scenario writes a small dataset to disk and the
+      # reader spends most of its time in short subprocess round-trips, so a worker waiting
+      # on disk or the sub-venv pipe overlaps another's compute.
+      - name: Run compat suite (${{ inputs.from_ref }} -> ${{ inputs.to_ref }})
+        env:
+          COMPAT_KINDS: ${{ steps.kinds.outputs.value }}
+        run: |
+          python -m pytest python/tests/compat/test_index_sequence.py \
+            --run-compat -n "$(( $(nproc) * 4 ))" -v --no-header
diff --git a/.github/workflows/create-rc.yml b/.github/workflows/create-rc.yml
index 86f3df2c88c..1dee4c260b6 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/create-rc.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/create-rc.yml
@@ -13,6 +13,9 @@ on:
         default: false
         type: boolean
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   create-rc:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
@@ -24,7 +27,7 @@ jobs:
       run: echo "${{ toJSON(github.event.inputs) }}"
 
     - name: Check out repository
-      uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       with:
         token: ${{ secrets.LANCE_RELEASE_TOKEN }}
         fetch-depth: 0
@@ -84,7 +87,7 @@ jobs:
 
     - name: Create GitHub Pre-Release (if not dry run)
       if: ${{ !inputs.dry_run }}
-      uses: softprops/action-gh-release@v2
+      uses: softprops/action-gh-release@a06a81a03ee405af7f2048a818ed3f03bbf83c7b # v2
       with:
         tag_name: ${{ steps.create.outputs.RC_TAG }}
         name: ${{ steps.create.outputs.RC_TAG }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/create-release-branch.yml b/.github/workflows/create-release-branch.yml
index 5b7ccf5454c..1a6fb9b78fb 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/create-release-branch.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/create-release-branch.yml
@@ -3,12 +3,20 @@ name: Create Release Branch
 on:
   workflow_dispatch:
     inputs:
+      source_release_branch:
+        description: 'Source release branch (optional, e.g., release/v1.3). Leave empty to create from main.'
+        required: false
+        type: string
+        default: ''
       dry_run:
         description: 'Dry run (simulate without pushing)'
         required: true
         default: false
         type: boolean
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   create-release-branch:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
@@ -23,9 +31,9 @@ jobs:
       run: echo "${{ toJSON(github.event.inputs) }}"
 
     - name: Check out repository
-      uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       with:
-        ref: main
+        ref: ${{ inputs.source_release_branch || 'main' }}
         token: ${{ secrets.LANCE_RELEASE_TOKEN }}
         fetch-depth: 0
         lfs: true
@@ -39,16 +47,25 @@ jobs:
         GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
         GITHUB_REPOSITORY: ${{ github.repository }}
       run: |
-        bash ci/create_release_branch.sh
+        bash ci/create_release_branch.sh "${{ inputs.source_release_branch }}"
 
     - name: Push changes (if not dry run)
       if: ${{ !inputs.dry_run }}
       run: |
         git push origin "${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RELEASE_BRANCH }}"
-        git push origin main
         git push origin "${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RC_TAG }}"
-        # Push release root tag (may already exist remotely if created during beta publish)
-        git push origin "${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RELEASE_ROOT_TAG }}" || echo "Release root tag already exists remotely"
+        # When creating from main: push main and release root tag
+        # When creating from release branch: push minor release root tag
+        if [ -z "${{ inputs.source_release_branch }}" ]; then
+          git push origin main
+          # Push release root tag (may already exist remotely if created during beta publish)
+          git push origin "${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RELEASE_ROOT_TAG }}" || echo "Release root tag already exists remotely"
+        else
+          # Push minor release root tag if it was created
+          if [ -n "${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG }}" ]; then
+            git push origin "${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG }}"
+          fi
+        fi
 
     - name: Generate Release Notes (if not dry run)
       if: ${{ !inputs.dry_run }}
@@ -76,7 +93,7 @@ jobs:
 
     - name: Create GitHub Pre-Release (if not dry run)
       if: ${{ !inputs.dry_run }}
-      uses: softprops/action-gh-release@v2
+      uses: softprops/action-gh-release@a06a81a03ee405af7f2048a818ed3f03bbf83c7b # v2
       with:
         tag_name: ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RC_TAG }}
         name: ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RC_TAG }}
@@ -106,9 +123,18 @@ jobs:
         echo "- **Target Version:** ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RC_VERSION }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
         echo "- **RC Tag:** ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RC_TAG }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
         echo "- **Release Branch:** ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RELEASE_BRANCH }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
-        echo "- **Release Root Tag:** ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RELEASE_ROOT_TAG }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
-        echo "- **Main Version:** ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.MAIN_VERSION }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
-        echo "- **Source Branch:** main (HEAD)" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+
+        if [ -z "${{ inputs.source_release_branch }}" ]; then
+          echo "- **Release Root Tag:** ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RELEASE_ROOT_TAG }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+          echo "- **Main Version:** ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.MAIN_VERSION }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+          echo "- **Source Branch:** main (HEAD)" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+        else
+          echo "- **Source Branch:** ${{ inputs.source_release_branch }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+          echo "- **Release Notes Base:** ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.PREVIOUS_TAG }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+          if [ -n "${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG }}" ]; then
+            echo "- **Minor Release Root Tag:** ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+          fi
+        fi
         echo "- **Dry Run:** ${{ inputs.dry_run }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
 
         if [ "${{ inputs.dry_run }}" == "true" ]; then
@@ -122,7 +148,11 @@ jobs:
           echo "" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
           echo "**What happened:**" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
           echo "1. Created release branch ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RELEASE_BRANCH }} at ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.RC_TAG }}" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
-          echo "2. Bumped main to ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.MAIN_VERSION }} (unreleased)" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+          if [ -z "${{ inputs.source_release_branch }}" ]; then
+            echo "2. Bumped main to ${{ steps.create_branch.outputs.MAIN_VERSION }} (unreleased)" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+          else
+            echo "2. Created from ${{ inputs.source_release_branch }} (main unchanged)" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
+          fi
           echo "" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
           echo "**Next steps:**" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
           echo "1. Review and vote in the discussion thread" >> $GITHUB_STEP_SUMMARY
diff --git a/.github/workflows/daily-code-coverage.yml b/.github/workflows/daily-code-coverage.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..62871834b62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/daily-code-coverage.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+name: Daily Code Coverage
+
+on:
+  schedule:
+    - cron: "0 2 * * *"
+  workflow_dispatch:
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
+concurrency:
+  group: daily-code-coverage
+  cancel-in-progress: false
+
+jobs:
+  coverage:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-8x
+    timeout-minutes: 360
+    env:
+      CC: clang
+      CXX: clang++
+      RUSTFLAGS: "-D warnings"
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Setup Rust toolchain
+        run: |
+          rustup toolchain install nightly-2026-07-13 --component llvm-tools-preview
+          rustup default nightly-2026-07-13
+      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@725a8794d15fc7563f59595bd9556495c0564878 # v1
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+        with:
+          key: daily-code-coverage
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
+      - name: Install cargo-llvm-cov
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # cargo-llvm-cov
+        with:
+          tool: cargo-llvm-cov
+      - name: Install cargo-nextest
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # nextest
+        with:
+          tool: nextest
+      - name: Start DynamoDB and S3
+        run: docker compose -f docker-compose.yml up -d --wait
+      - name: Run coverage tests
+        env:
+          NEXTEST_PROFILE: daily-code-coverage
+        run: |
+          ALL_FEATURES=$(cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -)
+          cargo +nightly-2026-07-13 llvm-cov nextest \
+            --codecov \
+            --output-path coverage.codecov \
+            --cargo-profile ci \
+            --locked \
+            --workspace \
+            --features "${ALL_FEATURES}" \
+            --config-file .github/nextest/daily-code-coverage.toml
+      - name: Upload coverage artifact
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
+        with:
+          name: daily-rust-coverage
+          path: coverage.codecov
+          retention-days: 14
+          if-no-files-found: error
+      - name: Upload coverage to Codecov
+        uses: codecov/codecov-action@b9fd7d16f6d7d1b5d2bec1a2887e65ceed900238 # v4
+        with:
+          token: ${{ secrets.CODECOV_TOKEN }}
+          files: coverage.codecov
+          flags: unittests
+          name: daily-code-coverage
+          fail_ci_if_error: true
diff --git a/.github/workflows/docs-check.yml b/.github/workflows/docs-check.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index 02c0ce3b751..00000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/docs-check.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,40 +0,0 @@
-name: Check docs
-
-on:
-  push:
-    branches:
-      - main
-      - release/**
-  pull_request:
-    branches:
-      - main
-      - release/**
-    paths:
-      - docs/**
-      - .github/workflows/docs-check.yml
-
-env:
-  RUSTFLAGS: "-C debuginfo=0"
-  # according to: https://matklad.github.io/2021/09/04/fast-rust-builds.html
-  # CI builds are faster with incremental disabled.
-  CARGO_INCREMENTAL: "0"
-
-jobs:
-  # Single deploy job since we're just deploying
-  check-docs:
-    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
-    steps:
-      - name: Checkout
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - name: "Set up Python"
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
-        with:
-          python-version-file: "docs/pyproject.toml"
-      - name: Install uv
-        uses: astral-sh/setup-uv@v6
-        with:
-          enable-cache: true
-      - name: Check links
-        working-directory: docs
-        run: |
-          uv run mkdocs-linkcheck src
diff --git a/.github/workflows/docs-deploy.yml b/.github/workflows/docs-deploy.yml
index 583996cab36..aeaea0bbcba 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/docs-deploy.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/docs-deploy.yml
@@ -24,114 +24,73 @@ jobs:
   deploy:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - name: Checkout lance-spark
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           repository: lancedb/lance-spark
           path: lance-spark
       - name: Checkout lance-namespace
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
-          repository: lancedb/lance-namespace
+          repository: jackye1995/lance-namespace
+          ref: ns-catalog-split
           path: lance-namespace
       - name: Checkout lance-ray
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           repository: lancedb/lance-ray
           path: lance-ray
       - name: Checkout lance-huggingface
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           repository: lance-format/lance-huggingface
           path: lance-huggingface
       - name: Checkout lance-namespace-impls
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
-          repository: lance-format/lance-namespace-impls
+          repository: jackye1995/lance-namespace-impls
+          ref: jack/ns-catalog-split
           path: lance-namespace-impls
+      - name: Checkout lance-duckdb
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+        with:
+          repository: lance-format/lance-duckdb
+          path: lance-duckdb
+      - name: Checkout lance-trino
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+        with:
+          repository: lance-format/lance-trino
+          path: lance-trino
+      - name: Checkout lance-context
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+        with:
+          repository: lance-format/lance-context
+          path: lance-context
       - name: Configure Git Credentials
         run: |
           git config user.name github-actions[bot]
           git config user.email 41898282+github-actions[bot]@users.noreply.github.com
       - name: "Set up Python"
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
         with:
           python-version-file: "docs/pyproject.toml"
       - name: Install uv
-        uses: astral-sh/setup-uv@v6
+        uses: astral-sh/setup-uv@d0cc045d04ccac9d8b7881df0226f9e82c39688e # v6
         with:
           enable-cache: true
-      - name: Copy lance-namespace docs
-        run: |
-          cp -r lance-namespace/docs/src docs/src/format/namespace
-          cat >> docs/src/format/.pages << 'EOF'
-            - Namespace Spec: namespace
-          EOF
-          cp docs/src/format/namespace/rest.yaml docs/src/rest.yaml
-      - name: Copy lance-namespace-impls docs
-        run: |
-          # Copy implementation specs to the integrations folder
-          cp lance-namespace-impls/docs/src/*.md docs/src/format/namespace/integrations/
-
-          # Copy .pages from lance-namespace-impls and append template entry
-          cp lance-namespace-impls/docs/src/.pages docs/src/format/namespace/integrations/.pages
-          echo "  - Template for New Integrations: template.md" >> docs/src/format/namespace/integrations/.pages
-      - name: Copy lance-huggingface docs
-        run: |
-          cp -r lance-huggingface/docs/src docs/src/integrations/huggingface
-          cat >> docs/src/integrations/.pages << 'EOF'
-            - Huggingface: huggingface
-          EOF
-      - name: Copy lance-spark docs
+      - name: Assemble full docs website
+        env:
+          LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO: ${{ github.workspace }}/lance-namespace
+          LANCE_NAMESPACE_IMPLS_REPO: ${{ github.workspace }}/lance-namespace-impls
+          LANCE_SPARK_REPO: ${{ github.workspace }}/lance-spark
+          LANCE_RAY_REPO: ${{ github.workspace }}/lance-ray
+          LANCE_TRINO_REPO: ${{ github.workspace }}/lance-trino
+          LANCE_DUCKDB_REPO: ${{ github.workspace }}/lance-duckdb
+          LANCE_HUGGINGFACE_REPO: ${{ github.workspace }}/lance-huggingface
+          LANCE_CONTEXT_REPO: ${{ github.workspace }}/lance-context
         run: |
-          cp -r lance-spark/docs/src docs/src/integrations/spark
-          cat >> docs/src/integrations/.pages << 'EOF'
-            - Apache Spark: spark
-          EOF
-      - name: Copy lance-ray docs
-        run: |
-          cp -r lance-ray/docs/src docs/src/integrations/ray
-          cat >> docs/src/integrations/.pages << 'EOF'
-            - Ray: ray
-          EOF
-      - name: Copy contributing docs
-        run: |
-          mkdir -p docs/src/community/project-specific/lance
-
-          # Lance project files
-          cp CONTRIBUTING.md docs/src/community/project-specific/lance/general.md
-          cp release_process.md docs/src/community/project-specific/lance/release.md
-          cp rust/CONTRIBUTING.md docs/src/community/project-specific/lance/rust.md
-          cp python/CONTRIBUTING.md docs/src/community/project-specific/lance/python.md
-          cp docs/CONTRIBUTING.md docs/src/community/project-specific/lance/docs.md
-
-          # External project files
-          cp lance-ray/CONTRIBUTING.md docs/src/community/project-specific/ray.md
-          cp lance-spark/CONTRIBUTING.md docs/src/community/project-specific/spark.md
-          cp lance-namespace/CONTRIBUTING.md docs/src/community/project-specific/namespace.md
-          cp lance-namespace-impls/CONTRIBUTING.md docs/src/community/project-specific/namespace-impls.md || true
-
-          # Create .pages for project-specific
-          cat > docs/src/community/project-specific/.pages << 'EOF'
-          nav:
-            - index.md
-            - Lance: lance
-            - Lance Namespace: namespace.md
-            - Lance Namespace Impls: namespace-impls.md
-            - Lance Ray: ray.md
-            - Lance Spark: spark.md
-          EOF
-
-          # Create .pages for lance subfolder
-          cat > docs/src/community/project-specific/lance/.pages << 'EOF'
-          nav:
-            - General: general.md
-            - Release: release.md
-            - Rust: rust.md
-            - Python: python.md
-            - Docs: docs.md
-          EOF
+          docs/make-full-website.sh
       - name: Deploy
         working-directory: docs
         run: uv run mkdocs gh-deploy --force
diff --git a/.github/workflows/docs-link-check.yml b/.github/workflows/docs-link-check.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a92bf4812d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/docs-link-check.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+name: Check doc links
+
+# Checking external links is inherently noisy: third-party sites rate-limit
+# automated clients, reject non-browser user agents, and go down temporarily.
+# Blocking pull requests on that trades a lot of false failures for very little
+# signal, so this runs on a schedule and reports findings in a single tracking
+# issue instead of failing anyone's build.
+on:
+  schedule:
+    - cron: "0 7 * * *"
+  workflow_dispatch:
+
+# The report lives in one repository-global issue, so runs must not overlap: a
+# lookup racing a create produces duplicate issues, and a healthy run closing
+# the issue while a failing run only rewrites its body would leave a broken
+# report closed. The group is deliberately ref-independent so that a manual
+# dispatch serializes against the scheduled run.
+concurrency:
+  group: docs-link-check
+  cancel-in-progress: false
+
+permissions: {}
+
+env:
+  REPORT_TITLE: "Docs link checker report"
+
+jobs:
+  scan:
+    name: Scan links
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+    # lychee-action is pinned by SHA, but its wrapper downloads the lychee
+    # release tarball at run time without verifying a digest, and hands the
+    # resulting binary a GitHub token. Release assets remain replaceable, so
+    # that binary is confined to a job whose token can only read public
+    # content; everything that writes runs in the report job below.
+    permissions:
+      contents: read
+    outputs:
+      exit_code: ${{ steps.lychee.outputs.exit_code }}
+    steps:
+      - name: Checkout
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+        with:
+          # workflow_dispatch can run from any ref, but the report is
+          # repository-global. Always measure the default branch so a manual
+          # run from a topic branch cannot close a report that main warrants,
+          # or overwrite it with branch-only findings.
+          ref: ${{ github.event.repository.default_branch }}
+          persist-credentials: false
+
+      - name: Check links
+        id: lychee
+        uses: lycheeverse/lychee-action@e7477775783ea5526144ba13e8db5eec57747ce8 # v2.9.0
+        with:
+          # Restricted to http(s) on purpose. Relative links resolve against
+          # the assembled multi-repo site (docs/make-full-website.sh pulls
+          # docs/src/format/catalog, format/namespace, integrations/spark and
+          # friends from other repositories), so they cannot be verified from
+          # this checkout alone and would report as broken on every run.
+          #
+          # crates.io answers automated clients with 403/404 no matter the user
+          # agent, so it is excluded rather than reported every day.
+          args: >-
+            --scheme https
+            --scheme http
+            --no-progress
+            --max-retries 3
+            --timeout 20
+            --exclude '^https://crates\.io/'
+            'docs/src/**/*.md'
+          format: markdown
+          output: ./lychee/out.md
+          jobSummary: true
+          # The report, not a red build, is the signal for broken links. The
+          # report job below still fails the run if the check itself breaks.
+          fail: false
+
+      - name: Upload report
+        if: steps.lychee.outputs.exit_code == 2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@043fb46d1a93c77aae656e7c1c64a875d1fc6a0a # v7.0.1
+        with:
+          name: link-report
+          path: ./lychee/out.md
+          retention-days: 7
+
+  report:
+    name: Update report issue
+    needs: scan
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+    # Deliberately no checkout: this job needs the report artifact and the
+    # issues API, not the repository contents.
+    permissions:
+      issues: write
+    env:
+      EXIT_CODE: ${{ needs.scan.outputs.exit_code }}
+      GH_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
+    steps:
+      - name: Classify checker result
+        # lychee exits 0 when every link resolves and 2 when links fail.
+        # Anything else (1 runtime, 3 bad config) means the check never
+        # produced a link verdict, which must surface as a failed run rather
+        # than be published as "broken documentation links".
+        run: |
+          case "$EXIT_CODE" in
+            0|2)
+              echo "lychee exit code $EXIT_CODE"
+              ;;
+            *)
+              echo "::error::lychee exited with '$EXIT_CODE': the link check did not complete. Leaving the report issue untouched."
+              exit 1
+              ;;
+          esac
+
+      - name: Find existing report issue
+        id: report
+        # Matched on title alone, and through search rather than a listing:
+        # the issue action applies labels in a separate call after creating the
+        # issue, so a label filter misses a half-created report, and this
+        # repository has far more open issues than one listing page holds.
+        run: |
+          number=$(gh issue list --repo "$GITHUB_REPOSITORY" --state open \
+            --search "in:title \"$REPORT_TITLE\" author:app/github-actions" \
+            --limit 50 --json number,title \
+            --jq "[.[] | select(.title == \"$REPORT_TITLE\") | .number] | first // empty")
+          echo "number=$number" >> "$GITHUB_OUTPUT"
+
+      - name: Download report
+        if: env.EXIT_CODE == 2
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@3e5f45b2cfb9172054b4087a40e8e0b5a5461e7c # v8.0.1
+        with:
+          name: link-report
+          path: ./lychee
+
+      - name: Compose report
+        if: env.EXIT_CODE == 2
+        run: |
+          run_url="$GITHUB_SERVER_URL/$GITHUB_REPOSITORY/actions/runs/$GITHUB_RUN_ID"
+          {
+            echo "Broken documentation links found by [\`$GITHUB_WORKFLOW\`]($run_url)."
+            echo
+            echo "This issue is rewritten by every scheduled run and closed automatically once all links resolve."
+            echo
+            echo "Entries can be false positives: some sites rate-limit or block automated clients while working fine in a browser. Confirm before editing the docs, and add persistent offenders to \`--exclude\` in \`.github/workflows/docs-link-check.yml\`."
+            echo
+            cat ./lychee/out.md
+          } > ./lychee/issue.md
+
+      - name: Report broken links
+        if: env.EXIT_CODE == 2
+        uses: peter-evans/create-issue-from-file@fca9117c27cdc29c6c4db3b86c48e4115a786710 # v6.0.0
+        with:
+          # Empty on the first failing run, which creates the issue; afterwards
+          # the same issue is updated in place.
+          issue-number: ${{ steps.report.outputs.number }}
+          title: ${{ env.REPORT_TITLE }}
+          content-filepath: ./lychee/issue.md
+          labels: documentation
+
+      - name: Close report issue once links are healthy
+        if: env.EXIT_CODE == 0 && steps.report.outputs.number != ''
+        env:
+          ISSUE_NUMBER: ${{ steps.report.outputs.number }}
+        run: |
+          run_url="$GITHUB_SERVER_URL/$GITHUB_REPOSITORY/actions/runs/$GITHUB_RUN_ID"
+          gh issue close "$ISSUE_NUMBER" --repo "$GITHUB_REPOSITORY" \
+            --comment "All documentation links resolved in [the latest run]($run_url)."
diff --git a/.github/workflows/file_verification.yml b/.github/workflows/file_verification.yml
index 94f36443ba8..425cfc12196 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/file_verification.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/file_verification.yml
@@ -8,20 +8,20 @@ on:
 jobs:
   run:
     timeout-minutes: 45
-    runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-8x
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-8x
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
 
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
         with:
           python-version: "3.11"
 
-      - name: Install Build Requirements
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
 
       - name: Validate AWS Credentials
         run: |
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ jobs:
           echo "AWS credentials validation successful"
 
       - name: Set up AWS CLI
-        uses: aws-actions/configure-aws-credentials@v3
+        uses: aws-actions/configure-aws-credentials@50ac8dd1e1b10d09dac7b8727528b91bed831ac0 # v3
         with:
           aws-access-key-id: ${{ secrets.LANCEDB_S3_READER_ACCESS_KEY }}
           aws-secret-access-key: ${{ secrets.LANCEDB_S3_READER_SECRET }}
@@ -51,8 +51,8 @@ jobs:
         run: |
           python -m venv venv
           source venv/bin/activate
-          pip install pyarrow maturin
-          maturin develop --release
+          pip install pyarrow maturin==1.13.3 uv
+          maturin develop --uv --release
 
       - name: Test Lance File Write Read Round Trip
         run: |
diff --git a/.github/workflows/format-vote-gate.yml b/.github/workflows/format-vote-gate.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f771948636b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/format-vote-gate.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+name: Format spec vote gate
+
+# Structurally enforces the PMC vote required for Lance format-specification
+# changes (see https://lance.org/community/voting/). The path labeler
+# (.github/labeler-area.yml) applies the `format-change` label to PRs that touch
+# the persisted format protos or `docs/src/format/**`; execution-only wire
+# schemas are excluded. This gate reads that label and blocks merging until the
+# PR has 3 binding +1 votes from PMC members (PR approvals, excluding the
+# author) with at least one of them on the head commit, has no outstanding veto
+# (a PMC "Request changes" review), and the 72-hour voting period has elapsed.
+# That period starts once the PR is labeled and ready for review, and pauses
+# over weekends. Approvals carry over across pushes; the member who approves the
+# head commit is vouching that nothing substantive changed since the others
+# voted.
+#
+# That carry-over depends on a branch-protection setting the gate cannot read
+# with its token: turning on "Dismiss stale pull request approvals when new
+# commits are pushed" makes GitHub report the earlier approvals as DISMISSED,
+# which this gate does not count. The gate then quietly reverts to requiring all
+# 3 approvals on the head commit — it fails closed, but anyone wondering why
+# should look there first.
+#
+# The gate publishes its verdict as the `format-spec-vote` commit status on the
+# PR head. To make it a merge blocker, an org admin must add `format-spec-vote`
+# as a required status check in the branch protection rules for `main` (and any
+# release branches). The status is posted on *every* PR — success immediately
+# for non-format PRs — so a required check is never left pending forever.
+#
+# A PMC member may waive a trivial edit (typo, wording, formatting) by applying
+# the `format-waived` label.
+#
+# Uses pull_request_target so the token can post statuses/comments on fork-based
+# PRs. It never checks out or executes PR code: it reads the trusted base
+# checkout (for the PMC roster and this script) and queries the API only.
+#
+# There is deliberately no `pull_request_review` trigger. A run triggered by a
+# fork PR's review event gets a read-only GITHUB_TOKEN no matter what the
+# `permissions` block below asks for, so it cannot post the status — and format
+# proposals from non-committers are exactly the fork-PR case. Approvals are
+# therefore picked up by the `schedule` sweep instead, or by a manual
+# `workflow_dispatch` run for a voter who does not want to wait for it. The
+# gate's PR comment links to that dispatch page.
+
+on:
+  pull_request_target:
+    types:
+      - opened
+      - reopened
+      - synchronize
+      - labeled
+      - unlabeled
+      # The voting clock starts when a PR leaves draft, so both draft
+      # transitions have to re-evaluate the gate.
+      - ready_for_review
+      - converted_to_draft
+  schedule:
+    # Re-evaluate open format-change PRs so votes and the voting-period clock are
+    # re-checked when no PR event fires: reviews land without one (see the note
+    # above), and the period routinely elapses days after the third approval.
+    # Every 15 minutes, because this is the only path that observes a vote.
+    - cron: "*/15 * * * *"
+  workflow_dispatch:
+    inputs:
+      pr:
+        description: "PR number to re-check (blank = every open format-change PR)"
+        required: false
+        type: string
+
+concurrency:
+  group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.event.pull_request.number || github.run_id }}
+  cancel-in-progress: true
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+  pull-requests: write
+  issues: write
+  statuses: write
+
+jobs:
+  gate:
+    name: Evaluate format spec vote
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - name: Checkout base
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Set up Python
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
+        with:
+          python-version: "3.12"
+      - name: Install dependencies
+        run: pip install PyGithub PyYAML
+      - name: Evaluate vote
+        run: python ci/format_vote_gate.py
+        env:
+          GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
+          GATE_PR: ${{ inputs.pr }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/issue-labeler.yml b/.github/workflows/issue-labeler.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..36f5a9cdbca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/issue-labeler.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+name: Issue Labeler
+
+# Applies bug / feature / performance labels to issues based on their title and
+# body. This complements the .github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE forms, which only apply
+# labels for issues opened through the web UI; this catches issues opened via
+# `gh issue create`, the REST API, or an agent, which bypass templates.
+#
+# Issues never originate from a fork, so unlike the PR labelers this uses a
+# plain `issues` trigger (no pull_request_target) with a scoped GITHUB_TOKEN.
+on:
+  issues:
+    types: [opened, edited]
+
+concurrency:
+  group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.event.issue.number }}
+  cancel-in-progress: true
+
+jobs:
+  label:
+    name: Apply issue labels
+    permissions:
+      issues: write
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: srvaroa/labeler@bf262763a8a8e191f5847873aecc0f29df84f957 # v1.14.0
+        env:
+          GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
+        with:
+          config_path: .github/labeler-issues.yml
diff --git a/.github/workflows/java-publish.yml b/.github/workflows/java-publish.yml
index 30d07658d17..c2f0c7f6deb 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/java-publish.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/java-publish.yml
@@ -24,23 +24,40 @@ on:
         required: false
         type: string
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
-  linux-arm64:
-    name: Build on Linux Arm64
-    runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-arm64-8x
+  build-linux:
+    name: Build on Linux ${{ matrix.arch }}
+    runs-on: ${{ matrix.runner }}
     timeout-minutes: 60
+    strategy:
+      fail-fast: false
+      matrix:
+        include:
+          - arch: x86-64
+            runner: ubuntu-24.04
+            docker_platform: linux/amd64
+            protoc_arch: x86_64
+            artifact: liblance_jni_linux_x86_64.zip
+          - arch: arm64
+            runner: ubuntu-24.04-arm64-8x
+            docker_platform: linux/arm64
+            protoc_arch: aarch_64
+            artifact: liblance_jni_linux_arm_64.zip
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           ref: ${{ inputs.ref || github.ref }}
       - name: Set up Docker Buildx
-        uses: docker/setup-buildx-action@v3
+        uses: docker/setup-buildx-action@8d2750c68a42422c14e847fe6c8ac0403b4cbd6f # v3
       - name: Check glibc version outside docker
         run: ldd --version
-      - name: Build and run in Debian 10 Arm64 container
+      - name: Build and run in Debian 10 container
         run: |
-          docker run --platform linux/arm64 -v ${{ github.workspace }}:/workspace -w /workspace debian:10 bash -c "
+          docker run --platform ${{ matrix.docker_platform }} -v ${{ github.workspace }}:/workspace -w /workspace debian:10 bash -c "
 
             set -ex
             # Update sources.list to use archive repositories for Debian 10 (EOL)
@@ -78,7 +95,7 @@ jobs:
               unzip
 
             # https://github.com/databendlabs/databend/issues/8035
-            PROTOC_ZIP=protoc-3.15.0-linux-aarch_64.zip
+            PROTOC_ZIP=protoc-3.15.0-linux-${{ matrix.protoc_arch }}.zip
             curl -OL https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/releases/download/v3.15.0/\$PROTOC_ZIP
             unzip -o \$PROTOC_ZIP -d /usr/local
             rm -f \$PROTOC_ZIP
@@ -95,107 +112,50 @@ jobs:
             export CXX=clang++
             ldd --version
 
-            cargo build --release
+            cargo build --release --locked
           "
-      - uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
+      - uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
         with:
-          name: liblance_jni_linux_arm_64.zip
+          name: ${{ matrix.artifact }}
           path: java/lance-jni/target/release/liblance_jni.so
           retention-days: 1
           if-no-files-found: error
-  linux-x86:
-    name: Build on Linux x86-64
-    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+  build-macos:
+    name: Build on MacOS Arm64
+    runs-on: warp-macos-14-arm64-6x
     timeout-minutes: 60
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           ref: ${{ inputs.ref || github.ref }}
-      - name: Set up Docker Buildx
-        uses: docker/setup-buildx-action@v3
-      - name: Check glibc version outside docker
-        run: ldd --version
-      - name: Build and run in Debian 10 X86-64 container
-        run: |
-          docker run --platform linux/amd64 -v ${{ github.workspace }}:/workspace -w /workspace debian:10 bash -c "
-
-            set -ex
-            # Update sources.list to use archive repositories for Debian 10 (EOL)
-            echo 'deb http://archive.debian.org/debian/ buster main' > /etc/apt/sources.list
-            echo 'deb http://archive.debian.org/debian-security buster/updates main' >> /etc/apt/sources.list
-            echo 'deb http://archive.debian.org/debian/ buster-updates main' >> /etc/apt/sources.list
-            apt-get update
-
-            DEBIAN_FRONTEND=noninteractive apt-get install --no-install-recommends --assume-yes \
-              apt-transport-https \
-              ca-certificates \
-              curl \
-              gpg \
-              bash \
-              less \
-              openssl \
-              libssl-dev \
-              pkg-config \
-              libsqlite3-dev \
-              libsqlite3-0 \
-              libreadline-dev \
-              git \
-              cmake \
-              dh-autoreconf \
-              clang \
-              g++ \
-              libc++-dev \
-              libc++abi-dev \
-              libprotobuf-dev \
-              libncurses5-dev \
-              libncursesw5-dev \
-              libudev-dev \
-              libhidapi-dev \
-              zip \
-              unzip
-
-            # https://github.com/databendlabs/databend/issues/8035
-            PROTOC_ZIP=protoc-3.15.0-linux-x86_64.zip
-            curl -OL https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/releases/download/v3.15.0/\$PROTOC_ZIP
-            unzip -o \$PROTOC_ZIP -d /usr/local
-            rm -f \$PROTOC_ZIP
-            protoc --version
-
-            curl https://sh.rustup.rs -sSf | sh -s -- -y --default-toolchain stable
-            source \$HOME/.cargo/env
-            cargo --version
-
-            cd java/lance-jni
-
-            # https://github.com/rustls/rustls/issues/1967
-            export CC=clang
-            export CXX=clang++
-            ldd --version
-
-            cargo build --release
-          "
-      - uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+      - uses: Homebrew/actions/setup-homebrew@50b8c2ab4a835c38897ed2c56c293b07167c0b59 # master 2026-03-07
+      - name: Install dependencies
+        run: brew install protobuf
+      - name: Build native lib
+        working-directory: java/lance-jni
+        run: cargo build --release --locked
+      - uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
         with:
-          name: liblance_jni_linux_x86_64.zip
-          path: java/lance-jni/target/release/liblance_jni.so
+          name: liblance_jni_darwin_aarch64.zip
+          path: java/lance-jni/target/release/liblance_jni.dylib
           retention-days: 1
           if-no-files-found: error
-  macos-arm64:
-    name: Build on MacOS Arm64 and release
-    runs-on: warp-macos-14-arm64-6x
-    timeout-minutes: 60
+  publish:
+    name: Publish Java packages
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    timeout-minutes: 30
     needs:
-      - linux-arm64
-      - linux-x86
+      - build-linux
+      - build-macos
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           ref: ${{ inputs.ref || github.ref }}
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
       - name: Set up Java 11
-        uses: actions/setup-java@v4
+        uses: actions/setup-java@c1e323688fd81a25caa38c78aa6df2d33d3e20d9 # v4
         with:
           distribution: corretto
           java-version: 11
@@ -205,18 +165,16 @@ jobs:
           server-password: SONATYPE_TOKEN
           gpg-private-key: ${{ secrets.GPG_PRIVATE_KEY }}
           gpg-passphrase: ${{ secrets.GPG_PASSPHRASE }}
-      - uses: Homebrew/actions/setup-homebrew@master
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          brew install protobuf
-          brew install gpg
-      - name: Download artifact
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
+      - name: Download artifacts
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@d3f86a106a0bac45b974a628896c90dbdf5c8093 # v4
       - name: Copy native libs
         run: |
-          mkdir -p ./java/target/classes/nativelib/linux-x86-64 ./java/target/classes/nativelib/linux-aarch64
+          mkdir -p ./java/target/classes/nativelib/linux-x86-64 \
+            ./java/target/classes/nativelib/linux-aarch64 \
+            ./java/target/classes/nativelib/darwin-aarch64
           cp ./liblance_jni_linux_x86_64.zip/liblance_jni.so ./java/target/classes/nativelib/linux-x86-64/liblance_jni.so
           cp ./liblance_jni_linux_arm_64.zip/liblance_jni.so ./java/target/classes/nativelib/linux-aarch64/liblance_jni.so
+          cp ./liblance_jni_darwin_aarch64.zip/liblance_jni.dylib ./java/target/classes/nativelib/darwin-aarch64/liblance_jni.dylib
       - name: Set github
         run: |
           git config --global user.email "Lance Github Runner"
@@ -227,7 +185,7 @@ jobs:
           inputs.mode == 'dry_run'
         working-directory: java
         run: |
-          mvn --batch-mode -DskipTests -Drust.release.build=true package
+          mvn --batch-mode -DskipTests -Dskip.build.jni=true package
       - name: Publish with Java 11
         if: |
           github.event_name == 'release' ||
@@ -237,20 +195,32 @@ jobs:
           echo "use-agent" >> ~/.gnupg/gpg.conf
           echo "pinentry-mode loopback" >> ~/.gnupg/gpg.conf
           export GPG_TTY=$(tty)
-          mvn --batch-mode -DskipTests -Drust.release.build=true -DpushChanges=false -Dgpg.passphrase=${{ secrets.GPG_PASSPHRASE }} deploy -P deploy-to-ossrh -P shade-jar
+          mvn --batch-mode -DskipTests -Dskip.build.jni=true -DpushChanges=false -Dgpg.passphrase=${{ secrets.GPG_PASSPHRASE }} deploy -P deploy-to-ossrh
         env:
           SONATYPE_USER: ${{ secrets.SONATYPE_USER }}
           SONATYPE_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.SONATYPE_TOKEN }}
+      - name: Upload Java packages to R2
+        if: github.event_name == 'release' || inputs.mode == 'release'
+        run: |
+          unzip -q java/target/central-publishing/central-bundle.zip -d "$RUNNER_TEMP/maven"
+          aws s3 cp "$RUNNER_TEMP/maven/" "s3://$R2_BUCKET/" \
+            --recursive --endpoint-url "$R2_ENDPOINT" --only-show-errors
+        env:
+          AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID: ${{ secrets.R2_ACCESS_KEY_ID }}
+          AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY: ${{ secrets.R2_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY }}
+          AWS_DEFAULT_REGION: auto
+          R2_ENDPOINT: ${{ vars.R2_ENDPOINT }}
+          R2_BUCKET: ${{ vars.R2_BUCKET }}
   report-failure:
     name: Report Workflow Failure
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    needs: [linux-arm64, linux-x86, macos-arm64]
+    needs: [build-linux, build-macos, publish]
     if: always() && (github.event_name == 'release' || github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch')
     permissions:
       contents: read
       issues: write
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - uses: ./.github/actions/create-failure-issue
         with:
           job-results: ${{ toJSON(needs) }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/java.yml b/.github/workflows/java.yml
index f4b8222bbaa..07b5a9a86aa 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/java.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/java.yml
@@ -20,63 +20,68 @@ env:
   CARGO_TERM_COLOR: always
   RUST_BACKTRACE: "1"
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   rust-clippy-fmt:
     runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
     name: Rust Clippy and Fmt Check
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
         with:
           workspaces: |
             lance
             java/lance-jni -> ../target/rust-maven-plugin/lance-jni
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
-      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@v1
-      - name: Install cargo-llvm-cov
-        uses: taiki-e/install-action@cargo-llvm-cov
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
+      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@725a8794d15fc7563f59595bd9556495c0564878 # v1
       - name: Run cargo fmt
         working-directory: java/lance-jni
         run: cargo fmt --check
       - name: Rust Clippy
         working-directory: java/lance-jni
-        run: cargo clippy --all-targets -- -D warnings
+        run: cargo clippy --all-targets --locked -- -D warnings
 
   build-and-test-java:
-    runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-4x
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-4x
     timeout-minutes: 60
     strategy:
       matrix:
-        java-version: [11, 17, 21]
+        java-version: [11, 17, 21, 25]
     name: Build and Test with Java ${{ matrix.java-version }}
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
       # pin the toolchain version to avoid surprises
-      - uses: actions-rust-lang/setup-rust-toolchain@v1
+      - uses: actions-rust-lang/setup-rust-toolchain@a0b538fa0b742a6aa35d6e2c169b4bd06d225a98 # v1
         with:
           toolchain: stable
-      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@v1
-      - name: Install cargo-llvm-cov
-        uses: taiki-e/install-action@cargo-llvm-cov
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@725a8794d15fc7563f59595bd9556495c0564878 # v1
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
         with:
           workspaces: java/lance-jni -> ../target/rust-maven-plugin/lance-jni
       - name: Set up Java ${{ matrix.java-version }}
-        uses: actions/setup-java@v4
+        uses: actions/setup-java@c1e323688fd81a25caa38c78aa6df2d33d3e20d9 # v4
         with:
           distribution: temurin
           java-version: ${{ matrix.java-version }}
           cache: "maven"
+      # Skip the format gate on Java 25: google-java-format 1.22.0 (pinned via
+      # spotless) reaches into com.sun.tools.javac internals and throws
+      # NoSuchMethodError on JDK 25's javac. No google-java-format release runs
+      # on JDK 25 without also dropping JDK 11/17 support, so we exclude 25 from
+      # the (JDK-independent, already-enforced-on-11/17/21) style check instead.
       - name: Running code style check with Java ${{ matrix.java-version }}
+        if: matrix.java-version != '25'
         working-directory: java
         run: |
           mvn spotless:check
@@ -88,4 +93,7 @@ jobs:
         env:
           LANCE_INTEGRATION_TEST: "1"
         run: |
-          mvn install
+          # spotless is also bound into the build lifecycle, so on Java 25 the
+          # format gate must be skipped here too (-Dspotless.skip=true), not just
+          # in the standalone step above.
+          mvn install ${{ matrix.java-version == '25' && '-Dspotless.skip=true' || '' }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/labeler.yml b/.github/workflows/labeler.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bb46af89fb5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/labeler.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+name: Area Labeler
+
+on:
+  # pull_request_target is required so labels can be applied to PRs from forks.
+  pull_request_target:
+    types: [opened, synchronize, reopened]
+
+concurrency:
+  group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.event.pull_request.number || github.ref }}
+  cancel-in-progress: true
+
+jobs:
+  label:
+    name: Apply area labels
+    permissions:
+      contents: read
+      pull-requests: write
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/labeler@8558fd74291d67161a8a78ce36a881fa63b766a9 # v5.0.0
+        with:
+          configuration-path: .github/labeler-area.yml
+          # Match dotfiles/dot-folders (e.g. .github/**) for A-ci.
+          dot: true
diff --git a/.github/workflows/license-header-check.yml b/.github/workflows/license-header-check.yml
index 1e321687681..2e6e26bbbeb 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/license-header-check.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/license-header-check.yml
@@ -12,14 +12,35 @@ on:
       - rust/**
       - python/**
       - protos/**
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   build:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
       - name: Check out code
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - name: Install license-header-checker
-        run: curl -s https://raw.githubusercontent.com/lluissm/license-header-checker/master/install.sh | bash
+        env:
+          # Pin to a specific release and download the asset directly from the
+          # release CDN. This avoids the flaky dynamic "latest" tag lookup in the
+          # upstream install.sh (it fetches the releases page and parses tag_name,
+          # which intermittently returns empty and fails the job).
+          LHC_VERSION: "1.5.0"
+        run: |
+          set -euo pipefail
+          mkdir -p ./bin
+          base="https://github.com/lluissm/license-header-checker/releases/download/v${LHC_VERSION}"
+          asset="license-header-checker_${LHC_VERSION}_linux_amd64.tar.gz"
+          curl -sfSL "${base}/${asset}" -o "/tmp/${asset}"
+          curl -sfSL "${base}/checksums.txt" -o /tmp/lhc-checksums.txt
+          # Verify the download against the release checksums before extracting so a
+          # corrupted or tampered asset cannot be executed. This restores the
+          # integrity check the upstream install.sh performed via hash_sha256_verify.
+          (cd /tmp && sha256sum -c --ignore-missing lhc-checksums.txt)
+          tar -xzf "/tmp/${asset}" -C ./bin license-header-checker
+          rm -f "/tmp/${asset}" /tmp/lhc-checksums.txt
       - name: Check license headers (rust)
         run: ./bin/license-header-checker -a -v ./rust/license_header.txt rust rs && [[ -z `git status -s` ]]
       - name: Check license headers (python)
diff --git a/.github/workflows/nightly_run.yml b/.github/workflows/nightly_run.yml
index 0c2c609e438..b980d5ef1d5 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/nightly_run.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/nightly_run.yml
@@ -5,13 +5,18 @@ on:
     - cron: "0 0 * * *" # Runs every day at midnight UTC
   workflow_dispatch:
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   run:
     runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
-    if: github.repository == 'lancedb/lance'
+    if: github.repository == 'lance-format/lance'
+    permissions:
+      actions: write
     steps:
       - name: Nightly Run File Verification Workflow
-        uses: benc-uk/workflow-dispatch@v1
+        uses: benc-uk/workflow-dispatch@7a027648b88c2413826b6ddd6c76114894dc5ec4 # v1
         with:
           workflow: file_verification.yml
           ref: main
@@ -19,17 +24,17 @@ jobs:
 
   jumbo-tests:
     # jumbo tests need more resources
-    runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-8x
-    if: github.repository == 'lancedb/lance'
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-8x
+    if: github.repository == 'lance-format/lance'
     timeout-minutes: 60
     permissions:
       contents: read
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
       - name: Run Jumbo String/Binary Tests
         run: |
           echo "Running jumbo tests for Lance 2.0 and 2.1..."
@@ -39,3 +44,69 @@ jobs:
           # Run only the jumbo tests in release mode with limited parallelism
           # to avoid OOM issues (these tests use >5GiB memory each)
           cargo test --release --package lance-encoding -- --ignored jumbo --test-threads=1
+
+  # Cross-version index maintenance-sequence search (see python/tests/compat/compat_sequence.py).
+  # Ages an index under the latest release of each of the two previous majors and exercises it
+  # under this commit, searching op sequences for panics or correctness divergence. The search is
+  # slow and unbounded in depth, so it runs nightly with a generous timeout rather than blocking
+  # merges; the manual escape hatch for arbitrary ref pairs lives in compat-pair.yml.
+  compat-sequence:
+    if: github.repository == 'lance-format/lance'
+    timeout-minutes: 360
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+    name: Index Sequence Compat
+    defaults:
+      run:
+        shell: bash
+        working-directory: python
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Set up Python
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
+        with:
+          python-version: 3.13
+      # Toolchain to build the reader (HEAD) wheel from source -- no upstream build job to
+      # borrow a wheel from here, unlike the old post-merge path in python.yml.
+      - uses: actions-rust-lang/setup-rust-toolchain@a0b538fa0b742a6aa35d6e2c169b4bd06d225a98 # v1
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+        with:
+          workspaces: python
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
+      - name: Install host deps
+        run: pip install pytest pytest-xdist pyarrow packaging maturin
+      # Build HEAD once and feed it to the suite as the prebuilt reader, so the two writer
+      # passes below don't each recompile it.
+      - name: Build reader wheel (HEAD)
+        run: python -m maturin build --release -m Cargo.toml --out wheels
+      # Age under each of the two previous majors (writer wheels from PyPI) and read under
+      # this commit's freshly built wheel. Length 5 is the shallowest depth that reaches the
+      # ENT-1662 sequence; -n oversubscribes cores since the work is I/O-bound.
+      - name: Run sequence search (previous two majors -> HEAD)
+        env:
+          COMPAT_MAX_LENGTH: "5"
+          COMPAT_TO_REF: HEAD
+          COMPAT_PREBUILT_REF: HEAD
+        run: |
+          set -euo pipefail
+          wheel=$(ls "$PWD"/wheels/pylance-*.whl | head -1)
+          refs=$(PYTHONPATH=python/tests python -c "
+          from compat.compat_decorator import pylance_stable_versions
+          latest = {}
+          for v in pylance_stable_versions():
+              latest[v.major] = v
+          print(' '.join(str(latest[m]) for m in sorted(latest)[-2:]))
+          ")
+          echo "reader wheel: $wheel"
+          echo "writer refs : $refs"
+          status=0
+          for from_ref in $refs; do
+            echo "::group::$from_ref -> HEAD"
+            COMPAT_FROM_REF="$from_ref" COMPAT_PREBUILT_WHEEL="$wheel" \
+              python -m pytest python/tests/compat/test_index_sequence.py \
+                --run-compat -n "$(( $(nproc) * 4 ))" -v --no-header || status=1
+            echo "::endgroup::"
+          done
+          exit $status
diff --git a/.github/workflows/notebook.yml b/.github/workflows/notebook.yml
index 6efec33e92c..d428d7d8b58 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/notebook.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/notebook.yml
@@ -15,6 +15,9 @@ on:
       - protos/**
       - notebooks/**
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 concurrency:
   group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.event.pull_request.number || github.ref }}
   cancel-in-progress: true
@@ -24,12 +27,12 @@ jobs:
     timeout-minutes: 30
     runs-on: "ubuntu-22.04"
     steps:
-    - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+    - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       with:
         fetch-depth: 0
         lfs: true
     - name: Set up Python
-      uses: actions/setup-python@v4
+      uses: actions/setup-python@7f4fc3e22c37d6ff65e88745f38bd3157c663f7c # v4
       with:
         python-version: "3.10"
     - uses: ./.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel
diff --git a/.github/workflows/pr-title.yml b/.github/workflows/pr-title.yml
index 96b0c5a338c..51c899f56a3 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/pr-title.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/pr-title.yml
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ jobs:
     name: Label PR
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: srvaroa/labeler@master
+      - uses: srvaroa/labeler@bf262763a8a8e191f5847873aecc0f29df84f957 # v1.14.0
         env:
           GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
         with:
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ jobs:
     name: Verify PR title / description conforms to semantic-release
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/setup-node@v4
+      - uses: actions/setup-node@49933ea5288caeca8642d1e84afbd3f7d6820020 # v4
         with:
           node-version: "20"
       # These rules are disabled because Github will always ensure there
@@ -44,14 +44,17 @@ jobs:
               "body-leading-blank": [0, "always"]
             }
           }' > .commitlintrc.js
-      - run: npx commitlint --extends @commitlint/config-conventional --verbose <<< $COMMIT_MSG
-        env:
-          COMMIT_MSG: >
-            ${{ github.event.pull_request.title }}
-
-            ${{ github.event.pull_request.body }}
+      - name: Write commit message to file
+        uses: actions/github-script@f28e40c7f34bde8b3046d885e986cb6290c5673b # v7
+        with:
+          script: |
+            const fs = require('fs');
+            const title = context.payload.pull_request.title || '';
+            const body = context.payload.pull_request.body || '';
+            fs.writeFileSync(process.env.RUNNER_TEMP + '/commit_msg.txt', title + '\n\n' + body);
+      - run: npx commitlint --extends @commitlint/config-conventional --verbose < "$RUNNER_TEMP/commit_msg.txt"
       - if: failure()
-        uses: actions/github-script@v7
+        uses: actions/github-script@f28e40c7f34bde8b3046d885e986cb6290c5673b # v7
         with:
           script: |
             const message = `**ACTION NEEDED**
diff --git a/.github/workflows/proto-lint.yml b/.github/workflows/proto-lint.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1485d4e4741
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/proto-lint.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+name: Protobuf lint
+on:
+  push:
+    branches:
+      - main
+      - release/**
+  pull_request:
+    branches:
+      - main
+      - release/**
+    paths:
+      - "**/*.proto"
+      - ci/check_proto_comments.py
+      - .github/workflows/proto-lint.yml
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
+jobs:
+  comment-style:
+    name: Multi-line comment style
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - name: Check out code
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Set up Python
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
+        with:
+          python-version: "3.12"
+      - name: Check .proto comment style
+        run: python ci/check_proto_comments.py
diff --git a/.github/workflows/publish-beta.yml b/.github/workflows/publish-beta.yml
index 0ef837e124d..a3f92f4a8e0 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/publish-beta.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/publish-beta.yml
@@ -14,6 +14,9 @@ on:
         default: false
         type: boolean
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   publish-beta:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
@@ -27,7 +30,7 @@ jobs:
       run: echo "${{ toJSON(github.event.inputs) }}"
 
     - name: Check out repository
-      uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       with:
         token: ${{ secrets.LANCE_RELEASE_TOKEN }}
         fetch-depth: 0
@@ -80,7 +83,7 @@ jobs:
 
     - name: Create GitHub Pre-Release (if not dry run)
       if: ${{ !inputs.dry_run }}
-      uses: softprops/action-gh-release@v2
+      uses: softprops/action-gh-release@a06a81a03ee405af7f2048a818ed3f03bbf83c7b # v2
       with:
         tag_name: ${{ steps.publish.outputs.BETA_TAG }}
         name: ${{ steps.publish.outputs.BETA_TAG }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/pypi-publish.yml b/.github/workflows/pypi-publish.yml
index 20195e679f2..77c76d6fc69 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/pypi-publish.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/pypi-publish.yml
@@ -26,13 +26,16 @@ on:
       - ".github/workflows/build_windows_wheel/**"
       - ".github/workflows/upload_wheel/**"
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   linux:
     timeout-minutes: 60
     name: Python Linux 3.${{ matrix.python-minor-version }} ${{ matrix.config.platform }} manylinux${{ matrix.config.manylinux }}
     strategy:
       matrix:
-        python-minor-version: ["9"]
+        python-minor-version: ["10"]
         config:
           - platform: x86_64
             manylinux: "2_17"
@@ -45,20 +48,20 @@ jobs:
           - platform: aarch64
             manylinux: "2_17"
             extra_args: ""
-            runner: warp-ubuntu-latest-arm64-4x
+            runner: ubuntu-24.04-arm64-4x
           - platform: aarch64
             manylinux: "2_28"
             extra_args: "--features fp16kernels"
-            runner: warp-ubuntu-latest-arm64-4x
+            runner: ubuntu-24.04-arm64-4x
     runs-on: ${{ matrix.config.runner }}
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           ref: ${{ inputs.ref || github.ref }}
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v4
+        uses: actions/setup-python@7f4fc3e22c37d6ff65e88745f38bd3157c663f7c # v4
         with:
           python-version: 3.${{ matrix.python-minor-version }}
       - name: Handle tag
@@ -82,7 +85,7 @@ jobs:
           manylinux: ${{ matrix.config.manylinux }}
       - name: Upload wheels as artifacts
         if: github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch'
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
         with:
           name: pylance-debug-manylinux_${{ matrix.config.manylinux }}_${{ matrix.config.platform }}
           path: python/target/wheels/*.whl
@@ -98,20 +101,20 @@ jobs:
     runs-on: ${{ matrix.config.runner }}
     strategy:
       matrix:
-        python-minor-version: ["9"]
+        python-minor-version: ["10"]
         config:
           - target: aarch64-apple-darwin
             runner: warp-macos-14-arm64-6x
     env:
       MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET: 10.15
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           ref: ${{ inputs.ref || github.ref }}
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v4
+        uses: actions/setup-python@7f4fc3e22c37d6ff65e88745f38bd3157c663f7c # v4
         with:
           python-version: 3.13
       - name: Handle tag
@@ -133,7 +136,7 @@ jobs:
           args: "--release ${{ (github.event_name == 'release' || (github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch' && !inputs.debug)) && '--strip' || '' }} --target ${{ matrix.config.target }} --features fp16kernels"
       - name: Upload wheels as artifacts
         if: github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch'
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
         with:
           name: pylance-debug-macosx_arm64
           path: python/target/wheels/*.whl
@@ -146,18 +149,18 @@ jobs:
           repo: ${{ steps.handle_tag.outputs.repo }}
   windows:
     timeout-minutes: 60
-    runs-on: windows-latest
+    runs-on: windows-latest-4x
     strategy:
       matrix:
-        python-minor-version: ["9"]
+        python-minor-version: ["10"]
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           ref: ${{ inputs.ref || github.ref }}
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v4
+        uses: actions/setup-python@7f4fc3e22c37d6ff65e88745f38bd3157c663f7c # v4
         with:
           python-version: 3.${{ matrix.python-minor-version }}
       - name: Handle tag
@@ -180,7 +183,7 @@ jobs:
           args: "--release ${{ (github.event_name == 'release' || (github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch' && !inputs.debug)) && '--strip' || '' }}"
       - name: Upload wheels as artifacts
         if: github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch'
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
         with:
           name: pylance-debug-win_amd64
           path: python/target/wheels/*.whl
@@ -200,7 +203,7 @@ jobs:
       issues: write
     if: always() && (github.event_name == 'release' || github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch')
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - uses: ./.github/actions/create-failure-issue
         with:
           job-results: ${{ toJSON(needs) }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/python.yml b/.github/workflows/python.yml
index 6755d38087c..4802e6c8b06 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/python.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/python.yml
@@ -11,6 +11,8 @@ on:
       - release/**
     paths:
       - Cargo.*
+      - .cargo/config.toml
+      - clippy.toml
       - python/**
       - rust/**
       - protos/**
@@ -19,6 +21,9 @@ on:
       - .github/workflows/build_mac_wheel/**
       - .github/workflows/run_tests/**
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 concurrency:
   group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.event.pull_request.number || github.ref }}
   cancel-in-progress: true
@@ -39,7 +44,7 @@ env:
 jobs:
   lint:
     timeout-minutes: 45
-    runs-on: "warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-4x"
+    runs-on: "ubuntu-24.04-4x"
     defaults:
       run:
         shell: bash
@@ -49,31 +54,31 @@ jobs:
       CC: clang-18
       CXX: clang++-18
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
         with:
           python-version: 3.11 # Ray does not support 3.12 yet.
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
         with:
           workspaces: python
           prefix-key: ${{ env.CACHE_PREFIX }}
       - name: Install linting tools
         run: |
-          pip install ruff==0.11.2 maturin tensorflow tqdm ray[data] pyright datasets polars[pyarrow,pandas]
+          pip install ruff==0.11.2 maturin tensorflow tqdm ray[data] pyright datasets polars[pyarrow,pandas] lance-namespace
           pip install torch --index-url https://download.pytorch.org/whl/cpu
       - name: Lint Python
         run: |
           ruff format --check --diff python
           ruff check python
           pyright
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
       - name: Lint Rust
         run: |
           ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v protoc | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
@@ -84,99 +89,188 @@ jobs:
           python -m venv venv
           source venv/bin/activate
           pip install torch tqdm --index-url https://download.pytorch.org/whl/cpu
-          pip install maturin
-          maturin develop --profile ci --locked --extras tests,ray
+          pip install maturin==1.13.3 uv
+          maturin develop --uv --profile ci --locked --extras tests,ray
       - name: Run doctest
         run: |
           source venv/bin/activate
           pytest --doctest-modules python/lance
+
+  python-rust-test:
+    timeout-minutes: 30
+    name: pylance crate Rust tests
+    runs-on: "ubuntu-24.04-4x"
+    defaults:
+      run:
+        shell: bash
+        working-directory: python
+    env:
+      # Need up-to-date compilers for kernels
+      CC: clang-18
+      CXX: clang++-18
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Set up Python
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
+        with:
+          python-version: 3.11
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+        with:
+          workspaces: python
+          prefix-key: ${{ env.CACHE_PREFIX }}
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
+      # The default `extension-module` feature leaves libpython unlinked, which the
+      # host interpreter resolves at load time but a test binary cannot. Disabling it
+      # links libpython so these tests run instead of only compiling.
+      - name: Test Rust
+        run: cargo test --profile ci --locked --no-default-features
+
+  linux-wheel:
+    timeout-minutes: 45
+    name: Python Linux x86_64 wheel
+    runs-on: "ubuntu-24.04-4x"
+    defaults:
+      run:
+        shell: bash
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+        with:
+          fetch-depth: 0
+          lfs: true
+      - name: Set up Python
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
+        with:
+          python-version: "3.10"
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+        with:
+          workspaces: python
+          prefix-key: ${{ env.CACHE_PREFIX }}
+      # python/Cargo.toml enables abi3-py310, so this wheel is reusable by
+      # every CPython version in the Linux test matrix.
+      - name: Build cp310 ABI3 wheel
+        uses: ./.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel
+        with:
+          python-minor-version: "10"
+          args: "--profile ci"
+      - name: Upload wheel
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
+        with:
+          name: linux-x86_64-wheel
+          path: python/target/wheels/pylance-*.whl
+          if-no-files-found: error
+
+  linux-memtest:
+    timeout-minutes: 15
+    name: Python Linux x86_64 memtest
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - uses: actions-rust-lang/setup-rust-toolchain@a0b538fa0b742a6aa35d6e2c169b4bd06d225a98 # v1
+        with:
+          cache: "false"
+          rustflags: ""
+      - name: Build memtest
+        working-directory: memtest
+        run: cargo build --release
+      - name: Upload memtest
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@ea165f8d65b6e75b540449e92b4886f43607fa02 # v4
+        with:
+          name: linux-x86_64-memtest
+          path: memtest/target/release/libmemtest.so
+          if-no-files-found: error
+
   linux:
+    needs: [linux-wheel, linux-memtest]
     timeout-minutes: 45
     strategy:
       matrix:
-        python-minor-version: ["9", "13"]
+        python-minor-version: ["10", "13", "14"]
     name: "Python Linux 3.${{ matrix.python-minor-version }} x86_64"
-    runs-on: "warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-4x"
+    runs-on: "ubuntu-24.04-4x"
     defaults:
       run:
         shell: bash
         working-directory: python
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
         with:
           python-version: 3.${{ matrix.python-minor-version }}
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - name: Download wheel
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@d3f86a106a0bac45b974a628896c90dbdf5c8093 # v4
         with:
-          workspaces: python
-          prefix-key: ${{ env.CACHE_PREFIX }}
-      - uses: ./.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel
+          name: linux-x86_64-wheel
+          path: python/target/wheels
+      - name: Download memtest
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@d3f86a106a0bac45b974a628896c90dbdf5c8093 # v4
         with:
-          args: "--profile ci"
+          name: linux-x86_64-memtest
+          path: memtest/python/memtest
       - uses: ./.github/workflows/run_tests
         with:
           memtest: true
-      - name: Upload wheels as artifacts
-        if: ${{ matrix.python-minor-version == '13' }}
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
-        with:
-          name: linux-wheels
-          path: python/target/wheels/pylance-*.whl
 
   compat:
-    needs: linux
+    needs: linux-wheel
     timeout-minutes: 60
-    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-8x
     name: Compatibility Tests
     defaults:
       run:
         shell: bash
         working-directory: python
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
         with:
-          python-version: 3.13
-      - name: Download wheels
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
+          python-version: 3.14
+      - name: Download wheel
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@d3f86a106a0bac45b974a628896c90dbdf5c8093 # v4
         with:
-          name: linux-wheels
-          path: python/wheels
+          name: linux-x86_64-wheel
+          path: python/target/wheels
       - name: Install dependencies
         run: |
-          pip install $(ls wheels/pylance-*.whl)[tests,ray]
+          pip install $(ls target/wheels/pylance-*.whl)[tests,ray]
+      # Nearly every test here shells out to an old pylance in its own venv, so the
+      # job spends most of its time waiting on subprocesses rather than on CPU.
+      # Oversubscribing cores follows what nightly_run.yml already does with this
+      # suite. Leaving COMPAT_TEMP_VENV unset is what makes that pay off: the venvs
+      # then land in the shared cache directory, where VenvFactory's flock lets all
+      # workers reuse one venv per version instead of each building its own.
       - name: Run compatibility tests
         run: |
-          make compattest
-        env:
-          COMPAT_TEMP_VENV: 1
+          make compattest PYTEST_WORKERS=$(( $(nproc) * 2 ))
 
   linux-arm:
     timeout-minutes: 45
-    runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-arm64-4x
-    name: Python Linux 3.13 ARM
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-arm64-4x
+    name: Python Linux 3.14 ARM
     defaults:
       run:
         shell: bash
         working-directory: python
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
         with:
-          python-version: 3.13
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+          python-version: 3.14
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
         with:
           workspaces: python
           prefix-key: ${{ env.CACHE_PREFIX }}
@@ -192,22 +286,22 @@ jobs:
       - uses: ./.github/workflows/run_tests
   mac:
     timeout-minutes: 45
-    name: Python macOS 3.13 ARM
+    name: Python macOS 3.14 ARM
     runs-on: "warp-macos-14-arm64-6x"
     defaults:
       run:
         shell: bash
         working-directory: python
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
         with:
-          python-version: "3.13"
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+          python-version: "3.14"
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
         with:
           workspaces: python
           prefix-key: ${{ env.CACHE_PREFIX }}
@@ -219,18 +313,18 @@ jobs:
           skip-torch: "true"
 
   windows:
-    runs-on: windows-latest
+    runs-on: windows-latest-4x
     timeout-minutes: 90
     defaults:
       run:
         shell: powershell
         working-directory: python
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
         with:
           workspaces: python
           prefix-key: ${{ env.CACHE_PREFIX }}
@@ -239,28 +333,27 @@ jobs:
           args: "--profile ci"
       - uses: ./.github/workflows/run_tests
   aws-integtest:
+    needs: linux-wheel
     timeout-minutes: 45
-    runs-on: "warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-4x"
+    runs-on: "ubuntu-24.04-4x"
     defaults:
       run:
         shell: bash
         working-directory: python
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           fetch-depth: 0
           lfs: true
       - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+        uses: actions/setup-python@a26af69be951a213d495a4c3e4e4022e16d87065 # v5
         with:
           python-version: "3.11" # TODO: upgrade when ray supports 3.12
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - name: Download wheel
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@d3f86a106a0bac45b974a628896c90dbdf5c8093 # v4
         with:
-          workspaces: python
-          prefix-key: ${{ env.CACHE_PREFIX }}
-      - uses: ./.github/workflows/build_linux_wheel
-        with:
-          args: "--profile ci"
+          name: linux-x86_64-wheel
+          path: python/target/wheels
       - name: Install dependencies
         run: |
           pip install ray[data]
diff --git a/.github/workflows/recurring-tests.yml b/.github/workflows/recurring-tests.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index df99d6513ef..00000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/recurring-tests.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,121 +0,0 @@
-name: Recurring Tests
-
-on:
-  schedule:
-    - cron: "0 0 * * 0" # Runs at 00:00 UTC every Sunday
-  workflow_dispatch:
-
-jobs:
-  get-pylance-versions:
-    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    outputs:
-      matrix: ${{ steps.set-matrix.outputs.matrix }}
-    steps:
-      - name: Fetch latest 2 stable pylance versions
-        id: set-matrix
-        run: |
-          # Get all versions from PyPI
-          pypi_versions=$(curl -s https://pypi.org/pypi/pylance/json | jq -r '.releases | keys_unsorted | .[]')
-
-          # Use only PyPI versions
-          all_versions=$(echo -e "$pypi_versions" | sort -u -V)
-
-          # Get latest 2 stable versions
-          stable_versions=$(echo "$all_versions" | grep -E '^[0-9]+\.[0-9]+\.[0-9]+$' | sort -V | tail -n 2)
-
-          # Create matrix array
-          matrix_versions=()
-          while IFS= read -r version; do
-            if [ -n "$version" ]; then
-              matrix_versions+=("$version")
-            fi
-          done <<< "$stable_versions"
-
-          # Create JSON array manually
-          json_array="["
-          for i in "${!matrix_versions[@]}"; do
-            if [ $i -gt 0 ]; then
-              json_array="$json_array,"
-            fi
-            json_array="$json_array\"${matrix_versions[$i]}\""
-          done
-          json_array="$json_array]"
-
-          matrix="{\"pylance-version\": $json_array}"
-          echo "matrix=$matrix" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
-
-  # This job is used to test the recurring tests on the latest 2 stable versions of Lance,
-  # and the back-compat of the recurring tests.
-  recurring-linux:
-    needs: get-pylance-versions
-    name: "Recurring: Linux (Pylance ${{ matrix.pylance-version }})"
-    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
-    timeout-minutes: 7200
-    strategy:
-      fail-fast: false
-      matrix: ${{ fromJson(needs.get-pylance-versions.outputs.matrix) }}
-    defaults:
-      run:
-        shell: bash
-        working-directory: python
-    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-        with:
-          fetch-depth: 0
-          lfs: true
-      - name: Install protobuf
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler
-      - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
-        with:
-          python-version: "3.13"
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        working-directory: python
-        shell: bash
-        run: |
-          pip install -e ".[tests]"
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
-        with:
-          workspaces: python
-      - name: Install Pylance
-        run: |
-          pip install pylance==${{ matrix.pylance-version }}
-      - name: Run recurring tests
-        id: run_recurring_tests
-        run: pytest -vvv -s python/tests/recurring/test_recurring.py
-      - name: Upgrade Pylance
-        run: pip install -e ".[tests]"
-      - name: Run recurring tests again
-        run: pytest -vvv -s python/tests/recurring/test_recurring.py
-
-  # This job is used to test the recurring tests on the main branch.
-  recurring-linux-fresh-main:
-    name: "Recurring: Linux (main)"
-    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
-    timeout-minutes: 7200
-    defaults:
-      run:
-        shell: bash
-        working-directory: python
-    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-        with:
-          fetch-depth: 0
-          lfs: true
-      - name: Install protobuf
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler
-      - name: Set up Python
-        uses: actions/setup-python@v5
-        with:
-          python-version: "3.13"
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
-        with:
-          workspaces: python
-      - name: Install Lance
-        run: pip install -e ".[tests]"
-      - name: Run recurring tests
-        run: pytest -vvv -s python/tests/recurring/test_recurring.py
diff --git a/.github/workflows/run_tests/action.yml b/.github/workflows/run_tests/action.yml
index 64d009f7a2d..1a6786f84e2 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/run_tests/action.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/run_tests/action.yml
@@ -11,14 +11,18 @@ inputs:
     default: "false"
   memtest:
     required: false
-    description: "Run memtest"
+    description: "Install and preload the prebuilt memtest library"
     default: "false"
+  pytest-workers:
+    required: false
+    description: "pytest-xdist worker count; 'auto' matches the runner's cores"
+    default: "auto"
 runs:
   using: "composite"
   steps:
     - name: Setup MSVC for torch.compile
       if: runner.os == 'Windows'
-      uses: ilammy/msvc-dev-cmd@v1
+      uses: ilammy/msvc-dev-cmd@0b201ec74fa43914dc39ae48a89fd1d8cb592756 # v1
     - name: Install dependencies
       working-directory: python
       shell: bash
@@ -36,9 +40,10 @@ runs:
       if: inputs.memtest == 'true'
       shell: bash
       run: |
-        make build-release
-        echo "LD_PRELOAD=$(lance-memtest)" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+        test -f python/memtest/libmemtest.so
+        pip install -e .
+        echo "LD_PRELOAD=$(lance-memtest)" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
     - name: Run python tests
       shell: bash
       working-directory: python
-      run: make test
+      run: make test PYTEST_WORKERS=${{ inputs.pytest-workers }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/rust-benchmark.yml b/.github/workflows/rust-benchmark.yml
index 7f26fb4e305..6877fc89d7b 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/rust-benchmark.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/rust-benchmark.yml
@@ -35,12 +35,12 @@ jobs:
     runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-arm64-8x
     timeout-minutes: 120
     steps:
-      - name: Apt-get
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
       - name: Checkout
-        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+        uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - name: Run linalg benchmarks
         working-directory: ./rust/lance-linalg
         run: |
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ jobs:
           cargo bench --bench sq --bench hnsw --bench inverted --bench pq_dist_table --bench pq_assignment -- --output-format bencher | tee -a ../../output.txt
       - name: Store benchmark result
         if: github.event_name != 'pull_request'
-        uses: benchmark-action/github-action-benchmark@v1
+        uses: benchmark-action/github-action-benchmark@a7bc2366eda11037936ea57d811a43b3418d3073 # v1.21.0
         with:
           name: Lance Rust Benchmarks
           tool: "cargo"
diff --git a/.github/workflows/rust.yml b/.github/workflows/rust.yml
index 17eae173579..41b482e3c83 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/rust.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/rust.yml
@@ -12,9 +12,18 @@ on:
       - rust/**
       - protos/**
       - .github/workflows/rust.yml
+      - rust-toolchain.toml
       - Cargo.toml
       - Cargo.lock
+      - python/Cargo.lock
+      - java/lance-jni/Cargo.lock
+      - .cargo/config.toml
+      - clippy.toml
       - deny.toml
+      - ci/check_dependency_age.py
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
 
 concurrency:
   group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.event.pull_request.number || github.ref }}
@@ -31,36 +40,56 @@ jobs:
     runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
     timeout-minutes: 15
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - uses: actions-rust-lang/setup-rust-toolchain@v1
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - uses: actions-rust-lang/setup-rust-toolchain@a0b538fa0b742a6aa35d6e2c169b4bd06d225a98 # v1
         with:
           components: rustfmt
       - name: Check formatting
         run: cargo fmt -- --check
 
+  package:
+    name: Check crates are publishable
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+    timeout-minutes: 20
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - uses: actions-rust-lang/setup-rust-toolchain@a0b538fa0b742a6aa35d6e2c169b4bd06d225a98 # v1
+      # Catches manifest problems that only surface at publish time (missing
+      # readme/license files, path dependencies without a version, excluded
+      # files a crate needs). `--no-verify` skips building each packaged crate,
+      # which the other jobs already cover. Keep the excludes in sync with
+      # .github/workflows/cargo-publish.yml.
+      - name: Package crates
+        run: |
+          cargo package --workspace --no-verify \
+            --exclude lance-arrow-stats \
+            --exclude lance-arrow-scalar \
+            --all-features
+
   rustdoc:
     runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
     timeout-minutes: 30
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
       - name: Check documentation
         run: RUSTDOCFLAGS="-D warnings" cargo doc --workspace --no-deps
 
   clippy:
     permissions:
+      contents: read
       checks: write
     runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
       - name: Get features
         run: |
           ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
@@ -72,15 +101,19 @@ jobs:
     name: Check Rust dependencies (cargo-deny)
     runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - uses: EmbarkStudios/cargo-deny-action@v2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - uses: EmbarkStudios/cargo-deny-action@3fd3802e88374d3fe9159b834c7714ec57d6c979 # v2
         with:
           log-level: warn
           command: check
+      # Runs after cargo-deny so it can reuse the index cargo-deny already
+      # fetched. The script falls back to the network when that misses.
+      - name: Check dependency age
+        run: python3 ci/check_dependency_age.py
 
   linux-build:
-    runs-on: "warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-4x"
-    timeout-minutes: 60
+    runs-on: "ubuntu-24.04-8x"
+    timeout-minutes: 75
     env:
       # Need up-to-date compilers for kernels
       CC: clang
@@ -88,106 +121,90 @@ jobs:
       # Treat warnings as errors to catch issues early
       RUSTFLAGS: "-D warnings"
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      # pin the toolchain version to avoid surprises
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - name: Setup rust toolchain
         run: |
-          rustup toolchain install nightly
-          rustup default nightly
-      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@v1
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
-      - name: Install dependencies
+          rustup toolchain install stable
+          rustup default stable
+      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@725a8794d15fc7563f59595bd9556495c0564878 # v1
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
+      - name: Install cargo-nextest
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # nextest
+        with:
+          tool: nextest
+      - name: Build tests
         run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
-      - name: Start DynamodDB and S3
+          ALL_FEATURES=$(cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -)
+          cargo nextest run \
+            --cargo-profile ci \
+            --locked \
+            --workspace \
+            --features "${ALL_FEATURES}" \
+            --no-run
+      - name: Start DynamoDB and S3
         run: docker compose -f docker-compose.yml up -d --wait
-      - name: Install cargo-llvm-cov
-        uses: taiki-e/install-action@cargo-llvm-cov
       - name: Run tests
         run: |
-          ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc -e slow_tests | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
-          cargo +nightly llvm-cov --profile ci --locked --workspace --codecov --output-path coverage.codecov --features ${ALL_FEATURES}
-      - name: Upload coverage to Codecov
-        uses: codecov/codecov-action@v4
-        with:
-          token: ${{ secrets.CODECOV_TOKEN }}
-          codecov_yml_path: codecov.yml
-          files: coverage.codecov
-          flags: unittests
-          fail_ci_if_error: false
+          ALL_FEATURES=$(cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -)
+          cargo nextest run \
+            --cargo-profile ci \
+            --locked \
+            --workspace \
+            --features "${ALL_FEATURES}"
+
   linux-arm:
-    runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-arm64-4x
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-arm64-8x
     timeout-minutes: 75
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - name: Setup rust toolchain
         run: |
           rustup toolchain install stable
           rustup default stable
-      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@v1
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt -y -qq update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev pkg-config
+      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@725a8794d15fc7563f59595bd9556495c0564878 # v1
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
       - name: Build tests
         run: |
-          ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc -e slow_tests | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
+          ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
           cargo test --profile ci --locked --features ${ALL_FEATURES} --no-run
       - name: Start DynamodDB and S3
         run: docker compose -f docker-compose.yml up -d --wait
       - name: Run tests
         run: |
-          ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc -e slow_tests | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
+          ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
           cargo test --profile ci --locked --features ${ALL_FEATURES}
-  query-integration-tests:
-    runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-4x
-    timeout-minutes: 75
-    env:
-      # We use opt-level 1 which makes some tests 5x faster to run.
-      RUSTFLAGS: "-C debuginfo=1 -C opt-level=1"
-    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - name: Setup rust toolchain
-        run: |
-          rustup toolchain install stable
-          rustup default stable
-      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@v1
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
-        with:
-          cache-targets: false
-          cache-workspace-crates: true
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt -y -qq update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev pkg-config
-      - name: Build query integration tests
-        run: |
-          cargo build --locked -p lance --no-default-features --features fp16kernels,slow_tests --tests --test integration_tests
-      - name: Run query integration tests
-        run: |
-          cargo test --locked -p lance --no-default-features --features fp16kernels,slow_tests --test integration_tests
   build-no-lock:
-    runs-on: warp-ubuntu-latest-x64-8x
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-8x
     timeout-minutes: 30
     env:
       # Need up-to-date compilers for kernels
       CC: clang
       CXX: clang++
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Set up Rust
+        run: |
+          rustup update stable
+          rustup default stable
       # Remote cargo.lock to force a fresh build
       - name: Remove Cargo.lock
         run: rm -f Cargo.lock
-      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@v1
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
+      - uses: rui314/setup-mold@725a8794d15fc7563f59595bd9556495c0564878 # v1
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
       - name: Build all
         run: |
-          ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc -e slow_tests | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
+          ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
           cargo build --profile ci --benches --features ${ALL_FEATURES} --tests
   mac-build:
     runs-on: warp-macos-14-arm64-6x
@@ -200,7 +217,7 @@ jobs:
       run:
         working-directory: ./rust
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
       - name: Select new xcode
         # Default XCode right now is 15.0.1, which contains a bug that causes
         # backtraces to not show properly. See:
@@ -211,24 +228,30 @@ jobs:
       - name: Set up Rust
         run: |
           rustup update ${{ matrix.toolchain }} && rustup default ${{ matrix.toolchain }}
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+      - name: Install cargo-nextest
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # nextest
+        with:
+          tool: nextest
+      # macOS runner capacity is the scarcest in CI, so this job is kept as short
+      # as it can be. nextest runs each test in its own process and schedules
+      # across all cores, rather than one test binary at a time. Benchmarks are
+      # only compile-checked here, which build-no-lock already does on Linux;
+      # nothing about bench compilation is macOS-specific.
       - name: Build tests
         run: |
-          cargo test --profile ci --locked --features fp16kernels,cli,dynamodb,substrait --no-run
+          cargo nextest run --cargo-profile ci --locked --features fp16kernels,cli,dynamodb,substrait --no-run
       - name: Run tests
         run: |
-          cargo test --profile ci --features fp16kernels,cli,dynamodb,substrait
-      - name: Check benchmarks
-        run: |
-          cargo check --profile ci --benches --features fp16kernels,cli,dynamodb,substrait
+          cargo nextest run --cargo-profile ci --features fp16kernels,cli,dynamodb,substrait
   windows-build:
-    runs-on: warp-windows-latest-x64-4x
+    runs-on: windows-latest-4x
     defaults:
       run:
         working-directory: rust
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
       - name: Install Protoc v21.12
         working-directory: C:\
         run: |
@@ -238,12 +261,108 @@ jobs:
           7z x protoc.zip
           Add-Content $env:GITHUB_PATH "C:\protoc\bin"
         shell: powershell
+      - name: Install cargo-nextest
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # nextest
+        with:
+          tool: nextest
+      # Same reasoning as mac-build: nextest schedules across all cores instead
+      # of running one test binary at a time, and build-no-lock already
+      # compile-checks the benchmarks on Linux.
       - name: Build tests
-        run: cargo test --profile ci --locked --no-run
+        run: cargo nextest run --cargo-profile ci --locked --no-run
       - name: Run tests
-        run: cargo test --profile ci
-      - name: Check benchmarks
-        run: cargo check --profile ci --benches
+        run: cargo nextest run --cargo-profile ci
+
+  qemu-pre-haswell:
+    # Verifies that lance-linalg's runtime SIMD dispatch still works
+    # correctly when the binary is built with the lower x86-64-v2 baseline
+    # (the legacy build path documented in CONTRIBUTING.md). Emulates a
+    # Nehalem CPU under qemu-user; catches any accidental AVX2/FMA
+    # instructions that leak past the runtime dispatch.
+    #
+    # The published-wheel default baseline (`target-cpu=haswell`) is set in
+    # `.cargo/config.toml`; this job overrides RUSTFLAGS for one job to
+    # exercise the legacy path without affecting any other build.
+    name: pre-Haswell SIGILL check (qemu Nehalem)
+    runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+    timeout-minutes: 60
+    env:
+      CC: clang
+      CXX: clang++
+      RUSTFLAGS: "-C target-cpu=x86-64-v2"
+      CARGO_TARGET_X86_64_UNKNOWN_LINUX_GNU_RUNNER: "qemu-x86_64 -cpu Nehalem"
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
+      - name: Setup rust toolchain
+        run: |
+          rustup toolchain install stable
+          rustup default stable
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+      - name: Restore QEMU 8.2.10
+        id: qemu-cache
+        uses: actions/cache@55cc8345863c7cc4c66a329aec7e433d2d1c52a9 # v6.1.0
+        with:
+          path: ${{ runner.temp }}/lance-qemu/8.2.10/qemu-x86_64
+          key: qemu-user-8.2.10-x86_64-linux-user-${{ runner.os }}-${{ runner.arch }}-v1
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
+      - name: Install QEMU build dependencies
+        if: steps.qemu-cache.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
+        run: |
+          sudo apt update
+          sudo apt install -y \
+            ninja-build \
+            pkg-config \
+            libglib2.0-dev \
+            python3-venv \
+            curl \
+            xz-utils
+      - name: Build QEMU 8.2.10
+        if: steps.qemu-cache.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
+        run: |
+          QEMU_VERSION=8.2.10
+          QEMU_ARCHIVE="qemu-${QEMU_VERSION}.tar.xz"
+          QEMU_BIN_DIR="${RUNNER_TEMP}/lance-qemu/${QEMU_VERSION}"
+          QEMU_SOURCE_DIR="${RUNNER_TEMP}/qemu-${QEMU_VERSION}"
+
+          # Ubuntu 24.04 ships QEMU 8.2.2, which is affected by
+          # https://gitlab.com/qemu-project/qemu/-/issues/2170.
+          curl --fail --location --silent --show-error \
+            "https://download.qemu.org/${QEMU_ARCHIVE}" \
+            --output "${RUNNER_TEMP}/${QEMU_ARCHIVE}"
+          echo "37b4a643da8ed6015eef35f5d7f06e7259d9c95359965a0a98e9667c621ab2bb  ${RUNNER_TEMP}/${QEMU_ARCHIVE}" \
+            | sha256sum --check -
+          tar --extract \
+            --file "${RUNNER_TEMP}/${QEMU_ARCHIVE}" \
+            --directory "${RUNNER_TEMP}"
+          mkdir "${QEMU_SOURCE_DIR}/build"
+          (
+            cd "${QEMU_SOURCE_DIR}/build"
+            ../configure --target-list=x86_64-linux-user --disable-docs
+            ninja qemu-x86_64
+          )
+          mkdir -p "${QEMU_BIN_DIR}"
+          install -m 0755 \
+            "${QEMU_SOURCE_DIR}/build/qemu-x86_64" \
+            "${QEMU_BIN_DIR}/qemu-x86_64"
+      - name: Add QEMU to PATH
+        run: |
+          QEMU_BIN_DIR="${RUNNER_TEMP}/lance-qemu/8.2.10"
+          echo "${QEMU_BIN_DIR}" >> "${GITHUB_PATH}"
+          QEMU_VERSION_OUTPUT="$("${QEMU_BIN_DIR}/qemu-x86_64" --version)"
+          echo "${QEMU_VERSION_OUTPUT}"
+          if [[ "${QEMU_VERSION_OUTPUT}" != *"version 8.2.10"* ]]; then
+            echo "Expected QEMU 8.2.10, got: ${QEMU_VERSION_OUTPUT}" >&2
+            exit 1
+          fi
+      - name: Build lance-linalg lib tests in release mode
+        run: |
+          cargo test --release -p lance-linalg --lib --no-run
+      - name: Run lance-linalg lib tests under qemu Nehalem
+        run: |
+          cargo test --release -p lance-linalg --lib
 
   msrv:
     # Check the minimum supported Rust version
@@ -251,20 +370,20 @@ jobs:
     runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
     strategy:
       matrix:
-        msrv: ["1.88.0"] # This should match up with rust-version in Cargo.toml
+        msrv: ["1.94.0"] # This should match up with rust-version in Cargo.toml
     env:
       # Need up-to-date compilers for kernels
       CC: clang
       CXX: clang++
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
         with:
           submodules: true
-      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
-      - name: Install dependencies
-        run: |
-          sudo apt update
-          sudo apt install -y protobuf-compiler libssl-dev
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@779680da715d629ac1d338a641029a2f4372abb5 # v2
+      - name: Install protoc
+        uses: taiki-e/install-action@66068bfca13dcb2ea07c3f613ca2836a37c755d5 # protoc
+        with:
+          tool: protoc
       - name: Install ${{ matrix.msrv }}
         run: |
           rustup toolchain install ${{ matrix.msrv }}
@@ -272,5 +391,5 @@ jobs:
         env:
           RUSTUP_TOOLCHAIN: ${{ matrix.msrv }}
         run: |
-          ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc -e slow_tests | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
+          ALL_FEATURES=`cargo metadata --format-version=1 --no-deps | jq -r '.packages[] | .features | keys | .[]' | grep -v -e protoc | sort | uniq | paste -s -d "," -`
           cargo check --profile ci --workspace --tests --benches --features ${ALL_FEATURES}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/stale.yml b/.github/workflows/stale.yml
index d57ae0c396c..b1779b7b8ba 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/stale.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/stale.yml
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ jobs:
   stale:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/stale@v10
+      - uses: actions/stale@b5d41d4e1d5dceea10e7104786b73624c18a190f # v10
         with:
           close-pr-message: "Thank you for your contribution. This PR has been inactive for a while, so we're closing it to free up bandwidth. Feel free to reopen it if you still find it useful."
           days-before-issue-stale: 360
diff --git a/.github/workflows/typos.yml b/.github/workflows/typos.yml
index 73c240e6d81..52f52e66f39 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/typos.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/typos.yml
@@ -5,13 +5,16 @@ on:
       - main
       - release/**
 
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   run:
     name: Spell Check with Typos
     runs-on: "ubuntu-24.04"
     steps:
     - name: Checkout Actions Repository
-      uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      uses: actions/checkout@34e114876b0b11c390a56381ad16ebd13914f8d5 # v4
 
     - name: Check spelling of the entire repository
-      uses: crate-ci/typos@v1.26.0
\ No newline at end of file
+      uses: crate-ci/typos@6802cc60d4e7f78b9d5454f6cf3935c042d5e1e3 # v1.26.0
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index ce58f8c89e2..b916613b9ce 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -105,10 +105,25 @@ test_data/venv
 
 **/*.profraw
 *.lance
+!test_data/**/*.lance
+!rust/lance-file/test_data/**/*.lance
 
 # Pytest benchmarks
 .benchmarks/
 
 # Auto-built docs
+docs/src/format/catalog/**
 docs/src/format/namespace/**
+docs/src/format/layout.png
+docs/src/integrations/duckdb/**
+docs/src/integrations/huggingface/**
+docs/src/integrations/ray/**
 docs/src/integrations/spark/**
+docs/src/integrations/trino/**
+docs/src/community/project-specific/.pages
+docs/src/community/project-specific/lance/**
+docs/src/community/project-specific/namespace.md
+docs/src/community/project-specific/namespace-impls.md
+docs/src/community/project-specific/ray.md
+docs/src/community/project-specific/spark.md
+docs/src/community/project-specific/trino.md
diff --git a/.pre-commit-config.yaml b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
index 09c956152fe..cc0185627ae 100644
--- a/.pre-commit-config.yaml
+++ b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
@@ -15,3 +15,22 @@ repos:
     rev: v1.26.0
     hooks:
     - id: typos
+
+  # Catch a Cargo.toml change that wasn't reflected in the matching Cargo.lock.
+  # Runs fully offline (`--frozen` = `--locked` + `--offline`) and does not compile,
+  # so it stays fast. Checks all three lockfiles since a workspace dep change can
+  # touch the excluded python/ and java/ locks too.
+  - repo: local
+    hooks:
+      - id: cargo-lock-sync
+        name: Cargo.lock in sync with Cargo.toml (offline)
+        entry: bash -c 'for m in Cargo.toml python/Cargo.toml java/lance-jni/Cargo.toml; do cargo metadata --frozen --format-version 1 --manifest-path "$m" >/dev/null 2>&1 || { echo "Cargo.lock is out of date for $m. Refresh it (e.g. cargo check --manifest-path $m) and commit the updated lockfile."; exit 1; }; done'
+        language: system
+        files: '(^|/)Cargo\.(toml|lock)$'
+        pass_filenames: false
+
+      - id: proto-comment-style
+        name: Multi-line .proto comments use /* ... */
+        entry: python3 ci/check_proto_comments.py --fix
+        language: system
+        files: '\.proto$'
diff --git a/.typos.toml b/.typos.toml
index b3b5bc6c7d2..26c1eb7b8f8 100644
--- a/.typos.toml
+++ b/.typos.toml
@@ -1,5 +1,9 @@
 [default]
-extend-ignore-re = ["(?Rm)^.*(#|//)\\s*spellchecker:disable-line$"]
+extend-ignore-re = [
+    "(?Rm)^.*(#|//)\\s*spellchecker:disable-line$",
+    # Base64 bodies of PEM fixtures (certificates, keys) are not words.
+    "(?s)-----BEGIN [A-Z ]+-----.*?-----END [A-Z ]+-----",
+]
 
 [default.extend-words]
 DNE = "DNE"
@@ -13,11 +17,17 @@ rabit = "rabit"
 flate = "flate"
 Ines = "Ines"
 alph = "alph"
+caf = "caf"
 
 [default.expect]
 nprobs = "nprobes"
 nprob = "nprobe"
 
 [files]
-extend-exclude = ["notebooks/*.ipynb"]
+extend-exclude = [
+    "notebooks/*.ipynb",
+    "*_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.*",
+    "rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/*.lance",
+    "rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stop_word_filter/stopwords.rs",
+]
 # If a line ends with # or // and has spellchecker:disable-line, ignore it
diff --git a/AGENTS.md b/AGENTS.md
index 7d862eecd2d..23a1b976b63 100644
--- a/AGENTS.md
+++ b/AGENTS.md
@@ -1,135 +1,95 @@
 # AGENTS.md
 
-This file provides guidance to coding agents collaborating on this repository.
+Lance is a modern columnar data format optimized for ML workflows and datasets, providing high-performance random access, vector search, zero-copy automatic versioning, and ecosystem integrations. The vision is to become the de facto standard columnar data format for machine learning and large language models.
 
-## Project Overview
+Also see directory-specific guidelines: [rust/](rust/AGENTS.md) | [python/](python/AGENTS.md) | [java/](java/AGENTS.md) | [protos/](protos/AGENTS.md) | [docs/src/format/](docs/src/format/AGENTS.md)
 
-Lance is a modern columnar data format optimized for ML workflows and datasets. It provides:
+## File Format Stability and Compatibility
 
-- High-performance random access
-- Vector search
-- Zero-copy, automatic versioning
-- Ecosystem integrations
+- Treat every file format marked stable as a durable compatibility contract. All changes to a stable format must preserve both backward and forward compatibility.
+- Treat every file format marked unstable as disposable. It may change freely; do not add compatibility code, migrations, fallbacks, or tests for files written by earlier unstable revisions.
+- Evaluate compatibility against the latest released stable version while continuing to honor all stable format contracts. Changes that exist only on the current branch or `main` are not compatibility constraints; do not compromise a cleaner or more complete design to preserve those intermediate states.
 
-## Project Vision
+### Legacy Compatibility Boundaries
 
-The de facto standard columnar data format for machine learning and large language models.
+- Treat formats and code paths that current writers no longer emit as frozen compatibility surfaces. Preserve their existing read behavior, but exclude them from new feature design unless legacy support is explicitly required.
+- Implement new features in the current format and write paths. Do not extend legacy writers, retrofit new capabilities into legacy readers, or reuse legacy implementations as the foundation for new code.
+- Avoid refactoring or otherwise modifying legacy code during feature work. If a shared boundary makes a legacy change unavoidable, isolate the change, preserve existing behavior, and add targeted regression coverage using released historical fixtures.
 
-## Project Requirements
+## Development Commands
 
-- Always use English in code, examples, and comments.
-- Features should be implemented concisely, maintainably, and efficiently.
-- Code is not just for execution, but also for readability.
-- Only add meaningful comments and tests.
-
-## Architecture
-
-The project is organized as a Rust workspace with Python and Java bindings. Rust crates (workspace members unless noted) include:
-
-- `rust/examples/` - Sample binaries and demonstrations.
-- `rust/lance/` - Main Lance library implementing the columnar format.
-- `rust/lance-arrow/` - Apache Arrow integration layer.
-- `rust/lance-core/` - Core types, traits, and utilities.
-- `rust/lance-datagen/` - Data generation helpers for tests and benchmarks.
-- `rust/lance-encoding/` - Data encoding and compression algorithms.
-- `rust/lance-file/` - File format reading/writing.
-- `rust/lance-geo/` - Geospatial data support.
-- `rust/lance-index/` - Vector and scalar indexing implementations.
-- `rust/lance-io/` - I/O operations and object store integration.
-- `rust/lance-linalg/` - Linear algebra operations for vector search.
-- `rust/lance-namespace/` - Namespace/catalog interfaces.
-- `rust/lance-namespace-impls/` - Concrete namespace/catalog implementations.
-- `rust/lance-table/` - Table format and operations.
-- `rust/lance-test-macros/` - Procedural macros for testing.
-- `rust/lance-testing/` - Shared test utilities.
-- `rust/lance-tools/` - CLI and developer tooling.
-- `rust/compression/bitpacking/` - Bit-packing codec implementation.
-- `rust/compression/fsst/` - Fast string compression (FSST).
-- `rust/lance-datafusion/` - DataFusion integration helpers (present in repo; built separately from the default workspace).
-- `python/` - Python bindings using PyO3/maturin.
-- `java/` - Java bindings using JNI.
-
-## Common Development Commands
-
-### Rust Development
-
-* Check for build errors: `cargo check --workspace --tests --benches`
-* Run tests: `cargo test --workspace`
-* Run specific test: `cargo test -p <package> <test_name>`
+### Rust
+
+* Check: `cargo check --workspace --tests --benches`
+* Test: `cargo test --workspace` or `cargo test -p <package> <test_name>`
 * Lint: `cargo clippy --all --tests --benches -- -D warnings`
 * Format: `cargo fmt --all`
-* Output code coverage report for a crate: `cargo +nightly llvm-cov -q -p lance-core --branch`
-* Create HTML coverage report for a crate: `cargo +nightly llvm-cov -q -p lance-core --branch --html`
-* Print lines in file missing coverage: `cargo +nightly llvm-cov -q -p lance-core --show-missing-lines | grep rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/schema.rs`
-* Show detailed coverage for a file: `python ci/coverage.py -p lance-core -f rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/schema.rs`
-
-### Python Development
-
-Use the makefile for most actions:
-
-* Build: `maturin develop`
-* Test: `make test`
-* Run single test: `pytest python/tests/<test_file>.py::<test_name>`
-* Doctest: `make doctest`
-* Lint: `make lint`
-* Format: `make format`
-
-### Integration Testing
-
-```bash
-# Start required services
-cd test_data && docker compose up -d
-
-# Run S3/DynamoDB tests
-AWS_DEFAULT_REGION=us-east-1 pytest --run-integration python/tests/test_s3_ddb.py
-
-# Performance profiling
-maturin develop --release -m python/Cargo.toml -E benchmarks
-python python/benchmarks/test_knn.py --iterations 100
-```
-
-## Key Technical Details
-
-1. **Async-first Architecture**: Heavy use of tokio and async/await throughout Rust codebase
-2. **Arrow-native**: All data operations work directly with Apache Arrow arrays
-3. **Version Control**: Every write creates a new version with manifest tracking
-4. **Indexing**: Supports both vector indices (for similarity search) and scalar indices (BTree, inverted)
-5. **Encoding**: Custom encodings optimized for ML data patterns
-6. **Object Store**: Unified interface for local, S3, Azure, GCS storage
-
-## Development Notes
-
-- All public APIs should have comprehensive documentation with examples
-- Performance-critical code uses SIMD optimizations where available
-- Always rebuild Python extension after Rust changes using `maturin develop`
-- Integration tests require Docker for local S3/DynamoDB emulation
-- Use feature flags to control dependencies (e.g., `datafusion` for SQL support)
-
-## Development tips
-
-Code standards:
-* Be mindful of memory use:
-  * When dealing with streams of `RecordBatch`, avoid collecting all data into
-    memory whenever possible.
-  * Use `RoaringBitmap` instead `HashSet<u32>`.
-
-Tests:
-* When writing unit tests, prefer using the `memory://` URI instead of creating
-  a temporary directory.
-* Use rstest to generate parameterized tests to cover more cases with fewer lines
-  of code.
-    * Use syntax `#[case::{name}(...)]` to provide human-readable names for each case.
-* For backwards compatibility, use the `test_data` directory to check in datasets
-  written with older library version.
-    * Check in a `datagen.py` that creates the test data. It should assert the
-      version of Lance used as part of the script.
-    * Use `pip install pylance=={version}` and then run `python datagen.py` to
-      create the dataset. The data files should be checked into git.
-    * Use `copy_test_data_to_tmp` to read this data in Lance
-* Avoid using `ignore` in doctests. For APIs with complex inputs, like methods on
-  `Dataset`, instead write Rust doctests that just compile a function. This
-  guarantees that the example code compiles and is in sync with the API. For example:
+* Coverage: `cargo +nightly llvm-cov -q -p <crate> --branch`
+* Coverage HTML: `cargo +nightly llvm-cov -q -p <crate> --branch --html`
+* Coverage for file: `python ci/coverage.py -p <crate> -f <file_path>`
+* Use repository-defined Cargo profiles instead of ad hoc LTO overrides.
+* Use `release-with-debug` for benchmarks and profiling so optimized builds keep debug symbols without a rebuild.
+* Use `release-no-lto` only for local debugging, IO-bound benchmarks, or compile-time-sensitive performance investigation where LTO would not affect the measured bottleneck.
+
+## Language-Specific Environment Contract
+
+- For language-specific tasks, always follow the environment and command rules in the corresponding subdirectory guide before running build, test, lint, format, or tooling commands.
+- Do not substitute a different environment manager or toolchain just because a command appears missing, unavailable, or slow.
+- If a language-specific command fails outside the documented workflow, treat that as an environment usage mistake first. Fix the environment usage, rerun with the prescribed commands, and only then conclude that a dependency or tool is unavailable.
 
+## Coding Standards
+
+### General
+
+- Always use English in code, examples, and comments.
+- Code is for readability, not just execution. Only add meaningful comments and tests.
+- Comments should explain non-obvious "why" reasoning, not restate what the code does.
+- Remove debug prints (`println!`, `dbg!`, `print()`) before merging — use `tracing` or logging frameworks.
+- Think carefully before adding a helper: only introduce one when it materially reduces cognitive load or eliminates substantial duplication, and do not add thin wrappers that only rename or forward existing calls.
+- Keep PRs focused — no drive-by refactors, reformatting, or cosmetic changes.
+- Be mindful of memory use: avoid collecting streams of `RecordBatch` into memory; use `RoaringBitmap` instead of `HashSet<u32>`.
+
+### Cross-Language Bindings
+
+- Keep Python and Java bindings as thin wrappers — centralize validation and logic in the Rust core.
+- Keep parameter names consistent across all bindings (Rust, Python, Java) — rename everywhere or nowhere.
+- Never break public API signatures — deprecate with `#[deprecated]`/`@deprecated` and add a new method.
+- Replace mutually exclusive boolean flags with a single enum/mode parameter.
+
+### Naming
+
+- Name variables after what the value *is* (e.g., `partition_id` not `mask`) — precise names act as inline docs.
+- Drop redundant prefixes when the struct/module already implies the domain.
+- Use `indices` (not `indexes`) consistently in all APIs and docs.
+- Use storage-agnostic terms in API names (e.g., `base` not `bucket`).
+- When renaming a type/struct/enum, update all references (methods, fields, variables, test names).
+
+### Error Handling
+
+- Validate inputs and reject invalid values with descriptive errors at API boundaries — never silently clamp or adjust.
+- Validate mutually exclusive options in builders/configs — throw a clear error if both are set.
+- Include full context in error messages: variable names, values, sizes, types.
+
+### Dependencies
+
+- Prefer implementing functionality with the standard library or existing workspace dependencies before adding new external crates.
+- Keep `Cargo.lock` changes intentional; revert unrelated dependency bumps. Pin broken deps with a comment linking the upstream issue.
+- The repo has three lockfiles: the root `Cargo.lock`, `python/Cargo.lock`, and `java/lance-jni/Cargo.lock` (the latter two are excluded from the workspace). A `workspace.dependencies` change must be reflected in all three — refresh the excluded ones with `cargo check --manifest-path python/Cargo.toml` and `cargo check --manifest-path java/lance-jni/Cargo.toml`, then commit the updated lockfiles. The `cargo-lock-sync` pre-commit hook catches a miss offline.
+- Gate optional/domain-specific deps behind Cargo feature flags. Prefer separate crates for domain functionality (geo, NLP).
+
+## Testing Standards
+
+- **All bugfixes and features must have corresponding tests. We do not merge code without tests.**
+- Keep local unit tests lightweight: each test case should finish within one second on typical developer hardware. Split independent parameter matrices and use the smallest fixture or model that preserves the asserted behavior; do not relax assertions, coverage, or recall thresholds to meet the budget.
+- Use `rstest` (Rust) or `@pytest.mark.parametrize` (Python) for tests that differ only in inputs. Use `#[case::{name}(...)]` for readable case names.
+- Replace `print()` in tests with `assert` — prints don't catch regressions.
+- Extend existing tests instead of adding overlapping new ones. Add to existing test files.
+- Link a GitHub issue when skipping a test — never bare `@pytest.mark.skip` or `@Ignore` without a tracking URL.
+- Include multi-fragment scenarios for dataset operations (reads, indexes, scans).
+- Cover NULL edge cases in index tests: null items, all-null collections, empty collections, null columns.
+- Vector index tests must assert recall metrics (>=0.5 threshold), not just verify creation succeeds.
+- For backwards compatibility, use the `test_data` directory with checked-in datasets from older versions. Include a `datagen.py` that asserts the Lance version used. Use `copy_test_data_to_tmp` to read this data.
+- Avoid `ignore` in doctests — write Rust doctests that compile a function instead:
   ```
   /// ```
   /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
@@ -139,34 +99,31 @@ Tests:
   /// # }
   /// ```
   ```
-* Code coverage can be skipped for test utilities and non-critical paths using
-  `#[cfg_attr(coverage, coverage(off))]`.
+- Skip coverage for test utilities using `#[cfg_attr(coverage, coverage(off))]`.
+
+## Documentation Standards
+
+- All public APIs must have documentation with examples. Link to relevant structs and methods.
+- Use ASCII tree diagrams for hierarchical structures (encoding layers, file formats, storage layouts).
+- Keep doc examples in sync with actual API signatures — update when refactoring.
+- Indent content under MkDocs admonition directives (`!!! note`, etc.) with 4 spaces.
+- Proofread comments and docs for typos before committing.
+
+## Filing Issues
+
+- When opening an issue with `gh issue create` or the API, classify it and pass the matching label: `--label bug`, `--label feature`, or `--label performance`. These paths bypass the `.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE` forms, so the label is not applied automatically.
+- Prefix the title to match, e.g. `bug: ...`, `feature: ...`, or `perf: ...`. A content-based labeler (`.github/workflows/issue-labeler.yml`) uses this as a fallback signal, but an explicit `--label` is the reliable path.
+
+## Pull Requests
+
+- Before creating a PR, search for similar PRs and inspect any PRs linked to the issue being addressed. If a matching PR exists, verify its current status and scope before proceeding to avoid creating duplicate work.
+- PR titles must follow the Conventional Commits specification because `.github/workflows/pr-title.yml` validates the PR title and body with commitlint. Use prefixes like `feat:`, `fix:`, `docs:`, `perf:`, `ci:`, `test:`, `build:`, `style:`, or `chore:`; add a scope when useful.
+- Before creating or updating a PR, run the lint checks for every touched language surface, even when they are expensive. For Rust changes, run `cargo fmt --all` and `cargo clippy --all --tests --benches -- -D warnings`. For Python changes, follow the environment workflow in `python/AGENTS.md` and run `uv run make lint` from `python/`. If a required lint check cannot be run, state the blocker explicitly in the PR summary.
 
 ## Review Guidelines
 
-Please note that the attention of contributors and maintainers is the MOST valuable resource.
-Less is more: focus on the most important aspects.
-
-- Your review output SHOULD be concise and clear.
-- You SHOULD only highlight P0 and P1 level issues, such as severe bugs, performance degradation, or security concerns.
-- You MUST not reiterate detailed changes in your review.
-- You MUST not repeat aspects of the PR that are already well done.
-            
-Please consider the following when reviewing code contributions.
-
-### Rust API design
-* Design public APIs so they can be evolved easily in the future without breaking
-  changes. Often this means using builder patterns or options structs instead of
-  long argument lists.
-* For public APIs, prefer inputs that use `Into<T>` or `AsRef<T>` traits to allow
-  more flexible inputs. For example, use `name: Into<String>` instead of `name: String`,
-  so we don't have to write `func("my_string".to_string())`.
-
-### Testing
-* Ensure all new public APIs have documentation and examples.
-* Ensure that all bugfixes and features have corresponding tests. **We do not merge
-  code without tests.**
-
-### Documentation
-* New features must include updates to the rust documentation comments. Link to
-  relevant structs and methods to increase the value of documentation.
+Contributor and maintainer attention is the most valuable resource. Less is more.
+
+- Be concise and clear. Focus on P0/P1 issues: severe bugs, performance degradation, security concerns.
+- Do not reiterate detailed changes or repeat what's already well done.
+- Check naming consistency, error handling patterns, and test coverage.
diff --git a/CLAUDE.md b/CLAUDE.md
deleted file mode 120000
index 47dc3e3d863..00000000000
--- a/CLAUDE.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-AGENTS.md
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index cf332215e49..0c946ba2a48 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 # Guide for New Contributors
 
 This is a guide for new contributors to the Lance project.
-Even if you have no previous experience with python, rust, and open source, you can still make an non-trivial
+Even if you have no previous experience with python, rust, and open source, you can still make a non-trivial
 impact by helping us improve documentation, examples, and more.
 For experienced developers, the issues you can work on run the gamut from warm-ups to serious challenges in python and rust.
 
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ If you have any questions, please join our [Discord](https://discord.gg/zMM32dvN
 
 1. Join our Discord and say hi
 2. Setup your development environment
-3. Pick an issue to work on. See https://github.com/lancedb/lance/contribute for good first issues.
+3. Pick an issue to work on. See https://github.com/lance-format/lance/contribute for good first issues.
 4. Have fun!
 
 ## Development Environment
@@ -19,19 +19,29 @@ If you have any questions, please join our [Discord](https://discord.gg/zMM32dvN
 Currently Lance is implemented in Rust and comes with a Python wrapper. So you'll want to make sure you setup both.
 
 1. Install Rust: https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install
-2. Install Python 3.9+: https://www.python.org/downloads/
-3. Install protoctol buffers: https://grpc.io/docs/protoc-installation/ (make sure you have version 3.20 or higher)
+2. Install Python 3.10+: https://www.python.org/downloads/
+3. Install protocol buffers: https://grpc.io/docs/protoc-installation/ (make sure you have version 3.20 or higher)
 4. Install commit hooks:
     a. Install pre-commit: https://pre-commit.com/#install
     b. Run `pre-commit install` in the root of the repo
 
+## Building for legacy x86_64 hosts (pre-Haswell)
+
+The default workspace build targets `haswell` (AVX2 + FMA + F16C), matching the published wheels. To build a binary that runs on pre-Haswell silicon (Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge / Westmere on Intel, Bulldozer / Piledriver / Steamroller on AMD — i.e. CPUs without AVX2), set the baseline yourself at build time:
+
+```sh
+RUSTFLAGS="-C target-cpu=x86-64-v2" cargo build --release
+```
+
+Runtime SIMD dispatch in `lance-linalg::distance` will then pick the appropriate tier (scalar / AVX / AVX+FMA / AVX2+FMA / AVX-512) based on the host. From Python, use `lance.simd_info()` to verify which tier was selected.
+
 ## Sample Workflow
 
 1. Fork the repo
-2. Pick [Github issue](https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues)
+2. Pick [Github issue](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues)
 3. Create a branch for the issue
 4. Make your changes
-5. Create a pull request from your fork to lancedb/lance
+5. Create a pull request from your fork to lance-format/lance
 6. Get feedback and iterate
 7. Merge!
 8. Go back to step 2
diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock
index cc98925d15e..3ae1ac4ec71 100644
--- a/Cargo.lock
+++ b/Cargo.lock
@@ -2,12 +2,6 @@
 # It is not intended for manual editing.
 version = 4
 
-[[package]]
-name = "RustyXML"
-version = "0.3.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8b5ace29ee3216de37c0546865ad08edef58b0f9e76838ed8959a84a990e58c5"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "addr2line"
 version = "0.25.1"
@@ -23,21 +17,15 @@ version = "2.0.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "320119579fcad9c21884f5c4861d16174d0e06250625266f50fe6898340abefa"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "adler32"
-version = "1.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "aae1277d39aeec15cb388266ecc24b11c80469deae6067e17a1a7aa9e5c1f234"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "aes"
 version = "0.8.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b169f7a6d4742236a0a00c541b845991d0ac43e546831af1249753ab4c3aa3a0"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "cipher",
- "cpufeatures",
+ "cpufeatures 0.2.17",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -46,7 +34,7 @@ version = "0.8.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "5a15f179cd60c4584b8a8c596927aadc462e27f2ca70c04e0071964a73ba7a75"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "const-random",
  "getrandom 0.3.4",
  "once_cell",
@@ -74,23 +62,17 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "all_asserts"
-version = "2.3.3"
+version = "2.3.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "514ce16346f9fc96702fd52f2ae7e383b185516ee6f556efd7c3176be8fe7bea"
+checksum = "62ec8a4dbfbd8acfe181f030be8174b00d3d7dc3447f7dc53ead6cc96e89fe52"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "alloc-no-stdlib"
-version = "2.0.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cc7bb162ec39d46ab1ca8c77bf72e890535becd1751bb45f64c597edb4c8c6b3"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "alloc-stdlib"
-version = "0.2.2"
+name = "alloca"
+version = "0.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "94fb8275041c72129eb51b7d0322c29b8387a0386127718b096429201a5d6ece"
+checksum = "e5a7d05ea6aea7e9e64d25b9156ba2fee3fdd659e34e41063cd2fc7cd020d7f4"
 dependencies = [
- "alloc-no-stdlib",
+ "cc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -116,9 +98,9 @@ checksum = "4b46cbb362ab8752921c97e041f5e366ee6297bd428a31275b9fcf1e380f7299"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstream"
-version = "0.6.21"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "43d5b281e737544384e969a5ccad3f1cdd24b48086a0fc1b2a5262a26b8f4f4a"
+checksum = "824a212faf96e9acacdbd09febd34438f8f711fb84e09a8916013cd7815ca28d"
 dependencies = [
  "anstyle",
  "anstyle-parse",
@@ -131,15 +113,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle"
-version = "1.0.13"
+version = "1.0.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5192cca8006f1fd4f7237516f40fa183bb07f8fbdfedaa0036de5ea9b0b45e78"
+checksum = "940b3a0ca603d1eade50a4846a2afffd5ef57a9feac2c0e2ec2e14f9ead76000"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle-parse"
-version = "0.2.7"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4e7644824f0aa2c7b9384579234ef10eb7efb6a0deb83f9630a49594dd9c15c2"
+checksum = "52ce7f38b242319f7cabaa6813055467063ecdc9d355bbb4ce0c68908cd8130e"
 dependencies = [
  "utf8parse",
 ]
@@ -166,9 +148,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anyhow"
-version = "1.0.101"
+version = "1.0.104"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5f0e0fee31ef5ed1ba1316088939cea399010ed7731dba877ed44aeb407a75ea"
+checksum = "330a5ed07fa54e4702c9d6c4174f74427fc0ef6e214bbd677ae50a5099946470"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "approx"
@@ -181,9 +163,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arc-swap"
-version = "1.8.1"
+version = "1.9.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9ded5f9a03ac8f24d1b8a25101ee812cd32cdc8c50a4c50237de2c4915850e73"
+checksum = "c049c0be4daef0b145cb3555416b3b8ef5b7888a38aea1a3a155801fe7b0810b"
 dependencies = [
  "rustversion",
 ]
@@ -202,9 +184,9 @@ checksum = "7c02d123df017efcdfbd739ef81735b36c5ba83ec3c59c80a9d7ecc718f92e50"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a2b10dcb159faf30d3f81f6d56c1211a5bea2ca424eabe477648a44b993320e"
+checksum = "378530e55cd479eda3c14eb345310799717e6f76d0c332041e8487022166b471"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -223,9 +205,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-arith"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "288015089e7931843c80ed4032c5274f02b37bcb720c4a42096d50b390e70372"
+checksum = "0a41203398f0eaa6f7ec8e62c0da742a21abf282c148fc157f6c35c90e29981a"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -237,9 +219,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-array"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "65ca404ea6191e06bf30956394173337fa9c35f445bd447fe6c21ab944e1a23c"
+checksum = "ae33dad492b7df00a217563a7b0ef2874df68a0deea1b1a3acf628152f7f7a69"
 dependencies = [
  "ahash",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -248,7 +230,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "chrono",
  "chrono-tz",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
  "num-complex",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
@@ -256,9 +238,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-buffer"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "36356383099be0151dacc4245309895f16ba7917d79bdb71a7148659c9206c56"
+checksum = "b9552f96391c005e6ab449fa941420935e7e062489b12b8b1b08879b2163f5b5"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "half",
@@ -268,9 +250,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-cast"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9c8e372ed52bd4ee88cc1e6c3859aa7ecea204158ac640b10e187936e7e87074"
+checksum = "3a8a327c9649f30d8406995f27642b68df354713cca3baaaf100f076f18d5f34"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -290,9 +272,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-csv"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8e4100b729fe656f2e4fb32bc5884f14acf9118d4ad532b7b33c1132e4dce896"
+checksum = "e94e8cf7e517657a52b91ea1263acf38c4ca62a84655d72458a3359b12ab97de"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-cast",
@@ -305,9 +287,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-data"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bf87f4ff5fc13290aa47e499a8b669a82c5977c6a1fedce22c7f542c1fd5a597"
+checksum = "2b24852db04738907e06c04ea61e42fe7fda962a34513022dc0d0e754fb7976b"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-schema",
@@ -318,9 +300,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-ipc"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eb3ca63edd2073fcb42ba112f8ae165df1de935627ead6e203d07c99445f2081"
+checksum = "29a908a11fcfb3fb2f6730f4ac15e367bc644e419155e96238f68cf3adde572b"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -328,24 +310,25 @@ dependencies = [
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
  "flatbuffers",
- "lz4_flex 0.12.0",
+ "lz4_flex",
  "zstd",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-json"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a36b2332559d3310ebe3e173f75b29989b4412df4029a26a30cc3f7da0869297"
+checksum = "205ca2119e6d679d5c133c6f30e68f027738d95ed948cf77677ea69c7800036b"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
+ "arrow-select",
  "chrono",
  "half",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itoa",
  "lexical-core",
  "memchr",
@@ -358,9 +341,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-ord"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "13c4e0530272ca755d6814218dffd04425c5b7854b87fa741d5ff848bf50aa39"
+checksum = "63a083ec750f5c043f02946b4baf05fcdbb55f4560a3277055caca5cc99f3eb0"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -371,9 +354,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-row"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b07f52788744cc71c4628567ad834cadbaeb9f09026ff1d7a4120f69edf7abd3"
+checksum = "514ba0ef0d4c5896202dae736251ce415abb43a950bed570fb7981b8716c0e4c"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -384,20 +367,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-schema"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6bb63203e8e0e54b288d0d8043ca8fa1013820822a27692ef1b78a977d879f2c"
+checksum = "21ca356ad6425cecb6eb7b28e4f659f1ee7880fbb1a16127de7dd62901efee9e"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "serde_core",
  "serde_json",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-select"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c96d8a1c180b44ecf2e66c9a2f2bbcb8b1b6f14e165ce46ac8bde211a363411b"
+checksum = "c58da39eb3d8350ad4a549e5c2bc49284dac554016c69829310350f1731b0aad"
 dependencies = [
  "ahash",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -409,9 +392,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-string"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a8ad6a81add9d3ea30bf8374ee8329992c7fd246ffd8b7e2f48a3cea5aa0cc9a"
+checksum = "29dd7cda3ab9692f43a2e4acc444d760cc17b12bb6d8232ddf64e9bab7c06b42"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -434,17 +417,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde_json",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "async-channel"
-version = "1.9.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "81953c529336010edd6d8e358f886d9581267795c61b19475b71314bffa46d35"
-dependencies = [
- "concurrent-queue",
- "event-listener 2.5.3",
- "futures-core",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "async-channel"
 version = "2.5.0"
@@ -459,9 +431,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "async-compression"
-version = "0.4.37"
+version = "0.4.42"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d10e4f991a553474232bc0a31799f6d24b034a84c0971d80d2e2f78b2e576e40"
+checksum = "e79b3f8a79cccc2898f31920fc69f304859b3bd567490f75ebf51ae1c792a9ac"
 dependencies = [
  "compression-codecs",
  "compression-core",
@@ -469,53 +441,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "tokio",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "async-io"
-version = "2.6.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "456b8a8feb6f42d237746d4b3e9a178494627745c3c56c6ea55d92ba50d026fc"
-dependencies = [
- "autocfg",
- "cfg-if",
- "concurrent-queue",
- "futures-io",
- "futures-lite 2.6.1",
- "parking",
- "polling",
- "rustix 1.1.3",
- "slab",
- "windows-sys 0.61.2",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "async-lock"
 version = "3.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "290f7f2596bd5b78a9fec8088ccd89180d7f9f55b94b0576823bbbdc72ee8311"
 dependencies = [
- "event-listener 5.4.1",
+ "event-listener",
  "event-listener-strategy",
  "pin-project-lite",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "async-process"
-version = "2.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fc50921ec0055cdd8a16de48773bfeec5c972598674347252c0399676be7da75"
-dependencies = [
- "async-channel 2.5.0",
- "async-io",
- "async-lock",
- "async-signal",
- "async-task",
- "blocking",
- "cfg-if",
- "event-listener 5.4.1",
- "futures-lite 2.6.1",
- "rustix 1.1.3",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "async-recursion"
 version = "1.1.1"
@@ -524,42 +460,18 @@ checksum = "3b43422f69d8ff38f95f1b2bb76517c91589a924d1559a0e935d7c8ce0274c11"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "async-signal"
-version = "0.2.13"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "43c070bbf59cd3570b6b2dd54cd772527c7c3620fce8be898406dd3ed6adc64c"
-dependencies = [
- "async-io",
- "async-lock",
- "atomic-waker",
- "cfg-if",
- "futures-core",
- "futures-io",
- "rustix 1.1.3",
- "signal-hook-registry",
- "slab",
- "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "async-task"
-version = "4.7.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8b75356056920673b02621b35afd0f7dda9306d03c79a30f5c56c44cf256e3de"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "async-trait"
-version = "0.1.89"
+version = "0.1.91"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9035ad2d096bed7955a320ee7e2230574d28fd3c3a0f186cbea1ff3c7eed5dbb"
+checksum = "ae36dc4177970ef04fde5178d3e2429882def40e57a451f919c098f72baa6cec"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 3.0.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -571,6 +483,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "loom",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "asyncband"
+version = "0.6.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "94a214ba60d6231afd0e805e3c27c45a1626d9debaa5a5061c45a1ea1b2f1ed0"
+dependencies = [
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "slab",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "atoi"
 version = "2.0.0"
@@ -588,15 +510,15 @@ checksum = "1505bd5d3d116872e7271a6d4e16d81d0c8570876c8de68093a09ac269d8aac0"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "autocfg"
-version = "1.5.0"
+version = "1.5.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c08606f8c3cbf4ce6ec8e28fb0014a2c086708fe954eaa885384a6165172e7e8"
+checksum = "f2032f911046de80f0a198e0901378627c33f59ea0ac00e363d481118bd70a53"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-config"
-version = "1.8.13"
+version = "1.8.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c456581cb3c77fafcc8c67204a70680d40b61112d6da78c77bd31d945b65f1b5"
+checksum = "8a8fc176d53d6fe85017f230405e3255cedb4a02221cb55ed6d76dccbbb099b2"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -611,9 +533,9 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "aws-types",
  "bytes",
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "fastrand",
  "hex",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "ring",
  "time",
  "tokio",
@@ -624,9 +546,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-credential-types"
-version = "1.2.11"
+version = "1.2.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3cd362783681b15d136480ad555a099e82ecd8e2d10a841e14dfd0078d67fee3"
+checksum = "6d203b0bf2626dcba8665f5cd0871d7c2c0930223d6b6be9097592fea21242d0"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
@@ -636,9 +558,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-lc-rs"
-version = "1.15.4"
+version = "1.18.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7b7b6141e96a8c160799cc2d5adecd5cbbe5054cb8c7c4af53da0f83bb7ad256"
+checksum = "b281d307588d634de920874890732659e2e7672f72b5e10e81badc1a8a83621e"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-lc-sys",
  "zeroize",
@@ -646,21 +568,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-lc-sys"
-version = "0.37.0"
+version = "0.45.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5c34dda4df7017c8db52132f0f8a2e0f8161649d15723ed63fc00c82d0f2081a"
+checksum = "9bff6c3b54fad79a2e60b8102caf565819711497c1f5f092f49508e2f5c31b27"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
  "cmake",
  "dunce",
  "fs_extra",
+ "pkg-config",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-runtime"
-version = "1.6.0"
+version = "1.7.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c635c2dc792cb4a11ce1a4f392a925340d1bdf499289b5ec1ec6810954eb43f5"
+checksum = "ede2ddc593e6c8acc6ce3358c28d6677a6dc49b65ba4b37a2befe14a11297e75"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-sigv4",
@@ -672,9 +595,10 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "aws-types",
  "bytes",
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "bytes-utils",
+ "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 0.4.6",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "percent-encoding",
@@ -685,9 +609,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-dynamodb"
-version = "1.104.0"
+version = "1.107.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f04c47115cc8d46dcc94a9a81e7a3384cea859283c1a737729691d4221f11584"
+checksum = "561bf86e858a2759c6876b517b13f3f4051a6484abbb0d8a1f4dfc5d902cc85a"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -700,18 +624,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "aws-types",
  "bytes",
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-s3"
-version = "1.122.0"
+version = "1.124.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "94c2ca0cba97e8e279eb6c0b2d0aa10db5959000e602ab2b7c02de6b85d4c19b"
+checksum = "744c09d75dfec039a05cf8e117c995ded3b0baffa6eb83f3ed7075a01d8d8947"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -728,25 +652,25 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-xml",
  "aws-types",
  "bytes",
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "fastrand",
  "hex",
- "hmac",
+ "hmac 0.12.1",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
- "lru 0.16.3",
+ "lru 0.16.4",
  "percent-encoding",
  "regex-lite",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "tracing",
  "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-sso"
-version = "1.93.0"
+version = "1.95.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9dcb38bb33fc0a11f1ffc3e3e85669e0a11a37690b86f77e75306d8f369146a0"
+checksum = "00c5ff27c6ba2cbd95e6e26e2e736676fdf6bcf96495b187733f521cfe4ce448"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -759,18 +683,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "aws-types",
  "bytes",
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-ssooidc"
-version = "1.95.0"
+version = "1.97.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2ada8ffbea7bd1be1f53df1dadb0f8fdb04badb13185b3321b929d1ee3caad09"
+checksum = "4d186f1e5a3694a188e5a0640b3115ccc6e084d104e16fd6ba968dca072ffef8"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -783,18 +707,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "aws-types",
  "bytes",
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-sts"
-version = "1.97.0"
+version = "1.99.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e6443ccadc777095d5ed13e21f5c364878c9f5bad4e35187a6cdbd863b0afcad"
+checksum = "9acba7c62f3d4e2408fa998a3a8caacd8b9a5b5549cf36e2372fbdae329d5449"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -808,18 +732,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "aws-smithy-xml",
  "aws-types",
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sigv4"
-version = "1.3.8"
+version = "1.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "efa49f3c607b92daae0c078d48a4571f599f966dce3caee5f1ea55c4d9073f99"
+checksum = "37411f8e0f4bea0c3ca0958ce7f18f6439db24d555dbd809787262cd00926aa9"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-smithy-eventstream",
@@ -827,27 +751,22 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "bytes",
- "crypto-bigint 0.5.5",
  "form_urlencoded",
  "hex",
- "hmac",
+ "hmac 0.12.1",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "p256",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "percent-encoding",
- "ring",
- "sha2",
- "subtle",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "time",
  "tracing",
- "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-async"
-version = "1.2.11"
+version = "1.2.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "52eec3db979d18cb807fc1070961cc51d87d069abe9ab57917769687368a8c6c"
+checksum = "5cc50d0f63e714784b84223abd7abbc8577de8c35d699e0edd19f0a88a08ae13"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-util",
  "pin-project-lite",
@@ -856,30 +775,30 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-checksums"
-version = "0.64.3"
+version = "0.64.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ddcf418858f9f3edd228acb8759d77394fed7531cce78d02bdda499025368439"
+checksum = "180dddf5ef0f52a2f99e2fada10e16ea610e507ef6148a42bdc4d5867596aa00"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-http",
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "bytes",
  "crc-fast",
  "hex",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
- "md-5",
+ "md-5 0.10.6",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "sha1",
- "sha2",
+ "sha1 0.10.6",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-eventstream"
-version = "0.60.18"
+version = "0.60.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "35b9c7354a3b13c66f60fe4616d6d1969c9fd36b1b5333a5dfb3ee716b33c588"
+checksum = "1c0b3e587fbaa5d7f7e870544508af8ce82ea47cd30376e69e1e37c4ac746f79"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "bytes",
@@ -888,9 +807,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-http"
-version = "0.63.3"
+version = "0.63.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "630e67f2a31094ffa51b210ae030855cb8f3b7ee1329bdd8d085aaf61e8b97fc"
+checksum = "d619373d490ad70966994801bc126846afaa0d1ee920697a031f0cf63f2568e7"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-eventstream",
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
@@ -899,7 +818,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes-utils",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "percent-encoding",
@@ -910,57 +829,51 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-http-client"
-version = "1.1.9"
+version = "1.1.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "12fb0abf49ff0cab20fd31ac1215ed7ce0ea92286ba09e2854b42ba5cabe7525"
+checksum = "00ccbb08c10f6bcf912f398188e42ee2eab5f1767ce215a02a73bc5df1bbdd95"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
  "aws-smithy-types",
- "h2 0.3.27",
- "h2 0.4.13",
- "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "http-body 0.4.6",
- "hyper 0.14.32",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
- "hyper-rustls 0.24.2",
- "hyper-rustls 0.27.7",
+ "h2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-rustls",
  "hyper-util",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "rustls 0.21.12",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
+ "rustls",
  "rustls-native-certs",
  "rustls-pki-types",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-rustls 0.26.4",
+ "tokio-rustls",
  "tower",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-json"
-version = "0.62.3"
+version = "0.62.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3cb96aa208d62ee94104645f7b2ecaf77bf27edf161590b6224bfbac2832f979"
+checksum = "27b3a779093e18cad88bbae08dc4261e1d95018c4c5b9356a52bcae7c0b6e9bb"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-observability"
-version = "0.2.4"
+version = "0.2.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c0a46543fbc94621080b3cf553eb4cbbdc41dd9780a30c4756400f0139440a1d"
+checksum = "4d3f39d5bb871aaf461d59144557f16d5927a5248a983a40654d9cf3b9ba183b"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-query"
-version = "0.60.13"
+version = "0.60.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0cebbddb6f3a5bd81553643e9c7daf3cc3dc5b0b5f398ac668630e8a84e6fff0"
+checksum = "05f76a580e3d8f8961e5d48763214025a2af65c2fa4cd1fb7f270a0e107a71b0"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "urlencoding",
@@ -968,9 +881,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-runtime"
-version = "1.10.0"
+version = "1.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f3df87c14f0127a0d77eb261c3bc45d5b4833e2a1f63583ebfb728e4852134ee"
+checksum = "22ccf7f6eba8b2dcf8ce9b74806c6c185659c311665c4bf8d6e71ebd454db6bf"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-http",
@@ -979,9 +892,9 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "bytes",
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 0.4.6",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
@@ -993,15 +906,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-runtime-api"
-version = "1.11.3"
+version = "1.11.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "49952c52f7eebb72ce2a754d3866cc0f87b97d2a46146b79f80f3a93fb2b3716"
+checksum = "b4af6e5def28be846479bbeac55aa4603d6f7986fc5da4601ba324dd5d377516"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "bytes",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
@@ -1010,16 +923,16 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-types"
-version = "1.4.3"
+version = "1.4.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3b3a26048eeab0ddeba4b4f9d51654c79af8c3b32357dc5f336cee85ab331c33"
+checksum = "8ca2734c16913a45343b37313605d84e7d8b34a4611598ce1d25b35860a2bed3"
 dependencies = [
  "base64-simd",
  "bytes",
  "bytes-utils",
  "futures-core",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 0.4.6",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
@@ -1036,18 +949,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-xml"
-version = "0.60.13"
+version = "0.60.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "11b2f670422ff42bf7065031e72b45bc52a3508bd089f743ea90731ca2b6ea57"
+checksum = "b53543b4b86ed43f051644f704a98c7291b3618b67adf057ee77a366fa52fcaa"
 dependencies = [
  "xmlparser",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-types"
-version = "1.3.11"
+version = "1.3.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1d980627d2dd7bfc32a3c025685a033eeab8d365cc840c631ef59d1b8f428164"
+checksum = "0470cc047657c6e286346bdf10a8719d26efd6a91626992e0e64481e44323e96"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-smithy-async",
@@ -1067,10 +980,10 @@ dependencies = [
  "axum-core",
  "bytes",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
+ "hyper",
  "hyper-util",
  "itoa",
  "matchit",
@@ -1100,7 +1013,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "bytes",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "mime",
@@ -1112,120 +1025,13 @@ dependencies = [
  "tracing",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "azure_core"
-version = "0.21.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7b552ad43a45a746461ec3d3a51dfb6466b4759209414b439c165eb6a6b7729e"
-dependencies = [
- "async-trait",
- "base64 0.22.1",
- "bytes",
- "dyn-clone",
- "futures",
- "getrandom 0.2.17",
- "hmac",
- "http-types",
- "once_cell",
- "paste",
- "pin-project",
- "quick-xml 0.31.0",
- "rand 0.8.5",
- "reqwest",
- "rustc_version",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "sha2",
- "time",
- "tracing",
- "url",
- "uuid",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "azure_identity"
-version = "0.21.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "88ddd80344317c40c04b603807b63a5cefa532f1b43522e72f480a988141f744"
-dependencies = [
- "async-lock",
- "async-process",
- "async-trait",
- "azure_core",
- "futures",
- "oauth2",
- "pin-project",
- "serde",
- "time",
- "tracing",
- "tz-rs",
- "url",
- "uuid",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "azure_storage"
-version = "0.21.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "59f838159f4d29cb400a14d9d757578ba495ae64feb07a7516bf9e4415127126"
-dependencies = [
- "RustyXML",
- "async-lock",
- "async-trait",
- "azure_core",
- "bytes",
- "serde",
- "serde_derive",
- "time",
- "tracing",
- "url",
- "uuid",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "azure_storage_blobs"
-version = "0.21.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "97e83c3636ae86d9a6a7962b2112e3b19eb3903915c50ce06ff54ff0a2e6a7e4"
-dependencies = [
- "RustyXML",
- "azure_core",
- "azure_storage",
- "azure_svc_blobstorage",
- "bytes",
- "futures",
- "serde",
- "serde_derive",
- "serde_json",
- "time",
- "tracing",
- "url",
- "uuid",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "azure_svc_blobstorage"
-version = "0.21.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4e6c6f20c5611b885ba94c7bae5e02849a267381aecb8aee577e8c35ff4064c6"
-dependencies = [
- "azure_core",
- "bytes",
- "futures",
- "log",
- "once_cell",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "time",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "backon"
 version = "1.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "cffb0e931875b666fc4fcb20fee52e9bbd1ef836fd9e9e04ec21555f9f85f7ef"
 dependencies = [
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "fastrand",
  "gloo-timers",
  "tokio",
 ]
@@ -1237,7 +1043,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "bb531853791a215d7c62a30daf0dde835f381ab5de4589cfe7c649d2cbe92bd6"
 dependencies = [
  "addr2line",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "libc",
  "miniz_oxide",
  "object",
@@ -1245,12 +1051,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-link",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "base16ct"
-version = "0.1.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "349a06037c7bf932dd7e7d1f653678b2038b9ad46a74102f1fc7bd7872678cce"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "base64"
 version = "0.13.1"
@@ -1263,6 +1063,12 @@ version = "0.22.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "72b3254f16251a8381aa12e40e3c4d2f0199f8c6508fbecb9d91f575e0fbb8c6"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "base64"
+version = "0.23.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b25655df2c3cdd83c5e5b293b88acd880332b2ddadd7c30ac43144fdc0033da9"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "base64-simd"
 version = "0.8.0"
@@ -1292,26 +1098,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "bincode"
-version = "2.0.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "36eaf5d7b090263e8150820482d5d93cd964a81e4019913c972f4edcc6edb740"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode_derive",
- "serde",
- "unty",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "bincode_derive"
-version = "2.0.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bf95709a440f45e986983918d0e8a1f30a9b1df04918fc828670606804ac3c09"
-dependencies = [
- "virtue",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "bit-set"
 version = "0.8.0"
@@ -1335,9 +1121,9 @@ checksum = "bef38d45163c2f1dde094a7dfd33ccf595c92905c8f8f4fdc18d06fb1037718a"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitflags"
-version = "2.10.0"
+version = "2.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "812e12b5285cc515a9c72a5c1d3b6d46a19dac5acfef5265968c166106e31dd3"
+checksum = "b4388bee8683e3d04af747c73422af53102d2bd24d9eadb6cbc100baef4b43f8"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitpacking"
@@ -1350,9 +1136,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitvec"
-version = "1.0.1"
+version = "1.1.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1bc2832c24239b0141d5674bb9174f9d68a8b5b3f2753311927c172ca46f7e9c"
+checksum = "ddcec3d12c579d40898fe0a9a358a803c23e9c52ca3c425707f81c9436211837"
 dependencies = [
  "funty",
  "radium",
@@ -1366,21 +1152,21 @@ version = "0.10.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "46502ad458c9a52b69d4d4d32775c788b7a1b85e8bc9d482d92250fc0e3f8efe"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "blake3"
-version = "1.8.3"
+version = "1.8.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2468ef7d57b3fb7e16b576e8377cdbde2320c60e1491e961d11da40fc4f02a2d"
+checksum = "0aa83c34e62843d924f905e0f5c866eb1dd6545fc4d719e803d9ba6030371fce"
 dependencies = [
  "arrayref",
  "arrayvec",
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "constant_time_eq",
- "cpufeatures",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1392,6 +1178,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "generic-array",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "block-buffer"
+version = "0.12.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d2f6c7dbe95a6ed67ad9f18e57daf93a2f034c524b99fd2b76d18fdfeb6660aa"
+dependencies = [
+ "hybrid-array",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "block-padding"
 version = "0.3.3"
@@ -1402,75 +1197,79 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "blocking"
-version = "1.6.2"
+name = "bs58"
+version = "0.5.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e83f8d02be6967315521be875afa792a316e28d57b5a2d401897e2a7921b7f21"
+checksum = "bf88ba1141d185c399bee5288d850d63b8369520c1eafc32a0430b5b6c287bf4"
 dependencies = [
- "async-channel 2.5.0",
- "async-task",
- "futures-io",
- "futures-lite 2.6.1",
- "piper",
+ "tinyvec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bon"
-version = "3.8.2"
+name = "bstr"
+version = "1.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "234655ec178edd82b891e262ea7cf71f6584bcd09eff94db786be23f1821825c"
+checksum = "63044e1ae8e69f3b5a92c736ca6269b8d12fa7efe39bf34ddb06d102cf0e2cab"
 dependencies = [
- "bon-macros",
- "rustversion",
+ "memchr",
+ "regex-automata",
+ "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bon-macros"
-version = "3.8.2"
+name = "bumpalo"
+version = "3.20.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "89ec27229c38ed0eb3c0feee3d2c1d6a4379ae44f418a29a658890e062d8f365"
-dependencies = [
- "darling 0.23.0",
- "ident_case",
- "prettyplease",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.114",
-]
+checksum = "72f5acc6cb2ba439de613abc23857ec3d78374d8ed5ac84e9d11336e87da8649"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "brotli"
-version = "8.0.2"
+name = "bytecheck"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4bd8b9603c7aa97359dbd97ecf258968c95f3adddd6db2f7e7a5bef101c84560"
+checksum = "0caa33a2c0edca0419d15ac723dff03f1956f7978329b1e3b5fdaaaed9d3ca8b"
 dependencies = [
- "alloc-no-stdlib",
- "alloc-stdlib",
- "brotli-decompressor",
+ "bytecheck_derive",
+ "ptr_meta",
+ "rancor",
+ "simdutf8",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "brotli-decompressor"
-version = "5.0.0"
+name = "bytecheck_derive"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "874bb8112abecc98cbd6d81ea4fa7e94fb9449648c93cc89aa40c81c24d7de03"
+checksum = "89385e82b5d1821d2219e0b095efa2cc1f246cbf99080f3be46a1a85c0d392d9"
 dependencies = [
- "alloc-no-stdlib",
- "alloc-stdlib",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bumpalo"
-version = "3.19.1"
+name = "bytecount"
+version = "0.6.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5dd9dc738b7a8311c7ade152424974d8115f2cdad61e8dab8dac9f2362298510"
+checksum = "175812e0be2bccb6abe50bb8d566126198344f707e304f45c648fd8f2cc0365e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bytemuck"
-version = "1.25.0"
+version = "1.25.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "95832e849adfb21180ccb6826a99da14e5d266ae5c2e668e1602cf234f153797"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytemuck_derive",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "bytemuck_derive"
+version = "1.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c8efb64bd706a16a1bdde310ae86b351e4d21550d98d056f22f8a7f7a2183fec"
+checksum = "f9abbd1bc6865053c427f7198e6af43bfdedc55ab791faed4fbd361d789575ff"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "byteorder"
@@ -1480,9 +1279,9 @@ checksum = "1fd0f2584146f6f2ef48085050886acf353beff7305ebd1ae69500e27c67f64b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bytes"
-version = "1.11.1"
+version = "1.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e748733b7cbc798e1434b6ac524f0c1ff2ab456fe201501e6497c8417a4fc33"
+checksum = "fc652a48c352aef3ea3aed32080501cf3ef6ed5da78602a020c991775b0aff04"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bytes-utils"
@@ -1511,9 +1310,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cc"
-version = "1.2.55"
+version = "1.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "47b26a0954ae34af09b50f0de26458fa95369a0d478d8236d3f93082b219bd29"
+checksum = "c89588d05638b5b4594a3348a2d6c20277e43a7f5c5202b05cc56888475a47b8"
 dependencies = [
  "find-msvc-tools",
  "jobserver",
@@ -1523,18 +1322,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cedarwood"
-version = "0.4.6"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6d910bedd62c24733263d0bed247460853c9d22e8956bd4cd964302095e04e90"
+checksum = "c0524a528a6a0288df1863c3c20fe92c301875b4941e7b6c4b394ab08c5a4c55"
 dependencies = [
  "smallvec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "census"
-version = "0.4.2"
+name = "cfg-if"
+version = "0.1.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4f4c707c6a209cbe82d10abd08e1ea8995e9ea937d2550646e02798948992be0"
+checksum = "4785bdd1c96b2a846b2bd7cc02e86b6b3dbf14e7e53446c4f54c92a361040822"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cfg-if"
@@ -1548,11 +1347,22 @@ version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "613afe47fcd5fac7ccf1db93babcb082c5994d996f20b8b159f2ad1658eb5724"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "chacha20"
+version = "0.10.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6f8d983286843e49675a4b7a2d174efe136dc93a18d69130dd18198a6c167601"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "chrono"
-version = "0.4.43"
+version = "0.4.45"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fac4744fb15ae8337dc853fee7fb3f4e48c0fbaa23d0afe49c447b4fab126118"
+checksum = "1aa79e62e7697b8e29b513a68abacf485adcd1fe8284a4316c5ae868e6633327"
 dependencies = [
  "iana-time-zone",
  "js-sys",
@@ -1605,15 +1415,15 @@ version = "0.4.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "773f3b9af64447d2ce9850330c473515014aa235e6a783b02db81ff39e4a3dad"
 dependencies = [
- "crypto-common",
+ "crypto-common 0.1.7",
  "inout",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "clap"
-version = "4.5.57"
+version = "4.6.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6899ea499e3fb9305a65d5ebf6e3d2248c5fab291f300ad0a704fbe142eae31a"
+checksum = "d91e0c145792ef73a6ad36d27c75ac09f1832222a3c209689d90f534685ee5b7"
 dependencies = [
  "clap_builder",
  "clap_derive",
@@ -1621,9 +1431,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "clap_builder"
-version = "4.5.57"
+version = "4.6.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7b12c8b680195a62a8364d16b8447b01b6c2c8f9aaf68bee653be34d4245e238"
+checksum = "f09628afdcc538b57f3c6341e9c8e9970f18e4a481690a64974d7023bd33548b"
 dependencies = [
  "anstream",
  "anstyle",
@@ -1633,63 +1443,88 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "clap_derive"
-version = "4.5.55"
+version = "4.6.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a92793da1a46a5f2a02a6f4c46c6496b28c43638adea8306fcb0caa1634f24e5"
+checksum = "d012d2b9d65aca7f18f4d9878a045bc17899bba951561ba5ec3c2ba1eed9a061"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 3.0.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "clap_lex"
-version = "0.7.7"
+version = "1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c3e64b0cc0439b12df2fa678eae89a1c56a529fd067a9115f7827f1fffd22b32"
+checksum = "c8d4a3bb8b1e0c1050499d1815f5ab16d04f0959b233085fb31653fbfc9d98f9"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cmake"
-version = "0.1.57"
+version = "0.1.58"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "75443c44cd6b379beb8c5b45d85d0773baf31cce901fe7bb252f4eff3008ef7d"
+checksum = "c0f78a02292a74a88ac736019ab962ece0bc380e3f977bf72e376c5d78ff0678"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "cmov"
+version = "0.5.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0c9ea0ac24bc397ab3c98583a3c9ba74fa56b09a4449bbe172b9b1ddb016027a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "colorchoice"
-version = "1.0.4"
+version = "1.0.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b05b61dc5112cbb17e4b6cd61790d9845d13888356391624cbe7e41efeac1e75"
+checksum = "1d07550c9036bf2ae0c684c4297d503f838287c83c53686d05370d0e139ae570"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "comfy-table"
-version = "7.2.2"
+name = "colored"
+version = "3.1.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "958c5d6ecf1f214b4c2bbbbf6ab9523a864bd136dcf71a7e8904799acfe1ad47"
+checksum = "faf9468729b8cbcea668e36183cb69d317348c2e08e994829fb56ebfdfbaac34"
 dependencies = [
- "unicode-segmentation",
- "unicode-width",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "compression-codecs"
-version = "0.4.36"
+name = "combine"
+version = "4.6.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "00828ba6fd27b45a448e57dbfe84f1029d4c9f26b368157e9a448a5f49a2ec2a"
+checksum = "ba5a308b75df32fe02788e748662718f03fde005016435c444eea572398219fd"
 dependencies = [
- "compression-core",
- "flate2",
+ "bytes",
+ "memchr",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "comfy-table"
+version = "7.2.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "958c5d6ecf1f214b4c2bbbbf6ab9523a864bd136dcf71a7e8904799acfe1ad47"
+dependencies = [
+ "unicode-segmentation",
+ "unicode-width",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "compression-codecs"
+version = "0.4.38"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ce2548391e9c1929c21bf6aa2680af86fe4c1b33e6cea9ac1cfeec0bd11218cf"
+dependencies = [
+ "compression-core",
+ "flate2",
  "memchr",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "compression-core"
-version = "0.4.31"
+version = "0.4.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "75984efb6ed102a0d42db99afb6c1948f0380d1d91808d5529916e6c08b49d8d"
+checksum = "cc14f565cf027a105f7a44ccf9e5b424348421a1d8952a8fc9d499d313107789"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "concurrent-queue"
@@ -1719,6 +1554,12 @@ version = "0.9.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "c2459377285ad874054d797f3ccebf984978aa39129f6eafde5cdc8315b612f8"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "const-oid"
+version = "0.10.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a6ef517f0926dd24a1582492c791b6a4818a4d94e789a334894aa15b0d12f55c"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "const-random"
 version = "0.1.18"
@@ -1740,10 +1581,19 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "const_fn"
-version = "0.4.11"
+name = "const-str"
+version = "1.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "18f12cc9948ed9604230cdddc7c86e270f9401ccbe3c2e98a4378c5e7632212f"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "const_panic"
+version = "0.2.15"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2f8a2ca5ac02d09563609681103aada9e1777d54fc57a5acd7a41404f9c93b6e"
+checksum = "e262cdaac42494e3ae34c43969f9cdeb7da178bdb4b66fa6a1ea2edb4c8ae652"
+dependencies = [
+ "typewit",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "constant_time_eq"
@@ -1778,21 +1628,21 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "773648b94d0e5d620f64f280777445740e61fe701025087ec8b57f45c791888b"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "core2"
-version = "0.4.0"
+name = "countio"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b49ba7ef1ad6107f8824dbe97de947cbaac53c44e7f9756a1fba0d37c1eec505"
+checksum = "b9702aee5d1d744c01d82f6915644f950f898e014903385464c773b96fefdecb"
 dependencies = [
- "memchr",
+ "futures-io",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cpp_demangle"
-version = "0.5.1"
+version = "0.4.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0667304c32ea56cb4cd6d2d7c0cfe9a2f8041229db8c033af7f8d69492429def"
+checksum = "f2bb79cb74d735044c972aae58ed0aaa9a837e85b01106a54c39e42e97f62253"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1804,6 +1654,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "libc",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "cpufeatures"
+version = "0.3.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "8b2a41393f66f16b0823bb79094d54ac5fbd34ab292ddafb9a0456ac9f87d201"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "crc"
 version = "3.3.0"
@@ -1815,9 +1674,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "crc-catalog"
-version = "2.4.0"
+version = "2.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "19d374276b40fb8bbdee95aef7c7fa6b5316ec764510eb64b8dd0e2ed0d7e7f5"
+checksum = "217698eaf96b4a3f0bc4f3662aaa55bdf913cd54d7204591faa790070c6d0853"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "crc-fast"
@@ -1826,18 +1685,9 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "2fd92aca2c6001b1bf5ba0ff84ee74ec8501b52bbef0cac80bf25a6c1d87a83d"
 dependencies = [
  "crc",
- "digest",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
  "rustversion",
- "spin 0.10.0",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "crc32c"
-version = "0.6.8"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3a47af21622d091a8f0fb295b88bc886ac74efcc613efc19f5d0b21de5c89e47"
-dependencies = [
- "rustc_version",
+ "spin 0.10.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1846,31 +1696,29 @@ version = "1.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9481c1c90cbf2ac953f07c8d4a58aa3945c425b7185c9154d67a65e4230da511"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "criterion"
-version = "0.5.1"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f2b12d017a929603d80db1831cd3a24082f8137ce19c69e6447f54f5fc8d692f"
+checksum = "950046b2aa2492f9a536f5f4f9a3de7b9e2476e575e05bd6c333371add4d98f3"
 dependencies = [
+ "alloca",
  "anes",
  "cast",
  "ciborium",
  "clap",
  "criterion-plot",
- "futures",
- "is-terminal",
- "itertools 0.10.5",
+ "itertools 0.13.0",
  "num-traits",
- "once_cell",
  "oorandom",
+ "page_size",
  "plotters",
  "rayon",
  "regex",
  "serde",
- "serde_derive",
  "serde_json",
  "tinytemplate",
  "tokio",
@@ -1879,12 +1727,12 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "criterion-plot"
-version = "0.5.0"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6b50826342786a51a89e2da3a28f1c32b06e387201bc2d19791f622c673706b1"
+checksum = "d8d80a2f4f5b554395e47b5d8305bc3d27813bacb73493eb1001e8f76dae29ea"
 dependencies = [
  "cast",
- "itertools 0.10.5",
+ "itertools 0.13.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1908,18 +1756,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "crossbeam-epoch"
-version = "0.9.18"
+version = "0.9.20"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5b82ac4a3c2ca9c3460964f020e1402edd5753411d7737aa39c3714ad1b5420e"
+checksum = "2d6914041f254d6e9176c01941b21115dcfb7089e55135a35411081bd106ef3f"
 dependencies = [
  "crossbeam-utils",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "crossbeam-queue"
-version = "0.3.12"
+version = "0.3.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0f58bbc28f91df819d0aa2a2c00cd19754769c2fad90579b3592b1c9ba7a3115"
+checksum = "803d13fb3b09d88be9f4dbc29062c66b19bf7170867ceb746d2a8689bf6c7a26"
 dependencies = [
  "crossbeam-utils",
 ]
@@ -1947,35 +1795,22 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "460fbee9c2c2f33933d720630a6a0bac33ba7053db5344fac858d4b8952d77d5"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "crypto-bigint"
-version = "0.4.9"
+name = "crypto-common"
+version = "0.1.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ef2b4b23cddf68b89b8f8069890e8c270d54e2d5fe1b143820234805e4cb17ef"
+checksum = "78c8292055d1c1df0cce5d180393dc8cce0abec0a7102adb6c7b1eef6016d60a"
 dependencies = [
  "generic-array",
- "rand_core 0.6.4",
- "subtle",
- "zeroize",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "crypto-bigint"
-version = "0.5.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0dc92fb57ca44df6db8059111ab3af99a63d5d0f8375d9972e319a379c6bab76"
-dependencies = [
- "rand_core 0.6.4",
- "subtle",
+ "typenum",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "crypto-common"
-version = "0.1.7"
+version = "0.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "78c8292055d1c1df0cce5d180393dc8cce0abec0a7102adb6c7b1eef6016d60a"
+checksum = "ce6e4c961d6cd6c9a86db418387425e8bdeaf05b3c8bc1411e6dca4c252f1453"
 dependencies = [
- "generic-array",
- "typenum",
+ "hybrid-array",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1999,6 +1834,31 @@ dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "ctor"
+version = "1.0.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "01334b89b69ff726750c5ce5073fc8bd860e99aa9a8fc5ca11b04730e3aee97a"
+dependencies = [
+ "link-section",
+ "linktime-proc-macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ctutils"
+version = "0.4.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7d5515a3834141de9eafb9717ad39eea8247b5674e6066c404e8c4b365d2a29e"
+dependencies = [
+ "cmov",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "daachorse"
+version = "2.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "db756b5eb7d81d31f31f660f4132f8cf5698de52fca144c143d0ae0cbb5f2e06"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "darling"
 version = "0.14.4"
@@ -2054,7 +1914,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "strsim 0.11.1",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2067,7 +1927,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "strsim 0.11.1",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2089,7 +1949,7 @@ checksum = "fc34b93ccb385b40dc71c6fceac4b2ad23662c7eeb248cf10d529b7e055b6ead"
 dependencies = [
  "darling_core 0.20.11",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2100,22 +1960,16 @@ checksum = "ac3984ec7bd6cfa798e62b4a642426a5be0e68f9401cfc2a01e3fa9ea2fcdb8d"
 dependencies = [
  "darling_core 0.23.0",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "dary_heap"
-version = "0.3.8"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "06d2e3287df1c007e74221c49ca10a95d557349e54b3a75dc2fb14712c751f04"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "dashmap"
-version = "6.1.0"
+version = "6.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5041cc499144891f3790297212f32a74fb938e5136a14943f338ef9e0ae276cf"
+checksum = "e6361d5c062261c78a176addb82d4c821ae42bed6089de0e12603cd25de2059c"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "crossbeam-utils",
  "hashbrown 0.14.5",
  "lock_api",
@@ -2125,14 +1979,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8ba7cb113e9c0bedf9e9765926031e132fa05a1b09ba6e93a6d1a4d7044457b8"
+checksum = "754ef4e8f073922a26f5b23133b9db4829342362b09be0bc94309cf261c2f098"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
- "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-catalog",
  "datafusion-catalog-listing",
@@ -2142,7 +1995,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-datasource-arrow",
  "datafusion-datasource-csv",
  "datafusion-datasource-json",
- "datafusion-datasource-parquet",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
@@ -2160,14 +2012,11 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-session",
  "datafusion-sql",
  "futures",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
  "object_store",
  "parking_lot",
- "parquet",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "regex",
- "rstest 0.26.1",
  "sqlparser",
  "tempfile",
  "tokio",
@@ -2177,9 +2026,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-catalog"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "66a3a799f914a59b1ea343906a0486f17061f39509af74e874a866428951130d"
+checksum = "06afd1e38dd27bbb1258685a1fc6524df6aff4e07b25b393a47de59635178d99"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -2202,9 +2051,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-catalog-listing"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6db1b113c80d7a0febcd901476a57aef378e717c54517a163ed51417d87621b0"
+checksum = "f0668fb32c12065ec242be0e5b4bc62bd7a06a0be3ecd83791ef877e4be67e02"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -2221,37 +2070,37 @@ dependencies = [
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
  "object_store",
- "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7c10f7659e96127d25e8366be7c8be4109595d6a2c3eac70421f380a7006a1b0"
+checksum = "ca43b263cdff57042cfa8fb817fb3469f4878933380dccff25f5e793580abbf9"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ipc",
+ "arrow-schema",
  "chrono",
+ "foldhash 0.2.0",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "libc",
  "log",
  "object_store",
- "parquet",
- "paste",
  "sqlparser",
  "tokio",
+ "uuid",
  "web-time",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-common-runtime"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b92065bbc6532c6651e2f7dd30b55cba0c7a14f860c7e1d15f165c41a1868d95"
+checksum = "05f0ba2b864792bdca4d76c59a1de0ab6e1b61946596b9936888dbd6360035f2"
 dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "log",
@@ -2260,9 +2109,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fde13794244bc7581cd82f6fff217068ed79cdc344cafe4ab2c3a1c3510b38d6"
+checksum = "b840a8bce0bcbf5afad02946d438591e7c373f7afccaf3d874c04485772514dd"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -2282,16 +2131,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
  "object_store",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "tokio",
  "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-arrow"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "804fa9b4ecf3157982021770617200ef7c1b2979d57bec9044748314775a9aea"
+checksum = "a24cc0b9cf6e367f27f27406eff13abf48a11b72446aaa40b3105c0ded5c17d9"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ipc",
@@ -2313,9 +2163,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-csv"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "61a1641a40b259bab38131c5e6f48fac0717bedb7dc93690e604142a849e0568"
+checksum = "e1abe56b2a7a2d1d6de5117dd1a203181e267f28529faa5da546947621b697d7"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -2336,31 +2186,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-json"
-version = "51.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "adeacdb00c1d37271176f8fb6a1d8ce096baba16ea7a4b2671840c5c9c64fe85"
-dependencies = [
- "arrow",
- "async-trait",
- "bytes",
- "datafusion-common",
- "datafusion-common-runtime",
- "datafusion-datasource",
- "datafusion-execution",
- "datafusion-expr",
- "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
- "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "datafusion-session",
- "futures",
- "object_store",
- "tokio",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "datafusion-datasource-parquet"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "43d0b60ffd66f28bfb026565d62b0a6cbc416da09814766a3797bba7d85a3cd9"
+checksum = "9c3e467f0611ad7bdd5aad17c63c9bb6182d04e5282e5496d897ea2b49c024ba"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -2370,55 +2198,51 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-datasource",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
- "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
- "datafusion-physical-expr",
- "datafusion-physical-expr-adapter",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "datafusion-pruning",
  "datafusion-session",
  "futures",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "log",
  "object_store",
- "parking_lot",
- "parquet",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-stream",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-doc"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2b99e13947667b36ad713549237362afb054b2d8f8cc447751e23ec61202db07"
+checksum = "d69bb69d8769e34f76839c960dbde24c1ac0c885a79b6c3c2287bdc56ec67891"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-execution"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "63695643190679037bc946ad46a263b62016931547bf119859c511f7ff2f5178"
+checksum = "d8eac0a09bc8d263f52025cad9e001da4d8138d633fa288edda4d06b1772eae6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-buffer",
  "async-trait",
  "dashmap",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "futures",
  "log",
  "object_store",
  "parking_lot",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "tempfile",
  "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-expr"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f9a4787cbf5feb1ab351f789063398f67654a6df75c4d37d7f637dc96f951a91"
+checksum = "eeb14d374767ee0fc62dc79a5ba8bcf8a63c14e993c7d992d0e63adfa23d77d3"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2427,31 +2251,29 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-functions-window-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "paste",
  "serde_json",
  "sqlparser",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-expr-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5ce2fb1b8c15c9ac45b0863c30b268c69dc9ee7a1ee13ecf5d067738338173dc"
+checksum = "b7b19a8c95522bee8cbb313d74263b85e355d2b52f42e67ef5694bf5de9e9356"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "paste",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "794a9db7f7b96b3346fc007ff25e994f09b8f0511b4cf7dff651fadfe3ebb28f"
+checksum = "5f64c983bbbdcb729d921a2b2ac3375598719b5cc0c30345ad664936f3176fc7"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -2459,31 +2281,32 @@ dependencies = [
  "blake2",
  "blake3",
  "chrono",
+ "chrono-tz",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-doc",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
  "datafusion-macros",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "hex",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "md-5",
+ "md-5 0.11.0",
+ "memchr",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "regex",
- "sha2",
- "unicode-segmentation",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
  "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-aggregate"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1c25210520a9dcf9c2b2cbbce31ebd4131ef5af7fc60ee92b266dc7d159cb305"
+checksum = "89bc17041e424a47ed062f43df24d84aab8b57c4c3221e5c1a5eef46d6c5718b"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-doc",
@@ -2493,18 +2316,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-macros",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
+ "foldhash 0.2.0",
  "half",
  "log",
- "paste",
+ "num-traits",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "62f4a66f3b87300bb70f4124b55434d2ae3fe80455f3574701d0348da040b55d"
+checksum = "97dd2a9e865c6108059f5b37b77934f84b50bfb108f837bd0e5c9536e03f0545"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
@@ -2513,9 +2336,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-nested"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ae5c06eed03918dc7fe7a9f082a284050f0e9ecf95d72f57712d1496da03b8c4"
+checksum = "75f0bdfeef16d96417b9632ef855645376b242e9006a126dfd0bedfc54a93f5f"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ord",
@@ -2529,32 +2352,34 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-macros",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "itoa",
  "log",
- "paste",
+ "memchr",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-table"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "db4fed1d71738fbe22e2712d71396db04c25de4111f1ec252b8f4c6d3b25d7f5"
+checksum = "f4e4941673c917819616877e9993da4503e4f4739812be0bc32c5356184c6383"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
  "datafusion-catalog",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "parking_lot",
- "paste",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-window"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1d92206aa5ae21892f1552b4d61758a862a70956e6fd7a95cb85db1de74bc6d1"
+checksum = "12dd2e16c12b84b6f6b41b19f55b366dd1c46876bb35b86896c6349067379e8d"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2565,14 +2390,13 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "log",
- "paste",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-window-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "53ae9bcc39800820d53a22d758b3b8726ff84a5a3e24cecef04ef4e5fdf1c7cc"
+checksum = "4cdc5e4b6f8b6ef823cc1c761f85088ad4c884fe8df64df3cbcc6b2b84698441"
 dependencies = [
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
@@ -2580,20 +2404,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-macros"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1063ad4c9e094b3f798acee16d9a47bd7372d9699be2de21b05c3bd3f34ab848"
+checksum = "1a3614234dd93578c92428cb4f408e020874f0d2b7e6c90c928d9d28b5df2ceb"
 dependencies = [
  "datafusion-doc",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-optimizer"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9f35f9ec5d08b87fd1893a30c2929f2559c2f9806ca072d8fefca5009dc0f06a"
+checksum = "a0635620b050b81bb92764e99250868f654e2cd5ad1bece413283b3f73c83179"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "chrono",
@@ -2601,7 +2425,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
  "regex",
@@ -2610,11 +2434,10 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-expr"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c30cc8012e9eedcb48bbe112c6eff4ae5ed19cf3003cb0f505662e88b7014c5d"
+checksum = "8cabf7a86eb70b816729e33c81bf7767c936ee1226f607a114f5dac2decac8d0"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
@@ -2622,19 +2445,19 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "parking_lot",
- "paste",
  "petgraph",
+ "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-expr-adapter"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7f9ff2dbd476221b1f67337699eff432781c4e6e1713d2aefdaa517dfbf79768"
+checksum = "de222e04f7e6744501555a54ab0abe26bfdfebee380af79a9bdc175704246859"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2647,23 +2470,26 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-expr-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "90da43e1ec550b172f34c87ec68161986ced70fd05c8d2a2add66eef9c276f03"
+checksum = "72d0d0057fc5a502d45c870cb6d47c66eb7bdd5edb1bd71ad6f3f724975ac2a8"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
+ "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "pin-project",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-optimizer"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ce9804f799acd7daef3be7aaffe77c0033768ed8fdbf5fb82fc4c5f2e6bc14e6"
+checksum = "86046eed10950c5f9aaed9acfd148e9bd2e1dfdfe4f9aef607d1447b271e4183"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2679,30 +2505,32 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-plan"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0acf0ad6b6924c6b1aa7d213b181e012e2d3ec0a64ff5b10ee6282ab0f8532ac"
+checksum = "9bc84da934c903407ba297971ebcc020c4c1a38aafd765d6c144c76eff3fa6a1"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
- "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-common-runtime",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-functions",
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-functions-window-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "futures",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
+ "num-traits",
  "parking_lot",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
@@ -2710,9 +2538,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-pruning"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ac2c2498a1f134a9e11a9f5ed202a2a7d7e9774bd9249295593053ea3be999db"
+checksum = "eb63eeac6de19be40f487b65dd84e546195f783c5a9928618e0c4f2a3569b0d7"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2721,15 +2549,14 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-session"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8f96eebd17555386f459037c65ab73aae8df09f464524c709d6a3134ad4f4776"
+checksum = "5f961d209177f91bd014db5cbb2c33b7d28a2597b9003e77f17aeb712964315a"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2741,16 +2568,17 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-sql"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3fc195fe60634b2c6ccfd131b487de46dc30eccae8a3c35a13f136e7f440414f"
+checksum = "b1d71cb454da682b2af7488e1fc1ddd72ee1b28f19297b8ccad73f0a21ee9a69"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "bigdecimal",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
- "indexmap",
+ "datafusion-functions-nested",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "log",
  "regex",
  "sqlparser",
@@ -2758,9 +2586,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-substrait"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2505af06d103a55b4e8ded0c6aeb6c72a771948da939c0bd3f8eee67af475a9c"
+checksum = "f047a6fbf967b6b523758a48d2377bb5f9373a20e7ae4c4326d3c569f80ba3d7"
 dependencies = [
  "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
@@ -2774,7 +2602,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "substrait",
  "tokio",
  "url",
- "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2804,54 +2631,23 @@ dependencies = [
  "uuid",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "deepsize"
-version = "0.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1cdb987ec36f6bf7bfbea3f928b75590b736fc42af8e54d97592481351b2b96c"
-dependencies = [
- "deepsize_derive",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "deepsize_derive"
-version = "0.1.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "990101d41f3bc8c1a45641024377ee284ecc338e5ecf3ea0f0e236d897c72796"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "der"
-version = "0.6.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f1a467a65c5e759bce6e65eaf91cc29f466cdc57cb65777bd646872a8a1fd4de"
-dependencies = [
- "const-oid",
- "zeroize",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "der"
 version = "0.7.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e7c1832837b905bbfb5101e07cc24c8deddf52f93225eee6ead5f4d63d53ddcb"
 dependencies = [
- "const-oid",
+ "const-oid 0.9.6",
  "pem-rfc7468",
  "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "deranged"
-version = "0.5.5"
+version = "0.5.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ececcb659e7ba858fb4f10388c250a7252eb0a27373f1a72b8748afdd248e587"
+checksum = "7cd812cc2bc1d69d4764bd80df88b4317eaef9e773c75226407d9bc0876b211c"
 dependencies = [
- "powerfmt",
  "serde_core",
 ]
 
@@ -2894,7 +2690,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "darling 0.20.11",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2914,7 +2710,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ab63b0e2bf4d5928aff72e83a7dace85d7bba5fe12dcc3c5a572d78caffd3f3c"
 dependencies = [
  "derive_builder_core 0.20.2",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2929,19 +2725,22 @@ version = "0.10.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9ed9a281f7bc9b7576e61468ba615a66a5c8cfdff42420a70aa82701a3b1e292"
 dependencies = [
- "block-buffer",
- "const-oid",
- "crypto-common",
+ "block-buffer 0.10.4",
+ "const-oid 0.9.6",
+ "crypto-common 0.1.7",
  "subtle",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "dirs"
-version = "5.0.1"
+name = "digest"
+version = "0.11.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "44c45a9d03d6676652bcb5e724c7e988de1acad23a711b5217ab9cbecbec2225"
+checksum = "f1dd6dbb5841937940781866fa1281a1ff7bd3bf827091440879f9994983d5c2"
 dependencies = [
- "dirs-sys 0.4.1",
+ "block-buffer 0.12.1",
+ "const-oid 0.10.2",
+ "crypto-common 0.2.2",
+ "ctutils",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2950,19 +2749,7 @@ version = "6.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "c3e8aa94d75141228480295a7d0e7feb620b1a5ad9f12bc40be62411e38cce4e"
 dependencies = [
- "dirs-sys 0.5.0",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "dirs-sys"
-version = "0.4.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "520f05a5cbd335fae5a99ff7a6ab8627577660ee5cfd6a94a6a929b52ff0321c"
-dependencies = [
- "libc",
- "option-ext",
- "redox_users 0.4.6",
- "windows-sys 0.48.0",
+ "dirs-sys",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2973,19 +2760,19 @@ checksum = "e01a3366d27ee9890022452ee61b2b63a67e6f13f58900b651ff5665f0bb1fab"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
  "option-ext",
- "redox_users 0.5.2",
+ "redox_users",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "displaydoc"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "97369cbbc041bc366949bc74d34658d6cda5621039731c6310521892a3a20ae0"
+checksum = "1ac70aa55017e108007fbaf5aa0f54b021c98f92ff8af59d42eda9da96e3dd4f"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3003,12 +2790,6 @@ version = "0.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1435fa1053d8b2fbbe9be7e97eca7f33d37b28409959813daefc1446a14247f1"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "downcast-rs"
-version = "2.0.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "117240f60069e65410b3ae1bb213295bd828f707b5bec6596a1afc8793ce0cbc"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "dunce"
 version = "1.0.5"
@@ -3031,43 +2812,11 @@ dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "ecdsa"
-version = "0.14.8"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "413301934810f597c1d19ca71c8710e99a3f1ba28a0d2ebc01551a2daeea3c5c"
-dependencies = [
- "der 0.6.1",
- "elliptic-curve",
- "rfc6979",
- "signature 1.6.4",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "either"
-version = "1.15.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "48c757948c5ede0e46177b7add2e67155f70e33c07fea8284df6576da70b3719"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "elliptic-curve"
-version = "0.12.3"
+version = "1.16.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e7bb888ab5300a19b8e5bceef25ac745ad065f3c9f7efc6de1b91958110891d3"
-dependencies = [
- "base16ct",
- "crypto-bigint 0.4.9",
- "der 0.6.1",
- "digest",
- "ff",
- "generic-array",
- "group",
- "pkcs8 0.9.0",
- "rand_core 0.6.4",
- "sec1",
- "subtle",
- "zeroize",
-]
+checksum = "91622ff5e7162018101f2fea40d6ebf4a78bbe5a49736a2020649edf9693679e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "encode_unicode"
@@ -3076,102 +2825,44 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "34aa73646ffb006b8f5147f3dc182bd4bcb190227ce861fc4a4844bf8e3cb2c0"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "encoding"
-version = "0.2.33"
+name = "encoding_rs"
+version = "0.8.35"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6b0d943856b990d12d3b55b359144ff341533e516d94098b1d3fc1ac666d36ec"
+checksum = "75030f3c4f45dafd7586dd6780965a8c7e8e285a5ecb86713e63a79c5b2766f3"
 dependencies = [
- "encoding-index-japanese",
- "encoding-index-korean",
- "encoding-index-simpchinese",
- "encoding-index-singlebyte",
- "encoding-index-tradchinese",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-japanese"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
+name = "encoding_rs_io"
+version = "0.1.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "04e8b2ff42e9a05335dbf8b5c6f7567e5591d0d916ccef4e0b1710d32a0d0c91"
+checksum = "1cc3c5651fb62ab8aa3103998dade57efdd028544bd300516baa31840c252a83"
 dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
+ "encoding_rs",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-korean"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
+name = "endian-type"
+version = "0.1.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4dc33fb8e6bcba213fe2f14275f0963fd16f0a02c878e3095ecfdf5bee529d81"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
-]
+checksum = "c34f04666d835ff5d62e058c3995147c06f42fe86ff053337632bca83e42702d"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-simpchinese"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
+name = "env_filter"
+version = "2.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d87a7194909b9118fc707194baa434a4e3b0fb6a5a757c73c3adb07aa25031f7"
+checksum = "900d271a03799a1ee8d1ca9b19893b48ca674a9284fefcfb85f05e74ed314217"
 dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
+ "log",
+ "regex",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-singlebyte"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
+name = "env_logger"
+version = "0.11.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3351d5acffb224af9ca265f435b859c7c01537c0849754d3db3fdf2bfe2ae84a"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-tradchinese"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fd0e20d5688ce3cab59eb3ef3a2083a5c77bf496cb798dc6fcdb75f323890c18"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding_index_tests"
-version = "0.1.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a246d82be1c9d791c5dfde9a2bd045fc3cbba3fa2b11ad558f27d01712f00569"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding_rs"
-version = "0.8.35"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "75030f3c4f45dafd7586dd6780965a8c7e8e285a5ecb86713e63a79c5b2766f3"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding_rs_io"
-version = "0.1.7"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1cc3c5651fb62ab8aa3103998dade57efdd028544bd300516baa31840c252a83"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding_rs",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "env_filter"
-version = "0.1.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1bf3c259d255ca70051b30e2e95b5446cdb8949ac4cd22c0d7fd634d89f568e2"
-dependencies = [
- "log",
- "regex",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "env_logger"
-version = "0.11.8"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "13c863f0904021b108aa8b2f55046443e6b1ebde8fd4a15c399893aae4fa069f"
+checksum = "de671bd27a75a797dc9ae289ba1e77276e75e2026408aab65185384e2d5cd3f6"
 dependencies = [
  "anstream",
  "anstyle",
@@ -3197,7 +2888,7 @@ checksum = "44f23cf4b44bfce11a86ace86f8a73ffdec849c9fd00a386a53d278bd9e81fb3"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3227,23 +2918,16 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ethnum"
-version = "1.5.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ca81e6b4777c89fd810c25a4be2b1bd93ea034fbe58e6a75216a34c6b82c539b"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "event-listener"
-version = "2.5.3"
+version = "1.5.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0206175f82b8d6bf6652ff7d71a1e27fd2e4efde587fd368662814d6ec1d9ce0"
+checksum = "40404c3f5f511ec4da6fe866ddf6a717c309fdbb69fbbad7b0f3edab8f2e835f"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "event-listener"
-version = "5.4.1"
+version = "5.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e13b66accf52311f30a0db42147dadea9850cb48cd070028831ae5f5d4b856ab"
+checksum = "5a23add41df1562121a9393cb065eab5146a1242410f23a644851e90cfd669d2"
 dependencies = [
- "concurrent-queue",
  "parking",
  "pin-project-lite",
 ]
@@ -3254,7 +2938,7 @@ version = "0.5.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "8be9f3dfaaffdae2972880079a491a1a8bb7cbed0b8dd7a347f668b4150a3b93"
 dependencies = [
- "event-listener 5.4.1",
+ "event-listener",
  "pin-project-lite",
 ]
 
@@ -3264,47 +2948,11 @@ version = "0.2.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f8eb564c5c7423d25c886fb561d1e4ee69f72354d16918afa32c08811f6b6a55"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "fastdivide"
-version = "0.4.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9afc2bd4d5a73106dd53d10d73d3401c2f32730ba2c0b93ddb888a8983680471"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "fastrand"
-version = "1.9.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e51093e27b0797c359783294ca4f0a911c270184cb10f85783b118614a1501be"
-dependencies = [
- "instant",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "fastrand"
-version = "2.3.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "37909eebbb50d72f9059c3b6d82c0463f2ff062c9e95845c43a6c9c0355411be"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "ff"
-version = "0.12.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d013fc25338cc558c5c2cfbad646908fb23591e2404481826742b651c9af7160"
-dependencies = [
- "rand_core 0.6.4",
- "subtle",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "filetime"
-version = "0.2.27"
+version = "2.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f98844151eee8917efc50bd9e8318cb963ae8b297431495d3f758616ea5c57db"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "libc",
- "libredox",
-]
+checksum = "9f1f227452a390804cdb637b74a86990f2a7d7ba4b7d5693aac9b4dd6defd8d6"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "find-msvc-tools"
@@ -3336,7 +2984,7 @@ version = "25.12.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "35f6839d7b3b98adde531effaf34f0c2badc6f4735d26fe74709d8e513a96ef3"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "rustc_version",
 ]
 
@@ -3348,7 +2996,6 @@ checksum = "843fba2746e448b37e26a819579957415c8cef339bf08564fe8b7ddbd959573c"
 dependencies = [
  "crc32fast",
  "miniz_oxide",
- "zlib-rs",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3401,19 +3048,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "fragile"
-version = "2.0.1"
+version = "2.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "28dd6caf6059519a65843af8fe2a3ae298b14b80179855aeb4adc2c1934ee619"
+checksum = "8878864ba14bb86e818a412bfd6f18f9eabd4ec0f008a28e8f7eb61db532fcf9"
+dependencies = [
+ "futures-core",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "fs4"
-version = "0.8.4"
+name = "frostem"
+version = "1.20260804.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f7e180ac76c23b45e767bd7ae9579bc0bb458618c4bc71835926e098e61d15f8"
-dependencies = [
- "rustix 0.38.44",
- "windows-sys 0.52.0",
-]
+checksum = "6d0ae10cfccbae085dd8612669ccc116fe88bd5dfe39d202a8fa68c24c1e546f"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "fs_extra"
@@ -3423,12 +3069,10 @@ checksum = "42703706b716c37f96a77aea830392ad231f44c9e9a67872fa5548707e11b11c"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "fsst"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
- "lance-datagen",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "rand_xoshiro",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "test-log",
  "tokio",
 ]
@@ -3450,9 +3094,9 @@ checksum = "e6d5a32815ae3f33302d95fdcb2ce17862f8c65363dcfd29360480ba1001fc9c"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "65bc07b1a8bc7c85c5f2e110c476c7389b4554ba72af57d8445ea63a576b0876"
+checksum = "8b147ee9d1f6d097cef9ce628cd2ee62288d963e16fb287bd9286455b241382d"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
@@ -3465,9 +3109,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-channel"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2dff15bf788c671c1934e366d07e30c1814a8ef514e1af724a602e8a2fbe1b10"
+checksum = "07bbe89c50d7a535e539b8c17bc0b49bdb77747034daa8087407d655f3f7cc1d"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
@@ -3475,15 +3119,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-core"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "05f29059c0c2090612e8d742178b0580d2dc940c837851ad723096f87af6663e"
+checksum = "7e3450815272ef58cec6d564423f6e755e25379b217b0bc688e295ba24df6b1d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-executor"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e28d1d997f585e54aebc3f97d39e72338912123a67330d723fdbb564d646c9f"
+checksum = "baf29c38818342a3b26b5b923639e7b1f4a61fc5e76102d4b1981c6dc7a7579d"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-task",
@@ -3492,72 +3136,44 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-io"
-version = "0.3.31"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9e5c1b78ca4aae1ac06c48a526a655760685149f0d465d21f37abfe57ce075c6"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "futures-lite"
-version = "1.13.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "49a9d51ce47660b1e808d3c990b4709f2f415d928835a17dfd16991515c46bce"
-dependencies = [
- "fastrand 1.9.0",
- "futures-core",
- "futures-io",
- "memchr",
- "parking",
- "pin-project-lite",
- "waker-fn",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "futures-lite"
-version = "2.6.1"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f78e10609fe0e0b3f4157ffab1876319b5b0db102a2c60dc4626306dc46b44ad"
-dependencies = [
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
- "futures-core",
- "futures-io",
- "parking",
- "pin-project-lite",
-]
+checksum = "cecba35d7ad927e23624b22ad55235f2239cfa44fd10428eecbeba6d6a717718"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-macro"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "162ee34ebcb7c64a8abebc059ce0fee27c2262618d7b60ed8faf72fef13c3650"
+checksum = "e835b70203e41293343137df5c0664546da5745f82ec9b84d40be8336958447b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-sink"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e575fab7d1e0dcb8d0c7bcf9a63ee213816ab51902e6d244a95819acacf1d4f7"
+checksum = "c39754e157331b013978ec91992bde1ac089843443c49cbc7f46150b0fad0893"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-task"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f90f7dce0722e95104fcb095585910c0977252f286e354b5e3bd38902cd99988"
+checksum = "037711b3d59c33004d3856fbdc83b99d4ff37a24768fa1be9ce3538a1cde4393"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-timer"
-version = "3.0.3"
+version = "3.0.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f288b0a4f20f9a56b5d1da57e2227c661b7b16168e2f72365f57b63326e29b24"
+checksum = "af43fadb8a98512d547e37b4e92e0ced13e205c061b87b4623eff01d918d6968"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-util"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9fa08315bb612088cc391249efdc3bc77536f16c91f6cf495e6fbe85b20a4a81"
+checksum = "389ca41296e6190b48053de0321d02a77f32f8a5d2461dd38762c0593805c6d6"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
@@ -3567,18 +3183,26 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures-task",
  "memchr",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "pin-utils",
  "slab",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "gearhash"
+version = "0.1.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c8cf82cf76cd16485e56295a1377c775ce708c9f1a0be6b029076d60a245d213"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 0.1.10",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "generator"
-version = "0.8.8"
+version = "0.8.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "52f04ae4152da20c76fe800fa48659201d5cf627c5149ca0b707b69d7eef6cf9"
+checksum = "b3b854b0e584ead1a33f18b2fcad7cf7be18b3875c78816b753639aa501513ae"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "libc",
  "log",
  "rustversion",
@@ -3625,9 +3249,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geo-types"
-version = "0.7.18"
+version = "0.7.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "24f8647af4005fa11da47cd56252c6ef030be8fa97bdbf355e7dfb6348f0a82c"
+checksum = "94776032c45f950d30a13af6113c2ad5625316c9abfbccee4dd5a6695f8fe0f5"
 dependencies = [
  "approx",
  "num-traits",
@@ -3638,9 +3262,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geoarrow-array"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dc1cc4106ac0a0a512c398961ce95d8150475c84a84e17c4511c3643fa120a17"
+checksum = "dafe7b7de3fab1a8b7099fd6a6434ca955fa65065f9c19f0f8a133693f3c2b0e"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -3654,9 +3278,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geoarrow-expr-geo"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fa84300361ce57fb875bcaa6e32b95b0aff5c6b1af692b936bdd58ff343f4394"
+checksum = "8e4a62ac19c86827c6ec81ea584594b3ee96db5a8119b9774d3466c6b373c434"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -3668,9 +3292,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geoarrow-schema"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e97be4e9f523f92bd6a0e0458323f4b783d073d011664decd8dbf05651704f34"
+checksum = "4d4a7edb2a1d87024a93805332a9c8184a0354836271d42c0d18cf628a5e3cd0"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-schema",
  "geo-traits",
@@ -3681,12 +3305,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geodatafusion"
-version = "0.2.0"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "773cfa1fb0d7f7661b76b3fde00f3ffd8e0ff7b3635096f0ff6294fe5ca62a2b"
+checksum = "fecbdd00d0fff2b04635c1b1e4129c217908f0c2d17539e0a2275308afce2552"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-schema",
  "datafusion",
  "geo",
@@ -3701,41 +3326,30 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geographiclib-rs"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f611040a2bb37eaa29a78a128d1e92a378a03e0b6e66ae27398d42b1ba9a7841"
+checksum = "c5a7f08910fd98737a6eda7568e7c5e645093e073328eeef49758cfe8b0489c7"
 dependencies = [
  "libm",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geohash"
-version = "0.13.1"
+version = "0.13.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0fb94b1a65401d6cbf22958a9040aa364812c26674f841bee538b12c135db1e6"
+checksum = "7f58890382f70caccc5fa388981f7ac80c913795042afce9f3e065695d8f7464"
 dependencies = [
  "geo-types",
  "libm",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "getrandom"
-version = "0.1.16"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8fc3cb4d91f53b50155bdcfd23f6a4c39ae1969c2ae85982b135750cccaf5fce"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "libc",
- "wasi 0.9.0+wasi-snapshot-preview1",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "getrandom"
 version = "0.2.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ff2abc00be7fca6ebc474524697ae276ad847ad0a6b3faa4bcb027e9a4614ad0"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "js-sys",
  "libc",
  "wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1",
@@ -3748,11 +3362,23 @@ version = "0.3.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "899def5c37c4fd7b2664648c28120ecec138e4d395b459e5ca34f9cce2dd77fd"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "js-sys",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "libc",
- "r-efi",
+ "r-efi 5.3.0",
  "wasip2",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "getrandom"
+version = "0.4.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "300e883d756b2e4ec94e02791f39b04b522276138852cfc41d9fb7e904106099"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "js-sys",
+ "libc",
+ "r-efi 6.0.0",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
  "wasm-bindgen",
 ]
 
@@ -3762,6 +3388,26 @@ version = "0.32.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e629b9b98ef3dd8afe6ca2bd0f89306cec16d43d907889945bc5d6687f2f13c7"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "git-version"
+version = "0.3.9"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1ad568aa3db0fcbc81f2f116137f263d7304f512a1209b35b85150d3ef88ad19"
+dependencies = [
+ "git-version-macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "git-version-macro"
+version = "0.3.9"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "53010ccb100b96a67bc32c0175f0ed1426b31b655d562898e57325f81c023ac0"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "glob"
 version = "0.3.3"
@@ -3781,68 +3427,79 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "google-cloud-auth"
-version = "0.18.0"
+name = "goosefs-sdk"
+version = "0.1.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5572275b7f06b6fde8eec61a23d87c83aae362bee586bbeb8773b3f98658ae81"
+checksum = "e1ea4eee6dcbc31b25ab4fd577adc55b677d2bed3aa3016c44c58fbe1b2298a5"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
  "async-trait",
- "base64 0.22.1",
- "derive_builder 0.20.2",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "reqwest",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
- "rustls-pemfile",
+ "bytes",
+ "dashmap",
+ "fastrand",
+ "futures",
+ "hostname",
+ "io-uring",
+ "itoa",
+ "libc",
+ "lru 0.18.5",
+ "memmap2",
+ "moka",
+ "prost",
+ "prost-types",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
  "serde",
- "serde_json",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
- "time",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-stream",
+ "tonic",
+ "tonic-prost",
+ "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "xxhash-rust",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "group"
-version = "0.12.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5dfbfb3a6cfbd390d5c9564ab283a0349b9b9fcd46a706c1eb10e0db70bfbac7"
-dependencies = [
- "ff",
- "rand_core 0.6.4",
- "subtle",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "h2"
-version = "0.3.27"
+name = "goosefs-sdk"
+version = "0.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0beca50380b1fc32983fc1cb4587bfa4bb9e78fc259aad4a0032d2080309222d"
+checksum = "1e471f7bce40936cf2023855c7350e31e11b3f703eb7cb2ce73c9ffc451f87d2"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
+ "async-trait",
  "bytes",
- "fnv",
- "futures-core",
- "futures-sink",
- "futures-util",
- "http 0.2.12",
- "indexmap",
- "slab",
+ "dashmap",
+ "fastrand",
+ "futures",
+ "hostname",
+ "itoa",
+ "prost",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "serde",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-util",
+ "tokio-stream",
+ "tonic",
+ "tonic-prost",
  "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "xxhash-rust",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "h2"
-version = "0.4.13"
+version = "0.4.16"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2f44da3a8150a6703ed5d34e164b875fd14c2cdab9af1252a9a1020bde2bdc54"
+checksum = "a9f37a958b41b3b19ee2707c06439c0e9e547e847223eb791ecb0cb821c65e27"
 dependencies = [
  "atomic-waker",
  "bytes",
  "fnv",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "indexmap",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "slab",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-util",
@@ -3855,7 +3512,8 @@ version = "2.7.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6ea2d84b969582b4b1864a92dc5d27cd2b77b622a8d79306834f1be5ba20d84b"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "bytemuck",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "crunchy",
  "num-traits",
  "zerocopy",
@@ -3870,15 +3528,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "byteorder",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "hashbrown"
+version = "0.12.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "8a9ee70c43aaf417c914396645a0fa852624801b24ebb7ae78fe8272889ac888"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "hashbrown"
 version = "0.14.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e5274423e17b7c9fc20b6e7e208532f9b19825d82dfd615708b70edd83df41f1"
-dependencies = [
- "ahash",
- "allocator-api2",
-]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hashbrown"
@@ -3886,8 +3546,6 @@ version = "0.15.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9229cfe53dfd69f0609a49f65461bd93001ea1ef889cd5529dd176593f5338a1"
 dependencies = [
- "allocator-api2",
- "equivalent",
  "foldhash 0.1.5",
 ]
 
@@ -3902,6 +3560,23 @@ dependencies = [
  "foldhash 0.2.0",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "hashbrown"
+version = "0.17.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ed5909b6e89a2db4456e54cd5f673791d7eca6732202bbf2a9cc504fe2f9b84a"
+dependencies = [
+ "allocator-api2",
+ "equivalent",
+ "foldhash 0.2.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "heapify"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0049b265b7f201ca9ab25475b22b47fe444060126a51abe00f77d986fc5cc52e"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "heapless"
 version = "0.8.0"
@@ -3936,16 +3611,16 @@ version = "0.4.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "629d8f3bbeda9d148036d6b0de0a3ab947abd08ce90626327fc3547a49d59d97"
 dependencies = [
- "dirs 6.0.0",
+ "dirs",
  "futures",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "indicatif",
  "libc",
  "log",
  "native-tls",
  "num_cpus",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "reqwest",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
@@ -3955,28 +3630,58 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "hmac"
-version = "0.12.1"
+name = "hf-xet"
+version = "1.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6c49c37c09c17a53d937dfbb742eb3a961d65a994e6bcdcf37e7399d0cc8ab5e"
+checksum = "c237ef4fb0ce1962a5117f8bd8c74454b41629826a9df17d14a1840ca18f0754"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "xet-client",
+ "xet-core-structures",
+ "xet-data",
+ "xet-runtime",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "home"
-version = "0.5.12"
+name = "hmac"
+version = "0.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cc627f471c528ff0c4a49e1d5e60450c8f6461dd6d10ba9dcd3a61d3dff7728d"
+checksum = "6c49c37c09c17a53d937dfbb742eb3a961d65a994e6bcdcf37e7399d0cc8ab5e"
 dependencies = [
- "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "htmlescape"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "hmac"
+version = "0.13.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6303bc9732ae41b04cb554b844a762b4115a61bfaa81e3e83050991eeb56863f"
+dependencies = [
+ "digest 0.11.3",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "hostname"
+version = "0.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e9025058dae765dee5070ec375f591e2ba14638c63feff74f13805a72e523163"
+checksum = "617aaa3557aef3810a6369d0a99fac8a080891b68bd9f9812a1eeda0c0730cbd"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "libc",
+ "windows-link",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "http"
@@ -3991,9 +3696,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "http"
-version = "1.4.0"
+version = "1.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3ba2a386d7f85a81f119ad7498ebe444d2e22c2af0b86b069416ace48b3311a"
+checksum = "6970f50e31d6fc17d3fa27329444bfa74e196cf62e95052a3f6fee181dba6425"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "itoa",
@@ -4017,7 +3722,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1efedce1fb8e6913f23e0c92de8e62cd5b772a67e7b3946df930a62566c93184"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4028,31 +3733,11 @@ checksum = "b021d93e26becf5dc7e1b75b1bed1fd93124b374ceb73f43d4d4eafec896a64a"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "futures-core",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "pin-project-lite",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "http-types"
-version = "2.12.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6e9b187a72d63adbfba487f48095306ac823049cb504ee195541e91c7775f5ad"
-dependencies = [
- "anyhow",
- "async-channel 1.9.0",
- "base64 0.13.1",
- "futures-lite 1.13.0",
- "infer",
- "pin-project-lite",
- "rand 0.7.3",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "serde_qs",
- "serde_urlencoded",
- "url",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "httparse"
 version = "1.10.1"
@@ -4067,52 +3752,36 @@ checksum = "df3b46402a9d5adb4c86a0cf463f42e19994e3ee891101b1841f30a545cb49a9"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "humantime"
-version = "2.3.0"
+version = "2.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "135b12329e5e3ce057a9f972339ea52bc954fe1e9358ef27f95e89716fbc5424"
+checksum = "15cdd26707701c53297e2fa6afb323d55fbc1d0810c3aec078ae3ef0424c3c15"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "hyper"
-version = "0.14.32"
+name = "hybrid-array"
+version = "0.4.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "41dfc780fdec9373c01bae43289ea34c972e40ee3c9f6b3c8801a35f35586ce7"
+checksum = "9155a582abd142abc056962c29e3ce5ff2ad5469f4246b537ed42c5deba857da"
 dependencies = [
- "bytes",
- "futures-channel",
- "futures-core",
- "futures-util",
- "h2 0.3.27",
- "http 0.2.12",
- "http-body 0.4.6",
- "httparse",
- "httpdate",
- "itoa",
- "pin-project-lite",
- "socket2 0.5.10",
- "tokio",
- "tower-service",
- "tracing",
- "want",
+ "typenum",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hyper"
-version = "1.8.1"
+version = "1.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2ab2d4f250c3d7b1c9fcdff1cece94ea4e2dfbec68614f7b87cb205f24ca9d11"
+checksum = "55281c53a1894c864990125767da440a4e630446785086f52523b20033b74498"
 dependencies = [
  "atomic-waker",
  "bytes",
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
- "h2 0.4.13",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "h2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "httparse",
  "httpdate",
  "itoa",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "pin-utils",
  "smallvec",
  "tokio",
  "want",
@@ -4120,35 +3789,32 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hyper-rustls"
-version = "0.24.2"
+version = "0.27.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ec3efd23720e2049821a693cbc7e65ea87c72f1c58ff2f9522ff332b1491e590"
+checksum = "33ca68d021ef39cf6463ab54c1d0f5daf03377b70561305bb89a8f83aab66e0f"
 dependencies = [
- "futures-util",
- "http 0.2.12",
- "hyper 0.14.32",
- "log",
- "rustls 0.21.12",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-util",
+ "rustls",
+ "rustls-native-certs",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-rustls 0.24.1",
+ "tokio-rustls",
+ "tower-service",
+ "webpki-roots 1.0.8",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "hyper-rustls"
-version = "0.27.7"
+name = "hyper-timeout"
+version = "0.5.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3c93eb611681b207e1fe55d5a71ecf91572ec8a6705cdb6857f7d8d5242cf58"
+checksum = "2b90d566bffbce6a75bd8b09a05aa8c2cb1fabb6cb348f8840c9e4c90a0d83b0"
 dependencies = [
- "http 1.4.0",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
+ "hyper",
  "hyper-util",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
- "rustls-native-certs",
- "rustls-pki-types",
+ "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-rustls 0.26.4",
  "tower-service",
- "webpki-roots 1.0.6",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4159,7 +3825,7 @@ checksum = "70206fc6890eaca9fde8a0bf71caa2ddfc9fe045ac9e5c70df101a7dbde866e0"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "http-body-util",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
+ "hyper",
  "hyper-util",
  "native-tls",
  "tokio",
@@ -4177,14 +3843,14 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
+ "hyper",
  "ipnet",
  "libc",
  "percent-encoding",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "socket2 0.6.2",
+ "socket2",
  "system-configuration",
  "tokio",
  "tower-service",
@@ -4270,35 +3936,58 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_collections"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4c6b649701667bbe825c3b7e6388cb521c23d88644678e83c0c4d0a621a34b43"
+checksum = "2984d1cd16c883d7935b9e07e44071dca8d917fd52ecc02c04d5fa0b5a3f191c"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "potential_utf",
+ "utf8_iter",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_locale"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d5a396343c7208121dc86e35623d3dfe19814a7613cfd14964994cdc9c9a2e26"
+dependencies = [
+ "icu_collections",
+ "icu_locale_core",
+ "icu_locale_data",
+ "icu_provider",
+ "potential_utf",
+ "tinystr",
+ "zerovec",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_locale_core"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "edba7861004dd3714265b4db54a3c390e880ab658fec5f7db895fae2046b5bb6"
+checksum = "92219b62b3e2b4d88ac5119f8904c10f8f61bf7e95b640d25ba3075e6cac2c29"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "litemap",
+ "serde",
  "tinystr",
  "writeable",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_locale_data"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d5fdcc9ac77c6d74ff5cf6e65ef3181d6af32003b16fce3a77fb451d2f695993"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_normalizer"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5f6c8828b67bf8908d82127b2054ea1b4427ff0230ee9141c54251934ab1b599"
+checksum = "c56e5ee99d6e3d33bd91c5d85458b6005a22140021cc324cea84dd0e72cff3b4"
 dependencies = [
  "icu_collections",
  "icu_normalizer_data",
@@ -4310,15 +3999,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_normalizer_data"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7aedcccd01fc5fe81e6b489c15b247b8b0690feb23304303a9e560f37efc560a"
+checksum = "da3be0ae77ea334f4da67c12f149704f19f81d1adf7c51cf482943e84a2bad38"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_properties"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "020bfc02fe870ec3a66d93e677ccca0562506e5872c650f893269e08615d74ec"
+checksum = "bee3b67d0ea5c2cca5003417989af8996f8604e34fb9ddf96208a033901e70de"
 dependencies = [
  "icu_collections",
  "icu_locale_core",
@@ -4330,18 +4019,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_properties_data"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "616c294cf8d725c6afcd8f55abc17c56464ef6211f9ed59cccffe534129c77af"
+checksum = "8e2bbb201e0c04f7b4b3e14382af113e17ba4f63e2c9d2ee626b720cbce54a14"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_provider"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "85962cf0ce02e1e0a629cc34e7ca3e373ce20dda4c4d7294bbd0bf1fdb59e614"
+checksum = "139c4cf31c8b5f33d7e199446eff9c1e02decfc2f0eec2c8d71f65befa45b421"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "icu_locale_core",
+ "serde",
+ "stable_deref_trait",
  "writeable",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
@@ -4349,6 +4040,27 @@ dependencies = [
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_segmenter"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "5c0794db0b1a86193ac9c48768d0e6c52c54448e0870ad87907d456ee0dac964"
+dependencies = [
+ "icu_collections",
+ "icu_locale",
+ "icu_provider",
+ "icu_segmenter_data",
+ "potential_utf",
+ "utf8_iter",
+ "zerovec",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_segmenter_data"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e4a2c462a4d927d512f5f882a033ddd62f33a05bb9f230d98f736ac3dc85938f"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "ident_case"
 version = "1.0.1"
@@ -4368,59 +4080,35 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "idna_adapter"
-version = "1.2.1"
+version = "1.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3acae9609540aa318d1bc588455225fb2085b9ed0c4f6bd0d9d5bcd86f1a0344"
+checksum = "cb68373c0d6620ef8105e855e7745e18b0d00d3bdb07fb532e434244cdb9a714"
 dependencies = [
  "icu_normalizer",
  "icu_properties",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "include-flate"
-version = "0.3.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e01b7cb6ca682a621e7cda1c358c9724b53a7b4409be9be1dd443b7f3a26f998"
-dependencies = [
- "include-flate-codegen",
- "include-flate-compress",
- "libflate",
- "zstd",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "include-flate-codegen"
-version = "0.3.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4f49bf5274aebe468d6e6eba14a977eaf1efa481dc173f361020de70c1c48050"
-dependencies = [
- "include-flate-compress",
- "libflate",
- "proc-macro-error",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
- "zstd",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "include-flate-compress"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "indexmap"
+version = "1.9.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eae6a40e716bcd5931f5dbb79cd921512a4f647e2e9413fded3171fca3824dbc"
+checksum = "bd070e393353796e801d209ad339e89596eb4c8d430d18ede6a1cced8fafbd99"
 dependencies = [
- "libflate",
- "zstd",
+ "autocfg",
+ "hashbrown 0.12.3",
+ "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "indexmap"
-version = "2.13.0"
+version = "2.14.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7714e70437a7dc3ac8eb7e6f8df75fd8eb422675fc7678aff7364301092b1017"
+checksum = "d466e9454f08e4a911e14806c24e16fba1b4c121d1ea474396f396069cf949d9"
 dependencies = [
  "equivalent",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4436,12 +4124,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "web-time",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "infer"
-version = "0.2.3"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64e9829a50b42bb782c1df523f78d332fe371b10c661e78b7a3c34b0198e9fac"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "inferno"
 version = "0.11.21"
@@ -4449,7 +4131,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "232929e1d75fe899576a3d5c7416ad0d88dbfbb3c3d6aa00873a7408a50ddb88"
 dependencies = [
  "ahash",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "is-terminal",
  "itoa",
  "log",
@@ -4470,15 +4152,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "generic-array",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "instant"
-version = "0.1.13"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e0242819d153cba4b4b05a5a8f2a7e9bbf97b6055b2a002b395c96b5ff3c0222"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "integer-encoding"
 version = "3.0.4"
@@ -4486,20 +4159,21 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "8bb03732005da905c88227371639bf1ad885cc712789c011c31c5fb3ab3ccf02"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "ipnet"
-version = "2.11.0"
+name = "io-uring"
+version = "0.7.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "469fb0b9cefa57e3ef31275ee7cacb78f2fdca44e4765491884a2b119d4eb130"
+checksum = "9080b15e63775b9a2ac7dca720f7050a8b955e092ea0f6020a4a80f69998cdc0"
+dependencies = [
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "libc",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "iri-string"
-version = "0.7.10"
+name = "ipnet"
+version = "2.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c91338f0783edbd6195decb37bae672fd3b165faffb89bf7b9e6942f8b1a731a"
-dependencies = [
- "memchr",
- "serde",
-]
+checksum = "d98f6fed1fde3f8c21bc40a1abb88dd75e67924f9cffc3ef95607bad8017f8e2"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "is-terminal"
@@ -4518,15 +4192,6 @@ version = "1.70.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a6cb138bb79a146c1bd460005623e142ef0181e3d0219cb493e02f7d08a35695"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "itertools"
-version = "0.10.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b0fd2260e829bddf4cb6ea802289de2f86d6a7a690192fbe91b3f46e0f2c8473"
-dependencies = [
- "either",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "itertools"
 version = "0.11.0"
@@ -4565,27 +4230,27 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "itoa"
-version = "1.0.17"
+version = "1.0.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "92ecc6618181def0457392ccd0ee51198e065e016d1d527a7ac1b6dc7c1f09d2"
+checksum = "8f42a60cbdf9a97f5d2305f08a87dc4e09308d1276d28c869c684d7777685682"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jieba-macros"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "348294e44ee7e3c42685da656490f8febc7359632544019621588902216da95c"
+checksum = "38fc0f3831de71556de69643b80a08a5c8cd260a23c6b8dbeb7cd923c779cac5"
 dependencies = [
  "phf_codegen",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jieba-rs"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.10.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "766bd7012aa5ba49411ebdf4e93bddd59b182d2918e085d58dec5bb9b54b7105"
+checksum = "bb5bdea4dc241d589e179f39d2a778f31490f3370aa2f626223dbd930ebc5c9d"
 dependencies = [
+ "bytecount",
  "cedarwood",
- "include-flate",
  "jieba-macros",
  "phf 0.13.1",
  "regex",
@@ -4594,35 +4259,37 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff"
-version = "0.2.19"
+version = "0.2.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d89a5b5e10d5a9ad6e5d1f4bd58225f655d6fe9767575a5e8ac5a6fe64e04495"
+checksum = "4603d3033e49e2b0e31229fcab20a5d40089c607d975cd9c80551dc69eed9102"
 dependencies = [
  "jiff-static",
  "jiff-tzdb-platform",
+ "js-sys",
  "log",
  "portable-atomic",
  "portable-atomic-util",
  "serde_core",
- "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "windows-link",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff-static"
-version = "0.2.19"
+version = "0.2.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ff7a39c8862fc1369215ccf0a8f12dd4598c7f6484704359f0351bd617034dbf"
+checksum = "782d32378dddf207193ac91cefb848ad41abb58195c95168e1291227a0832b47"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff-tzdb"
-version = "0.1.5"
+version = "0.1.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "68971ebff725b9e2ca27a601c5eb38a4c5d64422c4cbab0c535f248087eda5c2"
+checksum = "c900ef84826f1338a557697dc8fc601df9ca9af4ac137c7fb61d4c6f2dfd3076"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff-tzdb-platform"
@@ -4633,6 +4300,55 @@ dependencies = [
  "jiff-tzdb",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "jni"
+version = "0.22.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "5efd9a482cf3a427f00d6b35f14332adc7902ce91efb778580e180ff90fa3498"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "combine",
+ "jni-macros",
+ "jni-sys",
+ "log",
+ "simd_cesu8",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "walkdir",
+ "windows-link",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jni-macros"
+version = "0.22.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a00109accc170f0bdb141fed3e393c565b6f5e072365c3bd58f5b062591560a3"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "rustc_version",
+ "simd_cesu8",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jni-sys"
+version = "0.4.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c6377a88cb3910bee9b0fa88d4f42e1d2da8e79915598f65fb0c7ee14c878af2"
+dependencies = [
+ "jni-sys-macros",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jni-sys-macros"
+version = "0.4.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "38c0b942f458fe50cdac086d2f946512305e5631e720728f2a61aabcd47a6264"
+dependencies = [
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "jobserver"
 version = "0.1.34"
@@ -4645,19 +4361,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "js-sys"
-version = "0.3.85"
+version = "0.3.102"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8c942ebf8e95485ca0d52d97da7c5a2c387d0e7f0ba4c35e93bfcaee045955b3"
+checksum = "03d04c30968dffe80775bd4d7fb676131cd04a1fb46d2686dbffbaec2d9dfd31"
 dependencies = [
- "once_cell",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "futures-util",
  "wasm-bindgen",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jsonb"
-version = "0.5.5"
+version = "0.5.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a901f06163d352fbe41c3c2ff5e08b75330a003cc941e988fb501022f5421e6"
+checksum = "eb98fb29636087c40ad0d1274d9a30c0c1e83e03ae93f6e7e89247b37fcc6953"
 dependencies = [
  "byteorder",
  "ethnum",
@@ -4666,47 +4383,51 @@ dependencies = [
  "jiff",
  "nom 8.0.0",
  "num-traits",
- "ordered-float 5.1.0",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "ryu",
+ "ordered-float 5.3.0",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
+ "zmij",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "jsonwebtoken"
-version = "9.3.1"
+name = "kanaria"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5a87cc7a48537badeae96744432de36f4be2b4a34a05a5ef32e9dd8a1c169dde"
+checksum = "c0f9d9652540055ac4fded998a73aca97d965899077ab1212587437da44196ff"
 dependencies = [
- "base64 0.22.1",
- "js-sys",
- "pem",
- "ring",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "simple_asn1",
+ "bitflags 1.3.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "kanaria"
-version = "0.2.0"
+name = "konst"
+version = "0.4.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c0f9d9652540055ac4fded998a73aca97d965899077ab1212587437da44196ff"
+checksum = "f660d5f887e3562f9ab6f4a14988795b694099d66b4f5dedc02d197ba9becb1d"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 1.3.2",
+ "const_panic",
+ "konst_proc_macros",
+ "typewit",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "konst_proc_macros"
+version = "0.4.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e037a2e1d8d5fdbd49b16a4ea09d5d6401c1f29eca5ff29d03d3824dba16256a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lance"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "all_asserts",
  "approx",
+ "arc-swap",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-row",
@@ -4719,11 +4440,13 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-sdk-dynamodb",
  "aws-sdk-s3",
+ "blake3",
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "clap",
  "criterion",
+ "crossbeam-queue",
  "crossbeam-skiplist",
  "dashmap",
  "datafusion",
@@ -4731,53 +4454,59 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "deepsize",
- "dirs 5.0.1",
+ "datafusion-substrait",
  "either",
  "env_logger",
+ "fst",
  "futures",
  "geo-types",
  "geoarrow-array",
  "geoarrow-schema",
  "half",
  "humantime",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "lance-arrow",
+ "lance-bitpacking",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-datafusion",
  "lance-datagen",
  "lance-encoding",
  "lance-file",
- "lance-geo",
  "lance-index",
  "lance-io",
  "lance-linalg",
  "lance-namespace",
+ "lance-select",
  "lance-table",
  "lance-test-macros",
  "lance-testing",
- "lapack",
+ "lance-tokenizer",
  "libc",
  "log",
  "lzma-sys",
  "mock_instant",
  "moka",
  "object_store",
- "paste",
+ "parquet",
  "permutation",
  "pin-project",
  "pprof",
  "pretty_assertions",
  "prost",
+ "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "protobuf-src",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rayon",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
  "roaring",
- "rstest 0.23.0",
+ "rstest",
+ "rustc-hash",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
+ "serial_test",
  "snafu",
- "tantivy",
  "tempfile",
  "test-log",
  "tokio",
@@ -4793,62 +4522,94 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-arrow"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
+ "bytemuck",
  "bytes",
+ "futures",
  "getrandom 0.2.17",
  "half",
  "jsonb",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "lance-bitpacking"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
-dependencies = [
- "arrayref",
- "paste",
- "seq-macro",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lance-core"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+name = "lance-arrow-scalar"
+version = "58.0.0"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-schema",
+ "arrow-cast",
+ "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ord",
+ "arrow-row",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "half",
+ "proptest",
+ "rstest",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-arrow-stats"
+version = "58.0.0"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "arrow-select",
+ "lance-arrow-scalar",
+ "proptest",
+ "rstest",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-bitpacking"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrayref",
+ "bitpacking",
+ "crunchy",
+ "paste",
+ "seq-macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-core"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
- "byteorder",
+ "blake3",
  "bytes",
- "chrono",
+ "criterion",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-sql",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
  "lance-arrow",
- "lance-testing",
+ "lance-derive",
  "libc",
+ "libm",
  "log",
- "mock_instant",
  "moka",
  "num_cpus",
  "object_store",
  "pin-project",
  "proptest",
  "prost",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "quick_cache",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "roaring",
- "rstest 0.23.0",
+ "rstest",
  "serde_json",
  "snafu",
  "tempfile",
@@ -4856,16 +4617,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "tokio-stream",
  "tokio-util",
  "tracing",
+ "twox-hash",
  "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-datafusion"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
@@ -4877,6 +4640,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-substrait",
  "futures",
+ "half",
  "jsonb",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
@@ -4885,14 +4649,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "log",
  "pin-project",
  "prost",
- "snafu",
+ "prost-build",
+ "protobuf-src",
+ "rstest",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-datagen"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -4903,16 +4669,25 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "half",
  "hex",
- "pprof",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "rand_distr 0.5.1",
+ "lance-testing",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rand_distr",
  "rand_xoshiro",
- "random_word",
+ "rstest",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-derive"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-encoding"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -4930,7 +4705,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "hex",
  "hyperloglogplus",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-bitpacking",
  "lance-core",
@@ -4939,17 +4714,14 @@ dependencies = [
  "log",
  "lz4",
  "num-traits",
- "pprof",
  "proptest",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
- "prost-types",
  "protobuf-src",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "rand_xoshiro",
- "rstest 0.23.0",
- "snafu",
- "strum 0.26.3",
+ "rstest",
+ "serial_test",
  "test-log",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
@@ -4959,7 +4731,7 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-examples"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "all_asserts",
  "arrow",
@@ -4969,7 +4741,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "env_logger",
  "futures",
  "hf-hub",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "lance",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-datagen",
@@ -4977,7 +4749,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "lance-linalg",
  "object_store",
  "parquet",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "tempfile",
  "tokenizers",
  "tokio",
@@ -4985,11 +4757,12 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-file"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-data",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
@@ -4999,7 +4772,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "criterion",
  "datafusion-common",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
@@ -5011,16 +4783,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "log",
  "num-traits",
  "object_store",
- "pprof",
  "pretty_assertions",
  "proptest",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
  "protobuf-src",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "rstest 0.23.0",
- "snafu",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rstest",
+ "serde",
  "test-log",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
@@ -5028,7 +4799,7 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-geo"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "datafusion",
  "geo-traits",
@@ -5042,19 +4813,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-index"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "approx",
+ "arc-swap",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
- "async-channel 2.5.0",
+ "async-channel",
  "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
- "bitpacking",
  "bitvec",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
@@ -5064,9 +4836,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
- "datafusion-sql",
- "deepsize",
- "dirs 6.0.0",
+ "dirs",
  "env_logger",
  "fst",
  "futures",
@@ -5075,43 +4845,48 @@ dependencies = [
  "geoarrow-array",
  "geoarrow-schema",
  "half",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "hex",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "jieba-rs",
  "jsonb",
  "lance-arrow",
+ "lance-arrow-stats",
+ "lance-bitpacking",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-datafusion",
  "lance-datagen",
  "lance-encoding",
  "lance-file",
  "lance-geo",
+ "lance-index-core",
  "lance-io",
  "lance-linalg",
+ "lance-select",
  "lance-table",
  "lance-testing",
- "libm",
- "lindera",
- "lindera-tantivy",
+ "lance-tokenizer",
+ "libc",
+ "libsais-rs",
  "log",
  "ndarray",
  "num-traits",
  "object_store",
- "pprof",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
  "protobuf-src",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "rand_distr 0.5.1",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rand_distr",
  "rangemap",
  "rayon",
+ "regex-syntax",
  "roaring",
- "rstest 0.23.0",
+ "rstest",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
+ "serial_test",
  "smallvec",
- "snafu",
- "tantivy",
  "tempfile",
  "test-log",
  "tokio",
@@ -5120,19 +4895,36 @@ dependencies = [
  "uuid",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-index-core"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "arrow-select",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "datafusion",
+ "datafusion-common",
+ "datafusion-expr",
+ "futures",
+ "lance-core",
+ "lance-io",
+ "lance-select",
+ "prost-types",
+ "roaring",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "tokio",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-io"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
- "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
  "arrow-schema",
- "arrow-select",
- "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
  "aws-config",
  "aws-credential-types",
@@ -5140,35 +4932,47 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "criterion",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
- "lance-arrow",
+ "goosefs-sdk 0.2.2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "io-uring",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-namespace",
+ "lance-testing",
  "log",
+ "metrics",
+ "metrics-util",
  "mock_instant",
  "mockall",
+ "moka",
  "object_store",
  "object_store_opendal",
  "opendal",
+ "opendal-service-goosefs",
  "path_abs",
  "pin-project",
- "pprof",
  "prost",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "rstest 0.23.0",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "reqsign-google",
+ "rstest",
  "serde",
- "shellexpand",
- "snafu",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serial_test",
+ "tempfile",
  "test-log",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
+ "tracing-mock",
  "url",
+ "uuid",
+ "wiremock",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-linalg"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "approx",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -5176,42 +4980,40 @@ dependencies = [
  "arrow-schema",
  "cc",
  "criterion",
- "deepsize",
  "half",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-testing",
  "num-traits",
- "pprof",
  "proptest",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rayon",
+ "rstest",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
  "bytes",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-namespace-reqwest-client",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
  "snafu",
- "tempfile",
- "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace-datafusion"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
- "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
  "dashmap",
  "datafusion",
- "datafusion-sql",
  "lance",
  "lance-namespace",
  "lance-namespace-impls",
@@ -5221,64 +5023,84 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace-impls"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
  "aws-config",
- "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-sdk-sts",
  "axum",
- "azure_core",
- "azure_identity",
- "azure_storage",
- "azure_storage_blobs",
  "base64 0.22.1",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
+ "datafusion-common",
+ "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "futures",
- "google-cloud-auth",
+ "hmac 0.12.1",
  "lance",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-index",
  "lance-io",
+ "lance-linalg",
  "lance-namespace",
+ "lance-table",
  "log",
  "object_store",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "reqwest",
- "rstest 0.23.0",
+ "quick-xml 0.40.1",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
+ "ring",
+ "roaring",
+ "rstest",
+ "rustls-pki-types",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "sha2",
- "snafu",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "tempfile",
- "time",
  "tokio",
  "tower",
  "tower-http 0.5.2",
  "url",
+ "uuid",
  "wiremock",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace-reqwest-client"
-version = "0.4.5"
+version = "0.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a2acdba67f84190067532fce07b51a435dd390d7cdc1129a05003e5cb3274cf0"
+checksum = "828f291764feda98898452bea4ce3756b73e5d5c7c67b62edda27456b7cc72c1"
 dependencies = [
- "reqwest",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_repr",
+ "serde_with",
  "url",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-select"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "byteorder",
+ "criterion",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "lance-core",
+ "proptest",
+ "roaring",
+ "tracing",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-table"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -5288,30 +5110,31 @@ dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-sdk-dynamodb",
+ "blake3",
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "criterion",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-datagen",
  "lance-file",
  "lance-io",
+ "lance-select",
+ "lance-testing",
  "log",
  "object_store",
- "pprof",
  "pretty_assertions",
  "proptest",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
  "protobuf-src",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "rangemap",
  "roaring",
- "rstest 0.23.0",
+ "rstest",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
@@ -5324,73 +5147,61 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-test-macros"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-testing"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-schema",
+ "criterion",
  "lance-arrow",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "pprof",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-tokenizer"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "frostem",
+ "icu_segmenter",
+ "jieba-rs",
+ "lindera",
+ "serde",
+ "stop-words",
+ "unicode-normalization",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-tools"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "clap",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-file",
  "lance-io",
  "object_store",
- "snafu",
  "tokio",
  "url",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "lapack"
-version = "0.19.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ad676a6b4df7e76a9fd80a0c50c619a3948d6105b62a0ab135f064d99c51d207"
-dependencies = [
- "lapack-sys",
- "libc",
- "num-complex",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "lapack-sys"
-version = "0.14.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "447f56c85fb410a7a3d36701b2153c1018b1d2b908c5fbaf01c1b04fac33bcbe"
-dependencies = [
- "libc",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "lazy_static"
 version = "1.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "bbd2bcb4c963f2ddae06a2efc7e9f3591312473c50c6685e1f298068316e66fe"
 dependencies = [
- "spin 0.9.8",
+ "spin 0.9.9",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "levenshtein_automata"
-version = "0.2.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0c2cdeb66e45e9f36bfad5bbdb4d2384e70936afbee843c6f6543f0c551ebb25"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "lexical-core"
 version = "1.0.6"
@@ -5450,33 +5261,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libc"
-version = "0.2.180"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bcc35a38544a891a5f7c865aca548a982ccb3b8650a5b06d0fd33a10283c56fc"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "libflate"
-version = "2.2.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3248b8d211bd23a104a42d81b4fa8bb8ac4a3b75e7a43d85d2c9ccb6179cd74"
-dependencies = [
- "adler32",
- "core2",
- "crc32fast",
- "dary_heap",
- "libflate_lz77",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "libflate_lz77"
-version = "2.2.0"
+version = "0.2.189"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a599cb10a9cd92b1300debcef28da8f70b935ec937f44fcd1b70a7c986a11c5c"
-dependencies = [
- "core2",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
- "rle-decode-fast",
-]
+checksum = "3eaf3ede3fee6db1a4c2ee091bf8a8b4dccdc6d17f656fb07896ee72867612f2"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libm"
@@ -5486,182 +5273,114 @@ checksum = "b6d2cec3eae94f9f509c767b45932f1ada8350c4bdb85af2fcab4a3c14807981"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libredox"
-version = "0.1.12"
+version = "0.1.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3d0b95e02c851351f877147b7deea7b1afb1df71b63aa5f8270716e0c5720616"
+checksum = "f02ab6bace2054fb888a3c16f990117b579d14a3088e472d63c6011fa185c9d3"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
  "libc",
- "redox_syscall 0.7.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "libsais-rs"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "40fe164dbd47ea0c20e78a121c980ef673326905f1d4fba55e3645a20ef6717f"
+dependencies = [
+ "rayon",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lindera"
-version = "0.44.1"
+version = "3.0.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "50aba4ef41052280722f2120f65606b9218e8718032a3c752b953c4d8091f02e"
+checksum = "74cda79d7161e99b414e4d292ff673cc3f8d22f070d8be3b6185c033363a9216"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
- "bincode",
  "byteorder",
  "csv",
+ "daachorse",
  "kanaria",
- "lindera-cc-cedict",
  "lindera-dictionary",
- "lindera-ipadic",
- "lindera-ipadic-neologd",
- "lindera-ko-dic",
- "lindera-unidic",
+ "log",
  "once_cell",
+ "percent-encoding",
  "regex",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "serde_yaml",
- "strum 0.27.2",
- "strum_macros 0.27.2",
+ "serde_yaml_ng",
+ "strum",
+ "strum_macros",
  "unicode-blocks",
  "unicode-normalization",
  "unicode-segmentation",
- "yada",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "lindera-cc-cedict"
-version = "0.44.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5d77e7a0830fd60f23828ad914439997288c1d2cdd9e269be67f967c27b56350"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
+ "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lindera-dictionary"
-version = "0.44.1"
+version = "3.0.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "489cc70922782af3fd397c0e130846caefe1c15b27c2211aac8f88a9f4590aaf"
+checksum = "e2385456ca9fe87c29072c5f156b52fdd5e28d5b5738ddfb3979501dbd736530"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
- "bincode",
  "byteorder",
  "csv",
+ "daachorse",
  "derive_builder 0.20.2",
- "encoding",
  "encoding_rs",
  "encoding_rs_io",
- "flate2",
  "glob",
  "log",
- "md5",
  "memmap2",
+ "num_cpus",
  "once_cell",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "reqwest",
+ "regex",
+ "rkyv",
  "serde",
- "tar",
+ "serde_json",
+ "strum",
+ "strum_macros",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
- "tokio",
- "yada",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lindera-ipadic"
-version = "0.44.1"
+name = "link-section"
+version = "0.18.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "78870521431dfaf0f94ddd3484fa08367e9d354fc8c708572f2f00007225ddfa"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
-]
+checksum = "c2b1dd6fe32e55c0fc0ea9493aa57459ca3cf4ff3c857c7d0302290150da6e4f"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lindera-ipadic-neologd"
-version = "0.44.1"
+name = "linktime-proc-macro"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "abcb3dc3056e5c683e12c2c5e8d40076f7ecfd7bd46f5fc0e4ae9e58152b5d85"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
-]
+checksum = "8c7b0a3383c2a1002d11349c92c85a666a5fb679e96c79d782cf0dbe557fd6ee"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lindera-ko-dic"
-version = "0.44.1"
+name = "linux-raw-sys"
+version = "0.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e99316158bab14f0256d912055521ca784f76c63e7460db8a74775c5dc1f8bc2"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
-]
+checksum = "32a66949e030da00e8c7d4434b251670a91556f4144941d37452769c25d58a53"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lindera-tantivy"
-version = "0.44.1"
+name = "litemap"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6d0d17afa51b4f4cd2f3e50d4c0845800f3a774ed7f706612fbd91eba0c84b41"
-dependencies = [
- "lindera",
- "tantivy",
- "tantivy-tokenizer-api",
-]
+checksum = "92daf443525c4cce67b150400bc2316076100ce0b3686209eb8cf3c31612e6f0"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lindera-unidic"
-version = "0.44.1"
+name = "lock_api"
+version = "0.4.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "52672945166c14276bbba25e4ec79d7e126db1b503c0a6aa07ffc0141ae15cfa"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "linux-raw-sys"
-version = "0.4.15"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d26c52dbd32dccf2d10cac7725f8eae5296885fb5703b261f7d0a0739ec807ab"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "linux-raw-sys"
-version = "0.11.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "df1d3c3b53da64cf5760482273a98e575c651a67eec7f77df96b5b642de8f039"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "litemap"
-version = "0.8.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6373607a59f0be73a39b6fe456b8192fcc3585f602af20751600e974dd455e77"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "lock_api"
-version = "0.4.14"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "224399e74b87b5f3557511d98dff8b14089b3dadafcab6bb93eab67d3aace965"
+checksum = "224399e74b87b5f3557511d98dff8b14089b3dadafcab6bb93eab67d3aace965"
 dependencies = [
  "scopeguard",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "log"
-version = "0.4.29"
+version = "0.4.33"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5e5032e24019045c762d3c0f28f5b6b8bbf38563a65908389bf7978758920897"
+checksum = "0ceec5bc11778974d1bcb055b18002eba7f4b3518b6a0081b3af5f21666da9ad"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "loom"
@@ -5669,7 +5388,7 @@ version = "0.7.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "419e0dc8046cb947daa77eb95ae174acfbddb7673b4151f56d1eed8e93fbfaca"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "generator",
  "scoped-tls",
  "tracing",
@@ -5678,20 +5397,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lru"
-version = "0.12.5"
+version = "0.16.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "234cf4f4a04dc1f57e24b96cc0cd600cf2af460d4161ac5ecdd0af8e1f3b2a38"
+checksum = "7f66e8d5d03f609abc3a39e6f08e4164ebf1447a732906d39eb9b99b7919ef39"
 dependencies = [
- "hashbrown 0.15.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lru"
-version = "0.16.3"
+version = "0.18.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a1dc47f592c06f33f8e3aea9591776ec7c9f9e4124778ff8a3c3b87159f7e593"
+checksum = "ef9ac18847474e638e3702b76c65d4eb93428471a74778ef0f1be711717f89b5"
 dependencies = [
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5721,15 +5440,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lz4_flex"
-version = "0.11.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "08ab2867e3eeeca90e844d1940eab391c9dc5228783db2ed999acbc0a9ed375a"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "lz4_flex"
-version = "0.12.0"
+version = "0.13.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ab6473172471198271ff72e9379150e9dfd70d8e533e0752a27e515b48dd375e"
+checksum = "7ef0d4ed8669f8f8826eb00dc878084aa8f253506c4fd5e8f58f5bce72ddb97e"
 dependencies = [
  "twox-hash",
 ]
@@ -5795,40 +5508,74 @@ version = "0.10.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "d89e7ee0cfbedfc4da3340218492196241d89eefb6dab27de5df917a6d2e78cf"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "digest",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "md5"
-version = "0.8.0"
+name = "md-5"
+version = "0.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ae960838283323069879657ca3de837e9f7bbb4c7bf6ea7f1b290d5e9476d2e0"
+checksum = "69b6441f590336821bb897fb28fc622898ccceb1d6cea3fde5ea86b090c4de98"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "measure_time"
-version = "0.9.0"
+name = "mea"
+version = "0.6.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "51c55d61e72fc3ab704396c5fa16f4c184db37978ae4e94ca8959693a235fc0e"
+checksum = "2640d335e7273dacdcf51044026139b2e269c3bb0dfc3f8cb3496b85e3f6a42c"
 dependencies = [
- "log",
+ "slab",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "memchr"
-version = "2.7.6"
+version = "2.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f52b00d39961fc5b2736ea853c9cc86238e165017a493d1d5c8eac6bdc4cc273"
+checksum = "88904434abc2901f197fe8cc55f0445e7ded921dba5911dad2e2b39b48e663c4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "memmap2"
-version = "0.9.9"
+version = "0.9.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "744133e4a0e0a658e1374cf3bf8e415c4052a15a111acd372764c55b4177d490"
+checksum = "d1219ed1b7f229ee7104d281dd01d6802fe28bb6e95d292942c4daacdeb798c0"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "metrics"
+version = "0.24.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "89550ee9f79e88fef3119de263694973a8adb26c21d75322164fb8c493039fe2"
+dependencies = [
+ "portable-atomic",
+ "rapidhash",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "metrics-util"
+version = "0.19.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b8496cc523d1f94c1385dd8f0f0c2c480b2b8aeccb5b7e4485ad6365523ae376"
+dependencies = [
+ "aho-corasick",
+ "crossbeam-epoch",
+ "crossbeam-utils",
+ "hashbrown 0.15.5",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "metrics",
+ "ordered-float 4.6.0",
+ "quanta",
+ "radix_trie",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rand_xoshiro",
+ "sketches-ddsketch",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "mime"
 version = "0.3.17"
@@ -5863,9 +5610,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "mio"
-version = "1.1.1"
+version = "1.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a69bcab0ad47271a0234d9422b131806bf3968021e5dc9328caf2d4cd58557fc"
+checksum = "02bd0af71c67b473010cbbc60715ee815645a4dc942899111f494b4b737d6fda"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
  "wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1",
@@ -5874,17 +5621,17 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "mock_instant"
-version = "0.6.0"
+version = "0.6.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dce6dd36094cac388f119d2e9dc82dc730ef91c32a6222170d630e5414b956e6"
+checksum = "9bb517913cfcfb9eeda59f36020269075a152701a01606c612f547e4890be399"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "mockall"
-version = "0.13.1"
+version = "0.14.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "39a6bfcc6c8c7eed5ee98b9c3e33adc726054389233e201c95dab2d41a3839d2"
+checksum = "f58d964098a5f9c6b63d0798e5372fd04708193510a7af313c22e9f29b7b620b"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "downcast",
  "fragile",
  "mockall_derive",
@@ -5894,28 +5641,28 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "mockall_derive"
-version = "0.13.1"
+version = "0.14.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "25ca3004c2efe9011bd4e461bd8256445052b9615405b4f7ea43fc8ca5c20898"
+checksum = "ca41ce716dda6a9be188b385aa78ee5260fc25cd3802cb2a8afdc6afbe6b6dbf"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "moka"
-version = "0.12.13"
+version = "0.12.15"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b4ac832c50ced444ef6be0767a008b02c106a909ba79d1d830501e94b96f6b7e"
+checksum = "957228ad12042ee839f93c8f257b62b4c0ab5eaae1d4fa60de53b27c9d7c5046"
 dependencies = [
  "async-lock",
  "crossbeam-channel",
  "crossbeam-epoch",
  "crossbeam-utils",
  "equivalent",
- "event-listener 5.4.1",
+ "event-listener",
  "futures-util",
  "parking_lot",
  "portable-atomic",
@@ -5943,9 +5690,15 @@ checksum = "e4db6d5580af57bf992f59068d4ea26fd518574ff48d7639b255a36f9de6e7e9"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "more-asserts"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1fafa6961cabd9c63bcd77a45d7e3b7f3b552b70417831fb0f56db717e72407e"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "multimap"
 version = "0.10.1"
@@ -5953,24 +5706,38 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1d87ecb2933e8aeadb3e3a02b828fed80a7528047e68b4f424523a0981a3a084"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "murmurhash32"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "munge"
+version = "0.4.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "5e17401f259eba956ca16491461b6e8f72913a0a114e39736ce404410f915a0c"
+dependencies = [
+ "munge_macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "munge_macro"
+version = "0.4.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2195bf6aa996a481483b29d62a7663eed3fe39600c460e323f8ff41e90bdd89b"
+checksum = "4568f25ccbd45ab5d5603dc34318c1ec56b117531781260002151b8530a9f931"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "native-tls"
-version = "0.2.14"
+version = "0.2.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "87de3442987e9dbec73158d5c715e7ad9072fda936bb03d19d7fa10e00520f0e"
+checksum = "465500e14ea162429d264d44189adc38b199b62b1c21eea9f69e4b73cb03bbf2"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
  "log",
  "openssl",
- "openssl-probe 0.1.6",
+ "openssl-probe",
  "openssl-sys",
  "schannel",
- "security-framework 2.11.1",
+ "security-framework",
  "security-framework-sys",
  "tempfile",
 ]
@@ -5990,6 +5757,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "rawpointer",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "nibble_vec"
+version = "0.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "77a5d83df9f36fe23f0c3648c6bbb8b0298bb5f1939c8f2704431371f4b84d43"
+dependencies = [
+ "smallvec",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "nix"
 version = "0.26.4"
@@ -5997,7 +5773,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "598beaf3cc6fdd9a5dfb1630c2800c7acd31df7aaf0f565796fba2b53ca1af1b"
 dependencies = [
  "bitflags 1.3.2",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "libc",
 ]
 
@@ -6020,6 +5796,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "ntapi"
+version = "0.4.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c3b335231dfd352ffb0f8017f3b6027a4917f7df785ea2143d8af2adc66980ae"
+dependencies = [
+ "winapi",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "nu-ansi-term"
 version = "0.50.3"
@@ -6050,7 +5835,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "num-integer",
  "num-iter",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.8.5",
+ "rand 0.8.6",
  "smallvec",
  "zeroize",
 ]
@@ -6066,9 +5851,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num-conv"
-version = "0.2.0"
+version = "0.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cf97ec579c3c42f953ef76dbf8d55ac91fb219dde70e49aa4a6b7d74e9919050"
+checksum = "521739c6d2bac4aa25192232afe6841231376b2b26d4d9fae5ecf8ca5772e441"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num-format"
@@ -6122,9 +5907,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num_enum"
-version = "0.7.5"
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-checksum = "b1207a7e20ad57b847bbddc6776b968420d38292bbfe2089accff5e19e82454c"
+checksum = "5d0bca838442ec211fa11de3a8b0e0e8f3a4522575b5c4c06ed722e005036f26"
 dependencies = [
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  "rustversion",
@@ -6132,48 +5917,48 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num_enum_derive"
-version = "0.7.5"
+version = "0.7.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ff32365de1b6743cb203b710788263c44a03de03802daf96092f2da4fe6ba4d7"
+checksum = "680998035259dcfcafe653688bf2aa6d3e2dc05e98be6ab46afb089dc84f1df8"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro-crate",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "num_threads"
-version = "0.1.7"
+name = "number_prefix"
+version = "0.4.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "830b246a0e5f20af87141b25c173cd1b609bd7779a4617d6ec582abaf90870f3"
+
+[[package]]
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+version = "0.3.2"
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-checksum = "5c7398b9c8b70908f6371f47ed36737907c87c52af34c268fed0bf0ceb92ead9"
+checksum = "2a180dd8642fa45cdb7dd721cd4c11b1cadd4929ce112ebd8b9f5803cc79d536"
 dependencies = [
- "libc",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "number_prefix"
-version = "0.4.0"
+name = "objc2-io-kit"
+version = "0.3.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "830b246a0e5f20af87141b25c173cd1b609bd7779a4617d6ec582abaf90870f3"
+checksum = "33fafba39597d6dc1fb709123dfa8289d39406734be322956a69f0931c73bb15"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+ "objc2-core-foundation",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "oauth2"
-version = "4.4.2"
+name = "objc2-system-configuration"
+version = "0.3.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c38841cdd844847e3e7c8d29cef9dcfed8877f8f56f9071f77843ecf3baf937f"
+checksum = "7216bd11cbda54ccabcab84d523dc93b858ec75ecfb3a7d89513fa22464da396"
 dependencies = [
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- "chrono",
- "getrandom 0.2.17",
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- "rand 0.8.5",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "serde_path_to_error",
- "sha2",
- "thiserror 1.0.69",
- "url",
+ "objc2-core-foundation",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6187,30 +5972,32 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "object_store"
-version = "0.12.5"
+version = "0.13.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fbfbfff40aeccab00ec8a910b57ca8ecf4319b335c542f2edcd19dd25a1e2a00"
+checksum = "622acbc9100d3c10e2ee15804b0caa40e55c933d5aa53814cd520805b7958a49"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "base64 0.22.1",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "form_urlencoded",
- "futures",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "futures-channel",
+ "futures-core",
+ "futures-util",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body-util",
  "httparse",
  "humantime",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
+ "hyper",
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- "md-5",
+ "md-5 0.10.6",
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  "percent-encoding",
- "quick-xml 0.38.4",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "reqwest",
+ "quick-xml 0.39.4",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
  "ring",
- "rustls-pemfile",
+ "rustls-pki-types",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_urlencoded",
@@ -6225,14 +6012,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "object_store_opendal"
-version = "0.55.0"
+version = "0.58.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "113ab0769e972eee585e57407b98de08bda5354fa28e8ba4d89038d6cb6a8991"
+checksum = "88f165780495c17aa3ce86846600504198c3fffd99073521552751c2430fa6ac"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "futures",
+ "mea",
  "object_store",
  "opendal",
  "pin-project",
@@ -6241,9 +6029,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "once_cell"
-version = "1.21.3"
+version = "1.21.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "42f5e15c9953c5e4ccceeb2e7382a716482c34515315f7b03532b8b4e8393d2d"
+checksum = "9f7c3e4beb33f85d45ae3e3a1792185706c8e16d043238c593331cc7cd313b50"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "once_cell_polyfill"
@@ -6259,11 +6047,11 @@ checksum = "269bca4c2591a28585d6bf10d9ed0332b7d76900a1b02bec41bdc3a2cdcda107"
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "6.5.1"
+version = "6.5.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "336b9c63443aceef14bea841b899035ae3abe89b7c486aaf4c5bd8aafedac3f0"
+checksum = "0cc3cbf698f9438986c11a880c90a6d04b9de27575afd28bbf45b154b6c709e2"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
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  "once_cell",
  "onig_sys",
@@ -6271,9 +6059,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "onig_sys"
-version = "69.9.1"
+version = "69.9.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c7f86c6eef3d6df15f23bcfb6af487cbd2fed4e5581d58d5bf1f5f8b7f6727dc"
+checksum = "1e68317604e77e53b85896388e1a803c1d21b74c899ec9e5e1112db90735edd7"
 dependencies = [
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  "pkg-config",
@@ -6287,208 +6075,453 @@ checksum = "d6790f58c7ff633d8771f42965289203411a5e5c68388703c06e14f24770b41e"
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "0.55.0"
+version = "0.58.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "33dbff14cc9bb085224256d6a81289d2f3202e85b06f408d42534b42162a4231"
+dependencies = [
+ "ctor",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "opendal-http-transport-reqwest",
+ "opendal-layer-concurrent-limit",
+ "opendal-layer-logging",
+ "opendal-layer-retry",
+ "opendal-layer-timeout",
+ "opendal-service-azblob",
+ "opendal-service-azdls",
+ "opendal-service-cos",
+ "opendal-service-gcs",
+ "opendal-service-goosefs",
+ "opendal-service-hf",
+ "opendal-service-oss",
+ "opendal-service-s3",
+ "opendal-service-tos",
+]
+
+[[package]]
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+version = "0.58.2"
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-checksum = "d075ab8a203a6ab4bc1bce0a4b9fe486a72bf8b939037f4b78d95386384bc80a"
+checksum = "48dbcef97d3eb7591db2c18d5cae95c836bcce07359b98d98dd6f4e861eb77b7"
 dependencies = [
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- "backon",
- "base64 0.22.1",
+ "asyncband",
+ "base64 0.23.0",
  "bytes",
- "crc32c",
  "futures",
- "getrandom 0.2.17",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "http 1.4.2",
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  "log",
- "md-5",
+ "md-5 0.11.0",
  "percent-encoding",
- "quick-xml 0.38.4",
- "reqsign",
- "reqwest",
+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-core",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "sha2",
  "tokio",
  "url",
  "uuid",
+ "web-time",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "openssl"
-version = "0.10.75"
+name = "opendal-http-transport-reqwest"
+version = "0.58.2"
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-checksum = "08838db121398ad17ab8531ce9de97b244589089e290a384c900cb9ff7434328"
+checksum = "85663452ea32bbc17e8f79ab29788c846d116ec7de31451be9c787e462dcb36c"
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- "bitflags 2.10.0",
- "cfg-if",
- "foreign-types",
- "libc",
- "once_cell",
- "openssl-macros",
- "openssl-sys",
+ "bytes",
+ "futures",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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+name = "opendal-layer-concurrent-limit"
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+checksum = "03f9e144b5228d741c3763ade8711d9b72e5fb6d998e779f2d7a09da0b5a3eba"
 dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "asyncband",
+ "futures",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "opendal-core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "0.1.6"
+name = "opendal-layer-logging"
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-checksum = "d05e27ee213611ffe7d6348b942e8f942b37114c00cc03cec254295a4a17852e"
+checksum = "c2de17c61cd32e9d8d7d8efb91795e714dbccbafbc3c4e219e1542f4d6324161"
+dependencies = [
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+]
 
 [[package]]
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+name = "opendal-layer-retry"
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-checksum = "7c87def4c32ab89d880effc9e097653c8da5d6ef28e6b539d313baaacfbafcbe"
+checksum = "e94db301964a25366090484d61e6da16d5979cc8faf02c3e12210dc74fafed38"
+dependencies = [
+ "backon",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+]
 
 [[package]]
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+name = "opendal-layer-timeout"
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-checksum = "82cab2d520aa75e3c58898289429321eb788c3106963d0dc886ec7a5f4adc321"
+checksum = "08956ddda07465449bfd48825f4f0f25e0351278ac974eaa659895d9d74f2c80"
 dependencies = [
- "cc",
- "libc",
- "pkg-config",
- "vcpkg",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "option-ext"
-version = "0.2.0"
+name = "opendal-service-azblob"
+version = "0.58.2"
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-checksum = "04744f49eae99ab78e0d5c0b603ab218f515ea8cfe5a456d7629ad883a3b6e7d"
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+dependencies = [
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+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "opendal-service-azure-common",
+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-azure-storage",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "serde",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
+ "uuid",
+]
 
 [[package]]
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+name = "opendal-service-azdls"
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-checksum = "68f19d67e5a2795c94e73e0bb1cc1a7edeb2e28efd39e2e1c9b7a40c1108b11c"
+checksum = "2d564484a8f7d091827e825cfc91ed45bd48e64d262451ee041fe843db81bd8a"
 dependencies = [
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+ "asyncband",
+ "base64 0.23.0",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "opendal-service-azure-common",
+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-azure-storage",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
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 [[package]]
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+checksum = "cfcc1bfdac4f54d9018c462dd32ad9e2f68fdf584f825c811550c8ffc87894cd"
 dependencies = [
- "num-traits",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "opendal-core",
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 [[package]]
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+name = "opendal-service-cos"
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 dependencies = [
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- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
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+ "opendal-core",
+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "reqsign-tencent-cos",
+ "serde",
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 [[package]]
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+ "bytes",
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+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "reqsign-google",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "tokio",
+]
 
 [[package]]
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 dependencies = [
- "stable_deref_trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "goosefs-sdk 0.1.9",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "serde",
+ "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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 dependencies = [
- "ecdsa",
- "elliptic-curve",
- "sha2",
+ "bytes",
+ "hf-xet",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-aliyun-oss",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "serde",
+]
 
 [[package]]
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 dependencies = [
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- "parking_lot_core",
+ "base64 0.23.0",
+ "bytes",
+ "crc-fast",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "md-5 0.11.0",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-aws-v4",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "serde",
+ "url",
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 [[package]]
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 dependencies = [
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- "libc",
- "redox_syscall 0.5.18",
- "smallvec",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "reqsign-volcengine-tos",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
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+checksum = "7bb71e1b3fa6ca1c61f383464aaf2bb0e2f8e772a1f01d486832464de363b951"
+dependencies = [
+ "num-traits",
+]
+
+[[package]]
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+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b7d950ca161dc355eaf28f82b11345ed76c6e1f6eb1f4f4479e0323b9e2fbd0e"
+dependencies = [
+ "num-traits",
+]
+
+[[package]]
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+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "49203cdcae0030493bad186b28da2fa25645fa276a51b6fec8010d281e02ef79"
+dependencies = [
+ "dlv-list",
+ "hashbrown 0.14.5",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "os_str_bytes"
+version = "6.6.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e2355d85b9a3786f481747ced0e0ff2ba35213a1f9bd406ed906554d7af805a1"
+dependencies = [
+ "memchr",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "outref"
+version = "0.5.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1a80800c0488c3a21695ea981a54918fbb37abf04f4d0720c453632255e2ff0e"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "page_size"
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+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "30d5b2194ed13191c1999ae0704b7839fb18384fa22e49b57eeaa97d79ce40da"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+ "winapi",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "parking"
+version = "2.2.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f38d5652c16fde515bb1ecef450ab0f6a219d619a7274976324d5e377f7dceba"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "parking_lot"
+version = "0.12.5"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "93857453250e3077bd71ff98b6a65ea6621a19bb0f559a85248955ac12c45a1a"
+dependencies = [
+ "lock_api",
+ "parking_lot_core",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "parking_lot_core"
+version = "0.9.12"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "2621685985a2ebf1c516881c026032ac7deafcda1a2c9b7850dc81e3dfcb64c1"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "libc",
+ "redox_syscall",
+ "smallvec",
  "windows-link",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "parquet"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5f6a2926a30477c0b95fea6c28c3072712b139337a242c2cc64817bdc20a8854"
+checksum = "d298093b2dec60289dce0684c986d0f7679e9dd15771c2c65406e1aaf604a704"
 dependencies = [
  "ahash",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-data",
  "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
  "base64 0.22.1",
- "brotli",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
- "flate2",
  "futures",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
- "lz4_flex 0.12.0",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
  "num-bigint",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
- "object_store",
  "paste",
  "seq-macro",
- "simdutf8",
- "snap",
  "thrift",
  "tokio",
  "twox-hash",
- "zstd",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6552,8 +6585,8 @@ version = "0.12.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f8ed6a7761f76e3b9f92dfb0a60a6a6477c61024b775147ff0973a02653abaf2"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
- "hmac",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
+ "hmac 0.12.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6595,7 +6628,7 @@ checksum = "8701b58ea97060d5e5b155d383a69952a60943f0e6dfe30b04c287beb0b27455"
 dependencies = [
  "fixedbitset",
  "hashbrown 0.15.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "serde",
 ]
 
@@ -6634,7 +6667,7 @@ version = "0.13.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "135ace3a761e564ec88c03a77317a7c6b80bb7f7135ef2544dbe054243b89737"
 dependencies = [
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
+ "fastrand",
  "phf_shared 0.13.1",
 ]
 
@@ -6658,29 +6691,29 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project"
-version = "1.1.10"
+version = "1.1.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "677f1add503faace112b9f1373e43e9e054bfdd22ff1a63c1bc485eaec6a6a8a"
+checksum = "2466b2336ed02bcdca6b294417127b90ec92038d1d5c4fbeac971a922e0e0924"
 dependencies = [
  "pin-project-internal",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project-internal"
-version = "1.1.10"
+version = "1.1.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6e918e4ff8c4549eb882f14b3a4bc8c8bc93de829416eacf579f1207a8fbf861"
+checksum = "c96395f0a926bc13b1c17622aaddda1ecb55d49c8f1bf9777e4d877800a43f8b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project-lite"
-version = "0.2.16"
+version = "0.2.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3b3cff922bd51709b605d9ead9aa71031d81447142d828eb4a6eba76fe619f9b"
+checksum = "a89322df9ebe1c1578d689c92318e070967d1042b512afbe49518723f4e6d5cd"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-utils"
@@ -6688,26 +6721,15 @@ version = "0.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "8b870d8c151b6f2fb93e84a13146138f05d02ed11c7e7c54f8826aaaf7c9f184"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "piper"
-version = "0.2.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "96c8c490f422ef9a4efd2cb5b42b76c8613d7e7dfc1caf667b8a3350a5acc066"
-dependencies = [
- "atomic-waker",
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
- "futures-io",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "pkcs1"
 version = "0.7.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "c8ffb9f10fa047879315e6625af03c164b16962a5368d724ed16323b68ace47f"
 dependencies = [
- "der 0.7.10",
- "pkcs8 0.10.2",
- "spki 0.7.3",
+ "der",
+ "pkcs8",
+ "spki",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6718,21 +6740,11 @@ checksum = "e847e2c91a18bfa887dd028ec33f2fe6f25db77db3619024764914affe8b69a6"
 dependencies = [
  "aes",
  "cbc",
- "der 0.7.10",
+ "der",
  "pbkdf2",
  "scrypt",
- "sha2",
- "spki 0.7.3",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "pkcs8"
-version = "0.9.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9eca2c590a5f85da82668fa685c09ce2888b9430e83299debf1f34b65fd4a4ba"
-dependencies = [
- "der 0.6.1",
- "spki 0.6.0",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
+ "spki",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6741,17 +6753,17 @@ version = "0.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f950b2377845cebe5cf8b5165cb3cc1a5e0fa5cfa3e1f7f55707d8fd82e0a7b7"
 dependencies = [
- "der 0.7.10",
+ "der",
  "pkcs5",
  "rand_core 0.6.4",
- "spki 0.7.3",
+ "spki",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pkg-config"
-version = "0.3.32"
+version = "0.3.33"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7edddbd0b52d732b21ad9a5fab5c704c14cd949e5e9a1ec5929a24fded1b904c"
+checksum = "19f132c84eca552bf34cab8ec81f1c1dcc229b811638f9d283dceabe58c5569e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "plotters"
@@ -6781,20 +6793,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "plotters-backend",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "polling"
-version = "3.11.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5d0e4f59085d47d8241c88ead0f274e8a0cb551f3625263c05eb8dd897c34218"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "concurrent-queue",
- "hermit-abi",
- "pin-project-lite",
- "rustix 1.1.3",
- "windows-sys 0.61.2",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "portable-atomic"
 version = "1.13.1"
@@ -6803,19 +6801,21 @@ checksum = "c33a9471896f1c69cecef8d20cbe2f7accd12527ce60845ff44c153bb2a21b49"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "portable-atomic-util"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7a9db96d7fa8782dd8c15ce32ffe8680bbd1e978a43bf51a34d39483540495f5"
+checksum = "c2a106d1259c23fac8e543272398ae0e3c0b8d33c88ed73d0cc71b0f1d902618"
 dependencies = [
  "portable-atomic",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "potential_utf"
-version = "0.1.4"
+version = "0.1.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b73949432f5e2a09657003c25bca5e19a0e9c84f8058ca374f49e0ebe605af77"
+checksum = "0103b1cef7ec0cf76490e969665504990193874ea05c85ff9bab8b911d0a0564"
 dependencies = [
+ "serde_core",
+ "writeable",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
@@ -6827,14 +6827,13 @@ checksum = "439ee305def115ba05938db6eb1644ff94165c5ab5e9420d1c1bcedbba909391"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pprof"
-version = "0.14.1"
+version = "0.15.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "afad4d4df7b31280028245f152d5a575083e2abb822d05736f5e47653e77689f"
+checksum = "38a01da47675efa7673b032bf8efd8214f1917d89685e07e395ab125ea42b187"
 dependencies = [
  "aligned-vec",
  "backtrace",
- "cfg-if",
- "criterion",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "findshlibs",
  "inferno",
  "libc",
@@ -6842,10 +6841,10 @@ dependencies = [
  "nix",
  "once_cell",
  "smallvec",
- "spin 0.10.0",
+ "spin 0.10.1",
  "symbolic-demangle",
  "tempfile",
- "thiserror 1.0.69",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6859,9 +6858,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "predicates"
-version = "3.1.3"
+version = "3.1.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a5d19ee57562043d37e82899fade9a22ebab7be9cef5026b07fda9cdd4293573"
+checksum = "ada8f2932f28a27ee7b70dd6c1c39ea0675c55a36879ab92f3a715eaa1e63cfe"
 dependencies = [
  "anstyle",
  "predicates-core",
@@ -6869,15 +6868,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "predicates-core"
-version = "1.0.9"
+version = "1.0.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "727e462b119fe9c93fd0eb1429a5f7647394014cf3c04ab2c0350eeb09095ffa"
+checksum = "cad38746f3166b4031b1a0d39ad9f954dd291e7854fcc0eed52ee41a0b50d144"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "predicates-tree"
-version = "1.0.12"
+version = "1.0.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72dd2d6d381dfb73a193c7fca536518d7caee39fc8503f74e7dc0be0531b425c"
+checksum = "d0de1b847b39c8131db0467e9df1ff60e6d0562ab8e9a16e568ad0fdb372e2f2"
 dependencies = [
  "predicates-core",
  "termtree",
@@ -6900,62 +6899,38 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "479ca8adacdd7ce8f1fb39ce9ecccbfe93a3f1344b3d0d97f20bc0196208f62b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "proc-macro-crate"
-version = "3.4.0"
+version = "3.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "219cb19e96be00ab2e37d6e299658a0cfa83e52429179969b0f0121b4ac46983"
+checksum = "e67ba7e9b2b56446f1d419b1d807906278ffa1a658a8a5d8a39dcb1f5a78614f"
 dependencies = [
  "toml_edit",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "proc-macro-error"
-version = "1.0.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "da25490ff9892aab3fcf7c36f08cfb902dd3e71ca0f9f9517bea02a73a5ce38c"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro-error-attr",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
- "version_check",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "proc-macro-error-attr"
-version = "1.0.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a1be40180e52ecc98ad80b184934baf3d0d29f979574e439af5a55274b35f869"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "version_check",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "proc-macro2"
-version = "1.0.106"
+version = "1.0.107"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8fd00f0bb2e90d81d1044c2b32617f68fcb9fa3bb7640c23e9c748e53fb30934"
+checksum = "985e7ec9bb745e6ce6535b544d84d6cd6f7ad8bd711c398938ae983b91a766d9"
 dependencies = [
  "unicode-ident",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "proptest"
-version = "1.10.0"
+version = "1.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "37566cb3fdacef14c0737f9546df7cfeadbfbc9fef10991038bf5015d0c80532"
+checksum = "4b45fcc2344c680f5025fe57779faef368840d0bd1f42f216291f0dc4ace4744"
 dependencies = [
  "bit-set",
  "bit-vec",
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "rand_chacha 0.9.0",
  "rand_xorshift",
  "regex-syntax",
@@ -6966,9 +6941,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d2ea70524a2f82d518bce41317d0fae74151505651af45faf1ffbd6fd33f0568"
+checksum = "528ac67416ff8646872a3c02cad9cc4ee5dc9f9540c9b10771855c95cb2e5ae1"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "prost-derive",
@@ -6976,9 +6951,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost-build"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "343d3bd7056eda839b03204e68deff7d1b13aba7af2b2fd16890697274262ee7"
+checksum = "03da047801ff44bb6a4d407d4860c05fd70bb81714e6b2f3812603d5b145b042"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
@@ -6989,28 +6964,28 @@ dependencies = [
  "prost",
  "prost-types",
  "regex",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
  "tempfile",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost-derive"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "27c6023962132f4b30eb4c172c91ce92d933da334c59c23cddee82358ddafb0b"
+checksum = "b570b25f7617e43d59005d0990ccb79e950a423952cea19671b7a876da390adf"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost-types"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8991c4cbdb8bc5b11f0b074ffe286c30e523de90fee5ba8132f1399f23cb3dd7"
+checksum = "f94967dc7688f3054c7fac87473ffae4cc4c3904800e2d9f5b857246d8963b0a"
 dependencies = [
  "prost",
 ]
@@ -7024,6 +6999,41 @@ dependencies = [
  "cmake",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "ptr_meta"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0b9a0cf95a1196af61d4f1cbdab967179516d9a4a4312af1f31948f8f6224a79"
+dependencies = [
+ "ptr_meta_derive",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ptr_meta_derive"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7347867d0a7e1208d93b46767be83e2b8f978c3dad35f775ac8d8847551d6fe1"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "quanta"
+version = "0.12.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f3ab5a9d756f0d97bdc89019bd2e4ea098cf9cde50ee7564dde6b81ccc8f06c7"
+dependencies = [
+ "crossbeam-utils",
+ "libc",
+ "once_cell",
+ "raw-cpuid",
+ "wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1",
+ "web-sys",
+ "winapi",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "quick-error"
 version = "1.2.3"
@@ -7041,9 +7051,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quick-xml"
-version = "0.31.0"
+version = "0.39.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1004a344b30a54e2ee58d66a71b32d2db2feb0a31f9a2d302bf0536f15de2a33"
+checksum = "cdcc8dd4e2f670d309a5f0e83fe36dfdc05af317008fea29144da1a2ac858e5e"
 dependencies = [
  "memchr",
  "serde",
@@ -7051,24 +7061,35 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quick-xml"
-version = "0.37.5"
+version = "0.40.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "331e97a1af0bf59823e6eadffe373d7b27f485be8748f71471c662c1f269b7fb"
+checksum = "2474bd2e5029e7ccb6abb2ba48cf2383a333851dedf495901544281590c7da7f"
 dependencies = [
  "memchr",
- "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quick-xml"
-version = "0.38.4"
+version = "0.41.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b66c2058c55a409d601666cffe35f04333cf1013010882cec174a7467cd4e21c"
+checksum = "e660451e55124f798a69a5af3f49ccfbefbd41910eefd25caf2393e1f3473ec1"
 dependencies = [
  "memchr",
  "serde",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "quick_cache"
+version = "0.6.24"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b9c6658afe513a3b484e3abfdaa0d03ef3c0bbf017542c178dd55f94eb3051f9"
+dependencies = [
+ "ahash",
+ "equivalent",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "parking_lot",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "quinn"
 version = "0.11.9"
@@ -7081,8 +7102,8 @@ dependencies = [
  "quinn-proto",
  "quinn-udp",
  "rustc-hash",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
- "socket2 0.6.2",
+ "rustls",
+ "socket2",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
@@ -7091,17 +7112,19 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quinn-proto"
-version = "0.11.13"
+version = "0.11.16"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f1906b49b0c3bc04b5fe5d86a77925ae6524a19b816ae38ce1e426255f1d8a31"
+checksum = "2f4bfc015262b9df63c8845072ce59068853ff5872180c2ce2f13038b970e560"
 dependencies = [
+ "aws-lc-rs",
  "bytes",
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
  "lru-slab",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "rand_pcg",
  "ring",
  "rustc-hash",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
+ "rustls",
  "rustls-pki-types",
  "slab",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
@@ -7119,16 +7142,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "cfg_aliases",
  "libc",
  "once_cell",
- "socket2 0.6.2",
+ "socket2",
  "tracing",
  "windows-sys 0.60.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quote"
-version = "1.0.44"
+version = "1.0.47"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "21b2ebcf727b7760c461f091f9f0f539b77b8e87f2fd88131e7f1b433b3cece4"
+checksum = "1fbf4db142a473a8d80c26bbf18454ed458bf8d26c8219c331daecfdbd079001"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
 ]
@@ -7139,6 +7162,12 @@ version = "5.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "69cdb34c158ceb288df11e18b4bd39de994f6657d83847bdffdbd7f346754b0f"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "r-efi"
+version = "6.0.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f8dcc9c7d52a811697d2151c701e0d08956f92b0e24136cf4cf27b57a6a0d9bf"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "radium"
 version = "0.7.0"
@@ -7146,23 +7175,29 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "dc33ff2d4973d518d823d61aa239014831e521c75da58e3df4840d3f47749d09"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rand"
-version = "0.7.3"
+name = "radix_trie"
+version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6a6b1679d49b24bbfe0c803429aa1874472f50d9b363131f0e89fc356b544d03"
+checksum = "c069c179fcdc6a2fe24d8d18305cf085fdbd4f922c041943e203685d6a1c58fd"
 dependencies = [
- "getrandom 0.1.16",
- "libc",
- "rand_chacha 0.2.2",
- "rand_core 0.5.1",
- "rand_hc",
+ "endian-type",
+ "nibble_vec",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "rancor"
+version = "0.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a063ea72381527c2a0561da9c80000ef822bdd7c3241b1cc1b12100e3df081ee"
+dependencies = [
+ "ptr_meta",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rand"
-version = "0.8.5"
+version = "0.8.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404"
+checksum = "5ca0ecfa931c29007047d1bc58e623ab12e5590e8c7cc53200d5202b69266d8a"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
  "rand_chacha 0.3.1",
@@ -7171,22 +7206,23 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rand"
-version = "0.9.2"
+version = "0.9.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6db2770f06117d490610c7488547d543617b21bfa07796d7a12f6f1bd53850d1"
+checksum = "b9ef1d0d795eb7d84685bca4f72f3649f064e6641543d3a8c415898726a57b41"
 dependencies = [
  "rand_chacha 0.9.0",
  "rand_core 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rand_chacha"
-version = "0.2.2"
+name = "rand"
+version = "0.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f4c8ed856279c9737206bf725bf36935d8666ead7aa69b52be55af369d193402"
+checksum = "d2e8e8bcc7961af1fdac401278c6a831614941f6164ee3bf4ce61b7edb162207"
 dependencies = [
- "ppv-lite86",
- "rand_core 0.5.1",
+ "chacha20",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7209,15 +7245,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "rand_core 0.9.5",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "rand_core"
-version = "0.5.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "90bde5296fc891b0cef12a6d03ddccc162ce7b2aff54160af9338f8d40df6d19"
-dependencies = [
- "getrandom 0.1.16",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "rand_core"
 version = "0.6.4"
@@ -7237,14 +7264,10 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rand_distr"
-version = "0.4.3"
+name = "rand_core"
+version = "0.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "32cb0b9bc82b0a0876c2dd994a7e7a2683d3e7390ca40e6886785ef0c7e3ee31"
-dependencies = [
- "num-traits",
- "rand 0.8.5",
-]
+checksum = "63b8176103e19a2643978565ca18b50549f6101881c443590420e4dc998a3c69"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rand_distr"
@@ -7253,16 +7276,16 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6a8615d50dcf34fa31f7ab52692afec947c4dd0ab803cc87cb3b0b4570ff7463"
 dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rand_hc"
-version = "0.2.0"
+name = "rand_pcg"
+version = "0.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ca3129af7b92a17112d59ad498c6f81eaf463253766b90396d39ea7a39d6613c"
+checksum = "caa0f4137e1c0a72f4c651489402276c8e8e1cf081f3b0ba156d2cbeef09e86a"
 dependencies = [
- "rand_core 0.5.1",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7284,23 +7307,28 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "random_word"
-version = "0.5.2"
+name = "rangemap"
+version = "1.7.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "973443cf09a9c8656b574a866ab68dfa19f0867d0340648c7d2f6a71b8a8ea68"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "rapidhash"
+version = "4.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e47a395bdb55442b883c89062d6bcff25dc90fa5f8369af81e0ac6d49d78cf81"
+checksum = "32b266a82f4aa99bb5c25e28d11cc44ace63d91adbcbcee4d323e2ae3d49ef37"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
- "brotli",
- "paste",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "unicase",
+ "rustversion",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rangemap"
-version = "1.7.1"
+name = "raw-cpuid"
+version = "11.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "973443cf09a9c8656b574a866ab68dfa19f0867d0340648c7d2f6a71b8a8ea68"
+checksum = "498cd0dc59d73224351ee52a95fee0f1a617a2eae0e7d9d720cc622c73a54186"
+dependencies = [
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rawpointer"
@@ -7310,9 +7338,9 @@ checksum = "60a357793950651c4ed0f3f52338f53b2f809f32d83a07f72909fa13e4c6c1e3"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rayon"
-version = "1.11.0"
+version = "1.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "368f01d005bf8fd9b1206fb6fa653e6c4a81ceb1466406b81792d87c5677a58f"
+checksum = "fb39b166781f92d482534ef4b4b1b2568f42613b53e5b6c160e24cfbfa30926d"
 dependencies = [
  "either",
  "rayon-core",
@@ -7340,50 +7368,59 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "redox_syscall"
-version = "0.5.18"
+name = "redb"
+version = "3.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ed2bf2547551a7053d6fdfafda3f938979645c44812fbfcda098faae3f1a362d"
+checksum = "4ba239c1c1693315d3cc0e601db3b3965543afbf48c41730fdca2f069f510f4a"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "libc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "redox_syscall"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.5.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "49f3fe0889e69e2ae9e41f4d6c4c0181701d00e4697b356fb1f74173a5e0ee27"
+checksum = "ed2bf2547551a7053d6fdfafda3f938979645c44812fbfcda098faae3f1a362d"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "redox_users"
-version = "0.4.6"
+version = "0.5.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ba009ff324d1fc1b900bd1fdb31564febe58a8ccc8a6fdbb93b543d33b13ca43"
+checksum = "a4e608c6638b9c18977b00b475ac1f28d14e84b27d8d42f70e0bf1e3dec127ac"
 dependencies = [
  "getrandom 0.2.17",
  "libredox",
- "thiserror 1.0.69",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "redox_users"
-version = "0.5.2"
+name = "ref-cast"
+version = "1.0.25"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a4e608c6638b9c18977b00b475ac1f28d14e84b27d8d42f70e0bf1e3dec127ac"
+checksum = "f354300ae66f76f1c85c5f84693f0ce81d747e2c3f21a45fef496d89c960bf7d"
 dependencies = [
- "getrandom 0.2.17",
- "libredox",
- "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "ref-cast-impl",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ref-cast-impl"
+version = "1.0.25"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b7186006dcb21920990093f30e3dea63b7d6e977bf1256be20c3563a5db070da"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "regex"
-version = "1.12.3"
+version = "1.12.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e10754a14b9137dd7b1e3e5b0493cc9171fdd105e0ab477f51b72e7f3ac0e276"
+checksum = "f1292b7759ae1cb9ec195452d1390a074f0cd8541ab7a5a8c31cd6db45d4a6ba"
 dependencies = [
  "aho-corasick",
  "memchr",
@@ -7410,9 +7447,9 @@ checksum = "cab834c73d247e67f4fae452806d17d3c7501756d98c8808d7c9c7aa7d18f973"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "regex-syntax"
-version = "0.8.9"
+version = "0.8.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a96887878f22d7bad8a3b6dc5b7440e0ada9a245242924394987b21cf2210a4c"
+checksum = "d6f6ff9a378485b298a5286656da665ba74413d36db0979633275d2e708145d4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "regress"
@@ -7431,37 +7468,170 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ba39f3699c378cd8970968dcbff9c43159ea4cfbd88d43c00b22f2ef10a435d2"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "reqsign"
-version = "0.16.5"
+name = "rend"
+version = "0.5.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "cadadef317c2f20755a64d7fdc48f9e7178ee6b0e1f7fce33fa60f1d68a276e6"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytecheck",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-aliyun-oss"
+version = "3.1.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "43451dbf3590a7590684c25fb8d12ecdcc90ed3ac123433e500447c7d77ed701"
+checksum = "9c0f9f69a519dd6958c4b43606bb8e1278cdc76d611fc8fed4b796eee548dc0f"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "form_urlencoded",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rust-ini",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-aws-core"
+version = "3.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "bac4749b7dfa7bfaccd01eb03e9dc795ed37e3f20d6f0f38e2c67ee85ad6bc86"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "form_urlencoded",
+ "hex",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rust-ini",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serde_urlencoded",
+ "sha1 0.11.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-aws-v4"
+version = "3.3.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ff250f0fd0b913fbd565e405acc553da0f13bde30bfb5403178c9d0313cdc15f"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "quick-xml 0.41.0",
+ "reqsign-aws-core",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "serde",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-azure-storage"
+version = "3.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a6ebd8524185ce9c64063e3095f83968acfa90922f00c601a4a0f3aca15b077e"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
- "async-trait",
  "base64 0.22.1",
- "chrono",
+ "bytes",
  "form_urlencoded",
- "getrandom 0.2.17",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "pem",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rsa",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "sha1 0.11.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-core"
+version = "3.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ff052daffb0599681c50f85c59e7236438976efe991ab864edd9f3b235501a0f"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "base64 0.23.0",
+ "bytes",
+ "futures",
  "hex",
- "hmac",
- "home",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "jsonwebtoken",
+ "hmac 0.13.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "jiff",
  "log",
- "once_cell",
+ "mea",
  "percent-encoding",
- "quick-xml 0.37.5",
- "rand 0.8.5",
- "reqwest",
  "rsa",
- "rust-ini",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "sha1",
- "sha2",
+ "sha1 0.11.0",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-file-read-tokio"
+version = "3.0.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b3235df90a6bca681aa47dd86f2393d122a6d77042aa8a7c81e218cd45c5bfc0"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "reqsign-core",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-google"
+version = "3.0.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a96da0b579b846d358090cb06b9e3c2ad1375529efbe3e0c45f96bd7bcf043ea"
+dependencies = [
+ "form_urlencoded",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-aws-v4",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rsa",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "tokio",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-tencent-cos"
+version = "3.0.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f6497dd9f6e3d1349b420521484099b284f95e8d3a65f088fccef42493a7b644"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-volcengine-tos"
+version = "3.1.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7a7e7a3a0635e0aa9ef851577c63cba5b3c98fb584f6a6637c2fd5cc50702c99"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "reqwest"
 version = "0.12.28"
@@ -7473,12 +7643,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "encoding_rs",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
- "h2 0.4.13",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "h2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
- "hyper-rustls 0.27.7",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-rustls",
  "hyper-tls",
  "hyper-util",
  "js-sys",
@@ -7489,7 +7659,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "percent-encoding",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "quinn",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
+ "rustls",
  "rustls-native-certs",
  "rustls-pki-types",
  "serde",
@@ -7498,35 +7668,78 @@ dependencies = [
  "sync_wrapper",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-native-tls",
- "tokio-rustls 0.26.4",
+ "tokio-rustls",
  "tokio-util",
  "tower",
- "tower-http 0.6.8",
+ "tower-http 0.6.11",
  "tower-service",
  "url",
  "wasm-bindgen",
  "wasm-bindgen-futures",
- "wasm-streams",
+ "wasm-streams 0.4.2",
  "web-sys",
- "webpki-roots 1.0.6",
+ "webpki-roots 1.0.8",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rfc6979"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "reqwest"
+version = "0.13.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7743f17af12fa0b03b803ba12cd6a8d9483a587e89c69445e3909655c0b9fabb"
+checksum = "219c5811de6525e5416c7d5d53bb656d3afdbc6c5af816e0802bcfa42dbdc1c3"
 dependencies = [
- "crypto-bigint 0.4.9",
- "hmac",
- "zeroize",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "futures-core",
+ "futures-util",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "http-body-util",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-rustls",
+ "hyper-util",
+ "js-sys",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "pin-project-lite",
+ "quinn",
+ "rustls",
+ "rustls-pki-types",
+ "rustls-platform-verifier",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "sync_wrapper",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-rustls",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tower",
+ "tower-http 0.6.11",
+ "tower-service",
+ "url",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "wasm-streams 0.5.0",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqwest-middleware"
+version = "0.5.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "07bc3f1384cffa4f274dad2d4ddd73aed32fed8f786d96c6be8aa4e5fd3c3b58"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tower-service",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rgb"
-version = "0.8.52"
+version = "0.8.53"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0c6a884d2998352bb4daf0183589aec883f16a6da1f4dde84d8e2e9a5409a1ce"
+checksum = "47b34b781b31e5d73e9fbc8689c70551fd1ade9a19e3e28cfec8580a79290cc4"
 dependencies = [
  "bytemuck",
 ]
@@ -7538,7 +7751,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a4689e6c2294d81e88dc6261c768b63bc4fcdb852be6d1352498b114f61383b7"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "getrandom 0.2.17",
  "libc",
  "untrusted",
@@ -7546,16 +7759,40 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rle-decode-fast"
-version = "1.0.3"
+name = "rkyv"
+version = "0.8.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3582f63211428f83597b51b2ddb88e2a91a9d52d12831f9d08f5e624e8977422"
+checksum = "815cc8a37159a463064825246cadb07961e25cd9885908606f6d08a98d8f8874"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytecheck",
+ "bytes",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "munge",
+ "ptr_meta",
+ "rancor",
+ "rend",
+ "rkyv_derive",
+ "tinyvec",
+ "uuid",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "rkyv_derive"
+version = "0.8.17"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c0ed1a78a1b19d184b0daa629dd9a024573173ec7d485b287cb369fb3607cc1c"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "roaring"
-version = "0.10.12"
+version = "0.11.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "19e8d2cfa184d94d0726d650a9f4a1be7f9b76ac9fdb954219878dc00c1c1e7b"
+checksum = "1dedc5658c6ecb3bdb5ef5f3295bb9253f42dcf3fd1402c03f6b1f7659c3c4a9"
 dependencies = [
  "bytemuck",
  "byteorder",
@@ -7573,17 +7810,17 @@ version = "0.9.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b8573f03f5883dcaebdfcf4725caa1ecb9c15b2ef50c43a07b816e06799bb12d"
 dependencies = [
- "const-oid",
- "digest",
+ "const-oid 0.9.6",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
  "num-bigint-dig",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
  "pkcs1",
- "pkcs8 0.10.2",
+ "pkcs8",
  "rand_core 0.6.4",
- "sha2",
- "signature 2.2.0",
- "spki 0.7.3",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
+ "signature",
+ "spki",
  "subtle",
  "zeroize",
 ]
@@ -7599,18 +7836,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "smallvec",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "rstest"
-version = "0.23.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0a2c585be59b6b5dd66a9d2084aa1d8bd52fbdb806eafdeffb52791147862035"
-dependencies = [
- "futures",
- "futures-timer",
- "rstest_macros 0.23.0",
- "rustc_version",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "rstest"
 version = "0.26.1"
@@ -7619,25 +7844,7 @@ checksum = "f5a3193c063baaa2a95a33f03035c8a72b83d97a54916055ba22d35ed3839d49"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-timer",
  "futures-util",
- "rstest_macros 0.26.1",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rstest_macros"
-version = "0.23.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "825ea780781b15345a146be27eaefb05085e337e869bff01b4306a4fd4a9ad5a"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "glob",
- "proc-macro-crate",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "regex",
- "relative-path",
- "rustc_version",
- "syn 2.0.114",
- "unicode-ident",
+ "rstest_macros",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7646,7 +7853,7 @@ version = "0.26.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9c845311f0ff7951c5506121a9ad75aec44d083c31583b2ea5a30bcb0b0abba0"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "glob",
  "proc-macro-crate",
  "proc-macro2",
@@ -7654,7 +7861,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "regex",
  "relative-path",
  "rustc_version",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
  "unicode-ident",
 ]
 
@@ -7664,20 +7871,10 @@ version = "0.21.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "796e8d2b6696392a43bea58116b667fb4c29727dc5abd27d6acf338bb4f688c7"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "ordered-multimap",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "rust-stemmers"
-version = "1.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e46a2036019fdb888131db7a4c847a1063a7493f971ed94ea82c67eada63ca54"
-dependencies = [
- "serde",
- "serde_derive",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "rustc-demangle"
 version = "0.1.27"
@@ -7686,9 +7883,9 @@ checksum = "b50b8869d9fc858ce7266cce0194bd74df58b9d0e3f6df3a9fc8eb470d95c09d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustc-hash"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "357703d41365b4b27c590e3ed91eabb1b663f07c4c084095e60cbed4362dff0d"
+checksum = "6b1e7f9a428571be2dc5bc0505c13fb6bf936822b894ec87abf8a08a4e51742d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustc_version"
@@ -7701,104 +7898,87 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustix"
-version = "0.38.44"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fdb5bc1ae2baa591800df16c9ca78619bf65c0488b41b96ccec5d11220d8c154"
-dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
- "errno",
- "libc",
- "linux-raw-sys 0.4.15",
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rustix"
-version = "1.1.3"
+version = "1.1.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "146c9e247ccc180c1f61615433868c99f3de3ae256a30a43b49f67c2d9171f34"
+checksum = "b6fe4565b9518b83ef4f91bb47ce29620ca828bd32cb7e408f0062e9930ba190"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "errno",
  "libc",
- "linux-raw-sys 0.11.0",
+ "linux-raw-sys",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls"
-version = "0.21.12"
+version = "0.23.45"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3f56a14d1f48b391359b22f731fd4bd7e43c97f3c50eee276f3aa09c94784d3e"
-dependencies = [
- "log",
- "ring",
- "rustls-webpki 0.101.7",
- "sct",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rustls"
-version = "0.23.36"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c665f33d38cea657d9614f766881e4d510e0eda4239891eea56b4cadcf01801b"
+checksum = "0d41d731c7d2f962d1ccc364cec258de3c0e93b38c2fb3ba97ac74513048d634"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-lc-rs",
  "log",
  "once_cell",
  "ring",
  "rustls-pki-types",
- "rustls-webpki 0.103.9",
+ "rustls-webpki",
  "subtle",
  "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-native-certs"
-version = "0.8.3"
+version = "0.8.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "612460d5f7bea540c490b2b6395d8e34a953e52b491accd6c86c8164c5932a63"
+checksum = "dab5152771c58876a2146916e53e35057e1a4dfa2b9df0f0305b07f611fdea4d"
 dependencies = [
- "openssl-probe 0.2.1",
+ "openssl-probe",
  "rustls-pki-types",
  "schannel",
- "security-framework 3.5.1",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rustls-pemfile"
-version = "2.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dce314e5fee3f39953d46bb63bb8a46d40c2f8fb7cc5a3b6cab2bde9721d6e50"
-dependencies = [
- "rustls-pki-types",
+ "security-framework",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-pki-types"
-version = "1.14.0"
+version = "1.15.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "be040f8b0a225e40375822a563fa9524378b9d63112f53e19ffff34df5d33fdd"
+checksum = "764899a24af3980067ee14bc143654f297b22eaebfe3c7b6b211920a5a59b046"
 dependencies = [
  "web-time",
  "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rustls-webpki"
-version = "0.101.7"
+name = "rustls-platform-verifier"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8b6275d1ee7a1cd780b64aca7726599a1dbc893b1e64144529e55c3c2f745765"
+checksum = "26d1e2536ce4f35f4846aa13bff16bd0ff40157cdb14cc056c7b14ba41233ba0"
 dependencies = [
- "ring",
- "untrusted",
+ "core-foundation 0.10.1",
+ "core-foundation-sys",
+ "jni",
+ "log",
+ "once_cell",
+ "rustls",
+ "rustls-native-certs",
+ "rustls-platform-verifier-android",
+ "rustls-webpki",
+ "security-framework",
+ "security-framework-sys",
+ "webpki-root-certs",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "rustls-platform-verifier-android"
+version = "0.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f87165f0995f63a9fbeea62b64d10b4d9d8e78ec6d7d51fb2125fda7bb36788f"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-webpki"
-version = "0.103.9"
+version = "0.103.15"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d7df23109aa6c1567d1c575b9952556388da57401e4ace1d15f79eedad0d8f53"
+checksum = "f3c3cf1d8b1e7d4927e2d154c3fcb02979afb9939629c62cd9048d4f07b60ac2"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-lc-rs",
  "ring",
@@ -7826,9 +8006,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ryu"
-version = "1.0.22"
+version = "1.0.23"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "9774ba4a74de5f7b1c1451ed6cd5285a32eddb5cccb8cc655a4e50009e06477f"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "safe-transmute"
+version = "0.11.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a50f4cf475b65d88e057964e0e9bb1f0aa9bbb2036dc65c64596b42932536984"
+checksum = "3944826ff8fa8093089aba3acb4ef44b9446a99a16f3bf4e74af3f77d340ab7d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "salsa20"
@@ -7850,9 +8036,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "schannel"
-version = "0.1.28"
+version = "0.1.29"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "891d81b926048e76efe18581bf793546b4c0eaf8448d72be8de2bbee5fd166e1"
+checksum = "91c1b7e4904c873ef0710c1f407dde2e6287de2bebc1bbbf7d430bb7cbffd939"
 dependencies = [
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
@@ -7869,6 +8055,30 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde_json",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "schemars"
+version = "0.9.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "4cd191f9397d57d581cddd31014772520aa448f65ef991055d7f61582c65165f"
+dependencies = [
+ "dyn-clone",
+ "ref-cast",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "schemars"
+version = "1.2.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a2b42f36aa1cd011945615b92222f6bf73c599a102a300334cd7f8dbeec726cc"
+dependencies = [
+ "dyn-clone",
+ "ref-cast",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "schemars_derive"
 version = "0.8.22"
@@ -7878,7 +8088,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "serde_derive_internals",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7901,53 +8111,16 @@ checksum = "0516a385866c09368f0b5bcd1caff3366aace790fcd46e2bb032697bb172fd1f"
 dependencies = [
  "pbkdf2",
  "salsa20",
- "sha2",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "sct"
-version = "0.7.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "da046153aa2352493d6cb7da4b6e5c0c057d8a1d0a9aa8560baffdd945acd414"
-dependencies = [
- "ring",
- "untrusted",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "sec1"
-version = "0.3.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3be24c1842290c45df0a7bf069e0c268a747ad05a192f2fd7dcfdbc1cba40928"
-dependencies = [
- "base16ct",
- "der 0.6.1",
- "generic-array",
- "pkcs8 0.9.0",
- "subtle",
- "zeroize",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "security-framework"
-version = "2.11.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "897b2245f0b511c87893af39b033e5ca9cce68824c4d7e7630b5a1d339658d02"
-dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
- "core-foundation 0.9.4",
- "core-foundation-sys",
- "libc",
- "security-framework-sys",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "security-framework"
-version = "3.5.1"
+version = "3.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b3297343eaf830f66ede390ea39da1d462b6b0c1b000f420d0a83f898bbbe6ef"
+checksum = "b7f4bc775c73d9a02cde8bf7b2ec4c9d12743edf609006c7facc23998404cd1d"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "core-foundation 0.10.1",
  "core-foundation-sys",
  "libc",
@@ -7956,9 +8129,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "security-framework-sys"
-version = "2.15.0"
+version = "2.17.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cc1f0cbffaac4852523ce30d8bd3c5cdc873501d96ff467ca09b6767bb8cd5c0"
+checksum = "6ce2691df843ecc5d231c0b14ece2acc3efb62c0a398c7e1d875f3983ce020e3"
 dependencies = [
  "core-foundation-sys",
  "libc",
@@ -7966,9 +8139,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "semver"
-version = "1.0.27"
+version = "1.0.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d767eb0aabc880b29956c35734170f26ed551a859dbd361d140cdbeca61ab1e2"
+checksum = "8a7852d02fc848982e0c167ef163aaff9cd91dc640ba85e263cb1ce46fae51cd"
 dependencies = [
  "serde",
  "serde_core",
@@ -7982,9 +8155,9 @@ checksum = "1bc711410fbe7399f390ca1c3b60ad0f53f80e95c5eb935e52268a0e2cd49acc"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde"
-version = "1.0.228"
+version = "1.0.229"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9a8e94ea7f378bd32cbbd37198a4a91436180c5bb472411e48b5ec2e2124ae9e"
+checksum = "4148590afebada386688f18773da617792bf2ef03ffc1e4cbd2b1d45b023e0ba"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_core",
  "serde_derive",
@@ -7992,22 +8165,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_core"
-version = "1.0.228"
+version = "1.0.229"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "41d385c7d4ca58e59fc732af25c3983b67ac852c1a25000afe1175de458b67ad"
+checksum = "67dca2c9c51e58a4791a4b1ed58308b39c64224d349a935ab5039aa360942a48"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_derive"
-version = "1.0.228"
+version = "1.0.229"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d540f220d3187173da220f885ab66608367b6574e925011a9353e4badda91d79"
+checksum = "e7a5d71263a5a7d47b41f6b3f06ba276f10cc18b0931f1799f710578e2309348"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 3.0.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8018,15 +8191,16 @@ checksum = "18d26a20a969b9e3fdf2fc2d9f21eda6c40e2de84c9408bb5d3b05d499aae711"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_json"
-version = "1.0.149"
+version = "1.0.151"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "83fc039473c5595ace860d8c4fafa220ff474b3fc6bfdb4293327f1a37e94d86"
+checksum = "c841b55ecdae098c80dcae9cf767f6f8a0c2cdb3416bbef72181df4d0fe73f14"
 dependencies = [
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itoa",
  "memchr",
  "serde",
@@ -8045,17 +8219,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde_core",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "serde_qs"
-version = "0.8.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c7715380eec75f029a4ef7de39a9200e0a63823176b759d055b613f5a87df6a6"
-dependencies = [
- "percent-encoding",
- "serde",
- "thiserror 1.0.69",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_repr"
 version = "0.1.20"
@@ -8064,19 +8227,19 @@ checksum = "175ee3e80ae9982737ca543e96133087cbd9a485eecc3bc4de9c1a37b47ea59c"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_tokenstream"
-version = "0.2.2"
+version = "0.2.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64060d864397305347a78851c51588fd283767e7e7589829e8121d65512340f1"
+checksum = "d7c49585c52c01f13c5c2ebb333f14f6885d76daa768d8a037d28017ec538c69"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "serde",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8091,28 +8254,109 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "serde_with"
+version = "3.21.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "76a5c54c7310e7b8b9577c286d7e399ddd876c3e12b3ed917a8aabc4b96e9e8c"
+dependencies = [
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bs58",
+ "chrono",
+ "hex",
+ "indexmap 1.9.3",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "schemars 0.9.0",
+ "schemars 1.2.1",
+ "serde_core",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serde_with_macros",
+ "time",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "serde_with_macros"
+version = "3.21.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "84d57bc0c8b9a17920c178daa6bb924850d54a9c97ab45194bb8c17ad66bb660"
+dependencies = [
+ "darling 0.23.0",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_yaml"
 version = "0.9.34+deprecated"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6a8b1a1a2ebf674015cc02edccce75287f1a0130d394307b36743c2f5d504b47"
 dependencies = [
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "itoa",
+ "ryu",
+ "serde",
+ "unsafe-libyaml",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "serde_yaml_ng"
+version = "0.10.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7b4db627b98b36d4203a7b458cf3573730f2bb591b28871d916dfa9efabfd41f"
+dependencies = [
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itoa",
  "ryu",
  "serde",
  "unsafe-libyaml",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "serial_test"
+version = "3.5.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "699f4197115b8a7e7ff19c9a315a4bd6fffec26cc4626ef45ecaea389e081c6d"
+dependencies = [
+ "futures-executor",
+ "futures-util",
+ "log",
+ "once_cell",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "serial_test_derive",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "serial_test_derive"
+version = "3.5.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "94e153fc76e1c6a068703d6d29c508a0b15c061c4b7e43da59cc097bc342673c"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "sha1"
 version = "0.10.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e3bf829a2d51ab4a5ddf1352d8470c140cadc8301b2ae1789db023f01cedd6ba"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "cpufeatures",
- "digest",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.2.17",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "sha1"
+version = "0.11.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "aacc4cc499359472b4abe1bf11d0b12e688af9a805fa5e3016f9a386dc2d0214"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8121,9 +8365,20 @@ version = "0.10.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a7507d819769d01a365ab707794a4084392c824f54a7a6a7862f8c3d0892b283"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "cpufeatures",
- "digest",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.2.17",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "sha2"
+version = "0.11.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "446ba717509524cb3f22f17ecc096f10f4822d76ab5c0b9822c5f9c284e825f4"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8137,18 +8392,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "shellexpand"
-version = "3.1.1"
+version = "3.1.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8b1fdf65dd6331831494dd616b30351c38e96e45921a27745cf98490458b90bb"
+checksum = "32824fab5e16e6c4d86dc1ba84489390419a39f97699852b66480bb87d297ed8"
 dependencies = [
- "dirs 6.0.0",
+ "bstr",
+ "dirs",
+ "os_str_bytes",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "shlex"
-version = "1.3.0"
+version = "2.0.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0fda2ff0d084019ba4d7c6f371c95d8fd75ce3524c3cb8fb653a3023f6323e64"
+checksum = "f8fadd59c855ef2080decdef8ff161eb6661b86933c9d82e5ba29dc602a55aba"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "signal-hook-registry"
@@ -8160,64 +8417,49 @@ dependencies = [
  "libc",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "signature"
-version = "1.6.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "74233d3b3b2f6d4b006dc19dee745e73e2a6bfb6f93607cd3b02bd5b00797d7c"
-dependencies = [
- "digest",
- "rand_core 0.6.4",
-]
-
 [[package]]
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 version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "77549399552de45a898a580c1b41d445bf730df867cc44e6c0233bbc4b8329de"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
  "rand_core 0.6.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "simd-adler32"
-version = "0.3.8"
+version = "0.3.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e320a6c5ad31d271ad523dcf3ad13e2767ad8b1cb8f047f75a8aeaf8da139da2"
+checksum = "703d5c7ef118737c72f1af64ad2f6f8c5e1921f818cdcb97b8fe6fc69bf66214"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "simdutf8"
-version = "0.1.5"
+name = "simd_cesu8"
+version = "1.1.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3a9fe34e3e7a50316060351f37187a3f546bce95496156754b601a5fa71b76e"
+checksum = "94f90157bb87cddf702797c5dadfa0be7d266cdf49e22da2fcaa32eff75b2c33"
+dependencies = [
+ "rustc_version",
+ "simdutf8",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "simple_asn1"
-version = "0.6.3"
+name = "simdutf8"
+version = "0.1.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "297f631f50729c8c99b84667867963997ec0b50f32b2a7dbcab828ef0541e8bb"
-dependencies = [
- "num-bigint",
- "num-traits",
- "thiserror 2.0.18",
- "time",
-]
+checksum = "e3a9fe34e3e7a50316060351f37187a3f546bce95496156754b601a5fa71b76e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "siphasher"
-version = "1.0.2"
+version = "1.0.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b2aa850e253778c88a04c3d7323b043aeda9d3e30d5971937c1855769763678e"
+checksum = "8ee5873ec9cce0195efcb7a4e9507a04cd49aec9c83d0389df45b1ef7ba2e649"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sketches-ddsketch"
-version = "0.3.0"
+version = "0.3.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c1e9a774a6c28142ac54bb25d25562e6bcf957493a184f15ad4eebccb23e410a"
-dependencies = [
- "serde",
-]
+checksum = "0c6f73aeb92d671e0cc4dca167e59b2deb6387c375391bc99ee743f326994a2b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "slab"
@@ -8227,55 +8469,39 @@ checksum = "0c790de23124f9ab44544d7ac05d60440adc586479ce501c1d6d7da3cd8c9cf5"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "smallvec"
-version = "1.15.1"
+version = "1.15.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "67b1b7a3b5fe4f1376887184045fcf45c69e92af734b7aaddc05fb777b6fbd03"
+checksum = "8ed6a63f02c8539c91a8685a86f4099661ba3da017932f6ebbea6de3f0fa7c90"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "snafu"
-version = "0.8.9"
+version = "0.9.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6e84b3f4eacbf3a1ce05eac6763b4d629d60cbc94d632e4092c54ade71f1e1a2"
+checksum = "e45cb604038abb7b926b679887b3226d8d0f23874b66623625a0454be425a4b7"
 dependencies = [
  "snafu-derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "snafu-derive"
-version = "0.8.9"
+version = "0.9.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c1c97747dbf44bb1ca44a561ece23508e99cb592e862f22222dcf42f51d1e451"
+checksum = "287f59010008f0d7cf5e3b03196d666c1acc46c8d3e9cf34c28a1a7157601e72"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "snap"
-version = "1.1.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1b6b67fb9a61334225b5b790716f609cd58395f895b3fe8b328786812a40bc3b"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "socket2"
-version = "0.5.10"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e22376abed350d73dd1cd119b57ffccad95b4e585a7cda43e286245ce23c0678"
-dependencies = [
- "libc",
- "windows-sys 0.52.0",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "socket2"
-version = "0.6.2"
+version = "0.6.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "86f4aa3ad99f2088c990dfa82d367e19cb29268ed67c574d10d0a4bfe71f07e0"
+checksum = "52d1cfed4120b4d927bf7c0f86d2087a4a7d6027c906d9f9d525a80573b9be51"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
- "windows-sys 0.60.2",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8291,11 +8517,11 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spade"
-version = "2.15.0"
+version = "2.15.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fb313e1c8afee5b5647e00ee0fe6855e3d529eb863a0fdae1d60006c4d1e9990"
+checksum = "9699399fd9349b00b184f5635b074f9ec93afffef30c853f8c875b32c0f8c7fa"
 dependencies = [
- "hashbrown 0.15.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
  "num-traits",
  "robust",
  "smallvec",
@@ -8303,29 +8529,19 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spin"
-version = "0.9.8"
+version = "0.9.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6980e8d7511241f8acf4aebddbb1ff938df5eebe98691418c4468d0b72a96a67"
+checksum = "3763264f6b73151db08c50ff20d7d8a0b8796e021cdea7ceedad07b80155fa0e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spin"
-version = "0.10.0"
+version = "0.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d5fe4ccb98d9c292d56fec89a5e07da7fc4cf0dc11e156b41793132775d3e591"
+checksum = "023a211cb3138dbc438680b32560ad89f699977624c9f8dbb95a47d5b4c07dd3"
 dependencies = [
  "lock_api",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "spki"
-version = "0.6.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "67cf02bbac7a337dc36e4f5a693db6c21e7863f45070f7064577eb4367a3212b"
-dependencies = [
- "base64ct",
- "der 0.6.1",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "spki"
 version = "0.7.3"
@@ -8333,7 +8549,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "d91ed6c858b01f942cd56b37a94b3e0a1798290327d1236e4d9cf4eaca44d29d"
 dependencies = [
  "base64ct",
- "der 0.7.10",
+ "der",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8350,9 +8566,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sqlparser"
-version = "0.59.0"
+version = "0.62.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4591acadbcf52f0af60eafbb2c003232b2b4cd8de5f0e9437cb8b1b59046cc0f"
+checksum = "13c6d1b651dc4edf07eead2a0c6c78016ce971bc2c10da5266861b13f25e7cec"
 dependencies = [
  "log",
  "sqlparser_derive",
@@ -8360,20 +8576,36 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sqlparser_derive"
-version = "0.3.0"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "da5fc6819faabb412da764b99d3b713bb55083c11e7e0c00144d386cd6a1939c"
+checksum = "a6dd45d8fc1c79299bfbb7190e42ccbbdf6a5f52e4a6ad98d92357ea965bd289"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "stable_deref_trait"
 version = "1.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6ce2be8dc25455e1f91df71bfa12ad37d7af1092ae736f3a6cd0e37bc7810596"
+checksum = "6ce2be8dc25455e1f91df71bfa12ad37d7af1092ae736f3a6cd0e37bc7810596"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "static_assertions"
+version = "1.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a2eb9349b6444b326872e140eb1cf5e7c522154d69e7a0ffb0fb81c06b37543f"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "statrs"
+version = "0.18.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "2a3fe7c28c6512e766b0874335db33c94ad7b8f9054228ae1c2abd47ce7d335e"
+dependencies = [
+ "approx",
+ "num-traits",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "std_prelude"
@@ -8387,11 +8619,20 @@ version = "0.2.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e51f1e89f093f99e7432c491c382b88a6860a5adbe6bf02574bf0a08efff1978"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "stop-words"
+version = "0.10.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d68df56303396bcfb639455b3c166804aeb7994005010aab5e9e8a1277b8871d"
+dependencies = [
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "str_stack"
-version = "0.1.0"
+version = "0.1.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9091b6114800a5f2141aee1d1b9d6ca3592ac062dc5decb3764ec5895a47b4eb"
+checksum = "7f446288b699d66d0fd2e30d1cfe7869194312524b3b9252594868ed26ef056a"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "strsim"
@@ -8407,54 +8648,33 @@ checksum = "7da8b5736845d9f2fcb837ea5d9e2628564b3b043a70948a3f0b778838c5fb4f"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "strum"
-version = "0.26.3"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8fec0f0aef304996cf250b31b5a10dee7980c85da9d759361292b8bca5a18f06"
-dependencies = [
- "strum_macros 0.26.4",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "strum"
-version = "0.27.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "af23d6f6c1a224baef9d3f61e287d2761385a5b88fdab4eb4c6f11aeb54c4bcf"
-dependencies = [
- "strum_macros 0.27.2",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "strum_macros"
-version = "0.26.4"
+version = "0.28.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4c6bee85a5a24955dc440386795aa378cd9cf82acd5f764469152d2270e581be"
+checksum = "9628de9b8791db39ceda2b119bbe13134770b56c138ec1d3af810d045c04f9bd"
 dependencies = [
- "heck",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "strum_macros",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "strum_macros"
-version = "0.27.2"
+version = "0.28.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7695ce3845ea4b33927c055a39dc438a45b059f7c1b3d91d38d10355fb8cbca7"
+checksum = "ab85eea0270ee17587ed4156089e10b9e6880ee688791d45a905f5b1ca36f664"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "substrait"
-version = "0.62.2"
+version = "0.63.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "62fc4b483a129b9772ccb9c3f7945a472112fdd9140da87f8a4e7f1d44e045d0"
+checksum = "e620ff4d5c02fd6f7752931aa74b16a26af66a63022cc1ad412c77edbe0bab47"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "pbjson",
  "pbjson-build",
  "pbjson-types",
@@ -8463,12 +8683,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
  "regress",
- "schemars",
+ "schemars 0.8.22",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_yaml",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
  "typify",
  "walkdir",
 ]
@@ -8481,9 +8701,9 @@ checksum = "13c2bddecc57b384dee18652358fb23172facb8a2c51ccc10d74c157bdea3292"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "symbolic-common"
-version = "12.17.2"
+version = "12.18.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "751a2823d606b5d0a7616499e4130a516ebd01a44f39811be2b9600936509c23"
+checksum = "332615d90111d8eeaf86a84dc9bbe9f65d0d8c5cf11b4caccedc37754eb0dcfd"
 dependencies = [
  "debugid",
  "memmap2",
@@ -8493,15 +8713,21 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "symbolic-demangle"
-version = "12.17.2"
+version = "12.18.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "79b237cfbe320601dd24b4ac817a5b68bb28f5508e33f08d42be0682cadc8ac9"
+checksum = "912017718eb4d21930546245af9a3475c9dccf15675a5c215664e76621afc471"
 dependencies = [
  "cpp_demangle",
  "rustc-demangle",
  "symbolic-common",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "symlink"
+version = "0.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a7973cce6668464ea31f176d85b13c7ab3bba2cb3b77a2ed26abd7801688010a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
 version = "1.0.109"
@@ -8515,9 +8741,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
-version = "2.0.114"
+version = "2.0.119"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "872831b642d1a07999a962a351ed35b955ea2cfc8f3862091e2a240a84f17297"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "unicode-ident",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "syn"
+version = "3.0.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d4d107df263a3013ef9b1879b0df87d706ff80f65a86ea879bd9c31f9b307c2a"
+checksum = "53e9bae58849f64dfa4f5d5ae372c8341f7305f82a3868709269343628b659a3"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -8541,7 +8778,21 @@ checksum = "728a70f3dbaf5bab7f0c4b1ac8d7ae5ea60a4b5549c8a5914361c99147a709d2"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "sysinfo"
+version = "0.38.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "92ab6a2f8bfe508deb3c6406578252e491d299cbbf3bc0529ecc3313aee4a52f"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+ "memchr",
+ "ntapi",
+ "objc2-core-foundation",
+ "objc2-io-kit",
+ "windows",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8550,7 +8801,7 @@ version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a13f3d0daba03132c0aa9767f98351b3488edc2c100cda2d2ec2b04f3d8d3c8b"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "core-foundation 0.9.4",
  "system-configuration-sys",
 ]
@@ -8571,179 +8822,22 @@ version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "7b2093cf4c8eb1e67749a6762251bc9cd836b6fc171623bd0a9d324d37af2417"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy"
-version = "0.24.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64a966cb0e76e311f09cf18507c9af192f15d34886ee43d7ba7c7e3803660c43"
-dependencies = [
- "aho-corasick",
- "arc-swap",
- "base64 0.22.1",
- "bitpacking",
- "bon",
- "byteorder",
- "census",
- "crc32fast",
- "crossbeam-channel",
- "downcast-rs",
- "fastdivide",
- "fnv",
- "fs4",
- "htmlescape",
- "hyperloglogplus",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "levenshtein_automata",
- "log",
- "lru 0.12.5",
- "lz4_flex 0.11.5",
- "measure_time",
- "memmap2",
- "once_cell",
- "oneshot",
- "rayon",
- "regex",
- "rust-stemmers",
- "rustc-hash",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "sketches-ddsketch",
- "smallvec",
- "tantivy-bitpacker",
- "tantivy-columnar",
- "tantivy-common",
- "tantivy-fst",
- "tantivy-query-grammar",
- "tantivy-stacker",
- "tantivy-tokenizer-api",
- "tempfile",
- "thiserror 2.0.18",
- "time",
- "uuid",
- "winapi",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-bitpacker"
-version = "0.8.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1adc286a39e089ae9938935cd488d7d34f14502544a36607effd2239ff0e2494"
-dependencies = [
- "bitpacking",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-columnar"
-version = "0.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6300428e0c104c4f7db6f95b466a6f5c1b9aece094ec57cdd365337908dc7344"
-dependencies = [
- "downcast-rs",
- "fastdivide",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "serde",
- "tantivy-bitpacker",
- "tantivy-common",
- "tantivy-sstable",
- "tantivy-stacker",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-common"
-version = "0.9.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e91b6ea6090ce03dc72c27d0619e77185d26cc3b20775966c346c6d4f7e99d7f"
-dependencies = [
- "async-trait",
- "byteorder",
- "ownedbytes",
- "serde",
- "time",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-fst"
-version = "0.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d60769b80ad7953d8a7b2c70cdfe722bbcdcac6bccc8ac934c40c034d866fc18"
-dependencies = [
- "byteorder",
- "regex-syntax",
- "utf8-ranges",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-query-grammar"
-version = "0.24.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e810cdeeebca57fc3f7bfec5f85fdbea9031b2ac9b990eb5ff49b371d52bbe6a"
-dependencies = [
- "nom 7.1.3",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-sstable"
-version = "0.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "709f22c08a4c90e1b36711c1c6cad5ae21b20b093e535b69b18783dd2cb99416"
-dependencies = [
- "futures-util",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "tantivy-bitpacker",
- "tantivy-common",
- "tantivy-fst",
- "zstd",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-stacker"
-version = "0.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2bcdebb267671311d1e8891fd9d1301803fdb8ad21ba22e0a30d0cab49ba59c1"
-dependencies = [
- "murmurhash32",
- "rand_distr 0.4.3",
- "tantivy-common",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-tokenizer-api"
-version = "0.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dfa942fcee81e213e09715bbce8734ae2180070b97b33839a795ba1de201547d"
-dependencies = [
- "serde",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "tap"
 version = "1.0.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "55937e1799185b12863d447f42597ed69d9928686b8d88a1df17376a097d8369"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "tar"
-version = "0.4.44"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1d863878d212c87a19c1a610eb53bb01fe12951c0501cf5a0d65f724914a667a"
-dependencies = [
- "filetime",
- "libc",
- "xattr",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "tempfile"
-version = "3.24.0"
+version = "3.27.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "655da9c7eb6305c55742045d5a8d2037996d61d8de95806335c7c86ce0f82e9c"
+checksum = "32497e9a4c7b38532efcdebeef879707aa9f794296a4f0244f6f69e9bc8574bd"
 dependencies = [
- "fastrand 2.3.0",
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "fastrand",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
  "once_cell",
- "rustix 1.1.3",
+ "rustix",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
@@ -8755,9 +8849,9 @@ checksum = "8f50febec83f5ee1df3015341d8bd429f2d1cc62bcba7ea2076759d315084683"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "test-log"
-version = "0.2.19"
+version = "0.2.21"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "37d53ac171c92a39e4769491c4b4dde7022c60042254b5fc044ae409d34a24d4"
+checksum = "9b9c218384242b5c89b68303ab6f6fc53a312d923f0c14dc6bb860c6aeee40f1"
 dependencies = [
  "env_logger",
  "test-log-macros",
@@ -8765,14 +8859,24 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "test-log-macros"
-version = "0.2.19"
+name = "test-log-core"
+version = "0.2.21"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "be35209fd0781c5401458ab66e4f98accf63553e8fae7425503e92fdd319783b"
+checksum = "c26ef8b00e4d382e59f6a8ddb3cd790b3a5bb29f21a358a9a69ea2f29f13f27b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "test-log-macros"
+version = "0.2.21"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "944ad38adcbb71eaa682c56bceeb079e4ca82b4b3edc2a0fde5cb297b77dac8d"
+dependencies = [
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+ "test-log-core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8801,7 +8905,7 @@ checksum = "4fee6c4efc90059e10f81e6d42c60a18f76588c3d74cb83a0b242a2b6c7504c1"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8812,7 +8916,7 @@ checksum = "ebc4ee7f67670e9b64d05fa4253e753e016c6c95ff35b89b7941d6b856dec1d5"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8830,7 +8934,7 @@ version = "1.1.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f60246a4944f24f6e018aa17cdeffb7818b76356965d03b07d6a9886e8962185"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8846,16 +8950,12 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "time"
-version = "0.3.47"
+version = "0.3.55"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "743bd48c283afc0388f9b8827b976905fb217ad9e647fae3a379a9283c4def2c"
+checksum = "cdb87b95ec50ddfa440816d227a17b2ccbdda963a316a727fda0fc4334f7d134"
 dependencies = [
  "deranged",
- "itoa",
- "js-sys",
- "libc",
  "num-conv",
- "num_threads",
  "powerfmt",
  "serde_core",
  "time-core",
@@ -8864,15 +8964,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "time-core"
-version = "0.1.8"
+version = "0.1.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7694e1cfe791f8d31026952abf09c69ca6f6fa4e1a1229e18988f06a04a12dca"
+checksum = "9e1c906769ad99c88eaa54e728060edef082f8e358ff32030cb7c7d315e81109"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "time-macros"
-version = "0.2.27"
+version = "0.2.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2e70e4c5a0e0a8a4823ad65dfe1a6930e4f4d756dcd9dd7939022b5e8c501215"
+checksum = "7e689342a48d2ea927c87ea50cabf8594854bf940e9310208848d680d668ed85"
 dependencies = [
  "num-conv",
  "time-core",
@@ -8889,11 +8989,12 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tinystr"
-version = "0.8.2"
+version = "0.8.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "42d3e9c45c09de15d06dd8acf5f4e0e399e85927b7f00711024eb7ae10fa4869"
+checksum = "c8323304221c2a851516f22236c5722a72eaa19749016521d6dff0824447d96d"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
+ "serde_core",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
@@ -8909,9 +9010,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tinyvec"
-version = "1.10.0"
+version = "1.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bfa5fdc3bce6191a1dbc8c02d5c8bffcf557bafa17c124c5264a458f1b0613fa"
+checksum = "3e61e67053d25a4e82c844e8424039d9745781b3fc4f32b8d55ed50f5f667ef3"
 dependencies = [
  "tinyvec_macros",
 ]
@@ -8941,7 +9042,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "monostate",
  "onig",
  "paste",
- "rand 0.8.5",
+ "rand 0.8.6",
  "rayon",
  "rayon-cond",
  "regex",
@@ -8957,9 +9058,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio"
-version = "1.49.0"
+version = "1.53.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72a2903cd7736441aac9df9d7688bd0ce48edccaadf181c3b90be801e81d3d86"
+checksum = "202caea871b69668250d242070849eb495be178ed697a3e98aebce5bc81a0bed"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "libc",
@@ -8967,20 +9068,20 @@ dependencies = [
  "parking_lot",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "signal-hook-registry",
- "socket2 0.6.2",
+ "socket2",
  "tokio-macros",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-macros"
-version = "2.6.0"
+version = "2.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "af407857209536a95c8e56f8231ef2c2e2aff839b22e07a1ffcbc617e9db9fa5"
+checksum = "385a6cb71ab9ab790c5fe8d67f1645e6c450a7ce006a33de03daa956cf70a496"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8994,12 +9095,13 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tokio-rustls"
-version = "0.24.1"
+name = "tokio-retry"
+version = "0.3.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c28327cf380ac148141087fbfb9de9d7bd4e84ab5d2c28fbc911d753de8a7081"
+checksum = "4a129d95275ebf4c493ec53bf0f8cd95f5ac161bc4f381700809a54f595d4470"
 dependencies = [
- "rustls 0.21.12",
+ "pin-project-lite",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
@@ -9009,50 +9111,76 @@ version = "0.26.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1729aa945f29d91ba541258c8df89027d5792d85a8841fb65e8bf0f4ede4ef61"
 dependencies = [
- "rustls 0.23.36",
+ "rustls",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-stream"
-version = "0.1.18"
+version = "0.1.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "32da49809aab5c3bc678af03902d4ccddea2a87d028d86392a4b1560c6906c70"
+checksum = "a3d06f0b082ba57c26b79407372e57cf2a1e28124f78e9479fe80322cf53420b"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-util"
-version = "0.7.18"
+version = "0.7.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9ae9cec805b01e8fc3fd2fe289f89149a9b66dd16786abd8b19cfa7b48cb0098"
+checksum = "494815d09bf52b5548659851081238f0ca39ff638363907596da739561c62c52"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
+ "libc",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "tokio_with_wasm"
+version = "0.8.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "34e40fbbbd95441133fe9483f522db15dbfd26dc636164ebd8f2dd28759a6aa6"
+dependencies = [
+ "js-sys",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio_with_wasm_proc",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tokio_with_wasm_proc"
+version = "0.8.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d01145a2c788d6aae4cd653afec1e8332534d7d783d01897cefcafe4428de992"
+dependencies = [
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "toml_datetime"
-version = "0.7.5+spec-1.1.0"
+version = "1.1.1+spec-1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "92e1cfed4a3038bc5a127e35a2d360f145e1f4b971b551a2ba5fd7aedf7e1347"
+checksum = "3165f65f62e28e0115a00b2ebdd37eb6f3b641855f9d636d3cd4103767159ad7"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "toml_edit"
-version = "0.23.10+spec-1.0.0"
+version = "0.25.12+spec-1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "84c8b9f757e028cee9fa244aea147aab2a9ec09d5325a9b01e0a49730c2b5269"
+checksum = "d2153edc6955a6c354fad8f5efd38b6a8769bdccf9fe50f8e1329f81b0baa5d7"
 dependencies = [
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "toml_datetime",
  "toml_parser",
  "winnow",
@@ -9060,13 +9188,52 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "toml_parser"
-version = "1.0.6+spec-1.1.0"
+version = "1.1.2+spec-1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a3198b4b0a8e11f09dd03e133c0280504d0801269e9afa46362ffde1cbeebf44"
+checksum = "a2abe9b86193656635d2411dc43050282ca48aa31c2451210f4202550afb7526"
 dependencies = [
  "winnow",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "tonic"
+version = "0.14.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ac2a5518c70fa84342385732db33fb3f44bc4cc748936eb5833d2df34d6445ef"
+dependencies = [
+ "async-trait",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "h2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "http-body-util",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-timeout",
+ "hyper-util",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "pin-project",
+ "socket2",
+ "sync_wrapper",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-stream",
+ "tower",
+ "tower-layer",
+ "tower-service",
+ "tracing",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tonic-prost"
+version = "0.14.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "50849f68853be452acf590cde0b146665b8d507b3b8af17261df47e02c209ea0"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "prost",
+ "tonic",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "tower"
 version = "0.5.3"
@@ -9075,9 +9242,12 @@ checksum = "ebe5ef63511595f1344e2d5cfa636d973292adc0eec1f0ad45fae9f0851ab1d4"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "pin-project-lite",
+ "slab",
  "sync_wrapper",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
  "tower-layer",
  "tower-service",
  "tracing",
@@ -9089,9 +9259,9 @@ version = "0.5.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1e9cd434a998747dd2c4276bc96ee2e0c7a2eadf3cae88e52be55a05fa9053f5"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "bytes",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "pin-project-lite",
@@ -9102,25 +9272,25 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tower-http"
-version = "0.6.8"
+version = "0.6.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d4e6559d53cc268e5031cd8429d05415bc4cb4aefc4aa5d6cc35fbf5b924a1f8"
+checksum = "4cfcf7e2740e6fc6d4d688b4ef00650406bb94adf4731e43c096c3a19fe40840"
 dependencies = [
  "async-compression",
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "bytes",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
- "iri-string",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-util",
  "tower",
  "tower-layer",
  "tower-service",
+ "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -9147,6 +9317,19 @@ dependencies = [
  "tracing-core",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "tracing-appender"
+version = "0.2.5"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "050686193eb999b4bb3bc2acfa891a13da00f79734704c4b8b4ef1a10b368a3c"
+dependencies = [
+ "crossbeam-channel",
+ "symlink",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "time",
+ "tracing-subscriber",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "tracing-attributes"
 version = "0.1.31"
@@ -9155,7 +9338,7 @@ checksum = "7490cfa5ec963746568740651ac6781f701c9c5ea257c58e057f3ba8cf69e8da"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -9180,32 +9363,55 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tracing-log"
+name = "tracing-log"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ee855f1f400bd0e5c02d150ae5de3840039a3f54b025156404e34c23c03f47c3"
+dependencies = [
+ "log",
+ "once_cell",
+ "tracing-core",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tracing-mock"
+version = "0.1.0-beta.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "98a31739d4ff16a8634c5463c75d5bf9e500596958a245d1ee5b6b98ac37658d"
+dependencies = [
+ "tracing",
+ "tracing-core",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tracing-serde"
 version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ee855f1f400bd0e5c02d150ae5de3840039a3f54b025156404e34c23c03f47c3"
+checksum = "704b1aeb7be0d0a84fc9828cae51dab5970fee5088f83d1dd7ee6f6246fc6ff1"
 dependencies = [
- "log",
- "once_cell",
+ "serde",
  "tracing-core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tracing-subscriber"
-version = "0.3.22"
+version = "0.3.23"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2f30143827ddab0d256fd843b7a66d164e9f271cfa0dde49142c5ca0ca291f1e"
+checksum = "cb7f578e5945fb242538965c2d0b04418d38ec25c79d160cd279bf0731c8d319"
 dependencies = [
  "matchers",
  "nu-ansi-term",
  "once_cell",
  "regex-automata",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
  "sharded-slab",
  "smallvec",
  "thread_local",
  "tracing",
  "tracing-core",
  "tracing-log",
+ "tracing-serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -9226,18 +9432,24 @@ checksum = "e421abadd41a4225275504ea4d6566923418b7f05506fbc9c0fe86ba7396114b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "twox-hash"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9ea3136b675547379c4bd395ca6b938e5ad3c3d20fad76e7fe85f9e0d011419c"
+checksum = "8464ec13c3691491391d9fce00f6416c9a48e46972f72d7865688be2080192c9"
 dependencies = [
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "typenum"
-version = "1.19.0"
+version = "1.20.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "562d481066bde0658276a35467c4af00bdc6ee726305698a55b86e61d7ad82bb"
+checksum = "b6f5e870be6c3b371b77fe0ee0bafb859fa4964b4404c27de1d380043c4dda20"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "typewit"
+version = "1.15.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "214ca0b2191785cbc06209b9ca1861e048e39b5ba33574b3cedd58363d5bb5f6"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "typify"
@@ -9260,11 +9472,11 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "regress",
- "schemars",
+ "schemars 0.8.22",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
  "unicode-ident",
 ]
@@ -9277,24 +9489,15 @@ checksum = "911c32f3c8514b048c1b228361bebb5e6d73aeec01696e8cc0e82e2ffef8ab7a"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "schemars",
+ "schemars 0.8.22",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_tokenstream",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
  "typify-impl",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "tz-rs"
-version = "0.6.14"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "33851b15c848fad2cf4b105c6bb66eb9512b6f6c44a4b13f57c53c73c707e2b4"
-dependencies = [
- "const_fn",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "unarray"
 version = "0.1.4"
@@ -9315,9 +9518,9 @@ checksum = "6b12e05d9e06373163a9bb6bb8c263c261b396643a99445fe6b9811fd376581b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-ident"
-version = "1.0.22"
+version = "1.0.24"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9312f7c4f6ff9069b165498234ce8be658059c6728633667c526e27dc2cf1df5"
+checksum = "e6e4313cd5fcd3dad5cafa179702e2b244f760991f45397d14d4ebf38247da75"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-normalization"
@@ -9339,9 +9542,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-segmentation"
-version = "1.12.0"
+version = "1.13.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f6ccf251212114b54433ec949fd6a7841275f9ada20dddd2f29e9ceea4501493"
+checksum = "c6f5d3c3b1bf09027a88a6bc961fc00497d651009560b5463668dc81b0fa87a8"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-width"
@@ -9367,12 +9570,6 @@ version = "0.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "8ecb6da28b8a351d773b68d5825ac39017e680750f980f3a1a85cd8dd28a47c1"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "unty"
-version = "0.0.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6d49784317cd0d1ee7ec5c716dd598ec5b4483ea832a2dced265471cc0f690ae"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "ureq"
 version = "2.12.1"
@@ -9384,7 +9581,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "log",
  "native-tls",
  "once_cell",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
+ "rustls",
  "rustls-pki-types",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
@@ -9403,7 +9600,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "idna",
  "percent-encoding",
  "serde",
- "serde_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -9432,11 +9628,11 @@ checksum = "06abde3611657adf66d383f00b093d7faecc7fa57071cce2578660c9f1010821"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "uuid"
-version = "1.20.0"
+version = "1.24.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ee48d38b119b0cd71fe4141b30f5ba9c7c5d9f4e7a3a8b4a674e4b6ef789976f"
+checksum = "bf3923a6f5c4c6382e0b653c4117f48d631ea17f38ed86e2a828e6f7412f5239"
 dependencies = [
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
  "js-sys",
  "serde_core",
  "wasm-bindgen",
@@ -9460,12 +9656,6 @@ version = "0.9.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "0b928f33d975fc6ad9f86c8f283853ad26bdd5b10b7f1542aa2fa15e2289105a"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "virtue"
-version = "0.0.18"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "051eb1abcf10076295e815102942cc58f9d5e3b4560e46e53c21e8ff6f3af7b1"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "vsimd"
 version = "0.8.0"
@@ -9481,12 +9671,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "libc",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "waker-fn"
-version = "1.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "317211a0dc0ceedd78fb2ca9a44aed3d7b9b26f81870d485c07122b4350673b7"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "walkdir"
 version = "2.5.0"
@@ -9508,32 +9692,44 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasi"
-version = "0.9.0+wasi-snapshot-preview1"
+version = "0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cccddf32554fecc6acb585f82a32a72e28b48f8c4c1883ddfeeeaa96f7d8e519"
+checksum = "ccf3ec651a847eb01de73ccad15eb7d99f80485de043efb2f370cd654f4ea44b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasi"
-version = "0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1"
+version = "0.14.7+wasi-0.2.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ccf3ec651a847eb01de73ccad15eb7d99f80485de043efb2f370cd654f4ea44b"
+checksum = "883478de20367e224c0090af9cf5f9fa85bed63a95c1abf3afc5c083ebc06e8c"
+dependencies = [
+ "wasip2",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasip2"
-version = "1.0.2+wasi-0.2.9"
+version = "1.0.4+wasi-0.2.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9517f9239f02c069db75e65f174b3da828fe5f5b945c4dd26bd25d89c03ebcf5"
+checksum = "b67efb37e106e55ce722a510d6b5f9c17f083e5fc79afc2badeb12cc313d9487"
 dependencies = [
  "wit-bindgen",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "wasite"
+version = "1.0.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "66fe902b4a6b8028a753d5424909b764ccf79b7a209eac9bf97e59cda9f71a42"
+dependencies = [
+ "wasi 0.14.7+wasi-0.2.4",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64024a30ec1e37399cf85a7ffefebdb72205ca1c972291c51512360d90bd8566"
+checksum = "8ddb3f79143bced6de84270411622a2699cee572fc0875aeaf1e7867cf9fca1a"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "once_cell",
  "rustversion",
  "wasm-bindgen-macro",
@@ -9542,23 +9738,19 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-futures"
-version = "0.4.58"
+version = "0.4.75"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "70a6e77fd0ae8029c9ea0063f87c46fde723e7d887703d74ad2616d792e51e6f"
+checksum = "503b14d284f2c8dac03b819967e155ea753f573586193b2b2c95990cb5d69280"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "futures-util",
  "js-sys",
- "once_cell",
  "wasm-bindgen",
- "web-sys",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-macro"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "008b239d9c740232e71bd39e8ef6429d27097518b6b30bdf9086833bd5b6d608"
+checksum = "4e21a184b13fb19e157296e2c46056aec9092264fab83e4ba59e68c61b323c3d"
 dependencies = [
  "quote",
  "wasm-bindgen-macro-support",
@@ -9566,22 +9758,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-macro-support"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5256bae2d58f54820e6490f9839c49780dff84c65aeab9e772f15d5f0e913a55"
+checksum = "fecefd9c35bd935a20fc3fc344b5f29138961e4f47fb03297d88f2587afb5ebd"
 dependencies = [
  "bumpalo",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
  "wasm-bindgen-shared",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-shared"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1f01b580c9ac74c8d8f0c0e4afb04eeef2acf145458e52c03845ee9cd23e3d12"
+checksum = "23939e44bb9a5d7576fa2b563dc2e136628f1224e88a8deed09e04858b77871f"
 dependencies = [
  "unicode-ident",
 ]
@@ -9599,11 +9791,24 @@ dependencies = [
  "web-sys",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "wasm-streams"
+version = "0.5.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "9d1ec4f6517c9e11ae630e200b2b65d193279042e28edd4a2cda233e46670bbb"
+dependencies = [
+ "futures-util",
+ "js-sys",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "web-sys"
-version = "0.3.85"
+version = "0.3.102"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "312e32e551d92129218ea9a2452120f4aabc03529ef03e4d0d82fb2780608598"
+checksum = "a6430a72df5eb332242960fe84b3002a241163998241eb596d4f739b9757061d"
 dependencies = [
  "js-sys",
  "wasm-bindgen",
@@ -9619,24 +9824,46 @@ dependencies = [
  "wasm-bindgen",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "webpki-root-certs"
+version = "1.0.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0d46a5a140e6f7afeccd8eae97eff335163939eac8b929834875168b29b3d267"
+dependencies = [
+ "rustls-pki-types",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "webpki-roots"
 version = "0.26.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "521bc38abb08001b01866da9f51eb7c5d647a19260e00054a8c7fd5f9e57f7a9"
 dependencies = [
- "webpki-roots 1.0.6",
+ "webpki-roots 1.0.8",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "webpki-roots"
-version = "1.0.6"
+version = "1.0.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "22cfaf3c063993ff62e73cb4311efde4db1efb31ab78a3e5c457939ad5cc0bed"
+checksum = "bf85cb06032201fa7c6f829d7db5a7e5aa45bcc0655327713065f6f0576731bf"
 dependencies = [
  "rustls-pki-types",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "whoami"
+version = "2.1.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "998767ef88740d1f5b0682a9c53c24431453923962269c2db68ee43788c5a40d"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+ "libredox",
+ "objc2-system-configuration",
+ "wasite",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "winapi"
 version = "0.3.9"
@@ -9668,6 +9895,27 @@ version = "0.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "712e227841d057c1ee1cd2fb22fa7e5a5461ae8e48fa2ca79ec42cfc1931183f"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows"
+version = "0.62.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "527fadee13e0c05939a6a05d5bd6eec6cd2e3dbd648b9f8e447c6518133d8580"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-collections",
+ "windows-core",
+ "windows-future",
+ "windows-numerics",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-collections"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "23b2d95af1a8a14a3c7367e1ed4fc9c20e0a26e79551b1454d72583c97cc6610"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-core",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-core"
 version = "0.62.2"
@@ -9681,6 +9929,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-strings",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-future"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e1d6f90251fe18a279739e78025bd6ddc52a7e22f921070ccdc67dde84c605cb"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-core",
+ "windows-link",
+ "windows-threading",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-implement"
 version = "0.60.2"
@@ -9689,7 +9948,7 @@ checksum = "053e2e040ab57b9dc951b72c264860db7eb3b0200ba345b4e4c3b14f67855ddf"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -9700,7 +9959,7 @@ checksum = "3f316c4a2570ba26bbec722032c4099d8c8bc095efccdc15688708623367e358"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -9709,6 +9968,16 @@ version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f0805222e57f7521d6a62e36fa9163bc891acd422f971defe97d64e70d0a4fe5"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-numerics"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6e2e40844ac143cdb44aead537bbf727de9b044e107a0f1220392177d15b0f26"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-core",
+ "windows-link",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-registry"
 version = "0.6.1"
@@ -9738,15 +10007,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-link",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows-sys"
-version = "0.48.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "677d2418bec65e3338edb076e806bc1ec15693c5d0104683f2efe857f61056a9"
-dependencies = [
- "windows-targets 0.48.5",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-sys"
 version = "0.52.0"
@@ -9783,21 +10043,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-link",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows-targets"
-version = "0.48.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9a2fa6e2155d7247be68c096456083145c183cbbbc2764150dda45a87197940c"
-dependencies = [
- "windows_aarch64_gnullvm 0.48.5",
- "windows_aarch64_msvc 0.48.5",
- "windows_i686_gnu 0.48.5",
- "windows_i686_msvc 0.48.5",
- "windows_x86_64_gnu 0.48.5",
- "windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.48.5",
- "windows_x86_64_msvc 0.48.5",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-targets"
 version = "0.52.6"
@@ -9832,10 +10077,13 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "windows_aarch64_gnullvm"
-version = "0.48.5"
+name = "windows-threading"
+version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2b38e32f0abccf9987a4e3079dfb67dcd799fb61361e53e2882c3cbaf0d905d8"
+checksum = "3949bd5b99cafdf1c7ca86b43ca564028dfe27d66958f2470940f73d86d75b37"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-link",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "windows_aarch64_gnullvm"
@@ -9849,12 +10097,6 @@ version = "0.53.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a9d8416fa8b42f5c947f8482c43e7d89e73a173cead56d044f6a56104a6d1b53"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows_aarch64_msvc"
-version = "0.48.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dc35310971f3b2dbbf3f0690a219f40e2d9afcf64f9ab7cc1be722937c26b4bc"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows_aarch64_msvc"
 version = "0.52.6"
@@ -9867,12 +10109,6 @@ version = "0.53.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b9d782e804c2f632e395708e99a94275910eb9100b2114651e04744e9b125006"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows_i686_gnu"
-version = "0.48.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a75915e7def60c94dcef72200b9a8e58e5091744960da64ec734a6c6e9b3743e"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows_i686_gnu"
 version = "0.52.6"
@@ -9897,12 +10133,6 @@ version = "0.53.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "fa7359d10048f68ab8b09fa71c3daccfb0e9b559aed648a8f95469c27057180c"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows_i686_msvc"
-version = "0.48.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8f55c233f70c4b27f66c523580f78f1004e8b5a8b659e05a4eb49d4166cca406"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows_i686_msvc"
 version = "0.52.6"
@@ -9915,12 +10145,6 @@ version = "0.53.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1e7ac75179f18232fe9c285163565a57ef8d3c89254a30685b57d83a38d326c2"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows_x86_64_gnu"
-version = "0.48.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "53d40abd2583d23e4718fddf1ebec84dbff8381c07cae67ff7768bbf19c6718e"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows_x86_64_gnu"
 version = "0.52.6"
@@ -9933,12 +10157,6 @@ version = "0.53.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9c3842cdd74a865a8066ab39c8a7a473c0778a3f29370b5fd6b4b9aa7df4a499"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows_x86_64_gnullvm"
-version = "0.48.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0b7b52767868a23d5bab768e390dc5f5c55825b6d30b86c844ff2dc7414044cc"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows_x86_64_gnullvm"
 version = "0.52.6"
@@ -9951,12 +10169,6 @@ version = "0.53.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "0ffa179e2d07eee8ad8f57493436566c7cc30ac536a3379fdf008f47f6bb7ae1"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows_x86_64_msvc"
-version = "0.48.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ed94fce61571a4006852b7389a063ab983c02eb1bb37b47f8272ce92d06d9538"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows_x86_64_msvc"
 version = "0.52.6"
@@ -9971,9 +10183,9 @@ checksum = "d6bbff5f0aada427a1e5a6da5f1f98158182f26556f345ac9e04d36d0ebed650"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "winnow"
-version = "0.7.14"
+version = "1.0.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5a5364e9d77fcdeeaa6062ced926ee3381faa2ee02d3eb83a5c27a8825540829"
+checksum = "0592e1c9d151f854e6fd382574c3a0855250e1d9b2f99d9281c6e6391af352f1"
 dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
@@ -9988,9 +10200,9 @@ dependencies = [
  "base64 0.22.1",
  "deadpool",
  "futures",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body-util",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
+ "hyper",
  "hyper-util",
  "log",
  "once_cell",
@@ -10003,9 +10215,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wit-bindgen"
-version = "0.51.0"
+version = "0.57.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d7249219f66ced02969388cf2bb044a09756a083d0fab1e566056b04d9fbcaa5"
+checksum = "1ebf944e87a7c253233ad6766e082e3cd714b5d03812acc24c318f549614536e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wkb"
@@ -10034,9 +10246,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "writeable"
-version = "0.6.2"
+version = "0.6.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9edde0db4769d2dc68579893f2306b26c6ecfbe0ef499b013d731b7b9247e0b9"
+checksum = "1ffae5123b2d3fc086436f8834ae3ab053a283cfac8fe0a0b8eaae044768a4c4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wyz"
@@ -10048,13 +10260,144 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "xattr"
-version = "1.6.1"
+name = "xet-client"
+version = "1.6.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c3b8da8cc70aa2e3c500c0400e012df82c656ab9fca47f9f939fffc5afd89aca"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "crc32fast",
+ "futures",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "hyper",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "redb",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "reqwest-middleware",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serde_repr",
+ "statrs",
+ "tempfile",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-retry",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "url",
+ "urlencoding",
+ "web-time",
+ "xet-core-structures",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "xet-core-structures"
+version = "1.6.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "73503c223783dccc864abde22115e09d12f190448a0baf58ab2c54bc709e2f99"
+dependencies = [
+ "async-trait",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "blake3",
+ "bytemuck",
+ "bytes",
+ "countio",
+ "futures",
+ "futures-util",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
+ "heapify",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "lz4_flex",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "regex",
+ "safe-transmute",
+ "serde",
+ "static_assertions",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "web-time",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "xet-data"
+version = "1.6.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c89052ec5dec2187cad30b86af92cc24fd61c4a57a795f1ff7ff5f38d49184eb"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "chrono",
+ "gearhash",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
+ "tempfile",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "url",
+ "uuid",
+ "web-time",
+ "xet-client",
+ "xet-core-structures",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "xet-runtime"
+version = "1.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "32e45ad4206f6d2479085147f02bc2ef834ac85886624a23575ae137c8aa8156"
+checksum = "af5c60d5eed38ab4c576f4421bae835e7bd07631fb381705605529d2015c106b"
 dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "chrono",
+ "colored",
+ "const-str",
+ "ctor",
+ "dirs",
+ "futures",
+ "git-version",
+ "humantime",
+ "konst",
  "libc",
- "rustix 1.1.3",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "oneshot",
+ "pin-project",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "shellexpand",
+ "sysinfo",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "tracing-appender",
+ "tracing-subscriber",
+ "web-time",
+ "whoami",
+ "winapi",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -10065,15 +10408,9 @@ checksum = "66fee0b777b0f5ac1c69bb06d361268faafa61cd4682ae064a171c16c433e9e4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "xxhash-rust"
-version = "0.8.15"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fdd20c5420375476fbd4394763288da7eb0cc0b8c11deed431a91562af7335d3"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "yada"
-version = "0.5.1"
+version = "0.8.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "aed111bd9e48a802518765906cbdadf0b45afb72b9c81ab049a3b86252adffdd"
+checksum = "aee1b19627c7c60102ab80d3a9cbe18de90bfe03bfa6c3715447681f0e8c8af6"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "yansi"
@@ -10083,9 +10420,9 @@ checksum = "cfe53a6657fd280eaa890a3bc59152892ffa3e30101319d168b781ed6529b049"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "yoke"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.8.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72d6e5c6afb84d73944e5cedb052c4680d5657337201555f9f2a16b7406d4954"
+checksum = "709fe23a0424b6a435d82152b1bd3fdfb0833487d5fa90d05d42762a9891fef5"
 dependencies = [
  "stable_deref_trait",
  "yoke-derive",
@@ -10094,80 +10431,82 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "yoke-derive"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b659052874eb698efe5b9e8cf382204678a0086ebf46982b79d6ca3182927e5d"
+checksum = "de844c262c8848816172cef550288e7dc6c7b7814b4ee56b3e1553f275f1858e"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
  "synstructure",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerocopy"
-version = "0.8.38"
+version = "0.8.52"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "57cf3aa6855b23711ee9852dfc97dfaa51c45feaba5b645d0c777414d494a961"
+checksum = "ce1022995ff5ff5d841ad7d994facc23098cd40152f2c1d11cd607c6f530653f"
 dependencies = [
  "zerocopy-derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerocopy-derive"
-version = "0.8.38"
+version = "0.8.52"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8a616990af1a287837c4fe6596ad77ef57948f787e46ce28e166facc0cc1cb75"
+checksum = "1ae7f38b72ec2a254e2b87ef277cf2cd4fb97cbebf944faa6f33354da0867930"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerofrom"
-version = "0.1.6"
+version = "0.1.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "50cc42e0333e05660c3587f3bf9d0478688e15d870fab3346451ce7f8c9fbea5"
+checksum = "0ec05a11813ea801ff6d75110ad09cd0824ddba17dfe17128ea0d5f68e6c5272"
 dependencies = [
  "zerofrom-derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerofrom-derive"
-version = "0.1.6"
+version = "0.1.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d71e5d6e06ab090c67b5e44993ec16b72dcbaabc526db883a360057678b48502"
+checksum = "11532158c46691caf0f2593ea8358fed6bbf68a0315e80aae9bd41fbade684a1"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
  "synstructure",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zeroize"
-version = "1.8.2"
+version = "1.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b97154e67e32c85465826e8bcc1c59429aaaf107c1e4a9e53c8d8ccd5eff88d0"
+checksum = "e13c156562582aa81c60cb29407084cdb54c4164760106ab78e6c5b0858cf64e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerotrie"
-version = "0.2.3"
+version = "0.2.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a59c17a5562d507e4b54960e8569ebee33bee890c70aa3fe7b97e85a9fd7851"
+checksum = "0f9152d31db0792fa83f70fb2f83148effb5c1f5b8c7686c3459e361d9bc20bf"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
+ "zerovec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerovec"
-version = "0.11.5"
+version = "0.11.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6c28719294829477f525be0186d13efa9a3c602f7ec202ca9e353d310fb9a002"
+checksum = "90f911cbc359ab6af17377d242225f4d75119aec87ea711a880987b18cd7b239"
 dependencies = [
+ "serde",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
  "zerovec-derive",
@@ -10175,26 +10514,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerovec-derive"
-version = "0.11.2"
+version = "0.11.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eadce39539ca5cb3985590102671f2567e659fca9666581ad3411d59207951f3"
+checksum = "625dc425cab0dca6dc3c3319506e6593dcb08a9f387ea3b284dbd52a92c40555"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.119",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "zlib-rs"
-version = "0.6.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a7948af682ccbc3342b6e9420e8c51c1fe5d7bf7756002b4a3c6cabfe96a7e3c"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "zmij"
-version = "1.0.19"
+version = "1.0.21"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3ff05f8caa9038894637571ae6b9e29466c1f4f829d26c9b28f869a29cbe3445"
+checksum = "b8848ee67ecc8aedbaf3e4122217aff892639231befc6a1b58d29fff4c2cabaa"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zstd"
diff --git a/Cargo.toml b/Cargo.toml
index b080335a735..94e6f161939 100644
--- a/Cargo.toml
+++ b/Cargo.toml
@@ -9,26 +9,32 @@ members = [
     "rust/lance-file",
     "rust/lance-geo",
     "rust/lance-index",
+    "rust/lance-index-core",
     "rust/lance-io",
     "rust/lance-linalg",
     "rust/lance-namespace",
     "rust/lance-namespace-impls",
     "rust/lance-namespace-datafusion",
+    "rust/lance-select",
+    "rust/lance-tokenizer",
     "rust/lance-table",
+    "rust/lance-derive",
     "rust/lance-test-macros",
     "rust/lance-testing",
     "rust/lance-tools",
     "rust/compression/fsst",
     "rust/compression/bitpacking",
+    "rust/arrow-scalar",
+    "rust/arrow-stats",
 ]
 exclude = ["python", "java/lance-jni"]
 # Python package needs to be built by maturin.
-resolver = "2"
+resolver = "3"
 
 
 [workspace.package]
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
-edition = "2021"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+edition = "2024"
 authors = ["Lance Devs <dev@lance.org>"]
 license = "Apache-2.0"
 repository = "https://github.com/lance-format/lance"
@@ -47,54 +53,67 @@ categories = [
     "development-tools",
     "science",
 ]
-rust-version = "1.88.0"
+rust-version = "1.94.0"
 
 [workspace.dependencies]
+arc-swap = "1.7"
 libc = "0.2.176"
-lance = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance", default-features = false }
-lance-arrow = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-arrow" }
-lance-core = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-core" }
-lance-datafusion = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-datafusion" }
-lance-datagen = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-datagen" }
-lance-encoding = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-encoding" }
-lance-file = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-file" }
-lance-geo = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-geo" }
-lance-index = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-index" }
-lance-io = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-io", default-features = false }
-lance-linalg = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-linalg" }
-lance-namespace = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-namespace" }
-lance-namespace-impls = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-namespace-impls" }
-lance-namespace-datafusion = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-namespace-datafusion" }
-lance-namespace-reqwest-client = { version = "=0.4.5" }
-lance-table = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-table" }
-lance-test-macros = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-test-macros" }
-lance-testing = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/lance-testing" }
+lance = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance", default-features = false }
+lance-arrow = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-arrow" }
+lance-core = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-core" }
+lance-datafusion = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-datafusion" }
+lance-datagen = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-datagen" }
+lance-derive = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-derive" }
+lance-encoding = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-encoding" }
+lance-file = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-file" }
+lance-geo = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-geo" }
+lance-index = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-index" }
+lance-index-core = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-index-core" }
+lance-io = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-io", default-features = false }
+lance-linalg = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-linalg" }
+lance-namespace = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-namespace" }
+lance-namespace-impls = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-namespace-impls" }
+lance-namespace-reqwest-client = "0.13.0"
+lance-select = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-select" }
+lance-tokenizer = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-tokenizer" }
+lance-table = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-table" }
+lance-test-macros = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-test-macros" }
+lance-testing = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/lance-testing" }
+all_asserts = "2.3.1"
 approx = "0.5.1"
 # Note that this one does not include pyarrow
-arrow = { version = "57.0.0", optional = false, features = ["prettyprint"] }
-arrow-arith = "57.0.0"
-arrow-array = "57.0.0"
-arrow-buffer = "57.0.0"
-arrow-cast = "57.0.0"
-arrow-data = "57.0.0"
-arrow-ipc = { version = "57.0.0", features = ["zstd"] }
-arrow-ord = "57.0.0"
-arrow-row = "57.0.0"
-arrow-schema = "57.0.0"
-arrow-select = "57.0.0"
+arrow = { version = "58.0.0", optional = false, features = ["prettyprint"] }
+lance-arrow-scalar = { version = "=58.0.0", path = "./rust/arrow-scalar" }
+lance-arrow-stats = { version = "=58.0.0", path = "./rust/arrow-stats" }
+arrow-arith = "58.0.0"
+arrow-array = "58.0.0"
+arrow-buffer = "58.0.0"
+arrow-cast = "58.0.0"
+arrow-data = "58.0.0"
+arrow-ipc = { version = "58.0.0", features = ["zstd"] }
+arrow-ord = "58.0.0"
+arrow-row = "58.0.0"
+arrow-schema = "58.0.0"
+arrow-select = "58.0.0"
 async-recursion = "1.0"
 async-trait = "0.1"
 axum = "0.7"
 aws-config = "1.2.0"
 aws-credential-types = "1.2.0"
-aws-sdk-dynamodb = "1.38.0"
-aws-sdk-s3 = "1.38.0"
+aws-sdk-dynamodb = { version = "1.38.0", default-features = false }
+aws-sdk-s3 = { version = "1.38.0", default-features = false }
 half = { "version" = "2.1", default-features = false, features = [
     "num-traits",
     "std",
+    "bytemuck",
 ] }
-lance-bitpacking = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/compression/bitpacking" }
+lance-bitpacking = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/compression/bitpacking" }
+bitpacking = "0.9"
 bitvec = "1"
+blake3 = "1.8.5"
+bytemuck = { version = "1", default-features = false, features = [
+    "extern_crate_alloc",
+] }
 bytes = "1.11.1"
 byteorder = "1.5"
 clap = { version = "4", features = ["derive"] }
@@ -103,86 +122,102 @@ chrono = { version = "0.4.41", default-features = false, features = [
     "now",
     "serde",
 ] }
-criterion = { version = "0.5", features = [
+criterion = { version = "0.8.2", features = [
     "async",
     "async_tokio",
     "html_reports",
 ] }
 crossbeam-queue = "0.3"
 crossbeam-skiplist = "0.1"
-datafusion = { version = "51.0.0", default-features = false, features = [
-    "nested_expressions",
-    "regex_expressions",
-    "unicode_expressions",
+dashmap = "6"
+datafusion = { version = "54.0.0", default-features = false, features = [
     "crypto_expressions",
-    "encoding_expressions",
     "datetime_expressions",
+    "encoding_expressions",
+    "nested_expressions",
+    "regex_expressions",
     "sql",
     "string_expressions",
+    "unicode_expressions",
 ] }
-datafusion-common = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-functions = { version = "51.0.0", features = ["regex_expressions"] }
-datafusion-sql = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-expr = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-ffi = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-execution = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-optimizer = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-physical-expr = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-physical-plan = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-substrait = "51.0.0"
-deepsize = "0.2.0"
+datafusion-common = "54.0.0"
+datafusion-functions = { version = "54.0.0", default-features = false, features = ["regex_expressions"] }
+datafusion-sql = "54.0.0"
+datafusion-expr = "54.0.0"
+datafusion-physical-expr = "54.0.0"
+datafusion-physical-plan = "54.0.0"
+datafusion-substrait = { version = "54.0.0", default-features = false }
 dirs = "6.0.0"
 either = "1.0"
+env_logger = "0.11.7"
 fst = { version = "0.4.7", features = ["levenshtein"] }
-fsst = { version = "=3.0.0-beta.2", path = "./rust/compression/fsst" }
+fsst = { version = "=14.0.0-beta.6", path = "./rust/compression/fsst" }
 futures = "0.3"
-geoarrow-array = "0.7"
-geoarrow-schema = "0.7"
-geodatafusion = "0.2.0"
+geoarrow-array = "0.8"
+geoarrow-schema = "0.8"
+geodatafusion = "0.5.0"
 geo-traits = "0.3.0"
 geo-types = "0.7.16"
+hex = "0.4.3"
 http = "1.1.0"
 humantime = "2.2.0"
 hyperloglogplus = { version = "0.4.1", features = ["const-loop"] }
-itertools = "0.13"
-jieba-rs = { version = "0.8.1", default-features = false }
+icu_segmenter = { version = "2.2", default-features = false, features = ["compiled_data"] }
+io-uring = "0.7"
+itertools = "0.14"
+jieba-rs = { version = "0.10.0", default-features = false }
 jsonb = { version = "0.5.3", default-features = false, features = ["databend"] }
 libm = "0.2.15"
 log = "0.4"
-mockall = { version = "0.13.1" }
+metrics = { version = "0.24" }
+metrics-util = { version = "0.19" }
+mockall = { version = "0.14.0" }
 mock_instant = { version = "0.6.0" }
 moka = { version = "0.12", features = ["future", "sync"] }
 ndarray = { version = "0.16.1", features = ["matrixmultiply-threading"] }
 num-traits = "0.2"
-object_store = { version = "0.12.3" }
-opendal = { version = "0.55" }
-object_store_opendal = { version = "0.55" }
+# Pin 0.2.2 so Cargo unifies past OpenDAL 0.59.2's `^0.2.1` req. 0.2.2 keeps
+# `metadata_cache_enabled` off until GOOSEFS_METADATA_CACHE_ENABLED=true.
+goosefs-sdk = { version = "^0.2.1", default-features = false }
+# Direct dependency so consumers can enable cache features on the same
+# `opendal-service-goosefs` build as `opendal/services-goosefs`.
+# Cache features (`metadata-cache`, `page-cache-io-uring`) belong on the
+# consumer (`lance-io`'s `goosefs` feature), not this workspace pin.
+opendal-service-goosefs = { version = "0.58.1", default-features = false }
+object_store = { version = "0.13.2" }
+opendal = { version = "0.58.1" }
+object_store_opendal = { version = "0.58" }
+parquet = { version = "58.0.0", default-features = false, features = [
+    "arrow",
+    "async",
+] }
 pin-project = "1.0"
 path_abs = "0.5"
-pprof = { version = "0.14.0", features = ["flamegraph", "criterion"] }
+pprof = { version = "0.15.0", features = ["flamegraph"] }
+proc-macro2 = "1.0.67"
 proptest = "1.3.1"
 prost = "0.14.1"
 prost-build = "0.14.1"
 prost-types = "0.14.1"
+protobuf-src = "2.1"
+quote = "1.0.33"
 rand = { version = "0.9.1", features = ["small_rng"] }
 rand_distr = { version = "0.5.1" }
 rand_xoshiro = "0.7.0"
 rangemap = { version = "1.0" }
 rayon = "1.10"
-roaring = "0.10.1"
-rstest = "0.23.0"
-rustc_version = "0.4"
+regex-syntax = "0.8.10"
+reqwest = { version = "0.12", default-features = false, features = ["json"] }
+roaring = "0.11.4"
+rstest = "0.26.1"
 serde = { version = "^1" }
 serde_json = { version = "1" }
 semver = "1.0"
-shellexpand = "3.0"
-slatedb = "0.3"
-snafu = "0.8"
-strum = "0.26"
-tantivy = { version = "0.24.1", features = ["stopwords"] }
-lindera = { version = "0.44.0" }
-lindera-tantivy = { version = "0.44.0" }
-tempfile = "3"
+serial_test = "3"
+snafu = "0.9"
+syn = { version = "2.0.37", features = ["full"] }
+lindera = { version = "3.0.7" }
+tempfile = "3.10"
 test-log = { version = "0.2.15" }
 tokio = { version = "1.23", features = [
     "rt-multi-thread",
@@ -195,6 +230,8 @@ tokio-util = { version = "0.7.16" }
 tower = "0.5"
 tower-http = "0.5"
 tracing = "0.1"
+tracing-mock = { version = "=0.1.0-beta.3" }
+twox-hash = "2.0"
 url = "2.5.7"
 uuid = { version = "1.2", features = ["v4", "serde"] }
 wiremock = "0.6"
@@ -221,6 +258,7 @@ incremental = false
 
 [workspace.lints.rust]
 unexpected_cfgs = { level = "warn", check-cfg = ['cfg(coverage,coverage_nightly)'] }
+unsafe_op_in_unsafe_fn = "allow"
 
 [workspace.lints.clippy]
 all = { level = "deny", priority = -1 }
@@ -244,3 +282,4 @@ multiple-crate-versions = "allow"
 # We use Vec<Range<u64>> in a lot of places and it is very common to use a single range in the vec.
 single_range_in_vec_init = "allow"
 large_futures = "deny"
+disallowed_macros = "deny"
diff --git a/LICENSE b/LICENSE
index 79de57d6670..cd4c38213a9 100644
--- a/LICENSE
+++ b/LICENSE
@@ -226,3 +226,30 @@ under the MIT license:
    SOFTWARE.
 
 https://github.com/pola-rs/polars/blob/main/LICENSE
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+This project includes code adapted from the quickwit-oss/bitpacking crate, which
+is licensed under the MIT license:
+
+   Copyright (c) 2016 Paul Masurel
+
+   Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+   of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
+   in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+   to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+   copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+   furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+   The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+   copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+   THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+   IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+   FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+   AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+   LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+   OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+   SOFTWARE.
+
+https://github.com/quickwit-oss/bitpacking/blob/main/LICENSE
diff --git a/Makefile b/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bee88752aa1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+.PHONY: licenses
+
+licenses:
+	cargo about generate about.hbs -o RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html -c about.toml
+	cd python && cargo about generate ../about.hbs -o RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html -c ../about.toml
+	cd python && uv sync --all-extras && uv tool run pip-licenses --python .venv/bin/python --format=markdown --with-urls --output-file=PYTHON_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.md
+	cd java/lance-jni && cargo about generate ../../about.hbs -o ../RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html -c ../../about.toml
+	cd java && ./mvnw license:add-third-party -q
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index 4fe2608c9a5..08716c84ead 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -9,7 +9,8 @@
 
 <a href="https://lance.org">Documentation</a> •
 <a href="https://lance.org/community">Community</a> •
-<a href="https://discord.gg/lance">Discord</a>
+<a href="https://discord.gg/lance">Discord</a> •
+<a href="https://groups.google.com/a/lance.org/g/dev">Mailing List</a>
 
 [CI]: https://github.com/lance-format/lance/actions/workflows/rust.yml
 [CI Badge]: https://github.com/lance-format/lance/actions/workflows/rust.yml/badge.svg
@@ -46,7 +47,7 @@ The key features of Lance include:
 
 * **Data evolution:** Efficiently add columns with backfilled values without full table rewrites, perfect for ML feature engineering.
 
-* **Zero-copy versioning:** ACID transactions, time travel, and automatic versioning without needing extra infrastructure.
+* **Zero-copy versioning:** Automatic versioning with ACID transactions, time travel, tags, and branches—no extra infrastructure needed.
 
 * **Rich ecosystem integrations:** Apache Arrow, Pandas, Polars, DuckDB, Apache Spark, Ray, Trino, Apache Flink, and open catalogs (Apache Polaris, Unity Catalog, Apache Gravitino).
 
@@ -55,6 +56,17 @@ For more details, see the full [Lance format specification](https://lance.org/fo
 > [!TIP]
 > Lance is in active development and we welcome contributions. Please see our [contributing guide](https://lance.org/community/contributing/) for more information.
 
+## File format stability
+
+Lance releases frequently because the SDKs, integrations, and performance work are moving quickly. This does not mean the Lance file format changes incompatibly in every release. The Lance file format is identified by the `data_storage_version` stored in each dataset, and stable storage versions are a long-term compatibility contract.
+
+* Once a dataset is written with a stable `data_storage_version`, future Lance releases will continue to support reading that storage version.
+* SDK and API compatibility is separate from file format compatibility. SDK/API changes follow semantic versioning and are documented in the [migration guide](https://lance.org/guide/migration/).
+* Older Lance releases may not understand file format versions introduced later. If you run mixed Lance versions, pin `data_storage_version` for deterministic writes.
+* The `next` file format alias is unstable and should only be used for experimentation, never for production data.
+
+For production, write data with a stable `data_storage_version`. See the [format versioning guide](https://lance.org/format/file/versioning/) for the current compatibility matrix.
+
 ## Quick Start
 
 **Installation**
@@ -66,12 +78,9 @@ pip install pylance
 To install a preview release:
 
 ```shell
-pip install --pre --extra-index-url https://pypi.fury.io/lance-format/pylance
+pip install --pre --extra-index-url https://pypi.fury.io/lance-format pylance
 ```
 
-> [!NOTE]
-> For versions prior to 1.0.0-beta.4, you can find them at https://pypi.fury.io/lancedb/pylance
-
 > [!TIP]
 > Preview releases are released more often than full releases and contain the
 > latest features and bug fixes. They receive the same level of testing as full releases.
diff --git a/RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html b/RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e7db17f2115
--- /dev/null
+++ b/RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html
@@ -0,0 +1,18551 @@
+<html>
+
+<head>
+    <style>
+        @media (prefers-color-scheme: dark) {
+            body {
+                background: #333;
+                color: white;
+            }
+            a {
+                color: skyblue;
+            }
+        }
+        .container {
+            font-family: sans-serif;
+            max-width: 800px;
+            margin: 0 auto;
+        }
+        .intro {
+            text-align: center;
+        }
+        .licenses-list {
+            list-style-type: none;
+            margin: 0;
+            padding: 0;
+        }
+        .license-used-by {
+            margin-top: -10px;
+        }
+        .license-text {
+            max-height: 200px;
+            overflow-y: scroll;
+            white-space: pre-wrap;
+        }
+    </style>
+</head>
+
+<body>
+    <main class="container">
+        <div class="intro">
+            <h1>Third Party Licenses</h1>
+            <p>This page lists the licenses of the projects used in cargo-about.</p>
+        </div>
+    
+        <h2>Overview of licenses:</h2>
+        <ul class="licenses-overview">
+            <li><a href="#Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</a> (615)</li>
+            <li><a href="#MIT">MIT License</a> (157)</li>
+            <li><a href="#Unicode-3.0">Unicode License v3</a> (19)</li>
+            <li><a href="#BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</a> (9)</li>
+            <li><a href="#ISC">ISC License</a> (8)</li>
+            <li><a href="#Zlib">zlib License</a> (7)</li>
+            <li><a href="#BSD-2-Clause">BSD 2-Clause &quot;Simplified&quot; License</a> (3)</li>
+            <li><a href="#CDLA-Permissive-2.0">Community Data License Agreement Permissive 2.0</a> (3)</li>
+            <li><a href="#MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</a> (3)</li>
+            <li><a href="#0BSD">BSD Zero Clause License</a> (2)</li>
+            <li><a href="#BSL-1.0">Boost Software License 1.0</a> (1)</li>
+            <li><a href="#CC0-1.0">Creative Commons Zero v1.0 Universal</a> (1)</li>
+            <li><a href="#CDDL-1.0">Common Development and Distribution License 1.0</a> (1)</li>
+        </ul>
+
+        <h2>All license text:</h2>
+        <ul class="licenses-list">
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="0BSD">BSD Zero Clause License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/museun/mock_instant ">mock_instant 0.6.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (C) 2020 by museun &lt;museun@outlook.com&gt;
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose
+with or without fee is hereby granted.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
+REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
+FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
+INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
+OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER
+TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF
+THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="0BSD">BSD Zero Clause License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oyvindln/adler2 ">adler2 2.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (C) Jonas Schievink &lt;jonasschievink@gmail.com&gt;
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for
+any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES
+WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN
+AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
+OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jhpratt/powerfmt ">powerfmt 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
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+
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+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2023 Jacob Pratt et al.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jhpratt/deranged ">deranged 0.5.8</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2024 Jacob Pratt et al.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/serde_tokenstream ">serde_tokenstream 0.2.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-arith 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-array 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-buffer 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-cast 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-csv 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-data 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-ipc 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-json 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-ord 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-row 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-schema 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-select 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-string 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tormol/encode_unicode ">encode_unicode 1.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/encoding_rs ">encoding_rs 0.8.35</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mitsuhiko/fragile ">fragile 2.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/thomcc/rust-more-asserts ">more-asserts 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">parquet 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Stoeoef/spade ">spade 2.15.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nvzqz/static-assertions-rs ">static_assertions 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Lokathor/tinyvec ">tinyvec 1.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/utf8_iter ">utf8_iter 1.0.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">zeroize 1.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils/tree/master/zeroize/derive ">zeroize_derive 1.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/hf-hub ">hf-hub 0.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs-object-store ">object_store 0.13.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-catalog-listing 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-catalog 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-common-runtime 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-arrow 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-csv 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-json 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-parquet 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-doc 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-execution 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-expr-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-expr 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-aggregate-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-aggregate 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-nested 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-table 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-window-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-window 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-macros 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-optimizer 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-expr-adapter 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-expr-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-expr 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-optimizer 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-plan 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-pruning 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-session 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-sql 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-substrait 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion 53.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+
+This project includes code from Apache Aurora.
+
+* dev/release/{release,changelog,release-candidate} are based on the scripts from
+  Apache Aurora
+
+Copyright: 2016 The Apache Software Foundation.
+Home page: https://aurora.apache.org/
+License: http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/la10736/rstest ">rstest 0.23.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/la10736/rstest ">rstest_macros 0.23.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+   
+   Copyright 2018-19 Michele d&#x27;Amico
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jeffparsons/rangemap ">rangemap 1.7.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   Copyright 2019-2022 Jeff Parsons, and [contributors](https://github.com/jeffparsons/rangemap/contributors)
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/brendanzab/approx ">approx 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wvwwvwwv/scalable-delayed-dealloc/ ">sdd 3.0.10</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, April 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   Copyright 2024-present Changgyoo Park
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-collections 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-core 0.62.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-future 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-implement 0.60.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-interface 0.59.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-link 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-numerics 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-registry 0.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-result 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-strings 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-sys 0.52.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-sys 0.59.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-sys 0.60.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-sys 0.61.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-targets 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-targets 0.53.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-threading 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows 0.62.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_gnullvm 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_gnullvm 0.53.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_msvc 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_msvc 0.53.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_gnu 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_gnu 0.53.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_gnullvm 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_gnullvm 0.53.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_msvc 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_msvc 0.53.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnu 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnu 0.53.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.53.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_msvc 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_msvc 0.53.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright (c) Microsoft Corporation.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/akhilles/crc-catalog.git ">crc-catalog 2.5.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2019 Akhil Velagapudi
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/danielhenrymantilla/macro_rules_attribute-rs ">macro_rules_attribute-proc_macro 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/danielhenrymantilla/macro_rules_attribute-rs ">macro_rules_attribute 0.2.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2019 Daniel Henry-Mantilla &lt;daniel.henry.mantilla@gmail.com&gt;
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tikv/pprof-rs ">pprof 0.14.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2019 TiKV Project Authors.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/moka-rs/moka ">moka 0.12.15</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2020 - 2026 Tatsuya Kawano
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Soveu/tinyvec_macros ">tinyvec_macros 0.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2020 Tomasz &quot;Soveu&quot; Marx
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Xuanwo/backon ">backon 1.6.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2021 Datafuse Labs
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/google/zerocopy ">zerocopy-derive 0.8.48</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/google/zerocopy ">zerocopy 0.8.48</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2023 The Fuchsia Authors
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/daxpedda/web-time ">web-time 1.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2023 dAxpeDDa
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/enarx/ciborium ">ciborium-io 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/enarx/ciborium ">ciborium-ll 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/enarx/ciborium ">ciborium 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awesomized/crc-fast-rust ">crc-fast 1.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Narsil/esaxx-rs ">esaxx-rs 0.1.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/databendlabs/jsonb ">jsonb 0.5.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cberner/redb ">redb 3.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-aliyun-oss 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-aws-v4 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-azure-storage 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-core 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-file-read-tokio 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-google 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-tencent-cos 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls-platform-verifier ">rustls-platform-verifier 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/spm_precompiled ">spm_precompiled 0.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/tokenizers ">tokenizers 0.15.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cameron1024/unarray ">unarray 0.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/algesten/ureq ">ureq 2.12.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MSxDOS/ntapi ">ntapi 0.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+   </pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/krisprice/ipnet ">ipnet 2.12.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2017 Juniper Networks, Inc.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bikeshedder/deadpool ">deadpool-runtime 0.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bikeshedder/deadpool ">deadpool 0.12.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2019 Michael P. Jung
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/utkarshkukreti/diff.rs ">diff 0.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/retep998/winapi-rs ">winapi 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright {yyyy} {name of copyright owner}
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstream 1.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle-parse 1.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle-query 1.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle-wincon 3.0.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle 1.0.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap 4.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap_builder 4.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap_derive 4.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap_lex 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">colorchoice 1.0.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/srijs/rust-crc32fast ">crc32fast 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/colin-kiegel/rust-derive-builder ">derive_builder 0.12.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/colin-kiegel/rust-derive-builder ">derive_builder_core 0.12.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/colin-kiegel/rust-derive-builder ">derive_builder_macro 0.12.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/env_logger ">env_filter 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/env_logger ">env_logger 0.11.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sfackler/foreign-types ">foreign-types-shared 0.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sfackler/foreign-types ">foreign-types 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/srijs/rust-gearhash ">gearhash 0.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/KokaKiwi/rust-hex ">hex 0.4.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/chronotope/humantime ">humantime 2.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/polyfill-rs/is_terminal_polyfill ">is_terminal_polyfill 1.70.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-sys ">jni-sys 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-native-tls/rust-native-tls ">native-tls 0.2.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/polyfill-rs/once_cell_polyfill ">once_cell_polyfill 1.70.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://crates.io/crates/openssl-macros ">openssl-macros 0.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-openssl/rust-openssl ">openssl 0.10.80</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/assert-rs/predicates-rs ">predicates-core 1.0.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/assert-rs/predicates-rs ">predicates-tree 1.0.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/assert-rs/predicates-rs ">predicates 3.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-pretty-assertions/rust-pretty-assertions ">pretty_assertions 1.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" http://github.com/tailhook/quick-error ">quick-error 1.2.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sfackler/rust-socks ">socks 0.3.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/toml-rs/toml ">toml_datetime 1.1.1+spec-1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/toml-rs/toml ">toml_edit 0.25.11+spec-1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/toml-rs/toml ">toml_parser 1.1.2+spec-1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/swgillespie/unicode-categories ">unicode_categories 0.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright {yyyy} {name of copyright owner}
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ohsayan/all_asserts ">all_asserts 2.3.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   Copyright 2019 Sayan Nandan
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wvwwvwwv/scalable-concurrent-containers/ ">scc 2.4.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   Copyright 2020-2024 Changgyoo Park
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-s3 1.124.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-sso 1.95.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-ssooidc 1.97.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-sts 1.99.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2018-2020 Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Xudong-Huang/generator-rs.git ">generator 0.8.8</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                               Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mrhooray/crc-rs.git ">crc 3.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0 January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-channel 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-core 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-executor 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-io 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-macro 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-sink 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-task 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-util 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures 0.3.32</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Alex Crichton
+Copyright (c) 2017 The Tokio Authors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/paholg/typenum ">typenum 1.20.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2014 Paho Lurie-Gregg
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/reqwest ">reqwest 0.12.28</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/reqwest ">reqwest 0.13.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2016 Sean McArthur
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/SergioBenitez/yansi ">yansi 1.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2017 Sergio Benitez
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http ">http 0.2.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http ">http 1.4.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2017 http-rs authors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/tokio-rustls ">tokio-rustls 0.26.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2017 quininer kel
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bcmyers/num-format ">num-format 0.4.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2018 Brian Myers
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/pin-utils ">pin-utils 0.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2018 The pin-utils authors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cryptocorrosion/cryptocorrosion ">ppv-lite86 0.2.21</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2019 The CryptoCorrosion Contributors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/io-uring ">io-uring 0.7.12</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2019 quininer kel
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/shepmaster/snafu ">snafu-derive 0.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/shepmaster/snafu ">snafu 0.9.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2019- Jake Goulding
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/strawlab/iana-time-zone ">iana-time-zone-haiku 0.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/strawlab/iana-time-zone ">iana-time-zone 0.1.65</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2020 Andrew Straw
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ridiculousfish/regress ">regress 0.10.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2020 ridiculous_fish
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/fast-float-rust ">fast-float2 0.2.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2021 Ivan Smirnov
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/pki-types ">rustls-pki-types 1.14.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2023 Dirkjan Ochtman
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/akubera/bigdecimal-rs ">bigdecimal 0.4.10</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2023 The BigDecimal-rs Contributors
+
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RazrFalcon/memmap2-rs ">memmap2 0.9.10</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [2015] [Dan Burkert]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dcchut/async-recursion ">async-recursion 1.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/RSA ">rsa 0.9.10</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gimli-rs/addr2line ">addr2line 0.25.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tkaitchuck/ahash ">ahash 0.8.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vorner/arc-swap ">arc-swap 1.9.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/arrayvec ">arrayvec 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/async-channel ">async-channel 2.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nullus157/async-compression ">async-compression 0.4.42</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/async-lock ">async-lock 3.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/atomic-waker ">atomic-waker 1.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cuviper/autocfg ">autocfg 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/backtrace-rs ">backtrace 0.3.76</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/marshallpierce/rust-base64 ">base64 0.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/marshallpierce/rust-base64 ">base64 0.22.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitflags/bitflags ">bitflags 1.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitflags/bitflags ">bitflags 2.11.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/bstr ">bstr 1.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fitzgen/bumpalo ">bumpalo 3.20.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vorner/bytes-utils ">bytes-utils 0.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/japaric/cast.rs ">cast 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cc-rs ">cc 1.2.62</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alexcrichton/cfg-if ">cfg-if 0.1.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cfg-if ">cfg-if 1.0.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cmake-rs ">cmake 0.1.58</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nullus157/async-compression ">compression-codecs 0.4.38</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nullus157/async-compression ">compression-core 0.4.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/concurrent-queue ">concurrent-queue 2.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tkaitchuck/constrandom ">const-random-macro 0.1.16</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tkaitchuck/constrandom ">const-random 0.1.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/core-foundation-rs ">core-foundation-sys 0.8.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/core-foundation-rs ">core-foundation 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/core-foundation-rs ">core-foundation 0.9.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gimli-rs/cpp_demangle ">cpp_demangle 0.4.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bheisler/criterion.rs ">criterion-plot 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bheisler/criterion.rs ">criterion 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-channel 0.5.15</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-deque 0.8.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-epoch 0.9.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-queue 0.3.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-skiplist 0.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-utils 0.8.21</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/getsentry/rust-debugid ">debugid 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/yaahc/displaydoc ">displaydoc 0.2.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rayon-rs/either ">either 1.15.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/indexmap-rs/equivalent ">equivalent 1.0.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lambda-fairy/rust-errno ">errno 0.3.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/event-listener-strategy ">event-listener-strategy 0.5.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/event-listener ">event-listener 5.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/fastrand ">fastrand 2.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cc-rs ">find-msvc-tools 0.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gimli-rs/findshlibs ">findshlibs 0.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/petgraph/fixedbitset ">fixedbitset 0.5.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/flate2-rs ">flate2 1.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-fnv ">fnv 1.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url ">form_urlencoded 1.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/async-rs/futures-timer ">futures-timer 3.0.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geohash.rs ">geohash 0.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gimli-rs/gimli ">gimli 0.32.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/glob ">glob 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/japaric/hash32 ">hash32 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.14.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.15.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.16.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.17.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-embedded/heapless ">heapless 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/withoutboats/heck ">heck 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hermit-os/hermit-rs ">hermit-abi 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/httparse ">httparse 1.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/hyper-rustls ">hyper-rustls 0.27.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/hyper-tls ">hyper-tls 0.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url/ ">idna 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/idna_adapter ">idna_adapter 1.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/indexmap-rs/indexmap ">indexmap 2.14.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.10.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.13.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.14.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/jobserver-rs ">jobserver 0.1.34</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/js-sys ">js-sys 0.3.98</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/lazy-static.rs ">lazy_static 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sunfishcode/linux-raw-sys ">linux-raw-sys 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ">lock_api 0.4.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/log ">log 0.4.29</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alexcrichton/xz2-rs ">lzma-sys 0.1.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/matrixmultiply/ ">matrixmultiply 0.3.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/mime ">mime 0.3.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/asomers/mockall ">mockall 0.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/asomers/mockall ">mockall_derive 0.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/havarnov/multimap ">multimap 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-ndarray/ndarray ">ndarray 0.16.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dignifiedquire/num-bigint ">num-bigint-dig 0.8.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-bigint ">num-bigint 0.4.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-complex ">num-complex 0.4.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-integer ">num-integer 0.1.46</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-iter ">num-iter 0.1.45</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-traits ">num-traits 0.2.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/num_cpus ">num_cpus 1.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gimli-rs/object ">object 0.37.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/matklad/once_cell ">once_cell 1.21.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/openssl-probe ">openssl-probe 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/parking ">parking 2.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ">parking_lot 0.12.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ">parking_lot_core 0.9.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url/ ">percent-encoding 2.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/petgraph/petgraph ">petgraph 0.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/pkg-config-rs ">pkg-config 0.3.33</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/proptest-rs/proptest ">proptest 1.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost-build 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost-derive 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost-types 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/rawpointer/ ">rawpointer 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cuviper/rayon-cond ">rayon-cond 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rayon-rs/rayon ">rayon-core 1.13.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rayon-rs/rayon ">rayon 1.12.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex-automata 0.4.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex-lite 0.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex-syntax 0.8.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex 1.12.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/ring ">ring 0.17.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RoaringBitmap/roaring-rs ">roaring 0.11.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/robust ">robust 1.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/rustc-demangle ">rustc-demangle 0.1.27</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/djc/rustc-version-rs ">rustc_version 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/rustix ">rustix 1.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls-native-certs ">rustls-native-certs 0.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls ">rustls 0.23.40</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/altsysrq/rusty-fork ">rusty-fork 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alexcrichton/scoped-tls ">scoped-tls 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/scopeguard ">scopeguard 1.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust-security-framework ">security-framework-sys 2.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust-security-framework ">security-framework 3.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jonasbb/serde_with/ ">serde_with 3.20.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jonasbb/serde_with/ ">serde_with_macros 3.20.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/ijackson/rust-shellexpand ">shellexpand 3.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vorner/signal-hook ">signal-hook-registry 1.4.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seancroach/simd_cesu8 ">simd_cesu8 1.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-smallvec ">smallvec 1.15.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/socket2 ">socket2 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion-sqlparser-rs ">sqlparser 0.61.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sqlparser-rs/sqlparser-rs ">sqlparser_derive 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/storyyeller/stable_deref_trait ">stable_deref_trait 1.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Stebalien/str_stack ">str_stack 0.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/chris-morgan/symlink ">symlink 0.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/syn ">syn 1.0.109</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mullvad/system-configuration-rs ">system-configuration-sys 0.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mullvad/system-configuration-rs ">system-configuration 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Stebalien/tempfile ">tempfile 3.27.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/thread-tree ">thread-tree 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/thread_local-rs ">thread_local 1.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bheisler/TinyTemplate ">tinytemplate 1.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/unicase ">unicase 2.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/n1t0/unicode-normalization ">unicode-normalization-alignments 0.1.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-rs/unicode-normalization ">unicode-normalization 0.1.25</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-rs/unicode-segmentation ">unicode-segmentation 1.13.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-rs/unicode-width ">unicode-width 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url ">url 2.5.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/uuid-rs/uuid ">uuid 1.23.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/SergioBenitez/version_check ">version_check 0.9.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alexcrichton/wait-timeout ">wait-timeout 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi ">wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi-rs ">wasi 0.14.7+wasi-0.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi-rs ">wasip2 1.0.3+wasi-0.2.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/futures ">wasm-bindgen-futures 0.4.71</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/macro-support ">wasm-bindgen-macro-support 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/macro ">wasm-bindgen-macro 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/shared ">wasm-bindgen-shared 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen ">wasm-bindgen 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/web-sys ">web-sys 0.3.98</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/LukeMathWalker/wiremock-rs ">wiremock 0.6.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wit-bindgen ">wit-bindgen 0.51.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wit-bindgen ">wit-bindgen 0.57.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/wkb ">wkb 0.9.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/wkt ">wkt 0.14.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RazrFalcon/xmlparser ">xmlparser 0.13.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
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+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
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+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/contain-rs/bit-set ">bit-set 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/contain-rs/bit-vec ">bit-vec 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-core 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-parse-float 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-parse-integer 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-util 1.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-write-float 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-write-integer 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/minimal-lexical ">minimal-lexical 0.2.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/block-ciphers ">aes 0.8.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats ">base64ct 1.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">blake2 0.10.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">block-buffer 0.10.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">block-padding 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/block-modes ">cbc 0.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/stream-ciphers ">chacha20 0.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits ">cipher 0.4.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/const-oid ">const-oid 0.9.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">cpufeatures 0.2.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">cpufeatures 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits ">crypto-common 0.1.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/der ">der 0.7.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits ">digest 0.10.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/MACs ">hmac 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">inout 0.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">md-5 0.10.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/password-hashes/tree/master/pbkdf2 ">pbkdf2 0.12.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pem-rfc7468 ">pem-rfc7468 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pkcs1 ">pkcs1 0.7.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pkcs5 ">pkcs5 0.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pkcs8 ">pkcs8 0.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/stream-ciphers ">salsa20 0.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/password-hashes/tree/master/scrypt ">scrypt 0.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">sha1 0.10.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">sha2 0.10.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits/tree/master/signature ">signature 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/spki ">spki 0.7.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand_core ">rand_core 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_core 0.6.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_core 0.9.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand_distr ">rand_distr 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/getrandom ">getrandom 0.2.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/getrandom ">getrandom 0.3.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/getrandom ">getrandom 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_chacha 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/d-e-s-o/test-log.git ">test-log-core 0.2.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/d-e-s-o/test-log.git ">test-log-macros 0.2.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/d-e-s-o/test-log.git ">test-log 0.2.20</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bkchr/proc-macro-crate ">proc-macro-crate 3.5.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mcgoo/vcpkg-rs ">vcpkg 0.2.15</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">ctor-proc-macro 0.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">ctor 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">dtor-proc-macro 0.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">dtor 0.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright {yyyy} {name of copyright owner}
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Lokathor/bytemuck ">bytemuck 1.25.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+Version 2.0, January 2004
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+    1. Definitions.
+
+        &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+        &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+        &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+        &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+        &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications, including but not limited to software source code, documentation source, and configuration files.
+
+        &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical transformation or translation of a Source form, including but not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation, and conversions to other media types.
+
+        &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+        &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of, the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+        &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot; means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems, and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+        &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+    2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of, publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+    3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work, where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s) with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You institute patent litigation against any entity (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate as of the date such litigation is filed.
+    4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You meet the following conditions:
+        (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+        (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices stating that You changed the files; and
+        (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and attribution notices from the Source form of the Work, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works; and
+        (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or, within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed as modifying the License.
+
+        You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and may provide additional or different license terms and conditions for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use, reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with the conditions stated in this License.
+    5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise, any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of this License, without any additional terms or conditions. Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+    6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor, except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+    7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+    8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory, whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+    9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer, and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity, or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify, defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot; replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include the brackets!) The text should be enclosed in the appropriate comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a file or class name and description of purpose be included on the same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pyfisch/httpdate ">httpdate 1.0.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jeremysalwen/rust-permutations ">permutation 0.4.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+Version 2.0, January 2004
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+&quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+&quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+&quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+&quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+&quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+&quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+source, and configuration files.
+
+&quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+and conversions to other media types.
+
+&quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+(an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+&quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+&quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+&quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+(except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+meet the following conditions:
+
+(a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+(b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+stating that You changed the files; and
+
+(c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+the Derivative Works; and
+
+(d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+as modifying the License.
+
+You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-arrow-scalar 58.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-arrow-stats 58.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-bitpacking 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">fsst 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-examples 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-arrow 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-core 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-datafusion 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-datagen 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-encoding 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-file 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-geo 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-index 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-io 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-linalg 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-namespace 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-namespace-datafusion 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-namespace-impls 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-table 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-test-macros 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-testing 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-tokenizer 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-tools 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zakarumych/allocator-api2 ">allocator-api2 0.2.21</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nical/android_system_properties ">android_system_properties 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zrzka/anes-rs ">anes 0.1.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/anyhow ">anyhow 1.0.102</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/async-trait ">async-trait 0.1.89</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-config 1.8.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-credential-types 1.2.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-runtime 1.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-sigv4 1.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-async 1.2.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-checksums 0.64.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-eventstream 0.60.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-http-client 1.1.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-http 0.63.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-json 0.62.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-observability 0.2.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-query 0.60.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-runtime-api 1.11.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-runtime 1.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-types 1.4.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-xml 0.60.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-types 1.3.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BLAKE3-team/BLAKE3 ">blake3 1.8.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cesarb/constant_time_eq ">constant_time_eq 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zowens/crc32c ">crc32c 0.6.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dirs-dev/dirs-sys-rs ">dirs-sys 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/soc/dirs-rs ">dirs 6.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sgodwincs/dlv-list-rs ">dlv-list 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/kornelski/dunce ">dunce 1.0.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/dyn-clone ">dyn-clone 1.0.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nlordell/ethnum-rs ">ethnum 1.5.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/google/flatbuffers ">flatbuffers 25.12.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geo ">geo-traits 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geo ">geo-types 0.7.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geo ">geo 0.31.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs ">geoarrow-array 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs ">geoarrow-expr-geo 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs ">geoarrow-schema 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/datafusion-contrib/geodatafusion ">geodatafusion 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustwasm/gloo/tree/master/crates/timers ">gloo-timers 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/VoidStarKat/half-rs ">half 2.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ethereal-sheep/heapify ">heapify 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">hf-xet 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/ident_case ">ident_case 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/itoa ">itoa 1.0.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-rs ">jni-macros 0.22.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-sys ">jni-sys-macros 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-rs ">jni 0.22.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://crates.io/crates/lance-namespace-reqwest-client ">lance-namespace-reqwest-client 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/libc ">libc 0.2.186</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fast/mea ">mea 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Frommi/miniz_oxide/tree/master/miniz_oxide ">miniz_oxide 0.8.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/monostate ">monostate-impl 0.1.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/monostate ">monostate 0.1.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jhpratt/num-conv ">num-conv 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/illicitonion/num_enum ">num_enum 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/illicitonion/num_enum ">num_enum_derive 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/madsmtm/objc2 ">objc2-core-foundation 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/madsmtm/objc2 ">objc2-io-kit 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/madsmtm/objc2 ">objc2-system-configuration 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">object_store_opendal 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/faern/oneshot ">oneshot 0.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-core 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-concurrent-limit 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-logging 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-retry 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-timeout 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-azblob 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-azdls 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-azure-common 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-cos 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-gcs 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-hf 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-oss 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-s3 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dylni/os_str_bytes ">os_str_bytes 6.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/paste ">paste 1.0.15</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vitiral/path_abs ">path_abs 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/pin-project ">pin-project-internal 1.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/pin-project-lite ">pin-project-lite 0.2.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/pin-project ">pin-project 1.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/portable-atomic-util ">portable-atomic-util 0.2.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/portable-atomic ">portable-atomic 1.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/prettyplease ">prettyplease 0.2.37</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/proc-macro2 ">proc-macro2 1.0.106</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/quote ">quote 1.0.45</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/r-efi/r-efi ">r-efi 5.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/r-efi/r-efi ">r-efi 6.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand 0.8.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand 0.9.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_chacha 0.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rngs ">rand_xorshift 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rngs ">rand_xoshiro 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/udoprog/relative-path ">relative-path 1.9.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TrueLayer/reqwest-middleware ">reqwest-middleware 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/rstar ">rstar 0.12.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls-platform-verifier ">rustls-platform-verifier-android 0.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/rustversion ">rustversion 1.0.22</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/ryu ">ryu 1.0.23</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/semver ">semver 1.0.28</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/seq-macro ">seq-macro 0.3.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde 1.0.228</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde_core 1.0.228</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde_derive 1.0.228</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde_derive_internals 0.29.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/json ">serde_json 1.0.149</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/serde-repr ">serde_repr 0.1.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nox/serde_urlencoded ">serde_urlencoded 0.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/serde-yaml ">serde_yaml 0.9.34+deprecated</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/comex/rust-shlex ">shlex 1.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rusticstuff/simdutf8 ">simdutf8 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jedisct1/rust-siphash ">siphasher 1.0.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vitiral/stfu8 ">stfu8 0.2.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/substrait-io/substrait-rs ">substrait 0.62.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/syn ">syn 2.0.117</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Actyx/sync_wrapper ">sync_wrapper 1.0.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oliver-giersch/tagptr.git ">tagptr 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror-impl 1.0.69</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror-impl 2.0.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror 1.0.69</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror 2.0.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/thrift/tree/master/lib/rs ">thrift 0.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/time-rs/time ">time-core 0.1.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/time-rs/time ">time-macros 0.2.27</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/time-rs/time ">time 0.3.47</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/typify ">typify-impl 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/typify ">typify-macro 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/typify ">typify 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/unicode-ident ">unicode-ident 1.0.24</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alacritty/vte ">utf8parse 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi-rs ">wasip3 0.4.0+wasi-0.3.0-rc-2026-01-06</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ardaku/wasite ">wasite 1.0.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MattiasBuelens/wasm-streams/ ">wasm-streams 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MattiasBuelens/wasm-streams/ ">wasm-streams 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ardaku/whoami ">whoami 2.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/retep998/winapi-rs ">winapi-i686-pc-windows-gnu 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/retep998/winapi-rs ">winapi-x86_64-pc-windows-gnu 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-client 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-core-structures 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-data 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-runtime 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gyscos/zstd-rs ">zstd-safe 7.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gyscos/zstd-rs ">zstd-sys 2.0.16+zstd.1.5.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+Version 2.0, January 2004
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+&quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+&quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+&quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+&quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity exercising permissions granted by this License.
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+&quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+&quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of, the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+&quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot; means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems, and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
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+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work, where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s) with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You institute patent litigation against any entity (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate as of the date such litigation is filed.
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+
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+
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+
+     You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and may provide additional or different license terms and conditions for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use, reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise, any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of this License, without any additional terms or conditions. Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor, except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory, whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer, and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity, or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify, defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot; replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a file or class name and description of purpose be included on the same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/chronotope/chrono-tz ">chrono-tz 0.10.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Chrono-TZ is dual-licensed under the MIT License and Apache 2.0 Licence.
+The licenses do not apply to files in the tzdb folder which are in the
+public domain. parse-zoneinfo was forked from zoneinfo-parse, which
+was originally created by Benjamin Sago under the MIT license.
+
+Copyright (c) 2016-2024 Benjamin Sago &amp; the chronotope maintainers
+
+The MIT License
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2016 Djzin
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/chronotope/chrono ">chrono 0.4.44</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Rust-chrono is dual-licensed under The MIT License [1] and
+Apache 2.0 License [2]. Copyright (c) 2014--2026, Kang Seonghoon and
+contributors.
+
+Nota Bene: This is same as the Rust Project&#x27;s own license.
+
+
+[1]: &lt;http://opensource.org/licenses/MIT&gt;, which is reproduced below:
+
+~~~~
+The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014, Kang Seonghoon.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+~~~~
+
+
+[2]: &lt;http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0&gt;, which is reproduced below:
+
+~~~~
+                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
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+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
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+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
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+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
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+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+~~~~
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-2-Clause">BSD 2-Clause &quot;Simplified&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/droundy/arrayref ">arrayref 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2015 David Roundy &lt;roundyd@physics.oregonstate.edu&gt;
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
+met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+   documentation and/or other materials provided with the
+   distribution.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+&quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
+A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
+HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
+SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
+DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
+THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
+OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-2-Clause">BSD 2-Clause &quot;Simplified&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fusion-engineering/rust-git-version ">git-version-macro 0.3.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fusion-engineering/rust-git-version ">git-version 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017-2020
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
+   list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
+   this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
+   and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND
+ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
+DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
+(INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;
+LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND
+ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/CurrySoftware/rust-stemmers ">rust-stemmers 1.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2001, Dr Martin Porter
+Copyright (c) 2004,2005, Richard Boulton
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+
+  1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice,
+     this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+  2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
+     this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
+     and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+  3. Neither the name of the Snowball project nor the names of its contributors
+     may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+     without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND
+ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
+DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
+(INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;
+LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON
+ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-alloc-no-stdlib ">alloc-no-stdlib 2.0.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-brotli-decompressor ">brotli-decompressor 5.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2016 Dropbox, Inc.
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dalek-cryptography/subtle ">subtle 2.6.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2016-2017 Isis Agora Lovecruft, Henry de Valence. All rights reserved.
+Copyright (c) 2016-2024 Isis Agora Lovecruft. All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
+met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
+contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
+this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS
+IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
+HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
+SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
+PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. 
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-alloc-no-stdlib ">alloc-stdlib 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-brotli ">brotli 8.0.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) &lt;year&gt; &lt;owner&gt;. 
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/rust-snappy ">snap 1.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2011, The Snappy-Rust Authors. All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
+met:
+
+    * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+    * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
+copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer
+in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the
+distribution.
+    * Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
+contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
+this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+&quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
+A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
+OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
+SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
+DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
+THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
+OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/encoding_rs ">encoding_rs 0.8.35</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright © WHATWG (Apple, Google, Mozilla, Microsoft).
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
+   list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
+   this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
+   and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
+   contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
+   this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot;
+AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
+DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
+SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
+CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY,
+OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
+OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSL-1.0">Boost Software License 1.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/DoumanAsh/xxhash-rust ">xxhash-rust 0.8.15</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Boost Software License - Version 1.0 - August 17th, 2003
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person or organization
+obtaining a copy of the software and accompanying documentation covered by
+this license (the &quot;Software&quot;) to use, reproduce, display, distribute,
+execute, and transmit the Software, and to prepare derivative works of the
+Software, and to permit third-parties to whom the Software is furnished to
+do so, all subject to the following:
+
+The copyright notices in the Software and this entire statement, including
+the above license grant, this restriction and the following disclaimer,
+must be included in all copies of the Software, in whole or in part, and
+all derivative works of the Software, unless such copies or derivative
+works are solely in the form of machine-executable object code generated by
+a source language processor.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, TITLE AND NON-INFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS OR ANYONE DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE BE LIABLE
+FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE,
+ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="CC0-1.0">Creative Commons Zero v1.0 Universal</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://crates.io/crates/tiny-keccak ">tiny-keccak 2.0.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Creative Commons Legal Code
+
+CC0 1.0 Universal
+
+    CREATIVE COMMONS CORPORATION IS NOT A LAW FIRM AND DOES NOT PROVIDE
+    LEGAL SERVICES. DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT DOES NOT CREATE AN
+    ATTORNEY-CLIENT RELATIONSHIP. CREATIVE COMMONS PROVIDES THIS
+    INFORMATION ON AN &quot;AS-IS&quot; BASIS. CREATIVE COMMONS MAKES NO WARRANTIES
+    REGARDING THE USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR THE INFORMATION OR WORKS
+    PROVIDED HEREUNDER, AND DISCLAIMS LIABILITY FOR DAMAGES RESULTING FROM
+    THE USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR THE INFORMATION OR WORKS PROVIDED
+    HEREUNDER.
+
+Statement of Purpose
+
+The laws of most jurisdictions throughout the world automatically confer
+exclusive Copyright and Related Rights (defined below) upon the creator
+and subsequent owner(s) (each and all, an &quot;owner&quot;) of an original work of
+authorship and/or a database (each, a &quot;Work&quot;).
+
+Certain owners wish to permanently relinquish those rights to a Work for
+the purpose of contributing to a commons of creative, cultural and
+scientific works (&quot;Commons&quot;) that the public can reliably and without fear
+of later claims of infringement build upon, modify, incorporate in other
+works, reuse and redistribute as freely as possible in any form whatsoever
+and for any purposes, including without limitation commercial purposes.
+These owners may contribute to the Commons to promote the ideal of a free
+culture and the further production of creative, cultural and scientific
+works, or to gain reputation or greater distribution for their Work in
+part through the use and efforts of others.
+
+For these and/or other purposes and motivations, and without any
+expectation of additional consideration or compensation, the person
+associating CC0 with a Work (the &quot;Affirmer&quot;), to the extent that he or she
+is an owner of Copyright and Related Rights in the Work, voluntarily
+elects to apply CC0 to the Work and publicly distribute the Work under its
+terms, with knowledge of his or her Copyright and Related Rights in the
+Work and the meaning and intended legal effect of CC0 on those rights.
+
+1. Copyright and Related Rights. A Work made available under CC0 may be
+protected by copyright and related or neighboring rights (&quot;Copyright and
+Related Rights&quot;). Copyright and Related Rights include, but are not
+limited to, the following:
+
+  i. the right to reproduce, adapt, distribute, perform, display,
+     communicate, and translate a Work;
+ ii. moral rights retained by the original author(s) and/or performer(s);
+iii. publicity and privacy rights pertaining to a person&#x27;s image or
+     likeness depicted in a Work;
+ iv. rights protecting against unfair competition in regards to a Work,
+     subject to the limitations in paragraph 4(a), below;
+  v. rights protecting the extraction, dissemination, use and reuse of data
+     in a Work;
+ vi. database rights (such as those arising under Directive 96/9/EC of the
+     European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal
+     protection of databases, and under any national implementation
+     thereof, including any amended or successor version of such
+     directive); and
+vii. other similar, equivalent or corresponding rights throughout the
+     world based on applicable law or treaty, and any national
+     implementations thereof.
+
+2. Waiver. To the greatest extent permitted by, but not in contravention
+of, applicable law, Affirmer hereby overtly, fully, permanently,
+irrevocably and unconditionally waives, abandons, and surrenders all of
+Affirmer&#x27;s Copyright and Related Rights and associated claims and causes
+of action, whether now known or unknown (including existing as well as
+future claims and causes of action), in the Work (i) in all territories
+worldwide, (ii) for the maximum duration provided by applicable law or
+treaty (including future time extensions), (iii) in any current or future
+medium and for any number of copies, and (iv) for any purpose whatsoever,
+including without limitation commercial, advertising or promotional
+purposes (the &quot;Waiver&quot;). Affirmer makes the Waiver for the benefit of each
+member of the public at large and to the detriment of Affirmer&#x27;s heirs and
+successors, fully intending that such Waiver shall not be subject to
+revocation, rescission, cancellation, termination, or any other legal or
+equitable action to disrupt the quiet enjoyment of the Work by the public
+as contemplated by Affirmer&#x27;s express Statement of Purpose.
+
+3. Public License Fallback. Should any part of the Waiver for any reason
+be judged legally invalid or ineffective under applicable law, then the
+Waiver shall be preserved to the maximum extent permitted taking into
+account Affirmer&#x27;s express Statement of Purpose. In addition, to the
+extent the Waiver is so judged Affirmer hereby grants to each affected
+person a royalty-free, non transferable, non sublicensable, non exclusive,
+irrevocable and unconditional license to exercise Affirmer&#x27;s Copyright and
+Related Rights in the Work (i) in all territories worldwide, (ii) for the
+maximum duration provided by applicable law or treaty (including future
+time extensions), (iii) in any current or future medium and for any number
+of copies, and (iv) for any purpose whatsoever, including without
+limitation commercial, advertising or promotional purposes (the
+&quot;License&quot;). The License shall be deemed effective as of the date CC0 was
+applied by Affirmer to the Work. Should any part of the License for any
+reason be judged legally invalid or ineffective under applicable law, such
+partial invalidity or ineffectiveness shall not invalidate the remainder
+of the License, and in such case Affirmer hereby affirms that he or she
+will not (i) exercise any of his or her remaining Copyright and Related
+Rights in the Work or (ii) assert any associated claims and causes of
+action with respect to the Work, in either case contrary to Affirmer&#x27;s
+express Statement of Purpose.
+
+4. Limitations and Disclaimers.
+
+ a. No trademark or patent rights held by Affirmer are waived, abandoned,
+    surrendered, licensed or otherwise affected by this document.
+ b. Affirmer offers the Work as-is and makes no representations or
+    warranties of any kind concerning the Work, express, implied,
+    statutory or otherwise, including without limitation warranties of
+    title, merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, non
+    infringement, or the absence of latent or other defects, accuracy, or
+    the present or absence of errors, whether or not discoverable, all to
+    the greatest extent permissible under applicable law.
+ c. Affirmer disclaims responsibility for clearing rights of other persons
+    that may apply to the Work or any use thereof, including without
+    limitation any person&#x27;s Copyright and Related Rights in the Work.
+    Further, Affirmer disclaims responsibility for obtaining any necessary
+    consents, permissions or other rights required for any use of the
+    Work.
+ d. Affirmer understands and acknowledges that Creative Commons is not a
+    party to this document and has no duty or obligation with respect to
+    this CC0 or use of the Work.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="CDDL-1.0">Common Development and Distribution License 1.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jonhoo/inferno.git ">inferno 0.11.21</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Unless otherwise noted, all files in this distribution are released
+under the Common Development and Distribution License (CDDL).
+Exceptions are noted within the associated source files.
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+COMMON DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION LICENSE Version 1.0
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+    1.1. &quot;Contributor&quot; means each individual or entity that creates
+         or contributes to the creation of Modifications.
+
+    1.2. &quot;Contributor Version&quot; means the combination of the Original
+         Software, prior Modifications used by a Contributor (if any),
+         and the Modifications made by that particular Contributor.
+
+    1.3. &quot;Covered Software&quot; means (a) the Original Software, or (b)
+         Modifications, or (c) the combination of files containing
+         Original Software with files containing Modifications, in
+         each case including portions thereof.
+
+    1.4. &quot;Executable&quot; means the Covered Software in any form other
+         than Source Code.
+
+    1.5. &quot;Initial Developer&quot; means the individual or entity that first
+         makes Original Software available under this License.
+
+    1.6. &quot;Larger Work&quot; means a work which combines Covered Software or
+         portions thereof with code not governed by the terms of this
+         License.
+
+    1.7. &quot;License&quot; means this document.
+
+    1.8. &quot;Licensable&quot; means having the right to grant, to the maximum
+         extent possible, whether at the time of the initial grant or
+         subsequently acquired, any and all of the rights conveyed
+         herein.
+
+    1.9. &quot;Modifications&quot; means the Source Code and Executable form of
+         any of the following:
+
+        A. Any file that results from an addition to, deletion from or
+           modification of the contents of a file containing Original
+           Software or previous Modifications;
+
+        B. Any new file that contains any part of the Original
+           Software or previous Modifications; or
+
+        C. Any new file that is contributed or otherwise made
+           available under the terms of this License.
+
+    1.10. &quot;Original Software&quot; means the Source Code and Executable
+          form of computer software code that is originally released
+          under this License.
+
+    1.11. &quot;Patent Claims&quot; means any patent claim(s), now owned or
+          hereafter acquired, including without limitation, method,
+          process, and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by
+          grantor.
+
+    1.12. &quot;Source Code&quot; means (a) the common form of computer software
+          code in which modifications are made and (b) associated
+          documentation included in or with such code.
+
+    1.13. &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) means an individual or a legal entity
+          exercising rights under, and complying with all of the terms
+          of, this License.  For legal entities, &quot;You&quot; includes any
+          entity which controls, is controlled by, or is under common
+          control with You.  For purposes of this definition,
+          &quot;control&quot; means (a) the power, direct or indirect, to cause
+          the direction or management of such entity, whether by
+          contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than fifty
+          percent (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial
+          ownership of such entity.
+
+2. License Grants.
+
+    2.1. The Initial Developer Grant.
+
+    Conditioned upon Your compliance with Section 3.1 below and
+    subject to third party intellectual property claims, the Initial
+    Developer hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+    non-exclusive license:
+
+        (a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or
+            trademark) Licensable by Initial Developer, to use,
+            reproduce, modify, display, perform, sublicense and
+            distribute the Original Software (or portions thereof),
+            with or without Modifications, and/or as part of a Larger
+            Work; and
+
+        (b) under Patent Claims infringed by the making, using or
+            selling of Original Software, to make, have made, use,
+            practice, sell, and offer for sale, and/or otherwise
+            dispose of the Original Software (or portions thereof).
+
+        (c) The licenses granted in Sections 2.1(a) and (b) are
+            effective on the date Initial Developer first distributes
+            or otherwise makes the Original Software available to a
+            third party under the terms of this License.
+
+        (d) Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is
+            granted: (1) for code that You delete from the Original
+            Software, or (2) for infringements caused by: (i) the
+            modification of the Original Software, or (ii) the
+            combination of the Original Software with other software
+            or devices.
+
+    2.2. Contributor Grant.
+
+    Conditioned upon Your compliance with Section 3.1 below and
+    subject to third party intellectual property claims, each
+    Contributor hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+    non-exclusive license:
+
+        (a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or
+            trademark) Licensable by Contributor to use, reproduce,
+            modify, display, perform, sublicense and distribute the
+            Modifications created by such Contributor (or portions
+            thereof), either on an unmodified basis, with other
+            Modifications, as Covered Software and/or as part of a
+            Larger Work; and
+
+        (b) under Patent Claims infringed by the making, using, or
+            selling of Modifications made by that Contributor either
+            alone and/or in combination with its Contributor Version
+            (or portions of such combination), to make, use, sell,
+            offer for sale, have made, and/or otherwise dispose of:
+            (1) Modifications made by that Contributor (or portions
+            thereof); and (2) the combination of Modifications made by
+            that Contributor with its Contributor Version (or portions
+            of such combination).
+
+        (c) The licenses granted in Sections 2.2(a) and 2.2(b) are
+            effective on the date Contributor first distributes or
+            otherwise makes the Modifications available to a third
+            party.
+
+        (d) Notwithstanding Section 2.2(b) above, no patent license is
+            granted: (1) for any code that Contributor has deleted
+            from the Contributor Version; (2) for infringements caused
+            by: (i) third party modifications of Contributor Version,
+            or (ii) the combination of Modifications made by that
+            Contributor with other software (except as part of the
+            Contributor Version) or other devices; or (3) under Patent
+            Claims infringed by Covered Software in the absence of
+            Modifications made by that Contributor.
+
+3. Distribution Obligations.
+
+    3.1. Availability of Source Code.
+
+    Any Covered Software that You distribute or otherwise make
+    available in Executable form must also be made available in Source
+    Code form and that Source Code form must be distributed only under
+    the terms of this License.  You must include a copy of this
+    License with every copy of the Source Code form of the Covered
+    Software You distribute or otherwise make available.  You must
+    inform recipients of any such Covered Software in Executable form
+    as to how they can obtain such Covered Software in Source Code
+    form in a reasonable manner on or through a medium customarily
+    used for software exchange.
+
+    3.2. Modifications.
+
+    The Modifications that You create or to which You contribute are
+    governed by the terms of this License.  You represent that You
+    believe Your Modifications are Your original creation(s) and/or
+    You have sufficient rights to grant the rights conveyed by this
+    License.
+
+    3.3. Required Notices.
+
+    You must include a notice in each of Your Modifications that
+    identifies You as the Contributor of the Modification.  You may
+    not remove or alter any copyright, patent or trademark notices
+    contained within the Covered Software, or any notices of licensing
+    or any descriptive text giving attribution to any Contributor or
+    the Initial Developer.
+
+    3.4. Application of Additional Terms.
+
+    You may not offer or impose any terms on any Covered Software in
+    Source Code form that alters or restricts the applicable version
+    of this License or the recipients&#x27; rights hereunder.  You may
+    choose to offer, and to charge a fee for, warranty, support,
+    indemnity or liability obligations to one or more recipients of
+    Covered Software.  However, you may do so only on Your own behalf,
+    and not on behalf of the Initial Developer or any Contributor.
+    You must make it absolutely clear that any such warranty, support,
+    indemnity or liability obligation is offered by You alone, and You
+    hereby agree to indemnify the Initial Developer and every
+    Contributor for any liability incurred by the Initial Developer or
+    such Contributor as a result of warranty, support, indemnity or
+    liability terms You offer.
+
+    3.5. Distribution of Executable Versions.
+
+    You may distribute the Executable form of the Covered Software
+    under the terms of this License or under the terms of a license of
+    Your choice, which may contain terms different from this License,
+    provided that You are in compliance with the terms of this License
+    and that the license for the Executable form does not attempt to
+    limit or alter the recipient&#x27;s rights in the Source Code form from
+    the rights set forth in this License.  If You distribute the
+    Covered Software in Executable form under a different license, You
+    must make it absolutely clear that any terms which differ from
+    this License are offered by You alone, not by the Initial
+    Developer or Contributor.  You hereby agree to indemnify the
+    Initial Developer and every Contributor for any liability incurred
+    by the Initial Developer or such Contributor as a result of any
+    such terms You offer.
+
+    3.6. Larger Works.
+
+    You may create a Larger Work by combining Covered Software with
+    other code not governed by the terms of this License and
+    distribute the Larger Work as a single product.  In such a case,
+    You must make sure the requirements of this License are fulfilled
+    for the Covered Software.
+
+4. Versions of the License.
+
+    4.1. New Versions.
+
+    Sun Microsystems, Inc. is the initial license steward and may
+    publish revised and/or new versions of this License from time to
+    time.  Each version will be given a distinguishing version number.
+    Except as provided in Section 4.3, no one other than the license
+    steward has the right to modify this License.
+
+    4.2. Effect of New Versions.
+
+    You may always continue to use, distribute or otherwise make the
+    Covered Software available under the terms of the version of the
+    License under which You originally received the Covered Software.
+    If the Initial Developer includes a notice in the Original
+    Software prohibiting it from being distributed or otherwise made
+    available under any subsequent version of the License, You must
+    distribute and make the Covered Software available under the terms
+    of the version of the License under which You originally received
+    the Covered Software.  Otherwise, You may also choose to use,
+    distribute or otherwise make the Covered Software available under
+    the terms of any subsequent version of the License published by
+    the license steward.
+
+    4.3. Modified Versions.
+
+    When You are an Initial Developer and You want to create a new
+    license for Your Original Software, You may create and use a
+    modified version of this License if You: (a) rename the license
+    and remove any references to the name of the license steward
+    (except to note that the license differs from this License); and
+    (b) otherwise make it clear that the license contains terms which
+    differ from this License.
+
+5. DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY.
+
+    COVERED SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED UNDER THIS LICENSE ON AN &quot;AS IS&quot;
+    BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED,
+    INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES THAT THE COVERED
+    SOFTWARE IS FREE OF DEFECTS, MERCHANTABLE, FIT FOR A PARTICULAR
+    PURPOSE OR NON-INFRINGING.  THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND
+    PERFORMANCE OF THE COVERED SOFTWARE IS WITH YOU.  SHOULD ANY
+    COVERED SOFTWARE PROVE DEFECTIVE IN ANY RESPECT, YOU (NOT THE
+    INITIAL DEVELOPER OR ANY OTHER CONTRIBUTOR) ASSUME THE COST OF ANY
+    NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.  THIS DISCLAIMER OF
+    WARRANTY CONSTITUTES AN ESSENTIAL PART OF THIS LICENSE.  NO USE OF
+    ANY COVERED SOFTWARE IS AUTHORIZED HEREUNDER EXCEPT UNDER THIS
+    DISCLAIMER.
+
+6. TERMINATION.
+
+    6.1. This License and the rights granted hereunder will terminate
+    automatically if You fail to comply with terms herein and fail to
+    cure such breach within 30 days of becoming aware of the breach.
+    Provisions which, by their nature, must remain in effect beyond
+    the termination of this License shall survive.
+
+    6.2. If You assert a patent infringement claim (excluding
+    declaratory judgment actions) against Initial Developer or a
+    Contributor (the Initial Developer or Contributor against whom You
+    assert such claim is referred to as &quot;Participant&quot;) alleging that
+    the Participant Software (meaning the Contributor Version where
+    the Participant is a Contributor or the Original Software where
+    the Participant is the Initial Developer) directly or indirectly
+    infringes any patent, then any and all rights granted directly or
+    indirectly to You by such Participant, the Initial Developer (if
+    the Initial Developer is not the Participant) and all Contributors
+    under Sections 2.1 and/or 2.2 of this License shall, upon 60 days
+    notice from Participant terminate prospectively and automatically
+    at the expiration of such 60 day notice period, unless if within
+    such 60 day period You withdraw Your claim with respect to the
+    Participant Software against such Participant either unilaterally
+    or pursuant to a written agreement with Participant.
+
+    6.3. In the event of termination under Sections 6.1 or 6.2 above,
+    all end user licenses that have been validly granted by You or any
+    distributor hereunder prior to termination (excluding licenses
+    granted to You by any distributor) shall survive termination.
+
+7. LIMITATION OF LIABILITY.
+
+    UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES AND UNDER NO LEGAL THEORY, WHETHER TORT
+    (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE), CONTRACT, OR OTHERWISE, SHALL YOU, THE
+    INITIAL DEVELOPER, ANY OTHER CONTRIBUTOR, OR ANY DISTRIBUTOR OF
+    COVERED SOFTWARE, OR ANY SUPPLIER OF ANY OF SUCH PARTIES, BE
+    LIABLE TO ANY PERSON FOR ANY INDIRECT, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, OR
+    CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OF ANY CHARACTER INCLUDING, WITHOUT
+    LIMITATION, DAMAGES FOR LOST PROFITS, LOSS OF GOODWILL, WORK
+    STOPPAGE, COMPUTER FAILURE OR MALFUNCTION, OR ANY AND ALL OTHER
+    COMMERCIAL DAMAGES OR LOSSES, EVEN IF SUCH PARTY SHALL HAVE BEEN
+    INFORMED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.  THIS LIMITATION OF
+    LIABILITY SHALL NOT APPLY TO LIABILITY FOR DEATH OR PERSONAL
+    INJURY RESULTING FROM SUCH PARTY&#x27;S NEGLIGENCE TO THE EXTENT
+    APPLICABLE LAW PROHIBITS SUCH LIMITATION.  SOME JURISDICTIONS DO
+    NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OR LIMITATION OF INCIDENTAL OR
+    CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, SO THIS EXCLUSION AND LIMITATION MAY NOT
+    APPLY TO YOU.
+
+8. U.S. GOVERNMENT END USERS.
+
+    The Covered Software is a &quot;commercial item,&quot; as that term is
+    defined in 48 C.F.R. 2.101 (Oct. 1995), consisting of &quot;commercial
+    computer software&quot; (as that term is defined at 48
+    C.F.R. 252.227-7014(a)(1)) and &quot;commercial computer software
+    documentation&quot; as such terms are used in 48 C.F.R. 12.212
+    (Sept. 1995).  Consistent with 48 C.F.R. 12.212 and 48
+    C.F.R. 227.7202-1 through 227.7202-4 (June 1995), all
+    U.S. Government End Users acquire Covered Software with only those
+    rights set forth herein.  This U.S. Government Rights clause is in
+    lieu of, and supersedes, any other FAR, DFAR, or other clause or
+    provision that addresses Government rights in computer software
+    under this License.
+
+9. MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+    This License represents the complete agreement concerning subject
+    matter hereof.  If any provision of this License is held to be
+    unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
+    necessary to make it enforceable.  This License shall be governed
+    by the law of the jurisdiction specified in a notice contained
+    within the Original Software (except to the extent applicable law,
+    if any, provides otherwise), excluding such jurisdiction&#x27;s
+    conflict-of-law provisions.  Any litigation relating to this
+    License shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the courts located
+    in the jurisdiction and venue specified in a notice contained
+    within the Original Software, with the losing party responsible
+    for costs, including, without limitation, court costs and
+    reasonable attorneys&#x27; fees and expenses.  The application of the
+    United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale
+    of Goods is expressly excluded.  Any law or regulation which
+    provides that the language of a contract shall be construed
+    against the drafter shall not apply to this License.  You agree
+    that You alone are responsible for compliance with the United
+    States export administration regulations (and the export control
+    laws and regulation of any other countries) when You use,
+    distribute or otherwise make available any Covered Software.
+
+10. RESPONSIBILITY FOR CLAIMS.
+
+    As between Initial Developer and the Contributors, each party is
+    responsible for claims and damages arising, directly or
+    indirectly, out of its utilization of rights under this License
+    and You agree to work with Initial Developer and Contributors to
+    distribute such responsibility on an equitable basis.  Nothing
+    herein is intended or shall be deemed to constitute any admission
+    of liability.
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+NOTICE PURSUANT TO SECTION 9 OF THE COMMON DEVELOPMENT AND
+DISTRIBUTION LICENSE (CDDL)
+
+For Covered Software in this distribution, this License shall
+be governed by the laws of the State of California (excluding
+conflict-of-law provisions).
+
+Any litigation relating to this License shall be subject to the
+jurisdiction of the Federal Courts of the Northern District of
+California and the state courts of the State of California, with
+venue lying in Santa Clara County, California.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="CDLA-Permissive-2.0">Community Data License Agreement Permissive 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/webpki-roots ">webpki-root-certs 1.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/webpki-roots ">webpki-roots 0.26.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/webpki-roots ">webpki-roots 1.0.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text"># Community Data License Agreement - Permissive - Version 2.0
+
+This is the Community Data License Agreement - Permissive, Version
+2.0 (the &quot;agreement&quot;). Data Provider(s) and Data Recipient(s) agree
+as follows:
+
+## 1. Provision of the Data
+
+1.1. A Data Recipient may use, modify, and share the Data made
+available by Data Provider(s) under this agreement if that Data
+Recipient follows the terms of this agreement.
+
+1.2. This agreement does not impose any restriction on a Data
+Recipient&#x27;s use, modification, or sharing of any portions of the
+Data that are in the public domain or that may be used, modified,
+or shared under any other legal exception or limitation.
+
+## 2. Conditions for Sharing Data
+
+2.1. A Data Recipient may share Data, with or without modifications, so
+long as the Data Recipient makes available the text of this agreement
+with the shared Data.
+
+## 3. No Restrictions on Results
+
+3.1. This agreement does not impose any restriction or obligations
+with respect to the use, modification, or sharing of Results.
+
+## 4. No Warranty; Limitation of Liability
+
+4.1. All Data Recipients receive the Data subject to the following
+terms:
+
+THE DATA IS PROVIDED ON AN &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS, WITHOUT REPRESENTATIONS,
+WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
+INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF TITLE,
+NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
+
+NO DATA PROVIDER SHALL HAVE ANY LIABILITY FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
+INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING
+WITHOUT LIMITATION LOST PROFITS), HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE DATA OR RESULTS,
+EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
+
+## 5. Definitions
+
+5.1. &quot;Data&quot; means the material received by a Data Recipient under
+this agreement.
+
+5.2. &quot;Data Provider&quot; means any person who is the source of Data
+provided under this agreement and in reliance on a Data Recipient&#x27;s
+agreement to its terms.
+
+5.3. &quot;Data Recipient&quot; means any person who receives Data directly
+or indirectly from a Data Provider and agrees to the terms of this
+agreement.
+
+5.4. &quot;Results&quot; means any outcome obtained by computational analysis
+of Data, including for example machine learning models and models&#x27;
+insights.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/untrusted ">untrusted 0.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/untrusted ">untrusted 0.9.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">// Copyright 2015-2016 Brian Smith.
+//
+// Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
+// purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
+// copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+//
+// THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHORS DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES
+// WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+// MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS BE LIABLE FOR
+// ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+// WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
+// ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF
+// OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/acw/simple_asn1 ">simple_asn1 0.6.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017 Adam Wick
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose
+with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice
+and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
+REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
+FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
+INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
+OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER
+TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF
+THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/ring ">ring 0.17.14</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2015-2025 Brian Smith.
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
+purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
+copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES
+WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/webpki ">rustls-webpki 0.103.13</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Except as otherwise noted, this project is licensed under the following
+(ISC-style) terms:
+
+Copyright 2015 Brian Smith.
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
+purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
+copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHORS DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES
+WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
+ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF
+OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+
+The files under third-party/chromium are licensed as described in
+third-party/chromium/LICENSE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/frewsxcv/earcutr/ ">earcutr 0.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">ISC License
+
+Copyright (c) 2016, Mapbox
+Copyright (c) 2018, Tree Cricket
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose
+with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice
+and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
+REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
+FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
+INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
+OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER
+TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF
+THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-rs 1.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">ISC License:
+
+Copyright (c) 2004-2010 by Internet Systems Consortium, Inc. (&quot;ISC&quot;)
+Copyright (c) 1995-2003 by Internet Software Consortium
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND ISC DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL ISC BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-onig/rust-onig ">onig_sys 69.9.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text"># Rust-Onig is Open Source!
+
+All source code in this repository is distributed under the terms of
+the *MIT License* unless otherwise stated. The Oniguruma source code
+remains the property of the original authors and is re-distributed
+under the original license, see [COPYING](oniguruma/COPYING) for more
+information.
+
+&gt; The MIT License (MIT)
+&gt; 
+&gt; Copyright (c) 2015 Will Speak &lt;will@willspeak.me&gt;, Ivan Ivashchenko
+&gt; &lt;defuz@me.com&gt;, and contributors.
+&gt; 
+&gt; Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+&gt; of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+&gt; in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+&gt; to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+&gt; copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+&gt; furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+&gt; 
+&gt; The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+&gt; copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+&gt; 
+&gt; THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+&gt; IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+&gt; FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+&gt; AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+&gt; LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+&gt; OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+&gt; SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iwillspeak/rust-onig ">onig 6.5.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text"># Rust-Onig is Open Source!
+
+All source code in this repository is distributed under the terms of
+the *MIT License* unless otherwise stated. The Oniguruma source code
+remains the property of the original authors and is re-distributed
+under the original license.
+
+&gt; The MIT License (MIT)
+&gt; 
+&gt; Copyright (c) 2015 Will Speak &lt;will@willspeak.me&gt;, Ivan Ivashchenko
+&gt; &lt;defuz@me.com&gt;, and contributors.
+&gt; 
+&gt; Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+&gt; of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+&gt; in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+&gt; to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+&gt; copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+&gt; furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+&gt; 
+&gt; The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+&gt; copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+&gt; 
+&gt; THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+&gt; IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+&gt; FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+&gt; AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+&gt; LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+&gt; OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+&gt; SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-brotli ">brotli 8.0.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2009, 2010, 2013-2016 by the Brotli Authors.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-openssl/rust-openssl ">openssl-sys 0.9.116</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014 Alex Crichton
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/mio ">mio 1.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014 Carl Lerche and other MIO contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Geal/nom ">nom 7.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-bakery/nom ">nom 8.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014-2019 Geoffroy Couprie
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/hyper ">hyper 1.9.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014-2026 Sean McArthur
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/reem/rust-ordered-float ">ordered-float 2.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/reem/rust-ordered-float ">ordered-float 5.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2015 Jonathan Reem
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/steffengy/schannel-rs ">schannel 0.1.29</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2015 steffengy
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/quickwit-oss/bitpacking ">bitpacking 0.9.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2016 Paul Masurel
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.redox-os.org/redox-os/syscall ">redox_syscall 0.5.18</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017 Redox OS Developers
+
+MIT License
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/h2 ">h2 0.4.14</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017 h2 authors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/bytes ">bytes 1.11.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018 Carl Lerche
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/palfrey/serial_test/ ">serial_test 3.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/palfrey/serial_test/ ">serial_test_derive 3.4.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018 Tom Parker-Shemilt
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/want ">want 0.3.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018-2019 Sean McArthur
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/try-lock ">try-lock 0.2.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018-2023 Sean McArthur
+Copyright (c) 2016 Alex Crichton
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/loom ">loom 0.7.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/slab ">slab 0.4.12</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Carl Lerche
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/davidpdrsn/assert-json-diff.git ">assert-json-diff 2.0.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 David Pedersen
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hawkw/sharded-slab ">sharded-slab 0.1.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Eliza Weisman
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hawkw/matchers ">matchers 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Eliza Weisman
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http-body ">http-body 0.4.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Hyper Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tls ">tokio-native-tls 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-appender 0.2.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-attributes 0.1.31</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-core 0.1.36</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-log 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-mock 0.1.0-beta.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-serde 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-subscriber 0.3.23</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing 0.1.44</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Tokio Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower ">tower-layer 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower ">tower-service 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower ">tower 0.5.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Tower Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower-http ">tower-http 0.6.11</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019-2021 Tower Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http-body ">http-body 1.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019-2024 Sean McArthur &amp; Hyper Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http-body ">http-body-util 0.1.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019-2025 Sean McArthur &amp; Hyper Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/asm-hashes ">sha2-asm 0.6.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2020 RustCrypto Developers
+Copyright (c) 2017 Project Nayuki, Artyom Pavlov
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/hyper-util ">hyper-util 0.1.20</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2023-2025 Sean McArthur
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/termtree ">termtree 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) Individual contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mystor/synstructure ">synstructure 0.13.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2016 Nika Layzell
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jeromefroe/lru-rs.git ">lru 0.16.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Jerome Froelich
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/statrs-dev/statrs ">statrs 0.18.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Michael Ma
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pacman82/atoi-rs ">atoi 2.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/webdesus/fs_extra ">fs_extra 1.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Denis Kurilenko
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/myrrlyn/tap ">tap 1.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Elliot Linder &lt;darfink@gmail.com&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vitiral/std_prelude ">std_prelude 0.2.12</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Garrett Berg &lt;vitiral@gmail.com&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/djc/tokio-retry ">tokio-retry 0.3.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Sam Rijs
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling 0.14.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling 0.23.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_core 0.14.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_core 0.23.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_macro 0.14.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_macro 0.23.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Ted Driggs
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitvecto-rs/bitvec ">bitvec 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/myrrlyn/wyz ">wyz 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2018 myrrlyn (Alexander Payne)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sgodwincs/ordered-multimap-rs ">ordered-multimap 0.7.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2018 sgodwincs
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geographiclib-rs ">geographiclib-rs 0.2.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/xacrimon/dashmap ">dashmap 6.2.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Acrimon
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Aeledfyr/deepsize/ ">deepsize 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Aeledfyr
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nukesor/comfy-table ">comfy-table 7.2.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Arne Beer
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/GREsau/schemars ">schemars 0.8.22</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/GREsau/schemars ">schemars_derive 0.8.22</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Graham Esau
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust-rgb ">rgb 0.8.53</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Kornel
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Peternator7/strum ">strum 0.26.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Peternator7/strum ">strum_macros 0.26.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Peter Glotfelty
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio-macros 2.7.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Yoshua Wuyts
+Copyright (c) Tokio Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitvecto-rs/radium ">radium 0.7.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 kneecaw (Nika Layzell)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tabac/hyperloglog.rs ">hyperloglogplus 0.4.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Anastasios Bakogiannis
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/bronsonbdevost/next_afterf ">float_next_after 1.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Scripta Qumranica Electronica
+
+Created by Bronson Brown-deVost
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/thoren-d/tracing-chrome ">tracing-chrome 0.7.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Thoren Paulson
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/myrrlyn/funty ">funty 2.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 myrrlyn (Alexander Payne)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-array 58.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020-2022 Oliver Margetts
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/const-str ">const-str 1.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020-2026 Nugine
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/samsartor/async_cell ">async_cell 0.2.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2021 Sam Sartor
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/outref ">outref 0.5.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2022 Nugine
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sarah-ek/aligned-vec/ ">aligned-vec 0.6.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2022 sarah
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.redox-os.org/redox-os/libredox.git ">libredox 0.1.16</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2023 4lDO2
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iFloat ">i_float 1.15.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iShape ">i_shape 1.14.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2023 iShape-Rust
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sarah-ek/equator/ ">equator-macro 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sarah-ek/equator/ ">equator 0.4.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2023 sarah
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/spire-rs/countio ">countio 0.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2024 Spire Team
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iKeySort ">i_key_sort 0.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iTree ">i_tree 0.16.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2024 iShape-Rust
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/simd ">base64-simd 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Aeledfyr/deepsize/ ">deepsize_derive 0.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iOverlay ">i_overlay 4.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/compiler-builtins ">libm 0.2.16</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ogham/rust-number-prefix ">number_prefix 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/influxdata/pbjson ">pbjson-build 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/influxdata/pbjson ">pbjson-types 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/influxdata/pbjson ">pbjson 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/plotters-rs/plotters ">plotters-backend 0.3.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/plotters-rs/plotters.git ">plotters-svg 0.3.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/plotters-rs/plotters ">plotters 0.3.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MitchellRhysHall/random_word ">random_word 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/getsentry/symbolic ">symbolic-common 12.18.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/getsentry/symbolic ">symbolic-demangle 12.18.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/simd ">vsimd 0.8.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) &lt;year&gt; &lt;copyright holders&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and
+associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the
+following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial
+portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO
+EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE
+USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio-stream 0.1.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio-util 0.7.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio 1.52.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) Tokio Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mcountryman/simd-adler32 ">simd-adler32 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) [2021] [Marvin Countryman]
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fkoep/downcast-rs ">downcast 0.11.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Felix Köpge
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sunfishcode/is-terminal ">is-terminal 0.4.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/unsafe-libyaml ">unsafe-libyaml 0.2.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/zmij ">zmij 1.0.21</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/winnow-rs/winnow ">winnow 1.0.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mvdnes/spin-rs.git ">spin 0.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mvdnes/spin-rs.git ">spin 0.9.8</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014 Mathijs van de Nes
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zonyitoo/rust-ini ">rust-ini 0.21.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014 Y. T. CHUNG
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf_shared 0.12.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014-2022 Steven Fackler, Yuki Okushi
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
+this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in
+the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
+use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so,
+subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
+FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR
+COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/aho-corasick ">aho-corasick 1.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/byteorder ">byteorder 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/rust-csv ">csv-core 0.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/rust-csv ">csv 1.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/fst ">fst 0.4.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/jiff ">jiff-tzdb-platform 0.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/jiff ">jiff-tzdb 0.1.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/jiff ">jiff 0.2.24</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/memchr ">memchr 2.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/utf8-ranges ">utf8-ranges 1.0.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/walkdir ">walkdir 2.5.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Andrew Gallant
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/10xGenomics/lz4-rs ">lz4-sys 1.11.1+lz4-1.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/10xGenomics/lz4-rs ">lz4 1.28.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Artem V. Navrotskiy
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nix-rust/nix ">nix 0.26.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Carl Lerche + nix-rust Authors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dguo/strsim-rs ">strsim 0.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rapidfuzz/strsim-rs ">strsim 0.11.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Danny Guo
+Copyright (c) 2016 Titus Wormer &lt;tituswormer@gmail.com&gt;
+Copyright (c) 2018 Akash Kurdekar
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/GuillaumeGomez/sysinfo ">sysinfo 0.38.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Guillaume Gomez
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/shepmaster/twox-hash ">twox-hash 2.1.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Jake Goulding
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Marwes/combine ">combine 4.6.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Markus Westerlind
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Keats/jsonwebtoken ">jsonwebtoken 10.4.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Vincent Prouillet
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015-2020 the fiat-crypto authors (see
+https://github.com/mit-plv/fiat-crypto/blob/master/AUTHORS).
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dermesser/integer-encoding-rs ">integer-encoding 3.0.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Google Inc. (lewinb@google.com) -- though not an official
+Google product or in any way related!
+Copyright (c) 2018-2020 Lewin Bormann (lbo@spheniscida.de)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to
+deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the
+rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or
+sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING
+FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS
+IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jcreekmore/pem-rs.git ">pem 3.0.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Jonathan Creekmore
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nabijaczleweli/safe-transmute-rs ">safe-transmute 0.11.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 nabijaczleweli
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/same-file ">same-file 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/winapi-util ">winapi-util 0.1.11</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Andrew Gallant
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/console-rs/console ">console 0.15.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/console-rs/indicatif ">indicatif 0.17.11</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Armin Ronacher &lt;armin.ronacher@active-4.com&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.redox-os.org/redox-os/users ">redox_users 0.5.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Jose Narvaez
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://hg.sr.ht/~icefox/oorandom ">oorandom 11.1.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Simon Heath
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pseitz/lz4_flex ">lz4_flex 0.13.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Pascal Seitz
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
+this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in
+the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
+use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so,
+subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
+FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR
+COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/eira-fransham/crunchy ">crunchy 0.2.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright 2017-2023 Eira Fransham.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gyscos/zstd-rs ">zstd 0.13.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+Copyright (c) 2016 Alexandre Bury
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nushell/nu-ansi-term ">nu-ansi-term 0.50.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014 Benjamin Sago
+Copyright (c) 2021-2022 The Nushell Project Developers
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/abonander/mime_guess ">mime_guess 2.0.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Austin Bonander
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fizyk20/generic-array.git ">generic-array 0.14.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Bartłomiej Kamiński
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tafia/quick-xml ">quick-xml 0.26.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tafia/quick-xml ">quick-xml 0.38.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tafia/quick-xml ">quick-xml 0.39.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Johann Tuffe
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust_urlencoding ">urlencoding 2.1.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">© 2016 Bertram Truong
+© 2021 Kornel Lesiński
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tobz/tracking-allocator ">tracking-allocator 0.4.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Mozilla Public License Version 2.0
+&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;
+
+1. Definitions
+--------------
+
+1.1. &quot;Contributor&quot;
+    means each individual or legal entity that creates, contributes to
+    the creation of, or owns Covered Software.
+
+1.2. &quot;Contributor Version&quot;
+    means the combination of the Contributions of others (if any) used
+    by a Contributor and that particular Contributor&#x27;s Contribution.
+
+1.3. &quot;Contribution&quot;
+    means Covered Software of a particular Contributor.
+
+1.4. &quot;Covered Software&quot;
+    means Source Code Form to which the initial Contributor has attached
+    the notice in Exhibit A, the Executable Form of such Source Code
+    Form, and Modifications of such Source Code Form, in each case
+    including portions thereof.
+
+1.5. &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;
+    means
+
+    (a) that the initial Contributor has attached the notice described
+        in Exhibit B to the Covered Software; or
+
+    (b) that the Covered Software was made available under the terms of
+        version 1.1 or earlier of the License, but not also under the
+        terms of a Secondary License.
+
+1.6. &quot;Executable Form&quot;
+    means any form of the work other than Source Code Form.
+
+1.7. &quot;Larger Work&quot;
+    means a work that combines Covered Software with other material, in 
+    a separate file or files, that is not Covered Software.
+
+1.8. &quot;License&quot;
+    means this document.
+
+1.9. &quot;Licensable&quot;
+    means having the right to grant, to the maximum extent possible,
+    whether at the time of the initial grant or subsequently, any and
+    all of the rights conveyed by this License.
+
+1.10. &quot;Modifications&quot;
+    means any of the following:
+
+    (a) any file in Source Code Form that results from an addition to,
+        deletion from, or modification of the contents of Covered
+        Software; or
+
+    (b) any new file in Source Code Form that contains any Covered
+        Software.
+
+1.11. &quot;Patent Claims&quot; of a Contributor
+    means any patent claim(s), including without limitation, method,
+    process, and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by such
+    Contributor that would be infringed, but for the grant of the
+    License, by the making, using, selling, offering for sale, having
+    made, import, or transfer of either its Contributions or its
+    Contributor Version.
+
+1.12. &quot;Secondary License&quot;
+    means either the GNU General Public License, Version 2.0, the GNU
+    Lesser General Public License, Version 2.1, the GNU Affero General
+    Public License, Version 3.0, or any later versions of those
+    licenses.
+
+1.13. &quot;Source Code Form&quot;
+    means the form of the work preferred for making modifications.
+
+1.14. &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;)
+    means an individual or a legal entity exercising rights under this
+    License. For legal entities, &quot;You&quot; includes any entity that
+    controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with You. For
+    purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (a) the power, direct
+    or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity,
+    whether by contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than
+    fifty percent (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial
+    ownership of such entity.
+
+2. License Grants and Conditions
+--------------------------------
+
+2.1. Grants
+
+Each Contributor hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+non-exclusive license:
+
+(a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or trademark)
+    Licensable by such Contributor to use, reproduce, make available,
+    modify, display, perform, distribute, and otherwise exploit its
+    Contributions, either on an unmodified basis, with Modifications, or
+    as part of a Larger Work; and
+
+(b) under Patent Claims of such Contributor to make, use, sell, offer
+    for sale, have made, import, and otherwise transfer either its
+    Contributions or its Contributor Version.
+
+2.2. Effective Date
+
+The licenses granted in Section 2.1 with respect to any Contribution
+become effective for each Contribution on the date the Contributor first
+distributes such Contribution.
+
+2.3. Limitations on Grant Scope
+
+The licenses granted in this Section 2 are the only rights granted under
+this License. No additional rights or licenses will be implied from the
+distribution or licensing of Covered Software under this License.
+Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is granted by a
+Contributor:
+
+(a) for any code that a Contributor has removed from Covered Software;
+    or
+
+(b) for infringements caused by: (i) Your and any other third party&#x27;s
+    modifications of Covered Software, or (ii) the combination of its
+    Contributions with other software (except as part of its Contributor
+    Version); or
+
+(c) under Patent Claims infringed by Covered Software in the absence of
+    its Contributions.
+
+This License does not grant any rights in the trademarks, service marks,
+or logos of any Contributor (except as may be necessary to comply with
+the notice requirements in Section 3.4).
+
+2.4. Subsequent Licenses
+
+No Contributor makes additional grants as a result of Your choice to
+distribute the Covered Software under a subsequent version of this
+License (see Section 10.2) or under the terms of a Secondary License (if
+permitted under the terms of Section 3.3).
+
+2.5. Representation
+
+Each Contributor represents that the Contributor believes its
+Contributions are its original creation(s) or it has sufficient rights
+to grant the rights to its Contributions conveyed by this License.
+
+2.6. Fair Use
+
+This License is not intended to limit any rights You have under
+applicable copyright doctrines of fair use, fair dealing, or other
+equivalents.
+
+2.7. Conditions
+
+Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are conditions of the licenses granted
+in Section 2.1.
+
+3. Responsibilities
+-------------------
+
+3.1. Distribution of Source Form
+
+All distribution of Covered Software in Source Code Form, including any
+Modifications that You create or to which You contribute, must be under
+the terms of this License. You must inform recipients that the Source
+Code Form of the Covered Software is governed by the terms of this
+License, and how they can obtain a copy of this License. You may not
+attempt to alter or restrict the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code
+Form.
+
+3.2. Distribution of Executable Form
+
+If You distribute Covered Software in Executable Form then:
+
+(a) such Covered Software must also be made available in Source Code
+    Form, as described in Section 3.1, and You must inform recipients of
+    the Executable Form how they can obtain a copy of such Source Code
+    Form by reasonable means in a timely manner, at a charge no more
+    than the cost of distribution to the recipient; and
+
+(b) You may distribute such Executable Form under the terms of this
+    License, or sublicense it under different terms, provided that the
+    license for the Executable Form does not attempt to limit or alter
+    the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code Form under this License.
+
+3.3. Distribution of a Larger Work
+
+You may create and distribute a Larger Work under terms of Your choice,
+provided that You also comply with the requirements of this License for
+the Covered Software. If the Larger Work is a combination of Covered
+Software with a work governed by one or more Secondary Licenses, and the
+Covered Software is not Incompatible With Secondary Licenses, this
+License permits You to additionally distribute such Covered Software
+under the terms of such Secondary License(s), so that the recipient of
+the Larger Work may, at their option, further distribute the Covered
+Software under the terms of either this License or such Secondary
+License(s).
+
+3.4. Notices
+
+You may not remove or alter the substance of any license notices
+(including copyright notices, patent notices, disclaimers of warranty,
+or limitations of liability) contained within the Source Code Form of
+the Covered Software, except that You may alter any license notices to
+the extent required to remedy known factual inaccuracies.
+
+3.5. Application of Additional Terms
+
+You may choose to offer, and to charge a fee for, warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability obligations to one or more recipients of Covered
+Software. However, You may do so only on Your own behalf, and not on
+behalf of any Contributor. You must make it absolutely clear that any
+such warranty, support, indemnity, or liability obligation is offered by
+You alone, and You hereby agree to indemnify every Contributor for any
+liability incurred by such Contributor as a result of warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability terms You offer. You may include additional
+disclaimers of warranty and limitations of liability specific to any
+jurisdiction.
+
+4. Inability to Comply Due to Statute or Regulation
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+If it is impossible for You to comply with any of the terms of this
+License with respect to some or all of the Covered Software due to
+statute, judicial order, or regulation then You must: (a) comply with
+the terms of this License to the maximum extent possible; and (b)
+describe the limitations and the code they affect. Such description must
+be placed in a text file included with all distributions of the Covered
+Software under this License. Except to the extent prohibited by statute
+or regulation, such description must be sufficiently detailed for a
+recipient of ordinary skill to be able to understand it.
+
+5. Termination
+--------------
+
+5.1. The rights granted under this License will terminate automatically
+if You fail to comply with any of its terms. However, if You become
+compliant, then the rights granted under this License from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until such
+Contributor explicitly and finally terminates Your grants, and (b) on an
+ongoing basis, if such Contributor fails to notify You of the
+non-compliance by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after You have
+come back into compliance. Moreover, Your grants from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated on an ongoing basis if such Contributor
+notifies You of the non-compliance by some reasonable means, this is the
+first time You have received notice of non-compliance with this License
+from such Contributor, and You become compliant prior to 30 days after
+Your receipt of the notice.
+
+5.2. If You initiate litigation against any entity by asserting a patent
+infringement claim (excluding declaratory judgment actions,
+counter-claims, and cross-claims) alleging that a Contributor Version
+directly or indirectly infringes any patent, then the rights granted to
+You by any and all Contributors for the Covered Software under Section
+2.1 of this License shall terminate.
+
+5.3. In the event of termination under Sections 5.1 or 5.2 above, all
+end user license agreements (excluding distributors and resellers) which
+have been validly granted by You or Your distributors under this License
+prior to termination shall survive termination.
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  6. Disclaimer of Warranty                                           *
+*  -------------------------                                           *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Covered Software is provided under this License on an &quot;as is&quot;       *
+*  basis, without warranty of any kind, either expressed, implied, or  *
+*  statutory, including, without limitation, warranties that the       *
+*  Covered Software is free of defects, merchantable, fit for a        *
+*  particular purpose or non-infringing. The entire risk as to the     *
+*  quality and performance of the Covered Software is with You.        *
+*  Should any Covered Software prove defective in any respect, You     *
+*  (not any Contributor) assume the cost of any necessary servicing,   *
+*  repair, or correction. This disclaimer of warranty constitutes an   *
+*  essential part of this License. No use of any Covered Software is   *
+*  authorized under this License except under this disclaimer.         *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  7. Limitation of Liability                                          *
+*  --------------------------                                          *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Under no circumstances and under no legal theory, whether tort      *
+*  (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, shall any           *
+*  Contributor, or anyone who distributes Covered Software as          *
+*  permitted above, be liable to You for any direct, indirect,         *
+*  special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character      *
+*  including, without limitation, damages for lost profits, loss of    *
+*  goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any    *
+*  and all other commercial damages or losses, even if such party      *
+*  shall have been informed of the possibility of such damages. This   *
+*  limitation of liability shall not apply to liability for death or   *
+*  personal injury resulting from such party&#x27;s negligence to the       *
+*  extent applicable law prohibits such limitation. Some               *
+*  jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of           *
+*  incidental or consequential damages, so this exclusion and          *
+*  limitation may not apply to You.                                    *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+8. Litigation
+-------------
+
+Any litigation relating to this License may be brought only in the
+courts of a jurisdiction where the defendant maintains its principal
+place of business and such litigation shall be governed by laws of that
+jurisdiction, without reference to its conflict-of-law provisions.
+Nothing in this Section shall prevent a party&#x27;s ability to bring
+cross-claims or counter-claims.
+
+9. Miscellaneous
+----------------
+
+This License represents the complete agreement concerning the subject
+matter hereof. If any provision of this License is held to be
+unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
+necessary to make it enforceable. Any law or regulation which provides
+that the language of a contract shall be construed against the drafter
+shall not be used to construe this License against a Contributor.
+
+10. Versions of the License
+---------------------------
+
+10.1. New Versions
+
+Mozilla Foundation is the license steward. Except as provided in Section
+10.3, no one other than the license steward has the right to modify or
+publish new versions of this License. Each version will be given a
+distinguishing version number.
+
+10.2. Effect of New Versions
+
+You may distribute the Covered Software under the terms of the version
+of the License under which You originally received the Covered Software,
+or under the terms of any subsequent version published by the license
+steward.
+
+10.3. Modified Versions
+
+If you create software not governed by this License, and you want to
+create a new license for such software, you may create and use a
+modified version of this License if you rename the license and remove
+any references to the name of the license steward (except to note that
+such modified license differs from this License).
+
+10.4. Distributing Source Code Form that is Incompatible With Secondary
+Licenses
+
+If You choose to distribute Source Code Form that is Incompatible With
+Secondary Licenses under the terms of this version of the License, the
+notice described in Exhibit B of this License must be attached.
+
+Exhibit A - Source Code Form License Notice
+-------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
+  License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
+  file, You can obtain one at http://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
+
+If it is not possible or desirable to put the notice in a particular
+file, then You may include the notice in a location (such as a LICENSE
+file in a relevant directory) where a recipient would be likely to look
+for such a notice.
+
+You may add additional accurate notices of copyright ownership.
+
+Exhibit B - &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot; Notice
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;, as
+  defined by the Mozilla Public License, v. 2.0.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mackwic/colored ">colored 3.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Mozilla Public License Version 2.0
+&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;
+
+1. Definitions
+--------------
+
+1.1. &quot;Contributor&quot;
+    means each individual or legal entity that creates, contributes to
+    the creation of, or owns Covered Software.
+
+1.2. &quot;Contributor Version&quot;
+    means the combination of the Contributions of others (if any) used
+    by a Contributor and that particular Contributor&#x27;s Contribution.
+
+1.3. &quot;Contribution&quot;
+    means Covered Software of a particular Contributor.
+
+1.4. &quot;Covered Software&quot;
+    means Source Code Form to which the initial Contributor has attached
+    the notice in Exhibit A, the Executable Form of such Source Code
+    Form, and Modifications of such Source Code Form, in each case
+    including portions thereof.
+
+1.5. &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;
+    means
+
+    (a) that the initial Contributor has attached the notice described
+        in Exhibit B to the Covered Software; or
+
+    (b) that the Covered Software was made available under the terms of
+        version 1.1 or earlier of the License, but not also under the
+        terms of a Secondary License.
+
+1.6. &quot;Executable Form&quot;
+    means any form of the work other than Source Code Form.
+
+1.7. &quot;Larger Work&quot;
+    means a work that combines Covered Software with other material, in 
+    a separate file or files, that is not Covered Software.
+
+1.8. &quot;License&quot;
+    means this document.
+
+1.9. &quot;Licensable&quot;
+    means having the right to grant, to the maximum extent possible,
+    whether at the time of the initial grant or subsequently, any and
+    all of the rights conveyed by this License.
+
+1.10. &quot;Modifications&quot;
+    means any of the following:
+
+    (a) any file in Source Code Form that results from an addition to,
+        deletion from, or modification of the contents of Covered
+        Software; or
+
+    (b) any new file in Source Code Form that contains any Covered
+        Software.
+
+1.11. &quot;Patent Claims&quot; of a Contributor
+    means any patent claim(s), including without limitation, method,
+    process, and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by such
+    Contributor that would be infringed, but for the grant of the
+    License, by the making, using, selling, offering for sale, having
+    made, import, or transfer of either its Contributions or its
+    Contributor Version.
+
+1.12. &quot;Secondary License&quot;
+    means either the GNU General Public License, Version 2.0, the GNU
+    Lesser General Public License, Version 2.1, the GNU Affero General
+    Public License, Version 3.0, or any later versions of those
+    licenses.
+
+1.13. &quot;Source Code Form&quot;
+    means the form of the work preferred for making modifications.
+
+1.14. &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;)
+    means an individual or a legal entity exercising rights under this
+    License. For legal entities, &quot;You&quot; includes any entity that
+    controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with You. For
+    purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (a) the power, direct
+    or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity,
+    whether by contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than
+    fifty percent (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial
+    ownership of such entity.
+
+2. License Grants and Conditions
+--------------------------------
+
+2.1. Grants
+
+Each Contributor hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+non-exclusive license:
+
+(a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or trademark)
+    Licensable by such Contributor to use, reproduce, make available,
+    modify, display, perform, distribute, and otherwise exploit its
+    Contributions, either on an unmodified basis, with Modifications, or
+    as part of a Larger Work; and
+
+(b) under Patent Claims of such Contributor to make, use, sell, offer
+    for sale, have made, import, and otherwise transfer either its
+    Contributions or its Contributor Version.
+
+2.2. Effective Date
+
+The licenses granted in Section 2.1 with respect to any Contribution
+become effective for each Contribution on the date the Contributor first
+distributes such Contribution.
+
+2.3. Limitations on Grant Scope
+
+The licenses granted in this Section 2 are the only rights granted under
+this License. No additional rights or licenses will be implied from the
+distribution or licensing of Covered Software under this License.
+Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is granted by a
+Contributor:
+
+(a) for any code that a Contributor has removed from Covered Software;
+    or
+
+(b) for infringements caused by: (i) Your and any other third party&#x27;s
+    modifications of Covered Software, or (ii) the combination of its
+    Contributions with other software (except as part of its Contributor
+    Version); or
+
+(c) under Patent Claims infringed by Covered Software in the absence of
+    its Contributions.
+
+This License does not grant any rights in the trademarks, service marks,
+or logos of any Contributor (except as may be necessary to comply with
+the notice requirements in Section 3.4).
+
+2.4. Subsequent Licenses
+
+No Contributor makes additional grants as a result of Your choice to
+distribute the Covered Software under a subsequent version of this
+License (see Section 10.2) or under the terms of a Secondary License (if
+permitted under the terms of Section 3.3).
+
+2.5. Representation
+
+Each Contributor represents that the Contributor believes its
+Contributions are its original creation(s) or it has sufficient rights
+to grant the rights to its Contributions conveyed by this License.
+
+2.6. Fair Use
+
+This License is not intended to limit any rights You have under
+applicable copyright doctrines of fair use, fair dealing, or other
+equivalents.
+
+2.7. Conditions
+
+Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are conditions of the licenses granted
+in Section 2.1.
+
+3. Responsibilities
+-------------------
+
+3.1. Distribution of Source Form
+
+All distribution of Covered Software in Source Code Form, including any
+Modifications that You create or to which You contribute, must be under
+the terms of this License. You must inform recipients that the Source
+Code Form of the Covered Software is governed by the terms of this
+License, and how they can obtain a copy of this License. You may not
+attempt to alter or restrict the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code
+Form.
+
+3.2. Distribution of Executable Form
+
+If You distribute Covered Software in Executable Form then:
+
+(a) such Covered Software must also be made available in Source Code
+    Form, as described in Section 3.1, and You must inform recipients of
+    the Executable Form how they can obtain a copy of such Source Code
+    Form by reasonable means in a timely manner, at a charge no more
+    than the cost of distribution to the recipient; and
+
+(b) You may distribute such Executable Form under the terms of this
+    License, or sublicense it under different terms, provided that the
+    license for the Executable Form does not attempt to limit or alter
+    the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code Form under this License.
+
+3.3. Distribution of a Larger Work
+
+You may create and distribute a Larger Work under terms of Your choice,
+provided that You also comply with the requirements of this License for
+the Covered Software. If the Larger Work is a combination of Covered
+Software with a work governed by one or more Secondary Licenses, and the
+Covered Software is not Incompatible With Secondary Licenses, this
+License permits You to additionally distribute such Covered Software
+under the terms of such Secondary License(s), so that the recipient of
+the Larger Work may, at their option, further distribute the Covered
+Software under the terms of either this License or such Secondary
+License(s).
+
+3.4. Notices
+
+You may not remove or alter the substance of any license notices
+(including copyright notices, patent notices, disclaimers of warranty,
+or limitations of liability) contained within the Source Code Form of
+the Covered Software, except that You may alter any license notices to
+the extent required to remedy known factual inaccuracies.
+
+3.5. Application of Additional Terms
+
+You may choose to offer, and to charge a fee for, warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability obligations to one or more recipients of Covered
+Software. However, You may do so only on Your own behalf, and not on
+behalf of any Contributor. You must make it absolutely clear that any
+such warranty, support, indemnity, or liability obligation is offered by
+You alone, and You hereby agree to indemnify every Contributor for any
+liability incurred by such Contributor as a result of warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability terms You offer. You may include additional
+disclaimers of warranty and limitations of liability specific to any
+jurisdiction.
+
+4. Inability to Comply Due to Statute or Regulation
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+If it is impossible for You to comply with any of the terms of this
+License with respect to some or all of the Covered Software due to
+statute, judicial order, or regulation then You must: (a) comply with
+the terms of this License to the maximum extent possible; and (b)
+describe the limitations and the code they affect. Such description must
+be placed in a text file included with all distributions of the Covered
+Software under this License. Except to the extent prohibited by statute
+or regulation, such description must be sufficiently detailed for a
+recipient of ordinary skill to be able to understand it.
+
+5. Termination
+--------------
+
+5.1. The rights granted under this License will terminate automatically
+if You fail to comply with any of its terms. However, if You become
+compliant, then the rights granted under this License from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until such
+Contributor explicitly and finally terminates Your grants, and (b) on an
+ongoing basis, if such Contributor fails to notify You of the
+non-compliance by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after You have
+come back into compliance. Moreover, Your grants from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated on an ongoing basis if such Contributor
+notifies You of the non-compliance by some reasonable means, this is the
+first time You have received notice of non-compliance with this License
+from such Contributor, and You become compliant prior to 30 days after
+Your receipt of the notice.
+
+5.2. If You initiate litigation against any entity by asserting a patent
+infringement claim (excluding declaratory judgment actions,
+counter-claims, and cross-claims) alleging that a Contributor Version
+directly or indirectly infringes any patent, then the rights granted to
+You by any and all Contributors for the Covered Software under Section
+2.1 of this License shall terminate.
+
+5.3. In the event of termination under Sections 5.1 or 5.2 above, all
+end user license agreements (excluding distributors and resellers) which
+have been validly granted by You or Your distributors under this License
+prior to termination shall survive termination.
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  6. Disclaimer of Warranty                                           *
+*  -------------------------                                           *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Covered Software is provided under this License on an &quot;as is&quot;       *
+*  basis, without warranty of any kind, either expressed, implied, or  *
+*  statutory, including, without limitation, warranties that the       *
+*  Covered Software is free of defects, merchantable, fit for a        *
+*  particular purpose or non-infringing. The entire risk as to the     *
+*  quality and performance of the Covered Software is with You.        *
+*  Should any Covered Software prove defective in any respect, You     *
+*  (not any Contributor) assume the cost of any necessary servicing,   *
+*  repair, or correction. This disclaimer of warranty constitutes an   *
+*  essential part of this License. No use of any Covered Software is   *
+*  authorized under this License except under this disclaimer.         *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  7. Limitation of Liability                                          *
+*  --------------------------                                          *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Under no circumstances and under no legal theory, whether tort      *
+*  (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, shall any           *
+*  Contributor, or anyone who distributes Covered Software as          *
+*  permitted above, be liable to You for any direct, indirect,         *
+*  special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character      *
+*  including, without limitation, damages for lost profits, loss of    *
+*  goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any    *
+*  and all other commercial damages or losses, even if such party      *
+*  shall have been informed of the possibility of such damages. This   *
+*  limitation of liability shall not apply to liability for death or   *
+*  personal injury resulting from such party&#x27;s negligence to the       *
+*  extent applicable law prohibits such limitation. Some               *
+*  jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of           *
+*  incidental or consequential damages, so this exclusion and          *
+*  limitation may not apply to You.                                    *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+8. Litigation
+-------------
+
+Any litigation relating to this License may be brought only in the
+courts of a jurisdiction where the defendant maintains its principal
+place of business and such litigation shall be governed by laws of that
+jurisdiction, without reference to its conflict-of-law provisions.
+Nothing in this Section shall prevent a party&#x27;s ability to bring
+cross-claims or counter-claims.
+
+9. Miscellaneous
+----------------
+
+This License represents the complete agreement concerning the subject
+matter hereof. If any provision of this License is held to be
+unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
+necessary to make it enforceable. Any law or regulation which provides
+that the language of a contract shall be construed against the drafter
+shall not be used to construe this License against a Contributor.
+
+10. Versions of the License
+---------------------------
+
+10.1. New Versions
+
+Mozilla Foundation is the license steward. Except as provided in Section
+10.3, no one other than the license steward has the right to modify or
+publish new versions of this License. Each version will be given a
+distinguishing version number.
+
+10.2. Effect of New Versions
+
+You may distribute the Covered Software under the terms of the version
+of the License under which You originally received the Covered Software,
+or under the terms of any subsequent version published by the license
+steward.
+
+10.3. Modified Versions
+
+If you create software not governed by this License, and you want to
+create a new license for such software, you may create and use a
+modified version of this License if you rename the license and remove
+any references to the name of the license steward (except to note that
+such modified license differs from this License).
+
+10.4. Distributing Source Code Form that is Incompatible With Secondary
+Licenses
+
+If You choose to distribute Source Code Form that is Incompatible With
+Secondary Licenses under the terms of this version of the License, the
+notice described in Exhibit B of this License must be attached.
+
+Exhibit A - Source Code Form License Notice
+-------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
+  License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
+  file, You can obtain one at http://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
+
+If it is not possible or desirable to put the notice in a particular
+file, then You may include the notice in a location (such as a LICENSE
+file in a relevant directory) where a recipient would be likely to look
+for such a notice.
+
+You may add additional accurate notices of copyright ownership.
+
+Exhibit B - &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot; Notice
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;, as
+  defined by the Mozilla Public License, v. 2.0.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/soc/option-ext.git ">option-ext 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Mozilla Public License Version 2.0
+&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;
+
+1. Definitions
+--------------
+
+1.1. &quot;Contributor&quot;
+    means each individual or legal entity that creates, contributes to
+    the creation of, or owns Covered Software.
+
+1.2. &quot;Contributor Version&quot;
+    means the combination of the Contributions of others (if any) used
+    by a Contributor and that particular Contributor&#x27;s Contribution.
+
+1.3. &quot;Contribution&quot;
+    means Covered Software of a particular Contributor.
+
+1.4. &quot;Covered Software&quot;
+    means Source Code Form to which the initial Contributor has attached
+    the notice in Exhibit A, the Executable Form of such Source Code
+    Form, and Modifications of such Source Code Form, in each case
+    including portions thereof.
+
+1.5. &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;
+    means
+
+    (a) that the initial Contributor has attached the notice described
+        in Exhibit B to the Covered Software; or
+
+    (b) that the Covered Software was made available under the terms of
+        version 1.1 or earlier of the License, but not also under the
+        terms of a Secondary License.
+
+1.6. &quot;Executable Form&quot;
+    means any form of the work other than Source Code Form.
+
+1.7. &quot;Larger Work&quot;
+    means a work that combines Covered Software with other material, in 
+    a separate file or files, that is not Covered Software.
+
+1.8. &quot;License&quot;
+    means this document.
+
+1.9. &quot;Licensable&quot;
+    means having the right to grant, to the maximum extent possible,
+    whether at the time of the initial grant or subsequently, any and
+    all of the rights conveyed by this License.
+
+1.10. &quot;Modifications&quot;
+    means any of the following:
+
+    (a) any file in Source Code Form that results from an addition to,
+        deletion from, or modification of the contents of Covered
+        Software; or
+
+    (b) any new file in Source Code Form that contains any Covered
+        Software.
+
+1.11. &quot;Patent Claims&quot; of a Contributor
+    means any patent claim(s), including without limitation, method,
+    process, and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by such
+    Contributor that would be infringed, but for the grant of the
+    License, by the making, using, selling, offering for sale, having
+    made, import, or transfer of either its Contributions or its
+    Contributor Version.
+
+1.12. &quot;Secondary License&quot;
+    means either the GNU General Public License, Version 2.0, the GNU
+    Lesser General Public License, Version 2.1, the GNU Affero General
+    Public License, Version 3.0, or any later versions of those
+    licenses.
+
+1.13. &quot;Source Code Form&quot;
+    means the form of the work preferred for making modifications.
+
+1.14. &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;)
+    means an individual or a legal entity exercising rights under this
+    License. For legal entities, &quot;You&quot; includes any entity that
+    controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with You. For
+    purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (a) the power, direct
+    or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity,
+    whether by contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than
+    fifty percent (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial
+    ownership of such entity.
+
+2. License Grants and Conditions
+--------------------------------
+
+2.1. Grants
+
+Each Contributor hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+non-exclusive license:
+
+(a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or trademark)
+    Licensable by such Contributor to use, reproduce, make available,
+    modify, display, perform, distribute, and otherwise exploit its
+    Contributions, either on an unmodified basis, with Modifications, or
+    as part of a Larger Work; and
+
+(b) under Patent Claims of such Contributor to make, use, sell, offer
+    for sale, have made, import, and otherwise transfer either its
+    Contributions or its Contributor Version.
+
+2.2. Effective Date
+
+The licenses granted in Section 2.1 with respect to any Contribution
+become effective for each Contribution on the date the Contributor first
+distributes such Contribution.
+
+2.3. Limitations on Grant Scope
+
+The licenses granted in this Section 2 are the only rights granted under
+this License. No additional rights or licenses will be implied from the
+distribution or licensing of Covered Software under this License.
+Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is granted by a
+Contributor:
+
+(a) for any code that a Contributor has removed from Covered Software;
+    or
+
+(b) for infringements caused by: (i) Your and any other third party&#x27;s
+    modifications of Covered Software, or (ii) the combination of its
+    Contributions with other software (except as part of its Contributor
+    Version); or
+
+(c) under Patent Claims infringed by Covered Software in the absence of
+    its Contributions.
+
+This License does not grant any rights in the trademarks, service marks,
+or logos of any Contributor (except as may be necessary to comply with
+the notice requirements in Section 3.4).
+
+2.4. Subsequent Licenses
+
+No Contributor makes additional grants as a result of Your choice to
+distribute the Covered Software under a subsequent version of this
+License (see Section 10.2) or under the terms of a Secondary License (if
+permitted under the terms of Section 3.3).
+
+2.5. Representation
+
+Each Contributor represents that the Contributor believes its
+Contributions are its original creation(s) or it has sufficient rights
+to grant the rights to its Contributions conveyed by this License.
+
+2.6. Fair Use
+
+This License is not intended to limit any rights You have under
+applicable copyright doctrines of fair use, fair dealing, or other
+equivalents.
+
+2.7. Conditions
+
+Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are conditions of the licenses granted
+in Section 2.1.
+
+3. Responsibilities
+-------------------
+
+3.1. Distribution of Source Form
+
+All distribution of Covered Software in Source Code Form, including any
+Modifications that You create or to which You contribute, must be under
+the terms of this License. You must inform recipients that the Source
+Code Form of the Covered Software is governed by the terms of this
+License, and how they can obtain a copy of this License. You may not
+attempt to alter or restrict the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code
+Form.
+
+3.2. Distribution of Executable Form
+
+If You distribute Covered Software in Executable Form then:
+
+(a) such Covered Software must also be made available in Source Code
+    Form, as described in Section 3.1, and You must inform recipients of
+    the Executable Form how they can obtain a copy of such Source Code
+    Form by reasonable means in a timely manner, at a charge no more
+    than the cost of distribution to the recipient; and
+
+(b) You may distribute such Executable Form under the terms of this
+    License, or sublicense it under different terms, provided that the
+    license for the Executable Form does not attempt to limit or alter
+    the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code Form under this License.
+
+3.3. Distribution of a Larger Work
+
+You may create and distribute a Larger Work under terms of Your choice,
+provided that You also comply with the requirements of this License for
+the Covered Software. If the Larger Work is a combination of Covered
+Software with a work governed by one or more Secondary Licenses, and the
+Covered Software is not Incompatible With Secondary Licenses, this
+License permits You to additionally distribute such Covered Software
+under the terms of such Secondary License(s), so that the recipient of
+the Larger Work may, at their option, further distribute the Covered
+Software under the terms of either this License or such Secondary
+License(s).
+
+3.4. Notices
+
+You may not remove or alter the substance of any license notices
+(including copyright notices, patent notices, disclaimers of warranty,
+or limitations of liability) contained within the Source Code Form of
+the Covered Software, except that You may alter any license notices to
+the extent required to remedy known factual inaccuracies.
+
+3.5. Application of Additional Terms
+
+You may choose to offer, and to charge a fee for, warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability obligations to one or more recipients of Covered
+Software. However, You may do so only on Your own behalf, and not on
+behalf of any Contributor. You must make it absolutely clear that any
+such warranty, support, indemnity, or liability obligation is offered by
+You alone, and You hereby agree to indemnify every Contributor for any
+liability incurred by such Contributor as a result of warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability terms You offer. You may include additional
+disclaimers of warranty and limitations of liability specific to any
+jurisdiction.
+
+4. Inability to Comply Due to Statute or Regulation
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+If it is impossible for You to comply with any of the terms of this
+License with respect to some or all of the Covered Software due to
+statute, judicial order, or regulation then You must: (a) comply with
+the terms of this License to the maximum extent possible; and (b)
+describe the limitations and the code they affect. Such description must
+be placed in a text file included with all distributions of the Covered
+Software under this License. Except to the extent prohibited by statute
+or regulation, such description must be sufficiently detailed for a
+recipient of ordinary skill to be able to understand it.
+
+5. Termination
+--------------
+
+5.1. The rights granted under this License will terminate automatically
+if You fail to comply with any of its terms. However, if You become
+compliant, then the rights granted under this License from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until such
+Contributor explicitly and finally terminates Your grants, and (b) on an
+ongoing basis, if such Contributor fails to notify You of the
+non-compliance by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after You have
+come back into compliance. Moreover, Your grants from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated on an ongoing basis if such Contributor
+notifies You of the non-compliance by some reasonable means, this is the
+first time You have received notice of non-compliance with this License
+from such Contributor, and You become compliant prior to 30 days after
+Your receipt of the notice.
+
+5.2. If You initiate litigation against any entity by asserting a patent
+infringement claim (excluding declaratory judgment actions,
+counter-claims, and cross-claims) alleging that a Contributor Version
+directly or indirectly infringes any patent, then the rights granted to
+You by any and all Contributors for the Covered Software under Section
+2.1 of this License shall terminate.
+
+5.3. In the event of termination under Sections 5.1 or 5.2 above, all
+end user license agreements (excluding distributors and resellers) which
+have been validly granted by You or Your distributors under this License
+prior to termination shall survive termination.
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  6. Disclaimer of Warranty                                           *
+*  -------------------------                                           *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Covered Software is provided under this License on an &quot;as is&quot;       *
+*  basis, without warranty of any kind, either expressed, implied, or  *
+*  statutory, including, without limitation, warranties that the       *
+*  Covered Software is free of defects, merchantable, fit for a        *
+*  particular purpose or non-infringing. The entire risk as to the     *
+*  quality and performance of the Covered Software is with You.        *
+*  Should any Covered Software prove defective in any respect, You     *
+*  (not any Contributor) assume the cost of any necessary servicing,   *
+*  repair, or correction. This disclaimer of warranty constitutes an   *
+*  essential part of this License. No use of any Covered Software is   *
+*  authorized under this License except under this disclaimer.         *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  7. Limitation of Liability                                          *
+*  --------------------------                                          *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Under no circumstances and under no legal theory, whether tort      *
+*  (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, shall any           *
+*  Contributor, or anyone who distributes Covered Software as          *
+*  permitted above, be liable to You for any direct, indirect,         *
+*  special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character      *
+*  including, without limitation, damages for lost profits, loss of    *
+*  goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any    *
+*  and all other commercial damages or losses, even if such party      *
+*  shall have been informed of the possibility of such damages. This   *
+*  limitation of liability shall not apply to liability for death or   *
+*  personal injury resulting from such party&#x27;s negligence to the       *
+*  extent applicable law prohibits such limitation. Some               *
+*  jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of           *
+*  incidental or consequential damages, so this exclusion and          *
+*  limitation may not apply to You.                                    *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+8. Litigation
+-------------
+
+Any litigation relating to this License may be brought only in the
+courts of a jurisdiction where the defendant maintains its principal
+place of business and such litigation shall be governed by laws of that
+jurisdiction, without reference to its conflict-of-law provisions.
+Nothing in this Section shall prevent a party&#x27;s ability to bring
+cross-claims or counter-claims.
+
+9. Miscellaneous
+----------------
+
+This License represents the complete agreement concerning the subject
+matter hereof. If any provision of this License is held to be
+unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
+necessary to make it enforceable. Any law or regulation which provides
+that the language of a contract shall be construed against the drafter
+shall not be used to construe this License against a Contributor.
+
+10. Versions of the License
+---------------------------
+
+10.1. New Versions
+
+Mozilla Foundation is the license steward. Except as provided in Section
+10.3, no one other than the license steward has the right to modify or
+publish new versions of this License. Each version will be given a
+distinguishing version number.
+
+10.2. Effect of New Versions
+
+You may distribute the Covered Software under the terms of the version
+of the License under which You originally received the Covered Software,
+or under the terms of any subsequent version published by the license
+steward.
+
+10.3. Modified Versions
+
+If you create software not governed by this License, and you want to
+create a new license for such software, you may create and use a
+modified version of this License if you rename the license and remove
+any references to the name of the license steward (except to note that
+such modified license differs from this License).
+
+10.4. Distributing Source Code Form that is Incompatible With Secondary
+Licenses
+
+If You choose to distribute Source Code Form that is Incompatible With
+Secondary Licenses under the terms of this version of the License, the
+notice described in Exhibit B of this License must be attached.
+
+Exhibit A - Source Code Form License Notice
+-------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
+  License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
+  file, You can obtain one at https://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
+
+If it is not possible or desirable to put the notice in a particular
+file, then You may include the notice in a location (such as a LICENSE
+file in a relevant directory) where a recipient would be likely to look
+for such a notice.
+
+You may add additional accurate notices of copyright ownership.
+
+Exhibit B - &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot; Notice
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;, as
+  defined by the Mozilla Public License, v. 2.0.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Unicode-3.0">Unicode License v3</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/unicode-ident ">unicode-ident 1.0.24</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">UNICODE LICENSE V3
+
+COPYRIGHT AND PERMISSION NOTICE
+
+Copyright © 1991-2023 Unicode, Inc.
+
+NOTICE TO USER: Carefully read the following legal agreement. BY
+DOWNLOADING, INSTALLING, COPYING OR OTHERWISE USING DATA FILES, AND/OR
+SOFTWARE, YOU UNEQUIVOCALLY ACCEPT, AND AGREE TO BE BOUND BY, ALL OF THE
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE, DO NOT
+DOWNLOAD, INSTALL, COPY, DISTRIBUTE OR USE THE DATA FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+copy of data files and any associated documentation (the &quot;Data Files&quot;) or
+software and any associated documentation (the &quot;Software&quot;) to deal in the
+Data Files or Software without restriction, including without limitation
+the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, and/or sell
+copies of the Data Files or Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+Data Files or Software are furnished to do so, provided that either (a)
+this copyright and permission notice appear with all copies of the Data
+Files or Software, or (b) this copyright and permission notice appear in
+associated Documentation.
+
+THE DATA FILES AND SOFTWARE ARE PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY
+KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT OF
+THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR HOLDERS INCLUDED IN THIS NOTICE
+BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, OR ANY SPECIAL INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES,
+OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION,
+ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE DATA
+FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Except as contained in this notice, the name of a copyright holder shall
+not be used in advertising or otherwise to promote the sale, use or other
+dealings in these Data Files or Software without prior written
+authorization of the copyright holder.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Unicode-3.0">Unicode License v3</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_collections 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_locale 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_locale_core 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_locale_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_normalizer 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_normalizer_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_properties 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_properties_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_provider 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_segmenter 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_segmenter_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">litemap 0.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">potential_utf 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">tinystr 0.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">writeable 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">yoke-derive 0.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">yoke 0.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerofrom-derive 0.1.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerofrom 0.1.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerotrie 0.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerovec-derive 0.11.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerovec 0.11.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">UNICODE LICENSE V3
+
+COPYRIGHT AND PERMISSION NOTICE
+
+Copyright © 2020-2024 Unicode, Inc.
+
+NOTICE TO USER: Carefully read the following legal agreement. BY
+DOWNLOADING, INSTALLING, COPYING OR OTHERWISE USING DATA FILES, AND/OR
+SOFTWARE, YOU UNEQUIVOCALLY ACCEPT, AND AGREE TO BE BOUND BY, ALL OF THE
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE, DO NOT
+DOWNLOAD, INSTALL, COPY, DISTRIBUTE OR USE THE DATA FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+copy of data files and any associated documentation (the &quot;Data Files&quot;) or
+software and any associated documentation (the &quot;Software&quot;) to deal in the
+Data Files or Software without restriction, including without limitation
+the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, and/or sell
+copies of the Data Files or Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+Data Files or Software are furnished to do so, provided that either (a)
+this copyright and permission notice appear with all copies of the Data
+Files or Software, or (b) this copyright and permission notice appear in
+associated Documentation.
+
+THE DATA FILES AND SOFTWARE ARE PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY
+KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT OF
+THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR HOLDERS INCLUDED IN THIS NOTICE
+BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, OR ANY SPECIAL INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES,
+OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION,
+ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE DATA
+FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Except as contained in this notice, the name of a copyright holder shall
+not be used in advertising or otherwise to promote the sale, use or other
+dealings in these Data Files or Software without prior written
+authorization of the copyright holder.
+
+SPDX-License-Identifier: Unicode-3.0
+
+—
+
+Portions of ICU4X may have been adapted from ICU4C and/or ICU4J.
+ICU 1.8.1 to ICU 57.1 © 1995-2016 International Business Machines Corporation and others.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/trifectatechfoundation/zlib-rs ">zlib-rs 0.6.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">(C) 2024 Trifecta Tech Foundation 
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied
+warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/const_panic/ ">const_panic 0.2.15</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/konst/ ">konst 0.4.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/konst/ ">konst_proc_macros 0.4.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2021 Matias Rodriguez.
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied
+warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/typewit/ ">typewit 1.15.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2023 Matias Rodriguez.
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied
+warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/orlp/foldhash ">foldhash 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/orlp/foldhash ">foldhash 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2024 Orson Peters
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied warranty. In
+no event will the authors be held liable for any damages arising from the use of
+this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose, including
+commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it freely, subject to
+the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not claim
+    that you wrote the original software. If you use this software in a product,
+    an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is
+    not required.
+
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+    misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.</pre>
+            </li>
+        </ul>
+    </main>
+</body>
+
+</html>
diff --git a/about.hbs b/about.hbs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..699b3b04edf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/about.hbs
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+<html>
+
+<head>
+    <style>
+        @media (prefers-color-scheme: dark) {
+            body {
+                background: #333;
+                color: white;
+            }
+            a {
+                color: skyblue;
+            }
+        }
+        .container {
+            font-family: sans-serif;
+            max-width: 800px;
+            margin: 0 auto;
+        }
+        .intro {
+            text-align: center;
+        }
+        .licenses-list {
+            list-style-type: none;
+            margin: 0;
+            padding: 0;
+        }
+        .license-used-by {
+            margin-top: -10px;
+        }
+        .license-text {
+            max-height: 200px;
+            overflow-y: scroll;
+            white-space: pre-wrap;
+        }
+    </style>
+</head>
+
+<body>
+    <main class="container">
+        <div class="intro">
+            <h1>Third Party Licenses</h1>
+            <p>This page lists the licenses of the projects used in cargo-about.</p>
+        </div>
+    
+        <h2>Overview of licenses:</h2>
+        <ul class="licenses-overview">
+            {{#each overview}}
+            <li><a href="#{{id}}">{{name}}</a> ({{count}})</li>
+            {{/each}}
+        </ul>
+
+        <h2>All license text:</h2>
+        <ul class="licenses-list">
+            {{#each licenses}}
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="{{id}}">{{name}}</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    {{#each used_by}}
+                    <li><a href="{{#if crate.repository}} {{crate.repository}} {{else}} https://crates.io/crates/{{crate.name}} {{/if}}">{{crate.name}} {{crate.version}}</a></li>
+                    {{/each}}
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">{{text}}</pre>
+            </li>
+            {{/each}}
+        </ul>
+    </main>
+</body>
+
+</html>
diff --git a/about.toml b/about.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d4ddcef2855
--- /dev/null
+++ b/about.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+accepted = [
+    "0BSD",
+    "Apache-2.0",
+    "Apache-2.0 WITH LLVM-exception",
+    "BSD-2-Clause",
+    "BSD-3-Clause",
+    "BSL-1.0",
+    "bzip2-1.0.6",
+    "CC0-1.0",
+    "CDDL-1.0",
+    "CDLA-Permissive-2.0",
+    "ISC",
+    "MIT",
+    "MPL-2.0",
+    "Unicode-3.0",
+    "Zlib",
+]
diff --git a/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/PROTOCOL.md b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/PROTOCOL.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1281ac1f2b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/PROTOCOL.md
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+# Dot auto-probing calibration (OSS-2249)
+
+All execution takes place on AWS. No local benchmark or test runs.
+
+- Baseline: Lance main `00a8230ba21341966cb3edac17b475b7b9219302`.
+- Data: complete `lance-format/wiki-cohere-35m` (35,000,000 rows, 5,000 queries)
+  and `lance-format/dpr-wikipedia-single-nq` (21,015,300 rows, 3,610 queries).
+  Pin HF revisions and verify every published SHA256 before use.
+- Preserve original float32 vectors and dot semantics. Never normalize the
+  corpus or queries. Ground-truth IDs are source row positions.
+- Build one IVF_FLAT index per corpus from the baseline, using
+  `ceil(rows / 4096)` partitions and the default training/assignment settings.
+  Freeze its centroids, partition membership, source, native binary and manifest.
+  Baseline and candidate queries use these identical indices.
+- Split each official query set with NumPy RNG seed 2249: first half calibration,
+  second half evaluation. Freeze IDs before calibration. Tune only on calibration.
+- Primary objective: minimize mean scanned partitions subject to recall >= 0.95
+  separately for each corpus and k in {1, 10, 100}. Report per-corpus optima and
+  the best common profile. Best means best in the documented search grid;
+  no universal optimum or per-query recall guarantee is claimed.
+  The common-profile objective weights the two corpora equally. Select one
+  score-gap family using the sum of its mean costs across the three k groups;
+  tune floor, cap and margin independently within each k group.
+- First collect actual ground-truth partition ranks and centroid scores. Use
+  these to evaluate policies cheaply, then verify shortlisted policies using
+  actual index queries. Routing coverage alone is not a latency measurement.
+- Diagnose query/vector norms, score offsets, relative centroid gaps and
+  query-projected residuals. Distinguish observed correlation from causation.
+- Compare current main Auto, calibrated Auto, and nearby power-of-two fixed
+  budgets. Select the fixed budgets on calibration queries, not evaluation.
+  Also evaluate the independently frozen per-corpus profile within the selected
+  score-gap family as `tuned`; report any held-out recall misses without retuning.
+- Execute serial queries, balanced interleaved policy order, warmed index cache,
+  identical thread/CPU settings. Record source and binary identity for every run.
+  Keep compilation, index construction and other benchmarks out of timing runs.
+- Freeze the first 512 evaluation queries for matched latency distributions.
+  Measure candidate Auto and all nearby fixed budgets selected on calibration
+  queries on every evaluation query for recall. Measure main's legacy policy
+  on the first 32 evaluation queries as a diagnostic, since it scans all 35M
+  rows for Wiki k=10/100. Report its smaller sample count and do not use its
+  latency percentiles as the primary performance baseline.
+- Report raw per-query recall, elapsed ms, scanned rows and scanned partitions;
+  summarize mean/p90/p95/p99/max with NumPy linear percentiles. Capture I/O
+  counters and validate actual scan metrics against the policy predictions.
+- After each serial timing phase, run the remaining correctness queries with
+  eight workers. Tag those records `phase=recall` and exclude their elapsed times
+  from performance summaries. Join all workers before the next timing phase.
+  Run per-corpus override profiles in a separate recall phase with constant
+  process-wide environment settings to prevent cross-query configuration races.
+- Independently evaluate the frozen common profile. If a dataset misses 95%,
+  report the miss; do not tune on those evaluation queries and relabel it held out.
+- Preserve fixed/min/max semantics, unsupported-index/metric behavior, late
+  probing for filtered queries, and existing L2/cosine profiles. Add regression
+  coverage and run the prescribed Rust/Python checks on AWS before delivery.
diff --git a/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/README.md b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2907669974b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+# Dot-product Auto IVF probing
+
+This experiment calibrates the initial IVF_FLAT probe budget on the complete
+[Wiki-Cohere 35M](https://huggingface.co/datasets/lance-format/wiki-cohere-35m)
+and [DPR Wikipedia](https://huggingface.co/datasets/lance-format/dpr-wikipedia-single-nq)
+datasets. See [PROTOCOL.md](PROTOCOL.md) for the frozen evaluation contract.
+The completed AWS measurements and parameter tradeoffs are in [RESULTS.md](RESULTS.md).
+
+Run all Python commands from `python/` after the repository's `make install`
+setup, on a benchmark VM with enough memory to cache one complete IVF_FLAT
+index (at least 256 GiB for these datasets). Build the native extension with the
+repository's `release-with-debug` profile. Keep raw corpus and query norms.
+
+Prepare a working copy of each HF snapshot under
+`$STUDY/data/<dataset-name>/`, pin its revision, verify its `SHA256SUMS`, and
+create a `VERIFIED` marker only after every checksum passes. Copies must preserve
+row order. Immutable data files can be hard-linked; manifests and version hints
+must be independent copies because index creation writes dataset metadata.
+
+```bash
+export STUDY=/path/to/study
+export LANCE_CPU_THREADS=32 RAYON_NUM_THREADS=32
+export OPENBLAS_NUM_THREADS=16 OMP_NUM_THREADS=16
+export LANCE_USE_HNSW_SPEEDUP_INDEXING=auto
+uv run python ../benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/prepare.py "$STUDY" wiki-cohere-35m
+uv run python ../benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/prepare.py "$STUDY" dpr-wikipedia-single-nq
+uv run python ../benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/calibrate.py "$STUDY"
+```
+
+`prepare.py` builds a frozen IVF_FLAT index, maps every indexed row to its actual
+partition, and saves centroid scores, ground-truth partition ranks, partition
+sizes, and diagnostic projections. `calibrate.py` reads only the calibration
+half of the official queries, selects floors/caps/margins, and freezes the
+chosen score normalization before independent evaluation.
+
+Run `measure.py` first with the baseline binary and `--limit 8` to verify that
+explicitly bounded Auto with a full-partition maximum produces identical results
+and scan counts to main's unbounded Auto. The `legacy` timing arm uses that
+existing bounded policy on the candidate binary so it can be interleaved with
+candidate Auto and fixed budgets under the same cache and process conditions.
+The `tuned` arm uses the per-corpus profile frozen during calibration, within
+the selected gap family, through the three Auto environment overrides.
+
+After installing a candidate implementing the **frozen** profile, run:
+
+```bash
+export LANCE_CPU_THREADS=16 RAYON_NUM_THREADS=16
+export OPENBLAS_NUM_THREADS=1 OMP_NUM_THREADS=1
+uv run python ../benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/measure.py "$STUDY" wiki-cohere-35m --native
+uv run python ../benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/measure.py "$STUDY" dpr-wikipedia-single-nq --native
+uv run python ../benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/audit.py "$STUDY"
+```
+
+Timing runs must be serial with no other compilation or benchmark workload.
+Use the same CPU affinity for every run. By default Auto and all selected fixed
+budgets evaluate every held-out query. Their matched latency distributions use
+the first 512 held-out queries (`--timing-queries`).
+The legacy diagnostic uses 32 queries (`--legacy-queries`) because its full scans
+are expensive; its percentiles are descriptive only. `--limit`
+is for smoke checks or a clearly labeled subset. CSVs retain
+neighbor IDs, timings, recall, scan counts, I/O, and routing predictions for each
+query. JSON summaries include percentiles, prediction mismatches, and binary
+identity. Inspect mismatches and source-score ties before drawing conclusions.
+After each serial timing phase, remaining recall-only queries use eight workers
+(`--recall-workers`); their elapsed times are excluded from performance summaries.
+Every worker finishes before the next serial timing phase.
+
+The tuned 96% calibration target leaves headroom for an independent 95% recall
+target. Neither the profile nor the grid search guarantees recall on arbitrary
+indices, partition counts, query distributions, or other datasets.
diff --git a/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/RESULTS.md b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/RESULTS.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a42fab096b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/RESULTS.md
@@ -0,0 +1,335 @@
+# OSS-2249: dot Auto IVF probing
+
+The frozen common profiles achieved at least 95% mean native recall in all six
+held-out Wiki/DPR cases. These are empirical parameters for Float32 IVF_FLAT,
+selected within the documented grid; they are not a universal optimum or recall
+guarantee. No MS MARCO data was used. All execution ran on AWS.
+
+## Common defaults
+
+For sorted centroid distances `d_i = 1 - dot(q, c_i)`, take the prefix satisfying
+`d_i - d_0 <= margin * abs(1 - d_0)`, then apply the learned floor and initial cap.
+Caller minimums take precedence over the learned cap. Later probing remains
+available when filtering or deletions exhaust the initial budget.
+
+| k | margin | floor | initial cap | Wiki recall | DPR recall |
+| ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
+| 1 | 0.14 | 56 partitions | 112 partitions | 95.320% | 96.565% |
+| 2–10 | 0.055 | 144 partitions | 432 partitions | 95.428% | 96.454% |
+| 11–100 | 0.0625 | 200 partitions | 768 partitions | 95.809% | 96.218% |
+
+Recall was measured at k=1, 10, and 100; the buckets between those endpoints
+were not separately benchmarked. The selection objective minimizes mean
+partitions with a 96% calibration target on both corpora, weighting each corpus
+equally. One gap family is chosen by aggregate cost across the three k groups;
+parameters are independent per group. The relative-score family won that
+aggregate objective. Standard-deviation normalization had a lower k=1 cost but
+a higher aggregate cost. The exact search grid is in `calibrate.py` and the
+archived `calibration.json`. Profiles were frozen before evaluation.
+
+## Common Auto versus fixed budgets
+
+The fixed budgets below are the neighboring tested powers of two that reached
+95% held-out recall. All three neighboring budgets were selected on calibration
+data and measured; the complete matrix, including misses, follows below.
+This is a **policy comparison on the same candidate binary and frozen index**,
+not an equal-recall or before/after branch speedup. Recall differs between arms.
+Lower latency is better; the ratio is fixed mean / Auto mean.
+
+| Scenario / metric | Baseline fixed policy | This PR common Auto | Benefit |
+| --- | ---: | ---: | ---: |
+| Wiki, k=1, mean latency | 128.26 ms (128 probes; 95.720% recall) | 113.26 ms (95.320% recall) | 1.13x mean speedup |
+| Wiki, k=10, mean latency | 502.50 ms (512 probes; 97.272% recall) | 263.09 ms (95.428% recall) | 1.91x mean speedup |
+| Wiki, k=100, mean latency | 518.94 ms (512 probes; 95.762% recall) | 453.49 ms (95.809% recall) | 1.14x mean speedup |
+| DPR, k=1, mean latency | 120.45 ms (128 probes; 97.230% recall) | 91.38 ms (96.565% recall) | 1.32x mean speedup |
+| DPR, k=10, mean latency | 120.75 ms (128 probes; 95.950% recall) | 135.99 ms (96.454% recall) | 1.13x slower |
+| DPR, k=100, mean latency | 237.39 ms (256 probes; 97.232% recall) | 186.59 ms (96.218% recall) | 1.27x mean speedup |
+
+- DPR k=10: common Auto is slower than fixed128, while both exceed 95% recall.
+- Wiki k=100: Auto mean is lower, but p99 is 827.30 ms versus fixed512's
+  555.05 ms (1.49x slower). There is no blanket tail-latency improvement.
+- Wiki k=10: fixed256 was the calibration-selected reference but reaches only
+  94.636% held-out recall. The preregistered neighboring fixed512 reaches 97.272%,
+  versus Auto's 95.428%; their 1.91x mean-latency ratio is not an equal-quality gain.
+- Mean recall is an empirical point estimate. In particular Wiki k=1's
+  approximate 95% confidence interval includes values below 95%; this study does
+  not establish a population-level 95% lower bound. Query-wise intervals are
+  retained in `audited-results.json`.
+
+## Per-corpus calibrated profiles
+
+These minimize calibration cost within the selected relative-score family.
+They were frozen independently of evaluation and were not adjusted after misses.
+They can be supplied through `LANCE_AUTO_PROBE_MARGIN`,
+`LANCE_AUTO_MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES`, and `LANCE_AUTO_MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES`, respectively.
+Overrides are process-wide: do not change them concurrently with queries.
+Choose a profile according to the recall and tail-latency requirements below.
+
+| Corpus | k | margin / floor / cap (partitions) | native recall | mean ms | p99 ms | assessment |
+| --- | ---: | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- |
+| Wiki | 1 | 0.033 / 72 / 336 | 94.920% | 91.90 | 313.89 | misses 95%; use common profile |
+| Wiki | 10 | 0.055 / 112 / 464 | 95.416% | 260.78 | 488.12 | passes; inspect tail tradeoff |
+| Wiki | 100 | 0.0605 / 248 / 768 | 95.750% | 444.52 | 820.19 | passes; inspect tail tradeoff |
+| DPR | 1 | 0.11 / 32 / 256 | 96.620% | 80.55 | 242.53 | passes; inspect tail tradeoff |
+| DPR | 10 | 0.125 / 64 / 240 | 96.709% | 115.81 | 232.49 | passes; inspect tail tradeoff |
+| DPR | 100 | 0.135 / 96 / 496 | 96.122% | 162.31 | 465.11 | passes; inspect tail tradeoff |
+
+## Setup and provenance
+
+- AWS r8i.8xlarge, 32 vCPU / 256 GiB, Ubuntu 24.04.4; 2 TiB gp3 EBS,
+  10,000 IOPS and 1,000 MiB/s provisioned throughput.
+- Baseline main: `00a8230ba21341966cb3edac17b475b7b9219302`.
+- [Wiki-Cohere 35M](https://huggingface.co/datasets/lance-format/wiki-cohere-35m/tree/cc3840e4e0c9091f26cdd0385fbb7a6ad81a7285):
+  35,000,000 × 768 float32 vectors, 5,000 official queries; 8,545 IVF partitions.
+- [DPR Wikipedia](https://huggingface.co/datasets/lance-format/dpr-wikipedia-single-nq/tree/d95c3715333a608fa5eb8ca6fe8e6bdb724f32bd):
+  21,015,300 × 768 float32 vectors, 3,610 official queries; 5,131 IVF partitions.
+  DPR retains its CC BY-NC 4.0 terms.
+- Every published file's SHA256 was verified. Raw vector/query norms and row
+  positions are preserved. Fresh baseline IVF_FLAT indices use default training
+  and automatic HNSW assignment, with `ceil(rows / 4096)` partitions.
+- Seed 2249 splits each official query set in half: 2,500 Wiki and 1,805 DPR
+  evaluation queries. Calibration/evaluation IDs are disjoint, with no identical
+  query-vector hashes crossing the split. Full-corpus GT supplies the top100 IDs.
+- Every primary arm measures recall on every held-out query. Latency uses 512
+  matched serial queries per arm, rotating policy order; affinity 0–15,
+  Lance/Rayon threads 16, BLAS/OMP threads 1, query parallelism 1, prewarmed
+  128 GiB index cache. All measured queries recorded zero storage bytes read.
+- Remaining recall-only queries use eight workers; those elapsed times are
+  excluded from latency summaries. The tuned phase uses constant global overrides.
+- One timing observation per query/arm; NumPy linear percentiles. Latency
+  variability across reruns or machines has not been measured. Scanned-row and
+  partition distributions below use every held-out query, not just timed queries.
+- Main's Auto and candidate's explicit full-bounded legacy path return identical
+  IDs and scan counts on eight queries per corpus/k. Legacy uses only 32 queries
+  per corpus/k for diagnostics; it is excluded from the primary comparison.
+
+Native binary SHA256 (both report version `13.0.0-beta.9`):
+
+```text
+baseline  8f3ee435e88c2b88d782115bc114925d5c88e453f224856819a833c9aecd4f2d
+candidate c04c3a7839194ed7493f014e59135096640b52493d326a2e192404b162a84a10
+```
+
+The archive contains the exact measured source patch, binaries, index identities,
+centroids, membership/routing maps, query splits, every returned ID and raw
+metric, calibration grid/results, audit results, and build/test/lint logs:
+`s3://mmlb-us-east-1/rq-benchmark/results/oss2249-dot-auto-20260922/` (private).
+`evidence.tar.gz` contains the data and logs; `binaries.tar.gz` contains the
+baseline/candidate native extensions and routing diagnostic binary.
+The full source datasets and frozen IVF indices remain on the stopped benchmark
+VM; the archive records their file hashes rather than copying the full corpus.
+The canceled 128-query baseline audit is labeled partial and excluded.
+
+## Why the old policy fails
+
+Fresh main indices have unit-norm dot centroids while raw query norms vary.
+Median nearest-centroid scores were 0.721 for Wiki and 6.308 for DPR, producing
+opposite signs in `1 - dot`. The legacy signed-distance multiplier searches one
+partition for Wiki k=1, every partition for Wiki k=10/100, and one partition for
+DPR k=10/100. Native baseline queries confirmed the behavior after prewarming.
+The new nonnegative gap uses the magnitude of the best inner product and is
+invariant to positive query scaling apart from floating-point rounding.
+
+## Validation and independent audit
+
+- The unmodified baseline failed both new Python regression cases (16 and 1
+  partitions instead of the requested floor/cap of 2); the candidate passes.
+- Rust KNN: 187 tests passed. Python dot tests: 4 passed on both development
+  and optimized extensions, including multiple fragments and late filtered probing.
+- `cargo fmt --all`, workspace `cargo clippy --all --tests --benches -- -D warnings`,
+  and `uv run make lint` passed on AWS.
+- `audit.py` independently recomputes recall from every returned ID, checks unique
+  query coverage, result cardinality, zero I/O, binary identity and frozen
+  calibration identity. All six common profiles pass the 95% mean-recall target.
+- 215 NumPy/native prediction discrepancies were inspected using native
+  `IvfModel::find_partitions`, including its partial-sort behavior. Every actual
+  partition count and scanned-row count agrees with native routing. Residual
+  strict-ID recall differences are near ties under float64 rescoring; they remain
+  counted as misses in the reported recall. Details and numerical tolerances are
+  in `routing-diagnosis.json`, not silently removed from the measurements.
+
+The implementation applies to finite Float32 IVF_FLAT queries with k <= 100.
+Fixed budgets, explicit Auto maximums, unsupported index/query types, refinement
+factors greater than one, legacy readers, and k > 100 keep their prior policy.
+L2/cosine behavior is unchanged. No public signature or index format changes.
+Other corpora, partition counts, quantizers, cold I/O, and filtered-workload
+performance have not been calibrated here.
+
+## Complete native matrix
+
+`auto` is the common profile; `tuned` is the per-corpus profile. Latency units are
+milliseconds. Primary recall sample sizes are Wiki 2,500 and DPR 1,805; primary
+timing sample size is 512. Legacy has only 32 observations for both.
+
+### Wiki
+
+<details>
+<summary>Latency and recall</summary>
+
+All distribution values are in ms.
+
+| k | policy | recall | mean | p90 | p95 | p99 | max |
+| ---: | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
+| 1 | auto | 95.320% | 113.26 | 120.25 | 121.89 | 125.94 | 130.76 |
+| 1 | fixed128 | 95.720% | 128.26 | 135.52 | 137.78 | 141.46 | 146.01 |
+| 1 | fixed256 | 97.760% | 252.38 | 264.08 | 267.65 | 275.19 | 280.59 |
+| 1 | fixed64 | 93.400% | 66.46 | 71.09 | 72.52 | 74.89 | 76.03 |
+| 1 | legacy | 43.750% | 5.42 | 5.82 | 5.91 | 6.13 | 6.18 |
+| 1 | tuned | 94.920% | 91.90 | 142.47 | 191.02 | 313.89 | 346.55 |
+| 10 | auto | 95.428% | 263.09 | 435.91 | 442.77 | 454.95 | 463.49 |
+| 10 | fixed128 | 90.908% | 128.69 | 136.24 | 138.40 | 142.62 | 146.16 |
+| 10 | fixed256 | 94.636% | 252.64 | 264.75 | 267.40 | 276.11 | 282.65 |
+| 10 | fixed512 | 97.272% | 502.50 | 522.35 | 528.59 | 535.72 | 542.35 |
+| 10 | legacy | 100.000% | 7,876.54 | 7,895.01 | 7,898.01 | 7,907.54 | 7,910.71 |
+| 10 | tuned | 95.416% | 260.78 | 467.74 | 475.86 | 488.12 | 495.69 |
+| 100 | auto | 95.809% | 453.49 | 793.87 | 809.57 | 827.30 | 840.32 |
+| 100 | fixed1024 | 97.905% | 1,038.29 | 1,072.57 | 1,078.50 | 1,089.57 | 1,130.21 |
+| 100 | fixed256 | 92.424% | 261.95 | 274.11 | 277.33 | 287.55 | 301.96 |
+| 100 | fixed512 | 95.762% | 518.94 | 539.65 | 546.11 | 555.05 | 580.98 |
+| 100 | legacy | 100.000% | 8,239.30 | 8,406.48 | 8,413.79 | 8,416.41 | 8,417.19 |
+| 100 | tuned | 95.750% | 444.52 | 790.46 | 806.97 | 820.19 | 861.43 |
+
+</details>
+
+<details>
+<summary>Partitions scanned</summary>
+
+All distribution values are in partitions.
+
+| k | policy | recall | mean | p90 | p95 | p99 | max |
+| ---: | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
+| 1 | auto | 95.320% | 111.98 | 112.00 | 112.00 | 112.00 | 112.00 |
+| 1 | fixed128 | 95.720% | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 |
+| 1 | fixed256 | 97.760% | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 |
+| 1 | fixed64 | 93.400% | 64.00 | 64.00 | 64.00 | 64.00 | 64.00 |
+| 1 | legacy | 43.750% | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+| 1 | tuned | 94.920% | 90.40 | 139.10 | 188.00 | 331.03 | 336.00 |
+| 10 | auto | 95.428% | 268.51 | 432.00 | 432.00 | 432.00 | 432.00 |
+| 10 | fixed128 | 90.908% | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 |
+| 10 | fixed256 | 94.636% | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 |
+| 10 | fixed512 | 97.272% | 512.00 | 512.00 | 512.00 | 512.00 | 512.00 |
+| 10 | legacy | 100.000% | 8,545.00 | 8,545.00 | 8,545.00 | 8,545.00 | 8,545.00 |
+| 10 | tuned | 95.416% | 266.92 | 464.00 | 464.00 | 464.00 | 464.00 |
+| 100 | auto | 95.809% | 451.98 | 768.00 | 768.00 | 768.00 | 768.00 |
+| 100 | fixed1024 | 97.905% | 1,024.00 | 1,024.00 | 1,024.00 | 1,024.00 | 1,024.00 |
+| 100 | fixed256 | 92.424% | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 |
+| 100 | fixed512 | 95.762% | 512.00 | 512.00 | 512.00 | 512.00 | 512.00 |
+| 100 | legacy | 100.000% | 8,545.00 | 8,545.00 | 8,545.00 | 8,545.00 | 8,545.00 |
+| 100 | tuned | 95.750% | 444.00 | 768.00 | 768.00 | 768.00 | 768.00 |
+
+</details>
+
+<details>
+<summary>Rows scanned</summary>
+
+All distribution values are in rows.
+
+| k | policy | recall | mean | p90 | p95 | p99 | max |
+| ---: | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
+| 1 | auto | 95.320% | 487,846.67 | 518,601.40 | 527,357.30 | 546,888.91 | 576,565.00 |
+| 1 | fixed128 | 95.720% | 557,320.73 | 590,569.30 | 599,961.75 | 619,670.59 | 651,684.00 |
+| 1 | fixed256 | 97.760% | 1,112,215.75 | 1,165,693.20 | 1,179,587.50 | 1,204,510.01 | 1,239,295.00 |
+| 1 | fixed64 | 93.400% | 279,741.70 | 301,192.70 | 307,661.25 | 318,967.76 | 343,753.00 |
+| 1 | legacy | 43.750% | 4,766.78 | 6,136.40 | 6,413.75 | 6,855.04 | 7,015.00 |
+| 1 | tuned | 94.920% | 395,659.33 | 619,157.70 | 844,534.70 | 1,436,441.19 | 1,553,201.00 |
+| 10 | auto | 95.428% | 1,172,510.13 | 1,930,456.90 | 1,959,398.80 | 2,002,112.22 | 2,049,345.00 |
+| 10 | fixed128 | 90.908% | 557,320.73 | 590,569.30 | 599,961.75 | 619,670.59 | 651,684.00 |
+| 10 | fixed256 | 94.636% | 1,112,215.75 | 1,165,693.20 | 1,179,587.50 | 1,204,510.01 | 1,239,295.00 |
+| 10 | fixed512 | 97.272% | 2,227,195.43 | 2,313,214.70 | 2,338,086.25 | 2,373,320.98 | 2,421,818.00 |
+| 10 | legacy | 100.000% | 35,000,000.00 | 35,000,000.00 | 35,000,000.00 | 35,000,000.00 | 35,000,000.00 |
+| 10 | tuned | 95.416% | 1,166,710.63 | 2,070,476.90 | 2,100,250.05 | 2,146,024.57 | 2,186,004.00 |
+| 100 | auto | 95.809% | 1,978,009.75 | 3,425,574.00 | 3,470,017.90 | 3,530,335.76 | 3,567,863.00 |
+| 100 | fixed1024 | 97.905% | 4,474,592.19 | 4,603,210.20 | 4,640,992.40 | 4,704,198.88 | 4,752,187.00 |
+| 100 | fixed256 | 92.424% | 1,112,215.75 | 1,165,693.20 | 1,179,587.50 | 1,204,510.01 | 1,239,295.00 |
+| 100 | fixed512 | 95.762% | 2,227,195.43 | 2,313,214.70 | 2,338,086.25 | 2,373,320.98 | 2,421,818.00 |
+| 100 | legacy | 100.000% | 35,000,000.00 | 35,000,000.00 | 35,000,000.00 | 35,000,000.00 | 35,000,000.00 |
+| 100 | tuned | 95.750% | 1,941,612.04 | 3,417,389.70 | 3,463,375.55 | 3,526,866.85 | 3,567,863.00 |
+
+</details>
+
+### DPR
+
+<details>
+<summary>Latency and recall</summary>
+
+All distribution values are in ms.
+
+| k | policy | recall | mean | p90 | p95 | p99 | max |
+| ---: | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
+| 1 | auto | 96.565% | 91.38 | 111.37 | 112.37 | 114.96 | 118.21 |
+| 1 | fixed128 | 97.230% | 120.45 | 126.29 | 127.58 | 129.81 | 131.15 |
+| 1 | fixed256 | 99.169% | 237.71 | 247.19 | 249.62 | 253.17 | 253.84 |
+| 1 | fixed64 | 94.238% | 62.26 | 65.75 | 66.82 | 67.97 | 71.33 |
+| 1 | legacy | 100.000% | 3,484.27 | 4,255.68 | 4,431.53 | 4,508.53 | 4,540.36 |
+| 1 | tuned | 96.620% | 80.55 | 157.94 | 196.57 | 242.53 | 246.46 |
+| 10 | auto | 96.454% | 135.99 | 142.41 | 143.95 | 146.15 | 147.18 |
+| 10 | fixed128 | 95.950% | 120.75 | 126.84 | 128.07 | 129.97 | 131.49 |
+| 10 | fixed256 | 98.366% | 238.10 | 248.07 | 250.62 | 254.04 | 257.04 |
+| 10 | fixed64 | 91.861% | 62.47 | 66.12 | 66.71 | 67.66 | 70.35 |
+| 10 | legacy | 32.812% | 5.72 | 6.32 | 6.44 | 6.70 | 6.79 |
+| 10 | tuned | 96.709% | 115.81 | 218.46 | 227.52 | 232.49 | 238.03 |
+| 100 | auto | 96.218% | 186.59 | 194.63 | 196.58 | 199.73 | 205.71 |
+| 100 | fixed128 | 93.888% | 120.77 | 126.46 | 127.94 | 130.50 | 137.92 |
+| 100 | fixed256 | 97.232% | 237.39 | 247.50 | 249.96 | 254.57 | 269.03 |
+| 100 | fixed512 | 98.968% | 472.73 | 487.17 | 490.38 | 499.89 | 504.92 |
+| 100 | legacy | 26.062% | 5.83 | 6.29 | 6.38 | 6.96 | 7.21 |
+| 100 | tuned | 96.122% | 162.31 | 301.79 | 378.26 | 465.11 | 478.44 |
+
+</details>
+
+<details>
+<summary>Partitions scanned</summary>
+
+All distribution values are in partitions.
+
+| k | policy | recall | mean | p90 | p95 | p99 | max |
+| ---: | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
+| 1 | auto | 96.565% | 95.15 | 112.00 | 112.00 | 112.00 | 112.00 |
+| 1 | fixed128 | 97.230% | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 |
+| 1 | fixed256 | 99.169% | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 |
+| 1 | fixed64 | 94.238% | 64.00 | 64.00 | 64.00 | 64.00 | 64.00 |
+| 1 | legacy | 100.000% | 3,701.38 | 4,511.30 | 4,682.50 | 4,752.86 | 4,782.00 |
+| 1 | tuned | 96.620% | 80.68 | 165.00 | 200.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 |
+| 10 | auto | 96.454% | 144.00 | 144.00 | 144.00 | 144.00 | 144.00 |
+| 10 | fixed128 | 95.950% | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 |
+| 10 | fixed256 | 98.366% | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 |
+| 10 | fixed64 | 91.861% | 64.00 | 64.00 | 64.00 | 64.00 | 64.00 |
+| 10 | legacy | 32.812% | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+| 10 | tuned | 96.709% | 119.07 | 240.00 | 240.00 | 240.00 | 240.00 |
+| 100 | auto | 96.218% | 200.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 |
+| 100 | fixed128 | 93.888% | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 | 128.00 |
+| 100 | fixed256 | 97.232% | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 | 256.00 |
+| 100 | fixed512 | 98.968% | 512.00 | 512.00 | 512.00 | 512.00 | 512.00 |
+| 100 | legacy | 26.062% | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+| 100 | tuned | 96.122% | 167.71 | 304.60 | 387.60 | 496.00 | 496.00 |
+
+</details>
+
+<details>
+<summary>Rows scanned</summary>
+
+All distribution values are in rows.
+
+| k | policy | recall | mean | p90 | p95 | p99 | max |
+| ---: | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
+| 1 | auto | 96.565% | 373,306.53 | 458,631.00 | 464,569.80 | 474,240.76 | 483,995.00 |
+| 1 | fixed128 | 97.230% | 501,553.33 | 526,285.40 | 531,654.60 | 539,997.52 | 557,562.00 |
+| 1 | fixed256 | 99.169% | 1,006,389.42 | 1,047,725.20 | 1,056,201.60 | 1,072,031.64 | 1,087,576.00 |
+| 1 | fixed64 | 94.238% | 250,010.18 | 264,539.80 | 267,534.20 | 273,331.48 | 280,373.00 |
+| 1 | legacy | 100.000% | 15,069,122.81 | 18,440,124.50 | 19,174,839.45 | 19,482,897.12 | 19,614,786.00 |
+| 1 | tuned | 96.620% | 318,219.34 | 658,136.80 | 793,762.00 | 1,023,053.80 | 1,061,549.00 |
+| 10 | auto | 96.454% | 564,498.75 | 591,235.20 | 597,280.60 | 606,902.36 | 618,749.00 |
+| 10 | fixed128 | 95.950% | 501,553.33 | 526,285.40 | 531,654.60 | 539,997.52 | 557,562.00 |
+| 10 | fixed256 | 98.366% | 1,006,389.42 | 1,047,725.20 | 1,056,201.60 | 1,072,031.64 | 1,087,576.00 |
+| 10 | fixed64 | 91.861% | 250,010.18 | 264,539.80 | 267,534.20 | 273,331.48 | 280,373.00 |
+| 10 | legacy | 32.812% | 3,889.16 | 5,109.10 | 5,396.45 | 5,808.20 | 5,988.00 |
+| 10 | tuned | 96.709% | 468,805.20 | 914,753.20 | 952,196.80 | 984,725.72 | 1,002,354.00 |
+| 100 | auto | 96.218% | 785,402.82 | 819,545.00 | 828,141.80 | 839,150.64 | 855,206.00 |
+| 100 | fixed128 | 93.888% | 501,553.33 | 526,285.40 | 531,654.60 | 539,997.52 | 557,562.00 |
+| 100 | fixed256 | 97.232% | 1,006,389.42 | 1,047,725.20 | 1,056,201.60 | 1,072,031.64 | 1,087,576.00 |
+| 100 | fixed512 | 98.968% | 2,023,956.78 | 2,084,049.00 | 2,096,435.40 | 2,114,013.88 | 2,133,549.00 |
+| 100 | legacy | 26.062% | 3,889.16 | 5,109.10 | 5,396.45 | 5,808.20 | 5,988.00 |
+| 100 | tuned | 96.122% | 660,744.19 | 1,217,256.00 | 1,516,333.60 | 1,959,414.36 | 2,016,202.00 |
+
+</details>
+
diff --git a/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/audit.py b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/audit.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e442535f557
--- /dev/null
+++ b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/audit.py
@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+"""Independently audit native per-query output against the published ground truth."""
+
+import argparse
+import csv
+import hashlib
+import json
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+from calibrate import NAMES, summary
+from prepare import matrix, save
+
+
+def audit(root):
+    calibration = json.loads((root / "calibration.json").read_text())
+    report = {
+        "profiles": calibration["selected"],
+        "datasets": {},
+        "query_integrity": {},
+    }
+    discrepancies = []
+    for name in NAMES:
+        directory = root / name
+        identity = json.loads((directory / "identity-native.json").read_text())
+        assert (
+            identity["binary_sha256"]
+            == (root / "candidate-binary.sha256").read_text().split()[0]
+        )
+        assert (
+            identity["calibration_sha256"]
+            == hashlib.sha256((root / "calibration.json").read_bytes()).hexdigest()
+        )
+        split = np.load(directory / "split.npz")
+        ids = split["evaluation"]
+        assert not set(ids) & set(split["calibration"])
+        queries = matrix(
+            lance.dataset(root / "data" / name / "queries.lance").to_table()["vector"]
+        )
+        hashes = [hashlib.sha256(row.tobytes()).digest() for row in queries]
+        report["query_integrity"][name] = {
+            "disjoint_query_ids": True,
+            "shared_vector_hashes": len(
+                {hashes[i] for i in ids} & {hashes[i] for i in split["calibration"]}
+            ),
+        }
+        truth = matrix(
+            lance.dataset(root / "data" / name / "ground_truth.lance").to_table()[
+                "neighbor_ids"
+            ]
+        )
+        build = json.loads((directory / "build.json").read_text())
+        assert truth.shape[1] == 100
+        assert int(truth.max()) < build["rows"]
+        assert all(len(set(row.tolist())) == 100 for row in truth)
+        with (directory / "measure-native.csv").open() as stream:
+            records = list(csv.DictReader(stream))
+        report["datasets"][name] = {}
+        for k in [1, 10, 100]:
+            result = {}
+            groups = sorted({row["policy"] for row in records if int(row["k"]) == k})
+            fixed = calibration["fixed"][name][str(k)]
+            meeting = next(i for i, row in enumerate(fixed) if row["recall"] >= 0.95)
+            expected_policies = {"auto", "tuned", "legacy"} | {
+                f"fixed{row['nprobes']}"
+                for row in fixed[max(0, meeting - 1) : meeting + 2]
+            }
+            assert set(groups) == expected_policies
+            for policy in groups:
+                rows = [
+                    row
+                    for row in records
+                    if int(row["k"]) == k and row["policy"] == policy
+                ]
+                query_ids = [int(row["query_id"]) for row in rows]
+                expected_ids = (
+                    ids[: identity["legacy_queries"]] if policy == "legacy" else ids
+                )
+                assert len(query_ids) == len(set(query_ids)) == len(expected_ids)
+                assert set(query_ids) == set(expected_ids)
+                recalls = []
+                for row, query_id in zip(rows, query_ids):
+                    neighbors = json.loads(row["neighbor_ids"])
+                    assert len(neighbors) == len(set(neighbors)) == k
+                    recall = len(set(neighbors) & set(truth[query_id, :k].tolist())) / k
+                    assert abs(recall - float(row["recall"])) < 1e-12
+                    assert int(row["bytes_read"]) == 0, (
+                        name,
+                        k,
+                        policy,
+                        query_id,
+                        row["bytes_read"],
+                    )
+                    recalls.append(recall)
+                    if (
+                        int(row["partitions"]) != int(row["predicted_partitions"])
+                        or int(row["comparisons"]) != int(row["predicted_rows"])
+                        or abs(recall - float(row["route_recall"])) > 1e-12
+                    ):
+                        discrepancies.append({"dataset": name, **row})
+                timed = [row for row in rows if row["phase"] == "timing"]
+                expected_timed = min(identity["timing_queries"], len(expected_ids))
+                assert len(timed) == expected_timed
+                mean = float(np.mean(recalls))
+                error = 1.96 * float(np.std(recalls, ddof=1)) / np.sqrt(len(recalls))
+                result[policy] = {
+                    "queries": len(rows),
+                    "timing_queries": len(timed),
+                    "recall": mean,
+                    "recall_ci95_normal": [
+                        max(0.0, mean - error),
+                        min(1.0, mean + error),
+                    ],
+                    "meets_recall95": mean >= 0.95,
+                    "latency_ms": summary([float(row["latency_ms"]) for row in timed]),
+                    "partitions": summary([int(row["partitions"]) for row in rows]),
+                    "scanned_rows": summary([int(row["comparisons"]) for row in rows]),
+                    "bytes_read": 0,
+                }
+            report["datasets"][name][str(k)] = result
+    report["prediction_discrepancies"] = len(discrepancies)
+    report["common_profile_passed_all_recall_targets"] = all(
+        result["auto"]["meets_recall95"]
+        for dataset in report["datasets"].values()
+        for result in dataset.values()
+    )
+    save(root / "prediction-discrepancies.json", discrepancies)
+    save(root / "audited-results.json", report)
+    print(json.dumps(report, indent=2))
+    assert report["common_profile_passed_all_recall_targets"]
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__)
+    parser.add_argument("root", type=Path)
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+    audit(args.root)
diff --git a/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/calibrate.py b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/calibrate.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7b0eba4cc16
--- /dev/null
+++ b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/calibrate.py
@@ -0,0 +1,222 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+"""Select dot probing parameters using calibration queries only."""
+
+import argparse
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import numpy as np
+from prepare import emit, save
+
+NAMES = ["wiki-cohere-35m", "dpr-wikipedia-single-nq"]
+FLOORS = sorted(set([1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 384, 512, *range(8, 257, 8)]))
+CAPS = [
+    8,
+    12,
+    16,
+    24,
+    32,
+    48,
+    64,
+    96,
+    128,
+    192,
+    256,
+    384,
+    512,
+    768,
+    1024,
+    1536,
+    2048,
+    3072,
+    4096,
+    6144,
+    8192,
+    16384,
+]
+CAPS = sorted(set(CAPS + list(range(16, 769, 16))))
+MARGINS = {
+    "relative_score": np.r_[
+        np.arange(0, 0.1005, 0.0005),
+        np.arange(0.105, 1.005, 0.005),
+        np.arange(1.05, 4.05, 0.05),
+    ],
+    "standard_deviation": np.arange(0, 8.025, 0.025),
+}
+
+
+def load(root, name):
+    routes = np.load(root / name / "routes.npz")
+    ids = np.load(root / name / "split.npz")["calibration"]
+    scores = routes["scores"][ids].astype(np.float64)
+    ranks = routes["ranks"][ids]
+    rows = routes["scanned_rows"][ids]
+    # The denominator is homogeneous in the query, unlike abs(1 - dot).
+    scales = {
+        "relative_score": np.abs(scores[:, :1]),
+        "standard_deviation": np.std(scores, axis=1, keepdims=True),
+    }
+    gaps = {}
+    for mode, scale in scales.items():
+        gaps[mode] = np.divide(
+            scores[:, :1] - scores,
+            scale,
+            out=np.full_like(scores, np.inf),
+            where=scale != 0,
+        )
+        gaps[mode][scores == scores[:, :1]] = 0
+    coverage = {}
+    for k in [1, 10, 100]:
+        counts = np.zeros((len(ids), scores.shape[1] + 1), dtype=np.int16)
+        np.add.at(counts, (np.arange(len(ids))[:, None], ranks[:, :k]), 1)
+        coverage[k] = np.cumsum(counts, axis=1, dtype=np.int16)
+    return {
+        "scores": scores,
+        "gaps": gaps,
+        "coverage": coverage,
+        "rows": rows,
+        "ids": ids,
+    }
+
+
+def summary(values):
+    return {
+        "mean": float(np.mean(values)),
+        **{f"p{p}": float(np.percentile(values, p)) for p in [90, 95, 99]},
+        "max": float(np.max(values)),
+    }
+
+
+def calibration(root):
+    data = {name: load(root, name) for name in NAMES}
+    result = {
+        "target_recall": 0.96,
+        "evaluation_used": False,
+        "grid": {
+            "floors": FLOORS,
+            "caps": CAPS,
+            "margins": {key: value.tolist() for key, value in MARGINS.items()},
+        },
+        "fixed": {},
+        "profiles": {},
+    }
+    for name, values in data.items():
+        result["fixed"][name] = {}
+        for k in [1, 10, 100]:
+            budgets = [
+                p
+                for p in [1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096, 8192]
+                if p < values["scores"].shape[1]
+            ] + [values["scores"].shape[1]]
+            rows = [
+                {
+                    "nprobes": budget,
+                    "recall": float(values["coverage"][k][:, budget].mean() / k),
+                    "scanned_rows": summary(values["rows"][:, budget - 1]),
+                }
+                for budget in budgets
+            ]
+            result["fixed"][name][str(k)] = rows
+    # Keep separate optima for each corpus and a common profile satisfying both.
+    # 96% calibration provides headroom for the independent 95% target.
+    for k in [1, 10, 100]:
+        best = {}
+        for mode, margins in MARGINS.items():
+            best[mode] = {key: None for key in NAMES + ["common"]}
+            for margin in margins:
+                selected = {
+                    name: np.array(
+                        [
+                            np.searchsorted(row, margin, side="right")
+                            for row in values["gaps"][mode]
+                        ]
+                    )
+                    for name, values in data.items()
+                }
+                for floor in FLOORS:
+                    caps = np.asarray([cap for cap in CAPS if cap >= floor])
+                    metrics = {}
+                    for name, values in data.items():
+                        budgets = np.minimum(
+                            np.maximum(selected[name][:, None], floor), caps[None, :]
+                        )
+                        budgets = np.minimum(budgets, values["scores"].shape[1])
+                        recall = (
+                            values["coverage"][k][
+                                np.arange(len(budgets))[:, None], budgets
+                            ].mean(axis=0)
+                            / k
+                        )
+                        cost = budgets.mean(axis=0)
+                        metrics[name] = (recall, cost)
+                        valid = np.flatnonzero(recall >= result["target_recall"])
+                        if len(valid):
+                            index = valid[np.argmin(cost[valid])]
+                            candidate = {
+                                "margin": float(margin),
+                                "floor": floor,
+                                "cap": int(caps[index]),
+                                "recall": float(recall[index]),
+                                "mean_partitions": float(cost[index]),
+                            }
+                            old = best[mode][name]
+                            if (
+                                old is None
+                                or candidate["mean_partitions"] < old["mean_partitions"]
+                            ):
+                                best[mode][name] = candidate
+                    valid = np.flatnonzero(
+                        np.logical_and.reduce(
+                            [
+                                metrics[name][0] >= result["target_recall"]
+                                for name in NAMES
+                            ]
+                        )
+                    )
+                    cost = np.mean([metrics[name][1] for name in NAMES], axis=0)
+                    if len(valid):
+                        index = valid[np.argmin(cost[valid])]
+                        candidate = {
+                            "mode": mode,
+                            "margin": float(margin),
+                            "floor": floor,
+                            "cap": int(caps[index]),
+                            "mean_partitions": float(cost[index]),
+                            "datasets": {
+                                name: {
+                                    "recall": float(metrics[name][0][index]),
+                                    "mean_partitions": float(metrics[name][1][index]),
+                                }
+                                for name in NAMES
+                            },
+                        }
+                        old = best[mode]["common"]
+                        if (
+                            old is None
+                            or candidate["mean_partitions"] < old["mean_partitions"]
+                        ):
+                            best[mode]["common"] = candidate
+            emit("calibrated", k=k, mode=mode, best=best[mode])
+            result["profiles"][str(k)] = best
+            save(root / "calibration.json", result)
+    # Freeze both common families before ever examining evaluation outcomes.
+    result["selected_mode"] = min(
+        MARGINS,
+        key=lambda mode: sum(
+            result["profiles"][str(k)][mode]["common"]["mean_partitions"]
+            for k in [1, 10, 100]
+        ),
+    )
+    result["selected"] = {
+        str(k): result["profiles"][str(k)][result["selected_mode"]]["common"]
+        for k in [1, 10, 100]
+    }
+    save(root / "calibration.json", result)
+    emit("frozen", mode=result["selected_mode"], profiles=result["selected"])
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__)
+    parser.add_argument("root", type=Path)
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+    calibration(args.root)
diff --git a/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/measure.py b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/measure.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8fbc600408c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/measure.py
@@ -0,0 +1,342 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+"""Measure frozen probing policies with a warm cache and serial paired queries."""
+
+import argparse
+import csv
+import hashlib
+import json
+import os
+import time
+from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+from calibrate import summary
+from prepare import emit, matrix, positions, save
+
+
+def predict(scores, profile):
+    scores = scores.astype(np.float64)
+    scale = (
+        np.abs(scores[:, 0])
+        if profile["mode"] == "relative_score"
+        else scores.std(axis=1)
+    )
+    counts = ((scores[:, :1] - scores) <= profile["margin"] * scale[:, None]).sum(
+        axis=1
+    )
+    return np.clip(counts, profile["floor"], min(profile["cap"], scores.shape[1]))
+
+
+def configure_override(profile):
+    for variable, field in [
+        ("LANCE_AUTO_PROBE_MARGIN", "margin"),
+        ("LANCE_AUTO_MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES", "floor"),
+        ("LANCE_AUTO_MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES", "cap"),
+    ]:
+        if profile is None:
+            os.environ.pop(variable, None)
+        else:
+            os.environ[variable] = str(profile[field])
+
+
+def run_query(dataset, vector, k, policy, partitions, fragment_offsets):
+    nearest = {
+        "column": "vector",
+        "q": vector,
+        "k": k,
+        "metric": "dot",
+        "query_parallelism": 1,
+    }
+    if policy.startswith("fixed"):
+        nearest["nprobes"] = int(policy.removeprefix("fixed"))
+    elif policy == "legacy":
+        # Explicit upper bound keeps the exact main legacy policy on the candidate
+        # binary. The full partition count leaves its actual budget unchanged.
+        nearest["maximum_nprobes"] = partitions
+    captured = []
+    start = time.perf_counter_ns()
+    table = dataset.scanner(
+        columns=["_distance"],
+        with_row_id=True,
+        nearest=nearest,
+        scan_stats_callback=captured.append,
+    ).to_table()
+    elapsed = (time.perf_counter_ns() - start) / 1e6
+    assert len(table) == k
+    assert len(captured) == 1
+    stats = captured[0]
+    ids = positions(table["_rowid"].to_numpy(), fragment_offsets)
+    assert len(np.unique(ids)) == k
+    return ids, elapsed, stats
+
+
+def measure(root, name, limit, native, timing_queries, legacy_queries, recall_workers):
+    directory = root / "data" / name
+    out = root / name
+    calibration = json.loads((root / "calibration.json").read_text())
+    build = json.loads((out / "build.json").read_text())
+    dataset = lance.dataset(
+        directory / "base.lance",
+        version=build["version"],
+        index_cache_size_bytes=128 * 1024**3,
+    )
+    queries = matrix(lance.dataset(directory / "queries.lance").to_table()["vector"])
+    truth = matrix(
+        lance.dataset(directory / "ground_truth.lance").to_table()["neighbor_ids"]
+    )
+    ids = np.load(out / "split.npz")["evaluation"]
+    if limit:
+        ids = ids[:limit]
+    timing_ids = set(ids[:timing_queries].tolist())
+    routes = np.load(out / "routes.npz")
+    scores = routes["scores"]
+    scanned_rows = routes["scanned_rows"]
+    ranks = routes["ranks"]
+    fragment_offsets = np.load(out / "fragment-offsets.npy")
+    started = time.monotonic()
+    dataset.prewarm_index("dot_flat")
+    emit("prewarmed", dataset=name, seconds=time.monotonic() - started)
+    records = []
+    results = {}
+    suffix = "native" if native else "baseline-audit"
+    output = out / f"measure-{suffix}.csv"
+    with output.open("w") as stream:
+        fields = [
+            "query_id",
+            "k",
+            "policy",
+            "latency_ms",
+            "recall",
+            "partitions",
+            "comparisons",
+            "bytes_read",
+            "predicted_partitions",
+            "predicted_rows",
+            "route_recall",
+            "neighbor_ids",
+            "phase",
+        ]
+        writer = csv.DictWriter(stream, fieldnames=fields)
+        writer.writeheader()
+        for k in [1, 10, 100]:
+            profile = calibration["selected"][str(k)]
+            tuned = calibration["profiles"][str(k)][calibration["selected_mode"]][name]
+            configure_override(None)
+            fixed = calibration["fixed"][name][str(k)]
+            meeting = next(
+                index for index, row in enumerate(fixed) if row["recall"] >= 0.95
+            )
+            budgets = [
+                row["nprobes"] for row in fixed[max(0, meeting - 1) : meeting + 2]
+            ]
+            policies = (
+                ["auto", "tuned", "legacy", *[f"fixed{value}" for value in budgets]]
+                if native
+                else ["auto", "legacy"]
+            )
+            predicted = predict(scores, profile)
+            tuned_predicted = predict(scores, {**tuned, "mode": profile["mode"]})
+            legacy_distances = np.float32(1) - scores
+            legacy = np.maximum(
+                1,
+                (
+                    legacy_distances
+                    <= legacy_distances[:, :1] * {1: 0.6, 10: 7.0, 100: 81.0}[k]
+                ).sum(axis=1),
+            )
+            for policy in policies:
+                configure_override(tuned if policy == "tuned" else None)
+                run_query(
+                    dataset,
+                    queries[ids[0]],
+                    k,
+                    policy,
+                    build["partitions"],
+                    fragment_offsets,
+                )
+
+            def query_records(item, tuned_only=False):
+                ordinal, query_id = item
+                # Rotate order to balance systematic drift between policies.
+                active = (
+                    policies
+                    if ordinal < legacy_queries or not native
+                    else [p for p in policies if p != "legacy"]
+                )
+                if tuned_only:
+                    active = ["tuned"]
+                elif ordinal >= timing_queries:
+                    active = [p for p in active if p != "tuned"]
+                shift = ordinal % len(active)
+                baseline_pair = []
+                query_rows = []
+                for policy in active[shift:] + active[:shift]:
+                    if ordinal < timing_queries:
+                        configure_override(tuned if policy == "tuned" else None)
+                    actual_ids, elapsed, stats = run_query(
+                        dataset,
+                        queries[query_id],
+                        k,
+                        policy,
+                        build["partitions"],
+                        fragment_offsets,
+                    )
+                    expected = (
+                        int(policy.removeprefix("fixed"))
+                        if policy.startswith("fixed")
+                        else int(
+                            tuned_predicted[query_id]
+                            if policy == "tuned"
+                            else predicted[query_id]
+                            if native and policy == "auto"
+                            else legacy[query_id]
+                        )
+                    )
+                    recall = len(np.intersect1d(actual_ids, truth[query_id, :k])) / k
+                    scanned = stats.all_counts["partitions_searched"]
+                    if not native:
+                        baseline_pair.append(
+                            (actual_ids.tolist(), scanned, stats.index_comparisons)
+                        )
+                    if ordinal == 0:
+                        save(
+                            out / f"metrics-{suffix}-{k}-{policy}.json",
+                            stats.all_counts,
+                        )
+                    row = {
+                        "query_id": int(query_id),
+                        "k": k,
+                        "policy": policy,
+                        "latency_ms": elapsed,
+                        "recall": recall,
+                        "partitions": scanned,
+                        "comparisons": stats.index_comparisons,
+                        "bytes_read": stats.bytes_read,
+                        "predicted_partitions": expected,
+                        "predicted_rows": int(scanned_rows[query_id, expected - 1]),
+                        "route_recall": float(np.mean(ranks[query_id, :k] <= expected)),
+                        "neighbor_ids": json.dumps(actual_ids.tolist()),
+                        "phase": "timing" if query_id in timing_ids else "recall",
+                    }
+                    query_rows.append(row)
+                if not native:
+                    assert baseline_pair[0] == baseline_pair[1], baseline_pair
+                return query_rows
+
+            def record(ordinal, query_rows):
+                writer.writerows(query_rows)
+                records.extend(query_rows)
+                if ordinal % 100 == 0:
+                    stream.flush()
+                    emit(
+                        "measuring",
+                        dataset=name,
+                        k=k,
+                        completed=ordinal,
+                        total=len(ids),
+                    )
+
+            serial_count = min(timing_queries, len(ids))
+            for ordinal in range(serial_count):
+                record(ordinal, query_records((ordinal, ids[ordinal])))
+            # Only correctness is collected concurrently. These latencies are
+            # excluded from every timing summary, and all futures finish before
+            # the next serial timing phase starts.
+            configure_override(None)
+            with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=recall_workers) as executor:
+                remaining = enumerate(ids[serial_count:], start=serial_count)
+                for ordinal, query_rows in enumerate(
+                    executor.map(query_records, remaining), start=serial_count
+                ):
+                    record(ordinal, query_rows)
+            if native:
+                # Environment overrides are process-wide. Run the tuned recall
+                # phase separately with constant settings, never mutate them
+                # while concurrent queries are in flight.
+                configure_override(tuned)
+                with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=recall_workers) as executor:
+                    remaining = enumerate(ids[serial_count:], start=serial_count)
+                    for ordinal, query_rows in enumerate(
+                        executor.map(lambda item: query_records(item, True), remaining),
+                        start=serial_count,
+                    ):
+                        record(ordinal, query_rows)
+                configure_override(None)
+            results[str(k)] = {}
+            for policy in policies:
+                rows = [
+                    row for row in records if row["k"] == k and row["policy"] == policy
+                ]
+                results[str(k)][policy] = {
+                    "queries": len(rows),
+                    "recall": float(np.mean([r["recall"] for r in rows])),
+                    "timing_queries": sum(r["query_id"] in timing_ids for r in rows),
+                    **{
+                        field: summary(
+                            [r[field] for r in rows if r["query_id"] in timing_ids]
+                        )
+                        for field in ["latency_ms", "partitions", "comparisons"]
+                    },
+                    "bytes_read": sum(r["bytes_read"] for r in rows),
+                    "partition_prediction_mismatches": sum(
+                        r["partitions"] != r["predicted_partitions"] for r in rows
+                    ),
+                    "recall_prediction_max_error": max(
+                        abs(r["recall"] - r["route_recall"]) for r in rows
+                    ),
+                    "row_prediction_mismatches": sum(
+                        r["comparisons"] != r["predicted_rows"] for r in rows
+                    ),
+                }
+            save(out / f"measure-{suffix}.json", results)
+            emit("measured", dataset=name, k=k, result=results[str(k)])
+    library = Path(lance.__file__).parent / "lance.abi3.so"
+    save(
+        out / f"identity-{suffix}.json",
+        {
+            "binary_sha256": hashlib.sha256(library.read_bytes()).hexdigest(),
+            "calibration_sha256": hashlib.sha256(
+                (root / "calibration.json").read_bytes()
+            ).hexdigest(),
+            "cpu_affinity": sorted(os.sched_getaffinity(0)),
+            "threads": {
+                key: os.environ.get(key)
+                for key in [
+                    "LANCE_CPU_THREADS",
+                    "RAYON_NUM_THREADS",
+                    "OPENBLAS_NUM_THREADS",
+                    "OMP_NUM_THREADS",
+                ]
+            },
+            "lance_version": lance.__version__,
+            "query_count": len(ids),
+            "timing_queries": min(timing_queries, len(ids)),
+            "legacy_queries": min(legacy_queries, len(ids)),
+            "recall_workers": recall_workers,
+            "native": native,
+        },
+    )
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__)
+    parser.add_argument("root", type=Path)
+    parser.add_argument("dataset")
+    parser.add_argument("--limit", type=int, default=0)
+    parser.add_argument("--native", action="store_true")
+    parser.add_argument("--timing-queries", type=int, default=512)
+    parser.add_argument("--legacy-queries", type=int, default=32)
+    parser.add_argument("--recall-workers", type=int, default=8)
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+    measure(
+        args.root,
+        args.dataset,
+        args.limit,
+        args.native,
+        args.timing_queries,
+        args.legacy_queries,
+        args.recall_workers,
+    )
diff --git a/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/prepare.py b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/prepare.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2321ca9a104
--- /dev/null
+++ b/benchmarks/auto-ivf-dot/prepare.py
@@ -0,0 +1,227 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+"""Build frozen IVF_FLAT indices and collect actual partition routing evidence.
+
+Run from the repository Python environment with ``uv run``. The root directory
+must contain data/<HF dataset name>/{base,queries,ground_truth}.lance and VERIFIED.
+"""
+
+import argparse
+import dataclasses
+import hashlib
+import json
+import math
+import time
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+from lance.dataset import VectorIndexReader
+
+
+def save(path, value):
+    temporary = path.with_suffix(".tmp")
+    temporary.write_text(json.dumps(value, indent=2, default=str) + "\n")
+    temporary.replace(path)
+
+
+def emit(event, **values):
+    print(json.dumps({"time": time.time(), "event": event, **values}), flush=True)
+
+
+def matrix(column):
+    array = column.combine_chunks() if hasattr(column, "combine_chunks") else column
+    return array.values.to_numpy().reshape(len(array), array.type.list_size)
+
+
+def offsets(dataset):
+    fragments = dataset.get_fragments()
+    result = np.zeros(max(f.fragment_id for f in fragments) + 1, dtype=np.int64)
+    start = 0
+    for fragment in fragments:
+        result[fragment.fragment_id] = start
+        start += fragment.count_rows()
+    return result
+
+
+def positions(row_ids, fragment_offsets):
+    return fragment_offsets[(row_ids >> np.uint64(32)).astype(np.int64)] + (
+        row_ids & np.uint64(0xFFFFFFFF)
+    ).astype(np.int64)
+
+
+def prepare(root, name):
+    directory = root / "data" / name
+    assert (directory / "VERIFIED").exists()
+    out = root / name
+    out.mkdir(exist_ok=True)
+    queries_table = lance.dataset(directory / "queries.lance").to_table()
+    truth_table = lance.dataset(directory / "ground_truth.lance").to_table()
+    assert np.array_equal(queries_table["query_id"], truth_table["query_id"])
+    queries = matrix(queries_table["vector"])
+    truth = matrix(truth_table["neighbor_ids"])
+    split = np.random.default_rng(2249).permutation(len(queries))
+    np.savez(
+        out / "split.npz",
+        calibration=split[: len(split) // 2],
+        evaluation=split[len(split) // 2 :],
+    )
+    dataset = lance.dataset(directory / "base.lance")
+    if not (out / "build.json").exists():
+        assert dataset.list_indices() == []
+        count = dataset.count_rows()
+        partitions = math.ceil(count / 4096)
+        started = time.monotonic()
+        last = [0.0]
+
+        def progress(event):
+            now = time.monotonic()
+            if event.event != "progress" or now - last[0] >= 30:
+                emit("build_progress", dataset=name, progress=dataclasses.asdict(event))
+                last[0] = now
+
+        dataset = dataset.create_index(
+            "vector",
+            "IVF_FLAT",
+            name="dot_flat",
+            metric="dot",
+            num_partitions=partitions,
+            progress_callback=progress,
+        )
+        stats = dataset.stats.index_stats("dot_flat")
+        assert stats["num_indexed_rows"] == count
+        assert stats["num_unindexed_rows"] == 0
+        save(
+            out / "build.json",
+            {
+                "rows": count,
+                "partitions": partitions,
+                "version": dataset.version,
+                "seconds": time.monotonic() - started,
+                "indices": dataset.list_indices(),
+                "lance_version": lance.__version__,
+            },
+        )
+        emit("build_complete", dataset=name, seconds=time.monotonic() - started)
+    build = json.loads((out / "build.json").read_text())
+    dataset = lance.dataset(
+        directory / "base.lance",
+        version=build["version"],
+        index_cache_size_bytes=128 * 1024**3,
+    )
+    centroids = matrix(dataset.centroids(index_name="dot_flat"))
+    np.save(out / "centroids.npy", centroids)
+    fragment_offsets = offsets(dataset)
+    np.save(out / "fragment-offsets.npy", fragment_offsets)
+    if not (out / "mapping.npz").exists():
+        membership = np.full(build["rows"], -1, dtype=np.int32)
+        sizes = np.empty(len(centroids), dtype=np.int64)
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(2249)
+        sample_partitions = set(rng.choice(len(centroids), 16, replace=False).tolist())
+        sample_positions = []
+        sample_membership = []
+        reader = VectorIndexReader(dataset, "dot_flat")
+        for pid in range(reader.num_partitions()):
+            row_ids = reader.read_partition(pid)["_rowid"].to_numpy()
+            row_positions = positions(row_ids, fragment_offsets)
+            assert np.all(membership[row_positions] == -1)
+            membership[row_positions] = pid
+            sizes[pid] = len(row_ids)
+            if pid in sample_partitions and len(row_positions):
+                sampled = rng.choice(
+                    row_positions, min(64, len(row_positions)), replace=False
+                )
+                sample_positions.extend(sampled.tolist())
+                sample_membership.extend([pid] * len(sampled))
+            if pid % 512 == 0:
+                emit("mapping", dataset=name, partition=pid)
+        assert np.all(membership >= 0)
+        assert sizes.sum() == build["rows"]
+        np.savez_compressed(
+            out / "mapping.npz",
+            truth_partitions=membership[truth],
+            sizes=sizes,
+            sample_positions=sample_positions,
+            sample_partitions=sample_membership,
+        )
+        del membership, reader
+    mapping = np.load(out / "mapping.npz")
+    scores = queries @ centroids.T
+    order = np.argsort(-scores, axis=1, kind="stable")
+    ranks = np.empty(order.shape, dtype=np.int32)
+    np.put_along_axis(ranks, order, np.arange(1, len(centroids) + 1)[None, :], axis=1)
+    truth_ranks = np.take_along_axis(ranks, mapping["truth_partitions"], axis=1)
+    sorted_scores = np.take_along_axis(scores, order, axis=1)
+    scanned_rows = np.cumsum(mapping["sizes"][order], axis=1)
+    np.savez_compressed(
+        out / "routes.npz",
+        scores=sorted_scores,
+        ranks=truth_ranks,
+        scanned_rows=scanned_rows,
+    )
+    # A fixed calibration-only subset diagnoses residuals without reading the
+    # evaluation queries during model selection. Truth vectors retain their norms.
+    diagnostic_ids = split[: min(256, len(split) // 2)]
+    ids, inverse = np.unique(truth[diagnostic_ids], return_inverse=True)
+    vectors = matrix(dataset.take(ids.tolist(), columns=["vector"])["vector"])
+    selected_vectors = vectors[inverse].reshape(
+        len(diagnostic_ids), truth.shape[1], queries.shape[1]
+    )
+    projected = np.einsum("qd,qkd->qk", queries[diagnostic_ids], selected_vectors)
+    projected_centroids = np.take_along_axis(
+        scores[diagnostic_ids], mapping["truth_partitions"][diagnostic_ids], axis=1
+    )
+    residuals = projected - projected_centroids
+    sample_vectors = matrix(
+        dataset.take(mapping["sample_positions"].tolist(), columns=["vector"])["vector"]
+    )
+    sample_residuals = (
+        queries[diagnostic_ids]
+        @ (sample_vectors - centroids[mapping["sample_partitions"]]).T
+    )
+    percentiles = [0, 10, 50, 90, 95, 99, 100]
+    save(
+        out / "diagnostics.json",
+        {
+            "query_ids": diagnostic_ids.tolist(),
+            "percentiles": percentiles,
+            "query_norm": np.percentile(
+                np.linalg.norm(queries[diagnostic_ids], axis=1), percentiles
+            ).tolist(),
+            "neighbor_norm": np.percentile(
+                np.linalg.norm(selected_vectors, axis=2), percentiles
+            ).tolist(),
+            "centroid_norm": np.percentile(
+                np.linalg.norm(centroids, axis=1), percentiles
+            ).tolist(),
+            "nearest_centroid_score": np.percentile(
+                sorted_scores[diagnostic_ids, 0], percentiles
+            ).tolist(),
+            "neighbor_score": np.percentile(projected, percentiles).tolist(),
+            "projected_residual": np.percentile(residuals, percentiles).tolist(),
+            "random_partition_projected_residual": np.percentile(
+                sample_residuals, percentiles
+            ).tolist(),
+            "random_partition_vector_norm": np.percentile(
+                np.linalg.norm(sample_vectors, axis=1), percentiles
+            ).tolist(),
+            "centroid_sha256": hashlib.sha256(centroids.tobytes()).hexdigest(),
+        },
+    )
+    emit(
+        "prepared",
+        dataset=name,
+        rows=build["rows"],
+        queries=len(queries),
+        partitions=len(centroids),
+    )
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__)
+    parser.add_argument("root", type=Path)
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "dataset", choices=["wiki-cohere-35m", "dpr-wikipedia-single-nq"]
+    )
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+    prepare(args.root, args.dataset)
diff --git a/benchmarks/tpch/README.md b/benchmarks/tpch/README.md
index 7894ba4fd27..4999094217d 100644
--- a/benchmarks/tpch/README.md
+++ b/benchmarks/tpch/README.md
@@ -1,10 +1,42 @@
-***Compare lance vs parquet for TPCH Q1 and Q6 using SF1 dataset***
+# Compare Lance vs Parquet for TPCH Q1 and Q6 (SF1)
 
-**Steps to run the benchmark:**
+## Prerequisites
 
-1. `cd lance/benchmarks/tpch`
-2. `mkdir dataset && cd dataset`
-3. download parquet file lineitem from : "https://github.com/cwida/duckdb-data/releases/download/v1.0/lineitemsf1.snappy.parquet"; then rename it to "lineitem_sf1.parquet"
-4. generate lance file from the parquet file in the same directory
-5. `cd ..`
-6. `python3 benchmark.py q1`
+Install Python dependencies:
+
+```bash
+python3 -m pip install duckdb pyarrow pylance
+```
+
+## Prepare Dataset (generated locally with DuckDB)
+
+Run from this directory (`lance/benchmarks/tpch`):
+
+```bash
+mkdir -p dataset
+python3 - <<'PY'
+import duckdb
+import pyarrow.parquet as pq
+import lance
+
+con = duckdb.connect(database=":memory:")
+con.execute("INSTALL tpch; LOAD tpch")
+con.execute("CALL dbgen(sf=1)")
+
+lineitem = con.query("SELECT * FROM lineitem").to_arrow_table()
+pq.write_table(lineitem, "dataset/lineitem_sf1.parquet")
+lance.write_dataset(lineitem, "dataset/lineitem.lance", mode="overwrite")
+PY
+```
+
+This creates:
+
+- `dataset/lineitem_sf1.parquet`
+- `dataset/lineitem.lance`
+
+## Run Benchmark
+
+```bash
+python3 benchmark.py q1
+python3 benchmark.py q6
+```
diff --git a/ci/check_dependency_age.py b/ci/check_dependency_age.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d29f518ccc5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/check_dependency_age.py
@@ -0,0 +1,281 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+"""Fail if any crates.io dependency in a Cargo.lock is younger than a minimum age.
+
+A freshly published version is the window in which a compromised crate is most
+likely to still be live, so we refuse to ship one until it has had time to be
+noticed and yanked. Cargo's own `registry.global-min-publish-age` only constrains
+resolution: versions already written into Cargo.lock are grandfathered in and are
+never re-checked, so it cannot answer "is what we committed too new?".
+
+Publish timestamps come from the `pubtime` field of the sparse index. Cargo keeps
+the index lines it has downloaded in `$CARGO_HOME/registry/index/*/.cache`, which
+lets a full scan run without any network calls; anything not found there is
+fetched from index.crates.io, and anything the index has not published yet is
+looked up through the crates.io API, which is authoritative and never lags.
+
+The same floor is enforced on developer machines by Aikido endpoint protection,
+which filters the index it serves them. A security fix that has to land sooner
+therefore needs an Aikido allowlist entry as well as one in
+ci/dependency-age-allowlist.toml; the entry here only unblocks CI.
+"""
+
+import argparse
+import json
+import os
+import sys
+import time
+import tomllib
+import urllib.error
+import urllib.request
+from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor
+from datetime import datetime, timedelta, timezone
+from pathlib import Path
+
+DEFAULT_LOCKFILES = ("Cargo.lock", "python/Cargo.lock", "java/lance-jni/Cargo.lock")
+DEFAULT_ALLOWLIST = "ci/dependency-age-allowlist.toml"
+DEFAULT_MIN_AGE_HOURS = 48
+CRATES_IO_SOURCE = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+INDEX_URL = "https://index.crates.io"
+API_URL = "https://crates.io/api/v1/crates"
+USER_AGENT = "lance-ci-dependency-age (https://github.com/lance-format/lance)"
+FETCH_THREADS = 16
+# The API is rate limited and is only ever asked about the few versions the
+# index CDN has not caught up with, so it gets a much smaller pool.
+API_THREADS = 4
+FETCH_TIMEOUT_SECONDS = 30
+FETCH_ATTEMPTS = 4
+
+# The cache file is a cargo internal: a format byte, an index-format u32, an
+# `etag: ...` line, then a NUL-separated run of alternating version and index
+# JSON. Only the JSON matters here, so rather than validating the framing we
+# pick out the chunks that parse, and let the caller fall back to HTTP if a
+# cargo release ever changes the layout underneath us.
+CACHE_JSON_PREFIX = b"{"
+
+
+def index_path(name):
+    """Return the sparse-index path prefix cargo uses for a crate name."""
+    name = name.lower()
+    if len(name) <= 2:
+        return f"{len(name)}/{name}"
+    if len(name) == 3:
+        return f"3/{name[0]}/{name}"
+    return f"{name[:2]}/{name[2:4]}/{name}"
+
+
+def parse_index_entries(chunks):
+    """Map version -> pubtime (or None) from an iterable of index JSON chunks."""
+    entries = {}
+    for chunk in chunks:
+        chunk = chunk.strip()
+        if not chunk.startswith(CACHE_JSON_PREFIX):
+            continue
+        entry = json.loads(chunk)
+        entries[entry["vers"]] = entry.get("pubtime")
+    return entries
+
+
+def parse_cache_file(data):
+    try:
+        return parse_index_entries(data.split(b"\x00"))
+    except (json.JSONDecodeError, KeyError, UnicodeDecodeError):
+        return {}
+
+
+def parse_index_response(data):
+    return parse_index_entries(data.splitlines())
+
+
+def parse_api_response(data):
+    """Map version -> publish time from a crates.io `/versions` response."""
+    versions = json.loads(data)["versions"]
+    return {version["num"]: version.get("created_at") for version in versions}
+
+
+def crates_io_packages(lock_text):
+    """Return (name, version) for every crates.io package in a lockfile."""
+    lock = tomllib.loads(lock_text)
+    return [
+        (package["name"], package["version"])
+        for package in lock.get("package", [])
+        if package.get("source") == CRATES_IO_SOURCE
+    ]
+
+
+def load_allowlist(path):
+    """Map (crate, version) -> reason for the exemptions in an allowlist file."""
+    if not Path(path).is_file():
+        return {}
+    entries = tomllib.loads(Path(path).read_text()).get("allow", [])
+    allowed = {}
+    for entry in entries:
+        missing = {"crate", "version", "reason"} - entry.keys()
+        if missing:
+            raise SystemExit(
+                f"{path}: allow entry {entry} is missing {sorted(missing)}"
+            )
+        allowed[(entry["crate"], entry["version"])] = entry["reason"]
+    return allowed
+
+
+def cache_dirs(cargo_home):
+    return sorted(Path(cargo_home).glob("registry/index/*/.cache"))
+
+
+def pubtimes_from_cache(names, cargo_home):
+    dirs = cache_dirs(cargo_home)
+    found = {}
+    for name in names:
+        for directory in dirs:
+            path = directory / index_path(name)
+            if not path.is_file():
+                continue
+            entries = parse_cache_file(path.read_bytes())
+            if entries:
+                found[name] = entries
+                break
+    return found
+
+
+def http_get(url):
+    """Return the body, or None for a 404. Retries transient failures."""
+    request = urllib.request.Request(url, headers={"User-Agent": USER_AGENT})
+    for attempt in range(FETCH_ATTEMPTS):
+        try:
+            with urllib.request.urlopen(
+                request, timeout=FETCH_TIMEOUT_SECONDS
+            ) as response:
+                return response.read()
+        except urllib.error.HTTPError as error:
+            if error.code == 404:
+                return None
+            if attempt == FETCH_ATTEMPTS - 1:
+                raise
+        except OSError:
+            if attempt == FETCH_ATTEMPTS - 1:
+                raise
+        time.sleep(2**attempt)
+
+
+def fetch_index_pubtimes(name):
+    body = http_get(f"{INDEX_URL}/{index_path(name)}")
+    return name, {} if body is None else parse_index_response(body)
+
+
+def fetch_api_pubtimes(name):
+    body = http_get(f"{API_URL}/{name}/versions")
+    return name, {} if body is None else parse_api_response(body)
+
+
+def pubtimes_from_index(names):
+    return fetch_all(fetch_index_pubtimes, names, FETCH_THREADS)
+
+
+def pubtimes_from_api(names):
+    return fetch_all(fetch_api_pubtimes, names, API_THREADS)
+
+
+def fetch_all(fetch, names, threads):
+    if not names:
+        return {}
+    with ThreadPoolExecutor(threads) as pool:
+        return dict(pool.map(fetch, names))
+
+
+def resolve_pubtimes(packages, cargo_home):
+    """Sort packages into dated, undated, and not-in-the-index.
+
+    Returns ({(name, version): pubtime}, [undated], [absent]).
+    """
+    known = pubtimes_from_cache({name for name, _ in packages}, cargo_home)
+    for lookup in (pubtimes_from_index, pubtimes_from_api):
+        stale = sorted(
+            {name for name, version in packages if version not in known.get(name, {})}
+        )
+        for name, entries in lookup(stale).items():
+            known[name] = {**known.get(name, {}), **entries}
+
+    dated, undated, absent = {}, [], []
+    for name, version in packages:
+        entries = known.get(name, {})
+        if version not in entries:
+            absent.append((name, version))
+        elif entries[version] is None:
+            undated.append((name, version))
+        else:
+            dated[(name, version)] = entries[version]
+    return dated, undated, absent
+
+
+def too_new(dated, cutoff):
+    """Return (name, version, published) for versions published after the cutoff."""
+    violations = []
+    for (name, version), pubtime in dated.items():
+        published = datetime.fromisoformat(pubtime.replace("Z", "+00:00"))
+        if published > cutoff:
+            violations.append((name, version, published))
+    return violations
+
+
+def check_lockfile(path, cutoff, cargo_home, allowed):
+    """Print this lockfile's findings and return whether it passed."""
+    packages = crates_io_packages(Path(path).read_text())
+    dated, undated, absent = resolve_pubtimes(packages, cargo_home)
+
+    if undated:
+        # The index carries no pubtime for a few dozen versions predating the
+        # field. Those are years old, so treating them as passing is safe.
+        print(f"{path}: {len(undated)} of {len(packages)} versions predate `pubtime`")
+
+    violations = [
+        violation
+        for violation in too_new(dated, cutoff)
+        if (violation[0], violation[1]) not in allowed
+    ]
+    absent = [package for package in absent if package not in allowed]
+
+    for name, version, published in sorted(violations):
+        short_by = (published - cutoff).total_seconds() / 3600
+        print(
+            f"{path}: {name} {version} is too new — published {published.isoformat()}, "
+            f"{short_by:.1f}h short of the minimum age"
+        )
+    for name, version in sorted(absent):
+        print(f"{path}: {name} {version} is not in the index, so it cannot be dated")
+
+    return not violations and not absent
+
+
+def main(argv=None):
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__)
+    parser.add_argument("lockfiles", nargs="*", default=list(DEFAULT_LOCKFILES))
+    parser.add_argument("--min-age-hours", type=int, default=DEFAULT_MIN_AGE_HOURS)
+    parser.add_argument("--allowlist", default=DEFAULT_ALLOWLIST)
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--cargo-home", default=os.environ.get("CARGO_HOME", Path.home() / ".cargo")
+    )
+    args = parser.parse_args(argv)
+
+    cutoff = datetime.now(timezone.utc) - timedelta(hours=args.min_age_hours)
+    allowed = load_allowlist(args.allowlist)
+    for (name, version), reason in sorted(allowed.items()):
+        print(f"{args.allowlist} exempts {name} {version}: {reason}")
+
+    passed = [
+        check_lockfile(path, cutoff, args.cargo_home, allowed)
+        for path in args.lockfiles
+    ]
+    if all(passed):
+        return 0
+
+    print(
+        f"\nEvery crates.io dependency must be at least {args.min_age_hours}h old. "
+        "Wait for these versions to age, or pin the previous version. Dependabot's "
+        "cooldown should normally keep this from firing.",
+        file=sys.stderr,
+    )
+    return 1
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    sys.exit(main())
diff --git a/ci/check_proto_comments.py b/ci/check_proto_comments.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..efeb5efd262
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/check_proto_comments.py
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+"""Require `/* ... */` for multi-line comments in .proto files.
+
+Multi-line `//` runs cannot be folded by editors, which makes the long design
+notes in these schemas hard to skim. The `/* text` + ` * text` layout keeps every
+content column exactly where the `//` form had it, so protoc extracts identical
+leading_comments and the generated Rust, Python and Java doc comments do not
+change.
+
+The SPDX header is exempt; license-header-check requires it verbatim.
+"""
+
+import argparse
+import re
+import sys
+from pathlib import Path
+
+DEFAULT_ROOTS = (".",)
+SKIP_DIRS = {".git", ".venv", "node_modules", "target"}
+
+COMMENT_LINE = re.compile(r"^(\s*)(///?)(.*)$")
+SPDX_LINE = re.compile(r"^//\s*SPDX-")
+
+
+def violations(lines):
+    """Yield (start, indent, contents) for each multi-line `//` comment run."""
+    i = 0
+    while i < len(lines) and SPDX_LINE.match(lines[i]):
+        i += 1
+    while i < len(lines):
+        match = COMMENT_LINE.match(lines[i])
+        if match is None:
+            i += 1
+            continue
+        indent = match.group(1)
+        contents = []
+        j = i
+        while j < len(lines):
+            line = COMMENT_LINE.match(lines[j])
+            if line is None or line.group(1) != indent:
+                break
+            contents.append(line.group(3))
+            j += 1
+        if len(contents) > 1:
+            yield i, indent, contents
+        i = j
+
+
+def rewrite(text):
+    lines = text.split("\n")
+    out = []
+    i = 0
+    for start, indent, contents in violations(lines):
+        out.extend(lines[i:start])
+        out.append((indent + "/*" + contents[0]).rstrip())
+        out.extend((indent + " *" + content).rstrip() for content in contents[1:])
+        out.append(indent + " */")
+        i = start + len(contents)
+    out.extend(lines[i:])
+    return "\n".join(out)
+
+
+def collect(paths):
+    files = []
+    for path in paths:
+        path = Path(path)
+        if not path.is_dir():
+            files.append(path)
+            continue
+        found = path.rglob("*.proto")
+        files.extend(sorted(p for p in found if SKIP_DIRS.isdisjoint(p.parts)))
+    return files
+
+
+def main(argv=None):
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__)
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "paths", nargs="*", default=DEFAULT_ROOTS, help="files or directories to check"
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--fix", action="store_true", help="rewrite offending comments in place"
+    )
+    args = parser.parse_args(argv)
+
+    failed = False
+    for file in collect(args.paths):
+        original = file.read_text()
+        offenders = list(violations(original.split("\n")))
+        if not offenders:
+            continue
+        failed = True
+        if args.fix:
+            file.write_text(rewrite(original))
+            print(f"{file}: rewrote {len(offenders)} multi-line comment(s)")
+        else:
+            for start, _, contents in offenders:
+                print(
+                    f"{file}:{start + 1}: multi-line comment must use /* ... */ ({len(contents)} lines)"
+                )
+
+    if failed and not args.fix:
+        print(
+            "\nRun `python ci/check_proto_comments.py --fix` to convert them.",
+            file=sys.stderr,
+        )
+    return 1 if failed else 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    sys.exit(main())
diff --git a/ci/create_rc.sh b/ci/create_rc.sh
index 6dcc53ae3cf..f6f8b0039a6 100644
--- a/ci/create_rc.sh
+++ b/ci/create_rc.sh
@@ -78,8 +78,21 @@ else
     echo "Warning: Previous tag not found"
 fi
 
+# Determine release type based on version components
+# - major: X.0.0 releases
+# - minor: X.Y.0 releases where Y > 0
+# - patch: X.Y.Z releases where Z > 0
+if [ "${PATCH}" -gt 0 ]; then
+    RELEASE_TYPE="patch"
+elif [ "${MINOR}" -eq 0 ]; then
+    RELEASE_TYPE="major"
+else
+    RELEASE_TYPE="minor"
+fi
+echo "Release type: ${RELEASE_TYPE}"
+
 echo "Successfully created RC tag: ${RC_TAG}"
 echo "RC_TAG=${RC_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
 echo "RC_VERSION=${RC_VERSION}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
 echo "PREVIOUS_TAG=${PREVIOUS_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
-echo "RELEASE_TYPE=patch" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+echo "RELEASE_TYPE=${RELEASE_TYPE}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
diff --git a/ci/create_rc_discussion.sh b/ci/create_rc_discussion.sh
index 875308f85bd..c19ce9ce22f 100755
--- a/ci/create_rc_discussion.sh
+++ b/ci/create_rc_discussion.sh
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ DISCUSSION_TITLE="[VOTE] Release Candidate ${RC_TAG}"
 # Determine vote duration based on release type
 case "$RELEASE_TYPE" in
     major)
-        VOTE_DURATION_DAYS=7
+        VOTE_DURATION_DAYS=3
         ;;
     minor)
         VOTE_DURATION_DAYS=3
diff --git a/ci/create_release_branch.sh b/ci/create_release_branch.sh
index 594709bcb15..db88f5b6b24 100755
--- a/ci/create_release_branch.sh
+++ b/ci/create_release_branch.sh
@@ -2,180 +2,307 @@
 set -e
 
 # Script to create a release branch with initial RC for major/minor release
-# Always creates RC from the tip of main branch
-# Checks for breaking changes and bumps major version if needed
-# The version is automatically determined from main branch HEAD
-# Usage: create_release_branch.sh
-# Example: create_release_branch.sh
-
-TAG_PREFIX=${1:-"v"}
+# Can create from main branch or from an existing release branch
+#
+# Usage: create_release_branch.sh [source_release_branch] [tag_prefix]
+#
+# Examples:
+#   create_release_branch.sh                    # Create from main branch
+#   create_release_branch.sh release/v1.3      # Create minor release from release/v1.3
+#   create_release_branch.sh "" v              # Create from main with custom prefix
+
+SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH=${1:-""}
+TAG_PREFIX=${2:-"v"}
 
 readonly SELF_DIR=$(cd "$( dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}" )" && pwd )
 
-git checkout main
-MAIN_VERSION=$(grep '^version = ' Cargo.toml | head -n1 | cut -d'"' -f2)
-echo "Main branch current version: ${MAIN_VERSION}"
+# Source common release functions
+source "${SELF_DIR}/release_common.sh"
+
+# Determine if we're creating from main or from a release branch
+if [ -n "${SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH}" ]; then
+    echo "Creating minor release from release branch: ${SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+    CREATE_FROM_RELEASE_BRANCH="true"
+else
+    echo "Creating release from main branch"
+    CREATE_FROM_RELEASE_BRANCH="false"
+fi
+
+# Always check main version first (for validation when creating from release branch)
+git fetch origin main
+MAIN_VERSION=$(git show origin/main:Cargo.toml | grep '^version = ' | head -n1 | cut -d'"' -f2)
+echo "Main branch version: ${MAIN_VERSION}"
 
-# Extract the base version from main (remove beta suffix if present)
+# Parse main version
 if [[ "${MAIN_VERSION}" =~ ^([0-9]+)\.([0-9]+)\.([0-9]+)(-beta\.([0-9]+))?$ ]]; then
-    CURR_MAJOR="${BASH_REMATCH[1]}"
-    CURR_MINOR="${BASH_REMATCH[2]}"
-    CURR_PATCH="${BASH_REMATCH[3]}"
-    BASE_VERSION="${CURR_MAJOR}.${CURR_MINOR}.${CURR_PATCH}"
+    MAIN_MAJOR="${BASH_REMATCH[1]}"
+    MAIN_MINOR="${BASH_REMATCH[2]}"
+    MAIN_PATCH="${BASH_REMATCH[3]}"
 else
     echo "ERROR: Cannot parse version from main branch: ${MAIN_VERSION}"
     exit 1
 fi
 
-echo "Current base version on main: ${BASE_VERSION}"
+if [ "${CREATE_FROM_RELEASE_BRANCH}" = "true" ]; then
+    #
+    # ============= CREATE FROM RELEASE BRANCH =============
+    #
+    # Validate main is at a major version (X.0.0-beta.N)
+    if [ "${MAIN_MINOR}" != "0" ] || [ "${MAIN_PATCH}" != "0" ]; then
+        echo "ERROR: Cannot create minor release from release branch when main is not at a major version"
+        echo "Main is at ${MAIN_VERSION}, expected X.0.0-beta.N format"
+        echo "Minor releases from release branches are only allowed when main is targeting a major release"
+        exit 1
+    fi
 
-# Check for existing release-root tag to find comparison base
-CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="release-root/${BASE_VERSION}-beta.N"
+    echo "Main is at major version ${MAIN_MAJOR}.0.0 - OK to create minor release from release branch"
 
-if git rev-parse "${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
-    echo "Found release root tag: ${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
-    COMPARE_TAG="${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
-    COMPARE_COMMIT=$(git rev-parse "${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}")
-    echo "Will compare against: ${COMPARE_TAG} (commit: ${COMPARE_COMMIT})"
-else
-    echo "No release root tag found for current version series"
-    COMPARE_TAG=""
-fi
+    # Checkout the source release branch
+    git checkout "${SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+    SOURCE_VERSION=$(get_version_from_cargo)
+    echo "Source release branch version: ${SOURCE_VERSION}"
 
-# Check for breaking changes
-BREAKING_CHANGES="false"
-if [ -n "${COMPARE_TAG}" ]; then
-    if python3 "${SELF_DIR}/check_breaking_changes.py" --detect-only "${COMPARE_TAG}" "HEAD"; then
-        echo "No breaking changes detected"
-        BREAKING_CHANGES="false"
+    # Parse source version
+    if [[ "${SOURCE_VERSION}" =~ ^([0-9]+)\.([0-9]+)\.([0-9]+)(-beta\.([0-9]+))?$ ]]; then
+        SOURCE_MAJOR="${BASH_REMATCH[1]}"
+        SOURCE_MINOR="${BASH_REMATCH[2]}"
+        SOURCE_PATCH="${BASH_REMATCH[3]}"
     else
-        echo "Breaking changes detected"
-        BREAKING_CHANGES="true"
+        echo "ERROR: Cannot parse version from source branch: ${SOURCE_VERSION}"
+        exit 1
     fi
-fi
 
-# Determine RC version based on breaking changes
-if [ "${BREAKING_CHANGES}" = "true" ]; then
-    # Extract base RC version from release-root tag message
-    TAG_MESSAGE=$(git tag -l --format='%(contents)' "${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}")
-    BASE_RC_VERSION=$(echo "${TAG_MESSAGE}" | head -n1 | sed 's/Base: //')
-    BASE_RC_MAJOR=$(echo "${BASE_RC_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f1 | sed 's/^v//')
+    # Validate source branch is in the same major version series (or one less than main)
+    if [ "${SOURCE_MAJOR}" -ge "${MAIN_MAJOR}" ]; then
+        echo "ERROR: Source branch major version (${SOURCE_MAJOR}) must be less than main major version (${MAIN_MAJOR})"
+        exit 1
+    fi
 
-    echo "Base RC version: ${BASE_RC_VERSION} (major: ${BASE_RC_MAJOR})"
+    # Determine next minor version
+    RC_MAJOR="${SOURCE_MAJOR}"
+    RC_MINOR=$((SOURCE_MINOR + 1))
+    RC_VERSION="${RC_MAJOR}.${RC_MINOR}.0-rc.1"
 
-    if [ "${CURR_MAJOR}" -gt "${BASE_RC_MAJOR}" ]; then
-        echo "Major version already bumped from ${BASE_RC_MAJOR} to ${CURR_MAJOR}"
-        RC_VERSION="${BASE_VERSION}-rc.1"
+    echo "Creating RC version: ${RC_VERSION}"
+
+    # Release type is always minor when creating from release branch
+    RELEASE_TYPE="minor"
+    echo "Release type: ${RELEASE_TYPE}"
+
+    # Create new release branch from source branch
+    RELEASE_BRANCH="release/v${RC_MAJOR}.${RC_MINOR}"
+    echo "Creating release branch ${RELEASE_BRANCH} from ${SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+    git checkout -b "${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+
+    # Set version to RC version
+    echo "Setting version to ${RC_VERSION}"
+    bump_and_commit_version "${RC_VERSION}" "chore: release candidate ${RC_VERSION}
+
+Created from ${SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+
+    # Create the RC tag
+    RC_TAG="${TAG_PREFIX}${RC_VERSION}"
+    echo "Creating tag ${RC_TAG}"
+    git tag -a "${RC_TAG}" -m "Release candidate ${RC_VERSION}
+
+Created from ${SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+
+    echo "Successfully created RC tag: ${RC_TAG} on branch ${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+
+    # Find latest stable tag on source branch for release notes comparison
+    # Look for tags matching vX.Y.* where X.Y matches source branch
+    LATEST_STABLE_TAG=$(git tag -l "${TAG_PREFIX}${SOURCE_MAJOR}.${SOURCE_MINOR}.*" | grep -v -E '(beta|rc)' | sort -V | tail -n1)
+
+    if [ -n "${LATEST_STABLE_TAG}" ]; then
+        PREVIOUS_TAG="${LATEST_STABLE_TAG}"
+        echo "Release notes will compare against latest stable: ${PREVIOUS_TAG}"
+
+        # Create minor-release-root tag to mark this as a minor release from a release branch
+        # This tag stores the source stable tag for use by determine_previous_tag
+        MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="minor-release-root/${RC_MAJOR}.${RC_MINOR}.0"
+        echo "Creating minor release root tag: ${MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
+        git tag -a "${MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" -m "${PREVIOUS_TAG}"
     else
-        echo "Breaking changes require major version bump"
-        RC_MAJOR=$((CURR_MAJOR + 1))
-        RC_VERSION="${RC_MAJOR}.0.0-rc.1"
+        echo "Warning: No stable tag found for ${SOURCE_MAJOR}.${SOURCE_MINOR}.* series"
+        PREVIOUS_TAG=""
     fi
-else
-    # No breaking changes, use current base version
-    RC_VERSION="${BASE_VERSION}-rc.1"
-fi
 
-echo "Creating RC version: ${RC_VERSION}"
+    # Output for GitHub Actions (no main version or release root tag when creating from release branch)
+    echo "RC_TAG=${RC_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "RC_VERSION=${RC_VERSION}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "RELEASE_BRANCH=${RELEASE_BRANCH}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "PREVIOUS_TAG=${PREVIOUS_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "RELEASE_TYPE=${RELEASE_TYPE}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH=${SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG=${MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG:-}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+
+    echo "Successfully created minor RC from release branch!"
+    echo "  RC Tag: ${RC_TAG}"
+    echo "  Release Branch: ${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+    echo "  Source Branch: ${SOURCE_RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+    echo "  Release Notes Base: ${PREVIOUS_TAG}"
+    echo "  Minor Release Root Tag: ${MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG:-none}"
 
-# Determine release type (major if X.0.0, otherwise minor)
-RC_MINOR=$(echo "${RC_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f2 | cut -d- -f1)
-if [ "${RC_MINOR}" = "0" ]; then
-    RELEASE_TYPE="major"
 else
-    RELEASE_TYPE="minor"
-fi
-echo "Release type: ${RELEASE_TYPE}"
+    #
+    # ============= CREATE FROM MAIN BRANCH =============
+    #
+    git checkout main
+    BASE_VERSION="${MAIN_MAJOR}.${MAIN_MINOR}.${MAIN_PATCH}"
+    CURR_MAJOR="${MAIN_MAJOR}"
+    CURR_MINOR="${MAIN_MINOR}"
+    CURR_PATCH="${MAIN_PATCH}"
+
+    echo "Current base version on main: ${BASE_VERSION}"
+
+    # Check for existing release-root tag to find comparison base
+    CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="release-root/${BASE_VERSION}-beta.N"
+
+    if git rev-parse "${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
+        echo "Found release root tag: ${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
+        COMPARE_TAG="${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
+        COMPARE_COMMIT=$(git rev-parse "${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}")
+        echo "Will compare against: ${COMPARE_TAG} (commit: ${COMPARE_COMMIT})"
+    else
+        echo "No release root tag found for current version series"
+        COMPARE_TAG=""
+    fi
 
-# Parse RC version for release branch
-RC_MAJOR=$(echo "${RC_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f1)
-RC_MINOR=$(echo "${RC_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f2)
-RELEASE_BRANCH="release/v${RC_MAJOR}.${RC_MINOR}"
+    # Check for breaking changes
+    BREAKING_CHANGES="false"
+    if [ -n "${COMPARE_TAG}" ]; then
+        if python3 "${SELF_DIR}/check_breaking_changes.py" --detect-only "${COMPARE_TAG}" "HEAD"; then
+            echo "No breaking changes detected"
+            BREAKING_CHANGES="false"
+        else
+            echo "Breaking changes detected"
+            BREAKING_CHANGES="true"
+        fi
+    fi
 
-echo "Will create release branch: ${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+    # Determine RC version based on breaking changes
+    if [ "${BREAKING_CHANGES}" = "true" ]; then
+        # Extract base RC version from release-root tag message
+        TAG_MESSAGE=$(git tag -l --format='%(contents)' "${CURR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}")
+        BASE_RC_VERSION=$(echo "${TAG_MESSAGE}" | head -n1 | sed 's/Base: //')
+        BASE_RC_MAJOR=$(echo "${BASE_RC_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f1 | sed 's/^v//')
+
+        echo "Base RC version: ${BASE_RC_VERSION} (major: ${BASE_RC_MAJOR})"
+
+        if [ "${CURR_MAJOR}" -gt "${BASE_RC_MAJOR}" ]; then
+            echo "Major version already bumped from ${BASE_RC_MAJOR} to ${CURR_MAJOR}"
+            RC_VERSION="${BASE_VERSION}-rc.1"
+        else
+            echo "Breaking changes require major version bump"
+            RC_MAJOR=$((CURR_MAJOR + 1))
+            RC_VERSION="${RC_MAJOR}.0.0-rc.1"
+        fi
+    else
+        # No breaking changes, use current base version
+        RC_VERSION="${BASE_VERSION}-rc.1"
+    fi
 
-# Create release branch from main HEAD
-echo "Creating release branch ${RELEASE_BRANCH} from main HEAD"
-git checkout -b "${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+    echo "Creating RC version: ${RC_VERSION}"
 
-# Set version to RC version
-echo "Setting version to ${RC_VERSION}"
-bump-my-version bump -vv --new-version "${RC_VERSION}" --no-tag patch
+    # Determine release type (major if X.0.0, otherwise minor)
+    RC_MINOR=$(echo "${RC_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f2 | cut -d- -f1)
+    if [ "${RC_MINOR}" = "0" ]; then
+        RELEASE_TYPE="major"
+    else
+        RELEASE_TYPE="minor"
+    fi
+    echo "Release type: ${RELEASE_TYPE}"
+
+    # Parse RC version for release branch
+    RC_MAJOR=$(echo "${RC_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f1)
+    RC_MINOR=$(echo "${RC_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f2)
+    RELEASE_BRANCH="release/v${RC_MAJOR}.${RC_MINOR}"
+
+    echo "Will create release branch: ${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+
+    # Create release branch from main HEAD
+    echo "Creating release branch ${RELEASE_BRANCH} from main HEAD"
+    git checkout -b "${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+
+    # Set version to RC version
+    echo "Setting version to ${RC_VERSION}"
+    bump-my-version bump -vv --new-version "${RC_VERSION}" --no-tag patch
 
-# Update Cargo.lock files after version bump
-cargo update
-(cd python && cargo update)
-(cd java/lance-jni && cargo update)
+    # Update Cargo.lock files after version bump
+    cargo update --workspace
+    (cd python && cargo update --workspace)
+    (cd java/lance-jni && cargo update --workspace)
 
-# Commit the RC version
-git add -A
-git commit -m "chore: release candidate ${RC_VERSION}"
+    # Commit the RC version
+    git add -A
+    git commit -m "chore: release candidate ${RC_VERSION}"
 
-# Create the RC tag
-RC_TAG="${TAG_PREFIX}${RC_VERSION}"
-echo "Creating tag ${RC_TAG}"
-git tag -a "${RC_TAG}" -m "Release candidate ${RC_VERSION}"
+    # Create the RC tag
+    RC_TAG="${TAG_PREFIX}${RC_VERSION}"
+    echo "Creating tag ${RC_TAG}"
+    git tag -a "${RC_TAG}" -m "Release candidate ${RC_VERSION}"
 
-echo "Successfully created RC tag: ${RC_TAG} on branch ${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+    echo "Successfully created RC tag: ${RC_TAG} on branch ${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
 
-# Now bump main to next unreleased version (beta.0)
-echo "Bumping main to next version beta.0"
-git checkout main
+    # Now bump main to next unreleased version (beta.0)
+    echo "Bumping main to next version beta.0"
+    git checkout main
 
-# Determine next version for main based on RC version
-# Always bump minor from the RC version
-NEXT_MAJOR="${RC_MAJOR}"
-NEXT_MINOR=$((RC_MINOR + 1))
-NEXT_VERSION="${NEXT_MAJOR}.${NEXT_MINOR}.0-beta.0"
+    # Determine next version for main based on RC version
+    # Always bump minor from the RC version
+    NEXT_MAJOR="${RC_MAJOR}"
+    NEXT_MINOR=$((RC_MINOR + 1))
+    NEXT_VERSION="${NEXT_MAJOR}.${NEXT_MINOR}.0-beta.0"
 
-echo "Bumping main to ${NEXT_VERSION} (unreleased)"
+    echo "Bumping main to ${NEXT_VERSION} (unreleased)"
 
-bump-my-version bump -vv --new-version "${NEXT_VERSION}" --no-tag patch
+    bump-my-version bump -vv --new-version "${NEXT_VERSION}" --no-tag patch
 
-# Update Cargo.lock files after version bump
-cargo update
-(cd python && cargo update)
-(cd java/lance-jni && cargo update)
+    # Update Cargo.lock files after version bump
+    cargo update --workspace
+    (cd python && cargo update --workspace)
+    (cd java/lance-jni && cargo update --workspace)
 
-git add -A
-git commit -m "chore: bump main to ${NEXT_VERSION}
+    git add -A
+    git commit -m "chore: bump main to ${NEXT_VERSION}
 
 Unreleased version after creating ${RC_TAG}"
 
-echo "Main branch bumped to ${NEXT_VERSION}"
+    echo "Main branch bumped to ${NEXT_VERSION}"
 
-# Create release-root tag for the new beta series on main (points to commit before RC branch)
-# Strip the prerelease suffix from NEXT_VERSION for the tag name
-NEXT_BASE_VERSION="${NEXT_MAJOR}.${NEXT_MINOR}.0"
-RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="release-root/${NEXT_BASE_VERSION}-beta.N"
-echo "Creating release root tag ${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG} pointing to RC ${RC_VERSION}"
-git tag -a "${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" "${RC_TAG}^" -m "Base: ${RC_VERSION}
+    # Create release-root tag for the new beta series on main (points to commit before RC branch)
+    # Strip the prerelease suffix from NEXT_VERSION for the tag name
+    NEXT_BASE_VERSION="${NEXT_MAJOR}.${NEXT_MINOR}.0"
+    RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="release-root/${NEXT_BASE_VERSION}-beta.N"
+    echo "Creating release root tag ${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG} pointing to RC ${RC_VERSION}"
+    git tag -a "${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" "${RC_TAG}^" -m "Base: ${RC_VERSION}
 Release root for ${NEXT_BASE_VERSION}-beta.N series"
 
-# Determine comparison base for RC release notes
-# For major/minor RC, we want to compare against the OLD release-root tag (the one for the main version before bump)
-# which points to the previous RC base
-OLD_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="release-root/${BASE_VERSION}-beta.N"
+    # Determine comparison base for RC release notes
+    # For major/minor RC, we want to compare against the OLD release-root tag (the one for the main version before bump)
+    # which points to the previous RC base
+    OLD_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="release-root/${BASE_VERSION}-beta.N"
 
-if git rev-parse "${OLD_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
-    PREVIOUS_TAG="${OLD_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
-    echo "Release notes will compare against previous release-root: ${PREVIOUS_TAG}"
-else
-    echo "Warning: Release root tag ${OLD_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG} not found"
-    PREVIOUS_TAG=""
-fi
+    if git rev-parse "${OLD_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
+        PREVIOUS_TAG="${OLD_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
+        echo "Release notes will compare against previous release-root: ${PREVIOUS_TAG}"
+    else
+        echo "Warning: Release root tag ${OLD_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG} not found"
+        PREVIOUS_TAG=""
+    fi
 
-# Output for GitHub Actions
-echo "RC_TAG=${RC_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
-echo "RC_VERSION=${RC_VERSION}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
-echo "RELEASE_BRANCH=${RELEASE_BRANCH}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
-echo "MAIN_VERSION=${NEXT_VERSION}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
-echo "RELEASE_ROOT_TAG=${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
-echo "PREVIOUS_TAG=${PREVIOUS_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
-echo "RELEASE_TYPE=${RELEASE_TYPE}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
-
-echo "Successfully created major/minor RC!"
-echo "  RC Tag: ${RC_TAG}"
-echo "  Release Branch: ${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
-echo "  Main Version: ${NEXT_VERSION}"
-echo "  Release Root Tag: ${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
+    # Output for GitHub Actions
+    echo "RC_TAG=${RC_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "RC_VERSION=${RC_VERSION}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "RELEASE_BRANCH=${RELEASE_BRANCH}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "MAIN_VERSION=${NEXT_VERSION}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "RELEASE_ROOT_TAG=${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "PREVIOUS_TAG=${PREVIOUS_TAG}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+    echo "RELEASE_TYPE=${RELEASE_TYPE}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT 2>/dev/null || true
+
+    echo "Successfully created major/minor RC!"
+    echo "  RC Tag: ${RC_TAG}"
+    echo "  Release Branch: ${RELEASE_BRANCH}"
+    echo "  Main Version: ${NEXT_VERSION}"
+    echo "  Release Root Tag: ${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
+fi
diff --git a/ci/dependency-age-allowlist.toml b/ci/dependency-age-allowlist.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..60866509a4e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/dependency-age-allowlist.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+# Versions exempt from the minimum publish age enforced by
+# ci/check_dependency_age.py.
+#
+# Only add an entry once the same version has been allowlisted in Aikido
+# endpoint protection. Aikido filters the crates.io index it serves to
+# developer machines, so an entry here on its own unblocks CI while leaving
+# every developer unable to build.
+#
+# Entries become inert once the version passes the minimum age, so pruning
+# them is housekeeping rather than urgent.
+
+# [[allow]]
+# crate = "some-crate"
+# version = "1.2.3"
+# reason = "RUSTSEC-2026-0000, allowlisted in Aikido 2026-09-16"
diff --git a/ci/format_vote_gate.py b/ci/format_vote_gate.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b80f20c0b35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/format_vote_gate.py
@@ -0,0 +1,419 @@
+"""Format-specification vote gate (see `.github/workflows/format-vote-gate.yml`).
+
+Structurally enforces the PMC vote required for Lance format-specification
+changes (https://lance.org/community/voting/). The `format-change` label is
+applied by the path labeler (`.github/labeler-area.yml`); this script reads it
+and publishes the `format-spec-vote` commit status, which blocks merging until:
+
+  * 3 PMC members have approved the PR (excluding the author), counted on any
+    commit so a rebase or a typo fix doesn't send everyone back to re-vote;
+  * at least one of those approvals is on the head commit. That member is
+    vouching that nothing substantive changed since the earlier approvals;
+  * no PMC member has an outstanding "Request changes" review (a veto); and
+  * the 72-hour voting period has elapsed. The clock starts once the PR is both
+    labeled and out of draft, and pauses over weekends.
+
+A PMC member can waive a trivial edit by applying the `format-waived` label.
+Non-format PRs get a passing status immediately and are otherwise left alone.
+Drafts get a blocking status but no comment: the vote has not opened yet.
+
+The vote-counting and deadline rules are pure functions (`tally_reviews`,
+`decide_verdict`, `vote_opened_at`, `weekday_deadline`) unit tested in
+`test_format_vote_gate.py`; `main` wires them to the GitHub API.
+"""
+
+import json
+import os
+from collections import namedtuple
+from datetime import datetime, timedelta, timezone
+from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
+
+STATUS_CONTEXT = "format-spec-vote"
+FORMAT_LABEL = "format-change"
+WAIVED_LABEL = "format-waived"
+COMMENT_MARKER = "<!-- format-spec-vote-status -->"
+REQUIRED_APPROVALS = 3
+PERIOD_HOURS = 72
+VOTING_URL = "https://lance.org/community/voting/"
+WORKFLOW_FILE = "format-vote-gate.yml"
+# Keep in sync with the `cron` in the workflow; only used in the comment text.
+SWEEP_MINUTES = 15
+
+# The weekend boundary is fixed in UTC rather than a local zone: it has no DST
+# transitions to reason about, and no PMC member's timezone gets to define when
+# everyone else's clock pauses. Deadlines are *displayed* in UTC and Pacific.
+WEEKEND_TZ = timezone.utc
+DISPLAY_TZ = ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles")
+
+# datetime.weekday() numbers Monday 0 .. Sunday 6, so the weekend is >= 5.
+_SATURDAY = 5
+
+# Review states that express a stance; COMMENTED/PENDING are ignored.
+_STANCE_STATES = ("APPROVED", "CHANGES_REQUESTED", "DISMISSED")
+
+TimelineFacts = namedtuple("TimelineFacts", "labeled_at waived ready_at")
+
+
+def tally_reviews(reviews, head_sha, author, is_pmc):
+    """Tally PMC votes from a PR's reviews.
+
+    `reviews` is an ordered list of dicts with `login`, `state`, `commit_id`.
+    A member's stance is their most recent stance review. Approvals count
+    whatever commit they were cast on; the ones on the head commit are returned
+    separately, because the gate requires at least one of those. A "changes
+    requested" review is a veto regardless of commit. The PR author never
+    counts.
+    """
+    latest = {}
+    for review in reviews:
+        login = review["login"]
+        if not login or not is_pmc(login) or login == author:
+            continue
+        if review["state"] not in _STANCE_STATES:
+            continue
+        latest[login.lower()] = review
+
+    approvals, head_approvals, vetoes = [], [], []
+    for review in latest.values():
+        if review["state"] == "APPROVED":
+            approvals.append(review["login"])
+            if review["commit_id"] == head_sha:
+                head_approvals.append(review["login"])
+        elif review["state"] == "CHANGES_REQUESTED":
+            vetoes.append(review["login"])
+    return approvals, head_approvals, vetoes
+
+
+def decide_verdict(
+    veto_count, approval_count, head_approval_count, period_elapsed, required
+):
+    """Return the blocking condition (if any), in priority order."""
+    if veto_count > 0:
+        return "veto"
+    if approval_count < required:
+        return "insufficient"
+    if head_approval_count == 0:
+        return "unconfirmed"
+    if not period_elapsed:
+        return "waiting_period"
+    return "pass"
+
+
+def vote_opened_at(labeled_at, ready_at):
+    """When the voting period starts, or None if it hasn't.
+
+    A vote opens only once the proposal is both identified as a format change
+    and offered for review, so the clock starts at the later of the two. A draft
+    is still being drafted; time spent there shouldn't count toward the period.
+    """
+    if labeled_at is None or ready_at is None:
+        return None
+    return max(labeled_at, ready_at)
+
+
+def _start_of_day(dt):
+    return dt.replace(hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0)
+
+
+# Advance to Monday 00:00 if `dt` lands on a weekend; otherwise leave it alone.
+def _skip_weekend(dt):
+    while dt.weekday() >= _SATURDAY:
+        dt = _start_of_day(dt) + timedelta(days=1)
+    return dt
+
+
+# Saturday 00:00 following `dt`, which must already be a weekday.
+def _next_weekend(dt):
+    return _start_of_day(dt) + timedelta(days=_SATURDAY - dt.weekday())
+
+
+def weekday_deadline(start, hours):
+    """When `hours` of non-weekend time have elapsed after `start`.
+
+    Weekends don't count toward the voting period, so a proposal opened on a
+    Friday afternoon doesn't burn most of its period while nobody is reading it.
+    Both `start` and the result are aware datetimes; the arithmetic happens in
+    `WEEKEND_TZ`, which decides where each weekend begins and ends.
+    """
+    cursor = _skip_weekend(start.astimezone(WEEKEND_TZ))
+    remaining = timedelta(hours=hours)
+    while True:
+        until_weekend = _next_weekend(cursor) - cursor
+        if remaining <= until_weekend:
+            return cursor + remaining
+        remaining -= until_weekend
+        cursor = _skip_weekend(_next_weekend(cursor))
+
+
+def _fmt_list(logins):
+    return ", ".join(f"@{login}" for login in logins) if logins else "none"
+
+
+# Renders as `Wed 2026-08-05 17:00 UTC (10:00 PDT)` — the PMC spans both zones.
+# The Pacific weekday is spelled out only when the deadline falls on a different
+# day there, which is the case that actually trips people up.
+def _fmt_deadline(dt):
+    local = dt.astimezone(DISPLAY_TZ)
+    local_day = "" if local.date() == dt.date() else f"{local:%a }"
+    return f"{dt:%a %Y-%m-%d %H:%M} UTC ({local_day}{local:%H:%M %Z})"
+
+
+def _as_utc(dt):
+    return dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc) if dt.tzinfo is None else dt
+
+
+def _build_comment(
+    headline, approval_cell, head_approval_cell, vetoes, period_cell, rerun_url
+):
+    return "\n".join(
+        [
+            COMMENT_MARKER,
+            "> [!IMPORTANT]",
+            "> ## Format specification vote",
+            "",
+            "This PR modifies the Lance format specification, so it requires "
+            f"**{REQUIRED_APPROVALS} binding +1 votes from PMC members** "
+            "(excluding the proposer), **at least one of them on the latest "
+            f"commit**, and a minimum **{PERIOD_HOURS}-hour** voting period, "
+            "weekends excluded, before it can merge. "
+            "Vote by approving this PR (+1) or requesting changes (−1, a veto). "
+            f"See the [voting process]({VOTING_URL}).",
+            "",
+            "Approvals carry over across pushes, so a rebase or a typo fix does "
+            "not send everyone back to re-vote. Whoever approves the latest "
+            "commit is vouching that nothing substantive has changed since the "
+            "earlier approvals; if something has, ask for fresh votes.",
+            "",
+            f"**Status: {headline}**",
+            "",
+            "| | |",
+            "|---|---|",
+            f"| Approvals | {approval_cell} |",
+            f"| Latest commit approved by | {head_approval_cell} |",
+            f"| Vetoes | {_fmt_list(vetoes)} |",
+            f"| Voting period | {period_cell} |",
+            "",
+            "<sub>Updated automatically by the format-spec vote gate, which "
+            f"re-checks every {SWEEP_MINUTES} minutes — just voted? "
+            f"[Re-check now]({rerun_url}) (press Run workflow; leave the input "
+            "blank to re-check every open format PR). A PMC member may apply "
+            f"the `{WAIVED_LABEL}` label to waive the vote for a trivial edit "
+            "(typo, wording, formatting).</sub>",
+        ]
+    )
+
+
+def _load_pmc(workspace):
+    import yaml
+
+    roster_path = os.path.join(workspace, "docs", "src", "community", "pmc.yaml")
+    with open(roster_path) as handle:
+        roster = yaml.safe_load(handle)
+    return {member["handle"].lower() for member in roster["members"]}
+
+
+class Gate:
+    def __init__(self, repo, pmc, run_url, rerun_url):
+        self.repo = repo
+        self.pmc = pmc
+        self.run_url = run_url
+        self.rerun_url = rerun_url
+
+    def is_pmc(self, login):
+        return login is not None and login.lower() in self.pmc
+
+    def set_status(self, sha, state, description):
+        self.repo.get_commit(sha).create_status(
+            state=state,
+            context=STATUS_CONTEXT,
+            description=description[:140],
+            target_url=self.run_url,
+        )
+
+    def upsert_comment(self, issue, body):
+        for comment in issue.get_comments():
+            if COMMENT_MARKER in (comment.body or ""):
+                if comment.body != body:
+                    comment.edit(body)
+                return
+        issue.create_comment(body)
+
+    def timeline_facts(self, issue):
+        """Read the vote-clock inputs off the PR timeline in one pass."""
+        labeled_at = None
+        waived_by_pmc = False
+        ready_at = None
+        for event in issue.get_events():
+            actor = event.actor.login if event.actor else None
+            # A PR converted back to draft and re-opened for review restarts the
+            # clock, so the *last* ready_for_review wins.
+            if event.event == "ready_for_review":
+                ready_at = _as_utc(event.created_at)
+                continue
+            if event.event != "labeled" or event.label is None:
+                continue
+            if event.label.name == FORMAT_LABEL and labeled_at is None:
+                labeled_at = _as_utc(event.created_at)
+            elif event.label.name == WAIVED_LABEL and self.is_pmc(actor):
+                waived_by_pmc = True
+        return TimelineFacts(labeled_at, waived_by_pmc, ready_at)
+
+    def evaluate(self, number):
+        pr = self.repo.get_pull(number)
+        if pr.state != "open":
+            print(f"PR #{number} is {pr.state}; skipping.")
+            return
+        head_sha = pr.head.sha
+        labels = {label.name for label in pr.labels}
+
+        # Non-format PRs get a passing status and are otherwise left alone.
+        if FORMAT_LABEL not in labels:
+            self.set_status(
+                head_sha, "success", "No format-spec change; vote not required."
+            )
+            print(f"PR #{number}: not a format change.")
+            return
+
+        issue = self.repo.get_issue(number)
+        facts = self.timeline_facts(issue)
+
+        if WAIVED_LABEL in labels and facts.waived:
+            self.set_status(
+                head_sha, "success", "Format-spec vote waived by a PMC member."
+            )
+            print(f"PR #{number}: vote waived.")
+            return
+
+        # Stay quiet on drafts: the proposal isn't up for a vote yet, so there is
+        # nothing for the PMC to act on and no deadline to announce.
+        if pr.draft:
+            self.set_status(
+                head_sha,
+                "failure",
+                "Draft; voting period starts when marked ready for review.",
+            )
+            print(f"PR #{number}: draft, vote not open.")
+            return
+
+        reviews = [
+            {
+                "login": review.user.login if review.user else None,
+                "state": review.state,
+                "commit_id": review.commit_id,
+            }
+            for review in pr.get_reviews()
+        ]
+        approvals, head_approvals, vetoes = tally_reviews(
+            reviews, head_sha, pr.user.login, self.is_pmc
+        )
+
+        now = datetime.now(timezone.utc)
+        # `pr.created_at` covers a PR opened ready for review, which never emits a
+        # ready_for_review event.
+        opened_at = vote_opened_at(
+            facts.labeled_at, facts.ready_at or _as_utc(pr.created_at)
+        )
+        period_ends = weekday_deadline(opened_at or now, PERIOD_HOURS)
+        period_elapsed = now >= period_ends
+        verdict = decide_verdict(
+            len(vetoes),
+            len(approvals),
+            len(head_approvals),
+            period_elapsed,
+            REQUIRED_APPROVALS,
+        )
+
+        deadline = _fmt_deadline(period_ends)
+        if verdict == "veto":
+            state, summary = "failure", f"Vetoed by {len(vetoes)} PMC member(s)."
+            headline = f"❌ Blocked — vetoed by {_fmt_list(vetoes)}"
+        elif verdict == "insufficient":
+            state = "failure"
+            summary = f"{len(approvals)}/{REQUIRED_APPROVALS} PMC approvals."
+            headline = f"❌ Blocked — {len(approvals)} of {REQUIRED_APPROVALS} required approvals"
+        elif verdict == "unconfirmed":
+            state = "failure"
+            summary = f"{len(approvals)} PMC approvals, but none on the latest commit."
+            headline = (
+                f"❌ Blocked — {len(approvals)} approvals, but none on the latest "
+                "commit; one PMC member must approve it"
+            )
+        elif verdict == "waiting_period":
+            state, summary = "failure", f"Approved; voting period ends {deadline}."
+            headline = (
+                f"⏳ Approvals met ({len(approvals)}/{REQUIRED_APPROVALS}); "
+                f"voting period ends {deadline}"
+            )
+        else:
+            state = "success"
+            summary = f"Passed — {len(approvals)} PMC approvals, period elapsed."
+            headline = f"✅ Vote passed — {len(approvals)} PMC approvals, voting period elapsed"
+
+        period_cell = (
+            f"elapsed — ended {deadline}" if period_elapsed else f"ends {deadline}"
+        )
+        approval_cell = (
+            f"{_fmt_list(approvals)} ({len(approvals)}/{REQUIRED_APPROVALS})"
+        )
+        head_approval_cell = (
+            _fmt_list(head_approvals)
+            if head_approvals
+            else "none — one PMC member must approve the latest commit"
+        )
+
+        self.set_status(head_sha, state, summary)
+        self.upsert_comment(
+            issue,
+            _build_comment(
+                headline,
+                approval_cell,
+                head_approval_cell,
+                vetoes,
+                period_cell,
+                self.rerun_url,
+            ),
+        )
+        print(f"PR #{number}: {summary}")
+
+
+def main():
+    from github import Github
+
+    workspace = os.environ["GITHUB_WORKSPACE"]
+    token = os.environ["GITHUB_TOKEN"]
+    repo_name = os.environ["GITHUB_REPOSITORY"]
+    event_name = os.environ["GITHUB_EVENT_NAME"]
+    actions_url = f"{os.environ['GITHUB_SERVER_URL']}/{repo_name}/actions"
+    run_url = f"{actions_url}/runs/{os.environ['GITHUB_RUN_ID']}"
+    rerun_url = f"{actions_url}/workflows/{WORKFLOW_FILE}"
+
+    repo = Github(token).get_repo(repo_name)
+    gate = Gate(repo, _load_pmc(workspace), run_url, rerun_url)
+    print(f"Re-check on demand: {rerun_url}")
+
+    if event_name in ("schedule", "workflow_dispatch"):
+        # Neither trigger carries PR context. A manual run may name one PR;
+        # otherwise sweep every open format-change PR.
+        requested = os.environ.get("GATE_PR", "").strip()
+        if requested:
+            gate.evaluate(int(requested))
+            return
+        pulls = [
+            pr
+            for pr in repo.get_pulls(state="open")
+            if any(label.name == FORMAT_LABEL for label in pr.labels)
+        ]
+        print(f"Sweep: {len(pulls)} open {FORMAT_LABEL} PR(s).")
+        for pr in pulls:
+            try:
+                gate.evaluate(pr.number)
+            except Exception as err:  # noqa: BLE001 - keep sweeping other PRs
+                print(f"PR #{pr.number}: {err}")
+    else:
+        with open(os.environ["GITHUB_EVENT_PATH"]) as handle:
+            event = json.load(handle)
+        gate.evaluate(event["pull_request"]["number"])
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/ci/new_contributors.py b/ci/new_contributors.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..50c6382bf9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/new_contributors.py
@@ -0,0 +1,280 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+"""
+Usage: python ci/new_contributors.py
+
+Counts commits by authors in the last year, including co-authors.
+Only shows contributors without write permission to the repository.
+"""
+
+import json
+import re
+import subprocess
+import sys
+from collections import defaultdict
+from datetime import datetime, timedelta
+from pathlib import Path
+
+REPO = "lance-format/lance"
+CACHE_DIR = Path.home() / ".cache" / "lance"
+CACHE_FILE = CACHE_DIR / "contributor_stats_cache.json"
+
+# Emails to exclude from results (bots, automated accounts, etc.)
+EXCLUDED_EMAILS = {
+    "noreply@anthropic.com",
+    "lance-dev@lancedb.com",
+    "dev+gha@lance.org",
+}
+
+
+def load_username_cache() -> dict[str, str]:
+    """Load cached email -> username mappings."""
+    if CACHE_FILE.exists():
+        try:
+            with open(CACHE_FILE) as f:
+                return json.load(f)
+        except (json.JSONDecodeError, OSError):
+            return {}
+    return {}
+
+
+def save_username_cache(cache: dict[str, str]) -> None:
+    """Save email -> username mappings to cache."""
+    try:
+        CACHE_DIR.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+        with open(CACHE_FILE, "w") as f:
+            json.dump(cache, f, indent=2)
+    except OSError as e:
+        print(f"Warning: Could not save cache: {e}", file=sys.stderr)
+
+
+def get_commits_last_year() -> list[dict]:
+    """Get all commits from the last year with author and body."""
+    one_year_ago = (datetime.now() - timedelta(days=365)).strftime("%Y-%m-%d")
+
+    result = subprocess.run(
+        [
+            "git",
+            "log",
+            f"--since={one_year_ago}",
+            "--format=%H%x00%an%x00%ae%x00%b%x00%x01",
+        ],
+        capture_output=True,
+        text=True,
+        check=True,
+    )
+
+    commits = []
+    for entry in result.stdout.split("\x01"):
+        entry = entry.strip()
+        if not entry:
+            continue
+        parts = entry.split("\x00")
+        if len(parts) >= 4:
+            commits.append(
+                {
+                    "hash": parts[0],
+                    "author_name": parts[1],
+                    "author_email": parts[2],
+                    "body": parts[3],
+                }
+            )
+    return commits
+
+
+def extract_co_authors(body: str) -> list[tuple[str, str]]:
+    """Extract co-authors from commit body.
+
+    Returns list of (name, email) tuples.
+    """
+    co_authors = []
+    pattern = r"Co-authored-by:\s*(.+?)\s*<([^>]+)>"
+    for match in re.finditer(pattern, body, re.IGNORECASE):
+        co_authors.append((match.group(1).strip(), match.group(2).strip()))
+    return co_authors
+
+
+def get_github_username_from_email(email: str) -> str | None:
+    """Try to get GitHub username from email pattern."""
+    # Handle GitHub noreply emails
+    match = re.match(r"(\d+\+)?([^@]+)@users\.noreply\.github\.com", email)
+    if match:
+        return match.group(2)
+    return None
+
+
+def resolve_usernames_via_api(
+    email_to_sample_commit: dict[str, str],
+    cache: dict[str, str],
+) -> dict[str, str]:
+    """Get GitHub usernames by querying one sample commit per email.
+
+    Uses cache for previously resolved emails.
+    Returns mapping of email -> GitHub username.
+    """
+    email_to_username: dict[str, str] = {}
+
+    # Check cache first
+    uncached_emails = {}
+    for email, sha in email_to_sample_commit.items():
+        if email in cache:
+            email_to_username[email] = cache[email]
+        else:
+            uncached_emails[email] = sha
+
+    if uncached_emails:
+        items = list(uncached_emails.items())
+        total = len(items)
+        cached_count = len(email_to_sample_commit) - total
+        if cached_count > 0:
+            print(
+                f"  Found {cached_count} cached, resolving {total} via API...",
+                file=sys.stderr,
+            )
+
+        for i, (email, sha) in enumerate(items):
+            result = subprocess.run(
+                [
+                    "gh",
+                    "api",
+                    f"repos/{REPO}/commits/{sha}",
+                    "--jq",
+                    ".author.login // empty",
+                ],
+                capture_output=True,
+                text=True,
+            )
+            if result.returncode == 0:
+                username = result.stdout.strip()
+                if username:
+                    email_to_username[email] = username
+                    cache[email] = username
+
+            if (i + 1) % 20 == 0:
+                print(f"  Resolved {i + 1}/{total} authors...", file=sys.stderr)
+
+    return email_to_username
+
+
+def get_collaborators_with_write() -> set[str]:
+    """Get set of GitHub usernames with write permission."""
+    collaborators = set()
+
+    # Get collaborators with push/admin/maintain permission
+    result = subprocess.run(
+        [
+            "gh",
+            "api",
+            f"repos/{REPO}/collaborators",
+            "--paginate",
+            "--jq",
+            ".[] | select(.permissions.push == true or .permissions.admin == true or .permissions.maintain == true) | .login",
+        ],
+        capture_output=True,
+        text=True,
+    )
+    if result.returncode == 0:
+        for line in result.stdout.strip().split("\n"):
+            if line:
+                collaborators.add(line.lower())
+
+    return collaborators
+
+
+def main():
+    print("Fetching commits from the last year...", file=sys.stderr)
+    commits = get_commits_last_year()
+    print(f"Found {len(commits)} commits", file=sys.stderr)
+
+    # Load username cache
+    username_cache = load_username_cache()
+
+    # Count commits per author (by email, since that's more reliable)
+    # Also track one sample commit hash per email for API resolution
+    author_commits: dict[str, int] = defaultdict(int)
+    email_to_name: dict[str, str] = {}
+    email_to_sample_commit: dict[str, str] = {}
+
+    for commit in commits:
+        # Add main author
+        email = commit["author_email"].lower()
+        author_commits[email] += 1
+        email_to_name[email] = commit["author_name"]
+        if email not in email_to_sample_commit:
+            email_to_sample_commit[email] = commit["hash"]
+
+        # Add co-authors (they don't have commit hashes, so we can't resolve via API)
+        for name, co_email in extract_co_authors(commit["body"]):
+            co_email = co_email.lower()
+            author_commits[co_email] += 1
+            if co_email not in email_to_name:
+                email_to_name[co_email] = name
+
+    print(f"Found {len(author_commits)} unique authors", file=sys.stderr)
+
+    # First pass: get usernames from email patterns (noreply emails)
+    email_to_username: dict[str, str | None] = {}
+    for email in author_commits:
+        email_to_username[email] = get_github_username_from_email(email)
+
+    # Second pass: resolve remaining emails via GitHub API (only for main authors)
+    emails_to_resolve = {
+        email: sha
+        for email, sha in email_to_sample_commit.items()
+        if email_to_username.get(email) is None
+    }
+    print(
+        f"Resolving {len(emails_to_resolve)} usernames via GitHub API...",
+        file=sys.stderr,
+    )
+    api_mappings = resolve_usernames_via_api(emails_to_resolve, username_cache)
+    for email, username in api_mappings.items():
+        email_to_username[email] = username
+
+    # Save updated cache
+    save_username_cache(username_cache)
+
+    # Get collaborators with write permission
+    print("Fetching repository collaborators...", file=sys.stderr)
+    write_collaborators = get_collaborators_with_write()
+    print(
+        f"Found {len(write_collaborators)} collaborators with write access",
+        file=sys.stderr,
+    )
+
+    # Filter to only non-write contributors
+    non_write_contributors = []
+    for email, count in author_commits.items():
+        # Skip excluded emails
+        if email in EXCLUDED_EMAILS:
+            continue
+        username = email_to_username.get(email)
+        if username and username.lower() in write_collaborators:
+            continue
+        # Include if we couldn't determine username or if they don't have write access
+        non_write_contributors.append(
+            {
+                "email": email,
+                "name": email_to_name[email],
+                "username": username,
+                "commits": count,
+            }
+        )
+
+    # Sort by commit count descending
+    non_write_contributors.sort(key=lambda x: x["commits"], reverse=True)
+
+    # Print results
+    print("\nContributors without write permission (sorted by commit count):\n")
+    print(f"{'Commits':<10} {'Username':<25} {'Name':<30} {'Email'}")
+    print("-" * 100)
+    for contributor in non_write_contributors:
+        username = contributor["username"] or "(unknown)"
+        print(
+            f"{contributor['commits']:<10} {username:<25} {contributor['name']:<30} {contributor['email']}"
+        )
+
+    print(f"\nTotal: {len(non_write_contributors)} contributors without write access")
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/ci/publish_beta.sh b/ci/publish_beta.sh
index 43747f32cd8..06fa5c16a91 100644
--- a/ci/publish_beta.sh
+++ b/ci/publish_beta.sh
@@ -93,9 +93,9 @@ if [[ "${BRANCH}" == "main" ]] && [[ "${CURRENT_VERSION}" =~ -beta\.[0-9]+$ ]];
                 bump-my-version bump -vv --new-version "${NEXT_VERSION}" --no-tag patch
 
                 # Update Cargo.lock files after version bump
-                cargo update
-                (cd python && cargo update)
-                (cd java/lance-jni && cargo update)
+                cargo update --workspace
+                (cd python && cargo update --workspace)
+                (cd java/lance-jni && cargo update --workspace)
 
                 git add -A
                 git commit -m "chore: bump to ${NEXT_VERSION} based on breaking change detection"
@@ -133,9 +133,9 @@ echo "Bumping beta version"
 bump-my-version bump -vv prerelease_num
 
 # Update Cargo.lock files after version bump
-cargo update
-(cd python && cargo update)
-(cd java/lance-jni && cargo update)
+cargo update --workspace
+(cd python && cargo update --workspace)
+(cd java/lance-jni && cargo update --workspace)
 
 # Get new version
 NEW_VERSION=$(grep '^version = ' Cargo.toml | head -n1 | cut -d'"' -f2)
@@ -169,17 +169,32 @@ fi
 BETA_MAJOR=$(echo "${NEW_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f1)
 BETA_MINOR=$(echo "${NEW_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f2)
 BETA_PATCH=$(echo "${NEW_VERSION}" | cut -d. -f3 | cut -d- -f1)
+BETA_NUM=$(echo "${NEW_VERSION}" | sed 's/.*-beta\.//')
 
 if [[ "${BRANCH}" == "main" ]]; then
-    # For main branch: compare against release-root tag
-    BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="release-root/${BETA_MAJOR}.${BETA_MINOR}.${BETA_PATCH}-beta.N"
-
-    if git rev-parse "${BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
-        echo "Release notes will compare from ${BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG} to ${BETA_TAG}"
-        RELEASE_NOTES_FROM="${BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
+    # For main branch:
+    # - First beta (beta.1): compare against release-root tag (all changes since last RC)
+    # - Subsequent betas (beta.2+): compare against previous beta tag (incremental changes)
+    if [ "${BETA_NUM}" -eq 1 ]; then
+        BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="release-root/${BETA_MAJOR}.${BETA_MINOR}.${BETA_PATCH}-beta.N"
+        if git rev-parse "${BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
+            echo "First beta: release notes will compare from ${BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG} to ${BETA_TAG}"
+            RELEASE_NOTES_FROM="${BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
+        else
+            echo "Warning: Release root tag ${BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG} not found"
+            RELEASE_NOTES_FROM=""
+        fi
     else
-        echo "Warning: Release root tag ${BETA_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG} not found"
-        RELEASE_NOTES_FROM=""
+        # For beta.2+, compare against previous beta
+        PREV_BETA_NUM=$((BETA_NUM - 1))
+        PREV_BETA_TAG="${TAG_PREFIX}${BETA_MAJOR}.${BETA_MINOR}.${BETA_PATCH}-beta.${PREV_BETA_NUM}"
+        if git rev-parse "${PREV_BETA_TAG}" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
+            echo "Subsequent beta: release notes will compare from ${PREV_BETA_TAG} to ${BETA_TAG}"
+            RELEASE_NOTES_FROM="${PREV_BETA_TAG}"
+        else
+            echo "Warning: Previous beta tag ${PREV_BETA_TAG} not found"
+            RELEASE_NOTES_FROM=""
+        fi
     fi
 elif [[ "${BRANCH}" =~ ^release/ ]]; then
     # For release branch: compare against last stable tag
diff --git a/ci/release_common.sh b/ci/release_common.sh
index bea245919fa..573202d1689 100644
--- a/ci/release_common.sh
+++ b/ci/release_common.sh
@@ -29,9 +29,9 @@ bump_and_commit_version() {
     bump-my-version bump -vv --new-version "${NEW_VERSION}" --no-tag patch
 
     # Update Cargo.lock files after version bump
-    cargo update
-    (cd python && cargo update)
-    (cd java/lance-jni && cargo update)
+    cargo update --workspace
+    (cd python && cargo update --workspace)
+    (cd java/lance-jni && cargo update --workspace)
 
     git add -A
     git commit -m "${COMMIT_MESSAGE}"
@@ -40,6 +40,12 @@ bump_and_commit_version() {
 # Determines the previous tag for release notes comparison
 # Args: MAJOR MINOR PATCH [TAG_PREFIX]
 # Returns: previous tag name or empty string
+#
+# For major/minor releases (PATCH=0):
+#   - Checks for minor-release-root tag (minor release from release branch)
+#   - Otherwise uses release-root tag (standard flow from main)
+# For patch releases (PATCH>0):
+#   - Compares against previous patch stable tag
 determine_previous_tag() {
     local MAJOR=$1
     local MINOR=$2
@@ -47,7 +53,19 @@ determine_previous_tag() {
     local TAG_PREFIX=${4:-"v"}
 
     if [ "${PATCH}" = "0" ]; then
-        # Major/Minor release: compare against release-root tag
+        # Major/Minor release: check for minor-release-root tag first
+        # This tag is created when a minor release is cut from a release branch
+        local MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="minor-release-root/${MAJOR}.${MINOR}.0"
+        if git rev-parse "${MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
+            # Read the source tag from the tag message
+            local SOURCE_TAG=$(git tag -l --format='%(contents:subject)' "${MINOR_RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}")
+            if [ -n "${SOURCE_TAG}" ]; then
+                echo "${SOURCE_TAG}"
+                return
+            fi
+        fi
+
+        # Standard flow: use release-root tag
         local RELEASE_ROOT_TAG="release-root/${MAJOR}.${MINOR}.${PATCH}-beta.N"
         if git rev-parse "${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}" >/dev/null 2>&1; then
             echo "${RELEASE_ROOT_TAG}"
diff --git a/ci/review_stats.py b/ci/review_stats.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7e0dc796ac1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/review_stats.py
@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+"""
+Usage: python ci/review_stats.py
+
+Counts code reviews by contributors in the last 30 days.
+Users without write permission are marked with an asterisk (*).
+"""
+
+import json
+import subprocess
+import sys
+from collections import defaultdict
+from datetime import datetime, timedelta
+from pathlib import Path
+
+REPO = "lance-format/lance"
+CACHE_DIR = Path.home() / ".cache" / "lance"
+CACHE_FILE = CACHE_DIR / "review_stats_cache.json"
+
+
+def load_cache() -> dict:
+    """Load cached data."""
+    if CACHE_FILE.exists():
+        try:
+            with open(CACHE_FILE) as f:
+                return json.load(f)
+        except (json.JSONDecodeError, OSError):
+            return {}
+    return {}
+
+
+def save_cache(cache: dict) -> None:
+    """Save data to cache."""
+    try:
+        CACHE_DIR.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+        with open(CACHE_FILE, "w") as f:
+            json.dump(cache, f, indent=2)
+    except OSError as e:
+        print(f"Warning: Could not save cache: {e}", file=sys.stderr)
+
+
+def get_prs_last_30_days() -> list[int]:
+    """Get all merged PR numbers from the last 30 days using search API."""
+    cutoff_date = (datetime.now() - timedelta(days=30)).strftime("%Y-%m-%d")
+
+    pr_numbers = []
+    page = 1
+    per_page = 100
+
+    print("Fetching PRs from the last 30 days...", file=sys.stderr)
+    while True:
+        # Use search API for better date filtering
+        query = f"repo:{REPO} is:pr is:merged merged:>={cutoff_date}"
+        result = subprocess.run(
+            [
+                "gh",
+                "api",
+                "search/issues",
+                "-X",
+                "GET",
+                "-f",
+                f"q={query}",
+                "-f",
+                f"per_page={per_page}",
+                "-f",
+                f"page={page}",
+                "--jq",
+                ".items[].number",
+            ],
+            capture_output=True,
+            text=True,
+        )
+        if result.returncode != 0 or not result.stdout.strip():
+            break
+
+        numbers = [int(n) for n in result.stdout.strip().split("\n") if n]
+        if not numbers:
+            break
+
+        pr_numbers.extend(numbers)
+        print(
+            f"  Fetched page {page} ({len(pr_numbers)} PRs so far)...", file=sys.stderr
+        )
+
+        if len(numbers) < per_page:
+            break
+        page += 1
+
+    return pr_numbers
+
+
+def get_reviews_for_pr(pr_number: int) -> list[str]:
+    """Get list of reviewer usernames for a PR."""
+    result = subprocess.run(
+        [
+            "gh",
+            "api",
+            f"repos/{REPO}/pulls/{pr_number}/reviews",
+            "--jq",
+            ".[].user.login",
+        ],
+        capture_output=True,
+        text=True,
+    )
+    if result.returncode != 0:
+        return []
+
+    return [u for u in result.stdout.strip().split("\n") if u]
+
+
+def get_collaborators_with_write() -> set[str]:
+    """Get set of GitHub usernames with write permission."""
+    collaborators = set()
+
+    result = subprocess.run(
+        [
+            "gh",
+            "api",
+            f"repos/{REPO}/collaborators",
+            "--paginate",
+            "--jq",
+            ".[] | select(.permissions.push == true or .permissions.admin == true or .permissions.maintain == true) | .login",
+        ],
+        capture_output=True,
+        text=True,
+    )
+    if result.returncode == 0:
+        for line in result.stdout.strip().split("\n"):
+            if line:
+                collaborators.add(line.lower())
+
+    return collaborators
+
+
+def main():
+    cache = load_cache()
+
+    # Get PRs from the last 30 days
+    pr_numbers = get_prs_last_30_days()
+    print(f"Found {len(pr_numbers)} merged PRs", file=sys.stderr)
+
+    # Get reviews for each PR
+    print("Fetching reviews...", file=sys.stderr)
+    review_counts: dict[str, int] = defaultdict(int)
+    cached_prs = cache.get("pr_reviews", {})
+    uncached_count = 0
+
+    for i, pr_num in enumerate(pr_numbers):
+        pr_key = str(pr_num)
+        if pr_key in cached_prs:
+            reviewers = cached_prs[pr_key]
+        else:
+            reviewers = get_reviews_for_pr(pr_num)
+            cached_prs[pr_key] = reviewers
+            uncached_count += 1
+
+        for reviewer in reviewers:
+            review_counts[reviewer.lower()] += 1
+
+        if (i + 1) % 50 == 0:
+            print(f"  Processed {i + 1}/{len(pr_numbers)} PRs...", file=sys.stderr)
+
+    cache["pr_reviews"] = cached_prs
+    save_cache(cache)
+
+    if uncached_count > 0:
+        print(
+            f"  Fetched {uncached_count} PRs via API, {len(pr_numbers) - uncached_count} from cache",
+            file=sys.stderr,
+        )
+
+    # Get collaborators with write permission
+    print("Fetching repository collaborators...", file=sys.stderr)
+    write_collaborators = get_collaborators_with_write()
+    print(
+        f"Found {len(write_collaborators)} collaborators with write access",
+        file=sys.stderr,
+    )
+
+    # Build results list
+    reviewers = []
+    for username, count in review_counts.items():
+        has_write = username in write_collaborators
+        reviewers.append(
+            {
+                "username": username,
+                "reviews": count,
+                "has_write": has_write,
+            }
+        )
+
+    # Sort by review count descending
+    reviewers.sort(key=lambda x: x["reviews"], reverse=True)
+
+    # Print results
+    print("\nCode reviews by contributor (sorted by review count):\n")
+    print("* = no write permission\n")
+    print(f"{'Reviews':<10} {'Username':<30}")
+    print("-" * 40)
+    for reviewer in reviewers:
+        marker = "" if reviewer["has_write"] else "*"
+        print(f"{reviewer['reviews']:<10} {reviewer['username']:<30} {marker}")
+
+    total_with_write = sum(1 for r in reviewers if r["has_write"])
+    total_without_write = len(reviewers) - total_with_write
+    print(
+        f"\nTotal: {len(reviewers)} reviewers ({total_with_write} with write access, {total_without_write} without)"
+    )
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/ci/test_check_dependency_age.py b/ci/test_check_dependency_age.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d9b29e6b460
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/test_check_dependency_age.py
@@ -0,0 +1,208 @@
+"""Unit tests for the crates.io dependency age check.
+
+Run with: pytest ci/test_check_dependency_age.py
+"""
+
+import json
+from datetime import datetime, timedelta, timezone
+
+import pytest
+
+from check_dependency_age import (
+    check_lockfile,
+    crates_io_packages,
+    index_path,
+    load_allowlist,
+    parse_api_response,
+    parse_cache_file,
+    parse_index_response,
+    too_new,
+)
+
+NOW = datetime(2026, 9, 16, 12, 0, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+CUTOFF = NOW - timedelta(hours=48)
+
+
+def cache_blob(entries):
+    """Build a cargo index cache file the way cargo lays one out."""
+    out = b"\x03\x02\x00\x00\x00" + b'etag: "abc"' + b"\x00"
+    for version, pubtime in entries.items():
+        entry = {"name": "demo", "vers": version, "deps": [], "yanked": False}
+        if pubtime is not None:
+            entry["pubtime"] = pubtime
+        out += version.encode() + b"\x00" + json.dumps(entry).encode() + b"\x00"
+    return out
+
+
+def lockfile(packages):
+    blocks = ["version = 4\n"]
+    for name, version, source in packages:
+        block = f'[[package]]\nname = "{name}"\nversion = "{version}"\n'
+        if source is not None:
+            block += f'source = "{source}"\n'
+        blocks.append(block)
+    return "\n".join(blocks)
+
+
+CRATES_IO = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("name", "expected"),
+    [
+        pytest.param("a", "1/a", id="one_char"),
+        pytest.param("ab", "2/ab", id="two_chars"),
+        pytest.param("abc", "3/a/abc", id="three_chars"),
+        pytest.param("serde", "se/rd/serde", id="long"),
+        pytest.param("Inflector", "in/fl/inflector", id="uppercase_is_folded"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_index_path(name, expected):
+    assert index_path(name) == expected
+
+
+def test_parse_cache_file_reads_pubtimes():
+    blob = cache_blob({"1.0.0": "2020-01-01T00:00:00Z", "1.1.0": None})
+    assert parse_cache_file(blob) == {
+        "1.0.0": "2020-01-01T00:00:00Z",
+        "1.1.0": None,
+    }
+
+
+def test_parse_cache_file_tolerates_an_unknown_layout():
+    """A cargo change to the cache format must degrade to the HTTP fallback."""
+    assert parse_cache_file(b"\x09\x99{not json at all}\x00") == {}
+
+
+def test_parse_index_response_reads_newline_delimited_json():
+    body = b'{"vers":"1.0.0","pubtime":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z"}\n{"vers":"2.0.0"}\n'
+    assert parse_index_response(body) == {
+        "1.0.0": "2020-01-01T00:00:00Z",
+        "2.0.0": None,
+    }
+
+
+def test_parse_api_response_reads_created_at():
+    body = b'{"versions":[{"num":"1.0.0","created_at":"2020-01-01T00:00:00.123456Z"}]}'
+    assert parse_api_response(body) == {"1.0.0": "2020-01-01T00:00:00.123456Z"}
+
+
+def test_crates_io_packages_ignores_path_and_git_packages():
+    text = lockfile(
+        [
+            ("serde", "1.0.0", CRATES_IO),
+            ("lance", "0.1.0", None),
+            ("forked", "0.2.0", "git+https://example.com/forked#abc123"),
+        ]
+    )
+    assert crates_io_packages(text) == [("serde", "1.0.0")]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("pubtime", "expected"),
+    [
+        pytest.param("2026-09-10T00:00:00Z", [], id="old"),
+        pytest.param("2026-09-14T11:59:00Z", [], id="just_past_cutoff"),
+        pytest.param("2026-09-14T12:01:00Z", [("serde", "1.0.0")], id="just_too_new"),
+        pytest.param("2026-09-16T11:00:00Z", [("serde", "1.0.0")], id="an_hour_old"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_too_new_uses_the_cutoff_as_the_boundary(pubtime, expected):
+    violations = too_new({("serde", "1.0.0"): pubtime}, CUTOFF)
+    assert [(name, version) for name, version, _ in violations] == expected
+
+
+def cargo_home_with(tmp_path, crates):
+    home = tmp_path / "cargo"
+    for name, entries in crates.items():
+        path = (
+            home / "registry/index/index.crates.io-1949cf8c/.cache" / index_path(name)
+        )
+        path.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+        path.write_bytes(cache_blob(entries))
+    return home
+
+
+def test_load_allowlist_is_empty_when_the_file_is_absent(tmp_path):
+    assert load_allowlist(tmp_path / "nope.toml") == {}
+
+
+def test_load_allowlist_reads_entries(tmp_path):
+    path = tmp_path / "allow.toml"
+    path.write_text(
+        '[[allow]]\ncrate = "serde"\nversion = "1.0.0"\nreason = "RUSTSEC-0"\n'
+    )
+    assert load_allowlist(path) == {("serde", "1.0.0"): "RUSTSEC-0"}
+
+
+def test_load_allowlist_rejects_an_entry_without_a_reason(tmp_path):
+    """An exemption with no rationale is not reviewable, so refuse to run."""
+    path = tmp_path / "allow.toml"
+    path.write_text('[[allow]]\ncrate = "serde"\nversion = "1.0.0"\n')
+    with pytest.raises(SystemExit, match="reason"):
+        load_allowlist(path)
+
+
+def test_check_lockfile_passes_when_every_version_is_old_enough(tmp_path, capsys):
+    lock = tmp_path / "Cargo.lock"
+    lock.write_text(lockfile([("serde", "1.0.0", CRATES_IO)]))
+    home = cargo_home_with(tmp_path, {"serde": {"1.0.0": "2026-09-01T00:00:00Z"}})
+
+    assert check_lockfile(lock, CUTOFF, home, {}) is True
+    assert capsys.readouterr().out == ""
+
+
+def test_check_lockfile_reports_a_too_new_version(tmp_path, capsys):
+    lock = tmp_path / "Cargo.lock"
+    lock.write_text(lockfile([("serde", "1.0.0", CRATES_IO)]))
+    home = cargo_home_with(tmp_path, {"serde": {"1.0.0": "2026-09-16T00:00:00Z"}})
+
+    assert check_lockfile(lock, CUTOFF, home, {}) is False
+    assert "serde 1.0.0 is too new" in capsys.readouterr().out
+
+
+def test_check_lockfile_accepts_versions_predating_pubtime(tmp_path, capsys):
+    lock = tmp_path / "Cargo.lock"
+    lock.write_text(lockfile([("serde", "1.0.0", CRATES_IO)]))
+    home = cargo_home_with(tmp_path, {"serde": {"1.0.0": None}})
+
+    assert check_lockfile(lock, CUTOFF, home, {}) is True
+    assert "1 of 1 versions predate `pubtime`" in capsys.readouterr().out
+
+
+def test_check_lockfile_fails_when_the_index_does_not_list_the_version(
+    tmp_path, capsys, monkeypatch
+):
+    """An undatable version is a hole in the check, so it must not pass silently."""
+    monkeypatch.setattr("check_dependency_age.pubtimes_from_index", lambda names: {})
+    monkeypatch.setattr("check_dependency_age.pubtimes_from_api", lambda names: {})
+    lock = tmp_path / "Cargo.lock"
+    lock.write_text(lockfile([("serde", "9.9.9", CRATES_IO)]))
+    home = cargo_home_with(tmp_path, {"serde": {"1.0.0": "2026-09-01T00:00:00Z"}})
+
+    assert check_lockfile(lock, CUTOFF, home, {}) is False
+    assert "serde 9.9.9 is not in the index" in capsys.readouterr().out
+
+
+def test_check_lockfile_honours_an_allowlisted_version(tmp_path, capsys):
+    lock = tmp_path / "Cargo.lock"
+    lock.write_text(lockfile([("serde", "1.0.0", CRATES_IO)]))
+    home = cargo_home_with(tmp_path, {"serde": {"1.0.0": "2026-09-16T00:00:00Z"}})
+    allowed = {("serde", "1.0.0"): "RUSTSEC-0"}
+
+    assert check_lockfile(lock, CUTOFF, home, allowed) is True
+    assert "too new" not in capsys.readouterr().out
+
+
+def test_check_lockfile_allowlist_also_covers_an_undatable_version(
+    tmp_path, capsys, monkeypatch
+):
+    """Aikido hides allowlisted-but-young versions from the index it serves."""
+    monkeypatch.setattr("check_dependency_age.pubtimes_from_index", lambda names: {})
+    monkeypatch.setattr("check_dependency_age.pubtimes_from_api", lambda names: {})
+    lock = tmp_path / "Cargo.lock"
+    lock.write_text(lockfile([("serde", "9.9.9", CRATES_IO)]))
+    home = cargo_home_with(tmp_path, {"serde": {"1.0.0": "2026-09-01T00:00:00Z"}})
+
+    assert check_lockfile(lock, CUTOFF, home, {("serde", "9.9.9"): "RUSTSEC-0"}) is True
+    assert capsys.readouterr().out == ""
diff --git a/ci/test_check_proto_comments.py b/ci/test_check_proto_comments.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..61fa7bf192e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/test_check_proto_comments.py
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+"""Unit tests for the .proto multi-line comment style check.
+
+Run with: pytest ci/test_check_proto_comments.py
+"""
+
+import pytest
+
+from check_proto_comments import rewrite
+
+HEADER = "// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0\n// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors\n"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "source",
+    [
+        pytest.param(HEADER, id="license_header"),
+        pytest.param("// A single line comment.\nmessage M {}\n", id="single_line"),
+        pytest.param("/// A single doc comment.\nmessage M {}\n", id="single_doc_line"),
+        pytest.param(
+            "message M {\n  int32 a = 1; // Trailing.\n  int32 b = 2; // Also trailing.\n}\n",
+            id="trailing",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            "/* Already a block\n * comment.\n */\nmessage M {}\n", id="already_block"
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_leaves_compliant_comments_alone(source):
+    assert rewrite(source) == source
+
+
+def test_rewrites_multi_line_run_as_block():
+    source = "// First line.\n// Second line.\nmessage M {}\n"
+    assert rewrite(source) == "/* First line.\n * Second line.\n */\nmessage M {}\n"
+
+
+def test_preserves_content_columns_and_indent():
+    source = "message M {\n  // Offsets are laid out as:\n  //   i == 0: 0\n  //   i >  0: prev\n  int32 a = 1;\n}\n"
+    assert rewrite(source) == (
+        "message M {\n  /* Offsets are laid out as:\n   *   i == 0: 0\n   *   i >  0: prev\n   */\n  int32 a = 1;\n}\n"
+    )
+
+
+def test_blank_comment_lines_carry_no_trailing_whitespace():
+    source = "// First paragraph.\n//\n// Second paragraph.\nmessage M {}\n"
+    assert (
+        rewrite(source)
+        == "/* First paragraph.\n *\n * Second paragraph.\n */\nmessage M {}\n"
+    )
+
+
+def test_rewrites_doc_comment_run():
+    source = "/// First line.\n/// Second line.\nmessage M {}\n"
+    assert rewrite(source) == "/* First line.\n * Second line.\n */\nmessage M {}\n"
+
+
+def test_splits_runs_at_differing_indent():
+    source = "// Outer.\n// Outer continued.\nmessage M {\n  // Inner.\n  // Inner continued.\n  int32 a = 1;\n}\n"
+    assert rewrite(source) == (
+        "/* Outer.\n * Outer continued.\n */\nmessage M {\n  /* Inner.\n   * Inner continued.\n   */\n  int32 a = 1;\n}\n"
+    )
+
+
+def test_keeps_license_header_when_file_starts_with_it():
+    source = HEADER + "\n// Doc line one.\n// Doc line two.\nmessage M {}\n"
+    assert (
+        rewrite(source)
+        == HEADER + "\n/* Doc line one.\n * Doc line two.\n */\nmessage M {}\n"
+    )
+
+
+def test_is_idempotent():
+    once = rewrite("// First line.\n// Second line.\nmessage M {}\n")
+    assert rewrite(once) == once
+
+
+def test_converts_a_comment_run_that_abuts_the_license_header():
+    source = HEADER + "// Doc line one.\n// Doc line two.\nmessage M {}\n"
+    assert (
+        rewrite(source)
+        == HEADER + "/* Doc line one.\n * Doc line two.\n */\nmessage M {}\n"
+    )
diff --git a/ci/test_format_vote_gate.py b/ci/test_format_vote_gate.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..944b5053d93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/test_format_vote_gate.py
@@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
+"""Unit tests for the format-spec vote gate logic.
+
+Run with: pytest ci/test_format_vote_gate.py
+"""
+
+from datetime import datetime, timedelta, timezone
+
+import pytest
+
+from format_vote_gate import (
+    PERIOD_HOURS,
+    decide_verdict,
+    tally_reviews,
+    vote_opened_at,
+    weekday_deadline,
+)
+
+HEAD = "sha_head"
+PMC = {"alice", "bob", "carol", "dave"}
+
+
+def is_pmc(login):
+    return login is not None and login.lower() in PMC
+
+
+def review(login, state, commit_id=HEAD):
+    return {"login": login, "state": state, "commit_id": commit_id}
+
+
+def test_counts_distinct_pmc_approvals_on_head_commit():
+    approvals, head_approvals, vetoes = tally_reviews(
+        [
+            review("alice", "APPROVED"),
+            review("bob", "APPROVED"),
+            review("carol", "APPROVED"),
+        ],
+        HEAD,
+        "author",
+        is_pmc,
+    )
+    assert sorted(approvals) == ["alice", "bob", "carol"]
+    assert sorted(head_approvals) == ["alice", "bob", "carol"]
+    assert vetoes == []
+
+
+def test_only_latest_review_per_member_counts():
+    # Alice approved, then later requested changes -> she is a veto, not approval.
+    approvals, _, vetoes = tally_reviews(
+        [review("alice", "APPROVED"), review("alice", "CHANGES_REQUESTED")],
+        HEAD,
+        "author",
+        is_pmc,
+    )
+    assert approvals == []
+    assert vetoes == ["alice"]
+
+
+def test_approvals_on_earlier_commits_still_count():
+    # A push doesn't send earlier voters back to re-vote; only the head-commit
+    # approval is tracked separately, because the gate requires one of those.
+    approvals, head_approvals, _ = tally_reviews(
+        [review("alice", "APPROVED", "old_sha"), review("bob", "APPROVED")],
+        HEAD,
+        "author",
+        is_pmc,
+    )
+    assert sorted(approvals) == ["alice", "bob"]
+    assert head_approvals == ["bob"]
+
+
+def test_no_head_approval_when_every_vote_predates_the_push():
+    approvals, head_approvals, _ = tally_reviews(
+        [review("alice", "APPROVED", "old_sha"), review("bob", "APPROVED", "older")],
+        HEAD,
+        "author",
+        is_pmc,
+    )
+    assert sorted(approvals) == ["alice", "bob"]
+    assert head_approvals == []
+
+
+def test_ignores_author_non_pmc_and_dismissed():
+    approvals, _, vetoes = tally_reviews(
+        [
+            review("author", "APPROVED"),  # PR author, even if PMC, never counts
+            review("eve", "APPROVED"),  # not on the PMC
+            review("dave", "DISMISSED"),  # withdrawn
+            review("carol", "COMMENTED"),  # a comment is not a vote
+        ],
+        HEAD,
+        "author",
+        is_pmc,
+    )
+    assert approvals == []
+    assert vetoes == []
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("veto_count", "approvals", "head_approvals", "period_elapsed", "expected"),
+    [
+        # A veto wins even with enough approvals, one on head, and time elapsed.
+        (1, 5, 1, True, "veto"),
+        (0, 2, 1, True, "insufficient"),
+        # Enough votes carried over, but nobody has approved the latest commit.
+        (0, 3, 0, True, "unconfirmed"),
+        (0, 3, 1, False, "waiting_period"),
+        (0, 3, 1, True, "pass"),
+        # The head-commit approval counts toward the three; it is not a fourth.
+        (0, 3, 3, True, "pass"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_decide_verdict_priority(
+    veto_count, approvals, head_approvals, period_elapsed, expected
+):
+    assert (
+        decide_verdict(veto_count, approvals, head_approvals, period_elapsed, 3)
+        == expected
+    )
+
+
+def utc(text):
+    return datetime.fromisoformat(text).replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+
+
+# 2026-08-03 is a Monday, so this week runs Mon 03 .. Sun 09 August.
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("opened", "expected"),
+    [
+        # Fully inside a work week: a plain 72-hour offset.
+        ("2026-08-03T09:00", "2026-08-06T09:00"),
+        # Opened Friday afternoon: 7h accrue before Saturday, the remaining 65h
+        # resume Monday 00:00 and land Wednesday afternoon.
+        ("2026-08-07T17:00", "2026-08-12T17:00"),
+        # Opened during a weekend: the clock only starts on Monday.
+        ("2026-08-08T12:00", "2026-08-13T00:00"),
+        # Opened the instant a weekend ends.
+        ("2026-08-10T00:00", "2026-08-13T00:00"),
+        # The deadline itself lands exactly on the weekend boundary.
+        ("2026-08-05T00:00", "2026-08-08T00:00"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_weekday_deadline_excludes_weekends(opened, expected):
+    assert weekday_deadline(utc(opened), PERIOD_HOURS) == utc(expected)
+
+
+def test_weekday_deadline_spans_multiple_weekends():
+    # A period longer than one work week has to skip more than one weekend.
+    assert weekday_deadline(utc("2026-08-03T00:00"), 24 * 6) == utc("2026-08-11T00:00")
+
+
+def test_weekday_deadline_converts_to_weekend_tz():
+    # Late Friday in a UTC+X zone is already Saturday in UTC, so the clock waits.
+    friday_evening_tokyo = utc("2026-08-08T01:00").astimezone(
+        timezone(timedelta(hours=9))
+    )
+    assert weekday_deadline(friday_evening_tokyo, PERIOD_HOURS) == utc(
+        "2026-08-13T00:00"
+    )
+
+
+def test_vote_opens_at_the_later_of_label_and_ready():
+    labeled, ready = utc("2026-08-03T09:00"), utc("2026-08-04T09:00")
+    assert vote_opened_at(labeled, ready) == ready
+    assert vote_opened_at(ready, labeled) == ready
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("labeled", "ready"),
+    [
+        (None, utc("2026-08-03T09:00")),  # not a format change (yet)
+        (utc("2026-08-03T09:00"), None),  # still a draft
+        (None, None),
+    ],
+)
+def test_vote_does_not_open_until_both_conditions_hold(labeled, ready):
+    assert vote_opened_at(labeled, ready) is None
diff --git a/ci/test_labeler_area.py b/ci/test_labeler_area.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ae4b74bd806
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ci/test_labeler_area.py
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+"""Regression tests for format-spec path classification."""
+
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import yaml
+
+
+ROOT = Path(__file__).parent.parent
+LABELER_CONFIG = ROOT / ".github" / "labeler-area.yml"
+EXECUTION_PROTO_PATHS = {
+    "protos/ann.proto",
+    "protos/filtered_read.proto",
+    "protos/table_identifier.proto",
+}
+
+
+def paths_for(label):
+    config = yaml.safe_load(LABELER_CONFIG.read_text())
+    return set(config[label][0]["changed-files"][0]["any-glob-to-any-file"])
+
+
+def test_format_labels_use_the_same_paths():
+    assert paths_for("A-format") == paths_for("format-change")
+
+
+def test_only_persisted_protos_are_format_changes():
+    detected_proto_paths = {
+        path for path in paths_for("format-change") if path.startswith("protos/")
+    }
+    all_proto_paths = {
+        path.relative_to(ROOT).as_posix() for path in (ROOT / "protos").glob("*.proto")
+    }
+
+    assert detected_proto_paths == all_proto_paths - EXECUTION_PROTO_PATHS
diff --git a/clippy.toml b/clippy.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..63310f898d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/clippy.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+disallowed-macros = [
+  { path = "location", reason = "Use #[track_caller] + #[snafu(implicit)] instead of manual location construction.", allow-invalid = true },
+  { path = "snafu::location", reason = "Use #[track_caller] + #[snafu(implicit)] instead of manual location construction." },
+]
diff --git a/codecov.yml b/codecov.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index 301f0663d39..00000000000
--- a/codecov.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,13 +0,0 @@
-# make all status informational -- pass no matter what
-coverage:
-  status:
-    project:
-      default:
-        target: 50%
-        threshold: 10%
-        informational: true
-    patch:
-      default:
-        target: 50%
-        threshold: 10%
-        informational: true
diff --git a/deny.toml b/deny.toml
index e799d67c437..17d4b546f2d 100644
--- a/deny.toml
+++ b/deny.toml
@@ -80,13 +80,12 @@ ignore = [
     #{ id = "RUSTSEC-0000-0000", reason = "you can specify a reason the advisory is ignored" },
     #"a-crate-that-is-yanked@0.1.1", # you can also ignore yanked crate versions if you wish
     #{ crate = "a-crate-that-is-yanked@0.1.1", reason = "you can specify why you are ignoring the yanked crate" },
-    { id = "RUSTSEC-2021-0153", reason = "`encoding` is used by lindera" },
-    { id = "RUSTSEC-2024-0370", reason = "`proc-macro-error` is used by jieba-rs via include-flate" },
     { id = "RUSTSEC-2024-0436", reason = "`paste` is used by datafusion" },
     { id = "RUSTSEC-2023-0071", reason = "`rsa` is used by opendal via reqsign" },
     { id = "RUSTSEC-2025-0119", reason = "`number_prefix` used by hf-hub in examples" },
-    { id = "RUSTSEC-2025-0134", reason = "`rustls-pemfile` unmaintained; awaiting upstream object_store/hyper-rustls migration to rustls-pki-types" },
-    { id = "RUSTSEC-2025-0141", reason = "`bincode` is unmaintained and used by tantivy"},
+    { id = "RUSTSEC-2026-0194", reason = "`quick-xml` <0.41 pulled transitively via object_store (datafusion) and reqsign-aws-v4 (opendal); upstream must upgrade first" },
+    { id = "RUSTSEC-2026-0195", reason = "`quick-xml` <0.41 pulled transitively via object_store (datafusion) and reqsign-aws-v4 (opendal); upstream must upgrade first" },
+    { id = "RUSTSEC-2026-0002", reason = "`lru` 0.12.x pulled transitively via goosefs-sdk; fixed in >=0.16.3, goosefs-sdk must upgrade first" },
 ]
 # If this is true, then cargo deny will use the git executable to fetch advisory database.
 # If this is false, then it uses a built-in git library.
@@ -129,6 +128,7 @@ exceptions = [
     # Each entry is the crate and version constraint, and its specific allow
     # list
     #{ allow = ["Zlib"], crate = "adler32" },
+    { allow = ["CDDL-1.0"], crate = "inferno" },
 ]
 
 # Some crates don't have (easily) machine readable licensing information,
@@ -166,6 +166,10 @@ registries = [
 # More documentation about the 'bans' section can be found here:
 # https://embarkstudios.github.io/cargo-deny/checks/bans/cfg.html
 [bans]
+# Lint every dependency declared by a workspace member against the shared
+# `[workspace.dependencies]` table: any crate used by more than one member must
+# go through `workspace = true`, and entries nothing uses are an error.
+workspace-dependencies = { duplicates = "deny", unused = "deny" }
 # Lint level for when multiple versions of the same crate are detected
 multiple-versions = "warn"
 # Lint level for when a crate version requirement is `*`
diff --git a/docs/CONTRIBUTING.md b/docs/CONTRIBUTING.md
index ec95d95e47f..bd822264494 100644
--- a/docs/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/docs/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ To build the docs, first install requirements:
 
 ```bash
 cd docs
-uc sync --dev
+uv sync --dev
 ```
 
 Then build and start the docs server:
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ uv run mkdocs serve
 
 ### Python Generated Doc
 
-Python code documentation is built using Sphinx in [lance-python-doc](https://github.com/lancedb/lance-python-doc),
+Python code documentation is built using Sphinx in [lance-python-doc](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-python-doc),
 and published through [Github Pages](https://lance-format.github.io/lance-python-doc/) in ReadTheDocs style.
 
 ### Rust Generated Doc
diff --git a/docs/Makefile b/docs/Makefile
index 9f44b4de2e8..08f5108b770 100644
--- a/docs/Makefile
+++ b/docs/Makefile
@@ -1,9 +1,13 @@
-.PHONY: help serve build clean install dev-install check-links sync
+.PHONY: help serve build clean check-links sync make-full-website clean-full-website
 
 help:
 	@echo "Available commands:"
 	@echo "  make serve        - Serve documentation locally (auto-installs deps)"
 	@echo "  make build        - Build documentation (auto-installs deps)"
+	@echo "  make make-full-website  - Assemble the full website from local repo checkouts"
+	@echo "  make clean-full-website - Remove generated website content"
+	@echo "                       Run 'make make-full-website' before 'make build' or 'make serve' for the full multi-repo site"
+	@echo "                       Override any repo with env vars like LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO=..., LANCE_SPARK_REPO=..., LANCE_RAY_REPO=..."
 	@echo "  make clean        - Clean build artifacts"
 	@echo "  make check-links  - Check for broken links"
 	@echo "  make sync         - Sync dependencies with pyproject.toml"
@@ -11,12 +15,18 @@ help:
 sync:
 	uv sync --all-extras
 
-serve:
+serve: make-full-website
 	uv run mkdocs serve
 
-build:
+build: make-full-website
 	uv run mkdocs build
 
+make-full-website:
+	./make-full-website.sh
+
+clean-full-website:
+	./clean-full-website.sh
+
 clean:
 	rm -rf site/
 	rm -rf .cache/
diff --git a/docs/README.md b/docs/README.md
index 80092b157c7..8cb33f86387 100644
--- a/docs/README.md
+++ b/docs/README.md
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 # Lance Documentation
 
-This directory contains the documentation for Lance, built with MkDocs and Material theme.
+This directory contains the documentation for Lance, built with MkDocs and a
+custom theme (`theme/`) implementing the Lance Docs design.
 
 ## Getting Started with uv
 
@@ -62,5 +63,18 @@ uv sync --upgrade
 ## Project Structure
 
 - `src/` - Source markdown files for documentation
+- `theme/` - Custom MkDocs theme implementing the Lance Docs design
+  (templates in `*.html`, styles/behaviour in `theme/assets/`)
 - `mkdocs.yml` - MkDocs configuration
 - `pyproject.toml` - Python project configuration (uv compatible)
+
+## Theme Notes
+
+- Light/dark mode follows `prefers-color-scheme`, is toggleable from the
+  header, and persists in `localStorage` (`ld-theme`).
+- The GitHub star count is fetched from the public GitHub API and cached in
+  `localStorage` for an hour; the button degrades to a plain link offline.
+- Search is a lightweight overlay (`/` or `Cmd/Ctrl+K`) over the standard
+  `search` plugin index — no external search dependencies.
+- Mermaid diagrams render client-side; the library is loaded from a CDN only
+  on pages that contain a diagram.
diff --git a/docs/clean-full-website.sh b/docs/clean-full-website.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..3ffa8ffe15b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/clean-full-website.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,181 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+set -euo pipefail
+
+script_dir=$(cd -- "$(dirname -- "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")" && pwd)
+repo_root=$(cd -- "$script_dir/.." && pwd)
+docs_src="$script_dir/src"
+
+rm -rf "$docs_src/format/catalog"
+rm -rf "$docs_src/format/namespace"
+rm -f "$docs_src/format/layout.png"
+rm -f "$docs_src/format/overview.png"
+rm -f "$docs_src/format/java-sdk-example.png"
+rm -rf "$docs_src/integrations/huggingface"
+rm -rf "$docs_src/integrations/duckdb"
+rm -rf "$docs_src/integrations/spark"
+rm -rf "$docs_src/integrations/ray"
+rm -rf "$docs_src/integrations/trino"
+rm -rf "$docs_src/integrations/context"
+rm -f "$docs_src/community/project-specific/.pages"
+rm -rf "$docs_src/community/project-specific/lance"
+rm -f "$docs_src/community/project-specific/namespace.md"
+rm -f "$docs_src/community/project-specific/namespace-impls.md"
+rm -f "$docs_src/community/project-specific/ray.md"
+rm -f "$docs_src/community/project-specific/spark.md"
+rm -f "$docs_src/community/project-specific/trino.md"
+rm -f "$docs_src/community/project-specific/context.md"
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/.pages" <<'EOF'
+nav:
+  - Overview: index.md
+  - File Format: file
+  - Table Format: table
+  - Index Formats: index
+  - Catalog Specs: catalog
+  - Namespace Client Spec: namespace
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/integrations/.pages" <<'EOF'
+nav:
+  - Overview: index.md
+  - Apache DataFusion: datafusion.md
+  - PostgreSQL: https://github.com/lance-format/pglance
+  - PyTorch: pytorch.md
+  - TensorFlow: tensorflow.md
+EOF
+
+mkdir -p "$docs_src/format/catalog/dir"
+mkdir -p "$docs_src/format/catalog/rest"
+mkdir -p "$docs_src/format/namespace/operations/models"
+mkdir -p "$docs_src/format/namespace/supported-catalogs"
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/catalog/.pages" <<'EOF'
+title: Catalog Specs
+nav:
+  - Overview: index.md
+  - Directory Catalog: dir
+  - REST Catalog: rest
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/catalog/index.md" <<'EOF'
+# Catalog Specs
+
+This section describes how Lance catalogs organize, discover, and coordinate Lance tables.
+
+When a local `lance-namespace` checkout with split catalog docs is available, `docs/make-full-website.sh` replaces these placeholders with the latest source content.
+
+See also:
+
+- [Directory Catalog](dir/index.md)
+- [REST Catalog](rest/index.md)
+- [Namespace Client Spec](../namespace/index.md)
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/catalog/dir/index.md" <<'EOF'
+# Directory Catalog
+
+The Directory Catalog is the storage-native catalog format for Lance.
+
+This placeholder page keeps the local website buildable when external catalog docs are not available.
+Run `docs/make-full-website.sh` with `LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO` pointing at a split `lance-namespace` checkout to populate the full specification.
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/catalog/rest/index.md" <<'EOF'
+# REST Catalog
+
+The REST Catalog is the service-oriented catalog specification for Lance.
+
+This placeholder page keeps the local website buildable when external catalog docs are not available.
+Run `docs/make-full-website.sh` with `LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO` pointing at a split `lance-namespace` checkout to populate the full specification.
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/.pages" <<'EOF'
+title: Namespace Client Spec
+nav:
+  - Overview: index.md
+  - Objects & Relationships: object-relationship.md
+  - Operations: operations
+  - Supported Catalogs: supported-catalogs
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/index.md" <<'EOF'
+# Namespace Client Spec
+
+The Lance Namespace Client Spec defines the interface that engines and tools use to discover tables, resolve locations, and coordinate table operations through catalogs.
+
+When a local `lance-namespace` checkout with split namespace docs is available, `docs/make-full-website.sh` replaces these placeholders with the latest source content.
+
+See also:
+
+- [Objects & Relationships](object-relationship.md)
+- [Operations](operations/index.md)
+- [Supported Catalogs](supported-catalogs/index.md)
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/object-relationship.md" <<'EOF'
+# Objects & Relationships
+
+This placeholder page keeps the local website buildable when external namespace docs are not available.
+
+Run `docs/make-full-website.sh` with `LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO` pointing at a split `lance-namespace` checkout to populate the full object model description.
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/operations/.pages" <<'EOF'
+title: Operations
+nav:
+  - Overview: index.md
+  - Models: models
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/operations/index.md" <<'EOF'
+# Operations
+
+This placeholder page keeps the local website buildable when external namespace docs are not available.
+
+Run `docs/make-full-website.sh` with `LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO` pointing at a split `lance-namespace` checkout to populate the operation reference.
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/operations/models/.pages" <<'EOF'
+title: Models
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/operations/models/index.md" <<'EOF'
+# Operation Models
+
+This placeholder page keeps the local website buildable when external namespace docs are not available.
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/supported-catalogs/.pages" <<'EOF'
+title: Supported Catalogs
+nav:
+  - Overview: index.md
+  - Lance Directory Catalog: lance-dir.md
+  - Lance REST Catalog: lance-rest.md
+  - Template: template.md
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/supported-catalogs/index.md" <<'EOF'
+# Supported Catalogs
+
+This placeholder page keeps the local website buildable when external namespace docs are not available.
+
+Run `docs/make-full-website.sh` with `LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO` and `LANCE_NAMESPACE_IMPLS_REPO` set to local checkouts to populate the full integration catalog list.
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/supported-catalogs/lance-dir.md" <<'EOF'
+# Lance Directory Catalog
+
+This placeholder page keeps the local website buildable when external namespace docs are not available.
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/supported-catalogs/lance-rest.md" <<'EOF'
+# Lance REST Catalog
+
+This placeholder page keeps the local website buildable when external namespace docs are not available.
+EOF
+
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/supported-catalogs/template.md" <<'EOF'
+# Template
+
+This placeholder page keeps the local website buildable when external namespace docs are not available.
+EOF
diff --git a/docs/hooks/pmc_roster.py b/docs/hooks/pmc_roster.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3a56daa2b5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/hooks/pmc_roster.py
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+"""MkDocs hook: render the PMC roster table from `pmc.yaml` at build time.
+
+`docs/src/community/pmc.yaml` is the source of truth for the PMC roster (it also
+drives the format-spec vote gate). The roster page contains the placeholder
+`<!-- PMC_ROSTER_TABLE -->`; this hook expands it into a Markdown table when the
+docs are built, so the table never has to be maintained by hand.
+
+Registered via `hooks:` in `mkdocs.yml`.
+"""
+
+import pathlib
+
+import yaml
+
+PLACEHOLDER = "<!-- PMC_ROSTER_TABLE -->"
+
+COLUMNS = [
+    ("Name", "name"),
+    ("GitHub Handle", "handle"),
+    ("Affiliation", "affiliation"),
+    ("Ecosystem Roles", "ecosystem_roles"),
+]
+
+
+def _render_table(members):
+    headers = [title for title, _ in COLUMNS]
+    rows = [[str(m.get(key, "") or "") for _, key in COLUMNS] for m in members]
+    widths = [
+        max([len(headers[i])] + [len(row[i]) for row in rows])
+        for i in range(len(COLUMNS))
+    ]
+
+    def row(cells):
+        return "| " + " | ".join(c.ljust(widths[i]) for i, c in enumerate(cells)) + " |"
+
+    lines = [row(headers), "|" + "|".join("-" * (w + 2) for w in widths) + "|"]
+    lines.extend(row(r) for r in rows)
+    return "\n".join(lines)
+
+
+def on_page_markdown(markdown, page, config, files):
+    if PLACEHOLDER not in markdown:
+        return markdown
+    roster_path = pathlib.Path(config["docs_dir"]) / "community" / "pmc.yaml"
+    roster = yaml.safe_load(roster_path.read_text())
+    return markdown.replace(PLACEHOLDER, _render_table(roster["members"]))
diff --git a/docs/make-full-website.sh b/docs/make-full-website.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..414b3831fb0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/make-full-website.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,336 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+set -euo pipefail
+
+usage() {
+    cat >&2 <<'EOF'
+Usage: make-full-website.sh
+
+Override any repo path with the matching environment variable:
+  LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO
+  LANCE_NAMESPACE_IMPLS_REPO
+  LANCE_SPARK_REPO
+  LANCE_RAY_REPO
+  LANCE_TRINO_REPO
+  LANCE_DUCKDB_REPO
+  LANCE_HUGGINGFACE_REPO
+  LANCE_CONTEXT_REPO
+Defaults:
+  LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO=$HOME/oss/lance-namespace
+  LANCE_NAMESPACE_IMPLS_REPO=$HOME/oss/lance-namespace-impls
+  LANCE_SPARK_REPO=$HOME/oss/lance-spark
+  LANCE_RAY_REPO=$HOME/oss/lance-ray
+  LANCE_TRINO_REPO=$HOME/oss/lance-trino
+  LANCE_DUCKDB_REPO=$HOME/oss/lance-duckdb
+  LANCE_HUGGINGFACE_REPO=$HOME/oss/lance-huggingface
+  LANCE_CONTEXT_REPO=$HOME/oss/lance-context
+EOF
+}
+
+normalize_path() {
+    local path="$1"
+
+    case "$path" in
+        \~)
+            printf '%s\n' "$HOME"
+            ;;
+        \~/*)
+            printf '%s\n' "$HOME/${path:2}"
+            ;;
+        *)
+            printf '%s\n' "$path"
+            ;;
+    esac
+}
+
+script_dir=$(cd -- "$(dirname -- "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")" && pwd)
+repo_root=$(cd -- "$script_dir/.." && pwd)
+docs_src="$script_dir/src"
+
+if [ "$#" -gt 0 ]; then
+    if [ "$#" -eq 1 ] && [ "$1" = "--help" ]; then
+        usage
+        exit 0
+    fi
+    usage
+    exit 1
+fi
+
+namespace_repo_input=${LANCE_NAMESPACE_REPO:-$HOME/oss/lance-namespace}
+namespace_impls_repo_input=${LANCE_NAMESPACE_IMPLS_REPO:-$HOME/oss/lance-namespace-impls}
+spark_repo_input=${LANCE_SPARK_REPO:-$HOME/oss/lance-spark}
+ray_repo_input=${LANCE_RAY_REPO:-$HOME/oss/lance-ray}
+trino_repo_input=${LANCE_TRINO_REPO:-$HOME/oss/lance-trino}
+duckdb_repo_input=${LANCE_DUCKDB_REPO:-$HOME/oss/lance-duckdb}
+huggingface_repo_input=${LANCE_HUGGINGFACE_REPO:-$HOME/oss/lance-huggingface}
+context_repo_input=${LANCE_CONTEXT_REPO:-$HOME/oss/lance-context}
+
+copy_docs_dir() {
+    local source_dir="$1"
+    local target_dir="$2"
+
+    if [ -d "$source_dir" ]; then
+        mkdir -p "$(dirname "$target_dir")"
+        rm -rf "$target_dir"
+        cp -R "$source_dir" "$target_dir"
+        return 0
+    fi
+
+    return 1
+}
+
+copy_file_if_exists() {
+    local source_file="$1"
+    local target_file="$2"
+
+    if [ -f "$source_file" ]; then
+        mkdir -p "$(dirname "$target_file")"
+        cp "$source_file" "$target_file"
+        return 0
+    fi
+
+    return 1
+}
+
+copy_duckdb_docs() {
+    local source_dir="$1"
+    local target_dir="$2"
+
+    if [ ! -d "$source_dir" ]; then
+        return 1
+    fi
+
+    rm -rf "$target_dir"
+    mkdir -p "$target_dir"
+    cp "$source_dir/.pages" "$target_dir/.pages"
+    cp "$source_dir/index.md" "$target_dir/index.md"
+    cp "$source_dir/sql.md" "$target_dir/sql.md"
+    cp "$source_dir/rest.md" "$target_dir/rest.md"
+    cp "$source_dir/cloud.md" "$target_dir/cloud.md"
+
+    return 0
+}
+
+resolve_repo_dir() {
+    local repo_path="$1"
+
+    repo_path=$(normalize_path "$repo_path")
+
+    if [ -d "$repo_path" ]; then
+        (cd -- "$repo_path" && pwd)
+        return
+    fi
+
+    printf '%s\n' "$repo_path"
+}
+
+warn_missing_repo() {
+    local repo_label="$1"
+    local repo_path="$2"
+
+    echo "Warning: $repo_label repo not found at '$repo_path'; keeping placeholder docs." >&2
+}
+
+namespace_repo=$(resolve_repo_dir "$namespace_repo_input")
+namespace_impls_repo=$(resolve_repo_dir "$namespace_impls_repo_input")
+spark_repo=$(resolve_repo_dir "$spark_repo_input")
+ray_repo=$(resolve_repo_dir "$ray_repo_input")
+trino_repo=$(resolve_repo_dir "$trino_repo_input")
+duckdb_repo=$(resolve_repo_dir "$duckdb_repo_input")
+huggingface_repo=$(resolve_repo_dir "$huggingface_repo_input")
+context_repo=$(resolve_repo_dir "$context_repo_input")
+
+"$script_dir/clean-full-website.sh"
+
+if copy_docs_dir "$namespace_repo/docs/src/catalog" "$docs_src/format/catalog"; then
+    :
+else
+    warn_missing_repo "Lance Namespace catalog docs" "$namespace_repo/docs/src/catalog"
+fi
+
+if copy_docs_dir "$namespace_repo/docs/src/namespace" "$docs_src/format/namespace"; then
+    copy_file_if_exists "$namespace_repo/docs/src/overview.png" "$docs_src/format/overview.png"
+    copy_file_if_exists "$namespace_repo/docs/src/java-sdk-example.png" "$docs_src/format/java-sdk-example.png"
+    :
+else
+    warn_missing_repo "Lance Namespace namespace docs" "$namespace_repo/docs/src/namespace"
+fi
+
+if [ -f "$docs_src/format/namespace/operations/index.md" ]; then
+python3 - <<'PY' "$docs_src/format/namespace/operations/index.md"
+from pathlib import Path
+import sys
+
+path = Path(sys.argv[1])
+text = path.read_text()
+path.write_text(text.replace('[Models](models/)', '[Models](models/index.md)'))
+PY
+fi
+
+mkdir -p "$docs_src/format/namespace/operations/models"
+cat > "$docs_src/format/namespace/operations/models/index.md" <<'EOF'
+# Operation Models
+
+This section contains the generated request and response models for the Lance Namespace operations.
+
+These pages define the JSON schemas referenced by the [operations overview](../index.md) and the [REST Catalog API specification](../../../catalog/rest/index.md).
+EOF
+
+supported_catalogs_dir="$docs_src/format/namespace/supported-catalogs"
+if [ -d "$namespace_impls_repo/docs/src" ]; then
+while IFS= read -r -d '' source_file; do
+    target_file="$supported_catalogs_dir/$(basename "$source_file")"
+    if [ -e "$target_file" ]; then
+        echo "Refusing to overwrite existing supported catalog file: $target_file" >&2
+        exit 1
+    fi
+    cp "$source_file" "$target_file"
+done < <(find "$namespace_impls_repo/docs/src" -maxdepth 1 -type f -name '*.md' ! -name 'index.md' -print0 | sort -z)
+
+python3 - <<'PY' "$namespace_impls_repo/docs/src/.pages" "$supported_catalogs_dir/.pages"
+from pathlib import Path
+import sys
+
+impl_pages = Path(sys.argv[1]).read_text().splitlines()
+target = Path(sys.argv[2])
+existing = target.read_text().splitlines()
+
+impl_entries = []
+for line in impl_pages:
+    stripped = line.strip()
+    if not stripped.startswith('- '):
+        continue
+    entry = stripped[2:]
+    if entry == 'Introduction: index.md':
+        continue
+    impl_entries.append(f'  - {entry}')
+
+output = []
+inserted = False
+for line in existing:
+    # Keep namespace-owned entries first and insert impl-owned entries immediately
+    # before the template item when it exists.
+    if line.strip() == '- Template: template.md' and not inserted:
+        output.extend(impl_entries)
+        inserted = True
+    output.append(line)
+
+if not inserted:
+    output.extend(impl_entries)
+
+target.write_text('\n'.join(output) + '\n')
+PY
+else
+    warn_missing_repo "Lance Namespace Impls docs" "$namespace_impls_repo/docs/src"
+fi
+
+integration_entries=(
+)
+
+while IFS= read -r line; do
+    integration_entries+=("$line")
+done < <(sed -n '2,$p' "$docs_src/integrations/.pages")
+
+if copy_duckdb_docs "$duckdb_repo/docs" "$docs_src/integrations/duckdb"; then
+    integration_entries+=("  - DuckDB: duckdb")
+else
+    warn_missing_repo "Lance DuckDB docs" "$duckdb_repo/docs"
+fi
+
+if copy_docs_dir "$huggingface_repo/docs/src" "$docs_src/integrations/huggingface"; then
+    integration_entries+=("  - Huggingface: huggingface")
+else
+    warn_missing_repo "Lance HuggingFace docs" "$huggingface_repo/docs/src"
+fi
+
+if copy_docs_dir "$spark_repo/docs/src" "$docs_src/integrations/spark"; then
+    python3 - <<'PY' "$docs_src/integrations/spark/operations/ddl/create-index.md"
+from pathlib import Path
+import sys
+
+path = Path(sys.argv[1])
+if path.exists():
+    text = path.read_text()
+    path.write_text(text.replace('https://lance.org/format/table/index/scalar/fts/#tokenizers', 'https://lance.org/format/index/scalar/fts/#tokenizers'))
+PY
+    integration_entries+=("  - Apache Spark: spark")
+else
+    warn_missing_repo "Lance Spark docs" "$spark_repo/docs/src"
+fi
+
+if copy_docs_dir "$ray_repo/docs/src" "$docs_src/integrations/ray"; then
+    integration_entries+=("  - Ray: ray")
+else
+    warn_missing_repo "Lance Ray docs" "$ray_repo/docs/src"
+fi
+
+if copy_docs_dir "$trino_repo/docs/src" "$docs_src/integrations/trino"; then
+    integration_entries+=("  - Trino: trino")
+else
+    warn_missing_repo "Lance Trino docs" "$trino_repo/docs/src"
+fi
+
+if copy_docs_dir "$context_repo/docs/src" "$docs_src/integrations/context"; then
+    integration_entries+=("  - Lance Context: context")
+else
+    warn_missing_repo "Lance Context docs" "$context_repo/docs/src"
+fi
+
+{
+    echo "nav:"
+    for entry in "${integration_entries[@]}"; do
+        [ -n "$entry" ] || continue
+        echo "$entry"
+    done
+} > "$docs_src/integrations/.pages"
+
+mkdir -p "$docs_src/community/project-specific/lance"
+copy_file_if_exists "$repo_root/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/lance/general.md"
+copy_file_if_exists "$repo_root/release_process.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/lance/release.md"
+copy_file_if_exists "$repo_root/rust/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/lance/rust.md"
+copy_file_if_exists "$repo_root/python/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/lance/python.md"
+copy_file_if_exists "$repo_root/docs/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/lance/docs.md"
+
+project_entries=(
+    "  - index.md"
+    "  - Lance: lance"
+)
+
+if copy_file_if_exists "$namespace_repo/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/namespace.md"; then
+    project_entries+=("  - Lance Namespace: namespace.md")
+fi
+
+if copy_file_if_exists "$namespace_impls_repo/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/namespace-impls.md"; then
+    project_entries+=("  - Lance Namespace Impls: namespace-impls.md")
+fi
+
+if copy_file_if_exists "$ray_repo/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/ray.md"; then
+    project_entries+=("  - Lance Ray: ray.md")
+fi
+
+if copy_file_if_exists "$spark_repo/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/spark.md"; then
+    project_entries+=("  - Lance Spark: spark.md")
+fi
+
+if copy_file_if_exists "$trino_repo/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/trino.md"; then
+    project_entries+=("  - Lance Trino: trino.md")
+fi
+
+if copy_file_if_exists "$context_repo/CONTRIBUTING.md" "$docs_src/community/project-specific/context.md"; then
+    project_entries+=("  - Lance Context: context.md")
+fi
+
+{
+    echo "nav:"
+    for entry in "${project_entries[@]}"; do
+        echo "$entry"
+    done
+} > "$docs_src/community/project-specific/.pages"
+
+cat > "$docs_src/community/project-specific/lance/.pages" <<'EOF'
+nav:
+  - General: general.md
+  - Release: release.md
+  - Rust: rust.md
+  - Python: python.md
+  - Docs: docs.md
+EOF
diff --git a/docs/mkdocs.yml b/docs/mkdocs.yml
index 2a84cf12213..d872d749ff2 100644
--- a/docs/mkdocs.yml
+++ b/docs/mkdocs.yml
@@ -1,42 +1,18 @@
 site_name: Lance
-site_description: Open Lakehouse Format for Multimodal AI
+site_description: "Documentation for Lance, an open lakehouse format for Multimodal AI"
 site_url: https://lance.org/
 docs_dir: src
 
 repo_name: lance-format/lance
 repo_url: https://github.com/lance-format/lance
 
+# Custom theme implementing the "Lance Docs" design (see theme/).
 theme:
-  name: material
-  custom_dir: overrides
-  logo: logo/white.png
-  favicon: logo/logo.png
-  palette:
-    - scheme: default
-      primary: custom
-      accent: custom
-      toggle:
-        icon: material/brightness-7
-        name: Switch to dark mode
-    - scheme: slate
-      primary: custom
-      accent: custom
-      toggle:
-        icon: material/brightness-4
-        name: Switch to light mode
-  features:
-    - navigation.tabs
-    - navigation.sections
-    - navigation.instant
-    - navigation.indexes
-    - navigation.tracking
-    - navigation.top
-    - search.highlight
-    - search.share
-    - content.code.copy
-    - content.code.annotate
-  icon:
-    repo: fontawesome/brands/github
+  name: null
+  custom_dir: theme
+  locale: en
+  static_templates:
+    - 404.html
 
 markdown_extensions:
   - admonition
@@ -51,9 +27,16 @@ markdown_extensions:
       line_spans: __span
       pygments_lang_class: true
   - pymdownx.inlinehilite
-  - pymdownx.snippets
+  - pymdownx.snippets:
+      # Allow snippets to pull in files from the repo root (e.g. shared docs
+      # kept alongside Rust source). Paths are relative to the docs/ dir.
+      base_path:
+        - .
+        - ..
   - pymdownx.tabbed:
       alternate_style: true
+  # Autolink bare URLs (e.g. repository tables on the community pages).
+  - pymdownx.magiclink
   - attr_list
   - md_in_html
   - tables
@@ -66,20 +49,7 @@ plugins:
   - mkdocs_protobuf:
       proto_dir: ../protos
 
-extra:
-  generator: false
-  social:
-    - icon: fontawesome/brands/github
-      link: https://github.com/lance-format/lance
-    - icon: fontawesome/brands/discord
-      link: https://discord.gg/lance
+hooks:
+  - hooks/pmc_roster.py
 
 copyright: © 2025 Lance Format. All rights reserved.
-
-extra_css:
-  - assets/stylesheets/termynal.css
-  - assets/stylesheets/home.css
-
-extra_javascript:
-  - assets/javascript/termynal.js
-
diff --git a/docs/overrides/home.html b/docs/overrides/home.html
deleted file mode 100644
index 3322267f25e..00000000000
--- a/docs/overrides/home.html
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,295 +0,0 @@
-{% extends "main.html" %}
-
-{% block tabs %}
-  {{ super() }}
-
-  <style>
-    /* Prevent horizontal overflow */
-    body {
-      overflow-x: hidden;
-    }
-
-    /* Hide main content for home page */
-    .md-content {
-      display: none;
-    }
-
-    /* Hide table of contents */
-    @media screen and (min-width: 60em) {
-      .md-sidebar--secondary {
-        display: none;
-      }
-    }
-
-    /* Hide navigation */
-    @media screen and (min-width: 76.25em) {
-      .md-sidebar--primary {
-        display: none;
-      }
-    }
-
-    /* Make header static */
-    .md-header {
-      position: initial;
-    }
-
-    .md-main__inner {
-      margin: 0;
-    }
-
-    /* Style Learn More and View Integrations links */
-    .lance-feature-section .md-button,
-    .lance-intro-section .md-button:not(.md-button--primary) {
-      background-color: transparent;
-      color: inherit;
-      text-decoration: none;
-      border: none;
-      box-shadow: none;
-    }
-
-    .lance-feature-section .md-button:hover,
-    .lance-intro-section .md-button:not(.md-button--primary):hover {
-      background-color: transparent;
-      color: #625EFF;
-      text-decoration: none;
-    }
-  </style>
-
-  <script>
-    // Fix palette toggle jumping to bottom of page
-    (function() {
-      // Store scroll position
-      let savedScrollY = 0;
-      let isTogglingPalette = false;
-
-      // Prevent hash-based scrolling for palette changes
-      if ('scrollRestoration' in history) {
-        history.scrollRestoration = 'manual';
-      }
-
-      // Intercept scroll attempts during palette toggle
-      const preventScroll = function() {
-        if (isTogglingPalette) {
-          window.scrollTo(0, savedScrollY);
-        }
-      };
-
-      // Save scroll position and intercept clicks on palette toggle
-      document.addEventListener('click', function(e) {
-        const paletteLabel = e.target.closest('[for^="__palette"]');
-        if (paletteLabel) {
-          savedScrollY = window.scrollY;
-          isTogglingPalette = true;
-
-          // Prevent any scrolling for a brief moment
-          window.addEventListener('scroll', preventScroll, { passive: false });
-
-          setTimeout(function() {
-            isTogglingPalette = false;
-            window.removeEventListener('scroll', preventScroll);
-          }, 100);
-        }
-      }, true);
-
-      // Listen for hash changes from palette toggle
-      window.addEventListener('hashchange', function(e) {
-        if (window.location.hash.startsWith('#__palette')) {
-          e.preventDefault();
-          // Immediately restore scroll position
-          window.scrollTo(0, savedScrollY);
-          // Clean up hash without triggering another hashchange
-          history.replaceState(null, null, window.location.pathname);
-        }
-      }, false);
-
-      // Also handle palette input changes directly
-      document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function() {
-        const paletteInputs = document.querySelectorAll('input[name="__palette"]');
-        paletteInputs.forEach(function(input) {
-          input.addEventListener('change', function() {
-            window.scrollTo(0, savedScrollY);
-          });
-        });
-      });
-    })();
-  </script>
-
-  <!-- Hero Section -->
-  <section class="mdx-container">
-    <div class="container">
-      <div class="intro-message">
-        <div class="hero-logo">
-          <img src="logo/white.png" alt="Lance Logo">
-          <h1>Lance<sup>™</sup></h1>
-        </div>
-        <h3>The Open Lakehouse Format for Multimodal AI</h3>
-        <hr class="intro-divider" />
-        <ul class="list-inline">
-          <li>
-            <a href="quickstart" class="md-button md-button--primary">Get Started</a>
-          </li>
-          <li>
-            <a href="format" class="md-button">Read the Spec</a>
-          </li>
-          <li>
-            <a href="examples/python/llm_training" class="md-button">Train an LLM</a>
-          </li>
-          <li>
-            <a href="https://discord.gg/lance" class="md-button" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Join Discord</a>
-          </li>
-        </ul>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </section>
-
-  <!-- What is Lance Section -->
-  <section class="lance-intro-section">
-    <div class="container">
-      <div class="lance-intro-content">
-        <h2>What is Lance?</h2>
-        <p>
-          Lance is a modern, open source lakehouse format for multimodal AI. It contains a file format, table format, and catalog spec,
-          allowing you to build a complete open lakehouse on top of object storage to power your AI workflows.
-          Lance brings high-performance vector search, full-text search, random access, and feature
-          engineering capabilities to the lakehouse, while you can still get all the existing lakehouse benefits
-          like SQL analytics, ACID transactions, time travel, and integrations with open engines (Apache Spark, Ray, PyTorch, Trino, DuckDB, etc.)
-          and open catalogs (Apache Polaris, Unity Catalog, Apache Gravitino, Hive Metastore, etc.)
-        </p>
-        <p>
-          Learn more about Lance's technical details by reading our 
-          <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.15247" class="lance-paper-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener">research paper</a>
-          published at <em>VLDB 2025</em>.
-        </p>
-        <a href="quickstart" class="md-button md-button--primary">Read the Docs</a>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </section>
-
-  <!-- Feature 1: Expressive Hybrid Search -->
-  <section class="lance-feature-section">
-    <div class="container">
-      <div class="lance-feature-content">
-        <div class="lance-feature-text">
-          <h2>Expressive Hybrid Search</h2>
-          <p>
-            Lance enables powerful hybrid search combining vector similarity, full-text search,
-            and SQL analytics on the same dataset. All query types are accelerated by corresponding
-            secondary indexes as part of the Lance specification.
-          </p>
-          <p>
-            Run semantic search on embeddings, BM25 search on keywords, and apply complex SQL predicates -
-            all using a single table with a unified interface.
-          </p>
-          <a href="quickstart/vector-search" class="md-button">Learn More</a>
-        </div>
-        <div class="lance-feature-demo">
-          <img src="assets/images/hybrid-search.png" alt="Hybrid Search Example" style="max-width: 500px; width: 100%; height: auto; border-radius: 8px;">
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </section>
-
-  <!-- Feature 2: Lightning-fast Random Access -->
-  <section class="lance-feature-section reverse">
-    <div class="container">
-      <div class="lance-feature-content">
-        <div class="lance-feature-text">
-          <h2>Lightning-fast Random Access</h2>
-          <p>
-            Lance delivers 100x faster random access compared to Parquet or Iceberg.
-            Unlike traditional formats, Lance maintains high performance even when
-            randomly accessing scattered rows across your entire dataset.
-          </p>
-          <p>
-            With a highly optimized file format plus efficient row-addressing and secondary indexes at table level,
-            you can access individual records across multiple files instantly,
-            making it perfect for real-time ML serving, random sampling, and interactive applications.
-          </p>
-          <a href="guide/read_and_write#random-access" class="md-button">Learn More</a>
-        </div>
-        <div class="lance-feature-demo">
-          <img src="assets/images/random-access.png" alt="Random Access Example" style="max-width: 500px; width: 100%; height: auto; border-radius: 8px;">
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </section>
-
-  <!-- Feature 3: Native Multimodal Data Support -->
-  <section class="lance-feature-section">
-    <div class="container">
-      <div class="lance-feature-content">
-        <div class="lance-feature-text">
-          <h2>Native Multimodal Data Support</h2>
-          <p>
-            Store images, videos, audio, text, and embeddings alongside your traditional tabular data in a single unified format.
-            Lance's blob encoding efficiently handles large binary objects with lazy loading,
-            while optimized vector storage accelerates similarity search.
-          </p>
-          <p>
-            Perfect for AI/ML workloads where you need to store raw data, ML features, generated captions and embeddings
-            all together for multimodal retrieval and genAI workflows.
-          </p>
-          <a href="guide/blob" class="md-button">Learn More</a>
-        </div>
-        <div class="lance-feature-demo">
-          <img src="assets/images/multimodal-data.png" alt="Multimodal Data Example" style="max-width: 500px; width: 100%; height: auto; border-radius: 8px;">
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </section>
-
-  <!-- Feature 4: Data Evolution -->
-  <section class="lance-feature-section reverse">
-    <div class="container">
-      <div class="lance-feature-content">
-        <div class="lance-feature-text">
-          <h2>Data Evolution > Schema Evolution</h2>
-          <p>
-            Schema evolution in most open table formats are metadata only and fast.
-            But when trying to backfill column values in existing rows, a full table rewrite is typically required.
-            Lance supports data evolution (efficient schema evolution with backfill), making it perfect for ML
-            feature engineering, embedding and media content management.
-          </p>
-          <p>
-            Adding a new column with data is as simple as writing new Lance files to the Lance table -
-            no need to rewrite your entire dataset.
-          </p>
-          <a href="guide/data_evolution" class="md-button">Learn More</a>
-        </div>
-        <div class="lance-feature-demo">
-          <img src="assets/images/data-evolution.png" alt="Data Evolution Example" style="max-width: 500px; width: 100%; height: auto; border-radius: 8px;">
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </section>
-
-  <!-- Feature 5: Rich Ecosystem Integration -->
-  <section class="lance-feature-section">
-    <div class="container">
-      <div class="lance-feature-content">
-        <div class="lance-feature-text">
-          <h2>Rich Ecosystem Integrations</h2>
-          <p>
-            As an open format, Lance integrates seamlessly with the Python data ecosystem and modern data platforms.
-            Work with your favorite tools including Pandas, Polars, Ray and PyTorch for data processing and machine learning.
-          </p>
-          <p>
-            Connect with leading query engines like Apache DataFusion, DuckDB, Apache Spark, Trino, and Apache Flink/Fluss
-            to run SQL analytics and distributed processing on your Lance datasets.
-          </p>
-          <a href="integrations/datafusion" class="md-button">View Integrations</a>
-        </div>
-        <div class="lance-feature-demo">
-          <img src="assets/images/ecosystem-integrations.png" alt="Lance Ecosystem Integrations" style="max-width: 500px; width: 100%; height: auto; border-radius: 8px;">
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </section>
-
-
-{% endblock %}
-
-{% block content %}{% endblock %}
-{% block footer %}
-  {{ super() }}
-{% endblock %}
diff --git a/docs/pyproject.toml b/docs/pyproject.toml
index 7ef4e59666c..3aa6847e4f3 100644
--- a/docs/pyproject.toml
+++ b/docs/pyproject.toml
@@ -3,13 +3,15 @@ name = "lance-docs"
 version = "0.1.0"
 description = "Documentation for Lance - Modern columnar data format for ML and LLMs"
 readme = "README.md"
-requires-python = ">=3.9"
+requires-python = ">=3.10,<3.11"
 dependencies = [
     "mkdocs>=1.5.0",
-    "mkdocs-material>=9.4.0",
+    "pymdown-extensions>=10.0",
+    "pygments>=2.16",
     "mkdocs-protobuf>=0.1.0",
     "mkdocs-linkcheck>=1.0.0",
-    "mkdocs-awesome-pages-plugin>=2.10.1"
+    "mkdocs-awesome-pages-plugin>=2.10.1",
+    "requests>=2.31.0"  # mkdocs-linkcheck imports it but doesn't declare it
 ]
 
 [tool.uv]
diff --git a/docs/src/assets/javascript/termynal.js b/docs/src/assets/javascript/termynal.js
deleted file mode 100644
index 77ec6cb01c8..00000000000
--- a/docs/src/assets/javascript/termynal.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,197 +0,0 @@
-/**
- * termynal.js
- * A lightweight, modern and extensible animated terminal window, using
- * async/await.
- *
- * @author Ines Montani <ines@ines.io>
- * @version 0.0.1
- * @license MIT
- */
-
-'use strict';
-
-/** Generate a terminal widget. */
-class Termynal {
-    /**
-     * Construct the widget's settings.
-     * @param {(string|Node)=} container - Query selector or container element.
-     * @param {Object=} options - Custom settings.
-     * @param {string} options.prefix - Prefix to use for data attributes.
-     * @param {number} options.startDelay - Delay before animation, in ms.
-     * @param {number} options.typeDelay - Delay between each typed character, in ms.
-     * @param {number} options.lineDelay - Delay between each line, in ms.
-     * @param {number} options.progressLength - Number of characters displayed as progress bar.
-     * @param {string} options.progressChar – Character to use for progress bar, defaults to █.
-	 * @param {number} options.progressPercent - Max percent of progress.
-     * @param {string} options.cursor – Character to use for cursor, defaults to ▋.
-     * @param {Object[]} lineData - Dynamically loaded line data objects.
-     * @param {boolean} options.noInit - Don't initialise the animation.
-     */
-    constructor(container = '#termynal', options = {}) {
-        this.container = (typeof container === 'string') ? document.querySelector(container) : container;
-        this.pfx = `data-${options.prefix || 'ty'}`;
-        this.startDelay = options.startDelay
-            || parseFloat(this.container.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-startDelay`)) || 600;
-        this.typeDelay = options.typeDelay
-            || parseFloat(this.container.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-typeDelay`)) || 90;
-        this.lineDelay = options.lineDelay
-            || parseFloat(this.container.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-lineDelay`)) || 1500;
-        this.progressLength = options.progressLength
-            || parseFloat(this.container.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-progressLength`)) || 40;
-        this.progressChar = options.progressChar
-            || this.container.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-progressChar`) || '█';
-		this.progressPercent = options.progressPercent
-            || parseFloat(this.container.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-progressPercent`)) || 100;
-        this.cursor = options.cursor
-            || this.container.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-cursor`) || '▋';
-        this.lineData = this.lineDataToElements(options.lineData || []);
-        if (!options.noInit) this.init()
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Initialise the widget, get lines, clear container and start animation.
-     */
-    init() {
-        // Appends dynamically loaded lines to existing line elements.
-        this.lines = [...this.container.querySelectorAll(`[${this.pfx}]`)].concat(this.lineData);
-
-        /** 
-         * Calculates width and height of Termynal container.
-         * If container is empty and lines are dynamically loaded, defaults to browser `auto` or CSS.
-         */ 
-        const containerStyle = getComputedStyle(this.container);
-        this.container.style.width = containerStyle.width !== '0px' ? 
-            containerStyle.width : undefined;
-        this.container.style.minHeight = containerStyle.height !== '0px' ? 
-            containerStyle.height : undefined;
-
-        this.container.setAttribute('data-termynal', '');
-        this.container.innerHTML = '';
-        this.start();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Start the animation and rener the lines depending on their data attributes.
-     */
-    async start() {
-        await this._wait(this.startDelay);
-
-        for (let line of this.lines) {
-            const type = line.getAttribute(this.pfx);
-            const delay = line.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-delay`) || this.lineDelay;
-
-            if (type == 'input') {
-                line.setAttribute(`${this.pfx}-cursor`, this.cursor);
-                await this.type(line);
-                await this._wait(delay);
-            }
-
-            else if (type == 'progress') {
-                await this.progress(line);
-                await this._wait(delay);
-            }
-
-            else {
-                this.container.appendChild(line);
-                await this._wait(delay);
-            }
-
-            line.removeAttribute(`${this.pfx}-cursor`);
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Animate a typed line.
-     * @param {Node} line - The line element to render.
-     */
-    async type(line) {
-        const chars = [...line.textContent];
-        const delay = line.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-typeDelay`) || this.typeDelay;
-        line.textContent = '';
-        this.container.appendChild(line);
-
-        for (let char of chars) {
-            await this._wait(delay);
-            line.textContent += char;
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Animate a progress bar.
-     * @param {Node} line - The line element to render.
-     */
-    async progress(line) {
-        const progressLength = line.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-progressLength`)
-            || this.progressLength;
-        const progressChar = line.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-progressChar`)
-            || this.progressChar;
-        const chars = progressChar.repeat(progressLength);
-		const progressPercent = line.getAttribute(`${this.pfx}-progressPercent`)
-			|| this.progressPercent;
-        line.textContent = '';
-        this.container.appendChild(line);
-
-        for (let i = 1; i < chars.length + 1; i++) {
-            await this._wait(this.typeDelay);
-            const percent = Math.round(i / chars.length * 100);
-            line.textContent = `${chars.slice(0, i)} ${percent}%`;
-			if (percent>progressPercent) {
-				break;
-			}
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Helper function for animation delays, called with `await`.
-     * @param {number} time - Timeout, in ms.
-     */
-    _wait(time) {
-        return new Promise(resolve => setTimeout(resolve, time));
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Converts line data objects into line elements.
-     * 
-     * @param {Object[]} lineData - Dynamically loaded lines.
-     * @param {Object} line - Line data object.
-     * @returns {Element[]} - Array of line elements.
-     */
-    lineDataToElements(lineData) {
-        return lineData.map(line => {
-            let div = document.createElement('div');
-            div.innerHTML = `<span ${this._attributes(line)}>${line.value || ''}</span>`;
-
-            return div.firstElementChild;
-        });
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Helper function for generating attributes string.
-     * 
-     * @param {Object} line - Line data object.
-     * @returns {string} - String of attributes.
-     */
-    _attributes(line) {
-        let attrs = '';
-        for (let prop in line) {
-            attrs += this.pfx;
-
-            if (prop === 'type') {
-                attrs += `="${line[prop]}" `
-            } else if (prop !== 'value') {
-                attrs += `-${prop}="${line[prop]}" `
-            }
-        }
-
-        return attrs;
-    }
-}
-
-/**
-* HTML API: If current script has container(s) specified, initialise Termynal.
-*/
-if (document.currentScript.hasAttribute('data-termynal-container')) {
-    const containers = document.currentScript.getAttribute('data-termynal-container');
-    containers.split('|')
-        .forEach(container => new Termynal(container))
-}
diff --git a/docs/src/assets/stylesheets/home.css b/docs/src/assets/stylesheets/home.css
deleted file mode 100644
index 086b6b43be6..00000000000
--- a/docs/src/assets/stylesheets/home.css
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,329 +0,0 @@
-/* Lance Homepage Styles */
-
-/* Override with custom color #625EFF site-wide */
-:root > * {
-  --md-primary-fg-color: #625EFF;
-  --md-primary-fg-color--light: #8481FF;
-  --md-primary-fg-color--dark: #4A46CC;
-  --md-accent-fg-color: #625EFF;
-  --md-accent-fg-color--transparent: rgba(98, 94, 255, 0.1);
-}
-
-* {
-  box-sizing: border-box;
-}
-
-.container {
-  width: 100%;
-  max-width: 1140px;
-  margin-right: auto;
-  margin-left: auto;
-  padding-right: 15px;
-  padding-left: 15px;
-}
-
-/* Hero Section - Fullscreen with Background Image */
-.mdx-container {
-  text-align: center;
-  color: #f8f8f8;
-  background: url("../images/lance-mj.png") no-repeat center center;
-  background-size: cover;
-  min-height: 100vh;
-  height: 100vh;
-  display: flex;
-  align-items: center;
-  justify-content: center;
-}
-
-.intro-message {
-  position: relative;
-  padding: 40px 20px;
-  font-family: "Lato", -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;
-  max-width: 1000px;
-  margin: 0 auto;
-}
-
-.hero-logo {
-  display: inline-flex;
-  align-items: center;
-  margin-bottom: 16px;
-}
-
-.hero-logo img {
-  height: 120px;
-  width: auto;
-  margin-right: 24px;
-  margin-top: 12px;
-  filter: drop-shadow(3px 3px 8px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.9));
-}
-
-.intro-message h1 {
-  font-weight: 400;
-  margin: 0;
-  display: inline-block;
-  text-shadow: 3px 3px 8px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.9), 1px 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);
-  font-size: 8em;
-  line-height: 1.2;
-  color: #ffffff;
-  vertical-align: middle;
-}
-
-.intro-message h1 sup {
-  font-size: 2rem;
-  text-shadow: 2px 2px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.9);
-}
-
-.intro-message h3 {
-  font-size: 1.1rem;
-  text-shadow: 2px 2px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.9), 1px 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);
-  font-weight: 600;
-  margin-bottom: 32px;
-  color: #ffffff;
-}
-
-.intro-divider {
-  width: 400px;
-  max-width: 80%;
-  border-top: 1px solid rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.8);
-  border-bottom: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);
-  margin: 24px auto;
-}
-
-.list-inline {
-  padding-left: 0;
-  margin-left: -5px;
-  list-style: none;
-  margin-bottom: 0;
-}
-
-.list-inline li {
-  display: inline-block;
-  padding-right: 5px;
-  padding-left: 5px;
-}
-
-.intro-message .md-button {
-  margin: 8px;
-  padding: 14px 36px;
-  font-size: 1.1rem;
-  font-weight: 600;
-  text-shadow: 2px 2px 4px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.8);
-  transition: all 0.3s ease;
-}
-
-.intro-message .md-button:hover {
-  transform: translateY(-2px);
-  box-shadow: 0 8px 16px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3);
-}
-
-.intro-message .md-button--primary:hover {
-  box-shadow: 0 8px 20px rgba(98, 94, 255, 0.5);
-}
-
-.intro-message .md-button:not(.md-button--primary):hover {
-  box-shadow: 0 8px 20px rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.4);
-}
-
-/* What is Lance Section */
-.lance-intro-section {
-  padding: 80px 0;
-  background-color: rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.03);
-  border-bottom: 1px solid rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.1);
-}
-
-.lance-intro-content {
-  max-width: 900px;
-  margin: 0 auto;
-  text-align: center;
-}
-
-.lance-intro-content h2 {
-  font-size: 36px;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  margin-bottom: 32px;
-  color: var(--md-primary-fg-color);
-}
-
-.lance-intro-content p {
-  font-size: 16px;
-  line-height: 1.8;
-  margin-bottom: 32px;
-  opacity: 0.9;
-  text-align: left;
-}
-
-.lance-paper-link {
-  color: var(--md-primary-fg-color);
-  text-decoration: none;
-}
-
-.lance-paper-link:hover {
-  color: var(--md-primary-fg-color);
-  text-decoration: none;
-}
-
-.lance-intro-content a:hover {
-  color: #757575;
-  text-decoration: none;
-}
-
-.lance-intro-content .md-button {
-  margin-top: 16px;
-  padding: 10px 28px;
-  font-size: 14px;
-  border: 2px solid currentColor;
-  background-color: transparent;
-  transition: all 0.3s ease;
-}
-
-.lance-intro-content .md-button:hover {
-  color: var(--md-primary-fg-color);
-  background-color: transparent;
-}
-
-/* Feature Sections */
-.lance-feature-section {
-  padding: 80px 0;
-  border-bottom: 1px solid rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.1);
-}
-
-.lance-feature-section:last-child {
-  border-bottom: none;
-}
-
-.lance-feature-content {
-  display: flex;
-  flex-wrap: wrap;
-  align-items: center;
-  gap: 60px;
-}
-
-.lance-feature-text {
-  flex: 1;
-  min-width: 300px;
-}
-
-.lance-feature-text h2 {
-  font-size: 30px;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  margin-bottom: 16px;
-  color: var(--md-primary-fg-color);
-}
-
-.lance-feature-text p {
-  font-size: 15px;
-  line-height: 1.6;
-  opacity: 0.85;
-  margin-bottom: 16px;
-}
-
-.lance-feature-text .md-button {
-  font-size: 0.6rem;
-  padding: 0;
-  transition: all 0.3s ease;
-}
-
-.lance-feature-text .md-button:hover {
-  transform: translateX(4px);
-  color: var(--md-primary-fg-color);
-}
-
-.lance-feature-demo {
-  flex: 1;
-  min-width: 400px;
-  display: flex;
-  justify-content: center;
-  overflow: hidden;
-}
-
-/* Alternating layout */
-.lance-feature-section.reverse .lance-feature-content {
-  flex-direction: row-reverse;
-}
-
-/* Terminal container adjustments */
-[data-termynal] {
-  margin: 0 auto;
-  width: 500px;
-  max-width: 100%;
-  font-size: 14px;
-  box-shadow: 0 8px 24px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.15);
-}
-
-/* Responsive Design */
-@media (max-width: 768px) {
-  .container {
-    padding-right: 10px;
-    padding-left: 10px;
-  }
-
-  .mdx-hero__content h1 {
-    font-size: 2.2rem;
-  }
-
-  .mdx-hero__content p {
-    font-size: 1.1rem;
-  }
-
-  .lance-feature-section {
-    padding: 50px 0;
-  }
-
-  .lance-feature-content {
-    flex-direction: column;
-    gap: 40px;
-  }
-
-  .lance-feature-section.reverse .lance-feature-content {
-    flex-direction: column;
-  }
-
-  .lance-feature-text h2 {
-    font-size: 1.8rem;
-  }
-
-  .lance-feature-text p {
-    font-size: 1rem;
-  }
-
-  .lance-feature-demo {
-    min-width: 100%;
-  }
-
-  [data-termynal] {
-    width: 100% !important;
-    max-width: 100% !important;
-    font-size: 12px;
-    padding: 50px 25px 25px;
-  }
-}
-
-@media (max-width: 960px) {
-  .intro-message .list-inline li {
-    display: block;
-    padding: 0;
-    margin-bottom: 12px;
-  }
-
-  .intro-message .md-button {
-    display: block;
-    margin: 0 auto;
-    width: 90%;
-    max-width: 350px;
-  }
-}
-
-@media (max-width: 480px) {
-  .intro-message h1 {
-    font-size: 1.8rem;
-  }
-
-  .intro-message .md-button {
-    max-width: 300px;
-  }
-
-  [data-termynal] {
-    font-size: 10px;
-    padding: 40px 15px 15px;
-  }
-}
diff --git a/docs/src/assets/stylesheets/termynal.css b/docs/src/assets/stylesheets/termynal.css
deleted file mode 100644
index 456f469bea3..00000000000
--- a/docs/src/assets/stylesheets/termynal.css
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,107 +0,0 @@
-/**
- * termynal.js
- *
- * @author Ines Montani <ines@ines.io>
- * @version 0.0.1
- * @license MIT
- */
-
-:root {
-    --color-bg: #252a33;
-    --color-text: #eee;
-    --color-text-subtle: #a2a2a2;
-    --color-keyword: #c678dd;
-    --color-string: #98c379;
-    --color-function: #61afef;
-    --color-number: #d19a66;
-    --color-comment: #5c6370;
-}
-
-[data-termynal] {
-    width: 750px;
-    max-width: 100%;
-    background: var(--color-bg);
-    color: var(--color-text);
-    font-size: 18px;
-    font-family: 'Fira Mono', Consolas, Menlo, Monaco, 'Courier New', Courier, monospace;
-    border-radius: 4px;
-    padding: 75px 45px 35px;
-    position: relative;
-    -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;
-            box-sizing: border-box;
-}
-
-[data-termynal]:before {
-    content: '';
-    position: absolute;
-    top: 15px;
-    left: 15px;
-    display: inline-block;
-    width: 15px;
-    height: 15px;
-    border-radius: 50%;
-    /* A little hack to display the window buttons in one pseudo element. */
-    background: #d9515d;
-    -webkit-box-shadow: 25px 0 0 #f4c025, 50px 0 0 #3ec930;
-            box-shadow: 25px 0 0 #f4c025, 50px 0 0 #3ec930;
-}
-
-[data-termynal]:after {
-    content: 'Python';
-    position: absolute;
-    color: var(--color-text-subtle);
-    top: 5px;
-    left: 0;
-    width: 100%;
-    text-align: center;
-}
-
-[data-ty] {
-    display: block;
-    line-height: 2;
-    white-space: pre;
-}
-
-[data-ty]:before {
-    /* Set up defaults and ensure empty lines are displayed. */
-    content: '';
-    display: inline-block;
-    vertical-align: middle;
-}
-
-[data-ty="input"]:before,
-[data-ty-prompt]:before {
-    margin-right: 0.75em;
-    color: var(--color-text-subtle);
-}
-
-[data-ty="input"]:before {
-    content: '$';
-}
-
-[data-ty][data-ty-prompt]:before {
-    content: attr(data-ty-prompt);
-}
-
-[data-ty-cursor]:after {
-    content: attr(data-ty-cursor);
-    font-family: monospace;
-    margin-left: 0.5em;
-    -webkit-animation: blink 1s infinite;
-            animation: blink 1s infinite;
-}
-
-
-/* Cursor animation */
-
-@-webkit-keyframes blink {
-    50% {
-        opacity: 0;
-    }
-}
-
-@keyframes blink {
-    50% {
-        opacity: 0;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/docs/src/community/communication.md b/docs/src/community/communication.md
index 1777788f345..21b7e9eba61 100644
--- a/docs/src/community/communication.md
+++ b/docs/src/community/communication.md
@@ -24,8 +24,12 @@ There are two mailing lists used by Lance:
 - [dev@lance.org](https://groups.google.com/a/lance.org/g/dev): Archive for discussions from GitHub Discussions (public)
 - [private@lance.org](https://groups.google.com/a/lance.org/g/private): Private discussions, security and harassment issues reporting, voting (private, PMC only)
 
-## Community Events
+## Community Sync
 
-Check out [Lance Community Events](https://calendar.google.com/calendar/u/0?cid=Y29tbXVuaXR5QGxhbmNlLm9yZw) 
-for upcoming virtual or in-person events related to Lance.
-The community can self-organize additional meetups as well.
+We hold Lance community syncs every other Thursday at 9am PT. Everyone is welcome to attend! 
+
+- Subscribe to the [Lance Format mailing list](https://groups.google.com/a/lance.org/g/dev) to receive the meeting invite
+- Feel free to suggest discussion topics on the [meeting notes](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1cP058pJLVjj39DGaFV5yHI6qyWBwp1B2YKyIwXzYlAI/edit?tab=t.0)
+- Past recordings can be found [here](https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQysAafL04jUgOj7j6mCE5fcZEBB9Amu9)
+
+If you have issues seeing the calendar invite, please reach out via the mailing list or the [Lance discord](https://discord.gg/lance).
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/src/community/contributing.md b/docs/src/community/contributing.md
index 7e2e681b4d2..d3626be6461 100644
--- a/docs/src/community/contributing.md
+++ b/docs/src/community/contributing.md
@@ -21,13 +21,24 @@ Major technical changes are discussed organically through the following approach
 - **Iterate on Design**: Engage with the community to refine the approach based on their input and expertise
 - **Draft PRs for Details**: Once the general direction is acceptable to the community, publish draft PRs to help hash out implementation details. Draft PRs are encouraged as they facilitate concrete discussions
 - **Break Down Changes**: Split large draft PRs into smaller, incremental PRs for easier review and to demonstrate progress
-- **Formal Voting**: Maintainers with write access can approve code modifications related to the design. If the design requires Lance format spec changes, a separate vote will be conducted on GitHub Discussions following the [voting requirements](./voting.md#voting-requirements)
+- **Formal Voting**: Maintainers with write access can approve code modifications related to the design. If the design requires Lance format spec changes, those changes go in their own PR and the PMC votes on that PR following the [voting requirements](./voting.md#voting-requirements)
+
+## Format Specification Changes
+
+Changes to the Lance format specification — the protobuf definitions and the docs
+under `docs/src/format/` — are proposed as a pull request and voted on there by the
+PMC. The PR is the proposal; there is no separate discussion thread to open first.
+
+Scope such a PR to the specification itself, plus the minimum library changes needed
+to keep the build green, and put the implementation in follow-up PRs. See
+[Lance Format Specification Changes](./voting.md#lance-format-specification-changes)
+for what the vote requires and how it is counted.
 
 ## AI Tooling Integrations
 
 We encourage contributors to continuously improve integrations with AI tools, including:
 
-- Enhancing coding agent guidelines such as `AGENTS.md` and `CLAUDE.md`
+- Enhancing coding agent guidelines such as `AGENTS.md`
 - Providing feedback to AI code reviewers
 - Developing and improving AI-driven GitHub actions
 
diff --git a/docs/src/community/index.md b/docs/src/community/index.md
index a52b33d277c..5b9c9bdcbe4 100644
--- a/docs/src/community/index.md
+++ b/docs/src/community/index.md
@@ -43,52 +43,78 @@ Maintainer and PMC rosters information follow these guidelines:
 
 This section details the projects maintained in the Lance community.
 
-### Core Projects
+### Core Project
 
-Core projects are the foundational repositories maintained by the Lance community with strict quality and release standards.
-[Contributing Guidelines](./contributing.md), [Community Voting Process](./voting.md) and [Release Guidelines](./release.md) 
-are all applicable to these projects.
+[lance](https://github.com/lance-format/lance) is the core project of the lance-format GitHub Organization,
+which hosts most of the development on the table and file format, Rust SDK, Python and Java binding SDKs, documentation and discussions.
 
-Here is the list of current core projects:
-
-| Project Name      | Repository                                     | Contents                                                                                                                 |
-|-------------------|------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
-| lance             | https://github.com/lance-format/lance             | Lance file and table format specification, Rust SDK (including Namespace Integration SDK), Python SDK, Java SDK, Website |
-| lance-namespace   | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-namespace   | Lance namespace format specification, Rust/Python/Java Codegen SDKs, Java/Python Integration SDK                         |
-| lance-python-docs | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-python-docs | Lance Python SDK generated docs and integration hook with readthedocs                                                    |
-| lance-ray         | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-ray         | Ray integration for Lance                                                                                                |
-| lance-spark       | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-spark       | Apache Spark connector for Lance                                                                                         |
+The core project is maintained by the Lance community with strict quality and release standards.
+[Contributing Guidelines](./contributing.md), [Community Voting Process](./voting.md) and [Release Guidelines](./release.md)
+are all applicable to the core project.
 
 ### Subprojects
 
 Subprojects are initiatives or repositories that extend Lance's functionality.
 They must align with Lance's overall mission and technical direction.
-New subprojects can be created with PMC approval.
+New subprojects are created by graduating from incubating subprojects through a PMC vote.
+
+Subprojects have relaxed requirements compared to core projects:
 
-Subprojects have relaxed requirements for contribution,
-where contributors may receive write access even if not maintainers.
+- Contributors may receive write access even if not maintainers
+- Merges may be allowed without review at maintainer discretion
+- Release processes may be simplified compared to core projects
 
 Here is the list of current subprojects:
 
-| Project Name      | Repository                                     | Contents                                            |
-|-------------------|------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|
+| Project Name      | Repository                                        | Contents                                                               |
+|-------------------|---------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
+| lance-duckdb      | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-duckdb      | DuckDB extension for Lance                                             |
+| lance-huggingface | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-huggingface | Hugging Face integration for Lance                                     |
+| lance-namespace   | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-namespace   | Lance namespace format specification, Rust/Python/Java Codegen SDKs    |
+| lance-namespace-impls | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-namespace-impls | Lance Namespace Implementations - Apache Hive, Apache Polaris, Apache Gravitino, Unity Catalog, AWS Glue and more |
+| lance-python-doc  | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-python-doc  | Lance Python SDK generated docs and integration hook with readthedocs  |
+| lance-ray         | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-ray         | Ray integration for Lance                                              |
+| lance-spark       | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-spark       | Apache Spark connector for Lance                                       |
+
+### Incubating Subprojects
+
+Incubating subprojects are experimental or early-stage repositories in the Lance ecosystem.
+Any PMC member can create an incubating subproject without a formal vote.
+These projects provide a space for new ideas to develop before committing to full subproject standards.
+
+Incubating subprojects have the most relaxed requirements:
+
+- Anyone can be added as a committer by the project creator or existing PMC members
+- Merges without review are allowed
+- No formal release process is required
+
+**Important**: All incubating subprojects must include a prominent notice in their README with the following exact notice:
+
+> ⚠️ **Incubating Subproject**: This project is in incubation and is not yet an official Lance subproject.
+> APIs and functionality may change without notice. Use it in production at your own risk.
+
+Here is the list of current incubating subprojects:
+
+| Project Name      | Repository                                        | Contents                                            |
+|-------------------|---------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|
+| lance-context     | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-context     | Manage Multimodal Agentic Context Lifecycle with Lance |
 | lance-data-viewer | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-data-viewer | Read-only web interface for browsing Lance datasets |
-| lance-duckdb      | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-duckdb      | DuckDB extension for Lance                          |
 | lance-flink       | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-flink       | Apache Flink connector for Lance                    |
 | lance-graph       | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-graph       | Cypher-capable graph query engine on top of Lance   |
 | lance-trino       | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-trino       | Trino connector for Lance                           |
 | pglance           | https://github.com/lance-format/pglance           | PostgreSQL extension for Lance                      |
 
-### Graduating a Subproject
+### Graduating from Incubating to Subproject
 
-The PMC can vote to promote a subproject to a core project once the subproject has demonstrated aspects including:
+The PMC can vote to promote an incubating subproject to a subproject once the project has demonstrated:
 
-- Proper repository setup including CI, issue tracking, contributing guide, etc.
-- Proper code standard enforcement including lint, testing, etc.
-- Automated release mechanism
-- Established production use cases
+- Proper repository setup including CI, issue tracking, and contributing guide
+- Proper code standard enforcement including lint and testing
+- Established use cases
 - Community adoption outside the primary contributor
-- Consistent contributions from the community to add new features and fix bugs
+- At least one Lance maintainer actively maintaining the project
+
+Contributors with write access will retain their access after graduation to subproject.
 
 ### Project License
 
diff --git a/docs/src/community/maintainers.md b/docs/src/community/maintainers.md
index 4ebcbd8da01..a772f4739bd 100644
--- a/docs/src/community/maintainers.md
+++ b/docs/src/community/maintainers.md
@@ -40,30 +40,38 @@ Maintainers with GitHub write access are additionally encouraged to:
 
 ## Roster
 
-| Name                   | GitHub Handle        | Affiliation       | GitHub Write Access | Ecosystem Roles                                 |
-|------------------------|----------------------|-------------------|---------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
-| Matt Basta             | mattbasta            | Runway AI         |                     |                                                 |
-| Giuseppe Battista      | giusedroid           | AWS               |                     |                                                 |
-| Timothy Carambat       | timothycarambat      | Anything LLM      |                     |                                                 |
-| Ayush Chaurasia        | AyushExel            | LanceDB           |                     |
-| Chongchen Chen         | chenkovsky           | MiraclePlus       |                     |                                                 |
-| Akela Drissner-Schmid  | akelad               | dltHub            |                     |                                                 |
-| Ty Dunn                | TyDunn               | Continue          |                     |                                                 |
-| Enwei Jiao             | jiaoew1991           | Luma.ai           | ✓                   | Milvus Maintainer                               |
-| Bryan Keller           | bryanck              | Netflix           |                     | Apache Iceberg Committer                        |
-| Aman Kishore           | AmanKishore          | Harvey.ai         |                     |                                                 |
-| Sangwu Lee             | RE-N-Y               | Krea.ai           |                     |                                                 |
-| Jeremy Leibs           | jleibs               | Rerun.io          |                     |                                                 |
-| Haocheng Liu           | HaochengLIU          | Seven Research    | ✓                   |                                                 |
-| Nathan Ma              | majin1102            | ByteDance         | ✓                   | Apache Amoro (incubating) PPMC Member           |
-| ChanChan Mao           | ccmao1130            | LanceDB           |                     |                                                 |
-| Lu Qiu                 | LuQQiu               | LanceDB           | ✓                   | Alluxio PMC Member                              |
-| Rong Rong              | walterddr            | Google DeepMind   |                     | Apache Pinot PMC Member, Apache Flink Committer |
-| Nat Roth               | nrothGIT             | Meta AI           |                     |                                                 |
-| Kevin Shaffer-Morrison | kevinshaffermorrison | AWS               |                     |                                                 |
-| Noah Shpak             | noahshpak            | Thinking Machines |                     |                                                 |
-| Ankit Vij              | ankitvij-db          | Databricks        |                     |                                                 |
-| Jiacheng Yang          | jiachengdb           | Google AI         |                     |                                                 |
+| Name                   | GitHub Handle        | Affiliation       | GitHub Write Access | Ecosystem Roles                                    |
+|------------------------|----------------------|-------------------|---------------------|----------------------------------------------------|
+| Wyatt Alt              | wkalt                | LanceDB           | ✓                   |                                                    |
+| Matt Basta             | mattbasta            | Runway AI         |                     |                                                    |
+| Giuseppe Battista      | giusedroid           | AWS               |                     |                                                    |
+| Timothy Carambat       | timothycarambat      | Anything LLM      |                     |                                                    |
+| Ayush Chaurasia        | AyushExel            | LanceDB           |                     |                                                    |
+| Chongchen Chen         | chenkovsky           | MiraclePlus       |                     |                                                    |
+| Akela Drissner-Schmid  | akelad               | dltHub            |                     |                                                    |
+| Ty Dunn                | TyDunn               | Continue          |                     |                                                    |
+| Enwei Jiao             | jiaoew1991           | Luma.ai           | ✓                   | Milvus Maintainer                                  |
+| Bryan Keller           | bryanck              | Netflix           |                     | Apache Iceberg Committer                           |
+| Aman Kishore           | AmanKishore          | Harvey.ai         |                     |                                                    |
+| Sangwu Lee             | RE-N-Y               | Krea.ai           |                     |                                                    |
+| Jeremy Leibs           | jleibs               | Genesis AI        |                     |                                                    |
+| Haocheng Liu           | HaochengLIU          | Seven Research    | ✓                   |                                                    |
+| Nathan Ma              | majin1102            | ByteDance         | ✓                   | Apache Amoro (incubating) PPMC Member              |
+| ChanChan Mao           | ccmao1130            | LanceDB           |                     |                                                    |
+| Lu Qiu                 | LuQQiu               | LanceDB           | ✓                   | Alluxio PMC Member                                 |
+| Dan Rammer             | hamersaw             | LanceDB           | ✓                   |                                                    |
+| Rong Rong              | walterddr            | Google DeepMind   |                     | Apache Pinot PMC Member, Apache Flink Committer    |
+| Nat Roth               | nrothGIT             | Meta AI           |                     |                                                    |
+| Kevin Shaffer-Morrison | kevinshaffermorrison | AWS               |                     |                                                    |
+| Noah Shpak             | noahshpak            | Thinking Machines |                     |                                                    |
+| Chunxu Tang            | ChunxuTang           | Google            |                     | PrestoDB Committer                                 |
+| Ankit Vij              | ankitvij-db          | Databricks        |                     |                                                    |
+| Beinan Wang            | beinan               | Microsoft AI      |                     | Alluxio PMC Member, Presto TSC Member              |
+| Jiacheng Yang          | jiachengdb           | Google AI         |                     |                                                    |
+| Yang Jie               | LuciferYang          | Baidu Inc.        |                     | Apache Spark PMC Member, Apache Uniffle PMC Member | 
+| Jianjian Xie           | jja725               | Uber              |                     |                                                    |
+| Zhang Yue              | zhangyue19921010     | ByteDance         |                     | Apache Hudi PMC, Apache Druid Committer, Kafka Contributor |
+| Jinglun                | wojiaodoubao         | ByteDance         |                     | Apache Hadoop Committer                            |
 
 ## Becoming a Maintainer
 
@@ -99,4 +107,4 @@ To be granted GitHub write access, the maintainer should:
 - Have a history of high-quality contributions
 - Have earned trust from the community for code reviews
 - Get nominated by a PMC member and approval through a passing vote
-- Sign the Contributor License Agreement (CLA)
\ No newline at end of file
+- Sign the Contributor License Agreement (CLA)
diff --git a/docs/src/community/pmc.md b/docs/src/community/pmc.md
index 3d9daeaebff..5088e45d6ae 100644
--- a/docs/src/community/pmc.md
+++ b/docs/src/community/pmc.md
@@ -27,27 +27,9 @@ In addition to the [activities of maintainers](./maintainers.md#activities), PMC
 
 ## Roster
 
-| Name            | GitHub Handle   | Affiliation  | Ecosystem Roles                                                                                               |
-|-----------------|-----------------|--------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
-| Yang Cen        | BubbleCal       | LanceDB      | Milvus Contributor                                                                                            |
-| Pablo Delgado   | pablete         | Netflix      |                                                                                                               |
-| Hao Ding        | Xuanwo          | LanceDB      | Apache OpenDAL PMC Chair, Apache Iceberg Committer, Apache Member and [more](https://xuanwo.io/about/)        |
-| Zhaowei Huang   | SaintBacchus    | Alibaba      | Apache Doris Committer                                                                                        |
-| Will Jones      | wjones127       | LanceDB      | Apache Arrow PMC Member, Apache DataFusion PMC Member, Delta Lake Maintainer                                  |
-| Matt Kafonek    | kafonek         | Runway AI    |                                                                                                               |
-| Denny Lee       | dennyglee       | Databricks   | Unity Catalog Maintainer, Delta Lake Maintainer, Apache Spark Contributor, MLflow Contributor                 |
-| Rob Meng        | chebbyChefNEQ   | Jump Trading |                                                                                                               |
-| Dao Mi          | dowjones226     | Netflix      |                                                                                                               |
-| Weston Pace     | westonpace      | LanceDB      | Apache Arrow PMC Member, Substrait SMC Member                                                                 |
-| Calvin Qi       | calvinqi        | Harvey.ai    |                                                                                                               |
-| Prashanth Rao   | prrao87         | LanceDB      |                                                                                                               |
-| Ethan Rosenthal | EthanRosenthal  | Runway AI    |                                                                                                               |                                                 |
-| Tim Saucer      | timsaucer       | Rerun.io     | Apache DataFusion PMC Member                                                                                  |
-| Chang She       | changhiskhan    | LanceDB      | Pandas Co-Author                                                                                              |
-| Jasmine Wang    | onigiriisabunny | LanceDB      | Alluxio PMC Community Manager                                                                                 |
-| Lei Xu          | eddyxu          | LanceDB      | Apache Hadoop PMC Member                                                                                      |
-| Vino Yang       | yanghua         | Bytedance    | Apache Hudi PMC Member, Apache Kyuubi PMC Member, Apache Kylin Committer, Apache Incubation Program Committer |
-| Jack Ye         | jackye1995      | LanceDB      | Apache Iceberg PMC Member, Apache Polaris (incubating) PPMC Member, Apache Incubation Program Committer       |
+<!-- The roster table is generated at build time from `pmc.yaml` by the
+     `hooks/pmc_roster.py` MkDocs hook. Edit `pmc.yaml`, not this placeholder. -->
+<!-- PMC_ROSTER_TABLE -->
 
 ## Becoming a PMC Member
 
diff --git a/docs/src/community/pmc.yaml b/docs/src/community/pmc.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..34819652c00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/community/pmc.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+# Source of truth for the Project Management Committee (PMC) roster.
+#
+# This file drives two things, so keep it accurate:
+#   1. The roster table in `pmc.md`, rendered at docs build time by the
+#      `docs/hooks/pmc_roster.py` MkDocs hook.
+#   2. The format-specification vote gate, which only counts PR approvals from
+#      the `handle`s listed here (see `.github/workflows/format-vote-gate.yml`).
+#
+# Adding or removing a member is itself a PMC vote (roster change). After the
+# vote passes, edit this file; the docs table updates automatically.
+#
+# `handle` must match the member's GitHub login exactly (case-insensitive when
+# matched). `ecosystem_roles` is free-form markdown and may be empty.
+members:
+  - name: Yang Cen
+    handle: BubbleCal
+    affiliation: LanceDB
+    ecosystem_roles: Milvus Contributor
+  - name: Pablo Delgado
+    handle: pablete
+    affiliation: Netflix
+    ecosystem_roles: ""
+  - name: Hao Ding
+    handle: Xuanwo
+    affiliation: LanceDB
+    ecosystem_roles: Apache OpenDAL PMC Chair, Apache Iceberg Committer, Apache Member and [more](https://xuanwo.io/about/)
+  - name: Zhaowei Huang
+    handle: SaintBacchus
+    affiliation: Alibaba
+    ecosystem_roles: Apache Doris Committer
+  - name: Will Jones
+    handle: wjones127
+    affiliation: LanceDB
+    ecosystem_roles: Apache Arrow PMC Member, Apache DataFusion PMC Member, Delta Lake Maintainer
+  - name: Matt Kafonek
+    handle: kafonek
+    affiliation: Runway AI
+    ecosystem_roles: ""
+  - name: Denny Lee
+    handle: dennyglee
+    affiliation: Databricks
+    ecosystem_roles: Unity Catalog Maintainer, Delta Lake Maintainer, Apache Spark Contributor, MLflow Contributor
+  - name: Rob Meng
+    handle: chebbyChefNEQ
+    affiliation: Jump Trading
+    ecosystem_roles: ""
+  - name: Dao Mi
+    handle: dowjones226
+    affiliation: Netflix
+    ecosystem_roles: ""
+  - name: Weston Pace
+    handle: westonpace
+    affiliation: LanceDB
+    ecosystem_roles: Apache Arrow PMC Member, Substrait SMC Member
+  - name: Calvin Qi
+    handle: calvinqi
+    affiliation: Harvey.ai
+    ecosystem_roles: ""
+  - name: Prashanth Rao
+    handle: prrao87
+    affiliation: LanceDB
+    ecosystem_roles: ""
+  - name: Ethan Rosenthal
+    handle: EthanRosenthal
+    affiliation: Runway AI
+    ecosystem_roles: ""
+  - name: Tim Saucer
+    handle: timsaucer
+    affiliation: Rerun.io
+    ecosystem_roles: Apache DataFusion PMC Member
+  - name: Chang She
+    handle: changhiskhan
+    affiliation: LanceDB
+    ecosystem_roles: Pandas Co-Author
+  - name: Jasmine Wang
+    handle: onigiriisabunny
+    affiliation: LanceDB
+    ecosystem_roles: Alluxio PMC Community Manager
+  - name: Lei Xu
+    handle: eddyxu
+    affiliation: LanceDB
+    ecosystem_roles: Apache Hadoop PMC Member
+  - name: Vino Yang
+    handle: yanghua
+    affiliation: Bytedance
+    ecosystem_roles: Apache Hudi PMC Member, Apache Kyuubi PMC Member, Apache Kylin Committer, Apache Incubation Program Committer
+  - name: Jack Ye
+    handle: jackye1995
+    affiliation: LanceDB
+    ecosystem_roles: Apache Iceberg PMC Member, Apache Polaris (incubating) PPMC Member, Apache Incubation Program Committer
diff --git a/docs/src/community/voting.md b/docs/src/community/voting.md
index 577642dd01a..ccb6f5a80bd 100644
--- a/docs/src/community/voting.md
+++ b/docs/src/community/voting.md
@@ -22,6 +22,10 @@ each vote should be cast as an independent comment instead of as a reply within
 This ensures that people can discuss the vote as replies to that specific comment if needed
 (e.g., to discuss **-1** vetoes or address concerns).
 
+For votes conducted on a pull request, cast **+1** by approving the PR and **-1** by
+requesting changes. These votes are counted automatically, so a **+1** written only as
+a comment does not count.
+
 ## Binding Votes
 
 Only votes from the binding voters are counted for each decision,
@@ -42,12 +46,112 @@ A **-1** binding vote is considered a veto for all decision types. Vetoes:
 |-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|--------------------------------|---------------------------------------|----------------|
 | Governance process and structure modifications                                | 3                                            | PMC                            | Private Mailing List                  | 1 week         |
 | Changes in maintainers and PMC rosters                                        | 3 (excluding the people proposed for change) | PMC                            | Private Mailing List                  | 1 week         |
-| Subproject creation and management                                            | 3                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | 3 days         |
-| Subproject graduation to core project                                         | 3                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | 1 week         |
-| Release a new stable major version of core projects                           | 3                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | 1 week         |
-| Release a new stable minor version of core projects                           | 3                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | 3 days         |
-| Release a new stable patch version of core projects                           | 3                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | N/A            |
-| Lance Format Specification modifications                                      | 3 (excluding proposer)                       | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions (with a GitHub PR) | 1 week         |
-| Code modifications in core projects (except changes to format specifications) | 1 (excluding proposer)                       | Maintainers with write access  | GitHub PR                             | N/A            |
+| Incubating subproject graduation to subproject                                | 3                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | 3 days         |
+| Subproject management                                                         | 1                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | N/A            |
+| Release a new stable major version of the core project                            | 3                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | 3 days         |
+| Release a new stable minor version of the core project                            | 3                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | 3 days         |
+| Release a new stable patch version of the core project                            | 3                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | N/A            |
+| Lance Format Specification modifications                                      | 3 (excluding proposer)                       | PMC                            | GitHub PR (see [below](#lance-format-specification-changes)) | 72 hours, excluding weekends |
+| Experimental Lance Format Specification feature (stabilization vote)          | 3 (excluding proposer)                       | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions (with a GitHub PR) | 1 week         |
+| Code modifications in the core project (except changes to format specifications)  | 1 (excluding proposer)                       | Maintainers with write access  | GitHub PR                             | N/A            |
 | Release a new stable version of subprojects                                   | 1                                            | PMC                            | GitHub Discussions                    | N/A            |
 | Code modifications in subprojects                                             | 1 (excluding proposer)                       | Contributors with write access | GitHub PR                             | N/A            |
+
+## Lance Format Specification Changes
+
+The pull request *is* the proposal. Open a PR with the specification change,
+and the PMC votes on it there — there is no separate design document or
+discussion thread to write first, and the requirement is enforced structurally
+in CI rather than by convention.
+
+### Proposing a Change
+
+Keep a format-specification PR to the specification itself: the protobuf
+definitions and the spec documentation, plus the minimum library changes needed
+to keep the build green (for example, matching a renamed generated field).
+Implement the behavior behind the change in follow-up PRs.
+
+This is not just a tidiness preference. The vote is on the format — a durable
+compatibility contract that outlives any one implementation — and PMC members
+should be able to read the whole of what they are voting on. A PR that also
+carries the reader, writer, and test changes buries the contract in
+implementation detail, and it drags an ordinary code review through a 72-hour
+voting period it does not need.
+
+Discussion happens as review comments on the PR, so reviewers can respond to
+specific lines of the specification. Open the PR as a draft while it is still
+taking shape; the voting period starts when you mark it ready for review.
+
+### How the Vote is Counted
+
+A PR counts as a format-specification change when it modifies the protobuf
+definitions (`protos/**/*.proto`) or the spec documentation (`docs/src/format/**`);
+such PRs are labeled `format-change` automatically. The
+[format spec vote gate](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/blob/main/.github/workflows/format-vote-gate.yml)
+blocks merging a `format-change` PR until all of the following hold:
+
+- **Three binding +1 votes.** Three PMC members have approved the PR, excluding
+  the proposer. Cast +1 by approving the PR. An approval counts no matter what commit
+  it was cast on, so a rebase or a typo fix does not send everyone back to
+  re-vote.
+- **One +1 on the latest commit.** At least one of those approvals — from a PMC
+  member who is not the proposer — must be on the latest commit. That member is
+  vouching that nothing substantive has changed since the earlier approvals; if
+  something has, they should ask the other voters for fresh votes rather than
+  approving. This approval counts toward the three; it is not a fourth vote.
+- **No veto.** No PMC member has an outstanding "Request changes" review. A `-1`
+  binding vote (cast by requesting changes) is a veto and blocks the merge until
+  withdrawn.
+- **Minimum voting period.** At least 72 hours have elapsed since the vote
+  opened. Weekends do not count toward the 72 hours, so a proposal opened on a
+  Friday afternoon still gets three working days of attention. The voting period
+  opens once the PR is both labeled `format-change` and marked ready for
+  review, whichever comes last. Weekends are delimited in UTC; the gate comments
+  on the PR with the exact closing time in both UTC and Pacific Time.
+
+The gate is the `format-spec-vote` required status check on protected branches.
+The PMC roster used to count votes is read from
+[`docs/src/community/pmc.yaml`](./pmc.md). It re-evaluates on a 15-minute
+schedule, so the tally comment and the status check trail a review by a few
+minutes; the comment links to a "Run workflow" page for anyone who would rather
+re-check immediately.
+
+For a trivial edit that does not change the format — a typo, wording, or
+formatting fix — a PMC member may apply the `format-waived` label to waive the
+vote.
+
+## Experimental Specification Features
+
+Certain format specification changes may be merged as **experimental** before their stabilization vote closes.
+This allows iteration on new features without blocking on a completed vote,
+while preserving the integrity of the stable format and the community's ability to reject or modify the feature.
+
+### Prerequisites
+
+A feature may only be merged as experimental if it satisfies **all** of the following criteria:
+
+1. The feature is clearly marked as experimental in both the protobuf definitions and the documentation.
+2. The feature is **forward compatible**: writers that use the feature do not affect readers that are unaware of it.
+3. The feature is **backward compatible**: writers that do not use the feature do not affect readers that use it.
+4. Dropping the feature will not require a rewrite of existing data.
+
+### Required Commitments
+
+Before merging an experimental feature, the following commitments must be in place:
+
+1. A Github discussion on the feature has been started.  For features that will span multiple PRs this discussion
+should include a design document providing an overview of the entire planned feature.
+2. **Authors** accept that if the stabilization vote is rejected or expires without passing, the feature will be removed.
+3. **Users** accept that breaking changes may be made to experimental features at any time without a separate vote.
+4. **Authors and users** accept that the PMC may request backwards-incompatible changes to the feature during the stabilization process.
+5. The file format has an additional concept of "stable versions".  A stable version may not contain any experimental features.  Before a version can be stabilized, all its features must be stabilized or moved out to the next version.
+
+### Stabilization Workflow
+
+1. Open a PR implementing the new format feature.
+2. Open a discussion of the feature on GitHub Discussions.  This is not a voting discussion.  It is a place for maintainers
+to provide early feedback.
+3. Merge the PR with the feature clearly marked as experimental.
+4. When ready, open a PR to remove the experimental markers.  This is the PR that will carry the vote.  Merging this PR
+stabilized the feature.
+5. If the stabilization PR **fails or expires**, remove the feature from the codebase and specification.
diff --git a/docs/src/examples/python/llm_dataset_creation.md b/docs/src/examples/python/llm_dataset_creation.md
index e1fd24f9513..2a70e37bcb4 100644
--- a/docs/src/examples/python/llm_dataset_creation.md
+++ b/docs/src/examples/python/llm_dataset_creation.md
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ from tqdm.auto import tqdm  # optional for progress tracking
 
 tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained('gpt2')
 
-dataset = load_dataset('wikitext', 'wikitext-103-raw-v1', streaming=True)['train']
+dataset = load_dataset('Salesforce/wikitext', 'wikitext-103-raw-v1', streaming=True)['train']
 dataset = dataset.shuffle(seed=1337)
 ```
 
@@ -105,4 +105,4 @@ lance.write_dataset(
 If you want to apply some other pre-processing to the tokens before saving it to the disk (like masking, etc), you may add it in the 
 `process_samples` function.
 
-And that's it! Your dataset has been tokenized and saved to the disk! 
\ No newline at end of file
+And that's it! Your dataset has been tokenized and saved to the disk! 
diff --git a/docs/src/format/.pages b/docs/src/format/.pages
index 6914d14e2c1..1d9306c9384 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/.pages
+++ b/docs/src/format/.pages
@@ -2,4 +2,6 @@ nav:
   - Overview: index.md
   - File Format: file
   - Table Format: table
-
+  - Index Formats: index
+  - Catalog Specs: catalog
+  - Namespace Client Spec: namespace
diff --git a/docs/src/format/AGENTS.md b/docs/src/format/AGENTS.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..faa482f687c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/AGENTS.md
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+# Format Documentation Guidelines
+
+Also see [root AGENTS.md](../../../AGENTS.md) for cross-language standards.
+
+## Change Process
+
+- Changes here require a PMC vote on the pull request, enforced by the `format-spec-vote` CI gate. See [Lance Format Specification Changes](../community/voting.md#lance-format-specification-changes).
+- Keep a spec change in its own PR, together with the matching `protos/` change and only the library edits needed to compile. Put the implementation in a follow-up PR — voters need to read the contract, not its implementation.
+
+## Style
+
+- Keep format docs as concise, text-only reference — no code examples (put those in user guide sections).
+- Express file schemas as `pyarrow` schema definitions, not markdown tables or informal text — pyarrow schemas are unambiguous and executable.
+- Use language-agnostic definitions (JSON Schema, protobuf) — not language-specific code like Rust structs.
+
+## Content
+
+- Explain schema/data evolution with concrete mechanics (field IDs, tombstones, data rewrites) — don't just name operations or defer to external specs.
+- Describe all algorithms with full detail: parameters, precision, ordering, normalization bounds, and implementation steps — never reference an algorithm by name alone.
+- Index docs must include explicit file schemas and describe reader navigation (page type distinction, root/entry point location) — follow the pattern in `index/scalar/bitmap.md`.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/file/encoding.md b/docs/src/format/file/encoding.md
index f3da5cd60df..1cb83d581e9 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/file/encoding.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/file/encoding.md
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ We can convert these into repetition levels as follows:
 | 3      | 2          | Start of new middle list                  |
 | ?      | 2          | Start of new inner-most list (empty list) |
 | ?      | 3          | Start of new outer-most list (empty list) |
-| 4      | 0          | Start of new outer-most list              |
+| 4      | 3          | Start of new outer-most list              |
 
 ### Mini Block Page Layout
 
@@ -184,9 +184,9 @@ must be loaded at initialization time and placed in the search cache.
 | 12               | Number of 8-byte words in block N   |
 | 4                | Log2 of number of values in block N |
 
-The last 4 bits are special and we just store 0 today. This is because the protobuf contains the number of
-values (not required to be a power of 2) in the entire disk page. We can subtract the values in the other blocks
-to get the number of values in the last block.
+For all chunks except the last, the lower 4 bits store `log2(num_values)` and `num_values` must be a power of two.
+For the last chunk, these bits are set to `0`. The protobuf stores the total number of values in the page, so readers
+can derive the final chunk size by subtracting the values from earlier chunks.
 
 #### Buffer 2 (Dictionary, optional)
 
@@ -198,9 +198,8 @@ dictionary in the buffer at index 2. We require the dictionary to be full loaded
 This means we don't have to load the dictionary during random access but it does require the dictionary be placed
 in the search cache.
 
-Dictionary encoding is one of the few spots today where we have no rules on how it is encoded and compressed. We
-treat the entire dictionary as a single opaque buffer. As a result we rely on the block compression trait to handle
-dictionary compression.
+Dictionary values are stored as a single buffer and compressed through the block compression path. The compression
+scheme for dictionary values can be configured separately (see `lance-encoding:dict-values-compression` below).
 
 #### Buffer 2 (or 3) (Repetition Index, optional)
 
@@ -328,6 +327,148 @@ The protobuf for the full zip layout describes the compression of the data buffe
 size of the control words and how many bits we have per value (for fixed-width data) or how many bits we
 have per offset (for variable-width data).
 
+### Sparse Page Layout
+
+Sparse pages require Lance 2.3. They represent flat or nested Arrow structure directly as slot-domain mappings instead
+of dense repetition and definition events. Writers emit this layout only in files declared as 2.3 or above. The layout is
+identified only by `PageLayout`; field metadata does not identify the layout of an existing page.
+
+A domain is a layer-local integer coordinate space `[0, num_slots)`, and a slot is one element in that space. The
+outer-most domain contains the page's top-level rows. Each layer maps its parent domain to the next layer's parent
+domain, and the terminal child domain contains the leaf value slots stored in value chunks.
+
+Structural layers are ordered from outer-most to inner-most:
+
+- validity maps a nullable item or struct slot to valid or null
+- list maps non-empty parent slots to variable-size child ranges
+- fixed-size-list maps each parent slot to a child range of a fixed dimension
+
+The layer list may be empty for a flat, non-nullable leaf page. In that case the scheduling domain and
+`num_visible_items` must be equal. The explicit writer currently emits its normalized all-valid layer even when a flat
+page could use this shorter wire representation.
+
+A list slot that is valid and absent from `non_empty_positions` is an empty list. Maps use the same structural contract
+as lists. The terminal child-domain size equals `SparseLayout.num_visible_items`.
+
+`SparseLayout.num_visible_items` is the number of leaf value slots encoded in value chunks. Null leaf slots count
+because they still occupy positions in Arrow's leaf value buffer; a nullable primitive with 100 slots, including 30
+nulls, has 100 visible items. `SparseLayout.num_items` is the number of entries in the equivalent dense repetition and
+definition stream. It equals `num_visible_items` plus one structural placeholder for every list slot without children.
+The first layer's `num_slots` is the logical top-level row count used for projection.
+
+Position sets have four semantic representations: `empty`, `all`, one non-empty `range`, or an `explicit`
+delta-compressed `u64` buffer. Count sets are `empty`, one positive `constant` value, or an `explicit` compressed `u64`
+buffer. Every layer has a `SparseValiditySet` whose meaning is explicit:
+
+- `SPARSE_VALIDITY_NULL_POSITIONS`: stored positions are null and all other positions are valid
+- `SPARSE_VALIDITY_VALID_POSITIONS`: stored positions are valid and all other positions are null
+
+The unspecified validity meaning is invalid. Both polarities are part of the wire contract and have identical Arrow
+semantics after normalization.
+
+#### Writer Selection
+
+Writers may emit this layout only for Lance 2.3+ fields. A field can request it explicitly with
+`lance-encoding:structural-encoding=sparse`; the same request is an input error for earlier file versions. Without an
+explicit structural encoding, the Lance 2.3 writer selects sparse only when the dense mini-block repetition/definition
+budget would split the page or one top-level row exceeds that budget, and only when the value path is supported by the
+sparse writer. Explicit `miniblock`, `fullzip`, and `sparse` requests are not changed by this automatic policy. Lance
+2.2 and earlier writers never select sparse.
+
+Unsupported sparse value paths, including dictionary values and variable-width packed structs, retain their dense
+behavior. Writers normalize Arrow validity and list structure once. Within-budget dense pages do not build sparse
+position/count plans. All-valid layers use null positions plus `empty`; all-null layers use valid positions plus
+`empty`. Other layers choose the validity polarity with the lower semantic encoded cost, with ties using null
+positions. Field metadata controls writer selection only: readers always use `PageLayout` to determine the layout of
+an encoded page and must not use field metadata for that decision.
+
+Pages without a value payload keep the existing canonical `ConstantLayout`: structural-only types such as an empty
+struct, and leaf pages whose visible values are all null, do not emit `SparseLayout`. An explicitly sparse page with
+at least one non-null visible value does emit `SparseLayout`, even when all non-null values are equal. This boundary
+avoids introducing a second structural-only representation without evidence that it improves the existing constant
+encoding.
+
+#### Buffers and Selective Reads
+
+A sparse page contains the following physical buffers:
+
+| Buffer | Contents |
+| ------ | -------- |
+| 0 | Value chunk metadata, one 8-byte entry per chunk |
+| 1 | Mini-block compressed value chunks without repetition or definition levels |
+| 2+ | One buffer for each explicit position or count set, in structural-layer field order |
+
+Each value chunk metadata entry stores `(chunk_size / 8) - 1` as little-endian `u32`, followed by its visible value
+count as little-endian `u32`. Chunk sizes must be positive multiples of 8 and fit this representation. The sum of
+chunk sizes must equal buffer 1 exactly and the sum of chunk value counts must equal `num_visible_items`. A value chunk
+contains at most 32,768 visible values. `num_buffers` describes the number of value buffers inside every chunk and
+excludes the structural buffers.
+
+General-compressed sparse buffers use the existing length-prefixed LZ4 or Zstd representation and must not contain
+another general-compression wrapper. SparseLayout does not impose additional size or descriptor-complexity limits on
+otherwise representable buffers.
+
+Readers normalize structural metadata once, project requested top-level ranges through each layer, and read only value
+chunks that intersect the resulting leaf ranges. When no leaf range remains, readers rebuild offsets and validity from
+the structural plan without reading buffer 1.
+
+#### Caching and Point Reads
+
+Reader initialization loads buffer 0 and every explicit structural buffer, then validates and normalizes them into a
+cached page plan. The cached state contains parsed value-chunk descriptors and prefix offsets, decoded semantic
+position/count sets, validity, and the ordered structural layers. It does not contain value payload bytes from buffer
+1. The plan is cached per field and page and reused by later scans, range reads, and takes.
+
+After that plan is cached, reading one primitive leaf value reads only the value chunk that contains it. A cold read
+first loads the structural metadata and then the intersecting value chunk. Reading one top-level list or
+fixed-size-list value may intersect multiple leaf chunks and reads each intersecting chunk. A selection whose projected
+structure contains no leaf slots reads no value chunk.
+
+#### Validation
+
+Readers must reject malformed sparse metadata instead of inferring or repairing it. Required checks include:
+
+- physical buffer count, chunk-count bounds, and every checked offset/size range
+- first-layer row domain, adjacent parent/child domain chaining, and terminal visible-value domain
+- semantic set cardinality, explicit position ordering and bounds, and validity meaning
+- exact `num_items`
+- list non-empty positions being valid, count cardinality, positive counts, and child-count sum
+- fixed-size-list dimension and checked child-domain multiplication
+- value chunk byte/value sums, size representation and alignment, general-compression headers, descriptor buffer
+  count, and complete chunk consumption
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.SparseLayout %%%
+```
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.SparseStructuralLayer %%%
+```
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.SparseValidityLayer %%%
+```
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.SparseListLayer %%%
+```
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.SparseFixedSizeListLayer %%%
+```
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.SparseValiditySet %%%
+```
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.SparsePositionSet %%%
+```
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.SparseCountSet %%%
+```
+
 ### Constant Page Layout
 
 This layout is used when all (visible) values in the page are the same scalar value.
@@ -402,7 +543,8 @@ are always accessed together.
 
 Packed struct is always opt-in (see section on configuration below).
 
-Currently packed struct is limited to fixed-width data.
+In Lance 2.1, packed struct is limited to fixed-width children (`PackedStruct`).
+Starting with Lance 2.2, variable-width children are also supported via `VariablePackedStruct`.
 
 ### Fixed Size List
 
@@ -445,9 +587,9 @@ on a per-value basis. We use ☑️ to mark a technique that is applied on a per
 | Constant        | ✅ (2.1)              | ❓                       | ❓                         |
 | Bitpacking      | ✅ (2.1)              | ❓                       | ✅ (2.1)                   |
 | Fsst            | ❓                    | ✅ (2.1)                 | ✅ (2.1)                   |
-| Rle             | ❓                    | ❌                       | ✅ (2.1)                   |
+| Rle             | ✅ (2.2)              | ❌                       | ✅ (2.1)                   |
 | ByteStreamSplit | ❓                    | ❌                       | ✅ (2.1)                   |
-| General         | ❓                    | ☑️ (2.1)                 | ✅ (2.1)                   |
+| General         | ✅ (2.2)              | ☑️ (2.1)                 | ✅ (2.1)                   |
 
 In the following sections we will describe each technique in a bit more detail and explain how it is utilized
 in various contexts.
@@ -544,9 +686,12 @@ options. However, they can also be set in the field metadata in the schema.
 | `lance-encoding:rle-threshold`       | `0.0-1.0`                            | `0.5`            | See below                                                                               |
 | `lance-encoding:bss`                 | `off`, `on`, `auto`                  | `auto`           | See below                                                                               |
 | `lance-encoding:dict-divisor`        | Integers greater than 1              | `2`              | See below                                                                               |
+| `lance-encoding:dict-size-ratio`     | `0.0-1.0`                            | `0.8`            | See below                                                                               |
+| `lance-encoding:dict-values-compression` | `lz4`, `zstd`, `none`             | `lz4`            | Select general compression scheme for dictionary values                                 |
+| `lance-encoding:dict-values-compression-level` | Integers (scheme dependent) | Varies by scheme | Compression level for dictionary values general compression                             |
 | `lance-encoding:general`             | `off`, `on`                          | `off`            | Whether to apply general compression.                                                   |
 | `lance-encoding:packed`              | Any string                           | Not set          | Whether to apply packed struct encoding (see above).                                    |
-| `lance-encoding:structural-encoding` | `miniblock`, `fullzip`               | Not set          | Force a particular structural encoding to be applied (only useful for testing purposes) |
+| `lance-encoding:structural-encoding` | `miniblock`, `fullzip`, `sparse`     | Not set          | Force a structural encoding; `sparse` requires Lance 2.3.                                |
 
 ### Configuration Details
 
@@ -619,18 +764,46 @@ BSS is particularly effective for:
 - Time-series data with consistent precision
 - Scientific data with correlated mantissa patterns
 
-#### Dictionary Divisor
+#### Dictionary Encoding Controls
 
-Currently this is used to determine whether or not we apply dictionary encoding. First, we use HLL to estimate
-the number of unique values in the column. Then we divide the number of total values by the divisor to get a
-threshold. If the number of unique values is less than the threshold then we apply dictionary encoding. The
-configuration variable defines the divisor that we apply and it defaults to 2 which means we apply dictionary
-encoding if we estimate that less than half the values are unique.
+Dictionary encoding is gated by a few heuristics.
+The decision is made on the leaf value page, so nested types can still benefit.
+For example, `List<u32>` can use dictionary encoding for its `u32` values.
 
-Dictionary encoding is effective for columns with low cardinality where the same values repeat many times.
-The dictionary is stored once per page and indices are stored in place of the actual values.
+Two field-level metadata keys control when dictionary encoding is attempted:
 
-This is likely to change in future versions.
+- `lance-encoding:dict-divisor` (default `2`): the encoder computes a unique-value budget as `num_values / divisor`
+- `lance-encoding:dict-size-ratio` (default `0.8`): the estimated dictionary-encoded representation must stay below this ratio of the raw page size
+
+There are additional global guards available as environment variables:
+
+- `LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_TOO_SMALL` (minimum page size before trying dictionary encoding, default `100` values)
+- `LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_DIVISOR` (fallback divisor when field metadata is not set, default `2`)
+- `LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_MAX_CARDINALITY` (upper cap for dictionary entries, default `100000`)
+- `LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_SIZE_RATIO` (fallback ratio when field metadata is not set, default `0.8`)
+
+Dictionary encoding is effective when values repeat frequently and the number of distinct values stays low.
+
+#### Dictionary Values Compression
+
+Dictionary values are compressed through the block-compression path and have their own configuration:
+
+- `lance-encoding:dict-values-compression`: `lz4`, `zstd`, `none`
+- `lance-encoding:dict-values-compression-level`: optional scheme-specific level
+
+Environment-variable fallbacks:
+
+- `LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION`
+- `LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL`
+
+Priority order is:
+
+1. Field metadata (`dict-values-*`)
+2. Environment variables (`LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_VALUES_*`)
+3. Default (`lz4`)
+
+`none` disables general (opaque) compression for dictionary values. For fixed-width dictionary values, structural
+encodings such as RLE or bitpacking may still be selected when beneficial.
 
 #### Packed Struct Encoding
 
@@ -639,3 +812,23 @@ in row-major format rather than the default columnar format. This reduces the nu
 random access but prevents reading individual fields independently.
 
 This is always opt-in and should only be used when all struct fields are typically accessed together.
+
+#### Mini-Block Size Tuning
+
+Each mini-block contains at most 4096 values by default. Because an entire mini-block must be fetched to
+read any value within it, workloads that read only a small contiguous slice of each mini-block may experience
+read amplification.
+
+The default is appropriate for the vast majority of deployments. Local disks and typical cloud object storage
+(where the client and bucket are in the same region) have more than enough bandwidth that the overhead from
+the default mini-block size is negligible. You should only consider changing this setting if you have
+confirmed — through profiling — that mini-block read amplification is saturating your available bandwidth
+(for example, accessing a remote object store over a constrained network link).
+
+The maximum number of values per mini-block can be tuned via an environment variable:
+
+- `LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES` (default `4096`, maximum `32768`): upper bound on the number of values in a single mini-block chunk.
+
+Reducing this value produces smaller mini-blocks, which reduces the amount of data fetched per read at the
+cost of more mini-blocks and slightly more metadata overhead. Increasing it can reduce metadata overhead and
+improve throughput for highly compressible data, but it may increase random-read amplification.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/file/index.md b/docs/src/format/file/index.md
index a008de7a843..83f0b9a644d 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/file/index.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/file/index.md
@@ -1,5 +1,21 @@
 # Lance File Format
 
+The Lance file format is a columnar container optimized for cloud object stores, random access, and Arrow-native processing. It deliberately focuses on page layout and encoding mechanics, while leaving table semantics and search structures to higher layers.
+
+## Design Goals
+
+### No Row Groups
+
+Lance does not use Parquet-style row groups. Each column may have its own number of pages, which keeps column data in large storage-friendly chunks regardless of schema width and avoids coupling scanner partitioning to physical file layout.
+
+### Random-Access-Friendly Encoding
+
+Pages are designed so readers can fetch contiguous row ranges with a small and predictable number of I/O operations. This is important for selective filters, point lookups, vector-search follow-up reads, and ML training workloads that sample rows non-sequentially.
+
+### Functional Decomposition
+
+The file layer does not bundle table-level statistics or query-side indices into the base file structure. Those capabilities are defined as separate index formats so they can evolve independently of the core file container.
+
 ## File Structure
 
 A Lance file is a container for tabular data. The data is stored in "disk pages". Each disk page contains some rows
diff --git a/docs/src/format/file/versioning.md b/docs/src/format/file/versioning.md
index 13fbdd89724..a43be294070 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/file/versioning.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/file/versioning.md
@@ -5,18 +5,52 @@ major number is changed when the file format itself is modified while the minor
 strategy is modified. Newer versions will typically have better performance and compression but may not be readable
 by older versions of Lance.
 
-In addition, the latest version of the file format (next) is unstable and should not be used for production use cases.
-Breaking changes could be made to unstable encodings and that would mean that files written with these encodings are
-no longer readable by any newer versions of Lance. The `next` version should only be used for experimentation and
-benchmarking upcoming features.
+Any version explicitly labeled unstable, including the current 2.3 format and the `next` alias, should not be used for
+production use cases. Unstable formats have no compatibility guarantee: breaking encoding changes may make files
+written by one Lance build unreadable by later builds. They should only be used for experimentation and benchmarking
+upcoming features.
+
+The `stable` and `next` aliases are resolved by the specific Lance release you are using. During a format rollout
+(for example, 2.3), prefer explicit version pinning for deterministic behavior across environments.
 
 The following values are supported:
 
-| Version        | Minimal Lance Version | Maximum Lance Version | Description                                                                                                                                  |
-| -------------- | --------------------- | --------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
-| 0.1            | Any                   | 0.34 (write)          | This is the initial Lance format. It is no longer writable.                                                                                  |
-| 2.0            | 0.16.0                | Any                   | Rework of the Lance file format that removed row groups and introduced null support for lists, fixed size lists, and primitives              |
-| 2.1 (unstable) | None                  | Any                   | Enhances integer and string compression, adds support for nulls in struct fields, and improves random access performance with nested fields. |
-| legacy         | N/A                   | N/A                   | Alias for 0.1                                                                                                                                |
-| stable         | N/A                   | N/A                   | Alias for the latest stable version (currently 2.0)                                                                                          |
-| next           | N/A                   | N/A                   | Alias for the latest unstable version (currently 2.1)                                                                                        |
+| Version        | Minimal Lance Version | Maximum Lance Version | Description |
+| -------------- | --------------------- | --------------------- | ----------- |
+| 0.1            | Any                   | 0.34 (write)          | This is the initial Lance format. It is no longer writable. |
+| 2.0            | 0.16.0                | Any                   | Rework of the Lance file format that removed row groups and introduced null support for lists, fixed size lists, and primitives |
+| 2.1            | 0.38.1                | Any                   | Enhances integer and string compression, adds support for nulls in struct fields, and improves random access performance with nested fields. |
+| 2.2            | None                  | Any                   | Adds support for newer nested type/encoding capabilities (including map support) and 2.2-era storage features. |
+| 2.3 (unstable) | None                  | Unspecified           | Adds sparse structural pages and other experimental encodings. |
+| legacy         | N/A                   | N/A                   | Alias for 0.1 |
+| stable         | N/A                   | N/A                   | Alias for the default version for new datasets in the Lance release you are running. |
+| next           | N/A                   | N/A                   | Alias for the latest unstable version in the Lance release you are running.|
+
+## Compatibility Caveats
+
+Stable formats carry a compatibility guarantee, but certain data patterns exposed encoder bugs
+that required encoding changes to fix.  Files containing those patterns written by the fixed
+encoder are not readable by readers predating the fix.  The affected scenarios are listed here
+so operators running mixed-version deployments know the minimum reader version required.
+
+### FixedSizeList with all-null inner values (Lance 11.1.0)
+
+**Affected format**: 2.1 and later.
+
+**Scenario**: A `FixedSizeList` column where every inner value (not the outer list item itself)
+is null — for example, `FixedSizeList<nullable Float32, dim=4>` where all eight Float32 values
+across two outer rows are null.
+
+**Buggy writer (Lance < 11.1.0)**: The encoder wrote `bits_per_value=0` into the FullZip page
+layout.  Readers of any version rejected these pages with an error, so the data was unreadable
+regardless of reader version.
+
+**Fixed writer (Lance ≥ 11.1.0)**: The encoder stores per-row validity bytes for the null inner
+values, producing `bits_per_value > 0`.  The fixed reader (Lance ≥ 11.1.0) can also decode the
+old buggy pages, so old files written before 11.1.0 become readable after upgrading.
+
+**Forward compatibility**: Files containing this pattern written by Lance ≥ 11.1.0 are **not
+readable by Lance < 11.1.0**.  Old readers encounter the `Compression::Constant` inner encoding
+in the FSL descriptor and panic rather than returning an error.
+
+**Minimum reader version for new files**: Lance 11.1.0.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/index.md b/docs/src/format/index.md
index 7bc346cdc1e..055c9129c5f 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/index.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/index.md
@@ -1,82 +1,51 @@
-# Lance Format Specification
+# Lance Lakehouse Format Specifications
 
-Lance is a **Lakehouse Format** that spans three specification layers: file format, table format, and catalog spec.
+Lance is a lakehouse format defined as a stack of interoperating specifications, rather than as a single file format or metadata layout. The storage-facing layers cover files, tables, indices, and catalogs. A unified namespace interface sits above those layers and gives engines a consistent way to work with Lance tables across catalog implementations.
 
-## Understanding the Lakehouse Stack
+## Architecture Overview
 
-To understand where Lance fits in the data ecosystem, let's first map out the complete lakehouse technology stack.
-The modern lakehouse architecture consists of six distinct layers:
+Modern lakehouses are built from complementary layers. Lance keeps those layers intentionally decoupled so that the file format, table metadata, indices, and catalogs can evolve independently without forcing lock-in across the stack.
 
 ![Lakehouse Stack](../images/lakehouse_stack.png)
 
-### 1. Object Store
+At a high level:
 
-At the foundation lies the **object store**—storage systems characterized by their object-based simple hierarchy, 
-typically providing highly durable guarantees with HTTP-based communication protocols for data transfer.
-This includes systems like S3, GCS, and Azure Blob Storage.
+- The **file format** stores column data in large pages optimized for random access and avoids row groups.
+- The **table format** manages fragments, manifests, deletions, schema evolution, and ACID commits.
+- The **index formats** define redundant search structures such as scalar, vector, full-text, and system indices.
+- The **catalog specs** define how tables are discovered, registered, and coordinated across engines and services.
+- The **namespace client spec** provides a unified interface for engines to interact with any catalog implementations.
 
-### 2. File Format
+The layers are designed so that only table readers, table writers, and index readers or writers need to understand the on-disk Lance file layout.
 
-Above the storage layer, the **file format** describes how a single file should be stored on disk.
-This is where formats like Apache Parquet operate, defining the internal structure, encoding, and compression of individual data files.
+## Design Themes
 
-### 3. Table Format
+### File Format
 
-The **table format** layer describes how multiple files work together to form a logical table.
-The key feature that modern table formats enable is transactional commits and read isolation to allow multiple writers and readers to safely operate against the same table.
-All major open source table formats including Iceberg and Lance implement these features through MVCC (Multi-Version Concurrency Control), 
-where each commit atomically produces a new table version, and all table versions form a serializable history for the specific table.
-This also unlocks features like time travel and makes features like schema evolution easy to develop.
+The Lance file format is optimized for cloud object storage and highly selective reads. It avoids Parquet-style row groups, uses structural encodings for efficient random access, and keeps statistics and search structures out of the file format so those concerns can evolve independently as indices.
 
-### 4. Catalog Spec
+### Table Format
 
-The **catalog spec** defines how any system can discover and manage a collection of tables within storage.
-This is where the lower storage and format stack meets the upper service and compute stack.
+The Lance table format organizes data in two dimensions: rows are grouped into fragments, and each fragment can contain multiple data files, each contributing a subset of columns. This makes column additions and backfills primarily metadata operations instead of data rewrites, which is especially useful for feature engineering and embedding workflows.
 
-Table formats require at least a way to list all available tables and to describe, add and drop tables in the list.
-This is necessary for actually building the so-called **connectors** in compute engines so they can discover and start working on the table according to the format.
-Historically, Hive has defined the Hive MetaStore spec that is sufficient for most table formats including Delta Lake, Hudi, Paimon, and also Lance.
-Iceberg offers its unique Iceberg REST Catalog spec.
+### Index Formats
 
-From the top down, projects like Apache Polaris, Unity Catalog, and Apache Gravitino usually offer additional specification for operating against table derivatives 
-(e.g. views, materialized views, user-defined table functions) and objects used in table operations (e.g. user-defined functions, policies).
+Indices are first-class table objects. Lance tables define how indices are discovered, versioned, and coordinated transactionally. The index formats themselves remain decoupled from both the file encoding and the table manifest structure.
 
-This intersection between top and bottom stack is also why typically a catalog service would provide both the catalog specifications offered by the format side for easy connectivity to compute engines, 
-as well as providing their own APIs for extended management features.
+### Catalog Specs
 
-Another key differentiation of a catalog spec versus a catalog service is that there can be multiple different vendors implementing the same spec.
-For example, for Polaris REST spec we have open source Apache Polaris server, Snowflake Horizon Catalog, and Polaris-compatible services in AWS Glue, Azure OneLake, etc.
+Lance provides both storage-native and service-oriented catalog options. The [Directory Catalog](catalog/dir/index.md) supports zero-infrastructure deployments directly on object stores, while the [REST Catalog](catalog/rest/index.md) standardizes enterprise-facing APIs and can act as an external manifest store.
 
-### 5. Catalog Service
+### Namespace Client Spec
 
-A **catalog service** implements one or more catalog specifications to provide both table metadata and optionally continuous background maintenance (compaction, optimization, index updates) that table formats require to stay performant.
-Catalog services typically implement multiple specifications to support different table formats.
-For example, Polaris, Unity and Gravitino all support the Iceberg REST catalog specification for Iceberg tables, and have their own generic table API for other table formats.
+The [Namespace Client Spec](namespace/index.md) provides a language-agnostic interface for engines to interact with any catalog implementation, including Lance-native catalogs and third-party catalog systems. This abstraction allows applications to switch between directory-based, REST-based, and third-party catalogs without changing their code.
 
-Since table formats are static specifications, catalog services supply the active operational work needed for production deployments.
-This is often where open source transitions to commercial offerings, as open source projects typically provide metadata functionality, while commercial solutions offer the full operational experience including automated maintenance.
-There are also open source solutions like Apache Amoro emerging to fill this gap with complete open source catalog service implementations that offer both table metadata access and continuous optimization.
+## Specifications
 
-### 6. Compute Engine
+The main specification entry points are:
 
-Finally, **compute engines** are the workhorses that visit catalog services and leverage their knowledge of file formats, table formats, and catalog specifications to perform complex data workflows, including SQL queries, analytics processing, vector search, full-text search, and machine learning training.
-All sorts of applications can be built on top of compute engines to serve more concrete analytics, ML and AI use cases.
-
-### The Overall Lakehouse Architecture
-
-In the lakehouse architecture, compute power resides in the object store, catalog services, and compute engines.
-The middle three layers (file format, table format, catalog spec) are specifications without compute.
-This separation enables portability and interoperability.
-
-## Understanding Lance as a Lakehouse Format
-
-Lance spans all three specification layers:
-
-1. **File Format**: The Lance columnar file format, [read specification →](file/index.md)
-2. **Table Format**: The Lance table format, [read specification →](table/index.md)
-3. **Catalog Spec**: The Lance Namespace specification, [read specification →](namespace/index.md)
-
-For comparison:
-
-- **Apache Iceberg** operates at the table format and catalog spec layers, using Apache Parquet, Apache Avro and Apache ORC as the file format
-- **Delta Lake** and **Apache Hudi** operate at only the table format layer, using Apache Parquet as the file format
\ No newline at end of file
+1. **File Format**: [Lance file format](file/index.md)
+2. **Table Format**: [Lance table format](table/index.md)
+3. **Index Formats**: [Scalar, vector, and system index formats](index/index.md)
+4. **Catalog Specs**: [Directory and REST catalog specs](catalog/index.md)
+5. **Namespace Client Spec**: [Lance namespace interface](namespace/index.md)
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/.pages b/docs/src/format/index/.pages
similarity index 66%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/.pages
rename to docs/src/format/index/.pages
index 74a6e37ce75..1880de92cf6 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/.pages
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/.pages
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
-title: Index
+title: Index Formats
 nav:
-  - index.md
+  - Overview: index.md
   - Scalar Indices: scalar
   - Vector Indices: vector
   - System Indices: system
diff --git a/docs/src/format/index/index.md b/docs/src/format/index/index.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9aff9361707
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/index.md
@@ -0,0 +1,331 @@
+# Indices in Lance
+
+Lance treats indices as independent, redundant data structures layered on top of table row identifiers. This keeps the file format free of built-in search structures and lets index formats evolve independently from the table layout.
+
+Lance supports three main categories of indices to accelerate data access: scalar
+indices, vector indices, and system indices.
+
+**Scalar indices** accelerate queries on scalar data types such as integers, timestamps,
+and strings. This includes primary skipping structures such as [zone maps](scalar/zonemap.md)
+as well as secondary structures such as [B-trees](scalar/btree.md), [bitmap indices](scalar/bitmap.md),
+and [full-text search indices](scalar/fts.md). They typically accept predicates such as equality,
+range, set-membership, or token matches and return matching row identifiers.
+
+<figure markdown="span">
+  ![](./scalar_index.drawio.svg)
+</figure>
+
+**[Vector indices](./vector/index.md)** are specialized for approximate nearest neighbor search on
+high-dimensional embeddings. Examples include IVF-based layouts and HNSW graphs. Instead of scalar
+predicates, vector indices receive a query vector and return row identifiers plus distance scores.
+
+**System indices** are auxiliary structures that support internal table maintenance and row-identifier
+resolution. They are not queried directly by end users. Examples include the [Fragment Reuse Index](system/frag_reuse.md),
+which supports efficient remapping after compaction.
+
+## Design
+
+Lance indices are designed with the following design choices in mind:
+
+1. **Indices are loaded on demand**: A dataset can be loaded and read without loading any indices.
+   Indices are only loaded when a query can benefit from them.
+   This design minimizes memory usage and speeds up dataset opening time.
+2. **Indices can be loaded progressively**: indices are designed so that only the necessary parts
+   are loaded into memory during query execution. For example, when querying a B-tree index,
+   it loads a small page table to figure out which pages of the index to load for the given query,
+   and then only loads those pages to perform the indexed search. This amortizes the cost of
+   cold index queries, since each query only needs to load a small portion of the index.
+3. **Indices can be coalesced to larger units than fragments.** Indices are much smaller than
+   data files, so it is efficient to coalesce index segments to cover multiple fragments.
+   This reduces the number of index files that need to be opened during query execution and
+   then number of unique index data structures that need to be queried.
+4. **Index files are immutable once written, similar to data files.** They can be modified only
+   by creating new files. This means they can be safely cached in memory or on disk without
+   worrying about consistency issues.
+
+## Basic Concepts
+
+An index in Lance is defined over a specific column (or multiple columns) of a dataset.
+It is identified by its name.
+
+An index is made up of multiple **index segments**, identified by their unique UUIDs.
+Each segment is an independent, self-contained index covering a subset of the data.
+
+Each index segment covers a disjoint subset of fragments in the dataset. The segments must cover
+all rows in the fragments they cover, with one exception: if a fragment has delete markers at the time
+of index creation, the index segment is allowed to not contain the deleted rows. The fragments an index
+covers are those recorded in the `fragment_bitmap` field.
+
+Index segments together **do not** need to cover all fragments. This means an index isn't required to
+be fully up-to-date. When this happens, engines can split their queries into indexed and unindexed
+subplans and merge the results.
+
+<figure markdown="span">
+  ![](./starter-example.drawio.svg)
+  <figcaption>Abstract layout of a typical dataset, with three fragments and two indices.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+Consider the example dataset in the figure above:
+
+- The dataset contains three fragments with ids 0, 1, 2. Fragment 1 has 10 deleted rows, indicated
+  by the deletion file.
+- There is an index called "id_idx", which has two segments: one covering fragments 0 and another covering
+  fragment 1. Fragment 2 is not covered by the index. Queries using this index will need to query both
+  segments and then scan fragment 2 directly. Additionally, when querying the segment covering fragment 1,
+  the engine will need to filter out the 10 deleted rows.
+- There is another index called "vec_idx", which has a single segment covering all three fragments.
+  Because it covers all fragments, queries using this index do not need to scan any fragments directly.
+  They do, however, need to filter out the 10 deleted rows from fragment 1.
+
+## Index Storage
+
+The content of each index is stored at the `_indices/{UUID}` directory under the [base path](../table/layout.md#base-path-system).
+We call this location the **index directory**.
+The actual content stored in the index directory depends on the index type. These can be
+arbitrary files defined by the index implementation. However, often they are made up of
+Lance files containing the index data structures. This allows reuse of the existing Lance
+file format code for reading and writing index data.
+
+## Creating and Updating Index Segments
+
+Index segments are created and updated through a transactional process:
+
+1. **Build the index data**: Read the relevant column data from the fragments to be indexed
+   and construct the index data structures. Write these to files in a new `_indices/{UUID}`
+   directory, where `{UUID}` is a newly generated unique identifier.
+
+2. **Prepare the metadata**: Create an `IndexMetadata` message with:
+   - `uuid`: The newly generated UUID
+   - `name`: The index name (must match existing segments if adding to an existing index)
+   - `fields`: The columns the index is keyed on, in key order.
+   - `covering_fields`: An independent declaration of the columns whose values the index carries,
+     letting a query that only projects those columns be answered without a fragment take. A field
+     may appear in both lists when the index carries a value it is also keyed on. Empty for an index
+     that carries no extra columns. Declaring a column here does not by itself make it servable --
+     see [Serving carried columns](#serving-carried-columns).
+   - `fragment_bitmap`: The set of fragment IDs covered by this segment
+   - `index_details`: Index-specific configuration and parameters
+   - `version`: The format version of this index type
+   - See the full protobuf definition in [table.proto](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/blob/main/protos/table.proto).
+
+3. **Commit the transaction**: Write a new manifest that includes the new index segment
+   in its `IndexSection`. This is done atomically using the same transaction mechanism
+   as data writes.
+
+When updating a column in place (without deleting the row), the engine must remove the
+affected fragment IDs from the `fragment_bitmap` field of any index segment whose `fields`
+or `covering_fields` include that column. This marks those fragments as needing re-indexing
+without invalidating the entire segment and prevents invalid data from being read from the
+index.
+
+## Index Compatibility
+
+Before using an index segment, engines must verify they support it:
+
+1. **Check the index type**: The `index_details` field contains a protobuf `Any` message
+   whose type URL identifies the index type (e.g., B-tree, IVF, HNSW). If the engine
+   does not recognize the type, it should skip this index segment.
+
+2. **Check the version**: The `version` field in `IndexMetadata` indicates the format
+   version of the index segment. If the engine does not support this version, it should
+   skip this index segment. This allows index formats to evolve over time while
+   maintaining backwards compatibility.
+
+When an engine cannot use an index segment, it should fall back to scanning the
+fragments that would have been covered by that segment.
+
+### Covering-field contracts
+
+A manifest that uses independent key and covering declarations must set
+`FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA` and `FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS` in both its reader
+and writer feature flags. In this contract, `fields` contains only the key fields and
+`covering_fields` separately contains the carried fields. The lists have no positional
+relationship and may overlap. The index dependency set is their union.
+
+For backwards compatibility, a manifest with `FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA` but without
+`FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS` uses the legacy contract: the carried columns form the
+trailing suffix of `fields` in emission order, so `covering_fields` equals
+`fields[len(fields) - len(covering_fields)..]`. A column the index is both keyed on and
+carries appears twice, once as a key and once in the carried suffix: `fields = [1, 1]` with
+`covering_fields = [1]` is keyed on `1` and carries `1`. Readers must select the contract
+from the manifest flags before interpreting any `IndexMetadata`.
+
+### Activating independent declarations
+
+Setting `FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS` reinterprets every `IndexMetadata` in the
+manifest's index section, so a writer must not set it while any entry remains in legacy
+form. A legacy `fields = [vector, payload]` with `covering_fields = [payload]` reads
+under the new contract as keyed on both columns, and a query on `payload` would then be
+planned against an index that is really keyed on `vector`.
+
+Activation is therefore a single atomic manifest change. A writer that sets the flag must
+normalize every entry of the index section in that same manifest to the key prefix:
+replace `fields` with `fields[..len(fields) - len(covering_fields)]` and leave
+`covering_fields` unchanged. For example, `fields = [1, 1]` with `covering_fields = [1]`
+becomes `fields = [1]` with `covering_fields = [1]`. A
+writer that cannot normalize an entry must not set the flag; it may instead set the flag
+only on a manifest in which no entry declares covering fields at all. No committed
+manifest may set the flag while holding a legacy-form entry.
+
+A commit that loses a conflict and retries must normalize the index section of the
+manifest it is retrying against rather than the one it first read, so an entry another
+writer committed in between is never carried forward unnormalized.
+
+Derived manifests retain the flag. Every manifest built from one that sets it keeps the
+bit set, unless a writer converts every entry back to the legacy contract in one atomic
+change of its own. Because `FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA` is recomputed from covering
+declarations on every commit, a writer that sets `FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS` must
+also keep `FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA` set in both feature words whenever the independent
+bit is set, including manifests with no covering entries and manifests that drop the last
+covering index. The two bits are retained together until an atomic reverse conversion
+clears them together.
+
+### Serving carried columns
+
+`IndexMetadata.covering_fields` records the columns an index segment *declares* it
+carries. It does not establish that the segment's storage holds their values.
+
+**The segment's storage schema is authoritative.** Before answering a query from a
+carried column, an engine must confirm that column is present and bound to the declared
+logical field in the storage it opened, and fall back to a take against the base table
+when it cannot. A segment whose metadata identifies a column its storage does not hold is
+a legal state, not corruption: a maintenance operation that cannot carry the payload
+through a rebuild is permitted to withdraw it and leave the `covering_fields` listed in
+the metadata.
+
+!!! note "Capability varies by segment"
+
+    Whether a segment's storage holds a declared column depends on the index type, on the
+    writer that produced the segment, and on what later maintenance did to it, so one
+    logical index may hold values for some of its segments and not others. An engine
+    therefore verifies each selected segment rather than inferring capability from the
+    index type, the writer version, or the `covering_fields` metadata alone, and serves
+    from the base table every column it cannot verify.
+
+## Loading an index
+
+When loading an index:
+
+1. Get the offset to the index section from the `index_section` field in the [manifest](../table/index.md#manifest).
+2. Read the index section from the manifest file. This is a protobuf message of type `IndexSection`, which
+   contains a list of `IndexMetadata` messages, each describing an index segment.
+3. Read the index files from the `_indices/{UUID}` directory under the dataset directory,
+   where `{UUID}` is the UUID of the index segment.
+
+!!! tip "Optimizing manifest loading"
+
+    When the manifest file is small, you can read and cache the index section eagerly. This avoids
+    an extra file read when loading indices.
+
+The `IndexMetadata` message contains important information about the index segment:
+
+- `uuid`: the unique identifier of the index segment.
+- `fields`: the columns the index is keyed on, in key order.
+- `covering_fields`: the independently declared columns whose values the index carries alongside
+  its own data. A field may also occur in `fields`. Empty for an index that carries no extra
+  columns. Every id in `covering_fields` names a top-level field. Covering a struct column
+  carries the whole struct, its children included, as one column. This declaration is not
+  authoritative for what the segment can serve -- see
+  [Serving carried columns](#serving-carried-columns) and the legacy interpretation under
+  [Covering-field contracts](#covering-field-contracts).
+- `fragment_bitmap`: the set of fragment IDs covered by this index segment.
+- `index_details`: a protobuf `Any` message that contains index-specific details, such as index type,
+  parameters, and storage format. This allows different index types to store their own metadata.
+
+<details>
+  <summary>Full protobuf definitions</summary>
+
+There are both part of the `table.proto` file in the Lance source code.
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.IndexSection %%%
+
+%%% proto.message.IndexMetadata %%%
+```
+
+</details>
+
+## Handling deleted and invalidated rows
+
+Since index segments are immutable, they may contain references to rows that have been deleted
+or updated. These should be filtered out during query execution.
+
+<figure markdown="span">
+  ![](./indices-fragment handling.drawio.svg)
+  <figcaption>Representation of index segment covering fragments that have deleted rows,
+  completely deleted fragments, and updated fragments.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+There are four situations to consider:
+
+1. **A fragment has some deleted rows.** A few of the rows in the fragment have been marked
+   as deleted, but some of the rows are still present. The row addresses from the deletion
+   file should be used to filter out results from the index.
+2. **A fragment has been completely deleted.** This can be detected by checking if a
+   fragment ID present in the fragment bitmap is missing from the dataset.
+   Any row addresses from this fragment should be filtered out.
+3. **A fragment has had one of the index's columns updated in place.** This cannot be detected
+   just by examining metadata. To prevent reading invalid data, the engine should filter out any
+   row addresses that are not in the index's current `fragment_bitmap`.
+   The column need not be one the index is keyed on: every column in the union of `fields` and
+   `covering_fields` counts. A carried column can be updated while the keyed column is untouched,
+   and a segment left covering that fragment would answer from an obsolete carried value.
+4. **A fragment has an updated value in an [overlay file](../table/data_overlay_file.md).**
+   This can be detected by checking if any of the fragments in the index's `fragment_bitmap`
+   have overlay files. For each overlay whose `committed_version` is greater than the index
+   segment's `dataset_version`, the overlay carries updated values not reflected in the index,
+   so its covered rows must be excluded from index results. Excluded rows are re-evaluated
+   against their current (overlaid) values on the flat path — dropping them without
+   re-evaluation would silently lose rows that match under the new value. Exclusion is
+   field-aware: only overlays covering a column in the union of the index's `fields` and
+   `covering_fields` matter. Restricting this to the keyed columns would leave a fragment
+   covered after an overlay updated a carried one, and the index would then serve a stale
+   carried value.
+   You may exclude just the affected rows or the whole fragment; the latter is simpler and
+   safer but re-evaluates more rows than necessary.
+   See [Data Overlay Files](../table/data_overlay_file.md#index-integration)
+   for the exclusion set, re-evaluation, and correctness invariant.
+
+## Compaction and remapping
+
+When fragments are compacted, the row addresses of the rows in the fragments change.
+This means that any index segments referencing those fragments will no longer point
+to existing row addresses. There are three ways to handle this:
+
+<figure markdown="span">
+![](./indices-compaction.drawio.svg)
+</figure>
+
+1. Do nothing and let the index segment not cover those fragments anymore. This approach is
+   simple and valid, but it means compaction can immediately make an index out-of-date. This
+   is the worst options for query performance.
+
+2. Immediately rewrite the index segments with the row addresses remapped. This approach
+   ensures the index is kept up-to-date, but it incurs significant write amplification
+   during compaction.
+
+3. Create a [Fragment Reuse Index](system/frag_reuse.md) that maps old row addresses to new
+   row addresses. This allows readers to remap the row addresses in memory upon reading
+   the index segments. This approach adds some IO and computation overhead during query
+   execution, but avoids write amplification during compaction.
+
+## Stable Row ID for Index
+
+Indices can optionally use stable row IDs instead of row addresses. A stable row ID is a
+logical identifier that remains constant even when rows are moved during compaction.
+
+**Benefits:**
+
+- No remapping needed after compaction
+- Updates only invalidate the index if data in the union of its `fields` and
+  `covering_fields` changes
+
+**Tradeoffs:**
+
+- Requires an additional lookup to translate stable row IDs to physical row addresses
+  at query time
+
+This feature is currently experimental. Performance evaluation is ongoing to determine
+when the tradeoff is worthwhile.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/indices-compaction.drawio.svg b/docs/src/format/index/indices-compaction.drawio.svg
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/indices-compaction.drawio.svg
rename to docs/src/format/index/indices-compaction.drawio.svg
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/indices-fragment handling.drawio.svg b/docs/src/format/index/indices-fragment handling.drawio.svg
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/indices-fragment handling.drawio.svg
rename to docs/src/format/index/indices-fragment handling.drawio.svg
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/.pages b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/.pages
similarity index 76%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/.pages
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar/.pages
index ba297222b07..b166362f8f3 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/.pages
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/.pages
@@ -7,4 +7,6 @@ nav:
   - Bloom Filter: bloom_filter.md
   - Full Text Search: fts.md
   - N-gram: ngram.md
+  - MinHash LSH (experimental): minhash_lsh.md
+  - FM-Index: fmindex.md
   - RTree: rtree.md
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/bitmap.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/bitmap.md
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/bitmap.md
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar/bitmap.md
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/bloom_filter.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/bloom_filter.md
similarity index 88%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/bloom_filter.md
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar/bloom_filter.md
index 5a0e08e4228..6d924f8705d 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/bloom_filter.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/bloom_filter.md
@@ -4,6 +4,9 @@ Bloom filters are probabilistic data structures that allow for fast membership t
 They are space-efficient and can test whether an element is a member of a set.
 It's an inexact filter - they may include false positives but never false negatives.
 
+In addition, since finding NULLs is a common query pattern, the index also maintains a
+bitmap of null rows which allows it to return exact results for IS NULL queries.
+
 ## Index Details
 
 ```protobuf
@@ -32,6 +35,13 @@ The bloom filter index stores zone-based bloom filters in a single file:
 |---------------------------|--------|-------------------------------------------------------------|
 | `bloomfilter_item`        | String | Expected number of items per zone (default: "8192")         |
 | `bloomfilter_probability` | String | False positive probability (default: "0.00057", ~1 in 1754) |
+| `null_bitmap`             | UInt32 | Index of null bitmap global buffer                          |
+
+### Global Buffers
+
+| Metadata Key        | Description                                                |
+|---------------------|------------------------------------------------------------|
+| `null_bitmap`       | A serialized RowAddrTreeMap specifying which rows are null |
 
 ## Bloom Filter Spec
 
@@ -122,10 +132,11 @@ Offset 60-63:  Block 1, Word 7 (32-bit LE)
 
 ## Accelerated Queries
 
-The bloom filter index provides inexact results for the following query types:
+The bloom filter index provides inexact results for the following query types (nullability queries
+return exact results):
 
 | Query Type | Description               | Operation                                 | Result Type |
 |------------|---------------------------|-------------------------------------------|-------------|
 | **Equals** | `column = value`          | Tests if value exists in bloom filter     | AtMost      |
 | **IsIn**   | `column IN (v1, v2, ...)` | Tests if any value exists in bloom filter | AtMost      |
-| **IsNull** | `column IS NULL`          | Returns zones where has_null is true      | AtMost      |
\ No newline at end of file
+| **IsNull** | `column IS NULL`          | Returns zones where has_null is true      | Exact       |
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/btree.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/btree.md
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/btree.md
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar/btree.md
diff --git a/docs/src/format/index/scalar/fmindex.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/fmindex.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1138024896f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/fmindex.md
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+# FM-Index (Full-text / Substring / Regex Search)
+
+The FM-Index (Ferragina-Manzini Index) is a compressed substring index based on the Burrows-Wheeler Transform (BWT). Unlike traditional inverted indexes (Full-Text Search) which index distinct words, the FM-Index enables efficient **arbitrary substring search**, **prefix match**, and **suffix/regular-expression search** directly on raw bytes.
+
+In Lance, the FM-Index is designed to scale dynamically across millions of documents or large-scale datasets, and is partitioned using Lance's **Segmented Index** architecture to support incremental appends, disjoint fragment tracking, and segment merging.
+
+## High-Level Architecture
+
+The FM-Index indexes raw text by treating columns of strings or binary payloads as raw byte arrays. 
+
+```
+                     +----------------------------------------+
+                     |            Lance Dataset               |
+                     |   (Disjoint groups of Fragments 0..N)   |
+                     +----------------------------------------+
+                                         |
+                       Divide fragments into num_segments
+                                         |
+                                         v
+                     +----------------------------------------+
+                     |            Segmented Index             |
+                     |  +-----------+ +-----------+ +-------+ |
+                     |  | Segment 1 | | Segment 2 | | ...   | |
+                     |  |  (FM-Idx) | |  (FM-Idx) | |       | |
+                     |  +-----------+ +-----------+ +-------+ |
+                     +----------------------------------------+
+```
+
+Each segment contains its own self-contained physical FM-Index mapping byte sub-sequences to Lance global row IDs.
+
+## Data Normalization & Sanitization
+
+The FM-Index is **normalization-independent by design** because it operates entirely on raw bytes. 
+
+### Byte Sanitization vs. Text Normalization
+
+1. **Byte Sanitization (Core Index Layer)**:
+   The physical FM-Index uses specific sentinel bytes internally to mark boundaries:
+   - `\x00` is reserved as the global Burrows-Wheeler Transform (BWT) terminator character.
+   - `\xFF` is reserved as the document/row separator character.
+   
+   To avoid breaking the indexing structures, any incoming occurrences of `\x00` or `\xFF` are sanitized by remapping them to space (`\x20`) characters at index-build time. No other bytes are changed in this layer.
+
+2. **Text Normalization (User/Application Layer)**:
+   Because the index faithfully maps raw bytes, any semantic normalization (such as case folding `Hello` -> `hello`, Unicode NFKC normalization, stemming, or whitespace collapsing) is fully decoupled from the core index engine:
+   - To build a case-insensitive search index, users apply a lowercase transform to the column *prior* to indexing.
+   - When querying, the user's query text must undergo the exact same normalization pipeline.
+
+## Configurable Segment Partitioning
+
+Merging or appending to BWT-based indexes cannot be done via simple concatenation; the BWT suffix array must be reconstructed by re-reading the text and rebuilding. To balance build cost and search performance, Lance allows configuring how fragments map to index segments.
+
+- **`num_segments` parameter**: Configured at index-creation time. If `num_segments` is specified (e.g. `num_segments = 4`), Lance splits the target dataset fragments into disjoint subsets and builds independent FM-Index segments over each chunk.
+- **Unindexed Appends**: When new fragments are appended to the dataset, a subsequent `create_index` execution with unindexed fragment coverage will construct a new separate segment representing only those new fragments, keeping existing segments fully intact.
+- **Segment Merging**: Multiple existing index segments can be merged into a single segment under Lance's `merge_segments` protocol. Lance unions the fragment coverage bitmaps of the selected segments, re-reads the raw text from those covered fragments, and constructs a fresh unified FM-Index.
+
+## Query Evaluation
+
+When a substring query is submitted (e.g., `CONTAINS(column, "query_string")`):
+1. The search string is sanitized (remapping any `\x00` or `\xFF` to spaces) and optionally normalized if the target index is normalized.
+2. The query is dispatched across all active segments in the logical index in parallel.
+3. Each segment performs a BWT backward-search to locate occurrences of the pattern.
+4. Matching offsets are mapped back to absolute dataset Row IDs.
+5. Results from all segments are unioned to produce the final selection.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/fts.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/fts.md
similarity index 56%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/fts.md
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar/fts.md
index 5af36d294b8..563d7ebf994 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/fts.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/fts.md
@@ -18,6 +18,8 @@ The FTS index consists of multiple files storing the token dictionary, document
 3. `invert.lance` - Compressed posting lists for each token
 4. `metadata.lance` - Index metadata and configuration
 
+An FTS index may contain multiple partitions. Each partition has its own set of token, document, and posting list files, prefixed with the partition ID (e.g. `part_0_tokens.lance`, `part_0_docs.lance`, `part_0_invert.lance`). The `metadata.lance` file lists all partition IDs in the index. At query time, every partition must be searched and the results combined to produce the final ranked output. Fewer partitions generally means better query performance, since each partition requires its own token dictionary lookup and posting list scan. The number of partitions is controlled by the training configuration -- specifically `LANCE_FTS_TARGET_SIZE` determines how large each merged partition can grow (see [Training Process](#training-process) for details).
+
 ### Token Dictionary File Schema
 
 | Column      | Type   | Nullable | Description                     |
@@ -32,6 +34,15 @@ The FTS index consists of multiple files storing the token dictionary, document
 | `_rowid`      | UInt64 | false    | Document row ID                  |
 | `_num_tokens` | UInt32 | false    | Number of tokens in the document |
 
+Partitioned `docs.lance` files may include the optional schema metadata key
+`total_tokens`. Its decimal `UInt64` value is the sum of `_num_tokens` in that
+file. `_num_tokens` remains the canonical per-document data. Readers use the
+metadata value to construct exact corpus statistics without scanning the column;
+when the key is absent, they compute the sum from `_num_tokens`. Writers produce
+the key from the same document table in the same file commit. A present value
+that cannot be parsed, or that differs when `_num_tokens` is subsequently
+loaded, is file corruption.
+
 ### FTS List File Schema
 
 | Column                 | Type                    | Nullable | Description                                                      |
@@ -41,6 +52,8 @@ The FTS index consists of multiple files storing the token dictionary, document
 | `_length`              | UInt32                  | false    | Number of documents containing the token                         |
 | `_compressed_position` | List<List<LargeBinary>> | true     | Optional compressed position lists for phrase queries            |
 
+The posting-list file schema metadata includes `posting_block_size`, the number of documents encoded per compressed posting block. Older indexes that do not have this metadata use the legacy block size `128`.
+
 ### Metadata File Schema
 
 The metadata file contains JSON-serialized configuration and partition information:
@@ -65,6 +78,7 @@ The metadata file contains JSON-serialized configuration and partition informati
 | `min_gram`          | UInt32  | 2         | Minimum n-gram length (only for ngram tokenizer)               |
 | `max_gram`          | UInt32  | 15        | Maximum n-gram length (only for ngram tokenizer)               |
 | `prefix_only`       | Boolean | false     | Generate only prefix n-grams (only for ngram tokenizer)        |
+| `block_size`        | UInt32  | 128       | Documents per compressed posting block. Must be 128 or 256. Missing values from older indexes read as 128. `256` is experimental and may introduce breaking changes. |
 
 ## Tokenizers
 
@@ -78,9 +92,24 @@ The full text search index supports multiple tokenizer types for different text
 | **whitespace** | Splits only on whitespace characters                                      | Preserve punctuation   |
 | **raw**        | No tokenization, treats entire text as single token                       | Exact matching         |
 | **ngram**      | Breaks text into overlapping character sequences                          | Substring/fuzzy search |
+| **icu**        | ICU dictionary-based Unicode word segmentation                            | Mixed-language text    |
+| **icu/split**  | ICU segmentation with simple-style delimiter splitting                    | Mixed-language identifiers |
 | **jieba/***    | Chinese text tokenizer with word segmentation                             | Chinese text           |
 | **lindera/***  | Japanese text tokenizer with morphological analysis                       | Japanese text          |
 
+#### ICU Tokenizer (Mixed-language text)
+
+The ICU tokenizer uses Unicode word boundary rules and dictionary-based segmentation for complex scripts. It is useful for mixed-language text where the default `simple` tokenizer would keep an unspaced CJK span as one large token.
+
+By default, Lance preserves ICU word segments as returned by ICU. Use `base_tokenizer: "icu/split"` to split ICU word segments again on non-alphanumeric delimiters such as underscores and punctuation. For example, `hello_world こんにちは世界` is tokenized as `hello`, `world`, `こんにちは`, and `世界`.
+
+- **Models**: Uses compiled ICU4X segmenter data bundled with Lance
+- **Usage**: Specify as `icu`, or `icu/split` to split punctuation-delimited identifiers
+- **Features**:
+  - Unicode-aware word boundary detection
+  - Dictionary-based segmentation for Chinese, Japanese, Khmer, Lao, Myanmar, and Thai
+  - No external language model download required
+
 #### Jieba Tokenizer (Chinese)
 
 Jieba is a popular Chinese text segmentation library that uses a dictionary-based approach with statistical methods for word segmentation.
@@ -189,6 +218,58 @@ address.city:San
 address.city:Francisco
 ```
 
+## Training Process
+
+Building an FTS index is a multi-phase pipeline: the source column is scanned, documents are tokenized in parallel, intermediate results are spilled to part files on disk, and the part files are merged into final output partitions.
+
+### Phase 1: Tokenization
+
+The input column is read as a stream of record batches and dispatched to a pool of tokenizer worker tasks. Each worker tokenizes documents independently, accumulating tokens, posting lists, and document metadata in memory.
+
+When a worker's accumulated data reaches the partition size limit or the document count hits `u32::MAX`, it flushes the data to disk as a set of part files (`part_<id>_tokens.lance`, `part_<id>_invert.lance`, `part_<id>_docs.lance`). A single worker may produce multiple part files if it processes enough data.
+
+### Phase 2: Merge
+
+After all workers finish, the part files are merged into output partitions. Part files are streamed with bounded buffering so that not all data needs to be loaded into memory at once. For each part file, the token dictionaries are unified, document sets are concatenated, and posting lists are rewritten with adjusted IDs.
+
+When a merged partition reaches the target size, it is written to the destination store and a new one is started. After all part files are consumed the final partition is flushed, and a `metadata.lance` file is written listing the partition IDs and index parameters.
+
+### Configuration
+
+| Environment Variable       | Default                          | Description                                                                                                           |
+|----------------------------|----------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
+| `LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS`     | Number of compute-intensive CPUs | Number of parallel tokenizer worker tasks. Higher values increase indexing throughput but use more memory.             |
+| `LANCE_FTS_PARTITION_SIZE` | 256 (MiB)                        | Maximum uncompressed size of a worker's in-memory buffer before it is spilled to a part file.                         |
+| `LANCE_FTS_TARGET_SIZE`    | 4096 (MiB)                       | Target uncompressed size for merged output partitions. Fewer, larger partitions improve query performance.             |
+
+### Memory and Performance Considerations
+
+Memory usage is primarily determined by two factors:
+
+- **`LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS`** -- Each worker holds an independent in-memory buffer. Peak memory is roughly `NUM_SHARDS * PARTITION_SIZE` plus the overhead of token dictionaries and posting list structures.
+- **`LANCE_FTS_PARTITION_SIZE`** -- Larger values reduce the number of part files and make the merge phase cheaper. Smaller values reduce per-worker memory at the cost of more part files.
+
+Merge phase memory is bounded by the streaming approach: part files are loaded one at a time with a small concurrency buffer. The merged partition's in-memory size is bounded by `LANCE_FTS_TARGET_SIZE`.
+
+Building an FTS index requires temporary disk space to store the part files generated during tokenization. The amount of temporary space depends heavily on whether position information is enabled. An index with `with_position: true` stores the position of every token occurrence in every document, which can easily require 10x the size of the original column or more in temporary disk space. An index without positions tends to be smaller than the original column and will typically need less than 2x the size of the column in total disk space.
+
+Performance tips:
+
+- Larger `LANCE_FTS_TARGET_SIZE` produces fewer output partitions, which is beneficial for query performance because queries must scan every partition's token dictionary. When memory allows, prefer fewer, larger partitions.
+- `with_position: true` significantly increases index size because term positions are stored for every occurrence. Only enable it when phrase queries are needed.
+- The ngram tokenizer generates many more tokens per document than word-level tokenizers, so expect larger index sizes and higher memory usage.
+
+### Distributed Training
+
+The FTS index supports distributed training where different worker nodes each index a subset of the data and the results are assembled afterward.
+
+1. Each distributed worker is assigned a **fragment mask** (`(fragment_id as u64) << 32`) that is OR'd into the partition IDs it generates, ensuring globally unique IDs across workers.
+2. Workers set `skip_merge: true` so they write their part files directly without running the merge phase.
+3. Instead of a single `metadata.lance`, each worker writes per-partition metadata files named `part_<id>_metadata.lance`.
+4. After all workers finish, a coordinator merges the metadata files: it collects all partition IDs, remaps them to a sequential range starting from 0 (renaming the corresponding data files), and writes the final unified `metadata.lance`.
+
+This allows each worker to operate independently during the tokenization phase. Only the final metadata merge requires a single-node step, and it is lightweight since it only renames files and writes a small metadata file.
+
 ## Accelerated Queries
 
 Lance SDKs provide dedicated full text search APIs to leverage the FTS index capabilities. 
@@ -203,4 +284,4 @@ Here are the query types enabled by the FTS index:
 | **phrase**          | Exact phrase matching with position information (requires `with_position: true`)         | `{"phrase": {"query": "exact phrase"}}`              | AtMost      |
 | **boolean**         | Complex boolean queries with must/should/must_not clauses for sophisticated search logic | `{"boolean": {"must": [...], "should": [...]}}`      | AtMost      |
 | **multi_match**     | Search across multiple fields simultaneously with unified scoring                        | `{"multi_match": [{"field1": "query"}, ...]}`        | AtMost      |
-| **boost**           | Boost relevance scores for specific terms or queries by a configurable factor            | `{"boost": {"query": {...}, "factor": 2.0}}`         | AtMost      |
\ No newline at end of file
+| **boost**           | Boost relevance scores for specific terms or queries by a configurable factor            | `{"boost": {"query": {...}, "factor": 2.0}}`         | AtMost      |
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/label_list.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/label_list.md
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/label_list.md
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar/label_list.md
diff --git a/docs/src/format/index/scalar/minhash_lsh.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/minhash_lsh.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a96697be624
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/minhash_lsh.md
@@ -0,0 +1,421 @@
+# MinHash LSH Index (Near-Duplicate Search)
+
+!!! warning "Experimental"
+
+    This index is an experimental format feature. Its details message and
+    its files may change incompatibly without a separate vote; after such a
+    change the index must be rebuilt, the data itself is never rewritten.
+    The feature is removed if its stabilization vote does not pass. Design
+    discussion: [lance#8820](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/discussions/8820).
+
+The MinHash LSH index finds near duplicates of a text: rows whose content is
+essentially the same as the query with a few edits, such as reposts with a
+different footer, mirror pages, or copy-pasted records with small changes. It
+scores rows by the **estimated Jaccard similarity** of their token shingle
+sets, a literal measure of overlap that needs no model. Unlike the Full-Text
+Search index, which ranks rows by term relevance, and unlike a vector index,
+which finds rows that mean the same thing, this index answers "which rows are
+copies of this one".
+
+The index is approximate: candidates are found with locality sensitive hashing
+(LSH) over MinHash signatures and ranked by comparing signatures, so the
+reported similarity is an estimate, and rows whose similarity is below the
+index's threshold are usually not found.
+
+## High-Level Architecture
+
+Every indexed text is turned into a fixed-length **signature** of `num_hashes`
+values, and the signature is split into `num_bands` **bands** whose hashes are
+the lookup keys. Two rows become candidates for each other when they share at
+least one band key; candidates are then ranked by the fraction of equal
+signature values.
+
+```
+              text
+               |  tokenize, shingle, hash
+               v
+   +-----------------------------------------+
+   |   signature: num_hashes 16-bit values   |   1 - (fraction of equal values)
+   +-----------------------------------------+   = Jaccard distance
+       |  split into num_bands bands, hash each
+       v
+   band keys ------------> bands table   (candidate lookup: rows sharing a key)
+   signature ------------> signature table  (ranking the candidates)
+```
+
+The index uses Lance's **Segmented Index** architecture: each segment covers a
+disjoint group of fragments and holds its own bands table and signature table.
+Scores depend only on the two signatures being compared, never on corpus
+statistics, so results from different segments merge exactly.
+
+```
+                     +----------------------------------------+
+                     |            Lance Dataset               |
+                     |   (Disjoint groups of Fragments 0..N)  |
+                     +----------------------------------------+
+                                         |
+                                         v
+                     +----------------------------------------+
+                     |            Segmented Index             |
+                     |  +-----------+ +-----------+ +-------+ |
+                     |  | Segment 1 | | Segment 2 | | ...   | |
+                     |  | bands +   | | bands +   | |       | |
+                     |  | signatures| | signatures| |       | |
+                     |  +-----------+ +-----------+ +-------+ |
+                     +----------------------------------------+
+```
+
+## Index Details
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.MinHashLshIndexDetails %%%
+```
+
+| Parameter           | Default                                                          | Effect                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
+|:--------------------|:-----------------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
+| `num_hashes`        | 128                                                              | Signature length, 1 to 4096 and a multiple of `num_bands`. More hashes make the similarity estimate more precise (error about `1 / sqrt(num_hashes)`) and the signature table larger (`8 + 2 * num_hashes` bytes per row). |
+| `num_bands`         | 16                                                               | Number of bands, 1 to 256. With `num_hashes` it sets the similarity threshold `(1 / num_bands) ^ (num_bands / num_hashes)`. The bands table costs `12 * num_bands` bytes per row.                                         |
+| `shingle_size`      | 3                                                                | Tokens per shingle. Shorter shingles tolerate more edits but let unrelated texts that share common phrases look alike; 5 suits long documents, 2 very short texts.                                                         |
+| `tokenizer`         | full text search default, without stemming and stop-word removal | The tokenizer, recorded as the Full-Text Search index records it. Stemming and stop-word removal are off by default because merging different words inflates similarity.                                                  |
+| `signature_version` | 0                                                                | Version of the signature procedure, including its hash seed. Managed by Lance, not a user parameter.                                                                                                                       |
+
+Reference points: the probability that a row with true Jaccard similarity `J`
+becomes a candidate is `1 - (1 - J^r)^b` with `b = num_bands` and
+`r = num_hashes / num_bands`.
+
+| `num_hashes` / `num_bands` | Threshold | Found at J = 0.9 | Found at J = 0.7 | Bytes per row |
+|:---------------------------|:----------|:-----------------|:-----------------|:--------------|
+| 64 / 8                     | 0.77      | 99%              | 38%              | 232           |
+| 128 / 16 (default)         | 0.71      | 99.99%           | 61%              | 456           |
+| 96 / 16                    | 0.63      | 100%             | 87%              | 392           |
+
+Bands of fewer than six values admit a noticeable share of unrelated rows into
+the candidate set on tables of billions of rows and are better left to offline
+use.
+
+A query is tokenized from the details alone, so the details must identify the
+tokenizer completely: settings the Full-Text Search details cannot record
+(custom stop words, document-level text extraction) and tokenizers that load
+dictionaries from the deployment (`jieba/*`, `lindera/*`) are rejected. For
+CJK text, `ngram` or `icu` gives deterministic shingles.
+
+## Signature Generation
+
+The build side and the query side run the same procedure, so a query is
+comparable with every stored row. The exact procedure, its constants and
+known-answer vectors are in [Version 0 Reference](#version-0-reference):
+
+1. Tokenize the text with the configured tokenizer.
+2. Form shingles of `shingle_size` consecutive tokens. A text with fewer
+   tokens than `shingle_size` forms one shingle of all its tokens; a text with
+   no tokens (NULL, empty, whitespace only) has no signature, is not indexed,
+   and never appears in results.
+3. Hash every shingle to 64 bits with a fixed seed.
+4. Apply `num_hashes` fixed permutations and keep the minimum of each over
+   all shingles of the text.
+5. Store each minimum as a 16-bit value. A minimum shrinks as the text grows,
+   so its raw high bits would agree between any two long texts; the stored
+   value is a multiply-shift hash of the minimum, which keeps the chance that
+   two different minima collide negligible against the `1 / num_hashes`
+   resolution of the estimate.
+
+Band keys are hashes of the `num_hashes / num_bands` consecutive values of a
+band, prefixed with the band number so that the keys of one band are
+contiguous.
+
+The estimated Jaccard similarity of two signatures is the fraction of
+positions whose values are equal; the reported `_distance` is
+`1 - estimated similarity`. Every constant of the procedure is fixed by
+`signature_version`, and every segment of an index must carry identical
+details, so signatures written by different segments or at query time are
+always comparable. Changing a parameter requires rebuilding the index.
+
+## Storage Layout
+
+Each segment consists of two Lance files:
+
+- `signatures.lance` — one row per indexed document: its `_rowid` and its
+  signature as a fixed-size list of `num_hashes` 16-bit values. The row number
+  is the segment-local document id, so a segment holds at most `2^32`
+  documents; larger tables use several segments. Rows are fixed width and
+  stored without compression, so one document's signature is a single ranged
+  read at a known offset.
+- `bands.lance` — one row per (band key, document id) pair, sorted by band key
+  and then document id. A bucket is the run of rows sharing a key. The file is
+  divided into logical pages of a fixed number of rows recorded in the file
+  (4096 as written), and a page table holding the largest key of every page
+  is stored in a global buffer of the file and kept in memory when the index
+  is open, so the pages of any bucket are known without reading the file.
+
+Both files repeat the serialized index details and the file format version as
+schema metadata; a segment is opened only when both files match the details of
+the index. The file schemas, metadata keys and the page table encoding are in
+[Version 0 Reference](#version-0-reference).
+
+## Segments, Appends and Merging
+
+- **Building**: `create_index` reads the text column, signs every row and
+  writes one segment. Distributed builds create one uncommitted segment per
+  worker over disjoint fragment sets and commit them together; the commit
+  rejects segments whose details differ.
+- **Unindexed appends**: fragments appended after the build are not covered
+  by any segment. `optimize_indices` adds a segment over them. Until then a
+  query still searches those rows, signing them on the fly with the index
+  parameters, unless the scan asks for indexed rows only (`fast_search`).
+- **Segment merging**: merging segments rebuilds one segment from the stored
+  signatures without tokenizing the text again — the signatures of the
+  surviving rows are concatenated, band keys are recomputed and the bands
+  table is rewritten. A merge whose result would exceed `2^32` documents is
+  rejected and the segments stay separate.
+- **Deletes and compaction**: deleted rows are filtered at query time; after a
+  compaction the stored row ids are remapped like those of every other scalar
+  index.
+
+## Query Evaluation
+
+When a search is submitted (`nearest = MinHashQuery(text, column)`):
+
+1. The query text is signed with the parameters recorded in the index, and its
+   band keys are computed.
+2. In every segment, each band key is looked up through the page table, which
+   yields the pages of the key's bucket; the pages of all buckets are fetched
+   through the page cache, the missing ones with bounded scattered reads. The
+   document ids in the buckets form the candidate set.
+3. The candidates' signatures are read — from memory when resident, otherwise
+   with scattered reads, or with a sequential scan when the candidates cover a
+   large share of the segment — and each candidate's Jaccard distance to the
+   query is computed. Rows removed by filters or deletions are skipped.
+4. Each segment keeps its `limit` closest rows; rows not covered by any
+   segment are scored the same way by the query engine.
+5. The per-segment results are merged by distance, and the `limit` closest
+   rows are returned with their `_distance`.
+
+## Compatibility
+
+- A reader that does not know this index opens a dataset that has one
+  normally: the index is listed under a name derived from the type URL of
+  its details and is not used by queries. Creating the index sets no reader
+  or writer feature flag.
+- A writer that does not create the index changes nothing for readers that
+  know it.
+- Dropping the feature is dropping the index: its files live only under the
+  index's own `_indices/{uuid}/` directory, and no data file, manifest field
+  or other index is rewritten.
+
+## Version 0 Reference
+
+This section is normative for `signature_version = 0` and
+`minhash_lsh_index_version = 0`: an independent implementation must reproduce
+the signatures, band keys and files defined here exactly. All arithmetic is on
+unsigned 64-bit integers modulo `2^64`, and every multi-byte value is
+little-endian.
+
+### Signature Procedure
+
+1. **Tokenize** the text with the configured tokenizer. A token is the UTF-8
+   bytes of the token text the tokenizer emits, in emission order.
+2. **Shingle**: a shingle is `shingle_size` consecutive tokens joined with the
+   single byte `0x1F`; a text of `n` tokens has `n - shingle_size + 1`
+   shingles, one starting at every token position. A text with fewer tokens
+   than `shingle_size` but at least one token forms one shingle of all its
+   tokens. A text with no tokens (NULL, empty, whitespace only, or every token
+   discarded by the tokenizer) has no signature.
+3. **Hash** every shingle to 64 bits: `x = XXH64(shingle bytes, seed = 42)`.
+4. **Coefficients** come from a SplitMix64 generator whose state `s` starts at
+   42. One draw is:
+
+    ```
+    s    = s + 0x9E3779B97F4A7C15
+    z    = s
+    z    = (z ^ (z >> 30)) * 0xBF58476D1CE4E5B9
+    z    = (z ^ (z >> 27)) * 0x94D049BB133111EB
+    draw = z ^ (z >> 31)
+    ```
+
+    The draws are consumed in this order: for `i = 0 .. num_hashes - 1`,
+    `a_i = draw() | 1` and then `b_i = draw()`; after all pairs, for
+    `i = 0 .. num_hashes - 1`, `c_i = draw() | 1`. The coefficients depend on
+    `num_hashes` only.
+5. **Permute and take the minima**: `m_i = min over all shingles x of
+   (a_i * x + b_i)`, comparing the full 64-bit values.
+6. **Compress** each minimum to 16 bits: `signature[i] = (c_i * m_i) >> 48`.
+7. **Band keys**: the signature is split into `num_bands` bands of
+   `r = num_hashes / num_bands` consecutive values; band `j` holds
+   `signature[j * r .. (j + 1) * r)` and its key is
+
+    ```
+    band_key_j = (j << 56) | (XXH64(band bytes, seed = 42) & 0x00FFFFFFFFFFFFFF)
+    ```
+
+    where the band bytes are the band's `r` values, each written as 2
+    little-endian bytes, in signature order.
+
+The estimated Jaccard similarity of two signatures is the number of positions
+`i` with equal `signature[i]` divided by `num_hashes`; `_distance` is
+`1 - estimated similarity`, and rows at equal distance are ordered by row id.
+
+### Known-Answer Vectors
+
+An implementation must reproduce these values, computed with
+`num_hashes = 4`, `num_bands = 2`, `shingle_size = 2`, the default tokenizer
+and `signature_version = 0`.
+
+Coefficients:
+
+| `i` | `a_i`                | `b_i`                | `c_i`                |
+|:----|:---------------------|:---------------------|:---------------------|
+| 0   | `0xbdd732262feb6e95` | `0x28efe333b266f103` | `0x5705b8770b3d7dd5` |
+| 1   | `0x47526757130f9f53` | `0x581ce1ff0e4ae394` | `0x9e54d738297f77af` |
+| 2   | `0x09bc585a244823f3` | `0xde4431fa3c80db06` | `0x3474724a775b19bf` |
+| 3   | `0x37e9671c45376d5d` | `0xccf635ee9e9e2fa4` | `0x7e348a0e451650bf` |
+
+Text `"The quick brown fox"` tokenizes to `the`, `quick`, `brown`, `fox`:
+
+| Shingle bytes          | `XXH64`              |
+|:-----------------------|:---------------------|
+| `the` `0x1F` `quick`   | `0x4c0b0d36203ce55f` |
+| `quick` `0x1F` `brown` | `0x09c7ae895d82b184` |
+| `brown` `0x1F` `fox`   | `0x68e7f4b1be7b4c1f` |
+
+| `i` | `m_i`                | `signature[i]` |
+|:----|:---------------------|:---------------|
+| 0   | `0x0959767d77eafad7` | `0xb00f`       |
+| 1   | `0x464e4457275cd2a1` | `0x59d6`       |
+| 2   | `0x50f41804abaa5973` | `0x511a`       |
+| 3   | `0x8944bd01067b09e7` | `0xcd2c`       |
+
+Band keys: `0x00f30f3501d458ea` (band 0), `0x01aec5df28d04915` (band 1).
+
+Text `"Fox"` has one token, fewer than `shingle_size`, so its only shingle is
+`fox` with `XXH64` `0x07c0130ab04388d5`; the minima are `0x2bb8ade505081afc`,
+`0x0a273c6ff9a78ba3`, `0x802f20573838dc35`, `0x1ef46a8d372c9605`, the
+signature is `0x2970 0xd6db 0x65f8 0xadfc`, and the band keys are
+`0x003cf6e803312eca` and `0x017c5504fbc83f36`.
+
+The texts `""` and `"  \n"` have no tokens and therefore no signature.
+
+### Signature File Schema
+
+`signatures.lance` holds one row per indexed document. Row `i` is document
+`i` of the segment; rows are written in document id order and never
+reordered.
+
+```python
+pa.schema(
+    [
+        pa.field("_rowid", pa.uint64(), nullable=False),
+        pa.field(
+            "signature",
+            pa.list_(pa.field("item", pa.uint16(), nullable=False), num_hashes),
+            nullable=False,
+            metadata={
+                "lance-encoding:structural-encoding": "fullzip",
+                "lance-encoding:compression": "none",
+            },
+        ),
+    ],
+    metadata={
+        "minhash_lsh_details": "<hexadecimal serialized MinHashLshIndexDetails>",
+        "minhash_lsh_index_version": "0",
+    },
+)
+```
+
+`_rowid` is the row id of the indexed row as the dataset hands it to the
+index: the row address, or the stable row id when the dataset has stable row
+ids enabled, like every scalar index. `signature` is the signature of the
+[Signature Procedure](#signature-procedure); its values are never null (the
+Lance schema does not record the nullability of a fixed-size list item, so a
+reader treats a null value as corruption of the file). The field metadata of
+`signature` selects the full-zip structural encoding without compression, so
+every row occupies the same `2 * num_hashes` bytes and a reader fetches the
+signature of document `i` by row number as one ranged read.
+
+### Bands File Schema
+
+`bands.lance` holds one row per (band key, document id) pair, sorted by
+`band_key` and then `doc_id`, ascending.
+
+```python
+pa.schema(
+    [
+        pa.field(
+            "band_key",
+            pa.uint64(),
+            nullable=False,
+            metadata={"lance-encoding:compression": "none"},
+        ),
+        pa.field(
+            "doc_id",
+            pa.uint32(),
+            nullable=False,
+            metadata={"lance-encoding:compression": "none"},
+        ),
+    ],
+    metadata={
+        "minhash_lsh_details": "<hexadecimal serialized MinHashLshIndexDetails>",
+        "minhash_lsh_index_version": "0",
+        "minhash_lsh_num_docs": "<decimal document count>",
+        "minhash_lsh_page_rows": "4096",
+        "minhash_lsh_page_table_buffer": "<decimal global buffer index>",
+    },
+)
+```
+
+`band_key` is the key of step 7 of the [Signature Procedure](#signature-procedure);
+`doc_id` is the segment-local document id, the row number in
+`signatures.lance`. Both columns are stored without compression, so any run
+of rows is one ranged read per column. The file is divided into logical pages
+of `minhash_lsh_page_rows` rows: page `p` holds rows
+`[p * page_rows, (p + 1) * page_rows)`, and the last page may be shorter. A
+bucket may span any number of pages.
+
+### Schema Metadata
+
+| Key                             | File    | Value                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
+|:--------------------------------|:--------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
+| `minhash_lsh_details`           | both    | Lower-case hexadecimal encoding of the serialized `MinHashLshIndexDetails` the segment was built from. A reader decodes it and requires it to describe, field by field, the same details as the index metadata. |
+| `minhash_lsh_index_version`     | both    | Decimal file layout version; `0` for the layout described here. Independent of `signature_version`.                                                                                                           |
+| `minhash_lsh_num_docs`          | `bands` | Decimal number of documents of the segment; equals the row count of `signatures.lance`.                                                                                                                       |
+| `minhash_lsh_page_rows`         | `bands` | Decimal number of rows per logical page; positive. Writers use `4096`.                                                                                                                                        |
+| `minhash_lsh_page_table_buffer` | `bands` | Decimal index of the global buffer of `bands.lance` that holds the page table.                                                                                                                                |
+
+### Page Table
+
+The page table is a global buffer of `bands.lance` holding
+`ceil(num_rows / page_rows)` little-endian UInt64 values; entry `p` is the
+largest `band_key` of page `p`, that is the key of its last row. It is read
+when the segment is opened and kept in memory while the index is open. The
+bucket of key `K` lies in the pages from the first page whose entry is `>= K`
+through the first page whose entry is `> K` (or the last page when there is
+none); the pages strictly between hold nothing but that bucket. Both
+positions are binary searches over the table, so a bucket's page range is
+known without reading the file.
+
+### Opening a Segment
+
+A reader opens a segment in this order and treats a failed check as
+corruption of the named file, except where noted:
+
+1. Parse the index details and check the ranges of
+   [Index Details](#index-details).
+2. Open both files. In each, the schema must match its definition above
+   exactly in field names, types, nullability and list size, which must equal
+   `num_hashes`; `minhash_lsh_details` must be present, decode, validate and
+   equal the index details field by field; and `minhash_lsh_index_version`
+   must be present. A version greater than the one the reader implements is
+   rejected as unsupported, not as corruption.
+3. In `bands.lance`, `minhash_lsh_page_rows` must be positive and
+   `minhash_lsh_num_docs` must equal the row count of `signatures.lance`.
+4. Read the page table buffer; its length must be a multiple of 8 and its
+   entry count must be `ceil(num_rows / page_rows)` for the row count of
+   `bands.lance`.
+
+While answering queries, a page that does not decode to non-null `UInt64`
+and `UInt32` columns, and a `doc_id` that is not below
+`minhash_lsh_num_docs`, are corruption of `bands.lance`; a signature batch
+with a null value is corruption of `signatures.lance`.
+
+The fragments a segment covers are recorded in the index metadata of the
+dataset, never derived from the stored `_rowid` values (which do not identify
+fragments once stable row ids are enabled).
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/ngram.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/ngram.md
similarity index 66%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/ngram.md
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar/ngram.md
index bdf78474d50..d437363d264 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/ngram.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/ngram.md
@@ -29,4 +29,10 @@ The N-gram index provides inexact results for the following query types:
 
 | Query Type     | Description              | Operation                                             | Result Type |
 |----------------|--------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------|
-| **contains**   | Substring search in text | Finds all trigrams in query, intersects posting lists | AtMost      |
\ No newline at end of file
+| **contains**   | Substring search in text | Finds all trigrams in query, intersects posting lists | AtMost      |
+| **regexp_like** / **regexp_match** | Regular-expression match | Derives a necessary trigram condition from the pattern (AND of intersections, OR of unions), then rechecks the true regex | AtMost |
+| **LIKE** (infix) | Wildcard match such as `%foo%bar%` | Uses the literal segments of the pattern as a trigram condition, then rechecks the LIKE | AtMost |
+
+Patterns from which no trigram can be derived - for example `a.b`, `.*`,
+case-insensitive matches, or literal runs shorter than three characters - fall
+back to rechecking every row. This is always correct, just not accelerated.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/rtree.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/rtree.md
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/rtree.md
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar/rtree.md
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/zonemap.md b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/zonemap.md
similarity index 71%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/zonemap.md
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar/zonemap.md
index 256edc2671d..552d476cc86 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar/zonemap.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/scalar/zonemap.md
@@ -8,6 +8,9 @@ zones that cannot contain matching values.
 Zone maps are "inexact" filters - they can definitively exclude zones but may include
 false positives that require rechecking.
 
+In addition, since finding NULLs is a common query pattern, the index also maintains a
+bitmap of null rows which allows it to return exact results for IS NULL queries.
+
 ## Index Details
 
 ```protobuf
@@ -34,17 +37,25 @@ The zone map index stores zone statistics in a single file:
 
 ### Schema Metadata
 
-| Key             | Type   | Description                               |
-|-----------------|--------|-------------------------------------------|
-| `rows_per_zone` | String | Number of rows per zone (default: "8192") |
+| Key                 | Type   | Description                               |
+|---------------------|--------|-------------------------------------------|
+| `rows_per_zone`     | String | Number of rows per zone (default: "8192") |
+| `null_bitmap`       | UInt32 | Index of null bitmap global buffer        |
+
+### Global Buffers
+
+| Metadata Key        | Description                                                |
+|---------------------|------------------------------------------------------------|
+| `null_bitmap`       | A serialized RowAddrTreeMap specifying which rows are null |
 
 ## Accelerated Queries
 
-The zone map index provides inexact results for the following query types:
+The zone map index provides inexact results for the following query types (nullability queries
+return exact results):
 
 | Query Type | Description               | Operation                                   | Result Type |
 |------------|---------------------------|---------------------------------------------|-------------|
 | **Equals** | `column = value`          | Includes zones where min ≤ value ≤ max      | AtMost      |
 | **Range**  | `column BETWEEN a AND b`  | Includes zones where ranges overlap         | AtMost      |
 | **IsIn**   | `column IN (v1, v2, ...)` | Includes zones that could contain any value | AtMost      |
-| **IsNull** | `column IS NULL`          | Includes zones where null_count > 0         | AtMost      |
\ No newline at end of file
+| **IsNull** | `column IS NULL`          | Includes zones where null_count > 0         | Exact       |
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/scalar_index.drawio.svg b/docs/src/format/index/scalar_index.drawio.svg
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/scalar_index.drawio.svg
rename to docs/src/format/index/scalar_index.drawio.svg
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/starter-example.drawio.svg b/docs/src/format/index/starter-example.drawio.svg
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/starter-example.drawio.svg
rename to docs/src/format/index/starter-example.drawio.svg
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/system/.pages b/docs/src/format/index/system/.pages
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/system/.pages
rename to docs/src/format/index/system/.pages
diff --git a/docs/src/format/index/system/frag_reuse.md b/docs/src/format/index/system/frag_reuse.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1179234f13a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/system/frag_reuse.md
@@ -0,0 +1,241 @@
+# Fragment Reuse Index
+
+The Fragment Reuse Index (FRI) is an internal index that keeps existing indices
+usable while fragments are compacted or reclustered. It records how old physical
+row addresses map to new addresses, without changing surviving row values.
+
+## Use Case 1: Compact Fragments
+
+When data modifications happen against a Lance table, they can trigger compaction
+and index optimization at the same time to improve data layout and index coverage.
+By default, compaction remaps all indices to prevent read regression.
+This means both compaction and index optimization can modify the same index and
+cause one process to fail. Typically, compaction fails because it has to modify
+all indices and takes longer, resulting in table layout degrading over time.
+
+Fragment Reuse Index allows compaction to defer the index remap process.
+Suppose a compaction removes fragments A and B and produces C. At query runtime,
+the existing indices are reused by translating their addresses in A and B to
+addresses in C. Because indices are typically cached in memory after initial
+load, the translated index can be reused by subsequent queries.
+
+## Use Case 2: Recluster Fragments
+
+Fragments are often organized by data arrival order. Queries filtering by fields
+such as day or user UUID may therefore need to search many fragments or index
+segments. An external engine, such as Spark, can reorganize rows into destination
+fragments grouped by those fields.
+
+A **stable partition** assigns source rows to destination fragments while
+preserving their relative source order within each destination. This lets FRI
+reuse existing indices after reclustering. Sorting or arbitrarily shuffling rows
+within a destination requires a different mapping; it is not represented by the
+stable-partition format defined here.
+
+## Index Details
+
+FRI uses one system-index entry named `__lance_frag_reuse`. Its
+`IndexMetadata.index_details` contains `FragmentReuseIndexDetails`:
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.FragmentReuseIndexDetails %%%
+```
+
+The outer `InlineContent` / `ExternalFile` choice applies to the entire history.
+Small histories are stored inline; larger histories store the serialized
+`InlineContent` in `_indices/<FRI UUID>/details.binpb`. Updating the history
+replaces the FRI metadata. Stable-partition row maps are separate immutable files
+and are not rewritten with that history.
+
+### FRI Index Versions
+
+`IndexMetadata.index_version` identifies the format required to interpret FRI;
+it is not a dataset version or the sequence number of a rewrite.
+
+- **Version 0** retains the existing compaction format and read/write behavior.
+  `InlineContent.legacy_versions` keeps the original field number, 1, and wire
+  representation of `versions`.
+- **Version 1** adds `InlineContent.transitions` at field 2. It supports both
+  ordered compaction and stable partition. Each legacy group can be interpreted
+  as an ordered-compaction transition, forming one history with the new records.
+
+Adding a transition or a new mapping type does not itself require increasing
+`index_version`. Readers may skip unsupported mappings and fall back to scanning
+where a complete translation path is unavailable. Writers must reject operations
+that require interpreting or maintaining unsupported mappings; operations that
+carry the existing history unchanged need not interpret them. Changes to the
+shared metadata contract that require reader upgrades must increase `index_version`.
+
+### Shared Transition Metadata
+
+Each transition records ordered `sources` and `destinations`, plus exactly one
+mapping. A fragment digest contains its ID, physical row count, and deleted row
+count. Source counts describe the rewrite input; destination counts describe the
+newly written fragments, with zero deletions.
+
+Sources define scan order; destinations define output order for compaction and
+label order for stable partition. The surviving source row count must equal the
+total destination row count. Each fragment has at most one producer and one
+consumer in the retained history, and the graph must be acyclic. A fragment's
+physical row count stays constant across transitions; its deletion count may
+increase. Translation follows these dependencies, not the serialized list order.
+
+## Mappings
+
+### Ordered Compaction
+
+Ordered compaction concatenates surviving rows in source-fragment order, with
+ascending physical row offsets within each source, then splits that stream into
+the ordered destination fragments.
+
+`changed_row_addrs` stores a serialized RoaringTreemap of surviving source
+addresses. A physical address uses the upper 32 bits for the fragment ID and the
+lower 32 bits for the row offset. A valid source row absent from the bitmap was
+deleted.
+
+To translate a surviving row, count the surviving rows in preceding source
+fragments and the surviving rows before its offset in its own fragment. Their
+sum is its zero-based position in the output stream. Find the destination whose
+cumulative physical-row range contains that position and subtract the start of
+that range to obtain the destination offset.
+
+The legacy `Group` and the new `OrderedCompaction` mapping use this same ordering
+and bitmap representation. No per-row destination labels are required.
+
+### Stable Partition
+
+A stable partition processes source fragments sequentially in their recorded
+order and assigns each surviving row a label: the zero-based position of its
+destination in `destinations`. Rows with the same label retain their relative
+source order. Deleted source rows carry a null label.
+
+The mapping payload is one immutable Lance file,
+`_fri/<map_id>/stable_partition.lance`. `map_id` is a UUID independent of the FRI
+index UUID, so the file survives FRI metadata rewrites. `map_size_bytes` records
+its exact size. An unset `base_id` selects the dataset base; otherwise it selects
+the corresponding `Manifest.base_paths` entry. Relocating a dataset requires
+copying these files or updating their references.
+
+#### Row Map File Schema
+
+The row map is a Lance file with one nullable `uint16` label per physical source
+row. Rows follow source-fragment order, then physical row offset within each
+fragment, including deleted rows.
+
+```python
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+row_map_schema = pa.schema([pa.field("label", pa.uint16(), nullable=True)])
+```
+
+A label tells us which destination receives the row: `0` means
+`destinations[0]`, `1` means `destinations[1]`, and `null` means the row was
+deleted at rewrite time. It stores the destination's position in the list, not
+its fragment ID or row offset. The number of destinations must be between 1
+and 65,536, and each non-null label must be smaller than that number.
+
+#### Counts Matrix
+
+Labels tell us the destination fragment. To find the row offset inside that
+fragment, we count earlier source rows with the same label.
+
+To avoid reading all earlier labels, source rows are divided into blocks.
+For each block and destination, the counts matrix stores the cumulative number
+of rows sent to that destination through the end of the block. Null labels are
+not counted. `block_rows` must be positive; the current writer uses 65,536.
+Only the final block may be shorter.
+
+The matrix is stored in a Lance global buffer. The schema metadata key
+`lance:stable_partition:counts_buffer_index` contains its buffer index as a
+decimal string. Readers locate the buffer through the normal Lance file metadata.
+
+The buffer starts with a 28-byte header, in this order:
+
+- Magic: four bytes, `LSPC`.
+- Version: `u32`, value 1.
+- Representation: `u32`, value 0 for the dense grid.
+- Number of destinations: `u32`.
+- Rows per block: `u32`.
+- Total physical source rows: `u64`.
+
+All integers are unsigned and little-endian. The header is followed by
+`ceil(total_rows / block_rows) * num_destinations` cumulative `u32` counts,
+ordered by block, then destination. No extra bytes are allowed. Unsupported
+versions or representations must be rejected.
+
+Counts must never decrease, and a block cannot contribute more live rows than
+its length. Final destination counts must match the destination digests. The
+label-file row count and header total must match the sum of source physical row
+counts. An empty file has no grid rows and zero destination totals.
+
+#### Address Translation
+
+For source fragment `s` and row offset `o`:
+
+1. Find its label-file position: the physical row counts of all preceding source
+   fragments, plus `o`.
+2. Read the block containing that position. A null label means the row was deleted;
+   otherwise label `d` selects `destinations[d]`.
+3. The destination row offset is the count for `d` before this block, plus the
+   number of occurrences of `d` strictly before this row within the block.
+   The count before the first block is zero.
+
+For batch translation, read each requested block once. Initialize destination
+counters from the preceding counts row, then scan the block in order. Each
+non-null label takes the current counter as its offset and increments it.
+Opening FRI history does not require reading labels; translation only needs the
+counts matrix and the requested label blocks.
+
+## Expected Use Pattern
+
+When indexing or index remapping cannot keep up with compaction or reclustering,
+FRI allows fragment rewrites to proceed while retaining existing indices.
+Each rewrite that defers index remapping records its mapping: a reuse version
+in FRI index version 0, or transitions in index version 1. A rewrite publishes
+its mapping atomically, replacing the FRI entry in the same commit. A
+transition must reference only fragments committed no later than itself.
+Fragments not covered by any index are served by scanning, so correctness
+never depends on a mapping being present.
+
+Once all dependent indices have caught up, the corresponding history can be
+trimmed. Cleanup must retain intermediate transitions still needed to translate
+old addresses. External mapping files can be deleted only when no retained
+dataset version references them.
+
+## Stable Row IDs
+
+Older readers and writers did not expect both stable row IDs and a Fragment Reuse Index but are
+not prevented from opening tables that have both. These older systems could silently corrupt such
+tables. A table version that has both sets `FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS` in the reader and
+writer [feature flags](../../table/versioning.md#current-feature-flags) to guard against this.
+
+## Impacts
+
+### Conflict Resolution
+
+Deferring index remapping avoids replacing existing indices during a fragment
+rewrite, reducing conflicts with concurrent index building or optimization.
+FRI does not remove conflicts between overlapping rewrites. See
+[conflict resolution](../../table/transaction.md#conflict-resolution).
+
+### Index Load Cost
+
+Loading affected indices requires translating their stored row addresses.
+Ordered compaction uses its bitmap and fragment layouts; stable partition also
+reads the required row-map blocks. Translated indices can be cached and reused.
+Longer mapping chains add translation work; trimming unused history reduces it.
+
+### Reader and Writer Compatibility
+
+The first commit publishing FRI index version 1 sets
+`FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX` (1024) in both manifest flag fields. Subsequent
+manifests retain both bits. FRI index version 0 does not require this flag.
+
+Tables using stable row IDs do not support tagged histories; writers must not
+publish `index_version >= 1` on them.
+
+The reader flag prevents older clients from partially interpreting the new
+history. The writer flag prevents them from dropping mappings when rewriting
+FRI metadata. Clients that do not support the corresponding flag must reject
+the read or write and require an upgrade. See
+[feature flags](../../table/versioning.md).
diff --git a/docs/src/format/index/system/mem_wal.md b/docs/src/format/index/system/mem_wal.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2f0a5cb1fa5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/system/mem_wal.md
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+# MemWAL Index
+
+The MemWAL Index is a system index that serves as the centralized structure for all MemWAL metadata.
+It stores configuration (shard specs, indexes to maintain), SSTable compaction progress, and shard state snapshots.
+
+A table has at most one MemWAL index.
+The table may be a primary-key table or an append-only table without primary-key metadata.
+Primary-key-dependent lookup and deduplication semantics only apply when a primary key is defined.
+
+For the complete specification, see:
+
+- [MemWAL Index Overview](../../table/mem_wal.md#memwal-index) - Purpose and high-level description
+- [MemWAL Index Details](../../table/mem_wal.md#memwal-index-details) - Storage format, schemas, and staleness handling
+- [MemWAL Implementation](../../table/mem_wal.md#implementation-expectation) - Implementation details and expectations
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/vector/.pages b/docs/src/format/index/vector/.pages
similarity index 100%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/vector/.pages
rename to docs/src/format/index/vector/.pages
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/vector/index.md b/docs/src/format/index/vector/index.md
similarity index 64%
rename from docs/src/format/table/index/vector/index.md
rename to docs/src/format/index/vector/index.md
index f987c6a675e..c7f385accf4 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/vector/index.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/index/vector/index.md
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # Vector Indices
 
-Lance provides a powerful and extensible secondary index system for efficient vector similarity search. 
+Lance provides a powerful and extensible secondary index system for efficient vector similarity search.
 All vector indices are stored as regular Lance files, making them portable and easy to manage.
 It is designed for efficient similarity search across large-scale vector datasets.
 
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ Lance splits each vector index into 3 parts - clustering, sub-index and quantiza
 
 Clustering divides all the vectors into different disjoint clusters (a.k.a. partitions).
 Lance currently supports using Inverted File (IVF) as the primary clustering mechanism.
-IVF partitions the vectors into clusters using the k-means clustering algorithm. 
+IVF partitions the vectors into clusters using the k-means clustering algorithm.
 Each cluster contains vectors that are similar to the cluster centroid.
 During search, only the most relevant clusters are examined, dramatically reducing search time.
 IVF can be combined with any sub-index type and quantization method.
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ Here are the commonly used combinations:
 
 The Lance vector index format has gone through 3 versions so far.
 This document currently only records version 3 which is the latest version.
-The specific version of the vector index is recorded in the `index_version` field of the generic [index metadata](../index.md#index-metadata).
+The specific version of the vector index is recorded in the `index_version` field of the generic [index metadata](../index.md#loading-an-index).
 
 ## Storage Layout (V3)
 
@@ -84,9 +84,9 @@ HNSW (Hierarchical Navigable Small World) indices provide fast approximate searc
 
 | Column        | Type          | Nullable | Description            |
 | ------------- | ------------- | -------- | ---------------------- |
-| `__vector_id` | uint64        | false    | Vector identifier      |
-| `__neighbors` | list<uint32>  | false    | Neighbor node IDs      |
-| `_distance`   | list<float32> | false    | Distances to neighbors |
+| `__vector_id` | uint32        | true     | Vector identifier      |
+| `__neighbors` | list<uint32>  | true     | Neighbor node IDs      |
+| `_distance`   | list<float32> | true     | Distances to neighbors |
 
 !!! note
     HNSW consists of multiple levels, and all levels must be written in order starting from level 0.
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ References the IVF metadata stored in the Lance file global buffer.
 This value records the global buffer index, currently this is always "1".
 
 !!! note
-    Global buffer indices in Lance files are 1-based, 
+    Global buffer indices in Lance files are 1-based,
     so you need to subtract 1 when accessing them through code.
 
 ##### "lance:flat"
@@ -161,23 +161,36 @@ the Arrow schema of the Lance file varies depending on the quantization method u
 !!! note
     All partitions are stored in the same file, and partitions must be written in order.
 
+Every quantization format below lists only its internal columns. When a V3 IVF
+writer materializes carried values, it appends one trailing column per carried
+field after them, named and typed exactly as in the dataset schema. This physical
+payload may be a subset of the manifest's `covering_fields` declaration (see
+[Index Metadata](../index.md)). A reader returns only columns whose physical
+schema and dataset field ids it verifies across every selected segment; all other
+projected columns come from a base-table take.
+
+A reader discovers carried columns by exclusion, not by position: any column in the
+auxiliary file's schema that is not one of the quantizer's internal columns is a
+carried column. Writers append them in trailing order, but a reader must not depend
+on that ordering to identify them.
+
 ##### FLAT
 
 No quantization applied - stores original vectors in their full precision:
 
 | Column   | Type                     | Nullable | Description                                           |
 | -------- | ------------------------ | -------- | ----------------------------------------------------- |
-| `_rowid` | uint64                   | false    | Row identifier                                        |
-| `flat`   | list<float32>[dimension] | false    | Original vector values (list_size = vector dimension) |
+| `_rowid` | uint64                   | true     | Row identifier                                        |
+| `flat`   | list<float32>[dimension] | true     | Original vector values (list_size = vector dimension) |
 
 ##### PQ
 
 Compresses vectors using product quantization for significant memory savings:
 
-| Column      | Type           | Nullable | Description                                 |
-| ----------- | -------------- | -------- | ------------------------------------------- |
-| `_rowid`    | uint64         | false    | Row identifier                              |
-| `__pq_code` | list<uint8>[m] | false    | PQ codes (list_size = number of subvectors) |
+| Column      | Type                                            | Nullable | Description                                   |
+| ----------- | ----------------------------------------------- | -------- | --------------------------------------------- |
+| `_rowid`    | uint64                                          | true     | Row identifier                                |
+| `__pq_code` | list<uint8>[num_sub_vectors * num_bits / 8]     | true     | PQ codes, packed to `num_bits` per subvector  |
 
 ##### SQ
 
@@ -185,19 +198,28 @@ Compresses vectors using scalar quantization for moderate memory savings:
 
 | Column      | Type                   | Nullable | Description                             |
 | ----------- | ---------------------- | -------- | --------------------------------------- |
-| `_rowid`    | uint64                 | false    | Row identifier                          |
-| `__sq_code` | list<uint8>[dimension] | false    | SQ codes (list_size = vector dimension) |
+| `_rowid`    | uint64                 | true     | Row identifier                          |
+| `__sq_code` | list<uint8>[dimension] | true     | SQ codes (list_size = vector dimension) |
 
 ##### RQ
 
 Compresses vectors using RabitQ with random rotation and binary quantization for extreme compression:
 
-| Column            | Type                       | Nullable | Description                                                     |
-| ----------------- | -------------------------- | -------- | --------------------------------------------------------------- |
-| `_rowid`          | uint64                     | false    | Row identifier                                                  |
-| `_rabit_codes`    | list<uint8>[dimension / 8] | false    | Binary quantized codes (1 bit per dimension, packed into bytes) |
-| `__add_factors`   | float32                    | false    | Additive correction factors for distance computation            |
-| `__scale_factors` | float32                    | false    | Scale correction factors for distance computation               |
+| Column               | Type                                             | Nullable | Present when                | Description                                                     |
+| -------------------- | ------------------------------------------------ | -------- | --------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------- |
+| `_rowid`             | uint64                                           | true     | always                      | Row identifier                                                  |
+| `_rabit_codes`       | list<uint8>[ceil(code_dim / 8)]                  | true     | always                      | Binary quantized codes (1 bit per dimension, packed into bytes) |
+| `__add_factors`      | float32                                          | true     | always                      | Additive correction factors for distance computation            |
+| `__scale_factors`    | float32                                          | true     | always                      | Scale correction factors for distance computation               |
+| `__error_factors`    | float32                                          | true     | `raw_query` estimator       | Error factors for raw-query lower-bound pruning                 |
+| `__blocked_ex_codes` | list<uint8>[next_multiple_of(code_dim, 64) * (num_bits - 1) / 8] | true | `num_bits > 1` | Extra RabitQ code bits for multi-bit RQ, in the blocked layout  |
+| `__add_factors_ex`   | float32                                          | true     | `num_bits > 1`              | Additive correction factors for ex-code distance computation    |
+| `__scale_factors_ex` | float32                                          | true     | `num_bits > 1`              | Scale correction factors for ex-code distance computation       |
+
+!!! note
+    Indexes written before the blocked ex-code layout store the same bits in
+    `__ex_codes`, sized `ceil(dimension * (num_bits - 1) / 8)`. Readers still
+    accept that column and repack it at load time; writers no longer emit it.
 
 #### Arrow Schema Metadata
 
@@ -205,11 +227,12 @@ The auxiliary file also contains metadata in its Arrow schema metadata for vecto
 Here are the metadata keys and their corresponding values:
 
 ##### "distance_type"
+
 The distance metric used to compute similarity between vectors (e.g., "l2", "cosine", "dot").
 
 ##### "lance:ivf"
 
-Similar to the index file's "lance:ivf" but focused on vector storage layout. 
+Similar to the index file's "lance:ivf" but focused on vector storage layout.
 This doesn't contain the partitions' centroids.
 It's only used for tracking each partition's offset and length in the auxiliary file.
 
@@ -219,6 +242,17 @@ Contains RabitQ-specific metadata in JSON format (only present for RQ quantizati
 This includes the rotation matrix position, number of bits, and packing information.
 See the RQ metadata specification in the "storage_metadata" section below.
 
+##### "covering_field_ids"
+
+The dataset field ids of the storage file's physical carried columns,
+comma separated in physical schema order (only present when the storage carries
+values). Arrow fields carry no Lance field id, so names and types alone cannot
+prove which logical column a payload came from. Readers use these ids to bind
+physical values to the segment's `covering_fields` declaration, and treat missing,
+malformed, ambiguous, or mismatched metadata as no servable carried capability.
+A merge must not combine shards whose carried columns disagree on these ids, even
+when those columns match by name and type.
+
 ##### "storage_metadata"
 
 Contains quantizer-specific metadata as a list of JSON strings.
@@ -247,14 +281,16 @@ For **RabitQ (RQ)**:
 | JSON Key              | Type | Description                                          |
 | --------------------- | ---- | ---------------------------------------------------- |
 | `rotate_mat_position` | u32  | Position of the rotation matrix in the global buffer |
-| `num_bits`            | u8   | Number of bits per dimension (currently always 1)    |
+| `num_bits`            | u8   | Number of bits per dimension, in the range 1..=9     |
+| `code_dim`            | u32  | Rotated vector dimension for the 1-bit binary code   |
 | `packed`              | bool | Whether codes are packed for optimized computation   |
+| `query_estimator`     | string | Distance estimator layout: `residual_query` or `raw_query`. Missing values are read as `residual_query` for compatibility with released 1-bit IVF_RQ indexes. |
 
 #### Lance File Global Buffer
 
 ##### Quantization Codebook
 
-For product quantization, the codebook is stored in `Tensor` format 
+For product quantization, the codebook is stored in `Tensor` format
 in the auxiliary file's global buffer for efficient access:
 
 ```protobuf
@@ -264,14 +300,19 @@ in the auxiliary file's global buffer for efficient access:
 ##### Rotation Matrix
 
 For RabitQ, the rotation matrix is stored in `Tensor` format
-in the auxiliary file's global buffer. The rotation matrix is an orthogonal matrix used 
+in the auxiliary file's global buffer. The rotation matrix is an orthogonal matrix used
 to rotate vectors before binary quantization:
 
 ```protobuf
 %%% proto.message.Tensor %%%
 ```
 
-The rotation matrix has shape `[code_dim, code_dim]` where `code_dim = dimension * num_bits`.
+The rotation matrix has shape `[code_dim, code_dim]` where `code_dim` is the rotated vector
+dimension. IVF_RQ always stores the 1-bit binary sign code in `_rabit_codes`; for `num_bits > 1`,
+the remaining `num_bits - 1` ex-code bits are stored in `__blocked_ex_codes` instead of widening the
+binary code path. New IVF_RQ indexes store raw-query estimator factors. `num_bits=1` indexes only
+store the binary-code factor columns; multi-bit indexes also store separate ex-code additive and
+scale factors.
 
 ## Appendices
 
@@ -283,69 +324,71 @@ PQ uses 16 num_sub_vectors (m=16) with 8 num_bits per subvector, and distance ty
 #### Index File
 
 - Arrow Schema Metadata:
-    - `"lance:index"` → `{ "type": "IVF_PQ", "distance_type": "l2" }`
-    - `"lance:ivf"` → "1" (references IVF metadata in the global buffer)
-    - `"lance:flat"` → `["", "", ...]` (one empty string per partition; IVF_PQ uses a FLAT sub-index inside each partition)
+  - `"lance:index"` → `{ "type": "IVF_PQ", "distance_type": "l2" }`
+  - `"lance:ivf"` → "1" (references IVF metadata in the global buffer)
+  - `"lance:flat"` → `["", "", ...]` (one empty string per partition; IVF_PQ uses a FLAT sub-index inside each partition)
 
 - Lance File Global buffer (Protobuf):
-    - `Ivf` message containing:
-        - `centroids_tensor`: shape `[num_partitions, 128]` (float32)
-        - `offsets`: start offset (row) of each partition in `auxiliary.idx`
-        - `lengths`: number of vectors in each partition
-        - `loss`: k-means loss (optional)
+  - `Ivf` message containing:
+    - `centroids_tensor`: shape `[num_partitions, 128]` (float32)
+    - `offsets`: start offset (row) of each partition in `auxiliary.idx`
+    - `lengths`: number of vectors in each partition
+    - `loss`: k-means loss (optional)
 
 #### Auxiliary File
 
 - Arrow Schema Metadata:
-    - `"distance_type"` → `"l2"`
-    - `"lance:ivf"` → tracks per-partition `offsets` and `lengths` (no centroids here)
-    - `"storage_metadata"` → `[ "{"pq":{"num_sub_vectors":16,"nbits":8,"dimension":128,"transposed":true}}" ]`
+  - `"distance_type"` → `"l2"`
+  - `"lance:ivf"` → tracks per-partition `offsets` and `lengths` (no centroids here)
+  - `"storage_metadata"` → `[ "{"pq":{"num_sub_vectors":16,"nbits":8,"dimension":128,"transposed":true}}" ]`
 - Lance File Global buffer:
-    - `Tensor` codebook with shape `[256, num_sub_vectors, dim/num_sub_vectors]` = `[256, 16, 8]` (float32)
-- Rows with Arrow schema: 
+  - `Tensor` codebook with shape `[256, num_sub_vectors, dim/num_sub_vectors]` = `[256, 16, 8]` (float32)
+- Rows with Arrow schema:
 
 ```python
 pa.schema([
     pa.field("_rowid", pa.uint64()),
-    pa.field("__pq_code", pa.list(pa.uint8(), list_size=16)), # m subvector codes
+    pa.field("__pq_code", pa.list_(pa.uint8(), list_size=16)), # num_sub_vectors * num_bits / 8 = 16 * 8 / 8
 ])
 ```
 
 ### Appendix 2: Example IVF_RQ Format
 
 This example shows how an `IVF_RQ` index is physically laid out. Assume vectors have dimension 128,
-RQ uses 1 bit per dimension (num_bits=1), and distance type is "l2".
+RQ uses 1 bit per dimension (`num_bits=1`), and distance type is "l2". For `num_bits > 1`, the
+auxiliary schema also includes `__blocked_ex_codes`, `__add_factors_ex`, and `__scale_factors_ex`.
 
 #### Index File
 
 - Arrow Schema Metadata:
-    - `"lance:index"` → `{ "type": "IVF_RQ", "distance_type": "l2" }`
-    - `"lance:ivf"` → "1" (references IVF metadata in the global buffer)
-    - `"lance:flat"` → `["", "", ...]` (one empty string per partition; IVF_RQ uses a FLAT sub-index inside each partition)
+  - `"lance:index"` → `{ "type": "IVF_RQ", "distance_type": "l2" }`
+  - `"lance:ivf"` → "1" (references IVF metadata in the global buffer)
+  - `"lance:flat"` → `["", "", ...]` (one empty string per partition; IVF_RQ uses a FLAT sub-index inside each partition)
 
 - Lance File Global buffer (Protobuf):
-    - `Ivf` message containing:
-        - `centroids_tensor`: shape `[num_partitions, 128]` (float32)
-        - `offsets`: start offset (row) of each partition in `auxiliary.idx`
-        - `lengths`: number of vectors in each partition
-        - `loss`: k-means loss (optional)
+  - `Ivf` message containing:
+    - `centroids_tensor`: shape `[num_partitions, 128]` (float32)
+    - `offsets`: start offset (row) of each partition in `auxiliary.idx`
+    - `lengths`: number of vectors in each partition
+    - `loss`: k-means loss (optional)
 
 #### Auxiliary File
 
 - Arrow Schema Metadata:
-    - `"distance_type"` → `"l2"`
-    - `"lance:ivf"` → tracks per-partition `offsets` and `lengths` (no centroids here)
-    - `"lance:rabit"` → `"{"rotate_mat_position":1,"num_bits":1,"packed":true}"`
+  - `"distance_type"` → `"l2"`
+  - `"lance:ivf"` → tracks per-partition `offsets` and `lengths` (no centroids here)
+  - `"lance:rabit"` → `"{"rotate_mat_position":1,"num_bits":1,"packed":true,"query_estimator":"raw_query"}"`
 - Lance File Global buffer:
-    - `Tensor` rotation matrix with shape `[code_dim, code_dim]` = `[128, 128]` (float32)
-- Rows with Arrow schema: 
+  - `Tensor` rotation matrix with shape `[code_dim, code_dim]` = `[128, 128]` (float32)
+- Rows with Arrow schema:
 
 ```python
 pa.schema([
     pa.field("_rowid", pa.uint64()),
-    pa.field("_rabit_codes", pa.list(pa.uint8(), list_size=16)), # dimension/8 = 128/8 = 16 bytes
+    pa.field("_rabit_codes", pa.list_(pa.uint8(), list_size=16)), # ceil(code_dim / 8) = ceil(128 / 8)
     pa.field("__add_factors", pa.float32()),
     pa.field("__scale_factors", pa.float32()),
+    pa.field("__error_factors", pa.float32()),
 ])
 ```
 
diff --git a/docs/src/format/java-sdk-example.png b/docs/src/format/java-sdk-example.png
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e019d04752c
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diff --git a/docs/src/format/overview.png b/docs/src/format/overview.png
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5c77330112c
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diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/.pages b/docs/src/format/table/.pages
index 69209d956cc..064c080e5f4 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/.pages
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/.pages
@@ -1,9 +1,11 @@
 nav:
   - index.md
+  - Schema: schema.md
   - Versioning: versioning.md
   - Transactions: transaction.md
   - Layout: layout.md
   - Branch & Tag: branch_tag.md
   - Row ID & Lineage: row_id_lineage.md
+  - Data Overlay Files: data_overlay_file.md
+  - Fragment Metadata Tree: fragment_metadata.md
   - MemTable & WAL: mem_wal.md
-  - index
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/branch_tag.md b/docs/src/format/table/branch_tag.md
index e3bd328d5d2..b34149bb3f9 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/branch_tag.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/branch_tag.md
@@ -17,7 +17,9 @@ Branch names must follow these validation rules:
 4. Cannot contain `..` or `\`
 5. Segments must contain only alphanumeric characters, `.`, `-`, `_`
 6. Cannot end with `.lock`
-7. Cannot be named `main` (reserved for main branch)
+7. Cannot be named `main` (reserved for the default branch)
+
+Branch names are case-sensitive, matching Git/GitHub ref semantics. The exact name `main` is a virtual name for the default branch. It may appear in API reference contexts as an alias for the default branch, but no branch metadata file named `main.json` is created.
 
 ### Branch Metadata Path
 
@@ -38,10 +40,11 @@ Each branch metadata file is a JSON file with the following fields:
 
 | JSON Key         | Type   | Optional | Description                                                                    |
 |------------------|--------|----------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
-| `parent_branch`  | string | Yes      | Name of the branch this was created from. `null` indicates branched from main. |
-| `parent_version` | number |          | Version number of the parent branch at the time this branch was created.       |
-| `create_at`      | number |          | Unix timestamp (seconds since epoch) when the branch was created.              |
-| `manifest_size`  | number |          | Size of the initial manifest file in bytes.                                    |
+| `parentBranch`   | string | Yes      | Name of the branch this was created from. `null` indicates branched from the default branch. |
+| `parentVersion`  | number |          | Version number of the parent branch at the time this branch was created.       |
+| `createAt`       | number |          | Unix timestamp (seconds since epoch) when the branch was created.              |
+| `manifestSize`   | number |          | Size of the initial manifest file in bytes.                                    |
+| `metadata`       | object | Yes      | String key/value metadata map. If absent, it is treated as an empty object.    |
 
 ### Branch Dataset Layout
 
@@ -116,6 +119,9 @@ Each tag file is a JSON file with the following fields:
 
 | JSON Key        | Type   | Optional | Description                                                              |
 |-----------------|--------|----------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
-| `branch`        | string | Yes      | Branch name being tagged. `null` or absent indicates main branch.        |
+| `branch`        | string | Yes      | Branch name being tagged. `null` or absent indicates the default branch. |
 | `version`       | number |          | Version number being tagged within that branch.                          |
-| `manifest_size` | number |          | Size of the manifest file in bytes. Used for efficient manifest loading. |
+| `createdAt`     | string | Yes      | RFC 3339 timestamp for when the tag was first created.                  |
+| `updatedAt`     | string | Yes      | RFC 3339 timestamp for the latest tag reference update.                 |
+| `manifestSize`  | number |          | Size of the manifest file in bytes. Used for efficient manifest loading. |
+| `metadata`      | object | Yes      | String key/value metadata map. If absent, it is treated as an empty object. |
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/data_overlay_file.md b/docs/src/format/table/data_overlay_file.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2c6bfb01b58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/data_overlay_file.md
@@ -0,0 +1,393 @@
+# Data Overlay Files
+
+!!! warning "Experimental"
+
+    This feature is currently experimental and not yet supported in any library.
+
+<!-- TODO: When overlay file support is implemented, update this note to state
+     the released version that first supports the feature (and drop the
+     "experimental" framing once it is stable). -->
+
+!!! note "Overlay files require feature flag 64 (data overlay files)"
+
+    A reader or writer that does not understand overlay files must refuse a
+    dataset that uses them. Silently ignoring an overlay would return stale base
+    values, which is a correctness bug rather than a degraded experience.
+
+Overlay files supply new values for a subset of `(row offset, field)` cells
+within a fragment **without rewriting the fragment's base data files**. They make
+updates cheap when only a small fraction of rows and/or columns change: instead
+of rewriting whole columns or moving rows to a new fragment, a writer appends a
+small file carrying just the changed cells.
+
+This is Lance's third mechanism for changing data in place, alongside
+[deletion files](index.md#deletion-files) (which remove rows) and
+[data evolution](index.md#data-evolution) (which adds or rewrites whole columns).
+An overlay changes individual cells.
+
+## Concepts
+
+### Coverage and resolution
+
+Each overlay declares which cells it provides through a **coverage** bitmap (or,
+for sparse overlays, one bitmap per field). The bitmaps index **physical row
+offsets**. They include deleted rows and are stable even as deletion vectors change.
+
+To resolve a cell `(offset, field)` on read, walk the fragment's overlays from
+**newest to oldest**. The first overlay that covers `(offset, field)` wins; its
+value is used. If no overlay covers the cell, the value falls through to the base
+data file (or is `NULL` if no base data file holds that field).
+
+Precedence among overlays is determined by:
+
+1. `committed_version` — higher wins (see [Versioning](#versioning-and-ordering)).
+2. Position in `DataFragment.overlays` as a tiebreaker — a later entry is newer.
+
+A covered offset whose value is `NULL` overrides the cell **to** `NULL`. This is
+distinct from an offset that is simply absent from the bitmap, which falls
+through to the base. Coverage, not value-nullness, decides whether an overlay
+applies.
+
+### Interaction with deletions
+
+Deletions take precedence over overlays. If a row offset is marked deleted in the
+fragment's deletion file, any overlay value for that offset is dead and is
+ignored, regardless of commit order.
+
+### Physical layout
+
+An overlay's data file stores **one value column per field**, in the order of
+`data_file.fields`. It does **not** store a row-offset key column. The position of
+a covered offset's value within its column is the **rank** of that offset in the
+field's coverage bitmap — the number of set bits below it. Resolving a cell is a
+rank lookup plus one value fetch, with no separate offset column to store or
+search.
+
+Because different fields may cover different offset sets, the value columns of a
+single sparse overlay may have **different lengths**. The Lance file format
+permits columns of differing item counts within one file, so a sparse overlay is
+representable as a single file. (See [Writer support](#writer-support) for the
+current implementation status.)
+
+### Dense vs. sparse overlays
+
+A single overlay is one of two shapes:
+
+- **Dense (rectangular).** One `shared_offset_bitmap` applies to every field. Every
+  covered offset has a value for every field. This is the common case for a plain
+  `UPDATE`, where one `SET` list is applied to one set of rows.
+- **Sparse.** A `FieldCoverage` carries one bitmap per field, used when different
+  fields cover different offset sets — for example a `MERGE` with multiple
+  `WHEN MATCHED` branches, where different rows update different columns. A dense
+  overlay would have to widen to the bounding rectangle and fill the untouched
+  cells with their current values (post-images), which for wide columns such as
+  embeddings means re-storing data that did not change. A sparse overlay stores
+  exactly the changed cells.
+
+## Protobuf
+
+<details>
+<summary>DataOverlayFile protobuf message</summary>
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.DataOverlayFile %%%
+```
+
+</details>
+
+<details>
+<summary>FieldCoverage protobuf message</summary>
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.FieldCoverage %%%
+```
+
+</details>
+
+## Versioning and ordering
+
+Overlays reuse the dataset version as their ordering clock rather than
+introducing a separate generation counter.
+
+`committed_version` is the dataset version at which an overlay **became
+effective** — the version of the commit that introduced it, **not** the version
+it was read from. It is stamped at commit time and re-stamped if the commit is
+retried, in the same way as the created-at / last-updated-at version sequences.
+
+This single value drives every ordering decision:
+
+- **Overlay vs. overlay** (read precedence): higher `committed_version` wins.
+- **Overlay vs. index** (query correctness): an index records the
+  `dataset_version` it was built from. An index whose `dataset_version >=
+  committed_version` already incorporates the overlay. An overlay whose
+  `committed_version > index.dataset_version` is newer than the index and its
+  cells must be excluded from index results and re-evaluated.
+- **Scheduler signal**: the gap between an overlay's `committed_version` and an
+  index's `dataset_version`, or between an overlay and the base, is a staleness
+  measure the compaction scheduler can use.
+
+!!! note "Why effective version, not read version"
+
+    Suppose an overlay reads version 5 and commits at version 6, while an index
+    is built reading version 5 (before the overlay) and commits at version 7 with
+    `dataset_version = 5`. If the overlay stored its *read* version (5), the test
+    `5 > 5` is false, the row would not be excluded, and the index — which never
+    saw the overlay — would return a stale result. Storing the *effective*
+    version (6) makes `6 > 5` true, the cell is excluded and re-evaluated, and the
+    result is correct.
+
+## Index integration
+
+Building an index over a fragment that has overlays does **not** require dropping
+the fragment from the index's coverage. The fragment stays indexed, and the query
+path reconciles overlays at query time using an **exclusion set**.
+
+The exclusion set for an index on field `F` is the union of the coverage bitmaps,
+restricted to field `F`, of every overlay whose `committed_version >
+index.dataset_version`. The exclusion is **field-aware**: an overlay that touches
+only unrelated columns does not exclude anything from the index on `F`.
+
+`F` here ranges over the union of the index's `fields` and `covering_fields`
+(see [Serving carried columns](../index/index.md#serving-carried-columns)).
+An overlay updating a merely-carried column leaves the keyed value correct while
+making the carried value stale, so it must exclude those rows just the same.
+
+The query then proceeds as:
+
+1. Run the index search as usual, producing candidate rows.
+2. Remove any candidate in the exclusion set. (Its indexed value may be stale.)
+3. **Re-evaluate** the excluded rows against their current values — the same flat
+   path already used for the unindexed tail of fragments. For a scalar predicate
+   this re-applies the filter; for a vector query it re-scores the row's current
+   vector. Rows that still match are added back to the result.
+
+Step 3 is what makes exclusion correct rather than merely safe: removing a row
+from index candidates without re-evaluating it would silently drop a row that
+should match under its new value.
+
+Exclusion is always *sufficient* because a write changes a cell only by adding an
+overlay, and that overlay's `committed_version` — the version of the commit that
+adds it — necessarily exceeds the `dataset_version` of any pre-existing index. So
+every cell a write changes is guaranteed to fall in that index's exclusion set.
+Compaction may remove an overlay only if no index still relies on it for exclusion
+(see [Compaction](#compaction)).
+
+## Compaction
+
+Overlays accumulate read cost — every overlay is a bitmap to test, a possible
+file to open, and additional work to interleave values. Compaction bounds that cost in two modes:
+
+- **Overlay → overlay.** Merge several overlays into fewer, computing the
+  post-image per `(offset, field)` by walking the merged overlays newest-first.
+  The merged overlay takes the **maximum** `committed_version` of its inputs, so
+  the exclusion semantics are preserved. The merged overlays must be **contiguous
+  in `committed_version`** — with overlays at v10, v30, and v50 you cannot merge
+  just v10 and v50, because stamping the result v50 would incorrectly promote
+  v10's values above the intervening v30 for any cell v30 also covers. Indexes can
+  still be re-used, but they may now need to exclude more rows. This is cheap to
+  write and does not touch the base.
+- **Overlay → base.** Fold overlays into a fresh base data file, computing the
+  post-image for every covered cell, then clear the overlays. The base is
+  complete, so every post-image is well defined. Overlay offsets are physical, so
+  they cannot survive a rewrite that reorders rows; folding therefore materializes
+  values rather than carrying overlays forward.
+
+!!! warning "Folding an indexed field must update its index"
+
+    An overlay→base fold removes the overlay, which removes the exclusion signal
+    that kept an index correct. Folding an overlay that covers an indexed field
+    `F` is therefore equivalent to a column rewrite of `F` and must, in the same
+    commit, either rebuild the index to a `dataset_version` at least the folded
+    overlay's `committed_version`, or remove the fragment from the index's
+    coverage so the rows fall to the flat path. Otherwise the index would serve
+    stale values with no overlay to exclude them. This is the same rule that
+    already governs rewriting a column that an index is built on.
+
+When a fragment with overlays is compacted by a row-rewriting operation
+(`RewriteRows`, which produces new fragments with new row addresses), the
+overlays are folded into the new base as part of the rewrite, and existing
+[fragment-reuse remapping](row_id_lineage.md) handles the row-address changes as
+it does today.
+
+## Row lineage
+
+An overlay write updates the `last_updated_at_version` of every covered row, so
+change-data-feed and time-travel queries observe the update. Because overlays are
+addressed by physical offset, they do **not** require stable row IDs to be
+enabled; lineage updates apply only when those features are on.
+
+## Worked example
+
+The following example illustrates how overlays function across their lifecycle, to make the rules above concrete.
+
+A table `users` with stable row IDs enabled and these fields:
+
+| field id | name      | type                    |
+|----------|-----------|-------------------------|
+| 1        | id        | `int32` (primary key)   |
+| 2        | name      | `utf8`                  |
+| 3        | age       | `int32`                 |
+| 4        | embedding | `fixed_size_list<f32,4>`|
+
+Created at version 1 as a single fragment `0` with one base data file
+`data/file0.lance` holding all four columns. `physical_rows = 4`:
+
+| offset | id | name  | age | embedding        |
+|--------|----|-------|-----|------------------|
+| 0      | 1  | Alice | 30  | …                |
+| 1      | 2  | Bob   | 25  | …                |
+| 2      | 3  | Carol | 40  | …                |
+| 3      | 4  | Dave  | 22  | …                |
+
+A BTree scalar index on `age` is built at version 1, covering fragment `0`
+(`dataset_version = 1`).
+
+### Step 1 — write an overlay
+
+```sql
+UPDATE users SET age = age + 1 WHERE id IN (2, 4);   -- Bob (offset 1), Dave (offset 3)
+```
+
+This touches one field (`age`) for two rows, so the writer emits a dense overlay —
+one shared bitmap covering both offsets — and commits it as version 2. Fragment
+`0` gains:
+
+```text
+DataOverlayFile {
+  data_file: { path: "data/overlay-<uuid>.lance", fields: [3], column_indices: [0] }
+  coverage:  shared_offset_bitmap = {1, 3}
+  committed_version: 2
+}
+```
+
+The overlay file stores a single `age` column with two values, `[26, 23]`, at
+ranks `{1,3}.rank(1) = 0` and `{1,3}.rank(3) = 1`. `last_updated_at_version` is
+set to 2 for offsets 1 and 3.
+
+### Step 2 — read
+
+`SELECT id, age FROM users` reads base ages `[30, 25, 40, 22]`. For `age`
+(field 3), the overlay covers offsets 1 and 3, so `age[1]` is replaced with the
+overlay value at rank `{1,3}.rank(1) = 0` → `26`, and `age[3]` with the value at
+rank `{1,3}.rank(3) = 1` → `23`. Result ages: `[30, 26, 40, 23]`.
+
+### Step 3 — index query
+
+```sql
+SELECT * FROM users WHERE age = 26;
+```
+
+The `age` index was built at `dataset_version = 1`; the overlay's
+`committed_version` is 2. Since `2 > 1`, the overlay's coverage for `age`, `{1, 3}`,
+is the exclusion set for this query.
+
+- The index (built at v1) holds Bob's *old* `age = 25`, so a lookup for `26`
+  returns nothing from the index.
+- The whole exclusion set is re-evaluated on the flat path, not just the rows the
+  index returned. Offset 1's current `age` (26, via the overlay) matches, so Bob
+  is returned; offset 3's current `age` (23) does not match and is dropped.
+
+The mirror case `WHERE age = 25` shows exclusion preventing a stale hit: the index
+returns offset 1 (stale `25`), but offset 1 is excluded, re-evaluated to `26`, and
+correctly dropped.
+
+### Step 4 — a second, non-rectangular write
+
+```sql
+MERGE INTO users USING staged ON users.id = staged.id
+WHEN MATCHED AND staged.kind = 'rename'  THEN UPDATE SET name = staged.name        -- Carol(2), Dave(3)
+WHEN MATCHED AND staged.kind = 'embed'   THEN UPDATE SET embedding = staged.embedding -- Bob(1)
+```
+
+`name` is updated for offsets `{2, 3}` and `embedding` for offset `{1}` — different
+fields over different rows. This is a sparse overlay, committed as version 3:
+
+```text
+DataOverlayFile {
+  data_file: { path: "data/overlay-<uuid2>.lance", fields: [2, 4], column_indices: [0, 1] }
+  coverage:  field_coverage { offset_bitmaps: [ {2,3},   {1} ] }
+  //                                     name (field 2)  ^    ^ embedding (field 4)
+  committed_version: 3
+}
+```
+
+The file's `name` column has **two** values (`["Caroline", "David"]`, at
+ranks 0 and 1 of `{2,3}`) and its `embedding` column has **one** value (at rank 0
+of `{1}`) — columns of different lengths in one file.
+
+### Step 5 — read after the second write
+
+`SELECT name, age, embedding FROM users` resolves each field independently,
+newest overlay first:
+
+- `name`: the v3 overlay covers `{2,3}` → `["Alice", "Bob", "Caroline", "David"]`.
+- `age`: the v3 overlay does not cover `age`; the v2 overlay still applies at
+  offsets 1 and 3 → `[30, 26, 40, 23]`.
+- `embedding`: the v3 overlay covers `{1}` → Bob's vector is the new one, others
+  from base.
+
+Overlays from different versions coexist and apply per field.
+
+### Step 6 — compaction (overlay → base)
+
+The scheduler folds both overlays into fragment `0` at version 4, computing
+post-images for `age`, `name`, and `embedding`, and writing a new base data file
+`data/file1.lance` with those columns. In the old file, fields 2, 3, and 4 are
+marked with a tombstone (`-2`); field 1 (`id`) remains. The fragment's `overlays` list is
+cleared. Row addresses are preserved (a column rewrite, not a row rewrite), so
+stable row IDs and the deletion vector are untouched.
+
+Because the fold removed the overlay that was excluding offsets 1 and 3 from the
+`age` index, the commit must drop fragment `0` from its coverage so `age` queries
+fall to the flat path.
+
+## Guidance
+
+!!! note "This section is a stub."
+
+    The following are implementation considerations, not part of the on-disk
+    specification.
+
+### When to overlay vs. rewrite a column vs. move rows
+
+<!-- TODO: Replace the rough heuristic below with concrete thresholds once we
+     have benchmarked the crossover points between overlays, column rewrites,
+     and row moves. -->
+
+*(To be expanded.)* The choice between appending an overlay, rewriting a full
+column (data evolution), and moving updated rows to a new fragment depends on the
+fraction of rows changed, the fraction of columns changed, column width, the
+presence of indexes on the changed columns, and the accumulated overlay read
+cost. Roughly: few rows changed favors overlays; most rows in a few columns
+favors a column rewrite; most columns changed favors moving rows to a new
+fragment.
+
+### Writer support
+
+<!-- TODO: Fill in as writer implementation progresses, including the status of
+     single-file sparse overlays (independent-length columns). -->
+
+*(To be expanded.)* Dense (rectangular) overlays write with the existing
+equal-length file writer today. Sparse overlays stored as a **single** file
+require the writer to emit columns of independent lengths, which the current v2
+writer does not yet do (it advances all columns from one global row counter).
+Until that support lands, a writer can express a sparse update as multiple dense
+overlays in one transaction.
+
+### Scheduling compaction
+
+<!-- TODO: Fill in with a concrete cost/benefit policy once compaction is
+     implemented and benchmarked. -->
+
+*(To be expanded.)* The overlay→overlay and overlay→base modes have very
+different costs; a cost/benefit scheduler decides when each is worthwhile, using
+the version gap as a staleness signal.
+
+## Related specifications
+
+- [Table format overview](index.md)
+- [Transactions: DataOverlay operation](transaction.md#dataoverlay) — write path
+  and conflict semantics
+- [Row ID & Lineage](row_id_lineage.md)
+- [Index Formats: handling overlay rows](../index/index.md#handling-deleted-and-invalidated-rows)
+- [Format Versioning](versioning.md)
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/fragment_metadata.md b/docs/src/format/table/fragment_metadata.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5a75473c37c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/fragment_metadata.md
@@ -0,0 +1,461 @@
+# Fragment Metadata Tree
+
+!!! warning "Experimental"
+
+    This layout is unstable. Readers and writers may change it without
+    keeping compatibility with earlier unstable revisions. Flat manifests
+    remain the default.
+
+**This page specifies a proposed on-disk format for storing fragment state.
+Support for creating or reading tree tables is not yet available in released
+Lance versions.**
+
+!!! note "Tree tables require feature flag 4096, `FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE`"
+
+    A reader or writer that does not understand this layout must refuse the
+    dataset. The flat `fragments` list is empty on a tree table, so a reader
+    that ignored the flag would see an empty table.
+
+In the flat format, each Version Manifest carries the complete fragment list.
+Committing a change and opening a dataset both process that whole list, even
+when the change touches only a few fragments.
+
+The fragment metadata tree (fragment tree) stores those records in immutable
+Lance leaves keyed by fragment ID. Validated changes may remain above the leaves as
+mutations until enough work accumulates to rewrite them.
+
+The Version Manifest defines table-version state. Committing it makes that
+version visible.
+
+![Fragment metadata tree](fragment_metadata_tree.svg)
+
+*A shallow tree is shown. Larger trees may insert interior routing nodes between
+the root and leaves.*
+
+### At a glance
+
+| | |
+|---|---|
+| Read | Read the leaf record, if any, then apply newer mutations for that fragment. |
+| Write | Native Lance validates the change. The tree stores the resulting mutation. |
+| Publish | Write immutable tree objects first, then commit the Version Manifest. |
+
+Protobuf messages are in `protos/fragment_metadata.proto`.
+`Manifest.fragment_tree` is declared in `protos/table.proto`. Operation
+semantics, conflict rules, and native validation stay with
+[transactions](transaction.md). A storage action is the result of a successful
+native transaction.
+
+Readers must treat a violation of any requirement on this page as a corrupt
+snapshot.
+
+## Snapshot
+
+A tree table must set `Manifest.fragment_tree`, leave `Manifest.fragments`
+empty, and set flag 4096 in both `reader_feature_flags` and
+`writer_feature_flags`. These fields must agree. When `FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE`
+is set, `FragmentTreeMetadata.layout` must select exactly one recognized layout.
+
+Each version stores fragment records either in the tree or in
+`Manifest.fragments`, never both. A writer may convert a flat table by
+publishing a new tree-backed version. Whether and when to convert is
+writer policy.
+
+A `FragmentTree` must contain exactly one of an inline root or a
+`root_uuid`.
+
+An inline root carries the complete `FragmentTreeRoot` in the Version
+Manifest. `mutations_since_root` must be empty.
+
+An external root named by `root_uuid` belongs to the current dataset.
+`root_uuid` must contain exactly 16 bytes, in the order of the UUID's hexadecimal
+digits. Its path is `_bt/root/{uuid}.root`, with lowercase hexadecimal digits and
+hyphens after digits 8, 12, 16, and 20. Readers must reject any other byte length.
+`mutations_since_root` contains every mutation in this version that is not
+represented by that root. Readers must not follow a mutation chain.
+
+```
+Version Manifest N
+├─ root_uuid ──────────► Root R
+└─ mutations_since_root
+
+fragment state N = Root R + mutations_since_root
+```
+
+Opening a version requires its Version Manifest and at most one external root.
+Version history is not consulted.
+
+`buffer` on a root or interior holds mutations already in the tree that have
+not been pushed to that node's children.
+
+## Tree objects
+
+Tree objects are immutable and stored under `_bt/` relative to a dataset root.
+Tree object paths must begin with `_bt/`. Readers must reject absolute paths
+and paths outside `_bt/`.
+
+```
+{dataset_root}/
+    _bt/
+        root/{uuid}.root     FragmentTreeRoot protobuf
+        node/{uuid}.node     FragmentTreeNode protobuf
+        leaf/{uuid}.lance    Lance file of complete fragment records
+```
+
+A `.root` file is a raw `FragmentTreeRoot` protobuf. A `.node` file is a
+raw `FragmentTreeNode` protobuf. Neither has an extra header or footer.
+
+`FragmentTreeRoot` holds its children, buffer, and `next_action_sequence`.
+
+`FragmentTreeNode` holds the child list and a mutation buffer for that
+subtree.
+
+Child `path` values must be non-empty. Resolved child locations within a child
+list must be unique. Equal paths in different datasets name different objects;
+different `base_id` values resolving to the same object do not make it unique.
+
+A leaf is a Lance file of complete fragment records for one fragment-ID range.
+
+## Object references
+
+The Version Manifest root belongs to the current dataset. It is either an
+inline `FragmentTreeRoot` or a `root_uuid` in the current dataset.
+
+A `FragmentTreeChild` contains a `path` relative to its resolved dataset
+and an optional `base_id`.
+
+When `base_id` is set, it must identify a `BasePath` in the Version Manifest
+with `is_dataset_root` set to true. When `base_id` is absent, the reference
+inherits the resolved dataset of the containing tree object.
+Look up entries by `BasePath.id`, not their position in `base_paths`. Zero is a
+valid ID, distinct from an absent `base_id`. IDs must be unique within the
+manifest, and readers must reject an unknown ID.
+
+A child object resolves to `{resolved_dataset}/{path}`. Tree object paths must
+begin with `_bt/` and must not be resolved under `data/`.
+
+A reference with `base_id` set may name an immutable tree object in another
+dataset. Descendant references with no `base_id` inherit that object's resolved
+dataset.
+
+New tree objects must belong to the current dataset. Tree objects owned by
+another dataset must not be modified.
+
+A shallow clone's root must belong to the clone dataset. Unchanged source
+subtrees may be referenced through `base_id`. The clone's `base_paths` must
+contain a `BasePath` for the source dataset root and preserve every `BasePath`
+entry referenced by a shared tree object at the same id. New base paths must
+use previously unused ids.
+If an ID already names a different base, the writer must copy the affected
+objects and remap their references, or reject the operation. It must not change
+the meaning of an ID used by a shared immutable object.
+
+When a tree object is copied into another dataset, references that inherited
+the source dataset must be rewritten with a `base_id` naming that dataset.
+Existing explicit `base_id` values must continue to resolve to the same
+`BasePath` entries.
+
+An `ExternalFile` embedded in `DataFragment` has no `base_id`. Its path is
+relative to the resolved dataset of the tree object or Version Manifest that
+contains the fragment state.
+
+When fragment state is written to a different dataset, each referenced
+`ExternalFile` must be copied to that dataset and its path rewritten before
+publication. The write must fail if any such reference cannot be preserved.
+
+## Leaf format
+
+A leaf is a Lance file with one row per fragment and the following schema.
+Any Lance file version may be used.
+
+```python
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+mapping = pa.dictionary(pa.int32(), pa.binary())
+data_file = pa.struct([
+    pa.field("path", pa.utf8(), nullable=False),
+    pa.field("field_ids", mapping, nullable=False),
+    pa.field("column_indices", mapping, nullable=False),
+    pa.field("major_version", pa.uint32(), nullable=False),
+    pa.field("minor_version", pa.uint32(), nullable=False),
+    pa.field("file_size_bytes", pa.uint64(), nullable=False),
+    pa.field("base_id", pa.uint32(), nullable=True),
+])
+overlay = pa.struct([
+    pa.field("data_file", data_file, nullable=False),
+    pa.field("overlay_meta", pa.binary(), nullable=False),
+])
+leaf_schema = pa.schema([
+    pa.field("id", pa.uint64(), nullable=False),
+    pa.field("fragment_meta", pa.binary(), nullable=False),
+    pa.field("files", pa.list_(pa.field("item", data_file, nullable=False)), nullable=False),
+    pa.field("overlays", pa.list_(pa.field("item", overlay, nullable=False)), nullable=False),
+])
+```
+
+The schema must match exactly, including field order, types, and nullability.
+Only `base_id` may be null; dictionary values must also be non-null. Empty lists
+represent no files or overlays.
+
+Rows must be ordered by strictly increasing `id`. Valid fragment IDs fit in
+`u32`. A fragment must not be split across leaves. Preserve file and overlay
+list order, including duplicate file paths and the overlay precedence defined
+in [Data Overlay Files](data_overlay_file.md).
+
+`fragment_meta` contains the `DataFragment` protobuf with `id` set to 0 and
+`files` and `overlays` cleared. Readers must reject a nonzero protobuf `id` or
+nonempty `files` or `overlays`, then restore these fields from the row.
+All other fragment fields keep their protobuf representation and semantics.
+
+Each file struct represents a `DataFile`: `field_ids` maps to `fields`, and
+`major_version` and `minor_version` map to `file_major_version` and
+`file_minor_version`. Other fields use their protobuf names.
+
+`overlay_meta` contains the `DataOverlayFile` protobuf with `data_file` absent.
+Readers must reject a populated `data_file`, then restore it from the sibling
+struct. Coverage and committed version retain their protobuf semantics.
+
+Each binary dictionary value stores a mapping vector as consecutive little-endian
+signed 32-bit integers, without a length prefix. Empty bytes mean an empty vector.
+Readers must reject lengths not divisible by 4 and out-of-bounds dictionary keys.
+Decoded vectors preserve element order and signed values, and must satisfy the
+`DataFile` mapping rules for that file version.
+
+Lance stores the dictionaries. Keys are local to their dictionary array; compare
+decoded vectors, not keys, across arrays, columns, batches, or leaves.
+
+`file_size_bytes` of 0 means unknown. A null `base_id` inherits the leaf
+object's resolved dataset. A set `base_id` matches `BasePath.id` in this Version
+Manifest's `base_paths`. The same inheritance rule applies to deletion files, overlays,
+and other fragment-owned files. A null `base_id` in a buffered mutation
+inherits the resolved dataset of the structure containing that mutation.
+
+Counts in a leaf are known. `physical_rows` of 0 is zero rows. A deletion file
+must carry `num_deleted_rows`, which must not exceed `physical_rows`.
+
+After decoding a leaf, readers must verify the following fields against its
+parent `FragmentTreeChild`:
+
+- `num_keys` equals the number of rows
+- `total_rows` and `visible_rows` equal the counts recomputed from the
+  fragment records
+- `height` is 0
+- `num_children` is 0
+
+`min_key` is an inherited routing bound. `object_size` is the stored byte
+length of the fetched object. `materialized_through_action_sequence` is stored
+on the child reference. Readers must validate those fields by the rules in
+Routing and Sequence numbers, not by recomputing them from the leaf file.
+
+## Routing
+
+A root may have zero or more children. With no children, mutations may remain
+in the root `buffer` or `FragmentTree.mutations_since_root`. Fragment
+resolution must not descend to a leaf. Once children exist, they route
+fragment IDs as follows.
+
+Interior nodes must have at least two children. The root may have zero, one,
+or more.
+
+Children are ordered by `min_key`. `min_key` is the inclusive lower bound of
+this child's fragment-ID range. It need not equal an ID currently stored in
+the child. The next child's `min_key` is the exclusive upper bound. The
+first child of the root must have `min_key` 0. An interior node's first
+child must begin at the lower bound assigned by its parent. Together, the
+children must partition the parent range. Routing a fragment ID selects the
+rightmost child whose `min_key` is at most that fragment ID.
+
+Ranges must not overlap. Each mutation buffered by an interior must belong to
+exactly one child range. The same rule applies to a root once it has children.
+
+`height` is the number of edges from the referenced object to its leaves.
+Leaves have height 0. Every child of an interior must have height one less
+than that interior, so all leaves in a subtree occur at the same depth.
+
+A leaf must contain at least one fragment record and have `num_children` 0.
+Writers must not retain an empty child.
+
+`num_children` is the number of direct children in the referenced object. It
+is 0 for leaves and at least 2 for interiors. After an interior is decoded,
+readers must verify that this value equals `children.len()`.
+
+`num_keys` is the number of fragment records in the referenced subtree,
+including that object's own buffer. Mutations held by ancestors are excluded.
+After a leaf is decoded, it must equal the number of rows. After an
+interior is decoded, it must equal the sum of the children's `num_keys` plus
+the buffer `fragment_count_delta`s.
+
+`total_rows` is the physical-row count in that subtree, including deleted
+rows. `visible_rows` is that count minus deleted rows. Both include that
+object's own buffer and exclude ancestor mutations. `visible_rows` must not
+exceed `total_rows`. After a leaf is decoded, both must equal the counts
+recomputed from fragment records. After an interior is decoded, both must
+equal the sum of the children's values plus the corresponding buffer deltas.
+
+`object_size` is the stored byte length of the child object. It must be
+nonzero. It is known before the child is fetched and must equal the fetched
+object's byte length.
+
+A child's inherited range is `min_key` inclusive to the next sibling's
+`min_key` exclusive. The last child of the root uses `2^32` as that exclusive
+end. The last child of an interior uses the exclusive end assigned by its
+parent. `min_key` must be at most `2^32 - 1`.
+
+Every fragment ID decoded from a leaf must lie in that leaf's inherited
+range. Every mutation target decoded from a root or interior buffer must lie
+in that node's inherited range. Every descendant child range must be contained
+in its parent's range. Readers apply these checks as objects are decoded. The
+checks do not require opening the rest of the tree.
+
+## Mutations
+
+`FragmentTreeMutation` wraps one `FragmentAction` with a sequence number
+and three count deltas. Every mutation must contain an action. The action must
+select exactly one recognized variant, and any message payload required by
+that variant must be present.
+
+`fragment_count_delta` is 1 when the action creates a record, minus 1 when it
+removes one, and 0 otherwise. `total_rows_delta` and `visible_rows_delta` are
+the record after the action minus the record before it. An absent record
+counts as zero.
+
+When the prior fragment is available, readers must recompute the mutation
+deltas and verify that they match the stored values. Ancestor summaries are
+maintained from these deltas. After materialization, readers must recompute
+leaf summaries from records. Writers must not publish a materialization whose
+recomputed summaries disagree with the derived version totals.
+
+File and deletion-file actions must leave all other `DataFragment` fields
+unchanged. Use `upsert_fragment` when no other action can represent the change.
+This includes changes to overlay files, version sequences, and row-ID state.
+It replaces the complete fragment record.
+
+Removal actions are idempotent. Removing an absent fragment, file, or deletion
+file is a no-op where specified below. Actions that modify an existing
+fragment require that fragment to exist.
+
+| Action | Precondition | Effect |
+|---|---|---|
+| `upsert_fragment` | None | Install the complete record, replacing anything at that id |
+| `remove_fragment` | None | Remove the record at that id. An absent id is a no-op |
+| `add_data_file` | Record present, else reject | Append the file to the end of the ordered file list |
+| `remove_data_file` | Record present, else reject | Remove every file whose path matches, keeping survivor order. No match is a no-op |
+| `add_deletion_file` | Record present, else reject | Set the deletion file, replacing any existing one |
+| `clear_deletion_file` | Record present, else reject | Clear the deletion file. No deletion file is a no-op |
+| `replace_data_file` | Record present and a file whose path equals `expected_path`, else reject | On the first such file set `path`, `file_size_bytes`, and `base_id`. Keep its field ids, column indices, and file version |
+
+`Fragment.files` is an ordered list and paths may repeat. `replace_data_file`
+edits a slot, not a path. Writers must not fold two replacements that chain
+through a renamed path into one. Starting from files `[A, B]`, renaming B to
+A and then replacing the first A with C yields `[C, A]`. Folding them into
+one replacement of B with C yields `[A, C]`.
+
+To resolve a fragment, collect every mutation for its id from
+`mutations_since_root`, the root buffer, and each interior buffer on its
+routing path. Sort by sequence and apply in order to the leaf record, or to
+nothing if there is no leaf or the leaf has no record.
+
+Version fragment count, physical-row count, and visible-row count are derived
+from the root child summaries plus the root buffer deltas, then plus the
+`mutations_since_root` deltas. They are not stored on `FragmentTree`.
+Derived `visible_rows` must not exceed derived `total_rows`.
+
+## Sequence numbers
+
+Mutation sequences must be nonzero and unique.
+Each tree has one sequence namespace. Writers must not reuse a sequence number
+anywhere in the tree.
+
+- `FragmentTreeRoot.next_action_sequence` is at least 1. Every sequence in
+  the root buffer, in every interior buffer below it, and every leaf watermark
+  below it must be less than this value.
+- `FragmentTree.next_action_sequence` is at least the root's value.
+  Every `mutations_since_root` sequence must be at or above the root's value
+  and below `FragmentTree.next_action_sequence`.
+- A leaf watermark of 0 means the leaf has applied nothing, so every mutation
+  routed to it replays.
+
+Readers must verify uniqueness across every mutation source decoded for the
+operation. Uniqueness across unread subtrees is a writer invariant.
+
+Mutations may be serialized in any order. Aggregate counts must not depend on
+serialization order; readers may apply checked deltas in action sequence order.
+
+`materialized_through_action_sequence` records how far a leaf has been
+materialized. It is not part of the leaf contents. The same leaf may
+therefore be referenced with different watermarks. It must be 0 on an
+interior child.
+
+A leaf watermark `N` means every mutation for that leaf's range with a
+sequence at or below `N` has been incorporated into the leaf's records, with
+no holes, and no buffer above the leaf holds a mutation for its range with a
+sequence at or below `N`. Readers must reject a collected mutation whose
+sequence is at or below the owning leaf's
+`materialized_through_action_sequence`.
+
+## Fragment IDs
+
+`Manifest.max_fragment_id` is authoritative for fragment ID allocation. The
+tree has no separate allocator.
+
+`max_fragment_id` is absent only when no fragment ID has ever been allocated or
+reserved in the lineage. It must not decrease. Deletion does not make fragment
+IDs reusable, and restore must not lower the value.
+
+The first allocated fragment ID is 0. Otherwise, allocation uses
+`max_fragment_id + 1`. `ReserveFragments` advances the value. A value of
+`2^32 - 1` exhausts the fragment-ID space.
+
+Every fragment ID stored or targeted by the tree must be at most
+`Manifest.max_fragment_id`. If `max_fragment_id` is absent, the tree must
+contain no fragment records or fragment-targeting mutations.
+
+## Validation
+
+Readers must validate every structure they decode before using it. They must
+not treat a corrupt snapshot as empty.
+
+| Object | Additional checks |
+|---|---|
+| Manifest | Feature flags set, `fragments` empty, `fragment_tree` present, layout selected |
+| `FragmentTree` | Exactly one root representation, sequence range valid, tree object references valid, no target above `max_fragment_id` |
+| Root | Children and buffer valid, derived visible rows at most derived total rows |
+| Node / leaf | Fetched byte length equals parent `object_size`. Shape and aggregate fields that can be recomputed from the object agree with the parent child reference. Routing bounds and the leaf watermark follow Routing and Sequence numbers. |
+
+## Publication and cleanup
+
+Writers compete for the next dataset version, even when changing different
+fragments. A writer that loses the version race must check intervening
+transactions and rebase compatible changes before retrying. Incompatible
+changes fail under the normal transaction rules.
+
+A retry may read the new manifest, transaction history, and affected tree
+objects, then write a transaction record, tree objects, and a new manifest.
+If changes fit in `mutations_since_root`, the external root can be reused without
+rewriting a leaf. Validation, flushing, splitting, or eager loading can require
+additional I/O.
+
+Every tree object reachable from a Version Manifest must be durable before that
+manifest is committed. The manifest commit is the visibility boundary.
+
+A failed attempt leaves unreachable objects that are eligible for cleanup.
+
+Whether to inline the root or publish a new external root is writer policy and
+may change between versions.
+
+Unchanged immutable subtrees may be reused. New tree objects must belong to
+the current dataset. Reused references must preserve their resolved dataset.
+
+Cleanup computes reachability from the fragment state of every
+retained manifest, applying buffers and `mutations_since_root`. The reachable
+set includes the external root named by `root_uuid`, if any, every `.node` and
+`.lance` reachable from that root after resolving child references, and every
+data file, deletion file, and related object that state names.
+A file named only by a pending mutation is reachable through that resolved
+state. A file named only by a mutation that a later mutation in the same
+snapshot supersedes is not. Objects under this dataset's `_bt/` outside the
+set follow the same age and in-progress rules as data files.
+
+An object reachable from any retained manifest of this dataset must not be
+removed. Tree object lifetime across datasets follows the same contract as
+data files named through `base_paths`.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/fragment_metadata_tree.svg b/docs/src/format/table/fragment_metadata_tree.svg
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3bbe92d3ff5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/fragment_metadata_tree.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 640 420" role="img" aria-labelledby="title desc">
+  <title id="title">Fragment metadata tree</title>
+  <desc id="desc">A Version Manifest holds mutations_since_root and points at an external root. The root holds a buffer and routes fragment-id ranges to Lance leaves. Interior nodes may sit between the root and leaves.</desc>
+  <defs>
+    <marker id="arrow" viewBox="0 0 10 10" refX="9" refY="5" markerWidth="7" markerHeight="7" orient="auto">
+      <path class="arrowhead" d="M 0 1 L 10 5 L 0 9 Z"/>
+    </marker>
+  </defs>
+  <style>
+    text { font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; fill: #172a38; }
+    .rail { font-size: 12px; font-weight: 700; fill: #526575; }
+    .title { font-size: 16px; font-weight: 700; }
+    .sub { font-size: 13px; }
+    .box { stroke: #afbcc7; stroke-width: 1.2; }
+    .arrowhead { fill: #526575; }
+    .line { stroke: #526575; stroke-width: 1.5; }
+    .manifest { fill: #deeef8; }
+    .mutation { fill: #fff0d5; }
+    .root { fill: #f5f8fa; }
+    .leaf { fill: #e3f2ea; }
+
+    @media (prefers-color-scheme: dark) {
+      text { fill: #e8eef4; }
+      .rail { fill: #9bb0c2; }
+      .box { stroke: #6c8ebf; }
+      .arrowhead { fill: #9bb0c2; }
+      .line { stroke: #9bb0c2; }
+      .manifest { fill: #1d293b; }
+      .mutation { fill: #3d3420; }
+      .root { fill: #1a222c; }
+      .leaf { fill: #1f2f1e; }
+    }
+  </style>
+
+  <text class="rail" x="16" y="48">VERSION</text>
+  <text class="rail" x="16" y="64">MANIFEST</text>
+  <rect class="box manifest" x="140" y="16" width="420" height="118" rx="6"/>
+  <text class="title" x="156" y="42">Version Manifest</text>
+  <text class="sub" x="156" y="62">snapshot authority, schema, version</text>
+  <rect class="box mutation" x="156" y="74" width="388" height="48" rx="5"/>
+  <text class="title" x="172" y="94">mutations_since_root</text>
+  <text class="sub" x="172" y="112">not in the referenced root yet</text>
+
+  <line class="line" x1="350" y1="134" x2="350" y2="168" marker-end="url(#arrow)"/>
+  <text class="sub" x="362" y="156">root_uuid</text>
+
+  <text class="rail" x="16" y="210">EXTERNAL</text>
+  <text class="rail" x="16" y="226">ROOT</text>
+  <rect class="box root" x="140" y="172" width="420" height="118" rx="6"/>
+  <text class="title" x="156" y="198">Root R</text>
+  <text class="sub" x="156" y="218">child ranges</text>
+  <rect class="box mutation" x="156" y="230" width="388" height="48" rx="5"/>
+  <text class="title" x="172" y="250">buffer</text>
+  <text class="sub" x="172" y="268">in the tree, not in children or leaves yet</text>
+
+  <line class="line" x1="250" y1="290" x2="210" y2="332" marker-end="url(#arrow)"/>
+  <line class="line" x1="450" y1="290" x2="490" y2="332" marker-end="url(#arrow)"/>
+  <text class="sub" x="292" y="318">fragment-id ranges</text>
+
+  <text class="rail" x="16" y="372">LEAVES</text>
+  <rect class="box leaf" x="80" y="336" width="200" height="72" rx="6"/>
+  <text class="title" x="96" y="364">Lance leaf</text>
+  <text class="sub" x="96" y="386">fragments 0..999</text>
+  <rect class="box leaf" x="360" y="336" width="200" height="72" rx="6"/>
+  <text class="title" x="376" y="364">Lance leaf</text>
+  <text class="sub" x="376" y="386">fragments 1000..1999</text>
+</svg>
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index.md b/docs/src/format/table/index.md
index a1105592ae6..a20d4c564c2 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/index.md
@@ -2,9 +2,23 @@
 
 ## Overview
 
-The Lance table format organizes datasets as versioned collections of fragments and indices.
-Each version is described by an immutable manifest file that references data files, deletion files, transaction file and indices.
-The format supports ACID transactions, schema evolution, and efficient incremental updates through Multi-Version Concurrency Control (MVCC).
+The Lance table format organizes datasets as versioned collections of fragments, data files, deletion files, and indices. Each version is described by an immutable manifest that references the physical data for that snapshot.
+
+The format is designed for machine learning and highly selective workloads where column additions, index maintenance, and partial rewrites must be cheap. It supports ACID transactions, schema evolution, time travel, and efficient incremental updates through Multi-Version Concurrency Control (MVCC).
+
+## Design Goals
+
+### Two-Dimensional Storage
+
+Rows are partitioned into fragments, and each fragment can contain multiple data files that each provide one or more columns. This lets writers add or backfill columns by attaching new data files to existing fragments instead of rewriting the full table.
+
+### First-Class Indices
+
+Indices are part of the table format lifecycle. The table metadata describes index discovery and transactional coordination, while the detailed search structures remain separate index formats. This gives engines a uniform way to create, drop, update, and query indices without coupling the table format to any single indexing algorithm.
+
+### External Manifest Store
+
+Lance can commit directly to object storage, but deployments may also coordinate commits through an external manifest store. In that model, the external system helps serialize commits and apply governance checks, while the canonical table state is still persisted in the Lance table format.
 
 ## Manifest
 
@@ -33,6 +47,9 @@ Afterwards, field IDs are assigned incrementally for newly added fields.
 Column encoding configurations are specified through field metadata using the `lance-encoding:` prefix.
 See [File Format Encoding Specification](../file/encoding.md) for details on available encodings, compression schemes, and configuration options.
 
+For complete schema specification details including supported data types, field ID assignment, and metadata handling,
+see the [Schema Format Specification](schema.md).
+
 <details>
 <summary>Field protobuf message</summary>
 
@@ -102,6 +119,17 @@ Field ids might be replaced with `-2`, a tombstone value.
 In this case that column should be ignored. This used, for example, when rewriting a column: 
 The old data file replaces the field id with `-2` to ignore the old data, and a new data file is appended to the fragment.
 
+Every negative field id is reserved for system use and never names a field of the
+dataset schema. A reader MUST skip any negative id when it projects the dataset schema
+onto a data file, rather than treat it as a schema field or reject the file. Besides
+`-1` (not yet assigned; only ever exists in memory and must not be written) and the
+`-2` tombstone above, `-3`, `-4` and `-5` are the hidden `_rowid`,
+`_row_created_at_version` and `_row_last_updated_at_version` columns that hold a
+fragment's row lineage sequences when they are not stored in the manifest; see
+[Row ID and Lineage](row_id_lineage.md). Such a column always lives in one of the
+fragment's `files`, next to user columns or in a file holding nothing else, and at
+most one file of a fragment may carry each of these ids.
+
 ## Data Files
 
 Data files store column data for a fragment using the Lance file format.
@@ -118,6 +146,17 @@ or independently of column indices due to variable encoding widths (for Lance fi
 
 </details>
 
+!!! note "Field-to-column mapping differs between data storage versions"
+
+    In **2.0**, all fields (including non-leaf fields like struct and list containers) are assigned
+    sequential column indices in `column_indices`.
+
+    In **2.1+**, non-leaf fields (unpacked structs, list containers) are assigned `-1` in
+    `column_indices` because their validity information is folded into repetition/definition
+    levels. Only leaf fields and packed structs have column indices.
+
+    See the [5.0.0 migration guide](../../guide/migration.md#500) for a detailed example.
+
 ## Deletion Files
 
 Deletion files (a.k.a. deletion vectors) track deleted rows without rewriting data files.
@@ -140,6 +179,29 @@ However, this invalidates row addresses and requires rebuilding indices, which c
 
 </details>
 
+## Data Overlay Files
+
+!!! warning "Experimental"
+
+    This feature is currently experimental and not yet supported in any library.
+
+<!-- TODO: When overlay file support is implemented, update this note to state
+     the released version that first supports the feature. -->
+
+!!! note "Overlay files require feature flag 64 (data overlay files)"
+
+Overlay files supply new values for a subset of cells within
+a fragment without rewriting the base data files. They make updates cheap when only
+a small percentage of rows and/or columns change: a writer appends a small file
+carrying just the changed cells instead of rewriting whole columns or moving rows
+to a new fragment.
+
+For the full specification — coverage and resolution rules, dense vs. sparse layout,
+versioning, index integration, compaction, and a worked example — see the
+[Data Overlay Files Specification](data_overlay_file.md).
+
+
+
 ## Related Specifications
 
 ### Storage Layout
@@ -164,7 +226,7 @@ See [Row ID & Lineage Specification](row_id_lineage.md)
 
 Vector indices, scalar indices, full-text search, and index management.
 
-See [Index Specification](index/index.md)
+See [Index Formats](../index/index.md)
 
 ### Versioning
 
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/index.md b/docs/src/format/table/index/index.md
deleted file mode 100644
index 54827c71ba5..00000000000
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/index.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,235 +0,0 @@
-
-# Indices in Lance
-
-Lance supports three main categories of indices to accelerate data access: scalar
-indices, vector indices, and system indices.
-
-**Scalar indices** are traditional indices that speed up queries on scalar data types, such as 
-integers and strings. Examples include [B-trees](scalar/btree.md) and
-[full-text search indices](scalar/full_text.md). Typically, scalar indices receive a
-query predicate, such as equality or range conditions, and output a set of row addresses that
-satisfy the predicate.
-
-<figure markdown="span">
-  ![](./scalar_index.drawio.svg)
-</figure>
-
-**[Vector indices](./vector/index.md)** are specialized for approximate nearest neighbor (ANN) search on high-dimensional
-vector data, such as embeddings from machine learning models. Examples includes IVF (Inverted File)
-indices and HNSW (Hierarchical Navigable Small World) indices. These are separate from scalar indices
-because they use meaningfully different query patterns. Instead of sargable predicates, vector indices
-receive a query vector and return the nearest neighbor row addresses based on some distance metric,
-such as Euclidean distance or cosine similarity. They return row addresses and the corresponding distances.
-
-**System indices** are auxiliary indices that help accelerate internal system operations. They are
-different from user-facing scalar and vector indices, as they are not directly used in user queries.
-Examples include the [Fragment Reuse Index](system/frag_reuse.md), which supports efficient row address
-remapping after compaction.
-
-## Design
-
-Lance indices are designed with the following design choices in mind:
-
-1. **Indexes are loaded on demand**: A dataset and be loaded and read without loading any indices.
-   Indices are only loaded when a query can benefit from them.
-   This design minimizes memory usage and speeds up dataset opening time.
-2. **Indexes can be loaded progressively**: indexes are designed so that only the necessary parts
-   are loaded into memory during query execution. For example, when querying a B-tree index,
-   it loads a small page table to figure out which pages of the index to load for the given query,
-   and then only loads those pages to perform the indexed search. This amortizes the cost of
-   cold index queries, since each query only needs to load a small portion of the index.
-3. **Indexes can be coalesced to larger units than fragments.** Indexes are much smaller than
-   data files, so it is efficient to coalesce index segments to cover multiple fragments.
-   This reduces the number of index files that need to be opened during query execution and
-   then number of unique index data structures that need to be queried.
-4. **Index files are immutable once written, similar to data files.** They can be modified only
-   by creating new files. This means they can be safely cached in memory or on disk without
-   worrying about consistency issues.
-
-## Basic Concepts
-
-An index in Lance is defined over a specific column (or multiple columns) of a dataset.
-It is identified by its name.
-
-An index is made up of multiple **index segments**, identified by their unique UUIDs.
-Each segment is an independent, self-contained index covering a subset of the data.
-
-Each index segment covers a disjoint subset of fragments in the dataset. The segments must cover
-all rows in the fragments they cover, with one exception: if a fragment has delete markers at the time
-of index creation, the index segment is allowed to not contain the deleted rows. The fragments an index
-covers are those recorded in the `fragment_bitmap` field.
-
-Index segments together **do not** need to cover all fragments. This means an index isn't required to 
-be fully up-to-date. When this happens, engines can split their queries into indexed and unindexed
-subplans and merge the results.
-
-<figure markdown="span">
-  ![](./starter-example.drawio.svg)
-  <figcaption>Abstract layout of a typical dataset, with three fragments and two indices.
-  </figcaption>
-</figure>
-
-Consider the example dataset in the figure above:
-
-* The dataset contains three fragments with ids 0, 1, 2. Fragment 1 has 10 deleted rows, indicated
-  by the deletion file.
-* There is an index called "id_idx", which has two segments: one covering fragments 0 and another covering
-  fragment 1. Fragment 2 is not covered by the index. Queries using this index will need to query both
-  segments and then scan fragment 2 directly. Additionally, when querying the segment covering fragment 1,
-  the engine will need to filter out the 10 deleted rows.
-* There is another index called "vec_idx", which has a single segment covering all three fragments.
-  Because it covers all fragments, queries using this index do not need to scan any fragments directly.
-  They do, however, need to filter out the 10 deleted rows from fragment 1.
-
-## Index Storage
-
-The content of each index is stored at the `_indices/{UUID}` directory under the [base path](../layout.md#base-path-system).
-We call this location the **index directory**.
-The actual content stored in the index directory depends on the index type. These can be
-arbitrary files defined by the index implementation. However, often they are made up of
-Lance files containing the index data structures. This allows reuse of the existing Lance
-file format code for reading and writing index data.
-
-## Creating and Updating Index Segments
-
-Index segments are created and updated through a transactional process:
-
-1. **Build the index data**: Read the relevant column data from the fragments to be indexed
-   and construct the index data structures. Write these to files in a new `_indices/{UUID}`
-   directory, where `{UUID}` is a newly generated unique identifier.
-
-2. **Prepare the metadata**: Create an `IndexMetadata` message with:
-    - `uuid`: The newly generated UUID
-    - `name`: The index name (must match existing segments if adding to an existing index)
-    - `fields`: The column(s) being indexed
-    - `fragment_bitmap`: The set of fragment IDs covered by this segment
-    - `index_details`: Index-specific configuration and parameters
-    - `version`: The format version of this index type
-    - See the full protobuf definition in [table.proto](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/blob/main/protos/table.proto).
-
-3. **Commit the transaction**: Write a new manifest that includes the new index segment
-   in its `IndexSection`. This is done atomically using the same transaction mechanism
-   as data writes.
-
-When updating an indexed column in place (without deleting the row), the engine must
-remove the affected fragment IDs from the `fragment_bitmap` field of any index segments
-that cover those fragments. This marks those fragments as needing re-indexing without
-invalidating the entire segment and prevents invalid data from being read from the index.
-
-## Index Compatibility
-
-Before using an index segment, engines must verify they support it:
-
-1. **Check the index type**: The `index_details` field contains a protobuf `Any` message
-   whose type URL identifies the index type (e.g., B-tree, IVF, HNSW). If the engine
-   does not recognize the type, it should skip this index segment.
-
-2. **Check the version**: The `version` field in `IndexMetadata` indicates the format
-   version of the index segment. If the engine does not support this version, it should
-   skip this index segment. This allows index formats to evolve over time while
-   maintaining backwards compatibility.
-
-When an engine cannot use an index segment, it should fall back to scanning the
-fragments that would have been covered by that segment.
-
-## Loading an index
-
-When loading an index:
-
-1. Get the offset to the index section from the `index_section` field in the [manifest](../index.md#manifest).
-2. Read the index section from the manifest file. This is a protobuf message of type `IndexSection`, which
-   contains a list of `IndexMetadata` messages, each describing an index segment.
-3. Read the index files from the `_indices/{UUID}` directory under the dataset directory,
-   where `{UUID}` is the UUID of the index segment.
-
-!!! tip "Optimizing manifest loading"
-
-    When the manifest file is small, you can read and cache the index section eagerly. This avoids
-    an extra file read when loading indices.
-
-The `IndexMetadata` message contains important information about the index segment:
-
-* `uuid`: the unique identifier of the index segment.
-* `fields`: the column(s) the index is built on.
-* `fragment_bitmap`: the set of fragment IDs covered by this index segment.
-* `index_details`: a protobuf `Any` message that contains index-specific details, such as index type,
-  parameters, and storage format. This allows different index types to store their own metadata.
-
-
-<details>
-  <summary>Full protobuf definitions</summary>
-
-There are both part of the `table.proto` file in the Lance source code.
-
-```protobuf
-%%% proto.message.IndexSection %%%
-
-%%% proto.message.IndexMetadata %%%
-```
-
-</details>
-
-## Handling deleted and invalidated rows
-
-Since index segments are immutable, they may contain references to rows that have been deleted
-or updated. These should be filtered out during query execution.
-
-<figure markdown="span">
-  ![](./indices-fragment handling.drawio.svg)
-  <figcaption>Representation of index segment covering fragments that have deleted rows,
-  completely deleted fragments, and updated fragments.
-  </figcaption>
-</figure>
-
-There are three situations to consider:
-
-1. **A fragment has some deleted rows.** A few of the rows in the fragment have been marked
-   as deleted, but some of the rows are still present. The row addresses from the deletion
-   file should be used to filter out results from the index.
-2. **A fragment has been completely deleted.** This can be detected by checking if a
-   fragment ID present in the fragment bitmap is missing from the dataset.
-   Any row addresses from this fragment should be filtered out.
-3. **A fragment has had the indexed column updated in place.** This cannot be detected just
-   by examining metadata. To prevent reading invalid data, the engine should filter out any
-   row addresses that are not in the index's current `fragment_bitmap`.
-
-## Compaction and remapping
-
-When fragments are compacted, the row addresses of the rows in the fragments change.
-This means that any index segments referencing those fragments will no longer point
-to existing row addresses. There are three ways to handle this:
-
-<figure markdown="span">
-![](./indices-compaction.drawio.svg)
-</figure>
-
-1. Do nothing and let the index segment not cover those fragments anymore. This approach is
-   simple and valid, but it means compaction can immediately make an index out-of-date. This
-   is the worst options for query performance.
-
-2. Immediately rewrite the index segments with the row addresses remapped. This approach
-   ensures the index is kept up-to-date, but it incurs significant write amplification
-   during compaction.
-
-3. Create a [Fragment Reuse Index](system/frag_reuse.md) that maps old row addresses to new
-   row addresses. This allows readers to remap the row addresses in memory upon reading
-   the index segments. This approach adds some IO and computation overhead during query
-   execution, but avoids write amplification during compaction.
-
-## Stable Row ID for Index
-
-Indices can optionally use stable row IDs instead of row addresses. A stable row ID is a
-logical identifier that remains constant even when rows are moved during compaction.
-
-**Benefits:**
-
-- No remapping needed after compaction
-- Updates only invalidate the index if the indexed column data changes
-
-**Tradeoffs:**
-
-- Requires an additional lookup to translate stable row IDs to physical row addresses
-  at query time
-
-This feature is currently experimental. Performance evaluation is ongoing to determine
-when the tradeoff is worthwhile.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/system/frag_reuse.md b/docs/src/format/table/index/system/frag_reuse.md
deleted file mode 100644
index f0ba6acab2f..00000000000
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/system/frag_reuse.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,35 +0,0 @@
-# Fragment Reuse Index
-
-The Fragment Reuse Index is an internal index used to optimize fragment operations 
-during compaction and dataset updates.
-
-When data modifications happen against a Lance table,
-it could trigger compaction and index optimization at the same time to improve data layout and index coverage.
-By default, compaction will remap all indices at the same time to prevent read regression.
-This means both compaction and index optimization could modify the same index and cause one process to fail.
-Typically, the compaction would fail because it has to modify all indices and takes longer,
-resulting in table layout degrading over time.
-
-Fragment Reuse Index allows a compaction to defer the index remap process.
-Suppose a compaction removes fragments A and B and produces C.
-At query runtime, it reuses the old fragments A and B by 
-updating the row addresses related to A and B in the index to the latest ones in C.
-Because indices are typically cached in memory after initial load,
-the in-memory index is up to date after the fragment reuse application process.
-
-## Index Details
-
-```protobuf
-%%% proto.message.FragmentReuseIndexDetails %%%
-```
-
-## Expected Use Pattern
-
-Fragment Reuse Index should be created if the user defers index remap in compaction.
-The index accumulates a new **reuse version** every time a compaction is executed.
-
-As long as all the scalar and vector indices are created after the specific reuse version,
-the indices are all caught up and the specific reuse version can be trimmed.
-
-It is expected that the user schedules an additional process to trim the index periodically
-to keep the list of reuse versions in control.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/index/system/mem_wal.md b/docs/src/format/table/index/system/mem_wal.md
deleted file mode 100644
index 73693cd6704..00000000000
--- a/docs/src/format/table/index/system/mem_wal.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,12 +0,0 @@
-# MemWAL Index
-
-The MemWAL Index is a system index that serves as the centralized structure for all MemWAL metadata.
-It stores configuration (region specs, indexes to maintain), merge progress, and region state snapshots.
-
-A table has at most one MemWAL index.
-
-For the complete specification, see:
-
-- [MemWAL Index Overview](../../mem_wal.md#memwal-index) - Purpose and high-level description
-- [MemWAL Index Details](../../mem_wal.md#memwal-index-details) - Storage format, schemas, and staleness handling
-- [MemWAL Index Builder](../../mem_wal.md#memwal-index-builder) - Background process and configuration updates
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/layout.md b/docs/src/format/table/layout.md
index 46efa56a908..15af3505714 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/layout.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/layout.md
@@ -20,7 +20,8 @@ A Lance dataset in its basic form stores all files within the dataset root direc
     data/
         *.lance           -- Data files containing column data
     _versions/
-        *.manifest        -- Manifest files (one per version)
+        *.manifest                -- Manifest files (one per version)
+        latest_version_hint.json  -- Optional hint of the latest version (see below)
     _transactions/
         *.txn             -- Transaction files for commit coordination
     _deletions/
@@ -34,6 +35,8 @@ A Lance dataset in its basic form stores all files within the dataset root direc
             *.json        -- Tag metadata
         branches/
             *.json        -- Branch metadata
+    _bt/
+        ...               -- Fragment tree objects (see Fragment Metadata Tree)
     tree/
         {branch_name}/
             ...           -- Branch dataset
@@ -71,6 +74,8 @@ Each of these file types includes an optional `base_id` field in their metadata
 When a file's `base_id` is absent, the file is located relative to the dataset root.
 When a file's `base_id` is present, readers must look up the corresponding base path entry in the manifest's `base_paths` array to determine where the file is stored.
 
+Fragment tree children and fragment files stored in the tree also carry optional `base_id`. Resolution is specified in [Fragment Metadata Tree](fragment_metadata.md#object-references).
+
 At read time, path resolution follows a two-step process.
 First, the reader determines the base path: if `base_id` is absent, the base path is the dataset root; otherwise, the reader looks up the base path entry using the `base_id` to obtain the path and its `is_dataset_root` flag.
 Second, the reader constructs the full file path based on whether the base path represents a dataset root.
@@ -201,3 +206,14 @@ Manifest files are stored in the `_versions/` directory with naming schemes that
 
 See [Manifest Naming Schemes](transaction.md#manifest-naming-schemes) for details on the V1 and V2 patterns and their implications for version discovery.
 
+### Version Hint
+
+The optional file `_versions/latest_version_hint.json` records the latest committed version as JSON:
+
+```json
+{"version": 42}
+```
+
+It exists to accelerate latest-version discovery on stores where listing `_versions/` is expensive: a reader can read the hint and probe higher versions with HEAD requests instead of listing the whole directory, falling back to a full listing if the hint is missing or stale.
+
+The hint is purely an optimization. It is always safe to delete, never affects correctness, and can be ignored by readers that don't understand it. Writers may choose not to write it.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/mem_wal.md b/docs/src/format/table/mem_wal.md
index 3d308a6c9be..ce40500ea0b 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/mem_wal.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/mem_wal.md
@@ -7,654 +7,717 @@ scan, point lookup, vector search and full-text search.
 
 ![MemWAL Overview](../../images/mem_wal_overview.png)
 
-A Lance table is called a **base table** under the context of the MemWAL spec.
-It must have an [unenforced primary key](index.md#unenforced-primary-key) defined in the table schema.
+A Lance table is called the **base table** in this document.
+The base table may have an [unenforced primary key](index.md#unenforced-primary-key) in its schema.
+Primary keys are required for primary-key lookups and last-write-wins upsert semantics.
+Append-only MemWAL tables may omit a primary key.
 
-On top of the base table, the MemWAL spec defines a set of regions.
-Writers write to regions, and data in each region is merged into the base table asynchronously.
-An index is kept in the base table for readers to quickly discover the state of all regions at a point of time.
+MemWAL adds a set of shards on top of the base table.
+Writers append to shards.
+Each shard keeps recent data in an in-memory MemTable, persists writes to a per-shard WAL, flushes MemTables as small Lance datasets, and later compacts those SSTables into the base table.
 
-### MemWAL Region
+The base table manifest contains one MemWAL system index entry named `__lance_mem_wal`.
+This index stores MemWAL configuration and global progress metadata inline in `IndexMetadata.index_details`.
+Each shard's own manifest remains authoritative for shard-local mutable state.
 
-A **MemWAL Region** is the main unit to horizontally scale out writes.
+### MemWAL Shard
 
-Each region has exactly one active writer at any time.
-Writers claim a region and then write data to that region.
-Data in each region is expected to be merged into the base table asynchronously.
+A **MemWAL shard** is the unit of horizontal write scaling.
+Each shard has exactly one active writer epoch at a time.
+Writers claim a shard, append WAL entries, update the in-memory MemTable, and publish SSTable generations by updating the shard manifest.
 
-Rows of the same primary key must be written to one and only one region.
-If two regions contain rows with the same primary key, the following scenario can cause data corruption:
+For primary-key tables, all rows for the same primary key must map to the same shard.
+If one primary key can appear in multiple shards, asynchronous compaction order between shards can make an older row overwrite a newer row.
+Append-only tables without a primary key do not rely on last-write-wins conflict resolution and may use any deterministic shard assignment suitable for the workload.
 
-1. Region A receives a write with primary key `pk=1` at time T1
-2. Region B receives a write with primary key `pk=1` at time T2 (T2 > T1)
-3. The row in region B is merged into the base table first
-4. The row in region A is merged into the base table second
-5. The row from Region A (older) now overwrites the row from Region B (newer)
+### MemWAL Index
 
-This violates the expected "last write wins" semantics.
-By ensuring each primary key is assigned to exactly one region via the region spec, 
-merge order between regions becomes irrelevant for correctness.
+The MemWAL index is a system index entry on the base table.
+It has `name = "__lance_mem_wal"`, no indexed fields, and no index files.
+`IndexMetadata.files` is `None`.
+All MemWAL index data is stored in the `MemWalIndexDetails` protobuf message in `IndexMetadata.index_details`.
 
-See [MemWAL Region Architecture](#memwal-region-architecture) for the complete region architecture.
+The index stores:
 
-### MemWAL Index
+- **Configuration**: `sharding_specs`, `maintained_indexes`, `maintain_all_indexes`, and `writer_config_defaults`.
+- **Compaction progress**: `compacted_sstables`, the last SSTable compacted into the base table for each shard.
+- **Index catchup progress**: `index_catchup`, the compacted SSTable generation covered by each base-table index.
+- **Shard snapshots**: optional point-in-time snapshot fields for read optimization.
 
-A **MemWAL Index** is the centralized structure for all MemWAL metadata on top of a base table.
-A table has at most one MemWAL index. It stores:
+Shard snapshots are not authoritative.
+Readers that need the latest shard set list `_mem_wal/` and read each shard's latest manifest.
 
-- **Configuration**: Region specs defining how rows map to regions, and which indexes to maintain
-- **Merge progress**: Last generation merged to base table for each region
-- **Index catchup progress**: Which merged generation each base table index has been rebuilt to cover
-- **Region snapshots**: Snapshot of all region states for read optimization
+## Shard Architecture
 
-The index is the source of truth for **configuration**, **merge progress** and **index catchup progress**
-Writers and mergers read the MemWAL index to get these configurations before writing.
+![Shard Architecture](../../images/mem_wal_shard.png)
 
-Each [region's manifest](#region-manifest) is authoritative for its own state.
-Readers use **region snapshots** is a read-only optimization to see a point-in-time view of all regions without the need to open each region manifest.
+Within a shard, writes first enter an in-memory **MemTable** and are durably appended to the shard **write-ahead log (WAL)**.
+The MemTable is periodically **flushed** to storage as a Lance dataset.
+SSTables are asynchronously **compacted** into the base table.
 
-See [MemWAL Index Details](#memwal-index-details) for the complete structure.
+### MemTable
 
-## Region Architecture
+A MemTable holds rows inserted into a shard before those rows are flushed to storage.
+It serves two purposes:
 
-![Region Architecture](../../images/mem_wal_regional.png)
+1. It buffers data and per-MemTable indexes before an SSTable is written.
+2. It lets readers access data that has not been flushed yet when strong consistency is required.
 
-Within a region, writes are stored in an **in-memory table (MemTable)**.
-It is also written to the region's **Write-Ahead Log (WAL)** for durability guarantee.
-The MemTable is periodically **flushed** to storage based on memory pressure and other conditions.
-**Flushed MemTables** in storage are then asynchronously **merged** into the base table.
+The storage format does not prescribe the in-memory MemTable layout.
+Conceptually, a MemTable is an append log of Arrow record batches.
+Later appends have larger in-memory row positions.
+For primary-key tables, in-memory reads use the largest visible row position as the newest row for a key.
 
-### MemTable
+### SSTable Generation
 
-A MemTable holds rows inserted into the region before flushing to storage. 
-It serves 2 purposes:
+Within each shard, SSTables have monotonically increasing generation numbers starting from 1.
+When a MemTable is flushed, the resulting SSTable is assigned the shard manifest's `current_generation`, and `current_generation` advances to the next SSTable generation.
+A MemTable does not have a generation.
 
-1. build up data and related indexes to be flushed to storage as a flushed MemTable
-2. allow a reader to potentially access data that is not flushed to storage yet
+SSTable generation numbers order persisted data freshness within one shard:
 
-#### MemTable Format
+- Base table data is modeled as generation 0.
+- Higher SSTable generations are newer.
+- The active MemTable is newer than every published SSTable.
+- Within the active MemTable, higher row positions are newer.
+- Within an SSTable, flush-time deletion vectors hide older duplicate primary-key rows, so readers see at most the newest row for each primary key.
 
-The complete in-memory format of a MemTable is implementation-specific and out of the scope of this spec.
-The Lance core Rust SDK maintains one default implementation and is available through all its language binding SDKs,
-but integrations are free to build their own MemTable format depending on the specific use cases,
-as long as it follows the MemWAL storage layout, reader and writer requirements when flushing MemTable.
+## WAL
 
-Conceptually, because Lance uses [Arrow as its in-memory data exchange format](https://arrow.apache.org/docs/format/index.html),
-for the ease of explanation in this spec, we will treat MemTable as a list of Arrow record batches,
-and each write into the MemTable is a new Arrow record batch.
+The WAL is the durable append log for a shard.
+Every durable WAL append creates one **WAL entry**.
 
-#### MemTable Generation
+### WAL Entry Positions
 
-Based on conditions like memory limit and durability requirements, 
-a MemTable needs to be **flushed** to storage and discarded.
-When that happens, new writes go to a new MemTable and the cycle repeats.
-Each MemTable is assigned a monotonically increasing generation number starting from 1.
-When MemTable of generation `N` is discarded, the next MemTable gets assigned generation `N+1`.
+WAL entry positions are 1-based.
+The first data entry is position 1.
+Position 0 is reserved as the sentinel value meaning no WAL entry has been covered.
 
-### WAL
+Writers append WAL entries in increasing position order.
+If entry `N` is not fully written, entry `N + 1` must not exist.
+Recovery replays from `replay_after_wal_entry_position + 1`.
 
-WAL serves as the durable storage of all MemTables in a region.
-It consists of data in MemTables ordered by generation.
-Every time we write to the WAL, we call it a **WAL Flush**.
+### WAL Entry Format
 
-#### WAL Durability
+Each WAL entry is an Apache Arrow IPC stream file.
+The Arrow schema metadata includes:
 
-When a write is flushed to WAL, the specific write becomes durable.
-Otherwise, if the MemTable is lost, data is also lost.
+- `writer_epoch`: decimal string containing the writer epoch that created the entry.
+- `generation`: decimal string containing the memtable generation the entry's batches belong to. A flush drains one memtable, so an entry never spans two generations. A reader rebuilds generation boundaries from this value. Absent in WAL-only mode, which holds no memtable.
+- `fence_sentinel`: optional marker for a data-less fence sentinel entry.
 
-Multiple writes can be batched together in a single WAL flush to reduce WAL flush frequency and improve throughput.
-The more writes a single WAL flush batches, the longer it takes for a write to be durable.
+A normal WAL entry contains one or more record batches.
+A fence sentinel entry contains no batches and is skipped during replay.
+Sentinels are used so an older writer collides on the next WAL position and discovers that it has been fenced.
 
-The whole LSM tree's durability is determined by the durability of the WAL.
-For example, if WAL is stored in Amazon S3, it has 99.999999999% durability.
-If it is stored in local disk, the data will be lost if the local disk is damaged.
+### WAL Storage Layout
 
-#### WAL Entry
+WAL entries live under `_mem_wal/{shard_id}/wal/`.
+Filenames use bit-reversed 64-bit binary names with the `.arrow` suffix:
 
-Each time a WAL flush happens, it adds a new **WAL Entry** to the WAL.
-In other words, a WAL consists of an ordered list of WAL entries starting from position 0.
-Writer must flush WAL entries in sequential order from lower to higher position.
-If WAL entry `N` is not flushed fully, WAL entry `N+1` must not exist in storage.
+```text
+_mem_wal/{shard_id}/wal/{bit_reversed_position}.arrow
+```
 
-### WAL Replay
+The bit-reversal spreads sequential positions across object-store keyspace.
+For example, position 5 is encoded as:
 
-**Replaying** a WAL means to read data in the WAL from a lower to a higher position.
-This is commonly used to recover the latest MemTable after it is lost,
-by reading from the start position of the latest MemTable generation till the highest position in the WAL,
-assuming proper fencing to guard against multiple writers to the same region.
+```text
+1010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000.arrow
+```
 
-See [Writer Fencing](#writer-fencing) for the full fencing mechanism.
+## SSTable
 
-#### WAL Entry Format
+An SSTable is the immutable result of flushing a MemTable.
+It is stored as a Lance dataset under its shard directory.
 
-Each WAL entry is a file in storage following the [Apache Arrow IPC stream format](https://arrow.apache.org/docs/format/Columnar.html#ipc-streaming-format) to store the batch of writes in the MemTable.
-The writer epoch is stored in the stream's Arrow schema metadata with key `writer_epoch` for fencing validation during replay.
+!!! note
+    Unlike a classic LSM sorted string table, a MemWAL SSTable is not sorted by key; random access is instead served by its BTree primary-key sidecar. It is called an SSTable because it is an immutable, persisted, indexed run.
 
-#### WAL Storage Layout
+### SSTable Storage Layout
 
-Each WAL entry is stored within the WAL directory of the region located at `_mem_wal/{region_id}/wal`.
+An SSTable with generation `i` is written to:
 
-WAL files use bit-reversed 64-bit binary naming to distribute files evenly across the directory keyspace.
-This optimizes S3 throughput by spreading sequential writes across S3's internal partitions, minimizing throttling.
-The filename is the bit-reversed binary representation of the entry ID with suffix `.lance`.
-For example, entry ID 5 (binary `000...101`) becomes `1010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000.arrow`.
+```text
+_mem_wal/{shard_id}/{random8}_gen_{i}/
+```
 
-### Flushed MemTable
+`{random8}` is an 8-character random hex value generated for each flush attempt.
+If a flush attempt fails, a retry writes a different directory instead of reusing a partially written one.
+The shard manifest records the successful directory name in the SSTable's `path`.
+
+### SSTable Accounting
+
+Alongside `generation` and `path`, a shard manifest entry may record what the
+SSTable holds, as the writer's MemTable accounted for it at flush:
+
+- `in_memory_bytes`: payload size of the rows, summed over the MemTable's
+  buffers as the window each one holds.
+- `physical_rows`: rows held, counting the older duplicates of a primary key
+  that the generation's deletion vector masks. A scan applying the deletion
+  vector yields fewer.
+- `primary_key_bytes`: total payload size of the primary-key columns over every
+  row in `physical_rows`. Not a per-row size, which varies for a
+  variable-length key.
+
+All three are estimates of payload, not bounds on what reading the SSTable
+costs: they exclude the per-array structure a reader materializes, and
+`primary_key_bytes` is not the size of any encoded form of the key. A consumer
+budgeting memory from them adds its own headroom.
+
+All three are optional. An entry written before they existed records none of
+them, and a reader must not treat an absent value as zero; `primary_key_bytes`
+is also absent on a table with no primary key.
+
+The SSTable directory is a standard Lance dataset written with the base table's data storage version.
+Each SSTable is written as one fragment.
+Additional MemWAL sidecars may be present:
+
+```text
+{random8}_gen_{i}/
+├── _versions/
+│   └── {version}.manifest
+├── _deletions/                         # Present when within-SSTable dedup deletes rows
+├── _indices/                           # Present when maintained user indexes are built
+│   └── {index_uuid}/
+├── _pk_index/                          # Primary-key sidecar BTree, not a manifest index
+└── bloom_filter.bin                    # Primary-key bloom filter
+```
 
-A flushed MemTable is created by flushing the MemTable to storage.
-In Lance MemWAL spec, a flushed MemTable must be a Lance table following the Lance table format spec.
+The exact Lance dataset internals follow the [Lance table storage layout](layout.md).
 
-!!!note
-    This is called Sorted String Table (SSTable) or Sorted Run in many LSM-tree literatures and implementations.
-    However, since our MemTable is not sorted, we just use the term flushed MemTable to avoid confusion.
+### SSTable Row Order
 
-#### Flushed MemTable Storage Layout
+SSTable rows are written in forward insert order.
+Physical row offsets increase with write time.
+For a duplicate primary key within one SSTable, the newest row has the largest physical offset.
 
-The MemTable of generation `i` is flushed to `_mem_wal/{region_uuid}/{random_hex}_gen_{i}/` directory, 
-where `{random_hex}` is a random 8-character hex value generated at flush time.
-The random hex value is necessary to ensure if one MemTable flush attempt fails,
-The retry can use another directory.
-The content within the generation directory follows the [Lance table storage layout](layout.md).
+Primary-key SSTables use a deletion vector to expose last-write-wins semantics.
+During flush, the writer scans rows in forward order, keeps the last occurrence of each primary key, and marks all earlier duplicate offsets deleted.
+The deletion vector is attached to fragment 0 in the SSTable's Lance manifest.
 
-#### Merging MemTable to Base Table
+Append-only SSTables without a primary key do not perform primary-key deduplication and retain every row.
 
-Generation numbers determine merge order of flushed MemTable into base table: 
-lower numbers represent older data and must be merged to the base table first to preserve correct upsert semantics.
+### Tombstone Rows
 
-### Region Manifest
+Delete operations are represented as rows with the internal `_tombstone` column.
+Tombstone rows follow the same forward row ordering and deletion-vector rules as ordinary rows.
+If the newest row for a primary key is a tombstone, the deletion vector keeps that tombstone row and hides older rows for the key.
+Read planning then filters `_tombstone = false`, so the key is absent from query results.
 
-Each region has a manifest file. This is the source of truth for the state of a region.
+### SSTable Primary-Key Sidecars
 
-#### Region Manifest Contents
+Primary-key MemTables maintain an implicit BTree for primary-key deduplication, independent of `maintained_indexes`.
+When a primary-key MemTable is flushed, the SSTable writes two primary-key sidecars:
 
-The manifest contains:
+- `bloom_filter.bin` stores the SSTable's primary-key bloom filter and lets point lookups skip SSTables that cannot contain the queried key.
+- `_pk_index/` stores a standalone BTree over primary-key values to forward row ids.
 
-- **Fencing state**: `writer_epoch` as the latest writer fencing token, see [Writer Fencing](#writer-fencing) for more details.
-- **WAL pointers**: `replay_after_wal_entry_position` (last entry position flushed to MemTable, 0-based), `wal_entry_position_last_seen` (last entry position seen at manifest update, 0-based)
-- **Generation trackers**: `current_generation` (next generation to flush), `flushed_generations` list of generation number and directory path pairs (e.g., generation 1 at `a1b2c3d4_gen_1`)
+The `_pk_index/` sidecar is not a maintained user index, is not registered in the SSTable's Lance manifest, and has no manifest UUID.
+Its identity is its immutable SSTable path.
+Readers open it directly from `{sstable_path}/_pk_index`.
 
-Note: `wal_entry_position_last_seen` is a hint that may be stale since it's not updated on WAL write.
-It is updated opportunistically by any reader that can update the region manifest.
-The manifest itself is atomically written, but recovery must try to get newer WAL files to find the actual state beyond this hint.
+The `_pk_index/` directory is a Lance scalar BTree index store:
 
-The manifest is serialized as a protobuf binary file using the `RegionManifest` message.
+```text
+_pk_index/
+├── page_data.lance
+└── page_lookup.lance
+```
 
-<details>
-<summary>RegionManifest protobuf message</summary>
+Readers load this directory as a BTree index using `BTreeIndexDetails` with default parameters.
+The primary-key index type is the Arrow type of the primary-key column for a single-column primary key, or `Binary` for a composite primary key.
 
-```protobuf
-%%% mem_wal.message.RegionManifest %%%
-```
+The `page_lookup.lance` file has the following schema:
 
-</details>
+| Column       | Type                    | Nullable | Description                                    |
+|--------------|-------------------------|----------|------------------------------------------------|
+| `min`        | {PrimaryKeyIndexType}   | true     | Minimum primary-key index value in the page    |
+| `max`        | {PrimaryKeyIndexType}   | true     | Maximum primary-key index value in the page    |
+| `null_count` | UInt32                  | false    | Number of null values in the page              |
+| `page_idx`   | UInt32                  | false    | Page number pointing into `page_data.lance`    |
 
-#### Region Manifest Versioning
+The `page_data.lance` file has the following schema:
 
-Manifests are versioned starting from 1 and immutable. 
-Each update creates a new manifest file at the next version number.
-Updates use put-if-not-exists or file rename to ensure atomicity depending on the storage system.
-If two processes compete, one wins and the other retries.
+| Column   | Type                  | Nullable | Description                                                       |
+|----------|-----------------------|----------|-------------------------------------------------------------------|
+| `values` | {PrimaryKeyIndexType} | true     | Sorted primary-key index values                                   |
+| `ids`    | UInt64                | false    | Forward row ids corresponding to each primary-key index value     |
 
-To commit a manifest version:
+For a single-column primary key, the indexed value stores the primary-key scalar directly.
+For a composite primary key, the indexed value stores an order-preserving binary tuple encoding of all primary-key columns in primary-key column order.
+Each tuple column is encoded as:
 
-1. Compute the next version number
-2. Write the manifest to `{bit_reversed_version}.binpb` using put-if-not-exists
-3. In parallel best-effort write to `version_hint.json` with `{"version": <new_version>}` (failure is acceptable)
+- `0x00` for null.
+- `0x01` followed by the non-null value encoding otherwise.
 
-To read the latest manifest version:
+Supported non-null value encodings are:
 
-1. Read `version_hint.json` to get the latest version hint. If not found, start from version 1
-2. Check existence for subsequent versions from the starting version
-3. Continue until a version is not found
-4. The latest version is the last found version
+- Signed integers and date values: sign-flipped 8-byte big-endian integer bytes.
+- Unsigned integers: 8-byte big-endian unsigned integer bytes.
+- Boolean: one byte, `0x00` for false and `0x01` for true.
+- UTF-8 and binary values: raw bytes, with each `0x00` byte escaped as `0x00 0xff`, followed by a `0x00 0x00` terminator.
 
-!!!note
-    This works because the write rate to region manifests is significantly lower than read rates. Region manifests are only updated when region metadata changes (MemTable flush), not on every write. This ensures HEAD requests will eventually terminate and find the latest version.
+This encoding is injective and preserves primary-key tuple ordering under lexicographic byte comparison.
+Composite primary-key columns must use one of the supported encodings above.
 
-#### Region Manifest Storage Layout
+The sidecar row ids are in the same forward row-position space as the data files, deletion vector, and maintained user indexes.
+The sidecar is used for cross-generation membership and block-list checks.
+It is not used to choose the newest row inside the same SSTable; the deletion vector has already hidden older same-generation duplicates.
 
-All region manifest versions are stored in `_mem_wal/{region_id}/manifest` directory.
+### Maintained User Indexes
 
-Each region manifest version file uses bit-reversed 64-bit binary naming, the same scheme as WAL files.
-For example, version 5 becomes `1010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000.binpb`.
+When the MemWAL index names indexes to maintain -- in `maintained_indexes`, or every index the table has when `maintain_all_indexes` is set -- flush may build matching indexes inside the SSTable.
+These index files live in the SSTable's `_indices/{index_uuid}/` directory and are recorded in the SSTable's Lance manifest.
+The implicit primary-key BTree sidecar is not included in `maintained_indexes` and does not live under `_indices/`.
 
-## MemWAL Index Details
+These indexes use the same row-position space as the forward-written data files.
+If the SSTable has a primary key, its deletion vector masks stale duplicate rows for indexed reads as well.
+
+### SSTable Compaction
 
-The MemWAL Index uses the [standard index storage](index/index.md#index-storage) at `_indices/{UUID}/`.
+SSTables are compacted into the base table in ascending generation order within each shard.
+Lower generation numbers are older and must be compacted before higher generation numbers.
+SSTable compaction uses merge-insert semantics so newer rows overwrite older rows for the same primary key.
 
-The index stores its data in two parts:
+## Shard Manifest
 
-1. **Index details** (`index_details` in `IndexMetadata`): Contains configuration, merge progress, and snapshot metadata
-2. **Region snapshots**: Stored as a Lance file or inline, depending on region count
+Each shard has a versioned manifest.
+The latest shard manifest is the source of truth for shard-local state.
 
-### Index Details
+### Shard Manifest Contents
+
+The manifest contains:
 
-The `index_details` field in `IndexMetadata` contains a `MemWalIndexDetails` protobuf message with the following key fields:
+- **Identity**: `shard_id`, `shard_spec_id`, and `shard_field_entries`.
+- **Fencing state**: `writer_epoch`.
+- **WAL pointers**: `replay_after_wal_entry_position` and `wal_entry_position_last_seen`.
+- **SSTable generation state**: `current_generation` and `sstables`.
+- **Lifecycle state**: `status`, either `ACTIVE` or `SEALED`.
 
-- **Configuration fields** (`region_specs`, `maintained_indexes`) are the source of truth for MemWAL configuration.
-Writers read these fields to determine how to partition data and which indexes to maintain.
-- **Merge progress** (`merged_generations`) tracks the last generation merged to the base table for each region.
-This field is updated atomically with merge-insert data commits, enabling conflict resolution when multiple mergers operate concurrently.
-Each entry contains the region UUID and generation number.
-- **Index catchup progress** (`index_catchup`) tracks which merged generation each base table index has been rebuilt to cover.
-When data is merged from a flushed MemTable to the base table, the base table's indexes may be rebuilt asynchronously.
-During this window, queries should use the flushed MemTable's pre-built indexes instead of scanning unindexed data in the base table.
-See [Indexed Read Plan](#indexed-read-plan) for details.
-- **Region snapshot fields** (`snapshot_ts_millis`, `num_regions`, `inline_snapshots`) provide a snapshot of region states.
-The actual region manifests remain authoritative for region state.
-When `num_regions` is 0, the `inline_snapshots` field may be `None` or an empty Lance file with 0 rows but proper schema.
+`shard_field_entries` stores computed shard field values as raw Arrow scalar bytes keyed by `ShardingField.field_id`.
+The matching `ShardingField.result_type` determines how to decode each value.
+For example, `int32` values are four little-endian bytes and `utf8` values are raw UTF-8 bytes.
+
+`replay_after_wal_entry_position` is the most recent 1-based WAL position covered by an SSTable.
+The default value 0 means no WAL entry has been covered and recovery starts at position 1.
+
+`wal_entry_position_last_seen` is a best-effort hint for the most recent WAL position observed at manifest update time.
+It is not authoritative because it is not updated on every WAL write.
+Recovery must still probe or list WAL files to find the actual tail.
+
+`current_generation` is the generation number to assign to the next SSTable created by flushing the MemTable.
+Each entry in `sstables` records a published SSTable's `generation` and `path`.
+
+`status = SEALED` marks a reversible in-flight drop-table operation.
+Sealed shards refuse new writer claims.
+
+The manifest is serialized as the `ShardManifest` protobuf message.
 
 <details>
-<summary>MemWalIndexDetails protobuf message</summary>
+<summary>ShardManifest protobuf message</summary>
 
 ```protobuf
-%%% mem_wal.message.MemWalIndexDetails %%%
+%%% mem_wal.message.ShardManifest %%%
 ```
 
 </details>
 
-### Region Identifier
+### Shard Manifest Versioning
 
-Each region has a unique identifier across all regions following UUID v4 standard.
-When a new region is created, it is assigned a new identifier.
+Manifest versions start at 1.
+Each update writes a new immutable protobuf file:
 
-### Region Spec
+```text
+_mem_wal/{shard_id}/manifest/{bit_reversed_version}.binpb
+```
 
-A **Region Spec** defines how all rows in a table are logically divided into different regions,
-enabling automatic region assignment and query-time region pruning.
+Writers use put-if-not-exists or atomic rename, depending on storage support.
+If two processes race to write the same next version, one wins and the other reloads and retries.
 
-Each region spec has:
+After a successful version write, the writer best-effort updates:
 
-- **Spec ID**: A positive integer that uniquely identifies this spec within the MemWAL index. IDs are never reused.
-- **Region fields**: An array of field definitions that determine how to compute region values.
+```json
+{"version": <new_version>}
+```
 
-Each region is bound to a specific region spec ID, recorded in its [manifest](#region-manifest).
-Regions without a spec ID (`spec_id = 0`) are manually-created regions not governed by any spec.
+in:
 
-A region spec's field array consists of **region field** definitions.
-Each region field has the following properties:
+```text
+_mem_wal/{shard_id}/manifest/version_hint.json
+```
+
+Readers use `version_hint.json` as a starting point and then probe subsequent versions until a version is missing.
+The latest manifest is the last existing version.
+
+## MemWAL Index Details
 
-| Property | Description |
-|----------|-------------|
-| `field_id` | Unique string identifier for this region field |
-| `source_ids` | Array of field IDs referencing source columns in the schema |
-| `transform` | A well-known region expression, specify this or `expression` |
-| `expression` | A DataFusion SQL expression for custom logic, specify this or `transform` |
-| `result_type` | The output type of the region value |
+The MemWAL index is stored inline in the base table's `IndexMetadata`.
+It is a system index with no file directory.
+The `index_details` field contains a `MemWalIndexDetails` protobuf message.
 
-#### Region Expression
+Important fields:
 
-A **Region Expression** is a [DataFusion SQL expression](https://datafusion.apache.org/user-guide/sql/index.html) that derives a region value from source column(s).
-Source columns are referenced as `col0`, `col1`, etc., corresponding to the order of field IDs in `source_ids`.
+- `sharding_specs`: sharding configuration used by writers and shard pruning.
+- `maintained_indexes`: names of base-table indexes to maintain in MemTables and SSTables. Ignored when `maintain_all_indexes` is set.
+- `maintain_all_indexes`: maintain every index the table has rather than the names above. The set is resolved from the table's indexes each time a MemTable is built, so an index created after the MemWAL was installed is picked up and a dropped one falls out. An index the writer cannot mirror is skipped, so introducing one does not make the table unwritable; a name in `maintained_indexes` that it cannot mirror is an error instead, because the caller asked for that index. The field carries presence: absent and empty `maintained_indexes` mean maintain nothing, while set and empty means maintain everything.
+- `writer_config_defaults`: string map of default writer configuration values persisted for all writers.
+- `compacted_sstables`: per-shard compaction progress, updated atomically with base-table compaction commits.
+- `index_catchup`: per-index coverage progress after data has been compacted into the base table.
+- `snapshot_ts_millis`, `num_shards`, and `inline_snapshots`: optional shard snapshot fields for read optimization.
 
-Region expressions must satisfy the following requirements:
+A shard absent from `index_catchup` for an index means that index is *not* known
+to have caught up, so the shard's SSTables must be retained until some commit
+records that it has.
 
-1. **Deterministic**: The same input value must always produce the same output value.
-2. **Stateless**: The expression must not depend on external state (e.g., current time, random values, session variables).
-3. **Type-promotion resistant**: The expression must produce the same result for equivalent values regardless of their numeric type (e.g., `int32(5)` and `int64(5)` must yield the same region value).
-4. **Column removal resistant**: If a source field ID is not found in the schema, the column should be interpreted as NULL.
-5. **NULL-safe**: The expression should properly handle NULL inputs and have defined behavior (e.g., return NULL if input is NULL for single-column expressions).
-6. **Consistent with result type**: The expression's return type must be consistent with `result_type` in non-NULL cases.
+Catch-up is derived at commit time, not reported by the writer. An index whose segments together span every fragment live at the transaction's read version holds every row compaction had copied into the base table by then, so the commit records it as caught up to that version's `compacted_sstables`. That is the only proof available — nothing maps a compaction generation to the fragments its rows landed in — so covering the table as the transaction read it is how an index shows it covered those rows. Fragments appended since that read are a later catch-up gap and are not required.
 
-#### Region Transform
+Two rules bound what a commit may record. It never credits more than its own `compacted_sstables`, and it clamps to that value, so a position can only describe generations the base table has actually taken in. Otherwise it never lowers a position an index already held, provided that index is unchanged by this commit. "Unchanged" compares each segment's UUID together with its fragment bitmap, not the UUID alone, because an operation can prune the bitmap in place while keeping the UUID; the remaining metadata does not affect which rows the index answers for. An index this commit changes keeps no position it cannot re-earn.
 
-A **Region Transform** is a well-known region expression with a predefined name.
-When a transform is specified, the expression is derived automatically.
+Because the position is derived rather than transmitted, it cannot go stale between inspection and commit, and it survives rebase — `read_version` is fixed for a transaction's life, so what a commit can prove does not move, though a rebased attempt may record a different result because the head it commits against has changed. Any commit can earn a position, so an ordinary index build that happens to cover the table records catch-up as a side effect. A dedicated repair is still needed where no such commit occurs, or where an index does not yet span the table.
 
-| Transform | Parameters | Region Expression | Result Type |
-|-----------|------------|-------------------|-------------|
-| `identity` | (none) | `col0` | same as source |
-| `year` | (none) | `date_part('year', col0)` | `int32` |
-| `month` | (none) | `date_part('month', col0)` | `int32` |
-| `day` | (none) | `date_part('day', col0)` | `int32` |
-| `hour` | (none) | `date_part('hour', col0)` | `int32` |
-| `bucket` | `num_buckets` | `abs(murmur3(col0)) % N` | `int32` |
-| `multi_bucket` | `num_buckets` | `abs(murmur3_multi(col0, col1, ...)) % N` | `int32` |
-| `truncate` | `width` | `left(col0, W)` (string) or `col0 - (col0 % W)` (numeric) | same as source |
+A read version with no fragments proves nothing, even though an index trivially covers an empty table. An empty fragment list is also what a manifest written before the `UpdateMemWalState` fragment fix looks like, where the SSTables are the last copy of those rows; crediting coverage there would retire them. The cost is that a table whose rows have all been deleted keeps its SSTables.
 
-The `bucket` and `multi_bucket` transforms use Murmur3 hash functions:
+Shard snapshots, when present, use the following Lance file schema:
 
-- **`murmur3(col)`**: Computes the 32-bit Murmur3 hash (x86 variant, seed 0) of a single column. Returns a signed 32-bit integer. Returns NULL if input is NULL.
-- **`murmur3_multi(col0, col1, ...)`**: Computes the Murmur3 hash across multiple columns. Returns a signed 32-bit integer. NULL fields are ignored during hashing; returns NULL only if all inputs are NULL.
+| Column                     | Type                         | Nullable | Description                                            |
+|----------------------------|------------------------------|----------|--------------------------------------------------------|
+| `shard_id`                 | Utf8                         | false    | Shard UUID string                                      |
+| `shard_spec_id`            | UInt32                       | false    | Sharding spec that produced the shard                  |
+| `shard_field_{field_id}`   | `ShardingField.result_type`  | false    | Computed shard field value for the given sharding field |
+
+The MemWAL index data is stored inline.
+Readers discover the latest shard set by listing `_mem_wal/` shard directories and reading shard manifests.
+
+<details>
+<summary>MemWalIndexDetails protobuf message</summary>
 
-The hash result is wrapped with `abs()` and modulo `N` to produce a non-negative bucket number in the range `[0, N)`.
+```protobuf
+%%% mem_wal.message.MemWalIndexDetails %%%
+```
 
-### Region Snapshot Storage
+</details>
 
-Region snapshots are stored using one of two strategies based on the number of regions:
+## Sharding
 
-| Region Count | Storage Strategy | Location |
-|--------------|------------------|----------|
-| <= 100 (threshold) | Inline | `inline_snapshots` field in index details |
-| > 100 | External Lance file | `_indices/{UUID}/index.lance` |
+A **ShardingSpec** defines how rows map to shards.
+Each spec has a positive `spec_id` and one or more `ShardingField` entries.
+Each shard manifest records the `shard_spec_id` and the computed shard field values for that shard.
+`spec_id = 0` means the shard was manually created and is not governed by a sharding spec.
 
-The threshold (100 regions) is implementation-defined and may vary.
+Each `ShardingField` contains:
 
-**Inline storage**: For small region counts, snapshots are serialized as a Lance file and stored in the `inline_snapshots` field.
-This keeps the index metadata compact while avoiding an additional file read for common cases.
+- `field_id`: stable identifier for the computed shard field.
+- `source_ids`: field IDs of source columns in the Lance schema.
+- `transform`: well-known transform name, when using built-in transform evaluation.
+- `expression`: reserved custom expression text, mutually exclusive with `transform`.
+- `result_type`: Arrow type name for the computed value.
+- `parameters`: transform-specific string parameters.
 
-**External Lance file**: For large region counts, snapshots are stored as a Lance file at `_indices/{UUID}/index.lance`.
-This file uses standard Lance format with the region snapshot schema, enabling efficient columnar access and compression.
+The supported built-in transforms are:
 
-### Region Snapshot Arrow Schema
+- `unsharded`: takes no source columns, always returns `int32` value 0, and creates one shard.
+- `bucket`: takes one source column and `num_buckets`, hashes the value, and returns an `int32` bucket id in `[0, num_buckets)`.
+- `identity`: takes one source column and returns the raw scalar value as the shard value.
 
-Region snapshots are stored as a Lance file with one row per region.
-The schema has one column per `RegionManifest` field plus region spec columns:
+`bucket` computes a deterministic 32-bit hash with seed 0 and then computes:
 
-| Column | Type | Description |
-|--------|------|-------------|
-| `region_id` | `fixed_size_binary(16)` | Region UUID bytes |
-| `version` | `uint64` | Region manifest version |
-| `region_spec_id` | `uint32` | Region spec ID (0 if manual) |
-| `writer_epoch` | `uint64` | Writer fencing token |
-| `replay_after_wal_entry_position` | `uint64` | Last WAL entry position (0-based) flushed to MemTable |
-| `wal_entry_position_last_seen` | `uint64` | Last WAL entry position (0-based) seen (hint) |
-| `current_generation` | `uint64` | Next generation to flush |
-| `flushed_generations` | `list<struct<generation: uint64, path: string>>` | Flushed MemTable paths |
-| `region_field_{field_id}` | varies | Region field value (one column per field in region spec) |
+```text
+(hash & i32::MAX) % num_buckets
+```
 
-For example, with a region spec containing a field `user_bucket` of type `int32`:
+`num_buckets` must be in `[1, 1024]`.
+Null bucket values hash to 0 and therefore map to bucket 0.
+See [Appendix 3: Bucket Hashing](#appendix-3-bucket-hashing) for the exact hash algorithm and test vectors.
 
-| Column | Type | Description |
-|--------|------|-------------|
-| ... | ... | (base columns above) |
-| `region_field_user_bucket` | `int32` | Bucket value for this region |
+The `bucket` transform supports scalar boolean, integer, floating-point, date32, time, timestamp, utf8, and large_utf8 source types.
+The `identity` transform supports scalar boolean, integer, utf8, and large_utf8 source types.
 
-This schema directly corresponds to the fields in the `RegionManifest` protobuf message plus the computed region field values.
+The `year`, `month`, `day`, `hour`, `multi_bucket`, and `truncate` transform names are not supported MemWAL sharding transforms and must not be used in `ShardingSpec.transform`.
 
 ## Storage Layout
 
-Here is a recap of the storage layout with all the files and concepts defined so far:
+The MemWAL storage layout is:
 
-```
+```text
 {table_path}/
+├── _versions/
+│   └── ...                              # Base table manifests, including __lance_mem_wal index metadata
 ├── _indices/
-│   └── {index_uuid}/                    # MemWAL Index (uses standard index storage)
-│       └── index.lance                  # Serialized region snapshots (Lance file)
-│
+│   └── ...                              # Ordinary base table index files; MemWAL index has no files
 └── _mem_wal/
-    └── {region_uuid}/                   # Region directory (UUID v4)
+    └── {shard_id}/
         ├── manifest/
-        │   ├── {bit_reversed_version}.binpb     # Serialized region manifest (bit-reversed naming)
-        │   └── version_hint.json                # Version hint file
+        │   ├── {bit_reversed_version}.binpb
+        │   └── version_hint.json
         ├── wal/
-        │   ├── {bit_reversed_entry_id}.lance    # WAL data files (bit-reversed naming)
+        │   ├── {bit_reversed_position}.arrow
         │   └── ...
-        └── {random_hash}_gen_{i}/        # Flushed MemTable (generation i, random prefix)
+        └── {random8}_gen_{generation}/
             ├── _versions/
-            │   └── {version}.manifest    # Table manifest (V2 naming scheme)
-            ├── _indices/                 # Indexes
-            │   ├── {vector_index}/
-            │   └── {scalar_index}/
-            └── bloom_filter.bin          # Primary key bloom filter
+            │   └── {version}.manifest
+            ├── _deletions/
+            ├── _indices/
+            │   └── {index_uuid}/
+            ├── _pk_index/
+            └── bloom_filter.bin
 ```
 
-## Implementation Expectation
-
-This specification describes the storage layout for the LSM tree architecture. Implementations are free to use any approach to fulfill the storage layout requirements. Once data is written to the expected storage layout, the reader and writer expectations apply.
-
-The specification defines:
+Some SSTable subdirectories are conditional.
+For example, `_deletions/` is present only when the SSTable's Lance manifest references a deletion vector, `_indices/` is present only when maintained user indexes are built, and `_pk_index/` plus `bloom_filter.bin` are meaningful for primary-key tables.
 
-- **Storage layout**: The directory structure, file formats, and naming conventions for WAL entries, flushed MemTables, region manifests, and the MemWAL index
-- **Durability guarantees**: How data is persisted through WAL entries and flushed MemTables
-- **Consistency model**: How readers and writers coordinate through manifests and epoch-based fencing
+## Implementation Expectation
 
-Implementations may choose different approaches for:
+This document specifies the storage layout and observable reader and writer invariants.
+Implementations may choose different in-memory structures, buffering policies, background scheduling, and query execution plans.
 
-- In-memory data structures and indexing
-- Buffering strategies before WAL flush
-- Background task scheduling and concurrency
-- Query execution strategies
+An implementation is compatible when it:
 
-As long as the storage layout is correct and the documented invariants are maintained, implementations can optimize for their specific use cases.
+1. Writes WAL entries, shard manifests, SSTables, and MemWAL index metadata using the documented layout.
+2. Preserves WAL position, writer fencing, and manifest versioning invariants.
+3. Exposes last-write-wins semantics for primary-key tables.
+4. Preserves append-only semantics for tables without primary keys.
+5. Maintains generation ordering when compacting SSTables into the base table.
 
 ## Writer Expectations
 
-A writer operates on a single region and is responsible for:
+A writer operates on one shard and is responsible for:
 
-1. Claiming the region using epoch-based fencing
-2. Writing data to WAL entries and flushed MemTables following the [storage layout](#storage-layout)
-3. Maintaining the region manifest to track WAL and generation progress
+1. Claiming the shard with epoch-based fencing.
+2. Appending WAL entries in sequential 1-based positions.
+3. Maintaining in-memory MemTable state.
+4. Flushing MemTables to SSTable Lance datasets.
+5. Updating the shard manifest after an SSTable is durably written.
 
 ### Writer Fencing
 
-Writers use epoch-based fencing to ensure single-writer semantics per region.
+Writers use `writer_epoch` to enforce single-writer semantics per shard.
 
-To claim a region:
+To claim a shard:
 
-1. Load the latest region manifest
-2. Increment `writer_epoch` by one
-3. Atomically write a new manifest version
-4. If the write fails (another writer claimed the epoch), reload and retry with a higher epoch
+1. Load the latest shard manifest.
+2. Verify the shard is `ACTIVE`.
+3. Increment `writer_epoch`.
+4. Atomically write a new manifest version.
+5. If the manifest write loses a race, reload and retry.
 
-Before any manifest update, a writer must verify its `writer_epoch` remains valid:
+Before a manifest update, a writer verifies its local epoch is still current:
 
-- If `local_writer_epoch == stored_writer_epoch`: The writer is still active and may proceed
-- If `local_writer_epoch < stored_writer_epoch`: The writer has been fenced and must abort
+- If `local_writer_epoch == stored_writer_epoch`, the writer may proceed.
+- If `local_writer_epoch < stored_writer_epoch`, the writer has been fenced and must abort.
 
-For a concrete example, see [Appendix 1: Writer Fencing Example](#appendix-1-writer-fencing-example).
+WAL append conflicts also detect fencing.
+If an older writer collides with a newer writer's WAL entry at the same position, it reloads the manifest and observes the higher epoch.
+Fence sentinel entries make this collision path explicit without storing data batches.
 
 ## Background Job Expectations
 
-Background jobs handle merging flushed MemTables to the base table and garbage collection.
-
-### MemTable Merger
+Background jobs compact SSTables into the base table and remove obsolete shard data.
 
-Flushed MemTables must be merged to the base table in **ascending generation order** within each region. This ordering is essential for correct upsert semantics: newer generations must overwrite older ones.
+### SSTable Compactor
 
-The merge uses Lance's merge-insert operation with atomic transaction semantics:
+SSTables must be compacted into the base table in ascending generation order within each shard.
+The compaction uses Lance merge-insert semantics and updates `compacted_sstables[shard_id]` atomically with the base-table commit.
 
-- `merged_generations[region_id]` is updated atomically with the data commit
-- On commit conflict, check the conflicting commit's `merged_generations` to determine if the generation was already merged
+On commit conflict, a compactor reloads the conflicting base-table version:
 
-For a concrete example, see [Appendix 2: Concurrent Merger Example](#appendix-2-concurrent-merger-example).
+- If the committed `compacted_sstables[shard_id]` is already greater than or equal to the generation being compacted, the compactor skips that generation.
+- Otherwise, the compactor retries from the latest base-table version.
 
 ### Garbage Collector
 
-The garbage collector removes obsolete data from region directories. Flushed MemTables and their referenced WAL files may be deleted after:
+The garbage collector may remove obsolete SSTables after:
+
+1. The SSTable has been compacted into the base table.
+2. Every index a query may rely on has caught up to cover the SSTable's generation, or the SSTable is no longer needed for indexed reads. An index absent from `index_catchup` has *not* caught up, so this condition is not met for it.
+3. No retained base-table version needs the SSTable for time travel or consistency.
 
-1. The generation has been merged to the base table (`generation <= merged_generations[region_id]`)
-2. All maintained indexes have caught up (`generation <= min(index_catchup[I].caught_up_generation)`)
-3. No retained base table version references the generation for time travel
+!!! warning
+    Deleting WAL files can weaken writer fencing.
+
+    Fencing detects a stalled writer when its put-if-not-exists for the next WAL entry collides with a newer writer's entry at the same position.
+    If garbage collection has removed that WAL file, the stalled writer may write into empty space with an old `writer_epoch`.
+    Implementations that garbage collect WAL files must compensate by re-checking fence state after WAL writes, partitioning WAL positions by epoch, or otherwise preventing stale writers from landing at positions that have been garbage collected.
 
 ## Reader Expectations
 
 ### LSM Tree Merging Read
 
-Readers **MUST** merge results from multiple data sources (base table, flushed MemTables, in-memory MemTables) by primary key to ensure correctness.
+For primary-key tables, readers merge rows from the base table, SSTables, and optionally in-memory MemTables by primary key.
+The newest row wins.
 
-When the same primary key exists in multiple sources, the reader must keep only the newest version based on:
+Freshness ordering within one shard is:
 
-1. **Generation number** (`_gen`): Higher generation wins. The base table has generation -1, MemTables have positive integers starting from 1.
-2. **Row address** (`_rowaddr`): Within the same generation, higher row address wins (later writes within a batch overwrite earlier ones).
+1. The active MemTable wins over every SSTable and the base table.
+2. Among SSTables, higher generation wins.
+3. Any uncompacted SSTable wins over the base table.
+4. Within the active MemTable, higher row position wins.
+5. Within an SSTable, its deletion vector has already hidden older duplicate primary-key rows.
 
-The ordering for "newest" is: highest `_gen` first, then highest `_rowaddr`.
+For freshness comparisons, the base table uses the sentinel generation 0.
+SSTable generations are positive.
+This ordering applies only to sources selected for the same read plan.
+Readers must not include an SSTable that is already covered by the base table according to `compacted_sstables[shard_id]`, because otherwise the positive SSTable generation would incorrectly outrank base-table rows during deduplication.
+Rows from different shards do not need primary-key deduplication if the sharding spec guarantees that each primary key maps to exactly one shard.
 
-This deduplication is essential because:
+Append-only tables without a primary key do not perform primary-key deduplication.
+Rows from all selected sources are distinct appended rows.
 
-- A row updated in a MemTable also exists (with older data) in the base table
-- A flushed MemTable that has been merged to the base table may not yet be garbage collected, causing the same row to appear in both
-- A single write batch may contain multiple updates to the same primary key
+### Tombstones
 
-Without proper merging, queries would return duplicate or stale rows.
+Readers must treat `_tombstone = true` rows as delete markers.
+In SSTables, deletion vectors first resolve same-generation duplicate primary keys.
+Then query planning filters tombstone rows from user-visible results.
+In active in-memory MemTables, the newest visible row position for a primary key wins; if that row is a tombstone, the key is absent.
 
 ### Reader Consistency
 
-Reader consistency depends on two factors: 
+Reader consistency depends on:
 
-1. access to in-memory MemTables
-2. the source of region metadata (either through MemWAL index or region manifests)
+1. Whether the reader can access active in-memory MemTables.
+2. Whether shard metadata comes from latest shard manifests or from an older MemWAL index snapshot.
 
-Strong consistency requires access to in-memory MemTables for all regions involved in the query and reading region manifests directly.
-Otherwise, the query is eventually consistent due to missing unflushed data or stale MemWAL Index snapshots.
+Strong consistency requires active in-memory MemTable access for relevant shards and direct reads of latest shard manifests.
+Otherwise, reads are eventually consistent because unflushed data or newly-created shards may be absent from the read plan.
 
-!!!note
-    Reading a stale MemWAL Index does not impact correctness, only freshness:
-    
-    - **Merged MemTable still in index**: If a flushed MemTable has been merged to the base table but still shows in the MemWAL index, readers query both. This results in some inefficiency for querying the same data twice, but [LSM-tree merging](#lsm-tree-merging-read) ensures correct results since both contain the same data. The inefficiency is also compensated by the fact that the data is covered by index and we rarely end up scanning both data.
-    - **Garbage collected MemTable still in index**: If a flushed MemTable has been garbage collected, but is still in the MemWAL index, readers would fail to open it and skip it. This is also safe because if it is garbage collected, the data must already exist in the base table.
-    - **Newly flushed MemTable not in index**: If a newly flushed MemTable is added after the snapshot was built, it is not queried. The result is eventually consistent but correct for the snapshot's point in time.
+Reading a stale MemWAL index snapshot does not corrupt last-write-wins ordering, but it can reduce freshness:
 
-### Query Planning
+- If a compacted SSTable is still listed, readers must skip it when `generation <= compacted_sstables[shard_id]`.
+    For primary-key tables, including it would let an older SSTable row outrank newer base-table contents because SSTable generations are positive and the base table is modeled as generation 0.
+    For append-only tables, including it would return the same append twice.
+- If a garbage-collected SSTable is still listed, readers may skip it after failing to open it because its data must already be in the base table or be filtered out by `compacted_sstables`.
+- If a new SSTable is not listed, the read is consistent with the older snapshot but may miss fresher data.
 
-#### MemTable Collection
+Readers that require latest shard membership should list `_mem_wal/` and read shard manifests instead of relying only on snapshots.
 
-The query planner collects datasets from multiple sources and assembles them for unified query execution.
-Datasets come from:
-
-1. base table (representing already-merged data)
-2. flushed MemTables (persisted but not yet merged)
-3. optionally in-memory MemTables (if accessible).
-
-Each dataset is tagged with a generation number: -1 for the base table, and positive integers for MemTable generations.
-Within a region, the generation number determines data freshness, with higher numbers representing newer data.
-Rows from different regions do not need deduplication since each primary key maps to exactly one region.
-
-The planner also collects bloom filters from each generation for staleness detection during search queries.
+### Query Planning
 
-#### Region Pruning
+A query planner collects sources from:
 
-Before executing queries, if region spec is available,
-the planner evaluates filter predicates against region specs to determine which regions may contain matching data.
-This pruning step reduces the number of regions to scan.
+1. The base table.
+2. SSTables that are not yet safely replaceable by base-table indexed reads.
+3. Active in-memory MemTables, when available and required by the requested consistency level.
 
-For each filter predicate:
+Each source is tagged with its shard and freshness tier.
+SSTable sources are also tagged with their generation.
+For primary-key reads, the planner applies LSM deduplication across selected sources.
+For append-only reads, the planner concatenates selected sources without primary-key deduplication.
 
-1. Extract predicates on columns used in region specs
-2. Evaluate which region values can satisfy the predicate
-3. Prune regions whose values cannot match
+Bloom filters and `_pk_index/` sidecars help prune SSTables during point lookups and cross-generation deduplication.
 
-For example, with a region spec using `bucket(user_id, 10)` and a filter `user_id = 123`:
+### Shard Pruning
 
-1. Compute `bucket(123, 10) = 3`
-2. Only scan regions with bucket value 3
-3. Skip all other regions
+When sharding specs are available, the planner evaluates query predicates against shard fields and skips shards whose computed shard values cannot match.
 
-Region pruning applies to both scan queries and prefilters in search queries.
+For example, with `bucket(user_id, 10)` and predicate `user_id = 123`:
 
-#### Indexed Read Plan
+1. Compute the bucket id for `123`.
+2. Scan only shards whose manifest has the same computed bucket value.
+3. Skip all other bucket shards.
 
-When data is merged from a flushed MemTable to the base table, the base table's indexes are rebuilt asynchronously by the [base table index builders](#base-table-index-builder).
-During this window, the merged data exists in the base table but is not yet covered by the base table's indexes.
+### Indexed Read Plan
 
-Without special handling, indexed queries would fall back to expensive full scans for the unindexed part of the base table.
-To maintain indexed read performance, the query planner should use `index_catchup` progress to determine the optimal data source for each query.
+When data is compacted from an SSTable into the base table, base-table indexes may lag behind the data commit.
+`index_catchup` records which compacted generation each base-table index covers.
 
-The key insight is that flushed MemTables serve as a bridge between the base table's index catchup and the current merged state.
-For a query that requires a specific index for acceleration, when `index_gen < merged_gen`, 
-the generations in the gap `(index_gen, merged_gen]` have data already merged in the base table but are not covered by the base table's index.
-Since flushed MemTables contain pre-built indexes (created during [MemTable flush](#memtable-flush)), queries can use these indexes instead of scanning unindexed data in the base table.
-This ensures all reads remain indexed regardless of how far behind the async index builder is.
+If an indexed query needs index `I` and `I` has only caught up to generation `G` while `compacted_sstables[shard_id]` is higher, the planner should read the gap from SSTable indexes instead of scanning unindexed base-table rows.
+Once index `I` catches up, the planner can use the base-table index for those compacted rows.
 
 ## Appendices
 
 ### Appendix 1: Writer Fencing Example
 
-This example demonstrates how epoch-based fencing prevents data corruption when two writers compete for the same region.
+Initial shard manifest:
 
-#### Initial State
-
-```
-Region manifest (version 1):
-  writer_epoch: 5
-  replay_after_wal_entry_position: 10
-  wal_entry_position_last_seen: 12
+```text
+version: 1
+writer_epoch: 5
+replay_after_wal_entry_position: 10
+wal_entry_position_last_seen: 12
+status: ACTIVE
 ```
 
-#### Scenario
-
-| Step | Writer A | Writer B | Manifest State |
-|------|----------|----------|----------------|
-| 1 | Loads manifest, sees epoch=5 | | epoch=5, version=1 |
-| 2 | Increments to epoch=6, writes manifest v2 | | epoch=6, version=2 |
-| 3 | Starts writing WAL entries 13, 14, 15 | | |
-| 4 | | Loads manifest v2, sees epoch=6 | epoch=6, version=2 |
-| 5 | | Increments to epoch=7, writes manifest v3 | epoch=7, version=3 |
-| 6 | | Starts writing WAL entries 16, 17 | |
-| 7 | Tries to flush MemTable, loads manifest | | |
-| 8 | Sees epoch=7, but local epoch=6 | | |
-| 9 | **Writer A is fenced!** Aborts all operations | | |
-| 10 | | Continues writing normally | epoch=7, version=3 |
-
-#### What Happens to Writer A's WAL Entries?
-
-Writer A wrote WAL entries 13, 14, 15 with `writer_epoch=6` in their schema metadata.
-
-When Writer B performs crash recovery or MemTable flush:
-
-1. Reads WAL entries sequentially starting from `replay_after_wal_entry_position + 1` (entry 11, since positions are 0-based)
-2. For each entry, checks existence using HEAD request on the bit-reversed filename
-3. Continues until an entry is not found (e.g., entry 18 doesn't exist)
-4. Finds entries 13, 14, 15, 16, 17
-5. Reads each file's `writer_epoch` from schema metadata
-6. Entries 13, 14, 15 have `writer_epoch=6` which is <= current epoch (7) -> **valid, will be replayed**
-7. Entries 16, 17 have `writer_epoch=7` -> **valid, will be replayed**
-
-#### Key Points
-
-1. **No data loss**: Writer A's entries are not discarded. They were written with a valid epoch at the time and will be included in recovery.
+Writer A loads version 1, claims epoch 6, and writes manifest version 2.
+It appends WAL entries 13, 14, and 15 with `writer_epoch = 6`.
 
-2. **Consistency preserved**: Writer A is prevented from making further writes that could conflict with Writer B.
+Writer B then loads version 2, claims epoch 7, and writes manifest version 3.
+It appends WAL entries 16 and 17 with `writer_epoch = 7`.
 
-3. **Orphaned files are safe**: WAL files from fenced writers remain on storage and are replayed by the new writer. They are only garbage collected after being included in a flushed MemTable that has been merged.
+When Writer A later tries to flush or update the shard manifest, it reloads the manifest and sees stored epoch 7 while its local epoch is 6.
+Writer A is fenced and must abort.
 
-4. **Epoch validation timing**: Writers check their epoch before manifest updates (MemTable flush), not on every WAL write. This keeps the hot path fast while ensuring consistency at commit boundaries.
+Recovery starts from `replay_after_wal_entry_position + 1`, which is entry 11.
+Entries 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 are valid replay inputs because they were written by epochs that were valid at write time and are not greater than the current shard epoch.
 
-### Appendix 2: Concurrent Merger Example
+### Appendix 2: Concurrent Compactor Example
 
-This example demonstrates how MemWAL Index and conflict resolution handle concurrent mergers safely.
+Initial state:
 
-#### Initial State
+```text
+MemWAL index:
+  compacted_sstables: {shard: 5}
 
-```
-MemWAL Index:
-  merged_generations: {region: 5}
-
-Region manifest (version 1):
+Shard manifest:
   current_generation: 8
-  flushed_generations: [(6, "abc123_gen_6"), (7, "def456_gen_7")]
+  sstables:
+    - generation: 6, path: "abc12345_gen_6"
+    - generation: 7, path: "def67890_gen_7"
 ```
 
-#### Scenario 1: Racing on the Same Generation
-
-Two mergers both try to merge generation 6 concurrently.
-
-| Step | Merger A | Merger B | MemWAL Index |
-|------|----------|----------|--------------|
-| 1 | Reads index: merged_gen=5 | | merged_gen=5 |
-| 2 | Reads region manifest | | |
-| 3 | Starts merging gen 6 | | |
-| 4 | | Reads index: merged_gen=5 | merged_gen=5 |
-| 5 | | Reads region manifest | |
-| 6 | | Starts merging gen 6 | |
-| 7 | Commits (merged_gen=6) | | **merged_gen=6** |
-| 8 | | Tries to commit | |
-| 9 | | **Conflict**: reads new index | |
-| 10 | | Sees merged_gen=6 >= 6, aborts | |
-| 11 | | Reloads, continues to gen 7 | |
+Two compactors both try to compact the SSTable at generation 6.
+Compactor A commits first and updates `compacted_sstables[shard]` to 6 in the same base-table commit as the data.
+Compactor B then hits a commit conflict, reloads the latest MemWAL index, sees `compacted_sstables[shard] >= 6`, skips generation 6, and continues with generation 7.
 
-Merger B's conflict resolution detected that generation 6 was already merged by checking the MemWAL Index in the conflicting commit.
+The MemWAL index is the authoritative compaction-progress record because it is committed atomically with the base-table data changes.
 
-#### Scenario 2: Crash After Table Commit
+### Appendix 3: Bucket Hashing
 
-Merger A crashes after committing to the table.
+The bucket transform hash uses 32-bit wrapping arithmetic with these mixing functions.
+Right shifts in `fmix` are logical shifts of the `u32` bit pattern.
 
-| Step | Merger A | Merger B | MemWAL Index |
-|------|----------|----------|--------------|
-| 1 | Reads index: merged_gen=5 | | merged_gen=5 |
-| 2 | Merges gen 6, commits | | **merged_gen=6** |
-| 3 | **CRASH** | | merged_gen=6 |
-| 4 | | Reads index: merged_gen=6 | merged_gen=6 |
-| 5 | | Reads region manifest | |
-| 6 | | **Skips gen 6** (already merged) | |
-| 7 | | Merges gen 7, commits | **merged_gen=7** |
-
-The MemWAL Index is the single source of truth. Merger B correctly used it to determine that generation 6 was already merged.
-
-#### Key Points
+```text
+mix_k1(k) = rotl32(k * 0xcc9e2d51, 15) * 0x1b873593
+mix_h1(h, k) = rotl32(h ^ k, 13) * 5 + 0xe6546b64
+fmix(h, len) =
+    h = h ^ len
+    h = (h ^ (h >> 16)) * 0x85ebca6b
+    h = (h ^ (h >> 13)) * 0xc2b2ae35
+    h ^ (h >> 16)
+```
 
-1. **Single source of truth**: `merged_generations` is the authoritative source for merge progress, updated atomically with data.
+Signed and unsigned casts use two's-complement wrapping.
+Values are normalized and hashed as follows:
+
+- `bool`: `false` as `0`, `true` as `1`, then `hash_i32`.
+- `int8`, `int16`, `int32`, `uint8`, `uint16`, `uint32`, `date32`, `time32`: cast to `i32`, then `hash_i32`.
+- `int64`, `uint64`, `timestamp`, `time64`: cast to `i64`, then `hash_i64`.
+- `float32`: `-0.0` and `+0.0` normalize to bits `0`; all NaNs normalize to `0x7fc00000`; other values use IEEE 754 bits cast to `i32`, then `hash_i32`.
+- `float64`: `-0.0` and `+0.0` normalize to bits `0`; all NaNs normalize to `0x7ff8000000000000`; other values use IEEE 754 bits cast to `i64`, then `hash_i64`.
+- `utf8` and `large_utf8`: hash the UTF-8 bytes with `hash_bytes`.
+
+The helper hashes are:
+
+```text
+hash_i32(v) = fmix(mix_h1(0, mix_k1(v)), 4)
+
+hash_i64(v) =
+    low = low 32 bits of v as i32
+    high = high 32 bits of v as i32
+    fmix(mix_h1(mix_h1(0, mix_k1(low)), mix_k1(high)), 8)
+
+hash_bytes(bytes) =
+    h = 0
+    for each complete 4-byte little-endian chunk:
+        h = mix_h1(h, mix_k1(chunk_as_i32))
+    for each remaining byte:
+        h = mix_h1(h, mix_k1(sign_extend_i8(byte)))
+    fmix(h, byte_length)
+```
 
-2. **Conflict resolution uses MemWAL Index**: When a commit conflicts, the merger checks the conflicting commit's MemWAL Index.
+Test vectors for `num_buckets = 8`:
 
-3. **No progress regression**: Because MemWAL Index is updated atomically with data, concurrent mergers cannot regress the merge progress.
+- `int32` or `date32`: `1 -> 2`, `2 -> 7`, `null -> 0`, `3 -> 1`.
+- `utf8`: `"a" -> 1`, `"b" -> 5`, `null -> 0`.
+- `bool`: `true -> 2`.
+- `float32`: `1.25 -> 0`.
+- `float64`: `1.25 -> 0`.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/row_id_lineage.md b/docs/src/format/table/row_id_lineage.md
index 12f684aa48d..2756d7757f9 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/row_id_lineage.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/row_id_lineage.md
@@ -72,8 +72,12 @@ This protocol mirrors fragment ID assignment and ensures row IDs are unique acro
 
 Stable row IDs are a dataset-level feature recorded in the table manifest.
 
-- Stable row IDs **must be enabled when the dataset is first created**.
-- Currently, they **cannot be turned on later** for an existing dataset. Attempts to write with `enable_stable_row_ids = true` against a dataset that was created without stable row IDs will not change the dataset's configuration.
+- Stable row IDs may be enabled when a dataset is created or by migrating an existing dataset.
+- An ordinary write with `enable_stable_row_ids = true` does not migrate an existing dataset. Use the stable row ID migration operation instead; the Rust API exposes it as `Dataset::migrate_to_stable_row_ids`.
+- Before migrating a dataset whose current manifest has no writer version, use the current Lance writer to commit an ordinary no-op deletion with predicate `false`, then reopen the latest version. This metadata-upgrade commit recomputes the authoritative physical row count for every fragment. Do not invoke stable row ID migration directly on such a legacy manifest: affected releases may have recorded stale counts, which would produce incomplete row ID sequences.
+- Before migration, stop all index builds and index commits, drop every secondary index so no index entry remains in the dataset metadata, and keep index creation quiesced until migration completes. An in-flight index commit from a pre-migration snapshot can otherwise attach stale physical row addresses after activation. Recreate indices after migration.
+- Quiesce data-modifying writers during migration. The migration uses a single atomic merge commit and does not retry when a concurrent write causes a conflict; the caller must retry the migration.
+- Migration assigns an ID to every physical row position, including deleted positions, and atomically enables the feature and advances `next_row_id`. Migrating a dataset that already uses stable row IDs is a no-op.
 - When stable row IDs are disabled, the `_rowid` column (if requested) is not stable and should not be used as a persistent identifier.
 
 Row-level version tracking (`_row_created_at_version`, `_row_last_updated_at_version`) and the row ID index described below are only available when stable row IDs are enabled.
@@ -181,11 +185,81 @@ The implementation selects the most compact encoding based on the value range, c
 
 </details>
 
-#### Inline vs External Storage
+#### Inline and Spilled Storage
+
+`DataFragment` defines inline and column alternatives for row ID sequences and row
+version sequences. This allows small sequences to stay in the manifest (fewer
+IOPS) while larger sequences (resulting from frequent updates) move outside the
+manifest.
+
+Sequences small enough (~200KB encoded and under) are stored inline in the fragment
+metadata to avoid additional I/O. An inline sequence is rewritten into every manifest
+version.
+
+A larger sequence is **spilled to a hidden column of one of the fragment's data
+files**. The column arm of the oneof (`column_row_ids`, `column_created_at_versions`
+or `column_last_updated_at_versions`) is an empty `RowLineageColumn` marker: it carries
+no file reference, because the file is one of the fragment's `files` and is found by a
+reserved negative field id in that entry's `fields`. Exactly one file of the fragment
+carries each reserved field; zero or more than one is corruption. The `column_indices`
+entry paired with the field id locates the column the way it does for a user column, so
+a lineage column
+may share a file with the user columns or with the other lineage columns, or sit in a
+file that holds nothing else. Reading it uses the ordinary data file reader and its
+encodings.
+
+The marker is valid only in a fragment whose data files are Lance v2 files. A legacy
+v1 data file has no `column_indices` to locate the column by, and a fragment cannot
+mix v1 and v2 files, so a writer on a dataset that stores v1 files MUST leave every
+sequence inline; a marker in a fragment with a v1 data file is corruption.
+
+The columns have this schema, with the field ids `-3`, `-4` and `-5` respectively.
+The three names are reserved: a writer MUST reject a user column with any of them
+(every Lance write path does), so a hidden column never collides with a field of the
+dataset schema.
+
+```python
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+row_lineage_columns = pa.schema([
+    pa.field("_rowid", pa.uint64(), nullable=False),
+    pa.field("_row_created_at_version", pa.uint64(), nullable=False),
+    pa.field("_row_last_updated_at_version", pa.uint64(), nullable=False),
+])
+```
+
+Each column present holds exactly `physical_rows` values, one per physical row in
+physical row order, deleted rows included; the value at offset `i` is the row id or
+version of the row at offset `i`, the same thing the inline encoding's `i`-th entry
+would be. A null value, or a column whose length differs from `physical_rows`, is
+corruption and MUST be rejected rather than read as a default. A file may carry any
+subset of the three columns; a sequence whose arm is not the column marker is not read
+from any file, whatever the file holds.
+
+Which sequences may leave the manifest follows from when their values are known.
+A value the commit assigns -- an appended fragment's row ids, an inserted row's
+created-at version, every row's last-updated-at version -- can change when a commit
+conflict is retried, so it stays inline where the retry can rewrite it; those
+sequences are single runs and cost a few bytes. A value carried over from existing
+rows -- the row ids and created-at versions that compaction or a row rewrite
+preserves -- is fixed before the commit and may be written to a data file.
+A writer spills only on a table that opts in through the `lance.row_lineage.spill`
+config key; a table that never sets it is unchanged.
+
+A writer that emits any column arm MUST set the spilled row lineage feature flag
+(bit 11, value 2048) in both the reader and writer flag words. A reader without that
+bit sees an unset oneof and would take the fragment to have no row IDs at all, on a
+table whose manifest says every fragment has them.
+
+Field numbers 6, 8 and 10 of `DataFragment` (`external_row_ids`,
+`external_last_updated_at_versions`, `external_created_at_versions`) once named an
+opaque byte range in a file holding the same encoding as the inline arm. No Lance
+writer ever emitted them; the column arms replace that design, and the numbers and
+names are reserved.
 
-Row ID sequences are stored either inline in the fragment metadata or in external files.
-Sequences smaller than ~200KB are stored inline to avoid additional I/O, while larger sequences are written to external files referenced by path and offset.
-This threshold balances manifest size against the overhead of separate file reads.
+!!! note
+    Spilled row lineage sequences are not yet a released feature. A released build
+    treats bit 11 as an unknown feature flag and refuses the dataset.
 
 <details>
 <summary>DataFragment row_id_sequence field</summary>
@@ -194,7 +268,7 @@ This threshold balances manifest size against the overhead of separate file read
 message DataFragment {
   oneof row_id_sequence {
     bytes inline_row_ids = 5;
-    ExternalFile external_row_ids = 6;
+    RowLineageColumn column_row_ids = 12;
   }
 }
 ```
@@ -281,7 +355,7 @@ RowDatasetVersionSequence {
 message DataFragment {
   oneof created_at_version_sequence {
     bytes inline_created_at_versions = 9;
-    ExternalFile external_created_at_versions = 10;
+    RowLineageColumn column_created_at_versions = 14;
   }
 }
 ```
@@ -324,7 +398,7 @@ New physical row (current):
 message DataFragment {
   oneof last_updated_at_version_sequence {
     bytes inline_last_updated_at_versions = 7;
-    ExternalFile external_last_updated_at_versions = 8;
+    RowLineageColumn column_last_updated_at_versions = 13;
   }
 }
 ```
@@ -360,4 +434,3 @@ WHERE _row_created_at_version <= {begin_version}
 ```
 
 This query excludes newly inserted rows by requiring `_row_created_at_version <= {begin_version}`, ensuring only pre-existing rows that were subsequently updated are returned.
-
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/schema.md b/docs/src/format/table/schema.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..15e8946c708
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/schema.md
@@ -0,0 +1,442 @@
+# Schema Format Specification
+
+## Overview
+
+The schema describes the structure of a Lance table, including all fields, their data types, and metadata.
+Schemas use a logical type system where data types are represented as strings that map to Apache Arrow data types.
+Each field in the schema has a unique identifier (field ID) that enables robust schema evolution and version tracking.
+
+!!! note
+
+    Logical types are currently being simplified through discussion [#5864](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/discussions/5864).
+    Proposed changes include consolidating encoding-specific variants (e.g., `large_string` and `string`, `large_binary` and `binary`)
+    into single logical types with runtime optimization. Additionally, [#5817](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/discussions/5817) proposes adding
+    `string_view` and `binary_view` types. This document describes the current implementation.
+
+## Data Types
+
+Lance supports a comprehensive set of data types that map to Apache Arrow types.
+Data types are represented as strings in the schema and can be grouped into several categories.
+
+### Primitive Types
+
+| Logical Type | Arrow Type | Description |
+|---|---|---|
+| `null` | `Null` | Null type (no values) |
+| `bool` | `Boolean` | Boolean (true/false) |
+| `int8` | `Int8` | Signed 8-bit integer |
+| `uint8` | `UInt8` | Unsigned 8-bit integer |
+| `int16` | `Int16` | Signed 16-bit integer |
+| `uint16` | `UInt16` | Unsigned 16-bit integer |
+| `int32` | `Int32` | Signed 32-bit integer |
+| `uint32` | `UInt32` | Unsigned 32-bit integer |
+| `int64` | `Int64` | Signed 64-bit integer |
+| `uint64` | `UInt64` | Unsigned 64-bit integer |
+
+### Floating Point Types
+
+| Logical Type | Arrow Type | Description |
+|---|---|---|
+| `halffloat` | `Float16` | IEEE 754 half-precision floating point (16-bit) |
+| `float` | `Float32` | IEEE 754 single-precision floating point (32-bit) |
+| `double` | `Float64` | IEEE 754 double-precision floating point (64-bit) |
+
+### String and Binary Types
+
+| Logical Type | Arrow Type | Description |
+|---|---|---|
+| `string` | `Utf8` | Variable-length UTF-8 encoded string |
+| `binary` | `Binary` | Variable-length binary data |
+| `large_string` | `LargeUtf8` | Variable-length UTF-8 string (supports large offsets) |
+| `large_binary` | `LargeBinary` | Variable-length binary data (supports large offsets) |
+
+### Decimal Types
+
+Decimal types support arbitrary-precision numeric values. The format is: `decimal:<bit_width>:<precision>:<scale>`
+
+| Logical Type | Arrow Type | Precision | Example |
+|---|---|---|---|
+| `decimal:128:P:S` | `Decimal128` | Up to 38 digits | `decimal:128:10:2` (10 total digits, 2 after decimal) |
+| `decimal:256:P:S` | `Decimal256` | Up to 76 digits | `decimal:256:20:5` |
+
+- **Precision (P)**: Total number of digits (1-38 for Decimal128, up to 76 for Decimal256)
+- **Scale (S)**: Number of digits after the decimal point (0 ≤ S ≤ P)
+
+### Date and Time Types
+
+| Logical Type | Arrow Type | Description |
+|---|---|---|
+| `date32:day` | `Date32` | Date (days since epoch) |
+| `date64:ms` | `Date64` | Date (milliseconds since epoch) |
+| `time32:s` | `Time32` | Time (seconds since midnight) |
+| `time32:ms` | `Time32` | Time (milliseconds since midnight) |
+| `time64:us` | `Time64` | Time (microseconds since midnight) |
+| `time64:ns` | `Time64` | Time (nanoseconds since midnight) |
+| `duration:s` | `Duration` | Duration (seconds) |
+| `duration:ms` | `Duration` | Duration (milliseconds) |
+| `duration:us` | `Duration` | Duration (microseconds) |
+| `duration:ns` | `Duration` | Duration (nanoseconds) |
+
+### Timestamp Types
+
+Timestamp types represent a point in time and may include timezone information.
+Format: `timestamp:<unit>:<timezone>`
+
+- **Unit**: `s` (seconds), `ms` (milliseconds), `us` (microseconds), `ns` (nanoseconds)
+- **Timezone**: IANA timezone string (e.g., `UTC`, `America/New_York`) or `-` for no timezone
+
+Examples:
+- `timestamp:us:UTC` - Microsecond precision timestamp in UTC
+- `timestamp:ms:America/New_York` - Millisecond precision timestamp in America/New_York timezone
+- `timestamp:ns:-` - Nanosecond precision timestamp with no timezone
+
+### Complex Types
+
+#### Struct Type
+
+A struct is a container for named fields with heterogeneous types.
+
+| Logical Type | Arrow Type | Description |
+|---|---|---|
+| `struct` | `Struct` | Composite type containing multiple named fields |
+
+Struct fields are represented as child fields in the schema.
+
+Example schema with a struct:
+```protobuf
+Field {
+    name: "address"
+    type: "struct"
+    children: [
+        Field { name: "street", type: "string" },
+        Field { name: "city", type: "string" },
+        Field { name: "zip", type: "int32" }
+    ]
+}
+```
+
+#### List Types
+
+Lists represent variable-length arrays of a single type.
+
+| Logical Type | Arrow Type | Description |
+|---|---|---|
+| `list` | `List` | Variable-length list of values |
+| `list.struct` | `List(Struct)` | Variable-length list of struct values |
+| `large_list` | `LargeList` | Variable-length list (supports large offsets) |
+| `large_list.struct` | `LargeList(Struct)` | Variable-length list of struct values (large offsets) |
+
+The element type is specified as a child field.
+
+#### Fixed-Size List Types
+
+Fixed-size lists have a predetermined size known at schema definition time.
+Format: `fixed_size_list:<element_type>:<size>`
+
+| Logical Type | Description | Example |
+|---|---|---|
+| `fixed_size_list:float:128` | Fixed-size list of 128 floats | Vector embeddings (128-dimensional) |
+| `fixed_size_list:int32:10` | Fixed-size list of 10 integers | |
+
+Special extension types:
+- `fixed_size_list:lance.bfloat16:256` - Fixed-size list of bfloat16 values
+
+#### Fixed-Size Binary Type
+
+Fixed-size binary data with a predetermined size in bytes.
+Format: `fixed_size_binary:<size>`
+
+| Logical Type | Description | Example |
+|---|---|---|
+| `fixed_size_binary:16` | Fixed-size binary of 16 bytes | MD5 hash |
+| `fixed_size_binary:32` | Fixed-size binary of 32 bytes | SHA-256 hash |
+
+#### Dictionary Type
+
+Dictionary-encoded data with separate keys and values.
+Format: `dict:<value_type>:<key_type>:<ordered>`
+
+- **Value type**: The type of dictionary values
+- **Key type**: The type used for dictionary indices (typically int8, int16, or int32)
+- **Ordered**: Boolean indicating if dictionary values are sorted (currently not fully supported)
+
+Example: `dict:string:int16:false` - Dictionary-encoded strings with int16 keys
+
+#### Map Type
+
+Key-value pairs stored in a structured format.
+
+| Logical Type | Arrow Type | Description |
+|---|---|---|
+| `map` | `Map` | Key-value pairs (currently supports unordered keys only) |
+
+Maps have key and value types specified as child fields.
+
+### Extension Types
+
+Lance supports custom extension types that provide semantic meaning on top of Arrow types.
+
+#### Blob Type
+
+Represents large binary data stored externally.
+
+| Logical Type | Description |
+|---|---|
+| `blob` | Large binary data with external storage reference |
+| `json` | JSON-encoded data stored as binary |
+
+Blob types are stored as large binary data with metadata describing storage location.
+
+#### BFloat16 Type
+
+Brain float (bfloat16) is a 16-bit floating point format optimized for ML.
+Used within fixed-size lists: `fixed_size_list:lance.bfloat16:SIZE`
+
+## Field IDs
+
+Field IDs are unique integer identifiers assigned to each field in a schema.
+They are essential for robust schema evolution, as they allow fields to be renamed or reordered without breaking references.
+
+### Field ID Assignment
+
+**Initial assignment (depth-first order):**
+When a table is created, field IDs are assigned to all fields in depth-first order, starting from 0.
+
+Nested fields are linked via the `parent_id` field in the protobuf message. For example, if field "c" (id: 2) is a struct containing fields "x", "y", "z", those child fields will have `parent_id: 2`. Top-level fields have `parent_id: -1`.
+
+Example with nested structure:
+```
+Field order: a, b, c.x, c.y, c.z, d
+
+Assigned IDs with parent relationships:
+- a: 0 (parent_id: -1)
+- b: 1 (parent_id: -1)
+- c: 2 (parent_id: -1, struct type)
+- c.x: 3 (parent_id: 2)
+- c.y: 4 (parent_id: 2)
+- c.z: 5 (parent_id: 2)
+- d: 6 (parent_id: -1)
+```
+
+Note: A `parent_id` of -1 indicates a top-level field. For nested fields, `parent_id` references the ID of the parent field. Child fields reference their parent via `parent_id` rather than being stored as separate "children" arrays in the protobuf message (though the Rust in-memory representation maintains a children vector for convenience).
+
+**New field assignment (incremental):**
+When fields are added later (e.g., through schema evolution), they receive the next available ID
+incrementally. This preserves the history of field additions.
+
+### Field ID Properties
+
+- **Immutable**: Once assigned, a field's ID never changes
+- **Unique**: Each field within a table has a unique ID
+- **Stable**: IDs are preserved across schema evolution operations
+- **Sparse**: Field IDs may not form a contiguous sequence after schema evolution
+
+### Using Field IDs
+
+When referencing fields internally within the format, use the field ids rather than field names or positions.
+
+## Field Metadata
+
+Fields can carry additional metadata as key-value pairs to configure encoding, primary key behavior, and other properties.
+
+### Primary Key Metadata
+
+Primary key configuration is handled by two protobuf fields in the Field message:
+- **unenforced_primary_key** (bool): Whether this field is part of the primary key
+- **unenforced_primary_key_position** (uint32): Position in primary key ordering (1-based for ordered, 0 for unordered)
+
+For detailed discussion on primary key configuration, see [Unenforced Primary Key](index.md#unenforced-primary-key) in the table format overview.
+
+### Clustering Key Metadata
+
+Clustering key configuration uses a single protobuf field in the Field message:
+- **unenforced_clustering_key_position** (uint32): 1-based position in clustering key ordering. 0 means not a clustering key field.
+
+Clustering keys hint at the physical ordering of data within a table. Unlike primary keys,
+clustering key fields may be nullable. This metadata enables query engines to perform
+optimizations such as storage-partitioned joins.
+
+### Encoding Metadata
+
+Column encoding configurations are specified with the `lance-encoding:` prefix.
+See [File Format Encoding Specification](../file/encoding.md) for complete details on available encodings.
+
+### Arrow Extension Type Metadata
+
+Custom Arrow extension types may have metadata under the `ARROW:extension:` namespace
+(e.g., `ARROW:extension:name`).
+
+## Schema Protobuf Definition
+
+The schema is serialized using protobuf messages. Key messages include:
+
+### Field Message
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.lance.file.Field %%%
+```
+
+The Field message contains:
+- **id**: Unique field identifier (int32)
+- **name**: Field name (string)
+- **type**: Field type enum (PARENT, REPEATED, or LEAF)
+- **logical_type**: Logical type string representation (string) - e.g., "int64", "struct", "list"
+- **nullable**: Whether the field can be null (bool)
+- **parent_id**: Parent field ID for nested fields; -1 for top-level fields (int32)
+- **metadata**: Key-value pairs for additional configuration (map<string, bytes>)
+- **unenforced_primary_key**: Whether this field is part of the primary key (bool)
+- **unenforced_primary_key_position**: Position in primary key ordering (uint32, 0 = unordered)
+
+### Schema Message
+
+The complete schema is represented as a collection of top-level fields plus metadata.
+
+## Schema Evolution
+
+Field IDs enable efficient schema evolution:
+
+- **Add Column**: Assign a new field ID and add to schema
+- **Drop Column**: Remove field from schema; its ID may be reused in some systems
+- **Rename Column**: Change field name; ID remains the same
+- **Reorder Columns**: Change field order in schema; IDs remain the same
+- **Type Evolution**: Data type can be changed. This might require rewriting the column in the data, depending on how the type was changed.
+
+The use of field IDs ensures that data files can be correctly interpreted even as the schema changes over time.
+
+## Example Schemas
+
+The examples below use a simplified representation of the field structure. In the actual protobuf format, `type` refers to the field type enum (PARENT/REPEATED/LEAF) and `logical_type` contains the data type string representation.
+
+### Simple Table
+
+```
+Field {
+    id: 0
+    name: "id"
+    logical_type: "int64"
+    nullable: false
+    parent_id: -1
+}
+Field {
+    id: 1
+    name: "name"
+    logical_type: "string"
+    nullable: true
+    parent_id: -1
+}
+Field {
+    id: 2
+    name: "created_at"
+    logical_type: "timestamp:us:UTC"
+    nullable: true
+    parent_id: -1
+}
+```
+
+### Nested Structure
+
+```
+Field {
+    id: 0
+    name: "id"
+    logical_type: "int64"
+    nullable: false
+    parent_id: -1  // Top-level field
+}
+Field {
+    id: 1
+    name: "user"
+    logical_type: "struct"
+    nullable: true
+    parent_id: -1  // Top-level field
+}
+Field {
+    id: 2
+    name: "name"
+    logical_type: "string"
+    nullable: true
+    parent_id: 1  // Nested under "user" struct (id: 1)
+}
+Field {
+    id: 3
+    name: "email"
+    logical_type: "string"
+    nullable: true
+    parent_id: 1  // Nested under "user" struct (id: 1)
+}
+Field {
+    id: 4
+    name: "tags"
+    logical_type: "list"
+    nullable: true
+    parent_id: -1  // Top-level field
+}
+Field {
+    id: 5
+    name: "item"
+    logical_type: "string"
+    nullable: true
+    parent_id: 4  // Nested under "tags" list (id: 4)
+}
+```
+
+### With Vector Embeddings
+
+```
+Field {
+    id: 0
+    name: "id"
+    logical_type: "int64"
+    nullable: false
+    parent_id: -1  // Top-level field
+    unenforced_primary_key: true
+    unenforced_primary_key_position: 1  // Ordered position in primary key
+}
+Field {
+    id: 1
+    name: "text"
+    logical_type: "string"
+    nullable: true
+    parent_id: -1  // Top-level field
+}
+Field {
+    id: 2
+    name: "embedding"
+    logical_type: "fixed_size_list:lance.bfloat16:384"
+    nullable: true
+    parent_id: -1  // Top-level field
+}
+```
+
+## Type Conversion Reference
+
+When converting between logical types and Arrow types, Lance uses the following mappings:
+
+| Arrow Type | Logical Type Format |
+|---|---|
+| `Arrow::Null` | `null` |
+| `Arrow::Boolean` | `bool` |
+| `Arrow::Int8` to `Int64` | `int8`, `int16`, `int32`, `int64` |
+| `Arrow::UInt8` to `UInt64` | `uint8`, `uint16`, `uint32`, `uint64` |
+| `Arrow::Float16` | `halffloat` |
+| `Arrow::Float32` | `float` |
+| `Arrow::Float64` | `double` |
+| `Arrow::Utf8` | `string` |
+| `Arrow::LargeUtf8` | `large_string` |
+| `Arrow::Binary` | `binary` |
+| `Arrow::LargeBinary` | `large_binary` |
+| `Arrow::Decimal128(p, s)` | `decimal:128:p:s` |
+| `Arrow::Decimal256(p, s)` | `decimal:256:p:s` |
+| `Arrow::Date32` | `date32:day` |
+| `Arrow::Date64` | `date64:ms` |
+| `Arrow::Time32(TimeUnit)` | `time32:s`, `time32:ms` |
+| `Arrow::Time64(TimeUnit)` | `time64:us`, `time64:ns` |
+| `Arrow::Timestamp(unit, tz)` | `timestamp:unit:tz` |
+| `Arrow::Duration(unit)` | `duration:s`, `duration:ms`, `duration:us`, `duration:ns` |
+| `Arrow::Struct` | `struct` |
+| `Arrow::List(Element)` | `list` or `list.struct` if element is Struct |
+| `Arrow::LargeList(Element)` | `large_list` or `large_list.struct` |
+| `Arrow::FixedSizeList(Element, Size)` | `fixed_size_list:type:size` |
+| `Arrow::FixedSizeBinary(Size)` | `fixed_size_binary:size` |
+| `Arrow::Dictionary(KeyType, ValueType)` | `dict:value_type:key_type:false` |
+| `Arrow::Map` | `map` |
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/transaction.md b/docs/src/format/table/transaction.md
index 56b867a4683..a38f8e48a63 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/transaction.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/transaction.md
@@ -38,6 +38,14 @@ These files serve two purposes:
 1. Enable manifest reconstruction during commit retries when concurrent transactions have been committed
 2. Support conflict detection by describing the operation performed
 
+### Inline Transaction Sections
+
+Small transactions may also be embedded in the manifest file. The manifest stores the byte position of the length-prefixed Transaction message in `transaction_section` (field 23). Readers that do not recognize this manifest field ignore it, so adding a Transaction operation cannot prevent those readers from opening the dataset.
+
+Decoding an inline transaction while opening a manifest is an optional cache optimization. An undecodable or unsupported Transaction message must not make the manifest unreadable. A Transaction whose `operation` holds a field number in the reserved range 100-199 that the reader does not recognize is an operation from a newer writer. Readers must treat it as an unknown operation that conflicts with every concurrent transaction, and must not re-encode or commit it.
+
+`transaction_section_deprecated` (field 21) is the legacy inline position. New writers must leave it absent. Readers may use it to retrieve a transaction from an old manifest when field 23 is absent.
+
 ### Commit Algorithm
 
 The commit process attempts to atomically write a new manifest file using the storage primitives described above.
@@ -52,6 +60,12 @@ The authoritative specification for transaction types is defined in [`protos/tra
 Each transaction contains a `read_version` field indicating the table version from which the transaction was built,
 a `uuid` field uniquely identifying the transaction, and an `operation` field specifying one of the following transaction types:
 
+In the following section, we will describe each transaction type and its compatibility with other transaction types. This
+compatibility is not always bi-directional. We are describing it from the perspective of the operation being committed. For example, we say that an Append is not compatible with an Overwrite which means that if we are trying to commit an Append, and an
+Overwrite has already been committed (since we started the Append), then the Append will fail. On the other hand, when describing the
+Overwrite operation, we say that it does not conflict with Append. This is because, if we are trying to commit an Overwrite, and an
+Append operation has occurred in the meantime, we still allow the Overwrite to proceed.
+
 ### Append
 
 Adds new fragments to the table without modifying existing data.
@@ -66,6 +80,16 @@ Fragment IDs are not assigned at transaction creation time; they are assigned du
 
 </details>
 
+#### Append Compatibility
+
+The append operation is one of the most common operations and is designed to be compatible with most other operations, even
+itself. This is to ensure that multiple writers can append without worry about conflicts. These are the operations
+that conflict with append:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+- UpdateMemWalState
+
 ### Delete
 
 Marks rows as deleted using deletion vectors.
@@ -81,6 +105,30 @@ The `predicate` field stores the deletion condition, enabling conflict detection
 
 </details>
 
+#### Delete Compatibility
+
+Delete modifies an existing fragment, so there may be conflicts with other operations on overlapping fragments.
+Generally these conflicts are rebaseable or retryable.
+
+These are the operations that conflict with delete:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+- UpdateMemWalState
+
+These operations conflict with delete but can be retried:
+
+- Merge (only if there are overlapping fragments)
+- Rewrite (only if there are overlapping fragments)
+- DataReplacement (only if there are overlapping fragments)
+
+These operations conflict with delete but can potentially be rebased. The deletion
+masks from the two operations will be merged. However, if both operations modified
+the same rows, then the conflict becomes a retryable conflict.
+
+- Delete
+- Update
+
 ### Overwrite
 
 Creates or completely overwrites the table with new data, schema, and configuration.
@@ -94,6 +142,18 @@ Creates or completely overwrites the table with new data, schema, and configurat
 
 </details>
 
+#### Overwrite Compatibility
+
+An overwrite operation completely overwrites the table. Generally, we do not care what has happened since
+the read version.
+
+However, the overwrite does not necessarily rewrite the table config. As a result, we consider the following
+to be retryable conflicts:
+
+- UpdateConfig (only if the two operations modify the same config key)
+- Overwrite (always)
+- UpdateMemWalState (always)
+
 ### CreateIndex
 
 Adds, replaces, or removes secondary indices (vector indices, scalar indices, full-text search indices).
@@ -107,6 +167,40 @@ Adds, replaces, or removes secondary indices (vector indices, scalar indices, fu
 
 </details>
 
+#### CreateIndex Compatibility
+
+Indexes record which fragments are covered by the index and we don't require all fragments be covered. As a result, it
+is typically ok for an index to be created concurrently with the addition of new fragments. These new fragments will simply
+be unindexed.
+
+Updates and deletes are also compatible with index creation. This is because it is ok for an index to refer to deleted rows.
+Those results will be filtered out after the index search. If an update occurs then the old value will be filtered out and the
+new value will be considered part of the unindexed set.
+
+If two CreateIndex operations are committed concurrently then it is allowed. If the indexes have different names this is no
+problem. If the indexes have the same name then the second operation will win and replace the first.
+
+These operations conflict with index creation:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+- UpdateMemWalState
+
+Data replacement operations will conflict with index creation if the column being replaced is being indexed. Rewrite operations
+will conflict with index creation if the rewritten fragments are covered by the index. This is because an index refers to row
+addresses and the rewrite operation changes the row addresses. However, if a fragment reuse index is being used, or if the stable
+row ids feature is enable, then the rewrite operation is compatible with index creation. As a result, these are the operations
+that are retryable conflicts with index creation:
+
+- Rewrite (only if overlapping fragments, no stable row ids, and no fragment reuse index)
+- DataReplacement (only if overlapping fragments and the column being replaced is being indexed)
+
+Some indices are special singleton indices. For example, the fragment reuse index and the mem wal index. If a conflict occurs
+between two operations that are modifying the same singleton index, then we must rebase the operation and merge the indexes.
+As a result, these are the operations that are rebaseable conflicts with index creation:
+
+- CreateIndex (only if both operations are modifying the same singleton index)
+
 ### Rewrite
 
 Reorganizes data without semantic modification.
@@ -114,6 +208,10 @@ This includes operations such as compaction, defragmentation, and re-ordering.
 Rewrite operations change row addresses, requiring index updates.
 New fragment IDs must be reserved via `ReserveFragments` before executing a `Rewrite` transaction.
 
+A rewrite that defers index remapping publishes its address mapping in the
+same commit by replacing the [Fragment Reuse Index](../index/system/frag_reuse.md)
+entry in the manifest's index section.
+
 <details>
 <summary>Rewrite protobuf message</summary>
 
@@ -123,6 +221,38 @@ New fragment IDs must be reserved via `ReserveFragments` before executing a `Rew
 
 </details>
 
+#### Rewrite Compatibility
+
+Rewrite operations do not change data but they can materialize deletions and they do replace fragments. As a result,
+they can potentially conflict with other operations that modify the fragments being rewritten.
+
+These are the operations that conflict with rewrite:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+
+Rewrite is not compatible with CreateIndex by default because the operation will change the row addresses that the CreateIndex
+refers to. However, a fragment reuse index or the stable row ids feature can allow these operations to be compatible.
+
+Several operations modify existing fragments. As a result, they can potentially conflict with Rewrite if they modify
+the same fragments. However, Merge is [overly general](#overly-general-operation) and so no conflict detection is possible.
+As a result, here are the operations that are retryable conflicts with Rewrite:
+
+- Merge (always)
+- DataReplacement (only if overlapping fragments)
+- Delete (only if overlapping fragments)
+- Update (only if overlapping fragments)
+- Rewrite (if overlapping fragments or both carry a fragment reuse index)
+- CreateIndex (overlapping fragments and no fragment reuse index or stable row ids)
+
+There is one case where a Rewrite will rebase. This is when the Rewrite operation has a fragment reuse index and there is
+a CreateIndex operation that is writing the fragment reuse index. In this case the Rewrite will rebase and update its
+fragment reuse index to include the conflicting fragment reuse index.
+
+As a result, these are the operations that are rebaseable conflicts with Rewrite:
+
+- CreateIndex (if the CreateIndex is writing the fragment reuse index and the Rewrite is carrying a fragment reuse index)
+
 ### Merge
 
 Adds new columns to the table, modifying the schema.
@@ -137,6 +267,31 @@ All fragments must be updated to include the new columns.
 
 </details>
 
+#### Overly General Operation
+
+The Merge operation is a very generic operation. The set of fragments provided in the operation will be the final set of
+fragments in the resulting dataset. As a result, it has a high potential for conflicts with other operations. If possible,
+more restrictive operations such as Rewrite, DataReplacement, or Append should be preferred over Merge.
+
+#### Merge Compatibility
+
+As mentioned above, Merge is a very generic operation, as a result it has a high potential for conflicts with other operations.
+The following operations conflict with Merge:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+- UpdateMemWalState
+- Project
+
+These operations are retryable conflicts with Merge:
+
+- Update (always)
+- Append (always)
+- Delete (always)
+- Merge (always)
+- Rewrite (always)
+- DataReplacement (always)
+
 ### Project
 
 Removes columns from the table, modifying the schema.
@@ -151,6 +306,23 @@ This is a metadata-only operation; data files are not modified.
 
 </details>
 
+#### Project Compatibility
+
+Since project only modifies the schema, it is compatible with most other operations. However, it is not compatible with Merge
+because the Merge operation modifies the schema (can potentially add columns) and the logic to rebase those changes does not
+currently exist (project is cheap and easy enough to retry).
+
+These are the operations that conflict with Project:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+- UpdateMemWalState
+
+The following operations are retryable conflicts with Project:
+
+- Project (always)
+- Merge (always)
+
 ### Restore
 
 Reverts the table to a previous version.
@@ -164,6 +336,14 @@ Reverts the table to a previous version.
 
 </details>
 
+#### Restore Compatibility
+
+The Restore operation reverts the table to a previous version. It's generally assumed this trumps any
+other operation. Here are the operations that conflict with Restore:
+
+- UpdateMemWalState
+- UpdateConfig (only if it updates schema or field metadata, which a restore rewinds)
+
 ### ReserveFragments
 
 Pre-allocates fragment IDs for use in future `Rewrite` operations.
@@ -178,6 +358,14 @@ This allows rewrite operations to reference fragment IDs before the rewrite tran
 
 </details>
 
+#### ReserveFragments Compatibility
+
+The ReserveFragments operation is fairly trivial. The only thing it changes is the max fragment id. So this
+only conflicts with operations that modify the max fragment id. Here are the operations that conflict with ReserveFragments:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+
 ### Clone
 
 Creates a shallow or deep copy of the table.
@@ -193,6 +381,11 @@ Deep clones are full copies using object storage native copy operations (e.g., S
 
 </details>
 
+#### Clone Compatibility
+
+The Clone operation can only be the first operation in a dataset. If there is an existing dataset, then the Clone operation will fail.
+As a result, there is no such thing as a conflict with Clone.
+
 ### Update
 
 Modifies row values without adding or removing rows.
@@ -207,6 +400,27 @@ Supports two execution modes: REWRITE_ROWS deletes rows in current fragments and
 
 </details>
 
+#### Update Compatibility
+
+Here are the operations that conflict with Update:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+
+An update operation is both a delete and an append operation. Like a Delete operation, it will modify fragments to change
+the deletion mask. As a result, there will be a retryable conflict with other operations that modify the same fragments.
+Here are the operations that are retryable conflicts with Update:
+
+- Rewrite (only if overlapping fragments)
+- DataReplacement (only if overlapping fragments)
+- Merge (always)
+
+Similar to Delete, the Update operation can rebase other modifications to the deletion mask. Here are the operations that
+are rebaseable conflicts with Update:
+
+- Delete
+- Update
+
 ### UpdateConfig
 
 Modifies table configuration, table metadata, schema metadata, or field metadata without changing data.
@@ -220,6 +434,15 @@ Modifies table configuration, table metadata, schema metadata, or field metadata
 
 </details>
 
+#### UpdateConfig Compatibility
+
+An UpdateConfig operation only modifies table config and tends to be compatible with other operations. Here
+are the operations that conflict with UpdateConfig:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore (only if the UpdateConfig updates schema or field metadata)
+- UpdateConfig (only if the two operations modify the same config)
+
 ### DataReplacement
 
 Replaces data in specific column regions with new data files.
@@ -233,6 +456,88 @@ Replaces data in specific column regions with new data files.
 
 </details>
 
+#### DataReplacement Compatibility
+
+A DataReplacement operation only replaces a single column's worth of data. As a result, it can be safer and simpler than Merge
+or Update operations. It rewrites a column file positionally against the fragments it targets, so a concurrent operation only
+conflicts when it removes one of those fragments or invalidates the rows the column file covers. Here are the operations that
+conflict with DataReplacement (non-retryable):
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+- UpdateMemWalState
+- Delete (only if it removes a target fragment outright)
+- Update (only if it removes a target fragment outright)
+
+The following operations are retryable conflicts with DataReplacement:
+
+- DataReplacement (only if same field and overlapping fragments)
+- CreateIndex (only if the field being replaced is being indexed)
+- Rewrite (only if overlapping fragments)
+- Update (only if it rewrites rows out of a target fragment, or rewrites one of the replaced fields in place)
+- Merge (always)
+
+A concurrent Delete or Update that only adds a deletion vector to a target fragment (without removing it) is compatible: the
+positional column file stays aligned and the rebase preserves the deletion vector.
+
+### DataOverlay
+
+Attaches [overlay files](data_overlay_file.md) to fragments, supplying new values
+for a subset of `(row offset, field)` cells without rewriting the fragments' base
+data files. The overlays are appended to each fragment's existing `overlays` list,
+so overlays written by concurrent commits are preserved. Each overlay's
+`committed_version` is stamped to the new dataset version at commit time (and
+re-stamped on retry), like the created-at / last-updated-at version sequences.
+
+<details>
+<summary>DataOverlay protobuf message</summary>
+
+```protobuf
+%%% proto.message.DataOverlay %%%
+
+%%% proto.message.DataOverlayGroup %%%
+```
+
+</details>
+
+#### DataOverlay Compatibility
+
+A DataOverlay operation only changes cells within existing fragments and preserves
+physical row addresses, so — like DataReplacement — it is intentionally permissive.
+Because overlays stack and the higher `committed_version` wins each covered cell,
+independent backfills never conflict, and a concurrent Delete simply makes the
+overlay value for a deleted offset inert. Here are the operations that conflict
+with DataOverlay:
+
+- Overwrite
+- Restore
+- UpdateMemWalState
+
+The following operations are retryable conflicts with DataOverlay:
+
+- Rewrite (only if overlapping fragments) — row-rewriting compaction or an
+  overlay→base fold changes physical row addresses or consumes the overlays, so
+  the overlay's offsets are no longer valid; the writer must re-read the new
+  fragment, recompute, and retry.
+- Merge (always).
+- A row-moving Update that touches an overlaid fragment — a delete-and-reinsert
+  update (any update that is not a `REWRITE_COLUMNS` column rewrite) relocates the
+  updated rows into new fragments, so the overlay's physical offsets no longer
+  address them; the writer must re-read and retry.
+
+DataOverlay is compatible with another DataOverlay (any fields), Append, Delete, a
+`REWRITE_COLUMNS` column rewrite, and DataReplacement, because all of these
+preserve physical row addresses: overlay offsets stay valid, the overlay is newer
+and wins its covered cells, and the version gate excludes those cells from any
+rebuilt index.
+
+When a DataReplacement or a `REWRITE_COLUMNS` update writes new base values for a
+field, it supersedes any older overlay on that field: the writer tombstones the
+overlay's entry for the rewritten field — replacing the field id with the obsolete
+sentinel, as with obsolete base columns — so the fresh base values are not silently
+shadowed. Overlay entries for other fields are preserved, and an overlay left with
+no live fields is dropped.
+
 ### UpdateMemWalState
 
 Updates the state of MemWal indices (write-ahead log based indices).
@@ -259,6 +564,12 @@ Adds new base paths to the table, enabling reference to data files in additional
 
 </details>
 
+#### UpdateBases Compatibility
+
+An UpdateBases operation only modifies the base paths. As a result, it only conflicts with other
+UpdateBases operations and even then only conflicts if the two operations have base paths with the
+same id, name, or path.
+
 ## Conflict Resolution
 
 ### Terminology
@@ -383,13 +694,14 @@ In this scenario:
 - The commit fails with a non-retryable error
 - If the caller retries the deletion operation against version 4, it would either delete nothing (if those rows don't exist in v1) or delete different rows (if similar row IDs exist in v1), producing semantically different results than originally intended
 
-
 ## External Manifest Store
 
 If the backing object store does not support atomic operations (rename-if-not-exists or put-if-not-exists), an external manifest store can be used to enable concurrent writers.
 
 An external manifest store is a key-value store that supports put-if-not-exists operations.
-The external manifest store supplements but does not replace the manifests in object storage.
+It is the concurrency coordinator and fast version index: its conditional write selects one
+immutable staging manifest for each version. The canonical manifest bytes in object storage
+remain authoritative, so the external store supplements but does not replace them.
 A reader unaware of the external manifest store can still read the table, but may observe a version up to one commit behind the true latest version.
 
 ### Commit Process with External Store
@@ -399,27 +711,44 @@ The commit process follows a four-step protocol:
 ![External Store Commit Process](../../images/external_store_commit.gif)
 
 1. **Stage manifest**: `PUT_OBJECT_STORE {dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest-{uuid}`
-    - Write the new manifest to object storage under a unique path determined by a new UUID
-    - This staged manifest is not yet visible to readers
+   - Write the new manifest to object storage under a unique path determined by a new UUID
+   - This staged manifest is not yet visible to readers
 
-2. **Commit to external store**: `PUT_EXTERNAL_STORE base_uri, version, {dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest-{uuid}`
-    - Atomically commit the path of the staged manifest to the external store using put-if-not-exists
-    - The commit is effectively complete after this step
-    - If this operation fails due to conflict, another writer has committed this version
+2. **Reserve version in external store**: `PUT_EXTERNAL_STORE base_uri, version, {dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest-{uuid}`
+   - Atomically reserve the version for this staged manifest using put-if-not-exists
+   - The reservation selects one immutable staging object; it is not yet the canonical commit
+   - If this operation fails due to conflict, another writer reserved this version
 
 3. **Finalize in object store**: `COPY_OBJECT_STORE {dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest-{uuid} → {dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest`
-    - Copy the staged manifest to the final path
-    - This makes the manifest discoverable by readers unaware of the external store
+   - Copy the staged manifest to the final path
+   - Successful materialization at this deterministic path is the commit point
+   - This makes the manifest discoverable by readers unaware of the external store
 
 4. **Update external store pointer**: `PUT_EXTERNAL_STORE base_uri, version, {dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest`
-    - Update the external store to point to the finalized manifest path
-    - Completes the synchronization between external store and object storage
+   - Update the external store to point to the finalized manifest path
+   - After copying, read the canonical object's current metadata. Return its ETag to the caller as
+     an opaque physical-generation observation so runtime caches do not collapse a newly committed
+     Dataset into an older cached Dataset at the same URI and version
+   - Do not persist that ETag in the external store. Concurrent finalizers can copy the same selected
+     immutable bytes into different physical generations, and COPY plus external-store publication
+     is not atomic. Every helper therefore publishes the same stable path-and-size tuple
+   - Completes the synchronization between external store and object storage
 
 **Fault Tolerance:**
 
-If the writer fails after step 2 but before step 4, the external store and object store are temporarily out of sync.
-Readers detect this condition and attempt to complete the synchronization.
-If synchronization fails, the reader refuses to load to ensure dataset portability.
+If the writer fails after step 2 but before step 3, the external store contains a pending
+reservation. Readers that use the external store detect this state and retry materialization.
+If step 3 succeeds but step 4 fails, the canonical object remains committed; readers use it and
+may repair the external index. Staging deletion is garbage collection and does not affect the
+commit outcome.
+
+**Rolling Upgrade:**
+
+Roll this behavior out normally across the fleet. New readers ignore legacy stored
+ETags, and legacy readers already accept finalized rows without an ETag, so mixed-version rows
+remain compatible. While both legacy finalizers and legacy readers remain, the pre-existing race
+can still republish a stale ETag that a legacy reader rejects. Full protection takes effect when
+the rolling upgrade converges; no row migration or quiesced cutover is required.
 
 ### Reader Process with External Store
 
@@ -428,20 +757,23 @@ The reader follows a validation and synchronization protocol:
 ![External Store Reader Process](../../images/external_store_reader.gif)
 
 1. **Query external store**: `GET_EXTERNAL_STORE base_uri, version` → `path`
-    - Retrieve the manifest path for the requested version
-    - If the path does not end with a UUID, return it directly (synchronization complete)
-    - If the path ends with a UUID, synchronization is required
+   - Retrieve the manifest path for the requested version
+   - If the path does not end with a UUID, validate the canonical object's size. Ignore any legacy
+     stored ETag because it is neither content identity nor dataset-incarnation identity; the
+     validation HEAD still returns the current canonical ETag to the caller
+   - If the path ends with a UUID, synchronization is required
 
 2. **Synchronize to object store**: `COPY_OBJECT_STORE {dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest-{uuid} → {dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest`
-    - Attempt to finalize the staged manifest
-    - This operation is idempotent
+   - Attempt to finalize the staged manifest
+   - This operation is idempotent
 
 3. **Update external store**: `PUT_EXTERNAL_STORE base_uri, version, {dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest`
-    - Update the external store to reflect the finalized path
-    - Future readers will see the synchronized state
+   - Best-effort record the finalized path and size without an ETag while returning the observed
+     destination ETag to the current caller
+   - If this index repair fails, retain staging so a future reader can retry it
 
 4. **Return finalized path**: Return `{dataset}/_versions/{version}.manifest`
-    - Always return the finalized path
-    - If synchronization fails, return an error to prevent reading inconsistent state
+   - Return once canonical materialization succeeds, even if index repair or staging cleanup fails
+   - If canonical materialization cannot be established, or an observed size differs, return an error
 
 This protocol ensures that datasets using external manifest stores remain portable: copying the dataset directory preserves all data without requiring the external store.
diff --git a/docs/src/format/table/versioning.md b/docs/src/format/table/versioning.md
index 745dd1ccd87..e4280cfc215 100644
--- a/docs/src/format/table/versioning.md
+++ b/docs/src/format/table/versioning.md
@@ -21,14 +21,26 @@ they should return an "unsupported" error on any read or write operation.
 
 <div class="feature-flags-table" markdown="1">
 
-| Flag Bit | Flag Name                       | Reader Required | Writer Required | Description                                                                                                 |
+| Bit Mask | Flag Name                       | Reader Required | Writer Required | Description                                                                                                 |
 |----------|---------------------------------|-----------------|-----------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
-| 1        | `FLAG_DELETION_FILES`           | Yes             | Yes             | Fragments may contain deletion files, which record the tombstones of soft-deleted rows.                     |
-| 2        | `FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS`           | Yes             | Yes             | Row IDs are stable for both moves and updates. Fragments contain an index mapping row IDs to row addresses. |
-| 4        | `FLAG_USE_V2_FORMAT_DEPRECATED` | No              | No              | Files are written with the new v2 format. This flag is deprecated and no longer used.                       |
-| 8        | `FLAG_TABLE_CONFIG`             | No              | Yes             | Table config is present in the manifest.                                                                    |
-| 16       | `FLAG_BASE_PATHS`               | Yes             | Yes             | Dataset uses multiple base paths (for shallow clones or multi-base datasets).                               |
+| `2^0`    | `FLAG_DELETION_FILES`           | Yes             | Yes             | Fragments may contain deletion files, which record the tombstones of soft-deleted rows.                     |
+| `2^1`    | `FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS`           | Yes             | Yes             | Row IDs are stable for both moves and updates. Fragments contain an index mapping row IDs to row addresses. |
+| `2^2`    | `FLAG_USE_V2_FORMAT_DEPRECATED` | No              | No              | Files are written with the new v2 format. This flag is deprecated and no longer used.                       |
+| `2^3`    | `FLAG_TABLE_CONFIG`             | No              | Yes             | Table config is present in the manifest.                                                                    |
+| `2^4`    | `FLAG_BASE_PATHS`               | Yes             | Yes             | Dataset uses multiple base paths (for shallow clones or multi-base datasets).                               |
+| `2^5`    | `FLAG_DISABLE_TRANSACTION_FILE` | No              | Yes             | Transactions are recorded in the manifest rather than in a separate transaction file.                       |
+| `2^6`    | `FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES` | Yes          | Yes             | Fragments may carry data overlay files. Unstable: release builds reject it unless explicitly opted in.      |
+| `2^7`    | `FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA`   | Yes             | Yes             | Some index declares covering columns (`IndexMetadata.covering_fields`). Without `FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS`, the carried columns form the trailing suffix of `fields`. An implementation without this flag may select or maintain an index using the wrong fields. |
+| `2^8`    | `FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS` | Yes             | Yes             | The snapshot may reference recognized V2 data files with different exact versions. Both bits must be set and remain set on later versions. |
+| `2^9`    | `FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS` | Yes       | Yes             | The table uses stable row IDs and carries a [Fragment Reuse Index](../index/system/frag_reuse.md). |
+| `2^10`   | `FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX`     | Yes             | Yes             | The fragment reuse index records tagged transitions (`IndexMetadata.index_version >= 1`). Readers must translate row addresses through them; writers must preserve them. An implementation without this flag would decode the details as the legacy format and silently drop the transitions when it next rewrites the fragment reuse index. See [FRI index versions](../index/system/frag_reuse.md#fri-index-versions). |
+| `2^11`   | `FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE` | Yes         | Yes             | Some fragment stores its row ids or row version sequences as hidden columns of a data file rather than inline. A reader without this flag would see the fragment as having no row ids. Unstable: release builds reject it unless explicitly opted in. |
+| `2^12`   | `FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE`            | Yes             | Yes             | Fragment records live in a [fragment tree](fragment_metadata.md). `Manifest.fragments` is empty. |
+| `2^13`   | `FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS` | Yes          | Yes             | Requires `FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA` and is retained together with it. `IndexMetadata.fields` contains only key fields, while `covering_fields` independently declares carried fields and may overlap `fields`. Implementations that only support the legacy suffix contract must reject the dataset. |
+| `2^14`   | `FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS`            | Yes             | Yes             | Blob descriptors independently address owned objects. Readers resolve the descriptor's base and path; cleanup preserves objects referenced by protected snapshots, independently of the original data file. Both bits remain set on later versions, including restores. |
 
 </div>
 
-Flags with bit values 32 and above are unknown and will cause implementations to reject the dataset with an "unsupported" error.
+Bits at positions 15 and above (`2^15`, `2^16`, and so on) are unknown; unknown flags cause implementations to reject the dataset with an "unsupported" error. The paired mixed-version and Managed Blob reader and writer bits must each either both be set or both be clear; a half-set manifest is invalid.
+
+Publishing a new data file containing a Blob v2 field activates the Managed Blob capability, including files containing only inline values. Metadata-only updates and deletion vectors on existing files do not activate it. Once activated, removing Blob fields or restoring an older snapshot does not clear it. Before activation, all maintenance clients must support Managed Blobs: the flag cannot revoke old handles or prevent older clients from running cleanup through an unflagged historical snapshot. See [client compatibility](../../guide/blob.md#managed-objects-and-client-compatibility).
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/.pages b/docs/src/guide/.pages
index e92b9a1182a..7a0fd817b1c 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/.pages
+++ b/docs/src/guide/.pages
@@ -4,10 +4,12 @@ nav:
   - Data Evolution: data_evolution.md
   - Blob API: blob.md
   - JSON Support: json.md
-  - Tags: tags.md
+  - Tags and Branches: tags_and_branches.md
   - Object Store Configuration: object_store.md
+  - Observability: observability.md
   - Distributed Write: distributed_write.md
+  - Distributed Indexing: distributed_indexing.md
   - Migration Guide: migration.md
   - Performance Guide: performance.md
   - Tokenizer: tokenizer.md
-  - Extension Arrays: arrays.md
\ No newline at end of file
+  - Extension Arrays: arrays.md
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/arrays.md b/docs/src/guide/arrays.md
index f824dd641c1..5765ca7675b 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/arrays.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/arrays.md
@@ -119,11 +119,11 @@ calling `lance.arrow.ImageTensorArray.to_encoded`.
 
 A `lance.arrow.EncodedImageArray.to_tensor` method is provided to decode
 encoded images and return them as `lance.arrow.FixedShapeImageTensorArray`, from
-which they can be converted to numpy arrays or TensorFlow tensors.
+which they can be converted to numpy arrays.
 For decoding images, it will first attempt to use a decoder provided via the optional
 function parameter. If decoder is not provided it will attempt to use
-[Pillow](https://pillow.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) and [tensorflow](https://www.tensorflow.org/api_docs/python/tf/io/encode_png) in that
-order. If neither library or custom decoder is available an exception will be raised.
+[Pillow](https://pillow.readthedocs.io/en/stable/). If neither Pillow nor a custom
+decoder is available an exception will be raised.
 
 ```python
 from lance.arrow import ImageURIArray
@@ -132,13 +132,16 @@ uris = [os.path.join(os.path.dirname(__file__), "images/1.png")]
 encoded_images = ImageURIArray.from_uris(uris).read_uris()
 print(encoded_images.to_tensor())
 
-def tensorflow_decoder(images):
-    import tensorflow as tf
+def pillow_decoder(images):
+    import io
     import numpy as np
+    from PIL import Image
 
-    return np.stack(tf.io.decode_png(img.as_py(), channels=3) for img in images.storage)
+    return np.stack(
+        np.asarray(Image.open(io.BytesIO(img.as_py()))) for img in images.storage
+    )
 
-print(encoded_images.to_tensor(tensorflow_decoder))
+print(encoded_images.to_tensor(pillow_decoder))
 # <lance.arrow.FixedShapeImageTensorArray object at 0x...>
 # [[42, 42, 42, 255]]
 # <lance.arrow.FixedShapeImageTensorArray object at 0x...>
@@ -164,8 +167,8 @@ created by calling `lance.arrow.ImageArray.from_array` and passing in a
 It can be encoded into to `lance.arrow.EncodedImageArray` by calling
 `lance.arrow.FixedShapeImageTensorArray.to_encoded` and passing custom encoder
 If encoder is not provided it will attempt to use
-[tensorflow](https://www.tensorflow.org/api_docs/python/tf/io/encode_png) and [Pillow](https://pillow.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) in that order. Default encoders will
-encode to PNG. If neither library is available it will raise an exception.
+[Pillow](https://pillow.readthedocs.io/en/stable/). The default encoder will encode
+to PNG. If neither Pillow nor a custom encoder is available it will raise an exception.
 
 ```python
 from lance.arrow import ImageURIArray
@@ -176,4 +179,4 @@ tensor_images.to_encoded()
 # <lance.arrow.EncodedImageArray object at 0x...>
 # [...
 # b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a...'
-``` 
\ No newline at end of file
+```
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/blob.md b/docs/src/guide/blob.md
index 6450230e09b..a9d28b3d73b 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/blob.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/blob.md
@@ -1,86 +1,512 @@
-# Blob As Files
+# Blob Columns
 
-Unlike other data formats, large multimodal data is a first-class citizen in the Lance columnar format.
-Lance provides a high-level API to store and retrieve large binary objects (blobs) in Lance datasets.
+Lance can store large binary objects (images, videos, audio, model artifacts) in blob columns, where they are treated like any other column payload in the dataset.
+Blob columns support both planned full-payload reads and lazy file-like access.
 
-![Blob](../images/blob.png)
+!!! tip "Choosing between `read_blobs` and `take_blobs`"
+    - For data loaders and batch processing that need complete byte payloads, use `read_blobs`.
+    - Use `take_blobs` when you need a `BlobFile` handle for streaming, seeking, or partial reads.
 
-Lance serves large binary data using `lance.BlobFile`, which
-is a file-like object that lazily reads large binary objects.
 
-To create a Lance dataset with large blob data, you can mark a large binary column as a blob column by
-adding the metadata `lance-encoding:blob` to `true`.
+![Blob v2 overview](../images/blob-v2-overview-light.png#only-light)
+![Blob v2 overview](../images/blob-v2-overview-dark.png#only-dark)
+
+If you're unsure about whether you need a blob column in the first place (and why it's useful), read the "[when to use blob column vs. inline binary](#when-to-use-a-blob-column-vs-inline-binary)" section below.
+
+## Quick Start: Blob v2
+
+This page focuses on blob workflows in Python and uses Lance file format terminology.
+
+- `data_storage_version` means the Lance **file format version** of a dataset.
+- A dataset has a default file format version. Append and compaction can select
+  another exact `2.x` version without rewriting existing files or changing that default.
+- File format `0.1` cannot be mixed with the `2.x` family.
 
 ```python
+import lance
 import pyarrow as pa
+from lance import blob_array, blob_field
 
-schema = pa.schema(
-    [
-        pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
-        pa.field("video",
-            pa.large_binary(),
-            metadata={"lance-encoding:blob": "true"}
-        ),
-    ]
+schema = pa.schema([
+    pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+    blob_field("blob"),
+])
+
+table = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": [1],
+        "blob": blob_array([b"hello blob v2"]),
+    },
+    schema=schema,
 )
+
+ds = lance.write_dataset(table, "./blobs_v22.lance", data_storage_version="2.2")
+
+_row_address, payload = ds.read_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+assert payload == b"hello blob v2"
 ```
 
-To write blob data to a Lance dataset, create a PyArrow table with the blob schema and use `lance.write_dataset`:
+## Version Compatibility
+
+Blob support is tied to the dataset's file format version. Earlier file format versions
+(`< 2.2`) stored blobs using the `lance-encoding:blob` metadata field, while Blob
+v2 introduces a new storage layout that requires file format `>= 2.2`.
+
+The target file version selects the physical Blob encoding. For `>= 2.2`,
+dataset writers also accept legacy blob-marked binary inputs and convert them
+to Blob v2 before encoding. Older files keep their original encoding.
+
+| Dataset `data_storage_version` | Legacy blob metadata (`lance-encoding:blob`) | Blob v2 (`lance.blob.v2`) |
+|---|---|---|
+| `0.1`, `2.0`, `2.1` | Supported for write/read | Not supported |
+| `2.2+` | Accepted as input; written as Blob v2 | Supported for write/read (recommended) |
+
+### Mixing legacy Blob and Blob v2 files
+
+Append with `data_storage_version="2.2"` to start writing Blob v2 into an
+existing `2.0` or `2.1` dataset. Both legacy blob-marked binary inputs and
+`blob_field` / `blob_array` inputs are accepted. No separate upgrade operation
+or historical-payload rewrite is required.
+
+When the first Blob v2 file for a legacy column is committed, the snapshot uses
+the Blob v2 logical schema for that column. Descriptor scans return the v2
+`kind, position, size, blob_id, blob_uri` struct across all fragments, including
+selections containing only old files. Old payloads appear as Inline descriptors
+pointing into their original data files. `take_blobs`, `read_blobs`, and
+`blob_handling="all_binary"` continue to expose the same payloads, nulls, and
+empty values. Historical snapshots retain their previous schema.
+
+Descriptor consumers that access fields by position or compare exact Arrow
+schemas must account for the extended structure. Interpret `position` together
+with `kind` and the object reference. See [the schema-transition discussion](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/9458).
+
+The dataset's default file version remains unchanged. Select `2.2` or newer
+explicitly when writing Blob v2 structs or compacting the mixed column into
+Blob v2 files. Compaction rewrites the selected fragments; it is not required
+to enable new Blob v2 writes.
+
+### Managed objects and client compatibility
+
+Writers store out-of-line Blob v2 payloads in independently named
+`_blobs/<uuid>.blob` objects and publish the Managed Blob reader and writer
+capability on the table. This works with file formats 2.2 and 2.3; it does not
+require choosing 2.3. Clients that do not understand the capability must refuse
+to open a flagged snapshot. Updating an existing table with Blob data files can
+activate it, even if that batch contains only inline values. The capability
+remains set across later writes and restores.
+
+Compaction preserves Managed payload objects and can adopt existing Packed or
+Dedicated sidecars in place. For example, compaction can replace `data/A.lance`
+with `data/B.lance` while B's Managed descriptor records the base and path of
+the existing `data/A/0001.blob`. Cleanup can then delete `data/A.lance` without
+copying or deleting the blob that B still references. The blob's path may retain
+A's name, but resolving and retaining the blob no longer requires A's data file.
+Cleanup retains objects referenced by protected snapshots; a partially live
+packed object is retained as a whole. Blob reads continue to return the same
+bytes. Raw descriptor scans report `kind = 4` for a Managed object relative to
+the data file's table base, or `kind = 5` with an explicit registered base ID.
+The default table base is implicit: moving the complete dataset moves its local
+Managed objects without retaining a URI to the old location. Explicit base IDs
+must already be registered before writing references to them. A shallow clone
+keeps the source table base through its data-file metadata; compaction preserves
+that base when it moves descriptors into new files. A deep clone copies local
+objects at the same relative paths without rewriting their descriptors.
+
+Before activating Managed Blobs on an existing table, upgrade all clients that
+run table maintenance to a version that supports Managed Blobs, or stop their
+maintenance tasks. After activation, all maintenance must use a supporting
+client.
+
+The table flag prevents older clients from opening a flagged snapshot. It does
+not revoke a handle opened before activation or prevent opening an unflagged
+historical snapshot. Older clients, including v11.0.0, can run cleanup through
+these handles without checking the feature flags of the other manifests they
+inspect. Such cleanup can delete adopted sidecars that newer snapshots still
+reference, because it treats the original data file as their owner. The table
+flag therefore does not protect against these old maintenance paths.
+
+## Blob v2: Write Patterns
+
+Use `blob_field` and `blob_array` to build blob v2 columns.
+
+### Logical Arrow schema
+
+A blob v2 field is tagged with `ARROW:extension:name = "lance.blob.v2"`. Writers
+accept these logical struct shapes:
+
+| Shape | Children | Use |
+|---|---|---|
+| Minimal | `data: LargeBinary?`, `uri: Utf8?` | Inline bytes or a complete external object |
+| Complete | Minimal fields plus `position: UInt64?`, `size: UInt64?` | An optional byte range within an external object |
+
+Every non-null row must set exactly one of `data` and `uri`. For the complete
+shape, `position` and `size` must either both be set or both be null, a range
+requires `uri`, and an explicit range must have `size > 0`. Use inline `b""` for
+an empty blob; a URI without range fields still represents the complete external
+object, including an empty object. Python's `blob_field` and `BlobType` use the
+complete shape. Lance preserves an accepted logical shape, including child
+fields, nullability, and metadata, across create, append, and merge-insert
+writes; descriptor scans still return the compact stored descriptor shape.
 
 ```python
 import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance import Blob, blob_array, blob_field
+
+schema = pa.schema([
+    pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+    blob_field("blob", nullable=True),
+])
+
+# A single column can mix:
+# - inline bytes
+# - external URI
+# - external URI slice (position + size)
+# - null
+rows = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": [1, 2, 3, 4],
+        "blob": blob_array([
+            b"inline-bytes",
+            "s3://bucket/path/video.mp4",
+            Blob.from_uri("s3://bucket/archive.tar", position=4096, size=8192),
+            None,
+        ]),
+    },
+    schema=schema,
+)
 
-# First, download a sample video file for testing
-# wget https://www.learningcontainer.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/sample-mp4-file.mp4
-import urllib.request
-urllib.request.urlretrieve(
-    "https://www.learningcontainer.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/sample-mp4-file.mp4",
-    "sample_video.mp4"
+ds = lance.write_dataset(
+    rows,
+    "./blobs_v22.lance",
+    data_storage_version="2.2",
 )
+```
 
-# Then read the video file content
-with open("sample_video.mp4", 'rb') as f:
-    video_data = f.read()
+Note:
 
-# Create table with blob data
-table = pa.table({
-    "id": [1],
-    "video": [video_data],
-}, schema=schema)
+- By default, external blob URIs must map to a registered non-dataset-root base path.
+- If you need to reference external objects outside those bases, set
+  `allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True` when writing.
+- Blob v2 storage layout thresholds can be configured per column with
+  `blob_field(..., inline_size_threshold=..., dedicated_size_threshold=...)`.
+  The inline threshold controls when values move from the data file to packed
+  `.blob` sidecar storage. The dedicated threshold controls when values move
+  from packed sidecar storage to a dedicated `.blob` file. The dedicated
+  threshold is checked first. For existing columns, these thresholds are stored
+  in the dataset schema; appends that explicitly provide different threshold
+  metadata for the same column are rejected.
+- `blob_pack_file_size_threshold` is a write option for rolling packed `.blob`
+  sidecar files. It does not control inline-vs-packed placement.
+- Blob v2 fields can be nested inside structs and variable-length lists. Blob-aware
+  scans preserve the surrounding nested layout; use `blob_handling="all_binary"`
+  to materialize nested blob payloads as bytes.
+
+### Example: packed external blobs (single container file)
+
+```python
+import io
+import tarfile
+from pathlib import Path
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance import Blob, blob_array, blob_field
+
+# Build a tar file with three payloads
+payloads = {
+    "a.bin": b"alpha",
+    "b.bin": b"bravo",
+    "c.bin": b"charlie",
+}
+
+with tarfile.open("container.tar", "w") as tf:
+    for name, data in payloads.items():
+        info = tarfile.TarInfo(name)
+        info.size = len(data)
+        tf.addfile(info, io.BytesIO(data))
+
+# Capture offset/size for each member
+blob_values = []
+with tarfile.open("container.tar", "r") as tf:
+    container_uri = Path("container.tar").resolve().as_uri()
+    for name in payloads:
+        m = tf.getmember(name)
+        blob_values.append(Blob.from_uri(container_uri, position=m.offset_data, size=m.size))
+
+schema = pa.schema([
+    pa.field("name", pa.utf8()),
+    blob_field("blob"),
+])
+
+rows = pa.table(
+    {
+        "name": list(payloads.keys()),
+        "blob": blob_array(blob_values),
+    },
+    schema=schema,
+)
 
-# Write to Lance dataset
 ds = lance.write_dataset(
-    table,
-    "./youtube.lance",
-    schema=schema
+    rows,
+    "./packed_blobs_v22.lance",
+    data_storage_version="2.2",
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+)
+```
+
+## Blob v2: Read Patterns
+
+Choose the read API based on the payload shape you want:
+
+| API | Returns | Use When |
+|---|---|---|
+| `read_blobs` | `List[Tuple[int, Optional[bytes]]]` | You need complete blob payloads in memory, such as training loaders or batch preprocessing. |
+| `read_blob_ranges` | `List[Tuple[int, int, Optional[bytes]]]` | You need selected byte ranges from multiple rows without materializing complete blobs. |
+| `take_blobs` | `List[Optional[BlobFile]]` | You need file-like objects for streaming, seeking, or partial reads. |
+| `scanner(..., blob_handling="all_binary")` | Arrow binary columns | You want blob columns in a scan result or `pyarrow.Table`. |
+
+Do not wrap `take_blobs` in your own thread pool just to call `read()` or
+`readall()` on every blob. Use `read_blobs` instead; it plans and executes
+batched blob reads through Lance's scheduler.
+
+Exactly one selector must be provided to `read_blobs` or `take_blobs`: `ids`,
+`indices`, or `addresses`. `read_blob_ranges` accepts the same selector kinds
+through its required `selector` argument.
+
+| Selector | Typical Use | Stability |
+|---|---|---|
+| `indices` | Positional reads within one dataset snapshot | Stable within that snapshot |
+| `ids` | Logical row-id based reads | Stable logical identity (when row ids are available) |
+| `addresses` | Low-level physical reads and debugging | Unstable physical location |
+
+### Read complete payloads by row indices
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset("./blobs_v22.lance")
+rows = ds.read_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1])
+payloads = [payload for _row_address, payload in rows]
+```
+
+### Read complete payloads by row ids
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset("./blobs_v22.lance")
+row_ids = ds.to_table(columns=[], with_row_id=True).column("_rowid").to_pylist()
+
+rows = ds.read_blobs("blob", ids=row_ids[:2])
+```
+
+### Read complete payloads by row addresses
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset("./blobs_v22.lance")
+row_addrs = ds.to_table(columns=[], with_row_address=True).column("_rowaddr").to_pylist()
+
+rows = ds.read_blobs("blob", addresses=row_addrs[:2])
+```
+
+Blob selection APIs preserve logical result cardinality. `read_blobs()` and
+`take_blobs()` return one element per selected row, and `read_blob_ranges()`
+returns one element per request. A null blob is returned as `None`; a valid
+empty blob remains a non-null empty payload or zero-length `BlobFile`.
+
+### Read row-specific byte ranges
+
+Use `read_blob_ranges` to read multiple blob-local ranges with one planned API
+call. Each request is a `(row, offset, length)` tuple, and `selector` determines
+whether every `row` is interpreted as a row ID, row address, or dataset index.
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset("./blobs_v22.lance")
+results = ds.read_blob_ranges(
+    "blob",
+    requests=[
+        (7, 0, 1024),
+        (7, 4096, 1024),
+        (12, 0, 0),
+    ],
+    selector="indices",
 )
+
+for request_index, row_address, data in results:
+    if data is None:
+        # The selected blob is null.
+        continue
+    print(request_index, row_address, len(data))
 ```
 
-To fetch blobs from a Lance dataset, you can use `lance.dataset.LanceDataset.take_blobs`.
+Each result contains the zero-based `request_index`, the resolved physical row
+address, and the requested bytes. `request_index` identifies the original
+request when the same row appears more than once.
 
-For example, it's easy to use `BlobFile` to extract frames from a video file without
-loading the entire video into memory.
+A request on a null blob returns `None`, including when its range is empty. An
+empty range on a non-null blob returns `b""` without payload I/O. For every
+request, `offset + length` must fit in an unsigned 64-bit integer. A range on a
+non-null blob must not extend beyond its logical size; blob-local bounds are not
+evaluated for null blobs because they have no logical payload length.
+
+### Read blob columns as Arrow binary
 
 ```python
-import av # pip install av
 import lance
 
-ds = lance.dataset("./youtube.lance")
-start_time, end_time = 500, 1000
-# Get blob data from the first row (id=0)
-blobs = ds.take_blobs("video", ids=[0])
-with av.open(blobs[0]) as container:
+ds = lance.dataset("./blobs_v22.lance")
+table = ds.scanner(columns=["blob"], blob_handling="all_binary").to_table()
+payloads = table.column("blob").to_pylist()
+```
+
+### Open file-like blob handles lazily
+
+Sequential reads are buffered, 512 KiB by default. Pass `buffer_size=0`
+for unbuffered reads. `read_range` and `read_ranges` do not use this
+buffer.
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset("./blobs_v22.lance")
+blobs = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1])
+
+blob = blobs[0]
+if blob is not None:
+    with blob as f:
+        header = f.read(1024)
+```
+
+### Example: decode video frames lazily
+
+```python
+import av
+import lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset("./videos_v22.lance")
+blob = ds.take_blobs("video", indices=[0])[0]
+if blob is None:
+    raise ValueError("video blob is null")
+
+start_ms, end_ms = 500, 1000
+
+with av.open(blob) as container:
     stream = container.streams.video[0]
     stream.codec_context.skip_frame = "NONKEY"
 
-    start_time = start_time / stream.time_base
-    start_time = start_time.as_integer_ratio()[0]
-    end_time = end_time / stream.time_base
-    container.seek(start_time, stream=stream)
+    start = (start_ms / 1000) / stream.time_base
+    end = (end_ms / 1000) / stream.time_base
+    container.seek(int(start), stream=stream)
 
     for frame in container.decode(stream):
-        if frame.time > end_time:
+        if frame.time is not None and frame.time > end_ms / 1000:
             break
-        display(frame.to_image())
-        clear_output(wait=True) 
-```
\ No newline at end of file
+        # process frame
+        pass
+```
+
+## Legacy Compatibility (`data_storage_version` <= `2.1`)
+
+If you need to keep writing legacy blob columns, use file format `0.1`, `2.0`, or `2.1`
+and mark `LargeBinary` fields with a metadata kwarg `"lance-encoding:blob": true`.
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+schema = pa.schema([
+    pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+    pa.field(
+        "video",
+        pa.large_binary(),
+        metadata={"lance-encoding:blob": "true"},
+    ),
+])
+
+table = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": [1, 2],
+        "video": [b"foo", b"bar"],
+    },
+    schema=schema,
+)
+
+ds = lance.write_dataset(
+    table,
+    "./legacy_blob_dataset",
+    data_storage_version="2.1",
+)
+```
+
+With `data_storage_version >= 2.2`, dataset writers convert this input to Blob v2.
+For new datasets, prefer `blob_field` / `blob_array` with file format 2.2.
+
+## Rewrite to a New Blob v2 Dataset
+
+To replace all historical legacy Blob encodings at once, you can rewrite them
+into a new dataset with `data_storage_version="2.2"`. This is optional for
+`2.0` / `2.1` tables, which can instead append Blob v2 files as described above.
+File format `0.1` tables still require a rewrite to move into the `2.x` family.
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance import blob_array, blob_field
+
+legacy = lance.dataset("./legacy_blob_dataset")
+raw = legacy.scanner(columns=["id", "video"], blob_handling="all_binary").to_table()
+
+new_schema = pa.schema([
+    pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+    blob_field("video"),
+])
+
+rewritten = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": raw.column("id"),
+        "video": blob_array(raw.column("video").to_pylist()),
+    },
+    schema=new_schema,
+)
+
+lance.write_dataset(
+    rewritten,
+    "./blob_v22_dataset",
+    data_storage_version="2.2",
+)
+```
+
+!!! warning
+    - The example above materializes binary payloads in memory (`blob_handling="all_binary"` and `to_pylist()`).
+    - For large datasets, prefer chunked/batched rewrite pipelines.
+
+## When to Use a Blob Column vs. Inline Binary
+
+Not every binary column needs to be a blob column. Plain Arrow `binary`/`large_binary` stores bytes *inline*, interleaved with your other columns, which is simplest and fastest for really small blobs (e.g., thumbnail images). Using a blob column to store the binary payload makes sense when either of these holds:
+
+- **You need partial or streaming reads.** Inline binary is always read in full; there is no way to fetch a byte range without materializing the entire value. Blob columns expose `read_blob_ranges` for planned row-specific range reads and `take_blobs` → `BlobFile` handles for caller-driven seeks, so you pay only for the bytes you touch.
+- **Your values are large (roughly 1 MB or more on average).** Operations that rewrite entire rows, such as compaction or some updates, must copy the large inline payloads forward into the new version — even when those bytes never changed. The bigger the payload, the more bytes you rewrite per logical change (write amplification). A blob column keeps large payloads in separate `.blob` files that are referenced rather than re-copied, so these operations don't rewrite the heavy bytes.
+
+!!! tip
+    As a rule of thumb, if average payload size is below a few tens of KB and you only ever read whole values, plain inline binary is fine. Above ~1 MB, or any time you want file-like access, prefer a blob column. Blob v2 also tunes this automatically: by default it keeps payloads up to 64 KiB inline, packs payloads over 64 KiB and up to 4 MiB into shared `.blob` sidecars, and gives payloads over 4 MiB their own dedicated `.blob` file. These thresholds are configurable per column.
+
+## Troubleshooting
+
+This section contains commonly noticed issues or errors, and explains how to address them.
+
+### Blob v2 requires file version >= 2.2
+**Cause**: You are writing blob v2 values into a dataset/file format below `2.2`.  
+**Fix**: Write to a dataset created with `data_storage_version="2.2"` (or newer).
+
+### Legacy blob columns ... are not supported for file version >= 2.2
+**Cause**: A lower-level file writer received legacy blob metadata instead of prepared Blob v2 input.
+**Fix**: Use the dataset writer, which adapts legacy byte inputs, or prepare Blob v2 columns with the file-level Blob APIs.
+
+
+### Exactly one of ids, indices, or addresses must be specified
+**Cause**: `read_blobs` or `take_blobs` received none or multiple selectors.  
+**Fix**: Provide exactly one of `ids`, `indices`, or `addresses`.
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/data_evolution.md b/docs/src/guide/data_evolution.md
index d6c7b23f674..40a68156552 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/data_evolution.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/data_evolution.md
@@ -48,6 +48,11 @@ assert dataset.schema == pa.schema([
 
 This operation is very fast, as it only updates the metadata of the dataset.
 
+For Lance file format `<= 2.1`, adding sub-columns under an existing `struct` is not supported.
+Starting with Lance file format `2.2`, schema-only add can also extend nested `struct` fields
+(including `struct` fields nested inside list types), for example by adding
+`people.item.location` under `list<struct<...>>`.
+
 ### With data backfill
 
 New columns can be added and populated within a single operation using the
@@ -153,11 +158,26 @@ print(dataset.schema)
 # id: int64
 ```
 
+Starting with Lance file format `2.2`, nested sub-column removal is supported for
+nested types (for example `people.item.city` on `list<struct<...>>`), instead of
+being limited to `struct` only.
+
 To actually remove the data from disk, the files must be rewritten to remove the
 columns and then the old files must be deleted. This can be done using
 `lance.dataset.DatasetOptimizer.compact_files()` followed by
 `lance.LanceDataset.cleanup_old_versions()`.
 
+!!! warning
+
+    `drop_columns` is metadata-only and remains reversible as long as old versions are retained.
+    After `compact_files()` rewrites data files and `cleanup_old_versions()` removes old manifests/files,
+    removed data may become permanently unrecoverable.
+
+    For production workflows, use a rollback window:
+    - create a tag (or snapshot/backup) before nested column drops
+    - delay cleanup until the rollback window has passed
+    - only run aggressive cleanup after rollback validation
+
 ## Renaming columns
 
 Columns can be renamed using the `lance.LanceDataset.alter_columns` method.
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/data_types.md b/docs/src/guide/data_types.md
index c7853695f36..c3f222d36ba 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/data_types.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/data_types.md
@@ -32,9 +32,42 @@ Lance supports the full Apache Arrow type system. When writing data through Pyth
 
 ### Blob Type for Large Binary Objects
 
-Lance provides a specialized **Blob** type for efficiently storing and retrieving very large binary objects such as videos, images, audio files, or other multimedia content. Unlike regular binary columns, blobs are stored out-of-line and support lazy loading, which means you can read portions of the data without loading everything into memory.
+Lance provides a specialized **Blob** type for efficiently storing and retrieving very large binary objects such as videos, images, audio files, or other multimedia content. Blob columns support planned full-payload reads as well as lazy file-like access for streaming, seeking, and partial reads.
 
-To create a blob column, add the `lance-encoding:blob` metadata to a `LargeBinary` field:
+For new datasets, use blob v2 (`lance.blob.v2`) via `blob_field` and `blob_array`.
+
+Blob versioning follows dataset file format rules:
+
+- `data_storage_version` is the Lance file format version of a dataset.
+- A dataset's `data_storage_version` is fixed once created.
+- For `data_storage_version >= 2.2`, legacy blob metadata (`lance-encoding:blob`) is rejected on write.
+- Legacy metadata-based blob write remains available for `0.1`, `2.0`, and `2.1`.
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance import blob_array, blob_field
+
+schema = pa.schema([
+    pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+    blob_field("video"),
+])
+
+table = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": [1],
+        "video": blob_array([b"sample-video-bytes"]),
+    },
+    schema=schema,
+)
+
+ds = lance.write_dataset(table, "./videos_v22.lance", data_storage_version="2.2")
+_row_address, payload = ds.read_blobs("video", indices=[0])[0]
+```
+
+For legacy compatibility (`data_storage_version <= 2.1`), you can still write blob columns using `LargeBinary` with `lance-encoding:blob=true`.
+
+To create a blob column with the legacy path, add the `lance-encoding:blob` metadata to a `LargeBinary` field:
 
 ```python
 import pyarrow as pa
@@ -58,14 +91,26 @@ table = pa.table({
     "video": [video_data],
 }, schema=schema)
 
-ds = lance.write_dataset(table, "./videos.lance", schema=schema)
+ds = lance.write_dataset(
+    table,
+    "./videos_legacy.lance",
+    schema=schema,
+    data_storage_version="2.1",
+)
+```
+
+To read complete blob payloads into memory, use `read_blobs()`:
+
+```python
+rows = ds.read_blobs("video", indices=[0])
+_row_address, payload = rows[0]
 ```
 
-To read blob data, use `take_blobs()` which returns file-like objects for lazy reading:
+Use `take_blobs()` only when you need file-like objects for lazy, partial, or seek-based reading:
 
 ```python
 # Retrieve blob as a file-like object (lazy loading)
-blobs = ds.take_blobs("video", ids=[0])
+blobs = ds.take_blobs("video", indices=[0])
 
 # Use with libraries that accept file-like objects
 import av  # pip install av
@@ -283,6 +328,7 @@ ds = lance.write_dataset(table, "./with_metadata.lance")
 ### Map Types
 
 Store key-value pairs with dynamic keys:
+Map writes require Lance file format version 2.2 or later.
 
 ```python
 import lance
@@ -301,7 +347,7 @@ table = pa.Table.from_pydict({
     ],
 }, schema=schema)
 
-ds = lance.write_dataset(table, "./with_maps.lance")
+ds = lance.write_dataset(table, "./with_maps.lance", data_storage_version="2.2")
 ```
 
 ## Data Type Mapping for Integrations
@@ -326,7 +372,7 @@ When integrating Lance with other systems (like Apache Flink, Spark, or Presto),
 | `TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIMEZONE` | `Timestamp` | With timezone info |
 | `BINARY` / `VARBINARY` | `Binary` | |
 | `BYTES` | `Binary` | |
-| `BLOB` | `LargeBinary` with `lance-encoding:blob` | Large binary objects with lazy loading |
+| `BLOB` | Blob v2 extension type (`lance.blob.v2`) | Use `blob_field` / `blob_array` for new datasets; legacy metadata path applies to `data_storage_version <= 2.1` |
 | `ARRAY<T>` | `List(T)` | Variable-length array |
 | `ARRAY<T>(n)` | `FixedSizeList(T, n)` | Fixed-length array (vectors) |
 | `ROW` / `STRUCT` | `Struct` | Nested structure |
@@ -362,7 +408,7 @@ This maps to Lance's `FixedSizeList(Float32, 384)` type, which is optimized for:
 
 3. **Align dimensions for SIMD**: Vector dimensions divisible by 8 enable optimal SIMD acceleration. Common dimensions: 128, 256, 384, 512, 768, 1024, 1536.
 
-4. **Create indexes for large datasets**: For datasets with more than ~10,000 vectors, create an ANN index for fast search:
+4. **Create indices for large datasets**: For datasets with more than ~10,000 vectors, create an ANN index for fast search:
 
     ```python
     # IVF_PQ is recommended for most use cases
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/distributed_indexing.md b/docs/src/guide/distributed_indexing.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0a6ab26030a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/guide/distributed_indexing.md
@@ -0,0 +1,216 @@
+# Distributed Indexing
+
+!!! warning
+    Lance exposes public APIs that can be integrated into an external
+    distributed index build workflow, but Lance itself does not provide a full
+    distributed scheduler or end-to-end orchestration layer.
+
+    This page describes the current model, terminology, and execution flow so
+    that callers can integrate these APIs correctly.
+
+## Overview
+
+Distributed index build in Lance follows the same high-level pattern as distributed
+write:
+
+1. multiple workers build index data in parallel
+2. the caller invokes Lance segment build APIs for one distributed build
+3. Lance plans and builds index artifacts from the worker outputs supplied by the caller
+4. the built artifacts are committed into the dataset manifest
+
+For vector indices and segment-native scalar indices, the worker outputs are
+segments stored directly under `indices/<segment_uuid>/`. Lance can turn these
+outputs into one or more physical segments and then commit them as one logical
+index.
+
+![Distributed Vector Segment Build](../images/distributed_vector_segment_build.svg)
+
+## Terminology
+
+This guide uses the following terms consistently:
+
+- **Segment**: one worker output written by `execute_uncommitted()` under
+  `indices/<segment_uuid>/`
+- **Physical segment**: one index segment that is ready to be committed into
+  the manifest
+- **Logical index**: the user-visible index identified by name; a logical index
+  may contain one or more physical segments
+
+For example, a distributed vector build may create a layout like:
+
+```text
+indices/<segment_uuid_0>/
+├── index.idx
+└── auxiliary.idx
+
+indices/<segment_uuid_1>/
+├── index.idx
+└── auxiliary.idx
+
+indices/<segment_uuid_2>/
+├── index.idx
+└── auxiliary.idx
+```
+
+After segment build, Lance produces one or more segment directories:
+
+```text
+indices/<physical_segment_uuid_0>/
+├── index.idx
+└── auxiliary.idx
+
+indices/<physical_segment_uuid_1>/
+├── index.idx
+└── auxiliary.idx
+```
+
+These physical segments are then committed together as one logical index. In the
+common no-merge case, the input segments are already the physical
+segments and can be committed directly.
+
+## Roles
+
+There are two parties involved in distributed indexing:
+
+- **Workers** build segments
+- **The caller** launches workers, chooses how those segments should be turned
+  into final segments, optionally merges caller-defined groups, and commits the
+  final result
+
+Lance does not provide a distributed scheduler. The caller is responsible for
+launching workers and driving the overall workflow.
+
+## Current Model
+
+The current model for distributed indexing has two layers of parallelism.
+
+### Worker Build
+
+First, multiple workers build segments in parallel:
+
+1. on each worker, call a shard-build API such as
+   `create_index_builder(...).fragments(...).execute_uncommitted()`
+   or Python `create_index_uncommitted(..., fragment_ids=...)`
+2. each worker writes one segment under `indices/<segment_uuid>/`
+
+### Worker Shuffle Memory
+
+Vector workers using the two-file IVF shuffler can set
+`LANCE_SHUFFLE_MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES` to control the maximum allocated bytes
+retained for the shuffle offsets table. The default is `268435456` (256 MiB).
+Set it before starting the shuffle; reopened shuffle readers also use the setting.
+Values must be non-negative integers in bytes. `0` disables offset preloading;
+invalid values return an error.
+
+For example, allow up to 512 MiB per shuffle:
+
+```shell
+export LANCE_SHUFFLE_MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES=536870912
+```
+
+When offsets fit, the reader can combine adjacent partitions into read windows.
+If the limit is exceeded or allocation fails, the reader uses offsets from disk
+and reads partitions individually. The limit applies to each shuffle, so memory
+use adds up across concurrent builds. It does not include decoded data, index
+construction, or other buffers, and it does not limit total process memory.
+
+### Segment Merge
+
+Then the caller decides whether those existing segments should be committed as-is
+or merged into larger segments:
+
+1. keep the worker outputs as-is and commit them directly with
+   `commit_existing_index_segments(...)`, or
+2. group one or more existing segments and call
+   `merge_existing_index_segments(...)` for each caller-defined group
+3. commit the final segment list with `commit_existing_index_segments(...)`
+
+Within a single commit, built segments must have disjoint fragment coverage.
+
+`merge_existing_index_segments(...)` currently supports vector, inverted,
+bitmap, BTree, and zone map segments. Other scalar index families can still
+commit multiple compatible segments directly when their build path supports
+fragment-scoped segments, but cannot be merged into a larger physical segment
+until they add a merge implementation.
+
+### Vector Model Scope
+
+Distributed vector builds support two model scopes.
+
+**Shared model artifacts**: the caller trains or provides IVF centroids once and
+passes the same artifacts to every worker. For IVF-PQ segments that should be
+physically mergeable, workers should also use the same PQ codebook. This makes
+partition ids and quantizer state have the same meaning across segments.
+
+**Independent segment models**: each worker trains the IVF/PQ model for its own
+`fragment_ids`. The resulting segments can be committed together as one logical
+index without sharing centroids or codebooks.
+
+At query time, Lance searches each physical segment independently:
+
+1. Lance opens each segment by index UUID
+2. each segment ranks IVF partitions using its own centroids
+3. each segment searches the selected partitions using its own quantizer storage
+4. Lance merges the candidate rows from all segments by `_distance`
+
+Because partition ids are interpreted only within a segment during this fanout
+query path, independently trained committed segments can return valid results.
+For L2 and cosine IVF-PQ, each segment computes residuals against its own IVF
+centroid during both build and query, so distances remain estimates of the
+original query-to-vector metric.
+
+Physical merge is a separate operation. It rewrites several segment artifacts
+into one artifact with one model metadata scope. Use shared compatible model
+artifacts for segments you plan to merge physically, or keep independently
+trained segments as separate physical segments.
+
+## Internal Finalize Model
+
+Internally, Lance models distributed segment build as:
+
+1. **build** one uncommitted segment per worker
+2. **optionally merge** caller-defined groups of existing segments
+3. **commit** the resulting segments as one logical index
+
+The merge step is driven directly by the `IndexMetadata` returned from
+`execute_uncommitted()`.
+
+This is intentionally a storage-level model:
+
+- segments are worker outputs that are not yet published
+- physical segments are durable artifacts referenced by the manifest
+- the logical index identity is attached only at commit time
+
+## Segment Grouping
+
+The caller chooses the final segment grouping:
+
+- keep segment boundaries, so each worker output is committed directly
+- merge multiple existing segments into a larger segment before commit
+
+The grouping decision is separate from worker build. Workers only build
+segments; Lance applies the segment build policy when it plans
+physical segments.
+
+## Responsibility Boundaries
+
+The caller is expected to know:
+
+- which distributed build is ready for segment build
+- the segment metadata returned by worker builds
+- how the resulting physical segments should be published
+
+Lance is responsible for:
+
+- writing segment artifacts
+- planning physical segments from the supplied segment set
+- merging segment storage into physical segment artifacts
+- committing physical segments into the manifest
+
+If a staging root or built segment directory is never committed, it remains an
+unreferenced index directory under `_indices/`. These artifacts are cleaned up
+by `cleanup_old_versions(...)` using the same age-based rules as other
+unreferenced index files.
+
+This split keeps distributed scheduling outside the storage engine while still
+letting Lance own the on-disk index format.
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/distributed_write.md b/docs/src/guide/distributed_write.md
index 4fbc43a1058..13137b5de8e 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/distributed_write.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/distributed_write.md
@@ -263,3 +263,114 @@ Output:
 6   7  Gracie     88
 7   8   Henry     82
 ```
+
+### Handling stable row id
+
+On a dataset created with `enable_stable_row_ids=True`, each row keeps the same
+`_rowid` for its lifetime, even when an update rewrites it into a different
+fragment. Lance cannot infer which new row replaces which old one, so when you
+assemble the transaction yourself, carrying those ids across is your job: read
+the rows you are rewriting with `with_row_id=True` and attach their ids to the
+new fragment with `lance.fragment.RowIdSequence`.
+
+Rows you leave without an id are treated as newly inserted. That is not an error,
+so a fragment written without `row_id_meta` commits successfully while silently
+giving every rewritten row a fresh identity, breaking `_rowid` for anything
+downstream that relies on it.
+
+You do **not** need to supply `created_at_version_meta` or
+`last_updated_at_version_meta`. Leave them as `None`. Lance derives both while
+building the manifest: `last_updated_at_version_meta` becomes the version being
+committed, and `created_at_version_meta` is copied from whichever existing row
+carries the same stable row id, so a rewritten row keeps the version it first
+appeared in.
+
+#### Mixing updated and new rows
+
+A single fragment may hold both rewritten rows and brand new ones. Order it so
+that **the rewritten rows come first and the new rows last**, then pass only the
+row ids of the rewritten rows. The row ids bind to the leading rows in fragment
+order, and the commit generates new ids for the remaining rows.
+
+Do not generate ids for the new rows yourself. Row ids are handed out from a counter
+in the manifest, and a commit that loses a race is retried against the version
+that won, which may have consumed the very ids you picked. Only the commit knows
+which values are free, so it assigns them after conflict resolution has settled.
+Supplying more row ids than the fragment has rows is rejected.
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pyarrow.compute as pc
+from lance.fragment import RowIdSequence, write_fragments
+
+schema = pa.schema([("id", pa.int64()), ("score", pa.int64())])
+dataset_uri = "./stable_row_ids.lance"
+dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+    pa.table({"id": [1, 2, 3, 4], "score": [85, 90, 75, 80]}, schema=schema),
+    dataset_uri,
+    enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+)
+
+# On a worker: read the rows to rewrite, keeping their stable row ids.
+rows = dataset.to_table(columns=["id", "score"], with_row_id=True)
+rewritten = rows.filter(pc.field("id").isin([2, 3]))
+
+# Rewritten rows first, then the row that did not exist before.
+new_data = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": rewritten["id"].to_pylist() + [5],
+        "score": [95, 70, 60],
+    },
+    schema=schema,
+)
+fragments = write_fragments(new_data, dataset_uri, schema=schema)
+assert len(fragments) == 1
+
+# Only the rewritten rows have ids. The trailing row gets one at commit time.
+fragments[0].row_id_meta = RowIdSequence(rewritten["_rowid"]).to_inline_metadata()
+
+# On the committing worker: tombstone the old copies of the rewritten rows.
+updated_fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0].delete("id in (2, 3)")
+
+op = lance.LanceOperation.Update(
+    updated_fragments=[updated_fragment],
+    new_fragments=fragments,
+)
+dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(dataset_uri, op, read_version=dataset.version)
+
+print(dataset.to_table(with_row_id=True).to_pandas())
+```
+
+Output:
+```
+   id  score  _rowid
+0   1     85       0
+1   4     80       3
+2   2     95       1
+3   3     70       2
+4   5     60       4
+```
+
+Row ids 1 and 2 followed their rows into the new fragment, and the inserted row
+received the next unused id. Reading the lineage columns shows that the rewritten
+rows kept their original creation version while the inserted row is stamped with
+the version that added it:
+
+```python
+print(
+    dataset.to_table(
+        columns=["id", "_row_created_at_version", "_row_last_updated_at_version"]
+    ).to_pandas()
+)
+```
+
+Output:
+```
+   id  _row_created_at_version  _row_last_updated_at_version
+0   1                        1                             1
+1   4                        1                             1
+2   2                        1                             2
+3   3                        1                             2
+4   5                        2                             2
+```
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/json.md b/docs/src/guide/json.md
index 667b2596a37..7246c8fe08a 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/json.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/json.md
@@ -235,6 +235,75 @@ result = dataset.to_table(
 )
 ```
 
+## JSON Indexing
+
+Lance supports indexing JSON columns to accelerate filters on frequently queried paths.
+
+### Scalar Index on a JSON Path
+
+For `pa.json_()` columns, create a scalar index with `IndexConfig` and specify the JSON
+path to index. The query should use the same path literal that was indexed.
+
+```python
+import json
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.indices import IndexConfig
+
+table = pa.table({
+    "id": [1, 2, 3, 4],
+    "data": pa.array([
+        json.dumps({"x": 7, "y": 10}),
+        json.dumps({"x": 11, "y": 22}),
+        json.dumps({"y": 0}),
+        json.dumps({"x": 10}),
+    ], type=pa.json_()),
+})
+
+lance.write_dataset(table, "json-index.lance")
+dataset = lance.dataset("json-index.lance")
+
+dataset.create_scalar_index(
+    "data",
+    IndexConfig(
+        index_type="json",
+        parameters={
+            "target_index_type": "btree",
+            "path": "x",
+        },
+    ),
+)
+
+result = dataset.to_table(filter="json_get_int(data, 'x') = 10")
+```
+
+!!! note
+    The JSON index matches queries by path literal. For example, if the index is built
+    with `path="x"`, then the filter should also use `"x"` with a function such as
+    `json_get_int(data, 'x')`. If the index is built with `path="$.user.name"`, then
+    the filter should use `json_extract(data, '$.user.name')`.
+
+### Full-Text Search on JSON Documents
+
+If you want text search over the contents of a JSON document instead of scalar filtering
+on a single path, create an `INVERTED` index on the JSON column.
+
+```python
+dataset.create_scalar_index(
+    "data",
+    index_type="INVERTED",
+    base_tokenizer="simple",
+    lower_case=True,
+    stem=True,
+    remove_stop_words=True,
+)
+```
+
+!!! note
+    JSON columns and nested struct columns are indexed differently. For nested struct
+    fields, use dot notation such as `meta.lang`. For `pa.json_()` columns, use the JSON
+    index shown above and query with `json_get_*` or `json_extract`.
+
 ## Usage Examples
 
 ### Working with Nested JSON
@@ -348,7 +417,7 @@ complex_projects = dataset.to_table(
 ## Performance Considerations
 
 1. **Choose the right function**: Use `json_get_*` functions for direct field access and type conversion; use `json_extract` for complex JSONPath queries.
-2. **Index frequently queried paths**: Consider creating computed columns for frequently accessed JSON paths to improve query performance.
+2. **Index frequently queried paths**: Use a JSON scalar index on frequently filtered paths before creating computed columns for the same fields.
 3. **Minimize deep nesting**: While Lance supports arbitrary nesting, flatter structures generally perform better.
 4. **Understand type conversion**: The `json_get_*` functions use strict type conversion, which may fail if types don't match. Plan your schema accordingly.
 5. **Array access**: When working with JSON arrays, you can access elements by index using numeric strings (e.g., "0", "1") with `json_get` functions.
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/migration.md b/docs/src/guide/migration.md
index 9b7471ed07c..56d7737941f 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/migration.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/migration.md
@@ -6,6 +6,76 @@ stable and breaking changes should generally be communicated (via warnings) for
 give users a chance to migrate.  This page documents the breaking changes between releases and gives advice on how to
 migrate.
 
+## 9.0.0
+
+* Unless overridden, newly created FTS indexes use format v2. The code analyzer
+  and `block_size=256` require format v3, so readers must support v3 before an
+  index using either option is created. `document_granularity="list_element"`
+  also requires v3 reader capability, independently of the posting format.
+
+* To keep new indexes readable by nodes that support at most format v1 or v2,
+  set `format_version` in the index creation parameters, or set
+  `LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION` for a rollout-wide override. Formats v1 and v2
+  require the text analyzer and `block_size=128`.
+
+* Operations that maintain an existing FTS index, including append, incremental
+  indexing, optimize, and mem-wal maintained-index flush, preserve its format
+  version.
+
+## 7.2.0
+
+* The `IndexSegmentBuilder` API has been removed from Rust, Python, and Java.
+  This API was deprecated by the distributed indexing flow based on
+  `create_index_uncommitted`, `merge_existing_index_segments`, and
+  `commit_existing_index_segments`, but remained in the codebase as a parallel
+  way to plan and publish staged index segments.
+
+* Callers should now publish staged segment outputs directly with
+  `commit_existing_index_segments(...)`. If multiple staged outputs should be
+  combined into a larger physical segment first, callers should explicitly group
+  those outputs and call `merge_existing_index_segments(...)` for each group
+  before committing the final segment list.
+
+* The old builder's `target_segment_bytes` automatic size-based grouping has no
+  direct replacement. Distributed index drivers that used it should choose
+  segment groups themselves, then pass each group to
+  `merge_existing_index_segments(...)`.
+
+## 5.0.0
+
+* The default data storage version changed from 2.0 to 2.1. This affects the `column_indices`
+  field in the `DataFile` protobuf message. In 2.0, every field (including non-leaf fields like
+  struct containers and list containers) was assigned a sequential column index. In 2.1, non-leaf
+  fields (unpacked structs, list containers) are assigned `-1` instead since their validity
+  information is now folded into repetition/definition levels. Only leaf fields and packed structs
+  are assigned column indices.
+
+    For example, given the schema:
+
+    ```
+    x: i32, y: [f32], z: { a: i32 }
+    ```
+
+    The fields (in depth-first order) are:
+
+    | Field ID | Field         |
+    |----------|---------------|
+    | 0        | `x` (i32)     |
+    | 1        | `y` (list)    |
+    | 2        | `y.item` (f32)|
+    | 3        | `z` (struct)  |
+    | 4        | `z.a` (i32)   |
+
+    In **2.0**, `column_indices` = `[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]` — every field gets a column.
+
+    In **2.1**, `column_indices` = `[0, -1, 1, -1, 2]` — non-leaf fields (`y` and `z`) get `-1`.
+
+* This change only affects advanced users who construct `DataFile` messages directly, for example
+  when building operations by hand for `Dataset.commit`. Normal read and write paths are
+  unaffected.
+
+* To opt back to 2.0 format, set `data_storage_version="2.0"` when creating a dataset.
+
 ## 1.0.0
 
 * The `SearchResult` returned by scalar indices must now output information about null values.
@@ -33,4 +103,4 @@ these.  Please open an issue if you were relying on any of these.
 * The `lance-namespace` Rust crate now splits into `lance-namespace` that contains the main `LanceNamespace` trait 
 and data models, and `lance-namespace-impls` that has different implementations of the namespace. 
 The `DirectoryNamespace` and `RestNamespace` interfaces have been refactored to be more user friendly.
-The `DirectoryNamespace` also now uses Lance ObjectStore for IO instead of directly depending on Apache OpenDAL.
\ No newline at end of file
+The `DirectoryNamespace` also now uses Lance ObjectStore for IO instead of directly depending on Apache OpenDAL.
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/object_store.md b/docs/src/guide/object_store.md
index 21c1addcc62..451c0b804dd 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/object_store.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/object_store.md
@@ -30,16 +30,70 @@ These options apply to all object stores.
 | Key                          | Description                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
 |------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
 | `allow_http`                 | Allow non-TLS, i.e. non-HTTPS connections. Default, `False`.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
-| `download_retry_count`       | Number of times to retry a download. Default, `3`. This limit is applied when the HTTP request succeeds but the response is not fully downloaded, typically due to a violation of `request_timeout`.                                                                                                    |
+| `block_size`                 | Gap in bytes below which two reads of one file are merged into a single request. Default, `4096` for local files and `65536` for object stores. Larger values cut the request count of scattered reads (for example a `take` of rows spread across a file) at the cost of reading the bytes in between.                                                                                                     |
+| `download_retry_count`       | Number of times to retry a download. Default, `3`. This limit is applied when the HTTP request succeeds but the response is not fully downloaded, typically due to a violation of `timeout`.                                                                                                            |
 | `allow_invalid_certificates` | Skip certificate validation on https connections. Default, `False`. Warning: This is insecure and should only be used for testing.                                                                                                                                                                      |
 | `connect_timeout`            | Timeout for only the connect phase of a Client. Default, `5s`.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
-| `request_timeout`            | Timeout for the entire request, from connection until the response body has finished. Default, `30s`.                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
+| `timeout`                    | Timeout for the entire request, from connection until the response body has finished. Default, `30s`. This applies to each individual request, so on a large write it must cover one complete multipart part upload; raise it alongside `LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE`.                                    |
 | `user_agent`                 | User agent string to use in requests.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
 | `proxy_url`                  | URL of a proxy server to use for requests. Default, `None`.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
 | `proxy_ca_certificate`       | PEM-formatted CA certificate for proxy connections                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
 | `proxy_excludes`             | List of hosts that bypass proxy. This is a comma separated list of domains and IP masks. Any subdomain of the provided domain will be bypassed. For example, `example.com, 192.168.1.0/24` would bypass `https://api.example.com`, `https://www.example.com`, and any IP in the range `192.168.1.0/24`. |
-| `client_max_retries`         | Number of times for a s3 client to retry the request. Default, `10`.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
-| `client_retry_timeout`       | Timeout for a s3 client to retry the request in seconds. Default, `180`.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
+| `client_max_retries`         | Number of times for the object store client to retry the request. Default, `3`.                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
+| `client_retry_timeout`       | Timeout for the object store client to retry the request in seconds. Default, `180`.                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
+
+### Bulk copy strategy
+
+Lance streams bulk index-file movement and dataset deep-clone files through
+read and write APIs by default. This avoids requiring a provider-native copy
+operation and works across different object stores.
+
+Set `LANCE_IO_SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED` to a truthy value (`1`, `true`, `on`,
+`yes`, or `y`, case-insensitive) to opt cloud copies whose source and destination
+share the same object-store client into the provider-native server-side copy
+operation. Cross-client, cross-store, and local copies do not use this setting.
+Native copy can reduce client bandwidth and transfer cost, but it requires copy
+support from the object-store integration and is subject to the provider
+request's timeout and retry behavior.
+
+Deep clone bounds non-local file movement to four concurrent files by default.
+Set `LANCE_DEEP_CLONE_STREAM_CONCURRENCY` to a positive integer to override this
+operation-specific limit. The bound also applies when server-side copy is
+enabled because S3 and GCS copies above the provider's single-copy size limit
+fall back to streaming through Lance.
+
+## Per-Base Configuration
+
+A dataset can register additional base paths that store part of its data, and each
+base may live in a different bucket, account, or storage provider. A storage option
+key of the form `base_<id>.<key>` applies `<key>` only to the base path with that
+manifest id. Every base inherits the unscoped options; base-scoped entries add to or
+override them for that base only.
+
+```python
+import lance
+ds = lance.dataset(
+    "az://account-a/path",
+    storage_options={
+        # Shared defaults, used by the primary dataset and inherited by bases
+        "account_name": "account-a",
+        "account_key": "key-a",
+        # Overrides for the base path with id 1
+        "base_1.account_name": "account-b",
+        "base_1.account_key": "key-b",
+    },
+)
+```
+
+Base ids are assigned when bases are registered (`initial_bases` ids are assigned
+sequentially starting at 1, in order) and can be inspected with
+`ds.base_paths()`. The returned dictionary maps each base id to its registered
+`DatasetBasePath`; its iteration order is unspecified, and it does not include the
+primary storage unless that path was explicitly registered as a base.
+
+Keys that do not match `base_<id>.<key>` exactly (e.g. `base_url`) are treated as
+regular storage options. Exact per-base parameter maps (`base_store_params`, keyed
+by base path URI) take precedence over base-scoped keys for that base.
 
 ## S3 Configuration
 
@@ -81,6 +135,38 @@ The following keys can be used as both environment variables or keys in the
 | `aws_sse_kms_key_id`                                                | The KMS key ID to use for server-side encryption. If set, `aws_server_side_encryption` must be `"aws:kms"` or `"aws:kms:dsse"`.                  |
 | `aws_sse_bucket_key_enabled`                                        | Whether to use bucket keys for server-side encryption.                                                                                           |
 
+### Credential provider selection
+
+By default, Lance uses the standard AWS credential provider chain (environment
+variables, shared config file, web identity tokens, ECS, EC2 instance metadata).
+
+The `aws_provider_scheme` storage option pins a dataset to a specific credential
+provider, which is useful when two datasets in the same process need different
+AWS auth (for example, one bucket using IRSA and another using ECS container
+credentials).
+
+| Value | Behavior |
+|-------|----------|
+| `token` | Use static access-key credentials. Returns an error if `aws_access_key_id` and `aws_secret_access_key` are not set. |
+| `ecs` | Use the ECS/Pod Identity container credential endpoint. Reads `AWS_CONTAINER_CREDENTIALS_FULL_URI` or `AWS_CONTAINER_CREDENTIALS_RELATIVE_URI` from the environment. |
+| `irsa` | Use IRSA (IAM Roles for Service Accounts) web identity token credentials. Reads `AWS_WEB_IDENTITY_TOKEN_FILE` and `AWS_ROLE_ARN` from the environment. |
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+# Bucket A — use IRSA (web identity token from the environment)
+ds_a = lance.dataset(
+    "s3://bucket-a/path",
+    storage_options={"aws_provider_scheme": "irsa"},
+)
+
+# Bucket B — use ECS container credentials
+ds_b = lance.dataset(
+    "s3://bucket-b/path",
+    storage_options={"aws_provider_scheme": "ecs"},
+)
+```
+
 ### S3-compatible stores
 
 Lance can also connect to S3-compatible stores, such as MinIO. To do so, you must
@@ -189,4 +275,354 @@ These keys can be used as both environment variables or keys in the `storage_opt
 | `azure_msi_resource_id` / `msi_resource_id` | Msi resource id for use with managed identity authentication. |
 | `azure_federated_token_file` / `federated_token_file` | File containing token for Azure AD workload identity federation. |
 | `azure_use_azure_cli` / `use_azure_cli` | Use azure cli for acquiring access token. |
-| `azure_disable_tagging` / `disable_tagging` | Disables tagging objects. This can be desirable if not supported by the backing store. | 
\ No newline at end of file
+| `azure_disable_tagging` / `disable_tagging` | Disables tagging objects. This can be desirable if not supported by the backing store. | 
+
+## AliCloud Object Storage Service Configuration
+
+OSS credentials can be set in the environment variables `OSS_ACCESS_KEY_ID`,
+`OSS_ACCESS_KEY_SECRET`, `OSS_REGION`, and `OSS_SECURITY_TOKEN`. Alternatively, they can be
+passed as parameters to the `storage_options` parameter:
+
+```python
+import lance
+ds = lance.dataset(
+    "oss://bucket/path",
+    storage_options={
+        "oss_region": "oss-region",
+        "oss_endpoint": "oss-endpoint",
+        "oss_access_key_id": "my-access-key",
+        "oss_secret_access_key": "my-secret-key",
+        "oss_security_token": "my-session-token",
+    }
+)
+```
+
+| Key | Description |
+|-----|-------------|
+| `oss_endpoint` | OSS endpoint. Required (for example, `https://oss-cn-hangzhou.aliyuncs.com`). |
+| `oss_access_key_id` | Access key ID used for OSS authentication. Optional if credentials are provided by environment. |
+| `oss_secret_access_key` | Access key secret used for OSS authentication. Optional if credentials are provided by environment. |
+| `oss_region` | OSS region (for example, `cn-hangzhou`). Optional. |
+| `oss_security_token` | Security token for temporary credentials (STS). Optional. |
+
+## Volcengine TOS Configuration
+
+TOS credentials can be set in the environment variables `TOS_ACCESS_KEY_ID`,
+`TOS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY`, `TOS_ENDPOINT`, `TOS_REGION`, and `TOS_SECURITY_TOKEN`.
+Lance also accepts the corresponding `VOLCENGINE_` environment variable prefix.
+Alternatively, credentials can be passed as parameters to the `storage_options`
+parameter; explicit `storage_options` override environment variables:
+
+```python
+import lance
+ds = lance.dataset(
+    "tos://bucket/path",
+    storage_options={
+        "tos_endpoint": "https://tos-cn-beijing.volces.com",
+        "tos_region": "cn-beijing",
+        "tos_access_key_id": "my-access-key",
+        "tos_secret_access_key": "my-secret-key",
+        "tos_security_token": "my-session-token",
+    }
+)
+```
+
+| Key | Description |
+|-----|-------------|
+| `tos_endpoint` | TOS endpoint. Required (for example, `https://tos-cn-beijing.volces.com`). |
+| `tos_region` | TOS signing region (for example, `cn-beijing`). Optional. |
+| `tos_access_key_id` | Access key ID used for TOS authentication. Optional if credentials are provided by environment. |
+| `tos_secret_access_key` | Secret access key used for TOS authentication. Optional if credentials are provided by environment. |
+| `tos_security_token` | Security token for temporary credentials. Optional. |
+
+## Tencent Cloud COS Configuration
+
+[COS (Cloud Object Storage)](https://cloud.tencent.com/product/cos) credentials can be set in environment variables prefixed
+with `COS_` or `TENCENTCLOUD_` (for example, `COS_ENDPOINT`, `COS_SECRET_ID`,
+`COS_SECRET_KEY`, `TENCENTCLOUD_REGION`, `TENCENTCLOUD_SECURITY_TOKEN`).
+Alternatively, credentials can be passed as parameters to the `storage_options`
+parameter; explicit `storage_options` override environment variables:
+
+=== "Python"
+
+    ```python
+    import lance
+    ds = lance.dataset(
+        "cos://bucket/path",
+        storage_options={
+            "cos_endpoint": "https://cos.ap-guangzhou.myqcloud.com",
+            "cos_secret_id": "my-secret-id",
+            "cos_secret_key": "my-secret-key",
+        }
+    )
+    ```
+
+=== "Rust"
+
+    In this Lance distribution, `tencent` is already part of the **default
+    features** of the `lance` crate, so simply depending on `lance` is enough:
+
+    ```toml
+    [dependencies]
+    lance = "*"
+    ```
+
+    You only need to enable the `tencent` feature explicitly in the following
+    cases:
+
+    - You opted out of default features, e.g.
+      `lance = { version = "*", default-features = false, features = ["tencent", ...] }`.
+    - You depend on `lance-io` directly (without `lance`); `tencent` is **not**
+      a default feature of `lance-io`:
+      `lance-io = { version = "*", features = ["tencent"] }`.
+
+| Key | Description |
+|-----|-------------|
+| `cos_endpoint` | COS endpoint. Required (for example, `https://cos.ap-guangzhou.myqcloud.com`). Can also be set via the `COS_ENDPOINT` environment variable. |
+| `cos_secret_id` | Secret ID used for COS authentication. Optional if credentials are provided by environment. |
+| `cos_secret_key` | Secret key used for COS authentication. Optional if credentials are provided by environment. |
+| `cos_enable_versioning` | Whether to enable object versioning on the bucket. Optional. |
+
+!!! warning
+
+    Tencent COS does not reliably enforce put-if-not-exists on buckets that have
+    ever had versioning enabled, even if versioning is now suspended. To prevent
+    silent manifest overwrites, Lance requires a custom distributed commit lock
+    for COS writes. Pass the same `commit_lock` implementation to every Python
+    writer, or provide a custom `CommitHandler` in Rust. Reads do not require a
+    commit lock.
+
+!!! note
+
+    The OpenDAL `CosConfig` currently exposes a limited set of options. Additional
+    settings such as the security token (`TENCENTCLOUD_SECURITY_TOKEN`) and region
+    (`TENCENTCLOUD_REGION`) must be configured via environment variables.
+
+## Hugging Face Configuration
+
+Use `hf://datasets/<owner>/<repo>/<path>` to read a Lance dataset hosted on
+Hugging Face. Pass these options through `storage_options`:
+
+| Key | Description |
+| --- | --- |
+| `hf_token` | Hugging Face access token. Falls back to `HF_TOKEN` or `HUGGINGFACE_TOKEN` when omitted. |
+| `hf_revision` | Repository revision, such as a commit ID, branch, or tag. Defaults to `main`. |
+| `hf_download_mode` | `http` (default) or `xet`. |
+| `hf_enable_resolve_cache` | `"true"` reuses resolved HTTP download URLs and XET file metadata across readers. Defaults to `"false"`. |
+
+These options also accept names without the `hf_` prefix. The prefixed name
+takes precedence when both are supplied. `hf_enable_resolve_cache` accepts only
+the strings `"true"` and `"false"`.
+
+Enable the resolve cache only when existing files will not change. Updates,
+including changes behind a moving branch or tag, may remain invisible while
+cached results are reused. HTTP download URLs refresh near expiry, and issued
+URLs may remain usable until expiry after Hub permissions change. The cache
+reduces Hub resolution requests; it does not cache file contents.
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset(
+    "hf://datasets/owner/repo/data.lance",
+    storage_options={"hf_enable_resolve_cache": "true"},
+)
+```
+
+## GooseFS Configuration
+
+[GooseFS](https://cloud.tencent.com/product/goosefs) is a distributed caching
+filesystem. Lance accesses GooseFS through its Master gRPC service. The URL
+format is either:
+
+- `goosefs://host:port/path`, where `host:port` is the GooseFS Master address
+  (default port: `9200`, may be omitted, e.g. `goosefs://10.0.0.1/path`)
+- `goosefs:///path`, with an empty authority, when the master address comes
+  from `goosefs_master_addr`, `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR`, or
+  `goosefs-site.properties`
+
+`/path` is the filesystem path within GooseFS.
+
+Manifest commits on `goosefs://` use `ConditionalPutCommitHandler`
+(`PutMode::Create` / if-not-exists), backed by GooseFS master's atomic
+no-replace rename so concurrent writers cannot clobber each other's
+versioned manifests.
+
+!!! warning "Mixed-version writers are NOT safe"
+
+    The `if-not-exists` guarantee only holds when **every** writer for a
+    dataset routes through this new handler. A writer running an older
+    Lance release still selects `UnsafeCommitHandler` for `goosefs://`
+    and writes the version path unconditionally, which can overwrite a
+    manifest that an upgraded writer has already won. Safe concurrent
+    commits therefore require:
+
+    - all writers for the dataset run a Lance release that includes this
+      routing change, **or**
+    - writers share an external coordination boundary (e.g. a single-writer
+      queue, table-level lock, or a gateway that serializes commits) that
+      prevents the old code path from racing the new one.
+
+    When upgrading in place, quiesce all writers (drain jobs, scale
+    clients to zero, or route traffic through a writer coordinator) before
+    rolling out the new Lance version, then bring writers back on the new
+    version together.
+
+!!! note "About the dataset path"
+
+    `/path` is just an arbitrary directory inside GooseFS — Lance does **not**
+    require the path to end with a `.lance` suffix. Any valid GooseFS directory
+    works, for example:
+
+    - `goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/data/my-dataset`
+    - `goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/data/my-dataset.lance`
+    - `goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/lance-test/lance-io`
+
+    The `.lance` suffix used in the examples below is only a naming convention
+    that makes it easy to recognize a Lance dataset directory at a glance; it
+    has no special meaning to Lance itself. The only requirement is that the
+    same path is used consistently for reads and writes of a given dataset.
+
+=== "Python"
+
+    ```python
+    import lance
+
+    ds = lance.dataset(
+        "goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/data/my-dataset.lance",
+        storage_options={
+            "goosefs_auth_type": "simple",
+            "goosefs_auth_username": "lance",
+        },
+    )
+    ```
+
+=== "Rust"
+
+    In this Lance distribution, `goosefs` is already part of the **default
+    features** of the `lance` crate, so simply depending on `lance` is enough:
+
+    ```toml
+    [dependencies]
+    lance = "*"
+    ```
+
+    You only need to enable the `goosefs` feature explicitly in the following
+    cases:
+
+    - You opted out of default features, e.g.
+      `lance = { version = "*", default-features = false, features = ["goosefs", ...] }`.
+    - You depend on `lance-io` directly (without `lance`); `goosefs` is **not**
+      a default feature of `lance-io`:
+      `lance-io = { version = "*", features = ["goosefs"] }`.
+
+    Open the underlying `lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore` directly (mirrors
+    the integration test in `rust/lance-io/tests/goosefs_integration.rs`):
+
+    ```rust
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+
+    let uri = "goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/lance-test/lance-io";
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(uri).await?;
+
+    // Read / write through the underlying `object_store::ObjectStore` API
+    store.inner.put(&path, (&b"hello"[..]).into()).await?;
+    let result = store.inner.get(&path).await?;
+    let bytes = result.bytes().await?;
+    ```
+
+    Open a Lance dataset with custom storage options:
+
+    ```rust
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use lance::dataset::DatasetBuilder;
+
+    let mut storage_options = HashMap::new();
+    storage_options.insert("goosefs_master_addr".to_string(), "10.0.0.1:9200".to_string());
+    storage_options.insert("goosefs_auth_type".to_string(), "simple".to_string());
+    storage_options.insert("goosefs_auth_username".to_string(), "lance".to_string());
+
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/data/my-dataset.lance")
+        .with_storage_options(storage_options)
+        .load()
+        .await?;
+    ```
+
+=== "Java"
+
+    Pass the GooseFS configuration through `ReadOptions.setStorageOptions`
+    when opening the dataset:
+
+    ```java
+    import org.lance.Dataset;
+    import org.lance.ReadOptions;
+
+    import java.util.HashMap;
+    import java.util.Map;
+
+    Map<String, String> storageOptions = new HashMap<>();
+    storageOptions.put("goosefs_master_addr", "10.0.0.1:9200");
+    storageOptions.put("goosefs_auth_type", "simple");
+    storageOptions.put("goosefs_auth_username", "lance");
+
+    ReadOptions options = new ReadOptions.Builder()
+        .setStorageOptions(storageOptions)
+        .build();
+
+    try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.open()
+            .uri("goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/data/my-dataset.lance")
+            .readOptions(options)
+            .build()) {
+        // ... use the dataset
+    }
+    ```
+
+    For writes, the same `storageOptions(...)` setter is available on
+    `WriteDatasetBuilder` and `WriteFragmentBuilder`.
+
+The Master address is resolved at OpenDAL build time (highest priority first):
+
+1. The `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR` environment variable.
+2. `goosefs.master.rpc.addresses` or `goosefs.master.hostname` in
+   `goosefs-site.properties` (discovered via `$GOOSEFS_CONFIG_FILE`,
+   `$GOOSEFS_CONF_DIR`, `$GOOSEFS_HOME/conf`, `~/.goosefs`, and
+   `/etc/goosefs`). This is the same file the GooseFS SDK already loads;
+   a Hadoop-style `goosefs:///path` URL relies on it.
+3. The `goosefs_master_addr` storage option (supports HA:
+   `"addr1:port,addr2:port"`).
+4. The host and port from the URL authority.
+
+Lance forwards `goosefs_master_addr` and the URL authority as OpenDAL's
+`master_addr`. It does **not** require a host in the URL, so
+`goosefs:///path` can rely on `goosefs-site.properties`. OpenDAL fails the
+store build only when none of the sources above supply an address.
+
+A site file that declares masters outranks the URL authority because the file
+can carry a full HA master list, which a single URI host cannot express.
+
+`storage_options` keys **must be lowercase**. Uppercase or mixed-case spellings
+such as `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR` are rejected with an explicit error — they are
+not ignored, and they are not treated as the matching environment variable.
+Environment variables keep the `GOOSEFS_*` form.
+
+| storage_options key | env var | Description |
+|---------------------|---------|-------------|
+| `goosefs_master_addr` | `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR` | GooseFS Master address. Supports a single address (`host:port`) or comma-separated HA addresses (`addr1:port,addr2:port`). Optional if the address is provided in the URL, `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR`, or `goosefs-site.properties`. |
+| `goosefs_write_type` | `GOOSEFS_WRITE_TYPE` | Write type, e.g. `MUST_CACHE`, `CACHE_THROUGH`, `THROUGH`, `ASYNC_THROUGH`. Optional. |
+| `goosefs_block_size` | `GOOSEFS_BLOCK_SIZE` | GooseFS block size (this is the GooseFS-side block size, not Lance's I/O block size). Accepts a raw byte count or GooseFS suffixes such as `64MB` (binary units: `1KB = 1024`). Optional. |
+| `goosefs_chunk_size` | `GOOSEFS_CHUNK_SIZE` | Chunk size used when reading or writing files. Accepts a raw byte count or GooseFS suffixes such as `4MB` (binary units: `1KB = 1024`). Optional. |
+| `goosefs_auth_type` | `GOOSEFS_AUTH_TYPE` | Authentication type. Either `nosasl` or `simple` (case-insensitive; the value is passed through to OpenDAL). Optional. |
+| `goosefs_auth_username` | `GOOSEFS_AUTH_USERNAME` | Username used in `simple` authentication mode. Optional. |
+
+!!! note "Running the GooseFS integration tests"
+
+    The Rust integration tests for GooseFS live at
+    `rust/lance-io/tests/goosefs_integration.rs` and are gated behind feature
+    flags. They require a reachable GooseFS cluster (configured via the
+    `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR` and `GOOSEFS_AUTH_TYPE` environment variables) and
+    can be run with:
+
+    ```bash
+    cargo test -p lance-io --features "goosefs goosefs-test" \
+        --test goosefs_integration -- --ignored --nocapture --test-threads=1
+    ```
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/observability.md b/docs/src/guide/observability.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9cec3154e82
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/guide/observability.md
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+# Observability
+
+Lance can publish operational metrics to your monitoring stack. The table below
+is the authoritative catalogue of the metrics Lance emits, shared verbatim with
+the Rust [`lance::metrics`](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/blob/main/rust/lance/src/metrics.md)
+module documentation.
+
+--8<-- "rust/lance/src/metrics.md"
+
+## Collecting metrics
+
+Lance emits through the [`metrics`](https://docs.rs/metrics) crate facade, so it
+is not tied to a specific backend — you install a recorder/exporter and route
+the metrics wherever you like. Metrics are available from the Rust, Python, and
+Java APIs.
+
+### Rust
+
+Enable the `metrics` feature on the `lance` crate:
+
+```toml
+lance = { version = "...", features = ["metrics"] }
+```
+
+Then install any `metrics`-compatible recorder once at startup, before opening
+datasets. For example, with
+[`metrics-exporter-prometheus`](https://docs.rs/metrics-exporter-prometheus):
+
+```rust
+metrics_exporter_prometheus::PrometheusBuilder::new()
+    .install()
+    .expect("install Prometheus recorder");
+```
+
+Any recorder works — Prometheus, StatsD, an OpenTelemetry bridge, and so on.
+When no recorder is installed, emission is a cheap no-op.
+
+### Python
+
+Unlike Rust, the Python bindings do not let you plug in an arbitrary recorder:
+bridging one across the FFI boundary into the Rust `metrics` facade would be
+complicated and inefficient. Instead `pylance` standardizes on OpenTelemetry,
+which has good Python support, as its recorder.
+
+The `pylance` wheels are built with the `metrics` feature enabled. Install the
+OpenTelemetry extra and call `instrument_lance_metrics`, which registers Lance's
+metrics as observable instruments on your OpenTelemetry `MeterProvider`:
+
+```bash
+pip install "pylance[otel]"
+```
+
+```python
+from lance.otel import instrument_lance_metrics
+
+# Uses the global MeterProvider; pass meter_provider=... to target a specific one.
+instrument_lance_metrics()
+```
+
+### Java
+
+The Java SDK includes an OpenTelemetry bridge in `org.lance.otel`. Register it
+before opening datasets or performing Lance IO so the process-global Rust
+recorder sees every emitted metric:
+
+```java
+import org.lance.otel.LanceMetrics;
+
+LanceMetrics.instrument();
+```
+
+The OpenTelemetry API is a dependency of the Java SDK. The application must
+still configure an OpenTelemetry SDK, metric reader, and exporter for collection
+and delivery.
+
+The no-argument method uses OpenTelemetry's global `MeterProvider`. To register
+with an explicitly configured provider, pass it directly:
+
+```java
+SdkMeterProvider provider = SdkMeterProvider.builder()
+    .registerMetricReader(metricReader)
+    .build();
+LanceMetrics.instrument(provider);
+```
+
+Repeated calls with the same provider are idempotent. Passing a different
+provider unregisters the existing callback before registering the new one. Call
+`LanceMetrics.close()` to stop exporting while retaining the process-global Rust
+metric state.
+
+From there the metrics flow through whatever OpenTelemetry pipeline you have
+configured (OTLP, Prometheus, console, …). Because OpenTelemetry has no
+asynchronous histogram instrument, histograms are exported Prometheus-style as
+three observable counters: `<name>_bucket`, `<name>_count`, and `<name>_sum`.
+Each `<name>_bucket` sample carries an `le` ("less than or equal") attribute
+giving that bucket's inclusive upper bound in the metric's unit; the bucket
+count is cumulative, covering every observation at or below `le`. For example, a
+`lance_object_store_request_duration_seconds_bucket` sample with `le="0.5"`
+counts all requests that completed in 0.5 seconds or less, while `le="+Inf"` is
+the total count.
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/performance.md b/docs/src/guide/performance.md
index a23363b1115..11359cfff6b 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/performance.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/performance.md
@@ -4,10 +4,11 @@ This guide provides tips and tricks for optimizing the performance of your Lance
 
 ## Logging
 
-Lance uses the `log` crate to log messages. Displaying these log messages will depend on the client
-library you are using. For rust, you will need to configure a logging subscriber. For more details
-ses the [log](https://docs.rs/log/latest/log/) docs. The Python and Java clients configure a default
-logging subscriber that logs to stderr.
+Lance emits log messages through the `log` crate and structured events through the `tracing` crate.
+Rust applications configure their own logger and tracing subscriber, including filtering and output
+destinations; the Rust library does not install either globally. See the
+[log](https://docs.rs/log/latest/log/) and [tracing](https://docs.rs/tracing/latest/tracing/) docs.
+The Python and Java clients configure a default logger that logs to stderr.
 
 The Python/Java logger can be configured with several environment variables:
 
@@ -21,9 +22,14 @@ The Python/Java logger can be configured with several environment variables:
 
 ## Trace Events
 
-Lance uses tracing to log events. If you are running `pylance` then these events will be emitted to
+Lance uses tracing to log events. If you are running `pylance` then these events will be emitted
 as log messages. For Rust connections you can use the `tracing` crate to capture these events.
 
+Rust tracing targets are listed below. In `pylance` logs, trace events are emitted under a
+`lance::events::` prefix so they can be filtered separately from normal log records. For example,
+`LANCE_LOG="warn,lance::events::object_store::throttle=info"` shows storage throttling events
+without enabling other Lance event logs.
+
 ### File Audit
 
 File audit events are emitted when significant files are created or deleted.
@@ -33,6 +39,31 @@ File audit events are emitted when significant files are created or deleted.
 | `lance::file_audit` | `mode`    | The mode of I/O operation (create, delete, delete_unverified)              |
 | `lance::file_audit` | `type`    | The type of file affected (manifest, data file, index file, deletion file) |
 
+### Dataset Events
+
+Dataset events are emitted when datasets are loaded, written, committed, deleted, compacted, or cleaned.
+
+| Event                   | Parameter   | Description                                                               |
+| ----------------------- | ----------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
+| `lance::dataset_events` | `event`     | The dataset event type (loading, writing, committed, deleting, and others) |
+| `lance::dataset_events` | `uri`       | The dataset URI                                                           |
+| `lance::dataset_events` | `mode`      | The write mode                                                            |
+| `lance::dataset_events` | `operation` | The committed transaction operation                                       |
+| `lance::dataset_events` | `predicate` | The delete predicate                                                      |
+| `lance::dataset_events` | `columns`   | The removed columns                                                       |
+
+### Object Store Throttle Events
+
+Object store throttle events are emitted when Lance observes cloud storage throttle responses and
+reduces or retries request rates.
+
+| Event                            | Parameter       | Description                              |
+| -------------------------------- | --------------- | ---------------------------------------- |
+| `lance::object_store::throttle`  | `previous_rate` | The request rate before AIMD adjustment  |
+| `lance::object_store::throttle`  | `new_rate`      | The request rate after AIMD adjustment   |
+| `lance::object_store::throttle`  | `attempt`       | The retry attempt for retry debug events |
+| `lance::object_store::throttle`  | `error`         | The underlying object store throttle error      |
+
 ### I/O Events
 
 I/O events are emitted when significant I/O operations are performed, particularly
@@ -64,7 +95,7 @@ debugging query performance.
 Lance is designed to be thread-safe and performant. Lance APIs can be called concurrently unless
 explicitly stated otherwise. Users may create multiple tables and share tables between threads.
 Operations may run in parallel on the same table, but some operations may lead to conflicts. For
-details see [conflict resolution](../format/index.md#conflict-resolution).
+details see [conflict resolution](../format/table/transaction.md/#conflict-resolution).
 
 Most Lance operations will use multiple threads to perform work in parallel. There are two thread
 pools in lance: the IO thread pool and the compute thread pool. The IO thread pool is used for
@@ -111,7 +142,7 @@ Keys are often a composite of multiple fields and all keys are scoped to the dat
 | Deletion Files    | Dataset URI, fragment_id, version, id, file_type | The deletion vector for a frag      |
 | Row Id Mask       | Dataset URI, version                             | The row id sequence for the dataset |
 | Row Id Index      | Dataset URI, version                             | The row id index for the dataset    |
-| Row Id Sequence   | Dataset URI, fragment_id                         | The row id sequence for a fragment  |
+| Row Id Sequence   | Dataset URI, fragment_id, row_id_meta            | The row id sequence for a fragment  |
 | Index Metadata    | Dataset URI, version                             | The index metadata for the dataset  |
 | Index Details¹    | Dataset URI, index uuid                          | The index details for an index      |
 | File Global Meta  | Dataset URI, file path                           | The global metadata for a file      |
@@ -159,15 +190,150 @@ working with 1024-dimensional vector embeddings (e.g. 32-bit floats) then 8192 r
 spread that across 16 CPU threads then you would need 512MB of compute memory per scan. You might find working
 with 1024 rows per batch is more appropriate.
 
+#### Tuning remote scans
+
+An ordered dataset scan still overlaps I/O from multiple fragments. `scan_in_order=True` controls the order in
+which batches are returned; it does not make fragment reads sequential. This is why a dataset scan can issue
+more concurrent requests than scanning one fragment directly. The following controls tune different parts of
+the scan:
+
+* `fragment_readahead` limits how many fragments may have reads scheduled concurrently. Set it to `1` to match
+  the fragment-level I/O pattern, then increase it if the storage connection has spare bandwidth.
+* `LANCE_IO_THREADS` limits concurrent storage requests for the process. Cloud stores default to 64, which is
+  intended for high-bandwidth, in-region access and can be too aggressive across regions or over the public
+  internet.
+* `io_buffer_size` limits buffered I/O bytes and applies backpressure when decoding falls behind.
+* `batch_readahead` limits concurrent batch decoding. It does not control the size of storage range requests.
+
+For a bandwidth-constrained remote connection, start with conservative settings and tune upward:
+
+```shell
+LANCE_IO_THREADS=8 python scan.py
+```
+
+```python
+scanner = dataset.scanner(
+    fragment_readahead=1,
+    batch_readahead=2,
+    io_buffer_size=64 * 1024 * 1024,
+)
+for batch in scanner.to_batches():
+    process(batch)
+```
+
+Lance reads encoded pages from storage, so reducing `batch_size` changes the returned and decoded batch sizes
+but may not reduce the initial range request. The first batch can require loading one encoded page for each
+selected column.
+
 In summary, scans could use up to `(2 * io_buffer_size) + (batch_size * num_compute_threads)` bytes of memory.
 Keep in mind that `io_buffer_size` is a soft limit (e.g. we cannot read less than one page at a time right now)
 and so it is not necessarily a bug if you see memory usage exceed this limit by a small margin.
 
-The above limits refer to limits per-scan. There is an additional limit on the number of IOPS that is applied
-across the entire process. This limit is specified by the `LANCE_PROCESS_IO_THREADS_LIMIT` environment variable.
-The default is 128 which is more than enough for most workloads. You can increase this limit if you are working
-with a high-throughput workload. You can even disable this limit entirely by setting it to zero. Note that this
-can often lead to issues with excessive retries and timeouts from the object store.
+### Cloud Store Throttling
+
+Cloud object stores (S3, GCS, Azure) are automatically wrapped with an AIMD (Additive Increase / Multiplicative
+Decrease) rate limiter. When the store returns throttle errors (HTTP 429/503), the request rate decreases
+multiplicatively. During sustained success, the rate increases additively. This applies to all operations
+(reads, writes, deletes, lists) and replaces the old `LANCE_PROCESS_IO_THREADS_LIMIT` process-wide cap.
+
+Local and in-memory stores are **not** throttled.
+
+The AIMD throttle can be tuned via storage options or environment variables. Storage options take precedence
+over environment variables:
+
+| Setting            | Storage Option Key              | Env Var                         | Default |
+| ------------------ | ------------------------------- | ------------------------------- | ------- |
+| Initial rate       | `lance_aimd_initial_rate`       | `LANCE_AIMD_INITIAL_RATE`       | 2000    |
+| Min rate           | `lance_aimd_min_rate`           | `LANCE_AIMD_MIN_RATE`           | 1       |
+| Max rate           | `lance_aimd_max_rate`           | `LANCE_AIMD_MAX_RATE`           | 5000    |
+| Decrease factor    | `lance_aimd_decrease_factor`    | `LANCE_AIMD_DECREASE_FACTOR`    | 0.5     |
+| Additive increment | `lance_aimd_additive_increment` | `LANCE_AIMD_ADDITIVE_INCREMENT` | 300     |
+| Burst capacity     | `lance_aimd_burst_capacity`     | `LANCE_AIMD_BURST_CAPACITY`     | 100     |
+
+These initial settings are balanced and should work for most
+use cases. For example, S3 can typically get up to 5000
+req/s and with these settings we should get there in about
+10 seconds.
+
+## Fragment Sizing
+
+A Lance table is a collection of fragments tracked by a manifest. How you size those fragments
+trades off two classes of work:
+
+- **Manifest-level operations** scale with the *number* of fragments. Every dataset mutation
+  (appends, metadata updates, schema changes, compactions, etc.) rewrites the manifest, so a
+  larger fragment list makes every write slower. Reads pay a similar cost up front: opening a
+  dataset, listing fragments, planning a scan, and resolving transaction conflicts at the
+  dataset level all walk the manifest.
+- **Fragment-level operations** scale with the *size* of a fragment. These include scans
+  against a matching fragment, compaction, updates, deletes, and `merge_insert`. Conflict
+  detection for these operations is also done at the fragment level.
+
+Fewer, larger fragments make manifest-level operations cheap but make each fragment-level
+operation heavier and increase the chance of conflicts when many writers target the same
+fragment. More, smaller fragments do the reverse.
+
+Practical guidance:
+
+- The default of 1M rows per fragment works well up to ~1B rows. Past that, bumping toward
+  ~100M rows per fragment is reasonable, though fragment-count limits are rarely the bottleneck
+  in practice.
+- Tens of thousands of fragments per table is generally fine.
+- Keep individual fragments well under object-store object-size limits (S3 caps at 5 TB, and
+  stores tend to misbehave well before that). 10 GB–100 GB per fragment is a reasonable upper
+  range; 1 TB is a hard ceiling.
+- If you run many concurrent updates, deletes, or `merge_insert` operations, err toward more
+  fragments — conflict detection is per-fragment, so too few fragments leads to excess
+  retries.
+
+## Conflict Handling
+
+Lance supports concurrent operations on the same table using optimistic concurrency control. When two
+operations conflict, one of them must be retried. Retries are handled automatically but they repeat
+work that has already been done, which can hurt throughput. Understanding and minimizing conflicts is
+important for maintaining good performance in write-heavy workloads.
+
+Common sources of conflicts include:
+
+- Concurrent compaction and index building, since both need to modify the same indices
+- Update operations that affect the same fragments, since both need to rewrite the same data files
+
+For more details on which operations conflict with each other, see
+[conflict resolution](../format/table/transaction.md#conflict-resolution).
+
+### Fragment Reuse Index
+
+Compaction is one of the most expensive write operations because it rewrites data files and, by
+default, remaps all indices to reflect the new row addresses. When compaction and index building
+run concurrently, they often conflict because both need to modify the same indices. This typically
+causes the compaction to fail and retry, and repeated failures can cause table layout to degrade
+over time.
+
+The Fragment Reuse Index (FRI) solves this by allowing compaction to skip the index remap step.
+Instead of immediately updating indices, compaction records a mapping from old fragment row
+addresses to new ones. When indices are loaded into the cache, the FRI is applied to translate
+the old row addresses to the current ones. This adds a small cost to index load time but does
+not affect query performance once the index is cached.
+
+This decoupling means compaction and index building no longer conflict, which is especially
+valuable for tables that are continuously ingesting data while also maintaining indices.
+
+To enable the FRI, set `defer_index_remap=True` when compacting:
+
+```python
+dataset.optimize.compact_files(defer_index_remap=True)
+```
+
+Rust callers can open the FRI for the dataset version they have loaded with
+`Dataset::frag_reuse_index()`, which returns `None` when that version has no FRI. The returned
+index exposes the raw remap: a physical row address is either unmapped, deleted by a recorded
+compaction, or mapped to the last address reached through the retained mappings. Neither outcome
+is validated against the loaded manifest. Unmapped addresses may still have moved in a compaction
+whose history was trimmed, and mapped destinations may since have been removed, so callers that
+need a complete translation must verify coverage and destinations themselves.
+
+For details on the index format and usage patterns, see the
+[Fragment Reuse Index specification](../format/index/system/frag_reuse.md).
 
 ## Indexes
 
@@ -239,3 +405,136 @@ currently extremely slow and the btree index is much faster for large range quer
 When a bitmap index is not fully loaded into the index cache, the search time will be controlled by the number of bitmaps that
 need to be loaded from disk and the speed of storage. The parts_loaded metric in the execution metrics can tell you how many
 bitmaps were loaded from disk to satisfy a query.
+
+### Vector Index
+
+Vector indexes (IVF_PQ, IVF_HNSW_SQ, etc.) are built in multiple phases, each with different memory requirements.
+
+#### IVF Training
+
+The IVF (Inverted File) phase clusters vectors into partitions using KMeans. To train the KMeans model, a sample of the
+dataset is loaded into memory. The size of this sample is determined by:
+
+```
+training_data = num_partitions * sample_rate * dimension * sizeof(data_type)
+```
+
+The default `sample_rate` is 256. For example, with 1024 partitions, 768-dimensional float32 vectors, and the default
+sample rate:
+
+```
+1024 * 256 * 768 * 4 bytes = 768 MiB
+```
+
+In addition to the training data, each KMeans iteration allocates membership and distance vectors proportional to the
+number of training vectors (8 bytes per vector). The centroids themselves require `num_partitions * dimension *
+sizeof(data_type)` bytes. In practice, the training data dominates and these additional allocations are small in
+comparison.
+
+If the dataset has fewer rows than `num_partitions * sample_rate`, the entire dataset is used for training instead.
+
+#### Quantizer Training
+
+After IVF training, a quantizer (e.g. PQ, SQ) is trained to compress vectors. This phase may sample some of the
+dataset, but the sample size is tied to properties of the quantizer and the vector dimension rather than the size of the
+dataset. As a result, quantizer training typically requires very little RAM compared to the IVF phase.
+
+#### Shuffling
+
+The final phase scans the entire vector column, transforms each vector (assigning it to an IVF partition and quantizing
+it), and writes the results into per-partition files on disk. This is a streaming operation — data is not accumulated in
+memory.
+
+The input scan uses a 2 GiB I/O readahead buffer by default (configurable via `LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE`) and reads
+batches of 8,192 rows. Incoming batches are transformed in parallel, with `num_cpus - 2` batches in flight at a time
+(configurable via `LANCE_CPU_THREADS`). Each batch is sorted by partition ID and the slices are written directly to the
+corresponding partition file. The in-flight memory during this phase is roughly:
+
+```
+io_readahead_buffer + num_cpu_threads * batch_size * (raw_vector_size + transformed_vector_size)
+```
+
+Each partition has an open file writer with roughly 8 MiB of accumulation buffer. In practice there shouldn't be that
+much data accumulated in a single partition anyways. Instead, the max accumulation will be roughly the final size of
+the partitions which comes out to `num_rows * (num_sub_vectors + 8) bytes`. For example, 100M rows with a 1536-dimensional
+vector will have 96 sub-vectors and so the max accumulation will be ~10GB. The additional 8 bytes per row is for the row ID.
+
+#### Storage Requirements
+
+The on-disk size of a vector index consists of the IVF centroids and the quantized vectors.
+
+The centroids require:
+
+```
+num_partitions * dimension * sizeof(data_type)
+```
+
+This is typically small. For example, 10K partitions with 768-dimensional float32 vectors is only 30 MiB.
+
+The quantized vectors make up the bulk of the index. Each row stores a quantized code plus an 8-byte row ID. The
+exact size depends on the quantizer:
+
+**PQ (Product Quantization):** Each sub-vector is quantized to a single byte, so each row requires
+`num_sub_vectors + 8` bytes. For example, 100M rows with 96 sub-vectors:
+
+```
+100M * (96 + 8) = ~9.7 GiB
+```
+
+**SQ (Scalar Quantization):** Each dimension is independently quantized to a single byte, so each row requires
+`dimension + 8` bytes. SQ preserves more information than PQ but requires more storage. For example, 100M rows with
+768-dimensional vectors:
+
+```
+100M * (768 + 8) = ~72.3 GiB
+```
+
+**RQ (RaBitQ):** New indexes default to 5 bits per dimension. Every bit width stores a 1-bit sign
+code plus three 4-byte correction factors. Multi-bit indexes also store the remaining bits in
+64-dimension-padded blocks and two additional 4-byte correction factors. Including the 8-byte row
+ID, the approximate size per row is:
+
+- 1-bit: `dimension / 8 + 20` bytes
+- Multi-bit: `dimension / 8 + round_up(dimension, 64) * (num_bits - 1) / 8 + 28` bytes
+
+For example, the default 5-bit index for 100M rows with 768 dimensions requires:
+
+```
+100M * (768 / 8 + 768 * 4 / 8 + 28) = ~47.3 GiB
+```
+
+The 5-bit default retains more information for the higher-fidelity distance estimates used by
+`Normal` and `Accurate` search modes, at the cost of more quantization work and index I/O during
+the build and a larger index. `Fast` search mode uses only the 1-bit sign code even when the index
+stores additional bits. Set `num_bits=1` explicitly to minimize index size and build I/O; the same
+100M-row example uses about 10.8 GiB, but searches cannot use the multi-bit distance estimate and
+may have lower recall.
+
+#### AMX Acceleration
+
+On Linux x86_64 with an AMX-FP16 CPU (Intel Granite Rapids / Xeon 6 and newer), a `float16`
+vector column indexed with `dot` distance uses the AMX tile instructions, provided the build
+machine had clang >= 16 or gcc >= 13 to compile the kernel. There is nothing to enable —
+Lance checks the CPU at run time and falls back to the previous implementation everywhere else.
+
+The accelerated paths are also shape-gated, because below these sizes a tile pass costs more
+than it saves and the kernel declines the work:
+
+| Condition | Why |
+|---|---|
+| `float16` vectors, `dot` distance | The kernel is fp16-specific; other types and metrics keep their existing paths |
+| `dimension >= 32` | One tile pass covers 32 dimensions; a shorter vector would be all scalar cleanup |
+| `num_centroids >= 32` | The GEMM steps its centroid loop by 32 and has no partial-tile path |
+
+Anything outside them behaves exactly as it does today, so a small dataset or a low-dimensional
+column simply keeps the previous implementation rather than changing behaviour.
+
+Index build also changes algorithm where all of the above hold: comparing every vector against
+every centroid becomes affordable, so partition assignment is exact instead of approximated with
+a graph search over the centroids. Recall improves, and partition assignments differ from what an
+older build produced.
+
+Set `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX=1` to take the AMX paths out of service without rebuilding — for
+A/B measurement, or to get the previous behaviour back. Because it also moves partition
+assignment back to the approximate path, an index built with it set is not equivalent to one
+built without it; compare recall, not just build time.
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/read_and_write.md b/docs/src/guide/read_and_write.md
index cbfb65a1e4c..40062b6ce33 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/read_and_write.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/read_and_write.md
@@ -19,6 +19,8 @@ also supports `Iterator` of `pyarrow.RecordBatch` es.
 You will need to provide a `pyarrow.Schema` for the dataset in this case.
 
 ```python
+from typing import Iterator
+
 def producer() -> Iterator[pa.RecordBatch]:
     """An iterator of RecordBatches."""
     yield pa.RecordBatch.from_pylist([{"name": "Alice", "age": 20}])
@@ -38,6 +40,66 @@ print(ds.count_rows())  # Output: 2
 `lance.write_dataset` supports writing `pyarrow.Table`, `pandas.DataFrame`,
 `pyarrow.dataset.Dataset`, and `Iterator[pyarrow.RecordBatch]`.
 
+## Choosing a data file version
+
+`data_storage_version` selects the format of newly written data files. For an
+existing V2 dataset, an operation can select `"2.0"`, `"2.1"`, `"2.2"`, or `"2.3"`
+without rewriting the other files. The dataset's `data_storage_version` property
+is the default for writes that omit a target, not a summary of its existing
+files. Create and overwrite establish this default; append, update, merge-insert,
+and compaction do not change it. V1 and V2 cannot be mixed.
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+data = pa.table({"id": [1, 2], "value": [10, 20]})
+ds = lance.write_dataset(data, "./versions.lance", data_storage_version="2.1")
+ds.update({"value": "value + 1"}, data_storage_version="2.2")
+assert ds.data_storage_version == "2.1"
+
+ds.merge_insert("id").when_not_matched_insert_all().data_storage_version("2.2").execute(
+    pa.table({"id": [3], "value": [30]})
+)
+ds.optimize.compact_files(data_storage_version="2.2")
+```
+
+The `"stable"` and `"next"` selectors resolve according to the engine release.
+Use exact versions when the output identity must be independent of that release.
+V2.3 is currently unstable: files written by one unstable revision may not be
+readable by a later revision. Use it only for experimentation.
+Compaction plans fix the target before distributing tasks, including when the
+target comes from the dataset default. The target survives Python pickle and
+Java serialization; workers do not reinterpret it using their own release defaults.
+
+Java update, merge-insert, and compaction options use
+`withDataStorageVersion(DataStorageVersion.V2_2)`. The shared `DataStorageVersion`
+enum also provides `STABLE` and `NEXT` selectors.
+
+Compaction can convert selected fragments to another supported V2 version.
+Binary copy requires every selected file to match the output version, as well
+as the usual eligibility checks. In particular, overlays need reencoding to
+preserve updated values. `try_binary_copy` falls back to reencoding when inputs
+are ineligible; `force_binary_copy` rejects them. A version mismatch error includes
+the target version, actual version, and file path. A persistent compaction target
+can be set through `lance.compaction.data_storage_version` in the table config;
+an explicit operation target takes precedence.
+
+### Upgrading clients before mixed-version writes
+
+Before writing files that differ from the dataset default, upgrade every reader
+and writer to a mixed-version-aware release. Drain, restart, or fence writers
+that opened the dataset using an older release. The commit automatically sets
+the paired mixed-version reader/writer feature flags when needed; there is no
+separate activation API. These flags remain set even if compaction later makes
+the files homogeneous again.
+
+Older clients that do not recognize the flags reject the resulting snapshots.
+The flags cannot retroactively fence an older writer that already read a prior
+manifest. Historical homogeneous datasets remain readable by clients that
+support their file versions; see [table versioning](../format/table/versioning.md)
+for the feature flag contract.
+
 ## Adding Rows
 
 To insert data into your dataset, you can use either `LanceDataset.insert`
@@ -454,3 +516,146 @@ affected files are no longer part of any ANN index if they were before. Because
 of this, it's recommended to rewrite files before re-building indices.
 
 <!-- TODO: remove this last comment once stable row ids are default. -->
+
+### Cleanup old versions
+
+Lance is an immutable format — every write creates a new version. The new version
+only writes the data that changed, so an insert writes the new rows and an update
+rewrites the affected columns for the affected rows. Even a delete creates a
+small deletion file. However, old versions still reference the previous data
+files, so those files are kept on disk until explicitly removed. Over time this
+means storage grows with each operation — inserts, updates, and deletes alike.
+
+Keeping old versions has important benefits: readers that opened an older version
+can continue reading it without interference from concurrent writers, providing
+snapshot isolation. Old versions also enable time travel queries, letting you
+read the dataset as it existed at any prior point in time.
+
+`cleanup_old_versions` deletes old version metadata and any data files that are
+no longer referenced by any version, reclaiming the accumulated storage.
+
+!!! warning
+
+    Once old versions are cleaned up, time travel queries to those versions are
+    no longer possible. Choose your retention window (`older_than`) accordingly —
+    any version removed by cleanup cannot be recovered.
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+dataset = lance.dataset("./my_dataset.lance")
+dataset.cleanup_old_versions()
+```
+
+By default, versions older than 7 days are removed. You can override this with
+the `older_than` parameter (a `timedelta`):
+
+```python
+from datetime import timedelta
+
+dataset.cleanup_old_versions(older_than=timedelta(days=1))
+```
+
+!!! note
+
+    Tagged versions are exempt from cleanup. See [Tags and Branches](tags_and_branches.md)
+    for details.
+
+By default, Lance only removes files that it can **verify** are no longer needed.
+A file is verified when Lance can see that it was referenced by an older version
+and is no longer referenced by any newer version. However, some orphaned files
+cannot be verified this way — for example, files left behind by aborted or failed
+commits that were never recorded in any version. These files are
+indistinguishable from files being written by an in-progress operation.
+
+Cleanup will never delete the current (active) version. This means passing
+`older_than=timedelta(0)` is safe and will delete all versions except the current
+one.
+
+The `delete_unverified` flag enables a more aggressive strategy that will also
+delete these unverified files:
+
+```python
+dataset.cleanup_old_versions(
+    older_than=timedelta(hours=2),
+    delete_unverified=True,
+)
+```
+
+!!! danger
+
+    Only use `delete_unverified=True` when you are confident that no other
+    concurrent operation has been in-progress for longer than the `older_than`
+    duration. Lance uses the file's age to decide whether an unverified file is
+    safe to remove, so any operation that is still running past the `older_than`
+    window risks having its files deleted out from under it.
+
+    In particular, combining `delete_unverified=True` with `older_than=timedelta(0)`
+    is **extremely dangerous** — if any other operation is in-progress at all,
+    its data files may be deleted, leading to dataset corruption.
+
+### Automatic cleanup
+
+Instead of calling `cleanup_old_versions` manually, you can configure Lance to
+clean up old versions automatically during writes. When auto cleanup is enabled,
+Lance will run cleanup every *N* commits (the **interval**), removing versions
+older than a specified duration.
+
+Auto cleanup can be enabled when creating a new dataset:
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.dataset import AutoCleanupConfig
+
+table = pa.table({"id": range(100)})
+ds = lance.write_dataset(
+    table,
+    "./my_dataset.lance",
+    auto_cleanup_options=AutoCleanupConfig(
+        interval=20,             # run cleanup every 20 commits
+        older_than_seconds=3600, # remove versions older than 1 hour
+    ),
+)
+```
+
+Or enabled on an existing dataset:
+
+```python
+ds = lance.dataset("./my_dataset.lance")
+ds.optimize.enable_auto_cleanup(
+    AutoCleanupConfig(
+        interval=20,
+        older_than_seconds=3600,
+    )
+)
+```
+
+And disabled again:
+
+```python
+ds.optimize.disable_auto_cleanup()
+```
+
+Auto cleanup parameters can also be set directly via dataset config keys:
+
+```python
+ds.update_config({
+    "lance.auto_cleanup.interval": "20",
+    "lance.auto_cleanup.older_than": "3600s",
+})
+```
+
+!!! warning
+
+    Auto cleanup runs as part of the commit path. If your writer does not have
+    delete permissions, or you are doing high-frequency writes where the extra
+    latency matters, pass `skip_auto_cleanup=True` to `write_dataset` to skip it
+    on a per-write basis.
+
+### Other cleanup strategies
+
+It is common to run cleanup as a periodic background task on a dedicated server
+(for example, via a cron job or scheduled workflow). This keeps cleanup off the
+write path entirely, avoiding any impact to write latency, but requires setting
+up and maintaining additional infrastructure.
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/tags.md b/docs/src/guide/tags.md
deleted file mode 100644
index 62dec1a15d7..00000000000
--- a/docs/src/guide/tags.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,51 +0,0 @@
-# Manage Tags
-
-Lance, much like Git, employs the `LanceDataset.tags`
-property to label specific versions within a dataset's history.
-
-`Tags` are particularly useful for tracking the evolution of datasets,
-especially in machine learning workflows where datasets are frequently updated.
-For example, you can `create`, `update`,
-and `delete` or `list` tags.
-
-!!! note
-
-    Creating or deleting tags does not generate new dataset versions.
-    Tags exist as auxiliary metadata stored in a separate directory.
-
-```python
-import lance
-ds = lance.dataset("./tags.lance")
-print(len(ds.versions()))
-# 2
-print(ds.tags.list())
-# {}
-ds.tags.create("v1-prod", 1)
-print(ds.tags.list())
-# {'v1-prod': {'version': 1, 'manifest_size': ...}}
-ds.tags.update("v1-prod", 2)
-print(ds.tags.list())
-# {'v1-prod': {'version': 2, 'manifest_size': ...}}
-ds.tags.delete("v1-prod")
-print(ds.tags.list())
-# {}
-print(ds.tags.list_ordered())
-# []
-ds.tags.create("v1-prod", 1)
-print(ds.tags.list_ordered())
-# [('v1-prod', {'version': 1, 'manifest_size': ...})]
-ds.tags.update("v1-prod", 2)
-print(ds.tags.list_ordered())
-# [('v1-prod', {'version': 2, 'manifest_size': ...})]
-ds.tags.delete("v1-prod")
-print(ds.tags.list_ordered())
-# []
-```
-
-!!! note
-
-    Tagged versions are exempted from the `LanceDataset.cleanup_old_versions()`
-    process.
-
-    To remove a version that has been tagged, you must first `LanceDataset.tags.delete()`
-    the associated tag. 
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/tags_and_branches.md b/docs/src/guide/tags_and_branches.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..50df8707281
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/guide/tags_and_branches.md
@@ -0,0 +1,129 @@
+# Manage Tags and Branches
+
+Lance provides Git-like tag and branch capabilities through the `LanceDataset.tags` and `LanceDataset.branches` properties.
+
+## Tags
+Tags label specific versions within a branch's history.
+
+`Tags` are particularly useful for tracking the evolution of datasets,
+especially in machine learning workflows where datasets are frequently updated.
+For example, you can `create`, `update`,
+and `delete` or `list` tags.
+
+The `reference` parameter (used in `create`, `update`, and `checkout_version`) accepts:
+
+- An **integer**: version number in the **current branch** (e.g., `1`)
+- A **string**: tag name (e.g., `"stable"`)
+- A **tuple** `(branch_name, version)`: a specific version in a named branch
+  - `(None, 2)` means version 2 on the default branch
+  - `("main", 2)` means version 2 on the default branch (explicit)
+  - `("experiment", 3)` means version 3 on the experiment branch
+  - `("branch-name", None)` means the latest version on that branch
+
+In reference contexts, `"main"` is an alias for the default branch and is equivalent to `None`.
+
+!!! note
+
+    Creating or deleting tags does not generate new dataset versions.
+    Tags exist as auxiliary metadata stored in a separate directory.
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+ds = lance.dataset("./tags.lance")
+print(len(ds.versions()))
+# 2
+print(ds.tags.list())
+# {}
+ds.tags.create("v1-prod", (None, 1))
+print(ds.tags.list())
+# {'v1-prod': {'version': 1, 'created_at': ..., 'updated_at': ..., 'manifest_size': ...}}
+ds.tags.update("v1-prod", (None, 2))
+print(ds.tags.list())
+# {'v1-prod': {'version': 2, 'created_at': ..., 'updated_at': ..., 'manifest_size': ...}}
+ds.tags.delete("v1-prod")
+print(ds.tags.list())
+# {}
+print(ds.tags.list_ordered())
+# []
+ds.tags.create("v1-prod", (None, 1))
+print(ds.tags.list_ordered())
+# [('v1-prod', {'version': 1, 'created_at': ..., 'updated_at': ..., 'manifest_size': ...})]
+ds.tags.update("v1-prod", (None, 2))
+print(ds.tags.list_ordered())
+# [('v1-prod', {'version': 2, 'created_at': ..., 'updated_at': ..., 'manifest_size': ...})]
+ds.tags.delete("v1-prod")
+print(ds.tags.list_ordered())
+# []
+```
+
+!!! note
+
+    Tagged versions are exempted from the `LanceDataset.cleanup_old_versions()`
+    process.
+
+    To remove a version that has been tagged, you must first `LanceDataset.tags.delete()`
+    the associated tag. 
+
+## Branches
+
+Branches manage parallel lines of dataset evolution. You can create a branch from an existing version or tag, read and write to it independently, and checkout different branches. You can `create`, `delete`, `list`, and `checkout` branches.
+
+The `reference` parameter works the same as for Tags (see above).
+
+!!! note
+
+    Creating or deleting branches does not generate new dataset versions.
+    New versions are created by writes (append/overwrite/index operations).
+
+    Each branch maintains its own linear version history, so version numbers may overlap across branches. Use `(branch_name, version_number)` tuples as global identifiers for operations like `checkout_version` and `tags.create`.
+
+    `"main"` is reserved for the default branch. Use `"main"` or `None` when referring to the default branch in reference tuples or checkout APIs, but choose a different name when creating, deleting, or updating branches.
+
+### Create and checkout branches
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+# Open dataset
+ds = lance.dataset("/tmp/test.lance")
+
+# Create branch from the currently checked-out version
+experiment_branch = ds.create_branch("experiment")
+experimental_data = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": [11], "b": [12]})
+lance.write_dataset(experimental_data, experiment_branch, mode="append")
+
+# Create tag on the latest version of the experimental branch
+ds.tags.create("experiment-rc", ("experiment", None))
+
+# Checkout by tag name
+experiment_rc = ds.checkout_version("experiment-rc")
+# Checkout the latest version of the experimental branch by tuple
+experiment_latest = ds.checkout_version(("experiment", None))
+# Checkout the latest version of the default branch explicitly
+main_latest = ds.checkout_version(("main", None))
+
+# Create a new branch from a tag
+new_experiment = ds.create_branch("new-experiment", "experiment-rc")
+```
+
+### List branches
+```python
+print(ds.branches.list())
+# {'experiment': {...}, 'new-experiment': {...}}
+```
+
+### Delete a branch
+```python
+# Ensure the branch is no longer needed before deletion
+ds.branches.delete("experiment")
+print(ds.branches.list_ordered(order="desc"))
+# {'new-experiment': {'parent_branch': 'experiment', 'parent_version': 2, 'create_at': ..., 'manifest_size': ...}, ...}
+```
+
+!!! note
+
+    Branches hold references to data files. Lance ensures that cleanup does not delete files still referenced by any branch.
+
+    Delete unused branches to allow their referenced files to be cleaned up by `cleanup_old_versions()`.
diff --git a/docs/src/guide/tokenizer.md b/docs/src/guide/tokenizer.md
index f4f64df3abb..0d3605df30b 100644
--- a/docs/src/guide/tokenizer.md
+++ b/docs/src/guide/tokenizer.md
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # Tokenizers
 
-Currently, Lance has built-in support for Jieba and Lindera. However, it doesn't come with its own language models.
+Currently, Lance has built-in support for ICU, Jieba, and Lindera. ICU uses built-in segmenter data. Jieba and Lindera require external language models.
 If tokenization is needed, you can download language models by yourself.
 You can specify the location where the language models are stored by setting the environment variable LANCE_LANGUAGE_MODEL_HOME.
 If it's not set, the default value is
@@ -12,6 +12,53 @@ ${system data directory}/lance/language_models
 It also supports configuring user dictionaries,
 which makes it convenient for users to expand their own dictionaries without retraining the language models.
 
+## Inspect Query Tokenization
+
+Use `lance.tokenize` to inspect the tokens that a full-text query will produce
+without creating a dataset or index:
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+tokens = lance.tokenize("the Cats and Dogs")
+[(token.text, token.position) for token in tokens]
+# [("cat", 0), ("dog", 2)]
+```
+
+Positions start at the first retained query token and preserve gaps left by stop
+word removal and other filters. This is the same representation used for phrase
+matching. The function accepts the tokenizer-related options supported by
+`LanceDataset.create_scalar_index`, including custom stop words, n-grams, and the
+code analyzer:
+
+```python
+tokens = lance.tokenize(
+    "getUserName::value42",
+    analyzer="code",
+    split_identifiers=True,
+    index_operators=True,
+)
+```
+
+Options set to `None` use the selected analyzer profile's default. For example,
+the code analyzer disables stemming and stop-word removal unless explicitly
+overridden. The exception is `max_token_length`: omitting it keeps the default
+length limit of 40, while `max_token_length=None` disables the limit.
+
+## ICU Tokenizer
+
+ICU uses Unicode word boundary rules and bundled dictionary data for complex scripts. It is useful for mixed-language text and does not require downloading a language model.
+
+```python
+ds.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED", base_tokenizer="icu")
+```
+
+Use `icu/split` when mixed-language text also contains punctuation-delimited identifiers that should be searchable by part.
+
+```python
+ds.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED", base_tokenizer="icu/split")
+```
+
 ## Language Models of Jieba
 
 ### Downloading the Model
@@ -40,7 +87,7 @@ Create a file named config.json in the root directory of the current model.
 ```
 
 - The "main" field is optional. If not filled, the default is "dict.txt".
-- "users" is the path of the user dictionary. For the format of the user dictionary, please refer to https://github.com/messense/jieba-rs/blob/main/src/data/dict.txt.
+- "users" is the path of the user dictionary. For the format of the user dictionary, please refer to https://github.com/messense/jieba-rs/blob/main/jieba/src/data/dict.txt.
 
 ## Language Models of Lindera
 
@@ -69,11 +116,9 @@ For more detailed configuration methods, see the lindera documentation at https:
 ```yaml
 segmenter:
     mode: "normal"
-    dictionary:
-        # Note: in lance, the `kind` field is not supported. You need to specify the model path using the `path` field instead.
-        path: /path/to/lindera/ipadic/main
+    dictionary: /path/to/lindera/ipadic/main
 ```
 
 ## Create your own language model
 
-Put your language model into `LANCE_LANGUAGE_MODEL_HOME`. 
\ No newline at end of file
+Put your language model into `LANCE_LANGUAGE_MODEL_HOME`.
diff --git a/docs/src/images/blob-v2-overview-dark.png b/docs/src/images/blob-v2-overview-dark.png
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..04853012405
Binary files /dev/null and b/docs/src/images/blob-v2-overview-dark.png differ
diff --git a/docs/src/images/blob-v2-overview-light.png b/docs/src/images/blob-v2-overview-light.png
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7dae4f70cc3
Binary files /dev/null and b/docs/src/images/blob-v2-overview-light.png differ
diff --git a/docs/src/images/distributed_vector_segment_build.svg b/docs/src/images/distributed_vector_segment_build.svg
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4d52e2a0c82
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/images/distributed_vector_segment_build.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+<svg width="100%" viewBox="0 0 680 820" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+<defs>
+  <marker id="arrow" viewBox="0 0 10 10" refX="8" refY="5" markerWidth="6" markerHeight="6" orient="auto-start-reverse">
+    <path d="M2 1L8 5L2 9" fill="none" stroke="context-stroke" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+  </marker>
+</defs>
+
+<!-- Phase 1: Caller -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
+  <rect x="250" y="30" width="180" height="44" rx="8" stroke-width="0.5" style="fill:rgb(241, 239, 232);stroke:rgb(95, 94, 90);color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:0.5px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto"/>
+  <text x="340" y="52" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(68, 68, 65);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:14px;font-weight:500;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">Caller</text>
+</g>
+
+<!-- Arrow down -->
+<line x1="340" y1="74" x2="340" y2="110" marker-end="url(#arrow)" style="fill:none;stroke:rgb(115, 114, 108);color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1.5px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto"/>
+<text x="348" y="96" text-anchor="start" style="fill:rgb(61, 61, 58);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">launch workers</text>
+
+<!-- Phase 2: Parallel workers container -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
+  <rect x="40" y="110" width="600" height="200" rx="16" stroke-width="0.5" style="fill:rgb(238, 237, 254);stroke:rgb(83, 74, 183);color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:0.5px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto"/>
+  <text x="340" y="138" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(60, 52, 137);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:14px;font-weight:500;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">Parallel index build (per worker)</text>
+</g>
+
+<!-- Worker 1 -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+  <text x="148" y="178" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(8, 80, 65);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:14px;font-weight:500;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">Worker 1</text>
+  <text x="148" y="196" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(15, 110, 86);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">execute_uncommitted()</text>
+</g>
+<!-- Worker 2 -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+  <text x="340" y="178" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(8, 80, 65);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:14px;font-weight:500;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">Worker 2</text>
+  <text x="340" y="196" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(15, 110, 86);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">execute_uncommitted()</text>
+</g>
+<!-- Worker N -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+  <text x="532" y="196" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(15, 110, 86);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">execute_uncommitted()</text>
+</g>
+
+<!-- Partial shard outputs -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+</g>
+<line x1="340" y1="214" x2="340" y2="234" marker-end="url(#arrow)" style="fill:none;stroke:rgb(115, 114, 108);color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1.5px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto"/>
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+
+<!-- Staging root label -->
+<text x="340" y="290" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" opacity="0.7" style="fill:rgb(61, 61, 58);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:0.7;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">indices/&lt;staging_uuid&gt;/partial_&lt;u*&gt;/</text>
+
+<!-- Arrow to segment planner -->
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+
+<!-- Phase 3: Caller-defined grouping -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+  <text x="340" y="388" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(153, 60, 29);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">merge_existing_index_segments(...)</text>
+</g>
+
+<!-- Arrow to plans -->
+<line x1="340" y1="406" x2="340" y2="440" marker-end="url(#arrow)" style="fill:none;stroke:rgb(115, 114, 108);color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1.5px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto"/>
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+
+<!-- Phase 4: Optional segment merge -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+</g>
+
+<!-- Segment build 0 -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+  <text x="148" y="508" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(8, 80, 65);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:14px;font-weight:500;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">merge(group[0])</text>
+  <text x="148" y="526" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(15, 110, 86);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">→ IndexMetadata 0</text>
+</g>
+<!-- Segment build 1 -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+  <text x="340" y="526" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(15, 110, 86);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">→ IndexMetadata 1</text>
+</g>
+<!-- Segment build N -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+  <text x="532" y="526" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(15, 110, 86);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">→ IndexMetadata N</text>
+</g>
+
+<!-- Arrow to commit -->
+<line x1="340" y1="600" x2="340" y2="650" marker-end="url(#arrow)" style="fill:none;stroke:rgb(115, 114, 108);color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1.5px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto"/>
+
+<!-- Phase 5: Commit -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+  <text x="340" y="672" text-anchor="middle" dominant-baseline="central" style="fill:rgb(113, 43, 19);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:14px;font-weight:500;text-anchor:middle;dominant-baseline:central">commit_existing_index_segments(...)</text>
+</g>
+
+<!-- Arrow to logical index -->
+<line x1="340" y1="694" x2="340" y2="740" marker-end="url(#arrow)" style="fill:none;stroke:rgb(115, 114, 108);color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1.5px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto"/>
+
+<!-- Final: Logical index -->
+<g style="fill:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke:none;color:rgb(0, 0, 0);stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;opacity:1;font-family:&quot;Anthropic Sans&quot;, -apple-system, &quot;system-ui&quot;, &quot;Segoe UI&quot;, sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:400;text-anchor:start;dominant-baseline:auto">
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+</g>
+</svg>
diff --git a/docs/src/images/lakehouse_stack.png b/docs/src/images/lakehouse_stack.png
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diff --git a/docs/src/integrations/.pages b/docs/src/integrations/.pages
index 05249d14207..ab9c2c0dcee 100644
--- a/docs/src/integrations/.pages
+++ b/docs/src/integrations/.pages
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 nav:
+  - Overview: index.md
   - Apache DataFusion: datafusion.md
-  - DuckDB: duckdb.md
-  - PostgreSQL: https://github.com/lancedb/pglance
+  - PostgreSQL: https://github.com/lance-format/pglance
   - PyTorch: pytorch.md
-  - Tensorflow: tensorflow.md
-  - Trino: https://github.com/lancedb/lance-trino
+  - TensorFlow: tensorflow.md
diff --git a/docs/src/integrations/duckdb.md b/docs/src/integrations/duckdb.md
deleted file mode 100644
index cac9b048bea..00000000000
--- a/docs/src/integrations/duckdb.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,397 +0,0 @@
-# DuckDB
-
-Lance datasets can be queried in SQL with [DuckDB](https://duckdb.org/),
-an in-process OLAP relational database. Using DuckDB means you can write complex SQL queries (that may not yet be supported in Lance), without needing to move your data out of Lance.
-
-!!! note
-    This integration is done via a DuckDB extension, whose source code and latest documentation (via `README.md`) is available
-    [here](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-duckdb).
-    To ensure you see the most up-to-date examples and syntax, check out the repo and the 
-    [DuckDB extension](https://duckdb.org/community_extensions/extensions/lance)
-    documentation page.
-
-## Installation
-
-### Python dependencies
-
-- To use DuckDB's CLI, install it using the steps shown in [their docs](https://duckdb.org/install/).
-- To run the code in Python, install Lance, DuckDB and PyArrow as shown below.
-
-```bash
-pip install pylance duckdb pyarrow
-```
-
-### Install the Lance extension in DuckDB
-
-We're now ready to begin querying Lance using DuckDB! First, install the extension.
-
-=== "SQL"
-
-    ```sql
-    INSTALL lance FROM community;
-    LOAD lance;
-    ```
-
-=== "Python"
-
-    ```python
-    import duckdb
-
-    duckdb.sql(
-        """
-        INSTALL lance FROM community;
-        LOAD lance;
-        """
-    )
-    ```
-
-???+ info "Update extensions"
-    If you already have the extension installed locally, run the following command to update it to the
-    latest version:
-    ```
-    UPDATE EXTENSIONS;
-    ```
-
-## Examples
-
-All examples below reuse a small dataset with three rows (duck, horse, dragon)
-and a `vector` column with representative values. In the real world, you'd have
-a high-dimensional array generated by an embedding model, and a much larger Lance dataset.
-
-### Write a DuckDB table as a Lance dataset
-
-Use DuckDB's `COPY ... TO ...` to materialize query results as a Lance dataset.
-
-=== "SQL"
-
-    ```sql
-    COPY (
-      SELECT *
-      FROM (
-        VALUES
-          ('duck', 'quack', [0.9, 0.7, 0.1]::FLOAT[]),
-          ('horse', 'neigh', [0.3, 0.1, 0.5]::FLOAT[]),
-          ('dragon', 'roar', [0.5, 0.2, 0.7]::FLOAT[])
-      ) AS t(animal, noise, vector)
-    ) TO './lance_duck.lance' (FORMAT lance, mode 'overwrite');
-    ```
-
-=== "Python"
-
-    ```python
-    import duckdb
-
-    duckdb.sql(
-        """
-        COPY (
-          SELECT *
-          FROM (
-            VALUES
-              ('duck', 'quack', [0.9, 0.7, 0.1]::FLOAT[]),
-              ('horse', 'neigh', [0.3, 0.1, 0.5]::FLOAT[]),
-              ('dragon', 'roar', [0.5, 0.2, 0.7]::FLOAT[])
-          ) AS t(animal, noise, vector)
-        ) TO './lance_duck.lance' (FORMAT lance, mode 'overwrite');
-        """
-    )
-    ```
-
-### Query a Lance dataset from DuckDB
-
-Now that the Lance dataset is written, let's query it using SQL in DuckDB.
-
-=== "SQL"
-
-    ```sql
-    SELECT *
-      FROM './lance_duck.lance'
-      LIMIT 5;
-    ```
-
-=== "Python"
-
-    ```python
-    import duckdb
-
-    r1 = duckdb.sql(
-        """
-        SELECT *
-          FROM './lance_duck.lance'
-          LIMIT 5;
-        """
-    )
-    print(r1)
-    ```
-
-
-This returns:
-
-```
-┌─────────┬─────────┬─────────────────┐
-│ animal  │  noise  │     vector      │
-│ varchar │ varchar │     float[]     │
-├─────────┼─────────┼─────────────────┤
-│ duck    │ quack   │ [0.9, 0.7, 0.1] │
-│ horse   │ neigh   │ [0.3, 0.1, 0.5] │
-│ dragon  │ roar    │ [0.5, 0.2, 0.7] │
-└─────────┴─────────┴─────────────────┘
-```
-
-???+ info "Query S3 paths directly"
-    To access object store URIs (such as `s3://...`), configure a `TYPE LANCE` secret.
-
-    ```sql
-    CREATE SECRET (
-      TYPE LANCE,
-      PROVIDER credential_chain,
-      SCOPE 's3://bucket/'
-    );
-
-    SELECT *
-      FROM 's3://bucket/path/to/dataset.lance'
-      LIMIT 5;
-    ```
-
-### Create a Lance dataset via CREATE TABLE (directory namespace)
-
-When you `ATTACH` a directory as a Lance namespace, you can create new datasets
-using `CREATE TABLE` or `CREATE TABLE AS SELECT`. The dataset is written to
-`<namespace_root>/<table_name>.lance`.
-
-=== "SQL"
-
-    ```sql
-    ATTACH './lance_ns' AS lance_ns (TYPE LANCE);
-
-    CREATE TABLE lance_ns.main.duck_animals AS
-      SELECT *
-      FROM (
-        VALUES
-          ('duck', 'quack', [0.9, 0.7, 0.1]::FLOAT[]),
-          ('horse', 'neigh', [0.3, 0.1, 0.5]::FLOAT[]),
-          ('dragon', 'roar', [0.5, 0.2, 0.7]::FLOAT[])
-      ) AS t(animal, noise, vector);
-    ```
-
-=== "Python"
-
-    ```python
-    import duckdb
-
-    duckdb.sql(
-        """
-        ATTACH './lance_ns' AS lance_ns (TYPE LANCE);
-
-        CREATE TABLE lance_ns.main.duck_animals AS
-          SELECT *
-          FROM (
-            VALUES
-              ('duck', 'quack', [0.9, 0.7, 0.1]::FLOAT[]),
-              ('horse', 'neigh', [0.3, 0.1, 0.5]::FLOAT[]),
-              ('dragon', 'roar', [0.5, 0.2, 0.7]::FLOAT[])
-          ) AS t(animal, noise, vector);
-        """
-    )
-    ```
-
-You can then query the namespace as follows:
-
-```sql
-SELECT count(*) FROM lance_ns.main.duck_animals;
-```
-
-```
-┌──────────────┐
-│ count_star() │
-│    int64     │
-├──────────────┤
-│      3       │
-└──────────────┘
-```
-
-### Vector search
-
-You can perform vector search on a column. This returns the `_distance`
-(smaller is closer, so sort in ascending order for nearest neighbors). The example vector here is similar to the query "duck".
-
-=== "SQL"
-
-    ```sql
-    SELECT animal, noise, vector, _distance
-      FROM lance_vector_search(
-        './lance_duck.lance',
-        'vector',
-        [0.8, 0.7, 0.2]::FLOAT[],
-        k = 1,
-        prefilter = true
-      )
-      ORDER BY _distance ASC;
-    ```
-
-=== "Python"
-
-    ```python
-    import duckdb
-
-    r2 = duckdb.sql(
-        """
-        SELECT animal, noise, vector, _distance
-          FROM lance_vector_search(
-            './lance_duck.lance',
-            'vector',
-            [0.8, 0.7, 0.2]::FLOAT[],
-            k = 1,
-            prefilter = true
-          )
-          ORDER BY _distance ASC;
-        """
-    )
-    print(r2)
-    ```
-
-This returns:
-```
-┌─────────┬─────────┬─────────────────┐
-│ animal  │  noise  │     vector      │
-│ varchar │ varchar │     float[]     │
-├─────────┼─────────┼─────────────────┤
-│ duck    │ quack   │ [0.9, 0.7, 0.1] │
-└─────────┴─────────┴─────────────────┘
-```
-
-### Full-text search
-
-Run keyword-based BM25 search as shown below. This returns a `_score`, which
-is sorted in descending order to get the most relevant results.
-
-=== "SQL"
-
-    ```sql
-    SELECT animal, noise, vector, _score
-      FROM lance_fts(
-        './lance_duck.lance',
-        'animal',
-        'the brave knight faced the dragon',
-        k = 1,
-        prefilter = true
-      )
-      ORDER BY _score DESC;
-    ```
-
-=== "Python"
-
-    ```python
-    import duckdb
-
-    r3 = duckdb.sql(
-        """
-        SELECT animal, noise, vector, _score
-          FROM lance_fts(
-            './lance_duck.lance',
-            'animal',
-            'the brave knight faced the dragon',
-            k = 1,
-            prefilter = true
-          )
-          ORDER BY _score DESC;
-        """
-    )
-    print(r3)
-    ```
-
-This returns:
-
-```
-┌─────────┬─────────┬─────────────────┐
-│ animal  │  noise  │     vector      │
-│ varchar │ varchar │     float[]     │
-├─────────┼─────────┼─────────────────┤
-│ dragon  │ roar    │ [0.5, 0.2, 0.7] │
-└─────────┴─────────┴─────────────────┘
-```
-
-### Hybrid search
-
-Hybrid search combines vector and FTS scores, returning a `_hybrid_score` in addition
-to `_distance` / `_score`. To get the most relevant results, sort in descending order.
-
-=== "SQL"
-
-    ```sql
-    SELECT animal, noise, vector, _hybrid_score, _distance, _score
-      FROM lance_hybrid_search(
-        './lance_duck.lance',
-        'vector',
-        [0.8, 0.7, 0.2]::FLOAT[],
-        'animal',
-        'the duck surprised the dragon',
-        k = 2,
-        prefilter = false,
-        alpha = 0.5,
-        oversample_factor = 4
-      )
-      ORDER BY _hybrid_score DESC;
-    ```
-
-=== "Python"
-
-    ```python
-    import duckdb
-
-    r4 = duckdb.sql(
-        """
-        SELECT animal, noise, vector, _hybrid_score, _distance, _score
-          FROM lance_hybrid_search(
-            './lance_duck.lance',
-            'vector',
-            [0.8, 0.7, 0.2]::FLOAT[],
-            'animal',
-            'the duck surprised the dragon',
-            k = 2,
-            prefilter = false,
-            alpha = 0.5,
-            oversample_factor = 4
-          )
-          ORDER BY _hybrid_score DESC;
-        """
-    )
-    print(r4)
-    ```
-
-This returns:
-```
-┌─────────┬─────────┬─────────────────┐
-│ animal  │  noise  │     vector      │
-│ varchar │ varchar │     float[]     │
-├─────────┼─────────┼─────────────────┤
-│ duck    │ quack   │ [0.9, 0.7, 0.1] │
-│ dragon  │ roar    │ [0.5, 0.2, 0.7] │
-└─────────┴─────────┴─────────────────┘
-```
-
-!!! warning
-    DuckDB treats `column` as a keyword in some contexts. It's recommended to
-    use `text_column` / `vector_column` as column names for the Lance extension.
-
-## Source repo
-
-Check out the [lance-duckdb](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-duckdb) project
-for the latest source code, and go through `README.md` for the latest API docs.
-Additional pages are listed below.
-
-### Full SQL reference
-
-[sql.md](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-duckdb/blob/main/docs/sql.md)
-lists the current SQL surface supported by this extension. It's recommended to refer
-to this page for the most up-to-date information.
-
-### Cloud storage reference
-
-[cloud.md](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-duckdb/blob/main/docs/cloud.md) lists
-the current supported backends that allow you to access data on various cloud providers.
-
-- S3 / S3-compatible: `s3://...` (also accepts `s3a://...` and `s3n://...`, normalized to `s3://...`)
-- Google Cloud Storage: `gs://...`
-- Azure Blob Storage: `az://...`
-- Alibaba Cloud OSS: `oss://...`
-- Hugging Face Hub (OpenDAL): `hf://...`
diff --git a/docs/src/integrations/index.md b/docs/src/integrations/index.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5c392275721
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/integrations/index.md
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+---
+title: Integrations
+description: Connect Lance to query engines, ML frameworks, databases, and catalogs across the data ecosystem.
+---
+
+# Integrations
+
+Because Lance is built on Apache Arrow and exposes
+a stable Rust core with Python and Java bindings, it can be consumed from query engines, ML frameworks, databases,
+and catalog systems without copying or converting data.
+
+This page lists the integrations maintained by the Lance community. Some live in this repository as first-party
+Rust/Python APIs; others are maintained as dedicated subprojects under the [lance-format](https://github.com/lance-format)
+GitHub organization.
+
+## Query Engines and SQL
+
+| Integration | Description | Source |
+|---|---|---|
+| [Apache DataFusion](datafusion.md) | Register Lance datasets as DataFusion tables and run SQL with predicate/projection pushdown. Available in both Rust and Python. | Built-in |
+| [Apache Spark](spark/index.md) | Read and write Lance datasets from Spark SQL and DataFrames. | [lance-format/lance-spark](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-spark) |
+| [Apache Doris](https://doris.apache.org/docs/4.x/lakehouse/catalogs/lance-catalog/) | Query Lance datasets with Doris SQL through filesystem and REST catalogs, with predicate pushdown and vector search. Read-only. | [apache/doris](https://github.com/apache/doris) |
+| [DuckDB](duckdb) | Query Lance datasets directly from DuckDB. | [lance-format/lance-duckdb](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-duckdb) |
+| [Trino](trino) | Federate Lance into Trino alongside other connectors. | [lance-format/lance-trino](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-trino) |
+
+## Machine Learning and AI
+
+| Integration | Description | Source |
+|---|---|---|
+| [PyTorch](pytorch.md) | Use `lance.torch.data.LanceDataset` as a `torch.utils.data.IterableDataset` for training and inference. | Built-in |
+| [TensorFlow](tensorflow.md) | Use `lance_tensorflow.from_lance` to stream Lance data into `tf.data.Dataset` pipelines. | [lance-format/lance-tensorflow](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-tensorflow) |
+| [Ray](ray) | Distributed read/write of Lance datasets with Ray Data. | [lance-format/lance-ray](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-ray) |
+| [Hugging Face](huggingface) | Convert and load Hugging Face datasets to and from Lance in a single call. | [lance-format/lance-huggingface](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-huggingface) |
+
+## Databases and Stream Processing
+
+| Integration | Description | Source |
+|---|---|---|
+| PostgreSQL | Read Lance datasets from PostgreSQL via the `pglance` extension. | [lance-format/pglance](https://github.com/lance-format/pglance) |
+| Apache Flink | Stream data into Lance from Flink jobs. | [lance-format/lance-flink](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-flink) |
+
+## Catalogs and Namespaces
+
+| Integration | Description | Source |
+|---|---|---|
+| [Lance Namespace](../format/namespace) | Specification and codegen SDKs (Rust, Python, Java) for catalog-backed Lance tables. | [lance-format/lance-namespace](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-namespace) |
+| [Catalog implementations](../format/namespace/supported-catalogs) | Reference implementations for Apache Hive, Apache Polaris, Apache Gravitino, Unity Catalog, AWS Glue, and others. | [lance-format/lance-namespace-impls](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-namespace-impls) |
+
+## Other Ecosystem Projects
+
+| Integration | Description | Source |
+|---|---|---|
+| Lance Graph | Cypher-capable graph query engine on top of Lance. | [lance-format/lance-graph](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-graph) |
+| Lance Data Viewer | Read-only web interface for browsing Lance datasets. | [lance-format/lance-data-viewer](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-data-viewer) |
+| Lance Context | Manage multimodal agentic context lifecycle with Lance. | [lance-format/lance-context](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-context) |
+
+!!! note "Stability"
+
+    Subprojects in the [lance-format](https://github.com/lance-format) organization graduate from incubating
+    status once they meet the project's quality bar (CI, tests, established use cases, community adoption).
+    Incubating subprojects may have changing APIs — check the project README for the current status. See
+    [Community Governance](../community#projects) for details on how integrations are organized.
+
+## Additional Integrations
+
+If there's an integration you'd like to see, but isn't listed above, please
+[open an issue](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/new) describing the use case. PRs are always
+welcome, though it's recommended to alert the maintainers to avoid duplicated work.
diff --git a/docs/src/integrations/pytorch.md b/docs/src/integrations/pytorch.md
index 543b9978064..ae5c9f6286e 100644
--- a/docs/src/integrations/pytorch.md
+++ b/docs/src/integrations/pytorch.md
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ Machine learning users can use `lance.torch.data.LanceDataset`, a
 subclass of `torch.utils.data.IterableDataset`, that to use
 Lance data directly PyTorch training and inference loops.
 
-It starts with creating a ML dataset for training. With the [HuggingFace integration](huggingface.md),
+It starts with creating a ML dataset for training. With the [HuggingFace integration](huggingface),
 it takes just one line of Python to convert a HuggingFace dataset to a Lance dataset.
 
 ```python
diff --git a/docs/src/integrations/tensorflow.md b/docs/src/integrations/tensorflow.md
index 1c5d6b87157..03a5c5c5eca 100644
--- a/docs/src/integrations/tensorflow.md
+++ b/docs/src/integrations/tensorflow.md
@@ -1,92 +1,71 @@
-# Tensorflow Integration
+---
+title: TensorFlow
+description: Stream Lance datasets into TensorFlow tf.data pipelines with lance-tensorflow.
+---
 
-Lance can be used as a regular [tf.data.Dataset](https://www.tensorflow.org/api_docs/python/tf/data/Dataset)
-in [Tensorflow](https://www.tensorflow.org/).
+# TensorFlow Integration
 
-!!! warning
+The TensorFlow integration is maintained in the
+[lance-format/lance-tensorflow](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-tensorflow)
+project.
 
-    This feature is experimental and the APIs may change in the future.
+The main Lance Python package no longer includes `lance.tf`. Install
+`lance-tensorflow` and import `lance_tensorflow` instead.
+
+```bash
+pip install lance-tensorflow
+```
 
 ## Reading from Lance
 
-Using `lance.tf.data.from_lance`, you can create an `tf.data.Dataset` easily.
+Use `lance_tensorflow.from_lance` to create a `tf.data.Dataset` from a Lance
+dataset.
 
 ```python
-import tensorflow as tf
-import lance
+from lance_tensorflow import from_lance
 
-# Create tf dataset
-ds = lance.tf.data.from_lance("s3://my-bucket/my-dataset")
-
-# Chain tf dataset with other tf primitives
+ds = from_lance(
+    "s3://my-bucket/my-dataset",
+    columns=["image", "label"],
+    filter="split = 'train'",
+    batch_size=256,
+)
 
-for batch in ds.shuffling(32).map(lambda x: tf.io.decode_png(x["image"])):
-    print(batch)
+for batch in ds:
+    print(batch["label"])
 ```
 
-Backed by the Lance [columnar format](../format/index.md), using `lance.tf.data.from_lance` supports
-efficient column selection, filtering, and more.
+## Dataset Convenience Methods
+
+If you want `tf.data.Dataset.from_lance`, register the convenience methods
+explicitly after importing `lance_tensorflow`.
 
 ```python
-ds = lance.tf.data.from_lance(
-    "s3://my-bucket/my-dataset",
-    columns=["image", "label"],
-    filter="split = 'train' AND collected_time > timestamp '2020-01-01'",
-    batch_size=256)
-```
+import tensorflow as tf
+import lance_tensorflow
 
-By default, Lance will infer the Tensor spec from the projected columns. You can also specify `tf.TensorSpec` manually.
+lance_tensorflow.register_tensorflow_dataset()
 
-```python
-batch_size = 256
-ds = lance.tf.data.from_lance(
-    "s3://my-bucket/my-dataset",
-    columns=["image", "labels"],
-    batch_size=batch_size,
-    output_signature={
-        "image": tf.TensorSpec(shape=(), dtype=tf.string),
-        "labels": tf.RaggedTensorSpec(
-            dtype=tf.int32, shape=(batch_size, None), ragged_rank=1),
-    },
+ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_lance("s3://my-bucket/my-dataset")
 ```
 
-## Distributed Training and Shuffling
+## Migration
 
-Since [a Lance Dataset is a set of Fragments](../format/index.md), we can distribute and shuffle Fragments to different
-workers.
+Replace old imports:
 
 ```python
-import tensorflow as tf
-from lance.tf.data import from_lance, lance_fragments
+import lance.tf.data
 
-world_size = 32
-rank = 10
-seed = 123  #
-epoch = 100
+ds = lance.tf.data.from_lance(uri)
+```
 
-dataset_uri = "s3://my-bucket/my-dataset"
+with:
 
-# Shuffle fragments distributedly.
-fragments =
-    lance_fragments("s3://my-bucket/my-dataset")
-    .shuffling(32, seed=seed)
-    .repeat(epoch)
-    .enumerate()
-    .filter(lambda i, _: i % world_size == rank)
-    .map(lambda _, fid: fid)
+```python
+from lance_tensorflow import from_lance
 
-ds = from_lance(
-    uri,
-    columns=["image", "label"],
-    fragments=fragments,
-    batch_size=32
-    )
-for batch in ds:
-    print(batch)
+ds = from_lance(uri)
 ```
 
-!!! warning
-
-    For multiprocessing you should probably not use fork as lance is
-    multi-threaded internally and fork and multi-thread do not work well.
-    Refer to [this discussion](https://discuss.python.org/t/concerns-regarding-deprecation-of-fork-with-alive-threads/33555). 
\ No newline at end of file
+See the [lance-tensorflow README](https://github.com/lance-format/lance-tensorflow)
+for the current installation and compatibility details.
diff --git a/docs/src/quickstart/.pages b/docs/src/quickstart/.pages
index 142d4d91b3d..dc2c58b8f20 100644
--- a/docs/src/quickstart/.pages
+++ b/docs/src/quickstart/.pages
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
 nav:
   - Getting Started with Lance: index.md
   - Versioning: versioning.md
-  - Vector Search: vector-search.md
\ No newline at end of file
+  - Vector Search: vector-search.md
+  - Full-Text Search: full-text-search.md
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/src/quickstart/full-text-search.md b/docs/src/quickstart/full-text-search.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..25a7dd3795e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/src/quickstart/full-text-search.md
@@ -0,0 +1,505 @@
+---
+title: Full-Text Search
+description: Full-text search (FTS) with inverted BM25 indexes and N-gram search in Lance
+---
+
+# Full-Text Search in Lance
+
+Lance provides powerful full-text search (FTS) capabilities using an inverted index. This tutorial guides you through building and using FTS indexes to dramatically speed up text search operations while maintaining high accuracy.
+
+By the end of this tutorial, you'll be able to build and use an FTS index, understand performance differences between indexed and non-indexed searches, and learn how to tune search parameters for optimal performance.
+
+## Install the Python SDK
+
+First, install the required dependencies:
+
+```bash
+pip install pylance pyarrow
+```
+
+## Set Up Your Environment
+
+Import the necessary libraries for working with Lance datasets:
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+```
+
+## Prepare Your Text Data
+
+In this quickstart, we'll create a simple dataset with text documents:
+
+```python
+table = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": [1, 2, 3],
+        "text": [
+            "I left my umbrella on the evening train to Boston",
+            "This ramen recipe simmers the broth for three hours with dried mushrooms.",
+            "This train is scheduled to leave for Edinburgh at 9:30 in the morning",
+        ],
+    }
+)
+
+# Write to a new Lance dataset
+lance.write_dataset(table, "/tmp/fts.lance", mode="overwrite")
+```
+
+This creates a Lance dataset with three text documents containing overlapping keywords that we'll use to demonstrate different search scenarios.
+
+## Explore Your Dataset Schema
+
+Let's examine the structure of our dataset:
+
+```python
+ds = lance.dataset("/tmp/fts.lance")
+print(ds.schema)
+```
+
+This prints the PyArrow schema of the dataset:
+
+```
+id: int64
+text: large_string
+```
+
+## Build the Full-Text Search Index
+
+Full-text search is created with an inverted scalar index on your text column. Choose the `INVERTED` index type when calling `create_scalar_index` on your Lance dataset. Lance uses the BM25 ranking algorithm for relevance scoring. Results are automatically ranked by relevance, with higher scores indicating better matches.
+
+```python
+ds.create_scalar_index(
+    column="text",
+    index_type="INVERTED"
+)
+```
+
+The index creation process builds an efficient lookup structure that maps words to the documents containing them. This enables high-performance keyword-based search, even on large datasets.
+
+!!! warning "Index Creation Time"
+Index creation time depends on the size of your text data. For large datasets, this process may take several minutes, but the performance benefits at query time are substantial.
+
+## Advanced Index Configuration
+
+You can customize the index creation with various parameters to optimize for your specific use case:
+
+```python
+ds.create_scalar_index(
+    column="text",
+    index_type="INVERTED",
+    name="text_idx",              # Optional index name (if omitted, default is "text_idx")
+    with_position=False,          # Set True to enable phrase queries (stores token positions)
+    base_tokenizer="simple",      # Tokenizer: "simple", "icu", "icu/split", "whitespace", "raw", or "ngram"
+    language="English",           # Language used for stemming + stop words (only used if `stem` or `remove_stop_words` is True)
+    max_token_length=40,          # Drop tokens longer than this length
+    lower_case=True,              # Lowercase text before tokenization
+    stem=True,                    # Stem tokens (language-dependent)
+    remove_stop_words=True,       # Remove stop words (language-dependent)
+    custom_stop_words=None,       # Optional additional stop words (only used if remove_stop_words=True)
+    ascii_folding=True,           # Fold accents to ASCII when possible (e.g., "é" -> "e")
+    block_size=128,               # Posting block size: 128 or 256; 256 is experimental
+)
+```
+
+### Tokenizer Options
+
+- **simple**: Splits tokens on whitespace and punctuation
+- **whitespace**: Splits tokens only on whitespace
+- **raw**: No tokenization (useful for exact matching)
+
+Lance also supports multilingual tokenization:
+
+- **icu**: Unicode word segmentation with built-in ICU dictionaries
+- **jieba/default**: Chinese text tokenization using Jieba
+- **lindera/ipadic**: Japanese text tokenization using Lindera with IPAdic dictionary
+- **lindera/ko-dic**: Korean text tokenization using Lindera with Ko-dic dictionary
+- **lindera/unidic**: Japanese text tokenization using Lindera with UniDic dictionary
+
+### Language Processing Features
+
+- **stemming**: Reduces words to their root form (e.g., "running" → "run")
+- **stop words**: Removes common words like "the", "and", "is"
+- **ascii folding**: Converts accented characters to ASCII (e.g., "é" → "e")
+
+## Search With FTS Queries
+
+Now you can run FTS queries using your inverted index:
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+# Open dataset
+ds = lance.dataset("/tmp/fts.lance")
+
+# Specify keyword phrases when calling the `to_table` method
+query_result = ds.to_table(
+    full_text_query="umbrella train"
+)
+print(query_result)
+```
+
+This query returns documents that contain either "umbrella" or "train" (or both). The search is case-insensitive and uses the inverted index for fast retrieval.
+
+```
+id: [[1, 3]]
+text: [["I left my umbrella on the evening train to Boston", "This train is scheduled to leave for Edinburgh at 9:30 in the morning"]]
+_score: [[..., ...]]
+```
+
+## Combining Full-Text Search with Metadata
+
+It can be useful to combine FTS with metadata filtering in a single query to find more relevant results.
+You can do this by passing a filter expression to the `filter` parameter.
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+table = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": [1, 2, 3],
+        "text": [
+            "I left my umbrella on the morning train to Boston",
+            "This ramen recipe simmers the broth for three hours with dried mushrooms.",
+            "This train is scheduled to leave for Edinburgh at 9:30 AM",
+        ],
+        "category": ["travel", "food", "travel"],
+    }
+)
+
+# Temp write dataset
+lance.write_dataset(table, "./fts_test_with_metadata.lance", mode="overwrite")
+
+ds = lance.dataset("./fts_test_with_metadata.lance")
+
+# Create FTS index
+ds.create_scalar_index(
+    column="text",
+    index_type="INVERTED",
+)
+
+# Run FTS query with metadata filter
+query_result = ds.to_table(
+    full_text_query="three",
+    filter='category = "food"',
+)
+
+# Returns
+# id: [[2]]
+# text: [["This ramen recipe simmers the broth for three hours with dried mushrooms."]]
+# category: [["food"]]
+```
+
+## Advanced Search Features
+
+### Boolean Search Operators
+
+You can use boolean search operators by constructing a structured query object.
+
+#### All terms: `AND`
+
+```python
+from lance.query import FullTextOperator, MatchQuery
+
+# Require the terms 'umbrella AND train AND boston' to be present
+and_query = MatchQuery("umbrella train boston", "text", operator=FullTextOperator.AND)
+query_result = ds.to_table(full_text_query=and_query)
+
+# Returns
+# text: [["I left my umbrella on the evening train to Boston"]]
+```
+
+#### Any terms: `OR`
+
+```python
+from lance.query import FullTextOperator, MatchQuery
+
+# Require the terms 'morning OR evening' to be present
+or_query = MatchQuery("morning evening", "text", operator=FullTextOperator.OR)
+query_result = ds.to_table(full_text_query=or_query)
+
+# Returns the Boston document that mentions 'evening', and the Edinburgh document that mentions 'morning'
+# text: [["This train is scheduled to leave for Edinburgh at 9:30 in the morning", "I left my umbrella on the evening train to Boston"]]
+```
+
+#### Mix `AND`/`OR` queries via operators
+
+You can mix `AND`/`OR` queries using operators in Python:
+
+```python
+from lance.query import FullTextOperator, MatchQuery
+
+# Combine AND and OR semantics
+# Require 'train' AND ('morning' OR 'evening')
+q1 = MatchQuery("morning evening", "text", operator=FullTextOperator.OR)
+q2 = MatchQuery("train", "text")
+query_result = ds.to_table(full_text_query=(q1 & q2))
+
+# Returns both the Boston and Edinburgh documents that mention 'train'
+# text: [["I left my umbrella on the evening train to Boston", "This train is scheduled to leave for Edinburgh at 9:30 in the morning"]]
+```
+
+To combine `OR` queries via operators, use the pattern `q1 | q2`.
+
+Every query combined with `AND` becomes a scoring `MUST` clause: all clauses must match,
+and every matching clause contributes to the final `_score`.
+
+#### Exclude terms: `NOT`
+
+Queries that exclude specific keywords are explicitly written using `BooleanQuery`/`Occur`
+as shown below.
+
+```python
+from lance.query import MatchQuery, BooleanQuery, Occur
+
+# Require that 'umbrella' be present, but 'train' NOT be present
+q = BooleanQuery(
+    [
+        (Occur.MUST, MatchQuery("umbrella", "text")),
+        (Occur.MUST_NOT, MatchQuery("train", "text")),
+    ]
+)
+query_result = ds.to_table(full_text_query=q)
+
+# Returns empty result, as no document matches this condition
+# text: []
+```
+
+### Phrase Search
+
+For exact phrase matching, ensure you enable `with_position=True` during index creation, which is disabled by default.
+
+```python
+# Rebuild the index with positions enabled (required for phrase queries)
+ds.create_scalar_index(
+    "text",
+    "INVERTED",
+    with_position=True,
+    remove_stop_words=False,
+)
+# Search for the exact phrase "train to boston"
+table = ds.to_table(full_text_query="'train to boston'")
+
+# If stopwords are removed, this phrase query would return an empty result
+# text: [["I left my umbrella on the evening train to Boston"]]
+```
+
+!!! warning "Stop Words Are Removed by Default"
+Common words like "to", "the", etc. are categorized as stop words and are removed by default when creating the index. If you want to search exact phrases that include stop words, set `remove_stop_words=False` when creating the index.
+
+### Substring matches with N-gram indexing
+
+`NGRAM` is a type of scalar index for **substring / pattern-style** searches over text. It is a good alternative to wildcard-style queries like `term*` / `*term` (which are not parsed by `full_text_query` in Lance).
+
+The N-gram index creates a bitmap for each N-gram in the string. By default, Lance uses trigrams. This index can be used to speed up queries using the `contains` function in filters.
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset("/tmp/fts.lance")
+
+# Build an NGRAM index for substring search (speeds up `contains(...)` filters)
+# Give the index a distinct name so it won't replace your FTS index
+ds.create_scalar_index(column="text", index_type="NGRAM", name="text_ngram")
+
+# Substring search
+q1 = ds.to_table(filter="contains(text, 'ramen')")
+
+# Returns the document about ramen
+# text: [["This ramen recipe simmers the broth for three hours with dried mushrooms."]]
+```
+
+You can explain the query plan to confirm the N-gram index's usage as shown below:
+
+```python
+# Inspect the query plan to confirm index usage
+print(ds.scanner(filter="contains(text, 'train')").explain_plan())
+```
+
+### Fuzzy Search
+
+Fuzzy search is supported for FTS `MatchQuery` on `INVERTED` indexes. It uses Levenshtein edit distance to match terms with typos or slight variations.
+
+```python
+from lance.query import MatchQuery
+
+# Explicit edit distance (1)
+query_result = ds.to_table(
+    full_text_query=MatchQuery(
+        "rammen",  # Misspelled 'ramen'
+        "text",
+        fuzziness=1,
+        max_expansions=50,  # default: 50
+    )
+)
+```
+
+You can also set `fuzziness=None` to use automatic fuzziness:
+
+- `0` for term length `<= 2`
+- `1` for term length `<= 5`
+- `2` for term length `> 5`
+
+```python
+query_result = ds.to_table(
+    full_text_query=MatchQuery(
+        "rammen",
+        "text",
+        fuzziness=None,
+    )
+)
+```
+
+To enforce exact prefixes during fuzzy matching, set `prefix_length`.
+This means the first `N` characters must match exactly before fuzzy edits are allowed on the rest of the term.
+For example, with `prefix_length=2`, `"rammen"` can match terms starting with `"ra"` (like `"ramen"`), but not terms starting with other prefixes.
+
+```python
+query_result = ds.to_table(
+    full_text_query=MatchQuery(
+        "rammen",
+        "text",
+        fuzziness=1,
+        prefix_length=2,  # "ra" must match exactly
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Searching Multiple Columns
+
+When a query should span several text columns (for example `title` and `body`),
+Lance offers two strategies. They differ in how they combine the matches from
+each column.
+
+#### `best_fields` with `MultiMatchQuery`
+
+`MultiMatchQuery` runs the query against each column independently and keeps the
+score of the best matching column for each row. Each column is scored against
+its own corpus statistics, and an optional per-column `boosts` multiplier is
+applied before taking the maximum.
+
+```python
+from lance.query import MultiMatchQuery
+
+query_result = ds.to_table(
+    full_text_query=MultiMatchQuery(
+        "albino elephant",
+        ["title", "body"],
+        boosts=[2.0, 1.0],  # weight title matches twice as much
+    )
+)
+```
+
+This works well when the columns are interchangeable and a strong match in one
+column is enough to make a row relevant.
+
+#### `combined_fields` (BM25F) with `CombinedFieldsQuery`
+
+`CombinedFieldsQuery` instead treats the target columns as one virtual field and
+combines their statistics into a single BM25F score. This makes scores
+comparable across columns, and a query can match with terms spread over
+different columns.
+
+```python
+from lance.query import CombinedFieldsQuery, FullTextOperator
+
+query_result = ds.to_table(
+    full_text_query=CombinedFieldsQuery(
+        "john smith",
+        ["first_name", "last_name"],
+        boosts=[1.0, 1.0],
+        operator=FullTextOperator.AND,
+    )
+)
+```
+
+Prefer `combined_fields` in these cases:
+
+- A term is rare in one column but common in another. Because document
+  frequencies are combined, a chance hit in a short column does not outrank a
+  better match elsewhere. `best_fields` cannot do this.
+- The query terms are spread over several columns. With `operator=AND`,
+  `"john smith"` matches a row whose `first_name` is `"john"` and whose
+  `last_name` is `"smith"`, even though neither column contains both terms.
+  `best_fields` would need a single column to contain the whole query.
+
+Per-column `boosts` set how much each column contributes to the combined term
+frequency. Each weight must be at least `1`, and fractional weights are allowed.
+For example, a title boost of `2` counts every title term twice.
+
+!!! note "Shared tokenizer required"
+
+    All columns in a `CombinedFieldsQuery` must use the same tokenizer and index
+    configuration, because BM25F only makes sense when the columns are tokenized
+    the same way. Mixing configurations raises an error that lists the columns
+    involved.
+
+!!! note "Indexes and unindexed data"
+
+    At least one target column needs an FTS index. Columns without an index, and
+    rows added since the last index build, are read from the data and scored
+    together with the indexed rows. Scanning is slower than reading an index, so
+    optimize the indexes after adding a lot of data.
+
+    BM25F adds up each column's contribution for a whole row, so a column indexed
+    only with `document_granularity="list_element"` is rejected. Its per-element
+    documents have no counterpart in the other columns, and the result has no
+    `_doc_index` column. A column that has both a row index and a list-element
+    index uses the row index.
+
+## Performance Tips
+
+### Index Maintenance
+
+When you append new rows after creating an `INVERTED` index, Lance still returns those rows in `full_text_query` results. It searches indexed fragments using the FTS index, scans unindexed fragments with flat search, and then merges the results.
+
+To keep FTS latency low as new data arrives, periodically add unindexed fragments into the existing FTS index by calling `ds.optimize.optimize_indices()`:
+
+```python
+# Append new data
+new_rows = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": [4],
+        "text": ["The next train leaves at noon"],
+    }
+)
+ds.insert(new_rows)
+
+# Incrementally update existing indices (including "text_idx")
+ds.optimize.optimize_indices(index_names=["text_idx"])
+
+# Optional: monitor index coverage
+stats = ds.stats.index_stats("text_idx")
+print(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], stats["num_indexed_rows"])
+```
+
+!!! info
+If you used a custom index name, replace `"text_idx"` with your index name.
+If you did not set `name=...` when creating the FTS index on column `"text"`, the default index name is `"text_idx"`.
+
+If you changed tokenizer settings (such as `with_position`, `base_tokenizer`, stop words, or stemming), rebuild the index with `create_scalar_index(..., replace=True)` so the full dataset is indexed with the new configuration.
+
+### Index Configuration Best Practices
+
+- Enable `with_position` when you need phrase queries, because it stores word positions within documents. For simple term searches, disabling this option can save considerable storage space without impacting performance.
+
+- Keep `lower_case=True` enabled for most applications to ensure case-insensitive search behavior. This provides a better user experience and matches common search expectations, though you can disable it if case sensitivity is important for your use case.
+
+- Enable stemming (`stem=True`) when you want better recall by matching word variations (e.g., "running" matches "run"). Disable stemming if you need exact term matching or if your domain requires precise terminology.
+
+- Consider enabling `remove_stop_words=True` for cleaner search results, especially in content-heavy applications. This removes common words like "the", "and", and "is" from the index, reducing noise and improving relevance. Keep stop words if they carry important meaning in your domain.
+
+### Query Optimization
+
+Using specific, targeted search terms often yields better performance than broad, generic queries. More specific terms reduce the number of potential matches and allow the index to work more efficiently. Consider analyzing your most common search patterns and optimizing your index configuration accordingly.
+
+Combining full-text search with metadata filters can significantly reduce the search space and improve performance. Use structured data filters to narrow down results before applying text search, or vice versa. This approach is particularly effective for large datasets where you can eliminate many irrelevant documents early in the query process.
+
+### Further Reading
+
+For advanced usage instructions with different tokenizers and more technical details on the index training process, including information about the expected memory and disk usage, visit the [full-text index](../format/index/scalar/fts.md) specification.
+
+## Next Steps
+
+Check out the **[User Guide](../guide/read_and_write.md)** and explore the Lance API in more detail.
diff --git a/docs/src/quickstart/index.md b/docs/src/quickstart/index.md
index 6f2c9a8d147..f10c5749014 100644
--- a/docs/src/quickstart/index.md
+++ b/docs/src/quickstart/index.md
@@ -19,13 +19,24 @@ pip install pylance
 
 For the latest features and bug fixes, you can install the preview version:
 
-```bash
-pip install --pre --extra-index-url https://pypi.fury.io/lance-format/pylance
-```
+=== "pip"
+
+    ```bash
+    pip install --pre --extra-index-url https://pypi.fury.io/lance-format pylance
+    ```
+
+=== "uv"
+
+    ```bash
+    uv venv
+    uv pip install --prerelease allow --index https://pypi.fury.io/lance-format pylance
 
-> Note: Preview releases receive the same level of testing as regular releases.
+    # To add to pyproject.toml, just do:
+    uv add --prerelease allow --index https://pypi.fury.io/lance-format pylance
+    ```
 
-> Note: For versions prior to 1.0.0-beta.4, you can find them at https://pypi.fury.io/lancedb/pylance
+!!! note
+    Preview releases receive the same level of testing as regular releases.
 
 ## Set Up Your Environment
 
@@ -94,4 +105,4 @@ dataset.to_table().to_pandas()
 Now that you've mastered the basics of creating Lance datasets, here's what you can explore next:
 
 - **[Versioning Your Datasets with Lance](versioning.md)** - Learn how to track changes over time with native versioning
-- **[Vector Indexing and Vector Search With Lance](vector-search.md)** - Build high-performance vector search capabilities with ANN indexes
+- **[Vector Indexing and Vector Search With Lance](vector-search.md)** - Build high-performance vector search capabilities with ANN indices
diff --git a/docs/src/quickstart/vector-search.md b/docs/src/quickstart/vector-search.md
index e157c193486..ac77e12b752 100644
--- a/docs/src/quickstart/vector-search.md
+++ b/docs/src/quickstart/vector-search.md
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
 ---
 title: Vector Search
-description: High-performance vector search with ANN indexes, including IVF_PQ, IVF_HNSW_PQ, and IVF_HNSW_SQ
+description: High-performance vector search with ANN indices, including IVF_PQ, IVF_HNSW_PQ, and IVF_HNSW_SQ
 ---
 
 # Vector Indexing and Vector Search With Lance
 
-Lance provides high-performance vector search capabilities with ANN (Approximate Nearest Neighbor) indexes.
+Lance provides high-performance vector search capabilities with ANN (Approximate Nearest Neighbor) indices.
 
-By the end of this tutorial, you'll be able to build and use ANN indexes to dramatically speed up vector search operations while maintaining high accuracy. You'll also learn how to tune search parameters for optimal performance and combine vector search with metadata queries in a single operation.
+By the end of this tutorial, you'll be able to build and use ANN indices to dramatically speed up vector search operations while maintaining high accuracy. You'll also learn how to tune search parameters for optimal performance and combine vector search with metadata queries in a single operation.
 
 ## Install the Python SDK
 
@@ -210,8 +210,6 @@ The latency vs recall is tunable via:
 - **refine_factor**: determines how many vectors are retrieved during re-ranking
 
 ```python
-%%time
-
 sift1m.to_table(
     nearest={
         "column": "vector",
@@ -280,4 +278,4 @@ print(result.to_pandas())
 
 ## Next Steps
 
-You should check out **[Versioning Your Datasets with Lance](../quickstart/versioning.md)**. We'll show you how to version your vector datasets and track changes over time.
+Check out **[Full-text Search](../quickstart/full-text-search.md)**, where we show how to create and query a BM25 index for keyword-based search in Lance.
diff --git a/docs/src/quickstart/versioning.md b/docs/src/quickstart/versioning.md
index 57e08c98053..9faa5ab9d02 100644
--- a/docs/src/quickstart/versioning.md
+++ b/docs/src/quickstart/versioning.md
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
 ---
 title: Versioning
-description: Learn how to version your Lance datasets with append, overwrite, and tag features
+description: Learn how to version your Lance datasets with append, overwrite, tags, and branches
 ---
 
 # Versioning Your Datasets with Lance
 
-Lance supports versioning natively, allowing you to track changes over time. 
+Lance supports versioning natively, allowing you to track changes over time.
 
 In this tutorial, you'll learn how to append new data to existing datasets while preserving historical versions and access specific versions using version numbers or meaningful tags. You'll also understand how to implement proper data governance practices with Lance's native versioning capabilities.
 
@@ -63,6 +63,16 @@ List all versions of a dataset with this request:
 dataset.versions()
 ```
 
+If you only need version numbers, use the lightweight reference API. It lists manifest
+locations without reading and deserializing every manifest:
+
+```python
+dataset.version_refs()
+```
+
+Use `dataset.latest_version` instead when only the latest version of the current branch
+is needed.
+
 You can also access any available version:
 
 ```python
@@ -75,7 +85,7 @@ lance.dataset('/tmp/test.lance', version=2).to_table().to_pandas()
 
 ## Tag Your Important Versions
 
-Create named tags for important versions, making it easier to reference specific versions by meaningful names. To create tags for relevant versions, do this:
+Create named tags for important versions, making it easier to reference them by meaningful names.
 
 ```python
 dataset.tags.create("stable", 2)
@@ -89,8 +99,27 @@ Tags can be checked out like versions:
 lance.dataset('/tmp/test.lance', version="stable").to_table().to_pandas()
 ```
 
+For advanced tag operations (e.g., tagging versions on specific branches), see [Tags and Branches](../guide/tags_and_branches.md).
+
+## Work with Branches
+
+Branches manage parallel lines of dataset evolution. You can create branches from existing versions or tags, read and write to them independently, and checkout different branches.
+
+`main` refers to the default branch in checkout and reference APIs, but it is reserved and cannot be used as the name of a new branch.
+
+```python
+# Create branch from current latest version
+experiment_branch = ds.create_branch("experiment")
+
+# Write to the branch (affects only that branch's history)
+tbl = pa.Table.from_pandas(pd.DataFrame({"a": [42]}))
+lance.write_dataset(tbl, experiment_branch, mode="append")
+```
+
+For more details, see [Tags and Branches](../guide/tags_and_branches.md).
+
 ## Next Steps
 
 Now that you've mastered dataset versioning with Lance, check out **[Vector Indexing and Vector Search With Lance](vector-search.md)**. You can learn how to build high-performance vector search capabilities on top of your Lance tables.
 
-This will teach you how to build fast, scalable search capabilities for your versioned datasets. 
\ No newline at end of file
+This will teach you how to build fast, scalable search capabilities for your versioned datasets.
diff --git a/docs/src/rest.yaml b/docs/src/rest.yaml
deleted file mode 100644
index b3af38ba7ef..00000000000
--- a/docs/src/rest.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,3540 +0,0 @@
-# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-# You may obtain a copy of the License at
-#
-#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-#
-# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-# limitations under the License.
-
----
-openapi: 3.1.1
-info:
-  title: Lance Namespace Specification
-  license:
-    name: Apache 2.0
-    url: https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0.html
-  version: 1.0.0
-  description: |
-    This OpenAPI specification is a part of the Lance namespace specification. It contains 2 parts:
-    
-    The `components/schemas`, `components/responses`, `components/examples`, `tags` sections define
-    the request and response shape for each operation in a Lance Namespace across all implementations.
-    See https://lance.org/format/namespace/operations for more details.
-    
-    The `servers`, `security`, `paths`, `components/parameters` sections are for the 
-    Lance REST Namespace implementation, which defines a complete REST server that can work with Lance datasets.
-    See https://lance.org/format/namespace/impls/rest for more details.
-servers:
-  - url: "{scheme}://{host}:{port}/{basePath}"
-    description: Generic server URL with all parts configurable
-    variables:
-      scheme:
-        default: http
-      host:
-        default: localhost
-      port:
-        default: "2333"
-      basePath:
-        default: ""
-  - url: "{scheme}://{host}/{basePath}"
-    description: Server URL when the port can be inferred from the scheme
-    variables:
-      scheme:
-        default: http
-      host:
-        default: localhost
-      basePath:
-        default: ""
-
-tags:
-  - name: Namespace
-    description: |
-      Operations that are related to a namespace
-  - name: Table
-    description: |
-      Operations that are related to a table
-  - name: Index
-    description: |
-      Operations that are related to an index
-  - name: Tag
-    description: |
-      Operations that are related to tags
-  - name: Transaction
-    description: |
-      Operations that are related to a transaction
-  - name: Metadata
-    description: |
-      Operations that only interact with object metadata and should be computationally lightweight
-  - name: Data
-    description: |
-      Operations that interact with object data and might be computationally intensive
-
-security:
-  - OAuth2: []
-  - BearerAuth: []
-
-paths:
-
-  # Namespace APIs
-
-  /v1/namespace/{id}/create:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Namespace
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Create a new namespace
-      operationId: CreateNamespace
-      description: |
-        Create new namespace `id`.
-        
-        During the creation process, the implementation may modify user-provided `properties`, 
-        such as adding additional properties like `created_at` to user-provided properties, 
-        omitting any specific property, or performing actions based on any property value.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/CreateNamespaceRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/CreateNamespaceResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        406:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnsupportedOperationErrorResponse'
-        409:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ConflictErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/namespace/{id}/list:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-      - name: 'page_token'
-        in: query
-        schema:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageToken'
-      - name: 'limit'
-        in: query
-        schema:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageLimit'
-    get:
-      tags:
-        - Namespace
-        - Metadata
-      summary: List namespaces
-      operationId: ListNamespaces
-      description: |
-        List all child namespace names of the parent namespace `id`.
-        
-        REST NAMESPACE ONLY
-        REST namespace uses GET to perform this operation without a request body.
-        It passes in the `ListNamespacesRequest` information in the following way:
-        - `id`: pass through path parameter of the same name
-        - `page_token`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-        - `limit`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ListNamespacesResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        406:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnsupportedOperationErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/namespace/{id}/describe:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Namespace
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Describe a namespace
-      operationId: DescribeNamespace
-      description: |
-        Describe the detailed information for namespace `id`.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DescribeNamespaceRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/DescribeNamespaceResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/namespace/{id}/drop:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Namespace
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Drop a namespace
-      operationId: DropNamespace
-      description: |
-        Drop namespace `id` from its parent namespace.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DropNamespaceRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/DropNamespaceResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        409:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ConflictErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/namespace/{id}/exists:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Namespace
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Check if a namespace exists
-      operationId: NamespaceExists
-      description: |
-        Check if namespace `id` exists.
-        
-        This operation must behave exactly like the DescribeNamespace API, 
-        except it does not contain a response body.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/NamespaceExistsRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          description: Success, no content
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/namespace/{id}/table/list:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-      - name: 'page_token'
-        in: query
-        schema:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageToken'
-      - name: 'limit'
-        in: query
-        schema:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageLimit'
-    get:
-      tags:
-        - Namespace
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: List tables in a namespace
-      operationId: ListTables
-      description: |
-        List all child table names of the parent namespace `id`.
-        
-        REST NAMESPACE ONLY
-        REST namespace uses GET to perform this operation without a request body.
-        It passes in the `ListTablesRequest` information in the following way:
-        - `id`: pass through path parameter of the same name
-        - `page_token`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-        - `limit`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ListTablesResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        406:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnsupportedOperationErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  # Table Metadata APIs
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/register:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Register a table to a namespace
-      operationId: RegisterTable
-      description: |
-        Register an existing table at a given storage location as `id`.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/RegisterTableRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/RegisterTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        406:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnsupportedOperationErrorResponse'
-        409:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ConflictErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/describe:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Describe information of a table
-      operationId: DescribeTable
-      description: |
-        Describe the detailed information for table `id`.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DescribeTableRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/DescribeTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/exists:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Check if a table exists
-      operationId: TableExists
-      description: |
-        Check if table `id` exists.
-        
-        This operation should behave exactly like DescribeTable, 
-        except it does not contain a response body.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/TableExistsRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          description: Success, no content
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/drop:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Drop a table
-      operationId: DropTable
-      description: |
-        Drop table `id` and delete its data.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DropTableRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/DropTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/deregister:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Deregister a table
-      operationId: DeregisterTable
-      description: |
-        Deregister table `id` from its namespace.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DeregisterTableRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/DeregisterTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/restore:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Restore table to a specific version
-      operationId: RestoreTable
-      description: |
-        Restore table `id` to a specific version.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/RestoreTableRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/RestoreTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/version/list:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: List all versions of a table
-      operationId: ListTableVersions
-      description: |
-        List all versions (commits) of table `id` with their metadata.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/ListTableVersionsRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ListTableVersionsResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/alter_columns:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Modify existing columns
-      operationId: AlterTableAlterColumns
-      description: |
-        Modify existing columns in table `id`, such as renaming or changing data types.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/drop_columns:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Remove columns from table
-      operationId: AlterTableDropColumns
-      description: |
-        Remove specified columns from table `id`.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTableDropColumnsRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/AlterTableDropColumnsResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/stats:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Get table statistics
-      operationId: GetTableStats
-      description: |
-        Get statistics for table `id`, including row counts, data sizes, and column statistics.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/GetTableStatsRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/GetTableStatsResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  # Table Data APIs
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/insert:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-      - name: mode
-        in: query
-        description: |
-          How the insert should behave:
-          - append (default): insert data to the existing table
-          - overwrite: remove all data in the table and then insert data to it
-        required: false
-        schema:
-          type: string
-          enum:
-            - append
-            - overwrite
-          default: append
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Insert records into a table
-      operationId: InsertIntoTable
-      description: |
-        Insert new records into table `id`.
-        
-        REST NAMESPACE ONLY
-        REST namespace uses Arrow IPC stream as the request body.
-        It passes in the `InsertIntoTableRequest` information in the following way:
-        - `id`: pass through path parameter of the same name
-        - `mode`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-      requestBody:
-        description: Arrow IPC stream containing the records to insert
-        content:
-          application/vnd.apache.arrow.stream:
-            schema:
-              type: string
-              format: binary
-        required: true
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/InsertIntoTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/merge_insert:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-      - name: "on"
-        in: query
-        description: Column name to use for matching rows (required)
-        required: true
-        schema:
-          type: string
-      - name: "when_matched_delete"
-        in: query
-        description: Delete all rows in target table where a match exists in source table
-        required: false
-        schema:
-          type: boolean
-          default: false
-      - name: "when_matched_update_all"
-        in: query
-        description: Update all columns when rows match
-        required: false
-        schema:
-          type: boolean
-          default: false
-      - name: "when_matched_update_all_filt"
-        in: query
-        description: The row is updated (similar to UpdateAll) only for rows where the SQL expression evaluates to true
-        required: false
-        schema:
-          type: string
-      - name: "when_not_matched_insert_all"
-        in: query
-        description: Insert all columns when rows don't match
-        required: false
-        schema:
-          type: boolean
-          default: false
-      - name: "when_not_matched_by_source_delete"
-        in: query
-        description: Delete all rows from target table that don't match a row in the source table
-        required: false
-        schema:
-          type: boolean
-          default: false
-      - name: "when_not_matched_by_source_delete_filt"
-        in: query
-        description: Delete rows from the target table if there is no match AND the SQL expression evaluates to true
-        schema:
-          type: string
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Merge insert (upsert) records into a table
-      operationId: MergeInsertIntoTable
-      description: |
-        Performs a merge insert (upsert) operation on table `id`.
-        This operation updates existing rows
-        based on a matching column and inserts new rows that don't match.
-        It returns the number of rows inserted and updated.
-        
-        REST NAMESPACE ONLY
-        REST namespace uses Arrow IPC stream as the request body.
-        It passes in the `MergeInsertIntoTableRequest` information in the following way:
-        - `id`: pass through path parameter of the same name
-        - `on`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-        - `when_matched_delete`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-        - `when_matched_update_all`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-        - `when_matched_update_all_filt`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-        - `when_not_matched_insert_all`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-        - `when_not_matched_by_source_delete`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-        - `when_not_matched_by_source_delete_filt`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-      requestBody:
-        description: Arrow IPC stream containing the records to merge
-        content:
-          application/vnd.apache.arrow.stream:
-            schema:
-              type: string
-              format: binary
-        required: true
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/MergeInsertIntoTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/update:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Update rows in a table
-      operationId: UpdateTable
-      description: |
-        Update existing rows in table `id`.
-      requestBody:
-        description: Update request
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/UpdateTableRequest'
-        required: true
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UpdateTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/delete:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Delete rows from a table
-      operationId: DeleteFromTable
-      description: |
-        Delete rows from table `id`.
-      requestBody:
-        description: Delete request
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DeleteFromTableRequest'
-        required: true
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/DeleteFromTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/query:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Query a table
-      operationId: QueryTable
-      description: |
-        Query table `id` with vector search, full text search and optional SQL filtering.
-        Returns results in Arrow IPC file or stream format.
-      requestBody:
-        description: Query request
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/QueryTableRequest'
-        required: true
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/QueryTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/count_rows:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Count rows in a table
-      operationId: CountTableRows
-      description: |
-        Count the number of rows in table `id`
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/CountTableRowsRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/CountTableRowsResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/create:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-      - name: "x-lance-table-location"
-        in: header
-        required: false
-        schema:
-          type: string
-        description: URI pointing to root location to create the table at
-      - name: "x-lance-table-properties"
-        in: header
-        required: false
-        schema:
-          type: string
-        description: |
-          JSON-encoded string map (e.g. { "owner": "jack" })
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Create a table with the given name
-      operationId: CreateTable
-      description: |
-        Create table `id` in the namespace with the given data in Arrow IPC stream.
-    
-        The schema of the Arrow IPC stream is used as the table schema.    
-        If the stream is empty, the API creates a new empty table.
-        
-        REST NAMESPACE ONLY
-        REST namespace uses Arrow IPC stream as the request body.
-        It passes in the `CreateTableRequest` information in the following way:
-        - `id`: pass through path parameter of the same name
-        - `location`: pass through header `x-lance-table-location`
-        - `properties`: pass through header `x-lance-table-properties`
-      requestBody:
-        description: Arrow IPC data
-        content:
-          application/vnd.apache.arrow.stream:
-            schema:
-              type: string
-              format: binary
-        required: true
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/CreateTableResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/explain_plan:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Get query execution plan explanation
-      operationId: ExplainTableQueryPlan
-      description: |
-        Get the query execution plan for a query against table `id`.
-        Returns a human-readable explanation of how the query will be executed.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ExplainTableQueryPlanResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/analyze_plan:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Analyze query execution plan
-      operationId: AnalyzeTableQueryPlan
-      description: |
-        Analyze the query execution plan for a query against table `id`.
-        Returns detailed statistics and analysis of the query execution plan.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/AnalyzeTableQueryPlanResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/add_columns:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Data
-      summary: Add new columns to table schema
-      operationId: AlterTableAddColumns
-      description: |
-        Add new columns to table `id` using SQL expressions or default values.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTableAddColumnsRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/AlterTableAddColumnsResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  # Table Index APIs
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/create_index:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Index
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Create an index on a table
-      operationId: CreateTableIndex
-      description: |
-        Create an index on a table column for faster search operations.
-        Supports vector indexes (IVF_FLAT, IVF_HNSW_SQ, IVF_PQ, etc.) and scalar indexes (BTREE, BITMAP, FTS, etc.).
-        Index creation is handled asynchronously. 
-        Use the `ListTableIndices` and `DescribeTableIndexStats` operations to monitor index creation progress.
-      requestBody:
-        description: Index creation request
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/CreateTableIndexRequest'
-        required: true
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/CreateTableIndexResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/index/list:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Index
-        - Metadata
-      summary: List indexes on a table
-      operationId: ListTableIndices
-      description: |
-        List all indices created on a table. Returns information about each index
-        including name, columns, status, and UUID.
-      requestBody:
-        description: Index list request
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/ListTableIndicesRequest'
-        required: true
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ListTableIndicesResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/index/{index_name}/stats:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-      - name: index_name
-        in: path
-        description: Name of the index to get stats for
-        required: true
-        schema:
-          type: string
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Index
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Get table index statistics
-      operationId: DescribeTableIndexStats
-      description: |
-        Get statistics for a specific index on a table. Returns information about
-        the index type, distance type (for vector indices), and row counts.
-      requestBody:
-        description: Index stats request
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest'
-        required: true
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/index/{index_name}/drop:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-      - name: index_name
-        in: path
-        description: Name of the index to drop
-        required: true
-        schema:
-          type: string
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Index
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Drop a specific index
-      operationId: DropTableIndex
-      description: |
-        Drop the specified index from table `id`.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DropTableIndexRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/DropTableIndexResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  # Table Tag APIs
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/tags/list:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-      - name: 'page_token'
-        in: query
-        schema:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageToken'
-      - name: 'limit'
-        in: query
-        schema:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageLimit'
-    get:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Tag
-        - Metadata
-      summary: List all tags for a table
-      operationId: ListTableTags
-      description: |
-        List all tags that have been created for table `id`.
-        Returns a map of tag names to their corresponding version numbers and metadata.
-        
-        REST NAMESPACE ONLY
-        REST namespace uses GET to perform this operation without a request body.
-        It passes in the `ListTableTagsRequest` information in the following way:
-        - `id`: pass through path parameter of the same name
-        - `page_token`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-        - `limit`: pass through query parameter of the same name
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ListTableTagsResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/tags/version:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Tag
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Get version for a specific tag
-      operationId: GetTableTagVersion
-      description: |
-        Get the version number that a specific tag points to for table `id`.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/GetTableTagVersionRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/GetTableTagVersionResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/tags/create:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Tag
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Create a new tag
-      operationId: CreateTableTag
-      description: |
-        Create a new tag for table `id` that points to a specific version.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/CreateTableTagRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          description: Success, no content
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        409:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ConflictErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/tags/delete:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Tag
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Delete a tag
-      operationId: DeleteTableTag
-      description: |
-        Delete an existing tag from table `id`.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DeleteTableTagRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          description: Success, no content
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/table/{id}/tags/update:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Table
-        - Tag
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Update a tag to point to a different version
-      operationId: UpdateTableTag
-      description: |
-        Update an existing tag for table `id` to point to a different version.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/UpdateTableTagRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          description: Success, no content
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  # Transaction API
-
-  /v1/transaction/{id}/describe:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Transaction
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Describe information about a transaction
-      operationId: DescribeTransaction
-      description: |
-        Return a detailed information for a given transaction
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/DescribeTransactionRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/DescribeTransactionResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-  /v1/transaction/{id}/alter:
-    parameters:
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/id'
-      - $ref: '#/components/parameters/delimiter'
-    post:
-      tags:
-        - Transaction
-        - Metadata
-      summary: Alter information of a transaction.
-      operationId: AlterTransaction
-      description: |
-        Alter a transaction with a list of actions such as setting status or properties.
-        The server should either succeed and apply all actions, or fail and apply no action.
-      requestBody:
-        required: true
-        content:
-          application/json:
-            schema:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTransactionRequest'
-      responses:
-        200:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/AlterTransactionResponse'
-        400:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/BadRequestErrorResponse'
-        401:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/UnauthorizedErrorResponse'
-        403:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ForbiddenErrorResponse'
-        404:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/NotFoundErrorResponse'
-        409:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ConflictErrorResponse'
-        503:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse'
-        5XX:
-          $ref: '#/components/responses/ServerErrorResponse'
-
-components:
-  parameters:
-    id:
-      name: id
-      description: |
-        `string identifier` of an object in a namespace, following the Lance Namespace spec.
-        When the value is equal to the delimiter, it represents the root namespace.
-        For example, `v1/namespace/./list` performs a `ListNamespace` on the root namespace.
-      in: path
-      required: true
-      schema:
-        type: string
-    delimiter:
-      name: delimiter
-      description: |
-        An optional delimiter of the `string identifier`, following the Lance Namespace spec.
-        When not specified, the `.` delimiter must be used.
-      in: query
-      required: false
-      schema:
-        $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageToken'
-
-  schemas:
-    ErrorResponse:
-      type: object
-      description: Common JSON error response model
-      properties:
-        error:
-          type: string
-          description: a brief, human-readable message about the error
-          example: Incorrect username or password
-        code:
-          type: integer
-          minimum: 400
-          maximum: 600
-          description: |
-            HTTP style response code, where 4XX represents client side errors 
-            and 5XX represents server side errors.
-            
-            For implementations that uses HTTP (e.g. REST namespace),
-            this field can be optional in favor of the HTTP response status code.
-            In case both values exist and do not match, the HTTP response status code should be used.
-          example: 404
-        type:
-          type: string
-          description: |
-            An optional type identifier string for the error.
-            This allows the implementation to specify their internal error type,
-            which could be more detailed than the HTTP standard status code.
-          example: /errors/incorrect-user-pass
-        detail:
-          type: string
-          description: |
-            an optional human-readable explanation of the error.
-            This can be used to record information such as stack trace.
-          example: Authentication failed due to incorrect username or password
-        instance:
-          type: string
-          description: |
-            a string that identifies the specific occurrence of the error.
-            This can be a URI, a request or response ID, 
-            or anything that the implementation can recognize to trace specific occurrence of the error.
-          example: /login/log/abc123
-
-    CreateNamespaceRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        mode:
-          type: string
-          description: |
-            There are three modes when trying to create a namespace,
-            to differentiate the behavior when a namespace of the same name already exists:
-              * CREATE: the operation fails with 409.
-              * EXIST_OK: the operation succeeds and the existing namespace is kept.
-              * OVERWRITE: the existing namespace is dropped and a new empty namespace with this name is created.
-          enum:
-            - CREATE
-            - EXIST_OK
-            - OVERWRITE
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    CreateNamespaceResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        properties:
-          description: |
-            Properties after the namespace is created.
-            
-            If the server does not support namespace properties, it should return null for this field.
-            If namespace properties are supported, but none are set, it should return an empty object.
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    ListNamespacesRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        page_token:
-          $ref: "#/components/schemas/PageToken"
-        limit:
-          $ref: "#/components/schemas/PageLimit"
-
-    ListNamespacesResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - namespaces
-      properties:
-        namespaces:
-          type: array
-          uniqueItems: true
-          description: |
-            The list of names of the child namespaces relative to the parent namespace `id` in the request.
-          items:
-            type: string
-        page_token:
-          $ref: "#/components/schemas/PageToken"
-
-    DescribeNamespaceRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-
-    DescribeNamespaceResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          description:
-            Properties stored on the namespace, if supported by the server.
-            If the server does not support namespace properties, it should return null for this field.
-            If namespace properties are supported, but none are set, it should return an empty object.
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-          example: { "owner": "Ralph", 'created_at': '1452120468' }
-          default: { }
-          nullable: true
-
-    DropNamespaceRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        mode:
-          type: string
-          description: |
-            The mode for dropping a namespace, deciding the server behavior when the namespace to drop is not found.
-            - FAIL (default): the server must return 400 indicating the namespace to drop does not exist.
-            - SKIP: the server must return 204 indicating the drop operation has succeeded.
-          enum:
-            - SKIP
-            - FAIL
-        behavior:
-          type: string
-          description: |
-            The behavior for dropping a namespace.
-            - RESTRICT (default): the namespace should not contain any table or child namespace when drop is initiated.
-                If tables are found, the server should return error and not drop the namespace.
-            - CASCADE: all tables and child namespaces in the namespace are dropped before the namespace is dropped.
-          enum:
-            - RESTRICT
-            - CASCADE
-
-    DropNamespaceResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-        transactionId:
-          description: |
-            If present, indicating the operation is long running and should be tracked using GetTransaction
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-
-    NamespaceExistsRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-
-    PageToken:
-      description: |
-        An opaque token that allows pagination for list operations (e.g. ListNamespaces).
-        
-        For an initial request of a list operation, 
-        if the implementation cannot return all items in one response,
-        or if there are more items than the page limit specified in the request,
-        the implementation must return a page token in the response,
-        indicating there are more results available.
-        
-        After the initial request, 
-        the value of the page token from each response must be used
-        as the page token value for the next request.
-        
-        Caller must interpret either `null`, 
-        missing value or empty string value of the page token from
-        the implementation's response as the end of the listing results.
-      type: string
-      nullable: true
-
-    PageLimit:
-      description: |
-        An inclusive upper bound of the 
-        number of results that a caller will receive.
-      type: integer
-      nullable: true
-
-    RegisterTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - location
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        location:
-          type: string
-        mode:
-          type: string
-          description: |
-            There are two modes when trying to register a table,
-            to differentiate the behavior when a table of the same name already exists:
-              * CREATE (default): the operation fails with 409.
-              * OVERWRITE: the existing table registration is replaced with the new registration.
-          enum:
-            - CREATE
-            - OVERWRITE
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    RegisterTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - location
-      properties:
-        location:
-          type: string
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    ListTablesRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        page_token:
-          $ref: "#/components/schemas/PageToken"
-        limit:
-          $ref: "#/components/schemas/PageLimit"
-
-    ListTablesResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - tables
-      properties:
-        tables:
-          type: array
-          uniqueItems: true
-          description: |
-            The list of names of the tables relative to the parent namespace `id` in the request.
-          items:
-            type: string
-        page_token:
-          $ref: "#/components/schemas/PageToken"
-
-    DescribeTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        version:
-          description: |
-            Version of the table to describe.
-            If not specified, server should resolve it to the latest version.
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-
-    DescribeTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-        location:
-          type: string
-        schema:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/JsonArrowSchema'
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-        storage_options:
-          type: object
-          description: |
-            Configuration options to be used to access storage. The available
-            options depend on the type of storage in use. These will be
-            passed directly to Lance to initialize storage access.
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    CountTableRowsRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        version:
-          description: |
-            Version of the table to describe.
-            If not specified, server should resolve it to the latest version.
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-        filter:
-          description: |
-            SQL filter expression to be applied
-          type: string
-
-    CountTableRowsResponse:
-      type: integer
-      format: int64
-      description: |
-        Response containing the count of rows. 
-        Serializes transparently as just the number for backward compatibility.
-      minimum: 0
-
-    InsertIntoTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        Request for inserting records into a table, excluding the Arrow IPC stream.
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        mode:
-          type: string
-          enum:
-            - append
-            - overwrite
-          default: append
-
-    InsertIntoTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      description: Response from inserting records into a table
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          description: The version of the table after the insert
-          minimum: 0
-
-    MergeInsertIntoTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        Request for merging or inserting records into a table, excluding the Arrow IPC stream.
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        "on":
-          description: Column name to use for matching rows (required)
-          type: string
-        when_matched_delete:
-          description: Delete all rows in target table where a match exists in source table
-          type: boolean
-          default: false
-        when_matched_update_all:
-          description: Update all columns when rows match
-          type: boolean
-          default: false
-        when_matched_update_all_filt:
-          description: The row is updated (similar to UpdateAll) only for rows where the SQL expression evaluates to true
-          type: string
-        when_not_matched_insert_all:
-          description: Insert all columns when rows don't match
-          type: boolean
-          default: false
-        when_not_matched_by_source_delete:
-          description: Delete all rows from target table that don't match a row in the source table
-          type: boolean
-          default: false
-        when_not_matched_by_source_delete_filt:
-          description: Delete rows from the target table if there is no match AND the SQL expression evaluates to true
-          type: string
-
-    MergeInsertIntoTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      description: Response from merge insert operation
-      properties:
-        num_updated_rows:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          description: Number of rows updated
-          minimum: 0
-        num_inserted_rows:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          description: Number of rows inserted
-          minimum: 0
-        num_deleted_rows:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          description: Number of rows deleted (typically 0 for merge insert)
-          minimum: 0
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          description: The commit version associated with the operation
-          minimum: 0
-
-    UpdateTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        Each update consists of a column name and an SQL expression that will be
-        evaluated against the current row's value. Optionally, a predicate can be
-        provided to filter which rows to update.
-      required:
-        - updates
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        predicate:
-          type: string
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional SQL predicate to filter rows for update
-        updates:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: array
-            minItems: 2
-            maxItems: 2
-            items:
-              type: string
-          description: List of column updates as [column_name, expression] pairs
-
-    UpdateTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - updated_rows
-        - version
-      properties:
-        updated_rows:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          description: Number of rows updated
-          minimum: 0
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          description: The commit version associated with the operation
-          minimum: 0
-
-    DeleteFromTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        Delete data from table based on a SQL predicate.
-        Returns the number of rows that were deleted.
-      required:
-        - predicate
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-          description: The namespace identifier
-        predicate:
-          type: string
-          description: SQL predicate to filter rows for deletion
-
-    DeleteFromTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - version
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          description: The commit version associated with the operation
-          minimum: 0
-
-    QueryTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - vector
-        - k
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        bypass_vector_index:
-          type: boolean
-          description: Whether to bypass vector index
-        columns:
-          type: array
-          nullable: true
-          items:
-            type: string
-          description: Optional list of columns to return
-        distance_type:
-          type: string
-          description: Distance metric to use
-        ef:
-          type: integer
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Search effort parameter for HNSW index
-        fast_search:
-          type: boolean
-          description: Whether to use fast search
-        filter:
-          type: string
-          description: Optional SQL filter expression
-        full_text_query:
-          type: object
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional full-text search query. Provide either string_query or structured_query, not both.
-          properties:
-            string_query:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/StringFtsQuery'
-            structured_query:
-              $ref: '#/components/schemas/StructuredFtsQuery'
-        k:
-          type: integer
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Number of results to return
-        lower_bound:
-          type: number
-          format: float
-          description: Lower bound for search
-        nprobes:
-          type: integer
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Number of probes for IVF index
-        offset:
-          type: integer
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Number of results to skip
-        prefilter:
-          type: boolean
-          description: Whether to apply filtering before vector search
-        refine_factor:
-          type: integer
-          format: int32
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Refine factor for search
-        upper_bound:
-          type: number
-          format: float
-          description: Upper bound for search
-        vector:
-          type: object
-          nullable: true
-          description: Query vector(s) for similarity search. Provide either single_vector or multi_vector, not both.
-          properties:
-            single_vector:
-              type: array
-              items:
-                type: number
-                format: float
-              description: Single query vector
-            multi_vector:
-              type: array
-              items:
-                type: array
-                items:
-                  type: number
-                  format: float
-              description: Multiple query vectors for batch search
-        vector_column:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the vector column to search
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Table version to query
-        with_row_id:
-          type: boolean
-          description: If true, return the row id as a column called `_rowid`
-
-    CreateTableIndexRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - column
-        - index_type
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        column:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the column to create index on
-        index_type:
-          type: string
-          enum: 
-            - BTREE
-            - BITMAP
-            - LABEL_LIST
-            - IVF_FLAT
-            - IVF_PQ
-            - IVF_HNSW_SQ
-            - FTS
-          description: Type of index to create
-        metric_type:
-          type: string
-          enum: 
-            - l2
-            - cosine
-            - dot
-          nullable: true
-          description: Distance metric type for vector indexes
-        with_position:
-          type: boolean
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional FTS parameter for position tracking
-        base_tokenizer:
-          type: string
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional FTS parameter for base tokenizer
-        language:
-          type: string
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional FTS parameter for language
-        max_token_length:
-          type: integer
-          nullable: true
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Optional FTS parameter for maximum token length
-        lower_case:
-          type: boolean
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional FTS parameter for lowercase conversion
-        stem:
-          type: boolean
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional FTS parameter for stemming
-        remove_stop_words:
-          type: boolean
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional FTS parameter for stop word removal
-        ascii_folding:
-          type: boolean
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional FTS parameter for ASCII folding
-
-    CreateTableIndexResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - location
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        location:
-          type: string
-          description: Table location (usually empty)
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-          description: Additional properties (usually empty)
-
-    ListTableIndicesRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-          description: The namespace identifier
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional table version to list indexes from
-        page_token:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageToken'
-        limit:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageLimit'
-
-    ListTableIndicesResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - indexes
-      properties:
-        indexes:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/IndexContent'
-          description: List of indexes on the table
-        page_token:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageToken'
-
-    IndexContent:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - index_name
-        - index_uuid
-        - columns
-        - status
-      properties:
-        index_name:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the index
-        index_uuid:
-          type: string
-          description: Unique identifier for the index
-        columns:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-          description: Columns covered by this index
-        status:
-          type: string
-          description: Current status of the index
-
-    DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          nullable: true
-          description: Optional table version to get stats for
-        index_name:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the index
-
-    DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        distance_type:
-          type: string
-          nullable: true
-          description: Distance type for vector indexes
-        index_type:
-          type: string
-          nullable: true
-          description: Type of the index
-        num_indexed_rows:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          nullable: true
-          description: Number of indexed rows
-        num_unindexed_rows:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          nullable: true
-          description: Number of unindexed rows
-
-    JsonArrowSchema:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        JSON representation of a Apache Arrow schema.
-      required:
-      - fields
-      properties:
-        fields:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/JsonArrowField'
-        metadata:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-          propertyNames:
-            type: string
-
-    JsonArrowField:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        JSON representation of an Apache Arrow field.
-      required:
-      - name
-      - type
-      - nullable
-      properties:
-        metadata:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-          propertyNames:
-            type: string
-        name:
-          type: string
-        nullable:
-          type: boolean
-        type:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/JsonArrowDataType'
-    JsonArrowDataType:
-      type: object
-      description: JSON representation of an Apache Arrow DataType
-      required:
-      - type
-      properties:
-        fields:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/JsonArrowField'
-          description: Fields for complex types like Struct, Union, etc.
-        length:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          description: Length for fixed-size types
-          minimum: 0
-        type:
-          type: string
-          description: The data type name
-
-    Binary:
-      type: string
-      format: binary
-
-    CreateTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        Request for creating a table, excluding the Arrow IPC stream.
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        location:
-          type: string
-        schema:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/JsonArrowSchema'
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    CreateTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        location:
-          type: string
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-        schema:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/JsonArrowSchema'
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-        storage_options:
-          type: object
-          description: |
-            Configuration options to be used to access storage. The available
-            options depend on the type of storage in use. These will be
-            passed directly to Lance to initialize storage access.
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    TableExistsRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        version:
-          description: |
-            Version of the table to check existence.
-            If not specified, server should resolve it to the latest version.
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-
-    TransactionStatus:
-      type: string
-      enum:
-        - QUEUED
-        - RUNNING
-        - SUCCEEDED
-        - FAILED
-        - CANCELED
-
-    DescribeTransactionRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-
-    DescribeTransactionResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - status
-      properties:
-        status:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/TransactionStatus'
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    AlterTransactionSetStatus:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        status:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/TransactionStatus'
-
-    AlterTransactionSetProperty:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        key:
-          type: string
-        value:
-          type: string
-        mode:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/SetPropertyMode'
-
-    SetPropertyMode:
-      type: string
-      description: |
-        The behavior if the property key already exists.
-        - OVERWRITE (default): overwrite the existing value with the provided value
-        - FAIL: fail the entire operation
-        - SKIP: keep the existing value and skip setting the provided value
-      enum:
-        - OVERWRITE
-        - FAIL
-        - SKIP
-
-    AlterTransactionUnsetProperty:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        key:
-          type: string
-        mode:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/UnsetPropertyMode'
-
-    UnsetPropertyMode:
-      type: string
-      description: |
-        The behavior if the property key to unset does not exist.
-        - SKIP (default): skip the property to unset
-        - FAIL: fail the entire operation
-      enum:
-        - SKIP
-        - FAIL
-
-    AlterTransactionAction:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        A single action that could be performed to alter a transaction.
-        This action holds the model definition for all types of specific actions models,
-        this is to minimize difference and compatibility issue across codegen in different languages.
-        When used, only one of the actions should be non-null for each action.
-        If you would like to perform multiple actions, set a list of actions in the AlterTransactionRequest.
-      properties:
-        setStatusAction:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTransactionSetStatus'
-        setPropertyAction:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTransactionSetProperty'
-        unsetPropertyAction:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTransactionUnsetProperty'
-
-    AlterTransactionRequest:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        Alter a transaction with a list of actions.
-        The server should either succeed and apply all actions, or fail and apply no action.
-      required:
-        - actions
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        actions:
-          type: array
-          minItems: 1
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTransactionAction'
-
-    AlterTransactionResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - status
-      properties:
-        status:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/TransactionStatus'
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    DropTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        If the table and its data can be immediately deleted, return information of the deleted table.
-        Otherwise, return a transaction ID that client can use to track deletion progress.
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-
-    DropTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        location:
-          type: string
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-        transactionId:
-          type: array
-          description: |
-            If present, indicating the operation is long running and should be tracked using GetTransaction
-          items:
-            type: string
-
-    DeregisterTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-         The table content remains available in the storage.
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-
-    DeregisterTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        location:
-          type: string
-        properties:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            type: string
-
-    StringFtsQuery:
-      type: object
-      required:
-      - query
-      properties:
-        columns:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        query:
-          type: string
-
-    StructuredFtsQuery:
-      type: object
-      required:
-      - query
-      properties:
-        query:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/FtsQuery'
-
-    FtsQuery:
-      type: object
-      description: |
-        Full-text search query. Exactly one query type field must be provided.
-        This structure follows the same pattern as AlterTransactionAction to minimize
-        differences and compatibility issues across codegen in different languages.
-      properties:
-        match:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/MatchQuery'
-        phrase:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PhraseQuery'
-        boost:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/BoostQuery'
-        multi_match:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/MultiMatchQuery'
-        boolean:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/BooleanQuery'
-
-    MatchQuery:
-      type: object
-      required:
-      - terms
-      - column
-      properties:
-        boost:
-          type: number
-          format: float
-        column:
-          type: string
-        fuzziness:
-          type: integer
-          format: int32
-          minimum: 0
-        max_expansions:
-          type: integer
-          description: |-
-            The maximum number of terms to expand for fuzzy matching.
-            Default to 50.
-          minimum: 0
-        operator:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/Operator'
-          description: |-
-            The operator to use for combining terms.
-            This can be either `And` or `Or`, it's 'Or' by default.
-            - `And`: All terms must match.
-            - `Or`: At least one term must match.
-        prefix_length:
-          type: integer
-          format: int32
-          description: |-
-            The number of beginning characters being unchanged for fuzzy matching.
-            Default to 0.
-          minimum: 0
-        terms:
-          type: string
-
-    PhraseQuery:
-      type: object
-      required:
-      - terms
-      properties:
-        column:
-          type: string
-        slop:
-          type: integer
-          format: int32
-          minimum: 0
-        terms:
-          type: string
-
-    BoostQuery:
-      type: object
-      description: Boost query that scores documents matching positive query higher and negative query lower
-      required:
-      - positive
-      - negative
-      properties:
-        positive:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/FtsQuery'
-        negative:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/FtsQuery'
-        negative_boost:
-          type: number
-          format: float
-          description: 'Boost factor for negative query (default: 0.5)'
-          default: 0.5
-
-    MultiMatchQuery:
-      type: object
-      required:
-      - match_queries
-      properties:
-        match_queries:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/MatchQuery'
-
-    BooleanQuery:
-      type: object
-      description: Boolean query with must, should, and must_not clauses
-      required:
-      - should
-      - must
-      - must_not
-      properties:
-        must:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/FtsQuery'
-          description: Queries that must match (AND)
-        must_not:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/FtsQuery'
-          description: Queries that must not match (NOT)
-        should:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/FtsQuery'
-          description: Queries that should match (OR)
-
-    Operator:
-      type: string
-      enum:
-      - And
-      - Or
-
-    GetTableTagVersionRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - tag
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        tag:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the tag to get version for
-
-    GetTableTagVersionResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - version
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: version number that the tag points to
-
-    CreateTableTagRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - tag
-        - version
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        tag:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the tag to create
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Version number for the tag to point to
-
-    DeleteTableTagRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - tag
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        tag:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the tag to delete
-
-    UpdateTableTagRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - tag
-        - version
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        tag:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the tag to update
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: New version number for the tag to point to
-
-    ListTableTagsResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - tags
-      properties:
-        tags:
-          type: object
-          additionalProperties:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/TagContents'
-          description: Map of tag names to their contents
-
-    TagContents:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - version
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Version number that the tag points to
-
-    RestoreTableRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Version to restore to (if not specified, restores to current version)
-
-    RestoreTableResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Version of the table after restore operation
-
-    ListTableVersionsRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        page_token:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageToken'
-        limit:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageLimit'
-
-    ListTableVersionsResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - versions
-      properties:
-        versions:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/TableVersion'
-          description: List of table versions
-        page_token:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/PageToken'
-
-    TableVersion:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - version
-        - timestamp
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Version number
-        timestamp:
-          type: string
-          format: date-time
-          description: Timestamp when the version was created
-
-    ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - query
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        query:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/QueryTableRequest'
-        verbose:
-          type: boolean
-          default: false
-          description: Whether to return verbose explanation
-
-    ExplainTableQueryPlanResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - plan
-      properties:
-        plan:
-          type: string
-          description: Human-readable query execution plan
-
-    AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - query
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        query:
-          $ref: '#/components/schemas/QueryTableRequest'
-
-    AnalyzeTableQueryPlanResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - analysis
-      properties:
-        analysis:
-          type: string
-          description: Detailed analysis of the query execution plan
-
-    AlterTableAddColumnsRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - new_columns
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        new_columns:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/NewColumnTransform'
-          description: List of new columns to add
-
-    NewColumnTransform:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - name
-        - expression
-      properties:
-        name:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the new column
-        expression:
-          type: string
-          description: SQL expression to compute the column value
-
-    AlterTableAddColumnsResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - version
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Version of the table after adding columns
-
-    AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - alterations
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        alterations:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ColumnAlteration'
-          description: List of column alterations to perform
-
-    ColumnAlteration:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - column
-      properties:
-        column:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the column to alter
-        rename:
-          type: string
-          description: New name for the column (optional)
-        cast_to:
-          type: string
-          description: New data type to cast the column to (optional)
-
-    AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - version
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Version of the table after altering columns
-
-    AlterTableDropColumnsRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - columns
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        columns:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-          description: Names of columns to drop
-
-    AlterTableDropColumnsResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - version
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Version of the table after dropping columns
-
-    GetTableStatsRequest:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-
-    GetTableStatsResponse:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - num_rows
-        - size_bytes
-      properties:
-        num_rows:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Total number of rows in the table
-        size_bytes:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Total size of the table in bytes
-        num_fragments:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Number of data fragments
-
-    DropTableIndexRequest:
-      type: object
-      required:
-        - id
-        - index_name
-      properties:
-        id:
-          type: array
-          items:
-            type: string
-        index_name:
-          type: string
-          description: Name of the index to drop
-
-    DropTableIndexResponse:
-      type: object
-      properties:
-        version:
-          type: integer
-          format: int64
-          minimum: 0
-          description: Version of the table after dropping the index
-
-  responses:
-    ListNamespacesResponse:
-      description: A list of namespaces
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ListNamespacesResponse'
-          examples:
-            NonEmptyResponse:
-              $ref: '#/components/examples/ListNamespacesNonEmptyExample'
-            EmptyResponse:
-              $ref: '#/components/examples/ListNamespacesEmptyExample'
-
-    DescribeNamespaceResponse:
-      description:
-        Returns a namespace, as well as any properties stored on the namespace if namespace properties
-        are supported by the server.
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/DescribeNamespaceResponse'
-
-    CreateNamespaceResponse:
-      description:
-        Result of creating a namespace
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/CreateNamespaceResponse'
-
-    DropNamespaceResponse:
-      description:
-        Result of dropping a namespace
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/DropNamespaceResponse'
-
-    ListTablesResponse:
-      description: A list of tables
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ListTablesResponse'
-
-    DescribeTableResponse:
-      description: Table properties result when loading a table
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/DescribeTableResponse'
-
-    CountTableRowsResponse:
-      description: Result of counting rows in a table
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/CountTableRowsResponse'
-
-    CreateTableResponse:
-      description: Table properties result when creating a table
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/CreateTableResponse'
-
-    InsertIntoTableResponse:
-      description: Result of inserting records into a table
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/InsertIntoTableResponse'
-
-    MergeInsertIntoTableResponse:
-      description: Result of merge insert operation
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/MergeInsertIntoTableResponse'
-
-    RegisterTableResponse:
-      description: Table properties result when registering a table
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/RegisterTableResponse'
-
-    DescribeTransactionResponse:
-      description: Response of GetTransaction
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/DescribeTransactionResponse'
-
-    AlterTransactionResponse:
-      description: Response of AlterTransaction
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTransactionResponse'
-
-    DropTableResponse:
-      description:
-        Response of DropTable
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/DropTableResponse'
-
-    DeregisterTableResponse:
-      description:
-        Response of DeregisterTable
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/DeregisterTableResponse'
-
-    UpdateTableResponse:
-      description: Update successful
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/UpdateTableResponse'
-
-    DeleteFromTableResponse:
-      description: Delete successful
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/DeleteFromTableResponse'
-
-    QueryTableResponse:
-      description: Query results in Arrow IPC file or stream format
-      content:
-        application/vnd.apache.arrow.file:
-          schema:
-            type: string
-            format: binary
-        application/vnd.apache.arrow.stream:
-          schema:
-            type: string
-            format: binary
-
-    CreateTableIndexResponse:
-      description: Index created successfully
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/CreateTableIndexResponse'
-
-    ListTableIndicesResponse:
-      description: List of indices on the table
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ListTableIndicesResponse'
-
-    DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse:
-      description: Index statistics
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse'
-
-    # Tag operation responses
-
-    ListTableTagsResponse:
-      description: List of table tags
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ListTableTagsResponse'
-
-    GetTableTagVersionResponse:
-      description: Tag version information
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/GetTableTagVersionResponse'
-
-    # Table operation responses
-
-    ListTableVersionsResponse:
-      description: List of table versions
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ListTableVersionsResponse'
-
-    ExplainTableQueryPlanResponse:
-      description: Query execution plan explanation
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ExplainTableQueryPlanResponse'
-
-    AnalyzeTableQueryPlanResponse:
-      description: Query execution plan analysis
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/AnalyzeTableQueryPlanResponse'
-
-    AlterTableAddColumnsResponse:
-      description: Add columns operation result
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTableAddColumnsResponse'
-
-    AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse:
-      description: Alter columns operation result
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse'
-
-    AlterTableDropColumnsResponse:
-      description: Drop columns operation result
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/AlterTableDropColumnsResponse'
-
-    GetTableStatsResponse:
-      description: Table statistics
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/GetTableStatsResponse'
-
-    RestoreTableResponse:
-      description: Table restore operation result
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/RestoreTableResponse'
-
-    DropTableIndexResponse:
-      description: Index drop operation result
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/DropTableIndexResponse'
-
-    # Error Responses
-
-    BadRequestErrorResponse:
-      description:
-        Indicates a bad request error. It could be caused by an unexpected request
-        body format or other forms of request validation failure, such as invalid json.
-        Usually serves application/json content, although in some cases simple text/plain content might
-        be returned by the server's middleware.
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ErrorResponse'
-          example: {
-            "type": "/errors/bad-request",
-            "title": "Malformed request",
-            "status": 400,
-            "detail": "",
-            "instance": "/v1/namespaces"
-          }
-
-    UnauthorizedErrorResponse:
-      description: Unauthorized. The request lacks valid authentication credentials for the operation.
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ErrorResponse'
-          example: {
-            "type": "/errors/unauthorized-request",
-            "title": "No valid authentication credentials for the operation",
-            "status": 401,
-            "detail": "",
-            "instance": "/v1/namespaces"
-          }
-
-    ForbiddenErrorResponse:
-      description: Forbidden. Authenticated user does not have the necessary permissions.
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ErrorResponse'
-          example: {
-            "type": "/errors/forbidden-request",
-            "title": "Not authorized to make this request",
-            "status": 403,
-            "detail": "",
-            "instance": "/v1/namespaces"
-          }
-
-    NotFoundErrorResponse:
-      description:
-        A server-side problem that means can not find the specified resource.
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ErrorResponse'
-          example: {
-            "type": "/errors/not-found-error",
-            "title": "Not found Error",
-            "status": 404,
-            "detail": "",
-            "instance": "/v1/namespaces/{ns}"
-          }
-
-    UnsupportedOperationErrorResponse:
-      description: Not Acceptable / Unsupported Operation. The server does not support this operation.
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ErrorResponse'
-          example: {
-            "type": "/errors/unsupported-operation",
-            "title": "The server does not support this operation",
-            "status": 406,
-            "detail": "",
-            "instance": "/v1/namespaces"
-          }
-
-    ConflictErrorResponse:
-      description: The request conflicts with the current state of the target resource.
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ErrorResponse'
-          example: {
-            "type": "/errors/conflict",
-            "title": "The namespace has been concurrently modified",
-            "status": 409,
-            "detail": "",
-            "instance": "/v1/namespaces/{ns}"
-          }
-
-    ServiceUnavailableErrorResponse:
-      description:
-        The service is not ready to handle the request. The client should wait and retry.
-        The service may additionally send a Retry-After header to indicate when to retry.
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ErrorResponse'
-          example: {
-            "type": "/errors/service-unavailable",
-            "title": "Slow down",
-            "status": 503,
-            "detail": "",
-            "instance": "/v1/namespaces"
-          }
-
-    ServerErrorResponse:
-      description:
-        A server-side problem that might not be addressable from the client
-        side. Used for server 5xx errors without more specific documentation in
-        individual routes.
-      content:
-        application/json:
-          schema:
-            $ref: '#/components/schemas/ErrorResponse'
-          example: {
-            "type": "/errors/server-error",
-            "title": "Internal Server Error",
-            "status": 500,
-            "detail": "",
-            "instance": "/v1/namespaces"
-          }
-
-  examples:
-    ListNamespacesEmptyExample:
-      summary: An empty list of namespaces
-      value: {
-        "namespaces": [ ]
-      }
-
-    ListNamespacesNonEmptyExample:
-      summary: A non-empty list of namespaces
-      value: {
-        "namespaces": [
-          "accounting",
-          "credits"
-        ]
-      }
diff --git a/docs/src/sdk_docs.md b/docs/src/sdk_docs.md
index cf7331d2d81..8b42a66e86a 100644
--- a/docs/src/sdk_docs.md
+++ b/docs/src/sdk_docs.md
@@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ all classes, functions, and methods available in each language.
 
 - [Python](https://lance-format.github.io/lance-python-doc)
 - [Rust](https://docs.rs/lance/latest/lance)
-- [Java](https://www.javadoc.io/doc/com.lancedb/lance-core/latest/index.html)
\ No newline at end of file
+- [Java](https://www.javadoc.io/doc/org.lance/lance-core/latest/index.html)
diff --git a/docs/theme/404.html b/docs/theme/404.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..51897bd0805
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/theme/404.html
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+{% extends "base.html" %}
+
+{% block container %}
+  <main class="ld-notfound">
+    <div class="ld-kicker">404 · Page not found</div>
+    <h1>This page doesn't exist.</h1>
+    <p>The page you're looking for may have moved.</p>
+    <div class="ld-hero__cta">
+      <a class="ld-btn ld-btn--primary ld-btn--lg" href="{{ 'index.html' | url }}">Back to home</a>
+      <a class="ld-btn ld-btn--outline ld-btn--lg" href="{{ 'quickstart/' | url }}">Getting started</a>
+    </div>
+  </main>
+{% endblock %}
diff --git a/docs/theme/assets/site.css b/docs/theme/assets/site.css
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a9d5286244c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/theme/assets/site.css
@@ -0,0 +1,792 @@
+/* Lance docs site chrome — faithful port of the "Lance Docs" design prototype.
+   Layout/nav classes (ld-*) come from the theme templates; article content
+   styles target python-markdown + pymdownx output. */
+
+[hidden] { display: none !important; }
+
+.ld-shell {
+  min-height: 100vh;
+  display: flex;
+  flex-direction: column;
+  background: var(--surface-page);
+  font-family: var(--font-body);
+  color: var(--text-body);
+}
+
+/* ---------- header ---------- */
+.ld-header {
+  position: sticky;
+  top: 0;
+  z-index: 60;
+  display: flex;
+  align-items: center;
+  gap: 20px;
+  height: 60px;
+  padding: 0 clamp(16px, 3vw, 32px);
+  min-width: 0;
+  background: var(--surface-header);
+  backdrop-filter: blur(12px);
+  border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+}
+.ld-brand {
+  display: inline-flex;
+  align-items: center;
+  text-decoration: none;
+  user-select: none;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+}
+.ld-brand img { display: block; height: 24px; width: auto; }
+.ld-topnav {
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 2px;
+  margin-right: auto;
+  overflow-x: auto;
+  scrollbar-width: none;
+  min-width: 0;
+  flex: 1;
+}
+.ld-topnav::-webkit-scrollbar { display: none; }
+.ld-toptab {
+  font-family: var(--font-body);
+  font-size: 14px;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  text-decoration: none;
+  padding: 7px 12px;
+  cursor: pointer;
+  transition: color var(--dur-fast) var(--ease-out);
+  position: relative;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+.ld-toptab:hover { color: var(--text-body); }
+.ld-toptab.active { color: var(--fg-1); }
+.ld-toptab.active::after {
+  content: "";
+  position: absolute;
+  left: 12px;
+  right: 12px;
+  bottom: -10px;
+  height: 2px;
+  background: var(--beam-400);
+}
+.ld-header__actions { display: flex; gap: 10px; align-items: center; flex-shrink: 0; }
+/* All header controls share one 34px height regardless of content (icon/text). */
+.ld-header__actions .ld-btn { height: 34px; padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0; }
+.ld-header__actions .ld-btn--icon { width: 34px; padding: 0; justify-content: center; }
+
+/* ---------- buttons ---------- */
+.ld-btn {
+  display: inline-flex;
+  align-items: center;
+  gap: 8px;
+  text-decoration: none;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+}
+.ld-btn--primary {
+  font-family: var(--font-body);
+  font-size: 13.5px;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  color: #ffffff;
+  background: var(--beam-400);
+  padding: 8px 16px;
+}
+.ld-btn--primary:hover { background: var(--beam-600); color: #ffffff; }
+.ld-btn--ghost {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 12.5px;
+  color: var(--text-secondary);
+  border: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+  padding: 7px 14px;
+}
+.ld-btn--ghost:hover { border-color: var(--beam-400); color: var(--fg-1); }
+.ld-btn--icon { padding: 7px 9px; background: none; cursor: pointer; }
+.ld-btn__count {
+  border-left: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  padding-left: 8px;
+  color: var(--fg-1);
+  font-weight: 600;
+}
+:root[data-theme="light"] .ld-icon-sun { display: none; }
+:root[data-theme="dark"] .ld-icon-moon { display: none; }
+.ld-btn--outline {
+  font-size: 14px;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  color: var(--fg-1);
+  border: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+  padding: 11px 24px;
+}
+.ld-btn--outline:hover { border-color: var(--beam-400); color: var(--fg-1); }
+.ld-btn--text {
+  font-size: 14px;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  color: var(--text-secondary);
+  padding: 11px 12px;
+}
+.ld-btn--text:hover { color: var(--fg-1); }
+.ld-btn--lg.ld-btn--primary { font-size: 14px; padding: 12px 24px; }
+
+/* ---------- home: hero ---------- */
+.ld-hero { max-width: var(--container-max); margin: 0 auto; padding: 96px 32px 72px; width: 100%; }
+.ld-kicker {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 12.5px;
+  letter-spacing: var(--tracking-caps);
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--beam-600);
+  margin-bottom: 24px;
+}
+/* Wrap only between segments (at the · separators), never inside one. */
+.ld-kicker span, .ld-kicker a { white-space: nowrap; }
+.ld-kicker a { color: inherit; text-decoration: underline; text-underline-offset: 3px; }
+.ld-kicker a:hover { color: var(--beam-700); }
+.ld-hero h1 {
+  font-family: var(--font-display);
+  font-size: 72px;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  letter-spacing: var(--tracking-display);
+  line-height: 0.97;
+  color: var(--fg-1);
+  margin: 0 0 28px;
+  max-width: 900px;
+  text-wrap: balance;
+}
+.ld-hero__lead {
+  font-size: 17px;
+  line-height: 1.6;
+  color: var(--text-secondary);
+  max-width: 640px;
+  margin: 0 0 36px;
+  text-wrap: pretty;
+}
+.ld-hero__cta { display: flex; gap: 12px; flex-wrap: wrap; }
+
+/* ---------- home: stats band ---------- */
+.ld-band { max-width: var(--container-max); margin: 0 auto; padding: 0 32px; width: 100%; }
+.ld-stats {
+  display: grid;
+  grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr 1fr;
+  border-top: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+  border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+}
+.ld-stat { padding: 28px 32px; }
+.ld-stat:first-child { padding-left: 0; }
+.ld-stat:last-child { padding-right: 0; }
+.ld-stat + .ld-stat { border-left: 1px solid var(--line-2); }
+.ld-stat--link { display: block; text-decoration: none; }
+.ld-stat--link .ld-stat__label { transition: color var(--dur-fast) var(--ease-out); }
+.ld-stat--link:hover .ld-stat__label { color: var(--beam-600); }
+.ld-stat__value {
+  font-family: var(--font-display);
+  font-size: 40px;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  letter-spacing: -0.03em;
+  color: var(--fg-1);
+}
+.ld-stat__value--beam { color: var(--beam-400); }
+.ld-stat__label {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 12px;
+  letter-spacing: 0.1em;
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  margin-top: 6px;
+}
+
+/* ---------- home: what is lance ---------- */
+.ld-what { max-width: var(--container-max); margin: 0 auto; padding: 72px 32px 40px; width: 100%; }
+.ld-what h2 {
+  font-family: var(--font-display);
+  font-size: 34px;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  letter-spacing: -0.03em;
+  color: var(--fg-1);
+  margin: 0 0 16px;
+}
+.ld-what__body {
+  font-size: 16px;
+  line-height: 1.65;
+  color: var(--text-secondary);
+  max-width: 760px;
+  margin: 0 0 12px;
+  text-wrap: pretty;
+}
+.ld-what__more { font-size: 15px; line-height: 1.6; color: var(--text-secondary); margin: 0; }
+.ld-inline-link {
+  color: var(--beam-600);
+  text-decoration: underline;
+  text-decoration-thickness: 2px;
+  text-underline-offset: 3px;
+}
+
+/* ---------- home: features ---------- */
+.ld-features { max-width: var(--container-max); margin: 0 auto; padding: 24px 32px 96px; width: 100%; }
+.ld-feature {
+  display: grid;
+  grid-template-columns: 90px minmax(0, 1fr) minmax(0, 460px);
+  gap: 40px;
+  align-items: center;
+  border-top: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+  padding: 40px 0;
+}
+.ld-feature__num {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 15px;
+  color: var(--beam-600);
+  align-self: start;
+  padding-top: 6px;
+}
+.ld-feature__body h3 {
+  font-family: var(--font-display);
+  font-size: 24px;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  letter-spacing: -0.02em;
+  color: var(--fg-1);
+  margin: 0 0 12px;
+}
+.ld-feature__body p {
+  font-size: 15px;
+  line-height: 1.65;
+  color: var(--text-secondary);
+  margin: 0 0 16px;
+  text-wrap: pretty;
+}
+.ld-more {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 13px;
+  color: var(--beam-600);
+  text-decoration: none;
+}
+.ld-more:hover { text-decoration: underline; }
+/* Logo grids stay on white in both themes — the artwork assumes a light background. */
+.ld-feature__img { border: 1px solid var(--line-1); padding: 16px; background: #ffffff; }
+.ld-feature__img img { display: block; width: 100%; height: auto; }
+
+/* homepage code windows (always ink-dark, like docs code blocks) */
+.ld-feature__code { border: 1px solid var(--line-2); background: var(--ink-900); min-width: 0; border-radius: var(--radius-box); overflow: hidden; }
+.ld-win { display: flex; gap: 6px; padding: 12px 16px 0; }
+.ld-win i { width: 10px; height: 10px; border-radius: 999px; background: var(--ink-600); }
+.ld-feature__code pre {
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: 14px 20px 18px;
+  overflow-x: auto;
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 12.5px;
+  line-height: 1.7;
+  color: #EDEBF5;
+}
+.ld-feature__code code { font-family: inherit; }
+.tok-kw { color: #B8A8FF; }
+.tok-str { color: #7CC0FF; }
+.tok-com { color: #6F6A85; font-style: italic; }
+.tok-num { color: #F2CE6B; }
+.tok-arg { color: #FF95A8; }
+.tok-fn { color: #8FE8CE; }
+
+/* ---------- docs layout ---------- */
+.ld-docs {
+  flex: 1;
+  display: grid;
+  grid-template-columns: 240px minmax(0, 1fr) 190px;
+  max-width: 1280px;
+  width: 100%;
+  margin: 0 auto;
+  gap: 44px;
+  padding: 0 32px;
+}
+.ld-sidenav {
+  border-right: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  padding: 36px 24px 48px 0;
+  position: sticky;
+  top: 60px;
+  align-self: start;
+  height: calc(100vh - 60px);
+  overflow-y: auto;
+}
+/* Mobile-only disclosure for the sidenav; hidden on desktop where the
+   sidenav is a sticky column. */
+.ld-sidenav-toggle {
+  display: none;
+  align-items: center;
+  justify-content: space-between;
+  gap: 8px;
+  width: 100%;
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 11px;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  letter-spacing: var(--tracking-caps);
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--text-secondary);
+  background: none;
+  border: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  padding: 9px 12px;
+  margin: 16px 0 0;
+  cursor: pointer;
+}
+.ld-sidenav-toggle:hover { color: var(--fg-1); border-color: var(--beam-400); }
+.ld-sidenav-toggle svg { transition: transform var(--dur-fast) var(--ease-out); }
+.ld-sidenav-toggle.open svg { transform: rotate(180deg); }
+.ld-sidenav__group { margin-bottom: 6px; }
+.ld-sidenav__label {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 10.5px;
+  letter-spacing: var(--tracking-caps);
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  margin: 22px 0 8px;
+}
+.ld-sidenav a {
+  display: block;
+  font-size: 13.5px;
+  color: var(--text-secondary);
+  text-decoration: none;
+  padding: 5px 12px;
+  cursor: pointer;
+  border-left: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  line-height: 1.45;
+}
+.ld-sidenav a:hover { color: var(--text-body); background: var(--surface-overlay); }
+.ld-sidenav a.active {
+  color: var(--beam-600);
+  border-left: 2px solid var(--beam-400);
+  padding-left: 11px;
+  font-weight: 500;
+}
+.ld-sidenav a .ext { color: var(--text-muted); font-size: 11px; margin-left: 4px; }
+
+/* ---------- right-hand page TOC ---------- */
+.ld-toc {
+  position: sticky;
+  top: 60px;
+  align-self: start;
+  max-height: calc(100vh - 60px);
+  overflow-y: auto;
+  padding: 44px 0 48px;
+}
+.ld-toc__label {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 10.5px;
+  letter-spacing: var(--tracking-caps);
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  margin: 0 0 10px;
+}
+.ld-toc a {
+  display: block;
+  font-size: 12.5px;
+  line-height: 1.45;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  text-decoration: none;
+  border-left: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  padding: 4px 0 4px 12px;
+}
+.ld-toc a.ld-toc__h3 { padding-left: 24px; }
+.ld-toc a:hover { color: var(--text-body); }
+.ld-toc a.active {
+  color: var(--beam-600);
+  border-left: 2px solid var(--beam-400);
+  padding-left: 11px;
+  font-weight: 500;
+}
+.ld-toc a.ld-toc__h3.active { padding-left: 23px; }
+
+.ld-crumbs {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 11.5px;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 8px;
+  flex-wrap: wrap;
+  margin-bottom: 24px;
+}
+.ld-crumbs b { color: var(--beam-600); font-weight: 500; }
+
+.ld-pagenav {
+  display: flex;
+  justify-content: space-between;
+  gap: 16px;
+  border-top: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+  margin-top: 56px;
+  padding-top: 20px;
+}
+.ld-pagenav a { text-decoration: none; color: var(--fg-1); }
+.ld-pagenav a:hover { color: var(--beam-600); }
+.ld-pagenav a.next { text-align: right; }
+.ld-pagenav__k {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 10.5px;
+  letter-spacing: var(--tracking-caps);
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  margin-bottom: 4px;
+}
+.ld-pagenav__t { font-size: 14.5px; font-weight: 500; }
+
+/* ---------- article prose (python-markdown output) ---------- */
+.ld-article-col { max-width: 760px; min-width: 0; padding: 40px 0 96px; }
+.ld-article { font-family: var(--font-body); color: var(--text-secondary); }
+/* Keep anchor targets clear of the sticky header. */
+.ld-article :is(h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6) { scroll-margin-top: 76px; }
+.ld-article h1 { font-family: var(--font-display); font-size: 42px; font-weight: 600; letter-spacing: -0.03em; line-height: 1.05; color: var(--fg-1); margin: 0 0 20px; text-wrap: balance; }
+.ld-article h2 { font-family: var(--font-display); font-size: 26px; font-weight: 600; letter-spacing: -0.02em; color: var(--fg-1); margin: 48px 0 14px; padding-top: 28px; border-top: 1px solid var(--line-2); }
+.ld-article h3 { font-family: var(--font-display); font-size: 19px; font-weight: 600; letter-spacing: -0.01em; color: var(--fg-1); margin: 32px 0 10px; }
+.ld-article h4, .ld-article h5, .ld-article h6 { font-family: var(--font-mono); font-size: 12.5px; font-weight: 600; letter-spacing: .14em; text-transform: uppercase; color: var(--fg-1); margin: 28px 0 8px; }
+.ld-article p { font-size: 15.5px; line-height: 1.65; margin: 0 0 16px; text-wrap: pretty; }
+.ld-article a { color: var(--beam-600); text-decoration: underline; text-decoration-thickness: 2px; text-underline-offset: 3px; text-decoration-color: rgba(98, 94, 255, .35); }
+.ld-article a:hover { text-decoration-color: var(--beam-600); }
+.ld-article code { font-family: var(--font-mono); font-size: 13px; background: var(--surface-inline-code); border-radius: var(--radius-chip); padding: 1px 5px; color: var(--fg-1); }
+.ld-article ul, .ld-article ol { margin: 0 0 16px; padding-left: 22px; font-size: 15.5px; line-height: 1.65; }
+.ld-article li { margin-bottom: 6px; }
+.ld-article li p { margin-bottom: 8px; }
+.ld-article hr { border: 0; border-top: 1px solid var(--line-1); margin: 40px 0; }
+.ld-article blockquote { margin: 0 0 16px; padding: 4px 0 4px 20px; border-left: 2px solid var(--beam-400); }
+.ld-article blockquote p:last-child { margin-bottom: 0; }
+
+/* heading permalinks (toc: permalink) */
+.ld-article .headerlink {
+  margin-left: 8px;
+  color: var(--beam-400);
+  text-decoration: none;
+  opacity: 0;
+  transition: opacity var(--dur-fast) var(--ease-out);
+}
+.ld-article :is(h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6):hover .headerlink { opacity: 1; }
+
+/* figures: lone images sit on a white plate in both themes */
+.ld-article img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; }
+.ld-article p > img:only-child {
+  display: block;
+  margin: 24px auto;
+  border: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+  padding: 16px;
+  background: #ffffff;
+}
+
+/* tables (JS wraps them in .ld-tablewrap for overflow) */
+.ld-tablewrap { overflow-x: auto; margin: 0 0 20px; border: 1px solid var(--line-1); }
+.ld-article table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; font-size: 14px; }
+.ld-article th { font-family: var(--font-mono); font-size: 11px; font-weight: 600; letter-spacing: .12em; text-transform: uppercase; text-align: left; color: var(--fg-1); background: var(--surface-overlay); padding: 10px 14px; border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-1); }
+.ld-article td { padding: 10px 14px; border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-2); vertical-align: top; line-height: 1.55; color: var(--text-secondary); }
+.ld-article tr:last-child td { border-bottom: 0; }
+
+/* ---------- code blocks (pymdownx.highlight output, JS adds the bar) ---------- */
+.ld-code { margin: 0 0 20px; border: 1px solid var(--line-2); border-radius: var(--radius-box); overflow: hidden; }
+.ld-code__bar { display: flex; justify-content: space-between; align-items: center; padding: 7px 14px; border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-2); background: var(--surface-card); }
+.ld-code__bar span { display: inline-flex; align-items: center; gap: 7px; font-family: var(--font-mono); font-size: 11px; letter-spacing: .12em; text-transform: uppercase; color: var(--text-muted); }
+.ld-code__bar span svg { width: 13px; height: 13px; display: block; flex-shrink: 0; }
+.ld-copy { font-family: var(--font-mono); font-size: 11px; letter-spacing: .08em; text-transform: uppercase; background: none; border: none; color: var(--beam-600); cursor: pointer; padding: 2px 0; }
+.ld-copy:hover { color: var(--beam-700); }
+.ld-code .highlight { margin: 0; }
+.ld-code pre { margin: 0; background: var(--surface-code); padding: 16px 18px; overflow-x: auto; }
+.ld-code pre code { background: none; border: none; padding: 0; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6; color: var(--code-fg); }
+/* Ink code surfaces (dark-theme docs blocks + the always-dark homepage windows)
+   need an explicit light selection color; light-theme docs blocks use the default. */
+:root[data-theme="dark"] .ld-code pre ::selection, :root[data-theme="dark"] .ld-code pre::selection,
+.ld-feature__code pre ::selection, .ld-feature__code pre::selection {
+  background: rgba(98, 94, 255, 0.55);
+  color: #ffffff;
+}
+
+/* Pygments tokens — colors resolve per theme via the --code-* palette */
+.highlight .k, .highlight .kn, .highlight .kd, .highlight .kt, .highlight .kr, .highlight .kp, .highlight .ow { color: var(--code-kw); }
+.highlight .kc { color: var(--code-kw); }
+.highlight .s, .highlight .s1, .highlight .s2, .highlight .sb, .highlight .sd, .highlight .sa, .highlight .se, .highlight .si, .highlight .sx, .highlight .sr, .highlight .ss, .highlight .sh { color: var(--code-str); }
+.highlight .c, .highlight .c1, .highlight .cm, .highlight .ch, .highlight .cs, .highlight .cp, .highlight .cpf { color: var(--code-com); font-style: italic; }
+.highlight .m, .highlight .mi, .highlight .mf, .highlight .mh, .highlight .mo, .highlight .mb, .highlight .il { color: var(--code-num); }
+.highlight .nf, .highlight .fm, .highlight .nd, .highlight .ne { color: var(--code-fn); }
+.highlight .nc, .highlight .nn { color: var(--code-name); font-weight: 500; }
+.highlight .nb, .highlight .bp { color: var(--code-kw); }
+.highlight .nt { color: var(--code-tag); }
+.highlight .na { color: var(--code-tag); }
+.highlight .o { color: var(--code-punct); }
+.highlight .p { color: var(--code-punct); }
+.highlight .gp { color: var(--code-prompt); }
+.highlight .go { color: var(--code-punct); }
+.highlight .gh, .highlight .gu { color: var(--code-name); font-weight: 600; }
+.highlight .hll { background: var(--code-hll); display: block; }
+
+/* mermaid diagrams: white plate (rendered by JS) */
+.ld-article pre.mermaid, .ld-article div.mermaid {
+  border: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+  padding: 16px;
+  background: #ffffff;
+  margin: 0 0 20px;
+  text-align: center;
+  overflow-x: auto;
+}
+
+/* ---------- admonitions ---------- */
+.ld-article .admonition {
+  border: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  border-radius: var(--radius-box);
+  overflow: hidden;
+  margin: 0 0 20px;
+  background: var(--surface-card);
+  padding: 0;
+  font-size: 14.5px;
+}
+.ld-article .admonition > .admonition-title {
+  display: flex;
+  align-items: center;
+  gap: 8px;
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 11px;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  letter-spacing: .14em;
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--beam-600);
+  padding: 9px 16px;
+  margin: 0;
+  border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  background: none;
+}
+/* Material-style type icon, drawn in the title color via a CSS mask */
+.ld-article .admonition > .admonition-title::before {
+  content: "";
+  width: 14px;
+  height: 14px;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  background-color: currentColor;
+  -webkit-mask: var(--ld-adm-icon) no-repeat center / contain;
+  mask: var(--ld-adm-icon) no-repeat center / contain;
+}
+/* Icon shapes are Material Design Icons paths (Apache 2.0), matching mkdocs-material's defaults. */
+.ld-article .admonition { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M20.71,7.04C21.1,6.65 21.1,6 20.71,5.63L18.37,3.29C18,2.9 17.35,2.9 16.96,3.29L15.12,5.12L18.87,8.87M3,17.25V21H6.75L17.81,9.93L14.06,6.18L3,17.25Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article :is(.admonition.abstract, .admonition.summary, .admonition.tldr) { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M17,9H7V7H17M17,13H7V11H17M14,17H7V15H14M12,3A1,1 0 0,1 13,4A1,1 0 0,1 12,5A1,1 0 0,1 11,4A1,1 0 0,1 12,3M19,3H14.82C14.4,1.84 13.3,1 12,1C10.7,1 9.6,1.84 9.18,3H5A2,2 0 0,0 3,5V19A2,2 0 0,0 5,21H19A2,2 0 0,0 21,19V5A2,2 0 0,0 19,3Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article :is(.admonition.info, .admonition.todo) { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M13,9H11V7H13M13,17H11V11H13M12,2A10,10 0 0,0 2,12A10,10 0 0,0 12,22A10,10 0 0,0 22,12A10,10 0 0,0 12,2Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article :is(.admonition.tip, .admonition.hint, .admonition.important) { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M17.66,11.2C17.43,10.9 17.15,10.64 16.89,10.38C16.22,9.78 15.46,9.35 14.82,8.72C13.33,7.26 13,4.85 13.95,3C13,3.23 12.17,3.75 11.46,4.32C8.87,6.4 7.85,10.07 9.07,13.22C9.11,13.32 9.15,13.42 9.15,13.55C9.15,13.77 9,13.97 8.8,14.05C8.57,14.15 8.33,14.09 8.14,13.93C8.08,13.88 8.04,13.83 8,13.76C6.87,12.33 6.69,10.28 7.45,8.64C5.78,10 4.87,12.3 5,14.47C5.06,14.97 5.12,15.47 5.29,15.97C5.43,16.57 5.7,17.17 6,17.7C7.08,19.43 8.95,20.67 10.96,20.92C13.1,21.19 15.39,20.8 17.03,19.32C18.86,17.66 19.5,15 18.56,12.72L18.43,12.46C18.22,12 17.66,11.2 17.66,11.2M14.5,17.5C14.22,17.74 13.76,18 13.4,18.1C12.28,18.5 11.16,17.94 10.5,17.28C11.69,17 12.4,16.12 12.61,15.23C12.78,14.43 12.46,13.77 12.33,13C12.21,12.26 12.23,11.63 12.5,10.94C12.69,11.32 12.89,11.7 13.13,12C13.9,13 15.11,13.44 15.37,14.8C15.41,14.94 15.43,15.08 15.43,15.23C15.46,16.05 15.1,16.95 14.5,17.5H14.5Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article :is(.admonition.success, .admonition.check, .admonition.done) { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M9,20.42L2.79,14.21L5.62,11.38L9,14.77L18.88,4.88L21.71,7.71L9,20.42Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article :is(.admonition.question, .admonition.help, .admonition.faq) { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M15.07,11.25L14.17,12.17C13.45,12.89 13,13.5 13,15H11V14.5C11,13.39 11.45,12.39 12.17,11.67L13.41,10.41C13.78,10.05 14,9.55 14,9C14,7.89 13.1,7 12,7A2,2 0 0,0 10,9H8A4,4 0 0,1 12,5A4,4 0 0,1 16,9C16,9.88 15.64,10.67 15.07,11.25M13,19H11V17H13M12,2A10,10 0 0,0 2,12A10,10 0 0,0 12,22A10,10 0 0,0 22,12C22,6.47 17.5,2 12,2Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article :is(.admonition.warning, .admonition.caution, .admonition.attention) { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M13,14H11V9H13M13,18H11V16H13M1,21H23L12,2L1,21Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article :is(.admonition.failure, .admonition.fail, .admonition.missing) { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M20 6.91L17.09 4L12 9.09L6.91 4L4 6.91L9.09 12L4 17.09L6.91 20L12 14.91L17.09 20L20 17.09L14.91 12L20 6.91Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article :is(.admonition.danger, .admonition.error) { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M11,15H6L13,1V9H18L11,23V15Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article .admonition.bug { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M14,12H10V10H14M14,16H10V14H14M20,8H17.19C16.74,7.22 16.12,6.55 15.37,6.04L17,4.41L15.59,3L13.42,5.17C12.96,5.06 12.5,5 12,5C11.5,5 11.04,5.06 10.59,5.17L8.41,3L7,4.41L8.62,6.04C7.88,6.55 7.26,7.22 6.81,8H4V10H6.09C6.04,10.33 6,10.66 6,11V12H4V14H6V15C6,15.34 6.04,15.67 6.09,16H4V18H6.81C7.85,19.79 9.78,21 12,21C14.22,21 16.15,19.79 17.19,18H20V16H17.91C17.96,15.67 18,15.34 18,15V14H20V12H18V11C18,10.66 17.96,10.33 17.91,10H20V8Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article .admonition.example { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M7,13V11H21V13H7M7,19V17H21V19H7M7,7V5H21V7H7M3,8V5H2V4H4V8H3M2,17V16H5V20H2V19H4V18.5H3V17.5H4V17H2M4.25,10A0.75,0.75 0 0,1 5,10.75C5,10.95 4.92,11.14 4.79,11.27L3.12,13H5V14H2V13.08L4,11H2V10H4.25Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article :is(.admonition.quote, .admonition.cite) { --ld-adm-icon: url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"%3E%3Cpath d="M14,17H17L19,13V7H13V13H16M6,17H9L11,13V7H5V13H8L6,17Z"/%3E%3C/svg%3E'); }
+.ld-article .admonition > :not(.admonition-title) { margin: 14px 16px; font-size: 14.5px; }
+.ld-article .admonition > .highlight, .ld-article .admonition > .ld-code { margin: 14px 16px; }
+.ld-article .admonition.warning > .admonition-title,
+.ld-article .admonition.caution > .admonition-title,
+.ld-article .admonition.attention > .admonition-title { color: var(--warn-500); }
+.ld-article .admonition.danger > .admonition-title,
+.ld-article .admonition.error > .admonition-title,
+.ld-article .admonition.bug > .admonition-title,
+.ld-article .admonition.failure > .admonition-title { color: var(--danger-500); }
+.ld-article .admonition.success > .admonition-title,
+.ld-article .admonition.check > .admonition-title { color: var(--ok-500); }
+
+/* ---------- details / summary (pymdownx.details) ---------- */
+.ld-article details {
+  border: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  border-radius: var(--radius-box);
+  overflow: hidden;
+  margin: 0 0 20px;
+  background: var(--surface-card);
+}
+.ld-article details > summary {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 12px;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  letter-spacing: .1em;
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--beam-600);
+  padding: 10px 16px;
+  cursor: pointer;
+  user-select: none;
+  list-style: none;
+}
+.ld-article details > summary::-webkit-details-marker { display: none; }
+.ld-article details > summary:hover { background: var(--surface-overlay); }
+.ld-article details[open] > summary { border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-2); }
+.ld-article details > :not(summary) { margin: 14px 16px; }
+
+/* ---------- content tabs (pymdownx.tabbed, alternate style) ---------- */
+.ld-article .tabbed-set { margin: 0 0 20px; border: 1px solid var(--line-2); border-radius: var(--radius-box); overflow: hidden; position: relative; }
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input { position: absolute; opacity: 0; pointer-events: none; }
+.ld-article .tabbed-labels {
+  display: flex;
+  border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  background: var(--surface-card);
+  overflow-x: auto;
+  scrollbar-width: none;
+}
+.ld-article .tabbed-labels > label {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 12px;
+  letter-spacing: .06em;
+  padding: 9px 18px;
+  border-right: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  cursor: pointer;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+.ld-article .tabbed-labels > label:hover { color: var(--fg-1); }
+.ld-article .tabbed-content { display: block; }
+.ld-article .tabbed-block { display: none; padding: 16px 16px 0; }
+.ld-article .tabbed-block > :last-child { margin-bottom: 16px; }
+.ld-article .tabbed-block > .ld-code:last-child { margin-bottom: 16px; }
+/* nth-input → nth-label/nth-block mapping (supports up to 8 tabs) */
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(1):checked ~ .tabbed-labels > label:nth-child(1),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(2):checked ~ .tabbed-labels > label:nth-child(2),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(3):checked ~ .tabbed-labels > label:nth-child(3),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(4):checked ~ .tabbed-labels > label:nth-child(4),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(5):checked ~ .tabbed-labels > label:nth-child(5),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(6):checked ~ .tabbed-labels > label:nth-child(6),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(7):checked ~ .tabbed-labels > label:nth-child(7),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(8):checked ~ .tabbed-labels > label:nth-child(8) {
+  color: var(--fg-1);
+  box-shadow: inset 0 -2px 0 var(--beam-400);
+}
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(1):checked ~ .tabbed-content > .tabbed-block:nth-child(1),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(2):checked ~ .tabbed-content > .tabbed-block:nth-child(2),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(3):checked ~ .tabbed-content > .tabbed-block:nth-child(3),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(4):checked ~ .tabbed-content > .tabbed-block:nth-child(4),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(5):checked ~ .tabbed-content > .tabbed-block:nth-child(5),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(6):checked ~ .tabbed-content > .tabbed-block:nth-child(6),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(7):checked ~ .tabbed-content > .tabbed-block:nth-child(7),
+.ld-article .tabbed-set > input:nth-child(8):checked ~ .tabbed-content > .tabbed-block:nth-child(8) {
+  display: block;
+}
+
+/* ---------- search overlay ---------- */
+.ld-search { position: fixed; inset: 0; z-index: 100; }
+.ld-search__scrim { position: absolute; inset: 0; background: rgba(14, 12, 20, 0.5); }
+.ld-search__panel {
+  position: relative;
+  max-width: 640px;
+  margin: 96px auto 0;
+  background: var(--surface-page);
+  border: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+}
+.ld-search__bar { display: flex; align-items: center; border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-1); }
+.ld-search__input {
+  flex: 1;
+  font-family: var(--font-body);
+  font-size: 15px;
+  color: var(--fg-1);
+  background: none;
+  border: none;
+  outline: none;
+  padding: 14px 16px;
+}
+.ld-search__input::placeholder { color: var(--text-muted); }
+.ld-search__close {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 10.5px;
+  letter-spacing: .1em;
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  background: none;
+  border: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+  margin-right: 12px;
+  padding: 3px 8px;
+  cursor: pointer;
+}
+.ld-search__close:hover { color: var(--fg-1); border-color: var(--beam-400); }
+.ld-search__results { max-height: 55vh; overflow-y: auto; }
+.ld-search__hit { display: block; padding: 12px 16px; text-decoration: none; border-top: 1px solid var(--line-2); }
+.ld-search__hit:first-child { border-top: 0; }
+.ld-search__hit:hover, .ld-search__hit.active { background: var(--surface-overlay); }
+.ld-search__hit-title { font-size: 14px; font-weight: 500; color: var(--fg-1); }
+.ld-search__hit-title mark, .ld-search__hit-text mark { background: none; color: var(--beam-600); }
+.ld-search__hit-crumb { font-family: var(--font-mono); font-size: 10.5px; letter-spacing: .08em; text-transform: uppercase; color: var(--text-muted); margin-bottom: 2px; }
+.ld-search__hit-text { font-size: 12.5px; color: var(--text-muted); line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 2px; }
+.ld-search__empty { font-family: var(--font-mono); font-size: 12px; letter-spacing: .08em; text-transform: uppercase; color: var(--text-muted); padding: 20px 16px; }
+
+/* ---------- 404 ---------- */
+.ld-notfound { max-width: var(--container-max); margin: 0 auto; padding: 120px 32px 160px; width: 100%; flex: 1; }
+.ld-notfound h1 {
+  font-family: var(--font-display);
+  font-size: 56px;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  letter-spacing: var(--tracking-display);
+  color: var(--fg-1);
+  margin: 0 0 16px;
+}
+.ld-notfound p { color: var(--text-secondary); margin: 0 0 32px; }
+
+/* ---------- footer ---------- */
+.ld-footer {
+  border-top: 1px solid var(--line-1);
+  padding: 40px 32px;
+  display: flex;
+  align-items: flex-start;
+  justify-content: space-between;
+  gap: 32px;
+  flex-wrap: wrap;
+}
+.ld-footer__brand img { display: block; height: 24px; width: auto; }
+.ld-footer__brand p {
+  font-size: 12.5px;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  max-width: 300px;
+  line-height: 1.6;
+  margin: 12px 0 0;
+}
+.ld-footer__cols { display: flex; gap: 64px; flex-wrap: wrap; }
+.ld-footer__col { display: flex; flex-direction: column; gap: 8px; }
+.ld-footer__col h5 {
+  font-family: var(--font-mono);
+  font-size: 10.5px;
+  letter-spacing: var(--tracking-caps);
+  text-transform: uppercase;
+  color: var(--text-muted);
+  margin: 0 0 4px;
+}
+.ld-footer__col a { font-size: 13.5px; color: var(--text-secondary); text-decoration: none; }
+.ld-footer__col a:hover { color: var(--fg-1); }
+
+/* ---------- responsive ---------- */
+@media (max-width: 1180px) {
+  .ld-docs { grid-template-columns: 240px minmax(0, 1fr); }
+  .ld-toc { display: none; }
+}
+@media (max-width: 960px) {
+  /* Header folds into two rows: brand + icon actions, then a scrollable
+     section-tab row. Text-heavy controls collapse to icons. */
+  .ld-header { flex-wrap: wrap; height: auto; gap: 0 10px; padding: 10px 16px 0; }
+  .ld-header__actions { margin-left: auto; }
+  .ld-header__actions .ld-btn--primary,
+  .ld-header__actions .ld-btn__label,
+  .ld-header__actions .ld-btn__count { display: none; }
+  .ld-topnav { order: 1; flex-basis: 100%; margin: 4px 0 0; padding-bottom: 10px; }
+  .ld-toptab { padding: 7px 10px; }
+  .ld-toptab:first-child { margin-left: -10px; }
+  .ld-toptab.active::after { left: 10px; right: 10px; }
+
+  .ld-article :is(h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6) { scroll-margin-top: 104px; }
+  .ld-article h1 { font-size: 32px; }
+
+  .ld-hero h1 { font-size: clamp(38px, 9vw, 56px); }
+  .ld-stats { grid-template-columns: 1fr; }
+  .ld-stat { padding: 20px 0; }
+  .ld-stat + .ld-stat { border-left: 0; border-top: 1px solid var(--line-2); }
+  .ld-feature { grid-template-columns: 1fr; gap: 16px; }
+  .ld-feature__num { padding-top: 0; }
+
+  /* Docs: sidenav collapses behind a disclosure button; article leads. */
+  .ld-docs { display: block; padding: 0 20px; }
+  .ld-sidenav-toggle { display: flex; }
+  .ld-sidenav {
+    display: none;
+    position: static;
+    height: auto;
+    border-right: 0;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid var(--line-2);
+    padding: 0 0 20px;
+  }
+  .ld-sidenav.open { display: block; }
+  .ld-sidenav__group:first-child .ld-sidenav__label { margin-top: 16px; }
+  .ld-article-col { padding-top: 24px; }
+
+  .ld-hero, .ld-band, .ld-what, .ld-features { padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 20px; }
+  .ld-hero { padding-top: 56px; padding-bottom: 48px; }
+  .ld-notfound { padding: 72px 20px 96px; }
+  .ld-footer { padding: 32px 20px; }
+  .ld-footer__cols { gap: 28px 40px; }
+}
+@media (max-width: 700px) {
+  /* Search becomes an edge-to-edge sheet under the top of the screen. */
+  .ld-search__panel { margin: 0; max-width: none; border-left: 0; border-right: 0; border-top: 0; }
+  .ld-search__results { max-height: calc(100dvh - 110px); }
+}
diff --git a/docs/theme/assets/site.js b/docs/theme/assets/site.js
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..34378c820b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/theme/assets/site.js
@@ -0,0 +1,263 @@
+/* Lance docs theme behaviours: theme toggle, GitHub stars, code block chrome,
+   TOC scroll-spy, search overlay, mermaid rendering. */
+(function () {
+  "use strict";
+
+  var BASE = (window.LD_BASE || ".").replace(/\/$/, "");
+
+  /* ---------- theme toggle ---------- */
+  var themeBtn = document.getElementById("theme-toggle");
+  if (themeBtn) {
+    themeBtn.addEventListener("click", function () {
+      var next = document.documentElement.dataset.theme === "dark" ? "light" : "dark";
+      document.documentElement.dataset.theme = next;
+      try { localStorage.setItem("ld-theme", next); } catch (e) { /* private mode */ }
+    });
+  }
+
+  /* ---------- GitHub stars ---------- */
+  (function loadStars() {
+    var el = document.getElementById("gh-stars");
+    if (!el) return;
+    var TTL = 3600e3;
+    function show(count) {
+      if (!(count > 0)) return;
+      var label = count >= 1000 ? (count / 1000).toFixed(1).replace(/\.0$/, "") + "k" : String(count);
+      el.textContent = "★ " + label;
+      el.hidden = false;
+    }
+    try {
+      var cached = JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem("ld-gh-stars") || "null");
+      if (cached && Date.now() - cached.t < TTL) { show(cached.v); return; }
+    } catch (e) { /* fall through to fetch */ }
+    fetch("https://api.github.com/repos/lance-format/lance")
+      .then(function (r) { if (!r.ok) throw new Error(r.status); return r.json(); })
+      .then(function (d) {
+        show(d.stargazers_count);
+        try { localStorage.setItem("ld-gh-stars", JSON.stringify({ v: d.stargazers_count, t: Date.now() })); } catch (e) { /* ignore */ }
+      })
+      .catch(function () { /* rate-limited or offline: button still works without the count */ });
+  })();
+
+  /* ---------- mobile sidenav toggle ---------- */
+  var sidenavToggle = document.querySelector(".ld-sidenav-toggle");
+  var sidenav = document.querySelector(".ld-sidenav");
+  if (sidenavToggle && sidenav) {
+    sidenavToggle.addEventListener("click", function () {
+      var open = sidenav.classList.toggle("open");
+      sidenavToggle.classList.toggle("open", open);
+      sidenavToggle.setAttribute("aria-expanded", open ? "true" : "false");
+    });
+  }
+
+  /* ---------- article enhancements ---------- */
+  var article = document.querySelector(".ld-article");
+
+  if (article) {
+    // Language logos for code-bar labels (Simple Icons + Devicon paths, drawn in currentColor).
+    var LANG_ICONS = {
+      python: ["0 0 24 24", "M14.25.18l.9.2.73.26.59.3.45.32.34.34.25.34.16.33.1.3.04.26.02.2-.01.13V8.5l-.05.63-.13.55-.21.46-.26.38-.3.31-.33.25-.35.19-.35.14-.33.1-.3.07-.26.04-.21.02H8.77l-.69.05-.59.14-.5.22-.41.27-.33.32-.27.35-.2.36-.15.37-.1.35-.07.32-.04.27-.02.21v3.06H3.17l-.21-.03-.28-.07-.32-.12-.35-.18-.36-.26-.36-.36-.35-.46-.32-.59-.28-.73-.21-.88-.14-1.05-.05-1.23.06-1.22.16-1.04.24-.87.32-.71.36-.57.4-.44.42-.33.42-.24.4-.16.36-.1.32-.05.24-.01h.16l.06.01h8.16v-.83H6.18l-.01-2.75-.02-.37.05-.34.11-.31.17-.28.25-.26.31-.23.38-.2.44-.18.51-.15.58-.12.64-.1.71-.06.77-.04.84-.02 1.27.05zm-6.3 1.98l-.23.33-.08.41.08.41.23.34.33.22.41.09.41-.09.33-.22.23-.34.08-.41-.08-.41-.23-.33-.33-.22-.41-.09-.41.09zm13.09 3.95l.28.06.32.12.35.18.36.27.36.35.35.47.32.59.28.73.21.88.14 1.04.05 1.23-.06 1.23-.16 1.04-.24.86-.32.71-.36.57-.4.45-.42.33-.42.24-.4.16-.36.09-.32.05-.24.02-.16-.01h-8.22v.82h5.84l.01 2.76.02.36-.05.34-.11.31-.17.29-.25.25-.31.24-.38.2-.44.17-.51.15-.58.13-.64.09-.71.07-.77.04-.84.01-1.27-.04-1.07-.14-.9-.2-.73-.25-.59-.3-.45-.33-.34-.34-.25-.34-.16-.33-.1-.3-.04-.25-.02-.2.01-.13v-5.34l.05-.64.13-.54.21-.46.26-.38.3-.32.33-.24.35-.2.35-.14.33-.1.3-.06.26-.04.21-.02.13-.01h5.84l.69-.05.59-.14.5-.21.41-.28.33-.32.27-.35.2-.36.15-.36.1-.35.07-.32.04-.28.02-.21V6.07h2.09l.14.01zm-6.47 14.25l-.23.33-.08.41.08.41.23.33.33.23.41.08.41-.08.33-.23.23-.33.08-.41-.08-.41-.23-.33-.33-.23-.41-.08-.41.08z"],
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+    };
+    var LANG_ALIASES = { py: "python", python3: "python", rs: "rust", sh: "bash", shell: "bash", console: "bash", zsh: "bash" };
+
+    // Code blocks: wrap .highlight in a window with a language bar + copy button.
+    article.querySelectorAll("div.highlight").forEach(function (hl) {
+      if (hl.closest(".ld-code")) return;
+      var code = hl.querySelector("code");
+      var m = (hl.className + " " + (code ? code.className : "")).match(/language-([\w+-]+)/);
+      var lang = m ? m[1] : "text";
+      var wrap = document.createElement("div");
+      wrap.className = "ld-code";
+      var bar = document.createElement("div");
+      bar.className = "ld-code__bar";
+      bar.innerHTML = "<span></span><button class=\"ld-copy\" type=\"button\">Copy</button>";
+      var span = bar.querySelector("span");
+      var icon = LANG_ICONS[LANG_ALIASES[lang] || lang];
+      if (icon) span.innerHTML = '<svg viewBox="' + icon[0] + '" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true"><path d="' + icon[1] + '"/></svg>';
+      span.appendChild(document.createTextNode(lang));
+      hl.parentNode.insertBefore(wrap, hl);
+      wrap.appendChild(bar);
+      wrap.appendChild(hl);
+    });
+
+    document.addEventListener("click", function (e) {
+      var copy = e.target.closest(".ld-copy");
+      if (!copy) return;
+      var pre = copy.closest(".ld-code").querySelector("pre");
+      if (navigator.clipboard && pre) navigator.clipboard.writeText(pre.textContent);
+      copy.textContent = "Copied";
+      setTimeout(function () { copy.textContent = "Copy"; }, 1400);
+    });
+
+    // Tables: wrap for horizontal overflow.
+    article.querySelectorAll("table").forEach(function (t) {
+      if (t.closest(".ld-tablewrap")) return;
+      var wrap = document.createElement("div");
+      wrap.className = "ld-tablewrap";
+      t.parentNode.insertBefore(wrap, t);
+      wrap.appendChild(t);
+    });
+
+    // Mermaid: render fenced diagrams on demand.
+    var mermaidNodes = article.querySelectorAll("pre.mermaid, div.mermaid");
+    if (mermaidNodes.length) {
+      import("https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/mermaid@11/dist/mermaid.esm.min.mjs").then(function (mod) {
+        var mermaid = mod.default;
+        mermaidNodes.forEach(function (node) {
+          if (node.tagName === "PRE") {
+            var div = document.createElement("div");
+            div.className = "mermaid";
+            div.textContent = node.textContent;
+            node.replaceWith(div);
+          }
+        });
+        mermaid.initialize({ startOnLoad: false, securityLevel: "loose", theme: "neutral" });
+        mermaid.run({ querySelector: ".ld-article div.mermaid" });
+      }).catch(function () { /* offline: leave the diagram source visible */ });
+    }
+  }
+
+  /* ---------- TOC scroll-spy ---------- */
+  var tocLinks = Array.prototype.slice.call(document.querySelectorAll(".ld-toc a"));
+  if (tocLinks.length && article) {
+    var targets = tocLinks.map(function (a) {
+      var id = decodeURIComponent((a.getAttribute("href") || "").replace(/^#/, ""));
+      return document.getElementById(id);
+    });
+    var update = function () {
+      var active = 0;
+      for (var i = 0; i < targets.length; i++) {
+        if (targets[i] && targets[i].getBoundingClientRect().top <= 90) active = i;
+      }
+      tocLinks.forEach(function (a, i) { a.classList.toggle("active", i === active); });
+    };
+    window.addEventListener("scroll", update, { passive: true });
+    update();
+  }
+
+  /* ---------- search overlay ---------- */
+  var overlay = document.getElementById("search-overlay");
+  var input = document.getElementById("search-input");
+  var results = document.getElementById("search-results");
+  var indexPromise = null;
+
+  function loadIndex() {
+    if (!indexPromise) {
+      indexPromise = fetch(BASE + "/search/search_index.json")
+        .then(function (r) { if (!r.ok) throw new Error(r.status); return r.json(); })
+        .then(function (d) {
+          return d.docs.map(function (doc) {
+            return {
+              location: doc.location,
+              title: doc.title || "",
+              text: (doc.text || "").replace(/\s+/g, " "),
+            };
+          });
+        });
+    }
+    return indexPromise;
+  }
+
+  function esc(s) {
+    return s.replace(/&/g, "&amp;").replace(/</g, "&lt;").replace(/>/g, "&gt;");
+  }
+
+  function highlight(text, terms) {
+    var out = esc(text);
+    terms.forEach(function (t) {
+      out = out.replace(new RegExp("(" + t.replace(/[.*+?^${}()|[\]\\]/g, "\\$&") + ")", "ig"), "<mark>$1</mark>");
+    });
+    return out;
+  }
+
+  function search(docs, query) {
+    var terms = query.toLowerCase().split(/\s+/).filter(Boolean);
+    if (!terms.length) return [];
+    var scored = [];
+    docs.forEach(function (doc) {
+      var title = doc.title.toLowerCase();
+      var text = doc.text.toLowerCase();
+      var score = 0;
+      for (var i = 0; i < terms.length; i++) {
+        var t = terms[i];
+        var inTitle = title.indexOf(t) !== -1;
+        var inText = text.indexOf(t) !== -1;
+        if (!inTitle && !inText) { score = 0; break; }
+        score += (inTitle ? 10 : 0) + (inText ? 1 : 0);
+      }
+      // Prefer page-level entries slightly over deep anchors.
+      if (score > 0) scored.push({ doc: doc, score: score + (doc.location.indexOf("#") === -1 ? 2 : 0) });
+    });
+    scored.sort(function (a, b) { return b.score - a.score; });
+    return scored.slice(0, 12).map(function (s) { return s.doc; });
+  }
+
+  function snippet(text, terms) {
+    var lower = text.toLowerCase();
+    var pos = -1;
+    for (var i = 0; i < terms.length; i++) {
+      pos = lower.indexOf(terms[i]);
+      if (pos !== -1) break;
+    }
+    if (pos === -1) pos = 0;
+    var start = Math.max(0, pos - 60);
+    var s = (start > 0 ? "…" : "") + text.slice(start, start + 160) + (start + 160 < text.length ? "…" : "");
+    return s;
+  }
+
+  function render(docs, query) {
+    var terms = query.toLowerCase().split(/\s+/).filter(Boolean);
+    if (!docs.length) {
+      results.innerHTML = "<div class=\"ld-search__empty\">No results</div>";
+      return;
+    }
+    results.innerHTML = docs.map(function (doc) {
+      var crumb = doc.location.split("#")[0].replace(/\/$/, "").replace(/\//g, " / ") || "home";
+      return "<a class=\"ld-search__hit\" href=\"" + BASE + "/" + doc.location + "\">" +
+        "<div class=\"ld-search__hit-crumb\">" + esc(crumb) + "</div>" +
+        "<div class=\"ld-search__hit-title\">" + highlight(doc.title, terms) + "</div>" +
+        "<div class=\"ld-search__hit-text\">" + highlight(snippet(doc.text, terms), terms) + "</div>" +
+        "</a>";
+    }).join("");
+  }
+
+  function openSearch() {
+    overlay.hidden = false;
+    input.value = "";
+    results.innerHTML = "";
+    input.focus();
+    loadIndex();
+  }
+  function closeSearch() { overlay.hidden = true; }
+
+  if (overlay && input && results) {
+    var openBtn = document.getElementById("search-open");
+    if (openBtn) openBtn.addEventListener("click", openSearch);
+    overlay.addEventListener("click", function (e) {
+      if (e.target.closest("[data-search-close]")) closeSearch();
+    });
+    document.addEventListener("keydown", function (e) {
+      if (e.key === "Escape" && !overlay.hidden) { closeSearch(); return; }
+      var typing = /^(INPUT|TEXTAREA|SELECT)$/.test((document.activeElement || {}).tagName || "");
+      if ((e.key === "/" && !typing) || ((e.metaKey || e.ctrlKey) && e.key.toLowerCase() === "k")) {
+        e.preventDefault();
+        if (overlay.hidden) openSearch(); else closeSearch();
+      }
+    });
+    var pending = 0;
+    input.addEventListener("input", function () {
+      var q = input.value.trim();
+      var seq = ++pending;
+      if (q.length < 2) { results.innerHTML = ""; return; }
+      loadIndex().then(function (docs) {
+        if (seq !== pending) return;
+        render(search(docs, q), q);
+      }).catch(function () {
+        results.innerHTML = "<div class=\"ld-search__empty\">Search index unavailable</div>";
+      });
+    });
+  }
+})();
diff --git a/docs/theme/assets/tokens.css b/docs/theme/assets/tokens.css
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..29c08f2711e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/theme/assets/tokens.css
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+/* Lance Design System — tokens (Swiss editorial: white, ink, brand purple #625EFF).
+   Merged from the design project's ds/tokens set; dark theme mirrors the same
+   structure with paper rules on ink. */
+@import url("https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Space+Grotesk:wght@400;500;600;700&family=IBM+Plex+Sans:wght@400;500;600&family=Roboto+Mono:wght@400;500;600&display=swap");
+
+:root {
+  color-scheme: light;
+
+  /* ---- Typography ---- */
+  --font-display: "Space Grotesk", "Segoe UI", sans-serif;
+  --font-body: "IBM Plex Sans", "Segoe UI", sans-serif;
+  --font-mono: "Roboto Mono", "SF Mono", monospace;
+  --text-base: 16px;
+  --leading-body: 1.6;
+  --tracking-display: -0.045em;
+  --tracking-caps: 0.14em;
+
+  /* ---- Ink scale (dark values — code surfaces & tooltips only) ---- */
+  --ink-950: #0E0C14;
+  --ink-900: #14111D;
+  --ink-850: #1A1626;
+  --ink-800: #221D30;
+  --ink-700: #2C2640;
+  --ink-600: #3A3352;
+
+  /* ---- Foreground scale (on white) ---- */
+  --fg-1: #0E0C14;
+  --fg-2: #4A4459;
+  --fg-3: #8A8499;
+  --fg-inverse: #ffffff;
+
+  /* ---- Brand purple ramp (official #625EFF) ---- */
+  --beam-300: #B3B1FF;
+  --beam-400: #625EFF;
+  --beam-500: #625EFF;
+  --beam-600: #4B47E0;
+  --beam-700: #3936B4;
+  --beam-glow: rgba(98, 94, 255, 0.25);
+  --beam-dim: rgba(98, 94, 255, 0.09);
+
+  /* ---- Semantic status ---- */
+  --ok-500: #0E8F63;
+  --warn-500: #B26205;
+  --danger-500: #D92D20;
+
+  /* ---- Lines: ink rules carry the structure ---- */
+  --line-1: #14111D;
+  --line-2: rgba(20, 17, 29, 0.16);
+
+  /* ---- Surfaces ---- */
+  --surface-page: #FFFFFF;
+  --surface-card: #FFFFFF;
+  --surface-overlay: #F5F4F8;
+  --surface-header: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.88);
+  --surface-code: #F5F4F8; /* light code surface */
+  --surface-inline-code: rgba(20, 17, 29, 0.05);
+
+  --text-body: var(--fg-1);
+  --text-secondary: var(--fg-2);
+  --text-muted: var(--fg-3);
+
+  /* ---- Syntax highlighting (Pygments), light theme ---- */
+  --code-fg: #2A2635;
+  --code-kw: #7C3AED;     /* keywords, builtins */
+  --code-str: #0B62C4;    /* strings */
+  --code-com: #6E6A80;    /* comments */
+  --code-num: #9A6700;    /* numbers */
+  --code-fn: #0F766E;     /* functions, decorators */
+  --code-name: #2A2635;   /* class/module names, headings */
+  --code-tag: #BE123C;    /* HTML tags, attributes */
+  --code-punct: #57534E;  /* operators, punctuation, output */
+  --code-prompt: #8A8499; /* REPL prompts */
+  --code-hll: rgba(98, 94, 255, 0.12); /* highlighted line */
+
+  /* ---- Layout ---- */
+  --container-max: 1200px;
+  --radius-box: 6px;   /* content boxes: code, admonitions, tabs */
+  --radius-chip: 4px;  /* inline code chips */
+
+  /* ---- Motion — fast, precise, no bounce ---- */
+  --ease-out: cubic-bezier(0.2, 0.8, 0.2, 1);
+  --dur-fast: 120ms;
+}
+
+/* ---- Dark theme: same structure, paper rules on ink ---- */
+:root[data-theme="dark"] {
+  color-scheme: dark;
+
+  --fg-1: #F2F0FA;
+  --fg-2: #B7B1C6;
+  --fg-3: #837D96;
+  --fg-inverse: #0E0C14;
+
+  /* text accents need a lighter purple to stay readable on ink */
+  --beam-600: #8E8BFF;
+  --beam-700: #A9A6FF;
+
+  --ok-500: #34C08E;
+  --warn-500: #E8A13C;
+  --danger-500: #FF6B5E;
+
+  --line-1: rgba(237, 235, 245, 0.7);
+  --line-2: rgba(237, 235, 245, 0.15);
+
+  --surface-page: #0E0C14;
+  --surface-card: #14111D;
+  --surface-overlay: #1A1626;
+  --surface-header: rgba(14, 12, 20, 0.85);
+  --surface-code: #14111D;
+  --surface-inline-code: rgba(237, 235, 245, 0.08);
+
+  /* ---- Syntax highlighting (Pygments), dark theme (on ink) ---- */
+  --code-fg: #EDEBF5;
+  --code-kw: #B8A8FF;
+  --code-str: #7CC0FF;
+  --code-com: #6F6A85;
+  --code-num: #F2CE6B;
+  --code-fn: #8FE8CE;
+  --code-name: #EDEBF5;
+  --code-tag: #FF95A8;
+  --code-punct: #B7B1C6;
+  --code-prompt: #6F6A85;
+  --code-hll: rgba(98, 94, 255, 0.22);
+}
+
+/* ---- Minimal base ---- */
+* { box-sizing: border-box; }
+
+body {
+  margin: 0;
+  background: var(--surface-page);
+  color: var(--text-body);
+  font-family: var(--font-body);
+  font-size: var(--text-base);
+  line-height: var(--leading-body);
+  -webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased;
+}
+
+/* No `color` here: forcing ink text breaks selection inside dark code blocks. */
+::selection { background: rgba(98, 94, 255, 0.3); }
+
+code, kbd, pre { font-family: var(--font-mono); }
diff --git a/docs/theme/base.html b/docs/theme/base.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d90b2ae02c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/theme/base.html
@@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
+{#- Lance Docs custom theme — shared skeleton: head, header, footer, scripts. -#}
+{%- macro first_url(item) -%}
+  {%- if item.is_link or item.is_page -%}
+    {{- item.url -}}
+  {%- elif item.children -%}
+    {{- first_url(item.children[0]) -}}
+  {%- endif -%}
+{%- endmacro -%}
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html lang="en">
+<head>
+<meta charset="utf-8">
+<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
+{% if page and page.title and not page.is_homepage %}
+<title>{{ page.title }} — {{ config.site_name }}</title>
+{% else %}
+<title>{{ config.site_name }} — The open lakehouse format for multimodal AI</title>
+{% endif %}
+{% if page and page.meta and page.meta.description %}
+<meta name="description" content="{{ page.meta.description }}">
+{% elif config.site_description %}
+<meta name="description" content="{{ config.site_description }}">
+{% endif %}
+{% if page and page.canonical_url %}<link rel="canonical" href="{{ page.canonical_url }}">{% endif %}
+<link rel="icon" href="{{ 'logo/logo.png' | url }}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" href="{{ 'assets/tokens.css' | url }}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" href="{{ 'assets/site.css' | url }}">
+<script>
+/* Set the theme before first paint to avoid a light-mode flash. */
+(function () {
+  try {
+    var t = localStorage.getItem("ld-theme");
+    if (t !== "light" && t !== "dark") {
+      t = window.matchMedia && window.matchMedia("(prefers-color-scheme: dark)").matches ? "dark" : "light";
+    }
+    document.documentElement.dataset.theme = t;
+  } catch (e) { document.documentElement.dataset.theme = "light"; }
+})();
+</script>
+</head>
+<body>
+<div class="ld-shell">
+  <header class="ld-header">
+    <a class="ld-brand" href="{{ nav.homepage.url | url }}" aria-label="{{ config.site_name }}">
+      <img src="{{ 'logo/wide.png' | url }}" alt="{{ config.site_name }}">
+    </a>
+    <nav class="ld-topnav" aria-label="Sections">
+      {%- for item in nav %}
+      <a class="ld-toptab{% if item.active %} active{% endif %}" href="{{ first_url(item) | url }}">{{ item.title }}</a>
+      {%- endfor %}
+    </nav>
+    <div class="ld-header__actions">
+      <button class="ld-btn ld-btn--ghost ld-btn--icon" id="search-open" type="button" aria-label="Search docs" title="Search (/)">
+        <svg viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="15" height="15" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" aria-hidden="true"><circle cx="11" cy="11" r="7"/><path d="m21 21-4.3-4.3"/></svg>
+      </button>
+      <a class="ld-btn ld-btn--ghost" href="{{ config.repo_url }}" target="_blank" rel="noopener" aria-label="Lance on GitHub">
+        <svg viewBox="0 0 16 16" width="14" height="14" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M8 0C3.58 0 0 3.58 0 8c0 3.54 2.29 6.53 5.47 7.59.4.07.55-.17.55-.38 0-.19-.01-.82-.01-1.49-2.01.37-2.53-.49-2.69-.94-.09-.23-.48-.94-.82-1.13-.28-.15-.68-.52-.01-.53.63-.01 1.08.58 1.23.82.72 1.21 1.87.87 2.33.66.07-.52.28-.87.51-1.07-1.78-.2-3.64-.89-3.64-3.95 0-.87.31-1.59.82-2.15-.08-.2-.36-1.02.08-2.12 0 0 .67-.21 2.2.82a7.4 7.4 0 0 1 2-.27c.68 0 1.36.09 2 .27 1.53-1.04 2.2-.82 2.2-.82.44 1.1.16 1.92.08 2.12.51.56.82 1.27.82 2.15 0 3.07-1.87 3.75-3.65 3.95.29.25.54.73.54 1.48 0 1.07-.01 1.93-.01 2.2 0 .21.15.46.55.38A8.01 8.01 0 0 0 16 8c0-4.42-3.58-8-8-8Z"/></svg>
+        <span class="ld-btn__label">GitHub</span>
+        <span class="ld-btn__count" id="gh-stars" hidden></span>
+      </a>
+      <a class="ld-btn ld-btn--ghost ld-btn--icon" href="https://discord.gg/lance" target="_blank" rel="noopener" aria-label="Join the Lance Discord" title="Discord">
+        <svg viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="15" height="15" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M20.32 4.37a19.8 19.8 0 0 0-4.89-1.52.07.07 0 0 0-.08.04c-.21.38-.44.87-.61 1.25a18.27 18.27 0 0 0-5.48 0 12.64 12.64 0 0 0-.62-1.25.08.08 0 0 0-.08-.04c-1.71.3-3.35.81-4.88 1.52a.07.07 0 0 0-.04.03C.53 9.05-.32 13.58.1 18.06c0 .02.01.04.03.05a19.9 19.9 0 0 0 6 3.03c.03.01.06 0 .08-.02.46-.63.87-1.3 1.22-2a.08.08 0 0 0-.04-.11 13.1 13.1 0 0 1-1.87-.89.08.08 0 0 1-.01-.13c.13-.09.25-.19.37-.29a.07.07 0 0 1 .08-.01c3.93 1.79 8.18 1.79 12.06 0a.07.07 0 0 1 .08.01c.12.1.25.2.37.29a.08.08 0 0 1-.01.13c-.6.35-1.22.64-1.87.89a.08.08 0 0 0-.04.11c.36.7.77 1.36 1.22 2 .02.02.05.03.08.02a19.84 19.84 0 0 0 6.02-3.03.08.08 0 0 0 .03-.05c.5-5.18-.84-9.68-3.55-13.66a.06.06 0 0 0-.03-.03ZM8.02 15.33c-1.18 0-2.16-1.08-2.16-2.42 0-1.33.96-2.42 2.16-2.42 1.21 0 2.18 1.1 2.16 2.42 0 1.34-.96 2.42-2.16 2.42Zm7.97 0c-1.18 0-2.15-1.08-2.15-2.42 0-1.33.95-2.42 2.15-2.42 1.21 0 2.18 1.1 2.16 2.42 0 1.34-.95 2.42-2.16 2.42Z"/></svg>
+      </a>
+      <button class="ld-btn ld-btn--ghost ld-btn--icon" id="theme-toggle" type="button" aria-label="Toggle light / dark theme" title="Toggle theme">
+        <svg class="ld-icon-sun" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="15" height="15" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" aria-hidden="true"><circle cx="12" cy="12" r="4"/><path d="M12 2v2m0 16v2M4.93 4.93l1.41 1.41m11.32 11.32 1.41 1.41M2 12h2m16 0h2M4.93 19.07l1.41-1.41M17.66 6.34l1.41-1.41"/></svg>
+        <svg class="ld-icon-moon" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="15" height="15" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M21 12.79A9 9 0 1 1 11.21 3 7 7 0 0 0 21 12.79Z"/></svg>
+      </button>
+      <a class="ld-btn ld-btn--primary" href="{{ 'quickstart/' | url }}">Get started</a>
+    </div>
+  </header>
+
+  {% block container %}{% endblock %}
+
+  <footer class="ld-footer">
+    <div class="ld-footer__brand">
+      <img src="{{ 'logo/wide.png' | url }}" alt="{{ config.site_name }}">
+      <p>Lance is an open-source columnar format for multimodal AI. Apache-2.0. {{ config.copyright }}</p>
+    </div>
+    <div class="ld-footer__cols">
+      <div class="ld-footer__col">
+        <h5>Format</h5>
+        <a href="{{ 'format/' | url }}">Specification</a>
+        <a href="{{ 'format/file/' | url }}">File format</a>
+        <a href="{{ 'format/table/' | url }}">Table format</a>
+      </div>
+      <div class="ld-footer__col">
+        <h5>Develop</h5>
+        <a href="{{ 'quickstart/' | url }}">Getting started</a>
+        <a href="{{ 'guide/read_and_write/' | url }}">User guide</a>
+        <a href="{{ 'sdk_docs/' | url }}">SDK docs</a>
+      </div>
+      <div class="ld-footer__col">
+        <h5>Community</h5>
+        <a href="{{ config.repo_url }}" target="_blank" rel="noopener">GitHub</a>
+        <a href="https://discord.gg/lance" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Discord</a>
+        <a href="https://groups.google.com/a/lance.org/g/dev" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mailing list</a>
+        <a href="{{ 'community/contributing/' | url }}">Contributing</a>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </footer>
+</div>
+
+<!-- Search overlay -->
+<div class="ld-search" id="search-overlay" hidden>
+  <div class="ld-search__scrim" data-search-close></div>
+  <div class="ld-search__panel" role="dialog" aria-label="Search documentation">
+    <div class="ld-search__bar">
+      <input class="ld-search__input" id="search-input" type="search" placeholder="Search documentation…" autocomplete="off" spellcheck="false">
+      <button class="ld-search__close" type="button" data-search-close aria-label="Close search">Esc</button>
+    </div>
+    <div class="ld-search__results" id="search-results"></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<script>window.LD_BASE = "{{ base_url }}";</script>
+<script src="{{ 'assets/site.js' | url }}" defer></script>
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/docs/theme/home.html b/docs/theme/home.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1b361168d46
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/theme/home.html
@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+{% extends "base.html" %}
+
+{% block container %}
+  <main class="ld-home">
+    <section class="ld-hero">
+      <div class="ld-kicker"><span>Lance format</span> · <span>Open source</span> · <span>Apache-2.0</span> · <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.15247" target="_blank" rel="noopener">VLDB '25 paper ↗</a></div>
+      <h1>The open lakehouse format for multimodal AI.</h1>
+      <p class="ld-hero__lead">A file format, table format, and catalog spec for building a complete lakehouse on object storage — powering vector and full-text search, feature engineering, and model training with the fast random access and scans that AI workloads need.</p>
+      <div class="ld-hero__cta">
+        <a class="ld-btn ld-btn--primary ld-btn--lg" href="{{ 'quickstart/' | url }}">Get started</a>
+        <a class="ld-btn ld-btn--outline ld-btn--lg" href="{{ 'format/' | url }}">Read the spec</a>
+        <a class="ld-btn ld-btn--outline ld-btn--lg" href="{{ 'examples/python/llm_training/' | url }}">Train an LLM</a>
+        <a class="ld-btn ld-btn--text ld-btn--lg" href="https://discord.gg/lance" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Join Discord →</a>
+      </div>
+    </section>
+
+    <section class="ld-band">
+      <div class="ld-stats">
+        <div class="ld-stat">
+          <div class="ld-stat__value">100×</div>
+          <div class="ld-stat__label">Faster random access than Parquet</div>
+        </div>
+        <div class="ld-stat">
+          <div class="ld-stat__value">1 line</div>
+          <div class="ld-stat__label">To convert Parquet to Lance</div>
+        </div>
+        <a class="ld-stat ld-stat--link" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.15247" target="_blank" rel="noopener">
+          <div class="ld-stat__value ld-stat__value--beam">VLDB '25</div>
+          <div class="ld-stat__label">Peer-reviewed research paper →</div>
+        </a>
+      </div>
+    </section>
+
+    <section class="ld-what">
+      <h2>What is Lance?</h2>
+      <p class="ld-what__body">Lance is a modern, open source lakehouse format for multimodal AI. It brings high-performance vector and full-text search, feature engineering, and model training to the lakehouse, powered by fast random access and scans — while keeping SQL analytics, ACID transactions, time travel, and integrations with open engines (Apache Spark, Ray, PyTorch, Trino, DuckDB) and open catalogs (Apache Polaris, Unity Catalog, Apache Gravitino, Hive Metastore).</p>
+      <p class="ld-what__more">Learn more in the <a class="ld-inline-link" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.15247" target="_blank" rel="noopener">research paper</a> published at VLDB 2025.</p>
+    </section>
+
+    <section class="ld-features">
+      <div class="ld-feature">
+        <div class="ld-feature__num">01</div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__body">
+          <h3>Expressive hybrid search</h3>
+          <p>Combine vector similarity, full-text search (BM25), and SQL analytics on the same dataset. All query types are accelerated by secondary indexes that are part of the Lance specification.</p>
+          <a class="ld-more" href="{{ 'quickstart/vector-search/' | url }}">Learn more →</a>
+        </div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__code">
+          <div class="ld-win" aria-hidden="true"><i></i><i></i><i></i></div>
+          <pre><code><span class="tok-kw">import</span> lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset(<span class="tok-str">"s3://my-bucket/docs"</span>)
+
+<span class="tok-com"># Full text search</span>
+ds.to_table(<span class="tok-arg">full_text_query=</span><span class="tok-str">"machine learning"</span>)
+
+<span class="tok-com"># Hybrid search</span>
+ds.to_table(
+    <span class="tok-arg">nearest=</span>{
+        <span class="tok-str">"column"</span>: <span class="tok-str">"embedding"</span>, <span class="tok-str">"q"</span>: query_vec, <span class="tok-str">"k"</span>: <span class="tok-num">10</span>
+    },
+    <span class="tok-arg">filter=</span><span class="tok-str">"year &gt; 2020"</span>,
+)</code></pre>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+
+      <div class="ld-feature">
+        <div class="ld-feature__num">02</div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__body">
+          <h3>Lightning-fast random access</h3>
+          <p>100x faster random access than Parquet or Iceberg. An optimized file format plus row addressing and secondary indexes let you fetch individual records across files instantly — for ML serving, sampling, and interactive apps.</p>
+          <a class="ld-more" href="{{ 'guide/read_and_write/' | url }}">Learn more →</a>
+        </div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__code">
+          <div class="ld-win" aria-hidden="true"><i></i><i></i><i></i></div>
+          <pre><code><span class="tok-kw">import</span> lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset(<span class="tok-str">"s3://my-bucket/embeddings.lance"</span>)
+
+<span class="tok-com"># Access the 2nd &amp; 51st rows</span>
+ds.take([<span class="tok-num">2</span>, <span class="tok-num">51</span>], <span class="tok-arg">columns=</span>[<span class="tok-str">"id"</span>, <span class="tok-str">"vec_gemma3"</span>])
+
+<span class="tok-com"># Take 1000 random samples</span>
+ds.sample(<span class="tok-num">1000</span>, <span class="tok-arg">columns=</span>[<span class="tok-str">"id"</span>, <span class="tok-str">"vec_llama"</span>])</code></pre>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+
+      <div class="ld-feature">
+        <div class="ld-feature__num">03</div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__body">
+          <h3>Native multimodal data</h3>
+          <p>Store images, videos, audio, text, and embeddings alongside tabular data in one format. Blob encoding handles large binary objects with lazy loading; optimized vector storage accelerates similarity search.</p>
+          <a class="ld-more" href="{{ 'guide/blob/' | url }}">Learn more →</a>
+        </div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__code">
+          <div class="ld-win" aria-hidden="true"><i></i><i></i><i></i></div>
+          <pre><code><span class="tok-kw">import</span> lance
+<span class="tok-kw">import</span> av
+
+ds = lance.dataset(<span class="tok-str">"s3://my-bucket/videos.lance"</span>)
+
+<span class="tok-com"># Get blobs from the 2nd and 51st rows</span>
+blobs = ds.take_blobs(<span class="tok-str">"video"</span>, <span class="tok-arg">ids=</span>[<span class="tok-num">2</span>, <span class="tok-num">51</span>])
+
+<span class="tok-kw">for</span> blob <span class="tok-kw">in</span> blobs:
+    <span class="tok-kw">with</span> av.open(blob) <span class="tok-kw">as</span> container:
+        stream = container.streams.video[<span class="tok-num">0</span>]
+        container.seek(<span class="tok-arg">start_time=</span><span class="tok-num">500</span>, <span class="tok-arg">stream=</span>stream)</code></pre>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+
+      <div class="ld-feature">
+        <div class="ld-feature__num">04</div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__body">
+          <h3>Data evolution &gt; schema evolution</h3>
+          <p>Backfilling column values normally forces a full table rewrite. Lance supports efficient schema evolution with backfill — adding a column with data is just writing new Lance files to the table.</p>
+          <a class="ld-more" href="{{ 'guide/data_evolution/' | url }}">Learn more →</a>
+        </div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__code">
+          <div class="ld-win" aria-hidden="true"><i></i><i></i><i></i></div>
+          <pre><code><span class="tok-kw">import</span> lance
+
+dataset = lance.dataset(<span class="tok-str">"my_data.lance"</span>)
+
+<span class="tok-fn">@lance.batch_udf</span>()
+<span class="tok-kw">def</span> <span class="tok-fn">add_embeddings</span>(batch):
+    vectors = model.encode(batch[<span class="tok-str">"text"</span>])
+    <span class="tok-kw">return</span> {<span class="tok-str">"embedding"</span>: vectors}
+
+dataset.add_columns(add_embeddings)</code></pre>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+
+      <div class="ld-feature">
+        <div class="ld-feature__num">05</div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__body">
+          <h3>Rich ecosystem integrations</h3>
+          <p>Works with Pandas, Polars, Ray, and PyTorch for processing and ML. Connects to Apache DataFusion, DuckDB, Apache Spark, Trino, and Apache Flink for SQL analytics and distributed processing.</p>
+          <a class="ld-more" href="{{ 'integrations/' | url }}">View integrations →</a>
+        </div>
+        <div class="ld-feature__img">
+          <img src="{{ 'assets/images/ecosystem-integrations.png' | url }}" alt="Lance ecosystem integrations" loading="lazy">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </section>
+  </main>
+{% endblock %}
diff --git a/docs/theme/main.html b/docs/theme/main.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f9a4a7e6bd9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/theme/main.html
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+{% extends "base.html" %}
+
+{#- Render one nav section as sidenav groups: its direct pages/links under the
+    section's own label, then each child section as a further group. -#}
+{%- macro sidenav_section(sec, label) -%}
+  {%- set direct = sec.children | selectattr("is_section", "ne", true) | list -%}
+  {%- if direct -%}
+  <div class="ld-sidenav__group">
+    <div class="ld-sidenav__label">{{ label }}</div>
+    {%- for child in direct %}
+    {%- if child.is_link %}
+    <a href="{{ child.url }}" target="_blank" rel="noopener">{{ child.title }} <span class="ext">↗</span></a>
+    {%- else %}
+    <a{% if child == page %} class="active"{% endif %} href="{{ child.url | url }}">{{ child.title }}</a>
+    {%- endif %}
+    {%- endfor %}
+  </div>
+  {%- endif -%}
+  {%- for child in sec.children if child.is_section -%}
+    {{ sidenav_section(child, child.title) }}
+  {%- endfor -%}
+{%- endmacro -%}
+
+{% block container %}
+  {%- set active_section = namespace(item=none) -%}
+  {%- for item in nav %}{% if item.active %}{% set active_section.item = item %}{% endif %}{% endfor %}
+
+  <main class="ld-docs">
+    <button class="ld-sidenav-toggle" type="button" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="ld-sidenav">
+      {{ active_section.item.title if active_section.item else "Menu" }}
+      <svg viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="14" height="14" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m6 9 6 6 6-6"/></svg>
+    </button>
+    <aside class="ld-sidenav" id="ld-sidenav" aria-label="Section pages">
+      {%- if active_section.item and active_section.item.is_section %}
+        {{ sidenav_section(active_section.item, active_section.item.title) }}
+      {%- elif active_section.item %}
+      <div class="ld-sidenav__group">
+        <div class="ld-sidenav__label">{{ active_section.item.title }}</div>
+        <a class="active" href="{{ active_section.item.url | url }}">{{ active_section.item.title }}</a>
+      </div>
+      {%- endif %}
+    </aside>
+
+    <div class="ld-article-col">
+      <div class="ld-crumbs">
+        <span>Docs</span>
+        {%- for crumb in page.ancestors | reverse %}
+        <span>/</span><span>{{ crumb.title }}</span>
+        {%- endfor %}
+        <span>/</span><b>{{ page.title }}</b>
+      </div>
+
+      <article class="ld-article">
+        {{ page.content }}
+      </article>
+
+      <div class="ld-pagenav">
+        {%- if page.previous_page %}
+        <a href="{{ page.previous_page.url | url }}">
+          <div class="ld-pagenav__k">← Previous</div>
+          <div class="ld-pagenav__t">{{ page.previous_page.title }}</div>
+        </a>
+        {%- else %}<span></span>{% endif %}
+        {%- if page.next_page %}
+        <a class="next" href="{{ page.next_page.url | url }}">
+          <div class="ld-pagenav__k">Next →</div>
+          <div class="ld-pagenav__t">{{ page.next_page.title }}</div>
+        </a>
+        {%- endif %}
+      </div>
+    </div>
+
+    <aside class="ld-toc" aria-label="On this page">
+      {%- set toc_items = namespace(list=[]) -%}
+      {%- for h1 in page.toc -%}
+        {%- if loop.first and page.toc | length == 1 -%}
+          {%- set toc_items.list = h1.children -%}
+        {%- endif -%}
+      {%- endfor -%}
+      {%- if page.toc | length > 1 %}{% set toc_items.list = page.toc %}{% endif -%}
+      {%- if toc_items.list %}
+      <div class="ld-toc__label">On this page</div>
+      {%- for h2 in toc_items.list %}
+      <a class="ld-toc__h2" href="{{ h2.url }}">{{ h2.title }}</a>
+      {%- for h3 in h2.children %}
+      <a class="ld-toc__h3" href="{{ h3.url }}">{{ h3.title }}</a>
+      {%- endfor %}
+      {%- endfor %}
+      {%- endif %}
+    </aside>
+  </main>
+{% endblock %}
diff --git a/java/AGENTS.md b/java/AGENTS.md
index 70d35e5e0db..ba492720239 100644
--- a/java/AGENTS.md
+++ b/java/AGENTS.md
@@ -1,13 +1,35 @@
-## Structure
-Java code: `java/src/main/java`
-Rust JNI bindings: `java/lance-jni`
+# Java Guidelines
+
+Also see [root AGENTS.md](../AGENTS.md) for cross-language standards.
 
 ## Commands
+
 Use `./mvnw` instead of `mvn` to ensure the correct version of Maven is used.
-format: `./mvnw spotless:apply && cargo fmt --manifest-path ./lance-jni/Cargo.toml --all`
-format (check only): `./mvnw spotless:check`
-lint rust: `cargo clippy --tests --manifest-path ./lance-jni/Cargo.toml`
-compile: `./mvnw compile`
-test: `./mvnw test`
+
+* Format: `./mvnw spotless:apply && cargo fmt --manifest-path ./lance-jni/Cargo.toml --all`
+* Format (check only): `./mvnw spotless:check`
+* Lint Rust: `cargo clippy --tests --manifest-path ./lance-jni/Cargo.toml`
+* Compile: `./mvnw compile`
+* Test: `./mvnw test`
 
 JDK: pom.xml targets Java 11 (`maven.compiler.release` 11); align Rust toolchain with repository `rust-toolchain.toml`.
+
+## Structure
+
+* Java code: `java/src/main/java`
+* Rust JNI bindings: `java/lance-jni`
+
+## API Design
+
+- Encapsulate related/optional params in `XxxOptions`/`XxxParams` objects or use the builder pattern instead of growing argument lists.
+- Use strongly-typed enums (not raw `String`s) for version/config values. Serialize via explicit fields (e.g., `toRustString()`) matching Rust-expected formats, not Java `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE` `toString()`. Test all enum values across the JNI boundary.
+- Return protobuf-backed opaque handles (e.g., serialized `bytes`) from public APIs and IPC interfaces instead of exposing internal data structures.
+
+## Code Style
+
+- Prefer top-level imports over fully qualified class names — only use fully qualified names to resolve ambiguity.
+- Use JavaBean-style `getXXX()` for getter methods, not bare accessor style — serialization frameworks and IDE tooling rely on this convention.
+
+## Documentation
+
+- Copy Rust docs (defaults, constraints, invariants) into Javadoc for binding classes — users shouldn't need to read Rust source to understand API behavior.
diff --git a/java/CLAUDE.md b/java/CLAUDE.md
deleted file mode 120000
index 47dc3e3d863..00000000000
--- a/java/CLAUDE.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-AGENTS.md
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/java/JAVA_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.md b/java/JAVA_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c3d8b60f8ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/JAVA_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.md
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+
+List of third-party dependencies grouped by their license type.
+
+    Apache 2.0:
+
+        * error-prone annotations (com.google.errorprone:error_prone_annotations:2.28.0 - https://errorprone.info/error_prone_annotations)
+
+    Apache License 2.0:
+
+        * JsonNullable Jackson module (org.openapitools:jackson-databind-nullable:0.2.6 - https://github.com/OpenAPITools/jackson-databind-nullable)
+
+    Apache License V2.0:
+
+        * FlatBuffers Java API (com.google.flatbuffers:flatbuffers-java:25.2.10 - https://github.com/google/flatbuffers)
+
+    Apache License, Version 2.0:
+
+        * Apache HttpClient (org.apache.httpcomponents.client5:httpclient5:5.2.1 - https://hc.apache.org/httpcomponents-client-5.0.x/5.2.1/httpclient5/)
+        * Apache HttpComponents Core HTTP/1.1 (org.apache.httpcomponents.core5:httpcore5:5.2 - https://hc.apache.org/httpcomponents-core-5.2.x/5.2/httpcore5/)
+        * Apache HttpComponents Core HTTP/2 (org.apache.httpcomponents.core5:httpcore5-h2:5.2 - https://hc.apache.org/httpcomponents-core-5.2.x/5.2/httpcore5-h2/)
+        * Guava: Google Core Libraries for Java (com.google.guava:guava:33.3.1-jre - https://github.com/google/guava)
+        * J2ObjC Annotations (com.google.j2objc:j2objc-annotations:3.0.0 - https://github.com/google/j2objc/)
+        * Netty/Buffer (io.netty:netty-buffer:4.1.119.Final - https://netty.io/netty-buffer/)
+        * Netty/Common (io.netty:netty-common:4.1.119.Final - https://netty.io/netty-common/)
+
+    Apache-2.0:
+
+        * Apache Commons Codec (commons-codec:commons-codec:1.18.0 - https://commons.apache.org/proper/commons-codec/)
+        * Apache Commons Lang (org.apache.commons:commons-lang3:3.18.0 - https://commons.apache.org/proper/commons-lang/)
+        * Arrow Format (org.apache.arrow:arrow-format:18.3.0 - https://arrow.apache.org/)
+        * Arrow Java C Data Interface (org.apache.arrow:arrow-c-data:18.3.0 - https://arrow.apache.org/)
+        * Arrow Java Dataset (org.apache.arrow:arrow-dataset:18.3.0 - https://arrow.apache.org/)
+        * Arrow Memory - Core (org.apache.arrow:arrow-memory-core:18.3.0 - https://arrow.apache.org/)
+        * Arrow Memory - Netty (org.apache.arrow:arrow-memory-netty:18.3.0 - https://arrow.apache.org/)
+        * Arrow Memory - Netty Buffer (org.apache.arrow:arrow-memory-netty-buffer-patch:18.3.0 - https://arrow.apache.org/)
+        * Arrow Vectors (org.apache.arrow:arrow-vector:18.3.0 - https://arrow.apache.org/)
+        * lance-namespace-apache-client (org.lance:lance-namespace-apache-client:0.4.5 - https://github.com/openapitools/openapi-generator)
+        * lance-namespace-core (org.lance:lance-namespace-core:0.4.5 - https://lance.org/format/namespace/lance-namespace-core/)
+
+    EDL 1.0:
+
+        * Jakarta Activation API jar (jakarta.activation:jakarta.activation-api:1.2.2 - https://github.com/eclipse-ee4j/jaf/jakarta.activation-api)
+
+    Eclipse Distribution License - v 1.0:
+
+        * Jakarta XML Binding API (jakarta.xml.bind:jakarta.xml.bind-api:2.3.3 - https://github.com/eclipse-ee4j/jaxb-api/jakarta.xml.bind-api)
+
+    MIT:
+
+        * SLF4J API Module (org.slf4j:slf4j-api:2.0.17 - http://www.slf4j.org)
+
+    The Apache Software License, Version 2.0:
+
+        * FindBugs-jsr305 (com.google.code.findbugs:jsr305:3.0.2 - http://findbugs.sourceforge.net/)
+        * Guava InternalFutureFailureAccess and InternalFutures (com.google.guava:failureaccess:1.0.2 - https://github.com/google/guava/failureaccess)
+        * Guava ListenableFuture only (com.google.guava:listenablefuture:9999.0-empty-to-avoid-conflict-with-guava - https://github.com/google/guava/listenablefuture)
+        * Jackson datatype: JSR310 (com.fasterxml.jackson.datatype:jackson-datatype-jsr310:2.18.3 - https://github.com/FasterXML/jackson-modules-java8/jackson-datatype-jsr310)
+        * Jackson module: Old JAXB Annotations (javax.xml.bind) (com.fasterxml.jackson.module:jackson-module-jaxb-annotations:2.17.1 - https://github.com/FasterXML/jackson-modules-base)
+        * Jackson-annotations (com.fasterxml.jackson.core:jackson-annotations:2.18.3 - https://github.com/FasterXML/jackson)
+        * Jackson-core (com.fasterxml.jackson.core:jackson-core:2.18.3 - https://github.com/FasterXML/jackson-core)
+        * jackson-databind (com.fasterxml.jackson.core:jackson-databind:2.15.2 - https://github.com/FasterXML/jackson)
+        * Jackson-JAXRS: base (com.fasterxml.jackson.jaxrs:jackson-jaxrs-base:2.17.1 - https://github.com/FasterXML/jackson-jaxrs-providers/jackson-jaxrs-base)
+        * Jackson-JAXRS: JSON (com.fasterxml.jackson.jaxrs:jackson-jaxrs-json-provider:2.17.1 - https://github.com/FasterXML/jackson-jaxrs-providers/jackson-jaxrs-json-provider)
+        * JAR JNI Loader (org.questdb:jar-jni:1.1.1 - https://github.com/questdb/rust-maven-plugin)
+
+    The MIT License:
+
+        * Checker Qual (org.checkerframework:checker-qual:3.43.0 - https://checkerframework.org/)
diff --git a/java/README.md b/java/README.md
index b49a4892527..304241d3241 100644
--- a/java/README.md
+++ b/java/README.md
@@ -38,6 +38,35 @@ Introduce the Lance SDK Java Maven dependency(It is recommended to choose the la
 </dependency>
 ```
 
+### R2 Maven repository
+
+During the transition, new stable, beta, and RC releases are published to both
+Maven Central and `https://maven.lance.org`. Add this repository alongside Maven
+Central to use it:
+
+```xml
+<repositories>
+    <repository>
+        <id>lance</id>
+        <url>https://maven.lance.org</url>
+    </repository>
+</repositories>
+```
+
+For Gradle:
+
+```kotlin
+repositories {
+    mavenCentral()
+    maven { url = uri("https://maven.lance.org") }
+}
+```
+
+Use an explicit published version of `org.lance:lance-core`, including the full
+`-beta.N` or `-rc.N` suffix for preview releases. These are release versions, not
+Maven `SNAPSHOT` versions. Downloads require no credentials. The R2 repository
+does not publish `maven-metadata.xml` for version discovery or version ranges.
+
 ### Basic I/O
 
 * create empty dataset
@@ -212,6 +241,29 @@ JVM engine connectors can be built using the Lance Java SDK. Here are some conne
 * [Flink Lance connector](https://github.com/lancedb/lance-flink)
 * [Trino Lance connector](https://github.com/lancedb/lance-trino)
 
+## Publishing
+
+The `Build and publish Java packages` workflow publishes stable, beta, and RC
+releases to Maven Central, then extracts the same signed Central bundle and
+uploads it to R2 with the AWS CLI. Pull requests and manual `dry_run` runs do not
+publish to either repository.
+
+The R2 upload uses these GitHub Actions settings:
+
+| Type | Name | Value |
+| --- | --- | --- |
+| Secret | `R2_ACCESS_KEY_ID` | R2 S3 access key ID |
+| Secret | `R2_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY` | R2 S3 secret access key |
+| Variable | `R2_ENDPOINT` | R2 S3 endpoint for the bucket's account |
+| Variable | `R2_BUCKET` | `lance-maven` |
+
+Scope the credentials to Object Read & Write on `lance-maven` and keep its custom
+domain `maven.lance.org` enabled. Keep the existing Central and GPG credentials.
+
+An R2 upload failure fails the publish job after Central publication has already
+succeeded. Re-running that job also repeats Central publication; it is not an
+independent R2 retry.
+
 ## Contributing
 
 From the codebase dimension, the lance project is a multiple-lang project. All Java-related code is located in the `java` directory.
diff --git a/java/RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html b/java/RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f301bf6cf0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html
@@ -0,0 +1,14462 @@
+<html>
+
+<head>
+    <style>
+        @media (prefers-color-scheme: dark) {
+            body {
+                background: #333;
+                color: white;
+            }
+            a {
+                color: skyblue;
+            }
+        }
+        .container {
+            font-family: sans-serif;
+            max-width: 800px;
+            margin: 0 auto;
+        }
+        .intro {
+            text-align: center;
+        }
+        .licenses-list {
+            list-style-type: none;
+            margin: 0;
+            padding: 0;
+        }
+        .license-used-by {
+            margin-top: -10px;
+        }
+        .license-text {
+            max-height: 200px;
+            overflow-y: scroll;
+            white-space: pre-wrap;
+        }
+    </style>
+</head>
+
+<body>
+    <main class="container">
+        <div class="intro">
+            <h1>Third Party Licenses</h1>
+            <p>This page lists the licenses of the projects used in cargo-about.</p>
+        </div>
+    
+        <h2>Overview of licenses:</h2>
+        <ul class="licenses-overview">
+            <li><a href="#Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</a> (525)</li>
+            <li><a href="#MIT">MIT License</a> (127)</li>
+            <li><a href="#Unicode-3.0">Unicode License v3</a> (19)</li>
+            <li><a href="#BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</a> (10)</li>
+            <li><a href="#ISC">ISC License</a> (8)</li>
+            <li><a href="#Zlib">zlib License</a> (7)</li>
+            <li><a href="#BSD-2-Clause">BSD 2-Clause &quot;Simplified&quot; License</a> (3)</li>
+            <li><a href="#MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</a> (2)</li>
+            <li><a href="#0BSD">BSD Zero Clause License</a> (1)</li>
+            <li><a href="#BSL-1.0">Boost Software License 1.0</a> (1)</li>
+            <li><a href="#CC0-1.0">Creative Commons Zero v1.0 Universal</a> (1)</li>
+            <li><a href="#CDLA-Permissive-2.0">Community Data License Agreement Permissive 2.0</a> (1)</li>
+        </ul>
+
+        <h2>All license text:</h2>
+        <ul class="licenses-list">
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="0BSD">BSD Zero Clause License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oyvindln/adler2 ">adler2 2.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (C) Jonas Schievink &lt;jonasschievink@gmail.com&gt;
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for
+any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES
+WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN
+AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
+OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jhpratt/powerfmt ">powerfmt 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2023 Jacob Pratt et al.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jhpratt/deranged ">deranged 0.5.8</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2024 Jacob Pratt et al.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/serde_tokenstream ">serde_tokenstream 0.2.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-arith 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-array 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-buffer 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-cast 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-csv 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-data 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-ipc 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-json 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-ord 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-row 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-schema 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-select 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-string 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/encoding_rs ">encoding_rs 0.8.35</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/thomcc/rust-more-asserts ">more-asserts 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">parquet 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Stoeoef/spade ">spade 2.15.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nvzqz/static-assertions-rs ">static_assertions 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Lokathor/tinyvec ">tinyvec 1.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/utf8_iter ">utf8_iter 1.0.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">zeroize 1.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils/tree/master/zeroize/derive ">zeroize_derive 1.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs-object-store ">object_store 0.13.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-catalog-listing 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-catalog 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-common-runtime 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-arrow 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-csv 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-json 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-parquet 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-doc 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-execution 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-expr-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-expr 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-aggregate-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-aggregate 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-nested 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-table 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-window-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-window 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-macros 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-optimizer 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-expr-adapter 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-expr-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-expr 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-optimizer 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-plan 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-pruning 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-session 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-sql 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-substrait 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion 53.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+
+This project includes code from Apache Aurora.
+
+* dev/release/{release,changelog,release-candidate} are based on the scripts from
+  Apache Aurora
+
+Copyright: 2016 The Apache Software Foundation.
+Home page: https://aurora.apache.org/
+License: http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jeffparsons/rangemap ">rangemap 1.7.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   Copyright 2019-2022 Jeff Parsons, and [contributors](https://github.com/jeffparsons/rangemap/contributors)
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/brendanzab/approx ">approx 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-collections 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-core 0.62.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-future 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-implement 0.60.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-interface 0.59.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-link 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-numerics 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-registry 0.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-result 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-strings 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-sys 0.45.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-sys 0.52.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-sys 0.61.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-targets 0.42.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-targets 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-threading 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows 0.62.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_gnullvm 0.42.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_gnullvm 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_msvc 0.42.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_msvc 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_gnu 0.42.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_gnu 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_gnullvm 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_msvc 0.42.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_msvc 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnu 0.42.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnu 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.42.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_msvc 0.42.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_msvc 0.52.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright (c) Microsoft Corporation.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/moka-rs/moka ">moka 0.12.15</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2020 - 2026 Tatsuya Kawano
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Soveu/tinyvec_macros ">tinyvec_macros 0.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2020 Tomasz &quot;Soveu&quot; Marx
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Xuanwo/backon ">backon 1.6.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2021 Datafuse Labs
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/google/zerocopy ">zerocopy-derive 0.8.48</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/google/zerocopy ">zerocopy 0.8.48</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2023 The Fuchsia Authors
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/daxpedda/web-time ">web-time 1.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2023 dAxpeDDa
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/databendlabs/jsonb ">jsonb 0.5.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cberner/redb ">redb 3.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-aliyun-oss 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-aws-v4 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-azure-storage 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-core 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-file-read-tokio 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-google 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-tencent-cos 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls-platform-verifier ">rustls-platform-verifier 0.7.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MSxDOS/ntapi ">ntapi 0.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+   </pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/krisprice/ipnet ">ipnet 2.12.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2017 Juniper Networks, Inc.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/retep998/winapi-rs ">winapi 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright {yyyy} {name of copyright owner}
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstream 1.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle-parse 1.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle-query 1.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle-wincon 3.0.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle 1.0.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap 4.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap_builder 4.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap_derive 4.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap_lex 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">colorchoice 1.0.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/srijs/rust-crc32fast ">crc32fast 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/env_logger ">env_filter 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/env_logger ">env_logger 0.11.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/srijs/rust-gearhash ">gearhash 0.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/KokaKiwi/rust-hex ">hex 0.4.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/chronotope/humantime ">humantime 2.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/polyfill-rs/is_terminal_polyfill ">is_terminal_polyfill 1.70.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-sys ">jni-sys 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-sys ">jni-sys 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/polyfill-rs/once_cell_polyfill ">once_cell_polyfill 1.70.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/toml-rs/toml ">toml_datetime 1.1.1+spec-1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/toml-rs/toml ">toml_edit 0.25.11+spec-1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/toml-rs/toml ">toml_parser 1.1.2+spec-1.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright {yyyy} {name of copyright owner}
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-sso 1.95.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-ssooidc 1.97.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-sts 1.99.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2018-2020 Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Xudong-Huang/generator-rs.git ">generator 0.8.8</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                               Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-channel 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-core 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-executor 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-io 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-macro 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-sink 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-task 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-util 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures 0.3.32</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Alex Crichton
+Copyright (c) 2017 The Tokio Authors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/paholg/typenum ">typenum 1.20.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2014 Paho Lurie-Gregg
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/reqwest ">reqwest 0.12.28</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/reqwest ">reqwest 0.13.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2016 Sean McArthur
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http ">http 0.2.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http ">http 1.4.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2017 http-rs authors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/tokio-rustls ">tokio-rustls 0.26.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2017 quininer kel
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/pin-utils ">pin-utils 0.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2018 The pin-utils authors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cryptocorrosion/cryptocorrosion ">ppv-lite86 0.2.21</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2019 The CryptoCorrosion Contributors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/io-uring ">io-uring 0.7.12</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2019 quininer kel
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/shepmaster/snafu ">snafu-derive 0.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/shepmaster/snafu ">snafu 0.9.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2019- Jake Goulding
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/strawlab/iana-time-zone ">iana-time-zone-haiku 0.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/strawlab/iana-time-zone ">iana-time-zone 0.1.65</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2020 Andrew Straw
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ridiculousfish/regress ">regress 0.10.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2020 ridiculous_fish
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/fast-float-rust ">fast-float2 0.2.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2021 Ivan Smirnov
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/pki-types ">rustls-pki-types 1.14.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2023 Dirkjan Ochtman
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/akubera/bigdecimal-rs ">bigdecimal 0.4.10</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2023 The BigDecimal-rs Contributors
+
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dcchut/async-recursion ">async-recursion 1.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/RSA ">rsa 0.9.10</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
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+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tkaitchuck/ahash ">ahash 0.8.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vorner/arc-swap ">arc-swap 1.9.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/arrayvec ">arrayvec 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/async-channel ">async-channel 2.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nullus157/async-compression ">async-compression 0.4.42</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/async-lock ">async-lock 3.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/atomic-waker ">atomic-waker 1.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cuviper/autocfg ">autocfg 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/marshallpierce/rust-base64 ">base64 0.22.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitflags/bitflags ">bitflags 2.11.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/bstr ">bstr 1.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fitzgen/bumpalo ">bumpalo 3.20.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vorner/bytes-utils ">bytes-utils 0.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cc-rs ">cc 1.2.62</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alexcrichton/cfg-if ">cfg-if 0.1.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cfg-if ">cfg-if 1.0.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cmake-rs ">cmake 0.1.58</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nullus157/async-compression ">compression-codecs 0.4.38</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nullus157/async-compression ">compression-core 0.4.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/concurrent-queue ">concurrent-queue 2.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tkaitchuck/constrandom ">const-random-macro 0.1.16</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tkaitchuck/constrandom ">const-random 0.1.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/core-foundation-rs ">core-foundation-sys 0.8.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/core-foundation-rs ">core-foundation 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/core-foundation-rs ">core-foundation 0.9.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-channel 0.5.15</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-deque 0.8.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-epoch 0.9.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-queue 0.3.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-skiplist 0.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-utils 0.8.21</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/yaahc/displaydoc ">displaydoc 0.2.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rayon-rs/either ">either 1.15.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/indexmap-rs/equivalent ">equivalent 1.0.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lambda-fairy/rust-errno ">errno 0.3.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/event-listener-strategy ">event-listener-strategy 0.5.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/event-listener ">event-listener 5.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/fastrand ">fastrand 2.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cc-rs ">find-msvc-tools 0.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/petgraph/fixedbitset ">fixedbitset 0.5.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/flate2-rs ">flate2 1.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-fnv ">fnv 1.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url ">form_urlencoded 1.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geohash.rs ">geohash 0.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/glob ">glob 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/japaric/hash32 ">hash32 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.14.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.15.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.16.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.17.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-embedded/heapless ">heapless 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/withoutboats/heck ">heck 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hermit-os/hermit-rs ">hermit-abi 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/httparse ">httparse 1.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/hyper-rustls ">hyper-rustls 0.27.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url/ ">idna 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/idna_adapter ">idna_adapter 1.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/indexmap-rs/indexmap ">indexmap 2.14.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.13.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.14.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-rs ">jni 0.21.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/jobserver-rs ">jobserver 0.1.34</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/js-sys ">js-sys 0.3.98</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/lazy-static.rs ">lazy_static 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sunfishcode/linux-raw-sys ">linux-raw-sys 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ">lock_api 0.4.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/log ">log 0.4.29</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/matrixmultiply/ ">matrixmultiply 0.3.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/mime ">mime 0.3.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/havarnov/multimap ">multimap 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-ndarray/ndarray ">ndarray 0.16.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dignifiedquire/num-bigint ">num-bigint-dig 0.8.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-bigint ">num-bigint 0.4.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-complex ">num-complex 0.4.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-integer ">num-integer 0.1.46</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-iter ">num-iter 0.1.45</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-traits ">num-traits 0.2.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/num_cpus ">num_cpus 1.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/matklad/once_cell ">once_cell 1.21.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/openssl-probe ">openssl-probe 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/parking ">parking 2.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ">parking_lot 0.12.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ">parking_lot_core 0.9.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url/ ">percent-encoding 2.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/petgraph/petgraph ">petgraph 0.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/pkg-config-rs ">pkg-config 0.3.33</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost-build 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost-derive 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost-types 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/rawpointer/ ">rawpointer 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rayon-rs/rayon ">rayon-core 1.13.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rayon-rs/rayon ">rayon 1.12.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex-automata 0.4.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex-lite 0.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex-syntax 0.8.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex 1.12.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/ring ">ring 0.17.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RoaringBitmap/roaring-rs ">roaring 0.11.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/robust ">robust 1.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/djc/rustc-version-rs ">rustc_version 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/rustix ">rustix 1.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls-native-certs ">rustls-native-certs 0.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls ">rustls 0.23.40</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alexcrichton/scoped-tls ">scoped-tls 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/scopeguard ">scopeguard 1.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust-security-framework ">security-framework-sys 2.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust-security-framework ">security-framework 3.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jonasbb/serde_with/ ">serde_with 3.20.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jonasbb/serde_with/ ">serde_with_macros 3.20.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/ijackson/rust-shellexpand ">shellexpand 3.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vorner/signal-hook ">signal-hook-registry 1.4.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seancroach/simd_cesu8 ">simd_cesu8 1.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-smallvec ">smallvec 1.15.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/socket2 ">socket2 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion-sqlparser-rs ">sqlparser 0.61.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sqlparser-rs/sqlparser-rs ">sqlparser_derive 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/storyyeller/stable_deref_trait ">stable_deref_trait 1.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/chris-morgan/symlink ">symlink 0.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/syn ">syn 1.0.109</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mullvad/system-configuration-rs ">system-configuration-sys 0.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mullvad/system-configuration-rs ">system-configuration 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Stebalien/tempfile ">tempfile 3.27.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/thread-tree ">thread-tree 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/thread_local-rs ">thread_local 1.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/unicase ">unicase 2.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-rs/unicode-normalization ">unicode-normalization 0.1.25</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-rs/unicode-segmentation ">unicode-segmentation 1.13.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-rs/unicode-width ">unicode-width 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url ">url 2.5.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/uuid-rs/uuid ">uuid 1.23.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/SergioBenitez/version_check ">version_check 0.9.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi ">wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi-rs ">wasi 0.14.7+wasi-0.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi-rs ">wasip2 1.0.3+wasi-0.2.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/futures ">wasm-bindgen-futures 0.4.71</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/macro-support ">wasm-bindgen-macro-support 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/macro ">wasm-bindgen-macro 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/shared ">wasm-bindgen-shared 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen ">wasm-bindgen 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/web-sys ">web-sys 0.3.98</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wit-bindgen ">wit-bindgen 0.51.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wit-bindgen ">wit-bindgen 0.57.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/wkb ">wkb 0.9.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/wkt ">wkt 0.14.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RazrFalcon/xmlparser ">xmlparser 0.13.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
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+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-core 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-parse-float 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-parse-integer 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-util 1.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-write-float 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-write-integer 1.0.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/block-ciphers ">aes 0.8.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats ">base64ct 1.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">blake2 0.10.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">block-buffer 0.10.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">block-padding 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/block-modes ">cbc 0.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/stream-ciphers ">chacha20 0.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits ">cipher 0.4.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/const-oid ">const-oid 0.9.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">cpufeatures 0.2.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">cpufeatures 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits ">crypto-common 0.1.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/der ">der 0.7.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits ">digest 0.10.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/MACs ">hmac 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">inout 0.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">md-5 0.10.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/password-hashes/tree/master/pbkdf2 ">pbkdf2 0.12.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pem-rfc7468 ">pem-rfc7468 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pkcs1 ">pkcs1 0.7.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pkcs5 ">pkcs5 0.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pkcs8 ">pkcs8 0.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/stream-ciphers ">salsa20 0.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/password-hashes/tree/master/scrypt ">scrypt 0.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">sha1 0.10.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">sha2 0.10.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits/tree/master/signature ">signature 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/spki ">spki 0.7.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand_core ">rand_core 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_core 0.6.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_core 0.9.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand_distr ">rand_distr 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/getrandom ">getrandom 0.2.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/getrandom ">getrandom 0.3.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/getrandom ">getrandom 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_chacha 0.3.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bkchr/proc-macro-crate ">proc-macro-crate 3.5.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">ctor-proc-macro 0.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">ctor 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">dtor-proc-macro 0.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">dtor 0.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright {yyyy} {name of copyright owner}
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Lokathor/bytemuck ">bytemuck 1.25.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+Version 2.0, January 2004
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+    1. Definitions.
+
+        &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+        &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+        &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+        &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+        &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications, including but not limited to software source code, documentation source, and configuration files.
+
+        &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical transformation or translation of a Source form, including but not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation, and conversions to other media types.
+
+        &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+        &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of, the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+        &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot; means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems, and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+        &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+    2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of, publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+    3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work, where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s) with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You institute patent litigation against any entity (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate as of the date such litigation is filed.
+    4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You meet the following conditions:
+        (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+        (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices stating that You changed the files; and
+        (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and attribution notices from the Source form of the Work, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works; and
+        (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or, within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed as modifying the License.
+
+        You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and may provide additional or different license terms and conditions for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use, reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with the conditions stated in this License.
+    5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise, any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of this License, without any additional terms or conditions. Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+    6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor, except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+    7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+    8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory, whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+    9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer, and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity, or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify, defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot; replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include the brackets!) The text should be enclosed in the appropriate comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a file or class name and description of purpose be included on the same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pyfisch/httpdate ">httpdate 1.0.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jeremysalwen/rust-permutations ">permutation 0.4.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+Version 2.0, January 2004
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+&quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+&quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+&quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+&quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+&quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+&quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+source, and configuration files.
+
+&quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+and conversions to other media types.
+
+&quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+(an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+&quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+&quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+&quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
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+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-jni 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-bitpacking 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">fsst 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-arrow 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-core 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-datafusion 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-datagen 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-encoding 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-file 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-geo 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-index 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-io 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-linalg 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-namespace 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-namespace-impls 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-table 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-tokenizer 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zakarumych/allocator-api2 ">allocator-api2 0.2.21</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nical/android_system_properties ">android_system_properties 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/anyhow ">anyhow 1.0.102</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/async-trait ">async-trait 0.1.89</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-config 1.8.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-credential-types 1.2.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-runtime 1.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-sigv4 1.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-async 1.2.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-http-client 1.1.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-http 0.63.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-json 0.62.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-observability 0.2.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-query 0.60.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-runtime-api 1.11.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-runtime 1.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-types 1.4.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-xml 0.60.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-types 1.3.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BLAKE3-team/BLAKE3 ">blake3 1.8.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/emk/cesu8-rs ">cesu8 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cesarb/constant_time_eq ">constant_time_eq 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zowens/crc32c ">crc32c 0.6.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dirs-dev/dirs-sys-rs ">dirs-sys 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/soc/dirs-rs ">dirs 6.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sgodwincs/dlv-list-rs ">dlv-list 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/kornelski/dunce ">dunce 1.0.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/dyn-clone ">dyn-clone 1.0.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nlordell/ethnum-rs ">ethnum 1.5.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/google/flatbuffers ">flatbuffers 25.12.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geo ">geo-traits 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geo ">geo-types 0.7.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geo ">geo 0.31.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs ">geoarrow-array 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs ">geoarrow-expr-geo 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs ">geoarrow-schema 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/datafusion-contrib/geodatafusion ">geodatafusion 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustwasm/gloo/tree/master/crates/timers ">gloo-timers 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/VoidStarKat/half-rs ">half 2.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ethereal-sheep/heapify ">heapify 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">hf-xet 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/ident_case ">ident_case 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/itoa ">itoa 1.0.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-rs ">jni-macros 0.22.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-sys ">jni-sys-macros 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-rs ">jni 0.22.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://crates.io/crates/lance-namespace-reqwest-client ">lance-namespace-reqwest-client 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/libc ">libc 0.2.186</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fast/mea ">mea 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Frommi/miniz_oxide/tree/master/miniz_oxide ">miniz_oxide 0.8.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jhpratt/num-conv ">num-conv 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/illicitonion/num_enum ">num_enum 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/illicitonion/num_enum ">num_enum_derive 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/madsmtm/objc2 ">objc2-core-foundation 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/madsmtm/objc2 ">objc2-io-kit 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/madsmtm/objc2 ">objc2-system-configuration 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">object_store_opendal 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/faern/oneshot ">oneshot 0.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-core 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-concurrent-limit 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-logging 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-retry 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-timeout 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-azblob 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-azdls 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-azure-common 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-cos 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-gcs 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-hf 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-oss 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-s3 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dylni/os_str_bytes ">os_str_bytes 6.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/paste ">paste 1.0.15</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vitiral/path_abs ">path_abs 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/pin-project ">pin-project-internal 1.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/pin-project-lite ">pin-project-lite 0.2.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/pin-project ">pin-project 1.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/portable-atomic-util ">portable-atomic-util 0.2.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/portable-atomic ">portable-atomic 1.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/prettyplease ">prettyplease 0.2.37</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/proc-macro2 ">proc-macro2 1.0.106</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/quote ">quote 1.0.45</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/r-efi/r-efi ">r-efi 5.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/r-efi/r-efi ">r-efi 6.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand 0.8.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand 0.9.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_chacha 0.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rngs ">rand_xoshiro 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TrueLayer/reqwest-middleware ">reqwest-middleware 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/rstar ">rstar 0.12.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls-platform-verifier ">rustls-platform-verifier-android 0.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/rustversion ">rustversion 1.0.22</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/ryu ">ryu 1.0.23</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/semver ">semver 1.0.28</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/seq-macro ">seq-macro 0.3.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde 1.0.228</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde_core 1.0.228</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde_derive 1.0.228</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde_derive_internals 0.29.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/json ">serde_json 1.0.149</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/path-to-error ">serde_path_to_error 0.1.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/serde-repr ">serde_repr 0.1.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nox/serde_urlencoded ">serde_urlencoded 0.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/serde-yaml ">serde_yaml 0.9.34+deprecated</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/comex/rust-shlex ">shlex 1.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rusticstuff/simdutf8 ">simdutf8 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jedisct1/rust-siphash ">siphasher 1.0.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vitiral/stfu8 ">stfu8 0.2.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/substrait-io/substrait-rs ">substrait 0.62.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/syn ">syn 2.0.117</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Actyx/sync_wrapper ">sync_wrapper 1.0.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oliver-giersch/tagptr.git ">tagptr 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror-impl 1.0.69</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror-impl 2.0.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror 1.0.69</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror 2.0.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/thrift/tree/master/lib/rs ">thrift 0.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/time-rs/time ">time-core 0.1.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/time-rs/time ">time-macros 0.2.27</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/time-rs/time ">time 0.3.47</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/typify ">typify-impl 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/typify ">typify-macro 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/typify ">typify 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/unicode-ident ">unicode-ident 1.0.24</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alacritty/vte ">utf8parse 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi-rs ">wasip3 0.4.0+wasi-0.3.0-rc-2026-01-06</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ardaku/wasite ">wasite 1.0.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MattiasBuelens/wasm-streams/ ">wasm-streams 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MattiasBuelens/wasm-streams/ ">wasm-streams 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ardaku/whoami ">whoami 2.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/retep998/winapi-rs ">winapi-i686-pc-windows-gnu 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/retep998/winapi-rs ">winapi-x86_64-pc-windows-gnu 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-client 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-core-structures 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-data 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-runtime 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gyscos/zstd-rs ">zstd-safe 7.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gyscos/zstd-rs ">zstd-sys 2.0.16+zstd.1.5.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+Version 2.0, January 2004
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+&quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+&quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+&quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+&quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+&quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications, including but not limited to software source code, documentation source, and configuration files.
+
+&quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical transformation or translation of a Source form, including but not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation, and conversions to other media types.
+
+&quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+&quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of, the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+&quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot; means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems, and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+&quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of, publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work, where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s) with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You institute patent litigation against any entity (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You meet the following conditions:
+
+     (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+     (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices stating that You changed the files; and
+
+     (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and attribution notices from the Source form of the Work, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works; and
+
+     (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or, within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed as modifying the License.
+
+     You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and may provide additional or different license terms and conditions for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use, reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise, any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of this License, without any additional terms or conditions. Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor, except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory, whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer, and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity, or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify, defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot; replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a file or class name and description of purpose be included on the same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/chronotope/chrono-tz ">chrono-tz 0.10.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Chrono-TZ is dual-licensed under the MIT License and Apache 2.0 Licence.
+The licenses do not apply to files in the tzdb folder which are in the
+public domain. parse-zoneinfo was forked from zoneinfo-parse, which
+was originally created by Benjamin Sago under the MIT license.
+
+Copyright (c) 2016-2024 Benjamin Sago &amp; the chronotope maintainers
+
+The MIT License
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2016 Djzin
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/chronotope/chrono ">chrono 0.4.44</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Rust-chrono is dual-licensed under The MIT License [1] and
+Apache 2.0 License [2]. Copyright (c) 2014--2026, Kang Seonghoon and
+contributors.
+
+Nota Bene: This is same as the Rust Project&#x27;s own license.
+
+
+[1]: &lt;http://opensource.org/licenses/MIT&gt;, which is reproduced below:
+
+~~~~
+The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014, Kang Seonghoon.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+~~~~
+
+
+[2]: &lt;http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0&gt;, which is reproduced below:
+
+~~~~
+                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
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+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-2-Clause">BSD 2-Clause &quot;Simplified&quot; License</h3>
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+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fusion-engineering/rust-git-version ">git-version 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
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+            <li class="license">
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+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
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+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/CurrySoftware/rust-stemmers ">rust-stemmers 1.2.0</a></li>
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+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
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+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-brotli-decompressor ">brotli-decompressor 5.0.0</a></li>
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+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
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+applied by Affirmer to the Work. Should any part of the License for any
+reason be judged legally invalid or ineffective under applicable law, such
+partial invalidity or ineffectiveness shall not invalidate the remainder
+of the License, and in such case Affirmer hereby affirms that he or she
+will not (i) exercise any of his or her remaining Copyright and Related
+Rights in the Work or (ii) assert any associated claims and causes of
+action with respect to the Work, in either case contrary to Affirmer&#x27;s
+express Statement of Purpose.
+
+4. Limitations and Disclaimers.
+
+ a. No trademark or patent rights held by Affirmer are waived, abandoned,
+    surrendered, licensed or otherwise affected by this document.
+ b. Affirmer offers the Work as-is and makes no representations or
+    warranties of any kind concerning the Work, express, implied,
+    statutory or otherwise, including without limitation warranties of
+    title, merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, non
+    infringement, or the absence of latent or other defects, accuracy, or
+    the present or absence of errors, whether or not discoverable, all to
+    the greatest extent permissible under applicable law.
+ c. Affirmer disclaims responsibility for clearing rights of other persons
+    that may apply to the Work or any use thereof, including without
+    limitation any person&#x27;s Copyright and Related Rights in the Work.
+    Further, Affirmer disclaims responsibility for obtaining any necessary
+    consents, permissions or other rights required for any use of the
+    Work.
+ d. Affirmer understands and acknowledges that Creative Commons is not a
+    party to this document and has no duty or obligation with respect to
+    this CC0 or use of the Work.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="CDLA-Permissive-2.0">Community Data License Agreement Permissive 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/webpki-roots ">webpki-root-certs 1.0.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text"># Community Data License Agreement - Permissive - Version 2.0
+
+This is the Community Data License Agreement - Permissive, Version
+2.0 (the &quot;agreement&quot;). Data Provider(s) and Data Recipient(s) agree
+as follows:
+
+## 1. Provision of the Data
+
+1.1. A Data Recipient may use, modify, and share the Data made
+available by Data Provider(s) under this agreement if that Data
+Recipient follows the terms of this agreement.
+
+1.2. This agreement does not impose any restriction on a Data
+Recipient&#x27;s use, modification, or sharing of any portions of the
+Data that are in the public domain or that may be used, modified,
+or shared under any other legal exception or limitation.
+
+## 2. Conditions for Sharing Data
+
+2.1. A Data Recipient may share Data, with or without modifications, so
+long as the Data Recipient makes available the text of this agreement
+with the shared Data.
+
+## 3. No Restrictions on Results
+
+3.1. This agreement does not impose any restriction or obligations
+with respect to the use, modification, or sharing of Results.
+
+## 4. No Warranty; Limitation of Liability
+
+4.1. All Data Recipients receive the Data subject to the following
+terms:
+
+THE DATA IS PROVIDED ON AN &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS, WITHOUT REPRESENTATIONS,
+WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
+INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF TITLE,
+NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
+
+NO DATA PROVIDER SHALL HAVE ANY LIABILITY FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
+INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING
+WITHOUT LIMITATION LOST PROFITS), HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE DATA OR RESULTS,
+EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
+
+## 5. Definitions
+
+5.1. &quot;Data&quot; means the material received by a Data Recipient under
+this agreement.
+
+5.2. &quot;Data Provider&quot; means any person who is the source of Data
+provided under this agreement and in reliance on a Data Recipient&#x27;s
+agreement to its terms.
+
+5.3. &quot;Data Recipient&quot; means any person who receives Data directly
+or indirectly from a Data Provider and agrees to the terms of this
+agreement.
+
+5.4. &quot;Results&quot; means any outcome obtained by computational analysis
+of Data, including for example machine learning models and models&#x27;
+insights.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/untrusted ">untrusted 0.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/untrusted ">untrusted 0.9.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">// Copyright 2015-2016 Brian Smith.
+//
+// Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
+// purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
+// copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+//
+// THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHORS DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES
+// WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+// MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS BE LIABLE FOR
+// ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+// WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
+// ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF
+// OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/acw/simple_asn1 ">simple_asn1 0.6.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017 Adam Wick
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose
+with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice
+and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
+REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
+FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
+INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
+OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER
+TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF
+THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/ring ">ring 0.17.14</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2015-2025 Brian Smith.
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
+purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
+copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES
+WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/webpki ">rustls-webpki 0.103.13</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Except as otherwise noted, this project is licensed under the following
+(ISC-style) terms:
+
+Copyright 2015 Brian Smith.
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
+purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
+copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHORS DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES
+WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
+ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF
+OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+
+The files under third-party/chromium are licensed as described in
+third-party/chromium/LICENSE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/frewsxcv/earcutr/ ">earcutr 0.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">ISC License
+
+Copyright (c) 2016, Mapbox
+Copyright (c) 2018, Tree Cricket
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose
+with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice
+and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
+REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
+FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
+INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
+OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER
+TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF
+THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-rs 1.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">ISC License:
+
+Copyright (c) 2004-2010 by Internet Systems Consortium, Inc. (&quot;ISC&quot;)
+Copyright (c) 1995-2003 by Internet Software Consortium
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND ISC DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL ISC BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-brotli ">brotli 8.0.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2009, 2010, 2013-2016 by the Brotli Authors.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/mio ">mio 1.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014 Carl Lerche and other MIO contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-bakery/nom ">nom 8.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014-2019 Geoffroy Couprie
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/hyper ">hyper 1.9.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014-2026 Sean McArthur
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/reem/rust-ordered-float ">ordered-float 2.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/reem/rust-ordered-float ">ordered-float 5.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2015 Jonathan Reem
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/steffengy/schannel-rs ">schannel 0.1.29</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2015 steffengy
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/quickwit-oss/bitpacking ">bitpacking 0.9.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2016 Paul Masurel
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.redox-os.org/redox-os/syscall ">redox_syscall 0.5.18</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017 Redox OS Developers
+
+MIT License
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/h2 ">h2 0.4.14</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017 h2 authors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/bytes ">bytes 1.11.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018 Carl Lerche
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/want ">want 0.3.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018-2019 Sean McArthur
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/try-lock ">try-lock 0.2.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018-2023 Sean McArthur
+Copyright (c) 2016 Alex Crichton
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/axum ">axum 0.7.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Axum Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/loom ">loom 0.7.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/slab ">slab 0.4.12</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Carl Lerche
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hawkw/sharded-slab ">sharded-slab 0.1.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Eliza Weisman
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hawkw/matchers ">matchers 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Eliza Weisman
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http-body ">http-body 0.4.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Hyper Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-appender 0.2.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-attributes 0.1.31</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-core 0.1.36</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-log 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-serde 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-subscriber 0.3.23</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing 0.1.44</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Tokio Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower ">tower-layer 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower ">tower-service 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower ">tower 0.5.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Tower Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower-http ">tower-http 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower-http ">tower-http 0.6.11</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019-2021 Tower Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http-body ">http-body 1.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019-2024 Sean McArthur &amp; Hyper Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http-body ">http-body-util 0.1.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019-2025 Sean McArthur &amp; Hyper Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/asm-hashes ">sha2-asm 0.6.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2020 RustCrypto Developers
+Copyright (c) 2017 Project Nayuki, Artyom Pavlov
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/hyper-util ">hyper-util 0.1.20</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2023-2025 Sean McArthur
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mystor/synstructure ">synstructure 0.13.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2016 Nika Layzell
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/axum ">axum-core 0.4.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2021 Axum Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/statrs-dev/statrs ">statrs 0.18.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Michael Ma
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pacman82/atoi-rs ">atoi 2.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/webdesus/fs_extra ">fs_extra 1.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Denis Kurilenko
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/myrrlyn/tap ">tap 1.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Elliot Linder &lt;darfink@gmail.com&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vitiral/std_prelude ">std_prelude 0.2.12</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Garrett Berg &lt;vitiral@gmail.com&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/djc/tokio-retry ">tokio-retry 0.3.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Sam Rijs
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling 0.23.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_core 0.23.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_macro 0.23.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Ted Driggs
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitvecto-rs/bitvec ">bitvec 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/myrrlyn/wyz ">wyz 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2018 myrrlyn (Alexander Payne)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sgodwincs/ordered-multimap-rs ">ordered-multimap 0.7.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2018 sgodwincs
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geographiclib-rs ">geographiclib-rs 0.2.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/xacrimon/dashmap ">dashmap 6.2.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Acrimon
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Aeledfyr/deepsize/ ">deepsize 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Aeledfyr
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nukesor/comfy-table ">comfy-table 7.2.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Arne Beer
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/GREsau/schemars ">schemars 0.8.22</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/GREsau/schemars ">schemars_derive 0.8.22</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Graham Esau
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Peternator7/strum ">strum 0.26.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Peternator7/strum ">strum_macros 0.26.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Peter Glotfelty
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio-macros 2.7.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Yoshua Wuyts
+Copyright (c) Tokio Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitvecto-rs/radium ">radium 0.7.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 kneecaw (Nika Layzell)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tabac/hyperloglog.rs ">hyperloglogplus 0.4.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Anastasios Bakogiannis
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/bronsonbdevost/next_afterf ">float_next_after 1.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Scripta Qumranica Electronica
+
+Created by Bronson Brown-deVost
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/myrrlyn/funty ">funty 2.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 myrrlyn (Alexander Payne)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-array 58.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020-2022 Oliver Margetts
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/const-str ">const-str 1.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020-2026 Nugine
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/samsartor/async_cell ">async_cell 0.2.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2021 Sam Sartor
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ibraheemdev/matchit ">matchit 0.7.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2022 Ibraheem Ahmed
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/outref ">outref 0.5.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2022 Nugine
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.redox-os.org/redox-os/libredox.git ">libredox 0.1.16</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2023 4lDO2
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iFloat ">i_float 1.15.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iShape ">i_shape 1.14.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2023 iShape-Rust
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/spire-rs/countio ">countio 0.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2024 Spire Team
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iKeySort ">i_key_sort 0.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iTree ">i_tree 0.16.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2024 iShape-Rust
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/simd ">base64-simd 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Aeledfyr/deepsize/ ">deepsize_derive 0.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iOverlay ">i_overlay 4.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/compiler-builtins ">libm 0.2.16</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/influxdata/pbjson ">pbjson-build 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/influxdata/pbjson ">pbjson-types 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/influxdata/pbjson ">pbjson 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MitchellRhysHall/random_word ">random_word 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/simd ">vsimd 0.8.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) &lt;year&gt; &lt;copyright holders&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and
+associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the
+following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial
+portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO
+EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE
+USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio-stream 0.1.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio-util 0.7.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio 1.52.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) Tokio Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mcountryman/simd-adler32 ">simd-adler32 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) [2021] [Marvin Countryman]
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/unsafe-libyaml ">unsafe-libyaml 0.2.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/zmij ">zmij 1.0.21</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/winnow-rs/winnow ">winnow 1.0.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mvdnes/spin-rs.git ">spin 0.9.8</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014 Mathijs van de Nes
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zonyitoo/rust-ini ">rust-ini 0.21.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014 Y. T. CHUNG
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf_shared 0.12.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014-2022 Steven Fackler, Yuki Okushi
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
+this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in
+the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
+use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so,
+subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
+FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR
+COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/aho-corasick ">aho-corasick 1.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/byteorder ">byteorder 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/rust-csv ">csv-core 0.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/rust-csv ">csv 1.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/fst ">fst 0.4.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/jiff ">jiff-tzdb-platform 0.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/jiff ">jiff-tzdb 0.1.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/jiff ">jiff 0.2.24</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/memchr ">memchr 2.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/utf8-ranges ">utf8-ranges 1.0.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/walkdir ">walkdir 2.5.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Andrew Gallant
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/10xGenomics/lz4-rs ">lz4-sys 1.11.1+lz4-1.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/10xGenomics/lz4-rs ">lz4 1.28.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Artem V. Navrotskiy
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rapidfuzz/strsim-rs ">strsim 0.11.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Danny Guo
+Copyright (c) 2016 Titus Wormer &lt;tituswormer@gmail.com&gt;
+Copyright (c) 2018 Akash Kurdekar
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/GuillaumeGomez/sysinfo ">sysinfo 0.38.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Guillaume Gomez
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/shepmaster/twox-hash ">twox-hash 2.1.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Jake Goulding
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Marwes/combine ">combine 4.6.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Markus Westerlind
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Keats/jsonwebtoken ">jsonwebtoken 10.4.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Vincent Prouillet
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015-2020 the fiat-crypto authors (see
+https://github.com/mit-plv/fiat-crypto/blob/master/AUTHORS).
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dermesser/integer-encoding-rs ">integer-encoding 3.0.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Google Inc. (lewinb@google.com) -- though not an official
+Google product or in any way related!
+Copyright (c) 2018-2020 Lewin Bormann (lbo@spheniscida.de)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to
+deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the
+rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or
+sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING
+FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS
+IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jcreekmore/pem-rs.git ">pem 3.0.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Jonathan Creekmore
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nabijaczleweli/safe-transmute-rs ">safe-transmute 0.11.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 nabijaczleweli
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/same-file ">same-file 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/winapi-util ">winapi-util 0.1.11</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Andrew Gallant
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.redox-os.org/redox-os/users ">redox_users 0.5.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Jose Narvaez
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pseitz/lz4_flex ">lz4_flex 0.13.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Pascal Seitz
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
+this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in
+the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
+use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so,
+subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
+FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR
+COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/eira-fransham/crunchy ">crunchy 0.2.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright 2017-2023 Eira Fransham.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gyscos/zstd-rs ">zstd 0.13.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+Copyright (c) 2016 Alexandre Bury
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nushell/nu-ansi-term ">nu-ansi-term 0.50.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014 Benjamin Sago
+Copyright (c) 2021-2022 The Nushell Project Developers
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/abonander/mime_guess ">mime_guess 2.0.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Austin Bonander
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fizyk20/generic-array.git ">generic-array 0.14.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Bartłomiej Kamiński
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tafia/quick-xml ">quick-xml 0.38.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tafia/quick-xml ">quick-xml 0.39.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Johann Tuffe
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust_urlencoding ">urlencoding 2.1.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">© 2016 Bertram Truong
+© 2021 Kornel Lesiński
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mackwic/colored ">colored 3.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Mozilla Public License Version 2.0
+&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;
+
+1. Definitions
+--------------
+
+1.1. &quot;Contributor&quot;
+    means each individual or legal entity that creates, contributes to
+    the creation of, or owns Covered Software.
+
+1.2. &quot;Contributor Version&quot;
+    means the combination of the Contributions of others (if any) used
+    by a Contributor and that particular Contributor&#x27;s Contribution.
+
+1.3. &quot;Contribution&quot;
+    means Covered Software of a particular Contributor.
+
+1.4. &quot;Covered Software&quot;
+    means Source Code Form to which the initial Contributor has attached
+    the notice in Exhibit A, the Executable Form of such Source Code
+    Form, and Modifications of such Source Code Form, in each case
+    including portions thereof.
+
+1.5. &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;
+    means
+
+    (a) that the initial Contributor has attached the notice described
+        in Exhibit B to the Covered Software; or
+
+    (b) that the Covered Software was made available under the terms of
+        version 1.1 or earlier of the License, but not also under the
+        terms of a Secondary License.
+
+1.6. &quot;Executable Form&quot;
+    means any form of the work other than Source Code Form.
+
+1.7. &quot;Larger Work&quot;
+    means a work that combines Covered Software with other material, in 
+    a separate file or files, that is not Covered Software.
+
+1.8. &quot;License&quot;
+    means this document.
+
+1.9. &quot;Licensable&quot;
+    means having the right to grant, to the maximum extent possible,
+    whether at the time of the initial grant or subsequently, any and
+    all of the rights conveyed by this License.
+
+1.10. &quot;Modifications&quot;
+    means any of the following:
+
+    (a) any file in Source Code Form that results from an addition to,
+        deletion from, or modification of the contents of Covered
+        Software; or
+
+    (b) any new file in Source Code Form that contains any Covered
+        Software.
+
+1.11. &quot;Patent Claims&quot; of a Contributor
+    means any patent claim(s), including without limitation, method,
+    process, and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by such
+    Contributor that would be infringed, but for the grant of the
+    License, by the making, using, selling, offering for sale, having
+    made, import, or transfer of either its Contributions or its
+    Contributor Version.
+
+1.12. &quot;Secondary License&quot;
+    means either the GNU General Public License, Version 2.0, the GNU
+    Lesser General Public License, Version 2.1, the GNU Affero General
+    Public License, Version 3.0, or any later versions of those
+    licenses.
+
+1.13. &quot;Source Code Form&quot;
+    means the form of the work preferred for making modifications.
+
+1.14. &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;)
+    means an individual or a legal entity exercising rights under this
+    License. For legal entities, &quot;You&quot; includes any entity that
+    controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with You. For
+    purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (a) the power, direct
+    or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity,
+    whether by contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than
+    fifty percent (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial
+    ownership of such entity.
+
+2. License Grants and Conditions
+--------------------------------
+
+2.1. Grants
+
+Each Contributor hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+non-exclusive license:
+
+(a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or trademark)
+    Licensable by such Contributor to use, reproduce, make available,
+    modify, display, perform, distribute, and otherwise exploit its
+    Contributions, either on an unmodified basis, with Modifications, or
+    as part of a Larger Work; and
+
+(b) under Patent Claims of such Contributor to make, use, sell, offer
+    for sale, have made, import, and otherwise transfer either its
+    Contributions or its Contributor Version.
+
+2.2. Effective Date
+
+The licenses granted in Section 2.1 with respect to any Contribution
+become effective for each Contribution on the date the Contributor first
+distributes such Contribution.
+
+2.3. Limitations on Grant Scope
+
+The licenses granted in this Section 2 are the only rights granted under
+this License. No additional rights or licenses will be implied from the
+distribution or licensing of Covered Software under this License.
+Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is granted by a
+Contributor:
+
+(a) for any code that a Contributor has removed from Covered Software;
+    or
+
+(b) for infringements caused by: (i) Your and any other third party&#x27;s
+    modifications of Covered Software, or (ii) the combination of its
+    Contributions with other software (except as part of its Contributor
+    Version); or
+
+(c) under Patent Claims infringed by Covered Software in the absence of
+    its Contributions.
+
+This License does not grant any rights in the trademarks, service marks,
+or logos of any Contributor (except as may be necessary to comply with
+the notice requirements in Section 3.4).
+
+2.4. Subsequent Licenses
+
+No Contributor makes additional grants as a result of Your choice to
+distribute the Covered Software under a subsequent version of this
+License (see Section 10.2) or under the terms of a Secondary License (if
+permitted under the terms of Section 3.3).
+
+2.5. Representation
+
+Each Contributor represents that the Contributor believes its
+Contributions are its original creation(s) or it has sufficient rights
+to grant the rights to its Contributions conveyed by this License.
+
+2.6. Fair Use
+
+This License is not intended to limit any rights You have under
+applicable copyright doctrines of fair use, fair dealing, or other
+equivalents.
+
+2.7. Conditions
+
+Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are conditions of the licenses granted
+in Section 2.1.
+
+3. Responsibilities
+-------------------
+
+3.1. Distribution of Source Form
+
+All distribution of Covered Software in Source Code Form, including any
+Modifications that You create or to which You contribute, must be under
+the terms of this License. You must inform recipients that the Source
+Code Form of the Covered Software is governed by the terms of this
+License, and how they can obtain a copy of this License. You may not
+attempt to alter or restrict the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code
+Form.
+
+3.2. Distribution of Executable Form
+
+If You distribute Covered Software in Executable Form then:
+
+(a) such Covered Software must also be made available in Source Code
+    Form, as described in Section 3.1, and You must inform recipients of
+    the Executable Form how they can obtain a copy of such Source Code
+    Form by reasonable means in a timely manner, at a charge no more
+    than the cost of distribution to the recipient; and
+
+(b) You may distribute such Executable Form under the terms of this
+    License, or sublicense it under different terms, provided that the
+    license for the Executable Form does not attempt to limit or alter
+    the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code Form under this License.
+
+3.3. Distribution of a Larger Work
+
+You may create and distribute a Larger Work under terms of Your choice,
+provided that You also comply with the requirements of this License for
+the Covered Software. If the Larger Work is a combination of Covered
+Software with a work governed by one or more Secondary Licenses, and the
+Covered Software is not Incompatible With Secondary Licenses, this
+License permits You to additionally distribute such Covered Software
+under the terms of such Secondary License(s), so that the recipient of
+the Larger Work may, at their option, further distribute the Covered
+Software under the terms of either this License or such Secondary
+License(s).
+
+3.4. Notices
+
+You may not remove or alter the substance of any license notices
+(including copyright notices, patent notices, disclaimers of warranty,
+or limitations of liability) contained within the Source Code Form of
+the Covered Software, except that You may alter any license notices to
+the extent required to remedy known factual inaccuracies.
+
+3.5. Application of Additional Terms
+
+You may choose to offer, and to charge a fee for, warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability obligations to one or more recipients of Covered
+Software. However, You may do so only on Your own behalf, and not on
+behalf of any Contributor. You must make it absolutely clear that any
+such warranty, support, indemnity, or liability obligation is offered by
+You alone, and You hereby agree to indemnify every Contributor for any
+liability incurred by such Contributor as a result of warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability terms You offer. You may include additional
+disclaimers of warranty and limitations of liability specific to any
+jurisdiction.
+
+4. Inability to Comply Due to Statute or Regulation
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+If it is impossible for You to comply with any of the terms of this
+License with respect to some or all of the Covered Software due to
+statute, judicial order, or regulation then You must: (a) comply with
+the terms of this License to the maximum extent possible; and (b)
+describe the limitations and the code they affect. Such description must
+be placed in a text file included with all distributions of the Covered
+Software under this License. Except to the extent prohibited by statute
+or regulation, such description must be sufficiently detailed for a
+recipient of ordinary skill to be able to understand it.
+
+5. Termination
+--------------
+
+5.1. The rights granted under this License will terminate automatically
+if You fail to comply with any of its terms. However, if You become
+compliant, then the rights granted under this License from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until such
+Contributor explicitly and finally terminates Your grants, and (b) on an
+ongoing basis, if such Contributor fails to notify You of the
+non-compliance by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after You have
+come back into compliance. Moreover, Your grants from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated on an ongoing basis if such Contributor
+notifies You of the non-compliance by some reasonable means, this is the
+first time You have received notice of non-compliance with this License
+from such Contributor, and You become compliant prior to 30 days after
+Your receipt of the notice.
+
+5.2. If You initiate litigation against any entity by asserting a patent
+infringement claim (excluding declaratory judgment actions,
+counter-claims, and cross-claims) alleging that a Contributor Version
+directly or indirectly infringes any patent, then the rights granted to
+You by any and all Contributors for the Covered Software under Section
+2.1 of this License shall terminate.
+
+5.3. In the event of termination under Sections 5.1 or 5.2 above, all
+end user license agreements (excluding distributors and resellers) which
+have been validly granted by You or Your distributors under this License
+prior to termination shall survive termination.
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  6. Disclaimer of Warranty                                           *
+*  -------------------------                                           *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Covered Software is provided under this License on an &quot;as is&quot;       *
+*  basis, without warranty of any kind, either expressed, implied, or  *
+*  statutory, including, without limitation, warranties that the       *
+*  Covered Software is free of defects, merchantable, fit for a        *
+*  particular purpose or non-infringing. The entire risk as to the     *
+*  quality and performance of the Covered Software is with You.        *
+*  Should any Covered Software prove defective in any respect, You     *
+*  (not any Contributor) assume the cost of any necessary servicing,   *
+*  repair, or correction. This disclaimer of warranty constitutes an   *
+*  essential part of this License. No use of any Covered Software is   *
+*  authorized under this License except under this disclaimer.         *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  7. Limitation of Liability                                          *
+*  --------------------------                                          *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Under no circumstances and under no legal theory, whether tort      *
+*  (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, shall any           *
+*  Contributor, or anyone who distributes Covered Software as          *
+*  permitted above, be liable to You for any direct, indirect,         *
+*  special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character      *
+*  including, without limitation, damages for lost profits, loss of    *
+*  goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any    *
+*  and all other commercial damages or losses, even if such party      *
+*  shall have been informed of the possibility of such damages. This   *
+*  limitation of liability shall not apply to liability for death or   *
+*  personal injury resulting from such party&#x27;s negligence to the       *
+*  extent applicable law prohibits such limitation. Some               *
+*  jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of           *
+*  incidental or consequential damages, so this exclusion and          *
+*  limitation may not apply to You.                                    *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+8. Litigation
+-------------
+
+Any litigation relating to this License may be brought only in the
+courts of a jurisdiction where the defendant maintains its principal
+place of business and such litigation shall be governed by laws of that
+jurisdiction, without reference to its conflict-of-law provisions.
+Nothing in this Section shall prevent a party&#x27;s ability to bring
+cross-claims or counter-claims.
+
+9. Miscellaneous
+----------------
+
+This License represents the complete agreement concerning the subject
+matter hereof. If any provision of this License is held to be
+unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
+necessary to make it enforceable. Any law or regulation which provides
+that the language of a contract shall be construed against the drafter
+shall not be used to construe this License against a Contributor.
+
+10. Versions of the License
+---------------------------
+
+10.1. New Versions
+
+Mozilla Foundation is the license steward. Except as provided in Section
+10.3, no one other than the license steward has the right to modify or
+publish new versions of this License. Each version will be given a
+distinguishing version number.
+
+10.2. Effect of New Versions
+
+You may distribute the Covered Software under the terms of the version
+of the License under which You originally received the Covered Software,
+or under the terms of any subsequent version published by the license
+steward.
+
+10.3. Modified Versions
+
+If you create software not governed by this License, and you want to
+create a new license for such software, you may create and use a
+modified version of this License if you rename the license and remove
+any references to the name of the license steward (except to note that
+such modified license differs from this License).
+
+10.4. Distributing Source Code Form that is Incompatible With Secondary
+Licenses
+
+If You choose to distribute Source Code Form that is Incompatible With
+Secondary Licenses under the terms of this version of the License, the
+notice described in Exhibit B of this License must be attached.
+
+Exhibit A - Source Code Form License Notice
+-------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
+  License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
+  file, You can obtain one at http://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
+
+If it is not possible or desirable to put the notice in a particular
+file, then You may include the notice in a location (such as a LICENSE
+file in a relevant directory) where a recipient would be likely to look
+for such a notice.
+
+You may add additional accurate notices of copyright ownership.
+
+Exhibit B - &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot; Notice
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;, as
+  defined by the Mozilla Public License, v. 2.0.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/soc/option-ext.git ">option-ext 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Mozilla Public License Version 2.0
+&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;
+
+1. Definitions
+--------------
+
+1.1. &quot;Contributor&quot;
+    means each individual or legal entity that creates, contributes to
+    the creation of, or owns Covered Software.
+
+1.2. &quot;Contributor Version&quot;
+    means the combination of the Contributions of others (if any) used
+    by a Contributor and that particular Contributor&#x27;s Contribution.
+
+1.3. &quot;Contribution&quot;
+    means Covered Software of a particular Contributor.
+
+1.4. &quot;Covered Software&quot;
+    means Source Code Form to which the initial Contributor has attached
+    the notice in Exhibit A, the Executable Form of such Source Code
+    Form, and Modifications of such Source Code Form, in each case
+    including portions thereof.
+
+1.5. &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;
+    means
+
+    (a) that the initial Contributor has attached the notice described
+        in Exhibit B to the Covered Software; or
+
+    (b) that the Covered Software was made available under the terms of
+        version 1.1 or earlier of the License, but not also under the
+        terms of a Secondary License.
+
+1.6. &quot;Executable Form&quot;
+    means any form of the work other than Source Code Form.
+
+1.7. &quot;Larger Work&quot;
+    means a work that combines Covered Software with other material, in 
+    a separate file or files, that is not Covered Software.
+
+1.8. &quot;License&quot;
+    means this document.
+
+1.9. &quot;Licensable&quot;
+    means having the right to grant, to the maximum extent possible,
+    whether at the time of the initial grant or subsequently, any and
+    all of the rights conveyed by this License.
+
+1.10. &quot;Modifications&quot;
+    means any of the following:
+
+    (a) any file in Source Code Form that results from an addition to,
+        deletion from, or modification of the contents of Covered
+        Software; or
+
+    (b) any new file in Source Code Form that contains any Covered
+        Software.
+
+1.11. &quot;Patent Claims&quot; of a Contributor
+    means any patent claim(s), including without limitation, method,
+    process, and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by such
+    Contributor that would be infringed, but for the grant of the
+    License, by the making, using, selling, offering for sale, having
+    made, import, or transfer of either its Contributions or its
+    Contributor Version.
+
+1.12. &quot;Secondary License&quot;
+    means either the GNU General Public License, Version 2.0, the GNU
+    Lesser General Public License, Version 2.1, the GNU Affero General
+    Public License, Version 3.0, or any later versions of those
+    licenses.
+
+1.13. &quot;Source Code Form&quot;
+    means the form of the work preferred for making modifications.
+
+1.14. &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;)
+    means an individual or a legal entity exercising rights under this
+    License. For legal entities, &quot;You&quot; includes any entity that
+    controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with You. For
+    purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (a) the power, direct
+    or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity,
+    whether by contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than
+    fifty percent (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial
+    ownership of such entity.
+
+2. License Grants and Conditions
+--------------------------------
+
+2.1. Grants
+
+Each Contributor hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+non-exclusive license:
+
+(a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or trademark)
+    Licensable by such Contributor to use, reproduce, make available,
+    modify, display, perform, distribute, and otherwise exploit its
+    Contributions, either on an unmodified basis, with Modifications, or
+    as part of a Larger Work; and
+
+(b) under Patent Claims of such Contributor to make, use, sell, offer
+    for sale, have made, import, and otherwise transfer either its
+    Contributions or its Contributor Version.
+
+2.2. Effective Date
+
+The licenses granted in Section 2.1 with respect to any Contribution
+become effective for each Contribution on the date the Contributor first
+distributes such Contribution.
+
+2.3. Limitations on Grant Scope
+
+The licenses granted in this Section 2 are the only rights granted under
+this License. No additional rights or licenses will be implied from the
+distribution or licensing of Covered Software under this License.
+Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is granted by a
+Contributor:
+
+(a) for any code that a Contributor has removed from Covered Software;
+    or
+
+(b) for infringements caused by: (i) Your and any other third party&#x27;s
+    modifications of Covered Software, or (ii) the combination of its
+    Contributions with other software (except as part of its Contributor
+    Version); or
+
+(c) under Patent Claims infringed by Covered Software in the absence of
+    its Contributions.
+
+This License does not grant any rights in the trademarks, service marks,
+or logos of any Contributor (except as may be necessary to comply with
+the notice requirements in Section 3.4).
+
+2.4. Subsequent Licenses
+
+No Contributor makes additional grants as a result of Your choice to
+distribute the Covered Software under a subsequent version of this
+License (see Section 10.2) or under the terms of a Secondary License (if
+permitted under the terms of Section 3.3).
+
+2.5. Representation
+
+Each Contributor represents that the Contributor believes its
+Contributions are its original creation(s) or it has sufficient rights
+to grant the rights to its Contributions conveyed by this License.
+
+2.6. Fair Use
+
+This License is not intended to limit any rights You have under
+applicable copyright doctrines of fair use, fair dealing, or other
+equivalents.
+
+2.7. Conditions
+
+Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are conditions of the licenses granted
+in Section 2.1.
+
+3. Responsibilities
+-------------------
+
+3.1. Distribution of Source Form
+
+All distribution of Covered Software in Source Code Form, including any
+Modifications that You create or to which You contribute, must be under
+the terms of this License. You must inform recipients that the Source
+Code Form of the Covered Software is governed by the terms of this
+License, and how they can obtain a copy of this License. You may not
+attempt to alter or restrict the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code
+Form.
+
+3.2. Distribution of Executable Form
+
+If You distribute Covered Software in Executable Form then:
+
+(a) such Covered Software must also be made available in Source Code
+    Form, as described in Section 3.1, and You must inform recipients of
+    the Executable Form how they can obtain a copy of such Source Code
+    Form by reasonable means in a timely manner, at a charge no more
+    than the cost of distribution to the recipient; and
+
+(b) You may distribute such Executable Form under the terms of this
+    License, or sublicense it under different terms, provided that the
+    license for the Executable Form does not attempt to limit or alter
+    the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code Form under this License.
+
+3.3. Distribution of a Larger Work
+
+You may create and distribute a Larger Work under terms of Your choice,
+provided that You also comply with the requirements of this License for
+the Covered Software. If the Larger Work is a combination of Covered
+Software with a work governed by one or more Secondary Licenses, and the
+Covered Software is not Incompatible With Secondary Licenses, this
+License permits You to additionally distribute such Covered Software
+under the terms of such Secondary License(s), so that the recipient of
+the Larger Work may, at their option, further distribute the Covered
+Software under the terms of either this License or such Secondary
+License(s).
+
+3.4. Notices
+
+You may not remove or alter the substance of any license notices
+(including copyright notices, patent notices, disclaimers of warranty,
+or limitations of liability) contained within the Source Code Form of
+the Covered Software, except that You may alter any license notices to
+the extent required to remedy known factual inaccuracies.
+
+3.5. Application of Additional Terms
+
+You may choose to offer, and to charge a fee for, warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability obligations to one or more recipients of Covered
+Software. However, You may do so only on Your own behalf, and not on
+behalf of any Contributor. You must make it absolutely clear that any
+such warranty, support, indemnity, or liability obligation is offered by
+You alone, and You hereby agree to indemnify every Contributor for any
+liability incurred by such Contributor as a result of warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability terms You offer. You may include additional
+disclaimers of warranty and limitations of liability specific to any
+jurisdiction.
+
+4. Inability to Comply Due to Statute or Regulation
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+If it is impossible for You to comply with any of the terms of this
+License with respect to some or all of the Covered Software due to
+statute, judicial order, or regulation then You must: (a) comply with
+the terms of this License to the maximum extent possible; and (b)
+describe the limitations and the code they affect. Such description must
+be placed in a text file included with all distributions of the Covered
+Software under this License. Except to the extent prohibited by statute
+or regulation, such description must be sufficiently detailed for a
+recipient of ordinary skill to be able to understand it.
+
+5. Termination
+--------------
+
+5.1. The rights granted under this License will terminate automatically
+if You fail to comply with any of its terms. However, if You become
+compliant, then the rights granted under this License from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until such
+Contributor explicitly and finally terminates Your grants, and (b) on an
+ongoing basis, if such Contributor fails to notify You of the
+non-compliance by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after You have
+come back into compliance. Moreover, Your grants from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated on an ongoing basis if such Contributor
+notifies You of the non-compliance by some reasonable means, this is the
+first time You have received notice of non-compliance with this License
+from such Contributor, and You become compliant prior to 30 days after
+Your receipt of the notice.
+
+5.2. If You initiate litigation against any entity by asserting a patent
+infringement claim (excluding declaratory judgment actions,
+counter-claims, and cross-claims) alleging that a Contributor Version
+directly or indirectly infringes any patent, then the rights granted to
+You by any and all Contributors for the Covered Software under Section
+2.1 of this License shall terminate.
+
+5.3. In the event of termination under Sections 5.1 or 5.2 above, all
+end user license agreements (excluding distributors and resellers) which
+have been validly granted by You or Your distributors under this License
+prior to termination shall survive termination.
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  6. Disclaimer of Warranty                                           *
+*  -------------------------                                           *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Covered Software is provided under this License on an &quot;as is&quot;       *
+*  basis, without warranty of any kind, either expressed, implied, or  *
+*  statutory, including, without limitation, warranties that the       *
+*  Covered Software is free of defects, merchantable, fit for a        *
+*  particular purpose or non-infringing. The entire risk as to the     *
+*  quality and performance of the Covered Software is with You.        *
+*  Should any Covered Software prove defective in any respect, You     *
+*  (not any Contributor) assume the cost of any necessary servicing,   *
+*  repair, or correction. This disclaimer of warranty constitutes an   *
+*  essential part of this License. No use of any Covered Software is   *
+*  authorized under this License except under this disclaimer.         *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  7. Limitation of Liability                                          *
+*  --------------------------                                          *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Under no circumstances and under no legal theory, whether tort      *
+*  (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, shall any           *
+*  Contributor, or anyone who distributes Covered Software as          *
+*  permitted above, be liable to You for any direct, indirect,         *
+*  special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character      *
+*  including, without limitation, damages for lost profits, loss of    *
+*  goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any    *
+*  and all other commercial damages or losses, even if such party      *
+*  shall have been informed of the possibility of such damages. This   *
+*  limitation of liability shall not apply to liability for death or   *
+*  personal injury resulting from such party&#x27;s negligence to the       *
+*  extent applicable law prohibits such limitation. Some               *
+*  jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of           *
+*  incidental or consequential damages, so this exclusion and          *
+*  limitation may not apply to You.                                    *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+8. Litigation
+-------------
+
+Any litigation relating to this License may be brought only in the
+courts of a jurisdiction where the defendant maintains its principal
+place of business and such litigation shall be governed by laws of that
+jurisdiction, without reference to its conflict-of-law provisions.
+Nothing in this Section shall prevent a party&#x27;s ability to bring
+cross-claims or counter-claims.
+
+9. Miscellaneous
+----------------
+
+This License represents the complete agreement concerning the subject
+matter hereof. If any provision of this License is held to be
+unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
+necessary to make it enforceable. Any law or regulation which provides
+that the language of a contract shall be construed against the drafter
+shall not be used to construe this License against a Contributor.
+
+10. Versions of the License
+---------------------------
+
+10.1. New Versions
+
+Mozilla Foundation is the license steward. Except as provided in Section
+10.3, no one other than the license steward has the right to modify or
+publish new versions of this License. Each version will be given a
+distinguishing version number.
+
+10.2. Effect of New Versions
+
+You may distribute the Covered Software under the terms of the version
+of the License under which You originally received the Covered Software,
+or under the terms of any subsequent version published by the license
+steward.
+
+10.3. Modified Versions
+
+If you create software not governed by this License, and you want to
+create a new license for such software, you may create and use a
+modified version of this License if you rename the license and remove
+any references to the name of the license steward (except to note that
+such modified license differs from this License).
+
+10.4. Distributing Source Code Form that is Incompatible With Secondary
+Licenses
+
+If You choose to distribute Source Code Form that is Incompatible With
+Secondary Licenses under the terms of this version of the License, the
+notice described in Exhibit B of this License must be attached.
+
+Exhibit A - Source Code Form License Notice
+-------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
+  License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
+  file, You can obtain one at https://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
+
+If it is not possible or desirable to put the notice in a particular
+file, then You may include the notice in a location (such as a LICENSE
+file in a relevant directory) where a recipient would be likely to look
+for such a notice.
+
+You may add additional accurate notices of copyright ownership.
+
+Exhibit B - &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot; Notice
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;, as
+  defined by the Mozilla Public License, v. 2.0.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Unicode-3.0">Unicode License v3</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/unicode-ident ">unicode-ident 1.0.24</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">UNICODE LICENSE V3
+
+COPYRIGHT AND PERMISSION NOTICE
+
+Copyright © 1991-2023 Unicode, Inc.
+
+NOTICE TO USER: Carefully read the following legal agreement. BY
+DOWNLOADING, INSTALLING, COPYING OR OTHERWISE USING DATA FILES, AND/OR
+SOFTWARE, YOU UNEQUIVOCALLY ACCEPT, AND AGREE TO BE BOUND BY, ALL OF THE
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE, DO NOT
+DOWNLOAD, INSTALL, COPY, DISTRIBUTE OR USE THE DATA FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+copy of data files and any associated documentation (the &quot;Data Files&quot;) or
+software and any associated documentation (the &quot;Software&quot;) to deal in the
+Data Files or Software without restriction, including without limitation
+the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, and/or sell
+copies of the Data Files or Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+Data Files or Software are furnished to do so, provided that either (a)
+this copyright and permission notice appear with all copies of the Data
+Files or Software, or (b) this copyright and permission notice appear in
+associated Documentation.
+
+THE DATA FILES AND SOFTWARE ARE PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY
+KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT OF
+THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR HOLDERS INCLUDED IN THIS NOTICE
+BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, OR ANY SPECIAL INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES,
+OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION,
+ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE DATA
+FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Except as contained in this notice, the name of a copyright holder shall
+not be used in advertising or otherwise to promote the sale, use or other
+dealings in these Data Files or Software without prior written
+authorization of the copyright holder.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Unicode-3.0">Unicode License v3</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_collections 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_locale_core 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_normalizer 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_normalizer_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_properties 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_properties_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_provider 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">litemap 0.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">potential_utf 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">tinystr 0.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">writeable 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">yoke-derive 0.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">yoke 0.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerofrom-derive 0.1.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerofrom 0.1.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerotrie 0.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerovec-derive 0.11.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerovec 0.11.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">UNICODE LICENSE V3
+
+COPYRIGHT AND PERMISSION NOTICE
+
+Copyright © 2020-2024 Unicode, Inc.
+
+NOTICE TO USER: Carefully read the following legal agreement. BY
+DOWNLOADING, INSTALLING, COPYING OR OTHERWISE USING DATA FILES, AND/OR
+SOFTWARE, YOU UNEQUIVOCALLY ACCEPT, AND AGREE TO BE BOUND BY, ALL OF THE
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE, DO NOT
+DOWNLOAD, INSTALL, COPY, DISTRIBUTE OR USE THE DATA FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+copy of data files and any associated documentation (the &quot;Data Files&quot;) or
+software and any associated documentation (the &quot;Software&quot;) to deal in the
+Data Files or Software without restriction, including without limitation
+the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, and/or sell
+copies of the Data Files or Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+Data Files or Software are furnished to do so, provided that either (a)
+this copyright and permission notice appear with all copies of the Data
+Files or Software, or (b) this copyright and permission notice appear in
+associated Documentation.
+
+THE DATA FILES AND SOFTWARE ARE PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY
+KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT OF
+THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR HOLDERS INCLUDED IN THIS NOTICE
+BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, OR ANY SPECIAL INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES,
+OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION,
+ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE DATA
+FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Except as contained in this notice, the name of a copyright holder shall
+not be used in advertising or otherwise to promote the sale, use or other
+dealings in these Data Files or Software without prior written
+authorization of the copyright holder.
+
+SPDX-License-Identifier: Unicode-3.0
+
+—
+
+Portions of ICU4X may have been adapted from ICU4C and/or ICU4J.
+ICU 1.8.1 to ICU 57.1 © 1995-2016 International Business Machines Corporation and others.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/trifectatechfoundation/zlib-rs ">zlib-rs 0.6.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">(C) 2024 Trifecta Tech Foundation 
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied
+warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/const_panic/ ">const_panic 0.2.15</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/konst/ ">konst 0.4.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/konst/ ">konst_proc_macros 0.4.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2021 Matias Rodriguez.
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied
+warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/typewit/ ">typewit 1.15.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2023 Matias Rodriguez.
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied
+warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/orlp/foldhash ">foldhash 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/orlp/foldhash ">foldhash 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2024 Orson Peters
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied warranty. In
+no event will the authors be held liable for any damages arising from the use of
+this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose, including
+commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it freely, subject to
+the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not claim
+    that you wrote the original software. If you use this software in a product,
+    an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is
+    not required.
+
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+    misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.</pre>
+            </li>
+        </ul>
+    </main>
+</body>
+
+</html>
diff --git a/java/dev/checkstyle.xml b/java/dev/checkstyle.xml
index dd5fe8cab62..9a0e1f5fb1a 100644
--- a/java/dev/checkstyle.xml
+++ b/java/dev/checkstyle.xml
@@ -134,6 +134,9 @@
         <module name="CommentsIndentation"/>
         <module name="UnusedImports"/>
         <module name="RedundantImport"/>
+        <module name="AvoidStarImport">
+            <property name="allowStaticMemberImports" value="true"/>
+        </module>
         <module name="RedundantModifier"/>
         <module name="RegexpSinglelineJava">
             <property name="format" value="throw new \w+Error\("/>
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/Cargo.lock b/java/lance-jni/Cargo.lock
index 3193de8daa4..323d8db448a 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/Cargo.lock
+++ b/java/lance-jni/Cargo.lock
@@ -14,9 +14,9 @@ version = "0.8.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b169f7a6d4742236a0a00c541b845991d0ac43e546831af1249753ab4c3aa3a0"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "cipher",
- "cpufeatures",
+ "cpufeatures 0.2.17",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ version = "0.8.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "5a15f179cd60c4584b8a8c596927aadc462e27f2ca70c04e0071964a73ba7a75"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "const-random",
  "getrandom 0.3.4",
  "once_cell",
@@ -42,21 +42,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "alloc-no-stdlib"
-version = "2.0.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cc7bb162ec39d46ab1ca8c77bf72e890535becd1751bb45f64c597edb4c8c6b3"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "alloc-stdlib"
-version = "0.2.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "94fb8275041c72129eb51b7d0322c29b8387a0386127718b096429201a5d6ece"
-dependencies = [
- "alloc-no-stdlib",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "allocator-api2"
 version = "0.2.21"
@@ -74,9 +59,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstream"
-version = "0.6.21"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "43d5b281e737544384e969a5ccad3f1cdd24b48086a0fc1b2a5262a26b8f4f4a"
+checksum = "824a212faf96e9acacdbd09febd34438f8f711fb84e09a8916013cd7815ca28d"
 dependencies = [
  "anstyle",
  "anstyle-parse",
@@ -89,15 +74,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle"
-version = "1.0.13"
+version = "1.0.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5192cca8006f1fd4f7237516f40fa183bb07f8fbdfedaa0036de5ea9b0b45e78"
+checksum = "940b3a0ca603d1eade50a4846a2afffd5ef57a9feac2c0e2ec2e14f9ead76000"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle-parse"
-version = "0.2.7"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4e7644824f0aa2c7b9384579234ef10eb7efb6a0deb83f9630a49594dd9c15c2"
+checksum = "52ce7f38b242319f7cabaa6813055467063ecdc9d355bbb4ce0c68908cd8130e"
 dependencies = [
  "utf8parse",
 ]
@@ -124,9 +109,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anyhow"
-version = "1.0.101"
+version = "1.0.104"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5f0e0fee31ef5ed1ba1316088939cea399010ed7731dba877ed44aeb407a75ea"
+checksum = "330a5ed07fa54e4702c9d6c4174f74427fc0ef6e214bbd677ae50a5099946470"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "approx"
@@ -139,9 +124,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arc-swap"
-version = "1.8.1"
+version = "1.9.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9ded5f9a03ac8f24d1b8a25101ee812cd32cdc8c50a4c50237de2c4915850e73"
+checksum = "c049c0be4daef0b145cb3555416b3b8ef5b7888a38aea1a3a155801fe7b0810b"
 dependencies = [
  "rustversion",
 ]
@@ -160,9 +145,9 @@ checksum = "7c02d123df017efcdfbd739ef81735b36c5ba83ec3c59c80a9d7ecc718f92e50"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a2b10dcb159faf30d3f81f6d56c1211a5bea2ca424eabe477648a44b993320e"
+checksum = "6cfdd0833e32a9874d2b55089333ad310c0be208aafa277385ce2461dec90be3"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -181,9 +166,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-arith"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "288015089e7931843c80ed4032c5274f02b37bcb720c4a42096d50b390e70372"
+checksum = "0a41203398f0eaa6f7ec8e62c0da742a21abf282c148fc157f6c35c90e29981a"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -195,9 +180,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-array"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "65ca404ea6191e06bf30956394173337fa9c35f445bd447fe6c21ab944e1a23c"
+checksum = "ae33dad492b7df00a217563a7b0ef2874df68a0deea1b1a3acf628152f7f7a69"
 dependencies = [
  "ahash",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -206,7 +191,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "chrono",
  "chrono-tz",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
  "num-complex",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
@@ -214,9 +199,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-buffer"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "36356383099be0151dacc4245309895f16ba7917d79bdb71a7148659c9206c56"
+checksum = "b9552f96391c005e6ab449fa941420935e7e062489b12b8b1b08879b2163f5b5"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "half",
@@ -226,9 +211,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-cast"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9c8e372ed52bd4ee88cc1e6c3859aa7ecea204158ac640b10e187936e7e87074"
+checksum = "3a8a327c9649f30d8406995f27642b68df354713cca3baaaf100f076f18d5f34"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -237,7 +222,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
  "atoi",
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "chrono",
  "comfy-table",
  "half",
@@ -248,9 +233,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-csv"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8e4100b729fe656f2e4fb32bc5884f14acf9118d4ad532b7b33c1132e4dce896"
+checksum = "af0dd6d90d1955e9f9a014c1e563ee8aeffc21909085d25623e1da44d96eca26"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-cast",
@@ -263,9 +248,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-data"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bf87f4ff5fc13290aa47e499a8b669a82c5977c6a1fedce22c7f542c1fd5a597"
+checksum = "2b24852db04738907e06c04ea61e42fe7fda962a34513022dc0d0e754fb7976b"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-schema",
@@ -276,9 +261,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-ipc"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eb3ca63edd2073fcb42ba112f8ae165df1de935627ead6e203d07c99445f2081"
+checksum = "29a908a11fcfb3fb2f6730f4ac15e367bc644e419155e96238f68cf3adde572b"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -286,24 +271,25 @@ dependencies = [
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
  "flatbuffers",
- "lz4_flex 0.12.0",
+ "lz4_flex",
  "zstd",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-json"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a36b2332559d3310ebe3e173f75b29989b4412df4029a26a30cc3f7da0869297"
+checksum = "b8a96aed3931c076adee39ec2a40d8219fc7f09e79bcdaca1df16272993e1e14"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
+ "arrow-select",
  "chrono",
  "half",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itoa",
  "lexical-core",
  "memchr",
@@ -316,9 +302,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-ord"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "13c4e0530272ca755d6814218dffd04425c5b7854b87fa741d5ff848bf50aa39"
+checksum = "63a083ec750f5c043f02946b4baf05fcdbb55f4560a3277055caca5cc99f3eb0"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -329,9 +315,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-row"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b07f52788744cc71c4628567ad834cadbaeb9f09026ff1d7a4120f69edf7abd3"
+checksum = "514ba0ef0d4c5896202dae736251ce415abb43a950bed570fb7981b8716c0e4c"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -342,20 +328,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-schema"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6bb63203e8e0e54b288d0d8043ca8fa1013820822a27692ef1b78a977d879f2c"
+checksum = "21ca356ad6425cecb6eb7b28e4f659f1ee7880fbb1a16127de7dd62901efee9e"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "serde_core",
  "serde_json",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-select"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c96d8a1c180b44ecf2e66c9a2f2bbcb8b1b6f14e165ce46ac8bde211a363411b"
+checksum = "c58da39eb3d8350ad4a549e5c2bc49284dac554016c69829310350f1731b0aad"
 dependencies = [
  "ahash",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -367,9 +353,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-string"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a8ad6a81add9d3ea30bf8374ee8329992c7fd246ffd8b7e2f48a3cea5aa0cc9a"
+checksum = "b6789b388467525e3271326b6b4915666ecfdf5142aef09779445c954b67543c"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -396,9 +382,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "async-compression"
-version = "0.4.37"
+version = "0.4.42"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d10e4f991a553474232bc0a31799f6d24b034a84c0971d80d2e2f78b2e576e40"
+checksum = "e79b3f8a79cccc2898f31920fc69f304859b3bd567490f75ebf51ae1c792a9ac"
 dependencies = [
  "compression-codecs",
  "compression-core",
@@ -425,18 +411,18 @@ checksum = "3b43422f69d8ff38f95f1b2bb76517c91589a924d1559a0e935d7c8ce0274c11"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "async-trait"
-version = "0.1.89"
+version = "0.1.91"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9035ad2d096bed7955a320ee7e2230574d28fd3c3a0f186cbea1ff3c7eed5dbb"
+checksum = "ae36dc4177970ef04fde5178d3e2429882def40e57a451f919c098f72baa6cec"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 3.0.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -448,6 +434,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "loom",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "asyncband"
+version = "0.7.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f2d85fd3d291fabcc40c7232c92c280ec1754fd7b5d7ea769f143222143e179a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "atoi"
 version = "2.0.0"
@@ -465,15 +457,15 @@ checksum = "1505bd5d3d116872e7271a6d4e16d81d0c8570876c8de68093a09ac269d8aac0"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "autocfg"
-version = "1.5.0"
+version = "1.5.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c08606f8c3cbf4ce6ec8e28fb0014a2c086708fe954eaa885384a6165172e7e8"
+checksum = "f2032f911046de80f0a198e0901378627c33f59ea0ac00e363d481118bd70a53"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-config"
-version = "1.8.13"
+version = "1.8.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c456581cb3c77fafcc8c67204a70680d40b61112d6da78c77bd31d945b65f1b5"
+checksum = "8a8fc176d53d6fe85017f230405e3255cedb4a02221cb55ed6d76dccbbb099b2"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -490,7 +482,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "fastrand",
  "hex",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "ring",
  "time",
  "tokio",
@@ -501,9 +493,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-credential-types"
-version = "1.2.11"
+version = "1.2.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3cd362783681b15d136480ad555a099e82ecd8e2d10a841e14dfd0078d67fee3"
+checksum = "6d203b0bf2626dcba8665f5cd0871d7c2c0930223d6b6be9097592fea21242d0"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
@@ -513,9 +505,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-lc-rs"
-version = "1.15.4"
+version = "1.18.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7b7b6141e96a8c160799cc2d5adecd5cbbe5054cb8c7c4af53da0f83bb7ad256"
+checksum = "b281d307588d634de920874890732659e2e7672f72b5e10e81badc1a8a83621e"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-lc-sys",
  "zeroize",
@@ -523,21 +515,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-lc-sys"
-version = "0.37.0"
+version = "0.45.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5c34dda4df7017c8db52132f0f8a2e0f8161649d15723ed63fc00c82d0f2081a"
+checksum = "9bff6c3b54fad79a2e60b8102caf565819711497c1f5f092f49508e2f5c31b27"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
  "cmake",
  "dunce",
  "fs_extra",
+ "pkg-config",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-runtime"
-version = "1.6.0"
+version = "1.7.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c635c2dc792cb4a11ce1a4f392a925340d1bdf499289b5ec1ec6810954eb43f5"
+checksum = "ede2ddc593e6c8acc6ce3358c28d6677a6dc49b65ba4b37a2befe14a11297e75"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-sigv4",
@@ -548,8 +541,9 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "aws-types",
  "bytes",
+ "bytes-utils",
  "fastrand",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "percent-encoding",
  "pin-project-lite",
@@ -559,9 +553,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-sso"
-version = "1.93.0"
+version = "1.95.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9dcb38bb33fc0a11f1ffc3e3e85669e0a11a37690b86f77e75306d8f369146a0"
+checksum = "00c5ff27c6ba2cbd95e6e26e2e736676fdf6bcf96495b187733f521cfe4ce448"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -576,16 +570,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-ssooidc"
-version = "1.95.0"
+version = "1.97.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2ada8ffbea7bd1be1f53df1dadb0f8fdb04badb13185b3321b929d1ee3caad09"
+checksum = "4d186f1e5a3694a188e5a0640b3115ccc6e084d104e16fd6ba968dca072ffef8"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -600,16 +594,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-sts"
-version = "1.97.0"
+version = "1.99.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e6443ccadc777095d5ed13e21f5c364878c9f5bad4e35187a6cdbd863b0afcad"
+checksum = "9acba7c62f3d4e2408fa998a3a8caacd8b9a5b5549cf36e2372fbdae329d5449"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -625,16 +619,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-types",
  "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sigv4"
-version = "1.3.8"
+version = "1.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "efa49f3c607b92daae0c078d48a4571f599f966dce3caee5f1ea55c4d9073f99"
+checksum = "37411f8e0f4bea0c3ca0958ce7f18f6439db24d555dbd809787262cd00926aa9"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-smithy-http",
@@ -643,20 +637,20 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "form_urlencoded",
  "hex",
- "hmac",
+ "hmac 0.12.1",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "percent-encoding",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "time",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-async"
-version = "1.2.11"
+version = "1.2.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "52eec3db979d18cb807fc1070961cc51d87d069abe9ab57917769687368a8c6c"
+checksum = "5cc50d0f63e714784b84223abd7abbc8577de8c35d699e0edd19f0a88a08ae13"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-util",
  "pin-project-lite",
@@ -665,9 +659,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-http"
-version = "0.63.3"
+version = "0.63.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "630e67f2a31094ffa51b210ae030855cb8f3b7ee1329bdd8d085aaf61e8b97fc"
+checksum = "d619373d490ad70966994801bc126846afaa0d1ee920697a031f0cf63f2568e7"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
  "aws-smithy-types",
@@ -675,7 +669,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes-utils",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "percent-encoding",
@@ -686,15 +680,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-http-client"
-version = "1.1.9"
+version = "1.1.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "12fb0abf49ff0cab20fd31ac1215ed7ce0ea92286ba09e2854b42ba5cabe7525"
+checksum = "00ccbb08c10f6bcf912f398188e42ee2eab5f1767ce215a02a73bc5df1bbdd95"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "h2",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "hyper",
  "hyper-rustls",
  "hyper-util",
@@ -710,27 +704,27 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-json"
-version = "0.62.3"
+version = "0.62.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3cb96aa208d62ee94104645f7b2ecaf77bf27edf161590b6224bfbac2832f979"
+checksum = "27b3a779093e18cad88bbae08dc4261e1d95018c4c5b9356a52bcae7c0b6e9bb"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-observability"
-version = "0.2.4"
+version = "0.2.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c0a46543fbc94621080b3cf553eb4cbbdc41dd9780a30c4756400f0139440a1d"
+checksum = "4d3f39d5bb871aaf461d59144557f16d5927a5248a983a40654d9cf3b9ba183b"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-query"
-version = "0.60.13"
+version = "0.60.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0cebbddb6f3a5bd81553643e9c7daf3cc3dc5b0b5f398ac668630e8a84e6fff0"
+checksum = "05f76a580e3d8f8961e5d48763214025a2af65c2fa4cd1fb7f270a0e107a71b0"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "urlencoding",
@@ -738,9 +732,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-runtime"
-version = "1.10.0"
+version = "1.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f3df87c14f0127a0d77eb261c3bc45d5b4833e2a1f63583ebfb728e4852134ee"
+checksum = "22ccf7f6eba8b2dcf8ce9b74806c6c185659c311665c4bf8d6e71ebd454db6bf"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-http",
@@ -751,7 +745,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 0.4.6",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
@@ -763,15 +757,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-runtime-api"
-version = "1.11.3"
+version = "1.11.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "49952c52f7eebb72ce2a754d3866cc0f87b97d2a46146b79f80f3a93fb2b3716"
+checksum = "b4af6e5def28be846479bbeac55aa4603d6f7986fc5da4601ba324dd5d377516"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "bytes",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
@@ -780,15 +774,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-types"
-version = "1.4.3"
+version = "1.4.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3b3a26048eeab0ddeba4b4f9d51654c79af8c3b32357dc5f336cee85ab331c33"
+checksum = "8ca2734c16913a45343b37313605d84e7d8b34a4611598ce1d25b35860a2bed3"
 dependencies = [
  "base64-simd",
  "bytes",
  "bytes-utils",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 0.4.6",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
@@ -803,18 +797,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-xml"
-version = "0.60.13"
+version = "0.60.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "11b2f670422ff42bf7065031e72b45bc52a3508bd089f743ea90731ca2b6ea57"
+checksum = "b53543b4b86ed43f051644f704a98c7291b3618b67adf057ee77a366fa52fcaa"
 dependencies = [
  "xmlparser",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-types"
-version = "1.3.11"
+version = "1.3.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1d980627d2dd7bfc32a3c025685a033eeab8d365cc840c631ef59d1b8f428164"
+checksum = "0470cc047657c6e286346bdf10a8719d26efd6a91626992e0e64481e44323e96"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-smithy-async",
@@ -834,7 +828,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "axum-core",
  "bytes",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "hyper",
@@ -867,7 +861,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "bytes",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "mime",
@@ -896,6 +890,12 @@ version = "0.22.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "72b3254f16251a8381aa12e40e3c4d2f0199f8c6508fbecb9d91f575e0fbb8c6"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "base64"
+version = "0.23.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b25655df2c3cdd83c5e5b293b88acd880332b2ddadd7c30ac43144fdc0033da9"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "base64-simd"
 version = "0.8.0"
@@ -927,24 +927,21 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitflags"
-version = "2.10.0"
+version = "1.3.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "812e12b5285cc515a9c72a5c1d3b6d46a19dac5acfef5265968c166106e31dd3"
+checksum = "bef38d45163c2f1dde094a7dfd33ccf595c92905c8f8f4fdc18d06fb1037718a"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bitpacking"
-version = "0.9.3"
+name = "bitflags"
+version = "2.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "96a7139abd3d9cebf8cd6f920a389cf3dc9576172e32f4563f188cae3c3eb019"
-dependencies = [
- "crunchy",
-]
+checksum = "b4388bee8683e3d04af747c73422af53102d2bd24d9eadb6cbc100baef4b43f8"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitvec"
-version = "1.0.1"
+version = "1.1.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1bc2832c24239b0141d5674bb9174f9d68a8b5b3f2753311927c172ca46f7e9c"
+checksum = "ddcec3d12c579d40898fe0a9a358a803c23e9c52ca3c425707f81c9436211837"
 dependencies = [
  "funty",
  "radium",
@@ -958,21 +955,21 @@ version = "0.10.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "46502ad458c9a52b69d4d4d32775c788b7a1b85e8bc9d482d92250fc0e3f8efe"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "blake3"
-version = "1.8.3"
+version = "1.8.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2468ef7d57b3fb7e16b576e8377cdbde2320c60e1491e961d11da40fc4f02a2d"
+checksum = "0aa83c34e62843d924f905e0f5c866eb1dd6545fc4d719e803d9ba6030371fce"
 dependencies = [
  "arrayref",
  "arrayvec",
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "constant_time_eq",
- "cpufeatures",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -984,6 +981,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "generic-array",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "block-buffer"
+version = "0.12.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d2f6c7dbe95a6ed67ad9f18e57daf93a2f034c524b99fd2b76d18fdfeb6660aa"
+dependencies = [
+ "hybrid-array",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "block-padding"
 version = "0.3.3"
@@ -994,62 +1000,79 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bon"
-version = "3.8.2"
+name = "bs58"
+version = "0.5.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "234655ec178edd82b891e262ea7cf71f6584bcd09eff94db786be23f1821825c"
+checksum = "bf88ba1141d185c399bee5288d850d63b8369520c1eafc32a0430b5b6c287bf4"
 dependencies = [
- "bon-macros",
- "rustversion",
+ "tinyvec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bon-macros"
-version = "3.8.2"
+name = "bstr"
+version = "1.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "89ec27229c38ed0eb3c0feee3d2c1d6a4379ae44f418a29a658890e062d8f365"
+checksum = "63044e1ae8e69f3b5a92c736ca6269b8d12fa7efe39bf34ddb06d102cf0e2cab"
 dependencies = [
- "darling",
- "ident_case",
- "prettyplease",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "memchr",
+ "regex-automata",
+ "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "brotli"
-version = "8.0.2"
+name = "bumpalo"
+version = "3.20.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "72f5acc6cb2ba439de613abc23857ec3d78374d8ed5ac84e9d11336e87da8649"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "bytecheck"
+version = "0.8.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4bd8b9603c7aa97359dbd97ecf258968c95f3adddd6db2f7e7a5bef101c84560"
+checksum = "26333eeac754f0ad8a6bcd0eb0ac012156302e4e16b852b72ee399aea4f12c29"
 dependencies = [
- "alloc-no-stdlib",
- "alloc-stdlib",
- "brotli-decompressor",
+ "bytecheck_derive",
+ "ptr_meta",
+ "rancor",
+ "simdutf8",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "brotli-decompressor"
-version = "5.0.0"
+name = "bytecheck_derive"
+version = "0.8.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "874bb8112abecc98cbd6d81ea4fa7e94fb9449648c93cc89aa40c81c24d7de03"
+checksum = "46d07918caa9eeaaf06b7873925c53a61daac173539b4f7715090745e44e4e69"
 dependencies = [
- "alloc-no-stdlib",
- "alloc-stdlib",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 3.0.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bumpalo"
-version = "3.19.1"
+name = "bytecount"
+version = "0.6.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5dd9dc738b7a8311c7ade152424974d8115f2cdad61e8dab8dac9f2362298510"
+checksum = "175812e0be2bccb6abe50bb8d566126198344f707e304f45c648fd8f2cc0365e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bytemuck"
-version = "1.25.0"
+version = "1.25.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "95832e849adfb21180ccb6826a99da14e5d266ae5c2e668e1602cf234f153797"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytemuck_derive",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "bytemuck_derive"
+version = "1.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c8efb64bd706a16a1bdde310ae86b351e4d21550d98d056f22f8a7f7a2183fec"
+checksum = "f9abbd1bc6865053c427f7198e6af43bfdedc55ab791faed4fbd361d789575ff"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "byteorder"
@@ -1059,9 +1082,9 @@ checksum = "1fd0f2584146f6f2ef48085050886acf353beff7305ebd1ae69500e27c67f64b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bytes"
-version = "1.11.1"
+version = "1.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e748733b7cbc798e1434b6ac524f0c1ff2ab456fe201501e6497c8417a4fc33"
+checksum = "fc652a48c352aef3ea3aed32080501cf3ef6ed5da78602a020c991775b0aff04"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bytes-utils"
@@ -1084,9 +1107,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cc"
-version = "1.2.55"
+version = "1.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "47b26a0954ae34af09b50f0de26458fa95369a0d478d8236d3f93082b219bd29"
+checksum = "c89588d05638b5b4594a3348a2d6c20277e43a7f5c5202b05cc56888475a47b8"
 dependencies = [
  "find-msvc-tools",
  "jobserver",
@@ -1095,10 +1118,13 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "census"
-version = "0.4.2"
+name = "cedarwood"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4f4c707c6a209cbe82d10abd08e1ea8995e9ea937d2550646e02798948992be0"
+checksum = "c0524a528a6a0288df1863c3c20fe92c301875b4941e7b6c4b394ab08c5a4c55"
+dependencies = [
+ "smallvec",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cesu8"
@@ -1106,6 +1132,12 @@ version = "1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6d43a04d8753f35258c91f8ec639f792891f748a1edbd759cf1dcea3382ad83c"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "cfg-if"
+version = "0.1.10"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "4785bdd1c96b2a846b2bd7cc02e86b6b3dbf14e7e53446c4f54c92a361040822"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "cfg-if"
 version = "1.0.4"
@@ -1118,11 +1150,22 @@ version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "613afe47fcd5fac7ccf1db93babcb082c5994d996f20b8b159f2ad1658eb5724"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "chacha20"
+version = "0.10.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6f8d983286843e49675a4b7a2d174efe136dc93a18d69130dd18198a6c167601"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "chrono"
-version = "0.4.43"
+version = "0.4.45"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fac4744fb15ae8337dc853fee7fb3f4e48c0fbaa23d0afe49c447b4fab126118"
+checksum = "1aa79e62e7697b8e29b513a68abacf485adcd1fe8284a4316c5ae868e6633327"
 dependencies = [
  "iana-time-zone",
  "js-sys",
@@ -1139,7 +1182,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a6139a8597ed92cf816dfb33f5dd6cf0bb93a6adc938f11039f371bc5bcd26c3"
 dependencies = [
  "chrono",
- "phf",
+ "phf 0.12.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1148,24 +1191,39 @@ version = "0.4.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "773f3b9af64447d2ce9850330c473515014aa235e6a783b02db81ff39e4a3dad"
 dependencies = [
- "crypto-common",
+ "crypto-common 0.1.7",
  "inout",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cmake"
-version = "0.1.57"
+version = "0.1.58"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "75443c44cd6b379beb8c5b45d85d0773baf31cce901fe7bb252f4eff3008ef7d"
+checksum = "c0f78a02292a74a88ac736019ab962ece0bc380e3f977bf72e376c5d78ff0678"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "cmov"
+version = "0.5.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0c9ea0ac24bc397ab3c98583a3c9ba74fa56b09a4449bbe172b9b1ddb016027a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "colorchoice"
-version = "1.0.4"
+version = "1.0.5"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1d07550c9036bf2ae0c684c4297d503f838287c83c53686d05370d0e139ae570"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "colored"
+version = "3.1.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b05b61dc5112cbb17e4b6cd61790d9845d13888356391624cbe7e41efeac1e75"
+checksum = "faf9468729b8cbcea668e36183cb69d317348c2e08e994829fb56ebfdfbaac34"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "combine"
@@ -1189,9 +1247,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "compression-codecs"
-version = "0.4.36"
+version = "0.4.38"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "00828ba6fd27b45a448e57dbfe84f1029d4c9f26b368157e9a448a5f49a2ec2a"
+checksum = "ce2548391e9c1929c21bf6aa2680af86fe4c1b33e6cea9ac1cfeec0bd11218cf"
 dependencies = [
  "compression-core",
  "flate2",
@@ -1200,9 +1258,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "compression-core"
-version = "0.4.31"
+version = "0.4.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "75984efb6ed102a0d42db99afb6c1948f0380d1d91808d5529916e6c08b49d8d"
+checksum = "cc14f565cf027a105f7a44ccf9e5b424348421a1d8952a8fc9d499d313107789"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "concurrent-queue"
@@ -1219,6 +1277,12 @@ version = "0.9.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "c2459377285ad874054d797f3ccebf984978aa39129f6eafde5cdc8315b612f8"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "const-oid"
+version = "0.10.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a6ef517f0926dd24a1582492c791b6a4818a4d94e789a334894aa15b0d12f55c"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "const-random"
 version = "0.1.18"
@@ -1239,12 +1303,37 @@ dependencies = [
  "tiny-keccak",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "const-str"
+version = "1.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "18f12cc9948ed9604230cdddc7c86e270f9401ccbe3c2e98a4378c5e7632212f"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "const_panic"
+version = "0.2.15"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e262cdaac42494e3ae34c43969f9cdeb7da178bdb4b66fa6a1ea2edb4c8ae652"
+dependencies = [
+ "typewit",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "constant_time_eq"
 version = "0.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "3d52eff69cd5e647efe296129160853a42795992097e8af39800e1060caeea9b"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "core-foundation"
+version = "0.9.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "91e195e091a93c46f7102ec7818a2aa394e1e1771c3ab4825963fa03e45afb8f"
+dependencies = [
+ "core-foundation-sys",
+ "libc",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "core-foundation"
 version = "0.10.1"
@@ -1261,6 +1350,15 @@ version = "0.8.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "773648b94d0e5d620f64f280777445740e61fe701025087ec8b57f45c791888b"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "countio"
+version = "0.3.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b9702aee5d1d744c01d82f6915644f950f898e014903385464c773b96fefdecb"
+dependencies = [
+ "futures-io",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "cpufeatures"
 version = "0.2.17"
@@ -1271,12 +1369,22 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "crc32c"
-version = "0.6.8"
+name = "cpufeatures"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3a47af21622d091a8f0fb295b88bc886ac74efcc613efc19f5d0b21de5c89e47"
+checksum = "8b2a41393f66f16b0823bb79094d54ac5fbd34ab292ddafb9a0456ac9f87d201"
 dependencies = [
- "rustc_version",
+ "libc",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "crc-fast"
+version = "1.10.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e75b2483e97a5a7da73ac68a05b629f9c53cff58d8ed1c77866079e18b00dba5"
+dependencies = [
+ "digest 0.10.7",
+ "spin 0.10.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1285,7 +1393,7 @@ version = "1.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9481c1c90cbf2ac953f07c8d4a58aa3945c425b7185c9154d67a65e4230da511"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1309,18 +1417,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "crossbeam-epoch"
-version = "0.9.18"
+version = "0.9.20"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5b82ac4a3c2ca9c3460964f020e1402edd5753411d7737aa39c3714ad1b5420e"
+checksum = "2d6914041f254d6e9176c01941b21115dcfb7089e55135a35411081bd106ef3f"
 dependencies = [
  "crossbeam-utils",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "crossbeam-queue"
-version = "0.3.12"
+version = "0.3.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0f58bbc28f91df819d0aa2a2c00cd19754769c2fad90579b3592b1c9ba7a3115"
+checksum = "803d13fb3b09d88be9f4dbc29062c66b19bf7170867ceb746d2a8689bf6c7a26"
 dependencies = [
  "crossbeam-utils",
 ]
@@ -1357,6 +1465,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "typenum",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "crypto-common"
+version = "0.2.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ce6e4c961d6cd6c9a86db418387425e8bdeaf05b3c8bc1411e6dca4c252f1453"
+dependencies = [
+ "hybrid-array",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "csv"
 version = "1.4.0"
@@ -1378,14 +1495,63 @@ dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "ctor"
+version = "1.0.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "01334b89b69ff726750c5ce5073fc8bd860e99aa9a8fc5ca11b04730e3aee97a"
+dependencies = [
+ "link-section",
+ "linktime-proc-macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ctutils"
+version = "0.4.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7d5515a3834141de9eafb9717ad39eea8247b5674e6066c404e8c4b365d2a29e"
+dependencies = [
+ "cmov",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "daachorse"
+version = "2.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "db756b5eb7d81d31f31f660f4132f8cf5698de52fca144c143d0ae0cbb5f2e06"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "darling"
+version = "0.20.11"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "fc7f46116c46ff9ab3eb1597a45688b6715c6e628b5c133e288e709a29bcb4ee"
+dependencies = [
+ "darling_core 0.20.11",
+ "darling_macro 0.20.11",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "darling"
 version = "0.23.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "25ae13da2f202d56bd7f91c25fba009e7717a1e4a1cc98a76d844b65ae912e9d"
 dependencies = [
- "darling_core",
- "darling_macro",
+ "darling_core 0.23.0",
+ "darling_macro 0.23.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "darling_core"
+version = "0.20.11"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0d00b9596d185e565c2207a0b01f8bd1a135483d02d9b7b0a54b11da8d53412e"
+dependencies = [
+ "fnv",
+ "ident_case",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "strsim",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1398,7 +1564,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "strsim",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "darling_macro"
+version = "0.20.11"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "fc34b93ccb385b40dc71c6fceac4b2ad23662c7eeb248cf10d529b7e055b6ead"
+dependencies = [
+ "darling_core 0.20.11",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1407,18 +1584,18 @@ version = "0.23.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ac3984ec7bd6cfa798e62b4a642426a5be0e68f9401cfc2a01e3fa9ea2fcdb8d"
 dependencies = [
- "darling_core",
+ "darling_core 0.23.0",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "dashmap"
-version = "6.1.0"
+version = "6.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5041cc499144891f3790297212f32a74fb938e5136a14943f338ef9e0ae276cf"
+checksum = "e6361d5c062261c78a176addb82d4c821ae42bed6089de0e12603cd25de2059c"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "crossbeam-utils",
  "hashbrown 0.14.5",
  "lock_api",
@@ -1428,14 +1605,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8ba7cb113e9c0bedf9e9765926031e132fa05a1b09ba6e93a6d1a4d7044457b8"
+checksum = "754ef4e8f073922a26f5b23133b9db4829342362b09be0bc94309cf261c2f098"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
- "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-catalog",
  "datafusion-catalog-listing",
@@ -1445,7 +1621,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-datasource-arrow",
  "datafusion-datasource-csv",
  "datafusion-datasource-json",
- "datafusion-datasource-parquet",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
@@ -1463,14 +1638,11 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-session",
  "datafusion-sql",
  "futures",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "parking_lot",
- "parquet",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "regex",
- "rstest",
  "sqlparser",
  "tempfile",
  "tokio",
@@ -1480,9 +1652,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-catalog"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "66a3a799f914a59b1ea343906a0486f17061f39509af74e874a866428951130d"
+checksum = "06afd1e38dd27bbb1258685a1fc6524df6aff4e07b25b393a47de59635178d99"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1498,16 +1670,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "parking_lot",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-catalog-listing"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6db1b113c80d7a0febcd901476a57aef378e717c54517a163ed51417d87621b0"
+checksum = "f0668fb32c12065ec242be0e5b4bc62bd7a06a0be3ecd83791ef877e4be67e02"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1523,38 +1695,38 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "object_store",
- "tokio",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7c10f7659e96127d25e8366be7c8be4109595d6a2c3eac70421f380a7006a1b0"
+checksum = "ca43b263cdff57042cfa8fb817fb3469f4878933380dccff25f5e793580abbf9"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ipc",
+ "arrow-schema",
  "chrono",
+ "foldhash 0.2.0",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "libc",
  "log",
- "object_store",
- "parquet",
- "paste",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "sqlparser",
  "tokio",
+ "uuid",
  "web-time",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-common-runtime"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b92065bbc6532c6651e2f7dd30b55cba0c7a14f860c7e1d15f165c41a1868d95"
+checksum = "05f0ba2b864792bdca4d76c59a1de0ab6e1b61946596b9936888dbd6360035f2"
 dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "log",
@@ -1563,9 +1735,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fde13794244bc7581cd82f6fff217068ed79cdc344cafe4ab2c3a1c3510b38d6"
+checksum = "b840a8bce0bcbf5afad02946d438591e7c373f7afccaf3d874c04485772514dd"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1584,17 +1756,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "glob",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "object_store",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "tokio",
  "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-arrow"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "804fa9b4ecf3157982021770617200ef7c1b2979d57bec9044748314775a9aea"
+checksum = "a24cc0b9cf6e367f27f27406eff13abf48a11b72446aaa40b3105c0ded5c17d9"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ipc",
@@ -1610,15 +1783,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-session",
  "futures",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-csv"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "61a1641a40b259bab38131c5e6f48fac0717bedb7dc93690e604142a849e0568"
+checksum = "e1abe56b2a7a2d1d6de5117dd1a203181e267f28529faa5da546947621b697d7"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1632,38 +1805,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "datafusion-session",
  "futures",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "regex",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-json"
-version = "51.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "adeacdb00c1d37271176f8fb6a1d8ce096baba16ea7a4b2671840c5c9c64fe85"
-dependencies = [
- "arrow",
- "async-trait",
- "bytes",
- "datafusion-common",
- "datafusion-common-runtime",
- "datafusion-datasource",
- "datafusion-execution",
- "datafusion-expr",
- "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
- "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "datafusion-session",
- "futures",
- "object_store",
- "tokio",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "datafusion-datasource-parquet"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "43d0b60ffd66f28bfb026565d62b0a6cbc416da09814766a3797bba7d85a3cd9"
+checksum = "9c3e467f0611ad7bdd5aad17c63c9bb6182d04e5282e5496d897ea2b49c024ba"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1673,55 +1824,51 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-datasource",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
- "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
- "datafusion-physical-expr",
- "datafusion-physical-expr-adapter",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "datafusion-pruning",
  "datafusion-session",
  "futures",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "log",
- "object_store",
- "parking_lot",
- "parquet",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-stream",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-doc"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2b99e13947667b36ad713549237362afb054b2d8f8cc447751e23ec61202db07"
+checksum = "d69bb69d8769e34f76839c960dbde24c1ac0c885a79b6c3c2287bdc56ec67891"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-execution"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "63695643190679037bc946ad46a263b62016931547bf119859c511f7ff2f5178"
+checksum = "d8eac0a09bc8d263f52025cad9e001da4d8138d633fa288edda4d06b1772eae6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-buffer",
  "async-trait",
  "dashmap",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "futures",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "parking_lot",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "tempfile",
  "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-expr"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f9a4787cbf5feb1ab351f789063398f67654a6df75c4d37d7f637dc96f951a91"
+checksum = "eeb14d374767ee0fc62dc79a5ba8bcf8a63c14e993c7d992d0e63adfa23d77d3"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -1730,63 +1877,62 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-functions-window-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "paste",
  "serde_json",
  "sqlparser",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-expr-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5ce2fb1b8c15c9ac45b0863c30b268c69dc9ee7a1ee13ecf5d067738338173dc"
+checksum = "b7b19a8c95522bee8cbb313d74263b85e355d2b52f42e67ef5694bf5de9e9356"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "paste",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "794a9db7f7b96b3346fc007ff25e994f09b8f0511b4cf7dff651fadfe3ebb28f"
+checksum = "5f64c983bbbdcb729d921a2b2ac3375598719b5cc0c30345ad664936f3176fc7"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-buffer",
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "blake2",
  "blake3",
  "chrono",
+ "chrono-tz",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-doc",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
  "datafusion-macros",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "hex",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
  "md-5",
+ "memchr",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "regex",
- "sha2",
- "unicode-segmentation",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
  "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-aggregate"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1c25210520a9dcf9c2b2cbbce31ebd4131ef5af7fc60ee92b266dc7d159cb305"
+checksum = "89bc17041e424a47ed062f43df24d84aab8b57c4c3221e5c1a5eef46d6c5718b"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-doc",
@@ -1796,18 +1942,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-macros",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
+ "foldhash 0.2.0",
  "half",
  "log",
- "paste",
+ "num-traits",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "62f4a66f3b87300bb70f4124b55434d2ae3fe80455f3574701d0348da040b55d"
+checksum = "97dd2a9e865c6108059f5b37b77934f84b50bfb108f837bd0e5c9536e03f0545"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
@@ -1816,9 +1962,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-nested"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ae5c06eed03918dc7fe7a9f082a284050f0e9ecf95d72f57712d1496da03b8c4"
+checksum = "75f0bdfeef16d96417b9632ef855645376b242e9006a126dfd0bedfc54a93f5f"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ord",
@@ -1832,32 +1978,34 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-macros",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "itoa",
  "log",
- "paste",
+ "memchr",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-table"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "db4fed1d71738fbe22e2712d71396db04c25de4111f1ec252b8f4c6d3b25d7f5"
+checksum = "f4e4941673c917819616877e9993da4503e4f4739812be0bc32c5356184c6383"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
  "datafusion-catalog",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "parking_lot",
- "paste",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-window"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1d92206aa5ae21892f1552b4d61758a862a70956e6fd7a95cb85db1de74bc6d1"
+checksum = "12dd2e16c12b84b6f6b41b19f55b366dd1c46876bb35b86896c6349067379e8d"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -1868,14 +2016,13 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "log",
- "paste",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-window-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "53ae9bcc39800820d53a22d758b3b8726ff84a5a3e24cecef04ef4e5fdf1c7cc"
+checksum = "4cdc5e4b6f8b6ef823cc1c761f85088ad4c884fe8df64df3cbcc6b2b84698441"
 dependencies = [
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
@@ -1883,20 +2030,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-macros"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1063ad4c9e094b3f798acee16d9a47bd7372d9699be2de21b05c3bd3f34ab848"
+checksum = "1a3614234dd93578c92428cb4f408e020874f0d2b7e6c90c928d9d28b5df2ceb"
 dependencies = [
  "datafusion-doc",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-optimizer"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9f35f9ec5d08b87fd1893a30c2929f2559c2f9806ca072d8fefca5009dc0f06a"
+checksum = "a0635620b050b81bb92764e99250868f654e2cd5ad1bece413283b3f73c83179"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "chrono",
@@ -1904,7 +2051,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
  "regex",
@@ -1913,11 +2060,10 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-expr"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c30cc8012e9eedcb48bbe112c6eff4ae5ed19cf3003cb0f505662e88b7014c5d"
+checksum = "8cabf7a86eb70b816729e33c81bf7767c936ee1226f607a114f5dac2decac8d0"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
@@ -1925,19 +2071,19 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "parking_lot",
- "paste",
  "petgraph",
+ "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-expr-adapter"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7f9ff2dbd476221b1f67337699eff432781c4e6e1713d2aefdaa517dfbf79768"
+checksum = "de222e04f7e6744501555a54ab0abe26bfdfebee380af79a9bdc175704246859"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -1950,23 +2096,26 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-expr-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "90da43e1ec550b172f34c87ec68161986ced70fd05c8d2a2add66eef9c276f03"
+checksum = "72d0d0057fc5a502d45c870cb6d47c66eb7bdd5edb1bd71ad6f3f724975ac2a8"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
+ "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "pin-project",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-optimizer"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ce9804f799acd7daef3be7aaffe77c0033768ed8fdbf5fb82fc4c5f2e6bc14e6"
+checksum = "86046eed10950c5f9aaed9acfd148e9bd2e1dfdfe4f9aef607d1447b271e4183"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -1982,30 +2131,32 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-plan"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0acf0ad6b6924c6b1aa7d213b181e012e2d3ec0a64ff5b10ee6282ab0f8532ac"
+checksum = "9bc84da934c903407ba297971ebcc020c4c1a38aafd765d6c144c76eff3fa6a1"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
- "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-common-runtime",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-functions",
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-functions-window-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "futures",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
+ "num-traits",
  "parking_lot",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
@@ -2013,9 +2164,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-pruning"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ac2c2498a1f134a9e11a9f5ed202a2a7d7e9774bd9249295593053ea3be999db"
+checksum = "eb63eeac6de19be40f487b65dd84e546195f783c5a9928618e0c4f2a3569b0d7"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2024,15 +2175,14 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-session"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8f96eebd17555386f459037c65ab73aae8df09f464524c709d6a3134ad4f4776"
+checksum = "5f961d209177f91bd014db5cbb2c33b7d28a2597b9003e77f17aeb712964315a"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2044,16 +2194,17 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-sql"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3fc195fe60634b2c6ccfd131b487de46dc30eccae8a3c35a13f136e7f440414f"
+checksum = "b1d71cb454da682b2af7488e1fc1ddd72ee1b28f19297b8ccad73f0a21ee9a69"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "bigdecimal",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
- "indexmap",
+ "datafusion-functions-nested",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "log",
  "regex",
  "sqlparser",
@@ -2061,9 +2212,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-substrait"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2505af06d103a55b4e8ded0c6aeb6c72a771948da939c0bd3f8eee67af475a9c"
+checksum = "f047a6fbf967b6b523758a48d2377bb5f9373a20e7ae4c4326d3c569f80ba3d7"
 dependencies = [
  "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
@@ -2071,34 +2222,19 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion",
  "half",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "pbjson-types",
  "prost",
  "substrait",
  "tokio",
  "url",
- "uuid",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "deepsize"
-version = "0.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1cdb987ec36f6bf7bfbea3f928b75590b736fc42af8e54d97592481351b2b96c"
-dependencies = [
- "deepsize_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "deepsize_derive"
-version = "0.1.2"
+name = "datasketches"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "990101d41f3bc8c1a45641024377ee284ecc338e5ecf3ea0f0e236d897c72796"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
-]
+checksum = "46c4cf71a36b46dcfc00e5014c0c20ccad2b1b6a008304d7d57d2749b2d41b3d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "der"
@@ -2106,33 +2242,76 @@ version = "0.7.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e7c1832837b905bbfb5101e07cc24c8deddf52f93225eee6ead5f4d63d53ddcb"
 dependencies = [
- "const-oid",
+ "const-oid 0.9.6",
  "pem-rfc7468",
  "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "deranged"
-version = "0.5.5"
+version = "0.5.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ececcb659e7ba858fb4f10388c250a7252eb0a27373f1a72b8748afdd248e587"
+checksum = "7cd812cc2bc1d69d4764bd80df88b4317eaef9e773c75226407d9bc0876b211c"
 dependencies = [
  "powerfmt",
  "serde_core",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "derive_builder"
+version = "0.20.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "507dfb09ea8b7fa618fcf76e953f4f5e192547945816d5358edffe39f6f94947"
+dependencies = [
+ "derive_builder_macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "derive_builder_core"
+version = "0.20.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "2d5bcf7b024d6835cfb3d473887cd966994907effbe9227e8c8219824d06c4e8"
+dependencies = [
+ "darling 0.20.11",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "derive_builder_macro"
+version = "0.20.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ab63b0e2bf4d5928aff72e83a7dace85d7bba5fe12dcc3c5a572d78caffd3f3c"
+dependencies = [
+ "derive_builder_core",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "digest"
 version = "0.10.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9ed9a281f7bc9b7576e61468ba615a66a5c8cfdff42420a70aa82701a3b1e292"
 dependencies = [
- "block-buffer",
- "const-oid",
- "crypto-common",
+ "block-buffer 0.10.4",
+ "const-oid 0.9.6",
+ "crypto-common 0.1.7",
  "subtle",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "digest"
+version = "0.11.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f1dd6dbb5841937940781866fa1281a1ff7bd3bf827091440879f9994983d5c2"
+dependencies = [
+ "block-buffer 0.12.1",
+ "const-oid 0.10.2",
+ "crypto-common 0.2.2",
+ "ctutils",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "dirs"
 version = "6.0.0"
@@ -2156,13 +2335,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "displaydoc"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "97369cbbc041bc366949bc74d34658d6cda5621039731c6310521892a3a20ae0"
+checksum = "1ac70aa55017e108007fbaf5aa0f54b021c98f92ff8af59d42eda9da96e3dd4f"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2174,12 +2353,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "const-random",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "downcast-rs"
-version = "2.0.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "117240f60069e65410b3ae1bb213295bd828f707b5bec6596a1afc8793ce0cbc"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "dunce"
 version = "1.0.5"
@@ -2204,9 +2377,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "either"
-version = "1.15.0"
+version = "1.16.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "48c757948c5ede0e46177b7add2e67155f70e33c07fea8284df6576da70b3719"
+checksum = "91622ff5e7162018101f2fea40d6ebf4a78bbe5a49736a2020649edf9693679e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "encoding_rs"
@@ -2214,14 +2387,23 @@ version = "0.8.35"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "75030f3c4f45dafd7586dd6780965a8c7e8e285a5ecb86713e63a79c5b2766f3"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "encoding_rs_io"
+version = "0.1.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "fba3fe847045ecff794b9c138293a80db914678c453ad63fbf0c6a9eb6e00b22"
+dependencies = [
+ "encoding_rs",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "env_filter"
-version = "0.1.4"
+version = "2.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1bf3c259d255ca70051b30e2e95b5446cdb8949ac4cd22c0d7fd634d89f568e2"
+checksum = "900d271a03799a1ee8d1ca9b19893b48ca674a9284fefcfb85f05e74ed314217"
 dependencies = [
  "log",
  "regex",
@@ -2229,9 +2411,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "env_logger"
-version = "0.11.8"
+version = "0.11.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "13c863f0904021b108aa8b2f55046443e6b1ebde8fd4a15c399893aae4fa069f"
+checksum = "de671bd27a75a797dc9ae289ba1e77276e75e2026408aab65185384e2d5cd3f6"
 dependencies = [
  "anstream",
  "anstyle",
@@ -2258,17 +2440,16 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ethnum"
-version = "1.5.2"
+version = "1.5.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ca81e6b4777c89fd810c25a4be2b1bd93ea034fbe58e6a75216a34c6b82c539b"
+checksum = "40404c3f5f511ec4da6fe866ddf6a717c309fdbb69fbbad7b0f3edab8f2e835f"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "event-listener"
-version = "5.4.1"
+version = "5.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e13b66accf52311f30a0db42147dadea9850cb48cd070028831ae5f5d4b856ab"
+checksum = "5a23add41df1562121a9393cb065eab5146a1242410f23a644851e90cfd669d2"
 dependencies = [
- "concurrent-queue",
  "parking",
  "pin-project-lite",
 ]
@@ -2289,17 +2470,11 @@ version = "0.2.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f8eb564c5c7423d25c886fb561d1e4ee69f72354d16918afa32c08811f6b6a55"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "fastdivide"
-version = "0.4.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9afc2bd4d5a73106dd53d10d73d3401c2f32730ba2c0b93ddb888a8983680471"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "fastrand"
-version = "2.3.0"
+version = "2.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "37909eebbb50d72f9059c3b6d82c0463f2ff062c9e95845c43a6c9c0355411be"
+checksum = "9f1f227452a390804cdb637b74a86990f2a7d7ba4b7d5693aac9b4dd6defd8d6"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "find-msvc-tools"
@@ -2319,7 +2494,7 @@ version = "25.12.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "35f6839d7b3b98adde531effaf34f0c2badc6f4735d26fe74709d8e513a96ef3"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "rustc_version",
 ]
 
@@ -2331,7 +2506,6 @@ checksum = "843fba2746e448b37e26a819579957415c8cef339bf08564fe8b7ddbd959573c"
 dependencies = [
  "crc32fast",
  "miniz_oxide",
- "zlib-rs",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2368,15 +2542,70 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "fs4"
-version = "0.8.4"
+name = "foyer-common"
+version = "0.22.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f7e180ac76c23b45e767bd7ae9579bc0bb458618c4bc71835926e098e61d15f8"
+checksum = "643b47d510032a01e5af70dca288b0c5ec531646c1a8392e793fb5b0c13bef30"
 dependencies = [
- "rustix 0.38.44",
- "windows-sys 0.52.0",
+ "anyhow",
+ "bytes",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "foyer-tokio",
+ "mixtrics",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "pin-project",
+ "twox-hash",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "foyer-intrusive-collections"
+version = "0.10.0-dev"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6e4fee46bea69e0596130e3210e65d3424e0ac1e6df3bde6636304bdf1ca4a3b"
+dependencies = [
+ "memoffset",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "foyer-memory"
+version = "0.22.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ae51f5089f3d9025ae77f17ea66d2489ac0f82fbb1d91462807bea174d486d82"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "asyncband",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "datasketches",
+ "equivalent",
+ "foyer-common",
+ "foyer-intrusive-collections",
+ "foyer-tokio",
+ "futures-util",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "itertools 0.15.0",
+ "mixtrics",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "paste",
+ "pin-project",
+ "serde",
+ "tracing",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "foyer-tokio"
+version = "0.22.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6741d1133dfaab64d3f8a9290bbfed3685084add28f8b6ee7a6264aa4dc26918"
+dependencies = [
+ "tokio",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "frostem"
+version = "1.20260804.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6d0ae10cfccbae085dd8612669ccc116fe88bd5dfe39d202a8fa68c24c1e546f"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "fs_extra"
 version = "1.3.0"
@@ -2385,10 +2614,10 @@ checksum = "42703706b716c37f96a77aea830392ad231f44c9e9a67872fa5548707e11b11c"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "fsst"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2408,9 +2637,9 @@ checksum = "e6d5a32815ae3f33302d95fdcb2ce17862f8c65363dcfd29360480ba1001fc9c"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "65bc07b1a8bc7c85c5f2e110c476c7389b4554ba72af57d8445ea63a576b0876"
+checksum = "8b147ee9d1f6d097cef9ce628cd2ee62288d963e16fb287bd9286455b241382d"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
@@ -2423,9 +2652,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-channel"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2dff15bf788c671c1934e366d07e30c1814a8ef514e1af724a602e8a2fbe1b10"
+checksum = "07bbe89c50d7a535e539b8c17bc0b49bdb77747034daa8087407d655f3f7cc1d"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
@@ -2433,15 +2662,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-core"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "05f29059c0c2090612e8d742178b0580d2dc940c837851ad723096f87af6663e"
+checksum = "7e3450815272ef58cec6d564423f6e755e25379b217b0bc688e295ba24df6b1d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-executor"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e28d1d997f585e54aebc3f97d39e72338912123a67330d723fdbb564d646c9f"
+checksum = "baf29c38818342a3b26b5b923639e7b1f4a61fc5e76102d4b1981c6dc7a7579d"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-task",
@@ -2450,44 +2679,38 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-io"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9e5c1b78ca4aae1ac06c48a526a655760685149f0d465d21f37abfe57ce075c6"
+checksum = "cecba35d7ad927e23624b22ad55235f2239cfa44fd10428eecbeba6d6a717718"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-macro"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "162ee34ebcb7c64a8abebc059ce0fee27c2262618d7b60ed8faf72fef13c3650"
+checksum = "e835b70203e41293343137df5c0664546da5745f82ec9b84d40be8336958447b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-sink"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e575fab7d1e0dcb8d0c7bcf9a63ee213816ab51902e6d244a95819acacf1d4f7"
+checksum = "c39754e157331b013978ec91992bde1ac089843443c49cbc7f46150b0fad0893"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-task"
-version = "0.3.31"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f90f7dce0722e95104fcb095585910c0977252f286e354b5e3bd38902cd99988"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "futures-timer"
-version = "3.0.3"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f288b0a4f20f9a56b5d1da57e2227c661b7b16168e2f72365f57b63326e29b24"
+checksum = "037711b3d59c33004d3856fbdc83b99d4ff37a24768fa1be9ce3538a1cde4393"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-util"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9fa08315bb612088cc391249efdc3bc77536f16c91f6cf495e6fbe85b20a4a81"
+checksum = "389ca41296e6190b48053de0321d02a77f32f8a5d2461dd38762c0593805c6d6"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
@@ -2497,18 +2720,26 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures-task",
  "memchr",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "pin-utils",
  "slab",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "gearhash"
+version = "0.1.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c8cf82cf76cd16485e56295a1377c775ce708c9f1a0be6b029076d60a245d213"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 0.1.10",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "generator"
-version = "0.8.8"
+version = "0.8.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "52f04ae4152da20c76fe800fa48659201d5cf627c5149ca0b707b69d7eef6cf9"
+checksum = "b3b854b0e584ead1a33f18b2fcad7cf7be18b3875c78816b753639aa501513ae"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "libc",
  "log",
  "rustversion",
@@ -2555,9 +2786,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geo-types"
-version = "0.7.18"
+version = "0.7.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "24f8647af4005fa11da47cd56252c6ef030be8fa97bdbf355e7dfb6348f0a82c"
+checksum = "94776032c45f950d30a13af6113c2ad5625316c9abfbccee4dd5a6695f8fe0f5"
 dependencies = [
  "approx",
  "num-traits",
@@ -2568,9 +2799,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geoarrow-array"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dc1cc4106ac0a0a512c398961ce95d8150475c84a84e17c4511c3643fa120a17"
+checksum = "dafe7b7de3fab1a8b7099fd6a6434ca955fa65065f9c19f0f8a133693f3c2b0e"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -2584,9 +2815,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geoarrow-expr-geo"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fa84300361ce57fb875bcaa6e32b95b0aff5c6b1af692b936bdd58ff343f4394"
+checksum = "8e4a62ac19c86827c6ec81ea584594b3ee96db5a8119b9774d3466c6b373c434"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -2598,9 +2829,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geoarrow-schema"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e97be4e9f523f92bd6a0e0458323f4b783d073d011664decd8dbf05651704f34"
+checksum = "4d4a7edb2a1d87024a93805332a9c8184a0354836271d42c0d18cf628a5e3cd0"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-schema",
  "geo-traits",
@@ -2611,12 +2842,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geodatafusion"
-version = "0.2.0"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "773cfa1fb0d7f7661b76b3fde00f3ffd8e0ff7b3635096f0ff6294fe5ca62a2b"
+checksum = "fecbdd00d0fff2b04635c1b1e4129c217908f0c2d17539e0a2275308afce2552"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-schema",
  "datafusion",
  "geo",
@@ -2631,18 +2863,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geographiclib-rs"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f611040a2bb37eaa29a78a128d1e92a378a03e0b6e66ae27398d42b1ba9a7841"
+checksum = "c5a7f08910fd98737a6eda7568e7c5e645093e073328eeef49758cfe8b0489c7"
 dependencies = [
  "libm",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geohash"
-version = "0.13.1"
+version = "0.13.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0fb94b1a65401d6cbf22958a9040aa364812c26674f841bee538b12c135db1e6"
+checksum = "7f58890382f70caccc5fa388981f7ac80c913795042afce9f3e065695d8f7464"
 dependencies = [
  "geo-types",
  "libm",
@@ -2654,10 +2886,10 @@ version = "0.2.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ff2abc00be7fca6ebc474524697ae276ad847ad0a6b3faa4bcb027e9a4614ad0"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "js-sys",
  "libc",
- "wasi",
+ "wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1",
  "wasm-bindgen",
 ]
 
@@ -2667,14 +2899,46 @@ version = "0.3.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "899def5c37c4fd7b2664648c28120ecec138e4d395b459e5ca34f9cce2dd77fd"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "js-sys",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "libc",
- "r-efi",
+ "r-efi 5.3.0",
  "wasip2",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "getrandom"
+version = "0.4.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "300e883d756b2e4ec94e02791f39b04b522276138852cfc41d9fb7e904106099"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "js-sys",
+ "libc",
+ "r-efi 6.0.0",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
  "wasm-bindgen",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "git-version"
+version = "0.3.9"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1ad568aa3db0fcbc81f2f116137f263d7304f512a1209b35b85150d3ef88ad19"
+dependencies = [
+ "git-version-macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "git-version-macro"
+version = "0.3.9"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "53010ccb100b96a67bc32c0175f0ed1426b31b655d562898e57325f81c023ac0"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "glob"
 version = "0.3.3"
@@ -2693,19 +2957,51 @@ dependencies = [
  "wasm-bindgen",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "goosefs-sdk"
+version = "0.2.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1e471f7bce40936cf2023855c7350e31e11b3f703eb7cb2ce73c9ffc451f87d2"
+dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "dashmap",
+ "fastrand",
+ "foyer-common",
+ "foyer-memory",
+ "futures",
+ "hostname",
+ "io-uring",
+ "itoa",
+ "libc",
+ "lru",
+ "prost",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "serde",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-stream",
+ "tonic",
+ "tonic-prost",
+ "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "xxhash-rust",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "h2"
-version = "0.4.13"
+version = "0.4.16"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2f44da3a8150a6703ed5d34e164b875fd14c2cdab9af1252a9a1020bde2bdc54"
+checksum = "a9f37a958b41b3b19ee2707c06439c0e9e547e847223eb791ecb0cb821c65e27"
 dependencies = [
  "atomic-waker",
  "bytes",
  "fnv",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "indexmap",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "slab",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-util",
@@ -2718,7 +3014,8 @@ version = "2.7.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6ea2d84b969582b4b1864a92dc5d27cd2b77b622a8d79306834f1be5ba20d84b"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "bytemuck",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "crunchy",
  "num-traits",
  "zerocopy",
@@ -2733,15 +3030,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "byteorder",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "hashbrown"
+version = "0.12.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "8a9ee70c43aaf417c914396645a0fa852624801b24ebb7ae78fe8272889ac888"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "hashbrown"
 version = "0.14.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e5274423e17b7c9fc20b6e7e208532f9b19825d82dfd615708b70edd83df41f1"
-dependencies = [
- "ahash",
- "allocator-api2",
-]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hashbrown"
@@ -2749,8 +3048,6 @@ version = "0.15.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9229cfe53dfd69f0609a49f65461bd93001ea1ef889cd5529dd176593f5338a1"
 dependencies = [
- "allocator-api2",
- "equivalent",
  "foldhash 0.1.5",
 ]
 
@@ -2765,6 +3062,23 @@ dependencies = [
  "foldhash 0.2.0",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "hashbrown"
+version = "0.17.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ed5909b6e89a2db4456e54cd5f673791d7eca6732202bbf2a9cc504fe2f9b84a"
+dependencies = [
+ "allocator-api2",
+ "equivalent",
+ "foldhash 0.2.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "heapify"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0049b265b7f201ca9ab25475b22b47fe444060126a51abe00f77d986fc5cc52e"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "heapless"
 version = "0.8.0"
@@ -2793,29 +3107,59 @@ version = "0.4.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "7f24254aa9a54b5c858eaee2f5bccdb46aaf0e486a595ed5fd8f86ba55232a70"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "hf-xet"
+version = "1.6.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c237ef4fb0ce1962a5117f8bd8c74454b41629826a9df17d14a1840ca18f0754"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "xet-client",
+ "xet-core-structures",
+ "xet-data",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "hmac"
 version = "0.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6c49c37c09c17a53d937dfbb742eb3a961d65a994e6bcdcf37e7399d0cc8ab5e"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "home"
-version = "0.5.12"
+name = "hmac"
+version = "0.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cc627f471c528ff0c4a49e1d5e60450c8f6461dd6d10ba9dcd3a61d3dff7728d"
+checksum = "6303bc9732ae41b04cb554b844a762b4115a61bfaa81e3e83050991eeb56863f"
 dependencies = [
- "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "htmlescape"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "hostname"
+version = "0.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e9025058dae765dee5070ec375f591e2ba14638c63feff74f13805a72e523163"
+checksum = "617aaa3557aef3810a6369d0a99fac8a080891b68bd9f9812a1eeda0c0730cbd"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "libc",
+ "windows-link",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "http"
@@ -2830,9 +3174,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "http"
-version = "1.4.0"
+version = "1.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3ba2a386d7f85a81f119ad7498ebe444d2e22c2af0b86b069416ace48b3311a"
+checksum = "6970f50e31d6fc17d3fa27329444bfa74e196cf62e95052a3f6fee181dba6425"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "itoa",
@@ -2856,7 +3200,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1efedce1fb8e6913f23e0c92de8e62cd5b772a67e7b3946df930a62566c93184"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2867,7 +3211,7 @@ checksum = "b021d93e26becf5dc7e1b75b1bed1fd93124b374ceb73f43d4d4eafec896a64a"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "futures-core",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "pin-project-lite",
 ]
@@ -2886,28 +3230,36 @@ checksum = "df3b46402a9d5adb4c86a0cf463f42e19994e3ee891101b1841f30a545cb49a9"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "humantime"
-version = "2.3.0"
+version = "2.4.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "15cdd26707701c53297e2fa6afb323d55fbc1d0810c3aec078ae3ef0424c3c15"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "hybrid-array"
+version = "0.4.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "135b12329e5e3ce057a9f972339ea52bc954fe1e9358ef27f95e89716fbc5424"
+checksum = "9155a582abd142abc056962c29e3ce5ff2ad5469f4246b537ed42c5deba857da"
+dependencies = [
+ "typenum",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hyper"
-version = "1.8.1"
+version = "1.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2ab2d4f250c3d7b1c9fcdff1cece94ea4e2dfbec68614f7b87cb205f24ca9d11"
+checksum = "55281c53a1894c864990125767da440a4e630446785086f52523b20033b74498"
 dependencies = [
  "atomic-waker",
  "bytes",
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
  "h2",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "httparse",
  "httpdate",
  "itoa",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "pin-utils",
  "smallvec",
  "tokio",
  "want",
@@ -2915,33 +3267,44 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hyper-rustls"
-version = "0.27.7"
+version = "0.27.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3c93eb611681b207e1fe55d5a71ecf91572ec8a6705cdb6857f7d8d5242cf58"
+checksum = "33ca68d021ef39cf6463ab54c1d0f5daf03377b70561305bb89a8f83aab66e0f"
 dependencies = [
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "hyper",
  "hyper-util",
  "rustls",
  "rustls-native-certs",
- "rustls-pki-types",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-rustls",
  "tower-service",
- "webpki-roots",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "hyper-util"
-version = "0.1.20"
+name = "hyper-timeout"
+version = "0.5.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "96547c2556ec9d12fb1578c4eaf448b04993e7fb79cbaad930a656880a6bdfa0"
+checksum = "2b90d566bffbce6a75bd8b09a05aa8c2cb1fabb6cb348f8840c9e4c90a0d83b0"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
- "bytes",
- "futures-channel",
- "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-util",
+ "pin-project-lite",
+ "tokio",
+ "tower-service",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "hyper-util"
+version = "0.1.20"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "96547c2556ec9d12fb1578c4eaf448b04993e7fb79cbaad930a656880a6bdfa0"
+dependencies = [
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "futures-channel",
+ "futures-util",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "hyper",
  "ipnet",
@@ -2949,9 +3312,11 @@ dependencies = [
  "percent-encoding",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "socket2",
+ "system-configuration",
  "tokio",
  "tower-service",
  "tracing",
+ "windows-registry",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3032,35 +3397,58 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_collections"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4c6b649701667bbe825c3b7e6388cb521c23d88644678e83c0c4d0a621a34b43"
+checksum = "2984d1cd16c883d7935b9e07e44071dca8d917fd52ecc02c04d5fa0b5a3f191c"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "potential_utf",
+ "utf8_iter",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_locale"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d5a396343c7208121dc86e35623d3dfe19814a7613cfd14964994cdc9c9a2e26"
+dependencies = [
+ "icu_collections",
+ "icu_locale_core",
+ "icu_locale_data",
+ "icu_provider",
+ "potential_utf",
+ "tinystr",
+ "zerovec",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_locale_core"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "edba7861004dd3714265b4db54a3c390e880ab658fec5f7db895fae2046b5bb6"
+checksum = "92219b62b3e2b4d88ac5119f8904c10f8f61bf7e95b640d25ba3075e6cac2c29"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "litemap",
+ "serde",
  "tinystr",
  "writeable",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_locale_data"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d5fdcc9ac77c6d74ff5cf6e65ef3181d6af32003b16fce3a77fb451d2f695993"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_normalizer"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5f6c8828b67bf8908d82127b2054ea1b4427ff0230ee9141c54251934ab1b599"
+checksum = "c56e5ee99d6e3d33bd91c5d85458b6005a22140021cc324cea84dd0e72cff3b4"
 dependencies = [
  "icu_collections",
  "icu_normalizer_data",
@@ -3072,15 +3460,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_normalizer_data"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7aedcccd01fc5fe81e6b489c15b247b8b0690feb23304303a9e560f37efc560a"
+checksum = "da3be0ae77ea334f4da67c12f149704f19f81d1adf7c51cf482943e84a2bad38"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_properties"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "020bfc02fe870ec3a66d93e677ccca0562506e5872c650f893269e08615d74ec"
+checksum = "bee3b67d0ea5c2cca5003417989af8996f8604e34fb9ddf96208a033901e70de"
 dependencies = [
  "icu_collections",
  "icu_locale_core",
@@ -3092,18 +3480,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_properties_data"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "616c294cf8d725c6afcd8f55abc17c56464ef6211f9ed59cccffe534129c77af"
+checksum = "8e2bbb201e0c04f7b4b3e14382af113e17ba4f63e2c9d2ee626b720cbce54a14"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_provider"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "85962cf0ce02e1e0a629cc34e7ca3e373ce20dda4c4d7294bbd0bf1fdb59e614"
+checksum = "139c4cf31c8b5f33d7e199446eff9c1e02decfc2f0eec2c8d71f65befa45b421"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "icu_locale_core",
+ "serde",
+ "stable_deref_trait",
  "writeable",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
@@ -3111,6 +3501,27 @@ dependencies = [
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_segmenter"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "5c0794db0b1a86193ac9c48768d0e6c52c54448e0870ad87907d456ee0dac964"
+dependencies = [
+ "icu_collections",
+ "icu_locale",
+ "icu_provider",
+ "icu_segmenter_data",
+ "potential_utf",
+ "utf8_iter",
+ "zerovec",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_segmenter_data"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e4a2c462a4d927d512f5f882a033ddd62f33a05bb9f230d98f736ac3dc85938f"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "ident_case"
 version = "1.0.1"
@@ -3130,9 +3541,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "idna_adapter"
-version = "1.2.1"
+version = "1.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3acae9609540aa318d1bc588455225fb2085b9ed0c4f6bd0d9d5bcd86f1a0344"
+checksum = "cb68373c0d6620ef8105e855e7745e18b0d00d3bdb07fb532e434244cdb9a714"
 dependencies = [
  "icu_normalizer",
  "icu_properties",
@@ -3140,12 +3551,25 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "indexmap"
-version = "2.13.0"
+version = "1.9.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "bd070e393353796e801d209ad339e89596eb4c8d430d18ede6a1cced8fafbd99"
+dependencies = [
+ "autocfg",
+ "hashbrown 0.12.3",
+ "serde",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "indexmap"
+version = "2.14.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7714e70437a7dc3ac8eb7e6f8df75fd8eb422675fc7678aff7364301092b1017"
+checksum = "d466e9454f08e4a911e14806c24e16fba1b4c121d1ea474396f396069cf949d9"
 dependencies = [
  "equivalent",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3159,26 +3583,21 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "integer-encoding"
-version = "3.0.4"
+name = "io-uring"
+version = "0.7.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8bb03732005da905c88227371639bf1ad885cc712789c011c31c5fb3ab3ccf02"
+checksum = "9080b15e63775b9a2ac7dca720f7050a8b955e092ea0f6020a4a80f69998cdc0"
+dependencies = [
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "libc",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ipnet"
-version = "2.11.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "469fb0b9cefa57e3ef31275ee7cacb78f2fdca44e4765491884a2b119d4eb130"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "iri-string"
-version = "0.7.10"
+version = "2.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c91338f0783edbd6195decb37bae672fd3b165faffb89bf7b9e6942f8b1a731a"
-dependencies = [
- "memchr",
- "serde",
-]
+checksum = "d98f6fed1fde3f8c21bc40a1abb88dd75e67924f9cffc3ef95607bad8017f8e2"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "is_terminal_polyfill"
@@ -3197,59 +3616,84 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "itertools"
-version = "0.13.0"
+version = "0.14.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "413ee7dfc52ee1a4949ceeb7dbc8a33f2d6c088194d9f922fb8318faf1f01186"
+checksum = "2b192c782037fadd9cfa75548310488aabdbf3d2da73885b31bd0abd03351285"
 dependencies = [
  "either",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "itertools"
-version = "0.14.0"
+version = "0.15.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2b192c782037fadd9cfa75548310488aabdbf3d2da73885b31bd0abd03351285"
+checksum = "8b4baf93f58d4425749ca49a51c50ebab072c5df6994d08fed93541c331481dc"
 dependencies = [
  "either",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "itoa"
-version = "1.0.17"
+version = "1.0.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "92ecc6618181def0457392ccd0ee51198e065e016d1d527a7ac1b6dc7c1f09d2"
+checksum = "8f42a60cbdf9a97f5d2305f08a87dc4e09308d1276d28c869c684d7777685682"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jieba-macros"
+version = "0.10.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "34904340bc65749a9e9a02fcc7f3368e675427c18447b9bbe02df52c15c9a36a"
+dependencies = [
+ "phf_codegen",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jieba-rs"
+version = "0.10.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "bb5bdea4dc241d589e179f39d2a778f31490f3370aa2f626223dbd930ebc5c9d"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytecount",
+ "cedarwood",
+ "jieba-macros",
+ "phf 0.13.1",
+ "regex",
+ "rustc-hash",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff"
-version = "0.2.19"
+version = "0.2.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d89a5b5e10d5a9ad6e5d1f4bd58225f655d6fe9767575a5e8ac5a6fe64e04495"
+checksum = "4603d3033e49e2b0e31229fcab20a5d40089c607d975cd9c80551dc69eed9102"
 dependencies = [
  "jiff-static",
  "jiff-tzdb-platform",
+ "js-sys",
  "log",
  "portable-atomic",
  "portable-atomic-util",
  "serde_core",
- "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "windows-link",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff-static"
-version = "0.2.19"
+version = "0.2.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ff7a39c8862fc1369215ccf0a8f12dd4598c7f6484704359f0351bd617034dbf"
+checksum = "782d32378dddf207193ac91cefb848ad41abb58195c95168e1291227a0832b47"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff-tzdb"
-version = "0.1.5"
+version = "0.1.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "68971ebff725b9e2ca27a601c5eb38a4c5d64422c4cbab0c535f248087eda5c2"
+checksum = "c900ef84826f1338a557697dc8fc601df9ca9af4ac137c7fb61d4c6f2dfd3076"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff-tzdb-platform"
@@ -3267,20 +3711,72 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1a87aa2bb7d2af34197c04845522473242e1aa17c12f4935d5856491a7fb8c97"
 dependencies = [
  "cesu8",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "combine",
- "jni-sys",
+ "jni-sys 0.3.1",
  "log",
  "thiserror 1.0.69",
  "walkdir",
  "windows-sys 0.45.0",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "jni"
+version = "0.22.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "5efd9a482cf3a427f00d6b35f14332adc7902ce91efb778580e180ff90fa3498"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "combine",
+ "jni-macros",
+ "jni-sys 0.4.1",
+ "log",
+ "simd_cesu8",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "walkdir",
+ "windows-link",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jni-macros"
+version = "0.22.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a00109accc170f0bdb141fed3e393c565b6f5e072365c3bd58f5b062591560a3"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "rustc_version",
+ "simd_cesu8",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "jni-sys"
-version = "0.3.0"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "41a652e1f9b6e0275df1f15b32661cf0d4b78d4d87ddec5e0c3c20f097433258"
+dependencies = [
+ "jni-sys 0.4.1",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jni-sys"
+version = "0.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8eaf4bc02d17cbdd7ff4c7438cafcdf7fb9a4613313ad11b4f8fefe7d3fa0130"
+checksum = "c6377a88cb3910bee9b0fa88d4f42e1d2da8e79915598f65fb0c7ee14c878af2"
+dependencies = [
+ "jni-sys-macros",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jni-sys-macros"
+version = "0.4.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "38c0b942f458fe50cdac086d2f946512305e5631e720728f2a61aabcd47a6264"
+dependencies = [
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jobserver"
@@ -3294,57 +3790,71 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "js-sys"
-version = "0.3.85"
+version = "0.3.102"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8c942ebf8e95485ca0d52d97da7c5a2c387d0e7f0ba4c35e93bfcaee045955b3"
+checksum = "03d04c30968dffe80775bd4d7fb676131cd04a1fb46d2686dbffbaec2d9dfd31"
 dependencies = [
- "once_cell",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "futures-util",
  "wasm-bindgen",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jsonb"
-version = "0.5.5"
+version = "0.5.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a901f06163d352fbe41c3c2ff5e08b75330a003cc941e988fb501022f5421e6"
+checksum = "eb98fb29636087c40ad0d1274d9a30c0c1e83e03ae93f6e7e89247b37fcc6953"
 dependencies = [
  "byteorder",
  "ethnum",
  "fast-float2",
  "itoa",
  "jiff",
- "nom 8.0.0",
+ "nom",
  "num-traits",
- "ordered-float 5.1.0",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "ryu",
+ "ordered-float",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
+ "zmij",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "jsonwebtoken"
-version = "9.3.1"
+name = "kanaria"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5a87cc7a48537badeae96744432de36f4be2b4a34a05a5ef32e9dd8a1c169dde"
+checksum = "c0f9d9652540055ac4fded998a73aca97d965899077ab1212587437da44196ff"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
- "js-sys",
- "pem",
- "ring",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "simple_asn1",
+ "bitflags 1.3.2",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "konst"
+version = "0.4.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f660d5f887e3562f9ab6f4a14988795b694099d66b4f5dedc02d197ba9becb1d"
+dependencies = [
+ "const_panic",
+ "konst_proc_macros",
+ "typewit",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "konst_proc_macros"
+version = "0.4.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e037a2e1d8d5fdbd49b16a4ea09d5d6401c1f29eca5ff29d03d3824dba16256a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lance"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-row",
@@ -3353,10 +3863,11 @@ dependencies = [
  "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
  "async_cell",
- "aws-credential-types",
+ "blake3",
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
+ "crossbeam-queue",
  "crossbeam-skiplist",
  "dashmap",
  "datafusion",
@@ -3364,37 +3875,40 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "deepsize",
  "either",
+ "fst",
  "futures",
- "half",
  "humantime",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "lance-arrow",
+ "lance-bitpacking",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-datafusion",
  "lance-encoding",
  "lance-file",
- "lance-geo",
  "lance-index",
  "lance-io",
  "lance-linalg",
  "lance-namespace",
+ "lance-select",
  "lance-table",
+ "lance-tokenizer",
  "log",
  "moka",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "permutation",
  "pin-project",
  "prost",
+ "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rayon",
  "roaring",
+ "rustc-hash",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "snafu",
- "tantivy",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-stream",
  "tokio-util",
@@ -3405,76 +3919,102 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-arrow"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
+ "bytemuck",
  "bytes",
+ "futures",
  "getrandom 0.2.17",
  "half",
  "jsonb",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-arrow-scalar"
+version = "58.0.0"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
+ "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-row",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "half",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-arrow-stats"
+version = "58.0.0"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "lance-arrow-scalar",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-bitpacking"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrayref",
+ "crunchy",
  "paste",
  "seq-macro",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-core"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-data",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
- "byteorder",
+ "blake3",
  "bytes",
- "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-sql",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
  "lance-arrow",
+ "lance-derive",
  "libc",
+ "libm",
  "log",
- "mock_instant",
  "moka",
  "num_cpus",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "pin-project",
  "prost",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "quick_cache",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "roaring",
  "serde_json",
  "snafu",
  "tempfile",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-stream",
  "tokio-util",
  "tracing",
+ "twox-hash",
  "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-datafusion"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
@@ -3486,40 +4026,31 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-substrait",
  "futures",
+ "half",
  "jsonb",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
- "lance-datagen",
  "lance-geo",
  "log",
  "pin-project",
  "prost",
- "snafu",
+ "prost-build",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lance-datagen"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+name = "lance-derive"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
- "arrow",
- "arrow-array",
- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-schema",
- "chrono",
- "futures",
- "half",
- "hex",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "rand_distr 0.5.1",
- "rand_xoshiro",
- "random_word",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-encoding"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -3535,7 +4066,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "hex",
  "hyperloglogplus",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-bitpacking",
  "lance-core",
@@ -3544,10 +4075,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
- "prost-types",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "snafu",
- "strum",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
  "xxhash-rust",
@@ -3556,11 +4083,12 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-file"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-data",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
@@ -3569,7 +4097,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "datafusion-common",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
@@ -3577,18 +4104,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "lance-io",
  "log",
  "num-traits",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
- "snafu",
+ "serde",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-geo"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "datafusion",
  "geo-traits",
@@ -3602,18 +4129,19 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-index"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
  "async-channel",
  "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
- "bitpacking",
  "bitvec",
  "bytes",
  "crossbeam-queue",
@@ -3621,8 +4149,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
- "datafusion-sql",
- "deepsize",
  "dirs",
  "fst",
  "futures",
@@ -3630,94 +4156,127 @@ dependencies = [
  "geoarrow-array",
  "geoarrow-schema",
  "half",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "hex",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "jieba-rs",
  "jsonb",
  "lance-arrow",
+ "lance-arrow-stats",
+ "lance-bitpacking",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-datafusion",
- "lance-datagen",
  "lance-encoding",
  "lance-file",
  "lance-geo",
+ "lance-index-core",
  "lance-io",
  "lance-linalg",
+ "lance-select",
  "lance-table",
- "libm",
+ "lance-tokenizer",
+ "libsais-rs",
  "log",
  "ndarray",
  "num-traits",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "rand_distr 0.5.1",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rand_distr",
  "rangemap",
  "rayon",
+ "regex-syntax",
  "roaring",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "smallvec",
- "snafu",
- "tantivy",
  "tempfile",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
  "twox-hash",
- "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lance-io"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+name = "lance-index-core"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
- "arrow",
- "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
- "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
- "aws-config",
+ "bytes",
+ "datafusion",
+ "datafusion-common",
+ "datafusion-expr",
+ "futures",
+ "lance-core",
+ "lance-io",
+ "lance-select",
+ "prost-types",
+ "roaring",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "tokio",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-io"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow",
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "async-trait",
+ "aws-config",
  "aws-credential-types",
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
- "lance-arrow",
+ "goosefs-sdk",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "io-uring",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-namespace",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "metrics",
+ "moka",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "object_store_opendal",
  "opendal",
+ "opendal-service-goosefs",
  "path_abs",
  "pin-project",
  "prost",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "reqsign-google",
  "serde",
- "shellexpand",
- "snafu",
+ "serde_json",
+ "tempfile",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
  "url",
+ "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-jni"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-array",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
+ "datafusion",
+ "datafusion-common",
  "env_logger",
- "jni",
+ "jni 0.21.1",
  "lance",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-datafusion",
@@ -3728,92 +4287,114 @@ dependencies = [
  "lance-linalg",
  "lance-namespace",
  "lance-namespace-impls",
+ "lance-table",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "metrics",
+ "metrics-util",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "prost",
  "prost-types",
  "roaring",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "snafu",
  "tokio",
  "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-linalg"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-schema",
  "cc",
- "deepsize",
  "half",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rayon",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
  "bytes",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-namespace-reqwest-client",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
  "snafu",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace-impls"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
  "axum",
  "bytes",
- "chrono",
+ "datafusion-common",
+ "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "futures",
  "lance",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-index",
  "lance-io",
+ "lance-linalg",
  "lance-namespace",
+ "lance-table",
  "log",
- "object_store",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "reqwest",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
+ "roaring",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "snafu",
  "tokio",
  "tower",
  "tower-http 0.5.2",
  "url",
+ "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace-reqwest-client"
-version = "0.4.5"
+version = "0.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a2acdba67f84190067532fce07b51a435dd390d7cdc1129a05003e5cb3274cf0"
+checksum = "828f291764feda98898452bea4ce3756b73e5d5c7c67b62edda27456b7cc72c1"
 dependencies = [
- "reqwest",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_repr",
+ "serde_with",
  "url",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-select"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "byteorder",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "lance-core",
+ "roaring",
+ "tracing",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-table"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -3821,21 +4402,22 @@ dependencies = [
  "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
+ "blake3",
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-file",
  "lance-io",
+ "lance-select",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "rangemap",
  "roaring",
  "semver",
@@ -3848,21 +4430,28 @@ dependencies = [
  "uuid",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-tokenizer"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "frostem",
+ "icu_segmenter",
+ "jieba-rs",
+ "lindera",
+ "serde",
+ "stop-words",
+ "unicode-normalization",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lazy_static"
 version = "1.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "bbd2bcb4c963f2ddae06a2efc7e9f3591312473c50c6685e1f298068316e66fe"
 dependencies = [
- "spin",
+ "spin 0.9.9",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "levenshtein_automata"
-version = "0.2.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0c2cdeb66e45e9f36bfad5bbdb4d2384e70936afbee843c6f6543f0c551ebb25"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "lexical-core"
 version = "1.0.6"
@@ -3922,9 +4511,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libc"
-version = "0.2.180"
+version = "0.2.189"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bcc35a38544a891a5f7c865aca548a982ccb3b8650a5b06d0fd33a10283c56fc"
+checksum = "3eaf3ede3fee6db1a4c2ee091bf8a8b4dccdc6d17f656fb07896ee72867612f2"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libm"
@@ -3934,31 +4523,99 @@ checksum = "b6d2cec3eae94f9f509c767b45932f1ada8350c4bdb85af2fcab4a3c14807981"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libredox"
-version = "0.1.12"
+version = "0.1.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3d0b95e02c851351f877147b7deea7b1afb1df71b63aa5f8270716e0c5720616"
+checksum = "f02ab6bace2054fb888a3c16f990117b579d14a3088e472d63c6011fa185c9d3"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags",
  "libc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "linux-raw-sys"
-version = "0.4.15"
+name = "libsais-rs"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "40fe164dbd47ea0c20e78a121c980ef673326905f1d4fba55e3645a20ef6717f"
+dependencies = [
+ "rayon",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lindera"
+version = "3.0.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "74cda79d7161e99b414e4d292ff673cc3f8d22f070d8be3b6185c033363a9216"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "byteorder",
+ "csv",
+ "daachorse",
+ "kanaria",
+ "lindera-dictionary",
+ "log",
+ "once_cell",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "regex",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serde_yaml_ng",
+ "strum",
+ "strum_macros",
+ "unicode-blocks",
+ "unicode-normalization",
+ "unicode-segmentation",
+ "url",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lindera-dictionary"
+version = "3.0.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e2385456ca9fe87c29072c5f156b52fdd5e28d5b5738ddfb3979501dbd736530"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "byteorder",
+ "csv",
+ "daachorse",
+ "derive_builder",
+ "encoding_rs",
+ "encoding_rs_io",
+ "glob",
+ "log",
+ "memmap2",
+ "num_cpus",
+ "once_cell",
+ "regex",
+ "rkyv",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "strum",
+ "strum_macros",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "link-section"
+version = "0.18.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c2b1dd6fe32e55c0fc0ea9493aa57459ca3cf4ff3c857c7d0302290150da6e4f"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "linktime-proc-macro"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d26c52dbd32dccf2d10cac7725f8eae5296885fb5703b261f7d0a0739ec807ab"
+checksum = "8c7b0a3383c2a1002d11349c92c85a666a5fb679e96c79d782cf0dbe557fd6ee"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "linux-raw-sys"
-version = "0.11.0"
+version = "0.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "df1d3c3b53da64cf5760482273a98e575c651a67eec7f77df96b5b642de8f039"
+checksum = "32a66949e030da00e8c7d4434b251670a91556f4144941d37452769c25d58a53"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "litemap"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6373607a59f0be73a39b6fe456b8192fcc3585f602af20751600e974dd455e77"
+checksum = "92daf443525c4cce67b150400bc2316076100ce0b3686209eb8cf3c31612e6f0"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lock_api"
@@ -3971,9 +4628,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "log"
-version = "0.4.29"
+version = "0.4.33"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5e5032e24019045c762d3c0f28f5b6b8bbf38563a65908389bf7978758920897"
+checksum = "0ceec5bc11778974d1bcb055b18002eba7f4b3518b6a0081b3af5f21666da9ad"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "loom"
@@ -3981,7 +4638,7 @@ version = "0.7.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "419e0dc8046cb947daa77eb95ae174acfbddb7673b4151f56d1eed8e93fbfaca"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "generator",
  "scoped-tls",
  "tracing",
@@ -3990,11 +4647,11 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lru"
-version = "0.12.5"
+version = "0.16.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "234cf4f4a04dc1f57e24b96cc0cd600cf2af460d4161ac5ecdd0af8e1f3b2a38"
+checksum = "7f66e8d5d03f609abc3a39e6f08e4164ebf1447a732906d39eb9b99b7919ef39"
 dependencies = [
- "hashbrown 0.15.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4024,15 +4681,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lz4_flex"
-version = "0.11.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "08ab2867e3eeeca90e844d1940eab391c9dc5228783db2ed999acbc0a9ed375a"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "lz4_flex"
-version = "0.12.0"
+version = "0.13.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ab6473172471198271ff72e9379150e9dfd70d8e533e0752a27e515b48dd375e"
+checksum = "7ef0d4ed8669f8f8826eb00dc878084aa8f253506c4fd5e8f58f5bce72ddb97e"
 dependencies = [
  "twox-hash",
 ]
@@ -4067,38 +4718,72 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "md-5"
-version = "0.10.6"
+version = "0.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d89e7ee0cfbedfc4da3340218492196241d89eefb6dab27de5df917a6d2e78cf"
+checksum = "69b6441f590336821bb897fb28fc622898ccceb1d6cea3fde5ea86b090c4de98"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "digest",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "measure_time"
-version = "0.9.0"
+name = "mea"
+version = "0.6.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "51c55d61e72fc3ab704396c5fa16f4c184db37978ae4e94ca8959693a235fc0e"
+checksum = "2640d335e7273dacdcf51044026139b2e269c3bb0dfc3f8cb3496b85e3f6a42c"
 dependencies = [
- "log",
+ "slab",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "memchr"
-version = "2.7.6"
+version = "2.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f52b00d39961fc5b2736ea853c9cc86238e165017a493d1d5c8eac6bdc4cc273"
+checksum = "88904434abc2901f197fe8cc55f0445e7ded921dba5911dad2e2b39b48e663c4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "memmap2"
-version = "0.9.9"
+version = "0.9.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "744133e4a0e0a658e1374cf3bf8e415c4052a15a111acd372764c55b4177d490"
+checksum = "d1219ed1b7f229ee7104d281dd01d6802fe28bb6e95d292942c4daacdeb798c0"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "memoffset"
+version = "0.9.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "488016bfae457b036d996092f6cb448677611ce4449e970ceaf42695203f218a"
+dependencies = [
+ "autocfg",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "metrics"
+version = "0.24.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "89550ee9f79e88fef3119de263694973a8adb26c21d75322164fb8c493039fe2"
+dependencies = [
+ "portable-atomic",
+ "rapidhash",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "metrics-util"
+version = "0.19.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b8496cc523d1f94c1385dd8f0f0c2c480b2b8aeccb5b7e4485ad6365523ae376"
+dependencies = [
+ "crossbeam-epoch",
+ "crossbeam-utils",
+ "hashbrown 0.15.5",
+ "metrics",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rand_xoshiro",
+ "sketches-ddsketch",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "mime"
 version = "0.3.17"
@@ -4115,12 +4800,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "unicase",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "minimal-lexical"
-version = "0.2.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "68354c5c6bd36d73ff3feceb05efa59b6acb7626617f4962be322a825e61f79a"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "miniz_oxide"
 version = "0.8.9"
@@ -4133,26 +4812,30 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "mio"
-version = "1.1.1"
+version = "1.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a69bcab0ad47271a0234d9422b131806bf3968021e5dc9328caf2d4cd58557fc"
+checksum = "02bd0af71c67b473010cbbc60715ee815645a4dc942899111f494b4b737d6fda"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
- "wasi",
+ "wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "mock_instant"
-version = "0.6.0"
+name = "mixtrics"
+version = "0.2.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dce6dd36094cac388f119d2e9dc82dc730ef91c32a6222170d630e5414b956e6"
+checksum = "2c46b5adfb7a3ae4996d327a5bdc90e78fec025806dd312bdbe6f07a755e0ec9"
+dependencies = [
+ "itertools 0.15.0",
+ "parking_lot",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "moka"
-version = "0.12.13"
+version = "0.12.15"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b4ac832c50ced444ef6be0767a008b02c106a909ba79d1d830501e94b96f6b7e"
+checksum = "957228ad12042ee839f93c8f257b62b4c0ab5eaae1d4fa60de53b27c9d7c5046"
 dependencies = [
  "async-lock",
  "crossbeam-channel",
@@ -4168,6 +4851,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "uuid",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "more-asserts"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1fafa6961cabd9c63bcd77a45d7e3b7f3b552b70417831fb0f56db717e72407e"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "multimap"
 version = "0.10.1"
@@ -4175,10 +4864,24 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1d87ecb2933e8aeadb3e3a02b828fed80a7528047e68b4f424523a0981a3a084"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "murmurhash32"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "munge"
+version = "0.4.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "5e17401f259eba956ca16491461b6e8f72913a0a114e39736ce404410f915a0c"
+dependencies = [
+ "munge_macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "munge_macro"
+version = "0.4.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2195bf6aa996a481483b29d62a7663eed3fe39600c460e323f8ff41e90bdd89b"
+checksum = "4568f25ccbd45ab5d5603dc34318c1ec56b117531781260002151b8530a9f931"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ndarray"
@@ -4196,13 +4899,15 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "nom"
-version = "7.1.3"
+name = "nix"
+version = "0.31.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d273983c5a657a70a3e8f2a01329822f3b8c8172b73826411a55751e404a0a4a"
+checksum = "cf20d2fde8ff38632c426f1165ed7436270b44f199fc55284c38276f9db47c3d"
 dependencies = [
- "memchr",
- "minimal-lexical",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cfg_aliases",
+ "libc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4214,6 +4919,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "ntapi"
+version = "0.4.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c3b335231dfd352ffb0f8017f3b6027a4917f7df785ea2143d8af2adc66980ae"
+dependencies = [
+ "winapi",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "nu-ansi-term"
 version = "0.50.3"
@@ -4244,7 +4958,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "num-integer",
  "num-iter",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.8.5",
+ "rand 0.8.6",
  "smallvec",
  "zeroize",
 ]
@@ -4260,9 +4974,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num-conv"
-version = "0.2.0"
+version = "0.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cf97ec579c3c42f953ef76dbf8d55ac91fb219dde70e49aa4a6b7d74e9919050"
+checksum = "521739c6d2bac4aa25192232afe6841231376b2b26d4d9fae5ecf8ca5772e441"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num-integer"
@@ -4306,9 +5020,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num_enum"
-version = "0.7.5"
+version = "0.7.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b1207a7e20ad57b847bbddc6776b968420d38292bbfe2089accff5e19e82454c"
+checksum = "5d0bca838442ec211fa11de3a8b0e0e8f3a4522575b5c4c06ed722e005036f26"
 dependencies = [
  "num_enum_derive",
  "rustversion",
@@ -4316,42 +5030,100 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num_enum_derive"
-version = "0.7.5"
+version = "0.7.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ff32365de1b6743cb203b710788263c44a03de03802daf96092f2da4fe6ba4d7"
+checksum = "680998035259dcfcafe653688bf2aa6d3e2dc05e98be6ab46afb089dc84f1df8"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro-crate",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "objc2-core-foundation"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "2a180dd8642fa45cdb7dd721cd4c11b1cadd4929ce112ebd8b9f5803cc79d536"
+dependencies = [
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "objc2-io-kit"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "33fafba39597d6dc1fb709123dfa8289d39406734be322956a69f0931c73bb15"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+ "objc2-core-foundation",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "objc2-system-configuration"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7216bd11cbda54ccabcab84d523dc93b858ec75ecfb3a7d89513fa22464da396"
+dependencies = [
+ "objc2-core-foundation",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "object_store"
-version = "0.12.5"
+version = "0.13.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "622acbc9100d3c10e2ee15804b0caa40e55c933d5aa53814cd520805b7958a49"
+dependencies = [
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "chrono",
+ "futures-channel",
+ "futures-core",
+ "futures-util",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "humantime",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tracing",
+ "url",
+ "walkdir",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "web-time",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "object_store"
+version = "0.14.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fbfbfff40aeccab00ec8a910b57ca8ecf4319b335c542f2edcd19dd25a1e2a00"
+checksum = "d354792e39fa5f0009e47623cf8b15b099bf9a652fa55c6f817fe28ac84fea50"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
- "base64",
+ "aws-lc-rs",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
+ "crc-fast",
  "form_urlencoded",
- "futures",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "futures-channel",
+ "futures-core",
+ "futures-util",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body-util",
  "httparse",
  "humantime",
  "hyper",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "itertools 0.15.0",
  "md-5",
+ "nix",
  "parking_lot",
  "percent-encoding",
- "quick-xml 0.38.4",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "reqwest",
- "ring",
- "rustls-pemfile",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "rustls-pki-types",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_urlencoded",
@@ -4362,19 +5134,21 @@ dependencies = [
  "walkdir",
  "wasm-bindgen-futures",
  "web-time",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "object_store_opendal"
-version = "0.55.0"
+version = "0.60.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "113ab0769e972eee585e57407b98de08bda5354fa28e8ba4d89038d6cb6a8991"
+checksum = "c479bcc317f0ed98972b7184e0f9cc1bea83a07f60cdade96d7207a48ebfb779"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
+ "asyncband",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "futures",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "opendal",
  "pin-project",
  "tokio",
@@ -4382,9 +5156,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "once_cell"
-version = "1.21.3"
+version = "1.21.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "42f5e15c9953c5e4ccceeb2e7382a716482c34515315f7b03532b8b4e8393d2d"
+checksum = "9f7c3e4beb33f85d45ae3e3a1792185706c8e16d043238c593331cc7cd313b50"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "once_cell_polyfill"
@@ -4400,32 +5174,286 @@ checksum = "269bca4c2591a28585d6bf10d9ed0332b7d76900a1b02bec41bdc3a2cdcda107"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "opendal"
-version = "0.55.0"
+version = "0.59.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d075ab8a203a6ab4bc1bce0a4b9fe486a72bf8b939037f4b78d95386384bc80a"
+checksum = "9fe43e16d96bed57937eb7c4a28559bf4c5fc4a3951656505d1fdd4f856349b4"
+dependencies = [
+ "ctor",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "opendal-http-transport-reqwest",
+ "opendal-layer-concurrent-limit",
+ "opendal-layer-logging",
+ "opendal-layer-retry",
+ "opendal-layer-timeout",
+ "opendal-service-azblob",
+ "opendal-service-azdls",
+ "opendal-service-cos",
+ "opendal-service-gcs",
+ "opendal-service-goosefs",
+ "opendal-service-hf",
+ "opendal-service-oss",
+ "opendal-service-s3",
+ "opendal-service-tos",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-core"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "de4566a412776e3f65d53dd9fceced5b432a0a9c9a1e8d50ccf58823795e5c5b"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
- "backon",
- "base64",
+ "asyncband",
+ "base64 0.23.0",
  "bytes",
- "crc32c",
  "futures",
- "getrandom 0.2.17",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "jiff",
  "log",
  "md-5",
  "percent-encoding",
- "quick-xml 0.38.4",
- "reqsign",
- "reqwest",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-core",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "sha2",
  "tokio",
  "url",
  "uuid",
+ "web-time",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-http-transport-reqwest"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f772ce6c137ab43647726116d505a649a88d41928fcd813438eb30b02312bcbb"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "futures",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-layer-concurrent-limit"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "3734c648617e5ad724d49175dde8323550624f9614f50e9e81b7aafae30b1734"
+dependencies = [
+ "asyncband",
+ "futures",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "opendal-core",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-layer-logging"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0a8daab5a91eac76f94516e7c71e677195c9221840ce8f5e71815e3fc8207742"
+dependencies = [
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-layer-retry"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "eb8e22cb1f86ef9af771a8947d3ccf380c8f5b76236f628314dd41c9ba73331a"
+dependencies = [
+ "backon",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-layer-timeout"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "08ac6c77fe0d1b18e0064a02c19b98dbebcab78bf5e7753ad1f3abbc18850ff4"
+dependencies = [
+ "opendal-core",
+ "tokio",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-azblob"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c6cf31b02e7b44191d97c07254eea109b5da9c17210a29e478c8d0dc26dffb1f"
+dependencies = [
+ "base64 0.23.0",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "opendal-service-azure-common",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-azure-storage",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "serde",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
+ "uuid",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-azdls"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "354f4a8d26f0fb7639f5c4ad3a924d7c75625830f69550b8c807c080ea0df8bc"
+dependencies = [
+ "asyncband",
+ "base64 0.23.0",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "opendal-service-azure-common",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-azure-storage",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-azure-common"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "8107324c3f3cb9970fe20526c2c341b7c5769acbd4699bab73bd525f5fd63d62"
+dependencies = [
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "opendal-core",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-cos"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "feb737e6609b4fd42e4773b7b2d8d05031b63cd0df46c7ba68ddd64bae1dd3f3"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "reqsign-tencent-cos",
+ "serde",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-gcs"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "3d80eca6f9227bdf65d43e5b8d5fe75dca8cfab1da07571442a0420400847bea"
+dependencies = [
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "reqsign-google",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "tokio",
+ "uuid",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-goosefs"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "2134aca0ef64dbff844cb1e608d28833f2a1b34b884e7d6b307416e966694e9f"
+dependencies = [
+ "asyncband",
+ "bytes",
+ "goosefs-sdk",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "serde",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-hf"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0a0cba627efaee637746804b74bc2c2b2b207fe214307e1e2ba31b49aad708a3"
+dependencies = [
+ "asyncband",
+ "bytes",
+ "hf-xet",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-oss"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a0ebfa355b1d4edb0e5b2a5b86d8de9f811fae1d7baca6d65246b230b2afc0bd"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-aliyun-oss",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "serde",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-s3"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "2942f2d8d3d4953c0e8d07cd1244879628d084948e48ce6b6d808c5938f7858d"
+dependencies = [
+ "base64 0.23.0",
+ "bytes",
+ "crc-fast",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "md-5",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-aws-v4",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "serde",
+ "url",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-service-tos"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "89f4ee342d2e20a8fc109f854fd8cbaeab9682b3109b7efc8682fa321b5352e2"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "reqsign-volcengine-tos",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4442,18 +5470,9 @@ checksum = "04744f49eae99ab78e0d5c0b603ab218f515ea8cfe5a456d7629ad883a3b6e7d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ordered-float"
-version = "2.10.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "68f19d67e5a2795c94e73e0bb1cc1a7edeb2e28efd39e2e1c9b7a40c1108b11c"
-dependencies = [
- "num-traits",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "ordered-float"
-version = "5.1.0"
+version = "5.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7f4779c6901a562440c3786d08192c6fbda7c1c2060edd10006b05ee35d10f2d"
+checksum = "b7d950ca161dc355eaf28f82b11345ed76c6e1f6eb1f4f4479e0323b9e2fbd0e"
 dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
 ]
@@ -4469,19 +5488,19 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "outref"
-version = "0.5.2"
+name = "os_str_bytes"
+version = "6.6.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1a80800c0488c3a21695ea981a54918fbb37abf04f4d0720c453632255e2ff0e"
+checksum = "e2355d85b9a3786f481747ced0e0ff2ba35213a1f9bd406ed906554d7af805a1"
+dependencies = [
+ "memchr",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "ownedbytes"
-version = "0.9.0"
+name = "outref"
+version = "0.5.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2fbd56f7631767e61784dc43f8580f403f4475bd4aaa4da003e6295e1bab4a7e"
-dependencies = [
- "stable_deref_trait",
-]
+checksum = "1a80800c0488c3a21695ea981a54918fbb37abf04f4d0720c453632255e2ff0e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "parking"
@@ -4505,50 +5524,13 @@ version = "0.9.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "2621685985a2ebf1c516881c026032ac7deafcda1a2c9b7850dc81e3dfcb64c1"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "libc",
  "redox_syscall",
  "smallvec",
  "windows-link",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "parquet"
-version = "57.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5f6a2926a30477c0b95fea6c28c3072712b139337a242c2cc64817bdc20a8854"
-dependencies = [
- "ahash",
- "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
- "arrow-ipc",
- "arrow-schema",
- "arrow-select",
- "base64",
- "brotli",
- "bytes",
- "chrono",
- "flate2",
- "futures",
- "half",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
- "lz4_flex 0.12.0",
- "num-bigint",
- "num-integer",
- "num-traits",
- "object_store",
- "paste",
- "seq-macro",
- "simdutf8",
- "snap",
- "thrift",
- "tokio",
- "twox-hash",
- "zstd",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "paste"
 version = "1.0.15"
@@ -4573,7 +5555,7 @@ version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "898bac3fa00d0ba57a4e8289837e965baa2dee8c3749f3b11d45a64b4223d9c3"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "serde",
 ]
 
@@ -4610,8 +5592,8 @@ version = "0.12.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f8ed6a7761f76e3b9f92dfb0a60a6a6477c61024b775147ff0973a02653abaf2"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
- "hmac",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
+ "hmac 0.12.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4620,7 +5602,7 @@ version = "3.0.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1d30c53c26bc5b31a98cd02d20f25a7c8567146caf63ed593a9d87b2775291be"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "serde_core",
 ]
 
@@ -4653,7 +5635,7 @@ checksum = "8701b58ea97060d5e5b155d383a69952a60943f0e6dfe30b04c287beb0b27455"
 dependencies = [
  "fixedbitset",
  "hashbrown 0.15.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "serde",
 ]
 
@@ -4663,7 +5645,37 @@ version = "0.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "913273894cec178f401a31ec4b656318d95473527be05c0752cc41cdc32be8b7"
 dependencies = [
- "phf_shared",
+ "phf_shared 0.12.1",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "phf"
+version = "0.13.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c1562dc717473dbaa4c1f85a36410e03c047b2e7df7f45ee938fbef64ae7fadf"
+dependencies = [
+ "phf_shared 0.13.1",
+ "serde",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "phf_codegen"
+version = "0.13.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "49aa7f9d80421bca176ca8dbfebe668cc7a2684708594ec9f3c0db0805d5d6e1"
+dependencies = [
+ "phf_generator",
+ "phf_shared 0.13.1",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "phf_generator"
+version = "0.13.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "135ace3a761e564ec88c03a77317a7c6b80bb7f7135ef2544dbe054243b89737"
+dependencies = [
+ "fastrand",
+ "phf_shared 0.13.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4675,31 +5687,40 @@ dependencies = [
  "siphasher",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "phf_shared"
+version = "0.13.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e57fef6bc5981e38c2ce2d63bfa546861309f875b8a75f092d1d54ae2d64f266"
+dependencies = [
+ "siphasher",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project"
-version = "1.1.10"
+version = "1.1.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "677f1add503faace112b9f1373e43e9e054bfdd22ff1a63c1bc485eaec6a6a8a"
+checksum = "2466b2336ed02bcdca6b294417127b90ec92038d1d5c4fbeac971a922e0e0924"
 dependencies = [
  "pin-project-internal",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project-internal"
-version = "1.1.10"
+version = "1.1.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6e918e4ff8c4549eb882f14b3a4bc8c8bc93de829416eacf579f1207a8fbf861"
+checksum = "c96395f0a926bc13b1c17622aaddda1ecb55d49c8f1bf9777e4d877800a43f8b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project-lite"
-version = "0.2.16"
+version = "0.2.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3b3cff922bd51709b605d9ead9aa71031d81447142d828eb4a6eba76fe619f9b"
+checksum = "a89322df9ebe1c1578d689c92318e070967d1042b512afbe49518723f4e6d5cd"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-utils"
@@ -4729,7 +5750,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "der",
  "pbkdf2",
  "scrypt",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "spki",
 ]
 
@@ -4747,9 +5768,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pkg-config"
-version = "0.3.32"
+version = "0.3.33"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7edddbd0b52d732b21ad9a5fab5c704c14cd949e5e9a1ec5929a24fded1b904c"
+checksum = "19f132c84eca552bf34cab8ec81f1c1dcc229b811638f9d283dceabe58c5569e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "portable-atomic"
@@ -4759,19 +5780,21 @@ checksum = "c33a9471896f1c69cecef8d20cbe2f7accd12527ce60845ff44c153bb2a21b49"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "portable-atomic-util"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7a9db96d7fa8782dd8c15ce32ffe8680bbd1e978a43bf51a34d39483540495f5"
+checksum = "c2a106d1259c23fac8e543272398ae0e3c0b8d33c88ed73d0cc71b0f1d902618"
 dependencies = [
  "portable-atomic",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "potential_utf"
-version = "0.1.4"
+version = "0.1.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b73949432f5e2a09657003c25bca5e19a0e9c84f8058ca374f49e0ebe605af77"
+checksum = "0103b1cef7ec0cf76490e969665504990193874ea05c85ff9bab8b911d0a0564"
 dependencies = [
+ "serde_core",
+ "writeable",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
@@ -4797,14 +5820,14 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "479ca8adacdd7ce8f1fb39ce9ecccbfe93a3f1344b3d0d97f20bc0196208f62b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "proc-macro-crate"
-version = "3.4.0"
+version = "3.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "219cb19e96be00ab2e37d6e299658a0cfa83e52429179969b0f0121b4ac46983"
+checksum = "e67ba7e9b2b56446f1d419b1d807906278ffa1a658a8a5d8a39dcb1f5a78614f"
 dependencies = [
  "toml_edit",
 ]
@@ -4820,9 +5843,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d2ea70524a2f82d518bce41317d0fae74151505651af45faf1ffbd6fd33f0568"
+checksum = "528ac67416ff8646872a3c02cad9cc4ee5dc9f9540c9b10771855c95cb2e5ae1"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "prost-derive",
@@ -4830,9 +5853,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost-build"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "343d3bd7056eda839b03204e68deff7d1b13aba7af2b2fd16890697274262ee7"
+checksum = "03da047801ff44bb6a4d407d4860c05fd70bb81714e6b2f3812603d5b145b042"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
@@ -4843,52 +5866,74 @@ dependencies = [
  "prost",
  "prost-types",
  "regex",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "tempfile",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost-derive"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "27c6023962132f4b30eb4c172c91ce92d933da334c59c23cddee82358ddafb0b"
+checksum = "b570b25f7617e43d59005d0990ccb79e950a423952cea19671b7a876da390adf"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost-types"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8991c4cbdb8bc5b11f0b074ffe286c30e523de90fee5ba8132f1399f23cb3dd7"
+checksum = "f94967dc7688f3054c7fac87473ffae4cc4c3904800e2d9f5b857246d8963b0a"
 dependencies = [
  "prost",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "quick-xml"
-version = "0.37.5"
+name = "ptr_meta"
+version = "0.3.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "331e97a1af0bf59823e6eadffe373d7b27f485be8748f71471c662c1f269b7fb"
+checksum = "743da816b98c921cdbe8628ef7381b76f25ecf4da599fc80aca90eae7ef70cc0"
 dependencies = [
- "memchr",
- "serde",
+ "ptr_meta_derive",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ptr_meta_derive"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1c8d9ca532f185d5d4db7a7c9d51420b452168ea1c2b913953281bd6fe1fcbd0"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 3.0.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quick-xml"
-version = "0.38.4"
+version = "0.41.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b66c2058c55a409d601666cffe35f04333cf1013010882cec174a7467cd4e21c"
+checksum = "e660451e55124f798a69a5af3f49ccfbefbd41910eefd25caf2393e1f3473ec1"
 dependencies = [
  "memchr",
  "serde",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "quick_cache"
+version = "0.6.24"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b9c6658afe513a3b484e3abfdaa0d03ef3c0bbf017542c178dd55f94eb3051f9"
+dependencies = [
+ "ahash",
+ "equivalent",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "parking_lot",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "quinn"
 version = "0.11.9"
@@ -4911,14 +5956,16 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quinn-proto"
-version = "0.11.13"
+version = "0.11.16"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f1906b49b0c3bc04b5fe5d86a77925ae6524a19b816ae38ce1e426255f1d8a31"
+checksum = "2f4bfc015262b9df63c8845072ce59068853ff5872180c2ce2f13038b970e560"
 dependencies = [
+ "aws-lc-rs",
  "bytes",
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
  "lru-slab",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "rand_pcg",
  "ring",
  "rustc-hash",
  "rustls",
@@ -4946,9 +5993,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quote"
-version = "1.0.44"
+version = "1.0.45"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "21b2ebcf727b7760c461f091f9f0f539b77b8e87f2fd88131e7f1b433b3cece4"
+checksum = "41f2619966050689382d2b44f664f4bc593e129785a36d6ee376ddf37259b924"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
 ]
@@ -4959,36 +6006,61 @@ version = "5.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "69cdb34c158ceb288df11e18b4bd39de994f6657d83847bdffdbd7f346754b0f"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "r-efi"
+version = "6.0.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f8dcc9c7d52a811697d2151c701e0d08956f92b0e24136cf4cf27b57a6a0d9bf"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "radium"
 version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "dc33ff2d4973d518d823d61aa239014831e521c75da58e3df4840d3f47749d09"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "rancor"
+version = "0.1.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "9b534442d0fcdb55d66f373d9cac6d33b6293a2335bc2136dbd06ce0e87d2572"
+dependencies = [
+ "ptr_meta",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "rand"
-version = "0.8.5"
+version = "0.8.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404"
+checksum = "5ca0ecfa931c29007047d1bc58e623ab12e5590e8c7cc53200d5202b69266d8a"
 dependencies = [
- "libc",
  "rand_chacha 0.3.1",
  "rand_core 0.6.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rand"
-version = "0.9.2"
+version = "0.9.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6db2770f06117d490610c7488547d543617b21bfa07796d7a12f6f1bd53850d1"
+checksum = "b9ef1d0d795eb7d84685bca4f72f3649f064e6641543d3a8c415898726a57b41"
 dependencies = [
  "rand_chacha 0.9.0",
  "rand_core 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rand_chacha"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "rand"
+version = "0.10.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d2e8e8bcc7961af1fdac401278c6a831614941f6164ee3bf4ce61b7edb162207"
+dependencies = [
+ "chacha20",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "rand_chacha"
+version = "0.3.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e6c10a63a0fa32252be49d21e7709d4d4baf8d231c2dbce1eaa8141b9b127d88"
 dependencies = [
@@ -5025,14 +6097,10 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rand_distr"
-version = "0.4.3"
+name = "rand_core"
+version = "0.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "32cb0b9bc82b0a0876c2dd994a7e7a2683d3e7390ca40e6886785ef0c7e3ee31"
-dependencies = [
- "num-traits",
- "rand 0.8.5",
-]
+checksum = "63b8176103e19a2643978565ca18b50549f6101881c443590420e4dc998a3c69"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rand_distr"
@@ -5041,29 +6109,25 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6a8615d50dcf34fa31f7ab52692afec947c4dd0ab803cc87cb3b0b4570ff7463"
 dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rand_xoshiro"
-version = "0.7.0"
+name = "rand_pcg"
+version = "0.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f703f4665700daf5512dcca5f43afa6af89f09db47fb56be587f80636bda2d41"
+checksum = "caa0f4137e1c0a72f4c651489402276c8e8e1cf081f3b0ba156d2cbeef09e86a"
 dependencies = [
- "rand_core 0.9.5",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "random_word"
-version = "0.5.2"
+name = "rand_xoshiro"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e47a395bdb55442b883c89062d6bcff25dc90fa5f8369af81e0ac6d49d78cf81"
+checksum = "f703f4665700daf5512dcca5f43afa6af89f09db47fb56be587f80636bda2d41"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
- "brotli",
- "paste",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "unicase",
+ "rand_core 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5072,6 +6136,15 @@ version = "1.7.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "973443cf09a9c8656b574a866ab68dfa19f0867d0340648c7d2f6a71b8a8ea68"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "rapidhash"
+version = "4.4.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "32b266a82f4aa99bb5c25e28d11cc44ace63d91adbcbcee4d323e2ae3d49ef37"
+dependencies = [
+ "rustversion",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "rawpointer"
 version = "0.2.1"
@@ -5080,9 +6153,9 @@ checksum = "60a357793950651c4ed0f3f52338f53b2f809f32d83a07f72909fa13e4c6c1e3"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rayon"
-version = "1.11.0"
+version = "1.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "368f01d005bf8fd9b1206fb6fa653e6c4a81ceb1466406b81792d87c5677a58f"
+checksum = "fb39b166781f92d482534ef4b4b1b2568f42613b53e5b6c160e24cfbfa30926d"
 dependencies = [
  "either",
  "rayon-core",
@@ -5098,13 +6171,22 @@ dependencies = [
  "crossbeam-utils",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "redb"
+version = "3.1.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "4ba239c1c1693315d3cc0e601db3b3965543afbf48c41730fdca2f069f510f4a"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "redox_syscall"
 version = "0.5.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ed2bf2547551a7053d6fdfafda3f938979645c44812fbfcda098faae3f1a362d"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5118,11 +6200,31 @@ dependencies = [
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "ref-cast"
+version = "1.0.25"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f354300ae66f76f1c85c5f84693f0ce81d747e2c3f21a45fef496d89c960bf7d"
+dependencies = [
+ "ref-cast-impl",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ref-cast-impl"
+version = "1.0.25"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b7186006dcb21920990093f30e3dea63b7d6e977bf1256be20c3563a5db070da"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "regex"
-version = "1.12.3"
+version = "1.12.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e10754a14b9137dd7b1e3e5b0493cc9171fdd105e0ab477f51b72e7f3ac0e276"
+checksum = "f1292b7759ae1cb9ec195452d1390a074f0cd8541ab7a5a8c31cd6db45d4a6ba"
 dependencies = [
  "aho-corasick",
  "memchr",
@@ -5149,9 +6251,9 @@ checksum = "cab834c73d247e67f4fae452806d17d3c7501756d98c8808d7c9c7aa7d18f973"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "regex-syntax"
-version = "0.8.9"
+version = "0.8.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a96887878f22d7bad8a3b6dc5b7440e0ada9a245242924394987b21cf2210a4c"
+checksum = "d6f6ff9a378485b298a5286656da665ba74413d36db0979633275d2e708145d4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "regress"
@@ -5164,56 +6266,183 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "relative-path"
-version = "1.9.3"
+name = "rend"
+version = "0.5.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ba39f3699c378cd8970968dcbff9c43159ea4cfbd88d43c00b22f2ef10a435d2"
+checksum = "663ba70707f96e871406fe10d68128412e619b06d1d47cb91c3a4c6501176240"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytecheck",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "reqsign"
-version = "0.16.5"
+name = "reqsign-aliyun-oss"
+version = "3.1.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "43451dbf3590a7590684c25fb8d12ecdcc90ed3ac123433e500447c7d77ed701"
+checksum = "9c0f9f69a519dd6958c4b43606bb8e1278cdc76d611fc8fed4b796eee548dc0f"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
- "async-trait",
- "base64",
- "chrono",
  "form_urlencoded",
- "getrandom 0.2.17",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rust-ini",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-aws-core"
+version = "3.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "bac4749b7dfa7bfaccd01eb03e9dc795ed37e3f20d6f0f38e2c67ee85ad6bc86"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "form_urlencoded",
  "hex",
- "hmac",
- "home",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "jsonwebtoken",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "log",
- "once_cell",
  "percent-encoding",
- "quick-xml 0.37.5",
- "rand 0.8.5",
- "reqwest",
- "rsa",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-core",
  "rust-ini",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
+ "serde_urlencoded",
+ "sha1",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-aws-v4"
+version = "3.3.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ff250f0fd0b913fbd565e405acc553da0f13bde30bfb5403178c9d0313cdc15f"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-aws-core",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "serde",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-azure-storage"
+version = "3.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a6ebd8524185ce9c64063e3095f83968acfa90922f00c601a4a0f3aca15b077e"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "form_urlencoded",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "pem",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rsa",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "sha1",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-core"
+version = "3.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ff052daffb0599681c50f85c59e7236438976efe991ab864edd9f3b235501a0f"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "base64 0.23.0",
+ "bytes",
+ "futures",
+ "hex",
+ "hmac 0.13.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "jiff",
+ "log",
+ "mea",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "rsa",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
  "sha1",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-file-read-tokio"
+version = "3.0.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b3235df90a6bca681aa47dd86f2393d122a6d77042aa8a7c81e218cd45c5bfc0"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "tokio",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-google"
+version = "3.0.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a96da0b579b846d358090cb06b9e3c2ad1375529efbe3e0c45f96bd7bcf043ea"
+dependencies = [
+ "form_urlencoded",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-aws-v4",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rsa",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-tencent-cos"
+version = "3.0.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f6497dd9f6e3d1349b420521484099b284f95e8d3a65f088fccef42493a7b644"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-volcengine-tos"
+version = "3.1.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7a7e7a3a0635e0aa9ef851577c63cba5b3c98fb584f6a6637c2fd5cc50702c99"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "reqwest"
 version = "0.12.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "eddd3ca559203180a307f12d114c268abf583f59b03cb906fd0b3ff8646c1147"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "bytes",
  "encoding_rs",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
  "h2",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "hyper",
@@ -5237,14 +6466,68 @@ dependencies = [
  "tokio-rustls",
  "tokio-util",
  "tower",
- "tower-http 0.6.8",
+ "tower-http 0.6.11",
+ "tower-service",
+ "url",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "wasm-streams 0.4.2",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqwest"
+version = "0.13.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "219c5811de6525e5416c7d5d53bb656d3afdbc6c5af816e0802bcfa42dbdc1c3"
+dependencies = [
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "futures-core",
+ "futures-util",
+ "h2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "http-body-util",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-rustls",
+ "hyper-util",
+ "js-sys",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "pin-project-lite",
+ "quinn",
+ "rustls",
+ "rustls-pki-types",
+ "rustls-platform-verifier",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "sync_wrapper",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-rustls",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tower",
+ "tower-http 0.6.11",
  "tower-service",
  "url",
  "wasm-bindgen",
  "wasm-bindgen-futures",
- "wasm-streams",
+ "wasm-streams 0.5.0",
  "web-sys",
- "webpki-roots",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqwest-middleware"
+version = "0.5.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "07bc3f1384cffa4f274dad2d4ddd73aed32fed8f786d96c6be8aa4e5fd3c3b58"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tower-service",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5254,18 +6537,48 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a4689e6c2294d81e88dc6261c768b63bc4fcdb852be6d1352498b114f61383b7"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "getrandom 0.2.17",
  "libc",
  "untrusted",
  "windows-sys 0.52.0",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "rkyv"
+version = "0.8.18"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d9776093b7ca170454ab1406954f7b7d97a57c51dc6c0642957fb2ef25c2d399"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytecheck",
+ "bytes",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "munge",
+ "ptr_meta",
+ "rancor",
+ "rend",
+ "rkyv_derive",
+ "tinyvec",
+ "uuid",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "rkyv_derive"
+version = "0.8.18"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1c25ef604ac7dd839d44d64648952ea23c97866f124ff671b0ed2cf3ad9bb06e"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 3.0.2",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "roaring"
-version = "0.10.12"
+version = "0.11.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "19e8d2cfa184d94d0726d650a9f4a1be7f9b76ac9fdb954219878dc00c1c1e7b"
+checksum = "1dedc5658c6ecb3bdb5ef5f3295bb9253f42dcf3fd1402c03f6b1f7659c3c4a9"
 dependencies = [
  "bytemuck",
  "byteorder",
@@ -5283,15 +6596,15 @@ version = "0.9.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b8573f03f5883dcaebdfcf4725caa1ecb9c15b2ef50c43a07b816e06799bb12d"
 dependencies = [
- "const-oid",
- "digest",
+ "const-oid 0.9.6",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
  "num-bigint-dig",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
  "pkcs1",
  "pkcs8",
  "rand_core 0.6.4",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "signature",
  "spki",
  "subtle",
@@ -5309,60 +6622,21 @@ dependencies = [
  "smallvec",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "rstest"
-version = "0.26.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f5a3193c063baaa2a95a33f03035c8a72b83d97a54916055ba22d35ed3839d49"
-dependencies = [
- "futures-timer",
- "futures-util",
- "rstest_macros",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rstest_macros"
-version = "0.26.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9c845311f0ff7951c5506121a9ad75aec44d083c31583b2ea5a30bcb0b0abba0"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "glob",
- "proc-macro-crate",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "regex",
- "relative-path",
- "rustc_version",
- "syn 2.0.114",
- "unicode-ident",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "rust-ini"
 version = "0.21.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "796e8d2b6696392a43bea58116b667fb4c29727dc5abd27d6acf338bb4f688c7"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "ordered-multimap",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "rust-stemmers"
-version = "1.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e46a2036019fdb888131db7a4c847a1063a7493f971ed94ea82c67eada63ca54"
-dependencies = [
- "serde",
- "serde_derive",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "rustc-hash"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "357703d41365b4b27c590e3ed91eabb1b663f07c4c084095e60cbed4362dff0d"
+checksum = "6b1e7f9a428571be2dc5bc0505c13fb6bf936822b894ec87abf8a08a4e51742d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustc_version"
@@ -5375,35 +6649,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustix"
-version = "0.38.44"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fdb5bc1ae2baa591800df16c9ca78619bf65c0488b41b96ccec5d11220d8c154"
-dependencies = [
- "bitflags",
- "errno",
- "libc",
- "linux-raw-sys 0.4.15",
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rustix"
-version = "1.1.3"
+version = "1.1.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "146c9e247ccc180c1f61615433868c99f3de3ae256a30a43b49f67c2d9171f34"
+checksum = "b6fe4565b9518b83ef4f91bb47ce29620ca828bd32cb7e408f0062e9930ba190"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "errno",
  "libc",
- "linux-raw-sys 0.11.0",
+ "linux-raw-sys",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls"
-version = "0.23.36"
+version = "0.23.45"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c665f33d38cea657d9614f766881e4d510e0eda4239891eea56b4cadcf01801b"
+checksum = "0d41d731c7d2f962d1ccc364cec258de3c0e93b38c2fb3ba97ac74513048d634"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-lc-rs",
  "once_cell",
@@ -5416,9 +6677,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-native-certs"
-version = "0.8.3"
+version = "0.8.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "612460d5f7bea540c490b2b6395d8e34a953e52b491accd6c86c8164c5932a63"
+checksum = "dab5152771c58876a2146916e53e35057e1a4dfa2b9df0f0305b07f611fdea4d"
 dependencies = [
  "openssl-probe",
  "rustls-pki-types",
@@ -5427,29 +6688,47 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rustls-pemfile"
-version = "2.2.0"
+name = "rustls-pki-types"
+version = "1.15.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dce314e5fee3f39953d46bb63bb8a46d40c2f8fb7cc5a3b6cab2bde9721d6e50"
+checksum = "764899a24af3980067ee14bc143654f297b22eaebfe3c7b6b211920a5a59b046"
 dependencies = [
- "rustls-pki-types",
+ "web-time",
+ "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rustls-pki-types"
-version = "1.14.0"
+name = "rustls-platform-verifier"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "be040f8b0a225e40375822a563fa9524378b9d63112f53e19ffff34df5d33fdd"
+checksum = "26d1e2536ce4f35f4846aa13bff16bd0ff40157cdb14cc056c7b14ba41233ba0"
 dependencies = [
- "web-time",
- "zeroize",
+ "core-foundation 0.10.1",
+ "core-foundation-sys",
+ "jni 0.22.4",
+ "log",
+ "once_cell",
+ "rustls",
+ "rustls-native-certs",
+ "rustls-platform-verifier-android",
+ "rustls-webpki",
+ "security-framework",
+ "security-framework-sys",
+ "webpki-root-certs",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "rustls-platform-verifier-android"
+version = "0.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f87165f0995f63a9fbeea62b64d10b4d9d8e78ec6d7d51fb2125fda7bb36788f"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-webpki"
-version = "0.103.9"
+version = "0.103.15"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d7df23109aa6c1567d1c575b9952556388da57401e4ace1d15f79eedad0d8f53"
+checksum = "f3c3cf1d8b1e7d4927e2d154c3fcb02979afb9939629c62cd9048d4f07b60ac2"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-lc-rs",
  "ring",
@@ -5465,9 +6744,15 @@ checksum = "b39cdef0fa800fc44525c84ccb54a029961a8215f9619753635a9c0d2538d46d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ryu"
-version = "1.0.22"
+version = "1.0.23"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a50f4cf475b65d88e057964e0e9bb1f0aa9bbb2036dc65c64596b42932536984"
+checksum = "9774ba4a74de5f7b1c1451ed6cd5285a32eddb5cccb8cc655a4e50009e06477f"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "safe-transmute"
+version = "0.11.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "3944826ff8fa8093089aba3acb4ef44b9446a99a16f3bf4e74af3f77d340ab7d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "salsa20"
@@ -5489,9 +6774,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "schannel"
-version = "0.1.28"
+version = "0.1.29"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "891d81b926048e76efe18581bf793546b4c0eaf8448d72be8de2bbee5fd166e1"
+checksum = "91c1b7e4904c873ef0710c1f407dde2e6287de2bebc1bbbf7d430bb7cbffd939"
 dependencies = [
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
@@ -5508,6 +6793,30 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde_json",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "schemars"
+version = "0.9.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "4cd191f9397d57d581cddd31014772520aa448f65ef991055d7f61582c65165f"
+dependencies = [
+ "dyn-clone",
+ "ref-cast",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "schemars"
+version = "1.2.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a2b42f36aa1cd011945615b92222f6bf73c599a102a300334cd7f8dbeec726cc"
+dependencies = [
+ "dyn-clone",
+ "ref-cast",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "schemars_derive"
 version = "0.8.22"
@@ -5517,7 +6826,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "serde_derive_internals",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5540,17 +6849,17 @@ checksum = "0516a385866c09368f0b5bcd1caff3366aace790fcd46e2bb032697bb172fd1f"
 dependencies = [
  "pbkdf2",
  "salsa20",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "security-framework"
-version = "3.5.1"
+version = "3.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b3297343eaf830f66ede390ea39da1d462b6b0c1b000f420d0a83f898bbbe6ef"
+checksum = "b7f4bc775c73d9a02cde8bf7b2ec4c9d12743edf609006c7facc23998404cd1d"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags",
- "core-foundation",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "core-foundation 0.10.1",
  "core-foundation-sys",
  "libc",
  "security-framework-sys",
@@ -5558,9 +6867,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "security-framework-sys"
-version = "2.15.0"
+version = "2.17.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cc1f0cbffaac4852523ce30d8bd3c5cdc873501d96ff467ca09b6767bb8cd5c0"
+checksum = "6ce2691df843ecc5d231c0b14ece2acc3efb62c0a398c7e1d875f3983ce020e3"
 dependencies = [
  "core-foundation-sys",
  "libc",
@@ -5568,9 +6877,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "semver"
-version = "1.0.27"
+version = "1.0.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d767eb0aabc880b29956c35734170f26ed551a859dbd361d140cdbeca61ab1e2"
+checksum = "8a7852d02fc848982e0c167ef163aaff9cd91dc640ba85e263cb1ce46fae51cd"
 dependencies = [
  "serde",
  "serde_core",
@@ -5584,9 +6893,9 @@ checksum = "1bc711410fbe7399f390ca1c3b60ad0f53f80e95c5eb935e52268a0e2cd49acc"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde"
-version = "1.0.228"
+version = "1.0.229"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9a8e94ea7f378bd32cbbd37198a4a91436180c5bb472411e48b5ec2e2124ae9e"
+checksum = "4148590afebada386688f18773da617792bf2ef03ffc1e4cbd2b1d45b023e0ba"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_core",
  "serde_derive",
@@ -5594,22 +6903,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_core"
-version = "1.0.228"
+version = "1.0.229"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "41d385c7d4ca58e59fc732af25c3983b67ac852c1a25000afe1175de458b67ad"
+checksum = "67dca2c9c51e58a4791a4b1ed58308b39c64224d349a935ab5039aa360942a48"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_derive"
-version = "1.0.228"
+version = "1.0.229"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d540f220d3187173da220f885ab66608367b6574e925011a9353e4badda91d79"
+checksum = "e7a5d71263a5a7d47b41f6b3f06ba276f10cc18b0931f1799f710578e2309348"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 3.0.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5620,15 +6929,16 @@ checksum = "18d26a20a969b9e3fdf2fc2d9f21eda6c40e2de84c9408bb5d3b05d499aae711"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_json"
-version = "1.0.149"
+version = "1.0.151"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "83fc039473c5595ace860d8c4fafa220ff474b3fc6bfdb4293327f1a37e94d86"
+checksum = "c841b55ecdae098c80dcae9cf767f6f8a0c2cdb3416bbef72181df4d0fe73f14"
 dependencies = [
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itoa",
  "memchr",
  "serde",
@@ -5655,19 +6965,19 @@ checksum = "175ee3e80ae9982737ca543e96133087cbd9a485eecc3bc4de9c1a37b47ea59c"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_tokenstream"
-version = "0.2.2"
+version = "0.2.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64060d864397305347a78851c51588fd283767e7e7589829e8121d65512340f1"
+checksum = "d7c49585c52c01f13c5c2ebb333f14f6885d76daa768d8a037d28017ec538c69"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "serde",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5682,13 +6992,58 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "serde_with"
+version = "3.21.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "76a5c54c7310e7b8b9577c286d7e399ddd876c3e12b3ed917a8aabc4b96e9e8c"
+dependencies = [
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bs58",
+ "chrono",
+ "hex",
+ "indexmap 1.9.3",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "schemars 0.9.0",
+ "schemars 1.2.1",
+ "serde_core",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serde_with_macros",
+ "time",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "serde_with_macros"
+version = "3.21.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "84d57bc0c8b9a17920c178daa6bb924850d54a9c97ab45194bb8c17ad66bb660"
+dependencies = [
+ "darling 0.23.0",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_yaml"
 version = "0.9.34+deprecated"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6a8b1a1a2ebf674015cc02edccce75287f1a0130d394307b36743c2f5d504b47"
 dependencies = [
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "itoa",
+ "ryu",
+ "serde",
+ "unsafe-libyaml",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "serde_yaml_ng"
+version = "0.10.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7b4db627b98b36d4203a7b458cf3573730f2bb591b28871d916dfa9efabfd41f"
+dependencies = [
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itoa",
  "ryu",
  "serde",
@@ -5697,13 +7052,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sha1"
-version = "0.10.6"
+version = "0.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3bf829a2d51ab4a5ddf1352d8470c140cadc8301b2ae1789db023f01cedd6ba"
+checksum = "aacc4cc499359472b4abe1bf11d0b12e688af9a805fa5e3016f9a386dc2d0214"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "cpufeatures",
- "digest",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5712,9 +7067,20 @@ version = "0.10.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a7507d819769d01a365ab707794a4084392c824f54a7a6a7862f8c3d0892b283"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "cpufeatures",
- "digest",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.2.17",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "sha2"
+version = "0.11.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "446ba717509524cb3f22f17ecc096f10f4822d76ab5c0b9822c5f9c284e825f4"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5728,18 +7094,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "shellexpand"
-version = "3.1.1"
+version = "3.1.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8b1fdf65dd6331831494dd616b30351c38e96e45921a27745cf98490458b90bb"
+checksum = "32824fab5e16e6c4d86dc1ba84489390419a39f97699852b66480bb87d297ed8"
 dependencies = [
+ "bstr",
  "dirs",
+ "os_str_bytes",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "shlex"
-version = "1.3.0"
+version = "2.0.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0fda2ff0d084019ba4d7c6f371c95d8fd75ce3524c3cb8fb653a3023f6323e64"
+checksum = "f8fadd59c855ef2080decdef8ff161eb6661b86933c9d82e5ba29dc602a55aba"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "signal-hook-registry"
@@ -5757,48 +7125,43 @@ version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "77549399552de45a898a580c1b41d445bf730df867cc44e6c0233bbc4b8329de"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
  "rand_core 0.6.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "simd-adler32"
-version = "0.3.8"
+version = "0.3.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e320a6c5ad31d271ad523dcf3ad13e2767ad8b1cb8f047f75a8aeaf8da139da2"
+checksum = "703d5c7ef118737c72f1af64ad2f6f8c5e1921f818cdcb97b8fe6fc69bf66214"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "simdutf8"
-version = "0.1.5"
+name = "simd_cesu8"
+version = "1.1.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3a9fe34e3e7a50316060351f37187a3f546bce95496156754b601a5fa71b76e"
+checksum = "94f90157bb87cddf702797c5dadfa0be7d266cdf49e22da2fcaa32eff75b2c33"
+dependencies = [
+ "rustc_version",
+ "simdutf8",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "simple_asn1"
-version = "0.6.3"
+name = "simdutf8"
+version = "0.1.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "297f631f50729c8c99b84667867963997ec0b50f32b2a7dbcab828ef0541e8bb"
-dependencies = [
- "num-bigint",
- "num-traits",
- "thiserror 2.0.18",
- "time",
-]
+checksum = "e3a9fe34e3e7a50316060351f37187a3f546bce95496156754b601a5fa71b76e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "siphasher"
-version = "1.0.2"
+version = "1.0.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b2aa850e253778c88a04c3d7323b043aeda9d3e30d5971937c1855769763678e"
+checksum = "8ee5873ec9cce0195efcb7a4e9507a04cd49aec9c83d0389df45b1ef7ba2e649"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sketches-ddsketch"
-version = "0.3.0"
+version = "0.3.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c1e9a774a6c28142ac54bb25d25562e6bcf957493a184f15ad4eebccb23e410a"
-dependencies = [
- "serde",
-]
+checksum = "0c6f73aeb92d671e0cc4dca167e59b2deb6387c375391bc99ee743f326994a2b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "slab"
@@ -5808,54 +7171,48 @@ checksum = "0c790de23124f9ab44544d7ac05d60440adc586479ce501c1d6d7da3cd8c9cf5"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "smallvec"
-version = "1.15.1"
+version = "1.15.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "67b1b7a3b5fe4f1376887184045fcf45c69e92af734b7aaddc05fb777b6fbd03"
+checksum = "8ed6a63f02c8539c91a8685a86f4099661ba3da017932f6ebbea6de3f0fa7c90"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "snafu"
-version = "0.8.9"
+version = "0.9.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6e84b3f4eacbf3a1ce05eac6763b4d629d60cbc94d632e4092c54ade71f1e1a2"
+checksum = "e45cb604038abb7b926b679887b3226d8d0f23874b66623625a0454be425a4b7"
 dependencies = [
  "snafu-derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "snafu-derive"
-version = "0.8.9"
+version = "0.9.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c1c97747dbf44bb1ca44a561ece23508e99cb592e862f22222dcf42f51d1e451"
+checksum = "287f59010008f0d7cf5e3b03196d666c1acc46c8d3e9cf34c28a1a7157601e72"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "snap"
-version = "1.1.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1b6b67fb9a61334225b5b790716f609cd58395f895b3fe8b328786812a40bc3b"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "socket2"
-version = "0.6.2"
+version = "0.6.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "86f4aa3ad99f2088c990dfa82d367e19cb29268ed67c574d10d0a4bfe71f07e0"
+checksum = "52d1cfed4120b4d927bf7c0f86d2087a4a7d6027c906d9f9d525a80573b9be51"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
- "windows-sys 0.60.2",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spade"
-version = "2.15.0"
+version = "2.15.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fb313e1c8afee5b5647e00ee0fe6855e3d529eb863a0fdae1d60006c4d1e9990"
+checksum = "9699399fd9349b00b184f5635b074f9ec93afffef30c853f8c875b32c0f8c7fa"
 dependencies = [
- "hashbrown 0.15.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
  "num-traits",
  "robust",
  "smallvec",
@@ -5863,9 +7220,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spin"
-version = "0.9.8"
+version = "0.9.9"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "3763264f6b73151db08c50ff20d7d8a0b8796e021cdea7ceedad07b80155fa0e"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "spin"
+version = "0.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6980e8d7511241f8acf4aebddbb1ff938df5eebe98691418c4468d0b72a96a67"
+checksum = "023a211cb3138dbc438680b32560ad89f699977624c9f8dbb95a47d5b4c07dd3"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spki"
@@ -5879,9 +7242,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sqlparser"
-version = "0.59.0"
+version = "0.62.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4591acadbcf52f0af60eafbb2c003232b2b4cd8de5f0e9437cb8b1b59046cc0f"
+checksum = "13c6d1b651dc4edf07eead2a0c6c78016ce971bc2c10da5266861b13f25e7cec"
 dependencies = [
  "log",
  "sqlparser_derive",
@@ -5889,13 +7252,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sqlparser_derive"
-version = "0.3.0"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "da5fc6819faabb412da764b99d3b713bb55083c11e7e0c00144d386cd6a1939c"
+checksum = "a6dd45d8fc1c79299bfbb7190e42ccbbdf6a5f52e4a6ad98d92357ea965bd289"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5904,6 +7267,22 @@ version = "1.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6ce2be8dc25455e1f91df71bfa12ad37d7af1092ae736f3a6cd0e37bc7810596"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "static_assertions"
+version = "1.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a2eb9349b6444b326872e140eb1cf5e7c522154d69e7a0ffb0fb81c06b37543f"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "statrs"
+version = "0.18.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "2a3fe7c28c6512e766b0874335db33c94ad7b8f9054228ae1c2abd47ce7d335e"
+dependencies = [
+ "approx",
+ "num-traits",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "std_prelude"
 version = "0.2.12"
@@ -5916,6 +7295,15 @@ version = "0.2.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e51f1e89f093f99e7432c491c382b88a6860a5adbe6bf02574bf0a08efff1978"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "stop-words"
+version = "0.10.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d68df56303396bcfb639455b3c166804aeb7994005010aab5e9e8a1277b8871d"
+dependencies = [
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "strsim"
 version = "0.11.1"
@@ -5924,33 +7312,33 @@ checksum = "7da8b5736845d9f2fcb837ea5d9e2628564b3b043a70948a3f0b778838c5fb4f"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "strum"
-version = "0.26.3"
+version = "0.28.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8fec0f0aef304996cf250b31b5a10dee7980c85da9d759361292b8bca5a18f06"
+checksum = "9628de9b8791db39ceda2b119bbe13134770b56c138ec1d3af810d045c04f9bd"
 dependencies = [
  "strum_macros",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "strum_macros"
-version = "0.26.4"
+version = "0.28.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4c6bee85a5a24955dc440386795aa378cd9cf82acd5f764469152d2270e581be"
+checksum = "ab85eea0270ee17587ed4156089e10b9e6880ee688791d45a905f5b1ca36f664"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "substrait"
-version = "0.62.2"
+version = "0.63.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "62fc4b483a129b9772ccb9c3f7945a472112fdd9140da87f8a4e7f1d44e045d0"
+checksum = "e620ff4d5c02fd6f7752931aa74b16a26af66a63022cc1ad412c77edbe0bab47"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "pbjson",
  "pbjson-build",
  "pbjson-types",
@@ -5959,12 +7347,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
  "regress",
- "schemars",
+ "schemars 0.8.22",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_yaml",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "typify",
  "walkdir",
 ]
@@ -5975,11 +7363,17 @@ version = "2.6.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "13c2bddecc57b384dee18652358fb23172facb8a2c51ccc10d74c157bdea3292"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "symlink"
+version = "0.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a7973cce6668464ea31f176d85b13c7ab3bba2cb3b77a2ed26abd7801688010a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
-version = "1.0.109"
+version = "2.0.118"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72b64191b275b66ffe2469e8af2c1cfe3bafa67b529ead792a6d0160888b4237"
+checksum = "1b9ae57f904213ebb649ce6895b8a66c66f0203b9319718f69a5612a065b1422"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -5988,9 +7382,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
-version = "2.0.114"
+version = "3.0.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d4d107df263a3013ef9b1879b0df87d706ff80f65a86ea879bd9c31f9b307c2a"
+checksum = "a207d6d6a2b7fc470b80443726053f18a2481b7e1eee970597051596567987a3"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -6014,160 +7408,49 @@ checksum = "728a70f3dbaf5bab7f0c4b1ac8d7ae5ea60a4b5549c8a5914361c99147a709d2"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tagptr"
-version = "0.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7b2093cf4c8eb1e67749a6762251bc9cd836b6fc171623bd0a9d324d37af2417"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy"
-version = "0.24.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64a966cb0e76e311f09cf18507c9af192f15d34886ee43d7ba7c7e3803660c43"
-dependencies = [
- "aho-corasick",
- "arc-swap",
- "base64",
- "bitpacking",
- "bon",
- "byteorder",
- "census",
- "crc32fast",
- "crossbeam-channel",
- "downcast-rs",
- "fastdivide",
- "fnv",
- "fs4",
- "htmlescape",
- "hyperloglogplus",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "levenshtein_automata",
- "log",
- "lru",
- "lz4_flex 0.11.5",
- "measure_time",
- "memmap2",
- "once_cell",
- "oneshot",
- "rayon",
- "regex",
- "rust-stemmers",
- "rustc-hash",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "sketches-ddsketch",
- "smallvec",
- "tantivy-bitpacker",
- "tantivy-columnar",
- "tantivy-common",
- "tantivy-fst",
- "tantivy-query-grammar",
- "tantivy-stacker",
- "tantivy-tokenizer-api",
- "tempfile",
- "thiserror 2.0.18",
- "time",
- "uuid",
- "winapi",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-bitpacker"
-version = "0.8.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1adc286a39e089ae9938935cd488d7d34f14502544a36607effd2239ff0e2494"
-dependencies = [
- "bitpacking",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-columnar"
-version = "0.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6300428e0c104c4f7db6f95b466a6f5c1b9aece094ec57cdd365337908dc7344"
-dependencies = [
- "downcast-rs",
- "fastdivide",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "serde",
- "tantivy-bitpacker",
- "tantivy-common",
- "tantivy-sstable",
- "tantivy-stacker",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-common"
-version = "0.9.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e91b6ea6090ce03dc72c27d0619e77185d26cc3b20775966c346c6d4f7e99d7f"
-dependencies = [
- "async-trait",
- "byteorder",
- "ownedbytes",
- "serde",
- "time",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-fst"
-version = "0.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d60769b80ad7953d8a7b2c70cdfe722bbcdcac6bccc8ac934c40c034d866fc18"
-dependencies = [
- "byteorder",
- "regex-syntax",
- "utf8-ranges",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tantivy-query-grammar"
-version = "0.24.0"
+name = "sysinfo"
+version = "0.38.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e810cdeeebca57fc3f7bfec5f85fdbea9031b2ac9b990eb5ff49b371d52bbe6a"
+checksum = "92ab6a2f8bfe508deb3c6406578252e491d299cbbf3bc0529ecc3313aee4a52f"
 dependencies = [
- "nom 7.1.3",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
+ "libc",
+ "memchr",
+ "ntapi",
+ "objc2-core-foundation",
+ "objc2-io-kit",
+ "windows",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tantivy-sstable"
-version = "0.5.0"
+name = "system-configuration"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "709f22c08a4c90e1b36711c1c6cad5ae21b20b093e535b69b18783dd2cb99416"
+checksum = "a13f3d0daba03132c0aa9767f98351b3488edc2c100cda2d2ec2b04f3d8d3c8b"
 dependencies = [
- "futures-util",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "tantivy-bitpacker",
- "tantivy-common",
- "tantivy-fst",
- "zstd",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "core-foundation 0.9.4",
+ "system-configuration-sys",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tantivy-stacker"
-version = "0.5.0"
+name = "system-configuration-sys"
+version = "0.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2bcdebb267671311d1e8891fd9d1301803fdb8ad21ba22e0a30d0cab49ba59c1"
+checksum = "8e1d1b10ced5ca923a1fcb8d03e96b8d3268065d724548c0211415ff6ac6bac4"
 dependencies = [
- "murmurhash32",
- "rand_distr 0.4.3",
- "tantivy-common",
+ "core-foundation-sys",
+ "libc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tantivy-tokenizer-api"
-version = "0.5.0"
+name = "tagptr"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dfa942fcee81e213e09715bbce8734ae2180070b97b33839a795ba1de201547d"
-dependencies = [
- "serde",
-]
+checksum = "7b2093cf4c8eb1e67749a6762251bc9cd836b6fc171623bd0a9d324d37af2417"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tap"
@@ -6177,14 +7460,14 @@ checksum = "55937e1799185b12863d447f42597ed69d9928686b8d88a1df17376a097d8369"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tempfile"
-version = "3.24.0"
+version = "3.27.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "655da9c7eb6305c55742045d5a8d2037996d61d8de95806335c7c86ce0f82e9c"
+checksum = "32497e9a4c7b38532efcdebeef879707aa9f794296a4f0244f6f69e9bc8574bd"
 dependencies = [
  "fastrand",
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
  "once_cell",
- "rustix 1.1.3",
+ "rustix",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
@@ -6214,7 +7497,7 @@ checksum = "4fee6c4efc90059e10f81e6d42c60a18f76588c3d74cb83a0b242a2b6c7504c1"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6225,7 +7508,7 @@ checksum = "ebc4ee7f67670e9b64d05fa4253e753e016c6c95ff35b89b7941d6b856dec1d5"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6243,18 +7526,7 @@ version = "1.1.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f60246a4944f24f6e018aa17cdeffb7818b76356965d03b07d6a9886e8962185"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "thrift"
-version = "0.17.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7e54bc85fc7faa8bc175c4bab5b92ba8d9a3ce893d0e9f42cc455c8ab16a9e09"
-dependencies = [
- "byteorder",
- "integer-encoding",
- "ordered-float 2.10.1",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6299,19 +7571,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tinystr"
-version = "0.8.2"
+version = "0.8.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "42d3e9c45c09de15d06dd8acf5f4e0e399e85927b7f00711024eb7ae10fa4869"
+checksum = "c8323304221c2a851516f22236c5722a72eaa19749016521d6dff0824447d96d"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
+ "serde_core",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tinyvec"
-version = "1.10.0"
+version = "1.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bfa5fdc3bce6191a1dbc8c02d5c8bffcf557bafa17c124c5264a458f1b0613fa"
+checksum = "3e61e67053d25a4e82c844e8424039d9745781b3fc4f32b8d55ed50f5f667ef3"
 dependencies = [
  "tinyvec_macros",
 ]
@@ -6324,9 +7597,9 @@ checksum = "1f3ccbac311fea05f86f61904b462b55fb3df8837a366dfc601a0161d0532f20"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio"
-version = "1.49.0"
+version = "1.53.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72a2903cd7736441aac9df9d7688bd0ce48edccaadf181c3b90be801e81d3d86"
+checksum = "202caea871b69668250d242070849eb495be178ed697a3e98aebce5bc81a0bed"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "libc",
@@ -6341,13 +7614,24 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-macros"
-version = "2.6.0"
+version = "2.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "af407857209536a95c8e56f8231ef2c2e2aff839b22e07a1ffcbc617e9db9fa5"
+checksum = "385a6cb71ab9ab790c5fe8d67f1645e6c450a7ce006a33de03daa956cf70a496"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tokio-retry"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "4a129d95275ebf4c493ec53bf0f8cd95f5ac161bc4f381700809a54f595d4470"
+dependencies = [
+ "pin-project-lite",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6362,56 +7646,119 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-stream"
-version = "0.1.18"
+version = "0.1.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "32da49809aab5c3bc678af03902d4ccddea2a87d028d86392a4b1560c6906c70"
+checksum = "a3d06f0b082ba57c26b79407372e57cf2a1e28124f78e9479fe80322cf53420b"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-util"
-version = "0.7.18"
+version = "0.7.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9ae9cec805b01e8fc3fd2fe289f89149a9b66dd16786abd8b19cfa7b48cb0098"
+checksum = "494815d09bf52b5548659851081238f0ca39ff638363907596da739561c62c52"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
+ "libc",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "tokio_with_wasm"
+version = "0.8.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "34e40fbbbd95441133fe9483f522db15dbfd26dc636164ebd8f2dd28759a6aa6"
+dependencies = [
+ "js-sys",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio_with_wasm_proc",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tokio_with_wasm_proc"
+version = "0.8.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d01145a2c788d6aae4cd653afec1e8332534d7d783d01897cefcafe4428de992"
+dependencies = [
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "toml_datetime"
-version = "0.7.5+spec-1.1.0"
+version = "1.1.1+spec-1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "92e1cfed4a3038bc5a127e35a2d360f145e1f4b971b551a2ba5fd7aedf7e1347"
+checksum = "3165f65f62e28e0115a00b2ebdd37eb6f3b641855f9d636d3cd4103767159ad7"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "toml_edit"
-version = "0.23.10+spec-1.0.0"
+version = "0.25.12+spec-1.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d2153edc6955a6c354fad8f5efd38b6a8769bdccf9fe50f8e1329f81b0baa5d7"
+dependencies = [
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "toml_datetime",
+ "toml_parser",
+ "winnow",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "toml_parser"
+version = "1.1.2+spec-1.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a2abe9b86193656635d2411dc43050282ca48aa31c2451210f4202550afb7526"
+dependencies = [
+ "winnow",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tonic"
+version = "0.14.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "84c8b9f757e028cee9fa244aea147aab2a9ec09d5325a9b01e0a49730c2b5269"
+checksum = "ac2a5518c70fa84342385732db33fb3f44bc4cc748936eb5833d2df34d6445ef"
 dependencies = [
- "indexmap",
- "toml_datetime",
- "toml_parser",
- "winnow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "http-body-util",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-timeout",
+ "hyper-util",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "pin-project",
+ "sync_wrapper",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-stream",
+ "tower",
+ "tower-layer",
+ "tower-service",
+ "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "toml_parser"
-version = "1.0.6+spec-1.1.0"
+name = "tonic-prost"
+version = "0.14.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a3198b4b0a8e11f09dd03e133c0280504d0801269e9afa46362ffde1cbeebf44"
+checksum = "50849f68853be452acf590cde0b146665b8d507b3b8af17261df47e02c209ea0"
 dependencies = [
- "winnow",
+ "bytes",
+ "prost",
+ "tonic",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6422,9 +7769,12 @@ checksum = "ebe5ef63511595f1344e2d5cfa636d973292adc0eec1f0ad45fae9f0851ab1d4"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "pin-project-lite",
+ "slab",
  "sync_wrapper",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
  "tower-layer",
  "tower-service",
  "tracing",
@@ -6436,9 +7786,9 @@ version = "0.5.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1e9cd434a998747dd2c4276bc96ee2e0c7a2eadf3cae88e52be55a05fa9053f5"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "bytes",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "pin-project-lite",
@@ -6449,25 +7799,25 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tower-http"
-version = "0.6.8"
+version = "0.6.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d4e6559d53cc268e5031cd8429d05415bc4cb4aefc4aa5d6cc35fbf5b924a1f8"
+checksum = "4cfcf7e2740e6fc6d4d688b4ef00650406bb94adf4731e43c096c3a19fe40840"
 dependencies = [
  "async-compression",
- "bitflags",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "bytes",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
- "iri-string",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-util",
  "tower",
  "tower-layer",
  "tower-service",
+ "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6494,6 +7844,19 @@ dependencies = [
  "tracing-core",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "tracing-appender"
+version = "0.2.5"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "050686193eb999b4bb3bc2acfa891a13da00f79734704c4b8b4ef1a10b368a3c"
+dependencies = [
+ "crossbeam-channel",
+ "symlink",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "time",
+ "tracing-subscriber",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "tracing-attributes"
 version = "0.1.31"
@@ -6502,7 +7865,7 @@ checksum = "7490cfa5ec963746568740651ac6781f701c9c5ea257c58e057f3ba8cf69e8da"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6526,22 +7889,35 @@ dependencies = [
  "tracing-core",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "tracing-serde"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "704b1aeb7be0d0a84fc9828cae51dab5970fee5088f83d1dd7ee6f6246fc6ff1"
+dependencies = [
+ "serde",
+ "tracing-core",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "tracing-subscriber"
-version = "0.3.22"
+version = "0.3.23"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2f30143827ddab0d256fd843b7a66d164e9f271cfa0dde49142c5ca0ca291f1e"
+checksum = "cb7f578e5945fb242538965c2d0b04418d38ec25c79d160cd279bf0731c8d319"
 dependencies = [
  "matchers",
  "nu-ansi-term",
  "once_cell",
  "regex-automata",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
  "sharded-slab",
  "smallvec",
  "thread_local",
  "tracing",
  "tracing-core",
  "tracing-log",
+ "tracing-serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6552,18 +7928,24 @@ checksum = "e421abadd41a4225275504ea4d6566923418b7f05506fbc9c0fe86ba7396114b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "twox-hash"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9ea3136b675547379c4bd395ca6b938e5ad3c3d20fad76e7fe85f9e0d011419c"
+checksum = "8464ec13c3691491391d9fce00f6416c9a48e46972f72d7865688be2080192c9"
 dependencies = [
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "typenum"
-version = "1.19.0"
+version = "1.20.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b6f5e870be6c3b371b77fe0ee0bafb859fa4964b4404c27de1d380043c4dda20"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "typewit"
+version = "1.15.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "562d481066bde0658276a35467c4af00bdc6ee726305698a55b86e61d7ad82bb"
+checksum = "214ca0b2191785cbc06209b9ca1861e048e39b5ba33574b3cedd58363d5bb5f6"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "typify"
@@ -6586,11 +7968,11 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "regress",
- "schemars",
+ "schemars 0.8.22",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
  "unicode-ident",
 ]
@@ -6603,12 +7985,12 @@ checksum = "911c32f3c8514b048c1b228361bebb5e6d73aeec01696e8cc0e82e2ffef8ab7a"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "schemars",
+ "schemars 0.8.22",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_tokenstream",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "typify-impl",
 ]
 
@@ -6618,17 +8000,32 @@ version = "2.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "dbc4bc3a9f746d862c45cb89d705aa10f187bb96c76001afab07a0d35ce60142"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "unicode-blocks"
+version = "0.1.10"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "328edfd6d0bb91a22e592bed3a3b54c7b1f5c92a517f5a7aca24a2caef10c363"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-ident"
-version = "1.0.22"
+version = "1.0.24"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e6e4313cd5fcd3dad5cafa179702e2b244f760991f45397d14d4ebf38247da75"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "unicode-normalization"
+version = "0.1.25"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9312f7c4f6ff9069b165498234ce8be658059c6728633667c526e27dc2cf1df5"
+checksum = "5fd4f6878c9cb28d874b009da9e8d183b5abc80117c40bbd187a1fde336be6e8"
+dependencies = [
+ "tinyvec",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-segmentation"
-version = "1.12.0"
+version = "1.13.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f6ccf251212114b54433ec949fd6a7841275f9ada20dddd2f29e9ceea4501493"
+checksum = "c6f5d3c3b1bf09027a88a6bc961fc00497d651009560b5463668dc81b0fa87a8"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-width"
@@ -6686,11 +8083,11 @@ checksum = "06abde3611657adf66d383f00b093d7faecc7fa57071cce2578660c9f1010821"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "uuid"
-version = "1.20.0"
+version = "1.24.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ee48d38b119b0cd71fe4141b30f5ba9c7c5d9f4e7a3a8b4a674e4b6ef789976f"
+checksum = "bf3923a6f5c4c6382e0b653c4117f48d631ea17f38ed86e2a828e6f7412f5239"
 dependencies = [
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
  "js-sys",
  "serde_core",
  "wasm-bindgen",
@@ -6739,22 +8136,40 @@ version = "0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ccf3ec651a847eb01de73ccad15eb7d99f80485de043efb2f370cd654f4ea44b"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "wasi"
+version = "0.14.7+wasi-0.2.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "883478de20367e224c0090af9cf5f9fa85bed63a95c1abf3afc5c083ebc06e8c"
+dependencies = [
+ "wasip2",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "wasip2"
-version = "1.0.2+wasi-0.2.9"
+version = "1.0.4+wasi-0.2.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9517f9239f02c069db75e65f174b3da828fe5f5b945c4dd26bd25d89c03ebcf5"
+checksum = "b67efb37e106e55ce722a510d6b5f9c17f083e5fc79afc2badeb12cc313d9487"
 dependencies = [
  "wit-bindgen",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "wasite"
+version = "1.0.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "66fe902b4a6b8028a753d5424909b764ccf79b7a209eac9bf97e59cda9f71a42"
+dependencies = [
+ "wasi 0.14.7+wasi-0.2.4",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64024a30ec1e37399cf85a7ffefebdb72205ca1c972291c51512360d90bd8566"
+checksum = "8ddb3f79143bced6de84270411622a2699cee572fc0875aeaf1e7867cf9fca1a"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "once_cell",
  "rustversion",
  "wasm-bindgen-macro",
@@ -6763,23 +8178,19 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-futures"
-version = "0.4.58"
+version = "0.4.75"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "70a6e77fd0ae8029c9ea0063f87c46fde723e7d887703d74ad2616d792e51e6f"
+checksum = "503b14d284f2c8dac03b819967e155ea753f573586193b2b2c95990cb5d69280"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "futures-util",
  "js-sys",
- "once_cell",
  "wasm-bindgen",
- "web-sys",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-macro"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "008b239d9c740232e71bd39e8ef6429d27097518b6b30bdf9086833bd5b6d608"
+checksum = "4e21a184b13fb19e157296e2c46056aec9092264fab83e4ba59e68c61b323c3d"
 dependencies = [
  "quote",
  "wasm-bindgen-macro-support",
@@ -6787,22 +8198,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-macro-support"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5256bae2d58f54820e6490f9839c49780dff84c65aeab9e772f15d5f0e913a55"
+checksum = "fecefd9c35bd935a20fc3fc344b5f29138961e4f47fb03297d88f2587afb5ebd"
 dependencies = [
  "bumpalo",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "wasm-bindgen-shared",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-shared"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1f01b580c9ac74c8d8f0c0e4afb04eeef2acf145458e52c03845ee9cd23e3d12"
+checksum = "23939e44bb9a5d7576fa2b563dc2e136628f1224e88a8deed09e04858b77871f"
 dependencies = [
  "unicode-ident",
 ]
@@ -6820,11 +8231,24 @@ dependencies = [
  "web-sys",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "wasm-streams"
+version = "0.5.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "9d1ec4f6517c9e11ae630e200b2b65d193279042e28edd4a2cda233e46670bbb"
+dependencies = [
+ "futures-util",
+ "js-sys",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "web-sys"
-version = "0.3.85"
+version = "0.3.102"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "312e32e551d92129218ea9a2452120f4aabc03529ef03e4d0d82fb2780608598"
+checksum = "a6430a72df5eb332242960fe84b3002a241163998241eb596d4f739b9757061d"
 dependencies = [
  "js-sys",
  "wasm-bindgen",
@@ -6841,14 +8265,27 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "webpki-roots"
-version = "1.0.6"
+name = "webpki-root-certs"
+version = "1.0.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "22cfaf3c063993ff62e73cb4311efde4db1efb31ab78a3e5c457939ad5cc0bed"
+checksum = "0d46a5a140e6f7afeccd8eae97eff335163939eac8b929834875168b29b3d267"
 dependencies = [
  "rustls-pki-types",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "whoami"
+version = "2.1.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "998767ef88740d1f5b0682a9c53c24431453923962269c2db68ee43788c5a40d"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+ "libredox",
+ "objc2-system-configuration",
+ "wasite",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "winapi"
 version = "0.3.9"
@@ -6880,6 +8317,27 @@ version = "0.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "712e227841d057c1ee1cd2fb22fa7e5a5461ae8e48fa2ca79ec42cfc1931183f"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows"
+version = "0.62.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "527fadee13e0c05939a6a05d5bd6eec6cd2e3dbd648b9f8e447c6518133d8580"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-collections",
+ "windows-core",
+ "windows-future",
+ "windows-numerics",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-collections"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "23b2d95af1a8a14a3c7367e1ed4fc9c20e0a26e79551b1454d72583c97cc6610"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-core",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-core"
 version = "0.62.2"
@@ -6893,6 +8351,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-strings",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-future"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e1d6f90251fe18a279739e78025bd6ddc52a7e22f921070ccdc67dde84c605cb"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-core",
+ "windows-link",
+ "windows-threading",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-implement"
 version = "0.60.2"
@@ -6901,7 +8370,7 @@ checksum = "053e2e040ab57b9dc951b72c264860db7eb3b0200ba345b4e4c3b14f67855ddf"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6912,7 +8381,7 @@ checksum = "3f316c4a2570ba26bbec722032c4099d8c8bc095efccdc15688708623367e358"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6921,6 +8390,27 @@ version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f0805222e57f7521d6a62e36fa9163bc891acd422f971defe97d64e70d0a4fe5"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-numerics"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6e2e40844ac143cdb44aead537bbf727de9b044e107a0f1220392177d15b0f26"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-core",
+ "windows-link",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-registry"
+version = "0.6.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "02752bf7fbdcce7f2a27a742f798510f3e5ad88dbe84871e5168e2120c3d5720"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-link",
+ "windows-result",
+ "windows-strings",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-result"
 version = "0.4.1"
@@ -6957,15 +8447,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-targets 0.52.6",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows-sys"
-version = "0.59.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e38bc4d79ed67fd075bcc251a1c39b32a1776bbe92e5bef1f0bf1f8c531853b"
-dependencies = [
- "windows-targets 0.52.6",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-sys"
 version = "0.60.2"
@@ -7032,6 +8513,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows_x86_64_msvc 0.53.1",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-threading"
+version = "0.2.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "3949bd5b99cafdf1c7ca86b43ca564028dfe27d66958f2470940f73d86d75b37"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-link",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows_aarch64_gnullvm"
 version = "0.42.2"
@@ -7172,18 +8662,18 @@ checksum = "d6bbff5f0aada427a1e5a6da5f1f98158182f26556f345ac9e04d36d0ebed650"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "winnow"
-version = "0.7.14"
+version = "1.0.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5a5364e9d77fcdeeaa6062ced926ee3381faa2ee02d3eb83a5c27a8825540829"
+checksum = "0592e1c9d151f854e6fd382574c3a0855250e1d9b2f99d9281c6e6391af352f1"
 dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wit-bindgen"
-version = "0.51.0"
+version = "0.57.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d7249219f66ced02969388cf2bb044a09756a083d0fab1e566056b04d9fbcaa5"
+checksum = "1ebf944e87a7c253233ad6766e082e3cd714b5d03812acc24c318f549614536e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wkb"
@@ -7212,9 +8702,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "writeable"
-version = "0.6.2"
+version = "0.6.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9edde0db4769d2dc68579893f2306b26c6ecfbe0ef499b013d731b7b9247e0b9"
+checksum = "1ffae5123b2d3fc086436f8834ae3ab053a283cfac8fe0a0b8eaae044768a4c4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wyz"
@@ -7225,6 +8715,147 @@ dependencies = [
  "tap",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "xet-client"
+version = "1.6.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c3b8da8cc70aa2e3c500c0400e012df82c656ab9fca47f9f939fffc5afd89aca"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "crc32fast",
+ "futures",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "hyper",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "redb",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "reqwest-middleware",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serde_repr",
+ "statrs",
+ "tempfile",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-retry",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "url",
+ "urlencoding",
+ "web-time",
+ "xet-core-structures",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "xet-core-structures"
+version = "1.6.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "73503c223783dccc864abde22115e09d12f190448a0baf58ab2c54bc709e2f99"
+dependencies = [
+ "async-trait",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "blake3",
+ "bytemuck",
+ "bytes",
+ "countio",
+ "futures",
+ "futures-util",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
+ "heapify",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "lz4_flex",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "regex",
+ "safe-transmute",
+ "serde",
+ "static_assertions",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "web-time",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "xet-data"
+version = "1.6.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c89052ec5dec2187cad30b86af92cc24fd61c4a57a795f1ff7ff5f38d49184eb"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "chrono",
+ "gearhash",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
+ "tempfile",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "url",
+ "uuid",
+ "web-time",
+ "xet-client",
+ "xet-core-structures",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "xet-runtime"
+version = "1.6.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "af5c60d5eed38ab4c576f4421bae835e7bd07631fb381705605529d2015c106b"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "chrono",
+ "colored",
+ "const-str",
+ "ctor",
+ "dirs",
+ "futures",
+ "git-version",
+ "humantime",
+ "konst",
+ "libc",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "oneshot",
+ "pin-project",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "shellexpand",
+ "sysinfo",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "tracing-appender",
+ "tracing-subscriber",
+ "web-time",
+ "whoami",
+ "winapi",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "xmlparser"
 version = "0.13.6"
@@ -7233,15 +8864,15 @@ checksum = "66fee0b777b0f5ac1c69bb06d361268faafa61cd4682ae064a171c16c433e9e4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "xxhash-rust"
-version = "0.8.15"
+version = "0.8.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fdd20c5420375476fbd4394763288da7eb0cc0b8c11deed431a91562af7335d3"
+checksum = "aee1b19627c7c60102ab80d3a9cbe18de90bfe03bfa6c3715447681f0e8c8af6"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "yoke"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.8.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72d6e5c6afb84d73944e5cedb052c4680d5657337201555f9f2a16b7406d4954"
+checksum = "709fe23a0424b6a435d82152b1bd3fdfb0833487d5fa90d05d42762a9891fef5"
 dependencies = [
  "stable_deref_trait",
  "yoke-derive",
@@ -7250,80 +8881,82 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "yoke-derive"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b659052874eb698efe5b9e8cf382204678a0086ebf46982b79d6ca3182927e5d"
+checksum = "de844c262c8848816172cef550288e7dc6c7b7814b4ee56b3e1553f275f1858e"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "synstructure",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerocopy"
-version = "0.8.38"
+version = "0.8.52"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "57cf3aa6855b23711ee9852dfc97dfaa51c45feaba5b645d0c777414d494a961"
+checksum = "ce1022995ff5ff5d841ad7d994facc23098cd40152f2c1d11cd607c6f530653f"
 dependencies = [
  "zerocopy-derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerocopy-derive"
-version = "0.8.38"
+version = "0.8.52"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8a616990af1a287837c4fe6596ad77ef57948f787e46ce28e166facc0cc1cb75"
+checksum = "1ae7f38b72ec2a254e2b87ef277cf2cd4fb97cbebf944faa6f33354da0867930"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerofrom"
-version = "0.1.6"
+version = "0.1.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "50cc42e0333e05660c3587f3bf9d0478688e15d870fab3346451ce7f8c9fbea5"
+checksum = "0ec05a11813ea801ff6d75110ad09cd0824ddba17dfe17128ea0d5f68e6c5272"
 dependencies = [
  "zerofrom-derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerofrom-derive"
-version = "0.1.6"
+version = "0.1.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d71e5d6e06ab090c67b5e44993ec16b72dcbaabc526db883a360057678b48502"
+checksum = "11532158c46691caf0f2593ea8358fed6bbf68a0315e80aae9bd41fbade684a1"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "synstructure",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zeroize"
-version = "1.8.2"
+version = "1.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b97154e67e32c85465826e8bcc1c59429aaaf107c1e4a9e53c8d8ccd5eff88d0"
+checksum = "e13c156562582aa81c60cb29407084cdb54c4164760106ab78e6c5b0858cf64e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerotrie"
-version = "0.2.3"
+version = "0.2.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a59c17a5562d507e4b54960e8569ebee33bee890c70aa3fe7b97e85a9fd7851"
+checksum = "0f9152d31db0792fa83f70fb2f83148effb5c1f5b8c7686c3459e361d9bc20bf"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
+ "zerovec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerovec"
-version = "0.11.5"
+version = "0.11.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6c28719294829477f525be0186d13efa9a3c602f7ec202ca9e353d310fb9a002"
+checksum = "90f911cbc359ab6af17377d242225f4d75119aec87ea711a880987b18cd7b239"
 dependencies = [
+ "serde",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
  "zerovec-derive",
@@ -7331,26 +8964,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerovec-derive"
-version = "0.11.2"
+version = "0.11.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eadce39539ca5cb3985590102671f2567e659fca9666581ad3411d59207951f3"
+checksum = "625dc425cab0dca6dc3c3319506e6593dcb08a9f387ea3b284dbd52a92c40555"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "zlib-rs"
-version = "0.6.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a7948af682ccbc3342b6e9420e8c51c1fe5d7bf7756002b4a3c6cabfe96a7e3c"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "zmij"
-version = "1.0.19"
+version = "1.0.21"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3ff05f8caa9038894637571ae6b9e29466c1f4f829d26c9b28f869a29cbe3445"
+checksum = "b8848ee67ecc8aedbaf3e4122217aff892639231befc6a1b58d29fff4c2cabaa"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zstd"
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/Cargo.toml b/java/lance-jni/Cargo.toml
index 43624a70e5f..30560f76e25 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/Cargo.toml
+++ b/java/lance-jni/Cargo.toml
@@ -1,34 +1,45 @@
 [package]
 name = "lance-jni"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
-edition = "2021"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+edition = "2024"
 authors = ["Lance Devs <dev@lance.org>"]
-rust-version = "1.88"
+rust-version = "1.94"
 license = "Apache-2.0"
 repository = "https://github.com/lance-format/lance"
 readme = "../../README.md"
 description = "JNI bindings for Lance Columnar format"
 
+# `java/lance-jni/` is excluded from the top-level workspace (see ../../Cargo.toml) and
+# keeps its own Cargo.lock. Declaring an empty workspace here makes this crate an explicit
+# workspace root, so cargo resolves it standalone even when the checkout is nested inside
+# another cargo project (e.g. a git worktree placed under the main checkout).
+[workspace]
+
 [lib]
 crate-type = ["cdylib"]
 
 [features]
 default = []
+backtrace = ["lance/backtrace", "lance-core/backtrace"]
 
 [dependencies]
-lance = { path = "../../rust/lance", features = ["substrait"] }
+lance = { path = "../../rust/lance", features = ["substrait", "metrics"] }
 lance-datafusion = { path = "../../rust/lance-datafusion" }
 lance-encoding = { path = "../../rust/lance-encoding" }
 lance-linalg = { path = "../../rust/lance-linalg" }
-lance-index = { path = "../../rust/lance-index" }
-lance-io = { path = "../../rust/lance-io" }
+lance-index = { path = "../../rust/lance-index", features = ["tokenizer-jieba", "tokenizer-lindera"] }
+lance-io = { path = "../../rust/lance-io", features = ["metrics"] }
 lance-namespace = { path = "../../rust/lance-namespace" }
-lance-namespace-impls = { path = "../../rust/lance-namespace-impls", features = ["rest", "rest-adapter"] }
+lance-namespace-impls = { path = "../../rust/lance-namespace-impls", features = ["rest", "rest-adapter", "dir-goosefs"] }
 lance-core = { path = "../../rust/lance-core" }
 lance-file = { path = "../../rust/lance-file" }
-arrow = { version = "57.1", features = ["ffi"] }
-arrow-schema = "57.1"
-object_store = { version = "0.12.2" }
+lance-table = { path = "../../rust/lance-table" }
+arrow = { version = "58.0.0", features = ["ffi"] }
+arrow-array = "58.0.0"
+arrow-schema = "58.0.0"
+datafusion = { version = "54.0.0", default-features = false }
+datafusion-common = "54.0.0"
+object_store = { version = "0.13.2" }
 tokio = { version = "1.23", features = [
     "rt-multi-thread",
     "macros",
@@ -36,16 +47,17 @@ tokio = { version = "1.23", features = [
     "sync",
 ] }
 async-trait = "0.1"
-snafu = "0.8"
 jni = "0.21.1"
 serde = { version = "1.0", features = ["derive"] }
 serde_json = { version = "1" }
 bytes = "1.11"
 log = "0.4"
+metrics = "0.24"
+metrics-util = { version = "0.19", default-features = false, features = ["registry"] }
 env_logger = "0.11.7"
 uuid = { version = "1.17.0", features = ["v4"] }
 prost = "0.14.1"
-roaring = "0.10.1"
+roaring = "0.11.4"
 prost-types = "0.14.1"
 chrono = "0.4.41"
 
@@ -60,4 +72,10 @@ incremental = false
 debug = false
 debug-assertions = false
 strip = "debuginfo"
-incremental = false
\ No newline at end of file
+incremental = false
+
+[profile.release]
+strip = true
+
+[lints.clippy]
+disallowed_macros = "deny"
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/async_scanner.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/async_scanner.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6510ec63b8f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/async_scanner.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,392 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET};
+use crate::blocking_scanner::{ScannerOptions, build_scanner_with_options};
+use crate::dispatcher::{DISPATCHER, DispatcherMessage};
+use crate::error::Result;
+use crate::task_tracker::{TASK_TRACKER, TaskInfo};
+use crate::{RT, block_on};
+use arrow::ffi::FFI_ArrowSchema;
+use jni::JNIEnv;
+use jni::objects::JObject;
+use jni::sys::{jboolean, jint, jlong};
+use lance::dataset::scanner::Scanner;
+use lance_io::ffi::to_ffi_arrow_array_stream;
+
+pub const NATIVE_ASYNC_SCANNER: &str = "nativeAsyncScannerHandle";
+
+/// Async scanner that spawns Tokio tasks for non-blocking I/O
+pub struct AsyncScanner {
+    pub(crate) inner: Arc<Scanner>,
+}
+
+/// RAII guard that ensures task cleanup even on panic or early return
+///
+/// This guard prevents memory leaks in the task tracker by guaranteeing
+/// that task_id is removed from the HashMap when the guard is dropped,
+/// regardless of how the async task terminates (normal completion, panic,
+/// or cancellation).
+struct TaskCleanupGuard {
+    task_id: u64,
+}
+
+impl TaskCleanupGuard {
+    fn new(task_id: u64) -> Self {
+        Self { task_id }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for TaskCleanupGuard {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        // GUARANTEED to run when guard goes out of scope
+        // Works even if the task panics or returns early
+        //
+        // Note: We spawn a detached task instead of using block_on()
+        // because Drop may be called from within a tokio runtime context
+        let task_id = self.task_id;
+        RT.spawn(async move {
+            TASK_TRACKER.complete(task_id).await;
+            log::debug!("Task {} cleaned up via RAII guard", task_id);
+        });
+    }
+}
+
+impl AsyncScanner {
+    pub fn create(scanner: Scanner) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(scanner),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Start an async scan task (static method to avoid holding locks)
+    pub fn start_scan_with_scanner(
+        scanner: Arc<Scanner>,
+        task_id: u64,
+        scanner_global_ref: jni::objects::GlobalRef,
+    ) {
+        // Two-phase registration to prevent race condition:
+        // 1. Pre-register with placeholder handle BEFORE spawning
+        // 2. Spawn the actual task
+        // 3. Update registration with real handle
+        // This ensures task is registered before cleanup can run
+
+        // Clone for the spawned task
+        let global_ref_for_task = scanner_global_ref.clone();
+
+        // Step 1: Pre-register with placeholder handle
+        let placeholder_handle = RT.spawn(async {
+            // Placeholder task that does nothing
+            // Will be aborted when real handle is registered
+        });
+
+        block_on(async {
+            TASK_TRACKER
+                .register(
+                    task_id,
+                    TaskInfo {
+                        scanner_global_ref: scanner_global_ref.clone(),
+                        cancel_handle: placeholder_handle,
+                    },
+                )
+                .await;
+        });
+
+        // Step 2: Spawn the actual task
+        let handle = RT.spawn(async move {
+            // RAII guard ensures cleanup on normal exit, panic, or cancellation
+            let _cleanup_guard = TaskCleanupGuard::new(task_id);
+
+            let result = match scanner.try_into_stream().await {
+                Ok(stream) => {
+                    // Convert to FFI pointer
+                    match to_ffi_arrow_array_stream(stream, RT.handle().clone()) {
+                        Ok(ffi_stream) => {
+                            let ptr = Box::into_raw(Box::new(ffi_stream)) as i64;
+                            Ok(ptr)
+                        }
+                        Err(e) => Err(e.to_string()),
+                    }
+                }
+                Err(e) => Err(e.to_string()),
+            };
+
+            // Send result to dispatcher for Java completion
+            let dispatcher = match DISPATCHER.get() {
+                Some(d) => d,
+                None => {
+                    log::error!(
+                        "Dispatcher not initialized - cannot complete task {}. \
+                         This indicates a critical initialization failure.",
+                        task_id
+                    );
+                    // Clean up the FFI stream pointer to prevent memory leak
+                    if let Ok(ptr) = result {
+                        unsafe {
+                            drop(Box::from_raw(
+                                ptr as *mut arrow::ffi_stream::FFI_ArrowArrayStream,
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        log::debug!("Cleaned up FFI stream pointer for task {}", task_id);
+                    }
+                    return;
+                }
+            };
+
+            // Save the pointer before sending so we can clean up on failure
+            let result_ptr = result.as_ref().ok().copied();
+
+            if let Err(e) = dispatcher.send(DispatcherMessage {
+                scanner_global_ref: global_ref_for_task,
+                task_id,
+                result,
+            }) {
+                log::error!(
+                    "Failed to send completion message for task {}: {}",
+                    task_id,
+                    e
+                );
+                // Clean up the FFI stream pointer to prevent memory leak
+                if let Some(ptr) = result_ptr {
+                    unsafe {
+                        drop(Box::from_raw(
+                            ptr as *mut arrow::ffi_stream::FFI_ArrowArrayStream,
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    log::debug!("Cleaned up FFI stream pointer for task {}", task_id);
+                }
+            }
+
+            // _cleanup_guard.drop() called here automatically, removing task from tracker
+        });
+
+        // Step 3: Update registration with real handle
+        block_on(async {
+            TASK_TRACKER.update_handle(task_id, handle).await;
+        });
+    }
+}
+
+// JNI Exports
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_AsyncScanner_createAsyncScanner<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _class: JObject<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject<'local>,
+    fragment_ids_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    index_segments_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    columns_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    substrait_filter_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    filter_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    batch_size_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    batch_size_bytes_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    io_buffer_size_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    limit_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    offset_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    query_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    fts_query_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    prefilter: jboolean,
+    with_row_id: jboolean,
+    with_row_address: jboolean,
+    batch_readahead: jint,
+    fragment_readahead_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    scan_in_order: jboolean,
+    late_materialization_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    column_orderings: JObject<'local>,
+    use_scalar_index: jboolean,
+    fast_search: jboolean,
+    substrait_aggregate_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    include_deleted_rows: jboolean,
+    strict_batch_size: jboolean,
+    disable_scoring_autoprojection: jboolean,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    crate::ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_create_async_scanner(
+            &mut env,
+            jdataset,
+            fragment_ids_obj,
+            index_segments_obj,
+            columns_obj,
+            substrait_filter_obj,
+            filter_obj,
+            batch_size_obj,
+            batch_size_bytes_obj,
+            io_buffer_size_obj,
+            limit_obj,
+            offset_obj,
+            query_obj,
+            fts_query_obj,
+            prefilter,
+            with_row_id,
+            with_row_address,
+            batch_readahead,
+            fragment_readahead_obj,
+            scan_in_order,
+            late_materialization_obj,
+            column_orderings,
+            use_scalar_index,
+            fast_search,
+            substrait_aggregate_obj,
+            include_deleted_rows,
+            strict_batch_size,
+            disable_scoring_autoprojection,
+        )
+    )
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn inner_create_async_scanner<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject<'local>,
+    fragment_ids_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    index_segments_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    columns_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    substrait_filter_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    filter_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    batch_size_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    batch_size_bytes_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    io_buffer_size_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    limit_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    offset_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    query_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    fts_query_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    prefilter: jboolean,
+    with_row_id: jboolean,
+    with_row_address: jboolean,
+    batch_readahead: jint,
+    fragment_readahead_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    scan_in_order: jboolean,
+    late_materialization_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    column_orderings: JObject<'local>,
+    use_scalar_index: jboolean,
+    fast_search: jboolean,
+    substrait_aggregate_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    include_deleted_rows: jboolean,
+    strict_batch_size: jboolean,
+    disable_scoring_autoprojection: jboolean,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let dataset_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    let dataset = dataset_guard.inner.clone();
+    drop(dataset_guard);
+
+    let options = ScannerOptions {
+        fragment_ids_obj,
+        index_segments_obj,
+        columns_obj,
+        substrait_filter_obj,
+        filter_obj,
+        batch_size_obj,
+        batch_size_bytes_obj,
+        io_buffer_size_obj,
+        limit_obj,
+        offset_obj,
+        query_obj,
+        fts_query_obj,
+        prefilter,
+        with_row_id,
+        with_row_address,
+        batch_readahead,
+        fragment_readahead_obj,
+        scan_in_order,
+        late_materialization_obj,
+        column_orderings,
+        use_scalar_index,
+        fast_search,
+        substrait_aggregate_obj,
+        include_deleted_rows,
+        strict_batch_size,
+        disable_scoring_autoprojection,
+    };
+
+    let scanner = build_scanner_with_options(env, &dataset, options)?;
+
+    let async_scanner = AsyncScanner::create(scanner);
+
+    // Create Java AsyncScanner object
+    let j_scanner = env.new_object("org/lance/ipc/AsyncScanner", "()V", &[])?;
+
+    // Attach native handle
+    unsafe { env.set_rust_field(&j_scanner, NATIVE_ASYNC_SCANNER, async_scanner)? };
+
+    Ok(j_scanner)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_AsyncScanner_nativeStartScan(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    j_scanner: JObject,
+    task_id: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_start_scan(&mut env, j_scanner, task_id as u64));
+}
+
+fn inner_start_scan(env: &mut JNIEnv, j_scanner: JObject, task_id: u64) -> Result<()> {
+    // Create global reference first, before borrowing scanner
+    let scanner_global_ref = env.new_global_ref(&j_scanner)?;
+
+    // Clone the Arc<Scanner> and drop the MutexGuard before calling start_scan,
+    // which does block_on internally. Holding the guard across block_on risks deadlock.
+    let scanner = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, AsyncScanner>(&j_scanner, NATIVE_ASYNC_SCANNER)? };
+        guard.inner.clone()
+    };
+
+    AsyncScanner::start_scan_with_scanner(scanner, task_id, scanner_global_ref);
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_AsyncScanner_nativeCancelTask(
+    _env: JNIEnv,
+    _j_scanner: JObject,
+    task_id: jlong,
+) {
+    block_on(async {
+        TASK_TRACKER.cancel(task_id as u64).await;
+    });
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_AsyncScanner_releaseNativeScanner(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    j_scanner: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_release_async_scanner(&mut env, j_scanner));
+}
+
+fn inner_release_async_scanner(env: &mut JNIEnv, j_scanner: JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    let _: AsyncScanner = unsafe { env.take_rust_field(j_scanner, NATIVE_ASYNC_SCANNER) }?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_AsyncScanner_importFfiSchema(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    j_scanner: JObject,
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_import_async_ffi_schema(&mut env, j_scanner, schema_addr)
+    );
+}
+
+fn inner_import_async_ffi_schema(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    j_scanner: JObject,
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let scanner_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, AsyncScanner>(j_scanner, NATIVE_ASYNC_SCANNER)? };
+
+    let schema = block_on(scanner_guard.inner.schema())?;
+    let ffi_schema = FFI_ArrowSchema::try_from(&*schema)?;
+    unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(schema_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowSchema, ffi_schema) }
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_blob.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_blob.rs
index 6d14fb82bb9..8f6f54ee53c 100755
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_blob.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_blob.rs
@@ -4,18 +4,23 @@
 use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET};
 use crate::error::Result;
 use crate::traits::{FromJString, IntoJava};
-use crate::{JNIEnvExt, RT};
-use jni::objects::{JByteArray, JObject, JString, JValueGen};
-use jni::sys::{jbyteArray, jint, jlong};
+use crate::{JNIEnvExt, block_on};
 use jni::JNIEnv;
+use jni::objects::{JByteArray, JObject, JString, JValueGen};
+use jni::sys::{jbyte, jbyteArray, jint, jlong};
 use lance::dataset::BlobFile;
-use std::mem::transmute;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 const BLOB_FILE_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/BlobFile";
 const BLOB_FILE_CTOR_SIG: &str = "()V";
 const NATIVE_BLOB: &str = "nativeBlobHandle";
 
+fn as_jbytes(bytes: &[u8]) -> &[jbyte] {
+    // SAFETY: jbyte is i8; u8 and i8 have identical size and alignment, and
+    // both permit every bit pattern. The returned slice retains the input lifetime.
+    unsafe { std::slice::from_raw_parts(bytes.as_ptr().cast(), bytes.len()) }
+}
+
 pub struct BlockingBlobFile {
     pub(crate) inner: BlobFile,
 }
@@ -34,7 +39,7 @@ impl From<BlobFile> for BlockingBlobFile {
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeTakeBlobs<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     jdataset: JObject,
@@ -59,23 +64,26 @@ fn inner_take_blobs<'local>(
     let blobs = {
         let dataset =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        RT.block_on(Arc::new(dataset.inner.clone()).take_blobs(&row_ids_u64, col_name))?
+        block_on(Arc::new(dataset.inner.clone()).take_blobs(&row_ids_u64, col_name))?
     };
     let j_blobs = blobs
         .into_iter()
-        .map(BlockingBlobFile::from)
-        .collect::<Vec<BlockingBlobFile>>();
+        .map(|blob| blob.map(BlockingBlobFile::from))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
     transform_vec(env, j_blobs)
 }
 
 fn transform_vec<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
-    vec: Vec<BlockingBlobFile>,
+    vec: Vec<Option<BlockingBlobFile>>,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let array_list_class = env.find_class("java/util/ArrayList")?;
     let array_list = env.new_object(array_list_class, "()V", &[])?;
     for blob_file in vec {
-        let blob_file_obj = blob_file.into_java(env)?;
+        let blob_file_obj = match blob_file {
+            Some(blob_file) => blob_file.into_java(env)?,
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
         env.call_method(
             &array_list,
             "add",
@@ -86,7 +94,7 @@ fn transform_vec<'local>(
     Ok(array_list)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeTakeBlobsByIndices<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     jdataset: JObject,
@@ -111,18 +119,16 @@ fn inner_take_blobs_by_indices<'local>(
     let blobs = {
         let dataset =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        RT.block_on(
-            Arc::new(dataset.inner.clone()).take_blobs_by_indices(&row_indices_u64, col_name),
-        )?
+        block_on(Arc::new(dataset.inner.clone()).take_blobs_by_indices(&row_indices_u64, col_name))?
     };
     let j_blobs = blobs
         .into_iter()
-        .map(BlockingBlobFile::from)
-        .collect::<Vec<BlockingBlobFile>>();
+        .map(|blob| blob.map(BlockingBlobFile::from))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
     transform_vec(env, j_blobs)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeRead(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     jblob: JObject,
@@ -137,17 +143,14 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeRead(
 fn inner_blob_read<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, jblob: JObject) -> Result<JByteArray<'local>> {
     let bytes = {
         let blob = unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingBlobFile>(jblob, NATIVE_BLOB) }?;
-        RT.block_on(blob.inner.read())?
+        block_on(blob.inner.read())?
     };
     let arr = env.new_byte_array(bytes.len() as jint)?;
-    let u8_slice: &[u8] = bytes.as_ref();
-    let i8_slice: &[i8] = unsafe { transmute(u8_slice) };
-
-    env.set_byte_array_region(&arr, 0, i8_slice)?;
+    env.set_byte_array_region(&arr, 0, as_jbytes(bytes.as_ref()))?;
     Ok(arr)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeReadUpTo<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     jblob: JObject,
@@ -167,17 +170,46 @@ fn inner_blob_read_up_to<'local>(
 ) -> Result<JByteArray<'local>> {
     let bytes = {
         let blob = unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingBlobFile>(jblob, NATIVE_BLOB) }?;
-        RT.block_on(blob.inner.read_up_to(len as usize))?
+        block_on(blob.inner.read_up_to(len as usize))?
     };
     let arr = env.new_byte_array(bytes.len() as jint)?;
-    let u8_slice: &[u8] = bytes.as_ref();
-    let i8_slice: &[i8] = unsafe { transmute(u8_slice) };
+    env.set_byte_array_region(&arr, 0, as_jbytes(bytes.as_ref()))?;
+    Ok(arr)
+}
 
-    env.set_byte_array_region(&arr, 0, i8_slice)?;
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeReadRange<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jblob: JObject,
+    offset: jlong,
+    len: jint,
+) -> jbyteArray {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_blob_read_range(&mut env, jblob, offset, len).map(|arr| arr.into_raw()),
+        JByteArray::default().into_raw()
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_blob_read_range<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jblob: JObject,
+    offset: jlong,
+    len: jint,
+) -> Result<JByteArray<'local>> {
+    let end = (offset as u64)
+        .checked_add(len as u64)
+        .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input("offset + len overflowed".to_string()))?;
+    let bytes = {
+        let blob = unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingBlobFile>(jblob, NATIVE_BLOB) }?;
+        block_on(blob.inner.read_range(offset as u64..end))?
+    };
+    let arr = env.new_byte_array(bytes.len() as jint)?;
+    env.set_byte_array_region(&arr, 0, as_jbytes(bytes.as_ref()))?;
     Ok(arr)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeSeek(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     jblob: JObject,
@@ -188,11 +220,38 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeSeek(
 
 fn inner_blob_seek(env: &mut JNIEnv, jblob: JObject, new_cursor: jlong) -> Result<()> {
     let blob = unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingBlobFile>(jblob, NATIVE_BLOB) }?;
-    RT.block_on(blob.inner.seek(new_cursor as u64))?;
+    block_on(blob.inner.seek(new_cursor as u64))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeSetReadBufferSize(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    jblob: JObject,
+    buffer_size: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_blob_set_read_buffer_size(&mut env, jblob, buffer_size)
+    );
+}
+
+fn inner_blob_set_read_buffer_size(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    jblob: JObject,
+    buffer_size: jlong,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if buffer_size < 0 {
+        return Err(
+            lance::Error::invalid_input("bufferSize must be non-negative".to_string()).into(),
+        );
+    }
+    let blob = unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingBlobFile>(jblob, NATIVE_BLOB) }?;
+    block_on(blob.inner.set_buffer_size(buffer_size as usize))?;
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeTell(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     jblob: JObject,
@@ -202,10 +261,10 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeTell(
 
 fn inner_blob_tell(env: &mut JNIEnv, jblob: JObject) -> Result<u64> {
     let blob = unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingBlobFile>(jblob, NATIVE_BLOB) }?;
-    Ok(RT.block_on(blob.inner.tell())?)
+    Ok(block_on(blob.inner.tell())?)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeSize(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     jblob: JObject,
@@ -218,13 +277,24 @@ fn inner_blob_size(env: &mut JNIEnv, jblob: JObject) -> Result<u64> {
     Ok(blob.inner.size())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_BlobFile_nativeClose(mut env: JNIEnv, jblob: JObject) {
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_blob_close(&mut env, jblob));
 }
 
 fn inner_blob_close(env: &mut JNIEnv, jblob: JObject) -> Result<()> {
     let blob = unsafe { env.take_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingBlobFile>(jblob, NATIVE_BLOB)? };
-    RT.block_on(blob.inner.close())?;
+    block_on(blob.inner.close())?;
     Ok(())
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::as_jbytes;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn byte_slice_cast_preserves_bits() {
+        assert_eq!(as_jbytes(&[0, 127, 128, 255]), &[0, 127, -128, -1]);
+        assert!(as_jbytes(&[]).is_empty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_dataset.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_dataset.rs
index 354141d69a4..4f7a3f37e1f 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_dataset.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_dataset.rs
@@ -3,13 +3,18 @@
 
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::ffi::JNIEnvExt;
-use crate::storage_options::JavaStorageOptionsProvider;
-use crate::traits::{export_vec, import_vec, FromJObjectWithEnv, FromJString};
+use crate::index_progress::JavaIndexBuildProgress;
+use crate::namespace::{
+    BlockingDirectoryNamespace, BlockingRestNamespace, create_java_lance_namespace,
+};
+use crate::session::{handle_from_session, session_from_handle};
+use crate::traits::{FromJObjectWithEnv, FromJString, export_vec, import_vec, import_vec_to_rust};
 use crate::utils::{
-    build_compaction_options, extract_storage_options, extract_write_params,
-    get_scalar_index_params, get_vector_index_params, to_rust_map,
+    build_compaction_options, extract_base_store_params, extract_storage_options,
+    extract_write_params, get_scalar_index_params, get_vector_index_params, to_java_map,
+    to_rust_map,
 };
-use crate::{traits::IntoJava, RT};
+use crate::{block_on, traits::IntoJava};
 use arrow::array::RecordBatchReader;
 use arrow::datatypes::Schema;
 use arrow::ffi::FFI_ArrowSchema;
@@ -17,16 +22,18 @@ use arrow::ffi_stream::ArrowArrayStreamReader;
 use arrow::ffi_stream::FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
 use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
 use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatchIterator;
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
 use jni::objects::{JMap, JString, JValue};
 use jni::sys::{jboolean, jint};
 use jni::sys::{jbyteArray, jlong};
-use jni::{objects::JObject, JNIEnv};
+use jni::{JNIEnv, objects::JObject};
 use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
-use lance::dataset::cleanup::{CleanupPolicy, RemovalStats};
-use lance::dataset::optimize::{compact_files, CompactionOptions as RustCompactionOptions};
+use lance::dataset::cleanup::{
+    CleanupCandidateFile, CleanupExplanation, CleanupFileKind, CleanupPolicy,
+    CleanupReferencedBranch, RemovalStats,
+};
+use lance::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions as RustCompactionOptions, compact_files};
 use lance::dataset::refs::{Ref, TagContents};
 use lance::dataset::statistics::{DataStatistics, DatasetStatisticsExt};
 use lance::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
@@ -34,29 +41,39 @@ use lance::dataset::{
     ColumnAlteration, CommitBuilder, Dataset, NewColumnTransform, ProjectionRequest, ReadParams,
     Version, WriteParams,
 };
+use lance::index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexSegment, IntoIndexSegment};
+use lance::io::commit::namespace_manifest::LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore;
 use lance::io::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams};
+use lance::session::Session as LanceSession;
 use lance::table::format::IndexMetadata;
-use lance::table::format::{BasePath, Fragment};
+use lance::table::format::{BasePath, Fragment, WriterVersion};
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
-use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
-use lance_index::scalar::btree::BTreeParameters;
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
 use lance_index::IndexCriteria as RustIndexCriteria;
+use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+use lance_index::progress::{IndexBuildProgress, noop_progress};
 use lance_index::{IndexParams, IndexType};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry;
-use lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
+use lance_io::object_store::{LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, StorageOptionsProvider};
+use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_table::io::commit::CommitHandler;
+use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestCommitHandler;
+use lance_table::io::commit::{ManifestLocation, ManifestNamingScheme};
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::future::IntoFuture;
 use std::iter::empty;
-use std::str::FromStr;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::time::{Duration, UNIX_EPOCH};
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
 pub const NATIVE_DATASET: &str = "nativeDatasetHandle";
 
 impl FromJObjectWithEnv<BasePath> for JObject<'_> {
     fn extract_object(&self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>) -> Result<BasePath> {
-        let id = env.get_u32_from_method(self, "getId")?;
+        let java_id = env.call_method(self, "getId", "()I", &[])?.i()?;
+        let id = u32::try_from(java_id).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::input_error(format!("BasePath.id must be non-negative, got {java_id}"))
+        })?;
         let name = env.get_optional_string_from_method(self, "getName")?;
         let path = env.get_string_from_method(self, "getPath")?;
         let is_dataset_root = env.get_boolean_from_method(self, "isDatasetRoot")?;
@@ -69,6 +86,37 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<BasePath> for JObject<'_> {
     }
 }
 
+impl IntoJava for &BasePath {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let id = i32::try_from(self.id).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::runtime_error(format!("Base path id {} exceeds Java int range", self.id))
+        })?;
+        let name = match self.name.as_ref() {
+            Some(name) => env.new_string(name)?.into(),
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
+        let name = env
+            .call_static_method(
+                "java/util/Optional",
+                "ofNullable",
+                "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Ljava/util/Optional;",
+                &[JValue::Object(&name)],
+            )?
+            .l()?;
+        let path = env.new_string(&self.path)?;
+        Ok(env.new_object(
+            "org/lance/BasePath",
+            "(ILjava/util/Optional;Ljava/lang/String;Z)V",
+            &[
+                JValue::Int(id),
+                JValue::Object(&name),
+                JValue::Object(&path),
+                JValue::Bool(self.is_dataset_root.into()),
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct BlockingDataset {
     pub(crate) inner: Dataset,
@@ -89,13 +137,13 @@ impl BlockingDataset {
     /// If a storage options provider was configured and credentials are expiring,
     /// this will refresh them.
     pub fn latest_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
-        RT.block_on(async { self.inner.latest_storage_options().await })
+        block_on(async { self.inner.latest_storage_options().await })
             .map(|opt| opt.map(|opts| opts.0))
             .map_err(|e| Error::io_error(e.to_string()))
     }
 
     pub fn drop(uri: &str, storage_options: HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()> {
-        RT.block_on(async move {
+        block_on(async move {
             let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
             let object_store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
                 storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
@@ -107,31 +155,67 @@ impl BlockingDataset {
                 ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, uri, &object_store_params)
                     .await
                     .map_err(|e| Error::io_error(e.to_string()))?;
+            lance::dataset::validate_dataset_root_for_drop(&object_store, &path)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(e.to_string()))?;
             object_store
                 .remove_dir_all(path)
                 .await
                 .map_err(|e| Error::io_error(e.to_string()))
         })
     }
+
+    pub fn list_manifest_locations(
+        uri: &str,
+        storage_options: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ManifestLocation>> {
+        let accessor = (!storage_options.is_empty()).then(|| {
+            Arc::new(lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                storage_options,
+            ))
+        });
+        let params = ReadParams {
+            store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                storage_options_accessor: accessor,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        Ok(block_on(
+            DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+                .with_read_params(params)
+                .list_manifest_locations(),
+        )?)
+    }
+
     pub fn write(
         reader: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static,
         uri: &str,
         params: Option<WriteParams>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let inner = RT.block_on(Dataset::write(reader, uri, params))?;
+        let inner = block_on(Dataset::write(reader, uri, params))?;
         Ok(Self { inner })
     }
 
+    pub fn new(dataset: Dataset) -> Self {
+        Self { inner: dataset }
+    }
+
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub fn open(
         uri: &str,
-        version: Option<u64>,
+        reference: Option<Ref>,
         block_size: Option<i32>,
         index_cache_size_bytes: i64,
         metadata_cache_size_bytes: i64,
         storage_options: HashMap<String, String>,
+        base_store_params: HashMap<String, ObjectStoreParams>,
         serialized_manifest: Option<&[u8]>,
         storage_options_provider: Option<Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>>,
+        session: Option<Arc<LanceSession>>,
+        namespace: Option<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+        table_id: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         // Create storage options accessor from storage_options and provider
         let accessor = match (storage_options.is_empty(), storage_options_provider) {
@@ -159,20 +243,42 @@ impl BlockingDataset {
             index_cache_size_bytes: index_cache_size_bytes as usize,
             metadata_cache_size_bytes: metadata_cache_size_bytes as usize,
             store_options: Some(store_params),
+            session,
             ..Default::default()
         };
 
         let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri).with_read_params(params);
 
-        if let Some(ver) = version {
-            builder = builder.with_version(ver);
+        for (base_path, store_params) in base_store_params {
+            builder = builder.with_base_store_params(base_path, store_params);
         }
 
+        builder = match reference {
+            Some(Ref::VersionNumber(version)) | Some(Ref::Version(None, Some(version))) => {
+                builder.with_version(version)
+            }
+            Some(Ref::Version(Some(branch), version)) => builder.with_branch(&branch, version),
+            Some(Ref::Tag(tag)) => builder.with_tag(&tag),
+            Some(Ref::Version(None, None)) | None => builder,
+        };
+
         if let Some(serialized_manifest) = serialized_manifest {
             builder = builder.with_serialized_manifest(serialized_manifest)?;
         }
 
-        let inner = RT.block_on(builder.load())?;
+        // Set up namespace commit handler only if namespace manages versioning
+        if namespace_client_managed_versioning
+            && let (Some(namespace_client), Some(tid)) = (namespace, table_id)
+        {
+            let external_store =
+                LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::for_table_uri(namespace_client, tid, uri)?;
+            let commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler> = Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+            });
+            builder = builder.with_commit_handler(commit_handler);
+        }
+
+        let inner = block_on(builder.load())?;
         Ok(Self { inner })
     }
 
@@ -189,7 +295,7 @@ impl BlockingDataset {
                 lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(storage_options),
             ))
         };
-        let inner = RT.block_on(Dataset::commit(
+        let inner = block_on(Dataset::commit(
             uri,
             operation,
             read_version,
@@ -205,51 +311,55 @@ impl BlockingDataset {
     }
 
     pub fn latest_version(&self) -> Result<u64> {
-        let version = RT.block_on(self.inner.latest_version_id())?;
+        let version = block_on(self.inner.latest_version_id())?;
         Ok(version)
     }
 
     pub fn list_versions(&self) -> Result<Vec<Version>> {
-        let versions = RT.block_on(self.inner.versions())?;
+        let versions = block_on(self.inner.versions())?;
         Ok(versions)
     }
 
+    pub fn count_versions(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        Ok(block_on(self.inner.count_versions())?)
+    }
+
     pub fn version(&self) -> Result<Version> {
         Ok(self.inner.version())
     }
 
     pub fn checkout_version(&mut self, version: u64) -> Result<Self> {
-        let inner = RT.block_on(self.inner.checkout_version(version))?;
+        let inner = block_on(self.inner.checkout_version(version))?;
         Ok(Self { inner })
     }
 
     pub fn checkout_tag(&mut self, tag: &str) -> Result<Self> {
-        let inner = RT.block_on(self.inner.checkout_version(tag))?;
+        let inner = block_on(self.inner.checkout_version(tag))?;
         Ok(Self { inner })
     }
 
     pub fn checkout_latest(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        RT.block_on(self.inner.checkout_latest())?;
+        block_on(self.inner.checkout_latest())?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
     pub fn restore(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        RT.block_on(self.inner.restore())?;
+        block_on(self.inner.restore())?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
     pub fn list_tags(&self) -> Result<HashMap<String, TagContents>> {
-        let tags = RT.block_on(self.inner.tags().list())?;
+        let tags = block_on(self.inner.tags().list())?;
         Ok(tags)
     }
 
     pub fn list_branches(&self) -> Result<HashMap<String, lance::dataset::refs::BranchContents>> {
-        let branches = RT.block_on(self.inner.list_branches())?;
+        let branches = block_on(self.inner.branches().list())?;
         Ok(branches)
     }
 
     pub fn delete_branch(&mut self, branch: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        RT.block_on(self.inner.delete_branch(branch))?;
+        block_on(self.inner.branches().delete(branch, true))?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
@@ -264,64 +374,103 @@ impl BlockingDataset {
         } else {
             Ref::Version(branch, version)
         };
-        let inner = RT.block_on(self.inner.checkout_version(reference))?;
+        let inner = block_on(self.inner.checkout_version(reference))?;
         Ok(Self { inner })
     }
 
     pub fn create_tag(&mut self, tag: &str, reference: Ref) -> Result<()> {
-        RT.block_on(self.inner.tags().create(tag, reference))?;
+        block_on(self.inner.tags().create(tag, reference))?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
     pub fn delete_tag(&mut self, tag: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        RT.block_on(self.inner.tags().delete(tag))?;
+        block_on(self.inner.tags().delete(tag))?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
     pub fn update_tag(&mut self, tag: &str, reference: Ref) -> Result<()> {
-        RT.block_on(self.inner.tags().update(tag, reference))?;
+        block_on(self.inner.tags().update(tag, reference))?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn replace_tag_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        tag: &str,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        block_on(self.inner.tags().replace_metadata(tag, metadata))?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn replace_branch_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        branch: &str,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        block_on(self.inner.branches().replace_metadata(branch, metadata))?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
     pub fn get_version(&self, tag: &str) -> Result<u64> {
-        let version = RT.block_on(self.inner.tags().get_version(tag))?;
+        let version = block_on(self.inner.tags().get_version(tag))?;
         Ok(version)
     }
 
     pub fn count_rows(&self, filter: Option<String>) -> Result<usize> {
-        let rows = RT.block_on(self.inner.count_rows(filter))?;
+        let rows = block_on(self.inner.count_rows(filter))?;
         Ok(rows)
     }
 
     pub fn calculate_data_stats(&self) -> Result<DataStatistics> {
-        let stats = RT.block_on(Arc::new(self.clone().inner).calculate_data_stats())?;
+        let stats = block_on(Arc::new(self.clone().inner).calculate_data_stats())?;
         Ok(stats)
     }
 
     pub fn list_indexes(&self) -> Result<Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>> {
-        let indexes = RT.block_on(self.inner.load_indices())?;
+        let indexes = block_on(self.inner.load_indices())?;
         Ok(indexes)
     }
 
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub fn commit_transaction(
         &mut self,
         transaction: Transaction,
         store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
         detached: bool,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths: bool,
+        use_stable_row_ids: Option<bool>,
+        storage_format: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+        max_retries: u32,
+        skip_auto_cleanup: bool,
+        commit_handler: Option<Arc<dyn CommitHandler>>,
+        commit_timeout: Option<std::time::Duration>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let new_dataset = RT.block_on(
-            CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(self.clone().inner))
-                .with_store_params(store_params)
-                .with_detached(detached)
-                .enable_v2_manifest_paths(enable_v2_manifest_paths)
-                .execute(transaction),
-        )?;
+        let mut builder = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(self.clone().inner))
+            .with_store_params(store_params)
+            .with_detached(detached)
+            .enable_v2_manifest_paths(enable_v2_manifest_paths)
+            .with_timeout(commit_timeout);
+        if let Some(use_stable) = use_stable_row_ids {
+            builder = builder.use_stable_row_ids(use_stable);
+        }
+        if let Some(format) = storage_format {
+            builder = builder.with_storage_format(format);
+        }
+        if max_retries > 0 {
+            builder = builder.with_max_retries(max_retries);
+        }
+        if skip_auto_cleanup {
+            builder = builder.with_skip_auto_cleanup(true);
+        }
+        if let Some(handler) = commit_handler {
+            builder = builder.with_commit_handler(handler);
+        }
+        let new_dataset = block_on(builder.execute(transaction))?;
         Ok(BlockingDataset { inner: new_dataset })
     }
 
     pub fn read_transaction(&self) -> Result<Option<Transaction>> {
-        let transaction = RT.block_on(self.inner.read_transaction())?;
+        let transaction = block_on(self.inner.read_transaction())?;
         Ok(transaction)
     }
 
@@ -330,12 +479,24 @@ impl BlockingDataset {
     }
 
     pub fn compact(&mut self, options: RustCompactionOptions) -> Result<()> {
-        RT.block_on(compact_files(&mut self.inner, options, None))?;
+        block_on(compact_files(&mut self.inner, options, None))?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
     pub fn cleanup_with_policy(&mut self, policy: CleanupPolicy) -> Result<RemovalStats> {
-        Ok(RT.block_on(self.inner.cleanup_with_policy(policy))?)
+        Ok(block_on(self.inner.cleanup_with_policy(policy))?)
+    }
+
+    pub fn explain_cleanup_with_policy(
+        &self,
+        policy: CleanupPolicy,
+        max_candidate_files: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<CleanupExplanation> {
+        let mut op = self.inner.cleanup(policy);
+        if let Some(limit) = max_candidate_files {
+            op = op.with_max_candidate_files(limit);
+        }
+        Ok(block_on(op.explain())?)
     }
 
     pub fn close(&self) {}
@@ -344,7 +505,7 @@ impl BlockingDataset {
 ///////////////////
 // Write Methods //
 ///////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_createWithFfiSchema<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -358,8 +519,12 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_createWithFfiSchema<'local>(
     data_storage_version: JObject,     // Optional<String>
     enable_v2_manifest_paths: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
     storage_options_obj: JObject,      // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,    // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
     initial_bases: JObject,
     target_bases: JObject,
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,     // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: JObject,                // FileWriteOptions
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
     ok_or_throw!(
         env,
@@ -375,8 +540,12 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_createWithFfiSchema<'local>(
             data_storage_version,
             enable_v2_manifest_paths,
             storage_options_obj,
+            base_store_params_obj,
             initial_bases,
             target_bases,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+            blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+            file_write_options,
         )
     )
 }
@@ -394,8 +563,12 @@ fn inner_create_with_ffi_schema<'local>(
     data_storage_version: JObject,     // Optional<String>
     enable_v2_manifest_paths: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
     storage_options_obj: JObject,      // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,    // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
     initial_bases: JObject,
     target_bases: JObject,
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,     // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: JObject,                // FileWriteOptions
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let c_schema_ptr = arrow_schema_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowSchema;
     let c_schema = unsafe { FFI_ArrowSchema::from_raw(c_schema_ptr) };
@@ -413,14 +586,19 @@ fn inner_create_with_ffi_schema<'local>(
         data_storage_version,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths,
         storage_options_obj,
-        JObject::null(), // No provider for schema-only creation
+        base_store_params_obj,
         initial_bases,
         target_bases,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+        file_write_options,
         reader,
+        None,  // No namespace for schema-only creation
+        false, // No managed versioning for schema-only creation
     )
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_drop<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -434,7 +612,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_drop<'local>(
     JObject::null()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeMigrateManifestPathsV2(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -448,65 +626,34 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeMigrateManifestPathsV2(
 fn inner_native_migrate_manifest_paths_v2(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<()> {
     let mut dataset_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-    RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.migrate_manifest_paths_v2())?;
+    block_on(dataset_guard.inner.migrate_manifest_paths_v2())?;
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_createWithFfiStream<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,
     arrow_array_stream_addr: jlong,
     path: JString,
-    max_rows_per_file: JObject,        // Optional<Integer>
-    max_rows_per_group: JObject,       // Optional<Integer>
-    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,       // Optional<Long>
-    mode: JObject,                     // Optional<String>
-    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,    // Optional<Boolean>
-    data_storage_version: JObject,     // Optional<String>
-    enable_v2_manifest_paths: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,      // Map<String, String>
-    initial_bases: JObject,
-    target_bases: JObject,
-) -> JObject<'local> {
-    ok_or_throw!(
-        env,
-        inner_create_with_ffi_stream(
-            &mut env,
-            arrow_array_stream_addr,
-            path,
-            max_rows_per_file,
-            max_rows_per_group,
-            max_bytes_per_file,
-            mode,
-            enable_stable_row_ids,
-            enable_v2_manifest_paths,
-            data_storage_version,
-            storage_options_obj,
-            JObject::null(),
-            initial_bases,
-            target_bases
-        )
-    )
-}
-
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_createWithFfiStreamAndProvider<'local>(
-    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
-    _obj: JObject,
-    arrow_array_stream_addr: jlong,
-    path: JString,
-    max_rows_per_file: JObject,            // Optional<Integer>
-    max_rows_per_group: JObject,           // Optional<Integer>
-    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,           // Optional<Long>
-    mode: JObject,                         // Optional<String>
-    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,        // Optional<Boolean>
-    data_storage_version: JObject,         // Optional<String>
-    enable_v2_manifest_paths: JObject,     // Optional<Boolean>
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,          // Map<String, String>
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
-    initial_bases: JObject,                // Optional<List<BasePath>>
-    target_bases: JObject,                 // Optional<List<String>>
+    max_rows_per_file: JObject,                    // Optional<Integer>
+    max_rows_per_group: JObject,                   // Optional<Integer>
+    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,                   // Optional<Long>
+    mode: JObject,                                 // Optional<String>
+    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,                // Optional<Boolean>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,                 // Optional<String>
+    enable_v2_manifest_paths: JObject,             // Optional<Boolean>
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,                  // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,                // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
+    initial_bases: JObject,                        // Optional<List<BasePath>>
+    target_bases: JObject,                         // Optional<List<String>>
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject,    // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,        // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: JObject,                   // FileWriteOptions
+    namespace_obj: JObject,                        // LanceNamespace (can be null)
+    table_id_obj: JObject,                         // List<String> (can be null)
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning: jboolean, // Whether namespace manages versioning
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
     ok_or_throw!(
         env,
@@ -522,9 +669,15 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_createWithFfiStreamAndProvider<'lo
             data_storage_version,
             enable_v2_manifest_paths,
             storage_options_obj,
-            storage_options_provider_obj,
+            base_store_params_obj,
             initial_bases,
-            target_bases
+            target_bases,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+            blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+            file_write_options,
+            namespace_obj,
+            table_id_obj,
+            namespace_client_managed_versioning != 0,
         )
     )
 }
@@ -534,20 +687,30 @@ fn inner_create_with_ffi_stream<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
     arrow_array_stream_addr: jlong,
     path: JString,
-    max_rows_per_file: JObject,            // Optional<Integer>
-    max_rows_per_group: JObject,           // Optional<Integer>
-    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,           // Optional<Long>
-    mode: JObject,                         // Optional<String>
-    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,        // Optional<Boolean>
-    data_storage_version: JObject,         // Optional<String>
-    enable_v2_manifest_paths: JObject,     // Optional<Boolean>
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,          // Map<String, String>
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
-    initial_bases: JObject,                // Optional<List<BasePath>>
-    target_bases: JObject,                 // Optional<List<String>>
+    max_rows_per_file: JObject,                 // Optional<Integer>
+    max_rows_per_group: JObject,                // Optional<Integer>
+    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    mode: JObject,                              // Optional<String>
+    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,             // Optional<Boolean>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,              // Optional<String>
+    enable_v2_manifest_paths: JObject,          // Optional<Boolean>
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,               // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,             // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
+    initial_bases: JObject,                     // Optional<List<BasePath>>
+    target_bases: JObject,                      // Optional<List<String>>
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,     // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: JObject,                // FileWriteOptions
+    namespace_obj: JObject,                     // LanceNamespace (can be null)
+    table_id_obj: JObject,                      // List<String> (can be null)
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool,  // Whether namespace manages versioning
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let stream_ptr = arrow_array_stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
     let reader = unsafe { ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_raw(stream_ptr) }?;
+
+    // Create the namespace wrapper for commit handling (if provided)
+    let namespace_info = extract_namespace_info(env, &namespace_obj, &table_id_obj)?;
+
     create_dataset(
         env,
         path,
@@ -559,13 +722,23 @@ fn inner_create_with_ffi_stream<'local>(
         data_storage_version,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths,
         storage_options_obj,
-        storage_options_provider_obj,
+        base_store_params_obj,
         initial_bases,
         target_bases,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+        file_write_options,
         reader,
+        namespace_info,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning,
     )
 }
 
+/// Creates a dataset from a record batch reader.
+///
+/// When `namespace_info` is provided, sets up the storage options provider for
+/// credential refresh. When `namespace_client_managed_versioning` is true, also sets up the
+/// commit handler for namespace-managed versioning.
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 fn create_dataset<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
@@ -578,14 +751,19 @@ fn create_dataset<'local>(
     data_storage_version: JObject,
     enable_v2_manifest_paths: JObject,
     storage_options_obj: JObject,
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,
     initial_bases: JObject,
     target_bases: JObject,
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject,
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,
+    file_write_options: JObject,
     reader: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static,
+    namespace_info: Option<(Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>, Vec<String>)>,
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let path_str = path.extract(env)?;
 
-    let write_params = extract_write_params(
+    let mut write_params = extract_write_params(
         env,
         &max_rows_per_file,
         &max_rows_per_group,
@@ -595,11 +773,54 @@ fn create_dataset<'local>(
         &data_storage_version,
         Some(&enable_v2_manifest_paths),
         &storage_options_obj,
-        &storage_options_provider_obj,
+        &base_store_params_obj,
         &initial_bases,
         &target_bases,
+        &allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        &blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+        &file_write_options,
     )?;
 
+    // Set up namespace commit handler and storage options provider if namespace is provided
+    if let Some((namespace, table_id)) = namespace_info {
+        // Set up commit handler only if namespace manages versioning
+        if namespace_client_managed_versioning {
+            let external_store = LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::for_table_uri(
+                namespace.clone(),
+                table_id.clone(),
+                &path_str,
+            )?;
+            let commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler> = Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+            });
+            write_params.commit_handler = Some(commit_handler);
+        }
+
+        // Set up storage options provider for credential refresh
+        let provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider> = Arc::new(
+            LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(namespace, table_id),
+        );
+
+        // Get existing storage options to combine with provider
+        let storage_options: HashMap<String, String> =
+            extract_storage_options(env, &storage_options_obj)?;
+
+        let accessor = if storage_options.is_empty() {
+            Arc::new(lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(provider))
+        } else {
+            Arc::new(
+                lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+                    storage_options,
+                    provider,
+                ),
+            )
+        };
+        write_params.store_params = Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor),
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+    }
+
     let dataset = BlockingDataset::write(reader, &path_str, Some(write_params))?;
     dataset.into_java(env)
 }
@@ -645,6 +866,60 @@ impl IntoJava for Version {
     }
 }
 
+impl IntoJava for WriterVersion {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let library = env.new_string(self.library)?;
+        let version = env.new_string(self.version)?;
+        let prerelease = match self.prerelease {
+            Some(value) => JObject::from(env.new_string(value)?),
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
+        let build_metadata = match self.build_metadata {
+            Some(value) => JObject::from(env.new_string(value)?),
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
+
+        Ok(env.new_object(
+            "org/lance/WriterVersion",
+            "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;)V",
+            &[
+                JValue::Object(&library),
+                JValue::Object(&version),
+                JValue::Object(&prerelease),
+                JValue::Object(&build_metadata),
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
+impl IntoJava for ManifestLocation {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let size = self.size.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::runtime_error(format!("Manifest size is unavailable for {}", self.path))
+        })?;
+        let path = env.new_string(self.path.to_string())?;
+        let naming_scheme = env.new_string(match self.naming_scheme {
+            ManifestNamingScheme::V1 => "V1",
+            ManifestNamingScheme::V2 => "V2",
+        })?;
+        let e_tag = match self.e_tag {
+            Some(value) => JObject::from(env.new_string(value)?),
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
+        Ok(env.new_object(
+            "org/lance/ManifestLocation",
+            "(JLjava/lang/String;JLjava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;)V",
+            &[
+                JValue::Long(self.version as i64),
+                JValue::Object(&path),
+                JValue::Long(size as i64),
+                JValue::Object(&naming_scheme),
+                JValue::Object(&e_tag),
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
 fn attach_native_dataset<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
     dataset: BlockingDataset,
@@ -668,7 +943,7 @@ fn create_java_dataset_object<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
     Ok(object)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_commitAppend<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -709,7 +984,7 @@ pub fn inner_commit_append<'local>(
     dataset.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_commitOverwrite<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -764,7 +1039,7 @@ pub fn inner_commit_overwrite<'local>(
     dataset.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_releaseNativeDataset(mut env: JNIEnv, obj: JObject) {
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_release_native_dataset(&mut env, obj))
 }
@@ -775,7 +1050,7 @@ fn inner_release_native_dataset(env: &mut JNIEnv, obj: JObject) -> Result<()> {
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCreateIndex<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject<'local>,
@@ -803,10 +1078,77 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCreateIndex<'local>(
             fragments_jobj,
             index_uuid_jobj,
             arrow_stream_addr_jobj,
+            None,
+        )
+    )
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCreateIndexWithProgress<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject<'local>,
+    columns_jobj: JObject<'local>, // List<String>
+    index_type_code_jobj: jint,
+    name_jobj: JObject<'local>,              // Optional<String>
+    params_jobj: JObject<'local>,            // IndexParams
+    replace_jobj: jboolean,                  // replace
+    train_jobj: jboolean,                    // train
+    fragments_jobj: JObject<'local>,         // List<Integer>
+    index_uuid_jobj: JObject<'local>,        // String
+    arrow_stream_addr_jobj: JObject<'local>, // Optional<Long>
+    progress_jobj: JObject<'local>,          // IndexBuildProgress
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_create_index_with_progress(
+            &mut env,
+            java_dataset,
+            columns_jobj,
+            index_type_code_jobj,
+            name_jobj,
+            params_jobj,
+            replace_jobj,
+            train_jobj,
+            fragments_jobj,
+            index_uuid_jobj,
+            arrow_stream_addr_jobj,
+            progress_jobj,
         )
     )
 }
 
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn inner_create_index_with_progress<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject<'local>,
+    columns_jobj: JObject<'local>,
+    index_type_code_jobj: jint,
+    name_jobj: JObject<'local>,
+    params_jobj: JObject<'local>,
+    replace_jobj: jboolean,
+    train_jobj: jboolean,
+    fragments_jobj: JObject<'local>,
+    index_uuid_jobj: JObject<'local>,
+    arrow_stream_addr_jobj: JObject<'local>,
+    progress_jobj: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let progress = Arc::new(JavaIndexBuildProgress::new(env, &progress_jobj)?);
+    inner_create_index(
+        env,
+        java_dataset,
+        columns_jobj,
+        index_type_code_jobj,
+        name_jobj,
+        params_jobj,
+        replace_jobj,
+        train_jobj,
+        fragments_jobj,
+        index_uuid_jobj,
+        arrow_stream_addr_jobj,
+        Some(progress),
+    )
+}
+
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 fn inner_create_index<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
@@ -820,6 +1162,7 @@ fn inner_create_index<'local>(
     fragments_jobj: JObject<'local>,         // Optional<List<String>>
     index_uuid_jobj: JObject<'local>,        // Optional<String>
     arrow_stream_addr_jobj: JObject<'local>, // Optional<Long>
+    progress: Option<Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>>,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let columns = env.get_strings(&columns_jobj)?;
     let index_type = IndexType::try_from(index_type_code_jobj)?;
@@ -830,7 +1173,13 @@ fn inner_create_index<'local>(
     let fragment_ids = env
         .get_ints_opt(&fragments_jobj)?
         .map(|vec| vec.into_iter().map(|i| i as u32).collect());
-    let index_uuid = env.get_string_opt(&index_uuid_jobj)?;
+    let index_uuid = env
+        .get_string_opt(&index_uuid_jobj)?
+        .map(|s| {
+            Uuid::parse_str(&s)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Invalid UUID string for index_uuid: {e}")))
+        })
+        .transpose()?;
     let arrow_stream_addr_opt = env.get_long_opt(&arrow_stream_addr_jobj)?;
     let batch_reader = if let Some(arrow_stream_addr) = arrow_stream_addr_opt {
         let stream_ptr = arrow_stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
@@ -853,14 +1202,16 @@ fn inner_create_index<'local>(
         | IndexType::NGram
         | IndexType::ZoneMap
         | IndexType::BloomFilter
-        | IndexType::RTree => {
+        | IndexType::Fm
+        | IndexType::RTree
+        | IndexType::MinHashLsh => {
             // For scalar indices, create a scalar IndexParams
             let (index_type_str, params_opt) = get_scalar_index_params(env, params_jobj)?;
             let scalar_params = lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams {
                 index_type: index_type_str,
                 params: params_opt.clone(),
             };
-            skip_commit = skip_commit || should_skip_commit(index_type, &params_opt)?;
+            skip_commit = skip_commit || (index_type == IndexType::BTree && batch_reader.is_some());
             Ok(Box::new(scalar_params))
         }
         IndexType::FragmentReuse | IndexType::MemWal => {
@@ -885,59 +1236,163 @@ fn inner_create_index<'local>(
 
     let params = params_result?;
 
-    // Execute index creation in a block to ensure dataset_guard is dropped
-    // before we call into_java (which needs to borrow env again)
-    let index_metadata = {
-        let mut dataset_guard =
-            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    let index_metadata = match progress {
+        Some(progress) => {
+            // Progress callbacks may re-enter read-only methods on this Dataset. Clone the Dataset
+            // and release the native field guard before the long-running build so those callbacks
+            // do not deadlock on the field mutex.
+            let mut working_dataset = {
+                let dataset_guard = unsafe {
+                    env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET)
+                }?;
+                dataset_guard.inner.clone()
+            };
+            let initial_version = working_dataset.version().version;
+            let index_metadata = execute_create_index(
+                &mut working_dataset,
+                &columns_slice,
+                index_type,
+                params.as_ref(),
+                replace,
+                train,
+                name,
+                fragment_ids,
+                index_uuid,
+                batch_reader,
+                Some(progress),
+                skip_commit,
+            )
+            .inspect_err(|_| {
+                // A committed build may fail while materializing its return metadata. The clone
+                // has already observed the durable commit, so publish it before propagating.
+                if should_publish_working_dataset_on_error(
+                    skip_commit,
+                    initial_version,
+                    working_dataset.version().version,
+                ) {
+                    match unsafe {
+                        env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET)
+                    } {
+                        Ok(mut dataset_guard) => {
+                            dataset_guard.inner = working_dataset.clone();
+                        }
+                        Err(publish_error) => {
+                            log::warn!(
+                                "Failed to publish committed dataset version {} after create-index failure: {}",
+                                working_dataset.version().version,
+                                publish_error
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            })?;
+
+            if !skip_commit {
+                let mut dataset_guard = unsafe {
+                    env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET)
+                }?;
+                dataset_guard.inner = working_dataset;
+            }
+            index_metadata
+        }
+        None => {
+            // Preserve the existing no-progress path, including its native-field locking behavior.
+            let mut dataset_guard = unsafe {
+                env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET)
+            }?;
+            execute_create_index(
+                &mut dataset_guard.inner,
+                &columns_slice,
+                index_type,
+                params.as_ref(),
+                replace,
+                train,
+                name,
+                fragment_ids,
+                index_uuid,
+                batch_reader,
+                None,
+                skip_commit,
+            )?
+        }
+    };
 
-        let mut index_builder = dataset_guard
-            .inner
-            .create_index_builder(&columns_slice, index_type, params.as_ref())
-            .replace(replace)
-            .train(train);
+    (&index_metadata).into_java(env)
+}
 
-        if let Some(name) = name {
-            index_builder = index_builder.name(name);
-        }
+fn should_publish_working_dataset_on_error(
+    skip_commit: bool,
+    initial_version: u64,
+    current_version: u64,
+) -> bool {
+    !skip_commit && current_version != initial_version
+}
 
-        if let Some(fragment_ids) = fragment_ids {
-            index_builder = index_builder.fragments(fragment_ids);
-        }
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn execute_create_index(
+    dataset: &mut Dataset,
+    columns: &[&str],
+    index_type: IndexType,
+    params: &dyn IndexParams,
+    replace: bool,
+    train: bool,
+    name: Option<String>,
+    fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+    index_uuid: Option<Uuid>,
+    batch_reader: Option<ArrowArrayStreamReader>,
+    progress: Option<Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>>,
+    skip_commit: bool,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    let mut index_builder = dataset
+        .create_index_builder(columns, index_type, params)
+        .replace(replace)
+        .train(train);
+
+    if let Some(name) = name {
+        index_builder = index_builder.name(name);
+    }
 
-        if let Some(index_uuid) = index_uuid {
-            index_builder = index_builder.index_uuid(index_uuid);
-        }
+    if let Some(fragment_ids) = fragment_ids {
+        index_builder = index_builder.fragments(fragment_ids);
+    }
 
-        if let Some(reader) = batch_reader {
-            index_builder = index_builder.preprocessed_data(Box::new(reader));
-        }
+    if let Some(index_uuid) = index_uuid {
+        index_builder = index_builder.index_uuid(index_uuid);
+    }
 
-        if skip_commit {
-            RT.block_on(index_builder.execute_uncommitted())?
-        } else {
-            RT.block_on(index_builder.into_future())?
-        }
-    };
+    if let Some(reader) = batch_reader {
+        index_builder = index_builder.preprocessed_data(Box::new(reader));
+    }
 
-    (&index_metadata).into_java(env)
-}
+    if let Some(progress) = progress {
+        index_builder = index_builder.progress(progress);
+    }
 
-fn should_skip_commit(index_type: IndexType, params_opt: &Option<String>) -> Result<bool> {
-    match index_type {
-        IndexType::BTree => {
-            // Should defer the commit if we are building range-based BTree index
-            if let Some(params) = params_opt {
-                let btree_parameters = serde_json::from_str::<BTreeParameters>(params)?;
-                return Ok(btree_parameters.range_id.is_some());
-            }
-            Ok(false)
-        }
-        _ => Ok(false),
+    if skip_commit {
+        Ok(block_on(index_builder.execute_uncommitted())?)
+    } else {
+        Ok(block_on(index_builder.into_future())?)
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeDropIndex(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    name: JString,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_drop_index(&mut env, java_dataset, name))
+}
+
+fn inner_drop_index(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject, name: JString) -> Result<()> {
+    let name = name.extract(env)?;
+    let mut dataset_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    block_on(dataset_guard.inner.drop_index(&name))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_innerMergeIndexMetadata<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -964,57 +1419,215 @@ fn inner_merge_index_metadata(
     index_type_code_jobj: jint,
     batch_readhead_jobj: JObject, // Optional<Integer>
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let index_uuid = index_uuid.extract(env)?;
-    let index_type = IndexType::try_from(index_type_code_jobj)?;
-    let batch_readhead = env
-        .get_int_opt(&batch_readhead_jobj)?
-        .map(|val| val as usize);
+    let (index_uuid, index_type, batch_readhead) = parse_merge_index_metadata_args(
+        env,
+        index_uuid,
+        index_type_code_jobj,
+        batch_readhead_jobj,
+    )?;
 
-    let dataset_guard =
-        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    // Clone the inner Dataset out of the `get_rust_field` guard and drop the
+    // guard before the long-lived merge. Otherwise nested JNI callbacks that
+    // touch the same Dataset would deadlock on the native field mutex.
+    let inner_dataset = unsafe {
+        let dataset_guard =
+            env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET)?;
+        dataset_guard.inner.clone()
+    };
 
-    RT.block_on(async {
-        dataset_guard
-            .inner
-            .merge_index_metadata(&index_uuid, index_type, batch_readhead)
+    block_on(async {
+        inner_dataset
+            .merge_index_metadata(&index_uuid, index_type, batch_readhead, noop_progress())
             .await
     })?;
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeOptimizeIndices(
-    mut env: JNIEnv,
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_innerMergeIndexMetadataWithProgress<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
-    options_obj: JObject, // OptimizeOptions
+    index_uuid: JString,
+    index_type_code_jobj: jint,
+    batch_readhead_jobj: JObject,
+    progress_jobj: JObject,
 ) {
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(
         env,
-        inner_optimize_indices(&mut env, java_dataset, options_obj)
+        inner_merge_index_metadata_with_progress(
+            &mut env,
+            java_dataset,
+            index_uuid,
+            index_type_code_jobj,
+            batch_readhead_jobj,
+            progress_jobj,
+        )
     );
 }
 
-fn inner_optimize_indices(
+fn inner_merge_index_metadata_with_progress(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
-    java_options: JObject, // OptimizeOptions
+    index_uuid: JString,
+    index_type_code_jobj: jint,
+    batch_readhead_jobj: JObject,
+    progress_jobj: JObject,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let mut options = OptimizeOptions::default();
+    let (index_uuid, index_type, batch_readhead) = parse_merge_index_metadata_args(
+        env,
+        index_uuid,
+        index_type_code_jobj,
+        batch_readhead_jobj,
+    )?;
+    let progress = Arc::new(JavaIndexBuildProgress::new(env, &progress_jobj)?);
 
-    if !java_options.is_null() {
-        options.num_indices_to_merge =
-            env.get_optional_usize_from_method(&java_options, "getNumIndicesToMerge")?;
+    // Clone the inner Dataset out of the `get_rust_field` guard and drop the
+    // guard before the long-lived merge. Progress callbacks are allowed to
+    // re-enter Dataset JNI methods; holding the guard across those callbacks
+    // would deadlock on the native field mutex (see update.rs).
+    let inner_dataset = unsafe {
+        let dataset_guard =
+            env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET)?;
+        dataset_guard.inner.clone()
+    };
 
-        // getIndexNames(): Optional<List<String>>
-        let index_names_obj = env
-            .call_method(
-                &java_options,
-                "getIndexNames",
-                "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
-                &[],
-            )?
-            .l()?;
-        let index_names = env.get_strings_opt(&index_names_obj)?;
+    block_on(async {
+        inner_dataset
+            .merge_index_metadata(&index_uuid, index_type, batch_readhead, progress)
+            .await
+    })?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn parse_merge_index_metadata_args(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    index_uuid: JString,
+    index_type_code_jobj: jint,
+    batch_readhead_jobj: JObject,
+) -> Result<(Uuid, IndexType, Option<usize>)> {
+    let index_uuid_str = index_uuid.extract(env)?;
+    let index_uuid = Uuid::parse_str(&index_uuid_str)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Invalid UUID string for index_uuid: {e}")))?;
+    let index_type = IndexType::try_from(index_type_code_jobj)?;
+    let batch_readhead = env
+        .get_int_opt(&batch_readhead_jobj)?
+        .map(|val| val as usize);
+    Ok((index_uuid, index_type, batch_readhead))
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeMergeExistingIndexSegments<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    java_segments: JObject,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_merge_existing_index_segments(&mut env, java_dataset, java_segments)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_merge_existing_index_segments<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    java_segments: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let segments = import_vec_to_rust(env, &java_segments, |env, obj| obj.extract_object(env))?;
+    let merged_segment = {
+        let dataset_guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        block_on(dataset_guard.inner.merge_existing_index_segments(segments))?
+    };
+    (&merged_segment).into_java(env)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCommitExistingIndexSegments<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    index_name: JString,
+    column: JString,
+    java_segments: JObject,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_commit_existing_index_segments(
+            &mut env,
+            java_dataset,
+            index_name,
+            column,
+            java_segments
+        )
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_commit_existing_index_segments<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    index_name: JString,
+    column: JString,
+    java_segments: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let index_name = index_name.extract(env)?;
+    let column = column.extract(env)?;
+    let segment_metadata =
+        import_vec_to_rust(env, &java_segments, |env, obj| obj.extract_object(env))?;
+    let segments = segment_metadata
+        .iter()
+        .map(index_metadata_to_segment)
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+    let committed = {
+        let mut dataset_guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        block_on(dataset_guard.inner.commit_existing_index_segments(
+            &index_name,
+            &column,
+            segments,
+        ))?;
+        block_on(dataset_guard.inner.load_indices_by_name(&index_name))?
+    };
+
+    export_vec(env, &committed)
+}
+
+fn index_metadata_to_segment(metadata: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<IndexSegment> {
+    Ok(metadata.clone().into_index_segment()?)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeOptimizeIndices(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    options_obj: JObject, // OptimizeOptions
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_optimize_indices(&mut env, java_dataset, options_obj)
+    );
+}
+
+fn inner_optimize_indices(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    java_options: JObject, // OptimizeOptions
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut options = OptimizeOptions::default();
+
+    if !java_options.is_null() {
+        options.num_indices_to_merge =
+            env.get_optional_usize_from_method(&java_options, "getNumIndicesToMerge")?;
+
+        // getIndexNames(): Optional<List<String>>
+        let index_names_obj = env
+            .call_method(
+                &java_options,
+                "getIndexNames",
+                "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
+                &[],
+            )?
+            .l()?;
+        let index_names = env.get_strings_opt(&index_names_obj)?;
         options.index_names = index_names;
 
         // isRetrain(): boolean
@@ -1026,25 +1639,30 @@ fn inner_optimize_indices(
 
     let mut dataset_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-    RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.optimize_indices(&options))?;
+    block_on(dataset_guard.inner.optimize_indices(&options))?;
     Ok(())
 }
 
 //////////////////
 // Read Methods //
 //////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_openNative<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,
     path: JString,
     version_obj: JObject,    // Optional<Long>
+    ref_obj: JObject,        // Optional<Ref>
     block_size_obj: JObject, // Optional<Integer>
     index_cache_size_bytes: jlong,
     metadata_cache_size_bytes: jlong,
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,          // Map<String, String>
-    serialized_manifest: JObject,          // Optional<ByteBuffer>
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,                  // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,                // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
+    serialized_manifest: JObject,                  // Optional<ByteBuffer>
+    session_handle: jlong,                         // Session handle, 0 means no session
+    namespace_obj: JObject,                        // LanceNamespace object, null if no namespace
+    table_id_obj: JObject,                         // List<String>, null if no namespace
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning: jboolean, // Whether namespace manages versioning
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
     ok_or_throw!(
         env,
@@ -1052,58 +1670,186 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_openNative<'local>(
             &mut env,
             path,
             version_obj,
+            ref_obj,
             block_size_obj,
             index_cache_size_bytes,
             metadata_cache_size_bytes,
             storage_options_obj,
+            base_store_params_obj,
             serialized_manifest,
-            storage_options_provider_obj,
+            session_handle,
+            namespace_obj,
+            table_id_obj,
+            namespace_client_managed_versioning != 0,
         )
     )
 }
 
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_listManifestLocationsNative<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    path: JString,
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_list_manifest_locations(&mut env, path, storage_options_obj)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_list_manifest_locations<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    path: JString,
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let path: String = path.extract(env)?;
+    let storage_options = JMap::from_env(env, &storage_options_obj)?;
+    let storage_options = to_rust_map(env, &storage_options)?;
+    let locations = BlockingDataset::list_manifest_locations(&path, storage_options)?;
+    let list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    for location in locations {
+        env.with_local_frame(8, |env| {
+            let java_location = location.into_java(env)?;
+            env.call_method(
+                &list,
+                "add",
+                "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+                &[JValue::Object(&java_location)],
+            )?;
+            Ok::<(), Error>(())
+        })?;
+    }
+    Ok(list)
+}
+
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 fn inner_open_native<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
     path: JString,
     version_obj: JObject,    // Optional<Long>
+    ref_obj: JObject,        // Optional<Ref>
     block_size_obj: JObject, // Optional<Integer>
     index_cache_size_bytes: jlong,
     metadata_cache_size_bytes: jlong,
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,          // Map<String, String>
-    serialized_manifest: JObject,          // Optional<ByteBuffer>
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,              // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,            // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
+    serialized_manifest: JObject,              // Optional<ByteBuffer>
+    session_handle: jlong,                     // Session handle, 0 means no session
+    namespace_obj: JObject,                    // LanceNamespace object, null if no namespace
+    table_id_obj: JObject,                     // List<String>, null if no namespace
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool, // Whether namespace manages versioning
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let path_str: String = path.extract(env)?;
     let version = env.get_u64_opt(&version_obj)?;
+    // ReadOptions.Builder rejects setting both, so at most one of them is present.
+    let reference = env
+        .get_optional(&ref_obj, |env, jref| transform_jref_to_ref(jref, env))?
+        .or(version.map(Ref::from));
     let block_size = env.get_int_opt(&block_size_obj)?;
     let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &storage_options_obj)?;
     let storage_options = to_rust_map(env, &jmap)?;
+    let base_store_params = extract_base_store_params(env, &base_store_params_obj)?;
 
-    // Extract storage options provider first (before get_bytes_opt which borrows env)
-    let storage_options_provider = env
-        .get_optional(&storage_options_provider_obj, |env, provider_obj| {
-            JavaStorageOptionsProvider::new(env, provider_obj)
-        })?;
+    // Extract namespace and table_id if provided (before get_bytes_opt which holds borrow)
+    let namespace_info = extract_namespace_info(env, &namespace_obj, &table_id_obj)?;
+    let (namespace, table_id) = match namespace_info {
+        Some((ns, tid)) => (Some(ns), Some(tid)),
+        None => (None, None),
+    };
 
-    let storage_options_provider_arc =
-        storage_options_provider.map(|v| Arc::new(v) as Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>);
+    // When namespace is provided, automatically create a storage options provider
+    // for credential refresh
+    let storage_options_provider_arc: Option<Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>> =
+        if let (Some(ns), Some(tid)) = (namespace.clone(), table_id.clone()) {
+            Some(Arc::new(LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(ns, tid)))
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
 
     let serialized_manifest = env.get_bytes_opt(&serialized_manifest)?;
+
+    // Convert session handle to Arc<LanceSession> if provided
+    let session = session_from_handle(session_handle);
+
     let dataset = BlockingDataset::open(
         &path_str,
-        version,
+        reference,
         block_size,
         index_cache_size_bytes,
         metadata_cache_size_bytes,
         storage_options,
+        base_store_params,
         serialized_manifest,
         storage_options_provider_arc,
+        session,
+        namespace,
+        table_id,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning,
     )?;
     dataset.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+/// Check if the Java object is an instance of DirectoryNamespace.
+fn is_directory_namespace(env: &mut JNIEnv, namespace_obj: &JObject) -> Result<bool> {
+    let class = env
+        .find_class("org/lance/namespace/DirectoryNamespace")
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to find DirectoryNamespace class: {}", e))
+        })?;
+    env.is_instance_of(namespace_obj, class)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to check instanceof: {}", e)))
+}
+
+/// Check if the Java object is an instance of RestNamespace.
+fn is_rest_namespace(env: &mut JNIEnv, namespace_obj: &JObject) -> Result<bool> {
+    let class = env
+        .find_class("org/lance/namespace/RestNamespace")
+        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to find RestNamespace class: {}", e)))?;
+    env.is_instance_of(namespace_obj, class)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to check instanceof: {}", e)))
+}
+
+/// Get the native handle from a Java LanceNamespace object.
+fn get_native_namespace_handle(env: &mut JNIEnv, namespace_obj: &JObject) -> Result<jlong> {
+    env.call_method(namespace_obj, "getNativeHandle", "()J", &[])
+        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to call getNativeHandle: {}", e)))?
+        .j()
+        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("getNativeHandle did not return a long: {}", e)))
+}
+
+/// Extract namespace and table_id from Java objects into Rust types.
+///
+/// Returns `None` if `namespace_obj` is null, otherwise returns the namespace
+/// and table_id pair.
+#[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
+pub(crate) fn extract_namespace_info(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    namespace_obj: &JObject,
+    table_id_obj: &JObject,
+) -> Result<Option<(Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>, Vec<String>)>> {
+    if namespace_obj.is_null() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = if is_directory_namespace(env, namespace_obj)? {
+        let native_handle = get_native_namespace_handle(env, namespace_obj)?;
+        let dir_namespace_client =
+            unsafe { &*(native_handle as *const BlockingDirectoryNamespace) };
+        dir_namespace_client.inner.clone()
+    } else if is_rest_namespace(env, namespace_obj)? {
+        let native_handle = get_native_namespace_handle(env, namespace_obj)?;
+        let rest_namespace_client = unsafe { &*(native_handle as *const BlockingRestNamespace) };
+        rest_namespace_client.inner.clone()
+    } else {
+        create_java_lance_namespace(env, namespace_obj)?
+    };
+
+    let table_id = env.get_strings(table_id_obj)?;
+    Ok(Some((namespace_client, table_id)))
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_getFragmentsNative<'a>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
     jdataset: JObject,
@@ -1127,7 +1873,98 @@ fn inner_get_fragments<'local>(
     export_vec(env, &fragments)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetBasePaths<'a>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
+    jdataset: JObject,
+) -> JObject<'a> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_get_base_paths(&mut env, jdataset))
+}
+
+fn inner_get_base_paths<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let mut base_paths = {
+        let dataset =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset
+            .inner
+            .manifest()
+            .base_paths
+            .values()
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    };
+    base_paths.sort_by_key(|base_path| base_path.id);
+    export_vec(env, &base_paths)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetFragmentStatistics<'a>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
+    jdataset: JObject,
+) -> JObject<'a> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_get_fragment_statistics(&mut env, jdataset))
+}
+
+/// Returns per-fragment statistics in their final Java primitive arrays.
+///
+/// Row count semantics match Java `FragmentMetadata.getNumRows()`:
+/// physical rows minus deleted rows, with absent values treated as 0.
+/// Data file count is the number of data files in the fragment.
+fn inner_get_fragment_statistics<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let fragments = {
+        let dataset =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset.inner.fragments().clone()
+    };
+    let fragment_count = i32::try_from(fragments.len()).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::runtime_error(format!(
+            "Fragment statistics contain {} fragments, exceeding the Java array limit of {}",
+            fragments.len(),
+            i32::MAX
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let ids = env.new_int_array(fragment_count)?;
+    let row_counts = env.new_long_array(fragment_count)?;
+    let data_file_nums = env.new_int_array(fragment_count)?;
+
+    let mut id_values = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+    let mut row_count_values = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+    let mut data_file_num_values = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+
+    for fragment in fragments.iter() {
+        let physical_rows = fragment.physical_rows.unwrap_or(0) as i64;
+        let deleted_rows = fragment
+            .deletion_file
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|deletion_file| deletion_file.num_deleted_rows)
+            .unwrap_or(0) as i64;
+        id_values.push(fragment.id as i32);
+        row_count_values.push(physical_rows - deleted_rows);
+        data_file_num_values.push(fragment.files.len() as i32);
+    }
+
+    env.set_int_array_region(&ids, 0, &id_values)?;
+    env.set_long_array_region(&row_counts, 0, &row_count_values)?;
+    env.set_int_array_region(&data_file_nums, 0, &data_file_num_values)?;
+
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/FragmentStatistics",
+        "([I[J[I)V",
+        &[
+            JValue::Object(&ids),
+            JValue::Object(&row_counts),
+            JValue::Object(&data_file_nums),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_getFragmentNative<'a>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
     jdataset: JObject,
@@ -1153,7 +1990,7 @@ fn inner_get_fragment<'local>(
     Ok(obj)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetLanceSchema<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1173,7 +2010,7 @@ fn inner_get_lance_schema<'local>(
     schema.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_importFfiSchema(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     jdataset: JObject,
@@ -1201,7 +2038,7 @@ fn inner_import_ffi_schema(
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeUri<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1224,7 +2061,7 @@ fn inner_uri<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<
     Ok(jstring_uri)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeListVersions<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1232,6 +2069,20 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeListVersions<'local>(
     ok_or_throw!(env, inner_list_versions(&mut env, java_dataset))
 }
 
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetVersionCount(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+) -> jlong {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(env, inner_get_version_count(&mut env, java_dataset), -1) as jlong
+}
+
+fn inner_get_version_count(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<u64> {
+    let dataset_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    dataset_guard.count_versions()
+}
+
 fn inner_list_versions<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1260,7 +2111,7 @@ fn inner_list_versions<'local>(
     Ok(array_list)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetVersion<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1280,7 +2131,7 @@ fn inner_get_version<'local>(
     version.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetLatestVersionId(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1294,7 +2145,7 @@ fn inner_latest_version_id(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<u6
     dataset_guard.latest_version()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetInitialStorageOptions<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1320,7 +2171,7 @@ fn inner_get_initial_storage_options<'local>(
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetLatestStorageOptions<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1346,7 +2197,7 @@ fn inner_get_latest_storage_options<'local>(
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCheckoutLatest(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1360,7 +2211,7 @@ fn inner_checkout_latest(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<()>
     dataset_guard.checkout_latest()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCheckoutVersion<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1383,7 +2234,7 @@ fn inner_checkout_version<'local>(
     new_dataset.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCheckoutTag<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1407,7 +2258,7 @@ fn inner_checkout_tag<'local>(
     new_dataset.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeRestore(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1421,7 +2272,7 @@ fn inner_restore(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<()> {
     dataset_guard.restore()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeShallowClone<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1454,7 +2305,7 @@ fn inner_shallow_clone<'local>(
     let new_ds = {
         let mut dataset_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.shallow_clone(
+        block_on(dataset_guard.inner.shallow_clone(
             target_path_str.as_str(),
             reference,
             storage_opts,
@@ -1464,7 +2315,7 @@ fn inner_shallow_clone<'local>(
     BlockingDataset { inner: new_ds }.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCountRows(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1488,7 +2339,7 @@ fn inner_count_rows(
     dataset_guard.count_rows(filter)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetDataStatistics<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1525,7 +2376,7 @@ fn inner_get_data_statistics<'local>(
     Ok(data_stats)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeListIndexes<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1562,7 +2413,7 @@ fn inner_list_indexes<'local>(
     Ok(array_list)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetConfig<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1604,7 +2455,77 @@ fn inner_get_config<'local>(
     Ok(java_hashmap)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeHasStableRowIds(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+) -> jboolean {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(env, inner_has_stable_row_ids(&mut env, java_dataset), 0u8)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetWriterVersion<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_get_writer_version(&mut env, java_dataset))
+}
+
+fn inner_get_writer_version<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let writer_version = {
+        let dataset_guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset_guard.inner.manifest().writer_version.clone()
+    };
+    match writer_version {
+        Some(writer_version) => writer_version.into_java(env),
+        None => Ok(JObject::null()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn inner_has_stable_row_ids(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<u8> {
+    let dataset_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    Ok(dataset_guard.inner.manifest().uses_stable_row_ids() as u8)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetLanceFileFormatVersion<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+) -> JString<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_get_lance_file_format_version(&mut env, java_dataset),
+        JObject::null().into()
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_get_lance_file_format_version<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+) -> Result<JString<'local>> {
+    let version_string = {
+        let dataset_guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset_guard
+            .inner
+            .manifest()
+            .data_storage_format
+            .lance_file_format()
+            .to_manifest_string()
+            .to_string()
+    };
+
+    Ok(env
+        .new_string(&version_string)
+        .expect("Failed to create Java String"))
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeTake(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1638,7 +2559,7 @@ fn inner_take(
 
         let projection = ProjectionRequest::from_columns(columns, dataset.schema());
 
-        match RT.block_on(dataset.take(indices_slice, projection)) {
+        match block_on(dataset.take(indices_slice, projection)) {
             Ok(res) => res,
             Err(e) => {
                 return Err(e.into());
@@ -1657,42 +2578,152 @@ fn inner_take(
     Ok(**byte_array)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeDelete(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeTakeRows(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
-    predicate: JString,
-) {
-    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_delete(&mut env, java_dataset, predicate))
-}
-
-fn inner_delete(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject, predicate: JString) -> Result<()> {
-    let predicate_str = predicate.extract(env)?;
-    let mut dataset_guard =
-        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-    RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.delete(&predicate_str))?;
-    Ok(())
+    row_ids_obj: JObject, // List<Long>
+    columns_obj: JObject, // List<String>
+) -> jbyteArray {
+    match inner_take_rows(&mut env, java_dataset, row_ids_obj, columns_obj) {
+        Ok(byte_array) => byte_array,
+        Err(e) => {
+            let _ = env.throw_new("java/lang/RuntimeException", format!("{:?}", e));
+            std::ptr::null_mut()
+        }
+    }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeTruncateTable(
-    mut env: JNIEnv,
+fn inner_take_rows(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
-) {
-    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_truncate_table(&mut env, java_dataset))
-}
+    row_ids_obj: JObject, // List<Long>
+    columns_obj: JObject, // List<String>
+) -> Result<jbyteArray> {
+    let row_ids: Vec<i64> = env.get_longs(&row_ids_obj)?;
+    let row_ids_u64: Vec<u64> = row_ids.iter().map(|&x| x as u64).collect();
+    let columns: Vec<String> = env.get_strings(&columns_obj)?;
 
-fn inner_truncate_table(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<()> {
-    let mut dataset_guard =
-        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-    RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.truncate_table())?;
-    Ok(())
-}
+    let result = {
+        let dataset_guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        let dataset = &dataset_guard.inner;
 
-//////////////////////////////
-// Schema evolution Methods //
-//////////////////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
+        let projection = ProjectionRequest::from_columns(columns, dataset.schema());
+
+        match block_on(dataset.take_rows(&row_ids_u64, projection)) {
+            Ok(res) => res,
+            Err(e) => {
+                return Err(e.into());
+            }
+        }
+    };
+
+    let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+    {
+        let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &result.schema())?;
+        writer.write(&result)?;
+        writer.finish()?;
+    }
+
+    let byte_array = env.byte_array_from_slice(&buffer)?;
+    Ok(**byte_array)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeSample(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    n: jlong,
+    columns_obj: JObject,      // List<String>
+    fragment_ids_obj: JObject, // Optional<List<Integer>>
+) -> jbyteArray {
+    match inner_sample(&mut env, java_dataset, n, columns_obj, fragment_ids_obj) {
+        Ok(byte_array) => byte_array,
+        Err(e) => {
+            let _ = env.throw_new("java/lang/RuntimeException", format!("{:?}", e));
+            std::ptr::null_mut()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn inner_sample(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    n: jlong,
+    columns_obj: JObject,      // List<String>
+    fragment_ids_obj: JObject, // Optional<List<Integer>>
+) -> Result<jbyteArray> {
+    let columns: Vec<String> = env.get_strings(&columns_obj)?;
+    let fragment_ids: Option<Vec<i32>> = env.get_ints_opt(&fragment_ids_obj)?;
+    let fragment_ids_u32: Option<Vec<u32>> =
+        fragment_ids.map(|ids| ids.iter().map(|&id| id as u32).collect());
+
+    let result = {
+        let dataset_guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        let dataset = &dataset_guard.inner;
+
+        let projection = dataset
+            .schema()
+            .project_preserve_system_columns(&columns)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(e.to_string()))?;
+
+        match block_on(dataset.sample(n as usize, &projection, fragment_ids_u32.as_deref())) {
+            Ok(res) => res,
+            Err(e) => {
+                return Err(e.into());
+            }
+        }
+    };
+
+    let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+    {
+        let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &result.schema())?;
+        writer.write(&result)?;
+        writer.finish()?;
+    }
+
+    let byte_array = env.byte_array_from_slice(&buffer)?;
+    Ok(**byte_array)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeDelete(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    predicate: JString,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_delete(&mut env, java_dataset, predicate))
+}
+
+fn inner_delete(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject, predicate: JString) -> Result<()> {
+    let predicate_str = predicate.extract(env)?;
+    let mut dataset_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    block_on(dataset_guard.inner.delete(&predicate_str))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeTruncateTable(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_truncate_table(&mut env, java_dataset))
+}
+
+fn inner_truncate_table(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut dataset_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    block_on(dataset_guard.inner.truncate_table())?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+//////////////////////////////
+// Schema evolution Methods //
+//////////////////////////////
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeDropColumns(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1710,26 +2741,32 @@ fn inner_drop_columns(
     let columns_slice: Vec<&str> = columns.iter().map(AsRef::as_ref).collect();
     let mut dataset_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-    RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.drop_columns(&columns_slice))?;
+    block_on(dataset_guard.inner.drop_columns(&columns_slice))?;
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeAlterColumns(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
     column_alterations_obj: JObject, // List<ColumnAlteration>
+    cast_schema_addr: jlong,
 ) {
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(
         env,
-        inner_alter_columns(&mut env, java_dataset, column_alterations_obj)
+        inner_alter_columns(
+            &mut env,
+            java_dataset,
+            column_alterations_obj,
+            cast_schema_addr
+        )
     )
 }
 
 fn create_column_alteration(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
     column_alteration_jobj: JObject, // ColumnAlteration
-) -> Result<ColumnAlteration> {
+) -> Result<(ColumnAlteration, bool)> {
     let path_obj = env
         .get_field(&column_alteration_jobj, "path", "Ljava/lang/String;")?
         .l()?;
@@ -1768,58 +2805,65 @@ fn create_column_alteration(
         None
     };
 
+    // The cast target type (if any) is not read here: it is transferred separately through the
+    // Arrow C Data Interface (see inner_alter_columns), because ArrowType#toString() does not
+    // round-trip through DataType::from_str for parameterized types. This flag records whether a
+    // cast was requested so the caller can attach the imported type in order.
     let data_type_obj = env
         .get_field(&column_alteration_jobj, "dataType", "Ljava/util/Optional;")?
         .l()?;
-    let data_type = if env
+    let wants_cast = env
         .call_method(&data_type_obj, "isPresent", "()Z", &[])?
-        .z()?
-    {
-        let j_data_type: JObject = env
-            .call_method(data_type_obj, "get", "()Ljava/lang/Object;", &[])?
-            .l()?;
-        let jstring: JString = env
-            .call_method(j_data_type, "toString", "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])?
-            .l()?
-            .into();
-        let data_type_str: String = env.get_string(&jstring)?.into(); // Intermediate variable
-        DataType::from_str(&data_type_str)
-            .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(e.to_string()))
-            .ok()
-    } else {
-        None
-    };
+        .z()?;
 
-    Ok(ColumnAlteration {
+    let alteration = ColumnAlteration {
         path,
         rename,
         nullable,
-        data_type,
-    })
+        data_type: None,
+    };
+    Ok((alteration, wants_cast))
 }
 
 fn inner_alter_columns(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
     column_alterations_obj: JObject, // List<ColumnAlteration>
+    cast_schema_addr: jlong,
 ) -> Result<()> {
     let list = env.get_list(&column_alterations_obj)?;
     let mut iter = list.iter(env)?;
     let mut column_alterations = Vec::new();
+    let mut cast_flags = Vec::new();
 
     while let Some(elem) = iter.next(env)? {
-        let alteration = create_column_alteration(env, elem)?;
+        let (alteration, wants_cast) = create_column_alteration(env, elem)?;
         column_alterations.push(alteration);
+        cast_flags.push(wants_cast);
+    }
+
+    // Cast target types arrive as one Arrow schema field per requested cast, in the same order
+    // as the alterations that requested one.
+    let cast_schema = unsafe { FFI_ArrowSchema::from_raw(cast_schema_addr as *mut _) };
+    let cast_schema = ArrowSchema::try_from(&cast_schema)
+        .map_err(|_| Error::input_error("ArrowSchema conversion error".to_string()))?;
+    let mut cast_types = cast_schema.fields.iter().map(|f| f.data_type().clone());
+    for (alteration, wants_cast) in column_alterations.iter_mut().zip(cast_flags) {
+        if wants_cast {
+            alteration.data_type = Some(cast_types.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error("Missing cast type for column alteration".to_string())
+            })?);
+        }
     }
 
     let mut dataset_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
 
-    RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.alter_columns(&column_alterations))?;
+    block_on(dataset_guard.inner.alter_columns(&column_alterations))?;
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeAddColumnsBySqlExpressions(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1873,7 +2917,7 @@ fn inner_add_columns_by_sql_expressions(
     let mut dataset_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
 
-    RT.block_on(
+    block_on(
         dataset_guard
             .inner
             .add_columns(rust_transform, None, batch_size),
@@ -1881,7 +2925,7 @@ fn inner_add_columns_by_sql_expressions(
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeAddColumnsByReader(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1918,12 +2962,12 @@ fn inner_add_columns_by_reader(
     let mut dataset_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
 
-    RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.add_columns(transform, None, batch_size))?;
+    block_on(dataset_guard.inner.add_columns(transform, None, batch_size))?;
 
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeAddColumnsBySchema(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1949,7 +2993,7 @@ fn inner_add_columns_by_schema(
     let mut dataset_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
 
-    RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.add_columns(transform, None, None))?;
+    block_on(dataset_guard.inner.add_columns(transform, None, None))?;
 
     Ok(())
 }
@@ -1957,7 +3001,27 @@ fn inner_add_columns_by_schema(
 //////////////////////////////
 // Tag operation Methods    //
 //////////////////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
+fn optional_datetime_to_java_instant<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    timestamp: Option<&DateTime<Utc>>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    if let Some(timestamp) = timestamp {
+        let seconds = timestamp.timestamp();
+        let nanos = timestamp.timestamp_subsec_nanos() as i64;
+        Ok(env
+            .call_static_method(
+                "java/time/Instant",
+                "ofEpochSecond",
+                "(JJ)Ljava/time/Instant;",
+                &[JValue::Long(seconds), JValue::Long(nanos)],
+            )?
+            .l()?)
+    } else {
+        Ok(JObject::null())
+    }
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeListTags<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -1969,27 +3033,34 @@ fn inner_list_tags<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
-    let tag_map = {
+    let mut tags: Vec<_> = {
         let dataset_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        dataset_guard.list_tags()?
+        dataset_guard.list_tags()?.into_iter().collect()
     };
+    tags.sort_unstable_by(|(left_name, _), (right_name, _)| left_name.cmp(right_name));
     let array_list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
 
-    for (tag_name, tag_contents) in tag_map {
+    for (tag_name, tag_contents) in tags {
         let branch_name: JObject = if let Some(branch_name) = tag_contents.branch.as_ref() {
             env.new_string(branch_name)?.into()
         } else {
             JObject::null()
         };
+        let created_at = optional_datetime_to_java_instant(env, tag_contents.created_at.as_ref())?;
+        let updated_at = optional_datetime_to_java_instant(env, tag_contents.updated_at.as_ref())?;
+        let java_metadata = to_java_map(env, &tag_contents.metadata)?;
         let java_tag = env.new_object(
             "org/lance/Tag",
-            "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;JI)V",
+            "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;JILjava/time/Instant;Ljava/time/Instant;Ljava/util/Map;)V",
             &[
                 JValue::Object(&env.new_string(tag_name)?.into()),
                 JValue::Object(&branch_name),
                 JValue::Long(tag_contents.version as i64),
                 JValue::Int(tag_contents.manifest_size as i32),
+                JValue::Object(&created_at),
+                JValue::Object(&updated_at),
+                JValue::Object(&java_metadata),
             ],
         )?;
         env.call_method(
@@ -2002,7 +3073,7 @@ fn inner_list_tags<'local>(
     Ok(array_list)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCreateTag(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2029,7 +3100,7 @@ fn inner_create_tag(
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeDeleteTag(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2045,7 +3116,7 @@ fn inner_delete_tag(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject, jtag_name: JString)
     dataset_guard.delete_tag(tag.as_str())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeUpdateTag(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2071,7 +3142,33 @@ fn inner_update_tag(
     dataset_guard.update_tag(tag.as_str(), reference)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeReplaceTagMetadata(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    jtag_name: JString,
+    jmetadata: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_replace_tag_metadata(&mut env, java_dataset, jtag_name, jmetadata)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_replace_tag_metadata(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    jtag_name: JString,
+    jmetadata: JObject,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let tag = jtag_name.extract(env)?;
+    let metadata = extract_metadata_map(env, &jmetadata)?;
+    let mut dataset_guard =
+        { unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }? };
+    dataset_guard.replace_tag_metadata(tag.as_str(), metadata)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetVersionByTag(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2098,7 +3195,7 @@ fn inner_get_version_by_tag(
 //////////////////////////////
 // Branch operation Methods  //
 //////////////////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeListBranches<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2110,11 +3207,12 @@ fn inner_list_branches<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
-    let branches = {
+    let mut branches: Vec<_> = {
         let dataset_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        dataset_guard.list_branches()?
+        dataset_guard.list_branches()?.into_iter().collect()
     };
+    branches.sort_unstable_by(|(left_name, _), (right_name, _)| left_name.cmp(right_name));
     let array_list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
 
     for (name, contents) in branches {
@@ -2124,15 +3222,37 @@ fn inner_list_branches<'local>(
         } else {
             JObject::null()
         };
+        let jbranch_identifier = env.new_object(
+            "java/util/ArrayList",
+            "(I)V",
+            &[JValue::Int(contents.identifier.version_mapping.len() as i32)],
+        )?;
+        for (version, uuid) in contents.identifier.version_mapping.iter() {
+            let juuid = env.new_string(uuid)?;
+            let jmapping = env.new_object(
+                "org/lance/Branch$BranchVersionMapping",
+                "(JLjava/lang/String;)V",
+                &[JValue::Long(*version as i64), JValue::Object(&juuid)],
+            )?;
+            env.call_method(
+                &jbranch_identifier,
+                "add",
+                "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+                &[JValue::Object(&jmapping)],
+            )?;
+        }
+        let java_metadata = to_java_map(env, &contents.metadata)?;
         let jbranch = env.new_object(
             "org/lance/Branch",
-            "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;JJI)V",
+            "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/util/List;JJILjava/util/Map;)V",
             &[
                 JValue::Object(&jname),
                 JValue::Object(&jparent),
+                JValue::Object(&jbranch_identifier),
                 JValue::Long(contents.parent_version as i64),
                 JValue::Long(contents.create_at as i64),
                 JValue::Int(contents.manifest_size as i32),
+                JValue::Object(&java_metadata),
             ],
         )?;
         env.call_method(
@@ -2145,7 +3265,7 @@ fn inner_list_branches<'local>(
     Ok(array_list)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCreateBranch<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2173,7 +3293,7 @@ fn inner_create_branch<'local>(
     let new_blocking_dataset = {
         let mut dataset_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        let inner = RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.create_branch(
+        let inner = block_on(dataset_guard.inner.create_branch(
             branch_name.as_str(),
             reference,
             storage_opts,
@@ -2183,6 +3303,37 @@ fn inner_create_branch<'local>(
     new_blocking_dataset.into_java(env)
 }
 
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeReplaceBranchMetadata(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    jbranch: JString,
+    jmetadata: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_replace_branch_metadata(&mut env, java_dataset, jbranch, jmetadata)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_replace_branch_metadata(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    jbranch: JString,
+    jmetadata: JObject,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let branch: String = jbranch.extract(env)?;
+    let metadata = extract_metadata_map(env, &jmetadata)?;
+    let mut dataset_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    dataset_guard.replace_branch_metadata(&branch, metadata)
+}
+
+fn extract_metadata_map(env: &mut JNIEnv, jmetadata: &JObject) -> Result<HashMap<String, String>> {
+    let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, jmetadata)?;
+    to_rust_map(env, &jmap)
+}
+
 fn transform_jref_to_ref(jref: JObject, env: &mut JNIEnv) -> Result<Ref> {
     let source_tag_name = env.get_optional_string_from_method(&jref, "getTagName")?;
     let source_version_number = env.get_optional_u64_from_method(&jref, "getVersionNumber")?;
@@ -2214,7 +3365,7 @@ fn transform_jstorage_options(
         .unwrap_or(None))
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeDeleteBranch(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2230,7 +3381,7 @@ fn inner_delete_branch(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject, jbranch: JString
     dataset_guard.delete_branch(branch_name.as_str())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCheckout<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2282,7 +3433,7 @@ fn inner_checkout_ref<'local>(
 
 // Unified metadata API JNI methods
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetTableMetadata<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2327,7 +3478,7 @@ fn inner_get_table_metadata<'local>(
 //////////////////////////////
 // Compaction Methods       //
 //////////////////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCompact(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2344,7 +3495,12 @@ fn inner_compact(
     java_dataset: JObject,
     compaction_options: JObject, // CompactionOptions
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let rust_options = convert_java_compaction_options_to_rust(env, compaction_options)?;
+    let config = {
+        let dataset =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset.inner.manifest.config.clone()
+    };
+    let rust_options = convert_java_compaction_options_to_rust(env, compaction_options, &config)?;
     let mut dataset_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
     dataset_guard.compact(rust_options)?;
@@ -2354,6 +3510,7 @@ fn inner_compact(
 fn convert_java_compaction_options_to_rust(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
     java_options: JObject,
+    config: &std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
 ) -> Result<RustCompactionOptions> {
     let target_rows_per_fragment = env
         .call_method(
@@ -2414,6 +3571,62 @@ fn convert_java_compaction_options_to_rust(
             &[],
         )?
         .l()?;
+    let compaction_mode = env
+        .call_method(
+            &java_options,
+            "getCompactionMode",
+            "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+    let binary_copy_read_batch_bytes = env
+        .call_method(
+            &java_options,
+            "getBinaryCopyReadBatchBytes",
+            "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+    let max_source_fragments = env
+        .call_method(
+            &java_options,
+            "getMaxSourceFragments",
+            "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+    let max_source_rows = env
+        .call_method(
+            &java_options,
+            "getMaxSourceRows",
+            "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+    let max_source_bytes = env
+        .call_method(
+            &java_options,
+            "getMaxSourceBytes",
+            "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+    let excluded_fragment_ids = env
+        .call_method(
+            &java_options,
+            "getExcludedFragmentIds",
+            "()Ljava/util/List;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+    let data_storage_version = env
+        .call_method(
+            &java_options,
+            "getDataStorageVersion",
+            "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
 
     build_compaction_options(
         env,
@@ -2425,10 +3638,18 @@ fn convert_java_compaction_options_to_rust(
         &num_threads,
         &batch_size,
         &defer_index_remap,
+        &compaction_mode,
+        &binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+        &max_source_fragments,
+        &max_source_rows,
+        &max_source_bytes,
+        &excluded_fragment_ids,
+        &data_storage_version,
+        config,
     )
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCleanupWithPolicy<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     jdataset: JObject,
@@ -2442,57 +3663,251 @@ fn inner_cleanup_with_policy<'local>(
     jdataset: JObject,
     jpolicy: JObject,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
-    let before_ts_millis =
-        env.get_optional_u64_from_method(&jpolicy, "getBeforeTimestampMillis")?;
+    let policy = extract_cleanup_policy(env, &jpolicy)?;
+
+    let stats = {
+        let mut dataset =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset.cleanup_with_policy(policy)
+    }?;
+
+    cleanup_stats_to_java(env, stats)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeExplainCleanupWithPolicy<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject,
+    jpolicy: JObject,
+    jmax_candidate_files: JObject,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_explain_cleanup_with_policy(&mut env, jdataset, jpolicy, jmax_candidate_files)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_explain_cleanup_with_policy<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject,
+    jpolicy: JObject,
+    jmax_candidate_files: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let policy = extract_cleanup_policy(env, &jpolicy)?;
+    let max_candidate_files = env
+        .get_optional(&jmax_candidate_files, |env, inner| {
+            Ok(env.call_method(inner, "longValue", "()J", &[])?.j()?)
+        })?
+        .map(|v| {
+            usize::try_from(v).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "maxCandidateFiles must be a non-negative usize value, got {}: {:?}",
+                    v, e
+                ))
+            })
+        })
+        .transpose()?;
+
+    let explanation = {
+        let dataset =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset.explain_cleanup_with_policy(policy, max_candidate_files)
+    }?;
+
+    cleanup_explanation_to_java(env, explanation)
+}
+
+fn extract_cleanup_policy(env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>, jpolicy: &JObject) -> Result<CleanupPolicy> {
+    let before_ts_millis = env.get_optional_u64_from_method(jpolicy, "getBeforeTimestampMillis")?;
     let before_timestamp = before_ts_millis.map(|millis| {
         let st = UNIX_EPOCH + Duration::from_millis(millis);
         DateTime::<Utc>::from(st)
     });
 
-    let before_version = env.get_optional_u64_from_method(&jpolicy, "getBeforeVersion")?;
+    let before_version = env.get_optional_u64_from_method(jpolicy, "getBeforeVersion")?;
+
+    let versions = env.get_optional_from_method(jpolicy, "getVersions", |env, list_obj| {
+        let mut versions = HashSet::new();
+        for version in env.get_longs(&list_obj)? {
+            versions.insert(version as u64);
+        }
+        Ok(versions)
+    })?;
 
     let delete_unverified = env
-        .get_optional_from_method(&jpolicy, "getDeleteUnverified", |env, obj| {
+        .get_optional_from_method(jpolicy, "getDeleteUnverified", |env, obj| {
             Ok(env.call_method(obj, "booleanValue", "()Z", &[])?.z()?)
         })?
         .unwrap_or(false);
 
     let error_if_tagged_old_versions = env
-        .get_optional_from_method(&jpolicy, "getErrorIfTaggedOldVersions", |env, obj| {
+        .get_optional_from_method(jpolicy, "getErrorIfTaggedOldVersions", |env, obj| {
             Ok(env.call_method(obj, "booleanValue", "()Z", &[])?.z()?)
         })?
         .unwrap_or(true);
 
-    let policy = CleanupPolicy {
+    let clean_referenced_branches = env
+        .get_optional_from_method(jpolicy, "getCleanReferencedBranches", |env, obj| {
+            Ok(env.call_method(obj, "booleanValue", "()Z", &[])?.z()?)
+        })?
+        .unwrap_or(false);
+
+    let delete_rate_limit = env.get_optional_u64_from_method(jpolicy, "getDeleteRateLimit")?;
+
+    Ok(CleanupPolicy {
         before_timestamp,
         before_version,
+        versions,
         delete_unverified,
         error_if_tagged_old_versions,
-    };
-
-    let stats = {
-        let mut dataset =
-            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        dataset.cleanup_with_policy(policy)
-    }?;
+        clean_referenced_branches,
+        delete_rate_limit,
+    })
+}
 
-    let jstats = env.new_object(
+fn cleanup_stats_to_java<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    stats: RemovalStats,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    Ok(env.new_object(
         "org/lance/cleanup/RemovalStats",
-        "(JJ)V",
+        "(JJJJJJJ)V",
         &[
             JValue::Long(stats.bytes_removed as i64),
             JValue::Long(stats.old_versions as i64),
+            JValue::Long(stats.data_files_removed as i64),
+            JValue::Long(stats.transaction_files_removed as i64),
+            JValue::Long(stats.index_files_removed as i64),
+            JValue::Long(stats.deletion_files_removed as i64),
+            JValue::Long(stats.failed_deletes as i64),
         ],
-    )?;
+    )?)
+}
 
-    Ok(jstats)
+fn cleanup_file_kind_to_java(kind: CleanupFileKind) -> &'static str {
+    match kind {
+        CleanupFileKind::Manifest => "manifest",
+        CleanupFileKind::Data => "data",
+        CleanupFileKind::Transaction => "transaction",
+        CleanupFileKind::Index => "index",
+        CleanupFileKind::Deletion => "deletion",
+        CleanupFileKind::TemporaryManifest => "temporary_manifest",
+    }
+}
+
+fn cleanup_candidate_files_to_java<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    files: Vec<CleanupCandidateFile>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    // Wrap each iteration in a local frame so the temporary path/kind/candidate
+    // references do not accumulate on the JNI local reference table for large
+    // explanations (default limit is 1000 candidate files, but users can raise it).
+    for file in files {
+        env.with_local_frame(8, |env| {
+            let path = env.new_string(file.path)?;
+            let kind = env.new_string(cleanup_file_kind_to_java(file.kind))?;
+            let candidate = env.new_object(
+                "org/lance/cleanup/CleanupCandidateFile",
+                "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;ZJ)V",
+                &[
+                    JValue::Object(&path),
+                    JValue::Object(&kind),
+                    JValue::Bool(file.unverified as jboolean),
+                    JValue::Long(file.size_bytes as i64),
+                ],
+            )?;
+            env.call_method(
+                &list,
+                "add",
+                "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+                &[JValue::Object(&candidate)],
+            )?;
+            Ok::<(), Error>(())
+        })?;
+    }
+    Ok(list)
+}
+
+fn cleanup_referenced_branches_to_java<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    branches: Vec<CleanupReferencedBranch>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    for branch in branches {
+        env.with_local_frame(8, |env| {
+            let name = env.new_string(branch.name)?;
+            let referenced_branch = env.new_object(
+                "org/lance/cleanup/CleanupReferencedBranch",
+                "(Ljava/lang/String;JZ)V",
+                &[
+                    JValue::Object(&name),
+                    JValue::Long(branch.referenced_version as i64),
+                    JValue::Bool(branch.cleanup_candidate as jboolean),
+                ],
+            )?;
+            env.call_method(
+                &list,
+                "add",
+                "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+                &[JValue::Object(&referenced_branch)],
+            )?;
+            Ok::<(), Error>(())
+        })?;
+    }
+    Ok(list)
+}
+
+fn cleanup_warnings_to_java<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    warnings: Vec<String>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    for warning in warnings {
+        env.with_local_frame(4, |env| {
+            let warning = env.new_string(warning)?;
+            env.call_method(
+                &list,
+                "add",
+                "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+                &[JValue::Object(&warning)],
+            )?;
+            Ok::<(), Error>(())
+        })?;
+    }
+    Ok(list)
+}
+
+fn cleanup_explanation_to_java<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    explanation: CleanupExplanation,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let stats = cleanup_stats_to_java(env, explanation.stats)?;
+    let candidate_files = cleanup_candidate_files_to_java(env, explanation.candidate_files)?;
+    let referenced_branches =
+        cleanup_referenced_branches_to_java(env, explanation.referenced_branches)?;
+    let warnings = cleanup_warnings_to_java(env, explanation.warnings)?;
+
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/cleanup/CleanupExplanation",
+        "(JLorg/lance/cleanup/RemovalStats;Ljava/util/List;ZJLjava/util/List;Ljava/util/List;)V",
+        &[
+            JValue::Long(explanation.read_version as i64),
+            JValue::Object(&stats),
+            JValue::Object(&candidate_files),
+            JValue::Bool(explanation.candidate_files_truncated as jboolean),
+            JValue::Long(explanation.candidate_file_limit as i64),
+            JValue::Object(&referenced_branches),
+            JValue::Object(&warnings),
+        ],
+    )?)
 }
 
 //////////////////////////////
 // Index operation Methods   //
 //////////////////////////////
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetIndexes<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2525,7 +3940,7 @@ fn inner_get_indexes<'local>(
     Ok(array_list)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetIndexStatistics<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2547,13 +3962,13 @@ fn inner_get_index_statistics<'local>(
     let stats_json = {
         let dataset_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.index_statistics(&index_name))?
+        block_on(dataset_guard.inner.index_statistics(&index_name))?
     };
     let jstats = env.new_string(stats_json)?;
     Ok(jstats)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeDescribeIndices<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2582,20 +3997,22 @@ fn inner_describe_indices<'local>(
             for_column: for_column.as_deref(),
             has_name: has_name.as_deref(),
             must_support_fts,
+            fts_document_granularity: None,
             must_support_exact_equality,
+            must_support_minhash: false,
         })
     })?;
 
     let descriptions = {
         let dataset_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        RT.block_on(dataset_guard.inner.describe_indices(index_criteria))?
+        block_on(dataset_guard.inner.describe_indices(index_criteria))?
     };
 
     export_vec(env, &descriptions)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCountIndexedRows(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -2613,71 +4030,347 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCountIndexedRows(
 fn inner_count_indexed_rows(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
     java_dataset: JObject,
-    _jindex_name: JString,
+    jindex_name: JString,
     jfilter: JString,
     jfragment_ids: JObject, // Optional<List<Integer>>
 ) -> Result<i64> {
+    let index_name: String = jindex_name.extract(env)?;
     let filter: String = jfilter.extract(env)?;
+    let fragment_ids = extract_count_fragment_ids(env, &jfragment_ids)?;
 
-    // Extract optional fragment IDs
-    let fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>> = if env
-        .call_method(&jfragment_ids, "isPresent", "()Z", &[])?
-        .z()?
-    {
-        let list_obj = env
-            .call_method(&jfragment_ids, "get", "()Ljava/lang/Object;", &[])?
-            .l()?;
-        let list = env.get_list(&list_obj)?;
-        let mut ids = Vec::new();
-        let mut iter = list.iter(env)?;
-        while let Some(elem) = iter.next(env)? {
-            let int_val = env.call_method(&elem, "intValue", "()I", &[])?.i()?;
-            ids.push(int_val as u32);
-        }
-        Some(ids)
-    } else {
-        None
-    };
+    count_indexed_rows(env, java_dataset, index_name, filter, None, fragment_ids)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCountIndexedRowsWithSegments(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    jindex_name: JString,
+    jfilter: JString,
+    jsegment_uuids: JObject, // List<UUID>
+    jfragment_ids: JObject,  // Optional<List<Integer>>
+) -> jlong {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_count_indexed_rows_with_segments(
+            &mut env,
+            java_dataset,
+            jindex_name,
+            jfilter,
+            jsegment_uuids,
+            jfragment_ids,
+        ),
+        -1
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_count_indexed_rows_with_segments(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    jindex_name: JString,
+    jfilter: JString,
+    jsegment_uuids: JObject,
+    jfragment_ids: JObject,
+) -> Result<i64> {
+    let index_name: String = jindex_name.extract(env)?;
+    let filter: String = jfilter.extract(env)?;
+    let segment_uuids =
+        import_vec_to_rust(env, &jsegment_uuids, |env, obj| obj.extract_object(env))?;
+    let fragment_ids = extract_count_fragment_ids(env, &jfragment_ids)?;
 
+    count_indexed_rows(
+        env,
+        java_dataset,
+        index_name,
+        filter,
+        Some(segment_uuids),
+        fragment_ids,
+    )
+}
+
+fn extract_count_fragment_ids(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    jfragment_ids: &JObject,
+) -> Result<Option<Vec<u32>>> {
+    env.get_ints_opt(jfragment_ids)?
+        .map(|fragment_ids| {
+            fragment_ids
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|fragment_id| {
+                    u32::try_from(fragment_id).map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::input_error(format!(
+                            "fragment ID must be non-negative, got {fragment_id}"
+                        ))
+                    })
+                })
+                .collect()
+        })
+        .transpose()
+}
+
+fn count_indexed_rows(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    index_name: String,
+    filter: String,
+    segment_uuids: Option<Vec<Uuid>>,
+    fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+) -> Result<i64> {
     let count = {
         let dataset_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        block_on(dataset_guard.inner.count_indexed_rows(
+            &index_name,
+            &filter,
+            segment_uuids.as_deref(),
+            fragment_ids.as_deref(),
+        ))?
+    };
 
-        // Use a scanner with fragment filtering to count rows
-        // This ensures we only count rows in the specified fragments
-        let inner = dataset_guard.inner.clone();
+    i64::try_from(count)
+        .map_err(|_| Error::input_error(format!("indexed row count {count} exceeds Java long")))
+}
 
-        RT.block_on(async {
-            let mut scanner = inner.scan();
+//////////////////////////////
+// Session Methods          //
+//////////////////////////////
 
-            // Apply filter
-            if !filter.is_empty() {
-                scanner.filter(&filter)?;
-            }
+/// Returns the session handle from a dataset.
+/// The returned handle can be used to create a Java Session object.
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetSessionHandle(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+) -> jlong {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(env, inner_get_session_handle(&mut env, java_dataset), 0)
+}
 
-            // Empty projection and enable row_id for count_rows to work
-            // count_rows() requires metadata-only projection
-            scanner.project::<String>(&[])?;
-            scanner.with_row_id();
-
-            // Apply fragment filter if specified
-            if let Some(frag_ids) = fragment_ids {
-                // Convert FileFragment to Fragment by extracting metadata
-                let filtered_fragments: Vec<_> = inner
-                    .get_fragments()
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .filter(|f| frag_ids.contains(&(f.id() as u32)))
-                    .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
-                    .collect();
-                scanner.with_fragments(filtered_fragments);
-            }
+fn inner_get_session_handle(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_dataset: JObject) -> Result<jlong> {
+    let dataset_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    let session = dataset_guard.inner.session();
+    Ok(handle_from_session(session))
+}
 
-            // Use the scanner's count_rows method
-            let count = scanner.count_rows().await?;
+/////////////////////////////////
+// Zonemap Stats Methods       //
+/////////////////////////////////
 
-            Ok::<i64, lance::Error>(count as i64)
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeGetZonemapStats<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    jcolumn_name: JString,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_get_zonemap_stats(&mut env, java_dataset, jcolumn_name)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_get_zonemap_stats<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    java_dataset: JObject,
+    jcolumn_name: JString,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    use arrow_array::Array;
+    use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+    use lance::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
+    use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use lance_index::scalar::IndexStore;
+    use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+
+    let column_name: String = jcolumn_name.extract(env)?;
+
+    // 1. Get the dataset and find every committed zonemap segment for this column
+    let zonemap_batches = {
+        let dataset = {
+            let dataset_guard = unsafe {
+                env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET)
+            }?;
+            dataset_guard.inner.clone()
+        };
+        // Guard is dropped here — dataset is owned
+
+        // Find the field for the requested column (validates it exists)
+        dataset.schema().field(&column_name).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::input_error(format!(
+                "Column '{}' not found in dataset schema",
+                column_name
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        // Do all async work in a single block_on call to avoid nested runtime issues
+        block_on(async {
+            // Find the zonemap index for this column using describe_indices
+            let descriptions = dataset
+                .describe_indices(Some(lance_index::IndexCriteria {
+                    for_column: Some(&column_name),
+                    has_name: None,
+                    must_support_fts: false,
+                    fts_document_granularity: None,
+                    must_support_exact_equality: false,
+                    must_support_minhash: false,
+                }))
+                .await
+                .map_err(Error::from)?;
+
+            let zonemap_desc = descriptions
+                .iter()
+                .find(|desc| desc.index_type().to_lowercase().contains("zonemap"));
+
+            match zonemap_desc {
+                Some(desc) => {
+                    let mut indices = dataset
+                        .load_indices_by_name(desc.name())
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(Error::from)?;
+                    indices.sort_by_key(|idx| {
+                        idx.fragment_bitmap
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .and_then(|bitmap| bitmap.iter().next())
+                            .unwrap_or_default()
+                    });
+
+                    let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+                    for index in &indices {
+                        let index_store = Arc::new(
+                            LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(&dataset, index)
+                                .await
+                                .map_err(Error::from)?,
+                        );
+                        let index_file = index_store
+                            .open_index_file("zonemap.lance")
+                            .await
+                            .map_err(Error::from)?;
+                        if index_file.num_rows() == 0 {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        batches.push(
+                            index_file
+                                .read_range(0..index_file.num_rows(), None)
+                                .await
+                                .map_err(Error::from)?,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    Ok::<_, Error>(batches)
+                }
+                None => Ok(Vec::new()),
+            }
         })?
     };
 
-    Ok(count)
+    // 3. Convert the RecordBatch rows to a Java ArrayList<ZoneStats>
+    let array_list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    if zonemap_batches.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(array_list);
+    }
+
+    for record_batch in zonemap_batches {
+        let min_col = record_batch.column_by_name("min").ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::input_error("ZoneMap index file missing 'min' column".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let max_col = record_batch.column_by_name("max").ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::input_error("ZoneMap index file missing 'max' column".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let null_count_col = record_batch
+            .column_by_name("null_count")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error("ZoneMap index file missing 'null_count' column".to_string())
+            })?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt32Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error("ZoneMap 'null_count' column is not UInt32".to_string())
+            })?;
+        let fragment_id_col = record_batch
+            .column_by_name("fragment_id")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error("ZoneMap index file missing 'fragment_id' column".to_string())
+            })?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error("ZoneMap 'fragment_id' column is not UInt64".to_string())
+            })?;
+        let zone_start_col = record_batch
+            .column_by_name("zone_start")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error("ZoneMap index file missing 'zone_start' column".to_string())
+            })?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error("ZoneMap 'zone_start' column is not UInt64".to_string())
+            })?;
+        let zone_length_col = record_batch
+            .column_by_name("zone_length")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error("ZoneMap index file missing 'zone_length' column".to_string())
+            })?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error("ZoneMap 'zone_length' column is not UInt64".to_string())
+            })?;
+
+        for i in 0..record_batch.num_rows() {
+            let fragment_id = fragment_id_col.value(i) as i32;
+            let zone_start = zone_start_col.value(i) as i64;
+            let zone_length = zone_length_col.value(i) as i64;
+            let null_count = null_count_col.value(i) as i64;
+
+            let min_scalar = ScalarValue::try_from_array(min_col, i).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::input_error(format!("Failed to read min value at row {}: {}", i, e))
+            })?;
+            let max_scalar = ScalarValue::try_from_array(max_col, i).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::input_error(format!("Failed to read max value at row {}: {}", i, e))
+            })?;
+
+            let j_min = crate::utils::scalar_value_to_java(env, &min_scalar)?;
+            let j_max = crate::utils::scalar_value_to_java(env, &max_scalar)?;
+
+            let zone_stats = env.new_object(
+                "org/lance/index/scalar/ZoneStats",
+                "(IJJLjava/lang/Comparable;Ljava/lang/Comparable;J)V",
+                &[
+                    JValue::Int(fragment_id),
+                    JValue::Long(zone_start),
+                    JValue::Long(zone_length),
+                    JValue::Object(&j_min),
+                    JValue::Object(&j_max),
+                    JValue::Long(null_count),
+                ],
+            )?;
+
+            env.call_method(
+                &array_list,
+                "add",
+                "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+                &[JValue::Object(&zone_stats)],
+            )?;
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(array_list)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::should_publish_working_dataset_on_error;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn post_commit_failure_publishes_advanced_dataset() {
+        assert!(should_publish_working_dataset_on_error(false, 1, 2));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pre_commit_failure_keeps_original_dataset() {
+        assert!(!should_publish_working_dataset_on_error(false, 1, 1));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn uncommitted_failure_keeps_original_dataset() {
+        assert!(!should_publish_working_dataset_on_error(true, 1, 2));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_scanner.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_scanner.rs
index 8c6bc402544..03f5157c89e 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_scanner.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/blocking_scanner.rs
@@ -1,31 +1,40 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::ffi::JNIEnvExt;
-use crate::traits::{import_vec_from_method, import_vec_to_rust};
-use arrow::array::Float32Array;
+use crate::traits::{FromJObjectWithEnv, import_vec_from_method, import_vec_to_rust};
+use arrow::array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
 use arrow::{ffi::FFI_ArrowSchema, ffi_stream::FFI_ArrowArrayStream};
-use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
-use jni::objects::{JObject, JString};
-use jni::sys::{jboolean, jint, JNI_TRUE};
-use jni::{sys::jlong, JNIEnv};
-use lance::dataset::scanner::{ColumnOrdering, DatasetRecordBatchStream, Scanner};
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
-    BooleanQuery as FtsBooleanQuery, BoostQuery as FtsBoostQuery, FtsQuery,
-    MatchQuery as FtsMatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery as FtsMultiMatchQuery, Occur as FtsOccur,
-    PhraseQuery as FtsPhraseQuery,
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, SchemaRef};
+use jni::objects::{JObject, JString, JValueGen};
+use jni::sys::{JNI_TRUE, jboolean, jint};
+use jni::{JNIEnv, sys::jlong};
+use lance::dataset::scanner::{
+    AggregateExpr, ColumnOrdering, DatasetRecordBatchStream, ExecutionStatsCallback,
+    ExecutionSummaryCounts, MaterializationStyle, Scanner,
 };
 use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
+    DocumentGranularity,
+    query::{
+        BooleanQuery as FtsBooleanQuery, BoostQuery as FtsBoostQuery,
+        CombinedFieldsQuery as FtsCombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery, MatchQuery as FtsMatchQuery,
+        MultiMatchQuery as FtsMultiMatchQuery, Occur as FtsOccur, PhraseQuery as FtsPhraseQuery,
+    },
+};
 use lance_io::ffi::to_ffi_arrow_array_stream;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
 use crate::{
+    RT, block_on,
     blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET},
     traits::IntoJava,
-    RT,
+    utils::parse_approx_mode,
 };
 
 pub const NATIVE_SCANNER: &str = "nativeScannerHandle";
@@ -33,32 +42,63 @@ pub const NATIVE_SCANNER: &str = "nativeScannerHandle";
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct BlockingScanner {
     pub(crate) inner: Arc<Scanner>,
+    stats: Arc<Mutex<Option<ExecutionSummaryCounts>>>,
 }
 
 impl BlockingScanner {
-    pub fn create(scanner: Scanner) -> Self {
+    pub fn create(mut scanner: Scanner, collect_stats: bool) -> Self {
+        let stats = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        if collect_stats {
+            let stats_for_callback = stats.clone();
+            let callback: ExecutionStatsCallback = Arc::new(move |counts| {
+                let mut guard = stats_for_callback.lock().unwrap_or_else(|e| e.into_inner());
+                *guard = Some(counts.clone());
+            });
+            scanner.scan_stats_callback(callback);
+        }
+
         Self {
             inner: Arc::new(scanner),
+            stats,
         }
     }
 
+    fn reset_stats(&self) {
+        let mut guard = self.stats.lock().unwrap_or_else(|e| e.into_inner());
+        *guard = None;
+    }
+
     pub fn open_stream(&self) -> Result<DatasetRecordBatchStream> {
-        let res = RT.block_on(self.inner.try_into_stream())?;
+        self.reset_stats();
+        let res = block_on(self.inner.try_into_stream())?;
         Ok(res)
     }
 
     pub fn schema(&self) -> Result<SchemaRef> {
-        let res = RT.block_on(self.inner.schema())?;
+        let res = block_on(self.inner.schema())?;
         Ok(res)
     }
 
     pub fn count_rows(&self) -> Result<u64> {
-        let res = RT.block_on(self.inner.count_rows())?;
+        let res = block_on(self.inner.count_rows())?;
         Ok(res)
     }
+
+    pub fn get_stats(&self) -> Option<ExecutionSummaryCounts> {
+        self.stats.lock().unwrap().clone()
+    }
 }
 
-fn build_full_text_search_query<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, java_obj: JObject) -> Result<FtsQuery> {
+///////////////////
+// Shared Helpers //
+///////////////////
+
+/// Build FTS query from Java FullTextQuery object
+/// Made pub(crate) to be reused by async_scanner
+pub(crate) fn build_full_text_search_query<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    java_obj: JObject,
+) -> Result<FtsQuery> {
     let type_obj = env
         .call_method(
             &java_obj,
@@ -78,6 +118,7 @@ fn build_full_text_search_query<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, java_obj: JObject) ->
             let max_expansions = env.get_int_as_usize_from_method(&java_obj, "getMaxExpansions")?;
             let operator = env.get_fts_operator_from_method(&java_obj)?;
             let prefix_length = env.get_u32_from_method(&java_obj, "getPrefixLength")?;
+            let document_granularity = get_document_granularity(env, &java_obj)?;
 
             let mut query = FtsMatchQuery::new(query_text);
             query = query.with_column(Some(column));
@@ -87,6 +128,9 @@ fn build_full_text_search_query<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, java_obj: JObject) ->
                 .with_max_expansions(max_expansions)
                 .with_operator(operator)
                 .with_prefix_length(prefix_length);
+            if let Some(document_granularity) = document_granularity {
+                query = query.with_document_granularity(document_granularity);
+            }
 
             Ok(FtsQuery::Match(query))
         }
@@ -94,10 +138,14 @@ fn build_full_text_search_query<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, java_obj: JObject) ->
             let query_text = env.get_string_from_method(&java_obj, "getQueryText")?;
             let column = env.get_string_from_method(&java_obj, "getColumn")?;
             let slop = env.get_u32_from_method(&java_obj, "getSlop")?;
+            let document_granularity = get_document_granularity(env, &java_obj)?;
 
             let mut query = FtsPhraseQuery::new(query_text);
             query = query.with_column(Some(column));
             query = query.with_slop(slop);
+            if let Some(document_granularity) = document_granularity {
+                query = query.with_document_granularity(document_granularity);
+            }
 
             Ok(FtsQuery::Phrase(query))
         }
@@ -126,6 +174,33 @@ fn build_full_text_search_query<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, java_obj: JObject) ->
 
             Ok(FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query))
         }
+        "COMBINED_FIELDS" => {
+            let query_text = env.get_string_from_method(&java_obj, "getQueryText")?;
+            let columns: Vec<String> =
+                import_vec_from_method(env, &java_obj, "getColumns", |env, elem| {
+                    let jstr = JString::from(elem);
+                    let value: String = env.get_string(&jstr)?.into();
+                    Ok(value)
+                })?;
+
+            let boosts: Option<Vec<f32>> =
+                env.get_optional_from_method(&java_obj, "getBoosts", |env, list_obj| {
+                    import_vec_to_rust(env, &list_obj, |env, elem| {
+                        env.get_f32_from_method(&elem, "floatValue")
+                    })
+                })?;
+            let operator = env.get_fts_operator_from_method(&java_obj)?;
+
+            // Column uniqueness and boost (>= 1) validation live in the Rust core;
+            // `?` surfaces those errors across the JNI boundary.
+            let mut query = FtsCombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(query_text, columns)?;
+            if let Some(boosts) = boosts {
+                query = query.try_with_boosts(boosts)?;
+            }
+            query = query.with_operator(operator);
+
+            Ok(FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query))
+        }
         "BOOST" => {
             let positive_obj = env
                 .call_method(
@@ -193,79 +268,64 @@ fn build_full_text_search_query<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, java_obj: JObject) ->
     }
 }
 
-///////////////////
-// Write Methods //
-///////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_LanceScanner_createScanner<'local>(
-    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
-    _reader: JObject,
-    jdataset: JObject,
-    fragment_ids_obj: JObject,     // Optional<List<Integer>>
-    columns_obj: JObject,          // Optional<List<String>>
-    substrait_filter_obj: JObject, // Optional<ByteBuffer>
-    filter_obj: JObject,           // Optional<String>
-    batch_size_obj: JObject,       // Optional<Long>
-    limit_obj: JObject,            // Optional<Integer>
-    offset_obj: JObject,           // Optional<Integer>
-    query_obj: JObject,            // Optional<Query>
-    fts_query_obj: JObject,        // Optional<FullTextQuery>
-    with_row_id: jboolean,         // boolean
-    with_row_address: jboolean,    // boolean
-    batch_readahead: jint,         // int
-    column_orderings: JObject,     // Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>>
-) -> JObject<'local> {
-    ok_or_throw!(
-        env,
-        inner_create_scanner(
-            &mut env,
-            jdataset,
-            fragment_ids_obj,
-            columns_obj,
-            substrait_filter_obj,
-            filter_obj,
-            batch_size_obj,
-            limit_obj,
-            offset_obj,
-            query_obj,
-            fts_query_obj,
-            with_row_id,
-            with_row_address,
-            batch_readahead,
-            column_orderings
-        )
+fn get_document_granularity(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>,
+    java_obj: &JObject,
+) -> Result<Option<DocumentGranularity>> {
+    env.get_optional_from_method(
+        java_obj,
+        "getDocumentGranularity",
+        |env, granularity_obj| {
+            let value = env.get_string_from_method(&granularity_obj, "toRustString")?;
+            DocumentGranularity::try_from(value.as_str()).map_err(Error::from)
+        },
     )
 }
 
-#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-fn inner_create_scanner<'local>(
-    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
-    jdataset: JObject,
-    fragment_ids_obj: JObject,
-    columns_obj: JObject,
-    substrait_filter_obj: JObject,
-    filter_obj: JObject,
-    batch_size_obj: JObject,
-    limit_obj: JObject,
-    offset_obj: JObject,
-    query_obj: JObject,
-    fts_query_obj: JObject,
-    with_row_id: jboolean,
-    with_row_address: jboolean,
-    batch_readahead: jint,
-    column_orderings: JObject,
-) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
-    let fragment_ids_opt = env.get_ints_opt(&fragment_ids_obj)?;
-    let dataset_guard =
-        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+/// Scanner options passed from JNI - shared between blocking and async scanners
+pub(crate) struct ScannerOptions<'a> {
+    pub fragment_ids_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub index_segments_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub columns_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub substrait_filter_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub filter_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub batch_size_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub batch_size_bytes_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub io_buffer_size_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub limit_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub offset_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub query_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub fts_query_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub prefilter: jboolean,
+    pub with_row_id: jboolean,
+    pub with_row_address: jboolean,
+    pub batch_readahead: jint,
+    pub fragment_readahead_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub scan_in_order: jboolean,
+    pub late_materialization_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub column_orderings: JObject<'a>,
+    pub use_scalar_index: jboolean,
+    pub fast_search: jboolean,
+    pub substrait_aggregate_obj: JObject<'a>,
+    pub include_deleted_rows: jboolean,
+    pub strict_batch_size: jboolean,
+    pub disable_scoring_autoprojection: jboolean,
+}
 
-    let mut scanner = dataset_guard.inner.scan();
+/// Build a scanner with options applied - shared by blocking and async scanners
+pub(crate) fn build_scanner_with_options<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    dataset: &lance::Dataset,
+    options: ScannerOptions<'a>,
+) -> Result<Scanner> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
 
     // handle fragment_ids
+    let fragment_ids_opt = env.get_ints_opt(&options.fragment_ids_obj)?;
     if let Some(fragment_ids) = fragment_ids_opt {
         let mut fragments = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
         for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
-            let Some(fragment) = dataset_guard.inner.get_fragment(fragment_id as usize) else {
+            let Some(fragment) = dataset.get_fragment(fragment_id as usize) else {
                 return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
                     "Fragment {fragment_id} not found"
                 )));
@@ -274,49 +334,123 @@ fn inner_create_scanner<'local>(
         }
         scanner.with_fragments(fragments);
     }
-    drop(dataset_guard);
 
-    let columns_opt = env.get_strings_opt(&columns_obj)?;
+    env.get_optional(&options.index_segments_obj, |env, java_segments| {
+        let index_segments: Vec<Uuid> =
+            import_vec_to_rust(env, &java_segments, |env, obj| obj.extract_object(env))?;
+        scanner.with_index_segments(index_segments)?;
+        Ok(())
+    })?;
+
+    let columns_opt = env.get_strings_opt(&options.columns_obj)?;
     if let Some(columns) = columns_opt {
         scanner.project(&columns)?;
     };
 
-    let substrait_opt = env.get_bytes_opt(&substrait_filter_obj)?;
+    let substrait_opt = env.get_bytes_opt(&options.substrait_filter_obj)?;
     if let Some(substrait) = substrait_opt {
-        RT.block_on(async { scanner.filter_substrait(substrait) })?;
+        block_on(async { scanner.filter_substrait(substrait) })?;
     }
 
-    let filter_opt = env.get_string_opt(&filter_obj)?;
+    let filter_opt = env.get_string_opt(&options.filter_obj)?;
     if let Some(filter) = filter_opt {
         scanner.filter(filter.as_str())?;
     }
 
-    let batch_size_opt = env.get_long_opt(&batch_size_obj)?;
+    let batch_size_opt = env.get_long_opt(&options.batch_size_obj)?;
     if let Some(batch_size) = batch_size_opt {
         scanner.batch_size(batch_size as usize);
     }
 
-    let limit_opt = env.get_long_opt(&limit_obj)?;
-    let offset_opt = env.get_long_opt(&offset_obj)?;
+    let batch_size_bytes_opt = env.get_long_opt(&options.batch_size_bytes_obj)?;
+    if let Some(batch_size_bytes) = batch_size_bytes_opt {
+        let batch_size_bytes = u64::try_from(batch_size_bytes).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::input_error(format!(
+                "batchSizeBytes must be non-negative, got {batch_size_bytes}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        scanner.batch_size_bytes(batch_size_bytes);
+    }
+
+    let io_buffer_size_opt = env.get_long_opt(&options.io_buffer_size_obj)?;
+    if let Some(io_buffer_size) = io_buffer_size_opt {
+        let io_buffer_size = u64::try_from(io_buffer_size).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::input_error(format!(
+                "ioBufferSize must be non-negative, got {io_buffer_size}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        scanner.io_buffer_size(io_buffer_size);
+    }
+
+    let limit_opt = env.get_long_opt(&options.limit_obj)?;
+    let offset_opt = env.get_long_opt(&options.offset_obj)?;
     scanner
         .limit(limit_opt, offset_opt)
         .map_err(|err| Error::input_error(err.to_string()))?;
 
-    if with_row_id == JNI_TRUE {
+    if options.with_row_id == JNI_TRUE {
         scanner.with_row_id();
     }
 
-    if with_row_address == JNI_TRUE {
+    if options.with_row_address == JNI_TRUE {
         scanner.with_row_address();
     }
 
-    env.get_optional(&query_obj, |env, java_obj| {
+    if options.prefilter == JNI_TRUE {
+        scanner.prefilter(true);
+    }
+
+    scanner.use_scalar_index(options.use_scalar_index == JNI_TRUE);
+
+    env.get_optional(&options.query_obj, |env, java_obj| {
         // Set column and key for nearest search
         let column = env.get_string_from_method(&java_obj, "getColumn")?;
         let key_array = env.get_vec_f32_from_method(&java_obj, "getKey")?;
         let key = Float32Array::from(key_array);
         let k = env.get_int_as_usize_from_method(&java_obj, "getK")?;
-        let _ = scanner.nearest(&column, &key, k);
+        let query_vector_dim = env
+            .call_method(&java_obj, "getQueryVectorDim", "()I", &[])?
+            .i()?;
+        if query_vector_dim > 0 {
+            // The core interprets a list-shaped query against a multivector column as ONE
+            // multivector query (no `query_index`), which would silently break the
+            // `setKeys` batch contract, so reject it here.
+            if let Some(field) = dataset.schema().field(&column)
+                && matches!(
+                    field.data_type(),
+                    DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_)
+                )
+            {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "Batch vector search (setKeys) is not supported on multivector column '{}' \
+                     of type {:?}",
+                    column,
+                    field.data_type()
+                )));
+            }
+            // Batch nearest-neighbor search: the flat buffer packs multiple query
+            // vectors of `query_vector_dim` values each. Wrapping it in a FixedSizeList
+            // makes the core scanner run a shared partition scan across the batch and
+            // emit a `query_index` column tagging each result row with its query.
+            let batch_keys = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, false)),
+                query_vector_dim,
+                Arc::new(key) as ArrayRef,
+                None,
+            )
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "Failed to construct FixedSizeListArray for batch query: {e}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            scanner
+                .nearest(&column, &batch_keys, k)
+                .map_err(|err| Error::input_error(err.to_string()))?;
+        } else {
+            scanner
+                .nearest(&column, &key, k)
+                .map_err(|err| Error::input_error(err.to_string()))?;
+        }
 
         let minimum_nprobes = env.get_int_as_usize_from_method(&java_obj, "getMinimumNprobes")?;
         scanner.minimum_nprobes(minimum_nprobes);
@@ -345,19 +479,72 @@ fn inner_create_scanner<'local>(
 
         let use_index = env.get_boolean_from_method(&java_obj, "isUseIndex")?;
         scanner.use_index(use_index);
+
+        let query_parallelism = env
+            .call_method(&java_obj, "getQueryParallelism", "()I", &[])?
+            .i()?;
+        scanner.query_parallelism(query_parallelism);
+
+        let approx_mode_str = env.get_string_from_method(&java_obj, "getApproxModeString")?;
+        scanner.approx_mode(parse_approx_mode(&approx_mode_str)?);
         Ok(())
     })?;
 
-    env.get_optional(&fts_query_obj, |env, java_obj| {
+    env.get_optional(&options.fts_query_obj, |env, java_obj| {
         let fts_query = build_full_text_search_query(env, java_obj)?;
         let full_text_query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(fts_query);
         scanner.full_text_search(full_text_query)?;
         Ok(())
     })?;
 
-    scanner.batch_readahead(batch_readahead as usize);
+    if options.fast_search == JNI_TRUE {
+        scanner.fast_search();
+    }
 
-    env.get_optional(&column_orderings, |env, java_obj| {
+    scanner.batch_readahead(options.batch_readahead as usize);
+
+    let fragment_readahead_opt = env.get_int_opt(&options.fragment_readahead_obj)?;
+    if let Some(fragment_readahead) = fragment_readahead_opt {
+        let fragment_readahead = usize::try_from(fragment_readahead).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::input_error(format!(
+                "fragmentReadahead must be greater than 0, got {fragment_readahead}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if fragment_readahead == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::input_error(
+                "fragmentReadahead must be greater than 0, got 0".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        scanner.fragment_readahead(fragment_readahead);
+    }
+
+    scanner.scan_in_order(options.scan_in_order == JNI_TRUE);
+
+    env.get_optional(&options.late_materialization_obj, |env, java_obj| {
+        let style_name = env.get_string_from_method(&java_obj, "toRustString")?;
+        let style = match style_name.as_str() {
+            "heuristic" => MaterializationStyle::Heuristic,
+            "all_late" => MaterializationStyle::AllLate,
+            "all_early" => MaterializationStyle::AllEarly,
+            "all_early_except" => {
+                let columns: Vec<String> =
+                    import_vec_from_method(env, &java_obj, "getColumns", |env, elem| {
+                        let jstr = JString::from(elem);
+                        Ok(env.get_string(&jstr)?.into())
+                    })?;
+                MaterializationStyle::all_early_except(&columns, dataset.schema())?
+            }
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "Unsupported materialization style: {other}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        scanner.materialization_style(style);
+        Ok(())
+    })?;
+
+    env.get_optional(&options.column_orderings, |env, java_obj| {
         let list = env.get_list(&java_obj)?;
         let mut iter = list.iter(env)?;
         let mut results = Vec::with_capacity(list.size(env)? as usize);
@@ -376,11 +563,169 @@ fn inner_create_scanner<'local>(
         Ok(())
     })?;
 
-    let scanner = BlockingScanner::create(scanner);
+    let substrait_aggregate_opt = env.get_bytes_opt(&options.substrait_aggregate_obj)?;
+    if let Some(substrait_aggregate) = substrait_aggregate_opt {
+        scanner.aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(substrait_aggregate))?;
+    }
+
+    if options.include_deleted_rows == JNI_TRUE {
+        scanner.include_deleted_rows();
+    }
+
+    scanner.strict_batch_size(options.strict_batch_size == JNI_TRUE);
+
+    if options.disable_scoring_autoprojection == JNI_TRUE {
+        scanner.disable_scoring_autoprojection();
+    }
+
+    Ok(scanner)
+}
+
+///////////////////
+// Write Methods //
+///////////////////
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_LanceScanner_createScanner<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _reader: JObject<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject<'local>,
+    fragment_ids_obj: JObject<'local>,   // Optional<List<Integer>>
+    index_segments_obj: JObject<'local>, // Optional<List<UUID>>
+    columns_obj: JObject<'local>,        // Optional<List<String>>
+    substrait_filter_obj: JObject<'local>, // Optional<ByteBuffer>
+    filter_obj: JObject<'local>,         // Optional<String>
+    batch_size_obj: JObject<'local>,     // Optional<Long>
+    batch_size_bytes_obj: JObject<'local>, // Optional<Long>
+    io_buffer_size_obj: JObject<'local>, // Optional<Long>
+    limit_obj: JObject<'local>,          // Optional<Integer>
+    offset_obj: JObject<'local>,         // Optional<Integer>
+    query_obj: JObject<'local>,          // Optional<Query>
+    fts_query_obj: JObject<'local>,      // Optional<FullTextQuery>
+    prefilter: jboolean,                 // boolean
+    with_row_id: jboolean,               // boolean
+    with_row_address: jboolean,          // boolean
+    batch_readahead: jint,               // int
+    fragment_readahead_obj: JObject<'local>, // Optional<Integer>
+    scan_in_order: jboolean,             // boolean
+    late_materialization_obj: JObject<'local>, // Optional<MaterializationStyle>
+    column_orderings: JObject<'local>,   // Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>>
+    use_scalar_index: jboolean,          // boolean
+    fast_search: jboolean,               // boolean
+    substrait_aggregate_obj: JObject<'local>, // Optional<ByteBuffer>
+    collect_stats: jboolean,             // boolean
+    include_deleted_rows: jboolean,      // boolean
+    strict_batch_size: jboolean,         // boolean
+    disable_scoring_autoprojection: jboolean, // boolean
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_create_scanner(
+            &mut env,
+            jdataset,
+            fragment_ids_obj,
+            index_segments_obj,
+            columns_obj,
+            substrait_filter_obj,
+            filter_obj,
+            batch_size_obj,
+            batch_size_bytes_obj,
+            io_buffer_size_obj,
+            limit_obj,
+            offset_obj,
+            query_obj,
+            fts_query_obj,
+            prefilter,
+            with_row_id,
+            with_row_address,
+            batch_readahead,
+            fragment_readahead_obj,
+            scan_in_order,
+            late_materialization_obj,
+            column_orderings,
+            use_scalar_index,
+            fast_search,
+            substrait_aggregate_obj,
+            collect_stats,
+            include_deleted_rows,
+            strict_batch_size,
+            disable_scoring_autoprojection,
+        )
+    )
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn inner_create_scanner<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject<'local>,
+    fragment_ids_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    index_segments_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    columns_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    substrait_filter_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    filter_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    batch_size_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    batch_size_bytes_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    io_buffer_size_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    limit_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    offset_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    query_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    fts_query_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    prefilter: jboolean,
+    with_row_id: jboolean,
+    with_row_address: jboolean,
+    batch_readahead: jint,
+    fragment_readahead_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    scan_in_order: jboolean,
+    late_materialization_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    column_orderings: JObject<'local>,
+    use_scalar_index: jboolean,
+    fast_search: jboolean,
+    substrait_aggregate_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    collect_stats: jboolean,
+    include_deleted_rows: jboolean,
+    strict_batch_size: jboolean,
+    disable_scoring_autoprojection: jboolean,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let dataset_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    let dataset = dataset_guard.inner.clone();
+    drop(dataset_guard);
+
+    let options = ScannerOptions {
+        fragment_ids_obj,
+        index_segments_obj,
+        columns_obj,
+        substrait_filter_obj,
+        filter_obj,
+        batch_size_obj,
+        batch_size_bytes_obj,
+        io_buffer_size_obj,
+        limit_obj,
+        offset_obj,
+        query_obj,
+        fts_query_obj,
+        prefilter,
+        with_row_id,
+        with_row_address,
+        batch_readahead,
+        fragment_readahead_obj,
+        scan_in_order,
+        late_materialization_obj,
+        column_orderings,
+        use_scalar_index,
+        fast_search,
+        substrait_aggregate_obj,
+        include_deleted_rows,
+        strict_batch_size,
+        disable_scoring_autoprojection,
+    };
+
+    let scanner = build_scanner_with_options(env, &dataset, options)?;
+
+    let scanner = BlockingScanner::create(scanner, collect_stats == JNI_TRUE);
     scanner.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_LanceScanner_releaseNativeScanner(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     j_scanner: JObject,
@@ -425,7 +770,7 @@ fn create_java_scanner_object<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
 //////////////////
 // Read Methods //
 //////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_LanceScanner_openStream(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     j_scanner: JObject,
@@ -435,6 +780,38 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_LanceScanner_openStream(
 }
 
 fn inner_open_stream(env: &mut JNIEnv, j_scanner: JObject, stream_addr: jlong) -> Result<()> {
+    if stream_addr == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::input_error(
+            "ArrowArrayStream address must not be null".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // Reject a stream that already holds a producer. We write the C struct in place below with
+    // `ptr::write_unaligned`, which does not run any destructor on the previous contents. If the
+    // caller passed a stream whose `release` callback is already set (e.g. it was populated by an
+    // earlier export and not yet released), overwriting it would drop that callback and leak the
+    // first producer's resources. A freshly-allocated `ArrowArrayStream` has a null `release`, per
+    // the Arrow C Data Interface, so requiring `release == None` is the contract for "empty".
+    //
+    // The struct is allocated by Arrow Java inside an ArrowBuf and is not guaranteed to be aligned
+    // (hence `write_unaligned` below), so we must not form a reference to it. We read only the
+    // `release` field through an unaligned read: `addr_of!` computes the field address without
+    // creating an intermediate, possibly-unaligned reference, and the field is an `Option<fn>`
+    // which is `Copy` with no destructor, so reading a copy of it leaves the caller's stream
+    // untouched.
+    let release_is_set = unsafe {
+        let stream_ptr = stream_addr as *const FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
+        let release = std::ptr::read_unaligned(std::ptr::addr_of!((*stream_ptr).release));
+        release.is_some()
+    };
+    if release_is_set {
+        return Err(Error::input_error(
+            "ArrowArrayStream is already populated; exporting into it would leak the existing \
+             producer. Pass a freshly-allocated, empty stream."
+                .to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+
     let record_batch_stream = {
         let scanner_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingScanner>(j_scanner, NATIVE_SCANNER) }?;
@@ -445,7 +822,7 @@ fn inner_open_stream(env: &mut JNIEnv, j_scanner: JObject, stream_addr: jlong) -
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_LanceScanner_importFfiSchema(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     j_scanner: JObject,
@@ -468,7 +845,7 @@ fn inner_import_ffi_schema(env: &mut JNIEnv, j_scanner: JObject, schema_addr: jl
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_LanceScanner_nativeCountRows(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     j_scanner: JObject,
@@ -481,3 +858,70 @@ fn inner_count_rows(env: &mut JNIEnv, j_scanner: JObject) -> Result<u64> {
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingScanner>(j_scanner, NATIVE_SCANNER) }?;
     scanner_guard.count_rows()
 }
+
+const SCAN_STATS_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/ipc/ScanStats";
+const SCAN_STATS_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str = "(JJJJJJJJLjava/util/Map;Ljava/util/Map;)V";
+
+fn export_usize_map<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, map: &HashMap<String, usize>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let hash_map = env.new_object("java/util/HashMap", "()V", &[])?;
+    for (key, value) in map {
+        let java_key: JObject = env.new_string(key)?.into();
+        let java_value =
+            env.new_object("java/lang/Long", "(J)V", &[JValueGen::Long(*value as i64)])?;
+        env.call_method(
+            &hash_map,
+            "put",
+            "(Ljava/lang/Object;Ljava/lang/Object;)Ljava/lang/Object;",
+            &[JValueGen::Object(&java_key), JValueGen::Object(&java_value)],
+        )?;
+    }
+    Ok(hash_map)
+}
+
+impl IntoJava for &ExecutionSummaryCounts {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let all_counts = export_usize_map(env, &self.all_counts)?;
+        let all_times = export_usize_map(env, &self.all_times)?;
+        let obj = env.new_object(
+            SCAN_STATS_CLASS,
+            SCAN_STATS_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG,
+            &[
+                JValueGen::Long(self.iops as i64),
+                JValueGen::Long(self.requests as i64),
+                JValueGen::Long(self.bytes_read as i64),
+                JValueGen::Long(self.indices_loaded as i64),
+                JValueGen::Long(self.parts_loaded as i64),
+                JValueGen::Long(self.index_comparisons as i64),
+                JValueGen::Long(self.index_cache_hits() as i64),
+                JValueGen::Long(self.index_cache_misses() as i64),
+                JValueGen::Object(&all_counts),
+                JValueGen::Object(&all_times),
+            ],
+        )?;
+        Ok(obj)
+    }
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_ipc_LanceScanner_nativeGetStats<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    j_scanner: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_get_stats(&mut env, j_scanner))
+}
+
+fn inner_get_stats<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    j_scanner: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let stats = {
+        let scanner_guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingScanner>(j_scanner, NATIVE_SCANNER) }?;
+        scanner_guard.get_stats()
+    };
+
+    match stats {
+        Some(stats) => (&stats).into_java(env),
+        None => Ok(JObject::null()),
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/delta.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/delta.rs
index 8a407a19167..5cd5300787f 100755
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/delta.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/delta.rs
@@ -5,11 +5,11 @@ use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET};
 use crate::error::Result;
 use crate::ffi::JNIEnvExt;
 use crate::transaction::convert_to_java_transaction;
-use crate::RT;
+use crate::{RT, block_on};
 use arrow::ffi_stream::FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
+use jni::JNIEnv;
 use jni::objects::{JObject, JValue};
 use jni::sys::jlong;
-use jni::JNIEnv;
 use lance::dataset::delta::DatasetDelta as RustDatasetDelta;
 use lance::dataset::scanner::DatasetRecordBatchStream;
 use lance::dataset::transaction::Transaction;
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ fn attach_native_delta<'local>(
     Ok(j_delta)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDeltaBuilder_nativeBuild<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject<'local>,
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDeltaBuilder_nativeBuild<'loc
     )
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeBuildDelta<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject<'local>,
@@ -108,8 +108,8 @@ fn inner_native_build<'local>(
     attach_native_delta(env, blocking_delta, &java_dataset)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDelta_listTransactions<'local>(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDelta_nativeListTransactions<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     j_delta: JObject<'local>,
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
@@ -123,16 +123,12 @@ fn inner_list_transactions<'local>(
     let txs: Vec<Transaction> = {
         let delta_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDatasetDelta>(&j_delta, NATIVE_DELTA) }?;
-        RT.block_on(delta_guard.inner.list_transactions())?
+        block_on(delta_guard.inner.list_transactions())?
     };
 
-    let java_dataset = env
-        .get_field(&j_delta, "dataset", "Lorg/lance/Dataset;")?
-        .l()?;
-
     let array_list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
     for tx in txs.into_iter() {
-        let jtx = convert_to_java_transaction(env, tx, &java_dataset)?;
+        let jtx = convert_to_java_transaction(env, tx)?;
         env.call_method(
             &array_list,
             "add",
@@ -143,8 +139,8 @@ fn inner_list_transactions<'local>(
     Ok(array_list)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDelta_getInsertedRows<'local>(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDelta_nativeGetInsertedRows<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     j_delta: JObject<'local>,
     stream_addr: jlong,
@@ -160,15 +156,15 @@ fn inner_get_inserted_rows<'local>(
     let delta_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDatasetDelta>(&j_delta, NATIVE_DELTA) }?;
 
-    let stream: DatasetRecordBatchStream = RT.block_on(delta_guard.inner.get_inserted_rows())?;
+    let stream: DatasetRecordBatchStream = block_on(delta_guard.inner.get_inserted_rows())?;
     let ffi_stream = to_ffi_arrow_array_stream(stream, RT.handle().clone())?;
 
     unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream, ffi_stream) }
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDelta_getUpdatedRows<'local>(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDelta_nativeGetUpdatedRows<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     j_delta: JObject<'local>,
     stream_addr: jlong,
@@ -184,14 +180,41 @@ fn inner_get_updated_rows<'local>(
     let delta_guard =
         unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDatasetDelta>(&j_delta, NATIVE_DELTA) }?;
 
-    let stream: DatasetRecordBatchStream = RT.block_on(delta_guard.inner.get_updated_rows())?;
+    let stream: DatasetRecordBatchStream = block_on(delta_guard.inner.get_updated_rows())?;
+    let ffi_stream = to_ffi_arrow_array_stream(stream, RT.handle().clone())?;
+
+    unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream, ffi_stream) }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDelta_nativeGetDeletedRowIds<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    j_delta: JObject<'local>,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_get_deleted_row_ids(&mut env, j_delta, stream_addr)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_get_deleted_row_ids<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    j_delta: JObject<'local>,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let delta_guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDatasetDelta>(&j_delta, NATIVE_DELTA) }?;
+
+    let stream: DatasetRecordBatchStream = block_on(delta_guard.inner.get_deleted_row_ids())?;
     let ffi_stream = to_ffi_arrow_array_stream(stream, RT.handle().clone())?;
 
     unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream, ffi_stream) }
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_delta_DatasetDelta_releaseNativeDelta(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     obj: JObject,
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/dispatcher.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/dispatcher.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2f0acb5f954
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/dispatcher.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use jni::JavaVM;
+use jni::objects::GlobalRef;
+use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
+use tokio::sync::mpsc;
+
+/// Message sent from Tokio tasks to the dispatcher thread
+pub struct DispatcherMessage {
+    pub scanner_global_ref: GlobalRef,
+    pub task_id: u64,
+    pub result: Result<i64, String>, // Ok(stream_ptr) or Err(error_msg)
+}
+
+/// Global dispatcher instance initialized in JNI_OnLoad
+pub static DISPATCHER: OnceLock<Arc<Dispatcher>> = OnceLock::new();
+
+/// Dispatcher manages a persistent JNI thread for completing Java futures
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct Dispatcher {
+    tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<DispatcherMessage>,
+}
+
+impl Dispatcher {
+    /// Initialize the dispatcher with a persistent JNI thread.
+    ///
+    /// `async_scanner_class` must be a `GlobalRef` to the `AsyncScanner`
+    /// Java class, resolved on a thread that has the correct application
+    /// classloader (typically the `JNI_OnLoad` thread).
+    pub fn initialize(jvm: Arc<JavaVM>, async_scanner_class: GlobalRef) -> Arc<Self> {
+        let (tx, mut rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel::<DispatcherMessage>();
+
+        // Spawn persistent dispatcher thread
+        std::thread::Builder::new()
+            .name("lance-jni-dispatcher".to_string())
+            .spawn(move || {
+                // Attach as daemon thread so it won't prevent JVM from exiting.
+                // The thread stays attached for the entire lifetime (never detach),
+                // but being a daemon thread means JVM won't wait for it on shutdown.
+                let mut env = jvm
+                    .attach_current_thread_as_daemon()
+                    .expect("Failed to attach dispatcher to JVM");
+
+                log::info!("JNI dispatcher thread started");
+
+                // Cache method IDs for completeTask and failTask.
+                // Use the pre-resolved GlobalRef instead of find_class to
+                // avoid classloader issues on this native thread.
+                let complete_method = env
+                    .get_method_id(&async_scanner_class, "completeTask", "(JJ)V")
+                    .expect("completeTask method not found");
+                let fail_method = env
+                    .get_method_id(&async_scanner_class, "failTask", "(JLjava/lang/String;)V")
+                    .expect("failTask method not found");
+
+                // Event loop: block waiting for completions
+                while let Some(msg) = rx.blocking_recv() {
+                    let scanner_obj = msg.scanner_global_ref.as_obj();
+
+                    match msg.result {
+                        Err(error) => {
+                            handle_error(&mut env, scanner_obj, fail_method, msg.task_id, &error)
+                        }
+                        Ok(result_ptr) => handle_success(
+                            &mut env,
+                            scanner_obj,
+                            complete_method,
+                            msg.task_id,
+                            result_ptr,
+                        ),
+                    }
+                }
+
+                log::info!("JNI dispatcher thread shutting down");
+            })
+            .expect("Failed to spawn dispatcher thread");
+
+        Arc::new(Self { tx })
+    }
+
+    /// Send a completion message to the dispatcher
+    pub fn send(&self, msg: DispatcherMessage) -> std::result::Result<(), String> {
+        self.tx
+            .send(msg)
+            .map_err(|e| format!("Failed to send message to dispatcher: {}", e))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Handle error completion by calling failTask on Java side
+fn handle_error(
+    env: &mut jni::JNIEnv,
+    scanner_obj: &jni::objects::JObject,
+    fail_method: jni::objects::JMethodID,
+    task_id: u64,
+    error: &str,
+) {
+    let error_jstr = match env.new_string(error) {
+        Ok(s) => s,
+        Err(e) => {
+            log::error!("Failed to create JString for error: {:?}", e);
+            let _ = env.exception_clear();
+            return;
+        }
+    };
+
+    let result = unsafe {
+        env.call_method_unchecked(
+            scanner_obj,
+            fail_method,
+            jni::signature::ReturnType::Primitive(jni::signature::Primitive::Void),
+            &[
+                jni::sys::jvalue { j: task_id as i64 },
+                jni::sys::jvalue {
+                    l: error_jstr.as_raw(),
+                },
+            ],
+        )
+    };
+
+    if let Err(e) = result {
+        log::error!("Failed to call failTask: {:?}", e);
+        // Clear any pending JNI exception to protect the dispatcher loop
+        let _ = env.exception_clear();
+    }
+}
+
+/// Handle success completion by calling completeTask on Java side
+fn handle_success(
+    env: &mut jni::JNIEnv,
+    scanner_obj: &jni::objects::JObject,
+    complete_method: jni::objects::JMethodID,
+    task_id: u64,
+    result_ptr: i64,
+) {
+    let result = unsafe {
+        env.call_method_unchecked(
+            scanner_obj,
+            complete_method,
+            jni::signature::ReturnType::Primitive(jni::signature::Primitive::Void),
+            &[
+                jni::sys::jvalue { j: task_id as i64 },
+                jni::sys::jvalue { j: result_ptr },
+            ],
+        )
+    };
+
+    if let Err(e) = result {
+        log::error!("Failed to call completeTask: {:?}", e);
+        // Clear any pending JNI exception to protect the dispatcher loop
+        let _ = env.exception_clear();
+        // Clean up the FFI stream since Java won't receive it
+        unsafe {
+            drop(Box::from_raw(
+                result_ptr as *mut arrow::ffi_stream::FFI_ArrowArrayStream,
+            ));
+        }
+        log::debug!(
+            "Cleaned up FFI stream pointer for task {} after completeTask failure",
+            task_id
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/error.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/error.rs
index ef05b8cdb5c..0affdca8f98 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/error.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/error.rs
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 use std::str::Utf8Error;
 
 use arrow_schema::ArrowError;
-use jni::{errors::Error as JniError, JNIEnv};
+use jni::{JNIEnv, errors::Error as JniError};
 use lance::Error as LanceError;
 use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 use serde_json::Error as JsonError;
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ pub enum JavaExceptionClass {
     UnsupportedOperationException,
     AlreadyInException,
     LanceNamespaceException,
+    LanceTimeoutException,
 }
 
 impl JavaExceptionClass {
@@ -29,6 +30,7 @@ impl JavaExceptionClass {
             // Included for display purposes.  This is not a real exception.
             Self::AlreadyInException => "AlreadyInException",
             Self::LanceNamespaceException => "org/lance/namespace/errors/LanceNamespaceException",
+            Self::LanceTimeoutException => "org/lance/LanceTimeoutException",
         }
     }
 }
@@ -69,6 +71,10 @@ impl Error {
         Self::new(message, JavaExceptionClass::UnsupportedOperationException)
     }
 
+    pub fn timeout_error(message: String) -> Self {
+        Self::new(message, JavaExceptionClass::LanceTimeoutException)
+    }
+
     pub fn namespace_error(code: u32, message: String) -> Self {
         Self {
             message,
@@ -92,21 +98,21 @@ impl Error {
         }
 
         // For namespace errors, throw the specific LanceNamespaceException
-        if self.java_class == JavaExceptionClass::LanceNamespaceException {
-            if let Some(code) = self.namespace_error_code {
-                // Call LanceNamespaceException.fromCode static method
-                if self.throw_namespace_exception(env, code).is_err() {
-                    // lance-namespace is bundled as a dependency, so the exception classes
-                    // should always be available. Panic if they're not.
-                    panic!(
-                        "Failed to throw LanceNamespaceException (code={}). \
+        if self.java_class == JavaExceptionClass::LanceNamespaceException
+            && let Some(code) = self.namespace_error_code
+        {
+            // Call LanceNamespaceException.fromCode static method
+            if self.throw_namespace_exception(env, code).is_err() {
+                // lance-namespace is bundled as a dependency, so the exception classes
+                // should always be available. Panic if they're not.
+                panic!(
+                    "Failed to throw LanceNamespaceException (code={}). \
                         org.lance.namespace.errors.LanceNamespaceException and ErrorCode classes \
                         must be available in the classpath.",
-                        code
-                    );
-                }
-                return;
+                    code
+                );
             }
+            return;
         }
 
         if let Err(e) = env.throw_new(self.java_class.as_str(), &self.message) {
@@ -120,60 +126,29 @@ impl Error {
         env: &mut JNIEnv,
         code: u32,
     ) -> std::result::Result<(), ()> {
-        // Try to find and call the LanceNamespaceException constructor
-        // that takes ErrorCode and message
-        let class_name = "org/lance/namespace/errors/LanceNamespaceException";
-        let error_code_class = "org/lance/namespace/errors/ErrorCode";
-
-        // Find the ErrorCode.fromCode method
-        let error_code_cls = env.find_class(error_code_class).map_err(|_| ())?;
-        let from_code_method = env
+        // Use ErrorFactory.fromErrorCode(code, message) to get the specific exception subclass
+        // (e.g., TableNotFoundException, NamespaceNotFoundException, etc.)
+        let factory_class = "org/lance/namespace/errors/ErrorFactory";
+
+        let factory_cls = env.find_class(factory_class).map_err(|_| ())?;
+        let from_error_code_method = env
             .get_static_method_id(
-                &error_code_cls,
-                "fromCode",
-                "(I)Lorg/lance/namespace/errors/ErrorCode;",
+                &factory_cls,
+                "fromErrorCode",
+                "(ILjava/lang/String;)Lorg/lance/namespace/errors/LanceNamespaceException;",
             )
             .map_err(|_| ())?;
-        let error_code_obj = unsafe {
-            env.call_static_method_unchecked(
-                &error_code_cls,
-                from_code_method,
-                jni::signature::ReturnType::Object,
-                &[jni::sys::jvalue {
-                    i: code as jni::sys::jint,
-                }],
-            )
-        }
-        .map_err(|_| ())?;
 
-        let error_code = match error_code_obj {
-            jni::objects::JValueGen::Object(obj) => obj,
-            _ => return Err(()),
-        };
-
-        // Find the LanceNamespaceException class
-        let exception_cls = env.find_class(class_name).map_err(|_| ())?;
-
-        // Create message JString
         let message_str = env.new_string(&self.message).map_err(|_| ())?;
 
-        // Find constructor (ErrorCode, String)
-        let constructor = env
-            .get_method_id(
-                &exception_cls,
-                "<init>",
-                "(Lorg/lance/namespace/errors/ErrorCode;Ljava/lang/String;)V",
-            )
-            .map_err(|_| ())?;
-
-        // Create the exception object
         let exception_obj = unsafe {
-            env.new_object_unchecked(
-                &exception_cls,
-                constructor,
+            env.call_static_method_unchecked(
+                &factory_cls,
+                from_error_code_method,
+                jni::signature::ReturnType::Object,
                 &[
                     jni::sys::jvalue {
-                        l: error_code.as_raw(),
+                        i: code as jni::sys::jint,
                     },
                     jni::sys::jvalue {
                         l: message_str.as_raw(),
@@ -183,8 +158,13 @@ impl Error {
         }
         .map_err(|_| ())?;
 
+        let exception = match exception_obj {
+            jni::objects::JValueGen::Object(obj) => obj,
+            _ => return Err(()),
+        };
+
         // Throw the exception
-        env.throw(jni::objects::JThrowable::from(exception_obj))
+        env.throw(jni::objects::JThrowable::from(exception))
             .map_err(|_| ())?;
 
         Ok(())
@@ -201,28 +181,36 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for Error {
 
 impl From<LanceError> for Error {
     fn from(err: LanceError) -> Self {
+        let backtrace_suffix = err
+            .backtrace()
+            .map(|bt| format!("\n\nRust backtrace:\n{}", bt))
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let message = format!("{}{}", err, backtrace_suffix);
+
         match &err {
             LanceError::DatasetNotFound { .. }
             | LanceError::DatasetAlreadyExists { .. }
             | LanceError::CommitConflict { .. }
-            | LanceError::InvalidInput { .. } => Self::input_error(err.to_string()),
-            LanceError::IO { .. } => Self::io_error(err.to_string()),
-            LanceError::NotSupported { .. } => Self::unsupported_error(err.to_string()),
-            LanceError::NotFound { .. } => Self::io_error(err.to_string()),
+            | LanceError::InvalidInput { .. } => Self::input_error(message),
+            LanceError::IO { .. } => Self::io_error(message),
+            LanceError::Timeout { .. } => Self::timeout_error(message),
+            LanceError::NotSupported { .. } => Self::unsupported_error(message),
+            LanceError::NotFound { .. } => Self::io_error(message),
             LanceError::Namespace { source, .. } => {
                 // Try to downcast to NamespaceError and get the error code
                 if let Some(ns_err) = source.downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>() {
-                    Self::namespace_error(ns_err.code().as_u32(), ns_err.to_string())
+                    let ns_message = format!("{}{}", ns_err, backtrace_suffix);
+                    Self::namespace_error(ns_err.code().as_u32(), ns_message)
                 } else {
                     log::warn!(
                         "Failed to downcast NamespaceError source, falling back to runtime error. \
                          This may indicate a version mismatch. Source type: {:?}",
                         source
                     );
-                    Self::runtime_error(err.to_string())
+                    Self::runtime_error(message)
                 }
             }
-            _ => Self::runtime_error(err.to_string()),
+            _ => Self::runtime_error(message),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -260,3 +248,104 @@ impl From<Utf8Error> for Error {
         Self::input_error(err.to_string())
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    // Helper: extract the java_class from an Error via Display output
+    fn java_class(err: &Error) -> &JavaExceptionClass {
+        &err.java_class
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_invalid_input_maps_to_illegal_argument() {
+        let lance_err = LanceError::invalid_input("bad input");
+        let jni_err: Error = lance_err.into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *java_class(&jni_err),
+            JavaExceptionClass::IllegalArgumentException
+        );
+        assert!(jni_err.message.contains("bad input"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dataset_not_found_maps_to_illegal_argument() {
+        let lance_err = LanceError::dataset_not_found("my_dataset", "not found".to_string().into());
+        let jni_err: Error = lance_err.into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *java_class(&jni_err),
+            JavaExceptionClass::IllegalArgumentException
+        );
+        assert!(jni_err.message.contains("my_dataset"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dataset_already_exists_maps_to_illegal_argument() {
+        let lance_err = LanceError::dataset_already_exists("my_dataset");
+        let jni_err: Error = lance_err.into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *java_class(&jni_err),
+            JavaExceptionClass::IllegalArgumentException
+        );
+        assert!(jni_err.message.contains("my_dataset"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_commit_conflict_maps_to_illegal_argument() {
+        let lance_err = LanceError::commit_conflict_source(42, "conflict".to_string().into());
+        let jni_err: Error = lance_err.into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *java_class(&jni_err),
+            JavaExceptionClass::IllegalArgumentException
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_io_maps_to_ioexception() {
+        let lance_err = LanceError::io("disk failure");
+        let jni_err: Error = lance_err.into();
+        assert_eq!(*java_class(&jni_err), JavaExceptionClass::IOException);
+        assert!(jni_err.message.contains("disk failure"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_not_supported_maps_to_unsupported() {
+        let lance_err = LanceError::not_supported("nope");
+        let jni_err: Error = lance_err.into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *java_class(&jni_err),
+            JavaExceptionClass::UnsupportedOperationException
+        );
+        assert!(jni_err.message.contains("nope"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_not_found_maps_to_ioexception() {
+        let lance_err = LanceError::not_found("missing_uri");
+        let jni_err: Error = lance_err.into();
+        assert_eq!(*java_class(&jni_err), JavaExceptionClass::IOException);
+        assert!(jni_err.message.contains("missing_uri"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fallthrough_maps_to_runtime() {
+        let lance_err = LanceError::internal("internal oops");
+        let jni_err: Error = lance_err.into();
+        assert_eq!(*java_class(&jni_err), JavaExceptionClass::RuntimeException);
+        assert!(jni_err.message.contains("internal oops"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_no_backtrace_suffix_when_backtrace_is_none() {
+        // Without the backtrace feature enabled in lance-core default tests,
+        // backtrace() returns None, so no suffix should be appended.
+        let lance_err = LanceError::io("clean message");
+        let jni_err: Error = lance_err.into();
+        assert!(
+            !jni_err.message.contains("Rust backtrace:"),
+            "Expected no backtrace suffix, got: {}",
+            jni_err.message
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/ffi.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/ffi.rs
index d1f656873d8..5c4bc716455 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/ffi.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/ffi.rs
@@ -3,12 +3,12 @@
 
 use core::slice;
 
+use crate::Error;
 use crate::error::Result;
 use crate::utils::{get_query, get_vector_index_params};
-use crate::Error;
 use jni::objects::{JByteBuffer, JFloatArray, JObjectArray, JString};
 use jni::sys::jobjectArray;
-use jni::{objects::JObject, JNIEnv};
+use jni::{JNIEnv, objects::JObject};
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{Occur, Operator};
 
 /// Extend JNIEnv with helper functions.
@@ -473,7 +473,7 @@ impl JNIEnvExt for JNIEnv<'_> {
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_test_JniTestHelper_parseInts(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -482,7 +482,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_test_JniTestHelper_parseInts(
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, env.get_integers(&list_obj));
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_test_JniTestHelper_parseLongs(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -491,7 +491,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_test_JniTestHelper_parseLongs(
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, env.get_longs(&list_obj));
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_test_JniTestHelper_parseIntsOpt(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -500,7 +500,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_test_JniTestHelper_parseIntsOpt(
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, env.get_ints_opt(&list_obj));
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_test_JniTestHelper_parseQuery(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -509,7 +509,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_test_JniTestHelper_parseQuery(
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, get_query(&mut env, query_opt));
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_test_JniTestHelper_parseIndexParams(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/file_reader.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/file_reader.rs
index ccaac121579..35d2ecd8f77 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/file_reader.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/file_reader.rs
@@ -1,33 +1,35 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
 use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 
 use crate::utils::to_rust_map;
 use crate::{
+    JNIEnvExt, RT, block_on,
     error::{Error, Result},
     traits::IntoJava,
-    JNIEnvExt, RT,
 };
 use arrow::{array::RecordBatchReader, ffi::FFI_ArrowSchema, ffi_stream::FFI_ArrowArrayStream};
 use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
 use jni::objects::JMap;
 use jni::{
+    JNIEnv,
     objects::{JObject, JString},
     sys::{jint, jlong},
-    JNIEnv,
 };
 use lance::io::ObjectStore;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
-use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{BlobHandling, OnMissing, Projection, Schema};
 use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
 use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions, ReaderProjection};
+use lance_file::versions as file_versions;
 use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
 use lance_io::{
+    ReadBatchParams,
     scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig},
     utils::CachedFileSize,
-    ReadBatchParams,
 };
 use object_store::path::Path;
 
@@ -51,16 +53,15 @@ impl BlockingFileReader {
         filter_expression: FilterExpression,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static>> {
         let reader = self.inner.clone();
-        Ok(RT
-            .block_on(RT.spawn_blocking(move || {
-                reader.read_stream_projected_blocking(
-                    read_batch_params,
-                    batch_size,
-                    reader_projection,
-                    filter_expression,
-                )
-            }))
-            .unwrap()?)
+        Ok(block_on(RT.spawn_blocking(move || {
+            reader.read_stream_projected_blocking(
+                read_batch_params,
+                batch_size,
+                reader_projection,
+                filter_expression,
+            )
+        }))
+        .unwrap()?)
     }
 
     pub fn schema(&self) -> Result<SchemaRef> {
@@ -92,7 +93,7 @@ fn create_java_reader_object<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
     Ok(res)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileReader_openNative<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _reader_class: JObject,
@@ -110,7 +111,7 @@ fn inner_open<'local>(
     let file_uri_str: String = env.get_string(&file_uri)?.into();
     let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &storage_options_obj)?;
     let storage_options = to_rust_map(env, &jmap)?;
-    let reader = RT.block_on(async move {
+    let reader = block_on(async move {
         let object_params = ObjectStoreParams {
             storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
                 lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(storage_options),
@@ -144,7 +145,7 @@ fn inner_open<'local>(
     reader.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileReader_closeNative<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     reader: JObject,
@@ -160,7 +161,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileReader_closeNative<'local>(
     JObject::null()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileReader_numRowsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'_>,
     reader: JObject,
@@ -192,7 +193,7 @@ fn inner_num_rows(env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>, reader: JObject) -> Result<jlong> {
     Ok(reader.num_rows() as i64)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileReader_populateSchemaNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     reader: JObject,
@@ -210,7 +211,7 @@ fn inner_populate_schema(env: &mut JNIEnv, reader: JObject, schema_addr: jlong)
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileReader_readAllNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'_>,
     reader: JObject,
@@ -218,10 +219,10 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileReader_readAllNative(
     projected_names: JObject,
     selection_ranges: JObject,
     stream_addr: jlong,
+    blob_read_mode: jint,
 ) {
     let result = (|| -> Result<()> {
         let mut read_parameter = ReadBatchParams::default();
-        let mut reader_projection: Option<ReaderProjection> = None;
         // We get reader here not from env.get_rust_field, because we need reader: MutexGuard<BlockingFileReader> has no relationship with the env lifecycle.
         // If we get reader from env.get_rust_field, we can't use env (can't borrow again) until we drop the reader.
         #[allow(unused_variables)]
@@ -239,17 +240,43 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileReader_readAllNative(
         };
 
         let file_version = reader.inner.metadata().version();
+        let base_schema = Schema::try_from(reader.schema()?.as_ref())?;
+
+        let blob_handling = if blob_read_mode == 1 {
+            BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions
+        } else {
+            BlobHandling::AllBinary
+        };
+
+        let reader_projection = {
+            let mut projection =
+                Projection::empty(Arc::new(base_schema.clone())).with_blob_handling(blob_handling);
 
-        if !projected_names.is_null() {
-            let schema = Schema::try_from(reader.schema()?.as_ref())?;
-            let column_names: Vec<String> = env.get_strings(&projected_names)?;
-            let names: Vec<&str> = column_names.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
-            reader_projection = Some(ReaderProjection::from_column_names(
+            if !projected_names.is_null() {
+                let column_names: Vec<String> = env.get_strings(&projected_names)?;
+                projection = projection.union_columns(&column_names, OnMissing::Error)?;
+            } else {
+                projection = projection.union_predicate(|_| true);
+            }
+
+            let transformed_schema = projection.to_bare_schema();
+
+            let (field_ids, column_indices) =
+                file_versions::data_file_columns(file_version, &base_schema);
+            let field_id_to_column_index = field_ids
+                .into_iter()
+                .zip(column_indices)
+                .filter_map(|(field_id, column_index)| {
+                    (column_index >= 0).then_some((field_id as u32, column_index as u32))
+                })
+                .collect::<BTreeMap<_, _>>();
+
+            Some(file_versions::reader_projection_from_field_ids(
                 file_version,
-                &schema,
-                names.as_slice(),
-            )?);
-        }
+                &transformed_schema,
+                &field_id_to_column_index,
+            )?)
+        };
 
         if !selection_ranges.is_null() {
             let mut ranges: Vec<Range<u64>> = Vec::new();
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/file_writer.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/file_writer.rs
index ebc5b1c328b..372ea4a4382 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/file_writer.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/file_writer.rs
@@ -3,28 +3,25 @@
 
 use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 
-use crate::utils::to_rust_map;
+use crate::utils::{extract_file_writer_options, to_rust_map};
 use crate::{
+    JNIEnvExt, block_on,
     error::{Error, Result},
     traits::IntoJava,
-    JNIEnvExt, RT,
 };
 use arrow::{
     array::{RecordBatch, StructArray},
-    ffi::{from_ffi_and_data_type, FFI_ArrowArray, FFI_ArrowSchema},
+    ffi::{FFI_ArrowArray, FFI_ArrowSchema, from_ffi_and_data_type},
 };
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use jni::objects::JMap;
 use jni::{
+    JNIEnv,
     objects::{JObject, JString},
     sys::jlong,
-    JNIEnv,
 };
 use lance::io::ObjectStore;
-use lance_file::{
-    version::LanceFileVersion,
-    writer::{FileWriter, FileWriterOptions},
-};
+use lance_file::{version::LanceFileVersion, versions as file_versions, writer::FileWriter};
 use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
 
 pub const NATIVE_WRITER: &str = "nativeFileWriterHandle";
@@ -62,13 +59,14 @@ fn create_java_writer_object<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
     Ok(res)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileWriter_openNative<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _writer_class: JObject,
     file_uri: JString,
     data_storage_version: JObject, // Optional<String>
     storage_options_obj: JObject,  // Map<String, String>
+    file_write_options: JObject,   // FileWriteOptions
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
     ok_or_throw!(
         env,
@@ -76,7 +74,8 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileWriter_openNative<'local>(
             &mut env,
             file_uri,
             data_storage_version,
-            storage_options_obj
+            storage_options_obj,
+            file_write_options
         )
     )
 }
@@ -86,13 +85,16 @@ fn inner_open<'local>(
     file_uri: JString,
     data_storage_version: JObject,
     storage_options_obj: JObject,
+    file_write_options: JObject,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let file_uri_str: String = env.get_string(&file_uri)?.into();
     let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &storage_options_obj)?;
     let data_storage_version_opt = env.get_string_opt(&data_storage_version)?;
     let storage_options = to_rust_map(env, &jmap)?;
+    let file_writer_options =
+        extract_file_writer_options(env, &file_write_options)?.unwrap_or_default();
 
-    let writer = RT.block_on(async move {
+    let writer = block_on(async move {
         let object_params = ObjectStoreParams {
             storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
                 lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(storage_options),
@@ -108,15 +110,12 @@ fn inner_open<'local>(
         let obj_store = Arc::new(obj_store);
         let obj_writer = obj_store.create(&path).await?;
 
-        Result::Ok(FileWriter::new_lazy(
-            obj_writer,
-            FileWriterOptions {
-                format_version: data_storage_version_opt
-                    .map(|v| v.parse::<LanceFileVersion>())
-                    .transpose()?,
-                ..Default::default()
-            },
-        ))
+        let version = data_storage_version_opt
+            .map(|value| value.parse::<LanceFileVersion>())
+            .transpose()?
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+            .resolve();
+        file_versions::create_lazy_writer(version, obj_writer, file_writer_options)
     })?;
 
     let writer = BlockingFileWriter::create(writer);
@@ -124,7 +123,7 @@ fn inner_open<'local>(
     writer.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileWriter_closeNative<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     writer: JObject,
@@ -141,7 +140,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileWriter_closeNative<'local>(
         }
     };
     if let Some(writer) = writer {
-        match RT.block_on(writer.inner.lock().unwrap().finish()) {
+        match block_on(writer.inner.lock().unwrap().finish()) {
             Ok(_) => {}
             Err(e) => {
                 Error::from(e).throw(&mut env);
@@ -151,7 +150,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileWriter_closeNative<'local>(
     JObject::null()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileWriter_nativeAddSchemaMetadata<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     writer: JObject,
@@ -180,7 +179,7 @@ fn inner_add_schema_metadata(
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_file_LanceFileWriter_writeNative<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     writer: JObject,
@@ -213,6 +212,6 @@ fn inner_write_batch(
     let writer = unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingFileWriter>(writer, NATIVE_WRITER) }?;
 
     let mut writer = writer.inner.lock().unwrap();
-    RT.block_on(writer.write_batch(&record_batch))?;
+    block_on(writer.write_batch(&record_batch))?;
     Ok(())
 }
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/fragment.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/fragment.rs
index 07cc0d53d73..09ea3416e77 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/fragment.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/fragment.rs
@@ -2,31 +2,44 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use arrow::array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StructArray};
-use arrow::ffi::{from_ffi_and_data_type, FFI_ArrowArray, FFI_ArrowSchema};
+use arrow::ffi::{FFI_ArrowArray, FFI_ArrowSchema, from_ffi_and_data_type};
 use arrow::ffi_stream::{ArrowArrayStreamReader, FFI_ArrowArrayStream};
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use jni::objects::{JIntArray, JValue, JValueGen};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use jni::objects::{JByteArray, JIntArray, JValue, JValueGen};
 use jni::{
-    objects::{JObject, JString},
-    sys::{jint, jlong},
     JNIEnv,
+    objects::{JClass, JLongArray, JObject, JString},
+    sys::{jint, jlong, jstring},
 };
 use lance::datatypes::Schema;
-use lance::table::format::{DataFile, DeletionFile, DeletionFileType, Fragment, RowIdMeta};
+use lance::table::format::{
+    DataFile, DeletionFile, DeletionFileType, Fragment, RowDatasetVersionMeta, RowIdMeta,
+};
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+use lance_table::rowids::{RowIdSequence, write_row_ids};
 use std::iter::once;
 
-use lance::dataset::fragment::FileFragment;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+use lance::dataset::NewColumnTransform;
+use lance::dataset::fragment::write::FragmentCreateBuilder;
+use lance::io::ObjectStoreParams;
 use lance_datafusion::utils::StreamingWriteSource;
+use lance_io::object_store::{LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, StorageOptionsProvider};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use crate::blocking_dataset::extract_namespace_info;
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::ffi::JNIEnvExt;
-use crate::traits::{export_vec, import_vec, FromJObjectWithEnv, IntoJava, JLance};
+use crate::session::session_from_handle;
+use crate::traits::{FromJObjectWithEnv, IntoJava, JLance, export_vec, import_vec};
+use crate::utils::extract_storage_options;
 use crate::{
+    block_on,
     blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET},
     traits::FromJString,
     utils::extract_write_params,
-    RT,
 };
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -39,12 +52,14 @@ pub(crate) struct FragmentMergeResult {
 pub(crate) struct FragmentUpdateResult {
     updated_fragment: Fragment,
     fields_modified: Vec<u32>,
+    /// Matched row offsets serialized as portable RoaringBitmap bytes.
+    updated_row_offset_bytes: Vec<u8>,
 }
 
 //////////////////
 // Read Methods //
 //////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Fragment_countRowsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _jfragment: JObject,
@@ -69,28 +84,37 @@ fn inner_count_rows_native(
             "Fragment not found: {fragment_id}"
         )));
     };
-    let res = RT.block_on(fragment.count_rows(None))?;
+    let res = block_on(fragment.count_rows(None))?;
     Ok(res)
 }
 
 ///////////////////
 // Write Methods //
 ///////////////////
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Fragment_createWithFfiArray<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,
     dataset_uri: JString,
     arrow_array_addr: jlong,
     arrow_schema_addr: jlong,
-    max_rows_per_file: JObject,            // Optional<Integer>
-    max_rows_per_group: JObject,           // Optional<Integer>
-    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,           // Optional<Long>
-    mode: JObject,                         // Optional<String>
-    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,        // Optional<Boolean>
-    data_storage_version: JObject,         // Optional<String>
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,          // Map<String, String>
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
+    max_rows_per_file: JObject,                 // Optional<Integer>
+    max_rows_per_group: JObject,                // Optional<Integer>
+    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    mode: JObject,                              // Optional<String>
+    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,             // Optional<Boolean>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,              // Optional<String>
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,               // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,             // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
+    initial_bases: JObject,                     // Optional<List<BasePath>>
+    target_bases: JObject,                      // Optional<List<String>>
+    namespace_obj: JObject,                     // LanceNamespace (can be null)
+    table_id_obj: JObject,                      // List<String> (can be null)
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,     // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: JObject,                // FileWriteOptions
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+    session_handle: jlong, // Session handle, 0 means no session
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
@@ -106,7 +130,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Fragment_createWithFfiArray<'local>(
             enable_stable_row_ids,
             data_storage_version,
             storage_options_obj,
-            storage_options_provider_obj,
+            base_store_params_obj,
+            initial_bases,
+            target_bases,
+            namespace_obj,
+            table_id_obj,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+            blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+            file_write_options,
+            schema_addr,
+            session_handle,
         ),
         JObject::default()
     )
@@ -118,14 +151,23 @@ fn inner_create_with_ffi_array<'local>(
     dataset_uri: JString,
     arrow_array_addr: jlong,
     arrow_schema_addr: jlong,
-    max_rows_per_file: JObject,            // Optional<Integer>
-    max_rows_per_group: JObject,           // Optional<Integer>
-    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,           // Optional<Long>
-    mode: JObject,                         // Optional<String>
-    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,        // Optional<Boolean>
-    data_storage_version: JObject,         // Optional<String>
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,          // Map<String, String>
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
+    max_rows_per_file: JObject,                 // Optional<Integer>
+    max_rows_per_group: JObject,                // Optional<Integer>
+    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    mode: JObject,                              // Optional<String>
+    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,             // Optional<Boolean>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,              // Optional<String>
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,               // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,             // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
+    initial_bases: JObject,                     // Optional<List<BasePath>>
+    target_bases: JObject,                      // Optional<List<String>>
+    namespace_obj: JObject,                     // LanceNamespace (can be null)
+    table_id_obj: JObject,                      // List<String> (can be null)
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,     // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: JObject,                // FileWriteOptions
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+    session_handle: jlong, // Session handle, 0 means no session
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let c_array_ptr = arrow_array_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArray;
     let c_schema_ptr = arrow_schema_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowSchema;
@@ -150,25 +192,43 @@ fn inner_create_with_ffi_array<'local>(
         enable_stable_row_ids,
         data_storage_version,
         storage_options_obj,
-        storage_options_provider_obj,
+        base_store_params_obj,
+        initial_bases,
+        target_bases,
+        namespace_obj,
+        table_id_obj,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+        file_write_options,
+        schema_addr,
+        session_handle,
         reader,
     )
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Fragment_createWithFfiStream<'a>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
     _obj: JObject,
     dataset_uri: JString,
     arrow_array_stream_addr: jlong,
-    max_rows_per_file: JObject,            // Optional<Integer>
-    max_rows_per_group: JObject,           // Optional<Integer>
-    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,           // Optional<Long>
-    mode: JObject,                         // Optional<String>
-    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,        // Optional<Boolean>
-    data_storage_version: JObject,         // Optional<String>
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,          // Map<String, String>
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
+    max_rows_per_file: JObject,                 // Optional<Integer>
+    max_rows_per_group: JObject,                // Optional<Integer>
+    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    mode: JObject,                              // Optional<String>
+    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,             // Optional<Boolean>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,              // Optional<String>
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,               // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,             // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
+    initial_bases: JObject,                     // Optional<List<BasePath>>
+    target_bases: JObject,                      // Optional<List<String>>
+    namespace_obj: JObject,                     // LanceNamespace (can be null)
+    table_id_obj: JObject,                      // List<String> (can be null)
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,     // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: JObject,                // FileWriteOptions
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+    session_handle: jlong, // Session handle, 0 means no session
 ) -> JObject<'a> {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
@@ -183,7 +243,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Fragment_createWithFfiStream<'a>(
             enable_stable_row_ids,
             data_storage_version,
             storage_options_obj,
-            storage_options_provider_obj,
+            base_store_params_obj,
+            initial_bases,
+            target_bases,
+            namespace_obj,
+            table_id_obj,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+            blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+            file_write_options,
+            schema_addr,
+            session_handle,
         ),
         JObject::null()
     )
@@ -194,14 +263,23 @@ fn inner_create_with_ffi_stream<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
     dataset_uri: JString,
     arrow_array_stream_addr: jlong,
-    max_rows_per_file: JObject,            // Optional<Integer>
-    max_rows_per_group: JObject,           // Optional<Integer>
-    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,           // Optional<Long>
-    mode: JObject,                         // Optional<String>
-    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,        // Optional<Boolean>
-    data_storage_version: JObject,         // Optional<String>
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,          // Map<String, String>
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
+    max_rows_per_file: JObject,                 // Optional<Integer>
+    max_rows_per_group: JObject,                // Optional<Integer>
+    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    mode: JObject,                              // Optional<String>
+    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,             // Optional<Boolean>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,              // Optional<String>
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,               // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,             // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
+    initial_bases: JObject,                     // Optional<List<BasePath>>
+    target_bases: JObject,                      // Optional<List<String>>
+    namespace_obj: JObject,                     // LanceNamespace (can be null)
+    table_id_obj: JObject,                      // List<String> (can be null)
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,     // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: JObject,                // FileWriteOptions
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+    session_handle: jlong, // Session handle, 0 means no session
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let stream_ptr = arrow_array_stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
     let reader = unsafe { ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_raw(stream_ptr) }?;
@@ -216,7 +294,16 @@ fn inner_create_with_ffi_stream<'local>(
         enable_stable_row_ids,
         data_storage_version,
         storage_options_obj,
-        storage_options_provider_obj,
+        base_store_params_obj,
+        initial_bases,
+        target_bases,
+        namespace_obj,
+        table_id_obj,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+        file_write_options,
+        schema_addr,
+        session_handle,
         reader,
     )
 }
@@ -225,19 +312,28 @@ fn inner_create_with_ffi_stream<'local>(
 fn create_fragment<'a>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
     dataset_uri: JString,
-    max_rows_per_file: JObject,            // Optional<Integer>
-    max_rows_per_group: JObject,           // Optional<Integer>
-    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,           // Optional<Long>
-    mode: JObject,                         // Optional<String>
-    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,        // Optional<Boolean>
-    data_storage_version: JObject,         // Optional<String>
-    storage_options_obj: JObject,          // Map<String, String>
-    storage_options_provider_obj: JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
+    max_rows_per_file: JObject,                 // Optional<Integer>
+    max_rows_per_group: JObject,                // Optional<Integer>
+    max_bytes_per_file: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    mode: JObject,                              // Optional<String>
+    enable_stable_row_ids: JObject,             // Optional<Boolean>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,              // Optional<String>
+    storage_options_obj: JObject,               // Map<String, String>
+    base_store_params_obj: JObject,             // Map<String, Map<String, String>>
+    initial_bases: JObject,                     // Optional<List<BasePath>>
+    target_bases: JObject,                      // Optional<List<String>>
+    namespace_obj: JObject,                     // LanceNamespace (can be null)
+    table_id_obj: JObject,                      // List<String> (can be null)
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: JObject,     // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: JObject,                // FileWriteOptions
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+    session_handle: jlong, // Session handle, 0 means no session
     source: impl StreamingWriteSource,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
     let path_str = dataset_uri.extract(env)?;
 
-    let write_params = extract_write_params(
+    let mut write_params = extract_write_params(
         env,
         &max_rows_per_file,
         &max_rows_per_group,
@@ -247,20 +343,59 @@ fn create_fragment<'a>(
         &data_storage_version,
         None,
         &storage_options_obj,
-        &storage_options_provider_obj,
-        &JObject::null(), // not used when creating fragments
-        &JObject::null(), // not used when creating fragments
+        &base_store_params_obj,
+        &initial_bases,
+        &target_bases,
+        &allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        &blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+        &file_write_options,
     )?;
 
-    let fragments = RT.block_on(FileFragment::create_fragments(
-        &path_str,
-        source,
-        Some(write_params),
-    ))?;
+    write_params.session = session_from_handle(session_handle);
+
+    // Set up storage options provider if namespace is provided
+    let namespace_info = extract_namespace_info(env, &namespace_obj, &table_id_obj)?;
+    if let Some((namespace, table_id)) = namespace_info {
+        let provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider> = Arc::new(
+            LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(namespace, table_id),
+        );
+
+        let storage_options: HashMap<String, String> =
+            extract_storage_options(env, &storage_options_obj)?;
+
+        let accessor = if storage_options.is_empty() {
+            Arc::new(lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(provider))
+        } else {
+            Arc::new(
+                lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+                    storage_options,
+                    provider,
+                ),
+            )
+        };
+        write_params.store_params = Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor),
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+    }
+
+    let mut builder = FragmentCreateBuilder::new(&path_str).write_params(&write_params);
+    let schema;
+    if schema_addr != 0 {
+        let c_schema_ptr = schema_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowSchema;
+        let c_schema = unsafe { FFI_ArrowSchema::from_raw(c_schema_ptr) };
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::try_from(&c_schema)?;
+        // Schema::try_from restores Lance field IDs from the LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY
+        // metadata inserted by LanceSchema.asArrowSchemaWithFieldIds().
+        schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema)?;
+        builder = builder.schema(&schema);
+    }
+
+    let fragments = block_on(builder.write_fragments(source))?;
     export_vec(env, &fragments)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Fragment_nativeDeleteRows<'a>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -298,7 +433,7 @@ fn inner_delete_rows<'local>(
         .map(|x| x as u32)
         .collect();
 
-    let res = RT.block_on(async move { fragment.extend_deletions(indexes).await });
+    let res = block_on(async move { fragment.extend_deletions(indexes).await });
 
     let obj = match res {
         Ok(Some(f)) => f.metadata().into_java(env)?,
@@ -307,14 +442,14 @@ fn inner_delete_rows<'local>(
             return Err(Error::runtime_error(format!(
                 "Cannot delete rows in fragment {}: {:?}",
                 fragment_id, e
-            )))
+            )));
         }
     };
 
     Ok(obj)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Fragment_nativeMergeColumns<'a>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -347,20 +482,17 @@ fn inner_merge_column<'local>(
     left_on: JString,
     right_on: JString,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
-    let (fragment_opt, max_field_id) = {
+    let fragment_opt = {
         let dataset =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        (
-            dataset.inner.get_fragment(fragment_id as usize),
-            dataset.inner.manifest().max_field_id(),
-        )
+        dataset.inner.get_fragment(fragment_id as usize)
     };
     let mut fragment = match fragment_opt {
         Some(fragment) => fragment,
         None => {
             return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
                 "Fragment not found: {fragment_id}"
-            )))
+            )));
         }
     };
 
@@ -370,7 +502,7 @@ fn inner_merge_column<'local>(
     let right_on_str: String = right_on.extract(env)?;
 
     let (new_frag, new_schema) =
-        RT.block_on(fragment.merge_columns(reader, &left_on_str, &right_on_str, max_field_id))?;
+        block_on(fragment.merge_columns(reader, &left_on_str, &right_on_str))?;
     let result = FragmentMergeResult {
         fragment: new_frag,
         schema: new_schema,
@@ -378,7 +510,7 @@ fn inner_merge_column<'local>(
     result.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Fragment_nativeUpdateColumns<'a>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -420,18 +552,207 @@ fn inner_update_column<'local>(
         None => {
             return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
                 "Fragment not found: {fragment_id}"
-            )))
+            )));
         }
     };
     let stream_ptr = arrow_array_stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
     let reader = unsafe { ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_raw(stream_ptr) }?;
     let left_on_str: String = left_on.extract(env)?;
     let right_on_str: String = right_on.extract(env)?;
-    let (updated_fragment, fields_modified) =
-        RT.block_on(fragment.update_columns(reader, &left_on_str, &right_on_str))?;
+    let r = block_on(fragment.update_columns_with_offsets(reader, &left_on_str, &right_on_str))?;
+    let updated_row_offset_bytes = serialize_matched_offsets(&r.matched_offsets)?;
     let result = FragmentUpdateResult {
-        updated_fragment,
-        fields_modified,
+        updated_fragment: r.fragment,
+        fields_modified: r.fields_modified,
+        updated_row_offset_bytes,
+    };
+    result.into_java(env)
+}
+
+fn serialize_matched_offsets(bitmap: &RoaringBitmap) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let mut buf = Vec::new();
+    bitmap.serialize_into(&mut buf).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::runtime_error(format!(
+            "failed to serialize matched row offsets RoaringBitmap: {e}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok(buf)
+}
+
+fn deserialize_row_offset_bytes(bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+    if bytes.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(RoaringBitmap::new());
+    }
+    RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(bytes).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::input_error(format!(
+            "invalid updatedRowOffsetBytes RoaringBitmap bytes: {e}"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn expand_row_offset_bytes_to_i64(bitmap: &RoaringBitmap) -> Vec<i64> {
+    bitmap.iter().map(|o| o as i64).collect()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_fragment_FragmentUpdateResult_expandRowOffsetsFromBytes<
+    'local,
+>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _cls: JClass,
+    jbytes: JByteArray,
+) -> JLongArray<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_expand_updated_row_offset_bytes(&mut env, jbytes),
+        unsafe { JLongArray::from_raw(std::ptr::null_mut()) }
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_expand_updated_row_offset_bytes<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jbytes: JByteArray,
+) -> Result<JLongArray<'local>> {
+    let buf = env.convert_byte_array(&jbytes)?;
+    let bitmap = deserialize_row_offset_bytes(&buf)?;
+    let offsets = expand_row_offset_bytes_to_i64(&bitmap);
+    let arr = env.new_long_array(offsets.len() as i32)?;
+    if !offsets.is_empty() {
+        env.set_long_array_region(&arr, 0, &offsets)?;
+    }
+    Ok(arr)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_fragment_FragmentUpdateResult_encodeRowOffsetsToBytes<
+    'local,
+>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _cls: JClass,
+    joffsets: JLongArray,
+) -> JByteArray<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_encode_updated_row_offset_bytes(&mut env, joffsets),
+        unsafe { JByteArray::from_raw(std::ptr::null_mut()) }
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_encode_updated_row_offset_bytes<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    joffsets: JLongArray,
+) -> Result<JByteArray<'local>> {
+    let len = env.get_array_length(&joffsets)?;
+    let mut buf: Vec<i64> = vec![0; len as usize];
+    if len > 0 {
+        env.get_long_array_region(&joffsets, 0, buf.as_mut_slice())?;
+    }
+    let mut bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for offset in buf {
+        if offset < 0 {
+            return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                "updatedRowOffsets must be non-negative, got {offset}"
+            )));
+        }
+        if offset > u32::MAX as i64 {
+            return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                "updatedRowOffsets value {offset} exceeds u32::MAX"
+            )));
+        }
+        bitmap.insert(offset as u32);
+    }
+    let bytes = serialize_matched_offsets(&bitmap)?;
+    Ok(env.byte_array_from_slice(&bytes)?)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_fragment_RowIdMeta_nativeEncodeRowIds(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _cls: JClass,
+    row_ids: JLongArray,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_encode_row_ids(&mut env, &row_ids)
+            .and_then(|json| env.new_string(json).map_err(Error::from)),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+fn inner_encode_row_ids(env: &mut JNIEnv, row_ids: &JLongArray) -> Result<String> {
+    let len = env.get_array_length(row_ids)?;
+    let mut buf: Vec<i64> = vec![0; len as usize];
+    env.get_long_array_region(row_ids, 0, buf.as_mut_slice())?;
+    let ids: Vec<u64> = buf.into_iter().map(|x| x as u64).collect();
+    let seq = RowIdSequence::from(ids.as_slice());
+    let meta = RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&seq).into());
+    let json = serde_json::to_string(&meta)?;
+    Ok(json)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Fragment_nativeAddColumnsByReader<'a>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    jdataset: JObject,              // Java DataSet
+    fragment_id: jlong,             // FragmentID
+    arrow_array_stream_addr: jlong, // memoryAddress of ArrowStream
+    batch_size: JObject,            // Optional<Long>
+) -> JObject<'a> {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_add_columns_by_reader(
+            &mut env,
+            jdataset,
+            fragment_id,
+            arrow_array_stream_addr,
+            batch_size
+        ),
+        JObject::null()
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_add_columns_by_reader<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject,
+    fragment_id: jlong,
+    arrow_array_stream_addr: jlong,
+    batch_size: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let fragment_opt = {
+        let dataset =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset.inner.get_fragment(fragment_id as usize)
+    };
+    let fragment = match fragment_opt {
+        Some(fragment) => fragment,
+        None => {
+            return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                "Fragment not found: {fragment_id}"
+            )));
+        }
+    };
+
+    let stream_ptr = arrow_array_stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
+    let reader = unsafe { ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_raw(stream_ptr) }?;
+    let batch_size = match env.get_long_opt(&batch_size)? {
+        Some(value) => Some(
+            value
+                .try_into()
+                .map_err(|_| Error::input_error(format!("Invalid batch size: {value}")))?,
+        ),
+        None => None,
+    };
+
+    let (new_frag, new_schema) = block_on(fragment.add_columns(
+        NewColumnTransform::Reader(Box::new(reader)),
+        None,
+        batch_size,
+    ))?;
+    let result = FragmentMergeResult {
+        fragment: new_frag,
+        schema: new_schema,
     };
     result.into_java(env)
 }
@@ -444,14 +765,16 @@ const DELETE_FILE_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str =
     "(JJLjava/lang/Long;Lorg/lance/fragment/DeletionFileType;Ljava/lang/Integer;)V";
 const DELETE_FILE_TYPE_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/fragment/DeletionFileType";
 const FRAGMENT_METADATA_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/FragmentMetadata";
-const FRAGMENT_METADATA_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str ="(ILjava/util/List;Ljava/lang/Long;Lorg/lance/fragment/DeletionFile;Lorg/lance/fragment/RowIdMeta;)V";
+const FRAGMENT_METADATA_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str = "(ILjava/util/List;Ljava/lang/Long;Lorg/lance/fragment/DeletionFile;Lorg/lance/fragment/RowIdMeta;Lorg/lance/fragment/VersionMeta;Lorg/lance/fragment/VersionMeta;Ljava/util/List;)V";
 const ROW_ID_META_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/fragment/RowIdMeta";
 const ROW_ID_META_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str = "(Ljava/lang/String;)V";
+const VERSION_META_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/fragment/VersionMeta";
+const VERSION_META_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str = "(Ljava/lang/String;)V";
 const FRAGMENT_MERGE_RESULT_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/fragment/FragmentMergeResult";
 const FRAGMENT_MERGE_RESULT_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str =
     "(Lorg/lance/FragmentMetadata;Lorg/lance/schema/LanceSchema;)V";
 const FRAGMENT_UPDATE_RESULT_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/fragment/FragmentUpdateResult";
-const FRAGMENT_UPDATE_RESULT_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str = "(Lorg/lance/FragmentMetadata;[J)V";
+const FRAGMENT_UPDATE_RESULT_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str = "(Lorg/lance/FragmentMetadata;[J[B)V";
 
 impl IntoJava for &FragmentMergeResult {
     fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
@@ -472,12 +795,15 @@ impl IntoJava for &FragmentUpdateResult {
     fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
         let java_updated_fragment = self.updated_fragment.into_java(env)?;
         let java_fields_modified = JLance(self.fields_modified.clone()).into_java(env)?;
+        let java_updated_row_offset_bytes =
+            env.byte_array_from_slice(&self.updated_row_offset_bytes)?;
         Ok(env.new_object(
             FRAGMENT_UPDATE_RESULT_CLASS,
             FRAGMENT_UPDATE_RESULT_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG,
             &[
                 JValueGen::Object(&java_updated_fragment),
                 JValueGen::Object(&java_fields_modified),
+                JValueGen::Object(&java_updated_row_offset_bytes),
             ],
         )?)
     }
@@ -486,8 +812,8 @@ impl IntoJava for &FragmentUpdateResult {
 impl IntoJava for &DataFile {
     fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
         let path = env.new_string(self.path.clone())?.into();
-        let fields = JLance(self.fields.clone()).into_java(env)?;
-        let column_indices = JLance(self.column_indices.clone()).into_java(env)?;
+        let fields = JLance(self.fields.to_vec()).into_java(env)?;
+        let column_indices = JLance(self.column_indices.to_vec()).into_java(env)?;
         let file_size_bytes = match self.file_size_bytes.get() {
             Some(f) => JLance(u64::from(f) as i64).into_java(env)?,
             None => JObject::null(),
@@ -561,10 +887,27 @@ impl IntoJava for &RowIdMeta {
     }
 }
 
+impl IntoJava for &RowDatasetVersionMeta {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let json_str = serde_json::to_string(self)?;
+        let json = env.new_string(json_str)?.into();
+        Ok(env.new_object(
+            VERSION_META_CLASS,
+            VERSION_META_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG,
+            &[JValueGen::Object(&json)],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
 impl IntoJava for &Fragment {
     fn into_java<'local>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
         let files = self.files.clone();
         let files = export_vec::<DataFile>(env, &files)?;
+        let referenced_data_files = self
+            .referenced_lance_files()
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<Vec<DataFile>>();
+        let referenced_data_files = export_vec::<DataFile>(env, &referenced_data_files)?;
         let deletion_file = match &self.deletion_file {
             Some(f) => f.into_java(env)?,
             None => JObject::null(),
@@ -574,6 +917,14 @@ impl IntoJava for &Fragment {
             Some(m) => m.into_java(env)?,
             None => JObject::null(),
         };
+        let created_at = match &self.created_at_version_meta {
+            Some(m) => m.into_java(env)?,
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
+        let last_updated_at = match &self.last_updated_at_version_meta {
+            Some(m) => m.into_java(env)?,
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
 
         env.new_object(
             FRAGMENT_METADATA_CLASS,
@@ -584,6 +935,9 @@ impl IntoJava for &Fragment {
                 JValueGen::Object(physical_rows),
                 JValueGen::Object(&deletion_file),
                 JValueGen::Object(&row_id_meta),
+                JValueGen::Object(&created_at),
+                JValueGen::Object(&last_updated_at),
+                JValueGen::Object(&referenced_data_files),
             ],
         )
         .map_err(|e| {
@@ -603,6 +957,38 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<RowIdMeta> for JObject<'_> {
     }
 }
 
+impl FromJObjectWithEnv<RowDatasetVersionMeta> for JObject<'_> {
+    fn extract_object(&self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>) -> Result<RowDatasetVersionMeta> {
+        let metadata = env
+            .call_method(self, "getMetadata", "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])?
+            .l()?;
+        let s: String = env.get_string(&JString::from(metadata))?.into();
+        let meta: RowDatasetVersionMeta = serde_json::from_str(&s)?;
+        Ok(meta)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extract an optional field from a Java object by calling a getter method.
+/// Returns `None` if the getter returns null, otherwise deserializes the JObject.
+fn extract_nullable_field<T>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>,
+    obj: &JObject<'_>,
+    method: &str,
+    class: &str,
+) -> Result<Option<T>>
+where
+    for<'a> JObject<'a>: FromJObjectWithEnv<T>,
+{
+    let result = env
+        .call_method(obj, method, format!("()L{};", class), &[])?
+        .l()?;
+    if result.is_null() {
+        Ok(None)
+    } else {
+        Ok(Some(result.extract_object(env)?))
+    }
+}
+
 impl FromJObjectWithEnv<Fragment> for JObject<'_> {
     fn extract_object(&self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>) -> Result<Fragment> {
         let id = env.call_method(self, "getId", "()I", &[])?.i()? as u64;
@@ -615,41 +1001,26 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<Fragment> for JObject<'_> {
         for f in file_objs {
             files.push(f.extract_object(env)?);
         }
-        let deletion_file = env
-            .call_method(
-                self,
-                "getDeletionFile",
-                format!("()L{};", DELETE_FILE_CLASS),
-                &[],
-            )?
-            .l()?;
-        let deletion_file = if deletion_file.is_null() {
-            None
-        } else {
-            Some(deletion_file.extract_object(env)?)
-        };
 
-        let row_id_meta = env
-            .call_method(
-                self,
-                "getRowIdMeta",
-                format!("()L{};", ROW_ID_META_CLASS),
-                &[],
-            )?
-            .l()?;
-        let row_id_meta = if row_id_meta.is_null() {
-            None
-        } else {
-            Some(row_id_meta.extract_object(env)?)
-        };
+        let deletion_file =
+            extract_nullable_field(env, self, "getDeletionFile", DELETE_FILE_CLASS)?;
+        let row_id_meta = extract_nullable_field(env, self, "getRowIdMeta", ROW_ID_META_CLASS)?;
+        let created_at_version_meta =
+            extract_nullable_field(env, self, "getCreatedAtVersionMeta", VERSION_META_CLASS)?;
+        let last_updated_at_version_meta =
+            extract_nullable_field(env, self, "getLastUpdatedAtVersionMeta", VERSION_META_CLASS)?;
+
         Ok(Fragment {
             id,
             files,
             deletion_file,
             physical_rows: Some(physical_rows),
             row_id_meta,
-            created_at_version_meta: None,
-            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta,
+            // Overlays are not exposed to Java yet, and the reverse conversion
+            // does not export them, so this round-trip is overlay-free.
+            overlays: vec![],
         })
     }
 }
@@ -725,8 +1096,8 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<DataFile> for JObject<'_> {
         let base_id = get_base_id(env, self)?;
         Ok(DataFile {
             path,
-            fields,
-            column_indices,
+            fields: fields.into(),
+            column_indices: column_indices.into(),
             file_major_version,
             file_minor_version,
             file_size_bytes,
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/index.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/index.rs
index 6360627cb11..48756eb953b 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/index.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/index.rs
@@ -1,33 +1,54 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::error::Result;
-use crate::traits::{export_vec, IntoJava};
+use crate::error::{Error, Result};
+use crate::traits::{IntoJava, export_vec};
+use jni::JNIEnv;
 use jni::objects::{JObject, JValue};
 use jni::sys::jbyte;
-use jni::JNIEnv;
 use lance::table::format::IndexMetadata;
 use lance_index::IndexDescription;
 use prost::Message;
 use prost_types::Any;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+/// Build a `java.util.List<Integer>`.
+///
+/// Not `JLance<Vec<i32>>`'s `IntoJava`: that produces a primitive `int[]`, while
+/// the Java constructors here take `List`.
+fn int_list<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, ids: impl IntoIterator<Item = i32>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let array_list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    for id in ids {
+        let id_obj = env.new_object("java/lang/Integer", "(I)V", &[JValue::Int(id)])?;
+        env.call_method(
+            &array_list,
+            "add",
+            "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+            &[JValue::Object(&id_obj)],
+        )?;
+    }
+    Ok(array_list)
+}
+
+fn u64_to_jlong(field: &str, value: u64) -> Result<i64> {
+    i64::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::runtime_error(format!(
+            "Cannot convert Rust index field {field}={value} to Java long"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn u32_to_jint(field: &str, value: u32) -> Result<i32> {
+    i32::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::runtime_error(format!(
+            "Cannot convert Rust index field {field}={value} to Java int"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
 impl IntoJava for &Arc<dyn IndexDescription> {
     fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
-        let field_ids_list = {
-            let array_list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
-            for id in self.field_ids() {
-                let int_obj =
-                    env.new_object("java/lang/Integer", "(I)V", &[JValue::Int(*id as i32)])?;
-                env.call_method(
-                    &array_list,
-                    "add",
-                    "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
-                    &[JValue::Object(&int_obj)],
-                )?;
-            }
-            array_list
-        };
+        let field_ids_list = int_list(env, self.field_ids().iter().map(|id| *id as i32))?;
         let name = env.new_string(self.name())?;
         let type_url = env.new_string(self.type_url())?;
         let index_type = env.new_string(self.index_type())?;
@@ -35,10 +56,15 @@ impl IntoJava for &Arc<dyn IndexDescription> {
         let metadata_list = export_vec(env, self.metadata())?;
         let details_json = self.details()?;
         let details = env.new_string(details_json)?;
+        let total_size_bytes = if let Some(size) = self.total_size_bytes() {
+            env.new_object("java/lang/Long", "(J)V", &[JValue::Long(size as i64)])?
+        } else {
+            JObject::null()
+        };
 
         let j_index_desc = env.new_object(
             "org/lance/index/IndexDescription",
-            "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;JLjava/util/List;Ljava/lang/String;)V",
+            "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;JLjava/util/List;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/Long;)V",
             &[
                 JValue::Object(&name),
                 JValue::Object(&field_ids_list),
@@ -47,6 +73,7 @@ impl IntoJava for &Arc<dyn IndexDescription> {
                 JValue::Long(rows_indexed),
                 JValue::Object(&metadata_list),
                 JValue::Object(&details),
+                JValue::Object(&total_size_bytes),
             ],
         )?;
         Ok(j_index_desc)
@@ -57,37 +84,19 @@ impl IntoJava for &IndexMetadata {
     fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
         let uuid = self.uuid.into_java(env)?;
 
-        let fields = {
-            let array_list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
-            for field in &self.fields {
-                let field_obj =
-                    env.new_object("java/lang/Integer", "(I)V", &[JValue::Int(*field)])?;
-                env.call_method(
-                    &array_list,
-                    "add",
-                    "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
-                    &[JValue::Object(&field_obj)],
-                )?;
-            }
-            array_list
-        };
+        let fields = int_list(env, self.fields.iter().copied())?;
+        let covering_fields = int_list(env, self.covering_fields.iter().copied())?;
         let name = env.new_string(&self.name)?;
 
-        let fragments = if let Some(bitmap) = &self.fragment_bitmap {
-            let array_list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
-            for frag_id in bitmap.iter() {
-                let id_obj =
-                    env.new_object("java/lang/Integer", "(I)V", &[JValue::Int(frag_id as i32)])?;
-                env.call_method(
-                    &array_list,
-                    "add",
-                    "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
-                    &[JValue::Object(&id_obj)],
-                )?;
+        let fragments = match &self.fragment_bitmap {
+            Some(bitmap) => {
+                let ids = bitmap
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|id| u32_to_jint("fragments", id))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                int_list(env, ids)?
             }
-            array_list
-        } else {
-            JObject::null()
+            None => JObject::null(),
         };
 
         // Convert index_details to byte array
@@ -120,28 +129,55 @@ impl IntoJava for &IndexMetadata {
 
         // Convert base_id from Option<u32> to Integer for Java
         let base_id = if let Some(id) = self.base_id {
-            env.new_object("java/lang/Integer", "(I)V", &[JValue::Int(id as i32)])?
+            env.new_object(
+                "java/lang/Integer",
+                "(I)V",
+                &[JValue::Int(u32_to_jint("baseId", id)?)],
+            )?
         } else {
             JObject::null()
         };
 
+        let size_bytes = match &self.files {
+            Some(files) => {
+                let size = files.iter().try_fold(0_u64, |total, file| {
+                    total.checked_add(file.size_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::runtime_error("Index file sizes overflow u64".to_string())
+                    })
+                })?;
+                env.new_object(
+                    "java/lang/Long",
+                    "(J)V",
+                    &[JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong("sizeBytes", size)?)],
+                )?
+            }
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
+        let files = match &self.files {
+            Some(files) => export_vec(env, files)?,
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
+
         // Determine index type from index_details type_url
         let index_type = determine_index_type(env, &self.index_details)?;
 
         // Create Index object
         Ok(env.new_object(
             "org/lance/index/Index",
-            "(Ljava/util/UUID;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/lang/String;JLjava/util/List;[BILjava/time/Instant;Ljava/lang/Integer;Lorg/lance/index/IndexType;)V",
+            "(Ljava/util/UUID;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/lang/String;JLjava/util/List;[BILjava/time/Instant;Ljava/lang/Integer;Ljava/lang/Long;Ljava/util/List;Lorg/lance/index/IndexType;)V",
             &[
                 JValue::Object(&uuid),
                 JValue::Object(&fields),
+                JValue::Object(&covering_fields),
                 JValue::Object(&name),
-                JValue::Long(self.dataset_version as i64),
+                JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong("datasetVersion", self.dataset_version)?),
                 JValue::Object(&fragments),
                 JValue::Object(&index_details),
                 JValue::Int(self.index_version),
                 JValue::Object(&created_at),
                 JValue::Object(&base_id),
+                JValue::Object(&size_bytes),
+                JValue::Object(&files),
                 JValue::Object(&index_type),
             ],
         )?)
@@ -173,6 +209,8 @@ fn determine_index_type<'local>(
             Some("ZONEMAP")
         } else if lower.contains("bloomfilter") {
             Some("BLOOM_FILTER")
+        } else if lower.contains("rtree") {
+            Some("RTREE")
         } else if lower.contains("ivfhnsw") {
             if lower.contains("sq") {
                 Some("IVF_HNSW_SQ")
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/index_progress.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/index_progress.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a9275668db1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/index_progress.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,214 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use jni::objects::{GlobalRef, JObject, JString, JValue};
+use jni::{JNIEnv, JavaVM};
+use lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
+
+use crate::error::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Bridges Rust index progress events to a Java callback.
+pub(crate) struct JavaIndexBuildProgress {
+    callback: GlobalRef,
+    jvm: Arc<JavaVM>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for JavaIndexBuildProgress {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.write_str("JavaIndexBuildProgress")
+    }
+}
+
+impl JavaIndexBuildProgress {
+    pub(crate) fn new(env: &mut JNIEnv, callback: &JObject) -> Result<Self> {
+        if callback.is_null() {
+            return Err(Error::input_error(
+                "IndexBuildProgress callback cannot be null".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            callback: env.new_global_ref(callback)?,
+            jvm: Arc::new(env.get_java_vm()?),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn call_stage_start(
+        &self,
+        stage: &str,
+        total: Option<u64>,
+        unit: &str,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        let total = total
+            .map(|value| {
+                i64::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "IndexBuildProgress total exceeds Java long for stage '{stage}': {value}"
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+        let mut env = self.jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|error| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "IndexBuildProgress.stageStart failed to attach JVM thread for stage '{stage}': {error}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        env.with_local_frame(16, |env| {
+            let stage_obj = env
+                .new_string(stage)
+                .map_err(|error| callback_error(env, "stageStart", stage, error))?;
+            let unit_obj = env
+                .new_string(unit)
+                .map_err(|error| callback_error(env, "stageStart", stage, error))?;
+            let total_obj = match total {
+                Some(value) => env
+                    .new_object("java/lang/Long", "(J)V", &[JValue::Long(value)])
+                    .map_err(|error| callback_error(env, "stageStart", stage, error))?,
+                None => JObject::null(),
+            };
+            let total_optional = env
+                .call_static_method(
+                    "java/util/Optional",
+                    "ofNullable",
+                    "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Ljava/util/Optional;",
+                    &[JValue::Object(&total_obj)],
+                )
+                .and_then(|value| value.l())
+                .map_err(|error| callback_error(env, "stageStart", stage, error))?;
+
+            env.call_method(
+                &self.callback,
+                "stageStart",
+                "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/lang/String;)V",
+                &[
+                    JValue::Object(&stage_obj),
+                    JValue::Object(&total_optional),
+                    JValue::Object(&unit_obj),
+                ],
+            )
+            .map_err(|error| callback_error(env, "stageStart", stage, error))?;
+            Ok::<(), Error>(())
+        })
+        .map_err(|error| lance_core::Error::internal(error.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn call_stage_progress(&self, stage: &str, completed: u64) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        let completed = i64::try_from(completed).map_err(|_| {
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "IndexBuildProgress completed value exceeds Java long for stage '{stage}': {completed}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let mut env = self.jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|error| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "IndexBuildProgress.stageProgress failed to attach JVM thread for stage '{stage}': {error}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        env.with_local_frame(16, |env| {
+            let stage_obj = env
+                .new_string(stage)
+                .map_err(|error| callback_error(env, "stageProgress", stage, error))?;
+
+            env.call_method(
+                &self.callback,
+                "stageProgress",
+                "(Ljava/lang/String;J)V",
+                &[JValue::Object(&stage_obj), JValue::Long(completed)],
+            )
+            .map_err(|error| callback_error(env, "stageProgress", stage, error))?;
+            Ok::<(), Error>(())
+        })
+        .map_err(|error| lance_core::Error::internal(error.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn call_stage_complete(&self, stage: &str) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        let mut env = self.jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|error| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "IndexBuildProgress.stageComplete failed to attach JVM thread for stage '{stage}': {error}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        env.with_local_frame(16, |env| {
+            let stage_obj = env
+                .new_string(stage)
+                .map_err(|error| callback_error(env, "stageComplete", stage, error))?;
+
+            env.call_method(
+                &self.callback,
+                "stageComplete",
+                "(Ljava/lang/String;)V",
+                &[JValue::Object(&stage_obj)],
+            )
+            .map_err(|error| callback_error(env, "stageComplete", stage, error))?;
+            Ok::<(), Error>(())
+        })
+        .map_err(|error| lance_core::Error::internal(error.to_string()))
+    }
+}
+
+fn callback_error(env: &mut JNIEnv, method: &str, stage: &str, error: jni::errors::Error) -> Error {
+    let java_exception = take_pending_java_exception(env);
+    let detail = java_exception.unwrap_or_else(|| error.to_string());
+    Error::runtime_error(format!(
+        "IndexBuildProgress.{method} callback failed for stage '{stage}': {detail}"
+    ))
+}
+
+fn take_pending_java_exception(env: &mut JNIEnv) -> Option<String> {
+    if !env.exception_check().unwrap_or(false) {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let throwable = env.exception_occurred().ok();
+    let _ = env.exception_clear();
+
+    let description = throwable.and_then(|throwable| {
+        if throwable.is_null() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let description = env
+            .call_method(&throwable, "toString", "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])
+            .and_then(|value| value.l())
+            .ok()?;
+        if description.is_null() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let description = JString::from(description);
+        env.get_string(&description).ok().map(|value| value.into())
+    });
+
+    if env.exception_check().unwrap_or(false) {
+        let _ = env.exception_clear();
+    }
+    description
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl IndexBuildProgress for JavaIndexBuildProgress {
+    async fn stage_start(
+        &self,
+        stage: &str,
+        total: Option<u64>,
+        unit: &str,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        self.call_stage_start(stage, total, unit)
+    }
+
+    async fn stage_progress(&self, stage: &str, completed: u64) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        self.call_stage_progress(stage, completed)
+    }
+
+    async fn stage_complete(&self, stage: &str) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        if let Err(error) = self.call_stage_complete(stage) {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Ignoring IndexBuildProgress.stageComplete callback failure for stage '{}': {}",
+                stage,
+                error
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/lib.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/lib.rs
index 6fbba6050a5..3e342a3eb9a 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/lib.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/lib.rs
@@ -39,31 +39,38 @@ macro_rules! ok_or_throw_with_return {
     };
 }
 
+mod async_scanner;
 mod blocking_blob;
 mod blocking_dataset;
 mod blocking_scanner;
 mod delta;
+mod dispatcher;
 pub mod error;
 pub mod ffi;
 mod file_reader;
 mod file_writer;
 mod fragment;
 mod index;
+mod index_progress;
+mod mem_wal;
 mod merge_insert;
 mod namespace;
 mod optimize;
+mod otel;
 mod schema;
+mod session;
 mod sql;
 mod storage_options;
+mod task_tracker;
 pub mod traits;
 mod transaction;
+mod update;
 pub mod utils;
 mod vector_trainer;
 
 pub use error::Error;
 pub use error::Result;
 pub use ffi::JNIEnvExt;
-pub use storage_options::JavaStorageOptionsProvider;
 
 use env_logger::{Builder, Env};
 use std::env;
@@ -80,6 +87,22 @@ pub static RT: LazyLock<tokio::runtime::Runtime> = LazyLock::new(|| {
         .expect("Failed to create tokio runtime")
 });
 
+/// Drive a future on the shared JNI runtime, including nested calls.
+///
+/// Progress callbacks (and similar JNI re-entry) may invoke Dataset methods while
+/// already inside `RT.block_on`. Calling `Runtime::block_on` again panics with
+/// "Cannot start a runtime from within a runtime". When a Tokio handle is already
+/// available, use `block_in_place` + `Handle::block_on` instead.
+///
+/// JNI entry points should use this helper instead of calling `RT.block_on`
+/// directly so they remain safe when invoked from a callback.
+pub fn block_on<F: std::future::Future>(future: F) -> F::Output {
+    match tokio::runtime::Handle::try_current() {
+        Ok(handle) => tokio::task::block_in_place(|| handle.block_on(future)),
+        Err(_) => RT.block_on(future),
+    }
+}
+
 fn set_timestamp_precision(builder: &mut env_logger::Builder) {
     if let Ok(timestamp_precision) = env::var("LANCE_LOG_TS_PRECISION") {
         match timestamp_precision.as_str() {
@@ -111,14 +134,14 @@ fn set_log_file_target(builder: &mut env_logger::Builder) {
         let path = Path::new(&log_file_path);
 
         // Create parent directories if they don't exist
-        if let Some(parent) = path.parent() {
-            if let Err(e) = std::fs::create_dir_all(parent) {
-                println!(
-                    "Failed to create parent directories for log file '{}': {}, using stderr",
-                    log_file_path, e
-                );
-                return;
-            }
+        if let Some(parent) = path.parent()
+            && let Err(e) = std::fs::create_dir_all(parent)
+        {
+            println!(
+                "Failed to create parent directories for log file '{}': {}, using stderr",
+                log_file_path, e
+            );
+            return;
         }
 
         // Try to open/create the log file
@@ -136,7 +159,7 @@ fn set_log_file_target(builder: &mut env_logger::Builder) {
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_JniLoader_initLanceLogger() {
     let env = Env::new()
         .filter_or("LANCE_LOG", "warn")
@@ -150,3 +173,38 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_JniLoader_initLanceLogger() {
     log::set_max_level(max_level);
     // todo: add tracing
 }
+
+/// JNI_OnLoad - Called when the JVM loads the native library
+/// Initializes the global dispatcher for async operations
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn JNI_OnLoad(
+    vm: jni::JavaVM,
+    _reserved: *mut std::ffi::c_void,
+) -> jni::sys::jint {
+    // Resolve AsyncScanner class on the current thread which has the correct
+    // application classloader. A newly spawned native thread only gets the
+    // system classloader after attach_current_thread_permanently(), which
+    // cannot find application classes in environments like Spark, web
+    // containers, or shaded JARs.
+    let mut env = vm.get_env().expect("Failed to get JNIEnv in JNI_OnLoad");
+    let async_scanner_local = env
+        .find_class("org/lance/ipc/AsyncScanner")
+        .expect("AsyncScanner class not found");
+    let async_scanner_class = env
+        .new_global_ref(async_scanner_local)
+        .expect("Failed to create GlobalRef for AsyncScanner class");
+
+    let jvm_arc = Arc::new(vm);
+
+    // Initialize global dispatcher with persistent thread, passing the
+    // pre-resolved class reference so the dispatcher thread does not need
+    // to look up the class with the wrong classloader.
+    let dispatcher = dispatcher::Dispatcher::initialize(jvm_arc, async_scanner_class);
+
+    // Set the global DISPATCHER (will panic if called more than once)
+    dispatcher::DISPATCHER
+        .set(dispatcher)
+        .expect("Dispatcher already initialized");
+
+    jni::sys::JNI_VERSION_1_8
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/mem_wal.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/mem_wal.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ea4cb09cf8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/mem_wal.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1585 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! JNI bindings for the Lance MemWAL feature.
+//!
+//! Mirrors the Python MemWAL binding (`python/src/mem_wal.rs`): a stateful
+//! [`ShardWriter`], an LSM-aware [`LsmScanner`], an [`ExecutionPlan`] wrapper,
+//! and the point-lookup / vector-search planners.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use arrow::ffi::{FFI_ArrowArray, FFI_ArrowSchema, from_ffi};
+use arrow::ffi_stream::{ArrowArrayStreamReader, FFI_ArrowArrayStream};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+    RecordBatchReader, StructArray, make_array,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, collect, displayable};
+use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+use jni::JNIEnv;
+use jni::objects::{JClass, JMap, JObject, JString, JValueGen};
+use jni::sys::{jdouble, jint, jlong};
+use lance::dataset::Dataset as LanceDataset;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{
+    LsmDataSourceCollector, LsmPointLookupPlanner, LsmVectorSearchPlanner, SsTable,
+    parse_filter_expr as parse_lsm_filter_expr, write_pk_sidecar,
+};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::write::{MemTableStats, ShardMemory, WriteStatsSnapshot};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{
+    DatasetMemWalExt, LsmScanner, ShardSnapshot, ShardWriter, ShardWriterConfig,
+    arrow_schema_with_field_ids, evaluate_sharding_spec_with_source_columns,
+};
+use lance::dataset::scanner::DatasetRecordBatchStream;
+use lance_index::mem_wal::{MemWalIndexDetails, ShardManifest, ShardingField, ShardingSpec};
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+use lance_io::ffi::to_ffi_arrow_array_stream;
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET};
+use crate::error::{Error, Result};
+use crate::ffi::JNIEnvExt;
+use crate::traits::{
+    FromJString, IntoJava, export_vec, import_vec, import_vec_from_method, import_vec_to_rust,
+};
+use crate::utils::to_rust_map;
+use crate::{RT, block_on};
+
+const NATIVE_SHARD_WRITER: &str = "nativeShardWriterHandle";
+const NATIVE_LSM_SCANNER: &str = "nativeLsmScannerHandle";
+const NATIVE_EXECUTION_PLAN: &str = "nativeExecutionPlanHandle";
+const NATIVE_LOOKUP_PLANNER: &str = "nativeLookupPlannerHandle";
+const NATIVE_VECTOR_PLANNER: &str = "nativeVectorPlannerHandle";
+
+/// Native handle backing `org.lance.memwal.ShardWriter`.
+struct BlockingShardWriter {
+    writer: ShardWriter,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    dataset: Arc<LanceDataset>,
+}
+
+/// Native handle backing `org.lance.memwal.LsmScanner`.
+struct BlockingLsmScanner {
+    inner: Option<LsmScanner>,
+}
+
+/// Native handle backing `org.lance.memwal.ExecutionPlan`.
+struct BlockingExecutionPlan {
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    dataset_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+}
+
+/// Native handle backing `org.lance.memwal.LsmPointLookupPlanner`.
+struct BlockingLsmPointLookupPlanner {
+    planner: LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    dataset_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+/// Native handle backing `org.lance.memwal.LsmVectorSearchPlanner`.
+struct BlockingLsmVectorSearchPlanner {
+    planner: LsmVectorSearchPlanner,
+    vector_dim: usize,
+    dataset_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+}
+
+///////////////////
+// ShardWriter  //
+///////////////////
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ShardWriter_createNative<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _class: JClass<'local>,
+    dataset: JObject<'local>,
+    shard_id: JString<'local>,
+    config: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_create_shard_writer(&mut env, dataset, shard_id, config)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_create_shard_writer<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    dataset: JObject<'local>,
+    shard_id: JString<'local>,
+    config: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let shard_id: String = env.get_string(&shard_id)?.into();
+    let uuid = parse_uuid(&shard_id)?;
+    let writer_config = if config.is_null() {
+        ShardWriterConfig::default()
+    } else {
+        build_writer_config(env, &config)?
+    };
+
+    let dataset = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        Arc::new(guard.inner.clone())
+    };
+
+    let writer = block_on(dataset.mem_wal_writer(uuid, writer_config))?;
+    let blocking = BlockingShardWriter {
+        writer,
+        shard_id: uuid,
+        dataset,
+    };
+
+    let java_obj = env.new_object("org/lance/memwal/ShardWriter", "()V", &[])?;
+    unsafe { env.set_rust_field(&java_obj, NATIVE_SHARD_WRITER, blocking) }?;
+    Ok(java_obj)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ShardWriter_nativeShardId<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_shard_id(&mut env, this))
+}
+
+fn inner_shard_id<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let shard_id = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingShardWriter>(&this, NATIVE_SHARD_WRITER) }?;
+        guard.shard_id.to_string()
+    };
+    Ok(env.new_string(shard_id)?.into())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ShardWriter_nativePut(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_put(&mut env, this, stream_addr));
+}
+
+fn inner_put(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject, stream_addr: jlong) -> Result<()> {
+    let stream_ptr = stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
+    let reader = unsafe { ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_raw(stream_ptr) }?;
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = reader.collect::<std::result::Result<_, _>>()?;
+    if batches.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingShardWriter>(&this, NATIVE_SHARD_WRITER) }?;
+    block_on(guard.writer.put(batches))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ShardWriter_nativeDelete(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_delete(&mut env, this, stream_addr));
+}
+
+fn inner_delete(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject, stream_addr: jlong) -> Result<()> {
+    let stream_ptr = stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
+    let reader = unsafe { ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_raw(stream_ptr) }?;
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = reader.collect::<std::result::Result<_, _>>()?;
+    if batches.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingShardWriter>(&this, NATIVE_SHARD_WRITER) }?;
+    block_on(guard.writer.delete(batches))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Test-support: write a primary-key dedup sidecar (`_pk_index/`) for an
+/// SSTable dataset already staged at `gen_path`, mirroring what
+/// production flush emits. Lets Java tests stage a *faithful* SSTable
+/// (dataset + sidecar); production always writes the sidecar during
+/// flush, so a dataset-without-sidecar is not a state the system produces.
+/// Mirrors the Python `_write_pk_sidecar` binding.
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_MemWalTest_nativeWritePkSidecar(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _class: JClass,
+    gen_path: JString,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+    pk_columns: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_write_pk_sidecar(&mut env, gen_path, stream_addr, pk_columns)
+    );
+}
+
+fn inner_write_pk_sidecar(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    gen_path: JString,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+    pk_columns: JObject,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let gen_path: String = env.get_string(&gen_path)?.into();
+    let pk_columns = env.get_strings(&pk_columns)?;
+    let stream_ptr = stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
+    let reader = unsafe { ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_raw(stream_ptr) }?;
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = reader.collect::<std::result::Result<_, _>>()?;
+    let pk_refs: Vec<&str> = pk_columns.iter().map(String::as_str).collect();
+    block_on(write_pk_sidecar(&gen_path, &batches, &pk_refs))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ShardWriter_nativeStats<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_writer_stats(&mut env, this))
+}
+
+fn inner_writer_stats<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let stats = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingShardWriter>(&this, NATIVE_SHARD_WRITER) }?;
+        guard.writer.stats()
+    };
+    write_stats_to_java(env, &stats)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ShardWriter_nativeMemtableStats<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_memtable_stats(&mut env, this))
+}
+
+fn inner_memtable_stats<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let (stats, memory) = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingShardWriter>(&this, NATIVE_SHARD_WRITER) }?;
+        // Byte totals live on `memory()` now, not on `MemTableStats`.
+        (
+            block_on(guard.writer.memtable_stats())?,
+            guard.writer.memory(),
+        )
+    };
+    memtable_stats_to_java(env, &stats, &memory)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ShardWriter_nativeLsmScanner<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+    shard_snapshots: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_writer_lsm_scanner(&mut env, this, shard_snapshots)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_writer_lsm_scanner<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+    shard_snapshots: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let mut snapshots = read_shard_snapshots(env, &shard_snapshots)?;
+
+    let (in_memory_memtables, writer_snapshot, dataset, shard_id, pk_columns) = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingShardWriter>(&this, NATIVE_SHARD_WRITER) }?;
+        let pk_columns = get_pk_columns(&guard.dataset)?;
+        // Capture the active memtable *and* any frozen-awaiting-flush memtables
+        // so a concurrent flush rollover cannot hide acknowledged writes from
+        // this read-your-writes scanner.
+        let in_memory_memtables = block_on(guard.writer.in_memory_memtable_refs())?;
+        let writer_snapshot = block_on(guard.writer.manifest())?
+            .map(shard_snapshot_from_manifest)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| ShardSnapshot::new(guard.shard_id));
+        (
+            in_memory_memtables,
+            writer_snapshot,
+            guard.dataset.clone(),
+            guard.shard_id,
+            pk_columns,
+        )
+    };
+
+    snapshots.retain(|snapshot| snapshot.shard_id != shard_id);
+    snapshots.push(writer_snapshot);
+
+    let scanner = LsmScanner::new(dataset, snapshots, pk_columns)
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, in_memory_memtables);
+    attach_lsm_scanner(env, scanner)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ShardWriter_releaseNativeShardWriter(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    _handle: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_release_shard_writer(&mut env, this));
+}
+
+fn inner_release_shard_writer(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    let blocking: BlockingShardWriter = unsafe { env.take_rust_field(&this, NATIVE_SHARD_WRITER) }?;
+    block_on(blocking.writer.close())?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+///////////////////
+// LsmScanner    //
+///////////////////
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmScanner_createFromSnapshots<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _class: JClass<'local>,
+    dataset: JObject<'local>,
+    shard_snapshots: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_lsm_scanner_from_snapshots(&mut env, dataset, shard_snapshots)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_lsm_scanner_from_snapshots<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    dataset: JObject<'local>,
+    shard_snapshots: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let snapshots = read_shard_snapshots(env, &shard_snapshots)?;
+    let dataset = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        Arc::new(guard.inner.clone())
+    };
+    let pk_columns = get_pk_columns(&dataset)?;
+    let scanner = LsmScanner::new(dataset, snapshots, pk_columns);
+    attach_lsm_scanner(env, scanner)
+}
+
+fn attach_lsm_scanner<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    scanner: LsmScanner,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let java_obj = env.new_object("org/lance/memwal/LsmScanner", "()V", &[])?;
+    unsafe {
+        env.set_rust_field(
+            &java_obj,
+            NATIVE_LSM_SCANNER,
+            BlockingLsmScanner {
+                inner: Some(scanner),
+            },
+        )
+    }?;
+    Ok(java_obj)
+}
+
+/// Take the wrapped scanner out, apply `f`, then store the result back.
+fn with_lsm_scanner<F>(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: &JObject, f: F) -> Result<()>
+where
+    F: FnOnce(LsmScanner) -> Result<LsmScanner>,
+{
+    let mut guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingLsmScanner>(this, NATIVE_LSM_SCANNER) }?;
+    let scanner = guard
+        .inner
+        .take()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::runtime_error("LsmScanner is no longer usable because an earlier builder call (e.g. filter) failed; create a new scanner".to_string()))?;
+    guard.inner = Some(f(scanner)?);
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmScanner_nativeProject(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    columns: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_scanner_project(&mut env, this, columns));
+}
+
+fn inner_scanner_project(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject, columns: JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    let columns = env.get_strings(&columns)?;
+    with_lsm_scanner(env, &this, |scanner| {
+        let cols: Vec<&str> = columns.iter().map(String::as_str).collect();
+        Ok(scanner.project(&cols)?)
+    })
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmScanner_nativeFilter(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    expr: JString,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_scanner_filter(&mut env, this, expr));
+}
+
+fn inner_scanner_filter(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject, expr: JString) -> Result<()> {
+    let expr: String = env.get_string(&expr)?.into();
+    with_lsm_scanner(env, &this, |scanner| Ok(scanner.filter(&expr)?))
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmScanner_nativeLimit(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    limit: JObject,
+    offset: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_scanner_limit(&mut env, this, limit, offset));
+}
+
+fn inner_scanner_limit(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    limit: JObject,
+    offset: JObject,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let limit = env.get_u64_opt(&limit)?.map(|v| v as i64);
+    let offset = env.get_u64_opt(&offset)?.map(|v| v as i64);
+    with_lsm_scanner(env, &this, |scanner| Ok(scanner.limit(limit, offset)?))
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmScanner_nativeWithRowAddress(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        with_lsm_scanner(&mut env, &this, |scanner| Ok(scanner.with_row_address()))
+    );
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmScanner_nativeWithMemtableGen(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        with_lsm_scanner(&mut env, &this, |scanner| Ok(scanner.with_memtable_gen()))
+    );
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmScanner_nativeOpenStream(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_scanner_open_stream(&mut env, this, stream_addr));
+}
+
+fn inner_scanner_open_stream(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject, stream_addr: jlong) -> Result<()> {
+    let stream = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingLsmScanner>(&this, NATIVE_LSM_SCANNER) }?;
+        let scanner = guard.inner.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::runtime_error("LsmScanner is no longer usable because an earlier builder call (e.g. filter) failed; create a new scanner".to_string())
+        })?;
+        block_on(scanner.try_into_stream())?
+    };
+    let ffi_stream =
+        to_ffi_arrow_array_stream(DatasetRecordBatchStream::new(stream), RT.handle().clone())?;
+    unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream, ffi_stream) }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmScanner_nativeCountRows(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+) -> jlong {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(env, inner_scanner_count_rows(&mut env, this), -1) as jlong
+}
+
+fn inner_scanner_count_rows(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject) -> Result<u64> {
+    let guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingLsmScanner>(&this, NATIVE_LSM_SCANNER) }?;
+    let scanner = guard
+        .inner
+        .as_ref()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::runtime_error("LsmScanner is no longer usable because an earlier builder call (e.g. filter) failed; create a new scanner".to_string()))?;
+    Ok(block_on(scanner.count_rows())?)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmScanner_releaseNativeLsmScanner(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    _handle: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_release_lsm_scanner(&mut env, this));
+}
+
+fn inner_release_lsm_scanner(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    let _: BlockingLsmScanner = unsafe { env.take_rust_field(&this, NATIVE_LSM_SCANNER) }?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+///////////////////
+// ExecutionPlan //
+///////////////////
+
+fn attach_execution_plan<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    dataset_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let java_obj = env.new_object("org/lance/memwal/ExecutionPlan", "()V", &[])?;
+    unsafe {
+        env.set_rust_field(
+            &java_obj,
+            NATIVE_EXECUTION_PLAN,
+            BlockingExecutionPlan {
+                plan,
+                dataset_schema,
+            },
+        )
+    }?;
+    Ok(java_obj)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ExecutionPlan_nativeImportSchema(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_plan_import_schema(&mut env, this, schema_addr));
+}
+
+fn inner_plan_import_schema(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject, schema_addr: jlong) -> Result<()> {
+    let schema = {
+        let guard = unsafe {
+            env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingExecutionPlan>(&this, NATIVE_EXECUTION_PLAN)
+        }?;
+        guard.plan.schema()
+    };
+    let ffi_schema = FFI_ArrowSchema::try_from(schema.as_ref())?;
+    unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(schema_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowSchema, ffi_schema) }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ExecutionPlan_nativeImportDatasetSchema(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_plan_import_dataset_schema(&mut env, this, schema_addr)
+    );
+}
+
+fn inner_plan_import_dataset_schema(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let schema = {
+        let guard = unsafe {
+            env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingExecutionPlan>(&this, NATIVE_EXECUTION_PLAN)
+        }?;
+        guard.dataset_schema.clone()
+    };
+    let ffi_schema = FFI_ArrowSchema::try_from(schema.as_ref())?;
+    unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(schema_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowSchema, ffi_schema) }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ExecutionPlan_nativeExplain<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_plan_explain(&mut env, this))
+}
+
+fn inner_plan_explain<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let explained = {
+        let guard = unsafe {
+            env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingExecutionPlan>(&this, NATIVE_EXECUTION_PLAN)
+        }?;
+        format!("{}", displayable(guard.plan.as_ref()).indent(true))
+    };
+    Ok(env.new_string(explained)?.into())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ExecutionPlan_nativeOpenStream(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_plan_open_stream(&mut env, this, stream_addr));
+}
+
+fn inner_plan_open_stream(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject, stream_addr: jlong) -> Result<()> {
+    let plan = {
+        let guard = unsafe {
+            env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingExecutionPlan>(&this, NATIVE_EXECUTION_PLAN)
+        }?;
+        guard.plan.clone()
+    };
+    let schema = plan.schema();
+    let batches = block_on(async move {
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        collect(plan, ctx.task_ctx()).await
+    })
+    .map_err(|e| Error::io_error(format!("Plan execution failed: {}", e)))?;
+
+    let reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        batches.into_iter().map(Ok),
+        schema,
+    ));
+    let ffi_stream = FFI_ArrowArrayStream::new(reader);
+    unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream, ffi_stream) }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+//////////////////////////
+// Sharding evaluation  //
+//////////////////////////
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ShardingEvaluator_nativeEvaluate<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _class: JClass<'local>,
+    arrow_array_addr: jlong,
+    arrow_schema_addr: jlong,
+    sharding_spec: JObject<'local>,
+    source_id_to_column: JObject<'local>,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_evaluate_sharding(
+            &mut env,
+            arrow_array_addr,
+            arrow_schema_addr,
+            sharding_spec,
+            source_id_to_column,
+            stream_addr,
+        )
+    );
+}
+
+fn inner_evaluate_sharding(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    arrow_array_addr: jlong,
+    arrow_schema_addr: jlong,
+    sharding_spec: JObject,
+    source_id_to_column: JObject,
+    stream_addr: jlong,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let input = import_ffi_array(arrow_array_addr, arrow_schema_addr)?;
+    let struct_array = input
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::input_error(
+                "ShardingEvaluator expects a VectorSchemaRoot struct array".to_string(),
+            )
+        })?;
+    let input_batch = RecordBatch::from(struct_array.clone());
+    let spec = sharding_spec_from_java(env, &sharding_spec)?;
+    let source_id_to_column = i32_string_map_from_java(env, source_id_to_column)?;
+    let result =
+        evaluate_sharding_spec_with_source_columns(&input_batch, &spec, &source_id_to_column)?;
+    let schema = result.schema();
+    let reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> =
+        Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(result)].into_iter(), schema));
+    let ffi_stream = FFI_ArrowArrayStream::new(reader);
+    unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(stream_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream, ffi_stream) }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_ExecutionPlan_releaseNativeExecutionPlan(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    _handle: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_release_execution_plan(&mut env, this));
+}
+
+fn inner_release_execution_plan(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    let _: BlockingExecutionPlan = unsafe { env.take_rust_field(&this, NATIVE_EXECUTION_PLAN) }?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/////////////////////////
+// LsmPointLookupPlanner //
+/////////////////////////
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmPointLookupPlanner_nativeCreate(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    dataset: JObject,
+    shard_snapshots: JObject,
+    pk_columns: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_create_lookup_planner(&mut env, this, dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+    );
+}
+
+fn inner_create_lookup_planner(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    dataset: JObject,
+    shard_snapshots: JObject,
+    pk_columns: JObject,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let snapshots = read_shard_snapshots(env, &shard_snapshots)?;
+    let pk_columns = env.get_strings_opt(&pk_columns)?;
+    let dataset = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        Arc::new(guard.inner.clone())
+    };
+    let pk_columns = match pk_columns {
+        Some(cols) => cols,
+        None => get_pk_columns(&dataset)?,
+    };
+    let base_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+    // A sealed generation stores the names it was written with, so the planner
+    // resolves its columns by id; `base_schema` carries none. Built before the
+    // collector takes the dataset.
+    let identity_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema_with_field_ids(dataset.schema()));
+    let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(dataset, snapshots);
+    let planner = LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, pk_columns.clone(), base_schema.clone())?
+        .with_identity_schema(identity_schema);
+
+    let blocking = BlockingLsmPointLookupPlanner {
+        planner,
+        dataset_schema: base_schema,
+        pk_columns,
+    };
+    unsafe { env.set_rust_field(&this, NATIVE_LOOKUP_PLANNER, blocking) }?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmPointLookupPlanner_nativePlanLookup<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+    array_addr: jlong,
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+    columns: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_plan_lookup(&mut env, this, array_addr, schema_addr, columns)
+    )
+}
+
+fn inner_plan_lookup<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+    array_addr: jlong,
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+    columns: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let pk_value = import_ffi_array(array_addr, schema_addr)?;
+    let columns = env.get_strings_opt(&columns)?;
+
+    let (plan, dataset_schema) = {
+        let guard = unsafe {
+            env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingLsmPointLookupPlanner>(&this, NATIVE_LOOKUP_PLANNER)
+        }?;
+        let pk_values = scalar_values_from_pk_value(pk_value.as_ref(), &guard.pk_columns)?;
+        let plan = block_on(guard.planner.plan_lookup(&pk_values, columns.as_deref()))?;
+        (plan, guard.dataset_schema.clone())
+    };
+    attach_execution_plan(env, plan, dataset_schema)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmPointLookupPlanner_releaseNativeLookupPlanner(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    _handle: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_release_lookup_planner(&mut env, this));
+}
+
+fn inner_release_lookup_planner(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    let _: BlockingLsmPointLookupPlanner =
+        unsafe { env.take_rust_field(&this, NATIVE_LOOKUP_PLANNER) }?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+///////////////////////////
+// LsmVectorSearchPlanner //
+///////////////////////////
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmVectorSearchPlanner_nativeCreate(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    dataset: JObject,
+    shard_snapshots: JObject,
+    vector_column: JString,
+    pk_columns: JObject,
+    distance_type: JObject,
+    filter: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        inner_create_vector_planner(
+            &mut env,
+            this,
+            dataset,
+            shard_snapshots,
+            vector_column,
+            pk_columns,
+            distance_type,
+            filter,
+        )
+    );
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn inner_create_vector_planner(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    dataset: JObject,
+    shard_snapshots: JObject,
+    vector_column: JString,
+    pk_columns: JObject,
+    distance_type: JObject,
+    filter: JObject,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let snapshots = read_shard_snapshots(env, &shard_snapshots)?;
+    let vector_column: String = env.get_string(&vector_column)?.into();
+    let pk_columns = env.get_strings_opt(&pk_columns)?;
+    let distance_type = env.get_string_opt(&distance_type)?;
+    let filter = env.get_string_opt(&filter)?;
+    let dataset = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        Arc::new(guard.inner.clone())
+    };
+    let pk_columns = match pk_columns {
+        Some(cols) => cols,
+        None => get_pk_columns(&dataset)?,
+    };
+    let base_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+    // See the point-lookup planner: a rename moves a name and keeps the id.
+    let identity_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema_with_field_ids(dataset.schema()));
+    let dist_type = parse_distance_type(distance_type.as_deref().unwrap_or("l2"))?;
+    let vector_dim = get_vector_dim(&dataset, &vector_column)?;
+    let filter = filter
+        .as_deref()
+        .map(|filter| parse_lsm_filter_expr(base_schema.as_ref(), filter).map_err(Error::from))
+        .transpose()?;
+
+    let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(dataset.clone(), snapshots);
+    let mut planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+        collector,
+        pk_columns,
+        base_schema.clone(),
+        vector_column,
+        dist_type,
+    )
+    .with_identity_schema(identity_schema)
+    .with_dataset(dataset);
+    if let Some(filter) = filter {
+        planner = planner.with_filter(Some(filter));
+    }
+
+    let blocking = BlockingLsmVectorSearchPlanner {
+        planner,
+        vector_dim,
+        dataset_schema: base_schema,
+    };
+    unsafe { env.set_rust_field(&this, NATIVE_VECTOR_PLANNER, blocking) }?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmVectorSearchPlanner_nativePlanSearch<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+    array_addr: jlong,
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+    k: jint,
+    nprobes: jint,
+    columns: JObject<'local>,
+    refine_base_table: bool,
+    overfetch_factor: jdouble,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_plan_search(
+            &mut env,
+            this,
+            array_addr,
+            schema_addr,
+            k,
+            nprobes,
+            columns,
+            refine_base_table,
+            overfetch_factor,
+        )
+    )
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn inner_plan_search<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    this: JObject<'local>,
+    array_addr: jlong,
+    schema_addr: jlong,
+    k: jint,
+    nprobes: jint,
+    columns: JObject<'local>,
+    refine_base_table: bool,
+    overfetch_factor: f64,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let query = import_ffi_array(array_addr, schema_addr)?;
+    let columns = env.get_strings_opt(&columns)?;
+    let float32_array = query
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::input_error("query must be a Float32 array".to_string()))?;
+
+    let (plan, dataset_schema) = {
+        let guard = unsafe {
+            env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingLsmVectorSearchPlanner>(&this, NATIVE_VECTOR_PLANNER)
+        }?;
+        if float32_array.len() != guard.vector_dim {
+            return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                "Query vector has {} dimensions, expected {}",
+                float32_array.len(),
+                guard.vector_dim
+            )));
+        }
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            field,
+            guard.vector_dim as i32,
+            Arc::new(float32_array.clone()),
+            None,
+        )?;
+        let plan = block_on(guard.planner.plan_search(
+            &fsl,
+            k as usize,
+            nprobes as usize,
+            columns.as_deref(),
+            refine_base_table,
+            overfetch_factor,
+        ))?;
+        (plan, guard.dataset_schema.clone())
+    };
+    attach_execution_plan(env, plan, dataset_schema)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_memwal_LsmVectorSearchPlanner_releaseNativeVectorPlanner(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    this: JObject,
+    _handle: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_release_vector_planner(&mut env, this));
+}
+
+fn inner_release_vector_planner(env: &mut JNIEnv, this: JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    let _: BlockingLsmVectorSearchPlanner =
+        unsafe { env.take_rust_field(&this, NATIVE_VECTOR_PLANNER) }?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+///////////////////////////
+// Dataset MemWAL methods //
+///////////////////////////
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeInitializeMemWal(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    jdataset: JObject,
+    params: JObject,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, inner_initialize_mem_wal(&mut env, jdataset, params));
+}
+
+fn inner_initialize_mem_wal(env: &mut JNIEnv, jdataset: JObject, params: JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    let maintained_indexes =
+        env.get_optional_from_method(&params, "maintainedIndexes", |env, list| {
+            env.get_strings(&list)
+        })?;
+    let bucket_column = env.get_optional_string_from_method(&params, "bucketColumn")?;
+    let num_buckets = env.get_optional_u32_from_method(&params, "numBuckets")?;
+    let identity_column = env.get_optional_string_from_method(&params, "identityColumn")?;
+    let unsharded = env.call_method(&params, "unsharded", "()Z", &[])?.z()?;
+    let writer_config =
+        env.get_optional_from_method(&params, "writerConfigDefaults", |env, config_obj| {
+            build_writer_config(env, &config_obj)
+        })?;
+
+    let bucket = match (bucket_column.as_deref(), num_buckets) {
+        (Some(_), Some(_)) => true,
+        (None, None) => false,
+        _ => {
+            return Err(Error::input_error(
+                "bucket sharding requires both bucketColumn and numBuckets".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+    };
+    let modes = [bucket, identity_column.is_some(), unsharded]
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|&m| m)
+        .count();
+    if modes > 1 {
+        return Err(Error::input_error(
+            "at most one of bucket sharding, identityColumn, or unsharded may be set".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let mut guard =
+        unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+    let mut builder = guard.inner.initialize_mem_wal();
+    if let (Some(column), Some(n)) = (bucket_column, num_buckets) {
+        builder = builder.bucket_sharding(column, n);
+    } else if let Some(column) = identity_column {
+        builder = builder.identity_sharding(column);
+    } else if unsharded {
+        builder = builder.unsharded();
+    }
+    // Flattening an absent list to an empty one here would ask for no index
+    // at all rather than every one.
+    if let Some(maintained_indexes) = maintained_indexes {
+        builder = builder.maintained_indexes(maintained_indexes);
+    }
+    if let Some(config) = writer_config {
+        builder = builder.writer_config_defaults(config);
+    }
+    block_on(builder.execute())?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeMemWalIndexDetails<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject<'local>,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_mem_wal_index_details(&mut env, jdataset))
+}
+
+fn inner_mem_wal_index_details<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject<'local>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let details = {
+        let guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        block_on(guard.inner.mem_wal_index_details())?
+    };
+    match details {
+        Some(details) => index_details_to_java(env, &details),
+        None => Ok(JObject::null()),
+    }
+}
+
+///////////////
+// Helpers   //
+///////////////
+
+fn parse_uuid(shard_id: &str) -> Result<Uuid> {
+    Uuid::parse_str(shard_id)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Invalid shard_id UUID: {}", e)))
+}
+
+/// Read a `List<ShardSnapshot>` Java object into Rust `ShardSnapshot`s.
+fn read_shard_snapshots(env: &mut JNIEnv, list_obj: &JObject) -> Result<Vec<ShardSnapshot>> {
+    import_vec_to_rust(env, list_obj, |env, obj| {
+        let shard_id = env.get_string_from_method(&obj, "shardId")?;
+        let uuid = parse_uuid(&shard_id)?;
+        let spec_id = env.get_u32_from_method(&obj, "specId")?;
+        let current_generation = env.get_u64_from_method(&obj, "currentGeneration")?;
+        let mut snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(uuid)
+            .with_spec_id(spec_id)
+            .with_current_generation(current_generation);
+
+        let sstable_list = env
+            .call_method(&obj, "sstables", "()Ljava/util/List;", &[])?
+            .l()?;
+        for sstable in import_vec(env, &sstable_list)? {
+            let generation = env.get_u64_from_method(&sstable, "generation")?;
+            let path = env.get_string_from_method(&sstable, "path")?;
+            snapshot = snapshot.with_sstable(generation, path);
+        }
+        Ok(snapshot)
+    })
+}
+
+/// Reconstruct a [`ShardSnapshot`] from a writer's [`ShardManifest`].
+fn shard_snapshot_from_manifest(manifest: ShardManifest) -> ShardSnapshot {
+    ShardSnapshot {
+        shard_id: manifest.shard_id,
+        spec_id: manifest.shard_spec_id,
+        current_generation: manifest.current_generation,
+        sstables: manifest
+            .sstables
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|sstable| SsTable {
+                generation: sstable.generation,
+                path: sstable.path,
+            })
+            .collect(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extract primary key column names from the dataset schema.
+fn get_pk_columns(dataset: &LanceDataset) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let pk_fields = dataset.schema().unenforced_primary_key();
+    if pk_fields.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::input_error(
+            "Dataset has no primary key. Set 'lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key' metadata \
+             on the primary key field(s)."
+                .to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(pk_fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.clone()).collect())
+}
+
+/// Parse a distance type string into a [`DistanceType`].
+fn parse_distance_type(s: &str) -> Result<DistanceType> {
+    match s.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+        "l2" | "euclidean" => Ok(DistanceType::L2),
+        "cosine" => Ok(DistanceType::Cosine),
+        "dot" | "inner_product" => Ok(DistanceType::Dot),
+        "hamming" => Ok(DistanceType::Hamming),
+        _ => Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+            "Unknown distanceType '{}'. Valid values: 'l2', 'cosine', 'dot', 'hamming'",
+            s
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Get the vector dimension of a `FixedSizeList` column from the dataset schema.
+fn get_vector_dim(dataset: &LanceDataset, column: &str) -> Result<usize> {
+    let schema = ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema());
+    let field = schema.field_with_name(column).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::input_error(format!("Column '{}' not found in dataset schema", column))
+    })?;
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, size) => Ok(*size as usize),
+        other => Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+            "Column '{}' is not a FixedSizeList (got {:?}). \
+             Vector columns must be FixedSizeList<float32>.",
+            column, other
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert a primary key Arrow array (single row) into DataFusion scalars.
+fn scalar_values_from_pk_value(
+    pk_value: &dyn Array,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+) -> Result<Vec<ScalarValue>> {
+    if pk_value.len() != 1 {
+        return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+            "pkValue must contain exactly one row, got {}",
+            pk_value.len()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    if pk_columns.len() == 1 {
+        let scalar = ScalarValue::try_from_array(pk_value, 0)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Cannot convert pkValue: {}", e)))?;
+        return Ok(vec![scalar]);
+    }
+
+    let struct_array = pk_value
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::input_error(format!(
+                "Composite primary key lookup requires a struct vector with one row and {} fields",
+                pk_columns.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+    if struct_array.num_columns() != pk_columns.len() {
+        return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+            "Composite primary key lookup expected {} fields, got {}",
+            pk_columns.len(),
+            struct_array.num_columns()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let mut pk_values = Vec::with_capacity(pk_columns.len());
+    for column_name in pk_columns {
+        let column = struct_array.column_by_name(column_name).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::input_error(format!(
+                "Composite primary key lookup requires field '{}' in pkValue",
+                column_name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let scalar = ScalarValue::try_from_array(column.as_ref(), 0)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Cannot convert composite pkValue: {}", e)))?;
+        pk_values.push(scalar);
+    }
+    Ok(pk_values)
+}
+
+/// Import an Arrow array exported through the C Data Interface.
+///
+/// The FFI structs at the given addresses are moved out and replaced with empty
+/// placeholders, so the producer's `close()` on the Java side is a safe no-op.
+fn import_ffi_array(array_addr: jlong, schema_addr: jlong) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    let ffi_array =
+        unsafe { std::ptr::replace(array_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowArray, FFI_ArrowArray::empty()) };
+    let ffi_schema = unsafe {
+        std::ptr::replace(
+            schema_addr as *mut FFI_ArrowSchema,
+            FFI_ArrowSchema::empty(),
+        )
+    };
+    let array_data = unsafe { from_ffi(ffi_array, &ffi_schema) }?;
+    Ok(make_array(array_data))
+}
+
+/// Build a [`ShardWriterConfig`] from a Java `ShardWriterConfig` object.
+fn build_writer_config(env: &mut JNIEnv, config: &JObject) -> Result<ShardWriterConfig> {
+    let mut writer_config = ShardWriterConfig::default();
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_bool(env, config, "durableWrite")? {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_durable_write(v);
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_u64(env, config, "maxWalBufferSize")? {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_max_wal_buffer_size(v as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_u64(env, config, "maxWalFlushIntervalMs")? {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_max_wal_flush_interval(Duration::from_millis(v));
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_u64(env, config, "maxMemtableSize")? {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_max_memtable_size(v as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_u64(env, config, "maxMemtableRows")? {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_max_memtable_rows(v as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_u64(env, config, "maxMemtableBatches")? {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_max_memtable_batches(v as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_u64(env, config, "maxUnflushedMemtableBytes")? {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(v as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_u64(env, config, "manifestScanBatchSize")? {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_manifest_scan_batch_size(v as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_u64(env, config, "backpressureLogIntervalMs")? {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_backpressure_log_interval(Duration::from_millis(v));
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = read_optional_u64(env, config, "statsLogIntervalMs")? {
+        let interval = if v == 0 {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(Duration::from_millis(v))
+        };
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_stats_log_interval(interval);
+    }
+    let hnsw_params = import_vec_from_method(
+        env,
+        config,
+        "hnswParams",
+        |env, item| -> Result<(String, HnswBuildParams)> {
+            let index_name = env
+                .call_method(&item, "indexName", "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])?
+                .l()?;
+            let index_name: String = JString::from(index_name).extract(env)?;
+            let num_edges = env.call_method(&item, "numEdges", "()I", &[])?.i()? as usize;
+            let ef_construction =
+                env.call_method(&item, "efConstruction", "()I", &[])?.i()? as usize;
+            let max_level = env.call_method(&item, "maxLevel", "()I", &[])?.i()? as u16;
+            Ok((
+                index_name,
+                HnswBuildParams::default()
+                    .num_edges(num_edges)
+                    .ef_construction(ef_construction)
+                    .max_level(max_level),
+            ))
+        },
+    )?;
+    for (index_name, params) in hnsw_params {
+        writer_config = writer_config.with_hnsw_params(index_name, params);
+    }
+    Ok(writer_config)
+}
+
+fn read_optional_bool(env: &mut JNIEnv, obj: &JObject, method: &str) -> Result<Option<bool>> {
+    env.get_optional_from_method(obj, method, |env, value| {
+        Ok(env.call_method(&value, "booleanValue", "()Z", &[])?.z()?)
+    })
+}
+
+fn read_optional_u64(env: &mut JNIEnv, obj: &JObject, method: &str) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+    env.get_optional_from_method(obj, method, |env, value| {
+        Ok(env.call_method(&value, "longValue", "()J", &[])?.j()? as u64)
+    })
+}
+
+fn write_stats_to_java<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    stats: &WriteStatsSnapshot,
+) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/memwal/WriteStats",
+        "(JJJJJJJJ)V",
+        &[
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.put_count as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.put_time.as_millis() as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.wal_flush_count as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.wal_flush_bytes as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.wal_flush_time.as_millis() as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.memtable_flush_count as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.memtable_flush_rows as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.memtable_flush_time.as_millis() as i64),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn memtable_stats_to_java<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    stats: &MemTableStats,
+    memory: &ShardMemory,
+) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let max_buffered = box_u64_opt(env, stats.max_buffered_batch_position)?;
+    let pending_start = box_u64_opt(env, stats.pending_wal_start_batch_position)?;
+    let pending_end = box_u64_opt(env, stats.pending_wal_end_batch_position)?;
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/memwal/MemTableStats",
+        "(JJJJLjava/lang/Long;JJLjava/lang/Long;Ljava/lang/Long;JJJJJJ)V",
+        &[
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.row_count as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.batch_count as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(memory.row_bytes() as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.generation as i64),
+            JValueGen::Object(&max_buffered),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.durable_batch_count as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.global_offset as i64),
+            JValueGen::Object(&pending_start),
+            JValueGen::Object(&pending_end),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.pending_wal_batch_count as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.pending_wal_row_count as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(stats.pending_wal_estimated_bytes as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(memory.index_bytes() as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(memory.grace_bytes() as i64),
+            JValueGen::Long(memory.retained_bytes() as i64),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn box_u64_opt<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, value: Option<usize>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    match value {
+        Some(v) => Ok(env.new_object("java/lang/Long", "(J)V", &[JValueGen::Long(v as i64)])?),
+        None => Ok(JObject::null()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn index_details_to_java<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    details: &MemWalIndexDetails,
+) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let maintained_indexes = export_vec(env, &details.maintained_indexes)?;
+    let writer_config_defaults = details.writer_config_defaults.clone().into_java(env)?;
+
+    let sharding_specs = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    for spec in &details.sharding_specs {
+        let spec_obj = sharding_spec_to_java(env, spec)?;
+        env.call_method(
+            &sharding_specs,
+            "add",
+            "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+            &[JValueGen::Object(&spec_obj)],
+        )?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/memwal/MemWalIndexDetails",
+        "(JLjava/util/List;ZLjava/util/Map;Ljava/util/List;)V",
+        &[
+            JValueGen::Long(details.num_shards as i64),
+            JValueGen::Object(&maintained_indexes),
+            JValueGen::Bool(u8::from(details.maintain_all_indexes)),
+            JValueGen::Object(&writer_config_defaults),
+            JValueGen::Object(&sharding_specs),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn sharding_spec_to_java<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, spec: &ShardingSpec) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let fields = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    for field in &spec.fields {
+        let field_obj = sharding_field_to_java(env, field)?;
+        env.call_method(
+            &fields,
+            "add",
+            "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+            &[JValueGen::Object(&field_obj)],
+        )?;
+    }
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/memwal/ShardingSpec",
+        "(ILjava/util/List;)V",
+        &[
+            JValueGen::Int(spec.spec_id as i32),
+            JValueGen::Object(&fields),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn sharding_field_to_java<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, field: &ShardingField) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let field_id: JObject = env.new_string(&field.field_id)?.into();
+    let source_ids = int_list_to_java(env, &field.source_ids)?;
+    let transform: JObject = match &field.transform {
+        Some(t) => env.new_string(t)?.into(),
+        None => JObject::null(),
+    };
+    let expression: JObject = match &field.expression {
+        Some(e) => env.new_string(e)?.into(),
+        None => JObject::null(),
+    };
+    let result_type: JObject = env.new_string(&field.result_type)?.into();
+    let parameters = field.parameters.clone().into_java(env)?;
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/memwal/ShardingField",
+        "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;\
+         Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/util/Map;)V",
+        &[
+            JValueGen::Object(&field_id),
+            JValueGen::Object(&source_ids),
+            JValueGen::Object(&transform),
+            JValueGen::Object(&expression),
+            JValueGen::Object(&result_type),
+            JValueGen::Object(&parameters),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn sharding_spec_from_java(env: &mut JNIEnv, spec: &JObject) -> Result<ShardingSpec> {
+    if spec.is_null() {
+        return Err(Error::input_error(
+            "ShardingSpec must not be null".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    env.with_local_frame(32, |env| {
+        let spec_id = env.call_method(spec, "specId", "()I", &[])?.i()? as u32;
+        let fields_obj = env
+            .call_method(spec, "fields", "()Ljava/util/List;", &[])?
+            .l()?;
+        let fields_list = env.get_list(&fields_obj)?;
+        let mut iter = fields_list.iter(env)?;
+        let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(fields_list.size(env)? as usize);
+        while let Some(field_obj) = iter.next(env)? {
+            fields.push(sharding_field_from_java(env, &field_obj)?);
+        }
+
+        Ok::<_, Error>(ShardingSpec { spec_id, fields })
+    })
+}
+
+fn sharding_field_from_java(env: &mut JNIEnv, field: &JObject) -> Result<ShardingField> {
+    env.with_local_frame(32, |env| {
+        let field_id = string_from_method(env, field, "fieldId")?;
+        let source_ids_obj = env
+            .call_method(field, "sourceIds", "()Ljava/util/List;", &[])?
+            .l()?;
+        let source_ids = env.get_integers(&source_ids_obj)?;
+        let transform = env.get_optional_string_from_method(field, "transform")?;
+        let expression = env.get_optional_string_from_method(field, "expression")?;
+        let result_type = string_from_method(env, field, "resultType")?;
+        let parameters_obj = env
+            .call_method(field, "parameters", "()Ljava/util/Map;", &[])?
+            .l()?;
+        let parameters = if parameters_obj.is_null() {
+            HashMap::new()
+        } else {
+            let parameters_map = JMap::from_env(env, &parameters_obj)?;
+            to_rust_map(env, &parameters_map)?
+        };
+
+        Ok::<_, Error>(ShardingField {
+            field_id,
+            source_ids,
+            transform,
+            expression,
+            result_type,
+            parameters,
+        })
+    })
+}
+
+fn i32_string_map_from_java(env: &mut JNIEnv, map_obj: JObject) -> Result<HashMap<i32, String>> {
+    if map_obj.is_null() {
+        return Ok(HashMap::new());
+    }
+
+    env.with_local_frame(32, |env| {
+        let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &map_obj)?;
+        let mut iter = jmap.iter(env)?;
+        let mut map = HashMap::new();
+        while let Some((key, value)) = iter.next(env)? {
+            let key = env.call_method(&key, "intValue", "()I", &[])?.i()?;
+            let value = JString::from(value);
+            let value: String = env.get_string(&value)?.into();
+            map.insert(key, value);
+        }
+        Ok::<_, Error>(map)
+    })
+}
+
+fn string_from_method(env: &mut JNIEnv, obj: &JObject, method: &str) -> Result<String> {
+    let value = env
+        .call_method(obj, method, "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])?
+        .l()?;
+    let value = JString::from(value);
+    Ok(env.get_string(&value)?.into())
+}
+
+fn int_list_to_java<'a>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>, ints: &[i32]) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    for &value in ints {
+        let integer = env.new_object("java/lang/Integer", "(I)V", &[JValueGen::Int(value)])?;
+        env.call_method(
+            &list,
+            "add",
+            "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+            &[JValueGen::Object(&integer)],
+        )?;
+    }
+    Ok(list)
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/merge_insert.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/merge_insert.rs
index dca9e163ff8..699f9c418ea 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/merge_insert.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/merge_insert.rs
@@ -3,21 +3,27 @@
 
 use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET};
 use crate::error::Result;
+use crate::traits::import_vec_to_rust;
 use crate::traits::{FromJString, IntoJava};
-use crate::{Error, JNIEnvExt, RT};
+use crate::{Error, JNIEnvExt, block_on};
 use arrow::ffi_stream::{ArrowArrayStreamReader, FFI_ArrowArrayStream};
+use jni::JNIEnv;
 use jni::objects::{JObject, JString, JValueGen};
 use jni::sys::jlong;
-use jni::JNIEnv;
 use lance::dataset::scanner::ExprFilter;
 use lance::dataset::{
-    MergeInsertBuilder, MergeStats, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched, WhenNotMatchedBySource,
+    MergeInsertBuilder, MergeInsertWriteMode, MergeStats, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched,
+    WhenNotMatchedBySource,
 };
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_index::mem_wal::CompactedSsTable;
+use std::str::FromStr;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::time::Duration;
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeMergeInsert<'a>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
     jdataset: JObject,    // Dataset object
@@ -48,6 +54,10 @@ fn inner_merge_insert<'local>(
     let conflict_retries = extract_conflict_retries(env, &jparam)?;
     let retry_timeout_ms = extract_retry_timeout_ms(env, &jparam)?;
     let skip_auto_cleanup = extract_skip_auto_cleanup(env, &jparam)?;
+    let use_index = extract_use_index(env, &jparam)?;
+    let write_mode = extract_write_mode(env, &jparam)?;
+    let compacted_sstables = extract_compacted_sstables(env, &jparam)?;
+    let data_storage_version = extract_data_storage_version(env, &jparam)?;
 
     let (new_ds, merge_stats) = unsafe {
         let dataset = env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET)?;
@@ -58,19 +68,26 @@ fn inner_merge_insert<'local>(
             when_not_matched_by_source_delete_expr,
         )?;
 
-        let merge_insert_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone().inner), on)?
+        let mut builder = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone().inner), on)?;
+        if let Some(version) = data_storage_version {
+            builder.data_storage_version(LanceFileVersion::from_str(&version)?);
+        }
+        let merge_insert_job = builder
             .when_matched(when_matched)
             .when_not_matched(when_not_matched)
             .when_not_matched_by_source(when_not_matched_by_source)
             .conflict_retries(conflict_retries)
             .retry_timeout(Duration::from_millis(retry_timeout_ms as u64))
             .skip_auto_cleanup(skip_auto_cleanup)
+            .use_index(use_index)
+            .write_mode(write_mode)
+            .mark_sstables_as_compacted(compacted_sstables)
             .try_build()?;
 
         let stream_ptr = batch_address as *mut FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
         let source_stream = ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_raw(stream_ptr)?;
 
-        RT.block_on(async move { merge_insert_job.execute_reader(source_stream).await })?
+        block_on(async move { merge_insert_job.execute_reader(source_stream).await })?
     };
 
     MergeResult(
@@ -229,6 +246,66 @@ fn extract_skip_auto_cleanup<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, jparam: &JObject)
     Ok(skip_auto_cleanup)
 }
 
+fn extract_use_index<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, jparam: &JObject) -> Result<bool> {
+    let use_index = env.call_method(jparam, "useIndex", "()Z", &[])?.z()?;
+    Ok(use_index)
+}
+
+fn extract_data_storage_version<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jparam: &JObject,
+) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+    let version = env
+        .call_method(
+            jparam,
+            "getDataStorageVersion",
+            "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+    env.get_string_opt(&version)
+}
+
+fn extract_write_mode<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jparam: &JObject,
+) -> Result<MergeInsertWriteMode> {
+    let write_mode: JString = env
+        .call_method(jparam, "writeModeValue", "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])?
+        .l()?
+        .into();
+    let write_mode = write_mode.extract(env)?;
+
+    match write_mode.as_str() {
+        "Auto" => Ok(MergeInsertWriteMode::Auto),
+        "RewriteRows" => Ok(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteRows),
+        "RewriteColumns" => Ok(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns),
+        _ => Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+            "Illegal write_mode: {write_mode}",
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn extract_compacted_sstables<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jparam: &JObject,
+) -> Result<Vec<CompactedSsTable>> {
+    let list = env
+        .call_method(jparam, "getCompactedSstables", "()Ljava/util/List;", &[])?
+        .l()?;
+    import_vec_to_rust(env, &list, |env, obj| {
+        let shard_id: JString = env
+            .call_method(&obj, "getShardId", "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])?
+            .l()?
+            .into();
+        let shard_id = shard_id.extract(env)?;
+        let generation = env.call_method(&obj, "getGeneration", "()J", &[])?.j()? as u64;
+        let uuid = Uuid::parse_str(&shard_id)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Invalid shard_id UUID: {}", e)))?;
+        Ok(CompactedSsTable::new(uuid, generation))
+    })
+}
+
 const MERGE_STATS_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/merge/MergeInsertStats";
 const MERGE_STATS_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str = "(JJJIJJ)V";
 const MERGE_RESULT_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/merge/MergeInsertResult";
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/namespace.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/namespace.rs
index b9db171c064..9a670af0e2a 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/namespace.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/namespace.rs
@@ -4,21 +4,23 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use jni::objects::{GlobalRef, JByteArray, JMap, JObject, JString, JValue};
-use jni::sys::{jbyteArray, jlong, jstring};
 use jni::JNIEnv;
-use lance_namespace::models::*;
+use jni::objects::{GlobalRef, JByteArray, JMap, JObject, JString, JValue};
+use jni::sys::{jbyteArray, jlong, jobject, jstring};
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace as LanceNamespaceTrait;
+use lance_namespace::compat::merge_insert_request_from_json;
+use lance_namespace::models::*;
 use lance_namespace_impls::{
     ConnectBuilder, DirectoryNamespace, DirectoryNamespaceBuilder, DynamicContextProvider,
     OperationInfo, RestAdapter, RestAdapterConfig, RestNamespace, RestNamespaceBuilder,
 };
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
 
+use crate::block_on;
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::utils::to_rust_map;
-use crate::RT;
 
 /// Java-implemented dynamic context provider.
 ///
@@ -116,21 +118,1421 @@ fn convert_java_map_to_hashmap(
     Ok(result)
 }
 
+/// Convert a Rust HashMap<String, u64> to a Java HashMap<String, Long>
+fn rust_hashmap_to_java_map<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    map: &HashMap<String, u64>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let java_map = env.new_object("java/util/HashMap", "()V", &[])?;
+    for (k, v) in map {
+        let jkey = env.new_string(k)?;
+        // Create a java.lang.Long object from the u64 value
+        let jval = env.new_object("java/lang/Long", "(J)V", &[JValue::Long(*v as i64)])?;
+        env.call_method(
+            &java_map,
+            "put",
+            "(Ljava/lang/Object;Ljava/lang/Object;)Ljava/lang/Object;",
+            &[JValue::Object(&jkey), JValue::Object(&jval)],
+        )?;
+    }
+    Ok(java_map)
+}
+
 /// Blocking wrapper for DirectoryNamespace
 pub struct BlockingDirectoryNamespace {
-    pub(crate) inner: DirectoryNamespace,
+    pub(crate) inner: Arc<DirectoryNamespace>,
 }
 
 /// Blocking wrapper for RestNamespace
 pub struct BlockingRestNamespace {
-    pub(crate) inner: RestNamespace,
+    pub(crate) inner: Arc<RestNamespace>,
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// JavaLanceNamespace - Generic wrapper for any Java LanceNamespace implementation
+// ============================================================================
+
+/// Java-implemented LanceNamespace wrapper.
+///
+/// This wraps any Java object that implements the LanceNamespace interface
+/// and forwards calls to the Java implementation via JNI.
+pub struct JavaLanceNamespace {
+    java_namespace: GlobalRef,
+    jvm: Arc<jni::JavaVM>,
+    namespace_id: String,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for JavaLanceNamespace {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "JavaLanceNamespace({})", self.namespace_id)
+    }
+}
+
+impl JavaLanceNamespace {
+    /// Create a new wrapper for a Java LanceNamespace object.
+    pub fn new(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_namespace: &JObject) -> Result<Self> {
+        let java_namespace = env.new_global_ref(java_namespace)?;
+        let jvm = Arc::new(env.get_java_vm()?);
+
+        // Cache namespace_id since it's called frequently and won't change
+        let namespace_id = Self::call_namespace_id_internal(env, &java_namespace)?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            java_namespace,
+            jvm,
+            namespace_id,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn call_namespace_id_internal(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_namespace: &GlobalRef) -> Result<String> {
+        let result = env
+            .call_method(java_namespace, "namespaceId", "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::runtime_error(format!(
+                    "Failed to call namespaceId on Java namespace: {}",
+                    e
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+        let jstring = result.l().map_err(|e| {
+            Error::runtime_error(format!("namespaceId did not return an object: {}", e))
+        })?;
+
+        if jstring.is_null() {
+            return Err(Error::runtime_error(
+                "namespaceId returned null".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let jstring_ref = JString::from(jstring);
+        let java_string = env.get_string(&jstring_ref).map_err(|e| {
+            Error::runtime_error(format!(
+                "Failed to convert namespaceId to Rust string: {}",
+                e
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(java_string.into())
+    }
+}
+
+impl JavaLanceNamespace {
+    /// Helper to deserialize JSON to Java object using ObjectMapper.
+    fn deserialize_request<'a>(
+        env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+        json: &str,
+        request_class: &str,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let jrequest_json = env.new_string(json).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to create request JSON string: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?;
+
+        // Create ObjectMapper
+        let object_mapper_class = env
+            .find_class("com/fasterxml/jackson/databind/ObjectMapper")
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to find ObjectMapper class: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+        let object_mapper = env
+            .new_object(&object_mapper_class, "()V", &[])
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to create ObjectMapper: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+        // Get request class
+        let request_class_obj = env.find_class(request_class).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to find request class {}: {}",
+                request_class, e
+            ))))
+        })?;
+
+        // Call objectMapper.readValue(json, class)
+        env.call_method(
+            &object_mapper,
+            "readValue",
+            "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/Class;)Ljava/lang/Object;",
+            &[
+                JValue::Object(&jrequest_json),
+                JValue::Object(&request_class_obj),
+            ],
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to deserialize request via ObjectMapper: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?
+        .l()
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "ObjectMapper.readValue did not return an object: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Helper to serialize Java object to JSON using ObjectMapper.
+    fn serialize_response(env: &mut JNIEnv, response_obj: &JObject) -> lance_core::Result<String> {
+        // Create ObjectMapper
+        let object_mapper_class = env
+            .find_class("com/fasterxml/jackson/databind/ObjectMapper")
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to find ObjectMapper class: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+        let object_mapper = env
+            .new_object(&object_mapper_class, "()V", &[])
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to create ObjectMapper: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+        // Call objectMapper.writeValueAsString(obj)
+        let response_json_obj = env
+            .call_method(
+                &object_mapper,
+                "writeValueAsString",
+                "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Ljava/lang/String;",
+                &[JValue::Object(response_obj)],
+            )
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to serialize response via ObjectMapper: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?
+            .l()
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "ObjectMapper.writeValueAsString did not return a string: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+        let response_str: String = env
+            .get_string(&JString::from(response_json_obj))
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to convert response JSON to string: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?
+            .into();
+
+        Ok(response_str)
+    }
+
+    /// Helper to call a Java method that takes a request object and returns a response object.
+    /// JSON conversion is done via Jackson ObjectMapper.
+    async fn call_json_method<Req, Resp>(
+        &self,
+        method_name: &'static str,
+        request_class: &str,
+        response_class: &str,
+        request: Req,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Resp>
+    where
+        Req: serde::Serialize + Send + 'static,
+        Resp: serde::de::DeserializeOwned + Send + 'static,
+    {
+        let java_namespace = self.java_namespace.clone();
+        let jvm = self.jvm.clone();
+        let request_class = request_class.to_string();
+        let response_class = response_class.to_string();
+
+        tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let mut env = jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to attach to JVM: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Serialize request to JSON
+            let request_json = serde_json::to_string(&request).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to serialize request: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Deserialize JSON to Java request object via ObjectMapper
+            let request_obj = Self::deserialize_request(&mut env, &request_json, &request_class)?;
+
+            // Call the interface method with request object
+            let method_sig = format!("(L{};)L{};", request_class, response_class);
+            let response_obj = env
+                .call_method(
+                    &java_namespace,
+                    method_name,
+                    &method_sig,
+                    &[JValue::Object(&request_obj)],
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to call {}: {}",
+                        method_name, e
+                    ))))
+                })?
+                .l()
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "{} did not return an object: {}",
+                        method_name, e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+            if response_obj.is_null() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(
+                    std::io::Error::other(format!("{} returned null", method_name)),
+                )));
+            }
+
+            // Serialize Java response to JSON via ObjectMapper
+            let response_str = Self::serialize_response(&mut env, &response_obj)?;
+
+            serde_json::from_str(&response_str).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to deserialize response: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to spawn blocking task: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?
+    }
+
+    /// Helper for void methods (return ()).
+    async fn call_void_method<Req>(
+        &self,
+        method_name: &'static str,
+        request_class: &str,
+        request: Req,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<()>
+    where
+        Req: serde::Serialize + Send + 'static,
+    {
+        let java_namespace = self.java_namespace.clone();
+        let jvm = self.jvm.clone();
+        let request_class = request_class.to_string();
+
+        tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let mut env = jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to attach to JVM: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Serialize request to JSON
+            let request_json = serde_json::to_string(&request).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to serialize request: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Deserialize JSON to Java request object via ObjectMapper
+            let request_obj = Self::deserialize_request(&mut env, &request_json, &request_class)?;
+
+            // Call the interface method with request object
+            let method_sig = format!("(L{};)V", request_class);
+            env.call_method(
+                &java_namespace,
+                method_name,
+                &method_sig,
+                &[JValue::Object(&request_obj)],
+            )
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to call {}: {}",
+                    method_name, e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            Ok(())
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to spawn blocking task: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?
+    }
+
+    /// Helper for methods returning a string directly.
+    async fn call_string_method<Req>(
+        &self,
+        method_name: &'static str,
+        request_class: &str,
+        request: Req,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<String>
+    where
+        Req: serde::Serialize + Send + 'static,
+    {
+        let java_namespace = self.java_namespace.clone();
+        let jvm = self.jvm.clone();
+        let request_class = request_class.to_string();
+
+        tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let mut env = jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to attach to JVM: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Serialize request to JSON
+            let request_json = serde_json::to_string(&request).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to serialize request: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Deserialize JSON to Java request object via ObjectMapper
+            let request_obj = Self::deserialize_request(&mut env, &request_json, &request_class)?;
+
+            // Call the interface method with request object
+            let method_sig = format!("(L{};)Ljava/lang/String;", request_class);
+            let result = env
+                .call_method(
+                    &java_namespace,
+                    method_name,
+                    &method_sig,
+                    &[JValue::Object(&request_obj)],
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to call {}: {}",
+                        method_name, e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+            let response_obj = result.l().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "{} did not return an object: {}",
+                    method_name, e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            if response_obj.is_null() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(
+                    std::io::Error::other(format!("{} returned null", method_name)),
+                )));
+            }
+
+            let response_str: String = env
+                .get_string(&JString::from(response_obj))
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to convert response to string: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))))
+                })?
+                .into();
+
+            Ok(response_str)
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to spawn blocking task: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?
+    }
+
+    /// Helper for methods returning Long (boxed).
+    async fn call_long_method<Req>(
+        &self,
+        method_name: &'static str,
+        request_class: &str,
+        request: Req,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<i64>
+    where
+        Req: serde::Serialize + Send + 'static,
+    {
+        let java_namespace = self.java_namespace.clone();
+        let jvm = self.jvm.clone();
+        let request_class = request_class.to_string();
+
+        tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let mut env = jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to attach to JVM: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Serialize request to JSON
+            let request_json = serde_json::to_string(&request).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to serialize request: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Deserialize JSON to Java request object via ObjectMapper
+            let request_obj = Self::deserialize_request(&mut env, &request_json, &request_class)?;
+
+            // Call the interface method with request object - returns Long (boxed)
+            let method_sig = format!("(L{};)Ljava/lang/Long;", request_class);
+            let result = env
+                .call_method(
+                    &java_namespace,
+                    method_name,
+                    &method_sig,
+                    &[JValue::Object(&request_obj)],
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to call {}: {}",
+                        method_name, e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+            let long_obj = result.l().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "{} did not return an object: {}",
+                    method_name, e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            if long_obj.is_null() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(
+                    std::io::Error::other(format!("{} returned null", method_name)),
+                )));
+            }
+
+            // Unbox Long to long
+            let long_value = env
+                .call_method(&long_obj, "longValue", "()J", &[])
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to call longValue: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))))
+                })?
+                .j()
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "longValue did not return a long: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+            Ok(long_value)
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to spawn blocking task: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?
+    }
+
+    /// Helper for methods with Bytes parameter (request + byte[] data).
+    async fn call_with_bytes_method<Req, Resp>(
+        &self,
+        method_name: &'static str,
+        request_class: &str,
+        response_class: &str,
+        request: Req,
+        data: Bytes,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Resp>
+    where
+        Req: serde::Serialize + Send + 'static,
+        Resp: serde::de::DeserializeOwned + Send + 'static,
+    {
+        let java_namespace = self.java_namespace.clone();
+        let jvm = self.jvm.clone();
+        let request_class = request_class.to_string();
+        let response_class = response_class.to_string();
+
+        tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let mut env = jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to attach to JVM: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Serialize request to JSON
+            let request_json = serde_json::to_string(&request).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to serialize request: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Deserialize JSON to Java request object via ObjectMapper
+            let request_obj = Self::deserialize_request(&mut env, &request_json, &request_class)?;
+
+            let jdata = env.byte_array_from_slice(&data).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to create byte array: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Call the interface method with request object and byte array
+            let method_sig = format!("(L{};[B)L{};", request_class, response_class);
+            let response_obj = env
+                .call_method(
+                    &java_namespace,
+                    method_name,
+                    &method_sig,
+                    &[JValue::Object(&request_obj), JValue::Object(&jdata)],
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to call {}: {}",
+                        method_name, e
+                    ))))
+                })?
+                .l()
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "{} did not return an object: {}",
+                        method_name, e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+            if response_obj.is_null() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(
+                    std::io::Error::other(format!("{} returned null", method_name)),
+                )));
+            }
+
+            // Serialize Java response to JSON via ObjectMapper
+            let response_str = Self::serialize_response(&mut env, &response_obj)?;
+
+            serde_json::from_str(&response_str).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to deserialize response: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to spawn blocking task: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?
+    }
+
+    /// Helper for methods returning Bytes (byte[]).
+    async fn call_bytes_method<Req>(
+        &self,
+        method_name: &'static str,
+        request_class: &str,
+        request: Req,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Bytes>
+    where
+        Req: serde::Serialize + Send + 'static,
+    {
+        let java_namespace = self.java_namespace.clone();
+        let jvm = self.jvm.clone();
+        let request_class = request_class.to_string();
+
+        tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let mut env = jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to attach to JVM: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Serialize request to JSON
+            let request_json = serde_json::to_string(&request).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to serialize request: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Deserialize JSON to Java request object via ObjectMapper
+            let request_obj = Self::deserialize_request(&mut env, &request_json, &request_class)?;
+
+            // Call the interface method with request object - returns byte[]
+            let method_sig = format!("(L{};)[B", request_class);
+            let result = env
+                .call_method(
+                    &java_namespace,
+                    method_name,
+                    &method_sig,
+                    &[JValue::Object(&request_obj)],
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to call {}: {}",
+                        method_name, e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+            let response_obj = result.l().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "{} did not return an object: {}",
+                    method_name, e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            if response_obj.is_null() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(
+                    std::io::Error::other(format!("{} returned null", method_name)),
+                )));
+            }
+
+            let byte_array = JByteArray::from(response_obj);
+            let bytes = env.convert_byte_array(byte_array).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to convert byte array: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            Ok(Bytes::from(bytes))
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to spawn blocking task: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?
+    }
+
+    /// Helper for methods with request + extra String parameter (e.g., indexName).
+    /// Extracts the extra string via getter_method on the request object.
+    async fn call_json_method_with_extra_string<Req, Resp>(
+        &self,
+        method_name: &'static str,
+        request_class: &str,
+        response_class: &str,
+        getter_method: &'static str,
+        request: Req,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Resp>
+    where
+        Req: serde::Serialize + Send + 'static,
+        Resp: serde::de::DeserializeOwned + Send + 'static,
+    {
+        let java_namespace = self.java_namespace.clone();
+        let jvm = self.jvm.clone();
+        let request_class = request_class.to_string();
+        let response_class = response_class.to_string();
+
+        tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let mut env = jvm.attach_current_thread().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to attach to JVM: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Serialize request to JSON
+            let request_json = serde_json::to_string(&request).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to serialize request: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+            // Deserialize JSON to Java request object via ObjectMapper
+            let request_obj = Self::deserialize_request(&mut env, &request_json, &request_class)?;
+
+            // Call getter method to extract extra string (e.g., getIndexName)
+            let extra_string_obj = env
+                .call_method(&request_obj, getter_method, "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to call {}: {}",
+                        getter_method, e
+                    ))))
+                })?
+                .l()
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "{} did not return an object: {}",
+                        getter_method, e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+            // Call the interface method with request object and extra string
+            let method_sig = format!(
+                "(L{};Ljava/lang/String;)L{};",
+                request_class, response_class
+            );
+            let response_obj = env
+                .call_method(
+                    &java_namespace,
+                    method_name,
+                    &method_sig,
+                    &[
+                        JValue::Object(&request_obj),
+                        JValue::Object(&extra_string_obj),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to call {}: {}",
+                        method_name, e
+                    ))))
+                })?
+                .l()
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "{} did not return an object: {}",
+                        method_name, e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+            if response_obj.is_null() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(
+                    std::io::Error::other(format!("{} returned null", method_name)),
+                )));
+            }
+
+            // Serialize Java response to JSON via ObjectMapper
+            let response_str = Self::serialize_response(&mut env, &response_obj)?;
+
+            serde_json::from_str(&response_str).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to deserialize response: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to spawn blocking task: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?
+    }
+}
+
+const MODEL_PKG: &str = "org/lance/namespace/model";
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl LanceNamespaceTrait for JavaLanceNamespace {
+    fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
+        self.namespace_id.clone()
+    }
+
+    async fn list_namespaces(
+        &self,
+        request: ListNamespacesRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ListNamespacesResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "listNamespaces",
+            &format!("{}/ListNamespacesRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/ListNamespacesResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_namespace(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeNamespaceRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DescribeNamespaceResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "describeNamespace",
+            &format!("{}/DescribeNamespaceRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DescribeNamespaceResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_namespace(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateNamespaceRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<CreateNamespaceResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "createNamespace",
+            &format!("{}/CreateNamespaceRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/CreateNamespaceResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn drop_namespace(
+        &self,
+        request: DropNamespaceRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DropNamespaceResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "dropNamespace",
+            &format!("{}/DropNamespaceRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DropNamespaceResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn namespace_exists(&self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        self.call_void_method(
+            "namespaceExists",
+            &format!("{}/NamespaceExistsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn list_tables(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTablesRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ListTablesResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "listTables",
+            &format!("{}/ListTablesRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/ListTablesResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_table(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTableRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DescribeTableResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "describeTable",
+            &format!("{}/DescribeTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DescribeTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn register_table(
+        &self,
+        request: RegisterTableRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<RegisterTableResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "registerTable",
+            &format!("{}/RegisterTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/RegisterTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn table_exists(&self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        self.call_void_method(
+            "tableExists",
+            &format!("{}/TableExistsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn drop_table(&self, request: DropTableRequest) -> lance_core::Result<DropTableResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "dropTable",
+            &format!("{}/DropTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DropTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn deregister_table(
+        &self,
+        request: DeregisterTableRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DeregisterTableResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "deregisterTable",
+            &format!("{}/DeregisterTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DeregisterTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn count_table_rows(&self, request: CountTableRowsRequest) -> lance_core::Result<i64> {
+        self.call_long_method(
+            "countTableRows",
+            &format!("{}/CountTableRowsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableRequest,
+        data: Bytes,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<CreateTableResponse> {
+        self.call_with_bytes_method(
+            "createTable",
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+            data,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn declare_table(
+        &self,
+        request: DeclareTableRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DeclareTableResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "declareTable",
+            &format!("{}/DeclareTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DeclareTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn insert_into_table(
+        &self,
+        request: InsertIntoTableRequest,
+        data: Bytes,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<InsertIntoTableResponse> {
+        self.call_with_bytes_method(
+            "insertIntoTable",
+            &format!("{}/InsertIntoTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/InsertIntoTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+            data,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn merge_insert_into_table(
+        &self,
+        request: MergeInsertIntoTableRequest,
+        data: Bytes,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<MergeInsertIntoTableResponse> {
+        self.call_with_bytes_method(
+            "mergeInsertIntoTable",
+            &format!("{}/MergeInsertIntoTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/MergeInsertIntoTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+            data,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn update_table(
+        &self,
+        request: UpdateTableRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<UpdateTableResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "updateTable",
+            &format!("{}/UpdateTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/UpdateTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn delete_from_table(
+        &self,
+        request: DeleteFromTableRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DeleteFromTableResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "deleteFromTable",
+            &format!("{}/DeleteFromTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DeleteFromTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn query_table(&self, request: QueryTableRequest) -> lance_core::Result<Bytes> {
+        self.call_bytes_method(
+            "queryTable",
+            &format!("{}/QueryTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_index(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableIndexRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<CreateTableIndexResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "createTableIndex",
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableIndexRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableIndexResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn list_table_indices(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTableIndicesRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ListTableIndicesResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "listTableIndices",
+            &format!("{}/ListTableIndicesRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/ListTableIndicesResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_table_index_stats(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method_with_extra_string(
+            "describeTableIndexStats",
+            &format!("{}/DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            "getIndexName",
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_transaction(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTransactionRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DescribeTransactionResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "describeTransaction",
+            &format!("{}/DescribeTransactionRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DescribeTransactionResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn alter_transaction(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTransactionRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<AlterTransactionResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "alterTransaction",
+            &format!("{}/AlterTransactionRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/AlterTransactionResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_scalar_index(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableIndexRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<CreateTableScalarIndexResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "createTableScalarIndex",
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableIndexRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableScalarIndexResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn drop_table_index(
+        &self,
+        request: DropTableIndexRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DropTableIndexResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method_with_extra_string(
+            "dropTableIndex",
+            &format!("{}/DropTableIndexRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DropTableIndexResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            "getIndexName",
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn list_all_tables(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTablesRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ListTablesResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "listAllTables",
+            &format!("{}/ListTablesRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/ListTablesResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn restore_table(
+        &self,
+        request: RestoreTableRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<RestoreTableResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "restoreTable",
+            &format!("{}/RestoreTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/RestoreTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn rename_table(
+        &self,
+        request: RenameTableRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<RenameTableResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "renameTable",
+            &format!("{}/RenameTableRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/RenameTableResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn list_table_versions(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTableVersionsRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ListTableVersionsResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "listTableVersions",
+            &format!("{}/ListTableVersionsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/ListTableVersionsResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_version(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<CreateTableVersionResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "createTableVersion",
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableVersionRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableVersionResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_table_version(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DescribeTableVersionResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "describeTableVersion",
+            &format!("{}/DescribeTableVersionRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DescribeTableVersionResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn batch_delete_table_versions(
+        &self,
+        request: BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "batchDeleteTableVersions",
+            &format!("{}/BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn update_table_schema_metadata(
+        &self,
+        request: UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "updateTableSchemaMetadata",
+            &format!("{}/UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_table_stats(
+        &self,
+        request: GetTableStatsRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<GetTableStatsResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "getTableStats",
+            &format!("{}/GetTableStatsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/GetTableStatsResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn explain_table_query_plan(
+        &self,
+        request: ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<String> {
+        self.call_string_method(
+            "explainTableQueryPlan",
+            &format!("{}/ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn analyze_table_query_plan(
+        &self,
+        request: AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<String> {
+        self.call_string_method(
+            "analyzeTableQueryPlan",
+            &format!("{}/AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn alter_table_add_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableAddColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<AlterTableAddColumnsResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "alterTableAddColumns",
+            &format!("{}/AlterTableAddColumnsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/AlterTableAddColumnsResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn alter_table_alter_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "alterTableAlterColumns",
+            &format!("{}/AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn alter_table_drop_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableDropColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<AlterTableDropColumnsResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "alterTableDropColumns",
+            &format!("{}/AlterTableDropColumnsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/AlterTableDropColumnsResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn list_table_tags(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTableTagsRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ListTableTagsResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "listTableTags",
+            &format!("{}/ListTableTagsRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/ListTableTagsResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_table_tag_version(
+        &self,
+        request: GetTableTagVersionRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<GetTableTagVersionResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "getTableTagVersion",
+            &format!("{}/GetTableTagVersionRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/GetTableTagVersionResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_tag(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableTagRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<CreateTableTagResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "createTableTag",
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableTagRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/CreateTableTagResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn delete_table_tag(
+        &self,
+        request: DeleteTableTagRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DeleteTableTagResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "deleteTableTag",
+            &format!("{}/DeleteTableTagRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/DeleteTableTagResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn update_table_tag(
+        &self,
+        request: UpdateTableTagRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<UpdateTableTagResponse> {
+        self.call_json_method(
+            "updateTableTag",
+            &format!("{}/UpdateTableTagRequest", MODEL_PKG),
+            &format!("{}/UpdateTableTagResponse", MODEL_PKG),
+            request,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create a JavaLanceNamespace wrapper from a JNI environment and Java object.
+pub fn create_java_lance_namespace(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    java_namespace: &JObject,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn LanceNamespaceTrait>> {
+    let wrapper = JavaLanceNamespace::new(env, java_namespace)?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(wrapper))
 }
 
 // ============================================================================
 // DirectoryNamespace JNI Functions
 // ============================================================================
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -143,7 +1545,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createNative(
     )
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createNativeWithProvider(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -173,23 +1575,24 @@ fn create_directory_namespace_internal(
         })?;
 
     // Add context provider if provided
-    if let Some(provider_obj) = context_provider {
-        if !provider_obj.is_null() {
-            let java_provider = JavaDynamicContextProvider::new(env, &provider_obj)?;
-            builder = builder.context_provider(Arc::new(java_provider));
-        }
+    if let Some(provider_obj) = context_provider
+        && !provider_obj.is_null()
+    {
+        let java_provider = JavaDynamicContextProvider::new(env, &provider_obj)?;
+        builder = builder.context_provider(Arc::new(java_provider));
     }
 
-    let namespace = RT
-        .block_on(builder.build())
+    let namespace = block_on(builder.build())
         .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to build DirectoryNamespace: {}", e)))?;
 
-    let blocking_namespace = BlockingDirectoryNamespace { inner: namespace };
+    let blocking_namespace = BlockingDirectoryNamespace {
+        inner: Arc::new(namespace),
+    };
     let handle = Box::into_raw(Box::new(blocking_namespace)) as jlong;
     Ok(handle)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_releaseNative(
     _env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -202,13 +1605,964 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_releaseNative
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_namespaceIdNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
 ) -> jstring {
-    let namespace = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingDirectoryNamespace) };
+    let namespace = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingDirectoryNamespace) };
+    let namespace_id = namespace.inner.namespace_id();
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        env.new_string(namespace_id).map_err(Error::from),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listNamespacesNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_namespaces(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeNamespaceNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_namespace(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createNamespaceNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_namespace(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_dropNamespaceNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.drop_namespace(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_namespaceExistsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_void_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.namespace_exists(req))
+        })
+    )
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listTablesNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_tables(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_table(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_registerTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.register_table(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_tableExistsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_void_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.table_exists(req))
+        })
+    )
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_dropTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.drop_table(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_deregisterTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.deregister_table(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_countTableRowsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jlong {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_count_method(&mut env, handle, request_json),
+        0
+    )
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+    request_data: JByteArray,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_with_data_method(
+            &mut env,
+            handle,
+            request_json,
+            request_data,
+            |namespace_client, req, data| {
+                block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table(req, data))
+            }
+        ),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_declareTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.declare_table(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_renameTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.rename_table(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_insertIntoTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+    request_data: JByteArray,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_with_data_method(
+            &mut env,
+            handle,
+            request_json,
+            request_data,
+            |namespace_client, req, data| {
+                block_on(namespace_client.inner.insert_into_table(req, data))
+            }
+        ),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_mergeInsertIntoTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+    request_data: JByteArray,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_with_data_method(
+            &mut env,
+            handle,
+            request_json,
+            request_data,
+            |namespace_client, req: serde_json::Value, data| {
+                let req = merge_insert_request_from_json(req)?;
+                block_on(namespace_client.inner.merge_insert_into_table(req, data))
+            }
+        ),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_updateTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.update_table(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_deleteFromTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.delete_from_table(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_queryTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jbyteArray {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_query_method(&mut env, handle, request_json),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createTableIndexNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table_index(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listTableIndicesNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_table_indices(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTableIndexStatsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_table_index_stats(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTransactionNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_transaction(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_alterTransactionNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_transaction(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listTableVersionsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_table_versions(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createTableVersionNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table_version(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTableVersionNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_table_version(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_batchDeleteTableVersionsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.batch_delete_table_versions(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createTableScalarIndexNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table_scalar_index(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_dropTableIndexNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.drop_table_index(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listAllTablesNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_all_tables(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_restoreTableNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.restore_table(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_updateTableSchemaMetadataNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.update_table_schema_metadata(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_getTableStatsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.get_table_stats(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_explainTableQueryPlanNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_string_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.explain_table_query_plan(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_analyzeTableQueryPlanNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_string_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.analyze_table_query_plan(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_alterTableAddColumnsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_table_add_columns(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_alterTableAlterColumnsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_table_alter_columns(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_alterTableDropColumnsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_table_drop_columns(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_alterTableBackfillColumnsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_table_backfill_columns(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_refreshMaterializedViewNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.refresh_materialized_view(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listTableTagsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_table_tags(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_getTableTagVersionNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.get_table_tag_version(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createTableTagNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table_tag(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_deleteTableTagNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.delete_table_tag(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_updateTableTagNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.update_table_tag(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createMaterializedViewNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+) -> jstring {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_materialized_view(req))
+        }),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_retrieveOpsMetricsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+) -> jobject {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        {
+            let namespace_client = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingDirectoryNamespace) };
+            let metrics = namespace_client.inner.retrieve_ops_metrics();
+            rust_hashmap_to_java_map(&mut env, &metrics)
+        },
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_resetOpsMetricsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, {
+        let namespace_client = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingDirectoryNamespace) };
+        namespace_client.inner.reset_ops_metrics();
+        Ok::<(), Error>(())
+    });
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// RestNamespace JNI Functions
+// ============================================================================
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    properties_map: JObject,
+) -> jlong {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        create_rest_namespace_internal(&mut env, properties_map, None),
+        0
+    )
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createNativeWithProvider(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    properties_map: JObject,
+    context_provider: JObject,
+) -> jlong {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        create_rest_namespace_internal(&mut env, properties_map, Some(context_provider)),
+        0
+    )
+}
+
+fn create_rest_namespace_internal(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    properties_map: JObject,
+    context_provider: Option<JObject>,
+) -> Result<jlong> {
+    // Convert Java HashMap to Rust HashMap
+    let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &properties_map)?;
+    let properties = to_rust_map(env, &jmap)?;
+
+    // Build RestNamespace using builder
+    let mut builder = RestNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to create RestNamespaceBuilder: {}", e))
+    })?;
+
+    // Add context provider if provided
+    if let Some(provider_obj) = context_provider
+        && !provider_obj.is_null()
+    {
+        let java_provider = JavaDynamicContextProvider::new(env, &provider_obj)?;
+        builder = builder.context_provider(Arc::new(java_provider));
+    }
+
+    let namespace = builder.build();
+
+    let blocking_namespace = BlockingRestNamespace {
+        inner: Arc::new(namespace),
+    };
+    let handle = Box::into_raw(Box::new(blocking_namespace)) as jlong;
+    Ok(handle)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_releaseNative(
+    _env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+) {
+    if handle != 0 {
+        unsafe {
+            let _ = Box::from_raw(handle as *mut BlockingRestNamespace);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_namespaceIdNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+) -> jstring {
+    let namespace = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingRestNamespace) };
     let namespace_id = namespace.inner.namespace_id();
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
@@ -218,8 +2572,8 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_namespaceIdNa
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listNamespacesNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listNamespacesNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -227,16 +2581,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listNamespace
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.list_namespaces(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_namespaces(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeNamespaceNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeNamespaceNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -244,16 +2598,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeNames
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.describe_namespace(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_namespace(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createNamespaceNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createNamespaceNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -261,16 +2615,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createNamespa
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.create_namespace(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_namespace(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_dropNamespaceNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_dropNamespaceNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -278,16 +2632,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_dropNamespace
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.drop_namespace(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.drop_namespace(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_namespaceExistsNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_namespaceExistsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -295,14 +2649,14 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_namespaceExis
 ) {
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_void_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.namespace_exists(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_void_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.namespace_exists(req))
         })
     )
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listTablesNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listTablesNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -310,16 +2664,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listTablesNat
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.list_tables(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_tables(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -327,16 +2681,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTable
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.describe_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_table(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_registerTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_registerTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -344,16 +2698,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_registerTable
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.register_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.register_table(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_tableExistsNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_tableExistsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -361,14 +2715,14 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_tableExistsNa
 ) {
     ok_or_throw_without_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_void_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.table_exists(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_void_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.table_exists(req))
         })
     )
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_dropTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_dropTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -376,16 +2730,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_dropTableNati
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.drop_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.drop_table(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_deregisterTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_deregisterTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -393,16 +2747,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_deregisterTab
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.deregister_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.deregister_table(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_countTableRowsNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_countTableRowsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -410,13 +2764,13 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_countTableRow
 ) -> jlong {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_count_method(&mut env, handle, request_json),
+        call_rest_namespace_count_method(&mut env, handle, request_json),
         0
     )
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -425,21 +2779,22 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createTableNa
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_with_data_method(
+        call_rest_namespace_with_data_method(
             &mut env,
             handle,
             request_json,
             request_data,
-            |ns, req, data| { RT.block_on(ns.inner.create_table(req, data)) }
+            |namespace_client, req, data| {
+                block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table(req, data))
+            }
         ),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-#[allow(deprecated)]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createEmptyTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_declareTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -447,16 +2802,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createEmptyTa
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.create_empty_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.declare_table(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_declareTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_renameTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -464,16 +2819,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_declareTableN
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.declare_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.rename_table(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_insertIntoTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_insertIntoTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -482,20 +2837,22 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_insertIntoTab
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_with_data_method(
+        call_rest_namespace_with_data_method(
             &mut env,
             handle,
             request_json,
             request_data,
-            |ns, req, data| { RT.block_on(ns.inner.insert_into_table(req, data)) }
+            |namespace_client, req, data| {
+                block_on(namespace_client.inner.insert_into_table(req, data))
+            }
         ),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_mergeInsertIntoTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_mergeInsertIntoTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -504,20 +2861,23 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_mergeInsertIn
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_with_data_method(
+        call_rest_namespace_with_data_method(
             &mut env,
             handle,
             request_json,
             request_data,
-            |ns, req, data| { RT.block_on(ns.inner.merge_insert_into_table(req, data)) }
+            |namespace_client, req: serde_json::Value, data| {
+                let req = merge_insert_request_from_json(req)?;
+                block_on(namespace_client.inner.merge_insert_into_table(req, data))
+            }
         ),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_updateTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_updateTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -525,16 +2885,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_updateTableNa
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.update_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.update_table(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_deleteFromTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_deleteFromTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -542,16 +2902,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_deleteFromTab
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.delete_from_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.delete_from_table(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_queryTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_queryTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -559,14 +2919,14 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_queryTableNat
 ) -> jbyteArray {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_query_method(&mut env, handle, request_json),
+        call_rest_namespace_query_method(&mut env, handle, request_json),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createTableIndexNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createTableIndexNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -574,16 +2934,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_createTableIn
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.create_table_index(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table_index(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listTableIndicesNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listTableIndicesNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -591,16 +2951,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_listTableIndi
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.list_table_indices(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_table_indices(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTableIndexStatsNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTableIndexStatsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -608,16 +2968,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTable
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.describe_table_index_stats(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_table_index_stats(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTransactionNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTransactionNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -625,16 +2985,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_describeTrans
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.describe_transaction(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_transaction(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_alterTransactionNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_alterTransactionNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -642,105 +3002,33 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_DirectoryNamespace_alterTransact
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.alter_transaction(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_transaction(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-// ============================================================================
-// RestNamespace JNI Functions
-// ============================================================================
-
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createNative(
-    mut env: JNIEnv,
-    _obj: JObject,
-    properties_map: JObject,
-) -> jlong {
-    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
-        env,
-        create_rest_namespace_internal(&mut env, properties_map, None),
-        0
-    )
-}
-
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createNativeWithProvider(
-    mut env: JNIEnv,
-    _obj: JObject,
-    properties_map: JObject,
-    context_provider: JObject,
-) -> jlong {
-    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
-        env,
-        create_rest_namespace_internal(&mut env, properties_map, Some(context_provider)),
-        0
-    )
-}
-
-fn create_rest_namespace_internal(
-    env: &mut JNIEnv,
-    properties_map: JObject,
-    context_provider: Option<JObject>,
-) -> Result<jlong> {
-    // Convert Java HashMap to Rust HashMap
-    let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &properties_map)?;
-    let properties = to_rust_map(env, &jmap)?;
-
-    // Build RestNamespace using builder
-    let mut builder = RestNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties).map_err(|e| {
-        Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to create RestNamespaceBuilder: {}", e))
-    })?;
-
-    // Add context provider if provided
-    if let Some(provider_obj) = context_provider {
-        if !provider_obj.is_null() {
-            let java_provider = JavaDynamicContextProvider::new(env, &provider_obj)?;
-            builder = builder.context_provider(Arc::new(java_provider));
-        }
-    }
-
-    let namespace = builder.build();
-
-    let blocking_namespace = BlockingRestNamespace { inner: namespace };
-    let handle = Box::into_raw(Box::new(blocking_namespace)) as jlong;
-    Ok(handle)
-}
-
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_releaseNative(
-    _env: JNIEnv,
-    _obj: JObject,
-    handle: jlong,
-) {
-    if handle != 0 {
-        unsafe {
-            let _ = Box::from_raw(handle as *mut BlockingRestNamespace);
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_namespaceIdNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listTableVersionsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
 ) -> jstring {
-    let namespace = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingRestNamespace) };
-    let namespace_id = namespace.inner.namespace_id();
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        env.new_string(namespace_id).map_err(Error::from),
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_table_versions(req))
+        }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listNamespacesNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createTableVersionNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -748,16 +3036,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listNamespacesNati
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.list_namespaces(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table_version(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeNamespaceNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTableVersionNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -765,16 +3053,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeNamespaceN
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.describe_namespace(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.describe_table_version(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createNamespaceNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_batchDeleteTableVersionsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -782,16 +3070,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createNamespaceNat
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.create_namespace(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.batch_delete_table_versions(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_dropNamespaceNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createTableScalarIndexNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -799,31 +3087,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_dropNamespaceNativ
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.drop_namespace(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table_scalar_index(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_namespaceExistsNative(
-    mut env: JNIEnv,
-    _obj: JObject,
-    handle: jlong,
-    request_json: JString,
-) {
-    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
-        env,
-        call_rest_namespace_void_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.namespace_exists(req))
-        })
-    )
-}
-
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listTablesNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_dropTableIndexNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -831,16 +3104,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listTablesNative(
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.list_tables(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.drop_table_index(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listAllTablesNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -848,16 +3121,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTableNativ
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.describe_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_all_tables(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_registerTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_restoreTableNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -865,31 +3138,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_registerTableNativ
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.register_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.restore_table(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_tableExistsNative(
-    mut env: JNIEnv,
-    _obj: JObject,
-    handle: jlong,
-    request_json: JString,
-) {
-    ok_or_throw_without_return!(
-        env,
-        call_rest_namespace_void_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.table_exists(req))
-        })
-    )
-}
-
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_dropTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_updateTableSchemaMetadataNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -897,16 +3155,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_dropTableNative(
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.drop_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.update_table_schema_metadata(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_deregisterTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_getTableStatsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -914,53 +3172,60 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_deregisterTableNat
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.deregister_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.get_table_stats(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_countTableRowsNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_explainTableQueryPlanNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
     request_json: JString,
-) -> jlong {
+) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_count_method(&mut env, handle, request_json),
-        0
+        call_rest_namespace_string_method(
+            &mut env,
+            handle,
+            request_json,
+            |namespace_client, req| {
+                block_on(namespace_client.inner.explain_table_query_plan(req))
+            }
+        ),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
+    .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_analyzeTableQueryPlanNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
     request_json: JString,
-    request_data: JByteArray,
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_with_data_method(
+        call_rest_namespace_string_method(
             &mut env,
             handle,
             request_json,
-            request_data,
-            |ns, req, data| { RT.block_on(ns.inner.create_table(req, data)) }
+            |namespace_client, req| {
+                block_on(namespace_client.inner.analyze_table_query_plan(req))
+            }
         ),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-#[allow(deprecated)]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createEmptyTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_alterTableAddColumnsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -968,16 +3233,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createEmptyTableNa
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.create_empty_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_table_add_columns(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_declareTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_alterTableAlterColumnsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -985,60 +3250,50 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_declareTableNative
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.declare_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_table_alter_columns(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_insertIntoTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_alterTableDropColumnsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
     request_json: JString,
-    request_data: JByteArray,
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_with_data_method(
-            &mut env,
-            handle,
-            request_json,
-            request_data,
-            |ns, req, data| { RT.block_on(ns.inner.insert_into_table(req, data)) }
-        ),
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_table_drop_columns(req))
+        }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_mergeInsertIntoTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_alterTableBackfillColumnsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
     request_json: JString,
-    request_data: JByteArray,
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_with_data_method(
-            &mut env,
-            handle,
-            request_json,
-            request_data,
-            |ns, req, data| { RT.block_on(ns.inner.merge_insert_into_table(req, data)) }
-        ),
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.alter_table_backfill_columns(req))
+        }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_updateTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_refreshMaterializedViewNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -1046,16 +3301,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_updateTableNative(
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.update_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.refresh_materialized_view(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_deleteFromTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listTableTagsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -1063,31 +3318,33 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_deleteFromTableNat
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.delete_from_table(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.list_table_tags(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_queryTableNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_getTableTagVersionNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
     request_json: JString,
-) -> jbyteArray {
+) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_query_method(&mut env, handle, request_json),
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.get_table_tag_version(req))
+        }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createTableIndexNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createTableTagNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -1095,16 +3352,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createTableIndexNa
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.create_table_index(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_table_tag(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listTableIndicesNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_deleteTableTagNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -1112,16 +3369,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_listTableIndicesNa
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.list_table_indices(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.delete_table_tag(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTableIndexStatsNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_updateTableTagNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -1129,16 +3386,16 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTableIndex
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.describe_table_index_stats(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.update_table_tag(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTransactionNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_createMaterializedViewNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
@@ -1146,31 +3403,45 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_describeTransactio
 ) -> jstring {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.describe_transaction(req))
+        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |namespace_client, req| {
+            block_on(namespace_client.inner.create_materialized_view(req))
         }),
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_alterTransactionNative(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_retrieveOpsMetricsNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
     handle: jlong,
-    request_json: JString,
-) -> jstring {
+) -> jobject {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        call_rest_namespace_method(&mut env, handle, request_json, |ns, req| {
-            RT.block_on(ns.inner.alter_transaction(req))
-        }),
+        {
+            let namespace_client = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingRestNamespace) };
+            let metrics = namespace_client.inner.retrieve_ops_metrics();
+            rust_hashmap_to_java_map(&mut env, &metrics)
+        },
         std::ptr::null_mut()
     )
     .into_raw()
 }
 
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestNamespace_resetOpsMetricsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+) {
+    ok_or_throw_without_return!(env, {
+        let namespace_client = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingRestNamespace) };
+        namespace_client.inner.reset_ops_metrics();
+        Ok::<(), Error>(())
+    });
+}
+
 // ============================================================================
 // Helper Functions
 // ============================================================================
@@ -1192,8 +3463,7 @@ where
     let request: Req = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
         .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
 
-    let response = f(namespace, request)
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Namespace operation failed: {}", e)))?;
+    let response = f(namespace, request).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     let response_json = serde_json::to_string(&response)
         .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to serialize response: {}", e)))?;
@@ -1217,12 +3487,32 @@ where
     let request: Req = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
         .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
 
-    f(namespace, request)
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Namespace operation failed: {}", e)))?;
+    f(namespace, request).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Helper function for methods that return String directly (not JSON-serialized) (DirectoryNamespace)
+fn call_namespace_string_method<'local, Req, F>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+    f: F,
+) -> Result<JString<'local>>
+where
+    Req: for<'de> Deserialize<'de>,
+    F: FnOnce(&BlockingDirectoryNamespace, Req) -> lance_core::Result<String>,
+{
+    let namespace = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingDirectoryNamespace) };
+    let request_str: String = env.get_string(&request_json)?.into();
+    let request: Req = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
+
+    let response = f(namespace, request).map_err(Error::from)?;
+
+    env.new_string(response).map_err(Into::into)
+}
+
 /// Helper function for count methods (DirectoryNamespace)
 fn call_namespace_count_method(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
@@ -1234,9 +3524,7 @@ fn call_namespace_count_method(
     let request: CountTableRowsRequest = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
         .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
 
-    let count = RT
-        .block_on(namespace.inner.count_table_rows(request))
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Count table rows failed: {}", e)))?;
+    let count = block_on(namespace.inner.count_table_rows(request)).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     Ok(count)
 }
@@ -1262,8 +3550,7 @@ where
     let data_vec = env.convert_byte_array(request_data)?;
     let data = bytes::Bytes::from(data_vec);
 
-    let response = f(namespace, request, data)
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Namespace operation failed: {}", e)))?;
+    let response = f(namespace, request, data).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     let response_json = serde_json::to_string(&response)
         .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to serialize response: {}", e)))?;
@@ -1282,9 +3569,7 @@ fn call_namespace_query_method<'local>(
     let request: QueryTableRequest = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
         .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
 
-    let result_bytes = RT
-        .block_on(namespace.inner.query_table(request))
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Query table failed: {}", e)))?;
+    let result_bytes = block_on(namespace.inner.query_table(request)).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     let byte_array = env.byte_array_from_slice(&result_bytes)?;
     Ok(byte_array)
@@ -1307,8 +3592,7 @@ where
     let request: Req = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
         .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
 
-    let response = f(namespace, request)
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Namespace operation failed: {}", e)))?;
+    let response = f(namespace, request).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     let response_json = serde_json::to_string(&response)
         .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to serialize response: {}", e)))?;
@@ -1332,12 +3616,32 @@ where
     let request: Req = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
         .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
 
-    f(namespace, request)
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Namespace operation failed: {}", e)))?;
+    f(namespace, request).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Helper function for methods that return String directly (not JSON-serialized) (RestNamespace)
+fn call_rest_namespace_string_method<'local, Req, F>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    handle: jlong,
+    request_json: JString,
+    f: F,
+) -> Result<JString<'local>>
+where
+    Req: for<'de> Deserialize<'de>,
+    F: FnOnce(&BlockingRestNamespace, Req) -> lance_core::Result<String>,
+{
+    let namespace = unsafe { &*(handle as *const BlockingRestNamespace) };
+    let request_str: String = env.get_string(&request_json)?.into();
+    let request: Req = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
+
+    let response = f(namespace, request).map_err(Error::from)?;
+
+    env.new_string(response).map_err(Into::into)
+}
+
 /// Helper function for count methods (RestNamespace)
 fn call_rest_namespace_count_method(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
@@ -1349,9 +3653,7 @@ fn call_rest_namespace_count_method(
     let request: CountTableRowsRequest = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
         .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
 
-    let count = RT
-        .block_on(namespace.inner.count_table_rows(request))
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Count table rows failed: {}", e)))?;
+    let count = block_on(namespace.inner.count_table_rows(request)).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     Ok(count)
 }
@@ -1377,8 +3679,7 @@ where
     let data_vec = env.convert_byte_array(request_data)?;
     let data = bytes::Bytes::from(data_vec);
 
-    let response = f(namespace, request, data)
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Namespace operation failed: {}", e)))?;
+    let response = f(namespace, request, data).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     let response_json = serde_json::to_string(&response)
         .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to serialize response: {}", e)))?;
@@ -1397,9 +3698,7 @@ fn call_rest_namespace_query_method<'local>(
     let request: QueryTableRequest = serde_json::from_str(&request_str)
         .map_err(|e| Error::input_error(format!("Failed to parse request JSON: {}", e)))?;
 
-    let result_bytes = RT
-        .block_on(namespace.inner.query_table(request))
-        .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Query table failed: {}", e)))?;
+    let result_bytes = block_on(namespace.inner.query_table(request)).map_err(Error::from)?;
 
     let byte_array = env.byte_array_from_slice(&result_bytes)?;
     Ok(byte_array)
@@ -1415,31 +3714,31 @@ pub struct BlockingRestAdapter {
     server_handle: Option<lance_namespace_impls::RestAdapterHandle>,
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestAdapter_createNative(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
-    namespace_impl: JString,
+    namespace_client_impl: JString,
     properties_map: JObject,
     host: JString,
     port: JObject,
 ) -> jlong {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        create_rest_adapter_internal(&mut env, namespace_impl, properties_map, host, port),
+        create_rest_adapter_internal(&mut env, namespace_client_impl, properties_map, host, port),
         0
     )
 }
 
 fn create_rest_adapter_internal(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
-    namespace_impl: JString,
+    namespace_client_impl: JString,
     properties_map: JObject,
     host: JString,
     port: JObject,
 ) -> Result<jlong> {
-    // Get namespace implementation type
-    let impl_str: String = env.get_string(&namespace_impl)?.into();
+    // Get namespace client implementation type
+    let impl_str: String = env.get_string(&namespace_client_impl)?.into();
 
     // Convert Java HashMap to Rust HashMap
     let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &properties_map)?;
@@ -1451,8 +3750,7 @@ fn create_rest_adapter_internal(
         builder = builder.property(k, v);
     }
 
-    let backend = RT
-        .block_on(builder.connect())
+    let backend = block_on(builder.connect())
         .map_err(|e| Error::runtime_error(format!("Failed to build backend namespace: {}", e)))?;
 
     // Build config with defaults, overriding if values provided
@@ -1482,7 +3780,7 @@ fn create_rest_adapter_internal(
     Ok(handle)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestAdapter_start(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -1494,12 +3792,12 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestAdapter_start(
 fn start_internal(handle: jlong) -> Result<()> {
     let adapter = unsafe { &mut *(handle as *mut BlockingRestAdapter) };
     let rest_adapter = RestAdapter::new(adapter.backend.clone(), adapter.config.clone());
-    let server_handle = RT.block_on(rest_adapter.start())?;
+    let server_handle = block_on(rest_adapter.start())?;
     adapter.server_handle = Some(server_handle);
     Ok(())
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestAdapter_getPort(
     _env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -1513,7 +3811,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestAdapter_getPort(
         .unwrap_or(0)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestAdapter_stop(
     _env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -1526,7 +3824,7 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestAdapter_stop(
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_namespace_RestAdapter_releaseNative(
     _env: JNIEnv,
     _obj: JObject,
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/optimize.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/optimize.rs
index 11a1f986e37..ce0151d202a 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/optimize.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/optimize.rs
@@ -1,36 +1,36 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use jni::{
-    objects::{JByteArray, JMap, JObject, JValue, JValueGen},
-    sys::jlong,
     JNIEnv,
+    objects::{JByteArray, JObject, JValueGen},
+    sys::jlong,
 };
 use lance::dataset::{
     index::DatasetIndexRemapperOptions,
     optimize::{
-        commit_compaction, plan_compaction, CompactionMetrics, CompactionOptions, CompactionPlan,
-        CompactionTask, IndexRemapperOptions, RewriteResult, TaskData,
+        CompactionMetrics, CompactionMode, CompactionOptions, CompactionPlan, CompactionTask,
+        IndexRemapperOptions, RewriteResult, TaskData, commit_compaction, plan_compaction,
     },
 };
 
 use crate::{
+    block_on,
     blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET},
     traits::{
-        export_vec, import_vec_from_method, import_vec_to_rust, FromJObjectWithEnv, IntoJava,
+        FromJObjectWithEnv, IntoJava, export_vec, import_vec_from_method, import_vec_to_rust,
     },
     utils::{
-        build_compaction_options, to_java_boolean_obj, to_java_float_obj, to_java_long_obj,
-        to_java_optional,
+        build_compaction_options, to_java_boolean_obj, to_java_float_obj, to_java_list,
+        to_java_long_obj, to_java_optional,
     },
-    RT,
 };
 
 use crate::error::Result;
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_Compaction_nativePlanCompaction<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,
@@ -43,6 +43,13 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_Compaction_nativePlanCompaction
     num_threads: JObject,                     // Optional<Long>
     batch_size: JObject,                      // Optional<Long>
     defer_index_remap: JObject,               // Optional<Boolean>
+    compaction_mode: JObject,                 // Optional<String>
+    binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: JObject,    // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_fragments: JObject,            // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_rows: JObject,                 // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_bytes: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    excluded_fragment_ids: JObject,           // List<Long>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,            // Optional<String>
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
@@ -56,7 +63,14 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_Compaction_nativePlanCompaction
             materialize_deletions_threshold,
             num_threads,
             batch_size,
-            defer_index_remap
+            defer_index_remap,
+            compaction_mode,
+            binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+            max_source_fragments,
+            max_source_rows,
+            max_source_bytes,
+            excluded_fragment_ids,
+            data_storage_version
         ),
         JObject::null()
     )
@@ -74,7 +88,19 @@ fn inner_plan_compaction<'local>(
     num_threads: JObject,                     // Optional<Long>
     batch_size: JObject,                      // Optional<Long>
     defer_index_remap: JObject,               // Optional<Boolean>
+    compaction_mode: JObject,                 // Optional<String>
+    binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: JObject,    // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_fragments: JObject,            // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_rows: JObject,                 // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_bytes: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    excluded_fragment_ids: JObject,           // List<Long>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,            // Optional<String>
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let config = {
+        let dataset =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset.inner.manifest.config.clone()
+    };
     let compaction_options = build_compaction_options(
         env,
         &target_rows_per_fragment,
@@ -85,18 +111,26 @@ fn inner_plan_compaction<'local>(
         &num_threads,
         &batch_size,
         &defer_index_remap,
+        &compaction_mode,
+        &binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+        &max_source_fragments,
+        &max_source_rows,
+        &max_source_bytes,
+        &excluded_fragment_ids,
+        &data_storage_version,
+        &config,
     )?;
 
     let plan = {
         let dataset =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        RT.block_on(plan_compaction(&dataset.inner, &compaction_options))?
+        block_on(plan_compaction(&dataset.inner, &compaction_options))?
     };
     plan.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_Compaction_nativeCommitCompaction<'local>(
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_Compaction_commitCompactionNative<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,
     java_dataset: JObject,                    // Dataset
@@ -109,6 +143,12 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_Compaction_nativeCommitCompacti
     num_threads: JObject,                     // Optional<Long>
     batch_size: JObject,                      // Optional<Long>
     defer_index_remap: JObject,               // Optional<Boolean>
+    compaction_mode: JObject,                 // Optional<String>
+    binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: JObject,    // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_fragments: JObject,            // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_rows: JObject,                 // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_bytes: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    excluded_fragment_ids: JObject,           // List<Long>
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
@@ -124,6 +164,12 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_Compaction_nativeCommitCompacti
             num_threads,
             batch_size,
             defer_index_remap,
+            compaction_mode,
+            binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+            max_source_fragments,
+            max_source_rows,
+            max_source_bytes,
+            excluded_fragment_ids,
         ),
         JObject::null()
     )
@@ -142,7 +188,18 @@ fn inner_commit_compaction<'local>(
     num_threads: JObject,                     // Optional<Long>
     batch_size: JObject,                      // Optional<Long>
     defer_index_remap: JObject,               // Optional<Boolean>
+    compaction_mode: JObject,                 // Optional<String>
+    binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: JObject,    // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_fragments: JObject,            // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_rows: JObject,                 // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_bytes: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    excluded_fragment_ids: JObject,           // List<Long>
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let config = {
+        let dataset =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset.inner.manifest.config.clone()
+    };
     let compaction_options = build_compaction_options(
         env,
         &target_rows_per_fragment,
@@ -153,6 +210,14 @@ fn inner_commit_compaction<'local>(
         &num_threads,
         &batch_size,
         &defer_index_remap,
+        &compaction_mode,
+        &binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+        &max_source_fragments,
+        &max_source_rows,
+        &max_source_bytes,
+        &excluded_fragment_ids,
+        &JObject::null(),
+        &config,
     )?;
     let completed_tasks = import_vec_to_rust(env, &rewrite_results, |env, rewrite_result| {
         rewrite_result.extract_object(env)
@@ -161,7 +226,7 @@ fn inner_commit_compaction<'local>(
     let committed_metrics = {
         let mut dataset =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        RT.block_on(commit_compaction(
+        block_on(commit_compaction(
             &mut dataset.inner,
             completed_tasks,
             remap_options,
@@ -171,7 +236,7 @@ fn inner_commit_compaction<'local>(
     committed_metrics.into_java(env)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_CompactionTask_nativeExecute<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _obj: JObject,                            // CompactionTask itself
@@ -186,6 +251,13 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_CompactionTask_nativeExecute<'l
     num_threads: JObject,                     // Optional<Long>
     batch_size: JObject,                      // Optional<Long>
     defer_index_remap: JObject,               // Optional<Boolean>
+    compaction_mode: JObject,                 // Optional<String>
+    binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: JObject,    // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_fragments: JObject,            // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_rows: JObject,                 // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_bytes: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    excluded_fragment_ids: JObject,           // List<Long>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,            // Optional<String>
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
@@ -201,7 +273,14 @@ pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_compaction_CompactionTask_nativeExecute<'l
             materialize_deletions_threshold,
             num_threads,
             batch_size,
-            defer_index_remap
+            defer_index_remap,
+            compaction_mode,
+            binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+            max_source_fragments,
+            max_source_rows,
+            max_source_bytes,
+            excluded_fragment_ids,
+            data_storage_version
         ),
         JObject::null()
     )
@@ -221,8 +300,20 @@ fn inner_execute_task<'local>(
     num_threads: JObject,                     // Optional<Long>
     batch_size: JObject,                      // Optional<Long>
     defer_index_remap: JObject,               // Optional<Boolean>
+    compaction_mode: JObject,                 // Optional<String>
+    binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: JObject,    // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_fragments: JObject,            // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_rows: JObject,                 // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_bytes: JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    excluded_fragment_ids: JObject,           // List<Long>
+    data_storage_version: JObject,            // Optional<String>
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let task_data: TaskData = task_data.extract_object(env)?;
+    let config = {
+        let dataset =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        dataset.inner.manifest.config.clone()
+    };
     let compaction_options = build_compaction_options(
         env,
         &target_rows_per_fragment,
@@ -233,6 +324,14 @@ fn inner_execute_task<'local>(
         &num_threads,
         &batch_size,
         &defer_index_remap,
+        &compaction_mode,
+        &binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+        &max_source_fragments,
+        &max_source_rows,
+        &max_source_bytes,
+        &excluded_fragment_ids,
+        &data_storage_version,
+        &config,
     )?;
     let compaction_task = CompactionTask {
         task: task_data,
@@ -242,7 +341,7 @@ fn inner_execute_task<'local>(
     let rewrite_result = {
         let dataset =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
-        RT.block_on(compaction_task.execute(&dataset.inner))?
+        block_on(compaction_task.execute(&dataset.inner))?
     };
     rewrite_result.into_java(env)
 }
@@ -256,10 +355,10 @@ const COMPACTION_PLAN_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str =
     "(Ljava/util/List;JLorg/lance/compaction/CompactionOptions;)V";
 const REWRITE_RESULT_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/compaction/RewriteResult";
 const REWRITE_RESULT_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str =
-    "(Lorg/lance/compaction/CompactionMetrics;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/util/List;JLjava/util/Map;[B)V";
+    "(Lorg/lance/compaction/CompactionMetrics;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/util/List;J[B)V";
 const COMPACTION_OPTIONS_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/compaction/CompactionOptions";
-const COMPACTION_OPTIONS_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str =
-    "(Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;)V";
+const COMPACTION_MODE_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/compaction/CompactionMode";
+const COMPACTION_OPTIONS_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str = "(Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/util/Optional;)V";
 
 impl IntoJava for &TaskData {
     fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
@@ -308,6 +407,44 @@ impl IntoJava for &CompactionOptions {
         let batch_size_opt = to_java_optional(env, batch_size)?;
         let defer_index_remap = to_java_boolean_obj(env, Some(self.defer_index_remap))?;
         let defer_index_remap_opt = to_java_optional(env, defer_index_remap)?;
+        let compaction_mode_obj = match self.compaction_mode {
+            Some(mode) => {
+                let name = match mode {
+                    CompactionMode::Reencode => "REENCODE",
+                    CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy => "TRY_BINARY_COPY",
+                    CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy => "FORCE_BINARY_COPY",
+                };
+                env.get_static_field(
+                    COMPACTION_MODE_CLASS,
+                    name,
+                    format!("L{};", COMPACTION_MODE_CLASS),
+                )?
+                .l()?
+            }
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
+        let compaction_mode_opt = to_java_optional(env, compaction_mode_obj)?;
+        let binary_copy_read_batch_bytes =
+            to_java_long_obj(env, self.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes.map(|v| v as i64))?;
+        let binary_copy_read_batch_bytes_opt = to_java_optional(env, binary_copy_read_batch_bytes)?;
+        let max_source_fragments =
+            to_java_long_obj(env, self.max_source_fragments.map(|v| v as i64))?;
+        let max_source_fragments_opt = to_java_optional(env, max_source_fragments)?;
+        let max_source_rows = to_java_long_obj(env, self.max_source_rows.map(|v| v as i64))?;
+        let max_source_rows_opt = to_java_optional(env, max_source_rows)?;
+        let max_source_bytes = to_java_long_obj(env, self.max_source_bytes.map(|v| v as i64))?;
+        let max_source_bytes_opt = to_java_optional(env, max_source_bytes)?;
+        let excluded_fragment_ids = self
+            .excluded_fragment_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment_id| to_java_long_obj(env, Some(*fragment_id as i64)))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let excluded_fragment_ids = to_java_list(env, &excluded_fragment_ids)?;
+        let data_storage_version = match self.data_storage_version {
+            Some(version) => env.new_string(version.to_string())?.into(),
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
+        let data_storage_version_opt = to_java_optional(env, data_storage_version)?;
 
         Ok(env.new_object(
             COMPACTION_OPTIONS_CLASS,
@@ -321,6 +458,13 @@ impl IntoJava for &CompactionOptions {
                 JValueGen::Object(&num_threads_opt),
                 JValueGen::Object(&batch_size_opt),
                 JValueGen::Object(&defer_index_remap_opt),
+                JValueGen::Object(&compaction_mode_opt),
+                JValueGen::Object(&binary_copy_read_batch_bytes_opt),
+                JValueGen::Object(&max_source_fragments_opt),
+                JValueGen::Object(&max_source_rows_opt),
+                JValueGen::Object(&max_source_bytes_opt),
+                JValueGen::Object(&excluded_fragment_ids),
+                JValueGen::Object(&data_storage_version_opt),
             ],
         )?)
     }
@@ -347,25 +491,8 @@ impl IntoJava for &RewriteResult {
         let metrics = self.metrics.into_java(env)?;
         let new_fragments = export_vec(env, &self.new_fragments)?;
         let original_fragments = export_vec(env, &self.original_fragments)?;
-        let changed_row_addrs: JObject<'_> =
-            if let Some(changed_row_addrs) = &self.changed_row_addrs {
-                env.byte_array_from_slice(changed_row_addrs)?.into()
-            } else {
-                JObject::null()
-            };
-        let row_id_map = if let Some(row_id_map) = &self.row_id_map {
-            let java_map = env.new_object("java/util/HashMap", "()V", &[])?;
-            for (k, v) in row_id_map {
-                let k_obj = to_java_long_obj(env, Some(*k as i64))?;
-                let v_obj = to_java_long_obj(env, v.map(|val| val as i64))?;
-                env.call_method(
-                    &java_map,
-                    "put",
-                    "(Ljava/lang/Object;Ljava/lang/Object;)Ljava/lang/Object;",
-                    &[JValue::Object(&k_obj), JValue::Object(&v_obj)],
-                )?;
-            }
-            java_map
+        let row_addrs: JObject<'_> = if let Some(row_addrs) = &self.row_addrs {
+            env.byte_array_from_slice(row_addrs)?.into()
         } else {
             JObject::null()
         };
@@ -377,8 +504,7 @@ impl IntoJava for &RewriteResult {
                 JValueGen::Object(&new_fragments),
                 JValueGen::Object(&original_fragments),
                 JValueGen::Long(self.read_version as i64),
-                JValueGen::Object(&row_id_map),
-                JValueGen::Object(&changed_row_addrs),
+                JValueGen::Object(&row_addrs),
             ],
         )?)
     }
@@ -434,38 +560,21 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<RewriteResult> for JObject<'_> {
             import_vec_from_method(env, self, "getOriginalFragments", |env, fragment| {
                 fragment.extract_object(env)
             })?;
-        let changed_row_addrs_obj: JByteArray<'_> = env
-            .call_method(self, "getChangedRowAddrs", "()[B", &[])?
+        let row_addrs_obj: JByteArray<'_> = env
+            .call_method(self, "getRowAddrs", "()[B", &[])?
             .l()?
             .into();
-        let changed_row_addrs = if changed_row_addrs_obj.is_null() {
+        let row_addrs = if row_addrs_obj.is_null() {
             None
         } else {
-            Some(env.convert_byte_array(changed_row_addrs_obj)?)
-        };
-        let row_id_map_obj = env
-            .call_method(self, "getRowIdMap", "()Ljava/util/Map;", &[])?
-            .l()?;
-        let row_id_map = if row_id_map_obj.is_null() {
-            None
-        } else {
-            let row_id_jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &row_id_map_obj)?;
-            let mut map = HashMap::new();
-            let mut iter = row_id_jmap.iter(env)?;
-            while let Some((key, value)) = iter.next(env)? {
-                let key: Option<i64> = key.extract_object(env)?;
-                let value: Option<i64> = value.extract_object(env)?;
-                map.insert(key.unwrap() as u64, value.map(|v| v as u64));
-            }
-            Some(map)
+            Some(env.convert_byte_array(row_addrs_obj)?)
         };
         Ok(RewriteResult {
             metrics,
             new_fragments,
             read_version,
             original_fragments,
-            row_id_map,
-            changed_row_addrs,
+            row_addrs,
         })
     }
 }
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/otel.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/otel.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..54f46c7955a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/otel.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,541 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Bridge from the [`metrics`] crate facade to Java OpenTelemetry.
+//!
+//! The Java layer owns the actual OpenTelemetry instruments. This module
+//! installs the process-global Rust [`metrics::Recorder`], keeps cumulative
+//! metric state, and exposes catalog/snapshot calls over JNI.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::atomic::Ordering;
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock, Mutex, OnceLock, RwLock};
+
+use jni::JNIEnv;
+use jni::objects::{JClass, JObject, JValue};
+use jni::sys::{jboolean, jobject};
+use metrics::atomics::AtomicU64;
+use metrics::{Counter, Gauge, Histogram, Key, KeyName, Metadata, Recorder, SharedString, Unit};
+use metrics_util::registry::{Registry, Storage};
+
+use crate::error::Result;
+
+const DEFAULT_BOUNDS: &[f64] = &[
+    0.005, 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0, 30.0, 60.0, 120.0, 300.0,
+];
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+enum MetricKind {
+    Counter,
+    Gauge,
+    Histogram,
+}
+
+impl MetricKind {
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Counter => "counter",
+            Self::Gauge => "gauge",
+            Self::Histogram => "histogram",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct MetricDescription {
+    kind: MetricKind,
+    unit: Option<String>,
+    description: String,
+}
+
+static CATALOG: LazyLock<Mutex<HashMap<String, MetricDescription>>> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| Mutex::new(HashMap::new()));
+
+static HISTOGRAM_BOUNDS: LazyLock<RwLock<HashMap<String, Arc<[f64]>>>> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| RwLock::new(HashMap::new()));
+
+static REGISTRY: OnceLock<Arc<Registry<Key, LanceStorage>>> = OnceLock::new();
+
+fn bounds_for(name: &str) -> Arc<[f64]> {
+    HISTOGRAM_BOUNDS
+        .read()
+        .unwrap()
+        .get(name)
+        .cloned()
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| Arc::from(DEFAULT_BOUNDS))
+}
+
+struct BucketedHistogram {
+    bounds: Arc<[f64]>,
+    counts: Box<[AtomicU64]>,
+    count: AtomicU64,
+    sum_bits: AtomicU64,
+}
+
+impl BucketedHistogram {
+    fn new(bounds: Arc<[f64]>) -> Self {
+        let counts = (0..=bounds.len())
+            .map(|_| AtomicU64::new(0))
+            .collect::<Box<[_]>>();
+        Self {
+            bounds,
+            counts,
+            count: AtomicU64::new(0),
+            sum_bits: AtomicU64::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn add_to_sum(&self, value: f64) {
+        let mut current = self.sum_bits.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        loop {
+            let updated = (f64::from_bits(current) + value).to_bits();
+            match self.sum_bits.compare_exchange_weak(
+                current,
+                updated,
+                Ordering::Relaxed,
+                Ordering::Relaxed,
+            ) {
+                Ok(_) => break,
+                Err(actual) => current = actual,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn snapshot(&self) -> MetricValue {
+        let mut cumulative = 0u64;
+        let mut buckets = Vec::with_capacity(self.bounds.len() + 1);
+        for (i, bound) in self.bounds.iter().enumerate() {
+            cumulative += self.counts[i].load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+            buckets.push((bound.to_string(), cumulative));
+        }
+        cumulative += self.counts[self.bounds.len()].load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        buckets.push(("+Inf".to_string(), cumulative));
+        MetricValue::Histogram {
+            buckets,
+            count: self.count.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            sum: f64::from_bits(self.sum_bits.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl metrics::HistogramFn for BucketedHistogram {
+    fn record(&self, value: f64) {
+        let idx = self.bounds.partition_point(|&bound| bound < value);
+        self.counts[idx].fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.add_to_sum(value);
+    }
+}
+
+struct LanceStorage;
+
+impl Storage<Key> for LanceStorage {
+    type Counter = Arc<AtomicU64>;
+    type Gauge = Arc<AtomicU64>;
+    type Histogram = Arc<BucketedHistogram>;
+
+    fn counter(&self, _key: &Key) -> Self::Counter {
+        Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0))
+    }
+
+    fn gauge(&self, _key: &Key) -> Self::Gauge {
+        Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0))
+    }
+
+    fn histogram(&self, key: &Key) -> Self::Histogram {
+        Arc::new(BucketedHistogram::new(bounds_for(key.name())))
+    }
+}
+
+struct LanceRecorder {
+    registry: Arc<Registry<Key, LanceStorage>>,
+}
+
+impl LanceRecorder {
+    fn describe(
+        &self,
+        key: KeyName,
+        kind: MetricKind,
+        unit: Option<Unit>,
+        description: SharedString,
+    ) {
+        CATALOG.lock().unwrap().insert(
+            key.as_str().to_string(),
+            MetricDescription {
+                kind,
+                unit: unit.map(|u| u.as_canonical_label().to_string()),
+                description: description.into_owned(),
+            },
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+impl Recorder for LanceRecorder {
+    fn describe_counter(&self, key: KeyName, unit: Option<Unit>, description: SharedString) {
+        self.describe(key, MetricKind::Counter, unit, description);
+    }
+
+    fn describe_gauge(&self, key: KeyName, unit: Option<Unit>, description: SharedString) {
+        self.describe(key, MetricKind::Gauge, unit, description);
+    }
+
+    fn describe_histogram(&self, key: KeyName, unit: Option<Unit>, description: SharedString) {
+        self.describe(key, MetricKind::Histogram, unit, description);
+    }
+
+    fn register_counter(&self, key: &Key, _metadata: &Metadata<'_>) -> Counter {
+        self.registry
+            .get_or_create_counter(key, |counter| Counter::from_arc(counter.clone()))
+    }
+
+    fn register_gauge(&self, key: &Key, _metadata: &Metadata<'_>) -> Gauge {
+        self.registry
+            .get_or_create_gauge(key, |gauge| Gauge::from_arc(gauge.clone()))
+    }
+
+    fn register_histogram(&self, key: &Key, _metadata: &Metadata<'_>) -> Histogram {
+        self.registry
+            .get_or_create_histogram(key, |histogram| Histogram::from_arc(histogram.clone()))
+    }
+}
+
+fn register_bounds() {
+    let mut bounds = HISTOGRAM_BOUNDS.write().unwrap();
+    for (name, values) in lance_io::object_store::metrics::histogram_bounds() {
+        bounds.insert((*name).to_string(), Arc::from(*values));
+    }
+}
+
+fn describe_all() {
+    lance_io::object_store::metrics::describe_metrics();
+}
+
+enum MetricValue {
+    Scalar(f64),
+    Histogram {
+        buckets: Vec<(String, u64)>,
+        count: u64,
+        sum: f64,
+    },
+}
+
+struct MetricPoint {
+    name: String,
+    kind: &'static str,
+    attributes: HashMap<String, String>,
+    value: MetricValue,
+}
+
+fn labels(key: &Key) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+    key.labels()
+        .map(|label| (label.key().to_string(), label.value().to_string()))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn collect_points(registry: &Registry<Key, LanceStorage>) -> Vec<MetricPoint> {
+    let mut points = Vec::new();
+    for (key, handle) in registry.get_counter_handles() {
+        points.push(MetricPoint {
+            name: key.name().to_string(),
+            kind: "counter",
+            attributes: labels(&key),
+            value: MetricValue::Scalar(handle.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as f64),
+        });
+    }
+    for (key, handle) in registry.get_gauge_handles() {
+        points.push(MetricPoint {
+            name: key.name().to_string(),
+            kind: "gauge",
+            attributes: labels(&key),
+            value: MetricValue::Scalar(f64::from_bits(handle.load(Ordering::Relaxed))),
+        });
+    }
+    for (key, handle) in registry.get_histogram_handles() {
+        points.push(MetricPoint {
+            name: key.name().to_string(),
+            kind: "histogram",
+            attributes: labels(&key),
+            value: handle.snapshot(),
+        });
+    }
+    points
+}
+
+fn register_lance_metrics_recorder() -> bool {
+    if REGISTRY.get().is_some() {
+        return true;
+    }
+    let registry = Arc::new(Registry::new(LanceStorage));
+    let recorder = LanceRecorder {
+        registry: registry.clone(),
+    };
+    register_bounds();
+    match metrics::set_global_recorder(recorder) {
+        Ok(()) => {
+            let _ = REGISTRY.set(registry);
+            describe_all();
+            true
+        }
+        Err(_) => false,
+    }
+}
+
+fn object_list<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    Ok(env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?)
+}
+
+fn add_to_list(env: &mut JNIEnv, list: &JObject, item: &JObject) -> Result<()> {
+    env.call_method(
+        list,
+        "add",
+        "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+        &[JValue::Object(item)],
+    )?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn string_object<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, value: Option<&str>) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    match value {
+        Some(value) => Ok(env.new_string(value)?.into()),
+        None => Ok(JObject::null()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn attributes_to_java<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    attributes: &HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let java_map = env.new_object("java/util/HashMap", "()V", &[])?;
+    for (key, value) in attributes {
+        let java_key = env.new_string(key)?;
+        let java_value = env.new_string(value)?;
+        env.call_method(
+            &java_map,
+            "put",
+            "(Ljava/lang/Object;Ljava/lang/Object;)Ljava/lang/Object;",
+            &[JValue::Object(&java_key), JValue::Object(&java_value)],
+        )?;
+        env.delete_local_ref(java_key)?;
+        env.delete_local_ref(java_value)?;
+    }
+    Ok(java_map)
+}
+
+fn buckets_to_java<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    buckets: Option<&[(String, u64)]>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let Some(buckets) = buckets else {
+        return Ok(JObject::null());
+    };
+    let list = object_list(env)?;
+    for (le, cumulative_count) in buckets {
+        let le = env.new_string(le)?;
+        let bucket = env.new_object(
+            "org/lance/otel/MetricBucket",
+            "(Ljava/lang/String;J)V",
+            &[JValue::Object(&le), JValue::Long(*cumulative_count as i64)],
+        )?;
+        add_to_list(env, &list, &bucket)?;
+        env.delete_local_ref(le)?;
+        env.delete_local_ref(bucket)?;
+    }
+    Ok(list)
+}
+
+fn boxed_double<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, value: Option<f64>) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    match value {
+        Some(value) => Ok(env.new_object("java/lang/Double", "(D)V", &[JValue::Double(value)])?),
+        None => Ok(JObject::null()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn boxed_long<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, value: Option<u64>) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    match value {
+        Some(value) => {
+            Ok(env.new_object("java/lang/Long", "(J)V", &[JValue::Long(value as i64)])?)
+        }
+        None => Ok(JObject::null()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn metric_description_to_java<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    name: &str,
+    desc: &MetricDescription,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let name = env.new_string(name)?;
+    let kind = env.new_string(desc.kind.as_str())?;
+    let unit = string_object(env, desc.unit.as_deref())?;
+    let description = env.new_string(&desc.description)?;
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/otel/MetricDescription",
+        "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;)V",
+        &[
+            JValue::Object(&name),
+            JValue::Object(&kind),
+            JValue::Object(&unit),
+            JValue::Object(&description),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn metric_point_to_java<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    point: MetricPoint,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let (value, buckets, count, sum) = match point.value {
+        MetricValue::Scalar(value) => (Some(value), None, None, None),
+        MetricValue::Histogram {
+            buckets,
+            count,
+            sum,
+        } => (None, Some(buckets), Some(count), Some(sum)),
+    };
+    let name = env.new_string(&point.name)?;
+    let kind = env.new_string(point.kind)?;
+    let attributes = attributes_to_java(env, &point.attributes)?;
+    let value = boxed_double(env, value)?;
+    let buckets = buckets_to_java(env, buckets.as_deref())?;
+    let count = boxed_long(env, count)?;
+    let sum = boxed_double(env, sum)?;
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/otel/MetricPoint",
+        "(Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/util/Map;Ljava/lang/Double;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/lang/Long;Ljava/lang/Double;)V",
+        &[
+            JValue::Object(&name),
+            JValue::Object(&kind),
+            JValue::Object(&attributes),
+            JValue::Object(&value),
+            JValue::Object(&buckets),
+            JValue::Object(&count),
+            JValue::Object(&sum),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn lance_metrics_catalog_native<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let catalog = CATALOG.lock().unwrap();
+    let list = object_list(env)?;
+    for (name, desc) in catalog.iter() {
+        env.with_local_frame(16, |env| {
+            let item = metric_description_to_java(env, name, desc)?;
+            add_to_list(env, &list, &item)
+        })?;
+    }
+    Ok(list)
+}
+
+fn snapshot_lance_metrics_native<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let list = object_list(env)?;
+    if let Some(registry) = REGISTRY.get() {
+        for point in collect_points(registry) {
+            env.with_local_frame(64, |env| {
+                let item = metric_point_to_java(env, point)?;
+                add_to_list(env, &list, &item)
+            })?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(list)
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_otel_LanceMetrics_registerLanceMetricsRecorderNative(
+    _env: JNIEnv,
+    _class: JClass,
+) -> jboolean {
+    register_lance_metrics_recorder() as jboolean
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_otel_LanceMetrics_lanceMetricsCatalogNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _class: JClass,
+) -> jobject {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        lance_metrics_catalog_native(&mut env),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_otel_LanceMetrics_snapshotLanceMetricsNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _class: JClass,
+) -> jobject {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        snapshot_lance_metrics_native(&mut env),
+        std::ptr::null_mut()
+    )
+    .into_raw()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use metrics::HistogramFn;
+
+    fn bucket_count(buckets: &[(String, u64)], le: &str) -> u64 {
+        buckets
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(bound, _)| bound == le)
+            .map(|(_, count)| *count)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("no bucket with le={le}"))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bucketed_histogram_records_cumulative_buckets() {
+        let histogram = BucketedHistogram::new(Arc::from([0.1f64, 1.0, 10.0].as_slice()));
+        histogram.record(0.05);
+        histogram.record(0.1);
+        histogram.record(0.5);
+        histogram.record(1.0);
+        histogram.record(5.0);
+        histogram.record(50.0);
+
+        let MetricValue::Histogram {
+            buckets,
+            count,
+            sum,
+        } = histogram.snapshot()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected histogram");
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "0.1"), 2);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "1"), 4);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "10"), 5);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "+Inf"), 6);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "+Inf"), count);
+        assert!((sum - 56.65).abs() < 1e-9);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_registry_aggregates_counters_and_gauges() {
+        let registry = Arc::new(Registry::new(LanceStorage));
+        let recorder = LanceRecorder {
+            registry: registry.clone(),
+        };
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            metrics::counter!("test_counter", "operation" => "get").increment(2);
+            metrics::counter!("test_counter", "operation" => "get").increment(3);
+            metrics::gauge!("test_gauge", "operation" => "get").increment(3.5);
+            metrics::gauge!("test_gauge", "operation" => "get").decrement(1.25);
+        });
+
+        let points = collect_points(&registry);
+        let counter = points
+            .iter()
+            .find(|point| point.name == "test_counter")
+            .expect("counter recorded");
+        let gauge = points
+            .iter()
+            .find(|point| point.name == "test_gauge")
+            .expect("gauge recorded");
+
+        assert!(matches!(counter.value, MetricValue::Scalar(value) if value == 5.0));
+        assert!(matches!(gauge.value, MetricValue::Scalar(value) if (value - 2.25).abs() < 1e-9));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/schema.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/schema.rs
index d0952fd833f..01e8d3c96e8 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/schema.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/schema.rs
@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ use crate::traits::IntoJava;
 use crate::utils::to_java_map;
 use arrow::datatypes::DataType;
 use arrow_schema::{TimeUnit, UnionFields};
+use jni::JNIEnv;
 use jni::objects::{JObject, JValue};
 use jni::sys::{jboolean, jint};
-use jni::JNIEnv;
 use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema};
 
 impl IntoJava for Schema {
@@ -46,8 +46,9 @@ pub fn convert_to_java_field<'local>(
         + "Lorg/apache/arrow/vector/types/pojo/ArrowType;"
         + "Lorg/apache/arrow/vector/types/pojo/DictionaryEncoding;"
         + "Ljava/util/Map;"
-        + "Ljava/util/List;ZI)V";
+        + "Ljava/util/List;ZIZI)V";
     let pk_position = lance_field.unenforced_primary_key_position.unwrap_or(0) as jint;
+    let ck_position = lance_field.unenforced_clustering_key_position.unwrap_or(0) as jint;
     let field_obj = env.new_object(
         "org/lance/schema/LanceField",
         ctor_sig.as_str(),
@@ -63,6 +64,8 @@ pub fn convert_to_java_field<'local>(
             JValue::Object(&children),
             JValue::Bool(lance_field.is_unenforced_primary_key() as jboolean),
             JValue::Int(pk_position),
+            JValue::Bool(lance_field.is_unenforced_clustering_key() as jboolean),
+            JValue::Int(ck_position),
         ],
     )?;
 
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/session.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/session.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6afae56f43a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/session.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,274 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use jni::JNIEnv;
+use jni::objects::{JMap, JObject, JString, JValue};
+use jni::sys::jlong;
+use lance::session::{CacheSpec, Session as LanceSession};
+use lance_core::cache::{BackendConfig, build_from_config, build_from_uri};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry;
+
+use crate::block_on;
+use crate::error::{Error, Result};
+use crate::utils::to_rust_map;
+
+/// Creates a new Session and returns a handle to it.
+///
+/// The handle is a raw pointer to a Box<Arc<LanceSession>>, which allows
+/// the session to be shared between multiple datasets.
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Session_createNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    index_cache_size_bytes: jlong,
+    metadata_cache_size_bytes: jlong,
+    index_cache_backend_uri: JString,
+    index_cache_backend_kind: JString,
+    index_cache_backend_options: JObject,
+    metadata_cache_backend_uri: JString,
+    metadata_cache_backend_kind: JString,
+    metadata_cache_backend_options: JObject,
+) -> jlong {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(
+        env,
+        create_session(
+            &mut env,
+            index_cache_size_bytes,
+            metadata_cache_size_bytes,
+            index_cache_backend_uri,
+            index_cache_backend_kind,
+            index_cache_backend_options,
+            metadata_cache_backend_uri,
+            metadata_cache_backend_kind,
+            metadata_cache_backend_options,
+        ),
+        0
+    )
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn create_session(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    index_cache_size_bytes: jlong,
+    metadata_cache_size_bytes: jlong,
+    index_cache_backend_uri: JString,
+    index_cache_backend_kind: JString,
+    index_cache_backend_options: JObject,
+    metadata_cache_backend_uri: JString,
+    metadata_cache_backend_kind: JString,
+    metadata_cache_backend_options: JObject,
+) -> Result<jlong> {
+    let index_cache = resolve_cache_spec(
+        env,
+        "indexCacheBackend",
+        "indexCacheSizeBytes",
+        index_cache_size_bytes,
+        index_cache_backend_uri,
+        index_cache_backend_kind,
+        index_cache_backend_options,
+    )?;
+    let metadata_cache = resolve_cache_spec(
+        env,
+        "metadataCacheBackend",
+        "metadataCacheSizeBytes",
+        metadata_cache_size_bytes,
+        metadata_cache_backend_uri,
+        metadata_cache_backend_kind,
+        metadata_cache_backend_options,
+    )?;
+
+    let session = LanceSession::with_cache_backends(
+        index_cache,
+        metadata_cache,
+        Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+    );
+
+    // Wrap in Arc and Box, then convert to raw pointer
+    let boxed: Box<Arc<LanceSession>> = Box::new(Arc::new(session));
+    let handle = Box::into_raw(boxed) as jlong;
+    Ok(handle)
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn resolve_cache_spec(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    backend_field: &str,
+    size_field: &str,
+    size_bytes: jlong,
+    backend_uri: JString,
+    backend_kind: JString,
+    backend_options: JObject,
+) -> Result<CacheSpec> {
+    let has_uri = !backend_uri.is_null();
+    let has_kind = !backend_kind.is_null();
+    if has_uri && has_kind {
+        return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+            "{} must use either a URI or a structured config, not both",
+            backend_field
+        )));
+    }
+    if size_bytes >= 0 && (has_uri || has_kind) {
+        return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+            "{} and {} are mutually exclusive; set one or the other",
+            size_field, backend_field
+        )));
+    }
+
+    if has_uri {
+        let uri: String = env.get_string(&backend_uri)?.into();
+        return build_from_uri(&uri)
+            .map(CacheSpec::Backend)
+            .map_err(Error::from);
+    }
+
+    if has_kind {
+        let kind: String = env.get_string(&backend_kind)?.into();
+        let mut config = BackendConfig::new(&kind)?;
+        if !backend_options.is_null() {
+            let options = JMap::from_env(env, &backend_options)?;
+            config.options = to_rust_map(env, &options)?;
+        }
+        return build_from_config(&config)
+            .map(CacheSpec::Backend)
+            .map_err(Error::from);
+    }
+
+    if size_bytes >= 0 {
+        let size = usize::try_from(size_bytes).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::input_error(format!(
+                "{} value {} does not fit in usize",
+                size_field, size_bytes
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(CacheSpec::Size(size))
+    } else {
+        Ok(CacheSpec::Default)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Returns the current size of the session in bytes.
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Session_sizeBytesNative(
+    mut env: JNIEnv,
+    obj: JObject,
+) -> jlong {
+    ok_or_throw_with_return!(env, size_bytes_native(&mut env, obj), 0)
+}
+
+fn size_bytes_native(env: &mut JNIEnv, obj: JObject) -> Result<jlong> {
+    let handle = get_session_handle(env, &obj)?;
+    if handle == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::input_error("Session is closed".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    // Safety: We trust that the handle is valid and was created by createNative
+    let session_arc = unsafe { &*(handle as *const Arc<LanceSession>) };
+    Ok(session_arc.size_bytes() as jlong)
+}
+
+/// Returns statistics for the session's metadata cache as an org.lance.CacheStats object.
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Session_metadataCacheStatsNative<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    obj: JObject,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, metadata_cache_stats_native(&mut env, obj))
+}
+
+fn metadata_cache_stats_native<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    obj: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let handle = get_session_handle(env, &obj)?;
+    if handle == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::input_error("Session is closed".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    // Safety: We trust that the handle is valid and was created by createNative
+    let session_arc = unsafe { &*(handle as *const Arc<LanceSession>) };
+    let stats = block_on(session_arc.metadata_cache_stats());
+
+    let stats_obj = env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/CacheStats",
+        "(JJJJ)V",
+        &[
+            JValue::Long(stats.hits as jlong),
+            JValue::Long(stats.misses as jlong),
+            JValue::Long(stats.num_entries as jlong),
+            JValue::Long(stats.size_bytes as jlong),
+        ],
+    )?;
+    Ok(stats_obj)
+}
+
+/// Releases the native session handle.
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Session_releaseNative(
+    _env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle: jlong,
+) {
+    if handle != 0 {
+        // Safety: We trust that the handle is valid and was created by createNative
+        let _ = unsafe { Box::from_raw(handle as *mut Arc<LanceSession>) };
+        // The Box is dropped here, which decrements the Arc reference count
+    }
+}
+
+/// Helper function to get the session handle from a Session object
+fn get_session_handle(env: &mut JNIEnv, obj: &JObject) -> Result<jlong> {
+    let handle = env.get_field(obj, "nativeSessionHandle", "J")?;
+    Ok(handle.j()?)
+}
+
+/// Creates an Arc<LanceSession> from a raw handle.
+/// This is used when passing a session to dataset operations.
+///
+/// # Safety
+/// The handle must be a valid pointer created by `create_session`.
+pub fn session_from_handle(handle: jlong) -> Option<Arc<LanceSession>> {
+    if handle == 0 {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    // Safety: We trust that the handle is valid and was created by createNative
+    let session_arc = unsafe { &*(handle as *const Arc<LanceSession>) };
+    Some(session_arc.clone())
+}
+
+/// Creates a raw handle from an Arc<LanceSession>.
+/// This is used when returning a session handle from a dataset.
+///
+/// Note: This creates a new Box, so the caller is responsible for
+/// managing its lifetime or converting it back to a Java Session object.
+pub fn handle_from_session(session: Arc<LanceSession>) -> jlong {
+    let boxed: Box<Arc<LanceSession>> = Box::new(session);
+    Box::into_raw(boxed) as jlong
+}
+
+/// Compares two session handles to see if they point to the same underlying session.
+/// This is needed because each call to handle_from_session creates a new Box,
+/// resulting in different pointer addresses even for the same session.
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Session_isSameAsNative(
+    _env: JNIEnv,
+    _obj: JObject,
+    handle1: jlong,
+    handle2: jlong,
+) -> jni::sys::jboolean {
+    if handle1 == 0 || handle2 == 0 {
+        return 0; // false
+    }
+
+    // Safety: We trust that the handles are valid and were created by createNative
+    let session1 = unsafe { &*(handle1 as *const Arc<LanceSession>) };
+    let session2 = unsafe { &*(handle2 as *const Arc<LanceSession>) };
+
+    if Arc::ptr_eq(session1, session2) {
+        1 // true
+    } else {
+        0 // false
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/sql.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/sql.rs
index 07bc3d8e2fa..2111d02c9fd 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/sql.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/sql.rs
@@ -4,16 +4,16 @@
 use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET};
 use crate::error::Result;
 use crate::traits::FromJString;
-use crate::{Error, JNIEnvExt, RT};
+use crate::{Error, JNIEnvExt, RT, block_on};
 use arrow::ffi_stream::FFI_ArrowArrayStream;
-use jni::objects::{JClass, JObject, JString};
-use jni::sys::{jboolean, jlong, JNI_TRUE};
 use jni::JNIEnv;
+use jni::objects::{JClass, JObject, JString};
+use jni::sys::{JNI_TRUE, jboolean, jlong};
 use lance::dataset::scanner::DatasetRecordBatchStream;
 use lance::dataset::sql::SqlQueryBuilder;
 use lance_io::ffi::to_ffi_arrow_array_stream;
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_SqlQuery_intoBatchRecords(
     mut env: JNIEnv,
     _class: JClass,
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ fn inner_into_batch_records(
         with_row_addr,
     )?;
 
-    let stream = RT.block_on(async move {
+    let stream = block_on(async move {
         let query = builder.build().await?;
         query.into_stream().await
     })?;
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/storage_options.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/storage_options.rs
index a79a346f751..7ec607c26e7 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/storage_options.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/storage_options.rs
@@ -1,197 +1,6 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use async_trait::async_trait;
-use jni::objects::{JMap, JObject, JString};
-use jni::JNIEnv;
-use lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider;
-
-use crate::error::Result;
-
-/// Java-implemented storage options provider
-///
-/// This wraps a Java object that implements the StorageOptionsProvider interface
-/// and forwards get_storage_options() calls to the Java implementation.
-pub struct JavaStorageOptionsProvider {
-    /// GlobalRef to the Java StorageOptionsProvider object
-    java_provider: jni::objects::GlobalRef,
-    /// JavaVM for making JNI calls
-    jvm: Arc<jni::JavaVM>,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Debug for JavaStorageOptionsProvider {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{}", self.provider_id())
-    }
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for JavaStorageOptionsProvider {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{}", self.provider_id())
-    }
-}
-
-impl JavaStorageOptionsProvider {
-    pub fn new(env: &mut JNIEnv, java_provider: JObject) -> Result<Self> {
-        // Create a global reference to the Java object so it persists
-        let java_provider = env.new_global_ref(java_provider)?;
-
-        // Get the JavaVM for later JNI calls
-        let jvm = Arc::new(env.get_java_vm()?);
-
-        Ok(Self { java_provider, jvm })
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl StorageOptionsProvider for JavaStorageOptionsProvider {
-    async fn fetch_storage_options(&self) -> lance_core::Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
-        // Spawn blocking task to call Java method
-        let java_provider = self.java_provider.clone();
-        let jvm = self.jvm.clone();
-
-        tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
-            // Attach current thread to JVM
-            let mut env = jvm
-                .attach_current_thread()
-                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to attach to JVM: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })?;
-
-            // Call fetchStorageOptions() method on Java object
-            // Returns Map<String, String> with all storage options including optional EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY
-            // Or null if no storage options are available
-            let result = env
-                .call_method(
-                    &java_provider,
-                    "fetchStorageOptions",
-                    "()Ljava/util/Map;",
-                    &[],
-                )
-                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to call fetchStorageOptions: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })?;
-
-            let result_obj = result.l().map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "fetchStorageOptions result is not an object: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
-
-            // Check if result is null
-            if result_obj.is_null() {
-                return Ok(None);
-            }
-
-            // Convert Java Map to Rust HashMap
-            let storage_options_map =
-                JMap::from_env(&mut env, &result_obj).map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "fetchStorageOptions result is not a Map: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })?;
-
-            let mut storage_options = HashMap::new();
-            let mut iter =
-                storage_options_map
-                    .iter(&mut env)
-                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                        source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                            "Failed to iterate storage options: {}",
-                            e
-                        ))),
-                        location: snafu::location!(),
-                    })?;
-
-            while let Some((key, value)) =
-                iter.next(&mut env).map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to get next storage option entry: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })?
-            {
-                let key_str: String = env
-                    .get_string(&JString::from(key))
-                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                        source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                            "storage option key is not a string: {}",
-                            e
-                        ))),
-                        location: snafu::location!(),
-                    })?
-                    .into();
-
-                let value_str: String = env
-                    .get_string(&JString::from(value))
-                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                        source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                            "storage option value is not a string: {}",
-                            e
-                        ))),
-                        location: snafu::location!(),
-                    })?
-                    .into();
-
-                storage_options.insert(key_str, value_str);
-            }
-
-            Ok(Some(storage_options))
-        })
-        .await
-        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to spawn blocking task: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })?
-    }
-
-    fn provider_id(&self) -> String {
-        // Call providerId() method on the Java object
-        // This should always succeed since StorageOptionsProvider.providerId() has a default implementation
-        let mut env = self
-            .jvm
-            .attach_current_thread()
-            .expect("Failed to attach to JVM");
-
-        let result = env
-            .call_method(
-                &self.java_provider,
-                "providerId",
-                "()Ljava/lang/String;",
-                &[],
-            )
-            .expect("Failed to call providerId() on Java StorageOptionsProvider");
-
-        let result_obj = result.l().expect("providerId() did not return an object");
-
-        if result_obj.is_null() {
-            panic!("providerId() returned null");
-        }
-
-        let jstring = JString::from(result_obj);
-        let java_string = env
-            .get_string(&jstring)
-            .expect("Failed to convert Java string to Rust string");
-
-        java_string.into()
-    }
-}
+// This module is intentionally empty.
+// Storage options providers are created directly in Rust from namespace clients
+// using LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider.
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/task_tracker.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/task_tracker.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bc9d9b0519f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/task_tracker.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use jni::objects::GlobalRef;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
+use tokio::sync::RwLock;
+
+pub type TaskId = u64;
+
+/// Information about an in-flight async task
+pub struct TaskInfo {
+    #[allow(dead_code)] // Used for cleanup when task is cancelled
+    pub scanner_global_ref: GlobalRef,
+    pub cancel_handle: tokio::task::JoinHandle<()>,
+}
+
+/// Thread-safe task registry for managing async scan operations
+pub struct TaskTracker {
+    tasks: Arc<RwLock<HashMap<TaskId, TaskInfo>>>,
+}
+
+impl TaskTracker {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            tasks: Arc::new(RwLock::new(HashMap::new())),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Register a new task
+    pub async fn register(&self, task_id: TaskId, info: TaskInfo) {
+        let mut tasks = self.tasks.write().await;
+        tasks.insert(task_id, info);
+    }
+
+    /// Update the cancel handle for a task (used in two-phase registration)
+    /// Returns true if task was found and updated, false if task already completed
+    pub async fn update_handle(
+        &self,
+        task_id: TaskId,
+        cancel_handle: tokio::task::JoinHandle<()>,
+    ) -> bool {
+        let mut tasks = self.tasks.write().await;
+        if let Some(task_info) = tasks.get_mut(&task_id) {
+            // Abort the old placeholder handle and replace with real handle
+            task_info.cancel_handle.abort();
+            task_info.cancel_handle = cancel_handle;
+            true
+        } else {
+            // Task already completed before we could update - abort the handle
+            cancel_handle.abort();
+            false
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Mark a task as complete and return its info
+    pub async fn complete(&self, task_id: TaskId) -> Option<TaskInfo> {
+        let mut tasks = self.tasks.write().await;
+        tasks.remove(&task_id)
+    }
+
+    /// Cancel a task by ID
+    pub async fn cancel(&self, task_id: TaskId) {
+        let info = {
+            let mut tasks = self.tasks.write().await;
+            tasks.remove(&task_id)
+        };
+
+        if let Some(info) = info {
+            info.cancel_handle.abort();
+        }
+    }
+
+    // TODO: Implement timeout-based cleanup for defense-in-depth
+    //
+    // While TaskCleanupGuard (RAII pattern) ensures cleanup in normal and panic cases,
+    // a background cleanup task provides additional safety against edge cases:
+    //
+    // Proposed implementation:
+    // ```
+    // pub async fn cleanup_stale_tasks(&self, max_age: Duration) {
+    //     let mut tasks = self.tasks.write().await;
+    //     let now = Instant::now();
+    //     tasks.retain(|task_id, info| {
+    //         let is_finished = info.cancel_handle.is_finished();
+    //         let is_stale = info.created_at.elapsed() > max_age;
+    //
+    //         if is_finished || is_stale {
+    //             log::warn!("Cleaning up stale/finished task {}", task_id);
+    //             false // remove from HashMap
+    //         } else {
+    //             true // keep in HashMap
+    //         }
+    //     });
+    // }
+    //
+    // // In JNI_OnLoad or module initialization:
+    // RT.spawn(async {
+    //     loop {
+    //         tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_secs(60)).await;
+    //         TASK_TRACKER.cleanup_stale_tasks(Duration::from_secs(300)).await;
+    //     }
+    // });
+    // ```
+    //
+    // This would require adding `created_at: Instant` field to TaskInfo.
+}
+
+/// Global task tracker instance
+pub static TASK_TRACKER: LazyLock<TaskTracker> = LazyLock::new(TaskTracker::new);
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/traits.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/traits.rs
index c5aaec7215e..5a8c9aba6d1 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/traits.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/traits.rs
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 
-use jni::objects::{JIntArray, JLongArray, JMap, JObject, JString, JValue, JValueGen};
 use jni::JNIEnv;
+use jni::objects::{JIntArray, JLongArray, JMap, JObject, JString, JValue, JValueGen};
 
 use crate::error::Result;
 
@@ -202,6 +202,14 @@ impl IntoJava for JLance<Vec<u32>> {
     }
 }
 
+impl IntoJava for JLance<Vec<i64>> {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let arr = env.new_long_array(self.0.len() as i32)?;
+        env.set_long_array_region(&arr, 0, &self.0)?;
+        Ok(arr.into())
+    }
+}
+
 impl IntoJava for JLance<usize> {
     fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
         Ok(env.new_object("java/lang/Long", "(J)V", &[JValueGen::Long(self.0 as i64)])?)
@@ -262,6 +270,15 @@ impl IntoJava for JLance<Option<usize>> {
     }
 }
 
+impl IntoJava for JLance<Option<&str>> {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        Ok(match self.0 {
+            Some(value) => env.new_string(value)?.into(),
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
 impl FromJObjectWithEnv<Option<i64>> for JObject<'_> {
     fn extract_object(&self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>) -> Result<Option<i64>> {
         let ret = if self.is_null() {
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/transaction.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/transaction.rs
index ea5996aaeed..e1ca961af72 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/transaction.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/transaction.rs
@@ -1,32 +1,207 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET};
-use crate::error::Result;
-use crate::traits::{export_vec, import_vec_from_method, FromJObjectWithEnv, IntoJava, JLance};
-use crate::utils::{to_java_map, to_rust_map};
 use crate::Error;
 use crate::JNIEnvExt;
+use crate::block_on;
+use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET, extract_namespace_info};
+use crate::error::Result;
+use crate::traits::{
+    FromJObjectWithEnv, FromJString, IntoJava, JLance, export_vec, import_vec_from_method,
+};
+use crate::utils::{to_java_map, to_rust_map};
 use arrow::datatypes::Schema;
 use arrow_schema::ffi::FFI_ArrowSchema;
 use chrono::DateTime;
-use jni::objects::{JByteArray, JLongArray, JMap, JObject, JString, JValue, JValueGen};
-use jni::sys::jboolean;
 use jni::JNIEnv;
+use jni::objects::{JByteArray, JIntArray, JLongArray, JMap, JObject, JString, JValue, JValueGen};
+use jni::sys::{jboolean, jint, jlong};
+use lance::dataset::CommitBuilder;
 use lance::dataset::transaction::{
-    DataReplacementGroup, Operation, RewriteGroup, RewrittenIndex, Transaction, TransactionBuilder,
-    UpdateMap, UpdateMapEntry, UpdateMode,
+    DataOverlayGroup, DataReplacementGroup, Operation, RewriteGroup, RewrittenIndex, Transaction,
+    TransactionBuilder, UpdateMap, UpdateMapEntry, UpdateMode, UpdatedFragmentOffsets,
 };
 use lance::io::ObjectStoreParams;
-use lance::table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata};
+use lance::io::commit::namespace_manifest::LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore;
+use lance::table::format::key_existence::{FilterType, KeyExistenceFilter};
+use lance::table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+use lance::table::format::{DataFile, Fragment, IndexFile, IndexMetadata};
+use lance_core::datatypes::Field;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+use lance_file::version::{LanceFileVersion, V2_FORMAT_2_0, V2_FORMAT_2_1, V2_FORMAT_2_2};
+use lance_io::object_store::{LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, StorageOptionsProvider};
+use lance_table::io::commit::CommitHandler;
+use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestCommitHandler;
 use prost::Message;
 use prost_types::Any;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::cell::Cell;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
+fn u64_to_jlong(field: &str, value: u64) -> Result<i64> {
+    i64::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::runtime_error(format!(
+            "Cannot convert Rust transaction field {field}={value} to Java long"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn u32_to_jint(field: &str, value: u32) -> Result<i32> {
+    i32::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::runtime_error(format!(
+            "Cannot convert Rust transaction field {field}={value} to Java int"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn checked_field_ids(field: &str, values: &[i64]) -> Result<Vec<u32>> {
+    values
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(index, value)| {
+            u32::try_from(*value).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "Java transaction field {field}[{index}] must be between 0 and {}, got {value}",
+                    u32::MAX
+                ))
+            })
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn import_field_ids(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>,
+    object: &JObject<'_>,
+    method: &str,
+    field: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<u32>> {
+    let array = env.call_method(object, method, "()[J", &[])?.l()?;
+    let array = JLongArray::from(array);
+    let mut values = vec![0_i64; env.get_array_length(&array)? as usize];
+    env.get_long_array_region(&array, 0, &mut values)?;
+    checked_field_ids(field, &values)
+}
+
+fn nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(field: &str, value: i64) -> Result<u64> {
+    u64::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::input_error(format!(
+            "Java transaction field {field} must be non-negative, got {value}"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn import_unsigned_longs(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>,
+    object: &JObject<'_>,
+    method: &str,
+    field: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    let index = Cell::new(0_usize);
+    import_vec_from_method(env, object, method, |env, value| {
+        let position = index.get();
+        index.set(position + 1);
+        nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+            &format!("{field}[{position}]"),
+            env.call_method(value, "longValue", "()J", &[])?.j()?,
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+fn export_unsigned_longs<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    values: &[u64],
+    field: &str,
+) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let values = values
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(index, value)| u64_to_jlong(&format!("{field}[{index}]"), *value).map(JLance))
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    export_vec(env, &values)
+}
+
+impl IntoJava for &IndexFile {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let path = env.new_string(&self.path)?;
+        Ok(env.new_object(
+            "org/lance/index/IndexFile",
+            "(Ljava/lang/String;J)V",
+            &[
+                JValue::Object(&path),
+                JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong("newIndexFiles.sizeBytes", self.size_bytes)?),
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
+impl FromJObjectWithEnv<IndexFile> for JObject<'_> {
+    fn extract_object(&self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        Ok(IndexFile {
+            path: env.get_string_from_method(self, "getPath")?,
+            size_bytes: nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+                "newIndexFiles.sizeBytes",
+                env.call_method(self, "getSizeBytes", "()J", &[])?.j()?,
+            )?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+fn compacted_sstable_into_java<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    sstable: &lance_index::mem_wal::CompactedSsTable,
+) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let shard_id = env.new_string(sstable.shard_id.to_string())?;
+    Ok(env.new_object(
+        "org/lance/memwal/CompactedSsTable",
+        "(Ljava/lang/String;J)V",
+        &[
+            JValue::Object(&shard_id),
+            JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong(
+                "compactedSstables.generation",
+                sstable.generation,
+            )?),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn compacted_sstable_from_java(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>,
+    object: &JObject<'_>,
+) -> Result<lance_index::mem_wal::CompactedSsTable> {
+    let shard_id = env.get_string_from_method(object, "getShardId")?;
+    let shard_id = Uuid::parse_str(&shard_id).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::input_error(format!(
+            "Invalid compacted SSTable shardId '{shard_id}': {e}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let generation = nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+        "compactedSstables.generation",
+        env.call_method(object, "getGeneration", "()J", &[])?.j()?,
+    )?;
+    Ok(lance_index::mem_wal::CompactedSsTable::new(
+        shard_id, generation,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn export_compacted_sstables<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    sstables: &[lance_index::mem_wal::CompactedSsTable],
+) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+    for sstable in sstables {
+        let object = compacted_sstable_into_java(env, sstable)?;
+        env.call_method(
+            &list,
+            "add",
+            "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+            &[JValue::Object(&object)],
+        )?;
+    }
+    Ok(list)
+}
+
 impl IntoJava for &RewriteGroup {
     fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
         let old_fragments = export_vec(env, &self.old_fragments)?;
@@ -50,16 +225,26 @@ impl IntoJava for &RewrittenIndex {
 
         let new_index_details_type_url = env.new_string(self.new_index_details.type_url.clone())?;
         let new_index_details_value = env.byte_array_from_slice(&self.new_index_details.value)?;
+        let new_index_files = match &self.new_index_files {
+            Some(files) => export_vec(env, files)?,
+            None => JObject::null(),
+        };
 
         Ok(env.new_object(
             "org/lance/operation/RewrittenIndex",
-            "(Ljava/util/UUID;Ljava/util/UUID;Ljava/lang/String;[BII)V",
+            "(Ljava/util/UUID;Ljava/util/UUID;Ljava/lang/String;[BILjava/util/List;)V",
             &[
                 JValue::Object(&old_id),
                 JValue::Object(&new_id),
                 JValue::Object(&new_index_details_type_url),
                 JValue::Object(&new_index_details_value),
-                JValue::Int(self.new_index_version as i32),
+                JValue::Int(i32::try_from(self.new_index_version).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::runtime_error(format!(
+                        "Cannot convert Rust transaction field newIndexVersion={} to Java int",
+                        self.new_index_version
+                    ))
+                })?),
+                JValue::Object(&new_index_files),
             ],
         )?)
     }
@@ -73,7 +258,10 @@ impl IntoJava for &DataReplacementGroup {
         Ok(env.new_object(
             "org/lance/operation/DataReplacement$DataReplacementGroup",
             "(JLorg/lance/fragment/DataFile;)V",
-            &[JValue::Long(fragment_id as i64), JValue::Object(&new_file)],
+            &[
+                JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong("dataReplacement.fragmentId", fragment_id)?),
+                JValue::Object(&new_file),
+            ],
         )?)
     }
 }
@@ -134,6 +322,10 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<RewrittenIndex> for JObject<'_> {
             env.convert_byte_array(JByteArray::from(new_index_details_value))?;
 
         let new_index_version = env.get_field(self, "newIndexVersion", "I")?.i()?;
+        let new_index_files =
+            env.get_optional_from_method(self, "getNewIndexFiles", |env, files| {
+                crate::traits::import_vec_to_rust(env, &files, |env, file| file.extract_object(env))
+            })?;
         Ok(RewrittenIndex {
             old_id: java_old_id,
             new_id: java_new_id,
@@ -141,7 +333,296 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<RewrittenIndex> for JObject<'_> {
                 type_url: new_index_details_type_url,
                 value: new_index_details_value,
             },
-            new_index_version: new_index_version as u32,
+            new_index_version: u32::try_from(new_index_version).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "Java transaction field newIndexVersion must be non-negative, got {new_index_version}"
+                ))
+            })?,
+            new_index_files,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+fn key_existence_filter_into_java<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    filter: &KeyExistenceFilter,
+) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    let field_ids = JLance(filter.field_ids.clone()).into_java(env)?;
+    match &filter.filter {
+        FilterType::ExactSet(hashes) => {
+            let hashes = JLance(hashes.iter().map(|hash| *hash as i64).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+                .into_java(env)?;
+            env.call_static_method(
+                "org/lance/operation/KeyExistenceFilter",
+                "exact",
+                "([I[J)Lorg/lance/operation/KeyExistenceFilter;",
+                &[JValue::Object(&field_ids), JValue::Object(&hashes)],
+            )?
+            .l()
+            .map_err(Into::into)
+        }
+        FilterType::Bloom {
+            bitmap,
+            num_bits,
+            number_of_items,
+            probability,
+        } => {
+            let bitmap = env.byte_array_from_slice(bitmap)?;
+            env.call_static_method(
+                "org/lance/operation/KeyExistenceFilter",
+                "bloom",
+                "([I[BIJD)Lorg/lance/operation/KeyExistenceFilter;",
+                &[
+                    JValue::Object(&field_ids),
+                    JValue::Object(&bitmap),
+                    JValue::Int(i32::try_from(*num_bits).map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::runtime_error(format!(
+                            "Cannot convert Rust transaction field insertedRowsFilter.numBits={num_bits} to Java int"
+                        ))
+                    })?),
+                    JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong(
+                        "insertedRowsFilter.numberOfItems",
+                        *number_of_items,
+                    )?),
+                    JValue::Double(*probability),
+                ],
+            )?
+            .l()
+            .map_err(Into::into)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn key_existence_filter_from_java(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>,
+    object: &JObject<'_>,
+) -> Result<KeyExistenceFilter> {
+    let field_ids = env.call_method(object, "getFieldIds", "()[I", &[])?.l()?;
+    let field_ids = JIntArray::from(field_ids).extract_object(env)?;
+    let filter_type = env
+        .call_method(
+            object,
+            "getType",
+            "()Lorg/lance/operation/KeyExistenceFilter$Type;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+    let filter_type = env.get_string_from_method(&filter_type, "name")?;
+    let filter = match filter_type.as_str() {
+        "EXACT" => {
+            let hashes = env
+                .call_method(object, "getExactKeyHashes", "()[J", &[])?
+                .l()?;
+            let hashes = JLongArray::from(hashes);
+            let len = env.get_array_length(&hashes)?;
+            let mut values = vec![0_i64; len as usize];
+            env.get_long_array_region(&hashes, 0, &mut values)?;
+            FilterType::ExactSet(values.into_iter().map(|value| value as u64).collect())
+        }
+        "BLOOM" => {
+            let bitmap = env
+                .call_method(object, "getBloomBitmap", "()[B", &[])?
+                .l()?;
+            let bitmap = env.convert_byte_array(JByteArray::from(bitmap))?;
+            let num_bits = u32::try_from(
+                env.call_method(object, "getBloomNumBits", "()I", &[])?
+                    .i()?,
+            )
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::input_error("insertedRowsFilter.numBits must be positive".to_string())
+            })?;
+            let number_of_items = nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+                "insertedRowsFilter.numberOfItems",
+                env.call_method(object, "getBloomNumberOfItems", "()J", &[])?
+                    .j()?,
+            )?;
+            let probability = env
+                .call_method(object, "getBloomProbability", "()D", &[])?
+                .d()?;
+            let bitmap_bits = u32::try_from(bitmap.len())
+                .ok()
+                .and_then(|len| len.checked_mul(8))
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::input_error(
+                        "insertedRowsFilter.bitmap is too large to represent".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            if num_bits == 0 || num_bits != bitmap_bits {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "insertedRowsFilter.numBits={num_bits} must equal bitmap length in bits ({bitmap_bits})"
+                )));
+            }
+            if number_of_items == 0 {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(
+                    "insertedRowsFilter.numberOfItems must be positive".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if !probability.is_finite() || !(0.0..1.0).contains(&probability) || probability == 0.0
+            {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "insertedRowsFilter.probability must be finite and between 0 and 1, got {probability}"
+                )));
+            }
+            FilterType::Bloom {
+                bitmap,
+                num_bits,
+                number_of_items,
+                probability,
+            }
+        }
+        other => {
+            return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                "Unknown KeyExistenceFilter.Type: {other}"
+            )));
+        }
+    };
+    Ok(KeyExistenceFilter { field_ids, filter })
+}
+
+fn serialize_bitmap(bitmap: &RoaringBitmap) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let mut bytes = Vec::with_capacity(bitmap.serialized_size());
+    bitmap.serialize_into(&mut bytes).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::runtime_error(format!("failed to serialize overlay coverage bitmap: {e}"))
+    })?;
+    Ok(bytes)
+}
+
+impl IntoJava for &DataOverlayFile {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let data_file = self.data_file.into_java(env)?;
+        let coverage = match &self.coverage {
+            OverlayCoverage::Shared(bitmap) => {
+                let bytes = serialize_bitmap(bitmap)?;
+                let bytes = env.byte_array_from_slice(&bytes)?;
+                env.call_static_method(
+                    "org/lance/operation/DataOverlay$OverlayCoverage",
+                    "shared",
+                    "([B)Lorg/lance/operation/DataOverlay$OverlayCoverage;",
+                    &[JValue::Object(&bytes)],
+                )?
+                .l()?
+            }
+            OverlayCoverage::PerField(bitmaps) => {
+                let list = env.new_object("java/util/ArrayList", "()V", &[])?;
+                for bitmap in bitmaps {
+                    let bytes = serialize_bitmap(bitmap)?;
+                    let bytes = env.byte_array_from_slice(&bytes)?;
+                    env.call_method(
+                        &list,
+                        "add",
+                        "(Ljava/lang/Object;)Z",
+                        &[JValue::Object(&bytes)],
+                    )?;
+                }
+                env.call_static_method(
+                    "org/lance/operation/DataOverlay$OverlayCoverage",
+                    "perField",
+                    "(Ljava/util/List;)Lorg/lance/operation/DataOverlay$OverlayCoverage;",
+                    &[JValue::Object(&list)],
+                )?
+                .l()?
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(env.new_object(
+            "org/lance/operation/DataOverlay$DataOverlayFile",
+            "(Lorg/lance/fragment/DataFile;Lorg/lance/operation/DataOverlay$OverlayCoverage;J)V",
+            &[
+                JValue::Object(&data_file),
+                JValue::Object(&coverage),
+                JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong(
+                    "dataOverlay.committedVersion",
+                    self.committed_version,
+                )?),
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
+impl FromJObjectWithEnv<DataOverlayFile> for JObject<'_> {
+    fn extract_object(&self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>) -> Result<DataOverlayFile> {
+        let data_file: DataFile = env
+            .call_method(self, "getDataFile", "()Lorg/lance/fragment/DataFile;", &[])?
+            .l()?
+            .extract_object(env)?;
+        let coverage = env
+            .call_method(
+                self,
+                "getCoverage",
+                "()Lorg/lance/operation/DataOverlay$OverlayCoverage;",
+                &[],
+            )?
+            .l()?;
+        let is_shared = env.call_method(&coverage, "isShared", "()Z", &[])?.z()?;
+        let bitmap_bytes: Vec<Vec<u8>> =
+            import_vec_from_method(env, &coverage, "getBitmaps", |env, bytes| {
+                env.convert_byte_array(JByteArray::from(bytes))
+                    .map_err(Into::into)
+            })?;
+        let mut bitmaps = Vec::with_capacity(bitmap_bytes.len());
+        for (position, bytes) in bitmap_bytes.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            bitmaps.push(
+                RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(bytes.as_slice()).map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::input_error(format!(
+                        "invalid overlay coverage RoaringBitmap at position {position}: {e}"
+                    ))
+                })?,
+            );
+        }
+        let coverage = if is_shared {
+            let [bitmap]: [RoaringBitmap; 1] = bitmaps.try_into().map_err(|bitmaps: Vec<_>| {
+                Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "shared overlay coverage requires exactly one bitmap, got {}",
+                    bitmaps.len()
+                ))
+            })?;
+            OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap)
+        } else {
+            if bitmaps.len() != data_file.fields.len() {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "per-field overlay coverage for {} has {} bitmaps but the data file has {} fields",
+                    data_file.path,
+                    bitmaps.len(),
+                    data_file.fields.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            OverlayCoverage::sparse(bitmaps)
+        };
+        Ok(DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file,
+            coverage,
+            committed_version: nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+                "dataOverlay.committedVersion",
+                env.call_method(self, "getCommittedVersion", "()J", &[])?
+                    .j()?,
+            )?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl IntoJava for &DataOverlayGroup {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let overlays = export_vec(env, &self.overlays)?;
+        Ok(env.new_object(
+            "org/lance/operation/DataOverlay$DataOverlayGroup",
+            "(JLjava/util/List;)V",
+            &[
+                JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong("dataOverlay.fragmentId", self.fragment_id)?),
+                JValue::Object(&overlays),
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
+impl FromJObjectWithEnv<DataOverlayGroup> for JObject<'_> {
+    fn extract_object(&self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>) -> Result<DataOverlayGroup> {
+        Ok(DataOverlayGroup {
+            fragment_id: nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+                "dataOverlay.fragmentId",
+                env.call_method(self, "getFragmentId", "()J", &[])?.j()?,
+            )?,
+            overlays: import_vec_from_method(env, self, "getOverlays", |env, overlay| {
+                overlay.extract_object(env)
+            })?,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -156,17 +637,31 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<IndexMetadata> for JObject<'_> {
         let fields: Vec<i32> = import_vec_from_method(env, self, "fields", |env, field_id| {
             field_id.extract_object(env)
         })?;
+        let covering_fields: Vec<i32> =
+            import_vec_from_method(env, self, "coveringFields", |env, field_id| {
+                field_id.extract_object(env)
+            })?;
 
         let name = env.get_string_from_method(self, "name")?;
-        let dataset_version = env.get_field(self, "datasetVersion", "J")?.j()? as u64;
+        let dataset_version = nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+            "index.datasetVersion",
+            env.get_field(self, "datasetVersion", "J")?.j()?,
+        )?;
 
         let fragment_bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap> =
             env.get_optional_from_method(self, "fragments", |env, fragments_obj| {
                 let frag_ids = env.get_integers(&fragments_obj)?;
                 let bitmap = frag_ids
                     .iter()
-                    .map(|val| *val as u32)
-                    .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(|(index, value)| {
+                        u32::try_from(*value).map_err(|_| {
+                            Error::input_error(format!(
+                                "index.fragments[{index}] must be non-negative, got {value}"
+                            ))
+                        })
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Result<RoaringBitmap>>()?;
                 Ok(bitmap)
             })?;
 
@@ -189,13 +684,51 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<IndexMetadata> for JObject<'_> {
                 let nanos = env
                     .call_method(&created_at_obj, "getNano", "()I", &[])?
                     .i()? as u32;
-                Ok(DateTime::from_timestamp(seconds, nanos).unwrap())
+                DateTime::from_timestamp(seconds, nanos).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::input_error(format!(
+                        "Invalid index createdAt timestamp: seconds={seconds}, nanos={nanos}"
+                    ))
+                })
             })?;
         let base_id = env.get_optional_u32_from_method(self, "baseId")?;
+        let files: Option<Vec<IndexFile>> =
+            env.get_optional_from_method(self, "getFiles", |env, files| {
+                crate::traits::import_vec_to_rust(env, &files, |env, file| file.extract_object(env))
+            })?;
+        let files_size = files
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|files| {
+                files.iter().try_fold(0_u64, |total, file| {
+                    total.checked_add(file.size_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::input_error("index file sizes overflow u64".to_string())
+                    })
+                })
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+        if let Some(files_size) = files_size {
+            i64::try_from(files_size).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "index file sizes total {files_size}, which cannot be represented by Java long"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        }
+        if let Some(size_bytes) = env.get_optional_u64_from_method(self, "getSizeBytes")? {
+            let files_size = files_size.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "index sizeBytes={size_bytes} cannot be represented without files"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if size_bytes != files_size {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "index sizeBytes={size_bytes} does not match the sum of file sizes ({files_size})"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
 
         Ok(IndexMetadata {
             uuid,
             fields,
+            covering_fields,
             name,
             dataset_version,
             fragment_bitmap,
@@ -203,13 +736,17 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<IndexMetadata> for JObject<'_> {
             index_version,
             created_at,
             base_id,
+            files,
         })
     }
 }
 
 impl FromJObjectWithEnv<DataReplacementGroup> for JObject<'_> {
     fn extract_object(&self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>) -> Result<DataReplacementGroup> {
-        let fragment_id = env.call_method(self, "fragmentId", "()J", &[])?.j()? as u64;
+        let fragment_id = nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+            "dataReplacement.fragmentId",
+            env.call_method(self, "fragmentId", "()J", &[])?.j()?,
+        )?;
         let new_file = env
             .call_method(self, "replacedFile", "()Lorg/lance/fragment/DataFile;", &[])?
             .l()?
@@ -225,10 +762,12 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<UpdateMode> for JObject<'_> {
             .call_method(self, "toString", "()Ljava/lang/String;", &[])?
             .l()?;
         let s: String = env.get_string(&JString::from(s))?.into();
-        let t = if s == "RewriteRows" {
-            UpdateMode::RewriteRows
-        } else {
-            UpdateMode::RewriteColumns
+        let t = match s.as_str() {
+            "RewriteRows" => UpdateMode::RewriteRows,
+            "RewriteColumns" => UpdateMode::RewriteColumns,
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(format!("Unknown UpdateMode value: {s}")));
+            }
         };
         Ok(t)
     }
@@ -267,7 +806,7 @@ impl FromJObjectWithEnv<Uuid> for JObject<'_> {
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeReadTransaction<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
@@ -286,7 +825,7 @@ fn inner_read_transaction<'local>(
     };
 
     let transaction = match transaction {
-        Some(transaction) => convert_to_java_transaction(env, transaction, &java_dataset)?,
+        Some(transaction) => convert_to_java_transaction(env, transaction)?,
         None => JObject::null(),
     };
     Ok(transaction)
@@ -295,9 +834,12 @@ fn inner_read_transaction<'local>(
 pub(crate) fn convert_to_java_transaction<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
     transaction: Transaction,
-    java_dataset: &JObject,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
     let uuid = env.new_string(transaction.uuid)?;
+    let tag = match transaction.tag {
+        Some(tag) => JObject::from(env.new_string(tag)?),
+        None => JObject::null(),
+    };
     let transaction_properties = match transaction.transaction_properties {
         Some(properties) => to_java_map(env, &properties)?,
         _ => JObject::null(),
@@ -306,13 +848,15 @@ pub(crate) fn convert_to_java_transaction<'local>(
 
     let java_transaction = env.new_object(
         "org/lance/Transaction",
-        "(Lorg/lance/Dataset;JLjava/lang/String;Lorg/lance/operation/Operation;Ljava/util/Map;Ljava/util/Map;)V",
+        "(JLjava/lang/String;Lorg/lance/operation/Operation;Ljava/lang/String;Ljava/util/Map;)V",
         &[
-            JValue::Object(java_dataset),
-            JValue::Long(transaction.read_version as i64),
+            JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong(
+                "transaction.readVersion",
+                transaction.read_version,
+            )?),
             JValue::Object(&uuid),
             JValue::Object(&operation),
-            JValue::Object(&JObject::null()),
+            JValue::Object(&tag),
             JValue::Object(&transaction_properties),
         ],
     )?;
@@ -353,11 +897,8 @@ fn convert_to_java_operation_inner<'local>(
         } => {
             let updated_fragments_obj = export_vec(env, &updated_fragments)?;
 
-            let deleted_ids: Vec<JLance<i64>> = deleted_fragment_ids
-                .iter()
-                .map(|x| JLance(*x as i64))
-                .collect();
-            let removed_fragment_ids_obj = export_vec(env, &deleted_ids)?;
+            let removed_fragment_ids_obj =
+                export_unsigned_longs(env, &deleted_fragment_ids, "delete.deletedFragmentIds")?;
 
             let predicate_obj = env.new_string(&predicate)?;
 
@@ -375,7 +916,7 @@ fn convert_to_java_operation_inner<'local>(
             fragments: rust_fragments,
             schema,
             config_upsert_values,
-            initial_bases: _,
+            initial_bases,
         } => {
             let java_fragments = export_vec(env, &rust_fragments)?;
             let java_schema = convert_to_java_schema(env, schema)?;
@@ -383,14 +924,19 @@ fn convert_to_java_operation_inner<'local>(
                 Some(config_upsert_values) => to_java_map(env, &config_upsert_values)?,
                 _ => JObject::null(),
             };
+            let java_initial_bases = match initial_bases {
+                Some(initial_bases) => export_vec(env, &initial_bases)?,
+                None => JObject::null(),
+            };
 
             Ok(env.new_object(
                 "org/lance/operation/Overwrite",
-                "(Ljava/util/List;Lorg/apache/arrow/vector/types/pojo/Schema;Ljava/util/Map;)V",
+                "(Ljava/util/List;Lorg/apache/arrow/vector/types/pojo/Schema;Ljava/util/Map;Ljava/util/List;)V",
                 &[
                     JValue::Object(&java_fragments),
                     JValue::Object(&java_schema),
                     JValue::Object(&java_config),
+                    JValue::Object(&java_initial_bases),
                 ],
             )?)
         }
@@ -415,16 +961,14 @@ fn convert_to_java_operation_inner<'local>(
             updated_fragments,
             new_fragments,
             fields_modified,
-            merged_generations: _,
+            compacted_sstables,
             fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
             update_mode,
-            inserted_rows_filter: _,
+            inserted_rows_filter,
+            updated_fragment_offsets,
         } => {
-            let removed_ids: Vec<JLance<i64>> = removed_fragment_ids
-                .iter()
-                .map(|x| JLance(*x as i64))
-                .collect();
-            let removed_fragment_ids_obj = export_vec(env, &removed_ids)?;
+            let removed_fragment_ids_obj =
+                export_unsigned_longs(env, &removed_fragment_ids, "update.removedFragmentIds")?;
             let updated_fragments_obj = export_vec(env, &updated_fragments)?;
             let new_fragments_obj = export_vec(env, &new_fragments)?;
             let fields_modified = JLance(fields_modified.clone()).into_java(env)?;
@@ -442,9 +986,56 @@ fn convert_to_java_operation_inner<'local>(
                     &[JValue::Object(&update_mode)],
                 )?
                 .l()?;
+            let compacted_sstables = export_compacted_sstables(env, &compacted_sstables)?;
+            let inserted_rows_filter = match inserted_rows_filter {
+                Some(filter) => key_existence_filter_into_java(env, &filter)?,
+                None => JObject::null(),
+            };
+            // Serialize updated_fragment_offsets to Java Map<Long, byte[]>.
+            // Values are portable RoaringBitmap bytes so the JNI boundary stays O(bitmap size)
+            // rather than O(n rows). Empty HashMap when None so the Java constructor always
+            // receives a non-null map.
+            let java_offsets_map = {
+                let java_map = env.new_object("java/util/HashMap", "()V", &[])?;
+                if let Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(ref map)) = updated_fragment_offsets {
+                    for (frag_id, bitmap) in map {
+                        let mut buf: Vec<u8> = Vec::new();
+                        bitmap.serialize_into(&mut buf).map_err(|e| {
+                            Error::runtime_error(format!(
+                                "failed to serialize updatedFragmentOffsets for fragment \
+                                 {frag_id}: {e}"
+                            ))
+                        })?;
+                        // JNI byte arrays are signed i8; reinterpret without copying.
+                        let buf_i8: &[i8] = unsafe {
+                            std::slice::from_raw_parts(buf.as_ptr() as *const i8, buf.len())
+                        };
+                        env.with_local_frame(4, |env| {
+                            let java_key = env.new_object(
+                                "java/lang/Long",
+                                "(J)V",
+                                &[JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong(
+                                    "update.updatedFragmentOffsets.fragmentId",
+                                    *frag_id,
+                                )?)],
+                            )?;
+                            let java_arr = env.new_byte_array(buf_i8.len() as i32)?;
+                            env.set_byte_array_region(&java_arr, 0, buf_i8)?;
+                            env.call_method(
+                                &java_map,
+                                "put",
+                                "(Ljava/lang/Object;Ljava/lang/Object;)Ljava/lang/Object;",
+                                &[JValue::Object(&java_key), JValue::Object(&*java_arr)],
+                            )?;
+                            Ok::<JObject, Error>(JObject::null())
+                        })?;
+                    }
+                }
+                java_map
+            };
             Ok(env.new_object(
                 "org/lance/operation/Update",
-                "(Ljava/util/List;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/util/List;[J[JLjava/util/Optional;)V",
+                "(Ljava/util/List;Ljava/util/List;Ljava/util/List;[J[JLjava/util/Optional;Ljava/util/Map;Ljava/util/List;Lorg/lance/operation/KeyExistenceFilter;)V",
                 &[
                     JValue::Object(&removed_fragment_ids_obj),
                     JValue::Object(&updated_fragments_obj),
@@ -452,16 +1043,25 @@ fn convert_to_java_operation_inner<'local>(
                     JValueGen::Object(&fields_modified),
                     JValueGen::Object(&fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap),
                     JValue::Object(&update_mode_optional),
+                    JValue::Object(&java_offsets_map),
+                    JValue::Object(&compacted_sstables),
+                    JValue::Object(&inserted_rows_filter),
                 ],
             )?)
         }
-        Operation::Project { schema } => {
+        Operation::Project {
+            schema,
+            preserves_nullability,
+        } => {
             let java_schema = convert_to_java_schema(env, schema)?;
 
             Ok(env.new_object(
                 "org/lance/operation/Project",
-                "(Lorg/apache/arrow/vector/types/pojo/Schema;)V",
-                &[JValue::Object(&java_schema)],
+                "(Lorg/apache/arrow/vector/types/pojo/Schema;Z)V",
+                &[
+                    JValue::Object(&java_schema),
+                    JValue::Bool(preserves_nullability as u8),
+                ],
             )?)
         }
         Operation::Rewrite {
@@ -534,33 +1134,92 @@ fn convert_to_java_operation_inner<'local>(
                 &[JValue::Object(&java_replacements)],
             )?)
         }
+        Operation::DataOverlay { groups } => {
+            let groups = export_vec(env, &groups)?;
+            Ok(env.new_object(
+                "org/lance/operation/DataOverlay",
+                "(Ljava/util/List;)V",
+                &[JValue::Object(&groups)],
+            )?)
+        }
         Operation::Merge {
             fragments: rust_fragments,
             schema,
+            preserves_nullability,
         } => {
             let java_fragments = export_vec(env, &rust_fragments)?;
             let java_schema = convert_to_java_schema(env, schema)?;
 
             Ok(env.new_object(
                 "org/lance/operation/Merge",
-                "(Ljava/util/List;Lorg/apache/arrow/vector/types/pojo/Schema;)V",
+                "(Ljava/util/List;Lorg/apache/arrow/vector/types/pojo/Schema;Z)V",
                 &[
                     JValue::Object(&java_fragments),
                     JValue::Object(&java_schema),
+                    JValue::Bool(preserves_nullability as u8),
                 ],
             )?)
         }
         Operation::Restore { version } => Ok(env.new_object(
             "org/lance/operation/Restore",
             "(J)V",
-            &[JValue::Long(version as i64)],
+            &[JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong("restore.version", version)?)],
         )?),
         Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments } => Ok(env.new_object(
             "org/lance/operation/ReserveFragments",
             "(I)V",
-            &[JValue::Int(num_fragments as i32)],
+            &[JValue::Int(u32_to_jint(
+                "reserveFragments.numFragments",
+                num_fragments,
+            )?)],
         )?),
-        _ => unimplemented!(),
+        Operation::UpdateMemWalState { compacted_sstables } => {
+            let compacted_sstables = export_compacted_sstables(env, &compacted_sstables)?;
+            Ok(env.new_object(
+                "org/lance/operation/UpdateMemWalState",
+                "(Ljava/util/List;)V",
+                &[JValue::Object(&compacted_sstables)],
+            )?)
+        }
+        Operation::Clone {
+            is_shallow,
+            ref_name,
+            ref_version,
+            ref_path,
+            branch_name,
+        } => {
+            let ref_name = match ref_name {
+                Some(ref_name) => env.new_string(ref_name)?.into(),
+                None => JObject::null(),
+            };
+            let ref_path = env.new_string(ref_path)?;
+            let branch_name = match branch_name {
+                Some(branch_name) => env.new_string(branch_name)?.into(),
+                None => JObject::null(),
+            };
+            Ok(env.new_object(
+                "org/lance/operation/Clone",
+                "(ZLjava/lang/String;JLjava/lang/String;Ljava/lang/String;)V",
+                &[
+                    JValue::Bool(is_shallow as u8),
+                    JValue::Object(&ref_name),
+                    JValue::Long(u64_to_jlong("clone.refVersion", ref_version)?),
+                    JValue::Object(&ref_path),
+                    JValue::Object(&branch_name),
+                ],
+            )?)
+        }
+        Operation::UpdateBases { new_bases } => {
+            let new_bases = export_vec(env, &new_bases)?;
+            Ok(env.new_object(
+                "org/lance/operation/UpdateBases",
+                "(Ljava/util/List;)V",
+                &[JValue::Object(&new_bases)],
+            )?)
+        }
+        Operation::Unknown { .. } => Err(Error::input_error(
+            "Cannot convert an operation written by a newer version of Lance".to_string(),
+        )),
     }
 }
 
@@ -579,38 +1238,135 @@ pub(crate) fn convert_to_java_schema<'local>(
         .l()?)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeCommitTransaction<'local>(
+/// Parse a `CommitBuilder.storageFormat` string into a [`LanceFileVersion`].
+///
+/// The canonical spellings ("2.1", "stable", ...) are the ones every other Lance
+/// binding accepts and the ones [`LanceFileVersion`]'s `Display` emits.
+///
+/// The `v`-prefixed spellings are a Java-only accident: this function originally
+/// hand-rolled its match by walking the `LanceFileVersion` variant identifiers
+/// (`V2_1` -> `"v2_1"`) instead of delegating to `FromStr`, so it accepted those
+/// identifiers and rejected the canonical "2.1". They were documented on
+/// `CommitBuilder.storageFormat` and shipped from 3.0.0, so they are translated
+/// here for compatibility. The set is deliberately frozen to what shipped —
+/// newer versions are reachable only by their canonical name.
+fn parse_storage_format(name: &str) -> Result<LanceFileVersion> {
+    let requested = name.to_lowercase();
+    let canonical = match requested.as_str() {
+        "v2_0" | "v2.0" => V2_FORMAT_2_0,
+        "v2_1" | "v2.1" => V2_FORMAT_2_1,
+        "v2_2" | "v2.2" => V2_FORMAT_2_2,
+        _ => requested.as_str(),
+    };
+
+    if canonical != requested {
+        log::warn!(
+            "Storage format \"{}\" is deprecated and will be removed in a future release; use \"{}\" instead",
+            name,
+            canonical
+        );
+    }
+
+    canonical
+        .parse::<LanceFileVersion>()
+        .map_err(|_| Error::input_error(format!("Unknown storage format: {}", name)))
+}
+
+/// Translate the Java `commitTimeoutNanos` sentinel into an
+/// `Option<Duration>` for [`CommitBuilder::with_timeout`]. The Java side is
+/// the source of truth for the default (30 minutes) and for rejecting
+/// zero/negative-from-the-user inputs; here `< 0` simply means "disabled" and
+/// any other value is the timeout in nanoseconds.
+fn parse_commit_timeout(nanos: i64) -> Option<std::time::Duration> {
+    if nanos < 0 {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(std::time::Duration::from_nanos(nanos as u64))
+    }
+}
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_CommitBuilder_nativeCommitToDataset<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _cls: JObject,
     java_dataset: JObject,
     java_transaction: JObject,
     detached_jbool: jboolean,
     enable_v2_manifest_paths: jboolean,
+    write_params_obj: JObject,
+    use_stable_row_ids_obj: JObject,
+    storage_format_obj: JObject,
+    max_retries: jint,
+    skip_auto_cleanup: jboolean,
+    namespace_obj: JObject,
+    table_id_obj: JObject,
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning: jboolean,
+    commit_timeout_nanos: jlong,
 ) -> JObject<'local> {
     ok_or_throw!(
         env,
-        inner_commit_transaction(
+        inner_commit_to_dataset(
             &mut env,
             java_dataset,
             java_transaction,
             detached_jbool != 0,
             enable_v2_manifest_paths != 0,
+            write_params_obj,
+            use_stable_row_ids_obj,
+            storage_format_obj,
+            max_retries as u32,
+            skip_auto_cleanup != 0,
+            namespace_obj,
+            table_id_obj,
+            namespace_client_managed_versioning != 0,
+            commit_timeout_nanos,
         )
     )
 }
 
-fn inner_commit_transaction<'local>(
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn inner_commit_to_dataset<'local>(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
     java_dataset: JObject,
     java_transaction: JObject,
     detached: bool,
     enable_v2_manifest_paths: bool,
+    write_params_obj: JObject,
+    use_stable_row_ids_obj: JObject,
+    storage_format_obj: JObject,
+    max_retries: u32,
+    skip_auto_cleanup: bool,
+    namespace_obj: JObject,
+    table_id_obj: JObject,
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool,
+    commit_timeout_nanos: jlong,
 ) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
-    let write_param_jobj = env
-        .call_method(&java_transaction, "writeParams", "()Ljava/util/Map;", &[])?
-        .l()?;
-    let write_param_jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &write_param_jobj)?;
-    let write_param = to_rust_map(env, &write_param_jmap)?;
+    let commit_timeout = parse_commit_timeout(commit_timeout_nanos);
+    let write_param = if write_params_obj.is_null() {
+        HashMap::new()
+    } else {
+        let write_param_jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &write_params_obj)?;
+        to_rust_map(env, &write_param_jmap)?
+    };
+
+    // Parse optional use_stable_row_ids (boxed Boolean)
+    let use_stable_row_ids = if use_stable_row_ids_obj.is_null() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        let val = env
+            .call_method(&use_stable_row_ids_obj, "booleanValue", "()Z", &[])?
+            .z()?;
+        Some(val)
+    };
+
+    // Parse optional storage format string
+    let storage_format = if storage_format_obj.is_null() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        let format_str: String = JString::from(storage_format_obj).extract(env)?;
+        Some(parse_storage_format(&format_str)?)
+    };
 
     // Get the Dataset's storage_options_accessor and merge with write_param
     let storage_options_accessor = {
@@ -656,7 +1412,47 @@ fn inner_commit_transaction<'local>(
         ..Default::default()
     };
 
-    let transaction = convert_to_rust_transaction(env, java_transaction, Some(&java_dataset))?;
+    let java_allocator = env
+        .call_method(
+            &java_dataset,
+            "allocator",
+            "()Lorg/apache/arrow/memory/BufferAllocator;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+
+    // BlockingDataset from java dataset.
+    let mut java_blocking_ds = {
+        let dataset_guard =
+            unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
+        BlockingDataset::new(dataset_guard.inner.clone())
+    };
+    let transaction = convert_to_rust_transaction(
+        env,
+        java_transaction,
+        Some(&java_allocator),
+        Some(&mut java_blocking_ds),
+    )?;
+
+    // Set namespace commit handler only if namespace_client_managed_versioning is true
+    let namespace_info = extract_namespace_info(env, &namespace_obj, &table_id_obj)?;
+    let commit_handler = if namespace_client_managed_versioning {
+        match namespace_info {
+            Some((ns, tid)) => {
+                // The store derives the branch a request targets from the base
+                // path it is handed, resolved against the table root.
+                let table_root = java_blocking_ds.inner.branch_location().find_main()?.path;
+                let external_store = LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::new(ns, tid, table_root);
+                Some(Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                    external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+                }) as Arc<dyn CommitHandler>)
+            }
+            None => None,
+        }
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
     let new_blocking_ds = {
         let mut dataset_guard =
             unsafe { env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(&java_dataset, NATIVE_DATASET) }?;
@@ -665,6 +1461,12 @@ fn inner_commit_transaction<'local>(
             store_params,
             detached,
             enable_v2_manifest_paths,
+            use_stable_row_ids,
+            storage_format,
+            max_retries,
+            skip_auto_cleanup,
+            commit_handler,
+            commit_timeout,
         )?
     };
     new_blocking_ds.into_java(env)
@@ -673,9 +1475,14 @@ fn inner_commit_transaction<'local>(
 fn convert_to_rust_transaction(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
     java_transaction: JObject,
-    java_dataset: Option<&JObject>,
+    allocator: Option<&JObject>,
+    dataset: Option<&mut BlockingDataset>,
 ) -> Result<Transaction> {
-    let read_ver = env.get_u64_from_method(&java_transaction, "readVersion")?;
+    let read_ver = nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+        "transaction.readVersion",
+        env.call_method(&java_transaction, "readVersion", "()J", &[])?
+            .j()?,
+    )?;
     let uuid = env.get_string_from_method(&java_transaction, "uuid")?;
     let op = env
         .call_method(
@@ -685,7 +1492,12 @@ fn convert_to_rust_transaction(
             &[],
         )?
         .l()?;
-    let op = convert_to_rust_operation(env, &op, java_dataset)?;
+    let op = convert_to_rust_operation(env, &op, allocator, dataset, read_ver)?;
+
+    let tag = env.get_optional_from_method(&java_transaction, "tag", |env, tag_obj| {
+        let tag_str = JString::from(tag_obj);
+        tag_str.extract(env)
+    })?;
 
     let transaction_properties = env.get_optional_from_method(
         &java_transaction,
@@ -697,6 +1509,7 @@ fn convert_to_rust_transaction(
     )?;
     Ok(TransactionBuilder::new(read_ver, op)
         .uuid(uuid)
+        .tag(tag)
         .transaction_properties(transaction_properties.map(Arc::new))
         .build())
 }
@@ -704,42 +1517,194 @@ fn convert_to_rust_transaction(
 fn convert_schema_from_operation(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
     java_operation: &JObject,
-    java_dataset: &JObject,
+    java_allocator: &JObject,
+    dataset: Option<&mut BlockingDataset>,
+    read_version: u64,
 ) -> Result<LanceSchema> {
-    let java_buffer_allocator = env
-        .call_method(
-            java_dataset,
-            "allocator",
-            "()Lorg/apache/arrow/memory/BufferAllocator;",
-            &[],
-        )?
-        .l()?;
     let schema_ptr = env
         .call_method(
             java_operation,
             "exportSchema",
             "(Lorg/apache/arrow/memory/BufferAllocator;)J",
-            &[JValue::Object(&java_buffer_allocator)],
+            &[JValue::Object(java_allocator)],
         )?
         .j()?;
     let c_schema_ptr = schema_ptr as *mut FFI_ArrowSchema;
     let c_schema = unsafe { FFI_ArrowSchema::from_raw(c_schema_ptr) };
-    let schema = Schema::try_from(&c_schema)?;
-    Ok(
-        LanceSchema::try_from(&schema)
-            .expect("Failed to convert from arrow schema to lance schema"),
-    )
+
+    if let Some(dataset) = dataset {
+        let arrow_schema = Schema::try_from(&c_schema)?;
+
+        // Derive field ids based on the transaction read dataset schema.
+        let read_schema = {
+            if dataset.inner.version().version == read_version {
+                dataset.inner.schema().clone()
+            } else {
+                let read_dataset = dataset.checkout_version(read_version)?;
+                read_dataset.inner.schema().clone()
+            }
+        };
+
+        let max_field_id = dataset.inner.manifest().max_field_id();
+        let schema =
+            LanceSchema::from_arrow_schema(&arrow_schema, Some(read_schema), Some(max_field_id))?;
+        Ok(schema)
+    } else {
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&c_schema)?;
+        LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).map_err(|e| {
+            Error::input_error(format!(
+                "Failed to convert Arrow schema to Lance schema: {}",
+                e
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+trait SchemaExt {
+    /// Walk through the fields and assign a new field id to each field that does not have one
+    /// (e.g. is set to -1)
+    ///
+    /// If this schema is on an existing dataset, pass the schema of the dataset to `base_schema`
+    /// and the result of `Manifest::max_field_id` to `max_existing_id`.
+    ///
+    /// If this schema is not associated with a dataset, pass `None` to `base_schema` and
+    /// `max_existing_id`.
+    ///
+    /// The rule of assigning id is:
+    /// 1. If a lance field with same name exists in `base_schema` (including nested field), id is
+    ///    derived from the field.
+    /// 2. Otherwise, set field id based on max id, which is computed from `max_existing_id`,
+    ///    `base_schema` max id and self max id.
+    fn set_field_id_from_schema(
+        &mut self,
+        base_schema: Option<LanceSchema>,
+        max_existing_id: Option<i32>,
+    ) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Create schema from `arrow_schema`, with field id priority below:
+    /// 1. arrow metadata field id.
+    /// 2. field id from `base_schema`.
+    /// 3. field id from `max_existing_id`.
+    fn from_arrow_schema(
+        arrow_schema: &Schema,
+        base_schema: Option<LanceSchema>,
+        max_existing_id: Option<i32>,
+    ) -> Result<LanceSchema>;
+}
+
+impl SchemaExt for LanceSchema {
+    fn set_field_id_from_schema(
+        &mut self,
+        base_schema: Option<LanceSchema>,
+        max_existing_id: Option<i32>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // Set id from base_schema
+        if let Some(base_schema) = &base_schema {
+            for field in self.fields.iter_mut() {
+                if let Some(base_field) = base_schema.field(&field.name) {
+                    field.set_field_id_from_field(-1, base_field)?;
+                }
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Set id from max_id
+        let max_id = base_schema
+            .map(|s| s.max_field_id().unwrap_or(-1))
+            .unwrap_or(-1);
+        let max_id = max_id.max(max_existing_id.unwrap_or(-1));
+        self.set_field_id(Some(max_id));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn from_arrow_schema(
+        arrow_schema: &Schema,
+        base_schema: Option<LanceSchema>,
+        max_existing_id: Option<i32>,
+    ) -> Result<LanceSchema> {
+        let mut schema = Self {
+            fields: arrow_schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| Field::try_from(f.as_ref()))
+                .collect::<lance_core::Result<_>>()?,
+            metadata: arrow_schema.metadata.clone(),
+        };
+        schema.set_field_id_from_schema(base_schema, max_existing_id)?;
+        schema.validate()?;
+        schema.verify_primary_key()?;
+
+        Ok(schema)
+    }
+}
+
+trait FieldExt {
+    /// Recursively set field ID and parent ID for this field and all its children.
+    fn set_field_id_from_field(
+        &mut self,
+        parent_id: i32,
+        base_field: &Field,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<()>;
+}
+
+impl FieldExt for Field {
+    fn set_field_id_from_field(
+        &mut self,
+        parent_id: i32,
+        base_field: &Field,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        self.parent_id = parent_id;
+
+        if self.name != base_field.name {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        if self.logical_type != base_field.logical_type {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Expecting logical type {} but got {} for field {}",
+                    base_field.logical_type, self.logical_type, self.name
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        if self.id < 0 {
+            // use id from base
+            self.id = base_field.id;
+        }
+
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            if let Some(base_child) = base_field.children.iter().find(|f| f.name == child.name) {
+                child.set_field_id_from_field(self.id, base_child)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 }
 
 fn convert_to_rust_operation(
     env: &mut JNIEnv<'_>,
     java_operation: &JObject<'_>,
-    java_dataset: Option<&JObject<'_>>,
+    allocator: Option<&JObject<'_>>,
+    dataset: Option<&mut BlockingDataset>,
+    read_version: u64,
 ) -> Result<Operation> {
     let op_name = env.get_string_from_method(java_operation, "name")?;
     let op = match op_name.as_str() {
         "Project" => Operation::Project {
-            schema: convert_schema_from_operation(env, java_operation, java_dataset.unwrap())?,
+            preserves_nullability: env
+                .get_boolean_from_method(java_operation, "preservesNullability")?,
+            schema: convert_schema_from_operation(
+                env,
+                java_operation,
+                allocator.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::input_error(
+                        "BufferAllocator is required for Project operations".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?,
+                dataset,
+                read_version,
+            )?,
         },
         "UpdateConfig" => {
             let config_updates_obj = env
@@ -829,13 +1794,11 @@ fn convert_to_rust_operation(
                 |env, fragment| fragment.extract_object(env),
             )?;
 
-            let deleted_fragment_ids: Vec<u64> = import_vec_from_method(
+            let deleted_fragment_ids = import_unsigned_longs(
                 env,
                 java_operation,
                 "deletedFragmentIds",
-                |env, fragment_id| {
-                    Ok(env.call_method(fragment_id, "longValue", "()J", &[])?.j()? as u64)
-                },
+                "delete.deletedFragmentIds",
             )?;
 
             let predicate = env.get_string_from_method(java_operation, "predicate")?;
@@ -860,12 +1823,31 @@ fn convert_to_rust_operation(
                     to_rust_map(env, &config_upsert_values)
                 },
             )?;
-            let schema = convert_schema_from_operation(env, java_operation, java_dataset.unwrap())?;
+            let initial_bases =
+                env.get_optional_from_method(java_operation, "getInitialBases", |env, bases| {
+                    crate::traits::import_vec_to_rust(env, &bases, |env, base| {
+                        base.extract_object(env)
+                    })
+                })?;
+            // Pass None for dataset so that the new schema is not validated
+            // against the old schema. Overwrite replaces the entire dataset,
+            // so fields with the same name but different types are allowed.
+            let schema = convert_schema_from_operation(
+                env,
+                java_operation,
+                allocator.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::input_error(
+                        "BufferAllocator is required for Overwrite operations".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?,
+                None,
+                read_version,
+            )?;
             Operation::Overwrite {
                 fragments,
                 schema,
                 config_upsert_values,
-                initial_bases: None,
+                initial_bases,
             }
         }
         "Rewrite" => {
@@ -892,13 +1874,11 @@ fn convert_to_rust_operation(
             }
         }
         "Update" => {
-            let removed_fragment_ids = import_vec_from_method(
+            let removed_fragment_ids = import_unsigned_longs(
                 env,
                 java_operation,
                 "removedFragmentIds",
-                |env, fragment_id| {
-                    Ok(env.call_method(fragment_id, "longValue", "()J", &[])?.j()? as u64)
-                },
+                "update.removedFragmentIds",
             )?;
 
             let updated_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = import_vec_from_method(
@@ -913,31 +1893,107 @@ fn convert_to_rust_operation(
                     fragment.extract_object(env)
                 })?;
 
-            let fields_modified = env
-                .call_method(java_operation, "fieldsModified", "()[J", &[])?
-                .l()?;
-            let fields_modified = JLongArray::from(fields_modified).extract_object(env)?;
-
-            let fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap = env
-                .call_method(java_operation, "fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap", "()[J", &[])?
-                .l()?;
-            let fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap =
-                JLongArray::from(fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap).extract_object(env)?;
+            let fields_modified = import_field_ids(
+                env,
+                java_operation,
+                "fieldsModified",
+                "update.fieldsModified",
+            )?;
+            let fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap = import_field_ids(
+                env,
+                java_operation,
+                "fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap",
+                "update.fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap",
+            )?;
 
             let update_mode: Option<UpdateMode> =
                 env.get_optional_from_method(java_operation, "updateMode", |env, update_mode| {
                     update_mode.extract_object(env)
                 })?;
+            if update_mode.is_none() {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(
+                    "update.updateMode must be specified because the transaction format cannot \
+                     persist an absent update mode distinctly from RewriteRows"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let compacted_sstables = import_vec_from_method(
+                env,
+                java_operation,
+                "getCompactedSstables",
+                |env, sstable| compacted_sstable_from_java(env, &sstable),
+            )?;
+            let inserted_rows_filter = env.get_optional_from_method(
+                java_operation,
+                "getInsertedRowsFilter",
+                |env, filter| key_existence_filter_from_java(env, &filter),
+            )?;
+
+            let updated_fragment_offsets = {
+                let offsets_obj = env
+                    .call_method(
+                        java_operation,
+                        "updatedFragmentOffsets",
+                        "()Ljava/util/Map;",
+                        &[],
+                    )?
+                    .l()?;
+                if offsets_obj.is_null() {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &offsets_obj)?;
+                    let mut iter = jmap.iter(env)?;
+                    let mut offsets: HashMap<u64, RoaringBitmap> = HashMap::new();
+                    // Per-iteration local frame: iterator key/value JNI refs are released each
+                    // loop so large multi-fragment maps cannot exhaust the local reference table.
+                    loop {
+                        let entry = env.with_local_frame(
+                            8,
+                            |env| -> Result<Option<(u64, RoaringBitmap)>> {
+                                let Some((key, value)) = iter.next(env)? else {
+                                    return Ok(None);
+                                };
+                                let frag_id = nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+                                    "update.updatedFragmentOffsets.fragmentId",
+                                    env.call_method(&key, "longValue", "()J", &[])?.j()?,
+                                )?;
+                                let buf: Vec<u8> =
+                                    env.convert_byte_array(JByteArray::from(value))?;
+                                let bitmap = RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(buf.as_slice())
+                                    .map_err(|e| {
+                                        Error::input_error(format!(
+                                            "invalid updatedFragmentOffsets RoaringBitmap bytes \
+                                         for fragment {frag_id}: {e}"
+                                        ))
+                                    })?;
+                                Ok(Some((frag_id, bitmap)))
+                            },
+                        )?;
+                        match entry {
+                            None => break,
+                            Some((frag_id, bitmap)) => {
+                                offsets.insert(frag_id, bitmap);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if offsets.is_empty() {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(offsets))
+                    }
+                }
+            };
 
             Operation::Update {
                 removed_fragment_ids,
                 updated_fragments,
                 new_fragments,
                 fields_modified,
-                merged_generations: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables,
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
                 update_mode,
-                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                inserted_rows_filter,
+                updated_fragment_offsets,
             }
         }
         "DataReplacement" => {
@@ -947,6 +2003,12 @@ fn convert_to_rust_operation(
                 })?;
             Operation::DataReplacement { replacements }
         }
+        "DataOverlay" => {
+            let groups = import_vec_from_method(env, java_operation, "getGroups", |env, group| {
+                group.extract_object(env)
+            })?;
+            Operation::DataOverlay { groups }
+        }
         "Merge" => {
             let fragments: Vec<Fragment> =
                 import_vec_from_method(env, java_operation, "fragments", |env, fragment| {
@@ -954,19 +2016,38 @@ fn convert_to_rust_operation(
                 })?;
             Operation::Merge {
                 fragments,
-                schema: convert_schema_from_operation(env, java_operation, java_dataset.unwrap())?,
+                preserves_nullability: env
+                    .get_boolean_from_method(java_operation, "preservesNullability")?,
+                schema: convert_schema_from_operation(
+                    env,
+                    java_operation,
+                    allocator.ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::input_error(
+                            "BufferAllocator is required for Merge operations".to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?,
+                    dataset,
+                    read_version,
+                )?,
             }
         }
         "Restore" => {
-            let version: u64 = env
-                .call_method(java_operation, "version", "()J", &[])?
-                .j()? as u64;
+            let version = nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+                "restore.version",
+                env.call_method(java_operation, "version", "()J", &[])?
+                    .j()?,
+            )?;
             return Ok(Operation::Restore { version });
         }
         "ReserveFragments" => {
-            let num_fragments = env
+            let java_num_fragments = env
                 .call_method(java_operation, "numFragments", "()I", &[])?
-                .i()? as u32;
+                .i()?;
+            let num_fragments = u32::try_from(java_num_fragments).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "reserveFragments.numFragments must be non-negative, got {java_num_fragments}"
+                ))
+            })?;
             return Ok(Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments });
         }
         "CreateIndex" => {
@@ -983,7 +2064,38 @@ fn convert_to_rust_operation(
                 removed_indices,
             });
         }
-        _ => unimplemented!(),
+        "UpdateMemWalState" => {
+            let compacted_sstables = import_vec_from_method(
+                env,
+                java_operation,
+                "getCompactedSstables",
+                |env, sstable| compacted_sstable_from_java(env, &sstable),
+            )?;
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState { compacted_sstables }
+        }
+        "Clone" => Operation::Clone {
+            is_shallow: env.get_boolean_from_method(java_operation, "isShallow")?,
+            ref_name: env.get_optional_string_from_method(java_operation, "getRefName")?,
+            ref_version: nonnegative_jlong_to_u64(
+                "clone.refVersion",
+                env.call_method(java_operation, "getRefVersion", "()J", &[])?
+                    .j()?,
+            )?,
+            ref_path: env.get_string_from_method(java_operation, "getRefPath")?,
+            branch_name: env.get_optional_string_from_method(java_operation, "getBranchName")?,
+        },
+        "UpdateBases" => {
+            let new_bases =
+                import_vec_from_method(env, java_operation, "getNewBases", |env, base| {
+                    base.extract_object(env)
+                })?;
+            Operation::UpdateBases { new_bases }
+        }
+        _ => {
+            return Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+                "Unsupported Java transaction operation: {op_name}"
+            )));
+        }
     };
     Ok(op)
 }
@@ -1068,3 +2180,552 @@ fn export_update_map<'a>(
         }
     }
 }
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_CommitBuilder_nativeCommitToUri<'local>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
+    _cls: JObject,
+    uri: JString,
+    java_transaction: JObject,
+    detached_jbool: jboolean,
+    enable_v2_manifest_paths: jboolean,
+    namespace_obj: JObject,
+    table_id_obj: JObject,
+    allocator_obj: JObject,
+    write_params_obj: JObject,
+    use_stable_row_ids_obj: JObject,
+    storage_format_obj: JObject,
+    max_retries: jint,
+    skip_auto_cleanup: jboolean,
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning: jboolean,
+    commit_timeout_nanos: jlong,
+) -> JObject<'local> {
+    ok_or_throw!(
+        env,
+        inner_commit_to_uri(
+            &mut env,
+            uri,
+            java_transaction,
+            detached_jbool != 0,
+            enable_v2_manifest_paths != 0,
+            namespace_obj,
+            table_id_obj,
+            allocator_obj,
+            write_params_obj,
+            use_stable_row_ids_obj,
+            storage_format_obj,
+            max_retries as u32,
+            skip_auto_cleanup != 0,
+            namespace_client_managed_versioning != 0,
+            commit_timeout_nanos,
+        )
+    )
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn inner_commit_to_uri<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    uri: JString,
+    java_transaction: JObject,
+    detached: bool,
+    enable_v2_manifest_paths: bool,
+    namespace_obj: JObject,
+    table_id_obj: JObject,
+    allocator_obj: JObject,
+    write_params_obj: JObject,
+    use_stable_row_ids_obj: JObject,
+    storage_format_obj: JObject,
+    max_retries: u32,
+    skip_auto_cleanup: bool,
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool,
+    commit_timeout_nanos: jlong,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let commit_timeout = parse_commit_timeout(commit_timeout_nanos);
+    let uri_str: String = uri.extract(env)?;
+
+    // Extract write params from parameter
+    let write_param = if write_params_obj.is_null() {
+        HashMap::new()
+    } else {
+        let write_param_jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &write_params_obj)?;
+        to_rust_map(env, &write_param_jmap)?
+    };
+
+    // Parse optional use_stable_row_ids (boxed Boolean)
+    let use_stable_row_ids = if use_stable_row_ids_obj.is_null() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        let val = env
+            .call_method(&use_stable_row_ids_obj, "booleanValue", "()Z", &[])?
+            .z()?;
+        Some(val)
+    };
+
+    // Parse optional storage format string
+    let storage_format = if storage_format_obj.is_null() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        let format_str: String = JString::from(storage_format_obj).extract(env)?;
+        Some(parse_storage_format(&format_str)?)
+    };
+
+    // Extract namespace info and create storage options provider if namespace is provided
+    let namespace_info = extract_namespace_info(env, &namespace_obj, &table_id_obj)?;
+    let storage_options_provider: Option<Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>> =
+        if let Some((ref ns, ref tid)) = namespace_info {
+            Some(Arc::new(LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(
+                ns.clone(),
+                tid.clone(),
+            )))
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+    // Keep a copy of initial options for opening the read dataset.
+    let initial_storage_options = write_param.clone();
+
+    let accessor = match (write_param.is_empty(), storage_options_provider.clone()) {
+        (false, Some(provider)) => Some(Arc::new(
+            lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(write_param, provider),
+        )),
+        (false, None) => Some(Arc::new(
+            lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(write_param),
+        )),
+        (true, Some(provider)) => Some(Arc::new(lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(
+            provider,
+        ))),
+        (true, None) => None,
+    };
+
+    let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+        storage_options_accessor: accessor,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    let (open_namespace, open_table_id) = match &namespace_info {
+        Some((namespace_client, tid)) => (Some(namespace_client.clone()), Some(tid.clone())),
+        None => (None, None),
+    };
+
+    // Open the read dataset using the same storage options (and provider, if any) so that
+    // `convert_to_rust_transaction` can derive schema/field ids based on the target dataset.
+    let mut ds = BlockingDataset::open(
+        &uri_str,
+        None,
+        None,
+        6 * 1024 * 1024,
+        1024 * 1024,
+        initial_storage_options,
+        HashMap::new(),
+        None,
+        storage_options_provider,
+        None,
+        open_namespace,
+        open_table_id,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning,
+    )
+    .ok();
+
+    // Convert Java transaction to Rust
+    let allocator_ref = if allocator_obj.is_null() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(allocator_obj)
+    };
+    let transaction =
+        convert_to_rust_transaction(env, java_transaction, allocator_ref.as_ref(), ds.as_mut())?;
+
+    // Build CommitBuilder with URI
+    let mut builder = CommitBuilder::new(&*uri_str)
+        .with_store_params(store_params)
+        .with_detached(detached)
+        .enable_v2_manifest_paths(enable_v2_manifest_paths)
+        .with_timeout(commit_timeout);
+
+    if let Some(use_stable) = use_stable_row_ids {
+        builder = builder.use_stable_row_ids(use_stable);
+    }
+    if let Some(format) = storage_format {
+        builder = builder.with_storage_format(format);
+    }
+    if max_retries > 0 {
+        builder = builder.with_max_retries(max_retries);
+    }
+    if skip_auto_cleanup {
+        builder = builder.with_skip_auto_cleanup(true);
+    }
+
+    // Set namespace commit handler only if namespace_client_managed_versioning is true
+    if namespace_client_managed_versioning && let Some((namespace_client, tid)) = namespace_info {
+        let external_store =
+            LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::for_table_uri(namespace_client, tid, &uri_str)?;
+        let commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler> = Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+        });
+        builder = builder.with_commit_handler(commit_handler);
+    }
+
+    let dataset = block_on(builder.execute(transaction))?;
+    let blocking_ds = BlockingDataset { inner: dataset };
+    blocking_ds.into_java(env)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use arrow_schema::{
+        DataType as ArrowDataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields as ArrowFields,
+        Schema as ArrowSchema,
+    };
+    use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    pub const LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY: &str = "lance:field_id";
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_create_schema_from_arrow() {
+        // base_schema has an existing field id
+        let mut base_a = Field::new_arrow("a", ArrowDataType::Int32, false).unwrap();
+        base_a.set_id(-1, &mut 10);
+        let mut base_b = Field::new_arrow("b", ArrowDataType::Int32, false).unwrap();
+        base_b.set_id(-1, &mut 11);
+
+        // base struct: s{x,y}
+        let mut base_s = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            ArrowDataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("x", ArrowDataType::Int32, false),
+                ArrowField::new("y", ArrowDataType::Int32, false),
+            ])),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        base_s.set_id(-1, &mut 20);
+        let base_s_x = base_s.children.iter_mut().find(|c| c.name == "x").unwrap();
+        base_s_x.set_id(20, &mut 21);
+        let base_s_y = base_s.children.iter_mut().find(|c| c.name == "y").unwrap();
+        base_s_y.set_id(20, &mut 22);
+
+        // base list: l<item>
+        let mut base_l = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new(
+            "l",
+            ArrowDataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                "item",
+                ArrowDataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            ))),
+            true,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        base_l.set_id(-1, &mut 30);
+        let base_l_item = base_l
+            .children
+            .iter_mut()
+            .find(|c| c.name == "item")
+            .unwrap();
+        base_l_item.set_id(30, &mut 31);
+
+        // base map: m<entries{key,value}>
+        let base_map_entries = ArrowField::new(
+            "entries",
+            ArrowDataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("key", ArrowDataType::Utf8, false),
+                ArrowField::new("value", ArrowDataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            false,
+        );
+        let mut base_m = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new(
+            "m",
+            ArrowDataType::Map(Arc::new(base_map_entries), false),
+            true,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        base_m.set_id(-1, &mut 40);
+
+        let base_m_entries = base_m
+            .children
+            .iter_mut()
+            .find(|c| c.name == "entries")
+            .unwrap();
+        base_m_entries.set_id(40, &mut 41);
+
+        let base_m_key = base_m_entries
+            .children
+            .iter_mut()
+            .find(|c| c.name == "key")
+            .unwrap();
+        base_m_key.set_id(41, &mut 42);
+
+        let base_m_val = base_m_entries
+            .children
+            .iter_mut()
+            .find(|c| c.name == "value")
+            .unwrap();
+        base_m_val.set_id(41, &mut 43);
+
+        let base_schema = LanceSchema {
+            fields: vec![base_a, base_b, base_s, base_l, base_m],
+            metadata: HashMap::from([("base_schema_k".to_string(), "base_schema_v".to_string())]),
+        };
+
+        // new_schema specifies:
+        // - field a: manual field id
+        // - field b: no id -> should inherit from base_schema
+        // - field c: new field -> should be assigned based on max_field_id
+        // - struct s: parent+child(x) manual, child(y) inherit, child(z) max_field_id
+        // - list l: parent manual, child(item) inherit
+        // - list l2: parent manual, child(item) max_field_id
+        // - map m: parent manual, child(entries/key/value) inherit
+        // - map m2: parent manual, child(entries/key/value) max_field_id
+        let mut a_meta = HashMap::new();
+        a_meta.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), "5".to_string());
+        let arrow_a = ArrowField::new("a", ArrowDataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(a_meta);
+        let arrow_b = ArrowField::new("b", ArrowDataType::Int32, false);
+        let arrow_c = ArrowField::new("c", ArrowDataType::Int32, false);
+
+        // struct s: manual parent + manual child x
+        let mut s_meta = HashMap::new();
+        s_meta.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), "50".to_string());
+        let mut x_meta = HashMap::new();
+        x_meta.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), "51".to_string());
+        let arrow_s = ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            ArrowDataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("x", ArrowDataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(x_meta),
+                ArrowField::new("y", ArrowDataType::Int32, false),
+                ArrowField::new("z", ArrowDataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            false,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(s_meta);
+
+        // list l: parent manual, item inherit
+        let mut l_meta = HashMap::new();
+        l_meta.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), "60".to_string());
+        let arrow_l = ArrowField::new(
+            "l",
+            ArrowDataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                "item",
+                ArrowDataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            ))),
+            true,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(l_meta);
+
+        // list l2: parent manual, item max_field_id (no base match)
+        let mut l2_meta = HashMap::new();
+        l2_meta.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), "61".to_string());
+        let arrow_l2 = ArrowField::new(
+            "l2",
+            ArrowDataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                "item",
+                ArrowDataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            ))),
+            true,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(l2_meta);
+
+        // map m: parent manual, entries/key/value inherit
+        let map_entries = ArrowField::new(
+            "entries",
+            ArrowDataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("key", ArrowDataType::Utf8, false),
+                ArrowField::new("value", ArrowDataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            false,
+        );
+        let mut m_meta = HashMap::new();
+        m_meta.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), "70".to_string());
+        let arrow_m = ArrowField::new("m", ArrowDataType::Map(Arc::new(map_entries), false), true)
+            .with_metadata(m_meta);
+
+        // map m2: parent manual, entries/key/value max_field_id (no base match)
+        let map_entries = ArrowField::new(
+            "entries",
+            ArrowDataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("key", ArrowDataType::Utf8, false),
+                ArrowField::new("value", ArrowDataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            false,
+        );
+        let mut m2_meta = HashMap::new();
+        m2_meta.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), "71".to_string());
+        let arrow_m2 =
+            ArrowField::new("m2", ArrowDataType::Map(Arc::new(map_entries), false), true)
+                .with_metadata(m2_meta);
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            vec![
+                arrow_a, arrow_b, arrow_c, arrow_s, arrow_l, arrow_l2, arrow_m, arrow_m2,
+            ],
+            HashMap::from([("new_schema_k".to_string(), "new_schema_v".to_string())]),
+        );
+
+        let schema =
+            LanceSchema::from_arrow_schema(&arrow_schema, Some(base_schema), Some(100)).unwrap();
+
+        // 1. Manually specified field id
+        let got_a = schema.field("a").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_a.id, 5);
+        assert!(!got_a.metadata.contains_key(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY));
+
+        // 2. Inherit field id + metadata from base_schema (field b)
+        let got_b = schema.field("b").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_b.id, 11);
+
+        // 3. Assign a new field id using max_field_id (field c)
+        let got_c = schema.field("c").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_c.id, 101);
+
+        // 4. struct: parent+child(x) manual, child(y) inherit, child(z) max_field_id
+        let got_s = schema.field("s").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_s.id, 50);
+        let got_sx = schema.field("s.x").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_sx.id, 51);
+        let got_sy = schema.field("s.y").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_sy.id, 22);
+        let got_sz = schema.field("s.z").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_sz.id, 102);
+
+        // 5. list l: parent manual, item inherit
+        let got_l = schema.field("l").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_l.id, 60);
+        let got_li = schema.field("l.item").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_li.id, 31);
+
+        // 6. list l2: parent manual, item max_field_id
+        let got_l2 = schema.field("l2").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_l2.id, 61);
+        let got_l2i = schema.field("l2.item").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_l2i.id, 103);
+
+        // 7. map m: parent manual, entries/key/value inherit
+        let got_m = schema.field("m").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_m.id, 70);
+        let got_me = schema.field("m.entries").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_me.id, 41);
+        let got_mk = schema.field("m.entries.key").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_mk.id, 42);
+        let got_mv = schema.field("m.entries.value").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_mv.id, 43);
+
+        // 8. map m2: parent manual, entries/key/value max_field_id
+        let got_m2 = schema.field("m2").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_m2.id, 71);
+        let got_m2e = schema.field("m2.entries").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_m2e.id, 104);
+        let got_m2k = schema.field("m2.entries.key").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_m2k.id, 105);
+        let got_m2v = schema.field("m2.entries.value").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(got_m2v.id, 106);
+
+        // 9. Schema metadata: when new_schema.metadata is non-empty, use new_schema metadata
+        assert_eq!(
+            schema.metadata,
+            HashMap::from([("new_schema_k".to_string(), "new_schema_v".to_string())])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_storage_format_canonical_forms() {
+        let cases = [
+            ("2.0", LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ("2.1", LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ("2.2", LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ("2.3", LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+            ("0.1", LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+            ("legacy", LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+            ("stable", LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+            ("next", LanceFileVersion::Next),
+        ];
+        for (input, expected) in cases {
+            assert_eq!(
+                parse_storage_format(input).unwrap(),
+                expected,
+                "parse_storage_format({:?}) failed",
+                input
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The `v`-prefixed spellings shipped in the `CommitBuilder.storageFormat`
+    /// Javadoc and must keep working for existing Java callers.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_storage_format_deprecated_aliases() {
+        let cases = [
+            ("v2_0", LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ("v2.0", LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ("v2_1", LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ("v2.1", LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ("v2_2", LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ("v2.2", LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+        ];
+        for (input, expected) in cases {
+            assert_eq!(
+                parse_storage_format(input).unwrap(),
+                expected,
+                "parse_storage_format({:?}) failed",
+                input
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The alias set is frozen to what shipped, so versions added after the
+    /// aliases were deprecated are reachable only by their canonical name.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_storage_format_does_not_extend_aliases_to_new_versions() {
+        assert!(parse_storage_format("v2_3").is_err());
+        assert!(parse_storage_format("v2.3").is_err());
+        assert_eq!(parse_storage_format("2.3").unwrap(), LanceFileVersion::V2_3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_storage_format_case_insensitive() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_storage_format("LEGACY").unwrap(),
+            LanceFileVersion::Legacy
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_storage_format("Stable").unwrap(),
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_storage_format("V2_1").unwrap(),
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_storage_format_rejects_invalid() {
+        assert!(parse_storage_format("v3.0").is_err());
+        assert!(parse_storage_format("").is_err());
+        assert!(parse_storage_format("foo").is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_checked_transaction_integer_conversions() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            u32_to_jint("basePath.id", i32::MAX as u32).unwrap(),
+            i32::MAX
+        );
+        assert!(u32_to_jint("basePath.id", i32::MAX as u32 + 1).is_err());
+        assert_eq!(
+            checked_field_ids("update.fieldsModified", &[0, u32::MAX as i64]).unwrap(),
+            vec![0, u32::MAX]
+        );
+        for invalid in [-1, u32::MAX as i64 + 1] {
+            let error = checked_field_ids("update.fieldsModified", &[invalid]).unwrap_err();
+            let message = error.to_string();
+            assert!(message.contains("update.fieldsModified[0]"));
+            assert!(message.contains(&invalid.to_string()));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            u64_to_jlong("dataOverlay.fragmentId", i64::MAX as u64).unwrap(),
+            i64::MAX
+        );
+        assert!(u64_to_jlong("dataOverlay.fragmentId", i64::MAX as u64 + 1).is_err());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/update.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/update.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b35a3b24ebe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/update.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,141 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET};
+use crate::error::Result;
+use crate::traits::IntoJava;
+use crate::utils::to_rust_map;
+use crate::{JNIEnvExt, block_on};
+use jni::JNIEnv;
+use jni::objects::{JMap, JObject, JValueGen};
+use lance::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use std::str::FromStr;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_Dataset_nativeUpdate<'a>(
+    mut env: JNIEnv<'a>,
+    jdataset: JObject, // Dataset object
+    jparam: JObject,   // UpdateParams object
+) -> JObject<'a> {
+    ok_or_throw!(env, inner_update(&mut env, jdataset, jparam))
+}
+
+fn inner_update<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jdataset: JObject,
+    jparam: JObject,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    let updates = extract_updates(env, &jparam)?;
+    let where_clause = extract_where(env, &jparam)?;
+    let conflict_retries = extract_conflict_retries(env, &jparam)?;
+    let retry_timeout_ms = extract_retry_timeout_ms(env, &jparam)?;
+    let data_storage_version = extract_data_storage_version(env, &jparam)?;
+
+    // Clone the inner Dataset out of the `get_rust_field` guard and drop the
+    // guard before running the long-lived async update. Otherwise the guard
+    // would block any other JNI call on the same dataset for the entire
+    // duration of `execute()`.
+    let inner_dataset = unsafe {
+        let dataset = env.get_rust_field::<_, _, BlockingDataset>(jdataset, NATIVE_DATASET)?;
+        dataset.inner.clone()
+    };
+
+    let mut builder = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(inner_dataset))
+        .conflict_retries(conflict_retries)
+        .retry_timeout(Duration::from_millis(retry_timeout_ms));
+
+    if let Some(version) = data_storage_version {
+        builder = builder.data_storage_version(LanceFileVersion::from_str(&version)?);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(predicate) = where_clause {
+        builder = builder.update_where(&predicate)?;
+    }
+
+    for (column, expr) in &updates {
+        builder = builder.set(column, expr)?;
+    }
+
+    let job = builder.build()?;
+    let update_result = block_on(job.execute())?;
+
+    // Avoid panicking if Lance core retains a clone of the Arc; fall back to a
+    // deep clone so the JNI boundary stays panic-free.
+    let new_ds = Arc::try_unwrap(update_result.new_dataset).unwrap_or_else(|arc| (*arc).clone());
+
+    UpdateResultJava {
+        dataset: BlockingDataset { inner: new_ds },
+        rows_updated: update_result.rows_updated,
+    }
+    .into_java(env)
+}
+
+fn extract_updates<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jparam: &JObject,
+) -> Result<std::collections::HashMap<String, String>> {
+    let updates_obj: JObject = env
+        .call_method(jparam, "updates", "()Ljava/util/Map;", &[])?
+        .l()?;
+    let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, &updates_obj)?;
+    to_rust_map(env, &jmap)
+}
+
+fn extract_where<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, jparam: &JObject) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+    let where_opt = env
+        .call_method(jparam, "whereClause", "()Ljava/util/Optional;", &[])?
+        .l()?;
+    env.get_string_opt(&where_opt)
+}
+
+fn extract_conflict_retries<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, jparam: &JObject) -> Result<u32> {
+    let retries = env
+        .call_method(jparam, "conflictRetries", "()I", &[])?
+        .i()? as u32;
+    Ok(retries)
+}
+
+fn extract_retry_timeout_ms<'local>(env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>, jparam: &JObject) -> Result<u64> {
+    let timeout_ms = env.call_method(jparam, "retryTimeoutMs", "()J", &[])?.j()? as u64;
+    Ok(timeout_ms)
+}
+
+fn extract_data_storage_version<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    jparam: &JObject,
+) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+    let version = env
+        .call_method(
+            jparam,
+            "getDataStorageVersion",
+            "()Ljava/util/Optional;",
+            &[],
+        )?
+        .l()?;
+    env.get_string_opt(&version)
+}
+
+const UPDATE_RESULT_CLASS: &str = "org/lance/update/UpdateResult";
+const UPDATE_RESULT_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG: &str = "(Lorg/lance/Dataset;J)V";
+
+struct UpdateResultJava {
+    dataset: BlockingDataset,
+    rows_updated: u64,
+}
+
+impl IntoJava for UpdateResultJava {
+    fn into_java<'a>(self, env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+        let jdataset = self.dataset.into_java(env)?;
+        Ok(env.new_object(
+            UPDATE_RESULT_CLASS,
+            UPDATE_RESULT_CONSTRUCTOR_SIG,
+            &[
+                JValueGen::Object(&jdataset),
+                JValueGen::Long(self.rows_updated as i64),
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/utils.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/utils.rs
index 56ff617c821..5a3f795880c 100644
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/utils.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/utils.rs
@@ -5,28 +5,28 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+use jni::JNIEnv;
 use jni::objects::{JFloatArray, JMap, JObject, JString, JValue, JValueGen};
 use jni::sys::{jboolean, jfloat, jlong};
-use jni::JNIEnv;
-use lance::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions;
+use lance::dataset::optimize::{CompactionMode, CompactionOptions};
 use lance::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use lance::index::vector::{IndexFileVersion, StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
 use lance::io::ObjectStoreParams;
-use lance_encoding::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+use lance_index::IndexParams;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::RQBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
-use lance_index::IndexParams;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::ffi::JNIEnvExt;
-use crate::storage_options::JavaStorageOptionsProvider;
 
 use crate::traits::FromJObjectWithEnv;
-use lance_index::vector::Query;
-use lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider;
+use lance_index::vector::{ApproxMode, Query};
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::str::FromStr;
 
@@ -39,6 +39,75 @@ pub fn extract_storage_options(
     Ok(storage_options)
 }
 
+pub fn extract_base_store_params(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    base_store_params_obj: &JObject,
+) -> Result<HashMap<String, ObjectStoreParams>> {
+    if base_store_params_obj.is_null() {
+        return Ok(HashMap::new());
+    }
+
+    env.with_local_frame(16, |env| {
+        let jmap = JMap::from_env(env, base_store_params_obj)?;
+        let mut base_store_params = HashMap::new();
+        let mut iter = jmap.iter(env)?;
+
+        while let Some((key, value)) = iter.next(env)? {
+            if value.is_null() {
+                return Err(Error::input_error(
+                    "baseStoreParams values must be non-null maps".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+
+            let key_jstring = JString::from(key);
+            let base_path: String = env.get_string(&key_jstring)?.into();
+            let storage_options = extract_storage_options(env, &value)?;
+            base_store_params.insert(
+                base_path,
+                ObjectStoreParams {
+                    storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
+                        lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(storage_options),
+                    )),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            );
+        }
+
+        Ok::<_, Error>(base_store_params)
+    })
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn parse_approx_mode(value: &str) -> Result<ApproxMode> {
+    match value {
+        "fast" => Ok(ApproxMode::Fast),
+        "normal" => Ok(ApproxMode::Normal),
+        "accurate" => Ok(ApproxMode::Accurate),
+        _ => Err(Error::input_error(format!(
+            "Invalid approx mode '{}'. Expected one of: fast, normal, accurate",
+            value
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn extract_file_writer_options(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv,
+    file_write_options: &JObject,
+) -> Result<Option<FileWriterOptions>> {
+    let data_cache_bytes =
+        env.get_optional_u64_from_method(file_write_options, "getDataCacheBytes")?;
+    let max_page_bytes = env.get_optional_u64_from_method(file_write_options, "getMaxPageBytes")?;
+
+    if data_cache_bytes.is_none() && max_page_bytes.is_none() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    Ok(Some(FileWriterOptions {
+        data_cache_bytes,
+        max_page_bytes,
+        ..Default::default()
+    }))
+}
+
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub fn extract_write_params(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
@@ -50,9 +119,12 @@ pub fn extract_write_params(
     data_storage_version: &JObject,
     enable_v2_manifest_paths: Option<&JObject>,
     storage_options_obj: &JObject,
-    storage_options_provider_obj: &JObject, // Optional<StorageOptionsProvider>
-    initial_bases: &JObject,                // Optional<BasePath>
-    target_bases: &JObject,                 // Optional<String>
+    base_store_params_obj: &JObject,
+    initial_bases: &JObject,                     // Optional<BasePath>
+    target_bases: &JObject,                      // Optional<String>
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: &JObject, // Optional<Boolean>
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: &JObject,     // Optional<Long>
+    file_write_options: &JObject,                // FileWriteOptions
 ) -> Result<WriteParams> {
     let mut write_params = WriteParams::default();
 
@@ -88,13 +160,7 @@ pub fn extract_write_params(
 
     let storage_options: HashMap<String, String> =
         extract_storage_options(env, storage_options_obj)?;
-
-    // Extract storage options provider if present
-    let storage_options_provider: Option<Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>> = env
-        .get_optional(storage_options_provider_obj, |env, provider_obj| {
-            JavaStorageOptionsProvider::new(env, provider_obj)
-        })?
-        .map(|p| Arc::new(p) as Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>);
+    let base_store_params = extract_base_store_params(env, base_store_params_obj)?;
 
     if let Some(initial_bases) =
         env.get_list_opt(initial_bases, |env, elem| elem.extract_object(env))?
@@ -106,24 +172,30 @@ pub fn extract_write_params(
         write_params.target_base_names_or_paths = Some(names);
     }
 
-    // Create storage options accessor from storage_options and provider
-    let accessor = match (storage_options.is_empty(), storage_options_provider) {
-        (false, Some(provider)) => Some(Arc::new(
-            lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(storage_options, provider),
-        )),
-        (false, None) => Some(Arc::new(
+    if let Some(allow) = env.get_boolean_opt(allow_external_blob_outside_bases)? {
+        write_params.allow_external_blob_outside_bases = allow;
+    }
+    if let Some(max_bytes) = env.get_long_opt(blob_pack_file_size_threshold)? {
+        write_params.blob_pack_file_size_threshold = Some(max_bytes as usize);
+    }
+    write_params.file_writer_options = extract_file_writer_options(env, file_write_options)?;
+
+    // Create storage options accessor from static storage_options
+    let accessor = if storage_options.is_empty() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(Arc::new(
             lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(storage_options),
-        )),
-        (true, Some(provider)) => Some(Arc::new(lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(
-            provider,
-        ))),
-        (true, None) => None,
+        ))
     };
 
     write_params.store_params = Some(ObjectStoreParams {
         storage_options_accessor: accessor,
         ..Default::default()
     });
+    for (base_path, store_params) in base_store_params {
+        write_params = write_params.with_base_store_params(base_path, store_params);
+    }
     Ok(write_params)
 }
 
@@ -138,8 +210,16 @@ pub fn build_compaction_options(
     num_threads: &JObject,                     // Optional<Long>
     batch_size: &JObject,                      // Optional<Long>
     defer_index_remap: &JObject,               // Optional<Boolean>
+    compaction_mode: &JObject,                 // Optional<String>
+    binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: &JObject,    // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_fragments: &JObject,            // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_rows: &JObject,                 // Optional<Long>
+    max_source_bytes: &JObject,                // Optional<Long>
+    excluded_fragment_ids: &JObject,           // List<Long>
+    data_storage_version: &JObject,            // Optional<String>
+    config: &std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
 ) -> Result<CompactionOptions> {
-    let mut compaction_options = CompactionOptions::default();
+    let mut compaction_options = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(config)?;
 
     if let Some(target_rows_per_fragment_val) = env.get_long_opt(target_rows_per_fragment)? {
         compaction_options.target_rows_per_fragment = target_rows_per_fragment_val as usize;
@@ -167,6 +247,41 @@ pub fn build_compaction_options(
     if let Some(defer_index_remap_val) = env.get_boolean_opt(defer_index_remap)? {
         compaction_options.defer_index_remap = defer_index_remap_val;
     }
+    if let Some(compaction_mode_val) = env.get_string_opt(compaction_mode)? {
+        compaction_options.compaction_mode =
+            Some(CompactionMode::try_from(compaction_mode_val.as_str())?);
+    }
+    if let Some(binary_copy_read_batch_bytes_val) =
+        env.get_long_opt(binary_copy_read_batch_bytes)?
+    {
+        compaction_options.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes =
+            Some(binary_copy_read_batch_bytes_val as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(max_source_fragments_val) = env.get_long_opt(max_source_fragments)? {
+        compaction_options.max_source_fragments = Some(max_source_fragments_val as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(max_source_rows_val) = env.get_long_opt(max_source_rows)? {
+        compaction_options.max_source_rows = Some(max_source_rows_val as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(max_source_bytes_val) = env.get_long_opt(max_source_bytes)? {
+        compaction_options.max_source_bytes = Some(max_source_bytes_val as u64);
+    }
+    compaction_options.excluded_fragment_ids = env
+        .get_longs(excluded_fragment_ids)?
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|fragment_id| {
+            u32::try_from(fragment_id).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::input_error(format!(
+                    "excluded_fragment_ids must contain values between 0 and {}, got {}",
+                    u32::MAX,
+                    fragment_id
+                ))
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    if let Some(version) = env.get_string_opt(data_storage_version)? {
+        compaction_options.data_storage_version = Some(LanceFileVersion::from_str(&version)?);
+    }
 
     Ok(compaction_options)
 }
@@ -195,6 +310,11 @@ pub fn get_query(env: &mut JNIEnv, query_obj: JObject) -> Result<Option<Query>>
         };
 
         let use_index = env.get_boolean_from_method(&java_obj, "isUseIndex")?;
+        let query_parallelism = env
+            .call_method(&java_obj, "getQueryParallelism", "()I", &[])?
+            .i()?;
+        let approx_mode_str = env.get_string_from_method(&java_obj, "getApproxModeString")?;
+        let approx_mode = parse_approx_mode(&approx_mode_str)?;
 
         Ok(Query {
             column,
@@ -209,6 +329,8 @@ pub fn get_query(env: &mut JNIEnv, query_obj: JObject) -> Result<Option<Query>>
             metric_type: distance_type,
             use_index,
             dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            query_parallelism,
+            approx_mode,
         })
     })?;
 
@@ -399,10 +521,26 @@ pub fn get_vector_index_params(
                 stages.push(StageParams::SQ(sq_params));
             }
 
+            // Parse RQBuildParams
+            let rq_params = env.get_optional_from_method(
+                &vector_index_params_obj,
+                "getRqParams",
+                |env, rq_obj| {
+                    let num_bits = env.call_method(&rq_obj, "getNumBits", "()B", &[])?.b()? as u8;
+                    Ok(RQBuildParams::new(num_bits))
+                },
+            )?;
+
+            if let Some(rq_params) = rq_params {
+                stages.push(StageParams::RQ(rq_params));
+            }
+
             Ok(VectorIndexParams {
                 metric_type: distance_type,
                 stages,
                 version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+                skip_transpose: false,
+                runtime_hints: Default::default(),
             })
         },
     )?;
@@ -547,3 +685,85 @@ pub fn to_java_float_obj<'local>(
         None => Ok(JObject::null()),
     }
 }
+
+pub fn to_java_double_obj<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    value: Option<f64>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    match value {
+        Some(v) => Ok(env.new_object("java/lang/Double", "(D)V", &[JValue::Double(v)])?),
+        None => Ok(JObject::null()),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn to_java_string_obj<'local>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'local>,
+    value: Option<&str>,
+) -> Result<JObject<'local>> {
+    match value {
+        Some(v) => {
+            let jstr = env.new_string(v)?;
+            Ok(jstr.into())
+        }
+        None => Ok(JObject::null()),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert a DataFusion ScalarValue to a Java Comparable object.
+///
+/// Maps numeric types to their boxed Java equivalents (Long, Double)
+/// and string types to Java String. Null ScalarValues produce JObject::null().
+///
+/// This is useful for exposing index statistics (e.g., zonemap min/max)
+/// to Java clients in a type-safe, Comparable-compatible way.
+pub fn scalar_value_to_java<'a>(
+    env: &mut JNIEnv<'a>,
+    value: &datafusion_common::ScalarValue,
+) -> Result<JObject<'a>> {
+    use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+
+    match value {
+        ScalarValue::Null => Ok(JObject::null()),
+
+        ScalarValue::Boolean(v) => to_java_boolean_obj(env, *v),
+
+        // Integer types → Java Long
+        ScalarValue::Int8(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, v.map(|x| x as i64)),
+        ScalarValue::Int16(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, v.map(|x| x as i64)),
+        ScalarValue::Int32(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, v.map(|x| x as i64)),
+        ScalarValue::Int64(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, *v),
+        ScalarValue::UInt8(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, v.map(|x| x as i64)),
+        ScalarValue::UInt16(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, v.map(|x| x as i64)),
+        ScalarValue::UInt32(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, v.map(|x| x as i64)),
+        // UInt64 may overflow i64, but for min/max stats this is acceptable
+        ScalarValue::UInt64(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, v.map(|x| x as i64)),
+
+        // Float types → Java Double
+        ScalarValue::Float16(v) => to_java_double_obj(env, v.map(|x| f64::from(x.to_f32()))),
+        ScalarValue::Float32(v) => to_java_double_obj(env, v.map(|x| x as f64)),
+        ScalarValue::Float64(v) => to_java_double_obj(env, *v),
+
+        // String types → Java String
+        ScalarValue::Utf8(v) => to_java_string_obj(env, v.as_deref()),
+        ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(v) => to_java_string_obj(env, v.as_deref()),
+
+        // Date types → Java Long
+        ScalarValue::Date32(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, v.map(|x| x as i64)),
+        ScalarValue::Date64(v) => to_java_long_obj(env, *v),
+
+        // Timestamp types → Java Long
+        ScalarValue::TimestampSecond(v, _) => to_java_long_obj(env, *v),
+        ScalarValue::TimestampMillisecond(v, _) => to_java_long_obj(env, *v),
+        ScalarValue::TimestampMicrosecond(v, _) => to_java_long_obj(env, *v),
+        ScalarValue::TimestampNanosecond(v, _) => to_java_long_obj(env, *v),
+
+        // For any unsupported type, return null (conservative: caller will skip)
+        _ => {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Unsupported ScalarValue type for Java conversion: {:?}",
+                value.data_type()
+            );
+            Ok(JObject::null())
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/java/lance-jni/src/vector_trainer.rs b/java/lance-jni/src/vector_trainer.rs
index e2d6012859e..d988aebd468 100755
--- a/java/lance-jni/src/vector_trainer.rs
+++ b/java/lance-jni/src/vector_trainer.rs
@@ -1,15 +1,18 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use crate::block_on;
 use crate::blocking_dataset::{BlockingDataset, NATIVE_DATASET};
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::ffi::JNIEnvExt;
-use crate::RT;
 
 use arrow::array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+use jni::JNIEnv;
 use jni::objects::{JClass, JFloatArray, JObject, JString};
 use jni::sys::jfloatArray;
-use jni::JNIEnv;
+use lance::index::NoopIndexBuildProgress;
 use lance::index::vector::utils::get_vector_dim;
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::builder::IvfBuildParams as RustIvfBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams as RustPQBuildParams;
@@ -31,6 +34,11 @@ fn flatten_fixed_size_list_to_f32(arr: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<Vec<f32>>
     Ok(values.values().to_vec())
 }
 
+fn parse_distance_type(env: &mut JNIEnv, distance_type_jstr: &JString) -> Result<MetricType> {
+    let distance_type_str: String = env.get_string(distance_type_jstr)?.into();
+    MetricType::try_from(distance_type_str.as_str()).map_err(|e| Error::input_error(e.to_string()))
+}
+
 fn build_ivf_params_from_java(
     env: &mut JNIEnv,
     ivf_params_obj: &JObject,
@@ -73,18 +81,25 @@ fn build_pq_params_from_java(
     })
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_index_vector_VectorTrainer_nativeTrainIvfCentroids<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _class: JClass<'local>,
-    dataset_obj: JObject<'local>,    // org.lance.Dataset
-    column_jstr: JString<'local>,    // java.lang.String
-    ivf_params_obj: JObject<'local>, // org.lance.index.vector.IvfBuildParams
+    dataset_obj: JObject<'local>,        // org.lance.Dataset
+    column_jstr: JString<'local>,        // java.lang.String
+    ivf_params_obj: JObject<'local>,     // org.lance.index.vector.IvfBuildParams
+    distance_type_jstr: JString<'local>, // org.lance.index.DistanceType#toString()
 ) -> jfloatArray {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        inner_train_ivf_centroids(&mut env, dataset_obj, column_jstr, ivf_params_obj)
-            .map(|arr| arr.into_raw()),
+        inner_train_ivf_centroids(
+            &mut env,
+            dataset_obj,
+            column_jstr,
+            ivf_params_obj,
+            distance_type_jstr,
+        )
+        .map(|arr| arr.into_raw()),
         JFloatArray::default().into_raw()
     )
 }
@@ -94,9 +109,11 @@ fn inner_train_ivf_centroids<'local>(
     dataset_obj: JObject<'local>,
     column_jstr: JString<'local>,
     ivf_params_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    distance_type_jstr: JString<'local>,
 ) -> Result<JFloatArray<'local>> {
     let column: String = env.get_string(&column_jstr)?.into();
     let ivf_params = build_ivf_params_from_java(env, &ivf_params_obj)?;
+    let metric_type = parse_distance_type(env, &distance_type_jstr)?;
 
     let flattened: Vec<f32> = {
         let dataset_guard =
@@ -105,15 +122,14 @@ fn inner_train_ivf_centroids<'local>(
 
         let dim = get_vector_dim(dataset.schema(), &column)?;
 
-        // For now we default to L2 metric; tests and Java bindings currently use L2.
-        let metric_type = MetricType::L2;
-
-        let ivf_model = RT.block_on(lance::index::vector::ivf::build_ivf_model(
+        let ivf_model = block_on(lance::index::vector::ivf::build_ivf_model(
             dataset,
             &column,
             dim,
             metric_type,
             &ivf_params,
+            None,
+            Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
         ))?;
 
         let centroids = ivf_model
@@ -128,18 +144,25 @@ fn inner_train_ivf_centroids<'local>(
     Ok(jarray)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "system" fn Java_org_lance_index_vector_VectorTrainer_nativeTrainPqCodebook<'local>(
     mut env: JNIEnv<'local>,
     _class: JClass<'local>,
-    dataset_obj: JObject<'local>,   // org.lance.Dataset
-    column_jstr: JString<'local>,   // java.lang.String
-    pq_params_obj: JObject<'local>, // org.lance.index.vector.PQBuildParams
+    dataset_obj: JObject<'local>,        // org.lance.Dataset
+    column_jstr: JString<'local>,        // java.lang.String
+    pq_params_obj: JObject<'local>,      // org.lance.index.vector.PQBuildParams
+    distance_type_jstr: JString<'local>, // org.lance.index.DistanceType#toString()
 ) -> jfloatArray {
     ok_or_throw_with_return!(
         env,
-        inner_train_pq_codebook(&mut env, dataset_obj, column_jstr, pq_params_obj)
-            .map(|arr| arr.into_raw()),
+        inner_train_pq_codebook(
+            &mut env,
+            dataset_obj,
+            column_jstr,
+            pq_params_obj,
+            distance_type_jstr,
+        )
+        .map(|arr| arr.into_raw()),
         JFloatArray::default().into_raw()
     )
 }
@@ -149,9 +172,11 @@ fn inner_train_pq_codebook<'local>(
     dataset_obj: JObject<'local>,
     column_jstr: JString<'local>,
     pq_params_obj: JObject<'local>,
+    distance_type_jstr: JString<'local>,
 ) -> Result<JFloatArray<'local>> {
     let column: String = env.get_string(&column_jstr)?.into();
     let pq_params = build_pq_params_from_java(env, &pq_params_obj)?;
+    let metric_type = parse_distance_type(env, &distance_type_jstr)?;
 
     let flattened: Vec<f32> = {
         let dataset_guard =
@@ -159,9 +184,8 @@ fn inner_train_pq_codebook<'local>(
         let dataset = &dataset_guard.inner;
 
         let dim = get_vector_dim(dataset.schema(), &column)?;
-        let metric_type = MetricType::L2;
 
-        let pq = RT.block_on(lance::index::vector::pq::build_pq_model(
+        let pq = block_on(lance::index::vector::pq::build_pq_model(
             dataset,
             &column,
             dim,
diff --git a/java/pom.xml b/java/pom.xml
index 51f7614a251..2f059602bde 100644
--- a/java/pom.xml
+++ b/java/pom.xml
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
     <groupId>org.lance</groupId>
     <artifactId>lance-core</artifactId>
     <name>Lance Core</name>
-    <version>3.0.0-beta.2</version>
+    <version>14.0.0-beta.6</version>
     <packaging>jar</packaging>
 
     <description>Lance Format Java API</description>
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@
     <properties>
         <project.build.sourceEncoding>UTF-8</project.build.sourceEncoding>
         <arrow.version>18.3.0</arrow.version>
+        <opentelemetry.version>1.64.0</opentelemetry.version>
         <substrait.version>0.28.1</substrait.version>
         <spotless.skip>false</spotless.skip>
         <spotless.version>2.43.0</spotless.version>
@@ -39,6 +40,7 @@
         <spotless.scala.scalafmt.version>3.7.5</spotless.scala.scalafmt.version>
         <spotless.delimiter>package</spotless.delimiter>
         <rust.release.build>false</rust.release.build>
+        <rust.features></rust.features>
         <skip.build.jni>false</skip.build.jni>
         <shade.base>org.lance.shaded</shade.base>
         <spotless.license.header>
@@ -109,18 +111,23 @@
         <dependency>
             <groupId>org.lance</groupId>
             <artifactId>lance-namespace-core</artifactId>
-            <version>0.4.5</version>
+            <version>0.12.0</version>
         </dependency>
         <dependency>
             <groupId>org.lance</groupId>
             <artifactId>lance-namespace-apache-client</artifactId>
-            <version>0.4.5</version>
+            <version>0.12.0</version>
         </dependency>
         <dependency>
             <groupId>com.fasterxml.jackson.core</groupId>
             <artifactId>jackson-databind</artifactId>
             <version>2.15.2</version>
         </dependency>
+        <dependency>
+            <groupId>io.opentelemetry</groupId>
+            <artifactId>opentelemetry-api</artifactId>
+            <version>${opentelemetry.version}</version>
+        </dependency>
         <!-- AWS SDK for S3 integration testing -->
         <dependency>
             <groupId>software.amazon.awssdk</groupId>
@@ -134,6 +141,18 @@
             <version>2.20.26</version>
             <scope>test</scope>
         </dependency>
+        <dependency>
+            <groupId>io.opentelemetry</groupId>
+            <artifactId>opentelemetry-sdk</artifactId>
+            <version>${opentelemetry.version}</version>
+            <scope>test</scope>
+        </dependency>
+        <dependency>
+            <groupId>io.opentelemetry</groupId>
+            <artifactId>opentelemetry-sdk-testing</artifactId>
+            <version>${opentelemetry.version}</version>
+            <scope>test</scope>
+        </dependency>
     </dependencies>
 
     <distributionManagement>
@@ -274,6 +293,19 @@
                 <groupId>com.diffplug.spotless</groupId>
                 <artifactId>spotless-maven-plugin</artifactId>
             </plugin>
+            <plugin>
+                <groupId>org.codehaus.mojo</groupId>
+                <artifactId>license-maven-plugin</artifactId>
+                <version>2.4.0</version>
+                <configuration>
+                    <outputDirectory>${project.basedir}</outputDirectory>
+                    <thirdPartyFilename>JAVA_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.md</thirdPartyFilename>
+                    <fileTemplate>/org/codehaus/mojo/license/third-party-file-groupByLicense.ftl</fileTemplate>
+                    <includedScopes>compile,runtime</includedScopes>
+                    <excludedScopes>test,provided</excludedScopes>
+                    <sortArtifactByName>true</sortArtifactByName>
+                </configuration>
+            </plugin>
         </plugins>
         <pluginManagement>
             <plugins>
@@ -383,6 +415,9 @@
                                 <configuration>
                                     <path>lance-jni</path>
                                     <release>${rust.release.build}</release>
+                                    <features>
+                                        <feature>${rust.features}</feature>
+                                    </features>
                                     <!-- Copy native libraries to target/classes for runtime access -->
                                     <copyTo>${project.build.directory}/classes/nativelib</copyTo>
                                     <copyWithPlatformDir>true</copyWithPlatformDir>
@@ -396,6 +431,9 @@
                                 <configuration>
                                     <path>lance-jni</path>
                                     <release>${rust.release.build}</release>
+                                    <features>
+                                        <feature>${rust.features}</feature>
+                                    </features>
                                     <verbosity>-v</verbosity>
                                 </configuration>
                             </execution>
@@ -452,6 +490,9 @@
                             <forkNode
                                 implementation="org.apache.maven.plugin.surefire.extensions.SurefireForkNodeFactory" />
                             <useSystemClassLoader>false</useSystemClassLoader>
+                            <environmentVariables>
+                                <LANCE_LANGUAGE_MODEL_HOME>${project.basedir}/src/test/resources/language_models</LANCE_LANGUAGE_MODEL_HOME>
+                            </environmentVariables>
                         </configuration>
                     </plugin>
                 </plugins>
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/BlobFile.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/BlobFile.java
index 03c8408ab57..fb7e6695463 100755
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/BlobFile.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/BlobFile.java
@@ -41,6 +41,9 @@ public final class BlobFile implements Closeable {
     JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
   }
 
+  /** Default sequential read-ahead size in bytes. */
+  public static final int DEFAULT_READ_BUFFER_SIZE = 512 * 1024;
+
   /** Opaque native handle managed by lance-jni. */
   @SuppressWarnings("FieldCanBeLocal")
   private long nativeBlobHandle;
@@ -59,12 +62,30 @@ public byte[] readUpTo(int len) throws IOException {
     return nativeReadUpTo(len);
   }
 
+  /** Read a blob-local range without changing the current cursor. */
+  public byte[] readRange(long offset, int len) throws IOException {
+    if (offset < 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException("offset must be non-negative");
+    if (len < 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException("len must be non-negative");
+    return nativeReadRange(offset, len);
+  }
+
   /** Seek to a new cursor position. */
   public void seek(long newCursor) throws IOException {
     if (newCursor < 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException("newCursor must be non-negative");
     nativeSeek(newCursor);
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Sequential read-ahead size in bytes. {@code 0} disables read-ahead. Range reads do not use this
+   * buffer.
+   */
+  public void setReadBufferSize(long bufferSize) throws IOException {
+    if (bufferSize < 0) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("bufferSize must be non-negative");
+    }
+    nativeSetReadBufferSize(bufferSize);
+  }
+
   /** Return current cursor position. */
   public long tell() throws IOException {
     return nativeTell();
@@ -90,6 +111,8 @@ public void close() throws IOException {
 
   private native void nativeSeek(long newCursor) throws IOException;
 
+  private native void nativeSetReadBufferSize(long bufferSize) throws IOException;
+
   private native long nativeTell() throws IOException;
 
   private native long nativeSize();
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Branch.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Branch.java
index f2a1f5b21ea..526a65c33da 100755
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Branch.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Branch.java
@@ -14,30 +14,94 @@
 package org.lance;
 
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
 
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
 /**
  * Branch metadata aligned with Rust's BranchContents. name is the branch name, parentBranch may be
- * null (indicating main), parentVersion is the version on which the branch was created, createAt is
- * the unix timestamp (seconds), and manifestSize is the size of the referenced manifest file in
- * bytes.
+ * null (indicating main), branchIdentifier is the lineage chain {@code [(version, uuid), ...]},
+ * parentVersion is the version on which the branch was created, createAt is the unix timestamp
+ * (seconds), and manifestSize is the size of the referenced manifest file in bytes.
  */
 public class Branch {
+  /** A single lineage hop in the Rust BranchIdentifier.version_mapping vector. */
+  public static class BranchVersionMapping {
+    private final long version;
+    private final String uuid;
+
+    public BranchVersionMapping(long version, String uuid) {
+      this.version = version;
+      this.uuid = Objects.requireNonNull(uuid);
+    }
+
+    public long getVersion() {
+      return version;
+    }
+
+    public String getUuid() {
+      return uuid;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+      return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this).add("version", version).add("uuid", uuid).toString();
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+      if (this == o) return true;
+      if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+      BranchVersionMapping that = (BranchVersionMapping) o;
+      return version == that.version && Objects.equals(uuid, that.uuid);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+      return Objects.hash(version, uuid);
+    }
+  }
+
   private final String name;
   private final Optional<String> parentBranch;
+  private final ImmutableList<BranchVersionMapping> branchIdentifier;
   private final long parentVersion;
   private final long createAt;
   private final int manifestSize;
+  private final Map<String, String> metadata;
 
   public Branch(
       String name, String parentBranch, long parentVersion, long createAt, int manifestSize) {
+    this(
+        name,
+        parentBranch,
+        ImmutableList.of(),
+        parentVersion,
+        createAt,
+        manifestSize,
+        Collections.emptyMap());
+  }
+
+  public Branch(
+      String name,
+      String parentBranch,
+      List<BranchVersionMapping> branchIdentifier,
+      long parentVersion,
+      long createAt,
+      int manifestSize,
+      Map<String, String> metadata) {
     this.name = name;
     this.parentBranch = Optional.ofNullable(parentBranch);
+    this.branchIdentifier = ImmutableList.copyOf(Objects.requireNonNull(branchIdentifier));
     this.parentVersion = parentVersion;
     this.createAt = createAt;
     this.manifestSize = manifestSize;
+    this.metadata = Collections.unmodifiableMap(new HashMap<>(metadata));
   }
 
   public String getName() {
@@ -48,6 +112,10 @@ public Optional<String> getParentBranch() {
     return parentBranch;
   }
 
+  public ImmutableList<BranchVersionMapping> getBranchIdentifier() {
+    return branchIdentifier;
+  }
+
   public long getParentVersion() {
     return parentVersion;
   }
@@ -60,14 +128,20 @@ public int getManifestSize() {
     return manifestSize;
   }
 
+  public Map<String, String> getMetadata() {
+    return metadata;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
         .add("name", name)
         .add("parentBranch", parentBranch)
+        .add("branchIdentifier", branchIdentifier)
         .add("parentVersion", parentVersion)
         .add("createAt", createAt)
         .add("manifestSize", manifestSize)
+        .add("metadata", metadata)
         .toString();
   }
 
@@ -80,11 +154,14 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
         && createAt == branch.createAt
         && manifestSize == branch.manifestSize
         && Objects.equals(name, branch.name)
-        && Objects.equals(parentBranch, branch.parentBranch);
+        && Objects.equals(parentBranch, branch.parentBranch)
+        && Objects.equals(branchIdentifier, branch.branchIdentifier)
+        && Objects.equals(metadata, branch.metadata);
   }
 
   @Override
   public int hashCode() {
-    return Objects.hash(name, parentBranch, parentVersion, createAt, manifestSize);
+    return Objects.hash(
+        name, parentBranch, branchIdentifier, parentVersion, createAt, manifestSize, metadata);
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CacheBackendConfig.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CacheBackendConfig.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b43a49e9404
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CacheBackendConfig.java
@@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Structured configuration for a cache backend registered with the native Lance runtime.
+ *
+ * <p>The {@code kind} selects a registered backend constructor, while {@code options} contains
+ * backend-specific string settings. For example:
+ *
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * CacheBackendConfig config = CacheBackendConfig.builder("moka")
+ *     .option("capacity", "1048576")
+ *     .build();
+ * }</pre>
+ *
+ * <p>Third-party native backend crates register their constructors with Lance at application
+ * startup. This class selects and configures one of those registered constructors; it does not
+ * register a Java implementation as a native cache backend.
+ */
+public final class CacheBackendConfig {
+  private final String kind;
+  private final Map<String, String> options;
+
+  private CacheBackendConfig(Builder builder) {
+    this.kind = builder.kind;
+    this.options = Collections.unmodifiableMap(new HashMap<>(builder.options));
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a builder for a registered backend kind.
+   *
+   * @param kind registered backend identifier, such as {@code moka}
+   * @return a new builder
+   */
+  public static Builder builder(String kind) {
+    return new Builder(kind);
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the registered backend identifier. */
+  public String getKind() {
+    return kind;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns an immutable map of backend-specific options. */
+  public Map<String, String> getOptions() {
+    return options;
+  }
+
+  /** Builder for {@link CacheBackendConfig}. */
+  public static final class Builder {
+    private final String kind;
+    private final Map<String, String> options = new HashMap<>();
+
+    private Builder(String kind) {
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(kind, "kind must not be null");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(!kind.isEmpty(), "kind must not be empty");
+      this.kind = kind;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a backend-specific option.
+     *
+     * @param key option name
+     * @param value option value
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder option(String key, String value) {
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(key, "cache backend option key must not be null");
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(value, "cache backend option value must not be null");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(!key.isEmpty(), "cache backend option key must not be empty");
+      options.put(key, value);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Replaces the current backend options.
+     *
+     * @param options backend-specific options
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder options(Map<String, String> options) {
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(options, "options must not be null");
+      this.options.clear();
+      for (Map.Entry<String, String> option : options.entrySet()) {
+        option(option.getKey(), option.getValue());
+      }
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /** Builds the immutable backend configuration. */
+    public CacheBackendConfig build() {
+      return new CacheBackendConfig(this);
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CacheStats.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CacheStats.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9df3388dabb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CacheStats.java
@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+/**
+ * Statistics for a session cache.
+ *
+ * <p>A snapshot of cache activity, useful for monitoring hit/miss rates over time.
+ */
+public class CacheStats {
+  private final long hits;
+  private final long misses;
+  private final long numEntries;
+  private final long sizeBytes;
+
+  /**
+   * Constructs cache statistics. Instances are created by the native layer.
+   *
+   * @param hits number of cache lookups that found an item
+   * @param misses number of cache lookups that did not find an item
+   * @param numEntries number of entries currently in the cache
+   * @param sizeBytes total size in bytes of all entries in the cache
+   */
+  public CacheStats(long hits, long misses, long numEntries, long sizeBytes) {
+    if (hits < 0 || misses < 0 || numEntries < 0 || sizeBytes < 0) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+          String.format(
+              "Cache statistics must be non-negative: "
+                  + "hits=%d, misses=%d, numEntries=%d, sizeBytes=%d",
+              hits, misses, numEntries, sizeBytes));
+    }
+    this.hits = hits;
+    this.misses = misses;
+    this.numEntries = numEntries;
+    this.sizeBytes = sizeBytes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the number of cache lookups that found an item in the cache.
+   *
+   * @return the number of cache hits
+   */
+  public long getHits() {
+    return hits;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the number of cache lookups that did not find an item in the cache.
+   *
+   * @return the number of cache misses
+   */
+  public long getMisses() {
+    return misses;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the number of entries currently in the cache.
+   *
+   * @return the number of cache entries
+   */
+  public long getNumEntries() {
+    return numEntries;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the total size in bytes of all entries in the cache.
+   *
+   * @return the cache size in bytes
+   */
+  public long getSizeBytes() {
+    return sizeBytes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the ratio of hits to total lookups, or 0 if there have been no lookups.
+   *
+   * @return the cache hit ratio in the range [0, 1]
+   */
+  public double getHitRatio() {
+    // Sum in double to avoid long overflow for very large counters
+    double total = (double) hits + (double) misses;
+    if (total == 0) {
+      return 0.0;
+    }
+    return hits / total;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return String.format(
+        "CacheStats(hits=%d, misses=%d, numEntries=%d, sizeBytes=%d)",
+        hits, misses, numEntries, sizeBytes);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CleanupOperation.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CleanupOperation.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1f64473f43e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CleanupOperation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.cleanup.CleanupExplanation;
+import org.lance.cleanup.CleanupPolicy;
+import org.lance.cleanup.RemovalStats;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * A cleanup operation with separate read-only explain and destructive execute actions.
+ *
+ * <p>This is not a deletion plan. Calling {@link #execute()} re-evaluates the current dataset and
+ * reference state before deleting files.
+ */
+public class CleanupOperation {
+  private final Dataset dataset;
+  private final CleanupPolicy policy;
+  private Optional<Long> maxCandidateFiles = Optional.empty();
+
+  CleanupOperation(Dataset dataset, CleanupPolicy policy) {
+    this.dataset = Preconditions.checkNotNull(dataset, "dataset cannot be null");
+    this.policy = Preconditions.checkNotNull(policy, "policy cannot be null");
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the maximum number of candidate files included in the {@link #explain()} result.
+   *
+   * <p>Defaults to 1000 if not set. The aggregate {@link RemovalStats} returned by {@link
+   * #explain()} still account for all files that would be removed regardless of this limit; only
+   * the per-file {@code candidateFiles} list is truncated.
+   *
+   * @param maxCandidateFiles maximum number of candidate files to include; must be positive
+   * @return this operation for chaining
+   */
+  public CleanupOperation withMaxCandidateFiles(long maxCandidateFiles) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        maxCandidateFiles > 0, "maxCandidateFiles must be positive, got %s", maxCandidateFiles);
+    this.maxCandidateFiles = Optional.of(maxCandidateFiles);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Explain what cleanup would remove without deleting files.
+   *
+   * @return cleanup explanation
+   */
+  public CleanupExplanation explain() {
+    return dataset.explainCleanup(policy, maxCandidateFiles);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Execute cleanup, re-evaluating the current dataset and reference state before deleting files.
+   *
+   * @return removal stats
+   */
+  public RemovalStats execute() {
+    return dataset.executeCleanup(policy);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CommitBuilder.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CommitBuilder.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..abeb60f5158
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/CommitBuilder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,359 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespace;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+
+import java.time.Duration;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Builder for committing a {@link Transaction} to a Lance dataset.
+ *
+ * <p>Supports two modes:
+ *
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li><strong>Dataset-based commit</strong>: commits against an existing dataset.
+ *   <li><strong>URI-based commit</strong>: creates or updates a dataset at a URI.
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage (dataset-based):
+ *
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * try (Transaction txn = new Transaction.Builder()
+ *     .readVersion(dataset.version())
+ *     .operation(Append.builder().fragments(fragments).build())
+ *     .build();
+ *     Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn)) {
+ *     // use committed dataset
+ * }
+ * }</pre>
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage (URI-based):
+ *
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * try (Transaction txn = new Transaction.Builder()
+ *     .operation(Overwrite.builder().fragments(fragments).schema(schema).build())
+ *     .build();
+ *     Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(uri, allocator).execute(txn)) {
+ *     // use committed dataset
+ * }
+ * }</pre>
+ */
+public class CommitBuilder {
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
+  private final Dataset dataset;
+  private final String uri;
+  private final BufferAllocator allocator;
+
+  private Map<String, String> writeParams;
+  private LanceNamespace namespaceClient;
+  private List<String> tableId;
+  private boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning = false;
+  private boolean enableV2ManifestPaths = true;
+  private boolean detached = false;
+  private Boolean useStableRowIds;
+  private String storageFormat;
+  private int maxRetries = 0;
+  private boolean skipAutoCleanup = false;
+  // -1 disables the timeout; any positive value is the timeout in nanoseconds.
+  private long commitTimeoutNanos = Duration.ofMinutes(30).toNanos();
+
+  /**
+   * Create a commit builder for committing against an existing dataset.
+   *
+   * @param dataset the existing dataset to commit against
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder(Dataset dataset) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(dataset, "Dataset must not be null");
+    this.dataset = dataset;
+    this.uri = null;
+    this.allocator = null;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Create a commit builder for creating or updating a dataset at the given URI.
+   *
+   * @param uri the target URI for the dataset
+   * @param allocator the Arrow buffer allocator for schema export
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder(String uri, BufferAllocator allocator) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(uri, "URI must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(allocator, "Allocator must not be null");
+    this.dataset = null;
+    this.uri = uri;
+    this.allocator = allocator;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set write parameters (storage options) for the commit.
+   *
+   * @param writeParams the write parameters
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder writeParams(Map<String, String> writeParams) {
+    this.writeParams = writeParams;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the namespace client for managed versioning. When set, commits are routed through the
+   * namespace client's {@code createTableVersion} API instead of writing directly to the object
+   * store. This is supported for both dataset-based and URI-based commits.
+   *
+   * @param namespaceClient the LanceNamespace client instance
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder namespaceClient(LanceNamespace namespaceClient) {
+    this.namespaceClient = namespaceClient;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the table ID for namespace client-based commit handling.
+   *
+   * <p>Must be provided together with `namespaceClient`.
+   *
+   * @param tableId the table identifier (e.g., ["workspace", "table_name"])
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder tableId(List<String> tableId) {
+    this.tableId = tableId;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set whether namespace manages versioning.
+   *
+   * <p>When true and namespaceClient/tableId are set, commits are routed through the namespace
+   * client's create_table_version API. This is typically set based on the managed_versioning field
+   * from describe_table or declare_table responses.
+   *
+   * @param namespaceClientManagedVersioning whether namespace manages versioning
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder namespaceClientManagedVersioning(boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning) {
+    this.namespaceClientManagedVersioning = namespaceClientManagedVersioning;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Enable or disable v2 manifest paths for new datasets.
+   *
+   * <p>Defaults to true. V2 manifest paths allow constant-time lookups for the latest manifest on
+   * object storage. Warning: enabling this makes the dataset unreadable for Lance versions prior to
+   * 0.17.0.
+   *
+   * @param enable whether to enable v2 manifest paths
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder enableV2ManifestPaths(boolean enable) {
+    this.enableV2ManifestPaths = enable;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set whether the commit should be detached from the main dataset lineage.
+   *
+   * @param detached if true, the commit will not be part of the main dataset lineage
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder detached(boolean detached) {
+    this.detached = detached;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Whether to use stable row ids. This makes the {@code _rowid} column stable after compaction,
+   * but not updates.
+   *
+   * <p>This is only used for new datasets. Existing datasets will use their existing setting.
+   * Default is false.
+   *
+   * @param useStableRowIds whether to use stable row ids
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder useStableRowIds(boolean useStableRowIds) {
+    this.useStableRowIds = useStableRowIds;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the storage format to use for the dataset.
+   *
+   * <p>On creation, this sets the default storage version. If omitted, the version is inferred from
+   * homogeneous data files, or uses the stable version for an empty table. Creating from mixed
+   * prewritten files requires an explicit default. For an existing dataset, only overwrite changes
+   * the default; other operations preserve it. Commit finalization validates the referenced file
+   * versions and derives the required mixed-version capability.
+   *
+   * <p>Valid values are the numeric versions ("0.1", "2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3") and the release
+   * selectors ("legacy", "stable", "next"), matching {@link
+   * WriteParams.Builder#withDataStorageVersion(String)}. Parsing is case-insensitive.
+   *
+   * <p>The {@code v}-prefixed spellings ("v2_0", "v2.0", "v2_1", "v2.1", "v2_2", "v2.2") are
+   * deprecated. They were accepted only by this method, never by the rest of Lance, and will be
+   * removed in a future release — use the numeric version instead ("v2_1" becomes "2.1").
+   *
+   * @param storageFormat the storage format name
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder storageFormat(String storageFormat) {
+    this.storageFormat = storageFormat;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the maximum number of retries for commit operations.
+   *
+   * <p>If a commit operation fails, it will be retried up to {@code maxRetries} times. Default is
+   * 0.
+   *
+   * @param maxRetries the maximum number of retries
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder maxRetries(int maxRetries) {
+    this.maxRetries = maxRetries;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set whether to skip automatic cleanup after commit.
+   *
+   * <p>Default is false.
+   *
+   * @param skipAutoCleanup if true, skip automatic cleanup
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder skipAutoCleanup(boolean skipAutoCleanup) {
+    this.skipAutoCleanup = skipAutoCleanup;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set a timeout for the commit operation.
+   *
+   * <p>If the commit (including retries on conflict) does not complete within {@code timeout},
+   * {@link #execute(Transaction)} will fail. Pass {@code null} to disable the timeout entirely. The
+   * default is 30 minutes.
+   *
+   * @param timeout the commit timeout, or {@code null} to disable
+   * @return this builder instance
+   * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code timeout} is zero or negative
+   */
+  public CommitBuilder commitTimeout(Duration timeout) {
+    if (timeout == null) {
+      this.commitTimeoutNanos = -1L;
+    } else {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          !timeout.isZero() && !timeout.isNegative(),
+          "commit timeout must be a positive duration; pass null to disable");
+      this.commitTimeoutNanos = timeout.toNanos();
+    }
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Execute the commit with the given transaction.
+   *
+   * <p>The caller is responsible for closing the transaction (via try-with-resources or {@link
+   * Transaction#close()}) to release any native resources held by the operation.
+   *
+   * @param transaction the transaction to commit
+   * @return a new Dataset at the committed version
+   */
+  public Dataset execute(Transaction transaction) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(transaction, "Transaction must not be null");
+    if (dataset != null) {
+      try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+        Dataset result =
+            nativeCommitToDataset(
+                dataset,
+                transaction,
+                detached,
+                enableV2ManifestPaths,
+                writeParams,
+                useStableRowIds,
+                storageFormat,
+                maxRetries,
+                skipAutoCleanup,
+                namespaceClient,
+                tableId,
+                namespaceClientManagedVersioning,
+                commitTimeoutNanos);
+        result.setAllocator(dataset.allocator());
+        return result;
+      }
+    }
+    if (uri != null) {
+      Dataset result =
+          nativeCommitToUri(
+              uri,
+              transaction,
+              detached,
+              enableV2ManifestPaths,
+              namespaceClient,
+              tableId,
+              allocator,
+              writeParams,
+              useStableRowIds,
+              storageFormat,
+              maxRetries,
+              skipAutoCleanup,
+              namespaceClientManagedVersioning,
+              commitTimeoutNanos);
+      result.setAllocator(allocator);
+      return result;
+    }
+    throw new IllegalStateException("CommitBuilder requires either a dataset or a URI");
+  }
+
+  private static native Dataset nativeCommitToDataset(
+      Dataset dataset,
+      Transaction transaction,
+      boolean detached,
+      boolean enableV2ManifestPaths,
+      Map<String, String> writeParams,
+      Boolean useStableRowIds,
+      String storageFormat,
+      int maxRetries,
+      boolean skipAutoCleanup,
+      Object namespace,
+      Object tableId,
+      boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning,
+      long commitTimeoutNanos);
+
+  private static native Dataset nativeCommitToUri(
+      String uri,
+      Transaction transaction,
+      boolean detached,
+      boolean enableV2ManifestPaths,
+      Object namespace,
+      Object tableId,
+      Object allocator,
+      Map<String, String> writeParams,
+      Boolean useStableRowIds,
+      String storageFormat,
+      int maxRetries,
+      boolean skipAutoCleanup,
+      boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning,
+      long commitTimeoutNanos);
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ContextIndexBuildProgress.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ContextIndexBuildProgress.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..618a1dd3c48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ContextIndexBuildProgress.java
@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.index.IndexBuildProgress;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.IdentityHashMap;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * Marks the current thread as executing an index progress callback for one or more Datasets.
+ *
+ * <p>The active contexts are tracked by Dataset identity and nesting count. This lets Dataset give
+ * callback threads a scoped read lease and reject conflicting write re-entry without rejecting
+ * unrelated concurrent callers.
+ */
+final class ContextIndexBuildProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+  private static final ThreadLocal<IdentityHashMap<Dataset, int[]>> ACTIVE_CALLBACKS =
+      new ThreadLocal<>();
+
+  private final Dataset dataset;
+  private final IndexBuildProgress delegate;
+  private final Set<Dataset> inheritedDatasets;
+
+  ContextIndexBuildProgress(Dataset dataset, IndexBuildProgress delegate) {
+    this.dataset = dataset;
+    this.delegate = delegate;
+    IdentityHashMap<Dataset, int[]> activeCallbacks = ACTIVE_CALLBACKS.get();
+    if (activeCallbacks == null || activeCallbacks.isEmpty()) {
+      this.inheritedDatasets = Collections.emptySet();
+    } else {
+      Set<Dataset> inheritedDatasets = Collections.newSetFromMap(new IdentityHashMap<>());
+      inheritedDatasets.addAll(activeCallbacks.keySet());
+      this.inheritedDatasets = inheritedDatasets;
+    }
+  }
+
+  static boolean isActive(Dataset dataset) {
+    IdentityHashMap<Dataset, int[]> activeCallbacks = ACTIVE_CALLBACKS.get();
+    return activeCallbacks != null && activeCallbacks.containsKey(dataset);
+  }
+
+  static boolean isCallbackActive() {
+    IdentityHashMap<Dataset, int[]> activeCallbacks = ACTIVE_CALLBACKS.get();
+    return activeCallbacks != null && !activeCallbacks.isEmpty();
+  }
+
+  private static IdentityHashMap<Dataset, int[]> activeCallbacks() {
+    IdentityHashMap<Dataset, int[]> activeCallbacks = ACTIVE_CALLBACKS.get();
+    if (activeCallbacks == null) {
+      activeCallbacks = new IdentityHashMap<>();
+      ACTIVE_CALLBACKS.set(activeCallbacks);
+    }
+    return activeCallbacks;
+  }
+
+  private static void begin(Dataset dataset) {
+    IdentityHashMap<Dataset, int[]> activeCallbacks = activeCallbacks();
+    activeCallbacks.computeIfAbsent(dataset, key -> new int[1])[0]++;
+  }
+
+  private static void end(Dataset dataset) {
+    IdentityHashMap<Dataset, int[]> activeCallbacks = ACTIVE_CALLBACKS.get();
+    int[] count = activeCallbacks.get(dataset);
+    if (count == null) {
+      throw new IllegalStateException("Callback context is not active");
+    }
+    count[0]--;
+    if (count[0] == 0) {
+      activeCallbacks.remove(dataset);
+    }
+    if (activeCallbacks.isEmpty()) {
+      ACTIVE_CALLBACKS.remove();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private void beginCallback() {
+    for (Dataset inheritedDataset : inheritedDatasets) {
+      begin(inheritedDataset);
+    }
+    begin(dataset);
+  }
+
+  private void endCallback() {
+    // Release in reverse acquisition order so nested contexts unwind cleanly.
+    end(dataset);
+    for (Dataset inheritedDataset : inheritedDatasets) {
+      end(inheritedDataset);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+    beginCallback();
+    try {
+      delegate.stageStart(stage, total, unit);
+    } finally {
+      endCallback();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+    beginCallback();
+    try {
+      delegate.stageProgress(stage, completed);
+    } finally {
+      endCallback();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void stageComplete(String stage) {
+    beginCallback();
+    try {
+      delegate.stageComplete(stage);
+    } finally {
+      endCallback();
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/DataStorageVersion.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/DataStorageVersion.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f8bee63ed57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/DataStorageVersion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+/**
+ * Output data file version. Exact selectors name a specific format version; release selectors are
+ * resolved by the Rust engine. An operation cannot cross the dataset's V1/V2 boundary.
+ *
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * CompactionOptions.builder().withDataStorageVersion(DataStorageVersion.V2_2).build();
+ * }</pre>
+ */
+public enum DataStorageVersion {
+  /** Legacy V1 format, usable only with legacy datasets. */
+  LEGACY("0.1"),
+  /** Exact V2.0 format. */
+  V2_0("2.0"),
+  /** Exact V2.1 format. */
+  V2_1("2.1"),
+  /** Exact V2.2 format. */
+  V2_2("2.2"),
+  /** Exact V2.3 format, currently unstable and intended for experimentation. */
+  V2_3("2.3"),
+  /** The stable format selected by the executing engine release. */
+  STABLE("stable"),
+  /** The next format selected by the executing engine release. */
+  NEXT("next");
+
+  private final String rustString;
+
+  DataStorageVersion(String rustString) {
+    this.rustString = rustString;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the selector understood by the Rust API. */
+  public String toRustString() {
+    return rustString;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Decodes a canonical selector returned by Rust or stored in serialized compaction options.
+   *
+   * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the selector is unknown
+   */
+  public static DataStorageVersion fromRustString(String value) {
+    for (DataStorageVersion version : values()) {
+      if (version.rustString.equals(value)) {
+        return version;
+      }
+    }
+    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Unknown data storage version: " + value);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Dataset.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Dataset.java
index 7ac360d7488..85b11030d08 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Dataset.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Dataset.java
@@ -13,28 +13,38 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.cleanup.CleanupExplanation;
 import org.lance.cleanup.CleanupPolicy;
 import org.lance.cleanup.RemovalStats;
 import org.lance.compaction.CompactionOptions;
 import org.lance.delta.DatasetDelta;
+import org.lance.file.FileWriteOptions;
 import org.lance.index.Index;
+import org.lance.index.IndexBuildProgress;
 import org.lance.index.IndexCriteria;
 import org.lance.index.IndexDescription;
 import org.lance.index.IndexOptions;
 import org.lance.index.IndexParams;
 import org.lance.index.IndexType;
 import org.lance.index.OptimizeOptions;
-import org.lance.io.StorageOptionsProvider;
+import org.lance.index.scalar.ZoneStats;
 import org.lance.ipc.DataStatistics;
 import org.lance.ipc.LanceScanner;
 import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
+import org.lance.memwal.InitializeMemWalParams;
+import org.lance.memwal.MemWalIndexDetails;
+import org.lance.memwal.ShardWriter;
+import org.lance.memwal.ShardWriterConfig;
 import org.lance.merge.MergeInsertParams;
 import org.lance.merge.MergeInsertResult;
+import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespace;
 import org.lance.operation.UpdateConfig;
 import org.lance.operation.UpdateMap;
 import org.lance.schema.ColumnAlteration;
 import org.lance.schema.LanceSchema;
 import org.lance.schema.SqlExpressions;
+import org.lance.update.UpdateParams;
+import org.lance.update.UpdateResult;
 import org.lance.util.JsonUtils;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
@@ -46,6 +56,7 @@
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamReader;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.FieldType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 
 import java.io.ByteArrayInputStream;
@@ -54,11 +65,14 @@
 import java.nio.ByteBuffer;
 import java.nio.channels.Channels;
 import java.nio.channels.ReadableByteChannel;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Optional;
 import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.UUID;
+import java.util.concurrent.locks.ReentrantLock;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
 
 /**
@@ -76,8 +90,16 @@ public class Dataset implements Closeable {
 
   private BufferAllocator allocator;
   private boolean selfManagedAllocator = false;
+  private Session session;
+  private boolean ownsSession = false;
 
-  private final LockManager lockManager = new LockManager();
+  /**
+   * Serializes create/merge index builds on this Dataset handle. Always acquire the lifecycle read
+   * lock first so a queued close cannot deadlock a reentrant read-lock owner.
+   */
+  private final ReentrantLock indexBuildLock = new ReentrantLock();
+
+  private final LockManager lockManager = new LockManager(this);
 
   private Dataset() {}
 
@@ -97,12 +119,12 @@ private Dataset() {}
    *     .execute();
    * }</pre>
    *
-   * <p>Example usage with namespace and empty table:
+   * <p>Example usage with namespaceClient and empty table:
    *
    * <pre>{@code
    * Dataset dataset = Dataset.write()
    *     .schema(mySchema)
-   *     .namespace(myNamespace)
+   *     .namespaceClient(myNamespaceClient)
    *     .tableId(Arrays.asList("my_table"))
    *     .mode(WriteMode.CREATE)
    *     .execute();
@@ -147,8 +169,12 @@ public static Dataset create(
               params.getDataStorageVersion(),
               params.getEnableV2ManifestPaths(),
               params.getStorageOptions(),
+              params.getBaseStoreParams(),
               params.getInitialBases(),
-              params.getTargetBases());
+              params.getTargetBases(),
+              params.getAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases(),
+              params.getBlobPackFileSizeThreshold(),
+              params.getFileWriteOptions());
       dataset.allocator = allocator;
       return dataset;
     }
@@ -166,23 +192,99 @@ public static Dataset create(
    *     Dataset.write().allocator(allocator).stream(stream).uri(path)
    *     .mode(WriteMode.CREATE).execute()}
    */
+  /**
+   * Create a dataset with given stream.
+   *
+   * @param allocator buffer allocator
+   * @param stream arrow stream
+   * @param path dataset uri
+   * @param params write parameters
+   * @return Dataset
+   * @deprecated Use {@link #write()} builder instead.
+   */
   @Deprecated
   public static Dataset create(
       BufferAllocator allocator, ArrowArrayStream stream, String path, WriteParams params) {
-    return create(allocator, stream, path, params, null);
+    return create(allocator, stream, path, params, null, null, false);
   }
 
+  private static native Dataset createWithFfiSchema(
+      long arrowSchemaMemoryAddress,
+      String path,
+      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerFile,
+      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerGroup,
+      Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile,
+      Optional<String> mode,
+      Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds,
+      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
+      Optional<Boolean> enableV2ManifestPaths,
+      Map<String, String> storageOptions,
+      Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams,
+      Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases,
+      Optional<List<String>> targetBases,
+      Optional<Boolean> allowExternalBlobOutsideBases,
+      Optional<Long> blobPackFileSizeThreshold,
+      FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions);
+
   /**
-   * Create a dataset with given stream and storage options provider.
+   * Creates a dataset from an FFI arrow stream.
    *
-   * <p>This method supports credential vending through the StorageOptionsProvider interface, which
-   * allows for dynamic credential refresh during long-running write operations.
+   * @param arrowStreamMemoryAddress memory address of the arrow stream
+   * @param path dataset uri
+   * @param maxRowsPerFile max rows per file
+   * @param maxRowsPerGroup max rows per group
+   * @param maxBytesPerFile max bytes per file
+   * @param mode write mode
+   * @param enableStableRowIds whether to enable stable row ids
+   * @param dataStorageVersion data storage version
+   * @param enableV2ManifestPaths whether to enable v2 manifest paths
+   * @param storageOptions storage options
+   * @param baseStoreParams runtime-only object store parameters keyed by base path URI
+   * @param initialBases initial bases
+   * @param targetBases target bases
+   * @param namespaceClient optional namespace client for managed versioning and credential refresh
+   *     (can be null)
+   * @param tableId optional table identifier within the namespace client (can be null)
+   * @return Dataset
+   */
+  private static native Dataset createWithFfiStream(
+      long arrowStreamMemoryAddress,
+      String path,
+      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerFile,
+      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerGroup,
+      Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile,
+      Optional<String> mode,
+      Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds,
+      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
+      Optional<Boolean> enableV2ManifestPaths,
+      Map<String, String> storageOptions,
+      Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams,
+      Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases,
+      Optional<List<String>> targetBases,
+      Optional<Boolean> allowExternalBlobOutsideBases,
+      Optional<Long> blobPackFileSizeThreshold,
+      FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions,
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId,
+      boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning);
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a dataset with optional namespace client support for managed versioning.
+   *
+   * <p>When namespaceClient and tableId are provided, the Rust side will automatically create a
+   * storage options provider for credential refresh. When namespaceClientManagedVersioning is true,
+   * the commit handler will use the namespace client's create_table_version method for version
+   * tracking.
    *
    * @param allocator buffer allocator
    * @param stream arrow stream
    * @param path dataset uri
    * @param params write parameters
-   * @param storageOptionsProvider optional provider for dynamic storage options/credentials
+   * @param namespaceClient optional namespace client for managed versioning and credential refresh
+   *     (can be null)
+   * @param tableId optional table identifier within the namespace client (can be null)
+   * @param namespaceClientManagedVersioning whether namespace manages versioning (commits go
+   *     through namespace API)
    * @return Dataset
    */
   static Dataset create(
@@ -190,13 +292,15 @@ static Dataset create(
       ArrowArrayStream stream,
       String path,
       WriteParams params,
-      StorageOptionsProvider storageOptionsProvider) {
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId,
+      boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning) {
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(allocator);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(stream);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(path);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(params);
     Dataset dataset =
-        createWithFfiStreamAndProvider(
+        createWithFfiStream(
             stream.memoryAddress(),
             path,
             params.getMaxRowsPerFile(),
@@ -207,56 +311,19 @@ static Dataset create(
             params.getDataStorageVersion(),
             params.getEnableV2ManifestPaths(),
             params.getStorageOptions(),
-            Optional.ofNullable(storageOptionsProvider),
+            params.getBaseStoreParams(),
             params.getInitialBases(),
-            params.getTargetBases());
+            params.getTargetBases(),
+            params.getAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases(),
+            params.getBlobPackFileSizeThreshold(),
+            params.getFileWriteOptions(),
+            namespaceClient,
+            tableId,
+            namespaceClientManagedVersioning);
     dataset.allocator = allocator;
     return dataset;
   }
 
-  private static native Dataset createWithFfiSchema(
-      long arrowSchemaMemoryAddress,
-      String path,
-      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerFile,
-      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerGroup,
-      Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile,
-      Optional<String> mode,
-      Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds,
-      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
-      Optional<Boolean> enableV2ManifestPaths,
-      Map<String, String> storageOptions,
-      Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases,
-      Optional<List<String>> targetBases);
-
-  private static native Dataset createWithFfiStream(
-      long arrowStreamMemoryAddress,
-      String path,
-      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerFile,
-      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerGroup,
-      Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile,
-      Optional<String> mode,
-      Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds,
-      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
-      Optional<Boolean> enableV2ManifestPaths,
-      Map<String, String> storageOptions,
-      Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases,
-      Optional<List<String>> targetBases);
-
-  private static native Dataset createWithFfiStreamAndProvider(
-      long arrowStreamMemoryAddress,
-      String path,
-      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerFile,
-      Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerGroup,
-      Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile,
-      Optional<String> mode,
-      Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds,
-      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
-      Optional<Boolean> enableV2ManifestPaths,
-      Map<String, String> storageOptions,
-      Optional<StorageOptionsProvider> storageOptionsProvider,
-      Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases,
-      Optional<List<String>> targetBases);
-
   /**
    * Open a dataset from the specified path.
    *
@@ -266,7 +333,13 @@ private static native Dataset createWithFfiStreamAndProvider(
    */
   @Deprecated
   public static Dataset open(String path) {
-    return open(new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE), true, path, new ReadOptions.Builder().build());
+    return open(
+        new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE),
+        true,
+        path,
+        new ReadOptions.Builder().build(),
+        new HashMap<>(),
+        null);
   }
 
   /**
@@ -280,7 +353,8 @@ public static Dataset open(String path) {
    */
   @Deprecated
   public static Dataset open(String path, ReadOptions options) {
-    return open(new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE), true, path, options);
+    return open(
+        new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE), true, path, options, options.getBaseStoreParams(), null);
   }
 
   /**
@@ -309,7 +383,7 @@ public static Dataset open(String path, BufferAllocator allocator) {
    */
   @Deprecated
   public static Dataset open(BufferAllocator allocator, String path, ReadOptions options) {
-    return open(allocator, false, path, options);
+    return open(allocator, false, path, options, options.getBaseStoreParams(), null);
   }
 
   /**
@@ -320,34 +394,150 @@ public static Dataset open(BufferAllocator allocator, String path, ReadOptions o
    * @return Dataset
    */
   static Dataset open(
-      BufferAllocator allocator, boolean selfManagedAllocator, String path, ReadOptions options) {
+      BufferAllocator allocator,
+      boolean selfManagedAllocator,
+      String path,
+      ReadOptions options,
+      Session session) {
+    return open(
+        allocator, selfManagedAllocator, path, options, options.getBaseStoreParams(), session);
+  }
+
+  static Dataset open(
+      BufferAllocator allocator,
+      boolean selfManagedAllocator,
+      String path,
+      ReadOptions options,
+      Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams,
+      Session session) {
+    return open(
+        allocator,
+        selfManagedAllocator,
+        path,
+        options,
+        baseStoreParams,
+        session,
+        null,
+        null,
+        false);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Open a dataset from the specified path with additional options and namespace client.
+   *
+   * <p>When namespaceClient and tableId are provided, the Rust side will automatically create a
+   * storage options provider for credential refresh.
+   *
+   * @param path file path
+   * @param options the open options
+   * @param namespaceClient the LanceNamespace to use for managed versioning and credential refresh
+   *     (null if not using namespace client)
+   * @param tableId table identifier (null if not using namespace client)
+   * @param namespaceClientManagedVersioning whether namespace manages versioning (commits go
+   *     through namespace API)
+   * @return Dataset
+   */
+  static Dataset open(
+      BufferAllocator allocator,
+      boolean selfManagedAllocator,
+      String path,
+      ReadOptions options,
+      Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams,
+      Session session,
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId,
+      boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning) {
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(path);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(allocator);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(options);
+
+    Session effectiveSession = session;
+    if (effectiveSession == null && options.getSession().isPresent()) {
+      effectiveSession = options.getSession().get();
+    }
+    long sessionHandle = effectiveSession != null ? effectiveSession.getNativeHandle() : 0;
+
     Dataset dataset =
         openNative(
             path,
             options.getVersion(),
+            options.getRef(),
             options.getBlockSize(),
             options.getIndexCacheSizeBytes(),
             options.getMetadataCacheSizeBytes(),
             options.getStorageOptions(),
+            baseStoreParams,
             options.getSerializedManifest(),
-            options.getStorageOptionsProvider());
+            sessionHandle,
+            namespaceClient,
+            tableId,
+            namespaceClientManagedVersioning);
     dataset.allocator = allocator;
     dataset.selfManagedAllocator = selfManagedAllocator;
+    if (effectiveSession != null) {
+      dataset.session = effectiveSession;
+    } else {
+      dataset.session = Session.fromHandle(dataset.nativeGetSessionHandle());
+      dataset.ownsSession = true;
+    }
     return dataset;
   }
 
   private static native Dataset openNative(
       String path,
       Optional<Long> version,
+      Optional<Ref> ref,
       Optional<Integer> blockSize,
       long indexCacheSize,
       long metadataCacheSizeBytes,
       Map<String, String> storageOptions,
+      Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams,
       Optional<ByteBuffer> serializedManifest,
-      Optional<StorageOptionsProvider> storageOptionsProvider);
+      long sessionHandle,
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId,
+      boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning);
+
+  /**
+   * List manifest locations without reading or deserializing the manifest contents.
+   *
+   * <p>The returned locations are not guaranteed to be ordered. This operation may list and
+   * materialize the full manifest history.
+   *
+   * <p>This method is for datasets whose committed manifests can be listed authoritatively from the
+   * object store. Namespace-managed tables, external version stores such as {@code s3+ddb}, and
+   * tables using a custom commit handler are not supported.
+   *
+   * @param uri dataset URI
+   * @return manifest locations
+   */
+  public static List<ManifestLocation> listManifestLocations(String uri) {
+    return listManifestLocations(uri, new HashMap<>());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * List manifest locations without reading or deserializing the manifest contents.
+   *
+   * <p>The returned locations are not guaranteed to be ordered. This operation may list and
+   * materialize the full manifest history.
+   *
+   * <p>This method is for datasets whose committed manifests can be listed authoritatively from the
+   * object store. Namespace-managed tables, external version stores such as {@code s3+ddb}, and
+   * tables using a custom commit handler are not supported.
+   *
+   * @param uri dataset URI
+   * @param storageOptions object-store credentials and connection options
+   * @return manifest locations
+   */
+  public static List<ManifestLocation> listManifestLocations(
+      String uri, Map<String, String> storageOptions) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(uri, "uri must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(storageOptions, "storageOptions must not be null");
+    return listManifestLocationsNative(uri, storageOptions);
+  }
+
+  private static native List<ManifestLocation> listManifestLocationsNative(
+      String uri, Map<String, String> storageOptions);
 
   /**
    * Creates a builder for opening a dataset.
@@ -363,11 +553,11 @@ private static native Dataset openNative(
    *     .build();
    * }</pre>
    *
-   * <p>Example usage with namespace:
+   * <p>Example usage with namespaceClient:
    *
    * <pre>{@code
    * Dataset dataset = Dataset.open()
-   *     .namespace(myNamespace)
+   *     .namespaceClient(myNamespaceClient)
    *     .tableId(Arrays.asList("my_table"))
    *     .build();
    * }</pre>
@@ -434,14 +624,19 @@ public BufferAllocator allocator() {
     return allocator;
   }
 
+  /** Package-private setter for allocator, used by {@link CommitBuilder}. */
+  void setAllocator(BufferAllocator allocator) {
+    this.allocator = allocator;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Create a new transaction builder at current version for the dataset. The dataset itself will
    * not refresh after the transaction committed.
    *
-   * @return A new instance of {@link Transaction.Builder} linked to the opened dataset.
+   * @return A new instance of {@link SourcedTransaction.Builder} linked to the opened dataset.
    */
-  public Transaction.Builder newTransactionBuilder() {
-    return new Transaction.Builder(this).readVersion(version());
+  public SourcedTransaction.Builder newTransactionBuilder() {
+    return new SourcedTransaction.Builder(this);
   }
 
   /**
@@ -471,27 +666,33 @@ public Dataset commitTransaction(Transaction transaction) {
   public Dataset commitTransaction(
       Transaction transaction, boolean detached, boolean enableV2ManifestPaths) {
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(transaction);
-    try {
-      Dataset dataset = nativeCommitTransaction(transaction, detached, enableV2ManifestPaths);
-      if (selfManagedAllocator) {
-        dataset.allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
-      } else {
-        dataset.allocator = allocator;
-      }
-      return dataset;
-    } finally {
-      transaction.release();
+    Dataset dataset =
+        new CommitBuilder(this)
+            .detached(detached)
+            .enableV2ManifestPaths(enableV2ManifestPaths)
+            .execute(transaction);
+    if (selfManagedAllocator) {
+      dataset.allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+    } else {
+      dataset.allocator = allocator;
     }
+    return dataset;
   }
 
-  private native Dataset nativeCommitTransaction(
-      Transaction transaction, boolean detached, boolean enableV2ManifestPaths);
-
   /**
-   * Drop a Dataset.
+   * Drop a Dataset, deleting everything under {@code path} recursively.
+   *
+   * <p>To limit the damage a mistyped or misconfigured path can do, {@code path} must be a dataset
+   * root, meaning it holds a manifest that can be read, or a namespace declare/deregister marker.
+   * Anything else throws {@link IllegalArgumentException}, including a path that holds only data
+   * files or only unreadable manifests: such leftovers need an explicit storage-level delete.
+   *
+   * <p>Note that a path which passes this check is deleted in full, including any unmanaged files
+   * kept next to the dataset.
    *
    * @param path The file path of the dataset
    * @param storageOptions Storage options
+   * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code path} is not a Lance dataset root
    */
   public static native void drop(String path, Map<String, String> storageOptions);
 
@@ -599,11 +800,31 @@ public void dropColumns(List<String> columns) {
   public void alterColumns(List<ColumnAlteration> columnAlterations) {
     try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
-      nativeAlterColumns(columnAlterations);
+      // Cast target types are carried across the FFI boundary through the Arrow C Data
+      // Interface rather than ArrowType#toString(), which does not round-trip reliably on
+      // the native side (parameterized types such as Int(64, true) fail to parse and the
+      // cast would otherwise be silently dropped). One field is exported per alteration that
+      // requests a type change, in the same order as {@code columnAlterations}.
+      List<Field> castFields = new ArrayList<>();
+      int castIndex = 0;
+      for (ColumnAlteration alteration : columnAlterations) {
+        if (alteration.getDataType().isPresent()) {
+          castFields.add(new Field("f" + castIndex++, castFieldType(alteration), null));
+        }
+      }
+      try (ArrowSchema castSchema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportSchema(allocator, new Schema(castFields), null, castSchema);
+        nativeAlterColumns(columnAlterations, castSchema.memoryAddress());
+      }
     }
   }
 
-  private native void nativeAlterColumns(List<ColumnAlteration> columnAlterations);
+  private static FieldType castFieldType(ColumnAlteration alteration) {
+    boolean nullable = alteration.getNullable().orElse(true);
+    return new FieldType(nullable, alteration.getDataType().get(), null);
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeAlterColumns(List<ColumnAlteration> columnAlterations, long castAddr);
 
   /**
    * Create a new Dataset Scanner.
@@ -664,6 +885,86 @@ public void close() throws IOException {
 
   private native byte[] nativeTake(List<Long> indices, List<String> columns);
 
+  /**
+   * Select rows of data by their physical row IDs.
+   *
+   * @param rowIds the physical row IDs to retrieve (from the _rowid column)
+   * @param columns the columns to include in the result
+   * @return an ArrowReader containing the requested rows in input order
+   * @throws IOException if a row ID does not exist or an I/O error occurs
+   */
+  public ArrowReader takeRows(List<Long> rowIds, List<String> columns) throws IOException {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        rowIds != null && !rowIds.isEmpty(), "rowIds cannot be null or empty");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      byte[] arrowData = nativeTakeRows(rowIds, columns);
+      ByteArrayInputStream byteArrayInputStream = new ByteArrayInputStream(arrowData);
+      ReadableByteChannel readChannel = Channels.newChannel(byteArrayInputStream);
+      return new ArrowStreamReader(readChannel, allocator) {
+        @Override
+        public void close() throws IOException {
+          super.close();
+          readChannel.close();
+          byteArrayInputStream.close();
+        }
+      };
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native byte[] nativeTakeRows(List<Long> rowIds, List<String> columns);
+
+  /**
+   * Randomly sample n rows from the dataset.
+   *
+   * <p>The returned rows are in row-id order (not random order), which allows the underlying take
+   * operation to use an efficient sorted code path.
+   *
+   * @param n the number of rows to sample
+   * @param columns the columns to include in the result
+   * @return an ArrowReader containing the sampled rows
+   * @throws IOException if an I/O error occurs
+   */
+  public ArrowReader sample(long n, List<String> columns) throws IOException {
+    return sample(n, columns, Optional.empty());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Randomly sample n rows from specific fragments of the dataset.
+   *
+   * <p>The returned rows are in row-id order (not random order), which allows the underlying take
+   * operation to use an efficient sorted code path.
+   *
+   * @param n the number of rows to sample
+   * @param columns the columns to include in the result
+   * @param fragmentIds optional list of fragment IDs to restrict sampling to
+   * @return an ArrowReader containing the sampled rows
+   * @throws IOException if an I/O error occurs
+   */
+  public ArrowReader sample(long n, List<String> columns, Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds)
+      throws IOException {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(n > 0, "n must be greater than 0");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(columns, "columns cannot be null");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(!columns.isEmpty(), "columns cannot be empty");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      byte[] arrowData = nativeSample(n, columns, fragmentIds);
+      ByteArrayInputStream byteArrayInputStream = new ByteArrayInputStream(arrowData);
+      ReadableByteChannel readChannel = Channels.newChannel(byteArrayInputStream);
+      return new ArrowStreamReader(readChannel, allocator) {
+        @Override
+        public void close() throws IOException {
+          super.close();
+          readChannel.close();
+          byteArrayInputStream.close();
+        }
+      };
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native byte[] nativeSample(
+      long n, List<String> columns, Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds);
+
   /**
    * Delete rows of data by predicate.
    *
@@ -742,11 +1043,28 @@ public List<Version> listVersions() {
 
   private native List<Version> nativeListVersions();
 
+  /**
+   * Get the number of versions in the current version history.
+   *
+   * <p>Unlike {@link #listVersions()}, this method does not read or deserialize every manifest.
+   * Detached versions are not included.
+   *
+   * @return the number of versions
+   */
+  public long getVersionCount() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return nativeGetVersionCount();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native long nativeGetVersionCount();
+
   /**
    * @return the latest version of the dataset.
    */
   public long latestVersion() {
-    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
       return nativeGetLatestVersionId();
     }
@@ -811,13 +1129,7 @@ public Dataset checkoutVersion(long version) {
     Preconditions.checkArgument(version > 0, "version number must be greater than 0");
     try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
-      Dataset newDataset = nativeCheckoutVersion(version);
-      if (selfManagedAllocator) {
-        newDataset.allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
-      } else {
-        newDataset.allocator = allocator;
-      }
-      return newDataset;
+      return initializeCheckoutDataset(nativeCheckoutVersion(version));
     }
   }
 
@@ -834,18 +1146,23 @@ public Dataset checkoutTag(String tag) {
     Preconditions.checkArgument(tag != null, "Tag can not be null");
     try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
-      Dataset newDataset = nativeCheckoutTag(tag);
-      if (selfManagedAllocator) {
-        newDataset.allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
-      } else {
-        newDataset.allocator = allocator;
-      }
-      return newDataset;
+      return initializeCheckoutDataset(nativeCheckoutTag(tag));
     }
   }
 
   private native Dataset nativeCheckoutTag(String tag);
 
+  private Dataset initializeCheckoutDataset(Dataset checkedOutDataset) {
+    if (selfManagedAllocator) {
+      checkedOutDataset.allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+    } else {
+      checkedOutDataset.allocator = allocator;
+    }
+    checkedOutDataset.session = Session.fromHandle(checkedOutDataset.nativeGetSessionHandle());
+    checkedOutDataset.ownsSession = true;
+    return checkedOutDataset;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Restore the currently checked out version of the dataset as the latest version. This operation
    * produces a new version and doesn't influence any old versions and tags.
@@ -887,22 +1204,93 @@ public Index createIndex(
   /**
    * Creates a new index on the dataset.
    *
+   * <p>Concurrent {@link #createIndex} / {@link #mergeIndexMetadata} calls on the same Dataset
+   * handle are serialized.
+   *
    * @param options options for building index
    * @return the metadata of the created index
    */
   public Index createIndex(IndexOptions options) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(options, "options cannot be null");
+    return createIndexInternal(options, null);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a new index on the dataset while reporting stage-level progress.
+   *
+   * <p>Stage names, work units, and whether a total is available depend on the index type. The
+   * callback must be thread-safe because Lance may invoke it concurrently from native runtime
+   * threads. Callbacks may re-enter read-only methods on this Dataset. Conflicting write re-entry
+   * from a callback is rejected; unrelated concurrent callers keep their normal wait behavior.
+   * Concurrent {@link #createIndex} / {@link #mergeIndexMetadata} calls on the same Dataset handle
+   * are serialized.
+   *
+   * <pre>{@code
+   * Index index = dataset.createIndex(options, new IndexBuildProgress() {
+   *   public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) { }
+   *   public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) { }
+   *   public void stageComplete(String stage) { }
+   * });
+   * }</pre>
+   *
+   * @param options options for building index
+   * @param progress thread-safe progress callback
+   * @return the metadata of the created index
+   */
+  public Index createIndex(IndexOptions options, IndexBuildProgress progress) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(options, "options cannot be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(progress, "progress cannot be null");
+    return createIndexInternal(options, progress);
+  }
+
+  private Index createIndexInternal(IndexOptions options, IndexBuildProgress progress) {
+    if (ContextIndexBuildProgress.isActive(this)) {
+      throw new IllegalStateException("Dataset is busy in an index progress callback");
+    }
     try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
-      return nativeCreateIndex(
-          options.getColumns(),
-          options.getIndexType().getValue(),
-          options.getIndexName(),
-          options.getIndexParams(),
-          options.isReplace(),
-          options.isTrain(),
-          options.getFragmentIds(),
-          options.getIndexUUID(),
-          options.getPreprocessedData().map(ArrowArrayStream::memoryAddress));
+      acquireIndexBuildLock();
+      try {
+        if (progress == null) {
+          return nativeCreateIndex(
+              options.getColumns(),
+              options.getIndexType().getValue(),
+              options.getIndexName(),
+              options.getIndexParams(),
+              options.isReplace(),
+              options.isTrain(),
+              options.getFragmentIds(),
+              options.getIndexUUID(),
+              options.getPreprocessedData().map(ArrowArrayStream::memoryAddress));
+        }
+        return nativeCreateIndexWithProgress(
+            options.getColumns(),
+            options.getIndexType().getValue(),
+            options.getIndexName(),
+            options.getIndexParams(),
+            options.isReplace(),
+            options.isTrain(),
+            options.getFragmentIds(),
+            options.getIndexUUID(),
+            options.getPreprocessedData().map(ArrowArrayStream::memoryAddress),
+            new ContextIndexBuildProgress(this, progress));
+      } finally {
+        indexBuildLock.unlock();
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private void acquireIndexBuildLock() {
+    if (ContextIndexBuildProgress.isCallbackActive()) {
+      // An outer index build waits for its callback to return, so waiting here could create a
+      // cross-Dataset lock cycle between two concurrent builds.
+      if (!indexBuildLock.tryLock()) {
+        throw new IllegalStateException(
+            "Dataset is busy with an index build and cannot start another build "
+                + "from an index progress callback");
+      }
+    } else {
+      indexBuildLock.lock();
     }
   }
 
@@ -917,14 +1305,132 @@ private native Index nativeCreateIndex(
       Optional<String> indexUUID,
       Optional<Long> arrowStreamMemoryAddress);
 
+  private native Index nativeCreateIndexWithProgress(
+      List<String> columns,
+      int indexTypeCode,
+      Optional<String> name,
+      IndexParams params,
+      boolean replace,
+      boolean train,
+      Optional<List<Integer>> fragments,
+      Optional<String> indexUUID,
+      Optional<Long> arrowStreamMemoryAddress,
+      IndexBuildProgress progress);
+
+  /**
+   * Drop an index by name.
+   *
+   * @param name the index name to drop
+   */
+  public void dropIndex(String name) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(name != null && !name.isEmpty(), "name cannot be null or empty");
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      nativeDropIndex(name);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeDropIndex(String name);
+
   public void mergeIndexMetadata(
       String indexUUID, IndexType indexType, Optional<Integer> batchReadHead) {
-    innerMergeIndexMetadata(indexUUID, indexType.getValue(), batchReadHead);
+    mergeIndexMetadataInternal(indexUUID, indexType, batchReadHead, null);
   }
 
   private native void innerMergeIndexMetadata(
       String indexUUID, int indexType, Optional<Integer> batchReadHead);
 
+  /**
+   * Merge distributed index metadata while reporting stage-level progress.
+   *
+   * <p>Callback re-entry semantics match {@link #createIndex(IndexOptions, IndexBuildProgress)}:
+   * read-only Dataset methods are allowed, conflicting write re-entry is rejected, and concurrent
+   * create/merge builds on this handle are serialized.
+   *
+   * @param indexUUID shared UUID used by the distributed index parts
+   * @param indexType type of index metadata to merge
+   * @param batchReadHead optional limit for metadata read concurrency
+   * @param progress thread-safe progress callback
+   */
+  public void mergeIndexMetadata(
+      String indexUUID,
+      IndexType indexType,
+      Optional<Integer> batchReadHead,
+      IndexBuildProgress progress) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(progress, "progress cannot be null");
+    mergeIndexMetadataInternal(indexUUID, indexType, batchReadHead, progress);
+  }
+
+  private void mergeIndexMetadataInternal(
+      String indexUUID,
+      IndexType indexType,
+      Optional<Integer> batchReadHead,
+      IndexBuildProgress progress) {
+    if (ContextIndexBuildProgress.isActive(this)) {
+      throw new IllegalStateException("Dataset is busy in an index progress callback");
+    }
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      acquireIndexBuildLock();
+      try {
+        if (progress == null) {
+          innerMergeIndexMetadata(indexUUID, indexType.getValue(), batchReadHead);
+        } else {
+          innerMergeIndexMetadataWithProgress(
+              indexUUID,
+              indexType.getValue(),
+              batchReadHead,
+              new ContextIndexBuildProgress(this, progress));
+        }
+      } finally {
+        indexBuildLock.unlock();
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void innerMergeIndexMetadataWithProgress(
+      String indexUUID,
+      int indexType,
+      Optional<Integer> batchReadHead,
+      IndexBuildProgress progress);
+
+  /** Merge one caller-defined group of existing uncommitted vector index segments. */
+  public Index mergeExistingIndexSegments(List<Index> segments) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(segments, "segments cannot be null");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(!segments.isEmpty(), "segments cannot be empty");
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return nativeMergeExistingIndexSegments(segments);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native Index nativeMergeExistingIndexSegments(List<Index> segments);
+
+  /**
+   * Publish one or more existing physical index segments as a logical index.
+   *
+   * @param indexName logical index name
+   * @param column indexed column name
+   * @param segments physical segment metadata to publish
+   * @return committed manifest metadata
+   */
+  public List<Index> commitExistingIndexSegments(
+      String indexName, String column, List<Index> segments) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        indexName != null && !indexName.isEmpty(), "indexName cannot be null or empty");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        column != null && !column.isEmpty(), "column cannot be null or empty");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(segments, "segments cannot be null");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(!segments.isEmpty(), "segments cannot be empty");
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return nativeCommitExistingIndexSegments(indexName, column, segments);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native List<Index> nativeCommitExistingIndexSegments(
+      String indexName, String column, List<Index> segments);
+
   /**
    * Count the number of rows in the dataset.
    *
@@ -954,11 +1460,35 @@ public long countRows(String filter) {
 
   private native long nativeCountRows(Optional<String> filter);
 
+  /**
+   * Returns the session associated with this dataset.
+   *
+   * <p>The session holds runtime state for the dataset, including index and metadata caches. If a
+   * session was provided when opening the dataset, that session is returned. Otherwise, a new
+   * session was created automatically.
+   *
+   * <p>The returned session can be used to open other datasets to share caches.
+   *
+   * @return the session associated with this dataset
+   */
+  public Session session() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return session;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native long nativeGetSessionHandle();
+
   /**
    * Count rows matching a filter using a specific scalar index. This directly queries the index and
    * counts matching row addresses, which is more efficient than scanning when the index covers the
    * filter column.
    *
+   * <p>Planning is pinned to {@code indexName}. A filter that cannot be answered by that scalar
+   * index is rejected instead of scanning the table or selecting another index. Deleted rows are
+   * excluded.
+   *
    * @param indexName the name of the scalar index to use
    * @param filter the filter expression (e.g., "column = 5")
    * @param fragmentIds optional list of fragment IDs to restrict the count to
@@ -976,9 +1506,58 @@ public long countIndexedRows(
     }
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Count rows matching a filter using explicit physical segments of a scalar index.
+   *
+   * <p>Only {@code segmentUuids} are opened. Their current fragment coverage defines the count
+   * scope: matching deleted rows inside that scope are excluded, and rows outside it are not
+   * counted. When {@code fragmentIds} is omitted, the scope is derived from that coverage. When it
+   * is present, its set must equal the coverage; order does not matter. A mismatch is rejected with
+   * an error that reports both sets.
+   *
+   * <p>The selection is accepted only when it includes every segment that contributes to that
+   * coverage. After fragment reuse, one source segment can advertise every destination fragment
+   * while still depending on its siblings. An incomplete selection is rejected, and the error names
+   * the missing segment UUIDs. A segment whose coverage does not overlap the selection can be
+   * queried alone.
+   *
+   * <p>An empty segment list, duplicate segment UUIDs, an unknown UUID, a UUID from a different
+   * index, or a segment without fragment coverage is rejected. The existing three-argument method
+   * remains available and does not take a segment list.
+   *
+   * @param indexName the logical scalar index name that every selected segment must belong to
+   * @param filter the filter expression (e.g., "column = 5")
+   * @param segmentUuids physical segment UUIDs to open; must be non-empty and contain no duplicates
+   * @param fragmentIds optional fragment IDs that must match the selected segments' current
+   *     coverage
+   * @return count of matching rows in the selected segment scope
+   */
+  public long countIndexedRows(
+      String indexName,
+      String filter,
+      List<UUID> segmentUuids,
+      Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds) {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          indexName != null && !indexName.isEmpty(), "indexName cannot be null or empty");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          filter != null && !filter.isEmpty(), "filter cannot be null or empty");
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(segmentUuids, "segmentUuids cannot be null");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(!segmentUuids.isEmpty(), "segmentUuids cannot be empty");
+      return nativeCountIndexedRowsWithSegments(indexName, filter, segmentUuids, fragmentIds);
+    }
+  }
+
   private native long nativeCountIndexedRows(
       String indexName, String filter, Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds);
 
+  private native long nativeCountIndexedRowsWithSegments(
+      String indexName,
+      String filter,
+      List<UUID> segmentUuids,
+      Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds);
+
   /**
    * Calculate the size of the dataset.
    *
@@ -1018,6 +1597,40 @@ public List<Fragment> getFragments() {
 
   private native List<FragmentMetadata> getFragmentsNative();
 
+  /**
+   * Returns the storage bases registered by the current manifest.
+   *
+   * <p>Files without a base id resolve against this dataset's own URI. Files with a base id resolve
+   * against the matching entry in this list.
+   */
+  public List<BasePath> getBasePaths() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return nativeGetBasePaths();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native List<BasePath> nativeGetBasePaths();
+
+  /**
+   * Get per-fragment statistics for all fragments in this dataset version.
+   *
+   * <p>Unlike {@link #getFragments()}, this is a metadata-only bulk operation: no per-fragment Java
+   * objects are materialized, and native code fills the returned primitive arrays directly. This
+   * makes it suitable for planning over datasets with a very large number of fragments. Row counts
+   * match {@link FragmentMetadata#getNumRows()} (physical rows minus deleted rows).
+   *
+   * @return per-fragment statistics as parallel arrays, in manifest order
+   */
+  public FragmentStatistics getFragmentStatistics() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return nativeGetFragmentStatistics();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native FragmentStatistics nativeGetFragmentStatistics();
+
   /**
    * Gets the arrow schema of the dataset.
    *
@@ -1152,6 +1765,29 @@ public List<IndexDescription> describeIndices() {
 
   private native List<IndexDescription> nativeDescribeIndices(Optional<IndexCriteria> criteria);
 
+  /**
+   * Read zonemap statistics for a column.
+   *
+   * <p>Returns per-zone min/max/null_count statistics for the given column, if a zonemap index
+   * exists. Returns an empty list if no zonemap index exists for the column.
+   *
+   * <p>The zonemap index file is typically small (one row per zone), so this is a lightweight
+   * metadata-only operation suitable for calling on the driver during scan planning.
+   *
+   * @param columnName the column name
+   * @return list of per-zone statistics, ordered by (fragment_id, zone_start)
+   */
+  public List<ZoneStats> getZonemapStats(String columnName) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        columnName != null && !columnName.isEmpty(), "columnName cannot be null or empty");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return nativeGetZonemapStats(columnName);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native List<ZoneStats> nativeGetZonemapStats(String columnName);
+
   /**
    * Get the table config of the dataset.
    *
@@ -1166,6 +1802,55 @@ public Map<String, String> getConfig() {
 
   private native Map<String, String> nativeGetConfig();
 
+  /**
+   * Check whether the dataset uses stable row IDs.
+   *
+   * <p>Stable row IDs remain constant when rows are moved during compaction. This reads the
+   * manifest feature flag directly rather than the user-facing config map.
+   *
+   * @return true if the dataset was created with stable row IDs enabled
+   */
+  public boolean hasStableRowIds() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return nativeHasStableRowIds();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native boolean nativeHasStableRowIds();
+
+  /**
+   * Get the library version that wrote the current manifest.
+   *
+   * <p>Older manifests may not contain writer version metadata.
+   *
+   * @return the current manifest writer version, or empty if unavailable
+   */
+  public Optional<WriterVersion> getWriterVersion() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return Optional.ofNullable(nativeGetWriterVersion());
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native WriterVersion nativeGetWriterVersion();
+
+  /**
+   * Get the Lance file format version of this dataset.
+   *
+   * <p>The returned string will be one of: "0.1" (legacy), "2.0", "2.1", or "2.2".
+   *
+   * @return the Lance file format version string
+   */
+  public String getLanceFileFormatVersion() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return nativeGetLanceFileFormatVersion();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native String nativeGetLanceFileFormatVersion();
+
   /**
    * Compact the dataset to improve performance.
    *
@@ -1202,6 +1887,9 @@ public void compact() {
    */
   @Deprecated
   public void updateConfig(Map<String, String> tableConfig) {
+    if (ContextIndexBuildProgress.isActive(this)) {
+      throw new IllegalStateException("Dataset is busy in an index progress callback");
+    }
     UpdateMap configUpdate = UpdateMap.builder().updates(tableConfig).replace(true).build();
 
     UpdateConfig operation = UpdateConfig.builder().configUpdates(configUpdate).build();
@@ -1218,6 +1906,9 @@ public void updateConfig(Map<String, String> tableConfig) {
    */
   @Deprecated
   public void deleteConfigKeys(Set<String> deleteKeys) {
+    if (ContextIndexBuildProgress.isActive(this)) {
+      throw new IllegalStateException("Dataset is busy in an index progress callback");
+    }
     Map<String, String> deleteMap = new HashMap<>();
     deleteKeys.forEach(key -> deleteMap.put(key, null));
     UpdateMap configUpdate = UpdateMap.builder().updates(deleteMap).replace(false).build();
@@ -1245,6 +1936,26 @@ private void updateToNewDataset(Dataset newDataset) {
     newDataset.nativeDatasetHandle = 0;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Acquires a shared read lock that pins the native dataset handle, blocking a concurrent {@link
+   * #close()} until the lock is released.
+   *
+   * <p>Any code that passes this {@link Dataset} into a native method must hold this lock for the
+   * whole native call; otherwise {@code close()} can release the native dataset mid-call and crash
+   * the JVM. The lock is reentrant and intended for try-with-resources use.
+   *
+   * @return the acquired read lock
+   * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the dataset is already closed
+   */
+  public LockManager.ReadLock acquireReadLock() {
+    LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock();
+    if (nativeDatasetHandle == 0) {
+      readLock.close();
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("Dataset is closed");
+    }
+    return readLock;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Closes this dataset and releases any system resources associated with it. If the dataset is
    * already closed, then invoking this method has no effect.
@@ -1259,6 +1970,11 @@ public void close() {
       if (selfManagedAllocator) {
         allocator.close();
       }
+      if (ownsSession && session != null) {
+        session.close();
+        session = null;
+        ownsSession = false;
+      }
     }
   }
 
@@ -1274,12 +1990,55 @@ public void close() {
 
   private native List<BlobFile> nativeTakeBlobsByIndices(List<Long> rowIndices, String column);
 
+  private static void checkReadBufferSize(long bufferSize) {
+    if (bufferSize < 0) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("bufferSize must be non-negative");
+    }
+  }
+
+  static void setBlobReadBufferSize(List<BlobFile> blobs, long bufferSize) throws IOException {
+    try {
+      for (BlobFile blob : blobs) {
+        if (blob != null) {
+          blob.setReadBufferSize(bufferSize);
+        }
+      }
+    } catch (IOException | RuntimeException e) {
+      for (BlobFile blob : blobs) {
+        if (blob != null) {
+          try {
+            blob.close();
+          } catch (IOException | RuntimeException closeError) {
+            e.addSuppressed(closeError);
+          }
+        }
+      }
+      throw e;
+    }
+  }
+
   /**
-   * Open blob files for given row ids on a blob column. Names and semantics align with Rust/Python.
+   * Open {@link BlobFile} handles for given row IDs on a blob column. Names and semantics align
+   * with Rust/Python.
+   *
+   * <p>Pass logical row IDs read from {@code _rowid}, not physical row addresses from {@code
+   * _rowaddr}.
    *
-   * @param rowIds stable row ids (row addresses)
+   * <pre>{@code
+   * long rowId = 42L; // Example value from the _rowid column.
+   * List<BlobFile> blobs = dataset.takeBlobs(List.of(rowId), "images");
+   * for (BlobFile blob : blobs) {
+   *   if (blob != null) {
+   *     try (BlobFile file = blob) {
+   *       byte[] data = file.read();
+   *     }
+   *   }
+   * }
+   * }</pre>
+   *
+   * @param rowIds logical row IDs from the {@code _rowid} column
    * @param column blob column name
-   * @return list of BlobFile objects
+   * @return one {@link BlobFile} per row ID; null blob values are represented by null elements
    */
   public List<BlobFile> takeBlobs(List<Long> rowIds, String column) {
     try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
@@ -1293,11 +2052,35 @@ public List<BlobFile> takeBlobs(List<Long> rowIds, String column) {
   }
 
   /**
-   * Open blob files for given row indices on a blob column.
+   * Open {@link BlobFile} handles and set sequential read-ahead size.
+   *
+   * @param bufferSize sequential read-ahead size in bytes. {@code 0} disables read-ahead
+   */
+  public List<BlobFile> takeBlobs(List<Long> rowIds, String column, long bufferSize)
+      throws IOException {
+    checkReadBufferSize(bufferSize);
+    List<BlobFile> blobs = takeBlobs(rowIds, column);
+    setBlobReadBufferSize(blobs, bufferSize);
+    return blobs;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Open {@link BlobFile} handles for given row indices on a blob column.
+   *
+   * <pre>{@code
+   * List<BlobFile> blobs = dataset.takeBlobsByIndices(List.of(0L), "images");
+   * for (BlobFile blob : blobs) {
+   *   if (blob != null) {
+   *     try (BlobFile file = blob) {
+   *       byte[] data = file.read();
+   *     }
+   *   }
+   * }
+   * }</pre>
    *
    * @param rowIndices row offsets within dataset
    * @param column blob column name
-   * @return list of BlobFile objects
+   * @return one {@link BlobFile} per row index; null blob values are represented by null elements
    */
   public List<BlobFile> takeBlobsByIndices(List<Long> rowIndices, String column) {
     try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
@@ -1310,6 +2093,19 @@ public List<BlobFile> takeBlobsByIndices(List<Long> rowIndices, String column) {
     }
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Open {@link BlobFile} handles by row index and set sequential read-ahead size.
+   *
+   * @param bufferSize sequential read-ahead size in bytes. {@code 0} disables read-ahead
+   */
+  public List<BlobFile> takeBlobsByIndices(List<Long> rowIndices, String column, long bufferSize)
+      throws IOException {
+    checkReadBufferSize(bufferSize);
+    List<BlobFile> blobs = takeBlobsByIndices(rowIndices, column);
+    setBlobReadBufferSize(blobs, bufferSize);
+    return blobs;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Checks if the dataset is closed.
    *
@@ -1345,10 +2141,12 @@ public Branches branches() {
 
   /**
    * Create a branch at a specified version. The returned Dataset points to the created branch's
-   * initial version.
+   * initial version. The branch name {@code "main"} is reserved for the default branch and cannot
+   * be used as a new branch name.
    *
    * @param branch the branch name to create
-   * @param ref the reference to create branch from
+   * @param ref the reference to create branch from. In reference contexts, {@code "main"} is an
+   *     alias for the default branch.
    * @return a new Dataset of the branch
    */
   public Dataset createBranch(String branch, Ref ref) {
@@ -1358,10 +2156,12 @@ public Dataset createBranch(String branch, Ref ref) {
 
   /**
    * Create a branch at a specified version. The returned Dataset points to the created branch's
-   * initial version.
+   * initial version. The branch name {@code "main"} is reserved for the default branch and cannot
+   * be used as a new branch name.
    *
    * @param branch the branch name to create
-   * @param ref the reference to create branch from
+   * @param ref the reference to create branch from. In reference contexts, {@code "main"} is an
+   *     alias for the default branch.
    * @param storageOptions the storage options to create branch with
    * @return a new Dataset of the branch
    */
@@ -1382,8 +2182,9 @@ private Dataset innerCreateBranch(
   }
 
   /**
-   * Checkout using a unified {@link Ref} which can be a tag, the latest version on main/branch or a
-   * specified (branch_name, version_number).
+   * Checkout using a unified {@link Ref} which can be a tag, the latest version on the default
+   * branch or a named branch, or a specified (branch_name, version_number). In reference contexts,
+   * {@code "main"} is an alias for the default branch.
    *
    * @param ref the checkout reference
    * @return a new Dataset instance checked out to the specified reference
@@ -1392,13 +2193,7 @@ public Dataset checkout(Ref ref) {
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(ref);
     try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
-      Dataset newDataset = nativeCheckout(ref);
-      if (selfManagedAllocator) {
-        newDataset.allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
-      } else {
-        newDataset.allocator = allocator;
-      }
-      return newDataset;
+      return initializeCheckoutDataset(nativeCheckout(ref));
     }
   }
 
@@ -1420,7 +2215,7 @@ public Map<String, String> getTableMetadata() {
   public class Tags {
 
     /**
-     * Create a new tag on main branch. This is left for compatibility. We should use {@link
+     * Create a new tag on the default branch. This is left for compatibility. We should use {@link
      * #create(String, Ref)} instead.
      *
      * @param tag the tag name
@@ -1435,7 +2230,8 @@ public void create(String tag, long versionNumber) {
      * Create a new tag on a specified branch.
      *
      * @param tag the tag name
-     * @param ref the referenced version to tag
+     * @param ref the referenced version to tag. In reference contexts, {@code "main"} is an alias
+     *     for the default branch.
      */
     public void create(String tag, Ref ref) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(tag != null, "Tag name cannot be null");
@@ -1452,6 +2248,8 @@ public void create(String tag, Ref ref) {
      *
      * @param tag the name of the tag to create
      * @param versionNumber the version number (or commit reference) to associate with the tag
+     * @param targetBranch the branch to tag. In reference contexts, {@code "main"} is an alias for
+     *     the default branch.
      */
     @Deprecated
     public void create(String tag, long versionNumber, String targetBranch) {
@@ -1471,11 +2269,11 @@ public void delete(String tag) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Update a tag to a new version_number on main. This is left for compatibility. We should use
-     * {@link #update(String, Ref)} instead.
+     * Update a tag to a new version_number on the default branch. This is left for compatibility.
+     * We should use {@link #update(String, Ref)} instead.
      *
      * @param tag the tag name
-     * @param versionNumber the versionNumber on main.
+     * @param versionNumber the versionNumber on the default branch.
      */
     public void update(String tag, long versionNumber) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(versionNumber > 0, "version_number must be greater than 0");
@@ -1486,7 +2284,8 @@ public void update(String tag, long versionNumber) {
      * Update a tag to a new reference.
      *
      * @param tag the tag name
-     * @param ref the referenced version to tag
+     * @param ref the referenced version to tag. In reference contexts, {@code "main"} is an alias
+     *     for the default branch.
      */
     public void update(String tag, Ref ref) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(tag != null, "tag cannot be null");
@@ -1497,6 +2296,15 @@ public void update(String tag, Ref ref) {
       }
     }
 
+    public void replaceMetadata(String tag, Map<String, String> metadata) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(tag != null, "tag cannot be null");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(metadata != null, "metadata cannot be null");
+      try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+        Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+        nativeReplaceTagMetadata(tag, metadata);
+      }
+    }
+
     /**
      * List all tags of the dataset.
      *
@@ -1529,7 +2337,8 @@ public class Branches {
     /**
      * Delete a branch and its metadata.
      *
-     * @param branchName the branch to delete
+     * @param branchName the branch to delete. {@code "main"} is reserved for the default branch and
+     *     cannot be deleted as a named branch.
      */
     public void delete(String branchName) {
       try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
@@ -1549,6 +2358,15 @@ public List<Branch> list() {
         return nativeListBranches();
       }
     }
+
+    public void replaceMetadata(String branchName, Map<String, String> metadata) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(branchName != null, "branchName cannot be null");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(metadata != null, "metadata cannot be null");
+      try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+        Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+        nativeReplaceBranchMetadata(branchName, metadata);
+      }
+    }
   }
 
   /**
@@ -1628,12 +2446,107 @@ public MergeInsertResult mergeInsert(MergeInsertParams mergeInsert, ArrowArraySt
   private native MergeInsertResult nativeMergeInsert(
       MergeInsertParams mergeInsert, long arrowStreamMemoryAddress);
 
+  /**
+   * Update column values for rows matching an optional predicate.
+   *
+   * <p>This is similar to SQL's {@code UPDATE} statement: the entries of {@link
+   * UpdateParams#updates()} map target column names to SQL expressions evaluated for every row that
+   * satisfies {@link UpdateParams#whereClause()}. If no predicate is provided, every row is
+   * updated.
+   *
+   * <p>The predicate may reference dataset columns as well as the system columns {@code _rowid},
+   * {@code _rowaddr}, and {@code _rowoffset}, allowing rows to be targeted by stable row id (e.g.
+   * {@code "_rowid IN (1, 2, 3)"}).
+   *
+   * <p>This call does not mutate the current {@code Dataset} instance: it still references the
+   * pre-update version. Callers should close this {@code Dataset} and switch to {@link
+   * UpdateResult#getDataset()}, which holds the newly committed version.
+   *
+   * @param params update parameters
+   * @return UpdateResult containing the new committed Dataset and the number of rows updated.
+   */
+  public UpdateResult update(UpdateParams params) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(params, "params must not be null");
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      UpdateResult result = nativeUpdate(params);
+
+      Dataset newDataset = result.getDataset();
+      if (selfManagedAllocator) {
+        newDataset.allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+      } else {
+        newDataset.allocator = allocator;
+      }
+
+      return result;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native UpdateResult nativeUpdate(UpdateParams params);
+
+  /**
+   * Initialize MemWAL on this dataset.
+   *
+   * <p>Must be called once before any call to {@link #memWalWriter}. Append-only tables may omit
+   * primary-key metadata; primary keys are only required for primary-key lookup and last-write-wins
+   * deduplication workflows.
+   *
+   * @param params MemWAL initialization parameters
+   */
+  public void initializeMemWal(InitializeMemWalParams params) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(params, "params must not be null");
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      nativeInitializeMemWal(params);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeInitializeMemWal(InitializeMemWalParams params);
+
+  /**
+   * Return the MemWAL index details for this dataset, or {@link Optional#empty()} if MemWAL has not
+   * been initialized.
+   *
+   * @return the MemWAL index details, if any
+   */
+  public Optional<MemWalIndexDetails> memWalIndexDetails() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return Optional.ofNullable(nativeMemWalIndexDetails());
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native MemWalIndexDetails nativeMemWalIndexDetails();
+
+  /**
+   * Get a {@link ShardWriter} for the specified shard.
+   *
+   * <p>{@link #initializeMemWal} must be called before using this method.
+   *
+   * @param shardId UUID string identifying the write shard
+   * @param config writer configuration; pass {@code null} to use the Lance default configuration
+   * @return a ShardWriter for the shard
+   */
+  public ShardWriter memWalWriter(String shardId, ShardWriterConfig config) {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return ShardWriter.create(this, shardId, config);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Get a {@link ShardWriter} for the specified shard using the Lance default configuration. */
+  public ShardWriter memWalWriter(String shardId) {
+    return memWalWriter(shardId, null);
+  }
+
   private native void nativeCreateTag(String tag, Ref ref);
 
   private native void nativeDeleteTag(String tag);
 
   private native void nativeUpdateTag(String tag, Ref ref);
 
+  private native void nativeReplaceTagMetadata(String tag, Map<String, String> metadata);
+
   private native List<Tag> nativeListTags();
 
   private native long nativeGetVersionByTag(String tag);
@@ -1648,6 +2561,8 @@ private native Dataset nativeCreateBranch(
 
   private native List<Branch> nativeListBranches();
 
+  private native void nativeReplaceBranchMetadata(String branch, Map<String, String> metadata);
+
   public Dataset shallowClone(String targetPath, Ref ref) {
     return shallowClone(targetPath, ref, null);
   }
@@ -1682,6 +2597,20 @@ public Dataset shallowClone(String targetPath, Ref ref, Map<String, String> stor
   private native Dataset nativeShallowClone(
       String targetPath, Ref ref, Optional<Map<String, String>> storageOptions);
 
+  /**
+   * Create a cleanup operation for the specified policy.
+   *
+   * <p>Use {@link CleanupOperation#explain()} to inspect what cleanup would remove without deleting
+   * files, or {@link CleanupOperation#execute()} to perform cleanup.
+   *
+   * @param policy cleanup policy
+   * @return cleanup operation
+   */
+  public CleanupOperation cleanup(CleanupPolicy policy) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(policy, "policy cannot be null");
+    return new CleanupOperation(this, policy);
+  }
+
   /**
    * Cleanup dataset based on a specified policy.
    *
@@ -1689,6 +2618,10 @@ private native Dataset nativeShallowClone(
    * @return removal stats
    */
   public RemovalStats cleanupWithPolicy(CleanupPolicy policy) {
+    return cleanup(policy).execute();
+  }
+
+  RemovalStats executeCleanup(CleanupPolicy policy) {
     try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
       return nativeCleanupWithPolicy(policy);
@@ -1696,4 +2629,14 @@ public RemovalStats cleanupWithPolicy(CleanupPolicy policy) {
   }
 
   private native RemovalStats nativeCleanupWithPolicy(CleanupPolicy policy);
+
+  CleanupExplanation explainCleanup(CleanupPolicy policy, Optional<Long> maxCandidateFiles) {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDatasetHandle != 0, "Dataset is closed");
+      return nativeExplainCleanupWithPolicy(policy, maxCandidateFiles);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native CleanupExplanation nativeExplainCleanupWithPolicy(
+      CleanupPolicy policy, Optional<Long> maxCandidateFiles);
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/DocumentGranularity.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/DocumentGranularity.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c540cc1ff9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/DocumentGranularity.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+/** The unit treated as one full-text-search document. */
+public enum DocumentGranularity {
+  /** All text selected from one dataset row belongs to one document. */
+  ROW("row"),
+
+  /** Each element of the deepest list on the field path is one document. */
+  LIST_ELEMENT("list_element");
+
+  private final String rustString;
+
+  DocumentGranularity(String rustString) {
+    this.rustString = rustString;
+  }
+
+  /** Return the stable value understood by the Rust API and serialized index parameters. */
+  public String toRustString() {
+    return rustString;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Fragment.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Fragment.java
index 8eb1f70053d..fe48b495c71 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Fragment.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Fragment.java
@@ -13,11 +13,13 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.file.FileWriteOptions;
 import org.lance.fragment.FragmentMergeResult;
 import org.lance.fragment.FragmentUpdateResult;
-import org.lance.io.StorageOptionsProvider;
 import org.lance.ipc.LanceScanner;
 import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
+import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespace;
+import org.lance.schema.LanceSchema;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArray;
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
@@ -112,7 +114,9 @@ public LanceScanner newScan(ScanOptions options) {
    *     returns a new fragment with the updated deletion vector.
    */
   public FragmentMetadata deleteRows(List<Integer> rowIndexes) {
-    return nativeDeleteRows(dataset, fragmentMetadata.getId(), rowIndexes);
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return nativeDeleteRows(dataset, fragmentMetadata.getId(), rowIndexes);
+    }
   }
 
   private static native FragmentMetadata nativeDeleteRows(
@@ -128,7 +132,9 @@ public int getId() {
    * @return row counts in this Fragment
    */
   public int countRows() {
-    return countRowsNative(dataset, fragmentMetadata.getId());
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return countRowsNative(dataset, fragmentMetadata.getId());
+    }
   }
 
   /**
@@ -152,8 +158,10 @@ public int countRows() {
    * @return the fragment metadata and new schema.
    */
   public FragmentMergeResult mergeColumns(ArrowArrayStream stream, String leftOn, String rightOn) {
-    return nativeMergeColumns(
-        dataset, fragmentMetadata.getId(), stream.memoryAddress(), leftOn, rightOn);
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return nativeMergeColumns(
+          dataset, fragmentMetadata.getId(), stream.memoryAddress(), leftOn, rightOn);
+    }
   }
 
   private native FragmentMergeResult nativeMergeColumns(
@@ -185,8 +193,10 @@ private native FragmentMergeResult nativeMergeColumns(
    */
   public FragmentUpdateResult updateColumns(
       ArrowArrayStream stream, String leftOn, String rightOn) {
-    return nativeUpdateColumns(
-        dataset, fragmentMetadata.getId(), stream.memoryAddress(), leftOn, rightOn);
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return nativeUpdateColumns(
+          dataset, fragmentMetadata.getId(), stream.memoryAddress(), leftOn, rightOn);
+    }
   }
 
   public FragmentUpdateResult updateColumns(ArrowArrayStream stream) {
@@ -200,6 +210,33 @@ private native FragmentUpdateResult nativeUpdateColumns(
       String leftOn,
       String rightOn);
 
+  /**
+   * Append new columns to this Fragment from a stream of new-column values. This is the
+   * fragment-level equivalent of {@link Dataset#addColumns(ArrowArrayStream, Optional)}: the stream
+   * is zipped positionally against the fragment, so it must contain exactly one row for every live
+   * (non-deleted) row of this fragment, in row address order, and only the new columns. A stream
+   * with too few or too many rows fails; use {@link #mergeColumns} for inputs that cover a subset
+   * of the rows.
+   *
+   * <p>Unlike {@link #mergeColumns}, the stream is never buffered in full, so it can backfill
+   * columns far larger than memory.
+   *
+   * <p>The returned Result will be further committed.
+   *
+   * @param stream the new column values, one row per live row in row address order
+   * @param batchSize read batch size for zipping, or empty for the default
+   * @return the fragment metadata and new schema
+   */
+  public FragmentMergeResult addColumns(ArrowArrayStream stream, Optional<Long> batchSize) {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return nativeAddColumnsByReader(
+          dataset, fragmentMetadata.getId(), stream.memoryAddress(), batchSize);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native FragmentMergeResult nativeAddColumnsByReader(
+      Dataset dataset, long fragmentId, long arrowStreamMemoryAddress, Optional<Long> batchSize);
+
   /**
    * Create a new fragment writer builder.
    *
@@ -234,37 +271,79 @@ public static WriteFragmentBuilder write() {
   @Deprecated
   public static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
       String datasetUri, BufferAllocator allocator, VectorSchemaRoot root, WriteParams params) {
-    return create(datasetUri, allocator, root, params, null);
+    return create(datasetUri, allocator, root, params, null, null);
   }
 
   /**
-   * Create a fragment from the given data with optional storage options provider.
+   * Create a fragment from the given arrow stream.
    *
    * @param datasetUri the dataset uri
-   * @param allocator the buffer allocator
-   * @param root the vector schema root
+   * @param stream the arrow stream
    * @param params the write params
-   * @param storageOptionsProvider optional provider for dynamic storage options with automatic
-   *     credential refresh
    * @return the fragment metadata
-   * @deprecated Use {@link #write()} builder instead. For example: {@code Fragment.write()
-   *     .datasetUri(uri).allocator(allocator).data(root).writeParams(params)
-   *     .storageOptionsProvider(provider).execute()}
+   * @deprecated Use {@link #write()} builder instead.
    */
   @Deprecated
   public static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
+      String datasetUri, ArrowArrayStream stream, WriteParams params) {
+    return create(datasetUri, stream, params, null, null);
+  }
+
+  /** Create a fragment from the given arrow array and schema. */
+  static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
       String datasetUri,
       BufferAllocator allocator,
       VectorSchemaRoot root,
       WriteParams params,
-      StorageOptionsProvider storageOptionsProvider) {
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId) {
+    return create(datasetUri, allocator, root, params, namespaceClient, tableId, null, null);
+  }
+
+  /** Create a fragment from the given arrow array and schema. */
+  static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
+      String datasetUri,
+      BufferAllocator allocator,
+      VectorSchemaRoot root,
+      WriteParams params,
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId,
+      LanceSchema schema,
+      Session session) {
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(datasetUri);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(allocator);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(root);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(params);
+    long sessionHandle = getSessionHandle(session);
     try (ArrowSchema arrowSchema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator);
         ArrowArray arrowArray = ArrowArray.allocateNew(allocator)) {
       Data.exportVectorSchemaRoot(allocator, root, null, arrowArray, arrowSchema);
+      if (schema != null) {
+        try (ArrowSchema lanceSchema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+          Data.exportSchema(allocator, schema.asArrowSchemaWithFieldIds(), null, lanceSchema);
+          return createWithFfiArray(
+              datasetUri,
+              arrowArray.memoryAddress(),
+              arrowSchema.memoryAddress(),
+              params.getMaxRowsPerFile(),
+              params.getMaxRowsPerGroup(),
+              params.getMaxBytesPerFile(),
+              params.getMode(),
+              params.getEnableStableRowIds(),
+              params.getDataStorageVersion(),
+              params.getStorageOptions(),
+              params.getBaseStoreParams(),
+              params.getInitialBases(),
+              params.getTargetBases(),
+              namespaceClient,
+              tableId,
+              params.getAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases(),
+              params.getBlobPackFileSizeThreshold(),
+              params.getFileWriteOptions(),
+              lanceSchema.memoryAddress(),
+              sessionHandle);
+        }
+      }
       return createWithFfiArray(
           datasetUri,
           arrowArray.memoryAddress(),
@@ -276,48 +355,69 @@ public static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
           params.getEnableStableRowIds(),
           params.getDataStorageVersion(),
           params.getStorageOptions(),
-          Optional.ofNullable(storageOptionsProvider));
+          params.getBaseStoreParams(),
+          params.getInitialBases(),
+          params.getTargetBases(),
+          namespaceClient,
+          tableId,
+          params.getAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases(),
+          params.getBlobPackFileSizeThreshold(),
+          params.getFileWriteOptions(),
+          0L,
+          sessionHandle);
     }
   }
 
-  /**
-   * Create a fragment from the given arrow stream.
-   *
-   * @param datasetUri the dataset uri
-   * @param stream the arrow stream
-   * @param params the write params
-   * @return the fragment metadata
-   * @deprecated Use {@link #write()} builder instead. For example: {@code Fragment.write()
-   *     .datasetUri(uri).data(stream).writeParams(params).execute()}
-   */
-  @Deprecated
-  public static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
-      String datasetUri, ArrowArrayStream stream, WriteParams params) {
-    return create(datasetUri, stream, params, null);
+  /** Create a fragment from the given arrow stream. */
+  static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
+      String datasetUri,
+      ArrowArrayStream stream,
+      WriteParams params,
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId) {
+    return create(datasetUri, null, stream, params, namespaceClient, tableId, null, null);
   }
 
-  /**
-   * Create a fragment from the given arrow stream with optional storage options provider.
-   *
-   * @param datasetUri the dataset uri
-   * @param stream the arrow stream
-   * @param params the write params
-   * @param storageOptionsProvider optional provider for dynamic storage options with automatic
-   *     credential refresh
-   * @return the fragment metadata
-   * @deprecated Use {@link #write()} builder instead. For example: {@code
-   *     Fragment.write().datasetUri(uri).data(stream).writeParams(params)
-   *     .storageOptionsProvider(provider).execute()}
-   */
-  @Deprecated
-  public static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
+  /** Create a fragment from the given arrow stream. */
+  static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
       String datasetUri,
+      BufferAllocator allocator,
       ArrowArrayStream stream,
       WriteParams params,
-      StorageOptionsProvider storageOptionsProvider) {
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId,
+      LanceSchema schema,
+      Session session) {
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(datasetUri);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(stream);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(params);
+    long sessionHandle = getSessionHandle(session);
+    if (schema != null) {
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(allocator, "allocator is required with schema");
+      try (ArrowSchema lanceSchema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportSchema(allocator, schema.asArrowSchemaWithFieldIds(), null, lanceSchema);
+        return createWithFfiStream(
+            datasetUri,
+            stream.memoryAddress(),
+            params.getMaxRowsPerFile(),
+            params.getMaxRowsPerGroup(),
+            params.getMaxBytesPerFile(),
+            params.getMode(),
+            params.getEnableStableRowIds(),
+            params.getDataStorageVersion(),
+            params.getStorageOptions(),
+            params.getBaseStoreParams(),
+            params.getInitialBases(),
+            params.getTargetBases(),
+            namespaceClient,
+            tableId,
+            params.getAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases(),
+            params.getBlobPackFileSizeThreshold(),
+            params.getFileWriteOptions(),
+            lanceSchema.memoryAddress(),
+            sessionHandle);
+      }
+    }
     return createWithFfiStream(
         datasetUri,
         stream.memoryAddress(),
@@ -328,14 +428,27 @@ public static List<FragmentMetadata> create(
         params.getEnableStableRowIds(),
         params.getDataStorageVersion(),
         params.getStorageOptions(),
-        Optional.ofNullable(storageOptionsProvider));
+        params.getBaseStoreParams(),
+        params.getInitialBases(),
+        params.getTargetBases(),
+        namespaceClient,
+        tableId,
+        params.getAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases(),
+        params.getBlobPackFileSizeThreshold(),
+        params.getFileWriteOptions(),
+        0L,
+        sessionHandle);
   }
 
   /**
-   * Create a fragment from the given arrow array and schema.
-   *
-   * @return the fragment metadata
+   * Resolves the native handle of an optional session. A closed session has a zero handle and is
+   * treated as absent, matching how Dataset handles closed sessions.
    */
+  private static long getSessionHandle(Session session) {
+    return session == null ? 0L : session.getNativeHandle();
+  }
+
+  /** Create a fragment from the given arrow array and schema. */
   private static native List<FragmentMetadata> createWithFfiArray(
       String datasetUri,
       long arrowArrayMemoryAddress,
@@ -347,13 +460,18 @@ private static native List<FragmentMetadata> createWithFfiArray(
       Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds,
       Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
       Map<String, String> storageOptions,
-      Optional<StorageOptionsProvider> storageOptionsProvider);
+      Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams,
+      Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases,
+      Optional<List<String>> targetBases,
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId,
+      Optional<Boolean> allowExternalBlobOutsideBases,
+      Optional<Long> blobPackFileSizeThreshold,
+      FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions,
+      long schemaMemoryAddress,
+      long sessionHandle);
 
-  /**
-   * Create a fragment from the given arrow stream.
-   *
-   * @return the fragment metadata
-   */
+  /** Create a fragment from the given arrow stream. */
   private static native List<FragmentMetadata> createWithFfiStream(
       String datasetUri,
       long arrowStreamMemoryAddress,
@@ -364,5 +482,14 @@ private static native List<FragmentMetadata> createWithFfiStream(
       Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds,
       Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
       Map<String, String> storageOptions,
-      Optional<StorageOptionsProvider> storageOptionsProvider);
+      Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams,
+      Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases,
+      Optional<List<String>> targetBases,
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId,
+      Optional<Boolean> allowExternalBlobOutsideBases,
+      Optional<Long> blobPackFileSizeThreshold,
+      FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions,
+      long schemaMemoryAddress,
+      long sessionHandle);
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/FragmentMetadata.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/FragmentMetadata.java
index 8bc701b6351..acb132a6925 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/FragmentMetadata.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/FragmentMetadata.java
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@
 import org.lance.fragment.DataFile;
 import org.lance.fragment.DeletionFile;
 import org.lance.fragment.RowIdMeta;
+import org.lance.fragment.VersionMeta;
 
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 
@@ -28,9 +29,12 @@ public class FragmentMetadata implements Serializable {
   private static final long serialVersionUID = -5886811251944130460L;
   private final int id;
   private final List<DataFile> files;
+  private final List<DataFile> referencedLanceFiles;
   private final long physicalRows;
   private final DeletionFile deletionFile;
   private final RowIdMeta rowIdMeta;
+  private final VersionMeta createdAtVersionMeta;
+  private final VersionMeta lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta;
 
   public FragmentMetadata(
       int id,
@@ -38,11 +42,45 @@ public FragmentMetadata(
       Long physicalRows,
       DeletionFile deletionFile,
       RowIdMeta rowIdMeta) {
+    this(id, files, physicalRows, deletionFile, rowIdMeta, null, null, files);
+  }
+
+  public FragmentMetadata(
+      int id,
+      List<DataFile> files,
+      Long physicalRows,
+      DeletionFile deletionFile,
+      RowIdMeta rowIdMeta,
+      VersionMeta createdAtVersionMeta,
+      VersionMeta lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta) {
+    this(
+        id,
+        files,
+        physicalRows,
+        deletionFile,
+        rowIdMeta,
+        createdAtVersionMeta,
+        lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta,
+        files);
+  }
+
+  public FragmentMetadata(
+      int id,
+      List<DataFile> files,
+      Long physicalRows,
+      DeletionFile deletionFile,
+      RowIdMeta rowIdMeta,
+      VersionMeta createdAtVersionMeta,
+      VersionMeta lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta,
+      List<DataFile> referencedLanceFiles) {
     this.id = id;
     this.files = files;
+    this.referencedLanceFiles = referencedLanceFiles;
     this.physicalRows = physicalRows;
     this.deletionFile = deletionFile;
     this.rowIdMeta = rowIdMeta;
+    this.createdAtVersionMeta = createdAtVersionMeta;
+    this.lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta = lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta;
   }
 
   public int getId() {
@@ -53,6 +91,16 @@ public List<DataFile> getFiles() {
     return files;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Returns every Lance data file referenced by this fragment.
+   *
+   * <p>This includes both the base data files returned by {@link #getFiles()} and data overlay
+   * files. Prefer this method when accounting for storage or copying a fragment.
+   */
+  public List<DataFile> getReferencedLanceFiles() {
+    return referencedLanceFiles;
+  }
+
   public long getPhysicalRows() {
     return physicalRows;
   }
@@ -80,6 +128,14 @@ public RowIdMeta getRowIdMeta() {
     return rowIdMeta;
   }
 
+  public VersionMeta getCreatedAtVersionMeta() {
+    return createdAtVersionMeta;
+  }
+
+  public VersionMeta getLastUpdatedAtVersionMeta() {
+    return lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public boolean equals(Object o) {
     if (this == o) {
@@ -92,8 +148,24 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
     return id == that.id
         && physicalRows == that.physicalRows
         && Objects.equals(this.files, that.files)
+        && Objects.equals(referencedLanceFiles, that.referencedLanceFiles)
         && Objects.equals(deletionFile, that.deletionFile)
-        && Objects.equals(rowIdMeta, that.rowIdMeta);
+        && Objects.equals(rowIdMeta, that.rowIdMeta)
+        && Objects.equals(createdAtVersionMeta, that.createdAtVersionMeta)
+        && Objects.equals(lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta, that.lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(
+        id,
+        physicalRows,
+        files,
+        referencedLanceFiles,
+        deletionFile,
+        rowIdMeta,
+        createdAtVersionMeta,
+        lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -102,8 +174,11 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("id", id)
         .add("physicalRows", physicalRows)
         .add("files", files)
+        .add("referencedLanceFiles", referencedLanceFiles)
         .add("deletionFile", deletionFile)
         .add("rowIdMeta", rowIdMeta)
+        .add("createdAtVersionMeta", createdAtVersionMeta)
+        .add("lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta", lastUpdatedAtVersionMeta)
         .toString();
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/FragmentStatistics.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/FragmentStatistics.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8e4cd53bc54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/FragmentStatistics.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+/**
+ * Per-fragment statistics of a dataset version as parallel primitive arrays: {@code ids[i]}, {@code
+ * rowCounts[i]} and {@code dataFileNums[i]} describe the same fragment. Returned by {@link
+ * Dataset#getFragmentStatistics()} as a lightweight alternative to materializing full {@link
+ * Fragment} objects.
+ */
+public final class FragmentStatistics {
+  private final int[] ids;
+  private final long[] rowCounts;
+  private final int[] dataFileNums;
+
+  FragmentStatistics(int[] ids, long[] rowCounts, int[] dataFileNums) {
+    this.ids = ids;
+    this.rowCounts = rowCounts;
+    this.dataFileNums = dataFileNums;
+  }
+
+  /** Fragment IDs in manifest order. */
+  public int[] getIds() {
+    return ids;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Row count per fragment, aligned with {@link #getIds()}. Matches {@link
+   * FragmentMetadata#getNumRows()}: physical rows minus deleted rows.
+   */
+  public long[] getRowCounts() {
+    return rowCounts;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of data files per fragment, aligned with {@link #getIds()}. */
+  public int[] getDataFileNums() {
+    return dataFileNums;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of fragments described. */
+  public int size() {
+    return ids.length;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LanceConstants.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LanceConstants.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..93d20b7e747
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LanceConstants.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+/** Constants for the Lance SDK. */
+public final class LanceConstants {
+
+  private LanceConstants() {}
+
+  /** Legacy file format version (0.1). */
+  public static final String FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_LEGACY = "legacy";
+
+  /** Stable file format version (resolves to latest stable). */
+  public static final String FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_STABLE = "stable";
+
+  /** Next file format version (resolves to latest). */
+  public static final String FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_NEXT = "next";
+
+  /** File format version 0.1. */
+  public static final String FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_0_1 = "0.1";
+
+  /** File format version 2.0. */
+  public static final String FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_0 = "2.0";
+
+  /** File format version 2.1. */
+  public static final String FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_1 = "2.1";
+
+  /** File format version 2.2. */
+  public static final String FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_2 = "2.2";
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LanceException.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LanceException.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0b5c180e319
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LanceException.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+/**
+ * Thrown when a Lance operation fails and its API cannot expose a checked exception.
+ *
+ * <p>For example, scanner I/O failures can be handled separately from programming errors:
+ *
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+ *   // Consume batches.
+ * } catch (LanceException e) {
+ *   // Handle the failed Lance operation.
+ * }
+ * }</pre>
+ */
+public class LanceException extends RuntimeException {
+  /**
+   * Creates an exception with a message describing the failed operation.
+   *
+   * @param message description of the failure
+   */
+  public LanceException(String message) {
+    super(message);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates an exception with a message and its underlying cause.
+   *
+   * @param message description of the failure
+   * @param cause underlying cause of the failure
+   */
+  public LanceException(String message, Throwable cause) {
+    super(message, cause);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LanceTimeoutException.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LanceTimeoutException.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7d22e79229f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LanceTimeoutException.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+/**
+ * Thrown when a Lance operation exceeds its configured timeout.
+ *
+ * <p>For example, a commit issued via {@link CommitBuilder} that does not complete within the
+ * duration set by {@link CommitBuilder#commitTimeout(java.time.Duration)} fails with this
+ * exception. It is unchecked so it does not change existing method signatures; catch it
+ * specifically to distinguish a timeout from other failures.
+ */
+public class LanceTimeoutException extends RuntimeException {
+  public LanceTimeoutException(String message) {
+    super(message);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LockManager.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LockManager.java
index 2097e6f385f..c171c2cfe28 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LockManager.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/LockManager.java
@@ -18,20 +18,48 @@
 /** The LockManager class provides a way to manage read and write locks. */
 public class LockManager {
   private final ReentrantReadWriteLock lock = new ReentrantReadWriteLock();
+  private final Dataset dataset;
+
+  public LockManager() {
+    this(null);
+  }
+
+  LockManager(Dataset dataset) {
+    this.dataset = dataset;
+  }
 
   /**
    * Represents a read lock for the LockManager. This lock allows multiple threads to read
    * concurrently, but prevents write access.
    */
   public class ReadLock implements AutoCloseable {
+    private final boolean callbackLease;
+
     /** Acquires a read lock on the lock manager. */
     public ReadLock() {
-      lock.readLock().lock();
+      // The outer index create already pins the Dataset with a read lock. Callback re-entry uses
+      // that lease instead of blocking behind a writer queued on the same lock.
+      callbackLease = dataset != null && ContextIndexBuildProgress.isActive(dataset);
+      if (callbackLease) {
+        return;
+      }
+      if (isCallbackFromAnotherDataset()) {
+        // An untimed tryLock can join active readers even when a writer is queued, but never waits
+        // for another Dataset whose operation may itself be waiting for this callback.
+        if (!lock.readLock().tryLock()) {
+          throw new IllegalStateException(
+              "Dataset lifecycle read lock is busy in an index progress callback");
+        }
+      } else {
+        lock.readLock().lock();
+      }
     }
 
     @Override
     public void close() {
-      lock.readLock().unlock();
+      if (!callbackLease) {
+        lock.readLock().unlock();
+      }
     }
   }
 
@@ -39,7 +67,17 @@ public void close() {
   public class WriteLock implements AutoCloseable {
     /** Constructs a new WriteLock and acquires the write lock. */
     public WriteLock() {
-      lock.writeLock().lock();
+      if (dataset != null && ContextIndexBuildProgress.isActive(dataset)) {
+        throw new IllegalStateException("Dataset is busy in an index progress callback");
+      }
+      if (isCallbackFromAnotherDataset()) {
+        if (!lock.writeLock().tryLock()) {
+          throw new IllegalStateException(
+              "Dataset lifecycle write lock is busy in an index progress callback");
+        }
+      } else {
+        lock.writeLock().lock();
+      }
     }
 
     @Override
@@ -65,4 +103,10 @@ public ReadLock acquireReadLock() {
   public WriteLock acquireWriteLock() {
     return new WriteLock();
   }
+
+  private boolean isCallbackFromAnotherDataset() {
+    return dataset != null
+        && ContextIndexBuildProgress.isCallbackActive()
+        && !ContextIndexBuildProgress.isActive(dataset);
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ManifestLocation.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ManifestLocation.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..37a5273abd0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ManifestLocation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/** Metadata describing the location of a dataset manifest. */
+public final class ManifestLocation {
+  private final long version;
+  private final String path;
+  private final long sizeBytes;
+  private final ManifestNamingScheme namingScheme;
+  private final String eTag;
+
+  ManifestLocation(long version, String path, long sizeBytes, String namingScheme, String eTag) {
+    this.version = version;
+    this.path = path;
+    this.sizeBytes = sizeBytes;
+    this.namingScheme = ManifestNamingScheme.valueOf(namingScheme);
+    this.eTag = eTag;
+  }
+
+  /** Dataset version represented by the manifest. */
+  public long getVersion() {
+    return version;
+  }
+
+  /** Manifest path relative to the object-store namespace or root. */
+  public String getPath() {
+    return path;
+  }
+
+  /** Manifest object size in bytes. */
+  public long getSizeBytes() {
+    return sizeBytes;
+  }
+
+  /** Naming scheme used by the manifest path. */
+  public ManifestNamingScheme getNamingScheme() {
+    return namingScheme;
+  }
+
+  /** Object-store entity tag, when available. */
+  public Optional<String> getETag() {
+    return Optional.ofNullable(eTag);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ManifestNamingScheme.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ManifestNamingScheme.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ec6b371af63
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ManifestNamingScheme.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+/** Naming scheme used by a Lance manifest path. */
+public enum ManifestNamingScheme {
+  /** Manifest names based directly on the dataset version. */
+  V1,
+  /** Zero-padded, inverted version names optimized for latest-version lookup. */
+  V2
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/OpenDatasetBuilder.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/OpenDatasetBuilder.java
index fc350fb0fcf..f3e0ccabf73 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/OpenDatasetBuilder.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/OpenDatasetBuilder.java
@@ -14,7 +14,6 @@
 package org.lance;
 
 import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespace;
-import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider;
 import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableRequest;
 import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableResponse;
 
@@ -42,11 +41,11 @@
  *     .build();
  * }</pre>
  *
- * <p>Example usage with namespace:
+ * <p>Example usage with namespace client:
  *
  * <pre>{@code
  * Dataset dataset = Dataset.open()
- *     .namespace(myNamespace)
+ *     .namespaceClient(myNamespaceClient)
  *     .tableId(Arrays.asList("my_table"))
  *     .build();
  * }</pre>
@@ -55,9 +54,11 @@ public class OpenDatasetBuilder {
   private BufferAllocator allocator;
   private boolean selfManagedAllocator = false;
   private String uri;
-  private LanceNamespace namespace;
+  private LanceNamespace namespaceClient;
   private List<String> tableId;
   private ReadOptions options = new ReadOptions.Builder().build();
+  private Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams = new HashMap<>();
+  private Session session;
 
   /** Creates a new builder instance. Package-private, use Dataset.open() instead. */
   OpenDatasetBuilder() {}
@@ -78,7 +79,7 @@ public OpenDatasetBuilder allocator(BufferAllocator allocator) {
   /**
    * Sets the dataset URI.
    *
-   * <p>Either uri() or namespace()+tableId() must be specified, but not both.
+   * <p>Either uri() or namespaceClient()+tableId() must be specified, but not both.
    *
    * @param uri The dataset URI (e.g., "s3://bucket/table.lance" or "file:///path/to/table.lance")
    * @return this builder instance
@@ -89,24 +90,24 @@ public OpenDatasetBuilder uri(String uri) {
   }
 
   /**
-   * Sets the namespace.
+   * Sets the namespace client.
    *
-   * <p>Must be used together with tableId(). Either uri() or namespace()+tableId() must be
+   * <p>Must be used together with tableId(). Either uri() or namespaceClient()+tableId() must be
    * specified, but not both.
    *
-   * @param namespace The namespace implementation to fetch table info from
+   * @param namespaceClient The namespace implementation to fetch table info from
    * @return this builder instance
    */
-  public OpenDatasetBuilder namespace(LanceNamespace namespace) {
-    this.namespace = namespace;
+  public OpenDatasetBuilder namespaceClient(LanceNamespace namespaceClient) {
+    this.namespaceClient = namespaceClient;
     return this;
   }
 
   /**
    * Sets the table identifier.
    *
-   * <p>Must be used together with namespace(). Either uri() or namespace()+tableId() must be
-   * specified, but not both.
+   * <p>Must be used together with namespaceClient(). Either uri() or namespaceClient()+tableId()
+   * must be specified, but not both.
    *
    * @param tableId The table identifier (e.g., Arrays.asList("my_table"))
    * @return this builder instance
@@ -124,38 +125,73 @@ public OpenDatasetBuilder tableId(List<String> tableId) {
    */
   public OpenDatasetBuilder readOptions(ReadOptions options) {
     this.options = options;
+    this.baseStoreParams = options.getBaseStoreParams();
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets runtime-only object store parameters for registered base paths.
+   *
+   * <p>Entries are keyed by the exact {@link BasePath#getPath()} value persisted in the manifest.
+   * Each value is used as-is for that base. These params are not persisted in the manifest. If a
+   * base has no explicit entry, the read options storage options are used as a fallback.
+   *
+   * @param baseStoreParams object store parameters keyed by base path URI
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public OpenDatasetBuilder baseStoreParams(Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams) {
+    this.baseStoreParams = new HashMap<>(baseStoreParams);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the session to share caches between multiple datasets.
+   *
+   * <p>When a session is provided, the index and metadata caches from the session will be used
+   * instead of creating new caches. This can improve cache hit rates when opening multiple related
+   * datasets.
+   *
+   * <p>Note: When a session is provided, the indexCacheSizeBytes and metadataCacheSizeBytes
+   * settings in ReadOptions are ignored because the session's caches are used instead.
+   *
+   * @param session The session to use
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public OpenDatasetBuilder session(Session session) {
+    this.session = session;
     return this;
   }
 
   /**
    * Opens the dataset with the configured parameters.
    *
-   * <p>If a namespace is configured, this automatically fetches the table location and storage
-   * options from the namespace via describeTable().
+   * <p>If a namespace client is configured, this automatically fetches the table location and
+   * storage options from the namespace client via describeTable().
    *
    * @return Dataset
    * @throws IllegalArgumentException if required parameters are missing or invalid
    */
   public Dataset build() {
-    // Validate that exactly one of uri or namespace+tableId is provided
+    // Validate that exactly one of uri or namespaceClient+tableId is provided
     boolean hasUri = uri != null;
-    boolean hasNamespace = namespace != null && tableId != null;
+    boolean hasNamespaceClient = namespaceClient != null && tableId != null;
 
-    if (hasUri && hasNamespace) {
+    if (hasUri && hasNamespaceClient) {
       throw new IllegalArgumentException(
-          "Cannot specify both uri and namespace+tableId. Use one or the other.");
+          "Cannot specify both uri and namespaceClient+tableId. Use one or the other.");
     }
-    if (!hasUri && !hasNamespace) {
-      if (namespace != null) {
+    if (!hasUri && !hasNamespaceClient) {
+      if (namespaceClient != null) {
         throw new IllegalArgumentException(
-            "namespace is set but tableId is missing. Both namespace and tableId must be"
-                + " provided together.");
+            "namespaceClient is set but tableId is missing. Both namespaceClient and tableId must"
+                + " be provided together.");
       } else if (tableId != null) {
         throw new IllegalArgumentException(
-            "tableId is set but namespace is missing. Both namespace and tableId must be"
-                + " provided together.");
+            "tableId is set but namespaceClient is missing. Both namespaceClient and tableId must"
+                + " be provided together.");
       } else {
-        throw new IllegalArgumentException("Either uri or namespace+tableId must be provided.");
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+            "Either uri or namespaceClient+tableId must be provided.");
       }
     }
 
@@ -167,29 +203,32 @@ public Dataset build() {
       selfManagedAllocator = true;
     }
 
-    // Handle namespace-based opening
-    if (hasNamespace) {
-      return buildFromNamespace();
+    // Handle namespace client-based opening
+    if (hasNamespaceClient) {
+      return buildFromNamespaceClient();
     }
 
     // Handle URI-based opening
-    return Dataset.open(allocator, selfManagedAllocator, uri, options);
+    return Dataset.open(allocator, selfManagedAllocator, uri, options, baseStoreParams, session);
   }
 
-  private Dataset buildFromNamespace() {
+  private Dataset buildFromNamespaceClient() {
     // Call describe_table to get location and storage options
     DescribeTableRequest request = new DescribeTableRequest();
     request.setId(tableId);
-    // Only set version if present
-    options.getVersion().ifPresent(v -> request.setVersion(Long.valueOf(v)));
+    // Do not set the dataset version here. Some namespace implementations only support describing
+    // the latest table metadata; the requested version is applied when opening the dataset below.
 
-    DescribeTableResponse response = namespace.describeTable(request);
+    DescribeTableResponse response = namespaceClient.describeTable(request);
 
     String location = response.getLocation();
     if (location == null || location.isEmpty()) {
-      throw new IllegalArgumentException("Namespace did not return a table location");
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("Namespace client did not return a table location");
     }
 
+    // Check if namespace client manages versioning (commits go through namespace client API)
+    Boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning = response.getManagedVersioning();
+
     Map<String, String> namespaceStorageOptions = response.getStorageOptions();
 
     ReadOptions.Builder optionsBuilder =
@@ -197,15 +236,11 @@ private Dataset buildFromNamespace() {
             .setIndexCacheSizeBytes(options.getIndexCacheSizeBytes())
             .setMetadataCacheSizeBytes(options.getMetadataCacheSizeBytes());
 
-    if (namespaceStorageOptions != null && !namespaceStorageOptions.isEmpty()) {
-      LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider storageOptionsProvider =
-          new LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(namespace, tableId);
-      optionsBuilder.setStorageOptionsProvider(storageOptionsProvider);
-    }
-
     options.getVersion().ifPresent(optionsBuilder::setVersion);
+    options.getRef().ifPresent(optionsBuilder::setRef);
     options.getBlockSize().ifPresent(optionsBuilder::setBlockSize);
     options.getSerializedManifest().ifPresent(optionsBuilder::setSerializedManifest);
+    optionsBuilder.setBaseStoreParams(baseStoreParams);
 
     Map<String, String> storageOptions = new HashMap<>(options.getStorageOptions());
     if (namespaceStorageOptions != null) {
@@ -213,7 +248,20 @@ private Dataset buildFromNamespace() {
     }
     optionsBuilder.setStorageOptions(storageOptions);
 
-    // Open dataset with regular open method
-    return Dataset.open(allocator, selfManagedAllocator, location, optionsBuilder.build());
+    // Pass namespaceClient, tableId, and namespaceClientManagedVersioning to Rust
+    // The Rust side will:
+    // - Create a storage options provider when namespaceClient/tableId are non-null for credential
+    // refresh
+    // - Create an external manifest commit handler when namespaceClientManagedVersioning is true
+    return Dataset.open(
+        allocator,
+        selfManagedAllocator,
+        location,
+        optionsBuilder.build(),
+        baseStoreParams,
+        session,
+        namespaceClient,
+        tableId,
+        Boolean.TRUE.equals(namespaceClientManagedVersioning));
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ReadOptions.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ReadOptions.java
index ae7ec4a8e67..ec7ebf0e94b 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ReadOptions.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ReadOptions.java
@@ -13,9 +13,8 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
-import org.lance.io.StorageOptionsProvider;
-
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
 
 import java.nio.ByteBuffer;
 import java.util.HashMap;
@@ -26,27 +25,40 @@
 public class ReadOptions {
 
   private final Optional<Long> version;
+  private final Optional<Ref> ref;
   private final Optional<Integer> blockSize;
   private final long indexCacheSizeBytes;
   private final long metadataCacheSizeBytes;
   private final Optional<ByteBuffer> serializedManifest;
   private final Map<String, String> storageOptions;
-  private final Optional<StorageOptionsProvider> storageOptionsProvider;
+  private final Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams;
+  private final Optional<Session> session;
 
   private ReadOptions(Builder builder) {
     this.version = builder.version;
+    this.ref = builder.ref;
     this.blockSize = builder.blockSize;
     this.indexCacheSizeBytes = builder.indexCacheSizeBytes;
     this.metadataCacheSizeBytes = builder.metadataCacheSizeBytes;
     this.storageOptions = builder.storageOptions;
+    this.baseStoreParams = builder.baseStoreParams;
     this.serializedManifest = builder.serializedManifest;
-    this.storageOptionsProvider = builder.storageOptionsProvider;
+    this.session = builder.session;
   }
 
   public Optional<Long> getVersion() {
     return version;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get the reference (a version, a branch or a tag) the dataset is opened at.
+   *
+   * @return the reference, or empty if none was specified
+   */
+  public Optional<Ref> getRef() {
+    return ref;
+  }
+
   public Optional<Integer> getBlockSize() {
     return blockSize;
   }
@@ -63,18 +75,28 @@ public Map<String, String> getStorageOptions() {
     return storageOptions;
   }
 
+  public Map<String, Map<String, String>> getBaseStoreParams() {
+    return baseStoreParams;
+  }
+
   public Optional<ByteBuffer> getSerializedManifest() {
     return serializedManifest;
   }
 
-  public Optional<StorageOptionsProvider> getStorageOptionsProvider() {
-    return storageOptionsProvider;
+  /**
+   * Get the session to use for opening the dataset.
+   *
+   * @return the session, or empty if no session was specified
+   */
+  public Optional<Session> getSession() {
+    return session;
   }
 
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
         .add("version", version.orElse(null))
+        .add("ref", ref.orElse(null))
         .add("blockSize", blockSize.orElse(null))
         .add("indexCacheSizeBytes", indexCacheSizeBytes)
         .add("metadataCacheSizeBytes", metadataCacheSizeBytes)
@@ -88,15 +110,21 @@ public String toString() {
   public static class Builder {
 
     private Optional<Long> version = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Ref> ref = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Integer> blockSize = Optional.empty();
-    private long indexCacheSizeBytes = 6 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024; // Default to 6 GiB like Rust
-    private long metadataCacheSizeBytes = 1024 * 1024 * 1024; // Default to 1 GiB like Rust
+    private long indexCacheSizeBytes = 6L * 1024 * 1024 * 1024; // Default to 6 GiB like Rust
+    private long metadataCacheSizeBytes = 1024L * 1024 * 1024; // Default to 1 GiB like Rust
     private Map<String, String> storageOptions = new HashMap<>();
+    private Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams = new HashMap<>();
     private Optional<ByteBuffer> serializedManifest = Optional.empty();
-    private Optional<StorageOptionsProvider> storageOptionsProvider = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Session> session = Optional.empty();
 
     /**
-     * Set the version of the dataset to read. If not set, read from latest version.
+     * Set the version of the dataset to read. If neither a version nor a {@link #setRef(Ref) ref}
+     * is set, read from latest version.
+     *
+     * <p>The version is looked up on the branch the dataset URI points at. Use {@link #setRef(Ref)}
+     * to open a version on another branch. Cannot be combined with {@link #setRef(Ref)}.
      *
      * @param version the version of the dataset
      * @return this builder
@@ -106,6 +134,44 @@ public Builder setVersion(long version) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set the reference to open the dataset at. It accepts the same references as {@link
+     * Dataset#checkout(Ref)}:
+     *
+     * <ul>
+     *   <li>{@link Ref#ofMain(long)}: a version on the main branch, when the URI is the dataset
+     *       root.
+     *   <li>{@link Ref#ofBranch(String)}: the latest version of a branch.
+     *   <li>{@link Ref#ofBranch(String, long)}: a version on a branch.
+     *   <li>{@link Ref#ofTag(String)}: the version a tag points at, on the branch that version
+     *       belongs to.
+     * </ul>
+     *
+     * <p>Open the dataset root: references to the default branch ({@link Ref#ofMain()}, {@link
+     * Ref#ofMain(long)}, and {@code "main"} in {@link Ref#ofBranch(String)}) are resolved on the
+     * chain the URI points at, like {@link #setVersion(long)}. From a branch directory they read
+     * that branch, while {@link Dataset#checkout(Ref)} reads the default branch.
+     *
+     * <pre>{@code
+     * Dataset dev =
+     *     Dataset.open()
+     *         .allocator(allocator)
+     *         .uri("s3://bucket/table.lance")
+     *         .readOptions(new ReadOptions.Builder().setRef(Ref.ofBranch("dev", 2)).build())
+     *         .build();
+     * }</pre>
+     *
+     * <p>Cannot be combined with {@link #setVersion(long)} or {@link
+     * #setSerializedManifest(ByteBuffer)}.
+     *
+     * @param ref the reference to open
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder setRef(Ref ref) {
+      this.ref = Optional.of(Preconditions.checkNotNull(ref, "ref must not be null"));
+      return this;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Block size in bytes. Provide a hint for the size of the minimal I/O request. Recommended to
      * be set to value bigger than 4KB.
@@ -131,15 +197,14 @@ public Builder setIndexCacheSizeBytes(long indexCacheSizeBytes) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Index cache size. Index cache is a LRU cache with TTL. This number specifies the number of
-     * index pages, for example, IVF partitions, to be cached in the host memory. Roughly, for an
-     * IVF_PQ partition with n rows, the size of each index page equals the combination of the pq
-     * code (nd.array([n,pq], dtype=uint8)) and the row ids (nd.array([n], dtype=uint64)).
-     * Approximately, n = Total Rows / number of IVF partitions. pq = number of PQ sub-vectors.
-     * Default is 256.
-     *
-     * @param indexCacheSize the index cache size
+     * Set the index cache size as a count of index entries, each assumed to be ~20 MB. The count is
+     * converted to a byte budget ({@code indexCacheSize * 20 MB}) and stored the same way as {@link
+     * #setIndexCacheSizeBytes(long)}. Index cache is an LRU cache with TTL.
+     *
+     * @param indexCacheSize the number of ~20 MB index entries to cache
      * @return this builder
+     * @deprecated Use {@link #setIndexCacheSizeBytes(long)} to set the cache size in bytes
+     *     directly. When neither is set, the default cache size is 6 GiB.
      */
     @Deprecated
     public Builder setIndexCacheSize(int indexCacheSize) {
@@ -179,6 +244,13 @@ public Builder setMetadataCacheSize(int metadataCacheSize) {
      * Set storage options. Extra options that make sense for a particular storage connection. This
      * is used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
      *
+     * <p>For datasets with additional registered base paths, a key of the form {@code
+     * base_<id>.<key>} applies {@code <key>} only to the base path with that manifest id,
+     * overriding the unscoped options that every base inherits. For example {@code
+     * base_1.account_key = abc} makes base 1 use {@code account_key = abc} while all other options
+     * are shared. Exact per-base bindings set via {@link #setBaseStoreParams(Map)} take precedence
+     * over base-scoped keys.
+     *
      * @param storageOptions the storage options
      * @return this builder
      */
@@ -187,9 +259,25 @@ public Builder setStorageOptions(Map<String, String> storageOptions) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set runtime-only object store parameters for registered base paths.
+     *
+     * <p>Entries are keyed by the exact {@link BasePath#getPath()} value persisted in the manifest.
+     * Each value is the storage options map used as-is for that base. These params are not
+     * persisted in the manifest. If a base has no explicit entry, {@link #setStorageOptions(Map)}
+     * remains the fallback.
+     *
+     * @param baseStoreParams object store parameters keyed by base path URI
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder setBaseStoreParams(Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams) {
+      this.baseStoreParams = baseStoreParams;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Use a serialized manifest instead of loading it from the object store. This is common when
-     * transferring a dataset across IPC boundaries.
+     * transferring a dataset across IPC boundaries. Cannot be combined with {@link #setRef(Ref)}.
      *
      * @param serializedManifest the serialized manifest as a ByteBuffer
      * @return this builder
@@ -200,21 +288,38 @@ public Builder setSerializedManifest(ByteBuffer serializedManifest) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Set a custom storage options provider for automatic storage options refresh.
+     * Set a session to share caches between multiple datasets.
+     *
+     * <p>When a session is provided, the index and metadata caches from the session will be used
+     * instead of creating new caches. This can improve cache hit rates when opening multiple
+     * related datasets.
      *
-     * <p>The storage options provider will be called automatically before storage options expire,
-     * enabling long-running operations on cloud storage without interruption. This is currently
-     * only used for refreshing AWS temporary access credentials.
+     * <p>Note: When a session is provided, the indexCacheSizeBytes and metadataCacheSizeBytes
+     * settings are ignored because the session's caches are used instead.
      *
-     * @param storageOptionsProvider the storage options provider implementation
+     * @param session the session to use
      * @return this builder
      */
-    public Builder setStorageOptionsProvider(StorageOptionsProvider storageOptionsProvider) {
-      this.storageOptionsProvider = Optional.of(storageOptionsProvider);
+    public Builder setSession(Session session) {
+      this.session = Optional.of(session);
       return this;
     }
 
     public ReadOptions build() {
+      if (version.isPresent() && ref.isPresent()) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+            String.format(
+                "Cannot set both version (%d) and ref (%s); use Ref.ofMain(version) or"
+                    + " Ref.ofBranch(branch, version) to open a version by reference",
+                version.get(), ref.get()));
+      }
+      if (serializedManifest.isPresent() && ref.isPresent()) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+            String.format(
+                "Cannot set both a serialized manifest and ref (%s); the manifest already"
+                    + " determines the version to open",
+                ref.get()));
+      }
       return new ReadOptions(this);
     }
   }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Ref.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Ref.java
index 111a1edd6d3..69e0e3fb8f3 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Ref.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Ref.java
@@ -41,21 +41,33 @@ public Optional<String> getTagName() {
     return tagName;
   }
 
+  /** Creates a reference to a specific version on the default branch. */
   public static Ref ofMain(long versionNumber) {
     Preconditions.checkArgument(versionNumber > 0, "versionNumber must be greater than 0");
     return new Ref(Optional.of(versionNumber), Optional.empty(), Optional.empty());
   }
 
+  /** Creates a reference to the latest version on the default branch. */
   public static Ref ofMain() {
     return new Ref(Optional.empty(), Optional.empty(), Optional.empty());
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Creates a reference to the latest version on a branch.
+   *
+   * <p>In reference contexts, {@code "main"} is an alias for the default branch.
+   */
   public static Ref ofBranch(String branchName) {
     Preconditions.checkArgument(
         branchName != null && !branchName.isEmpty(), "branchName must not be empty");
     return new Ref(Optional.empty(), Optional.of(branchName), Optional.empty());
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Creates a reference to a specific version on a branch.
+   *
+   * <p>In reference contexts, {@code "main"} is an alias for the default branch.
+   */
   public static Ref ofBranch(String branchName, long versionNumber) {
     Preconditions.checkArgument(
         branchName != null && !branchName.isEmpty(), "branchName must not be empty");
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Session.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Session.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..95a92cc8b57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Session.java
@@ -0,0 +1,377 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+
+import java.io.Closeable;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * A user session that holds runtime state for Lance datasets.
+ *
+ * <p>A session can be shared between multiple datasets to share caches (index cache and metadata
+ * cache), increasing cache hit rates and reducing memory usage.
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage:
+ *
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * // Create a shared session with default cache sizes
+ * Session session = Session.builder().build();
+ *
+ * // Create a session with custom cache sizes
+ * Session customSession = Session.builder()
+ *     .indexCacheSizeBytes(2L * 1024 * 1024 * 1024)  // 2 GiB
+ *     .metadataCacheSizeBytes(512L * 1024 * 1024)    // 512 MiB
+ *     .build();
+ *
+ * // Select registered cache backends using URIs or structured configuration
+ * Session backendSession = Session.builder()
+ *     .indexCacheBackend("moka://?capacity=1073741824")
+ *     .metadataCacheBackend(CacheBackendConfig.builder("moka")
+ *         .option("capacity", "268435456")
+ *         .build())
+ *     .build();
+ *
+ * // Open multiple datasets with shared session
+ * Dataset ds1 = Dataset.open()
+ *     .uri("s3://bucket/table1.lance")
+ *     .session(session)
+ *     .build();
+ *
+ * Dataset ds2 = Dataset.open()
+ *     .uri("s3://bucket/table2.lance")
+ *     .session(session)
+ *     .build();
+ *
+ * // Verify session sharing
+ * assert ds1.session().isSameAs(ds2.session());
+ *
+ * // Clean up - session must be closed separately
+ * ds1.close();
+ * ds2.close();
+ * session.close();
+ * }</pre>
+ */
+public class Session implements Closeable {
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
+  /** Default index cache size: 6 GiB */
+  public static final long DEFAULT_INDEX_CACHE_SIZE_BYTES = 6L * 1024 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+  /** Default metadata cache size: 1 GiB */
+  public static final long DEFAULT_METADATA_CACHE_SIZE_BYTES = 1L * 1024 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+  private long nativeSessionHandle;
+
+  private Session(long handle) {
+    this.nativeSessionHandle = handle;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a new builder for configuring a Session.
+   *
+   * @return a new Builder instance
+   */
+  public static Builder builder() {
+    return new Builder();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a new session with default cache sizes.
+   *
+   * @return a new Session instance
+   * @deprecated Use {@link #builder()} instead
+   */
+  @Deprecated
+  public static Session create() {
+    return builder().build();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a new session with custom cache sizes.
+   *
+   * @param indexCacheSizeBytes the size of the index cache in bytes
+   * @param metadataCacheSizeBytes the size of the metadata cache in bytes
+   * @return a new Session instance
+   * @deprecated Use {@link #builder()} instead
+   */
+  @Deprecated
+  public static Session create(long indexCacheSizeBytes, long metadataCacheSizeBytes) {
+    return builder()
+        .indexCacheSizeBytes(indexCacheSizeBytes)
+        .metadataCacheSizeBytes(metadataCacheSizeBytes)
+        .build();
+  }
+
+  /** Builder for creating Session instances with custom configuration. */
+  public static class Builder {
+    private Long indexCacheSizeBytes;
+    private Long metadataCacheSizeBytes;
+    private String indexCacheBackendUri;
+    private CacheBackendConfig indexCacheBackendConfig;
+    private String metadataCacheBackendUri;
+    private CacheBackendConfig metadataCacheBackendConfig;
+
+    private Builder() {}
+
+    /**
+     * Sets the size of the index cache in bytes.
+     *
+     * @param indexCacheSizeBytes the size of the index cache in bytes (must be non-negative)
+     * @return this builder instance
+     */
+    public Builder indexCacheSizeBytes(long indexCacheSizeBytes) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(indexCacheSizeBytes >= 0, "indexCacheSizeBytes must be >= 0");
+      this.indexCacheSizeBytes = indexCacheSizeBytes;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Selects a registered index cache backend using a backend URI.
+     *
+     * <p>For example, {@code moka://?capacity=1048576}. This option is mutually exclusive with
+     * {@link #indexCacheSizeBytes(long)}.
+     *
+     * @param backendUri backend URI whose scheme identifies the registered backend
+     * @return this builder instance
+     */
+    public Builder indexCacheBackend(String backendUri) {
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(backendUri, "backendUri must not be null");
+      this.indexCacheBackendUri = backendUri;
+      this.indexCacheBackendConfig = null;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Selects a registered index cache backend using structured configuration.
+     *
+     * <p>This option is mutually exclusive with {@link #indexCacheSizeBytes(long)}.
+     *
+     * @param backendConfig backend kind and backend-specific options
+     * @return this builder instance
+     */
+    public Builder indexCacheBackend(CacheBackendConfig backendConfig) {
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(backendConfig, "backendConfig must not be null");
+      this.indexCacheBackendConfig = backendConfig;
+      this.indexCacheBackendUri = null;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sets the size of the metadata cache in bytes.
+     *
+     * @param metadataCacheSizeBytes the size of the metadata cache in bytes (must be non-negative)
+     * @return this builder instance
+     */
+    public Builder metadataCacheSizeBytes(long metadataCacheSizeBytes) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          metadataCacheSizeBytes >= 0, "metadataCacheSizeBytes must be >= 0");
+      this.metadataCacheSizeBytes = metadataCacheSizeBytes;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Selects a registered metadata cache backend using a backend URI.
+     *
+     * <p>For example, {@code moka://?capacity=1048576}. This option is mutually exclusive with
+     * {@link #metadataCacheSizeBytes(long)}.
+     *
+     * @param backendUri backend URI whose scheme identifies the registered backend
+     * @return this builder instance
+     */
+    public Builder metadataCacheBackend(String backendUri) {
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(backendUri, "backendUri must not be null");
+      this.metadataCacheBackendUri = backendUri;
+      this.metadataCacheBackendConfig = null;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Selects a registered metadata cache backend using structured configuration.
+     *
+     * <p>This option is mutually exclusive with {@link #metadataCacheSizeBytes(long)}.
+     *
+     * @param backendConfig backend kind and backend-specific options
+     * @return this builder instance
+     */
+    public Builder metadataCacheBackend(CacheBackendConfig backendConfig) {
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(backendConfig, "backendConfig must not be null");
+      this.metadataCacheBackendConfig = backendConfig;
+      this.metadataCacheBackendUri = null;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Builds the Session with the configured settings.
+     *
+     * @return a new Session instance
+     */
+    public Session build() {
+      validateCacheConfiguration();
+      long handle =
+          createNative(
+              indexCacheSizeBytes == null ? -1 : indexCacheSizeBytes,
+              metadataCacheSizeBytes == null ? -1 : metadataCacheSizeBytes,
+              indexCacheBackendUri,
+              backendKind(indexCacheBackendConfig),
+              backendOptions(indexCacheBackendConfig),
+              metadataCacheBackendUri,
+              backendKind(metadataCacheBackendConfig),
+              backendOptions(metadataCacheBackendConfig));
+      return new Session(handle);
+    }
+
+    private void validateCacheConfiguration() {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          indexCacheSizeBytes == null
+              || (indexCacheBackendUri == null && indexCacheBackendConfig == null),
+          "indexCacheSizeBytes and indexCacheBackend are mutually exclusive; set one or the other");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          metadataCacheSizeBytes == null
+              || (metadataCacheBackendUri == null && metadataCacheBackendConfig == null),
+          "metadataCacheSizeBytes and metadataCacheBackend are mutually exclusive; "
+              + "set one or the other");
+    }
+
+    private static String backendKind(CacheBackendConfig config) {
+      return config == null ? null : config.getKind();
+    }
+
+    private static Map<String, String> backendOptions(CacheBackendConfig config) {
+      return config == null ? Collections.emptyMap() : config.getOptions();
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a Session from an existing native handle. This is used internally when retrieving the
+   * session from a dataset.
+   *
+   * @param handle the native session handle
+   * @return a new Session instance wrapping the handle
+   */
+  static Session fromHandle(long handle) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(handle != 0, "Invalid session handle");
+    return new Session(handle);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the current size of the session in bytes.
+   *
+   * <p>This includes the size of both index and metadata caches. Note that computing this is not
+   * trivial as it walks the caches.
+   *
+   * @return the size of the session in bytes
+   */
+  public long sizeBytes() {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeSessionHandle != 0, "Session is closed");
+    return sizeBytesNative();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns statistics for the metadata cache of this session.
+   *
+   * <p>The returned statistics are a snapshot; call this method periodically to observe how hits
+   * and misses evolve over time.
+   *
+   * @return the metadata cache statistics
+   */
+  public CacheStats metadataCacheStats() {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeSessionHandle != 0, "Session is closed");
+    return metadataCacheStatsNative();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns whether the other session is the same as this one.
+   *
+   * <p>Two sessions are considered the same if they share the same underlying native session. This
+   * comparison uses the underlying Arc pointer equality, so sessions obtained from different
+   * sources (e.g., directly created vs obtained from a dataset) will be correctly identified as the
+   * same if they share the same underlying session.
+   *
+   * @param other the other session to compare
+   * @return true if both sessions share the same underlying session
+   */
+  public boolean isSameAs(Session other) {
+    if (other == null) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    if (this.nativeSessionHandle == 0 || other.nativeSessionHandle == 0) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    return isSameAsNative(this.nativeSessionHandle, other.nativeSessionHandle);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the native session handle. Used internally for passing to JNI methods.
+   *
+   * @return the native session handle
+   */
+  long getNativeHandle() {
+    return nativeSessionHandle;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Checks if this session is closed.
+   *
+   * @return true if the session is closed, false otherwise
+   */
+  public boolean isClosed() {
+    return nativeSessionHandle == 0;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Closes this session and releases any resources associated with it.
+   *
+   * <p>After calling this method, the session should not be used. Datasets that were opened with
+   * this session will continue to work until they are closed, as they hold their own reference to
+   * the underlying native session.
+   */
+  @Override
+  public void close() {
+    if (nativeSessionHandle != 0) {
+      releaseNative(nativeSessionHandle);
+      nativeSessionHandle = 0;
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    if (nativeSessionHandle == 0) {
+      return "Session(closed)";
+    }
+    return String.format("Session(sizeBytes=%d)", sizeBytes());
+  }
+
+  private static native long createNative(
+      long indexCacheSizeBytes,
+      long metadataCacheSizeBytes,
+      String indexCacheBackendUri,
+      String indexCacheBackendKind,
+      Map<String, String> indexCacheBackendOptions,
+      String metadataCacheBackendUri,
+      String metadataCacheBackendKind,
+      Map<String, String> metadataCacheBackendOptions);
+
+  private native long sizeBytesNative();
+
+  private native CacheStats metadataCacheStatsNative();
+
+  private static native void releaseNative(long handle);
+
+  private static native boolean isSameAsNative(long handle1, long handle2);
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/SourcedTransaction.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/SourcedTransaction.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d833c417752
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/SourcedTransaction.java
@@ -0,0 +1,168 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.operation.Operation;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * A convenience wrapper that pairs a {@link Transaction} with a {@link Dataset}, providing a simple
+ * commit workflow.
+ *
+ * <p>This replaces the old {@code Transaction} class's "sourced" role where the transaction held a
+ * reference to the dataset it was built from.
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage:
+ *
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * try (SourcedTransaction txn = dataset.newTransactionBuilder()
+ *     .operation(Append.builder().fragments(fragments).build())
+ *     .build();
+ *     Dataset committed = txn.commit()) {
+ *     // use committed dataset
+ * }
+ * }</pre>
+ */
+public class SourcedTransaction implements AutoCloseable {
+
+  private final Transaction transaction;
+  private final Dataset dataset;
+
+  private SourcedTransaction(Transaction transaction, Dataset dataset) {
+    this.transaction = transaction;
+    this.dataset = dataset;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the underlying {@link Transaction}. */
+  public Transaction transaction() {
+    return transaction;
+  }
+
+  /** Delegates to {@link Transaction#readVersion()}. */
+  public long readVersion() {
+    return transaction.readVersion();
+  }
+
+  /** Delegates to {@link Transaction#uuid()}. */
+  public String uuid() {
+    return transaction.uuid();
+  }
+
+  /** Delegates to {@link Transaction#operation()}. */
+  public Operation operation() {
+    return transaction.operation();
+  }
+
+  /** Delegates to {@link Transaction#tag()}. */
+  public Optional<String> tag() {
+    return transaction.tag();
+  }
+
+  /** Delegates to {@link Transaction#transactionProperties()}. */
+  public Optional<Map<String, String>> transactionProperties() {
+    return transaction.transactionProperties();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Commit this transaction against the source dataset.
+   *
+   * @return a new Dataset at the committed version
+   */
+  public Dataset commit() {
+    return dataset.commitTransaction(transaction);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Commit this transaction against the source dataset with additional options.
+   *
+   * @param detached if true, the commit will not be part of the main dataset lineage
+   * @param enableV2ManifestPaths if true, and this is a new dataset, uses the new V2 manifest paths
+   * @return a new Dataset at the committed version
+   */
+  public Dataset commit(boolean detached, boolean enableV2ManifestPaths) {
+    return dataset.commitTransaction(transaction, detached, enableV2ManifestPaths);
+  }
+
+  /** Release native resources held by the underlying transaction's operation. */
+  @Override
+  public void close() {
+    transaction.close();
+  }
+
+  /** Builder for constructing {@link SourcedTransaction} instances from a {@link Dataset}. */
+  public static class Builder {
+    private final Dataset dataset;
+    private long readVersion;
+    private Operation operation;
+    private String tag;
+    private Map<String, String> transactionProperties;
+
+    /**
+     * Create a builder for committing against an existing dataset. The read version defaults to the
+     * dataset's current version.
+     *
+     * @param dataset the existing dataset to commit against
+     */
+    public Builder(Dataset dataset) {
+      this.dataset = dataset;
+      this.readVersion = dataset.version();
+    }
+
+    public Builder readVersion(long readVersion) {
+      this.readVersion = readVersion;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder operation(Operation operation) {
+      if (this.operation != null) {
+        throw new IllegalStateException(
+            String.format("Operation %s has been set", this.operation.name()));
+      }
+      this.operation = operation;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set an optional tag for the transaction.
+     *
+     * @param tag the tag string
+     * @return this builder instance
+     */
+    public Builder tag(String tag) {
+      this.tag = tag;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder transactionProperties(Map<String, String> properties) {
+      this.transactionProperties = properties;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public SourcedTransaction build() {
+      Preconditions.checkState(operation != null, "TransactionBuilder has no operations");
+      Transaction transaction =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(readVersion)
+              .operation(operation)
+              .tag(tag)
+              .transactionProperties(transactionProperties)
+              .build();
+      return new SourcedTransaction(transaction, dataset);
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/SqlQuery.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/SqlQuery.java
index cce6d939222..cb149a7fa6f 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/SqlQuery.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/SqlQuery.java
@@ -51,7 +51,8 @@ public SqlQuery withRowAddr(boolean withAddr) {
   }
 
   public ArrowReader intoBatchRecords() throws IOException {
-    try (ArrowArrayStream s = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(dataset.allocator())) {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock();
+        ArrowArrayStream s = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(dataset.allocator())) {
       intoBatchRecords(
           dataset, sql, Optional.ofNullable(table), withRowId, withRowAddr, s.memoryAddress());
       return Data.importArrayStream(dataset.allocator(), s);
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Tag.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Tag.java
index f7ce7be83cc..d09185d38c0 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Tag.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Tag.java
@@ -15,6 +15,10 @@
 
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 
+import java.time.Instant;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
@@ -23,12 +27,34 @@ public class Tag {
   private final Optional<String> branch;
   private final long version;
   private final int manifestSize;
+  private final Optional<Instant> createdAt;
+  private final Optional<Instant> updatedAt;
+  private final Map<String, String> metadata;
 
   public Tag(String name, String branch, long version, int manifestSize) {
+    this(name, branch, version, manifestSize, null, null, Collections.emptyMap());
+  }
+
+  public Tag(
+      String name, String branch, long version, int manifestSize, Map<String, String> metadata) {
+    this(name, branch, version, manifestSize, null, null, metadata);
+  }
+
+  public Tag(
+      String name,
+      String branch,
+      long version,
+      int manifestSize,
+      Instant createdAt,
+      Instant updatedAt,
+      Map<String, String> metadata) {
     this.name = name;
     this.branch = Optional.ofNullable(branch);
     this.version = version;
     this.manifestSize = manifestSize;
+    this.createdAt = Optional.ofNullable(createdAt);
+    this.updatedAt = Optional.ofNullable(updatedAt);
+    this.metadata = Collections.unmodifiableMap(new HashMap<>(metadata));
   }
 
   public String getName() {
@@ -47,6 +73,18 @@ public int getManifestSize() {
     return manifestSize;
   }
 
+  public Optional<Instant> getCreatedAt() {
+    return createdAt;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Instant> getUpdatedAt() {
+    return updatedAt;
+  }
+
+  public Map<String, String> getMetadata() {
+    return metadata;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
@@ -54,6 +92,9 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("branch", branch)
         .add("version", version)
         .add("manifestSize", manifestSize)
+        .add("createdAt", createdAt)
+        .add("updatedAt", updatedAt)
+        .add("metadata", metadata)
         .toString();
   }
 
@@ -69,11 +110,14 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
     return version == tag.version
         && Objects.equals(branch, tag.branch)
         && manifestSize == tag.manifestSize
+        && Objects.equals(createdAt, tag.createdAt)
+        && Objects.equals(updatedAt, tag.updatedAt)
+        && Objects.equals(metadata, tag.metadata)
         && Objects.equals(name, tag.name);
   }
 
   @Override
   public int hashCode() {
-    return Objects.hash(name, branch, version, manifestSize);
+    return Objects.hash(name, branch, version, manifestSize, createdAt, updatedAt, metadata);
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Transaction.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Transaction.java
index 2d565c73258..0ac6a310d81 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Transaction.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/Transaction.java
@@ -18,39 +18,61 @@
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
 
-import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
 import java.util.UUID;
 
 /**
- * Align with the Transaction struct in rust. The transaction won't commit the status to original
- * dataset. It will return a new dataset after committed.
+ * A pure data container representing a Lance transaction.
+ *
+ * <p>A Transaction holds the read version, a unique identifier, the operation to perform, and
+ * optional transaction properties. It does not contain commit configuration or execution logic.
+ *
+ * <p>To commit a transaction, use {@link CommitBuilder} or {@link SourcedTransaction}.
  */
-public class Transaction {
+public class Transaction implements AutoCloseable {
 
   private final long readVersion;
   private final String uuid;
-  private final Map<String, String> writeParams;
-  private final Optional<Map<String, String>> transactionProperties;
-  // Mainly for JNI usage
-  private final Dataset dataset;
   private final Operation operation;
+  private final Optional<String> tag;
+  private final Optional<Map<String, String>> transactionProperties;
 
+  /**
+   * Constructor used by JNI when reading transactions from native code.
+   *
+   * @param readVersion the version that was read when creating this transaction
+   * @param uuid the unique identifier for this transaction
+   * @param operation the operation to perform
+   * @param tag optional tag for the transaction
+   * @param transactionProperties optional transaction properties
+   */
   private Transaction(
-      Dataset dataset,
       long readVersion,
       String uuid,
       Operation operation,
-      Map<String, String> writeParams,
+      String tag,
       Map<String, String> transactionProperties) {
-    this.dataset = dataset;
     this.readVersion = readVersion;
     this.uuid = uuid;
     this.operation = operation;
-    this.writeParams = writeParams != null ? writeParams : new HashMap<>();
-    this.transactionProperties = Optional.ofNullable(transactionProperties);
+    this.tag = tag == null || tag.isEmpty() ? Optional.empty() : Optional.of(tag);
+    this.transactionProperties =
+        transactionProperties == null || transactionProperties.isEmpty()
+            ? Optional.empty()
+            : Optional.of(transactionProperties);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Create a transaction with the given read version and operation. A random UUID is generated
+   * automatically.
+   *
+   * @param readVersion the version that was read when creating this transaction
+   * @param operation the operation to perform
+   */
+  public Transaction(long readVersion, Operation operation) {
+    this(readVersion, UUID.randomUUID().toString(), operation, null, null);
   }
 
   public long readVersion() {
@@ -65,22 +87,19 @@ public Operation operation() {
     return operation;
   }
 
-  public Map<String, String> writeParams() {
-    return writeParams;
+  /** Returns the optional tag for this transaction; null and empty tags are both absent. */
+  public Optional<String> tag() {
+    return tag;
   }
 
+  /** Returns transaction properties; null and empty maps are both absent. */
   public Optional<Map<String, String>> transactionProperties() {
     return transactionProperties;
   }
 
-  public Dataset commit() {
-    if (dataset == null) {
-      throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Transaction doesn't support create new dataset yet");
-    }
-    return dataset.commitTransaction(this);
-  }
-
-  public void release() {
+  /** Release native resources held by the operation (e.g. Arrow C schemas). */
+  @Override
+  public void close() {
     operation.release();
   }
 
@@ -90,7 +109,7 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("readVersion", readVersion)
         .add("uuid", uuid)
         .add("operation", operation)
-        .add("writeParams", writeParams)
+        .add("tag", tag)
         .add("transactionProperties", transactionProperties)
         .toString();
   }
@@ -107,20 +126,24 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
     return readVersion == that.readVersion
         && uuid.equals(that.uuid)
         && Objects.equals(operation, that.operation)
-        && Objects.equals(writeParams, that.writeParams)
+        && Objects.equals(tag, that.tag)
         && Objects.equals(transactionProperties, that.transactionProperties);
   }
 
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(readVersion, uuid, operation, tag, transactionProperties);
+  }
+
+  /** Builder for constructing {@link Transaction} instances. */
   public static class Builder {
-    private final String uuid;
-    private final Dataset dataset;
+    private String uuid;
     private long readVersion;
     private Operation operation;
-    private Map<String, String> writeParams;
+    private String tag;
     private Map<String, String> transactionProperties;
 
-    public Builder(Dataset dataset) {
-      this.dataset = dataset;
+    public Builder() {
       this.uuid = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
     }
 
@@ -129,34 +152,40 @@ public Builder readVersion(long readVersion) {
       return this;
     }
 
-    public Builder transactionProperties(Map<String, String> properties) {
-      this.transactionProperties = properties;
+    public Builder uuid(String uuid) {
+      this.uuid = uuid;
       return this;
     }
 
-    public Builder writeParams(Map<String, String> writeParams) {
-      this.writeParams = writeParams;
+    public Builder operation(Operation operation) {
+      if (this.operation != null) {
+        throw new IllegalStateException(
+            String.format("Operation %s has been set", this.operation.name()));
+      }
+      this.operation = operation;
       return this;
     }
 
-    public Builder operation(Operation operation) {
-      validateState();
-      this.operation = operation;
+    /**
+     * Set an optional tag for the transaction.
+     *
+     * @param tag the tag string; null or empty means absent
+     * @return this builder instance
+     */
+    public Builder tag(String tag) {
+      this.tag = tag;
       return this;
     }
 
-    private void validateState() {
-      if (operation != null) {
-        throw new IllegalStateException(
-            String.format("Operation %s has been set", operation.name()));
-      }
+    /** Set transaction properties; null or an empty map means absent. */
+    public Builder transactionProperties(Map<String, String> properties) {
+      this.transactionProperties = properties;
+      return this;
     }
 
     public Transaction build() {
       Preconditions.checkState(operation != null, "TransactionBuilder has no operations");
-
-      return new Transaction(
-          dataset, readVersion, uuid, operation, writeParams, transactionProperties);
+      return new Transaction(readVersion, uuid, operation, tag, transactionProperties);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteDatasetBuilder.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteDatasetBuilder.java
index 8a8c33163da..9515ea562cb 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteDatasetBuilder.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteDatasetBuilder.java
@@ -13,11 +13,8 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
-import org.lance.io.StorageOptionsProvider;
+import org.lance.file.FileWriteOptions;
 import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespace;
-import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateEmptyTableRequest;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateEmptyTableResponse;
 import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableRequest;
 import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableResponse;
 import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableRequest;
@@ -53,12 +50,12 @@
  *     .execute();
  * }</pre>
  *
- * <p>Example usage with namespace:
+ * <p>Example usage with namespace client:
  *
  * <pre>{@code
  * Dataset dataset = Dataset.write(allocator)
  *     .reader(myReader)
- *     .namespace(myNamespace)
+ *     .namespaceClient(myNamespaceClient)
  *     .tableId(Arrays.asList("my_table"))
  *     .mode(WriteMode.CREATE)
  *     .execute();
@@ -69,19 +66,25 @@ public class WriteDatasetBuilder {
   private ArrowReader reader;
   private ArrowArrayStream stream;
   private String uri;
-  private LanceNamespace namespace;
+  private LanceNamespace namespaceClient;
   private List<String> tableId;
   private WriteParams.WriteMode mode = WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE;
   private Schema schema;
   private Map<String, String> storageOptions = new HashMap<>();
+  private Map<String, String> properties = new HashMap<>();
+  private Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams = new HashMap<>();
   private boolean ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions = false;
   private Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerFile = Optional.empty();
   private Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerGroup = Optional.empty();
   private Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile = Optional.empty();
+  private FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions = FileWriteOptions.builder().build();
   private Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds = Optional.empty();
-  private Optional<WriteParams.LanceFileVersion> dataStorageVersion = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<String> dataStorageVersion = Optional.empty();
   private Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases = Optional.empty();
   private Optional<List<String>> targetBases = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Boolean> allowExternalBlobOutsideBases = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> blobPackFileSizeThreshold = Optional.empty();
+  private Session session;
 
   /** Creates a new builder instance. Package-private, use Dataset.write() instead. */
   WriteDatasetBuilder() {
@@ -133,7 +136,7 @@ public WriteDatasetBuilder stream(ArrowArrayStream stream) {
   /**
    * Sets the dataset URI.
    *
-   * <p>Either uri() or namespace()+tableId() must be specified, but not both.
+   * <p>Either uri() or namespaceClient()+tableId() must be specified, but not both.
    *
    * @param uri The dataset URI (e.g., "s3://bucket/table.lance" or "file:///path/to/table.lance")
    * @return this builder instance
@@ -144,24 +147,24 @@ public WriteDatasetBuilder uri(String uri) {
   }
 
   /**
-   * Sets the namespace.
+   * Sets the namespace client.
    *
-   * <p>Must be used together with tableId(). Either uri() or namespace()+tableId() must be
+   * <p>Must be used together with tableId(). Either uri() or namespaceClient()+tableId() must be
    * specified, but not both.
    *
-   * @param namespace The namespace implementation to use for table operations
+   * @param namespaceClient The namespace implementation to use for table operations
    * @return this builder instance
    */
-  public WriteDatasetBuilder namespace(LanceNamespace namespace) {
-    this.namespace = namespace;
+  public WriteDatasetBuilder namespaceClient(LanceNamespace namespaceClient) {
+    this.namespaceClient = namespaceClient;
     return this;
   }
 
   /**
    * Sets the table identifier.
    *
-   * <p>Must be used together with namespace(). Either uri() or namespace()+tableId() must be
-   * specified, but not both.
+   * <p>Must be used together with namespaceClient(). Either uri() or namespaceClient()+tableId()
+   * must be specified, but not both.
    *
    * @param tableId The table identifier (e.g., Arrays.asList("my_table"))
    * @return this builder instance
@@ -208,11 +211,47 @@ public WriteDatasetBuilder storageOptions(Map<String, String> storageOptions) {
   }
 
   /**
-   * Sets whether to ignore storage options from the namespace's describeTable() or
-   * createEmptyTable().
+   * Sets the table properties to forward to the namespace on table creation.
+   *
+   * <p>These are Lance-namespace <b>properties</b>: catalog-level key-value metadata stored by the
+   * namespace outside the Lance table (available even if the table manifest does not exist), as
+   * distinct from the manifest-stored {@code config} (read/write behavior) and {@code metadata}
+   * (business metadata), and from non-persisted {@code storageOptions}. They are attached to the
+   * underlying declareTable request via its {@code properties} field.
+   *
+   * <p>Only used when a namespace client is configured via namespaceClient()+tableId() and the
+   * write creates the table (CREATE mode). Ignored for direct-URI writes and for APPEND/OVERWRITE
+   * modes.
+   *
+   * @param properties Table properties to forward on declareTable
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public WriteDatasetBuilder properties(Map<String, String> properties) {
+    this.properties = new HashMap<>(properties);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets runtime-only object store parameters for registered base paths.
+   *
+   * <p>Entries are keyed by the exact {@link BasePath#getPath()} value persisted in the manifest.
+   * Each value is used as-is for that base. These params are not persisted in the manifest. If a
+   * base has no explicit entry, the write-level storage options are used as a fallback.
+   *
+   * @param baseStoreParams object store parameters keyed by base path URI
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public WriteDatasetBuilder baseStoreParams(Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams) {
+    this.baseStoreParams = new HashMap<>(baseStoreParams);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets whether to ignore storage options from the namespace client's describeTable() or
+   * declareTable().
    *
-   * @param ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions If true, storage options returned from namespace will be
-   *     ignored
+   * @param ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions If true, storage options returned from namespace client
+   *     will be ignored
    * @return this builder instance
    */
   public WriteDatasetBuilder ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions(boolean ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions) {
@@ -253,6 +292,18 @@ public WriteDatasetBuilder maxBytesPerFile(long maxBytesPerFile) {
     return this;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Sets options for configuring the current-format file writer.
+   *
+   * @param fileWriteOptions file writer options
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public WriteDatasetBuilder fileWriteOptions(FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions) {
+    this.fileWriteOptions =
+        Preconditions.checkNotNull(fileWriteOptions, "fileWriteOptions must not be null");
+    return this;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Sets whether to enable stable row IDs.
    *
@@ -267,10 +318,10 @@ public WriteDatasetBuilder enableStableRowIds(boolean enableStableRowIds) {
   /**
    * Sets the data storage version.
    *
-   * @param dataStorageVersion The Lance file version to use
+   * @param dataStorageVersion The Lance file version to use (e.g., "legacy", "stable", "2.0")
    * @return this builder instance
    */
-  public WriteDatasetBuilder dataStorageVersion(WriteParams.LanceFileVersion dataStorageVersion) {
+  public WriteDatasetBuilder dataStorageVersion(String dataStorageVersion) {
     this.dataStorageVersion = Optional.of(dataStorageVersion);
     return this;
   }
@@ -285,11 +336,51 @@ public WriteDatasetBuilder targetBases(List<String> targetBases) {
     return this;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Sets whether to allow external blob URIs outside registered base paths.
+   *
+   * @param allowExternalBlobOutsideBases Whether to allow external blob URIs outside bases
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public WriteDatasetBuilder allowExternalBlobOutsideBases(boolean allowExternalBlobOutsideBases) {
+    this.allowExternalBlobOutsideBases = Optional.of(allowExternalBlobOutsideBases);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the maximum size in bytes for blob v2 pack (.blob) sidecar files.
+   *
+   * <p>When a pack file reaches this size, a new one is started. If not set, defaults to 1 GiB.
+   *
+   * @param blobPackFileSizeThreshold maximum pack file size in bytes
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public WriteDatasetBuilder blobPackFileSizeThreshold(long blobPackFileSizeThreshold) {
+    this.blobPackFileSizeThreshold = Optional.of(blobPackFileSizeThreshold);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the session to share caches with other datasets.
+   *
+   * <p>Note: For write operations, the session is currently not used during the write itself, but
+   * is stored for future use when the resulting dataset needs to be reopened with the same session.
+   * This is a placeholder for future session support in write operations.
+   *
+   * @param session The session to use
+   * @return this builder instance
+   */
+  public WriteDatasetBuilder session(Session session) {
+    this.session = session;
+    return this;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Executes the write operation and returns the created dataset.
    *
-   * <p>If a namespace is configured via namespace()+tableId(), this automatically handles table
-   * creation or retrieval through the namespace API with credential vending support.
+   * <p>If a namespace client is configured via namespaceClient()+tableId(), this automatically
+   * handles table creation or retrieval through the namespace client API with credential vending
+   * support.
    *
    * @return Dataset
    * @throws IllegalArgumentException if required parameters are missing or invalid
@@ -300,23 +391,24 @@ public Dataset execute() {
       allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
     }
 
-    // Validate that exactly one of uri or namespace is provided
+    // Validate that exactly one of uri or namespaceClient is provided
     boolean hasUri = uri != null;
-    boolean hasNamespace = namespace != null && tableId != null;
+    boolean hasNamespaceClient = namespaceClient != null && tableId != null;
 
-    if (hasUri && hasNamespace) {
+    if (hasUri && hasNamespaceClient) {
       throw new IllegalArgumentException(
-          "Cannot specify both uri() and namespace()+tableId(). Use one or the other.");
+          "Cannot specify both uri() and namespaceClient()+tableId(). Use one or the other.");
     }
-    if (!hasUri && !hasNamespace) {
-      if (namespace != null) {
+    if (!hasUri && !hasNamespaceClient) {
+      if (namespaceClient != null) {
         throw new IllegalArgumentException(
-            "namespace() is set but tableId() is missing. Both must be provided together.");
+            "namespaceClient() is set but tableId() is missing. Both must be provided together.");
       } else if (tableId != null) {
         throw new IllegalArgumentException(
-            "tableId() is set but namespace() is missing. Both must be provided together.");
+            "tableId() is set but namespaceClient() is missing. Both must be provided together.");
       } else {
-        throw new IllegalArgumentException("Either uri() or namespace()+tableId() must be called.");
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+            "Either uri() or namespaceClient()+tableId() must be called.");
       }
     }
 
@@ -336,64 +428,56 @@ public Dataset execute() {
               + "Use only one of: reader(), stream(), or schema().");
     }
 
-    // Handle namespace-based writing
-    if (hasNamespace) {
-      return executeWithNamespace();
+    // Handle namespace client-based writing
+    if (hasNamespaceClient) {
+      return executeWithNamespaceClient();
     }
 
     // Handle URI-based writing
     return executeWithUri();
   }
 
-  private Dataset executeWithNamespace() {
+  private Dataset executeWithNamespaceClient() {
     String tableUri;
     Map<String, String> namespaceStorageOptions = null;
+    boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning = false;
 
-    // Mode-specific namespace operations
+    // Mode-specific namespace client operations
     if (mode == WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE) {
-      // Try declareTable first, fall back to deprecated createEmptyTable
-      // for backward compatibility with older namespace implementations.
-      // createEmptyTable support will be removed in 3.0.0.
-      String location;
-      Map<String, String> responseStorageOptions;
-
-      try {
-        DeclareTableRequest declareRequest = new DeclareTableRequest();
-        declareRequest.setId(tableId);
-        DeclareTableResponse declareResponse = namespace.declareTable(declareRequest);
-        location = declareResponse.getLocation();
-        responseStorageOptions = declareResponse.getStorageOptions();
-      } catch (UnsupportedOperationException e) {
-        // Fall back to deprecated createEmptyTable
-        CreateEmptyTableRequest fallbackRequest = new CreateEmptyTableRequest();
-        fallbackRequest.setId(tableId);
-        CreateEmptyTableResponse fallbackResponse = namespace.createEmptyTable(fallbackRequest);
-        location = fallbackResponse.getLocation();
-        responseStorageOptions = fallbackResponse.getStorageOptions();
+      DeclareTableRequest declareRequest = new DeclareTableRequest();
+      declareRequest.setId(tableId);
+      if (properties != null && !properties.isEmpty()) {
+        declareRequest.setProperties(properties);
       }
+      DeclareTableResponse declareResponse = namespaceClient.declareTable(declareRequest);
 
-      tableUri = location;
+      tableUri = declareResponse.getLocation();
       if (tableUri == null || tableUri.isEmpty()) {
-        throw new IllegalArgumentException("Namespace did not return a table location");
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("Namespace client did not return a table location");
       }
 
-      namespaceStorageOptions = ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions ? null : responseStorageOptions;
+      namespaceClientManagedVersioning =
+          Boolean.TRUE.equals(declareResponse.getManagedVersioning());
+      namespaceStorageOptions =
+          ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions ? null : declareResponse.getStorageOptions();
     } else {
-      // For APPEND/OVERWRITE modes, call namespace.describeTable()
+      // For APPEND/OVERWRITE modes, call namespaceClient.describeTable()
       DescribeTableRequest request = new DescribeTableRequest();
       request.setId(tableId);
 
-      DescribeTableResponse response = namespace.describeTable(request);
+      DescribeTableResponse response = namespaceClient.describeTable(request);
 
       tableUri = response.getLocation();
       if (tableUri == null || tableUri.isEmpty()) {
-        throw new IllegalArgumentException("Namespace did not return a table location");
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("Namespace client did not return a table location");
       }
 
       namespaceStorageOptions = ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions ? null : response.getStorageOptions();
+      namespaceClientManagedVersioning = Boolean.TRUE.equals(response.getManagedVersioning());
     }
 
-    // Merge storage options (namespace options + user options, with namespace taking precedence)
+    // Merge storage options (namespace client options + user options, with namespace client taking
+    // precedence)
     Map<String, String> mergedStorageOptions = new HashMap<>(storageOptions);
     if (namespaceStorageOptions != null && !namespaceStorageOptions.isEmpty()) {
       mergedStorageOptions.putAll(namespaceStorageOptions);
@@ -401,7 +485,11 @@ private Dataset executeWithNamespace() {
 
     // Build WriteParams with merged storage options
     WriteParams.Builder paramsBuilder =
-        new WriteParams.Builder().withMode(mode).withStorageOptions(mergedStorageOptions);
+        new WriteParams.Builder()
+            .withMode(mode)
+            .withStorageOptions(mergedStorageOptions)
+            .withBaseStoreParams(baseStoreParams)
+            .withFileWriteOptions(fileWriteOptions);
 
     maxRowsPerFile.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withMaxRowsPerFile);
     maxRowsPerGroup.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withMaxRowsPerGroup);
@@ -411,22 +499,36 @@ private Dataset executeWithNamespace() {
 
     initialBases.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withInitialBases);
     targetBases.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withTargetBases);
+    allowExternalBlobOutsideBases.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases);
+    blobPackFileSizeThreshold.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withBlobPackFileSizeThreshold);
 
     WriteParams params = paramsBuilder.build();
 
-    // Create storage options provider for credential refresh during long-running writes
-    StorageOptionsProvider storageOptionsProvider =
-        ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions
-            ? null
-            : new LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(namespace, tableId);
-
-    // Use Dataset.create() which handles CREATE/APPEND/OVERWRITE modes
-    return createDatasetWithStream(tableUri, params, storageOptionsProvider);
+    // Pass namespaceClient, tableId, and namespaceClientManagedVersioning to JNI
+    // Rust will automatically create a storage options provider when namespaceClient/tableId
+    // are non-null for credential refresh, and will create an external manifest commit handler
+    // when namespaceClientManagedVersioning is true
+    if (namespaceClientManagedVersioning) {
+      return createDatasetWithStreamAndNamespaceClient(
+          tableUri, params, namespaceClient, tableId, true);
+    } else {
+      // Even without managed versioning, pass namespaceClient for credential refresh
+      // when namespace client vends credentials (storage options was non-null)
+      if (!ignoreNamespaceStorageOptions && namespaceStorageOptions != null) {
+        return createDatasetWithStreamAndNamespaceClient(
+            tableUri, params, namespaceClient, tableId, false);
+      }
+      return createDatasetWithStream(tableUri, params);
+    }
   }
 
   private Dataset executeWithUri() {
     WriteParams.Builder paramsBuilder =
-        new WriteParams.Builder().withMode(mode).withStorageOptions(storageOptions);
+        new WriteParams.Builder()
+            .withMode(mode)
+            .withStorageOptions(storageOptions)
+            .withBaseStoreParams(baseStoreParams)
+            .withFileWriteOptions(fileWriteOptions);
 
     maxRowsPerFile.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withMaxRowsPerFile);
     maxRowsPerGroup.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withMaxRowsPerGroup);
@@ -435,28 +537,71 @@ private Dataset executeWithUri() {
     dataStorageVersion.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withDataStorageVersion);
     initialBases.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withInitialBases);
     targetBases.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withTargetBases);
+    allowExternalBlobOutsideBases.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases);
+    blobPackFileSizeThreshold.ifPresent(paramsBuilder::withBlobPackFileSizeThreshold);
 
     WriteParams params = paramsBuilder.build();
 
-    return createDatasetWithStream(uri, params, null);
+    return createDatasetWithStream(uri, params);
+  }
+
+  private Dataset createDatasetWithStream(String path, WriteParams params) {
+    // If stream is directly provided, use it
+    if (stream != null) {
+      return Dataset.create(allocator, stream, path, params);
+    }
+
+    // If reader is provided, convert to stream
+    if (reader != null) {
+      try (ArrowArrayStream tempStream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader, tempStream);
+        return Dataset.create(allocator, tempStream, path, params);
+      }
+    }
+
+    // If only schema is provided (empty table), use Dataset.create with schema
+    if (schema != null) {
+      return Dataset.create(allocator, path, schema, params);
+    }
+
+    throw new IllegalStateException("No data source provided");
   }
 
-  private Dataset createDatasetWithStream(
-      String path, WriteParams params, StorageOptionsProvider storageOptionsProvider) {
+  private Dataset createDatasetWithStreamAndNamespaceClient(
+      String path,
+      WriteParams params,
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient,
+      List<String> tableId,
+      boolean namespaceClientManagedVersioning) {
     // If stream is directly provided, use it
     if (stream != null) {
-      return Dataset.create(allocator, stream, path, params, storageOptionsProvider);
+      return Dataset.create(
+          allocator,
+          stream,
+          path,
+          params,
+          namespaceClient,
+          tableId,
+          namespaceClientManagedVersioning);
     }
 
     // If reader is provided, convert to stream
     if (reader != null) {
       try (ArrowArrayStream tempStream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
         Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader, tempStream);
-        return Dataset.create(allocator, tempStream, path, params, storageOptionsProvider);
+        return Dataset.create(
+            allocator,
+            tempStream,
+            path,
+            params,
+            namespaceClient,
+            tableId,
+            namespaceClientManagedVersioning);
       }
     }
 
     // If only schema is provided (empty table), use Dataset.create with schema
+    // Note: Schema-only creation doesn't support namespace client-based commit handling
     if (schema != null) {
       return Dataset.create(allocator, path, schema, params);
     }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteFragmentBuilder.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteFragmentBuilder.java
index 56ce06a7b0a..3c7137d1db0 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteFragmentBuilder.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteFragmentBuilder.java
@@ -13,7 +13,9 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
-import org.lance.io.StorageOptionsProvider;
+import org.lance.file.FileWriteOptions;
+import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespace;
+import org.lance.schema.LanceSchema;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
@@ -45,9 +47,12 @@ public class WriteFragmentBuilder {
   private BufferAllocator allocator;
   private VectorSchemaRoot vectorSchemaRoot;
   private ArrowArrayStream arrowArrayStream;
+  private LanceSchema schema;
   private WriteParams writeParams;
   private WriteParams.Builder writeParamsBuilder;
-  private StorageOptionsProvider storageOptionsProvider;
+  private LanceNamespace namespaceClient;
+  private List<String> tableId;
+  private Session session;
 
   WriteFragmentBuilder() {}
 
@@ -99,6 +104,22 @@ public WriteFragmentBuilder data(ArrowArrayStream stream) {
     return this;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Set the Lance dataset schema to use when writing fragments.
+   *
+   * <p>This is useful for distributed writes where workers create uncommitted fragments and a
+   * coordinator commits them later. When this schema is supplied, lance-core does not need to open
+   * the existing dataset to infer the schema in APPEND mode. The schema should come from the target
+   * dataset so Lance field IDs are preserved.
+   *
+   * @param schema the target Lance dataset schema
+   * @return this builder
+   */
+  public WriteFragmentBuilder schema(LanceSchema schema) {
+    this.schema = schema;
+    return this;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Set the write parameters.
    *
@@ -123,13 +144,59 @@ public WriteFragmentBuilder storageOptions(Map<String, String> storageOptions) {
   }
 
   /**
-   * Set the storage options provider for dynamic credential refresh.
+   * Set runtime-only object store parameters for registered base paths.
+   *
+   * <p>Entries are keyed by the exact {@link BasePath#getPath()} value persisted in the manifest.
+   * Each value is the storage options map used for that base. Bases without an explicit entry use
+   * {@link #storageOptions(Map)} as the fallback.
+   *
+   * @param baseStoreParams object store parameters keyed by base path URI
+   * @return this builder
+   */
+  public WriteFragmentBuilder baseStoreParams(Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams) {
+    ensureWriteParamsBuilder();
+    this.writeParamsBuilder.withBaseStoreParams(baseStoreParams);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the namespace client for automatic credential refresh.
+   *
+   * <p>When provided with `tableId`, a storage options provider will be created automatically to
+   * refresh credentials via the namespace client. Must be provided together with `tableId`. The
+   * caller should provide initial/merged storage options via the `storageOptions` method.
+   *
+   * @param namespaceClient the LanceNamespace client instance
+   * @return this builder
+   */
+  public WriteFragmentBuilder namespaceClient(LanceNamespace namespaceClient) {
+    this.namespaceClient = namespaceClient;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the table ID for namespace client-based credential refresh.
+   *
+   * <p>Must be provided together with `namespaceClient`.
+   *
+   * @param tableId the table identifier (e.g., ["workspace", "table_name"])
+   * @return this builder
+   */
+  public WriteFragmentBuilder tableId(List<String> tableId) {
+    this.tableId = tableId;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set a session to reuse across operations.
+   *
+   * <p>The session holds shared caches (metadata and index) and the object store registry.
    *
-   * @param provider the storage options provider
+   * @param session the session to share
    * @return this builder
    */
-  public WriteFragmentBuilder storageOptionsProvider(StorageOptionsProvider provider) {
-    this.storageOptionsProvider = provider;
+  public WriteFragmentBuilder session(Session session) {
+    this.session = session;
     return this;
   }
 
@@ -169,6 +236,18 @@ public WriteFragmentBuilder maxBytesPerFile(long maxBytesPerFile) {
     return this;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Set options for configuring the current-format file writer.
+   *
+   * @param fileWriteOptions file writer options
+   * @return this builder
+   */
+  public WriteFragmentBuilder fileWriteOptions(FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions) {
+    ensureWriteParamsBuilder();
+    this.writeParamsBuilder.withFileWriteOptions(fileWriteOptions);
+    return this;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Set the write mode.
    *
@@ -196,15 +275,39 @@ public WriteFragmentBuilder enableStableRowIds(boolean enable) {
   /**
    * Set the data storage version.
    *
-   * @param version the data storage version
+   * @param version the data storage version (e.g., "legacy", "stable", "2.0")
    * @return this builder
    */
-  public WriteFragmentBuilder dataStorageVersion(WriteParams.LanceFileVersion version) {
+  public WriteFragmentBuilder dataStorageVersion(String version) {
     ensureWriteParamsBuilder();
     this.writeParamsBuilder.withDataStorageVersion(version);
     return this;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Register base paths when creating a new dataset from fragments.
+   *
+   * @param bases base paths to register
+   * @return this builder
+   */
+  public WriteFragmentBuilder initialBases(List<BasePath> bases) {
+    ensureWriteParamsBuilder();
+    this.writeParamsBuilder.withInitialBases(bases);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set base names or paths where new fragment files should be written.
+   *
+   * @param targetBases base names or exact paths
+   * @return this builder
+   */
+  public WriteFragmentBuilder targetBases(List<String> targetBases) {
+    ensureWriteParamsBuilder();
+    this.writeParamsBuilder.withTargetBases(targetBases);
+    return this;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Execute the fragment write operation.
    *
@@ -213,15 +316,31 @@ public WriteFragmentBuilder dataStorageVersion(WriteParams.LanceFileVersion vers
   public List<FragmentMetadata> execute() {
     validate();
 
-    // Build the write params if builder was used
+    // Build the write params
     WriteParams finalWriteParams = buildWriteParams();
 
+    // Pass namespaceClient and tableId to JNI - Rust will automatically create a
+    // storage options provider when these are non-null for credential refresh
     if (vectorSchemaRoot != null) {
       return Fragment.create(
-          datasetUri, allocator, vectorSchemaRoot, finalWriteParams, storageOptionsProvider);
+          datasetUri,
+          allocator,
+          vectorSchemaRoot,
+          finalWriteParams,
+          namespaceClient,
+          tableId,
+          schema,
+          session);
     } else {
       return Fragment.create(
-          datasetUri, arrowArrayStream, finalWriteParams, storageOptionsProvider);
+          datasetUri,
+          allocator,
+          arrowArrayStream,
+          finalWriteParams,
+          namespaceClient,
+          tableId,
+          schema,
+          session);
     }
   }
 
@@ -252,8 +371,14 @@ private void validate() {
     Preconditions.checkState(
         vectorSchemaRoot == null || allocator != null,
         "allocator is required when using VectorSchemaRoot");
+    Preconditions.checkState(
+        schema == null || allocator != null, "allocator is required with schema");
     Preconditions.checkState(
         writeParams == null || writeParamsBuilder == null,
         "Cannot use both writeParams() and individual parameter methods");
+    Preconditions.checkState(
+        (namespaceClient == null && tableId == null)
+            || (namespaceClient != null && tableId != null),
+        "Both 'namespaceClient' and 'tableId' must be provided together");
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteParams.java
index c095009bc67..d4084e7202d 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteParams.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriteParams.java
@@ -13,7 +13,10 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.file.FileWriteOptions;
+
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
 
 import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.List;
@@ -30,58 +33,50 @@ public enum WriteMode {
     OVERWRITE
   }
 
-  public enum LanceFileVersion {
-    LEGACY("legacy"),
-    V0_1("0.1"),
-    V2_0("2.0"),
-    STABLE("stable"),
-    V2_1("2.1"),
-    NEXT("next"),
-    V2_2("2.2");
-
-    private final String versionString;
-
-    LanceFileVersion(String versionString) {
-      this.versionString = versionString;
-    }
-
-    public String getVersionString() {
-      return versionString;
-    }
-  }
-
   private final Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerFile;
   private final Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerGroup;
   private final Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile;
+  private final FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions;
   private final Optional<WriteMode> mode;
   private final Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds;
-  private final Optional<LanceFileVersion> dataStorageVersion;
+  private final Optional<String> dataStorageVersion;
   private final Optional<Boolean> enableV2ManifestPaths;
   private Map<String, String> storageOptions = new HashMap<>();
+  private Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams = new HashMap<>();
   private final Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases;
   private final Optional<List<String>> targetBases;
+  private final Optional<Boolean> allowExternalBlobOutsideBases;
+  private final Optional<Long> blobPackFileSizeThreshold;
 
   private WriteParams(
       Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerFile,
       Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerGroup,
       Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile,
+      FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions,
       Optional<WriteMode> mode,
       Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds,
-      Optional<LanceFileVersion> dataStorageVersion,
+      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
       Optional<Boolean> enableV2ManifestPaths,
       Map<String, String> storageOptions,
+      Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams,
       Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases,
-      Optional<List<String>> targetBases) {
+      Optional<List<String>> targetBases,
+      Optional<Boolean> allowExternalBlobOutsideBases,
+      Optional<Long> blobPackFileSizeThreshold) {
     this.maxRowsPerFile = maxRowsPerFile;
     this.maxRowsPerGroup = maxRowsPerGroup;
     this.maxBytesPerFile = maxBytesPerFile;
+    this.fileWriteOptions = fileWriteOptions;
     this.mode = mode;
     this.enableStableRowIds = enableStableRowIds;
     this.dataStorageVersion = dataStorageVersion;
     this.enableV2ManifestPaths = enableV2ManifestPaths;
     this.storageOptions = storageOptions;
+    this.baseStoreParams = baseStoreParams;
     this.initialBases = initialBases;
     this.targetBases = targetBases;
+    this.allowExternalBlobOutsideBases = allowExternalBlobOutsideBases;
+    this.blobPackFileSizeThreshold = blobPackFileSizeThreshold;
   }
 
   public Optional<Integer> getMaxRowsPerFile() {
@@ -96,6 +91,10 @@ public Optional<Long> getMaxBytesPerFile() {
     return maxBytesPerFile;
   }
 
+  public FileWriteOptions getFileWriteOptions() {
+    return fileWriteOptions;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Get Mode with name.
    *
@@ -110,7 +109,7 @@ public Optional<Boolean> getEnableStableRowIds() {
   }
 
   public Optional<String> getDataStorageVersion() {
-    return dataStorageVersion.map(LanceFileVersion::getVersionString);
+    return dataStorageVersion;
   }
 
   public Optional<Boolean> getEnableV2ManifestPaths() {
@@ -121,6 +120,10 @@ public Map<String, String> getStorageOptions() {
     return storageOptions;
   }
 
+  public Map<String, Map<String, String>> getBaseStoreParams() {
+    return baseStoreParams;
+  }
+
   public Optional<List<BasePath>> getInitialBases() {
     return initialBases;
   }
@@ -129,12 +132,37 @@ public Optional<List<String>> getTargetBases() {
     return targetBases;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get whether external blob URIs outside registered bases are allowed.
+   *
+   * <p>When true, blob v2 columns can reference external URIs that are not under any registered
+   * base path. The URI is stored as an absolute external reference with base_id=0.
+   *
+   * @return Optional containing the setting, or empty if not set
+   */
+  public Optional<Boolean> getAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases() {
+    return allowExternalBlobOutsideBases;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get the maximum size in bytes for blob v2 pack (.blob) sidecar files.
+   *
+   * <p>When a pack file reaches this size, a new one is started. If not set, defaults to 1 GiB.
+   *
+   * @return Optional containing the max pack file size in bytes, or empty if not set
+   */
+  public Optional<Long> getBlobPackFileSizeThreshold() {
+    return blobPackFileSizeThreshold;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
         .add("maxRowsPerFile", maxRowsPerFile.orElse(null))
         .add("maxRowsPerGroup", maxRowsPerGroup.orElse(null))
         .add("maxBytesPerFile", maxBytesPerFile.orElse(null))
+        .add("dataCacheBytes", fileWriteOptions.getDataCacheBytes().orElse(null))
+        .add("maxPageBytes", fileWriteOptions.getMaxPageBytes().orElse(null))
         .add("mode", mode.orElse(null))
         .add("dataStorageVersion", dataStorageVersion.orElse(null))
         .toString();
@@ -145,13 +173,17 @@ public static class Builder {
     private Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerFile = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Integer> maxRowsPerGroup = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile = Optional.empty();
+    private FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions = FileWriteOptions.builder().build();
     private Optional<WriteMode> mode = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Boolean> enableStableRowIds = Optional.empty();
-    private Optional<LanceFileVersion> dataStorageVersion = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<String> dataStorageVersion = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Boolean> enableV2ManifestPaths;
     private Map<String, String> storageOptions = new HashMap<>();
+    private Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams = new HashMap<>();
     private Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<List<String>> targetBases = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Boolean> allowExternalBlobOutsideBases = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Long> blobPackFileSizeThreshold = Optional.empty();
 
     public Builder withMaxRowsPerFile(int maxRowsPerFile) {
       this.maxRowsPerFile = Optional.of(maxRowsPerFile);
@@ -168,21 +200,60 @@ public Builder withMaxBytesPerFile(long maxBytesPerFile) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set options for configuring the current-format file writer.
+     *
+     * @param fileWriteOptions file writer options
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder withFileWriteOptions(FileWriteOptions fileWriteOptions) {
+      this.fileWriteOptions =
+          Preconditions.checkNotNull(fileWriteOptions, "fileWriteOptions must not be null");
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public Builder withMode(WriteMode mode) {
       this.mode = Optional.of(mode);
       return this;
     }
 
-    public Builder withDataStorageVersion(LanceFileVersion dataStorageVersion) {
+    public Builder withDataStorageVersion(String dataStorageVersion) {
       this.dataStorageVersion = Optional.of(dataStorageVersion);
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set storage options for the write.
+     *
+     * <p>For writes involving additional registered base paths, a key of the form {@code
+     * base_<id>.<key>} applies {@code <key>} only to the base path with that id, overriding the
+     * unscoped options that every base inherits. Exact per-base bindings set via {@link
+     * #withBaseStoreParams(Map)} take precedence over base-scoped keys.
+     *
+     * @param storageOptions the storage options
+     * @return this builder
+     */
     public Builder withStorageOptions(Map<String, String> storageOptions) {
       this.storageOptions = storageOptions;
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set runtime-only object store parameters for registered base paths.
+     *
+     * <p>Entries are keyed by the exact {@link BasePath#getPath()} value persisted in the manifest.
+     * Each value is the storage options map used as-is for that base. These params are not
+     * persisted in the manifest. If a base has no explicit entry, {@link #withStorageOptions(Map)}
+     * remains the fallback.
+     *
+     * @param baseStoreParams object store parameters keyed by base path URI
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder withBaseStoreParams(Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams) {
+      this.baseStoreParams = baseStoreParams;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public Builder withEnableStableRowIds(boolean enableStableRowIds) {
       this.enableStableRowIds = Optional.of(enableStableRowIds);
       return this;
@@ -203,18 +274,50 @@ public Builder withTargetBases(List<String> targetBases) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Allow external blob URIs outside registered bases.
+     *
+     * <p>When true, blob v2 columns can reference external URIs (e.g. pointing to blob files in
+     * another Lance dataset) that are not under any registered base path. The URI is stored as an
+     * absolute external reference with base_id=0.
+     *
+     * @param allow true to allow external blob URIs outside bases
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder withAllowExternalBlobOutsideBases(boolean allow) {
+      this.allowExternalBlobOutsideBases = Optional.of(allow);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set the maximum size in bytes for blob v2 pack (.blob) sidecar files.
+     *
+     * <p>When a pack file reaches this size, a new one is started. If not set, defaults to 1 GiB.
+     *
+     * @param maxBytes maximum pack file size in bytes
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder withBlobPackFileSizeThreshold(long maxBytes) {
+      this.blobPackFileSizeThreshold = Optional.of(maxBytes);
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public WriteParams build() {
       return new WriteParams(
           maxRowsPerFile,
           maxRowsPerGroup,
           maxBytesPerFile,
+          fileWriteOptions,
           mode,
           enableStableRowIds,
           dataStorageVersion,
           enableV2ManifestPaths,
           storageOptions,
+          baseStoreParams,
           initialBases,
-          targetBases);
+          targetBases,
+          allowExternalBlobOutsideBases,
+          blobPackFileSizeThreshold);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriterVersion.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriterVersion.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7e4fda48cf1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/WriterVersion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/** Version metadata for the library that wrote a dataset manifest. */
+public final class WriterVersion {
+  private final String library;
+  private final String version;
+  private final String prerelease;
+  private final String buildMetadata;
+
+  WriterVersion(String library, String version, String prerelease, String buildMetadata) {
+    this.library = library;
+    this.version = version;
+    this.prerelease = prerelease;
+    this.buildMetadata = buildMetadata;
+  }
+
+  /** Name of the writer library, such as {@code lance}. */
+  public String getLibrary() {
+    return library;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Version string reported by the writer library.
+   *
+   * <p>This value is opaque because writer libraries are not required to use semantic versioning.
+   * When a writer does use semantic versioning, newer writers store the core version here and
+   * expose prerelease and build metadata separately.
+   */
+  public String getVersion() {
+    return version;
+  }
+
+  /** Optional semantic-version prerelease component, when supplied by the writer. */
+  public Optional<String> getPrerelease() {
+    return Optional.ofNullable(prerelease);
+  }
+
+  /** Optional semantic-version build metadata component, when supplied by the writer. */
+  public Optional<String> getBuildMetadata() {
+    return Optional.ofNullable(buildMetadata);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupCandidateFile.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupCandidateFile.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a7925a746af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupCandidateFile.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.cleanup;
+
+/** A file that cleanup identified as removable. */
+public class CleanupCandidateFile {
+  private final String path;
+  private final CleanupFileKind kind;
+  private final boolean unverified;
+  private final long sizeBytes;
+
+  public CleanupCandidateFile(String path, String kind, boolean unverified, long sizeBytes) {
+    this(path, CleanupFileKind.fromRustString(kind), unverified, sizeBytes);
+  }
+
+  public CleanupCandidateFile(
+      String path, CleanupFileKind kind, boolean unverified, long sizeBytes) {
+    this.path = path;
+    this.kind = kind;
+    this.unverified = unverified;
+    this.sizeBytes = sizeBytes;
+  }
+
+  public String getPath() {
+    return path;
+  }
+
+  public CleanupFileKind getKind() {
+    return kind;
+  }
+
+  public boolean isUnverified() {
+    return unverified;
+  }
+
+  public long getSizeBytes() {
+    return sizeBytes;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupExplanation.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupExplanation.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..320d555c3b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupExplanation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.cleanup;
+
+import java.util.List;
+
+/** Read-only explanation of what cleanup would remove. */
+public class CleanupExplanation {
+  private final long readVersion;
+  private final RemovalStats stats;
+  private final List<CleanupCandidateFile> candidateFiles;
+  private final boolean candidateFilesTruncated;
+  private final long candidateFileLimit;
+  private final List<CleanupReferencedBranch> referencedBranches;
+  private final List<String> warnings;
+
+  public CleanupExplanation(
+      long readVersion,
+      RemovalStats stats,
+      List<CleanupCandidateFile> candidateFiles,
+      boolean candidateFilesTruncated,
+      long candidateFileLimit,
+      List<CleanupReferencedBranch> referencedBranches,
+      List<String> warnings) {
+    this.readVersion = readVersion;
+    this.stats = stats;
+    this.candidateFiles = candidateFiles;
+    this.candidateFilesTruncated = candidateFilesTruncated;
+    this.candidateFileLimit = candidateFileLimit;
+    this.referencedBranches = referencedBranches;
+    this.warnings = warnings;
+  }
+
+  public long getReadVersion() {
+    return readVersion;
+  }
+
+  public RemovalStats getStats() {
+    return stats;
+  }
+
+  public List<CleanupCandidateFile> getCandidateFiles() {
+    return candidateFiles;
+  }
+
+  public boolean isCandidateFilesTruncated() {
+    return candidateFilesTruncated;
+  }
+
+  public long getCandidateFileLimit() {
+    return candidateFileLimit;
+  }
+
+  public List<CleanupReferencedBranch> getReferencedBranches() {
+    return referencedBranches;
+  }
+
+  public List<String> getWarnings() {
+    return warnings;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupFileKind.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupFileKind.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..695e778fc76
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupFileKind.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.cleanup;
+
+/** Kind of file identified by cleanup. */
+public enum CleanupFileKind {
+  MANIFEST,
+  DATA,
+  TRANSACTION,
+  INDEX,
+  DELETION,
+  TEMPORARY_MANIFEST;
+
+  public static CleanupFileKind fromRustString(String value) {
+    switch (value) {
+      case "manifest":
+        return MANIFEST;
+      case "data":
+        return DATA;
+      case "transaction":
+        return TRANSACTION;
+      case "index":
+        return INDEX;
+      case "deletion":
+        return DELETION;
+      case "temporary_manifest":
+        return TEMPORARY_MANIFEST;
+      default:
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("Unknown cleanup file kind: " + value);
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupPolicy.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupPolicy.java
index 075fef724aa..25da8763747 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupPolicy.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupPolicy.java
@@ -13,6 +13,9 @@
  */
 package org.lance.cleanup;
 
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
 /**
@@ -24,18 +27,27 @@
 public class CleanupPolicy {
   private final Optional<Long> beforeTimestampMillis;
   private final Optional<Long> beforeVersion;
+  private final Optional<List<Long>> versions;
   private final Optional<Boolean> deleteUnverified;
   private final Optional<Boolean> errorIfTaggedOldVersions;
+  private final Optional<Boolean> cleanReferencedBranches;
+  private final Optional<Long> deleteRateLimit;
 
   private CleanupPolicy(
       Optional<Long> beforeTimestampMillis,
       Optional<Long> beforeVersion,
+      Optional<List<Long>> versions,
       Optional<Boolean> deleteUnverified,
-      Optional<Boolean> errorIfTaggedOldVersions) {
+      Optional<Boolean> errorIfTaggedOldVersions,
+      Optional<Boolean> cleanReferencedBranches,
+      Optional<Long> deleteRateLimit) {
     this.beforeTimestampMillis = beforeTimestampMillis;
     this.beforeVersion = beforeVersion;
+    this.versions = versions;
     this.deleteUnverified = deleteUnverified;
     this.errorIfTaggedOldVersions = errorIfTaggedOldVersions;
+    this.cleanReferencedBranches = cleanReferencedBranches;
+    this.deleteRateLimit = deleteRateLimit;
   }
 
   public static Builder builder() {
@@ -50,6 +62,10 @@ public Optional<Long> getBeforeVersion() {
     return beforeVersion;
   }
 
+  public Optional<List<Long>> getVersions() {
+    return versions;
+  }
+
   public Optional<Boolean> getDeleteUnverified() {
     return deleteUnverified;
   }
@@ -58,12 +74,23 @@ public Optional<Boolean> getErrorIfTaggedOldVersions() {
     return errorIfTaggedOldVersions;
   }
 
+  public Optional<Boolean> getCleanReferencedBranches() {
+    return cleanReferencedBranches;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> getDeleteRateLimit() {
+    return deleteRateLimit;
+  }
+
   /** Builder for CleanupPolicy. */
   public static class Builder {
     private Optional<Long> beforeTimestampMillis = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Long> beforeVersion = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<List<Long>> versions = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Boolean> deleteUnverified = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Boolean> errorIfTaggedOldVersions = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Boolean> cleanReferencedBranches = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Long> deleteRateLimit = Optional.empty();
 
     private Builder() {}
 
@@ -79,6 +106,12 @@ public Builder withBeforeVersion(long beforeVersion) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /** Set the exact dataset versions to clean. */
+    public Builder withVersions(List<Long> versions) {
+      this.versions = Optional.of(Collections.unmodifiableList(new ArrayList<>(versions)));
+      return this;
+    }
+
     /** If true, delete unverified data files even if they are recent. */
     public Builder withDeleteUnverified(boolean deleteUnverified) {
       this.deleteUnverified = Optional.of(deleteUnverified);
@@ -91,9 +124,27 @@ public Builder withErrorIfTaggedOldVersions(boolean errorIfTaggedOldVersions) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /** If true, clean referenced branches before clean the current branch. */
+    public Builder withCleanReferencedBranches(boolean cleanReferencedBranches) {
+      this.cleanReferencedBranches = Optional.of(cleanReferencedBranches);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /** Set the maximum number of delete operations per second. */
+    public Builder withDeleteRateLimit(long deleteRateLimit) {
+      this.deleteRateLimit = Optional.of(deleteRateLimit);
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public CleanupPolicy build() {
       return new CleanupPolicy(
-          beforeTimestampMillis, beforeVersion, deleteUnverified, errorIfTaggedOldVersions);
+          beforeTimestampMillis,
+          beforeVersion,
+          versions,
+          deleteUnverified,
+          errorIfTaggedOldVersions,
+          cleanReferencedBranches,
+          deleteRateLimit);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupReferencedBranch.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupReferencedBranch.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..47fae25cd5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/CleanupReferencedBranch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.cleanup;
+
+/** A branch that references the current branch lineage. */
+public class CleanupReferencedBranch {
+  private final String name;
+  private final long referencedVersion;
+  private final boolean cleanupCandidate;
+
+  public CleanupReferencedBranch(String name, long referencedVersion, boolean cleanupCandidate) {
+    this.name = name;
+    this.referencedVersion = referencedVersion;
+    this.cleanupCandidate = cleanupCandidate;
+  }
+
+  public String getName() {
+    return name;
+  }
+
+  public long getReferencedVersion() {
+    return referencedVersion;
+  }
+
+  public boolean isCleanupCandidate() {
+    return cleanupCandidate;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/RemovalStats.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/RemovalStats.java
index 1d88324f907..ebd4571b56d 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/RemovalStats.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/cleanup/RemovalStats.java
@@ -17,10 +17,48 @@
 public class RemovalStats {
   private final long bytesRemoved;
   private final long oldVersions;
+  private final long dataFilesRemoved;
+  private final long transactionFilesRemoved;
+  private final long indexFilesRemoved;
+  private final long deletionFilesRemoved;
+  private final long failedDeletes;
 
   public RemovalStats(long bytesRemoved, long oldVersions) {
+    this(bytesRemoved, oldVersions, 0L, 0L, 0L, 0L, 0L);
+  }
+
+  public RemovalStats(
+      long bytesRemoved,
+      long oldVersions,
+      long dataFilesRemoved,
+      long transactionFilesRemoved,
+      long indexFilesRemoved,
+      long deletionFilesRemoved) {
+    this(
+        bytesRemoved,
+        oldVersions,
+        dataFilesRemoved,
+        transactionFilesRemoved,
+        indexFilesRemoved,
+        deletionFilesRemoved,
+        0L);
+  }
+
+  public RemovalStats(
+      long bytesRemoved,
+      long oldVersions,
+      long dataFilesRemoved,
+      long transactionFilesRemoved,
+      long indexFilesRemoved,
+      long deletionFilesRemoved,
+      long failedDeletes) {
     this.bytesRemoved = bytesRemoved;
     this.oldVersions = oldVersions;
+    this.dataFilesRemoved = dataFilesRemoved;
+    this.transactionFilesRemoved = transactionFilesRemoved;
+    this.indexFilesRemoved = indexFilesRemoved;
+    this.deletionFilesRemoved = deletionFilesRemoved;
+    this.failedDeletes = failedDeletes;
   }
 
   public long getBytesRemoved() {
@@ -30,4 +68,32 @@ public long getBytesRemoved() {
   public long getOldVersions() {
     return oldVersions;
   }
+
+  public long getDataFilesRemoved() {
+    return dataFilesRemoved;
+  }
+
+  public long getTransactionFilesRemoved() {
+    return transactionFilesRemoved;
+  }
+
+  public long getIndexFilesRemoved() {
+    return indexFilesRemoved;
+  }
+
+  public long getDeletionFilesRemoved() {
+    return deletionFilesRemoved;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Number of objects cleanup tried and failed to delete.
+   *
+   * <p>Cleanup is best effort: a failed delete is counted here and the sweep continues, so a
+   * non-zero value means the cleanup completed but did not remove everything it identified. The
+   * files it could not remove are still unreferenced and a later cleanup will retry them. Callers
+   * that treat cleanup as all-or-nothing should check this rather than rely on the call throwing.
+   */
+  public long getFailedDeletes() {
+    return failedDeletes;
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/Compaction.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/Compaction.java
index cd294428678..e739d09dac8 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/Compaction.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/Compaction.java
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.JniLoader;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
 
 import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
 
@@ -32,16 +33,25 @@ public static CompactionPlan planCompaction(
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(dataset);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(compactionOptions);
 
-    return nativePlanCompaction(
-        dataset,
-        compactionOptions.getTargetRowsPerFragment(),
-        compactionOptions.getMaxRowsPerGroup(),
-        compactionOptions.getMaxBytesPerFile(),
-        compactionOptions.getMaterializeDeletions(),
-        compactionOptions.getMaterializeDeletionsThreshold(),
-        compactionOptions.getNumThreads(),
-        compactionOptions.getBatchSize(),
-        compactionOptions.getDeferIndexRemap());
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return nativePlanCompaction(
+          dataset,
+          compactionOptions.getTargetRowsPerFragment(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxRowsPerGroup(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxBytesPerFile(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaterializeDeletions(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaterializeDeletionsThreshold(),
+          compactionOptions.getNumThreads(),
+          compactionOptions.getBatchSize(),
+          compactionOptions.getDeferIndexRemap(),
+          compactionOptions.getCompactionMode(),
+          compactionOptions.getBinaryCopyReadBatchBytes(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxSourceFragments(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxSourceRows(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxSourceBytes(),
+          compactionOptions.getExcludedFragmentIds(),
+          compactionOptions.getDataStorageVersion());
+    }
   }
 
   public static CompactionMetrics commitCompaction(
@@ -59,10 +69,59 @@ public static CompactionMetrics commitCompaction(
         compactionOptions.getMaterializeDeletionsThreshold(),
         compactionOptions.getNumThreads(),
         compactionOptions.getBatchSize(),
-        compactionOptions.getDeferIndexRemap());
+        compactionOptions.getDeferIndexRemap(),
+        compactionOptions.getCompactionMode(),
+        compactionOptions.getBinaryCopyReadBatchBytes(),
+        compactionOptions.getMaxSourceFragments(),
+        compactionOptions.getMaxSourceRows(),
+        compactionOptions.getMaxSourceBytes(),
+        compactionOptions.getExcludedFragmentIds());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Java wrapper around the raw commit-compaction JNI call. It acquires the dataset read lock so
+   * the native call cannot race with {@link Dataset#close()}; keep the raw native method private so
+   * no caller can bypass this lock.
+   */
+  public static CompactionMetrics nativeCommitCompaction(
+      Dataset dataset,
+      List<RewriteResult> rewriteResults,
+      Optional<Long> targetRowsPerFragment,
+      Optional<Long> maxRowsPerGroup,
+      Optional<Long> maxBytesPerFile,
+      Optional<Boolean> materializeDeletions,
+      Optional<Float> materializeDeletionsThreshold,
+      Optional<Long> numThreads,
+      Optional<Long> batchSize,
+      Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap,
+      Optional<String> compactionMode,
+      Optional<Long> binaryCopyReadBatchBytes,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceFragments,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceRows,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceBytes,
+      List<Long> excludedFragmentIds) {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return commitCompactionNative(
+          dataset,
+          rewriteResults,
+          targetRowsPerFragment,
+          maxRowsPerGroup,
+          maxBytesPerFile,
+          materializeDeletions,
+          materializeDeletionsThreshold,
+          numThreads,
+          batchSize,
+          deferIndexRemap,
+          compactionMode,
+          binaryCopyReadBatchBytes,
+          maxSourceFragments,
+          maxSourceRows,
+          maxSourceBytes,
+          excludedFragmentIds);
+    }
   }
 
-  public static native CompactionMetrics nativeCommitCompaction(
+  private static native CompactionMetrics commitCompactionNative(
       Dataset dataset,
       List<RewriteResult> rewriteResults,
       Optional<Long> targetRowsPerFragment,
@@ -72,7 +131,13 @@ public static native CompactionMetrics nativeCommitCompaction(
       Optional<Float> materializeDeletionsThreshold,
       Optional<Long> numThreads,
       Optional<Long> batchSize,
-      Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap);
+      Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap,
+      Optional<String> compactionMode,
+      Optional<Long> binaryCopyReadBatchBytes,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceFragments,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceRows,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceBytes,
+      List<Long> excludedFragmentIds);
 
   private static native CompactionPlan nativePlanCompaction(
       Dataset dataset,
@@ -83,5 +148,12 @@ private static native CompactionPlan nativePlanCompaction(
       Optional<Float> materializeDeletionsThreshold,
       Optional<Long> numThreads,
       Optional<Long> batchSize,
-      Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap);
+      Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap,
+      Optional<String> compactionMode,
+      Optional<Long> binaryCopyReadBatchBytes,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceFragments,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceRows,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceBytes,
+      List<Long> excludedFragmentIds,
+      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion);
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionMode.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionMode.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d0a24f875d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionMode.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.compaction;
+
+/** Controls how data is rewritten during compaction. */
+public enum CompactionMode {
+  /** Decode and re-encode data (default). */
+  REENCODE("reencode"),
+  /** Try binary copy if fragments are compatible, fall back to reencode otherwise. */
+  TRY_BINARY_COPY("try_binary_copy"),
+  /** Use binary copy or fail if fragments are not compatible. */
+  FORCE_BINARY_COPY("force_binary_copy");
+
+  private final String value;
+
+  CompactionMode(String value) {
+    this.value = value;
+  }
+
+  public String getValue() {
+    return value;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionOptions.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionOptions.java
index d5db1be817c..d83e618da5b 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionOptions.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionOptions.java
@@ -13,12 +13,18 @@
  */
 package org.lance.compaction;
 
+import org.lance.DataStorageVersion;
+
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 
 import java.io.IOException;
 import java.io.ObjectInputStream;
 import java.io.ObjectOutputStream;
+import java.io.OptionalDataException;
 import java.io.Serializable;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
 /**
@@ -28,6 +34,10 @@
  * default values.
  */
 public class CompactionOptions implements Serializable {
+  // Pinned to the UID generated before maxSourceRows/maxSourceBytes were added, so that
+  // CompactionTask streams queued by older workers still deserialize during a rolling upgrade.
+  private static final long serialVersionUID = 3114922060085417942L;
+
   // these fields are effectively final, but not marked as final for de/ser
   private Optional<Long> targetRowsPerFragment;
   private Optional<Long> maxRowsPerGroup;
@@ -37,6 +47,13 @@ public class CompactionOptions implements Serializable {
   private Optional<Long> numThreads;
   private Optional<Long> batchSize;
   private Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap;
+  private Optional<CompactionMode> compactionMode;
+  private Optional<Long> binaryCopyReadBatchBytes;
+  private Optional<Long> maxSourceFragments;
+  private Optional<Long> maxSourceRows;
+  private Optional<Long> maxSourceBytes;
+  private List<Long> excludedFragmentIds;
+  private Optional<DataStorageVersion> dataStorageVersion;
 
   private CompactionOptions(
       Optional<Long> targetRowsPerFragment,
@@ -46,7 +63,14 @@ private CompactionOptions(
       Optional<Float> materializeDeletionsThreshold,
       Optional<Long> numThreads,
       Optional<Long> batchSize,
-      Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap) {
+      Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap,
+      Optional<CompactionMode> compactionMode,
+      Optional<Long> binaryCopyReadBatchBytes,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceFragments,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceRows,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceBytes,
+      List<Long> excludedFragmentIds,
+      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion) {
     this.targetRowsPerFragment = targetRowsPerFragment;
     this.maxRowsPerGroup = maxRowsPerGroup;
     this.maxBytesPerFile = maxBytesPerFile;
@@ -55,12 +79,49 @@ private CompactionOptions(
     this.numThreads = numThreads;
     this.batchSize = batchSize;
     this.deferIndexRemap = deferIndexRemap;
+    this.compactionMode = compactionMode;
+    this.binaryCopyReadBatchBytes = binaryCopyReadBatchBytes;
+    this.maxSourceFragments = maxSourceFragments;
+    this.maxSourceRows = maxSourceRows;
+    this.maxSourceBytes = maxSourceBytes;
+    this.excludedFragmentIds = List.copyOf(excludedFragmentIds);
+    this.dataStorageVersion = dataStorageVersion.map(DataStorageVersion::fromRustString);
   }
 
   public Optional<Boolean> getDeferIndexRemap() {
     return deferIndexRemap;
   }
 
+  /** Returns the compaction mode as its string value for the native layer. */
+  public Optional<String> getCompactionMode() {
+    return compactionMode.map(CompactionMode::getValue);
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> getBinaryCopyReadBatchBytes() {
+    return binaryCopyReadBatchBytes;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> getMaxSourceFragments() {
+    return maxSourceFragments;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> getMaxSourceRows() {
+    return maxSourceRows;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> getMaxSourceBytes() {
+    return maxSourceBytes;
+  }
+
+  public List<Long> getExcludedFragmentIds() {
+    return excludedFragmentIds;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the version selector as its string value for the native layer. */
+  public Optional<String> getDataStorageVersion() {
+    return dataStorageVersion.map(DataStorageVersion::toRustString);
+  }
+
   public Optional<Boolean> getMaterializeDeletions() {
     return materializeDeletions;
   }
@@ -104,6 +165,13 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("numThreads", numThreads.orElse(null))
         .add("batchSize", batchSize.orElse(null))
         .add("deferIndexRemap", deferIndexRemap.orElse(null))
+        .add("compactionMode", compactionMode.orElse(null))
+        .add("binaryCopyReadBatchBytes", binaryCopyReadBatchBytes.orElse(null))
+        .add("maxSourceFragments", maxSourceFragments.orElse(null))
+        .add("maxSourceRows", maxSourceRows.orElse(null))
+        .add("maxSourceBytes", maxSourceBytes.orElse(null))
+        .add("excludedFragmentIds", excludedFragmentIds)
+        .add("dataStorageVersion", dataStorageVersion.orElse(null))
         .toString();
   }
 
@@ -116,6 +184,13 @@ private void writeObject(ObjectOutputStream output) throws IOException {
     output.writeObject(numThreads.orElse(null));
     output.writeObject(batchSize.orElse(null));
     output.writeObject(deferIndexRemap.orElse(null));
+    output.writeObject(compactionMode.map(CompactionMode::getValue).orElse(null));
+    output.writeObject(binaryCopyReadBatchBytes.orElse(null));
+    output.writeObject(maxSourceFragments.orElse(null));
+    output.writeObject(maxSourceRows.orElse(null));
+    output.writeObject(maxSourceBytes.orElse(null));
+    output.writeObject(excludedFragmentIds);
+    output.writeObject(getDataStorageVersion().orElse(null));
   }
 
   private void readObject(ObjectInputStream input) throws IOException, ClassNotFoundException {
@@ -127,6 +202,65 @@ private void readObject(ObjectInputStream input) throws IOException, ClassNotFou
     this.numThreads = Optional.ofNullable((Long) input.readObject());
     this.batchSize = Optional.ofNullable((Long) input.readObject());
     this.deferIndexRemap = Optional.ofNullable((Boolean) input.readObject());
+    String modeStr = (String) input.readObject();
+    this.compactionMode = Optional.empty();
+    if (modeStr != null) {
+      for (CompactionMode m : CompactionMode.values()) {
+        if (m.getValue().equals(modeStr)) {
+          this.compactionMode = Optional.of(m);
+          break;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    this.binaryCopyReadBatchBytes = Optional.ofNullable((Long) input.readObject());
+    this.maxSourceFragments = Optional.ofNullable((Long) input.readObject());
+    this.maxSourceRows = readTrailingLong(input);
+    this.maxSourceBytes = readTrailingLong(input);
+    this.excludedFragmentIds = readTrailingLongList(input);
+    this.dataStorageVersion = readTrailingString(input).map(DataStorageVersion::fromRustString);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Reads a trailing Long field that older writers did not emit. Streams written before the field
+   * was added end here, which surfaces as an {@link OptionalDataException} with {@code eof} set; in
+   * that case the field is treated as unset.
+   */
+  private static Optional<Long> readTrailingLong(ObjectInputStream input)
+      throws IOException, ClassNotFoundException {
+    try {
+      return Optional.ofNullable((Long) input.readObject());
+    } catch (OptionalDataException e) {
+      if (!e.eof) {
+        throw e;
+      }
+      return Optional.empty();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+  private static List<Long> readTrailingLongList(ObjectInputStream input)
+      throws IOException, ClassNotFoundException {
+    try {
+      List<Long> fragmentIds = (List<Long>) input.readObject();
+      return fragmentIds == null ? Collections.emptyList() : List.copyOf(fragmentIds);
+    } catch (OptionalDataException e) {
+      if (!e.eof) {
+        throw e;
+      }
+      return Collections.emptyList();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static Optional<String> readTrailingString(ObjectInputStream input)
+      throws IOException, ClassNotFoundException {
+    try {
+      return Optional.ofNullable((String) input.readObject());
+    } catch (OptionalDataException e) {
+      if (!e.eof) {
+        throw e;
+      }
+      return Optional.empty();
+    }
   }
 
   /** Builder for CompactionOptions. */
@@ -139,6 +273,13 @@ public static class Builder {
     private Optional<Long> numThreads = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Long> batchSize = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<CompactionMode> compactionMode = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Long> binaryCopyReadBatchBytes = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Long> maxSourceFragments = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Long> maxSourceRows = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Long> maxSourceBytes = Optional.empty();
+    private List<Long> excludedFragmentIds = Collections.emptyList();
+    private Optional<DataStorageVersion> dataStorageVersion = Optional.empty();
 
     private Builder() {}
 
@@ -182,6 +323,98 @@ public Builder withDeferIndexRemap(boolean deferIndexRemap) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    public Builder withCompactionMode(CompactionMode compactionMode) {
+      this.compactionMode = Optional.of(compactionMode);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder withBinaryCopyReadBatchBytes(long binaryCopyReadBatchBytes) {
+      this.binaryCopyReadBatchBytes = Optional.of(binaryCopyReadBatchBytes);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Maximum number of source fragments to compact in a single run. Tasks are included until
+     * adding the next task would exceed this limit, allowing for incremental compaction. Fragments
+     * are processed oldest first.
+     *
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code maxSourceFragments} is not positive
+     */
+    public Builder withMaxSourceFragments(long maxSourceFragments) {
+      this.maxSourceFragments =
+          Optional.of(positiveBudget("maxSourceFragments", maxSourceFragments));
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Maximum number of source rows to compact in a single run. Rows are counted as live rows
+     * (physical rows minus soft-deleted rows). Tasks are included until adding the next task would
+     * exceed this limit.
+     *
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code maxSourceRows} is not positive
+     */
+    public Builder withMaxSourceRows(long maxSourceRows) {
+      this.maxSourceRows = Optional.of(positiveBudget("maxSourceRows", maxSourceRows));
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Maximum number of source bytes to compact in a single run, measured as the total size of the
+     * source fragments' data and overlay files. Tasks are included until adding the next task would
+     * exceed this limit. Blob v2 payloads live in separate blob files and are not counted, so this
+     * is not a cap on total compaction I/O for datasets with blob columns.
+     *
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code maxSourceBytes} is not positive
+     */
+    public Builder withMaxSourceBytes(long maxSourceBytes) {
+      this.maxSourceBytes = Optional.of(positiveBudget("maxSourceBytes", maxSourceBytes));
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Select the output data file version without changing the dataset's default write version.
+     * Omission uses the compaction config target when set, otherwise the dataset default. The
+     * planner resolves release selectors before distributing tasks. V1/V2 cross-family targets are
+     * rejected by the engine.
+     */
+    public Builder withDataStorageVersion(DataStorageVersion version) {
+      this.dataStorageVersion = Optional.of(Objects.requireNonNull(version, "version"));
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Fragment IDs to exclude from compaction planning. Excluded fragments remain unchanged and act
+     * as boundaries, so fragments on opposite sides are not combined into the same task. Duplicate
+     * and unknown IDs are ignored.
+     *
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if an ID is negative or exceeds the unsigned 32-bit range
+     */
+    public Builder withExcludedFragmentIds(List<Long> excludedFragmentIds) {
+      Objects.requireNonNull(excludedFragmentIds, "excludedFragmentIds");
+      for (Long fragmentId : excludedFragmentIds) {
+        if (fragmentId == null || fragmentId < 0 || fragmentId > 0xFFFF_FFFFL) {
+          throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+              "excludedFragmentIds must contain values between 0 and 4294967295, got "
+                  + fragmentId);
+        }
+      }
+      this.excludedFragmentIds = List.copyOf(excludedFragmentIds);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A max source budget of zero admits no work and a negative value would wrap around to an
+     * effectively unlimited budget on the Rust side, so both are rejected here. Leave the option
+     * unset for no limit.
+     */
+    private static long positiveBudget(String name, long value) {
+      if (value <= 0) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+            name + " must be greater than 0, got " + value + " (leave unset for no limit)");
+      }
+      return value;
+    }
+
     public CompactionOptions build() {
       return new CompactionOptions(
           targetRowsPerFragment,
@@ -191,7 +424,14 @@ public CompactionOptions build() {
           materializeDeletionsThreshold,
           numThreads,
           batchSize,
-          deferIndexRemap);
+          deferIndexRemap,
+          compactionMode,
+          binaryCopyReadBatchBytes,
+          maxSourceFragments,
+          maxSourceRows,
+          maxSourceBytes,
+          excludedFragmentIds,
+          dataStorageVersion.map(DataStorageVersion::toRustString));
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionTask.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionTask.java
index 2e288baa959..ab4f9c7c7a2 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionTask.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/CompactionTask.java
@@ -14,10 +14,12 @@
 package org.lance.compaction;
 
 import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
 
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 
 import java.io.Serializable;
+import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
 /** The compaction task which can be sent across network and executed individually. */
@@ -42,18 +44,27 @@ public String toString() {
   }
 
   public RewriteResult execute(Dataset dataset) {
-    return nativeExecute(
-        dataset,
-        taskData,
-        readVersion,
-        compactionOptions.getTargetRowsPerFragment(),
-        compactionOptions.getMaxRowsPerGroup(),
-        compactionOptions.getMaxBytesPerFile(),
-        compactionOptions.getMaterializeDeletions(),
-        compactionOptions.getMaterializeDeletionsThreshold(),
-        compactionOptions.getNumThreads(),
-        compactionOptions.getBatchSize(),
-        compactionOptions.getDeferIndexRemap());
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return nativeExecute(
+          dataset,
+          taskData,
+          readVersion,
+          compactionOptions.getTargetRowsPerFragment(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxRowsPerGroup(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxBytesPerFile(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaterializeDeletions(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaterializeDeletionsThreshold(),
+          compactionOptions.getNumThreads(),
+          compactionOptions.getBatchSize(),
+          compactionOptions.getDeferIndexRemap(),
+          compactionOptions.getCompactionMode(),
+          compactionOptions.getBinaryCopyReadBatchBytes(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxSourceFragments(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxSourceRows(),
+          compactionOptions.getMaxSourceBytes(),
+          compactionOptions.getExcludedFragmentIds(),
+          compactionOptions.getDataStorageVersion());
+    }
   }
 
   private native RewriteResult nativeExecute(
@@ -67,7 +78,14 @@ private native RewriteResult nativeExecute(
       Optional<Float> materializeDeletionsThreshold,
       Optional<Long> numThreads,
       Optional<Long> batchSize,
-      Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap);
+      Optional<Boolean> deferIndexRemap,
+      Optional<String> compactionMode,
+      Optional<Long> binaryCopyReadBatchBytes,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceFragments,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceRows,
+      Optional<Long> maxSourceBytes,
+      List<Long> excludedFragmentIds,
+      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion);
 
   public CompactionOptions getCompactionOptions() {
     return compactionOptions;
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/RewriteResult.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/RewriteResult.java
index adba77e89da..c4c5d816c2c 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/RewriteResult.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/compaction/RewriteResult.java
@@ -19,7 +19,6 @@
 
 import java.io.Serializable;
 import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Map;
 
 /**
  * Rewrite Result of a single compaction task. It will be passed across different workers and be
@@ -31,25 +30,21 @@ public class RewriteResult implements Serializable {
   private final List<FragmentMetadata> originalFragments;
   private final long readVersion;
 
-  // null if index remap is deferred after compaction
-  @Nullable private final Map<Long, Long> rowIdMap;
-
-  // null if index remap is part of compaction
-  @Nullable private final byte[] changedRowAddrs;
+  // Serialized RoaringTreemap of row addresses read from the original fragments.
+  // null for stable row IDs.
+  @Nullable private final byte[] rowAddrs;
 
   public RewriteResult(
       CompactionMetrics metrics,
       List<FragmentMetadata> newFragments,
       List<FragmentMetadata> originalFragments,
       long readVersion,
-      Map<Long, Long> rowIdMap,
-      byte[] changedRowAddrs) {
+      byte[] rowAddrs) {
     this.metrics = metrics;
     this.newFragments = newFragments;
     this.originalFragments = originalFragments;
     this.readVersion = readVersion;
-    this.rowIdMap = rowIdMap;
-    this.changedRowAddrs = changedRowAddrs;
+    this.rowAddrs = rowAddrs;
   }
 
   public long getReadVersion() {
@@ -61,8 +56,8 @@ public CompactionMetrics getMetrics() {
   }
 
   @Nullable
-  public byte[] getChangedRowAddrs() {
-    return changedRowAddrs;
+  public byte[] getRowAddrs() {
+    return rowAddrs;
   }
 
   public List<FragmentMetadata> getNewFragments() {
@@ -72,9 +67,4 @@ public List<FragmentMetadata> getNewFragments() {
   public List<FragmentMetadata> getOriginalFragments() {
     return originalFragments;
   }
-
-  @Nullable
-  public Map<Long, Long> getRowIdMap() {
-    return rowIdMap;
-  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/delta/DatasetDelta.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/delta/DatasetDelta.java
index 1c0eb4e9a73..c02e4e90e47 100755
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/delta/DatasetDelta.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/delta/DatasetDelta.java
@@ -91,6 +91,24 @@ public ArrowReader getUpdatedRows() throws IOException {
 
   private native void nativeGetUpdatedRows(long streamAddress) throws IOException;
 
+  /**
+   * Return a streaming ArrowReader of the row ids deleted in the range.
+   *
+   * <p>The batches carry a single {@code _rowid} column. Requires stable row ids.
+   */
+  public ArrowReader getDeletedRowIds() throws IOException {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeDeltaHandle != 0, "DatasetDelta is closed");
+      BufferAllocator allocator = dataset.allocator();
+      try (ArrowArrayStream s = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        nativeGetDeletedRowIds(s.memoryAddress());
+        return Data.importArrayStream(allocator, s);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeGetDeletedRowIds(long streamAddress) throws IOException;
+
   @Override
   public void close() {
     try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/delta/DatasetDeltaBuilder.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/delta/DatasetDeltaBuilder.java
index 9084da2ab9c..9813b8aeba1 100755
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/delta/DatasetDeltaBuilder.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/delta/DatasetDeltaBuilder.java
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.JniLoader;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
 
 import java.util.Optional;
 
@@ -71,7 +72,9 @@ public DatasetDeltaBuilder withEndVersion(long version) {
 
   /** Build the DatasetDelta after validating builder state. */
   public DatasetDelta build() {
-    return nativeBuild(dataset, comparedAgainst, beginVersion, endVersion);
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return nativeBuild(dataset, comparedAgainst, beginVersion, endVersion);
+    }
   }
 
   private static native DatasetDelta nativeBuild(
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/BlobReadMode.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/BlobReadMode.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d7be0381fbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/BlobReadMode.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.file;
+
+/**
+ * Controls how blob-encoded columns are returned when reading a Lance file.
+ *
+ * <p>Blob columns can be read in two modes:
+ *
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>{@link #CONTENT} — materializes the full binary content (default)
+ *   <li>{@link #DESCRIPTOR} — returns a struct with {@code position} and {@code size} fields
+ * </ul>
+ */
+public enum BlobReadMode {
+  /** Return blob columns as materialized binary content (default). */
+  CONTENT(0),
+  /** Return blob columns as descriptors (struct with position and size). */
+  DESCRIPTOR(1);
+
+  private final int value;
+
+  BlobReadMode(int value) {
+    this.value = value;
+  }
+
+  public int getValue() {
+    return value;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/FileReadOptions.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/FileReadOptions.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3d813c78eec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/FileReadOptions.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.file;
+
+/**
+ * Options for reading a Lance file.
+ *
+ * <p>Use {@link #builder()} to create an instance. New options can be added here in the future
+ * without breaking existing callers.
+ */
+public class FileReadOptions {
+  private final BlobReadMode blobReadMode;
+
+  private FileReadOptions(Builder builder) {
+    this.blobReadMode = builder.blobReadMode;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the blob read mode. Defaults to {@link BlobReadMode#CONTENT}. */
+  public BlobReadMode getBlobReadMode() {
+    return blobReadMode;
+  }
+
+  /** Creates a new builder with default options. */
+  public static Builder builder() {
+    return new Builder();
+  }
+
+  public static class Builder {
+    private BlobReadMode blobReadMode = BlobReadMode.CONTENT;
+
+    private Builder() {}
+
+    /**
+     * Sets how blob-encoded columns are returned.
+     *
+     * @param blobReadMode {@link BlobReadMode#CONTENT} to materialize binary content, or {@link
+     *     BlobReadMode#DESCRIPTOR} to return position/size descriptors
+     */
+    public Builder blobReadMode(BlobReadMode blobReadMode) {
+      this.blobReadMode = blobReadMode;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public FileReadOptions build() {
+      return new FileReadOptions(this);
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/FileWriteOptions.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/FileWriteOptions.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..94d8e7eb608
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/FileWriteOptions.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.file;
+
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * Options for configuring a current-format Lance file writer.
+ *
+ * <p>These options are ignored for legacy V1 files.
+ */
+public class FileWriteOptions {
+  private final Optional<Long> dataCacheBytes;
+  private final Optional<Long> maxPageBytes;
+
+  private FileWriteOptions(Builder builder) {
+    this.dataCacheBytes = builder.dataCacheBytes;
+    this.maxPageBytes = builder.maxPageBytes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the total column-data buffering budget.
+   *
+   * <p>The budget is divided evenly across top-level columns. An empty value uses 8 MiB per column.
+   */
+  public Optional<Long> getDataCacheBytes() {
+    return dataCacheBytes;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the best-effort maximum page size, or an empty value to use the writer default. */
+  public Optional<Long> getMaxPageBytes() {
+    return maxPageBytes;
+  }
+
+  public static Builder builder() {
+    return new Builder();
+  }
+
+  public static class Builder {
+    private Optional<Long> dataCacheBytes = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Long> maxPageBytes = Optional.empty();
+
+    private Builder() {}
+
+    /**
+     * Sets the total column-data buffering budget.
+     *
+     * @param dataCacheBytes buffer budget in bytes
+     */
+    public Builder dataCacheBytes(long dataCacheBytes) {
+      this.dataCacheBytes = Optional.of(dataCacheBytes);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sets the best-effort maximum page size.
+     *
+     * @param maxPageBytes positive page size in bytes
+     */
+    public Builder maxPageBytes(long maxPageBytes) {
+      this.maxPageBytes = Optional.of(maxPageBytes);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public FileWriteOptions build() {
+      return new FileWriteOptions(this);
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/LanceFileReader.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/LanceFileReader.java
index 9777e529f48..e3962eb539a 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/LanceFileReader.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/LanceFileReader.java
@@ -54,7 +54,8 @@ private native void readAllNative(
       int batchSize,
       @Nullable List<String> projectedNames,
       @Nullable List<Range> ranges,
-      long streamMemoryAddress)
+      long streamMemoryAddress,
+      int blobReadMode)
       throws IOException;
 
   private LanceFileReader() {}
@@ -124,18 +125,45 @@ private Schema load_schema() throws IOException {
   }
 
   /**
-   * Read all rows from the Lance file
+   * Read all rows from the Lance file.
+   *
+   * <p>Blob-encoded columns are returned as materialized binary content. Use {@link #readAll(List,
+   * List, int, FileReadOptions)} to control blob output format.
    *
-   * @param batchSize the maximum number of rows to read in a single batch
    * @param projectedNames optional list of column names to project; if null, all columns are read
    * @param ranges optional array of ranges to read; if null, all rows are read.
+   * @param batchSize the maximum number of rows to read in a single batch
    * @return an ArrowReader for the Lance file
    */
   public ArrowReader readAll(
       @Nullable List<String> projectedNames, @Nullable List<Range> ranges, int batchSize)
       throws IOException {
+    return readAll(projectedNames, ranges, batchSize, FileReadOptions.builder().build());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Read all rows from the Lance file with additional read options.
+   *
+   * @param projectedNames optional list of column names to project; if null, all columns are read
+   * @param ranges optional array of ranges to read; if null, all rows are read.
+   * @param batchSize the maximum number of rows to read in a single batch
+   * @param options file read options controlling output format (e.g. blob handling)
+   * @return an ArrowReader for the Lance file
+   * @see FileReadOptions
+   */
+  public ArrowReader readAll(
+      @Nullable List<String> projectedNames,
+      @Nullable List<Range> ranges,
+      int batchSize,
+      FileReadOptions options)
+      throws IOException {
     try (ArrowArrayStream ffiArrowArrayStream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
-      readAllNative(batchSize, projectedNames, ranges, ffiArrowArrayStream.memoryAddress());
+      readAllNative(
+          batchSize,
+          projectedNames,
+          ranges,
+          ffiArrowArrayStream.memoryAddress(),
+          options.getBlobReadMode().getValue());
       return Data.importArrayStream(allocator, ffiArrowArrayStream);
     }
   }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/LanceFileWriter.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/LanceFileWriter.java
index 0143daee1ff..7b03fe2efc0 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/LanceFileWriter.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/file/LanceFileWriter.java
@@ -14,12 +14,12 @@
 package org.lance.file;
 
 import org.lance.JniLoader;
-import org.lance.WriteParams;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArray;
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowSchema;
 import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.dictionary.DictionaryProvider;
 
@@ -39,7 +39,10 @@ public class LanceFileWriter implements AutoCloseable {
   private DictionaryProvider dictionaryProvider;
 
   private static native LanceFileWriter openNative(
-      String fileUri, Optional<String> dataStorageVersion, Map<String, String> storageOptions)
+      String fileUri,
+      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
+      Map<String, String> storageOptions,
+      FileWriteOptions writeOptions)
       throws IOException;
 
   private native void closeNative(long nativeLanceFileReaderHandle) throws IOException;
@@ -87,19 +90,47 @@ public static LanceFileWriter open(
    * @param path the URI of the file to write to
    * @param allocator the BufferAllocator to use for the writer
    * @param dictionaryProvider the DictionaryProvider to use for the writer
-   * @param dataStorageVersion the version of the data storage format to use
+   * @param dataStorageVersion the version of the data storage format to use (e.g., "legacy",
+   *     "stable", "2.0")
    * @return a new LanceFileWriter
    */
   public static LanceFileWriter open(
       String path,
       BufferAllocator allocator,
       DictionaryProvider dictionaryProvider,
-      Optional<WriteParams.LanceFileVersion> dataStorageVersion,
+      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
       Map<String, String> storageOptions)
       throws IOException {
-    Optional<String> dataStorageVersionStr =
-        dataStorageVersion.map(WriteParams.LanceFileVersion::getVersionString);
-    LanceFileWriter writer = openNative(path, dataStorageVersionStr, storageOptions);
+    return open(
+        path,
+        allocator,
+        dictionaryProvider,
+        dataStorageVersion,
+        storageOptions,
+        FileWriteOptions.builder().build());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Open a LanceFileWriter with explicit file write options.
+   *
+   * @param path the URI of the file to write to
+   * @param allocator the BufferAllocator to use for the writer
+   * @param dictionaryProvider the DictionaryProvider to use for the writer
+   * @param dataStorageVersion the version of the data storage format to use
+   * @param storageOptions additional storage options for the writer
+   * @param writeOptions options for configuring the current-format file writer
+   * @return a new LanceFileWriter
+   */
+  public static LanceFileWriter open(
+      String path,
+      BufferAllocator allocator,
+      DictionaryProvider dictionaryProvider,
+      Optional<String> dataStorageVersion,
+      Map<String, String> storageOptions,
+      FileWriteOptions writeOptions)
+      throws IOException {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(writeOptions, "writeOptions must not be null");
+    LanceFileWriter writer = openNative(path, dataStorageVersion, storageOptions, writeOptions);
     writer.allocator = allocator;
     writer.dictionaryProvider = dictionaryProvider;
     return writer;
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/DataFile.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/DataFile.java
index 1120a5286c1..9755c271d67 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/DataFile.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/DataFile.java
@@ -85,7 +85,16 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
         && Objects.equals(path, that.path)
         && Arrays.equals(fields, that.fields)
         && Arrays.equals(columnIndices, that.columnIndices)
-        && Objects.equals(fileSizeBytes, that.fileSizeBytes);
+        && Objects.equals(fileSizeBytes, that.fileSizeBytes)
+        && Objects.equals(baseId, that.baseId);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    int result = Objects.hash(path, fileMajorVersion, fileMinorVersion, fileSizeBytes, baseId);
+    result = 31 * result + Arrays.hashCode(fields);
+    result = 31 * result + Arrays.hashCode(columnIndices);
+    return result;
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/DeletionFile.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/DeletionFile.java
index 18e17140389..2eed2fafb0f 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/DeletionFile.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/DeletionFile.java
@@ -57,6 +57,36 @@ public Optional<Integer> getBaseId() {
     return Optional.ofNullable(baseId);
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Returns the deletion file path relative to its dataset-root base.
+   *
+   * @param fragmentId fragment that owns this deletion file
+   */
+  public String getRelativePath(long fragmentId) {
+    if (fragmentId < 0) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("fragmentId must be non-negative");
+    }
+    String suffix;
+    switch (fileType) {
+      case ARRAY:
+        suffix = "arrow";
+        break;
+      case BITMAP:
+        suffix = "bin";
+        break;
+      default:
+        throw new IllegalStateException("Unsupported deletion file type: " + fileType);
+    }
+    return "_deletions/"
+        + fragmentId
+        + "-"
+        + readVersion
+        + "-"
+        + Long.toUnsignedString(id)
+        + "."
+        + suffix;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public boolean equals(Object o) {
     if (this == o) return true;
@@ -65,7 +95,13 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
     return id == that.id
         && readVersion == that.readVersion
         && fileType == that.fileType
-        && Objects.equals(numDeletedRows, that.numDeletedRows);
+        && Objects.equals(numDeletedRows, that.numDeletedRows)
+        && Objects.equals(baseId, that.baseId);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(id, readVersion, numDeletedRows, fileType, baseId);
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/FragmentUpdateResult.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/FragmentUpdateResult.java
index 47718119371..34dbbe3908c 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/FragmentUpdateResult.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/FragmentUpdateResult.java
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 package org.lance.fragment;
 
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
+import org.lance.JniLoader;
 
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
@@ -23,12 +24,51 @@
  * Fragment.updateColumns()}.
  */
 public class FragmentUpdateResult {
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
   private final FragmentMetadata updatedFragment;
   private final long[] fieldsModified;
 
+  /**
+   * Matched physical row offsets within the fragment, serialized as portable RoaringBitmap bytes
+   * (little-endian, same format as {@link org.lance.operation.Update#updatedFragmentOffsets()}).
+   */
+  private final byte[] updatedRowOffsetBytes;
+
+  /** Primary public API for constructing a result with portable RoaringBitmap offset bytes. */
+  public static FragmentUpdateResult create(
+      FragmentMetadata updatedFragment, long[] updatedFieldIds, byte[] updatedRowOffsetBytes) {
+    return new FragmentUpdateResult(updatedFragment, updatedFieldIds, updatedRowOffsetBytes);
+  }
+
+  /** Two-argument form for callers that do not track per-row offsets; offsets default to empty. */
   public FragmentUpdateResult(FragmentMetadata updatedFragment, long[] updatedFieldIds) {
+    this(updatedFragment, updatedFieldIds, new byte[0]);
+  }
+
+  private FragmentUpdateResult(
+      FragmentMetadata updatedFragment, long[] updatedFieldIds, byte[] updatedRowOffsetBytes) {
     this.updatedFragment = updatedFragment;
     this.fieldsModified = updatedFieldIds;
+    this.updatedRowOffsetBytes =
+        updatedRowOffsetBytes != null ? updatedRowOffsetBytes : new byte[0];
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @deprecated Use {@link #create(FragmentMetadata, long[], byte[])} instead. This constructor
+   *     encodes the expanded {@code long[]} offsets into portable RoaringBitmap bytes via JNI and
+   *     is retained for backward compatibility with callers compiled against the prior long[]-based
+   *     API.
+   */
+  @Deprecated
+  public FragmentUpdateResult(
+      FragmentMetadata updatedFragment, long[] updatedFieldIds, long[] updatedRowOffsets) {
+    this(
+        updatedFragment,
+        updatedFieldIds,
+        encodeRowOffsetsToBytes(updatedRowOffsets != null ? updatedRowOffsets : new long[0]));
   }
 
   public FragmentMetadata getUpdatedFragment() {
@@ -39,11 +79,34 @@ public long[] getFieldsModified() {
     return fieldsModified;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Physical row offsets (0-based within the fragment) whose columns were rewritten, as portable
+   * RoaringBitmap bytes.
+   */
+  public byte[] getUpdatedRowOffsetBytes() {
+    return updatedRowOffsetBytes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Physical row offsets (0-based within the fragment) whose columns were rewritten.
+   *
+   * @deprecated Use {@link #getUpdatedRowOffsetBytes()} instead.
+   */
+  @Deprecated
+  public long[] getUpdatedRowOffsets() {
+    return expandRowOffsetsFromBytes(updatedRowOffsetBytes);
+  }
+
+  private static native byte[] encodeRowOffsetsToBytes(long[] rowOffsets);
+
+  private static native long[] expandRowOffsetsFromBytes(byte[] rowOffsetBytes);
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
         .add("fragmentMetadata", updatedFragment)
         .add("updatedFieldIds", fieldsModified)
+        .add("updatedRowOffsetBytesLength", updatedRowOffsetBytes.length)
         .toString();
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/RowIdMeta.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/RowIdMeta.java
index f9c2fa8b4ac..49e41a3192b 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/RowIdMeta.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/RowIdMeta.java
@@ -13,6 +13,8 @@
  */
 package org.lance.fragment;
 
+import org.lance.JniLoader;
+
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 
 import java.io.Serializable;
@@ -21,12 +23,30 @@
 public class RowIdMeta implements Serializable {
   private static final long serialVersionUID = -6532828695072614148L;
 
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
   private final String metadata;
 
   public RowIdMeta(String metadata) {
     this.metadata = metadata;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Creates a RowIdMeta from an array of stable row IDs by delegating to the Rust {@code
+   * write_row_ids} encoder via JNI. The returned metadata is a JSON string wrapping the
+   * protobuf-encoded RowIdSequence, matching the format expected by lance-core.
+   *
+   * @param rowIds stable row IDs to encode
+   * @return RowIdMeta containing the serialized inline representation
+   */
+  public static RowIdMeta fromRowIds(long[] rowIds) {
+    return new RowIdMeta(nativeEncodeRowIds(rowIds));
+  }
+
+  private static native String nativeEncodeRowIds(long[] rowIds);
+
   public String getMetadata() {
     return metadata;
   }
@@ -43,6 +63,11 @@ public boolean equals(Object obj) {
     return Objects.equals(metadata, that.metadata);
   }
 
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(metadata);
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this).add("metadata", metadata).toString();
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/VersionMeta.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/VersionMeta.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..53f5a5468e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/fragment/VersionMeta.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.fragment;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.io.Serializable;
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/**
+ * Metadata for per-row dataset version sequences (created_at / last_updated_at). Wraps the
+ * JSON-serialized Rust RowDatasetVersionMeta enum.
+ *
+ * <p>Structurally identical to {@link RowIdMeta} — kept separate because the two map to distinct
+ * Rust types with different serialization formats and evolution paths.
+ */
+public class VersionMeta implements Serializable {
+  private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
+
+  private final String metadata;
+
+  public VersionMeta(String metadata) {
+    this.metadata = metadata;
+  }
+
+  public String getMetadata() {
+    return metadata;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean equals(Object obj) {
+    if (this == obj) {
+      return true;
+    }
+    if (obj == null || getClass() != obj.getClass()) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    VersionMeta that = (VersionMeta) obj;
+    return Objects.equals(metadata, that.metadata);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(metadata);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this).add("metadata", metadata).toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/Index.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/Index.java
index 955835496ed..795f176a96d 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/Index.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/Index.java
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@
 
 import java.time.Instant;
 import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
@@ -29,6 +30,7 @@
 public class Index {
   private final UUID uuid;
   private final List<Integer> fields;
+  private final List<Integer> coveringFields;
   private final String name;
   private final long datasetVersion;
   private final List<Integer> fragments;
@@ -36,11 +38,14 @@ public class Index {
   private final int indexVersion;
   private final Instant createdAt;
   private final Integer baseId;
+  private final Long sizeBytes;
+  private final List<IndexFile> files;
   private final IndexType indexType;
 
   private Index(
       UUID uuid,
       List<Integer> fields,
+      List<Integer> coveringFields,
       String name,
       long datasetVersion,
       List<Integer> fragments,
@@ -48,9 +53,12 @@ private Index(
       int indexVersion,
       Instant createdAt,
       Integer baseId,
+      Long sizeBytes,
+      List<IndexFile> files,
       IndexType indexType) {
     this.uuid = uuid;
     this.fields = fields;
+    this.coveringFields = coveringFields;
     this.name = name;
     this.datasetVersion = datasetVersion;
     this.fragments = fragments;
@@ -58,6 +66,22 @@ private Index(
     this.indexVersion = indexVersion;
     this.createdAt = createdAt;
     this.baseId = baseId;
+    boolean hasFiles = files != null && !files.isEmpty();
+    if (hasFiles && sizeBytes == null) {
+      long derivedSizeBytes = 0;
+      try {
+        for (IndexFile file : files) {
+          derivedSizeBytes = Math.addExact(derivedSizeBytes, file.getSizeBytes());
+        }
+      } catch (ArithmeticException e) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+            "index file sizes cannot be represented by Java long", e);
+      }
+      this.sizeBytes = derivedSizeBytes;
+    } else {
+      this.sizeBytes = !hasFiles && Long.valueOf(0).equals(sizeBytes) ? null : sizeBytes;
+    }
+    this.files = hasFiles ? files : null;
     this.indexType = indexType;
   }
 
@@ -74,6 +98,20 @@ public List<Integer> fields() {
     return fields;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Fields whose values this index carries but is not keyed on. Always a suffix of {@link
+   * #fields()}, and never all of it, so the first entry of {@code fields()} is always a column the
+   * index is keyed on. Empty for an index that carries no extra columns.
+   *
+   * <p>These ids also appear in {@link #fields()} — that is deliberate, so that every consumer
+   * reading {@code fields()} as the index's dependency set also covers them with no change.
+   *
+   * @return the covering field IDs
+   */
+  public List<Integer> coveringFields() {
+    return coveringFields;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Human readable index name
    *
@@ -104,6 +142,22 @@ public Optional<Integer> baseId() {
     return Optional.ofNullable(baseId);
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get the total size of all files in this physical index segment.
+   *
+   * <p>The size is unavailable for indices created before index file sizes were tracked.
+   *
+   * @return the segment size in bytes, or empty if unavailable
+   */
+  public Optional<Long> getSizeBytes() {
+    return Optional.ofNullable(sizeBytes);
+  }
+
+  /** Files and sizes for this index segment, or empty when older writers did not record them. */
+  public Optional<List<IndexFile>> getFiles() {
+    return Optional.ofNullable(files);
+  }
+
   /**
    * Get the index version.
    *
@@ -140,11 +194,14 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
         && indexVersion == index.indexVersion
         && Objects.equals(uuid, index.uuid)
         && Objects.equals(fields, index.fields)
+        && Objects.equals(coveringFields, index.coveringFields)
         && Objects.equals(name, index.name)
         && Objects.equals(fragments, index.fragments)
         && Arrays.equals(indexDetails, index.indexDetails)
         && Objects.equals(createdAt, index.createdAt)
         && Objects.equals(baseId, index.baseId)
+        && Objects.equals(sizeBytes, index.sizeBytes)
+        && Objects.equals(files, index.files)
         && indexType == index.indexType;
   }
 
@@ -154,11 +211,14 @@ public int hashCode() {
         Objects.hash(
             uuid,
             fields,
+            coveringFields,
             name,
             datasetVersion,
             indexVersion,
             createdAt,
             baseId,
+            sizeBytes,
+            files,
             fragments,
             indexType);
     result = 31 * result + Arrays.hashCode(indexDetails);
@@ -170,12 +230,15 @@ public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
         .add("uuid", uuid)
         .add("fields", fields)
+        .add("coveringFields", coveringFields)
         .add("name", name)
         .add("datasetVersion", datasetVersion)
         .add("indexVersion", indexVersion)
         .add("indexType", indexType)
         .add("createdAt", createdAt)
         .add("baseId", baseId)
+        .add("sizeBytes", sizeBytes)
+        .add("files", files)
         .toString();
   }
 
@@ -192,6 +255,7 @@ public static class Builder {
 
     private UUID uuid;
     private List<Integer> fields;
+    private List<Integer> coveringFields = Collections.emptyList();
     private String name;
     private long datasetVersion;
     private List<Integer> fragments;
@@ -199,6 +263,8 @@ public static class Builder {
     private int indexVersion;
     private Instant createdAt;
     private Integer baseId;
+    private Long sizeBytes;
+    private List<IndexFile> files;
     private IndexType indexType;
 
     private Builder() {}
@@ -213,6 +279,11 @@ public Builder fields(List<Integer> fields) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    public Builder coveringFields(List<Integer> coveringFields) {
+      this.coveringFields = coveringFields;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public Builder name(String name) {
       this.name = name;
       return this;
@@ -248,6 +319,16 @@ public Builder baseId(Integer baseId) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    public Builder sizeBytes(Long sizeBytes) {
+      this.sizeBytes = sizeBytes;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder files(List<IndexFile> files) {
+      this.files = files;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public Builder indexType(IndexType indexType) {
       this.indexType = indexType;
       return this;
@@ -257,6 +338,7 @@ public Index build() {
       return new Index(
           uuid,
           fields,
+          coveringFields,
           name,
           datasetVersion,
           fragments,
@@ -264,6 +346,8 @@ public Index build() {
           indexVersion,
           createdAt,
           baseId,
+          sizeBytes,
+          files,
           indexType);
     }
   }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexBuildProgress.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexBuildProgress.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..822b0fefb4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexBuildProgress.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.index;
+
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/** Receives stage-level progress while Lance builds or finalizes an index. */
+public interface IndexBuildProgress {
+
+  /**
+   * Reports that a stage has started.
+   *
+   * <p>Implementations must be thread-safe. Lance may invoke callbacks concurrently from native
+   * runtime threads. Callbacks may re-enter read-only methods on the same {@code Dataset} through
+   * JNI. Conflicting write re-entry from a callback is rejected; unrelated concurrent callers keep
+   * their normal wait behavior. Concurrent create/merge index builds on the same Dataset handle are
+   * serialized. An exception thrown by this method terminates the index operation.
+   *
+   * @param stage stable, index-type-specific stage name
+   * @param total number of work units, or empty when the total is unknown
+   * @param unit description of the work unit, such as {@code files} or {@code partitions}
+   */
+  void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit);
+
+  /**
+   * Reports completed work within a stage.
+   *
+   * <p>An exception thrown by this method terminates the index operation.
+   *
+   * @param stage stage name previously reported to {@link #stageStart}
+   * @param completed number of completed work units
+   */
+  void stageProgress(String stage, long completed);
+
+  /**
+   * Reports that a stage has completed.
+   *
+   * <p>The stage work has already succeeded when this method is called. Lance therefore logs and
+   * ignores exceptions thrown by this callback instead of failing the completed operation.
+   *
+   * @param stage completed stage name
+   */
+  void stageComplete(String stage);
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexDescription.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexDescription.java
index d17782eb531..b1e2689a00c 100755
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexDescription.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexDescription.java
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.Optional;
 
 /**
  * High-level description of an index, aggregating metadata across all segments.
@@ -31,6 +32,7 @@ public final class IndexDescription {
   private final long rowsIndexed;
   private final List<Index> metadata;
   private final String detailsJson;
+  private final Long totalSizeBytes;
 
   public IndexDescription(
       String name,
@@ -40,6 +42,18 @@ public IndexDescription(
       long rowsIndexed,
       List<Index> metadata,
       String detailsJson) {
+    this(name, fieldIds, typeUrl, indexType, rowsIndexed, metadata, detailsJson, null);
+  }
+
+  public IndexDescription(
+      String name,
+      List<Integer> fieldIds,
+      String typeUrl,
+      String indexType,
+      long rowsIndexed,
+      List<Index> metadata,
+      String detailsJson,
+      Long totalSizeBytes) {
     this.name = Objects.requireNonNull(name, "name must not be null");
     this.fieldIds = Objects.requireNonNull(fieldIds, "fieldIds must not be null");
     this.typeUrl = Objects.requireNonNull(typeUrl, "typeUrl must not be null");
@@ -47,6 +61,7 @@ public IndexDescription(
     this.rowsIndexed = rowsIndexed;
     this.metadata = Objects.requireNonNull(metadata, "metadata must not be null");
     this.detailsJson = detailsJson;
+    this.totalSizeBytes = totalSizeBytes;
   }
 
   /** The logical name of the index. */
@@ -83,6 +98,15 @@ public List<Index> getMetadata() {
     return metadata;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Physical index segments for this logical index.
+   *
+   * <p>This is an alias for {@link #getMetadata()} with a less ambiguous name.
+   */
+  public List<Index> getSegments() {
+    return metadata;
+  }
+
   /**
    * JSON representation of index-specific details.
    *
@@ -91,4 +115,15 @@ public List<Index> getMetadata() {
   public String getDetailsJson() {
     return detailsJson;
   }
+
+  /**
+   * Total size of all files across all physical index segments.
+   *
+   * <p>The size is unavailable if any segment predates index file size tracking.
+   *
+   * @return the logical index size in bytes, or empty if unavailable
+   */
+  public Optional<Long> getTotalSizeBytes() {
+    return Optional.ofNullable(totalSizeBytes);
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexFile.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexFile.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bb6fdc9cd3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexFile.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.index;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/** Metadata for a file within an index segment. */
+public final class IndexFile {
+  private final String path;
+  private final long sizeBytes;
+
+  public IndexFile(String path, long sizeBytes) {
+    this.path = Objects.requireNonNull(path, "path must not be null");
+    if (sizeBytes < 0) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("sizeBytes must be non-negative");
+    }
+    this.sizeBytes = sizeBytes;
+  }
+
+  public String getPath() {
+    return path;
+  }
+
+  public long getSizeBytes() {
+    return sizeBytes;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean equals(Object o) {
+    if (this == o) return true;
+    if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+    IndexFile indexFile = (IndexFile) o;
+    return sizeBytes == indexFile.sizeBytes && Objects.equals(path, indexFile.path);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(path, sizeBytes);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("path", path)
+        .add("sizeBytes", sizeBytes)
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexType.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexType.java
index 5ea900b82d0..1fff86fc7e0 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexType.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/IndexType.java
@@ -24,13 +24,15 @@ public enum IndexType {
   MEM_WAL(7),
   ZONEMAP(8),
   BLOOM_FILTER(9),
+  RTREE(10),
   VECTOR(100),
   IVF_FLAT(101),
   IVF_SQ(102),
   IVF_PQ(103),
   IVF_HNSW_SQ(104),
   IVF_HNSW_PQ(105),
-  IVF_HNSW_FLAT(106);
+  IVF_HNSW_FLAT(106),
+  IVF_RQ(107);
 
   private final int value;
 
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/BTreeIndexParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/BTreeIndexParams.java
index d72d5936d97..a7be46d2a85 100755
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/BTreeIndexParams.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/BTreeIndexParams.java
@@ -59,7 +59,14 @@ public Builder zoneSize(long zoneSize) {
      * @param rangeId non-negative range identifier
      * @return this builder
      * @throws IllegalArgumentException
+     * @deprecated {@code rangeId} is no longer needed and is now ignored at build time (a warning
+     *     is logged if set). A pre-sorted data stream is still supported — just pass the reader
+     *     without a {@code rangeId}. Each build produces one canonical segment; for distributed
+     *     builds, build one segment per worker and commit them with {@code
+     *     commitExistingIndexSegments(...)}, optionally consolidating with {@code
+     *     mergeExistingIndexSegments(...)}. This parameter will be removed in a future release.
      */
+    @Deprecated
     public Builder rangeId(int rangeId) {
       if (rangeId < 0) {
         throw new IllegalArgumentException("rangeId must be non-negative");
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/BitmapIndexParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/BitmapIndexParams.java
index b5e18be507a..67a0f2afc7e 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/BitmapIndexParams.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/BitmapIndexParams.java
@@ -13,6 +13,11 @@
  */
 package org.lance.index.scalar;
 
+import org.lance.util.JsonUtils;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
 /** Builder-style configuration for Bitmap scalar index parameters. */
 public final class BitmapIndexParams {
   private static final String INDEX_TYPE = "bitmap";
@@ -25,9 +30,36 @@ public static Builder builder() {
   }
 
   public static final class Builder {
+    private Integer shardId;
+
+    /**
+     * Configure an explicit shard ID for distributed bitmap builds spanning multiple fragments.
+     *
+     * @param shardId non-negative shard identifier
+     * @return this builder
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException
+     */
+    public Builder shardId(int shardId) {
+      if (shardId < 0) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("shardId must be non-negative");
+      }
+      this.shardId = shardId;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     /** Build a {@link ScalarIndexParams} instance for a Bitmap index. */
     public ScalarIndexParams build() {
-      return ScalarIndexParams.create(INDEX_TYPE);
+      Map<String, Object> params = new HashMap<>();
+      if (shardId != null) {
+        params.put("shard_id", shardId);
+      }
+
+      if (params.isEmpty()) {
+        return ScalarIndexParams.create(INDEX_TYPE);
+      }
+
+      String json = JsonUtils.toJson(params);
+      return ScalarIndexParams.create(INDEX_TYPE, json);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/InvertedIndexParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/InvertedIndexParams.java
index ca0a7a46c70..6597fdc0841 100755
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/InvertedIndexParams.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/InvertedIndexParams.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.index.scalar;
 
+import org.lance.DocumentGranularity;
 import org.lance.util.JsonUtils;
 
 import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
@@ -41,10 +42,12 @@ public static Builder builder() {
 
   /** Builder for inverted scalar index parameters. */
   public static final class Builder {
+    private String analyzer;
+    private String lanceTokenizer;
     private String baseTokenizer;
     private String language;
     private Boolean withPosition;
-    private Integer maxTokenLength;
+    private Integer maxTokenLength = 40;
     private Boolean lowerCase;
     private Boolean stem;
     private Boolean removeStopWords;
@@ -53,7 +56,52 @@ public static final class Builder {
     private Integer minNgramLength;
     private Integer maxNgramLength;
     private Boolean prefixOnly;
-    private Boolean skipMerge;
+    private Integer blockSize = 128;
+    private Boolean splitIdentifiers;
+    private Boolean splitOnNumerics;
+    private Boolean preserveOriginal;
+    private Boolean indexOperators;
+    private Long memoryLimit;
+    private Integer numWorkers;
+    private Integer formatVersion;
+    private DocumentGranularity documentGranularity = DocumentGranularity.ROW;
+
+    /**
+     * Configure the analyzer preset.
+     *
+     * <p>Supported values are {@code "text"} and {@code "code"}. The code analyzer selects the code
+     * tokenizer defaults and requires FTS format v3. If unset, the analyzer is inferred from {@link
+     * #baseTokenizer(String)}.
+     *
+     * @param analyzer analyzer preset
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder analyzer(String analyzer) {
+      Objects.requireNonNull(analyzer, "analyzer must not be null");
+      if (analyzer.isEmpty()) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("analyzer must not be empty");
+      }
+      this.analyzer = analyzer;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Configure the document-level tokenizer used before lexical tokenization.
+     *
+     * <p>Supported values are {@code "text"} for plain strings and {@code "json"} for JSON strings.
+     * If unset, Lance infers the document tokenizer from the Arrow field type.
+     *
+     * @param lanceTokenizer document-level tokenizer
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder lanceTokenizer(String lanceTokenizer) {
+      Objects.requireNonNull(lanceTokenizer, "lanceTokenizer must not be null");
+      if (lanceTokenizer.isEmpty()) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("lanceTokenizer must not be empty");
+      }
+      this.lanceTokenizer = lanceTokenizer;
+      return this;
+    }
 
     /**
      * Configure the base tokenizer.
@@ -65,10 +113,18 @@ public static final class Builder {
      *   <li>{@code "whitespace"}: splits tokens on whitespace
      *   <li>{@code "raw"}: no tokenization
      *   <li>{@code "ngram"}: N-Gram tokenizer
+     *   <li>{@code "code"}: code-aware tokenizer
+     *   <li>{@code "icu"}: ICU dictionary-based Unicode word segmentation
+     *   <li>{@code "icu/split"}: ICU segmentation with simple-style delimiter splitting
      *   <li>{@code "lindera/*"}: Lindera tokenizer
      *   <li>{@code "jieba/*"}: Jieba tokenizer
      * </ul>
      *
+     * <p>Lindera and Jieba tokenizers load their language models from the directory configured by
+     * {@code LANCE_LANGUAGE_MODEL_HOME}, or from Lance's platform-specific default language model
+     * directory. The tokenizer suffix selects a model directory, for example {@code jieba/default}.
+     * The {@code code} tokenizer requires FTS format v3.
+     *
      * @param baseTokenizer tokenizer identifier string
      * @return this builder
      * @throws IllegalArgumentException
@@ -112,12 +168,16 @@ public Builder withPosition(boolean withPosition) {
     /**
      * Configure the maximum token length.
      *
-     * @param maxTokenLength maximum token length, must be positive
+     * <p>The default is {@code 40}. Set this to {@code null} to disable the maximum token length
+     * filter.
+     *
+     * @param maxTokenLength maximum token length, or {@code null} for no limit; non-null values
+     *     must be positive
      * @return this builder
-     * @throws IllegalArgumentException
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code maxTokenLength} is not null and is not positive
      */
     public Builder maxTokenLength(Integer maxTokenLength) {
-      if (maxTokenLength == null || maxTokenLength <= 0) {
+      if (maxTokenLength != null && maxTokenLength <= 0) {
         throw new IllegalArgumentException("maxTokenLength must be positive when specified");
       }
       this.maxTokenLength = maxTokenLength;
@@ -224,21 +284,181 @@ public Builder prefixOnly(boolean prefixOnly) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Configure whether to skip the partition merge stage after indexing. If true, skip the
-     * partition merge stage after indexing. This can be useful for distributed indexing where merge
-     * is handled separately.
+     * Configure the number of documents in each compressed posting block.
+     *
+     * <p>Supported values are {@code 128} and {@code 256}. New indexes default to {@code 128} when
+     * this is not set.
+     *
+     * <p>{@code blockSize = 256} requires FTS format v3. Format v3 also supports the default {@code
+     * blockSize = 128}.
+     *
+     * @param blockSize posting block size
+     * @return this builder
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code blockSize} is unsupported
+     */
+    public Builder blockSize(int blockSize) {
+      if (blockSize != 128 && blockSize != 256) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("blockSize must be one of 128 or 256");
+      }
+      this.blockSize = blockSize;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Configure whether code identifiers are split into subwords.
+     *
+     * <p>This option is valid only with the {@code code} analyzer.
+     *
+     * @param splitIdentifiers whether to split identifiers
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder splitIdentifiers(boolean splitIdentifiers) {
+      this.splitIdentifiers = splitIdentifiers;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Configure whether code identifier subwords are split at letter-number boundaries.
+     *
+     * <p>This option is valid only with the {@code code} analyzer.
+     *
+     * @param splitOnNumerics whether to split at numeric boundaries
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder splitOnNumerics(boolean splitOnNumerics) {
+      this.splitOnNumerics = splitOnNumerics;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Configure whether complete code identifiers are indexed alongside their subwords.
+     *
+     * <p>This option is valid only with the {@code code} analyzer.
+     *
+     * @param preserveOriginal whether to preserve complete identifiers
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder preserveOriginal(boolean preserveOriginal) {
+      this.preserveOriginal = preserveOriginal;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Configure whether code operators such as {@code ::}, {@code ->}, and {@code !=} are indexed.
+     *
+     * <p>This option is valid only with the {@code code} analyzer.
+     *
+     * @param indexOperators whether to index operators
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder indexOperators(boolean indexOperators) {
+      this.indexOperators = indexOperators;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Configure the total memory limit in MiB for the build stage.
+     *
+     * <p>The limit is split evenly across FTS workers and is not persisted with the index. If
+     * unset, each worker uses a 2 GiB build-time limit.
+     *
+     * <p>A value of {@code 0} is passed through to Rust.
+     *
+     * @param memoryLimit total memory limit in MiB, must be non-negative
+     * @return this builder
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code memoryLimit} is negative
+     */
+    public Builder memoryLimit(long memoryLimit) {
+      if (memoryLimit < 0) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("memoryLimit must be non-negative");
+      }
+      this.memoryLimit = memoryLimit;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Configure the number of workers used for the build stage.
+     *
+     * <p>The effective value is capped at the available compute-intensive CPU count and is not
+     * persisted with the index. Rust clamps a value of {@code 0} to one worker.
+     *
+     * @param numWorkers requested worker count, must be non-negative
+     * @return this builder
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code numWorkers} is negative
+     */
+    public Builder numWorkers(int numWorkers) {
+      if (numWorkers < 0) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("numWorkers must be non-negative");
+      }
+      this.numWorkers = numWorkers;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This option has no effect because the Rust inverted-index builder does not support skipping
+     * the partition merge stage.
      *
      * @param skipMerge whether to skip partition merge
      * @return this builder
+     * @deprecated this option has no effect and will be removed in a future release
      */
+    @Deprecated
     public Builder skipMerge(boolean skipMerge) {
-      this.skipMerge = skipMerge;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Configure the on-disk FTS format version to write when creating a new index.
+     *
+     * <p>If unset, Lance uses {@code LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION} when present and otherwise selects
+     * v3 for the code analyzer, {@code baseTokenizer = "code"}, or {@code blockSize = 256}, and v2
+     * for other indexes. Format v3 supports both posting block sizes. Formats v1 and v2 support
+     * only {@code blockSize = 128} and cannot be used with the code analyzer or code base
+     * tokenizer.
+     *
+     * @param formatVersion FTS format version, must be 1, 2, or 3
+     * @return this builder
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException
+     */
+    public Builder formatVersion(int formatVersion) {
+      if (formatVersion != 1 && formatVersion != 2 && formatVersion != 3) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("formatVersion must be 1, 2, or 3");
+      }
+      this.formatVersion = formatVersion;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Configure the unit treated as one FTS document.
+     *
+     * <p>{@link DocumentGranularity#LIST_ELEMENT} uses each element of the deepest list on the
+     * indexed field path as one document. The default is {@link DocumentGranularity#ROW}.
+     *
+     * @param documentGranularity document boundary semantics
+     * @return this builder
+     */
+    public Builder documentGranularity(DocumentGranularity documentGranularity) {
+      this.documentGranularity =
+          Objects.requireNonNull(documentGranularity, "documentGranularity must not be null");
       return this;
     }
 
     /** Build a {@link ScalarIndexParams} instance for an inverted index. */
     public ScalarIndexParams build() {
+      if (formatVersion != null) {
+        Preconditions.checkArgument(
+            formatVersion == 3 || blockSize == 128, "formatVersion 1 and 2 require blockSize 128");
+        Preconditions.checkArgument(
+            (!"code".equals(analyzer) && !"code".equals(baseTokenizer)) || formatVersion == 3,
+            "code analyzer and baseTokenizer 'code' require formatVersion 3");
+      }
       Map<String, Object> params = new HashMap<>();
+      if (analyzer != null) {
+        params.put("analyzer", analyzer);
+      }
+      if (lanceTokenizer != null) {
+        params.put("lance_tokenizer", lanceTokenizer);
+      }
       if (baseTokenizer != null) {
         params.put("base_tokenizer", baseTokenizer);
       }
@@ -248,9 +468,7 @@ public ScalarIndexParams build() {
       if (withPosition != null) {
         params.put("with_position", withPosition);
       }
-      if (maxTokenLength != null) {
-        params.put("max_token_length", maxTokenLength);
-      }
+      params.put("max_token_length", maxTokenLength);
       if (lowerCase != null) {
         params.put("lower_case", lowerCase);
       }
@@ -280,9 +498,31 @@ public ScalarIndexParams build() {
       if (prefixOnly != null) {
         params.put("prefix_only", prefixOnly);
       }
-      if (skipMerge != null) {
-        params.put("skip_merge", skipMerge);
+      if (blockSize != null) {
+        params.put("block_size", blockSize);
+      }
+      if (splitIdentifiers != null) {
+        params.put("split_identifiers", splitIdentifiers);
+      }
+      if (splitOnNumerics != null) {
+        params.put("split_on_numerics", splitOnNumerics);
+      }
+      if (preserveOriginal != null) {
+        params.put("preserve_original", preserveOriginal);
+      }
+      if (indexOperators != null) {
+        params.put("index_operators", indexOperators);
+      }
+      if (memoryLimit != null) {
+        params.put("memory_limit", memoryLimit);
+      }
+      if (numWorkers != null) {
+        params.put("num_workers", numWorkers);
+      }
+      if (formatVersion != null) {
+        params.put("format_version", formatVersion);
       }
+      params.put("document_granularity", documentGranularity.toRustString());
 
       String json = JsonUtils.toJson(params);
       return ScalarIndexParams.create(INDEX_TYPE, json);
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/ScalarIndexParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/ScalarIndexParams.java
index 345a55f20b2..b3408e2d68d 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/ScalarIndexParams.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/ScalarIndexParams.java
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ private ScalarIndexParams(Builder builder) {
    * Create a new ScalarIndexParams with the given index type and no parameters.
    *
    * @param indexType the index type (e.g., "btree", "zonemap", "bitmap", "inverted", "labellist",
-   *     "ngram")
+   *     "ngram", "rtree")
    * @return ScalarIndexParams
    */
   public static ScalarIndexParams create(String indexType) {
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ public static ScalarIndexParams create(String indexType) {
    * Create a new ScalarIndexParams with the given index type and JSON parameters.
    *
    * @param indexType the index type (e.g., "btree", "zonemap", "bitmap", "inverted", "labellist",
-   *     "ngram")
+   *     "ngram", "rtree")
    * @param jsonParams JSON string containing index-specific parameters
    * @return ScalarIndexParams
    */
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ public static class Builder {
      * Create a new builder for scalar index parameters.
      *
      * @param indexType the index type (e.g., "btree", "zonemap", "bitmap", "inverted", "labellist",
-     *     "ngram")
+     *     "ngram", "rtree")
      */
     public Builder(String indexType) {
       this.indexType = indexType;
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/ZoneStats.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/ZoneStats.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b97042ed226
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/scalar/ZoneStats.java
@@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.index.scalar;
+
+import java.io.Serializable;
+
+/**
+ * Per-zone statistics from a zonemap index.
+ *
+ * <p>Each zone covers a contiguous range of row offsets within a single fragment. The min/max
+ * values are represented as {@link Comparable} objects (Long, Double, String, etc.) matching the
+ * column's data type.
+ *
+ * <p>A zone never spans fragment boundaries: if a fragment has more rows than the zone size,
+ * multiple zones are created within that fragment.
+ *
+ * <p>This class is populated from the Rust {@code ZoneMapStatistics} via JNI. See {@code
+ * lance-index/src/scalar/zonemap.rs} for the on-disk format.
+ */
+public class ZoneStats implements Serializable {
+  private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
+
+  private final int fragmentId;
+  private final long zoneStart;
+  private final long zoneLength;
+  private final Comparable<?> min;
+  private final Comparable<?> max;
+  private final long nullCount;
+
+  /**
+   * Constructs a new ZoneStats instance.
+   *
+   * @param fragmentId the fragment this zone belongs to
+   * @param zoneStart the starting row offset within the fragment
+   * @param zoneLength the span of row offsets (last_offset - first_offset + 1); may differ from
+   *     physical row count if rows have been deleted
+   * @param min the minimum value in the zone, or null if all values are null
+   * @param max the maximum value in the zone, or null if all values are null
+   * @param nullCount the number of null values in the zone
+   */
+  public ZoneStats(
+      int fragmentId,
+      long zoneStart,
+      long zoneLength,
+      Comparable<?> min,
+      Comparable<?> max,
+      long nullCount) {
+    this.fragmentId = fragmentId;
+    this.zoneStart = zoneStart;
+    this.zoneLength = zoneLength;
+    this.min = min;
+    this.max = max;
+    this.nullCount = nullCount;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the fragment ID this zone belongs to. */
+  public int getFragmentId() {
+    return fragmentId;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the starting row offset within the fragment. */
+  public long getZoneStart() {
+    return zoneStart;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the span of row offsets covered by this zone.
+   *
+   * <p>This is (last_row_offset - first_row_offset + 1), not the count of physical rows. Deletions
+   * may create gaps within the span.
+   */
+  public long getZoneLength() {
+    return zoneLength;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the minimum value in the zone.
+   *
+   * @return the min value, or null if all values in the zone are null
+   */
+  public Comparable<?> getMin() {
+    return min;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the maximum value in the zone.
+   *
+   * @return the max value, or null if all values in the zone are null
+   */
+  public Comparable<?> getMax() {
+    return max;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the number of null values in the zone. */
+  public long getNullCount() {
+    return nullCount;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return String.format(
+        "ZoneStats{fragmentId=%d, zoneStart=%d, zoneLength=%d," + " min=%s, max=%s, nullCount=%d}",
+        fragmentId, zoneStart, zoneLength, min, max, nullCount);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/RQBuildParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/RQBuildParams.java
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..49db5d9567e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/RQBuildParams.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.index.vector;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+/** Parameters for building a Rabit Quantizer (RQ) index stage. Defaults to 5 bits per dimension. */
+public class RQBuildParams {
+  private final byte numBits;
+
+  private RQBuildParams(Builder builder) {
+    this.numBits = builder.numBits;
+  }
+
+  public static class Builder {
+    private byte numBits = 5;
+
+    public Builder() {}
+
+    /**
+     * @param numBits number of bits per dimension used by Rabit quantization.
+     * @return Builder
+     */
+    public Builder setNumBits(byte numBits) {
+      this.numBits = numBits;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public RQBuildParams build() {
+      return new RQBuildParams(this);
+    }
+  }
+
+  public byte getNumBits() {
+    return numBits;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this).add("numBits", numBits).toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/VectorIndexParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/VectorIndexParams.java
index 07159cdd048..e8928943b48 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/VectorIndexParams.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/VectorIndexParams.java
@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@ public class VectorIndexParams {
   private final Optional<PQBuildParams> pqParams;
   private final Optional<HnswBuildParams> hnswParams;
   private final Optional<SQBuildParams> sqParams;
+  private final Optional<RQBuildParams> rqParams;
 
   private VectorIndexParams(Builder builder) {
     this.distanceType = builder.distanceType;
@@ -33,12 +34,16 @@ private VectorIndexParams(Builder builder) {
     this.pqParams = builder.pqParams;
     this.hnswParams = builder.hnswParams;
     this.sqParams = builder.sqParams;
+    this.rqParams = builder.rqParams;
     validate();
   }
 
   private void validate() {
-    if (pqParams.isPresent() && sqParams.isPresent()) {
-      throw new IllegalArgumentException("PQ and SQ cannot coexist");
+    if ((pqParams.isPresent() ? 1 : 0)
+            + (sqParams.isPresent() ? 1 : 0)
+            + (rqParams.isPresent() ? 1 : 0)
+        > 1) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("Only one of PQ, SQ, or RQ can be specified at a time.");
     }
     if (hnswParams.isPresent() && !pqParams.isPresent() && !sqParams.isPresent()) {
       throw new IllegalArgumentException("HNSW must be combined with either PQ or SQ");
@@ -100,6 +105,35 @@ public static VectorIndexParams withIvfPqParams(
     return new Builder(ivf).setDistanceType(distanceType).setPqParams(pq).build();
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Create a new IVF index with RQ quantizer.
+   *
+   * @param numPartitions the number of partitions of IVF (Inverted File Index)
+   * @param numBits number of bits per dimension used by Rabit quantization
+   * @param distanceType the distance type for calculating the distance between vectors
+   * @return the VectorIndexParams
+   */
+  public static VectorIndexParams ivfRq(
+      int numPartitions, byte numBits, DistanceType distanceType) {
+    IvfBuildParams ivfParams = new IvfBuildParams.Builder().setNumPartitions(numPartitions).build();
+    RQBuildParams rqParams = new RQBuildParams.Builder().setNumBits(numBits).build();
+
+    return new Builder(ivfParams).setDistanceType(distanceType).setRqParams(rqParams).build();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Create a new IVF index with RQ quantizer.
+   *
+   * @param distanceType the distance type for calculating the distance between vectors
+   * @param ivf the IVF build parameters
+   * @param rq the RQ build parameters
+   * @return the VectorIndexParams
+   */
+  public static VectorIndexParams withIvfRqParams(
+      DistanceType distanceType, IvfBuildParams ivf, RQBuildParams rq) {
+    return new Builder(ivf).setDistanceType(distanceType).setRqParams(rq).build();
+  }
+
   /**
    * Create a new IVF HNSW index with PQ quantizer. The dataset is partitioned into IVF partitions,
    * and each partition builds an HNSW graph.
@@ -144,6 +178,7 @@ public static class Builder {
     private Optional<PQBuildParams> pqParams = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<HnswBuildParams> hnswParams = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<SQBuildParams> sqParams = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<RQBuildParams> rqParams = Optional.empty();
 
     /**
      * Create a new builder to create a vector index.
@@ -191,6 +226,15 @@ public Builder setSqParams(SQBuildParams sqParams) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * @param rqParams the RQ quantizer build parameters
+     * @return Builder
+     */
+    public Builder setRqParams(RQBuildParams rqParams) {
+      this.rqParams = Optional.of(rqParams);
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public VectorIndexParams build() {
       return new VectorIndexParams(this);
     }
@@ -220,6 +264,10 @@ public Optional<SQBuildParams> getSqParams() {
     return sqParams;
   }
 
+  public Optional<RQBuildParams> getRqParams() {
+    return rqParams;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
@@ -228,6 +276,7 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("pqParams", pqParams.orElse(null))
         .add("hnswParams", hnswParams.orElse(null))
         .add("sqParams", sqParams.orElse(null))
+        .add("rqParams", rqParams.orElse(null))
         .toString();
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/VectorTrainer.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/VectorTrainer.java
index 03081176bf1..640398ffcf6 100755
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/VectorTrainer.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/index/vector/VectorTrainer.java
@@ -15,6 +15,8 @@
 
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.JniLoader;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
+import org.lance.index.DistanceType;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
 
@@ -33,41 +35,80 @@ public final class VectorTrainer {
 
   private VectorTrainer() {}
 
+  /**
+   * Train IVF centroids for the given dataset column with {@link DistanceType#L2}.
+   *
+   * <p>Equivalent to {@link #trainIvfCentroids(Dataset, String, IvfBuildParams, DistanceType)} with
+   * {@code distanceType = DistanceType.L2}.
+   */
+  public static float[] trainIvfCentroids(Dataset dataset, String column, IvfBuildParams params) {
+    return trainIvfCentroids(dataset, column, params, DistanceType.L2);
+  }
+
   /**
    * Train IVF centroids for the given dataset column.
    *
+   * <p>The {@code distanceType} controls the geometry used to cluster centroids and must match the
+   * distance type later passed to per-fragment index builds. If they disagree the centroids are
+   * clustered on a different geometry than the encoded data and recall will silently degrade.
+   *
    * @param dataset the dataset to sample training data from
    * @param column the vector column name
    * @param params IVF build parameters (numPartitions, sampleRate, etc.)
+   * @param distanceType distance metric used during clustering
    * @return a flattened array of centroids laid out as [numPartitions][dimension]
    */
-  public static float[] trainIvfCentroids(Dataset dataset, String column, IvfBuildParams params) {
+  public static float[] trainIvfCentroids(
+      Dataset dataset, String column, IvfBuildParams params, DistanceType distanceType) {
     Preconditions.checkArgument(dataset != null, "dataset cannot be null");
     Preconditions.checkArgument(
         column != null && !column.isEmpty(), "column cannot be null or empty");
     Preconditions.checkArgument(params != null, "params cannot be null");
-    return nativeTrainIvfCentroids(dataset, column, params);
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(distanceType != null, "distanceType cannot be null");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return nativeTrainIvfCentroids(dataset, column, params, distanceType.toString());
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Train a PQ codebook for the given dataset column with {@link DistanceType#L2}.
+   *
+   * <p>Equivalent to {@link #trainPqCodebook(Dataset, String, PQBuildParams, DistanceType)} with
+   * {@code distanceType = DistanceType.L2}.
+   */
+  public static float[] trainPqCodebook(Dataset dataset, String column, PQBuildParams params) {
+    return trainPqCodebook(dataset, column, params, DistanceType.L2);
   }
 
   /**
    * Train a PQ codebook for the given dataset column.
    *
+   * <p>The {@code distanceType} controls the geometry used to fit the codebook (notably, Cosine
+   * normalizes training data before k-means) and must match the distance type later passed to
+   * per-fragment index builds. If they disagree the codebook is shaped for one geometry while
+   * encoding happens against another and recall will silently degrade.
+   *
    * @param dataset the dataset to sample training data from
    * @param column the vector column name
    * @param params PQ build parameters (numSubVectors, numBits, sampleRate, etc.)
+   * @param distanceType distance metric used during codebook training
    * @return a flattened array of codebook entries laid out as [num_centroids][dimension]
    */
-  public static float[] trainPqCodebook(Dataset dataset, String column, PQBuildParams params) {
+  public static float[] trainPqCodebook(
+      Dataset dataset, String column, PQBuildParams params, DistanceType distanceType) {
     Preconditions.checkArgument(dataset != null, "dataset cannot be null");
     Preconditions.checkArgument(
         column != null && !column.isEmpty(), "column cannot be null or empty");
     Preconditions.checkArgument(params != null, "params cannot be null");
-    return nativeTrainPqCodebook(dataset, column, params);
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(distanceType != null, "distanceType cannot be null");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      return nativeTrainPqCodebook(dataset, column, params, distanceType.toString());
+    }
   }
 
   private static native float[] nativeTrainIvfCentroids(
-      Dataset dataset, String column, IvfBuildParams params);
+      Dataset dataset, String column, IvfBuildParams params, String distanceType);
 
   private static native float[] nativeTrainPqCodebook(
-      Dataset dataset, String column, PQBuildParams params);
+      Dataset dataset, String column, PQBuildParams params, String distanceType);
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/io/StorageOptionsProvider.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/io/StorageOptionsProvider.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 3876ca1fb06..00000000000
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/io/StorageOptionsProvider.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,104 +0,0 @@
-/*
- * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
- * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
- * You may obtain a copy of the License at
- *
- *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
- *
- * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
- * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
- * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
- * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
- * limitations under the License.
- */
-package org.lance.io;
-
-import java.util.Map;
-
-/**
- * Interface for providing cloud storage options to Lance datasets.
- *
- * <p>Storage options providers enable automatic refresh for long-running operations on cloud
- * storage (S3, Azure, GCS). This is currently only used for refreshing AWS temporary access
- * credentials. Implement this interface to integrate with custom credential management systems such
- * as AWS STS, GCP STS, or proprietary credential services.
- *
- * <p>The provider is called automatically before storage options expire, ensuring uninterrupted
- * access during long-running queries, training jobs, or data processing.
- *
- * <h2>Example Implementation</h2>
- *
- * <pre>{@code
- * public class MyStorageOptionsProvider implements StorageOptionsProvider {
- *   public Map<String, String> fetchStorageOptions() {
- *     // Fetch from your credential service
- *     Map<String, String> credentials = new HashMap<>();
- *     credentials.put("aws_access_key_id", "ASIA...");
- *     credentials.put("aws_secret_access_key", "secret");
- *     credentials.put("aws_session_token", "token");
- *
- *     long expiresAtMillis = System.currentTimeMillis() + 3600000L;
- *     credentials.put("expires_at_millis", String.valueOf(expiresAtMillis));
- *
- *     return credentials;
- *   }
- * }
- *
- * // Use with dataset
- * StorageOptionsProvider vendor = new MyStorageOptionsProvider();
- * Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(
- *     "s3://bucket/table.lance",
- *     new ReadOptions.Builder()
- *         .setStorageOptionsProvider(vendor)
- *         .build()
- * );
- * }</pre>
- *
- * <h2>Error Handling</h2>
- *
- * <p>If fetchStorageOptions() throws an exception, operations requiring credentials will fail.
- * Implementations should handle recoverable errors internally (e.g., retry token refresh) and only
- * throw exceptions for unrecoverable errors.
- */
-public interface StorageOptionsProvider {
-
-  /**
-   * Fetch fresh storage credentials.
-   *
-   * <p>This method is called automatically before each request and before existing credentials
-   * expire. It must return credentials in the format described below.
-   *
-   * @return Map of string key-value pairs containing cloud storage credentials and expiration time.
-   *     Required key:
-   *     <ul>
-   *       <li>"expires_at_millis" (String): Unix timestamp in milliseconds (as string) when
-   *           credentials expire. Lance will automatically call fetchStorageOptions() again before
-   *           this time.
-   *     </ul>
-   *     Plus provider-specific credential keys:
-   *     <ul>
-   *       <li>AWS S3: "aws_access_key_id", "aws_secret_access_key", "aws_session_token" (optional)
-   *       <li>Azure Blob Storage: "account_name", "account_key" or "sas_token"
-   *       <li>Google Cloud Storage: "service_account_key" or "token"
-   *     </ul>
-   *
-   * @throws RuntimeException if unable to fetch credentials
-   */
-  Map<String, String> fetchStorageOptions();
-
-  /**
-   * Return a human-readable unique identifier for this provider instance.
-   *
-   * <p>This is used for equality comparison and hashing in the object store registry. Two providers
-   * with the same ID will be treated as equal and share the same cached ObjectStore instance.
-   *
-   * <p>The default implementation uses the class name and toString() representation. Override this
-   * method to provide semantic equality based on configuration.
-   *
-   * @return A human-readable unique identifier string. For example: "MyProvider { endpoint:
-   *     'https://api.example.com' }"
-   */
-  default String providerId() {
-    return this.getClass().getSimpleName() + " { repr: \"" + this.toString() + "\" }";
-  }
-}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ApproxMode.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ApproxMode.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e6aa7fc3552
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ApproxMode.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.ipc;
+
+/**
+ * Controls the speed / accuracy tradeoff for approximate vector search.
+ *
+ * <p>This setting currently only affects RQ-quantized vector indexes, such as IVF_RQ. Other index
+ * types ignore this setting.
+ */
+public enum ApproxMode {
+  /** Prefer faster approximate scoring when supported by the RQ index. */
+  FAST("fast"),
+
+  /** Use the index's default approximation behavior. */
+  NORMAL("normal"),
+
+  /** Prefer more accurate approximate scoring when supported by the RQ index. */
+  ACCURATE("accurate");
+
+  private final String value;
+
+  ApproxMode(String value) {
+    this.value = value;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the lowercase value passed across the JNI boundary. */
+  public String toRustString() {
+    return value;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/AsyncScanner.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/AsyncScanner.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..050a23a81d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/AsyncScanner.java
@@ -0,0 +1,233 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.ipc;
+
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.LanceException;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowSchema;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
+
+import java.nio.ByteBuffer;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.UUID;
+import java.util.concurrent.CompletableFuture;
+import java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentHashMap;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicLong;
+
+/**
+ * Async scanner that provides non-blocking scan operations via CompletableFuture.
+ *
+ * <p>This scanner spawns async I/O tasks in Rust and completes Java futures when data is ready,
+ * preventing thread starvation in Java query engines like Presto/Trino.
+ */
+public class AsyncScanner implements AutoCloseable {
+  private static final AtomicLong TASK_ID_GENERATOR = new AtomicLong(1);
+  private final ConcurrentHashMap<Long, CompletableFuture<Long>> pendingTasks =
+      new ConcurrentHashMap<>();
+
+  private BufferAllocator allocator;
+  private final LockManager lockManager = new LockManager();
+  private long nativeAsyncScannerHandle;
+
+  private AsyncScanner() {}
+
+  /**
+   * Create an AsyncScanner.
+   *
+   * @param dataset the dataset to scan
+   * @param options scan options
+   * @param allocator allocator
+   * @return an AsyncScanner
+   */
+  public static AsyncScanner create(
+      Dataset dataset, ScanOptions options, BufferAllocator allocator) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(dataset);
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(options);
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(allocator);
+    AsyncScanner scanner;
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      scanner =
+          createAsyncScanner(
+              dataset,
+              options.getFragmentIds(),
+              options.getIndexSegments(),
+              options.getColumns(),
+              options.getSubstraitFilter(),
+              options.getFilter(),
+              options.getBatchSize(),
+              options.getBatchSizeBytes(),
+              options.getIoBufferSize(),
+              options.getLimit(),
+              options.getOffset(),
+              options.getNearest(),
+              options.getFullTextQuery(),
+              options.isPrefilter(),
+              options.isWithRowId(),
+              options.isWithRowAddress(),
+              options.getBatchReadahead(),
+              options.getFragmentReadahead(),
+              options.isScanInOrder(),
+              options.getLateMaterialization(),
+              options.getColumnOrderings(),
+              options.isUseScalarIndex(),
+              options.isFastSearch(),
+              options.getSubstraitAggregate(),
+              options.isIncludeDeletedRows(),
+              options.isStrictBatchSize(),
+              options.isDisableScoringAutoprojection());
+    }
+    scanner.allocator = allocator;
+    return scanner;
+  }
+
+  static native AsyncScanner createAsyncScanner(
+      Dataset dataset,
+      Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds,
+      Optional<List<UUID>> indexSegments,
+      Optional<List<String>> columns,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitFilter,
+      Optional<String> filter,
+      Optional<Long> batchSize,
+      Optional<Long> batchSizeBytes,
+      Optional<Long> ioBufferSize,
+      Optional<Long> limit,
+      Optional<Long> offset,
+      Optional<Query> query,
+      Optional<FullTextQuery> fullTextQuery,
+      boolean prefilter,
+      boolean withRowId,
+      boolean withRowAddress,
+      int batchReadahead,
+      Optional<Integer> fragmentReadahead,
+      boolean scanInOrder,
+      Optional<MaterializationStyle> lateMaterialization,
+      Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings,
+      boolean useScalarIndex,
+      boolean fastSearch,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitAggregate,
+      boolean includeDeletedRows,
+      boolean strictBatchSize,
+      boolean disableScoringAutoprojection);
+
+  /**
+   * Asynchronously scan batches and return a CompletableFuture.
+   *
+   * @return a CompletableFuture that will be completed with an ArrowReader when data is ready
+   */
+  public CompletableFuture<ArrowReader> scanBatchesAsync() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      if (nativeAsyncScannerHandle == 0) {
+        CompletableFuture<ArrowReader> future = new CompletableFuture<>();
+        future.completeExceptionally(new IllegalStateException("Scanner is closed"));
+        return future;
+      }
+
+      long taskId = TASK_ID_GENERATOR.getAndIncrement();
+      CompletableFuture<Long> streamPtrFuture = new CompletableFuture<>();
+      pendingTasks.put(taskId, streamPtrFuture);
+
+      // Start async scan in Rust
+      nativeStartScan(taskId);
+
+      // Transform stream pointer to ArrowReader
+      return streamPtrFuture.handle(
+          (streamPtr, error) -> {
+            pendingTasks.remove(taskId);
+
+            if (error != null) {
+              throw new LanceException("Scan failed", error);
+            }
+
+            if (streamPtr < 0) {
+              throw new LanceException("Native scan returned an invalid stream pointer");
+            }
+
+            try {
+              ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.wrap(streamPtr);
+              return Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream);
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+              throw new LanceException("Failed to import scan stream", e);
+            }
+          });
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Called by Rust dispatcher thread via JNI to complete a task successfully. */
+  private void completeTask(long taskId, long resultPtr) {
+    CompletableFuture<Long> future = pendingTasks.get(taskId);
+    if (future != null) {
+      future.complete(resultPtr);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Called by Rust dispatcher thread via JNI to fail a task with an error. */
+  private void failTask(long taskId, String errorMessage) {
+    CompletableFuture<Long> future = pendingTasks.get(taskId);
+    if (future != null) {
+      future.completeExceptionally(new LanceException(errorMessage));
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeStartScan(long taskId);
+
+  /**
+   * Get schema (synchronous operation).
+   *
+   * @return the schema
+   */
+  public Schema schema() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeAsyncScannerHandle != 0, "Scanner is closed");
+      try (ArrowSchema ffiSchema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        importFfiSchema(ffiSchema.memoryAddress());
+        return Data.importSchema(allocator, ffiSchema, null);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void importFfiSchema(long arrowSchemaMemoryAddress);
+
+  /**
+   * Closes this scanner and releases any system resources associated with it. If the scanner is
+   * already closed, then invoking this method has no effect.
+   */
+  @Override
+  public void close() throws Exception {
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      if (nativeAsyncScannerHandle != 0) {
+        // Cancel all pending tasks
+        for (Long taskId : pendingTasks.keySet()) {
+          nativeCancelTask(taskId);
+        }
+        pendingTasks.clear();
+
+        releaseNativeScanner();
+        nativeAsyncScannerHandle = 0;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeCancelTask(long taskId);
+
+  /** Native method to release the async scanner resources. */
+  private native void releaseNativeScanner();
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/FullTextQuery.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/FullTextQuery.java
index e28e12c2189..1cad64026c0 100755
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/FullTextQuery.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/FullTextQuery.java
@@ -13,6 +13,8 @@
  */
 package org.lance.ipc;
 
+import org.lance.DocumentGranularity;
+
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
 
@@ -21,13 +23,20 @@
 import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
-/** Base type for full text search queries used by Lance scanner. */
+/**
+ * Base type for full text search queries used by Lance scanner.
+ *
+ * <p>Match and phrase overloads without a {@link DocumentGranularity} infer the unique indexed
+ * granularity for the field. They use row documents when no index exists and fail as ambiguous when
+ * row and list-element indexes coexist.
+ */
 public abstract class FullTextQuery {
   public enum Type {
     MATCH,
     MATCH_PHRASE,
     BOOST,
     MULTI_MATCH,
+    COMBINED_FIELDS,
     BOOLEAN
   }
 
@@ -37,8 +46,11 @@ public enum Operator {
   }
 
   public enum Occur {
+    /** The clause may match and contributes its score when it does. */
     SHOULD,
+    /** The clause must match and contributes its score. */
     MUST,
+    /** The clause must not match and never contributes to the score. */
     MUST_NOT
   }
 
@@ -63,7 +75,14 @@ public FullTextQuery getQuery() {
   public abstract Type getType();
 
   public static FullTextQuery match(String queryText, String column) {
-    return match(queryText, column, 1.0f, Optional.empty(), 50, Operator.OR, 0);
+    return new MatchQuery(
+        queryText, column, 1.0f, Optional.empty(), 50, Operator.OR, 0, Optional.empty());
+  }
+
+  public static FullTextQuery match(
+      String queryText, String column, DocumentGranularity documentGranularity) {
+    return match(
+        queryText, column, 1.0f, Optional.empty(), 50, Operator.OR, 0, documentGranularity);
   }
 
   public static FullTextQuery match(
@@ -75,15 +94,58 @@ public static FullTextQuery match(
       Operator operator,
       int prefixLength) {
     return new MatchQuery(
-        queryText, column, boost, fuzziness, maxExpansions, operator, prefixLength);
+        queryText,
+        column,
+        boost,
+        fuzziness,
+        maxExpansions,
+        operator,
+        prefixLength,
+        Optional.empty());
+  }
+
+  public static FullTextQuery match(
+      String queryText,
+      String column,
+      float boost,
+      Optional<Integer> fuzziness,
+      int maxExpansions,
+      Operator operator,
+      int prefixLength,
+      DocumentGranularity documentGranularity) {
+    return new MatchQuery(
+        queryText,
+        column,
+        boost,
+        fuzziness,
+        maxExpansions,
+        operator,
+        prefixLength,
+        Optional.of(
+            Objects.requireNonNull(documentGranularity, "documentGranularity must not be null")));
   }
 
   public static FullTextQuery phrase(String queryText, String column) {
-    return phrase(queryText, column, 0);
+    return new PhraseQuery(queryText, column, 0, Optional.empty());
+  }
+
+  public static FullTextQuery phrase(
+      String queryText, String column, DocumentGranularity documentGranularity) {
+    return phrase(queryText, column, 0, documentGranularity);
   }
 
   public static FullTextQuery phrase(String queryText, String column, int slop) {
-    return new PhraseQuery(queryText, column, slop);
+    return new PhraseQuery(queryText, column, slop, Optional.empty());
+  }
+
+  public static FullTextQuery phrase(
+      String queryText, String column, int slop, DocumentGranularity documentGranularity) {
+    return new PhraseQuery(
+        queryText,
+        column,
+        slop,
+        Optional.of(
+            Objects.requireNonNull(documentGranularity, "documentGranularity must not be null")));
   }
 
   public static FullTextQuery multiMatch(String queryText, List<String> columns) {
@@ -95,6 +157,15 @@ public static FullTextQuery multiMatch(
     return new MultiMatchQuery(queryText, columns, boosts, operator);
   }
 
+  public static FullTextQuery combinedFields(String queryText, List<String> columns) {
+    return combinedFields(queryText, columns, null, Operator.OR);
+  }
+
+  public static FullTextQuery combinedFields(
+      String queryText, List<String> columns, List<Float> boosts, Operator operator) {
+    return new CombinedFieldsQuery(queryText, columns, boosts, operator);
+  }
+
   public static FullTextQuery boost(FullTextQuery positive, FullTextQuery negative) {
     return boost(positive, negative, 0.5f);
   }
@@ -117,6 +188,7 @@ public static final class MatchQuery extends FullTextQuery {
     private final int maxExpansions;
     private final Operator operator;
     private final int prefixLength;
+    private final Optional<DocumentGranularity> documentGranularity;
 
     MatchQuery(
         String queryText,
@@ -125,7 +197,8 @@ public static final class MatchQuery extends FullTextQuery {
         Optional<Integer> fuzziness,
         int maxExpansions,
         Operator operator,
-        int prefixLength) {
+        int prefixLength,
+        Optional<DocumentGranularity> documentGranularity) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(
           queryText != null && !queryText.isEmpty(), "queryText must not be null or empty");
       Preconditions.checkArgument(
@@ -140,6 +213,7 @@ public static final class MatchQuery extends FullTextQuery {
       this.maxExpansions = maxExpansions;
       this.operator = operator == null ? Operator.OR : operator;
       this.prefixLength = prefixLength;
+      this.documentGranularity = Objects.requireNonNull(documentGranularity);
     }
 
     @Override
@@ -175,6 +249,39 @@ public int getPrefixLength() {
       return prefixLength;
     }
 
+    /** Returns the explicit granularity, or empty when query planning should infer it. */
+    public Optional<DocumentGranularity> getDocumentGranularity() {
+      return documentGranularity;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+      if (this == o) return true;
+      if (!(o instanceof MatchQuery)) return false;
+      MatchQuery other = (MatchQuery) o;
+      return Float.compare(boost, other.boost) == 0
+          && maxExpansions == other.maxExpansions
+          && prefixLength == other.prefixLength
+          && operator == other.operator
+          && Objects.equals(documentGranularity, other.documentGranularity)
+          && Objects.equals(queryText, other.queryText)
+          && Objects.equals(column, other.column)
+          && Objects.equals(fuzziness, other.fuzziness);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+      return Objects.hash(
+          queryText,
+          column,
+          boost,
+          fuzziness,
+          maxExpansions,
+          operator,
+          prefixLength,
+          documentGranularity);
+    }
+
     @Override
     public String toString() {
       return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
@@ -186,6 +293,7 @@ public String toString() {
           .add("maxExpansions", maxExpansions)
           .add("operator", operator)
           .add("prefixLength", prefixLength)
+          .add("documentGranularity", documentGranularity)
           .toString();
     }
   }
@@ -195,8 +303,13 @@ public static final class PhraseQuery extends FullTextQuery {
     private final String queryText;
     private final String column;
     private final int slop;
+    private final Optional<DocumentGranularity> documentGranularity;
 
-    PhraseQuery(String queryText, String column, int slop) {
+    PhraseQuery(
+        String queryText,
+        String column,
+        int slop,
+        Optional<DocumentGranularity> documentGranularity) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(
           queryText != null && !queryText.isEmpty(), "queryText must not be null or empty");
       Preconditions.checkArgument(
@@ -206,6 +319,7 @@ public static final class PhraseQuery extends FullTextQuery {
       this.queryText = queryText;
       this.column = column;
       this.slop = slop;
+      this.documentGranularity = Objects.requireNonNull(documentGranularity);
     }
 
     @Override
@@ -225,6 +339,27 @@ public int getSlop() {
       return slop;
     }
 
+    /** Returns the explicit granularity, or empty when query planning should infer it. */
+    public Optional<DocumentGranularity> getDocumentGranularity() {
+      return documentGranularity;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+      if (this == o) return true;
+      if (!(o instanceof PhraseQuery)) return false;
+      PhraseQuery other = (PhraseQuery) o;
+      return slop == other.slop
+          && Objects.equals(documentGranularity, other.documentGranularity)
+          && Objects.equals(queryText, other.queryText)
+          && Objects.equals(column, other.column);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+      return Objects.hash(queryText, column, slop, documentGranularity);
+    }
+
     @Override
     public String toString() {
       return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
@@ -232,6 +367,7 @@ public String toString() {
           .add("queryText", queryText)
           .add("column", column)
           .add("slop", slop)
+          .add("documentGranularity", documentGranularity)
           .toString();
     }
   }
@@ -277,6 +413,118 @@ public Operator getOperator() {
       return operator;
     }
 
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+      if (this == o) return true;
+      if (!(o instanceof MultiMatchQuery)) return false;
+      MultiMatchQuery other = (MultiMatchQuery) o;
+      return operator == other.operator
+          && Objects.equals(queryText, other.queryText)
+          && Objects.equals(columns, other.columns)
+          && Objects.equals(boosts, other.boosts);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+      return Objects.hash(queryText, columns, operator, boosts);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+      return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+          .add("type", getType())
+          .add("queryText", queryText)
+          .add("columns", columns)
+          .add("boosts", boosts)
+          .add("operator", operator)
+          .toString();
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Combined-fields (BM25F) query across multiple columns.
+   *
+   * <p>Unlike {@link MultiMatchQuery}, which scores each column independently and keeps the best
+   * field, this query treats the target columns as a single virtual field so that term statistics
+   * are blended across fields (Lucene {@code CombinedFieldQuery}). A term that is rare in one field
+   * but common in another then scores consistently, and a single query term can match across fields
+   * (for example a first name in one column and a last name in another).
+   *
+   * <p>Target columns must be unique and share the same tokenizer/index configuration. When {@code
+   * boosts} is given, its length must equal the number of columns and each per-column weight must
+   * be a finite value in {@code [1, 2^20]} (fractional weights allowed); when {@code null}, every
+   * column defaults to {@code 1.0}. A {@code null} operator defaults to {@link Operator#OR}. These
+   * constraints are validated in the Rust core and surface as an {@link IllegalArgumentException}
+   * from {@code Dataset.newScan}, which builds the query when the scanner is created.
+   *
+   * <p>At least one target column needs an FTS index. Columns without an index, and rows added
+   * since the last index build, are read from the data and scored together with the indexed rows.
+   *
+   * <p>BM25F adds up each column's contribution for a whole row, so a column indexed only with
+   * {@link DocumentGranularity#LIST_ELEMENT} granularity is rejected, because its element
+   * coordinates have no counterpart in the other columns. A column that has both indexes uses the
+   * row one.
+   */
+  public static final class CombinedFieldsQuery extends FullTextQuery {
+    private final String queryText;
+    private final List<String> columns;
+    private final Optional<List<Float>> boosts;
+    private final Operator operator;
+
+    CombinedFieldsQuery(
+        String queryText, List<String> columns, List<Float> boosts, Operator operator) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          queryText != null && !queryText.isEmpty(), "queryText must not be null or empty");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          columns != null && !columns.isEmpty(), "columns must not be null or empty");
+
+      this.queryText = queryText;
+      this.columns =
+          Collections.unmodifiableList(new java.util.ArrayList<>(Objects.requireNonNull(columns)));
+      this.boosts =
+          boosts == null
+              ? Optional.empty()
+              : Optional.of(Collections.unmodifiableList(new java.util.ArrayList<>(boosts)));
+      this.operator = operator == null ? Operator.OR : operator;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public Type getType() {
+      return Type.COMBINED_FIELDS;
+    }
+
+    public String getQueryText() {
+      return queryText;
+    }
+
+    public List<String> getColumns() {
+      return columns;
+    }
+
+    public Optional<List<Float>> getBoosts() {
+      return boosts;
+    }
+
+    public Operator getOperator() {
+      return operator;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+      if (this == o) return true;
+      if (!(o instanceof CombinedFieldsQuery)) return false;
+      CombinedFieldsQuery other = (CombinedFieldsQuery) o;
+      return operator == other.operator
+          && Objects.equals(queryText, other.queryText)
+          && Objects.equals(columns, other.columns)
+          && Objects.equals(boosts, other.boosts);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+      return Objects.hash(queryText, columns, operator, boosts);
+    }
+
     @Override
     public String toString() {
       return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/LanceScanner.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/LanceScanner.java
index 804b7ea22f3..058a6e1057a 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/LanceScanner.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/LanceScanner.java
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 package org.lance.ipc;
 
 import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.LanceException;
 import org.lance.LockManager;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
@@ -29,6 +30,7 @@
 import java.nio.ByteBuffer;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.UUID;
 
 /** Scanner over a Fragment. */
 public class LanceScanner implements org.apache.arrow.dataset.scanner.Scanner {
@@ -57,22 +59,39 @@ public static LanceScanner create(
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(dataset);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(options);
     Preconditions.checkNotNull(allocator);
-    LanceScanner scanner =
-        createScanner(
-            dataset,
-            options.getFragmentIds(),
-            options.getColumns(),
-            options.getSubstraitFilter(),
-            options.getFilter(),
-            options.getBatchSize(),
-            options.getLimit(),
-            options.getOffset(),
-            options.getNearest(),
-            options.getFullTextQuery(),
-            options.isWithRowId(),
-            options.isWithRowAddress(),
-            options.getBatchReadahead(),
-            options.getColumnOrderings());
+    LanceScanner scanner;
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      scanner =
+          createScanner(
+              dataset,
+              options.getFragmentIds(),
+              options.getIndexSegments(),
+              options.getColumns(),
+              options.getSubstraitFilter(),
+              options.getFilter(),
+              options.getBatchSize(),
+              options.getBatchSizeBytes(),
+              options.getIoBufferSize(),
+              options.getLimit(),
+              options.getOffset(),
+              options.getNearest(),
+              options.getFullTextQuery(),
+              options.isPrefilter(),
+              options.isWithRowId(),
+              options.isWithRowAddress(),
+              options.getBatchReadahead(),
+              options.getFragmentReadahead(),
+              options.isScanInOrder(),
+              options.getLateMaterialization(),
+              options.getColumnOrderings(),
+              options.isUseScalarIndex(),
+              options.isFastSearch(),
+              options.getSubstraitAggregate(),
+              options.isCollectStats(),
+              options.isIncludeDeletedRows(),
+              options.isStrictBatchSize(),
+              options.isDisableScoringAutoprojection());
+    }
     scanner.allocator = allocator;
     scanner.dataset = dataset;
     scanner.options = options;
@@ -82,18 +101,32 @@ public static LanceScanner create(
   static native LanceScanner createScanner(
       Dataset dataset,
       Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds,
+      Optional<List<UUID>> indexSegments,
       Optional<List<String>> columns,
       Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitFilter,
       Optional<String> filter,
       Optional<Long> batchSize,
+      Optional<Long> batchSizeBytes,
+      Optional<Long> ioBufferSize,
       Optional<Long> limit,
       Optional<Long> offset,
       Optional<Query> query,
       Optional<FullTextQuery> fullTextQuery,
+      boolean prefilter,
       boolean withRowId,
       boolean withRowAddress,
       int batchReadahead,
-      Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings);
+      Optional<Integer> fragmentReadahead,
+      boolean scanInOrder,
+      Optional<MaterializationStyle> lateMaterialization,
+      Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings,
+      boolean useScalarIndex,
+      boolean fastSearch,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitAggregate,
+      boolean collectStats,
+      boolean includeDeletedRows,
+      boolean strictBatchSize,
+      boolean disableScoringAutoprojection);
 
   /**
    * Closes this scanner and releases any system resources associated with it. If the scanner is
@@ -124,12 +157,71 @@ public ArrowReader scanBatches() {
         openStream(s.memoryAddress());
         return Data.importArrayStream(allocator, s);
       } catch (IOException e) {
-        // TODO: handle IO exception?
-        throw new RuntimeException(e);
+        throw new LanceException("Failed to open scan stream", e);
       }
     }
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Export this scan's results into a caller-owned Arrow C stream identified by its memory address,
+   * using the Arrow C Data Interface release callback to transfer ownership.
+   *
+   * <p>This method intentionally takes a raw {@code streamAddress} (an {@code ArrowArrayStream}
+   * memory address) rather than a Java {@link ArrowArrayStream} object. A typed parameter would be
+   * an {@code org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream} loaded by <em>Lance's</em> classloader / Arrow
+   * version; a caller running a different Arrow version (or under a different classloader, e.g.
+   * Spark + a native engine bundling its own Arrow) cannot construct that exact type and would hit
+   * a {@code ClassCastException}/{@code NoSuchMethodError} at the very boundary this method exists
+   * to cross. The C Data Interface ABI is stable across Arrow versions, so passing the C struct's
+   * address keeps the two sides fully decoupled: the caller allocates the stream with <em>its
+   * own</em> Arrow runtime and only the {@code long} address crosses into Lance. See gluten#12263
+   * for the cross-Arrow-version integration that motivated this.
+   *
+   * <p>Unlike {@link #scanBatches()}, no Java Arrow {@link ArrowReader} is created on Lance's side:
+   * Lance writes the C struct directly at {@code streamAddress} and the caller drives the read loop
+   * with its own Arrow runtime.
+   *
+   * <p>The {@code streamAddress} must point to a freshly-allocated, empty {@code ArrowArrayStream}
+   * (its {@code release} callback must be null). Exporting into a stream that already holds a
+   * producer is rejected with an {@link IllegalArgumentException}, because overwriting the struct
+   * would drop the existing {@code release} callback and leak the first producer. The caller owns
+   * the stream and is responsible for closing it; the release callback installed by this call
+   * routes back through Lance's native side.
+   *
+   * <p>The provided stream must not be shared across concurrent exports. An {@code
+   * ArrowArrayStream} is a plain C struct in caller-owned memory with no internal synchronization,
+   * so a single stream must be exported into, then drained, by one thread at a time. The
+   * already-populated check above guards the sequential "export twice" mistake, but it cannot make
+   * two concurrent exports into the same struct safe — that is a caller-side data race on
+   * caller-owned memory, the same contract as Arrow's C Data Interface itself. Use a separate
+   * stream per concurrent export.
+   *
+   * <p>Example (caller on its own Arrow version / allocator):
+   *
+   * <pre>{@code
+   * try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(callerAllocator)) {
+   *   scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+   *   try (ArrowReader reader = Data.importArrayStream(callerAllocator, stream)) {
+   *     while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+   *       VectorSchemaRoot batch = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+   *       // ...
+   *     }
+   *   }
+   * }
+   * }</pre>
+   *
+   * @param streamAddress the memory address of a freshly-allocated, empty {@code ArrowArrayStream}
+   *     to populate
+   * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the scanner is closed or the stream is already populated
+   * @throws IOException if the native scan fails to start
+   */
+  public void exportArrowStream(long streamAddress) throws IOException {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeScannerHandle != 0, "Scanner is closed");
+      openStream(streamAddress);
+    }
+  }
+
   private native void openStream(long streamAddress) throws IOException;
 
   @Override
@@ -163,5 +255,23 @@ public long countRows() {
     }
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get scan execution statistics for the most recently executed scan.
+   *
+   * <p>Statistics are only collected when {@link ScanOptions.Builder#collectStats(boolean)} is set
+   * to true. The values are populated when the scan stream is fully consumed and closed.
+   *
+   * <p>If statistics collection is disabled, or the scan has not finished yet, this method returns
+   * {@link Optional#empty()}.
+   */
+  public Optional<ScanStats> getStats() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeScannerHandle != 0, "Scanner is closed");
+      return Optional.ofNullable(nativeGetStats());
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native ScanStats nativeGetStats();
+
   private native long nativeCountRows();
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/MaterializationStyle.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/MaterializationStyle.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e0ab095e06c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/MaterializationStyle.java
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.ipc;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Controls whether projected columns are fetched before or after filtering.
+ *
+ * <p>For example, a selective filter can fetch a large payload column only for matching rows:
+ *
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder()
+ *     .filter("id = 42")
+ *     .lateMaterialization(MaterializationStyle.allEarlyExcept(
+ *         Collections.singletonList("payload")))
+ *     .build();
+ * }</pre>
+ *
+ * <p>This policy only affects projected columns that are not used by a filter in a regular scan.
+ * Vector search and full-text search always use late materialization.
+ */
+public final class MaterializationStyle {
+  /** Available materialization policies. */
+  public enum Mode {
+    /** Let Lance choose based on the storage system and column size. */
+    HEURISTIC("heuristic"),
+    /** Fetch all eligible projected columns after filtering. */
+    ALL_LATE("all_late"),
+    /** Fetch all projected columns before filtering. */
+    ALL_EARLY("all_early"),
+    /** Fetch only the specified projected columns after filtering. */
+    ALL_EARLY_EXCEPT("all_early_except");
+
+    private final String rustValue;
+
+    Mode(String rustValue) {
+      this.rustValue = rustValue;
+    }
+
+    /** Returns the explicit value expected by the Rust binding. */
+    public String toRustString() {
+      return rustValue;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private final Mode mode;
+  private final List<String> columns;
+
+  private MaterializationStyle(Mode mode, List<String> columns) {
+    this.mode = mode;
+    this.columns = Collections.unmodifiableList(new ArrayList<>(columns));
+  }
+
+  /** Use Lance's storage-aware heuristic. This is the default when no style is specified. */
+  public static MaterializationStyle heuristic() {
+    return new MaterializationStyle(Mode.HEURISTIC, Collections.emptyList());
+  }
+
+  /** Fetch all eligible projected columns after filtering. */
+  public static MaterializationStyle allLate() {
+    return new MaterializationStyle(Mode.ALL_LATE, Collections.emptyList());
+  }
+
+  /** Fetch all projected columns before filtering. */
+  public static MaterializationStyle allEarly() {
+    return new MaterializationStyle(Mode.ALL_EARLY, Collections.emptyList());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Fetch only the specified projected columns after filtering; all other columns are fetched
+   * before filtering. An empty list is equivalent to {@link #allEarly()}.
+   */
+  public static MaterializationStyle allEarlyExcept(List<String> lateColumns) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(lateColumns, "lateColumns must not be null");
+    for (String column : lateColumns) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          column != null && !column.isEmpty(), "lateColumns must not contain null or empty names");
+    }
+    return new MaterializationStyle(Mode.ALL_EARLY_EXCEPT, lateColumns);
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the selected materialization mode. */
+  public Mode getMode() {
+    return mode;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the explicit value expected by the Rust binding. */
+  public String toRustString() {
+    return mode.toRustString();
+  }
+
+  /** Columns to fetch after filtering when using {@link Mode#ALL_EARLY_EXCEPT}. */
+  public List<String> getColumns() {
+    return columns;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return "MaterializationStyle{" + "mode=" + mode + ", columns=" + columns + '}';
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/Query.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/Query.java
index 9bd2dc03b90..d517b70f6a0 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/Query.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/Query.java
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ public class Query {
 
   private final String column;
   private final float[] key;
+  private final int queryVectorDim;
   private final int k;
   private final int minimumNprobes;
   private final Optional<Integer> maximumNprobes;
@@ -31,11 +32,21 @@ public class Query {
   private final Optional<Integer> refineFactor;
   private final Optional<DistanceType> distanceType;
   private final boolean useIndex;
+  private final int queryParallelism;
+  private final ApproxMode approxMode;
 
   private Query(Builder builder) {
     this.column = Preconditions.checkNotNull(builder.column, "Columns must be set");
     Preconditions.checkArgument(!builder.column.isEmpty(), "Column must not be empty");
     this.key = Preconditions.checkNotNull(builder.key, "Key must be set");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        builder.queryVectorDim >= 0, "Query vector dimension must not be negative");
+    if (builder.queryVectorDim > 0) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          builder.key.length > 0 && builder.key.length % builder.queryVectorDim == 0,
+          "Batch query buffer length must be a positive multiple of the query vector dimension");
+    }
+    this.queryVectorDim = builder.queryVectorDim;
     Preconditions.checkArgument(builder.k > 0, "K must be greater than 0");
     Preconditions.checkArgument(
         builder.minimumNprobes > 0, "Minimum Nprobes must be greater than 0");
@@ -50,6 +61,8 @@ private Query(Builder builder) {
     this.refineFactor = builder.refineFactor;
     this.distanceType = builder.distanceType;
     this.useIndex = builder.useIndex;
+    this.queryParallelism = builder.queryParallelism;
+    this.approxMode = builder.approxMode;
   }
 
   public String getColumn() {
@@ -60,6 +73,16 @@ public float[] getKey() {
     return key;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Returns the length of each query vector when {@link #getKey()} packs a batch of query vectors,
+   * or {@code 0} for a single-vector query.
+   *
+   * @return The per-vector dimension of a batch query, or {@code 0} for a single-vector query.
+   */
+  public int getQueryVectorDim() {
+    return queryVectorDim;
+  }
+
   public int getK() {
     return k;
   }
@@ -92,11 +115,24 @@ public boolean isUseIndex() {
     return useIndex;
   }
 
+  public int getQueryParallelism() {
+    return queryParallelism;
+  }
+
+  public ApproxMode getApproxMode() {
+    return approxMode;
+  }
+
+  public String getApproxModeString() {
+    return approxMode.toRustString();
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
         .add("column", column)
         .add("key", key)
+        .add("queryVectorDim", queryVectorDim)
         .add("k", k)
         .add("minimumNprobes", minimumNprobes)
         .add("maximumNprobes", maximumNprobes.orElse(null))
@@ -104,12 +140,15 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("refineFactor", refineFactor.orElse(null))
         .add("distanceType", distanceType.orElse(null))
         .add("useIndex", useIndex)
+        .add("queryParallelism", queryParallelism)
+        .add("approxMode", approxMode)
         .toString();
   }
 
   public static class Builder {
     private String column;
     private float[] key;
+    private int queryVectorDim = 0;
     private int k = 10;
     private int minimumNprobes = 1;
     private Optional<Integer> maximumNprobes = Optional.empty();
@@ -117,6 +156,8 @@ public static class Builder {
     private Optional<Integer> refineFactor = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<DistanceType> distanceType = Optional.empty();
     private boolean useIndex = true;
+    private int queryParallelism = 0;
+    private ApproxMode approxMode = ApproxMode.NORMAL;
 
     /**
      * Sets the column to be searched.
@@ -132,11 +173,59 @@ public Builder setColumn(String column) {
     /**
      * Sets the vector to be searched.
      *
+     * <p>This API accepts a single query vector. The array length must match the target vector
+     * column dimension. To search multiple query vectors in one scan, use {@link
+     * #setKeys(float[][])}.
+     *
      * @param key The search vector.
      * @return The Builder instance for method chaining.
      */
     public Builder setKey(float[] key) {
       this.key = key;
+      this.queryVectorDim = 0;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sets multiple query vectors for a batch nearest-neighbor search.
+     *
+     * <p>Every row must be non-null and share the same length, which must match the target vector
+     * column dimension. The rows are flattened row-major into a single query buffer.
+     *
+     * <p>Unlike {@link #setKey(float[])}, a batch query prepends a non-nullable {@code query_index}
+     * column holding the zero-based offset of the query vector that produced each row, and returns
+     * up to {@code k} rows per query vector (results are grouped by {@code query_index}, ordered by
+     * distance within each group). This column is added even when a single query vector is
+     * supplied. The scan fails if the dataset already contains a column named {@code query_index}.
+     *
+     * <p>Scan-level {@code limit} / {@code offset} apply to the combined result across all query
+     * vectors, not per query vector. Batch search is not supported on multivector columns.
+     *
+     * @param keys The search vectors, one per row.
+     * @return The Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder setKeys(float[][] keys) {
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(keys, "Keys must not be null");
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(keys.length > 0, "Keys must not be empty");
+      Preconditions.checkNotNull(keys[0], "Query vector must not be null");
+      int dim = keys[0].length;
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(dim > 0, "Query vector dimension must be greater than 0");
+      long totalLength = (long) keys.length * dim;
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          totalLength <= Integer.MAX_VALUE,
+          "Batch query of %s vectors x %s dimensions exceeds the maximum buffer length %s",
+          keys.length,
+          dim,
+          Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+      float[] flattened = new float[(int) totalLength];
+      for (int i = 0; i < keys.length; i++) {
+        Preconditions.checkNotNull(keys[i], "Query vector must not be null");
+        Preconditions.checkArgument(
+            keys[i].length == dim, "All query vectors must have the same dimension");
+        System.arraycopy(keys[i], 0, flattened, i * dim, dim);
+      }
+      this.key = flattened;
+      this.queryVectorDim = dim;
       return this;
     }
 
@@ -154,8 +243,7 @@ public Builder setK(int k) {
     /**
      * Sets the number of probes to load and search.
      *
-     * <p>This is a convenience method that sets both the minimum and maximum number of probes to
-     * the same value.
+     * <p>This sets both the minimum and maximum number of probes to the same value.
      *
      * @param nprobes The number of probes.
      * @return The Builder instance for method chaining.
@@ -245,6 +333,38 @@ public Builder setUseIndex(boolean useIndex) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Sets vector partition search concurrency for each query.
+     *
+     * <p>The default is 0. Value 0 uses the automatic policy, which currently maps to the
+     * single-worker sequential path. Value -1 uses the CPU pool size. Value 1 uses the
+     * single-worker sequential path. Values greater than or equal to 2 use the partition-parallel
+     * path and are clamped to the CPU pool size.
+     *
+     * @param queryParallelism The partition search concurrency policy.
+     * @return The Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder setQueryParallelism(int queryParallelism) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          queryParallelism >= -1, "Query parallelism must be greater than or equal to -1");
+      this.queryParallelism = queryParallelism;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sets the speed / accuracy tradeoff for approximate vector search.
+     *
+     * <p>This setting currently only affects RQ-quantized vector indexes, such as IVF_RQ. Other
+     * index types ignore this setting.
+     *
+     * @param approxMode The approximate search mode to use for the query.
+     * @return The Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder setApproxMode(ApproxMode approxMode) {
+      this.approxMode = Preconditions.checkNotNull(approxMode, "ApproxMode must not be null");
+      return this;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Builds the Query object.
      *
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ScanOptions.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ScanOptions.java
index b73f9e8104e..f73fb027cb2 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ScanOptions.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ScanOptions.java
@@ -19,11 +19,15 @@
 import java.nio.ByteBuffer;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.UUID;
 
 /** Lance scan options. */
 public class ScanOptions {
   private final Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds;
+  private final Optional<List<UUID>> indexSegments;
   private final Optional<Long> batchSize;
+  private final Optional<Long> batchSizeBytes;
+  private final Optional<Long> ioBufferSize;
   private final Optional<List<String>> columns;
   private final Optional<String> filter;
   private final Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitFilter;
@@ -31,31 +35,227 @@ public class ScanOptions {
   private final Optional<Long> offset;
   private final Optional<Query> nearest;
   private final Optional<FullTextQuery> fullTextQuery;
+  private final boolean prefilter;
   private final boolean withRowId;
   private final boolean withRowAddress;
   private final int batchReadahead;
+  private final Optional<Integer> fragmentReadahead;
+  private final boolean scanInOrder;
+  private final Optional<MaterializationStyle> lateMaterialization;
   private final Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings;
+  private final boolean useScalarIndex;
+  private final Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitAggregate;
+  private final boolean collectStats;
+  private final boolean fastSearch;
+  private final boolean includeDeletedRows;
+  private final boolean strictBatchSize;
+  private final boolean disableScoringAutoprojection;
+
+  public ScanOptions(
+      Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds,
+      Optional<Long> batchSize,
+      Optional<List<String>> columns,
+      Optional<String> filter,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitFilter,
+      Optional<Long> limit,
+      Optional<Long> offset,
+      Optional<Query> nearest,
+      Optional<FullTextQuery> fullTextQuery,
+      boolean prefilter,
+      boolean withRowId,
+      boolean withRowAddress,
+      int batchReadahead,
+      Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings,
+      boolean useScalarIndex,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitAggregate,
+      boolean collectStats) {
+    this(
+        fragmentIds,
+        Optional.empty(),
+        batchSize,
+        columns,
+        filter,
+        substraitFilter,
+        limit,
+        offset,
+        nearest,
+        fullTextQuery,
+        prefilter,
+        withRowId,
+        withRowAddress,
+        batchReadahead,
+        columnOrderings,
+        useScalarIndex,
+        substraitAggregate,
+        collectStats,
+        false,
+        false,
+        false,
+        false);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Constructor for LanceScanOptions.
+   *
+   * @param fragmentIds the id of the fragments to scan
+   * @param batchSize Maximum row number of each returned ArrowRecordBatch. Optional, use
+   *     Optional.empty() if unspecified.
+   * @param columns (Optional) Projected columns. Optional.empty() for scanning all columns.
+   *     Otherwise, only columns present in the List will be scanned.
+   * @param filter (Optional) Filter expression. Optional.empty() for no filter.
+   * @param substraitFilter (Optional) Substrait filter expression.
+   * @param filter (Optional) Filter expression. Optional.empty() for no filter.
+   * @param limit (Optional) Maximum number of rows to return.
+   * @param offset (Optional) Number of rows to skip before returning results.
+   * @param withRowId Whether to include the row ID in the results.
+   * @param withRowAddress Whether to include the row address in the results.
+   * @param nearest (Optional) Nearest neighbor query.
+   * @param batchReadahead Number of batches to read ahead.
+   * @param columnOrderings (Optional) Column orderings for result sorting.
+   * @param useScalarIndex Whether to use scalar indices for the scan. Default is true.
+   * @param substraitAggregate (Optional) Substrait aggregate expression for aggregate pushdown.
+   * @param collectStats Whether to collect scan execution statistics. Default is false.
+   * @param fastSearch Whether to only search indexed fragments. Default is false.
+   * @deprecated Use the overload that adds {@code indexSegments} for vector index segment
+   *     selection.
+   */
+  @Deprecated
+  public ScanOptions(
+      Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds,
+      Optional<Long> batchSize,
+      Optional<List<String>> columns,
+      Optional<String> filter,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitFilter,
+      Optional<Long> limit,
+      Optional<Long> offset,
+      Optional<Query> nearest,
+      Optional<FullTextQuery> fullTextQuery,
+      boolean prefilter,
+      boolean withRowId,
+      boolean withRowAddress,
+      int batchReadahead,
+      Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings,
+      boolean useScalarIndex,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitAggregate,
+      boolean collectStats,
+      boolean fastSearch,
+      boolean includeDeletedRows,
+      boolean strictBatchSize,
+      boolean disableScoringAutoprojection) {
+    this(
+        fragmentIds,
+        Optional.empty(),
+        batchSize,
+        columns,
+        filter,
+        substraitFilter,
+        limit,
+        offset,
+        nearest,
+        fullTextQuery,
+        prefilter,
+        withRowId,
+        withRowAddress,
+        batchReadahead,
+        columnOrderings,
+        useScalarIndex,
+        substraitAggregate,
+        collectStats,
+        fastSearch,
+        includeDeletedRows,
+        strictBatchSize,
+        disableScoringAutoprojection);
+  }
 
   /**
    * Constructor for LanceScanOptions.
    *
    * @param fragmentIds the id of the fragments to scan
+   * @param indexSegments (Optional) Vector index segment UUIDs to restrict the search to. Only
+   *     valid for nearest-neighbor search. Empty list is rejected by the engine. When combined with
+   *     {@code fragmentIds}, fragments outside the selected segments still fall back to flat KNN.
    * @param batchSize Maximum row number of each returned ArrowRecordBatch. Optional, use
    *     Optional.empty() if unspecified.
    * @param columns (Optional) Projected columns. Optional.empty() for scanning all columns.
    *     Otherwise, only columns present in the List will be scanned.
    * @param filter (Optional) Filter expression. Optional.empty() for no filter.
    * @param substraitFilter (Optional) Substrait filter expression.
+   * @param filter (Optional) Filter expression. Optional.empty() for no filter.
    * @param limit (Optional) Maximum number of rows to return.
    * @param offset (Optional) Number of rows to skip before returning results.
    * @param withRowId Whether to include the row ID in the results.
    * @param withRowAddress Whether to include the row address in the results.
    * @param nearest (Optional) Nearest neighbor query.
    * @param batchReadahead Number of batches to read ahead.
+   * @param columnOrderings (Optional) Column orderings for result sorting.
+   * @param useScalarIndex Whether to use scalar indices for the scan. Default is true.
+   * @param substraitAggregate (Optional) Substrait aggregate expression for aggregate pushdown.
+   * @param collectStats Whether to collect scan execution statistics. Default is false.
+   * @param fastSearch Whether to only search indexed fragments. Default is false.
+   * @param includeDeletedRows Whether to include deleted rows in scan results. Default is false.
+   * @param strictBatchSize Whether to enforce strict batch sizing. Default is false.
+   * @param disableScoringAutoprojection Whether to disable scoring column autoprojection. Default
+   *     is false.
    */
   public ScanOptions(
       Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds,
+      Optional<List<UUID>> indexSegments,
+      Optional<Long> batchSize,
+      Optional<List<String>> columns,
+      Optional<String> filter,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitFilter,
+      Optional<Long> limit,
+      Optional<Long> offset,
+      Optional<Query> nearest,
+      Optional<FullTextQuery> fullTextQuery,
+      boolean prefilter,
+      boolean withRowId,
+      boolean withRowAddress,
+      int batchReadahead,
+      Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings,
+      boolean useScalarIndex,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitAggregate,
+      boolean collectStats,
+      boolean fastSearch,
+      boolean includeDeletedRows,
+      boolean strictBatchSize,
+      boolean disableScoringAutoprojection) {
+    this(
+        fragmentIds,
+        indexSegments,
+        batchSize,
+        Optional.empty(),
+        Optional.empty(),
+        columns,
+        filter,
+        substraitFilter,
+        limit,
+        offset,
+        nearest,
+        fullTextQuery,
+        prefilter,
+        withRowId,
+        withRowAddress,
+        batchReadahead,
+        Optional.empty(),
+        true,
+        Optional.empty(),
+        columnOrderings,
+        useScalarIndex,
+        substraitAggregate,
+        collectStats,
+        fastSearch,
+        includeDeletedRows,
+        strictBatchSize,
+        disableScoringAutoprojection);
+  }
+
+  private ScanOptions(
+      Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds,
+      Optional<List<UUID>> indexSegments,
       Optional<Long> batchSize,
+      Optional<Long> batchSizeBytes,
+      Optional<Long> ioBufferSize,
       Optional<List<String>> columns,
       Optional<String> filter,
       Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitFilter,
@@ -63,15 +263,46 @@ public ScanOptions(
       Optional<Long> offset,
       Optional<Query> nearest,
       Optional<FullTextQuery> fullTextQuery,
+      boolean prefilter,
       boolean withRowId,
       boolean withRowAddress,
       int batchReadahead,
-      Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings) {
+      Optional<Integer> fragmentReadahead,
+      boolean scanInOrder,
+      Optional<MaterializationStyle> lateMaterialization,
+      Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings,
+      boolean useScalarIndex,
+      Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitAggregate,
+      boolean collectStats,
+      boolean fastSearch,
+      boolean includeDeletedRows,
+      boolean strictBatchSize,
+      boolean disableScoringAutoprojection) {
     Preconditions.checkArgument(
         !(filter.isPresent() && substraitFilter.isPresent()),
         "cannot set both substrait filter and string filter");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        batchReadahead > 0, "batchReadahead must be greater than 0, got %s", batchReadahead);
+    batchSizeBytes.ifPresent(
+        value ->
+            Preconditions.checkArgument(
+                value > 0, "batchSizeBytes must be greater than 0, got %s", value));
+    ioBufferSize.ifPresent(
+        value ->
+            Preconditions.checkArgument(
+                value > 0, "ioBufferSize must be greater than 0, got %s", value));
+    fragmentReadahead.ifPresent(
+        value ->
+            Preconditions.checkArgument(
+                value > 0, "fragmentReadahead must be greater than 0, got %s", value));
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        !(strictBatchSize && batchSizeBytes.isPresent()),
+        "strictBatchSize=true cannot be combined with batchSizeBytes");
     this.fragmentIds = fragmentIds;
+    this.indexSegments = indexSegments;
     this.batchSize = batchSize;
+    this.batchSizeBytes = batchSizeBytes;
+    this.ioBufferSize = ioBufferSize;
     this.columns = columns;
     this.filter = filter;
     this.substraitFilter = substraitFilter;
@@ -79,10 +310,21 @@ public ScanOptions(
     this.offset = offset;
     this.nearest = nearest;
     this.fullTextQuery = fullTextQuery;
+    this.prefilter = prefilter;
     this.withRowId = withRowId;
     this.withRowAddress = withRowAddress;
     this.batchReadahead = batchReadahead;
+    this.fragmentReadahead = fragmentReadahead;
+    this.scanInOrder = scanInOrder;
+    this.lateMaterialization = lateMaterialization;
     this.columnOrderings = columnOrderings;
+    this.useScalarIndex = useScalarIndex;
+    this.substraitAggregate = substraitAggregate;
+    this.collectStats = collectStats;
+    this.fastSearch = fastSearch;
+    this.includeDeletedRows = includeDeletedRows;
+    this.strictBatchSize = strictBatchSize;
+    this.disableScoringAutoprojection = disableScoringAutoprojection;
   }
 
   /**
@@ -94,6 +336,15 @@ public Optional<List<Integer>> getFragmentIds() {
     return fragmentIds;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get the index segment UUIDs.
+   *
+   * @return Optional containing the index segment UUIDs if specified, otherwise empty.
+   */
+  public Optional<List<UUID>> getIndexSegments() {
+    return indexSegments;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Get the batch size.
    *
@@ -103,6 +354,24 @@ public Optional<Long> getBatchSize() {
     return batchSize;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get the target batch size in bytes.
+   *
+   * @return Optional containing the target batch size in bytes if specified, otherwise empty.
+   */
+  public Optional<Long> getBatchSizeBytes() {
+    return batchSizeBytes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get the I/O buffer size in bytes.
+   *
+   * @return Optional containing the I/O buffer size if specified, otherwise empty.
+   */
+  public Optional<Long> getIoBufferSize() {
+    return ioBufferSize;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Get the columns.
    *
@@ -166,6 +435,15 @@ public Optional<FullTextQuery> getFullTextQuery() {
     return fullTextQuery;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get whether to prefilter before nearest neighbor search.
+   *
+   * @return true if prefilter should be applied, false otherwise.
+   */
+  public boolean isPrefilter() {
+    return prefilter;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Get whether to include the row ID.
    *
@@ -193,15 +471,103 @@ public int getBatchReadahead() {
     return batchReadahead;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get the number of fragments to read ahead concurrently.
+   *
+   * @return Optional containing the fragment readahead if specified, otherwise empty.
+   */
+  public Optional<Integer> getFragmentReadahead() {
+    return fragmentReadahead;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get whether batches should be returned in fragment and batch order.
+   *
+   * @return true to preserve scan order, false to return batches as soon as they are ready.
+   */
+  public boolean isScanInOrder() {
+    return scanInOrder;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get the materialization policy for projected columns.
+   *
+   * @return Optional containing the materialization policy if specified, otherwise empty.
+   */
+  public Optional<MaterializationStyle> getLateMaterialization() {
+    return lateMaterialization;
+  }
+
   public Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> getColumnOrderings() {
     return columnOrderings;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get whether to use scalar indices for the scan.
+   *
+   * @return true if scalar indices should be used, false otherwise.
+   */
+  public boolean isUseScalarIndex() {
+    return useScalarIndex;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get whether to only search indexed fragments.
+   *
+   * @return true if unindexed fragments should be skipped, false otherwise.
+   */
+  public boolean isFastSearch() {
+    return fastSearch;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get the substrait aggregate expression.
+   *
+   * @return Optional containing the substrait aggregate if specified, otherwise empty.
+   */
+  public Optional<ByteBuffer> getSubstraitAggregate() {
+    return substraitAggregate;
+  }
+
+  public boolean isCollectStats() {
+    return collectStats;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get whether to include deleted rows in scan results.
+   *
+   * @return true if deleted rows should be included, false otherwise.
+   */
+  public boolean isIncludeDeletedRows() {
+    return includeDeletedRows;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get whether to enforce strict batch sizing.
+   *
+   * @return true if batch sizes must be strictly enforced, false otherwise.
+   */
+  public boolean isStrictBatchSize() {
+    return strictBatchSize;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get whether to disable scoring autoprojection.
+   *
+   * @return true if scoring column autoprojection is disabled, false otherwise.
+   */
+  public boolean isDisableScoringAutoprojection() {
+    return disableScoringAutoprojection;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
         .add("fragmentIds", fragmentIds.orElse(null))
+        .add("indexSegments", indexSegments.orElse(null))
         .add("batchSize", batchSize.orElse(null))
+        .add("batchSizeBytes", batchSizeBytes.orElse(null))
+        .add("ioBufferSize", ioBufferSize.orElse(null))
         .add("columns", columns.orElse(null))
         .add("filter", filter.orElse(null))
         .add(
@@ -211,17 +577,33 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("offset", offset.orElse(null))
         .add("nearest", nearest.orElse(null))
         .add("fullTextQuery", fullTextQuery.orElse(null))
+        .add("prefilter", prefilter)
         .add("withRowId", withRowId)
         .add("WithRowAddress", withRowAddress)
         .add("batchReadahead", batchReadahead)
+        .add("fragmentReadahead", fragmentReadahead.orElse(null))
+        .add("scanInOrder", scanInOrder)
+        .add("lateMaterialization", lateMaterialization.orElse(null))
         .add("columnOrdering", columnOrderings)
+        .add("useScalarIndex", useScalarIndex)
+        .add("fastSearch", fastSearch)
+        .add(
+            "substraitAggregate",
+            substraitAggregate.map(buf -> "ByteBuffer[" + buf.remaining() + " bytes]").orElse(null))
+        .add("collectStats", collectStats)
+        .add("includeDeletedRows", includeDeletedRows)
+        .add("strictBatchSize", strictBatchSize)
+        .add("disableScoringAutoprojection", disableScoringAutoprojection)
         .toString();
   }
 
   /** Builder for constructing LanceScanOptions. */
   public static class Builder {
     private Optional<List<Integer>> fragmentIds = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<List<UUID>> indexSegments = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Long> batchSize = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Long> batchSizeBytes = Optional.empty();
+    private Optional<Long> ioBufferSize = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<List<String>> columns = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<String> filter = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitFilter = Optional.empty();
@@ -229,10 +611,21 @@ public static class Builder {
     private Optional<Long> offset = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<Query> nearest = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<FullTextQuery> fullTextQuery = Optional.empty();
+    private boolean prefilter = false;
     private boolean withRowId = false;
     private boolean withRowAddress = false;
     private int batchReadahead = 16;
+    private Optional<Integer> fragmentReadahead = Optional.empty();
+    private boolean scanInOrder = true;
+    private Optional<MaterializationStyle> lateMaterialization = Optional.empty();
     private Optional<List<ColumnOrdering>> columnOrderings = Optional.empty();
+    private boolean useScalarIndex = true;
+    private boolean fastSearch = false;
+    private Optional<ByteBuffer> substraitAggregate = Optional.empty();
+    private boolean collectStats = false;
+    private boolean includeDeletedRows = false;
+    private boolean strictBatchSize = false;
+    private boolean disableScoringAutoprojection = false;
 
     public Builder() {}
 
@@ -243,7 +636,10 @@ public Builder() {}
      */
     public Builder(ScanOptions options) {
       this.fragmentIds = options.getFragmentIds();
+      this.indexSegments = options.getIndexSegments();
       this.batchSize = options.getBatchSize();
+      this.batchSizeBytes = options.getBatchSizeBytes();
+      this.ioBufferSize = options.getIoBufferSize();
       this.columns = options.getColumns();
       this.filter = options.getFilter();
       this.substraitFilter = options.getSubstraitFilter();
@@ -251,10 +647,21 @@ public Builder(ScanOptions options) {
       this.offset = options.getOffset();
       this.nearest = options.getNearest();
       this.fullTextQuery = options.getFullTextQuery();
+      this.prefilter = options.isPrefilter();
       this.withRowId = options.isWithRowId();
       this.withRowAddress = options.isWithRowAddress();
       this.batchReadahead = options.getBatchReadahead();
+      this.fragmentReadahead = options.getFragmentReadahead();
+      this.scanInOrder = options.isScanInOrder();
+      this.lateMaterialization = options.getLateMaterialization();
       this.columnOrderings = options.getColumnOrderings();
+      this.useScalarIndex = options.isUseScalarIndex();
+      this.fastSearch = options.isFastSearch();
+      this.substraitAggregate = options.getSubstraitAggregate();
+      this.collectStats = options.isCollectStats();
+      this.includeDeletedRows = options.isIncludeDeletedRows();
+      this.strictBatchSize = options.isStrictBatchSize();
+      this.disableScoringAutoprojection = options.isDisableScoringAutoprojection();
     }
 
     /**
@@ -268,6 +675,29 @@ public Builder fragmentIds(List<Integer> fragmentIds) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Restrict vector search to the specified index segment UUIDs from a single logical index.
+     *
+     * <p>By default, no segment restriction is applied. The engine rejects empty lists, unknown
+     * segments, and use without a nearest-neighbor query. When {@link #fragmentIds(List)} is also
+     * set, selected fragments outside these segments are searched with flat KNN; otherwise,
+     * fragments outside the selected segments are excluded.
+     *
+     * <pre>{@code
+     * ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder()
+     *     .nearest(query)
+     *     .indexSegments(List.of(segment.uuid()))
+     *     .build();
+     * }</pre>
+     *
+     * @param indexSegments the index segment UUIDs to use
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder indexSegments(List<UUID> indexSegments) {
+      this.indexSegments = Optional.of(indexSegments);
+      return this;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Set the batch size.
      *
@@ -279,6 +709,34 @@ public Builder batchSize(long batchSize) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set the approximate target size of each returned Arrow record batch in bytes.
+     *
+     * <p>If {@link #batchSize(long)} is also set, the limit reached first determines the batch
+     * size. This option cannot be combined with {@link #strictBatchSize(boolean)}.
+     *
+     * @param batchSizeBytes target batch size in bytes; must be greater than zero.
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder batchSizeBytes(long batchSizeBytes) {
+      this.batchSizeBytes = Optional.of(batchSizeBytes);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set the amount of memory reserved for buffering storage I/O.
+     *
+     * <p>This controls scanner backpressure but is not a hard upper bound on total scanner memory.
+     * It currently applies only to v2 files.
+     *
+     * @param ioBufferSize I/O buffer size in bytes; must be greater than zero.
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder ioBufferSize(long ioBufferSize) {
+      this.ioBufferSize = Optional.of(ioBufferSize);
+      return this;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Set the columns.
      *
@@ -356,6 +814,17 @@ public Builder fullTextQuery(FullTextQuery fullTextQuery) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set whether to prefilter during nearest neighbor search.
+     *
+     * @param prefilter true to apply prefilter, false otherwise.
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder prefilter(boolean prefilter) {
+      this.prefilter = prefilter;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Set whether to include the row ID.
      *
@@ -389,11 +858,139 @@ public Builder batchReadahead(int batchReadahead) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set the number of fragments to read ahead concurrently.
+     *
+     * @param fragmentReadahead number of fragments to read ahead; must be greater than zero.
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder fragmentReadahead(int fragmentReadahead) {
+      this.fragmentReadahead = Optional.of(fragmentReadahead);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set whether batches are returned in fragment and batch order.
+     *
+     * <p>Disabling ordering can increase scan concurrency at the cost of additional memory. This
+     * option is ignored for v2 files, which always scan in order. It is also ignored when a column
+     * ordering or nearest-neighbor query is configured; the query determines the result order.
+     *
+     * @param scanInOrder true to preserve scan order, false to return ready batches immediately.
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder scanInOrder(boolean scanInOrder) {
+      this.scanInOrder = scanInOrder;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set when projected columns that are not used by the filter should be materialized.
+     *
+     * <p>This option only affects regular scans. Vector search and full-text search always use late
+     * materialization.
+     *
+     * @param lateMaterialization materialization policy.
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder lateMaterialization(MaterializationStyle lateMaterialization) {
+      this.lateMaterialization = Optional.of(lateMaterialization);
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public Builder setColumnOrderings(List<ColumnOrdering> columnOrderings) {
       this.columnOrderings = Optional.of(columnOrderings);
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set whether to use scalar indices for the scan.
+     *
+     * <p>Scans will use scalar indices, when available, to optimize queries with filters. However,
+     * in some corner cases, scalar indices may make performance worse. This parameter allows users
+     * to disable scalar indices in these cases.
+     *
+     * @param useScalarIndex true to use scalar indices, false otherwise. Default is true.
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder useScalarIndex(boolean useScalarIndex) {
+      this.useScalarIndex = useScalarIndex;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set whether to only search indexed fragments.
+     *
+     * <p>This is a weak-consistency mode for vector search, full text search, and scalar-indexed
+     * filters. It can reduce latency by skipping recently appended fragments that are not covered
+     * by the relevant index.
+     *
+     * @param fastSearch true to skip unindexed fragments, false otherwise. Default is false.
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder fastSearch(boolean fastSearch) {
+      this.fastSearch = fastSearch;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set the substrait aggregate expression.
+     *
+     * @param substraitAggregate Substrait aggregate expression.
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder substraitAggregate(ByteBuffer substraitAggregate) {
+      this.substraitAggregate = Optional.of(substraitAggregate);
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Enable or disable scan execution statistics collection.
+     *
+     * <p>When enabled, the native scanner will collect statistics (see {@link ScanStats}) for the
+     * scan and make them available via {@link LanceScanner#getStats()} after the scan stream is
+     * fully consumed and closed.
+     *
+     * <p>Default is false.
+     */
+    public Builder collectStats(boolean collectStats) {
+      this.collectStats = collectStats;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set whether to include deleted rows in scan results. Default is false.
+     *
+     * @param includeDeletedRows whether to include deleted rows
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder includeDeletedRows(boolean includeDeletedRows) {
+      this.includeDeletedRows = includeDeletedRows;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set whether to enforce strict batch sizing. Default is false.
+     *
+     * @param strictBatchSize whether to enforce strict batch sizing
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder strictBatchSize(boolean strictBatchSize) {
+      this.strictBatchSize = strictBatchSize;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set whether to disable scoring column autoprojection. Default is false.
+     *
+     * @param disableScoringAutoprojection whether to disable autoprojection
+     * @return Builder instance for method chaining.
+     */
+    public Builder disableScoringAutoprojection(boolean disableScoringAutoprojection) {
+      this.disableScoringAutoprojection = disableScoringAutoprojection;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Build the LanceScanOptions instance.
      *
@@ -402,7 +999,10 @@ public Builder setColumnOrderings(List<ColumnOrdering> columnOrderings) {
     public ScanOptions build() {
       return new ScanOptions(
           fragmentIds,
+          indexSegments,
           batchSize,
+          batchSizeBytes,
+          ioBufferSize,
           columns,
           filter,
           substraitFilter,
@@ -410,10 +1010,21 @@ public ScanOptions build() {
           offset,
           nearest,
           fullTextQuery,
+          prefilter,
           withRowId,
           withRowAddress,
           batchReadahead,
-          columnOrderings);
+          fragmentReadahead,
+          scanInOrder,
+          lateMaterialization,
+          columnOrderings,
+          useScalarIndex,
+          substraitAggregate,
+          collectStats,
+          fastSearch,
+          includeDeletedRows,
+          strictBatchSize,
+          disableScoringAutoprojection);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ScanStats.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ScanStats.java
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..e2160d0f371
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/ipc/ScanStats.java
@@ -0,0 +1,231 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.ipc;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/**
+ * Summary counts collected after executing a scan plan.
+ *
+ * <p>These statistics are populated when the scan stream is fully consumed and closed.
+ */
+public final class ScanStats {
+  private final long iops;
+  private final long requests;
+  private final long bytesRead;
+  private final long indicesLoaded;
+  private final long partsLoaded;
+  private final long indexComparisons;
+
+  /** Number of index cache page lookups served from memory in this scan. */
+  private final long indexCacheHits;
+
+  /** Number of index cache page lookups that had to load from storage in this scan. */
+  private final long indexCacheMisses;
+
+  private final Map<String, Long> allCounts;
+  private final Map<String, Long> allTimes;
+
+  public ScanStats(
+      long iops,
+      long requests,
+      long bytesRead,
+      long indicesLoaded,
+      long partsLoaded,
+      long indexComparisons,
+      long indexCacheHits,
+      long indexCacheMisses,
+      Map<String, Long> allCounts,
+      Map<String, Long> allTimes) {
+    this.iops = iops;
+    this.requests = requests;
+    this.bytesRead = bytesRead;
+    this.indicesLoaded = indicesLoaded;
+    this.partsLoaded = partsLoaded;
+    this.indexComparisons = indexComparisons;
+    this.indexCacheHits = indexCacheHits;
+    this.indexCacheMisses = indexCacheMisses;
+    this.allCounts = freezeMap(allCounts);
+    this.allTimes = freezeMap(allTimes);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Backwards-compatible constructor kept for existing callers that predate the addition of
+   * per-query index cache statistics. New code should use the 10-argument constructor that also
+   * accepts {@code indexCacheHits} and {@code indexCacheMisses}.
+   *
+   * @deprecated Use {@link #ScanStats(long, long, long, long, long, long, long, long, Map, Map)}.
+   */
+  @Deprecated
+  public ScanStats(
+      long iops,
+      long requests,
+      long bytesRead,
+      long indicesLoaded,
+      long partsLoaded,
+      long indexComparisons,
+      Map<String, Long> allCounts,
+      Map<String, Long> allTimes) {
+    this(
+        iops,
+        requests,
+        bytesRead,
+        indicesLoaded,
+        partsLoaded,
+        indexComparisons,
+        0L,
+        0L,
+        allCounts,
+        allTimes);
+  }
+
+  private static <K, V> Map<K, V> freezeMap(Map<K, V> map) {
+    if (map == null || map.isEmpty()) {
+      return Collections.emptyMap();
+    }
+    return Collections.unmodifiableMap(new HashMap<>(map));
+  }
+
+  public long getIops() {
+    return iops;
+  }
+
+  public long getRequests() {
+    return requests;
+  }
+
+  public long getBytesRead() {
+    return bytesRead;
+  }
+
+  public long getIndicesLoaded() {
+    return indicesLoaded;
+  }
+
+  public long getPartsLoaded() {
+    return partsLoaded;
+  }
+
+  public long getIndexComparisons() {
+    return indexComparisons;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Number of index cache page lookups where the loader was not executed in this scan.
+   *
+   * <p>Counts both true cache hits on already-populated entries and coalesced concurrent loads (a
+   * follower attached to another caller's in-flight load).
+   *
+   * <p>Instrumented boundaries in this release: BTree, IVF v2 (write-cache scan path), inverted
+   * posting list (grouped and per-token) and its per-token metadata, inverted phrase positions,
+   * bitmap (Equals / Range / IsIn), ngram, rtree.
+   *
+   * <p>Caveats:
+   *
+   * <ul>
+   *   <li>IVF v2 streaming scans and legacy v1 IVF partitions bypass the cache by design and are
+   *       therefore reported as a miss on every call.
+   *   <li>A cold posting-list lookup on the grouped inverted layout can record up to two misses
+   *       (group + per-token metadata) for a single term.
+   * </ul>
+   *
+   * <p>Uninstrumented paths (HNSW graph pages, quantizer codebooks) do not contribute to either
+   * counter. See the sibling {@link #getIndexCacheMisses()} for the paired counter.
+   */
+  public long getIndexCacheHits() {
+    return indexCacheHits;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Number of index cache page lookups where the loader ran in this scan (the page was not resident
+   * and had to be materialised, typically from storage). See {@link #getIndexCacheHits()} for the
+   * paired counter and the list of instrumented boundaries.
+   */
+  public long getIndexCacheMisses() {
+    return indexCacheMisses;
+  }
+
+  public Map<String, Long> getAllCounts() {
+    return allCounts;
+  }
+
+  public Map<String, Long> getAllTimes() {
+    return allTimes;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean equals(Object o) {
+    if (this == o) {
+      return true;
+    }
+    if (!(o instanceof ScanStats)) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    ScanStats that = (ScanStats) o;
+    return iops == that.iops
+        && requests == that.requests
+        && bytesRead == that.bytesRead
+        && indicesLoaded == that.indicesLoaded
+        && partsLoaded == that.partsLoaded
+        && indexComparisons == that.indexComparisons
+        && indexCacheHits == that.indexCacheHits
+        && indexCacheMisses == that.indexCacheMisses
+        && Objects.equals(allCounts, that.allCounts)
+        && Objects.equals(allTimes, that.allTimes);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(
+        iops,
+        requests,
+        bytesRead,
+        indicesLoaded,
+        partsLoaded,
+        indexComparisons,
+        indexCacheHits,
+        indexCacheMisses,
+        allCounts,
+        allTimes);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return "ScanStats{"
+        + "iops="
+        + iops
+        + ", requests="
+        + requests
+        + ", bytesRead="
+        + bytesRead
+        + ", indicesLoaded="
+        + indicesLoaded
+        + ", partsLoaded="
+        + partsLoaded
+        + ", indexComparisons="
+        + indexComparisons
+        + ", indexCacheHits="
+        + indexCacheHits
+        + ", indexCacheMisses="
+        + indexCacheMisses
+        + ", allCounts="
+        + allCounts
+        + ", allTimes="
+        + allTimes
+        + '}';
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/CompactedSsTable.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/CompactedSsTable.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cb703b42641
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/CompactedSsTable.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
+
+/**
+ * Points to an SSTable compacted into the base table.
+ *
+ * <p>Pass a list of these to {@link org.lance.merge.MergeInsertParams#markSstablesAsCompacted} so
+ * Lance can record compaction progress.
+ */
+public class CompactedSsTable {
+  private final String shardId;
+  private final long generation;
+
+  /**
+   * @param shardId UUID string for the write shard
+   * @param generation generation number from {@link ShardSnapshot#sstables()}
+   */
+  public CompactedSsTable(String shardId, long generation) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(shardId, "shardId must not be null");
+    this.shardId = shardId;
+    this.generation = generation;
+  }
+
+  /** UUID string for the write shard. */
+  public String getShardId() {
+    return shardId;
+  }
+
+  /** The compacted SSTable's generation number. */
+  public long getGeneration() {
+    return generation;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("shardId", shardId)
+        .add("generation", generation)
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ExecutionPlan.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ExecutionPlan.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..34fe2017647
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ExecutionPlan.java
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import org.lance.JniLoader;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowSchema;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
+
+/**
+ * An executable physical plan produced by a MemWAL planner.
+ *
+ * <p>Planner classes only build plans; execution happens through this class. Obtain instances from
+ * {@link LsmPointLookupPlanner#planLookup} or {@link LsmVectorSearchPlanner#planSearch}.
+ */
+public class ExecutionPlan implements AutoCloseable {
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
+  private long nativeExecutionPlanHandle;
+  BufferAllocator allocator;
+  private final LockManager lockManager = new LockManager();
+
+  private ExecutionPlan() {}
+
+  /** Output schema of this physical plan. */
+  public Schema schema() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeExecutionPlanHandle != 0, "ExecutionPlan is closed");
+      try (ArrowSchema ffiSchema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        nativeImportSchema(ffiSchema.memoryAddress());
+        return Data.importSchema(allocator, ffiSchema, null);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeImportSchema(long schemaAddress);
+
+  /** Schema of the base dataset this plan was constructed from. */
+  public Schema datasetSchema() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeExecutionPlanHandle != 0, "ExecutionPlan is closed");
+      try (ArrowSchema ffiSchema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        nativeImportDatasetSchema(ffiSchema.memoryAddress());
+        return Data.importSchema(allocator, ffiSchema, null);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeImportDatasetSchema(long schemaAddress);
+
+  /** Return the physical plan rendered as an indented string. */
+  public String explain() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeExecutionPlanHandle != 0, "ExecutionPlan is closed");
+      return nativeExplain();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native String nativeExplain();
+
+  /** Execute the plan and return a streaming reader over the results. */
+  public ArrowReader toReader() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeExecutionPlanHandle != 0, "ExecutionPlan is closed");
+      try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        nativeOpenStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+        return Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeOpenStream(long streamAddress);
+
+  /**
+   * Close the plan and release native resources. If the plan is already closed, invoking this
+   * method has no effect.
+   */
+  @Override
+  public void close() {
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      if (nativeExecutionPlanHandle != 0) {
+        releaseNativeExecutionPlan(nativeExecutionPlanHandle);
+        nativeExecutionPlanHandle = 0;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void releaseNativeExecutionPlan(long handle);
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/InitializeMemWalParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/InitializeMemWalParams.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a8f00c03abd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/InitializeMemWalParams.java
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * Parameters for {@link org.lance.Dataset#initializeMemWal}.
+ *
+ * <p>At most one sharding mode may be selected: bucket sharding ({@link #withBucketSharding}),
+ * identity sharding ({@link #withIdentitySharding}), or {@link #withUnsharded()}. With none
+ * selected, shards are managed manually by passing shard IDs to {@link
+ * org.lance.Dataset#memWalWriter}.
+ */
+public class InitializeMemWalParams {
+  private Optional<List<String>> maintainedIndexes = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<String> bucketColumn = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Integer> numBuckets = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<String> identityColumn = Optional.empty();
+  private boolean unsharded = false;
+  private Optional<ShardWriterConfig> writerConfigDefaults = Optional.empty();
+
+  /**
+   * Names of the indexes to maintain through the MemWAL. Must already exist on the dataset, and an
+   * empty list maintains none.
+   *
+   * <p>Left unset, the MemWAL maintains every index the table has, including ones created later.
+   */
+  public InitializeMemWalParams withMaintainedIndexes(List<String> maintainedIndexes) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(maintainedIndexes, "maintainedIndexes must not be null");
+    this.maintainedIndexes = Optional.of(maintainedIndexes);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Use bucket sharding, deriving shard IDs by hashing {@code column} into {@code numBuckets}. */
+  public InitializeMemWalParams withBucketSharding(String column, int numBuckets) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(column, "column must not be null");
+    this.bucketColumn = Optional.of(column);
+    this.numBuckets = Optional.of(numBuckets);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Use identity sharding, deriving shard IDs directly from {@code column}. */
+  public InitializeMemWalParams withIdentitySharding(String column) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(column, "column must not be null");
+    this.identityColumn = Optional.of(column);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Use a single unsharded shard for all writes. */
+  public InitializeMemWalParams withUnsharded() {
+    this.unsharded = true;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Default {@link ShardWriterConfig} recorded in the MemWAL index for all writers. */
+  public InitializeMemWalParams withWriterConfigDefaults(ShardWriterConfig writerConfigDefaults) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(writerConfigDefaults, "writerConfigDefaults must not be null");
+    this.writerConfigDefaults = Optional.of(writerConfigDefaults);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Empty when every index the table has is maintained. */
+  public Optional<List<String>> maintainedIndexes() {
+    return maintainedIndexes;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<String> bucketColumn() {
+    return bucketColumn;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Integer> numBuckets() {
+    return numBuckets;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<String> identityColumn() {
+    return identityColumn;
+  }
+
+  public boolean unsharded() {
+    return unsharded;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<ShardWriterConfig> writerConfigDefaults() {
+    return writerConfigDefaults;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/LsmPointLookupPlanner.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/LsmPointLookupPlanner.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..941a68a1606
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/LsmPointLookupPlanner.java
@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.JniLoader;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArray;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowSchema;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.FieldVector;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * Plans primary-key point lookups across all MemWAL LSM levels.
+ *
+ * <p>More efficient than {@link LsmScanner} for known-primary-key lookups thanks to bloom filter
+ * optimizations and short-circuit evaluation.
+ */
+public class LsmPointLookupPlanner implements AutoCloseable {
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
+  private long nativeLookupPlannerHandle;
+  private final BufferAllocator allocator;
+  private final LockManager lockManager = new LockManager();
+
+  /**
+   * @param dataset the base dataset
+   * @param shardSnapshots shard snapshots specifying the SSTables to include
+   */
+  public LsmPointLookupPlanner(Dataset dataset, List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots) {
+    this(dataset, shardSnapshots, null);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param dataset the base dataset
+   * @param shardSnapshots shard snapshots specifying the SSTables to include
+   * @param pkColumns primary key column names; inferred from schema metadata when {@code null}
+   */
+  public LsmPointLookupPlanner(
+      Dataset dataset, List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots, List<String> pkColumns) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(dataset, "dataset must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(shardSnapshots, "shardSnapshots must not be null");
+    this.allocator = dataset.allocator();
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      nativeCreate(dataset, shardSnapshots, Optional.ofNullable(pkColumns));
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeCreate(
+      Dataset dataset, List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots, Optional<List<String>> pkColumns);
+
+  /**
+   * Plan a point lookup by primary key value.
+   *
+   * @param pkValue for a single-column primary key, a vector with exactly one element; for a
+   *     composite primary key, a {@code StructVector} with one row and one child per key column
+   * @param columns columns to project; pass {@code null} to return all columns
+   * @return an executable plan
+   */
+  public ExecutionPlan planLookup(FieldVector pkValue, List<String> columns) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(pkValue, "pkValue must not be null");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          nativeLookupPlannerHandle != 0, "LsmPointLookupPlanner is closed");
+      try (ArrowArray array = ArrowArray.allocateNew(allocator);
+          ArrowSchema schema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportVector(allocator, pkValue, null, array, schema);
+        ExecutionPlan plan =
+            nativePlanLookup(
+                array.memoryAddress(), schema.memoryAddress(), Optional.ofNullable(columns));
+        plan.allocator = allocator;
+        return plan;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Plan a point lookup by primary key value, returning all columns. */
+  public ExecutionPlan planLookup(FieldVector pkValue) {
+    return planLookup(pkValue, null);
+  }
+
+  private native ExecutionPlan nativePlanLookup(
+      long arrayAddress, long schemaAddress, Optional<List<String>> columns);
+
+  /**
+   * Close the planner and release native resources. If the planner is already closed, invoking this
+   * method has no effect.
+   */
+  @Override
+  public void close() {
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      if (nativeLookupPlannerHandle != 0) {
+        releaseNativeLookupPlanner(nativeLookupPlannerHandle);
+        nativeLookupPlannerHandle = 0;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void releaseNativeLookupPlanner(long handle);
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/LsmScanner.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/LsmScanner.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..308d8009d71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/LsmScanner.java
@@ -0,0 +1,192 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.JniLoader;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+
+import java.io.Closeable;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * LSM-aware scanner covering all MemWAL data levels.
+ *
+ * <p>Results are deduplicated by primary key, always returning the newest version of each row
+ * across the base table, SSTables, and (when created from a {@link ShardWriter}) the active
+ * MemTable.
+ *
+ * <p>The builder methods ({@link #project}, {@link #filter}, {@link #limit}, {@link
+ * #withRowAddress}, {@link #withMemtableGen}) mutate this scanner and return it for chaining.
+ */
+public class LsmScanner implements Closeable {
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
+  private long nativeLsmScannerHandle;
+  BufferAllocator allocator;
+  private final LockManager lockManager = new LockManager();
+
+  private LsmScanner() {}
+
+  /**
+   * Create a scanner from a dataset and shard snapshots.
+   *
+   * <p>The scanner does not include any active MemTable; use {@link ShardWriter#lsmScanner} for
+   * read-your-writes consistency.
+   *
+   * @param dataset the base dataset to scan
+   * @param shardSnapshots shard snapshots specifying the SSTables to include
+   * @return an LSM scanner
+   */
+  public static LsmScanner fromSnapshots(Dataset dataset, List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(dataset, "dataset must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(shardSnapshots, "shardSnapshots must not be null");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      LsmScanner scanner = createFromSnapshots(dataset, shardSnapshots);
+      scanner.allocator = dataset.allocator();
+      return scanner;
+    }
+  }
+
+  static native LsmScanner createFromSnapshots(Dataset dataset, List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots);
+
+  /** Select specific columns to return. */
+  public LsmScanner project(List<String> columns) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(columns, "columns must not be null");
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeLsmScannerHandle != 0, "LsmScanner is closed");
+      nativeProject(columns);
+      return this;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeProject(List<String> columns);
+
+  /**
+   * Set a SQL filter expression, for example {@code "value > 0.5"}.
+   *
+   * <p>If {@code expr} fails to parse, an {@link IllegalArgumentException} is thrown and this
+   * scanner becomes unusable — build a new scanner rather than retrying on this instance.
+   *
+   * @param expr a SQL filter expression
+   * @return this scanner
+   */
+  public LsmScanner filter(String expr) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(expr, "expr must not be null");
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeLsmScannerHandle != 0, "LsmScanner is closed");
+      nativeFilter(expr);
+      return this;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeFilter(String expr);
+
+  /** Limit the number of rows returned, optionally skipping {@code offset} rows first. */
+  public LsmScanner limit(Optional<Long> limit, Optional<Long> offset) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(limit, "limit must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(offset, "offset must not be null");
+    limit.ifPresent(
+        l -> Preconditions.checkArgument(l >= 0, "limit must not be negative, got %s", l));
+    offset.ifPresent(
+        o -> Preconditions.checkArgument(o >= 0, "offset must not be negative, got %s", o));
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeLsmScannerHandle != 0, "LsmScanner is closed");
+      nativeLimit(limit, offset);
+      return this;
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Limit the number of rows returned, optionally skipping {@code offset} rows first. */
+  public LsmScanner limit(long limit, Optional<Long> offset) {
+    return limit(Optional.of(limit), offset);
+  }
+
+  /** Limit the number of rows returned. */
+  public LsmScanner limit(long limit) {
+    return limit(limit, Optional.empty());
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeLimit(Optional<Long> limit, Optional<Long> offset);
+
+  /** Include the {@code _rowaddr} internal column in results. */
+  public LsmScanner withRowAddress() {
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeLsmScannerHandle != 0, "LsmScanner is closed");
+      nativeWithRowAddress();
+      return this;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeWithRowAddress();
+
+  /** Include the {@code _memtable_gen} internal column in results. */
+  public LsmScanner withMemtableGen() {
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeLsmScannerHandle != 0, "LsmScanner is closed");
+      nativeWithMemtableGen();
+      return this;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeWithMemtableGen();
+
+  /** Execute the scan and return a streaming reader over the merged results. */
+  public ArrowReader scanBatches() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeLsmScannerHandle != 0, "LsmScanner is closed");
+      try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        nativeOpenStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+        return Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeOpenStream(long streamAddress);
+
+  /** Return the row count without materializing all column data. */
+  public long countRows() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeLsmScannerHandle != 0, "LsmScanner is closed");
+      return nativeCountRows();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native long nativeCountRows();
+
+  /**
+   * Close the scanner and release native resources. If the scanner is already closed, invoking this
+   * method has no effect.
+   */
+  @Override
+  public void close() {
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      if (nativeLsmScannerHandle != 0) {
+        releaseNativeLsmScanner(nativeLsmScannerHandle);
+        nativeLsmScannerHandle = 0;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void releaseNativeLsmScanner(long handle);
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/LsmVectorSearchPlanner.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/LsmVectorSearchPlanner.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b91e5ae4a7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/LsmVectorSearchPlanner.java
@@ -0,0 +1,231 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.JniLoader;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArray;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowSchema;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.Float4Vector;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * Plans IVF-PQ vector KNN search across all MemWAL LSM levels.
+ *
+ * <p>Results include staleness filtering so only the latest version of each row is returned. The
+ * output schema includes a {@code _distance} column.
+ */
+public class LsmVectorSearchPlanner implements AutoCloseable {
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
+  private long nativeVectorPlannerHandle;
+  private final BufferAllocator allocator;
+  private final LockManager lockManager = new LockManager();
+
+  /**
+   * @param dataset the base dataset
+   * @param shardSnapshots shard snapshots specifying the SSTables to include
+   * @param vectorColumn name of the {@code FixedSizeList<float32>} vector column
+   */
+  public LsmVectorSearchPlanner(
+      Dataset dataset, List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots, String vectorColumn) {
+    this(dataset, shardSnapshots, vectorColumn, null, null, null);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param dataset the base dataset
+   * @param shardSnapshots shard snapshots specifying the SSTables to include
+   * @param vectorColumn name of the {@code FixedSizeList<float32>} vector column
+   * @param pkColumns primary key column names; inferred from schema metadata when {@code null}
+   * @param distanceType distance metric, one of {@code "l2"}, {@code "cosine"}, {@code "dot"},
+   *     {@code "hamming"}; defaults to {@code "l2"} when {@code null}
+   */
+  public LsmVectorSearchPlanner(
+      Dataset dataset,
+      List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots,
+      String vectorColumn,
+      List<String> pkColumns,
+      String distanceType) {
+    this(dataset, shardSnapshots, vectorColumn, pkColumns, distanceType, null);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param dataset the base dataset
+   * @param shardSnapshots shard snapshots specifying the SSTables to include
+   * @param vectorColumn name of the {@code FixedSizeList<float32>} vector column
+   * @param pkColumns primary key column names; inferred from schema metadata when {@code null}
+   * @param distanceType distance metric, one of {@code "l2"}, {@code "cosine"}, {@code "dot"},
+   *     {@code "hamming"}; defaults to {@code "l2"} when {@code null}
+   * @param filter SQL predicate applied as a prefilter to every LSM source before vector candidate
+   *     selection; pass {@code null} for no predicate
+   */
+  public LsmVectorSearchPlanner(
+      Dataset dataset,
+      List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots,
+      String vectorColumn,
+      List<String> pkColumns,
+      String distanceType,
+      String filter) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(dataset, "dataset must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(shardSnapshots, "shardSnapshots must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(vectorColumn, "vectorColumn must not be null");
+    this.allocator = dataset.allocator();
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      nativeCreate(
+          dataset,
+          shardSnapshots,
+          vectorColumn,
+          Optional.ofNullable(pkColumns),
+          Optional.ofNullable(distanceType),
+          Optional.ofNullable(filter));
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeCreate(
+      Dataset dataset,
+      List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots,
+      String vectorColumn,
+      Optional<List<String>> pkColumns,
+      Optional<String> distanceType,
+      Optional<String> filter);
+
+  /**
+   * Plan a KNN vector search.
+   *
+   * @param query a flat float32 vector of length {@code vectorDim}
+   * @param k number of nearest neighbours to return
+   * @param nprobes number of IVF partitions to probe
+   * @param columns columns to project; pass {@code null} to return all columns plus {@code
+   *     _distance}
+   * @param refineBaseTable when true, the base-table arm re-ranks candidates with exact distances
+   *     (refine factor 1). Useful when the base table uses an approximate index (IVF-PQ).
+   *     Auto-enabled whenever stale filtering is on (see {@code overfetchFactor}).
+   * @param overfetchFactor over-fetch multiple for sources with rows superseded by newer
+   *     generations. Must be at least {@code 1.0}:
+   *     <ul>
+   *       <li>{@code == 1.0}: no over-fetch — an affected source fetches exactly {@code k}
+   *           candidates and may return fewer than {@code k} live rows after stale rows are
+   *           dropped.
+   *       <li>{@code > 1.0}: with over-fetch — such a source fetches {@code ceil(k *
+   *           overfetchFactor)} candidates so dropping stale rows is less likely to under-fill the
+   *           result.
+   *     </ul>
+   *
+   * @return an executable plan
+   */
+  public ExecutionPlan planSearch(
+      Float4Vector query,
+      int k,
+      int nprobes,
+      List<String> columns,
+      boolean refineBaseTable,
+      double overfetchFactor) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(query, "query must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(k > 0, "k must be positive, got %s", k);
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(nprobes > 0, "nprobes must be positive, got %s", nprobes);
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        Double.isFinite(overfetchFactor) && overfetchFactor >= 1.0,
+        "overfetchFactor must be finite and >= 1.0, got %s",
+        overfetchFactor);
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(
+          nativeVectorPlannerHandle != 0, "LsmVectorSearchPlanner is closed");
+      try (ArrowArray array = ArrowArray.allocateNew(allocator);
+          ArrowSchema schema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportVector(allocator, query, null, array, schema);
+        ExecutionPlan plan =
+            nativePlanSearch(
+                array.memoryAddress(),
+                schema.memoryAddress(),
+                k,
+                nprobes,
+                Optional.ofNullable(columns),
+                refineBaseTable,
+                overfetchFactor);
+        plan.allocator = allocator;
+        return plan;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Plan a KNN vector search with stale filtering on and no over-fetch ({@code overfetchFactor =
+   * 1.0}).
+   *
+   * @param query a flat float32 vector of length {@code vectorDim}
+   * @param k number of nearest neighbours to return
+   * @param nprobes number of IVF partitions to probe
+   * @param columns columns to project; pass {@code null} to return all columns plus {@code
+   *     _distance}
+   * @param refineBaseTable when true, the base-table arm re-ranks candidates with exact distances.
+   * @return an executable plan
+   */
+  public ExecutionPlan planSearch(
+      Float4Vector query, int k, int nprobes, List<String> columns, boolean refineBaseTable) {
+    return planSearch(query, k, nprobes, columns, refineBaseTable, 1.0);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Plan a KNN vector search with stale filtering on (no refine, no over-fetch).
+   *
+   * @param query a flat float32 vector of length {@code vectorDim}
+   * @param k number of nearest neighbours to return
+   * @param nprobes number of IVF partitions to probe
+   * @param columns columns to project; pass {@code null} to return all columns plus {@code
+   *     _distance}
+   * @return an executable plan
+   */
+  public ExecutionPlan planSearch(Float4Vector query, int k, int nprobes, List<String> columns) {
+    return planSearch(query, k, nprobes, columns, false, 1.0);
+  }
+
+  /** Plan a KNN vector search with default {@code nprobes} of 20. */
+  public ExecutionPlan planSearch(Float4Vector query, int k) {
+    return planSearch(query, k, 20, null, false, 1.0);
+  }
+
+  private native ExecutionPlan nativePlanSearch(
+      long arrayAddress,
+      long schemaAddress,
+      int k,
+      int nprobes,
+      Optional<List<String>> columns,
+      boolean refineBaseTable,
+      double overfetchFactor);
+
+  /**
+   * Close the planner and release native resources. If the planner is already closed, invoking this
+   * method has no effect.
+   */
+  @Override
+  public void close() {
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      if (nativeVectorPlannerHandle != 0) {
+        releaseNativeVectorPlanner(nativeVectorPlannerHandle);
+        nativeVectorPlannerHandle = 0;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void releaseNativeVectorPlanner(long handle);
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/MemTableStats.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/MemTableStats.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..55370ad101a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/MemTableStats.java
@@ -0,0 +1,182 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/** Statistics of the active MemTable held by a {@link ShardWriter}. */
+public class MemTableStats {
+  private final long rowCount;
+  private final long batchCount;
+  private final long estimatedSizeBytes;
+  private final long generation;
+  private final Optional<Long> maxBufferedBatchPosition;
+  private final long durableBatchCount;
+  private final long globalOffset;
+  private final Optional<Long> pendingWalStartBatchPosition;
+  private final Optional<Long> pendingWalEndBatchPosition;
+  private final long pendingWalBatchCount;
+  private final long pendingWalRowCount;
+  private final long pendingWalEstimatedBytes;
+  private final long indexBytes;
+  private final long graceBytes;
+  private final long retainedBytes;
+
+  public MemTableStats(
+      long rowCount,
+      long batchCount,
+      long estimatedSizeBytes,
+      long generation,
+      Long maxBufferedBatchPosition,
+      long durableBatchCount,
+      long globalOffset,
+      Long pendingWalStartBatchPosition,
+      Long pendingWalEndBatchPosition,
+      long pendingWalBatchCount,
+      long pendingWalRowCount,
+      long pendingWalEstimatedBytes,
+      long indexBytes,
+      long graceBytes,
+      long retainedBytes) {
+    this.rowCount = rowCount;
+    this.batchCount = batchCount;
+    this.estimatedSizeBytes = estimatedSizeBytes;
+    this.generation = generation;
+    this.maxBufferedBatchPosition = Optional.ofNullable(maxBufferedBatchPosition);
+    this.durableBatchCount = durableBatchCount;
+    this.globalOffset = globalOffset;
+    this.pendingWalStartBatchPosition = Optional.ofNullable(pendingWalStartBatchPosition);
+    this.pendingWalEndBatchPosition = Optional.ofNullable(pendingWalEndBatchPosition);
+    this.pendingWalBatchCount = pendingWalBatchCount;
+    this.pendingWalRowCount = pendingWalRowCount;
+    this.pendingWalEstimatedBytes = pendingWalEstimatedBytes;
+    this.indexBytes = indexBytes;
+    this.graceBytes = graceBytes;
+    this.retainedBytes = retainedBytes;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of rows currently buffered in the active MemTable. */
+  public long rowCount() {
+    return rowCount;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of record batches currently buffered in the active MemTable. */
+  public long batchCount() {
+    return batchCount;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Row-data bytes of the active MemTable: the unit the flush trigger measures. Its in-memory
+   * indexes are reported separately by {@link #indexBytes()} and are <em>not</em> included here.
+   */
+  public long estimatedSizeBytes() {
+    return estimatedSizeBytes;
+  }
+
+  /** Generation number of the active MemTable. */
+  public long generation() {
+    return generation;
+  }
+
+  /** Highest WAL batch position buffered into the MemTable, if any. */
+  public Optional<Long> maxBufferedBatchPosition() {
+    return maxBufferedBatchPosition;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Writer-global count of WAL-durable batches (exclusive; 0 means none). Compare against {@code
+   * globalOffset() + batchCount()} to see what this MemTable still owes the WAL.
+   */
+  public long durableBatchCount() {
+    return durableBatchCount;
+  }
+
+  /** Writer-global coordinate of this MemTable's batch 0. */
+  public long globalOffset() {
+    return globalOffset;
+  }
+
+  /** First WAL batch position pending flush, if any. */
+  public Optional<Long> pendingWalStartBatchPosition() {
+    return pendingWalStartBatchPosition;
+  }
+
+  /** Last WAL batch position pending flush, if any. */
+  public Optional<Long> pendingWalEndBatchPosition() {
+    return pendingWalEndBatchPosition;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of WAL batches pending flush. */
+  public long pendingWalBatchCount() {
+    return pendingWalBatchCount;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of rows in WAL batches pending flush. */
+  public long pendingWalRowCount() {
+    return pendingWalRowCount;
+  }
+
+  /** Estimated bytes of WAL batches pending flush. */
+  public long pendingWalEstimatedBytes() {
+    return pendingWalEstimatedBytes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Bytes held by the active MemTable's in-memory indexes, its primary-key bloom filter included.
+   * Usually what explains a shard near its ceiling with few rows in it: an HNSW graph is
+   * pre-allocated in full from the configured row capacity.
+   */
+  public long indexBytes() {
+    return indexBytes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Bytes held by generations that have flushed but are lingering out the configured
+   * frozen-MemTable grace. Resident, but no flush reclaims them — the sweeper does, on a timer.
+   */
+  public long graceBytes() {
+    return graceBytes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Every resident byte this shard holds. The figure a process-wide budget meters, as opposed to
+   * what a flush can still give back.
+   */
+  public long retainedBytes() {
+    return retainedBytes;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("rowCount", rowCount)
+        .add("batchCount", batchCount)
+        .add("estimatedSizeBytes", estimatedSizeBytes)
+        .add("generation", generation)
+        .add("maxBufferedBatchPosition", maxBufferedBatchPosition.orElse(null))
+        .add("durableBatchCount", durableBatchCount)
+        .add("globalOffset", globalOffset)
+        .add("pendingWalStartBatchPosition", pendingWalStartBatchPosition.orElse(null))
+        .add("pendingWalEndBatchPosition", pendingWalEndBatchPosition.orElse(null))
+        .add("pendingWalBatchCount", pendingWalBatchCount)
+        .add("pendingWalRowCount", pendingWalRowCount)
+        .add("pendingWalEstimatedBytes", pendingWalEstimatedBytes)
+        .add("indexBytes", indexBytes)
+        .add("graceBytes", graceBytes)
+        .add("retainedBytes", retainedBytes)
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/MemWalHnswParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/MemWalHnswParams.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..260f1add9a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/MemWalHnswParams.java
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
+
+/**
+ * HNSW build parameters for a maintained vector index, used with {@link
+ * ShardWriterConfig#withHnswParams}.
+ *
+ * <p>Defaults match the Lance defaults; override only the fields you need. {@code numEdges} is the
+ * graph degree (level 0 retains {@code 2 * numEdges}), equivalent to FAISS's {@code M}.
+ */
+public class MemWalHnswParams {
+  private final String indexName;
+  private int numEdges = 20;
+  private int efConstruction = 150;
+  private int maxLevel = 7;
+
+  /**
+   * @param indexName name of the maintained vector index these parameters apply to.
+   */
+  public MemWalHnswParams(String indexName) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(indexName, "indexName must not be null");
+    this.indexName = indexName;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * HNSW graph degree: max neighbors retained per node on upper levels (level 0 retains 2 *
+   * numEdges).
+   */
+  public MemWalHnswParams withNumEdges(int numEdges) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(numEdges > 0, "numEdges must be greater than 0");
+    this.numEdges = numEdges;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Beam width (candidate list size) used while inserting nodes at build time. */
+  public MemWalHnswParams withEfConstruction(int efConstruction) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(efConstruction > 0, "efConstruction must be greater than 0");
+    this.efConstruction = efConstruction;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Maximum number of graph levels. */
+  public MemWalHnswParams withMaxLevel(int maxLevel) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(maxLevel > 0, "maxLevel must be greater than 0");
+    this.maxLevel = maxLevel;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  public String indexName() {
+    return indexName;
+  }
+
+  public int numEdges() {
+    return numEdges;
+  }
+
+  public int efConstruction() {
+    return efConstruction;
+  }
+
+  public int maxLevel() {
+    return maxLevel;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/MemWalIndexDetails.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/MemWalIndexDetails.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4e421aaaa13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/MemWalIndexDetails.java
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/** Details of the MemWAL index attached to a dataset. */
+public class MemWalIndexDetails {
+  private final long numShards;
+  private final List<String> maintainedIndexes;
+  private final boolean maintainAllIndexes;
+  private final Map<String, String> writerConfigDefaults;
+  private final List<ShardingSpec> shardingSpecs;
+
+  public MemWalIndexDetails(
+      long numShards,
+      List<String> maintainedIndexes,
+      boolean maintainAllIndexes,
+      Map<String, String> writerConfigDefaults,
+      List<ShardingSpec> shardingSpecs) {
+    this.numShards = numShards;
+    this.maintainedIndexes =
+        maintainedIndexes == null ? Collections.emptyList() : maintainedIndexes;
+    this.maintainAllIndexes = maintainAllIndexes;
+    this.writerConfigDefaults =
+        writerConfigDefaults == null ? Collections.emptyMap() : writerConfigDefaults;
+    this.shardingSpecs = shardingSpecs == null ? Collections.emptyList() : shardingSpecs;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of shards tracked by the MemWAL index. */
+  public long numShards() {
+    return numShards;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Names of the indexes maintained through the MemWAL. Empty when {@link #maintainAllIndexes()} is
+   * set, which names no index because it covers every one.
+   */
+  public List<String> maintainedIndexes() {
+    return maintainedIndexes;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Whether every index the table has is maintained, including ones created later.
+   *
+   * <p>This is what separates maintaining everything from maintaining nothing: both leave {@link
+   * #maintainedIndexes()} empty.
+   */
+  public boolean maintainAllIndexes() {
+    return maintainAllIndexes;
+  }
+
+  /** Default {@link ShardWriterConfig} values persisted in the MemWAL index. */
+  public Map<String, String> writerConfigDefaults() {
+    return writerConfigDefaults;
+  }
+
+  /** The sharding specifications recorded in the MemWAL index. */
+  public List<ShardingSpec> shardingSpecs() {
+    return shardingSpecs;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("numShards", numShards)
+        .add("maintainedIndexes", maintainedIndexes)
+        .add("maintainAllIndexes", maintainAllIndexes)
+        .add("writerConfigDefaults", writerConfigDefaults)
+        .add("shardingSpecs", shardingSpecs)
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardSnapshot.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardSnapshot.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..42e20bb5177
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardSnapshot.java
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Snapshot of a MemWAL shard's state, used when constructing scanners and planners.
+ *
+ * <p>The builder methods ({@link #withSpecId}, {@link #withCurrentGeneration}, {@link
+ * #withSsTable}) mutate this instance and return it for chaining.
+ */
+public class ShardSnapshot {
+  private final String shardId;
+  private int specId = 0;
+  private long currentGeneration = 0;
+  private final List<SsTable> sstables = new ArrayList<>();
+
+  /**
+   * @param shardId UUID string for the write shard
+   */
+  public ShardSnapshot(String shardId) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(shardId, "shardId must not be null");
+    this.shardId = shardId;
+  }
+
+  /** Set the {@link ShardingSpec} ID for this snapshot. */
+  public ShardSnapshot withSpecId(int specId) {
+    this.specId = specId;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Set the current (active) generation number. */
+  public ShardSnapshot withCurrentGeneration(long currentGeneration) {
+    this.currentGeneration = currentGeneration;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Add an SSTable with its storage path. */
+  public ShardSnapshot withSsTable(long generation, String path) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(path, "path must not be null");
+    this.sstables.add(new SsTable(generation, path));
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** UUID string for this shard. */
+  public String shardId() {
+    return shardId;
+  }
+
+  /** The {@link ShardingSpec} ID for this snapshot. */
+  public int specId() {
+    return specId;
+  }
+
+  /** The current (active) generation number. */
+  public long currentGeneration() {
+    return currentGeneration;
+  }
+
+  /** The SSTables included in this snapshot. */
+  public List<SsTable> sstables() {
+    return Collections.unmodifiableList(sstables);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("shardId", shardId)
+        .add("specId", specId)
+        .add("currentGeneration", currentGeneration)
+        .add("sstables", sstables)
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardWriter.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardWriter.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..290b4c8f3c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardWriter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.JniLoader;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+
+import java.io.Closeable;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Stateful writer for one MemWAL shard.
+ *
+ * <p>Obtain an instance via {@link Dataset#memWalWriter}. The writer must be closed when no longer
+ * needed; using it inside a try-with-resources block is recommended:
+ *
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * try (ShardWriter writer = dataset.memWalWriter(shardId)) {
+ *   writer.put(reader);
+ *   writer.delete(keys);
+ * }
+ * }</pre>
+ *
+ * <p>{@link #close()} flushes pending data and releases native resources. Statistics must be read
+ * before the writer is closed.
+ */
+public class ShardWriter implements Closeable {
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
+  private long nativeShardWriterHandle;
+  private BufferAllocator allocator;
+  private final LockManager lockManager = new LockManager();
+
+  private ShardWriter() {}
+
+  /**
+   * Create a writer for {@code shardId} on the given dataset.
+   *
+   * @param dataset the dataset MemWAL has been initialized on
+   * @param shardId UUID string identifying the write shard
+   * @param config writer configuration; pass {@code null} to use the Lance default configuration
+   * @return a new ShardWriter
+   */
+  public static ShardWriter create(Dataset dataset, String shardId, ShardWriterConfig config) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(dataset, "dataset must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(shardId, "shardId must not be null");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = dataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+      ShardWriter writer = createNative(dataset, shardId, config);
+      writer.allocator = dataset.allocator();
+      return writer;
+    }
+  }
+
+  static native ShardWriter createNative(Dataset dataset, String shardId, ShardWriterConfig config);
+
+  /** UUID string for this writer's shard. */
+  public String shardId() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeShardWriterHandle != 0, "ShardWriter is closed");
+      return nativeShardId();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native String nativeShardId();
+
+  /**
+   * Write data to the MemWAL.
+   *
+   * @param reader the source data; consumed fully by this call
+   */
+  public void put(ArrowReader reader) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(reader, "reader must not be null");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeShardWriterHandle != 0, "ShardWriter is closed");
+      try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader, stream);
+        nativePut(stream.memoryAddress());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativePut(long streamAddress);
+
+  /**
+   * Delete rows from the MemWAL by primary key.
+   *
+   * <p>Each batch in {@code reader} must carry this shard's primary key column(s); other columns
+   * are ignored. Lance builds a tombstone row per key — the primary key plus {@code _tombstone =
+   * true} and null in every other column — and appends it like an ordinary write. The tombstone is
+   * the newest value for its key: it wins newest-per-PK resolution (suppressing the older real row)
+   * and is then dropped from query results.
+   *
+   * <p>Only supported in memtable mode. Because a tombstone nulls every non-PK column, those
+   * columns must be nullable in the base schema; deleting against a schema with a non-nullable
+   * non-PK column errors. Deleting on a shard with no primary key columns also errors.
+   *
+   * @param reader the keys to delete; consumed fully by this call
+   */
+  public void delete(ArrowReader reader) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(reader, "reader must not be null");
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeShardWriterHandle != 0, "ShardWriter is closed");
+      try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader, stream);
+        nativeDelete(stream.memoryAddress());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void nativeDelete(long streamAddress);
+
+  /** Return a snapshot of cumulative write statistics. */
+  public WriteStats stats() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeShardWriterHandle != 0, "ShardWriter is closed");
+      return nativeStats();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native WriteStats nativeStats();
+
+  /** Return current statistics of the active MemTable. */
+  public MemTableStats memtableStats() {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeShardWriterHandle != 0, "ShardWriter is closed");
+      return nativeMemtableStats();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native MemTableStats nativeMemtableStats();
+
+  /**
+   * Create an LSM scanner that includes this writer's active MemTable.
+   *
+   * <p>The scanner covers the base table, the given SSTables, and the current active MemTable,
+   * providing read-your-writes consistency. This writer's own shard is included automatically.
+   *
+   * @param shardSnapshots snapshots of other shards to include
+   * @return an LSM scanner
+   */
+  public LsmScanner lsmScanner(List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots) {
+    try (LockManager.ReadLock readLock = lockManager.acquireReadLock()) {
+      Preconditions.checkArgument(nativeShardWriterHandle != 0, "ShardWriter is closed");
+      LsmScanner scanner =
+          nativeLsmScanner(shardSnapshots == null ? Collections.emptyList() : shardSnapshots);
+      scanner.allocator = allocator;
+      return scanner;
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Create an LSM scanner that includes this writer's active MemTable. */
+  public LsmScanner lsmScanner() {
+    return lsmScanner(Collections.emptyList());
+  }
+
+  private native LsmScanner nativeLsmScanner(List<ShardSnapshot> shardSnapshots);
+
+  /**
+   * Flush pending data and close the writer, releasing native resources. If the writer is already
+   * closed, invoking this method has no effect.
+   */
+  @Override
+  public void close() {
+    try (LockManager.WriteLock writeLock = lockManager.acquireWriteLock()) {
+      if (nativeShardWriterHandle != 0) {
+        releaseNativeShardWriter(nativeShardWriterHandle);
+        nativeShardWriterHandle = 0;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private native void releaseNativeShardWriter(long handle);
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardWriterConfig.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardWriterConfig.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d6bf2aeb383
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardWriterConfig.java
@@ -0,0 +1,185 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * Optional configuration for a {@link ShardWriter}.
+ *
+ * <p>Every value is optional; unset values fall back to the Lance default writer configuration. Use
+ * the {@code with*} methods to build a configuration, then pass it to {@link
+ * org.lance.Dataset#memWalWriter} or {@link InitializeMemWalParams#withWriterConfigDefaults}.
+ */
+public class ShardWriterConfig {
+  private Optional<Boolean> durableWrite = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> maxWalBufferSize = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> maxWalFlushIntervalMs = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> maxMemtableSize = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> maxMemtableRows = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> maxMemtableBatches = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> maxUnflushedMemtableBytes = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> manifestScanBatchSize = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> backpressureLogIntervalMs = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<Long> statsLogIntervalMs = Optional.empty();
+  private List<MemWalHnswParams> hnswParams = Collections.emptyList();
+
+  /** Whether each {@code put} is durably persisted to the WAL before returning. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withDurableWrite(boolean durableWrite) {
+    this.durableWrite = Optional.of(durableWrite);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Maximum size of the in-memory WAL buffer, in bytes. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withMaxWalBufferSize(long maxWalBufferSize) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        maxWalBufferSize >= 0, "maxWalBufferSize must not be negative, got %s", maxWalBufferSize);
+    this.maxWalBufferSize = Optional.of(maxWalBufferSize);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Maximum interval between WAL flushes, in milliseconds. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withMaxWalFlushIntervalMs(long maxWalFlushIntervalMs) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        maxWalFlushIntervalMs >= 0,
+        "maxWalFlushIntervalMs must not be negative, got %s",
+        maxWalFlushIntervalMs);
+    this.maxWalFlushIntervalMs = Optional.of(maxWalFlushIntervalMs);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Maximum size of a MemTable before it is flushed, in bytes. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withMaxMemtableSize(long maxMemtableSize) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        maxMemtableSize >= 0, "maxMemtableSize must not be negative, got %s", maxMemtableSize);
+    this.maxMemtableSize = Optional.of(maxMemtableSize);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Maximum number of rows in a MemTable before it is flushed. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withMaxMemtableRows(long maxMemtableRows) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        maxMemtableRows >= 0, "maxMemtableRows must not be negative, got %s", maxMemtableRows);
+    this.maxMemtableRows = Optional.of(maxMemtableRows);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Maximum number of record batches in a MemTable before it is flushed. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withMaxMemtableBatches(long maxMemtableBatches) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        maxMemtableBatches >= 0,
+        "maxMemtableBatches must not be negative, got %s",
+        maxMemtableBatches);
+    this.maxMemtableBatches = Optional.of(maxMemtableBatches);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Maximum unflushed MemTable bytes allowed before applying backpressure. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withMaxUnflushedMemtableBytes(long maxUnflushedMemtableBytes) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        maxUnflushedMemtableBytes >= 0,
+        "maxUnflushedMemtableBytes must not be negative, got %s",
+        maxUnflushedMemtableBytes);
+    this.maxUnflushedMemtableBytes = Optional.of(maxUnflushedMemtableBytes);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Batch size used when scanning the WAL manifest. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withManifestScanBatchSize(long manifestScanBatchSize) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        manifestScanBatchSize >= 0,
+        "manifestScanBatchSize must not be negative, got %s",
+        manifestScanBatchSize);
+    this.manifestScanBatchSize = Optional.of(manifestScanBatchSize);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Interval between backpressure log messages, in milliseconds. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withBackpressureLogIntervalMs(long backpressureLogIntervalMs) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        backpressureLogIntervalMs >= 0,
+        "backpressureLogIntervalMs must not be negative, got %s",
+        backpressureLogIntervalMs);
+    this.backpressureLogIntervalMs = Optional.of(backpressureLogIntervalMs);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Interval between statistics log messages, in milliseconds; {@code 0} disables logging. */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withStatsLogIntervalMs(long statsLogIntervalMs) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        statsLogIntervalMs >= 0,
+        "statsLogIntervalMs must not be negative, got %s",
+        statsLogIntervalMs);
+    this.statsLogIntervalMs = Optional.of(statsLogIntervalMs);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Per-index HNSW build-parameter overrides for the MemTable this writer builds. Each {@link
+   * MemWalHnswParams#indexName} should reference a maintained vector index.
+   */
+  public ShardWriterConfig withHnswParams(List<MemWalHnswParams> hnswParams) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(hnswParams, "hnswParams must not be null");
+    this.hnswParams = hnswParams;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Boolean> durableWrite() {
+    return durableWrite;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> maxWalBufferSize() {
+    return maxWalBufferSize;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> maxWalFlushIntervalMs() {
+    return maxWalFlushIntervalMs;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> maxMemtableSize() {
+    return maxMemtableSize;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> maxMemtableRows() {
+    return maxMemtableRows;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> maxMemtableBatches() {
+    return maxMemtableBatches;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> maxUnflushedMemtableBytes() {
+    return maxUnflushedMemtableBytes;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> manifestScanBatchSize() {
+    return manifestScanBatchSize;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> backpressureLogIntervalMs() {
+    return backpressureLogIntervalMs;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<Long> statsLogIntervalMs() {
+    return statsLogIntervalMs;
+  }
+
+  public List<MemWalHnswParams> hnswParams() {
+    return hnswParams;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardingEvaluator.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardingEvaluator.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..50e6cdb1ea3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardingEvaluator.java
@@ -0,0 +1,124 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import org.lance.JniLoader;
+import org.lance.schema.LanceField;
+import org.lance.schema.LanceSchema;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArray;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowSchema;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.util.Preconditions;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/** Evaluates MemWAL sharding specs against Arrow record batches. */
+public final class ShardingEvaluator {
+  static {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+  }
+
+  private ShardingEvaluator() {}
+
+  /**
+   * Evaluate {@code spec} against {@code root}.
+   *
+   * @param allocator allocator used for Arrow C data interface structs
+   * @param root input record batch
+   * @param spec MemWAL sharding spec to evaluate
+   * @param schema Lance table schema used to resolve spec source field IDs to input column names
+   * @return an Arrow reader containing one result batch with the derived sharding fields
+   */
+  public static ArrowReader evaluate(
+      BufferAllocator allocator, VectorSchemaRoot root, ShardingSpec spec, LanceSchema schema) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(allocator, "allocator must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(root, "root must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(spec, "spec must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(schema, "schema must not be null");
+
+    try (ArrowSchema arrowSchema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator);
+        ArrowArray arrowArray = ArrowArray.allocateNew(allocator);
+        ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+      Data.exportVectorSchemaRoot(allocator, root, null, arrowArray, arrowSchema);
+      nativeEvaluate(
+          arrowArray.memoryAddress(),
+          arrowSchema.memoryAddress(),
+          spec,
+          sourceIdToColumnMap(schema),
+          stream.memoryAddress());
+      return Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Evaluate {@code spec} against {@code root} when the spec embeds enough column information. */
+  public static ArrowReader evaluate(
+      BufferAllocator allocator, VectorSchemaRoot root, ShardingSpec spec) {
+    return evaluate(allocator, root, spec, Collections.emptyMap());
+  }
+
+  private static ArrowReader evaluate(
+      BufferAllocator allocator,
+      VectorSchemaRoot root,
+      ShardingSpec spec,
+      Map<Integer, String> sourceIdToColumn) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(allocator, "allocator must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(root, "root must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(spec, "spec must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(sourceIdToColumn, "sourceIdToColumn must not be null");
+
+    try (ArrowSchema arrowSchema = ArrowSchema.allocateNew(allocator);
+        ArrowArray arrowArray = ArrowArray.allocateNew(allocator);
+        ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+      Data.exportVectorSchemaRoot(allocator, root, null, arrowArray, arrowSchema);
+      nativeEvaluate(
+          arrowArray.memoryAddress(),
+          arrowSchema.memoryAddress(),
+          spec,
+          sourceIdToColumn,
+          stream.memoryAddress());
+      return Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static Map<Integer, String> sourceIdToColumnMap(LanceSchema schema) {
+    Map<Integer, String> result = new HashMap<>();
+    for (LanceField field : schema.fields()) {
+      collectFieldIds(field, "", result);
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private static void collectFieldIds(
+      LanceField field, String prefix, Map<Integer, String> result) {
+    String fullName = prefix.isEmpty() ? field.getName() : prefix + "." + field.getName();
+    result.put(field.getId(), fullName);
+    for (LanceField child : field.getChildren()) {
+      collectFieldIds(child, fullName, result);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static native void nativeEvaluate(
+      long arrowArrayAddress,
+      long arrowSchemaAddress,
+      ShardingSpec spec,
+      Map<Integer, String> sourceIdToColumn,
+      long streamAddress);
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardingField.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardingField.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7bf2b7ec6d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardingField.java
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/** One derived field used in a MemWAL shard partitioning specification. */
+public class ShardingField {
+  private final String fieldId;
+  private final List<Integer> sourceIds;
+  private final Optional<String> transform;
+  private final Optional<String> expression;
+  private final String resultType;
+  private final Map<String, String> parameters;
+
+  /**
+   * @param fieldId identifier for the derived field
+   * @param sourceIds source field IDs used as inputs
+   * @param transform optional transform name applied to the source fields, may be {@code null}
+   * @param expression optional expression used to derive the field value, may be {@code null}
+   * @param resultType output type name for the derived field
+   * @param parameters extra transform parameters
+   */
+  public ShardingField(
+      String fieldId,
+      List<Integer> sourceIds,
+      String transform,
+      String expression,
+      String resultType,
+      Map<String, String> parameters) {
+    this.fieldId = fieldId;
+    this.sourceIds = sourceIds == null ? Collections.emptyList() : sourceIds;
+    this.transform = Optional.ofNullable(transform);
+    this.expression = Optional.ofNullable(expression);
+    this.resultType = resultType;
+    this.parameters = parameters == null ? Collections.emptyMap() : parameters;
+  }
+
+  /** Identifier for the derived field. */
+  public String fieldId() {
+    return fieldId;
+  }
+
+  /** Source field IDs used as inputs. */
+  public List<Integer> sourceIds() {
+    return sourceIds;
+  }
+
+  /** Optional transform name applied to the source fields. */
+  public Optional<String> transform() {
+    return transform;
+  }
+
+  /** Optional expression used to derive the field value. */
+  public Optional<String> expression() {
+    return expression;
+  }
+
+  /** Output type name for the derived field. */
+  public String resultType() {
+    return resultType;
+  }
+
+  /** Extra transform parameters. */
+  public Map<String, String> parameters() {
+    return parameters;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("fieldId", fieldId)
+        .add("sourceIds", sourceIds)
+        .add("transform", transform.orElse(null))
+        .add("expression", expression.orElse(null))
+        .add("resultType", resultType)
+        .add("parameters", parameters)
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardingSpec.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardingSpec.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3465d18f780
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/ShardingSpec.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/** Partitioning specification for deriving MemWAL shard IDs. */
+public class ShardingSpec {
+  private final int specId;
+  private final List<ShardingField> fields;
+
+  public ShardingSpec(int specId, List<ShardingField> fields) {
+    this.specId = specId;
+    this.fields = fields == null ? Collections.emptyList() : fields;
+  }
+
+  /** Identifier for this shard specification. */
+  public int specId() {
+    return specId;
+  }
+
+  /** The derived fields that make up this specification. */
+  public List<ShardingField> fields() {
+    return fields;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this).add("specId", specId).add("fields", fields).toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/SsTable.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/SsTable.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..55cb2e63f77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/SsTable.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+/** An SSTable and the storage path of its Lance files. */
+public class SsTable {
+  private final long generation;
+  private final String path;
+
+  public SsTable(long generation, String path) {
+    this.generation = generation;
+    this.path = path;
+  }
+
+  /** The generation number of this SSTable. */
+  public long generation() {
+    return generation;
+  }
+
+  /** The storage path of the SSTable Lance files. */
+  public String path() {
+    return path;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("generation", generation)
+        .add("path", path)
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/WriteStats.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/WriteStats.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..07811695bc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/memwal/WriteStats.java
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+/** A snapshot of cumulative write statistics for a {@link ShardWriter}. */
+public class WriteStats {
+  private final long putCount;
+  private final long putTimeMs;
+  private final long walFlushCount;
+  private final long walFlushBytes;
+  private final long walFlushTimeMs;
+  private final long memtableFlushCount;
+  private final long memtableFlushRows;
+  private final long memtableFlushTimeMs;
+
+  public WriteStats(
+      long putCount,
+      long putTimeMs,
+      long walFlushCount,
+      long walFlushBytes,
+      long walFlushTimeMs,
+      long memtableFlushCount,
+      long memtableFlushRows,
+      long memtableFlushTimeMs) {
+    this.putCount = putCount;
+    this.putTimeMs = putTimeMs;
+    this.walFlushCount = walFlushCount;
+    this.walFlushBytes = walFlushBytes;
+    this.walFlushTimeMs = walFlushTimeMs;
+    this.memtableFlushCount = memtableFlushCount;
+    this.memtableFlushRows = memtableFlushRows;
+    this.memtableFlushTimeMs = memtableFlushTimeMs;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of {@link ShardWriter#put} calls. */
+  public long putCount() {
+    return putCount;
+  }
+
+  /** Total time spent in {@code put}, in milliseconds. */
+  public long putTimeMs() {
+    return putTimeMs;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of WAL flushes. */
+  public long walFlushCount() {
+    return walFlushCount;
+  }
+
+  /** Total bytes flushed to the WAL. */
+  public long walFlushBytes() {
+    return walFlushBytes;
+  }
+
+  /** Total time spent flushing the WAL, in milliseconds. */
+  public long walFlushTimeMs() {
+    return walFlushTimeMs;
+  }
+
+  /** Number of MemTable flushes. */
+  public long memtableFlushCount() {
+    return memtableFlushCount;
+  }
+
+  /** Total rows flushed from MemTables. */
+  public long memtableFlushRows() {
+    return memtableFlushRows;
+  }
+
+  /** Total time spent flushing MemTables, in milliseconds. */
+  public long memtableFlushTimeMs() {
+    return memtableFlushTimeMs;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("putCount", putCount)
+        .add("putTimeMs", putTimeMs)
+        .add("walFlushCount", walFlushCount)
+        .add("walFlushBytes", walFlushBytes)
+        .add("walFlushTimeMs", walFlushTimeMs)
+        .add("memtableFlushCount", memtableFlushCount)
+        .add("memtableFlushRows", memtableFlushRows)
+        .add("memtableFlushTimeMs", memtableFlushTimeMs)
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/merge/MergeInsertParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/merge/MergeInsertParams.java
index a1759455248..4d8e10b8011 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/merge/MergeInsertParams.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/merge/MergeInsertParams.java
@@ -13,10 +13,14 @@
  */
 package org.lance.merge;
 
+import org.lance.DataStorageVersion;
+import org.lance.memwal.CompactedSsTable;
+
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
 
 import java.nio.ByteBuffer;
+import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
@@ -35,6 +39,10 @@ public class MergeInsertParams {
   private int conflictRetries = 10;
   private long retryTimeoutMs = 30 * 1000;
   private boolean skipAutoCleanup = false;
+  private boolean useIndex = true;
+  private Optional<DataStorageVersion> dataStorageVersion = Optional.empty();
+  private MergeWriteMode writeMode = MergeWriteMode.Auto;
+  private List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables = Collections.emptyList();
 
   public MergeInsertParams(List<String> on) {
     this.on = on;
@@ -223,10 +231,83 @@ public MergeInsertParams withSkipAutoCleanup(boolean skipAutoCleanup) {
     return this;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Controls whether to use indices for the merge operation.
+   *
+   * <p>When set to false, forces a full table scan even if an index exists on the join key. This
+   * can be useful for benchmarking or when the optimizer chooses a suboptimal path.
+   *
+   * <p>Default is true (use index if available).
+   *
+   * @param useIndex Whether to use indices for the merge join
+   * @return This MergeInsertParams instance
+   */
+  public MergeInsertParams withUseIndex(boolean useIndex) {
+    this.useIndex = useIndex;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the exact data storage version for files written by this operation.
+   *
+   * <p>If omitted, the dataset's default write version is used without changing it. Release
+   * selectors are resolved by the engine. V1/V2 cross-family targets are rejected.
+   */
+  public MergeInsertParams withDataStorageVersion(DataStorageVersion version) {
+    this.dataStorageVersion = Optional.of(Preconditions.checkNotNull(version));
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Selects how the merged rows are written.
+   *
+   * <p>Only has an effect on a partial-schema update (the source omits some dataset columns), where
+   * {@link MergeWriteMode#RewriteColumns} writes fewer bytes than {@link
+   * MergeWriteMode#RewriteRows} once the fraction of rows matched exceeds roughly the fraction of
+   * each row's bytes the source columns occupy: nearly always for a KB-scale update of a MB-per-row
+   * table, possibly never for a table of narrow columns.
+   *
+   * <p>Default is {@link MergeWriteMode#Auto}: the write mode is chosen by the engine, typically
+   * rewriting whole rows.
+   *
+   * @param writeMode How the merged rows are written.
+   * @return This MergeInsertParams instance
+   */
+  public MergeInsertParams withWriteMode(MergeWriteMode writeMode) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(writeMode, "writeMode must not be null");
+    this.writeMode = writeMode;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Mark MemWAL SSTables as compacted into the base table.
+   *
+   * <p>Use this when merge insert compacts MemWAL SSTables. It updates MemWAL compaction progress
+   * to prevent the same SSTables from being compacted again, in the same commit as the data.
+   *
+   * <p><b>For multi-pass compaction, call this only on the final successful data-changing pass.</b>
+   * Intermediate passes must not carry compaction progress. Lance cannot tell whether a caller has
+   * another pass planned, so it cannot enforce this: if a delete pass carried the marker and the
+   * process then died before the matching upsert, the recorded progress would claim rows were
+   * copied in that never were.
+   *
+   * @param sstables the SSTables being compacted
+   * @return This MergeInsertParams instance
+   */
+  public MergeInsertParams markSstablesAsCompacted(List<CompactedSsTable> sstables) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(sstables, "sstables must not be null");
+    this.compactedSstables = sstables;
+    return this;
+  }
+
   public List<String> on() {
     return on;
   }
 
+  public List<CompactedSsTable> getCompactedSstables() {
+    return compactedSstables;
+  }
+
   public WhenMatched whenMatched() {
     return whenMatched;
   }
@@ -275,6 +356,23 @@ public boolean skipAutoCleanup() {
     return skipAutoCleanup;
   }
 
+  public boolean useIndex() {
+    return useIndex;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the version selector as its string value for the native layer. */
+  public Optional<String> getDataStorageVersion() {
+    return dataStorageVersion.map(DataStorageVersion::toRustString);
+  }
+
+  public MergeWriteMode writeMode() {
+    return writeMode;
+  }
+
+  public String writeModeValue() {
+    return writeMode.name();
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
@@ -292,9 +390,48 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("conflictRetries", conflictRetries)
         .add("retryTimeoutMs", retryTimeoutMs)
         .add("skipAutoCleanup", skipAutoCleanup)
+        .add("useIndex", useIndex)
+        .add("dataStorageVersion", dataStorageVersion.orElse(null))
+        .add("writeMode", writeMode)
         .toString();
   }
 
+  /**
+   * How a merge insert writes the merged rows.
+   *
+   * <p>The caller chooses rather than the engine because which mode writes fewer bytes depends on
+   * the fraction of each fragment's rows the source matches, which is only known once the join has
+   * run.
+   */
+  public enum MergeWriteMode {
+    /**
+     * Let the engine choose, typically rewriting whole rows. A partial-schema update whose join key
+     * carries a scalar index may instead patch columns on the indexed path that predates this enum.
+     */
+    Auto,
+
+    /**
+     * Delete the matched rows and write whole rows into new fragments. Cost scales with the number
+     * of matched rows.
+     *
+     * <p>For a partial-schema update this gives up the scalar-index probe on the join key, because
+     * the indexed path only ever patches columns.
+     */
+    RewriteRows,
+
+    /**
+     * Attach new data files holding the source columns to the fragments that already hold the
+     * matched rows, and tombstone the old versions of those columns. The omitted columns are
+     * neither read nor written, but the replacement column file covers every row of each fragment
+     * it touches, so the bytes written barely fall as fewer rows match.
+     *
+     * <p>Errors if the merge cannot be expressed this way: it must update matched rows only (no
+     * inserts, no matched deletes, no delete-by-source) with a source that omits at least one
+     * dataset column, carries at least one column besides the join key, and carries no blob column.
+     */
+    RewriteColumns,
+  }
+
   public enum WhenMatched {
     /**
      * The row is deleted from the target table and a new row is inserted based on the source table.
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/DirectoryNamespace.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/DirectoryNamespace.java
index 3ffe2b82f01..e9e8618c763 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/DirectoryNamespace.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/DirectoryNamespace.java
@@ -14,10 +14,98 @@
 package org.lance.namespace;
 
 import org.lance.JniLoader;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.*;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAddColumnsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAddColumnsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableDropColumnsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableDropColumnsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTransactionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTransactionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CountTableRowsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CountTableRowsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateMaterializedViewRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateMaterializedViewResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableIndexRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableScalarIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableTagRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableTagResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteFromTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteFromTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteTableTagRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteTableTagResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeregisterTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeregisterTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTransactionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTransactionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableIndexRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableStatsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableStatsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableTagVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableTagVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.InsertIntoTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.InsertIntoTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableIndicesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableIndicesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableTagsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableTagsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableVersionsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableVersionsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.MergeInsertIntoTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.MergeInsertIntoTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.NamespaceExistsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.NamespaceExistsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.QueryTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.QueryTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RegisterTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RegisterTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RenameTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RenameTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RestoreTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RestoreTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.TableExistsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.TableExistsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableTagRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableTagResponse;
 
 import com.fasterxml.jackson.core.JsonProcessingException;
+import com.fasterxml.jackson.databind.DeserializationFeature;
 import com.fasterxml.jackson.databind.ObjectMapper;
+import com.fasterxml.jackson.datatype.jsr310.JavaTimeModule;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 
 import java.io.Closeable;
@@ -89,6 +177,16 @@
  *         <li>credential_vendor.azure_duration_millis (optional): Duration in ms (default: 3600000,
  *             up to 7 days)
  *       </ul>
+ *   <li>Testing properties:
+ *       <ul>
+ *         <li>ops_metrics_enabled (optional): "true" to enable operation metrics tracking. Use
+ *             {@link #retrieveOpsMetrics()} to get call counts.
+ *         <li>vend_input_storage_options (optional): "true" to return input storage options in
+ *             describeTable() when no credential vendor is configured. Useful for testing.
+ *         <li>vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis (optional): When set with
+ *             vend_input_storage_options, adds expires_at_millis to storage options. Value is
+ *             current_time_millis + this interval.
+ *       </ul>
  * </ul>
  *
  * <p>Example usage (local filesystem):
@@ -142,7 +240,14 @@ public class DirectoryNamespace implements LanceNamespace, Closeable {
     JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
   }
 
-  private static final ObjectMapper OBJECT_MAPPER = new ObjectMapper();
+  private static final ObjectMapper OBJECT_MAPPER = createObjectMapper();
+
+  private static ObjectMapper createObjectMapper() {
+    ObjectMapper mapper = new ObjectMapper();
+    mapper.registerModule(new JavaTimeModule());
+    mapper.configure(DeserializationFeature.FAIL_ON_UNKNOWN_PROPERTIES, false);
+    return mapper;
+  }
 
   private long nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle;
   private BufferAllocator allocator;
@@ -230,10 +335,11 @@ public DropNamespaceResponse dropNamespace(DropNamespaceRequest request) {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public void namespaceExists(NamespaceExistsRequest request) {
+  public NamespaceExistsResponse namespaceExists(NamespaceExistsRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
     namespaceExistsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return new NamespaceExistsResponse();
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -261,10 +367,11 @@ public RegisterTableResponse registerTable(RegisterTableRequest request) {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public void tableExists(TableExistsRequest request) {
+  public TableExistsResponse tableExists(TableExistsRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
     tableExistsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return new TableExistsResponse();
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -284,10 +391,11 @@ public DeregisterTableResponse deregisterTable(DeregisterTableRequest request) {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public Long countTableRows(CountTableRowsRequest request) {
+  public CountTableRowsResponse countTableRows(CountTableRowsRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
-    return countTableRowsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    Long count = countTableRowsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return new CountTableRowsResponse().count(count);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -300,19 +408,19 @@ public CreateTableResponse createTable(CreateTableRequest request, byte[] reques
   }
 
   @Override
-  public CreateEmptyTableResponse createEmptyTable(CreateEmptyTableRequest request) {
+  public DeclareTableResponse declareTable(DeclareTableRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
-    String responseJson = createEmptyTableNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
-    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateEmptyTableResponse.class);
+    String responseJson = declareTableNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, DeclareTableResponse.class);
   }
 
   @Override
-  public DeclareTableResponse declareTable(DeclareTableRequest request) {
+  public RenameTableResponse renameTable(RenameTableRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
-    String responseJson = declareTableNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
-    return fromJson(responseJson, DeclareTableResponse.class);
+    String responseJson = renameTableNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, RenameTableResponse.class);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -352,10 +460,11 @@ public DeleteFromTableResponse deleteFromTable(DeleteFromTableRequest request) {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public byte[] queryTable(QueryTableRequest request) {
+  public QueryTableResponse queryTable(QueryTableRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
-    return queryTableNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    byte[] data = queryTableNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return new QueryTableResponse().data(data);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -400,6 +509,180 @@ public AlterTransactionResponse alterTransaction(AlterTransactionRequest request
     return fromJson(responseJson, AlterTransactionResponse.class);
   }
 
+  // Table version operations
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTableVersionsResponse listTableVersions(ListTableVersionsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = listTableVersionsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, ListTableVersionsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableVersionResponse createTableVersion(CreateTableVersionRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = createTableVersionNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateTableVersionResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DescribeTableVersionResponse describeTableVersion(DescribeTableVersionRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = describeTableVersionNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, DescribeTableVersionResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse batchDeleteTableVersions(
+      BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson =
+        batchDeleteTableVersionsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableScalarIndexResponse createTableScalarIndex(CreateTableIndexRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = createTableScalarIndexNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateTableScalarIndexResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DropTableIndexResponse dropTableIndex(DropTableIndexRequest request, String indexName) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = dropTableIndexNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, DropTableIndexResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTablesResponse listAllTables(ListTablesRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = listAllTablesNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, ListTablesResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public RestoreTableResponse restoreTable(RestoreTableRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = restoreTableNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, RestoreTableResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse updateTableSchemaMetadata(
+      UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson =
+        updateTableSchemaMetadataNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public GetTableStatsResponse getTableStats(GetTableStatsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = getTableStatsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, GetTableStatsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String explainTableQueryPlan(ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    return explainTableQueryPlanNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String analyzeTableQueryPlan(AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    return analyzeTableQueryPlanNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTableAddColumnsResponse alterTableAddColumns(AlterTableAddColumnsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = alterTableAddColumnsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, AlterTableAddColumnsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse alterTableAlterColumns(
+      AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = alterTableAlterColumnsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTableDropColumnsResponse alterTableDropColumns(AlterTableDropColumnsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = alterTableDropColumnsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, AlterTableDropColumnsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTableTagsResponse listTableTags(ListTableTagsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = listTableTagsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, ListTableTagsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public GetTableTagVersionResponse getTableTagVersion(GetTableTagVersionRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = getTableTagVersionNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, GetTableTagVersionResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableTagResponse createTableTag(CreateTableTagRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = createTableTagNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateTableTagResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DeleteTableTagResponse deleteTableTag(DeleteTableTagRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = deleteTableTagNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, DeleteTableTagResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public UpdateTableTagResponse updateTableTag(UpdateTableTagRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = updateTableTagNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, UpdateTableTagResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateMaterializedViewResponse createMaterializedView(
+      CreateMaterializedViewRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = createMaterializedViewNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateMaterializedViewResponse.class);
+  }
+
   @Override
   public void close() {
     if (nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle != 0) {
@@ -408,6 +691,42 @@ public void close() {
     }
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Returns the native handle for this namespace. Used internally for passing to Dataset.open() for
+   * namespace commit handler support.
+   */
+  public long getNativeHandle() {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    return nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle;
+  }
+
+  // Operation metrics methods
+
+  /**
+   * Retrieve operation metrics as a map.
+   *
+   * <p>Returns a map where keys are operation names (e.g., "list_tables", "describe_table") and
+   * values are the number of times each operation was called.
+   *
+   * <p>Returns an empty map if {@code ops_metrics_enabled} was false when creating the namespace.
+   *
+   * @return operation name to call count mapping
+   */
+  public Map<String, Long> retrieveOpsMetrics() {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    return retrieveOpsMetricsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Reset all operation metrics counters to zero.
+   *
+   * <p>Does nothing if {@code ops_metrics_enabled} was false when creating the namespace.
+   */
+  public void resetOpsMetrics() {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    resetOpsMetricsNative(nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle);
+  }
+
   private void ensureInitialized() {
     if (nativeDirectoryNamespaceHandle == 0) {
       throw new IllegalStateException(
@@ -467,10 +786,10 @@ private native long createNativeWithProvider(
 
   private native String createTableNative(long handle, String requestJson, byte[] requestData);
 
-  private native String createEmptyTableNative(long handle, String requestJson);
-
   private native String declareTableNative(long handle, String requestJson);
 
+  private native String renameTableNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
   private native String insertIntoTableNative(long handle, String requestJson, byte[] requestData);
 
   private native String mergeInsertIntoTableNative(
@@ -492,6 +811,52 @@ private native String mergeInsertIntoTableNative(
 
   private native String alterTransactionNative(long handle, String requestJson);
 
+  private native String listTableVersionsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String createTableVersionNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String describeTableVersionNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String batchDeleteTableVersionsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String createTableScalarIndexNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String dropTableIndexNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String listAllTablesNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String restoreTableNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String updateTableSchemaMetadataNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String getTableStatsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String explainTableQueryPlanNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String analyzeTableQueryPlanNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String alterTableAddColumnsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String alterTableAlterColumnsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String alterTableDropColumnsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String listTableTagsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String getTableTagVersionNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String createTableTagNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String deleteTableTagNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String updateTableTagNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String createMaterializedViewNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native Map<String, Long> retrieveOpsMetricsNative(long handle);
+
+  private native void resetOpsMetricsNative(long handle);
+
   // ==========================================================================
   // Provider loading helpers
   // ==========================================================================
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider.java
deleted file mode 100644
index fb65e235c36..00000000000
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,123 +0,0 @@
-/*
- * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
- * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
- * You may obtain a copy of the License at
- *
- *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
- *
- * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
- * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
- * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
- * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
- * limitations under the License.
- */
-package org.lance.namespace;
-
-import org.lance.io.StorageOptionsProvider;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableRequest;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableResponse;
-
-import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Map;
-
-/**
- * Storage options provider that fetches storage options from a LanceNamespace.
- *
- * <p>This provider automatically fetches fresh storage options by calling the namespace's
- * describeTable() method, which returns both the table location and time-limited storage options.
- * This is currently only used for refreshing AWS temporary access credentials.
- *
- * <p>This is the recommended approach for LanceDB Cloud and other namespace-based deployments, as
- * it handles storage options refresh automatically.
- *
- * <h2>Example Usage</h2>
- *
- * <pre>{@code
- * // Connect to a namespace (e.g., LanceDB Cloud)
- * LanceNamespace namespace = LanceNamespaces.connect("rest", Map.of(
- *     "url", "https://api.lancedb.com",
- *     "api_key", "your-api-key"
- * ));
- *
- * // Create storage options provider
- * LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider provider = new LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(
- *     namespace,
- *     Arrays.asList("workspace", "table_name")
- * );
- *
- * // Use with dataset - storage options auto-refresh!
- * Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(
- *     "s3://bucket/table.lance",
- *     new ReadOptions.Builder()
- *         .setStorageOptionsProvider(provider)
- *         .build()
- * );
- * }</pre>
- */
-public class LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider implements StorageOptionsProvider {
-
-  private final LanceNamespace namespace;
-  private final List<String> tableId;
-
-  /**
-   * Create a storage options provider that fetches storage options from a LanceNamespace.
-   *
-   * @param namespace The namespace instance to fetch storage options from
-   * @param tableId The table identifier (e.g., ["workspace", "table_name"])
-   */
-  public LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(LanceNamespace namespace, List<String> tableId) {
-    this.namespace = namespace;
-    this.tableId = tableId;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Fetch credentials from the namespace.
-   *
-   * <p>This calls namespace.describeTable() to get the latest credentials and optionally their
-   * expiration time.
-   *
-   * @return Flat map of string key-value pairs containing credentials. May optionally include
-   *     expires_at_millis. If expires_at_millis is not provided, credentials are treated as
-   *     non-expiring and will not be automatically refreshed.
-   * @throws RuntimeException if the namespace doesn't return storage credentials
-   */
-  @Override
-  public Map<String, String> fetchStorageOptions() {
-    // Create describe table request with table ID
-    DescribeTableRequest request = new DescribeTableRequest();
-    request.setId(tableId);
-
-    // Call namespace to describe the table and get credentials
-    DescribeTableResponse response = namespace.describeTable(request);
-
-    // Extract storage options - should already be a flat Map<String, String>
-    Map<String, String> storageOptions = response.getStorageOptions();
-    if (storageOptions == null || storageOptions.isEmpty()) {
-      throw new RuntimeException(
-          "Namespace did not return storage_options. "
-              + "Ensure the namespace supports credential vending.");
-    }
-
-    // Return storage_options directly - it's already a flat Map<String, String>
-    // Note: expires_at_millis is optional. If not provided, credentials are treated
-    // as non-expiring and will not be automatically refreshed.
-    return storageOptions;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Return a human-readable unique identifier for this provider instance.
-   *
-   * <p>This creates a semantic ID based on the namespace's ID and the table ID, enabling proper
-   * equality comparison and caching.
-   *
-   * @return A human-readable unique identifier string combining namespace and table info
-   */
-  @Override
-  public String providerId() {
-    // Call namespaceId() on the namespace (requires lance-namespace >= 0.0.20)
-    String namespaceId = namespace.namespaceId();
-    return String.format(
-        "LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider { namespace: %s, table_id: %s }",
-        namespaceId, tableId);
-  }
-}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/RestAdapter.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/RestAdapter.java
index 534a7eabb9e..5d22c2962a3 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/RestAdapter.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/RestAdapter.java
@@ -58,16 +58,17 @@ public class RestAdapter implements Closeable, AutoCloseable {
   /**
    * Creates a new REST adapter with the given backend namespace.
    *
-   * @param namespaceImpl The namespace implementation type (e.g., "dir" for DirectoryNamespace)
-   * @param backendConfig Configuration properties for the backend namespace
+   * @param namespaceClientImpl The namespace client implementation type (e.g., "dir" for
+   *     DirectoryNamespace)
+   * @param backendConfig Configuration properties for the backend namespace client
    * @param host Host to bind the server to, or null for default (127.0.0.1)
    * @param port Port to bind the server to. Use 0 to let the OS assign an available port, or null
    *     for default (2333).
    */
   public RestAdapter(
-      String namespaceImpl, Map<String, String> backendConfig, String host, Integer port) {
-    if (namespaceImpl == null || namespaceImpl.isEmpty()) {
-      throw new IllegalArgumentException("namespace implementation cannot be null or empty");
+      String namespaceClientImpl, Map<String, String> backendConfig, String host, Integer port) {
+    if (namespaceClientImpl == null || namespaceClientImpl.isEmpty()) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("namespace client implementation cannot be null or empty");
     }
     if (backendConfig == null) {
       throw new IllegalArgumentException("backend config cannot be null");
@@ -76,19 +77,29 @@ public RestAdapter(
       throw new IllegalArgumentException("port must be between 0 and 65535");
     }
 
-    this.nativeRestAdapterHandle = createNative(namespaceImpl, backendConfig, host, port);
+    this.nativeRestAdapterHandle = createNative(namespaceClientImpl, backendConfig, host, port);
   }
 
   /**
    * Creates a new REST adapter with default host and port.
    *
-   * @param namespaceImpl The namespace implementation type
-   * @param backendConfig Configuration properties for the backend namespace
+   * @param namespaceClientImpl The namespace client implementation type
+   * @param backendConfig Configuration properties for the backend namespace client
    */
-  public RestAdapter(String namespaceImpl, Map<String, String> backendConfig) {
-    this(namespaceImpl, backendConfig, null, null);
+  public RestAdapter(String namespaceClientImpl, Map<String, String> backendConfig) {
+    this(namespaceClientImpl, backendConfig, null, null);
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Creates a new REST adapter with the given backend namespace.
+   *
+   * @param namespaceImpl The namespace implementation type (e.g., "dir" for DirectoryNamespace)
+   * @param backendConfig Configuration properties for the backend namespace
+   * @param host Host to bind the server to, or null for default (127.0.0.1)
+   * @param port Port to bind the server to. Use 0 to let the OS assign an available port, or null
+   *     for default (2333).
+   */
+
   /**
    * Start the REST server in the background.
    *
@@ -144,7 +155,7 @@ public void close() {
 
   // Native methods
   private native long createNative(
-      String namespaceImpl, Map<String, String> backendConfig, String host, Integer port);
+      String namespaceClientImpl, Map<String, String> backendConfig, String host, Integer port);
 
   private native void start(long handle);
 
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/RestNamespace.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/RestNamespace.java
index 840e9f3d690..9a14c50af72 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/RestNamespace.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/namespace/RestNamespace.java
@@ -14,10 +14,97 @@
 package org.lance.namespace;
 
 import org.lance.JniLoader;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.*;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAddColumnsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAddColumnsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableDropColumnsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableDropColumnsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTransactionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTransactionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CountTableRowsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CountTableRowsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateMaterializedViewRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateMaterializedViewResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableIndexRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableScalarIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableTagRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableTagResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteFromTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteFromTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteTableTagRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteTableTagResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeregisterTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeregisterTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTransactionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTransactionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableIndexRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableStatsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableStatsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableTagVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableTagVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.InsertIntoTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.InsertIntoTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableIndicesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableIndicesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableTagsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableTagsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableVersionsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableVersionsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.MergeInsertIntoTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.MergeInsertIntoTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.NamespaceExistsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.NamespaceExistsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.QueryTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.QueryTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RegisterTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RegisterTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RenameTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RenameTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RestoreTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RestoreTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.TableExistsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.TableExistsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableTagRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableTagResponse;
 
 import com.fasterxml.jackson.core.JsonProcessingException;
 import com.fasterxml.jackson.databind.ObjectMapper;
+import com.fasterxml.jackson.datatype.jsr310.JavaTimeModule;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 
 import java.io.Closeable;
@@ -42,6 +129,8 @@
  *   <li>tls.key_file (optional): Path to client key file
  *   <li>tls.ssl_ca_cert (optional): Path to CA certificate file
  *   <li>tls.assert_hostname (optional): "true" or "false" (default: true)
+ *   <li>tls.reload_interval_seconds (optional): How often the TLS files above are checked for
+ *       rotation (default: 300, "0" disables reloading)
  * </ul>
  *
  * <p>Example usage:
@@ -67,7 +156,8 @@ public class RestNamespace implements LanceNamespace, Closeable {
     JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
   }
 
-  private static final ObjectMapper OBJECT_MAPPER = new ObjectMapper();
+  private static final ObjectMapper OBJECT_MAPPER =
+      new ObjectMapper().registerModule(new JavaTimeModule());
 
   private long nativeRestNamespaceHandle;
   private BufferAllocator allocator;
@@ -159,10 +249,11 @@ public DropNamespaceResponse dropNamespace(DropNamespaceRequest request) {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public void namespaceExists(NamespaceExistsRequest request) {
+  public NamespaceExistsResponse namespaceExists(NamespaceExistsRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
     namespaceExistsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return new NamespaceExistsResponse();
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -190,10 +281,11 @@ public RegisterTableResponse registerTable(RegisterTableRequest request) {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public void tableExists(TableExistsRequest request) {
+  public TableExistsResponse tableExists(TableExistsRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
     tableExistsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return new TableExistsResponse();
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -213,10 +305,11 @@ public DeregisterTableResponse deregisterTable(DeregisterTableRequest request) {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public Long countTableRows(CountTableRowsRequest request) {
+  public CountTableRowsResponse countTableRows(CountTableRowsRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
-    return countTableRowsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    Long count = countTableRowsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return new CountTableRowsResponse().count(count);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -228,19 +321,19 @@ public CreateTableResponse createTable(CreateTableRequest request, byte[] reques
   }
 
   @Override
-  public CreateEmptyTableResponse createEmptyTable(CreateEmptyTableRequest request) {
+  public DeclareTableResponse declareTable(DeclareTableRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
-    String responseJson = createEmptyTableNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
-    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateEmptyTableResponse.class);
+    String responseJson = declareTableNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, DeclareTableResponse.class);
   }
 
   @Override
-  public DeclareTableResponse declareTable(DeclareTableRequest request) {
+  public RenameTableResponse renameTable(RenameTableRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
-    String responseJson = declareTableNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
-    return fromJson(responseJson, DeclareTableResponse.class);
+    String responseJson = renameTableNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, RenameTableResponse.class);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -280,10 +373,11 @@ public DeleteFromTableResponse deleteFromTable(DeleteFromTableRequest request) {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public byte[] queryTable(QueryTableRequest request) {
+  public QueryTableResponse queryTable(QueryTableRequest request) {
     ensureInitialized();
     String requestJson = toJson(request);
-    return queryTableNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    byte[] data = queryTableNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return new QueryTableResponse().data(data);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -327,6 +421,176 @@ public AlterTransactionResponse alterTransaction(AlterTransactionRequest request
     return fromJson(responseJson, AlterTransactionResponse.class);
   }
 
+  @Override
+  public ListTableVersionsResponse listTableVersions(ListTableVersionsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = listTableVersionsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, ListTableVersionsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableVersionResponse createTableVersion(CreateTableVersionRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = createTableVersionNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateTableVersionResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DescribeTableVersionResponse describeTableVersion(DescribeTableVersionRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = describeTableVersionNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, DescribeTableVersionResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse batchDeleteTableVersions(
+      BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = batchDeleteTableVersionsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableScalarIndexResponse createTableScalarIndex(CreateTableIndexRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = createTableScalarIndexNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateTableScalarIndexResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DropTableIndexResponse dropTableIndex(DropTableIndexRequest request, String indexName) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = dropTableIndexNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, DropTableIndexResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTablesResponse listAllTables(ListTablesRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = listAllTablesNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, ListTablesResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public RestoreTableResponse restoreTable(RestoreTableRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = restoreTableNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, RestoreTableResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse updateTableSchemaMetadata(
+      UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = updateTableSchemaMetadataNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public GetTableStatsResponse getTableStats(GetTableStatsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = getTableStatsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, GetTableStatsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String explainTableQueryPlan(ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    return explainTableQueryPlanNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String analyzeTableQueryPlan(AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    return analyzeTableQueryPlanNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTableAddColumnsResponse alterTableAddColumns(AlterTableAddColumnsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = alterTableAddColumnsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, AlterTableAddColumnsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse alterTableAlterColumns(
+      AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = alterTableAlterColumnsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTableDropColumnsResponse alterTableDropColumns(AlterTableDropColumnsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = alterTableDropColumnsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, AlterTableDropColumnsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTableTagsResponse listTableTags(ListTableTagsRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = listTableTagsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, ListTableTagsResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public GetTableTagVersionResponse getTableTagVersion(GetTableTagVersionRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = getTableTagVersionNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, GetTableTagVersionResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableTagResponse createTableTag(CreateTableTagRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = createTableTagNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateTableTagResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DeleteTableTagResponse deleteTableTag(DeleteTableTagRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = deleteTableTagNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, DeleteTableTagResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public UpdateTableTagResponse updateTableTag(UpdateTableTagRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = updateTableTagNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, UpdateTableTagResponse.class);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateMaterializedViewResponse createMaterializedView(
+      CreateMaterializedViewRequest request) {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    String requestJson = toJson(request);
+    String responseJson = createMaterializedViewNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle, requestJson);
+    return fromJson(responseJson, CreateMaterializedViewResponse.class);
+  }
+
   @Override
   public void close() {
     if (nativeRestNamespaceHandle != 0) {
@@ -335,6 +599,42 @@ public void close() {
     }
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Returns the native handle for this namespace. Used internally for passing to Dataset.open() for
+   * namespace commit handler support.
+   */
+  public long getNativeHandle() {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    return nativeRestNamespaceHandle;
+  }
+
+  // Operation metrics methods
+
+  /**
+   * Retrieve operation metrics as a map.
+   *
+   * <p>Returns a map where keys are operation names (e.g., "list_tables", "describe_table") and
+   * values are the number of times each operation was called.
+   *
+   * <p>Returns an empty map if {@code ops_metrics_enabled} was false when creating the namespace.
+   *
+   * @return operation name to call count mapping
+   */
+  public Map<String, Long> retrieveOpsMetrics() {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    return retrieveOpsMetricsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Reset all operation metrics counters to zero.
+   *
+   * <p>Does nothing if {@code ops_metrics_enabled} was false when creating the namespace.
+   */
+  public void resetOpsMetrics() {
+    ensureInitialized();
+    resetOpsMetricsNative(nativeRestNamespaceHandle);
+  }
+
   private void ensureInitialized() {
     if (nativeRestNamespaceHandle == 0) {
       throw new IllegalStateException("RestNamespace not initialized. Call initialize() first.");
@@ -393,10 +693,10 @@ private native long createNativeWithProvider(
 
   private native String createTableNative(long handle, String requestJson, byte[] requestData);
 
-  private native String createEmptyTableNative(long handle, String requestJson);
-
   private native String declareTableNative(long handle, String requestJson);
 
+  private native String renameTableNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
   private native String insertIntoTableNative(long handle, String requestJson, byte[] requestData);
 
   private native String mergeInsertIntoTableNative(
@@ -418,6 +718,52 @@ private native String mergeInsertIntoTableNative(
 
   private native String alterTransactionNative(long handle, String requestJson);
 
+  private native String listTableVersionsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String createTableVersionNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String describeTableVersionNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String batchDeleteTableVersionsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String createTableScalarIndexNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String dropTableIndexNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String listAllTablesNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String restoreTableNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String updateTableSchemaMetadataNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String getTableStatsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String explainTableQueryPlanNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String analyzeTableQueryPlanNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String alterTableAddColumnsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String alterTableAlterColumnsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String alterTableDropColumnsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String listTableTagsNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String getTableTagVersionNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String createTableTagNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String deleteTableTagNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String updateTableTagNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native String createMaterializedViewNative(long handle, String requestJson);
+
+  private native Map<String, Long> retrieveOpsMetricsNative(long handle);
+
+  private native void resetOpsMetricsNative(long handle);
+
   // ==========================================================================
   // Provider loading helpers
   // ==========================================================================
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Clone.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Clone.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7a6e86c0346
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Clone.java
@@ -0,0 +1,136 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.operation;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * Clone a dataset version into a new dataset.
+ *
+ * <p>Only a shallow clone can be committed directly. A deep clone must copy the source files first,
+ * so committing one throws {@link IllegalArgumentException}.
+ */
+public final class Clone implements Operation {
+  private final boolean shallow;
+  private final Optional<String> refName;
+  private final long refVersion;
+  private final String refPath;
+  private final Optional<String> branchName;
+
+  private Clone(
+      boolean shallow, String refName, long refVersion, String refPath, String branchName) {
+    this.shallow = shallow;
+    this.refName = Optional.ofNullable(refName);
+    this.refVersion = refVersion;
+    this.refPath = Objects.requireNonNull(refPath, "refPath must not be null");
+    this.branchName = Optional.ofNullable(branchName);
+  }
+
+  public boolean isShallow() {
+    return shallow;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<String> getRefName() {
+    return refName;
+  }
+
+  public long getRefVersion() {
+    return refVersion;
+  }
+
+  public String getRefPath() {
+    return refPath;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<String> getBranchName() {
+    return branchName;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String name() {
+    return "Clone";
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("shallow", shallow)
+        .add("refName", refName)
+        .add("refVersion", refVersion)
+        .add("refPath", refPath)
+        .add("branchName", branchName)
+        .toString();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean equals(Object o) {
+    if (this == o) return true;
+    if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+    Clone clone = (Clone) o;
+    return shallow == clone.shallow
+        && refVersion == clone.refVersion
+        && Objects.equals(refName, clone.refName)
+        && Objects.equals(refPath, clone.refPath)
+        && Objects.equals(branchName, clone.branchName);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(shallow, refName, refVersion, refPath, branchName);
+  }
+
+  public static Builder builder() {
+    return new Builder();
+  }
+
+  public static final class Builder {
+    private boolean shallow;
+    private String refName;
+    private long refVersion;
+    private String refPath;
+    private String branchName;
+
+    public Builder shallow(boolean shallow) {
+      this.shallow = shallow;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder refName(String refName) {
+      this.refName = refName;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder refVersion(long refVersion) {
+      this.refVersion = refVersion;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder refPath(String refPath) {
+      this.refPath = refPath;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder branchName(String branchName) {
+      this.branchName = branchName;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Clone build() {
+      return new Clone(shallow, refName, refVersion, refPath, branchName);
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/DataOverlay.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/DataOverlay.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..57f5ed83f55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/DataOverlay.java
@@ -0,0 +1,219 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.operation;
+
+import org.lance.fragment.DataFile;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/** Attach overlay files that update selected cells without rewriting fragment base files. */
+public final class DataOverlay implements Operation {
+  private final List<DataOverlayGroup> groups;
+
+  private DataOverlay(List<DataOverlayGroup> groups) {
+    this.groups = Objects.requireNonNull(groups);
+  }
+
+  public List<DataOverlayGroup> getGroups() {
+    return groups;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String name() {
+    return "DataOverlay";
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this).add("groups", groups).toString();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean equals(Object o) {
+    if (this == o) return true;
+    if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+    DataOverlay that = (DataOverlay) o;
+    return Objects.equals(groups, that.groups);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(groups);
+  }
+
+  public static Builder builder() {
+    return new Builder();
+  }
+
+  public static final class Builder {
+    private List<DataOverlayGroup> groups = Collections.emptyList();
+
+    public Builder groups(List<DataOverlayGroup> groups) {
+      this.groups = groups;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public DataOverlay build() {
+      return new DataOverlay(groups);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Overlay files appended to a single fragment, ordered oldest to newest. */
+  public static final class DataOverlayGroup {
+    private final long fragmentId;
+    private final List<DataOverlayFile> overlays;
+
+    public DataOverlayGroup(long fragmentId, List<DataOverlayFile> overlays) {
+      this.fragmentId = fragmentId;
+      this.overlays = Objects.requireNonNull(overlays);
+    }
+
+    public long getFragmentId() {
+      return fragmentId;
+    }
+
+    public List<DataOverlayFile> getOverlays() {
+      return overlays;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+      if (this == o) return true;
+      if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+      DataOverlayGroup that = (DataOverlayGroup) o;
+      return fragmentId == that.fragmentId && Objects.equals(overlays, that.overlays);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+      return Objects.hash(fragmentId, overlays);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * A data file together with the physical-row coverage it supplies.
+   *
+   * <p>When this object is used to commit an overlay, Lance ignores the supplied committed version
+   * and stamps the overlay stored in the manifest with the new dataset version (including after a
+   * retry). The value remains part of the transaction model so transactions read from native code
+   * can represent it exactly.
+   */
+  public static final class DataOverlayFile {
+    private final DataFile dataFile;
+    private final OverlayCoverage coverage;
+    private final long committedVersion;
+
+    public DataOverlayFile(DataFile dataFile, OverlayCoverage coverage, long committedVersion) {
+      this.dataFile = Objects.requireNonNull(dataFile);
+      this.coverage = Objects.requireNonNull(coverage);
+      if (!coverage.isShared() && coverage.getBitmaps().size() != dataFile.getFields().length) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+            String.format(
+                "per-field overlay coverage for %s has %d bitmaps but the data file has %d fields",
+                dataFile.getPath(), coverage.getBitmaps().size(), dataFile.getFields().length));
+      }
+      this.committedVersion = committedVersion;
+    }
+
+    /** Creates an overlay for commit; Lance stamps its manifest version during the commit. */
+    public static DataOverlayFile forCommit(DataFile dataFile, OverlayCoverage coverage) {
+      return new DataOverlayFile(dataFile, coverage, 0);
+    }
+
+    public DataFile getDataFile() {
+      return dataFile;
+    }
+
+    public OverlayCoverage getCoverage() {
+      return coverage;
+    }
+
+    public long getCommittedVersion() {
+      return committedVersion;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+      if (this == o) return true;
+      if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+      DataOverlayFile that = (DataOverlayFile) o;
+      return committedVersion == that.committedVersion
+          && Objects.equals(dataFile, that.dataFile)
+          && Objects.equals(coverage, that.coverage);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+      return Objects.hash(dataFile, coverage, committedVersion);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Portable RoaringBitmap bytes for shared or per-field overlay coverage. Per-field bitmaps are
+   * ordered to match the overlay data file's fields.
+   */
+  public static final class OverlayCoverage {
+    private final boolean shared;
+    private final List<byte[]> bitmaps;
+
+    private OverlayCoverage(boolean shared, List<byte[]> bitmaps) {
+      this.shared = shared;
+      this.bitmaps = Objects.requireNonNull(bitmaps);
+      if (shared && bitmaps.size() != 1) {
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("shared overlay coverage requires exactly one bitmap");
+      }
+    }
+
+    public static OverlayCoverage shared(byte[] bitmap) {
+      return new OverlayCoverage(true, Collections.singletonList(bitmap));
+    }
+
+    public static OverlayCoverage perField(List<byte[]> bitmaps) {
+      return new OverlayCoverage(false, new ArrayList<>(bitmaps));
+    }
+
+    public boolean isShared() {
+      return shared;
+    }
+
+    public List<byte[]> getBitmaps() {
+      return bitmaps;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+      if (this == o) return true;
+      if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+      OverlayCoverage that = (OverlayCoverage) o;
+      if (shared != that.shared || bitmaps.size() != that.bitmaps.size()) return false;
+      for (int i = 0; i < bitmaps.size(); i++) {
+        if (!Arrays.equals(bitmaps.get(i), that.bitmaps.get(i))) return false;
+      }
+      return true;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+      int result = Boolean.hashCode(shared);
+      for (byte[] bitmap : bitmaps) result = 31 * result + Arrays.hashCode(bitmap);
+      return result;
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/KeyExistenceFilter.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/KeyExistenceFilter.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e5a525c01e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/KeyExistenceFilter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.operation;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/** Inserted-key conflict filter carried by an {@link Update} operation. */
+public final class KeyExistenceFilter {
+  public enum Type {
+    EXACT,
+    BLOOM
+  }
+
+  private final int[] fieldIds;
+  private final Type type;
+  private final long[] exactKeyHashes;
+  private final byte[] bloomBitmap;
+  private final int bloomNumBits;
+  private final long bloomNumberOfItems;
+  private final double bloomProbability;
+
+  private KeyExistenceFilter(
+      int[] fieldIds,
+      Type type,
+      long[] exactKeyHashes,
+      byte[] bloomBitmap,
+      int bloomNumBits,
+      long bloomNumberOfItems,
+      double bloomProbability) {
+    this.fieldIds = Objects.requireNonNull(fieldIds);
+    this.type = Objects.requireNonNull(type);
+    this.exactKeyHashes = exactKeyHashes;
+    this.bloomBitmap = bloomBitmap;
+    this.bloomNumBits = bloomNumBits;
+    this.bloomNumberOfItems = bloomNumberOfItems;
+    this.bloomProbability = bloomProbability;
+  }
+
+  public static KeyExistenceFilter exact(int[] fieldIds, long[] keyHashes) {
+    long[] canonicalHashes = Objects.requireNonNull(keyHashes).clone();
+    Arrays.sort(canonicalHashes);
+    return new KeyExistenceFilter(fieldIds, Type.EXACT, canonicalHashes, null, 0, 0, 0);
+  }
+
+  public static KeyExistenceFilter bloom(
+      int[] fieldIds, byte[] bitmap, int numBits, long numberOfItems, double probability) {
+    Objects.requireNonNull(bitmap, "bitmap must not be null");
+    if (numBits <= 0 || numberOfItems <= 0) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("numBits and numberOfItems must be positive");
+    }
+    if (numBits != bitmap.length * Byte.SIZE) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+          String.format(
+              "numBits (%d) must equal the bitmap length in bits (%d)",
+              numBits, bitmap.length * Byte.SIZE));
+    }
+    if (!Double.isFinite(probability) || probability <= 0.0 || probability >= 1.0) {
+      throw new IllegalArgumentException("probability must be finite and between 0 and 1");
+    }
+    return new KeyExistenceFilter(
+        fieldIds, Type.BLOOM, null, bitmap, numBits, numberOfItems, probability);
+  }
+
+  public int[] getFieldIds() {
+    return fieldIds;
+  }
+
+  public Type getType() {
+    return type;
+  }
+
+  public long[] getExactKeyHashes() {
+    return exactKeyHashes;
+  }
+
+  public byte[] getBloomBitmap() {
+    return bloomBitmap;
+  }
+
+  public int getBloomNumBits() {
+    return bloomNumBits;
+  }
+
+  public long getBloomNumberOfItems() {
+    return bloomNumberOfItems;
+  }
+
+  public double getBloomProbability() {
+    return bloomProbability;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean equals(Object o) {
+    if (this == o) return true;
+    if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+    KeyExistenceFilter that = (KeyExistenceFilter) o;
+    return bloomNumBits == that.bloomNumBits
+        && bloomNumberOfItems == that.bloomNumberOfItems
+        && Double.compare(bloomProbability, that.bloomProbability) == 0
+        && Arrays.equals(fieldIds, that.fieldIds)
+        && type == that.type
+        && Arrays.equals(exactKeyHashes, that.exactKeyHashes)
+        && Arrays.equals(bloomBitmap, that.bloomBitmap);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    int result = Objects.hash(type, bloomNumBits, bloomNumberOfItems, bloomProbability);
+    result = 31 * result + Arrays.hashCode(fieldIds);
+    result = 31 * result + Arrays.hashCode(exactKeyHashes);
+    return 31 * result + Arrays.hashCode(bloomBitmap);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Merge.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Merge.java
index bd83657384b..07ecb880d90 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Merge.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Merge.java
@@ -27,16 +27,26 @@
  */
 public class Merge extends SchemaOperation {
   private final List<FragmentMetadata> fragments;
+  // True when this merge makes no nullability-affecting schema change: it
+  // introduces no field that data staged against an earlier schema could not
+  // safely omit. Without the assertion the merge conservatively conflicts with
+  // concurrent appends, whose fragments would omit new columns and read as null.
+  private final boolean preservesNullability;
 
-  protected Merge(List<FragmentMetadata> fragments, Schema schema) {
+  protected Merge(List<FragmentMetadata> fragments, Schema schema, boolean preservesNullability) {
     super(schema);
     this.fragments = fragments;
+    this.preservesNullability = preservesNullability;
   }
 
   public List<FragmentMetadata> fragments() {
     return fragments;
   }
 
+  public boolean preservesNullability() {
+    return preservesNullability;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String name() {
     return "Merge";
@@ -47,6 +57,7 @@ public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
         .add("fragments", fragments)
         .add("schema", schema())
+        .add("preservesNullability", preservesNullability)
         .toString();
   }
 
@@ -56,12 +67,13 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
     if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
     if (!super.equals(o)) return false;
     Merge that = (Merge) o;
-    return Objects.equals(fragments, that.fragments);
+    return Objects.equals(fragments, that.fragments)
+        && preservesNullability == that.preservesNullability;
   }
 
   @Override
   public int hashCode() {
-    return Objects.hash(super.hashCode(), fragments);
+    return Objects.hash(super.hashCode(), fragments, preservesNullability);
   }
 
   public static Builder builder() {
@@ -71,6 +83,8 @@ public static Builder builder() {
   public static class Builder {
     private List<FragmentMetadata> fragments;
     private Schema schema;
+    // No assertion by default, which conservatively conflicts.
+    private boolean preservesNullability = false;
 
     private Builder() {}
 
@@ -84,8 +98,13 @@ public Builder schema(Schema schema) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    public Builder preservesNullability(boolean preservesNullability) {
+      this.preservesNullability = preservesNullability;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public Merge build() {
-      return new Merge(fragments, schema);
+      return new Merge(fragments, schema, preservesNullability);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Overwrite.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Overwrite.java
index 5459e9b33af..b3e564ebb95 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Overwrite.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Overwrite.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.BasePath;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
 
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
@@ -31,12 +32,25 @@
 public class Overwrite extends SchemaOperation {
   private final List<FragmentMetadata> fragments;
   private final Optional<Map<String, String>> configUpsertValues;
+  private final Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases;
 
   protected Overwrite(
       List<FragmentMetadata> fragments, Schema schema, Map<String, String> configUpsertValues) {
+    this(fragments, schema, configUpsertValues, null);
+  }
+
+  protected Overwrite(
+      List<FragmentMetadata> fragments,
+      Schema schema,
+      Map<String, String> configUpsertValues,
+      List<BasePath> initialBases) {
     super(schema);
     this.fragments = fragments;
-    this.configUpsertValues = Optional.ofNullable(configUpsertValues);
+    this.configUpsertValues =
+        configUpsertValues == null || configUpsertValues.isEmpty()
+            ? Optional.empty()
+            : Optional.of(configUpsertValues);
+    this.initialBases = Optional.ofNullable(initialBases);
   }
 
   public List<FragmentMetadata> fragments() {
@@ -47,6 +61,18 @@ public Optional<Map<String, String>> configUpsertValues() {
     return configUpsertValues;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Base paths used when creating a dataset; absent for a regular overwrite. An explicit empty list
+   * is retained because Rust distinguishes it from an absent value.
+   */
+  public Optional<List<BasePath>> initialBases() {
+    return initialBases;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<List<BasePath>> getInitialBases() {
+    return initialBases;
+  }
+
   public static Builder builder() {
     return new Builder();
   }
@@ -62,6 +88,7 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("fragments", fragments)
         .add("schema", schema())
         .add("configUpsertValues", configUpsertValues)
+        .add("initialBases", initialBases)
         .toString();
   }
 
@@ -71,13 +98,35 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
     if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
     if (!super.equals(o)) return false;
     Overwrite that = (Overwrite) o;
-    return Objects.equals(fragments, that.fragments);
+    return Objects.equals(fragments, that.fragments)
+        && Objects.equals(configUpsertValues, that.configUpsertValues)
+        && initialBasesEqual(initialBases, that.initialBases);
+  }
+
+  private static boolean initialBasesEqual(
+      Optional<List<BasePath>> left, Optional<List<BasePath>> right) {
+    if (left.isEmpty() || right.isEmpty()) return left.isEmpty() && right.isEmpty();
+    List<BasePath> leftBases = left.orElseThrow();
+    List<BasePath> rightBases = right.orElseThrow();
+    if (leftBases.size() != rightBases.size()) return false;
+    for (int i = 0; i < leftBases.size(); i++) {
+      BasePath a = leftBases.get(i);
+      BasePath b = rightBases.get(i);
+      if (a.getId() != b.getId()
+          || a.isDatasetRoot() != b.isDatasetRoot()
+          || !Objects.equals(a.getName(), b.getName())
+          || !Objects.equals(a.getPath(), b.getPath())) {
+        return false;
+      }
+    }
+    return true;
   }
 
   public static class Builder {
     private List<FragmentMetadata> fragments;
     private Schema schema;
     private Map<String, String> configUpsertValues;
+    private List<BasePath> initialBases;
 
     private Builder() {}
 
@@ -96,8 +145,13 @@ public Builder configUpsertValues(Map<String, String> configUpsertValues) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    public Builder initialBases(List<BasePath> initialBases) {
+      this.initialBases = initialBases;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public Overwrite build() {
-      return new Overwrite(fragments, schema, configUpsertValues);
+      return new Overwrite(fragments, schema, configUpsertValues, initialBases);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Project.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Project.java
index a4c718c4c4b..8c79431a7d1 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Project.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Project.java
@@ -16,14 +16,26 @@
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 
+import java.util.Objects;
+
 /**
  * Project to a new schema. This Operation only changes the schema, not the data. Note: 1. For
  * removing columns. The data will be removed after compaction. 2. Project will modify column
  * positions, not ids(a.k.a. field id)
  */
 public class Project extends SchemaOperation {
-  private Project(Schema schema) {
+  // True when this projection makes no nullability-affecting schema change,
+  // as a rename or a drop does not. Without the assertion the projection
+  // conservatively conflicts with concurrent value writes.
+  private final boolean preservesNullability;
+
+  private Project(Schema schema, boolean preservesNullability) {
     super(schema);
+    this.preservesNullability = preservesNullability;
+  }
+
+  public boolean preservesNullability() {
+    return preservesNullability;
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -33,7 +45,23 @@ public String name() {
 
   @Override
   public String toString() {
-    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this).add("schema", schema()).toString();
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("schema", schema())
+        .add("preservesNullability", preservesNullability)
+        .toString();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean equals(Object o) {
+    if (!super.equals(o)) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    return preservesNullability == ((Project) o).preservesNullability;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    return Objects.hash(schema(), preservesNullability);
   }
 
   public static Builder builder() {
@@ -42,6 +70,7 @@ public static Builder builder() {
 
   public static class Builder {
     private Schema schema;
+    private boolean preservesNullability;
 
     public Builder() {}
 
@@ -50,8 +79,13 @@ public Builder schema(Schema schema) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    public Builder preservesNullability(boolean preservesNullability) {
+      this.preservesNullability = preservesNullability;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public Project build() {
-      return new Project(schema);
+      return new Project(schema, preservesNullability);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/RewrittenIndex.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/RewrittenIndex.java
index 2899991129a..7961bd8f78b 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/RewrittenIndex.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/RewrittenIndex.java
@@ -13,10 +13,14 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.index.IndexFile;
+
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 
 import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.Optional;
 import java.util.UUID;
 
 /**
@@ -30,13 +34,15 @@ public class RewrittenIndex {
   private final String newIndexDetailsTypeUrl;
   private final byte[] newIndexDetailsValue;
   private final int newIndexVersion;
+  private final Optional<List<IndexFile>> newIndexFiles;
 
   private RewrittenIndex(
       UUID oldId,
       UUID newId,
       String newIndexDetailsTypeUrl,
       byte[] newIndexDetailsValue,
-      int newIndexVersion) {
+      int newIndexVersion,
+      List<IndexFile> newIndexFiles) {
     if (oldId == null
         || newId == null
         || newIndexDetailsTypeUrl == null
@@ -50,6 +56,10 @@ private RewrittenIndex(
     this.newIndexDetailsTypeUrl = newIndexDetailsTypeUrl;
     this.newIndexDetailsValue = newIndexDetailsValue;
     this.newIndexVersion = newIndexVersion;
+    this.newIndexFiles =
+        newIndexFiles == null || newIndexFiles.isEmpty()
+            ? Optional.empty()
+            : Optional.of(newIndexFiles);
   }
 
   public UUID getOldId() {
@@ -72,6 +82,11 @@ public int getNewIndexVersion() {
     return newIndexVersion;
   }
 
+  /** Files in the rewritten index, or empty when older writers did not record them. */
+  public Optional<List<IndexFile>> getNewIndexFiles() {
+    return newIndexFiles;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public boolean equals(Object o) {
     if (this == o) {
@@ -85,7 +100,8 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
         && Objects.equals(newId, that.newId)
         && Objects.equals(newIndexDetailsTypeUrl, that.newIndexDetailsTypeUrl)
         && Arrays.equals(newIndexDetailsValue, that.newIndexDetailsValue)
-        && newIndexVersion == that.newIndexVersion;
+        && newIndexVersion == that.newIndexVersion
+        && Objects.equals(newIndexFiles, that.newIndexFiles);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -95,7 +111,8 @@ public int hashCode() {
         newId,
         newIndexDetailsTypeUrl,
         Arrays.hashCode(newIndexDetailsValue),
-        newIndexVersion);
+        newIndexVersion,
+        newIndexFiles);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -106,6 +123,7 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("newIndexDetailsTypeUrl", newIndexDetailsTypeUrl)
         .add("newIndexDetailsValue", newIndexDetailsValue)
         .add("newIndexVersion", newIndexVersion)
+        .add("newIndexFiles", newIndexFiles)
         .toString();
   }
 
@@ -119,6 +137,7 @@ public static class Builder {
     private String newIndexDetailsTypeUrl;
     private byte[] newIndexDetailsValue;
     private int newIndexVersion;
+    private List<IndexFile> newIndexFiles;
 
     private Builder() {}
 
@@ -147,9 +166,19 @@ public Builder newIndexVersion(int newIndexVersion) {
       return this;
     }
 
+    public Builder newIndexFiles(List<IndexFile> newIndexFiles) {
+      this.newIndexFiles = newIndexFiles;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public RewrittenIndex build() {
       return new RewrittenIndex(
-          oldId, newId, newIndexDetailsTypeUrl, newIndexDetailsValue, newIndexVersion);
+          oldId,
+          newId,
+          newIndexDetailsTypeUrl,
+          newIndexDetailsValue,
+          newIndexVersion,
+          newIndexFiles);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/SchemaOperation.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/SchemaOperation.java
index 3fbf6f502db..509492c852d 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/SchemaOperation.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/SchemaOperation.java
@@ -20,7 +20,17 @@
 
 import java.util.Objects;
 
-/** Schema related base operation. */
+/**
+ * Schema related base operation.
+ *
+ * <p>Each field will be assigned a field id when transaction commits, in the following order:
+ *
+ * <ol>
+ *   <li>Parse from field metadata with key {@code lance:field_id}.
+ *   <li>Otherwise, set field id from txn read version dataset's schema field (with the same name).
+ *   <li>Otherwise, allocate based on the max field id of the dataset.
+ * </ol>
+ */
 public abstract class SchemaOperation implements Operation {
   private final Schema schema;
   private ArrowSchema cSchema;
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Update.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Update.java
index f886942b4b9..137c29049c5 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Update.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/Update.java
@@ -14,12 +14,14 @@
 package org.lance.operation;
 
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
+import org.lance.memwal.CompactedSsTable;
 
 import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
 
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
@@ -30,6 +32,17 @@ public class Update implements Operation {
   private final long[] fieldsModified;
   private final long[] fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap;
   private final Optional<UpdateMode> updateMode;
+  private final List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables;
+  private final Optional<KeyExistenceFilter> insertedRowsFilter;
+
+  /**
+   * Per-fragment matched row offsets serialized as portable RoaringBitmap bytes (little-endian,
+   * spec-compliant). Keys are fragment ids; values are the serialized bitmap for the local physical
+   * row offsets (0-based) within the fragment whose columns were rewritten. Empty map means the
+   * caller did not supply offsets and the partial last_updated refresh in build_manifest will not
+   * activate.
+   */
+  private final Map<Long, byte[]> updatedFragmentOffsets;
 
   private Update(
       List<Long> removedFragmentIds,
@@ -37,13 +50,20 @@ private Update(
       List<FragmentMetadata> newFragments,
       long[] fieldsModified,
       long[] fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap,
-      Optional<UpdateMode> updateMode) {
+      Optional<UpdateMode> updateMode,
+      Map<Long, byte[]> updatedFragmentOffsets,
+      List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables,
+      KeyExistenceFilter insertedRowsFilter) {
     this.removedFragmentIds = removedFragmentIds;
     this.updatedFragments = updatedFragments;
     this.newFragments = newFragments;
     this.fieldsModified = fieldsModified;
     this.fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap = fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap;
+    Objects.requireNonNull(updateMode);
     this.updateMode = updateMode;
+    this.updatedFragmentOffsets = updatedFragmentOffsets;
+    this.compactedSstables = Objects.requireNonNull(compactedSstables);
+    this.insertedRowsFilter = Optional.ofNullable(insertedRowsFilter);
   }
 
   public static Builder builder() {
@@ -70,10 +90,37 @@ public long[] fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap() {
     return fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * The update strategy.
+   *
+   * <p>The Rust transaction model permits an absent mode, but the current transaction protobuf
+   * cannot persist that state distinctly from {@link UpdateMode#RewriteRows}. JNI therefore rejects
+   * commits with an empty mode instead of silently changing their semantics.
+   */
   public Optional<UpdateMode> updateMode() {
     return updateMode;
   }
 
+  public Map<Long, byte[]> updatedFragmentOffsets() {
+    return updatedFragmentOffsets;
+  }
+
+  public List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables() {
+    return compactedSstables;
+  }
+
+  public List<CompactedSsTable> getCompactedSstables() {
+    return compactedSstables;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<KeyExistenceFilter> insertedRowsFilter() {
+    return insertedRowsFilter;
+  }
+
+  public Optional<KeyExistenceFilter> getInsertedRowsFilter() {
+    return insertedRowsFilter;
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String name() {
     return "Update";
@@ -87,6 +134,9 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("fieldsModified", fieldsModified)
         .add("fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap", fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap)
         .add("updateMode", updateMode)
+        .add("updatedFragmentOffsets", updatedFragmentOffsets)
+        .add("compactedSstables", compactedSstables)
+        .add("insertedRowsFilter", insertedRowsFilter)
         .toString();
   }
 
@@ -100,7 +150,53 @@ public boolean equals(Object o) {
         && Objects.equals(newFragments, that.newFragments)
         && Arrays.equals(fieldsModified, that.fieldsModified)
         && Arrays.equals(fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap, that.fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap)
-        && Objects.equals(updateMode, that.updateMode);
+        && Objects.equals(updateMode, that.updateMode)
+        && compactedSstablesEqual(compactedSstables, that.compactedSstables)
+        && Objects.equals(insertedRowsFilter, that.insertedRowsFilter)
+        && offsetMapsEqual(updatedFragmentOffsets, that.updatedFragmentOffsets);
+  }
+
+  /** Deep-equality for {@code Map<Long, byte[]>}: keys by value, arrays by content. */
+  private static boolean offsetMapsEqual(Map<Long, byte[]> a, Map<Long, byte[]> b) {
+    if (a == b) return true;
+    if (a.size() != b.size()) return false;
+    for (Map.Entry<Long, byte[]> entry : a.entrySet()) {
+      if (!Arrays.equals(entry.getValue(), b.get(entry.getKey()))) return false;
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  private static boolean compactedSstablesEqual(
+      List<CompactedSsTable> left, List<CompactedSsTable> right) {
+    if (left.size() != right.size()) return false;
+    for (int i = 0; i < left.size(); i++) {
+      CompactedSsTable a = left.get(i);
+      CompactedSsTable b = right.get(i);
+      if (a.getGeneration() != b.getGeneration()
+          || !Objects.equals(a.getShardId(), b.getShardId())) {
+        return false;
+      }
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    int h =
+        Objects.hash(
+            removedFragmentIds, updatedFragments, newFragments, updateMode, insertedRowsFilter);
+    for (CompactedSsTable sstable : compactedSstables) {
+      h = 31 * h + Objects.hash(sstable.getShardId(), sstable.getGeneration());
+    }
+    h = 31 * h + Arrays.hashCode(fieldsModified);
+    h = 31 * h + Arrays.hashCode(fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap);
+    // Sum entry hashes (XOR key ^ array-content hash) so result is insertion-order-independent.
+    int mapHash = 0;
+    for (Map.Entry<Long, byte[]> entry : updatedFragmentOffsets.entrySet()) {
+      mapHash += Long.hashCode(entry.getKey()) ^ Arrays.hashCode(entry.getValue());
+    }
+    h = 31 * h + mapHash;
+    return h;
   }
 
   public enum UpdateMode {
@@ -115,6 +211,9 @@ public static class Builder {
     private long[] fieldsModified = new long[0];
     private long[] fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap = new long[0];
     private Optional<UpdateMode> updateMode = Optional.empty();
+    private Map<Long, byte[]> updatedFragmentOffsets = Collections.emptyMap();
+    private List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables = Collections.emptyList();
+    private KeyExistenceFilter insertedRowsFilter;
 
     private Builder() {}
 
@@ -143,11 +242,39 @@ public Builder fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap(long[] fieldsForPreservingFragBitma
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set the update strategy. A mode must be present when the operation is committed because the
+     * transaction format cannot persist an absent mode losslessly.
+     */
     public Builder updateMode(Optional<UpdateMode> updateMode) {
       this.updateMode = updateMode;
       return this;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set the per-fragment matched row offsets for a RewriteColumns commit.
+     *
+     * <p>Keys are fragment ids; values are portable RoaringBitmap bytes (little-endian,
+     * spec-compliant serialization) encoding the local physical row offsets (0-based) within the
+     * fragment that matched the update_columns hash join. When non-empty and update mode is
+     * RewriteColumns with stable row IDs enabled, build_manifest will call the partial last_updated
+     * refresh for those offsets only.
+     */
+    public Builder updatedFragmentOffsets(Map<Long, byte[]> updatedFragmentOffsets) {
+      this.updatedFragmentOffsets = updatedFragmentOffsets;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder compactedSstables(List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables) {
+      this.compactedSstables = compactedSstables;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public Builder insertedRowsFilter(KeyExistenceFilter insertedRowsFilter) {
+      this.insertedRowsFilter = insertedRowsFilter;
+      return this;
+    }
+
     public Update build() {
       return new Update(
           removedFragmentIds,
@@ -155,7 +282,10 @@ public Update build() {
           newFragments,
           fieldsModified,
           fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap,
-          updateMode);
+          updateMode,
+          updatedFragmentOffsets,
+          compactedSstables,
+          insertedRowsFilter);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateBases.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateBases.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e0bff689bd1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateBases.java
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.operation;
+
+import org.lance.BasePath;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/** Add base paths to the dataset manifest. */
+public final class UpdateBases implements Operation {
+  private final List<BasePath> newBases;
+
+  private UpdateBases(List<BasePath> newBases) {
+    this.newBases = Objects.requireNonNull(newBases);
+  }
+
+  public List<BasePath> getNewBases() {
+    return newBases;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String name() {
+    return "UpdateBases";
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this).add("newBases", newBases).toString();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean equals(Object o) {
+    if (this == o) return true;
+    if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+    UpdateBases that = (UpdateBases) o;
+    if (newBases.size() != that.newBases.size()) return false;
+    for (int i = 0; i < newBases.size(); i++) {
+      if (!basePathEquals(newBases.get(i), that.newBases.get(i))) return false;
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    int result = 1;
+    for (BasePath base : newBases) {
+      result =
+          31 * result
+              + Objects.hash(base.getId(), base.getName(), base.getPath(), base.isDatasetRoot());
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private static boolean basePathEquals(BasePath left, BasePath right) {
+    return left.getId() == right.getId()
+        && left.isDatasetRoot() == right.isDatasetRoot()
+        && Objects.equals(left.getName(), right.getName())
+        && Objects.equals(left.getPath(), right.getPath());
+  }
+
+  public static Builder builder() {
+    return new Builder();
+  }
+
+  public static final class Builder {
+    private List<BasePath> newBases = Collections.emptyList();
+
+    public Builder newBases(List<BasePath> newBases) {
+      this.newBases = newBases;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public UpdateBases build() {
+      return new UpdateBases(newBases);
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateMemWalState.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateMemWalState.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b0d6a5f8122
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateMemWalState.java
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.operation;
+
+import org.lance.memwal.CompactedSsTable;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/** Update SSTable compaction progress in the MemWAL index. */
+public final class UpdateMemWalState implements Operation {
+  private final List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables;
+
+  private UpdateMemWalState(List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables) {
+    this.compactedSstables = Objects.requireNonNull(compactedSstables);
+  }
+
+  public List<CompactedSsTable> getCompactedSstables() {
+    return compactedSstables;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String name() {
+    return "UpdateMemWalState";
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this).add("compactedSstables", compactedSstables).toString();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean equals(Object o) {
+    if (this == o) return true;
+    if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) return false;
+    UpdateMemWalState that = (UpdateMemWalState) o;
+    if (compactedSstables.size() != that.compactedSstables.size()) return false;
+    for (int i = 0; i < compactedSstables.size(); i++) {
+      CompactedSsTable left = compactedSstables.get(i);
+      CompactedSsTable right = that.compactedSstables.get(i);
+      if (left.getGeneration() != right.getGeneration()
+          || !Objects.equals(left.getShardId(), right.getShardId())) {
+        return false;
+      }
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public int hashCode() {
+    int result = 1;
+    for (CompactedSsTable sstable : compactedSstables) {
+      result = 31 * result + Objects.hash(sstable.getShardId(), sstable.getGeneration());
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  public static Builder builder() {
+    return new Builder();
+  }
+
+  public static final class Builder {
+    private List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables = Collections.emptyList();
+
+    public Builder compactedSstables(List<CompactedSsTable> compactedSstables) {
+      this.compactedSstables = compactedSstables;
+      return this;
+    }
+
+    public UpdateMemWalState build() {
+      return new UpdateMemWalState(compactedSstables);
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/LanceMetrics.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/LanceMetrics.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..07b8595ff62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/LanceMetrics.java
@@ -0,0 +1,283 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.otel;
+
+import org.lance.JniLoader;
+
+import io.opentelemetry.api.GlobalOpenTelemetry;
+import io.opentelemetry.api.common.Attributes;
+import io.opentelemetry.api.common.AttributesBuilder;
+import io.opentelemetry.api.metrics.BatchCallback;
+import io.opentelemetry.api.metrics.Meter;
+import io.opentelemetry.api.metrics.MeterProvider;
+import io.opentelemetry.api.metrics.ObservableDoubleMeasurement;
+import io.opentelemetry.api.metrics.ObservableMeasurement;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.logging.Logger;
+
+/** Bridges Lance's internal Rust metrics into OpenTelemetry observable instruments. */
+public final class LanceMetrics {
+  private static final Logger LOGGER = Logger.getLogger(LanceMetrics.class.getName());
+  private static final String METER_NAME = "lance";
+  private static final List<AutoCloseable> INSTRUMENTS = new ArrayList<>();
+  private static boolean instrumented;
+  private static MeterProvider instrumentedProvider;
+
+  private LanceMetrics() {}
+
+  /**
+   * Register Lance metrics on the global OpenTelemetry {@link MeterProvider}.
+   *
+   * @return true if the recorder is installed and instruments are registered, false if a different
+   *     Rust metrics recorder is already installed in this process
+   */
+  public static synchronized boolean instrument() {
+    return instrument(GlobalOpenTelemetry.get().getMeterProvider());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Register Lance metrics as OpenTelemetry observable instruments.
+   *
+   * <p>This installs a process-global Rust metrics recorder. If a different Rust metrics recorder
+   * is already installed, this returns false and does not create instruments. Repeated successful
+   * calls with the same provider are safe and return true without creating duplicate instruments.
+   * Calls with a different provider close the existing instruments and register new callbacks on
+   * the supplied provider.
+   *
+   * @param meterProvider the OpenTelemetry meter provider that owns the instruments
+   * @return true if the recorder is installed and instruments are registered, false otherwise
+   */
+  public static synchronized boolean instrument(MeterProvider meterProvider) {
+    Objects.requireNonNull(meterProvider, "meterProvider");
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+
+    if (!registerLanceMetricsRecorderNative()) {
+      LOGGER.warning(
+          "Could not install the Lance metrics recorder: another Rust metrics recorder is already"
+              + " installed in this process. Lance metrics will not be exported via"
+              + " OpenTelemetry.");
+      return false;
+    }
+
+    if (instrumented) {
+      if (instrumentedProvider == meterProvider) {
+        return true;
+      }
+      closeInstruments();
+    }
+
+    Meter meter = meterProvider.meterBuilder(METER_NAME).build();
+    Map<String, RegisteredMetric> registeredMetrics = new HashMap<>();
+    List<ObservableMeasurement> measurements = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    for (MetricDescription desc : supportedMetrics(catalog())) {
+      String unit = desc.getUnit() == null ? "" : desc.getUnit();
+      String description = desc.getDescription();
+      switch (desc.getKind()) {
+        case "counter":
+          ObservableDoubleMeasurement counter =
+              meter
+                  .counterBuilder(desc.getName())
+                  .ofDoubles()
+                  .setUnit(unit)
+                  .setDescription(description)
+                  .buildObserver();
+          registeredMetrics.put(desc.getName(), RegisteredMetric.scalar(counter));
+          measurements.add(counter);
+          break;
+        case "gauge":
+          ObservableDoubleMeasurement gauge =
+              meter
+                  .gaugeBuilder(desc.getName())
+                  .setUnit(unit)
+                  .setDescription(description)
+                  .buildObserver();
+          registeredMetrics.put(desc.getName(), RegisteredMetric.scalar(gauge));
+          measurements.add(gauge);
+          break;
+        case "histogram":
+          ObservableDoubleMeasurement buckets =
+              meter
+                  .counterBuilder(desc.getName() + "_bucket")
+                  .ofDoubles()
+                  .setDescription(description + " (cumulative buckets)")
+                  .buildObserver();
+          ObservableDoubleMeasurement count =
+              meter
+                  .counterBuilder(desc.getName() + "_count")
+                  .ofDoubles()
+                  .setDescription(description + " (count)")
+                  .buildObserver();
+          ObservableDoubleMeasurement sum =
+              meter
+                  .counterBuilder(desc.getName() + "_sum")
+                  .ofDoubles()
+                  .setUnit(unit)
+                  .setDescription(description + " (sum)")
+                  .buildObserver();
+          registeredMetrics.put(desc.getName(), RegisteredMetric.histogram(buckets, count, sum));
+          measurements.add(buckets);
+          measurements.add(count);
+          measurements.add(sum);
+          break;
+        default:
+          LOGGER.warning(
+              "Skipping Lance metric " + desc.getName() + " with unknown kind: " + desc.getKind());
+          continue;
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (!measurements.isEmpty()) {
+      ObservableMeasurement first = measurements.get(0);
+      ObservableMeasurement[] rest =
+          measurements.subList(1, measurements.size()).toArray(new ObservableMeasurement[0]);
+      BatchCallback callback =
+          meter.batchCallback(() -> recordSnapshot(registeredMetrics), first, rest);
+      INSTRUMENTS.add(callback);
+    }
+
+    instrumented = true;
+    instrumentedProvider = meterProvider;
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  /** Close registered OpenTelemetry callbacks. Rust metric state remains process-global. */
+  public static synchronized void close() {
+    closeInstruments();
+  }
+
+  /** Return the catalog of Lance metrics described by the native recorder. */
+  public static List<MetricDescription> catalog() {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+    return Collections.unmodifiableList(lanceMetricsCatalogNative());
+  }
+
+  /** Return a point-in-time snapshot of all recorded Lance metric series. */
+  public static List<MetricPoint> snapshot() {
+    JniLoader.ensureLoaded();
+    return Collections.unmodifiableList(snapshotLanceMetricsNative());
+  }
+
+  static List<MetricDescription> supportedMetrics(List<MetricDescription> catalog) {
+    List<MetricDescription> supported = new ArrayList<>();
+    for (MetricDescription desc : catalog) {
+      switch (desc.getKind()) {
+        case "counter":
+        case "gauge":
+        case "histogram":
+          supported.add(desc);
+          break;
+        default:
+          LOGGER.warning(
+              "Skipping Lance metric " + desc.getName() + " with unknown kind: " + desc.getKind());
+      }
+    }
+    return supported;
+  }
+
+  private static void recordSnapshot(Map<String, RegisteredMetric> registeredMetrics) {
+    for (MetricPoint point : snapshot()) {
+      RegisteredMetric metric = registeredMetrics.get(point.getName());
+      if (metric == null) {
+        continue;
+      }
+      metric.record(point);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static void closeInstruments() {
+    for (AutoCloseable instrument : INSTRUMENTS) {
+      try {
+        instrument.close();
+      } catch (Exception e) {
+        LOGGER.warning("Failed to close Lance OpenTelemetry instrument: " + e.getMessage());
+      }
+    }
+    INSTRUMENTS.clear();
+    instrumented = false;
+    instrumentedProvider = null;
+  }
+
+  private static AttributesBuilder attributesBuilder(Map<String, String> values) {
+    AttributesBuilder builder = Attributes.builder();
+    for (Map.Entry<String, String> entry : values.entrySet()) {
+      builder.put(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue());
+    }
+    return builder;
+  }
+
+  private static Attributes attributes(Map<String, String> values) {
+    return attributesBuilder(values).build();
+  }
+
+  private static final class RegisteredMetric {
+    private final ObservableDoubleMeasurement scalar;
+    private final ObservableDoubleMeasurement buckets;
+    private final ObservableDoubleMeasurement count;
+    private final ObservableDoubleMeasurement sum;
+
+    private RegisteredMetric(
+        ObservableDoubleMeasurement scalar,
+        ObservableDoubleMeasurement buckets,
+        ObservableDoubleMeasurement count,
+        ObservableDoubleMeasurement sum) {
+      this.scalar = scalar;
+      this.buckets = buckets;
+      this.count = count;
+      this.sum = sum;
+    }
+
+    private static RegisteredMetric scalar(ObservableDoubleMeasurement measurement) {
+      return new RegisteredMetric(measurement, null, null, null);
+    }
+
+    private static RegisteredMetric histogram(
+        ObservableDoubleMeasurement buckets,
+        ObservableDoubleMeasurement count,
+        ObservableDoubleMeasurement sum) {
+      return new RegisteredMetric(null, buckets, count, sum);
+    }
+
+    private void record(MetricPoint point) {
+      if (scalar != null && point.getValue() != null) {
+        scalar.record(point.getValue(), attributes(point.getAttributes()));
+      }
+      if (buckets != null && point.getBuckets() != null) {
+        for (MetricBucket bucket : point.getBuckets()) {
+          AttributesBuilder attributes = attributesBuilder(point.getAttributes());
+          attributes.put("le", bucket.getLe());
+          buckets.record(bucket.getCumulativeCount(), attributes.build());
+        }
+      }
+      if (count != null && point.getCount() != null) {
+        count.record(point.getCount().doubleValue(), attributes(point.getAttributes()));
+      }
+      if (sum != null && point.getSum() != null) {
+        sum.record(point.getSum(), attributes(point.getAttributes()));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static native boolean registerLanceMetricsRecorderNative();
+
+  private static native List<MetricDescription> lanceMetricsCatalogNative();
+
+  private static native List<MetricPoint> snapshotLanceMetricsNative();
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/MetricBucket.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/MetricBucket.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4efa1058a30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/MetricBucket.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.otel;
+
+/** A cumulative histogram bucket exported with Prometheus-style {@code le} semantics. */
+public final class MetricBucket {
+  private final String le;
+  private final long cumulativeCount;
+
+  public MetricBucket(String le, long cumulativeCount) {
+    this.le = le;
+    this.cumulativeCount = cumulativeCount;
+  }
+
+  public String getLe() {
+    return le;
+  }
+
+  public long getCumulativeCount() {
+    return cumulativeCount;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/MetricDescription.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/MetricDescription.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a350e2be963
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/MetricDescription.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.otel;
+
+/** Metadata for one Lance metric available through the OpenTelemetry bridge. */
+public final class MetricDescription {
+  private final String name;
+  private final String kind;
+  private final String unit;
+  private final String description;
+
+  public MetricDescription(String name, String kind, String unit, String description) {
+    this.name = name;
+    this.kind = kind;
+    this.unit = unit;
+    this.description = description;
+  }
+
+  public String getName() {
+    return name;
+  }
+
+  public String getKind() {
+    return kind;
+  }
+
+  public String getUnit() {
+    return unit;
+  }
+
+  public String getDescription() {
+    return description;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/MetricPoint.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/MetricPoint.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f9a44b95f20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/otel/MetricPoint.java
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.otel;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/** A cumulative Lance metric data point captured by the native metrics recorder. */
+public final class MetricPoint {
+  private final String name;
+  private final String kind;
+  private final Map<String, String> attributes;
+  private final Double value;
+  private final List<MetricBucket> buckets;
+  private final Long count;
+  private final Double sum;
+
+  public MetricPoint(
+      String name,
+      String kind,
+      Map<String, String> attributes,
+      Double value,
+      List<MetricBucket> buckets,
+      Long count,
+      Double sum) {
+    this.name = name;
+    this.kind = kind;
+    this.attributes =
+        attributes == null ? Collections.emptyMap() : Collections.unmodifiableMap(attributes);
+    this.value = value;
+    this.buckets = buckets == null ? null : Collections.unmodifiableList(buckets);
+    this.count = count;
+    this.sum = sum;
+  }
+
+  public String getName() {
+    return name;
+  }
+
+  public String getKind() {
+    return kind;
+  }
+
+  public Map<String, String> getAttributes() {
+    return attributes;
+  }
+
+  public Double getValue() {
+    return value;
+  }
+
+  public List<MetricBucket> getBuckets() {
+    return buckets;
+  }
+
+  public Long getCount() {
+    return count;
+  }
+
+  public Double getSum() {
+    return sum;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/schema/LanceField.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/schema/LanceField.java
index f1d3185b68e..4dbb3a0ea38 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/schema/LanceField.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/schema/LanceField.java
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@
 
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Optional;
@@ -43,6 +44,8 @@ public class LanceField {
   private final List<LanceField> children;
   private final boolean isUnenforcedPrimaryKey;
   private final int unenforcedPrimaryKeyPosition;
+  private final boolean isUnenforcedClusteringKey;
+  private final int unenforcedClusteringKeyPosition;
 
   LanceField(
       int id,
@@ -55,7 +58,9 @@ public class LanceField {
       Map<String, String> metadata,
       List<LanceField> children,
       boolean isUnenforcedPrimaryKey,
-      int unenforcedPrimaryKeyPosition) {
+      int unenforcedPrimaryKeyPosition,
+      boolean isUnenforcedClusteringKey,
+      int unenforcedClusteringKeyPosition) {
     this.id = id;
     this.parentId = parentId;
     this.name = name;
@@ -67,6 +72,8 @@ public class LanceField {
     this.children = children;
     this.isUnenforcedPrimaryKey = isUnenforcedPrimaryKey;
     this.unenforcedPrimaryKeyPosition = unenforcedPrimaryKeyPosition;
+    this.isUnenforcedClusteringKey = isUnenforcedClusteringKey;
+    this.unenforcedClusteringKeyPosition = unenforcedClusteringKeyPosition;
   }
 
   public int getId() {
@@ -121,6 +128,23 @@ public OptionalInt getUnenforcedPrimaryKeyPosition() {
     return OptionalInt.empty();
   }
 
+  /** Whether this field is part of the clustering key. */
+  public boolean isUnenforcedClusteringKey() {
+    return isUnenforcedClusteringKey;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get the position of this field within a composite clustering key.
+   *
+   * @return the 1-based position if explicitly set, or empty if using schema field id ordering
+   */
+  public OptionalInt getUnenforcedClusteringKeyPosition() {
+    if (unenforcedClusteringKeyPosition > 0) {
+      return OptionalInt.of(unenforcedClusteringKeyPosition);
+    }
+    return OptionalInt.empty();
+  }
+
   public Field asArrowField() {
     List<Field> arrowChildren =
         children.stream().map(LanceField::asArrowField).collect(Collectors.toList());
@@ -133,6 +157,25 @@ public Field asArrowField() {
         name, new FieldType(nullable, type, dictionaryEncoding, metadata), arrowChildren);
   }
 
+  Field asArrowFieldWithFieldIds() {
+    List<Field> arrowChildren =
+        children.stream().map(LanceField::asArrowFieldWithFieldIds).collect(Collectors.toList());
+
+    if (type instanceof ArrowType.FixedSizeList) {
+      arrowChildren.addAll(childrenForFixedSizeList());
+    }
+
+    if (id < 0) {
+      throw new IllegalStateException("Lance field id is required for schema override: " + name);
+    }
+    Map<String, String> metadataWithFieldId = new HashMap<>(metadata);
+    metadataWithFieldId.put(LanceSchema.LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY, Integer.toString(id));
+    return new Field(
+        name,
+        new FieldType(nullable, type, dictionaryEncoding, metadataWithFieldId),
+        arrowChildren);
+  }
+
   private List<Field> childrenForFixedSizeList() {
     if (logicalType == null || logicalType.isEmpty()) {
       return Collections.emptyList();
@@ -257,6 +300,7 @@ public String toString() {
         .add("children", children)
         .add("isUnenforcedPrimaryKey", isUnenforcedPrimaryKey)
         .add("unenforcedPrimaryKeyPosition", unenforcedPrimaryKeyPosition)
+        .add("unenforcedClusteringKeyPosition", unenforcedClusteringKeyPosition)
         .add("metadata", metadata)
         .toString();
   }
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/schema/LanceSchema.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/schema/LanceSchema.java
index 9df2e072b51..50a48e578af 100644
--- a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/schema/LanceSchema.java
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/schema/LanceSchema.java
@@ -17,11 +17,13 @@
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 
 import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Comparator;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
 
 public class LanceSchema {
+  static final String LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY = "lance:field_id";
   private final List<LanceField> fields;
   private final Map<String, String> metadata;
 
@@ -34,6 +36,30 @@ public List<LanceField> fields() {
     return fields;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Get the unenforced primary key fields, ordered by position.
+   *
+   * @return primary key fields sorted by their position value
+   */
+  public List<LanceField> getUnenforcedPrimaryKey() {
+    return fields.stream()
+        .filter(LanceField::isUnenforcedPrimaryKey)
+        .sorted(Comparator.comparingInt(f -> f.getUnenforcedPrimaryKeyPosition().orElse(0)))
+        .collect(Collectors.toList());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get the unenforced clustering key fields, ordered by position.
+   *
+   * @return clustering key fields sorted by their position value
+   */
+  public List<LanceField> getUnenforcedClusteringKey() {
+    return fields.stream()
+        .filter(LanceField::isUnenforcedClusteringKey)
+        .sorted(Comparator.comparingInt(f -> f.getUnenforcedClusteringKeyPosition().orElse(0)))
+        .collect(Collectors.toList());
+  }
+
   public Map<String, String> metadata() {
     return Collections.unmodifiableMap(metadata);
   }
@@ -43,6 +69,12 @@ public Schema asArrowSchema() {
         fields.stream().map(LanceField::asArrowField).collect(Collectors.toList()), metadata);
   }
 
+  public Schema asArrowSchemaWithFieldIds() {
+    return new Schema(
+        fields.stream().map(LanceField::asArrowFieldWithFieldIds).collect(Collectors.toList()),
+        metadata);
+  }
+
   @Override
   public String toString() {
     return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/update/UpdateParams.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/update/UpdateParams.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f82f893140b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/update/UpdateParams.java
@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.update;
+
+import org.lance.DataStorageVersion;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * Parameters describing an update operation.
+ *
+ * <p>An update operation is similar to SQL's {@code UPDATE} statement: each entry in {@link
+ * #updates()} maps a target column name to a SQL expression evaluated for every row that matches
+ * the optional {@link #whereClause()}.
+ *
+ * <p>The {@code where} clause accepts the dataset columns as well as the system columns {@code
+ * _rowid}, {@code _rowaddr}, and {@code _rowoffset}, which is useful for targeting specific rows by
+ * stable row id.
+ *
+ * <p><strong>Important:</strong> {@code _rowid} is only a <em>stable</em> identifier when the
+ * dataset was created with {@code WriteParams.Builder().withEnableStableRowIds(true)}. Without
+ * stable row ids, {@code _rowid} is a positional id that can shift across compaction, deletion, or
+ * re-insertion. Targeting rows by an unstable {@code _rowid} in {@link #withWhere(String)} can
+ * silently update the wrong rows.
+ */
+public class UpdateParams {
+  // Defaults are kept in sync with the Rust core defaults declared on
+  // `lance::dataset::UpdateBuilder` (`conflict_retries = 10`,
+  // `retry_timeout = 30s`). When the Rust defaults change, update both sides.
+  private static final int DEFAULT_CONFLICT_RETRIES = 10;
+  private static final long DEFAULT_RETRY_TIMEOUT_MS = 30_000L;
+
+  private final Map<String, String> updates;
+  private Optional<String> whereClause = Optional.empty();
+  private Optional<DataStorageVersion> dataStorageVersion = Optional.empty();
+  private int conflictRetries = DEFAULT_CONFLICT_RETRIES;
+  private long retryTimeoutMs = DEFAULT_RETRY_TIMEOUT_MS;
+
+  public UpdateParams(Map<String, String> updates) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(updates, "updates must not be null");
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(!updates.isEmpty(), "updates must not be empty");
+    this.updates = new HashMap<>(updates);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Restrict the update to rows matching the given SQL predicate.
+   *
+   * <p>The predicate is evaluated against the dataset schema augmented with the system columns
+   * {@code _rowid}, {@code _rowaddr}, and {@code _rowoffset}.
+   *
+   * <p>When matching rows by {@code _rowid}, the dataset must have been created with stable row ids
+   * enabled (see the class-level Javadoc); otherwise the predicate may silently target the wrong
+   * rows.
+   *
+   * @param whereClause SQL predicate, e.g. {@code "id = 1"} or {@code "_rowid IN (1, 2, 3)"}.
+   * @return This UpdateParams instance.
+   */
+  public UpdateParams withWhere(String whereClause) {
+    Preconditions.checkNotNull(whereClause, "whereClause must not be null");
+    this.whereClause = Optional.of(whereClause);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set number of times to retry the operation if there is contention.
+   *
+   * <p>Default mirrors the Rust core default ({@value #DEFAULT_CONFLICT_RETRIES}).
+   *
+   * @param retries Number of times to retry the operation if there is contention.
+   * @return This UpdateParams instance.
+   */
+  public UpdateParams withConflictRetries(int retries) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(retries >= 0, "retries must be non-negative");
+    this.conflictRetries = retries;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the timeout in milliseconds used to limit retries.
+   *
+   * <p>This is the maximum time to spend on the operation before giving up. At least one attempt
+   * will be made, regardless of how long it takes to complete. Default mirrors the Rust core
+   * default ({@value #DEFAULT_RETRY_TIMEOUT_MS} ms).
+   *
+   * @param timeoutMs Timeout in milliseconds used to limit retries.
+   * @return This UpdateParams instance.
+   */
+  public UpdateParams withRetryTimeoutMs(long timeoutMs) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(timeoutMs >= 0, "timeoutMs must be non-negative");
+    this.retryTimeoutMs = timeoutMs;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set the exact data storage version for files written by this operation.
+   *
+   * <p>If omitted, the dataset's default write version is used without changing it. Release
+   * selectors are resolved by the engine. V1/V2 cross-family targets are rejected.
+   */
+  public UpdateParams withDataStorageVersion(DataStorageVersion version) {
+    this.dataStorageVersion = Optional.of(Preconditions.checkNotNull(version));
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns an unmodifiable view of the update expressions. */
+  public Map<String, String> updates() {
+    return Collections.unmodifiableMap(updates);
+  }
+
+  public Optional<String> whereClause() {
+    return whereClause;
+  }
+
+  public int conflictRetries() {
+    return conflictRetries;
+  }
+
+  public long retryTimeoutMs() {
+    return retryTimeoutMs;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the version selector as its string value for the native layer. */
+  public Optional<String> getDataStorageVersion() {
+    return dataStorageVersion.map(DataStorageVersion::toRustString);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("updates", updates)
+        .add("whereClause", whereClause.orElse(null))
+        .add("conflictRetries", conflictRetries)
+        .add("retryTimeoutMs", retryTimeoutMs)
+        .add("dataStorageVersion", dataStorageVersion.orElse(null))
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/main/java/org/lance/update/UpdateResult.java b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/update/UpdateResult.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b6122e69285
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/main/java/org/lance/update/UpdateResult.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.update;
+
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+
+import com.google.common.base.MoreObjects;
+
+/**
+ * Result of {@link org.lance.Dataset#update(UpdateParams)}.
+ *
+ * <p>Contains the new {@link Dataset} produced by the commit and the number of rows affected.
+ */
+public final class UpdateResult {
+  private final Dataset dataset;
+  private final long numRowsUpdated;
+  // Snapshot the dataset identity at construction time so toString() stays safe to call after the
+  // caller has closed the dataset (closed datasets reject native uri()/version() calls).
+  private final String datasetUri;
+  private final long datasetVersion;
+
+  public UpdateResult(Dataset dataset, long numRowsUpdated) {
+    this.dataset = dataset;
+    this.numRowsUpdated = numRowsUpdated;
+    this.datasetUri = dataset.uri();
+    this.datasetVersion = dataset.version();
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the new dataset reflecting the committed update. */
+  public Dataset getDataset() {
+    return dataset;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns the number of rows that matched the predicate and were updated. */
+  public long getNumRowsUpdated() {
+    return numRowsUpdated;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    // Use the snapshot taken at construction time; the caller may have already closed `dataset`.
+    return MoreObjects.toStringHelper(this)
+        .add("datasetUri", datasetUri)
+        .add("datasetVersion", datasetVersion)
+        .add("numRowsUpdated", numRowsUpdated)
+        .toString();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/AsyncScannerTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/AsyncScannerTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5b75a22cee2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/AsyncScannerTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,727 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.index.IndexOptions;
+import org.lance.index.IndexParams;
+import org.lance.index.IndexType;
+import org.lance.index.scalar.ScalarIndexParams;
+import org.lance.ipc.AsyncScanner;
+import org.lance.ipc.MaterializationStyle;
+import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.AfterAll;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeAll;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+
+import java.io.BufferedReader;
+import java.io.InputStreamReader;
+import java.lang.reflect.Constructor;
+import java.lang.reflect.Field;
+import java.lang.reflect.Method;
+import java.net.URL;
+import java.net.URLClassLoader;
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.concurrent.CompletableFuture;
+import java.util.concurrent.CompletionException;
+import java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentHashMap;
+import java.util.concurrent.ExecutorService;
+import java.util.concurrent.Executors;
+import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
+import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+/**
+ * Example tests demonstrating AsyncScanner usage with CompletableFuture-based API.
+ *
+ * <p>AsyncScanner provides non-blocking scan operations that prevent thread starvation in Java
+ * query engines like Presto/Trino.
+ */
+public class AsyncScannerTest {
+  private static Dataset dataset;
+
+  @BeforeAll
+  static void setup() {}
+
+  @AfterAll
+  static void tearDown() {
+    if (dataset != null) {
+      dataset.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+  void testNativeScanFailureUsesLanceException() throws Exception {
+    Constructor<AsyncScanner> constructor = AsyncScanner.class.getDeclaredConstructor();
+    constructor.setAccessible(true);
+    AsyncScanner scanner = constructor.newInstance();
+
+    Field pendingTasksField = AsyncScanner.class.getDeclaredField("pendingTasks");
+    pendingTasksField.setAccessible(true);
+    ConcurrentHashMap<Long, CompletableFuture<Long>> pendingTasks =
+        (ConcurrentHashMap<Long, CompletableFuture<Long>>) pendingTasksField.get(scanner);
+    CompletableFuture<Long> pendingTask = new CompletableFuture<>();
+    pendingTasks.put(1L, pendingTask);
+
+    Method failTask = AsyncScanner.class.getDeclaredMethod("failTask", long.class, String.class);
+    failTask.setAccessible(true);
+    failTask.invoke(scanner, 1L, "scan I/O failed");
+
+    CompletionException failure = assertThrows(CompletionException.class, pendingTask::join);
+    assertEquals(LanceException.class, failure.getCause().getClass());
+    assertEquals("scan I/O failed", failure.getCause().getMessage());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Example 1: Basic async scan with CompletableFuture.
+   *
+   * <p>This shows the simplest usage - create an async scanner and wait for results.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testBasicAsyncScan(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_basic").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      int totalRows = 40;
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, totalRows)) {
+        // Create AsyncScanner with same options as LanceScanner
+        ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(20L).build();
+
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)) {
+          // Start async scan - returns CompletableFuture<ArrowReader>
+          CompletableFuture<ArrowReader> future = scanner.scanBatchesAsync();
+
+          // Wait for result (blocks current thread, but doesn't block Rust I/O threads)
+          ArrowReader reader = future.get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+          assertNotNull(reader);
+
+          // Read all batches
+          int rowCount = 0;
+          while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            rowCount += root.getRowCount();
+          }
+
+          assertEquals(totalRows, rowCount, "Should read all rows");
+          reader.close();
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Example 2: Async scan with filter.
+   *
+   * <p>Shows how to use async scanner with SQL-like filters.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testAsyncScanWithFilter(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_filter").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        // Scan with filter - only rows where id < 20
+        ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder().filter("id < 20").build();
+
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)) {
+          CompletableFuture<ArrowReader> future = scanner.scanBatchesAsync();
+
+          ArrowReader reader = future.get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+          int rowCount = 0;
+          while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            rowCount += root.getRowCount();
+          }
+
+          assertEquals(20, rowCount, "Should read only filtered rows");
+          reader.close();
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testAsyncScanWithPerformanceOptions(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_performance_options").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        ScanOptions options =
+            new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                .filter("id < 20")
+                .batchSize(10)
+                .batchSizeBytes(1024)
+                .ioBufferSize(1024 * 1024)
+                .batchReadahead(2)
+                .fragmentReadahead(2)
+                .scanInOrder(false)
+                .lateMaterialization(MaterializationStyle.allEarly())
+                .build();
+
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator);
+            ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatchesAsync().get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS)) {
+          assertEquals(20, countRows(reader));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testFastSearchSkipsUnindexedFragments(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_fast_search_scalar_index").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 100)) {
+        ScalarIndexParams scalarParams = ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
+        IndexOptions indexOptions =
+            IndexOptions.builder(Collections.singletonList("id"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
+                .withIndexName("id_btree_index")
+                .replace(true)
+                .build();
+        dataset.createIndex(indexOptions);
+
+        FragmentMetadata metadata = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+        FragmentOperation.Append appendOp =
+            new FragmentOperation.Append(Collections.singletonList(metadata));
+        try (Dataset appended =
+            Dataset.commit(allocator, datasetPath, appendOp, Optional.of(dataset.version()))) {
+          ScanOptions normalOptions = new ScanOptions.Builder().filter("id < 5").build();
+          try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(appended, normalOptions, allocator)) {
+            ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatchesAsync().get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+            assertEquals(10, countRows(reader));
+            reader.close();
+          }
+
+          ScanOptions fastOptions =
+              new ScanOptions.Builder().filter("id < 5").fastSearch(true).build();
+          try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(appended, fastOptions, allocator)) {
+            ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatchesAsync().get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+            assertEquals(5, countRows(reader));
+            reader.close();
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static int countRows(ArrowReader reader) throws Exception {
+    int rowCount = 0;
+    while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+      rowCount += reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getRowCount();
+    }
+    return rowCount;
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testIncludeDeletedRowsAsync(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_include_deleted_rows").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 10)) {
+        assertEquals(10, dataset.countRows());
+
+        // Delete half the rows
+        dataset.delete("id >= 5");
+        assertEquals(5, dataset.countRows());
+
+        // Async scan without includeDeletedRows — should only see live rows
+        ScanOptions defaultOptions = new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(20L).build();
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, defaultOptions, allocator)) {
+          ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatchesAsync().get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+          assertEquals(5, countRows(reader), "default async scan: should exclude deleted rows");
+          reader.close();
+        }
+
+        // Async scan with includeDeletedRows=true — should see all rows
+        ScanOptions includeDeletedOptions =
+            new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                .batchSize(20L)
+                .withRowId(true) // required by includeDeletedRows
+                .includeDeletedRows(true)
+                .build();
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner =
+            AsyncScanner.create(dataset, includeDeletedOptions, allocator)) {
+          ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatchesAsync().get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+          assertEquals(
+              10, countRows(reader), "includeDeletedRows async: should include deleted rows");
+          reader.close();
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testStrictBatchSizeAsync(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_strict_batch_size").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 25)) {
+        int batchSize = 10;
+
+        ScanOptions strictOptions =
+            new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(batchSize).strictBatchSize(true).build();
+
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, strictOptions, allocator)) {
+          ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatchesAsync().get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+          int totalRows = 0;
+          while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+            int rows = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getRowCount();
+            assertTrue(
+                rows <= batchSize, "strict async: batch " + rows + " should be <= " + batchSize);
+            totalRows += rows;
+          }
+          assertEquals(25, totalRows, "strictBatchSize async: should read all rows");
+          reader.close();
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Example 3: Multiple concurrent async scans.
+   *
+   * <p>Shows how to run multiple scans in parallel without blocking threads. This is the key
+   * benefit for query engines like Presto/Trino.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testConcurrentAsyncScans(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_concurrent").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      int totalRows = 100;
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, totalRows)) {
+        // Create 5 concurrent scans with different filters
+        List<CompletableFuture<Integer>> futures = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+          final int rangeStart = i * 20;
+          final int rangeEnd = rangeStart + 20;
+          String filter = String.format("id >= %d AND id < %d", rangeStart, rangeEnd);
+
+          ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder().filter(filter).build();
+
+          AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator);
+
+          // Chain async operations: scan -> read -> count rows -> cleanup
+          CompletableFuture<Integer> future =
+              scanner
+                  .scanBatchesAsync()
+                  .thenApply(
+                      reader -> {
+                        try {
+                          int count = 0;
+                          while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+                            count += reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getRowCount();
+                          }
+                          reader.close();
+                          scanner.close();
+                          return count;
+                        } catch (Exception e) {
+                          throw new RuntimeException(e);
+                        }
+                      });
+
+          futures.add(future);
+        }
+
+        // Wait for all scans to complete
+        CompletableFuture<Void> allDone =
+            CompletableFuture.allOf(futures.toArray(new CompletableFuture[0]));
+        allDone.get(30, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+
+        // Verify each scan read the expected number of rows
+        for (CompletableFuture<Integer> future : futures) {
+          assertEquals(20, future.get(), "Each range should have 20 rows");
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Example 4: Async scan with error handling.
+   *
+   * <p>Shows how to handle errors in async operations.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testAsyncScanErrorHandling(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_error").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder().build();
+
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)) {
+          CompletableFuture<ArrowReader> future =
+              scanner
+                  .scanBatchesAsync()
+                  .whenComplete(
+                      (reader, error) -> {
+                        if (error != null) {
+                          // Handle error
+                          System.err.println("Scan failed: " + error.getMessage());
+                        } else {
+                          // Process successful result
+                          assertNotNull(reader);
+                        }
+                      });
+
+          ArrowReader reader = future.get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+          assertNotNull(reader);
+          reader.close();
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Example 5: Async scan with projection (column selection).
+   *
+   * <p>Shows how to select specific columns for better performance.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testAsyncScanWithProjection(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_projection").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        // Select only "id" column
+        ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(List.of("id")).build();
+
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)) {
+          CompletableFuture<ArrowReader> future = scanner.scanBatchesAsync();
+
+          ArrowReader reader = future.get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+
+          // Verify schema has only one column
+          assertEquals(1, reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getFieldVectors().size());
+          assertEquals("id", reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getVector(0).getName());
+
+          reader.close();
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Regression test for classloader isolation.
+   *
+   * <p>Verifies that AsyncScanner works correctly when the calling thread has an isolated
+   * (non-system) context classloader, simulating environments like Spark executors, web containers,
+   * or shaded JARs where application classes are loaded by a custom classloader.
+   *
+   * <p>The fix under test moved class resolution from the JNI dispatcher thread (which only has the
+   * system classloader after attach_current_thread_permanently()) to JNI_OnLoad (which has the
+   * correct application classloader), passing a GlobalRef to the dispatcher.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testAsyncScanWithIsolatedClassloader(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_classloader").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      int totalRows = 40;
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, totalRows)) {
+        ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(20L).build();
+
+        // Use a classloader that delegates only to the bootstrap classloader,
+        // making it unable to find any org.lance.* classes on its own.
+        ClassLoader originalCl = Thread.currentThread().getContextClassLoader();
+        ClassLoader restrictedCl = new ClassLoader(null) {
+              // Intentionally empty: parent is null (bootstrap only)
+            };
+
+        // --- Part 1: Swap context classloader on the current thread ---
+        try {
+          Thread.currentThread().setContextClassLoader(restrictedCl);
+
+          try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)) {
+            CompletableFuture<ArrowReader> future = scanner.scanBatchesAsync();
+            ArrowReader reader = future.get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+            assertNotNull(reader);
+
+            int rowCount = 0;
+            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              rowCount += root.getRowCount();
+            }
+
+            assertEquals(
+                totalRows, rowCount, "Async scan should succeed despite restrictive classloader");
+            reader.close();
+          }
+        } finally {
+          Thread.currentThread().setContextClassLoader(originalCl);
+        }
+
+        // --- Part 2: Run from a thread with an isolated classloader ---
+        // Simulates Spark executor threads that have a non-system classloader.
+        ExecutorService isolatedExecutor =
+            Executors.newSingleThreadExecutor(
+                r -> {
+                  Thread t = new Thread(r, "isolated-classloader-thread");
+                  t.setContextClassLoader(restrictedCl);
+                  return t;
+                });
+        try {
+          CompletableFuture<Integer> result =
+              CompletableFuture.supplyAsync(
+                  () -> {
+                    try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)) {
+                      CompletableFuture<ArrowReader> future = scanner.scanBatchesAsync();
+                      ArrowReader reader = future.get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+                      int rowCount = 0;
+                      while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+                        rowCount += reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getRowCount();
+                      }
+                      reader.close();
+                      return rowCount;
+                    } catch (Exception e) {
+                      throw new RuntimeException(e);
+                    }
+                  },
+                  isolatedExecutor);
+
+          assertEquals(
+              totalRows,
+              result.get(15, TimeUnit.SECONDS),
+              "Async scan from isolated classloader thread should succeed");
+        } finally {
+          isolatedExecutor.shutdown();
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Example 6: Using thenCompose for sequential async operations.
+   *
+   * <p>Shows how to chain multiple async operations together.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testAsyncChaining(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("async_scanner_chaining").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder().build();
+
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)) {
+          // Chain operations: scan -> read first batch -> extract values
+          CompletableFuture<List<Integer>> future =
+              scanner
+                  .scanBatchesAsync()
+                  .thenApply(
+                      reader -> {
+                        try {
+                          List<Integer> values = new ArrayList<>();
+                          if (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+                            VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                            IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+                            for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++) {
+                              values.add(idVector.get(i));
+                            }
+                          }
+                          reader.close();
+                          return values;
+                        } catch (Exception e) {
+                          throw new RuntimeException(e);
+                        }
+                      });
+
+          List<Integer> values = future.get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+          assertTrue(values.size() > 0, "Should read some values");
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Regression test: reproduce the JNI classloader bug via a forked JVM.
+   *
+   * <p>Launches a child JVM where only {@code target/test-classes/} is on the system classpath. All
+   * lance classes are loaded by an isolated {@link URLClassLoader} with a null parent (bootstrap
+   * classloader only). This means JNI's {@code FindClass} on a native thread attached via {@code
+   * attach_current_thread_permanently()} will use the system classloader, which <b>cannot</b> find
+   * {@code org.lance.ipc.AsyncScanner}.
+   *
+   * <p>With the fix, {@code JNI_OnLoad} pre-resolves the class on the loading thread (which has the
+   * correct classloader) and passes a {@code GlobalRef} to the dispatcher — so the dispatcher never
+   * calls {@code FindClass}.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testClassloaderIsolationWithForkedJvm(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    // --- Collect full classpath from the current classloader hierarchy ---
+    List<String> classpathEntries = new ArrayList<>();
+    ClassLoader cl = Thread.currentThread().getContextClassLoader();
+    if (cl == null) {
+      cl = AsyncScannerTest.class.getClassLoader();
+    }
+    while (cl != null) {
+      if (cl instanceof URLClassLoader) {
+        for (URL url : ((URLClassLoader) cl).getURLs()) {
+          classpathEntries.add(url.getPath());
+        }
+      }
+      cl = cl.getParent();
+    }
+
+    // Fallback: if no URLClassLoader found (Java 9+ AppClassLoader), use java.class.path
+    if (classpathEntries.isEmpty()) {
+      String cp = System.getProperty("java.class.path");
+      if (cp != null) {
+        for (String entry : cp.split(java.io.File.pathSeparator)) {
+          classpathEntries.add(entry);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Find the test-classes directory
+    String testClassesDir = null;
+    for (String entry : classpathEntries) {
+      if (entry.contains("test-classes")) {
+        testClassesDir = entry;
+        break;
+      }
+    }
+    assertNotNull(testClassesDir, "Could not find test-classes directory in classpath");
+
+    // Full classpath for the isolated URLClassLoader inside the forked JVM
+    String fullClasspath = String.join(java.io.File.pathSeparator, classpathEntries);
+
+    // --- Build the forked JVM command ---
+    String javaHome = System.getProperty("java.home");
+    String javaBin = javaHome + java.io.File.separator + "bin" + java.io.File.separator + "java";
+
+    List<String> command = new ArrayList<>();
+    command.add(javaBin);
+
+    // Add --add-opens flags matching surefire config (required by Arrow/Netty)
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/java.lang=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/java.lang.invoke=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/java.lang.reflect=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/java.io=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/java.net=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/java.nio=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/java.util=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/java.util.concurrent=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/java.util.concurrent.atomic=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/jdk.internal.ref=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/sun.nio.ch=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/sun.nio.cs=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/sun.security.action=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.base/sun.util.calendar=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("--add-opens=java.security.jgss/sun.security.krb5=ALL-UNNAMED");
+    command.add("-XX:+IgnoreUnrecognizedVMOptions");
+    command.add("-Dio.netty.tryReflectionSetAccessible=true");
+
+    // System classpath: ONLY test-classes (no lance main classes)
+    command.add("-cp");
+    command.add(testClassesDir);
+
+    command.add("org.lance.ClassloaderBugBootstrap");
+    command.add(fullClasspath);
+    command.add(tempDir.toString());
+
+    ProcessBuilder pb = new ProcessBuilder(command);
+    pb.redirectErrorStream(false);
+
+    Process process = pb.start();
+
+    // Read stdout and stderr concurrently to avoid deadlock when buffers fill
+    CompletableFuture<String> stderrFuture =
+        CompletableFuture.supplyAsync(
+            () -> {
+              try (BufferedReader errReader =
+                  new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(process.getErrorStream()))) {
+                return errReader.lines().collect(Collectors.joining("\n"));
+              } catch (Exception e) {
+                return "Failed to read stderr: " + e.getMessage();
+              }
+            });
+
+    String stdout;
+    try (BufferedReader outReader =
+        new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(process.getInputStream()))) {
+      stdout = outReader.lines().collect(Collectors.joining("\n"));
+    }
+
+    String stderr = stderrFuture.get(60, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+
+    boolean exited = process.waitFor(60, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+    assertTrue(exited, "Forked JVM did not exit within 60 seconds");
+
+    int exitCode = process.exitValue();
+    assertEquals(
+        0,
+        exitCode,
+        "Forked JVM exited with code "
+            + exitCode
+            + "\n--- stdout ---\n"
+            + stdout
+            + "\n--- stderr ---\n"
+            + stderr);
+    assertTrue(
+        stdout.contains("SUCCESS"),
+        "Expected SUCCESS in stdout but got:\n--- stdout ---\n"
+            + stdout
+            + "\n--- stderr ---\n"
+            + stderr);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ClassloaderBugBootstrap.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ClassloaderBugBootstrap.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7eef8cb6115
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ClassloaderBugBootstrap.java
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import java.io.File;
+import java.lang.reflect.Method;
+import java.net.URL;
+import java.net.URLClassLoader;
+
+/**
+ * Standalone bootstrap for the forked-JVM classloader bug test.
+ *
+ * <p>This class has <b>zero</b> lance imports. It lives on the forked JVM's system classpath
+ * ({@code target/test-classes/} only). All lance classes are loaded through an isolated {@link
+ * URLClassLoader} whose parent is {@code null} (bootstrap classloader), so the JVM's system
+ * classloader cannot see them.
+ *
+ * <p>Usage: {@code java -cp target/test-classes org.lance.ClassloaderBugBootstrap <full-classpath>
+ * <temp-dir>}
+ *
+ * <p>Exit code 0 + "SUCCESS" on stdout = pass; non-zero = failure.
+ */
+public class ClassloaderBugBootstrap {
+
+  public static void main(String[] args) {
+    if (args.length < 2) {
+      System.err.println("Usage: ClassloaderBugBootstrap <classpath> <tempDir>");
+      System.exit(2);
+    }
+
+    String classpath = args[0];
+    String tempDir = args[1];
+
+    try {
+      // Build URL array from the full classpath
+      String[] entries = classpath.split(File.pathSeparator);
+      URL[] urls = new URL[entries.length];
+      for (int i = 0; i < entries.length; i++) {
+        urls[i] = new File(entries[i]).toURI().toURL();
+      }
+
+      // Parent is null => only bootstrap classloader is the parent.
+      // The system classloader (which only has target/test-classes/) is bypassed.
+      URLClassLoader isolatedCl = new URLClassLoader(urls, null);
+
+      // Set as context classloader for consistency
+      Thread.currentThread().setContextClassLoader(isolatedCl);
+
+      // Load and invoke the helper class through the isolated classloader
+      Class<?> helperClass = Class.forName("org.lance.ClassloaderBugHelper", true, isolatedCl);
+      Method runMethod = helperClass.getMethod("run", String.class);
+      runMethod.invoke(null, tempDir);
+
+      // Force exit: the JNI dispatcher thread is non-daemon and would keep the JVM alive
+      System.exit(0);
+
+    } catch (Throwable t) {
+      System.err.println("ClassloaderBugBootstrap FAILED:");
+      t.printStackTrace(System.err);
+      System.exit(1);
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ClassloaderBugHelper.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ClassloaderBugHelper.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1e57a5afa45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ClassloaderBugHelper.java
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.ipc.AsyncScanner;
+import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+
+import java.util.concurrent.CompletableFuture;
+import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
+
+/**
+ * Helper loaded by the isolated {@link java.net.URLClassLoader} in the forked JVM.
+ *
+ * <p>This class has normal lance imports. It is <b>not</b> on the system classpath of the forked
+ * JVM — the system classloader cannot find it (or any other {@code org.lance.*} class). Only the
+ * isolated classloader can.
+ *
+ * <p>If the JNI dispatcher thread tries to {@code FindClass("org/lance/ipc/AsyncScanner")} after
+ * {@code attach_current_thread_permanently()}, it will use the system classloader and fail —
+ * reproducing the bug. With the fix, the class is pre-resolved in {@code JNI_OnLoad} (which runs on
+ * a thread with the correct classloader) and passed as a {@code GlobalRef}.
+ */
+public class ClassloaderBugHelper {
+
+  /**
+   * Entry point invoked reflectively from {@link ClassloaderBugBootstrap}.
+   *
+   * @param tempDir temporary directory for the lance dataset
+   */
+  public static void run(String tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir + "/classloader_bug_test";
+
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      int totalRows = 40;
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, totalRows)) {
+        ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(20L).build();
+
+        try (AsyncScanner scanner = AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)) {
+          CompletableFuture<ArrowReader> future = scanner.scanBatchesAsync();
+
+          // Use a generous timeout — the bug causes the dispatcher thread to panic,
+          // so the future will never complete.
+          ArrowReader reader = future.get(30, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+
+          int rowCount = 0;
+          while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            rowCount += root.getRowCount();
+          }
+          reader.close();
+
+          if (rowCount != totalRows) {
+            throw new AssertionError("Expected " + totalRows + " rows but got " + rowCount);
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Signal success to the parent process
+    System.out.println("SUCCESS");
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CleanupTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CleanupTest.java
index 56955122ca0..f3f3638fc51 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CleanupTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CleanupTest.java
@@ -13,17 +13,27 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.cleanup.CleanupExplanation;
 import org.lance.cleanup.CleanupPolicy;
 import org.lance.cleanup.RemovalStats;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assumptions;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
 
+import java.io.IOException;
+import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.nio.file.attribute.PosixFilePermission;
+import java.time.Duration;
+import java.util.EnumSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 public class CleanupTest {
   @Test
@@ -42,6 +52,68 @@ public void testCleanupBeforeVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
         RemovalStats stats =
             dataset.cleanupWithPolicy(CleanupPolicy.builder().withBeforeVersion(3L).build());
         assertEquals(2L, stats.getOldVersions());
+        assertEquals(0L, stats.getDataFilesRemoved());
+        assertEquals(2L, stats.getTransactionFilesRemoved());
+        assertEquals(0L, stats.getIndexFilesRemoved());
+        assertEquals(0L, stats.getDeletionFilesRemoved());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCleanupSpecificVersions(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("test_dataset_for_cleanup").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      testDataset.write(2, 10).close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(3, 10)) {
+        assertEquals(4, dataset.listVersions().size());
+
+        RemovalStats stats =
+            dataset.cleanupWithPolicy(CleanupPolicy.builder().withVersions(List.of(2L)).build());
+
+        assertEquals(1L, stats.getOldVersions());
+        assertEquals(3, dataset.listVersions().size());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listVersions().stream().noneMatch(version -> version.getId() == 2L));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testExplainCleanupBeforeVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("test_dataset_for_cleanup").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      testDataset.write(2, 10).close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(3, 10)) {
+        CleanupPolicy policy = CleanupPolicy.builder().withBeforeVersion(3L).build();
+        CleanupOperation cleanup = dataset.cleanup(policy);
+        CleanupExplanation explanation = cleanup.explain();
+
+        assertEquals(2L, explanation.getStats().getOldVersions());
+        assertEquals(2L, explanation.getStats().getTransactionFilesRemoved());
+        assertTrue(explanation.getStats().getBytesRemoved() > 0);
+        assertTrue(explanation.getReadVersion() > 0);
+        assertTrue(explanation.getCandidateFiles().size() > 0);
+        assertTrue(explanation.getReferencedBranches().isEmpty());
+
+        List<Version> versions = dataset.listVersions();
+        assertEquals(4, versions.size());
+
+        RemovalStats stats = cleanup.execute();
+        assertEquals(explanation.getStats().getOldVersions(), stats.getOldVersions());
       }
     }
   }
@@ -110,4 +182,138 @@ public void testCleanupTaggedVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
       }
     }
   }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testExplainCleanupWithMaxCandidateFiles(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("test_dataset_for_cleanup").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      testDataset.write(2, 10).close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(3, 10)) {
+        CleanupPolicy policy = CleanupPolicy.builder().withBeforeVersion(3L).build();
+        CleanupExplanation full = dataset.cleanup(policy).explain();
+        assertTrue(full.getCandidateFiles().size() > 1);
+        assertEquals(1000L, full.getCandidateFileLimit());
+
+        CleanupExplanation truncated = dataset.cleanup(policy).withMaxCandidateFiles(1L).explain();
+        assertEquals(1L, truncated.getCandidateFileLimit());
+        assertEquals(1, truncated.getCandidateFiles().size());
+        assertTrue(truncated.isCandidateFilesTruncated());
+        assertTrue(!truncated.getWarnings().isEmpty());
+        // Aggregate stats stay accurate even when the per-file list is truncated.
+        assertEquals(full.getStats().getOldVersions(), truncated.getStats().getOldVersions());
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () -> dataset.cleanup(policy).withMaxCandidateFiles(0L));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCleanupWithRateLimit(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("test_dataset_for_cleanup").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 100).close();
+      testDataset.write(2, 100).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(3, 100)) {
+        List<Version> versions = dataset.listVersions();
+        assertEquals(4, versions.size());
+        long beforeTimestampMillis =
+            versions.get(versions.size() - 1).getDataTime().toInstant().toEpochMilli() + 1;
+        long start = System.nanoTime();
+        RemovalStats stats =
+            dataset.cleanupWithPolicy(
+                CleanupPolicy.builder()
+                    .withBeforeTimestampMillis(beforeTimestampMillis)
+                    .withDeleteRateLimit(1L)
+                    .build());
+        long elapsed = System.nanoTime() - start;
+
+        assertEquals(3L, stats.getOldVersions());
+        assertTrue(stats.getBytesRemoved() > 0);
+        assertTrue(elapsed >= Duration.ofSeconds(2).toNanos());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testFailedDeletesReachesJavaAcrossJni(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    // Best-effort deletion makes failedDeletes the only programmatic signal that cleanup
+    // returned normally without removing everything it identified. Asserting it is zero on
+    // a successful run would prove nothing: the six-argument constructor defaults it to
+    // zero, so a JNI projection that dropped the field would still pass. The value has to
+    // be non-zero, which means a delete has to genuinely fail.
+    //
+    // Removing a file needs write permission on its parent, so making _transactions
+    // read-only fails exactly those deletes while the manifest deletes still succeed.
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("test_dataset_for_failed_deletes").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      testDataset.write(2, 10).close();
+
+      Path transactions = Path.of(datasetPath, "_transactions");
+      assertTrue(Files.isDirectory(transactions), "expected a _transactions directory");
+      Set<PosixFilePermission> original = Files.getPosixFilePermissions(transactions);
+
+      // Every write lands a transaction file, so the directory stays writable until the
+      // last version is committed and only then becomes read-only.
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(3, 10)) {
+        Files.setPosixFilePermissions(
+            transactions,
+            EnumSet.of(PosixFilePermission.OWNER_READ, PosixFilePermission.OWNER_EXECUTE));
+        try {
+          // Root ignores these bits, so confirm deletion is really blocked before relying
+          // on it; otherwise this asserts nothing and should skip rather than fail.
+          Path probe = transactions.resolve("permission-probe");
+          boolean blocked;
+          try {
+            Files.createFile(probe);
+            Files.deleteIfExists(probe);
+            blocked = false;
+          } catch (IOException expected) {
+            blocked = true;
+          }
+          Assumptions.assumeTrue(blocked, "filesystem permissions do not block deletion here");
+
+          RemovalStats stats =
+              dataset.cleanupWithPolicy(CleanupPolicy.builder().withBeforeVersion(3L).build());
+
+          // The call returns normally rather than throwing, and reports what it could not
+          // remove. Both halves matter: the old behaviour discarded the whole sweep.
+          assertTrue(
+              stats.getFailedDeletes() > 0,
+              "expected the blocked transaction deletes to be counted, got "
+                  + stats.getFailedDeletes());
+          assertTrue(stats.getOldVersions() > 0, "the sweep must continue past a failed delete");
+        } finally {
+          Files.setPosixFilePermissions(transactions, original);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testRemovalStatsCarriesFailedDeletes() {
+    RemovalStats stats = new RemovalStats(1L, 2L, 3L, 4L, 5L, 6L, 7L);
+    assertEquals(7L, stats.getFailedDeletes());
+
+    // The pre-existing six-argument constructor stays source compatible and defaults to
+    // zero, so callers that predate best-effort deletion keep compiling.
+    assertEquals(0L, new RemovalStats(1L, 2L, 3L, 4L, 5L, 6L).getFailedDeletes());
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CommitBuilderStorageFormatTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CommitBuilderStorageFormatTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..06c8a3e1abe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CommitBuilderStorageFormatTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.operation.Append;
+import org.lance.operation.Delete;
+import org.lance.operation.OperationTestBase;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+public class CommitBuilderStorageFormatTest extends OperationTestBase {
+
+  /**
+   * Append to a freshly created (2.2) dataset with the given storage format and return the
+   * committed dataset's format version.
+   */
+  private String commitWithStorageFormat(String datasetPath, String storageFormat)
+      throws Exception {
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+      FragmentMetadata fragment = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragment)).build())
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset committed =
+            new CommitBuilder(dataset).storageFormat(storageFormat).execute(txn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, committed.version());
+          return committed.getLanceFileFormatVersion();
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * The numeric versions are what {@link Dataset#getLanceFileFormatVersion()} returns and what
+   * {@link WriteParams.Builder#withDataStorageVersion(String)} accepts, so they must work here too
+   * — a caller that encodes fragments as "2.2" has to be able to commit them as "2.2".
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testCanonicalVersionAccepted(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    assertEquals(
+        LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_2,
+        commitWithStorageFormat(
+            tempDir.resolve("canonical").toString(), LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_2));
+  }
+
+  /** The "v"-prefixed spelling shipped in this method's Javadoc and stays accepted. */
+  @Test
+  void testDeprecatedAliasAccepted(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    assertEquals(
+        LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_2,
+        commitWithStorageFormat(tempDir.resolve("alias").toString(), "v2_2"));
+  }
+
+  /** Row-level operations preserve the dataset default regardless of the supplied format. */
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @ValueSource(strings = {"2.1", "2.2"})
+  void testRowLevelOperationPreservesDefault(String storageFormat, @TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("mismatch").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+      FragmentMetadata fragment = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+      try (Transaction appendTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragment)).build())
+              .build()) {
+        dataset = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(appendTxn);
+      }
+      assertEquals(LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_2, dataset.getLanceFileFormatVersion());
+
+      List<Long> fragmentIds =
+          dataset.getFragments().stream()
+              .map(f -> Long.valueOf(f.getId()))
+              .collect(Collectors.toList());
+
+      try (Transaction deleteTxn = deleteAll(fragmentIds)) {
+        try (Dataset deleted =
+            new CommitBuilder(dataset).storageFormat(storageFormat).execute(deleteTxn)) {
+          assertEquals(0, deleted.countRows());
+          assertEquals(LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_2, deleted.getLanceFileFormatVersion());
+          assertEquals(10, dataset.countRows());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private Transaction deleteAll(List<Long> fragmentIds) {
+    return new Transaction.Builder()
+        .readVersion(dataset.version())
+        .operation(Delete.builder().deletedFragmentIds(fragmentIds).predicate("1=1").build())
+        .build();
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testUnknownFormatRejected(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> commitWithStorageFormat(tempDir.resolve("bogus").toString(), "bogus"));
+    // The alias set is frozen at what shipped, so it does not extend to newer versions.
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> commitWithStorageFormat(tempDir.resolve("v23").toString(), "v2_3"));
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CommitBuilderTimeoutTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CommitBuilderTimeoutTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3f78d91ec8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CommitBuilderTimeoutTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.operation.Append;
+import org.lance.operation.OperationTestBase;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.time.Duration;
+import java.util.Collections;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+public class CommitBuilderTimeoutTest extends OperationTestBase {
+
+  @Test
+  void testZeroTimeoutRejected(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("zeroTimeout").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+      assertThrows(
+          IllegalArgumentException.class,
+          () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).commitTimeout(Duration.ZERO));
+      assertThrows(
+          IllegalArgumentException.class,
+          () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).commitTimeout(Duration.ofMillis(-1)));
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testNullDisablesTimeout(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("nullTimeout").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+      FragmentMetadata fragment = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragment)).build())
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).commitTimeout(null).execute(txn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, committed.version());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testPositiveTimeoutSucceeds(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("posTimeout").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+      FragmentMetadata fragment = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragment)).build())
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset committed =
+            new CommitBuilder(dataset).commitTimeout(Duration.ofMinutes(5)).execute(txn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, committed.version());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Timeout *firing* behavior is covered by the Rust test
+  // `test_commit_timeout_triggers`, which uses a throttled store for a reliable
+  // trigger; reproducing it from Java without exposing throttling would be
+  // flaky on fast runners.
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CompactionTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CompactionTest.java
index 9ac96804a61..4c874c4c878 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CompactionTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CompactionTest.java
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 
 import org.lance.compaction.Compaction;
 import org.lance.compaction.CompactionMetrics;
+import org.lance.compaction.CompactionMode;
 import org.lance.compaction.CompactionOptions;
 import org.lance.compaction.CompactionPlan;
 import org.lance.compaction.CompactionTask;
@@ -23,6 +24,8 @@
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.EnumSource;
 
 import java.io.ByteArrayInputStream;
 import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
@@ -30,14 +33,21 @@
 import java.io.ObjectInputStream;
 import java.io.ObjectOutputStream;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Base64;
 import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Optional;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 /** Add test for distributed compaction. */
 public class CompactionTest {
-  @Test
-  public void testBasicCompaction(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @EnumSource(DataStorageVersion.class)
+  public void testBasicCompaction(DataStorageVersion version, @TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("test_dataset_for_compaction").toString();
     try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
       TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
@@ -49,9 +59,41 @@ public void testBasicCompaction(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
       testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
       try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
         CompactionOptions compactionOptions =
-            CompactionOptions.builder().withTargetRowsPerFragment(100).withNumThreads(1).build();
+            CompactionOptions.builder()
+                .withTargetRowsPerFragment(100)
+                .withNumThreads(1)
+                .withMaxSourceRows(1000)
+                .withMaxSourceBytes(10L * 1024 * 1024)
+                .withDataStorageVersion(version)
+                .build();
+        compactionOptions = serializeAndDeserialize(compactionOptions);
+        assertEquals(
+            Optional.of(version.toRustString()), compactionOptions.getDataStorageVersion());
+        if (version == DataStorageVersion.LEGACY) {
+          CompactionOptions legacyOptions = compactionOptions;
+          IllegalArgumentException error =
+              assertThrows(
+                  IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                  () -> Compaction.planCompaction(dataset, legacyOptions));
+          assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("V1 and V2"));
+          return;
+        }
+        String exactVersion =
+            version == DataStorageVersion.STABLE
+                ? "2.2"
+                : version == DataStorageVersion.NEXT ? "2.3" : version.toRustString();
         CompactionPlan compactionPlan = Compaction.planCompaction(dataset, compactionOptions);
 
+        // The source budgets are loose, so the plan is unaffected and the
+        // options must survive the JNI round trip.
+        assertEquals(Optional.of(1000L), compactionPlan.getCompactionOptions().getMaxSourceRows());
+        assertEquals(
+            Optional.of(10L * 1024 * 1024),
+            compactionPlan.getCompactionOptions().getMaxSourceBytes());
+        assertEquals(
+            Optional.of(exactVersion),
+            compactionPlan.getCompactionOptions().getDataStorageVersion());
+
         // will plan to compact two fragments into one.
         assertEquals(1, compactionPlan.getCompactionTasks().size());
         CompactionTask task = compactionPlan.getCompactionTasks().get(0);
@@ -71,6 +113,19 @@ public void testBasicCompaction(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
 
         // mock network transferring
         result = serializeAndDeserialize(result);
+        result
+            .getNewFragments()
+            .forEach(
+                fragment ->
+                    fragment
+                        .getFiles()
+                        .forEach(
+                            file ->
+                                assertEquals(
+                                    exactVersion,
+                                    file.getFileMajorVersion()
+                                        + "."
+                                        + file.getFileMinorVersion())));
         CompactionMetrics ignored =
             Compaction.commitCompaction(
                 dataset, Collections.singletonList(result), compactionPlan.getCompactionOptions());
@@ -79,6 +134,20 @@ public void testBasicCompaction(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
         dataset.checkoutLatest();
         assertEquals(1, dataset.getFragments().size());
         assertEquals(20, dataset.getFragments().get(0).countRows());
+        dataset
+            .getFragments()
+            .forEach(
+                fragment ->
+                    fragment
+                        .metadata()
+                        .getFiles()
+                        .forEach(
+                            file ->
+                                assertEquals(
+                                    exactVersion,
+                                    file.getFileMajorVersion()
+                                        + "."
+                                        + file.getFileMinorVersion())));
       }
     }
   }
@@ -130,6 +199,118 @@ public void testDeletionCompaction(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  public void testExcludedFragmentIds(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("test_excluded_fragment_ids").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      testDataset.write(2, 10).close();
+      testDataset.write(3, 10).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(4, 10)) {
+        CompactionOptions options =
+            CompactionOptions.builder()
+                .withTargetRowsPerFragment(100)
+                .withExcludedFragmentIds(Arrays.asList(1L, 1L, 999L))
+                .build();
+
+        CompactionPlan plan = Compaction.planCompaction(dataset, options);
+
+        assertEquals(
+            Arrays.asList(1L, 1L, 999L), plan.getCompactionOptions().getExcludedFragmentIds());
+        assertEquals(1, plan.getCompactionTasks().size());
+        assertEquals(2, plan.getCompactionTasks().get(0).getTaskData().getFragments().size());
+        assertEquals(
+            2, plan.getCompactionTasks().get(0).getTaskData().getFragments().get(0).getId());
+        assertEquals(
+            3, plan.getCompactionTasks().get(0).getTaskData().getFragments().get(1).getId());
+
+        CompactionTask task = serializeAndDeserialize(plan.getCompactionTasks().get(0));
+        assertEquals(
+            Arrays.asList(1L, 1L, 999L), task.getCompactionOptions().getExcludedFragmentIds());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @EnumSource(CompactionMode.class)
+  public void testCompactionModeRoundTrip(CompactionMode mode, @TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("test_dataset_for_compaction").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
+        CompactionOptions compactionOptions =
+            CompactionOptions.builder()
+                .withTargetRowsPerFragment(100)
+                .withNumThreads(1)
+                .withCompactionMode(mode)
+                .build();
+        CompactionPlan compactionPlan = Compaction.planCompaction(dataset, compactionOptions);
+
+        // The plan's options are rebuilt by the native layer; the mode must come
+        // back as a CompactionMode enum, not a raw String.
+        assertEquals(
+            Optional.of(mode.getValue()),
+            compactionPlan.getCompactionOptions().getCompactionMode());
+
+        CompactionTask task = serializeAndDeserialize(compactionPlan.getCompactionTasks().get(0));
+        RewriteResult result = task.execute(dataset);
+        assertEquals(2, result.getMetrics().getFragmentsRemoved());
+        assertEquals(1, result.getMetrics().getFragmentsAdded());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * A serialized CompactionOptions produced by the class as it existed before maxSourceRows and
+   * maxSourceBytes were added (no declared serialVersionUID, stream ends after maxSourceFragments),
+   * built with targetRowsPerFragment=1024, materializeDeletions=true,
+   * compactionMode=TRY_BINARY_COPY, maxSourceFragments=4.
+   */
+  private static final String PRE_SOURCE_BUDGET_OPTIONS_BASE64 =
+      "rO0ABXNyACZvcmcubGFuY2UuY29tcGFjdGlvbi5Db21wYWN0aW9uT3B0aW9ucys6bRwua1fWAwALTAAJYmF0Y2hTaXpl"
+          + "dAAUTGphdmEvdXRpbC9PcHRpb25hbDtMABhiaW5hcnlDb3B5UmVhZEJhdGNoQnl0ZXNxAH4AAUwADmNvbXBhY3Rpb25N"
+          + "b2RlcQB+AAFMAA9kZWZlckluZGV4UmVtYXBxAH4AAUwAFG1hdGVyaWFsaXplRGVsZXRpb25zcQB+AAFMAB1tYXRlcmlh"
+          + "bGl6ZURlbGV0aW9uc1RocmVzaG9sZHEAfgABTAAPbWF4Qnl0ZXNQZXJGaWxlcQB+AAFMAA9tYXhSb3dzUGVyR3JvdXBx"
+          + "AH4AAUwAEm1heFNvdXJjZUZyYWdtZW50c3EAfgABTAAKbnVtVGhyZWFkc3EAfgABTAAVdGFyZ2V0Um93c1BlckZyYWdt"
+          + "ZW50cQB+AAF4cHNyAA5qYXZhLmxhbmcuTG9uZzuL5JDMjyPfAgABSgAFdmFsdWV4cgAQamF2YS5sYW5nLk51bWJlcoas"
+          + "lR0LlOCLAgAAeHAAAAAAAAAEAHBwc3IAEWphdmEubGFuZy5Cb29sZWFuzSBygNWc+u4CAAFaAAV2YWx1ZXhwAXBwcHB0"
+          + "AA90cnlfYmluYXJ5X2NvcHlwc3EAfgADAAAAAAAAAAR4";
+
+  @Test
+  public void testDeserializeOptionsFromOlderVersion() throws Exception {
+    byte[] serialized = Base64.getDecoder().decode(PRE_SOURCE_BUDGET_OPTIONS_BASE64);
+    CompactionOptions options;
+    try (ObjectInputStream in = new ObjectInputStream(new ByteArrayInputStream(serialized))) {
+      options = (CompactionOptions) in.readObject();
+    }
+    assertEquals(Optional.of(1024L), options.getTargetRowsPerFragment());
+    assertEquals(Optional.of(true), options.getMaterializeDeletions());
+    assertEquals(
+        Optional.of(CompactionMode.TRY_BINARY_COPY.getValue()), options.getCompactionMode());
+    assertEquals(Optional.of(4L), options.getMaxSourceFragments());
+    // Fields absent from the old stream deserialize as unset.
+    assertEquals(Optional.empty(), options.getMaxSourceRows());
+    assertEquals(Optional.empty(), options.getMaxSourceBytes());
+    assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), options.getExcludedFragmentIds());
+    assertEquals(Optional.empty(), options.getDataStorageVersion());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUnknownDataStorageVersion() {
+    IllegalArgumentException error =
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DataStorageVersion.fromRustString("unknown"));
+    assertEquals("Unknown data storage version: unknown", error.getMessage());
+  }
+
   private static <T> T serializeAndDeserialize(T object)
       throws IOException, ClassNotFoundException {
     ByteArrayOutputStream outputStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CustomNamespaceIntegrationTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CustomNamespaceIntegrationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a836d48bf3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/CustomNamespaceIntegrationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.namespace.CustomNamespace;
+import org.lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace;
+import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespace;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.condition.EnabledIfEnvironmentVariable;
+
+/**
+ * Integration tests for CustomNamespace wrapper around DirectoryNamespace.
+ *
+ * <p>This test class extends DirectoryNamespaceIntegrationTest to verify that all tests pass when
+ * using a CustomNamespace wrapper around DirectoryNamespace. This validates that the Java-Rust
+ * binding works correctly for custom namespace implementations in integration scenarios.
+ *
+ * <p>These tests require LocalStack to be running. Run with: docker compose up -d
+ *
+ * <p>Set LANCE_INTEGRATION_TEST=1 environment variable to enable these tests.
+ */
+@EnabledIfEnvironmentVariable(named = "LANCE_INTEGRATION_TEST", matches = "1")
+public class CustomNamespaceIntegrationTest extends DirectoryNamespaceIntegrationTest {
+
+  @Override
+  protected LanceNamespace wrapNamespace(DirectoryNamespace inner) {
+    return new CustomNamespace(inner);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DatasetTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DatasetTest.java
index 6ea4533accb..c76a97c99c0 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DatasetTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DatasetTest.java
@@ -14,9 +14,11 @@
 package org.lance;
 
 import org.lance.compaction.CompactionOptions;
+import org.lance.file.FileWriteOptions;
 import org.lance.index.Index;
 import org.lance.index.IndexCriteria;
 import org.lance.index.IndexDescription;
+import org.lance.index.IndexOptions;
 import org.lance.index.IndexParams;
 import org.lance.index.IndexType;
 import org.lance.index.OptimizeOptions;
@@ -59,6 +61,7 @@
 import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.time.Clock;
+import java.time.Instant;
 import java.time.ZonedDateTime;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
@@ -78,6 +81,7 @@
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertInstanceOf;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.fail;
@@ -117,6 +121,122 @@ void testCreateEmptyDataset(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testWriteRejectsNegativeDataCacheBytes(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("negative_data_cache_bytes").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      WriteParams params =
+          new WriteParams.Builder()
+              .withFileWriteOptions(FileWriteOptions.builder().dataCacheBytes(-1).build())
+              .build();
+
+      assertThrows(
+          IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> testDataset.createDatasetWithWriteParams(params));
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testWriteDatasetBuilderRejectsNullFileWriteOptions() {
+    NullPointerException error =
+        assertThrows(
+            NullPointerException.class, () -> new WriteDatasetBuilder().fileWriteOptions(null));
+
+    assertEquals("fileWriteOptions must not be null", error.getMessage());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testGetLanceFileFormatVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      // Test default version (V2_2)
+      String defaultPath = tempDir.resolve("default_version").toString();
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, defaultPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        assertEquals(LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_2, dataset.getLanceFileFormatVersion());
+        WriterVersion writerVersion = dataset.getWriterVersion().orElseThrow(AssertionError::new);
+        assertEquals("lance", writerVersion.getLibrary());
+        assertFalse(writerVersion.getVersion().isEmpty());
+      }
+
+      // Test LEGACY version
+      String legacyPath = tempDir.resolve("legacy_version").toString();
+      try (Dataset legacyDataset =
+          Dataset.write()
+              .allocator(allocator)
+              .uri(legacyPath)
+              .schema(testDataset.getSchema())
+              .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+              .dataStorageVersion(LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_LEGACY)
+              .execute()) {
+        assertEquals(
+            LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_0_1, legacyDataset.getLanceFileFormatVersion());
+      }
+
+      // This dataset was written before writer_version was added to the manifest.
+      String historicalPath =
+          Path.of("..", "test_data", "v0.7.5", "with_deletions")
+              .toAbsolutePath()
+              .normalize()
+              .toString();
+      try (Dataset historicalDataset = Dataset.open(historicalPath, allocator)) {
+        assertTrue(historicalDataset.getWriterVersion().isEmpty());
+      }
+
+      // This fixture was written by lance 2.0.0-beta.1. Reading it through Dataset verifies
+      // that the manifest's prerelease qualifier survives the Rust-to-Java JNI mapping.
+      String prereleasePath =
+          Path.of("..", "test_data", "pre_file_sizes", "index_without_file_sizes")
+              .toAbsolutePath()
+              .normalize()
+              .toString();
+      try (Dataset prereleaseDataset = Dataset.open(prereleasePath, allocator)) {
+        WriterVersion writerVersion =
+            prereleaseDataset.getWriterVersion().orElseThrow(AssertionError::new);
+        assertEquals("lance", writerVersion.getLibrary());
+        assertEquals("2.0.0", writerVersion.getVersion());
+        assertEquals("beta.1", writerVersion.getPrerelease().orElseThrow(AssertionError::new));
+        assertTrue(writerVersion.getBuildMetadata().isEmpty());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testWriterVersionPreservesOpaqueAndOptionalFields() {
+    WriterVersion writerVersion =
+        new WriterVersion("custom-writer", "release-2026", "preview.1", "build.42");
+
+    assertEquals("custom-writer", writerVersion.getLibrary());
+    assertEquals("release-2026", writerVersion.getVersion());
+    assertEquals("preview.1", writerVersion.getPrerelease().orElseThrow(AssertionError::new));
+    assertEquals("build.42", writerVersion.getBuildMetadata().orElseThrow(AssertionError::new));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testListManifestLocations(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("manifest_locations").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 1).close();
+
+      List<ManifestLocation> manifests = Dataset.listManifestLocations(datasetPath);
+      assertEquals(2, manifests.size());
+      assertEquals(
+          Set.of(1L, 2L),
+          manifests.stream().map(ManifestLocation::getVersion).collect(Collectors.toSet()));
+      for (ManifestLocation manifest : manifests) {
+        assertTrue(manifest.getPath().contains("manifest_locations/_versions/"));
+        assertFalse(manifest.getPath().startsWith("_versions/"));
+        assertTrue(manifest.getPath().endsWith(".manifest"));
+        assertTrue(manifest.getSizeBytes() > 0);
+        assertNotNull(manifest.getNamingScheme());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testCreateDirNotExist(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException, URISyntaxException {
     String testMethodName = new Object() {}.getClass().getEnclosingMethod().getName();
@@ -148,6 +268,7 @@ void testDatasetVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
       try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
         ZonedDateTime time1 = dataset.getVersion().getDataTime();
         assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
+        assertEquals(dataset.getVersion().getId(), dataset.version());
         assertTrue(time1.isEqual(before) || time1.isAfter(before));
         assertTrue(time1.isEqual(ZonedDateTime.now()) || time1.isBefore(ZonedDateTime.now()));
         assertEquals(time1.getZone(), Clock.systemUTC().getZone());
@@ -157,8 +278,10 @@ void testDatasetVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
         try (Dataset dataset2 = testDataset.write(1, 5)) {
           ZonedDateTime time2 = dataset2.getVersion().getDataTime();
           assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
+          assertEquals(dataset.getVersion().getId(), dataset.version());
           assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
           assertEquals(2, dataset2.version());
+          assertEquals(dataset2.getVersion().getId(), dataset2.version());
           assertEquals(2, dataset2.latestVersion());
           assertTrue(time2.isEqual(before) || time2.isAfter(before));
           assertTrue(time2.isEqual(time1) || time2.isAfter(time1));
@@ -168,6 +291,7 @@ void testDatasetVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
           ReadOptions options1 = new ReadOptions.Builder().setVersion(1).build();
           try (Dataset datasetV1 = Dataset.open(allocator, datasetPath, options1)) {
             assertEquals(1, datasetV1.version());
+            assertEquals(datasetV1.getVersion().getId(), datasetV1.version());
             assertTrue(time1.isEqual(dataset.getVersion().getDataTime()));
             assertEquals(2, datasetV1.latestVersion());
           }
@@ -176,19 +300,23 @@ void testDatasetVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
           try (Dataset dataset3 = testDataset.write(2, 3)) {
             ZonedDateTime time3 = dataset3.getVersion().getDataTime();
             assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
+            assertEquals(dataset.getVersion().getId(), dataset.version());
             assertTrue(time1.isEqual(dataset.getVersion().getDataTime()));
             assertEquals(3, dataset.latestVersion());
             assertEquals(2, dataset2.version());
+            assertEquals(dataset2.getVersion().getId(), dataset2.version());
             assertTrue(time2.isEqual(dataset2.getVersion().getDataTime()));
             assertEquals(3, dataset2.latestVersion());
             assertTrue(time3.isEqual(before) || time3.isAfter(before));
             assertEquals(3, dataset3.version());
+            assertEquals(dataset3.getVersion().getId(), dataset3.version());
             assertEquals(3, dataset3.latestVersion());
 
             // Open dataset with version 2
             ReadOptions options2 = new ReadOptions.Builder().setVersion(2).build();
             try (Dataset datasetV2 = Dataset.open(allocator, datasetPath, options2)) {
               assertEquals(2, datasetV2.version());
+              assertEquals(datasetV2.getVersion().getId(), datasetV2.version());
               assertTrue(time2.isEqual(datasetV2.getVersion().getDataTime()));
               assertEquals(3, datasetV2.latestVersion());
             }
@@ -196,12 +324,16 @@ void testDatasetVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
             // Open dataset with latest version (3)
             try (Dataset datasetLatest = Dataset.open(datasetPath, allocator)) {
               assertEquals(3, datasetLatest.version());
+              assertEquals(datasetLatest.getVersion().getId(), datasetLatest.version());
               assertTrue(time3.isEqual(datasetLatest.getVersion().getDataTime()));
               assertEquals(3, datasetLatest.latestVersion());
             }
 
             List<Version> versions = dataset.listVersions();
             assertEquals(3, versions.size());
+            assertEquals(3, dataset.getVersionCount());
+            assertEquals(3, dataset2.getVersionCount());
+            assertEquals(3, dataset3.getVersionCount());
             assertEquals(1, versions.get(0).getId());
             assertEquals(2, versions.get(1).getId());
             assertEquals(3, versions.get(2).getId());
@@ -212,6 +344,7 @@ void testDatasetVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
             assertArrayEquals(versions.toArray(), dataset3.listVersions().toArray());
             dataset.checkoutLatest();
             assertEquals(3, dataset.version());
+            assertEquals(dataset.getVersion().getId(), dataset.version());
             assertTrue(time3.isEqual(dataset.getVersion().getDataTime()));
             assertEquals(3, dataset.latestVersion());
 
@@ -277,8 +410,15 @@ void testTags(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
       try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
         assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
         dataset.tags().create("tag1", Ref.ofMain());
-        assertEquals(1, dataset.tags().list().size());
-        assertEquals(1, dataset.tags().list().get(0).getVersion());
+        dataset.tags().replaceMetadata("tag1", Map.of("description", "primary tag"));
+        List<Tag> tags = dataset.tags().list();
+        Tag tag1 = tags.get(0);
+        assertEquals(1, tags.size());
+        assertEquals(1, tag1.getVersion());
+        assertEquals(Map.of("description", "primary tag"), tag1.getMetadata());
+        assertTrue(tag1.getCreatedAt().isPresent());
+        assertTrue(tag1.getUpdatedAt().isPresent());
+        assertEquals(tag1.getCreatedAt(), tag1.getUpdatedAt());
         assertEquals(1, dataset.tags().getVersion("tag1"));
       }
 
@@ -292,12 +432,67 @@ void testTags(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
         assertEquals(2, dataset2.tags().list().size());
         assertEquals(1, dataset2.tags().getVersion("tag1"));
         assertEquals(2, dataset2.tags().getVersion("tag2"));
-        dataset2.tags().update("tag2", Ref.ofMain(1));
+        dataset2.tags().replaceMetadata("tag2", Map.of("description", "rollback tag"));
+        Instant tag2CreatedAt =
+            dataset2.tags().list().stream()
+                .filter(tag -> tag.getName().equals("tag2"))
+                .findFirst()
+                .orElseThrow()
+                .getCreatedAt()
+                .orElseThrow();
+        Instant tag2UpdatedAt =
+            dataset2.tags().list().stream()
+                .filter(tag -> tag.getName().equals("tag2"))
+                .findFirst()
+                .orElseThrow()
+                .getUpdatedAt()
+                .orElseThrow();
+        assertEquals(tag2CreatedAt, tag2UpdatedAt);
         assertEquals(2, dataset2.tags().list().size());
         assertEquals(1, dataset2.tags().list().get(0).getVersion());
-        assertEquals(1, dataset2.tags().list().get(1).getVersion());
+        assertEquals(2, dataset2.tags().list().get(1).getVersion());
         assertEquals(1, dataset2.tags().getVersion("tag1"));
+        assertEquals(2, dataset2.tags().getVersion("tag2"));
+        assertEquals(
+            Map.of("description", "rollback tag"),
+            dataset2.tags().list().stream()
+                .filter(tag -> tag.getName().equals("tag2"))
+                .findFirst()
+                .orElseThrow()
+                .getMetadata());
+        dataset2.tags().update("tag2", Ref.ofMain(1));
+        Instant updatedTag2CreatedAt =
+            dataset2.tags().list().stream()
+                .filter(tag -> tag.getName().equals("tag2"))
+                .findFirst()
+                .orElseThrow()
+                .getCreatedAt()
+                .orElseThrow();
+        Instant updatedTag2UpdatedAt =
+            dataset2.tags().list().stream()
+                .filter(tag -> tag.getName().equals("tag2"))
+                .findFirst()
+                .orElseThrow()
+                .getUpdatedAt()
+                .orElseThrow();
         assertEquals(1, dataset2.tags().getVersion("tag2"));
+        assertEquals(updatedTag2CreatedAt, tag2CreatedAt);
+        assertFalse(updatedTag2UpdatedAt.isBefore(tag2UpdatedAt));
+        assertEquals(
+            Map.of("description", "rollback tag"),
+            dataset2.tags().list().stream()
+                .filter(tag -> tag.getName().equals("tag2"))
+                .findFirst()
+                .orElseThrow()
+                .getMetadata());
+        dataset2.tags().replaceMetadata("tag2", Collections.emptyMap());
+        assertEquals(
+            Collections.emptyMap(),
+            dataset2.tags().list().stream()
+                .filter(tag -> tag.getName().equals("tag2"))
+                .findFirst()
+                .orElseThrow()
+                .getMetadata());
         dataset2.tags().delete("tag2");
         assertEquals(1, dataset2.tags().list().size());
         assertEquals(1, dataset2.tags().list().get(0).getVersion());
@@ -317,6 +512,7 @@ void testTags(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
 
         try (Dataset branch = dataset2.createBranch("branch", Ref.ofMain(2))) {
           branch.tags().create("tag_on_branch", Ref.ofBranch("branch"));
+          branch.tags().replaceMetadata("tag_on_branch", Map.of("description", "branch tag"));
           assertEquals(2, dataset2.tags().getVersion("tag_on_branch"));
           List<Tag> tags = dataset2.tags().list();
           Optional<Tag> tagOptional =
@@ -327,6 +523,7 @@ void testTags(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
           assertTrue(tagOptional.isPresent());
           assertEquals(2, tagOptional.get().getVersion());
           assertEquals(Optional.of("branch"), tagOptional.get().getBranch());
+          assertEquals(Map.of("description", "branch tag"), tagOptional.get().getMetadata());
 
           dataset2.tags().update("tag1", Ref.ofBranch("branch"));
           tags = dataset2.tags().list();
@@ -423,7 +620,12 @@ void testOpenSerializedManifest(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException {
         assertEquals(1, dataset1.version());
         Path manifestPath = datasetPath.resolve("_versions");
         try (Stream<Path> fileStream = Files.list(manifestPath)) {
-          assertEquals(1, fileStream.count());
+          // Ignore the version hint file, which is not a manifest.
+          assertEquals(
+              1,
+              fileStream
+                  .filter(p -> !p.getFileName().toString().startsWith("latest_version_hint"))
+                  .count());
           ByteBuffer manifestBuffer = readManifest(manifestPath.resolve("1.manifest"));
           try (Dataset dataset2 = testDataset.write(1, 5)) {
             assertEquals(2, dataset2.version());
@@ -551,6 +753,40 @@ void testAlterColumns(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testAlterColumnsCastType(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String testMethodName = new Object() {}.getClass().getEnclosingMethod().getName();
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve(testMethodName).toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+
+      // Widen "id" from Int32 to Int64. The cast target type is a parameterized ArrowType, which
+      // must survive the trip to the native side; regression test for a dropped cast that left the
+      // stored type unchanged.
+      ColumnAlteration widenId =
+          new ColumnAlteration.Builder("id").castTo(new ArrowType.Int(64, true)).build();
+      dataset.alterColumns(Collections.singletonList(widenId));
+
+      assertEquals(new ArrowType.Int(64, true), dataset.getSchema().findField("id").getType());
+
+      // A cast combined with rename must apply both.
+      ColumnAlteration renameAndWiden =
+          new ColumnAlteration.Builder("id")
+              .rename("id_long")
+              .castTo(new ArrowType.Int(64, true))
+              .build();
+      dataset.alterColumns(Collections.singletonList(renameAndWiden));
+
+      List<String> fieldNames =
+          dataset.getSchema().getFields().stream().map(Field::getName).collect(Collectors.toList());
+      assertFalse(fieldNames.contains("id"));
+      assertTrue(fieldNames.contains("id_long"));
+      assertEquals(new ArrowType.Int(64, true), dataset.getSchema().findField("id_long").getType());
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testAddColumnBySqlExpressions(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     String testMethodName = new Object() {}.getClass().getEnclosingMethod().getName();
@@ -771,6 +1007,23 @@ void testDropPath(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testDropRejectsNonDatasetPath(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    Path warehouse = tempDir.resolve("warehouse");
+    Path tablePath = warehouse.resolve("table.lance");
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, tablePath.toString());
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+
+      // Pointing at the parent of a dataset must not wipe out the whole warehouse.
+      assertThrows(
+          IllegalArgumentException.class,
+          () -> Dataset.drop(warehouse.toString(), new HashMap<>()));
+      assertTrue(Files.exists(tablePath));
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testTake(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException, ClosedChannelException {
     String testMethodName = new Object() {}.getClass().getEnclosingMethod().getName();
@@ -799,6 +1052,99 @@ void testTake(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException, ClosedChannelException
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testTakeRows(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException, ClosedChannelException {
+    String testMethodName = new Object() {}.getClass().getEnclosingMethod().getName();
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve(testMethodName).toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset2 = testDataset.write(1, 5)) {
+        // For a single-fragment dataset, physical row IDs match row offsets
+        List<Long> rowIds = Arrays.asList(1L, 4L);
+        List<String> columns = Arrays.asList("id", "name");
+        try (ArrowReader reader = dataset2.takeRows(rowIds, columns)) {
+          while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot result = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            assertNotNull(result);
+            assertEquals(rowIds.size(), result.getRowCount());
+
+            for (int i = 0; i < rowIds.size(); i++) {
+              assertEquals(rowIds.get(i).intValue(), result.getVector("id").getObject(i));
+              assertNotNull(result.getVector("name").getObject(i));
+            }
+          }
+        }
+
+        // Verify input order is preserved: reversed input yields reversed output
+        List<Long> reversed = Arrays.asList(4L, 1L);
+        try (ArrowReader reader = dataset2.takeRows(reversed, columns)) {
+          assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
+          VectorSchemaRoot result = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+          assertEquals(4, result.getVector("id").getObject(0));
+          assertEquals(1, result.getVector("id").getObject(1));
+        }
+
+        // Empty row IDs should be rejected
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () -> {
+              dataset2.takeRows(Collections.emptyList(), columns);
+            });
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () -> {
+              dataset2.takeRows(null, columns);
+            });
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testSample(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException {
+    String testMethodName = new Object() {}.getClass().getEnclosingMethod().getName();
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve(testMethodName).toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset2 = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        // Sample without fragment filter
+        List<String> columns = Arrays.asList("id", "name");
+        try (ArrowReader reader = dataset2.sample(5, columns)) {
+          assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
+          VectorSchemaRoot result = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+          assertNotNull(result);
+          assertEquals(5, result.getRowCount());
+          assertEquals(2, result.getSchema().getFields().size());
+        }
+
+        // Sample with fragment filter
+        List<Fragment> fragments = dataset2.getFragments();
+        assertFalse(fragments.isEmpty());
+        List<Integer> fragmentIds =
+            fragments.stream().map(f -> f.getId()).collect(Collectors.toList());
+        try (ArrowReader reader = dataset2.sample(3, columns, Optional.of(fragmentIds))) {
+          assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
+          VectorSchemaRoot result = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+          assertNotNull(result);
+          assertEquals(3, result.getRowCount());
+        }
+
+        // Sample more than available rows returns all rows
+        try (ArrowReader reader = dataset2.sample(100, columns)) {
+          assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
+          VectorSchemaRoot result = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+          assertNotNull(result);
+          assertEquals(20, result.getRowCount());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testCountRows(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     String testMethodName = new Object() {}.getClass().getEnclosingMethod().getName();
@@ -829,7 +1175,7 @@ void testCalculateDataSize(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
       dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
 
       try (Dataset dataset2 = testDataset.write(1, 5)) {
-        assertEquals(100, dataset2.calculateDataSize());
+        assertEquals(112, dataset2.calculateDataSize());
       }
     }
   }
@@ -1147,8 +1493,8 @@ void testCommitTransactionDetachedTrue(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
         long baseRowCount = base.countRows();
         FragmentMetadata fragment = suite.createNewFragment(5);
         Append append = Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragment)).build();
-        Transaction transaction = base.newTransactionBuilder().operation(append).build();
-        try (Dataset committed = base.commitTransaction(transaction, true, false)) {
+        SourcedTransaction transaction = base.newTransactionBuilder().operation(append).build();
+        try (Dataset committed = base.commitTransaction(transaction.transaction(), true, false)) {
           // Original dataset is not refreshed to the new version.
           assertEquals(baseVersion, base.version());
           assertEquals(baseRowCount, base.countRows());
@@ -1176,11 +1522,11 @@ void testCommitTransactionDetachedTrueOnV1ManifestThrowsUnsupported(@TempDir Pat
 
         FragmentMetadata fragment = suite.createNewFragment(3);
         Append append = Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragment)).build();
-        Transaction transaction = dataset.newTransactionBuilder().operation(append).build();
+        SourcedTransaction transaction = dataset.newTransactionBuilder().operation(append).build();
         UnsupportedOperationException ex =
             assertThrows(
                 UnsupportedOperationException.class,
-                () -> dataset.commitTransaction(transaction, true, false));
+                () -> dataset.commitTransaction(transaction.transaction(), true, false));
 
         // Error should indicate detached commits are not supported on v1 manifests.
         assertNotNull(ex.getMessage());
@@ -1210,9 +1556,10 @@ void testEnableStableRowIds(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
         FragmentMetadata frag1 = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
         FragmentMetadata frag2 = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
 
-        Transaction.Builder builder = new Transaction.Builder(dataset);
+        SourcedTransaction.Builder builder = new SourcedTransaction.Builder(dataset);
         Append append = Append.builder().fragments(Arrays.asList(frag1, frag2)).build();
-        Transaction transaction = builder.operation(append).readVersion(dataset.version()).build();
+        SourcedTransaction transaction =
+            builder.operation(append).readVersion(dataset.version()).build();
 
         // Step2: if move-stable-rowid is enabled, the rowids of new fragments should be
         // consecutive.
@@ -1251,6 +1598,33 @@ void testEnableStableRowIds(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testHasStableRowIds(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("uses_stable_row_ids").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+
+      // Dataset created without stable row IDs
+      try (Dataset ds = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        assertFalse(ds.hasStableRowIds());
+      }
+    }
+
+    String datasetPathWithRowIds = tempDir.resolve("uses_stable_row_ids_enabled").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPathWithRowIds);
+
+      // Dataset created with stable row IDs
+      try (Dataset ds =
+          testDataset.createDatasetWithWriteParams(
+              new WriteParams.Builder().withEnableStableRowIds(true).build())) {
+        assertTrue(ds.hasStableRowIds());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testCompact(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     String testMethodName = new Object() {}.getClass().getEnclosingMethod().getName();
@@ -1668,46 +2042,116 @@ void testBranches(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
                   assertEquals("branch1", branch1Meta.getName());
                   assertEquals(2, branch1Meta.getParentVersion());
                   assertFalse(branch1Meta.getParentBranch().isPresent());
+                  assertEquals(1, branch1Meta.getBranchIdentifier().size());
+                  assertEquals(2, branch1Meta.getBranchIdentifier().get(0).getVersion());
+                  assertFalse(branch1Meta.getBranchIdentifier().get(0).getUuid().isEmpty());
                   assertTrue(branch1Meta.getCreateAt() > 0);
                   assertTrue(branch1Meta.getManifestSize() > 0);
+                  assertEquals(Collections.emptyMap(), branch1Meta.getMetadata());
+                  mainV2
+                      .branches()
+                      .replaceMetadata("branch1", Map.of("description", "long-lived branch"));
+                  branches = branch2V4.branches().list();
+                  b1 = branches.stream().filter(b -> b.getName().equals("branch1")).findFirst();
+                  assertTrue(b1.isPresent());
+                  assertEquals(Map.of("description", "long-lived branch"), b1.get().getMetadata());
+                  mainV2.branches().replaceMetadata("branch1", Collections.emptyMap());
+                  branches = branch2V4.branches().list();
+                  b1 = branches.stream().filter(b -> b.getName().equals("branch1")).findFirst();
+                  assertTrue(b1.isPresent());
+                  assertEquals(Collections.emptyMap(), b1.get().getMetadata());
 
                   assertEquals("branch2", branch2Meta.getName());
                   assertTrue(branch2Meta.getParentBranch().isPresent());
                   assertEquals("branch1", branch2Meta.getParentBranch().get());
+                  assertEquals(2, branch2Meta.getBranchIdentifier().size());
+                  assertEquals(
+                      branch1Meta.getBranchIdentifier().get(0),
+                      branch2Meta.getBranchIdentifier().get(0));
+                  assertEquals(3, branch2Meta.getBranchIdentifier().get(1).getVersion());
+                  assertFalse(branch2Meta.getBranchIdentifier().get(1).getUuid().isEmpty());
                   assertEquals(3, branch2Meta.getParentVersion());
                   assertTrue(branch2Meta.getCreateAt() > 0);
                   assertTrue(branch2Meta.getManifestSize() > 0);
 
                   // Delete branch1 and verify listing
-                  try {
-                    mainV2.branches().delete("branch1");
-                  } catch (Exception ignored) {
-                    // Some environments may report NotFound on cleanup; ignore and proceed
-                  }
-                  List<Branch> branchListAfterDelete = mainV2.branches().list();
-                  assertTrue(
-                      branchListAfterDelete.stream().noneMatch(b -> b.getName().equals("branch1")),
-                      "branch1 should be deleted");
-
-                  Optional<Branch> branch2AfterDelete =
-                      branchListAfterDelete.stream()
-                          .filter(b -> b.getName().equals("branch2"))
-                          .findFirst();
-                  assertTrue(branch2AfterDelete.isPresent(), "branch2 should remain");
-                  assertEquals(branch2Meta, branch2AfterDelete.get());
-
-                  // Step 6. use checkout_branch to checkout branch2
-                  try (Dataset branch2V4New = mainV2.checkout(Ref.ofBranch("branch2"))) {
-                    assertNotNull(branch2V4New.getSchema());
-                    assertEquals(4, branch2V4New.version());
-                    assertEquals(10, branch2V4New.countRows()); // A(5) + B(3) + C(2)
-                  }
+                  mainV2.branches().delete("branch2");
+                  assertEquals(1, mainV2.branches().list().size());
 
-                  // Step 7. use checkout reference to checkout branch2
-                  try (Dataset branch2V4New = mainV2.checkout(Ref.ofBranch("branch2", 3))) {
+                  // Step 6. use checkout_branch to checkout branch1
+                  try (Dataset branch2V4New = mainV2.checkout(Ref.ofBranch("branch1"))) {
                     assertEquals(3, branch2V4New.version());
                     assertEquals(8, branch2V4New.countRows()); // A(5) + B(3)
                   }
+
+                  // Step 7. use checkout reference to checkout branch2
+                  try (Dataset branch2V4New = mainV2.checkout(Ref.ofBranch("branch1", 2))) {
+                    assertEquals(2, branch2V4New.version());
+                    assertEquals(5, branch2V4New.countRows()); // A(5)
+                  }
+
+                  // Step 8. open the dataset directly at a reference
+                  mainV2.tags().create("main_tag", Ref.ofMain(2));
+                  try (Dataset opened = openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofBranch("branch1"))) {
+                    assertEquals(3, opened.version());
+                    assertEquals(8, opened.countRows()); // A(5) + B(3)
+                    assertTrue(opened.uri().contains("tree/branch1"), opened.uri());
+                  }
+                  try (Dataset opened =
+                      openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofBranch("branch1", 2))) {
+                    assertEquals(2, opened.version());
+                    assertEquals(5, opened.countRows()); // A(5)
+                    assertTrue(opened.uri().contains("tree/branch1"), opened.uri());
+                  }
+                  // main has no version 3, only branch1 does.
+                  try (Dataset opened =
+                      openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofBranch("branch1", 3))) {
+                    assertEquals(3, opened.version());
+                    assertEquals(8, opened.countRows()); // A(5) + B(3)
+                    assertTrue(opened.uri().contains("tree/branch1"), opened.uri());
+                  }
+                  try (Dataset opened = openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofMain(1))) {
+                    assertEquals(1, opened.version());
+                    assertEquals(0, opened.countRows());
+                    assertFalse(opened.uri().contains("tree/"), opened.uri());
+                  }
+                  try (Dataset opened = openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofMain())) {
+                    assertEquals(2, opened.version());
+                    assertEquals(5, opened.countRows()); // A(5)
+                    assertFalse(opened.uri().contains("tree/"), opened.uri());
+                  }
+                  try (Dataset opened = openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofBranch("main", 1))) {
+                    assertEquals(1, opened.version());
+                    assertFalse(opened.uri().contains("tree/"), opened.uri());
+                  }
+                  try (Dataset opened = openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofTag("main_tag"))) {
+                    assertEquals(2, opened.version());
+                    assertEquals(5, opened.countRows()); // A(5)
+                    assertFalse(opened.uri().contains("tree/"), opened.uri());
+                  }
+                  // "tag" points at branch1:3, so it opens branch1, not version 3 of main.
+                  try (Dataset opened = openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofTag("tag"))) {
+                    assertEquals(3, opened.version());
+                    assertEquals(8, opened.countRows()); // A(5) + B(3)
+                    assertTrue(opened.uri().contains("tree/branch1"), opened.uri());
+                  }
+                  IOException missing =
+                      assertThrows(
+                          IOException.class,
+                          () -> openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofBranch("no_such_branch")));
+                  assertTrue(missing.getMessage().contains("no_such_branch"), missing.getMessage());
+                  RuntimeException missingTag =
+                      assertThrows(
+                          RuntimeException.class,
+                          () -> openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofTag("no_such_tag")));
+                  assertTrue(
+                      missingTag.getMessage().contains("no_such_tag"), missingTag.getMessage());
+                  IllegalArgumentException missingVersion =
+                      assertThrows(
+                          IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                          () -> openAt(allocator, datasetPath, Ref.ofBranch("branch1", 99)));
+                  assertTrue(
+                      missingVersion.getMessage().contains("branch1"), missingVersion.getMessage());
                 }
               }
             }
@@ -1717,6 +2161,25 @@ void testBranches(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     }
   }
 
+  private static Dataset openAt(BufferAllocator allocator, String path, Ref ref) {
+    return Dataset.open(allocator, path, new ReadOptions.Builder().setRef(ref).build());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testReadOptionsRejectsConflictingRef() {
+    ReadOptions.Builder withVersion =
+        new ReadOptions.Builder().setVersion(1).setRef(Ref.ofBranch("branch1"));
+    IllegalArgumentException e = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, withVersion::build);
+    assertTrue(e.getMessage().contains("both version (1) and ref"), e.getMessage());
+
+    ReadOptions.Builder withManifest =
+        new ReadOptions.Builder()
+            .setSerializedManifest(ByteBuffer.allocateDirect(1))
+            .setRef(Ref.ofBranch("branch1"));
+    e = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, withManifest::build);
+    assertTrue(e.getMessage().contains("serialized manifest and ref"), e.getMessage());
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testOptimizingIndices(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("optimize_scalar").toString();
@@ -1757,18 +2220,20 @@ void testOptimizingIndices(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
           OptimizeOptions options = OptimizeOptions.builder().numIndicesToMerge(0).build();
           dsAppended.optimizeIndices(options);
 
-          List<Index> afterIndexes = dsAppended.getIndexes();
-          Index idIndexAfter =
-              afterIndexes.stream()
+          List<Index> idIndexes =
+              dsAppended.getIndexes().stream()
                   .filter(idx -> "id_idx".equals(idx.name()))
-                  .findFirst()
-                  .orElse(null);
-          assertNotNull(idIndexAfter);
-          List<Integer> afterFragments = idIndexAfter.fragments().orElse(Collections.emptyList());
-
-          assertTrue(afterFragments.contains(0));
-          assertTrue(afterFragments.contains(1));
-          assertEquals(2, afterFragments.size());
+                  .collect(Collectors.toList());
+          assertEquals(
+              2,
+              idIndexes.size(),
+              "append-only optimize must add a delta segment instead of merging");
+
+          Set<Integer> coveredFragments =
+              idIndexes.stream()
+                  .flatMap(idx -> idx.fragments().orElse(Collections.emptyList()).stream())
+                  .collect(Collectors.toSet());
+          assertEquals(new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1)), coveredFragments);
         }
       }
     }
@@ -1788,6 +2253,16 @@ void testReadZeroLengthBlob(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testTakeNullBlobPreservesSelection(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String base = tempDir.resolve("testTakeNullBlobPreservesSelection").toString();
+    try (Dataset ds = TestUtils.createBlobDataset(base, 128, 8)) {
+      List<BlobFile> blobs = ds.takeBlobsByIndices(Collections.singletonList(15L), "blobs");
+      assertEquals(1, blobs.size());
+      assertNull(blobs.get(0));
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testReadLargeBlobAndRanges(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String base = tempDir.resolve("testReadLargeBlobAndRanges").toString();
@@ -1837,6 +2312,69 @@ void testReadSmallBlobSequentialIntegrity(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exceptio
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testReadUpToFillsAcrossReadAheadBoundary(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String base = tempDir.resolve("testReadUpToFillsAcrossReadAheadBoundary").toString();
+    try (Dataset ds = TestUtils.createBlobDataset(base, 64, 4)) {
+      List<BlobFile> blobs = ds.takeBlobsByIndices(Collections.singletonList(2L), "blobs", 16L);
+      BlobFile blobFile = blobs.get(0);
+      byte[] first = blobFile.readUpTo(4);
+      assertEquals(4, first.length);
+      byte[] second = blobFile.readUpTo(20);
+      assertEquals(20, second.length);
+      assertEquals(24L, blobFile.tell());
+      blobFile.seek(0);
+      byte[] all = blobFile.read();
+      assertArrayEquals(Arrays.copyOfRange(all, 0, 4), first);
+      assertArrayEquals(Arrays.copyOfRange(all, 4, 24), second);
+      blobFile.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testSetReadBufferSizeZeroStillReadsPayload(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String base = tempDir.resolve("testSetReadBufferSizeZeroStillReadsPayload").toString();
+    try (Dataset ds = TestUtils.createBlobDataset(base, 64, 4)) {
+      List<BlobFile> blobs = ds.takeBlobsByIndices(Collections.singletonList(2L), "blobs", 0L);
+      BlobFile blobFile = blobs.get(0);
+      byte[] first = blobFile.readUpTo(64);
+      byte[] rest = blobFile.read();
+      blobFile.seek(0);
+      byte[] all = blobFile.read();
+      byte[] combined = new byte[first.length + rest.length];
+      System.arraycopy(first, 0, combined, 0, first.length);
+      System.arraycopy(rest, 0, combined, first.length, rest.length);
+      assertArrayEquals(all, combined);
+      blobFile.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testTakeBlobsRejectsNegativeBufferSizeForEmptySelection(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String base =
+        tempDir.resolve("testTakeBlobsRejectsNegativeBufferSizeForEmptySelection").toString();
+    try (Dataset ds = TestUtils.createBlobDataset(base, 64, 4)) {
+      assertThrows(
+          IllegalArgumentException.class,
+          () -> ds.takeBlobsByIndices(Collections.emptyList(), "blobs", -1L));
+      assertThrows(
+          IllegalArgumentException.class,
+          () -> ds.takeBlobs(Collections.emptyList(), "blobs", -1L));
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testSetReadBufferSizeFailureClosesOpenedHandles(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String base = tempDir.resolve("testSetReadBufferSizeFailureClosesOpenedHandles").toString();
+    try (Dataset ds = TestUtils.createBlobDataset(base, 64, 4)) {
+      List<BlobFile> blobs = ds.takeBlobsByIndices(Arrays.asList(0L, 1L), "blobs");
+      blobs.get(1).close();
+      assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> Dataset.setBlobReadBufferSize(blobs, 1024L));
+      assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> blobs.get(0).readUpTo(1));
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   public void testIndexStatistics(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     Path datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testIndexStatistics");
@@ -1898,16 +2436,113 @@ public void testDescribeIndicesByName(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
         assertTrue(desc.getRowsIndexed() > 0, "rowsIndexed should be positive");
         assertNotNull(desc.getMetadata(), "Metadata list should not be null");
         assertFalse(desc.getMetadata().isEmpty(), "Metadata list should not be empty");
+        assertEquals(
+            desc.getMetadata(), desc.getSegments(), "segments alias should match metadata");
         assertNotNull(desc.getDetailsJson(), "Details JSON should not be null");
 
+        assertEquals(1, desc.getSegments().size(), "Expected exactly one physical segment");
+        assertEquals("index1", desc.getSegments().get(0).name());
+        assertEquals(
+            Collections.emptyList(),
+            desc.getSegments().get(0).coveringFields(),
+            "no covering columns are declared yet");
+        assertTrue(
+            desc.getSegments().get(0).getSizeBytes().orElse(0L) > 0,
+            "segment size should be positive");
+        assertEquals(
+            desc.getSegments().get(0).getSizeBytes(),
+            desc.getTotalSizeBytes(),
+            "single-segment size should equal the logical index size");
+
         descriptions = dataset.describeIndices();
         assertEquals(2, descriptions.size(), "Expected exactly one matching index");
         for (IndexDescription indexDesc : descriptions) {
           assertTrue(indexDesc.getRowsIndexed() > 0, "rowsIndexed should be positive");
           assertNotNull(indexDesc.getMetadata(), "Metadata list should not be null");
           assertFalse(indexDesc.getMetadata().isEmpty(), "Metadata list should not be empty");
+          assertEquals(
+              indexDesc.getMetadata(),
+              indexDesc.getSegments(),
+              "segments alias should match metadata");
           assertNotNull(indexDesc.getDetailsJson(), "Details JSON should not be null");
+          assertTrue(
+              indexDesc.getTotalSizeBytes().orElse(0L) > 0, "total index size should be positive");
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDropIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("drop_index").toString();
+
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      // 1. write two fragments
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
+        List<Fragment> fragments = dataset.getFragments();
+        assertEquals(2, dataset.getFragments().size());
+
+        ScalarIndexParams scalarParams = ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{\"zone_size\": 2048}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
+
+        // 2. partially create index
+        List<Index> segments = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (Fragment fragment : fragments) {
+          segments.add(
+              dataset.createIndex(
+                  IndexOptions.builder(
+                          Collections.singletonList("name"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
+                      .withIndexName("test_index")
+                      .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragment.getId()))
+                      .build()));
         }
+
+        // then no index should have been created
+        assertFalse(
+            dataset.listIndexes().contains("test_index"),
+            "Partially created index should not present");
+
+        // 3. commit the index
+        List<Index> committed = dataset.commitExistingIndexSegments("test_index", "name", segments);
+        assertEquals(2, committed.size());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().contains("test_index"));
+
+        List<Index> indexes = dataset.getIndexes();
+        assertTrue(indexes.stream().anyMatch(idx -> idx.name().equals("test_index")));
+
+        dataset.dropIndex("test_index");
+
+        List<String> indexNamesAfterDrop = dataset.listIndexes();
+        assertFalse(indexNamesAfterDrop.contains("test_index"));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDropIndexNonExistent(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("drop_index_nonexistent").toString();
+
+    Schema schema =
+        new Schema(
+            Arrays.asList(
+                Field.nullable("id", new ArrowType.Int(32, true)),
+                Field.nullable("name", new ArrowType.Utf8())),
+            null);
+
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      try (Dataset dataset =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, datasetPath, schema, new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+        assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
+
+        assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> dataset.dropIndex("nonexistent"));
+
+        assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().isEmpty());
+        assertTrue(dataset.getIndexes().isEmpty());
       }
     }
   }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DeltaTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DeltaTest.java
index 72537207524..da4fd512466 100755
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DeltaTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DeltaTest.java
@@ -28,11 +28,12 @@
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.util.ByteArrayReadableSeekableByteChannel;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
-import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assumptions;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
 
 import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
 import java.io.IOException;
+import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
@@ -41,9 +42,9 @@
 public class DeltaTest {
 
   @Test
-  public void testInsertedRowsComparedAgainst() throws IOException {
+  public void testInsertedRowsComparedAgainst(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException {
     try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
-      String uri = "memory://delta_demo";
+      String uri = tempDir.resolve("delta_demo").toString();
       // Build initial batch (2 rows)
       Schema schema =
           new Schema(
@@ -79,7 +80,11 @@ public void testInsertedRowsComparedAgainst() throws IOException {
               org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
         Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader1, stream1);
         Dataset ds =
-            Dataset.write().stream(stream1).uri(uri).mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE).execute();
+            Dataset.write().stream(stream1)
+                .uri(uri)
+                .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                .enableStableRowIds(true)
+                .execute();
 
         // Append one row (v2)
         VectorSchemaRoot root2 = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator);
@@ -107,40 +112,35 @@ public void testInsertedRowsComparedAgainst() throws IOException {
               Dataset.write().stream(stream2).uri(uri).mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.APPEND).execute();
 
           DatasetDelta delta = ds2.delta(1L);
-          try {
-            try (ArrowReader inserted = delta.getInsertedRows()) {
-              int total = 0;
-              boolean foundRow = false;
-
-              while (inserted.loadNextBatch()) {
-                VectorSchemaRoot outRoot = inserted.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-                Schema outSchema = outRoot.getSchema();
-                List<String> names =
-                    outSchema.getFields().stream().map(Field::getName).collect(Collectors.toList());
-                Assertions.assertTrue(names.contains("_row_created_at_version"));
-                Assertions.assertTrue(names.contains("_row_last_updated_at_version"));
-
-                IntVector outId = (IntVector) outRoot.getVector("id");
-                VarCharVector outVal = (VarCharVector) outRoot.getVector("val");
-
-                for (int i = 0; i < outRoot.getRowCount(); i++) {
-                  int id = outId.get(i);
-                  byte[] bytes = outVal.get(i);
-                  String val = new String(bytes, java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
-                  if (id == 3 && "c".equals(val)) {
-                    foundRow = true;
-                  }
-                }
+          try (ArrowReader inserted = delta.getInsertedRows()) {
+            int total = 0;
+            boolean foundRow = false;
+
+            while (inserted.loadNextBatch()) {
+              VectorSchemaRoot outRoot = inserted.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              Schema outSchema = outRoot.getSchema();
+              List<String> names =
+                  outSchema.getFields().stream().map(Field::getName).collect(Collectors.toList());
+              Assertions.assertTrue(names.contains("_row_created_at_version"));
+              Assertions.assertTrue(names.contains("_row_last_updated_at_version"));
+
+              IntVector outId = (IntVector) outRoot.getVector("id");
+              VarCharVector outVal = (VarCharVector) outRoot.getVector("val");
 
-                total += outRoot.getRowCount();
+              for (int i = 0; i < outRoot.getRowCount(); i++) {
+                int id = outId.get(i);
+                byte[] bytes = outVal.get(i);
+                String val = new String(bytes, java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
+                if (id == 3 && "c".equals(val)) {
+                  foundRow = true;
+                }
               }
 
-              Assertions.assertEquals(1, total);
-              Assertions.assertTrue(foundRow, "Inserted row (id=3, val=c) not found in delta");
+              total += outRoot.getRowCount();
             }
-          } catch (UnsatisfiedLinkError e) {
-            Assumptions.assumeTrue(
-                false, "JNI for DatasetDelta.getInsertedRows not available: " + e.getMessage());
+
+            Assertions.assertEquals(1, total);
+            Assertions.assertTrue(foundRow, "Inserted row (id=3, val=c) not found in delta");
           }
         }
       }
@@ -148,10 +148,9 @@ public void testInsertedRowsComparedAgainst() throws IOException {
   }
 
   @Test
-  public void testListTransactionsExplicitRange() {
+  public void testListTransactionsExplicitRange(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException {
     try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
-      String uri = "memory://delta_demo_tx";
-      // v1
+      String uri = tempDir.resolve("delta_demo_tx").toString();
       Schema schema =
           new Schema(
               Arrays.asList(
@@ -159,21 +158,110 @@ public void testListTransactionsExplicitRange() {
                       "id", new org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType.Int(32, true)),
                   Field.nullable(
                       "val", org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType.Utf8.INSTANCE)));
-      try (Dataset ds = Dataset.create(allocator, uri, schema, new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
-        // v2
-        WriteParams params =
-            new WriteParams.Builder().withMode(WriteParams.WriteMode.APPEND).build();
-        try (Dataset ds2 = Dataset.create(allocator, uri, schema, params); ) {
+
+      // v1: create with two rows.
+      byte[] batch1 = writeBatch(allocator, schema, new int[] {1, 2}, new String[] {"a", "b"});
+      try (ArrowStreamReader reader1 =
+              new ArrowStreamReader(new ByteArrayReadableSeekableByteChannel(batch1), allocator);
+          ArrowArrayStream stream1 = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader1, stream1);
+        Dataset.write().stream(stream1)
+            .uri(uri)
+            .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+            .execute()
+            .close();
+      }
+
+      // v2: append one row.
+      byte[] batch2 = writeBatch(allocator, schema, new int[] {3}, new String[] {"c"});
+      try (ArrowStreamReader reader2 =
+              new ArrowStreamReader(new ByteArrayReadableSeekableByteChannel(batch2), allocator);
+          ArrowArrayStream stream2 = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader2, stream2);
+        try (Dataset ds2 =
+            Dataset.write().stream(stream2).uri(uri).mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.APPEND).execute()) {
           DatasetDelta delta = ds2.delta(1L, 2L);
-          try {
-            List<Transaction> txs = delta.listTransactions();
-            Assertions.assertTrue(txs.size() == 1);
-          } catch (UnsatisfiedLinkError e) {
-            Assumptions.assumeTrue(
-                false, "JNI for DatasetDelta.listTransactions not available: " + e.getMessage());
+          List<Transaction> txs = delta.listTransactions();
+          Assertions.assertEquals(1, txs.size(), "delta v1..v2 should contain exactly one txn");
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testGetDeletedRowIds(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException {
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      String uri = tempDir.resolve("delta_demo_delete").toString();
+      Schema schema =
+          new Schema(
+              Arrays.asList(
+                  Field.notNullable(
+                      "id", new org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType.Int(32, true)),
+                  Field.nullable(
+                      "val", org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType.Utf8.INSTANCE)));
+
+      // v1: create with three rows, keeping stable row ids so deletions are reportable.
+      byte[] batch1 =
+          writeBatch(allocator, schema, new int[] {1, 2, 3}, new String[] {"a", "b", "c"});
+      try (ArrowStreamReader reader1 =
+              new ArrowStreamReader(new ByteArrayReadableSeekableByteChannel(batch1), allocator);
+          ArrowArrayStream stream1 = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+        Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader1, stream1);
+        Dataset.write().stream(stream1)
+            .uri(uri)
+            .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+            .enableStableRowIds(true)
+            .execute()
+            .close();
+      }
+
+      // v2: delete one row.
+      try (Dataset ds = Dataset.open(uri, allocator)) {
+        ds.delete("id = 2");
+      }
+
+      try (Dataset ds2 = Dataset.open(uri, allocator)) {
+        DatasetDelta delta = ds2.delta(1L);
+        try (ArrowReader deleted = delta.getDeletedRowIds()) {
+          int total = 0;
+          while (deleted.loadNextBatch()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot outRoot = deleted.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            List<String> names =
+                outRoot.getSchema().getFields().stream()
+                    .map(Field::getName)
+                    .collect(Collectors.toList());
+            Assertions.assertEquals(Arrays.asList("_rowid"), names);
+            total += outRoot.getRowCount();
           }
+          Assertions.assertEquals(1, total, "exactly one row was deleted");
         }
       }
     }
   }
+
+  /** Helper: serialize a single Arrow batch with the given schema and (id, val) pairs. */
+  private static byte[] writeBatch(RootAllocator allocator, Schema schema, int[] ids, String[] vals)
+      throws IOException {
+    Assertions.assertEquals(ids.length, vals.length, "ids and vals must align");
+    VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator);
+    try {
+      root.allocateNew();
+      IntVector idVec = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+      VarCharVector valVec = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("val");
+      for (int i = 0; i < ids.length; i++) {
+        idVec.setSafe(i, ids[i]);
+        valVec.setSafe(i, vals[i].getBytes(java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+      }
+      root.setRowCount(ids.length);
+      ByteArrayOutputStream out = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+      try (ArrowStreamWriter writer = new ArrowStreamWriter(root, null, out)) {
+        writer.start();
+        writer.writeBatch();
+        writer.end();
+      }
+      return out.toByteArray();
+    } finally {
+      root.close();
+    }
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/NamespaceIntegrationTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DirectoryNamespaceIntegrationTest.java
similarity index 59%
rename from java/src/test/java/org/lance/NamespaceIntegrationTest.java
rename to java/src/test/java/org/lance/DirectoryNamespaceIntegrationTest.java
index 2d6f8ab1443..e6728f3e244 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/NamespaceIntegrationTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/DirectoryNamespaceIntegrationTest.java
@@ -15,26 +15,32 @@
 
 import org.lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace;
 import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespace;
-import org.lance.namespace.LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateEmptyTableRequest;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateEmptyTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.errors.LanceNamespaceException;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableResponse;
 import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableRequest;
 import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableResponse;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableRequest;
-import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.TableExistsRequest;
 import org.lance.operation.Append;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VarCharVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamWriter;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.FieldType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.AfterAll;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.AfterEach;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeAll;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.condition.EnabledIfEnvironmentVariable;
 import software.amazon.awssdk.auth.credentials.AwsBasicCredentials;
@@ -47,6 +53,7 @@
 import software.amazon.awssdk.services.s3.model.ListObjectsV2Request;
 import software.amazon.awssdk.services.s3.model.S3Object;
 
+import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
 import java.net.URI;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
@@ -55,22 +62,29 @@
 import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Optional;
 import java.util.UUID;
+import java.util.concurrent.CountDownLatch;
+import java.util.concurrent.ExecutorService;
+import java.util.concurrent.Executors;
+import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 /**
  * Integration tests for Lance with S3 and credential refresh using StorageOptionsProvider.
  *
- * <p>This test simulates a tracking credential provider that returns incrementing credentials and
- * verifies that the credential refresh mechanism works correctly.
+ * <p>This test uses DirectoryNamespace with native ops_metrics and vend_input_storage_options
+ * features to track API calls and test credential refresh mechanisms.
  *
  * <p>These tests require LocalStack to be running. Run with: docker compose up -d
  *
  * <p>Set LANCE_INTEGRATION_TEST=1 environment variable to enable these tests.
  */
 @EnabledIfEnvironmentVariable(named = "LANCE_INTEGRATION_TEST", matches = "1")
-public class NamespaceIntegrationTest {
+public class DirectoryNamespaceIntegrationTest {
 
   private static final String ENDPOINT_URL = "http://localhost:4566";
   private static final String REGION = "us-east-1";
@@ -79,6 +93,21 @@ public class NamespaceIntegrationTest {
   private static final String BUCKET_NAME = "lance-namespace-integtest-java";
 
   private static S3Client s3Client;
+  private BufferAllocator testAllocator;
+  private String testPrefix;
+
+  @BeforeEach
+  void setUpTest() {
+    testAllocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+    testPrefix = "test-" + UUID.randomUUID().toString().substring(0, 8);
+  }
+
+  @AfterEach
+  void tearDownTest() {
+    if (testAllocator != null) {
+      testAllocator.close();
+    }
+  }
 
   @BeforeAll
   static void setup() {
@@ -129,115 +158,108 @@ private static void deleteBucket() {
   }
 
   /**
-   * Tracking LanceNamespace implementation for testing.
-   *
-   * <p>This implementation wraps DirectoryNamespace and tracks API calls. It returns incrementing
-   * credentials with expiration timestamps to test the credential refresh mechanism.
+   * Result holder for namespace creation that includes both the namespace to use for operations and
+   * the inner DirectoryNamespace for metrics retrieval.
    */
-  static class TrackingNamespace implements LanceNamespace {
-    private final String bucketName;
-    private final Map<String, String> baseStorageOptions;
-    private final int credentialExpiresInSeconds;
-    private final AtomicInteger describeCallCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
-    private final AtomicInteger createCallCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
-    private final DirectoryNamespace inner;
-
-    public TrackingNamespace(
-        String bucketName, Map<String, String> storageOptions, int credentialExpiresInSeconds) {
-      this.bucketName = bucketName;
-      this.baseStorageOptions = new HashMap<>(storageOptions);
-      this.credentialExpiresInSeconds = credentialExpiresInSeconds;
-
-      // Create underlying DirectoryNamespace with storage options
-      Map<String, String> dirProps = new HashMap<>();
-      for (Map.Entry<String, String> entry : storageOptions.entrySet()) {
-        dirProps.put("storage." + entry.getKey(), entry.getValue());
-      }
-
-      // Set root based on bucket type
-      if (bucketName.startsWith("/") || bucketName.startsWith("file://")) {
-        dirProps.put("root", bucketName + "/namespace_root");
-      } else {
-        dirProps.put("root", "s3://" + bucketName + "/namespace_root");
-      }
+  protected static class TrackingNamespaceResult {
+    /** The namespace client to use for operations. May be wrapped. */
+    public final LanceNamespace namespaceClient;
 
-      this.inner = new DirectoryNamespace();
-      try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
-        this.inner.initialize(dirProps, allocator);
-      }
-    }
-
-    public int getDescribeCallCount() {
-      return describeCallCount.get();
-    }
-
-    public int getCreateCallCount() {
-      return createCallCount.get();
-    }
-
-    @Override
-    public void initialize(Map<String, String> configProperties, BufferAllocator allocator) {
-      // Already initialized in constructor
-    }
+    /** The inner DirectoryNamespace for metrics retrieval. */
+    public final DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient;
 
-    @Override
-    public String namespaceId() {
-      return "TrackingNamespace { inner: " + inner.namespaceId() + " }";
+    public TrackingNamespaceResult(
+        LanceNamespace namespaceClient, DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient) {
+      this.namespaceClient = namespaceClient;
+      this.innerNamespaceClient = innerNamespaceClient;
     }
+  }
 
-    /**
-     * Modifies storage options to add incrementing credentials with expiration timestamp.
-     *
-     * @param storageOptions Original storage options
-     * @param count Call count to use for credential generation
-     * @return Modified storage options with new credentials
-     */
-    private Map<String, String> modifyStorageOptions(
-        Map<String, String> storageOptions, int count) {
-      Map<String, String> modified =
-          storageOptions != null ? new HashMap<>(storageOptions) : new HashMap<>();
-
-      modified.put("aws_access_key_id", "AKID_" + count);
-      modified.put("aws_secret_access_key", "SECRET_" + count);
-      modified.put("aws_session_token", "TOKEN_" + count);
-
-      long expiresAtMillis = System.currentTimeMillis() + (credentialExpiresInSeconds * 1000L);
-      modified.put("expires_at_millis", String.valueOf(expiresAtMillis));
-      // Set refresh offset to 1 second (1000ms) for short-lived credential tests
-      modified.put("refresh_offset_millis", "1000");
-
-      return modified;
+  /**
+   * Creates a DirectoryNamespace configured for testing with ops metrics and credential vending.
+   *
+   * <p>Uses native DirectoryNamespace features:
+   *
+   * <ul>
+   *   <li>ops_metrics_enabled=true: Tracks API call counts via retrieveOpsMetrics()
+   *   <li>vend_input_storage_options=true: Returns input storage options in responses
+   *   <li>vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis: Adds expires_at_millis
+   * </ul>
+   *
+   * @param bucketName S3 bucket name or local path
+   * @param storageOptions Storage options to pass through (credentials, endpoint, etc.)
+   * @param credentialExpiresInSeconds Interval in seconds for credential expiration
+   * @return TrackingNamespaceResult containing the namespace and inner DirectoryNamespace
+   */
+  protected TrackingNamespaceResult createTrackingNamespace(
+      String bucketName, Map<String, String> storageOptions, int credentialExpiresInSeconds) {
+    Map<String, String> dirProps = new HashMap<>();
+
+    // Add refresh_offset_millis to storage options so that credentials are not
+    // considered expired immediately. Set to 1 second (1000ms) so that refresh
+    // checks work correctly with short-lived credentials in tests.
+    Map<String, String> storageOptionsWithRefresh = new HashMap<>(storageOptions);
+    storageOptionsWithRefresh.put("refresh_offset_millis", "1000");
+
+    for (Map.Entry<String, String> entry : storageOptionsWithRefresh.entrySet()) {
+      dirProps.put("storage." + entry.getKey(), entry.getValue());
     }
 
-    @Override
-    public CreateEmptyTableResponse createEmptyTable(CreateEmptyTableRequest request) {
-      int count = createCallCount.incrementAndGet();
-
-      CreateEmptyTableResponse response = inner.createEmptyTable(request);
-      response.setStorageOptions(modifyStorageOptions(response.getStorageOptions(), count));
-
-      return response;
+    // Set root based on bucket type
+    if (bucketName.startsWith("/") || bucketName.startsWith("file://")) {
+      dirProps.put("root", bucketName + "/namespace_root");
+    } else {
+      dirProps.put("root", "s3://" + bucketName + "/namespace_root");
     }
 
-    @Override
-    public DeclareTableResponse declareTable(DeclareTableRequest request) {
-      int count = createCallCount.incrementAndGet();
+    // Enable ops metrics tracking
+    dirProps.put("ops_metrics_enabled", "true");
+    // Enable storage options vending
+    dirProps.put("vend_input_storage_options", "true");
+    // Set refresh interval in milliseconds
+    dirProps.put(
+        "vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis",
+        String.valueOf(credentialExpiresInSeconds * 1000L));
 
-      DeclareTableResponse response = inner.declareTable(request);
-      response.setStorageOptions(modifyStorageOptions(response.getStorageOptions(), count));
-
-      return response;
+    DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      innerNamespaceClient.initialize(dirProps, allocator);
     }
+    LanceNamespace namespaceClient = wrapNamespace(innerNamespaceClient);
+    return new TrackingNamespaceResult(namespaceClient, innerNamespaceClient);
+  }
 
-    @Override
-    public DescribeTableResponse describeTable(DescribeTableRequest request) {
-      int count = describeCallCount.incrementAndGet();
+  /**
+   * Factory method to wrap the DirectoryNamespace. Subclasses can override this to provide a custom
+   * namespace implementation.
+   *
+   * @param inner The DirectoryNamespace to wrap
+   * @return The namespace to use in tests (may be the same as inner or a wrapper)
+   */
+  protected LanceNamespace wrapNamespace(DirectoryNamespace inner) {
+    return inner;
+  }
 
-      DescribeTableResponse response = inner.describeTable(request);
-      response.setStorageOptions(modifyStorageOptions(response.getStorageOptions(), count));
+  /**
+   * Gets the number of describe_table calls made to the namespace.
+   *
+   * @param namespaceClient The DirectoryNamespace to check
+   * @return Number of describe_table calls
+   */
+  protected static int getDescribeCallCount(DirectoryNamespace namespaceClient) {
+    Map<String, Long> metrics = namespaceClient.retrieveOpsMetrics();
+    return metrics.getOrDefault("describe_table", 0L).intValue();
+  }
 
-      return response;
-    }
+  /**
+   * Gets the number of declare_table calls made to the namespace.
+   *
+   * @param namespaceClient The DirectoryNamespace to check
+   * @return Number of declare_table calls
+   */
+  protected static int getDeclareCallCount(DirectoryNamespace namespaceClient) {
+    Map<String, Long> metrics = namespaceClient.retrieveOpsMetrics();
+    return metrics.getOrDefault("declare_table", 0L).intValue();
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -252,7 +274,9 @@ void testOpenDatasetWithoutRefresh() throws Exception {
       storageOptions.put("aws_region", REGION);
 
       // Create tracking namespace with 60-second expiration (long enough to not expire during test)
-      TrackingNamespace namespace = new TrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      TrackingNamespaceResult nsResult = createTrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient = nsResult.namespaceClient;
+      DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient = nsResult.innerNamespaceClient;
       String tableName = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
 
       // Create schema and data
@@ -311,36 +335,38 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
               }
             };
 
-        // Create dataset through namespace
+        // Create dataset through namespace client
         try (Dataset dataset =
             Dataset.write()
                 .allocator(allocator)
                 .reader(testReader)
-                .namespace(namespace)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
                 .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
                 .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                .storageOptions(storageOptions)
                 .execute()) {
           assertEquals(2, dataset.countRows());
         }
       }
 
-      // Verify createEmptyTable was called
-      assertEquals(1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should be called once");
+      // Verify declareTable was called
+      assertEquals(
+          1, getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "declareTable should be called once");
 
-      // Open dataset through namespace WITH refresh enabled
-      ReadOptions readOptions = new ReadOptions.Builder().build();
+      // Open dataset through namespace client WITH refresh enabled
+      ReadOptions readOptions = new ReadOptions.Builder().setStorageOptions(storageOptions).build();
 
-      int callCountBeforeOpen = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+      int callCountBeforeOpen = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
       try (Dataset dsFromNamespace =
           Dataset.open()
               .allocator(allocator)
-              .namespace(namespace)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
               .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
               .readOptions(readOptions)
               .build()) {
         // With the fix, describeTable should only be called once during open
         // to get the table location and initial storage options
-        int callCountAfterOpen = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+        int callCountAfterOpen = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
         assertEquals(
             1,
             callCountAfterOpen - callCountBeforeOpen,
@@ -359,7 +385,7 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
         assertEquals(1, versions.size());
 
         // With the fix, credentials are cached so no additional calls are made
-        int finalCallCount = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+        int finalCallCount = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
         int totalCalls = finalCallCount - callCountBeforeOpen;
         assertEquals(
             1,
@@ -382,7 +408,9 @@ void testStorageOptionsProviderWithRefresh() throws Exception {
       storageOptions.put("aws_region", REGION);
 
       // Create tracking namespace with 5-second expiration for faster testing
-      TrackingNamespace namespace = new TrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 5);
+      TrackingNamespaceResult nsResult = createTrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 5);
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient = nsResult.namespaceClient;
+      DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient = nsResult.innerNamespaceClient;
       String tableName = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
 
       // Create schema and data
@@ -441,35 +469,37 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
               }
             };
 
-        // Create dataset through namespace with refresh enabled
+        // Create dataset through namespace client with refresh enabled
         try (Dataset dataset =
             Dataset.write()
                 .allocator(allocator)
                 .reader(testReader)
-                .namespace(namespace)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
                 .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
                 .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                .storageOptions(storageOptions)
                 .execute()) {
           assertEquals(2, dataset.countRows());
         }
       }
 
-      // Verify createEmptyTable was called
-      assertEquals(1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should be called once");
+      // Verify declareTable was called
+      assertEquals(
+          1, getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "declareTable should be called once");
 
-      // Open dataset through namespace with refresh enabled
-      ReadOptions readOptions = new ReadOptions.Builder().build();
+      // Open dataset through namespace client with refresh enabled
+      ReadOptions readOptions = new ReadOptions.Builder().setStorageOptions(storageOptions).build();
 
-      int callCountBeforeOpen = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+      int callCountBeforeOpen = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
       try (Dataset dsFromNamespace =
           Dataset.open()
               .allocator(allocator)
-              .namespace(namespace)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
               .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
               .readOptions(readOptions)
               .build()) {
         // With the fix, describeTable should only be called once during open
-        int callCountAfterOpen = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+        int callCountAfterOpen = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
         assertEquals(
             1,
             callCountAfterOpen - callCountBeforeOpen,
@@ -480,7 +510,7 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
         assertEquals(2, dsFromNamespace.countRows());
 
         // Record call count after initial reads
-        int callCountAfterInitialReads = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+        int callCountAfterInitialReads = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
         int callsAfterFirstRead = callCountAfterInitialReads - callCountBeforeOpen;
         assertEquals(
             1,
@@ -499,7 +529,7 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
         List<Version> versions = dsFromNamespace.listVersions();
         assertEquals(1, versions.size());
 
-        int finalCallCount = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+        int finalCallCount = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
         int totalCallsAfterExpiration = finalCallCount - callCountBeforeOpen;
         assertEquals(
             2,
@@ -523,7 +553,9 @@ void testWriteDatasetBuilderWithNamespaceCreate() throws Exception {
       storageOptions.put("aws_region", REGION);
 
       // Create tracking namespace
-      TrackingNamespace namespace = new TrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      TrackingNamespaceResult nsResult = createTrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient = nsResult.namespaceClient;
+      DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient = nsResult.innerNamespaceClient;
       String tableName = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
 
       // Create schema and data
@@ -582,22 +614,22 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
               }
             };
 
-        int callCountBefore = namespace.getCreateCallCount();
+        int callCountBefore = getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
 
-        // Use the write builder to create a dataset through namespace
+        // Use the write builder to create a dataset through namespace client
         try (Dataset dataset =
             Dataset.write()
                 .allocator(allocator)
                 .reader(testReader)
-                .namespace(namespace)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
                 .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
                 .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                .storageOptions(storageOptions)
                 .execute()) {
 
-          // Verify createEmptyTable was called
-          int callCountAfter = namespace.getCreateCallCount();
-          assertEquals(
-              1, callCountAfter - callCountBefore, "createEmptyTable should be called once");
+          // Verify declareTable was called
+          int callCountAfter = getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
+          assertEquals(1, callCountAfter - callCountBefore, "declareTable should be called once");
 
           // Verify dataset was created successfully
           assertEquals(2, dataset.countRows());
@@ -621,12 +653,16 @@ void testWriteDatasetBuilderWithNamespaceCreateCallCounts() throws Exception {
       // Create tracking namespace with 60-second expiration (long enough that no refresh happens)
       // Credentials expire at T+60s. With a 1s refresh offset, refresh would happen at T+59s.
       // Since writes complete well under 59 seconds, NO credential refresh should occur.
-      TrackingNamespace namespace = new TrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      TrackingNamespaceResult nsResult = createTrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient = nsResult.namespaceClient;
+      DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient = nsResult.innerNamespaceClient;
       String tableName = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
 
       // Verify initial call counts
-      assertEquals(0, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should not be called yet");
-      assertEquals(0, namespace.getDescribeCallCount(), "describeTable should not be called yet");
+      assertEquals(
+          0, getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "declareTable should not be called yet");
+      assertEquals(
+          0, getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "describeTable should not be called yet");
 
       // Create schema and data
       Schema schema =
@@ -684,29 +720,32 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
               }
             };
 
-        // Use the write builder to create a dataset through namespace
+        // Use the write builder to create a dataset through namespace client
         // Write completes instantly, so NO describeTable call should happen for refresh.
         try (Dataset dataset =
             Dataset.write()
                 .allocator(allocator)
                 .reader(testReader)
-                .namespace(namespace)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
                 .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
                 .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                .storageOptions(storageOptions)
                 .execute()) {
 
-          // Verify createEmptyTable was called exactly ONCE
+          // Verify declareTable was called exactly ONCE
           assertEquals(
-              1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should be called exactly once");
+              1,
+              getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient),
+              "declareTable should be called exactly once");
 
           // Verify describeTable was NOT called during CREATE
-          // Initial credentials come from createEmptyTable response, and since credentials
+          // Initial credentials come from declareTable response, and since credentials
           // don't expire during the fast write, NO refresh (describeTable) is needed
           assertEquals(
               0,
-              namespace.getDescribeCallCount(),
+              getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient),
               "describeTable should NOT be called during CREATE - "
-                  + "initial credentials come from createEmptyTable response and don't expire");
+                  + "initial credentials come from declareTable response and don't expire");
 
           // Verify dataset was created successfully
           assertEquals(2, dataset.countRows());
@@ -716,33 +755,35 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
 
       // Verify counts after dataset is closed
       assertEquals(
-          1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should still be 1 after close");
+          1,
+          getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient),
+          "declareTable should still be 1 after close");
       assertEquals(
           0,
-          namespace.getDescribeCallCount(),
+          getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient),
           "describeTable should still be 0 after close (no refresh needed)");
 
-      // Now open the dataset through namespace with long-lived credentials (60s expiration)
-      ReadOptions readOptions = new ReadOptions.Builder().build();
+      // Now open the dataset through namespace client with long-lived credentials (60s expiration)
+      ReadOptions readOptions = new ReadOptions.Builder().setStorageOptions(storageOptions).build();
 
       try (Dataset dsFromNamespace =
           Dataset.open()
               .allocator(allocator)
-              .namespace(namespace)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
               .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
               .readOptions(readOptions)
               .build()) {
 
-        // createEmptyTable should NOT be called during open (only during CREATE)
+        // declareTable should NOT be called during open (only during CREATE)
         assertEquals(
             1,
-            namespace.getCreateCallCount(),
-            "createEmptyTable should still be 1 (not called during open)");
+            getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient),
+            "declareTable should still be 1 (not called during open)");
 
         // describeTable is called exactly ONCE during open to get table location
         assertEquals(
             1,
-            namespace.getDescribeCallCount(),
+            getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient),
             "describeTable should be called exactly once during open");
 
         // Verify we can read the data multiple times
@@ -754,13 +795,13 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
         // (credentials are cached and don't expire during this fast test)
         assertEquals(
             1,
-            namespace.getDescribeCallCount(),
+            getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient),
             "describeTable should still be 1 after reads (credentials cached, no refresh needed)");
       }
 
       // Final verification
-      assertEquals(1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "Final: createEmptyTable = 1");
-      assertEquals(1, namespace.getDescribeCallCount(), "Final: describeTable = 1");
+      assertEquals(1, getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "Final: declareTable = 1");
+      assertEquals(1, getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "Final: describeTable = 1");
     }
   }
 
@@ -776,7 +817,9 @@ void testWriteDatasetBuilderWithNamespaceAppend() throws Exception {
       storageOptions.put("aws_region", REGION);
 
       // Create tracking namespace
-      TrackingNamespace namespace = new TrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      TrackingNamespaceResult nsResult = createTrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient = nsResult.namespaceClient;
+      DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient = nsResult.innerNamespaceClient;
       String tableName = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
 
       Schema schema =
@@ -834,22 +877,24 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
               }
             };
 
-        // Create initial dataset through namespace
+        // Create initial dataset through namespace client
         try (Dataset dataset =
             Dataset.write()
                 .allocator(allocator)
                 .reader(testReader)
-                .namespace(namespace)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
                 .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
                 .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                .storageOptions(storageOptions)
                 .execute()) {
           assertEquals(2, dataset.countRows());
         }
 
-        assertEquals(1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should be called once");
-        int initialDescribeCount = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+        assertEquals(
+            1, getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "declareTable should be called once");
+        int initialDescribeCount = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
 
-        // Now append data using the write builder with namespace
+        // Now append data using the write builder with namespace client
         ArrowReader appendReader =
             new ArrowReader(allocator) {
               boolean firstRead = true;
@@ -882,18 +927,19 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
               }
             };
 
-        // Use the write builder to append to dataset through namespace
+        // Use the write builder to append to dataset through namespace client
         try (Dataset dataset =
             Dataset.write()
                 .allocator(allocator)
                 .reader(appendReader)
-                .namespace(namespace)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
                 .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
                 .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.APPEND)
+                .storageOptions(storageOptions)
                 .execute()) {
 
           // Verify describeTable was called
-          int callCountAfter = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+          int callCountAfter = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
           assertEquals(
               1,
               callCountAfter - initialDescribeCount,
@@ -918,7 +964,9 @@ void testWriteDatasetBuilderWithNamespaceOverwrite() throws Exception {
       storageOptions.put("aws_region", REGION);
 
       // Create tracking namespace
-      TrackingNamespace namespace = new TrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      TrackingNamespaceResult nsResult = createTrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient = nsResult.namespaceClient;
+      DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient = nsResult.innerNamespaceClient;
       String tableName = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
 
       Schema schema =
@@ -978,15 +1026,20 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
             Dataset.write()
                 .allocator(allocator)
                 .reader(createReader)
-                .namespace(namespace)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
                 .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
                 .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                .storageOptions(storageOptions)
                 .execute()) {
           assertEquals(1, dataset.countRows());
         }
 
-        assertEquals(1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should be called once");
-        assertEquals(0, namespace.getDescribeCallCount(), "describeTable should not be called yet");
+        assertEquals(
+            1, getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "declareTable should be called once");
+        assertEquals(
+            0,
+            getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient),
+            "describeTable should not be called yet");
 
         // Now overwrite with 2 rows
         aVector.allocateNew(2);
@@ -1037,14 +1090,16 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
             Dataset.write()
                 .allocator(allocator)
                 .reader(overwriteReader)
-                .namespace(namespace)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
                 .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
                 .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.OVERWRITE)
+                .storageOptions(storageOptions)
                 .execute()) {
 
           // Verify describeTable was called for overwrite
-          assertEquals(1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should still be 1");
-          int describeCountAfterOverwrite = namespace.getDescribeCallCount();
+          assertEquals(
+              1, getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "declareTable should still be 1");
+          int describeCountAfterOverwrite = getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient);
           assertEquals(
               1, describeCountAfterOverwrite, "describeTable should be called once for overwrite");
 
@@ -1054,12 +1109,13 @@ public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
               2, dataset.listVersions().size()); // Version 1 (create) + Version 2 (overwrite)
         }
 
-        // Verify we can open and read the dataset through namespace
+        // Verify we can open and read the dataset through namespace client
         try (Dataset ds =
             Dataset.open()
                 .allocator(allocator)
-                .namespace(namespace)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
                 .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
+                .readOptions(new ReadOptions.Builder().setStorageOptions(storageOptions).build())
                 .build()) {
           assertEquals(2, ds.countRows(), "Should have 2 rows after overwrite");
           assertEquals(2, ds.listVersions().size(), "Should have 2 versions");
@@ -1080,7 +1136,9 @@ void testDistributedWriteWithNamespace() throws Exception {
       storageOptions.put("aws_region", REGION);
 
       // Create tracking namespace
-      TrackingNamespace namespace = new TrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      TrackingNamespaceResult nsResult = createTrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient = nsResult.namespaceClient;
+      DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient = nsResult.innerNamespaceClient;
       String tableName = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
 
       Schema schema =
@@ -1089,13 +1147,15 @@ void testDistributedWriteWithNamespace() throws Exception {
                   new Field("a", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null),
                   new Field("b", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null)));
 
-      // Step 1: Create empty table via namespace
-      CreateEmptyTableRequest request = new CreateEmptyTableRequest();
+      // Step 1: Declare table via namespace
+      DeclareTableRequest request = new DeclareTableRequest();
       request.setId(Arrays.asList(tableName));
-      CreateEmptyTableResponse response = namespace.createEmptyTable(request);
+      DeclareTableResponse response = namespaceClient.declareTable(request);
 
-      assertEquals(1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should be called once");
-      assertEquals(0, namespace.getDescribeCallCount(), "describeTable should not be called yet");
+      assertEquals(
+          1, getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "declareTable should be called once");
+      assertEquals(
+          0, getDescribeCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "describeTable should not be called yet");
 
       String tableUri = response.getLocation();
       Map<String, String> namespaceStorageOptions = response.getStorageOptions();
@@ -1106,11 +1166,8 @@ void testDistributedWriteWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         mergedOptions.putAll(namespaceStorageOptions);
       }
 
-      // Create storage options provider
-      LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider storageOptionsProvider =
-          new LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(namespace, Arrays.asList(tableName));
-
       WriteParams writeParams = new WriteParams.Builder().withStorageOptions(mergedOptions).build();
+      List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList(tableName);
 
       // Step 2: Write multiple fragments in parallel (simulated)
       List<FragmentMetadata> allFragments = new ArrayList<>();
@@ -1131,7 +1188,7 @@ void testDistributedWriteWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         root.setRowCount(2);
 
         List<FragmentMetadata> fragment1 =
-            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, storageOptionsProvider);
+            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, namespaceClient, tableId);
         allFragments.addAll(fragment1);
       }
 
@@ -1151,7 +1208,7 @@ void testDistributedWriteWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         root.setRowCount(2);
 
         List<FragmentMetadata> fragment2 =
-            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, storageOptionsProvider);
+            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, namespaceClient, tableId);
         allFragments.addAll(fragment2);
       }
 
@@ -1169,7 +1226,7 @@ void testDistributedWriteWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         root.setRowCount(1);
 
         List<FragmentMetadata> fragment3 =
-            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, storageOptionsProvider);
+            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, namespaceClient, tableId);
         allFragments.addAll(fragment3);
       }
 
@@ -1183,14 +1240,15 @@ void testDistributedWriteWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         assertEquals(1, dataset.listVersions().size(), "Should have 1 version after commit");
       }
 
-      // Step 4: Open dataset through namespace and verify
+      // Step 4: Open dataset through namespace client and verify
       try (Dataset dsFromNamespace =
           Dataset.open()
               .allocator(allocator)
-              .namespace(namespace)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
               .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
+              .readOptions(new ReadOptions.Builder().setStorageOptions(storageOptions).build())
               .build()) {
-        assertEquals(5, dsFromNamespace.countRows(), "Should read 5 rows through namespace");
+        assertEquals(5, dsFromNamespace.countRows(), "Should read 5 rows through namespace client");
       }
     }
   }
@@ -1207,7 +1265,9 @@ void testFragmentCreateAndCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
       storageOptions.put("aws_region", REGION);
 
       // Create tracking namespace with 60-second expiration
-      TrackingNamespace namespace = new TrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      TrackingNamespaceResult nsResult = createTrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient = nsResult.namespaceClient;
+      DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient = nsResult.innerNamespaceClient;
       String tableName = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
 
       Schema schema =
@@ -1216,12 +1276,13 @@ void testFragmentCreateAndCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
                   new Field("id", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null),
                   new Field("value", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null)));
 
-      // Create empty table via namespace
-      CreateEmptyTableRequest request = new CreateEmptyTableRequest();
+      // Declare table via namespace
+      DeclareTableRequest request = new DeclareTableRequest();
       request.setId(Arrays.asList(tableName));
-      CreateEmptyTableResponse response = namespace.createEmptyTable(request);
+      DeclareTableResponse response = namespaceClient.declareTable(request);
 
-      assertEquals(1, namespace.getCreateCallCount(), "createEmptyTable should be called once");
+      assertEquals(
+          1, getDeclareCallCount(innerNamespaceClient), "declareTable should be called once");
 
       String tableUri = response.getLocation();
       Map<String, String> namespaceStorageOptions = response.getStorageOptions();
@@ -1232,11 +1293,8 @@ void testFragmentCreateAndCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         mergedOptions.putAll(namespaceStorageOptions);
       }
 
-      // Create storage options provider
-      LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider provider =
-          new LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(namespace, Arrays.asList(tableName));
-
       WriteParams writeParams = new WriteParams.Builder().withStorageOptions(mergedOptions).build();
+      List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList(tableName);
 
       try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
         IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
@@ -1257,9 +1315,9 @@ void testFragmentCreateAndCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         valueVector.setValueCount(3);
         root.setRowCount(3);
 
-        // Create fragment with StorageOptionsProvider
+        // Create fragment with namespace client
         List<FragmentMetadata> fragments1 =
-            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, provider);
+            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, namespaceClient, tableId);
 
         assertEquals(1, fragments1.size());
 
@@ -1272,9 +1330,9 @@ void testFragmentCreateAndCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         valueVector.set(2, 600);
         root.setRowCount(3);
 
-        // Create another fragment with the same provider
+        // Create another fragment with the same namespace client
         List<FragmentMetadata> fragments2 =
-            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, provider);
+            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, namespaceClient, tableId);
 
         assertEquals(1, fragments2.size());
 
@@ -1296,12 +1354,13 @@ void testFragmentCreateAndCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         }
       }
 
-      // Verify we can open and read the dataset through namespace
+      // Verify we can open and read the dataset through namespace client
       try (Dataset ds =
           Dataset.open()
               .allocator(allocator)
-              .namespace(namespace)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
               .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
+              .readOptions(new ReadOptions.Builder().setStorageOptions(storageOptions).build())
               .build()) {
         assertEquals(6, ds.countRows(), "Should have 6 rows total");
         assertEquals(2, ds.listVersions().size(), "Should have 2 versions");
@@ -1321,7 +1380,8 @@ void testTransactionCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
       storageOptions.put("aws_region", REGION);
 
       // Create tracking namespace
-      TrackingNamespace namespace = new TrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      TrackingNamespaceResult nsResult = createTrackingNamespace(BUCKET_NAME, storageOptions, 60);
+      LanceNamespace namespaceClient = nsResult.namespaceClient;
       String tableName = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
 
       Schema schema =
@@ -1330,10 +1390,10 @@ void testTransactionCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
                   new Field("id", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null),
                   new Field("name", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Utf8()), null)));
 
-      // Create empty table via namespace
-      CreateEmptyTableRequest request = new CreateEmptyTableRequest();
+      // Declare table via namespace
+      DeclareTableRequest request = new DeclareTableRequest();
       request.setId(Arrays.asList(tableName));
-      CreateEmptyTableResponse response = namespace.createEmptyTable(request);
+      DeclareTableResponse response = namespaceClient.declareTable(request);
 
       String tableUri = response.getLocation();
       Map<String, String> namespaceStorageOptions = response.getStorageOptions();
@@ -1344,12 +1404,9 @@ void testTransactionCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         mergedOptions.putAll(namespaceStorageOptions);
       }
 
-      // Create storage options provider
-      LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider provider =
-          new LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(namespace, Arrays.asList(tableName));
-
       // First, write some initial data using Fragment.create and commit
       WriteParams writeParams = new WriteParams.Builder().withStorageOptions(mergedOptions).build();
+      List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList(tableName);
 
       List<FragmentMetadata> initialFragments;
       try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
@@ -1369,7 +1426,8 @@ void testTransactionCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         nameVector.setValueCount(2);
         root.setRowCount(2);
 
-        initialFragments = Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, provider);
+        initialFragments =
+            Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, namespaceClient, tableId);
       }
 
       // Commit initial fragments
@@ -1381,15 +1439,17 @@ void testTransactionCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
         assertEquals(2, dataset.countRows());
       }
 
-      // Now test Transaction.commit with provider
-      // Open dataset with provider using mergedOptions (which has expires_at_millis)
-      ReadOptions readOptions =
-          new ReadOptions.Builder()
-              .setStorageOptions(mergedOptions)
-              .setStorageOptionsProvider(provider)
-              .build();
+      // Now test Transaction.commit with namespace client
+      // Open dataset with namespace client using mergedOptions (which has expires_at_millis)
+      ReadOptions readOptions = new ReadOptions.Builder().setStorageOptions(mergedOptions).build();
 
-      try (Dataset datasetWithProvider = Dataset.open(allocator, tableUri, readOptions)) {
+      try (Dataset datasetWithNamespaceClient =
+          Dataset.open()
+              .allocator(allocator)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+              .tableId(tableId)
+              .readOptions(readOptions)
+              .build()) {
         // Create more fragments to append
         List<FragmentMetadata> newFragments;
         try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
@@ -1409,33 +1469,371 @@ void testTransactionCommitWithNamespace() throws Exception {
           nameVector.setValueCount(2);
           root.setRowCount(2);
 
-          newFragments = Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, provider);
+          newFragments =
+              Fragment.create(tableUri, allocator, root, writeParams, namespaceClient, tableId);
         }
 
         // Create and commit transaction
         Append appendOp = Append.builder().fragments(newFragments).build();
-        Transaction transaction =
-            new Transaction.Builder(datasetWithProvider)
-                .readVersion(datasetWithProvider.version())
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(datasetWithNamespaceClient.version())
                 .operation(appendOp)
-                .build();
-
-        try (Dataset committedDataset = transaction.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(2, committedDataset.version());
-          assertEquals(4, committedDataset.countRows());
+                .build()) {
+          try (Dataset committedDataset =
+              new CommitBuilder(datasetWithNamespaceClient).execute(transaction)) {
+            assertEquals(2, committedDataset.version());
+            assertEquals(4, committedDataset.countRows());
+          }
         }
       }
 
-      // Verify we can open and read the dataset through namespace
+      // Verify we can open and read the dataset through namespace client
       try (Dataset ds =
           Dataset.open()
               .allocator(allocator)
-              .namespace(namespace)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
               .tableId(Arrays.asList(tableName))
+              .readOptions(new ReadOptions.Builder().setStorageOptions(storageOptions).build())
               .build()) {
         assertEquals(4, ds.countRows(), "Should have 4 rows total");
         assertEquals(2, ds.listVersions().size(), "Should have 2 versions");
       }
     }
   }
+
+  private Map<String, String> createDirectoryNamespaceS3Config() {
+    Map<String, String> config = new HashMap<>();
+    config.put("root", "s3://" + BUCKET_NAME + "/" + testPrefix);
+    config.put("storage.access_key_id", ACCESS_KEY);
+    config.put("storage.secret_access_key", SECRET_KEY);
+    config.put("storage.endpoint", ENDPOINT_URL);
+    config.put("storage.region", REGION);
+    config.put("storage.allow_http", "true");
+    config.put("storage.virtual_hosted_style_request", "false");
+    config.put("inline_optimization_enabled", "false");
+    // Very high retry count to guarantee all concurrent operations succeed
+    config.put("commit_retries", "2147483647");
+    return config;
+  }
+
+  private byte[] createTestTableData() throws Exception {
+    Schema schema =
+        new Schema(
+            Arrays.asList(
+                new Field("id", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null),
+                new Field("name", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Utf8()), null),
+                new Field("age", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null)));
+
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, testAllocator)) {
+      IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+      VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+      IntVector ageVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("age");
+
+      idVector.allocateNew(3);
+      nameVector.allocateNew(3);
+      ageVector.allocateNew(3);
+
+      idVector.set(0, 1);
+      nameVector.set(0, "Alice".getBytes());
+      ageVector.set(0, 30);
+
+      idVector.set(1, 2);
+      nameVector.set(1, "Bob".getBytes());
+      ageVector.set(1, 25);
+
+      idVector.set(2, 3);
+      nameVector.set(2, "Charlie".getBytes());
+      ageVector.set(2, 35);
+
+      idVector.setValueCount(3);
+      nameVector.setValueCount(3);
+      ageVector.setValueCount(3);
+      root.setRowCount(3);
+
+      ByteArrayOutputStream out = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+      try (ArrowStreamWriter writer = new ArrowStreamWriter(root, null, out)) {
+        writer.writeBatch();
+      }
+      return out.toByteArray();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testBasicCreateAndDropOnS3() throws Exception {
+    DirectoryNamespace namespaceClient = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    namespaceClient.initialize(createDirectoryNamespaceS3Config(), testAllocator);
+
+    try {
+      String tableName = "basic_test_table";
+      List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName);
+      byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+
+      CreateTableRequest createReq = new CreateTableRequest().id(tableId);
+      CreateTableResponse createResp = namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+      assertNotNull(createResp);
+      assertNotNull(createResp.getLocation());
+
+      DropTableRequest dropReq = new DropTableRequest().id(tableId);
+      DropTableResponse dropResp = namespaceClient.dropTable(dropReq);
+      assertNotNull(dropResp);
+
+      TableExistsRequest existsReq = new TableExistsRequest().id(tableId);
+      assertThrows(LanceNamespaceException.class, () -> namespaceClient.tableExists(existsReq));
+    } finally {
+      namespaceClient.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testConcurrentCreateAndDropWithSingleInstanceOnS3() throws Exception {
+    DirectoryNamespace namespaceClient = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    namespaceClient.initialize(createDirectoryNamespaceS3Config(), testAllocator);
+
+    try {
+      // Initialize namespace first - create parent namespace to ensure __manifest table
+      // is created before concurrent operations
+      CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+          new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns"));
+      namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+      int numTables = 10;
+      ExecutorService executor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(numTables);
+      CountDownLatch startLatch = new CountDownLatch(1);
+      CountDownLatch doneLatch = new CountDownLatch(numTables);
+      AtomicInteger successCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+      AtomicInteger failCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+
+      for (int i = 0; i < numTables; i++) {
+        final int tableIndex = i;
+        executor.submit(
+            () -> {
+              try {
+                startLatch.await();
+
+                String tableName = "s3_concurrent_table_" + tableIndex;
+                List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName);
+                byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+
+                CreateTableRequest createReq = new CreateTableRequest().id(tableId);
+                namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+                DropTableRequest dropReq = new DropTableRequest().id(tableId);
+                namespaceClient.dropTable(dropReq);
+
+                successCount.incrementAndGet();
+              } catch (Exception e) {
+                failCount.incrementAndGet();
+              } finally {
+                doneLatch.countDown();
+              }
+            });
+      }
+
+      startLatch.countDown();
+      assertTrue(doneLatch.await(120, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Timed out waiting for tasks to complete");
+
+      executor.shutdown();
+      assertTrue(executor.awaitTermination(30, TimeUnit.SECONDS));
+
+      assertEquals(numTables, successCount.get(), "All tasks should succeed");
+      assertEquals(0, failCount.get(), "No tasks should fail");
+    } finally {
+      namespaceClient.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testConcurrentCreateAndDropWithMultipleInstancesOnS3() throws Exception {
+    Map<String, String> baseConfig = createDirectoryNamespaceS3Config();
+
+    // Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+    // table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+    DirectoryNamespace initNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    initNs.initialize(new HashMap<>(baseConfig), testAllocator);
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq = new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns"));
+    initNs.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    initNs.close();
+
+    int numTables = 10;
+    ExecutorService executor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(numTables);
+    CountDownLatch startLatch = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    CountDownLatch doneLatch = new CountDownLatch(numTables);
+    AtomicInteger successCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    AtomicInteger failCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    List<DirectoryNamespace> namespaces = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < numTables; i++) {
+      final int tableIndex = i;
+      executor.submit(
+          () -> {
+            DirectoryNamespace localNs = null;
+            try {
+              startLatch.await();
+
+              localNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+              localNs.initialize(new HashMap<>(baseConfig), testAllocator);
+
+              synchronized (namespaces) {
+                namespaces.add(localNs);
+              }
+
+              String tableName = "s3_multi_ns_table_" + tableIndex;
+              List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName);
+              byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+
+              CreateTableRequest createReq = new CreateTableRequest().id(tableId);
+              localNs.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+              DropTableRequest dropReq = new DropTableRequest().id(tableId);
+              localNs.dropTable(dropReq);
+
+              successCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+              failCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } finally {
+              doneLatch.countDown();
+            }
+          });
+    }
+
+    startLatch.countDown();
+    assertTrue(doneLatch.await(120, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Timed out waiting for tasks to complete");
+
+    executor.shutdown();
+    assertTrue(executor.awaitTermination(30, TimeUnit.SECONDS));
+
+    for (DirectoryNamespace ns : namespaces) {
+      try {
+        ns.close();
+      } catch (Exception e) {
+        // Ignore
+      }
+    }
+
+    assertEquals(numTables, successCount.get(), "All tasks should succeed");
+    assertEquals(0, failCount.get(), "No tasks should fail");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testConcurrentCreateThenDropFromDifferentInstanceOnS3() throws Exception {
+    Map<String, String> baseConfig = createDirectoryNamespaceS3Config();
+
+    // Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+    // table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+    DirectoryNamespace initNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    initNs.initialize(new HashMap<>(baseConfig), testAllocator);
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq = new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns"));
+    initNs.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    initNs.close();
+
+    int numTables = 10;
+
+    // First, create all tables using separate namespace instances
+    ExecutorService createExecutor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(numTables);
+    CountDownLatch createStartLatch = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    CountDownLatch createDoneLatch = new CountDownLatch(numTables);
+    AtomicInteger createSuccessCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    List<DirectoryNamespace> createNamespaces = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < numTables; i++) {
+      final int tableIndex = i;
+      createExecutor.submit(
+          () -> {
+            DirectoryNamespace localNs = null;
+            try {
+              createStartLatch.await();
+
+              localNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+              localNs.initialize(new HashMap<>(baseConfig), testAllocator);
+
+              synchronized (createNamespaces) {
+                createNamespaces.add(localNs);
+              }
+
+              String tableName = "s3_cross_instance_table_" + tableIndex;
+              List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName);
+              byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+
+              CreateTableRequest createReq = new CreateTableRequest().id(tableId);
+              localNs.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+              createSuccessCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+              // Ignore
+            } finally {
+              createDoneLatch.countDown();
+            }
+          });
+    }
+
+    createStartLatch.countDown();
+    assertTrue(createDoneLatch.await(120, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Timed out waiting for creates");
+    createExecutor.shutdown();
+
+    assertEquals(numTables, createSuccessCount.get(), "All creates should succeed");
+
+    // Close create namespaces
+    for (DirectoryNamespace ns : createNamespaces) {
+      try {
+        ns.close();
+      } catch (Exception e) {
+        // Ignore
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Now drop all tables using NEW namespace instances
+    ExecutorService dropExecutor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(numTables);
+    CountDownLatch dropStartLatch = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    CountDownLatch dropDoneLatch = new CountDownLatch(numTables);
+    AtomicInteger dropSuccessCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    AtomicInteger dropFailCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    List<DirectoryNamespace> dropNamespaces = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < numTables; i++) {
+      final int tableIndex = i;
+      dropExecutor.submit(
+          () -> {
+            DirectoryNamespace localNs = null;
+            try {
+              dropStartLatch.await();
+
+              localNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+              localNs.initialize(new HashMap<>(baseConfig), testAllocator);
+
+              synchronized (dropNamespaces) {
+                dropNamespaces.add(localNs);
+              }
+
+              String tableName = "s3_cross_instance_table_" + tableIndex;
+              List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName);
+
+              DropTableRequest dropReq = new DropTableRequest().id(tableId);
+              localNs.dropTable(dropReq);
+
+              dropSuccessCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+              dropFailCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } finally {
+              dropDoneLatch.countDown();
+            }
+          });
+    }
+
+    dropStartLatch.countDown();
+    assertTrue(dropDoneLatch.await(120, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Timed out waiting for drops");
+    dropExecutor.shutdown();
+
+    // Close drop namespaces
+    for (DirectoryNamespace ns : dropNamespaces) {
+      try {
+        ns.close();
+      } catch (Exception e) {
+        // Ignore
+      }
+    }
+
+    assertEquals(numTables, dropSuccessCount.get(), "All drops should succeed");
+    assertEquals(0, dropFailCount.get(), "No drops should fail");
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/FileReaderWriterTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/FileReaderWriterTest.java
index c645acdcaa2..3dbe8a67882 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/FileReaderWriterTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/FileReaderWriterTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,9 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.file.BlobReadMode;
+import org.lance.file.FileReadOptions;
+import org.lance.file.FileWriteOptions;
 import org.lance.file.LanceFileReader;
 import org.lance.file.LanceFileWriter;
 import org.lance.util.Range;
@@ -20,11 +23,14 @@
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.BigIntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.FieldVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.LargeVarBinaryVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VarCharVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.FieldType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.util.Text;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
@@ -37,6 +43,7 @@
 import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Optional;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
@@ -204,6 +211,31 @@ void testBasicWrite(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     createSimpleFile(filePath);
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testWriteRejectsZeroMaxPageBytes(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String filePath = tempDir.resolve("page_options.lance").toString();
+    FileWriteOptions options = FileWriteOptions.builder().maxPageBytes(0).build();
+
+    IllegalArgumentException error =
+        Assertions.assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () -> {
+              try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+                  LanceFileWriter writer =
+                      LanceFileWriter.open(
+                          filePath,
+                          allocator,
+                          null,
+                          Optional.empty(),
+                          Collections.emptyMap(),
+                          options);
+                  VectorSchemaRoot batch = createBatch(allocator)) {
+                writer.write(batch);
+              }
+            });
+    assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("max_page_bytes must be greater than 0, got 0"));
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testWriteNoData(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String filePath = tempDir.resolve("no_data.lance").toString();
@@ -251,7 +283,9 @@ void testInvalidPath() {
       LanceFileReader.open("/tmp/does_not_exist.lance", allocator);
       fail("Expected LanceException to be thrown");
     } catch (IOException e) {
-      assertTrue(e.getMessage().contains("Object at location /tmp/does_not_exist.lance not found"));
+      String message = e.getMessage();
+      assertTrue(message.contains("/tmp/does_not_exist.lance"));
+      assertTrue(message.toLowerCase().contains("not found"));
     }
     try {
       LanceFileReader.open("", allocator);
@@ -304,4 +338,94 @@ void testWriteNullSchemaMetadata(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
       }
     }
   }
+
+  private void writeBlobFile(String filePath, BufferAllocator allocator) throws Exception {
+    Map<String, String> blobMetadata = new HashMap<>();
+    blobMetadata.put("lance-encoding:blob", "true");
+
+    Field blobField =
+        new Field(
+            "blob_data",
+            new FieldType(true, ArrowType.LargeBinary.INSTANCE, null, blobMetadata),
+            Collections.emptyList());
+
+    Schema schema = new Schema(Collections.singletonList(blobField), null);
+
+    try (LanceFileWriter writer =
+        LanceFileWriter.open(filePath, allocator, null, Collections.emptyMap())) {
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
+        root.allocateNew();
+
+        LargeVarBinaryVector blobVector = (LargeVarBinaryVector) root.getVector("blob_data");
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+          byte[] data = new byte[100 * (i + 1)];
+          Arrays.fill(data, (byte) i);
+          blobVector.setSafe(i, data);
+        }
+
+        root.setRowCount(5);
+        writer.write(root);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testBlobDescriptorMode(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String filePath = tempDir.resolve("test_blob.lance").toString();
+    BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+    writeBlobFile(filePath, allocator);
+
+    try (LanceFileReader reader = LanceFileReader.open(filePath, allocator)) {
+      assertTrue(
+          reader.schema().getFields().get(0).getMetadata().containsKey("lance-encoding:blob"),
+          "Blob metadata should be preserved in schema");
+
+      FileReadOptions options =
+          FileReadOptions.builder().blobReadMode(BlobReadMode.DESCRIPTOR).build();
+      try (ArrowReader batch =
+          reader.readAll(Collections.singletonList("blob_data"), null, 10, options)) {
+        assertTrue(batch.loadNextBatch());
+        VectorSchemaRoot root = batch.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+        assertEquals(5, root.getRowCount());
+
+        FieldVector column = root.getVector("blob_data");
+        assertTrue(
+            column.getField().getType() instanceof ArrowType.Struct,
+            "DESCRIPTOR mode should return Struct but got " + column.getField().getType());
+        assertEquals(
+            2,
+            column.getField().getChildren().size(),
+            "Struct should have 2 fields (position and size)");
+      }
+    }
+    allocator.close();
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testBlobContentMode(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String filePath = tempDir.resolve("test_blob.lance").toString();
+    BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+    writeBlobFile(filePath, allocator);
+
+    try (LanceFileReader reader = LanceFileReader.open(filePath, allocator)) {
+      // Default readAll (no BlobReadMode) should return materialized binary
+      try (ArrowReader batch = reader.readAll(Collections.singletonList("blob_data"), null, 10)) {
+        assertTrue(batch.loadNextBatch());
+        VectorSchemaRoot root = batch.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+        assertEquals(5, root.getRowCount());
+
+        FieldVector column = root.getVector("blob_data");
+        assertTrue(
+            column.getField().getType() instanceof ArrowType.LargeBinary,
+            "CONTENT mode should return LargeBinary but got " + column.getField().getType());
+
+        LargeVarBinaryVector binaryVector = (LargeVarBinaryVector) column;
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+          assertEquals(100 * (i + 1), binaryVector.get(i).length);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    allocator.close();
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/FragmentTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/FragmentTest.java
index c1e646f492b..40beea1589b 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/FragmentTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/FragmentTest.java
@@ -13,30 +13,52 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.file.FileWriteOptions;
+import org.lance.fragment.DeletionFile;
+import org.lance.fragment.DeletionFileType;
 import org.lance.fragment.FragmentMergeResult;
 import org.lance.ipc.LanceScanner;
 import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
 import org.lance.operation.Merge;
+import org.lance.operation.Project;
 import org.lance.operation.Update;
+import org.lance.schema.LanceField;
 
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.BigIntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.UInt8Vector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VarCharVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamReader;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamWriter;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
 
+import java.io.ByteArrayInputStream;
+import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
 import java.io.IOException;
+import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.concurrent.CountDownLatch;
+import java.util.concurrent.ExecutorService;
+import java.util.concurrent.Executors;
+import java.util.concurrent.Future;
+import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
@@ -44,6 +66,18 @@
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 public class FragmentTest {
+  @Test
+  void testDeletionFileRelativePath() {
+    DeletionFile bitmap = new DeletionFile(7, 11, 2L, DeletionFileType.BITMAP, null);
+    DeletionFile array = new DeletionFile(7, 11, 2L, DeletionFileType.ARRAY, null);
+    DeletionFile highBitId = new DeletionFile(-1L, 11, 2L, DeletionFileType.BITMAP, null);
+
+    assertEquals("_deletions/5-11-7.bin", bitmap.getRelativePath(5));
+    assertEquals("_deletions/5-11-7.arrow", array.getRelativePath(5));
+    assertEquals("_deletions/5-11-18446744073709551615.bin", highBitId.getRelativePath(5));
+    assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> bitmap.getRelativePath(-1));
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testFragmentCreateFfiArray(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("new_fragment_array").toString();
@@ -55,6 +89,24 @@ void testFragmentCreateFfiArray(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testFragmentWriteRejectsZeroMaxPageBytes(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("zero_max_page_bytes").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      WriteParams params =
+          new WriteParams.Builder()
+              .withFileWriteOptions(FileWriteOptions.builder().maxPageBytes(0).build())
+              .build();
+
+      IllegalArgumentException error =
+          assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> testDataset.createNewFragment(3, params));
+      assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("max_page_bytes must be greater than 0, got 0"));
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testFragmentCreate(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("new_fragment").toString();
@@ -64,6 +116,7 @@ void testFragmentCreate(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
       testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
       int rowCount = 21;
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
+      assertEquals(fragmentMeta.getFiles(), fragmentMeta.getReferencedLanceFiles());
 
       // Commit fragment
       FragmentOperation.Append appendOp = new FragmentOperation.Append(Arrays.asList(fragmentMeta));
@@ -81,6 +134,128 @@ void testFragmentCreate(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testWriteFragmentWithSchemaOverride(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("fragment_schema_override").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        List<org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field> fieldList =
+            new ArrayList<>(testDataset.getSchema().getFields());
+        Collections.reverse(fieldList);
+
+        try (Transaction projectTxn =
+                new Transaction.Builder()
+                    .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                    .operation(Project.builder().schema(new Schema(fieldList)).build())
+                    .build();
+            Dataset evolvedDataset = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(projectTxn);
+            VectorSchemaRoot root =
+                VectorSchemaRoot.create(evolvedDataset.getSchema(), allocator)) {
+          root.allocateNew();
+          VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+          IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+          nameVector.setSafe(0, "Person 1".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+          idVector.setSafe(0, 1);
+          root.setRowCount(1);
+
+          List<FragmentMetadata> fragments =
+              Fragment.write()
+                  .datasetUri(datasetPath)
+                  .allocator(allocator)
+                  .data(root)
+                  .schema(evolvedDataset.getLanceSchema())
+                  .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.APPEND)
+                  .execute();
+
+          assertEquals(1, fragments.size());
+          assertEquals(1, fragments.get(0).getPhysicalRows());
+          assertArrayEquals(
+              evolvedDataset.getLanceSchema().fields().stream()
+                  .mapToInt(LanceField::getId)
+                  .toArray(),
+              fragments.get(0).getFiles().get(0).getFields());
+
+          FragmentOperation.Append appendOp = new FragmentOperation.Append(fragments);
+          try (Dataset appendedDataset =
+                  Dataset.commit(
+                      allocator, datasetPath, appendOp, Optional.of(evolvedDataset.version()));
+              ArrowReader reader = appendedDataset.newScan().scanBatches()) {
+            assertEquals(3, appendedDataset.version());
+            assertEquals(1, appendedDataset.countRows());
+            assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
+            VectorSchemaRoot batch = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            assertEquals(1, batch.getRowCount());
+            assertEquals(
+                "Person 1",
+                new String(
+                    ((VarCharVector) batch.getVector("name")).get(0), StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+            assertEquals(1, ((IntVector) batch.getVector("id")).get(0));
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testWriteFragmentWithSession(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("fragment_with_session").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+        Session session = Session.builder().build()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      long sizeBefore = session.sizeBytes();
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(testDataset.getSchema(), allocator)) {
+        root.allocateNew();
+        VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+        IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+        nameVector.setSafe(0, "Person 1".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+        idVector.setSafe(0, 1);
+        root.setRowCount(1);
+
+        // First append in APPEND mode without an explicit schema: the
+        // manifest load for schema inference populates the shared session's
+        // metadata cache.
+        List<FragmentMetadata> firstFragments =
+            appendWithSession(datasetPath, allocator, root, session);
+        assertEquals(1, firstFragments.size());
+        assertEquals(1, firstFragments.get(0).getPhysicalRows());
+        assertTrue(session.sizeBytes() > sizeBefore);
+        long hitsAfterFirst = session.metadataCacheStats().getHits();
+
+        // Second append through the same session: schema inference reads the
+        // manifest cached by the first write, so cache hits must increase.
+        List<FragmentMetadata> secondFragments =
+            appendWithSession(datasetPath, allocator, root, session);
+        assertEquals(1, secondFragments.size());
+        assertEquals(1, secondFragments.get(0).getPhysicalRows());
+        assertTrue(session.metadataCacheStats().getHits() > hitsAfterFirst);
+
+        // A closed session has a zero native handle and degrades to "no
+        // session", matching Dataset's behavior for closed sessions.
+        Session closedSession = Session.builder().build();
+        closedSession.close();
+        List<FragmentMetadata> fragmentsWithClosedSession =
+            appendWithSession(datasetPath, allocator, root, closedSession);
+        assertEquals(1, fragmentsWithClosedSession.size());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static List<FragmentMetadata> appendWithSession(
+      String datasetPath, RootAllocator allocator, VectorSchemaRoot root, Session session) {
+    return Fragment.write()
+        .datasetUri(datasetPath)
+        .allocator(allocator)
+        .data(root)
+        .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.APPEND)
+        .session(session)
+        .execute();
+  }
+
   @Test
   void commitWithoutVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("commit_without_version").toString();
@@ -209,8 +384,15 @@ void testDeleteRows(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException {
         assertNotNull(updateFragment.getDeletionFile());
 
         Update update =
-            Update.builder().updatedFragments(Collections.singletonList(updateFragment)).build();
-        Dataset dataset3 = dataset2.newTransactionBuilder().operation(update).build().commit();
+            Update.builder()
+                .updatedFragments(Collections.singletonList(updateFragment))
+                .updateMode(Optional.of(Update.UpdateMode.RewriteRows))
+                .build();
+        Dataset dataset3;
+        try (Transaction txn =
+            new Transaction.Builder().readVersion(dataset2.version()).operation(update).build()) {
+          dataset3 = new CommitBuilder(dataset2).execute(txn);
+        }
 
         assertEquals(totalRows - deleteCount, dataset3.countRows());
 
@@ -225,8 +407,15 @@ void testDeleteRows(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException {
         assertNotNull(updateFragment.getDeletionFile());
 
         update =
-            Update.builder().updatedFragments(Collections.singletonList(updateFragment)).build();
-        Dataset dataset4 = dataset3.newTransactionBuilder().operation(update).build().commit();
+            Update.builder()
+                .updatedFragments(Collections.singletonList(updateFragment))
+                .updateMode(Optional.of(Update.UpdateMode.RewriteRows))
+                .build();
+        Dataset dataset4;
+        try (Transaction txn =
+            new Transaction.Builder().readVersion(dataset3.version()).operation(update).build()) {
+          dataset4 = new CommitBuilder(dataset3).execute(txn);
+        }
         assertEquals(totalRows - deleteCount - deleteCount2, dataset4.countRows());
 
         // Case 3. Test delete all rows
@@ -241,8 +430,13 @@ void testDeleteRows(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException {
         update =
             Update.builder()
                 .removedFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(Long.valueOf(fragment.getId())))
+                .updateMode(Optional.of(Update.UpdateMode.RewriteRows))
                 .build();
-        Dataset dataset5 = dataset4.newTransactionBuilder().operation(update).build().commit();
+        Dataset dataset5;
+        try (Transaction txn =
+            new Transaction.Builder().readVersion(dataset4.version()).operation(update).build()) {
+          dataset5 = new CommitBuilder(dataset4).execute(txn);
+        }
 
         assertEquals(0, dataset5.countRows());
       }
@@ -279,7 +473,6 @@ void testMergeColumns(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
 
       // Commit fragment
       FragmentOperation.Append appendOp = new FragmentOperation.Append(Arrays.asList(fragmentMeta));
-      Transaction transaction;
       try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.commit(allocator, datasetPath, appendOp, Optional.of(1L))) {
         assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
         assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
@@ -293,47 +486,257 @@ void testMergeColumns(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
 
         FragmentMergeResult mergeResult = testDataset.mergeColumn(fragment, 10);
 
-        Transaction.Builder builder = new Transaction.Builder(dataset);
-        transaction =
-            builder
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(dataset.version())
                 .operation(
                     Merge.builder()
                         .fragments(Collections.singletonList(mergeResult.getFragmentMetadata()))
                         .schema(mergeResult.getSchema().asArrowSchema())
                         .build())
-                .readVersion(dataset.version())
-                .build();
+                .build()) {
+          try (Dataset newDs = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction)) {
+            assertEquals(3, newDs.version());
+            assertEquals(3, newDs.latestVersion());
+            Fragment newFrag = newDs.getFragments().get(0);
+            try (LanceScanner scanner = newFrag.newScan()) {
+              Schema schemaRes = scanner.schema();
+              assertTrue(
+                  schemaRes.getFields().stream()
+                      .anyMatch(field -> field.getName().equals("new_col1")));
+              assertTrue(
+                  schemaRes.getFields().stream()
+                      .anyMatch(field -> field.getName().equals("new_col2")));
+
+              try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+                assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
+                VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                VarCharVector newCol1Vec = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("new_col1");
+                VarCharVector newCol2Vec = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("new_col2");
+                assertEquals(21, newCol2Vec.getValueCount());
+
+                // The first 10 rows are not null
+                assertNotNull(newCol1Vec.get(9));
+                // Remaining rows are null
+                assertNull(newCol1Vec.get(10));
+              }
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testFragmentStatistics(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("fragment_statistics").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      // Two fragments with different row counts
+      FragmentMetadata frag1 = testDataset.createNewFragment(21);
+      FragmentMetadata frag2 = testDataset.createNewFragment(9);
+      FragmentOperation.Append appendOp = new FragmentOperation.Append(Arrays.asList(frag1, frag2));
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.commit(allocator, datasetPath, appendOp, Optional.of(1L))) {
+        List<Fragment> fragments = dataset.getFragments();
+        FragmentStatistics stats = dataset.getFragmentStatistics();
+        assertEquals(fragments.size(), stats.size());
+
+        // Parity with getFragments across all three arrays
+        assertArrayEquals(fragments.stream().mapToInt(Fragment::getId).toArray(), stats.getIds());
+        assertArrayEquals(
+            fragments.stream().mapToLong(f -> f.metadata().getNumRows()).toArray(),
+            stats.getRowCounts());
+        assertArrayEquals(
+            fragments.stream().mapToInt(f -> f.metadata().getFiles().size()).toArray(),
+            stats.getDataFileNums());
+
+        assertEquals(30, Arrays.stream(stats.getRowCounts()).sum());
+
+        dataset.delete("id < 5");
+        assertArrayEquals(new long[] {16, 4}, dataset.getFragmentStatistics().getRowCounts());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testFragmentStatisticsOnEmptyDataset(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("fragment_statistics_empty").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        assertEquals(0, dataset.getFragmentStatistics().size());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testFragmentStatisticsPreservesLegacyMissingRowCount() {
+    String historicalPath =
+        Path.of("..", "test_data", "v0.7.5", "with_deletions")
+            .toAbsolutePath()
+            .normalize()
+            .toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+        Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(historicalPath, allocator)) {
+      FragmentStatistics stats = dataset.getFragmentStatistics();
+      assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0}, stats.getIds());
+      assertArrayEquals(new long[] {0}, stats.getRowCounts());
+      assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1}, stats.getDataFileNums());
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCountRowsConcurrentWithClose(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("count_rows_close_race").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(100);
+      FragmentOperation.Append appendOp = new FragmentOperation.Append(Arrays.asList(fragmentMeta));
+      Dataset dataset = Dataset.commit(allocator, datasetPath, appendOp, Optional.of(1L));
+      Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+
+      int threadCount = 8;
+      ExecutorService executor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(threadCount);
+      try {
+        CountDownLatch start = new CountDownLatch(1);
+        List<Future<?>> futures = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < threadCount; i++) {
+          futures.add(
+              executor.submit(
+                  () -> {
+                    start.await();
+                    // Hammer countRows until close() wins the race. The only acceptable
+                    // failure is the "Dataset is closed" rejection; anything else (a native
+                    // crash or "Null pointer in rust value from Java") means the native
+                    // handle was released while still in use.
+                    while (true) {
+                      try {
+                        fragment.countRows();
+                      } catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
+                        assertEquals("Dataset is closed", e.getMessage());
+                        return null;
+                      }
+                    }
+                  }));
+        }
+        start.countDown();
+        Thread.sleep(50);
+        dataset.close();
+        for (Future<?> future : futures) {
+          future.get(30, TimeUnit.SECONDS);
+        }
+      } finally {
+        executor.shutdownNow();
+      }
+    }
+  }
 
-        assertNotNull(transaction);
-
-        try (Dataset newDs = transaction.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(3, newDs.version());
-          assertEquals(3, newDs.latestVersion());
-          Fragment newFrag = newDs.getFragments().get(0);
-          try (LanceScanner scanner = newFrag.newScan()) {
-            Schema schemaRes = scanner.schema();
-            assertTrue(
-                schemaRes.getFields().stream()
-                    .anyMatch(field -> field.getName().equals("new_col1")));
-            assertTrue(
-                schemaRes.getFields().stream()
-                    .anyMatch(field -> field.getName().equals("new_col2")));
-
-            try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-              assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
-              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-              VarCharVector newCol1Vec = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("new_col1");
-              VarCharVector newCol2Vec = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("new_col2");
-              assertEquals(21, newCol2Vec.getValueCount());
-
-              // The first 10 rows are not null
-              assertNotNull(newCol1Vec.get(9));
-              // Remaining rows are null
-              assertNull(newCol1Vec.get(10));
+  @Test
+  void testAddColumnsByReader(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testAddColumnsByReader").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.MergeColumnTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.MergeColumnTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      int rowCount = 21;
+      FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
+      FragmentOperation.Append appendOp = new FragmentOperation.Append(Arrays.asList(fragmentMeta));
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.commit(allocator, datasetPath, appendOp, Optional.of(1L))) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+
+        // The stream carries only the new column, one value per fragment row in row order;
+        // several small batches exercise the positional zip across batch boundaries. A read
+        // batch size of 5 against stream batches of 8 forces stream batches to be sliced at
+        // non-zero offsets, which the nulls in the stream must survive.
+        FragmentMergeResult result;
+        try (ArrowStreamReader reader = newColumnStream(allocator, rowCount, 8);
+            ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+          Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader, stream);
+          result = fragment.addColumns(stream, Optional.of(5L));
+        }
+
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                .operation(
+                    Merge.builder()
+                        .fragments(Collections.singletonList(result.getFragmentMetadata()))
+                        .schema(result.getSchema().asArrowSchema())
+                        .build())
+                .build()) {
+          try (Dataset newDs = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction)) {
+            try (LanceScanner scanner = newDs.getFragments().get(0).newScan();
+                ArrowReader batches = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+              int row = 0;
+              while (batches.loadNextBatch()) {
+                VectorSchemaRoot root = batches.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                BigIntVector val = (BigIntVector) root.getVector("val");
+                for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++, row++) {
+                  if (row % 3 == 0) {
+                    assertTrue(val.isNull(i), "row " + row + " should be null");
+                  } else {
+                    assertEquals(row * 2L, val.get(i));
+                  }
+                }
+              }
+              assertEquals(rowCount, row);
             }
           }
         }
+
+        // The stream must cover every live row exactly once: one row short or one row long
+        // must fail instead of silently misaligning values.
+        assertAddColumnsRejected(allocator, fragment, rowCount - 1, Optional.empty());
+        assertAddColumnsRejected(allocator, fragment, rowCount + 1, Optional.empty());
+        // The batch size must fit a u32.
+        assertAddColumnsRejected(allocator, fragment, rowCount, Optional.of(-1L));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static void assertAddColumnsRejected(
+      RootAllocator allocator, Fragment fragment, int rows, Optional<Long> batchSize)
+      throws IOException {
+    try (ArrowStreamReader reader = newColumnStream(allocator, rows, 8);
+        ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+      Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader, stream);
+      assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> fragment.addColumns(stream, batchSize));
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static ArrowStreamReader newColumnStream(RootAllocator allocator, int rows, int batchSize)
+      throws IOException {
+    Schema schema =
+        new Schema(
+            Collections.singletonList(Field.nullable("val", new ArrowType.Int(64, true))), null);
+    ByteArrayOutputStream out = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator);
+        ArrowStreamWriter writer = new ArrowStreamWriter(root, null, out)) {
+      writer.start();
+      for (int start = 0; start < rows; start += batchSize) {
+        int batchRows = Math.min(batchSize, rows - start);
+        root.allocateNew();
+        BigIntVector val = (BigIntVector) root.getVector("val");
+        for (int i = 0; i < batchRows; i++) {
+          // Every third row is null to check nulls line up with their rows.
+          if ((start + i) % 3 == 0) {
+            val.setNull(i);
+          } else {
+            val.setSafe(i, (start + i) * 2L);
+          }
+        }
+        root.setRowCount(batchRows);
+        writer.writeBatch();
       }
+      writer.end();
     }
+    return new ArrowStreamReader(new ByteArrayInputStream(out.toByteArray()), allocator);
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/JNITest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/JNITest.java
index 4b09de66631..2e1c77bdc37 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/JNITest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/JNITest.java
@@ -18,8 +18,10 @@
 import org.lance.index.vector.HnswBuildParams;
 import org.lance.index.vector.IvfBuildParams;
 import org.lance.index.vector.PQBuildParams;
+import org.lance.index.vector.RQBuildParams;
 import org.lance.index.vector.SQBuildParams;
 import org.lance.index.vector.VectorIndexParams;
+import org.lance.ipc.ApproxMode;
 import org.lance.ipc.Query;
 import org.lance.test.JniTestHelper;
 
@@ -28,6 +30,7 @@
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
 
 public class JNITest {
@@ -48,6 +51,19 @@ public void testIntsOpt() {
 
   @Test
   public void testQuery() {
+    Query defaultQuery =
+        new Query.Builder().setColumn("column").setKey(new float[] {1.0f, 2.0f, 3.0f}).build();
+    assertEquals(ApproxMode.NORMAL, defaultQuery.getApproxMode());
+
+    Query nprobesQuery =
+        new Query.Builder()
+            .setColumn("column")
+            .setKey(new float[] {1.0f, 2.0f, 3.0f})
+            .setNprobes(20)
+            .build();
+    assertEquals(20, nprobesQuery.getMinimumNprobes());
+    assertEquals(Optional.of(20), nprobesQuery.getMaximumNprobes());
+
     JniTestHelper.parseQuery(
         Optional.of(
             new Query.Builder()
@@ -59,6 +75,8 @@ public void testQuery() {
                 .setRefineFactor(40)
                 .setDistanceType(DistanceType.L2)
                 .setUseIndex(true)
+                .setQueryParallelism(-1)
+                .setApproxMode(ApproxMode.ACCURATE)
                 .build()));
   }
 
@@ -70,6 +88,11 @@ public void testIvfFlatIndexParams() {
             .build());
   }
 
+  @Test
+  public void testRqBuildParamsDefaultNumBits() {
+    assertEquals((byte) 5, new RQBuildParams.Builder().build().getNumBits());
+  }
+
   @Test
   public void testIvfPqIndexParams() {
     JniTestHelper.parseIndexParams(
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/MergeInsertTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/MergeInsertTest.java
index c36ec26b4fa..a59fcc1262b 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/MergeInsertTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/MergeInsertTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,10 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.index.IndexOptions;
+import org.lance.index.IndexParams;
+import org.lance.index.IndexType;
+import org.lance.index.scalar.ScalarIndexParams;
 import org.lance.merge.MergeInsertParams;
 import org.lance.merge.MergeInsertResult;
 
@@ -25,12 +29,17 @@
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamReader;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamWriter;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.AfterEach;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.EnumSource;
 
 import java.io.ByteArrayInputStream;
 import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
@@ -40,10 +49,29 @@
 import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Optional;
 import java.util.TreeMap;
 import java.util.UUID;
 
 public class MergeInsertTest {
+  private static final Schema WIDE_SCHEMA =
+      new Schema(
+          Arrays.asList(
+              Field.nullable("id", new ArrowType.Int(32, true)),
+              Field.nullable("name", new ArrowType.Utf8()),
+              Field.nullable("score", new ArrowType.Int(32, true))));
+
+  /** {@link #WIDE_SCHEMA} minus "score", so a source over it is a partial-schema update. */
+  private static final Schema PARTIAL_SOURCE_SCHEMA =
+      new Schema(
+          Arrays.asList(
+              Field.nullable("id", new ArrowType.Int(32, true)),
+              Field.nullable("name", new ArrowType.Utf8())));
+
+  /** {@link #createWideDataset()} after the rows with id 1 and 4 are renamed. */
+  private static final String WIDE_AFTER_UPDATE =
+      "{0=Person 0/0, 1=Updated 1/10, 2=Person 2/20, 3=Person 3/30, 4=Updated 4/40, 5=Person 5/50}";
+
   @TempDir private Path tempDir;
   private RootAllocator allocator;
   private TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset;
@@ -64,15 +92,39 @@ public void tearDown() {
     allocator.close();
   }
 
-  @Test
-  public void testWhenNotMatchedInsertAll() throws Exception {
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @EnumSource(DataStorageVersion.class)
+  public void testWhenNotMatchedInsertAll(DataStorageVersion version) throws Exception {
     // Test insert all unmatched source rows
 
     try (VectorSchemaRoot source = buildSource(testDataset.getSchema(), allocator)) {
       try (ArrowArrayStream sourceStream = convertToStream(source, allocator)) {
-        MergeInsertResult result =
-            dataset.mergeInsert(
-                new MergeInsertParams(Collections.singletonList("id")), sourceStream);
+        MergeInsertParams params =
+            new MergeInsertParams(Collections.singletonList("id")).withDataStorageVersion(version);
+        if (version == DataStorageVersion.LEGACY) {
+          IllegalArgumentException error =
+              Assertions.assertThrows(
+                  IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dataset.mergeInsert(params, sourceStream));
+          Assertions.assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("V1 and V2"));
+          return;
+        }
+        String exactVersion =
+            version == DataStorageVersion.STABLE
+                ? "2.2"
+                : version == DataStorageVersion.NEXT ? "2.3" : version.toRustString();
+        MergeInsertResult result = dataset.mergeInsert(params, sourceStream);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(
+            result.dataset().getFragments().stream()
+                .filter(
+                    fragment ->
+                        fragment.metadata().getId()
+                            != dataset.getFragments().get(0).metadata().getId())
+                .flatMap(fragment -> fragment.metadata().getFiles().stream())
+                .allMatch(
+                    file ->
+                        exactVersion.equals(
+                            file.getFileMajorVersion() + "." + file.getFileMinorVersion())));
 
         Assertions.assertEquals(
             "{0=Person 0, 1=Person 1, 2=Person 2, 3=Person 3, 4=Person 4, 7=Source 7, 8=Source 8, 9=Source 9}",
@@ -275,6 +327,171 @@ private ArrowArrayStream convertToStream(VectorSchemaRoot root, RootAllocator al
     return stream;
   }
 
+  @Test
+  public void testMergeInsertWithoutIndex() throws Exception {
+    // Verify that merge insert with useIndex=false still completes and
+    // produces results consistent with the default (useIndex=true).
+
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot source = buildSource(testDataset.getSchema(), allocator)) {
+      try (ArrowArrayStream sourceStream = convertToStream(source, allocator)) {
+        MergeInsertResult result =
+            dataset.mergeInsert(
+                new MergeInsertParams(Collections.singletonList("id"))
+                    .withMatchedUpdateAll()
+                    .withNotMatched(MergeInsertParams.WhenNotMatched.InsertAll)
+                    .withUseIndex(false),
+                sourceStream);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(
+            "{0=Source 0, 1=Source 1, 2=Source 2, 3=Person 3, 4=Person 4, 7=Source 7, 8=Source 8, 9=Source 9}",
+            readAll(result.dataset()).toString(),
+            "merge insert with useIndex=false should produce correct upsert results");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @CsvSource({"Auto, 2", "RewriteRows, 3"})
+  public void testWriteModeOnIndexedPartialUpdate(
+      MergeInsertParams.MergeWriteMode writeMode, int expectedFragments) throws Exception {
+    try (Dataset wideDataset = createWideDataset()) {
+      createIdIndex(wideDataset);
+
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot source = buildPartialSource(1, 4);
+          ArrowArrayStream sourceStream = convertToStream(source, allocator)) {
+        MergeInsertResult result =
+            wideDataset.mergeInsert(
+                new MergeInsertParams(Collections.singletonList("id"))
+                    .withMatchedUpdateAll()
+                    .withNotMatched(MergeInsertParams.WhenNotMatched.DoNothing)
+                    .withWriteMode(writeMode),
+                sourceStream);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, result.stats().numUpdatedRows());
+        try (Dataset merged = result.dataset()) {
+          Assertions.assertEquals(expectedFragments, merged.getFragments().size());
+          Assertions.assertEquals(WIDE_AFTER_UPDATE, readWide(merged).toString());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testWriteModeRewriteColumns() throws Exception {
+    try (Dataset wideDataset = createWideDataset()) {
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot source = buildPartialSource(1, 4);
+          ArrowArrayStream sourceStream = convertToStream(source, allocator)) {
+        MergeInsertResult result =
+            wideDataset.mergeInsert(
+                new MergeInsertParams(Collections.singletonList("id"))
+                    .withMatchedUpdateAll()
+                    .withNotMatched(MergeInsertParams.WhenNotMatched.DoNothing)
+                    .withWriteMode(MergeInsertParams.MergeWriteMode.RewriteColumns),
+                sourceStream);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, result.stats().numUpdatedRows());
+        try (Dataset merged = result.dataset()) {
+          Assertions.assertEquals(2, merged.getFragments().size());
+          // "score", which the source omits, is carried through untouched.
+          Assertions.assertEquals(WIDE_AFTER_UPDATE, readWide(merged).toString());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testWriteModeRewriteColumnsRejectsInserts() throws Exception {
+
+    try (Dataset wideDataset = createWideDataset()) {
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot source = buildPartialSource(100);
+          ArrowArrayStream sourceStream = convertToStream(source, allocator)) {
+        Exception e =
+            Assertions.assertThrows(
+                Exception.class,
+                () ->
+                    wideDataset.mergeInsert(
+                        // WhenNotMatched defaults to InsertAll.
+                        new MergeInsertParams(Collections.singletonList("id"))
+                            .withMatchedUpdateAll()
+                            .withWriteMode(MergeInsertParams.MergeWriteMode.RewriteColumns)
+                            .withConflictRetries(0),
+                        sourceStream));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(
+            e.getMessage().contains("RewriteColumns cannot express"),
+            "expected the RewriteColumns rejection, got: " + e.getMessage());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** A dataset of 6 rows over 2 fragments, whose "score" column no partial source carries. */
+  private Dataset createWideDataset() {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve(UUID.randomUUID().toString()).toString();
+    Dataset.create(allocator, path, WIDE_SCHEMA, new WriteParams.Builder().build()).close();
+
+    List<FragmentMetadata> fragments;
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(WIDE_SCHEMA, allocator)) {
+      root.allocateNew();
+      IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+      VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+      IntVector scoreVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("score");
+      for (int i = 0; i < 6; i++) {
+        idVector.setSafe(i, i);
+        nameVector.setSafe(i, ("Person " + i).getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+        scoreVector.setSafe(i, i * 10);
+      }
+      root.setRowCount(6);
+      fragments =
+          Fragment.create(
+              path, allocator, root, new WriteParams.Builder().withMaxRowsPerFile(3).build());
+    }
+
+    Dataset wideDataset =
+        Dataset.commit(allocator, path, new FragmentOperation.Append(fragments), Optional.of(1L));
+    Assertions.assertEquals(2, wideDataset.getFragments().size());
+    return wideDataset;
+  }
+
+  private void createIdIndex(Dataset dataset) {
+    IndexParams indexParams =
+        IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{}")).build();
+    dataset.createIndex(
+        IndexOptions.builder(Collections.singletonList("id"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
+            .withIndexName("id_btree")
+            .replace(true)
+            .build());
+  }
+
+  /** A source over {@link #WIDE_SCHEMA} minus "score", renaming the rows it names. */
+  private VectorSchemaRoot buildPartialSource(int... ids) {
+    VectorSchemaRoot source = VectorSchemaRoot.create(PARTIAL_SOURCE_SCHEMA, allocator);
+    source.allocateNew();
+    IntVector idVector = (IntVector) source.getVector("id");
+    VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) source.getVector("name");
+    for (int i = 0; i < ids.length; i++) {
+      idVector.setSafe(i, ids[i]);
+      nameVector.setSafe(i, ("Updated " + ids[i]).getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+    }
+    source.setRowCount(ids.length);
+    return source;
+  }
+
+  /** Reads a {@link #WIDE_SCHEMA} dataset as id -&gt; "name/score". */
+  private TreeMap<Integer, String> readWide(Dataset dataset) throws Exception {
+    TreeMap<Integer, String> rows = new TreeMap<>();
+    try (ArrowReader reader = dataset.newScan().scanBatches()) {
+      while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+        VectorSchemaRoot batch = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+        IntVector ids = (IntVector) batch.getVector("id");
+        VarCharVector names = (VarCharVector) batch.getVector("name");
+        IntVector scores = (IntVector) batch.getVector("score");
+        for (int i = 0; i < batch.getRowCount(); i++) {
+          rows.put(ids.get(i), new String(names.get(i)) + "/" + scores.get(i));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    return rows;
+  }
+
   private TreeMap<Integer, String> readAll(Dataset dataset) throws Exception {
     try (ArrowReader reader = dataset.newScan().scanBatches()) {
       TreeMap<Integer, String> map = new TreeMap<>();
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/MultiBaseTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/MultiBaseTest.java
index 802b4a2ca31..ab745cf92d5 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/MultiBaseTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/MultiBaseTest.java
@@ -36,13 +36,18 @@
 import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Optional;
 import java.util.Set;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 public class MultiBaseTest {
   private BufferAllocator allocator;
@@ -103,6 +108,51 @@ private ArrowStreamReader makeReader(int startId, int count) throws Exception {
     }
   }
 
+  private VectorSchemaRoot makeRoot(int startId, int count) {
+    List<Field> fields =
+        Arrays.asList(
+            new Field("id", FieldType.notNullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null),
+            new Field("value", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Utf8()), null));
+    Schema schema = new Schema(fields);
+    VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator);
+    IntVector idVec = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+    idVec.allocateNew(count);
+    VarCharVector valVec = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("value");
+    valVec.allocateNew();
+    for (int i = 0; i < count; i++) {
+      int id = startId + i;
+      idVec.setSafe(i, id);
+      byte[] b = ("val_" + id).getBytes();
+      valVec.setSafe(i, b, 0, b.length);
+    }
+    root.setRowCount(count);
+    return root;
+  }
+
+  private boolean hasLanceFile(String basePath) throws Exception {
+    try (Stream<Path> paths = Files.walk(Path.of(basePath))) {
+      return paths.anyMatch(path -> path.toString().endsWith(".lance"));
+    }
+  }
+
+  private Set<Integer> baseIds(Dataset dataset) {
+    return dataset.getFragments().stream()
+        .flatMap(f -> f.metadata().getFiles().stream())
+        .map(DataFile::getBaseId)
+        .filter(Optional::isPresent)
+        .map(Optional::get)
+        .collect(Collectors.toSet());
+  }
+
+  private Set<Integer> baseIds(List<FragmentMetadata> fragments) {
+    return fragments.stream()
+        .flatMap(fragment -> fragment.getFiles().stream())
+        .map(DataFile::getBaseId)
+        .filter(Optional::isPresent)
+        .map(Optional::get)
+        .collect(Collectors.toSet());
+  }
+
   @Test
   public void testCreateMode() throws Exception {
     ArrowStreamReader reader = makeReader(0, 500);
@@ -125,6 +175,13 @@ public void testCreateMode() throws Exception {
     assertNotNull(ds);
     assertEquals(primary, ds.uri());
     assertEquals(500, ds.countRows());
+    assertEquals(2, ds.getBasePaths().size());
+    assertEquals(
+        Arrays.asList("base1", "base2"),
+        ds.getBasePaths().stream()
+            .map(base -> base.getName().orElseThrow(AssertionError::new))
+            .sorted()
+            .collect(Collectors.toList()));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -211,12 +268,7 @@ public void testTargetByPathUri() throws Exception {
             .maxRowsPerFile(50)
             .execute();
 
-    Set<Integer> baseIds =
-        ds.getFragments().stream()
-            .flatMap(f -> f.metadata().getFiles().stream().map(DataFile::getBaseId))
-            .filter(Optional::isPresent)
-            .map(Optional::get)
-            .collect(Collectors.toSet());
+    Set<Integer> baseIds = baseIds(ds);
     assertEquals(1, baseIds.size());
 
     ArrowStreamReader append = makeReader(100, 50);
@@ -231,12 +283,103 @@ public void testTargetByPathUri() throws Exception {
             .execute();
 
     assertEquals(150, updated.countRows());
-    baseIds =
-        updated.getFragments().stream()
-            .flatMap(f -> f.metadata().getFiles().stream().map(DataFile::getBaseId))
-            .filter(Optional::isPresent)
-            .map(Optional::get)
-            .collect(Collectors.toSet());
+    baseIds = baseIds(updated);
     assertEquals(2, baseIds.size());
   }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testFragmentCreateWithMultiBaseParams() throws Exception {
+    ArrowStreamReader reader = makeReader(0, 100);
+    List<BasePath> bases =
+        Arrays.asList(
+            new BasePath(0, Optional.of("base1"), base1, false),
+            new BasePath(0, Optional.of("base2"), base2, false));
+
+    Dataset ds =
+        Dataset.write()
+            .allocator(allocator)
+            .reader(reader)
+            .uri(primary)
+            .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+            .initialBases(bases)
+            .targetBases(Arrays.asList("base1"))
+            .maxRowsPerFile(50)
+            .execute();
+    Set<Integer> initialBaseIds = baseIds(ds);
+    assertEquals(1, initialBaseIds.size());
+    assertTrue(hasLanceFile(base1));
+
+    Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams = new HashMap<>();
+    baseStoreParams.put(base2, new HashMap<>());
+    WriteParams params =
+        new WriteParams.Builder()
+            .withTargetBases(Arrays.asList("base2"))
+            .withBaseStoreParams(baseStoreParams)
+            .withMaxRowsPerFile(25)
+            .build();
+
+    List<FragmentMetadata> fragments;
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = makeRoot(100, 50)) {
+      fragments = Fragment.create(primary, allocator, root, params);
+    }
+
+    assertEquals(2, fragments.size());
+    Set<Integer> fragmentBaseIds = baseIds(fragments);
+    assertEquals(1, fragmentBaseIds.size());
+    assertTrue(Collections.disjoint(initialBaseIds, fragmentBaseIds));
+    assertTrue(hasLanceFile(base2));
+
+    FragmentOperation.Append append = new FragmentOperation.Append(fragments);
+    Dataset updated = Dataset.commit(allocator, primary, append, Optional.of(ds.version()));
+    assertEquals(150, updated.countRows());
+    assertEquals(2, baseIds(updated).size());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testFragmentWriteWithMultiBaseParams() throws Exception {
+    ArrowStreamReader reader = makeReader(0, 50);
+    List<BasePath> bases =
+        Arrays.asList(
+            new BasePath(0, Optional.of("base1"), base1, false),
+            new BasePath(0, Optional.of("base2"), base2, false));
+
+    Dataset ds =
+        Dataset.write()
+            .allocator(allocator)
+            .reader(reader)
+            .uri(primary)
+            .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+            .initialBases(bases)
+            .targetBases(Arrays.asList("base1"))
+            .maxRowsPerFile(50)
+            .execute();
+    Set<Integer> initialBaseIds = baseIds(ds);
+    assertEquals(1, initialBaseIds.size());
+    assertTrue(hasLanceFile(base1));
+
+    Map<String, Map<String, String>> baseStoreParams = new HashMap<>();
+    baseStoreParams.put(base2, new HashMap<>());
+
+    List<FragmentMetadata> fragments;
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = makeRoot(50, 25)) {
+      fragments =
+          Fragment.write()
+              .datasetUri(primary)
+              .allocator(allocator)
+              .data(root)
+              .targetBases(Arrays.asList("base2"))
+              .baseStoreParams(baseStoreParams)
+              .maxRowsPerFile(25)
+              .execute();
+    }
+
+    Set<Integer> fragmentBaseIds = baseIds(fragments);
+    assertEquals(1, fragmentBaseIds.size());
+    assertTrue(Collections.disjoint(initialBaseIds, fragmentBaseIds));
+    FragmentOperation.Append append = new FragmentOperation.Append(fragments);
+    Dataset updated = Dataset.commit(allocator, primary, append, Optional.of(ds.version()));
+    assertEquals(75, updated.countRows());
+    assertEquals(2, baseIds(updated).size());
+    assertTrue(hasLanceFile(base2));
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ScannerTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ScannerTest.java
index 9fe844e9334..2856d530eba 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ScannerTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ScannerTest.java
@@ -13,10 +13,18 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.index.IndexOptions;
+import org.lance.index.IndexParams;
+import org.lance.index.IndexType;
+import org.lance.index.scalar.ScalarIndexParams;
 import org.lance.ipc.ColumnOrdering;
 import org.lance.ipc.LanceScanner;
+import org.lance.ipc.MaterializationStyle;
 import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
+import org.lance.ipc.ScanStats;
 
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
 import org.apache.arrow.dataset.scanner.Scanner;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
@@ -32,16 +40,24 @@
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeAll;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
 
 import java.io.IOException;
+import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.UUID;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 public class ScannerTest {
@@ -58,6 +74,102 @@ static void tearDown() {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testIndexSegmentOptions() {
+    List<UUID> segments = List.of(UUID.randomUUID());
+    ScanOptions options =
+        new ScanOptions.Builder().indexSegments(segments).batchSizeBytes(1024).build();
+    assertEquals(segments, options.getIndexSegments().orElseThrow());
+    ScanOptions copy = new ScanOptions.Builder(options).build();
+    assertEquals(segments, copy.getIndexSegments().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals(1024L, copy.getBatchSizeBytes().orElseThrow());
+    assertTrue(new ScanOptions.Builder().build().getIndexSegments().isEmpty());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testScannerPerformanceOptions() {
+    MaterializationStyle materialization =
+        MaterializationStyle.allEarlyExcept(Collections.singletonList("name"));
+    ScanOptions options =
+        new ScanOptions.Builder()
+            .batchSize(1024)
+            .batchSizeBytes(64 * 1024)
+            .ioBufferSize(8 * 1024 * 1024)
+            .batchReadahead(4)
+            .fragmentReadahead(2)
+            .scanInOrder(false)
+            .lateMaterialization(materialization)
+            .build();
+
+    assertEquals(1024L, options.getBatchSize().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals(64 * 1024L, options.getBatchSizeBytes().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals(8 * 1024 * 1024L, options.getIoBufferSize().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals(4, options.getBatchReadahead());
+    assertEquals(2, options.getFragmentReadahead().orElseThrow());
+    assertFalse(options.isScanInOrder());
+    assertEquals(materialization, options.getLateMaterialization().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals("heuristic", MaterializationStyle.heuristic().toRustString());
+    assertEquals("all_late", MaterializationStyle.allLate().toRustString());
+    assertEquals("all_early", MaterializationStyle.allEarly().toRustString());
+    assertEquals("all_early_except", materialization.toRustString());
+    assertEquals(Collections.singletonList("name"), materialization.getColumns());
+
+    ScanOptions defaults = new ScanOptions.Builder().build();
+    assertTrue(defaults.getBatchSizeBytes().isEmpty());
+    assertTrue(defaults.getIoBufferSize().isEmpty());
+    assertTrue(defaults.getFragmentReadahead().isEmpty());
+    assertTrue(defaults.isScanInOrder());
+    assertTrue(defaults.getLateMaterialization().isEmpty());
+
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSizeBytes(0).build());
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new ScanOptions.Builder().ioBufferSize(0).build());
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> new ScanOptions.Builder().fragmentReadahead(0).build());
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSizeBytes(1024).strictBatchSize(true).build());
+    assertTrue(MaterializationStyle.allEarlyExcept(Collections.emptyList()).getColumns().isEmpty());
+  }
+
+  static Stream<MaterializationStyle> materializationStyles() {
+    return Stream.of(
+        MaterializationStyle.heuristic(),
+        MaterializationStyle.allLate(),
+        MaterializationStyle.allEarly(),
+        MaterializationStyle.allEarlyExcept(Collections.emptyList()));
+  }
+
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @MethodSource("materializationStyles")
+  void testMaterializationStylesAcrossJni(
+      MaterializationStyle materializationStyle, @TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath =
+        tempDir.resolve("materialization_" + materializationStyle.getMode().name()).toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40);
+          LanceScanner scanner =
+              dataset.newScan(
+                  new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                      .filter("id < 20")
+                      .lateMaterialization(materializationStyle)
+                      .build());
+          ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+        int rowCount = 0;
+        while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+          rowCount += reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getRowCount();
+        }
+        assertEquals(20, rowCount);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testDatasetScanner(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws IOException {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_scanner").toString();
@@ -151,6 +263,458 @@ void testDatasetScannerSchema(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     }
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Imports a caller-owned C stream populated by {@link LanceScanner#exportArrowStream(long)} and
+   * returns the {@code id} values in the order the stream produced them.
+   *
+   * <p>The projected schema is asserted to be exactly a single {@code id: int32} field, and the
+   * assertion is made on the imported reader <em>before</em> the first {@code loadNextBatch()} call
+   * so that it still runs for an empty (zero-batch) result — a regression that exported the wrong
+   * schema for an empty scan would otherwise slip through. See {@code
+   * org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader#getVectorSchemaRoot()}, which exposes the schema as
+   * soon as the stream is imported.
+   *
+   * <p>This helper intentionally makes <em>no</em> assertion about per-batch row counts. The
+   * scanner's {@code batchSize} is only a hint unless {@code strictBatchSize(true)} is set, so the
+   * number of batches and the rows per batch are not part of the contract being tested here; that
+   * dimension is covered separately by {@link #testExportArrowStreamStrictBatchSize}. Row ordering
+   * and exact values are asserted by the callers against the returned list.
+   */
+  private static List<Integer> drainIdStream(BufferAllocator allocator, ArrowArrayStream stream)
+      throws IOException {
+    List<Integer> ids = new ArrayList<>();
+    try (ArrowReader reader = Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream)) {
+      VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+      List<Field> fields = root.getSchema().getFields();
+      assertEquals(1, fields.size());
+      Field idField = fields.get(0);
+      assertEquals("id", idField.getName());
+      // Pin the exact type, not just the ArrowTypeID family: the projected column is a nullable
+      // signed int32. ArrowTypeID.Int alone also matches int8/16/64 and unsigned, and the
+      // (IntVector) cast below only guards the width on non-empty results — an empty scan that
+      // exported e.g. int64 or a non-nullable id would otherwise slip through this helper.
+      assertTrue(idField.isNullable());
+      ArrowType.Int idType = (ArrowType.Int) idField.getType();
+      assertEquals(32, idType.getBitWidth());
+      assertTrue(idType.getIsSigned());
+      while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+        IntVector vector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+        int rowsInBatch = vector.getValueCount();
+        for (int i = 0; i < rowsInBatch; i++) {
+          ids.add(vector.get(i));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    return ids;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Happy path: a single-fragment ordered scan exported through a caller-owned C stream returns
+   * every row exactly once, in scan order. The caller allocates the {@link ArrowArrayStream} from
+   * its own allocator and passes only the memory address; the scanner fills the C struct in place.
+   * This is the cross-Arrow-version / cross-classloader boundary the API exists to serve.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStream(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_basic").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      int totalRows = 40;
+      int batchRows = 20;
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, totalRows)) {
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .batchSize(batchRows)
+                    .columns(Arrays.asList("id"))
+                    .build())) {
+          try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+            scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+            // SimpleTestDataset writes id = 0..totalRows-1; an ordered scan must return them in
+            // exactly that sequence, so assert the exact ordering (no sort).
+            List<Integer> ids = drainIdStream(allocator, stream);
+            assertEquals(totalRows, ids.size());
+            for (int i = 0; i < totalRows; i++) {
+              assertEquals(i, ids.get(i));
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * A scan that spans multiple fragments is exported as a single C stream that concatenates the
+   * fragments in fragment order. {@code createNewFragment(40, 10)} produces 4 fragments of 10 rows
+   * (ids 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, 30-39), and an ordered scan must return 0..39 in exactly that order.
+   *
+   * <p>The expected ids are asserted in stream order without sorting: sorting would mask a
+   * regression that returned fragments out of order, which is exactly the kind of bug this test
+   * exists to catch. A non-divisor batch size (7) is used so batch boundaries do not line up with
+   * fragment boundaries, exercising the stream's batch stitching across fragments.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamMultipleFragments(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_multi_fragment").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      int totalRows = 40;
+      // maxRowsPerFile < totalRows forces multiple fragments (4 fragments of 10 rows).
+      List<FragmentMetadata> fragments = testDataset.createNewFragment(totalRows, 10);
+      assertEquals(4, fragments.size());
+      FragmentOperation.Append appendOp = new FragmentOperation.Append(fragments);
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.commit(allocator, datasetPath, appendOp, Optional.of(1L))) {
+        int batchRows = 7; // deliberately not a divisor of any fragment size
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .batchSize(batchRows)
+                    .columns(Arrays.asList("id"))
+                    .build())) {
+          try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+            scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+            List<Integer> ids = drainIdStream(allocator, stream);
+            assertEquals(totalRows, ids.size());
+            // Assert exact scan order (no sort) so out-of-order fragments would fail.
+            for (int i = 0; i < totalRows; i++) {
+              assertEquals(i, ids.get(i), "row " + i + " out of expected scan order");
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * A pushed-down filter is honored by the exported stream: only matching rows cross the C-data
+   * boundary. {@code id < 20} over ids 0..39 must yield exactly 0..19 in order. Asserted in scan
+   * order without sorting so a filter/ordering regression cannot hide behind a sort.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamWithFilter(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_filter").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .batchSize(50)
+                    .columns(Arrays.asList("id"))
+                    .filter("id < 20")
+                    .build())) {
+          try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+            scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+            List<Integer> ids = drainIdStream(allocator, stream);
+            assertEquals(20, ids.size());
+            for (int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
+              assertEquals(i, ids.get(i));
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Pushed-down limit and offset are honored by the exported stream. Over ids 0..39, {@code
+   * offset(10).limit(5)} must yield exactly [10, 11, 12, 13, 14] in order — asserted as an exact
+   * ordered list so both the window bounds and the ordering are checked.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamWithLimitOffset(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_limit_offset").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .batchSize(50)
+                    .columns(Arrays.asList("id"))
+                    .limit(5)
+                    .offset(10)
+                    .build())) {
+          try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+            scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+            List<Integer> ids = drainIdStream(allocator, stream);
+            assertEquals(Arrays.asList(10, 11, 12, 13, 14), ids);
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Column projection is reflected in the exported stream's schema. {@code SimpleTestDataset} has
+   * columns {@code (id, name)}; projecting only {@code name} must produce a stream whose schema is
+   * exactly that one column. The schema is checked on the imported reader before draining, and the
+   * full row count is verified after.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamProjectsRequestedColumnsOnly(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_projection").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 10)) {
+        // Project only "name"; the exported stream's schema must contain exactly that column.
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(Arrays.asList("name")).build())) {
+          try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+            scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+            try (ArrowReader reader = Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream)) {
+              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              assertEquals(1, root.getSchema().getFields().size());
+              assertEquals("name", root.getSchema().getFields().get(0).getName());
+              int rows = 0;
+              while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+                rows += root.getRowCount();
+              }
+              assertEquals(10, rows);
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * A scan that matches no rows ({@code id < 0}) still exports a valid, well-formed stream that
+   * yields zero rows. {@link #drainIdStream} asserts the projected schema ({@code id: int32}) on
+   * the imported reader before any {@code loadNextBatch()}, so this case also guards the empty-scan
+   * schema — a regression that exported a wrong or absent schema for zero-row results would fail
+   * here even though no batch is ever produced.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamEmptyResult(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_empty").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(Arrays.asList("id")).filter("id < 0").build())) {
+          try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+            scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+            List<Integer> ids = drainIdStream(allocator, stream);
+            assertTrue(ids.isEmpty());
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Guards against the sequential "export twice into the same stream" mistake. After the first
+   * export installs a producer (non-null {@code release} callback), a second export into the same
+   * stream must be rejected with {@link IllegalArgumentException} rather than overwriting the C
+   * struct in place — overwriting would drop the first producer's release callback and leak it.
+   *
+   * <p>The test also verifies the rejection is non-destructive: the first producer is still intact
+   * and fully drainable (all 40 rows) after the rejected second call. This is the single-threaded
+   * misuse case; concurrent exports into one caller-owned stream are the caller's responsibility,
+   * as documented on {@link LanceScanner#exportArrowStream(long)}.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamRejectsPopulatedStream(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_reject_populated").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(Arrays.asList("id")).build())) {
+          try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+            // First export populates the stream and installs a release callback.
+            scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+            // Exporting again into the same (already-populated) stream must be rejected rather
+            // than silently overwriting and leaking the first producer's release callback.
+            IllegalArgumentException ex =
+                assertThrows(
+                    IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                    () -> scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress()));
+            assertTrue(ex.getMessage().toLowerCase().contains("already populated"));
+            // The first producer is still intact and drainable.
+            try (ArrowReader reader = Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream)) {
+              int rows = 0;
+              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+                rows += root.getRowCount();
+              }
+              assertEquals(40, rows);
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * A null (0) stream address is rejected with {@link IllegalArgumentException} before any native
+   * dereference, so a caller mistake cannot turn into a native null-pointer write.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamRejectsNullAddress(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_reject_null").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 10)) {
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(Arrays.asList("id")).build())) {
+          assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> scanner.exportArrowStream(0L));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Exporting from a closed scanner is rejected with {@link IllegalArgumentException} (the native
+   * scanner handle is zero after {@code close()}), rather than dereferencing a freed handle. The
+   * scanner is closed explicitly here, so it is intentionally not in a try-with-resources.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamRejectsClosedScanner(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_reject_closed").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 10)) {
+        LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(Arrays.asList("id")).build());
+        scanner.close();
+        try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+          assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () -> scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress()));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Null values survive the C-data export round-trip. {@code writeSortByDataset} writes 10 rows
+   * (insertion order) in which {@code id} is null at rows 2 and 5 and {@code name} is null at rows
+   * 0 and 6. An unordered scan returns rows in insertion order, so the exported stream must
+   * reproduce both the non-null values and the null positions exactly — null/validity bitmaps are a
+   * common casualty of an incorrect C-data export, so this guards them explicitly.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamPreservesNulls(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_nulls").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.writeSortByDataset(1)) {
+        // Insertion order, row -> (id, name):
+        //   0 -> (0,    null)   3 -> (2,  "P2")   6 -> (3,  null)   9 -> (5, "P5")
+        //   1 -> (1,  "P0")     4 -> (2,  "P3")   7 -> (4,  "P4")
+        //   2 -> (null,"P1")    5 -> (null,"P3")  8 -> (4,  "P5")
+        Integer[] expectedIds = {0, 1, null, 2, 2, null, 3, 4, 4, 5};
+        String[] expectedNames = {null, "P0", "P1", "P2", "P3", "P3", null, "P4", "P5", "P5"};
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(Arrays.asList("id", "name")).build())) {
+          try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+            scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+            try (ArrowReader reader = Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream)) {
+              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              assertEquals(2, root.getSchema().getFields().size());
+              int row = 0;
+              while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+                IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+                VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+                for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++, row++) {
+                  if (expectedIds[row] == null) {
+                    assertTrue(idVector.isNull(i), "id should be null at row " + row);
+                  } else {
+                    assertEquals(
+                        expectedIds[row].intValue(), idVector.get(i), "id mismatch at row " + row);
+                  }
+                  if (expectedNames[row] == null) {
+                    assertTrue(nameVector.isNull(i), "name should be null at row " + row);
+                  } else {
+                    assertEquals(
+                        expectedNames[row],
+                        new String(nameVector.get(i), StandardCharsets.UTF_8),
+                        "name mismatch at row " + row);
+                  }
+                }
+              }
+              assertEquals(expectedIds.length, row);
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * With {@code strictBatchSize(true)}, the exported stream must split into batches no larger than
+   * the requested batch size, and still reproduce every row in order. This is the one place the
+   * per-batch size is part of the contract; the other export tests deliberately leave batch sizing
+   * unasserted because it is only a hint by default. Mirrors {@link #testStrictBatchSize} but over
+   * the C-data export path. A batch size of 10 over 25 rows yields batches of at most 10.
+   */
+  @Test
+  void testExportArrowStreamStrictBatchSize(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("export_stream_strict_batch").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      int totalRows = 25;
+      int batchSize = 10;
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, totalRows)) {
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .batchSize(batchSize)
+                    .strictBatchSize(true)
+                    .columns(Arrays.asList("id"))
+                    .build())) {
+          try (ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+            scanner.exportArrowStream(stream.memoryAddress());
+            try (ArrowReader reader = Data.importArrayStream(allocator, stream)) {
+              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              List<Integer> ids = new ArrayList<>();
+              while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+                int rowsInBatch = root.getRowCount();
+                assertTrue(
+                    rowsInBatch <= batchSize,
+                    "strict: batch of " + rowsInBatch + " should be <= " + batchSize);
+                IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+                for (int i = 0; i < rowsInBatch; i++) {
+                  ids.add(idVector.get(i));
+                }
+              }
+              assertEquals(totalRows, ids.size());
+              for (int i = 0; i < totalRows; i++) {
+                assertEquals(i, ids.get(i));
+              }
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testDatasetScannerCountRows(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_scanner_count").toString();
@@ -173,6 +737,47 @@ void testDatasetScannerCountRows(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testDatasetScannerStats(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_scanner_stats").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 40)) {
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(20).build())) {
+          assertTrue(scanner.getStats().isEmpty());
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+              // Consume all batches.
+            }
+          }
+          assertTrue(scanner.getStats().isEmpty());
+        }
+
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(20).collectStats(true).build())) {
+          assertTrue(scanner.getStats().isEmpty());
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+              // Consume all batches.
+            }
+          }
+
+          Optional<ScanStats> statsOpt = scanner.getStats();
+          assertTrue(statsOpt.isPresent());
+          ScanStats stats = statsOpt.get();
+          assertTrue(stats.getBytesRead() > 0 || !stats.getAllCounts().isEmpty());
+          // Even without an index on this dataset, the two new counters must
+          // still marshal through JNI and default to zero rather than throwing.
+          assertTrue(stats.getIndexCacheHits() >= 0);
+          assertTrue(stats.getIndexCacheMisses() >= 0);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testFragmentScanner(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("fragment_scanner").toString();
@@ -378,31 +983,99 @@ void testDatasetScannerBatchReadahead(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
       TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
           new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
       testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
-      int totalRows = 1000;
-      int batchSize = 100;
-      int batchReadahead = 5;
-      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, totalRows)) {
+
+      int totalRows = 2000;
+      int maxRowsPerFile = 100; // ~20 fragments
+      List<FragmentMetadata> fragments = testDataset.createNewFragment(totalRows, maxRowsPerFile);
+      assertTrue(fragments.size() > 1, "expected multiple fragments, got " + fragments.size());
+
+      FragmentOperation.Append append = new FragmentOperation.Append(fragments);
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.commit(allocator, datasetPath, append, Optional.of(1L))) {
+        int batchReadahead = 2; // far below the default (num compute CPUs)
         try (LanceScanner scanner =
             dataset.newScan(
-                new ScanOptions.Builder()
-                    .batchSize(batchSize)
-                    .batchReadahead(batchReadahead)
-                    .build())) {
-          // This test is more about ensuring that the batchReadahead parameter is accepted
-          // and doesn't cause errors. The actual effect of batchReadahead might not be
-          // directly observable in this test.
+                new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(50).batchReadahead(batchReadahead).build())) {
           try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
             int rowCount = 0;
+            long idSum = 0;
             while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
-              rowCount += reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getRowCount();
+              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              IntVector ids = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+              for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++) {
+                idSum += ids.get(i);
+              }
+              rowCount += root.getRowCount();
             }
             assertEquals(totalRows, rowCount);
+            // ids are the contiguous range [0, totalRows)
+            assertEquals((long) totalRows * (totalRows - 1) / 2, idSum);
           }
         }
       }
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testDatasetScannerPerformanceOptions(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_scanner_performance_options").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      int totalRows = 2000;
+      int matchingRows = 1000;
+      WriteParams writeParams =
+          new WriteParams.Builder()
+              .withMaxRowsPerFile(100)
+              .withDataStorageVersion(LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_STABLE)
+              .build();
+      List<FragmentMetadata> fragments = testDataset.createNewFragment(totalRows, writeParams);
+      FragmentOperation.Append append = new FragmentOperation.Append(fragments);
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.commit(allocator, datasetPath, append, Optional.of(1L))) {
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+                dataset.newScan(
+                    new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                        .filter("id < " + matchingRows)
+                        .batchSize(200)
+                        .batchSizeBytes(256)
+                        .ioBufferSize(1024 * 1024)
+                        .batchReadahead(2)
+                        .fragmentReadahead(2)
+                        .scanInOrder(false)
+                        .lateMaterialization(MaterializationStyle.allEarly())
+                        .build());
+            ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+          int rowCount = 0;
+          long idSum = 0;
+          while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            assertTrue(
+                root.getRowCount() < 200,
+                "batchSizeBytes should split batches before the row limit");
+            IntVector ids = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+            for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++) {
+              idSum += ids.get(i);
+            }
+            rowCount += root.getRowCount();
+          }
+          assertEquals(matchingRows, rowCount);
+          assertEquals((long) matchingRows * (matchingRows - 1) / 2, idSum);
+        }
+
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .filter("id < " + matchingRows)
+                    .lateMaterialization(
+                        MaterializationStyle.allEarlyExcept(Collections.singletonList("name")))
+                    .build())) {
+          assertEquals(matchingRows, scanner.countRows());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testDatasetScannerSortBy(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testDatasetScannerSortBy").toString();
@@ -538,6 +1211,235 @@ void testDatasetScannerCombinedParams(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     }
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testUseScalarIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_scanner_use_scalar_index").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      int totalRows = 100;
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, totalRows)) {
+        // Create a scalar index on the 'id' column
+        ScalarIndexParams scalarParams = ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
+        IndexOptions options =
+            IndexOptions.builder(Collections.singletonList("id"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
+                .withIndexName("id_btree_index")
+                .replace(true)
+                .build();
+        dataset.createIndex(options);
+
+        // Verify index was created
+        assertTrue(
+            dataset.listIndexes().contains("id_btree_index"),
+            "Expected 'id_btree_index' to be in the list of indexes: " + dataset.listIndexes());
+
+        // Test with useScalarIndex = true (default)
+        List<Integer> resultsWithIndex = new ArrayList<>();
+        try (Scanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .filter("id < 50")
+                    .useScalarIndex(true)
+                    .columns(Collections.singletonList("id"))
+                    .build())) {
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+              for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++) {
+                resultsWithIndex.add(idVector.get(i));
+              }
+            }
+          }
+        }
+
+        // Test with useScalarIndex = false
+        List<Integer> resultsWithoutIndex = new ArrayList<>();
+        try (Scanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .filter("id < 50")
+                    .useScalarIndex(false)
+                    .columns(Collections.singletonList("id"))
+                    .build())) {
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+              for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++) {
+                resultsWithoutIndex.add(idVector.get(i));
+              }
+            }
+          }
+        }
+
+        // Results should be the same regardless of whether scalar index is used
+        assertEquals(
+            resultsWithIndex.size(),
+            resultsWithoutIndex.size(),
+            "Result count should be the same with or without scalar index");
+        assertEquals(50, resultsWithIndex.size(), "Should return 50 rows (id < 50)");
+        assertEquals(
+            resultsWithIndex,
+            resultsWithoutIndex,
+            "Results should be identical with or without scalar index");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testFastSearchSkipsUnindexedFragments(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_scanner_fast_search_scalar_index").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 100)) {
+        ScalarIndexParams scalarParams = ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
+        IndexOptions options =
+            IndexOptions.builder(Collections.singletonList("id"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
+                .withIndexName("id_btree_index")
+                .replace(true)
+                .build();
+        dataset.createIndex(options);
+
+        FragmentMetadata metadata = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+        FragmentOperation.Append appendOp =
+            new FragmentOperation.Append(Collections.singletonList(metadata));
+        try (Dataset appended =
+            Dataset.commit(allocator, datasetPath, appendOp, Optional.of(dataset.version()))) {
+          try (LanceScanner scanner =
+              appended.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().filter("id < 5").build())) {
+            assertEquals(10, scanner.countRows());
+          }
+
+          try (LanceScanner scanner =
+              appended.newScan(
+                  new ScanOptions.Builder().filter("id < 5").fastSearch(true).build())) {
+            assertEquals(5, scanner.countRows());
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testIncludeDeletedRows(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("include_deleted_rows").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 10)) {
+        assertEquals(10, dataset.countRows());
+
+        // Delete rows where id >= 5
+        dataset.delete("id >= 5");
+        assertEquals(5, dataset.countRows());
+
+        // Default scan should exclude deleted rows
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(20).build())) {
+          assertEquals(5, scanner.countRows(), "default scan: should exclude deleted rows");
+        }
+
+        // includeDeletedRows=true should surface deleted rows
+        // NOTE: includeDeletedRows requires withRowId=true
+        try (LanceScanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .batchSize(20)
+                    .withRowId(true)
+                    .includeDeletedRows(true)
+                    .build())) {
+          assertEquals(10, scanner.countRows(), "includeDeletedRows: should include deleted rows");
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testStrictBatchSize(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("strict_batch_size").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 25)) {
+        int batchSize = 10;
+
+        // With strictBatchSize=true, no batch should exceed batchSize
+        try (Scanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(batchSize).strictBatchSize(true).build())) {
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            int totalRows = 0;
+            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+              int rows = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getRowCount();
+              assertTrue(rows <= batchSize, "strict: batch " + rows + " should be <= " + batchSize);
+              totalRows += rows;
+            }
+            assertEquals(25, totalRows);
+          }
+        }
+
+        // strictBatchSize=false (default) — batch size may vary
+        try (Scanner scanner =
+            dataset.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(batchSize).build())) {
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            int totalRows = 0;
+            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+              totalRows += reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getRowCount();
+            }
+            assertEquals(25, totalRows);
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDisableScoringAutoprojection(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("disable_scoring_autoprojection").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 10)) {
+        // Smoke test: verify the option is accepted and scan still works
+        ScanOptions options =
+            new ScanOptions.Builder().batchSize(20).disableScoringAutoprojection(true).build();
+
+        try (LanceScanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
+          assertEquals(
+              10,
+              scanner.countRows(),
+              "scan with disableScoringAutoprojection should return all rows");
+        }
+
+        // Also verify it doesn't break when combined with other options
+        ScanOptions combinedOptions =
+            new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                .batchSize(20)
+                .filter("id < 5")
+                .disableScoringAutoprojection(true)
+                .includeDeletedRows(false)
+                .strictBatchSize(false)
+                .build();
+
+        try (LanceScanner scanner = dataset.newScan(combinedOptions)) {
+          assertEquals(
+              5,
+              scanner.countRows(),
+              "scan with disableScoringAutoprojection + filter should work");
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
   private void validScanResult(Dataset dataset, int fragmentId, int rowCount) throws Exception {
     try (Scanner scanner =
         dataset.newScan(
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/SessionTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/SessionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7828d79f06b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/SessionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,479 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+public class SessionTest {
+
+  @Test
+  void testCreateSessionWithDefaults() {
+    try (Session session = Session.builder().build()) {
+      assertNotNull(session);
+      assertFalse(session.isClosed());
+      assertTrue(session.sizeBytes() >= 0);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCreateSessionWithCustomCacheSizes() {
+    long indexCacheSize = 512L * 1024 * 1024; // 512 MiB
+    long metadataCacheSize = 128L * 1024 * 1024; // 128 MiB
+
+    try (Session session =
+        Session.builder()
+            .indexCacheSizeBytes(indexCacheSize)
+            .metadataCacheSizeBytes(metadataCacheSize)
+            .build()) {
+      assertNotNull(session);
+      assertFalse(session.isClosed());
+      assertTrue(session.sizeBytes() >= 0);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCreateSessionWithPartialCustomCacheSizes() {
+    // Only set index cache size, metadata should use default
+    try (Session session = Session.builder().indexCacheSizeBytes(512L * 1024 * 1024).build()) {
+      assertNotNull(session);
+      assertFalse(session.isClosed());
+    }
+
+    // Only set metadata cache size, index should use default
+    try (Session session = Session.builder().metadataCacheSizeBytes(128L * 1024 * 1024).build()) {
+      assertNotNull(session);
+      assertFalse(session.isClosed());
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCreateSessionWithCacheBackendUris() {
+    try (Session session =
+        Session.builder()
+            .indexCacheBackend("moka://?capacity=1048576")
+            .metadataCacheBackend("moka://?capacity=524288")
+            .build()) {
+      assertNotNull(session);
+      assertFalse(session.isClosed());
+      assertEquals(0, session.metadataCacheStats().getNumEntries());
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCreateSessionWithStructuredCacheBackendConfigs() {
+    CacheBackendConfig indexBackend =
+        CacheBackendConfig.builder("moka").option("capacity", "1048576").build();
+    CacheBackendConfig metadataBackend =
+        CacheBackendConfig.builder("moka")
+            .options(Collections.singletonMap("capacity", "524288"))
+            .build();
+
+    assertEquals("moka", indexBackend.getKind());
+    assertEquals(Collections.singletonMap("capacity", "1048576"), indexBackend.getOptions());
+    assertThrows(
+        UnsupportedOperationException.class, () -> indexBackend.getOptions().put("capacity", "1"));
+
+    try (Session session =
+        Session.builder()
+            .indexCacheBackend(indexBackend)
+            .metadataCacheBackend(metadataBackend)
+            .build()) {
+      assertNotNull(session);
+      assertFalse(session.isClosed());
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCacheBackendReplacesPreviousDescriptorForSameTier() {
+    CacheBackendConfig structuredBackend =
+        CacheBackendConfig.builder("moka").option("capacity", "1048576").build();
+
+    try (Session session =
+        Session.builder()
+            .indexCacheBackend("missing://")
+            .indexCacheBackend(structuredBackend)
+            .build()) {
+      assertNotNull(session);
+    }
+
+    try (Session session =
+        Session.builder()
+            .metadataCacheBackend(structuredBackend)
+            .metadataCacheBackend("moka://?capacity=1048576")
+            .build()) {
+      assertNotNull(session);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCacheBackendRejectsSizeAndBackend() {
+    IllegalArgumentException indexError =
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () ->
+                Session.builder()
+                    .indexCacheSizeBytes(1024)
+                    .indexCacheBackend("moka://?capacity=1048576")
+                    .build());
+    assertTrue(
+        indexError
+            .getMessage()
+            .contains("indexCacheSizeBytes and indexCacheBackend are mutually exclusive"));
+
+    IllegalArgumentException metadataError =
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () ->
+                Session.builder()
+                    .metadataCacheBackend(
+                        CacheBackendConfig.builder("moka").option("capacity", "1048576").build())
+                    .metadataCacheSizeBytes(1024)
+                    .build());
+    assertTrue(
+        metadataError
+            .getMessage()
+            .contains("metadataCacheSizeBytes and metadataCacheBackend are mutually exclusive"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCacheBackendRejectsUnknownKind() {
+    IllegalArgumentException error =
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () -> Session.builder().indexCacheBackend("missing://").build());
+    assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("unknown cache backend kind"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCacheBackendRejectsInvalidMokaConfig() {
+    IllegalArgumentException missingCapacity =
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () -> Session.builder().indexCacheBackend("moka://").build());
+    assertTrue(missingCapacity.getMessage().contains("capacity is required"));
+
+    IllegalArgumentException unknownOption =
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () ->
+                Session.builder()
+                    .metadataCacheBackend(
+                        CacheBackendConfig.builder("moka").option("unknown", "value").build())
+                    .build());
+    assertTrue(unknownOption.getMessage().contains("unknown option"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCacheBackendConfigValidatesInputs() {
+    assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> CacheBackendConfig.builder(null));
+    assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> CacheBackendConfig.builder(""));
+    assertThrows(
+        NullPointerException.class,
+        () -> CacheBackendConfig.builder("moka").options((Map<String, String>) null));
+    assertThrows(
+        NullPointerException.class,
+        () -> CacheBackendConfig.builder("moka").option("capacity", null));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testSessionClose() {
+    Session session = Session.builder().build();
+    assertFalse(session.isClosed());
+
+    session.close();
+    assertTrue(session.isClosed());
+
+    // Calling close again should be safe
+    session.close();
+    assertTrue(session.isClosed());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testSessionSizeBytesAfterClose() {
+    Session session = Session.builder().build();
+    session.close();
+
+    assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, session::sizeBytes);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testSessionIsSameAs() {
+    try (Session session1 = Session.builder().build();
+        Session session2 = Session.builder().build()) {
+      // Same session should be equal to itself
+      assertTrue(session1.isSameAs(session1));
+      assertTrue(session2.isSameAs(session2));
+
+      // Different sessions should not be equal
+      assertFalse(session1.isSameAs(session2));
+      assertFalse(session2.isSameAs(session1));
+
+      // Null comparison
+      assertFalse(session1.isSameAs(null));
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDatasetSharesSession(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath1 = tempDir.resolve("dataset1").toString();
+    String datasetPath2 = tempDir.resolve("dataset2").toString();
+
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Session session = Session.builder().build()) {
+      // Create first dataset with session
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset1 =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath1);
+      try (Dataset ds1 = testDataset1.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        // Now reopen with shared session
+        try (Dataset ds1WithSession =
+            Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath1).session(session).build()) {
+
+          // Create second dataset
+          TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset2 =
+              new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath2);
+          try (Dataset ds2 = testDataset2.createEmptyDataset()) {
+            // Reopen with shared session
+            try (Dataset ds2WithSession =
+                Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath2).session(session).build()) {
+
+              // Both datasets should share the same session
+              Session session1 = ds1WithSession.session();
+              Session session2 = ds2WithSession.session();
+
+              assertNotNull(session1);
+              assertNotNull(session2);
+              assertTrue(session1.isSameAs(session2));
+              assertTrue(session1.isSameAs(session));
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDatasetSessionFromReadOptions(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_session_options").toString();
+
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Session session = Session.builder().build()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset ds = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        // Reopen with session in ReadOptions
+        ReadOptions options = new ReadOptions.Builder().setSession(session).build();
+
+        try (Dataset dsWithSession =
+            Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath).readOptions(options).build()) {
+
+          Session datasetSession = dsWithSession.session();
+          assertNotNull(datasetSession);
+          assertTrue(datasetSession.isSameAs(session));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testSessionPersistsAfterDatasetClose(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_session_persist").toString();
+
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Session session = Session.builder().build()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      // Open and close dataset with session
+      Dataset ds = Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath).session(session).build();
+      ds.close();
+
+      // Session should still be open and usable
+      assertFalse(session.isClosed());
+      assertTrue(session.sizeBytes() >= 0);
+
+      // Can open another dataset with the same session
+      try (Dataset ds2 =
+          Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath).session(session).build()) {
+        assertNotNull(ds2.session());
+        assertTrue(ds2.session().isSameAs(session));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testInternalSessionClosedWithDataset(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_internal_session").toString();
+
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      // Open dataset WITHOUT providing a session - internal session will be created
+      Dataset ds = Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath).build();
+
+      // Get the internal session
+      Session internalSession = ds.session();
+      assertNotNull(internalSession);
+      assertFalse(internalSession.isClosed());
+
+      // Close the dataset - internal session should be closed too
+      ds.close();
+
+      // The internal session should now be closed
+      assertTrue(internalSession.isClosed());
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testUserProvidedSessionNotClosedWithDataset(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_user_session").toString();
+
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Session userSession = Session.builder().build()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      // Open dataset WITH user-provided session
+      Dataset ds =
+          Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath).session(userSession).build();
+
+      // Get the session from dataset - should be the same as user-provided
+      Session datasetSession = ds.session();
+      assertTrue(datasetSession.isSameAs(userSession));
+
+      // Close the dataset
+      ds.close();
+
+      // User-provided session should NOT be closed
+      assertFalse(userSession.isClosed());
+      assertTrue(userSession.sizeBytes() >= 0);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCheckedOutDatasetsShareInternalSession(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_checkout_session").toString();
+
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      try (Dataset source = Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath).build()) {
+        source.tags().create("version-one", Ref.ofMain(1));
+        Session sourceSession = source.session();
+
+        try (Dataset byVersion = source.checkoutVersion(1);
+            Dataset byTag = source.checkoutTag("version-one");
+            Dataset byRef = source.checkout(Ref.ofMain(1))) {
+          assertNotNull(byVersion.session());
+          assertNotNull(byTag.session());
+          assertNotNull(byRef.session());
+          assertTrue(byVersion.session().isSameAs(sourceSession));
+          assertTrue(byTag.session().isSameAs(sourceSession));
+          assertTrue(byRef.session().isSameAs(sourceSession));
+
+          source.close();
+          assertTrue(sourceSession.isClosed());
+          assertFalse(byVersion.session().isClosed());
+          assertFalse(byTag.session().isClosed());
+          assertFalse(byRef.session().isClosed());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testSessionToString() {
+    try (Session session = Session.builder().build()) {
+      String str = session.toString();
+      assertNotNull(str);
+      assertTrue(str.startsWith("Session("));
+    }
+
+    Session closedSession = Session.builder().build();
+    closedSession.close();
+    assertEquals("Session(closed)", closedSession.toString());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMetadataCacheStats(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("dataset_metadata_cache_stats").toString();
+
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Session session = Session.builder().build()) {
+      CacheStats initialStats = session.metadataCacheStats();
+      assertEquals(0, initialStats.getHits());
+      assertEquals(0, initialStats.getMisses());
+      assertEquals(0, initialStats.getNumEntries());
+      assertEquals(0, initialStats.getSizeBytes());
+      assertEquals(0.0, initialStats.getHitRatio());
+
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+
+      // First open populates the metadata cache, producing misses
+      try (Dataset ds =
+          Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath).session(session).build()) {
+        ds.countRows();
+      }
+      CacheStats statsAfterFirstOpen = session.metadataCacheStats();
+      assertTrue(statsAfterFirstOpen.getMisses() > 0);
+      assertTrue(statsAfterFirstOpen.getNumEntries() > 0);
+      assertTrue(statsAfterFirstOpen.getSizeBytes() > 0);
+
+      // Reopening the same dataset should hit the shared metadata cache
+      try (Dataset ds =
+          Dataset.open().allocator(allocator).uri(datasetPath).session(session).build()) {
+        ds.countRows();
+      }
+      CacheStats statsAfterSecondOpen = session.metadataCacheStats();
+      assertTrue(statsAfterSecondOpen.getHits() > statsAfterFirstOpen.getHits());
+      assertTrue(statsAfterSecondOpen.getHitRatio() > 0.0);
+
+      // Stats are not accessible once the session is closed (close is idempotent,
+      // so the implicit close from try-with-resources remains safe)
+      session.close();
+      assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, session::metadataCacheStats);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testInvalidCacheSizes() {
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Session.builder().indexCacheSizeBytes(-1).build());
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Session.builder().metadataCacheSizeBytes(-1).build());
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> Session.builder().indexCacheSizeBytes(-1).metadataCacheSizeBytes(-1).build());
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/SourcedTransactionTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/SourcedTransactionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ae2be91dd33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/SourcedTransactionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,124 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.operation.Append;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+public class SourcedTransactionTest {
+
+  @Test
+  public void testSourcedTransaction(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testSourcedTransaction").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(20);
+
+        Map<String, String> properties = new HashMap<>();
+        properties.put("transactionType", "APPEND");
+        properties.put("createdBy", "testUser");
+        try (SourcedTransaction appendTxn =
+            dataset
+                .newTransactionBuilder()
+                .operation(
+                    Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
+                .transactionProperties(properties)
+                .build()) {
+          try (Dataset committedDataset = appendTxn.commit()) {
+            assertEquals(2, committedDataset.version());
+            assertEquals(2, committedDataset.latestVersion());
+            assertEquals(20, committedDataset.countRows());
+            assertEquals(dataset.version(), appendTxn.readVersion());
+            assertNotNull(appendTxn.uuid());
+
+            // Verify transaction properties
+            Map<String, String> txnProps =
+                appendTxn.transactionProperties().orElse(new HashMap<>());
+            assertEquals("APPEND", txnProps.get("transactionType"));
+            assertEquals("testUser", txnProps.get("createdBy"));
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testTag(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testTag").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+
+        try (SourcedTransaction txn =
+            dataset
+                .newTransactionBuilder()
+                .tag("release-v2")
+                .operation(
+                    Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
+                .build()) {
+          assertEquals("release-v2", txn.tag().orElse(null));
+          assertEquals("release-v2", txn.transaction().tag().orElse(null));
+
+          try (Dataset committed = txn.commit()) {
+            Transaction readTx = committed.readTransaction().orElse(null);
+            assertNotNull(readTx);
+            assertEquals("release-v2", readTx.tag().orElse(null));
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testReadVersionDefaultsToDatasetVersion(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testReadVersionDefault").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+
+        // Do not set readVersion explicitly — it should default to dataset.version()
+        try (SourcedTransaction txn =
+            dataset
+                .newTransactionBuilder()
+                .operation(
+                    Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
+                .build()) {
+          assertEquals(dataset.version(), txn.readVersion());
+
+          try (Dataset committed = txn.commit()) {
+            assertTrue(committed.version() > dataset.version());
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TestUtils.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TestUtils.java
index 4a884696e54..af0cc797784 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TestUtils.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TestUtils.java
@@ -111,6 +111,11 @@ public FragmentMetadata createNewFragment(int rowCount) {
     }
 
     public List<FragmentMetadata> createNewFragment(int rowCount, int maxRowsPerFile) {
+      return createNewFragment(
+          rowCount, new WriteParams.Builder().withMaxRowsPerFile(maxRowsPerFile).build());
+    }
+
+    public List<FragmentMetadata> createNewFragment(int rowCount, WriteParams writeParams) {
       List<FragmentMetadata> fragmentMetas;
       try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(getSchema(), allocator)) {
         root.allocateNew();
@@ -124,12 +129,7 @@ public List<FragmentMetadata> createNewFragment(int rowCount, int maxRowsPerFile
         }
         root.setRowCount(rowCount);
 
-        fragmentMetas =
-            Fragment.create(
-                datasetPath,
-                allocator,
-                root,
-                new WriteParams.Builder().withMaxRowsPerFile(maxRowsPerFile).build());
+        fragmentMetas = Fragment.create(datasetPath, allocator, root, writeParams);
       }
       return fragmentMetas;
     }
@@ -684,6 +684,7 @@ public Dataset createEmptyDataset() {
           new WriteParams.Builder()
               // Enable stable row ids to simplify test assertions across fragments
               .withEnableStableRowIds(true)
+              .withDataStorageVersion(LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_1)
               .withMode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
               .build();
       Dataset ds = Dataset.create(allocator, datasetPath, getSchema(), params);
@@ -694,7 +695,8 @@ public Dataset createEmptyDataset() {
     /**
      * Create a single fragment with given row count and return its metadata. The fragment contains
      * deterministic blob payloads: - Every 16th row starting at 0 has zero-length blob - Every 16th
-     * row starting at 1 has a ~1 MiB payload - Others have small variable blobs (128..383 bytes)
+     * row starting at 1 has a ~1 MiB payload - Every 16th row starting at 15 is null - Others have
+     * small variable blobs (128..383 bytes)
      */
     public FragmentMetadata createBlobFragment(int rowCount, int maxRowsPerFile) {
       Preconditions.checkArgument(rowCount >= 0, "rowCount must be non-negative");
@@ -716,6 +718,8 @@ public FragmentMetadata createBlobFragment(int rowCount, int maxRowsPerFile) {
             byte[] big = new byte[1024 * 1024];
             Arrays.fill(big, (byte) 0xAB);
             blobsVec.setSafe(i, big);
+          } else if (i % 16 == 15) {
+            blobsVec.setNull(i);
           } else {
             // small variable blob
             int sz = 128 + (i % 256);
@@ -731,6 +735,7 @@ public FragmentMetadata createBlobFragment(int rowCount, int maxRowsPerFile) {
                 .withMaxRowsPerFile(maxRowsPerFile)
                 .withMode(WriteParams.WriteMode.APPEND)
                 .withEnableStableRowIds(true)
+                .withDataStorageVersion(LanceConstants.FILE_FORMAT_VERSION_2_1)
                 .build();
 
         List<FragmentMetadata> metas = Fragment.create(datasetPath, allocator, root, params);
@@ -760,14 +765,16 @@ public Dataset createAndAppendRows(int totalRows, int batches) {
           fragments.add(createBlobFragment(batchRows, Integer.MAX_VALUE));
         }
 
-        Transaction txn =
-            ds.newTransactionBuilder()
+        try (Transaction txn =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(ds.version())
                 .operation(org.lance.operation.Append.builder().fragments(fragments).build())
-                .build();
-        Dataset newDs = txn.commit();
-        Preconditions.checkArgument(
-            newDs.countRows() == totalRows, "dataset row count mismatch after append");
-        return newDs;
+                .build()) {
+          Dataset newDs = new CommitBuilder(ds).execute(txn);
+          Preconditions.checkArgument(
+              newDs.countRows() == totalRows, "dataset row count mismatch after append");
+          return newDs;
+        }
       }
     }
   }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TestVectorDataset.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TestVectorDataset.java
index f05c7dc7abb..873b0fa7f66 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TestVectorDataset.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TestVectorDataset.java
@@ -20,7 +20,10 @@
 
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
-import org.apache.arrow.vector.*;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.Float4Vector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VarCharVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.complex.FixedSizeListVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.FloatingPointPrecision;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
@@ -31,7 +34,13 @@
 
 import java.io.IOException;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Optional;
 
 public class TestVectorDataset implements AutoCloseable {
   public static final String vectorColumnName = "vec";
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TransactionTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TransactionTest.java
index c9d0e937263..02276cee122 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TransactionTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/TransactionTest.java
@@ -13,64 +13,58 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.index.Index;
+import org.lance.index.IndexFile;
 import org.lance.index.IndexOptions;
 import org.lance.index.IndexParams;
 import org.lance.index.IndexType;
 import org.lance.index.scalar.ScalarIndexParams;
+import org.lance.memwal.CompactedSsTable;
+import org.lance.memwal.InitializeMemWalParams;
 import org.lance.operation.Append;
+import org.lance.operation.Clone;
 import org.lance.operation.CreateIndex;
+import org.lance.operation.DataOverlay;
+import org.lance.operation.DataReplacement;
+import org.lance.operation.Delete;
+import org.lance.operation.KeyExistenceFilter;
+import org.lance.operation.Operation;
+import org.lance.operation.Overwrite;
+import org.lance.operation.ReserveFragments;
+import org.lance.operation.Restore;
+import org.lance.operation.Rewrite;
+import org.lance.operation.RewrittenIndex;
+import org.lance.operation.Update;
+import org.lance.operation.UpdateBases;
+import org.lance.operation.UpdateMemWalState;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
 
+import java.beans.Introspector;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.UUID;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertInstanceOf;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 public class TransactionTest {
 
-  @Test
-  public void testTransaction(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
-    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testTransaction").toString();
-    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
-      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
-          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
-      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
-        FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(20);
-
-        Map<String, String> properties = new HashMap<>();
-        properties.put("transactionType", "APPEND");
-        properties.put("createdBy", "testUser");
-        Transaction appendTxn =
-            dataset
-                .newTransactionBuilder()
-                .operation(
-                    Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
-                .transactionProperties(properties)
-                .build();
-        try (Dataset committedDataset = appendTxn.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(2, committedDataset.version());
-          assertEquals(2, committedDataset.latestVersion());
-          assertEquals(20, committedDataset.countRows());
-          assertEquals(dataset.version(), appendTxn.readVersion());
-          assertNotNull(appendTxn.uuid());
-
-          // Verify transaction properties
-          Map<String, String> txnProps = appendTxn.transactionProperties().orElse(new HashMap<>());
-          assertEquals("APPEND", txnProps.get("transactionType"));
-          assertEquals("testUser", txnProps.get("createdBy"));
-        }
-      }
-    }
-  }
+  private static final byte[] OFFSETS_1_3_5 =
+      new byte[] {0x3A, 0x30, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0x10, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0};
 
   @Test
   public void testReadTransactionCreateIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
@@ -106,6 +100,896 @@ public void testReadTransactionCreateIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
         assertTrue(
             op.getRemovedIndices().isEmpty(), "removedIndices should be empty for CreateIndex");
         assertEquals("btree_id_index", (op.getNewIndices().get(0).name()));
+        Index readIndex = op.getNewIndices().get(0);
+        assertTrue(readIndex.getFiles().isPresent());
+        assertEquals(
+            readIndex.getSizeBytes().orElseThrow().longValue(),
+            readIndex.getFiles().orElseThrow().stream().mapToLong(IndexFile::getSizeBytes).sum());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCommitToUri(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testCommitToUri").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      Schema schema = testDataset.getSchema();
+
+      // Create fragments at the dataset path
+      FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(20);
+
+      // Build a transaction targeting a URI (no existing dataset)
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .operation(
+                  Overwrite.builder()
+                      .fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta))
+                      .schema(schema)
+                      .build())
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset committedDataset = new CommitBuilder(datasetPath, allocator).execute(txn)) {
+          assertEquals(1, committedDataset.version());
+          assertEquals(20, committedDataset.countRows());
+          try (Transaction read = committedDataset.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+            Overwrite operation = assertInstanceOf(Overwrite.class, read.operation());
+            assertTrue(operation.getInitialBases().isEmpty());
+            assertTrue(operation.configUpsertValues().isEmpty());
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testTagRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testTagRoundTrip").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+
+        try (Transaction txn =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                .tag("v1.0")
+                .operation(
+                    Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
+                .build()) {
+          assertEquals("v1.0", txn.tag().orElse(null));
+
+          try (Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn)) {
+            Transaction readTx = committed.readTransaction().orElse(null);
+            assertNotNull(readTx);
+            assertEquals("v1.0", readTx.tag().orElse(null));
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testEmptyTransactionMetadataCanonicalization(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("empty_transaction_metadata").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      FragmentMetadata fragment = testDataset.createNewFragment(1);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+          Transaction transaction =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                  .tag("")
+                  .transactionProperties(Collections.emptyMap())
+                  .operation(
+                      Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragment)).build())
+                  .build()) {
+        assertTrue(transaction.tag().isEmpty());
+        assertTrue(transaction.transactionProperties().isEmpty());
+        try (Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction);
+            Transaction read = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+          assertTrue(read.tag().isEmpty());
+          assertTrue(read.transactionProperties().isEmpty());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testTransactionPropertiesRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testTransactionPropertiesRoundTrip").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+
+        Map<String, String> properties = new HashMap<>();
+        properties.put("source", "ingestion-pipeline");
+        properties.put("batchId", "42");
+
+        try (Transaction txn =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                .transactionProperties(properties)
+                .operation(
+                    Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
+                .build()) {
+          try (Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn)) {
+            Transaction readTx = committed.readTransaction().orElse(null);
+            assertNotNull(readTx);
+            Map<String, String> readProps = readTx.transactionProperties().orElse(null);
+            assertNotNull(readProps);
+            assertEquals("ingestion-pipeline", readProps.get("source"));
+            assertEquals("42", readProps.get("batchId"));
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCustomUuid(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testCustomUuid").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+
+        String customUuid = "custom-uuid-12345";
+        try (Transaction txn =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                .uuid(customUuid)
+                .operation(
+                    Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
+                .build()) {
+          assertEquals(customUuid, txn.uuid());
+
+          try (Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn)) {
+            Transaction readTx = committed.readTransaction().orElse(null);
+            assertNotNull(readTx);
+            assertEquals(customUuid, readTx.uuid());
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCloneRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String sourcePath = tempDir.resolve("clone_source").toString();
+    String targetPath = tempDir.resolve("clone_target").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset sourceDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, sourcePath);
+      sourceDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset source = sourceDataset.write(1, 10);
+          Transaction transaction =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(source.version())
+                  .operation(
+                      Clone.builder()
+                          .shallow(true)
+                          .refVersion(source.version())
+                          .refPath(sourcePath)
+                          .build())
+                  .build();
+          Dataset cloned = new CommitBuilder(targetPath, allocator).execute(transaction);
+          Transaction read = cloned.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+        assertInstanceOf(Clone.class, read.operation());
+        Clone clone = (Clone) read.operation();
+        assertEquals(
+            Clone.builder().shallow(true).refVersion(source.version()).refPath(sourcePath).build(),
+            clone);
+        assertTrue(clone.isShallow());
+        assertEquals(sourcePath, clone.getRefPath());
+        assertEquals(source.version(), clone.getRefVersion());
+        assertTrue(clone.getRefName().isEmpty());
+        assertTrue(clone.getBranchName().isEmpty());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testDeepCloneCommitRejected(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String sourcePath = tempDir.resolve("clone_source").toString();
+    String targetPath = tempDir.resolve("clone_target").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset sourceDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, sourcePath);
+      sourceDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset source = sourceDataset.write(1, 10);
+          Transaction transaction =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(source.version())
+                  .operation(
+                      Clone.builder()
+                          .shallow(false)
+                          .refVersion(source.version())
+                          .refPath(sourcePath)
+                          .build())
+                  .build()) {
+        // Committed directly, a deep clone would reference files never copied to the target.
+        IllegalArgumentException e =
+            assertThrows(
+                IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                () -> new CommitBuilder(targetPath, allocator).execute(transaction));
+        assertTrue(e.getMessage().contains("deep Clone cannot be committed directly"));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdateBasesRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("update_bases").toString();
+    String basePath = tempDir.resolve("external_base").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+          Transaction transaction =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                  .operation(
+                      UpdateBases.builder()
+                          .newBases(
+                              Collections.singletonList(
+                                  new BasePath(0, Optional.of("external"), basePath, false)))
+                          .build())
+                  .build();
+          Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction);
+          Transaction read = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+        UpdateBases operation = assertInstanceOf(UpdateBases.class, read.operation());
+        assertEquals(
+            UpdateBases.builder()
+                .newBases(
+                    Collections.singletonList(
+                        new BasePath(0, Optional.of("external"), basePath, false)))
+                .build(),
+            operation);
+        assertEquals(1, operation.getNewBases().size());
+        assertEquals("external", operation.getNewBases().get(0).getName().orElseThrow());
+        assertEquals(basePath, operation.getNewBases().get(0).getPath());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdateMemWalStateRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("update_memwal").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams().withUnsharded());
+        CompactedSsTable sstable = new CompactedSsTable(UUID.randomUUID().toString(), 7);
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+                new Transaction.Builder()
+                    .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                    .operation(
+                        UpdateMemWalState.builder()
+                            .compactedSstables(Collections.singletonList(sstable))
+                            .build())
+                    .build();
+            Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction);
+            Transaction read = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+          UpdateMemWalState operation = assertInstanceOf(UpdateMemWalState.class, read.operation());
+          assertEquals(
+              UpdateMemWalState.builder()
+                  .compactedSstables(Collections.singletonList(sstable))
+                  .build(),
+              operation);
+          assertEquals(1, operation.getCompactedSstables().size());
+          assertEquals(sstable.getShardId(), operation.getCompactedSstables().get(0).getShardId());
+          assertEquals(7, operation.getCompactedSstables().get(0).getGeneration());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testDataOverlayRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("data_overlay").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 10)) {
+        FragmentMetadata fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0).metadata();
+        DataOverlay.DataOverlayFile overlay =
+            DataOverlay.DataOverlayFile.forCommit(
+                fragment.getFiles().get(0), DataOverlay.OverlayCoverage.shared(OFFSETS_1_3_5));
+        DataOverlay.DataOverlayGroup group =
+            new DataOverlay.DataOverlayGroup(fragment.getId(), Collections.singletonList(overlay));
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+                new Transaction.Builder()
+                    .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                    .operation(
+                        DataOverlay.builder().groups(Collections.singletonList(group)).build())
+                    .build();
+            Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction);
+            Transaction read = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+          DataOverlay operation = assertInstanceOf(DataOverlay.class, read.operation());
+          assertEquals(
+              DataOverlay.builder().groups(Collections.singletonList(group)).build(), operation);
+          DataOverlay.DataOverlayFile readOverlay =
+              operation.getGroups().get(0).getOverlays().get(0);
+          assertEquals(fragment.getId(), operation.getGroups().get(0).getFragmentId());
+          assertTrue(readOverlay.getCoverage().isShared());
+          assertArrayEquals(OFFSETS_1_3_5, readOverlay.getCoverage().getBitmaps().get(0));
+          assertEquals(0, readOverlay.getCommittedVersion());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testDataOverlayPerFieldCoverageValidation(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("data_overlay_per_field").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 10)) {
+        FragmentMetadata fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0).metadata();
+        org.lance.fragment.DataFile dataFile = fragment.getFiles().get(0);
+        int fieldCount = dataFile.getFields().length;
+        assertTrue(fieldCount > 0);
+
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () ->
+                new DataOverlay.DataOverlayFile(
+                    dataFile, DataOverlay.OverlayCoverage.perField(Collections.emptyList()), 0));
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () ->
+                new DataOverlay.DataOverlayFile(
+                    dataFile,
+                    DataOverlay.OverlayCoverage.perField(
+                        Collections.nCopies(fieldCount + 1, OFFSETS_1_3_5)),
+                    0));
+
+        DataOverlay.DataOverlayFile overlay =
+            new DataOverlay.DataOverlayFile(
+                dataFile,
+                DataOverlay.OverlayCoverage.perField(
+                    Collections.nCopies(fieldCount, OFFSETS_1_3_5)),
+                0);
+        DataOverlay.DataOverlayGroup group =
+            new DataOverlay.DataOverlayGroup(fragment.getId(), Collections.singletonList(overlay));
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+                new Transaction.Builder()
+                    .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                    .operation(
+                        DataOverlay.builder().groups(Collections.singletonList(group)).build())
+                    .build();
+            Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction);
+            Transaction read = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+          DataOverlay readOperation = assertInstanceOf(DataOverlay.class, read.operation());
+          assertEquals(
+              fieldCount,
+              readOperation
+                  .getGroups()
+                  .get(0)
+                  .getOverlays()
+                  .get(0)
+                  .getCoverage()
+                  .getBitmaps()
+                  .size());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testOverwriteInitialBasesAndUpdateFilterRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("overwrite_initial_bases").toString();
+    String basePath = tempDir.resolve("initial_base").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Transaction overwrite =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .operation(
+                      Overwrite.builder()
+                          .fragments(Collections.emptyList())
+                          .schema(testDataset.getSchema())
+                          .initialBases(
+                              Collections.singletonList(
+                                  new BasePath(0, Optional.of("initial"), basePath, false)))
+                          .build())
+                  .build();
+          Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(datasetPath, allocator).execute(overwrite);
+          Transaction readOverwrite = dataset.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+        Overwrite operation = assertInstanceOf(Overwrite.class, readOverwrite.operation());
+        BasePath expectedBasePath = new BasePath(0, Optional.of("initial"), basePath, false);
+        BasePath readBasePath = operation.getInitialBases().orElseThrow().get(0);
+        assertEquals(expectedBasePath.getId(), readBasePath.getId());
+        assertEquals(expectedBasePath.getName(), readBasePath.getName());
+        assertEquals(expectedBasePath.getPath(), readBasePath.getPath());
+        assertEquals(expectedBasePath.isDatasetRoot(), readBasePath.isDatasetRoot());
+
+        dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams().withUnsharded());
+        KeyExistenceFilter filter = KeyExistenceFilter.exact(new int[] {0}, new long[] {42});
+        CompactedSsTable compacted = new CompactedSsTable(UUID.randomUUID().toString(), 8);
+        try (Transaction update =
+                new Transaction.Builder()
+                    .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                    .operation(
+                        Update.builder()
+                            .compactedSstables(Collections.singletonList(compacted))
+                            .insertedRowsFilter(filter)
+                            .updateMode(Optional.of(Update.UpdateMode.RewriteRows))
+                            .build())
+                    .build();
+            Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(update);
+            Transaction readUpdate = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+          Update updateOperation = assertInstanceOf(Update.class, readUpdate.operation());
+          KeyExistenceFilter readFilter = updateOperation.getInsertedRowsFilter().orElseThrow();
+          assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0}, readFilter.getFieldIds());
+          assertArrayEquals(new long[] {42}, readFilter.getExactKeyHashes());
+          assertEquals(Update.UpdateMode.RewriteRows, updateOperation.updateMode().orElseThrow());
+          CompactedSsTable readCompacted = updateOperation.getCompactedSstables().get(0);
+          assertEquals(compacted.getShardId(), readCompacted.getShardId());
+          assertEquals(compacted.getGeneration(), readCompacted.getGeneration());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testBloomFilterRoundTripAndValidation(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    byte[] bitmap = new byte[32];
+    bitmap[0] = 1;
+    KeyExistenceFilter filter =
+        KeyExistenceFilter.bloom(new int[] {0}, bitmap, bitmap.length * Byte.SIZE, 8192, 0.00057);
+
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> KeyExistenceFilter.bloom(new int[] {0}, bitmap, 0, 8192, 0.00057));
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> KeyExistenceFilter.bloom(new int[] {0}, bitmap, 8, 8192, 0.00057));
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () ->
+            KeyExistenceFilter.bloom(new int[] {0}, bitmap, bitmap.length * Byte.SIZE, 0, 0.00057));
+    for (double probability : Arrays.asList(0.0, 1.0, Double.NaN, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY)) {
+      assertThrows(
+          IllegalArgumentException.class,
+          () ->
+              KeyExistenceFilter.bloom(
+                  new int[] {0}, bitmap, bitmap.length * Byte.SIZE, 8192, probability));
+    }
+
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("bloom_filter").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+          Transaction update =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                  .operation(
+                      Update.builder()
+                          .insertedRowsFilter(filter)
+                          .updateMode(Optional.of(Update.UpdateMode.RewriteRows))
+                          .build())
+                  .build();
+          Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(update);
+          Transaction read = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+        assertEquals(
+            filter,
+            assertInstanceOf(Update.class, read.operation()).getInsertedRowsFilter().orElseThrow());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCompatibilityAccessorsAndConstructor() throws Exception {
+    Overwrite.class.getDeclaredConstructor(List.class, Schema.class, Map.class);
+    assertTrue(
+        Arrays.stream(Introspector.getBeanInfo(Overwrite.class).getPropertyDescriptors())
+            .anyMatch(property -> property.getName().equals("initialBases")));
+    assertTrue(
+        Arrays.stream(Introspector.getBeanInfo(Update.class).getPropertyDescriptors())
+            .anyMatch(property -> property.getName().equals("compactedSstables")));
+    assertTrue(
+        Arrays.stream(Introspector.getBeanInfo(Update.class).getPropertyDescriptors())
+            .anyMatch(property -> property.getName().equals("insertedRowsFilter")));
+    assertTrue(Update.builder().build().updateMode().isEmpty());
+    assertThrows(
+        NullPointerException.class, () -> Update.builder().compactedSstables(null).build());
+    Overwrite emptyOverwrite =
+        Overwrite.builder()
+            .fragments(Collections.emptyList())
+            .schema(new Schema(Collections.emptyList()))
+            .configUpsertValues(Collections.emptyMap())
+            .initialBases(Collections.emptyList())
+            .build();
+    assertTrue(emptyOverwrite.configUpsertValues().isEmpty());
+    assertTrue(emptyOverwrite.getInitialBases().isPresent());
+    assertTrue(emptyOverwrite.getInitialBases().orElseThrow().isEmpty());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUnrepresentableEmptyUpdateModeAndExplicitEmptyInitialBasesAreRejected(
+      @TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("unrepresentable_optionals").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        assertInvalidOperation(
+            dataset, Update.builder().build(), "update.updateMode must be specified");
+
+        Overwrite overwrite =
+            Overwrite.builder()
+                .fragments(Collections.emptyList())
+                .schema(testDataset.getSchema())
+                .initialBases(Collections.emptyList())
+                .build();
+        assertTrue(overwrite.getInitialBases().isPresent());
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+            new Transaction.Builder().readVersion(dataset.version()).operation(overwrite).build()) {
+          IllegalArgumentException error =
+              assertThrows(
+                  IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                  () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction));
+          assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("register new bases"));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testIndexSizeMustBeRepresentable(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    Index empty = indexMetadata("empty", 0L, Collections.emptyList());
+    assertTrue(empty.getSizeBytes().isEmpty());
+    assertTrue(empty.getFiles().isEmpty());
+    Index consistent =
+        indexMetadata(
+            "consistent",
+            30L,
+            Arrays.asList(new IndexFile("a.idx", 10), new IndexFile("b.idx", 20)));
+    assertEquals(30L, consistent.getSizeBytes().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals(2, consistent.getFiles().orElseThrow().size());
+    Index derived =
+        indexMetadata(
+            "derived",
+            null,
+            Arrays.asList(new IndexFile("derived-a.idx", 10), new IndexFile("derived-b.idx", 20)));
+    assertEquals(30L, derived.getSizeBytes().orElseThrow());
+
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("index_files").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+          Transaction missingFiles =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                  .operation(
+                      CreateIndex.builder()
+                          .withNewIndices(
+                              Collections.singletonList(indexMetadata("missing", 10L, null)))
+                          .build())
+                  .build()) {
+        IllegalArgumentException error =
+            assertThrows(
+                IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(missingFiles));
+        assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("without files"));
+      }
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(datasetPath, allocator);
+          Transaction mismatch =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                  .operation(
+                      CreateIndex.builder()
+                          .withNewIndices(
+                              Collections.singletonList(
+                                  indexMetadata(
+                                      "mismatch",
+                                      11L,
+                                      Collections.singletonList(new IndexFile("c.idx", 10)))))
+                          .build())
+                  .build()) {
+        IllegalArgumentException error =
+            assertThrows(
+                IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(mismatch));
+        assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("does not match"));
+      }
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(datasetPath, allocator)) {
+        for (List<IndexFile> files :
+            Arrays.asList(
+                Arrays.asList(
+                    new IndexFile("large-a.idx", Long.MAX_VALUE), new IndexFile("large-b.idx", 1)),
+                Arrays.asList(
+                    new IndexFile("overflow-a.idx", Long.MAX_VALUE),
+                    new IndexFile("overflow-b.idx", Long.MAX_VALUE),
+                    new IndexFile("overflow-c.idx", Long.MAX_VALUE)))) {
+          IllegalArgumentException error =
+              assertThrows(
+                  IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> indexMetadata("too-large", null, files));
+          assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("cannot be represented"));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static Index indexMetadata(String name, Long sizeBytes, List<IndexFile> files) {
+    return Index.builder()
+        .uuid(UUID.randomUUID())
+        .fields(Collections.singletonList(0))
+        .coveringFields(Collections.emptyList())
+        .name(name)
+        .datasetVersion(1)
+        .indexVersion(0)
+        .sizeBytes(sizeBytes)
+        .files(files)
+        .indexType(IndexType.BTREE)
+        .build();
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testInvalidUnsignedTransactionFieldsAreRejected(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("invalid_unsigned_fields").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+            new Transaction.Builder().readVersion(-1).operation(Update.builder().build()).build()) {
+          IllegalArgumentException error =
+              assertThrows(
+                  IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                  () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction));
+          assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("transaction.readVersion"));
+        }
+
+        for (long invalid : new long[] {-1, 1L << 32}) {
+          for (boolean preserving : new boolean[] {false, true}) {
+            Update.Builder update = Update.builder();
+            if (preserving) {
+              update.fieldsForPreservingFragBitmap(new long[] {invalid});
+            } else {
+              update.fieldsModified(new long[] {invalid});
+            }
+            try (Transaction transaction =
+                new Transaction.Builder()
+                    .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                    .operation(update.build())
+                    .build()) {
+              IllegalArgumentException error =
+                  assertThrows(
+                      IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                      () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction));
+              assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("[0]"));
+            }
+          }
+        }
+
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                .operation(
+                    UpdateBases.builder()
+                        .newBases(
+                            Collections.singletonList(
+                                new BasePath(-1, Optional.empty(), "invalid", false)))
+                        .build())
+                .build()) {
+          IllegalArgumentException error =
+              assertThrows(
+                  IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                  () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction));
+          assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("non-negative"));
+        }
+
+        org.lance.fragment.DataFile dataFile =
+            new org.lance.fragment.DataFile("overlay", new int[0], new int[0], 2, 1, 0L, null);
+        DataOverlay.DataOverlayGroup invalidGroup =
+            new DataOverlay.DataOverlayGroup(
+                -1,
+                Collections.singletonList(
+                    new DataOverlay.DataOverlayFile(
+                        dataFile, DataOverlay.OverlayCoverage.shared(OFFSETS_1_3_5), 0)));
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                .operation(
+                    DataOverlay.builder().groups(Collections.singletonList(invalidGroup)).build())
+                .build()) {
+          IllegalArgumentException error =
+              assertThrows(
+                  IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                  () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction));
+          assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("dataOverlay.fragmentId"));
+        }
+
+        assertInvalidOperation(
+            dataset,
+            Delete.builder().deletedFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(-1L)).build(),
+            "delete.deletedFragmentIds[0]");
+        assertInvalidOperation(
+            dataset,
+            Update.builder().removedFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(-1L)).build(),
+            "update.removedFragmentIds[0]");
+        assertInvalidOperation(
+            dataset,
+            Update.builder()
+                .updatedFragmentOffsets(Collections.singletonMap(-1L, OFFSETS_1_3_5))
+                .updateMode(Optional.of(Update.UpdateMode.RewriteColumns))
+                .build(),
+            "updatedFragmentOffsets.fragmentId");
+        assertInvalidOperation(dataset, Restore.builder().version(-1).build(), "restore.version");
+        assertInvalidOperation(
+            dataset,
+            ReserveFragments.builder().numFragments(-1).build(),
+            "reserveFragments.numFragments");
+        assertInvalidOperation(
+            dataset,
+            DataReplacement.builder()
+                .replacements(
+                    Collections.singletonList(
+                        new DataReplacement.DataReplacementGroup(-1, dataFile)))
+                .build(),
+            "dataReplacement.fragmentId");
+        assertInvalidOperation(
+            dataset,
+            CreateIndex.builder()
+                .withNewIndices(
+                    Collections.singletonList(
+                        Index.builder()
+                            .uuid(UUID.randomUUID())
+                            .fields(Collections.singletonList(0))
+                            .coveringFields(Collections.emptyList())
+                            .name("negative-version")
+                            .datasetVersion(-1)
+                            .indexVersion(0)
+                            .indexType(IndexType.BTREE)
+                            .build()))
+                .build(),
+            "index.datasetVersion");
+        assertInvalidOperation(
+            dataset,
+            CreateIndex.builder()
+                .withNewIndices(
+                    Collections.singletonList(
+                        Index.builder()
+                            .uuid(UUID.randomUUID())
+                            .fields(Collections.singletonList(0))
+                            .coveringFields(Collections.emptyList())
+                            .name("negative-fragment")
+                            .datasetVersion(1)
+                            .fragments(Collections.singletonList(-1))
+                            .indexVersion(0)
+                            .indexType(IndexType.BTREE)
+                            .build()))
+                .build(),
+            "index.fragments[0]");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static void assertInvalidOperation(
+      Dataset dataset, Operation operation, String expectedMessage) {
+    try (Transaction transaction =
+        new Transaction.Builder().readVersion(dataset.version()).operation(operation).build()) {
+      IllegalArgumentException error =
+          assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction));
+      assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains(expectedMessage), error.getMessage());
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUnknownOperationReturnsDiagnosticError(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("unknown_operation").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+          Transaction transaction =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                  .operation(() -> "FutureOperation")
+                  .build()) {
+        IllegalArgumentException error =
+            assertThrows(
+                IllegalArgumentException.class,
+                () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction));
+        assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("FutureOperation"));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testRewrittenIndexFilesModelPreservesAbsentAndEmpty() {
+    UUID oldId = UUID.randomUUID();
+    UUID newId = UUID.randomUUID();
+    RewrittenIndex absent =
+        RewrittenIndex.builder()
+            .oldId(oldId)
+            .newId(newId)
+            .newIndexDetailsTypeUrl("type.googleapis.com/lance.index.BTreeIndexDetails")
+            .newIndexDetailsValue(new byte[0])
+            .newIndexVersion(1)
+            .build();
+    RewrittenIndex empty =
+        RewrittenIndex.builder()
+            .oldId(oldId)
+            .newId(newId)
+            .newIndexDetailsTypeUrl("type.googleapis.com/lance.index.BTreeIndexDetails")
+            .newIndexDetailsValue(new byte[0])
+            .newIndexVersion(1)
+            .newIndexFiles(Collections.emptyList())
+            .build();
+    RewrittenIndex populated =
+        RewrittenIndex.builder()
+            .oldId(oldId)
+            .newId(newId)
+            .newIndexDetailsTypeUrl("type.googleapis.com/lance.index.BTreeIndexDetails")
+            .newIndexDetailsValue(new byte[0])
+            .newIndexVersion(1)
+            .newIndexFiles(Collections.singletonList(new IndexFile("index.idx", 123)))
+            .build();
+
+    assertTrue(absent.getNewIndexFiles().isEmpty());
+    assertTrue(empty.getNewIndexFiles().isEmpty());
+    assertEquals(123, populated.getNewIndexFiles().orElseThrow().get(0).getSizeBytes());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testRewrittenIndexFilesRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("rewritten_index_files").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 10)) {
+        ScalarIndexParams scalarParams = ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
+        dataset.createIndex(
+            IndexOptions.builder(Collections.singletonList("id"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
+                .withIndexName("btree_id")
+                .build());
+        Index oldIndex = dataset.getIndexes().get(0);
+        IndexFile indexFile = new IndexFile("index.idx", 123);
+        RewrittenIndex rewrittenIndex =
+            RewrittenIndex.builder()
+                .oldId(oldIndex.uuid())
+                .newId(UUID.randomUUID())
+                .newIndexDetailsTypeUrl("type.googleapis.com/lance.index.BTreeIndexDetails")
+                .newIndexDetailsValue(new byte[0])
+                .newIndexVersion(oldIndex.indexVersion())
+                .newIndexFiles(Collections.singletonList(indexFile))
+                .build();
+        try (Transaction transaction =
+                new Transaction.Builder()
+                    .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                    .operation(
+                        Rewrite.builder()
+                            .rewrittenIndices(Collections.singletonList(rewrittenIndex))
+                            .build())
+                    .build();
+            Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(transaction);
+            Transaction read = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+          Rewrite operation = assertInstanceOf(Rewrite.class, read.operation());
+          IndexFile readFile =
+              operation.rewrittenIndices().get(0).getNewIndexFiles().orElseThrow().get(0);
+          assertEquals("index.idx", readFile.getPath());
+          assertEquals(123, readFile.getSizeBytes());
+        }
       }
     }
   }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/UpdateTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/UpdateTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..17f17a34613
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/UpdateTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,309 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance;
+
+import org.lance.ipc.LanceScanner;
+import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
+import org.lance.operation.Append;
+import org.lance.update.UpdateParams;
+import org.lance.update.UpdateResult;
+
+import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableMap;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.UInt8Vector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VarCharVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.AfterEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.EnumSource;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.UUID;
+
+public class UpdateTest {
+  private static final int ROW_COUNT = 5;
+  private static final String ROW_ID_COLUMN = "_rowid";
+
+  @TempDir private Path tempDir;
+  private RootAllocator allocator;
+  private TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset;
+  private Dataset dataset;
+
+  @BeforeEach
+  public void setup() {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve(UUID.randomUUID().toString()).toString();
+    allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+    testDataset = new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+
+    // Enable stable row ids so that `_rowid` is a stable u64 identifier and can be
+    // used as an update predicate (the core feature exercised by the rowid tests).
+    Dataset empty =
+        testDataset.createDatasetWithWriteParams(
+            new WriteParams.Builder().withEnableStableRowIds(true).build());
+
+    FragmentMetadata fragment = testDataset.createNewFragment(ROW_COUNT);
+    SourcedTransaction transaction =
+        new SourcedTransaction.Builder(empty)
+            .operation(Append.builder().fragments(Arrays.asList(fragment)).build())
+            .readVersion(empty.version())
+            .build();
+    dataset = transaction.commit();
+    empty.close();
+  }
+
+  @AfterEach
+  public void tearDown() {
+    if (dataset != null) {
+      dataset.close();
+    }
+    allocator.close();
+  }
+
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @EnumSource(DataStorageVersion.class)
+  public void testUpdateAllRows(DataStorageVersion version) {
+    if (version == DataStorageVersion.LEGACY) {
+      IllegalArgumentException error =
+          Assertions.assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () ->
+                  dataset.update(
+                      new UpdateParams(ImmutableMap.of("name", "'updated'"))
+                          .withDataStorageVersion(version)));
+      Assertions.assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("V1 and V2"));
+      return;
+    }
+    String exactVersion =
+        version == DataStorageVersion.STABLE
+            ? "2.2"
+            : version == DataStorageVersion.NEXT ? "2.3" : version.toRustString();
+    UpdateResult result =
+        dataset.update(
+            new UpdateParams(ImmutableMap.of("name", "'updated'")).withDataStorageVersion(version));
+
+    Assertions.assertEquals(ROW_COUNT, result.getNumRowsUpdated());
+    try (Dataset newDataset = result.getDataset()) {
+      Assertions.assertTrue(
+          newDataset.getFragments().stream()
+              .flatMap(fragment -> fragment.metadata().getFiles().stream())
+              .allMatch(
+                  file ->
+                      exactVersion.equals(
+                          file.getFileMajorVersion() + "." + file.getFileMinorVersion())));
+      List<String> names = readNames(newDataset);
+      Assertions.assertEquals(ROW_COUNT, names.size());
+      for (String name : names) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals("updated", name);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdateWithWhere() {
+    UpdateResult result =
+        dataset.update(new UpdateParams(ImmutableMap.of("name", "'updated'")).withWhere("id = 2"));
+
+    Assertions.assertEquals(1, result.getNumRowsUpdated());
+    try (Dataset newDataset = result.getDataset()) {
+      assertNamesById(
+          newDataset, id -> id == 2 ? "updated" : "Person " + id, /* expectedRows= */ ROW_COUNT);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdateByRowId() throws Exception {
+    List<long[]> sample = readRowIdsAndIds(dataset);
+    long targetRowId = sample.get(0)[2];
+    int targetId = (int) sample.get(1)[2];
+
+    UpdateResult result =
+        dataset.update(
+            new UpdateParams(ImmutableMap.of("name", "'updated'"))
+                .withWhere(ROW_ID_COLUMN + " = " + targetRowId));
+
+    Assertions.assertEquals(1, result.getNumRowsUpdated());
+    try (Dataset newDataset = result.getDataset()) {
+      assertNamesById(
+          newDataset,
+          id -> id == targetId ? "updated" : "Person " + id,
+          /* expectedRows= */ ROW_COUNT);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdateByRowIdInList() throws Exception {
+    List<long[]> sample = readRowIdsAndIds(dataset);
+    long[] rowIds = sample.get(0);
+    long[] ids = sample.get(1);
+    int[] indices = new int[] {0, 2, 4};
+
+    StringBuilder inList = new StringBuilder();
+    List<Integer> targetIds = new ArrayList<>();
+    for (int i = 0; i < indices.length; i++) {
+      if (i > 0) {
+        inList.append(", ");
+      }
+      inList.append(rowIds[indices[i]]);
+      targetIds.add((int) ids[indices[i]]);
+    }
+
+    UpdateResult result =
+        dataset.update(
+            new UpdateParams(ImmutableMap.of("name", "'updated'"))
+                .withWhere(ROW_ID_COLUMN + " IN (" + inList + ")"));
+
+    Assertions.assertEquals(targetIds.size(), result.getNumRowsUpdated());
+    try (Dataset newDataset = result.getDataset()) {
+      assertNamesById(
+          newDataset,
+          id -> targetIds.contains(id) ? "updated" : "Person " + id,
+          /* expectedRows= */ ROW_COUNT);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdateWithRetryParameters() {
+    // Ensure builder-style retry knobs round-trip through the JNI layer.
+    UpdateResult result =
+        dataset.update(
+            new UpdateParams(ImmutableMap.of("name", "'retried'"))
+                .withConflictRetries(3)
+                .withRetryTimeoutMs(60_000));
+
+    Assertions.assertEquals(ROW_COUNT, result.getNumRowsUpdated());
+    try (Dataset newDataset = result.getDataset()) {
+      for (String name : readNames(newDataset)) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals("retried", name);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdateRejectsEmptyUpdates() {
+    Assertions.assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new UpdateParams(Collections.emptyMap()));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdateRejectsNegativeRetryParameters() {
+    UpdateParams params = new UpdateParams(ImmutableMap.of("name", "'x'"));
+    Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> params.withConflictRetries(-1));
+    Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> params.withRetryTimeoutMs(-1));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdatePropagatesInvalidWhereClause() {
+    // Unknown column should surface as an exception from the Rust core, not a silent no-op.
+    Assertions.assertThrows(
+        Exception.class,
+        () ->
+            dataset.update(
+                new UpdateParams(ImmutableMap.of("name", "'x'"))
+                    .withWhere("nonexistent_column = 1")));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testUpdatePropagatesInvalidUpdateExpression() {
+    // Malformed SQL expression should surface as an exception, not a silent no-op.
+    Assertions.assertThrows(
+        Exception.class,
+        () -> dataset.update(new UpdateParams(ImmutableMap.of("name", "this is not sql"))));
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns a 2-element list: index 0 contains the {@code _rowid} values, index 1 contains the
+   * {@code id} values. Both arrays are sized to {@link #ROW_COUNT}.
+   */
+  private List<long[]> readRowIdsAndIds(Dataset ds) throws Exception {
+    long[] rowIds = new long[ROW_COUNT];
+    long[] ids = new long[ROW_COUNT];
+    try (LanceScanner scanner =
+        ds.newScan(
+            new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(Arrays.asList("id")).withRowId(true).build())) {
+      try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+        int row = 0;
+        while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+          VectorSchemaRoot batch = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+          // Lance stable `_rowid` is an Arrow uint64; Arrow Java represents uint64 as
+          // `UInt8Vector` (the "8" refers to byte width, not bit width).
+          UInt8Vector rowIdVector = (UInt8Vector) batch.getVector(ROW_ID_COLUMN);
+          IntVector idVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("id");
+          for (int i = 0; i < batch.getRowCount(); i++) {
+            rowIds[row] = rowIdVector.get(i);
+            ids[row] = idVector.get(i);
+            row++;
+          }
+        }
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ROW_COUNT, row);
+      }
+    }
+    return Arrays.asList(rowIds, ids);
+  }
+
+  private interface IntToString {
+    String apply(int id);
+  }
+
+  private void assertNamesById(Dataset ds, IntToString expected, int expectedRows) {
+    try (LanceScanner scanner =
+        ds.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(Arrays.asList("id", "name")).build())) {
+      try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+        int seen = 0;
+        while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+          VectorSchemaRoot batch = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+          IntVector idVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("id");
+          VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) batch.getVector("name");
+          for (int i = 0; i < batch.getRowCount(); i++) {
+            int id = idVector.get(i);
+            String name = new String(nameVector.get(i));
+            Assertions.assertEquals(expected.apply(id), name);
+            seen++;
+          }
+        }
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedRows, seen);
+      }
+    } catch (Exception e) {
+      throw new RuntimeException(e);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private List<String> readNames(Dataset ds) {
+    List<String> names = new ArrayList<>();
+    try (LanceScanner scanner =
+        ds.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().columns(Arrays.asList("name")).build())) {
+      try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+        while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+          VectorSchemaRoot batch = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+          VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) batch.getVector("name");
+          for (int i = 0; i < batch.getRowCount(); i++) {
+            names.add(new String(nameVector.get(i)));
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    } catch (Exception e) {
+      throw new RuntimeException(e);
+    }
+    return names;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/VectorSearchTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/VectorSearchTest.java
index 6476f4277cd..bf358cb24c4 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/VectorSearchTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/VectorSearchTest.java
@@ -13,7 +13,34 @@
  */
 package org.lance;
 
+import org.lance.ipc.Query;
+import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.dataset.scanner.Scanner;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.Float4Vector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.FloatingPointPrecision;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.FieldType;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.Set;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
 
@@ -27,190 +54,472 @@
 //
 // An IVF-PQ index with 2 partitions is trained on this data
 public class VectorSearchTest {
+  @TempDir Path tempDir;
 
   // TODO: fix in https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues/2956
 
-  // @Test
-  // void test_create_index() throws Exception {
-  //   try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset = new
-  // TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_create_index"))) {
-  //     try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
-  //       testVectorDataset.createIndex(dataset);
-  //       List<String> indexes = dataset.listIndexes();
-  //       assertEquals(1, indexes.size());
-  //       assertEquals(TestVectorDataset.indexName, indexes.get(0));
-  //     }
-  //   }
-  // }
-
-  // rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/l2.rs:256:5:
-  // 5assertion `left == right` failed
-  // Directly panic instead of throwing an exception
-  // @Test
-  // void search_invalid_vector() throws Exception {
-  //   try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset = new
-  // TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_create_index"))) {
-  //     try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
-  //       float[] key = new float[30];
-  //       for (int i = 0; i < 30; i++) {
-  //         key[i] = (float) (i + 30);
-  //       }
-  //       ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder()
-  //           .nearest(new Query.Builder()
-  //               .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
-  //               .setKey(key)
-  //               .setK(5)
-  //               .setUseIndex(false)
-  //               .build())
-  //           .build();
-  //       assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
-  //         try (Scanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
-  //           try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-  //           }
-  //         }
-  //       });
-  //     }
-  //   }
-  // }
-
-  // @ParameterizedTest
-  // @ValueSource(booleans = { false, true })
-  // void test_knn(boolean createVectorIndex) throws Exception {
-  //   try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset = new
-  // TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_knn"))) {
-  //     try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
-
-  //       if (createVectorIndex) {
-  //         testVectorDataset.createIndex(dataset);
-  //       }
-  //       float[] key = new float[32];
-  //       for (int i = 0; i < 32; i++) {
-  //         key[i] = (float) (i + 32);
-  //       }
-  //       ScanOptions options = new ScanOptions.Builder()
-  //           .nearest(new Query.Builder()
-  //               .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
-  //               .setKey(key)
-  //               .setK(5)
-  //               .setUseIndex(false)
-  //               .build())
-  //           .build();
-  //       try (Scanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
-  //         try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-  //           VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-  //           System.out.println("Schema:");
-  //           assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected at least one batch");
-
-  //           assertEquals(5, root.getRowCount(), "Expected 5 results");
-
-  //           assertEquals(4, root.getSchema().getFields().size(), "Expected 4 columns");
-  //           assertEquals("i", root.getSchema().getFields().get(0).getName());
-  //           assertEquals("s", root.getSchema().getFields().get(1).getName());
-  //           assertEquals(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName,
-  // root.getSchema().getFields().get(2).getName());
-  //           assertEquals("_distance", root.getSchema().getFields().get(3).getName());
-
-  //           IntVector iVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("i");
-  //           Set<Integer> expectedI = new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(1, 81, 161, 241, 321));
-  //           Set<Integer> actualI = new HashSet<>();
-  //           for (int i = 0; i < iVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
-  //             actualI.add(iVector.get(i));
-  //           }
-  //           assertEquals(expectedI, actualI, "Unexpected values in 'i' column");
-
-  //           Float4Vector distanceVector = (Float4Vector) root.getVector("_distance");
-  //           float prevDistance = Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
-  //           for (int i = 0; i < distanceVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
-  //             float distance = distanceVector.get(i);
-  //             assertTrue(distance >= prevDistance, "Distances should be in ascending order");
-  //             prevDistance = distance;
-  //           }
-
-  //           assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected only one batch");
-  //         }
-  //       }
-  //     }
-  //   }
-  // }
-
-  // @Test
-  // void test_knn_with_new_data() throws Exception {
-  //   try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset = new
-  // TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_knn_with_new_data"))) {
-  //     try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
-  //       testVectorDataset.createIndex(dataset);
-  //     }
-
-  //     float[] key = new float[32];
-  //     Arrays.fill(key, 0.0f);
-  //     // Set k larger than the number of new rows
-  //     int k = 20;
-
-  //     List<TestCase> cases = new ArrayList<>();
-  //     List<Optional<String>> filters = Arrays.asList(Optional.empty(), Optional.of("i > 100"));
-  //     List<Optional<Integer>> limits = Arrays.asList(Optional.empty(), Optional.of(10));
-
-  //     for (Optional<String> filter : filters) {
-  //       for (Optional<Integer> limit : limits) {
-  //         for (boolean useIndex : new boolean[] { true, false }) {
-  //           cases.add(new TestCase(filter, limit, useIndex));
-  //         }
-  //       }
-  //     }
-
-  //     // Validate all cases
-  //     try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.appendNewData()) {
-  //       for (TestCase testCase : cases) {
-  //         ScanOptions.Builder optionsBuilder = new ScanOptions.Builder()
-  //             .nearest(new Query.Builder()
-  //                 .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
-  //                 .setKey(key)
-  //                 .setK(k)
-  //                 .setUseIndex(testCase.useIndex)
-  //                 .build());
-
-  //         testCase.filter.ifPresent(optionsBuilder::filter);
-  //         testCase.limit.ifPresent(optionsBuilder::limit);
-
-  //         ScanOptions options = optionsBuilder.build();
-
-  //         try (Scanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
-  //           try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-  //             VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-  //             assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected at least one batch");
-
-  //             if (testCase.filter.isPresent()) {
-  //               int resultRows = root.getRowCount();
-  //               int expectedRows = testCase.limit.orElse(k);
-  //               assertTrue(resultRows <= expectedRows,
-  //                   "Expected less than or equal to " + expectedRows + " rows, got " +
-  // resultRows);
-  //             } else {
-  //               assertEquals(testCase.limit.orElse(k), root.getRowCount(),
-  //                   "Unexpected number of rows");
-  //             }
-
-  //             // Top one should be the first value of new data
-  //             IntVector iVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("i");
-  //             assertEquals(400, iVector.get(0), "First result should be the first value of new
-  // data");
-
-  //             // Check if distances are in ascending order
-  //             Float4Vector distanceVector = (Float4Vector) root.getVector("_distance");
-  //             float prevDistance = Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
-  //             for (int i = 0; i < distanceVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
-  //               float distance = distanceVector.get(i);
-  //               assertTrue(distance >= prevDistance, "Distances should be in ascending order");
-  //               prevDistance = distance;
-  //             }
-
-  //             assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected only one batch");
-  //           }
-  //         }
-  //       }
-  //     }
-  //   }
-  // }
+  @Test
+  void test_create_index() throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_create_index"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        testVectorDataset.createIndex(dataset);
+        List<String> indexes = dataset.listIndexes();
+        assertEquals(1, indexes.size());
+        assertEquals(TestVectorDataset.indexName, indexes.get(0));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void search_invalid_vector() throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("search_invalid_vector"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        float[] key = new float[30];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 30; i++) {
+          key[i] = (float) (i + 30);
+        }
+        ScanOptions options =
+            new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                .nearest(
+                    new Query.Builder()
+                        .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
+                        .setKey(key)
+                        .setK(5)
+                        .setUseIndex(false)
+                        .build())
+                .build();
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () -> {
+              try (Scanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
+                try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+                  reader.loadNextBatch();
+                }
+              }
+            });
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @ValueSource(booleans = {false, true})
+  void test_knn(boolean createVectorIndex) throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset = new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_knn"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+
+        if (createVectorIndex) {
+          testVectorDataset.createIndex(dataset);
+        }
+        float[] key = new float[32];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 32; i++) {
+          key[i] = (float) (i + 32);
+        }
+        ScanOptions options =
+            new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                .nearest(
+                    new Query.Builder()
+                        .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
+                        .setKey(key)
+                        .setK(5)
+                        .setUseIndex(createVectorIndex)
+                        .build())
+                .build();
+        try (Scanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            System.out.println("Schema:");
+            assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected at least one batch");
+
+            assertEquals(5, root.getRowCount(), "Expected 5 results");
+
+            assertEquals(4, root.getSchema().getFields().size(), "Expected 4 columns");
+            assertEquals("i", root.getSchema().getFields().get(0).getName());
+            assertEquals("s", root.getSchema().getFields().get(1).getName());
+            assertEquals(
+                TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName, root.getSchema().getFields().get(2).getName());
+            assertEquals("_distance", root.getSchema().getFields().get(3).getName());
+
+            IntVector iVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("i");
+            Set<Integer> expectedI = new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(1, 81, 161, 241, 321));
+            Set<Integer> actualI = new HashSet<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < iVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+              actualI.add(iVector.get(i));
+            }
+            assertEquals(expectedI, actualI, "Unexpected values in 'i' column");
+
+            Float4Vector distanceVector = (Float4Vector) root.getVector("_distance");
+            float prevDistance = Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+            for (int i = 0; i < distanceVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+              float distance = distanceVector.get(i);
+              assertTrue(distance >= prevDistance, "Distances should be in ascending order");
+              prevDistance = distance;
+            }
+
+            assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected only one batch");
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @ValueSource(booleans = {false, true})
+  void test_batch_knn(boolean createVectorIndex) throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_batch_knn"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        if (createVectorIndex) {
+          testVectorDataset.createIndex(dataset);
+        }
+
+        // Two query vectors, each an exact match for a distinct set of rows. Every
+        // fragment repeats the same per-row vectors, so each query has exactly five
+        // distance-0 matches across the dataset.
+        float[] key0 = new float[32];
+        float[] key1 = new float[32];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 32; i++) {
+          key0[i] = (float) (i + 32); // matches rows with i in {1, 81, 161, 241, 321}
+          key1[i] = (float) i; // matches rows with i in {0, 80, 160, 240, 320}
+        }
+        int k = 5;
+        ScanOptions options =
+            new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                .nearest(
+                    new Query.Builder()
+                        .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
+                        .setKeys(new float[][] {key0, key1})
+                        .setK(k)
+                        .setUseIndex(createVectorIndex)
+                        .build())
+                .build();
+        try (Scanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected at least one batch");
+
+            // A batch query prepends a non-nullable query_index column.
+            assertEquals(5, root.getSchema().getFields().size(), "Expected 5 columns");
+            assertEquals("query_index", root.getSchema().getFields().get(0).getName());
+            assertEquals("i", root.getSchema().getFields().get(1).getName());
+            assertEquals("s", root.getSchema().getFields().get(2).getName());
+            assertEquals(
+                TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName, root.getSchema().getFields().get(3).getName());
+            assertEquals("_distance", root.getSchema().getFields().get(4).getName());
+
+            // N query vectors, up to k results each.
+            assertEquals(2 * k, root.getRowCount(), "Expected N * k results");
+
+            IntVector queryIndexVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("query_index");
+            IntVector iVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("i");
+            Float4Vector distanceVector = (Float4Vector) root.getVector("_distance");
+
+            Set<Integer> query0I = new HashSet<>();
+            Set<Integer> query1I = new HashSet<>();
+            float prevDistance = Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+            int prevQueryIndex = 0;
+            for (int row = 0; row < root.getRowCount(); row++) {
+              int queryIndex = queryIndexVector.get(row);
+              assertTrue(queryIndex == 0 || queryIndex == 1, "Unexpected query_index");
+              // Rows are grouped by query_index; distance ascends within each group.
+              assertTrue(queryIndex >= prevQueryIndex, "Rows should be grouped by query_index");
+              if (queryIndex != prevQueryIndex) {
+                prevDistance = Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+              }
+              float distance = distanceVector.get(row);
+              assertTrue(distance >= prevDistance, "Distances should ascend within a query group");
+              prevDistance = distance;
+              prevQueryIndex = queryIndex;
+
+              if (queryIndex == 0) {
+                query0I.add(iVector.get(row));
+              } else {
+                query1I.add(iVector.get(row));
+              }
+            }
+
+            assertEquals(
+                new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(1, 81, 161, 241, 321)),
+                query0I,
+                "Unexpected matches for query 0");
+            assertEquals(
+                new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(0, 80, 160, 240, 320)),
+                query1I,
+                "Unexpected matches for query 1");
+
+            assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected only one batch");
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void test_batch_knn_rejects_invalid_keys() {
+    Query.Builder builder = new Query.Builder().setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName);
+    // An empty batch has no query vectors.
+    assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> builder.setKeys(new float[][] {}));
+    // Ragged rows: query vectors must all share one dimension.
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> builder.setKeys(new float[][] {{1.0f, 2.0f}, {1.0f, 2.0f, 3.0f}}));
+    // vectors x dimensions overflowing the flattened int-indexed buffer is rejected up front.
+    // Every row aliases one array, so this costs well under 1 MB.
+    float[] row = new float[1 << 15];
+    float[][] oversized = new float[1 << 16][];
+    Arrays.fill(oversized, row);
+    assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> builder.setKeys(oversized));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void test_batch_knn_rejects_multivector_column() {
+    // A list-shaped query against a List<FixedSizeList> column is one multivector query in
+    // the core, which cannot honor the setKeys batch contract (per-query results with
+    // query_index), so the binding must reject it rather than silently change semantics.
+    Field vectorItem =
+        new Field(
+            "item",
+            FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.FloatingPoint(FloatingPointPrecision.SINGLE)),
+            null);
+    Field vector =
+        new Field(
+            "item",
+            FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.FixedSizeList(4)),
+            Collections.singletonList(vectorItem));
+    Field multivector =
+        new Field(
+            "mv", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.List()), Collections.singletonList(vector));
+    Schema schema = new Schema(Collections.singletonList(multivector));
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("test_batch_knn_multivector").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset =
+            Dataset.create(allocator, datasetPath, schema, new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+      ScanOptions options =
+          new ScanOptions.Builder()
+              .nearest(
+                  new Query.Builder()
+                      .setColumn("mv")
+                      .setKeys(new float[][] {{1f, 2f, 3f, 4f}, {5f, 6f, 7f, 8f}})
+                      .setK(1)
+                      .build())
+              .build();
+      IllegalArgumentException error =
+          assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dataset.newScan(options));
+      assertTrue(
+          error.getMessage().contains("not supported on multivector column 'mv'"),
+          "Unexpected error message: " + error.getMessage());
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void test_knn_with_new_data() throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_knn_with_new_data"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        testVectorDataset.createIndex(dataset);
+      }
+
+      float[] key = new float[32];
+      Arrays.fill(key, 0.0f);
+      // Set k larger than the number of new rows
+      int k = 20;
+
+      List<TestCase> cases = new ArrayList<>();
+      List<Optional<String>> filters = Arrays.asList(Optional.empty(), Optional.of("i > 100"));
+      List<Optional<Integer>> limits = Arrays.asList(Optional.empty(), Optional.of(10));
+
+      for (Optional<String> filter : filters) {
+        for (Optional<Integer> limit : limits) {
+          for (boolean useIndex : new boolean[] {true, false}) {
+            cases.add(new TestCase(filter, limit, useIndex));
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      // Validate all cases
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.appendNewData()) {
+        for (TestCase testCase : cases) {
+          ScanOptions.Builder optionsBuilder =
+              new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                  .nearest(
+                      new Query.Builder()
+                          .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
+                          .setKey(key)
+                          .setK(k)
+                          .setUseIndex(testCase.useIndex)
+                          .build());
+
+          testCase.filter.ifPresent(optionsBuilder::filter);
+          testCase.limit.ifPresent(optionsBuilder::limit);
+
+          ScanOptions options = optionsBuilder.build();
+
+          try (Scanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
+            try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected at least one batch");
+
+              if (testCase.filter.isPresent()) {
+                int resultRows = root.getRowCount();
+                int expectedRows = testCase.limit.orElse(k);
+                assertTrue(
+                    resultRows <= expectedRows,
+                    "Expected less than or equal to " + expectedRows + " rows, got " + resultRows);
+              } else {
+                assertEquals(
+                    testCase.limit.orElse(k), root.getRowCount(), "Unexpected number of rows");
+              }
+
+              // Top one should be the first value of new data
+              IntVector iVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("i");
+              assertEquals(
+                  400, iVector.get(0), "First result should be the first value of new data");
+
+              // Check if distances are in ascending order
+              Float4Vector distanceVector = (Float4Vector) root.getVector("_distance");
+              float prevDistance = Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+              for (int i = 0; i < distanceVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+                float distance = distanceVector.get(i);
+                assertTrue(distance >= prevDistance, "Distances should be in ascending order");
+                prevDistance = distance;
+              }
+
+              assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected only one batch");
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @ValueSource(booleans = {false, true})
+  void test_knn_with_fragment(boolean createVectorIndex) throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_knn_with_fragment"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+
+        if (createVectorIndex) {
+          testVectorDataset.createIndex(dataset);
+        }
+        List<Integer> fragmentIds = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(3, 4));
+        float[] key = new float[32];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 32; i++) {
+          key[i] = (float) (i + 32);
+        }
+        ScanOptions options =
+            new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                .fragmentIds(fragmentIds)
+                .prefilter(true)
+                .nearest(
+                    new Query.Builder()
+                        .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
+                        .setKey(key)
+                        .setK(6)
+                        .setUseIndex(createVectorIndex)
+                        .build())
+                .build();
+        try (Scanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            System.out.println("Schema:");
+            assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected at least one batch");
+
+            assertEquals(6, root.getRowCount(), "Expected 6 results");
+
+            assertEquals(4, root.getSchema().getFields().size(), "Expected 4 columns");
+            assertEquals("i", root.getSchema().getFields().get(0).getName());
+            assertEquals("s", root.getSchema().getFields().get(1).getName());
+            assertEquals(
+                TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName, root.getSchema().getFields().get(2).getName());
+            assertEquals("_distance", root.getSchema().getFields().get(3).getName());
+
+            IntVector iVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("i");
+            Set<Integer> expectedI = new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(240, 320, 241, 321, 242, 322));
+            Set<Integer> actualI = new HashSet<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < iVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+              actualI.add(iVector.get(i));
+            }
+            assertEquals(expectedI, actualI, "Unexpected values in 'i' column");
+
+            Float4Vector distanceVector = (Float4Vector) root.getVector("_distance");
+            float prevDistance = Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+            for (int i = 0; i < distanceVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+              float distance = distanceVector.get(i);
+              assertTrue(distance >= prevDistance, "Distances should be in ascending order");
+              prevDistance = distance;
+            }
+
+            assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected only one batch");
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void test_knn_with_new_data_with_fragment() throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("test_knn_with_new_data_with_fragment"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        testVectorDataset.createIndex(dataset);
+      }
+      List<Integer> fragmentIds = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(3, 4));
+      float[] key = new float[32];
+      for (int i = 0; i < 32; i++) {
+        key[i] = (float) (i + 32);
+      }
+      ScanOptions options =
+          new ScanOptions.Builder()
+              .fragmentIds(fragmentIds)
+              .prefilter(true)
+              .nearest(
+                  new Query.Builder()
+                      .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
+                      .setKey(key)
+                      .setK(6)
+                      .setUseIndex(true)
+                      .build())
+              .build();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.appendNewData()) {
+        try (Scanner scanner = dataset.newScan(options)) {
+          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+            System.out.println("Schema:");
+            assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected at least one batch");
+
+            assertEquals(6, root.getRowCount(), "Expected 6 results");
+
+            assertEquals(4, root.getSchema().getFields().size(), "Expected 4 columns");
+            assertEquals("i", root.getSchema().getFields().get(0).getName());
+            assertEquals("s", root.getSchema().getFields().get(1).getName());
+            assertEquals(
+                TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName, root.getSchema().getFields().get(2).getName());
+            assertEquals("_distance", root.getSchema().getFields().get(3).getName());
+
+            IntVector iVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("i");
+            Set<Integer> expectedI = new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(240, 320, 241, 321, 242, 322));
+            Set<Integer> actualI = new HashSet<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < iVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+              actualI.add(iVector.get(i));
+            }
+            assertEquals(expectedI, actualI, "Unexpected values in 'i' column");
+
+            Float4Vector distanceVector = (Float4Vector) root.getVector("_distance");
+            float prevDistance = Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+            for (int i = 0; i < distanceVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+              float distance = distanceVector.get(i);
+              assertTrue(distance >= prevDistance, "Distances should be in ascending order");
+              prevDistance = distance;
+            }
+
+            assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch(), "Expected only one batch");
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
 
   private static class TestCase {
     final Optional<String> filter;
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/DataFileEqualityTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/DataFileEqualityTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1726cda1727
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/DataFileEqualityTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.fragment;
+
+import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+/** Equality contract of fragment metadata value classes. */
+public class DataFileEqualityTest {
+
+  private static DataFile dataFile(Integer baseId) {
+    return new DataFile("data/a.lance", new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {0, 1}, 2, 1, 1024L, baseId);
+  }
+
+  private static DeletionFile deletionFile(Integer baseId) {
+    return new DeletionFile(7L, 3L, 5L, DeletionFileType.BITMAP, baseId);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDataFileEqualsAndHashCodeIncludeBaseId() {
+    for (Integer baseId : new Integer[] {null, 1}) {
+      assertEquals(dataFile(baseId), dataFile(baseId));
+      assertEquals(dataFile(baseId).hashCode(), dataFile(baseId).hashCode());
+    }
+    // Same relative path under different bases refers to different physical files.
+    assertNotEquals(dataFile(1), dataFile(2));
+    assertNotEquals(dataFile(null), dataFile(1));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDeletionFileEqualsAndHashCodeIncludeBaseId() {
+    for (Integer baseId : new Integer[] {null, 1}) {
+      assertEquals(deletionFile(baseId), deletionFile(baseId));
+      assertEquals(deletionFile(baseId).hashCode(), deletionFile(baseId).hashCode());
+    }
+    assertNotEquals(deletionFile(1), deletionFile(2));
+    assertNotEquals(deletionFile(null), deletionFile(1));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testEqualFragmentMetadataWorksInHashSet() {
+    FragmentMetadata a =
+        new FragmentMetadata(
+            0, Collections.singletonList(dataFile(null)), 100L, deletionFile(null), null);
+    FragmentMetadata b =
+        new FragmentMetadata(
+            0, Collections.singletonList(dataFile(null)), 100L, deletionFile(null), null);
+    assertEquals(a, b);
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+    Set<FragmentMetadata> set = new HashSet<>(Collections.singletonList(a));
+    assertTrue(set.contains(b));
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/FragmentUpdateResultTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/FragmentUpdateResultTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1161f18b415
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/FragmentUpdateResultTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.fragment;
+
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.Fragment;
+import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
+import org.lance.TestUtils;
+import org.lance.Transaction;
+import org.lance.operation.Append;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Collections;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+public class FragmentUpdateResultTest {
+
+  /** Portable RoaringBitmap bytes for offsets {1, 3, 5} (see UpdateTest round-trip fixture). */
+  private static final byte[] PORTABLE_ROARING_BYTES_135 =
+      new byte[] {
+        (byte) 0x3A,
+        (byte) 0x30,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x01,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x02,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x10,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x01,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x03,
+        (byte) 0x00,
+        (byte) 0x05,
+        (byte) 0x00
+      };
+
+  @Test
+  void testGetUpdatedRowOffsetBytesRoundTripViaDeprecatedGetter() {
+    FragmentUpdateResult result =
+        FragmentUpdateResult.create(null, new long[0], PORTABLE_ROARING_BYTES_135);
+    assertArrayEquals(PORTABLE_ROARING_BYTES_135, result.getUpdatedRowOffsetBytes());
+    assertArrayEquals(new long[] {1, 3, 5}, result.getUpdatedRowOffsets());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDeprecatedLongArrayConstructorEncodesToBytes() {
+    FragmentUpdateResult result = new FragmentUpdateResult(null, new long[0], new long[] {1, 3, 5});
+    assertArrayEquals(new long[] {1, 3, 5}, result.getUpdatedRowOffsets());
+
+    // Stored bytes from the deprecated long[] constructor decode to the same offsets.
+    FragmentUpdateResult fromEncodedBytes =
+        FragmentUpdateResult.create(null, new long[0], result.getUpdatedRowOffsetBytes());
+    assertArrayEquals(new long[] {1, 3, 5}, fromEncodedBytes.getUpdatedRowOffsets());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testUpdateColumnsReturnsMatchedRowOffsetBytes(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testUpdateColumnsRowOffsetBytes").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.UpdateColumnTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.UpdateColumnTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(6);
+        try (Transaction appendTxn =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                .operation(
+                    Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
+                .build()) {
+          try (Dataset appended = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(appendTxn)) {
+            Fragment fragment = appended.getFragments().get(0);
+            FragmentUpdateResult updateResult = testDataset.updateColumn(fragment, 4);
+            assertTrue(updateResult.getUpdatedRowOffsetBytes().length > 0);
+            assertArrayEquals(new long[] {0, 1, 2, 3}, updateResult.getUpdatedRowOffsets());
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/RowIdMetaTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/RowIdMetaTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ddedd706341
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/RowIdMetaTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.fragment;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
+class RowIdMetaTest {
+
+  @Test
+  void testFromRowIdsSingleRow() {
+    RowIdMeta meta = RowIdMeta.fromRowIds(new long[] {42});
+    String json = meta.getMetadata();
+    assertTrue(json.startsWith("{\"Inline\":["));
+    assertTrue(json.endsWith("]}"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testFromRowIdsMultipleRows() {
+    RowIdMeta meta = RowIdMeta.fromRowIds(new long[] {0, 1, 2, 100, Long.MAX_VALUE});
+    assertNotNull(meta);
+    String json = meta.getMetadata();
+    assertFalse(json.isEmpty());
+    assertTrue(json.startsWith("{\"Inline\":["));
+    assertTrue(json.endsWith("]}"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testFromRowIdsEmpty() {
+    RowIdMeta meta = RowIdMeta.fromRowIds(new long[] {});
+    String json = meta.getMetadata();
+    assertTrue(json.startsWith("{\"Inline\":["));
+    assertTrue(json.endsWith("]}"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testFromRowIdsRoundTrip() {
+    long[] ids = {10, 20, 30};
+    RowIdMeta first = RowIdMeta.fromRowIds(ids);
+    RowIdMeta second = RowIdMeta.fromRowIds(ids);
+    assertEquals(first, second);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testFromRowIdsDeterministic() {
+    long[] ids = {10, 20, 30};
+    String a = RowIdMeta.fromRowIds(ids).getMetadata();
+    String b = RowIdMeta.fromRowIds(ids).getMetadata();
+    assertEquals(a, b);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testEquals() {
+    RowIdMeta a = new RowIdMeta("test");
+    RowIdMeta b = new RowIdMeta("test");
+    RowIdMeta c = new RowIdMeta("other");
+
+    assertEquals(a, b);
+    assertNotEquals(a, c);
+    assertNotEquals(a, null);
+    assertNotEquals(a, "test");
+    assertEquals(a, a);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testHashCodeConsistency() {
+    RowIdMeta a = new RowIdMeta("test");
+    RowIdMeta b = new RowIdMeta("test");
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testToString() {
+    RowIdMeta meta = new RowIdMeta("someMetadata");
+    String str = meta.toString();
+    assertTrue(str.contains("RowIdMeta"));
+    assertTrue(str.contains("someMetadata"));
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/VersionMetaTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/VersionMetaTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..038d24980d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/fragment/VersionMetaTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.fragment;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+public class VersionMetaTest {
+
+  @Test
+  void testConstructorAndGetter() {
+    VersionMeta meta = new VersionMeta("test");
+    assertEquals("test", meta.getMetadata());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testNullMetadata() {
+    VersionMeta meta = new VersionMeta(null);
+    assertNull(meta.getMetadata());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testEquals() {
+    VersionMeta a = new VersionMeta("x");
+    VersionMeta b = new VersionMeta("x");
+    assertEquals(a, b);
+    assertEquals(b, a);
+
+    VersionMeta c = new VersionMeta("y");
+    assertNotEquals(a, c);
+
+    assertFalse(a.equals(null));
+
+    assertFalse(a.equals("x"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testHashCode() {
+    VersionMeta a = new VersionMeta("same");
+    VersionMeta b = new VersionMeta("same");
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testHashCodeWithNull() {
+    VersionMeta meta = new VersionMeta(null);
+    meta.hashCode();
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testToString() {
+    VersionMeta meta = new VersionMeta("hello");
+    String s = meta.toString();
+    assertTrue(s.contains("VersionMeta"));
+    assertTrue(s.contains("hello"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testJsonMetadataPreservation() {
+    String json = "{\"Inline\":[10,20,30]}";
+    VersionMeta meta = new VersionMeta(json);
+    assertEquals(json, meta.getMetadata());
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/ScalarIndexTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/ScalarIndexTest.java
index adb5fa83468..35feb1b031d 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/ScalarIndexTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/ScalarIndexTest.java
@@ -15,54 +15,668 @@
 
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.Fragment;
+import org.lance.LockManager;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
-import org.lance.Transaction;
 import org.lance.WriteParams;
 import org.lance.index.scalar.ScalarIndexParams;
 import org.lance.ipc.LanceScanner;
 import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
-import org.lance.operation.CreateIndex;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
 import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.Float8Vector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.UInt8Vector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.complex.StructVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamReader;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamWriter;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.FloatingPointPrecision;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.FieldType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Timeout;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.EnumSource;
 
 import java.io.ByteArrayInputStream;
 import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
 import java.io.IOException;
+import java.io.UncheckedIOException;
+import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Comparator;
 import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.Set;
 import java.util.UUID;
-import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+import java.util.concurrent.CountDownLatch;
+import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicBoolean;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReference;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 public class ScalarIndexTest {
 
-  @TempDir Path tempDir;
+  private static final class RecordingIndexBuildProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final List<String> events = Collections.synchronizedList(new ArrayList<>());
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      events.add(
+          "start:" + stage + ":" + total.map(String::valueOf).orElse("unknown") + ":" + unit);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+      events.add("progress:" + stage + ":" + completed);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {
+      events.add("complete:" + stage);
+    }
+
+    private List<String> snapshot() {
+      synchronized (events) {
+        return new ArrayList<>(events);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static final class FailingProgressIndexBuildProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final RecordingIndexBuildProgress recorder = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      recorder.stageStart(stage, total, unit);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+      recorder.stageProgress(stage, completed);
+      throw new IllegalStateException("progress callback failure");
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {
+      recorder.stageComplete(stage);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static final class FailingCompleteIndexBuildProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final RecordingIndexBuildProgress recorder = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      recorder.stageStart(stage, total, unit);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+      recorder.stageProgress(stage, completed);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {
+      recorder.stageComplete(stage);
+      throw new IllegalStateException("complete callback failure");
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Progress callback that re-enters the same Dataset via JNI. Without releasing the native field
+   * lock before an index operation starts, these calls would deadlock.
+   */
+  private static final class ReentrantDatasetIndexBuildProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final Dataset dataset;
+    private final RecordingIndexBuildProgress recorder = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
+    private final AtomicInteger reentries = new AtomicInteger();
+
+    private ReentrantDatasetIndexBuildProgress(Dataset dataset) {
+      this.dataset = dataset;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      recorder.stageStart(stage, total, unit);
+      touchDataset();
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+      recorder.stageProgress(stage, completed);
+      touchDataset();
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {
+      recorder.stageComplete(stage);
+      touchDataset();
+    }
+
+    private void touchDataset() {
+      assertNotNull(dataset.uri());
+      assertTrue(dataset.version() > 0);
+      assertTrue(dataset.latestVersion() > 0);
+      assertTrue(dataset.countRows() > 0);
+      assertFalse(dataset.getFragments().isEmpty());
+      assertFalse(dataset.memWalIndexDetails().isPresent());
+      reentries.incrementAndGet();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static final class WriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final Dataset dataset;
+    private final RecordingIndexBuildProgress recorder = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
+    private final AtomicInteger reentries = new AtomicInteger();
+    private final AtomicReference<RuntimeException> writeFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+
+    private WriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress(Dataset dataset) {
+      this.dataset = dataset;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      recorder.stageStart(stage, total, unit);
+      if (reentries.getAndIncrement() == 0) {
+        try {
+          dataset.checkoutLatest();
+        } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+          writeFailure.set(failure);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+      recorder.stageProgress(stage, completed);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {
+      recorder.stageComplete(stage);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private enum DeprecatedConfigMutation {
+    UPDATE,
+    DELETE
+  }
+
+  private static final class ConfigWriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private static final String CONFIG_KEY = "callback_config_key";
+
+    private final Dataset dataset;
+    private final DeprecatedConfigMutation mutation;
+    private final AtomicBoolean attempted = new AtomicBoolean();
+    private final AtomicReference<RuntimeException> writeFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+
+    private ConfigWriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress(
+        Dataset dataset, DeprecatedConfigMutation mutation) {
+      this.dataset = dataset;
+      this.mutation = mutation;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      if (attempted.compareAndSet(false, true)) {
+        try {
+          if (mutation == DeprecatedConfigMutation.UPDATE) {
+            dataset.updateConfig(Map.of(CONFIG_KEY, "updated"));
+          } else {
+            dataset.deleteConfigKeys(Set.of(CONFIG_KEY));
+          }
+        } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+          writeFailure.set(failure);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {}
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {}
+  }
+
+  private static final class NestedCreateIndexBuildProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final Dataset dataset;
+    private final IndexOptions segmentOptions;
+    private final RecordingIndexBuildProgress recorder = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
+    private final AtomicReference<RuntimeException> nestedFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private boolean attempted;
+
+    private NestedCreateIndexBuildProgress(Dataset dataset, IndexOptions segmentOptions) {
+      this.dataset = dataset;
+      this.segmentOptions = segmentOptions;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      recorder.stageStart(stage, total, unit);
+      if (!attempted) {
+        attempted = true;
+        try {
+          dataset.createIndex(segmentOptions);
+        } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+          nestedFailure.set(failure);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+      recorder.stageProgress(stage, completed);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {
+      recorder.stageComplete(stage);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static final class BlockingIndexBuildProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final CountDownLatch started = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    private final CountDownLatch release = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    private final RecordingIndexBuildProgress recorder = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      recorder.stageStart(stage, total, unit);
+      started.countDown();
+      try {
+        assertTrue(release.await(5, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Callback release latch timed out");
+      } catch (InterruptedException e) {
+        Thread.currentThread().interrupt();
+        throw new IllegalStateException("Interrupted while blocking progress callback", e);
+      }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+      recorder.stageProgress(stage, completed);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {
+      recorder.stageComplete(stage);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static final class QueuedWriterProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final Dataset dataset;
+    private final AtomicReference<Thread> writer = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicReference<RuntimeException> writerFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicBoolean readCompleted = new AtomicBoolean();
+    private boolean attempted;
+
+    private QueuedWriterProgress(Dataset dataset) {
+      this.dataset = dataset;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      if (!attempted) {
+        attempted = true;
+        Thread queuedWriter =
+            new Thread(
+                () -> {
+                  try {
+                    dataset.checkoutLatest();
+                  } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+                    writerFailure.set(failure);
+                  }
+                });
+        writer.set(queuedWriter);
+        queuedWriter.start();
+        try {
+          Thread.sleep(100);
+        } catch (InterruptedException e) {
+          Thread.currentThread().interrupt();
+          throw new IllegalStateException("Interrupted while waiting for queued writer", e);
+        }
+        assertTrue(queuedWriter.isAlive(), "Expected writer to queue behind outer create");
+        assertTrue(dataset.version() > 0);
+        assertTrue(dataset.countRows() > 0);
+        readCompleted.set(true);
+      }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {}
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {}
+  }
+
+  private static final class CrossDatasetNestedProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final Dataset outerDataset;
+    private final Dataset nestedDataset;
+    private final AtomicBoolean readCompleted = new AtomicBoolean();
+
+    private CrossDatasetNestedProgress(Dataset outerDataset, Dataset nestedDataset) {
+      this.outerDataset = outerDataset;
+      this.nestedDataset = nestedDataset;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      // Intentionally empty: the cross-worker handoff is covered in stageProgress.
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+      // stageProgress may resume on a different Tokio worker than stageStart. Reading the still-
+      // active outer Dataset here requires inherited callback context propagation.
+      assertTrue(outerDataset.version() > 0);
+      assertTrue(nestedDataset.version() > 0);
+      readCompleted.set(true);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {}
+  }
+
+  private static final class CrossDatasetOuterProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final Dataset outerDataset;
+    private final Dataset nestedDataset;
+    private final IndexOptions nestedOptions;
+    private final CrossDatasetNestedProgress nestedProgress;
+    private final AtomicReference<Thread> writer = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicReference<RuntimeException> writerFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicBoolean nestedCompleted = new AtomicBoolean();
+    private boolean attempted;
+
+    private CrossDatasetOuterProgress(
+        Dataset outerDataset,
+        Dataset nestedDataset,
+        IndexOptions nestedOptions,
+        CrossDatasetNestedProgress nestedProgress) {
+      this.outerDataset = outerDataset;
+      this.nestedDataset = nestedDataset;
+      this.nestedOptions = nestedOptions;
+      this.nestedProgress = nestedProgress;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      if (!attempted) {
+        attempted = true;
+        Thread queuedWriter =
+            new Thread(
+                () -> {
+                  try {
+                    outerDataset.checkoutLatest();
+                  } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+                    writerFailure.set(failure);
+                  }
+                });
+        writer.set(queuedWriter);
+        queuedWriter.start();
+        try {
+          Thread.sleep(100);
+        } catch (InterruptedException e) {
+          Thread.currentThread().interrupt();
+          throw new IllegalStateException("Interrupted while waiting for queued writer", e);
+        }
+        assertTrue(queuedWriter.isAlive(), "Expected writer to queue behind outer create");
+        nestedDataset.createIndex(nestedOptions, nestedProgress);
+        nestedCompleted.set(true);
+      }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {}
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {}
+  }
+
+  private static final class CrossDatasetLockCycleProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final Dataset targetDataset;
+    private final IndexOptions targetOptions;
+    private final CountDownLatch callbacksReady;
+    private final CountDownLatch attemptsFinished;
+    private final AtomicBoolean attempted = new AtomicBoolean();
+    private final AtomicReference<RuntimeException> nestedFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+
+    private CrossDatasetLockCycleProgress(
+        Dataset targetDataset,
+        IndexOptions targetOptions,
+        CountDownLatch callbacksReady,
+        CountDownLatch attemptsFinished) {
+      this.targetDataset = targetDataset;
+      this.targetOptions = targetOptions;
+      this.callbacksReady = callbacksReady;
+      this.attemptsFinished = attemptsFinished;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      if (attempted.compareAndSet(false, true)) {
+        callbacksReady.countDown();
+        awaitLatch(callbacksReady, "Cross-Dataset callbacks did not become ready");
+        try {
+          targetDataset.createIndex(targetOptions);
+        } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+          nestedFailure.set(failure);
+        } finally {
+          attemptsFinished.countDown();
+          awaitLatch(attemptsFinished, "Cross-Dataset build attempts did not finish");
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {}
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {}
+  }
+
+  private static final class CrossDatasetWriteCycleProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final Dataset targetDataset;
+    private final CountDownLatch callbacksReady;
+    private final CountDownLatch attemptsFinished;
+    private final AtomicBoolean attempted = new AtomicBoolean();
+    private final AtomicReference<RuntimeException> writeFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+
+    private CrossDatasetWriteCycleProgress(
+        Dataset targetDataset, CountDownLatch callbacksReady, CountDownLatch attemptsFinished) {
+      this.targetDataset = targetDataset;
+      this.callbacksReady = callbacksReady;
+      this.attemptsFinished = attemptsFinished;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      if (attempted.compareAndSet(false, true)) {
+        callbacksReady.countDown();
+        awaitLatch(callbacksReady, "Cross-Dataset write callbacks did not become ready");
+        try {
+          targetDataset.checkoutLatest();
+        } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+          writeFailure.set(failure);
+        } finally {
+          attemptsFinished.countDown();
+          awaitLatch(attemptsFinished, "Cross-Dataset write attempts did not finish");
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {}
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {}
+  }
+
+  private static final class CrossDatasetReadWithQueuedCloseProgress implements IndexBuildProgress {
+    private final Dataset outerDataset;
+    private final Dataset targetDataset;
+    private final CountDownLatch callbacksReady;
+    private final CountDownLatch attemptsFinished;
+    private final AtomicBoolean attempted = new AtomicBoolean();
+    private final AtomicReference<Thread> closeThread = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicReference<RuntimeException> closeFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicReference<RuntimeException> readFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicBoolean readCompleted = new AtomicBoolean();
+
+    private CrossDatasetReadWithQueuedCloseProgress(
+        Dataset outerDataset,
+        Dataset targetDataset,
+        CountDownLatch callbacksReady,
+        CountDownLatch attemptsFinished) {
+      this.outerDataset = outerDataset;
+      this.targetDataset = targetDataset;
+      this.callbacksReady = callbacksReady;
+      this.attemptsFinished = attemptsFinished;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {
+      if (attempted.compareAndSet(false, true)) {
+        Thread queuedClose =
+            new Thread(
+                () -> {
+                  try {
+                    outerDataset.close();
+                  } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+                    closeFailure.set(failure);
+                  }
+                },
+                "cross-dataset-queued-close");
+        queuedClose.setDaemon(true);
+        closeThread.set(queuedClose);
+        queuedClose.start();
+        try {
+          awaitThreadBlocked(queuedClose, "Close did not queue behind the outer index build");
+        } catch (InterruptedException e) {
+          Thread.currentThread().interrupt();
+          throw new IllegalStateException("Interrupted while waiting for queued close", e);
+        }
+
+        callbacksReady.countDown();
+        awaitLatch(callbacksReady, "Cross-Dataset read callbacks did not become ready");
+        try {
+          assertTrue(targetDataset.version() > 0);
+          readCompleted.set(true);
+        } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+          readFailure.set(failure);
+        } finally {
+          attemptsFinished.countDown();
+          awaitLatch(attemptsFinished, "Cross-Dataset read attempts did not finish");
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {}
+
+    @Override
+    public void stageComplete(String stage) {}
+  }
+
+  private static final class CrossDatasetBuildPair {
+    private final RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+    private final Dataset datasetA;
+    private final Dataset datasetB;
+    private final IndexOptions optionsA;
+    private final IndexOptions optionsB;
+    private final AtomicReference<Index> resultA = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicReference<Index> resultB = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicReference<Throwable> failureA = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private final AtomicReference<Throwable> failureB = new AtomicReference<>();
+    private Thread createA;
+    private Thread createB;
+
+    private CrossDatasetBuildPair(Path tempDir, String pathPrefix) throws Exception {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDatasetA =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, tempDir.resolve(pathPrefix + "_a").toString());
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDatasetB =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, tempDir.resolve(pathPrefix + "_b").toString());
+      testDatasetA.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDatasetB.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      datasetA = testDatasetA.write(1, 20);
+      datasetB = testDatasetB.write(1, 20);
+      optionsA = createInvertedSegmentOptions(datasetA.getFragments().get(0).getId());
+      optionsB = createInvertedSegmentOptions(datasetB.getFragments().get(0).getId());
+    }
+
+    private void runCreates(IndexBuildProgress progressA, IndexBuildProgress progressB)
+        throws InterruptedException {
+      createA =
+          new Thread(
+              () -> {
+                try {
+                  resultA.set(datasetA.createIndex(optionsA, progressA));
+                } catch (Throwable failure) {
+                  failureA.set(failure);
+                }
+              },
+              "cross-dataset-create-a");
+      createB =
+          new Thread(
+              () -> {
+                try {
+                  resultB.set(datasetB.createIndex(optionsB, progressB));
+                } catch (Throwable failure) {
+                  failureB.set(failure);
+                }
+              },
+              "cross-dataset-create-b");
+      createA.setDaemon(true);
+      createB.setDaemon(true);
+      createA.start();
+      createB.start();
+
+      long deadlineNanos = System.nanoTime() + TimeUnit.SECONDS.toNanos(5);
+      joinUntil(createA, deadlineNanos);
+      joinUntil(createB, deadlineNanos);
+
+      assertFalse(createA.isAlive(), "Dataset A create deadlocked");
+      assertFalse(createB.isAlive(), "Dataset B create deadlocked");
+      assertNull(failureA.get(), "Dataset A outer create failed");
+      assertNull(failureB.get(), "Dataset B outer create failed");
+      assertNotNull(resultA.get(), "Dataset A outer create did not return an index");
+      assertNotNull(resultB.get(), "Dataset B outer create did not return an index");
+    }
+
+    private void closeIfWorkersStopped(Thread... additionalWorkers) {
+      boolean workersStopped =
+          (createA == null || !createA.isAlive()) && (createB == null || !createB.isAlive());
+      for (Thread worker : additionalWorkers) {
+        workersStopped &= worker == null || !worker.isAlive();
+      }
+      if (workersStopped) {
+        datasetA.close();
+        datasetB.close();
+        allocator.close();
+      }
+    }
+  }
 
   @Test
-  public void testCreateBTreeIndex() throws Exception {
+  public void testCreateBTreeIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("btree_test").toString();
     Schema schema =
         new Schema(
@@ -108,7 +722,7 @@ public void testCreateBTreeIndex() throws Exception {
   }
 
   @Test
-  public void testCreateBTreeIndexDistributively() throws Exception {
+  public void testCreateBTreeIndexDistributively(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("build_index_distributedly").toString();
     try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
       TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
@@ -118,171 +732,396 @@ public void testCreateBTreeIndexDistributively() throws Exception {
       testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
       try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
         List<Fragment> fragments = dataset.getFragments();
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.getFragments().size());
+        assertEquals(2, fragments.size());
 
         ScalarIndexParams scalarParams = ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{\"zone_size\": 2048}");
         IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
-        UUID uuid = UUID.randomUUID();
+        String indexName = "test_index";
 
-        // 2. partially create index
-        dataset.createIndex(
-            IndexOptions.builder(Collections.singletonList("name"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
-                .withIndexName("test_index")
-                .withIndexUUID(uuid.toString())
-                .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(0).getId()))
-                .build());
-        dataset.createIndex(
-            IndexOptions.builder(Collections.singletonList("name"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
-                .withIndexName("test_index")
-                .withIndexUUID(uuid.toString())
-                .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(1).getId()))
-                .build());
+        List<Index> segments = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (Fragment fragment : fragments) {
+          segments.add(
+              dataset.createIndex(
+                  IndexOptions.builder(
+                          Collections.singletonList("name"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
+                      .withIndexName(indexName)
+                      .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragment.getId()))
+                      .build()));
+        }
 
-        // then no index should have been created
         assertFalse(
-            dataset.listIndexes().contains("test_index"),
+            dataset.listIndexes().contains(indexName),
             "Partially created index should not present");
 
-        // 3. merge metadata, which will still not be committed
-        dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(uuid.toString(), IndexType.BTREE, Optional.empty());
+        List<Index> committed = dataset.commitExistingIndexSegments(indexName, "name", segments);
+        assertEquals(2, committed.size());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().contains(indexName));
+
+        assertEquals(2, dataset.countIndexedRows(indexName, "name = 'Person 5'", Optional.empty()));
+        assertEquals(
+            10,
+            dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                indexName, "name >= 'Person 3' AND name < 'Person 8'", Optional.empty()));
+      }
+    }
+  }
 
-        // 4. commit the index
-        int fieldId =
-            dataset.getLanceSchema().fields().stream()
-                .filter(f -> f.getName().equals("name"))
-                .findAny()
-                .orElseThrow(() -> new RuntimeException("Cannot find 'name' field for TestDataset"))
-                .getId();
+  @Test
+  public void testCountIndexedRowsSelectsPhysicalSegments(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    assertPhysicalSegmentSelection(tempDir.resolve("segments"), false);
+  }
 
-        long datasetVersion = dataset.version();
+  @Test
+  public void testCountIndexedRowsStableRowIdsExcludeDeletions(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    assertPhysicalSegmentSelection(tempDir.resolve("stable-segments"), true);
+  }
 
-        Index index =
-            Index.builder()
-                .uuid(uuid)
-                .name("test_index")
-                .fields(Collections.singletonList(fieldId))
-                .datasetVersion(datasetVersion)
-                .indexVersion(0)
-                .fragments(fragments.stream().map(Fragment::getId).collect(Collectors.toList()))
-                .build();
+  @Test
+  public void testCountIndexedRowsDoesNotOpenUnselectedSegment(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String filter = "name >= 'Person 0'";
+    Path datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("unopened");
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      UUID segmentA;
+      UUID segmentB;
+      String indexName;
+      try (NamedSegments segments = createNamedSegments(allocator, datasetPath, false, 10, 4)) {
+        segmentA = segments.segmentA.uuid();
+        segmentB = segments.segmentB.uuid();
+        indexName = segments.indexName;
+      }
+      // Reopen after deleting B so a session cache cannot satisfy the query.
+      deleteIndexSegment(datasetPath, segmentB);
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(datasetPath.toString(), allocator)) {
+        assertEquals(
+            10,
+            dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                indexName, filter, Collections.singletonList(segmentA), Optional.empty()));
+        Exception missingSegment =
+            Assertions.assertThrows(
+                Exception.class,
+                () ->
+                    dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                        indexName, filter, Collections.singletonList(segmentB), Optional.empty()));
+        assertTrue(
+            missingSegment.getMessage() != null && !missingSegment.getMessage().isEmpty(),
+            "opening the deleted segment should fail, got: " + missingSegment);
+      }
+    }
+  }
 
-        CreateIndex createIndexOp =
-            CreateIndex.builder().withNewIndices(Collections.singletonList(index)).build();
+  private void assertPhysicalSegmentSelection(Path datasetPath, boolean stableRowIds)
+      throws Exception {
+    String filter = "name >= 'Person 0'";
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+        NamedSegments segments = createNamedSegments(allocator, datasetPath, stableRowIds, 10, 4)) {
+      Dataset dataset = segments.dataset;
+      List<UUID> segmentA = Collections.singletonList(segments.segmentA.uuid());
+      List<UUID> segmentB = Collections.singletonList(segments.segmentB.uuid());
+      List<UUID> both = Arrays.asList(segments.segmentB.uuid(), segments.segmentA.uuid());
+      int fragmentA = fragmentId(segments.segmentA);
+      int fragmentB = fragmentId(segments.segmentB);
 
-        Transaction createIndexTx =
-            dataset.newTransactionBuilder().operation(createIndexOp).build();
+      assertEquals(
+          10, dataset.countIndexedRows(segments.indexName, filter, segmentA, Optional.empty()));
+      assertEquals(
+          4, dataset.countIndexedRows(segments.indexName, filter, segmentB, Optional.empty()));
+      assertEquals(
+          14, dataset.countIndexedRows(segments.indexName, filter, both, Optional.empty()));
+      assertEquals(14, dataset.countIndexedRows(segments.indexName, filter, Optional.empty()));
+      assertEquals(
+          14,
+          dataset.countIndexedRows(
+              segments.indexName, filter, both, Optional.of(Arrays.asList(fragmentB, fragmentA))));
+      assertEquals(
+          10,
+          dataset.countIndexedRows(
+              segments.indexName, filter, Optional.of(Collections.singletonList(fragmentA))));
 
-        try (Dataset newDataset = createIndexTx.commit()) {
-          // new dataset should contain that index
-          assertEquals(datasetVersion + 1, newDataset.version());
-          assertTrue(newDataset.listIndexes().contains("test_index"));
-        }
+      Exception unindexedFilter =
+          Assertions.assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () -> dataset.countIndexedRows(segments.indexName, "id = 0", Optional.empty()));
+      assertTrue(
+          unindexedFilter.getMessage().contains(segments.indexName), unindexedFilter.getMessage());
+      assertTrue(
+          unindexedFilter.getMessage().contains("cannot be planned"), unindexedFilter.getMessage());
+
+      Exception coverageMismatch =
+          Assertions.assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () ->
+                  dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                      segments.indexName,
+                      filter,
+                      segmentA,
+                      Optional.of(Collections.singletonList(fragmentB))));
+      assertTrue(
+          coverageMismatch.getMessage().contains("do not match selected segment coverage"),
+          coverageMismatch.getMessage());
+      assertTrue(
+          coverageMismatch.getMessage().contains(Integer.toString(fragmentA)),
+          coverageMismatch.getMessage());
+      assertTrue(
+          coverageMismatch.getMessage().contains(Integer.toString(fragmentB)),
+          coverageMismatch.getMessage());
+
+      Exception unknownFragment =
+          Assertions.assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () ->
+                  dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                      segments.indexName,
+                      filter,
+                      segmentA,
+                      Optional.of(Collections.singletonList(99))));
+      assertTrue(
+          unknownFragment.getMessage().contains("unknown fragment IDs"),
+          unknownFragment.getMessage());
+
+      Exception duplicateFragments =
+          Assertions.assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () ->
+                  dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                      segments.indexName,
+                      filter,
+                      segmentA,
+                      Optional.of(Arrays.asList(fragmentA, fragmentA))));
+      assertTrue(
+          duplicateFragments.getMessage().contains("duplicate fragment IDs"),
+          duplicateFragments.getMessage());
+
+      Exception unknownSegment =
+          Assertions.assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () ->
+                  dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                      segments.indexName,
+                      filter,
+                      Collections.singletonList(UUID.randomUUID()),
+                      Optional.empty()));
+      assertTrue(
+          unknownSegment.getMessage().contains("does not exist"), unknownSegment.getMessage());
+
+      Index otherIndex =
+          dataset.createIndex(
+              IndexOptions.builder(
+                      Collections.singletonList("id"), IndexType.BTREE, btreeIndexParams())
+                  .withIndexName("other_index")
+                  .build());
+      Exception wrongIndex =
+          Assertions.assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () ->
+                  dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                      segments.indexName,
+                      filter,
+                      Collections.singletonList(otherIndex.uuid()),
+                      Optional.empty()));
+      assertTrue(wrongIndex.getMessage().contains("other_index"), wrongIndex.getMessage());
+      assertTrue(wrongIndex.getMessage().contains(segments.indexName), wrongIndex.getMessage());
+
+      Exception duplicateSegments =
+          Assertions.assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () ->
+                  dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                      segments.indexName,
+                      filter,
+                      Arrays.asList(segments.segmentA.uuid(), segments.segmentA.uuid()),
+                      Optional.empty()));
+      assertTrue(
+          duplicateSegments.getMessage().contains("duplicate UUIDs"),
+          duplicateSegments.getMessage());
+      Assertions.assertThrows(
+          IllegalArgumentException.class,
+          () ->
+              dataset.countIndexedRows(
+                  segments.indexName, filter, Collections.emptyList(), Optional.empty()));
+
+      dataset.delete("name = 'Person 0'");
+      assertEquals(
+          9, dataset.countIndexedRows(segments.indexName, filter, segmentA, Optional.empty()));
+      assertEquals(
+          3, dataset.countIndexedRows(segments.indexName, filter, segmentB, Optional.empty()));
+      assertEquals(
+          12, dataset.countIndexedRows(segments.indexName, filter, both, Optional.empty()));
+      assertEquals(12, dataset.countRows(filter));
+    }
+  }
+
+  private NamedSegments createNamedSegments(
+      BufferAllocator allocator, Path datasetPath, boolean stableRowIds, int rowsA, int rowsB)
+      throws Exception {
+    TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+        new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath.toString());
+    WriteParams.Builder createParams = new WriteParams.Builder();
+    if (stableRowIds) {
+      createParams.withEnableStableRowIds(true);
+    }
+    testDataset.createDatasetWithWriteParams(createParams.build()).close();
+    testDataset.write(1, rowsA).close();
+    Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, rowsB);
+    List<Fragment> fragments = dataset.getFragments();
+    assertEquals(2, fragments.size());
+    Fragment fragmentA = null;
+    Fragment fragmentB = null;
+    for (Fragment fragment : fragments) {
+      long physicalRows = fragment.metadata().getPhysicalRows();
+      if (physicalRows == rowsA) {
+        fragmentA = fragment;
+      } else if (physicalRows == rowsB) {
+        fragmentB = fragment;
       }
     }
+    assertNotNull(fragmentA);
+    assertNotNull(fragmentB);
+
+    String indexName = "name_idx";
+    List<Index> committed =
+        commitBtreeSegments(dataset, indexName, "name", Arrays.asList(fragmentA, fragmentB));
+    return new NamedSegments(
+        dataset,
+        indexName,
+        indexCovering(committed, fragmentA.getId()),
+        indexCovering(committed, fragmentB.getId()));
+  }
+
+  private static IndexParams btreeIndexParams() {
+    return IndexParams.builder()
+        .setScalarIndexParams(ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{\"zone_size\": 2048}"))
+        .build();
+  }
+
+  private static List<Index> commitBtreeSegments(
+      Dataset dataset, String indexName, String column, List<Fragment> fragments) {
+    List<Index> segments = new ArrayList<>();
+    for (Fragment fragment : fragments) {
+      segments.add(
+          dataset.createIndex(
+              IndexOptions.builder(
+                      Collections.singletonList(column), IndexType.BTREE, btreeIndexParams())
+                  .withIndexName(indexName)
+                  .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragment.getId()))
+                  .build()));
+    }
+    List<Index> committed = dataset.commitExistingIndexSegments(indexName, column, segments);
+    assertEquals(fragments.size(), committed.size());
+    return committed;
+  }
+
+  private static Index indexCovering(List<Index> indexes, int fragmentId) {
+    for (Index index : indexes) {
+      if (index.fragments().orElse(Collections.emptyList()).contains(fragmentId)) {
+        return index;
+      }
+    }
+    throw new AssertionError("no committed segment covers fragment " + fragmentId);
+  }
+
+  private static int fragmentId(Index segment) {
+    List<Integer> fragments =
+        segment
+            .fragments()
+            .orElseThrow(
+                () ->
+                    new AssertionError("segment " + segment.uuid() + " has no fragment coverage"));
+    assertEquals(1, fragments.size(), "expected one fragment in " + segment.uuid());
+    return fragments.get(0);
+  }
+
+  private static void deleteIndexSegment(Path datasetPath, UUID uuid) throws IOException {
+    Path indexDir = datasetPath.resolve("_indices").resolve(uuid.toString());
+    assertTrue(Files.isDirectory(indexDir), "expected index directory " + indexDir);
+    try (Stream<Path> walk = Files.walk(indexDir)) {
+      walk.sorted(Comparator.reverseOrder())
+          .forEach(
+              path -> {
+                try {
+                  Files.delete(path);
+                } catch (IOException e) {
+                  throw new UncheckedIOException(e);
+                }
+              });
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static final class NamedSegments implements AutoCloseable {
+    private final Dataset dataset;
+    private final String indexName;
+    private final Index segmentA;
+    private final Index segmentB;
+
+    private NamedSegments(Dataset dataset, String indexName, Index segmentA, Index segmentB) {
+      this.dataset = dataset;
+      this.indexName = indexName;
+      this.segmentA = segmentA;
+      this.segmentB = segmentB;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void close() {
+      dataset.close();
+    }
   }
 
   @Test
-  public void testRangedBTreeIndex() throws Exception {
+  public void testRangedBTreeIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("ranged_btree_map").toString();
-    UUID indexUUID = UUID.randomUUID();
     try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
       TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
           new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
       testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
-      // 1. write some data
-      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 200)) {
-
-        // 2. scan data out
-        List<long[]> data = new ArrayList<>();
-        try (LanceScanner scanner =
-                dataset.newScan(
-                    new ScanOptions.Builder()
-                        .withRowId(true)
-                        .columns(Collections.singletonList("id"))
-                        .build());
-            ArrowReader arrowReader = scanner.scanBatches(); ) {
-          while (arrowReader.loadNextBatch()) {
-            VectorSchemaRoot root = arrowReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-            UInt8Vector rowIdVec = (UInt8Vector) root.getVector("_rowid");
-            IntVector idVec = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
-            for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++) {
-              data.add(new long[] {idVec.get(i), rowIdVec.get(i)});
-            }
-          }
-        }
-
-        // 3. sort data globally (This will be done by computing engines in production)
-        data.sort((d1, d2) -> (int) (d1[0] - d2[0]));
-        int mid = data.size() / 2;
-
-        // 4. divide sorted data into ranges and build index for each range
-        createBtreeIndexForRange(dataset, data.subList(0, mid), 1, allocator, indexUUID);
-        createBtreeIndexForRange(dataset, data.subList(mid, data.size()), 2, allocator, indexUUID);
-
-        // 5. merge index.
-        dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(indexUUID.toString(), IndexType.BTREE, Optional.empty());
-
-        // 6. commit index
-        long datasetVersion = dataset.version();
-        int fieldId =
-            dataset.getLanceSchema().fields().stream()
-                .filter(f -> f.getName().equals("id"))
-                .findAny()
-                .orElseThrow(() -> new RuntimeException("Cannot find 'id' field for TestDataset"))
-                .getId();
-        Index index =
-            Index.builder()
-                .uuid(indexUUID)
-                .name("test_index")
-                .fields(Collections.singletonList(fieldId))
-                .datasetVersion(datasetVersion)
-                .indexVersion(0)
-                .fragments(
-                    dataset.getFragments().stream()
-                        .map(Fragment::getId)
-                        .collect(Collectors.toList()))
-                .build();
-
-        CreateIndex createIndexOp =
-            CreateIndex.builder().withNewIndices(Collections.singletonList(index)).build();
-
-        Transaction createIndexTx =
-            dataset.newTransactionBuilder().operation(createIndexOp).build();
-
-        try (Dataset newDataset = createIndexTx.commit()) {
-          // new dataset should contain that index
-          assertEquals(datasetVersion + 1, newDataset.version());
-          assertTrue(newDataset.listIndexes().contains("test_index"));
+      testDataset.write(1, 100).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 100)) {
+        List<Fragment> fragments = dataset.getFragments();
+        assertEquals(2, fragments.size());
 
-          // 7. compare results
-          // force use index should get the right value
-          ScanOptions scanOptions =
-              new ScanOptions.Builder().withRowId(true).filter("id in (10, 20, 30)").build();
-          try (LanceScanner scanner = newDataset.newScan(scanOptions);
+        List<Index> segments = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (Fragment fragment : fragments) {
+          List<long[]> data = new ArrayList<>();
+          try (LanceScanner scanner =
+                  dataset.newScan(
+                      new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                          .fragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragment.getId()))
+                          .withRowId(true)
+                          .columns(Collections.singletonList("id"))
+                          .build());
               ArrowReader arrowReader = scanner.scanBatches(); ) {
-            List<Integer> ids = new ArrayList<>();
             while (arrowReader.loadNextBatch()) {
               VectorSchemaRoot root = arrowReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              UInt8Vector rowIdVec = (UInt8Vector) root.getVector("_rowid");
               IntVector idVec = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
-              for (int i = 0; i < idVec.getValueCount(); i++) {
-                ids.add(idVec.get(i));
+              for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++) {
+                data.add(new long[] {idVec.get(i), rowIdVec.get(i)});
               }
             }
-            Collections.sort(ids);
-            Assertions.assertIterableEquals(Arrays.asList(10, 20, 30), ids);
           }
+
+          data.sort((d1, d2) -> Long.compare(d1[0], d2[0]));
+          segments.add(createBtreeIndexFromPreprocessedData(dataset, data, fragment, allocator));
         }
+
+        String indexName = "test_index";
+        List<Index> committed = dataset.commitExistingIndexSegments(indexName, "id", segments);
+        assertEquals(2, committed.size());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().contains(indexName));
+
+        assertEquals(
+            6, dataset.countIndexedRows(indexName, "id in (10, 20, 30)", Optional.empty()));
+        assertEquals(
+            20, dataset.countIndexedRows(indexName, "id >= 50 AND id < 60", Optional.empty()));
       }
     }
   }
 
-  private void createBtreeIndexForRange(
+  private Index createBtreeIndexFromPreprocessedData(
       Dataset dataset,
       List<long[]> preprocessedData,
-      int rangeId,
-      BufferAllocator allocator,
-      UUID indexUUID) {
-    // Note that the indexing column is called 'value' in btree.
+      Fragment fragment,
+      BufferAllocator allocator) {
     Schema schema =
         new Schema(
             Arrays.asList(
@@ -295,7 +1134,7 @@ private void createBtreeIndexForRange(
       UInt8Vector rowIdVec = (UInt8Vector) root.getVector("_rowid");
       for (int i = 0; i < preprocessedData.size(); i++) {
         long[] dataPair = preprocessedData.get(i);
-        idVec.set(i, (int) dataPair[0]);
+        idVec.setSafe(i, (int) dataPair[0]);
         rowIdVec.setSafe(i, dataPair[1]);
       }
       root.setRowCount(preprocessedData.size());
@@ -316,12 +1155,12 @@ private void createBtreeIndexForRange(
           ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
         Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader, stream);
 
-        ScalarIndexParams scalarParams =
-            ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", String.format("{\"range_id\": %s}", rangeId));
+        ScalarIndexParams scalarParams = ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{\"zone_size\": 64}");
         IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
-        dataset.createIndex(
+        return dataset.createIndex(
             IndexOptions.builder(Collections.singletonList("id"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
-                .withIndexUUID(indexUUID.toString())
+                .withIndexName("test_index")
+                .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragment.getId()))
                 .withPreprocessedData(stream)
                 .build());
       } catch (Exception e) {
@@ -331,20 +1170,972 @@ private void createBtreeIndexForRange(
   }
 
   @Test
-  public void testCreateZonemapIndex() throws Exception {
-    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("zonemap_test").toString();
-    Schema schema =
-        new Schema(
-            Arrays.asList(
-                Field.nullable("id", new ArrowType.Int(32, true)),
-                Field.nullable("value", new ArrowType.Utf8())),
-            null);
+  public void testBtreeMergeIndexMetadataSoftBreak(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("btree_merge_metadata_soft_break").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
+        Exception ex =
+            Assertions.assertThrows(
+                Exception.class,
+                () ->
+                    dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(
+                        UUID.randomUUID().toString(), IndexType.BTREE, Optional.empty()));
+        assertTrue(
+            ex.getMessage() != null
+                && ex.getMessage().contains("no longer supports merge_index_metadata"),
+            "expected BTree merge_index_metadata soft-break error, got: " + ex.getMessage());
+      }
+    }
+  }
 
-    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
-      try (Dataset dataset =
-          Dataset.create(allocator, datasetPath, schema, new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+  @Test
+  public void testCreateBTreeIndexReportsProgress(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("btree_create_progress").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        ScalarIndexParams scalarParams = ScalarIndexParams.create("btree", "{\"zone_size\": 2048}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
+        RecordingIndexBuildProgress progress = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
 
-        // Create Zonemap scalar index parameters with rows_per_zone setting
+        Index index =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                IndexOptions.builder(Collections.singletonList("id"), IndexType.BTREE, indexParams)
+                    .withIndexName("btree_progress_idx")
+                    .replace(true)
+                    .build(),
+                progress);
+
+        assertEquals("btree_progress_idx", index.name());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().contains("btree_progress_idx"));
+        List<String> events = progress.snapshot();
+        assertFalse(events.isEmpty(), "Expected BTree create to report progress events");
+        assertTrue(
+            events.stream().anyMatch(event -> event.startsWith("start:")),
+            "Expected at least one stageStart event, got: " + events);
+        assertTrue(
+            events.stream().anyMatch(event -> event.startsWith("complete:")),
+            "Expected at least one stageComplete event, got: " + events);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexReportsProgress(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_create_progress").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        RecordingIndexBuildProgress progress = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
+
+        Index segment =
+            dataset.createIndex(createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId()), progress);
+
+        assertNotNull(segment);
+        List<String> events = progress.snapshot();
+        assertEventsInOrder(
+            events,
+            "start:load_data:unknown:rows",
+            "complete:load_data",
+            "start:tokenize_docs:unknown:rows",
+            "progress:tokenize_docs:",
+            "complete:tokenize_docs",
+            "start:copy_partitions:",
+            "complete:copy_partitions",
+            "start:write_metadata:",
+            "progress:write_metadata:",
+            "complete:write_metadata");
+        assertTrue(
+            events.stream()
+                .anyMatch(event -> event.matches("start:copy_partitions:[0-9]+:partitions")),
+            "Expected a known partition total, got: " + events);
+        assertTrue(
+            events.stream().anyMatch(event -> event.matches("start:write_metadata:[0-9]+:files")),
+            "Expected a known file total, got: " + events);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexPropagatesProgressFailure(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_create_progress_failure").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+
+        RuntimeException failure =
+            Assertions.assertThrows(
+                RuntimeException.class,
+                () ->
+                    dataset.createIndex(
+                        createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId()),
+                        new FailingProgressIndexBuildProgress()));
+
+        assertFalse(
+            failure instanceof IllegalArgumentException,
+            "Progress callback failures should not be reported as invalid input: " + failure);
+        assertTrue(
+            causeChainContains(failure, "stageProgress")
+                && causeChainContains(failure, "java.lang.IllegalStateException")
+                && causeChainContains(failure, "progress callback failure"),
+            "Expected callback context and original Java exception details, got: " + failure);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexIgnoresCompleteFailure(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_create_complete_failure").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        FailingCompleteIndexBuildProgress progress = new FailingCompleteIndexBuildProgress();
+
+        Index segment =
+            dataset.createIndex(createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId()), progress);
+
+        assertNotNull(segment);
+        assertTrue(
+            progress.recorder.snapshot().contains("complete:write_metadata"),
+            "Expected create to continue after stageComplete callback failures");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 60, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexAllowsReentrantDatasetAccess(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_create_reentrant_dataset").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        ReentrantDatasetIndexBuildProgress progress =
+            new ReentrantDatasetIndexBuildProgress(dataset);
+
+        Index segment =
+            dataset.createIndex(createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId()), progress);
+
+        assertNotNull(segment);
+        assertTrue(
+            progress.reentries.get() > 0,
+            "Expected progress callbacks to re-enter Dataset JNI methods");
+        assertTrue(
+            progress.recorder.snapshot().contains("complete:write_metadata"),
+            "Expected create to finish after re-entrant Dataset access, got: "
+                + progress.recorder.snapshot());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 5, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexRejectsWriteReentryPromptly(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_create_write_reentry").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        WriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress progress = new WriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress(dataset);
+
+        Index segment =
+            dataset.createIndex(createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId()), progress);
+
+        assertNotNull(segment);
+        RuntimeException failure = progress.writeFailure.get();
+        assertNotNull(failure, "Expected write re-entry to be rejected");
+        assertTrue(
+            failure.getMessage().contains("busy in an index progress callback"),
+            "Unexpected write re-entry failure: " + failure.getMessage());
+        assertTrue(progress.reentries.get() > 0, "Expected callback to attempt a write lock");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @EnumSource(DeprecatedConfigMutation.class)
+  @Timeout(value = 5, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexRejectsConfigWriteBeforeCommit(
+      DeprecatedConfigMutation mutation, @TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_create_config_write_reentry").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        dataset.updateConfig(Map.of(ConfigWriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress.CONFIG_KEY, "original"));
+        long versionBeforeCreate = dataset.latestVersion();
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        ConfigWriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress progress =
+            new ConfigWriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress(dataset, mutation);
+
+        Index segment =
+            dataset.createIndex(createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId()), progress);
+
+        assertNotNull(segment);
+        RuntimeException failure = progress.writeFailure.get();
+        assertNotNull(failure, "Expected config write re-entry to be rejected");
+        assertTrue(
+            failure.getMessage().contains("busy in an index progress callback"),
+            "Unexpected config write re-entry failure: " + failure.getMessage());
+        assertEquals(versionBeforeCreate, dataset.version());
+        assertEquals(versionBeforeCreate, dataset.latestVersion());
+        assertEquals(
+            "original", dataset.getConfig().get(ConfigWriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress.CONFIG_KEY));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 5, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexRejectsNestedCreatePromptly(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_create_nested_reentry").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        IndexOptions segmentOptions = createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId());
+        NestedCreateIndexBuildProgress progress =
+            new NestedCreateIndexBuildProgress(dataset, segmentOptions);
+
+        Index segment = dataset.createIndex(segmentOptions, progress);
+
+        assertNotNull(segment);
+        RuntimeException failure = progress.nestedFailure.get();
+        assertNotNull(failure, "Expected nested create to be rejected");
+        assertTrue(
+            failure.getMessage().contains("busy in an index progress callback"),
+            "Unexpected nested create failure: " + failure.getMessage());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 5, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexAllowsConcurrentCreate(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_concurrent_create").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        IndexOptions segmentOptions = createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId());
+        BlockingIndexBuildProgress progress = new BlockingIndexBuildProgress();
+        AtomicReference<Index> concurrentResult = new AtomicReference<>();
+        AtomicReference<RuntimeException> outerFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+
+        Thread outerCreate =
+            new Thread(
+                () -> {
+                  try {
+                    dataset.createIndex(segmentOptions, progress);
+                  } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+                    outerFailure.set(failure);
+                  }
+                });
+        outerCreate.start();
+        assertTrue(progress.started.await(5, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Progress callback never started");
+
+        Thread concurrentCreate =
+            new Thread(() -> concurrentResult.set(dataset.createIndex(segmentOptions)));
+        concurrentCreate.start();
+        concurrentCreate.join(100);
+        assertTrue(concurrentCreate.isAlive(), "Concurrent create should wait for active create");
+
+        progress.release.countDown();
+        outerCreate.join(5000);
+        concurrentCreate.join(5000);
+        assertFalse(outerCreate.isAlive(), "Outer create timed out");
+        assertFalse(concurrentCreate.isAlive(), "Concurrent create timed out");
+        assertNull(outerFailure.get(), "Outer create failed");
+        assertNotNull(concurrentResult.get(), "Concurrent create did not return an index");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 5, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexAllowsConcurrentClose(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_concurrent_close").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        BlockingIndexBuildProgress progress = new BlockingIndexBuildProgress();
+        AtomicReference<RuntimeException> closeFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+        AtomicReference<RuntimeException> outerFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+
+        Thread outerCreate =
+            new Thread(
+                () -> {
+                  try {
+                    dataset.createIndex(createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId()), progress);
+                  } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+                    outerFailure.set(failure);
+                  }
+                });
+        outerCreate.start();
+        assertTrue(progress.started.await(5, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Progress callback never started");
+
+        Thread concurrentClose =
+            new Thread(
+                () -> {
+                  try {
+                    dataset.close();
+                  } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+                    closeFailure.set(failure);
+                  }
+                });
+        concurrentClose.start();
+        concurrentClose.join(100);
+        assertTrue(concurrentClose.isAlive(), "Concurrent close should wait for active create");
+
+        progress.release.countDown();
+        outerCreate.join(5000);
+        concurrentClose.join(5000);
+        assertFalse(outerCreate.isAlive(), "Outer create timed out");
+        assertFalse(concurrentClose.isAlive(), "Concurrent close timed out");
+        assertNull(outerFailure.get(), "Outer create failed");
+        assertNull(closeFailure.get(), "Concurrent close should not fail");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 10, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateIndexReadOwnerDoesNotDeadlockBehindQueuedClose(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
+    Dataset dataset = null;
+    Thread readOwner = null;
+    Thread concurrentClose = null;
+    Thread queuedCreate = null;
+    CountDownLatch startOwnerCreate = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    try {
+      String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("index_read_owner_queued_close").toString();
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20);
+      Dataset activeDataset = dataset;
+      Fragment fragment = activeDataset.getFragments().get(0);
+      IndexOptions segmentOptions = createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId());
+
+      CountDownLatch outerReadAcquired = new CountDownLatch(1);
+      AtomicReference<Index> ownerResult = new AtomicReference<>();
+      AtomicReference<Throwable> ownerFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+      AtomicReference<Throwable> closeFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+      AtomicReference<Throwable> queuedCreateFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+
+      readOwner =
+          new Thread(
+              () -> {
+                try (LockManager.ReadLock ignored = activeDataset.acquireReadLock()) {
+                  outerReadAcquired.countDown();
+                  if (!startOwnerCreate.await(5, TimeUnit.SECONDS)) {
+                    throw new IllegalStateException("Timed out before reentrant create");
+                  }
+                  ownerResult.set(activeDataset.createIndex(segmentOptions));
+                } catch (Throwable failure) {
+                  ownerFailure.set(failure);
+                }
+              },
+              "index-read-owner");
+      readOwner.setDaemon(true);
+      readOwner.start();
+      assertTrue(outerReadAcquired.await(2, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Outer read lock was not acquired");
+
+      // Establish read owner -> queued close -> queued create before the read owner re-enters.
+      concurrentClose =
+          new Thread(
+              () -> {
+                try {
+                  activeDataset.close();
+                } catch (Throwable failure) {
+                  closeFailure.set(failure);
+                }
+              },
+              "queued-dataset-close");
+      concurrentClose.setDaemon(true);
+      concurrentClose.start();
+      awaitThreadBlocked(concurrentClose, "Concurrent close did not wait for the outer read lock");
+
+      queuedCreate =
+          new Thread(
+              () -> {
+                try {
+                  activeDataset.createIndex(segmentOptions);
+                } catch (Throwable failure) {
+                  queuedCreateFailure.set(failure);
+                }
+              },
+              "queued-index-create");
+      queuedCreate.setDaemon(true);
+      queuedCreate.start();
+      awaitThreadBlocked(queuedCreate, "Concurrent create did not wait behind queued close");
+
+      startOwnerCreate.countDown();
+      long deadlineNanos = System.nanoTime() + TimeUnit.SECONDS.toNanos(3);
+      joinUntil(readOwner, deadlineNanos);
+      joinUntil(concurrentClose, deadlineNanos);
+      joinUntil(queuedCreate, deadlineNanos);
+
+      assertFalse(readOwner.isAlive(), "Read owner deadlocked while re-entering createIndex");
+      assertFalse(concurrentClose.isAlive(), "Concurrent close deadlocked");
+      assertFalse(queuedCreate.isAlive(), "Queued create deadlocked");
+      assertNull(ownerFailure.get(), "Read owner's createIndex failed");
+      assertNotNull(ownerResult.get(), "Read owner's createIndex did not return an index");
+      assertNull(closeFailure.get(), "Concurrent close failed");
+      assertTrue(
+          queuedCreateFailure.get() instanceof IllegalArgumentException,
+          "Create queued behind close should observe the closed Dataset: "
+              + queuedCreateFailure.get());
+    } finally {
+      startOwnerCreate.countDown();
+      boolean workersStopped =
+          (readOwner == null || !readOwner.isAlive())
+              && (concurrentClose == null || !concurrentClose.isAlive())
+              && (queuedCreate == null || !queuedCreate.isAlive());
+      if (workersStopped) {
+        if (dataset != null) {
+          dataset.close();
+        }
+        allocator.close();
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 5, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexAllowsReadWithQueuedWriter(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_read_with_queued_writer").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        QueuedWriterProgress progress = new QueuedWriterProgress(dataset);
+        AtomicReference<RuntimeException> createFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+
+        Thread outerCreate =
+            new Thread(
+                () -> {
+                  try {
+                    dataset.createIndex(createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId()), progress);
+                  } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+                    createFailure.set(failure);
+                  }
+                });
+        outerCreate.start();
+        outerCreate.join(5000);
+
+        assertFalse(outerCreate.isAlive(), "Outer create timed out");
+        assertNull(createFailure.get(), "Outer create failed");
+        assertTrue(progress.readCompleted.get(), "Callback read did not complete");
+
+        Thread queuedWriter = progress.writer.get();
+        assertNotNull(queuedWriter, "Queued writer did not start");
+        queuedWriter.join(5000);
+        assertFalse(queuedWriter.isAlive(), "Queued writer timed out");
+        assertNull(progress.writerFailure.get(), "Queued writer failed");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 5, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateIndexPreservesOuterDatasetCallbackContextAcrossDatasets(
+      @TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String outerPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_cross_dataset_outer").toString();
+    String nestedPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_cross_dataset_nested").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset outerTestDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, outerPath);
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset nestedTestDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, nestedPath);
+      outerTestDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      nestedTestDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset outerDataset = outerTestDataset.write(1, 20);
+          Dataset nestedDataset = nestedTestDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        Fragment outerFragment = outerDataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        Fragment nestedFragment = nestedDataset.getFragments().get(0);
+        CrossDatasetNestedProgress nestedProgress =
+            new CrossDatasetNestedProgress(outerDataset, nestedDataset);
+        CrossDatasetOuterProgress outerProgress =
+            new CrossDatasetOuterProgress(
+                outerDataset,
+                nestedDataset,
+                createInvertedSegmentOptions(nestedFragment.getId()),
+                nestedProgress);
+        AtomicReference<RuntimeException> createFailure = new AtomicReference<>();
+
+        Thread outerCreate =
+            new Thread(
+                () -> {
+                  try {
+                    outerDataset.createIndex(
+                        createInvertedSegmentOptions(outerFragment.getId()), outerProgress);
+                  } catch (RuntimeException failure) {
+                    createFailure.set(failure);
+                  }
+                });
+        outerCreate.start();
+        outerCreate.join(5000);
+
+        assertFalse(outerCreate.isAlive(), "Outer create timed out");
+        assertNull(createFailure.get(), "Outer create failed");
+        assertTrue(outerProgress.nestedCompleted.get(), "Nested create did not complete");
+        assertTrue(
+            nestedProgress.readCompleted.get(),
+            "Nested stageProgress callback read did not complete");
+
+        Thread queuedWriter = outerProgress.writer.get();
+        assertNotNull(queuedWriter, "Queued writer did not start");
+        queuedWriter.join(5000);
+        assertFalse(queuedWriter.isAlive(), "Queued writer timed out");
+        assertNull(outerProgress.writerFailure.get(), "Queued writer failed");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 10, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateIndexRejectsCrossDatasetCallbackLockCycle(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    CrossDatasetBuildPair pair = new CrossDatasetBuildPair(tempDir, "inverted_lock_cycle");
+    try {
+      CountDownLatch callbacksReady = new CountDownLatch(2);
+      CountDownLatch attemptsFinished = new CountDownLatch(2);
+      CrossDatasetLockCycleProgress progressA =
+          new CrossDatasetLockCycleProgress(
+              pair.datasetB, pair.optionsB, callbacksReady, attemptsFinished);
+      CrossDatasetLockCycleProgress progressB =
+          new CrossDatasetLockCycleProgress(
+              pair.datasetA, pair.optionsA, callbacksReady, attemptsFinished);
+
+      pair.runCreates(progressA, progressB);
+      assertBusyIndexBuildFailure(progressA.nestedFailure.get());
+      assertBusyIndexBuildFailure(progressB.nestedFailure.get());
+    } finally {
+      pair.closeIfWorkersStopped();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 10, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateIndexRejectsCrossDatasetCallbackWriteCycle(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    CrossDatasetBuildPair pair = new CrossDatasetBuildPair(tempDir, "inverted_write_cycle");
+    try {
+      CountDownLatch callbacksReady = new CountDownLatch(2);
+      CountDownLatch attemptsFinished = new CountDownLatch(2);
+      CrossDatasetWriteCycleProgress progressA =
+          new CrossDatasetWriteCycleProgress(pair.datasetB, callbacksReady, attemptsFinished);
+      CrossDatasetWriteCycleProgress progressB =
+          new CrossDatasetWriteCycleProgress(pair.datasetA, callbacksReady, attemptsFinished);
+
+      pair.runCreates(progressA, progressB);
+      assertBusyLifecycleWriteFailure(progressA.writeFailure.get());
+      assertBusyLifecycleWriteFailure(progressB.writeFailure.get());
+    } finally {
+      pair.closeIfWorkersStopped();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 10, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testCreateIndexAllowsCrossDatasetCallbackReadWithQueuedClose(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    CrossDatasetBuildPair pair = new CrossDatasetBuildPair(tempDir, "inverted_queued_close_read");
+    CrossDatasetReadWithQueuedCloseProgress progressA = null;
+    CrossDatasetReadWithQueuedCloseProgress progressB = null;
+    try {
+      CountDownLatch callbacksReady = new CountDownLatch(2);
+      CountDownLatch attemptsFinished = new CountDownLatch(2);
+      progressA =
+          new CrossDatasetReadWithQueuedCloseProgress(
+              pair.datasetA, pair.datasetB, callbacksReady, attemptsFinished);
+      progressB =
+          new CrossDatasetReadWithQueuedCloseProgress(
+              pair.datasetB, pair.datasetA, callbacksReady, attemptsFinished);
+
+      pair.runCreates(progressA, progressB);
+      assertNull(progressA.readFailure.get(), "Dataset A callback read failed");
+      assertNull(progressB.readFailure.get(), "Dataset B callback read failed");
+      assertTrue(progressA.readCompleted.get(), "Dataset A callback did not read Dataset B");
+      assertTrue(progressB.readCompleted.get(), "Dataset B callback did not read Dataset A");
+
+      Thread closeA = progressA.closeThread.get();
+      Thread closeB = progressB.closeThread.get();
+      assertNotNull(closeA, "Dataset A close did not start");
+      assertNotNull(closeB, "Dataset B close did not start");
+      closeA.join(5000);
+      closeB.join(5000);
+      assertFalse(closeA.isAlive(), "Dataset A close timed out");
+      assertFalse(closeB.isAlive(), "Dataset B close timed out");
+      assertNull(progressA.closeFailure.get(), "Dataset A close failed");
+      assertNull(progressB.closeFailure.get(), "Dataset B close failed");
+    } finally {
+      Thread closeA = progressA == null ? null : progressA.closeThread.get();
+      Thread closeB = progressB == null ? null : progressB.closeThread.get();
+      pair.closeIfWorkersStopped(closeA, closeB);
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCreateInvertedIndexWithProgressUpdatesDatasetState(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_create_committed_progress").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 20)) {
+        long previousVersion = dataset.version();
+        RecordingIndexBuildProgress progress = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
+        IndexOptions options =
+            IndexOptions.builder(
+                    Collections.singletonList("name"),
+                    IndexType.INVERTED,
+                    createInvertedIndexParams())
+                .withIndexName("committed_inverted_progress_idx")
+                .replace(true)
+                .build();
+
+        Index index = dataset.createIndex(options, progress);
+
+        assertEquals(previousVersion + 1, dataset.version());
+        assertEquals("committed_inverted_progress_idx", index.name());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().contains("committed_inverted_progress_idx"));
+        assertTrue(
+            progress.snapshot().stream().anyMatch(event -> event.startsWith("progress:")),
+            "Expected committed create to report progress");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCreateIndexRejectsNullProgress(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("create_null_progress").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(1, 1)) {
+        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+
+        NullPointerException failure =
+            Assertions.assertThrows(
+                NullPointerException.class,
+                () -> dataset.createIndex(createInvertedSegmentOptions(fragment.getId()), null));
+
+        assertTrue(failure.getMessage().contains("progress cannot be null"));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testMergeInvertedIndexMetadataReportsProgress(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_merge_progress").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
+        String indexUuid = createDistributedInvertedIndex(dataset);
+        RecordingIndexBuildProgress progress = new RecordingIndexBuildProgress();
+
+        dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(indexUuid, IndexType.INVERTED, Optional.empty(), progress);
+
+        List<String> events = progress.snapshot();
+        assertEventsInOrder(
+            events,
+            "start:read_partition_metadata:",
+            "complete:read_partition_metadata",
+            "start:remap_partition_files:",
+            "complete:remap_partition_files",
+            "start:write_merged_metadata:",
+            "complete:write_merged_metadata");
+        assertTrue(
+            events.contains("progress:read_partition_metadata:2"),
+            "Expected metadata progress to reach both fragments, got: " + events);
+        assertTrue(
+            events.stream().anyMatch(event -> event.startsWith("progress:remap_partition_files:")),
+            "Expected remap progress, got: " + events);
+        assertTrue(
+            events.contains("progress:write_merged_metadata:1"),
+            "Expected merged metadata write progress, got: " + events);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testMergeInvertedIndexMetadataPropagatesProgressFailure(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_merge_progress_failure").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
+        String indexUuid = createDistributedInvertedIndex(dataset);
+
+        RuntimeException failure =
+            Assertions.assertThrows(
+                RuntimeException.class,
+                () ->
+                    dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(
+                        indexUuid,
+                        IndexType.INVERTED,
+                        Optional.empty(),
+                        new FailingProgressIndexBuildProgress()));
+
+        assertFalse(
+            failure instanceof IllegalArgumentException,
+            "Progress callback failures should not be reported as invalid input: " + failure);
+        assertTrue(
+            causeChainContains(failure, "stageProgress")
+                && causeChainContains(failure, "read_partition_metadata")
+                && causeChainContains(failure, "java.lang.IllegalStateException")
+                && causeChainContains(failure, "progress callback failure"),
+            "Expected callback context and original Java exception details, got: " + failure);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testMergeInvertedIndexMetadataIgnoresCompleteFailure(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_merge_complete_failure").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
+        String indexUuid = createDistributedInvertedIndex(dataset);
+        FailingCompleteIndexBuildProgress progress = new FailingCompleteIndexBuildProgress();
+
+        dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(indexUuid, IndexType.INVERTED, Optional.empty(), progress);
+
+        assertTrue(
+            progress.recorder.snapshot().contains("complete:write_merged_metadata"),
+            "Expected merge to continue after stageComplete callback failures");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 60, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testMergeInvertedIndexMetadataAllowsReentrantDatasetAccess(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_merge_reentrant_dataset").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
+        String indexUuid = createDistributedInvertedIndex(dataset);
+        ReentrantDatasetIndexBuildProgress progress =
+            new ReentrantDatasetIndexBuildProgress(dataset);
+
+        dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(indexUuid, IndexType.INVERTED, Optional.empty(), progress);
+
+        assertTrue(
+            progress.reentries.get() > 0,
+            "Expected progress callbacks to re-enter Dataset JNI methods");
+        assertTrue(
+            progress.recorder.snapshot().contains("complete:write_merged_metadata"),
+            "Expected merge to finish after re-entrant Dataset access, got: "
+                + progress.recorder.snapshot());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  @Timeout(value = 5, unit = TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+  public void testMergeInvertedIndexMetadataRejectsWriteReentryPromptly(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("inverted_merge_write_reentry").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      testDataset.createEmptyDataset().close();
+      testDataset.write(1, 10).close();
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.write(2, 10)) {
+        String indexUuid = createDistributedInvertedIndex(dataset);
+        WriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress progress = new WriteReentrantIndexBuildProgress(dataset);
+
+        dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(indexUuid, IndexType.INVERTED, Optional.empty(), progress);
+
+        RuntimeException failure = progress.writeFailure.get();
+        assertNotNull(failure, "Expected write re-entry to be rejected");
+        assertTrue(
+            failure.getMessage().contains("busy in an index progress callback"),
+            "Unexpected write re-entry failure: " + failure.getMessage());
+        assertTrue(progress.reentries.get() > 0, "Expected callback to attempt a write lock");
+        assertTrue(
+            progress.recorder.snapshot().contains("complete:write_merged_metadata"),
+            "Expected merge to finish after rejected write re-entry, got: "
+                + progress.recorder.snapshot());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static String createDistributedInvertedIndex(Dataset dataset) {
+    String indexUuid = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
+    for (Fragment fragment : dataset.getFragments()) {
+      dataset.createIndex(
+          IndexOptions.builder(
+                  Collections.singletonList("name"),
+                  IndexType.INVERTED,
+                  createInvertedIndexParams())
+              .replace(true)
+              .withIndexName("inverted_progress_idx")
+              .withIndexUUID(indexUuid)
+              .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragment.getId()))
+              .build());
+    }
+    return indexUuid;
+  }
+
+  private static IndexOptions createInvertedSegmentOptions(int fragmentId) {
+    return IndexOptions.builder(
+            Collections.singletonList("name"), IndexType.INVERTED, createInvertedIndexParams())
+        .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragmentId))
+        .build();
+  }
+
+  private static IndexParams createInvertedIndexParams() {
+    ScalarIndexParams scalarParams =
+        ScalarIndexParams.create(
+            "inverted",
+            "{\"base_tokenizer\":\"simple\",\"language\":\"English\","
+                + "\"max_token_length\":40,\"lower_case\":true,\"stem\":false,"
+                + "\"remove_stop_words\":false}");
+    return IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
+  }
+
+  private static void assertEventsInOrder(List<String> events, String... prefixes) {
+    int previous = -1;
+    for (String prefix : prefixes) {
+      int current = -1;
+      for (int i = previous + 1; i < events.size(); i++) {
+        if (events.get(i).startsWith(prefix)) {
+          current = i;
+          break;
+        }
+      }
+      assertTrue(
+          current >= 0,
+          "Missing event '" + prefix + "' after position " + previous + ": " + events);
+      previous = current;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static boolean causeChainContains(Throwable failure, String expected) {
+    for (Throwable current = failure; current != null; current = current.getCause()) {
+      if (current.getMessage() != null && current.getMessage().contains(expected)) {
+        return true;
+      }
+    }
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  private static void assertBusyIndexBuildFailure(RuntimeException failure) {
+    assertNotNull(failure, "Expected cross-Dataset nested create to be rejected");
+    assertTrue(
+        failure.getMessage().contains("busy with an index build"),
+        "Unexpected nested create failure: " + failure.getMessage());
+  }
+
+  private static void assertBusyLifecycleWriteFailure(RuntimeException failure) {
+    assertNotNull(failure, "Expected cross-Dataset write to be rejected");
+    assertTrue(
+        failure.getMessage().contains("lifecycle write lock is busy"),
+        "Unexpected cross-Dataset write failure: " + failure.getMessage());
+  }
+
+  private static void awaitLatch(CountDownLatch latch, String message) {
+    try {
+      assertTrue(latch.await(5, TimeUnit.SECONDS), message);
+    } catch (InterruptedException e) {
+      Thread.currentThread().interrupt();
+      throw new IllegalStateException(message, e);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static void awaitThreadBlocked(Thread thread, String message)
+      throws InterruptedException {
+    long deadlineNanos = System.nanoTime() + TimeUnit.SECONDS.toNanos(2);
+    while (System.nanoTime() < deadlineNanos) {
+      Thread.State state = thread.getState();
+      if (state == Thread.State.BLOCKED || state == Thread.State.WAITING) {
+        return;
+      }
+      Thread.sleep(10);
+    }
+    Assertions.fail(message + "; state=" + thread.getState());
+  }
+
+  private static void joinUntil(Thread thread, long deadlineNanos) throws InterruptedException {
+    long remainingNanos = deadlineNanos - System.nanoTime();
+    if (remainingNanos > 0) {
+      thread.join(Math.max(1, TimeUnit.NANOSECONDS.toMillis(remainingNanos)));
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCreateZonemapIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("zonemap_test").toString();
+    Schema schema =
+        new Schema(
+            Arrays.asList(
+                Field.nullable("id", new ArrowType.Int(32, true)),
+                Field.nullable("value", new ArrowType.Utf8())),
+            null);
+
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      try (Dataset dataset =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, datasetPath, schema, new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+
+        // Create Zonemap scalar index parameters with rows_per_zone setting
         ScalarIndexParams scalarParams =
             ScalarIndexParams.create("zonemap", "{\"rows_per_zone\": 1024}");
 
@@ -376,4 +2167,78 @@ public void testCreateZonemapIndex() throws Exception {
       }
     }
   }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCreateRTreeIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("rtree_test").toString();
+    ArrowType f64 = new ArrowType.FloatingPoint(FloatingPointPrecision.DOUBLE);
+    Field geometryField =
+        new Field(
+            "geometry",
+            new FieldType(
+                true,
+                new ArrowType.Struct(),
+                null,
+                Collections.singletonMap("ARROW:extension:name", "geoarrow.point")),
+            Arrays.asList(Field.notNullable("x", f64), Field.notNullable("y", f64)));
+    Schema schema = new Schema(Collections.singletonList(geometryField), null);
+
+    int rowCount = 3;
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
+      root.allocateNew();
+      StructVector geometry = (StructVector) root.getVector("geometry");
+      Float8Vector x = (Float8Vector) geometry.getChild("x");
+      Float8Vector y = (Float8Vector) geometry.getChild("y");
+      for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+        geometry.setIndexDefined(i);
+        x.setSafe(i, (double) i);
+        y.setSafe(i, i * 2.0);
+      }
+      geometry.setValueCount(rowCount);
+      root.setRowCount(rowCount);
+
+      ByteArrayOutputStream out = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+      try (ArrowStreamWriter writer = new ArrowStreamWriter(root, null, out)) {
+        writer.start();
+        writer.writeBatch();
+        writer.end();
+      }
+
+      try (ArrowStreamReader reader =
+              new ArrowStreamReader(new ByteArrayInputStream(out.toByteArray()), allocator);
+          Dataset dataset =
+              Dataset.write()
+                  .reader(reader)
+                  .uri(datasetPath)
+                  .allocator(allocator)
+                  .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                  .execute()) {
+        // The point data round-trips through Lance.
+        assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
+        try (ArrowReader scan = dataset.newScan(new ScanOptions.Builder().build()).scanBatches()) {
+          assertTrue(scan.loadNextBatch());
+          StructVector readGeometry =
+              (StructVector) scan.getVectorSchemaRoot().getVector("geometry");
+          assertEquals(2.0, ((Float8Vector) readGeometry.getChild("x")).get(2));
+          assertEquals(4.0, ((Float8Vector) readGeometry.getChild("y")).get(2));
+        }
+
+        // Creating and listing an RTree index via the typed IndexType works end-to-end.
+        Index index =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                Collections.singletonList("geometry"),
+                IndexType.RTREE,
+                Optional.of("rtree_geometry_index"),
+                IndexParams.builder()
+                    .setScalarIndexParams(ScalarIndexParams.create("rtree"))
+                    .build(),
+                true);
+        assertEquals(IndexType.RTREE, index.indexType());
+        assertTrue(
+            dataset.listIndexes().contains("rtree_geometry_index"),
+            "Expected 'rtree_geometry_index' in: " + dataset.listIndexes());
+      }
+    }
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/VectorIndexTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/VectorIndexTest.java
index 9d4b9791949..6e5a7e8562d 100755
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/VectorIndexTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/VectorIndexTest.java
@@ -16,34 +16,132 @@
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.Fragment;
 import org.lance.TestVectorDataset;
-import org.lance.Transaction;
 import org.lance.index.vector.IvfBuildParams;
 import org.lance.index.vector.PQBuildParams;
+import org.lance.index.vector.RQBuildParams;
 import org.lance.index.vector.SQBuildParams;
 import org.lance.index.vector.VectorIndexParams;
 import org.lance.index.vector.VectorTrainer;
-import org.lance.operation.CreateIndex;
-
+import org.lance.ipc.AsyncScanner;
+import org.lance.ipc.LanceScanner;
+import org.lance.ipc.Query;
+import org.lance.ipc.ScanOptions;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.EnumSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
 
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.Set;
 import java.util.UUID;
-import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 public class VectorIndexTest {
 
-  @TempDir Path tempDir;
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @EnumSource(
+      value = IndexType.class,
+      names = {"IVF_FLAT", "IVF_PQ"})
+  @SuppressWarnings("deprecation")
+  public void testCreateIndexWithConcreteVectorType(IndexType indexType, @TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve(indexType.name()))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        VectorIndexParams vectorIndexParams =
+            indexType == IndexType.IVF_FLAT
+                ? VectorIndexParams.ivfFlat(2, DistanceType.L2)
+                : VectorIndexParams.ivfPq(2, 8, 2, DistanceType.L2, 2);
+        IndexParams indexParams =
+            IndexParams.builder().setVectorIndexParams(vectorIndexParams).build();
+
+        Index index =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
+                indexType,
+                Optional.empty(),
+                indexParams,
+                false);
+
+        assertNotNull(index);
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().contains(index.name()));
+      }
+    }
+  }
 
   @Test
-  public void testCreateIvfFlatIndexDistributively() throws Exception {
+  public void testCreateIvfFlatIndexPropagatesProgressFailure(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String indexName = "ivf_progress_failure_idx";
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("ivf_progress_failure"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        long initialVersion = dataset.version();
+        IndexParams indexParams =
+            IndexParams.builder()
+                .setVectorIndexParams(VectorIndexParams.ivfFlat(2, DistanceType.L2))
+                .build();
+        IndexOptions options =
+            IndexOptions.builder(
+                    Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
+                    IndexType.IVF_FLAT,
+                    indexParams)
+                .withIndexName(indexName)
+                .build();
+        IndexBuildProgress progress =
+            new IndexBuildProgress() {
+              @Override
+              public void stageStart(String stage, Optional<Long> total, String unit) {}
+
+              @Override
+              public void stageProgress(String stage, long completed) {
+                if (stage.equals("train_ivf")) {
+                  throw new IllegalStateException("vector progress callback failure");
+                }
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              public void stageComplete(String stage) {}
+            };
+
+        RuntimeException failure =
+            assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> dataset.createIndex(options, progress));
+
+        assertFalse(
+            failure instanceof IllegalArgumentException,
+            "Progress callback failures should not be reported as invalid input: " + failure);
+        assertTrue(
+            causeChainContains(failure, "stageProgress")
+                && causeChainContains(failure, "train_ivf")
+                && causeChainContains(failure, "java.lang.IllegalStateException")
+                && causeChainContains(failure, "vector progress callback failure"),
+            "Expected callback context and original Java exception details, got: " + failure);
+        assertEquals(initialVersion, dataset.version(), "Failed index build must not commit");
+        assertFalse(
+            dataset.listIndexes().contains(indexName), "Failed index build must not publish index");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @ParameterizedTest
+  @ValueSource(booleans = {false, true})
+  public void testCreateIvfFlatIndexDistributively(boolean async, @TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
     try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
         new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("merge_ivfflat_index_metadata"))) {
       try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
@@ -74,75 +172,118 @@ public void testCreateIvfFlatIndexDistributively() throws Exception {
         IndexParams indexParams =
             IndexParams.builder().setVectorIndexParams(vectorIndexParams).build();
 
-        UUID indexUUID = UUID.randomUUID();
-
-        // Partially create index on the first fragment
-        dataset.createIndex(
-            IndexOptions.builder(
-                    Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
-                    IndexType.IVF_FLAT,
-                    indexParams)
-                .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
-                .withIndexUUID(indexUUID.toString())
-                .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(0).getId()))
-                .build());
-
-        // Partially create index on the second fragment with the same UUID
-        dataset.createIndex(
-            IndexOptions.builder(
-                    Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
-                    IndexType.IVF_FLAT,
-                    indexParams)
-                .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
-                .withIndexUUID(indexUUID.toString())
-                .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(1).getId()))
-                .build());
+        Index firstSegment =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                IndexOptions.builder(
+                        Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
+                        IndexType.IVF_FLAT,
+                        indexParams)
+                    .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
+                    .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(0).getId()))
+                    .build());
+
+        Index secondSegment =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                IndexOptions.builder(
+                        Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
+                        IndexType.IVF_FLAT,
+                        indexParams)
+                    .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
+                    .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(1).getId()))
+                    .build());
 
         // The index should not be visible before metadata merge & commit
         assertFalse(
             dataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName),
             "Partially created IVF_FLAT index should not present before commit");
 
-        // Merge index metadata for all fragment-level pieces
-        dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(indexUUID.toString(), IndexType.IVF_FLAT, Optional.empty());
-
-        int fieldId =
-            dataset.getLanceSchema().fields().stream()
-                .filter(f -> f.getName().equals(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName))
-                .findAny()
-                .orElseThrow(
-                    () -> new RuntimeException("Cannot find vector field for TestVectorDataset"))
-                .getId();
-
-        long datasetVersion = dataset.version();
-
-        Index index =
-            Index.builder()
-                .uuid(indexUUID)
-                .name(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
-                .fields(Collections.singletonList(fieldId))
-                .datasetVersion(datasetVersion)
-                .indexVersion(0)
-                .fragments(
-                    fragments.stream().limit(2).map(Fragment::getId).collect(Collectors.toList()))
+        List<Index> committed =
+            dataset.commitExistingIndexSegments(
+                TestVectorDataset.indexName,
+                TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName,
+                List.of(firstSegment, secondSegment));
+        assertEquals(2, committed.size());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName));
+
+        float[] key = new float[32];
+        for (int i = 0; i < key.length; i++) {
+          key[i] = 32 + i;
+        }
+        Query query =
+            new Query.Builder()
+                .setColumn(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName)
+                .setKey(key)
+                .setK(5)
+                .setNprobes(2)
                 .build();
+        // Each fragment repeats the vectors but has distinct row IDs. Selecting a segment
+        // must exclude equally close rows in the other segments and unindexed fragments.
+        for (int segment = 0; segment < 2; segment++) {
+          ScanOptions options =
+              new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                  .nearest(query)
+                  .indexSegments(List.of(segment == 0 ? firstSegment.uuid() : secondSegment.uuid()))
+                  .build();
+          try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+              AutoCloseable scanner =
+                  async
+                      ? AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)
+                      : dataset.newScan(options);
+              ArrowReader reader =
+                  async
+                      ? ((AsyncScanner) scanner).scanBatchesAsync().get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+                      : ((LanceScanner) scanner).scanBatches()) {
+            Set<Integer> actual = new HashSet<>();
+            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+              IntVector ids = (IntVector) reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getVector("i");
+              for (int row = 0; row < ids.getValueCount(); row++) {
+                actual.add(ids.get(row));
+              }
+            }
+            int base = segment * 80;
+            assertEquals(Set.of(base, base + 1, base + 2, base + 3, base + 4), actual);
+          }
+        }
 
-        CreateIndex createIndexOp =
-            CreateIndex.builder().withNewIndices(Collections.singletonList(index)).build();
-
-        Transaction createIndexTx =
-            dataset.newTransactionBuilder().operation(createIndexOp).build();
-
-        try (Dataset newDataset = createIndexTx.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(datasetVersion + 1, newDataset.version());
-          assertTrue(newDataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName));
+        List<ScanOptions> invalidOptions =
+            List.of(
+                new ScanOptions.Builder().nearest(query).indexSegments(List.of()).build(),
+                new ScanOptions.Builder().indexSegments(List.of(firstSegment.uuid())).build(),
+                new ScanOptions.Builder()
+                    .nearest(query)
+                    .indexSegments(List.of(UUID.randomUUID()))
+                    .build());
+        List<String> errors =
+            List.of(
+                "empty segment list", "only supported for vector search", "unknown index segments");
+        for (int i = 0; i < invalidOptions.size(); i++) {
+          ScanOptions options = invalidOptions.get(i);
+          Exception failure =
+              assertThrows(
+                  Exception.class,
+                  () -> {
+                    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+                        AutoCloseable scanner =
+                            async
+                                ? AsyncScanner.create(dataset, options, allocator)
+                                : dataset.newScan(options);
+                        ArrowReader reader =
+                            async
+                                ? ((AsyncScanner) scanner)
+                                    .scanBatchesAsync()
+                                    .get(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS)
+                                : ((LanceScanner) scanner).scanBatches()) {
+                      reader.loadNextBatch();
+                    }
+                  });
+          assertTrue(causeChainContains(failure, errors.get(i)), failure.toString());
         }
       }
     }
   }
 
   @Test
-  public void testCreateIvfPqIndexDistributively() throws Exception {
+  public void testCreateIvfPqIndexDistributively(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
         new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("merge_ivfpq_index_metadata"))) {
       try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
@@ -196,71 +337,43 @@ public void testCreateIvfPqIndexDistributively() throws Exception {
         IndexParams indexParams =
             IndexParams.builder().setVectorIndexParams(vectorIndexParams).build();
 
-        UUID indexUUID = UUID.randomUUID();
-
-        dataset.createIndex(
-            IndexOptions.builder(
-                    Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
-                    IndexType.IVF_PQ,
-                    indexParams)
-                .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
-                .withIndexUUID(indexUUID.toString())
-                .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(0).getId()))
-                .build());
-
-        dataset.createIndex(
-            IndexOptions.builder(
-                    Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
-                    IndexType.IVF_PQ,
-                    indexParams)
-                .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
-                .withIndexUUID(indexUUID.toString())
-                .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(1).getId()))
-                .build());
+        Index firstSegment =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                IndexOptions.builder(
+                        Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
+                        IndexType.IVF_PQ,
+                        indexParams)
+                    .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
+                    .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(0).getId()))
+                    .build());
+
+        Index secondSegment =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                IndexOptions.builder(
+                        Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
+                        IndexType.IVF_PQ,
+                        indexParams)
+                    .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
+                    .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(1).getId()))
+                    .build());
 
         assertFalse(
             dataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName),
             "Partially created IVF_PQ index should not present before commit");
 
-        dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(indexUUID.toString(), IndexType.IVF_PQ, Optional.empty());
-
-        int fieldId =
-            dataset.getLanceSchema().fields().stream()
-                .filter(f -> f.getName().equals(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName))
-                .findAny()
-                .orElseThrow(
-                    () -> new RuntimeException("Cannot find vector field for TestVectorDataset"))
-                .getId();
-
-        long datasetVersion = dataset.version();
-
-        Index index =
-            Index.builder()
-                .uuid(indexUUID)
-                .name(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
-                .fields(Collections.singletonList(fieldId))
-                .datasetVersion(datasetVersion)
-                .indexVersion(0)
-                .fragments(
-                    fragments.stream().limit(2).map(Fragment::getId).collect(Collectors.toList()))
-                .build();
-
-        CreateIndex createIndexOp =
-            CreateIndex.builder().withNewIndices(Collections.singletonList(index)).build();
-
-        Transaction createIndexTx =
-            dataset.newTransactionBuilder().operation(createIndexOp).build();
-
-        try (Dataset newDataset = createIndexTx.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(datasetVersion + 1, newDataset.version());
-          assertTrue(newDataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName));
-        }
+        List<Index> committed =
+            dataset.commitExistingIndexSegments(
+                TestVectorDataset.indexName,
+                TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName,
+                List.of(firstSegment, secondSegment));
+        assertEquals(2, committed.size());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName));
       }
     }
   }
 
   @Test
-  public void testCreateIvfSqIndexDistributively() throws Exception {
+  public void testCreateIvfSqIndexDistributively(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
         new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("merge_ivfsq_index_metadata"))) {
       try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
@@ -298,66 +411,174 @@ public void testCreateIvfSqIndexDistributively() throws Exception {
         IndexParams indexParams =
             IndexParams.builder().setVectorIndexParams(vectorIndexParams).build();
 
-        UUID indexUUID = UUID.randomUUID();
+        Index firstSegment =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                IndexOptions.builder(
+                        Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
+                        IndexType.IVF_SQ,
+                        indexParams)
+                    .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
+                    .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(0).getId()))
+                    .build());
+
+        Index secondSegment =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                IndexOptions.builder(
+                        Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
+                        IndexType.IVF_SQ,
+                        indexParams)
+                    .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
+                    .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(1).getId()))
+                    .build());
 
-        dataset.createIndex(
-            IndexOptions.builder(
-                    Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
-                    IndexType.IVF_SQ,
-                    indexParams)
-                .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
-                .withIndexUUID(indexUUID.toString())
-                .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(0).getId()))
-                .build());
+        assertFalse(
+            dataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName),
+            "Partially created IVF_SQ index should not present before commit");
+
+        List<Index> committed =
+            dataset.commitExistingIndexSegments(
+                TestVectorDataset.indexName,
+                TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName,
+                List.of(firstSegment, secondSegment));
+        assertEquals(2, committed.size());
+        assertTrue(dataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testCreateIvfRqIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    Path datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("ivf_rq_index");
+
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset = new TestVectorDataset(datasetPath)) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        IvfBuildParams ivf = new IvfBuildParams.Builder().setNumPartitions(2).build();
+        RQBuildParams rq = new RQBuildParams.Builder().setNumBits((byte) 1).build();
+
+        VectorIndexParams vectorIndexParams =
+            VectorIndexParams.withIvfRqParams(DistanceType.L2, ivf, rq);
+        IndexParams indexParams =
+            IndexParams.builder().setVectorIndexParams(vectorIndexParams).build();
 
         dataset.createIndex(
             IndexOptions.builder(
                     Collections.singletonList(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName),
-                    IndexType.IVF_SQ,
+                    IndexType.IVF_RQ,
                     indexParams)
                 .withIndexName(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
-                .withIndexUUID(indexUUID.toString())
-                .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(1).getId()))
                 .build());
 
-        assertFalse(
-            dataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName),
-            "Partially created IVF_SQ index should not present before commit");
+        List<Index> indexes = dataset.getIndexes();
+        Index rqIndex =
+            indexes.stream()
+                .filter(idx -> TestVectorDataset.indexName.equals(idx.name()))
+                .findFirst()
+                .orElse(null);
 
-        dataset.mergeIndexMetadata(indexUUID.toString(), IndexType.IVF_SQ, Optional.empty());
+        assertNotNull(rqIndex, "Expected IVF_RQ index to be present");
 
-        int fieldId =
-            dataset.getLanceSchema().fields().stream()
-                .filter(f -> f.getName().equals(TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName))
-                .findAny()
-                .orElseThrow(
-                    () -> new RuntimeException("Cannot find vector field for TestVectorDataset"))
-                .getId();
+        IndexType indexType = rqIndex.indexType();
+        assertNotNull(indexType, "IndexType should be set for IVF_RQ index");
 
-        long datasetVersion = dataset.version();
+        // Today all vector indices share the same VectorIndexDetails type and map to VECTOR.
+        // This assertion allows both VECTOR and IVF_RQ so it remains valid if the mapping
+        // is refined in the future.
+        assertTrue(
+            indexType == IndexType.VECTOR || indexType == IndexType.IVF_RQ,
+            "IndexType for IVF_RQ index should be VECTOR or IVF_RQ but was " + indexType);
+      }
+    }
+  }
 
-        Index index =
-            Index.builder()
-                .uuid(indexUUID)
-                .name(TestVectorDataset.indexName)
-                .fields(Collections.singletonList(fieldId))
-                .datasetVersion(datasetVersion)
-                .indexVersion(0)
-                .fragments(
-                    fragments.stream().limit(2).map(Fragment::getId).collect(Collectors.toList()))
+  /**
+   * Regression test for the metric_type passthrough in the JNI VectorTrainer.
+   *
+   * <p>Before this fix, {@code trainIvfCentroids} hardcoded {@code MetricType::L2} on the Rust
+   * side, so users requesting a non-L2 metric got centroids clustered on L2 geometry while
+   * per-fragment encoders later quantized using the requested metric — silently degraded recall.
+   *
+   * <p>This test trains the same dataset twice with L2 and Cosine and asserts the centroid arrays
+   * differ. With the bug present, the two arrays were identical because both paths fell through to
+   * L2.
+   */
+  @Test
+  public void testTrainIvfCentroidsHonorsDistanceType(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("ivf_centroids_metric"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        IvfBuildParams params =
+            new IvfBuildParams.Builder().setNumPartitions(2).setMaxIters(10).build();
+
+        float[] l2Centroids =
+            VectorTrainer.trainIvfCentroids(
+                dataset, TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName, params, DistanceType.L2);
+        float[] cosineCentroids =
+            VectorTrainer.trainIvfCentroids(
+                dataset, TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName, params, DistanceType.Cosine);
+
+        assertEquals(l2Centroids.length, cosineCentroids.length);
+        assertFalse(
+            arraysApproximatelyEqual(l2Centroids, cosineCentroids),
+            "L2 and Cosine centroids should differ — Cosine normalizes input before clustering."
+                + " If they are equal, the metric is not being threaded into the trainer.");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Regression test for the metric_type passthrough in PQ codebook training.
+   *
+   * <p>Cosine training normalizes the input vectors before k-means; L2 does not. So the resulting
+   * codebooks must differ when the metric is honored.
+   */
+  @Test
+  public void testTrainPqCodebookHonorsDistanceType(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    try (TestVectorDataset testVectorDataset =
+        new TestVectorDataset(tempDir.resolve("pq_codebook_metric"))) {
+      try (Dataset dataset = testVectorDataset.create()) {
+        PQBuildParams params =
+            new PQBuildParams.Builder()
+                .setNumSubVectors(2)
+                .setNumBits(4)
+                .setMaxIters(5)
+                .setSampleRate(64)
                 .build();
 
-        CreateIndex createIndexOp =
-            CreateIndex.builder().withNewIndices(Collections.singletonList(index)).build();
+        float[] l2Codebook =
+            VectorTrainer.trainPqCodebook(
+                dataset, TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName, params, DistanceType.L2);
+        float[] cosineCodebook =
+            VectorTrainer.trainPqCodebook(
+                dataset, TestVectorDataset.vectorColumnName, params, DistanceType.Cosine);
+
+        assertEquals(l2Codebook.length, cosineCodebook.length);
+        assertFalse(
+            arraysApproximatelyEqual(l2Codebook, cosineCodebook),
+            "L2 and Cosine PQ codebooks should differ — Cosine normalizes the training data."
+                + " If they are equal, the metric is not being threaded into the trainer.");
+      }
+    }
+  }
 
-        Transaction createIndexTx =
-            dataset.newTransactionBuilder().operation(createIndexOp).build();
+  private static boolean arraysApproximatelyEqual(float[] a, float[] b) {
+    if (a.length != b.length) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    final float epsilon = 1e-6f;
+    for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
+      if (Math.abs(a[i] - b[i]) > epsilon) {
+        return false;
+      }
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
 
-        try (Dataset newDataset = createIndexTx.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(datasetVersion + 1, newDataset.version());
-          assertTrue(newDataset.listIndexes().contains(TestVectorDataset.indexName));
-        }
+  private static boolean causeChainContains(Throwable failure, String expected) {
+    for (Throwable current = failure; current != null; current = current.getCause()) {
+      if (current.getMessage() != null && current.getMessage().contains(expected)) {
+        return true;
       }
     }
+    return false;
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/ZonemapStatsTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/ZonemapStatsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5d738b01eb5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/ZonemapStatsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,318 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.index;
+
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.Fragment;
+import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
+import org.lance.FragmentOperation;
+import org.lance.WriteParams;
+import org.lance.index.scalar.ScalarIndexParams;
+import org.lance.index.scalar.ZoneStats;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
+/** Tests for {@link Dataset#getZonemapStats(String)} and the {@link ZoneStats} data class. */
+public class ZonemapStatsTest {
+
+  private static Schema intSchema() {
+    return new Schema(
+        Arrays.asList(
+            Field.nullable("id", new ArrowType.Int(32, true)),
+            Field.nullable("value", new ArrowType.Int(32, true))),
+        null);
+  }
+
+  /** Write a single fragment with sequential integer values. */
+  private Dataset writeIntFragment(
+      BufferAllocator allocator, String path, long version, int startValue, int rowCount) {
+    Schema schema = intSchema();
+    List<FragmentMetadata> metas;
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
+      root.allocateNew();
+      IntVector idVec = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+      IntVector valVec = (IntVector) root.getVector("value");
+      for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+        idVec.setSafe(i, startValue + i);
+        valVec.setSafe(i, (startValue + i) * 10);
+      }
+      root.setRowCount(rowCount);
+      metas = Fragment.create(path, allocator, root, new WriteParams.Builder().build());
+    }
+    FragmentOperation.Append appendOp = new FragmentOperation.Append(metas);
+    return Dataset.commit(allocator, path, appendOp, Optional.of(version));
+  }
+
+  // -------------------------------------------------------
+  // ZoneStats data class tests
+  // -------------------------------------------------------
+
+  @Test
+  public void testZoneStatsGetters() {
+    ZoneStats stats = new ZoneStats(3, 100, 50, 10L, 99L, 5);
+    assertEquals(3, stats.getFragmentId());
+    assertEquals(100, stats.getZoneStart());
+    assertEquals(50, stats.getZoneLength());
+    assertEquals(10L, stats.getMin());
+    assertEquals(99L, stats.getMax());
+    assertEquals(5, stats.getNullCount());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testZoneStatsNullMinMax() {
+    ZoneStats stats = new ZoneStats(0, 0, 10, null, null, 10);
+    assertNull(stats.getMin());
+    assertNull(stats.getMax());
+    assertEquals(10, stats.getNullCount());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testZoneStatsToString() {
+    ZoneStats stats = new ZoneStats(1, 0, 100, 0L, 99L, 0);
+    String str = stats.toString();
+    assertTrue(str.contains("fragmentId=1"));
+    assertTrue(str.contains("min=0"));
+    assertTrue(str.contains("max=99"));
+  }
+
+  // -------------------------------------------------------
+  // getZonemapStats integration tests
+  // -------------------------------------------------------
+
+  @Test
+  public void testGetZonemapStatsNoIndex(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("no_index").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      try (Dataset dataset =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, path, intSchema(), new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+        List<ZoneStats> stats = dataset.getZonemapStats("id");
+        assertNotNull(stats);
+        assertTrue(stats.isEmpty());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testGetZonemapStatsNonexistentColumn(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("bad_col").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      try (Dataset dataset =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, path, intSchema(), new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dataset.getZonemapStats("nonexistent"));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testGetZonemapStatsWithData(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("with_data").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      try (Dataset ds =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, path, intSchema(), new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+        // empty
+      }
+      Dataset ds2 = writeIntFragment(allocator, path, 1, 0, 100);
+      ds2.close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(path, allocator)) {
+        ScalarIndexParams params = ScalarIndexParams.create("zonemap", "{}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(params).build();
+        dataset.createIndex(
+            Collections.singletonList("value"),
+            IndexType.ZONEMAP,
+            Optional.of("value_zm"),
+            indexParams,
+            true);
+
+        List<ZoneStats> stats = dataset.getZonemapStats("value");
+        assertNotNull(stats);
+        assertFalse(stats.isEmpty());
+
+        for (ZoneStats z : stats) {
+          assertEquals(0, z.getFragmentId());
+          assertNotNull(z.getMin());
+          assertNotNull(z.getMax());
+          assertTrue(z.getZoneLength() > 0);
+        }
+
+        ZoneStats first = stats.get(0);
+        assertTrue(
+            ((Number) first.getMin()).longValue() <= 0,
+            "First zone min should be <= 0, got: " + first.getMin());
+
+        ZoneStats last = stats.get(stats.size() - 1);
+        assertTrue(
+            ((Number) last.getMax()).longValue() >= 990,
+            "Last zone max should be >= 990, got: " + last.getMax());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testGetZonemapStatsMultiFragment(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("multi_frag").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      try (Dataset ds =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, path, intSchema(), new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+        // empty
+      }
+      Dataset ds2 = writeIntFragment(allocator, path, 1, 0, 50);
+      ds2.close();
+      Dataset ds3 = writeIntFragment(allocator, path, 2, 50, 50);
+      ds3.close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(path, allocator)) {
+        assertEquals(2, dataset.getFragments().size());
+
+        ScalarIndexParams params = ScalarIndexParams.create("zonemap", "{}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(params).build();
+        dataset.createIndex(
+            Collections.singletonList("value"),
+            IndexType.ZONEMAP,
+            Optional.of("value_zm"),
+            indexParams,
+            true);
+
+        List<ZoneStats> stats = dataset.getZonemapStats("value");
+        assertNotNull(stats);
+        assertFalse(stats.isEmpty());
+
+        Set<Integer> fragmentIds = new HashSet<>();
+        for (ZoneStats z : stats) {
+          fragmentIds.add(z.getFragmentId());
+        }
+        assertEquals(2, fragmentIds.size(), "Expected zones from 2 fragments, got: " + fragmentIds);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testGetZonemapStatsCommittedSegments(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("segmented_zonemap_stats").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      try (Dataset ds =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, path, intSchema(), new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+        // empty
+      }
+      Dataset ds2 = writeIntFragment(allocator, path, 1, 0, 50);
+      ds2.close();
+      Dataset ds3 = writeIntFragment(allocator, path, 2, 50, 50);
+      ds3.close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(path, allocator)) {
+        List<Fragment> fragments = dataset.getFragments();
+        assertEquals(2, fragments.size());
+
+        ScalarIndexParams params = ScalarIndexParams.create("zonemap", "{}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(params).build();
+
+        Index firstSegment =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                IndexOptions.builder(
+                        Collections.singletonList("value"), IndexType.ZONEMAP, indexParams)
+                    .withIndexName("value_zm")
+                    .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(0).getId()))
+                    .build());
+        Index secondSegment =
+            dataset.createIndex(
+                IndexOptions.builder(
+                        Collections.singletonList("value"), IndexType.ZONEMAP, indexParams)
+                    .withIndexName("value_zm")
+                    .withFragmentIds(Collections.singletonList(fragments.get(1).getId()))
+                    .build());
+
+        dataset.commitExistingIndexSegments(
+            "value_zm", "value", List.of(firstSegment, secondSegment));
+
+        List<ZoneStats> stats = dataset.getZonemapStats("value");
+        assertNotNull(stats);
+        assertFalse(stats.isEmpty());
+
+        Set<Integer> fragmentIds = new HashSet<>();
+        for (ZoneStats z : stats) {
+          fragmentIds.add(z.getFragmentId());
+        }
+        assertEquals(2, fragmentIds.size(), "Expected zones from 2 committed segments");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testGetZonemapStatsWrongColumnReturnsEmpty(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("wrong_col").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      try (Dataset ds =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, path, intSchema(), new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+        // empty
+      }
+      Dataset ds2 = writeIntFragment(allocator, path, 1, 0, 100);
+      ds2.close();
+
+      try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.open(path, allocator)) {
+        ScalarIndexParams params = ScalarIndexParams.create("zonemap", "{}");
+        IndexParams indexParams = IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(params).build();
+        dataset.createIndex(
+            Collections.singletonList("value"),
+            IndexType.ZONEMAP,
+            Optional.of("value_zm"),
+            indexParams,
+            true);
+
+        List<ZoneStats> stats = dataset.getZonemapStats("id");
+        assertNotNull(stats);
+        assertTrue(stats.isEmpty(), "Expected empty for non-indexed column");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testGetZonemapStatsNullArgument(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("null_arg").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      try (Dataset dataset =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, path, intSchema(), new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dataset.getZonemapStats(null));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void testGetZonemapStatsEmptyArgument(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("empty_arg").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      try (Dataset dataset =
+          Dataset.create(allocator, path, intSchema(), new WriteParams.Builder().build())) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dataset.getZonemapStats(""));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/scalar/InvertedIndexParamsTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/scalar/InvertedIndexParamsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..59ef98db9e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/index/scalar/InvertedIndexParamsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,165 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.index.scalar;
+
+import org.lance.DocumentGranularity;
+import org.lance.util.JsonUtils;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+class InvertedIndexParamsTest {
+
+  @Test
+  void testIcuSplitTokenizerVariant() {
+    ScalarIndexParams params = InvertedIndexParams.builder().baseTokenizer("icu/split").build();
+
+    assertEquals("inverted", params.getIndexType());
+    String jsonParams = params.getJsonParams().orElseThrow(AssertionError::new);
+    assertTrue(jsonParams.contains("\"base_tokenizer\":\"icu/split\""));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void defaultBlockSizeIsSerialized() {
+    ScalarIndexParams params = InvertedIndexParams.builder().build();
+
+    Map<String, Object> json = JsonUtils.fromJson(params.getJsonParams().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals(128, ((Number) json.get("block_size")).intValue());
+    assertEquals("row", json.get("document_granularity"));
+    assertEquals(40, ((Number) json.get("max_token_length")).intValue());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void documentGranularityIsSerialized() {
+    ScalarIndexParams params =
+        InvertedIndexParams.builder().documentGranularity(DocumentGranularity.LIST_ELEMENT).build();
+
+    Map<String, Object> json = JsonUtils.fromJson(params.getJsonParams().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals("list_element", json.get("document_granularity"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void blockSizeIsSerialized() {
+    ScalarIndexParams params = InvertedIndexParams.builder().blockSize(128).build();
+
+    assertEquals("inverted", params.getIndexType());
+    Map<String, Object> json = JsonUtils.fromJson(params.getJsonParams().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals(128, ((Number) json.get("block_size")).intValue());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void invalidBlockSizeIsRejected() {
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InvertedIndexParams.builder().blockSize(129));
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InvertedIndexParams.builder().blockSize(512));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void formatVersionThreeSupportsBothBlockSizes() {
+    for (int blockSize : new int[] {128, 256}) {
+      ScalarIndexParams params =
+          InvertedIndexParams.builder().blockSize(blockSize).formatVersion(3).build();
+      Map<String, Object> json = JsonUtils.fromJson(params.getJsonParams().orElseThrow());
+      assertEquals(blockSize, ((Number) json.get("block_size")).intValue());
+      assertEquals(3, ((Number) json.get("format_version")).intValue());
+    }
+
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> InvertedIndexParams.builder().blockSize(256).formatVersion(2).build());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void formatVersionFourIsRejected() {
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InvertedIndexParams.builder().formatVersion(4));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void codeAnalyzerRequiresFormatVersionThreeWhenExplicit() {
+    ScalarIndexParams params =
+        InvertedIndexParams.builder().baseTokenizer("code").formatVersion(3).build();
+    Map<String, Object> json = JsonUtils.fromJson(params.getJsonParams().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals(3, ((Number) json.get("format_version")).intValue());
+
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> InvertedIndexParams.builder().baseTokenizer("code").formatVersion(2).build());
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> InvertedIndexParams.builder().analyzer("code").formatVersion(1).build());
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class,
+        () -> InvertedIndexParams.builder().analyzer("code").formatVersion(2).build());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void additionalBuildParametersAreSerialized() {
+    ScalarIndexParams params =
+        InvertedIndexParams.builder()
+            .analyzer("code")
+            .lanceTokenizer("text")
+            .splitIdentifiers(true)
+            .splitOnNumerics(false)
+            .preserveOriginal(true)
+            .indexOperators(true)
+            .memoryLimit(4096)
+            .numWorkers(4)
+            .formatVersion(3)
+            .build();
+
+    Map<String, Object> json = JsonUtils.fromJson(params.getJsonParams().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals("code", json.get("analyzer"));
+    assertEquals("text", json.get("lance_tokenizer"));
+    assertEquals(true, json.get("split_identifiers"));
+    assertEquals(false, json.get("split_on_numerics"));
+    assertEquals(true, json.get("preserve_original"));
+    assertEquals(true, json.get("index_operators"));
+    assertEquals(4096L, ((Number) json.get("memory_limit")).longValue());
+    assertEquals(4, ((Number) json.get("num_workers")).intValue());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void nullMaxTokenLengthIsSerializedAsNull() {
+    ScalarIndexParams params = InvertedIndexParams.builder().maxTokenLength(null).build();
+
+    Map<String, Object> json = JsonUtils.fromJson(params.getJsonParams().orElseThrow());
+    assertTrue(json.containsKey("max_token_length"));
+    assertNull(json.get("max_token_length"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void zeroResourceParametersAreSerialized() {
+    ScalarIndexParams params = InvertedIndexParams.builder().memoryLimit(0).numWorkers(0).build();
+
+    Map<String, Object> json = JsonUtils.fromJson(params.getJsonParams().orElseThrow());
+    assertEquals(0L, ((Number) json.get("memory_limit")).longValue());
+    assertEquals(0, ((Number) json.get("num_workers")).intValue());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void negativeResourceParametersAreRejected() {
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InvertedIndexParams.builder().memoryLimit(-1));
+    assertThrows(
+        IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InvertedIndexParams.builder().numWorkers(-1));
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ipc/FullTextQueryTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ipc/FullTextQueryTest.java
index 595e99eccd8..7b6fe54784d 100755
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ipc/FullTextQueryTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ipc/FullTextQueryTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,8 @@
  */
 package org.lance.ipc;
 
+import org.lance.DocumentGranularity;
+
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 import java.util.Arrays;
@@ -39,6 +41,7 @@ void testMatchQueryDefaults() {
     assertEquals(50, q.getMaxExpansions());
     assertEquals(FullTextQuery.Operator.OR, q.getOperator());
     assertEquals(0, q.getPrefixLength());
+    assertEquals(Optional.empty(), q.getDocumentGranularity());
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -46,7 +49,14 @@ void testMatchQueryCustomParameters() {
     FullTextQuery.MatchQuery q =
         (FullTextQuery.MatchQuery)
             FullTextQuery.match(
-                "hello", "title", 2.0f, Optional.of(1), 10, FullTextQuery.Operator.AND, 3);
+                "hello",
+                "title",
+                2.0f,
+                Optional.of(1),
+                10,
+                FullTextQuery.Operator.AND,
+                3,
+                DocumentGranularity.LIST_ELEMENT);
 
     assertEquals(FullTextQuery.Type.MATCH, q.getType());
     assertEquals("hello", q.getQueryText());
@@ -56,6 +66,7 @@ void testMatchQueryCustomParameters() {
     assertEquals(10, q.getMaxExpansions());
     assertEquals(FullTextQuery.Operator.AND, q.getOperator());
     assertEquals(3, q.getPrefixLength());
+    assertEquals(Optional.of(DocumentGranularity.LIST_ELEMENT), q.getDocumentGranularity());
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -67,17 +78,20 @@ void testPhraseQueryDefaults() {
     assertEquals("exact match", q.getQueryText());
     assertEquals("content", q.getColumn());
     assertEquals(0, q.getSlop());
+    assertEquals(Optional.empty(), q.getDocumentGranularity());
   }
 
   @Test
   void testPhraseQueryCustomSlop() {
     FullTextQuery.PhraseQuery q =
-        (FullTextQuery.PhraseQuery) FullTextQuery.phrase("ordered terms", "content", 2);
+        (FullTextQuery.PhraseQuery)
+            FullTextQuery.phrase("ordered terms", "content", 2, DocumentGranularity.LIST_ELEMENT);
 
     assertEquals(FullTextQuery.Type.MATCH_PHRASE, q.getType());
     assertEquals("ordered terms", q.getQueryText());
     assertEquals("content", q.getColumn());
     assertEquals(2, q.getSlop());
+    assertEquals(Optional.of(DocumentGranularity.LIST_ELEMENT), q.getDocumentGranularity());
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -167,4 +181,257 @@ void testBooleanQuerySingleClause() {
     assertEquals(1, q.getClauses().size());
     assertEquals(FullTextQuery.Occur.SHOULD, q.getClauses().get(0).getOccur());
   }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMatchQueryEquality() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.match("hello", "body");
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.match("hello", "body");
+    assertEquals(a, b, "Two MatchQuery instances with the same fields must be equal");
+    assertEquals(
+        a.hashCode(), b.hashCode(), "Equal MatchQuery instances must have the same hashCode");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMatchQueryInequalityDifferentText() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.match("hello", "body");
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.match("world", "body");
+    assertFalse(a.equals(b), "MatchQuery instances with different queryText must not be equal");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMatchQueryInequalityDifferentColumn() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.match("hello", "body");
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.match("hello", "title");
+    assertFalse(a.equals(b), "MatchQuery instances with different column must not be equal");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMatchQueryEqualityWithOptions() {
+    FullTextQuery a =
+        FullTextQuery.match(
+            "hello", "body", 2.0f, Optional.of(1), 10, FullTextQuery.Operator.AND, 2);
+    FullTextQuery b =
+        FullTextQuery.match(
+            "hello", "body", 2.0f, Optional.of(1), 10, FullTextQuery.Operator.AND, 2);
+    assertEquals(a, b, "MatchQuery instances with all custom fields equal must be equal");
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMatchQueryInequalityDifferentFuzziness() {
+    FullTextQuery a =
+        FullTextQuery.match(
+            "hello", "body", 1.0f, Optional.of(1), 50, FullTextQuery.Operator.OR, 0);
+    FullTextQuery b =
+        FullTextQuery.match(
+            "hello", "body", 1.0f, Optional.of(2), 50, FullTextQuery.Operator.OR, 0);
+    assertFalse(a.equals(b), "MatchQuery instances with different fuzziness must not be equal");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testPhraseQueryEquality() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.phrase("hello world", "body");
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.phrase("hello world", "body");
+    assertEquals(a, b, "Two PhraseQuery instances with the same fields must be equal");
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testPhraseQueryEqualityWithSlop() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.phrase("hello world", "body", 2);
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.phrase("hello world", "body", 2);
+    assertEquals(a, b, "PhraseQuery instances with same slop must be equal");
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testPhraseQueryInequalityDifferentSlop() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.phrase("hello world", "body", 1);
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.phrase("hello world", "body", 2);
+    assertFalse(a.equals(b), "PhraseQuery instances with different slop must not be equal");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testPhraseQueryInequalityDifferentColumn() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.phrase("hello world", "body");
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.phrase("hello world", "title");
+    assertFalse(a.equals(b));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMultiMatchQueryEquality() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.multiMatch("hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"));
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.multiMatch("hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"));
+    assertEquals(a, b, "Two MultiMatchQuery instances with the same fields must be equal");
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMultiMatchQueryEqualityWithOperator() {
+    FullTextQuery a =
+        FullTextQuery.multiMatch(
+            "hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"), null, FullTextQuery.Operator.AND);
+    FullTextQuery b =
+        FullTextQuery.multiMatch(
+            "hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"), null, FullTextQuery.Operator.AND);
+    assertEquals(a, b);
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMultiMatchQueryInequalityDifferentOperator() {
+    FullTextQuery a =
+        FullTextQuery.multiMatch(
+            "hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"), null, FullTextQuery.Operator.AND);
+    FullTextQuery b =
+        FullTextQuery.multiMatch(
+            "hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"), null, FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+    assertFalse(a.equals(b), "MultiMatchQuery instances with different operator must not be equal");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMultiMatchQueryInequalityDifferentColumns() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.multiMatch("hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"));
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.multiMatch("hello", Arrays.asList("title", "content"));
+    assertFalse(a.equals(b), "MultiMatchQuery instances with different columns must not be equal");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMultiMatchQueryEqualityWithBoosts() {
+    FullTextQuery a =
+        FullTextQuery.multiMatch(
+            "hello",
+            Arrays.asList("title", "body"),
+            Arrays.asList(2.0f, 0.5f),
+            FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+    FullTextQuery b =
+        FullTextQuery.multiMatch(
+            "hello",
+            Arrays.asList("title", "body"),
+            Arrays.asList(2.0f, 0.5f),
+            FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+    assertEquals(a, b, "MultiMatchQuery instances with same boosts must be equal");
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMultiMatchQueryInequalityDifferentBoosts() {
+    FullTextQuery a =
+        FullTextQuery.multiMatch(
+            "hello",
+            Arrays.asList("title", "body"),
+            Arrays.asList(2.0f, 0.5f),
+            FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+    FullTextQuery b =
+        FullTextQuery.multiMatch(
+            "hello",
+            Arrays.asList("title", "body"),
+            Arrays.asList(1.0f, 0.5f),
+            FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+    assertFalse(a.equals(b), "MultiMatchQuery instances with different boosts must not be equal");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFieldsWithoutBoosts() {
+    FullTextQuery.CombinedFieldsQuery q =
+        (FullTextQuery.CombinedFieldsQuery)
+            FullTextQuery.combinedFields("hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"));
+
+    assertEquals(FullTextQuery.Type.COMBINED_FIELDS, q.getType());
+    assertEquals("hello", q.getQueryText());
+    assertEquals(Arrays.asList("title", "body"), q.getColumns());
+    assertFalse(q.getBoosts().isPresent());
+    assertEquals(FullTextQuery.Operator.OR, q.getOperator());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFieldsWithBoosts() {
+    FullTextQuery.CombinedFieldsQuery q =
+        (FullTextQuery.CombinedFieldsQuery)
+            FullTextQuery.combinedFields(
+                "hello",
+                Arrays.asList("title", "body"),
+                Arrays.asList(2.0f, 1.0f),
+                FullTextQuery.Operator.AND);
+
+    assertEquals(FullTextQuery.Type.COMBINED_FIELDS, q.getType());
+    assertTrue(q.getBoosts().isPresent());
+    assertEquals(2, q.getBoosts().get().size());
+    assertEquals(2.0f, q.getBoosts().get().get(0));
+    assertEquals(1.0f, q.getBoosts().get().get(1));
+    assertEquals(FullTextQuery.Operator.AND, q.getOperator());
+    assertNotNull(q.toString());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFieldsQueryEquality() {
+    FullTextQuery a = FullTextQuery.combinedFields("hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"));
+    FullTextQuery b = FullTextQuery.combinedFields("hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"));
+    assertEquals(a, b, "Two CombinedFieldsQuery instances with the same fields must be equal");
+    assertEquals(a.hashCode(), b.hashCode());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFieldsQueryInequalityDifferentOperator() {
+    FullTextQuery a =
+        FullTextQuery.combinedFields(
+            "hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"), null, FullTextQuery.Operator.AND);
+    FullTextQuery b =
+        FullTextQuery.combinedFields(
+            "hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"), null, FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+    assertFalse(
+        a.equals(b), "CombinedFieldsQuery instances with different operator must not be equal");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFieldsQueryInequalityDifferentBoosts() {
+    FullTextQuery a =
+        FullTextQuery.combinedFields(
+            "hello",
+            Arrays.asList("title", "body"),
+            Arrays.asList(2.0f, 1.0f),
+            FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+    FullTextQuery b =
+        FullTextQuery.combinedFields(
+            "hello",
+            Arrays.asList("title", "body"),
+            Arrays.asList(1.0f, 1.0f),
+            FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+    assertFalse(
+        a.equals(b), "CombinedFieldsQuery instances with different boosts must not be equal");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFieldsNotEqualMultiMatch() {
+    FullTextQuery combined = FullTextQuery.combinedFields("hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"));
+    FullTextQuery multi = FullTextQuery.multiMatch("hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"));
+    assertFalse(
+        combined.equals(multi),
+        "CombinedFieldsQuery and MultiMatchQuery must not be equal even with same fields");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFieldsBoostsDefensivelyCopied() {
+    java.util.List<Float> boosts = new java.util.ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(2.0f, 1.0f));
+    FullTextQuery.CombinedFieldsQuery q =
+        (FullTextQuery.CombinedFieldsQuery)
+            FullTextQuery.combinedFields(
+                "hello", Arrays.asList("title", "body"), boosts, FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+
+    // Mutating the caller-provided list must not change the stored query.
+    boosts.set(0, 9.0f);
+    boosts.clear();
+
+    assertTrue(q.getBoosts().isPresent());
+    assertEquals(Arrays.asList(2.0f, 1.0f), q.getBoosts().get());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDifferentSubtypesNotEqual() {
+    FullTextQuery match = FullTextQuery.match("hello", "body");
+    FullTextQuery phrase = FullTextQuery.phrase("hello", "body");
+    assertFalse(
+        match.equals(phrase),
+        "MatchQuery and PhraseQuery must not be equal even with same text/column");
+  }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ipc/LanceScannerFullTextSearchTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ipc/LanceScannerFullTextSearchTest.java
index 1c46b399195..fb3aafb0659 100755
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ipc/LanceScannerFullTextSearchTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/ipc/LanceScannerFullTextSearchTest.java
@@ -14,10 +14,12 @@
 package org.lance.ipc;
 
 import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.DocumentGranularity;
 import org.lance.WriteParams;
 import org.lance.index.IndexOptions;
 import org.lance.index.IndexParams;
 import org.lance.index.IndexType;
+import org.lance.index.scalar.InvertedIndexParams;
 import org.lance.index.scalar.ScalarIndexParams;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
@@ -39,14 +41,63 @@
 import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 class LanceScannerFullTextSearchTest {
 
   @Test
   void testMatchQuery() throws Exception {
-    runFtsQuery("memory://fts_java_match", FullTextQuery.match("hello", "doc"), 2L);
+    runFtsQuery(
+        "memory://fts_java_match",
+        FullTextQuery.match("hello", "doc", DocumentGranularity.ROW),
+        2L);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testJiebaTokenizer() throws Exception {
+    ScalarIndexParams indexParams =
+        InvertedIndexParams.builder()
+            .baseTokenizer("jieba/default")
+            .stem(false)
+            .removeStopWords(false)
+            .build();
+
+    runFtsQuery(
+        "memory://fts_java_jieba",
+        FullTextQuery.match("我们", "doc"),
+        1L,
+        Arrays.asList("我们都有光明的前途", "光明的前途"),
+        indexParams);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCodeAnalyzerBuilderCreatesIndex() throws Exception {
+    ScalarIndexParams indexParams = InvertedIndexParams.builder().analyzer("code").build();
+
+    runFtsQuery(
+        "memory://fts_java_code_analyzer",
+        FullTextQuery.match("helloWorld", "doc"),
+        1L,
+        Arrays.asList("helloWorld", "other_value"),
+        indexParams);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testExplicitListElementGranularityReachesRustRouting() {
+    RuntimeException error =
+        assertThrows(
+            RuntimeException.class,
+            () ->
+                runFtsQuery(
+                    "memory://fts_java_list_element_validation",
+                    FullTextQuery.match("hello", "doc", DocumentGranularity.LIST_ELEMENT),
+                    0L));
+    assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("requested ListElement"), error.getMessage());
+    assertTrue(error.getMessage().contains("'doc_idx' (Row)"), error.getMessage());
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -69,6 +120,48 @@ void testMultiMatch() throws Exception {
     runFtsQuery("memory://fts_java_multimatch", multiMatch, 3);
   }
 
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFields() throws Exception {
+    // "hello" appears in doc or title of every row, so all 3 match.
+    FullTextQuery combined = FullTextQuery.combinedFields("hello", Arrays.asList("doc", "title"));
+    runFtsQuery("memory://fts_java_combined", combined, 3);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFieldsAndMatchesAcrossColumns() throws Exception {
+    // Rows 0 and 1 have "hello" only in doc and "bye" only in title. With AND, only a query
+    // that treats both columns as one field can match them; multiMatch requires every term in a
+    // single column and finds nothing.
+    FullTextQuery combined =
+        FullTextQuery.combinedFields(
+            "hello bye",
+            Arrays.asList("doc", "title"),
+            Arrays.asList(2.0f, 1.0f),
+            FullTextQuery.Operator.AND);
+    runFtsQuery("memory://fts_java_combined_and", combined, 2L);
+
+    FullTextQuery multiMatch =
+        FullTextQuery.multiMatch(
+            "hello bye", Arrays.asList("doc", "title"), null, FullTextQuery.Operator.AND);
+    runFtsQuery("memory://fts_java_multimatch_and", multiMatch, 0L);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCombinedFieldsInvalidBoostPropagates() {
+    // Boost validation lives in the Rust core and must surface across the JNI boundary.
+    FullTextQuery combined =
+        FullTextQuery.combinedFields(
+            "hello",
+            Arrays.asList("doc", "title"),
+            Arrays.asList(0.5f, 1.0f),
+            FullTextQuery.Operator.OR);
+    IllegalArgumentException ex =
+        assertThrows(
+            IllegalArgumentException.class,
+            () -> runFtsQuery("memory://fts_java_combined_bad_boost", combined, 0L));
+    assertTrue(ex.getMessage().contains("combined_fields boost for column 'doc'"), ex.getMessage());
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testBooleanQuery() throws Exception {
     FullTextQuery.MatchQuery shouldMatch =
@@ -88,6 +181,25 @@ void testBooleanQuery() throws Exception {
   }
 
   private void runFtsQuery(String uri, FullTextQuery query, long expectedTotal) throws Exception {
+    ScalarIndexParams indexParams =
+        ScalarIndexParams.create(
+            "inverted",
+            "{\"base_tokenizer\":\"simple\",\"language\":\"English\",\"with_position\":true}");
+    runFtsQuery(
+        uri,
+        query,
+        expectedTotal,
+        Arrays.asList("hello world", "hello lance", "other text"),
+        indexParams);
+  }
+
+  private void runFtsQuery(
+      String uri,
+      FullTextQuery query,
+      long expectedTotal,
+      List<String> documents,
+      ScalarIndexParams scalarParams)
+      throws Exception {
 
     Schema schema =
         new Schema(
@@ -102,16 +214,13 @@ private void runFtsQuery(String uri, FullTextQuery query, long expectedTotal) th
         VarCharVector titleVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("title");
 
         docVector.allocateNew();
-        docVector.setSafe(0, "hello world".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
-        docVector.setSafe(1, "hello lance".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
-        docVector.setSafe(2, "other text".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
-
         titleVector.allocateNew();
-        titleVector.setSafe(0, "bye world".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
-        titleVector.setSafe(1, "bye lance".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
-        titleVector.setSafe(2, "say hello".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
-
-        root.setRowCount(3);
+        List<String> titles = Arrays.asList("bye world", "bye lance", "say hello");
+        for (int i = 0; i < documents.size(); i++) {
+          docVector.setSafe(i, documents.get(i).getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+          titleVector.setSafe(i, titles.get(i).getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+        }
+        root.setRowCount(documents.size());
 
         ByteArrayOutputStream out = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
         try (ArrowStreamWriter writer = new ArrowStreamWriter(root, null, out)) {
@@ -130,10 +239,6 @@ private void runFtsQuery(String uri, FullTextQuery query, long expectedTotal) th
               new WriteParams.Builder().withMode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE).build();
 
           try (Dataset dataset = Dataset.create(allocator, stream, uri, writeParams)) {
-            ScalarIndexParams scalarParams =
-                ScalarIndexParams.create(
-                    "inverted",
-                    "{\"base_tokenizer\":\"simple\",\"language\":\"English\",\"with_position\":true}");
             IndexParams indexParams =
                 IndexParams.builder().setScalarIndexParams(scalarParams).build();
 
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/memwal/MemWalTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/memwal/MemWalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2d2c82e2f71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/memwal/MemWalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,684 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.memwal;
+
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.index.DistanceType;
+import org.lance.index.IndexParams;
+import org.lance.index.IndexType;
+import org.lance.index.vector.VectorIndexParams;
+import org.lance.merge.MergeInsertParams;
+import org.lance.merge.MergeInsertResult;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.c.ArrowArrayStream;
+import org.apache.arrow.c.Data;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.BigIntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.Float4Vector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VarCharVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.complex.FixedSizeListVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamReader;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamWriter;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.FloatingPointPrecision;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.FieldType;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+
+import java.io.ByteArrayInputStream;
+import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
+import java.nio.channels.Channels;
+import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.UUID;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+/**
+ * Integration tests for the MemWAL Java bindings, mirroring python/python/tests/test_mem_wal.py.
+ */
+public class MemWalTest {
+  private static final Map<String, String> PK_META =
+      Collections.singletonMap("lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key", "true");
+
+  private static final Schema LOOKUP_SCHEMA =
+      new Schema(
+          Arrays.asList(
+              new Field(
+                  "id", new FieldType(false, new ArrowType.Int(64, true), null, PK_META), null),
+              Field.nullable("name", new ArrowType.Utf8())));
+  private static final Schema APPEND_ONLY_SCHEMA =
+      new Schema(
+          Arrays.asList(
+              new Field(
+                  "id",
+                  new FieldType(false, new ArrowType.Int(64, true), null, Collections.emptyMap()),
+                  null),
+              Field.nullable("name", new ArrowType.Utf8())));
+
+  /** Build a single-batch root where {@code name = "{prefix}_{id}"}. */
+  private static VectorSchemaRoot lookupRoot(BufferAllocator allocator, long[] ids, String prefix) {
+    VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(LOOKUP_SCHEMA, allocator);
+    BigIntVector idVector = (BigIntVector) root.getVector("id");
+    VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+    idVector.allocateNew(ids.length);
+    nameVector.allocateNew();
+    for (int i = 0; i < ids.length; i++) {
+      idVector.set(i, ids[i]);
+      nameVector.setSafe(i, (prefix + "_" + ids[i]).getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+    }
+    root.setRowCount(ids.length);
+    return root;
+  }
+
+  /** Build a single-batch root carrying only the {@code id} primary key, for deletes. */
+  private static VectorSchemaRoot keysRoot(BufferAllocator allocator, long[] ids) {
+    VectorSchemaRoot root =
+        VectorSchemaRoot.create(
+            new Schema(
+                Collections.singletonList(Field.nullable("id", new ArrowType.Int(64, true)))),
+            allocator);
+    BigIntVector idVector = (BigIntVector) root.getVector("id");
+    idVector.allocateNew(ids.length);
+    for (int i = 0; i < ids.length; i++) {
+      idVector.set(i, ids[i]);
+    }
+    root.setRowCount(ids.length);
+    return root;
+  }
+
+  /** Build a single-batch append-only root without primary-key metadata. */
+  private static VectorSchemaRoot appendOnlyRoot(
+      BufferAllocator allocator, long[] ids, String prefix) {
+    VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(APPEND_ONLY_SCHEMA, allocator);
+    BigIntVector idVector = (BigIntVector) root.getVector("id");
+    VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+    idVector.allocateNew(ids.length);
+    nameVector.allocateNew();
+    for (int i = 0; i < ids.length; i++) {
+      idVector.set(i, ids[i]);
+      nameVector.setSafe(i, (prefix + "_" + ids[i]).getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+    }
+    root.setRowCount(ids.length);
+    return root;
+  }
+
+  /** Wrap an in-memory root into an {@link ArrowReader} via the Arrow IPC stream format. */
+  private static ArrowReader toReader(BufferAllocator allocator, VectorSchemaRoot root)
+      throws Exception {
+    ByteArrayOutputStream out = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+    try (ArrowStreamWriter writer = new ArrowStreamWriter(root, null, Channels.newChannel(out))) {
+      writer.start();
+      writer.writeBatch();
+      writer.end();
+    }
+    return new ArrowStreamReader(new ByteArrayInputStream(out.toByteArray()), allocator);
+  }
+
+  /** Write a base dataset of `(id, name)` rows at {@code path}. */
+  private static Dataset writeLookupDataset(
+      BufferAllocator allocator, String path, long[] ids, String prefix) throws Exception {
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = lookupRoot(allocator, ids, prefix);
+        ArrowReader reader = toReader(allocator, root)) {
+      return Dataset.write().allocator(allocator).reader(reader).uri(path).execute();
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Write an append-only base dataset of `(id, name)` rows at {@code path}. */
+  private static Dataset writeAppendOnlyDataset(
+      BufferAllocator allocator, String path, long[] ids, String prefix) throws Exception {
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = appendOnlyRoot(allocator, ids, prefix);
+        ArrowReader reader = toReader(allocator, root)) {
+      return Dataset.write().allocator(allocator).reader(reader).uri(path).execute();
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Stage a <em>faithful</em> SSTable at {@code genPath}: the Lance dataset plus its primary-key
+   * dedup sidecar ({@code _pk_index/}), mirroring what production flush emits. The LSM scanner's
+   * cross-generation block-list opens the sidecar, so a dataset alone (no sidecar) is not a state
+   * production produces. Mirrors the Python {@code _write_sstable} test helper.
+   */
+  private static void writeSsTable(
+      BufferAllocator allocator, String genPath, long[] ids, String prefix) throws Exception {
+    writeLookupDataset(allocator, genPath, ids, prefix).close();
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = lookupRoot(allocator, ids, prefix);
+        ArrowReader reader = toReader(allocator, root);
+        ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+      Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader, stream);
+      nativeWritePkSidecar(genPath, stream.memoryAddress(), Collections.singletonList("id"));
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Test-support native: write the primary-key dedup sidecar for an SSTable dataset already staged
+   * at {@code genPath}. See {@link #writeSsTable}.
+   */
+  private static native void nativeWritePkSidecar(
+      String genPath, long streamAddress, List<String> pkColumns);
+
+  /** Read an LSM scanner fully into an {@code id -> name} map. */
+  private static Map<Long, String> readByName(ArrowReader reader) throws Exception {
+    Map<Long, String> byId = new HashMap<>();
+    while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+      VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+      BigIntVector idVector = (BigIntVector) root.getVector("id");
+      VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+      for (int i = 0; i < root.getRowCount(); i++) {
+        byId.put(idVector.get(i), new String(nameVector.get(i), StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+      }
+    }
+    return byId;
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMemWalIndexDetailsNoneBeforeInit(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("base").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeLookupDataset(allocator, path, new long[] {1, 2, 3}, "base")) {
+      assertFalse(dataset.memWalIndexDetails().isPresent());
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testInitializeMemWalUnsharded(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("base").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeLookupDataset(allocator, path, new long[] {1, 2, 3}, "base")) {
+      dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams().withUnsharded());
+
+      Optional<MemWalIndexDetails> details = dataset.memWalIndexDetails();
+      assertTrue(details.isPresent());
+      // Naming no index is how "every index the table has" is expressed, so the
+      // flag is the only thing separating it from maintaining nothing.
+      assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), details.get().maintainedIndexes());
+      assertTrue(details.get().maintainAllIndexes());
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testInitializeMemWalBucketShardingWithoutPrimaryKey(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("append_only").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeAppendOnlyDataset(allocator, path, new long[] {1, 2, 3}, "base")) {
+      dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams().withBucketSharding("id", 4));
+
+      Optional<MemWalIndexDetails> details = dataset.memWalIndexDetails();
+      assertTrue(details.isPresent());
+      assertEquals(4L, details.get().numShards());
+      ShardingField field = details.get().shardingSpecs().get(0).fields().get(0);
+      assertEquals("bucket", field.transform().get());
+      assertEquals("4", field.parameters().get("num_buckets"));
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testInitializeMemWalBucketShardingUsesConfiguredColumn(@TempDir Path tempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("base").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeLookupDataset(allocator, path, new long[] {1, 2, 3}, "base")) {
+      dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams().withBucketSharding("name", 4));
+
+      MemWalIndexDetails details = dataset.memWalIndexDetails().get();
+      ShardingField field = details.shardingSpecs().get(0).fields().get(0);
+      int nameFieldId =
+          dataset.getLanceSchema().fields().stream()
+              .filter(f -> f.getName().equals("name"))
+              .findFirst()
+              .get()
+              .getId();
+      assertEquals("bucket", field.transform().get());
+      assertEquals(nameFieldId, field.sourceIds().get(0));
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testShardingEvaluatorBucketAndIdentity(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("append_only").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeAppendOnlyDataset(allocator, path, new long[] {1}, "base")) {
+      dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams().withBucketSharding("id", 4));
+      ShardingSpec bucketSpec = dataset.memWalIndexDetails().get().shardingSpecs().get(0);
+      ShardingField bucketField = bucketSpec.fields().get(0);
+
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot root = appendOnlyRoot(allocator, new long[] {1, 2, 3}, "eval");
+          ArrowReader reader =
+              ShardingEvaluator.evaluate(allocator, root, bucketSpec, dataset.getLanceSchema())) {
+        assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
+        VectorSchemaRoot result = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+        IntVector buckets = (IntVector) result.getVector(bucketField.fieldId());
+        assertEquals(3, result.getRowCount());
+        assertEquals(0, buckets.get(0));
+        assertEquals(0, buckets.get(1));
+        assertEquals(3, buckets.get(2));
+        assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch());
+      }
+
+      int nameFieldId =
+          dataset.getLanceSchema().fields().stream()
+              .filter(f -> f.getName().equals("name"))
+              .findFirst()
+              .get()
+              .getId();
+      ShardingSpec identitySpec =
+          new ShardingSpec(
+              7,
+              Collections.singletonList(
+                  new ShardingField(
+                      "name_identity",
+                      Collections.singletonList(nameFieldId),
+                      "identity",
+                      null,
+                      "utf8",
+                      Collections.emptyMap())));
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot root = appendOnlyRoot(allocator, new long[] {1}, "eval");
+          ArrowReader reader =
+              ShardingEvaluator.evaluate(allocator, root, identitySpec, dataset.getLanceSchema())) {
+        assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
+        VarCharVector names =
+            (VarCharVector) reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getVector("name_identity");
+        assertEquals("eval_1", new String(names.get(0), StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+        assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch());
+      }
+
+      Map<String, String> stringBucketParameters = new HashMap<>();
+      stringBucketParameters.put("column", "key");
+      stringBucketParameters.put("num_buckets", "8");
+      ShardingSpec stringBucketSpec =
+          new ShardingSpec(
+              8,
+              Collections.singletonList(
+                  new ShardingField(
+                      "key_bucket",
+                      Collections.emptyList(),
+                      "bucket",
+                      null,
+                      "int32",
+                      stringBucketParameters)));
+      Schema stringSchema =
+          new Schema(Collections.singletonList(Field.nullable("key", new ArrowType.Utf8())));
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(stringSchema, allocator)) {
+        VarCharVector keyVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("key");
+        keyVector.allocateNew();
+        keyVector.setSafe(0, "a".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+        keyVector.setSafe(1, "b".getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+        keyVector.setNull(2);
+        root.setRowCount(3);
+        try (ArrowReader reader = ShardingEvaluator.evaluate(allocator, root, stringBucketSpec)) {
+          assertTrue(reader.loadNextBatch());
+          IntVector buckets = (IntVector) reader.getVectorSchemaRoot().getVector("key_bucket");
+          assertEquals(1, buckets.get(0));
+          assertEquals(5, buckets.get(1));
+          assertEquals(0, buckets.get(2));
+          assertFalse(reader.loadNextBatch());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testInitializeMemWalRejectsConflictingSharding(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("base").toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeLookupDataset(allocator, path, new long[] {1}, "base")) {
+      InitializeMemWalParams params =
+          new InitializeMemWalParams().withUnsharded().withBucketSharding("id", 4);
+      assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dataset.initializeMemWal(params));
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testShardWriterPutAndLsmScanner(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("base").toString();
+    String shardId = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeLookupDataset(allocator, path, new long[] {0}, "base")) {
+      dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams());
+
+      ShardWriterConfig config =
+          new ShardWriterConfig()
+              .withDurableWrite(true)
+              .withMaxWalBufferSize(1)
+              .withMaxWalFlushIntervalMs(10)
+              .withMaxMemtableBatches(1);
+
+      try (ShardWriter writer = dataset.memWalWriter(shardId, config)) {
+        assertEquals(shardId, writer.shardId());
+
+        try (VectorSchemaRoot root = lookupRoot(allocator, new long[] {1, 2}, "writer");
+            ArrowReader reader = toReader(allocator, root)) {
+          writer.put(reader);
+        }
+
+        Map<Long, String> byId = Collections.emptyMap();
+        long deadline = System.currentTimeMillis() + 10_000;
+        while (System.currentTimeMillis() < deadline) {
+          try (LsmScanner scanner = writer.lsmScanner();
+              ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            byId = readByName(reader);
+          }
+          if ("writer_1".equals(byId.get(1L)) && "writer_2".equals(byId.get(2L))) {
+            break;
+          }
+          Thread.sleep(50);
+        }
+        assertEquals("writer_1", byId.get(1L), "writer.lsmScanner() must see written rows");
+        assertEquals("writer_2", byId.get(2L), "writer.lsmScanner() must see written rows");
+
+        WriteStats stats = writer.stats();
+        assertEquals(1, stats.putCount());
+
+        MemTableStats memtableStats = writer.memtableStats();
+        assertTrue(memtableStats.generation() >= 0);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testShardWriterDeleteMasksBaseRow(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("base").toString();
+    String shardId = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeLookupDataset(allocator, path, new long[] {1, 2, 3}, "base")) {
+      dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams());
+
+      ShardWriterConfig config =
+          new ShardWriterConfig()
+              .withDurableWrite(true)
+              .withMaxWalBufferSize(1)
+              .withMaxWalFlushIntervalMs(10);
+
+      try (ShardWriter writer = dataset.memWalWriter(shardId, config)) {
+        try (VectorSchemaRoot root = lookupRoot(allocator, new long[] {4}, "writer");
+            ArrowReader reader = toReader(allocator, root)) {
+          writer.put(reader);
+        }
+        try (VectorSchemaRoot keys = keysRoot(allocator, new long[] {2});
+            ArrowReader reader = toReader(allocator, keys)) {
+          writer.delete(reader);
+        }
+
+        Map<Long, String> byId = Collections.emptyMap();
+        long deadline = System.currentTimeMillis() + 10_000;
+        while (System.currentTimeMillis() < deadline) {
+          try (LsmScanner scanner = writer.lsmScanner();
+              ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+            byId = readByName(reader);
+          }
+          if (!byId.containsKey(2L) && "writer_4".equals(byId.get(4L))) {
+            break;
+          }
+          Thread.sleep(50);
+        }
+
+        assertEquals("base_1", byId.get(1L));
+        assertFalse(byId.containsKey(2L), "deleted base row should be masked by the tombstone");
+        assertEquals("base_3", byId.get(3L));
+        assertEquals("writer_4", byId.get(4L));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testLsmScannerFromSnapshots(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String basePath = tempDir.resolve("base").toString();
+    String shardId = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeLookupDataset(allocator, basePath, new long[] {1, 2, 3}, "base")) {
+      dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams());
+
+      // SSTable overwrites id=2.
+      String genPath = basePath + "/_mem_wal/" + shardId + "/gen_1";
+      writeSsTable(allocator, genPath, new long[] {2}, "gen1");
+
+      ShardSnapshot snapshot =
+          new ShardSnapshot(shardId).withSsTable(1, "gen_1").withCurrentGeneration(2);
+
+      try (LsmScanner scanner =
+              LsmScanner.fromSnapshots(dataset, Collections.singletonList(snapshot));
+          ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+        Map<Long, String> byId = readByName(reader);
+        assertEquals(3, byId.size(), "Expected 3 deduplicated rows");
+        assertEquals("base_1", byId.get(1L));
+        assertEquals("gen1_2", byId.get(2L), "SSTable must win over base");
+        assertEquals("base_3", byId.get(3L));
+      }
+
+      try (LsmScanner scanner =
+              LsmScanner.fromSnapshots(dataset, Collections.singletonList(snapshot))
+                  .limit(Optional.empty(), Optional.of(1L));
+          ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+        Map<Long, String> byId = readByName(reader);
+        assertEquals(2, byId.size(), "Offset-only LSM scan should not require a limit");
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testPointLookup(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String basePath = tempDir.resolve("base").toString();
+    String shardId = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator();
+        Dataset dataset = writeLookupDataset(allocator, basePath, new long[] {1, 2, 3}, "base")) {
+      dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams());
+
+      String genPath = basePath + "/_mem_wal/" + shardId + "/gen_1";
+      writeSsTable(allocator, genPath, new long[] {2}, "gen1");
+
+      ShardSnapshot snapshot =
+          new ShardSnapshot(shardId).withSsTable(1, "gen_1").withCurrentGeneration(2);
+
+      try (LsmPointLookupPlanner planner =
+          new LsmPointLookupPlanner(dataset, Collections.singletonList(snapshot))) {
+        // id=2 must resolve to the SSTable value.
+        assertEquals("gen1_2", lookup(planner, allocator, 2L));
+        // id=1 only exists in the base table.
+        assertEquals("base_1", lookup(planner, allocator, 1L));
+        // id=99 does not exist.
+        assertEquals(null, lookup(planner, allocator, 99L));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Run a single-key point lookup and return the resolved name, or {@code null} if absent. */
+  private static String lookup(LsmPointLookupPlanner planner, BufferAllocator allocator, long id)
+      throws Exception {
+    try (BigIntVector pkVector = new BigIntVector("id", allocator)) {
+      pkVector.allocateNew(1);
+      pkVector.set(0, id);
+      pkVector.setValueCount(1);
+      try (ExecutionPlan plan = planner.planLookup(pkVector);
+          ArrowReader reader = plan.toReader()) {
+        Map<Long, String> byId = readByName(reader);
+        return byId.get(id);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMergeInsertMarkSstablesAsCompacted(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("base").toString();
+    String shardId = UUID.randomUUID().toString();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      Dataset dataset = writeLookupDataset(allocator, path, new long[] {1, 2, 3}, "base");
+      try {
+        dataset.initializeMemWal(new InitializeMemWalParams());
+
+        MergeInsertParams params =
+            new MergeInsertParams(Collections.singletonList("id"))
+                .withMatchedUpdateAll()
+                .withNotMatched(MergeInsertParams.WhenNotMatched.InsertAll)
+                .markSstablesAsCompacted(
+                    Collections.singletonList(new CompactedSsTable(shardId, 1)));
+
+        try (VectorSchemaRoot root = lookupRoot(allocator, new long[] {2, 4}, "merged");
+            ArrowReader reader = toReader(allocator, root);
+            ArrowArrayStream stream = ArrowArrayStream.allocateNew(allocator)) {
+          Data.exportArrayStream(allocator, reader, stream);
+          MergeInsertResult result = dataset.mergeInsert(params, stream);
+          Dataset merged = result.dataset();
+          try {
+            assertEquals(4, merged.countRows(), "merge insert should yield 4 rows");
+          } finally {
+            merged.close();
+          }
+        }
+      } finally {
+        dataset.close();
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static final int VDIM = 32;
+
+  private static Schema vectorSchema() {
+    Field idField =
+        new Field("id", new FieldType(false, new ArrowType.Int(32, true), null, PK_META), null);
+    Field vecField =
+        new Field(
+            "vec",
+            FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.FixedSizeList(VDIM)),
+            Collections.singletonList(
+                new Field(
+                    "item",
+                    FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.FloatingPoint(FloatingPointPrecision.SINGLE)),
+                    null)));
+    return new Schema(Arrays.asList(idField, vecField));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testVectorSearch(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String path = tempDir.resolve("vec").toString();
+    int rows = 400;
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      Schema schema = vectorSchema();
+      Dataset dataset;
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
+        IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+        FixedSizeListVector vecVector = (FixedSizeListVector) root.getVector("vec");
+        Float4Vector items = (Float4Vector) vecVector.getDataVector();
+        idVector.allocateNew(rows);
+        vecVector.allocateNew();
+        for (int i = 0; i < rows; i++) {
+          idVector.set(i, i);
+          vecVector.setNotNull(i);
+          for (int d = 0; d < VDIM; d++) {
+            items.setSafe(i * VDIM + d, (float) (i * VDIM + d));
+          }
+        }
+        root.setRowCount(rows);
+        try (ArrowReader reader = toReader(allocator, root)) {
+          dataset = Dataset.write().allocator(allocator).reader(reader).uri(path).execute();
+        }
+      }
+
+      try {
+        IndexParams params =
+            IndexParams.builder()
+                .setVectorIndexParams(VectorIndexParams.ivfPq(2, 8, 2, DistanceType.L2, 2))
+                .build();
+        dataset.createIndex(
+            Collections.singletonList("vec"),
+            IndexType.VECTOR,
+            Optional.of("vec_idx"),
+            params,
+            true);
+        dataset.initializeMemWal(
+            new InitializeMemWalParams()
+                .withMaintainedIndexes(Collections.singletonList("vec_idx")));
+
+        try (LsmVectorSearchPlanner planner =
+            new LsmVectorSearchPlanner(dataset, Collections.emptyList(), "vec")) {
+          int[] queryIds = {10, 50, 100, 200, 300, 350};
+          int found = 0;
+          for (int queryId : queryIds) {
+            try (Float4Vector query = new Float4Vector("q", allocator)) {
+              query.allocateNew(VDIM);
+              for (int d = 0; d < VDIM; d++) {
+                query.set(d, (float) (queryId * VDIM + d));
+              }
+              query.setValueCount(VDIM);
+              try (ExecutionPlan plan = planner.planSearch(query, 10);
+                  ArrowReader reader = plan.toReader()) {
+                while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+                  VectorSchemaRoot result = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                  IntVector ids = (IntVector) result.getVector("id");
+                  for (int i = 0; i < result.getRowCount(); i++) {
+                    if (ids.get(i) == queryId) {
+                      found++;
+                    }
+                  }
+                }
+              }
+            }
+          }
+          double recall = (double) found / queryIds.length;
+          assertTrue(recall >= 0.5, "vector search recall too low: " + recall);
+        }
+
+        try (LsmVectorSearchPlanner planner =
+                new LsmVectorSearchPlanner(
+                    dataset, Collections.emptyList(), "vec", null, null, "id >= 200");
+            Float4Vector query = new Float4Vector("q", allocator)) {
+          int filteredQueryId = 250;
+          query.allocateNew(VDIM);
+          for (int d = 0; d < VDIM; d++) {
+            query.set(d, (float) (filteredQueryId * VDIM + d));
+          }
+          query.setValueCount(VDIM);
+
+          int filteredRows = 0;
+          boolean foundFilteredNearest = false;
+          try (ExecutionPlan plan =
+                  planner.planSearch(query, 20, 2, Collections.singletonList("id"), false);
+              ArrowReader reader = plan.toReader()) {
+            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+              VectorSchemaRoot result = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              IntVector ids = (IntVector) result.getVector("id");
+              for (int i = 0; i < result.getRowCount(); i++) {
+                int id = ids.get(i);
+                assertTrue(id >= 200, "filtered vector search returned id " + id);
+                if (id == filteredQueryId) {
+                  foundFilteredNearest = true;
+                }
+                filteredRows++;
+              }
+            }
+          }
+          assertTrue(filteredRows > 0, "filtered vector search should return rows");
+          assertTrue(
+              foundFilteredNearest, "filtered vector search recall missed id " + filteredQueryId);
+        }
+      } finally {
+        dataset.close();
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/CustomNamespace.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/CustomNamespace.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1d353756695
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/CustomNamespace.java
@@ -0,0 +1,422 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.namespace;
+
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAddColumnsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAddColumnsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableDropColumnsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTableDropColumnsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTransactionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AlterTransactionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchCommitTablesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchCommitTablesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchCreateTableVersionsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchCreateTableVersionsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CountTableRowsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CountTableRowsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableIndexRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableScalarIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableTagRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableTagResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteFromTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteFromTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteTableTagRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeleteTableTagResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeregisterTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeregisterTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTransactionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTransactionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableIndexRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableStatsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableStatsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableTagVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.GetTableTagVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.InsertIntoTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.InsertIntoTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableIndicesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableIndicesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableTagsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableTagsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableVersionsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableVersionsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.MergeInsertIntoTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.MergeInsertIntoTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.NamespaceExistsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.NamespaceExistsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.QueryTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.QueryTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RegisterTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RegisterTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RenameTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RenameTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RestoreTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RestoreTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.TableExistsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.TableExistsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableTagRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.UpdateTableTagResponse;
+
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
+
+import java.io.Closeable;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * A custom namespace wrapper that delegates all operations to an inner DirectoryNamespace.
+ *
+ * <p>This class is used for testing to verify that the Java-Rust binding works correctly for custom
+ * namespace implementations that wrap DirectoryNamespace.
+ */
+public class CustomNamespace implements LanceNamespace, Closeable {
+  private final DirectoryNamespace inner;
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a CustomNamespace wrapping the given DirectoryNamespace.
+   *
+   * @param inner The DirectoryNamespace to wrap
+   */
+  public CustomNamespace(DirectoryNamespace inner) {
+    this.inner = inner;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Gets the wrapped DirectoryNamespace for metrics retrieval.
+   *
+   * @return The inner DirectoryNamespace
+   */
+  public DirectoryNamespace getInner() {
+    return inner;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Gets the native handle from the inner namespace. This is required for the JNI layer to work
+   * correctly with wrapped namespaces.
+   *
+   * @return The native handle
+   */
+  public long getNativeHandle() {
+    return inner.getNativeHandle();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void initialize(Map<String, String> configProperties, BufferAllocator allocator) {
+    // Already initialized in constructor via inner namespace
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String namespaceId() {
+    return "CustomNamespace[" + inner.namespaceId() + "]";
+  }
+
+  // Namespace operations
+
+  @Override
+  public ListNamespacesResponse listNamespaces(ListNamespacesRequest request) {
+    return inner.listNamespaces(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DescribeNamespaceResponse describeNamespace(DescribeNamespaceRequest request) {
+    return inner.describeNamespace(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateNamespaceResponse createNamespace(CreateNamespaceRequest request) {
+    return inner.createNamespace(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DropNamespaceResponse dropNamespace(DropNamespaceRequest request) {
+    return inner.dropNamespace(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public NamespaceExistsResponse namespaceExists(NamespaceExistsRequest request) {
+    return inner.namespaceExists(request);
+  }
+
+  // Table operations
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTablesResponse listTables(ListTablesRequest request) {
+    return inner.listTables(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DescribeTableResponse describeTable(DescribeTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.describeTable(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public RegisterTableResponse registerTable(RegisterTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.registerTable(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public TableExistsResponse tableExists(TableExistsRequest request) {
+    return inner.tableExists(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DropTableResponse dropTable(DropTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.dropTable(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DeregisterTableResponse deregisterTable(DeregisterTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.deregisterTable(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CountTableRowsResponse countTableRows(CountTableRowsRequest request) {
+    return inner.countTableRows(request);
+  }
+
+  // Data operations
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableResponse createTable(CreateTableRequest request, byte[] requestData) {
+    return inner.createTable(request, requestData);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DeclareTableResponse declareTable(DeclareTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.declareTable(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public InsertIntoTableResponse insertIntoTable(
+      InsertIntoTableRequest request, byte[] requestData) {
+    return inner.insertIntoTable(request, requestData);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public MergeInsertIntoTableResponse mergeInsertIntoTable(
+      MergeInsertIntoTableRequest request, byte[] requestData) {
+    return inner.mergeInsertIntoTable(request, requestData);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public UpdateTableResponse updateTable(UpdateTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.updateTable(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DeleteFromTableResponse deleteFromTable(DeleteFromTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.deleteFromTable(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public QueryTableResponse queryTable(QueryTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.queryTable(request);
+  }
+
+  // Index operations
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableIndexResponse createTableIndex(CreateTableIndexRequest request) {
+    return inner.createTableIndex(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableScalarIndexResponse createTableScalarIndex(CreateTableIndexRequest request) {
+    return inner.createTableScalarIndex(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTableIndicesResponse listTableIndices(ListTableIndicesRequest request) {
+    return inner.listTableIndices(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse describeTableIndexStats(
+      DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest request, String indexName) {
+    return inner.describeTableIndexStats(request, indexName);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DropTableIndexResponse dropTableIndex(DropTableIndexRequest request, String indexName) {
+    return inner.dropTableIndex(request, indexName);
+  }
+
+  // Table version and schema operations
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTablesResponse listAllTables(ListTablesRequest request) {
+    return inner.listAllTables(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public RestoreTableResponse restoreTable(RestoreTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.restoreTable(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public RenameTableResponse renameTable(RenameTableRequest request) {
+    return inner.renameTable(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTableVersionsResponse listTableVersions(ListTableVersionsRequest request) {
+    return inner.listTableVersions(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableVersionResponse createTableVersion(CreateTableVersionRequest request) {
+    return inner.createTableVersion(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DescribeTableVersionResponse describeTableVersion(DescribeTableVersionRequest request) {
+    return inner.describeTableVersion(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse batchDeleteTableVersions(
+      BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest request) {
+    return inner.batchDeleteTableVersions(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public BatchCreateTableVersionsResponse batchCreateTableVersions(
+      BatchCreateTableVersionsRequest request) {
+    return inner.batchCreateTableVersions(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public BatchCommitTablesResponse batchCommitTables(BatchCommitTablesRequest request) {
+    return inner.batchCommitTables(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse updateTableSchemaMetadata(
+      UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest request) {
+    return inner.updateTableSchemaMetadata(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public GetTableStatsResponse getTableStats(GetTableStatsRequest request) {
+    return inner.getTableStats(request);
+  }
+
+  // Query plan operations
+
+  @Override
+  public String explainTableQueryPlan(ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest request) {
+    return inner.explainTableQueryPlan(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public String analyzeTableQueryPlan(AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest request) {
+    return inner.analyzeTableQueryPlan(request);
+  }
+
+  // Column operations
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTableAddColumnsResponse alterTableAddColumns(AlterTableAddColumnsRequest request) {
+    return inner.alterTableAddColumns(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse alterTableAlterColumns(
+      AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest request) {
+    return inner.alterTableAlterColumns(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTableDropColumnsResponse alterTableDropColumns(AlterTableDropColumnsRequest request) {
+    return inner.alterTableDropColumns(request);
+  }
+
+  // Tag operations
+
+  @Override
+  public ListTableTagsResponse listTableTags(ListTableTagsRequest request) {
+    return inner.listTableTags(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public GetTableTagVersionResponse getTableTagVersion(GetTableTagVersionRequest request) {
+    return inner.getTableTagVersion(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public CreateTableTagResponse createTableTag(CreateTableTagRequest request) {
+    return inner.createTableTag(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public DeleteTableTagResponse deleteTableTag(DeleteTableTagRequest request) {
+    return inner.deleteTableTag(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public UpdateTableTagResponse updateTableTag(UpdateTableTagRequest request) {
+    return inner.updateTableTag(request);
+  }
+
+  // Transaction operations
+
+  @Override
+  public DescribeTransactionResponse describeTransaction(DescribeTransactionRequest request) {
+    return inner.describeTransaction(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public AlterTransactionResponse alterTransaction(AlterTransactionRequest request) {
+    return inner.alterTransaction(request);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void close() {
+    inner.close();
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/CustomNamespaceTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/CustomNamespaceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..fd13747662f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/CustomNamespaceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.namespace;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
+/**
+ * Tests for CustomNamespace implementation that wraps DirectoryNamespace.
+ *
+ * <p>This test class extends DirectoryNamespaceTest to verify that all tests pass when using a
+ * CustomNamespace wrapper around DirectoryNamespace. This validates that the Java-Rust binding
+ * works correctly for custom namespace implementations.
+ */
+public class CustomNamespaceTest extends DirectoryNamespaceTest {
+
+  @Override
+  protected LanceNamespace wrapNamespace(DirectoryNamespace inner) {
+    return new CustomNamespace(inner);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCustomNamespaceId() {
+    String namespaceId = namespaceClient.namespaceId();
+    assertNotNull(namespaceId);
+    assertTrue(
+        namespaceId.startsWith("CustomNamespace["),
+        "namespaceId should start with 'CustomNamespace[', got: " + namespaceId);
+    assertTrue(
+        namespaceId.contains("DirectoryNamespace"),
+        "namespaceId should contain 'DirectoryNamespace', got: " + namespaceId);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCustomNamespaceInnerAccess() {
+    assertTrue(
+        namespaceClient instanceof CustomNamespace, "namespaceClient should be a CustomNamespace");
+    CustomNamespace customNs = (CustomNamespace) namespaceClient;
+    assertNotNull(customNs.getInner(), "inner namespace should not be null");
+    assertSame(
+        innerNamespaceClient, customNs.getInner(), "inner namespace should be the same instance");
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/DirectoryNamespaceTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/DirectoryNamespaceTest.java
index 7d6c4741ad8..107205e88b3 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/DirectoryNamespaceTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/DirectoryNamespaceTest.java
@@ -13,13 +13,61 @@
  */
 package org.lance.namespace;
 
-import org.lance.namespace.model.*;
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.Fragment;
+import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
+import org.lance.ReadOptions;
+import org.lance.Ref;
+import org.lance.Transaction;
+import org.lance.WriteParams;
+import org.lance.namespace.errors.ErrorCode;
+import org.lance.namespace.errors.LanceNamespaceException;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CountTableRowsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableIndexRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableIndexResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeclareTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeregisterTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DeregisterTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableVersionRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableVersionResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.InsertIntoTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.InsertIntoTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableIndicesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableIndicesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableVersionsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTableVersionsResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.NamespaceExistsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.QueryTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.QueryTableRequestVector;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RegisterTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.RegisterTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.TableExistsRequest;
+import org.lance.operation.Append;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VarCharVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowStreamWriter;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
@@ -32,9 +80,17 @@
 
 import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.concurrent.CountDownLatch;
+import java.util.concurrent.ExecutorService;
+import java.util.concurrent.Executors;
+import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
 
@@ -42,23 +98,40 @@
 public class DirectoryNamespaceTest {
   @TempDir Path tempDir;
 
-  private BufferAllocator allocator;
-  private DirectoryNamespace namespace;
+  protected BufferAllocator allocator;
+  protected LanceNamespace namespaceClient;
+  protected DirectoryNamespace innerNamespaceClient;
 
   @BeforeEach
   void setUp() {
     allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE);
-    namespace = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    innerNamespaceClient = new DirectoryNamespace();
 
     Map<String, String> config = new HashMap<>();
     config.put("root", tempDir.toString());
-    namespace.initialize(config, allocator);
+    innerNamespaceClient.initialize(config, allocator);
+    namespaceClient = wrapNamespace(innerNamespaceClient);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Factory method to wrap the DirectoryNamespace. Subclasses can override this to provide a custom
+   * namespace implementation.
+   *
+   * @param inner The DirectoryNamespace to wrap
+   * @return The namespace client to use in tests (may be the same as inner or a wrapper)
+   */
+  protected LanceNamespace wrapNamespace(DirectoryNamespace inner) {
+    return inner;
   }
 
   @AfterEach
   void tearDown() {
-    if (namespace != null) {
-      namespace.close();
+    if (namespaceClient != null && namespaceClient instanceof java.io.Closeable) {
+      try {
+        ((java.io.Closeable) namespaceClient).close();
+      } catch (Exception e) {
+        // Ignore
+      }
     }
     if (allocator != null) {
       allocator.close();
@@ -111,21 +184,50 @@ private byte[] createTestTableData() throws Exception {
 
   @Test
   void testNamespaceId() {
-    String namespaceId = namespace.namespaceId();
+    String namespaceId = namespaceClient.namespaceId();
     assertNotNull(namespaceId);
-    assertTrue(namespaceId.contains("DirectoryNamespace"));
+    assertTrue(
+        namespaceId.contains("DirectoryNamespace"),
+        "namespaceId should contain 'DirectoryNamespace', got: " + namespaceId);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testOpenSpecificVersionDoesNotPassVersionToDescribeTable() throws Exception {
+    VersionRejectingNamespace versionRejectingNamespace =
+        new VersionRejectingNamespace(innerNamespaceClient);
+    namespaceClient = versionRejectingNamespace;
+    List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList("test_table");
+
+    namespaceClient.createTable(new CreateTableRequest().id(tableId), createTestTableData());
+    namespaceClient.insertIntoTable(
+        new InsertIntoTableRequest().id(tableId).mode("append"), createTestTableData());
+
+    try (Dataset versionOne =
+        Dataset.open()
+            .allocator(allocator)
+            .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+            .tableId(tableId)
+            .readOptions(new ReadOptions.Builder().setVersion(1L).build())
+            .build()) {
+      assertEquals(1, versionOne.version());
+      assertEquals(3, versionOne.countRows());
+    }
+
+    assertTrue(
+        versionRejectingNamespace.getDescribeTableCallCount() > 0,
+        "Expected describeTable to be called when opening through namespace");
   }
 
   @Test
   void testCreateAndListNamespaces() {
     // Create a namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createReq = new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    CreateNamespaceResponse createResp = namespace.createNamespace(createReq);
+    CreateNamespaceResponse createResp = namespaceClient.createNamespace(createReq);
     assertNotNull(createResp);
 
     // List namespaces
     ListNamespacesRequest listReq = new ListNamespacesRequest();
-    ListNamespacesResponse listResp = namespace.listNamespaces(listReq);
+    ListNamespacesResponse listResp = namespaceClient.listNamespaces(listReq);
     assertNotNull(listResp);
     assertNotNull(listResp.getNamespaces());
     assertTrue(listResp.getNamespaces().contains("workspace"));
@@ -135,12 +237,12 @@ void testCreateAndListNamespaces() {
   void testDescribeNamespace() {
     // Create a namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createReq = new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    namespace.createNamespace(createReq);
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createReq);
 
     // Describe namespace
     DescribeNamespaceRequest descReq =
         new DescribeNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    DescribeNamespaceResponse descResp = namespace.describeNamespace(descReq);
+    DescribeNamespaceResponse descResp = namespaceClient.describeNamespace(descReq);
     assertNotNull(descResp);
     assertNotNull(descResp.getProperties());
   }
@@ -149,32 +251,35 @@ void testDescribeNamespace() {
   void testNamespaceExists() {
     // Create a namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createReq = new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    namespace.createNamespace(createReq);
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createReq);
 
     // Check existence
     NamespaceExistsRequest existsReq = new NamespaceExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    assertDoesNotThrow(() -> namespace.namespaceExists(existsReq));
+    assertDoesNotThrow(() -> namespaceClient.namespaceExists(existsReq));
 
     // Check non-existent namespace
     NamespaceExistsRequest notExistsReq =
         new NamespaceExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("nonexistent"));
-    assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> namespace.namespaceExists(notExistsReq));
+    LanceNamespaceException ex =
+        assertThrows(
+            LanceNamespaceException.class, () -> namespaceClient.namespaceExists(notExistsReq));
+    assertEquals(ErrorCode.NAMESPACE_NOT_FOUND, ex.getErrorCode());
   }
 
   @Test
   void testDropNamespace() {
     // Create a namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createReq = new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    namespace.createNamespace(createReq);
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createReq);
 
     // Drop namespace
     DropNamespaceRequest dropReq = new DropNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    DropNamespaceResponse dropResp = namespace.dropNamespace(dropReq);
+    DropNamespaceResponse dropResp = namespaceClient.dropNamespace(dropReq);
     assertNotNull(dropResp);
 
     // Verify it's gone
     NamespaceExistsRequest existsReq = new NamespaceExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> namespace.namespaceExists(existsReq));
+    assertThrows(LanceNamespaceException.class, () -> namespaceClient.namespaceExists(existsReq));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -182,13 +287,13 @@ void testCreateTable() throws Exception {
     // Create parent namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
         new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    namespace.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
 
     // Create table with data
     byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
     CreateTableRequest createReq =
         new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
-    CreateTableResponse createResp = namespace.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+    CreateTableResponse createResp = namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
 
     assertNotNull(createResp);
     assertNotNull(createResp.getLocation());
@@ -201,17 +306,17 @@ void testListTables() throws Exception {
     // Create parent namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
         new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    namespace.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
 
     // Create a table
     byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
     CreateTableRequest createReq =
         new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
-    namespace.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
 
     // List tables
     ListTablesRequest listReq = new ListTablesRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    ListTablesResponse listResp = namespace.listTables(listReq);
+    ListTablesResponse listResp = namespaceClient.listTables(listReq);
 
     assertNotNull(listResp);
     assertNotNull(listResp.getTables());
@@ -223,18 +328,18 @@ void testDescribeTable() throws Exception {
     // Create parent namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
         new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    namespace.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
 
     // Create a table
     byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
     CreateTableRequest createReq =
         new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
-    namespace.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
 
     // Describe table
     DescribeTableRequest descReq =
         new DescribeTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
-    DescribeTableResponse descResp = namespace.describeTable(descReq);
+    DescribeTableResponse descResp = namespaceClient.describeTable(descReq);
 
     assertNotNull(descResp);
     assertNotNull(descResp.getLocation());
@@ -246,23 +351,23 @@ void testTableExists() throws Exception {
     // Create parent namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
         new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    namespace.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
 
     // Create a table
     byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
     CreateTableRequest createReq =
         new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
-    namespace.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
 
     // Check existence
     TableExistsRequest existsReq =
         new TableExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
-    assertDoesNotThrow(() -> namespace.tableExists(existsReq));
+    assertDoesNotThrow(() -> namespaceClient.tableExists(existsReq));
 
     // Check non-existent table
     TableExistsRequest notExistsReq =
         new TableExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "nonexistent"));
-    assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> namespace.tableExists(notExistsReq));
+    assertThrows(LanceNamespaceException.class, () -> namespaceClient.tableExists(notExistsReq));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -270,39 +375,1156 @@ void testDropTable() throws Exception {
     // Create parent namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
         new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    namespace.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
 
     // Create a table
     byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
     CreateTableRequest createReq =
         new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
-    namespace.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
 
     // Drop table
     DropTableRequest dropReq = new DropTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
-    DropTableResponse dropResp = namespace.dropTable(dropReq);
+    DropTableResponse dropResp = namespaceClient.dropTable(dropReq);
     assertNotNull(dropResp);
 
     // Verify it's gone
     TableExistsRequest existsReq =
         new TableExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
-    assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> namespace.tableExists(existsReq));
+    assertThrows(LanceNamespaceException.class, () -> namespaceClient.tableExists(existsReq));
   }
 
   @Test
-  void testCreateEmptyTable() {
+  void testDescribeTableReturnsManagedVersioningWhenTrackingEnabled() throws Exception {
+    // Create namespace with table_version_tracking_enabled and manifest_enabled
+    DirectoryNamespace trackingNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    Map<String, String> config = new HashMap<>();
+    config.put("root", tempDir.toString());
+    config.put("table_version_tracking_enabled", "true");
+    config.put("manifest_enabled", "true");
+    trackingNs.initialize(config, allocator);
+
+    try {
+      // Create parent namespace
+      CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+          new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+      trackingNs.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+      // Create a table
+      byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+      CreateTableRequest createReq =
+          new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+      trackingNs.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+      // Describe table should return managedVersioning=true
+      DescribeTableRequest descReq =
+          new DescribeTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+      DescribeTableResponse descResp = trackingNs.describeTable(descReq);
+
+      assertNotNull(descResp);
+      assertNotNull(descResp.getLocation());
+      assertTrue(
+          Boolean.TRUE.equals(descResp.getManagedVersioning()),
+          "Expected managedVersioning=true, got " + descResp.getManagedVersioning());
+    } finally {
+      trackingNs.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDescribeTableVersion() throws Exception {
+    // Use multi-level table ID with manifest_enabled
+    DirectoryNamespace trackingNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    Map<String, String> config = new HashMap<>();
+    config.put("root", tempDir.toString());
+    config.put("manifest_enabled", "true");
+    trackingNs.initialize(config, allocator);
+
+    try {
+      // Create parent namespace
+      CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+          new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+      trackingNs.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+      // Create a table with multi-level ID
+      byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+      CreateTableRequest createReq =
+          new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+      trackingNs.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+      // Describe table version
+      DescribeTableVersionRequest descReq =
+          new DescribeTableVersionRequest()
+              .id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"))
+              .version(1L);
+      DescribeTableVersionResponse descResp = trackingNs.describeTableVersion(descReq);
+
+      assertNotNull(descResp);
+      assertNotNull(descResp.getVersion());
+      assertEquals(Long.valueOf(1), descResp.getVersion().getVersion());
+      assertNotNull(descResp.getVersion().getManifestPath());
+    } finally {
+      trackingNs.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a DirectoryNamespace configured for testing managed versioning with ops metrics.
+   *
+   * @param root The root path for the namespace
+   * @return A DirectoryNamespace with table_version_tracking_enabled and ops_metrics_enabled
+   */
+  private DirectoryNamespace createManagedVersioningNamespace(Path root) {
+    Map<String, String> dirProps = new HashMap<>();
+    dirProps.put("root", root.toString());
+    dirProps.put("table_version_tracking_enabled", "true");
+    dirProps.put("manifest_enabled", "true");
+    dirProps.put("ops_metrics_enabled", "true");
+
+    DirectoryNamespace ns = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      ns.initialize(dirProps, allocator);
+    }
+    return ns;
+  }
+
+  private static int getCreateTableVersionCount(DirectoryNamespace ns) {
+    Map<String, Long> metrics = ns.retrieveOpsMetrics();
+    return metrics.getOrDefault("create_table_version", 0L).intValue();
+  }
+
+  private static int getDescribeTableVersionCount(DirectoryNamespace ns) {
+    Map<String, Long> metrics = ns.retrieveOpsMetrics();
+    return metrics.getOrDefault("describe_table_version", 0L).intValue();
+  }
+
+  private static int getListTableVersionsCount(DirectoryNamespace ns) {
+    Map<String, Long> metrics = ns.retrieveOpsMetrics();
+    return metrics.getOrDefault("list_table_versions", 0L).intValue();
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testExternalManifestStoreInvokesNamespaceApis(@TempDir Path managedVersioningTempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      // Create namespace with table_version_tracking_enabled and ops_metrics_enabled
+      DirectoryNamespace namespaceClient =
+          createManagedVersioningNamespace(managedVersioningTempDir);
+      String tableName = "test_table";
+      java.util.List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList(tableName);
+
+      // Create schema and data
+      Schema schema =
+          new Schema(
+              Arrays.asList(
+                  new Field("a", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null),
+                  new Field("b", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null)));
+
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
+        IntVector aVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("a");
+        IntVector bVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("b");
+
+        aVector.allocateNew(2);
+        bVector.allocateNew(2);
+
+        aVector.set(0, 1);
+        bVector.set(0, 2);
+        aVector.set(1, 10);
+        bVector.set(1, 20);
+
+        aVector.setValueCount(2);
+        bVector.setValueCount(2);
+        root.setRowCount(2);
+
+        ArrowReader testReader =
+            new ArrowReader(allocator) {
+              boolean firstRead = true;
+
+              @Override
+              public boolean loadNextBatch() {
+                if (firstRead) {
+                  firstRead = false;
+                  return true;
+                }
+                return false;
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              public long bytesRead() {
+                return 0;
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              protected void closeReadSource() {}
+
+              @Override
+              protected Schema readSchema() {
+                return schema;
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
+                return root;
+              }
+            };
+
+        // Create dataset through namespace
+        try (Dataset dataset =
+            Dataset.write()
+                .allocator(allocator)
+                .reader(testReader)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+                .tableId(tableId)
+                .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                .execute()) {
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.countRows());
+          assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
+        }
+      }
+
+      // Verify describe_table returns managed_versioning=true
+      DescribeTableRequest descReq = new DescribeTableRequest();
+      descReq.setId(tableId);
+      DescribeTableResponse descResp = namespaceClient.describeTable(descReq);
+
+      assertEquals(
+          Boolean.TRUE,
+          descResp.getManagedVersioning(),
+          "Expected managedVersioning=true when table_version_tracking_enabled");
+
+      // Open dataset through namespace - this should call list_table_versions for latest
+      int initialListCount = getListTableVersionsCount(namespaceClient);
+      try (Dataset dsFromNamespace =
+          Dataset.open()
+              .allocator(allocator)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+              .tableId(tableId)
+              .build()) {
+
+        assertEquals(2, dsFromNamespace.countRows());
+        assertEquals(1, dsFromNamespace.version());
+      }
+      assertEquals(
+          initialListCount + 1,
+          getListTableVersionsCount(namespaceClient),
+          "list_table_versions should have been called once when opening latest version");
+
+      // Verify create_table_version was called once during CREATE
+      assertEquals(
+          1,
+          getCreateTableVersionCount(namespaceClient),
+          "create_table_version should have been called once during CREATE");
+
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot appendRoot = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
+        IntVector aVector = (IntVector) appendRoot.getVector("a");
+        IntVector bVector = (IntVector) appendRoot.getVector("b");
+
+        aVector.allocateNew(2);
+        bVector.allocateNew(2);
+
+        aVector.set(0, 100);
+        bVector.set(0, 200);
+        aVector.set(1, 1000);
+        bVector.set(1, 2000);
+
+        aVector.setValueCount(2);
+        bVector.setValueCount(2);
+        appendRoot.setRowCount(2);
+
+        ArrowReader appendReader =
+            new ArrowReader(allocator) {
+              boolean firstRead = true;
+
+              @Override
+              public boolean loadNextBatch() {
+                if (firstRead) {
+                  firstRead = false;
+                  return true;
+                }
+                return false;
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              public long bytesRead() {
+                return 0;
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              protected void closeReadSource() {}
+
+              @Override
+              protected Schema readSchema() {
+                return schema;
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
+                return appendRoot;
+              }
+            };
+
+        // Append through namespace
+        try (Dataset dataset =
+            Dataset.write()
+                .allocator(allocator)
+                .reader(appendReader)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+                .tableId(tableId)
+                .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.APPEND)
+                .execute()) {
+          assertEquals(4, dataset.countRows());
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
+        }
+      }
+
+      assertEquals(
+          2,
+          getCreateTableVersionCount(namespaceClient),
+          "create_table_version should have been called twice (once for CREATE, once for APPEND)");
+
+      // Open latest version - should call list_table_versions
+      int listCountBeforeLatest = getListTableVersionsCount(namespaceClient);
+      try (Dataset latestDs =
+          Dataset.open()
+              .allocator(allocator)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+              .tableId(tableId)
+              .build()) {
+
+        assertEquals(4, latestDs.countRows());
+        assertEquals(2, latestDs.version());
+      }
+      assertEquals(
+          listCountBeforeLatest + 1,
+          getListTableVersionsCount(namespaceClient),
+          "list_table_versions should have been called once when opening latest version");
+
+      // Open specific version (version 1) - should call describe_table_version
+      int describeCountBeforeV1 = getDescribeTableVersionCount(namespaceClient);
+      try (Dataset v1Ds =
+          Dataset.open()
+              .allocator(allocator)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+              .tableId(tableId)
+              .readOptions(new ReadOptions.Builder().setVersion(1L).build())
+              .build()) {
+
+        assertEquals(2, v1Ds.countRows());
+        assertEquals(1, v1Ds.version());
+      }
+      assertEquals(
+          describeCountBeforeV1 + 1,
+          getDescribeTableVersionCount(namespaceClient),
+          "describe_table_version should have been called once when opening version 1");
+
+      // Fork dev at main:1 and move it past main's latest version (dev gets 2 and 3), tag its
+      // head, then open refs through the namespace: the ref must survive the namespace open and
+      // resolve on the branch, including a branch version main does not have.
+      try (Dataset latestDs =
+          Dataset.open()
+              .allocator(allocator)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+              .tableId(tableId)
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset devDs = latestDs.createBranch("dev", Ref.ofMain(1))) {
+          devDs.updateConfig(Collections.singletonMap("step", "1"));
+          devDs.updateConfig(Collections.singletonMap("step", "2"));
+          assertEquals(3, devDs.version());
+        }
+        latestDs.tags().create("first", Ref.ofMain(1));
+        latestDs.tags().create("dev_head", Ref.ofBranch("dev", 3));
+      }
+      Object[][] refCases = {
+        {Ref.ofBranch("dev"), 3L, true},
+        {Ref.ofBranch("dev", 3), 3L, true},
+        {Ref.ofTag("dev_head"), 3L, true},
+        {Ref.ofTag("first"), 1L, false},
+      };
+      for (Object[] refCase : refCases) {
+        Ref ref = (Ref) refCase[0];
+        try (Dataset refDs =
+            Dataset.open()
+                .allocator(allocator)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+                .tableId(tableId)
+                .readOptions(new ReadOptions.Builder().setRef(ref).build())
+                .build()) {
+          assertEquals((long) refCase[1], refDs.version(), ref.toString());
+          assertEquals(2, refDs.countRows(), ref.toString()); // main's latest has 4 rows
+          assertEquals(refCase[2], refDs.uri().contains("tree/dev"), refDs.uri());
+        }
+      }
+
+      namespaceClient.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDatasetBasedCommitBuilderWithNamespace(@TempDir Path managedVersioningTempDir)
+      throws Exception {
+    try (BufferAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator()) {
+      DirectoryNamespace namespaceClient =
+          createManagedVersioningNamespace(managedVersioningTempDir);
+      String tableName = "test_table";
+      List<String> tableId = Arrays.asList(tableName);
+
+      Schema schema =
+          new Schema(
+              Arrays.asList(
+                  new Field("id", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null),
+                  new Field("name", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Utf8()), null)));
+
+      // Create initial dataset through namespace using WriteDatasetBuilder
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
+        IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+        VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+
+        idVector.allocateNew(2);
+        nameVector.allocateNew(2);
+        idVector.set(0, 1);
+        idVector.set(1, 2);
+        nameVector.set(0, "Alice".getBytes());
+        nameVector.set(1, "Bob".getBytes());
+        idVector.setValueCount(2);
+        nameVector.setValueCount(2);
+        root.setRowCount(2);
+
+        ArrowReader reader =
+            new ArrowReader(allocator) {
+              boolean firstRead = true;
+
+              @Override
+              public boolean loadNextBatch() {
+                if (firstRead) {
+                  firstRead = false;
+                  return true;
+                }
+                return false;
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              public long bytesRead() {
+                return 0;
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              protected void closeReadSource() {}
+
+              @Override
+              protected Schema readSchema() {
+                return schema;
+              }
+
+              @Override
+              public VectorSchemaRoot getVectorSchemaRoot() {
+                return root;
+              }
+            };
+
+        try (Dataset dataset =
+            Dataset.write()
+                .allocator(allocator)
+                .reader(reader)
+                .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+                .tableId(tableId)
+                .mode(WriteParams.WriteMode.CREATE)
+                .execute()) {
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.countRows());
+          assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
+        }
+      }
+
+      // Verify initial create used createTableVersion once
+      assertEquals(
+          1,
+          getCreateTableVersionCount(namespaceClient),
+          "create_table_version should be called once during CREATE");
+
+      // Open dataset through namespace (returns dataset with managed versioning)
+      Dataset existingDataset =
+          Dataset.open()
+              .allocator(allocator)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+              .tableId(tableId)
+              .build();
+
+      // Get the dataset URI for Fragment.create()
+      String datasetUri = existingDataset.uri();
+
+      // Create a new fragment independently (simulating Spark worker behavior)
+      List<FragmentMetadata> fragments;
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot appendRoot = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
+        IntVector idVector = (IntVector) appendRoot.getVector("id");
+        VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) appendRoot.getVector("name");
+
+        idVector.allocateNew(2);
+        nameVector.allocateNew(2);
+        idVector.set(0, 3);
+        idVector.set(1, 4);
+        nameVector.set(0, "Charlie".getBytes());
+        nameVector.set(1, "Diana".getBytes());
+        idVector.setValueCount(2);
+        nameVector.setValueCount(2);
+        appendRoot.setRowCount(2);
+
+        fragments =
+            Fragment.create(datasetUri, allocator, appendRoot, new WriteParams.Builder().build());
+      }
+
+      // Commit using dataset-based CommitBuilder WITH namespace (the new path)
+      int createCountBefore = getCreateTableVersionCount(namespaceClient);
+      try (Transaction txn =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(existingDataset.version())
+                  .operation(Append.builder().fragments(fragments).build())
+                  .build();
+          Dataset committed =
+              new CommitBuilder(existingDataset)
+                  .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+                  .tableId(tableId)
+                  .execute(txn)) {
+        assertEquals(2, committed.version());
+        assertEquals(4, committed.countRows());
+      }
+
+      // Verify createTableVersion was called for the dataset-based commit
+      assertEquals(
+          createCountBefore + 1,
+          getCreateTableVersionCount(namespaceClient),
+          "create_table_version should be called for dataset-based CommitBuilder with namespace");
+
+      // Verify the data is accessible through namespace
+      try (Dataset latestDs =
+          Dataset.open()
+              .allocator(allocator)
+              .namespaceClient(namespaceClient)
+              .tableId(tableId)
+              .build()) {
+        assertEquals(4, latestDs.countRows());
+        assertEquals(2, latestDs.version());
+      }
+
+      existingDataset.close();
+      namespaceClient.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testConcurrentCreateAndDropWithSingleInstance() throws Exception {
+    // Initialize namespace first - create parent namespace to ensure __manifest table
+    // is created before concurrent operations
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq = new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns"));
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+    int numTables = 10;
+    ExecutorService executor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(numTables);
+    CountDownLatch startLatch = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    CountDownLatch doneLatch = new CountDownLatch(numTables);
+    AtomicInteger successCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    AtomicInteger failCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < numTables; i++) {
+      final int tableIndex = i;
+      executor.submit(
+          () -> {
+            try {
+              startLatch.await();
+
+              String tableName = "concurrent_table_" + tableIndex;
+              byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+
+              CreateTableRequest createReq =
+                  new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName));
+              namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+              DropTableRequest dropReq =
+                  new DropTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName));
+              namespaceClient.dropTable(dropReq);
+
+              successCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+              failCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } finally {
+              doneLatch.countDown();
+            }
+          });
+    }
+
+    startLatch.countDown();
+    assertTrue(doneLatch.await(60, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Timed out waiting for tasks to complete");
+
+    executor.shutdown();
+    assertTrue(executor.awaitTermination(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS));
+
+    assertEquals(numTables, successCount.get(), "All tasks should succeed");
+    assertEquals(0, failCount.get(), "No tasks should fail");
+
+    ListTablesRequest listReq = new ListTablesRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns"));
+    ListTablesResponse listResp = namespaceClient.listTables(listReq);
+    assertEquals(0, listResp.getTables().size(), "All tables should be dropped");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testConcurrentCreateAndDropWithMultipleInstances() throws Exception {
+    // Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+    // table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+    DirectoryNamespace initNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    Map<String, String> initConfig = new HashMap<>();
+    initConfig.put("root", tempDir.toString());
+    initConfig.put("inline_optimization_enabled", "false");
+    initNs.initialize(initConfig, allocator);
+
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq = new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns"));
+    initNs.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    initNs.close();
+
+    int numTables = 10;
+    ExecutorService executor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(numTables);
+    CountDownLatch startLatch = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    CountDownLatch doneLatch = new CountDownLatch(numTables);
+    AtomicInteger successCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    AtomicInteger failCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    List<DirectoryNamespace> namespaces = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < numTables; i++) {
+      final int tableIndex = i;
+      executor.submit(
+          () -> {
+            DirectoryNamespace localNs = null;
+            try {
+              startLatch.await();
+
+              localNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+              Map<String, String> config = new HashMap<>();
+              config.put("root", tempDir.toString());
+              config.put("inline_optimization_enabled", "false");
+              localNs.initialize(config, allocator);
+
+              synchronized (namespaces) {
+                namespaces.add(localNs);
+              }
+
+              String tableName = "multi_ns_table_" + tableIndex;
+              byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+
+              CreateTableRequest createReq =
+                  new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName));
+              localNs.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+              DropTableRequest dropReq =
+                  new DropTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName));
+              localNs.dropTable(dropReq);
+
+              successCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+              failCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } finally {
+              doneLatch.countDown();
+            }
+          });
+    }
+
+    startLatch.countDown();
+    assertTrue(doneLatch.await(60, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Timed out waiting for tasks to complete");
+
+    executor.shutdown();
+    assertTrue(executor.awaitTermination(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS));
+
+    // Close all namespace instances
+    for (DirectoryNamespace ns : namespaces) {
+      try {
+        ns.close();
+      } catch (Exception e) {
+        // Ignore
+      }
+    }
+
+    assertEquals(numTables, successCount.get(), "All tasks should succeed");
+    assertEquals(0, failCount.get(), "No tasks should fail");
+
+    // Verify with a fresh namespace
+    DirectoryNamespace verifyNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    Map<String, String> config = new HashMap<>();
+    config.put("root", tempDir.toString());
+    verifyNs.initialize(config, allocator);
+
+    ListTablesRequest listReq = new ListTablesRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns"));
+    ListTablesResponse listResp = verifyNs.listTables(listReq);
+    assertEquals(0, listResp.getTables().size(), "All tables should be dropped");
+
+    verifyNs.close();
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testConcurrentCreateThenDropFromDifferentInstance() throws Exception {
+    // Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+    // table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+    DirectoryNamespace initNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+    Map<String, String> initConfig = new HashMap<>();
+    initConfig.put("root", tempDir.toString());
+    initConfig.put("inline_optimization_enabled", "false");
+    initNs.initialize(initConfig, allocator);
+
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq = new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns"));
+    initNs.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    initNs.close();
+
+    int numTables = 10;
+
+    // First, create all tables using separate namespace instances
+    ExecutorService createExecutor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(numTables);
+    CountDownLatch createStartLatch = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    CountDownLatch createDoneLatch = new CountDownLatch(numTables);
+    AtomicInteger createSuccessCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    List<DirectoryNamespace> createNamespaces = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < numTables; i++) {
+      final int tableIndex = i;
+      createExecutor.submit(
+          () -> {
+            DirectoryNamespace localNs = null;
+            try {
+              createStartLatch.await();
+
+              localNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+              Map<String, String> config = new HashMap<>();
+              config.put("root", tempDir.toString());
+              config.put("inline_optimization_enabled", "false");
+              localNs.initialize(config, allocator);
+
+              synchronized (createNamespaces) {
+                createNamespaces.add(localNs);
+              }
+
+              String tableName = "cross_instance_table_" + tableIndex;
+              byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+
+              CreateTableRequest createReq =
+                  new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName));
+              localNs.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+              createSuccessCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+              // Ignore - test will fail on assertion
+            } finally {
+              createDoneLatch.countDown();
+            }
+          });
+    }
+
+    createStartLatch.countDown();
+    assertTrue(createDoneLatch.await(60, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Timed out waiting for creates");
+    createExecutor.shutdown();
+
+    assertEquals(numTables, createSuccessCount.get(), "All creates should succeed");
+
+    // Close create namespaces
+    for (DirectoryNamespace ns : createNamespaces) {
+      try {
+        ns.close();
+      } catch (Exception e) {
+        // Ignore
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Now drop all tables using NEW namespace instances
+    ExecutorService dropExecutor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(numTables);
+    CountDownLatch dropStartLatch = new CountDownLatch(1);
+    CountDownLatch dropDoneLatch = new CountDownLatch(numTables);
+    AtomicInteger dropSuccessCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    AtomicInteger dropFailCount = new AtomicInteger(0);
+    List<DirectoryNamespace> dropNamespaces = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < numTables; i++) {
+      final int tableIndex = i;
+      dropExecutor.submit(
+          () -> {
+            DirectoryNamespace localNs = null;
+            try {
+              dropStartLatch.await();
+
+              localNs = new DirectoryNamespace();
+              Map<String, String> config = new HashMap<>();
+              config.put("root", tempDir.toString());
+              config.put("inline_optimization_enabled", "false");
+              localNs.initialize(config, allocator);
+
+              synchronized (dropNamespaces) {
+                dropNamespaces.add(localNs);
+              }
+
+              String tableName = "cross_instance_table_" + tableIndex;
+
+              DropTableRequest dropReq =
+                  new DropTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_ns", tableName));
+              localNs.dropTable(dropReq);
+
+              dropSuccessCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+              dropFailCount.incrementAndGet();
+            } finally {
+              dropDoneLatch.countDown();
+            }
+          });
+    }
+
+    dropStartLatch.countDown();
+    assertTrue(dropDoneLatch.await(60, TimeUnit.SECONDS), "Timed out waiting for drops");
+    dropExecutor.shutdown();
+
+    // Close drop namespaces
+    for (DirectoryNamespace ns : dropNamespaces) {
+      try {
+        ns.close();
+      } catch (Exception e) {
+        // Ignore
+      }
+    }
+
+    assertEquals(numTables, dropSuccessCount.get(), "All drops should succeed");
+    assertEquals(0, dropFailCount.get(), "No drops should fail");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCountTableRows() throws Exception {
     // Create parent namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
         new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
-    namespace.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
 
-    // Create empty table (metadata-only operation)
-    CreateEmptyTableRequest createReq =
-        new CreateEmptyTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "empty_table"));
+    // Create a table with 3 rows
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq =
+        new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
 
-    CreateEmptyTableResponse createResp = namespace.createEmptyTable(createReq);
+    // Count rows
+    CountTableRowsRequest countReq =
+        new CountTableRowsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    long count = namespaceClient.countTableRows(countReq).getCount();
+    assertEquals(3, count);
+  }
 
-    assertNotNull(createResp);
-    assertNotNull(createResp.getLocation());
+  @Test
+  void testCountTableRowsWithFilter() throws Exception {
+    // Create parent namespace
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+        new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+    // Create a table with 3 rows (ages: 30, 25, 35)
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq =
+        new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+    // Count rows with predicate
+    CountTableRowsRequest countReq =
+        new CountTableRowsRequest()
+            .id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"))
+            .predicate("age > 28");
+    long count = namespaceClient.countTableRows(countReq).getCount();
+    assertEquals(2, count); // Alice (30) and Charlie (35)
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testInsertIntoTable() throws Exception {
+    // Create parent namespace
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+        new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+    // Create a table with 3 rows
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq =
+        new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+    // Insert more data
+    byte[] newData = createTestTableData(); // Another 3 rows
+    InsertIntoTableRequest insertReq =
+        new InsertIntoTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table")).mode("append");
+    InsertIntoTableResponse insertResp = namespaceClient.insertIntoTable(insertReq, newData);
+    assertNotNull(insertResp);
+
+    // Verify row count increased
+    CountTableRowsRequest countReq =
+        new CountTableRowsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    long count = namespaceClient.countTableRows(countReq).getCount();
+    assertEquals(6, count);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testQueryTable() throws Exception {
+    // Create parent namespace
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+        new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+    // Create a table with 3 rows
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq =
+        new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+    // Query table - just verify we can execute a simple query
+    QueryTableRequest queryReq =
+        new QueryTableRequest()
+            .id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"))
+            .k(10)
+            .vector(new QueryTableRequestVector());
+    byte[] resultBytes = namespaceClient.queryTable(queryReq).getData();
+    assertNotNull(resultBytes);
+    assertTrue(resultBytes.length > 0);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testListTableVersions() throws Exception {
+    // Create parent namespace
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+        new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+    // Create a table
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq =
+        new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+    // List versions
+    ListTableVersionsRequest listReq =
+        new ListTableVersionsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    ListTableVersionsResponse listResp = namespaceClient.listTableVersions(listReq);
+    assertNotNull(listResp);
+    assertNotNull(listResp.getVersions());
+    assertTrue(listResp.getVersions().size() >= 1);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testRegisterTable() throws Exception {
+    // Create parent namespace
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+        new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+    // First create a table directly to get a valid location
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq =
+        new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "source_table"));
+    CreateTableResponse createResp = namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+    String location = createResp.getLocation();
+
+    // Register the table under a new name (using relative path)
+    String relativePath = "source_table.lance";
+    RegisterTableRequest registerReq =
+        new RegisterTableRequest()
+            .id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "registered_table"))
+            .location(relativePath);
+    RegisterTableResponse registerResp = namespaceClient.registerTable(registerReq);
+    assertNotNull(registerResp);
+
+    // Verify the registered table exists
+    TableExistsRequest existsReq =
+        new TableExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "registered_table"));
+    assertDoesNotThrow(() -> namespaceClient.tableExists(existsReq));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDeclareTable() throws Exception {
+    // Create parent namespace
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+        new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+    // Declare a table
+    DeclareTableRequest declareReq =
+        new DeclareTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "declared_table"));
+    DeclareTableResponse declareResp = namespaceClient.declareTable(declareReq);
+    assertNotNull(declareResp);
+    assertNotNull(declareResp.getLocation());
+
+    DescribeTableRequest descReq =
+        new DescribeTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "declared_table"));
+    DescribeTableResponse descResp = namespaceClient.describeTable(descReq);
+    assertNull(descResp.getIsOnlyDeclared());
+
+    DescribeTableRequest checkReq =
+        new DescribeTableRequest()
+            .id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "declared_table"))
+            .checkDeclared(true);
+    DescribeTableResponse checkResp = namespaceClient.describeTable(checkReq);
+    assertEquals(Boolean.TRUE, checkResp.getIsOnlyDeclared());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testDeregisterTable() throws Exception {
+    // Create parent namespace
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+        new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+    // Create a table
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq =
+        new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+    // Deregister the table
+    DeregisterTableRequest deregisterReq =
+        new DeregisterTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    DeregisterTableResponse deregisterResp = namespaceClient.deregisterTable(deregisterReq);
+    assertNotNull(deregisterResp);
+
+    // Verify the table no longer exists
+    TableExistsRequest existsReq =
+        new TableExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    assertThrows(LanceNamespaceException.class, () -> namespaceClient.tableExists(existsReq));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testListTableIndices() throws Exception {
+    // Create parent namespace
+    CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
+        new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
+    namespaceClient.createNamespace(createNsReq);
+
+    // Create a table
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq =
+        new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+    // List indices (should be empty initially)
+    ListTableIndicesRequest listReq =
+        new ListTableIndicesRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    ListTableIndicesResponse listResp = namespaceClient.listTableIndices(listReq);
+    assertNotNull(listResp);
+    assertNotNull(listResp.getIndexes());
+    assertEquals(0, listResp.getIndexes().size());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCreateScalarIndex() throws Exception {
+    // Create table at root level
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq = new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_table"));
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+    // Create scalar index on 'id' column
+    CreateTableIndexRequest createIndexReq =
+        new CreateTableIndexRequest()
+            .id(Arrays.asList("test_table"))
+            .column("id")
+            .indexType("BTREE")
+            .name("id_idx");
+    CreateTableIndexResponse response = namespaceClient.createTableIndex(createIndexReq);
+    assertNotNull(response);
+
+    // List indices to verify
+    ListTableIndicesRequest listReq = new ListTableIndicesRequest().id(Arrays.asList("test_table"));
+    ListTableIndicesResponse listResp = namespaceClient.listTableIndices(listReq);
+    assertNotNull(listResp);
+    assertNotNull(listResp.getIndexes());
+    assertEquals(1, listResp.getIndexes().size());
+    assertEquals("id_idx", listResp.getIndexes().get(0).getIndexName());
+    assertTrue(listResp.getIndexes().get(0).getColumns().contains("id"));
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testCreateVectorIndex() throws Exception {
+    // Create table with vector data (256 rows with 8-dim vectors)
+    byte[] tableData = createVectorTableData(256, 8);
+    CreateTableRequest createReq = new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("vector_table"));
+    namespaceClient.createTable(createReq, tableData);
+
+    // Create vector index using IVF_FLAT
+    CreateTableIndexRequest createIndexReq =
+        new CreateTableIndexRequest()
+            .id(Arrays.asList("vector_table"))
+            .column("vector")
+            .indexType("IVF_FLAT")
+            .name("vector_idx")
+            .distanceType("l2");
+    CreateTableIndexResponse response = namespaceClient.createTableIndex(createIndexReq);
+    assertNotNull(response);
+
+    // List indices to verify
+    ListTableIndicesRequest listReq =
+        new ListTableIndicesRequest().id(Arrays.asList("vector_table"));
+    ListTableIndicesResponse listResp = namespaceClient.listTableIndices(listReq);
+    assertNotNull(listResp);
+    assertNotNull(listResp.getIndexes());
+    assertEquals(1, listResp.getIndexes().size());
+    assertEquals("vector_idx", listResp.getIndexes().get(0).getIndexName());
+    assertTrue(listResp.getIndexes().get(0).getColumns().contains("vector"));
+  }
+
+  private byte[] createVectorTableData(int numRows, int dim) throws Exception {
+    Schema schema =
+        new Schema(
+            Arrays.asList(
+                new Field("id", FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.Int(32, true)), null),
+                new Field(
+                    "vector",
+                    FieldType.nullable(new ArrowType.FixedSizeList(dim)),
+                    Arrays.asList(
+                        new Field(
+                            "item",
+                            FieldType.nullable(
+                                new ArrowType.FloatingPoint(
+                                    org.apache.arrow.vector.types.FloatingPointPrecision.SINGLE)),
+                            null)))));
+
+    try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(schema, allocator)) {
+      IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+      org.apache.arrow.vector.complex.FixedSizeListVector vectorCol =
+          (org.apache.arrow.vector.complex.FixedSizeListVector) root.getVector("vector");
+      org.apache.arrow.vector.Float4Vector itemsVector =
+          (org.apache.arrow.vector.Float4Vector) vectorCol.getDataVector();
+
+      idVector.allocateNew(numRows);
+      vectorCol.allocateNew();
+      itemsVector.allocateNew(numRows * dim);
+
+      for (int i = 0; i < numRows; i++) {
+        idVector.set(i, i);
+        for (int j = 0; j < dim; j++) {
+          itemsVector.set(i * dim + j, (float) (i * dim + j) * 0.01f);
+        }
+        vectorCol.setNotNull(i);
+      }
+
+      idVector.setValueCount(numRows);
+      itemsVector.setValueCount(numRows * dim);
+      vectorCol.setValueCount(numRows);
+      root.setRowCount(numRows);
+
+      ByteArrayOutputStream out = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+      try (ArrowStreamWriter writer = new ArrowStreamWriter(root, null, out)) {
+        writer.writeBatch();
+      }
+      return out.toByteArray();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static class VersionRejectingNamespace extends CustomNamespace {
+    private final AtomicInteger describeTableCallCount = new AtomicInteger();
+
+    VersionRejectingNamespace(DirectoryNamespace inner) {
+      super(inner);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public DescribeTableResponse describeTable(DescribeTableRequest request) {
+      describeTableCallCount.incrementAndGet();
+      assertNull(
+          request.getVersion(),
+          "Dataset version should be passed to dataset open, not describeTable");
+      return super.describeTable(request);
+    }
+
+    int getDescribeTableCallCount() {
+      return describeTableCallCount.get();
+    }
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/DynamicContextProviderTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/DynamicContextProviderTest.java
index 7959eb9be58..1b980a24d09 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/DynamicContextProviderTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/DynamicContextProviderTest.java
@@ -13,7 +13,10 @@
  */
 package org.lance.namespace;
 
-import org.lance.namespace.model.*;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesResponse;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/RestNamespaceTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/RestNamespaceTest.java
index 797ef5d6785..4ee8c701351 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/RestNamespaceTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/namespace/RestNamespaceTest.java
@@ -13,7 +13,24 @@
  */
 package org.lance.namespace;
 
-import org.lance.namespace.model.*;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.CreateTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DescribeTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropNamespaceResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.DropTableResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListNamespacesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.ListTablesResponse;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.NamespaceExistsRequest;
+import org.lance.namespace.model.TableExistsRequest;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.BufferAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
@@ -310,19 +327,38 @@ void testDropTable() throws Exception {
   }
 
   @Test
-  void testCreateEmptyTable() {
+  void testRenameTable() throws Exception {
     // Create parent namespace
     CreateNamespaceRequest createNsReq =
         new CreateNamespaceRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace"));
     namespace.createNamespace(createNsReq);
 
-    // Create empty table (metadata-only operation)
-    CreateEmptyTableRequest createReq =
-        new CreateEmptyTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "empty_table"));
+    // Create a table
+    byte[] tableData = createTestTableData();
+    CreateTableRequest createReq =
+        new CreateTableRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    namespace.createTable(createReq, tableData);
 
-    CreateEmptyTableResponse createResp = namespace.createEmptyTable(createReq);
+    // TODO: underlying dir namespace doesn't support rename yet...
 
-    assertNotNull(createResp);
-    assertNotNull(createResp.getLocation());
+    // // Rename the table
+    // RenameTableRequest renameReq =
+    //     new RenameTableRequest()
+    //         .id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"))
+    //         .newNamespaceId(Arrays.asList("workspace"))
+    //         .newTableName("test_table_renamed");
+
+    // RenameTableResponse renameRes = namespace.renameTable(renameReq);
+    // assertNotNull(renameRes);
+
+    // // Verify table with old name no longer exists
+    // TableExistsRequest oldExistsReq =
+    //     new TableExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table"));
+    // assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> namespace.tableExists(oldExistsReq));
+
+    // // Verify table with new name exists
+    // TableExistsRequest existsReq =
+    //     new TableExistsRequest().id(Arrays.asList("workspace", "test_table_renamed"));
+    // assertDoesNotThrow(() -> namespace.tableExists(existsReq));
   }
 }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/AppendTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/AppendTest.java
index 2575d3afd00..5d62b429fe1 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/AppendTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/AppendTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
@@ -62,17 +63,16 @@ void testAppendMultipleFragments(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
               testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount),
               testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount));
 
-      Transaction transaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(Append.builder().fragments(fragments).build())
-              .build();
-
-      try (Dataset dataset = transaction.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
-        assertEquals(rowCount * 3, dataset.countRows());
-        assertEquals(3, dataset.getFragments().size());
-        assertEquals(transaction, dataset.readTransaction().orElse(null));
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(txn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
+          assertEquals(rowCount * 3, dataset.countRows());
+          assertEquals(3, dataset.getFragments().size());
+        }
       }
     }
   }
@@ -88,12 +88,13 @@ void testAppendEmptyFragmentList(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
         assertThrows(
             IllegalArgumentException.class,
             () -> {
-              Transaction transaction =
-                  dataset
-                      .newTransactionBuilder()
+              try (Transaction txn =
+                  new Transaction.Builder()
+                      .readVersion(dataset.version())
                       .operation(Append.builder().fragments(new ArrayList<>()).build())
-                      .build();
-              transaction.commit().close();
+                      .build()) {
+                new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn).close();
+              }
             });
       }
     }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/DataReplacementTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/DataReplacementTest.java
index 6d0586cc2b1..07ff06a6f94 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/DataReplacementTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/DataReplacementTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.Fragment;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
@@ -71,83 +72,93 @@ void testDataReplacement(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
         List<FragmentMetadata> fragmentMetas =
             Fragment.create(datasetPath, allocator, idRoot, new WriteParams.Builder().build());
 
-        Transaction appendTxn =
-            dataset
-                .newTransactionBuilder()
+        try (Transaction appendTxn =
+            new Transaction.Builder()
+                .readVersion(dataset.version())
                 .operation(Append.builder().fragments(fragmentMetas).build())
-                .build();
-
-        try (Dataset initDataset = appendTxn.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(2, initDataset.version());
-          assertEquals(rowCount, initDataset.countRows());
-
-          // step 3. use dataset.addColumn to add a new column named as address with all null values
-          Field addressField = Field.nullable("address", new ArrowType.Utf8());
-          Schema addressSchema = new Schema(Collections.singletonList(addressField), null);
-          initDataset.addColumns(addressSchema);
-
-          try (LanceScanner scanner = initDataset.newScan()) {
-            try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-              assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
-              VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-              assertEquals(rowCount, initDataset.countRows());
-              assertEquals(rowCount, batch.getRowCount());
-
-              // verify all null values
-              VarCharVector resultNameVector = (VarCharVector) batch.getVector("address");
-              for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
-                Assertions.assertTrue(resultNameVector.isNull(i));
+                .build()) {
+          try (Dataset initDataset = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(appendTxn)) {
+            assertEquals(2, initDataset.version());
+            assertEquals(rowCount, initDataset.countRows());
+
+            // step 3. use dataset.addColumn to add a new column named as address with all null
+            // values
+            Field addressField = Field.nullable("address", new ArrowType.Utf8());
+            Schema addressSchema = new Schema(Collections.singletonList(addressField), null);
+            initDataset.addColumns(addressSchema);
+
+            try (LanceScanner scanner = initDataset.newScan()) {
+              try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+                assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
+                VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                assertEquals(rowCount, initDataset.countRows());
+                assertEquals(rowCount, batch.getRowCount());
+
+                // verify all null values
+                VarCharVector resultNameVector = (VarCharVector) batch.getVector("address");
+                for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                  Assertions.assertTrue(resultNameVector.isNull(i));
+                }
               }
             }
-          }
 
-          // step 4. use DataReplacement transaction to replace null values
-          try (VectorSchemaRoot replaceVectorRoot =
-              VectorSchemaRoot.create(addressSchema, allocator)) {
-            replaceVectorRoot.allocateNew();
-            VarCharVector addressVector = (VarCharVector) replaceVectorRoot.getVector("address");
+            // step 4. use DataReplacement transaction to replace null values
+            try (VectorSchemaRoot replaceVectorRoot =
+                VectorSchemaRoot.create(addressSchema, allocator)) {
+              replaceVectorRoot.allocateNew();
+              VarCharVector addressVector = (VarCharVector) replaceVectorRoot.getVector("address");
 
-            for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
-              String name = "District " + i;
-              addressVector.setSafe(i, name.getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
-            }
-            replaceVectorRoot.setRowCount(rowCount);
-
-            DataFile datafile =
-                writeLanceDataFile(
-                    dataset.allocator(),
-                    datasetPath,
-                    replaceVectorRoot,
-                    new int[] {2},
-                    new int[] {0});
-            List<DataReplacement.DataReplacementGroup> replacementGroups =
-                Collections.singletonList(
-                    new DataReplacement.DataReplacementGroup(
-                        fragmentMetas.get(0).getId(), datafile));
-            Transaction replaceTxn =
-                initDataset
-                    .newTransactionBuilder()
-                    .operation(DataReplacement.builder().replacements(replacementGroups).build())
-                    .build();
-
-            try (Dataset datasetWithAddress = replaceTxn.commit()) {
-              assertEquals(4, datasetWithAddress.version());
-              assertEquals(rowCount, datasetWithAddress.countRows());
-
-              try (LanceScanner scanner = datasetWithAddress.newScan()) {
-                try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-                  assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
-                  VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+              for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                String name = "District " + i;
+                addressVector.setSafe(i, name.getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+              }
+              replaceVectorRoot.setRowCount(rowCount);
+
+              DataFile datafile =
+                  writeLanceDataFile(
+                      dataset.allocator(),
+                      datasetPath,
+                      replaceVectorRoot,
+                      new int[] {2},
+                      new int[] {0});
+              List<DataReplacement.DataReplacementGroup> replacementGroups =
+                  Collections.singletonList(
+                      new DataReplacement.DataReplacementGroup(
+                          fragmentMetas.get(0).getId(), datafile));
+              try (Transaction replaceTxn =
+                  new Transaction.Builder()
+                      .readVersion(initDataset.version())
+                      .operation(DataReplacement.builder().replacements(replacementGroups).build())
+                      .build()) {
+                try (Dataset datasetWithAddress =
+                    new CommitBuilder(initDataset).execute(replaceTxn)) {
+                  assertEquals(4, datasetWithAddress.version());
                   assertEquals(rowCount, datasetWithAddress.countRows());
-                  assertEquals(rowCount, batch.getRowCount());
-
-                  // verify all address values not null
-                  VarCharVector resultNameVector = (VarCharVector) batch.getVector("address");
-                  for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
-                    Assertions.assertFalse(resultNameVector.isNull(i));
-                    String expectedName = "District " + i;
-                    String actualName = new String(resultNameVector.get(i), StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
-                    assertEquals(expectedName, actualName);
+                  FragmentMetadata fragmentWithOverlay =
+                      datasetWithAddress.getFragments().get(0).metadata();
+                  List<DataFile> referencedFiles = fragmentWithOverlay.getReferencedLanceFiles();
+                  assertEquals(2, referencedFiles.size());
+                  assertEquals(fragmentMetas.get(0).getFiles().get(0), referencedFiles.get(0));
+                  assertEquals(datafile.getPath(), referencedFiles.get(1).getPath());
+                  assertEquals(datafile.getBaseId(), referencedFiles.get(1).getBaseId());
+
+                  try (LanceScanner scanner = datasetWithAddress.newScan()) {
+                    try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+                      assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
+                      VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                      assertEquals(rowCount, datasetWithAddress.countRows());
+                      assertEquals(rowCount, batch.getRowCount());
+
+                      // verify all address values not null
+                      VarCharVector resultNameVector = (VarCharVector) batch.getVector("address");
+                      for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                        Assertions.assertFalse(resultNameVector.isNull(i));
+                        String expectedName = "District " + i;
+                        String actualName =
+                            new String(resultNameVector.get(i), StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
+                        assertEquals(expectedName, actualName);
+                      }
+                    }
                   }
                 }
               }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/DeleteTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/DeleteTest.java
index 2151b31f9de..4afa9ca976d 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/DeleteTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/DeleteTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
@@ -42,15 +43,16 @@ void testDelete(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
       int rowCount = 20;
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta0 = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta1 = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
-      Transaction transaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction appendTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Append.builder().fragments(Arrays.asList(fragmentMeta0, fragmentMeta1)).build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset dataset = transaction.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(appendTxn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
+        }
       }
 
       dataset = Dataset.open(datasetPath, allocator);
@@ -60,17 +62,15 @@ void testDelete(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
               .map(t -> Long.valueOf(t.getId()))
               .collect(Collectors.toList());
 
-      Transaction delete =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction deleteTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Delete.builder().deletedFragmentIds(deletedFragmentIds).predicate("1=1").build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset dataset = delete.commit()) {
-        Transaction txn = dataset.readTransaction().get();
-        Delete execDelete = (Delete) txn.operation();
-        assertEquals(delete.operation(), execDelete);
-        assertEquals(0, dataset.countRows());
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(deleteTxn)) {
+          assertEquals(0, dataset.countRows());
+        }
       }
     }
   }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/MergeTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/MergeTest.java
index 8268aa23071..1e037285217 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/MergeTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/MergeTest.java
@@ -13,20 +13,25 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
 import org.lance.Transaction;
 import org.lance.fragment.DataFile;
 import org.lance.ipc.LanceScanner;
+import org.lance.schema.LanceField;
+import org.lance.schema.LanceSchema;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.IntVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VarCharVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.complex.StructVector;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.ipc.ArrowReader;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.FieldType;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
@@ -36,7 +41,9 @@
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
 
 public class MergeTest extends OperationTestBase {
 
@@ -90,45 +97,282 @@ void testMergeNewColumn(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
                   fragmentMeta.getDeletionFile(),
                   fragmentMeta.getRowIdMeta());
 
-          Transaction mergeTransaction =
-              initialDataset
-                  .newTransactionBuilder()
+          try (Transaction mergeTxn =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(initialDataset.version())
                   .operation(
                       Merge.builder()
                           .fragments(Collections.singletonList(evolvedFragment))
                           .schema(evolvedSchema)
+                          .preservesNullability(true)
                           .build())
-                  .build();
-
-          try (Dataset evolvedDataset = mergeTransaction.commit()) {
-            Assertions.assertEquals(3, evolvedDataset.version());
-            Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, evolvedDataset.countRows());
-            Assertions.assertEquals(evolvedSchema, evolvedDataset.getSchema());
-            Assertions.assertEquals(3, evolvedDataset.getSchema().getFields().size());
-            // Verify merged data
-            try (LanceScanner scanner = evolvedDataset.newScan()) {
-              try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-                Assertions.assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
-                VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-                Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, batch.getRowCount());
-                Assertions.assertEquals(3, batch.getSchema().getFields().size());
-                // Verify age column
-                IntVector ageResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("age");
-                for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
-                  Assertions.assertEquals(20 + i, ageResultVector.get(i));
+                  .build()) {
+            try (Dataset evolvedDataset = new CommitBuilder(initialDataset).execute(mergeTxn)) {
+              Assertions.assertEquals(3, evolvedDataset.version());
+              // The explicit non-default assertion must survive the JNI round trip.
+              Transaction readBack = evolvedDataset.readTransaction().orElseThrow();
+              Assertions.assertTrue(((Merge) readBack.operation()).preservesNullability());
+              Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, evolvedDataset.countRows());
+              Assertions.assertEquals(evolvedSchema, evolvedDataset.getSchema());
+              Assertions.assertEquals(3, evolvedDataset.getSchema().getFields().size());
+              // Verify merged data
+              try (LanceScanner scanner = evolvedDataset.newScan()) {
+                try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+                  Assertions.assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
+                  VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                  Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, batch.getRowCount());
+                  Assertions.assertEquals(3, batch.getSchema().getFields().size());
+                  // Verify age column
+                  IntVector ageResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("age");
+                  for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                    Assertions.assertEquals(20 + i, ageResultVector.get(i));
+                  }
+                  IntVector idResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("id");
+                  for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                    Assertions.assertEquals(i, idResultVector.get(i));
+                  }
                 }
-                IntVector idResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("id");
-                for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
-                  Assertions.assertEquals(i, idResultVector.get(i));
+              }
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testPreservesNullabilityEquality() {
+    Schema schema =
+        new Schema(
+            Collections.singletonList(Field.nullable("id", new ArrowType.Int(32, true))), null);
+    // No assertion by default, and the assertion is part of the operation's identity.
+    Assertions.assertFalse(
+        Merge.builder()
+            .fragments(Collections.emptyList())
+            .schema(schema)
+            .build()
+            .preservesNullability());
+    Assertions.assertNotEquals(
+        Merge.builder().fragments(Collections.emptyList()).schema(schema).build(),
+        Merge.builder()
+            .fragments(Collections.emptyList())
+            .schema(schema)
+            .preservesNullability(true)
+            .build());
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testMergeNewColumnWithNonContiguousFieldId(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testMergeNewColumnWithNonContiguousFieldId").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+
+      int rowCount = 15;
+      try (Dataset initialDataset = createAndAppendRows(testDataset, rowCount)) {
+        LanceSchema initialLanceSchema = initialDataset.getLanceSchema();
+        int idFieldId =
+            initialLanceSchema.fields().stream()
+                .filter(f -> f.getName().equals("id"))
+                .findFirst()
+                .map(LanceField::getId)
+                .orElseThrow(() -> new IllegalStateException("field 'id' not found"));
+        int nameFieldId =
+            initialLanceSchema.fields().stream()
+                .filter(f -> f.getName().equals("name"))
+                .findFirst()
+                .map(LanceField::getId)
+                .orElseThrow(() -> new IllegalStateException("field 'name' not found"));
+        int maxFieldId =
+            initialLanceSchema.fields().stream().mapToInt(LanceField::getId).max().orElse(-1);
+
+        // Use Arrow field metadata to manually assign a non-contiguous field id for the new column.
+        // This aligns with Rust's `lance:field_id` metadata key.
+        int ageFieldId = maxFieldId + 10;
+        int addressFieldId = maxFieldId + 20;
+        int cityFieldId = maxFieldId + 30;
+        int countryFieldId = maxFieldId + 40;
+
+        Field idField =
+            new Field(
+                "id",
+                new FieldType(true, new ArrowType.Int(32, true), null, fieldMeta(idFieldId)),
+                null);
+        Field nameField =
+            new Field(
+                "name",
+                new FieldType(true, new ArrowType.Utf8(), null, fieldMeta(nameFieldId)),
+                null);
+        Field ageField =
+            new Field(
+                "age",
+                new FieldType(true, new ArrowType.Int(32, true), null, fieldMeta(ageFieldId)),
+                null);
+        Field cityField =
+            new Field(
+                "city",
+                new FieldType(true, new ArrowType.Utf8(), null, fieldMeta(cityFieldId)),
+                null);
+        Field countryField =
+            new Field(
+                "country",
+                new FieldType(true, new ArrowType.Utf8(), null, fieldMeta(countryFieldId)),
+                null);
+        Field addressField =
+            new Field(
+                "address",
+                new FieldType(true, new ArrowType.Struct(), null, fieldMeta(addressFieldId)),
+                Arrays.asList(cityField, countryField));
+
+        Schema evolvedSchema =
+            new Schema(Arrays.asList(idField, nameField, ageField, addressField), null);
+
+        // Write data files for the new columns with the manually specified field id.
+        VectorSchemaRoot ageRoot = null;
+        VectorSchemaRoot addressRoot = null;
+        try {
+          // Age data file
+          ageRoot =
+              VectorSchemaRoot.create(
+                  new Schema(Collections.singletonList(ageField), null), allocator);
+          ageRoot.allocateNew();
+          IntVector ageVector = (IntVector) ageRoot.getVector("age");
+
+          for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+            ageVector.setSafe(i, 20 + i);
+          }
+          ageRoot.setRowCount(rowCount);
+
+          DataFile ageDataFile =
+              writeLanceDataFile(
+                  dataset.allocator(), datasetPath, ageRoot, new int[] {ageFieldId}, new int[] {0});
+
+          // Address data file
+          addressRoot =
+              VectorSchemaRoot.create(
+                  new Schema(Collections.singletonList(addressField), null), allocator);
+
+          addressRoot.allocateNew();
+          StructVector addressVector = (StructVector) addressRoot.getVector("address");
+          VarCharVector cityVector = (VarCharVector) addressVector.getChild("city");
+          VarCharVector countryVector = (VarCharVector) addressVector.getChild("country");
+
+          for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+            addressVector.setIndexDefined(i);
+            cityVector.setSafe(i, ("city_" + i).getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+            countryVector.setSafe(i, ("country_" + i).getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+          }
+          addressRoot.setRowCount(rowCount);
+
+          // New fragments from age and address
+          DataFile addressDataFile =
+              writeLanceDataFile(
+                  dataset.allocator(),
+                  datasetPath,
+                  addressRoot,
+                  new int[] {addressFieldId, cityFieldId, countryFieldId},
+                  new int[] {-1, 0, 1});
+
+          FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = initialDataset.getFragment(0).metadata();
+          List<DataFile> dataFiles = fragmentMeta.getFiles();
+          dataFiles.add(ageDataFile);
+          dataFiles.add(addressDataFile);
+          FragmentMetadata evolvedFragment =
+              new FragmentMetadata(
+                  fragmentMeta.getId(),
+                  dataFiles,
+                  fragmentMeta.getPhysicalRows(),
+                  fragmentMeta.getDeletionFile(),
+                  fragmentMeta.getRowIdMeta());
+
+          // Commit Merge
+          try (Transaction mergeTxn =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(initialDataset.version())
+                  .operation(
+                      Merge.builder()
+                          .fragments(Collections.singletonList(evolvedFragment))
+                          .schema(evolvedSchema)
+                          .build())
+                  .build()) {
+            try (Dataset evolvedDataset = new CommitBuilder(initialDataset).execute(mergeTxn)) {
+              Assertions.assertEquals(3, evolvedDataset.version());
+
+              // Verify field id.
+              LanceField evolvedAgeField =
+                  findField(evolvedDataset.getLanceSchema().fields(), "age");
+              Assertions.assertEquals(ageFieldId, evolvedAgeField.getId());
+
+              LanceField evolvedAddressField =
+                  findField(evolvedDataset.getLanceSchema().fields(), "address");
+              Assertions.assertEquals(addressFieldId, evolvedAddressField.getId());
+
+              LanceField evolvedCityField = findField(evolvedAddressField.getChildren(), "city");
+              Assertions.assertEquals(cityFieldId, evolvedCityField.getId());
+
+              LanceField evolvedCountryField =
+                  findField(evolvedAddressField.getChildren(), "country");
+              Assertions.assertEquals(countryFieldId, evolvedCountryField.getId());
+
+              // Verify merged data
+              try (LanceScanner scanner = evolvedDataset.newScan()) {
+                try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+                  Assertions.assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
+                  VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                  Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, batch.getRowCount());
+                  Assertions.assertEquals(4, batch.getSchema().getFields().size());
+
+                  IntVector ageResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("age");
+                  for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                    Assertions.assertEquals(20 + i, ageResultVector.get(i));
+                  }
+
+                  StructVector addressResultVector = (StructVector) batch.getVector("address");
+                  VarCharVector cityResultVector =
+                      (VarCharVector) addressResultVector.getChild("city");
+                  VarCharVector countryResultVector =
+                      (VarCharVector) addressResultVector.getChild("country");
+                  for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                    String city = new String(cityResultVector.get(i), StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
+                    String country = new String(countryResultVector.get(i), StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
+                    Assertions.assertEquals("city_" + i, city);
+                    Assertions.assertEquals("country_" + i, country);
+                  }
+
+                  IntVector idResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("id");
+                  for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                    Assertions.assertEquals(i, idResultVector.get(i));
+                  }
                 }
               }
             }
           }
+        } finally {
+          if (ageRoot != null) {
+            ageRoot.close();
+          }
+          if (addressRoot != null) {
+            addressRoot.close();
+          }
         }
       }
     }
   }
 
+  private Map<String, String> fieldMeta(int fieldId) {
+    Map<String, String> idMeta = new HashMap<>();
+    idMeta.put("lance:field_id", String.valueOf(fieldId));
+    return idMeta;
+  }
+
+  private LanceField findField(List<LanceField> fields, String fieldName) {
+    return fields.stream()
+        .filter(f -> f.getName().equals(fieldName))
+        .findFirst()
+        .orElseThrow(
+            () -> new IllegalStateException(String.format("field '%s' not found", fieldName)));
+  }
+
   @Test
   void testReplaceAsDiffColumns(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
     String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testReplaceAsDiffColumns").toString();
@@ -156,9 +400,24 @@ void testReplaceAsDiffColumns(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
           }
           ageRoot.setRowCount(rowCount);
 
+          LanceSchema initialLanceSchema = initialDataset.getLanceSchema();
+          int idFieldId =
+              initialLanceSchema.fields().stream()
+                  .filter(f -> f.getName().equals("id"))
+                  .findFirst()
+                  .map(LanceField::getId)
+                  .orElseThrow(() -> new IllegalStateException("field 'id' not found"));
+          int maxFieldId =
+              initialLanceSchema.fields().stream().mapToInt(LanceField::getId).max().orElse(-1);
+          int ageFieldId = maxFieldId + 1;
+
           DataFile ageDataFile =
               writeLanceDataFile(
-                  dataset.allocator(), datasetPath, ageRoot, new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {0, 1});
+                  dataset.allocator(),
+                  datasetPath,
+                  ageRoot,
+                  new int[] {idFieldId, ageFieldId},
+                  new int[] {0, 1});
 
           FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = initialDataset.getFragment(0).metadata();
           FragmentMetadata evolvedFragment =
@@ -169,36 +428,36 @@ void testReplaceAsDiffColumns(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
                   fragmentMeta.getDeletionFile(),
                   fragmentMeta.getRowIdMeta());
 
-          Transaction mergeTransaction =
-              initialDataset
-                  .newTransactionBuilder()
+          try (Transaction mergeTxn =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(initialDataset.version())
                   .operation(
                       Merge.builder()
                           .fragments(Collections.singletonList(evolvedFragment))
                           .schema(evolvedSchema)
                           .build())
-                  .build();
-
-          try (Dataset evolvedDataset = mergeTransaction.commit()) {
-            Assertions.assertEquals(3, evolvedDataset.version());
-            Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, evolvedDataset.countRows());
-            Assertions.assertEquals(evolvedSchema, evolvedDataset.getSchema());
-            Assertions.assertEquals(2, evolvedDataset.getSchema().getFields().size());
-            // Verify merged data
-            try (LanceScanner scanner = evolvedDataset.newScan()) {
-              try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-                Assertions.assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
-                VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-                Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, batch.getRowCount());
-                Assertions.assertEquals(2, batch.getSchema().getFields().size());
-                // Verify age column
-                IntVector ageResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("age");
-                for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
-                  Assertions.assertEquals(20 + i, ageResultVector.get(i));
-                }
-                IntVector idResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("id");
-                for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
-                  Assertions.assertEquals(i, idResultVector.get(i));
+                  .build()) {
+            try (Dataset evolvedDataset = new CommitBuilder(initialDataset).execute(mergeTxn)) {
+              Assertions.assertEquals(3, evolvedDataset.version());
+              Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, evolvedDataset.countRows());
+              Assertions.assertEquals(evolvedSchema, evolvedDataset.getSchema());
+              Assertions.assertEquals(2, evolvedDataset.getSchema().getFields().size());
+              // Verify merged data
+              try (LanceScanner scanner = evolvedDataset.newScan()) {
+                try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+                  Assertions.assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
+                  VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                  Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, batch.getRowCount());
+                  Assertions.assertEquals(2, batch.getSchema().getFields().size());
+                  // Verify age column
+                  IntVector ageResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("age");
+                  for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                    Assertions.assertEquals(20 + i, ageResultVector.get(i));
+                  }
+                  IntVector idResultVector = (IntVector) batch.getVector("id");
+                  for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                    Assertions.assertEquals(i, idResultVector.get(i));
+                  }
                 }
               }
             }
@@ -254,31 +513,31 @@ void testMergeExistingColumn(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
                   fragmentMeta.getDeletionFile(),
                   fragmentMeta.getRowIdMeta());
 
-          Transaction mergeTransaction =
-              initialDataset
-                  .newTransactionBuilder()
+          try (Transaction mergeTxn =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(initialDataset.version())
                   .operation(
                       Merge.builder()
                           .fragments(Collections.singletonList(evolvedFragment))
                           .schema(testDataset.getSchema())
                           .build())
-                  .build();
-
-          try (Dataset mergedDataset = mergeTransaction.commit()) {
-            Assertions.assertEquals(3, mergedDataset.version());
-            Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, mergedDataset.countRows());
-
-            // Verify updated data
-            try (LanceScanner scanner = mergedDataset.newScan()) {
-              try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-                Assertions.assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
-                VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-
-                VarCharVector nameResultVector = (VarCharVector) batch.getVector("name");
-                for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
-                  String expectedName = "UpdatedName_" + i;
-                  String actualName = new String(nameResultVector.get(i), StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
-                  Assertions.assertEquals(expectedName, actualName);
+                  .build()) {
+            try (Dataset mergedDataset = new CommitBuilder(initialDataset).execute(mergeTxn)) {
+              Assertions.assertEquals(3, mergedDataset.version());
+              Assertions.assertEquals(rowCount, mergedDataset.countRows());
+
+              // Verify updated data
+              try (LanceScanner scanner = mergedDataset.newScan()) {
+                try (ArrowReader resultReader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+                  Assertions.assertTrue(resultReader.loadNextBatch());
+                  VectorSchemaRoot batch = resultReader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+
+                  VarCharVector nameResultVector = (VarCharVector) batch.getVector("name");
+                  for (int i = 0; i < rowCount; i++) {
+                    String expectedName = "UpdatedName_" + i;
+                    String actualName = new String(nameResultVector.get(i), StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
+                    Assertions.assertEquals(expectedName, actualName);
+                  }
                 }
               }
             }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/OperationTestBase.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/OperationTestBase.java
index f89aeb6e829..df6ddb2830d 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/OperationTestBase.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/OperationTestBase.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
@@ -34,7 +35,7 @@
 public class OperationTestBase {
 
   public static final int TEST_FILE_FORMAT_MAJOR_VERSION = 2;
-  public static final int TEST_FILE_FORMAT_MINOR_VERSION = 0;
+  public static final int TEST_FILE_FORMAT_MINOR_VERSION = 2;
   protected Dataset dataset;
 
   @BeforeAll
@@ -53,12 +54,13 @@ protected Dataset createAndAppendRows(TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset suite, int row
     dataset = suite.createEmptyDataset();
     FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = suite.createNewFragment(rowCount);
 
-    Transaction appendTxn =
-        dataset
-            .newTransactionBuilder()
+    try (Transaction txn =
+        new Transaction.Builder()
+            .readVersion(dataset.version())
             .operation(Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
-            .build();
-    return appendTxn.commit();
+            .build()) {
+      return new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn);
+    }
   }
 
   /**
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/OverwriteTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/OverwriteTest.java
index f5a90de5b49..c1def711edc 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/OverwriteTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/OverwriteTest.java
@@ -13,22 +13,32 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.Fragment;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
 import org.lance.Transaction;
+import org.lance.WriteParams;
 import org.lance.ipc.LanceScanner;
 
 import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.BigIntVector;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.VectorSchemaRoot;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.ArrowType;
+import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Field;
 import org.apache.arrow.vector.types.pojo.Schema;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
 
 import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 public class OverwriteTest extends OperationTestBase {
 
@@ -43,33 +53,34 @@ void testOverwrite(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
       // Commit fragment
       int rowCount = 20;
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
-      Transaction transaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Overwrite.builder()
                       .fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta))
                       .schema(testDataset.getSchema())
                       .build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset dataset = transaction.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
-        assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
-        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
-
-        try (LanceScanner scanner = fragment.newScan()) {
-          Schema schemaRes = scanner.schema();
-          assertEquals(testDataset.getSchema(), schemaRes);
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(txn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
+          assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
+          Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+
+          try (LanceScanner scanner = fragment.newScan()) {
+            Schema schemaRes = scanner.schema();
+            assertEquals(testDataset.getSchema(), schemaRes);
+          }
         }
       }
 
-      // Commit fragment again
+      // Try to commit from stale version (v1) - should fail with retryable error
       rowCount = 40;
       fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
-      transaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction staleTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Overwrite.builder()
                       .fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta))
@@ -77,21 +88,106 @@ void testOverwrite(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
                       .configUpsertValues(Collections.singletonMap("config_key", "config_value"))
                       .build())
               .transactionProperties(Collections.singletonMap("key", "value"))
-              .build();
-      assertEquals(
-          "value", transaction.transactionProperties().map(m -> m.get("key")).orElse(null));
-      try (Dataset dataset = transaction.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(3, dataset.version());
-        assertEquals(3, dataset.latestVersion());
-        assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
-        assertEquals("config_value", dataset.getConfig().get("config_key"));
-        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
-
-        try (LanceScanner scanner = fragment.newScan()) {
-          Schema schemaRes = scanner.schema();
-          assertEquals(testDataset.getSchema(), schemaRes);
+              .build()) {
+        assertEquals("value", staleTxn.transactionProperties().map(m -> m.get("key")).orElse(null));
+
+        RuntimeException ex =
+            assertThrows(
+                RuntimeException.class, () -> new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(staleTxn).close());
+        assertTrue(
+            ex.getMessage().contains("Retryable commit conflict"),
+            "Expected retryable commit conflict error, got: " + ex.getMessage());
+      }
+
+      // Checkout latest and retry - should succeed
+      dataset.checkoutLatest();
+      try (Transaction retryTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(
+                  Overwrite.builder()
+                      .fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta))
+                      .schema(testDataset.getSchema())
+                      .configUpsertValues(Collections.singletonMap("config_key", "config_value"))
+                      .build())
+              .transactionProperties(Collections.singletonMap("key", "value"))
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(retryTxn)) {
+          assertEquals(3, dataset.version());
+          assertEquals(3, dataset.latestVersion());
+          assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
+          assertEquals("config_value", dataset.getConfig().get("config_key"));
+          Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+
+          try (LanceScanner scanner = fragment.newScan()) {
+            Schema schemaRes = scanner.schema();
+            assertEquals(testDataset.getSchema(), schemaRes);
+          }
+          assertEquals(retryTxn, dataset.readTransaction().orElse(null));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testOverwriteWithDifferentFieldTypes(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testOverwriteFieldTypes").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      // Create initial dataset with schema: id (int32), name (utf8)
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+      FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(
+                  Overwrite.builder()
+                      .fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta))
+                      .schema(testDataset.getSchema())
+                      .build())
+              .build()) {
+        dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(txn);
+      }
+      assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
+      assertEquals(10, dataset.countRows());
+
+      // Overwrite with a new schema where "id" changes from int32 to int64
+      // and "name" changes from utf8 to int64
+      Schema newSchema =
+          new Schema(
+              Arrays.asList(
+                  Field.nullable("id", new ArrowType.Int(64, true)),
+                  Field.nullable("name", new ArrowType.Int(64, true))));
+
+      int newRowCount = 5;
+      List<FragmentMetadata> newFragments;
+      try (VectorSchemaRoot root = VectorSchemaRoot.create(newSchema, allocator)) {
+        root.allocateNew();
+        BigIntVector idVector = (BigIntVector) root.getVector("id");
+        BigIntVector nameVector = (BigIntVector) root.getVector("name");
+        for (int i = 0; i < newRowCount; i++) {
+          idVector.setSafe(i, (long) i * 100);
+          nameVector.setSafe(i, (long) i * 200);
+        }
+        root.setRowCount(newRowCount);
+        newFragments =
+            Fragment.create(datasetPath, allocator, root, new WriteParams.Builder().build());
+      }
+
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(Overwrite.builder().fragments(newFragments).schema(newSchema).build())
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset overwritten = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(txn)) {
+          assertEquals(3, overwritten.version());
+          assertEquals(newRowCount, overwritten.countRows());
+
+          // Verify the schema has the new types
+          Schema resultSchema = overwritten.getSchema();
+          assertEquals(newSchema, resultSchema);
         }
-        assertEquals(transaction, dataset.readTransaction().orElse(null));
       }
     }
   }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/ProjectTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/ProjectTest.java
index a8124a672ca..bd3dd7d2960 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/ProjectTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/ProjectTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
 import org.lance.Transaction;
@@ -29,6 +30,8 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
 
 public class ProjectTest extends OperationTestBase {
 
@@ -43,29 +46,59 @@ void testProjection(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
       assertEquals(testDataset.getSchema(), dataset.getSchema());
       List<Field> fieldList = new ArrayList<>(testDataset.getSchema().getFields());
       Collections.reverse(fieldList);
-      Transaction txn1 =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction txn1 =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(Project.builder().schema(new Schema(fieldList)).build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset committedDataset = txn1.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(1, txn1.readVersion());
-        assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
-        assertEquals(2, committedDataset.version());
-        assertEquals(new Schema(fieldList), committedDataset.getSchema());
-        fieldList.remove(1);
-        Transaction txn2 =
-            committedDataset
-                .newTransactionBuilder()
-                .operation(Project.builder().schema(new Schema(fieldList)).build())
-                .build();
-        try (Dataset committedDataset2 = txn2.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(2, txn2.readVersion());
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset committedDataset = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn1)) {
+          assertEquals(1, dataset.version());
           assertEquals(2, committedDataset.version());
-          assertEquals(3, committedDataset2.version());
-          assertEquals(new Schema(fieldList), committedDataset2.getSchema());
-          assertEquals(txn1, committedDataset.readTransaction().orElse(null));
-          assertEquals(txn2, committedDataset2.readTransaction().orElse(null));
+          assertEquals(new Schema(fieldList), committedDataset.getSchema());
+          fieldList.remove(1);
+          try (Transaction txn2 =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(committedDataset.version())
+                  .operation(Project.builder().schema(new Schema(fieldList)).build())
+                  .build()) {
+            try (Dataset committedDataset2 = new CommitBuilder(committedDataset).execute(txn2)) {
+              assertEquals(2, committedDataset.version());
+              assertEquals(3, committedDataset2.version());
+              assertEquals(new Schema(fieldList), committedDataset2.getSchema());
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testPreservesNullabilityEqualityAndRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testAssertsNonNull").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+      Schema schema = testDataset.getSchema();
+
+      // The assertion is part of the operation's identity.
+      assertNotEquals(
+          Project.builder().schema(schema).preservesNullability(true).build(),
+          Project.builder().schema(schema).preservesNullability(false).build());
+      assertEquals(
+          Project.builder().schema(schema).preservesNullability(true).build(),
+          Project.builder().schema(schema).preservesNullability(true).build());
+
+      // The explicit non-default assertion must survive the JNI round trip.
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(Project.builder().schema(schema).preservesNullability(true).build())
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn)) {
+          Transaction readBack = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow();
+          Project project = (Project) readBack.operation();
+          assertTrue(project.preservesNullability());
         }
       }
     }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/ReserveFragmentsTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/ReserveFragmentsTest.java
index 14089482c08..9299fa7b1bd 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/ReserveFragmentsTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/ReserveFragmentsTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.Fragment;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
@@ -42,54 +43,55 @@ void testReserveFragments(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
 
       // Create an initial fragment to establish a baseline fragment ID
       FragmentMetadata initialFragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
-      Transaction appendTransaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction appendTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Append.builder()
                       .fragments(Collections.singletonList(initialFragmentMeta))
                       .build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset datasetWithFragment = appendTransaction.commit()) {
-        // Reserve fragment IDs
-        int numFragmentsToReserve = 5;
-        Transaction reserveTransaction =
-            datasetWithFragment
-                .newTransactionBuilder()
-                .operation(
-                    new ReserveFragments.Builder().numFragments(numFragmentsToReserve).build())
-                .build();
-        try (Dataset datasetWithReservedFragments = reserveTransaction.commit()) {
-          // Create a new fragment and verify its ID reflects the reservation
-          FragmentMetadata newFragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
-          Transaction appendTransaction2 =
-              datasetWithReservedFragments
-                  .newTransactionBuilder()
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset datasetWithFragment = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(appendTxn)) {
+          // Reserve fragment IDs
+          int numFragmentsToReserve = 5;
+          try (Transaction reserveTxn =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(datasetWithFragment.version())
                   .operation(
-                      Append.builder()
-                          .fragments(Collections.singletonList(newFragmentMeta))
-                          .build())
-                  .build();
-          try (Dataset finalDataset = appendTransaction2.commit()) {
-            // Verify the fragment IDs were properly reserved
-            // The new fragment should have an ID that's at least numFragmentsToReserve higher
-            // than it would have been without the reservation
-            List<Fragment> fragments = finalDataset.getFragments();
-            assertEquals(2, fragments.size());
+                      new ReserveFragments.Builder().numFragments(numFragmentsToReserve).build())
+                  .build()) {
+            try (Dataset datasetWithReservedFragments =
+                new CommitBuilder(datasetWithFragment).execute(reserveTxn)) {
+              // Create a new fragment and verify its ID reflects the reservation
+              FragmentMetadata newFragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+              try (Transaction appendTxn2 =
+                  new Transaction.Builder()
+                      .readVersion(datasetWithReservedFragments.version())
+                      .operation(
+                          Append.builder()
+                              .fragments(Collections.singletonList(newFragmentMeta))
+                              .build())
+                      .build()) {
+                try (Dataset finalDataset =
+                    new CommitBuilder(datasetWithReservedFragments).execute(appendTxn2)) {
+                  // Verify the fragment IDs were properly reserved
+                  // The new fragment should have an ID that's at least numFragmentsToReserve
+                  // higher than it would have been without the reservation
+                  List<Fragment> fragments = finalDataset.getFragments();
+                  assertEquals(2, fragments.size());
 
-            // The first fragment ID is typically 0, and the second would normally be 1
-            // But after reserving 5 fragments, the second fragment ID should be at least 6
-            Fragment firstFragment = fragments.get(0);
-            Fragment secondFragment = fragments.get(1);
+                  // The first fragment ID is typically 0, and the second would normally be 1
+                  // But after reserving 5 fragments, the second fragment ID should be at least 6
+                  Fragment firstFragment = fragments.get(0);
+                  Fragment secondFragment = fragments.get(1);
 
-            // Check that the second fragment has a significantly higher ID than the first
-            // This is an indirect way to verify that fragment IDs were reserved
-            Assertions.assertNotEquals(
-                firstFragment.metadata().getId() + 1, secondFragment.getId());
-
-            // Verify the transaction is recorded
-            assertEquals(
-                reserveTransaction, datasetWithReservedFragments.readTransaction().orElse(null));
+                  // Check that the second fragment has a significantly higher ID than the first
+                  // This is an indirect way to verify that fragment IDs were reserved
+                  Assertions.assertNotEquals(
+                      firstFragment.metadata().getId() + 1, secondFragment.getId());
+                }
+              }
+            }
           }
         }
       }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/RestoreTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/RestoreTest.java
index 751263f4c06..98e9d779ade 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/RestoreTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/RestoreTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
@@ -43,30 +44,31 @@ void testRestore(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
       // Append data to create a new version
       int rowCount = 20;
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
-      Transaction transaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction appendTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset modifiedDataset = transaction.commit()) {
-        // Verify the dataset was modified
-        long newVersion = modifiedDataset.version();
-        assertEquals(initialVersion + 1, newVersion);
-        assertEquals(rowCount, modifiedDataset.countRows());
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset modifiedDataset = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(appendTxn)) {
+          // Verify the dataset was modified
+          long newVersion = modifiedDataset.version();
+          assertEquals(initialVersion + 1, newVersion);
+          assertEquals(rowCount, modifiedDataset.countRows());
 
-        // Restore to the initial version
-        Transaction restoreTransaction =
-            modifiedDataset
-                .newTransactionBuilder()
-                .operation(new Restore.Builder().version(initialVersion).build())
-                .build();
-        try (Dataset restoredDataset = restoreTransaction.commit()) {
-          // Verify the dataset was restored to the initial version, but the version increases
-          assertEquals(initialVersion + 2, restoredDataset.version());
-          // Initial dataset had 0 rows
-          assertEquals(0, restoredDataset.countRows());
-          assertEquals(restoreTransaction, restoredDataset.readTransaction().orElse(null));
+          // Restore to the initial version
+          try (Transaction restoreTxn =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(modifiedDataset.version())
+                  .operation(new Restore.Builder().version(initialVersion).build())
+                  .build()) {
+            try (Dataset restoredDataset = new CommitBuilder(modifiedDataset).execute(restoreTxn)) {
+              // Verify the dataset was restored to the initial version, but the version increases
+              assertEquals(initialVersion + 2, restoredDataset.version());
+              // Initial dataset had 0 rows
+              assertEquals(0, restoredDataset.countRows());
+            }
+          }
         }
       }
     }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/RewriteTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/RewriteTest.java
index 4a73e2807e8..f2081ab8895 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/RewriteTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/RewriteTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
@@ -44,47 +45,45 @@ void testRewrite(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta1 = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta2 = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
 
-      Transaction appendTx =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction appendTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Append.builder().fragments(Arrays.asList(fragmentMeta1, fragmentMeta2)).build())
-              .build();
-
-      try (Dataset datasetWithData = appendTx.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(2, datasetWithData.version());
-        assertEquals(rowCount * 2, datasetWithData.countRows());
-
-        // Now create a rewrite operation
-        List<RewriteGroup> groups = new ArrayList<>();
-
-        // Create a rewrite group with old fragments and new fragments
-        List<FragmentMetadata> oldFragments = new ArrayList<>();
-        oldFragments.add(fragmentMeta1);
-
-        List<FragmentMetadata> newFragments = new ArrayList<>();
-        FragmentMetadata newFragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
-        newFragments.add(newFragmentMeta);
-
-        RewriteGroup group =
-            RewriteGroup.builder().oldFragments(oldFragments).newFragments(newFragments).build();
-
-        groups.add(group);
-
-        // Create and commit the rewrite transaction
-        Transaction rewriteTx =
-            datasetWithData
-                .newTransactionBuilder()
-                .operation(Rewrite.builder().groups(groups).build())
-                .build();
-
-        try (Dataset rewrittenDataset = rewriteTx.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(3, rewrittenDataset.version());
-          // The row count should remain the same since we're just rewriting
-          assertEquals(rowCount * 2, rewrittenDataset.countRows());
-
-          // Verify that the transaction was recorded
-          assertEquals(rewriteTx, rewrittenDataset.readTransaction().orElse(null));
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset datasetWithData = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(appendTxn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, datasetWithData.version());
+          assertEquals(rowCount * 2, datasetWithData.countRows());
+
+          // Now create a rewrite operation
+          List<RewriteGroup> groups = new ArrayList<>();
+
+          // Create a rewrite group with old fragments and new fragments
+          List<FragmentMetadata> oldFragments = new ArrayList<>();
+          oldFragments.add(fragmentMeta1);
+
+          List<FragmentMetadata> newFragments = new ArrayList<>();
+          FragmentMetadata newFragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
+          newFragments.add(newFragmentMeta);
+
+          RewriteGroup group =
+              RewriteGroup.builder().oldFragments(oldFragments).newFragments(newFragments).build();
+
+          groups.add(group);
+
+          // Create and commit the rewrite transaction
+          try (Transaction rewriteTxn =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(datasetWithData.version())
+                  .operation(Rewrite.builder().groups(groups).build())
+                  .build()) {
+            try (Dataset rewrittenDataset =
+                new CommitBuilder(datasetWithData).execute(rewriteTxn)) {
+              assertEquals(3, rewrittenDataset.version());
+              // The row count should remain the same since we're just rewriting
+              assertEquals(rowCount * 2, rewrittenDataset.countRows());
+            }
+          }
         }
       }
     }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/TruncateTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/TruncateTest.java
index 93f5b689e8c..e316c969362 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/TruncateTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/TruncateTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
@@ -40,15 +41,15 @@ void testTruncateTable(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
       // Append some data
       int rowCount = 20;
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
-      Transaction transaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
-              .operation(
-                  Append.builder()
-                      .fragments(java.util.Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta))
-                      .build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset ds1 = transaction.commit()) {
+      try (Transaction txn =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                  .operation(
+                      Append.builder()
+                          .fragments(java.util.Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta))
+                          .build())
+                  .build();
+          Dataset ds1 = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn)) {
         assertEquals(rowCount, ds1.countRows());
 
         // Truncate to empty while preserving schema
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateConfigTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateConfigTest.java
index 14c3ea444f0..aba003846c8 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateConfigTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateConfigTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.TestUtils;
 import org.lance.Transaction;
@@ -45,90 +46,101 @@ void testUpdateConfig(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
 
       UpdateMap configUpdates = UpdateMap.builder().updates(configValues).replace(false).build();
 
-      Transaction transaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction txn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(UpdateConfig.builder().configUpdates(configUpdates).build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset updatedDataset = transaction.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(2, updatedDataset.version());
-        assertEquals("value1", updatedDataset.getConfig().get("key1"));
-        assertEquals("value2", updatedDataset.getConfig().get("key2"));
-
-        // Test 2: Delete configuration key using configUpdates with null value
-        Map<String, String> deleteUpdates = new HashMap<>();
-        deleteUpdates.put("key1", null); // null value means delete
-
-        UpdateMap configDeleteUpdates =
-            UpdateMap.builder().updates(deleteUpdates).replace(false).build();
-
-        transaction =
-            updatedDataset
-                .newTransactionBuilder()
-                .operation(UpdateConfig.builder().configUpdates(configDeleteUpdates).build())
-                .build();
-        try (Dataset updatedDataset2 = transaction.commit()) {
-          assertEquals(3, updatedDataset2.version());
-          assertNull(updatedDataset2.getConfig().get("key1"));
-          assertEquals("value2", updatedDataset2.getConfig().get("key2"));
-
-          // Test 3: Update schema metadata using schemaMetadataUpdates
-          Map<String, String> schemaMetadataMap = new HashMap<>();
-          schemaMetadataMap.put("schema_key1", "schema_value1");
-          schemaMetadataMap.put("schema_key2", "schema_value2");
-
-          UpdateMap schemaMetadataUpdates =
-              UpdateMap.builder().updates(schemaMetadataMap).replace(false).build();
-
-          transaction =
-              updatedDataset2
-                  .newTransactionBuilder()
-                  .operation(
-                      UpdateConfig.builder().schemaMetadataUpdates(schemaMetadataUpdates).build())
-                  .build();
-          try (Dataset updatedDataset3 = transaction.commit()) {
-            assertEquals(4, updatedDataset3.version());
-            assertEquals(
-                "schema_value1", updatedDataset3.getLanceSchema().metadata().get("schema_key1"));
-            assertEquals(
-                "schema_value2", updatedDataset3.getLanceSchema().metadata().get("schema_key2"));
-
-            // Test 4: Update field metadata using fieldMetadataUpdates
-            Map<Integer, UpdateMap> fieldMetadataUpdates = new HashMap<>();
-
-            Map<String, String> field0Updates = new HashMap<>();
-            field0Updates.put("field0_key1", "field0_value1");
-            UpdateMap field0UpdateMap =
-                UpdateMap.builder().updates(field0Updates).replace(false).build();
-
-            Map<String, String> field1Updates = new HashMap<>();
-            field1Updates.put("field1_key1", "field1_value1");
-            field1Updates.put("field1_key2", "field1_value2");
-            UpdateMap field1UpdateMap =
-                UpdateMap.builder().updates(field1Updates).replace(false).build();
-
-            fieldMetadataUpdates.put(0, field0UpdateMap);
-            fieldMetadataUpdates.put(1, field1UpdateMap);
-
-            transaction =
-                updatedDataset3
-                    .newTransactionBuilder()
-                    .operation(
-                        UpdateConfig.builder().fieldMetadataUpdates(fieldMetadataUpdates).build())
-                    .build();
-            try (Dataset updatedDataset4 = transaction.commit()) {
-              assertEquals(5, updatedDataset4.version());
-
-              // Verify field metadata for field 0
-              Map<String, String> fieldMetadata0 =
-                  updatedDataset4.getLanceSchema().fields().get(0).getMetadata();
-              assertEquals("field0_value1", fieldMetadata0.get("field0_key1"));
-
-              // Verify field metadata for field 1
-              Map<String, String> field1Result =
-                  updatedDataset4.getLanceSchema().fields().get(1).getMetadata();
-              assertEquals("field1_value1", field1Result.get("field1_key1"));
-              assertEquals("field1_value2", field1Result.get("field1_key2"));
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset updatedDataset = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, updatedDataset.version());
+          assertEquals("value1", updatedDataset.getConfig().get("key1"));
+          assertEquals("value2", updatedDataset.getConfig().get("key2"));
+
+          // Test 2: Delete configuration key using configUpdates with null value
+          Map<String, String> deleteUpdates = new HashMap<>();
+          deleteUpdates.put("key1", null); // null value means delete
+
+          UpdateMap configDeleteUpdates =
+              UpdateMap.builder().updates(deleteUpdates).replace(false).build();
+
+          try (Transaction txn2 =
+              new Transaction.Builder()
+                  .readVersion(updatedDataset.version())
+                  .operation(UpdateConfig.builder().configUpdates(configDeleteUpdates).build())
+                  .build()) {
+            try (Dataset updatedDataset2 = new CommitBuilder(updatedDataset).execute(txn2)) {
+              assertEquals(3, updatedDataset2.version());
+              assertNull(updatedDataset2.getConfig().get("key1"));
+              assertEquals("value2", updatedDataset2.getConfig().get("key2"));
+
+              // Test 3: Update schema metadata using schemaMetadataUpdates
+              Map<String, String> schemaMetadataMap = new HashMap<>();
+              schemaMetadataMap.put("schema_key1", "schema_value1");
+              schemaMetadataMap.put("schema_key2", "schema_value2");
+
+              UpdateMap schemaMetadataUpdates =
+                  UpdateMap.builder().updates(schemaMetadataMap).replace(false).build();
+
+              try (Transaction txn3 =
+                  new Transaction.Builder()
+                      .readVersion(updatedDataset2.version())
+                      .operation(
+                          UpdateConfig.builder()
+                              .schemaMetadataUpdates(schemaMetadataUpdates)
+                              .build())
+                      .build()) {
+                try (Dataset updatedDataset3 = new CommitBuilder(updatedDataset2).execute(txn3)) {
+                  assertEquals(4, updatedDataset3.version());
+                  assertEquals(
+                      "schema_value1",
+                      updatedDataset3.getLanceSchema().metadata().get("schema_key1"));
+                  assertEquals(
+                      "schema_value2",
+                      updatedDataset3.getLanceSchema().metadata().get("schema_key2"));
+
+                  // Test 4: Update field metadata using fieldMetadataUpdates
+                  Map<Integer, UpdateMap> fieldMetadataUpdates = new HashMap<>();
+
+                  Map<String, String> field0Updates = new HashMap<>();
+                  field0Updates.put("field0_key1", "field0_value1");
+                  UpdateMap field0UpdateMap =
+                      UpdateMap.builder().updates(field0Updates).replace(false).build();
+
+                  Map<String, String> field1Updates = new HashMap<>();
+                  field1Updates.put("field1_key1", "field1_value1");
+                  field1Updates.put("field1_key2", "field1_value2");
+                  UpdateMap field1UpdateMap =
+                      UpdateMap.builder().updates(field1Updates).replace(false).build();
+
+                  fieldMetadataUpdates.put(0, field0UpdateMap);
+                  fieldMetadataUpdates.put(1, field1UpdateMap);
+
+                  try (Transaction txn4 =
+                      new Transaction.Builder()
+                          .readVersion(updatedDataset3.version())
+                          .operation(
+                              UpdateConfig.builder()
+                                  .fieldMetadataUpdates(fieldMetadataUpdates)
+                                  .build())
+                          .build()) {
+                    try (Dataset updatedDataset4 =
+                        new CommitBuilder(updatedDataset3).execute(txn4)) {
+                      assertEquals(5, updatedDataset4.version());
+
+                      // Verify field metadata for field 0
+                      Map<String, String> fieldMetadata0 =
+                          updatedDataset4.getLanceSchema().fields().get(0).getMetadata();
+                      assertEquals("field0_value1", fieldMetadata0.get("field0_key1"));
+
+                      // Verify field metadata for field 1
+                      Map<String, String> field1Result =
+                          updatedDataset4.getLanceSchema().fields().get(1).getMetadata();
+                      assertEquals("field1_value1", field1Result.get("field1_key1"));
+                      assertEquals("field1_value2", field1Result.get("field1_key2"));
+                    }
+                  }
+                }
+              }
             }
           }
         }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateTest.java
index 0e3e2276204..7250c9681f7 100644
--- a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateTest.java
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/operation/UpdateTest.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
  */
 package org.lance.operation;
 
+import org.lance.CommitBuilder;
 import org.lance.Dataset;
 import org.lance.Fragment;
 import org.lance.FragmentMetadata;
@@ -35,10 +36,14 @@
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertInstanceOf;
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
 
 public class UpdateTest extends OperationTestBase {
@@ -54,35 +59,37 @@ void testUpdate(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
       // Commit fragment
       int rowCount = 20;
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
-      Transaction transaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction appendTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
-              .build();
-
-      try (Dataset dataset = transaction.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
-        assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
-        assertThrows(
-            IllegalArgumentException.class,
-            () ->
-                dataset
-                    .newTransactionBuilder()
-                    .operation(Append.builder().fragments(new ArrayList<>()).build())
-                    .build()
-                    .commit()
-                    .close());
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(appendTxn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
+          assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
+          assertThrows(
+              IllegalArgumentException.class,
+              () -> {
+                try (Transaction txn =
+                    new Transaction.Builder()
+                        .readVersion(dataset.version())
+                        .operation(Append.builder().fragments(new ArrayList<>()).build())
+                        .build()) {
+                  new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(txn).close();
+                }
+              });
+        }
       }
 
       dataset = Dataset.open(datasetPath, allocator);
       // Update fragments
       rowCount = 40;
       FragmentMetadata newFragment = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
-      transaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction updateTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Update.builder()
                       .removedFragmentIds(
@@ -91,15 +98,94 @@ void testUpdate(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
                       .newFragments(Collections.singletonList(newFragment))
                       .updateMode(Optional.of(UpdateMode.RewriteRows))
                       .build())
-              .build();
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(updateTxn)) {
+          assertEquals(3, dataset.version());
+          assertEquals(3, dataset.latestVersion());
+          assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testUpdatedFragmentOffsetsRoundTrip(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
+    String datasetPath = tempDir.resolve("testUpdatedFragmentOffsetsRoundTrip").toString();
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath);
+      dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset();
+
+      // Append an initial fragment so we have a real fragment id.
+      FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(10);
+      try (Transaction appendTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(
+                  Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
+              .build()) {
+        new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(appendTxn).close();
+      }
+
+      dataset = Dataset.open(datasetPath, allocator);
+      Fragment existingFragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+      long fragmentId = existingFragment.getId();
+      // Use the committed fragment's own metadata as the updatedFragment so that
+      // the updatedFragmentOffsets key is valid (must match a fragment in updatedFragments).
+      FragmentMetadata existingFragmentMeta = existingFragment.metadata();
 
-      try (Dataset dataset = transaction.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(3, dataset.version());
-        assertEquals(3, dataset.latestVersion());
-        assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
+      // Build Update with non-empty updatedFragmentOffsets. Values are portable RoaringBitmap
+      // bytes encoding {1, 3, 5}: cookie(4) + containerCount(4) + key(2) + card-1(2) +
+      // offset(4) + elems(6). Offset = 16 (start of container data from beginning of stream).
+      Map<Long, byte[]> offsets = new HashMap<>();
+      offsets.put(
+          fragmentId,
+          new byte[] {
+            (byte) 0x3A,
+            (byte) 0x30,
+            (byte) 0x00,
+            (byte) 0x00, // cookie = 12346
+            (byte) 0x01,
+            (byte) 0x00,
+            (byte) 0x00,
+            (byte) 0x00, // 1 container
+            (byte) 0x00,
+            (byte) 0x00, // container key 0
+            (byte) 0x02,
+            (byte) 0x00, // cardinality - 1 = 2
+            (byte) 0x10,
+            (byte) 0x00,
+            (byte) 0x00,
+            (byte) 0x00, // offset = 16
+            (byte) 0x01,
+            (byte) 0x00, // element 1
+            (byte) 0x03,
+            (byte) 0x00, // element 3
+            (byte) 0x05,
+            (byte) 0x00 // element 5
+          });
 
-        Transaction txn = dataset.readTransaction().orElse(null);
-        assertEquals(transaction, txn);
+      try (Transaction updateTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
+              .operation(
+                  Update.builder()
+                      .updatedFragments(Collections.singletonList(existingFragmentMeta))
+                      .updateMode(Optional.of(UpdateMode.RewriteColumns))
+                      .updatedFragmentOffsets(offsets)
+                      .build())
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset committed = new CommitBuilder(dataset).execute(updateTxn)) {
+          // Read the committed transaction back (exercises the IntoJava JNI path).
+          try (Transaction readTx = committed.readTransaction().orElseThrow()) {
+            assertInstanceOf(Update.class, readTx.operation());
+            Update readOp = (Update) readTx.operation();
+
+            Map<Long, byte[]> readOffsets = readOp.updatedFragmentOffsets();
+            assertEquals(1, readOffsets.size());
+            assertArrayEquals(offsets.get(fragmentId), readOffsets.get(fragmentId));
+          }
+        }
       }
     }
   }
@@ -122,16 +208,17 @@ void testUpdateColumns(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
        */
       int rowCount = 6;
       FragmentMetadata fragmentMeta = testDataset.createNewFragment(rowCount);
-      Transaction appendTransaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction appendTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Append.builder().fragments(Collections.singletonList(fragmentMeta)).build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset dataset = appendTransaction.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
-        assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
-        assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(appendTxn)) {
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.version());
+          assertEquals(2, dataset.latestVersion());
+          assertEquals(rowCount, dataset.countRows());
+        }
       }
 
       dataset = Dataset.open(datasetPath, allocator);
@@ -145,59 +232,61 @@ void testUpdateColumns(@TempDir Path tempDir) throws Exception {
        *   3:   |  null  |     null     |
        */
       FragmentUpdateResult updateResult = testDataset.updateColumn(targetFragment, updateRowCount);
-      Transaction updateTransaction =
-          dataset
-              .newTransactionBuilder()
+      try (Transaction updateTxn =
+          new Transaction.Builder()
+              .readVersion(dataset.version())
               .operation(
                   Update.builder()
                       .updatedFragments(
                           Collections.singletonList(updateResult.getUpdatedFragment()))
                       .fieldsModified(updateResult.getFieldsModified())
+                      .updateMode(Optional.of(UpdateMode.RewriteColumns))
                       .build())
-              .build();
-      try (Dataset dataset = updateTransaction.commit()) {
-        assertEquals(3, dataset.version());
-        assertEquals(3, dataset.latestVersion());
-        Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
-        try (LanceScanner scanner = fragment.newScan(rowCount)) {
-          List<Integer> actualIds = new ArrayList<>(rowCount);
-          List<String> actualNames = new ArrayList<>(rowCount);
-          List<Long> actualTimeStamps = new ArrayList<>(rowCount);
-          try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
-            while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
-              VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
-              IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
-              for (int i = 0; i < idVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
-                actualIds.add(idVector.isNull(i) ? null : idVector.getObject(i));
-              }
-              VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
-              for (int i = 0; i < nameVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
-                actualNames.add(nameVector.isNull(i) ? null : nameVector.getObject(i).toString());
-              }
-              TimeStampSecTZVector timeStampVector =
-                  (TimeStampSecTZVector) root.getVector("timeStamp");
-              for (int i = 0; i < timeStampVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
-                actualTimeStamps.add(
-                    timeStampVector.isNull(i) ? null : timeStampVector.getObject(i));
+              .build()) {
+        try (Dataset dataset = new CommitBuilder(this.dataset).execute(updateTxn)) {
+          assertEquals(3, dataset.version());
+          assertEquals(3, dataset.latestVersion());
+          Fragment fragment = dataset.getFragments().get(0);
+          try (LanceScanner scanner = fragment.newScan(rowCount)) {
+            List<Integer> actualIds = new ArrayList<>(rowCount);
+            List<String> actualNames = new ArrayList<>(rowCount);
+            List<Long> actualTimeStamps = new ArrayList<>(rowCount);
+            try (ArrowReader reader = scanner.scanBatches()) {
+              while (reader.loadNextBatch()) {
+                VectorSchemaRoot root = reader.getVectorSchemaRoot();
+                IntVector idVector = (IntVector) root.getVector("id");
+                for (int i = 0; i < idVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+                  actualIds.add(idVector.isNull(i) ? null : idVector.getObject(i));
+                }
+                VarCharVector nameVector = (VarCharVector) root.getVector("name");
+                for (int i = 0; i < nameVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+                  actualNames.add(nameVector.isNull(i) ? null : nameVector.getObject(i).toString());
+                }
+                TimeStampSecTZVector timeStampVector =
+                    (TimeStampSecTZVector) root.getVector("timeStamp");
+                for (int i = 0; i < timeStampVector.getValueCount(); i++) {
+                  actualTimeStamps.add(
+                      timeStampVector.isNull(i) ? null : timeStampVector.getObject(i));
+                }
               }
             }
+            /* result dataset content
+             * _rowid |   id   |     name     | timeStamp |
+             *   0:   |   100  |  "Update 0"  |     0     |
+             *   1:   |  null  |     null     |    null   |
+             *   2:   |    2   |  "Update 2"  |     2     |
+             *   3:   |  null  |     null     |    null   |
+             *   4:   |    4   |  "Person 4"  |     4     |
+             *   5:   |  null  |     null     |    null   |
+             */
+            List<Integer> expectIds = Arrays.asList(100, null, 2, null, 4, null);
+            List<String> expectNames =
+                Arrays.asList("Update 0", null, "Update 2", null, "Person 4", null);
+            List<Long> expectTimeStamps = Arrays.asList(0L, null, 2L, null, 4L, null);
+            assertEquals(expectIds, actualIds);
+            assertEquals(expectNames, actualNames);
+            assertEquals(expectTimeStamps, actualTimeStamps);
           }
-          /* result dataset content
-           * _rowid |   id   |     name     | timeStamp |
-           *   0:   |   100  |  "Update 0"  |     0     |
-           *   1:   |  null  |     null     |    null   |
-           *   2:   |    2   |  "Update 2"  |     2     |
-           *   3:   |  null  |     null     |    null   |
-           *   4:   |    4   |  "Person 4"  |     4     |
-           *   5:   |  null  |     null     |    null   |
-           */
-          List<Integer> expectIds = Arrays.asList(100, null, 2, null, 4, null);
-          List<String> expectNames =
-              Arrays.asList("Update 0", null, "Update 2", null, "Person 4", null);
-          List<Long> expectTimeStamps = Arrays.asList(0L, null, 2L, null, 4L, null);
-          assertEquals(expectIds, actualIds);
-          assertEquals(expectNames, actualNames);
-          assertEquals(expectTimeStamps, actualTimeStamps);
         }
       }
     }
diff --git a/java/src/test/java/org/lance/otel/LanceMetricsTest.java b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/otel/LanceMetricsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b165bec3d36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/java/org/lance/otel/LanceMetricsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+/*
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.lance.otel;
+
+import org.lance.Dataset;
+import org.lance.TestUtils;
+
+import io.opentelemetry.api.common.AttributeKey;
+import io.opentelemetry.api.common.Attributes;
+import io.opentelemetry.sdk.metrics.SdkMeterProvider;
+import io.opentelemetry.sdk.metrics.data.DoublePointData;
+import io.opentelemetry.sdk.metrics.data.MetricData;
+import io.opentelemetry.sdk.testing.exporter.InMemoryMetricReader;
+import org.apache.arrow.memory.RootAllocator;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.AfterEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.io.TempDir;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.function.Function;
+import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+public class LanceMetricsTest {
+  private static final String REQUESTS = "lance_object_store_requests_total";
+  private static final String DURATION = "lance_object_store_request_duration_seconds";
+  private static final String RETRYABLE = "lance_object_store_retryable_responses_total";
+  private static final String IN_FLIGHT = "lance_object_store_in_flight_requests";
+
+  @AfterEach
+  void closeLanceMetrics() {
+    LanceMetrics.close();
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testInstrumentLanceMetricsExportsObjectStoreMetrics(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    InMemoryMetricReader reader = InMemoryMetricReader.create();
+    SdkMeterProvider provider = SdkMeterProvider.builder().registerMetricReader(reader).build();
+
+    try {
+      assertTrue(LanceMetrics.instrument(provider));
+
+      Map<String, MetricDescription> catalog =
+          LanceMetrics.catalog().stream()
+              .collect(Collectors.toMap(MetricDescription::getName, Function.identity()));
+      assertTrue(catalog.containsKey(REQUESTS));
+      assertEquals("histogram", catalog.get(DURATION).getKind());
+      assertEquals("counter", catalog.get(RETRYABLE).getKind());
+      assertEquals("gauge", catalog.get(IN_FLIGHT).getKind());
+
+      generateObjectStoreMetrics(tempDir.resolve("otel_metrics.lance"));
+
+      MetricPoint requests =
+          LanceMetrics.snapshot().stream()
+              .filter(point -> REQUESTS.equals(point.getName()))
+              .findFirst()
+              .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("expected object store request metric"));
+      assertNotNull(requests.getValue());
+      assertTrue(requests.getValue() > 0);
+      assertTrue(requests.getAttributes().containsKey("operation"));
+      assertTrue(requests.getAttributes().containsKey("base"));
+
+      Collection<MetricData> metrics = reader.collectAllMetrics();
+      Map<String, MetricData> metricsByName =
+          metrics.stream().collect(Collectors.toMap(MetricData::getName, Function.identity()));
+      Set<String> names = metricsByName.keySet();
+      assertTrue(names.contains(REQUESTS));
+      assertTrue(names.contains(DURATION + "_bucket"));
+      assertTrue(names.contains(DURATION + "_count"));
+      assertTrue(names.contains(DURATION + "_sum"));
+
+      Collection<DoublePointData> bucketPoints =
+          metricsByName.get(DURATION + "_bucket").getDoubleSumData().getPoints();
+      Collection<DoublePointData> countPoints =
+          metricsByName.get(DURATION + "_count").getDoubleSumData().getPoints();
+      Collection<DoublePointData> sumPoints =
+          metricsByName.get(DURATION + "_sum").getDoubleSumData().getPoints();
+
+      assertFalse(bucketPoints.isEmpty());
+      assertTrue(
+          bucketPoints.stream()
+              .allMatch(point -> point.getAttributes().get(AttributeKey.stringKey("le")) != null));
+
+      Map<Attributes, Double> countsByAttributes =
+          countPoints.stream()
+              .collect(Collectors.toMap(DoublePointData::getAttributes, DoublePointData::getValue));
+      Map<Attributes, Double> infiniteBucketsByAttributes = new HashMap<>();
+      for (DoublePointData bucketPoint : bucketPoints) {
+        if ("+Inf".equals(bucketPoint.getAttributes().get(AttributeKey.stringKey("le")))) {
+          Attributes attributes =
+              bucketPoint.getAttributes().toBuilder().remove(AttributeKey.stringKey("le")).build();
+          infiniteBucketsByAttributes.put(attributes, bucketPoint.getValue());
+        }
+      }
+      assertEquals(countsByAttributes, infiniteBucketsByAttributes);
+      assertTrue(sumPoints.stream().anyMatch(point -> point.getValue() > 0));
+    } finally {
+      provider.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testInstrumentReRegistersWithNewProvider(@TempDir Path tempDir) {
+    InMemoryMetricReader firstReader = InMemoryMetricReader.create();
+    InMemoryMetricReader secondReader = InMemoryMetricReader.create();
+    SdkMeterProvider firstProvider =
+        SdkMeterProvider.builder().registerMetricReader(firstReader).build();
+    SdkMeterProvider secondProvider =
+        SdkMeterProvider.builder().registerMetricReader(secondReader).build();
+
+    try {
+      assertTrue(LanceMetrics.instrument(firstProvider));
+      generateObjectStoreMetrics(tempDir.resolve("first_provider.lance"));
+      assertTrue(metricNames(firstReader).contains(REQUESTS));
+
+      assertTrue(LanceMetrics.instrument(secondProvider));
+      assertTrue(metricNames(secondReader).contains(REQUESTS));
+      assertFalse(metricNames(firstReader).contains(REQUESTS));
+    } finally {
+      firstProvider.close();
+      secondProvider.close();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  void testSupportedMetricsSkipsUnknownKinds() {
+    MetricDescription counter = new MetricDescription("counter", "counter", null, "counter");
+    MetricDescription unknown = new MetricDescription("unknown", "summary", null, "unknown");
+
+    List<MetricDescription> supported =
+        LanceMetrics.supportedMetrics(Arrays.asList(counter, unknown));
+
+    assertEquals(1, supported.size());
+    assertEquals("counter", supported.get(0).getName());
+  }
+
+  private static void generateObjectStoreMetrics(Path datasetPath) {
+    try (RootAllocator allocator = new RootAllocator(Long.MAX_VALUE)) {
+      TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset testDataset =
+          new TestUtils.SimpleTestDataset(allocator, datasetPath.toString());
+      try (Dataset dataset = testDataset.createEmptyDataset()) {
+        assertEquals(0, dataset.countRows());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static Set<String> metricNames(InMemoryMetricReader reader) {
+    Collection<MetricData> metrics = reader.collectAllMetrics();
+    return metrics.stream().map(MetricData::getName).collect(Collectors.toSet());
+  }
+}
diff --git a/java/src/test/resources/language_models/jieba/default/dict.txt b/java/src/test/resources/language_models/jieba/default/dict.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d127091108a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/src/test/resources/language_models/jieba/default/dict.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+我们 1000 r
+都有 1000 v
+光明 1000 a
+前途 1000 n
diff --git a/memtest/Cargo.toml b/memtest/Cargo.toml
index ef4cd5736ab..83b8b53523a 100644
--- a/memtest/Cargo.toml
+++ b/memtest/Cargo.toml
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 [package]
 name = "lance-memtest"
 version = "0.1.0"
-edition = "2021"
+edition = "2024"
 authors = ["Lance Developers"]
 description = "Memory allocation testing utilities for Python"
 license = "Apache-2.0"
diff --git a/memtest/pyproject.toml b/memtest/pyproject.toml
index 396d7c442e0..4418d0e19c8 100644
--- a/memtest/pyproject.toml
+++ b/memtest/pyproject.toml
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ name = "lance-memtest"
 version = "0.1.0"
 description = "Memory allocation testing utilities for Python test suites"
 readme = "README.md"
-requires-python = ">=3.9"
+requires-python = ">=3.10"
 license = { text = "Apache-2.0" }
 authors = [
     { name = "Lance Developers" }
@@ -17,7 +17,6 @@ classifiers = [
     "Intended Audience :: Developers",
     "License :: OSI Approved :: Apache Software License",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3",
-    "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.9",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.10",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.11",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.12",
diff --git a/memtest/src/allocator.rs b/memtest/src/allocator.rs
index 5094207850f..659d5c66c33 100644
--- a/memtest/src/allocator.rs
+++ b/memtest/src/allocator.rs
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ use libc::{c_void, size_t};
 mod sys {
     use super::*;
 
-    extern "C" {
+    unsafe extern "C" {
         #[link_name = "__libc_malloc"]
         fn libc_malloc(size: size_t) -> *mut c_void;
         #[link_name = "__libc_calloc"]
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ mod sys {
         _private: [u8; 0],
     }
 
-    extern "C" {
+    unsafe extern "C" {
         fn malloc_default_zone() -> *mut malloc_zone_t;
         fn malloc_zone_malloc(zone: *mut malloc_zone_t, size: size_t) -> *mut c_void;
         fn malloc_zone_calloc(
@@ -215,14 +215,14 @@ fn is_valid_posix_memalign_alignment(alignment: usize) -> bool {
     is_power_of_two(alignment) && alignment >= std::mem::size_of::<*mut c_void>()
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn malloc(size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     STATS.record_allocation(size);
     to_virtual(sys::malloc(size.saturating_add(HEADER_SIZE)), size, 0)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn calloc(size: size_t, element_size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     let Some(total_size) = size.checked_mul(element_size) else {
@@ -236,7 +236,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn calloc(size: size_t, element_size: size_t) -> *mut c_vo
     )
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_malloc(size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     let ptr = sys::malloc(size);
@@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_malloc(size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     ptr
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_calloc(count: size_t, element_size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     let Some(_total_size) = count.checked_mul(element_size) else {
@@ -259,7 +259,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_calloc(count: size_t, element_size: size_t) ->
     ptr
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn free(ptr: *mut c_void) {
     if ptr.is_null() {
@@ -277,7 +277,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn free(ptr: *mut c_void) {
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_free(ptr: *mut c_void) {
     if ptr.is_null() {
@@ -287,7 +287,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_free(ptr: *mut c_void) {
     sys::free(ptr);
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn realloc(ptr: *mut c_void, size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     let (old_size, actual_ptr) = if ptr.is_null() || !is_ours(ptr) {
@@ -310,7 +310,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn realloc(ptr: *mut c_void, size: size_t) -> *mut c_void
     to_virtual(new_ptr, size, 0)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_realloc(ptr: *mut c_void, size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     if ptr.is_null() {
@@ -336,7 +336,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_realloc(ptr: *mut c_void, size: size_t) -> *mut
     new_ptr
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memalign(alignment: size_t, size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     STATS.record_allocation(size);
@@ -347,7 +347,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn memalign(alignment: size_t, size: size_t) -> *mut c_voi
     to_virtual(actual_ptr, size, alignment)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn posix_memalign(
     memptr: *mut *mut c_void,
@@ -364,7 +364,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn posix_memalign(
     0
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn aligned_alloc(alignment: size_t, size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     STATS.record_allocation(size);
@@ -373,7 +373,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn aligned_alloc(alignment: size_t, size: size_t) -> *mut
     to_virtual(actual_ptr, size, alignment)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn valloc(size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     STATS.record_allocation(size);
@@ -383,7 +383,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn valloc(size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     to_virtual(actual_ptr, size, page_size)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_posix_memalign(
     memptr: *mut *mut c_void,
@@ -406,7 +406,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_posix_memalign(
     0
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_aligned_alloc(alignment: size_t, size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     if !is_valid_posix_memalign_alignment(alignment as usize) {
@@ -423,7 +423,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_aligned_alloc(alignment: size_t, size: size_t)
     ptr
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_valloc(size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     let page_size = libc::sysconf(libc::_SC_PAGESIZE) as size_t;
@@ -434,7 +434,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_valloc(size: size_t) -> *mut c_void {
     ptr
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn reallocarray(
     old_ptr: *mut c_void,
@@ -447,7 +447,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn reallocarray(
     realloc(old_ptr, size)
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn malloc_usable_size(ptr: *mut c_void) -> size_t {
     if ptr.is_null() {
@@ -464,7 +464,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn malloc_usable_size(ptr: *mut c_void) -> size_t {
     }
 }
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_malloc_usable_size(ptr: *mut c_void) -> size_t {
     if ptr.is_null() {
@@ -484,7 +484,7 @@ struct Interpose {
 unsafe impl Sync for Interpose {}
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
-extern "C" {
+unsafe extern "C" {
     fn malloc(size: size_t) -> *mut c_void;
     fn calloc(count: size_t, element_size: size_t) -> *mut c_void;
     fn realloc(ptr: *mut c_void, size: size_t) -> *mut c_void;
@@ -496,7 +496,7 @@ extern "C" {
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
 #[used]
-#[link_section = "__DATA,__interpose"]
+#[unsafe(link_section = "__DATA,__interpose")]
 static INTERPOSE_TABLE: [Interpose; 7] = [
     Interpose {
         replacement: memtest_malloc as *const () as *const c_void,
diff --git a/memtest/src/lib.rs b/memtest/src/lib.rs
index 4c869864552..e505f666e0d 100644
--- a/memtest/src/lib.rs
+++ b/memtest/src/lib.rs
@@ -18,11 +18,14 @@ pub struct MemtestStats {
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// The `stats` pointer must be valid and properly aligned
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_get_stats(stats: *mut MemtestStats) {
     if stats.is_null() {
         return;
     }
+    if (stats as usize).wrapping_rem(std::mem::align_of::<MemtestStats>()) != 0 {
+        return;
+    }
 
     (*stats).total_allocations = STATS
         .total_allocations
@@ -43,7 +46,33 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn memtest_get_stats(stats: *mut MemtestStats) {
 }
 
 /// Reset all statistics to zero
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "C" fn memtest_reset_stats() {
     STATS.reset();
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_get_stats_null() {
+        unsafe {
+            memtest_get_stats(std::ptr::null_mut());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_get_stats_misaligned() {
+        unsafe {
+            let align = std::mem::align_of::<MemtestStats>();
+            let size = std::mem::size_of::<MemtestStats>();
+            let buf_size = size.saturating_add(align).saturating_add(align);
+            let mut buf = vec![0u8; buf_size];
+            let base = buf.as_mut_ptr() as usize;
+            let offset = if base.wrapping_rem(align) == 0 { 1 } else { 0 };
+            let misaligned = buf.as_mut_ptr().add(offset) as *mut MemtestStats;
+            memtest_get_stats(misaligned);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/protos/AGENTS.md b/protos/AGENTS.md
index 08a5f906787..18039dd2490 100644
--- a/protos/AGENTS.md
+++ b/protos/AGENTS.md
@@ -1,2 +1,27 @@
-All changes should be backwards compatible. Don't re-use field numbers of change
-field numbers of existing fields.
\ No newline at end of file
+# Protobuf Guidelines
+
+Also see [root AGENTS.md](../AGENTS.md) for cross-language standards.
+
+## Change Process
+
+- Changes to protobuf schemas that define a persisted Lance format require a PMC vote on the pull request, enforced by the `format-spec-vote` CI gate. See [Lance Format Specification Changes](../docs/src/community/voting.md#lance-format-specification-changes).
+- Keep a persisted-format proto change in its own PR, together with the matching `docs/src/format/` change and only the library edits needed to compile. Put the implementation in a follow-up PR — voters need to read the contract, not its implementation.
+- Execution-plan schemas (`ann.proto`, `filtered_read.proto`, and `table_identifier.proto`) are wire contracts, not persisted Lance formats. Changes to them belong with their implementation and do not require a format vote or a `docs/src/format/` change.
+
+## Compatibility
+
+- Protobuf schemas that are part of a stable file format or any other stable persisted contract must remain backwards compatible. Never reuse or change their existing field numbers.
+- Protobuf schemas used exclusively by an unstable file format follow the root file-format stability contract: do not preserve compatibility with prior unstable revisions. Before making a breaking protobuf change, verify that the schema is not shared with a stable format or another persisted contract.
+- Execution wire schemas may still cross process or version boundaries. Preserve their field-number compatibility unless all producers and consumers are upgraded atomically.
+
+## Schema Design
+
+- Use `optional` when you need to distinguish "not set" from "zero value" — `optional` enables presence tracking (`has_*` methods) and maps to `Option<T>` in Rust. Bare proto3 fields have no presence semantics: they always hold a value (defaulting to zero), so you cannot tell if the sender explicitly set them.
+- Use structured message types (e.g., `BasePath`) instead of plain scalars, and scope fields to operation-specific messages (e.g., `InsertTransaction`) rather than generic top-level ones.
+- Don't duplicate data across messages — store each fact once and derive relationships. Prefer parallel sequences over maps when keys already exist in another field.
+
+## Documentation
+
+- Document the semantic meaning of both present and absent states for `optional` fields — explain when each case applies.
+- Use precise domain terminology in field descriptions — avoid ambiguous abbreviations or terms that collide with domain concepts.
+- Write multi-line comments as `/* text` / ` * text` / ` */` blocks so editors can fold them; keep single-line comments as `//`. The `ci/check_proto_comments.py` check (pre-commit hook and the `Protobuf lint` workflow) enforces this and can rewrite offenders with `--fix`.
diff --git a/protos/CLAUDE.md b/protos/CLAUDE.md
deleted file mode 120000
index 47dc3e3d863..00000000000
--- a/protos/CLAUDE.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-AGENTS.md
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/protos/ann.proto b/protos/ann.proto
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c8f0449fcc0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/protos/ann.proto
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+syntax = "proto3";
+
+package lance.pb;
+
+import "table_identifier.proto";
+import "table.proto";
+import "index.proto";
+
+/* Query-time approximation mode for vector search.
+ *
+ * This currently only affects RQ-quantized vector indexes, such as IVF_RQ.
+ * Other index types ignore this setting.
+ */
+enum VectorApproxMode {
+  // Use all RQ bits for query-time scoring with u8-quantized lookup tables.
+  Normal = 0;
+  // Use only one RQ bit for query-time scoring, even for multi-bit indexes.
+  Fast = 1;
+  /* Use all RQ bits for query-time scoring with u16-quantized lookup tables
+   * to reduce estimator quantization error.
+   */
+  Accurate = 2;
+}
+
+/* The covering ("included") index columns a query needs materialized, as dataset
+ * field ids.
+ *
+ * Exists as a message rather than a bare `repeated int32` because proto3 has no
+ * presence tracking for repeated fields, and the empty list is a distinct, meaningful
+ * state here:
+ *
+ * * absent: no narrowing computed; materialize every covering column declared.
+ * * present and empty: materialize nothing, though the index does declare covering.
+ * * present and non-empty: materialize exactly these.
+ */
+message CoveringProjection {
+  repeated int32 field_ids = 1;
+}
+
+// Serialized vector query parameters.
+message VectorQueryProto {
+  // Query vector as Arrow IPC bytes (supports Float16, Float32, Float64, UInt8, etc.)
+  bytes query_vector_arrow_ipc = 1;
+  string column = 2;
+  uint32 k = 3;
+  optional float lower_bound = 4;
+  optional float upper_bound = 5;
+  optional uint32 minimum_nprobes = 6;
+  optional uint32 maximum_nprobes = 7;
+  optional uint32 ef = 8;
+  optional uint32 refine_factor = 9;
+  // Distance metric type. Absent means None (use the index's default metric).
+  optional lance.index.pb.VectorMetricType metric_type = 10;
+  bool use_index = 11;
+  optional float dist_q_c = 12;
+  optional int32 query_parallelism = 13;
+  /* Query-time approximation mode. Currently only affects RQ-quantized vector
+   * indexes, such as IVF_RQ. Other index types ignore this setting.
+   */
+  VectorApproxMode approx_mode = 14;
+  /* Which covering columns the index must materialize for this query. Absent means
+   * "not computed" -- see CoveringProjection. Carried across the wire so a remote
+   * executor declares the same search output schema the planner did; without it the
+   * executor's node is wider than the plan it came from, and the surrounding nodes
+   * were built against the planner's narrower schema.
+   */
+  CoveringProjection covering_projection = 15;
+}
+
+/* Serializable form of ANNIvfSubIndexExec — the IVF sub-index search node.
+ *
+ * The prefilter child ExecutionPlan is serialized by DataFusion's codec
+ * automatically via children() / with_new_children(). The prefilter_type
+ * field tells the decoder which PreFilterSource variant to use when
+ * reconstructing from the deserialized child inputs.
+ */
+message ANNIvfSubIndexExecProto {
+  enum PreFilterType {
+    NONE = 0;
+    FILTERED_ROW_IDS = 1;
+    SCALAR_INDEX_QUERY = 2;
+  }
+
+  VectorQueryProto query = 1;
+  lance.datafusion.TableIdentifier table = 2;
+  repeated lance.table.IndexMetadata indices = 3;
+  PreFilterType prefilter_type = 4;
+}
+
+// Serializable form of ANNIvfPartitionExec — the IVF centroid routing node.
+message ANNIvfPartitionExecProto {
+  VectorQueryProto query = 1;
+  lance.datafusion.TableIdentifier table = 2;
+  repeated string index_uuids = 3;
+}
diff --git a/protos/encodings_v2_0.proto b/protos/encodings_v2_0.proto
index acfc150875d..45776fb3400 100644
--- a/protos/encodings_v2_0.proto
+++ b/protos/encodings_v2_0.proto
@@ -7,38 +7,40 @@ package lance.encodings;
 
 import "google/protobuf/empty.proto";
 
-// This file contains a specification for encodings that can be used
-// to store and load Arrow data into a Lance file for the 2.0 format.  It
-// has been superseded by encodings21.proto which is used for the 2.1 format.
-//
-// # Types
-//
-// This file assumes the user wants to load data into Arrow arrays and
-// explains how to map Arrow arrays into Lance files.  Encodings are divided
-// into "array encoding" (which maps to an Arrow array and may contain multiple
-// buffers) and "buffer encoding" (which encodes a single buffer of data).
-//
-// # Encoding Tree
-//
-// Most encodings are layered on top of each other.  These form a tree of
-// encodings with a single root node.  To encode an array you will typically
-// start with the root node and then take the output from that root encoding
-// and feed it into child encodings.  The decoding process works in reverse.
-//
-// # Multi-column Encodings
-//
-// Some Arrow arrays will map to more than one column of Lance data.  For
-// example, struct arrays and list arrays.  This file only contains encodings
-// for a single column.  However, it does describe how multi-column arrays can
-// be encoded.
-
-// A pointer to a buffer in a Lance file
-//
-// A writer can place a buffer in three different locations.  The buffer
-// can go in the data page, in the column metadata, or in the file metadata.
-// The writer is free to choose whatever is most appropriate (for example, a dictionary
-// that is shared across all pages in a column will probably go in the column
-// metadata).  This specification does not dictate where the buffer should go.
+/* This file contains a specification for encodings that can be used
+ * to store and load Arrow data into a Lance file for the 2.0 format.  It
+ * has been superseded by encodings21.proto which is used for the 2.1 format.
+ *
+ * # Types
+ *
+ * This file assumes the user wants to load data into Arrow arrays and
+ * explains how to map Arrow arrays into Lance files.  Encodings are divided
+ * into "array encoding" (which maps to an Arrow array and may contain multiple
+ * buffers) and "buffer encoding" (which encodes a single buffer of data).
+ *
+ * # Encoding Tree
+ *
+ * Most encodings are layered on top of each other.  These form a tree of
+ * encodings with a single root node.  To encode an array you will typically
+ * start with the root node and then take the output from that root encoding
+ * and feed it into child encodings.  The decoding process works in reverse.
+ *
+ * # Multi-column Encodings
+ *
+ * Some Arrow arrays will map to more than one column of Lance data.  For
+ * example, struct arrays and list arrays.  This file only contains encodings
+ * for a single column.  However, it does describe how multi-column arrays can
+ * be encoded.
+ */
+
+/* A pointer to a buffer in a Lance file
+ *
+ * A writer can place a buffer in three different locations.  The buffer
+ * can go in the data page, in the column metadata, or in the file metadata.
+ * The writer is free to choose whatever is most appropriate (for example, a dictionary
+ * that is shared across all pages in a column will probably go in the column
+ * metadata).  This specification does not dictate where the buffer should go.
+ */
 message Buffer {
     // The index of the buffer in the collection of buffers
     uint32 buffer_index = 1;
@@ -54,9 +56,10 @@ message Buffer {
     BufferType buffer_type = 2;
 }
 
-// An encoding that adds nullability to another array encoding
-//
-// This can wrap any array encoding and add nullability information
+/* An encoding that adds nullability to another array encoding
+ *
+ * This can wrap any array encoding and add nullability information
+ */
 message Nullable {
   message NoNull {
     ArrayEncoding values = 1;
@@ -78,74 +81,77 @@ message Nullable {
 
 // An array encoding for variable-length list fields
 message List {
-    // An array containing the offsets into an items array.
-    //
-    // This array will have num_rows items and will never
-    // have nulls.
-    //
-    // If the list at index i is not null then offsets[i] will
-    // contain `base + len(list)` where `base` is defined as:
-    //   i == 0: 0
-    //   i >  0: (offsets[i-1] % null_offset_adjustment)
-    //
-    // To help understand we can consider the following example list:
-    // [ [A, B], null, [], [C, D, E] ]
-    //
-    // The offsets will be [2, ?, 2, 5]
-    //
-    // If the incoming list at index i IS null then offsets[i] will
-    // contain `base + len(list) + null_offset_adjustment` where `base`
-    // is defined the same as above.
-    //
-    // To complete the above example let's assume that `null_offset_adjustment`
-    // is 7.  Then the offsets will be [2, 9, 2, 5]
-    //
-    // If there are no nulls then the offsets we write here are exactly the
-    // same as the offsets in an Arrow list array (except we omit the leading
-    // 0 which is redundant)
-    //
-    // The reason we do this is so that reading a single list at index i only
-    // requires us to load the indices at i and i-1.
-    //
-    // If the offset at index i is greater than `null_offset_adjustment``
-    // then the list at index i is null.
-    //
-    // Otherwise the length of the list is `offsets[i] - base` where
-    // base is defined the same as above.
-    //
-    // Let's consider our example offsets: [2, 9, 2, 5]
-    //
-    // We can take any range of lists and determine how many list items are
-    // referenced by the sublist.
-    //
-    // 0..3: [_, 5] -> items 0..5 (base = 0* and end is 5)
-    // 0..2: [_, 2] -> items 0..2 (base = 0* and end is 2)
-    // 0..1: [_, 9] -> items 0..2 (base = 0* and end is 9 % 7)
-    // 1..3: [2, 5] -> items 2..5 (base = 2 and end is 5)
-    // 1..2: [2, 2] -> items 2..2 (base = 2 and end is 2)
-    // 2..3: [9, 5] -> items 2..5 (base = 9 % 7 and end is 5)
-    //
-    // * When the start of our range is the 0th item the base is always 0 and we only
-    //   need to load a single index from disk to determine the range.
-    //
-    // The data type of the offsets array is flexible and does not need
-    // to match the data type of the destination array.  Please note that the offsets
-    // array is very likely to be efficiently encoded by bit packing deltas.
+    /* An array containing the offsets into an items array.
+     *
+     * This array will have num_rows items and will never
+     * have nulls.
+     *
+     * If the list at index i is not null then offsets[i] will
+     * contain `base + len(list)` where `base` is defined as:
+     *   i == 0: 0
+     *   i >  0: (offsets[i-1] % null_offset_adjustment)
+     *
+     * To help understand we can consider the following example list:
+     * [ [A, B], null, [], [C, D, E] ]
+     *
+     * The offsets will be [2, ?, 2, 5]
+     *
+     * If the incoming list at index i IS null then offsets[i] will
+     * contain `base + len(list) + null_offset_adjustment` where `base`
+     * is defined the same as above.
+     *
+     * To complete the above example let's assume that `null_offset_adjustment`
+     * is 7.  Then the offsets will be [2, 9, 2, 5]
+     *
+     * If there are no nulls then the offsets we write here are exactly the
+     * same as the offsets in an Arrow list array (except we omit the leading
+     * 0 which is redundant)
+     *
+     * The reason we do this is so that reading a single list at index i only
+     * requires us to load the indices at i and i-1.
+     *
+     * If the offset at index i is greater than `null_offset_adjustment``
+     * then the list at index i is null.
+     *
+     * Otherwise the length of the list is `offsets[i] - base` where
+     * base is defined the same as above.
+     *
+     * Let's consider our example offsets: [2, 9, 2, 5]
+     *
+     * We can take any range of lists and determine how many list items are
+     * referenced by the sublist.
+     *
+     * 0..3: [_, 5] -> items 0..5 (base = 0* and end is 5)
+     * 0..2: [_, 2] -> items 0..2 (base = 0* and end is 2)
+     * 0..1: [_, 9] -> items 0..2 (base = 0* and end is 9 % 7)
+     * 1..3: [2, 5] -> items 2..5 (base = 2 and end is 5)
+     * 1..2: [2, 2] -> items 2..2 (base = 2 and end is 2)
+     * 2..3: [9, 5] -> items 2..5 (base = 9 % 7 and end is 5)
+     *
+     * * When the start of our range is the 0th item the base is always 0 and we only
+     *   need to load a single index from disk to determine the range.
+     *
+     * The data type of the offsets array is flexible and does not need
+     * to match the data type of the destination array.  Please note that the offsets
+     * array is very likely to be efficiently encoded by bit packing deltas.
+     */
     ArrayEncoding offsets = 1;
-    // If a list is null then we add this value to the offset
-    //
-    // This value must be greater than the length of the items so that
-    // (offset + null_offset_adjustment) is never used by a non-null list.
-    //
-    // Note that this value cannot be equal to the length of the items
-    // because then a page with a single list would store [ X ] and we
-    // couldn't know if that is a null list or a list with X items.
-    //
-    // Therefore, the best choice for this value is 1 + # of items.
-    // Choosing this will maximize the bit packing that we can apply to the offsets.
+    /* If a list is null then we add this value to the offset
+     *
+     * This value must be greater than the length of the items so that
+     * (offset + null_offset_adjustment) is never used by a non-null list.
+     *
+     * Note that this value cannot be equal to the length of the items
+     * because then a page with a single list would store [ X ] and we
+     * couldn't know if that is a null list or a list with X items.
+     *
+     * Therefore, the best choice for this value is 1 + # of items.
+     * Choosing this will maximize the bit packing that we can apply to the offsets.
+     */
     uint64 null_offset_adjustment = 2;
-    // How many items are referenced by these offsets.  This is needed in
-    // order to determine which items pages map to this offsets page.
+    /* How many items are referenced by these offsets.  This is needed in
+     * order to determine which items pages map to this offsets page.
+     */
     uint64 num_items = 3;
 }
 
@@ -166,16 +172,18 @@ message Compression {
 
 // Fixed width items placed contiguously in a buffer
 message Flat {
-  // the number of bits per value, must be greater than 0, does
-  // not need to be a multiple of 8
+  /* the number of bits per value, must be greater than 0, does
+   * not need to be a multiple of 8
+   */
   uint64 bits_per_value = 1;
   // the buffer of values
   Buffer buffer = 2;
-  // The Compression message can specify the compression scheme (e.g. zstd) and any
-  // other information that is needed for decompression.
-  //
-  // If this array is compressed then the bits_per_value refers to the uncompressed
-  // data.
+  /* The Compression message can specify the compression scheme (e.g. zstd) and any
+   * other information that is needed for decompression.
+   *
+   * If this array is compressed then the bits_per_value refers to the uncompressed
+   * data.
+   */
   Compression compression = 3;
 }
 
@@ -226,11 +234,12 @@ message OutOfLineBitpacking {
   uint64 compressed_bits_per_value = 3;
 }
 
-// An array encoding for shredded structs that will never be null
-//
-// There is no actual data in this column.
-//
-// TODO: Struct validity bitmaps will be placed here.
+/* An array encoding for shredded structs that will never be null
+ *
+ * There is no actual data in this column.
+ *
+ * TODO: Struct validity bitmaps will be placed here.
+ */
 message SimpleStruct {}
 
 // An array encoding for binary fields
@@ -322,16 +331,18 @@ message ArrayEncoding {
     }
 }
 
-// Wraps a column with a zone map index that can be used
-// to apply pushdown filters
+/* Wraps a column with a zone map index that can be used
+ * to apply pushdown filters
+ */
 message ZoneIndex {
   uint32 rows_per_zone = 1;
   Buffer zone_map_buffer = 2;
   ColumnEncoding inner = 3;
 }
 
-// Marks a column as blob data.  It will contain a packed struct
-// with fields position and size (u64)
+/* Marks a column as blob data.  It will contain a packed struct
+ * with fields position and size (u64)
+ */
 message Blob {
   ColumnEncoding inner = 1;
 }
diff --git a/protos/encodings_v2_1.proto b/protos/encodings_v2_1.proto
index 83c8c771227..643aa1f9da6 100644
--- a/protos/encodings_v2_1.proto
+++ b/protos/encodings_v2_1.proto
@@ -5,49 +5,52 @@ syntax = "proto3";
 
 package lance.encodings21;
 
-// This file contains a specification for encodings that can be used
-// to store and load Arrow data into a Lance file for the 2.1 format.
-//
-// # Types
-//
-// This file assumes the user wants to load data into Arrow arrays and
-// explains how to map Arrow arrays into Lance files.  Encodings are divided
-// into "structural encodings" (which are used to encode the structure of the
-// data such as any list or struct layers) and "compressive encodings" (which
-// are used to compress the actual data values).
-//
-// # Standardized Interpretation of Counting Terms
-//
-// When working with 2.1 encodings we have a number of different "counting terms" and it can be
-// difficult to understand what we mean when we are talking about a "number of values".  Here is
-// a standard interpretation of these terms:
-//
-// To understand these definitions consider a data type FIXED_SIZE_LIST<LIST<INT32>>.
-//
-// A "value" is an abstract term when we aren't being specific.
-//
-// - num_rows: This is the highest level counting term.  A single row includes everything in the
-//             fixed size list.  This is what the user asks for when they asks for a range of rows.
-// - num_elements: The number of elements is the number of rows multiplied by the dimension of any
-//             fixed size list wrappers.  This is what you get when you flatten the FSL layer and
-//             is the starting point for structural encoding.  Note that an element can be a list
-//             value or a single primitive value.
-// - num_items: The number of items is the number of values in the repetition and definition vectors
-//             after everything has been flattened.
-// - num_visible_items: The number of visible items is the number of items after invisible items
-//             have been removed.  Invisible items are rep/def levels that don't correspond to an
-//             actual value.
-
-
-// # Structural Encodings
-//
-// The following message are used to describe the structural encoding of the
-// data.  In this document, we refer to these structural encodings as layouts.
-
-// Repetition and definition levels are described in more detail elsewhere.  As we peel through
-// the structure of an array we will encounter layers of struct and list.  Each of these layers
-// potentially adds a new level to the repetition and definition levels.  This message describes
-// the meaning of each layer.
+/* This file contains a specification for encodings that can be used
+ * to store and load Arrow data into a Lance file for the 2.1 format.
+ *
+ * # Types
+ *
+ * This file assumes the user wants to load data into Arrow arrays and
+ * explains how to map Arrow arrays into Lance files.  Encodings are divided
+ * into "structural encodings" (which are used to encode the structure of the
+ * data such as any list or struct layers) and "compressive encodings" (which
+ * are used to compress the actual data values).
+ *
+ * # Standardized Interpretation of Counting Terms
+ *
+ * When working with 2.1 encodings we have a number of different "counting terms" and it can be
+ * difficult to understand what we mean when we are talking about a "number of values".  Here is
+ * a standard interpretation of these terms:
+ *
+ * To understand these definitions consider a data type FIXED_SIZE_LIST<LIST<INT32>>.
+ *
+ * A "value" is an abstract term when we aren't being specific.
+ *
+ * - num_rows: This is the highest level counting term.  A single row includes everything in the
+ *             fixed size list.  This is what the user asks for when they asks for a range of rows.
+ * - num_elements: The number of elements is the number of rows multiplied by the dimension of any
+ *             fixed size list wrappers.  This is what you get when you flatten the FSL layer and
+ *             is the starting point for structural encoding.  Note that an element can be a list
+ *             value or a single primitive value.
+ * - num_items: The number of items is the number of values in the repetition and definition vectors
+ *             after everything has been flattened.
+ * - num_visible_items: The number of visible items is the number of items after invisible items
+ *             have been removed.  Invisible items are rep/def levels that don't correspond to an
+ *             actual value.
+ */
+
+
+/* # Structural Encodings
+ *
+ * The following message are used to describe the structural encoding of the
+ * data.  In this document, we refer to these structural encodings as layouts.
+ */
+
+/* Repetition and definition levels are described in more detail elsewhere.  As we peel through
+ * the structure of an array we will encounter layers of struct and list.  Each of these layers
+ * potentially adds a new level to the repetition and definition levels.  This message describes
+ * the meaning of each layer.
+ */
 enum RepDefLayer {
   // Should never be used, included for debugging purporses and general protobuf best practice
   REPDEF_UNSPECIFIED = 0;
@@ -65,72 +68,81 @@ enum RepDefLayer {
   REPDEF_NULL_AND_EMPTY_LIST = 6;
 }
 
-// A layout used for pages where the data is small
-//
-// In this case we can fit many values into a single disk sector and transposing buffers is
-// expensive.  As a result, we do not transpose the buffers but compress the data into small
-// chunks (called mini blocks) which are roughly the size of a disk sector.
-//
-// The end result is a small amount of read amplification (since we must read an entire page
-// at a time) but we have more flexibility in compression and do less work per value when
-// compressing and decompressing in bulk.
+/* A layout used for pages where the data is small
+ *
+ * In this case we can fit many values into a single disk sector and transposing buffers is
+ * expensive.  As a result, we do not transpose the buffers but compress the data into small
+ * chunks (called mini blocks) which are roughly the size of a disk sector.
+ *
+ * The end result is a small amount of read amplification (since we must read an entire page
+ * at a time) but we have more flexibility in compression and do less work per value when
+ * compressing and decompressing in bulk.
+ */
 message MiniBlockLayout {
-  // Description of the compression of repetition levels (e.g. how many bits per rep)
-  //
-  // Optional, if there is no repetition then this field is not present
+  /* Description of the compression of repetition levels (e.g. how many bits per rep)
+   *
+   * Optional, if there is no repetition then this field is not present
+   */
   CompressiveEncoding rep_compression = 1;
-  // Description of the compression of definition levels (e.g. how many bits per def)
-  //
-  // Optional, if there is no definition then this field is not present
+  /* Description of the compression of definition levels (e.g. how many bits per def)
+   *
+   * Optional, if there is no definition then this field is not present
+   */
   CompressiveEncoding def_compression = 2;
   // Description of the compression of values
   CompressiveEncoding value_compression = 3;
-  // Description of the compression of the dictionary data
-  //
-  // Optional, if there is no dictionary then this field is not present
+  /* Description of the compression of the dictionary data
+   *
+   * Optional, if there is no dictionary then this field is not present
+   */
   CompressiveEncoding dictionary = 4;
   // Number of items in the dictionary
   uint64 num_dictionary_items = 5;
   // The meaning of each repdef layer, used to interpret repdef buffers correctly
   repeated RepDefLayer layers = 6;
-  // The number of buffers in each mini-block, this is determined by the compression and does
-  // NOT include the repetition or definition buffers (the presence of these buffers can be determined
-  // by looking at the rep_compression and def_compression fields)
+  /* The number of buffers in each mini-block, this is determined by the compression and does
+   * NOT include the repetition or definition buffers (the presence of these buffers can be determined
+   * by looking at the rep_compression and def_compression fields)
+   */
   uint64 num_buffers = 7;
-  // The depth of the repetition index.
-  //
-  // If there is repetition then the depth must be at least 1.  If there are many layers
-  // of repetition then deeper repetition indices will support deeper nested random access.  For
-  // example, given 5 layers of repetition then the repetition index depth must be at least
-  // 3 to support access like `rows[50][17][3]`.
-  //
-  // We require `repetition_index_depth + 1` u64 values per mini-block to store the repetition
-  // index if the `repetition_index_depth` is greater than 0.  The +1 is because we need to store
-  // the number of "leftover items" at the end of the chunk.  Otherwise, we wouldn't have any way
-  // to know if the final item in a chunk is valid or not.
+  /* The depth of the repetition index.
+   *
+   * If there is repetition then the depth must be at least 1.  If there are many layers
+   * of repetition then deeper repetition indices will support deeper nested random access.  For
+   * example, given 5 layers of repetition then the repetition index depth must be at least
+   * 3 to support access like `rows[50][17][3]`.
+   *
+   * We require `repetition_index_depth + 1` u64 values per mini-block to store the repetition
+   * index if the `repetition_index_depth` is greater than 0.  The +1 is because we need to store
+   * the number of "leftover items" at the end of the chunk.  Otherwise, we wouldn't have any way
+   * to know if the final item in a chunk is valid or not.
+   */
   uint32 repetition_index_depth = 8;
-  // The page already records how many rows are in the page.  For mini-block we also need to know how
-  // many "items" are in the page.  A row and an item are the same thing unless the page has lists.
+  /* The page already records how many rows are in the page.  For mini-block we also need to know how
+   * many "items" are in the page.  A row and an item are the same thing unless the page has lists.
+   */
   uint64 num_items = 9;
 
   // Since Lance 2.2, miniblocks have larger chunk sizes (>= 64KB)
   bool has_large_chunk = 10;
 }
 
-// A layout used for pages where the data is large
-//
-// In this case the cost of transposing the data is relatively small (compared to the cost of writing the data)
-// and so we just zip the buffers together
+/* A layout used for pages where the data is large
+ *
+ * In this case the cost of transposing the data is relatively small (compared to the cost of writing the data)
+ * and so we just zip the buffers together
+ */
 message FullZipLayout {
   // The number of bits of repetition info (0 if there is no repetition)
   uint32 bits_rep = 1;
   // The number of bits of definition info (0 if there is no definition)
   uint32 bits_def = 2;
-  // The number of bits of value info
-  //
-  // Note: we use bits here (and not bytes) for consistency with other encodings.  However, in practice,
-  // there is never a reason to use a bits per value that is not a multiple of 8.  The complexity is not
-  // worth the small savings in space since this encoding is typically used with large values already.
+  /* The number of bits of value info
+   *
+   * Note: we use bits here (and not bytes) for consistency with other encodings.  However, in practice,
+   * there is never a reason to use a bits per value that is not a multiple of 8.  The complexity is not
+   * worth the small savings in space since this encoding is typically used with large values already.
+   */
   oneof details {
     // If this is a fixed width block then we need to have a fixed number of bits per value
     uint32 bits_per_value = 3;
@@ -147,39 +159,182 @@ message FullZipLayout {
   repeated RepDefLayer layers = 8;
 }
 
-// A layout used for pages where all (visible) values are the same scalar value.
-//
-// This generalizes the prior AllNullLayout semantics for file_version >= 2.2.
-//
-// There may be buffers of repetition and definition information if required in order
-// to interpret what kind of nulls are present / which items are visible.
+/* A layout used for sparse flat or nested pages where Arrow structure is represented directly
+ * in layer-local slot domains instead of as dense repetition / definition events.
+ *
+ * Structural layers are ordered from outer-most to inner-most. Values remain mini-block
+ * compressed and are split into independently readable chunks.
+ */
+message SparseLayout {
+  // Description of the compression of values.
+  CompressiveEncoding value_compression = 1;
+  // Number of value buffers in each mini-block chunk. This does not include structural buffers.
+  uint64 num_buffers = 2;
+  /* Number of entries in the equivalent dense repetition / definition stream. This equals
+   * num_visible_items plus one structural placeholder for every list slot without children.
+   * Null leaf slots count as visible items because they still occupy positions in Arrow's
+   * leaf value buffer. For example, a nullable primitive with 100 slots, 30 of them null,
+   * has num_items = num_visible_items = 100.
+   */
+  uint64 num_items = 3;
+  // Number of leaf value slots encoded in the value chunks, including null leaf slots.
+  uint64 num_visible_items = 4;
+  // If true, chunk-local value buffer sizes use u32. Otherwise they use u16.
+  bool has_large_chunk = 5;
+  /* Structural layers ordered from outer-most to inner-most. This may be empty for a flat,
+   * non-nullable leaf page whose scheduling domain equals num_visible_items.
+   */
+  repeated SparseStructuralLayer structural_layers = 6;
+}
+
+/* A domain is a layer-local integer coordinate space [0, num_slots). A slot is one
+ * element in that space. The outer-most domain is the page's top-level rows; each
+ * layer's child domain is the next layer's parent domain, and the terminal child
+ * domain contains num_visible_items leaf value slots.
+ */
+message SparseStructuralLayer {
+  // Exactly one layer kind is required.
+  oneof layer {
+    SparseValidityLayer validity = 1;
+    SparseListLayer list = 2;
+    SparseFixedSizeListLayer fixed_size_list = 3;
+  }
+}
+
+message SparseValidityLayer {
+  // Number of nullable item or struct slots in this layer's parent and child domain.
+  uint64 num_slots = 1;
+  // Validity for the slots in this layer.
+  SparseValiditySet validity = 2;
+}
+
+message SparseListLayer {
+  // Number of list, large-list, or map slots in this layer's parent domain.
+  uint64 num_slots = 1;
+  // Number of slots in this layer's child domain.
+  uint64 num_child_slots = 2;
+  // Non-empty parent slots. Valid parent slots absent from this set are empty lists.
+  SparsePositionSet non_empty_positions = 3;
+  // Positive child counts corresponding one-for-one with non_empty_positions.
+  SparseCountSet counts = 4;
+  // Validity for the parent slots in this layer.
+  SparseValiditySet validity = 5;
+}
+
+message SparseFixedSizeListLayer {
+  // Number of fixed-size-list slots in this layer's parent domain.
+  uint64 num_slots = 1;
+  // Number of children per parent slot. The child domain has num_slots * dimension slots.
+  uint64 dimension = 2;
+  // Validity for the parent slots in this layer.
+  SparseValiditySet validity = 3;
+}
+
+message SparseValiditySet {
+  enum Meaning {
+    SPARSE_VALIDITY_UNSPECIFIED = 0;
+    // Stored positions are null; all other positions are valid.
+    SPARSE_VALIDITY_NULL_POSITIONS = 1;
+    // Stored positions are valid; all other positions are null.
+    SPARSE_VALIDITY_VALID_POSITIONS = 2;
+  }
+
+  Meaning meaning = 1;
+  SparsePositionSet positions = 2;
+}
+
+message SparsePositionEmpty {}
+
+message SparsePositionAll {}
+
+message SparsePositionRange {
+  uint64 start = 1;
+  uint64 length = 2;
+}
+
+message SparsePositionSet {
+  oneof positions {
+    // Delta-compressed u64 positions. Cardinality is num_positions.
+    CompressiveEncoding explicit = 1;
+    // One contiguous, non-empty range.
+    SparsePositionRange range = 2;
+    // Every position in the domain.
+    SparsePositionAll all = 3;
+    // No positions in the domain.
+    SparsePositionEmpty empty = 4;
+  }
+  // Semantic cardinality of this set.
+  uint64 num_positions = 5;
+}
+
+message SparseCountEmpty {}
+
+message SparseCountConstant {
+  // Child count shared by every non-empty list slot.
+  uint64 value = 1;
+}
+
+message SparseCountSet {
+  oneof counts {
+    // Compressed u64 child counts. Cardinality comes from the containing position set.
+    CompressiveEncoding explicit = 1;
+    // One positive child count shared by every non-empty list slot.
+    SparseCountConstant constant = 2;
+    // No counts; valid only when there are no non-empty list slots.
+    SparseCountEmpty empty = 3;
+  }
+}
+
+/* A layout used for pages where all (visible) values are the same scalar value.
+ *
+ * This generalizes the prior AllNullLayout semantics for file_version >= 2.2.
+ *
+ * There may be buffers of repetition and definition information if required in order
+ * to interpret what kind of nulls are present / which items are visible.
+ */
 message ConstantLayout {
   // The meaning of each repdef layer, used to interpret repdef buffers correctly
   repeated RepDefLayer layers = 5;
 
-  // Inline fixed-width scalar value bytes.
-  //
-  // This MUST only be used for types where a single non-null element is represented by a single
-  // fixed-width Arrow value buffer (i.e. no offsets buffer, no child data).
-  //
-  // Constraints:
-  // - MUST be absent for an all-null page
-  // - MUST be <= 32 bytes if present
+  /* Inline fixed-width scalar value bytes.
+   *
+   * This MUST only be used for types where a single non-null element is represented by a single
+   * fixed-width Arrow value buffer (i.e. no offsets buffer, no child data).
+   *
+   * Constraints:
+   * - MUST be absent for an all-null page
+   * - MUST be <= 32 bytes if present
+   */
   optional bytes inline_value = 6;
+
+  /* Optional compression algorithm used for the repetition buffer.
+   * If absent, repetition levels are stored as raw u16 values.
+   */
+  CompressiveEncoding rep_compression = 7;
+  /* Optional compression algorithm used for the definition buffer.
+   * If absent, definition levels are stored as raw u16 values.
+   */
+  CompressiveEncoding def_compression = 8;
+  // Number of values in repetition buffer after decompression.
+  uint64 num_rep_values = 9;
+  // Number of values in definition buffer after decompression.
+  uint64 num_def_values = 10;
 }
 
-// A layout where large binary data is encoded externally and only
-// the descriptions (position + size) are placed in the page
-//
-// Repdef information is stored in the descriptions.  A description with a size of
-// 0 and a position of 0 is an empty value.  A description with a size of 0 and a
-// non-zero position is a null value and the position is the repdef value.
+/* A layout where large binary data is encoded externally and only
+ * the descriptions (position + size) are placed in the page
+ *
+ * Repdef information is stored in the descriptions.  A description with a size of
+ * 0 and a position of 0 is an empty value.  A description with a size of 0 and a
+ * non-zero position is a null value and the position is the repdef value.
+ */
 message BlobLayout {
   // The inner layout used to store the descriptions
   PageLayout inner_layout = 1;
-  // The meaning of each repdef layer, used to interpret repdef buffers correctly
-  //
-  // The inner layout's repdef layers will always be 1 all valid item layer
+  /* The meaning of each repdef layer, used to interpret repdef buffers correctly
+   *
+   * The inner layout's repdef layers will always be 1 all valid item layer
+   */
   repeated RepDefLayer layers = 2;
 }
 
@@ -192,30 +347,34 @@ message PageLayout {
     ConstantLayout constant_layout = 2;
     // A layout used for pages where the data is large
     FullZipLayout full_zip_layout = 3;
-    // A layout where large binary data is encoded externally
-    // and only the descriptions are put in the page
+    /* A layout where large binary data is encoded externally
+     * and only the descriptions are put in the page
+     */
     BlobLayout blob_layout = 4;
+    // A sparse structural layout. This variant requires file version 2.3 or later.
+    SparseLayout sparse_layout = 5;
   }
 }
 
-// # Compressive Encodings
-//
-// These encodings describe how an array is compressed.  An encoding may split an
-// array into multiple buffers.  The buffers can then be compressed further (and split
-// into yet more buffers).  The entire process forms a tree of encodings with the root
-// of the tree being the initial array and the leaves being the final compressed buffers.
-//
-// # Data blocks and buffers
-//
-// Data blocks are a simplified version of arrays and represent a collection of buffers grouped
-// with some kind of interpretation.  Data blocks are the input and output of compressive encodings.
-// There are different kinds of data blocks:
-// - Fixed width data blocks (e.g. u8, u16, ...)
-// - Variable width data blocks (e.g. strings, binary)
-// - Struct data blocks (note: this is for packed structs, normal structs are encoded in the structural encoding)
-//
-// In addition, leaf encodings may output "buffers".  These are fully compressed buffers of data that
-// are stored in the page and no longer compressed.
+/* # Compressive Encodings
+ *
+ * These encodings describe how an array is compressed.  An encoding may split an
+ * array into multiple buffers.  The buffers can then be compressed further (and split
+ * into yet more buffers).  The entire process forms a tree of encodings with the root
+ * of the tree being the initial array and the leaves being the final compressed buffers.
+ *
+ * # Data blocks and buffers
+ *
+ * Data blocks are a simplified version of arrays and represent a collection of buffers grouped
+ * with some kind of interpretation.  Data blocks are the input and output of compressive encodings.
+ * There are different kinds of data blocks:
+ * - Fixed width data blocks (e.g. u8, u16, ...)
+ * - Variable width data blocks (e.g. strings, binary)
+ * - Struct data blocks (note: this is for packed structs, normal structs are encoded in the structural encoding)
+ *
+ * In addition, leaf encodings may output "buffers".  These are fully compressed buffers of data that
+ * are stored in the page and no longer compressed.
+ */
 
 enum CompressionScheme {
   COMPRESSION_ALGORITHM_UNSPECIFIED = 0;
@@ -223,56 +382,61 @@ enum CompressionScheme {
   COMPRESSION_ALGORITHM_ZSTD = 2;
 }
 
-// Compression applied to a single buffer of data
-//
-// A buffer is the leaf of the compression tree.  Unlike data blocks, which can
-// be further compressed with a variety of techniques, a buffer cannot be understood
-// in any particular way.
-//
-// A general compression scheme may be applied to a buffer.  This is something like
-// zstd, lz4, etc.  The entire buffer is compressed as a single unit.  If this happens
-// then any parent encoding becomes opaque, even if it would normally be transparent.
-//
-// This is a leaf, no further compression is applied to the data.
+/* Compression applied to a single buffer of data
+ *
+ * A buffer is the leaf of the compression tree.  Unlike data blocks, which can
+ * be further compressed with a variety of techniques, a buffer cannot be understood
+ * in any particular way.
+ *
+ * A general compression scheme may be applied to a buffer.  This is something like
+ * zstd, lz4, etc.  The entire buffer is compressed as a single unit.  If this happens
+ * then any parent encoding becomes opaque, even if it would normally be transparent.
+ *
+ * This is a leaf, no further compression is applied to the data.
+ */
 message BufferCompression {
   // A general compression scheme to apply to the buffer
   CompressionScheme scheme = 1;
-  // The compression level
-  //
-  // Optional, if not present a scheme-specific default value will be used.
-  //
-  // Interpretation of this value depends on the compression scheme.  Generally, larger
-  // values indicate more compression at the expense of more CPU time.
+  /* The compression level
+   *
+   * Optional, if not present a scheme-specific default value will be used.
+   *
+   * Interpretation of this value depends on the compression scheme.  Generally, larger
+   * values indicate more compression at the expense of more CPU time.
+   */
   optional int32 level = 2;
 }
 
-// Fixed width items placed contiguously in a single buffer
-//
-// This is a leaf encoding, there is no compression applied to the data.
-//
-// This is a transparent encoding by definition.
-//
-// The input is a fixed-width data block.
-// The output is a single buffer.
+/* Fixed width items placed contiguously in a single buffer
+ *
+ * This is a leaf encoding, there is no compression applied to the data.
+ *
+ * This is a transparent encoding by definition.
+ *
+ * The input is a fixed-width data block.
+ * The output is a single buffer.
+ */
 message Flat {
-  // the number of bits per value, must be greater than 0, does
-  // not need to be a multiple of 8
+  /* the number of bits per value, must be greater than 0, does
+   * not need to be a multiple of 8
+   */
   uint64 bits_per_value = 1;
   // The compression applied to the data
   optional BufferCompression data = 2;
 }
 
-// Variable width items have the values stored in one buffer and the
-// offsets are output as a data block that may be further compressed.
-//
-// This is a partial leaf encoding.  Values are not compressed but
-// the offsets may be further compressed.
-//
-// This is a transparent encoding by definition.
-//
-// The input is a variable-width data block.
-// The output is a single fixed-width data block (the offsets) and
-// a single buffer (the values)
+/* Variable width items have the values stored in one buffer and the
+ * offsets are output as a data block that may be further compressed.
+ *
+ * This is a partial leaf encoding.  Values are not compressed but
+ * the offsets may be further compressed.
+ *
+ * This is a transparent encoding by definition.
+ *
+ * The input is a variable-width data block.
+ * The output is a single fixed-width data block (the offsets) and
+ * a single buffer (the values)
+ */
 message Variable {
   // Describes how the offsets data block is compressed
   CompressiveEncoding offsets = 1;
@@ -280,30 +444,32 @@ message Variable {
   optional BufferCompression values = 2;
 }
 
-// Compression algorithm where all values have a constant value (encoded in the description)
-//
-// This is a leaf encoding, there is no compression applied to the data.
-//
-// The input can be any kind of data block.
-// There is no output.
+/* Compression algorithm where all values have a constant value (encoded in the description)
+ *
+ * This is a leaf encoding, there is no compression applied to the data.
+ *
+ * The input can be any kind of data block.
+ * There is no output.
+ */
 message Constant {
   // The value (TODO: define encoding for literals?)
   optional bytes value = 1;
 }
 
-// A compression scheme in which a single fixed-width block is "packed" into
-// a smaller fixed-width block values where each value has fewer bits.
-//
-// This is typically done by throwing away the most significant bits of each value when
-// those bits are all the same.
-//
-// In this scheme the number of bits per value is fixed across the entire buffer and stored
-// in this message.
-//
-// This is a transparent encoding.
-//
-// The input is a fixed-width data block.
-// The output is a single fixed-width data block.
+/* A compression scheme in which a single fixed-width block is "packed" into
+ * a smaller fixed-width block values where each value has fewer bits.
+ *
+ * This is typically done by throwing away the most significant bits of each value when
+ * those bits are all the same.
+ *
+ * In this scheme the number of bits per value is fixed across the entire buffer and stored
+ * in this message.
+ *
+ * This is a transparent encoding.
+ *
+ * The input is a fixed-width data block.
+ * The output is a single fixed-width data block.
+ */
 message OutOfLineBitpacking {
   // the number of bits of the uncompressed value. e.g. for a u32, this will be 32
   uint64 uncompressed_bits_per_value = 1;
@@ -311,15 +477,16 @@ message OutOfLineBitpacking {
   CompressiveEncoding values = 3;
 }
 
-// Bitpacking variant where the bits per value are stored inline in the chunks themselves
-//
-// This variation of bitpacking allows for the number of bits per value to change throughout the
-// buffer, which makes the compression more robust to outliers.
-//
-// This is an opaque encoding.
-//
-// The input is a fixed-width data block.
-// The output is a single buffer.
+/* Bitpacking variant where the bits per value are stored inline in the chunks themselves
+ *
+ * This variation of bitpacking allows for the number of bits per value to change throughout the
+ * buffer, which makes the compression more robust to outliers.
+ *
+ * This is an opaque encoding.
+ *
+ * The input is a fixed-width data block.
+ * The output is a single buffer.
+ */
 message InlineBitpacking {
   // the number of bits of the uncompressed value. e.g. for a u32, this will be 32
   uint64 uncompressed_bits_per_value = 1;
@@ -327,16 +494,17 @@ message InlineBitpacking {
   optional BufferCompression values = 2;
 }
 
-// A compression scheme for variable-width data
-//
-// A small dictionary (referred to as a "symbol table") is used to compress the values.
-// In this scheme there is a single symbol table for the entire page and it is stored in the
-// encoding description itself.
-//
-// This is a transparent encoding.
-//
-// The input is a variable-width data block.
-// The output is a single variable-width data block.
+/* A compression scheme for variable-width data
+ *
+ * A small dictionary (referred to as a "symbol table") is used to compress the values.
+ * In this scheme there is a single symbol table for the entire page and it is stored in the
+ * encoding description itself.
+ *
+ * This is a transparent encoding.
+ *
+ * The input is a variable-width data block.
+ * The output is a single variable-width data block.
+ */
 message Fsst {
   // The FSST symbol table
   bytes symbol_table = 1;
@@ -344,15 +512,16 @@ message Fsst {
   CompressiveEncoding values = 2;
 }
 
-// A compression scheme where common values are stored in a dictionary and the values are
-// encoded as indices into the dictionary.
-//
-// This is an opaque encoding unless the dictionary is considered metadata.
-//
-// The input is a any kind of data block.
-// There are two outputs:
-// - A data block of the same kind as the input (the dictionary)
-// - A fixed-width data block containing the indices into the dictionary.
+/* A compression scheme where common values are stored in a dictionary and the values are
+ * encoded as indices into the dictionary.
+ *
+ * This is an opaque encoding unless the dictionary is considered metadata.
+ *
+ * The input is a any kind of data block.
+ * There are two outputs:
+ * - A data block of the same kind as the input (the dictionary)
+ * - A fixed-width data block containing the indices into the dictionary.
+ */
 message Dictionary {
   // The compression used to store the indices data block
   CompressiveEncoding indices = 1;
@@ -362,14 +531,15 @@ message Dictionary {
   uint32 num_dictionary_items = 3;
 }
 
-// A compression scheme where runs of common values are encoded as a single value and a count
-//
-// This is an opaque encoding unless the run lengths are considered metadata.
-//
-// The input is a single data block of any kind.
-// There are two outputs:
-// - A data block of the same kind as the input (the run values)
-// - A fixed-width data block containing the lengths of the runs
+/* A compression scheme where runs of common values are encoded as a single value and a count
+ *
+ * This is an opaque encoding unless the run lengths are considered metadata.
+ *
+ * The input is a single data block of any kind.
+ * There are two outputs:
+ * - A data block of the same kind as the input (the run values)
+ * - A fixed-width data block containing the lengths of the runs
+ */
 message Rle {
   // The compression used to store the run values data block
   CompressiveEncoding values = 1;
@@ -377,14 +547,15 @@ message Rle {
   CompressiveEncoding run_lengths = 2;
 }
 
-// Converts a fixed-size-list of values into a flattened list of values
-//
-// This encoding does not actually compress the data, it just flattens out the FSL layers.
-//
-// This is a transparent encoding.
-//
-// The input is a single block of fixed-width data (with a wide width and few items)
-// The output is a single block of fixed-width data (with a narrow width and many items)
+/* Converts a fixed-size-list of values into a flattened list of values
+ *
+ * This encoding does not actually compress the data, it just flattens out the FSL layers.
+ *
+ * This is a transparent encoding.
+ *
+ * The input is a single block of fixed-width data (with a wide width and few items)
+ * The output is a single block of fixed-width data (with a narrow width and many items)
+ */
 message FixedSizeList {
   // The number of items in this layer of FSL
   uint64 items_per_value = 1;
@@ -394,10 +565,11 @@ message FixedSizeList {
   CompressiveEncoding values = 2;
 }
 
-// Packs a struct containing only fixed-width children into a single fixed-width data block
-//
-// The children are concatenated row by row and stored as a single fixed-width buffer. This is
-// the legacy packed struct representation and remains available for backwards compatibility.
+/* Packs a struct containing only fixed-width children into a single fixed-width data block
+ *
+ * The children are concatenated row by row and stored as a single fixed-width buffer. This is
+ * the legacy packed struct representation and remains available for backwards compatibility.
+ */
 message PackedStruct {
   // The number of bits contributed by each child field in the packed row
   repeated uint64 bits_per_value = 1;
@@ -405,12 +577,13 @@ message PackedStruct {
   CompressiveEncoding values = 2;
 }
 
-// Variable-width packed struct encoding (2.2 extension)
-//
-// Each child value is compressed independently before being transposed into
-// a row-major layout. This preserves per-field compression boundaries at the
-// cost of disabling mini-block compression. Readers must prefer this field
-// when present and fall back to the legacy encoding otherwise.
+/* Variable-width packed struct encoding (2.2 extension)
+ *
+ * Each child value is compressed independently before being transposed into
+ * a row-major layout. This preserves per-field compression boundaries at the
+ * cost of disabling mini-block compression. Readers must prefer this field
+ * when present and fall back to the legacy encoding otherwise.
+ */
 message VariablePackedStruct {
   // Per-field encoding metadata in struct order
   repeated FieldEncoding fields = 1;
@@ -428,32 +601,33 @@ message VariablePackedStruct {
   }
 }
 
-// A compression scheme that wraps the underlying data with general compression
-//
-// Note: The application of wrapped compression will depend on the layout of the data.
-// If we apply it to mini-block data then we compress entire mini-blocks.  If we apply
-// it to full-zip data then we compress each value individually.
-//
-// Note: Wrapped compression is somewhat unique at the moment as it is applied to the
-// output of the inner encoding and not the input like all other compressive encodings.
-//
-// Note: General compression can usually be applied in two spots.  We can apply
-// it to individual buffers or we can apply it here, to the entire array.
-//
-// For example, let's say we are storing mini-blocks of strings and we are using
-// FSST and bitpacking the offsets.  We have something like this...
-//
-// WRAPPED(†3) -> FSST -> VARIABLE -(offsets)-> INLINE_BITPACKING -(data)-> FLAT -> BUFFER (†1)
-//                                 -(data)-> BUFFER (†2)
-//
-// General compression can be applied at †1, †2, or †3 (or any combination of these).
-//
-// If we apply it at †1 then we apply it just to the bitpacked offsets
-// If we apply it at †2 then we apply it just to the FSST compressed data
-// If we apply it at †3 then we apply it to the entire mini-block (both offsets and data)
-//
-// The input is a single data block of any kind.
-// The output is a single data block of the same kind as the input.
+/* A compression scheme that wraps the underlying data with general compression
+ *
+ * Note: The application of wrapped compression will depend on the layout of the data.
+ * If we apply it to mini-block data then we compress entire mini-blocks.  If we apply
+ * it to full-zip data then we compress each value individually.
+ *
+ * Note: Wrapped compression is somewhat unique at the moment as it is applied to the
+ * output of the inner encoding and not the input like all other compressive encodings.
+ *
+ * Note: General compression can usually be applied in two spots.  We can apply
+ * it to individual buffers or we can apply it here, to the entire array.
+ *
+ * For example, let's say we are storing mini-blocks of strings and we are using
+ * FSST and bitpacking the offsets.  We have something like this...
+ *
+ * WRAPPED(†3) -> FSST -> VARIABLE -(offsets)-> INLINE_BITPACKING -(data)-> FLAT -> BUFFER (†1)
+ *                                 -(data)-> BUFFER (†2)
+ *
+ * General compression can be applied at †1, †2, or †3 (or any combination of these).
+ *
+ * If we apply it at †1 then we apply it just to the bitpacked offsets
+ * If we apply it at †2 then we apply it just to the FSST compressed data
+ * If we apply it at †3 then we apply it to the entire mini-block (both offsets and data)
+ *
+ * The input is a single data block of any kind.
+ * The output is a single data block of the same kind as the input.
+ */
 message General {
   // The compression to apply to the values
   BufferCompression compression = 1;
@@ -461,20 +635,21 @@ message General {
   CompressiveEncoding values = 3;
 }
 
-// A compression scheme where fixed-width values are transposed into a series of byte streams
-//
-// This is commonly used for floating point values where the upper bits (the mantissa) have a
-// significantly different meaning than the lower bits.  By splitting the values into byte streams
-// we group the mantissa bits together and the exponent bits together.  The end result is typically
-// more compressible.
-//
-// Note that this encoding is mostly useful when combined with other encodings.  It does not do any
-// compression on its own.
-//
-// This is an opaque encoding.
-//
-// The input is a fixed-width data block
-// The output is a single fixed-width data block
+/* A compression scheme where fixed-width values are transposed into a series of byte streams
+ *
+ * This is commonly used for floating point values where the upper bits (the mantissa) have a
+ * significantly different meaning than the lower bits.  By splitting the values into byte streams
+ * we group the mantissa bits together and the exponent bits together.  The end result is typically
+ * more compressible.
+ *
+ * Note that this encoding is mostly useful when combined with other encodings.  It does not do any
+ * compression on its own.
+ *
+ * This is an opaque encoding.
+ *
+ * The input is a fixed-width data block
+ * The output is a single fixed-width data block
+ */
 message ByteStreamSplit {
   // The compression used to store the values
   CompressiveEncoding values = 1;
diff --git a/protos/file.proto b/protos/file.proto
index db5971fe61d..da4c7b0a72b 100644
--- a/protos/file.proto
+++ b/protos/file.proto
@@ -23,62 +23,69 @@ message Schema {
 
 // Metadata of one Lance file.
 message Metadata {
-  // 4 was used for StatisticsMetadata in the past, but has been moved to
-  // prevent a bug in older readers.
+  /* 4 was used for StatisticsMetadata in the past, but has been moved to
+   * prevent a bug in older readers.
+   */
   reserved 4;
 
-  // Position of the manifest in the file. If it is zero, the manifest is stored
-  // externally.
+  /* Position of the manifest in the file. If it is zero, the manifest is stored
+   * externally.
+   */
   uint64 manifest_position = 1;
 
-  // Logical offsets of each chunk group, i.e., number of the rows in each
-  // chunk.
+  /* Logical offsets of each chunk group, i.e., number of the rows in each
+   * chunk.
+   */
   repeated int32 batch_offsets = 2;
 
-  // The file position that page table is stored.
-  //
-  // A page table is a matrix of N x M x 2, where N = num_fields, and M =
-  // num_batches. Each cell in the table is a pair of <position:int64,
-  // length:int64> of the page. Both position and length are int64 values. The
-  // <position, length> of all the pages in the same column are then
-  // contiguously stored.
-  //
-  // Every field that is a part of the file will have a run in the page table.
-  // This includes struct columns, which will have a run of length 0 since
-  // they don't store any actual data.
-  //
-  // For example, for the column 5 and batch 4, we have:
-  // ```text
-  //   position = page_table[5][4][0];
-  //   length = page_table[5][4][1];
-  // ```
+  /* The file position that page table is stored.
+   *
+   * A page table is a matrix of N x M x 2, where N = num_fields, and M =
+   * num_batches. Each cell in the table is a pair of <position:int64,
+   * length:int64> of the page. Both position and length are int64 values. The
+   * <position, length> of all the pages in the same column are then
+   * contiguously stored.
+   *
+   * Every field that is a part of the file will have a run in the page table.
+   * This includes struct columns, which will have a run of length 0 since
+   * they don't store any actual data.
+   *
+   * For example, for the column 5 and batch 4, we have:
+   * ```text
+   *   position = page_table[5][4][0];
+   *   length = page_table[5][4][1];
+   * ```
+   */
   uint64 page_table_position = 3;
 
   message StatisticsMetadata {
-    // The schema of the statistics.
-    //
-    // This might be empty, meaning there are no statistics. It also might not
-    // contain statistics for every field.
+    /* The schema of the statistics.
+     *
+     * This might be empty, meaning there are no statistics. It also might not
+     * contain statistics for every field.
+     */
     repeated Field schema = 1;
 
-    // The field ids of the statistics leaf fields.
-    //
-    // This plays a similar role to the `fields` field in the DataFile message.
-    // Each of these field ids corresponds to a field in the stats_schema. There
-    // is one per column in the stats page table.
+    /* The field ids of the statistics leaf fields.
+     *
+     * This plays a similar role to the `fields` field in the DataFile message.
+     * Each of these field ids corresponds to a field in the stats_schema. There
+     * is one per column in the stats page table.
+     */
     repeated int32 fields = 2;
 
-    // The file position of the statistics page table
-    //
-    // The page table is a matrix of N x 2, where N = length of stats_fields.
-    // This is the same layout as the main page table, except there is always
-    // only one batch.
-    //
-    // For example, to get the stats column 5, we have:
-    // ```text
-    //   position = stats_page_table[5][0];
-    //   length = stats_page_table[5][1];
-    // ```
+    /* The file position of the statistics page table
+     *
+     * The page table is a matrix of N x 2, where N = length of stats_fields.
+     * This is the same layout as the main page table, except there is always
+     * only one batch.
+     *
+     * For example, to get the stats column 5, we have:
+     * ```text
+     *   position = stats_page_table[5][0];
+     *   length = stats_page_table[5][1];
+     * ```
+     */
     uint64 page_table_position = 3;
   }
 
@@ -101,10 +108,11 @@ enum Encoding {
 
 // Dictionary field metadata
 message Dictionary {
-  /// The file offset for storing the dictionary value.
-  /// It is only valid if encoding is DICTIONARY.
-  ///
-  /// The logic type presents the value type of the column, i.e., string value.
+  /* The file offset for storing the dictionary value.
+   * It is only valid if encoding is DICTIONARY.
+   *
+   * The logic type presents the value type of the column, i.e., string value.
+   */
   int64 offset = 1;
 
   /// The length of dictionary values.
@@ -122,41 +130,43 @@ message Field {
 
   // Fully qualified name.
   string name = 2;
-  /// Field Id.
-  ///
-  /// See the comment in `DataFile.fields` for how field ids are assigned.
+  /* Field Id.
+   *
+   * See the comment in `DataFile.fields` for how field ids are assigned.
+   */
   int32 id = 3;
   /// Parent Field ID. If not set, this is a top-level column.
   int32 parent_id = 4;
 
-  // Logical types, support parameterized Arrow Type.
-  //
-  // PARENT types will always have logical type "struct".
-  //
-  // REPEATED types may have logical types:
-  // * "list"
-  // * "large_list"
-  // * "list.struct"
-  // * "large_list.struct"
-  // The final two are used if the list values are structs, and therefore the
-  // field is both implicitly REPEATED and PARENT.
-  //
-  // LEAF types may have logical types:
-  // * "null"
-  // * "bool"
-  // * "int8" / "uint8"
-  // * "int16" / "uint16"
-  // * "int32" / "uint32"
-  // * "int64" / "uint64"
-  // * "halffloat" / "float" / "double"
-  // * "string" / "large_string"
-  // * "binary" / "large_binary"
-  // * "date32:day"
-  // * "date64:ms"
-  // * "decimal:128:{precision}:{scale}" / "decimal:256:{precision}:{scale}"
-  // * "time:{unit}" / "timestamp:{unit}" / "duration:{unit}", where unit is
-  // "s", "ms", "us", "ns"
-  // * "dict:{value_type}:{index_type}:false"
+  /* Logical types, support parameterized Arrow Type.
+   *
+   * PARENT types will always have logical type "struct".
+   *
+   * REPEATED types may have logical types:
+   * * "list"
+   * * "large_list"
+   * * "list.struct"
+   * * "large_list.struct"
+   * The final two are used if the list values are structs, and therefore the
+   * field is both implicitly REPEATED and PARENT.
+   *
+   * LEAF types may have logical types:
+   * * "null"
+   * * "bool"
+   * * "int8" / "uint8"
+   * * "int16" / "uint16"
+   * * "int32" / "uint32"
+   * * "int64" / "uint64"
+   * * "halffloat" / "float" / "double"
+   * * "string" / "large_string"
+   * * "binary" / "large_binary"
+   * * "date32:day"
+   * * "date64:ms"
+   * * "decimal:128:{precision}:{scale}" / "decimal:256:{precision}:{scale}"
+   * * "time:{unit}" / "timestamp:{unit}" / "duration:{unit}", where unit is
+   * "s", "ms", "us", "ns"
+   * * "dict:{value_type}:{index_type}:false"
+   */
   string logical_type = 5;
   // If this field is nullable.
   bool nullable = 6;
@@ -166,35 +176,48 @@ message Field {
 
   bool unenforced_primary_key = 12;
 
-  // Position of this field in the primary key (1-based).
-  // 0 means the field is part of the primary key but uses schema field id for ordering.
-  // When set to a positive value, primary key fields are ordered by this position.
+  /* Position of this field in the primary key (1-based).
+   * 0 means the field is part of the primary key but uses schema field id for ordering.
+   * When set to a positive value, primary key fields are ordered by this position.
+   */
   uint32 unenforced_primary_key_position = 13;
 
+  // Reserved for future use. Use unenforced_clustering_key_position instead.
+  bool unenforced_clustering_key = 14;
+
+  /* Position of this field in the clustering key (1-based).
+   * 0 means the field is not part of the clustering key.
+   */
+  uint32 unenforced_clustering_key_position = 15;
+
   // DEPRECATED ----------------------------------------------------------------
 
-  // Deprecated: Only used in V1 file format. V2 uses variable encodings defined
-  // per page.
-  //
-  // The global encoding to use for this field.
+  /* Deprecated: Only used in V1 file format. V2 uses variable encodings defined
+   * per page.
+   *
+   * The global encoding to use for this field.
+   */
   Encoding encoding = 7;
 
-  // Deprecated: Only used in V1 file format. V2 dynamically chooses when to
-  // do dictionary encoding and keeps the dictionary in the data files.
-  //
-  // The file offset for storing the dictionary value.
-  // It is only valid if encoding is DICTIONARY.
-  //
-  // The logic type presents the value type of the column, i.e., string value.
+  /* Deprecated: Only used in V1 file format. V2 dynamically chooses when to
+   * do dictionary encoding and keeps the dictionary in the data files.
+   *
+   * The file offset for storing the dictionary value.
+   * It is only valid if encoding is DICTIONARY.
+   *
+   * The logic type presents the value type of the column, i.e., string value.
+   */
   Dictionary dictionary = 8;
 
-  // Deprecated: optional extension type name, use metadata field
-  // ARROW:extension:name
+  /* Deprecated: optional extension type name, use metadata field
+   * ARROW:extension:name
+   */
   string extension_name = 9;
 
-  // Field number 11 was previously `string storage_class`.
-  // Keep it reserved so older manifests remain compatible while new writers
-  // avoid reusing the slot.
+  /* Field number 11 was previously `string storage_class`.
+   * Keep it reserved so older manifests remain compatible while new writers
+   * avoid reusing the slot.
+   */
   reserved 11;
   reserved "storage_class";
 }
diff --git a/protos/file2.proto b/protos/file2.proto
index da0b1d5e96c..a92df4cc587 100644
--- a/protos/file2.proto
+++ b/protos/file2.proto
@@ -8,144 +8,149 @@ package lance.file.v2;
 import "google/protobuf/any.proto";
 import "google/protobuf/empty.proto";
 
-// # Lance v2.X File Format
-//
-// The Lance file format is a barebones format for serializing columnar data
-// into a file.
-//
-// * Each Lance file contains between 0 and 4Gi columns
-// * Each column contains between 0 and 4Gi pages
-// * Each page contains between 0 and 2^64 items
-// * Different pages within a column can have different items counts
-// * Columns may have up to 2^64 items
-// * Different columns within a file can have different item counts
-//
-// The Lance file format does not have any notion of a type system or schemas.
-// From the perspective of the file format all data is arbitrary buffers of
-// bytes with an extensible metadata block to describe the data.  It is up to
-// the user to interpret these bytes meaningfully.
-//
-// Data buffers are written to the file first.  These data buffers can be
-// referenced from three different places in the file:
-//
-// * Page encodings can reference data buffers.  This is the most common way
-//   that actual data is stored.
-// * Column encodings can reference data buffers.  For example, a column encoding
-//   may reference data buffer(s) containing statistics or dictionaries.
-// * Finally, the global buffer offset table can reference data buffers.  This
-//   is useful for storing data that is shared across multiple columns.
-//   This is also useful for global file metadata (e.g. a schema that describes
-//   the file)
-//
-// ## File Layout
-//
-// Note: the number of buffers (BN) is independent of the number of columns (CN)
-//       and pages.
-//
-//       Buffers often need to be aligned.  64-byte alignment is common when
-//       working with SIMD operations.  4096-byte alignment is common when
-//       working with direct I/O.  In order to ensure these buffers are aligned
-//       writers may need to insert padding before the buffers.
-//       
-//       If direct I/O is required then most (but not all) fields described
-//       below must be sector aligned.  We have marked these fields with an
-//       asterisk for clarity.  Readers should assume there will be optional
-//       padding inserted before these fields.
-//
-//       All footer fields are unsigned integers written with  little endian
-//       byte order.
-//
-// ├──────────────────────────────────┤
-// | Data Pages                       |
-// |   Data Buffer 0*                 |
-// |   ...                            |
-// |   Data Buffer BN*                |
-// ├──────────────────────────────────┤
-// | Column Metadatas                 |
-// | |A| Column 0 Metadata*           |
-// |     Column 1 Metadata*           |
-// |     ...                          |
-// |     Column CN Metadata*          |
-// ├──────────────────────────────────┤
-// | Column Metadata Offset Table     |
-// | |B| Column 0 Metadata Position*  |
-// |     Column 0 Metadata Size       |
-// |     ...                          |
-// |     Column CN Metadata Position  |
-// |     Column CN Metadata Size      |
-// ├──────────────────────────────────┤
-// | Global Buffers Offset Table      |
-// | |C| Global Buffer 0 Position*    |
-// |     Global Buffer 0 Size         |
-// |     ...                          |
-// |     Global Buffer GN Position    |
-// |     Global Buffer GN Size        |
-// ├──────────────────────────────────┤
-// | Footer                           |
-// | A u64: Offset to column meta 0   |
-// | B u64: Offset to CMO table       |
-// | C u64: Offset to GBO table       |
-// |   u32: Number of global bufs     |
-// |   u32: Number of columns         |
-// |   u16: Major version             |
-// |   u16: Minor version             |
-// |   "LANC"                         |
-// ├──────────────────────────────────┤
-//
-// File Layout-End
-//
-// ## Data Pages
-//
-// A lot of flexibility is provided in how data is stored.  A page's buffers do
-// not strictly need to be contiguous on the disk.  However, it is recommended
-// that buffers within a page be grouped together for best performance.
-//
-// Data pages should be large.  The only time a page should be written to disk
-// is when the writer needs to flush the page to disk because it has accumulated
-// too much data.  Pages are not read in sequential order and if pages are too
-// small then the seek overhead (or request overhead) will be problematic.  We
-// generally advise that pages be at least 8MB or larger.
-//
-// ## Encodings
-//
-// Specific encodings are not part of this minimal format.  They are provided
-// by extensions. Readers and writers should be designed so that encodings can
-// be easily added and removed. Ideally, they should allow for this without
-// requiring recompilation through some kind of plugin system.
+/* # Lance v2.X File Format
+ *
+ * The Lance file format is a barebones format for serializing columnar data
+ * into a file.
+ *
+ * * Each Lance file contains between 0 and 4Gi columns
+ * * Each column contains between 0 and 4Gi pages
+ * * Each page contains between 0 and 2^64 items
+ * * Different pages within a column can have different items counts
+ * * Columns may have up to 2^64 items
+ * * Different columns within a file can have different item counts
+ *
+ * The Lance file format does not have any notion of a type system or schemas.
+ * From the perspective of the file format all data is arbitrary buffers of
+ * bytes with an extensible metadata block to describe the data.  It is up to
+ * the user to interpret these bytes meaningfully.
+ *
+ * Data buffers are written to the file first.  These data buffers can be
+ * referenced from three different places in the file:
+ *
+ * * Page encodings can reference data buffers.  This is the most common way
+ *   that actual data is stored.
+ * * Column encodings can reference data buffers.  For example, a column encoding
+ *   may reference data buffer(s) containing statistics or dictionaries.
+ * * Finally, the global buffer offset table can reference data buffers.  This
+ *   is useful for storing data that is shared across multiple columns.
+ *   This is also useful for global file metadata (e.g. a schema that describes
+ *   the file)
+ *
+ * ## File Layout
+ *
+ * Note: the number of buffers (BN) is independent of the number of columns (CN)
+ *       and pages.
+ *
+ *       Buffers often need to be aligned.  64-byte alignment is common when
+ *       working with SIMD operations.  4096-byte alignment is common when
+ *       working with direct I/O.  In order to ensure these buffers are aligned
+ *       writers may need to insert padding before the buffers.
+ *
+ *       If direct I/O is required then most (but not all) fields described
+ *       below must be sector aligned.  We have marked these fields with an
+ *       asterisk for clarity.  Readers should assume there will be optional
+ *       padding inserted before these fields.
+ *
+ *       All footer fields are unsigned integers written with  little endian
+ *       byte order.
+ *
+ * ├──────────────────────────────────┤
+ * | Data Pages                       |
+ * |   Data Buffer 0*                 |
+ * |   ...                            |
+ * |   Data Buffer BN*                |
+ * ├──────────────────────────────────┤
+ * | Column Metadatas                 |
+ * | |A| Column 0 Metadata*           |
+ * |     Column 1 Metadata*           |
+ * |     ...                          |
+ * |     Column CN Metadata*          |
+ * ├──────────────────────────────────┤
+ * | Column Metadata Offset Table     |
+ * | |B| Column 0 Metadata Position*  |
+ * |     Column 0 Metadata Size       |
+ * |     ...                          |
+ * |     Column CN Metadata Position  |
+ * |     Column CN Metadata Size      |
+ * ├──────────────────────────────────┤
+ * | Global Buffers Offset Table      |
+ * | |C| Global Buffer 0 Position*    |
+ * |     Global Buffer 0 Size         |
+ * |     ...                          |
+ * |     Global Buffer GN Position    |
+ * |     Global Buffer GN Size        |
+ * ├──────────────────────────────────┤
+ * | Footer                           |
+ * | A u64: Offset to column meta 0   |
+ * | B u64: Offset to CMO table       |
+ * | C u64: Offset to GBO table       |
+ * |   u32: Number of global bufs     |
+ * |   u32: Number of columns         |
+ * |   u16: Major version             |
+ * |   u16: Minor version             |
+ * |   "LANC"                         |
+ * ├──────────────────────────────────┤
+ *
+ * File Layout-End
+ *
+ * ## Data Pages
+ *
+ * A lot of flexibility is provided in how data is stored.  A page's buffers do
+ * not strictly need to be contiguous on the disk.  However, it is recommended
+ * that buffers within a page be grouped together for best performance.
+ *
+ * Data pages should be large.  The only time a page should be written to disk
+ * is when the writer needs to flush the page to disk because it has accumulated
+ * too much data.  Pages are not read in sequential order and if pages are too
+ * small then the seek overhead (or request overhead) will be problematic.  We
+ * generally advise that pages be at least 8MB or larger.
+ *
+ * ## Encodings
+ *
+ * Specific encodings are not part of this minimal format.  They are provided
+ * by extensions. Readers and writers should be designed so that encodings can
+ * be easily added and removed. Ideally, they should allow for this without
+ * requiring recompilation through some kind of plugin system.
+ */
 
-// The deferred encoding is used to place the encoding itself in a different
-// part of the file.  This is most commonly used to allow encodings to be shared
-// across different columns.  For example, when writing a file with thousands of
-// columns, where many pages have the exact same encoding, it can be useful
-// to cut down on the size of the metadata by using a deferred encoding.
+/* The deferred encoding is used to place the encoding itself in a different
+ * part of the file.  This is most commonly used to allow encodings to be shared
+ * across different columns.  For example, when writing a file with thousands of
+ * columns, where many pages have the exact same encoding, it can be useful
+ * to cut down on the size of the metadata by using a deferred encoding.
+ */
 message DeferredEncoding {
-   // Location of the buffer containing the encoding.
-   //
-   // * If sharing encodings across columns then this will be in a global buffer
-   // * If sharing encodings across pages within a column this could be in a
-   //   column metadata buffer.
-   // * This could also be a page buffer if the encoding is not shared, needs
-   //   to be written before the file ends, and the encoding is too large to load
-   //   unless we first determine the page needs to be read.  This combination
-   //   seems unusual.
+   /* Location of the buffer containing the encoding.
+    *
+    * * If sharing encodings across columns then this will be in a global buffer
+    * * If sharing encodings across pages within a column this could be in a
+    *   column metadata buffer.
+    * * This could also be a page buffer if the encoding is not shared, needs
+    *   to be written before the file ends, and the encoding is too large to load
+    *   unless we first determine the page needs to be read.  This combination
+    *   seems unusual.
+    */
    uint64 buffer_location = 1;
    uint64 buffer_length = 2;
 }
 
 // The encoding is placed directly in the metadata section
 message DirectEncoding {
-    // The bytes that make up the encoding embedded directly in the metadata
-    //
-    // This is the most common approach.
+    /* The bytes that make up the encoding embedded directly in the metadata
+     *
+     * This is the most common approach.
+     */
     bytes encoding = 1;
 }
 
-// An encoding stores the information needed to decode a column or page
-//
-// For example, it could describe if the page is using bit packing, and how many bits
-// there are in each individual value.
-//
-// At the column level it can be used to wrap columns with dictionaries or statistics.
+/* An encoding stores the information needed to decode a column or page
+ *
+ * For example, it could describe if the page is using bit packing, and how many bits
+ * there are in each individual value.
+ *
+ * At the column level it can be used to wrap columns with dictionaries or statistics.
+ */
 message Encoding {
     oneof location {
         // The encoding is stored elsewhere and not part of this protobuf message
@@ -159,52 +164,60 @@ message Encoding {
 
 // ## Metadata
 
-// Each column has a metadata block that is placed at the end of the file.
-// These may be read individually to allow for column projection.
+/* Each column has a metadata block that is placed at the end of the file.
+ * These may be read individually to allow for column projection.
+ */
 message ColumnMetadata {
 
   // This describes a page of column data.
   message Page {
-    // The file offsets for each of the page buffers
-    //
-    // The number of buffers is variable and depends on the encoding.  There
-    // may be zero buffers (e.g. constant encoded data) in which case this
-    // could be empty.
+    /* The file offsets for each of the page buffers
+     *
+     * The number of buffers is variable and depends on the encoding.  There
+     * may be zero buffers (e.g. constant encoded data) in which case this
+     * could be empty.
+     */
     repeated uint64 buffer_offsets = 1;
-    // The size (in bytes) of each of the page buffers
-    //
-    // This field will have the same length as `buffer_offsets` and
-    // may be empty.
+    /* The size (in bytes) of each of the page buffers
+     *
+     * This field will have the same length as `buffer_offsets` and
+     * may be empty.
+     */
     repeated uint64 buffer_sizes = 2;
     // Logical length (e.g. # rows) of the page
     uint64 length = 3;
     // The encoding used to encode the page
     Encoding encoding = 4;
-    // The priority of the page
-    //
-    // For tabular data this will be the top-level row number of the first row
-    // in the page (and top-level rows should not split across pages).
+    /* The priority of the page
+     *
+     * For tabular data this will be the top-level row number of the first row
+     * in the page (and top-level rows should not split across pages).
+     */
     uint64 priority = 5;
   }
-  // Encoding information about the column itself.  This typically describes
-  // how to interpret the column metadata buffers.  For example, it could
-  // describe how statistics or dictionaries are stored in the column metadata.
+  /* Encoding information about the column itself.  This typically describes
+   * how to interpret the column metadata buffers.  For example, it could
+   * describe how statistics or dictionaries are stored in the column metadata.
+   */
   Encoding encoding = 1;
   // The pages in the column
   repeated Page pages = 2;   
-  // The file offsets of each of the column metadata buffers
-  //
-  // There may be zero buffers.
+  /* The file offsets of each of the column metadata buffers
+   *
+   * There may be zero buffers.
+   */
   repeated uint64 buffer_offsets = 3;
-  // The size (in bytes) of each of the column metadata buffers
-  //
-  // This field will have the same length as `buffer_offsets` and
-  // may be empty.
+  /* The size (in bytes) of each of the column metadata buffers
+   *
+   * This field will have the same length as `buffer_offsets` and
+   * may be empty.
+   */
   repeated uint64 buffer_sizes = 4;
 } // Metadata-End
 
-// ## Where is the rest?
-//
-// This file format is extremely minimal.  It is a building block for
-// creating more useful readers and writers and not terribly useful by itself.
-// Other protobuf files will describe how this can be extended.
\ No newline at end of file
+/* ## Where is the rest?
+ *
+ * This file format is extremely minimal.  It is a building block for
+ * creating more useful readers and writers and not terribly useful by itself.
+ * Other protobuf files will describe how this can be extended.
+ */
diff --git a/protos/filtered_read.proto b/protos/filtered_read.proto
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ad0f12e9032
--- /dev/null
+++ b/protos/filtered_read.proto
@@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+syntax = "proto3";
+
+package lance.datafusion;
+
+import "table_identifier.proto";
+
+message U64Range {
+  uint64 start = 1;
+  uint64 end = 2;
+}
+
+message ProjectionProto {
+  repeated int32 field_ids = 1;
+  bool with_row_id = 2;
+  bool with_row_addr = 3;
+  bool with_row_last_updated_at_version = 4;
+  bool with_row_created_at_version = 5;
+  BlobHandlingProto blob_handling = 6;
+}
+
+message BlobHandlingProto {
+  oneof mode {
+    // All blobs read as binary
+    bool all_binary = 1;
+    // Blobs as descriptions, other binary as binary (default)
+    bool blobs_descriptions = 2;
+    // All binary columns as descriptions
+    bool all_descriptions = 3;
+    // Specific blobs read as binary, rest as descriptions (non-blob binary stays binary)
+    FieldIdSet some_blobs_binary = 4;
+    // Specific columns as binary, all other binary as descriptions
+    FieldIdSet some_binary = 5;
+  }
+}
+
+message FieldIdSet {
+  repeated uint32 field_ids = 1;
+}
+
+message FilteredReadThreadingModeProto {
+  oneof mode {
+    uint64 one_partition_multiple_threads = 1;
+    uint64 multiple_partitions = 2;
+  }
+}
+
+// Serializable form of FilteredReadOptions.
+message FilteredReadOptionsProto {
+  optional U64Range scan_range_before_filter = 1;
+  optional U64Range scan_range_after_filter = 2;
+  bool with_deleted_rows = 3;
+  optional uint32 batch_size = 4;
+  optional uint64 fragment_readahead = 5;
+  repeated uint64 fragment_ids = 6;
+  ProjectionProto projection = 7;
+  optional bytes refine_filter_substrait = 8;
+  optional bytes full_filter_substrait = 9;
+  FilteredReadThreadingModeProto threading_mode = 10;
+  optional uint64 io_buffer_size_bytes = 11;
+  // Arrow IPC schema for decoding Substrait filters (may be wider than projection).
+  optional bytes filter_schema_ipc = 12;
+  /* If present, a nonzero upper bound on bytes reserved by Blob v2
+   * materialization awaiting ordered emission in one scanner execution.
+   * Admission follows output order; one oversized output batch may exceed the
+   * bound when no other batch is reserved. If absent, Blob v2 materialization
+   * has no independent memory bound.
+   */
+  optional uint64 materialization_readahead_bytes = 13;
+  /* If present, the scanner-level byte budget for output batches. When set,
+   * the file reader uses it as an additional batch boundary alongside the
+   * row-based batch_size. This corresponds to FileReaderOptions.batch_size_bytes.
+   */
+  optional uint64 batch_size_bytes = 14;
+}
+
+/* Serializable form of FilteredReadPlan (planned/distributed mode).
+ * RowAddrTreeMap serialized via its built-in serialize_into/deserialize_from.
+ * Per-fragment filters are Substrait-encoded and deduplicated.
+ */
+message FilteredReadPlanProto {
+  bytes row_addr_tree_map = 1;
+  optional U64Range scan_range_after_filter = 2;
+  // Arrow IPC schema for decoding Substrait filters (matches the schema used at encode time).
+  optional bytes filter_schema_ipc = 3;
+  /* Per-fragment filter mapping. Key is fragment id, value is a list index into
+   * filter_expressions. Multiple fragments can share the same list index when
+   * they have the same filter, avoiding duplicate Substrait encoding.
+   */
+  map<uint32, uint32> fragment_filter_ids = 4;
+  /* Deduplicated Substrait-encoded filter expressions. Each entry is referenced
+   * by one or more values in fragment_filter_ids.
+   */
+  repeated bytes filter_expressions = 5;
+}
+
+// Top-level wrapper for FilteredReadExec serialization.
+message FilteredReadExecProto {
+  TableIdentifier table = 1;
+  FilteredReadOptionsProto options = 2;
+  /* FilteredRead has two modes
+   * Plan-then-execute (distributed): The planner creates a FilteredReadPlan and sends it to a remote executor.
+   * Plan-and-execute (local): The executor creates the plan itself at execution time.
+   */
+  optional FilteredReadPlanProto plan = 3;
+  /* Note: FilteredReadExec.index_input (child ExecutionPlan) is NOT serialized here.
+   * DataFusion's PhysicalExtensionCodec handles child plans automatically: it walks
+   * the plan tree via children() / with_new_children(), serializes each node, and
+   * passes deserialized children back as the `inputs` parameter in try_decode.
+   * This means any ExecutionPlan in the tree (including index_input) must also
+   * implement try_encode/try_decode in the PhysicalExtensionCodec.
+   * TODO: implement serialize/deserialize for lance-specific index input ExecutionPlans.
+   */
+}
diff --git a/protos/fragment_metadata.proto b/protos/fragment_metadata.proto
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..63e2651d1e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/protos/fragment_metadata.proto
@@ -0,0 +1,455 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+syntax = "proto3";
+
+package lance.table;
+
+/* A DataFragment is a set of files which represent the different columns of the same
+ * rows. If column exists in the schema of a dataset, but the file for that column does
+ * not exist within a DataFragment of that dataset, that column consists entirely of
+ * nulls.
+ */
+message DataFragment {
+  // The ID of a DataFragment is unique within a dataset.
+  uint64 id = 1;
+
+  repeated DataFile files = 2;
+
+  /* Optional overlay files for this fragment, which supply new values for a
+   * subset of cells without rewriting the base data files. This MUST be empty
+   * if the data overlay files feature flag (64) is not set in the manifest.
+   *
+   * Order is significant: a later entry is newer than an earlier one. When two
+   * overlays cover the same (offset, field) and share a `committed_version`, the
+   * later entry wins. See DataOverlayFile for the full resolution rules.
+   */
+  repeated DataOverlayFile overlays = 11;
+
+  // File that indicates which rows, if any, should be considered deleted.
+  DeletionFile deletion_file = 3;
+
+  // TODO: What's the simplest way we can allow an inline tombstone bitmap?
+
+  /* A serialized RowIdSequence message (see rowids.proto).
+   *
+   * These are the row ids for the fragment, in order of the rows as they appear.
+   * That is, if a fragment has 3 rows, and the row ids are [1, 42, 3], then the
+   * first row is row 1, the second row is row 42, and the third row is row 3.
+   */
+  oneof row_id_sequence {
+    // Current Lance writers store row ids inline regardless of encoded size.
+    bytes inline_row_ids = 5;
+    /* The row ids are a hidden column of one of this fragment's `files`: the
+     * entry whose `fields` carries the reserved id -3. See RowLineageColumn.
+     *
+     * A writer MUST set the spilled row lineage feature flag (2048) when any
+     * fragment uses this arm or either of the other column arms below. A
+     * reader that does not understand the flag would see an unset oneof and
+     * treat the fragment as having no row ids at all.
+     */
+    RowLineageColumn column_row_ids = 12;
+  } // row_id_sequence
+
+  oneof last_updated_at_version_sequence {
+    // Current Lance writers store last-updated versions inline regardless of encoded size.
+    bytes inline_last_updated_at_versions = 7;
+    /* The versions are a hidden column of one of this fragment's `files`: the
+     * entry whose `fields` carries the reserved id -5. Gated like
+     * `column_row_ids`.
+     */
+    RowLineageColumn column_last_updated_at_versions = 13;
+  } // last_updated_at_version_sequence
+
+  oneof created_at_version_sequence {
+    // Current Lance writers store created-at versions inline regardless of encoded size.
+    bytes inline_created_at_versions = 9;
+    /* The versions are a hidden column of one of this fragment's `files`: the
+     * entry whose `fields` carries the reserved id -4. Gated like
+     * `column_row_ids`.
+     */
+    RowLineageColumn column_created_at_versions = 14;
+  } // created_at_version_sequence
+
+  /* The `external_*` arms of the three sequence oneofs above: an opaque byte
+   * range in a file, holding the same encoding as the inline arm. No Lance
+   * writer ever emitted them; the column arms replace that design. Reserved so
+   * a reader never has to interpret them.
+   */
+  reserved 6, 8, 10;
+  reserved "external_row_ids", "external_last_updated_at_versions",
+      "external_created_at_versions";
+
+  /* Number of original rows in the fragment, this includes rows that are now marked with
+   * deletion tombstones. To compute the current number of rows, subtract
+   * `deletion_file.num_deleted_rows` from this value.
+   */
+  uint64 physical_rows = 4;
+}
+
+message DataFile {
+  // Path to the root relative to the dataset's URI.
+  string path = 1;
+  /* The ids of the fields/columns in this file.
+   *
+   * When a DataFile object is created in memory, every value in fields is assigned -1 by
+   * default. An object with a value in fields of -1 must not be stored to disk. -2 is
+   * used for "tombstoned", meaning a field that is no longer in use. This is often
+   * because the original field id was reassigned to a different data file.
+   *
+   * Every negative value is reserved for system use and never names a field of the
+   * dataset schema. -3, -4 and -5 are the hidden row lineage columns (see
+   * RowLineageColumn); a reader projecting the dataset schema onto a file skips
+   * them, and any other negative value, rather than reject the file.
+   *
+   * In Lance v1 IDs are assigned based on position in the file, offset by the max
+   * existing field id in the table (if any already). So when a fragment is first created
+   * with one file of N columns, the field ids will be 1, 2, ..., N. If a second fragment
+   * is created with M columns, the field ids will be N+1, N+2, ..., N+M.
+   *
+   * In Lance v1 there is one field for each field in the input schema, this includes
+   * nested fields (both struct and list).  Fixed size list fields have only a single
+   * field id (these are not considered nested fields in Lance v1).
+   *
+   * This allows column indices to be calculated from field IDs and the input schema.
+   *
+   * In Lance v2 the field IDs generally follow the same pattern but there is no
+   * way to calculate the column index from the field ID.  This is because a given
+   * field could be encoded in many different ways, some of which occupy a different
+   * number of columns.  For example, a struct field could be encoded into N + 1 columns
+   * or it could be encoded into a single packed column.  To determine column indices
+   * the column_indices property should be used instead.
+   *
+   * In Lance v1 these ids must be sorted but might not always be contiguous.
+   */
+  repeated int32 fields = 2;
+  /* The top-level column indices for each field in the file.
+   *
+   * If the data file is version 1 then this property will be empty
+   *
+   * Otherwise there must be one entry for each field in `fields`.
+   *
+   * Some fields may not correspond to a top-level column in the file.  In these cases
+   * the index will -1.
+   *
+   * For example, consider the schema:
+   *
+   * - dimension: packed-struct (0):
+   *   - x: u32 (1)
+   *   - y: u32 (2)
+   * - path: `list<u32>` (3)
+   * - embedding: `fsl<768>` (4)
+   *   - fp64
+   * - borders: `fsl<4>` (5)
+   *   - simple-struct (6)
+   *     - margin: fp64 (7)
+   *     - padding: fp64 (8)
+   *
+   * One possible column indices array could be:
+   * [0, -1, -1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
+   *
+   * This reflects quite a few phenomenon:
+   * - The packed struct is encoded into a single column and there is no top-level column
+   *   for the x or y fields
+   * - The variable sized list is encoded into two columns
+   * - The embedding is encoded into a single column (common for FSL of primitive) and there
+   *   is not "FSL column"
+   * - The borders field actually does have an "FSL column"
+   *
+   * The column indices table may not have duplicates (other than -1)
+   */
+  repeated int32 column_indices = 3;
+  // The major file version used to create the file
+  uint32 file_major_version = 4;
+  /* The minor file version used to create the file
+   *
+   * If both `file_major_version` and `file_minor_version` are set to 0,
+   * then this is a version 0.1 or version 0.2 file.
+   */
+  uint32 file_minor_version = 5;
+
+  /* The known size of the file on disk in bytes.
+   *
+   * This is used to quickly find the footer of the file.
+   *
+   * When this is zero, it should be interpreted as "unknown".
+   */
+  uint64 file_size_bytes = 6;
+
+  /* The base path index of the data file. Used when the file is imported or referred from another dataset.
+   * Lance use it as key of the base_paths field in Manifest to determine the actual base path of the data file.
+   */
+  optional uint32 base_id = 7;
+} // DataFile
+
+/* An overlay file supplies new values for a subset of (row offset, field) cells
+ * within a fragment, without rewriting the fragment's base data files. It is
+ * used for efficient updates when only a small fraction of rows and/or columns
+ * change.
+ *
+ * On read, a cell is resolved by consulting the fragment's overlays from newest
+ * to oldest: the first overlay that covers that (offset, field) wins; if none
+ * cover it, the value falls through to the base data file. Because deletions
+ * take precedence over overlays, an overlay value for an offset that is also
+ * marked deleted is dead and is ignored.
+ *
+ * The overlay's data file does NOT store a row-offset key column. Within a value
+ * column, the position of a covered offset's value is the rank (0-based count of
+ * set bits below it) of that offset within the field's coverage bitmap. Because
+ * fields may cover different offset sets, the value columns of a single overlay
+ * data file may have different lengths (which the Lance file format permits).
+ */
+message DataOverlayFile {
+  /* The data file storing the overlay's new cell values, one value column per
+   * field in `data_file.fields`. No row-offset key column is stored.
+   */
+  DataFile data_file = 1;
+
+  // Which (offset, field) cells this overlay provides values for.
+  oneof coverage {
+    /* A single 32-bit Roaring bitmap of physical row offsets that applies to
+     * every field in `data_file.fields` (a "dense" / rectangular overlay).
+     * Every covered offset has a value for every field. This is the common case
+     * for a plain UPDATE, where one SET list is applied to one set of rows.
+     */
+    bytes shared_offset_bitmap = 2;
+    /* Per-field coverage for a "sparse" overlay, used when different fields cover
+     * different offset sets (e.g. a MERGE with multiple WHEN MATCHED branches).
+     */
+    FieldCoverage field_coverage = 4;
+  }
+
+  /* The dataset version at which this overlay became effective: the version of
+   * the commit that introduced it, NOT the version it was read from. It is
+   * stamped at commit time and re-stamped if the commit is retried, in the same
+   * way as the created-at / last-updated-at version sequences.
+   *
+   * This drives two orderings:
+   *  * Versus index builds: an index whose `dataset_version` >= this value
+   *    already incorporates this overlay. Otherwise the overlay's covered cells
+   *    are excluded from index results for the affected fields and re-evaluated
+   *    against their current values (see the Data Overlay Files specification).
+   *  * Versus other overlays: when two overlays cover the same (offset, field),
+   *    the one with the higher `committed_version` wins. Overlays that share a
+   *    `committed_version` are ordered by their position in
+   *    `DataFragment.overlays`, where a later entry is newer and wins.
+   */
+  uint64 committed_version = 3;
+}
+
+// Per-field coverage for a sparse overlay.
+message FieldCoverage {
+  /* One entry per field in the overlay's `data_file.fields`, in the same order.
+   * Each is a 32-bit Roaring bitmap of the physical row offsets covered for that
+   * field. An offset present in a field's bitmap but mapped to a NULL value
+   * means the cell is overridden to NULL (distinct from an offset that is absent,
+   * which falls through to the base data file).
+   */
+  repeated bytes offset_bitmaps = 1;
+}
+
+/* Deletion File
+ *
+ * The path of the deletion file is constructed as:
+ *   {root}/_deletions/{fragment_id}-{read_version}-{id}.{extension}
+ * where {extension} depends on DeletionFileType.
+ */
+message DeletionFile {
+  /* Type of deletion file, intended as a way to increase efficiency of the storage of deleted row
+   * offsets. If there are sparsely deleted rows, then ARROW_ARRAY is the most efficient. If there
+   * are densely deleted rows, then BITMAP is the most efficient.
+   */
+  enum DeletionFileType {
+    /* A single Int32Array of deleted row offsets, stored as an Arrow IPC file with one batch and
+     * one column. Has a .arrow extension.
+     */
+    ARROW_ARRAY = 0;
+    // A Roaring Bitmap of deleted row offsets. Has a .bin extension.
+    BITMAP = 1;
+  }
+
+  // Type of deletion file.
+  DeletionFileType file_type = 1;
+  // The version of the dataset this deletion file was built from.
+  uint64 read_version = 2;
+  /* An opaque id used to differentiate this file from others written by concurrent
+   * writers.
+   */
+  uint64 id = 3;
+  // The number of rows that are marked as deleted.
+  uint64 num_deleted_rows = 4;
+  /* The base path index of the deletion file. Used when the file is imported or referred from another
+   * dataset. Lance uses it as key of the base_paths field in Manifest to determine the actual base
+   * path of the deletion file.
+   */
+  optional uint32 base_id = 7;
+} // DeletionFile
+
+/* Marks a row lineage sequence that is stored as a hidden column of one of the
+ * fragment's `files` rather than inline: `_rowid` under the reserved field id
+ * -3, `_row_created_at_version` under -4, `_row_last_updated_at_version` under
+ * -5. Exactly one entry of `DataFragment.files` carries that id in its
+ * `fields`, and its `column_indices` locates the column the way it does for a
+ * user column, so the column may share a file with the user columns or with the
+ * other lineage columns, or sit in a file that holds nothing else. The column is
+ * a non-nullable uint64 with exactly `physical_rows` values, in physical row
+ * order; see the table format documentation for the schema.
+ *
+ * Carries no fields: the file is found by its field id, so the file's metadata
+ * lives in `files` alone.
+ *
+ * Valid only in a fragment whose data files are Lance v2 files. A legacy v1
+ * data file has no `column_indices` to locate the column by, so a writer on a
+ * dataset that stores v1 files leaves every sequence inline.
+ */
+message RowLineageColumn {}
+
+// A byte range of a file. Used by the fragment reuse index details.
+message ExternalFile {
+  // Path to the file, relative to the root of the table.
+  string path = 1;
+  // The byte offset in the file where the data starts.
+  uint64 offset = 2;
+  // The size of the data in the file, in bytes.
+  uint64 size = 3;
+}
+
+// Fragment storage layout for this version.
+message FragmentTreeMetadata {
+  oneof layout {
+    FragmentTree tree = 1;
+  }
+}
+
+// Fragment state for one Version Manifest.
+message FragmentTree {
+  oneof root {
+    FragmentTreeRoot inline_root = 1;
+    /* Exactly 16 UUID bytes in display order. Resolves under this dataset as
+     * _bt/root/{lowercase hyphenated UUID}.root.
+     */
+    bytes root_uuid = 2;
+  }
+
+  // Mutations not represented by the selected root.
+  repeated FragmentTreeMutation mutations_since_root = 3;
+
+  // Next unused action sequence for this version.
+  uint64 next_action_sequence = 4;
+}
+
+// Inline or external root state.
+message FragmentTreeRoot {
+  repeated FragmentTreeChild children = 1;
+  repeated FragmentTreeMutation buffer = 2;
+
+  // First action sequence not represented by this root.
+  uint64 next_action_sequence = 3;
+}
+
+/* Children are ordered by min_key. A child owns [min_key, next min_key);
+ * the last child inherits its parent's upper bound.
+ */
+message FragmentTreeChild {
+  // Tree object path relative to its resolved dataset.
+  string path = 1;
+
+  /* Absent inherits the containing object's dataset. Otherwise matches BasePath.id
+   * in Manifest.base_paths; zero is a valid ID.
+   */
+  optional uint32 base_id = 2;
+
+  /* Inclusive lower bound of this child's fragment-ID range. It need not
+   * equal an ID currently stored in the child.
+   */
+  uint64 min_key = 3;
+
+  // Fragment count in this subtree, including this object's buffer.
+  uint64 num_keys = 4;
+
+  // Edges from this object to its leaves. Zero for a leaf.
+  uint32 height = 5;
+
+  // Direct child count. Zero for a leaf.
+  uint32 num_children = 6;
+
+  // Physical rows in this subtree, including this object's buffer.
+  uint64 total_rows = 7;
+
+  // Stored byte length of the child object.
+  uint64 object_size = 8;
+
+  /* Every mutation for this leaf's range at or below this value has been
+   * applied, and none remain buffered above it. Zero means none. Must be 0
+   * for interiors.
+   */
+  uint64 materialized_through_action_sequence = 9;
+
+  // Visible rows in this subtree, including this object's buffer.
+  uint64 visible_rows = 10;
+}
+
+// Interior routing node.
+message FragmentTreeNode {
+  repeated FragmentTreeChild children = 1;
+  repeated FragmentTreeMutation buffer = 2;
+}
+
+// Validated mutation with exact after-minus-before aggregate deltas.
+message FragmentTreeMutation {
+  uint64 action_sequence = 1;
+  FragmentAction action = 2;
+  sint64 fragment_count_delta = 3;
+  sint64 total_rows_delta = 4;
+  sint64 visible_rows_delta = 5;
+}
+
+/* upsert_fragment replaces the complete record. Use it for changes that other
+ * actions cannot express, including overlays, version sequences, and row IDs.
+ */
+message FragmentAction {
+  oneof action {
+    DataFragment upsert_fragment = 1;
+    uint64 remove_fragment = 2;
+    AddDataFile add_data_file = 3;
+    RemoveDataFile remove_data_file = 4;
+    AddDeletionFile add_deletion_file = 5;
+    ClearDeletionFile clear_deletion_file = 6;
+    ReplaceDataFile replace_data_file = 7;
+  }
+}
+
+// Append to the ordered file list.
+message AddDataFile {
+  uint64 frag_id = 1;
+  DataFile file = 2;
+}
+
+// Remove every matching path, preserving order.
+message RemoveDataFile {
+  uint64 frag_id = 1;
+  string path = 2;
+}
+
+message AddDeletionFile {
+  uint64 frag_id = 1;
+  DeletionFile deletion_file = 2;
+}
+
+message ClearDeletionFile {
+  uint64 frag_id = 1;
+}
+
+/* On the first expected_path match, replace path, file_size_bytes, and base_id.
+ * Preserve its column mapping and file version.
+ */
+message ReplaceDataFile {
+  uint64 frag_id = 1;
+  string expected_path = 2;
+  string path = 3;
+  uint64 file_size_bytes = 4;
+  /* Absent inherits the resolved dataset of the tree object or Version Manifest
+   * containing this mutation. Otherwise matches BasePath.id in Manifest.base_paths.
+   */
+  optional uint32 base_id = 5;
+}
diff --git a/protos/index.proto b/protos/index.proto
index 1fb51f3291c..aebb2b24258 100644
--- a/protos/index.proto
+++ b/protos/index.proto
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ syntax = "proto3";
 package lance.index.pb;
 
 import "google/protobuf/any.proto";
+import "index_old.proto";
 
 // The type of an index.
 enum IndexType {
@@ -55,9 +56,10 @@ message Tensor {
 
 // Inverted Index File Metadata.
 message IVF {
-  // Centroids of partitions. `dimension * num_partitions` of float32s.
-  //
-  // Deprecated, use centroids_tensor instead.
+  /* Centroids of partitions. `dimension * num_partitions` of float32s.
+   *
+   * Deprecated, use centroids_tensor instead.
+   */
   repeated float centroids = 1;  // [deprecated = true];
 
   // File offset of each partition.
@@ -171,23 +173,139 @@ message VectorIndex {
   // Vector dimension;
   uint32 dimension = 2;
 
-  // Composed vector index stages.
-  //
-  // For example, `IVF_PQ` index type can be expressed as:
-  //
-  // ```text
-  // let stages = vec![Ivf{}, PQ{num_bits: 8, num_sub_vectors: 16}]
-  // ```
+  /* Composed vector index stages.
+   *
+   * For example, `IVF_PQ` index type can be expressed as:
+   *
+   * ```text
+   * let stages = vec![Ivf{}, PQ{num_bits: 8, num_sub_vectors: 16}]
+   * ```
+   */
   repeated VectorIndexStage stages = 3;
 
   // Vector distance metrics type
   VectorMetricType metric_type = 4;
 }
 
+// Details for vector indexes, stored in the manifest's index_details field.
+message VectorIndexDetails {
+  VectorMetricType metric_type = 1;
+
+  /* The target number of vectors per partition.
+   * 0 means unset.
+   */
+  uint64 target_partition_size = 2;
+
+  // Optional HNSW index configuration. If set, the index has an HNSW layer.
+  optional HnswParameters hnsw_index_config = 3;
+
+  message ProductQuantization {
+    uint32 num_bits = 1;
+    uint32 num_sub_vectors = 2;
+  }
+  message ScalarQuantization {
+    uint32 num_bits = 1;
+  }
+  message RabitQuantization {
+    enum RotationType {
+      FAST = 0;
+      MATRIX = 1;
+    }
+    uint32 num_bits = 1;
+    RotationType rotation_type = 2;
+  }
+
+  // No quantization; vectors are stored as-is.
+  message FlatCompression {}
+
+  oneof compression {
+    ProductQuantization pq = 4;
+    ScalarQuantization sq = 5;
+    RabitQuantization rq = 6;
+    FlatCompression flat = 8;
+  }
+
+  /* Runtime hints: optional build preferences that don't affect index structure.
+   * Keys use reverse-DNS namespacing (e.g., "lance.ivf.max_iters", "lancedb.accelerator").
+   * Unrecognized keys must be silently ignored by all runtimes.
+   */
+  map<string, string> runtime_hints = 9;
+}
+
+// Hierarchical Navigable Small World (HNSW) parameters, used as an optional configuration for IVF indexes.
+message HnswParameters {
+  /* The maximum number of outgoing edges per node in the HNSW graph. Higher values
+   * means more connections, better recall, but more memory and slower builds.
+   * Referred to as "M" in the HNSW literature.
+   */
+  uint32 max_connections = 1;
+  /* "construction exploration factor": The size of the dynamic list used during
+   * index construction.
+   */
+  uint32 construction_ef = 2;
+  // The maximum number of levels in the HNSW graph.
+  uint32 max_level = 3;
+}
+
 message JsonIndexDetails {
   string path = 1;
   google.protobuf.Any target_details = 2;
 }
 message BloomFilterIndexDetails {}
 
-message RTreeIndexDetails {}
\ No newline at end of file
+message RTreeIndexDetails {}
+
+message FMIndexDetails {}
+
+/* Details of a MinHash LSH index (near-duplicate search over text).
+ *
+ * EXPERIMENTAL: this index is an experimental format feature. This message
+ * and the index files may change incompatibly without a separate vote, in
+ * which case the index must be rebuilt (the data is never rewritten), and
+ * the feature is removed if its stabilization vote does not pass. Datasets
+ * that do not use the index are not affected either way.
+ *
+ * The message identifies every input of signature generation: the
+ * parameters, the tokenizer and the version of the procedure. All segments
+ * of one logical index carry identical details, so their signatures and the
+ * query signature are comparable; both index files repeat the serialized
+ * message in their schema metadata so that a file which does not belong to
+ * the details is detected. A reader validates every field against the ranges
+ * below before it allocates memory or reads an index file.
+ */
+message MinHashLshIndexDetails {
+  /* Number of MinHash values per signature (k): in [1, 4096] and a multiple
+   * of `num_bands`.
+   */
+  uint32 num_hashes = 1;
+
+  /* Number of LSH bands (b), in [1, 256]. Each band covers
+   * `num_hashes / num_bands` consecutive signature values.
+   */
+  uint32 num_bands = 2;
+
+  /* Number of consecutive tokens joined into one shingle; at least 1. A text
+   * with fewer tokens forms one shingle of all of them.
+   */
+  uint32 shingle_size = 3;
+
+  /* The tokenizer, recorded as a full text search index records it and
+   * rebuilt from this message alone at query time. Required. Fields that only
+   * shape full text search postings (`with_position`, `block_size`,
+   * `posting_format_version`, `document_granularity`) are carried unchanged
+   * and ignored. The details must identify the tokenizer completely, so
+   * settings the message cannot record (custom stop words, document-level
+   * text extraction) and tokenizers that load data from outside Lance (the
+   * jieba and lindera dictionaries) are rejected.
+   */
+  lance.table.InvertedIndexDetails tokenizer = 4;
+
+  /* Version of the signature procedure: the token streams of the tokenizers
+   * that ship with Lance, shingling, hashing, the permutation coefficients
+   * and their seed, compression and band keys. Bumped whenever any of them
+   * changes in a way that makes old and new signatures incomparable; a reader
+   * rejects a version it does not implement. Independent of the index file
+   * format version.
+   */
+  uint32 signature_version = 5;
+}
diff --git a/protos/index_old.proto b/protos/index_old.proto
index 601aa2681da..01be98faeb0 100644
--- a/protos/index_old.proto
+++ b/protos/index_old.proto
@@ -5,29 +5,86 @@ syntax = "proto3";
 
 package lance.table;
 
-// NOTE: Do *NOT* add new index details here.  Add them to the index.proto file instead.
-// This file is in the lance.table package namespace while the index.proto file is in the
-// lance.index package namespace.
-//
-// These are only here for forward compatibility.  Older versions of Lance expect btree indexes
-// to have lance.table in the package namespace.
-//
-// If you need to modify these messages (e.g. to add new fields to btree or bitmap) then
-// it is ok to modify them here.
+/* NOTE: Do *NOT* add new index details here.  Add them to the index.proto file instead.
+ * This file is in the lance.table package namespace while the index.proto file is in the
+ * lance.index package namespace.
+ *
+ * These are only here for forward compatibility.  Older versions of Lance expect btree indexes
+ * to have lance.table in the package namespace.
+ *
+ * If you need to modify these messages (e.g. to add new fields to btree or bitmap) then
+ * it is ok to modify them here.
+ */
 
-// Currently many of these are empty messages because all needed details are either hard-coded (e.g.
-// filenames) or stored in the index itself.  However, we may want to add more details in the
-// future, in particular we can add details that may be useful for planning queries (e.g. don't
-// force us to load the index until we know we can make use of it)
+/* Currently many of these are empty messages because all needed details are either hard-coded (e.g.
+ * filenames) or stored in the index itself.  However, we may want to add more details in the
+ * future, in particular we can add details that may be useful for planning queries (e.g. don't
+ * force us to load the index until we know we can make use of it)
+ */
 
 message BTreeIndexDetails {}
 message BitmapIndexDetails {}
 message LabelListIndexDetails {}
 message NGramIndexDetails {}
-message ZoneMapIndexDetails {}
+message ZoneMapIndexDetails {
+  /* Number of rows per zone. Optional for backwards compatibility: absent on
+   * datasets written before this field was added. When absent, no seed writer
+   * is created for the index.
+   */
+  optional uint64 rows_per_zone = 1;
+  /* Whether seed-based incremental updates are enabled for this index.
+   * On-disk semantics: absent means seeds are disabled (old datasets written
+   * before this field was added). Present false means explicitly disabled.
+   * Present true means seeds are enabled: the index will embed per-fragment
+   * seed buffers in data files and harvest them during incremental updates
+   * to skip full column scans.
+   * Creation-time default: index creation code sets this to true for
+   * variable-length types (strings, binary) and fixed-width types wider than
+   * 8 bytes, and to false for narrow fixed-width types (e.g. Int64, Float64).
+   */
+  optional bool use_seeds = 2;
+  /* Whether this index tracks exact null row addresses in a separate bitmap.
+   * Absent or false means legacy format: null positions are not tracked and
+   * IS NULL searches fall back to approximate zone-level statistics. Present
+   * true means IS NULL is exact and IS NOT NULL can be answered without a
+   * full scan.
+   */
+  optional bool has_null_bitmap = 3;
+}
 message InvertedIndexDetails {
-  // Marking this field as optional as old versions of the index store blank details and we
-  // need to make sure we have a proper optional field to detect this.
+  enum DocumentGranularity {
+    ROW = 0;
+    LIST_ELEMENT = 1;
+  }
+
+  message CodeTokenizerConfig {
+    /* Split one lexical identifier into subwords, e.g. getUserName ->
+     * get/user/name.
+     */
+    bool split_identifiers = 1;
+    /* Split identifier subwords across letter/number boundaries, e.g.
+     * HTML2JSON -> html/2/json. An absent value uses the code tokenizer default;
+     * a present value records the explicit index-time choice.
+     */
+    optional bool split_on_numerics = 2;
+    /* Keep the complete lexical identifier in addition to subwords, e.g.
+     * user_name plus user/name. An absent value uses the code tokenizer default;
+     * a present value records the explicit index-time choice.
+     */
+    optional bool preserve_original = 3;
+    /* Index operator tokens such as "::", "->", and "!=". Operators are not
+     * indexed by default because they are often high-frequency noise.
+     */
+    bool index_operators = 4;
+  }
+
+  /* Lexical tokenizer used after document-level text extraction. This is an
+   * implementation component such as "simple", "icu", "ngram", or "code".
+   * Input-time analyzer profiles are expanded into this field and the concrete
+   * options below before these details are persisted.
+   * Marking this field as optional as old versions of the index store blank details and we
+   * need to make sure we have a proper optional field to detect this.
+   */
   optional string base_tokenizer = 1;
   string language = 2;
   bool with_position = 3;
@@ -39,4 +96,23 @@ message InvertedIndexDetails {
   uint32 min_ngram_length = 9;
   uint32 max_ngram_length = 10;
   bool prefix_only = 11;
+  /* Number of documents per compressed posting block. An absent value means
+   * the index predates this field and must use the legacy block size of 128.
+   * A present value records the block size used by the index; 256 is valid
+   * with format versions 3 and 4.
+   */
+  optional uint32 block_size = 12;
+  /* Options for base_tokenizer = "code". Presence records the code tokenizer
+   * configuration used to build the index; absence means there is no
+   * code-specific configuration to apply.
+   */
+  CodeTokenizerConfig code_config = 13;
+  /* The logical FTS document boundary. The protobuf default preserves the
+   * legacy row-document behavior when this field is absent.
+   */
+  DocumentGranularity document_granularity = 14;
+  /* The posting-list payload format. This is separate from index_version,
+   * which identifies the overall inverted-index layout.
+   */
+  optional uint32 posting_format_version = 15;
 }
diff --git a/protos/rowids.proto b/protos/rowids.proto
index 3039cbf2a92..86cec769980 100644
--- a/protos/rowids.proto
+++ b/protos/rowids.proto
@@ -4,13 +4,15 @@
 syntax = "proto3";
 
 package lance.table;
-// TODO: what would it take to store this in a LanceV2 file?
-// Or would flatbuffers be better for this?
+/* TODO: what would it take to store this in a LanceV2 file?
+ * Or would flatbuffers be better for this?
+ */
 
-/// A sequence of row IDs. This is split up into one or more segments,
-/// each of which can be encoded in different ways. The encodings are optimized
-/// for values that are sorted, which will often be the case with row ids.
-/// They also have optimized forms depending on how sparse the values are.
+/* A sequence of row IDs. This is split up into one or more segments,
+ * each of which can be encoded in different ways. The encodings are optimized
+ * for values that are sorted, which will often be the case with row ids.
+ * They also have optimized forms depending on how sparse the values are.
+ */
 message RowIdSequence {
     repeated U64Segment segments = 1;
 }
@@ -31,11 +33,12 @@ message U64Segment {
         uint64 start = 1;
         /// The end of the range, exclusive.
         uint64 end = 2;
-        /// The holes in the range, as a sorted array of values;
-        /// Binary search can be used to check whether a value is a hole and should
-        /// be skipped. This can also be used to count the number of holes before a
-        /// given value, if you need to find the logical offset of a value in the
-        /// segment.
+        /* The holes in the range, as a sorted array of values;
+         * Binary search can be used to check whether a value is a hole and should
+         * be skipped. This can also be used to count the number of holes before a
+         * given value, if you need to find the logical offset of a value in the
+         * segment.
+         */
         EncodedU64Array holes = 3;
     }
 
@@ -45,13 +48,14 @@ message U64Segment {
         uint64 start = 1;
         /// The end of the range, exclusive.
         uint64 end = 2;
-        /// A bitmap of the values in the range. The bitmap is a sequence of bytes,
-        /// where each byte represents 8 values. The first byte represents values
-        /// start to start + 7, the second byte represents values start + 8 to
-        /// start + 15, and so on. The most significant bit of each byte represents
-        /// the first value in the range, and the least significant bit represents
-        /// the last value in the range. If the bit is set, the value is in the
-        /// range; if it is not set, the value is not in the range.
+        /* A bitmap of the values in the range. The bitmap is a sequence of bytes,
+         * where each byte represents 8 values. The first byte represents values
+         * start to start + 7, the second byte represents values start + 8 to
+         * start + 15, and so on. The most significant bit of each byte represents
+         * the first value in the range, and the least significant bit represents
+         * the last value in the range. If the bit is set, the value is in the
+         * range; if it is not set, the value is not in the range.
+         */
         bytes bitmap = 3;
     }
 
@@ -73,15 +77,17 @@ message U64Segment {
 message EncodedU64Array {
     message U16Array {
         uint64 base = 1;
-        /// The deltas are stored as 16-bit unsigned integers.
-        /// (protobuf doesn't support 16-bit integers, so we use bytes instead)
+        /* The deltas are stored as 16-bit unsigned integers.
+         * (protobuf doesn't support 16-bit integers, so we use bytes instead)
+         */
         bytes offsets = 2;
     }
 
     message U32Array {
         uint64 base = 1;
-        /// The deltas are stored as 32-bit unsigned integers.
-        /// (we use bytes instead of uint32 to avoid overhead of varint encoding)
+        /* The deltas are stored as 32-bit unsigned integers.
+         * (we use bytes instead of uint32 to avoid overhead of varint encoding)
+         */
         bytes offsets = 2;
     }
 
@@ -97,9 +103,10 @@ message EncodedU64Array {
     }
 }
 
-/// A sequence of dataset versions. Similar to RowIdSequence but tracks
-/// version runs. It uses RLE (Run-Length Encoding) to efficiently
-// represent consecutive rows with the same version.
+/* A sequence of dataset versions. Similar to RowIdSequence but tracks
+ * version runs. It uses RLE (Run-Length Encoding) to efficiently
+ * represent consecutive rows with the same version.
+ */
 message RowDatasetVersionSequence {
     repeated RowDatasetVersionRun runs = 1;
 }
diff --git a/protos/table.proto b/protos/table.proto
index e7de867e46e..1d0febbf215 100644
--- a/protos/table.proto
+++ b/protos/table.proto
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ package lance.table;
 import "google/protobuf/any.proto";
 import "google/protobuf/timestamp.proto";
 import "file.proto";
+import public "fragment_metadata.proto";
 
 /*
 
@@ -43,54 +44,64 @@ message Manifest {
   // Fragments of the dataset.
   repeated DataFragment fragments = 2;
 
+  /* Tree tables set this, leave fragments empty, and set bit 12 on both flag
+   * fields. Old readers skip unknown fields and would otherwise see an empty table.
+   */
+  FragmentTreeMetadata fragment_tree = 22;
+
   // Snapshot version number.
   uint64 version = 3;
 
-  // The file position of the version auxiliary data.
-  //  * It is not inheritable between versions.
-  //  * It is not loaded by default during query.
+  /* The file position of the version auxiliary data.
+   *  * It is not inheritable between versions.
+   *  * It is not loaded by default during query.
+   */
   uint64 version_aux_data = 4;
 
   message WriterVersion {
     // The name of the library that created this file.
     string library = 1;
-    // The version of the library that created this file. Because we cannot assume
-    // that the library is semantically versioned, this is a string. However, if it
-    // is semantically versioned, it should be a valid semver string without any 'v'
-    // prefix. For example: `2.0.0`, `2.0.0-rc.1`.
-    //
-    // For forward compatibility with older readers, when writing new manifests this
-    // field should contain only the core version (major.minor.patch) without any
-    // prerelease or build metadata. The prerelease/build info should be stored in
-    // the separate prerelease and build_metadata fields instead.
+    /* The version of the library that created this file. Because we cannot assume
+     * that the library is semantically versioned, this is a string. However, if it
+     * is semantically versioned, it should be a valid semver string without any 'v'
+     * prefix. For example: `2.0.0`, `2.0.0-rc.1`.
+     *
+     * For forward compatibility with older readers, when writing new manifests this
+     * field should contain only the core version (major.minor.patch) without any
+     * prerelease or build metadata. The prerelease/build info should be stored in
+     * the separate prerelease and build_metadata fields instead.
+     */
     string version = 2;
-    // Optional semver prerelease identifier.
-    //
-    // This field stores the prerelease portion of a semantic version separately
-    // from the core version number. For example, if the full version is "2.0.0-rc.1",
-    // the version field would contain "2.0.0" and prerelease would contain "rc.1".
-    //
-    // This separation ensures forward compatibility: older readers can parse the
-    // clean version field without errors, while newer readers can reconstruct the
-    // full semantic version by combining version, prerelease, and build_metadata.
-    //
-    // If absent, the version field is used as-is.
+    /* Optional semver prerelease identifier.
+     *
+     * This field stores the prerelease portion of a semantic version separately
+     * from the core version number. For example, if the full version is "2.0.0-rc.1",
+     * the version field would contain "2.0.0" and prerelease would contain "rc.1".
+     *
+     * This separation ensures forward compatibility: older readers can parse the
+     * clean version field without errors, while newer readers can reconstruct the
+     * full semantic version by combining version, prerelease, and build_metadata.
+     *
+     * If absent, the version field is used as-is.
+     */
     optional string prerelease = 3;
-    // Optional semver build metadata.
-    //
-    // This field stores the build metadata portion of a semantic version separately
-    // from the core version number. For example, if the full version is
-    // "2.0.0-rc.1+build.123", the version field would contain "2.0.0", prerelease
-    // would contain "rc.1", and build_metadata would contain "build.123".
-    //
-    // If absent, no build metadata is present.
+    /* Optional semver build metadata.
+     *
+     * This field stores the build metadata portion of a semantic version separately
+     * from the core version number. For example, if the full version is
+     * "2.0.0-rc.1+build.123", the version field would contain "2.0.0", prerelease
+     * would contain "rc.1", and build_metadata would contain "build.123".
+     *
+     * If absent, no build metadata is present.
+     */
     optional string build_metadata = 4;
   }
 
-  // The version of the writer that created this file.
-  //
-  // This information may be used to detect whether the file may have known bugs
-  // associated with that writer.
+  /* The version of the writer that created this file.
+   *
+   * This information may be used to detect whether the file may have known bugs
+   * associated with that writer.
+   */
   WriterVersion writer_version = 13;
 
   // If present, the file position of the index metadata.
@@ -102,105 +113,163 @@ message Manifest {
   // Optional version tag
   string tag = 8;
 
-  // Feature flags for readers.
-  //
-  // A bitmap of flags that indicate which features are required to be able to
-  // read the table. If a reader does not recognize a flag that is set, it
-  // should not attempt to read the dataset.
-  //
-  // Known flags:
-  // * 1: deletion files are present
-  // * 2: row ids are stable and stored as part of the fragment metadata.
-  // * 4: use v2 format (deprecated)
-  // * 8: table config is present
+  /* Feature flags for readers.
+   *
+   * A bitmap of flags that indicate which features are required to be able to
+   * read the table. If a reader does not recognize a flag that is set, it
+   * should not attempt to read the dataset.
+   *
+   * Known flags:
+   * * 1 << 0: deletion files are present
+   * * 1 << 1: row ids are stable and stored as part of the fragment metadata.
+   * * 1 << 2: use v2 format (deprecated)
+   * * 1 << 3: table config is present
+   * * 1 << 4: dataset uses multiple base paths
+   * * 1 << 5: transaction file writes are disabled
+   * * 1 << 6: data overlay files are present (see DataOverlayFile). Readers that do
+   *   not understand overlays must refuse the dataset, since ignoring an overlay
+   *   would silently return stale base values.
+   * * 1 << 7: some index declares covering columns. Without 1 << 13,
+   *   the carried columns form the trailing suffix of IndexMetadata.fields in
+   *   emission order (see IndexMetadata). Readers
+   *   that do not understand covering columns must refuse the dataset, since
+   *   selecting an index by membership of fields would answer a query on a
+   *   merely-carried column with an index keyed on a different column. Writers
+   *   must refuse it too: one that treats every entry of fields as keyed would
+   *   maintain the index against the wrong dependency set.
+   * * 1 << 8: the dataset may reference recognized V2 data files with different
+   *   exact versions. Readers and writers must use each DataFile's version
+   *   instead of treating data_format.version as a snapshot-wide identity.
+   *   This bit is paired in the reader and writer feature words and is one-way.
+   * * 1 << 9: the table uses stable row ids and carries a fragment reuse index.
+   * * 1 << 12: fragment records live in fragment_tree. The fragments list
+   *   must be empty. Readers that do not know this bit must refuse the dataset.
+   * * 1 << 13: IndexMetadata.fields and covering_fields are independent
+   *   declarations. This bit requires 1 << 7 in both the reader and writer
+   *   flags, and the two bits are retained together: whenever this bit is set,
+   *   1 << 7 is also set, including manifests with no covering entries and
+   *   manifests that drop the last covering index. Fields contains only the columns the index is keyed on, while
+   *   covering_fields contains the columns whose values it carries. A field may
+   *   occur in both lists. Implementations that only support the legacy suffix
+   *   contract must refuse the dataset. Setting this bit reinterprets every
+   *   IndexMetadata in the index section, so a writer must normalize every
+   *   legacy-form entry in the same manifest -- or set the bit only when no
+   *   entry declares covering fields -- and manifests derived from it must keep
+   *   the bit set until a reverse conversion is likewise atomic.
+   */
   uint64 reader_feature_flags = 9;
 
-  // Feature flags for writers.
-  //
-  // A bitmap of flags that indicate which features must be used when writing to the
-  // dataset. If a writer does not recognize a flag that is set, it should not attempt to
-  // write to the dataset.
-  //
-  // The flag identities are the same as for reader_feature_flags, but the values of
-  // reader_feature_flags and writer_feature_flags are not required to be identical.
+  /* Feature flags for writers.
+   *
+   * A bitmap of flags that indicate which features must be used when writing to the
+   * dataset. If a writer does not recognize a flag that is set, it should not attempt to
+   * write to the dataset.
+   *
+   * The flag identities are the same as for reader_feature_flags, but the values of
+   * reader_feature_flags and writer_feature_flags are not required to be identical.
+   */
   uint64 writer_feature_flags = 10;
 
-  // The highest fragment ID that has been used so far.
-  //
-  // This ID is not guaranteed to be present in the current version, but it may
-  // have been used in previous versions.
-  //
-  // For a single fragment, will be zero. For no fragments, will be absent.
+  /* Highest fragment id ever allocated or reserved in this lineage.
+   * Absent only before the first allocation or reservation. Never decreases.
+   * u32::MAX means the fragment-id space is exhausted.
+   */
   optional uint32 max_fragment_id = 11;
 
-  // Path to the transaction file, relative to `{root}/_transactions`. The file at that
-  // location contains a wire-format serialized Transaction message representing the
-  // transaction that created this version.
-  //
-  // This string field "transaction_file" may be empty if no transaction file was written.
-  //
-  // The path format is "{read_version}-{uuid}.txn" where {read_version} is the version of
-  // the table the transaction read from (serialized to decimal with no padding digits),
-  // and {uuid} is a hyphen-separated UUID.
+  /* Path to the transaction file, relative to `{root}/_transactions`. The file at that
+   * location contains a wire-format serialized Transaction message representing the
+   * transaction that created this version.
+   *
+   * This string field "transaction_file" may be empty if no transaction file was written.
+   *
+   * The path format is "{read_version}-{uuid}.txn" where {read_version} is the version of
+   * the table the transaction read from (serialized to decimal with no padding digits),
+   * and {uuid} is a hyphen-separated UUID.
+   */
   string transaction_file = 12;
 
-  // The file position of the transaction content. None if transaction is empty
-  // This transaction content begins with the transaction content length as u32
-  // If the transaction proto message has a length of `len`, the message ends at `len` + 4
-  optional uint64 transaction_section = 21;
-
-  // The next unused row id. If zero, then the table does not have any rows.
-  //
-  // This is only used if the "stable_row_ids" feature flag is set.
+  /* Deprecated location of the inline transaction section. Never written by
+   * current writers, but still read for versions written before field 23.
+   *
+   * Lance v1.0 through v11.0 eagerly decode the transaction at this offset when
+   * loading the manifest and fail if it does not decode. A transaction whose
+   * operation is newer than the reader would make the whole version
+   * unopenable, so the section moved to field 23, which those readers ignore.
+   */
+  optional uint64 transaction_section_deprecated = 21;
+
+  /* The file position of the transaction content. None if transaction is empty
+   * This transaction content begins with the transaction content length as u32
+   * If the transaction proto message has a length of `len`, the message ends at `len` + 4
+   *
+   * The offset is inert: a reader must never fail to open the manifest because
+   * it cannot decode the transaction it points at.
+   */
+  optional uint64 transaction_section = 23;
+
+  /* The next unused row id. If zero, then the table does not have any rows.
+   *
+   * This is only used if the "stable_row_ids" feature flag is set.
+   */
   uint64 next_row_id = 14;
 
   message DataStorageFormat {
     // The format of the data files (e.g. "lance")
     string file_format = 1;
-    // The max format version of the data files. The format of the version can vary by
-    // file_format and is not required to follow semver.
-    //
-    // Every file in this version of the dataset has the same file_format version.
+    /* The default format version used when writing data files. Write operations
+     * that do not select an exact version use this value. This setting does not
+     * constrain index or other file types. The version syntax is defined by
+     * file_format and is not required to follow semver.
+     *
+     * Unless the mixed data-file-version capability is set, every referenced
+     * data file must use this version. When the capability is set, referenced
+     * data files may use other recognized exact V2 versions, and each DataFile's
+     * version is authoritative for decoding.
+     */
     string version = 2;
   }
 
-  // The data storage format
-  //
-  // This specifies what format is used to store the data files.
+  /* The data storage format
+   *
+   * This specifies what format is used to store the data files.
+   */
   DataStorageFormat data_format = 15;
 
-  // Table config.
-  //
-  // Keys with the prefix "lance." are reserved for the Lance library. Other
-  // libraries may wish to similarly prefix their configuration keys
-  // appropriately.
+  /* Table config.
+   *
+   * Keys with the prefix "lance." are reserved for the Lance library. Other
+   * libraries may wish to similarly prefix their configuration keys
+   * appropriately.
+   */
   map<string, string> config = 16;
 
-  // Metadata associated with the table.
-  //
-  // This is a key-value map that can be used to store arbitrary metadata
-  // associated with the table.
-  //
-  // This is different than configuration, which is used to tell libraries how
-  // to read, write, or manage the table.
-  //
-  // This is different than schema metadata, which is used to describe the
-  // data itself and is attached to the output schema of scans.
+  /* Metadata associated with the table.
+   *
+   * This is a key-value map that can be used to store arbitrary metadata
+   * associated with the table.
+   *
+   * This is different than configuration, which is used to tell libraries how
+   * to read, write, or manage the table.
+   *
+   * This is different than schema metadata, which is used to describe the
+   * data itself and is attached to the output schema of scans.
+   */
   map<string, string> table_metadata = 19;
 
   // Field number 17 (`blob_dataset_version`) was used for a secondary blob dataset.
   reserved 17;
   reserved "blob_dataset_version";
 
-  // The base paths of data files.
-  //
-  // This is used to determine the base path of a data file. In common cases data file paths are under current dataset base path.
-  // But for shallow cloning, importing file and other multi-tier storage cases, the actual data files could be outside of the current dataset.
-  // This field is used with the `base_id` in `lance.file.File` and `lance.file.DeletionFile`.
-  //
-  // For example, if we have a dataset with base path `s3://bucket/dataset`, we have a DataFile with base_id 0, we get the actual data file path by:
-  // base_paths[id = 0] + /data/ + file.path
-  // the key(a.k.a index) starts from 0, increased by 1 for each new base path.
+  /* The base paths of data files.
+   *
+   * This is used to determine the base path of a data file. In common cases data file paths are under current dataset base path.
+   * But for shallow cloning, importing file and other multi-tier storage cases, the actual data files could be outside of the current dataset.
+   * This field is used with the `base_id` in `lance.file.File` and `lance.file.DeletionFile`.
+   *
+   * For example, if we have a dataset with base path `s3://bucket/dataset`, we have a DataFile with base_id 0, we get the actual data file path by:
+   * base_paths[id = 0] + /data/ + file.path
+   * the key(a.k.a index) starts from 0, increased by 1 for each new base path.
+   */
   repeated BasePath base_paths = 18;
 
   // The branch of the dataset. None means main branch.
@@ -210,19 +279,22 @@ message Manifest {
 // external dataset base path
 message BasePath {
   uint32 id = 1;
-  // This is an alias name of the base path, it is optional.
-  // When we use shallow clone and the target version is a tag, the tag name will be set here.
+  /* This is an alias name of the base path, it is optional.
+   * When we use shallow clone and the target version is a tag, the tag name will be set here.
+   */
   optional string name = 2;
-  // Flag indicating whether this path is a dataset root path or file directory:
-  // - true:  Path is a dataset root (actual files under subdirectories like `data`, '_deletions')
-  // - false: Path is a direct file directory (scenario like importing files)
+  /* Flag indicating whether this path is a dataset root path or file directory:
+   * - true:  Path is a dataset root (actual files under subdirectories like `data`, '_deletions')
+   * - false: Path is a direct file directory (scenario like importing files)
+   */
   bool is_dataset_root = 3;
   // Note: This absolute path will be directly used by Path:parse(),
   string path = 4;
 }
 
-// Auxiliary Data attached to a version.
-// Only load on-demand.
+/* Auxiliary Data attached to a version.
+ * Only load on-demand.
+ */
 message VersionAuxData {
   // key-value metadata.
   map<string, bytes> metadata = 3;
@@ -233,7 +305,15 @@ message IndexMetadata {
   // Unique ID of an index. It is unique across all the dataset versions.
   UUID uuid = 1;
 
-  // The columns to build the index. These refer to file.Field.id.
+  /* The columns the index is keyed on, in key order. These refer to file.Field.id.
+   *
+   * When the manifest has feature flag 1 << 13, this list contains only key
+   * fields. `covering_fields` independently declares the values the index
+   * carries.
+   *
+   * Without feature flag 1 << 13, the legacy contract applies: the carried fields
+   * form the trailing suffix of this list in emission order.
+   */
   repeated int32 fields = 2;
 
   // Index name. Must be unique within one dataset version.
@@ -242,226 +322,99 @@ message IndexMetadata {
   // The version of the dataset this index was built from.
   uint64 dataset_version = 4;
 
-  // A bitmap of the included fragment ids.
-  //
-  // This may by used to determine how much of the dataset is covered by the
-  // index. This information can be retrieved from the dataset by looking at
-  // the dataset at `dataset_version`. However, since the old version may be
-  // deleted while the index is still in use, this information is also stored
-  // in the index.
-  //
-  // The bitmap is stored as a 32-bit Roaring bitmap.
+  /* A bitmap of the included fragment ids.
+   *
+   * This may by used to determine how much of the dataset is covered by the
+   * index. This information can be retrieved from the dataset by looking at
+   * the dataset at `dataset_version`. However, since the old version may be
+   * deleted while the index is still in use, this information is also stored
+   * in the index.
+   *
+   * The bitmap is stored as a 32-bit Roaring bitmap.
+   */
   bytes fragment_bitmap = 5;
 
-  // Details, specific to the index type, which are needed to load / interpret the index
-  //
-  // Indices should avoid putting large amounts of information in this field, as it will
-  // bloat the manifest.
-  //
-  // Indexes are plugins, and so the format of the details message is flexible and not fully
-  // defined by the table format.  However, there are some conventions that should be followed:
-  //
-  // - When Lance APIs refer to indexes they will use the type URL of the index details as the
-  //   identifier for the index type.  If a user provides a simple string identifier like
-  //   "btree" then it will be converted to "/lance.table.BTreeIndexDetails"
-  // - Type URLs comparisons are case-insensitive.  Thereform an index must have a unique type
-  //   URL ignoring case.
+  /* Details, specific to the index type, which are needed to load / interpret the index
+   *
+   * Indices should avoid putting large amounts of information in this field, as it will
+   * bloat the manifest.
+   *
+   * Indexes are plugins, and so the format of the details message is flexible and not fully
+   * defined by the table format.  However, there are some conventions that should be followed:
+   *
+   * - When Lance APIs refer to indexes they will use the type URL of the index details as the
+   *   identifier for the index type.  If a user provides a simple string identifier like
+   *   "btree" then it will be converted to "/lance.table.BTreeIndexDetails"
+   * - Type URLs comparisons are case-insensitive.  Thereform an index must have a unique type
+   *   URL ignoring case.
+   */
   google.protobuf.Any index_details = 6;
 
   // The minimum lance version that this index is compatible with.
   optional int32 index_version = 7;
 
-  // Timestamp when the index was created (UTC timestamp in milliseconds since epoch)
-  //
-  // This field is optional for backward compatibility. For existing indices created before
-  // this field was added, this will be None/null.
+  /* Timestamp when the index was created (UTC timestamp in milliseconds since epoch)
+   *
+   * This field is optional for backward compatibility. For existing indices created before
+   * this field was added, this will be None/null.
+   */
   optional uint64 created_at = 8;
 
-  // The base path index of the data file. Used when the file is imported or referred from another dataset.
-  // Lance use it as key of the base_paths field in Manifest to determine the actual base path of the data file.
+  /* The base path index of the data file. Used when the file is imported or referred from another dataset.
+   * Lance use it as key of the base_paths field in Manifest to determine the actual base path of the data file.
+   */
   optional uint32 base_id = 9;
-}
-
-// Index Section, containing a list of index metadata for one dataset version.
-message IndexSection {
-  repeated IndexMetadata indices = 1;
-}
 
-// A DataFragment is a set of files which represent the different columns of the same
-// rows. If column exists in the schema of a dataset, but the file for that column does
-// not exist within a DataFragment of that dataset, that column consists entirely of
-// nulls.
-message DataFragment {
-  // The ID of a DataFragment is unique within a dataset.
-  uint64 id = 1;
-
-  repeated DataFile files = 2;
-
-  // File that indicates which rows, if any, should be considered deleted.
-  DeletionFile deletion_file = 3;
-
-  // TODO: What's the simplest way we can allow an inline tombstone bitmap?
-
-  // A serialized RowIdSequence message (see rowids.proto).
-  //
-  // These are the row ids for the fragment, in order of the rows as they appear.
-  // That is, if a fragment has 3 rows, and the row ids are [1, 42, 3], then the
-  // first row is row 1, the second row is row 42, and the third row is row 3.
-  oneof row_id_sequence {
-    // If small (< 200KB), the row ids are stored inline.
-    bytes inline_row_ids = 5;
-    // Otherwise, stored as part of a file.
-    ExternalFile external_row_ids = 6;
-  } // row_id_sequence
-
-  oneof last_updated_at_version_sequence {
-    // If small (< 200KB), the row latest updated versions are stored inline.
-    bytes inline_last_updated_at_versions = 7;
-    // Otherwise, stored as part of a file.
-    ExternalFile external_last_updated_at_versions = 8;
-  } // last_updated_at_version_sequence
-
-  oneof created_at_version_sequence {
-    // If small (< 200KB), the row created at versions are stored inline.
-    bytes inline_created_at_versions = 9;
-    // Otherwise, stored as part of a file.
-    ExternalFile external_created_at_versions = 10;
-  } // created_at_version_sequence
-
-  // Number of original rows in the fragment, this includes rows that are now marked with
-  // deletion tombstones. To compute the current number of rows, subtract
-  // `deletion_file.num_deleted_rows` from this value.
-  uint64 physical_rows = 4;
+  /* List of files and their sizes for this index segment.
+   * This enables skipping HEAD calls when opening indices and allows reporting
+   * of index sizes without extra IO.
+   * If this is empty, the index files sizes are unknown.
+   */
+  repeated IndexFile files = 10;
+
+  /* The fields whose values this index co-locates alongside its own data, so a
+   * query projecting only those columns can be answered from the index without
+   * a take against the base table.
+   *
+   * When the manifest has feature flag 1 << 13, this declaration is independent
+   * of `fields` and has no positional relationship to it. A field may occur in
+   * both lists when the index carries a value it is also keyed on. Consumers
+   * must use the union of `fields` and `covering_fields` as the index dependency
+   * set.
+   *
+   * Without feature flag 1 << 13, the legacy contract applies: the carried columns
+   * form the trailing suffix of `fields` in emission order. A column the
+   * index is both keyed on and carries appears twice, once as a key and once in
+   * the carried suffix.
+   *
+   * Empty for an index that carries no extra columns, which is every index
+   * written before this field existed.
+   *
+   * This declaration is not authoritative for what the segment can actually
+   * serve. The segment's own storage schema is: a reader must confirm the
+   * storage carries a column before answering a query from it, and fall back to
+   * a take against the base table otherwise. A declaration naming columns the
+   * storage does not hold is a legal state, not corruption -- a maintenance
+   * operation that cannot carry the values through a rebuild is permitted to
+   * withdraw the payload while leaving this declaration in place.
+   */
+  repeated int32 covering_fields = 11;
 }
 
-message DataFile {
-  // Path to the root relative to the dataset's URI.
+// Metadata about a single file within an index segment.
+message IndexFile {
+  // Path relative to the index directory (e.g., "index.idx", "auxiliary.idx")
   string path = 1;
-  // The ids of the fields/columns in this file.
-  //
-  // When a DataFile object is created in memory, every value in fields is assigned -1 by
-  // default. An object with a value in fields of -1 must not be stored to disk. -2 is
-  // used for "tombstoned", meaning a field that is no longer in use. This is often
-  // because the original field id was reassigned to a different data file.
-  //
-  // In Lance v1 IDs are assigned based on position in the file, offset by the max
-  // existing field id in the table (if any already). So when a fragment is first created
-  // with one file of N columns, the field ids will be 1, 2, ..., N. If a second fragment
-  // is created with M columns, the field ids will be N+1, N+2, ..., N+M.
-  //
-  // In Lance v1 there is one field for each field in the input schema, this includes
-  // nested fields (both struct and list).  Fixed size list fields have only a single
-  // field id (these are not considered nested fields in Lance v1).
-  //
-  // This allows column indices to be calculated from field IDs and the input schema.
-  //
-  // In Lance v2 the field IDs generally follow the same pattern but there is no
-  // way to calculate the column index from the field ID.  This is because a given
-  // field could be encoded in many different ways, some of which occupy a different
-  // number of columns.  For example, a struct field could be encoded into N + 1 columns
-  // or it could be encoded into a single packed column.  To determine column indices
-  // the column_indices property should be used instead.
-  //
-  // In Lance v1 these ids must be sorted but might not always be contiguous.
-  repeated int32 fields = 2;
-  // The top-level column indices for each field in the file.
-  //
-  // If the data file is version 1 then this property will be empty
-  //
-  // Otherwise there must be one entry for each field in `fields`.
-  //
-  // Some fields may not correspond to a top-level column in the file.  In these cases
-  // the index will -1.
-  //
-  // For example, consider the schema:
-  //
-  // - dimension: packed-struct (0):
-  //   - x: u32 (1)
-  //   - y: u32 (2)
-  // - path: `list<u32>` (3)
-  // - embedding: `fsl<768>` (4)
-  //   - fp64
-  // - borders: `fsl<4>` (5)
-  //   - simple-struct (6)
-  //     - margin: fp64 (7)
-  //     - padding: fp64 (8)
-  //
-  // One possible column indices array could be:
-  // [0, -1, -1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
-  //
-  // This reflects quite a few phenomenon:
-  // - The packed struct is encoded into a single column and there is no top-level column
-  //   for the x or y fields
-  // - The variable sized list is encoded into two columns
-  // - The embedding is encoded into a single column (common for FSL of primitive) and there
-  //   is not "FSL column"
-  // - The borders field actually does have an "FSL column"
-  //
-  // The column indices table may not have duplicates (other than -1)
-  repeated int32 column_indices = 3;
-  // The major file version used to create the file
-  uint32 file_major_version = 4;
-  // The minor file version used to create the file
-  //
-  // If both `file_major_version` and `file_minor_version` are set to 0,
-  // then this is a version 0.1 or version 0.2 file.
-  uint32 file_minor_version = 5;
-
-  // The known size of the file on disk in bytes.
-  //
-  // This is used to quickly find the footer of the file.
-  //
-  // When this is zero, it should be interpreted as "unknown".
-  uint64 file_size_bytes = 6;
-
-  // The base path index of the data file. Used when the file is imported or referred from another dataset.
-  // Lance use it as key of the base_paths field in Manifest to determine the actual base path of the data file.
-  optional uint32 base_id = 7;
-} // DataFile
-
-// Deletion File
-//
-// The path of the deletion file is constructed as:
-//   {root}/_deletions/{fragment_id}-{read_version}-{id}.{extension}
-// where {extension} depends on DeletionFileType.
-message DeletionFile {
-  // Type of deletion file, intended as a way to increase efficiency of the storage of deleted row
-  // offsets. If there are sparsely deleted rows, then ARROW_ARRAY is the most efficient. If there
-  // are densely deleted rows, then BITMAP is the most efficient.
-  enum DeletionFileType {
-    // A single Int32Array of deleted row offsets, stored as an Arrow IPC file with one batch and
-    // one column. Has a .arrow extension.
-    ARROW_ARRAY = 0;
-    // A Roaring Bitmap of deleted row offsets. Has a .bin extension.
-    BITMAP = 1;
-  }
+  // Size of the file in bytes
+  uint64 size_bytes = 2;
+}
 
-  // Type of deletion file.
-  DeletionFileType file_type = 1;
-  // The version of the dataset this deletion file was built from.
-  uint64 read_version = 2;
-  // An opaque id used to differentiate this file from others written by concurrent
-  // writers.
-  uint64 id = 3;
-  // The number of rows that are marked as deleted.
-  uint64 num_deleted_rows = 4;
-  // The base path index of the deletion file. Used when the file is imported or referred from another
-  // dataset. Lance uses it as key of the base_paths field in Manifest to determine the actual base
-  // path of the deletion file.
-  optional uint32 base_id = 7;
-} // DeletionFile
-
-message ExternalFile {
-  // Path to the file, relative to the root of the table.
-  string path = 1;
-  // The byte offset in the file where the data starts.
-  uint64 offset = 2;
-  // The size of the data in the file, in bytes.
-  uint64 size = 3;
+// Index Section, containing a list of index metadata for one dataset version.
+message IndexSection {
+  repeated IndexMetadata indices = 1;
 }
 
-// Empty details messages for older indexes that don't take advantage of the details field.
-message VectorIndexDetails {}
+// VectorIndexDetails and HnswParameters (formerly HnswIndexDetails) moved to index.proto
 
 message FragmentReuseIndexDetails {
 
@@ -472,7 +425,48 @@ message FragmentReuseIndexDetails {
   }
 
   message InlineContent {
-    repeated Version versions = 1;
+    // Existing compaction records, with the original field number and contents.
+    repeated Version legacy_versions = 1;
+    // New mappings; requires index_version = 1.
+    repeated Transition transitions = 2;
+  }
+
+  // One transition from source fragments to destination fragments.
+  message Transition {
+    // Source fragments in scan order; counts include deleted rows.
+    repeated FragmentDigest sources = 1;
+    // Destination fragments in label order; counts are recorded at creation.
+    repeated FragmentDigest destinations = 2;
+    /* Exactly one mapping is required.
+     * New mapping types do not require an index_version increase if they preserve
+     * backward compatibility and older readers can handle them safely, including
+     * by falling back to a scan. Otherwise, index_version must increase.
+     * Other field numbers may be used for ordinary metadata.
+     */
+    oneof mapping {
+      /* Concatenate surviving rows in source fragment order, preserving row order
+       * within each fragment, then split into destination fragments.
+       */
+      OrderedCompaction ordered_compaction = 3;
+      /* Process source fragments sequentially, distributing their rows across
+       * destination fragments by label in source row order.
+       */
+      StablePartition stable_partition = 4;
+    }
+  }
+
+  message OrderedCompaction {
+    // RoaringTreemap of surviving source row addresses; missing rows are deleted.
+    bytes changed_row_addrs = 1;
+  }
+
+  message StablePartition {
+    // UUID in _fri/<map_id>/stable_partition.lance; unchanged when the FRI UUID changes.
+    string map_id = 1;
+    // Size of stable_partition.lance in bytes.
+    uint64 map_size_bytes = 2;
+    // Unset: use the dataset base. Set: look up this ID in Manifest.base_paths.
+    optional uint32 base_id = 3;
   }
 
   message FragmentDigest {
@@ -485,10 +479,11 @@ message FragmentReuseIndexDetails {
 
   // A summarized version of the RewriteGroup information in a Rewrite transaction
   message Group {
-    // A roaring treemap of the changed row addresses.
-    // When combined with the old fragment IDs and new fragment IDs,
-    // it can recover the full mapping of old row addresses to either new row addresses or deleted.
-    // this mapping can then be used to remap indexes or satisfy index queries for the new unindexed fragments.
+    /* A roaring treemap of the changed row addresses.
+     * When combined with the old fragment IDs and new fragment IDs,
+     * it can recover the full mapping of old row addresses to either new row addresses or deleted.
+     * this mapping can then be used to remap indexes or satisfy index queries for the new unindexed fragments.
+     */
     bytes changed_row_addrs = 1;
 
     repeated FragmentDigest old_fragments = 2;
@@ -504,176 +499,284 @@ message FragmentReuseIndexDetails {
   }
 }
 
-// ============================================================================
-// MemWAL Index Types
-// ============================================================================
+/* ============================================================================
+ * MemWAL Index Types
+ * ============================================================================
+ */
+
+/* Lifecycle status of a WAL shard. Drives drop-table two-phase commit:
+ * a SEALED shard refuses new writer claims (reversible) until the drop
+ * commits (the shard dir is deleted) or rolls back (status -> ACTIVE).
+ */
+enum ShardStatus {
+  // Normal: the shard accepts writer claims.
+  ACTIVE = 0;
+  // A drop is in flight: claims are refused. Reversible to ACTIVE.
+  SEALED = 1;
+}
 
-// Region manifest containing epoch-based fencing and WAL state.
-// Each region has exactly one active writer at any time.
-message RegionManifest {
-  // Region identifier (UUID v4).
-  UUID region_id = 11;
+/* Shard manifest containing epoch-based fencing and WAL state.
+ * Each shard has exactly one active writer at any time.
+ */
+message ShardManifest {
+  // Shard identifier (UUID v4).
+  UUID shard_id = 11;
 
-  // Manifest version number.
-  // Matches the version encoded in the filename.
+  /* Manifest version number.
+   * Matches the version encoded in the filename.
+   */
   uint64 version = 1;
 
-  // Region spec ID this region was created with.
-  // Set at region creation and immutable thereafter.
-  // A value of 0 indicates a manually-created region not governed by any spec.
-  uint32 region_spec_id = 10;
-
-  // Writer fencing token - monotonically increasing.
-  // A writer must increment this when claiming the region.
+  /* Shard spec ID this shard was created with.
+   * Set at shard creation and immutable thereafter.
+   * A value of 0 indicates a manually-created shard not governed by any spec.
+   */
+  uint32 shard_spec_id = 10;
+
+  /* Computed shard field values as raw Arrow scalar bytes, keyed by shard
+   * field id. The byte encoding follows Arrow's little-endian convention:
+   * int32 is 4 LE bytes, utf8 is raw UTF-8 bytes, etc. The receiver looks
+   * up the result_type from the ShardingSpec to interpret each value.
+   */
+  repeated ShardFieldEntry shard_field_entries = 14;
+
+  /* Writer fencing token - monotonically increasing.
+   * A writer must increment this when claiming the shard.
+   */
   uint64 writer_epoch = 2;
 
-  // The most recent WAL entry position (0-based) that has been flushed to a MemTable.
-  // During recovery, replay starts from replay_after_wal_entry_position + 1.
+  /* The most recent WAL entry position that has been flushed to a MemTable.
+   * During recovery, replay starts from replay_after_wal_entry_position + 1.
+   * WAL positions are 1-based, so the default value 0 unambiguously means
+   * "no flush has ever stamped this shard" and recovery replays from 1.
+   */
   uint64 replay_after_wal_entry_position = 3;
 
-  // The most recent WAL entry position (0-based) at the time manifest was updated.
-  // This is a hint, not authoritative - recovery must list files to find actual state.
+  /* The most recent WAL entry position observed at the time the manifest was
+   * updated. WAL positions are 1-based; default 0 means no entry has been
+   * written yet. This is a hint, not authoritative - recovery must list
+   * files to find actual state.
+   */
   uint64 wal_entry_position_last_seen = 4;
 
-  // Next generation ID to create (incremented after each MemTable flush).
+  // Generation to assign to the next SSTable (incremented after each MemTable flush).
   uint64 current_generation = 6;
 
-  // Field 7 removed: merged_generation moved to MemWalIndexDetails.merged_generations
-  // which is the authoritative source for merge progress.
+  /* Field 7 removed: compaction progress lives in
+   * MemWalIndexDetails.compacted_sstables.
+   */
+
+  // List of SSTables created by flushing MemTables and their directory paths.
+  repeated SsTable sstables = 8;
+
+  /* Lifecycle status. Default ACTIVE; SEALED marks an in-flight drop
+   * (drop-table 2PC). A SEALED manifest refuses claims at claim_epoch.
+   */
+  ShardStatus status = 15;
+}
+
+// A shard field value stored as raw Arrow scalar bytes.
+message ShardFieldEntry {
+  // Shard field id (matches ShardingField.field_id in the ShardingSpec).
+  string field_id = 1;
 
-  // List of flushed MemTable generations and their directory paths.
-  repeated FlushedGeneration flushed_generations = 8;
+  /* Raw Arrow scalar value bytes in little-endian encoding.
+   * The data type is determined by the result_type of the matching ShardingField.
+   */
+  bytes value = 2;
 }
 
-// A flushed MemTable generation and its storage location.
-message FlushedGeneration {
-  // Generation number.
+// An SSTable: the immutable result of flushing a MemTable, stored as a Lance dataset.
+message SsTable {
+  // Generation number identifying this SSTable.
   uint64 generation = 1;
 
-  // Directory name relative to the region directory.
+  // Directory name relative to the shard directory.
   string path = 2;
+
+  /* Payload size of the rows, as the writer's MemTable accounted for them: the
+     sum over its buffers of the window each one holds.
+
+     An estimate of the payload, not a bound on what reading the SSTable costs.
+     It excludes the per-array structure a reader materializes, so a consumer
+     budgeting memory from it must add its own headroom.
+
+     Absent on an SSTable written before this field existed, so a reader must
+     not read a missing value as zero. The same applies to the two below. */
+  optional uint64 in_memory_bytes = 3;
+
+  /* Rows held, counting the older duplicates of a primary key that the
+     generation's deletion vector masks. A scan that applies the deletion vector
+     yields fewer. */
+  optional uint64 physical_rows = 4;
+
+  /* Total payload size of the primary-key columns, summed over every row in
+     `physical_rows`. Not a per-row size: a variable-length key differs from row
+     to row, and a consumer wanting a mean divides by the row count.
+
+     Accounted the same way as `in_memory_bytes`, so the same caveat applies --
+     it is not the size of any encoded form of the key, such as a comparable
+     byte-ordered encoding a reader might build for sorting or deduplication.
+
+     Absent also on a table with no primary key. */
+  optional uint64 primary_key_bytes = 5;
 }
 
-// A region's merged generation, used in MemWalIndexDetails.
-message MergedGeneration {
-  // Region identifier (UUID v4).
-  UUID region_id = 1;
+// A pointer to the latest SSTable compacted for a shard.
+message CompactedSsTable {
+  // Shard identifier (UUID v4).
+  UUID shard_id = 1;
 
-  // Last generation merged to base table for this region.
+  // Generation of the latest SSTable compacted into the base table for this shard.
   uint64 generation = 2;
 }
 
-// Tracks which merged generation a base table index has been rebuilt to cover.
-// Used to determine whether to read from flushed MemTable indexes or base table.
+/* Tracks which compacted SSTable generation a base table index has been rebuilt to cover.
+ * Used to determine whether to read from SSTable indexes or base table.
+ */
 message IndexCatchupProgress {
   // Name of the base table index (must match an entry in maintained_indexes).
   string index_name = 1;
 
-  // Per-region progress: the generation up to which this index covers.
-  // If a region is not present, the index is assumed to be fully caught up
-  // (i.e., caught_up_generation >= merged_generation for that region).
-  repeated MergedGeneration caught_up_generations = 2;
+  /* Per-shard progress: the generation up to which this index covers.
+   *
+   * An absent shard means *unknown*: this index has recorded no catch-up for
+   * that shard, so its SSTables must be retained and a repair scheduled.
+   */
+  repeated CompactedSsTable caught_up_generations = 2;
 }
 
-// Index details for MemWAL Index, stored in IndexMetadata.index_details.
-// This is the centralized structure for all MemWAL metadata:
-// - Configuration (region specs, indexes to maintain)
-// - Merge progress (merged generations per region)
-// - Region state snapshots
-//
-// Writers read this index to get configuration before writing.
-// Readers read this index to discover regions and their state.
-// A background process updates the index periodically to keep region snapshots current.
-//
-// Region snapshots are stored as a Lance file with one row per region.
-// The schema has one column per RegionManifest field, with region fields as columns:
-//   region_id: fixed_size_binary(16)  -- UUID bytes
-//   version: uint64
-//   region_spec_id: uint32
-//   writer_epoch: uint64
-//   replay_after_wal_entry_position: uint64
-//   wal_entry_position_last_seen: uint64
-//   current_generation: uint64
-//   merged_generation: uint64
-//   flushed_generations: list<struct<generation: uint64, path: string>>
+/* Index details for MemWAL Index, stored in IndexMetadata.index_details.
+ * This is the centralized structure for all MemWAL metadata:
+ * - Configuration (sharding specs, indexes to maintain)
+ * - SSTable compaction progress
+ * - Shard state snapshots
+ *
+ * Writers read this index to get configuration before writing.
+ * Readers may use shard snapshots in this index as a point-in-time
+ * optimization. Readers that need the latest shard set should list shard
+ * directories in storage and read each shard's latest manifest.
+ * A background process updates the index periodically to keep shard snapshots current.
+ *
+ * Shard snapshots are stored as a Lance file with one row per shard.
+ * The schema records shard discovery fields. Full mutable shard state remains
+ * authoritative in the shard manifest files.
+ *   shard_id: utf8
+ *   shard_spec_id: uint32
+ *   shard_field_{field_id}: typed per the matching ShardingField.result_type
+ */
 message MemWalIndexDetails {
   // Snapshot timestamp (Unix timestamp in milliseconds).
   int64 snapshot_ts_millis = 1;
 
-  // Number of regions in the snapshot.
-  // Used to determine storage format without reading the snapshot data.
-  uint32 num_regions = 2;
+  /* Number of shards in the snapshot.
+   * Used to determine storage format without reading the snapshot data.
+   */
+  uint32 num_shards = 2;
 
-  // Inline region snapshots for small region counts.
-  // When num_regions <= threshold (implementation-defined, e.g., 100),
-  // snapshots are stored inline as serialized bytes.
-  // Format: Lance file bytes with the region snapshot schema.
+  /* Inline shard snapshots for small shard counts.
+   * When num_shards <= threshold (implementation-defined, e.g., 100),
+   * snapshots are stored inline as serialized bytes.
+   * Format: Lance file bytes with the shard snapshot schema.
+   */
   optional bytes inline_snapshots = 3;
 
-  // Region specs defining how to derive region identifiers.
-  // This configuration determines how rows are partitioned into regions.
-  repeated RegionSpec region_specs = 7;
-
-  // Indexes from the base table to maintain in MemTables.
-  // These are index names referencing indexes defined on the base table.
-  // The primary key btree index is always maintained implicitly and
-  // should not be listed here.
-  //
-  // For vector indexes, MemTables inherit quantization parameters (PQ codebook,
-  // SQ params) from the base table index to ensure distance comparability.
+  /* Sharding specs defining how to derive shard identifiers.
+   * This configuration determines how rows are partitioned into shards.
+   */
+  repeated ShardingSpec sharding_specs = 7;
+
+  /* Indexes from the base table to maintain in MemTables.
+   * These are index names referencing indexes defined on the base table.
+   * The primary key btree index is always maintained implicitly and
+   * should not be listed here.
+   *
+   * For vector indexes, MemTables inherit quantization parameters (PQ codebook,
+   * SQ params) from the base table index to ensure distance comparability.
+   */
   repeated string maintained_indexes = 8;
 
-  // Last generation merged to base table for each region.
-  // This is updated atomically with merge-insert data commits, enabling
-  // conflict resolution when multiple mergers operate concurrently.
-  //
-  // Note: This is separate from region snapshots because:
-  // 1. merged_generations is updated by mergers (atomic with data commit)
-  // 2. region snapshots are updated by background index builder
-  repeated MergedGeneration merged_generations = 9;
-
-  // Per-index catchup progress tracking.
-  // When data is merged to the base table, base table indexes are rebuilt
-  // asynchronously. This field tracks which generation each index covers.
-  //
-  // For indexed queries, if an index's caught_up_generation < merged_generation,
-  // readers should use flushed MemTable indexes for the gap instead of
-  // scanning unindexed data in the base table.
-  //
-  // If an index is not present in this list, it is assumed to be fully caught up.
+  /* Maintain every index the MemTable can mirror, rather than the named set.
+   *
+   * Set, `maintained_indexes` is ignored and the set is resolved from the
+   * table's indexes each time a MemTable is built, so an index created later is
+   * picked up and a dropped one falls out. An index kind the writer cannot
+   * mirror is skipped, so introducing one does not make the table unwritable.
+   *
+   * Absent, `maintained_indexes` is the set verbatim and a name in it that the
+   * writer cannot mirror is an error: the caller asked for that index.
+   */
+  optional bool maintain_all_indexes = 12;
+
+  /* Latest SSTable compacted into the base table for each shard.
+   * This is updated atomically with merge-insert data commits, enabling
+   * conflict resolution when multiple compactors operate concurrently.
+   *
+   * Note: This is separate from shard snapshots because:
+   * 1. compacted_sstables is updated by compactors (atomic with data commit)
+   * 2. shard snapshots are updated by background index builder
+   */
+  repeated CompactedSsTable compacted_sstables = 9;
+
+  /* Per-index catchup progress tracking.
+   * When data is compacted into the base table, base table indexes are rebuilt
+   * asynchronously. This field tracks which generation each index covers.
+   *
+   * For indexed queries, if an index's caught_up_generation < compacted_generation,
+   * readers should use SSTable indexes for the gap instead of
+   * scanning unindexed data in the base table.
+   *
+   * An index absent from this list has recorded no catch-up, so the SSTables it
+   * would need stay live until a repair records it. Only the dedicated WAL
+   * index-repair path may add entries here;
+   * ordinary index operations have their entry removed automatically when they
+   * change an index, since they do not report what the new index covers.
+   */
   repeated IndexCatchupProgress index_catchup = 10;
+
+  /* Default ShardWriter configuration values for this MemWAL index.
+   *
+   * A free-form string map persisted so that every writer — across
+   * processes and restarts — starts from the same default writer
+   * configuration. These are defaults only: an individual writer may
+   * still override any value at runtime in its own ShardWriterConfig
+   * (which is not persisted).
+   */
+  map<string, string> writer_config_defaults = 11;
 }
 
-// Region spec definition.
-message RegionSpec {
-  // Unique identifier for this spec within the index.
-  // IDs are never reused.
+// Sharding spec definition.
+message ShardingSpec {
+  /* Unique identifier for this spec within the index.
+   * IDs are never reused.
+   */
   uint32 spec_id = 1;
 
-  // Region field definitions that determine how to compute region identifiers.
-  repeated RegionField fields = 2;
+  // Sharding field definitions that determine how to compute shard identifiers.
+  repeated ShardingField fields = 2;
 }
 
-// Region field definition.
-message RegionField {
-  // Unique string identifier for this region field.
+// Sharding field definition.
+message ShardingField {
+  // Unique string identifier for this shard field.
   string field_id = 1;
 
   // Field IDs referencing source columns in the schema.
   repeated int32 source_ids = 2;
 
-  // Well-known region transform name (e.g., "identity", "year", "bucket").
-  // Mutually exclusive with expression.
+  /* Well-known shard transform name (e.g., "identity", "year", "bucket").
+   * Mutually exclusive with expression.
+   */
   optional string transform = 3;
 
-  // DataFusion SQL expression for custom logic.
-  // Mutually exclusive with transform.
+  /* DataFusion SQL expression for custom logic.
+   * Mutually exclusive with transform.
+   */
   optional string expression = 4;
 
-  // Output type of the region value (Arrow type name).
+  // Output type of the shard value (Arrow type name).
   string result_type = 5;
 
   // Transform parameters (e.g., num_buckets for bucket transform).
   map<string, string> parameters = 6;
 }
-
diff --git a/protos/table_identifier.proto b/protos/table_identifier.proto
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d4271b12699
--- /dev/null
+++ b/protos/table_identifier.proto
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+syntax = "proto3";
+
+package lance.datafusion;
+
+/* Identifies a Lance dataset for remote reconstruction.
+ *
+ * Two modes:
+ *   1. uri + serialized_manifest (fast): remote executor skips manifest read.
+ *   2. uri + version + etag (lightweight): remote executor loads manifest from storage.
+ */
+message TableIdentifier {
+  string uri = 1;
+  uint64 version = 2;
+  optional string manifest_etag = 3;
+  optional bytes serialized_manifest = 4;
+  map<string, string> storage_options = 5;
+}
diff --git a/protos/transaction.proto b/protos/transaction.proto
index 17d96486736..89feab30ead 100644
--- a/protos/transaction.proto
+++ b/protos/transaction.proto
@@ -9,18 +9,20 @@ import "google/protobuf/any.proto";
 
 package lance.table;
 
-// A transaction represents the changes to a dataset.
-//
-// This has two purposes:
-// 1. When retrying a commit, the transaction can be used to re-build an updated
-//    manifest.
-// 2. When there's a conflict, this can be used to determine whether the other
-//    transaction is compatible with this one.
+/* A transaction represents the changes to a dataset.
+ *
+ * This has two purposes:
+ * 1. When retrying a commit, the transaction can be used to re-build an updated
+ *    manifest.
+ * 2. When there's a conflict, this can be used to determine whether the other
+ *    transaction is compatible with this one.
+ */
 message Transaction {
-  // The version of the dataset this transaction was built from.
-  //
-  // For example, for a delete transaction this means the version of the dataset
-  // that was read from while evaluating the deletion predicate.
+  /* The version of the dataset this transaction was built from.
+   *
+   * For example, for a delete transaction this means the version of the dataset
+   * that was read from while evaluating the deletion predicate.
+   */
   uint64 read_version = 1;
 
   // The UUID that unique identifies a transaction.
@@ -29,38 +31,43 @@ message Transaction {
   // Optional version tag.
   string tag = 3;
 
-  // Optional properties for the transaction
-  // __lance_commit_message is a reserved key
+  /* Optional properties for the transaction
+   * __lance_commit_message is a reserved key
+   */
   map<string, string> transaction_properties = 4;
 
   // Add new rows to the dataset.
   message Append {
-    // The new fragments to append.
-    //
-    // Fragment IDs are not yet assigned.
+    /* The new fragments to append.
+     *
+     * Fragment IDs are not yet assigned.
+     */
     repeated DataFragment fragments = 1;
   }
 
   // Mark rows as deleted.
   message Delete {
-    // The fragments to update
-    //
-    // The fragment IDs will match existing fragments in the dataset.
+    /* The fragments to update
+     *
+     * The fragment IDs will match existing fragments in the dataset.
+     */
     repeated DataFragment updated_fragments = 1;
     // The fragments to delete entirely.
     repeated uint64 deleted_fragment_ids = 2;
-    // The predicate that was evaluated
-    //
-    // This may be used to determine whether the delete would have affected 
-    // files written by a concurrent transaction.
+    /* The predicate that was evaluated
+     *
+     * This may be used to determine whether the delete would have affected
+     * files written by a concurrent transaction.
+     */
     string predicate = 3;
   }
 
   // Create or overwrite the entire dataset.
   message Overwrite {
-    // The new fragments
-    //
-    // Fragment IDs are not yet assigned.
+    /* The new fragments
+     *
+     * Fragment IDs are not yet assigned.
+     */
     repeated DataFragment fragments = 1;
     // The new schema
     repeated lance.file.Field schema = 2;
@@ -72,35 +79,40 @@ message Transaction {
     repeated BasePath initial_bases = 5;
   }
 
-  // Add or replace a new secondary index.
-  //
-  // This is also used to remove an index (we are replacing it with nothing)
-  //
-  // - new_indices: the modified indices, empty if dropping indices only
-  // - removed_indices: the indices that are being replaced
+  /* Add or replace a new secondary index.
+   *
+   * This is also used to remove an index (we are replacing it with nothing)
+   *
+   * - new_indices: the modified indices, empty if dropping indices only
+   * - removed_indices: the indices that are being replaced
+   */
   message CreateIndex {
     repeated IndexMetadata new_indices = 1;
     repeated IndexMetadata removed_indices = 2;
   }
 
-  // An operation that rewrites but does not change the data in the table. These
-  // kinds of operations just rearrange data.
+  /* An operation that rewrites but does not change the data in the table. These
+   * kinds of operations just rearrange data.
+   */
   message Rewrite {
-    // The old fragments that are being replaced
-    //
-    // DEPRECATED: use groups instead.
-    //
-    // These should all have existing fragment IDs.
+    /* The old fragments that are being replaced
+     *
+     * DEPRECATED: use groups instead.
+     *
+     * These should all have existing fragment IDs.
+     */
     repeated DataFragment old_fragments = 1;
-    // The new fragments
-    //
-    // DEPRECATED: use groups instead.
-    //
-    // These fragments IDs are not yet assigned.
+    /* The new fragments
+     *
+     * DEPRECATED: use groups instead.
+     *
+     * These fragments IDs are not yet assigned.
+     */
     repeated DataFragment new_fragments = 2;
 
-    // During a rewrite an index may be rewritten.  We only serialize the UUID
-    // since a rewrite should not change the other index parameters.
+    /* During a rewrite an index may be rewritten.  We only serialize the UUID
+     * since a rewrite should not change the other index parameters.
+     */
     message RewrittenIndex {
       // The id of the index that will be replaced
       UUID old_id = 1;
@@ -110,18 +122,24 @@ message Transaction {
       google.protobuf.Any new_index_details = 3;
       // the version of the new index
       uint32 new_index_version = 4;
+      /* Files in the new index with their sizes.
+       * Empty if file sizes are not available (e.g. older writers).
+       */
+      repeated IndexFile new_index_files = 5;
     }
 
     // A group of rewrite files that are all part of the same rewrite.
     message RewriteGroup {
-      // The old fragment that is being replaced
-      //
-      // This should have an existing fragment ID.
+      /* The old fragment that is being replaced
+       *
+       * This should have an existing fragment ID.
+       */
       repeated DataFragment old_fragments = 1;
-      // The new fragment
-      //
-      // The ID should have been reserved by an earlier
-      // reserve operation
+      /* The new fragment
+       *
+       * The ID should have been reserved by an earlier
+       * reserve operation
+       */
       repeated DataFragment new_fragments = 2;
     }
 
@@ -133,20 +151,35 @@ message Transaction {
 
   // An operation that merges in a new column, altering the schema.
   message Merge {
-    // The updated fragments
-    //
-    // These should all have existing fragment IDs.
+    /* The updated fragments
+     *
+     * These should all have existing fragment IDs.
+     */
     repeated DataFragment fragments = 1;
     // The new schema
     repeated lance.file.Field schema = 2;
     // Schema metadata.
     map<string, bytes> schema_metadata = 3;
+    /* Set when this merge makes no nullability-affecting schema change: it
+     * introduces no field that data staged against an earlier schema could
+     * not safely omit. Without the assertion (including transactions written
+     * before this field existed) the merge conservatively conflicts with
+     * concurrent value-writes, which can only cause a retry.
+     */
+    bool preserves_nullability = 4;
   }
 
   // An operation that projects a subset of columns, altering the schema.
   message Project {
     // The new schema
     repeated lance.file.Field schema = 1;
+    /* Set when this projection makes no nullability-affecting schema change,
+     * as a rename or a drop does not. Without the assertion (including
+     * transactions written before this field existed) the projection
+     * conservatively conflicts with concurrent value-writes, which can only
+     * cause a retry. A nullability tightening must not set this.
+     */
+    bool preserves_nullability = 2;
   }
 
   // An operation that restores a dataset to a previous version.
@@ -155,26 +188,29 @@ message Transaction {
     uint64 version = 1;
   }
 
-  // An operation that reserves fragment ids for future use in
-  // a rewrite operation.
+  /* An operation that reserves fragment ids for future use in
+   * a rewrite operation.
+   */
   message ReserveFragments {
     uint32 num_fragments = 1;
   }
 
   // An operation that clones a dataset.
   message Clone {
-    // - true:  Performs a metadata-only clone (copies manifest without data files).
-    //          The cloned dataset references original data through `base_paths`,
-    //          suitable for experimental scenarios or rapid metadata migration.
-    // - false: Performs a full deep clone using the underlying object storage's native
-    //          copy API (e.g., S3 CopyObject, GCS rewrite). This leverages server-side
-    //          bulk copy operations to bypass download/upload bottlenecks, achieving
-    //          near-linear speedup for large datasets (typically 3-10x faster than
-    //          manual file transfers). The operation maintains atomicity and data
-    //          integrity guarantees provided by the storage backend.
+    /* - true:  Performs a metadata-only clone (copies manifest without data files).
+     *          The cloned dataset references original data through `base_paths`,
+     *          suitable for experimental scenarios or rapid metadata migration.
+     * - false: Performs a full deep clone using the underlying object storage's native
+     *          copy API (e.g., S3 CopyObject, GCS rewrite). This leverages server-side
+     *          bulk copy operations to bypass download/upload bottlenecks, achieving
+     *          near-linear speedup for large datasets (typically 3-10x faster than
+     *          manual file transfers). The operation maintains atomicity and data
+     *          integrity guarantees provided by the storage backend.
+     */
     bool is_shallow = 1;
-    // the reference name in the source dataset
-    // in most cases it should be the branch or tag name in the source dataset
+    /* the reference name in the source dataset
+     * in most cases it should be the branch or tag name in the source dataset
+     */
     optional string ref_name = 2;
     // the version of the source dataset for cloning
     uint64 ref_version = 3;
@@ -184,34 +220,39 @@ message Transaction {
     optional string branch_name = 5;
   }
   
-  // Exact set of key hashes for conflict detection.
-  // Used when the number of inserted rows is small.
+  /* Exact set of key hashes for conflict detection.
+   * Used when the number of inserted rows is small.
+   */
   message ExactKeySetFilter {
     // 64-bit hashes of the inserted row keys.
     repeated uint64 key_hashes = 1;
   }
 
-  // Bloom filter for key existence tests.
-  // Used when the number of rows is large.
+  /* Bloom filter for key existence tests.
+   * Used when the number of rows is large.
+   */
   message BloomFilter {
     // Bitset backing the bloom filter (SBBF format).
     bytes bitmap = 1;
     // Number of bits in the bitmap.
     uint32 num_bits = 2;
-    // Number of items the filter was sized for.
-    // Used for intersection validation (filters with different sizes cannot be compared).
-    // Default: 8192
+    /* Number of items the filter was sized for.
+     * Used for intersection validation (filters with different sizes cannot be compared).
+     * Default: 8192
+     */
     uint64 number_of_items = 3;
-    // False positive probability the filter was sized for.
-    // Used for intersection validation (filters with different parameters cannot be compared).
-    // Default: 0.00057
+    /* False positive probability the filter was sized for.
+     * Used for intersection validation (filters with different parameters cannot be compared).
+     * Default: 0.00057
+     */
     double probability = 4;
   }
 
-  // A filter for checking key existence in set of rows inserted by a merge insert operation.
-  // Only created when the merge insert's ON columns match the schema's unenforced primary key.
-  // The presence of this filter indicates strict primary key conflict detection should be used.
-  // Can use either an exact set (for small row counts) or a Bloom filter (for large row counts).
+  /* A filter for checking key existence in set of rows inserted by a merge insert operation.
+   * Only created when the merge insert's ON columns match the schema's unenforced primary key.
+   * The presence of this filter indicates strict primary key conflict detection should be used.
+   * Can use either an exact set (for small row counts) or a Bloom filter (for large row counts).
+   */
   message KeyExistenceFilter {
     // Field IDs of columns participating in the key (must match unenforced primary key).
     repeated int32 field_ids = 1;
@@ -224,10 +265,16 @@ message Transaction {
     }
   }
 
+  // Serialized as sorted distinct local physical row offsets within the fragment (0-based).
+  message UInt32List {
+    repeated uint32 values = 1;
+  }
+
   // An operation that updates rows but does not add or remove rows.
   message Update {
-    // The fragments that have been removed. These are fragments where all rows
-    // have been updated and moved to a new fragment.
+    /* The fragments that have been removed. These are fragments where all rows
+     * have been updated and moved to a new fragment.
+     */
     repeated uint64 removed_fragment_ids = 1;
     // The fragments that have been updated.
     repeated DataFragment updated_fragments = 2;
@@ -235,29 +282,42 @@ message Transaction {
     repeated DataFragment new_fragments = 3;
     // The ids of the fields that have been modified.
     repeated uint32 fields_modified = 4;
-    /// List of MemWAL region generations to mark as merged after this transaction
-    repeated MergedGeneration merged_generations = 5;
-    /// The fields that used to judge whether to preserve the new frag's id into
-    /// the frag bitmap of the specified indices.
+    /// SSTables to mark as compacted after this transaction.
+    repeated CompactedSsTable compacted_sstables = 5;
+    /* The fields that used to judge whether to preserve the new frag's id into
+     * the frag bitmap of the specified indices.
+     */
     repeated uint32 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap = 6;
     // The mode of update
     UpdateMode update_mode = 7;
-    // Filter for checking existence of keys in newly inserted rows, used for conflict detection.
-    // Only tracks keys from INSERT operations during merge insert, not updates.
+    /* Filter for checking existence of keys in newly inserted rows, used for conflict detection.
+     * Only tracks keys from INSERT operations during merge insert, not updates.
+     */
     optional KeyExistenceFilter inserted_rows = 8;
+    /* Per-fragment physical row offsets that matched an update_columns hash join (RewriteColumns).
+     * Deprecated: use updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps (field 10) instead.
+     */
+    map<uint64, UInt32List> updated_fragment_offsets = 9;
+    /* Per-fragment matched offsets as portable RoaringBitmap bytes (replaces field 9).
+     * Writers emit field 10 only. Readers prefer field 10; fall back to field 9 for
+     * manifests written before this change.
+     */
+    map<uint64, bytes> updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps = 10;
   }
 
   // The mode of update operation
   enum UpdateMode {
 
-    /// rows are deleted in current fragments and rewritten in new fragments.
-    /// This is most optimal when the majority of columns are being rewritten
-    /// or only a few rows are being updated.
+    /* rows are deleted in current fragments and rewritten in new fragments.
+     * This is most optimal when the majority of columns are being rewritten
+     * or only a few rows are being updated.
+     */
     REWRITE_ROWS = 0;
 
-    /// within each fragment, columns are fully rewritten and inserted as new data files.
-    /// Old versions of columns are tombstoned. This is most optimal when most rows are affected
-    /// but a small subset of columns are affected.
+    /* within each fragment, columns are fully rewritten and inserted as new data files.
+     * Old versions of columns are tombstoned. This is most optimal when most rows are affected
+     * but a small subset of columns are affected.
+     */
     REWRITE_COLUMNS = 1;
   }
 
@@ -271,13 +331,15 @@ message Transaction {
 
   message UpdateMap {
     repeated UpdateMapEntry update_entries = 1;
-    // If true, the map will be replaced entirely with the new entries.
-    // If false, the new entries will be merged with the existing map.
+    /* If true, the map will be replaced entirely with the new entries.
+     * If false, the new entries will be merged with the existing map.
+     */
     bool replace = 2;
   }
   
-  // An operation that updates the table config, table metadata, schema metadata,
-  // or field metadata.
+  /* An operation that updates the table config, table metadata, schema metadata,
+   * or field metadata.
+   */
   message UpdateConfig {
     UpdateMap config_updates = 6;
     UpdateMap table_metadata_updates = 7;
@@ -305,12 +367,38 @@ message Transaction {
     repeated DataReplacementGroup replacements = 1;
   }
 
-  // Update the merged generations in MemWAL index.
-  // This operation is used during merge-insert to atomically record which
-  // generations have been merged to the base table.
+  /* Overlay files to append to a single fragment, in order (the last entry is
+   * newest). The overlays are appended to the fragment's existing `overlays`
+   * list; they do not replace it, so overlays written by concurrent commits are
+   * preserved.
+   */
+  message DataOverlayGroup {
+    uint64 fragment_id = 1;
+    /* Each DataOverlayFile.committed_version is left 0 by the writer and stamped
+     * to the new dataset version at commit time (re-stamped on retry), in the
+     * same way as the created-at / last-updated-at version sequences. The fields
+     * touched are read from each overlay's `data_file.fields`.
+     */
+    repeated DataOverlayFile overlays = 2;
+  }
+
+  /* Attach overlay files to fragments, supplying new values for a subset of
+   * (row offset, field) cells without rewriting the fragments' base data files.
+   * See the DataOverlayFile message in table.proto for resolution, coverage, and
+   * versioning rules, and the Data Overlay Files and Transactions specifications
+   * for the (intentionally permissive) conflict semantics.
+   */
+  message DataOverlay {
+    repeated DataOverlayGroup groups = 1;
+  }
+
+  /* Update SSTable compaction progress in the MemWAL index.
+   * This operation is used during merge-insert to atomically record which
+   * SSTables have been compacted into the base table.
+   */
   message UpdateMemWalState {
-    // Regions and generations being marked as merged.
-    repeated MergedGeneration merged_generations = 1;
+    // SSTables being marked as compacted.
+    repeated CompactedSsTable compacted_sstables = 1;
   }
 
   // An operation that updates base paths in the dataset.
@@ -319,7 +407,12 @@ message Transaction {
     repeated BasePath new_bases = 1;
   }
 
-  // The operation of this transaction.
+  /* The operation of this transaction.
+   *
+   * Field numbers 100-199 are reserved for operations. A reader that sees a
+   * number in this range it does not recognize is looking at an operation from
+   * a newer writer, and must treat it as unknown rather than fail.
+   */
   oneof operation {
     Append append = 100;
     Delete delete = 101;
@@ -336,6 +429,7 @@ message Transaction {
     UpdateMemWalState update_mem_wal_state = 112;
     Clone clone = 113;
     UpdateBases update_bases = 114;
+    DataOverlay data_overlay = 115;
   }
 
   // Fields 200/202 (`blob_append` / `blob_overwrite`) previously represented blob dataset ops.
diff --git a/python/.cargo/config.toml b/python/.cargo/config.toml
index 3c7937b1bbe..5e72e0592aa 100644
--- a/python/.cargo/config.toml
+++ b/python/.cargo/config.toml
@@ -17,12 +17,16 @@ rustflags = [
     "-Wclippy::string_add_assign",
     "-Wclippy::string_add",
     "-Wclippy::string_lit_as_bytes",
-    "-Wclippy::string_to_string",
     "-Wclippy::use_self",
     "-Aclippy::redundant_pub_crate", # PyO3 macros don't pass this.
 ]
 
 [target.x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu]
+# See the note in ../../.cargo/config.toml for details on this choice.
+#
+# Note that pylance users cannot easily change this value (they would need to build
+# pylance from source).  This is an intentional choice to provide strong performance
+# by default for pylance wheels.
 rustflags = ["-C", "target-cpu=haswell", "-C", "target-feature=+avx2,+fma,+f16c"]
 
 [target.aarch64-apple-darwin]
diff --git a/python/AGENTS.md b/python/AGENTS.md
index 5d0f7d5dc54..40301a4ddc7 100644
--- a/python/AGENTS.md
+++ b/python/AGENTS.md
@@ -1,14 +1,40 @@
-Use the makefile for most actions:
+# Python Guidelines
 
-* Build: `maturin develop`
-* Test: `make test`
-* Run single test: `pytest python/tests/<test_file>.py::<test_name>`
-* Doctest: `make doctest`
-* Lint: `make lint`
-* Format: `make format`
+Also see [root AGENTS.md](../AGENTS.md) for cross-language standards.
 
+## Commands
 
-If you want to run python tests after changes to the rust code, you need first build the rust code by:
-```
-maturin develop
-```
+* Environment: use `uv` for all local Python environment setup in this repository.
+* First step in every new worktree or fresh checkout: run `make install` from `python/` before any Python command. This runs `uv sync` (dev and test dependencies are included by default via `[tool.uv] default-groups`) and sets up pre-commit hooks. Add `--group benchmarks`, `--extra torch`, or `--extra geo` only when needed.
+* `uv sync` builds the local `pylance` Rust extension as part of environment setup. This can take a long time. Start it early, let it finish, and do not interrupt it or switch to a different setup path just because the build is slow.
+* Only run `uv sync` again when dependencies change (e.g., after pulling new commits that update `pyproject.toml` or `uv.lock`).
+* Command execution: always use `uv run ...` for Python-related repository commands. Do not rely on a globally activated environment.
+* Never invoke bare `python`, `pytest`, `pip`, `maturin`, `make test`, `make doctest`, `make lint`, or `make format` for repository work.
+* If a Python command fails outside `uv run`, that does not count as a dependency or test failure. Fix the environment usage first and rerun correctly.
+* Build: `make build` (required after Rust changes)
+* Test: `uv run make test`
+* Run single test: `uv run pytest python/tests/<test_file>.py::<test_name>`
+* Doctest: `uv run make doctest`
+* Lint: `uv run make lint`
+* Format: `uv run make format`
+
+## Beta Releases
+
+- Python RC and beta preview wheels are published on fury.io, not only PyPI. When a task needs a beta version such as `7.2.0b4`, use a disposable venv and install with `--pre` and the Lance fury indices:
+  ```shell
+  uv venv /path/to/venv
+  uv pip install --python /path/to/venv/bin/python --pre \
+      --extra-index-url https://pypi.fury.io/lance-format/ \
+      "pylance==7.2.0b4"
+  ```
+
+## API Design
+
+- Keep bindings as thin wrappers — centralize validation and logic in Rust core.
+- Extend existing methods with named arguments instead of adding new methods that accept policy/config objects — the Python API should feel Pythonic (e.g., `cleanup_old_versions(..., retain_versions=N)`), not mirror Rust builder patterns.
+- Pass all fields to Python dataclass constructors via PyO3, converting Rust `None` to `py.None()` instead of omitting args — dataclass constructors require all positional params.
+- Use parameterized type hints (e.g., `list[DatasetBasePath]`, `Optional[Dict[str, str]]`) — never bare generics. Keep docstring type descriptions in sync with hints.
+
+## Testing
+
+- Add tests to existing `test_{module}.py` files rather than creating new test files for the same module.
diff --git a/python/CLAUDE.md b/python/CLAUDE.md
deleted file mode 120000
index 47dc3e3d863..00000000000
--- a/python/CLAUDE.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-AGENTS.md
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python/CONTRIBUTING.md b/python/CONTRIBUTING.md
index 924aea1c481..d183d203bfd 100644
--- a/python/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/python/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -10,14 +10,14 @@ The python integration is done via pyo3 + custom python code:
 To build the Python bindings, first install requirements:
 
 ```bash
-pip install maturin
+cd python
+make install
 ```
 
 To make a dev install:
 
 ```bash
-cd python
-maturin develop
+make build
 ```
 
 After installing, you can run `import lance` in a Python shell within the virtual environment.
diff --git a/python/Cargo.lock b/python/Cargo.lock
index 090400fd4b3..02505cecf8f 100644
--- a/python/Cargo.lock
+++ b/python/Cargo.lock
@@ -2,75 +2,21 @@
 # It is not intended for manual editing.
 version = 4
 
-[[package]]
-name = "abi_stable"
-version = "0.11.3"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "69d6512d3eb05ffe5004c59c206de7f99c34951504056ce23fc953842f12c445"
-dependencies = [
- "abi_stable_derive",
- "abi_stable_shared",
- "const_panic",
- "core_extensions",
- "crossbeam-channel",
- "generational-arena",
- "libloading",
- "lock_api",
- "parking_lot",
- "paste",
- "repr_offset",
- "rustc_version",
- "serde",
- "serde_derive",
- "serde_json",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "abi_stable_derive"
-version = "0.11.3"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d7178468b407a4ee10e881bc7a328a65e739f0863615cca4429d43916b05e898"
-dependencies = [
- "abi_stable_shared",
- "as_derive_utils",
- "core_extensions",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "rustc_version",
- "syn 1.0.109",
- "typed-arena",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "abi_stable_shared"
-version = "0.11.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b2b5df7688c123e63f4d4d649cba63f2967ba7f7861b1664fca3f77d3dad2b63"
-dependencies = [
- "core_extensions",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "adler2"
 version = "2.0.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "320119579fcad9c21884f5c4861d16174d0e06250625266f50fe6898340abefa"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "adler32"
-version = "1.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "aae1277d39aeec15cb388266ecc24b11c80469deae6067e17a1a7aa9e5c1f234"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "aes"
 version = "0.8.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b169f7a6d4742236a0a00c541b845991d0ac43e546831af1249753ab4c3aa3a0"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "cipher",
- "cpufeatures",
+ "cpufeatures 0.2.17",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -79,7 +25,7 @@ version = "0.8.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "5a15f179cd60c4584b8a8c596927aadc462e27f2ca70c04e0071964a73ba7a75"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "const-random",
  "getrandom 0.3.4",
  "once_cell",
@@ -128,9 +74,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstream"
-version = "0.6.21"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "43d5b281e737544384e969a5ccad3f1cdd24b48086a0fc1b2a5262a26b8f4f4a"
+checksum = "824a212faf96e9acacdbd09febd34438f8f711fb84e09a8916013cd7815ca28d"
 dependencies = [
  "anstyle",
  "anstyle-parse",
@@ -143,15 +89,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle"
-version = "1.0.13"
+version = "1.0.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5192cca8006f1fd4f7237516f40fa183bb07f8fbdfedaa0036de5ea9b0b45e78"
+checksum = "940b3a0ca603d1eade50a4846a2afffd5ef57a9feac2c0e2ec2e14f9ead76000"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle-parse"
-version = "0.2.7"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4e7644824f0aa2c7b9384579234ef10eb7efb6a0deb83f9630a49594dd9c15c2"
+checksum = "52ce7f38b242319f7cabaa6813055467063ecdc9d355bbb4ce0c68908cd8130e"
 dependencies = [
  "utf8parse",
 ]
@@ -178,9 +124,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anyhow"
-version = "1.0.101"
+version = "1.0.104"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5f0e0fee31ef5ed1ba1316088939cea399010ed7731dba877ed44aeb407a75ea"
+checksum = "330a5ed07fa54e4702c9d6c4174f74427fc0ef6e214bbd677ae50a5099946470"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "approx"
@@ -191,20 +137,11 @@ dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "ar_archive_writer"
-version = "0.5.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7eb93bbb63b9c227414f6eb3a0adfddca591a8ce1e9b60661bb08969b87e340b"
-dependencies = [
- "object",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "arc-swap"
-version = "1.8.1"
+version = "1.9.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9ded5f9a03ac8f24d1b8a25101ee812cd32cdc8c50a4c50237de2c4915850e73"
+checksum = "c049c0be4daef0b145cb3555416b3b8ef5b7888a38aea1a3a155801fe7b0810b"
 dependencies = [
  "rustversion",
 ]
@@ -223,9 +160,9 @@ checksum = "7c02d123df017efcdfbd739ef81735b36c5ba83ec3c59c80a9d7ecc718f92e50"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a2b10dcb159faf30d3f81f6d56c1211a5bea2ca424eabe477648a44b993320e"
+checksum = "6cfdd0833e32a9874d2b55089333ad310c0be208aafa277385ce2461dec90be3"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -245,9 +182,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-arith"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "288015089e7931843c80ed4032c5274f02b37bcb720c4a42096d50b390e70372"
+checksum = "0a41203398f0eaa6f7ec8e62c0da742a21abf282c148fc157f6c35c90e29981a"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -259,9 +196,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-array"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "65ca404ea6191e06bf30956394173337fa9c35f445bd447fe6c21ab944e1a23c"
+checksum = "ae33dad492b7df00a217563a7b0ef2874df68a0deea1b1a3acf628152f7f7a69"
 dependencies = [
  "ahash",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -270,7 +207,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "chrono",
  "chrono-tz",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
  "num-complex",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
@@ -278,9 +215,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-buffer"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "36356383099be0151dacc4245309895f16ba7917d79bdb71a7148659c9206c56"
+checksum = "b9552f96391c005e6ab449fa941420935e7e062489b12b8b1b08879b2163f5b5"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "half",
@@ -290,9 +227,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-cast"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9c8e372ed52bd4ee88cc1e6c3859aa7ecea204158ac640b10e187936e7e87074"
+checksum = "3a8a327c9649f30d8406995f27642b68df354713cca3baaaf100f076f18d5f34"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -301,7 +238,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
  "atoi",
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "chrono",
  "comfy-table",
  "half",
@@ -312,9 +249,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-csv"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8e4100b729fe656f2e4fb32bc5884f14acf9118d4ad532b7b33c1132e4dce896"
+checksum = "af0dd6d90d1955e9f9a014c1e563ee8aeffc21909085d25623e1da44d96eca26"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-cast",
@@ -327,9 +264,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-data"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bf87f4ff5fc13290aa47e499a8b669a82c5977c6a1fedce22c7f542c1fd5a597"
+checksum = "2b24852db04738907e06c04ea61e42fe7fda962a34513022dc0d0e754fb7976b"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-schema",
@@ -340,9 +277,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-ipc"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eb3ca63edd2073fcb42ba112f8ae165df1de935627ead6e203d07c99445f2081"
+checksum = "29a908a11fcfb3fb2f6730f4ac15e367bc644e419155e96238f68cf3adde572b"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -350,24 +287,25 @@ dependencies = [
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
  "flatbuffers",
- "lz4_flex 0.12.0",
+ "lz4_flex",
  "zstd",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-json"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a36b2332559d3310ebe3e173f75b29989b4412df4029a26a30cc3f7da0869297"
+checksum = "b8a96aed3931c076adee39ec2a40d8219fc7f09e79bcdaca1df16272993e1e14"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
+ "arrow-select",
  "chrono",
  "half",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itoa",
  "lexical-core",
  "memchr",
@@ -380,9 +318,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-ord"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "13c4e0530272ca755d6814218dffd04425c5b7854b87fa741d5ff848bf50aa39"
+checksum = "63a083ec750f5c043f02946b4baf05fcdbb55f4560a3277055caca5cc99f3eb0"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -393,9 +331,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-pyarrow"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f45c7989cb70214b2f362eaa10266d15e1a433692f2ea1514018be3aace679f4"
+checksum = "3ffb9be5a873590f825aef50df20e0f8dff5fd42a77058e28bbe7bd44bb53dec"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-data",
@@ -405,9 +343,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-row"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b07f52788744cc71c4628567ad834cadbaeb9f09026ff1d7a4120f69edf7abd3"
+checksum = "514ba0ef0d4c5896202dae736251ce415abb43a950bed570fb7981b8716c0e4c"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -418,20 +356,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-schema"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6bb63203e8e0e54b288d0d8043ca8fa1013820822a27692ef1b78a977d879f2c"
+checksum = "21ca356ad6425cecb6eb7b28e4f659f1ee7880fbb1a16127de7dd62901efee9e"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "serde_core",
  "serde_json",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-select"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c96d8a1c180b44ecf2e66c9a2f2bbcb8b1b6f14e165ce46ac8bde211a363411b"
+checksum = "c58da39eb3d8350ad4a549e5c2bc49284dac554016c69829310350f1731b0aad"
 dependencies = [
  "ahash",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -443,9 +381,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "arrow-string"
-version = "57.2.0"
+version = "58.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a8ad6a81add9d3ea30bf8374ee8329992c7fd246ffd8b7e2f48a3cea5aa0cc9a"
+checksum = "b6789b388467525e3271326b6b4915666ecfdf5142aef09779445c954b67543c"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -458,18 +396,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "regex-syntax",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "as_derive_utils"
-version = "0.11.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ff3c96645900a44cf11941c111bd08a6573b0e2f9f69bc9264b179d8fae753c4"
-dependencies = [
- "core_extensions",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "async-channel"
 version = "2.5.0"
@@ -484,19 +410,14 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "async-compression"
-version = "0.4.19"
+version = "0.4.42"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "06575e6a9673580f52661c92107baabffbf41e2141373441cbcdc47cb733003c"
+checksum = "e79b3f8a79cccc2898f31920fc69f304859b3bd567490f75ebf51ae1c792a9ac"
 dependencies = [
- "bzip2 0.5.2",
- "flate2",
- "futures-core",
- "memchr",
+ "compression-codecs",
+ "compression-core",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
- "xz2",
- "zstd",
- "zstd-safe",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -504,9 +425,6 @@ name = "async-ffi"
 version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f4de21c0feef7e5a556e51af767c953f0501f7f300ba785cc99c47bdc8081a50"
-dependencies = [
- "abi_stable",
-]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "async-lock"
@@ -527,18 +445,18 @@ checksum = "3b43422f69d8ff38f95f1b2bb76517c91589a924d1559a0e935d7c8ce0274c11"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "async-trait"
-version = "0.1.89"
+version = "0.1.91"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9035ad2d096bed7955a320ee7e2230574d28fd3c3a0f186cbea1ff3c7eed5dbb"
+checksum = "ae36dc4177970ef04fde5178d3e2429882def40e57a451f919c098f72baa6cec"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 3.0.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -550,6 +468,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "loom",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "asyncband"
+version = "0.7.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f2d85fd3d291fabcc40c7232c92c280ec1754fd7b5d7ea769f143222143e179a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "atoi"
 version = "2.0.0"
@@ -567,15 +491,15 @@ checksum = "1505bd5d3d116872e7271a6d4e16d81d0c8570876c8de68093a09ac269d8aac0"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "autocfg"
-version = "1.5.0"
+version = "1.5.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c08606f8c3cbf4ce6ec8e28fb0014a2c086708fe954eaa885384a6165172e7e8"
+checksum = "f2032f911046de80f0a198e0901378627c33f59ea0ac00e363d481118bd70a53"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-config"
-version = "1.8.13"
+version = "1.8.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c456581cb3c77fafcc8c67204a70680d40b61112d6da78c77bd31d945b65f1b5"
+checksum = "8a8fc176d53d6fe85017f230405e3255cedb4a02221cb55ed6d76dccbbb099b2"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -592,7 +516,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "fastrand",
  "hex",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "ring",
  "time",
  "tokio",
@@ -603,9 +527,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-credential-types"
-version = "1.2.11"
+version = "1.2.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3cd362783681b15d136480ad555a099e82ecd8e2d10a841e14dfd0078d67fee3"
+checksum = "6d203b0bf2626dcba8665f5cd0871d7c2c0930223d6b6be9097592fea21242d0"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
@@ -615,9 +539,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-lc-rs"
-version = "1.15.4"
+version = "1.18.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7b7b6141e96a8c160799cc2d5adecd5cbbe5054cb8c7c4af53da0f83bb7ad256"
+checksum = "b281d307588d634de920874890732659e2e7672f72b5e10e81badc1a8a83621e"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-lc-sys",
  "zeroize",
@@ -625,21 +549,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-lc-sys"
-version = "0.37.0"
+version = "0.45.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5c34dda4df7017c8db52132f0f8a2e0f8161649d15723ed63fc00c82d0f2081a"
+checksum = "9bff6c3b54fad79a2e60b8102caf565819711497c1f5f092f49508e2f5c31b27"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
  "cmake",
  "dunce",
  "fs_extra",
+ "pkg-config",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-runtime"
-version = "1.6.0"
+version = "1.7.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c635c2dc792cb4a11ce1a4f392a925340d1bdf499289b5ec1ec6810954eb43f5"
+checksum = "ede2ddc593e6c8acc6ce3358c28d6677a6dc49b65ba4b37a2befe14a11297e75"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-sigv4",
@@ -650,8 +575,9 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "aws-types",
  "bytes",
+ "bytes-utils",
  "fastrand",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "percent-encoding",
  "pin-project-lite",
@@ -661,9 +587,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-dynamodb"
-version = "1.104.0"
+version = "1.107.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f04c47115cc8d46dcc94a9a81e7a3384cea859283c1a737729691d4221f11584"
+checksum = "561bf86e858a2759c6876b517b13f3f4051a6484abbb0d8a1f4dfc5d902cc85a"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -678,16 +604,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-sso"
-version = "1.93.0"
+version = "1.95.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9dcb38bb33fc0a11f1ffc3e3e85669e0a11a37690b86f77e75306d8f369146a0"
+checksum = "00c5ff27c6ba2cbd95e6e26e2e736676fdf6bcf96495b187733f521cfe4ce448"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -702,16 +628,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-ssooidc"
-version = "1.95.0"
+version = "1.97.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2ada8ffbea7bd1be1f53df1dadb0f8fdb04badb13185b3321b929d1ee3caad09"
+checksum = "4d186f1e5a3694a188e5a0640b3115ccc6e084d104e16fd6ba968dca072ffef8"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -726,16 +652,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sdk-sts"
-version = "1.97.0"
+version = "1.99.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e6443ccadc777095d5ed13e21f5c364878c9f5bad4e35187a6cdbd863b0afcad"
+checksum = "9acba7c62f3d4e2408fa998a3a8caacd8b9a5b5549cf36e2372fbdae329d5449"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-runtime",
@@ -751,16 +677,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "aws-types",
  "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "regex-lite",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-sigv4"
-version = "1.3.8"
+version = "1.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "efa49f3c607b92daae0c078d48a4571f599f966dce3caee5f1ea55c4d9073f99"
+checksum = "37411f8e0f4bea0c3ca0958ce7f18f6439db24d555dbd809787262cd00926aa9"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-smithy-http",
@@ -769,20 +695,20 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "form_urlencoded",
  "hex",
- "hmac",
+ "hmac 0.12.1",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "percent-encoding",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "time",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-async"
-version = "1.2.11"
+version = "1.2.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "52eec3db979d18cb807fc1070961cc51d87d069abe9ab57917769687368a8c6c"
+checksum = "5cc50d0f63e714784b84223abd7abbc8577de8c35d699e0edd19f0a88a08ae13"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-util",
  "pin-project-lite",
@@ -791,9 +717,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-http"
-version = "0.63.3"
+version = "0.63.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "630e67f2a31094ffa51b210ae030855cb8f3b7ee1329bdd8d085aaf61e8b97fc"
+checksum = "d619373d490ad70966994801bc126846afaa0d1ee920697a031f0cf63f2568e7"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
  "aws-smithy-types",
@@ -801,7 +727,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes-utils",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "percent-encoding",
@@ -812,57 +738,51 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-http-client"
-version = "1.1.9"
+version = "1.1.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "12fb0abf49ff0cab20fd31ac1215ed7ce0ea92286ba09e2854b42ba5cabe7525"
+checksum = "00ccbb08c10f6bcf912f398188e42ee2eab5f1767ce215a02a73bc5df1bbdd95"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
  "aws-smithy-types",
- "h2 0.3.27",
- "h2 0.4.13",
- "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "http-body 0.4.6",
- "hyper 0.14.32",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
- "hyper-rustls 0.24.2",
- "hyper-rustls 0.27.7",
+ "h2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-rustls",
  "hyper-util",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "rustls 0.21.12",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
+ "rustls",
  "rustls-native-certs",
  "rustls-pki-types",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-rustls 0.26.4",
+ "tokio-rustls",
  "tower",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-json"
-version = "0.62.3"
+version = "0.62.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3cb96aa208d62ee94104645f7b2ecaf77bf27edf161590b6224bfbac2832f979"
+checksum = "27b3a779093e18cad88bbae08dc4261e1d95018c4c5b9356a52bcae7c0b6e9bb"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-observability"
-version = "0.2.4"
+version = "0.2.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c0a46543fbc94621080b3cf553eb4cbbdc41dd9780a30c4756400f0139440a1d"
+checksum = "4d3f39d5bb871aaf461d59144557f16d5927a5248a983a40654d9cf3b9ba183b"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-runtime-api",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-query"
-version = "0.60.13"
+version = "0.60.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0cebbddb6f3a5bd81553643e9c7daf3cc3dc5b0b5f398ac668630e8a84e6fff0"
+checksum = "05f76a580e3d8f8961e5d48763214025a2af65c2fa4cd1fb7f270a0e107a71b0"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "urlencoding",
@@ -870,9 +790,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-runtime"
-version = "1.10.0"
+version = "1.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f3df87c14f0127a0d77eb261c3bc45d5b4833e2a1f63583ebfb728e4852134ee"
+checksum = "22ccf7f6eba8b2dcf8ce9b74806c6c185659c311665c4bf8d6e71ebd454db6bf"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-http",
@@ -883,7 +803,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "fastrand",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 0.4.6",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
@@ -895,15 +815,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-runtime-api"
-version = "1.11.3"
+version = "1.11.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "49952c52f7eebb72ce2a754d3866cc0f87b97d2a46146b79f80f3a93fb2b3716"
+checksum = "b4af6e5def28be846479bbeac55aa4603d6f7986fc5da4601ba324dd5d377516"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-smithy-async",
  "aws-smithy-types",
  "bytes",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
@@ -912,16 +832,16 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-types"
-version = "1.4.3"
+version = "1.4.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3b3a26048eeab0ddeba4b4f9d51654c79af8c3b32357dc5f336cee85ab331c33"
+checksum = "8ca2734c16913a45343b37313605d84e7d8b34a4611598ce1d25b35860a2bed3"
 dependencies = [
  "base64-simd",
  "bytes",
  "bytes-utils",
  "futures-core",
  "http 0.2.12",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 0.4.6",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
@@ -938,18 +858,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-smithy-xml"
-version = "0.60.13"
+version = "0.60.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "11b2f670422ff42bf7065031e72b45bc52a3508bd089f743ea90731ca2b6ea57"
+checksum = "b53543b4b86ed43f051644f704a98c7291b3618b67adf057ee77a366fa52fcaa"
 dependencies = [
  "xmlparser",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aws-types"
-version = "1.3.11"
+version = "1.3.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1d980627d2dd7bfc32a3c025685a033eeab8d365cc840c631ef59d1b8f428164"
+checksum = "0470cc047657c6e286346bdf10a8719d26efd6a91626992e0e64481e44323e96"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-smithy-async",
@@ -969,10 +889,10 @@ dependencies = [
  "axum-core",
  "bytes",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
+ "hyper",
  "hyper-util",
  "itoa",
  "matchit",
@@ -1002,7 +922,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "bytes",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "mime",
@@ -1031,6 +951,12 @@ version = "0.22.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "72b3254f16251a8381aa12e40e3c4d2f0199f8c6508fbecb9d91f575e0fbb8c6"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "base64"
+version = "0.23.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b25655df2c3cdd83c5e5b293b88acd880332b2ddadd7c30ac43144fdc0033da9"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "base64-simd"
 version = "0.8.0"
@@ -1060,26 +986,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "bincode"
-version = "2.0.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "36eaf5d7b090263e8150820482d5d93cd964a81e4019913c972f4edcc6edb740"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode_derive",
- "serde",
- "unty",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "bincode_derive"
-version = "2.0.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bf95709a440f45e986983918d0e8a1f30a9b1df04918fc828670606804ac3c09"
-dependencies = [
- "virtue",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "bitflags"
 version = "1.3.2"
@@ -1088,24 +994,15 @@ checksum = "bef38d45163c2f1dde094a7dfd33ccf595c92905c8f8f4fdc18d06fb1037718a"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitflags"
-version = "2.10.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "812e12b5285cc515a9c72a5c1d3b6d46a19dac5acfef5265968c166106e31dd3"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "bitpacking"
-version = "0.9.3"
+version = "2.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "96a7139abd3d9cebf8cd6f920a389cf3dc9576172e32f4563f188cae3c3eb019"
-dependencies = [
- "crunchy",
-]
+checksum = "b4388bee8683e3d04af747c73422af53102d2bd24d9eadb6cbc100baef4b43f8"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitvec"
-version = "1.0.1"
+version = "1.1.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1bc2832c24239b0141d5674bb9174f9d68a8b5b3f2753311927c172ca46f7e9c"
+checksum = "ddcec3d12c579d40898fe0a9a358a803c23e9c52ca3c425707f81c9436211837"
 dependencies = [
  "funty",
  "radium",
@@ -1119,21 +1016,21 @@ version = "0.10.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "46502ad458c9a52b69d4d4d32775c788b7a1b85e8bc9d482d92250fc0e3f8efe"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "blake3"
-version = "1.8.3"
+version = "1.8.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2468ef7d57b3fb7e16b576e8377cdbde2320c60e1491e961d11da40fc4f02a2d"
+checksum = "0aa83c34e62843d924f905e0f5c866eb1dd6545fc4d719e803d9ba6030371fce"
 dependencies = [
  "arrayref",
  "arrayvec",
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "constant_time_eq",
- "cpufeatures",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1145,6 +1042,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "generic-array",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "block-buffer"
+version = "0.12.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d2f6c7dbe95a6ed67ad9f18e57daf93a2f034c524b99fd2b76d18fdfeb6660aa"
+dependencies = [
+ "hybrid-array",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "block-padding"
 version = "0.3.3"
@@ -1155,111 +1061,121 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bon"
-version = "3.8.2"
+name = "brotli"
+version = "8.0.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "234655ec178edd82b891e262ea7cf71f6584bcd09eff94db786be23f1821825c"
+checksum = "5cc91aac060a7a1e25823bdccbfb6af1875b88f17c6daac97894eed8207166b3"
 dependencies = [
- "bon-macros",
- "rustversion",
+ "alloc-no-stdlib",
+ "alloc-stdlib",
+ "brotli-decompressor",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bon-macros"
-version = "3.8.2"
+name = "brotli-decompressor"
+version = "5.0.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "89ec27229c38ed0eb3c0feee3d2c1d6a4379ae44f418a29a658890e062d8f365"
+checksum = "3a32acac15fe1967bc3986b2a6347dffc965602354ea6f450ad07e8bfd253583"
 dependencies = [
- "darling 0.23.0",
- "ident_case",
- "prettyplease",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "alloc-no-stdlib",
+ "alloc-stdlib",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "brotli"
-version = "8.0.2"
+name = "bs58"
+version = "0.5.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4bd8b9603c7aa97359dbd97ecf258968c95f3adddd6db2f7e7a5bef101c84560"
+checksum = "bf88ba1141d185c399bee5288d850d63b8369520c1eafc32a0430b5b6c287bf4"
 dependencies = [
- "alloc-no-stdlib",
- "alloc-stdlib",
- "brotli-decompressor",
+ "tinyvec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "brotli-decompressor"
-version = "5.0.0"
+name = "bstr"
+version = "1.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "874bb8112abecc98cbd6d81ea4fa7e94fb9449648c93cc89aa40c81c24d7de03"
+checksum = "63044e1ae8e69f3b5a92c736ca6269b8d12fa7efe39bf34ddb06d102cf0e2cab"
 dependencies = [
- "alloc-no-stdlib",
- "alloc-stdlib",
+ "memchr",
+ "regex-automata",
+ "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bumpalo"
-version = "3.19.1"
+version = "3.20.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5dd9dc738b7a8311c7ade152424974d8115f2cdad61e8dab8dac9f2362298510"
+checksum = "72f5acc6cb2ba439de613abc23857ec3d78374d8ed5ac84e9d11336e87da8649"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bytemuck"
-version = "1.25.0"
+name = "bytecheck"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c8efb64bd706a16a1bdde310ae86b351e4d21550d98d056f22f8a7f7a2183fec"
+checksum = "0caa33a2c0edca0419d15ac723dff03f1956f7978329b1e3b5fdaaaed9d3ca8b"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytecheck_derive",
+ "ptr_meta",
+ "rancor",
+ "simdutf8",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "byteorder"
-version = "1.5.0"
+name = "bytecheck_derive"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1fd0f2584146f6f2ef48085050886acf353beff7305ebd1ae69500e27c67f64b"
+checksum = "89385e82b5d1821d2219e0b095efa2cc1f246cbf99080f3be46a1a85c0d392d9"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bytes"
-version = "1.11.1"
+name = "bytecount"
+version = "0.6.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e748733b7cbc798e1434b6ac524f0c1ff2ab456fe201501e6497c8417a4fc33"
+checksum = "175812e0be2bccb6abe50bb8d566126198344f707e304f45c648fd8f2cc0365e"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bytes-utils"
-version = "0.1.4"
+name = "bytemuck"
+version = "1.25.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7dafe3a8757b027e2be6e4e5601ed563c55989fcf1546e933c66c8eb3a058d35"
+checksum = "95832e849adfb21180ccb6826a99da14e5d266ae5c2e668e1602cf234f153797"
 dependencies = [
- "bytes",
- "either",
+ "bytemuck_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bzip2"
-version = "0.5.2"
+name = "bytemuck_derive"
+version = "1.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "49ecfb22d906f800d4fe833b6282cf4dc1c298f5057ca0b5445e5c209735ca47"
+checksum = "f9abbd1bc6865053c427f7198e6af43bfdedc55ab791faed4fbd361d789575ff"
 dependencies = [
- "bzip2-sys",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bzip2"
-version = "0.6.1"
+name = "byteorder"
+version = "1.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f3a53fac24f34a81bc9954b5d6cfce0c21e18ec6959f44f56e8e90e4bb7c346c"
-dependencies = [
- "libbz2-rs-sys",
-]
+checksum = "1fd0f2584146f6f2ef48085050886acf353beff7305ebd1ae69500e27c67f64b"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "bytes"
+version = "1.12.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "fc652a48c352aef3ea3aed32080501cf3ef6ed5da78602a020c991775b0aff04"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "bzip2-sys"
-version = "0.1.13+1.0.8"
+name = "bytes-utils"
+version = "0.1.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "225bff33b2141874fe80d71e07d6eec4f85c5c216453dd96388240f96e1acc14"
+checksum = "7dafe3a8757b027e2be6e4e5601ed563c55989fcf1546e933c66c8eb3a058d35"
 dependencies = [
- "cc",
- "pkg-config",
+ "bytes",
+ "either",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1273,9 +1189,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cc"
-version = "1.2.55"
+version = "1.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "47b26a0954ae34af09b50f0de26458fa95369a0d478d8236d3f93082b219bd29"
+checksum = "c89588d05638b5b4594a3348a2d6c20277e43a7f5c5202b05cc56888475a47b8"
 dependencies = [
  "find-msvc-tools",
  "jobserver",
@@ -1285,18 +1201,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cedarwood"
-version = "0.4.6"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6d910bedd62c24733263d0bed247460853c9d22e8956bd4cd964302095e04e90"
+checksum = "c0524a528a6a0288df1863c3c20fe92c301875b4941e7b6c4b394ab08c5a4c55"
 dependencies = [
  "smallvec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "census"
-version = "0.4.2"
+name = "cfg-if"
+version = "0.1.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4f4c707c6a209cbe82d10abd08e1ea8995e9ea937d2550646e02798948992be0"
+checksum = "4785bdd1c96b2a846b2bd7cc02e86b6b3dbf14e7e53446c4f54c92a361040822"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cfg-if"
@@ -1310,11 +1226,22 @@ version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "613afe47fcd5fac7ccf1db93babcb082c5994d996f20b8b159f2ad1658eb5724"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "chacha20"
+version = "0.10.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6f8d983286843e49675a4b7a2d174efe136dc93a18d69130dd18198a6c167601"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "chrono"
-version = "0.4.43"
+version = "0.4.45"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fac4744fb15ae8337dc853fee7fb3f4e48c0fbaa23d0afe49c447b4fab126118"
+checksum = "1aa79e62e7697b8e29b513a68abacf485adcd1fe8284a4316c5ae868e6633327"
 dependencies = [
  "iana-time-zone",
  "js-sys",
@@ -1340,24 +1267,49 @@ version = "0.4.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "773f3b9af64447d2ce9850330c473515014aa235e6a783b02db81ff39e4a3dad"
 dependencies = [
- "crypto-common",
+ "crypto-common 0.1.7",
  "inout",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cmake"
-version = "0.1.57"
+version = "0.1.58"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "75443c44cd6b379beb8c5b45d85d0773baf31cce901fe7bb252f4eff3008ef7d"
+checksum = "c0f78a02292a74a88ac736019ab962ece0bc380e3f977bf72e376c5d78ff0678"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "cmov"
+version = "0.5.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0c9ea0ac24bc397ab3c98583a3c9ba74fa56b09a4449bbe172b9b1ddb016027a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "colorchoice"
-version = "1.0.4"
+version = "1.0.5"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1d07550c9036bf2ae0c684c4297d503f838287c83c53686d05370d0e139ae570"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "colored"
+version = "3.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "faf9468729b8cbcea668e36183cb69d317348c2e08e994829fb56ebfdfbaac34"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "combine"
+version = "4.6.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b05b61dc5112cbb17e4b6cd61790d9845d13888356391624cbe7e41efeac1e75"
+checksum = "ba5a308b75df32fe02788e748662718f03fde005016435c444eea572398219fd"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "memchr",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "comfy-table"
@@ -1369,6 +1321,23 @@ dependencies = [
  "unicode-width",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "compression-codecs"
+version = "0.4.38"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ce2548391e9c1929c21bf6aa2680af86fe4c1b33e6cea9ac1cfeec0bd11218cf"
+dependencies = [
+ "compression-core",
+ "flate2",
+ "memchr",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "compression-core"
+version = "0.4.32"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "cc14f565cf027a105f7a44ccf9e5b424348421a1d8952a8fc9d499d313107789"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "concurrent-queue"
 version = "2.5.0"
@@ -1384,6 +1353,12 @@ version = "0.9.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "c2459377285ad874054d797f3ccebf984978aa39129f6eafde5cdc8315b612f8"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "const-oid"
+version = "0.10.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a6ef517f0926dd24a1582492c791b6a4818a4d94e789a334894aa15b0d12f55c"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "const-random"
 version = "0.1.18"
@@ -1404,6 +1379,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "tiny-keccak",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "const-str"
+version = "1.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "18f12cc9948ed9604230cdddc7c86e270f9401ccbe3c2e98a4378c5e7632212f"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "const_panic"
 version = "0.2.15"
@@ -1419,6 +1400,16 @@ version = "0.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "3d52eff69cd5e647efe296129160853a42795992097e8af39800e1060caeea9b"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "core-foundation"
+version = "0.9.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "91e195e091a93c46f7102ec7818a2aa394e1e1771c3ab4825963fa03e45afb8f"
+dependencies = [
+ "core-foundation-sys",
+ "libc",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "core-foundation"
 version = "0.10.1"
@@ -1436,45 +1427,40 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "773648b94d0e5d620f64f280777445740e61fe701025087ec8b57f45c791888b"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "core2"
-version = "0.4.0"
+name = "countio"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b49ba7ef1ad6107f8824dbe97de947cbaac53c44e7f9756a1fba0d37c1eec505"
+checksum = "b9702aee5d1d744c01d82f6915644f950f898e014903385464c773b96fefdecb"
 dependencies = [
- "memchr",
+ "futures-io",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "core_extensions"
-version = "1.5.4"
+name = "cpufeatures"
+version = "0.2.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "42bb5e5d0269fd4f739ea6cedaf29c16d81c27a7ce7582008e90eb50dcd57003"
+checksum = "59ed5838eebb26a2bb2e58f6d5b5316989ae9d08bab10e0e6d103e656d1b0280"
 dependencies = [
- "core_extensions_proc_macros",
+ "libc",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "core_extensions_proc_macros"
-version = "1.5.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "533d38ecd2709b7608fb8e18e4504deb99e9a72879e6aa66373a76d8dc4259ea"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "cpufeatures"
-version = "0.2.17"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "59ed5838eebb26a2bb2e58f6d5b5316989ae9d08bab10e0e6d103e656d1b0280"
+checksum = "8b2a41393f66f16b0823bb79094d54ac5fbd34ab292ddafb9a0456ac9f87d201"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "crc32c"
-version = "0.6.8"
+name = "crc-fast"
+version = "1.10.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3a47af21622d091a8f0fb295b88bc886ac74efcc613efc19f5d0b21de5c89e47"
+checksum = "e75b2483e97a5a7da73ac68a05b629f9c53cff58d8ed1c77866079e18b00dba5"
 dependencies = [
- "rustc_version",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
+ "spin 0.10.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1483,7 +1469,7 @@ version = "1.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9481c1c90cbf2ac953f07c8d4a58aa3945c425b7185c9154d67a65e4230da511"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1507,18 +1493,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "crossbeam-epoch"
-version = "0.9.18"
+version = "0.9.20"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5b82ac4a3c2ca9c3460964f020e1402edd5753411d7737aa39c3714ad1b5420e"
+checksum = "2d6914041f254d6e9176c01941b21115dcfb7089e55135a35411081bd106ef3f"
 dependencies = [
  "crossbeam-utils",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "crossbeam-queue"
-version = "0.3.12"
+version = "0.3.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0f58bbc28f91df819d0aa2a2c00cd19754769c2fad90579b3592b1c9ba7a3115"
+checksum = "803d13fb3b09d88be9f4dbc29062c66b19bf7170867ceb746d2a8689bf6c7a26"
 dependencies = [
  "crossbeam-utils",
 ]
@@ -1555,6 +1541,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "typenum",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "crypto-common"
+version = "0.2.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ce6e4c961d6cd6c9a86db418387425e8bdeaf05b3c8bc1411e6dca4c252f1453"
+dependencies = [
+ "hybrid-array",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "csv"
 version = "1.4.0"
@@ -1576,6 +1571,31 @@ dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "ctor"
+version = "1.0.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "01334b89b69ff726750c5ce5073fc8bd860e99aa9a8fc5ca11b04730e3aee97a"
+dependencies = [
+ "link-section",
+ "linktime-proc-macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ctutils"
+version = "0.4.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7d5515a3834141de9eafb9717ad39eea8247b5674e6066c404e8c4b365d2a29e"
+dependencies = [
+ "cmov",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "daachorse"
+version = "2.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "db756b5eb7d81d31f31f660f4132f8cf5698de52fca144c143d0ae0cbb5f2e06"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "darling"
 version = "0.20.11"
@@ -1607,7 +1627,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "strsim",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1620,7 +1640,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "strsim",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1631,7 +1651,7 @@ checksum = "fc34b93ccb385b40dc71c6fceac4b2ad23662c7eeb248cf10d529b7e055b6ead"
 dependencies = [
  "darling_core 0.20.11",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1642,22 +1662,16 @@ checksum = "ac3984ec7bd6cfa798e62b4a642426a5be0e68f9401cfc2a01e3fa9ea2fcdb8d"
 dependencies = [
  "darling_core 0.23.0",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "dary_heap"
-version = "0.3.8"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "06d2e3287df1c007e74221c49ca10a95d557349e54b3a75dc2fb14712c751f04"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "dashmap"
-version = "6.1.0"
+version = "6.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5041cc499144891f3790297212f32a74fb938e5136a14943f338ef9e0ae276cf"
+checksum = "e6361d5c062261c78a176addb82d4c821ae42bed6089de0e12603cd25de2059c"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "crossbeam-utils",
  "hashbrown 0.14.5",
  "lock_api",
@@ -1667,15 +1681,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8ba7cb113e9c0bedf9e9765926031e132fa05a1b09ba6e93a6d1a4d7044457b8"
+checksum = "754ef4e8f073922a26f5b23133b9db4829342362b09be0bc94309cf261c2f098"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
- "bytes",
- "bzip2 0.6.1",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-catalog",
  "datafusion-catalog-listing",
@@ -1685,7 +1697,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-datasource-arrow",
  "datafusion-datasource-csv",
  "datafusion-datasource-json",
- "datafusion-datasource-parquet",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
@@ -1702,30 +1713,24 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "datafusion-session",
  "datafusion-sql",
- "flate2",
  "futures",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "parking_lot",
- "parquet",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "regex",
- "rstest",
  "sqlparser",
  "tempfile",
  "tokio",
  "url",
  "uuid",
- "xz2",
- "zstd",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-catalog"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "66a3a799f914a59b1ea343906a0486f17061f39509af74e874a866428951130d"
+checksum = "06afd1e38dd27bbb1258685a1fc6524df6aff4e07b25b393a47de59635178d99"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1741,16 +1746,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "parking_lot",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-catalog-listing"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6db1b113c80d7a0febcd901476a57aef378e717c54517a163ed51417d87621b0"
+checksum = "f0668fb32c12065ec242be0e5b4bc62bd7a06a0be3ecd83791ef877e4be67e02"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1766,39 +1771,39 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "object_store",
- "tokio",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7c10f7659e96127d25e8366be7c8be4109595d6a2c3eac70421f380a7006a1b0"
+checksum = "ca43b263cdff57042cfa8fb817fb3469f4878933380dccff25f5e793580abbf9"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ipc",
+ "arrow-schema",
  "chrono",
+ "foldhash 0.2.0",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "libc",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "parquet",
- "paste",
- "recursive",
  "sqlparser",
  "tokio",
+ "uuid",
  "web-time",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-common-runtime"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b92065bbc6532c6651e2f7dd30b55cba0c7a14f860c7e1d15f165c41a1868d95"
+checksum = "05f0ba2b864792bdca4d76c59a1de0ab6e1b61946596b9936888dbd6360035f2"
 dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "log",
@@ -1807,15 +1812,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fde13794244bc7581cd82f6fff217068ed79cdc344cafe4ab2c3a1c3510b38d6"
+checksum = "b840a8bce0bcbf5afad02946d438591e7c373f7afccaf3d874c04485772514dd"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
- "async-compression",
  "async-trait",
  "bytes",
- "bzip2 0.6.1",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-common-runtime",
@@ -1826,25 +1829,22 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "datafusion-session",
- "flate2",
  "futures",
  "glob",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "object_store",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-util",
  "url",
- "xz2",
- "zstd",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-arrow"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "804fa9b4ecf3157982021770617200ef7c1b2979d57bec9044748314775a9aea"
+checksum = "a24cc0b9cf6e367f27f27406eff13abf48a11b72446aaa40b3105c0ded5c17d9"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ipc",
@@ -1860,15 +1860,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-session",
  "futures",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-csv"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "61a1641a40b259bab38131c5e6f48fac0717bedb7dc93690e604142a849e0568"
+checksum = "e1abe56b2a7a2d1d6de5117dd1a203181e267f28529faa5da546947621b697d7"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1882,16 +1882,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "datafusion-session",
  "futures",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "regex",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-json"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "adeacdb00c1d37271176f8fb6a1d8ce096baba16ea7a4b2671840c5c9c64fe85"
+checksum = "9c3e467f0611ad7bdd5aad17c63c9bb6182d04e5282e5496d897ea2b49c024ba"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1905,15 +1905,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "datafusion-session",
  "futures",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-stream",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-datasource-parquet"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "43d0b60ffd66f28bfb026565d62b0a6cbc416da09814766a3797bba7d85a3cd9"
+checksum = "4cc35b92cd560082155e80d9c826929c852d3c51543f4affd3a51c464a0aab3a"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
@@ -1923,6 +1924,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-datasource",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-functions",
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-adapter",
@@ -1933,7 +1935,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "parking_lot",
  "parquet",
  "tokio",
@@ -1941,37 +1943,40 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-doc"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2b99e13947667b36ad713549237362afb054b2d8f8cc447751e23ec61202db07"
+checksum = "d69bb69d8769e34f76839c960dbde24c1ac0c885a79b6c3c2287bdc56ec67891"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-execution"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "63695643190679037bc946ad46a263b62016931547bf119859c511f7ff2f5178"
+checksum = "d8eac0a09bc8d263f52025cad9e001da4d8138d633fa288edda4d06b1772eae6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-buffer",
  "async-trait",
  "dashmap",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "futures",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "parking_lot",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "tempfile",
  "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-expr"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f9a4787cbf5feb1ab351f789063398f67654a6df75c4d37d7f637dc96f951a91"
+checksum = "eeb14d374767ee0fc62dc79a5ba8bcf8a63c14e993c7d992d0e63adfa23d77d3"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -1980,87 +1985,95 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-functions-window-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "paste",
- "recursive",
  "serde_json",
  "sqlparser",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-expr-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5ce2fb1b8c15c9ac45b0863c30b268c69dc9ee7a1ee13ecf5d067738338173dc"
+checksum = "b7b19a8c95522bee8cbb313d74263b85e355d2b52f42e67ef5694bf5de9e9356"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "paste",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-ffi"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ec510e7787641279b0336e8b79e4b7bd1385d5976875ff9b97f4269ce5231a67"
+checksum = "d9a4a09f24f1387408810acca070207a9cf6c7fc2368122982a8e7671f643d1e"
 dependencies = [
- "abi_stable",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-ffi",
  "async-trait",
- "datafusion",
+ "chrono",
+ "datafusion-catalog",
  "datafusion-common",
+ "datafusion-datasource",
+ "datafusion-execution",
+ "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
+ "datafusion-physical-optimizer",
+ "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "datafusion-proto",
  "datafusion-proto-common",
+ "datafusion-session",
  "futures",
+ "libloading",
  "log",
  "prost",
  "semver",
+ "stabby",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "794a9db7f7b96b3346fc007ff25e994f09b8f0511b4cf7dff651fadfe3ebb28f"
+checksum = "5f64c983bbbdcb729d921a2b2ac3375598719b5cc0c30345ad664936f3176fc7"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-buffer",
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "blake2",
  "blake3",
  "chrono",
+ "chrono-tz",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-doc",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
  "datafusion-macros",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "hex",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
  "md-5",
+ "memchr",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "regex",
- "sha2",
- "unicode-segmentation",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
  "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-aggregate"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1c25210520a9dcf9c2b2cbbce31ebd4131ef5af7fc60ee92b266dc7d159cb305"
+checksum = "89bc17041e424a47ed062f43df24d84aab8b57c4c3221e5c1a5eef46d6c5718b"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-doc",
@@ -2070,18 +2083,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-macros",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
+ "foldhash 0.2.0",
  "half",
  "log",
- "paste",
+ "num-traits",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "62f4a66f3b87300bb70f4124b55434d2ae3fe80455f3574701d0348da040b55d"
+checksum = "97dd2a9e865c6108059f5b37b77934f84b50bfb108f837bd0e5c9536e03f0545"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
@@ -2090,9 +2103,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-nested"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ae5c06eed03918dc7fe7a9f082a284050f0e9ecf95d72f57712d1496da03b8c4"
+checksum = "75f0bdfeef16d96417b9632ef855645376b242e9006a126dfd0bedfc54a93f5f"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ord",
@@ -2106,32 +2119,34 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-macros",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "itoa",
  "log",
- "paste",
+ "memchr",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-table"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "db4fed1d71738fbe22e2712d71396db04c25de4111f1ec252b8f4c6d3b25d7f5"
+checksum = "f4e4941673c917819616877e9993da4503e4f4739812be0bc32c5356184c6383"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
  "datafusion-catalog",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "parking_lot",
- "paste",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-window"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1d92206aa5ae21892f1552b4d61758a862a70956e6fd7a95cb85db1de74bc6d1"
+checksum = "12dd2e16c12b84b6f6b41b19f55b366dd1c46876bb35b86896c6349067379e8d"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2142,14 +2157,13 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "log",
- "paste",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-functions-window-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "53ae9bcc39800820d53a22d758b3b8726ff84a5a3e24cecef04ef4e5fdf1c7cc"
+checksum = "4cdc5e4b6f8b6ef823cc1c761f85088ad4c884fe8df64df3cbcc6b2b84698441"
 dependencies = [
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
@@ -2157,20 +2171,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-macros"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1063ad4c9e094b3f798acee16d9a47bd7372d9699be2de21b05c3bd3f34ab848"
+checksum = "1a3614234dd93578c92428cb4f408e020874f0d2b7e6c90c928d9d28b5df2ceb"
 dependencies = [
  "datafusion-doc",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-optimizer"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9f35f9ec5d08b87fd1893a30c2929f2559c2f9806ca072d8fefca5009dc0f06a"
+checksum = "a0635620b050b81bb92764e99250868f654e2cd5ad1bece413283b3f73c83179"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "chrono",
@@ -2178,21 +2192,19 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
- "recursive",
  "regex",
  "regex-syntax",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-expr"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c30cc8012e9eedcb48bbe112c6eff4ae5ed19cf3003cb0f505662e88b7014c5d"
+checksum = "8cabf7a86eb70b816729e33c81bf7767c936ee1226f607a114f5dac2decac8d0"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
@@ -2200,19 +2212,19 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "parking_lot",
- "paste",
  "petgraph",
+ "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-expr-adapter"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7f9ff2dbd476221b1f67337699eff432781c4e6e1713d2aefdaa517dfbf79768"
+checksum = "de222e04f7e6744501555a54ab0abe26bfdfebee380af79a9bdc175704246859"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2225,23 +2237,26 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-expr-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "90da43e1ec550b172f34c87ec68161986ced70fd05c8d2a2add66eef9c276f03"
+checksum = "72d0d0057fc5a502d45c870cb6d47c66eb7bdd5edb1bd71ad6f3f724975ac2a8"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
+ "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr-common",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "pin-project",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-optimizer"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ce9804f799acd7daef3be7aaffe77c0033768ed8fdbf5fb82fc4c5f2e6bc14e6"
+checksum = "86046eed10950c5f9aaed9acfd148e9bd2e1dfdfe4f9aef607d1447b271e4183"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2253,35 +2268,36 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "datafusion-pruning",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "recursive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-physical-plan"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0acf0ad6b6924c6b1aa7d213b181e012e2d3ec0a64ff5b10ee6282ab0f8532ac"
+checksum = "9bc84da934c903407ba297971ebcc020c4c1a38aafd765d6c144c76eff3fa6a1"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
  "arrow",
+ "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
- "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-common-runtime",
  "datafusion-execution",
  "datafusion-expr",
+ "datafusion-functions",
  "datafusion-functions-aggregate-common",
  "datafusion-functions-window-common",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "futures",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
+ "num-traits",
  "parking_lot",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
@@ -2289,9 +2305,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-proto"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d368093a98a17d1449b1083ac22ed16b7128e4c67789991869480d8c4a40ecb9"
+checksum = "67791dcfacd142a9d95f8f73c2a161094cc936d231d80c235f5017dacf24e84e"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "chrono",
@@ -2310,15 +2326,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "datafusion-proto-common",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "prost",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-proto-common"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3b6aef3d5e5c1d2bc3114c4876730cb76a9bdc5a8df31ef1b6db48f0c1671895"
+checksum = "b8cd9e80d637891645d074db0f6c650b591117367247deb313fdfb78dff559cb"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2327,9 +2343,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-pruning"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ac2c2498a1f134a9e11a9f5ed202a2a7d7e9774bd9249295593053ea3be999db"
+checksum = "eb63eeac6de19be40f487b65dd84e546195f783c5a9928618e0c4f2a3569b0d7"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2338,15 +2354,14 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr-common",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
  "log",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-session"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8f96eebd17555386f459037c65ab73aae8df09f464524c709d6a3134ad4f4776"
+checksum = "5f961d209177f91bd014db5cbb2c33b7d28a2597b9003e77f17aeb712964315a"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "datafusion-common",
@@ -2358,27 +2373,27 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-sql"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3fc195fe60634b2c6ccfd131b487de46dc30eccae8a3c35a13f136e7f440414f"
+checksum = "b1d71cb454da682b2af7488e1fc1ddd72ee1b28f19297b8ccad73f0a21ee9a69"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "bigdecimal",
  "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
- "indexmap",
+ "datafusion-functions-nested",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "log",
- "recursive",
  "regex",
  "sqlparser",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "datafusion-substrait"
-version = "51.0.0"
+version = "54.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2505af06d103a55b4e8ded0c6aeb6c72a771948da939c0bd3f8eee67af475a9c"
+checksum = "f047a6fbf967b6b523758a48d2377bb5f9373a20e7ae4c4326d3c569f80ba3d7"
 dependencies = [
  "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
@@ -2386,34 +2401,19 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion",
  "half",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "pbjson-types",
  "prost",
  "substrait",
  "tokio",
  "url",
- "uuid",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "deepsize"
-version = "0.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1cdb987ec36f6bf7bfbea3f928b75590b736fc42af8e54d97592481351b2b96c"
-dependencies = [
- "deepsize_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "deepsize_derive"
-version = "0.1.2"
+name = "datasketches"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "990101d41f3bc8c1a45641024377ee284ecc338e5ecf3ea0f0e236d897c72796"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
-]
+checksum = "46c4cf71a36b46dcfc00e5014c0c20ccad2b1b6a008304d7d57d2749b2d41b3d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "der"
@@ -2421,16 +2421,16 @@ version = "0.7.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e7c1832837b905bbfb5101e07cc24c8deddf52f93225eee6ead5f4d63d53ddcb"
 dependencies = [
- "const-oid",
+ "const-oid 0.9.6",
  "pem-rfc7468",
  "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "deranged"
-version = "0.5.5"
+version = "0.5.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ececcb659e7ba858fb4f10388c250a7252eb0a27373f1a72b8748afdd248e587"
+checksum = "7cd812cc2bc1d69d4764bd80df88b4317eaef9e773c75226407d9bc0876b211c"
 dependencies = [
  "powerfmt",
  "serde_core",
@@ -2454,7 +2454,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "darling 0.20.11",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2464,7 +2464,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ab63b0e2bf4d5928aff72e83a7dace85d7bba5fe12dcc3c5a572d78caffd3f3c"
 dependencies = [
  "derive_builder_core",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2473,12 +2473,24 @@ version = "0.10.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9ed9a281f7bc9b7576e61468ba615a66a5c8cfdff42420a70aa82701a3b1e292"
 dependencies = [
- "block-buffer",
- "const-oid",
- "crypto-common",
+ "block-buffer 0.10.4",
+ "const-oid 0.9.6",
+ "crypto-common 0.1.7",
  "subtle",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "digest"
+version = "0.11.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f1dd6dbb5841937940781866fa1281a1ff7bd3bf827091440879f9994983d5c2"
+dependencies = [
+ "block-buffer 0.12.1",
+ "const-oid 0.10.2",
+ "crypto-common 0.2.2",
+ "ctutils",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "dirs"
 version = "6.0.0"
@@ -2502,13 +2514,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "displaydoc"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "97369cbbc041bc366949bc74d34658d6cda5621039731c6310521892a3a20ae0"
+checksum = "1ac70aa55017e108007fbaf5aa0f54b021c98f92ff8af59d42eda9da96e3dd4f"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2520,12 +2532,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "const-random",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "downcast-rs"
-version = "2.0.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "117240f60069e65410b3ae1bb213295bd828f707b5bec6596a1afc8793ce0cbc"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "dunce"
 version = "1.0.5"
@@ -2550,73 +2556,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "either"
-version = "1.15.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "48c757948c5ede0e46177b7add2e67155f70e33c07fea8284df6576da70b3719"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding"
-version = "0.2.33"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6b0d943856b990d12d3b55b359144ff341533e516d94098b1d3fc1ac666d36ec"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding-index-japanese",
- "encoding-index-korean",
- "encoding-index-simpchinese",
- "encoding-index-singlebyte",
- "encoding-index-tradchinese",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-japanese"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "04e8b2ff42e9a05335dbf8b5c6f7567e5591d0d916ccef4e0b1710d32a0d0c91"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-korean"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4dc33fb8e6bcba213fe2f14275f0963fd16f0a02c878e3095ecfdf5bee529d81"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-simpchinese"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d87a7194909b9118fc707194baa434a4e3b0fb6a5a757c73c3adb07aa25031f7"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-singlebyte"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3351d5acffb224af9ca265f435b859c7c01537c0849754d3db3fdf2bfe2ae84a"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding-index-tradchinese"
-version = "1.20141219.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fd0e20d5688ce3cab59eb3ef3a2083a5c77bf496cb798dc6fcdb75f323890c18"
-dependencies = [
- "encoding_index_tests",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "encoding_index_tests"
-version = "0.1.4"
+version = "1.16.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a246d82be1c9d791c5dfde9a2bd045fc3cbba3fa2b11ad558f27d01712f00569"
+checksum = "91622ff5e7162018101f2fea40d6ebf4a78bbe5a49736a2020649edf9693679e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "encoding_rs"
@@ -2624,7 +2566,7 @@ version = "0.8.35"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "75030f3c4f45dafd7586dd6780965a8c7e8e285a5ecb86713e63a79c5b2766f3"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2636,11 +2578,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "encoding_rs",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "endian-type"
+version = "0.1.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c34f04666d835ff5d62e058c3995147c06f42fe86ff053337632bca83e42702d"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "env_filter"
-version = "0.1.4"
+version = "2.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1bf3c259d255ca70051b30e2e95b5446cdb8949ac4cd22c0d7fd634d89f568e2"
+checksum = "900d271a03799a1ee8d1ca9b19893b48ca674a9284fefcfb85f05e74ed314217"
 dependencies = [
  "log",
  "regex",
@@ -2648,9 +2596,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "env_logger"
-version = "0.11.8"
+version = "0.11.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "13c863f0904021b108aa8b2f55046443e6b1ebde8fd4a15c399893aae4fa069f"
+checksum = "de671bd27a75a797dc9ae289ba1e77276e75e2026408aab65185384e2d5cd3f6"
 dependencies = [
  "anstream",
  "anstyle",
@@ -2677,17 +2625,16 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ethnum"
-version = "1.5.2"
+version = "1.5.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ca81e6b4777c89fd810c25a4be2b1bd93ea034fbe58e6a75216a34c6b82c539b"
+checksum = "40404c3f5f511ec4da6fe866ddf6a717c309fdbb69fbbad7b0f3edab8f2e835f"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "event-listener"
-version = "5.4.1"
+version = "5.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e13b66accf52311f30a0db42147dadea9850cb48cd070028831ae5f5d4b856ab"
+checksum = "5a23add41df1562121a9393cb065eab5146a1242410f23a644851e90cfd669d2"
 dependencies = [
- "concurrent-queue",
  "parking",
  "pin-project-lite",
 ]
@@ -2708,28 +2655,11 @@ version = "0.2.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f8eb564c5c7423d25c886fb561d1e4ee69f72354d16918afa32c08811f6b6a55"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "fastdivide"
-version = "0.4.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9afc2bd4d5a73106dd53d10d73d3401c2f32730ba2c0b93ddb888a8983680471"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "fastrand"
-version = "2.3.0"
+version = "2.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "37909eebbb50d72f9059c3b6d82c0463f2ff062c9e95845c43a6c9c0355411be"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "filetime"
-version = "0.2.27"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f98844151eee8917efc50bd9e8318cb963ae8b297431495d3f758616ea5c57db"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "libc",
- "libredox",
-]
+checksum = "9f1f227452a390804cdb637b74a86990f2a7d7ba4b7d5693aac9b4dd6defd8d6"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "find-msvc-tools"
@@ -2749,7 +2679,7 @@ version = "25.12.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "35f6839d7b3b98adde531effaf34f0c2badc6f4735d26fe74709d8e513a96ef3"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "rustc_version",
 ]
 
@@ -2798,15 +2728,70 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "fs4"
-version = "0.8.4"
+name = "foyer-common"
+version = "0.22.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f7e180ac76c23b45e767bd7ae9579bc0bb458618c4bc71835926e098e61d15f8"
+checksum = "643b47d510032a01e5af70dca288b0c5ec531646c1a8392e793fb5b0c13bef30"
 dependencies = [
- "rustix 0.38.44",
- "windows-sys 0.52.0",
+ "anyhow",
+ "bytes",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "foyer-tokio",
+ "mixtrics",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "pin-project",
+ "twox-hash",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "foyer-intrusive-collections"
+version = "0.10.0-dev"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6e4fee46bea69e0596130e3210e65d3424e0ac1e6df3bde6636304bdf1ca4a3b"
+dependencies = [
+ "memoffset",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "foyer-memory"
+version = "0.22.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ae51f5089f3d9025ae77f17ea66d2489ac0f82fbb1d91462807bea174d486d82"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "asyncband",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "datasketches",
+ "equivalent",
+ "foyer-common",
+ "foyer-intrusive-collections",
+ "foyer-tokio",
+ "futures-util",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "itertools 0.15.0",
+ "mixtrics",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "paste",
+ "pin-project",
+ "serde",
+ "tracing",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "foyer-tokio"
+version = "0.22.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6741d1133dfaab64d3f8a9290bbfed3685084add28f8b6ee7a6264aa4dc26918"
+dependencies = [
+ "tokio",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "frostem"
+version = "1.20260804.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6d0ae10cfccbae085dd8612669ccc116fe88bd5dfe39d202a8fa68c24c1e546f"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "fs_extra"
 version = "1.3.0"
@@ -2815,10 +2800,10 @@ checksum = "42703706b716c37f96a77aea830392ad231f44c9e9a67872fa5548707e11b11c"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "fsst"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -2838,9 +2823,9 @@ checksum = "e6d5a32815ae3f33302d95fdcb2ce17862f8c65363dcfd29360480ba1001fc9c"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "65bc07b1a8bc7c85c5f2e110c476c7389b4554ba72af57d8445ea63a576b0876"
+checksum = "8b147ee9d1f6d097cef9ce628cd2ee62288d963e16fb287bd9286455b241382d"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
@@ -2853,9 +2838,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-channel"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2dff15bf788c671c1934e366d07e30c1814a8ef514e1af724a602e8a2fbe1b10"
+checksum = "07bbe89c50d7a535e539b8c17bc0b49bdb77747034daa8087407d655f3f7cc1d"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
@@ -2863,15 +2848,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-core"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "05f29059c0c2090612e8d742178b0580d2dc940c837851ad723096f87af6663e"
+checksum = "7e3450815272ef58cec6d564423f6e755e25379b217b0bc688e295ba24df6b1d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-executor"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e28d1d997f585e54aebc3f97d39e72338912123a67330d723fdbb564d646c9f"
+checksum = "baf29c38818342a3b26b5b923639e7b1f4a61fc5e76102d4b1981c6dc7a7579d"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-task",
@@ -2880,44 +2865,38 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-io"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9e5c1b78ca4aae1ac06c48a526a655760685149f0d465d21f37abfe57ce075c6"
+checksum = "cecba35d7ad927e23624b22ad55235f2239cfa44fd10428eecbeba6d6a717718"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-macro"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "162ee34ebcb7c64a8abebc059ce0fee27c2262618d7b60ed8faf72fef13c3650"
+checksum = "e835b70203e41293343137df5c0664546da5745f82ec9b84d40be8336958447b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-sink"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e575fab7d1e0dcb8d0c7bcf9a63ee213816ab51902e6d244a95819acacf1d4f7"
+checksum = "c39754e157331b013978ec91992bde1ac089843443c49cbc7f46150b0fad0893"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-task"
-version = "0.3.31"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f90f7dce0722e95104fcb095585910c0977252f286e354b5e3bd38902cd99988"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "futures-timer"
-version = "3.0.3"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f288b0a4f20f9a56b5d1da57e2227c661b7b16168e2f72365f57b63326e29b24"
+checksum = "037711b3d59c33004d3856fbdc83b99d4ff37a24768fa1be9ce3538a1cde4393"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-util"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9fa08315bb612088cc391249efdc3bc77536f16c91f6cf495e6fbe85b20a4a81"
+checksum = "389ca41296e6190b48053de0321d02a77f32f8a5d2461dd38762c0593805c6d6"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
@@ -2927,27 +2906,26 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures-task",
  "memchr",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "pin-utils",
  "slab",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "generational-arena"
-version = "0.2.9"
+name = "gearhash"
+version = "0.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "877e94aff08e743b651baaea359664321055749b398adff8740a7399af7796e7"
+checksum = "c8cf82cf76cd16485e56295a1377c775ce708c9f1a0be6b029076d60a245d213"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 0.1.10",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "generator"
-version = "0.8.8"
+version = "0.8.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "52f04ae4152da20c76fe800fa48659201d5cf627c5149ca0b707b69d7eef6cf9"
+checksum = "b3b854b0e584ead1a33f18b2fcad7cf7be18b3875c78816b753639aa501513ae"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "libc",
  "log",
  "rustversion",
@@ -2994,9 +2972,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geo-types"
-version = "0.7.18"
+version = "0.7.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "24f8647af4005fa11da47cd56252c6ef030be8fa97bdbf355e7dfb6348f0a82c"
+checksum = "94776032c45f950d30a13af6113c2ad5625316c9abfbccee4dd5a6695f8fe0f5"
 dependencies = [
  "approx",
  "num-traits",
@@ -3007,9 +2985,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geoarrow-array"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dc1cc4106ac0a0a512c398961ce95d8150475c84a84e17c4511c3643fa120a17"
+checksum = "dafe7b7de3fab1a8b7099fd6a6434ca955fa65065f9c19f0f8a133693f3c2b0e"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -3023,9 +3001,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geoarrow-expr-geo"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fa84300361ce57fb875bcaa6e32b95b0aff5c6b1af692b936bdd58ff343f4394"
+checksum = "8e4a62ac19c86827c6ec81ea584594b3ee96db5a8119b9774d3466c6b373c434"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
@@ -3037,9 +3015,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geoarrow-schema"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e97be4e9f523f92bd6a0e0458323f4b783d073d011664decd8dbf05651704f34"
+checksum = "4d4a7edb2a1d87024a93805332a9c8184a0354836271d42c0d18cf628a5e3cd0"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-schema",
  "geo-traits",
@@ -3050,12 +3028,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geodatafusion"
-version = "0.2.0"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "773cfa1fb0d7f7661b76b3fde00f3ffd8e0ff7b3635096f0ff6294fe5ca62a2b"
+checksum = "fecbdd00d0fff2b04635c1b1e4129c217908f0c2d17539e0a2275308afce2552"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-schema",
  "datafusion",
  "geo",
@@ -3070,18 +3049,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geographiclib-rs"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f611040a2bb37eaa29a78a128d1e92a378a03e0b6e66ae27398d42b1ba9a7841"
+checksum = "c5a7f08910fd98737a6eda7568e7c5e645093e073328eeef49758cfe8b0489c7"
 dependencies = [
  "libm",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "geohash"
-version = "0.13.1"
+version = "0.13.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0fb94b1a65401d6cbf22958a9040aa364812c26674f841bee538b12c135db1e6"
+checksum = "7f58890382f70caccc5fa388981f7ac80c913795042afce9f3e065695d8f7464"
 dependencies = [
  "geo-types",
  "libm",
@@ -3093,10 +3072,10 @@ version = "0.2.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ff2abc00be7fca6ebc474524697ae276ad847ad0a6b3faa4bcb027e9a4614ad0"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "js-sys",
  "libc",
- "wasi",
+ "wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1",
  "wasm-bindgen",
 ]
 
@@ -3106,23 +3085,55 @@ version = "0.3.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "899def5c37c4fd7b2664648c28120ecec138e4d395b459e5ca34f9cce2dd77fd"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "js-sys",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "libc",
- "r-efi",
+ "r-efi 5.3.0",
  "wasip2",
- "wasm-bindgen",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "glob"
-version = "0.3.3"
+name = "getrandom"
+version = "0.4.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0cc23270f6e1808e30a928bdc84dea0b9b4136a8bc82338574f23baf47bbd280"
+checksum = "300e883d756b2e4ec94e02791f39b04b522276138852cfc41d9fb7e904106099"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "js-sys",
+ "libc",
+ "r-efi 6.0.0",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "gloo-timers"
-version = "0.3.0"
+name = "git-version"
+version = "0.3.9"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1ad568aa3db0fcbc81f2f116137f263d7304f512a1209b35b85150d3ef88ad19"
+dependencies = [
+ "git-version-macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "git-version-macro"
+version = "0.3.9"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "53010ccb100b96a67bc32c0175f0ed1426b31b655d562898e57325f81c023ac0"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "glob"
+version = "0.3.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0cc23270f6e1808e30a928bdc84dea0b9b4136a8bc82338574f23baf47bbd280"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "gloo-timers"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "bbb143cf96099802033e0d4f4963b19fd2e0b728bcf076cd9cf7f6634f092994"
 dependencies = [
@@ -3133,37 +3144,50 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "h2"
-version = "0.3.27"
+name = "goosefs-sdk"
+version = "0.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0beca50380b1fc32983fc1cb4587bfa4bb9e78fc259aad4a0032d2080309222d"
+checksum = "1e471f7bce40936cf2023855c7350e31e11b3f703eb7cb2ce73c9ffc451f87d2"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
+ "async-trait",
  "bytes",
- "fnv",
- "futures-core",
- "futures-sink",
- "futures-util",
- "http 0.2.12",
- "indexmap",
- "slab",
+ "dashmap",
+ "fastrand",
+ "foyer-common",
+ "foyer-memory",
+ "futures",
+ "hostname",
+ "io-uring",
+ "itoa",
+ "libc",
+ "lru",
+ "prost",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "serde",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-util",
+ "tokio-stream",
+ "tonic",
+ "tonic-prost",
  "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "xxhash-rust",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "h2"
-version = "0.4.13"
+version = "0.4.16"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2f44da3a8150a6703ed5d34e164b875fd14c2cdab9af1252a9a1020bde2bdc54"
+checksum = "a9f37a958b41b3b19ee2707c06439c0e9e547e847223eb791ecb0cb821c65e27"
 dependencies = [
  "atomic-waker",
  "bytes",
  "fnv",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "indexmap",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "slab",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-util",
@@ -3176,7 +3200,8 @@ version = "2.7.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6ea2d84b969582b4b1864a92dc5d27cd2b77b622a8d79306834f1be5ba20d84b"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "bytemuck",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "crunchy",
  "num-traits",
  "zerocopy",
@@ -3191,15 +3216,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "byteorder",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "hashbrown"
+version = "0.12.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "8a9ee70c43aaf417c914396645a0fa852624801b24ebb7ae78fe8272889ac888"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "hashbrown"
 version = "0.14.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e5274423e17b7c9fc20b6e7e208532f9b19825d82dfd615708b70edd83df41f1"
-dependencies = [
- "ahash",
- "allocator-api2",
-]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hashbrown"
@@ -3207,8 +3234,6 @@ version = "0.15.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9229cfe53dfd69f0609a49f65461bd93001ea1ef889cd5529dd176593f5338a1"
 dependencies = [
- "allocator-api2",
- "equivalent",
  "foldhash 0.1.5",
 ]
 
@@ -3223,6 +3248,23 @@ dependencies = [
  "foldhash 0.2.0",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "hashbrown"
+version = "0.17.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ed5909b6e89a2db4456e54cd5f673791d7eca6732202bbf2a9cc504fe2f9b84a"
+dependencies = [
+ "allocator-api2",
+ "equivalent",
+ "foldhash 0.2.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "heapify"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0049b265b7f201ca9ab25475b22b47fe444060126a51abe00f77d986fc5cc52e"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "heapless"
 version = "0.8.0"
@@ -3251,29 +3293,59 @@ version = "0.4.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "7f24254aa9a54b5c858eaee2f5bccdb46aaf0e486a595ed5fd8f86ba55232a70"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "hf-xet"
+version = "1.6.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c237ef4fb0ce1962a5117f8bd8c74454b41629826a9df17d14a1840ca18f0754"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "xet-client",
+ "xet-core-structures",
+ "xet-data",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "hmac"
 version = "0.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6c49c37c09c17a53d937dfbb742eb3a961d65a994e6bcdcf37e7399d0cc8ab5e"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "home"
-version = "0.5.12"
+name = "hmac"
+version = "0.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cc627f471c528ff0c4a49e1d5e60450c8f6461dd6d10ba9dcd3a61d3dff7728d"
+checksum = "6303bc9732ae41b04cb554b844a762b4115a61bfaa81e3e83050991eeb56863f"
 dependencies = [
- "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "htmlescape"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "hostname"
+version = "0.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e9025058dae765dee5070ec375f591e2ba14638c63feff74f13805a72e523163"
+checksum = "617aaa3557aef3810a6369d0a99fac8a080891b68bd9f9812a1eeda0c0730cbd"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "libc",
+ "windows-link",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "http"
@@ -3288,9 +3360,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "http"
-version = "1.4.0"
+version = "1.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3ba2a386d7f85a81f119ad7498ebe444d2e22c2af0b86b069416ace48b3311a"
+checksum = "6970f50e31d6fc17d3fa27329444bfa74e196cf62e95052a3f6fee181dba6425"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "itoa",
@@ -3314,7 +3386,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1efedce1fb8e6913f23e0c92de8e62cd5b772a67e7b3946df930a62566c93184"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3325,7 +3397,7 @@ checksum = "b021d93e26becf5dc7e1b75b1bed1fd93124b374ceb73f43d4d4eafec896a64a"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "futures-core",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "pin-project-lite",
 ]
@@ -3344,52 +3416,36 @@ checksum = "df3b46402a9d5adb4c86a0cf463f42e19994e3ee891101b1841f30a545cb49a9"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "humantime"
-version = "2.3.0"
+version = "2.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "135b12329e5e3ce057a9f972339ea52bc954fe1e9358ef27f95e89716fbc5424"
+checksum = "15cdd26707701c53297e2fa6afb323d55fbc1d0810c3aec078ae3ef0424c3c15"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "hyper"
-version = "0.14.32"
+name = "hybrid-array"
+version = "0.4.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "41dfc780fdec9373c01bae43289ea34c972e40ee3c9f6b3c8801a35f35586ce7"
+checksum = "9155a582abd142abc056962c29e3ce5ff2ad5469f4246b537ed42c5deba857da"
 dependencies = [
- "bytes",
- "futures-channel",
- "futures-core",
- "futures-util",
- "h2 0.3.27",
- "http 0.2.12",
- "http-body 0.4.6",
- "httparse",
- "httpdate",
- "itoa",
- "pin-project-lite",
- "socket2 0.5.10",
- "tokio",
- "tower-service",
- "tracing",
- "want",
+ "typenum",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hyper"
-version = "1.8.1"
+version = "1.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2ab2d4f250c3d7b1c9fcdff1cece94ea4e2dfbec68614f7b87cb205f24ca9d11"
+checksum = "55281c53a1894c864990125767da440a4e630446785086f52523b20033b74498"
 dependencies = [
  "atomic-waker",
  "bytes",
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
- "h2 0.4.13",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "h2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "httparse",
  "httpdate",
  "itoa",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "pin-utils",
  "smallvec",
  "tokio",
  "want",
@@ -3397,35 +3453,31 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hyper-rustls"
-version = "0.24.2"
+version = "0.27.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ec3efd23720e2049821a693cbc7e65ea87c72f1c58ff2f9522ff332b1491e590"
+checksum = "33ca68d021ef39cf6463ab54c1d0f5daf03377b70561305bb89a8f83aab66e0f"
 dependencies = [
- "futures-util",
- "http 0.2.12",
- "hyper 0.14.32",
- "log",
- "rustls 0.21.12",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-util",
+ "rustls",
+ "rustls-native-certs",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-rustls 0.24.1",
+ "tokio-rustls",
+ "tower-service",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "hyper-rustls"
-version = "0.27.7"
+name = "hyper-timeout"
+version = "0.5.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3c93eb611681b207e1fe55d5a71ecf91572ec8a6705cdb6857f7d8d5242cf58"
+checksum = "2b90d566bffbce6a75bd8b09a05aa8c2cb1fabb6cb348f8840c9e4c90a0d83b0"
 dependencies = [
- "http 1.4.0",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
+ "hyper",
  "hyper-util",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
- "rustls-native-certs",
- "rustls-pki-types",
+ "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-rustls 0.26.4",
  "tower-service",
- "webpki-roots",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3434,21 +3486,23 @@ version = "0.1.20"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "96547c2556ec9d12fb1578c4eaf448b04993e7fb79cbaad930a656880a6bdfa0"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "bytes",
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
+ "hyper",
  "ipnet",
  "libc",
  "percent-encoding",
  "pin-project-lite",
- "socket2 0.6.2",
+ "socket2",
+ "system-configuration",
  "tokio",
  "tower-service",
  "tracing",
+ "windows-registry",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3529,35 +3583,58 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_collections"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4c6b649701667bbe825c3b7e6388cb521c23d88644678e83c0c4d0a621a34b43"
+checksum = "2984d1cd16c883d7935b9e07e44071dca8d917fd52ecc02c04d5fa0b5a3f191c"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "potential_utf",
+ "utf8_iter",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_locale"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d5a396343c7208121dc86e35623d3dfe19814a7613cfd14964994cdc9c9a2e26"
+dependencies = [
+ "icu_collections",
+ "icu_locale_core",
+ "icu_locale_data",
+ "icu_provider",
+ "potential_utf",
+ "tinystr",
+ "zerovec",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_locale_core"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "edba7861004dd3714265b4db54a3c390e880ab658fec5f7db895fae2046b5bb6"
+checksum = "92219b62b3e2b4d88ac5119f8904c10f8f61bf7e95b640d25ba3075e6cac2c29"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "litemap",
+ "serde",
  "tinystr",
  "writeable",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_locale_data"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d5fdcc9ac77c6d74ff5cf6e65ef3181d6af32003b16fce3a77fb451d2f695993"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_normalizer"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5f6c8828b67bf8908d82127b2054ea1b4427ff0230ee9141c54251934ab1b599"
+checksum = "c56e5ee99d6e3d33bd91c5d85458b6005a22140021cc324cea84dd0e72cff3b4"
 dependencies = [
  "icu_collections",
  "icu_normalizer_data",
@@ -3569,15 +3646,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_normalizer_data"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7aedcccd01fc5fe81e6b489c15b247b8b0690feb23304303a9e560f37efc560a"
+checksum = "da3be0ae77ea334f4da67c12f149704f19f81d1adf7c51cf482943e84a2bad38"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_properties"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "020bfc02fe870ec3a66d93e677ccca0562506e5872c650f893269e08615d74ec"
+checksum = "bee3b67d0ea5c2cca5003417989af8996f8604e34fb9ddf96208a033901e70de"
 dependencies = [
  "icu_collections",
  "icu_locale_core",
@@ -3589,18 +3666,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_properties_data"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "616c294cf8d725c6afcd8f55abc17c56464ef6211f9ed59cccffe534129c77af"
+checksum = "8e2bbb201e0c04f7b4b3e14382af113e17ba4f63e2c9d2ee626b720cbce54a14"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "icu_provider"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "85962cf0ce02e1e0a629cc34e7ca3e373ce20dda4c4d7294bbd0bf1fdb59e614"
+checksum = "139c4cf31c8b5f33d7e199446eff9c1e02decfc2f0eec2c8d71f65befa45b421"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "icu_locale_core",
+ "serde",
+ "stable_deref_trait",
  "writeable",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
@@ -3608,6 +3687,27 @@ dependencies = [
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_segmenter"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "5c0794db0b1a86193ac9c48768d0e6c52c54448e0870ad87907d456ee0dac964"
+dependencies = [
+ "icu_collections",
+ "icu_locale",
+ "icu_provider",
+ "icu_segmenter_data",
+ "potential_utf",
+ "utf8_iter",
+ "zerovec",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "icu_segmenter_data"
+version = "2.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e4a2c462a4d927d512f5f882a033ddd62f33a05bb9f230d98f736ac3dc85938f"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "ident_case"
 version = "1.0.1"
@@ -3627,68 +3727,35 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "idna_adapter"
-version = "1.2.1"
+version = "1.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3acae9609540aa318d1bc588455225fb2085b9ed0c4f6bd0d9d5bcd86f1a0344"
+checksum = "cb68373c0d6620ef8105e855e7745e18b0d00d3bdb07fb532e434244cdb9a714"
 dependencies = [
  "icu_normalizer",
  "icu_properties",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "include-flate"
-version = "0.3.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e01b7cb6ca682a621e7cda1c358c9724b53a7b4409be9be1dd443b7f3a26f998"
-dependencies = [
- "include-flate-codegen",
- "include-flate-compress",
- "libflate",
- "zstd",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "include-flate-codegen"
-version = "0.3.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4f49bf5274aebe468d6e6eba14a977eaf1efa481dc173f361020de70c1c48050"
-dependencies = [
- "include-flate-compress",
- "libflate",
- "proc-macro-error",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
- "zstd",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "include-flate-compress"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "indexmap"
+version = "1.9.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eae6a40e716bcd5931f5dbb79cd921512a4f647e2e9413fded3171fca3824dbc"
+checksum = "bd070e393353796e801d209ad339e89596eb4c8d430d18ede6a1cced8fafbd99"
 dependencies = [
- "libflate",
- "zstd",
+ "autocfg",
+ "hashbrown 0.12.3",
+ "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "indexmap"
-version = "2.13.0"
+version = "2.14.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7714e70437a7dc3ac8eb7e6f8df75fd8eb422675fc7678aff7364301092b1017"
+checksum = "d466e9454f08e4a911e14806c24e16fba1b4c121d1ea474396f396069cf949d9"
 dependencies = [
  "equivalent",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "indoc"
-version = "2.0.7"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "79cf5c93f93228cf8efb3ba362535fb11199ac548a09ce117c9b1adc3030d706"
-dependencies = [
- "rustversion",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3708,20 +3775,21 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "8bb03732005da905c88227371639bf1ad885cc712789c011c31c5fb3ab3ccf02"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "ipnet"
-version = "2.11.0"
+name = "io-uring"
+version = "0.7.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "469fb0b9cefa57e3ef31275ee7cacb78f2fdca44e4765491884a2b119d4eb130"
+checksum = "9080b15e63775b9a2ac7dca720f7050a8b955e092ea0f6020a4a80f69998cdc0"
+dependencies = [
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "libc",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "iri-string"
-version = "0.7.10"
+name = "ipnet"
+version = "2.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c91338f0783edbd6195decb37bae672fd3b165faffb89bf7b9e6942f8b1a731a"
-dependencies = [
- "memchr",
- "serde",
-]
+checksum = "d98f6fed1fde3f8c21bc40a1abb88dd75e67924f9cffc3ef95607bad8017f8e2"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "is_terminal_polyfill"
@@ -3740,45 +3808,45 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "itertools"
-version = "0.13.0"
+version = "0.14.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "413ee7dfc52ee1a4949ceeb7dbc8a33f2d6c088194d9f922fb8318faf1f01186"
+checksum = "2b192c782037fadd9cfa75548310488aabdbf3d2da73885b31bd0abd03351285"
 dependencies = [
  "either",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "itertools"
-version = "0.14.0"
+version = "0.15.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2b192c782037fadd9cfa75548310488aabdbf3d2da73885b31bd0abd03351285"
+checksum = "8b4baf93f58d4425749ca49a51c50ebab072c5df6994d08fed93541c331481dc"
 dependencies = [
  "either",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "itoa"
-version = "1.0.17"
+version = "1.0.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "92ecc6618181def0457392ccd0ee51198e065e016d1d527a7ac1b6dc7c1f09d2"
+checksum = "8f42a60cbdf9a97f5d2305f08a87dc4e09308d1276d28c869c684d7777685682"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jieba-macros"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "348294e44ee7e3c42685da656490f8febc7359632544019621588902216da95c"
+checksum = "38fc0f3831de71556de69643b80a08a5c8cd260a23c6b8dbeb7cd923c779cac5"
 dependencies = [
  "phf_codegen",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jieba-rs"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.10.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "766bd7012aa5ba49411ebdf4e93bddd59b182d2918e085d58dec5bb9b54b7105"
+checksum = "bb5bdea4dc241d589e179f39d2a778f31490f3370aa2f626223dbd930ebc5c9d"
 dependencies = [
+ "bytecount",
  "cedarwood",
- "include-flate",
  "jieba-macros",
  "phf 0.13.1",
  "regex",
@@ -3787,35 +3855,37 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff"
-version = "0.2.19"
+version = "0.2.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d89a5b5e10d5a9ad6e5d1f4bd58225f655d6fe9767575a5e8ac5a6fe64e04495"
+checksum = "4603d3033e49e2b0e31229fcab20a5d40089c607d975cd9c80551dc69eed9102"
 dependencies = [
  "jiff-static",
  "jiff-tzdb-platform",
+ "js-sys",
  "log",
  "portable-atomic",
  "portable-atomic-util",
  "serde_core",
- "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "windows-link",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff-static"
-version = "0.2.19"
+version = "0.2.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ff7a39c8862fc1369215ccf0a8f12dd4598c7f6484704359f0351bd617034dbf"
+checksum = "782d32378dddf207193ac91cefb848ad41abb58195c95168e1291227a0832b47"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff-tzdb"
-version = "0.1.5"
+version = "0.1.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "68971ebff725b9e2ca27a601c5eb38a4c5d64422c4cbab0c535f248087eda5c2"
+checksum = "c900ef84826f1338a557697dc8fc601df9ca9af4ac137c7fb61d4c6f2dfd3076"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "jiff-tzdb-platform"
@@ -3827,58 +3897,93 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "jobserver"
-version = "0.1.34"
+name = "jni"
+version = "0.22.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9afb3de4395d6b3e67a780b6de64b51c978ecf11cb9a462c66be7d4ca9039d33"
+checksum = "5efd9a482cf3a427f00d6b35f14332adc7902ce91efb778580e180ff90fa3498"
 dependencies = [
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
- "libc",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "combine",
+ "jni-macros",
+ "jni-sys",
+ "log",
+ "simd_cesu8",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "walkdir",
+ "windows-link",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "js-sys"
-version = "0.3.85"
+name = "jni-macros"
+version = "0.22.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8c942ebf8e95485ca0d52d97da7c5a2c387d0e7f0ba4c35e93bfcaee045955b3"
+checksum = "a00109accc170f0bdb141fed3e393c565b6f5e072365c3bd58f5b062591560a3"
 dependencies = [
- "once_cell",
- "wasm-bindgen",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "rustc_version",
+ "simd_cesu8",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "jsonb"
-version = "0.5.5"
+name = "jni-sys"
+version = "0.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a901f06163d352fbe41c3c2ff5e08b75330a003cc941e988fb501022f5421e6"
+checksum = "c6377a88cb3910bee9b0fa88d4f42e1d2da8e79915598f65fb0c7ee14c878af2"
 dependencies = [
- "byteorder",
- "ethnum",
- "fast-float2",
- "itoa",
- "jiff",
- "nom 8.0.0",
- "num-traits",
- "ordered-float 5.1.0",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "ryu",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
+ "jni-sys-macros",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "jsonwebtoken"
-version = "9.3.1"
+name = "jni-sys-macros"
+version = "0.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5a87cc7a48537badeae96744432de36f4be2b4a34a05a5ef32e9dd8a1c169dde"
+checksum = "38c0b942f458fe50cdac086d2f946512305e5631e720728f2a61aabcd47a6264"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
- "js-sys",
- "pem",
- "ring",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jobserver"
+version = "0.1.34"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "9afb3de4395d6b3e67a780b6de64b51c978ecf11cb9a462c66be7d4ca9039d33"
+dependencies = [
+ "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "libc",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "js-sys"
+version = "0.3.102"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "03d04c30968dffe80775bd4d7fb676131cd04a1fb46d2686dbffbaec2d9dfd31"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "futures-util",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "jsonb"
+version = "0.5.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "eb98fb29636087c40ad0d1274d9a30c0c1e83e03ae93f6e7e89247b37fcc6953"
+dependencies = [
+ "byteorder",
+ "ethnum",
+ "fast-float2",
+ "itoa",
+ "jiff",
+ "nom",
+ "num-traits",
+ "ordered-float 5.3.0",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "simple_asn1",
+ "zmij",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -3890,14 +3995,33 @@ dependencies = [
  "bitflags 1.3.2",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "konst"
+version = "0.4.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f660d5f887e3562f9ab6f4a14988795b694099d66b4f5dedc02d197ba9becb1d"
+dependencies = [
+ "const_panic",
+ "konst_proc_macros",
+ "typewit",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "konst_proc_macros"
+version = "0.4.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e037a2e1d8d5fdbd49b16a4ea09d5d6401c1f29eca5ff29d03d3824dba16256a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lance"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-row",
@@ -3906,11 +4030,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
  "async_cell",
- "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-sdk-dynamodb",
+ "blake3",
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
+ "crossbeam-queue",
  "crossbeam-skiplist",
  "dashmap",
  "datafusion",
@@ -3918,37 +4043,40 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-functions",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-plan",
- "deepsize",
  "either",
+ "fst",
  "futures",
- "half",
  "humantime",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "lance-arrow",
+ "lance-bitpacking",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-datafusion",
  "lance-encoding",
  "lance-file",
- "lance-geo",
  "lance-index",
  "lance-io",
  "lance-linalg",
  "lance-namespace",
+ "lance-select",
  "lance-table",
+ "lance-tokenizer",
  "log",
  "moka",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "permutation",
  "pin-project",
  "prost",
+ "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rayon",
  "roaring",
+ "rustc-hash",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "snafu",
- "tantivy",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-stream",
  "tokio-util",
@@ -3959,76 +4087,102 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-arrow"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
+ "bytemuck",
  "bytes",
+ "futures",
  "getrandom 0.2.17",
  "half",
  "jsonb",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-arrow-scalar"
+version = "58.0.0"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
+ "arrow-data",
+ "arrow-row",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "half",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-arrow-stats"
+version = "58.0.0"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "lance-arrow-scalar",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-bitpacking"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrayref",
+ "crunchy",
  "paste",
  "seq-macro",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-core"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-data",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
- "byteorder",
+ "blake3",
  "bytes",
- "chrono",
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-sql",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
  "lance-arrow",
+ "lance-derive",
  "libc",
+ "libm",
  "log",
- "mock_instant",
  "moka",
  "num_cpus",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "pin-project",
  "prost",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "quick_cache",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "roaring",
  "serde_json",
  "snafu",
  "tempfile",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-stream",
  "tokio-util",
  "tracing",
+ "twox-hash",
  "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-datafusion"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
@@ -4040,22 +4194,22 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
  "datafusion-substrait",
  "futures",
+ "half",
  "jsonb",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
- "lance-datagen",
  "lance-geo",
  "log",
  "pin-project",
  "prost",
- "snafu",
+ "prost-build",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-datagen"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -4065,15 +4219,23 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "half",
  "hex",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "rand_distr 0.5.1",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rand_distr",
  "rand_xoshiro",
- "random_word",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-derive"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-encoding"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -4089,7 +4251,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures",
  "hex",
  "hyperloglogplus",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-bitpacking",
  "lance-core",
@@ -4098,10 +4260,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
- "prost-types",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "snafu",
- "strum 0.26.3",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
  "xxhash-rust",
@@ -4110,11 +4268,12 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-file"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-data",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
@@ -4123,7 +4282,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "datafusion-common",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
@@ -4131,18 +4289,18 @@ dependencies = [
  "lance-io",
  "log",
  "num-traits",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
- "snafu",
+ "serde",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-geo"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "datafusion",
  "geo-traits",
@@ -4156,18 +4314,19 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-index"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-ord",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
  "async-channel",
  "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
- "bitpacking",
  "bitvec",
  "bytes",
  "crossbeam-queue",
@@ -4175,8 +4334,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "datafusion-common",
  "datafusion-expr",
  "datafusion-physical-expr",
- "datafusion-sql",
- "deepsize",
  "dirs",
  "fst",
  "futures",
@@ -4184,160 +4341,207 @@ dependencies = [
  "geoarrow-array",
  "geoarrow-schema",
  "half",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "hex",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
  "jieba-rs",
  "jsonb",
  "lance-arrow",
+ "lance-arrow-stats",
+ "lance-bitpacking",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-datafusion",
- "lance-datagen",
  "lance-encoding",
  "lance-file",
  "lance-geo",
+ "lance-index-core",
  "lance-io",
  "lance-linalg",
+ "lance-select",
  "lance-table",
- "libm",
- "lindera",
- "lindera-tantivy",
+ "lance-tokenizer",
+ "libsais-rs",
  "log",
  "ndarray",
  "num-traits",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "rand_distr 0.5.1",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rand_distr",
  "rangemap",
  "rayon",
+ "regex-syntax",
  "roaring",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "smallvec",
- "snafu",
- "tantivy",
  "tempfile",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
  "twox-hash",
- "uuid",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-index-core"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "arrow-select",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "datafusion",
+ "datafusion-common",
+ "datafusion-expr",
+ "futures",
+ "lance-core",
+ "lance-io",
+ "lance-select",
+ "prost-types",
+ "roaring",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-io"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
- "arrow-arith",
  "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
  "arrow-schema",
- "arrow-select",
- "async-recursion",
  "async-trait",
  "aws-config",
  "aws-credential-types",
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
- "lance-arrow",
+ "goosefs-sdk",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "io-uring",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-namespace",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "metrics",
+ "moka",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "object_store_opendal",
  "opendal",
+ "opendal-service-goosefs",
  "path_abs",
  "pin-project",
  "prost",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+ "reqsign-google",
  "serde",
- "shellexpand",
- "snafu",
+ "serde_json",
+ "tempfile",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
  "url",
+ "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-linalg"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
  "arrow-schema",
  "cc",
- "deepsize",
  "half",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rayon",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "async-trait",
  "bytes",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-namespace-reqwest-client",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
  "snafu",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace-impls"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
+ "arc-swap",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
  "axum",
  "bytes",
- "chrono",
+ "datafusion-common",
+ "datafusion-physical-plan",
  "futures",
  "lance",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-index",
  "lance-io",
+ "lance-linalg",
  "lance-namespace",
+ "lance-table",
  "log",
- "object_store",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "reqwest",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
+ "roaring",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "snafu",
  "tokio",
  "tower",
  "tower-http 0.5.2",
  "url",
+ "uuid",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-namespace-reqwest-client"
-version = "0.4.5"
+version = "0.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a2acdba67f84190067532fce07b51a435dd390d7cdc1129a05003e5cb3274cf0"
+checksum = "828f291764feda98898452bea4ce3756b73e5d5c7c67b62edda27456b7cc72c1"
 dependencies = [
- "reqwest",
+ "reqwest 0.12.28",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_repr",
+ "serde_with",
  "url",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-select"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-buffer",
+ "arrow-schema",
+ "byteorder",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "lance-core",
+ "roaring",
+ "tracing",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lance-table"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
  "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
@@ -4347,21 +4551,22 @@ dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "aws-credential-types",
  "aws-sdk-dynamodb",
+ "blake3",
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
- "deepsize",
  "futures",
  "lance-arrow",
  "lance-core",
  "lance-file",
  "lance-io",
+ "lance-select",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "prost",
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
  "rangemap",
  "roaring",
  "semver",
@@ -4374,21 +4579,28 @@ dependencies = [
  "uuid",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "lance-tokenizer"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+dependencies = [
+ "frostem",
+ "icu_segmenter",
+ "jieba-rs",
+ "lindera",
+ "serde",
+ "stop-words",
+ "unicode-normalization",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lazy_static"
 version = "1.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "bbd2bcb4c963f2ddae06a2efc7e9f3591312473c50c6685e1f298068316e66fe"
 dependencies = [
- "spin",
+ "spin 0.9.9",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "levenshtein_automata"
-version = "0.2.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0c2cdeb66e45e9f36bfad5bbdb4d2384e70936afbee843c6f6543f0c551ebb25"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "lexical-core"
 version = "1.0.6"
@@ -4446,50 +4658,20 @@ dependencies = [
  "lexical-util",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "libbz2-rs-sys"
-version = "0.2.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2c4a545a15244c7d945065b5d392b2d2d7f21526fba56ce51467b06ed445e8f7"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "libc"
-version = "0.2.180"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bcc35a38544a891a5f7c865aca548a982ccb3b8650a5b06d0fd33a10283c56fc"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "libflate"
-version = "2.2.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3248b8d211bd23a104a42d81b4fa8bb8ac4a3b75e7a43d85d2c9ccb6179cd74"
-dependencies = [
- "adler32",
- "core2",
- "crc32fast",
- "dary_heap",
- "libflate_lz77",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "libflate_lz77"
-version = "2.2.0"
+version = "0.2.189"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a599cb10a9cd92b1300debcef28da8f70b935ec937f44fcd1b70a7c986a11c5c"
-dependencies = [
- "core2",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
- "rle-decode-fast",
-]
+checksum = "3eaf3ede3fee6db1a4c2ee091bf8a8b4dccdc6d17f656fb07896ee72867612f2"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libloading"
-version = "0.7.4"
+version = "0.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b67380fd3b2fbe7527a606e18729d21c6f3951633d0500574c4dc22d2d638b9f"
+checksum = "754ca22de805bb5744484a5b151a9e1a8e837d5dc232c2d7d8c2e3492edc8b60"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "winapi",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "windows-link",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4500,167 +4682,99 @@ checksum = "b6d2cec3eae94f9f509c767b45932f1ada8350c4bdb85af2fcab4a3c14807981"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libredox"
-version = "0.1.12"
+version = "0.1.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3d0b95e02c851351f877147b7deea7b1afb1df71b63aa5f8270716e0c5720616"
+checksum = "f02ab6bace2054fb888a3c16f990117b579d14a3088e472d63c6011fa185c9d3"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
  "libc",
- "redox_syscall 0.7.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "libsais-rs"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "40fe164dbd47ea0c20e78a121c980ef673326905f1d4fba55e3645a20ef6717f"
+dependencies = [
+ "rayon",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lindera"
-version = "0.44.1"
+version = "3.0.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "50aba4ef41052280722f2120f65606b9218e8718032a3c752b953c4d8091f02e"
+checksum = "74cda79d7161e99b414e4d292ff673cc3f8d22f070d8be3b6185c033363a9216"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
- "bincode",
  "byteorder",
  "csv",
+ "daachorse",
  "kanaria",
- "lindera-cc-cedict",
  "lindera-dictionary",
- "lindera-ipadic",
- "lindera-ipadic-neologd",
- "lindera-ko-dic",
- "lindera-unidic",
+ "log",
  "once_cell",
+ "percent-encoding",
  "regex",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "serde_yaml",
- "strum 0.27.2",
- "strum_macros 0.27.2",
+ "serde_yaml_ng",
+ "strum",
+ "strum_macros",
  "unicode-blocks",
  "unicode-normalization",
  "unicode-segmentation",
- "yada",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "lindera-cc-cedict"
-version = "0.44.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5d77e7a0830fd60f23828ad914439997288c1d2cdd9e269be67f967c27b56350"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
+ "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lindera-dictionary"
-version = "0.44.1"
+version = "3.0.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "489cc70922782af3fd397c0e130846caefe1c15b27c2211aac8f88a9f4590aaf"
+checksum = "e2385456ca9fe87c29072c5f156b52fdd5e28d5b5738ddfb3979501dbd736530"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
- "bincode",
  "byteorder",
  "csv",
+ "daachorse",
  "derive_builder",
- "encoding",
  "encoding_rs",
  "encoding_rs_io",
- "flate2",
  "glob",
  "log",
- "md5",
  "memmap2",
+ "num_cpus",
  "once_cell",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "reqwest",
+ "regex",
+ "rkyv",
  "serde",
- "tar",
+ "serde_json",
+ "strum",
+ "strum_macros",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
- "tokio",
- "yada",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lindera-ipadic"
-version = "0.44.1"
+name = "link-section"
+version = "0.18.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "78870521431dfaf0f94ddd3484fa08367e9d354fc8c708572f2f00007225ddfa"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
-]
+checksum = "c2b1dd6fe32e55c0fc0ea9493aa57459ca3cf4ff3c857c7d0302290150da6e4f"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lindera-ipadic-neologd"
-version = "0.44.1"
+name = "linktime-proc-macro"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "abcb3dc3056e5c683e12c2c5e8d40076f7ecfd7bd46f5fc0e4ae9e58152b5d85"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
-]
+checksum = "8c7b0a3383c2a1002d11349c92c85a666a5fb679e96c79d782cf0dbe557fd6ee"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lindera-ko-dic"
-version = "0.44.1"
+name = "linux-raw-sys"
+version = "0.12.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e99316158bab14f0256d912055521ca784f76c63e7460db8a74775c5dc1f8bc2"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-version = "0.44.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6d0d17afa51b4f4cd2f3e50d4c0845800f3a774ed7f706612fbd91eba0c84b41"
-dependencies = [
- "lindera",
- "tantivy",
- "tantivy-tokenizer-api",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "lindera-unidic"
-version = "0.44.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "52672945166c14276bbba25e4ec79d7e126db1b503c0a6aa07ffc0141ae15cfa"
-dependencies = [
- "bincode",
- "byteorder",
- "lindera-dictionary",
- "once_cell",
- "tokio",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "linux-raw-sys"
-version = "0.4.15"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d26c52dbd32dccf2d10cac7725f8eae5296885fb5703b261f7d0a0739ec807ab"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "linux-raw-sys"
-version = "0.11.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "df1d3c3b53da64cf5760482273a98e575c651a67eec7f77df96b5b642de8f039"
+checksum = "32a66949e030da00e8c7d4434b251670a91556f4144941d37452769c25d58a53"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "litemap"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6373607a59f0be73a39b6fe456b8192fcc3585f602af20751600e974dd455e77"
+checksum = "92daf443525c4cce67b150400bc2316076100ce0b3686209eb8cf3c31612e6f0"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lock_api"
@@ -4673,9 +4787,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "log"
-version = "0.4.29"
+version = "0.4.33"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5e5032e24019045c762d3c0f28f5b6b8bbf38563a65908389bf7978758920897"
+checksum = "0ceec5bc11778974d1bcb055b18002eba7f4b3518b6a0081b3af5f21666da9ad"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "loom"
@@ -4683,7 +4797,7 @@ version = "0.7.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "419e0dc8046cb947daa77eb95ae174acfbddb7673b4151f56d1eed8e93fbfaca"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "generator",
  "scoped-tls",
  "tracing",
@@ -4692,11 +4806,11 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lru"
-version = "0.12.5"
+version = "0.16.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "234cf4f4a04dc1f57e24b96cc0cd600cf2af460d4161ac5ecdd0af8e1f3b2a38"
+checksum = "7f66e8d5d03f609abc3a39e6f08e4164ebf1447a732906d39eb9b99b7919ef39"
 dependencies = [
- "hashbrown 0.15.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4726,30 +4840,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lz4_flex"
-version = "0.11.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "08ab2867e3eeeca90e844d1940eab391c9dc5228783db2ed999acbc0a9ed375a"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "lz4_flex"
-version = "0.12.0"
+version = "0.13.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ab6473172471198271ff72e9379150e9dfd70d8e533e0752a27e515b48dd375e"
+checksum = "7ef0d4ed8669f8f8826eb00dc878084aa8f253506c4fd5e8f58f5bce72ddb97e"
 dependencies = [
  "twox-hash",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "lzma-sys"
-version = "0.1.20"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5fda04ab3764e6cde78b9974eec4f779acaba7c4e84b36eca3cf77c581b85d27"
-dependencies = [
- "cc",
- "libc",
- "pkg-config",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "matchers"
 version = "0.2.0"
@@ -4780,40 +4877,34 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "md-5"
-version = "0.10.6"
+version = "0.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d89e7ee0cfbedfc4da3340218492196241d89eefb6dab27de5df917a6d2e78cf"
+checksum = "69b6441f590336821bb897fb28fc622898ccceb1d6cea3fde5ea86b090c4de98"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "digest",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "md5"
-version = "0.8.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ae960838283323069879657ca3de837e9f7bbb4c7bf6ea7f1b290d5e9476d2e0"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "measure_time"
-version = "0.9.0"
+name = "mea"
+version = "0.6.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "51c55d61e72fc3ab704396c5fa16f4c184db37978ae4e94ca8959693a235fc0e"
+checksum = "2640d335e7273dacdcf51044026139b2e269c3bb0dfc3f8cb3496b85e3f6a42c"
 dependencies = [
- "log",
+ "slab",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "memchr"
-version = "2.7.6"
+version = "2.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f52b00d39961fc5b2736ea853c9cc86238e165017a493d1d5c8eac6bdc4cc273"
+checksum = "88904434abc2901f197fe8cc55f0445e7ded921dba5911dad2e2b39b48e663c4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "memmap2"
-version = "0.9.9"
+version = "0.9.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "744133e4a0e0a658e1374cf3bf8e415c4052a15a111acd372764c55b4177d490"
+checksum = "d1219ed1b7f229ee7104d281dd01d6802fe28bb6e95d292942c4daacdeb798c0"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
 ]
@@ -4827,6 +4918,36 @@ dependencies = [
  "autocfg",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "metrics"
+version = "0.24.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "89550ee9f79e88fef3119de263694973a8adb26c21d75322164fb8c493039fe2"
+dependencies = [
+ "portable-atomic",
+ "rapidhash",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "metrics-util"
+version = "0.19.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b8496cc523d1f94c1385dd8f0f0c2c480b2b8aeccb5b7e4485ad6365523ae376"
+dependencies = [
+ "aho-corasick",
+ "crossbeam-epoch",
+ "crossbeam-utils",
+ "hashbrown 0.15.5",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "metrics",
+ "ordered-float 4.6.0",
+ "quanta",
+ "radix_trie",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
+ "rand_xoshiro",
+ "sketches-ddsketch",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "mime"
 version = "0.3.17"
@@ -4843,12 +4964,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "unicase",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "minimal-lexical"
-version = "0.2.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "68354c5c6bd36d73ff3feceb05efa59b6acb7626617f4962be322a825e61f79a"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "miniz_oxide"
 version = "0.8.9"
@@ -4861,26 +4976,30 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "mio"
-version = "1.1.1"
+version = "1.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a69bcab0ad47271a0234d9422b131806bf3968021e5dc9328caf2d4cd58557fc"
+checksum = "02bd0af71c67b473010cbbc60715ee815645a4dc942899111f494b4b737d6fda"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
- "wasi",
+ "wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "mock_instant"
-version = "0.6.0"
+name = "mixtrics"
+version = "0.2.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dce6dd36094cac388f119d2e9dc82dc730ef91c32a6222170d630e5414b956e6"
+checksum = "2c46b5adfb7a3ae4996d327a5bdc90e78fec025806dd312bdbe6f07a755e0ec9"
+dependencies = [
+ "itertools 0.15.0",
+ "parking_lot",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "moka"
-version = "0.12.13"
+version = "0.12.15"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b4ac832c50ced444ef6be0767a008b02c106a909ba79d1d830501e94b96f6b7e"
+checksum = "957228ad12042ee839f93c8f257b62b4c0ab5eaae1d4fa60de53b27c9d7c5046"
 dependencies = [
  "async-lock",
  "crossbeam-channel",
@@ -4896,6 +5015,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "uuid",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "more-asserts"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1fafa6961cabd9c63bcd77a45d7e3b7f3b552b70417831fb0f56db717e72407e"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "multimap"
 version = "0.10.1"
@@ -4903,10 +5028,24 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1d87ecb2933e8aeadb3e3a02b828fed80a7528047e68b4f424523a0981a3a084"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "murmurhash32"
-version = "0.3.1"
+name = "munge"
+version = "0.4.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "5e17401f259eba956ca16491461b6e8f72913a0a114e39736ce404410f915a0c"
+dependencies = [
+ "munge_macro",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "munge_macro"
+version = "0.4.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2195bf6aa996a481483b29d62a7663eed3fe39600c460e323f8ff41e90bdd89b"
+checksum = "4568f25ccbd45ab5d5603dc34318c1ec56b117531781260002151b8530a9f931"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ndarray"
@@ -4924,13 +5063,24 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "nom"
-version = "7.1.3"
+name = "nibble_vec"
+version = "0.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d273983c5a657a70a3e8f2a01329822f3b8c8172b73826411a55751e404a0a4a"
+checksum = "77a5d83df9f36fe23f0c3648c6bbb8b0298bb5f1939c8f2704431371f4b84d43"
 dependencies = [
- "memchr",
- "minimal-lexical",
+ "smallvec",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "nix"
+version = "0.31.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "cf20d2fde8ff38632c426f1165ed7436270b44f199fc55284c38276f9db47c3d"
+dependencies = [
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cfg_aliases",
+ "libc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4942,6 +5092,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "ntapi"
+version = "0.4.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c3b335231dfd352ffb0f8017f3b6027a4917f7df785ea2143d8af2adc66980ae"
+dependencies = [
+ "winapi",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "nu-ansi-term"
 version = "0.50.3"
@@ -4972,7 +5131,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "num-integer",
  "num-iter",
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.8.5",
+ "rand 0.8.6",
  "smallvec",
  "zeroize",
 ]
@@ -4988,9 +5147,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num-conv"
-version = "0.2.0"
+version = "0.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cf97ec579c3c42f953ef76dbf8d55ac91fb219dde70e49aa4a6b7d74e9919050"
+checksum = "521739c6d2bac4aa25192232afe6841231376b2b26d4d9fae5ecf8ca5772e441"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num-integer"
@@ -5034,9 +5193,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num_enum"
-version = "0.7.5"
+version = "0.7.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b1207a7e20ad57b847bbddc6776b968420d38292bbfe2089accff5e19e82454c"
+checksum = "5d0bca838442ec211fa11de3a8b0e0e8f3a4522575b5c4c06ed722e005036f26"
 dependencies = [
  "num_enum_derive",
  "rustversion",
@@ -5044,51 +5203,100 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num_enum_derive"
-version = "0.7.5"
+version = "0.7.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ff32365de1b6743cb203b710788263c44a03de03802daf96092f2da4fe6ba4d7"
+checksum = "680998035259dcfcafe653688bf2aa6d3e2dc05e98be6ab46afb089dc84f1df8"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro-crate",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "object"
-version = "0.37.3"
+name = "objc2-core-foundation"
+version = "0.3.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ff76201f031d8863c38aa7f905eca4f53abbfa15f609db4277d44cd8938f33fe"
+checksum = "2a180dd8642fa45cdb7dd721cd4c11b1cadd4929ce112ebd8b9f5803cc79d536"
 dependencies = [
- "memchr",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "objc2-io-kit"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "33fafba39597d6dc1fb709123dfa8289d39406734be322956a69f0931c73bb15"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+ "objc2-core-foundation",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "objc2-system-configuration"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7216bd11cbda54ccabcab84d523dc93b858ec75ecfb3a7d89513fa22464da396"
+dependencies = [
+ "objc2-core-foundation",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "object_store"
-version = "0.12.5"
+version = "0.13.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "622acbc9100d3c10e2ee15804b0caa40e55c933d5aa53814cd520805b7958a49"
+dependencies = [
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "chrono",
+ "futures-channel",
+ "futures-core",
+ "futures-util",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "humantime",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "parking_lot",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tracing",
+ "url",
+ "walkdir",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "web-time",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "object_store"
+version = "0.14.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fbfbfff40aeccab00ec8a910b57ca8ecf4319b335c542f2edcd19dd25a1e2a00"
+checksum = "d354792e39fa5f0009e47623cf8b15b099bf9a652fa55c6f817fe28ac84fea50"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
- "base64",
+ "aws-lc-rs",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
+ "crc-fast",
  "form_urlencoded",
- "futures",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "futures-channel",
+ "futures-core",
+ "futures-util",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body-util",
  "httparse",
  "humantime",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "hyper",
+ "itertools 0.15.0",
  "md-5",
+ "nix",
  "parking_lot",
  "percent-encoding",
- "quick-xml 0.38.4",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "reqwest",
- "ring",
- "rustls-pemfile",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "rustls-pki-types",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_urlencoded",
@@ -5099,19 +5307,21 @@ dependencies = [
  "walkdir",
  "wasm-bindgen-futures",
  "web-time",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "object_store_opendal"
-version = "0.55.0"
+version = "0.60.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "113ab0769e972eee585e57407b98de08bda5354fa28e8ba4d89038d6cb6a8991"
+checksum = "c479bcc317f0ed98972b7184e0f9cc1bea83a07f60cdade96d7207a48ebfb779"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
+ "asyncband",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "futures",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "opendal",
  "pin-project",
  "tokio",
@@ -5119,9 +5329,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "once_cell"
-version = "1.21.3"
+version = "1.21.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "42f5e15c9953c5e4ccceeb2e7382a716482c34515315f7b03532b8b4e8393d2d"
+checksum = "9f7c3e4beb33f85d45ae3e3a1792185706c8e16d043238c593331cc7cd313b50"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "once_cell_polyfill"
@@ -5137,145 +5347,407 @@ checksum = "269bca4c2591a28585d6bf10d9ed0332b7d76900a1b02bec41bdc3a2cdcda107"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "opendal"
-version = "0.55.0"
+version = "0.59.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "9fe43e16d96bed57937eb7c4a28559bf4c5fc4a3951656505d1fdd4f856349b4"
+dependencies = [
+ "ctor",
+ "opendal-core",
+ "opendal-http-transport-reqwest",
+ "opendal-layer-concurrent-limit",
+ "opendal-layer-logging",
+ "opendal-layer-retry",
+ "opendal-layer-timeout",
+ "opendal-service-azblob",
+ "opendal-service-azdls",
+ "opendal-service-cos",
+ "opendal-service-gcs",
+ "opendal-service-goosefs",
+ "opendal-service-hf",
+ "opendal-service-oss",
+ "opendal-service-s3",
+ "opendal-service-tos",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "opendal-core"
+version = "0.59.2"
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 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
- "arrow-array",
+ "asyncband",
+ "bytes",
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+
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+ "memchr",
+]
+
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+
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+
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+checksum = "93857453250e3077bd71ff98b6a65ea6621a19bb0f559a85248955ac12c45a1a"
+dependencies = [
+ "lock_api",
+ "parking_lot_core",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "parking_lot_core"
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+checksum = "2621685985a2ebf1c516881c026032ac7deafcda1a2c9b7850dc81e3dfcb64c1"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "libc",
+ "redox_syscall",
+ "smallvec",
+ "windows-link",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "parquet"
+version = "58.4.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d298093b2dec60289dce0684c986d0f7679e9dd15771c2c65406e1aaf604a704"
+dependencies = [
+ "ahash",
+ "arrow-array",
  "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-data",
  "arrow-ipc",
  "arrow-schema",
  "arrow-select",
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "brotli",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
  "flate2",
  "futures",
  "half",
- "hashbrown 0.16.1",
- "lz4_flex 0.12.0",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "lz4_flex",
  "num-bigint",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
- "object_store",
+ "object_store 0.13.2",
  "paste",
  "seq-macro",
  "simdutf8",
@@ -5310,7 +5782,7 @@ version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "898bac3fa00d0ba57a4e8289837e965baa2dee8c3749f3b11d45a64b4223d9c3"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "serde",
 ]
 
@@ -5347,8 +5819,8 @@ version = "0.12.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f8ed6a7761f76e3b9f92dfb0a60a6a6477c61024b775147ff0973a02653abaf2"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
- "hmac",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
+ "hmac 0.12.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -5357,7 +5829,7 @@ version = "3.0.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1d30c53c26bc5b31a98cd02d20f25a7c8567146caf63ed593a9d87b2775291be"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "serde_core",
 ]
 
@@ -5390,7 +5862,7 @@ checksum = "8701b58ea97060d5e5b155d383a69952a60943f0e6dfe30b04c287beb0b27455"
 dependencies = [
  "fixedbitset",
  "hashbrown 0.15.5",
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "serde",
 ]
 
@@ -5453,29 +5925,29 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project"
-version = "1.1.10"
+version = "1.1.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "677f1add503faace112b9f1373e43e9e054bfdd22ff1a63c1bc485eaec6a6a8a"
+checksum = "2466b2336ed02bcdca6b294417127b90ec92038d1d5c4fbeac971a922e0e0924"
 dependencies = [
  "pin-project-internal",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project-internal"
-version = "1.1.10"
+version = "1.1.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6e918e4ff8c4549eb882f14b3a4bc8c8bc93de829416eacf579f1207a8fbf861"
+checksum = "c96395f0a926bc13b1c17622aaddda1ecb55d49c8f1bf9777e4d877800a43f8b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project-lite"
-version = "0.2.16"
+version = "0.2.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3b3cff922bd51709b605d9ead9aa71031d81447142d828eb4a6eba76fe619f9b"
+checksum = "a89322df9ebe1c1578d689c92318e070967d1042b512afbe49518723f4e6d5cd"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-utils"
@@ -5505,7 +5977,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "der",
  "pbkdf2",
  "scrypt",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "spki",
 ]
 
@@ -5523,9 +5995,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pkg-config"
-version = "0.3.32"
+version = "0.3.33"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7edddbd0b52d732b21ad9a5fab5c704c14cd949e5e9a1ec5929a24fded1b904c"
+checksum = "19f132c84eca552bf34cab8ec81f1c1dcc229b811638f9d283dceabe58c5569e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "portable-atomic"
@@ -5535,19 +6007,21 @@ checksum = "c33a9471896f1c69cecef8d20cbe2f7accd12527ce60845ff44c153bb2a21b49"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "portable-atomic-util"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7a9db96d7fa8782dd8c15ce32ffe8680bbd1e978a43bf51a34d39483540495f5"
+checksum = "c2a106d1259c23fac8e543272398ae0e3c0b8d33c88ed73d0cc71b0f1d902618"
 dependencies = [
  "portable-atomic",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "potential_utf"
-version = "0.1.4"
+version = "0.1.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b73949432f5e2a09657003c25bca5e19a0e9c84f8058ca374f49e0ebe605af77"
+checksum = "0103b1cef7ec0cf76490e969665504990193874ea05c85ff9bab8b911d0a0564"
 dependencies = [
+ "serde_core",
+ "writeable",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
@@ -5573,42 +6047,18 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "479ca8adacdd7ce8f1fb39ce9ecccbfe93a3f1344b3d0d97f20bc0196208f62b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "proc-macro-crate"
-version = "3.4.0"
+version = "3.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "219cb19e96be00ab2e37d6e299658a0cfa83e52429179969b0f0121b4ac46983"
+checksum = "e67ba7e9b2b56446f1d419b1d807906278ffa1a658a8a5d8a39dcb1f5a78614f"
 dependencies = [
  "toml_edit",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "proc-macro-error"
-version = "1.0.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "da25490ff9892aab3fcf7c36f08cfb902dd3e71ca0f9f9517bea02a73a5ce38c"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro-error-attr",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
- "version_check",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "proc-macro-error-attr"
-version = "1.0.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a1be40180e52ecc98ad80b184934baf3d0d29f979574e439af5a55274b35f869"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "version_check",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "proc-macro2"
 version = "1.0.106"
@@ -5620,9 +6070,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d2ea70524a2f82d518bce41317d0fae74151505651af45faf1ffbd6fd33f0568"
+checksum = "528ac67416ff8646872a3c02cad9cc4ee5dc9f9540c9b10771855c95cb2e5ae1"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "prost-derive",
@@ -5630,9 +6080,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost-build"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "343d3bd7056eda839b03204e68deff7d1b13aba7af2b2fd16890697274262ee7"
+checksum = "03da047801ff44bb6a4d407d4860c05fd70bb81714e6b2f3812603d5b145b042"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
@@ -5643,48 +6093,60 @@ dependencies = [
  "prost",
  "prost-types",
  "regex",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "tempfile",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost-derive"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "27c6023962132f4b30eb4c172c91ce92d933da334c59c23cddee82358ddafb0b"
+checksum = "b570b25f7617e43d59005d0990ccb79e950a423952cea19671b7a876da390adf"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
  "itertools 0.14.0",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "prost-types"
-version = "0.14.3"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8991c4cbdb8bc5b11f0b074ffe286c30e523de90fee5ba8132f1399f23cb3dd7"
+checksum = "f94967dc7688f3054c7fac87473ffae4cc4c3904800e2d9f5b857246d8963b0a"
 dependencies = [
  "prost",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "psm"
-version = "0.1.29"
+name = "ptr_meta"
+version = "0.3.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1fa96cb91275ed31d6da3e983447320c4eb219ac180fa1679a0889ff32861e2d"
+checksum = "0b9a0cf95a1196af61d4f1cbdab967179516d9a4a4312af1f31948f8f6224a79"
 dependencies = [
- "ar_archive_writer",
- "cc",
+ "ptr_meta_derive",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ptr_meta_derive"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7347867d0a7e1208d93b46767be83e2b8f978c3dad35f775ac8d8847551d6fe1"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pylance"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
 dependencies = [
+ "alloc-stdlib",
  "arrow",
  "arrow-array",
+ "arrow-cast",
  "arrow-data",
  "arrow-schema",
  "async-trait",
@@ -5711,17 +6173,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "lance-table",
  "libc",
  "log",
- "object_store",
+ "metrics",
+ "metrics-util",
+ "object_store 0.14.1",
  "prost",
  "prost-types",
  "pyo3",
  "pythonize",
- "regex",
  "roaring",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_yaml",
- "snafu",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
  "tracing-chrome",
@@ -5732,36 +6194,33 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pyo3"
-version = "0.26.0"
+version = "0.28.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7ba0117f4212101ee6544044dae45abe1083d30ce7b29c4b5cbdfa2354e07383"
+checksum = "91fd8e38a3b50ed1167fb981cd6fd60147e091784c427b8f7183a7ee32c31c12"
 dependencies = [
  "chrono",
- "indoc",
  "libc",
- "memoffset",
  "once_cell",
  "portable-atomic",
  "pyo3-build-config",
  "pyo3-ffi",
  "pyo3-macros",
- "unindent",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pyo3-build-config"
-version = "0.26.0"
+version = "0.28.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4fc6ddaf24947d12a9aa31ac65431fb1b851b8f4365426e182901eabfb87df5f"
+checksum = "e368e7ddfdeb98c9bca7f8383be1648fd84ab466bf2bc015e94008db6d35611e"
 dependencies = [
  "target-lexicon",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pyo3-ffi"
-version = "0.26.0"
+version = "0.28.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "025474d3928738efb38ac36d4744a74a400c901c7596199e20e45d98eb194105"
+checksum = "7f29e10af80b1f7ccaf7f69eace800a03ecd13e883acfacc1e5d0988605f651e"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
  "pyo3-build-config",
@@ -5769,59 +6228,76 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pyo3-macros"
-version = "0.26.0"
+version = "0.28.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2e64eb489f22fe1c95911b77c44cc41e7c19f3082fc81cce90f657cdc42ffded"
+checksum = "df6e520eff47c45997d2fc7dd8214b25dd1310918bbb2642156ef66a67f29813"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "pyo3-macros-backend",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pyo3-macros-backend"
-version = "0.26.0"
+version = "0.28.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "100246c0ecf400b475341b8455a9213344569af29a3c841d29270e53102e0fcf"
+checksum = "c4cdc218d835738f81c2338f822078af45b4afdf8b2e33cbb5916f108b813acb"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "proc-macro2",
  "pyo3-build-config",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pythonize"
-version = "0.26.0"
+version = "0.28.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "11e06e4cff9be2bbf2bddf28a486ae619172ea57e79787f856572878c62dcfe2"
+checksum = "0b79f670c9626c8b651c0581011b57b6ba6970bb69faf01a7c4c0cfc81c43f95"
 dependencies = [
  "pyo3",
  "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "quick-xml"
-version = "0.37.5"
+name = "quanta"
+version = "0.12.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "331e97a1af0bf59823e6eadffe373d7b27f485be8748f71471c662c1f269b7fb"
+checksum = "f3ab5a9d756f0d97bdc89019bd2e4ea098cf9cde50ee7564dde6b81ccc8f06c7"
 dependencies = [
- "memchr",
- "serde",
+ "crossbeam-utils",
+ "libc",
+ "once_cell",
+ "raw-cpuid",
+ "wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1",
+ "web-sys",
+ "winapi",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quick-xml"
-version = "0.38.4"
+version = "0.41.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b66c2058c55a409d601666cffe35f04333cf1013010882cec174a7467cd4e21c"
+checksum = "e660451e55124f798a69a5af3f49ccfbefbd41910eefd25caf2393e1f3473ec1"
 dependencies = [
  "memchr",
  "serde",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "quick_cache"
+version = "0.6.24"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b9c6658afe513a3b484e3abfdaa0d03ef3c0bbf017542c178dd55f94eb3051f9"
+dependencies = [
+ "ahash",
+ "equivalent",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
+ "parking_lot",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "quinn"
 version = "0.11.9"
@@ -5834,8 +6310,8 @@ dependencies = [
  "quinn-proto",
  "quinn-udp",
  "rustc-hash",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
- "socket2 0.6.2",
+ "rustls",
+ "socket2",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
  "tokio",
  "tracing",
@@ -5844,17 +6320,19 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quinn-proto"
-version = "0.11.13"
+version = "0.11.16"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f1906b49b0c3bc04b5fe5d86a77925ae6524a19b816ae38ce1e426255f1d8a31"
+checksum = "2f4bfc015262b9df63c8845072ce59068853ff5872180c2ce2f13038b970e560"
 dependencies = [
+ "aws-lc-rs",
  "bytes",
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
  "lru-slab",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "rand_pcg",
  "ring",
  "rustc-hash",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
+ "rustls",
  "rustls-pki-types",
  "slab",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
@@ -5872,16 +6350,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "cfg_aliases",
  "libc",
  "once_cell",
- "socket2 0.6.2",
+ "socket2",
  "tracing",
  "windows-sys 0.60.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "quote"
-version = "1.0.44"
+version = "1.0.45"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "21b2ebcf727b7760c461f091f9f0f539b77b8e87f2fd88131e7f1b433b3cece4"
+checksum = "41f2619966050689382d2b44f664f4bc593e129785a36d6ee376ddf37259b924"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
 ]
@@ -5892,33 +6370,68 @@ version = "5.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "69cdb34c158ceb288df11e18b4bd39de994f6657d83847bdffdbd7f346754b0f"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "r-efi"
+version = "6.0.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f8dcc9c7d52a811697d2151c701e0d08956f92b0e24136cf4cf27b57a6a0d9bf"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "radium"
 version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "dc33ff2d4973d518d823d61aa239014831e521c75da58e3df4840d3f47749d09"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "radix_trie"
+version = "0.2.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c069c179fcdc6a2fe24d8d18305cf085fdbd4f922c041943e203685d6a1c58fd"
+dependencies = [
+ "endian-type",
+ "nibble_vec",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "rancor"
+version = "0.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a063ea72381527c2a0561da9c80000ef822bdd7c3241b1cc1b12100e3df081ee"
+dependencies = [
+ "ptr_meta",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "rand"
-version = "0.8.5"
+version = "0.8.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404"
+checksum = "5ca0ecfa931c29007047d1bc58e623ab12e5590e8c7cc53200d5202b69266d8a"
 dependencies = [
- "libc",
  "rand_chacha 0.3.1",
  "rand_core 0.6.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rand"
-version = "0.9.2"
+version = "0.9.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6db2770f06117d490610c7488547d543617b21bfa07796d7a12f6f1bd53850d1"
+checksum = "b9ef1d0d795eb7d84685bca4f72f3649f064e6641543d3a8c415898726a57b41"
 dependencies = [
  "rand_chacha 0.9.0",
  "rand_core 0.9.5",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "rand"
+version = "0.10.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d2e8e8bcc7961af1fdac401278c6a831614941f6164ee3bf4ce61b7edb162207"
+dependencies = [
+ "chacha20",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "rand_chacha"
 version = "0.3.1"
@@ -5958,14 +6471,10 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rand_distr"
-version = "0.4.3"
+name = "rand_core"
+version = "0.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "32cb0b9bc82b0a0876c2dd994a7e7a2683d3e7390ca40e6886785ef0c7e3ee31"
-dependencies = [
- "num-traits",
- "rand 0.8.5",
-]
+checksum = "63b8176103e19a2643978565ca18b50549f6101881c443590420e4dc998a3c69"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rand_distr"
@@ -5974,29 +6483,25 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6a8615d50dcf34fa31f7ab52692afec947c4dd0ab803cc87cb3b0b4570ff7463"
 dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rand_xoshiro"
-version = "0.7.0"
+name = "rand_pcg"
+version = "0.10.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f703f4665700daf5512dcca5f43afa6af89f09db47fb56be587f80636bda2d41"
+checksum = "caa0f4137e1c0a72f4c651489402276c8e8e1cf081f3b0ba156d2cbeef09e86a"
 dependencies = [
- "rand_core 0.9.5",
+ "rand_core 0.10.1",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "random_word"
-version = "0.5.2"
+name = "rand_xoshiro"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e47a395bdb55442b883c89062d6bcff25dc90fa5f8369af81e0ac6d49d78cf81"
+checksum = "f703f4665700daf5512dcca5f43afa6af89f09db47fb56be587f80636bda2d41"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash",
- "brotli",
- "paste",
- "rand 0.9.2",
- "unicase",
+ "rand_core 0.9.5",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6006,67 +6511,65 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "973443cf09a9c8656b574a866ab68dfa19f0867d0340648c7d2f6a71b8a8ea68"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rawpointer"
-version = "0.2.1"
+name = "rapidhash"
+version = "4.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "60a357793950651c4ed0f3f52338f53b2f809f32d83a07f72909fa13e4c6c1e3"
+checksum = "32b266a82f4aa99bb5c25e28d11cc44ace63d91adbcbcee4d323e2ae3d49ef37"
+dependencies = [
+ "rustversion",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rayon"
-version = "1.11.0"
+name = "raw-cpuid"
+version = "11.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "368f01d005bf8fd9b1206fb6fa653e6c4a81ceb1466406b81792d87c5677a58f"
+checksum = "498cd0dc59d73224351ee52a95fee0f1a617a2eae0e7d9d720cc622c73a54186"
 dependencies = [
- "either",
- "rayon-core",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rayon-core"
-version = "1.13.0"
+name = "rawpointer"
+version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "22e18b0f0062d30d4230b2e85ff77fdfe4326feb054b9783a3460d8435c8ab91"
-dependencies = [
- "crossbeam-deque",
- "crossbeam-utils",
-]
+checksum = "60a357793950651c4ed0f3f52338f53b2f809f32d83a07f72909fa13e4c6c1e3"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "recursive"
-version = "0.1.1"
+name = "rayon"
+version = "1.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0786a43debb760f491b1bc0269fe5e84155353c67482b9e60d0cfb596054b43e"
+checksum = "fb39b166781f92d482534ef4b4b1b2568f42613b53e5b6c160e24cfbfa30926d"
 dependencies = [
- "recursive-proc-macro-impl",
- "stacker",
+ "either",
+ "rayon-core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "recursive-proc-macro-impl"
-version = "0.1.1"
+name = "rayon-core"
+version = "1.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "76009fbe0614077fc1a2ce255e3a1881a2e3a3527097d5dc6d8212c585e7e38b"
+checksum = "22e18b0f0062d30d4230b2e85ff77fdfe4326feb054b9783a3460d8435c8ab91"
 dependencies = [
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "crossbeam-deque",
+ "crossbeam-utils",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "redox_syscall"
-version = "0.5.18"
+name = "redb"
+version = "3.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ed2bf2547551a7053d6fdfafda3f938979645c44812fbfcda098faae3f1a362d"
+checksum = "4ba239c1c1693315d3cc0e601db3b3965543afbf48c41730fdca2f069f510f4a"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "libc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "redox_syscall"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "0.5.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "49f3fe0889e69e2ae9e41f4d6c4c0181701d00e4697b356fb1f74173a5e0ee27"
+checksum = "ed2bf2547551a7053d6fdfafda3f938979645c44812fbfcda098faae3f1a362d"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6080,11 +6583,31 @@ dependencies = [
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "ref-cast"
+version = "1.0.25"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f354300ae66f76f1c85c5f84693f0ce81d747e2c3f21a45fef496d89c960bf7d"
+dependencies = [
+ "ref-cast-impl",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ref-cast-impl"
+version = "1.0.25"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b7186006dcb21920990093f30e3dea63b7d6e977bf1256be20c3563a5db070da"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "regex"
-version = "1.12.3"
+version = "1.12.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e10754a14b9137dd7b1e3e5b0493cc9171fdd105e0ab477f51b72e7f3ac0e276"
+checksum = "f1292b7759ae1cb9ec195452d1390a074f0cd8541ab7a5a8c31cd6db45d4a6ba"
 dependencies = [
  "aho-corasick",
  "memchr",
@@ -6111,9 +6634,9 @@ checksum = "cab834c73d247e67f4fae452806d17d3c7501756d98c8808d7c9c7aa7d18f973"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "regex-syntax"
-version = "0.8.9"
+version = "0.8.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a96887878f22d7bad8a3b6dc5b7440e0ada9a245242924394987b21cf2210a4c"
+checksum = "d6f6ff9a378485b298a5286656da665ba74413d36db0979633275d2e708145d4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "regress"
@@ -6126,69 +6649,187 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "relative-path"
-version = "1.9.3"
+name = "rend"
+version = "0.5.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ba39f3699c378cd8970968dcbff9c43159ea4cfbd88d43c00b22f2ef10a435d2"
+checksum = "cadadef317c2f20755a64d7fdc48f9e7178ee6b0e1f7fce33fa60f1d68a276e6"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytecheck",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "repr_offset"
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+name = "reqsign-aliyun-oss"
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+checksum = "9c0f9f69a519dd6958c4b43606bb8e1278cdc76d611fc8fed4b796eee548dc0f"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "form_urlencoded",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rust-ini",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-aws-core"
+version = "3.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "bac4749b7dfa7bfaccd01eb03e9dc795ed37e3f20d6f0f38e2c67ee85ad6bc86"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytes",
+ "form_urlencoded",
+ "hex",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rust-ini",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serde_urlencoded",
+ "sha1",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-aws-v4"
+version = "3.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fb1070755bd29dffc19d0971cab794e607839ba2ef4b69a9e6fbc8733c1b72ea"
+checksum = "ff250f0fd0b913fbd565e405acc553da0f13bde30bfb5403178c9d0313cdc15f"
 dependencies = [
- "tstr",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "quick-xml",
+ "reqsign-aws-core",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "reqsign"
-version = "0.16.5"
+name = "reqsign-azure-storage"
+version = "3.1.1"
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-checksum = "43451dbf3590a7590684c25fb8d12ecdcc90ed3ac123433e500447c7d77ed701"
+checksum = "a6ebd8524185ce9c64063e3095f83968acfa90922f00c601a4a0f3aca15b077e"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
- "async-trait",
- "base64",
- "chrono",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
  "form_urlencoded",
- "getrandom 0.2.17",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "pem",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rsa",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "sha1",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-core"
+version = "3.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ff052daffb0599681c50f85c59e7236438976efe991ab864edd9f3b235501a0f"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "base64 0.23.0",
+ "bytes",
+ "futures",
  "hex",
- "hmac",
- "home",
- "http 1.4.0",
- "jsonwebtoken",
+ "hmac 0.13.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "jiff",
  "log",
- "once_cell",
+ "mea",
  "percent-encoding",
- "quick-xml 0.37.5",
- "rand 0.8.5",
- "reqwest",
  "rsa",
- "rust-ini",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "sha1",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-file-read-tokio"
+version = "3.0.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b3235df90a6bca681aa47dd86f2393d122a6d77042aa8a7c81e218cd45c5bfc0"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "reqsign-core",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-google"
+version = "3.0.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a96da0b579b846d358090cb06b9e3c2ad1375529efbe3e0c45f96bd7bcf043ea"
+dependencies = [
+ "form_urlencoded",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-aws-v4",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "rsa",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "tokio",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-tencent-cos"
+version = "3.0.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f6497dd9f6e3d1349b420521484099b284f95e8d3a65f088fccef42493a7b644"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqsign-volcengine-tos"
+version = "3.1.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7a7e7a3a0635e0aa9ef851577c63cba5b3c98fb584f6a6637c2fd5cc50702c99"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "reqsign-core",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "reqwest"
 version = "0.12.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "eddd3ca559203180a307f12d114c268abf583f59b03cb906fd0b3ff8646c1147"
 dependencies = [
- "base64",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
  "bytes",
  "encoding_rs",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
- "h2 0.4.13",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "h2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
- "hyper 1.8.1",
- "hyper-rustls 0.27.7",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-rustls",
  "hyper-util",
  "js-sys",
  "log",
@@ -6197,7 +6838,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "percent-encoding",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "quinn",
- "rustls 0.23.36",
+ "rustls",
  "rustls-native-certs",
  "rustls-pki-types",
  "serde",
@@ -6205,17 +6846,71 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde_urlencoded",
  "sync_wrapper",
  "tokio",
- "tokio-rustls 0.26.4",
+ "tokio-rustls",
  "tokio-util",
  "tower",
- "tower-http 0.6.8",
+ "tower-http 0.6.11",
  "tower-service",
  "url",
  "wasm-bindgen",
  "wasm-bindgen-futures",
- "wasm-streams",
+ "wasm-streams 0.4.2",
  "web-sys",
- "webpki-roots",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqwest"
+version = "0.13.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "219c5811de6525e5416c7d5d53bb656d3afdbc6c5af816e0802bcfa42dbdc1c3"
+dependencies = [
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "futures-core",
+ "futures-util",
+ "h2",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "http-body-util",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-rustls",
+ "hyper-util",
+ "js-sys",
+ "log",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "pin-project-lite",
+ "quinn",
+ "rustls",
+ "rustls-pki-types",
+ "rustls-platform-verifier",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "sync_wrapper",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-rustls",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tower",
+ "tower-http 0.6.11",
+ "tower-service",
+ "url",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "wasm-streams 0.5.0",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "reqwest-middleware"
+version = "0.5.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "07bc3f1384cffa4f274dad2d4ddd73aed32fed8f786d96c6be8aa4e5fd3c3b58"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tower-service",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6225,7 +6920,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a4689e6c2294d81e88dc6261c768b63bc4fcdb852be6d1352498b114f61383b7"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "getrandom 0.2.17",
  "libc",
  "untrusted",
@@ -6233,16 +6928,40 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rle-decode-fast"
-version = "1.0.3"
+name = "rkyv"
+version = "0.8.17"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "815cc8a37159a463064825246cadb07961e25cd9885908606f6d08a98d8f8874"
+dependencies = [
+ "bytecheck",
+ "bytes",
+ "hashbrown 0.17.1",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "munge",
+ "ptr_meta",
+ "rancor",
+ "rend",
+ "rkyv_derive",
+ "tinyvec",
+ "uuid",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "rkyv_derive"
+version = "0.8.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3582f63211428f83597b51b2ddb88e2a91a9d52d12831f9d08f5e624e8977422"
+checksum = "c0ed1a78a1b19d184b0daa629dd9a024573173ec7d485b287cb369fb3607cc1c"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "roaring"
-version = "0.10.12"
+version = "0.11.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "19e8d2cfa184d94d0726d650a9f4a1be7f9b76ac9fdb954219878dc00c1c1e7b"
+checksum = "1dedc5658c6ecb3bdb5ef5f3295bb9253f42dcf3fd1402c03f6b1f7659c3c4a9"
 dependencies = [
  "bytemuck",
  "byteorder",
@@ -6260,15 +6979,15 @@ version = "0.9.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b8573f03f5883dcaebdfcf4725caa1ecb9c15b2ef50c43a07b816e06799bb12d"
 dependencies = [
- "const-oid",
- "digest",
+ "const-oid 0.9.6",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
  "num-bigint-dig",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
  "pkcs1",
  "pkcs8",
  "rand_core 0.6.4",
- "sha2",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
  "signature",
  "spki",
  "subtle",
@@ -6286,60 +7005,21 @@ dependencies = [
  "smallvec",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "rstest"
-version = "0.26.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f5a3193c063baaa2a95a33f03035c8a72b83d97a54916055ba22d35ed3839d49"
-dependencies = [
- "futures-timer",
- "futures-util",
- "rstest_macros",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rstest_macros"
-version = "0.26.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9c845311f0ff7951c5506121a9ad75aec44d083c31583b2ea5a30bcb0b0abba0"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "glob",
- "proc-macro-crate",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "regex",
- "relative-path",
- "rustc_version",
- "syn 2.0.114",
- "unicode-ident",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "rust-ini"
 version = "0.21.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "796e8d2b6696392a43bea58116b667fb4c29727dc5abd27d6acf338bb4f688c7"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "ordered-multimap",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "rust-stemmers"
-version = "1.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e46a2036019fdb888131db7a4c847a1063a7493f971ed94ea82c67eada63ca54"
-dependencies = [
- "serde",
- "serde_derive",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "rustc-hash"
-version = "2.1.1"
+version = "2.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "357703d41365b4b27c590e3ed91eabb1b663f07c4c084095e60cbed4362dff0d"
+checksum = "6b1e7f9a428571be2dc5bc0505c13fb6bf936822b894ec87abf8a08a4e51742d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustc_version"
@@ -6352,62 +7032,37 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustix"
-version = "0.38.44"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fdb5bc1ae2baa591800df16c9ca78619bf65c0488b41b96ccec5d11220d8c154"
-dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
- "errno",
- "libc",
- "linux-raw-sys 0.4.15",
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rustix"
-version = "1.1.3"
+version = "1.1.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "146c9e247ccc180c1f61615433868c99f3de3ae256a30a43b49f67c2d9171f34"
+checksum = "b6fe4565b9518b83ef4f91bb47ce29620ca828bd32cb7e408f0062e9930ba190"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "errno",
  "libc",
- "linux-raw-sys 0.11.0",
+ "linux-raw-sys",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls"
-version = "0.21.12"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3f56a14d1f48b391359b22f731fd4bd7e43c97f3c50eee276f3aa09c94784d3e"
-dependencies = [
- "log",
- "ring",
- "rustls-webpki 0.101.7",
- "sct",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rustls"
-version = "0.23.36"
+version = "0.23.45"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c665f33d38cea657d9614f766881e4d510e0eda4239891eea56b4cadcf01801b"
+checksum = "0d41d731c7d2f962d1ccc364cec258de3c0e93b38c2fb3ba97ac74513048d634"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-lc-rs",
  "once_cell",
  "ring",
  "rustls-pki-types",
- "rustls-webpki 0.103.9",
+ "rustls-webpki",
  "subtle",
  "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-native-certs"
-version = "0.8.3"
+version = "0.8.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "612460d5f7bea540c490b2b6395d8e34a953e52b491accd6c86c8164c5932a63"
+checksum = "dab5152771c58876a2146916e53e35057e1a4dfa2b9df0f0305b07f611fdea4d"
 dependencies = [
  "openssl-probe",
  "rustls-pki-types",
@@ -6415,40 +7070,48 @@ dependencies = [
  "security-framework",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "rustls-pemfile"
-version = "2.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dce314e5fee3f39953d46bb63bb8a46d40c2f8fb7cc5a3b6cab2bde9721d6e50"
-dependencies = [
- "rustls-pki-types",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-pki-types"
-version = "1.14.0"
+version = "1.15.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "be040f8b0a225e40375822a563fa9524378b9d63112f53e19ffff34df5d33fdd"
+checksum = "764899a24af3980067ee14bc143654f297b22eaebfe3c7b6b211920a5a59b046"
 dependencies = [
  "web-time",
  "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "rustls-webpki"
-version = "0.101.7"
+name = "rustls-platform-verifier"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8b6275d1ee7a1cd780b64aca7726599a1dbc893b1e64144529e55c3c2f745765"
+checksum = "26d1e2536ce4f35f4846aa13bff16bd0ff40157cdb14cc056c7b14ba41233ba0"
 dependencies = [
- "ring",
- "untrusted",
+ "core-foundation 0.10.1",
+ "core-foundation-sys",
+ "jni",
+ "log",
+ "once_cell",
+ "rustls",
+ "rustls-native-certs",
+ "rustls-platform-verifier-android",
+ "rustls-webpki",
+ "security-framework",
+ "security-framework-sys",
+ "webpki-root-certs",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "rustls-platform-verifier-android"
+version = "0.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f87165f0995f63a9fbeea62b64d10b4d9d8e78ec6d7d51fb2125fda7bb36788f"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-webpki"
-version = "0.103.9"
+version = "0.103.15"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d7df23109aa6c1567d1c575b9952556388da57401e4ace1d15f79eedad0d8f53"
+checksum = "f3c3cf1d8b1e7d4927e2d154c3fcb02979afb9939629c62cd9048d4f07b60ac2"
 dependencies = [
  "aws-lc-rs",
  "ring",
@@ -6464,9 +7127,15 @@ checksum = "b39cdef0fa800fc44525c84ccb54a029961a8215f9619753635a9c0d2538d46d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ryu"
-version = "1.0.22"
+version = "1.0.23"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "9774ba4a74de5f7b1c1451ed6cd5285a32eddb5cccb8cc655a4e50009e06477f"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "safe-transmute"
+version = "0.11.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a50f4cf475b65d88e057964e0e9bb1f0aa9bbb2036dc65c64596b42932536984"
+checksum = "3944826ff8fa8093089aba3acb4ef44b9446a99a16f3bf4e74af3f77d340ab7d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "salsa20"
@@ -6488,9 +7157,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "schannel"
-version = "0.1.28"
+version = "0.1.29"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "891d81b926048e76efe18581bf793546b4c0eaf8448d72be8de2bbee5fd166e1"
+checksum = "91c1b7e4904c873ef0710c1f407dde2e6287de2bebc1bbbf7d430bb7cbffd939"
 dependencies = [
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
@@ -6507,6 +7176,30 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde_json",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "schemars"
+version = "0.9.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "4cd191f9397d57d581cddd31014772520aa448f65ef991055d7f61582c65165f"
+dependencies = [
+ "dyn-clone",
+ "ref-cast",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "schemars"
+version = "1.2.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a2b42f36aa1cd011945615b92222f6bf73c599a102a300334cd7f8dbeec726cc"
+dependencies = [
+ "dyn-clone",
+ "ref-cast",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "schemars_derive"
 version = "0.8.22"
@@ -6516,7 +7209,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "serde_derive_internals",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6539,27 +7232,17 @@ checksum = "0516a385866c09368f0b5bcd1caff3366aace790fcd46e2bb032697bb172fd1f"
 dependencies = [
  "pbkdf2",
  "salsa20",
- "sha2",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "sct"
-version = "0.7.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "da046153aa2352493d6cb7da4b6e5c0c057d8a1d0a9aa8560baffdd945acd414"
-dependencies = [
- "ring",
- "untrusted",
+ "sha2 0.10.9",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "security-framework"
-version = "3.5.1"
+version = "3.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b3297343eaf830f66ede390ea39da1d462b6b0c1b000f420d0a83f898bbbe6ef"
+checksum = "b7f4bc775c73d9a02cde8bf7b2ec4c9d12743edf609006c7facc23998404cd1d"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
- "core-foundation",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "core-foundation 0.10.1",
  "core-foundation-sys",
  "libc",
  "security-framework-sys",
@@ -6567,9 +7250,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "security-framework-sys"
-version = "2.15.0"
+version = "2.17.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cc1f0cbffaac4852523ce30d8bd3c5cdc873501d96ff467ca09b6767bb8cd5c0"
+checksum = "6ce2691df843ecc5d231c0b14ece2acc3efb62c0a398c7e1d875f3983ce020e3"
 dependencies = [
  "core-foundation-sys",
  "libc",
@@ -6577,9 +7260,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "semver"
-version = "1.0.27"
+version = "1.0.28"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d767eb0aabc880b29956c35734170f26ed551a859dbd361d140cdbeca61ab1e2"
+checksum = "8a7852d02fc848982e0c167ef163aaff9cd91dc640ba85e263cb1ce46fae51cd"
 dependencies = [
  "serde",
  "serde_core",
@@ -6593,9 +7276,9 @@ checksum = "1bc711410fbe7399f390ca1c3b60ad0f53f80e95c5eb935e52268a0e2cd49acc"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde"
-version = "1.0.228"
+version = "1.0.229"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9a8e94ea7f378bd32cbbd37198a4a91436180c5bb472411e48b5ec2e2124ae9e"
+checksum = "4148590afebada386688f18773da617792bf2ef03ffc1e4cbd2b1d45b023e0ba"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_core",
  "serde_derive",
@@ -6603,22 +7286,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_core"
-version = "1.0.228"
+version = "1.0.229"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "41d385c7d4ca58e59fc732af25c3983b67ac852c1a25000afe1175de458b67ad"
+checksum = "67dca2c9c51e58a4791a4b1ed58308b39c64224d349a935ab5039aa360942a48"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_derive"
-version = "1.0.228"
+version = "1.0.229"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d540f220d3187173da220f885ab66608367b6574e925011a9353e4badda91d79"
+checksum = "e7a5d71263a5a7d47b41f6b3f06ba276f10cc18b0931f1799f710578e2309348"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 3.0.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6629,15 +7312,16 @@ checksum = "18d26a20a969b9e3fdf2fc2d9f21eda6c40e2de84c9408bb5d3b05d499aae711"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_json"
-version = "1.0.149"
+version = "1.0.151"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "83fc039473c5595ace860d8c4fafa220ff474b3fc6bfdb4293327f1a37e94d86"
+checksum = "c841b55ecdae098c80dcae9cf767f6f8a0c2cdb3416bbef72181df4d0fe73f14"
 dependencies = [
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itoa",
  "memchr",
  "serde",
@@ -6664,19 +7348,19 @@ checksum = "175ee3e80ae9982737ca543e96133087cbd9a485eecc3bc4de9c1a37b47ea59c"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_tokenstream"
-version = "0.2.2"
+version = "0.2.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64060d864397305347a78851c51588fd283767e7e7589829e8121d65512340f1"
+checksum = "d7c49585c52c01f13c5c2ebb333f14f6885d76daa768d8a037d28017ec538c69"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "serde",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6691,13 +7375,58 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "serde_with"
+version = "3.21.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "76a5c54c7310e7b8b9577c286d7e399ddd876c3e12b3ed917a8aabc4b96e9e8c"
+dependencies = [
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bs58",
+ "chrono",
+ "hex",
+ "indexmap 1.9.3",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "schemars 0.9.0",
+ "schemars 1.2.1",
+ "serde_core",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serde_with_macros",
+ "time",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "serde_with_macros"
+version = "3.21.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "84d57bc0c8b9a17920c178daa6bb924850d54a9c97ab45194bb8c17ad66bb660"
+dependencies = [
+ "darling 0.23.0",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_yaml"
 version = "0.9.34+deprecated"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6a8b1a1a2ebf674015cc02edccce75287f1a0130d394307b36743c2f5d504b47"
 dependencies = [
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
+ "itoa",
+ "ryu",
+ "serde",
+ "unsafe-libyaml",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "serde_yaml_ng"
+version = "0.10.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "7b4db627b98b36d4203a7b458cf3573730f2bb591b28871d916dfa9efabfd41f"
+dependencies = [
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "itoa",
  "ryu",
  "serde",
@@ -6706,13 +7435,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sha1"
-version = "0.10.6"
+version = "0.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3bf829a2d51ab4a5ddf1352d8470c140cadc8301b2ae1789db023f01cedd6ba"
+checksum = "aacc4cc499359472b4abe1bf11d0b12e688af9a805fa5e3016f9a386dc2d0214"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "cpufeatures",
- "digest",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6721,11 +7450,28 @@ version = "0.10.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a7507d819769d01a365ab707794a4084392c824f54a7a6a7862f8c3d0892b283"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "cpufeatures",
- "digest",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.2.17",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "sha2"
+version = "0.11.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "446ba717509524cb3f22f17ecc096f10f4822d76ab5c0b9822c5f9c284e825f4"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
+ "cpufeatures 0.3.0",
+ "digest 0.11.3",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "sha2-const-stable"
+version = "0.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "5f179d4e11094a893b82fff208f74d448a7512f99f5a0acbd5c679b705f83ed9"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "sharded-slab"
 version = "0.1.7"
@@ -6737,18 +7483,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "shellexpand"
-version = "3.1.1"
+version = "3.1.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8b1fdf65dd6331831494dd616b30351c38e96e45921a27745cf98490458b90bb"
+checksum = "32824fab5e16e6c4d86dc1ba84489390419a39f97699852b66480bb87d297ed8"
 dependencies = [
+ "bstr",
  "dirs",
+ "os_str_bytes",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "shlex"
-version = "1.3.0"
+version = "2.0.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0fda2ff0d084019ba4d7c6f371c95d8fd75ce3524c3cb8fb653a3023f6323e64"
+checksum = "f8fadd59c855ef2080decdef8ff161eb6661b86933c9d82e5ba29dc602a55aba"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "signal-hook-registry"
@@ -6766,48 +7514,43 @@ version = "2.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "77549399552de45a898a580c1b41d445bf730df867cc44e6c0233bbc4b8329de"
 dependencies = [
- "digest",
+ "digest 0.10.7",
  "rand_core 0.6.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "simd-adler32"
-version = "0.3.8"
+version = "0.3.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e320a6c5ad31d271ad523dcf3ad13e2767ad8b1cb8f047f75a8aeaf8da139da2"
+checksum = "703d5c7ef118737c72f1af64ad2f6f8c5e1921f818cdcb97b8fe6fc69bf66214"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "simdutf8"
-version = "0.1.5"
+name = "simd_cesu8"
+version = "1.1.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3a9fe34e3e7a50316060351f37187a3f546bce95496156754b601a5fa71b76e"
+checksum = "94f90157bb87cddf702797c5dadfa0be7d266cdf49e22da2fcaa32eff75b2c33"
+dependencies = [
+ "rustc_version",
+ "simdutf8",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "simple_asn1"
-version = "0.6.3"
+name = "simdutf8"
+version = "0.1.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "297f631f50729c8c99b84667867963997ec0b50f32b2a7dbcab828ef0541e8bb"
-dependencies = [
- "num-bigint",
- "num-traits",
- "thiserror 2.0.18",
- "time",
-]
+checksum = "e3a9fe34e3e7a50316060351f37187a3f546bce95496156754b601a5fa71b76e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "siphasher"
-version = "1.0.2"
+version = "1.0.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b2aa850e253778c88a04c3d7323b043aeda9d3e30d5971937c1855769763678e"
+checksum = "8ee5873ec9cce0195efcb7a4e9507a04cd49aec9c83d0389df45b1ef7ba2e649"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sketches-ddsketch"
-version = "0.3.0"
+version = "0.3.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c1e9a774a6c28142ac54bb25d25562e6bcf957493a184f15ad4eebccb23e410a"
-dependencies = [
- "serde",
-]
+checksum = "0c6f73aeb92d671e0cc4dca167e59b2deb6387c375391bc99ee743f326994a2b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "slab"
@@ -6817,29 +7560,29 @@ checksum = "0c790de23124f9ab44544d7ac05d60440adc586479ce501c1d6d7da3cd8c9cf5"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "smallvec"
-version = "1.15.1"
+version = "1.15.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "67b1b7a3b5fe4f1376887184045fcf45c69e92af734b7aaddc05fb777b6fbd03"
+checksum = "8ed6a63f02c8539c91a8685a86f4099661ba3da017932f6ebbea6de3f0fa7c90"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "snafu"
-version = "0.8.9"
+version = "0.9.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6e84b3f4eacbf3a1ce05eac6763b4d629d60cbc94d632e4092c54ade71f1e1a2"
+checksum = "e45cb604038abb7b926b679887b3226d8d0f23874b66623625a0454be425a4b7"
 dependencies = [
  "snafu-derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "snafu-derive"
-version = "0.8.9"
+version = "0.9.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c1c97747dbf44bb1ca44a561ece23508e99cb592e862f22222dcf42f51d1e451"
+checksum = "287f59010008f0d7cf5e3b03196d666c1acc46c8d3e9cf34c28a1a7157601e72"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6850,31 +7593,21 @@ checksum = "1b6b67fb9a61334225b5b790716f609cd58395f895b3fe8b328786812a40bc3b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "socket2"
-version = "0.5.10"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e22376abed350d73dd1cd119b57ffccad95b4e585a7cda43e286245ce23c0678"
-dependencies = [
- "libc",
- "windows-sys 0.52.0",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "socket2"
-version = "0.6.2"
+version = "0.6.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "86f4aa3ad99f2088c990dfa82d367e19cb29268ed67c574d10d0a4bfe71f07e0"
+checksum = "52d1cfed4120b4d927bf7c0f86d2087a4a7d6027c906d9f9d525a80573b9be51"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
- "windows-sys 0.60.2",
+ "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spade"
-version = "2.15.0"
+version = "2.15.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fb313e1c8afee5b5647e00ee0fe6855e3d529eb863a0fdae1d60006c4d1e9990"
+checksum = "9699399fd9349b00b184f5635b074f9ec93afffef30c853f8c875b32c0f8c7fa"
 dependencies = [
- "hashbrown 0.15.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.16.1",
  "num-traits",
  "robust",
  "smallvec",
@@ -6882,9 +7615,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spin"
-version = "0.9.8"
+version = "0.9.9"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "3763264f6b73151db08c50ff20d7d8a0b8796e021cdea7ceedad07b80155fa0e"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "spin"
+version = "0.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6980e8d7511241f8acf4aebddbb1ff938df5eebe98691418c4468d0b72a96a67"
+checksum = "023a211cb3138dbc438680b32560ad89f699977624c9f8dbb95a47d5b4c07dd3"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spki"
@@ -6898,24 +7637,57 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sqlparser"
-version = "0.59.0"
+version = "0.62.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4591acadbcf52f0af60eafbb2c003232b2b4cd8de5f0e9437cb8b1b59046cc0f"
+checksum = "13c6d1b651dc4edf07eead2a0c6c78016ce971bc2c10da5266861b13f25e7cec"
 dependencies = [
  "log",
- "recursive",
  "sqlparser_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sqlparser_derive"
-version = "0.3.0"
+version = "0.5.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a6dd45d8fc1c79299bfbb7190e42ccbbdf6a5f52e4a6ad98d92357ea965bd289"
+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "stabby"
+version = "72.1.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a7b834ec7ced12095fea1e4b07dcb7e8cf2b59b18afa3eac52494d835965a5ec"
+dependencies = [
+ "rustversion",
+ "stabby-abi",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "stabby-abi"
+version = "72.1.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ff1a4f477858a5bdf927c9fab7f579899de9b13e39f8b3b3b300c89fbab632f4"
+dependencies = [
+ "rustc_version",
+ "rustversion",
+ "sha2-const-stable",
+ "stabby-macros",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "stabby-macros"
+version = "72.1.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "da5fc6819faabb412da764b99d3b713bb55083c11e7e0c00144d386cd6a1939c"
+checksum = "b31c4b2434980b67ad83f300a58088ba14d59454dcd79ba3d87419bbd924d31e"
 dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro-crate",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6925,16 +7697,19 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6ce2be8dc25455e1f91df71bfa12ad37d7af1092ae736f3a6cd0e37bc7810596"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "stacker"
-version = "0.1.22"
+name = "static_assertions"
+version = "1.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a2eb9349b6444b326872e140eb1cf5e7c522154d69e7a0ffb0fb81c06b37543f"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "statrs"
+version = "0.18.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e1f8b29fb42aafcea4edeeb6b2f2d7ecd0d969c48b4cf0d2e64aafc471dd6e59"
+checksum = "2a3fe7c28c6512e766b0874335db33c94ad7b8f9054228ae1c2abd47ce7d335e"
 dependencies = [
- "cc",
- "cfg-if",
- "libc",
- "psm",
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
+ "approx",
+ "num-traits",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -6950,61 +7725,49 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e51f1e89f093f99e7432c491c382b88a6860a5adbe6bf02574bf0a08efff1978"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "strsim"
-version = "0.11.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7da8b5736845d9f2fcb837ea5d9e2628564b3b043a70948a3f0b778838c5fb4f"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "strum"
-version = "0.26.3"
+name = "stop-words"
+version = "0.10.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8fec0f0aef304996cf250b31b5a10dee7980c85da9d759361292b8bca5a18f06"
+checksum = "d68df56303396bcfb639455b3c166804aeb7994005010aab5e9e8a1277b8871d"
 dependencies = [
- "strum_macros 0.26.4",
+ "serde_json",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "strum"
-version = "0.27.2"
+name = "strsim"
+version = "0.11.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "af23d6f6c1a224baef9d3f61e287d2761385a5b88fdab4eb4c6f11aeb54c4bcf"
-dependencies = [
- "strum_macros 0.27.2",
-]
+checksum = "7da8b5736845d9f2fcb837ea5d9e2628564b3b043a70948a3f0b778838c5fb4f"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "strum_macros"
-version = "0.26.4"
+name = "strum"
+version = "0.28.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4c6bee85a5a24955dc440386795aa378cd9cf82acd5f764469152d2270e581be"
+checksum = "9628de9b8791db39ceda2b119bbe13134770b56c138ec1d3af810d045c04f9bd"
 dependencies = [
- "heck",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "strum_macros",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "strum_macros"
-version = "0.27.2"
+version = "0.28.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7695ce3845ea4b33927c055a39dc438a45b059f7c1b3d91d38d10355fb8cbca7"
+checksum = "ab85eea0270ee17587ed4156089e10b9e6880ee688791d45a905f5b1ca36f664"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "substrait"
-version = "0.62.2"
+version = "0.63.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "62fc4b483a129b9772ccb9c3f7945a472112fdd9140da87f8a4e7f1d44e045d0"
+checksum = "e620ff4d5c02fd6f7752931aa74b16a26af66a63022cc1ad412c77edbe0bab47"
 dependencies = [
  "heck",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "pbjson",
  "pbjson-build",
  "pbjson-types",
@@ -7013,12 +7776,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "prost-build",
  "prost-types",
  "regress",
- "schemars",
+ "schemars 0.8.22",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_yaml",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "typify",
  "walkdir",
 ]
@@ -7029,11 +7792,17 @@ version = "2.6.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "13c2bddecc57b384dee18652358fb23172facb8a2c51ccc10d74c157bdea3292"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "symlink"
+version = "0.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a7973cce6668464ea31f176d85b13c7ab3bba2cb3b77a2ed26abd7801688010a"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
-version = "1.0.109"
+version = "2.0.118"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72b64191b275b66ffe2469e8af2c1cfe3bafa67b529ead792a6d0160888b4237"
+checksum = "1b9ae57f904213ebb649ce6895b8a66c66f0203b9319718f69a5612a065b1422"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -7042,9 +7811,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
-version = "2.0.114"
+version = "3.0.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d4d107df263a3013ef9b1879b0df87d706ff80f65a86ea879bd9c31f9b307c2a"
+checksum = "a207d6d6a2b7fc470b80443726053f18a2481b7e1eee970597051596567987a3"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -7068,160 +7837,49 @@ checksum = "728a70f3dbaf5bab7f0c4b1ac8d7ae5ea60a4b5549c8a5914361c99147a709d2"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tagptr"
-version = "0.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7b2093cf4c8eb1e67749a6762251bc9cd836b6fc171623bd0a9d324d37af2417"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy"
-version = "0.24.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64a966cb0e76e311f09cf18507c9af192f15d34886ee43d7ba7c7e3803660c43"
-dependencies = [
- "aho-corasick",
- "arc-swap",
- "base64",
- "bitpacking",
- "bon",
- "byteorder",
- "census",
- "crc32fast",
- "crossbeam-channel",
- "downcast-rs",
- "fastdivide",
- "fnv",
- "fs4",
- "htmlescape",
- "hyperloglogplus",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "levenshtein_automata",
- "log",
- "lru",
- "lz4_flex 0.11.5",
- "measure_time",
- "memmap2",
- "once_cell",
- "oneshot",
- "rayon",
- "regex",
- "rust-stemmers",
- "rustc-hash",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "sketches-ddsketch",
- "smallvec",
- "tantivy-bitpacker",
- "tantivy-columnar",
- "tantivy-common",
- "tantivy-fst",
- "tantivy-query-grammar",
- "tantivy-stacker",
- "tantivy-tokenizer-api",
- "tempfile",
- "thiserror 2.0.18",
- "time",
- "uuid",
- "winapi",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-bitpacker"
-version = "0.8.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1adc286a39e089ae9938935cd488d7d34f14502544a36607effd2239ff0e2494"
-dependencies = [
- "bitpacking",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-columnar"
-version = "0.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6300428e0c104c4f7db6f95b466a6f5c1b9aece094ec57cdd365337908dc7344"
-dependencies = [
- "downcast-rs",
- "fastdivide",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "serde",
- "tantivy-bitpacker",
- "tantivy-common",
- "tantivy-sstable",
- "tantivy-stacker",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-common"
-version = "0.9.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e91b6ea6090ce03dc72c27d0619e77185d26cc3b20775966c346c6d4f7e99d7f"
-dependencies = [
- "async-trait",
- "byteorder",
- "ownedbytes",
- "serde",
- "time",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tantivy-fst"
-version = "0.5.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d60769b80ad7953d8a7b2c70cdfe722bbcdcac6bccc8ac934c40c034d866fc18"
-dependencies = [
- "byteorder",
- "regex-syntax",
- "utf8-ranges",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tantivy-query-grammar"
-version = "0.24.0"
+name = "sysinfo"
+version = "0.38.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e810cdeeebca57fc3f7bfec5f85fdbea9031b2ac9b990eb5ff49b371d52bbe6a"
+checksum = "92ab6a2f8bfe508deb3c6406578252e491d299cbbf3bc0529ecc3313aee4a52f"
 dependencies = [
- "nom 7.1.3",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
+ "libc",
+ "memchr",
+ "ntapi",
+ "objc2-core-foundation",
+ "objc2-io-kit",
+ "windows",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tantivy-sstable"
-version = "0.5.0"
+name = "system-configuration"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "709f22c08a4c90e1b36711c1c6cad5ae21b20b093e535b69b18783dd2cb99416"
+checksum = "a13f3d0daba03132c0aa9767f98351b3488edc2c100cda2d2ec2b04f3d8d3c8b"
 dependencies = [
- "futures-util",
- "itertools 0.14.0",
- "tantivy-bitpacker",
- "tantivy-common",
- "tantivy-fst",
- "zstd",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
+ "core-foundation 0.9.4",
+ "system-configuration-sys",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tantivy-stacker"
-version = "0.5.0"
+name = "system-configuration-sys"
+version = "0.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2bcdebb267671311d1e8891fd9d1301803fdb8ad21ba22e0a30d0cab49ba59c1"
+checksum = "8e1d1b10ced5ca923a1fcb8d03e96b8d3268065d724548c0211415ff6ac6bac4"
 dependencies = [
- "murmurhash32",
- "rand_distr 0.4.3",
- "tantivy-common",
+ "core-foundation-sys",
+ "libc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tantivy-tokenizer-api"
-version = "0.5.0"
+name = "tagptr"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dfa942fcee81e213e09715bbce8734ae2180070b97b33839a795ba1de201547d"
-dependencies = [
- "serde",
-]
+checksum = "7b2093cf4c8eb1e67749a6762251bc9cd836b6fc171623bd0a9d324d37af2417"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tap"
@@ -7229,33 +7887,22 @@ version = "1.0.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "55937e1799185b12863d447f42597ed69d9928686b8d88a1df17376a097d8369"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "tar"
-version = "0.4.44"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1d863878d212c87a19c1a610eb53bb01fe12951c0501cf5a0d65f724914a667a"
-dependencies = [
- "filetime",
- "libc",
- "xattr",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "target-lexicon"
-version = "0.13.4"
+version = "0.13.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b1dd07eb858a2067e2f3c7155d54e929265c264e6f37efe3ee7a8d1b5a1dd0ba"
+checksum = "adb6935a6f5c20170eeceb1a3835a49e12e19d792f6dd344ccc76a985ca5a6ca"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tempfile"
-version = "3.24.0"
+version = "3.27.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "655da9c7eb6305c55742045d5a8d2037996d61d8de95806335c7c86ce0f82e9c"
+checksum = "32497e9a4c7b38532efcdebeef879707aa9f794296a4f0244f6f69e9bc8574bd"
 dependencies = [
  "fastrand",
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
  "once_cell",
- "rustix 1.1.3",
+ "rustix",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
@@ -7285,7 +7932,7 @@ checksum = "4fee6c4efc90059e10f81e6d42c60a18f76588c3d74cb83a0b242a2b6c7504c1"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7296,7 +7943,7 @@ checksum = "ebc4ee7f67670e9b64d05fa4253e753e016c6c95ff35b89b7941d6b856dec1d5"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7314,7 +7961,7 @@ version = "1.1.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f60246a4944f24f6e018aa17cdeffb7818b76356965d03b07d6a9886e8962185"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7370,19 +8017,20 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tinystr"
-version = "0.8.2"
+version = "0.8.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "42d3e9c45c09de15d06dd8acf5f4e0e399e85927b7f00711024eb7ae10fa4869"
+checksum = "c8323304221c2a851516f22236c5722a72eaa19749016521d6dff0824447d96d"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
+ "serde_core",
  "zerovec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tinyvec"
-version = "1.10.0"
+version = "1.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bfa5fdc3bce6191a1dbc8c02d5c8bffcf557bafa17c124c5264a458f1b0613fa"
+checksum = "3e61e67053d25a4e82c844e8424039d9745781b3fc4f32b8d55ed50f5f667ef3"
 dependencies = [
  "tinyvec_macros",
 ]
@@ -7395,9 +8043,9 @@ checksum = "1f3ccbac311fea05f86f61904b462b55fb3df8837a366dfc601a0161d0532f20"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio"
-version = "1.49.0"
+version = "1.53.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72a2903cd7736441aac9df9d7688bd0ce48edccaadf181c3b90be801e81d3d86"
+checksum = "202caea871b69668250d242070849eb495be178ed697a3e98aebce5bc81a0bed"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "libc",
@@ -7405,29 +8053,30 @@ dependencies = [
  "parking_lot",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "signal-hook-registry",
- "socket2 0.6.2",
+ "socket2",
  "tokio-macros",
  "windows-sys 0.61.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-macros"
-version = "2.6.0"
+version = "2.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "af407857209536a95c8e56f8231ef2c2e2aff839b22e07a1ffcbc617e9db9fa5"
+checksum = "385a6cb71ab9ab790c5fe8d67f1645e6c450a7ce006a33de03daa956cf70a496"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tokio-rustls"
-version = "0.24.1"
+name = "tokio-retry"
+version = "0.3.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c28327cf380ac148141087fbfb9de9d7bd4e84ab5d2c28fbc911d753de8a7081"
+checksum = "4a129d95275ebf4c493ec53bf0f8cd95f5ac161bc4f381700809a54f595d4470"
 dependencies = [
- "rustls 0.21.12",
+ "pin-project-lite",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
@@ -7437,62 +8086,125 @@ version = "0.26.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1729aa945f29d91ba541258c8df89027d5792d85a8841fb65e8bf0f4ede4ef61"
 dependencies = [
- "rustls 0.23.36",
+ "rustls",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-stream"
-version = "0.1.18"
+version = "0.1.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "32da49809aab5c3bc678af03902d4ccddea2a87d028d86392a4b1560c6906c70"
+checksum = "a3d06f0b082ba57c26b79407372e57cf2a1e28124f78e9479fe80322cf53420b"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-util"
-version = "0.7.18"
+version = "0.7.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9ae9cec805b01e8fc3fd2fe289f89149a9b66dd16786abd8b19cfa7b48cb0098"
+checksum = "494815d09bf52b5548659851081238f0ca39ff638363907596da739561c62c52"
 dependencies = [
  "bytes",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
+ "libc",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "tokio_with_wasm"
+version = "0.8.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "34e40fbbbd95441133fe9483f522db15dbfd26dc636164ebd8f2dd28759a6aa6"
+dependencies = [
+ "js-sys",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio_with_wasm_proc",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tokio_with_wasm_proc"
+version = "0.8.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "d01145a2c788d6aae4cd653afec1e8332534d7d783d01897cefcafe4428de992"
+dependencies = [
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "toml_datetime"
-version = "0.7.5+spec-1.1.0"
+version = "1.1.1+spec-1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "92e1cfed4a3038bc5a127e35a2d360f145e1f4b971b551a2ba5fd7aedf7e1347"
+checksum = "3165f65f62e28e0115a00b2ebdd37eb6f3b641855f9d636d3cd4103767159ad7"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_core",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "toml_edit"
-version = "0.23.10+spec-1.0.0"
+version = "0.25.12+spec-1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "84c8b9f757e028cee9fa244aea147aab2a9ec09d5325a9b01e0a49730c2b5269"
+checksum = "d2153edc6955a6c354fad8f5efd38b6a8769bdccf9fe50f8e1329f81b0baa5d7"
 dependencies = [
- "indexmap",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "toml_datetime",
  "toml_parser",
  "winnow",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "toml_parser"
-version = "1.0.6+spec-1.1.0"
+name = "toml_parser"
+version = "1.1.2+spec-1.1.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a2abe9b86193656635d2411dc43050282ca48aa31c2451210f4202550afb7526"
+dependencies = [
+ "winnow",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tonic"
+version = "0.14.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ac2a5518c70fa84342385732db33fb3f44bc4cc748936eb5833d2df34d6445ef"
+dependencies = [
+ "async-trait",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "http-body 1.0.1",
+ "http-body-util",
+ "hyper",
+ "hyper-timeout",
+ "hyper-util",
+ "percent-encoding",
+ "pin-project",
+ "sync_wrapper",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-stream",
+ "tower",
+ "tower-layer",
+ "tower-service",
+ "tracing",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "tonic-prost"
+version = "0.14.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a3198b4b0a8e11f09dd03e133c0280504d0801269e9afa46362ffde1cbeebf44"
+checksum = "50849f68853be452acf590cde0b146665b8d507b3b8af17261df47e02c209ea0"
 dependencies = [
- "winnow",
+ "bytes",
+ "prost",
+ "tonic",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7503,9 +8215,12 @@ checksum = "ebe5ef63511595f1344e2d5cfa636d973292adc0eec1f0ad45fae9f0851ab1d4"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
+ "indexmap 2.14.0",
  "pin-project-lite",
+ "slab",
  "sync_wrapper",
  "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
  "tower-layer",
  "tower-service",
  "tracing",
@@ -7517,9 +8232,9 @@ version = "0.5.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "1e9cd434a998747dd2c4276bc96ee2e0c7a2eadf3cae88e52be55a05fa9053f5"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "bytes",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
  "pin-project-lite",
@@ -7530,25 +8245,25 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tower-http"
-version = "0.6.8"
+version = "0.6.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d4e6559d53cc268e5031cd8429d05415bc4cb4aefc4aa5d6cc35fbf5b924a1f8"
+checksum = "4cfcf7e2740e6fc6d4d688b4ef00650406bb94adf4731e43c096c3a19fe40840"
 dependencies = [
  "async-compression",
- "bitflags 2.10.0",
+ "bitflags 2.13.0",
  "bytes",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-util",
- "http 1.4.0",
+ "http 1.4.2",
  "http-body 1.0.1",
  "http-body-util",
- "iri-string",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-util",
  "tower",
  "tower-layer",
  "tower-service",
+ "url",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7575,6 +8290,19 @@ dependencies = [
  "tracing-core",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "tracing-appender"
+version = "0.2.5"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "050686193eb999b4bb3bc2acfa891a13da00f79734704c4b8b4ef1a10b368a3c"
+dependencies = [
+ "crossbeam-channel",
+ "symlink",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "time",
+ "tracing-subscriber",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "tracing-attributes"
 version = "0.1.31"
@@ -7583,7 +8311,7 @@ checksum = "7490cfa5ec963746568740651ac6781f701c9c5ea257c58e057f3ba8cf69e8da"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7618,22 +8346,35 @@ dependencies = [
  "tracing-core",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "tracing-serde"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "704b1aeb7be0d0a84fc9828cae51dab5970fee5088f83d1dd7ee6f6246fc6ff1"
+dependencies = [
+ "serde",
+ "tracing-core",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "tracing-subscriber"
-version = "0.3.22"
+version = "0.3.23"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2f30143827ddab0d256fd843b7a66d164e9f271cfa0dde49142c5ca0ca291f1e"
+checksum = "cb7f578e5945fb242538965c2d0b04418d38ec25c79d160cd279bf0731c8d319"
 dependencies = [
  "matchers",
  "nu-ansi-term",
  "once_cell",
  "regex-automata",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
  "sharded-slab",
  "smallvec",
  "thread_local",
  "tracing",
  "tracing-core",
  "tracing-log",
+ "tracing-serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -7642,47 +8383,26 @@ version = "0.2.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e421abadd41a4225275504ea4d6566923418b7f05506fbc9c0fe86ba7396114b"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "tstr"
-version = "0.2.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7f8e0294f14baae476d0dd0a2d780b2e24d66e349a9de876f5126777a37bdba7"
-dependencies = [
- "tstr_proc_macros",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tstr_proc_macros"
-version = "0.2.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e78122066b0cb818b8afd08f7ed22f7fdbc3e90815035726f0840d0d26c0747a"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "twox-hash"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9ea3136b675547379c4bd395ca6b938e5ad3c3d20fad76e7fe85f9e0d011419c"
+checksum = "8464ec13c3691491391d9fce00f6416c9a48e46972f72d7865688be2080192c9"
 dependencies = [
- "rand 0.9.2",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "typed-arena"
-version = "2.0.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6af6ae20167a9ece4bcb41af5b80f8a1f1df981f6391189ce00fd257af04126a"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "typenum"
-version = "1.19.0"
+version = "1.20.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "562d481066bde0658276a35467c4af00bdc6ee726305698a55b86e61d7ad82bb"
+checksum = "b6f5e870be6c3b371b77fe0ee0bafb859fa4964b4404c27de1d380043c4dda20"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "typewit"
-version = "1.14.2"
+version = "1.15.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f8c1ae7cc0fdb8b842d65d127cb981574b0d2b249b74d1c7a2986863dc134f71"
+checksum = "214ca0b2191785cbc06209b9ca1861e048e39b5ba33574b3cedd58363d5bb5f6"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "typify"
@@ -7705,11 +8425,11 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "regress",
- "schemars",
+ "schemars 0.8.22",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "thiserror 2.0.18",
  "unicode-ident",
 ]
@@ -7722,12 +8442,12 @@ checksum = "911c32f3c8514b048c1b228361bebb5e6d73aeec01696e8cc0e82e2ffef8ab7a"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "schemars",
+ "schemars 0.8.22",
  "semver",
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "serde_tokenstream",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "typify-impl",
 ]
 
@@ -7745,9 +8465,9 @@ checksum = "6b12e05d9e06373163a9bb6bb8c263c261b396643a99445fe6b9811fd376581b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-ident"
-version = "1.0.22"
+version = "1.0.24"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9312f7c4f6ff9069b165498234ce8be658059c6728633667c526e27dc2cf1df5"
+checksum = "e6e4313cd5fcd3dad5cafa179702e2b244f760991f45397d14d4ebf38247da75"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-normalization"
@@ -7760,9 +8480,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-segmentation"
-version = "1.12.0"
+version = "1.13.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f6ccf251212114b54433ec949fd6a7841275f9ada20dddd2f29e9ceea4501493"
+checksum = "c6f5d3c3b1bf09027a88a6bc961fc00497d651009560b5463668dc81b0fa87a8"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-width"
@@ -7770,12 +8490,6 @@ version = "0.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b4ac048d71ede7ee76d585517add45da530660ef4390e49b098733c6e897f254"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "unindent"
-version = "0.2.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7264e107f553ccae879d21fbea1d6724ac785e8c3bfc762137959b5802826ef3"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "unsafe-libyaml"
 version = "0.2.11"
@@ -7788,12 +8502,6 @@ version = "0.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "8ecb6da28b8a351d773b68d5825ac39017e680750f980f3a1a85cd8dd28a47c1"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "unty"
-version = "0.0.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6d49784317cd0d1ee7ec5c716dd598ec5b4483ea832a2dced265471cc0f690ae"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "url"
 version = "2.5.8"
@@ -7832,11 +8540,11 @@ checksum = "06abde3611657adf66d383f00b093d7faecc7fa57071cce2578660c9f1010821"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "uuid"
-version = "1.20.0"
+version = "1.24.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ee48d38b119b0cd71fe4141b30f5ba9c7c5d9f4e7a3a8b4a674e4b6ef789976f"
+checksum = "bf3923a6f5c4c6382e0b653c4117f48d631ea17f38ed86e2a828e6f7412f5239"
 dependencies = [
- "getrandom 0.3.4",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
  "js-sys",
  "serde_core",
  "wasm-bindgen",
@@ -7854,12 +8562,6 @@ version = "0.9.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "0b928f33d975fc6ad9f86c8f283853ad26bdd5b10b7f1542aa2fa15e2289105a"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "virtue"
-version = "0.0.18"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "051eb1abcf10076295e815102942cc58f9d5e3b4560e46e53c21e8ff6f3af7b1"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "vsimd"
 version = "0.8.0"
@@ -7891,22 +8593,40 @@ version = "0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ccf3ec651a847eb01de73ccad15eb7d99f80485de043efb2f370cd654f4ea44b"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "wasi"
+version = "0.14.7+wasi-0.2.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "883478de20367e224c0090af9cf5f9fa85bed63a95c1abf3afc5c083ebc06e8c"
+dependencies = [
+ "wasip2",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "wasip2"
-version = "1.0.2+wasi-0.2.9"
+version = "1.0.4+wasi-0.2.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9517f9239f02c069db75e65f174b3da828fe5f5b945c4dd26bd25d89c03ebcf5"
+checksum = "b67efb37e106e55ce722a510d6b5f9c17f083e5fc79afc2badeb12cc313d9487"
 dependencies = [
  "wit-bindgen",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "wasite"
+version = "1.0.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "66fe902b4a6b8028a753d5424909b764ccf79b7a209eac9bf97e59cda9f71a42"
+dependencies = [
+ "wasi 0.14.7+wasi-0.2.4",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64024a30ec1e37399cf85a7ffefebdb72205ca1c972291c51512360d90bd8566"
+checksum = "8ddb3f79143bced6de84270411622a2699cee572fc0875aeaf1e7867cf9fca1a"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "cfg-if 1.0.4",
  "once_cell",
  "rustversion",
  "wasm-bindgen-macro",
@@ -7915,23 +8635,19 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-futures"
-version = "0.4.58"
+version = "0.4.75"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "70a6e77fd0ae8029c9ea0063f87c46fde723e7d887703d74ad2616d792e51e6f"
+checksum = "503b14d284f2c8dac03b819967e155ea753f573586193b2b2c95990cb5d69280"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "futures-util",
  "js-sys",
- "once_cell",
  "wasm-bindgen",
- "web-sys",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-macro"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "008b239d9c740232e71bd39e8ef6429d27097518b6b30bdf9086833bd5b6d608"
+checksum = "4e21a184b13fb19e157296e2c46056aec9092264fab83e4ba59e68c61b323c3d"
 dependencies = [
  "quote",
  "wasm-bindgen-macro-support",
@@ -7939,22 +8655,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-macro-support"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5256bae2d58f54820e6490f9839c49780dff84c65aeab9e772f15d5f0e913a55"
+checksum = "fecefd9c35bd935a20fc3fc344b5f29138961e4f47fb03297d88f2587afb5ebd"
 dependencies = [
  "bumpalo",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "wasm-bindgen-shared",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wasm-bindgen-shared"
-version = "0.2.108"
+version = "0.2.125"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1f01b580c9ac74c8d8f0c0e4afb04eeef2acf145458e52c03845ee9cd23e3d12"
+checksum = "23939e44bb9a5d7576fa2b563dc2e136628f1224e88a8deed09e04858b77871f"
 dependencies = [
  "unicode-ident",
 ]
@@ -7972,11 +8688,24 @@ dependencies = [
  "web-sys",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "wasm-streams"
+version = "0.5.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "9d1ec4f6517c9e11ae630e200b2b65d193279042e28edd4a2cda233e46670bbb"
+dependencies = [
+ "futures-util",
+ "js-sys",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "wasm-bindgen-futures",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "web-sys"
-version = "0.3.85"
+version = "0.3.102"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "312e32e551d92129218ea9a2452120f4aabc03529ef03e4d0d82fb2780608598"
+checksum = "a6430a72df5eb332242960fe84b3002a241163998241eb596d4f739b9757061d"
 dependencies = [
  "js-sys",
  "wasm-bindgen",
@@ -7993,14 +8722,27 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "webpki-roots"
-version = "1.0.6"
+name = "webpki-root-certs"
+version = "1.0.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "22cfaf3c063993ff62e73cb4311efde4db1efb31ab78a3e5c457939ad5cc0bed"
+checksum = "0d46a5a140e6f7afeccd8eae97eff335163939eac8b929834875168b29b3d267"
 dependencies = [
  "rustls-pki-types",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "whoami"
+version = "2.1.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "998767ef88740d1f5b0682a9c53c24431453923962269c2db68ee43788c5a40d"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+ "libredox",
+ "objc2-system-configuration",
+ "wasite",
+ "web-sys",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "winapi"
 version = "0.3.9"
@@ -8032,6 +8774,27 @@ version = "0.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "712e227841d057c1ee1cd2fb22fa7e5a5461ae8e48fa2ca79ec42cfc1931183f"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows"
+version = "0.62.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "527fadee13e0c05939a6a05d5bd6eec6cd2e3dbd648b9f8e447c6518133d8580"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-collections",
+ "windows-core",
+ "windows-future",
+ "windows-numerics",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-collections"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "23b2d95af1a8a14a3c7367e1ed4fc9c20e0a26e79551b1454d72583c97cc6610"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-core",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-core"
 version = "0.62.2"
@@ -8045,6 +8808,17 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-strings",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-future"
+version = "0.3.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e1d6f90251fe18a279739e78025bd6ddc52a7e22f921070ccdc67dde84c605cb"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-core",
+ "windows-link",
+ "windows-threading",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-implement"
 version = "0.60.2"
@@ -8053,7 +8827,7 @@ checksum = "053e2e040ab57b9dc951b72c264860db7eb3b0200ba345b4e4c3b14f67855ddf"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8064,7 +8838,7 @@ checksum = "3f316c4a2570ba26bbec722032c4099d8c8bc095efccdc15688708623367e358"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -8073,6 +8847,27 @@ version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f0805222e57f7521d6a62e36fa9163bc891acd422f971defe97d64e70d0a4fe5"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-numerics"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "6e2e40844ac143cdb44aead537bbf727de9b044e107a0f1220392177d15b0f26"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-core",
+ "windows-link",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-registry"
+version = "0.6.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "02752bf7fbdcce7f2a27a742f798510f3e5ad88dbe84871e5168e2120c3d5720"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-link",
+ "windows-result",
+ "windows-strings",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-result"
 version = "0.4.1"
@@ -8100,15 +8895,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-targets 0.52.6",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "windows-sys"
-version = "0.59.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e38bc4d79ed67fd075bcc251a1c39b32a1776bbe92e5bef1f0bf1f8c531853b"
-dependencies = [
- "windows-targets 0.52.6",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-sys"
 version = "0.60.2"
@@ -8160,6 +8946,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows_x86_64_msvc 0.53.1",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "windows-threading"
+version = "0.2.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "3949bd5b99cafdf1c7ca86b43ca564028dfe27d66958f2470940f73d86d75b37"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-link",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "windows_aarch64_gnullvm"
 version = "0.52.6"
@@ -8258,18 +9053,18 @@ checksum = "d6bbff5f0aada427a1e5a6da5f1f98158182f26556f345ac9e04d36d0ebed650"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "winnow"
-version = "0.7.14"
+version = "1.0.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5a5364e9d77fcdeeaa6062ced926ee3381faa2ee02d3eb83a5c27a8825540829"
+checksum = "0592e1c9d151f854e6fd382574c3a0855250e1d9b2f99d9281c6e6391af352f1"
 dependencies = [
  "memchr",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wit-bindgen"
-version = "0.51.0"
+version = "0.57.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d7249219f66ced02969388cf2bb044a09756a083d0fab1e566056b04d9fbcaa5"
+checksum = "1ebf944e87a7c253233ad6766e082e3cd714b5d03812acc24c318f549614536e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wkb"
@@ -8298,9 +9093,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "writeable"
-version = "0.6.2"
+version = "0.6.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9edde0db4769d2dc68579893f2306b26c6ecfbe0ef499b013d731b7b9247e0b9"
+checksum = "1ffae5123b2d3fc086436f8834ae3ab053a283cfac8fe0a0b8eaae044768a4c4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "wyz"
@@ -8312,47 +9107,163 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "xattr"
-version = "1.6.1"
+name = "xet-client"
+version = "1.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "32e45ad4206f6d2479085147f02bc2ef834ac85886624a23575ae137c8aa8156"
+checksum = "c3b8da8cc70aa2e3c500c0400e012df82c656ab9fca47f9f939fffc5afd89aca"
 dependencies = [
- "libc",
- "rustix 1.1.3",
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "bytes",
+ "crc32fast",
+ "futures",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "hyper",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "redb",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "reqwest-middleware",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "serde_repr",
+ "statrs",
+ "tempfile",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-retry",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "url",
+ "urlencoding",
+ "web-time",
+ "xet-core-structures",
+ "xet-runtime",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "xmlparser"
-version = "0.13.6"
+name = "xet-core-structures"
+version = "1.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "66fee0b777b0f5ac1c69bb06d361268faafa61cd4682ae064a171c16c433e9e4"
+checksum = "73503c223783dccc864abde22115e09d12f190448a0baf58ab2c54bc709e2f99"
+dependencies = [
+ "async-trait",
+ "base64 0.22.1",
+ "blake3",
+ "bytemuck",
+ "bytes",
+ "countio",
+ "futures",
+ "futures-util",
+ "getrandom 0.4.3",
+ "heapify",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "lz4_flex",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "regex",
+ "safe-transmute",
+ "serde",
+ "static_assertions",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tracing",
+ "uuid",
+ "web-time",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "xxhash-rust"
-version = "0.8.15"
+name = "xet-data"
+version = "1.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fdd20c5420375476fbd4394763288da7eb0cc0b8c11deed431a91562af7335d3"
+checksum = "c89052ec5dec2187cad30b86af92cc24fd61c4a57a795f1ff7ff5f38d49184eb"
+dependencies = [
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "chrono",
+ "gearhash",
+ "http 1.4.2",
+ "itertools 0.14.0",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "sha2 0.11.0",
+ "tempfile",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "url",
+ "uuid",
+ "web-time",
+ "xet-client",
+ "xet-core-structures",
+ "xet-runtime",
+]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "xz2"
-version = "0.1.7"
+name = "xet-runtime"
+version = "1.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "388c44dc09d76f1536602ead6d325eb532f5c122f17782bd57fb47baeeb767e2"
+checksum = "af5c60d5eed38ab4c576f4421bae835e7bd07631fb381705605529d2015c106b"
 dependencies = [
- "lzma-sys",
+ "anyhow",
+ "async-trait",
+ "bytes",
+ "chrono",
+ "colored",
+ "const-str",
+ "ctor",
+ "dirs",
+ "futures",
+ "git-version",
+ "humantime",
+ "konst",
+ "libc",
+ "more-asserts",
+ "oneshot",
+ "pin-project",
+ "rand 0.10.1",
+ "reqwest 0.13.4",
+ "serde",
+ "serde_json",
+ "shellexpand",
+ "sysinfo",
+ "thiserror 2.0.18",
+ "tokio",
+ "tokio-util",
+ "tokio_with_wasm",
+ "tracing",
+ "tracing-appender",
+ "tracing-subscriber",
+ "web-time",
+ "whoami",
+ "winapi",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "yada"
-version = "0.5.1"
+name = "xmlparser"
+version = "0.13.6"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "66fee0b777b0f5ac1c69bb06d361268faafa61cd4682ae064a171c16c433e9e4"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "xxhash-rust"
+version = "0.8.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "aed111bd9e48a802518765906cbdadf0b45afb72b9c81ab049a3b86252adffdd"
+checksum = "aee1b19627c7c60102ab80d3a9cbe18de90bfe03bfa6c3715447681f0e8c8af6"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "yoke"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.8.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72d6e5c6afb84d73944e5cedb052c4680d5657337201555f9f2a16b7406d4954"
+checksum = "709fe23a0424b6a435d82152b1bd3fdfb0833487d5fa90d05d42762a9891fef5"
 dependencies = [
  "stable_deref_trait",
  "yoke-derive",
@@ -8361,80 +9272,82 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "yoke-derive"
-version = "0.8.1"
+version = "0.8.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b659052874eb698efe5b9e8cf382204678a0086ebf46982b79d6ca3182927e5d"
+checksum = "de844c262c8848816172cef550288e7dc6c7b7814b4ee56b3e1553f275f1858e"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "synstructure",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerocopy"
-version = "0.8.38"
+version = "0.8.52"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "57cf3aa6855b23711ee9852dfc97dfaa51c45feaba5b645d0c777414d494a961"
+checksum = "ce1022995ff5ff5d841ad7d994facc23098cd40152f2c1d11cd607c6f530653f"
 dependencies = [
  "zerocopy-derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerocopy-derive"
-version = "0.8.38"
+version = "0.8.52"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8a616990af1a287837c4fe6596ad77ef57948f787e46ce28e166facc0cc1cb75"
+checksum = "1ae7f38b72ec2a254e2b87ef277cf2cd4fb97cbebf944faa6f33354da0867930"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerofrom"
-version = "0.1.6"
+version = "0.1.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "50cc42e0333e05660c3587f3bf9d0478688e15d870fab3346451ce7f8c9fbea5"
+checksum = "0ec05a11813ea801ff6d75110ad09cd0824ddba17dfe17128ea0d5f68e6c5272"
 dependencies = [
  "zerofrom-derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerofrom-derive"
-version = "0.1.6"
+version = "0.1.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d71e5d6e06ab090c67b5e44993ec16b72dcbaabc526db883a360057678b48502"
+checksum = "11532158c46691caf0f2593ea8358fed6bbf68a0315e80aae9bd41fbade684a1"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
  "synstructure",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zeroize"
-version = "1.8.2"
+version = "1.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b97154e67e32c85465826e8bcc1c59429aaaf107c1e4a9e53c8d8ccd5eff88d0"
+checksum = "e13c156562582aa81c60cb29407084cdb54c4164760106ab78e6c5b0858cf64e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerotrie"
-version = "0.2.3"
+version = "0.2.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a59c17a5562d507e4b54960e8569ebee33bee890c70aa3fe7b97e85a9fd7851"
+checksum = "0f9152d31db0792fa83f70fb2f83148effb5c1f5b8c7686c3459e361d9bc20bf"
 dependencies = [
  "displaydoc",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
+ "zerovec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerovec"
-version = "0.11.5"
+version = "0.11.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6c28719294829477f525be0186d13efa9a3c602f7ec202ca9e353d310fb9a002"
+checksum = "90f911cbc359ab6af17377d242225f4d75119aec87ea711a880987b18cd7b239"
 dependencies = [
+ "serde",
  "yoke",
  "zerofrom",
  "zerovec-derive",
@@ -8442,26 +9355,26 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zerovec-derive"
-version = "0.11.2"
+version = "0.11.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eadce39539ca5cb3985590102671f2567e659fca9666581ad3411d59207951f3"
+checksum = "625dc425cab0dca6dc3c3319506e6593dcb08a9f387ea3b284dbd52a92c40555"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.114",
+ "syn 2.0.118",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zlib-rs"
-version = "0.6.0"
+version = "0.6.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a7948af682ccbc3342b6e9420e8c51c1fe5d7bf7756002b4a3c6cabfe96a7e3c"
+checksum = "3be3d40e40a133f9c916ee3f9f4fa2d9d63435b5fbe1bfc6d9dae0aa0ada1513"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zmij"
-version = "1.0.19"
+version = "1.0.21"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3ff05f8caa9038894637571ae6b9e29466c1f4f829d26c9b28f869a29cbe3445"
+checksum = "b8848ee67ecc8aedbaf3e4122217aff892639231befc6a1b58d29fff4c2cabaa"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "zstd"
diff --git a/python/Cargo.toml b/python/Cargo.toml
index f234c02c126..2d955b8cf3a 100644
--- a/python/Cargo.toml
+++ b/python/Cargo.toml
@@ -1,25 +1,38 @@
 [package]
 name = "pylance"
-version = "3.0.0-beta.2"
-edition = "2021"
+version = "14.0.0-beta.6"
+edition = "2024"
 authors = ["Lance Devs <dev@lance.org>"]
-rust-version = "1.88"
+license = "Apache-2.0"
+rust-version = "1.94"
 exclude = ["python/lance/conftest.py"]
 publish = false
 
+# `python/` is excluded from the top-level workspace (see ../Cargo.toml) and keeps
+# its own Cargo.lock. Declaring an empty workspace here makes this crate an explicit
+# workspace root, so cargo resolves it standalone even when the checkout is nested
+# inside another cargo project (e.g. a git worktree placed under the main checkout).
+[workspace]
+
 [lib]
 name = "lance"
 crate-type = ["cdylib"]
 
 [dependencies]
-arrow = { version = "57.0.0", features = ["pyarrow"] }
-arrow-array = "57.0.0"
-arrow-data = "57.0.0"
-arrow-schema = "57.0.0"
-object_store = "0.12.4"
-datafusion = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-ffi = "51.0.0"
-datafusion-common = "51.0.0"
+arrow = { version = "58.0.0", features = ["pyarrow"] }
+arrow-array = "58.0.0"
+arrow-cast = "58.0.0"
+arrow-data = "58.0.0"
+arrow-schema = "58.0.0"
+object_store = "0.13.2"
+url = "2.5.7"
+datafusion = { version = "54.0.0", default-features = false }
+datafusion-ffi = "54.0.0"
+datafusion-common = "54.0.0"
+# Keep the Python FFI build on the working Brotli allocator resolution until
+# datafusion-ffi no longer enables datafusion-proto/default.
+# See https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7271.
+alloc-stdlib = "=0.2.2"
 async-trait = "0.1"
 chrono = "0.4.42"
 env_logger = "0.11.7"
@@ -29,8 +42,10 @@ half = { version = "2.5", default-features = false, features = [
     "std",
 ] }
 lance = { path = "../rust/lance", features = [
+    "goosefs",
     "dynamodb",
     "substrait",
+    "metrics",
 ] }
 lance-arrow = { path = "../rust/lance-arrow" }
 lance-core = { path = "../rust/lance-core" }
@@ -41,40 +56,39 @@ lance-index = { path = "../rust/lance-index", features = [
     "tokenizer-lindera",
     "tokenizer-jieba",
 ] }
-lance-io = { path = "../rust/lance-io" }
+lance-io = { path = "../rust/lance-io", features = ["metrics"] }
 lance-linalg = { path = "../rust/lance-linalg" }
 lance-namespace = { path = "../rust/lance-namespace" }
-lance-namespace-impls = { path = "../rust/lance-namespace-impls", features = ["rest", "rest-adapter"] }
+lance-namespace-impls = { path = "../rust/lance-namespace-impls", features = ["rest", "rest-adapter", "dir-goosefs"] }
 lance-table = { path = "../rust/lance-table" }
 lance-datafusion = { path = "../rust/lance-datafusion" }
 libc = "0.2.176"
 log = "0.4"
+metrics = "0.24"
+metrics-util = "0.19"
 prost = "0.14.1"
 prost-types = "0.14.1"
-pyo3 = { version = "0.26", features = [
-    "extension-module",
-    "abi3-py39",
+pyo3 = { version = "0.28", features = [
+    "abi3-py310",
     "py-clone",
     "chrono",
 ] }
-pythonize = "0.26"
+pythonize = "0.28"
 tokio = { version = "1.48", features = ["rt-multi-thread"] }
 uuid = "1.3.0"
-regex = "1"
-roaring = "0.10.1"
+roaring = "0.11.4"
 serde_json = "1"
 serde = "1.0.197"
 serde_yaml = "0.9.34"
-snafu = "0.8"
 tracing-chrome = "0.7.1"
 tracing-subscriber = "0.3.17"
 tracing = { version = "0.1" }
-url = "2.5.0"
-bytes = "1.4"
+bytes = "1.11.1"
 
 [features]
-default = []
+default = ["extension-module"]
 datagen = ["lance-datagen"]
+extension-module = ["pyo3/extension-module"]
 fp16kernels = ["lance/fp16kernels"]
 
 [profile.ci]
@@ -90,3 +104,6 @@ debug = false
 debug-assertions = false
 strip = "debuginfo"
 incremental = false
+
+[lints.clippy]
+disallowed_macros = "deny"
diff --git a/python/DEVELOPMENT.md b/python/DEVELOPMENT.md
index 9effb0fb456..18e1b9b1eef 100644
--- a/python/DEVELOPMENT.md
+++ b/python/DEVELOPMENT.md
@@ -1,5 +1,15 @@
 # Development
 
+For local development, prefer [uv](https://docs.astral.sh/uv/) to create and manage the Python environment:
+
+```shell
+uv sync
+```
+
+Add `--group benchmarks` for benchmarks, or `--extra torch` / `--extra geo` for those optional features. After the environment is initialized, either activate it or use `uv run ...` for commands.
+
+`uv sync` is not just downloading Python packages here. It also builds the local `pylance` Rust extension as part of the editable environment, so the first run, cache misses, or Rust dependency changes can make it noticeably slow. This is expected; let the build finish instead of interrupting it and switching to a different environment setup.
+
 ## Building the project
 
 This project is built with [maturin](https://github.com/PyO3/maturin).
@@ -7,31 +17,27 @@ This project is built with [maturin](https://github.com/PyO3/maturin).
 It can be built in development mode with:
 
 ```shell
-maturin develop
+uv run maturin develop --uv
 ```
 
 This builds the Rust native module in place. You will need to re-run this
 whenever you change the Rust code. But changing the Python code doesn't require
 re-building.
 
-## Running tests
-
-To run the tests, first install the test packages:
+As with `uv sync`, this may take a while because it is compiling Rust code for the local `pylance` extension. Slow builds are expected here, especially after dependency or toolchain changes.
 
-```shell
-pip install '.[tests]'
-```
+## Running tests
 
-then:
+To run the tests:
 
 ```shell
-make test
+uv run make test
 ```
 
 To check the documentation examples, use
 
 ```shell
-make doctest
+uv run make doctest
 ```
 
 ## Formatting and linting
@@ -39,7 +45,7 @@ make doctest
 To run formatters, run:
 
 ```shell
-make format
+uv run make format
 ```
 
 (To run for just Python or just Rust, use `make format-python` or `cargo fmt`.)
@@ -47,7 +53,7 @@ make format
 To run format checker and linters, run:
 
 ```shell
-make lint
+uv run make lint
 ```
 
 (To run for just Python or just Rust, use `make lint-python` or `make lint-rust`.)
@@ -59,7 +65,7 @@ then you can use the pre-commit tool. The project includes a pre-commit config
 file already. First, install the pre-commit tool:
 
 ```shell
-pip install pre-commit
+uv tool install pre-commit
 ```
 
 Then install the hooks:
@@ -98,7 +104,8 @@ benchmarks added there should run in less than 5 seconds.
 Before running benchmarks, you should build pylance in release mode:
 
 ```shell
-maturin develop --profile release-with-debug --extras benchmarks --features datagen
+uv sync --group benchmarks
+uv run maturin develop --uv --profile release-with-debug --extras benchmarks --features datagen
 ```
 
 (You can also use `--release` or `--profile release`, but `--profile release-with-debug`
@@ -107,7 +114,7 @@ will provide debug symbols for profiling.)
 Then you can run the benchmarks with
 
 ```shell
-pytest python/benchmarks -m "not slow"
+uv run pytest python/benchmarks -m "not slow"
 ```
 
 Note: the first time you run the benchmarks, they may take a while, since they
@@ -118,7 +125,7 @@ Some benchmarks are especially slow, so they are skipped `-m "not slow"`. To run
 the slow benchmarks, use:
 
 ```shell
-pytest python/benchmarks
+uv run pytest python/benchmarks
 ```
 
 ### Run a particular benchmark
@@ -127,7 +134,7 @@ To filter benchmarks by name, use the usual pytest `-k` flag (this can be a
 substring match, so you don't need to type the full name):
 
 ```shell
-pytest python/benchmarks -k test_ivf_pq_index_search
+uv run pytest python/benchmarks -k test_ivf_pq_index_search
 ```
 
 ### Profile a benchmark
@@ -136,7 +143,7 @@ If you have [cargo-flamegraph](https://github.com/flamegraph-rs/flamegraph)
 installed, you can create a flamegraph of a benchmark by running:
 
 ```shell
-flamegraph -F 100 --no-inline -- $(which python) \
+flamegraph -F 100 --no-inline -- $(uv run which python) \
     -m pytest python/benchmarks \
     --benchmark-min-time=2 \
     -k test_ivf_pq_index_search
@@ -165,12 +172,14 @@ the benchmarks again with `--benchmark-compare`.
 ```shell
 CURRENT_BRANCH=$(git branch --show-current)
 git checkout main
-maturin develop --profile release-with-debug  --features datagen
-pytest --benchmark-save=baseline python/benchmarks -m "not slow"
+uv sync --group benchmarks
+uv run maturin develop --uv --profile release-with-debug --features datagen
+uv run pytest --benchmark-save=baseline python/benchmarks -m "not slow"
 COMPARE_ID=$(ls .benchmarks/*/ | tail -1 | cut -c1-4)
 git checkout $CURRENT_BRANCH
-maturin develop --profile release-with-debug  --features datagen
-pytest --benchmark-compare=$COMPARE_ID python/benchmarks -m "not slow"
+uv sync --group benchmarks
+uv run maturin develop --uv --profile release-with-debug --features datagen
+uv run pytest --benchmark-compare=$COMPARE_ID python/benchmarks -m "not slow"
 ```
 
 ## Tracing
diff --git a/python/Makefile b/python/Makefile
index 1f1a30f7842..12dad5196c6 100644
--- a/python/Makefile
+++ b/python/Makefile
@@ -1,53 +1,85 @@
+.DEFAULT_GOAL := help
+.PHONY: help install build test integtest doctest compattest format format-python lint lint-python lint-rust clean
+PYTHON ?=
+PYTEST_ARGS ?= -vvv -s
+KEEP_COMPOSE ?= 0
+COMPOSE_FILE ?= ../docker-compose.yml
+UV_SYNC = uv sync
+UV_RUN = uv run --frozen
+
+# Set PYTHON=3.12 to use a specific Python version with uv.
+ifneq ($(strip $(PYTHON)),)
+  UV_PYTHON_ARG = --python $(PYTHON)
+  UV_SYNC += $(UV_PYTHON_ARG)
+  UV_RUN += $(UV_PYTHON_ARG)
+endif
+
 ifeq ($(CI), true)
-    PYTEST_ARGS = -vvv -s --durations=30 -m "not recurring"
-else
-    PYTEST_ARGS = -vvv -s -m "not recurring"
+  PYTEST_ARGS += --durations=30
+endif
+
+# Number of pytest-xdist workers, e.g. `auto` or an explicit count. Empty (the
+# default) runs serially; CI sets it per runner size. Much of the suite is spent
+# waiting on IO rather than saturating the Rust core's own thread pools, so
+# sharding across processes wins back time a single pytest process leaves idle.
+PYTEST_WORKERS ?=
+ifneq ($(strip $(PYTEST_WORKERS)),)
+  # loadgroup rather than the default scheduler so that tests sharing state on
+  # disk can be pinned to a single worker with @pytest.mark.xdist_group.
+  PYTEST_ARGS += -n $(PYTEST_WORKERS) --dist loadgroup
 endif
 
-test:
+help: ## Show this help
+	@awk 'BEGIN {FS = ":.*##"; printf "\nUsage:\n  make \033[36m<target>\033[0m\n"} /^[a-zA-Z_-]+:.*?##/ { printf "  \033[36m%-20s\033[0m %s\n", $$1, $$2 }' $(MAKEFILE_LIST)
+
+install: ## Sync dependencies and set up local development tools
+	@if ! command -v uv > /dev/null 2>&1; then \
+		echo "uv not found. Install it from https://docs.astral.sh/uv/getting-started/installation/"; \
+		exit 1; \
+	fi
+	$(UV_SYNC)
+	uv tool run pre-commit install
+
+build: ## Build the local Rust extension with maturin
+	$(UV_RUN) maturin develop --uv
+
+test: ## Run Python tests
 	pytest $(PYTEST_ARGS) python/tests
-.PHONY: test
 
-integtest:
-	pytest --run-integration $(PYTEST_ARGS) python/tests/test_s3_ddb.py python/tests/test_namespace_integration.py
-.PHONY: integtest
+integtest: ## Start LocalStack and run integration tests
+	@if [ "$(KEEP_COMPOSE)" = "1" ]; then \
+		docker compose -f $(COMPOSE_FILE) up -d --wait && \
+		pytest --run-integration $(PYTEST_ARGS) python/tests/test_s3_ddb.py python/tests/test_namespace_integration.py; \
+	else \
+		trap 'docker compose -f $(COMPOSE_FILE) down -v --remove-orphans --timeout 0 >/dev/null 2>&1 || true' EXIT; \
+		docker compose -f $(COMPOSE_FILE) up -d --wait && \
+		pytest --run-integration $(PYTEST_ARGS) python/tests/test_s3_ddb.py python/tests/test_namespace_integration.py; \
+	fi
 
-doctest:
+doctest: ## Run Python doctests
 	pytest --doctest-modules $(PYTEST_ARGS) python/lance
-.PHONY: doctest
 
-compattest:
-	pytest --run-compat $(PYTEST_ARGS)  python/tests/compat
-.PHONY: compattest
+compattest: ## Run upgrade/downgrade compatibility tests
+	pytest --run-compat $(PYTEST_ARGS) python/tests/compat
 
-format: format-python
+format: format-python ## Auto-format Python and Rust
 	cargo fmt
-.PHONY: format
-
-build:
-	maturin develop
-.PHONY: build
 
-format-python:
+format-python: ## Auto-format Python (ruff)
 	ruff format python
 	ruff check --fix python
-.PHONY: format-python
 
-lint: lint-python lint-rust
-.PHONY: lint
+lint: lint-python lint-rust ## Check Python and Rust formatting/lints
 
-lint-python:
+lint-python: ## Check Python formatting, linting, and types
 	ruff format --check --diff python
 	ruff check python
 	pyright
-.PHONY: lint-python
 
-lint-rust:
+lint-rust: ## Check Rust formatting and clippy lints
 	cargo fmt -- --check
 	cargo clippy -- -D warnings
-.PHONY: lint-rust
 
-clean:
+clean: ## Remove build artifacts
 	cargo clean
 	rm -rf target
-.PHONY: clean
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python/PYTHON_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.md b/python/PYTHON_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4c1373cb06e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/PYTHON_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.md
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+| Name                           | Version     | License                                           | URL                                                                  |
+|--------------------------------|-------------|---------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
+| Jinja2                         | 3.1.6       | BSD License                                       | https://github.com/pallets/jinja/                                    |
+| MarkupSafe                     | 3.0.3       | BSD-3-Clause                                      | https://github.com/pallets/markupsafe/                               |
+| PyYAML                         | 6.0.3       | MIT License                                       | https://pyyaml.org/                                                  |
+| Pygments                       | 2.19.2      | BSD License                                       | https://pygments.org                                                 |
+| aiohappyeyeballs               | 2.6.1       | Python Software Foundation License                | https://github.com/aio-libs/aiohappyeyeballs                         |
+| aiohttp                        | 3.13.4      | Apache-2.0 AND MIT                                | https://github.com/aio-libs/aiohttp                                  |
+| aiosignal                      | 1.4.0       | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/aio-libs/aiosignal                                |
+| annotated-types                | 0.7.0       | MIT License                                       | https://github.com/annotated-types/annotated-types                   |
+| arro3-core                     | 0.6.5       | UNKNOWN                                           | https://kylebarron.dev/arro3                                         |
+| attrs                          | 25.3.0      | MIT                                               | https://www.attrs.org/en/stable/changelog.html                       |
+| boto3                          | 1.40.43     | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/boto/boto3                                        |
+| botocore                       | 1.40.43     | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/boto/botocore                                     |
+| certifi                        | 2025.8.3    | Mozilla Public License 2.0 (MPL 2.0)              | https://github.com/certifi/python-certifi                            |
+| charset-normalizer             | 3.4.3       | MIT                                               | https://github.com/jawah/charset_normalizer/blob/master/CHANGELOG.md |
+| datafusion                     | 53.0.0      | Apache Software License                           | https://datafusion.apache.org/python                                 |
+| datasets                       | 4.1.1       | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/huggingface/datasets                              |
+| dill                           | 0.4.0       | BSD License                                       | https://github.com/uqfoundation/dill                                 |
+| duckdb                         | 1.4.0       | MIT License                                       | https://github.com/duckdb/duckdb-python                              |
+| filelock                       | 3.19.1      | Unlicense                                         | https://github.com/tox-dev/py-filelock                               |
+| frozenlist                     | 1.7.0       | Apache-2.0                                        | https://github.com/aio-libs/frozenlist                               |
+| fsspec                         | 2025.9.0    | BSD-3-Clause                                      | https://github.com/fsspec/filesystem_spec                            |
+| geoarrow-rust-core             | 0.6.1       | UNKNOWN                                           | https://geoarrow.org/geoarrow-rs/                                    |
+| geoarrow-rust-io               | 0.6.1       | UNKNOWN                                           | https://geoarrow.org/geoarrow-rs/                                    |
+| hf-xet                         | 1.1.10      | Apache-2.0                                        | https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core                              |
+| huggingface-hub                | 0.35.3      | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/huggingface/huggingface_hub                       |
+| idna                           | 3.10        | BSD License                                       | https://github.com/kjd/idna                                          |
+| iniconfig                      | 2.1.0       | MIT                                               | https://github.com/pytest-dev/iniconfig                              |
+| jmespath                       | 1.0.1       | MIT License                                       | https://github.com/jmespath/jmespath.py                              |
+| lance-namespace                | 0.7.6       | Apache-2.0                                        | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-namespace                      |
+| lance-namespace-urllib3-client | 0.7.6       | Apache-2.0                                        | https://github.com/lance-format/lance-namespace                      |
+| maturin                        | 1.13.3      | MIT OR Apache-2.0                                 | https://github.com/pyo3/maturin                                      |
+| ml_dtypes                      | 0.5.3       | Apache-2.0                                        | https://github.com/jax-ml/ml_dtypes                                  |
+| mpmath                         | 1.3.0       | BSD License                                       | http://mpmath.org/                                                   |
+| multidict                      | 6.6.4       | Apache License 2.0                                | https://github.com/aio-libs/multidict                                |
+| multiprocess                   | 0.70.16     | BSD License                                       | https://github.com/uqfoundation/multiprocess                         |
+| networkx                       | 3.5         | BSD License                                       | https://networkx.org/                                                |
+| nodeenv                        | 1.9.1       | BSD License                                       | https://github.com/ekalinin/nodeenv                                  |
+| numpy                          | 2.3.3       | BSD License                                       | https://numpy.org                                                    |
+| packaging                      | 25.0        | Apache Software License; BSD License              | https://github.com/pypa/packaging                                    |
+| pandas                         | 2.3.3       | BSD License                                       | https://pandas.pydata.org                                            |
+| pillow                         | 11.3.0      | MIT-CMU                                           | https://python-pillow.github.io                                      |
+| pluggy                         | 1.6.0       | MIT License                                       | UNKNOWN                                                              |
+| polars                         | 1.34.0      | MIT License                                       | https://www.pola.rs/                                                 |
+| polars-runtime-32              | 1.34.0      | MIT License                                       | https://www.pola.rs/                                                 |
+| propcache                      | 0.3.2       | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/aio-libs/propcache                                |
+| psutil                         | 7.1.0       | BSD-3-Clause                                      | https://github.com/giampaolo/psutil                                  |
+| py-cpuinfo                     | 9.0.0       | MIT License                                       | https://github.com/workhorsy/py-cpuinfo                              |
+| pyarrow                        | 23.0.1      | Apache-2.0                                        | https://arrow.apache.org/                                            |
+| pydantic                       | 2.12.4      | MIT                                               | https://github.com/pydantic/pydantic                                 |
+| pydantic_core                  | 2.41.5      | MIT                                               | https://github.com/pydantic/pydantic-core                            |
+| pylance                        | 7.0.0b14    | Apache Software License                           | UNKNOWN                                                              |
+| pyproj                         | 3.7.2       | MIT                                               | https://pyproj4.github.io/pyproj/                                    |
+| pyright                        | 1.1.406     | MIT                                               | https://github.com/RobertCraigie/pyright-python                      |
+| pytest                         | 8.4.2       | MIT License                                       | https://docs.pytest.org/en/latest/                                   |
+| pytest-benchmark               | 5.1.0       | BSD License                                       | https://github.com/ionelmc/pytest-benchmark                          |
+| python-dateutil                | 2.9.0.post0 | Apache Software License; BSD License              | https://github.com/dateutil/dateutil                                 |
+| pytz                           | 2025.2      | MIT License                                       | http://pythonhosted.org/pytz                                         |
+| requests                       | 2.33.0      | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/psf/requests                                      |
+| ruff                           | 0.11.2      | MIT License                                       | https://docs.astral.sh/ruff                                          |
+| s3transfer                     | 0.14.0      | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/boto/s3transfer                                   |
+| six                            | 1.17.0      | MIT License                                       | https://github.com/benjaminp/six                                     |
+| sympy                          | 1.14.0      | BSD License                                       | https://sympy.org                                                    |
+| torch                          | 2.8.0       | BSD License                                       | https://pytorch.org/                                                 |
+| tqdm                           | 4.67.1      | MIT License; Mozilla Public License 2.0 (MPL 2.0) | https://tqdm.github.io                                               |
+| typing-inspection              | 0.4.2       | MIT                                               | https://github.com/pydantic/typing-inspection                        |
+| typing_extensions              | 4.15.0      | PSF-2.0                                           | https://github.com/python/typing_extensions                          |
+| tzdata                         | 2025.2      | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/python/tzdata                                     |
+| urllib3                        | 2.5.0       | MIT                                               | https://github.com/urllib3/urllib3/blob/main/CHANGES.rst             |
+| xxhash                         | 3.6.0       | BSD License                                       | https://github.com/ifduyue/python-xxhash                             |
+| yarl                           | 1.20.1      | Apache Software License                           | https://github.com/aio-libs/yarl                                     |
diff --git a/python/RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html b/python/RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8e550498f20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/RUST_THIRD_PARTY_LICENSES.html
@@ -0,0 +1,16121 @@
+<html>
+
+<head>
+    <style>
+        @media (prefers-color-scheme: dark) {
+            body {
+                background: #333;
+                color: white;
+            }
+            a {
+                color: skyblue;
+            }
+        }
+        .container {
+            font-family: sans-serif;
+            max-width: 800px;
+            margin: 0 auto;
+        }
+        .intro {
+            text-align: center;
+        }
+        .licenses-list {
+            list-style-type: none;
+            margin: 0;
+            padding: 0;
+        }
+        .license-used-by {
+            margin-top: -10px;
+        }
+        .license-text {
+            max-height: 200px;
+            overflow-y: scroll;
+            white-space: pre-wrap;
+        }
+    </style>
+</head>
+
+<body>
+    <main class="container">
+        <div class="intro">
+            <h1>Third Party Licenses</h1>
+            <p>This page lists the licenses of the projects used in cargo-about.</p>
+        </div>
+    
+        <h2>Overview of licenses:</h2>
+        <ul class="licenses-overview">
+            <li><a href="#Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</a> (545)</li>
+            <li><a href="#MIT">MIT License</a> (159)</li>
+            <li><a href="#Unicode-3.0">Unicode License v3</a> (19)</li>
+            <li><a href="#BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</a> (10)</li>
+            <li><a href="#Zlib">zlib License</a> (10)</li>
+            <li><a href="#ISC">ISC License</a> (9)</li>
+            <li><a href="#BSD-2-Clause">BSD 2-Clause &quot;Simplified&quot; License</a> (4)</li>
+            <li><a href="#MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</a> (3)</li>
+            <li><a href="#0BSD">BSD Zero Clause License</a> (1)</li>
+            <li><a href="#BSL-1.0">Boost Software License 1.0</a> (1)</li>
+            <li><a href="#CC0-1.0">Creative Commons Zero v1.0 Universal</a> (1)</li>
+            <li><a href="#CDLA-Permissive-2.0">Community Data License Agreement Permissive 2.0</a> (1)</li>
+            <li><a href="#bzip2-1.0.6">bzip2 and libbzip2 License v1.0.6</a> (1)</li>
+        </ul>
+
+        <h2>All license text:</h2>
+        <ul class="licenses-list">
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="0BSD">BSD Zero Clause License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oyvindln/adler2 ">adler2 2.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (C) Jonas Schievink &lt;jonasschievink@gmail.com&gt;
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for
+any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES
+WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN
+AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
+OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jhpratt/powerfmt ">powerfmt 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
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+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
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+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
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+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
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+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
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+   Copyright 2023 Jacob Pratt et al.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jhpratt/deranged ">deranged 0.5.8</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2024 Jacob Pratt et al.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://crates.io/crates/pylance ">pylance 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/serde_tokenstream ">serde_tokenstream 0.2.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-arith 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-array 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-buffer 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-cast 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-csv 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-data 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-ipc 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-json 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-ord 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-row 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-schema 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-select 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-string 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/encoding_rs ">encoding_rs 0.8.35</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/thomcc/rust-more-asserts ">more-asserts 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">parquet 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Stoeoef/spade ">spade 2.15.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nvzqz/static-assertions-rs ">static_assertions 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Lokathor/tinyvec ">tinyvec 1.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/utf8_iter ">utf8_iter 1.0.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">zeroize 1.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils/tree/master/zeroize/derive ">zeroize_derive 1.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs-object-store ">object_store 0.13.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/target-lexicon ">target-lexicon 0.13.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+
+--- LLVM Exceptions to the Apache 2.0 License ----
+
+As an exception, if, as a result of your compiling your source code, portions
+of this Software are embedded into an Object form of such source code, you
+may redistribute such embedded portions in such Object form without complying
+with the conditions of Sections 4(a), 4(b) and 4(d) of the License.
+
+In addition, if you combine or link compiled forms of this Software with
+software that is licensed under the GPLv2 (&quot;Combined Software&quot;) and if a
+court of competent jurisdiction determines that the patent provision (Section
+3), the indemnity provision (Section 9) or other Section of the License
+conflicts with the conditions of the GPLv2, you may retroactively and
+prospectively choose to deem waived or otherwise exclude such Section(s) of
+the License, but only in their entirety and only with respect to the Combined
+Software.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-catalog-listing 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-catalog 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-common-runtime 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-arrow 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-csv 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-json 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource-parquet 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-datasource 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-doc 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-execution 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-expr-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-expr 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-ffi 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-aggregate-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-aggregate 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-nested 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-table 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-window-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions-window 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-functions 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-macros 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-optimizer 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-expr-adapter 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-expr-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-expr 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-optimizer 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-physical-plan 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-proto-common 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-proto 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-pruning 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-session 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-sql 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion-substrait 53.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion ">datafusion 53.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+
+This project includes code from Apache Aurora.
+
+* dev/release/{release,changelog,release-candidate} are based on the scripts from
+  Apache Aurora
+
+Copyright: 2016 The Apache Software Foundation.
+Home page: https://aurora.apache.org/
+License: http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jeffparsons/rangemap ">rangemap 1.7.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   Copyright 2019-2022 Jeff Parsons, and [contributors](https://github.com/jeffparsons/rangemap/contributors)
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/brendanzab/approx ">approx 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/ar_archive_writer ">ar_archive_writer 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+    TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+    1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+    2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+    3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+    4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+    5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+    6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+    7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+    8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+    9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+    END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+    APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+    Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+    Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+    you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+    You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+    Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+    distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+    WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+    See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+    limitations under the License.
+
+
+--- LLVM Exceptions to the Apache 2.0 License ----
+
+As an exception, if, as a result of your compiling your source code, portions
+of this Software are embedded into an Object form of such source code, you
+may redistribute such embedded portions in such Object form without complying
+with the conditions of Sections 4(a), 4(b) and 4(d) of the License.
+
+In addition, if you combine or link compiled forms of this Software with
+software that is licensed under the GPLv2 (&quot;Combined Software&quot;) and if a
+court of competent jurisdiction determines that the patent provision (Section
+3), the indemnity provision (Section 9) or other Section of the License
+conflicts with the conditions of the GPLv2, you may retroactively and
+prospectively choose to deem waived or otherwise exclude such Section(s) of
+the License, but only in their entirety and only with respect to the Combined
+Software.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-collections 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-core 0.62.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-future 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-implement 0.60.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-interface 0.59.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-link 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-numerics 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-registry 0.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-result 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-strings 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-sys 0.52.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-sys 0.61.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-targets 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows-threading 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows 0.62.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_gnullvm 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_aarch64_msvc 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_gnu 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_gnullvm 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_i686_msvc 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnu 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.52.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/microsoft/windows-rs ">windows_x86_64_msvc 0.52.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright (c) Microsoft Corporation.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/moka-rs/moka ">moka 0.12.15</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2020 - 2026 Tatsuya Kawano
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Soveu/tinyvec_macros ">tinyvec_macros 0.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2020 Tomasz &quot;Soveu&quot; Marx
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Xuanwo/backon ">backon 1.6.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2021 Datafuse Labs
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/google/zerocopy ">zerocopy-derive 0.8.48</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/google/zerocopy ">zerocopy 0.8.48</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2023 The Fuchsia Authors
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/daxpedda/web-time ">web-time 1.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2023 dAxpeDDa
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/databendlabs/jsonb ">jsonb 0.5.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cberner/redb ">redb 3.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-aliyun-oss 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-aws-v4 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-azure-storage 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-core 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-file-read-tokio 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-google 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal-reqsign ">reqsign-tencent-cos 3.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls-platform-verifier ">rustls-platform-verifier 0.7.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MSxDOS/ntapi ">ntapi 0.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+   </pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/krisprice/ipnet ">ipnet 2.12.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2017 Juniper Networks, Inc.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/retep998/winapi-rs ">winapi 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright {yyyy} {name of copyright owner}
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstream 1.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle-parse 1.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle-query 1.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle-wincon 3.0.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">anstyle 1.0.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap 4.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap_builder 4.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap_derive 4.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/clap-rs/clap ">clap_lex 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/anstyle.git ">colorchoice 1.0.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/srijs/rust-crc32fast ">crc32fast 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/colin-kiegel/rust-derive-builder ">derive_builder 0.20.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/colin-kiegel/rust-derive-builder ">derive_builder_core 0.20.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/colin-kiegel/rust-derive-builder ">derive_builder_macro 0.20.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/env_logger ">env_filter 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-cli/env_logger ">env_logger 0.11.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/srijs/rust-gearhash ">gearhash 0.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/KokaKiwi/rust-hex ">hex 0.4.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/chronotope/humantime ">humantime 2.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/polyfill-rs/is_terminal_polyfill ">is_terminal_polyfill 1.70.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-sys ">jni-sys 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/polyfill-rs/once_cell_polyfill ">once_cell_polyfill 1.70.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/toml-rs/toml ">toml_datetime 1.1.1+spec-1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/toml-rs/toml ">toml_edit 0.25.11+spec-1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/toml-rs/toml ">toml_parser 1.1.2+spec-1.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                 Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright {yyyy} {name of copyright owner}
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-dynamodb 1.107.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-sso 1.95.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-ssooidc 1.97.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/aws-sdk-rust ">aws-sdk-sts 1.99.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright 2018-2020 Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Xudong-Huang/generator-rs.git ">generator 0.8.8</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                               Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-channel 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-core 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-executor 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-io 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-macro 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-sink 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-task 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures-util 0.3.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/futures-rs ">futures 0.3.32</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Alex Crichton
+Copyright (c) 2017 The Tokio Authors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/paholg/typenum ">typenum 1.20.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2014 Paho Lurie-Gregg
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/reqwest ">reqwest 0.12.28</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/reqwest ">reqwest 0.13.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2016 Sean McArthur
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http ">http 0.2.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http ">http 1.4.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2017 http-rs authors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/tokio-rustls ">tokio-rustls 0.26.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2017 quininer kel
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/pin-utils ">pin-utils 0.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2018 The pin-utils authors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cryptocorrosion/cryptocorrosion ">ppv-lite86 0.2.21</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2019 The CryptoCorrosion Contributors
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/io-uring ">io-uring 0.7.12</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2019 quininer kel
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/shepmaster/snafu ">snafu-derive 0.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/shepmaster/snafu ">snafu 0.9.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2019- Jake Goulding
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/strawlab/iana-time-zone ">iana-time-zone-haiku 0.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/strawlab/iana-time-zone ">iana-time-zone 0.1.65</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2020 Andrew Straw
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ridiculousfish/regress ">regress 0.10.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2020 ridiculous_fish
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/fast-float-rust ">fast-float2 0.2.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2021 Ivan Smirnov
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/pki-types ">rustls-pki-types 1.14.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2023 Dirkjan Ochtman
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/akubera/bigdecimal-rs ">bigdecimal 0.4.10</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2023 The BigDecimal-rs Contributors
+
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RazrFalcon/memmap2-rs ">memmap2 0.9.10</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [2015] [Dan Burkert]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dcchut/async-recursion ">async-recursion 1.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/RSA ">rsa 0.9.10</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tkaitchuck/ahash ">ahash 0.8.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vorner/arc-swap ">arc-swap 1.9.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/arrayvec ">arrayvec 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/async-channel ">async-channel 2.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nullus157/async-compression ">async-compression 0.4.42</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/async-lock ">async-lock 3.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/atomic-waker ">atomic-waker 1.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cuviper/autocfg ">autocfg 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/marshallpierce/rust-base64 ">base64 0.22.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitflags/bitflags ">bitflags 1.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitflags/bitflags ">bitflags 2.11.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/bstr ">bstr 1.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fitzgen/bumpalo ">bumpalo 3.20.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vorner/bytes-utils ">bytes-utils 0.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/trifectatechfoundation/bzip2-rs ">bzip2 0.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cc-rs ">cc 1.2.62</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alexcrichton/cfg-if ">cfg-if 0.1.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cfg-if ">cfg-if 1.0.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cmake-rs ">cmake 0.1.58</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nullus157/async-compression ">compression-codecs 0.4.38</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nullus157/async-compression ">compression-core 0.4.32</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/concurrent-queue ">concurrent-queue 2.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tkaitchuck/constrandom ">const-random-macro 0.1.16</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tkaitchuck/constrandom ">const-random 0.1.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/core-foundation-rs ">core-foundation-sys 0.8.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/core-foundation-rs ">core-foundation 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/core-foundation-rs ">core-foundation 0.9.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-channel 0.5.15</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-deque 0.8.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-epoch 0.9.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-queue 0.3.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-skiplist 0.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/crossbeam-rs/crossbeam ">crossbeam-utils 0.8.21</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/yaahc/displaydoc ">displaydoc 0.2.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rayon-rs/either ">either 1.15.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/encoding_rs_io ">encoding_rs_io 0.1.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/indexmap-rs/equivalent ">equivalent 1.0.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lambda-fairy/rust-errno ">errno 0.3.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/event-listener-strategy ">event-listener-strategy 0.5.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/event-listener ">event-listener 5.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/fastrand ">fastrand 2.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/cc-rs ">find-msvc-tools 0.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/petgraph/fixedbitset ">fixedbitset 0.5.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/flate2-rs ">flate2 1.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-fnv ">fnv 1.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url ">form_urlencoded 1.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geohash.rs ">geohash 0.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/glob ">glob 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/japaric/hash32 ">hash32 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.14.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.15.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.16.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/hashbrown ">hashbrown 0.17.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-embedded/heapless ">heapless 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/withoutboats/heck ">heck 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hermit-os/hermit-rs ">hermit-abi 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/httparse ">httparse 1.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/hyper-rustls ">hyper-rustls 0.27.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url/ ">idna 1.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/idna_adapter ">idna_adapter 1.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/indexmap-rs/indexmap ">indexmap 2.14.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.13.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-itertools/itertools ">itertools 0.14.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/jobserver-rs ">jobserver 0.1.34</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/js-sys ">js-sys 0.3.98</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/lazy-static.rs ">lazy_static 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/portable-network-archive/liblzma-rs ">liblzma-sys 0.4.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/portable-network-archive/liblzma-rs ">liblzma 0.4.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sunfishcode/linux-raw-sys ">linux-raw-sys 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ">lock_api 0.4.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/log ">log 0.4.29</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/matrixmultiply/ ">matrixmultiply 0.3.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/mime ">mime 0.3.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/havarnov/multimap ">multimap 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-ndarray/ndarray ">ndarray 0.16.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dignifiedquire/num-bigint ">num-bigint-dig 0.8.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-bigint ">num-bigint 0.4.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-complex ">num-complex 0.4.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-integer ">num-integer 0.1.46</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-iter ">num-iter 0.1.45</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-num/num-traits ">num-traits 0.2.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/num_cpus ">num_cpus 1.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gimli-rs/object ">object 0.37.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/matklad/once_cell ">once_cell 1.21.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/openssl-probe ">openssl-probe 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smol-rs/parking ">parking 2.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ">parking_lot 0.12.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ">parking_lot_core 0.9.12</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url/ ">percent-encoding 2.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/petgraph/petgraph ">petgraph 0.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/pkg-config-rs ">pkg-config 0.3.33</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost-build 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost-derive 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost-types 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/prost ">prost 0.14.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/rawpointer/ ">rawpointer 0.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rayon-rs/rayon ">rayon-core 1.13.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rayon-rs/rayon ">rayon 1.12.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex-automata 0.4.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex-lite 0.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex-syntax 0.8.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/regex ">regex 1.12.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/ring ">ring 0.17.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RoaringBitmap/roaring-rs ">roaring 0.11.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/robust ">robust 1.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/djc/rustc-version-rs ">rustc_version 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/rustix ">rustix 1.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls-native-certs ">rustls-native-certs 0.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls ">rustls 0.23.40</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alexcrichton/scoped-tls ">scoped-tls 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/scopeguard ">scopeguard 1.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust-security-framework ">security-framework-sys 2.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust-security-framework ">security-framework 3.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jonasbb/serde_with/ ">serde_with 3.20.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jonasbb/serde_with/ ">serde_with_macros 3.20.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/ijackson/rust-shellexpand ">shellexpand 3.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vorner/signal-hook ">signal-hook-registry 1.4.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seancroach/simd_cesu8 ">simd_cesu8 1.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-smallvec ">smallvec 1.15.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/socket2 ">socket2 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/datafusion-sqlparser-rs ">sqlparser 0.61.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sqlparser-rs/sqlparser-rs ">sqlparser_derive 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/storyyeller/stable_deref_trait ">stable_deref_trait 1.2.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/stacker ">stacker 0.1.24</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/chris-morgan/symlink ">symlink 0.1.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/syn ">syn 1.0.109</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mullvad/system-configuration-rs ">system-configuration-sys 0.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mullvad/system-configuration-rs ">system-configuration 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Stebalien/tempfile ">tempfile 3.27.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bluss/thread-tree ">thread-tree 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Amanieu/thread_local-rs ">thread_local 1.1.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/unicase ">unicase 2.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-rs/unicode-normalization ">unicode-normalization 0.1.25</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-rs/unicode-segmentation ">unicode-segmentation 1.13.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-rs/unicode-width ">unicode-width 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/servo/rust-url ">url 2.5.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/uuid-rs/uuid ">uuid 1.23.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/SergioBenitez/version_check ">version_check 0.9.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi ">wasi 0.11.1+wasi-snapshot-preview1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi-rs ">wasi 0.14.7+wasi-0.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi-rs ">wasip2 1.0.3+wasi-0.2.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/futures ">wasm-bindgen-futures 0.4.71</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/macro-support ">wasm-bindgen-macro-support 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/macro ">wasm-bindgen-macro 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/shared ">wasm-bindgen-shared 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen ">wasm-bindgen 0.2.121</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/wasm-bindgen/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/web-sys ">web-sys 0.3.98</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wit-bindgen ">wit-bindgen 0.51.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wit-bindgen ">wit-bindgen 0.57.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/wkb ">wkb 0.9.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/wkt ">wkt 0.14.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RazrFalcon/xmlparser ">xmlparser 0.13.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
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+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-core 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-parse-float 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-parse-integer 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-util 1.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-write-float 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Alexhuszagh/rust-lexical ">lexical-write-integer 1.0.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/block-ciphers ">aes 0.8.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats ">base64ct 1.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">blake2 0.10.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">block-buffer 0.10.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">block-padding 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/block-modes ">cbc 0.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/stream-ciphers ">chacha20 0.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits ">cipher 0.4.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/const-oid ">const-oid 0.9.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">cpufeatures 0.2.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">cpufeatures 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits ">crypto-common 0.1.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/der ">der 0.7.10</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits ">digest 0.10.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/MACs ">hmac 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/utils ">inout 0.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">md-5 0.10.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/password-hashes/tree/master/pbkdf2 ">pbkdf2 0.12.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pem-rfc7468 ">pem-rfc7468 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pkcs1 ">pkcs1 0.7.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pkcs5 ">pkcs5 0.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/pkcs8 ">pkcs8 0.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/stream-ciphers ">salsa20 0.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/password-hashes/tree/master/scrypt ">scrypt 0.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">sha1 0.10.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/hashes ">sha2 0.10.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/traits/tree/master/signature ">signature 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/formats/tree/master/spki ">spki 0.7.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand_core ">rand_core 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_core 0.6.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_core 0.9.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand_distr ">rand_distr 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/getrandom ">getrandom 0.2.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/getrandom ">getrandom 0.3.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/getrandom ">getrandom 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_chacha 0.3.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bkchr/proc-macro-crate ">proc-macro-crate 3.5.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/stacker/ ">psm 0.1.31</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                             Apache License
+                       Version 2.0, January 2004
+                    http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+  &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+  and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+  &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+  the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+  &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+  other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+  control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+  &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+  direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+  otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+  outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+  &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+  exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+  &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+  including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+  source, and configuration files.
+
+  &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+  transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+  not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+  and conversions to other media types.
+
+  &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+  Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+  copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+  (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+  &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+  form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+  editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+  represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+  of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+  separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+  the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+  &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+  the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+  to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+  submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+  or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+  the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+  means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+  to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+  communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+  and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+  Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+  excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+  designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+  &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+  on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+  subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+  this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+  worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+  copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+  publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+  Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+  this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+  worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+  (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+  use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+  where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+  by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+  Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+  with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+  institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+  cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+  or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+  or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+  granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+  as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+  Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+  modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+  meet the following conditions:
+
+  (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+      Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+  (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+      stating that You changed the files; and
+
+  (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+      that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+      attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+      excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+      the Derivative Works; and
+
+  (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+      distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+      include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+      within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+      pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+      of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+      as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+      documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+      within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+      wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+      of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+      do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+      notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+      or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+      that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+      as modifying the License.
+
+  You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+  may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+  for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+  for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+  reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+  the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+  any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+  by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+  this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+  Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+  the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+  with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+  names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+  except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+  origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+  agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+  Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+  WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+  implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+  of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+  PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+  appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+  risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+  whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+  unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+  negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+  liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+  incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+  result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+  Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+  work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+  other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+  has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+  the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+  and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+  or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+  License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+  on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+  of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+  defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+  incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+  of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+  To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+  boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+  replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+  the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+  comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+  file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+  same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+  identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">ctor-proc-macro 0.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">ctor 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">dtor-proc-macro 0.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mmastrac/rust-ctor ">dtor 0.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+                           Version 2.0, January 2004
+                        http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+   TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+   1. Definitions.
+
+      &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+      and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+      &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+      the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+      &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+      other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+      control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+      &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+      direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+      otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+      outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+      &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+      exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+      &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+      including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+      source, and configuration files.
+
+      &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+      transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+      not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+      and conversions to other media types.
+
+      &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+      Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+      copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+      (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+      &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+      form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+      editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+      represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+      of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+      separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+      the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+      &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+      the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+      to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+      submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+      or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+      the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+      means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+      to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+      communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+      and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+      Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+      excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+      designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+      &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+      on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+      subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+   2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+      publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+      Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+   3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+      this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+      worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+      (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+      use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+      where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+      by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+      Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+      with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+      institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+      cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+      or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+      or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+      granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+      as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+   4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+      Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+      modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+      meet the following conditions:
+
+      (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+          Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+      (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+          stating that You changed the files; and
+
+      (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+          that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+          attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+          excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+          the Derivative Works; and
+
+      (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+          distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+          include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+          within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+          pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+          of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+          as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+          documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+          within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+          wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+          of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+          do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+          notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+          or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+          that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+          as modifying the License.
+
+      You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+      may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+      for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+      for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+      reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+      the conditions stated in this License.
+
+   5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+      any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+      by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+      this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+      Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+      the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+      with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+   6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+      names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+      except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+      origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+   7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+      agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+      Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+      implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+      of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+      PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+      appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+      risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+   8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+      whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+      unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+      negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+      liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+      incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+      result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+      Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+      work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+      other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+      has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+   9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+      the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+      and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+      or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+      License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+      on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+      of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+      defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+      incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+      of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+   END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+   APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+      To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+      boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;{}&quot;
+      replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+      the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+      comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+      file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+      same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+      identification within third-party archives.
+
+   Copyright {yyyy} {name of copyright owner}
+
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+   You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+       http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+   distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+   limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Lokathor/bytemuck ">bytemuck 1.25.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+Version 2.0, January 2004
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+    1. Definitions.
+
+        &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+        &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+        &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+        &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+        &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications, including but not limited to software source code, documentation source, and configuration files.
+
+        &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical transformation or translation of a Source form, including but not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation, and conversions to other media types.
+
+        &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+        &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of, the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+        &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot; means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems, and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+        &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+    2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of, publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+    3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work, where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s) with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You institute patent litigation against any entity (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate as of the date such litigation is filed.
+    4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You meet the following conditions:
+        (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+        (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices stating that You changed the files; and
+        (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and attribution notices from the Source form of the Work, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works; and
+        (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or, within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed as modifying the License.
+
+        You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and may provide additional or different license terms and conditions for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use, reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with the conditions stated in this License.
+    5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise, any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of this License, without any additional terms or conditions. Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+    6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor, except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+    7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+    8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory, whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+    9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer, and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity, or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify, defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot; replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include the brackets!) The text should be enclosed in the appropriate comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a file or class name and description of purpose be included on the same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pyfisch/httpdate ">httpdate 1.0.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jeremysalwen/rust-permutations ">permutation 0.4.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+Version 2.0, January 2004
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+&quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+&quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
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+
+&quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
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+direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+&quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
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+including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+source, and configuration files.
+
+&quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
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+not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
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+
+&quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+(an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+&quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+&quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
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+to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
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+to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+&quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
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+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
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+worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
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+use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
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+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
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+meet the following conditions:
+
+(a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+(b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+stating that You changed the files; and
+
+(c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+the Derivative Works; and
+
+(d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+as modifying the License.
+
+You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-bitpacking 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">fsst 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-arrow 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-core 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-datafusion 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-datagen 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-encoding 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-file 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-geo 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-index 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-io 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-linalg 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-namespace 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-namespace-impls 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-table 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lance-format/lance ">lance-tokenizer 7.0.0-beta.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/abi_stable_crates/ ">abi_stable 0.11.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/abi_stable_crates/ ">abi_stable_derive 0.11.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/abi_stable_crates/ ">abi_stable_shared 0.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zakarumych/allocator-api2 ">allocator-api2 0.2.21</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nical/android_system_properties ">android_system_properties 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/anyhow ">anyhow 1.0.102</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-pyarrow 58.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/abi_stable_crates/ ">as_derive_utils 0.11.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/async-trait ">async-trait 0.1.89</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-config 1.8.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-credential-types 1.2.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-runtime 1.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-sigv4 1.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-async 1.2.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-http-client 1.1.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-http 0.63.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-json 0.62.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/awslabs/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-observability 0.2.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-query 0.60.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-runtime-api 1.11.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-runtime 1.10.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-types 1.4.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-smithy-xml 0.60.14</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/smithy-lang/smithy-rs ">aws-types 1.3.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BLAKE3-team/BLAKE3 ">blake3 1.8.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/cesarb/constant_time_eq ">constant_time_eq 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/core_extensions ">core_extensions 1.5.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/core_extensions ">core_extensions_proc_macros 1.5.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zowens/crc32c ">crc32c 0.6.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/daac-tools/daachorse ">daachorse 2.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dirs-dev/dirs-sys-rs ">dirs-sys 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/soc/dirs-rs ">dirs 6.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sgodwincs/dlv-list-rs ">dlv-list 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/kornelski/dunce ">dunce 1.0.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/dyn-clone ">dyn-clone 1.0.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nlordell/ethnum-rs ">ethnum 1.5.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/google/flatbuffers ">flatbuffers 25.12.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geo ">geo-traits 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geo ">geo-types 0.7.19</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geo ">geo 0.31.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs ">geoarrow-array 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs ">geoarrow-expr-geo 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs ">geoarrow-schema 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/datafusion-contrib/geodatafusion ">geodatafusion 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustwasm/gloo/tree/master/crates/timers ">gloo-timers 0.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/VoidStarKat/half-rs ">half 2.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ethereal-sheep/heapify ">heapify 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">hf-xet 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/ident_case ">ident_case 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/itoa ">itoa 1.0.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-rs ">jni-macros 0.22.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-sys ">jni-sys-macros 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jni-rs/jni-rs ">jni 0.22.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://crates.io/crates/lance-namespace-reqwest-client ">lance-namespace-reqwest-client 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/libc ">libc 0.2.186</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fast/mea ">mea 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Frommi/miniz_oxide/tree/master/miniz_oxide ">miniz_oxide 0.8.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jhpratt/num-conv ">num-conv 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/illicitonion/num_enum ">num_enum 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/illicitonion/num_enum ">num_enum_derive 0.7.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/madsmtm/objc2 ">objc2-core-foundation 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/madsmtm/objc2 ">objc2-io-kit 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/madsmtm/objc2 ">objc2-system-configuration 0.3.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">object_store_opendal 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/faern/oneshot ">oneshot 0.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-core 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-concurrent-limit 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-logging 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-retry 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-layer-timeout 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-azblob 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-azdls 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-azure-common 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-cos 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-gcs 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-hf 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-oss 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/opendal ">opendal-service-s3 0.56.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dylni/os_str_bytes ">os_str_bytes 6.6.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/paste ">paste 1.0.15</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vitiral/path_abs ">path_abs 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/pin-project ">pin-project-internal 1.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/pin-project-lite ">pin-project-lite 0.2.17</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/pin-project ">pin-project 1.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/portable-atomic-util ">portable-atomic-util 0.2.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/taiki-e/portable-atomic ">portable-atomic 1.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/prettyplease ">prettyplease 0.2.37</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/proc-macro2 ">proc-macro2 1.0.106</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pyo3/pyo3 ">pyo3-build-config 0.28.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pyo3/pyo3 ">pyo3-ffi 0.28.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pyo3/pyo3 ">pyo3-macros-backend 0.28.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pyo3/pyo3 ">pyo3-macros 0.28.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pyo3/pyo3 ">pyo3 0.28.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/quote ">quote 1.0.45</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/r-efi/r-efi ">r-efi 5.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/r-efi/r-efi ">r-efi 6.0.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand 0.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand 0.8.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand 0.9.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rand ">rand_chacha 0.9.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-random/rngs ">rand_xoshiro 0.7.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TrueLayer/reqwest-middleware ">reqwest-middleware 0.5.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/rstar ">rstar 0.12.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/rustc-hash ">rustc-hash 2.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/rustls-platform-verifier ">rustls-platform-verifier-android 0.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/rustversion ">rustversion 1.0.22</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/ryu ">ryu 1.0.23</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/semver ">semver 1.0.28</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/seq-macro ">seq-macro 0.3.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde 1.0.228</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde_core 1.0.228</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde_derive 1.0.228</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/serde ">serde_derive_internals 0.29.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/serde-rs/json ">serde_json 1.0.149</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/path-to-error ">serde_path_to_error 0.1.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/serde-repr ">serde_repr 0.1.20</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nox/serde_urlencoded ">serde_urlencoded 0.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/serde-yaml ">serde_yaml 0.9.34+deprecated</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/comex/rust-shlex ">shlex 1.3.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rusticstuff/simdutf8 ">simdutf8 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jedisct1/rust-siphash ">siphasher 1.0.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vitiral/stfu8 ">stfu8 0.2.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/substrait-io/substrait-rs ">substrait 0.62.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/syn ">syn 2.0.117</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Actyx/sync_wrapper ">sync_wrapper 1.0.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oliver-giersch/tagptr.git ">tagptr 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror-impl 1.0.69</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror-impl 2.0.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror 1.0.69</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/thiserror ">thiserror 2.0.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/thrift/tree/master/lib/rs ">thrift 0.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/time-rs/time ">time-core 0.1.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/time-rs/time ">time-macros 0.2.27</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/time-rs/time ">time 0.3.47</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/typify ">typify-impl 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/typify ">typify-macro 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxidecomputer/typify ">typify 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/unicode-ident ">unicode-ident 1.0.24</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/alacritty/vte ">utf8parse 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasi-rs ">wasip3 0.4.0+wasi-0.3.0-rc-2026-01-06</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ardaku/wasite ">wasite 1.0.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MattiasBuelens/wasm-streams/ ">wasm-streams 0.4.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MattiasBuelens/wasm-streams/ ">wasm-streams 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ardaku/whoami ">whoami 2.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/retep998/winapi-rs ">winapi-i686-pc-windows-gnu 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/retep998/winapi-rs ">winapi-x86_64-pc-windows-gnu 0.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-client 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-core-structures 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-data 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/huggingface/xet-core ">xet-runtime 1.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gyscos/zstd-rs ">zstd-safe 7.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gyscos/zstd-rs ">zstd-sys 2.0.16+zstd.1.5.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Apache License
+Version 2.0, January 2004
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+&quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+&quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+&quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+&quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+&quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications, including but not limited to software source code, documentation source, and configuration files.
+
+&quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical transformation or translation of a Source form, including but not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation, and conversions to other media types.
+
+&quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+&quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of, the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+&quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot; means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems, and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+&quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and subsequently incorporated within the Work.
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+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of, publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work, where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s) with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You institute patent litigation against any entity (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You meet the following conditions:
+
+     (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+     (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices stating that You changed the files; and
+
+     (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and attribution notices from the Source form of the Work, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works; and
+
+     (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or, within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed as modifying the License.
+
+     You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and may provide additional or different license terms and conditions for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use, reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise, any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of this License, without any additional terms or conditions. Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor, except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory, whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer, and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity, or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify, defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot; replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a file or class name and description of purpose be included on the same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/chronotope/chrono-tz ">chrono-tz 0.10.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Chrono-TZ is dual-licensed under the MIT License and Apache 2.0 Licence.
+The licenses do not apply to files in the tzdb folder which are in the
+public domain. parse-zoneinfo was forked from zoneinfo-parse, which
+was originally created by Benjamin Sago under the MIT license.
+
+Copyright (c) 2016-2024 Benjamin Sago &amp; the chronotope maintainers
+
+The MIT License
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
+
+   &quot;Licensor&quot; shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
+   the copyright owner that is granting the License.
+
+   &quot;Legal Entity&quot; shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
+   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
+   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
+   &quot;control&quot; means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
+   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
+
+   &quot;Source&quot; form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
+   source, and configuration files.
+
+   &quot;Object&quot; form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
+   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
+   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
+   and conversions to other media types.
+
+   &quot;Work&quot; shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
+   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
+   copyright notice that is included in or attached to the work
+   (an example is provided in the Appendix below).
+
+   &quot;Derivative Works&quot; shall mean any work, whether in Source or Object
+   form, that is based on (or derived from) the Work and for which the
+   editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications
+   represent, as a whole, an original work of authorship. For the purposes
+   of this License, Derivative Works shall not include works that remain
+   separable from, or merely link (or bind by name) to the interfaces of,
+   the Work and Derivative Works thereof.
+
+   &quot;Contribution&quot; shall mean any work of authorship, including
+   the original version of the Work and any modifications or additions
+   to that Work or Derivative Works thereof, that is intentionally
+   submitted to Licensor for inclusion in the Work by the copyright owner
+   or by an individual or Legal Entity authorized to submit on behalf of
+   the copyright owner. For the purposes of this definition, &quot;submitted&quot;
+   means any form of electronic, verbal, or written communication sent
+   to the Licensor or its representatives, including but not limited to
+   communication on electronic mailing lists, source code control systems,
+   and issue tracking systems that are managed by, or on behalf of, the
+   Licensor for the purpose of discussing and improving the Work, but
+   excluding communication that is conspicuously marked or otherwise
+   designated in writing by the copyright owner as &quot;Not a Contribution.&quot;
+
+   &quot;Contributor&quot; shall mean Licensor and any individual or Legal Entity
+   on behalf of whom a Contribution has been received by Licensor and
+   subsequently incorporated within the Work.
+
+2. Grant of Copyright License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   copyright license to reproduce, prepare Derivative Works of,
+   publicly display, publicly perform, sublicense, and distribute the
+   Work and such Derivative Works in Source or Object form.
+
+3. Grant of Patent License. Subject to the terms and conditions of
+   this License, each Contributor hereby grants to You a perpetual,
+   worldwide, non-exclusive, no-charge, royalty-free, irrevocable
+   (except as stated in this section) patent license to make, have made,
+   use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work,
+   where such license applies only to those patent claims licensable
+   by such Contributor that are necessarily infringed by their
+   Contribution(s) alone or by combination of their Contribution(s)
+   with the Work to which such Contribution(s) was submitted. If You
+   institute patent litigation against any entity (including a
+   cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that the Work
+   or a Contribution incorporated within the Work constitutes direct
+   or contributory patent infringement, then any patent licenses
+   granted to You under this License for that Work shall terminate
+   as of the date such litigation is filed.
+
+4. Redistribution. You may reproduce and distribute copies of the
+   Work or Derivative Works thereof in any medium, with or without
+   modifications, and in Source or Object form, provided that You
+   meet the following conditions:
+
+   (a) You must give any other recipients of the Work or
+       Derivative Works a copy of this License; and
+
+   (b) You must cause any modified files to carry prominent notices
+       stating that You changed the files; and
+
+   (c) You must retain, in the Source form of any Derivative Works
+       that You distribute, all copyright, patent, trademark, and
+       attribution notices from the Source form of the Work,
+       excluding those notices that do not pertain to any part of
+       the Derivative Works; and
+
+   (d) If the Work includes a &quot;NOTICE&quot; text file as part of its
+       distribution, then any Derivative Works that You distribute must
+       include a readable copy of the attribution notices contained
+       within such NOTICE file, excluding those notices that do not
+       pertain to any part of the Derivative Works, in at least one
+       of the following places: within a NOTICE text file distributed
+       as part of the Derivative Works; within the Source form or
+       documentation, if provided along with the Derivative Works; or,
+       within a display generated by the Derivative Works, if and
+       wherever such third-party notices normally appear. The contents
+       of the NOTICE file are for informational purposes only and
+       do not modify the License. You may add Your own attribution
+       notices within Derivative Works that You distribute, alongside
+       or as an addendum to the NOTICE text from the Work, provided
+       that such additional attribution notices cannot be construed
+       as modifying the License.
+
+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
+   may provide additional or different license terms and conditions
+   for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
+   for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
+
+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
+   except as required for reasonable and customary use in describing the
+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
+   implied, including, without limitation, any warranties or conditions
+   of TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, or FITNESS FOR A
+   PARTICULAR PURPOSE. You are solely responsible for determining the
+   appropriateness of using or redistributing the Work and assume any
+   risks associated with Your exercise of permissions under this License.
+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright 2016 Djzin
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Apache-2.0">Apache License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/chronotope/chrono ">chrono 0.4.44</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Rust-chrono is dual-licensed under The MIT License [1] and
+Apache 2.0 License [2]. Copyright (c) 2014--2026, Kang Seonghoon and
+contributors.
+
+Nota Bene: This is same as the Rust Project&#x27;s own license.
+
+
+[1]: &lt;http://opensource.org/licenses/MIT&gt;, which is reproduced below:
+
+~~~~
+The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014, Kang Seonghoon.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+~~~~
+
+
+[2]: &lt;http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0&gt;, which is reproduced below:
+
+~~~~
+                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
+
+   &quot;License&quot; shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
+   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.
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+   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
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+   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.
+
+   &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;) shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
+   exercising permissions granted by this License.
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+   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
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+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
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+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
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+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
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+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
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+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
+   incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets &quot;[]&quot;
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don&#x27;t include
+   the brackets!)  The text should be enclosed in the appropriate
+   comment syntax for the file format. We also recommend that a
+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same &quot;printed page&quot; as the copyright notice for easier
+   identification within third-party archives.
+
+Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner]
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &quot;License&quot;);
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+~~~~
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-2-Clause">BSD 2-Clause &quot;Simplified&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MnO2/cedarwood ">cedarwood 0.4.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2013-2014, Naoki Yoshinaga, Paul Meng
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
+met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+   documentation and/or other materials provided with the
+   distribution.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+&quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
+A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
+HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
+SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
+DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
+THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
+OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-2-Clause">BSD 2-Clause &quot;Simplified&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/droundy/arrayref ">arrayref 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2015 David Roundy &lt;roundyd@physics.oregonstate.edu&gt;
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
+met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+   documentation and/or other materials provided with the
+   distribution.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+&quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
+A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
+HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
+SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
+DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
+THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
+OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-2-Clause">BSD 2-Clause &quot;Simplified&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fusion-engineering/rust-git-version ">git-version-macro 0.3.9</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fusion-engineering/rust-git-version ">git-version 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017-2020
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
+   list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
+   this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
+   and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND
+ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
+DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
+(INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;
+LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND
+ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ibraheemdev/matchit ">matchit 0.7.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">BSD 3-Clause License
+
+Copyright (c) 2013, Julien Schmidt
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
+   list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
+   this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
+   and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
+   contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
+   this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot;
+AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
+DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
+SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
+CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY,
+OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
+OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/CurrySoftware/rust-stemmers ">rust-stemmers 1.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2001, Dr Martin Porter
+Copyright (c) 2004,2005, Richard Boulton
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+
+  1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice,
+     this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+  2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
+     this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
+     and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+  3. Neither the name of the Snowball project nor the names of its contributors
+     may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+     without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND
+ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
+DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
+(INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;
+LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON
+ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-alloc-no-stdlib ">alloc-no-stdlib 2.0.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-brotli-decompressor ">brotli-decompressor 5.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2016 Dropbox, Inc.
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dalek-cryptography/subtle ">subtle 2.6.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2016-2017 Isis Agora Lovecruft, Henry de Valence. All rights reserved.
+Copyright (c) 2016-2024 Isis Agora Lovecruft. All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
+met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
+contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
+this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS
+IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
+HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
+SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
+PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. 
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-alloc-no-stdlib ">alloc-stdlib 0.2.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-brotli ">brotli 8.0.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) &lt;year&gt; &lt;owner&gt;. 
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/rust-snappy ">snap 1.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2011, The Snappy-Rust Authors. All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
+met:
+
+    * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+    * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
+copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer
+in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the
+distribution.
+    * Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
+contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
+this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+&quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
+A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
+OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
+SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
+DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
+THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
+OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSD-3-Clause">BSD 3-Clause &quot;New&quot; or &quot;Revised&quot; License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hsivonen/encoding_rs ">encoding_rs 0.8.35</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright © WHATWG (Apple, Google, Mozilla, Microsoft).
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
+   list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
+   this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
+   and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
+   contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
+   this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot;
+AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
+DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
+SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
+CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY,
+OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
+OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="BSL-1.0">Boost Software License 1.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/DoumanAsh/xxhash-rust ">xxhash-rust 0.8.15</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Boost Software License - Version 1.0 - August 17th, 2003
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person or organization
+obtaining a copy of the software and accompanying documentation covered by
+this license (the &quot;Software&quot;) to use, reproduce, display, distribute,
+execute, and transmit the Software, and to prepare derivative works of the
+Software, and to permit third-parties to whom the Software is furnished to
+do so, all subject to the following:
+
+The copyright notices in the Software and this entire statement, including
+the above license grant, this restriction and the following disclaimer,
+must be included in all copies of the Software, in whole or in part, and
+all derivative works of the Software, unless such copies or derivative
+works are solely in the form of machine-executable object code generated by
+a source language processor.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, TITLE AND NON-INFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS OR ANYONE DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE BE LIABLE
+FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE,
+ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="CC0-1.0">Creative Commons Zero v1.0 Universal</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://crates.io/crates/tiny-keccak ">tiny-keccak 2.0.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Creative Commons Legal Code
+
+CC0 1.0 Universal
+
+    CREATIVE COMMONS CORPORATION IS NOT A LAW FIRM AND DOES NOT PROVIDE
+    LEGAL SERVICES. DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT DOES NOT CREATE AN
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+    HEREUNDER.
+
+Statement of Purpose
+
+The laws of most jurisdictions throughout the world automatically confer
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+For these and/or other purposes and motivations, and without any
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+1. Copyright and Related Rights. A Work made available under CC0 may be
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+ vi. database rights (such as those arising under Directive 96/9/EC of the
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+     protection of databases, and under any national implementation
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+vii. other similar, equivalent or corresponding rights throughout the
+     world based on applicable law or treaty, and any national
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+
+2. Waiver. To the greatest extent permitted by, but not in contravention
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+irrevocably and unconditionally waives, abandons, and surrenders all of
+Affirmer&#x27;s Copyright and Related Rights and associated claims and causes
+of action, whether now known or unknown (including existing as well as
+future claims and causes of action), in the Work (i) in all territories
+worldwide, (ii) for the maximum duration provided by applicable law or
+treaty (including future time extensions), (iii) in any current or future
+medium and for any number of copies, and (iv) for any purpose whatsoever,
+including without limitation commercial, advertising or promotional
+purposes (the &quot;Waiver&quot;). Affirmer makes the Waiver for the benefit of each
+member of the public at large and to the detriment of Affirmer&#x27;s heirs and
+successors, fully intending that such Waiver shall not be subject to
+revocation, rescission, cancellation, termination, or any other legal or
+equitable action to disrupt the quiet enjoyment of the Work by the public
+as contemplated by Affirmer&#x27;s express Statement of Purpose.
+
+3. Public License Fallback. Should any part of the Waiver for any reason
+be judged legally invalid or ineffective under applicable law, then the
+Waiver shall be preserved to the maximum extent permitted taking into
+account Affirmer&#x27;s express Statement of Purpose. In addition, to the
+extent the Waiver is so judged Affirmer hereby grants to each affected
+person a royalty-free, non transferable, non sublicensable, non exclusive,
+irrevocable and unconditional license to exercise Affirmer&#x27;s Copyright and
+Related Rights in the Work (i) in all territories worldwide, (ii) for the
+maximum duration provided by applicable law or treaty (including future
+time extensions), (iii) in any current or future medium and for any number
+of copies, and (iv) for any purpose whatsoever, including without
+limitation commercial, advertising or promotional purposes (the
+&quot;License&quot;). The License shall be deemed effective as of the date CC0 was
+applied by Affirmer to the Work. Should any part of the License for any
+reason be judged legally invalid or ineffective under applicable law, such
+partial invalidity or ineffectiveness shall not invalidate the remainder
+of the License, and in such case Affirmer hereby affirms that he or she
+will not (i) exercise any of his or her remaining Copyright and Related
+Rights in the Work or (ii) assert any associated claims and causes of
+action with respect to the Work, in either case contrary to Affirmer&#x27;s
+express Statement of Purpose.
+
+4. Limitations and Disclaimers.
+
+ a. No trademark or patent rights held by Affirmer are waived, abandoned,
+    surrendered, licensed or otherwise affected by this document.
+ b. Affirmer offers the Work as-is and makes no representations or
+    warranties of any kind concerning the Work, express, implied,
+    statutory or otherwise, including without limitation warranties of
+    title, merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, non
+    infringement, or the absence of latent or other defects, accuracy, or
+    the present or absence of errors, whether or not discoverable, all to
+    the greatest extent permissible under applicable law.
+ c. Affirmer disclaims responsibility for clearing rights of other persons
+    that may apply to the Work or any use thereof, including without
+    limitation any person&#x27;s Copyright and Related Rights in the Work.
+    Further, Affirmer disclaims responsibility for obtaining any necessary
+    consents, permissions or other rights required for any use of the
+    Work.
+ d. Affirmer understands and acknowledges that Creative Commons is not a
+    party to this document and has no duty or obligation with respect to
+    this CC0 or use of the Work.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="CDLA-Permissive-2.0">Community Data License Agreement Permissive 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/webpki-roots ">webpki-root-certs 1.0.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text"># Community Data License Agreement - Permissive - Version 2.0
+
+This is the Community Data License Agreement - Permissive, Version
+2.0 (the &quot;agreement&quot;). Data Provider(s) and Data Recipient(s) agree
+as follows:
+
+## 1. Provision of the Data
+
+1.1. A Data Recipient may use, modify, and share the Data made
+available by Data Provider(s) under this agreement if that Data
+Recipient follows the terms of this agreement.
+
+1.2. This agreement does not impose any restriction on a Data
+Recipient&#x27;s use, modification, or sharing of any portions of the
+Data that are in the public domain or that may be used, modified,
+or shared under any other legal exception or limitation.
+
+## 2. Conditions for Sharing Data
+
+2.1. A Data Recipient may share Data, with or without modifications, so
+long as the Data Recipient makes available the text of this agreement
+with the shared Data.
+
+## 3. No Restrictions on Results
+
+3.1. This agreement does not impose any restriction or obligations
+with respect to the use, modification, or sharing of Results.
+
+## 4. No Warranty; Limitation of Liability
+
+4.1. All Data Recipients receive the Data subject to the following
+terms:
+
+THE DATA IS PROVIDED ON AN &quot;AS IS&quot; BASIS, WITHOUT REPRESENTATIONS,
+WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
+INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF TITLE,
+NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
+
+NO DATA PROVIDER SHALL HAVE ANY LIABILITY FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
+INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING
+WITHOUT LIMITATION LOST PROFITS), HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE DATA OR RESULTS,
+EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
+
+## 5. Definitions
+
+5.1. &quot;Data&quot; means the material received by a Data Recipient under
+this agreement.
+
+5.2. &quot;Data Provider&quot; means any person who is the source of Data
+provided under this agreement and in reliance on a Data Recipient&#x27;s
+agreement to its terms.
+
+5.3. &quot;Data Recipient&quot; means any person who receives Data directly
+or indirectly from a Data Provider and agrees to the terms of this
+agreement.
+
+5.4. &quot;Results&quot; means any outcome obtained by computational analysis
+of Data, including for example machine learning models and models&#x27;
+insights.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/untrusted ">untrusted 0.7.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/untrusted ">untrusted 0.9.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">// Copyright 2015-2016 Brian Smith.
+//
+// Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
+// purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
+// copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+//
+// THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHORS DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES
+// WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+// MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS BE LIABLE FOR
+// ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+// WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
+// ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF
+// OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/acw/simple_asn1 ">simple_asn1 0.6.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017 Adam Wick
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose
+with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice
+and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
+REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
+FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
+INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
+OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER
+TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF
+THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/briansmith/ring ">ring 0.17.14</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2015-2025 Brian Smith.
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
+purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
+copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES
+WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nagisa/rust_libloading/ ">libloading 0.7.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright © 2015, Simonas Kazlauskas
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without
+fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice and this permission notice appear
+in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
+SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF
+THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rustls/webpki ">rustls-webpki 0.103.13</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Except as otherwise noted, this project is licensed under the following
+(ISC-style) terms:
+
+Copyright 2015 Brian Smith.
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
+purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
+copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHORS DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES
+WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
+ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF
+OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+
+The files under third-party/chromium are licensed as described in
+third-party/chromium/LICENSE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/frewsxcv/earcutr/ ">earcutr 0.4.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">ISC License
+
+Copyright (c) 2016, Mapbox
+Copyright (c) 2018, Tree Cricket
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose
+with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice
+and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
+REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
+FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
+INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
+OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER
+TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF
+THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="ISC">ISC License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-rs 1.17.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">ISC License:
+
+Copyright (c) 2004-2010 by Internet Systems Consortium, Inc. (&quot;ISC&quot;)
+Copyright (c) 1995-2003 by Internet Software Consortium
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot; AND ISC DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL ISC BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/acatton/serde-yaml-ng ">serde_yaml_ng 0.10.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">                                  MIT License
+
+Copyright 2024 Antoine Catton
+Copyright 2016-2024 David Tolnay
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
+this software and associated documentation files (the “Software”), to deal in
+the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
+use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies
+of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do
+so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED “AS IS”, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dropbox/rust-brotli ">brotli 8.0.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2009, 2010, 2013-2016 by the Brotli Authors.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/mio ">mio 1.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014 Carl Lerche and other MIO contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-bakery/nom ">nom 8.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014-2019 Geoffroy Couprie
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/hyper ">hyper 1.9.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2014-2026 Sean McArthur
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/reem/rust-ordered-float ">ordered-float 2.10.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/reem/rust-ordered-float ">ordered-float 5.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2015 Jonathan Reem
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/steffengy/schannel-rs ">schannel 0.1.29</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2015 steffengy
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/quickwit-oss/bitpacking ">bitpacking 0.9.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2016 Paul Masurel
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.redox-os.org/redox-os/syscall ">redox_syscall 0.5.18</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017 Redox OS Developers
+
+MIT License
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/h2 ">h2 0.4.14</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2017 h2 authors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/bytes ">bytes 1.11.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018 Carl Lerche
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/want ">want 0.3.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018-2019 Sean McArthur
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/seanmonstar/try-lock ">try-lock 0.2.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2018-2023 Sean McArthur
+Copyright (c) 2016 Alex Crichton
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/axum ">axum 0.7.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Axum Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/loom ">loom 0.7.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/slab ">slab 0.4.12</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Carl Lerche
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hawkw/sharded-slab ">sharded-slab 0.1.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Eliza Weisman
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hawkw/matchers ">matchers 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Eliza Weisman
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http-body ">http-body 0.4.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Hyper Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-appender 0.2.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-attributes 0.1.31</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-core 0.1.36</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-log 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-serde 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing-subscriber 0.3.23</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tracing ">tracing 0.1.44</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Tokio Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower ">tower-layer 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower ">tower-service 0.3.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower ">tower 0.5.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019 Tower Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower-http ">tower-http 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tower-rs/tower-http ">tower-http 0.6.11</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019-2021 Tower Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http-body ">http-body 1.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019-2024 Sean McArthur &amp; Hyper Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/http-body ">http-body-util 0.1.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2019-2025 Sean McArthur &amp; Hyper Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/RustCrypto/asm-hashes ">sha2-asm 0.6.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2020 RustCrypto Developers
+Copyright (c) 2017 Project Nayuki, Artyom Pavlov
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/davidhewitt/pythonize ">pythonize 0.28.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2022-present David Hewitt and Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/hyperium/hyper-util ">hyper-util 0.1.20</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2023-2025 Sean McArthur
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mystor/synstructure ">synstructure 0.13.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2016 Nika Layzell
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rkyv/bytecheck ">bytecheck_derive 0.8.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2020 David Koloski
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/axum ">axum-core 0.4.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2021 Axum Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rkyv/ptr_meta ">ptr_meta 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rkyv/ptr_meta ">ptr_meta_derive 0.3.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/djkoloski/rend ">rend 0.5.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rkyv/rkyv ">rkyv 0.8.16</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rkyv/rkyv ">rkyv_derive 0.8.16</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2021 David Koloski
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rkyv/bytecheck ">bytecheck 0.8.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2023 David Koloski
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rkyv/rancor ">rancor 0.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2023 David Koloski
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/djkoloski/munge ">munge 0.4.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/djkoloski/munge ">munge_macro 0.4.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2024 David Koloski
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/orlp/recursive ">recursive-proc-macro-impl 0.1.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/orlp/recursive ">recursive 0.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright 2024, Orson R. L. Peters
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
+this software and associated documentation files (the “Software”), to deal in
+the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
+use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so,
+subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED “AS IS”, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
+FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR
+COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/statrs-dev/statrs ">statrs 0.18.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Michael Ma
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pacman82/atoi-rs ">atoi 2.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/webdesus/fs_extra ">fs_extra 1.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Denis Kurilenko
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/myrrlyn/tap ">tap 1.0.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Elliot Linder &lt;darfink@gmail.com&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/vitiral/std_prelude ">std_prelude 0.2.12</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Garrett Berg &lt;vitiral@gmail.com&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/djc/tokio-retry ">tokio-retry 0.3.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Sam Rijs
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling 0.20.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling 0.23.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_core 0.20.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_core 0.23.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_macro 0.20.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/TedDriggs/darling ">darling_macro 0.23.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Ted Driggs
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/SimonSapin/rust-typed-arena ">typed-arena 2.0.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2018 The typed-arena developers
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitvecto-rs/bitvec ">bitvec 1.0.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/myrrlyn/wyz ">wyz 0.5.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2018 myrrlyn (Alexander Payne)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sgodwincs/ordered-multimap-rs ">ordered-multimap 0.7.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2018 sgodwincs
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/georust/geographiclib-rs ">geographiclib-rs 0.2.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/xacrimon/dashmap ">dashmap 6.2.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Acrimon
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Aeledfyr/deepsize/ ">deepsize 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Aeledfyr
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nukesor/comfy-table ">comfy-table 7.2.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Arne Beer
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/GREsau/schemars ">schemars 0.8.22</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/GREsau/schemars ">schemars_derive 0.8.22</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Graham Esau
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Peternator7/strum ">strum 0.26.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Peternator7/strum ">strum 0.28.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Peternator7/strum ">strum_macros 0.26.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Peternator7/strum ">strum_macros 0.28.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Peter Glotfelty
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio-macros 2.7.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 Yoshua Wuyts
+Copyright (c) Tokio Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/bitvecto-rs/radium ">radium 0.7.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2019 kneecaw (Nika Layzell)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tabac/hyperloglog.rs ">hyperloglogplus 0.4.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Anastasios Bakogiannis
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/bronsonbdevost/next_afterf ">float_next_after 1.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Scripta Qumranica Electronica
+
+Created by Bronson Brown-deVost
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/thoren-d/tracing-chrome ">tracing-chrome 0.7.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Thoren Paulson
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/magiclen/unicode-blocks ">unicode-blocks 0.1.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 magiclen.org (Ron Li)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/myrrlyn/funty ">funty 2.0.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 myrrlyn (Alexander Payne)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs ">arrow-array 58.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020-2022 Oliver Margetts
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/const-str ">const-str 1.1.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2020-2026 Nugine
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.com/samsartor/async_cell ">async_cell 0.2.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2021 Sam Sartor
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/ibraheemdev/matchit ">matchit 0.7.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2022 Ibraheem Ahmed
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/outref ">outref 0.5.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2022 Nugine
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.redox-os.org/redox-os/libredox.git ">libredox 0.1.16</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2023 4lDO2
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iFloat ">i_float 1.15.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iShape ">i_shape 1.14.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2023 iShape-Rust
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/spire-rs/countio ">countio 0.3.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2024 Spire Team
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iKeySort ">i_key_sort 0.6.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iTree ">i_tree 0.16.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2024 iShape-Rust
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/simd ">base64-simd 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Aeledfyr/deepsize/ ">deepsize_derive 0.1.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/iShape-Rust/iOverlay ">i_overlay 4.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/messense/jieba-rs ">jieba-macros 0.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/messense/jieba-rs ">jieba-rs 0.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/sam-osamu/com.kanaria ">kanaria 0.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-lang/compiler-builtins ">libm 0.2.16</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lindera/lindera ">lindera-dictionary 3.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/lindera/lindera ">lindera 3.0.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/influxdata/pbjson ">pbjson-build 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/influxdata/pbjson ">pbjson-types 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/influxdata/pbjson ">pbjson 0.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/MitchellRhysHall/random_word ">random_word 0.5.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Nugine/simd ">vsimd 0.8.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) &lt;year&gt; &lt;copyright holders&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and
+associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the
+following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial
+portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO
+EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE
+USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio-stream 0.1.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio-util 0.7.18</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio ">tokio 1.52.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) Tokio Contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mcountryman/simd-adler32 ">simd-adler32 0.3.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) [2021] [Marvin Countryman]
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/oxalica/async-ffi ">async-ffi 0.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/unsafe-libyaml ">unsafe-libyaml 0.2.11</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/zmij ">zmij 1.0.21</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/winnow-rs/winnow ">winnow 1.0.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mvdnes/spin-rs.git ">spin 0.9.8</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014 Mathijs van de Nes
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/zonyitoo/rust-ini ">rust-ini 0.21.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014 Y. T. CHUNG
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf 0.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf_codegen 0.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf_generator 0.13.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf_shared 0.12.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rust-phf/rust-phf ">phf_shared 0.13.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014-2022 Steven Fackler, Yuki Okushi
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
+this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in
+the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
+use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so,
+subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
+FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR
+COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/aho-corasick ">aho-corasick 1.1.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/byteorder ">byteorder 1.5.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/rust-csv ">csv-core 0.1.13</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/rust-csv ">csv 1.4.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/fst ">fst 0.4.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/jiff ">jiff-tzdb-platform 0.1.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/jiff ">jiff-tzdb 0.1.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/jiff ">jiff 0.2.24</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/memchr ">memchr 2.8.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/utf8-ranges ">utf8-ranges 1.0.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/walkdir ">walkdir 2.5.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Andrew Gallant
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/10xGenomics/lz4-rs ">lz4-sys 1.11.1+lz4-1.10.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/10xGenomics/lz4-rs ">lz4 1.28.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Artem V. Navrotskiy
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rapidfuzz/strsim-rs ">strsim 0.11.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Danny Guo
+Copyright (c) 2016 Titus Wormer &lt;tituswormer@gmail.com&gt;
+Copyright (c) 2018 Akash Kurdekar
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/GuillaumeGomez/sysinfo ">sysinfo 0.38.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Guillaume Gomez
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/shepmaster/twox-hash ">twox-hash 2.1.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Jake Goulding
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Marwes/combine ">combine 4.6.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Markus Westerlind
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/Keats/jsonwebtoken ">jsonwebtoken 10.4.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Vincent Prouillet
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/aws/aws-lc-rs ">aws-lc-sys 0.41.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015-2020 the fiat-crypto authors (see
+https://github.com/mit-plv/fiat-crypto/blob/master/AUTHORS).
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dermesser/integer-encoding-rs ">integer-encoding 3.0.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Google Inc. (lewinb@google.com) -- though not an official
+Google product or in any way related!
+Copyright (c) 2018-2020 Lewin Bormann (lbo@spheniscida.de)
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to
+deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the
+rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or
+sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING
+FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS
+IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/jcreekmore/pem-rs.git ">pem 3.0.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Jonathan Creekmore
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nabijaczleweli/safe-transmute-rs ">safe-transmute 0.11.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 nabijaczleweli
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/same-file ">same-file 1.0.6</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/BurntSushi/winapi-util ">winapi-util 0.1.11</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Andrew Gallant
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://gitlab.redox-os.org/redox-os/users ">redox_users 0.5.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2017 Jose Narvaez
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/pseitz/lz4_flex ">lz4_flex 0.13.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2020 Pascal Seitz
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
+this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in
+the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
+use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so,
+subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
+FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR
+COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/eira-fransham/crunchy ">crunchy 0.2.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright 2017-2023 Eira Fransham.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/gyscos/zstd-rs ">zstd 0.13.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+Copyright (c) 2016 Alexandre Bury
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/nushell/nu-ansi-term ">nu-ansi-term 0.50.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2014 Benjamin Sago
+Copyright (c) 2021-2022 The Nushell Project Developers
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/abonander/mime_guess ">mime_guess 2.0.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Austin Bonander
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
+
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fizyk20/generic-array.git ">generic-array 0.14.7</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2015 Bartłomiej Kamiński
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tafia/quick-xml ">quick-xml 0.38.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/tafia/quick-xml ">quick-xml 0.39.4</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) 2016 Johann Tuffe
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MIT">MIT License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/kornelski/rust_urlencoding ">urlencoding 2.1.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">© 2016 Bertram Truong
+© 2021 Kornel Lesiński
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
+THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/fitzgen/generational-arena ">generational-arena 0.2.9</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Mozilla Public License Version 2.0
+&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;
+
+1. Definitions
+--------------
+
+1.1. &quot;Contributor&quot;
+    means each individual or legal entity that creates, contributes to
+    the creation of, or owns Covered Software.
+
+1.2. &quot;Contributor Version&quot;
+    means the combination of the Contributions of others (if any) used
+    by a Contributor and that particular Contributor&#x27;s Contribution.
+
+1.3. &quot;Contribution&quot;
+    means Covered Software of a particular Contributor.
+
+1.4. &quot;Covered Software&quot;
+    means Source Code Form to which the initial Contributor has attached
+    the notice in Exhibit A, the Executable Form of such Source Code
+    Form, and Modifications of such Source Code Form, in each case
+    including portions thereof.
+
+1.5. &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;
+    means
+
+    (a) that the initial Contributor has attached the notice described
+        in Exhibit B to the Covered Software; or
+
+    (b) that the Covered Software was made available under the terms of
+        version 1.1 or earlier of the License, but not also under the
+        terms of a Secondary License.
+
+1.6. &quot;Executable Form&quot;
+    means any form of the work other than Source Code Form.
+
+1.7. &quot;Larger Work&quot;
+    means a work that combines Covered Software with other material, in
+    a separate file or files, that is not Covered Software.
+
+1.8. &quot;License&quot;
+    means this document.
+
+1.9. &quot;Licensable&quot;
+    means having the right to grant, to the maximum extent possible,
+    whether at the time of the initial grant or subsequently, any and
+    all of the rights conveyed by this License.
+
+1.10. &quot;Modifications&quot;
+    means any of the following:
+
+    (a) any file in Source Code Form that results from an addition to,
+        deletion from, or modification of the contents of Covered
+        Software; or
+
+    (b) any new file in Source Code Form that contains any Covered
+        Software.
+
+1.11. &quot;Patent Claims&quot; of a Contributor
+    means any patent claim(s), including without limitation, method,
+    process, and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by such
+    Contributor that would be infringed, but for the grant of the
+    License, by the making, using, selling, offering for sale, having
+    made, import, or transfer of either its Contributions or its
+    Contributor Version.
+
+1.12. &quot;Secondary License&quot;
+    means either the GNU General Public License, Version 2.0, the GNU
+    Lesser General Public License, Version 2.1, the GNU Affero General
+    Public License, Version 3.0, or any later versions of those
+    licenses.
+
+1.13. &quot;Source Code Form&quot;
+    means the form of the work preferred for making modifications.
+
+1.14. &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;)
+    means an individual or a legal entity exercising rights under this
+    License. For legal entities, &quot;You&quot; includes any entity that
+    controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with You. For
+    purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (a) the power, direct
+    or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity,
+    whether by contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than
+    fifty percent (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial
+    ownership of such entity.
+
+2. License Grants and Conditions
+--------------------------------
+
+2.1. Grants
+
+Each Contributor hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+non-exclusive license:
+
+(a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or trademark)
+    Licensable by such Contributor to use, reproduce, make available,
+    modify, display, perform, distribute, and otherwise exploit its
+    Contributions, either on an unmodified basis, with Modifications, or
+    as part of a Larger Work; and
+
+(b) under Patent Claims of such Contributor to make, use, sell, offer
+    for sale, have made, import, and otherwise transfer either its
+    Contributions or its Contributor Version.
+
+2.2. Effective Date
+
+The licenses granted in Section 2.1 with respect to any Contribution
+become effective for each Contribution on the date the Contributor first
+distributes such Contribution.
+
+2.3. Limitations on Grant Scope
+
+The licenses granted in this Section 2 are the only rights granted under
+this License. No additional rights or licenses will be implied from the
+distribution or licensing of Covered Software under this License.
+Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is granted by a
+Contributor:
+
+(a) for any code that a Contributor has removed from Covered Software;
+    or
+
+(b) for infringements caused by: (i) Your and any other third party&#x27;s
+    modifications of Covered Software, or (ii) the combination of its
+    Contributions with other software (except as part of its Contributor
+    Version); or
+
+(c) under Patent Claims infringed by Covered Software in the absence of
+    its Contributions.
+
+This License does not grant any rights in the trademarks, service marks,
+or logos of any Contributor (except as may be necessary to comply with
+the notice requirements in Section 3.4).
+
+2.4. Subsequent Licenses
+
+No Contributor makes additional grants as a result of Your choice to
+distribute the Covered Software under a subsequent version of this
+License (see Section 10.2) or under the terms of a Secondary License (if
+permitted under the terms of Section 3.3).
+
+2.5. Representation
+
+Each Contributor represents that the Contributor believes its
+Contributions are its original creation(s) or it has sufficient rights
+to grant the rights to its Contributions conveyed by this License.
+
+2.6. Fair Use
+
+This License is not intended to limit any rights You have under
+applicable copyright doctrines of fair use, fair dealing, or other
+equivalents.
+
+2.7. Conditions
+
+Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are conditions of the licenses granted
+in Section 2.1.
+
+3. Responsibilities
+-------------------
+
+3.1. Distribution of Source Form
+
+All distribution of Covered Software in Source Code Form, including any
+Modifications that You create or to which You contribute, must be under
+the terms of this License. You must inform recipients that the Source
+Code Form of the Covered Software is governed by the terms of this
+License, and how they can obtain a copy of this License. You may not
+attempt to alter or restrict the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code
+Form.
+
+3.2. Distribution of Executable Form
+
+If You distribute Covered Software in Executable Form then:
+
+(a) such Covered Software must also be made available in Source Code
+    Form, as described in Section 3.1, and You must inform recipients of
+    the Executable Form how they can obtain a copy of such Source Code
+    Form by reasonable means in a timely manner, at a charge no more
+    than the cost of distribution to the recipient; and
+
+(b) You may distribute such Executable Form under the terms of this
+    License, or sublicense it under different terms, provided that the
+    license for the Executable Form does not attempt to limit or alter
+    the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code Form under this License.
+
+3.3. Distribution of a Larger Work
+
+You may create and distribute a Larger Work under terms of Your choice,
+provided that You also comply with the requirements of this License for
+the Covered Software. If the Larger Work is a combination of Covered
+Software with a work governed by one or more Secondary Licenses, and the
+Covered Software is not Incompatible With Secondary Licenses, this
+License permits You to additionally distribute such Covered Software
+under the terms of such Secondary License(s), so that the recipient of
+the Larger Work may, at their option, further distribute the Covered
+Software under the terms of either this License or such Secondary
+License(s).
+
+3.4. Notices
+
+You may not remove or alter the substance of any license notices
+(including copyright notices, patent notices, disclaimers of warranty,
+or limitations of liability) contained within the Source Code Form of
+the Covered Software, except that You may alter any license notices to
+the extent required to remedy known factual inaccuracies.
+
+3.5. Application of Additional Terms
+
+You may choose to offer, and to charge a fee for, warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability obligations to one or more recipients of Covered
+Software. However, You may do so only on Your own behalf, and not on
+behalf of any Contributor. You must make it absolutely clear that any
+such warranty, support, indemnity, or liability obligation is offered by
+You alone, and You hereby agree to indemnify every Contributor for any
+liability incurred by such Contributor as a result of warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability terms You offer. You may include additional
+disclaimers of warranty and limitations of liability specific to any
+jurisdiction.
+
+4. Inability to Comply Due to Statute or Regulation
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+If it is impossible for You to comply with any of the terms of this
+License with respect to some or all of the Covered Software due to
+statute, judicial order, or regulation then You must: (a) comply with
+the terms of this License to the maximum extent possible; and (b)
+describe the limitations and the code they affect. Such description must
+be placed in a text file included with all distributions of the Covered
+Software under this License. Except to the extent prohibited by statute
+or regulation, such description must be sufficiently detailed for a
+recipient of ordinary skill to be able to understand it.
+
+5. Termination
+--------------
+
+5.1. The rights granted under this License will terminate automatically
+if You fail to comply with any of its terms. However, if You become
+compliant, then the rights granted under this License from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until such
+Contributor explicitly and finally terminates Your grants, and (b) on an
+ongoing basis, if such Contributor fails to notify You of the
+non-compliance by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after You have
+come back into compliance. Moreover, Your grants from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated on an ongoing basis if such Contributor
+notifies You of the non-compliance by some reasonable means, this is the
+first time You have received notice of non-compliance with this License
+from such Contributor, and You become compliant prior to 30 days after
+Your receipt of the notice.
+
+5.2. If You initiate litigation against any entity by asserting a patent
+infringement claim (excluding declaratory judgment actions,
+counter-claims, and cross-claims) alleging that a Contributor Version
+directly or indirectly infringes any patent, then the rights granted to
+You by any and all Contributors for the Covered Software under Section
+2.1 of this License shall terminate.
+
+5.3. In the event of termination under Sections 5.1 or 5.2 above, all
+end user license agreements (excluding distributors and resellers) which
+have been validly granted by You or Your distributors under this License
+prior to termination shall survive termination.
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  6. Disclaimer of Warranty                                           *
+*  -------------------------                                           *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Covered Software is provided under this License on an &quot;as is&quot;       *
+*  basis, without warranty of any kind, either expressed, implied, or  *
+*  statutory, including, without limitation, warranties that the       *
+*  Covered Software is free of defects, merchantable, fit for a        *
+*  particular purpose or non-infringing. The entire risk as to the     *
+*  quality and performance of the Covered Software is with You.        *
+*  Should any Covered Software prove defective in any respect, You     *
+*  (not any Contributor) assume the cost of any necessary servicing,   *
+*  repair, or correction. This disclaimer of warranty constitutes an   *
+*  essential part of this License. No use of any Covered Software is   *
+*  authorized under this License except under this disclaimer.         *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  7. Limitation of Liability                                          *
+*  --------------------------                                          *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Under no circumstances and under no legal theory, whether tort      *
+*  (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, shall any           *
+*  Contributor, or anyone who distributes Covered Software as          *
+*  permitted above, be liable to You for any direct, indirect,         *
+*  special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character      *
+*  including, without limitation, damages for lost profits, loss of    *
+*  goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any    *
+*  and all other commercial damages or losses, even if such party      *
+*  shall have been informed of the possibility of such damages. This   *
+*  limitation of liability shall not apply to liability for death or   *
+*  personal injury resulting from such party&#x27;s negligence to the       *
+*  extent applicable law prohibits such limitation. Some               *
+*  jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of           *
+*  incidental or consequential damages, so this exclusion and          *
+*  limitation may not apply to You.                                    *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+8. Litigation
+-------------
+
+Any litigation relating to this License may be brought only in the
+courts of a jurisdiction where the defendant maintains its principal
+place of business and such litigation shall be governed by laws of that
+jurisdiction, without reference to its conflict-of-law provisions.
+Nothing in this Section shall prevent a party&#x27;s ability to bring
+cross-claims or counter-claims.
+
+9. Miscellaneous
+----------------
+
+This License represents the complete agreement concerning the subject
+matter hereof. If any provision of this License is held to be
+unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
+necessary to make it enforceable. Any law or regulation which provides
+that the language of a contract shall be construed against the drafter
+shall not be used to construe this License against a Contributor.
+
+10. Versions of the License
+---------------------------
+
+10.1. New Versions
+
+Mozilla Foundation is the license steward. Except as provided in Section
+10.3, no one other than the license steward has the right to modify or
+publish new versions of this License. Each version will be given a
+distinguishing version number.
+
+10.2. Effect of New Versions
+
+You may distribute the Covered Software under the terms of the version
+of the License under which You originally received the Covered Software,
+or under the terms of any subsequent version published by the license
+steward.
+
+10.3. Modified Versions
+
+If you create software not governed by this License, and you want to
+create a new license for such software, you may create and use a
+modified version of this License if you rename the license and remove
+any references to the name of the license steward (except to note that
+such modified license differs from this License).
+
+10.4. Distributing Source Code Form that is Incompatible With Secondary
+Licenses
+
+If You choose to distribute Source Code Form that is Incompatible With
+Secondary Licenses under the terms of this version of the License, the
+notice described in Exhibit B of this License must be attached.
+
+Exhibit A - Source Code Form License Notice
+-------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
+  License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
+  file, You can obtain one at http://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
+
+If it is not possible or desirable to put the notice in a particular
+file, then You may include the notice in a location (such as a LICENSE
+file in a relevant directory) where a recipient would be likely to look
+for such a notice.
+
+You may add additional accurate notices of copyright ownership.
+
+Exhibit B - &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot; Notice
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;, as
+  defined by the Mozilla Public License, v. 2.0.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/mackwic/colored ">colored 3.1.1</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Mozilla Public License Version 2.0
+&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;
+
+1. Definitions
+--------------
+
+1.1. &quot;Contributor&quot;
+    means each individual or legal entity that creates, contributes to
+    the creation of, or owns Covered Software.
+
+1.2. &quot;Contributor Version&quot;
+    means the combination of the Contributions of others (if any) used
+    by a Contributor and that particular Contributor&#x27;s Contribution.
+
+1.3. &quot;Contribution&quot;
+    means Covered Software of a particular Contributor.
+
+1.4. &quot;Covered Software&quot;
+    means Source Code Form to which the initial Contributor has attached
+    the notice in Exhibit A, the Executable Form of such Source Code
+    Form, and Modifications of such Source Code Form, in each case
+    including portions thereof.
+
+1.5. &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;
+    means
+
+    (a) that the initial Contributor has attached the notice described
+        in Exhibit B to the Covered Software; or
+
+    (b) that the Covered Software was made available under the terms of
+        version 1.1 or earlier of the License, but not also under the
+        terms of a Secondary License.
+
+1.6. &quot;Executable Form&quot;
+    means any form of the work other than Source Code Form.
+
+1.7. &quot;Larger Work&quot;
+    means a work that combines Covered Software with other material, in 
+    a separate file or files, that is not Covered Software.
+
+1.8. &quot;License&quot;
+    means this document.
+
+1.9. &quot;Licensable&quot;
+    means having the right to grant, to the maximum extent possible,
+    whether at the time of the initial grant or subsequently, any and
+    all of the rights conveyed by this License.
+
+1.10. &quot;Modifications&quot;
+    means any of the following:
+
+    (a) any file in Source Code Form that results from an addition to,
+        deletion from, or modification of the contents of Covered
+        Software; or
+
+    (b) any new file in Source Code Form that contains any Covered
+        Software.
+
+1.11. &quot;Patent Claims&quot; of a Contributor
+    means any patent claim(s), including without limitation, method,
+    process, and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by such
+    Contributor that would be infringed, but for the grant of the
+    License, by the making, using, selling, offering for sale, having
+    made, import, or transfer of either its Contributions or its
+    Contributor Version.
+
+1.12. &quot;Secondary License&quot;
+    means either the GNU General Public License, Version 2.0, the GNU
+    Lesser General Public License, Version 2.1, the GNU Affero General
+    Public License, Version 3.0, or any later versions of those
+    licenses.
+
+1.13. &quot;Source Code Form&quot;
+    means the form of the work preferred for making modifications.
+
+1.14. &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;)
+    means an individual or a legal entity exercising rights under this
+    License. For legal entities, &quot;You&quot; includes any entity that
+    controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with You. For
+    purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (a) the power, direct
+    or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity,
+    whether by contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than
+    fifty percent (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial
+    ownership of such entity.
+
+2. License Grants and Conditions
+--------------------------------
+
+2.1. Grants
+
+Each Contributor hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+non-exclusive license:
+
+(a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or trademark)
+    Licensable by such Contributor to use, reproduce, make available,
+    modify, display, perform, distribute, and otherwise exploit its
+    Contributions, either on an unmodified basis, with Modifications, or
+    as part of a Larger Work; and
+
+(b) under Patent Claims of such Contributor to make, use, sell, offer
+    for sale, have made, import, and otherwise transfer either its
+    Contributions or its Contributor Version.
+
+2.2. Effective Date
+
+The licenses granted in Section 2.1 with respect to any Contribution
+become effective for each Contribution on the date the Contributor first
+distributes such Contribution.
+
+2.3. Limitations on Grant Scope
+
+The licenses granted in this Section 2 are the only rights granted under
+this License. No additional rights or licenses will be implied from the
+distribution or licensing of Covered Software under this License.
+Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is granted by a
+Contributor:
+
+(a) for any code that a Contributor has removed from Covered Software;
+    or
+
+(b) for infringements caused by: (i) Your and any other third party&#x27;s
+    modifications of Covered Software, or (ii) the combination of its
+    Contributions with other software (except as part of its Contributor
+    Version); or
+
+(c) under Patent Claims infringed by Covered Software in the absence of
+    its Contributions.
+
+This License does not grant any rights in the trademarks, service marks,
+or logos of any Contributor (except as may be necessary to comply with
+the notice requirements in Section 3.4).
+
+2.4. Subsequent Licenses
+
+No Contributor makes additional grants as a result of Your choice to
+distribute the Covered Software under a subsequent version of this
+License (see Section 10.2) or under the terms of a Secondary License (if
+permitted under the terms of Section 3.3).
+
+2.5. Representation
+
+Each Contributor represents that the Contributor believes its
+Contributions are its original creation(s) or it has sufficient rights
+to grant the rights to its Contributions conveyed by this License.
+
+2.6. Fair Use
+
+This License is not intended to limit any rights You have under
+applicable copyright doctrines of fair use, fair dealing, or other
+equivalents.
+
+2.7. Conditions
+
+Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are conditions of the licenses granted
+in Section 2.1.
+
+3. Responsibilities
+-------------------
+
+3.1. Distribution of Source Form
+
+All distribution of Covered Software in Source Code Form, including any
+Modifications that You create or to which You contribute, must be under
+the terms of this License. You must inform recipients that the Source
+Code Form of the Covered Software is governed by the terms of this
+License, and how they can obtain a copy of this License. You may not
+attempt to alter or restrict the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code
+Form.
+
+3.2. Distribution of Executable Form
+
+If You distribute Covered Software in Executable Form then:
+
+(a) such Covered Software must also be made available in Source Code
+    Form, as described in Section 3.1, and You must inform recipients of
+    the Executable Form how they can obtain a copy of such Source Code
+    Form by reasonable means in a timely manner, at a charge no more
+    than the cost of distribution to the recipient; and
+
+(b) You may distribute such Executable Form under the terms of this
+    License, or sublicense it under different terms, provided that the
+    license for the Executable Form does not attempt to limit or alter
+    the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code Form under this License.
+
+3.3. Distribution of a Larger Work
+
+You may create and distribute a Larger Work under terms of Your choice,
+provided that You also comply with the requirements of this License for
+the Covered Software. If the Larger Work is a combination of Covered
+Software with a work governed by one or more Secondary Licenses, and the
+Covered Software is not Incompatible With Secondary Licenses, this
+License permits You to additionally distribute such Covered Software
+under the terms of such Secondary License(s), so that the recipient of
+the Larger Work may, at their option, further distribute the Covered
+Software under the terms of either this License or such Secondary
+License(s).
+
+3.4. Notices
+
+You may not remove or alter the substance of any license notices
+(including copyright notices, patent notices, disclaimers of warranty,
+or limitations of liability) contained within the Source Code Form of
+the Covered Software, except that You may alter any license notices to
+the extent required to remedy known factual inaccuracies.
+
+3.5. Application of Additional Terms
+
+You may choose to offer, and to charge a fee for, warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability obligations to one or more recipients of Covered
+Software. However, You may do so only on Your own behalf, and not on
+behalf of any Contributor. You must make it absolutely clear that any
+such warranty, support, indemnity, or liability obligation is offered by
+You alone, and You hereby agree to indemnify every Contributor for any
+liability incurred by such Contributor as a result of warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability terms You offer. You may include additional
+disclaimers of warranty and limitations of liability specific to any
+jurisdiction.
+
+4. Inability to Comply Due to Statute or Regulation
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+If it is impossible for You to comply with any of the terms of this
+License with respect to some or all of the Covered Software due to
+statute, judicial order, or regulation then You must: (a) comply with
+the terms of this License to the maximum extent possible; and (b)
+describe the limitations and the code they affect. Such description must
+be placed in a text file included with all distributions of the Covered
+Software under this License. Except to the extent prohibited by statute
+or regulation, such description must be sufficiently detailed for a
+recipient of ordinary skill to be able to understand it.
+
+5. Termination
+--------------
+
+5.1. The rights granted under this License will terminate automatically
+if You fail to comply with any of its terms. However, if You become
+compliant, then the rights granted under this License from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until such
+Contributor explicitly and finally terminates Your grants, and (b) on an
+ongoing basis, if such Contributor fails to notify You of the
+non-compliance by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after You have
+come back into compliance. Moreover, Your grants from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated on an ongoing basis if such Contributor
+notifies You of the non-compliance by some reasonable means, this is the
+first time You have received notice of non-compliance with this License
+from such Contributor, and You become compliant prior to 30 days after
+Your receipt of the notice.
+
+5.2. If You initiate litigation against any entity by asserting a patent
+infringement claim (excluding declaratory judgment actions,
+counter-claims, and cross-claims) alleging that a Contributor Version
+directly or indirectly infringes any patent, then the rights granted to
+You by any and all Contributors for the Covered Software under Section
+2.1 of this License shall terminate.
+
+5.3. In the event of termination under Sections 5.1 or 5.2 above, all
+end user license agreements (excluding distributors and resellers) which
+have been validly granted by You or Your distributors under this License
+prior to termination shall survive termination.
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  6. Disclaimer of Warranty                                           *
+*  -------------------------                                           *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Covered Software is provided under this License on an &quot;as is&quot;       *
+*  basis, without warranty of any kind, either expressed, implied, or  *
+*  statutory, including, without limitation, warranties that the       *
+*  Covered Software is free of defects, merchantable, fit for a        *
+*  particular purpose or non-infringing. The entire risk as to the     *
+*  quality and performance of the Covered Software is with You.        *
+*  Should any Covered Software prove defective in any respect, You     *
+*  (not any Contributor) assume the cost of any necessary servicing,   *
+*  repair, or correction. This disclaimer of warranty constitutes an   *
+*  essential part of this License. No use of any Covered Software is   *
+*  authorized under this License except under this disclaimer.         *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  7. Limitation of Liability                                          *
+*  --------------------------                                          *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Under no circumstances and under no legal theory, whether tort      *
+*  (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, shall any           *
+*  Contributor, or anyone who distributes Covered Software as          *
+*  permitted above, be liable to You for any direct, indirect,         *
+*  special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character      *
+*  including, without limitation, damages for lost profits, loss of    *
+*  goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any    *
+*  and all other commercial damages or losses, even if such party      *
+*  shall have been informed of the possibility of such damages. This   *
+*  limitation of liability shall not apply to liability for death or   *
+*  personal injury resulting from such party&#x27;s negligence to the       *
+*  extent applicable law prohibits such limitation. Some               *
+*  jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of           *
+*  incidental or consequential damages, so this exclusion and          *
+*  limitation may not apply to You.                                    *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+8. Litigation
+-------------
+
+Any litigation relating to this License may be brought only in the
+courts of a jurisdiction where the defendant maintains its principal
+place of business and such litigation shall be governed by laws of that
+jurisdiction, without reference to its conflict-of-law provisions.
+Nothing in this Section shall prevent a party&#x27;s ability to bring
+cross-claims or counter-claims.
+
+9. Miscellaneous
+----------------
+
+This License represents the complete agreement concerning the subject
+matter hereof. If any provision of this License is held to be
+unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
+necessary to make it enforceable. Any law or regulation which provides
+that the language of a contract shall be construed against the drafter
+shall not be used to construe this License against a Contributor.
+
+10. Versions of the License
+---------------------------
+
+10.1. New Versions
+
+Mozilla Foundation is the license steward. Except as provided in Section
+10.3, no one other than the license steward has the right to modify or
+publish new versions of this License. Each version will be given a
+distinguishing version number.
+
+10.2. Effect of New Versions
+
+You may distribute the Covered Software under the terms of the version
+of the License under which You originally received the Covered Software,
+or under the terms of any subsequent version published by the license
+steward.
+
+10.3. Modified Versions
+
+If you create software not governed by this License, and you want to
+create a new license for such software, you may create and use a
+modified version of this License if you rename the license and remove
+any references to the name of the license steward (except to note that
+such modified license differs from this License).
+
+10.4. Distributing Source Code Form that is Incompatible With Secondary
+Licenses
+
+If You choose to distribute Source Code Form that is Incompatible With
+Secondary Licenses under the terms of this version of the License, the
+notice described in Exhibit B of this License must be attached.
+
+Exhibit A - Source Code Form License Notice
+-------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
+  License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
+  file, You can obtain one at http://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
+
+If it is not possible or desirable to put the notice in a particular
+file, then You may include the notice in a location (such as a LICENSE
+file in a relevant directory) where a recipient would be likely to look
+for such a notice.
+
+You may add additional accurate notices of copyright ownership.
+
+Exhibit B - &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot; Notice
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;, as
+  defined by the Mozilla Public License, v. 2.0.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="MPL-2.0">Mozilla Public License 2.0</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/soc/option-ext.git ">option-ext 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Mozilla Public License Version 2.0
+&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;&#x3D;
+
+1. Definitions
+--------------
+
+1.1. &quot;Contributor&quot;
+    means each individual or legal entity that creates, contributes to
+    the creation of, or owns Covered Software.
+
+1.2. &quot;Contributor Version&quot;
+    means the combination of the Contributions of others (if any) used
+    by a Contributor and that particular Contributor&#x27;s Contribution.
+
+1.3. &quot;Contribution&quot;
+    means Covered Software of a particular Contributor.
+
+1.4. &quot;Covered Software&quot;
+    means Source Code Form to which the initial Contributor has attached
+    the notice in Exhibit A, the Executable Form of such Source Code
+    Form, and Modifications of such Source Code Form, in each case
+    including portions thereof.
+
+1.5. &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;
+    means
+
+    (a) that the initial Contributor has attached the notice described
+        in Exhibit B to the Covered Software; or
+
+    (b) that the Covered Software was made available under the terms of
+        version 1.1 or earlier of the License, but not also under the
+        terms of a Secondary License.
+
+1.6. &quot;Executable Form&quot;
+    means any form of the work other than Source Code Form.
+
+1.7. &quot;Larger Work&quot;
+    means a work that combines Covered Software with other material, in 
+    a separate file or files, that is not Covered Software.
+
+1.8. &quot;License&quot;
+    means this document.
+
+1.9. &quot;Licensable&quot;
+    means having the right to grant, to the maximum extent possible,
+    whether at the time of the initial grant or subsequently, any and
+    all of the rights conveyed by this License.
+
+1.10. &quot;Modifications&quot;
+    means any of the following:
+
+    (a) any file in Source Code Form that results from an addition to,
+        deletion from, or modification of the contents of Covered
+        Software; or
+
+    (b) any new file in Source Code Form that contains any Covered
+        Software.
+
+1.11. &quot;Patent Claims&quot; of a Contributor
+    means any patent claim(s), including without limitation, method,
+    process, and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by such
+    Contributor that would be infringed, but for the grant of the
+    License, by the making, using, selling, offering for sale, having
+    made, import, or transfer of either its Contributions or its
+    Contributor Version.
+
+1.12. &quot;Secondary License&quot;
+    means either the GNU General Public License, Version 2.0, the GNU
+    Lesser General Public License, Version 2.1, the GNU Affero General
+    Public License, Version 3.0, or any later versions of those
+    licenses.
+
+1.13. &quot;Source Code Form&quot;
+    means the form of the work preferred for making modifications.
+
+1.14. &quot;You&quot; (or &quot;Your&quot;)
+    means an individual or a legal entity exercising rights under this
+    License. For legal entities, &quot;You&quot; includes any entity that
+    controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with You. For
+    purposes of this definition, &quot;control&quot; means (a) the power, direct
+    or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity,
+    whether by contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than
+    fifty percent (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial
+    ownership of such entity.
+
+2. License Grants and Conditions
+--------------------------------
+
+2.1. Grants
+
+Each Contributor hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
+non-exclusive license:
+
+(a) under intellectual property rights (other than patent or trademark)
+    Licensable by such Contributor to use, reproduce, make available,
+    modify, display, perform, distribute, and otherwise exploit its
+    Contributions, either on an unmodified basis, with Modifications, or
+    as part of a Larger Work; and
+
+(b) under Patent Claims of such Contributor to make, use, sell, offer
+    for sale, have made, import, and otherwise transfer either its
+    Contributions or its Contributor Version.
+
+2.2. Effective Date
+
+The licenses granted in Section 2.1 with respect to any Contribution
+become effective for each Contribution on the date the Contributor first
+distributes such Contribution.
+
+2.3. Limitations on Grant Scope
+
+The licenses granted in this Section 2 are the only rights granted under
+this License. No additional rights or licenses will be implied from the
+distribution or licensing of Covered Software under this License.
+Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is granted by a
+Contributor:
+
+(a) for any code that a Contributor has removed from Covered Software;
+    or
+
+(b) for infringements caused by: (i) Your and any other third party&#x27;s
+    modifications of Covered Software, or (ii) the combination of its
+    Contributions with other software (except as part of its Contributor
+    Version); or
+
+(c) under Patent Claims infringed by Covered Software in the absence of
+    its Contributions.
+
+This License does not grant any rights in the trademarks, service marks,
+or logos of any Contributor (except as may be necessary to comply with
+the notice requirements in Section 3.4).
+
+2.4. Subsequent Licenses
+
+No Contributor makes additional grants as a result of Your choice to
+distribute the Covered Software under a subsequent version of this
+License (see Section 10.2) or under the terms of a Secondary License (if
+permitted under the terms of Section 3.3).
+
+2.5. Representation
+
+Each Contributor represents that the Contributor believes its
+Contributions are its original creation(s) or it has sufficient rights
+to grant the rights to its Contributions conveyed by this License.
+
+2.6. Fair Use
+
+This License is not intended to limit any rights You have under
+applicable copyright doctrines of fair use, fair dealing, or other
+equivalents.
+
+2.7. Conditions
+
+Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are conditions of the licenses granted
+in Section 2.1.
+
+3. Responsibilities
+-------------------
+
+3.1. Distribution of Source Form
+
+All distribution of Covered Software in Source Code Form, including any
+Modifications that You create or to which You contribute, must be under
+the terms of this License. You must inform recipients that the Source
+Code Form of the Covered Software is governed by the terms of this
+License, and how they can obtain a copy of this License. You may not
+attempt to alter or restrict the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code
+Form.
+
+3.2. Distribution of Executable Form
+
+If You distribute Covered Software in Executable Form then:
+
+(a) such Covered Software must also be made available in Source Code
+    Form, as described in Section 3.1, and You must inform recipients of
+    the Executable Form how they can obtain a copy of such Source Code
+    Form by reasonable means in a timely manner, at a charge no more
+    than the cost of distribution to the recipient; and
+
+(b) You may distribute such Executable Form under the terms of this
+    License, or sublicense it under different terms, provided that the
+    license for the Executable Form does not attempt to limit or alter
+    the recipients&#x27; rights in the Source Code Form under this License.
+
+3.3. Distribution of a Larger Work
+
+You may create and distribute a Larger Work under terms of Your choice,
+provided that You also comply with the requirements of this License for
+the Covered Software. If the Larger Work is a combination of Covered
+Software with a work governed by one or more Secondary Licenses, and the
+Covered Software is not Incompatible With Secondary Licenses, this
+License permits You to additionally distribute such Covered Software
+under the terms of such Secondary License(s), so that the recipient of
+the Larger Work may, at their option, further distribute the Covered
+Software under the terms of either this License or such Secondary
+License(s).
+
+3.4. Notices
+
+You may not remove or alter the substance of any license notices
+(including copyright notices, patent notices, disclaimers of warranty,
+or limitations of liability) contained within the Source Code Form of
+the Covered Software, except that You may alter any license notices to
+the extent required to remedy known factual inaccuracies.
+
+3.5. Application of Additional Terms
+
+You may choose to offer, and to charge a fee for, warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability obligations to one or more recipients of Covered
+Software. However, You may do so only on Your own behalf, and not on
+behalf of any Contributor. You must make it absolutely clear that any
+such warranty, support, indemnity, or liability obligation is offered by
+You alone, and You hereby agree to indemnify every Contributor for any
+liability incurred by such Contributor as a result of warranty, support,
+indemnity or liability terms You offer. You may include additional
+disclaimers of warranty and limitations of liability specific to any
+jurisdiction.
+
+4. Inability to Comply Due to Statute or Regulation
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+If it is impossible for You to comply with any of the terms of this
+License with respect to some or all of the Covered Software due to
+statute, judicial order, or regulation then You must: (a) comply with
+the terms of this License to the maximum extent possible; and (b)
+describe the limitations and the code they affect. Such description must
+be placed in a text file included with all distributions of the Covered
+Software under this License. Except to the extent prohibited by statute
+or regulation, such description must be sufficiently detailed for a
+recipient of ordinary skill to be able to understand it.
+
+5. Termination
+--------------
+
+5.1. The rights granted under this License will terminate automatically
+if You fail to comply with any of its terms. However, if You become
+compliant, then the rights granted under this License from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until such
+Contributor explicitly and finally terminates Your grants, and (b) on an
+ongoing basis, if such Contributor fails to notify You of the
+non-compliance by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after You have
+come back into compliance. Moreover, Your grants from a particular
+Contributor are reinstated on an ongoing basis if such Contributor
+notifies You of the non-compliance by some reasonable means, this is the
+first time You have received notice of non-compliance with this License
+from such Contributor, and You become compliant prior to 30 days after
+Your receipt of the notice.
+
+5.2. If You initiate litigation against any entity by asserting a patent
+infringement claim (excluding declaratory judgment actions,
+counter-claims, and cross-claims) alleging that a Contributor Version
+directly or indirectly infringes any patent, then the rights granted to
+You by any and all Contributors for the Covered Software under Section
+2.1 of this License shall terminate.
+
+5.3. In the event of termination under Sections 5.1 or 5.2 above, all
+end user license agreements (excluding distributors and resellers) which
+have been validly granted by You or Your distributors under this License
+prior to termination shall survive termination.
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  6. Disclaimer of Warranty                                           *
+*  -------------------------                                           *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Covered Software is provided under this License on an &quot;as is&quot;       *
+*  basis, without warranty of any kind, either expressed, implied, or  *
+*  statutory, including, without limitation, warranties that the       *
+*  Covered Software is free of defects, merchantable, fit for a        *
+*  particular purpose or non-infringing. The entire risk as to the     *
+*  quality and performance of the Covered Software is with You.        *
+*  Should any Covered Software prove defective in any respect, You     *
+*  (not any Contributor) assume the cost of any necessary servicing,   *
+*  repair, or correction. This disclaimer of warranty constitutes an   *
+*  essential part of this License. No use of any Covered Software is   *
+*  authorized under this License except under this disclaimer.         *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+************************************************************************
+*                                                                      *
+*  7. Limitation of Liability                                          *
+*  --------------------------                                          *
+*                                                                      *
+*  Under no circumstances and under no legal theory, whether tort      *
+*  (including negligence), contract, or otherwise, shall any           *
+*  Contributor, or anyone who distributes Covered Software as          *
+*  permitted above, be liable to You for any direct, indirect,         *
+*  special, incidental, or consequential damages of any character      *
+*  including, without limitation, damages for lost profits, loss of    *
+*  goodwill, work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any    *
+*  and all other commercial damages or losses, even if such party      *
+*  shall have been informed of the possibility of such damages. This   *
+*  limitation of liability shall not apply to liability for death or   *
+*  personal injury resulting from such party&#x27;s negligence to the       *
+*  extent applicable law prohibits such limitation. Some               *
+*  jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of           *
+*  incidental or consequential damages, so this exclusion and          *
+*  limitation may not apply to You.                                    *
+*                                                                      *
+************************************************************************
+
+8. Litigation
+-------------
+
+Any litigation relating to this License may be brought only in the
+courts of a jurisdiction where the defendant maintains its principal
+place of business and such litigation shall be governed by laws of that
+jurisdiction, without reference to its conflict-of-law provisions.
+Nothing in this Section shall prevent a party&#x27;s ability to bring
+cross-claims or counter-claims.
+
+9. Miscellaneous
+----------------
+
+This License represents the complete agreement concerning the subject
+matter hereof. If any provision of this License is held to be
+unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
+necessary to make it enforceable. Any law or regulation which provides
+that the language of a contract shall be construed against the drafter
+shall not be used to construe this License against a Contributor.
+
+10. Versions of the License
+---------------------------
+
+10.1. New Versions
+
+Mozilla Foundation is the license steward. Except as provided in Section
+10.3, no one other than the license steward has the right to modify or
+publish new versions of this License. Each version will be given a
+distinguishing version number.
+
+10.2. Effect of New Versions
+
+You may distribute the Covered Software under the terms of the version
+of the License under which You originally received the Covered Software,
+or under the terms of any subsequent version published by the license
+steward.
+
+10.3. Modified Versions
+
+If you create software not governed by this License, and you want to
+create a new license for such software, you may create and use a
+modified version of this License if you rename the license and remove
+any references to the name of the license steward (except to note that
+such modified license differs from this License).
+
+10.4. Distributing Source Code Form that is Incompatible With Secondary
+Licenses
+
+If You choose to distribute Source Code Form that is Incompatible With
+Secondary Licenses under the terms of this version of the License, the
+notice described in Exhibit B of this License must be attached.
+
+Exhibit A - Source Code Form License Notice
+-------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
+  License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
+  file, You can obtain one at https://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
+
+If it is not possible or desirable to put the notice in a particular
+file, then You may include the notice in a location (such as a LICENSE
+file in a relevant directory) where a recipient would be likely to look
+for such a notice.
+
+You may add additional accurate notices of copyright ownership.
+
+Exhibit B - &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot; Notice
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+  This Source Code Form is &quot;Incompatible With Secondary Licenses&quot;, as
+  defined by the Mozilla Public License, v. 2.0.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Unicode-3.0">Unicode License v3</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/dtolnay/unicode-ident ">unicode-ident 1.0.24</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">UNICODE LICENSE V3
+
+COPYRIGHT AND PERMISSION NOTICE
+
+Copyright © 1991-2023 Unicode, Inc.
+
+NOTICE TO USER: Carefully read the following legal agreement. BY
+DOWNLOADING, INSTALLING, COPYING OR OTHERWISE USING DATA FILES, AND/OR
+SOFTWARE, YOU UNEQUIVOCALLY ACCEPT, AND AGREE TO BE BOUND BY, ALL OF THE
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE, DO NOT
+DOWNLOAD, INSTALL, COPY, DISTRIBUTE OR USE THE DATA FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+copy of data files and any associated documentation (the &quot;Data Files&quot;) or
+software and any associated documentation (the &quot;Software&quot;) to deal in the
+Data Files or Software without restriction, including without limitation
+the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, and/or sell
+copies of the Data Files or Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+Data Files or Software are furnished to do so, provided that either (a)
+this copyright and permission notice appear with all copies of the Data
+Files or Software, or (b) this copyright and permission notice appear in
+associated Documentation.
+
+THE DATA FILES AND SOFTWARE ARE PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY
+KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT OF
+THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR HOLDERS INCLUDED IN THIS NOTICE
+BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, OR ANY SPECIAL INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES,
+OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION,
+ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE DATA
+FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Except as contained in this notice, the name of a copyright holder shall
+not be used in advertising or otherwise to promote the sale, use or other
+dealings in these Data Files or Software without prior written
+authorization of the copyright holder.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Unicode-3.0">Unicode License v3</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_collections 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_locale 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_locale_core 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_locale_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_normalizer 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_normalizer_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_properties 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_properties_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_provider 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_segmenter 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">icu_segmenter_data 2.2.0</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">litemap 0.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">potential_utf 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">tinystr 0.8.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">writeable 0.6.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">yoke-derive 0.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">yoke 0.8.2</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerofrom-derive 0.1.7</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerofrom 0.1.8</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerotrie 0.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerovec-derive 0.11.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/unicode-org/icu4x ">zerovec 0.11.6</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">UNICODE LICENSE V3
+
+COPYRIGHT AND PERMISSION NOTICE
+
+Copyright © 2020-2024 Unicode, Inc.
+
+NOTICE TO USER: Carefully read the following legal agreement. BY
+DOWNLOADING, INSTALLING, COPYING OR OTHERWISE USING DATA FILES, AND/OR
+SOFTWARE, YOU UNEQUIVOCALLY ACCEPT, AND AGREE TO BE BOUND BY, ALL OF THE
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE, DO NOT
+DOWNLOAD, INSTALL, COPY, DISTRIBUTE OR USE THE DATA FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+copy of data files and any associated documentation (the &quot;Data Files&quot;) or
+software and any associated documentation (the &quot;Software&quot;) to deal in the
+Data Files or Software without restriction, including without limitation
+the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, and/or sell
+copies of the Data Files or Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+Data Files or Software are furnished to do so, provided that either (a)
+this copyright and permission notice appear with all copies of the Data
+Files or Software, or (b) this copyright and permission notice appear in
+associated Documentation.
+
+THE DATA FILES AND SOFTWARE ARE PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY
+KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT OF
+THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR HOLDERS INCLUDED IN THIS NOTICE
+BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, OR ANY SPECIAL INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES,
+OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION,
+ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE DATA
+FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+Except as contained in this notice, the name of a copyright holder shall
+not be used in advertising or otherwise to promote the sale, use or other
+dealings in these Data Files or Software without prior written
+authorization of the copyright holder.
+
+SPDX-License-Identifier: Unicode-3.0
+
+—
+
+Portions of ICU4X may have been adapted from ICU4C and/or ICU4J.
+ICU 1.8.1 to ICU 57.1 © 1995-2016 International Business Machines Corporation and others.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/trifectatechfoundation/zlib-rs ">zlib-rs 0.6.3</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">(C) 2024 Trifecta Tech Foundation 
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied
+warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/const_panic/ ">const_panic 0.2.15</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/konst/ ">konst 0.4.3</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/konst/ ">konst_proc_macros 0.4.1</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/tstr_crates/ ">tstr 0.2.4</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/tstr_crates/ ">tstr_proc_macros 0.2.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2021 Matias Rodriguez.
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied
+warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/typewit/ ">typewit 1.15.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2023 Matias Rodriguez.
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied
+warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/orlp/foldhash ">foldhash 0.1.5</a></li>
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/orlp/foldhash ">foldhash 0.2.0</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">Copyright (c) 2024 Orson Peters
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied warranty. In
+no event will the authors be held liable for any damages arising from the use of
+this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose, including
+commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it freely, subject to
+the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not claim
+    that you wrote the original software. If you use this software in a product,
+    an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is
+    not required.
+
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+    misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="Zlib">zlib License</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/rodrimati1992/repr_offset_crates/ ">repr_offset 0.2.2</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">zlib License
+
+This software is provided &#x27;as-is&#x27;, without any express or implied warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose, including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+     1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required.
+
+     2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+     3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.
+</pre>
+            </li>
+            <li class="license">
+                <h3 id="bzip2-1.0.6">bzip2 and libbzip2 License v1.0.6</h3>
+                <h4>Used by:</h4>
+                <ul class="license-used-by">
+                    <li><a href=" https://github.com/trifectatechfoundation/libbzip2-rs ">libbz2-rs-sys 0.2.5</a></li>
+                </ul>
+                <pre class="license-text">
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The original program, &quot;bzip2&quot;, the associated library &quot;libbzip2&quot;, and all
+documentation, are
+
+Copyright (C) 1996-2021 Julian R Seward.
+Copyright (C) 2019-2020 Federico Mena Quintero
+Copyright (C) 2021 Micah Snyder
+
+This Rust translation, &quot;libbzip2-rs&quot; is a derived work based on &quot;bzip2&quot; and
+&quot;libbzip2&quot;, and is Copyright (C) 2024-2025 Trifecta Tech Foundation and contributors
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must
+   not claim that you wrote the original software.  If you use this
+   software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product
+   documentation would be appreciated but is not required.
+
+3. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must
+   not be misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+4. The name of the author may not be used to endorse or promote
+   products derived from this software without specific prior written
+   permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR &#x60;&#x60;AS IS&#x27;&#x27; AND ANY EXPRESS
+OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE
+GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS
+INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY,
+WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+
+Julian Seward, jseward@acm.org
+bzip2/libbzip2 version 1.1.0 of 6 September 2010
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+</pre>
+            </li>
+        </ul>
+    </main>
+</body>
+
+</html>
diff --git a/python/pyproject.toml b/python/pyproject.toml
index 4b6814aa070..f6972e03af5 100644
--- a/python/pyproject.toml
+++ b/python/pyproject.toml
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
 [project]
 name = "pylance"
 dynamic = ["version"]
-dependencies = ["pyarrow>=14", "numpy>=1.22", "lance-namespace>=0.4.5"]
+dependencies = ["pyarrow>=14", "numpy>=1.22", "lance-namespace>=0.11.1,<0.12"]
 description = "python wrapper for Lance columnar format"
 authors = [{ name = "Lance Devs", email = "dev@lance.org" }]
 license = { file = "LICENSE" }
 repository = "https://github.com/lancedb/lance"
 readme = "README.md"
-requires-python = ">=3.9"
+requires-python = ">=3.10"
 keywords = [
     "data-format",
     "data-science",
@@ -30,11 +30,11 @@ classifiers = [
     "Programming Language :: Python",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3 :: Only",
-    "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.9",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.10",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.11",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.12",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.13",
+    "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.14",
     "Programming Language :: Rust",
     "Topic :: Scientific/Engineering",
 ]
@@ -49,27 +49,55 @@ build-backend = "maturin"
 [project.optional-dependencies]
 tests = [
     "boto3",
-    "datasets",
-    "duckdb",
+    "datasets==4.4.0",
+    "duckdb>=1.5.0,<1.6.0",
     "ml_dtypes",
     "pillow",
     "pandas",
     "polars[pyarrow,pandas]",
     "psutil",
     "pytest",
-    # Only test tensorflow on linux for now. We will deprecate tensorflow soon.
-    "tensorflow; sys_platform == 'linux'",
+    "pytest-xdist",
     "tqdm",
-    "datafusion>=50.1",
+    "datafusion>=54,<55",
 ]
-dev = ["ruff==0.4.1", "pyright"]
+dev = ["ruff==0.11.2", "pyright"]
 benchmarks = ["pytest-benchmark"]
+otel = ["opentelemetry-api", "opentelemetry-sdk"]
 torch = ["torch>=2.0"]
 geo = [
     "geoarrow-rust-core",
     "geoarrow-rust-io",
 ]
 
+[dependency-groups]
+tests = [
+    "boto3==1.40.43",
+    "datasets==4.4.0",
+    "duckdb>=1.5.0,<1.6.0",
+    "ml_dtypes==0.5.3",
+    "pillow==11.3.0",
+    "pandas==2.3.3",
+    "polars[pyarrow,pandas]==1.34.0",
+    "psutil==7.1.0",
+    "pytest==8.4.2",
+    "pytest-xdist==3.8.0",
+    "tqdm==4.67.1",
+    "datafusion==54.0.0",
+    "opentelemetry-sdk==1.30.0",
+]
+dev = [
+    "maturin==1.13.3",
+    "pyright==1.1.406",
+    "ruff==0.11.2",
+]
+benchmarks = [
+    "pytest-benchmark==5.1.0",
+]
+
+[tool.uv]
+default-groups = ["dev", "tests"]
+
 [tool.ruff]
 lint.select = ["F", "E", "W", "I", "G", "TCH", "PERF", "B019"]
 
@@ -77,7 +105,7 @@ lint.select = ["F", "E", "W", "I", "G", "TCH", "PERF", "B019"]
 "*.pyi" = ["E301", "E302"]
 
 [tool.pyright]
-pythonVersion = "3.13"
+pythonVersion = "3.14"
 # TODO: expand this list as we fix more files.
 include = [
     "python/lance/util.py",
@@ -85,8 +113,13 @@ include = [
     "python/lance/tracing.py",
     "python/lance/dependencies.py",
     "python/lance/schema.py",
+    "python/tests/test_schema.py",
     "python/lance/file.py",
     "python/lance/util.py",
+    "python/lance/arrow.py",
+    "python/tests/test_arrow.py",
+    "python/tests/test_fragment_typing.py",
+    "python/tests/test_udf.py",
 ]
 # Dependencies like pyarrow make this difficult to enforce strictly.
 reportMissingTypeStubs = "warning"
@@ -103,16 +136,14 @@ markers = [
     "gpu: tests which rely on pytorch and some kind of gpu",
     "slow",
     "torch: tests which rely on pytorch being installed",
-    "recurring: marks tests as recurring tests",
 ]
 filterwarnings = [
     'error::FutureWarning',
     'error::DeprecationWarning',
-    # TensorFlow import can emit NumPy deprecation FutureWarnings in some environments.
-    # We keep FutureWarnings as errors generally, but ignore this known-noisy import-time warning.
-    'ignore:.*`np\\.object` will be defined as the corresponding NumPy scalar\\..*:FutureWarning',
     # Boto3
     'ignore:.*datetime\.datetime\.utcnow\(\) is deprecated.*:DeprecationWarning',
+    # Hugging Face Hub calls this deprecated hf-xet API internally.
+    'ignore:.*hf_xet\.download_files\(\) is deprecated.*:DeprecationWarning',
     # Pandas 2.2 on Python 2.12
     'ignore:.*datetime\.datetime\.utcfromtimestamp\(\) is deprecated.*:DeprecationWarning',
     # Pytorch 2.2 on Python 3.12
@@ -122,7 +153,8 @@ filterwarnings = [
     'ignore:.*the load_module\(\) method is deprecated.*:DeprecationWarning',
     # Pytorch uses deprecated jit.script_method internally (torch/utils/mkldnn.py)
     'ignore:.*torch\.jit\.script_method.*is deprecated.*:DeprecationWarning',
-    # TensorFlow/Keras import can emit NumPy deprecation FutureWarnings in some environments.
-    # Keep FutureWarnings as errors generally, but ignore this known-noisy import-time warning.
-    'ignore:.*np\.object.*:FutureWarning',
+    # Pytorch uses the same API internally on Python 3.14+ with a different warning message.
+    'ignore:.*torch\.jit\.script_method.*is not supported in Python 3\.14\+.*:DeprecationWarning',
+    # huggingface_hub still calls the deprecated hf_xet.download_files() during Xet downloads
+    'ignore:.*hf_xet\.download_files\(\) is deprecated.*:DeprecationWarning',
 ]
diff --git a/python/python/benchmarks/duplicate_pairs.md b/python/python/benchmarks/duplicate_pairs.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e1b10aabec6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/benchmarks/duplicate_pairs.md
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+# Duplicate-pair CPU, I/O and memory benchmark
+
+This Linux profiler exercises the complete native partition-pair stream on
+1,536-dimensional cosine IVF_RQ5/RQ8 indices with 6,408 and 17,783 rows per
+partition. The fixtures are synthetic, with deterministic duplicate groups.
+They match the partition dimensions/cardinalities in issue #9535, not the full
+production table, centroid distribution, or distributed execution environment.
+
+## Prepare once, then measure read-only
+
+Follow `python/AGENTS.md` to install the project. Use the same repository
+`release-with-debug` profile, toolchain and environment for baseline and candidate.
+Run from `python/`:
+
+```sh
+uv run maturin develop --profile release-with-debug --uv
+uv run python python/benchmarks/duplicate_pairs.py prepare \
+  --prefix s3://YOUR-BUCKET/dedup/UNIQUE_RUN_ID --output cases.json
+```
+
+`prepare` creates new tables and indices and refuses to overwrite tables. Never
+point it at production data. Keep the generated `cases.json`: all comparisons
+must reuse these exact persisted dataset versions and segment IDs, without
+rebuilding the indices between implementations.
+
+```sh
+LANCE_CPU_THREADS=8 RAYON_NUM_THREADS=8 OPENBLAS_NUM_THREADS=1 OMP_NUM_THREADS=1 \
+  taskset -c 0-7 uv run --no-sync python python/benchmarks/duplicate_pairs.py run \
+  --config cases.json --case 0 --threshold 0.01 --label candidate \
+  --memory-limit 268435456 --max-concurrency 8 --output result.json
+```
+
+Use cases 0..3 and thresholds 0.01 (sparse output) and 1e9 (all pairs; any
+threshold at or above `ALL_PAIRS_THRESHOLD` asserts N*(N-1)/2 output pairs).
+Omit the two resource arguments when running a baseline that predates them.
+Each invocation is a fresh process, fully consumes the stream, and asserts zero
+writes on the source object store. Run only one measured process at a time, with no concurrent builds.
+The optional global `--credentials` argument reads an AWS credential-process
+JSON file; credential values are never written to results. Normal environment
+credentials work without that argument.
+
+## What the results mean
+
+- `elapsed_s` includes native planning, code staging, quantizer batch scoring and
+  streaming output hashing. Imports and opening the pinned dataset are excluded;
+  opening is reported separately as `dataset_open_s`. Table/index creation is
+  not timed.
+- Three independent SHA-256 hashes cover the ordered row-ID and float32-distance
+  columns; they depend on output order but not on batch boundaries. Output is
+  in tile order (vector batch pairs, row-major within a tile), which differs
+  from implementations that kept each `row_id_a` contiguous. Compare
+  `pair_set_hash` (an order-independent hash of the unordered ID pairs) and
+  `output_rows` between implementations; compare the ordered hashes only
+  between runs of one implementation, for example across `--max-concurrency`
+  and `--memory-limit`, where they must match exactly.
+- Cosine distances are `1 - cos` of the renormalized index reconstructions, in
+  [0, 2]. Compare distance hashes only between implementations with the same
+  scoring semantics; versions that reported normalized L2 / 2 for quantized
+  cosine differ.
+- `cpu_cores` is process user+system CPU time divided by wall time. It includes
+  the Python consumer and monitoring overhead, not just Rust scoring threads.
+- RSS is for the whole process, including Python, shared libraries and native
+  allocations. `peak_rss_bytes` is Linux's process high-water mark; it is not the
+  code staging budget. Each run also records its initial RSS.
+- Source bytes/IOPS come from Lance's object-store counters after dataset open.
+  They are distinct from temporary-file I/O. The last observed source read and
+  peak source rate use approximately 100 ms sampling, not exact span timing.
+- `disk_read_bytes`/`disk_write_bytes` are Linux process storage-I/O accounting.
+  `process_rchar`/`process_wchar` include logical syscall traffic, including
+  page-cache reads, monitoring and IPC; do not label them physical disk traffic
+  or exclusively spill traffic. Buffered write accounting is not an instantaneous
+  device-throughput measurement.
+- Host network counters include TLS and any background/control traffic. Source
+  object-store counters are the authoritative bytes attributed to the dataset.
+
+The adjacent `.trace.json` file contains the time series, so short I/O preparation
+can be distinguished from a long compute phase. Report repetitions and statistics
+explicitly; a single long scan must not be described as a median.
+
+## Resource diagnostics
+
+Also compare `--max-concurrency 1` to 8 and force code spill with
+`--memory-limit 0`. The latter changes the storage/memory tradeoff; OS file
+cache is not included in process RSS and may retain the code spill pages.
diff --git a/python/python/benchmarks/duplicate_pairs.py b/python/python/benchmarks/duplicate_pairs.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ebf5625cdbe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/benchmarks/duplicate_pairs.py
@@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Profile index-only duplicate pairs against immutable local or S3 fixtures.
+
+Use `prepare` once on a new, dedicated prefix, then run each measured invocation
+in a fresh process. `run` never writes to the source dataset. Its trace records
+source-store I/O separately from process disk I/O and total network traffic.
+"""
+
+import argparse
+import hashlib
+import json
+import os
+import resource
+import threading
+import time
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.vector import find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition
+
+
+def credentials(path):
+    if path:
+        value = json.loads(Path(path).read_text())
+        for key, name in [
+            ("AccessKeyId", "AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID"),
+            ("SecretAccessKey", "AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY"),
+            ("SessionToken", "AWS_SESSION_TOKEN"),
+        ]:
+            os.environ[name] = value[key]
+    os.environ.setdefault("AWS_REGION", "us-east-1")
+
+
+def prepare(args):
+    cases = []
+    for rows in [6408, 17783]:
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(9535)
+        vectors = rng.normal(size=(rows, 1536)).astype(np.float32)
+        vectors /= np.linalg.norm(vectors, axis=1, keepdims=True)
+        # Known duplicate groups give the sparse threshold meaningful output.
+        for start in range(0, rows, 32):
+            vectors[start : min(start + 16, rows)] = vectors[start]
+        table = pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array(np.arange(rows, dtype=np.uint64)),
+                "latents": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                    pa.array(vectors.reshape(-1)), 1536
+                ),
+            }
+        )
+        for bits in [5, 8]:
+            uri = f"{args.prefix.rstrip('/')}/rq{bits}-{rows}.lance"
+            # Refuse to overwrite an existing table. This command is only for
+            # creating dedicated synthetic fixtures, never production inputs.
+            ds = lance.write_dataset(
+                table,
+                uri,
+                mode="create",
+                max_rows_per_file=4096,
+                max_rows_per_group=4096,
+            )
+            ds = ds.create_index(
+                "latents",
+                "IVF_RQ",
+                metric="cosine",
+                num_bits=bits,
+                num_partitions=1,
+                ivf_centroids=np.full((1, 1536), 1 / np.sqrt(1536), dtype=np.float32),
+            )
+            segment = str(ds.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid)
+            cases.append(
+                dict(
+                    uri=uri,
+                    version=ds.version,
+                    segment_id=segment,
+                    partition_id=0,
+                    column="latents",
+                    rows=rows,
+                    dimension=1536,
+                    num_bits=bits,
+                    metric="cosine",
+                    seed=9535,
+                )
+            )
+            Path(args.output).write_text(json.dumps(cases, indent=2))
+
+
+# Any threshold at or above this value must emit every pair of the partition.
+ALL_PAIRS_THRESHOLD = 1e9
+
+
+def pair_hash_sum(batch):
+    a = batch.column(0).to_numpy(zero_copy_only=True)
+    b = batch.column(1).to_numpy(zero_copy_only=True)
+    x = np.minimum(a, b) * np.uint64(0x9E3779B97F4A7C15) ^ np.maximum(a, b)
+    x ^= x >> np.uint64(33)
+    x *= np.uint64(0xFF51AFD7ED558CCD)
+    x ^= x >> np.uint64(33)
+    return x.sum(dtype=np.uint64)
+
+
+def process_snapshot():
+    stats = resource.getrusage(resource.RUSAGE_SELF)
+    status = {}
+    for line in Path("/proc/self/status").read_text().splitlines():
+        if line.startswith(("VmRSS:", "VmHWM:")):
+            key, value, _ = line.split()
+            status[key.rstrip(":")] = int(value) * 1024
+    io = {}
+    for line in Path("/proc/self/io").read_text().splitlines():
+        key, value = line.split(":")
+        io[key] = int(value)
+    received = sent = 0
+    for device in Path("/sys/class/net").iterdir():
+        if device.name == "lo":
+            continue
+        received += int((device / "statistics/rx_bytes").read_text())
+        sent += int((device / "statistics/tx_bytes").read_text())
+    return dict(
+        cpu_s=stats.ru_utime + stats.ru_stime,
+        rss_bytes=status["VmRSS"],
+        peak_rss_bytes=status["VmHWM"],
+        disk_read_bytes=io["read_bytes"],
+        disk_write_bytes=io["write_bytes"],
+        process_rchar=io["rchar"],
+        process_wchar=io["wchar"],
+        host_rx_bytes=received,
+        host_tx_bytes=sent,
+    )
+
+
+def source_snapshot(dataset):
+    stats = dataset.io_stats_snapshot()
+    return dict(
+        source_read_bytes=stats.read_bytes,
+        source_read_iops=stats.read_iops,
+        source_write_iops=stats.write_iops,
+        source_written_bytes=stats.written_bytes,
+    )
+
+
+def run(args):
+    case = json.loads(Path(args.config).read_text())[args.case]
+    open_start = time.perf_counter()
+    dataset = lance.dataset(case["uri"], version=case["version"])
+    open_s = time.perf_counter() - open_start
+    dataset.io_stats_incremental()
+    output = Path(args.output)
+    output.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+    trace = []
+    stop = threading.Event()
+    start = time.perf_counter()
+
+    def sample():
+        trace.append(
+            dict(
+                t_s=time.perf_counter() - start,
+                **process_snapshot(),
+                **source_snapshot(dataset),
+            )
+        )
+
+    def monitor():
+        while not stop.wait(0.1):
+            sample()
+
+    sample()
+    observer = threading.Thread(target=monitor, daemon=True)
+    observer.start()
+    hashes = [hashlib.sha256() for _ in range(3)]
+    # Order-independent multiset hash of unordered ID pairs, so implementations
+    # with different (but deterministic) emission orders can be compared.
+    pair_set_hash = 0
+    count = 0
+    batches = 0
+    kwargs = {}
+    if args.memory_limit is not None:
+        kwargs["memory_limit"] = args.memory_limit
+    if args.max_concurrency is not None:
+        kwargs["max_concurrency"] = args.max_concurrency
+    try:
+        with find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+            dataset,
+            case["column"],
+            case["segment_id"],
+            case["partition_id"],
+            args.threshold,
+            **kwargs,
+        ) as reader:
+            for batch in reader:
+                count += batch.num_rows
+                batches += 1
+                for column, digest in zip(batch.columns, hashes):
+                    digest.update(column.to_numpy(zero_copy_only=True).tobytes())
+                pair_set_hash = (pair_set_hash + int(pair_hash_sum(batch))) % 2**64
+        elapsed = time.perf_counter() - start
+    finally:
+        stop.set()
+        observer.join()
+        sample()
+    final = source_snapshot(dataset)
+    assert final["source_write_iops"] == 0
+    assert final["source_written_bytes"] == 0
+    possible_pairs = case["rows"] * (case["rows"] - 1) // 2
+    if args.threshold >= ALL_PAIRS_THRESHOLD:
+        assert count == possible_pairs, (count, possible_pairs)
+    source_windows = [
+        (a, b)
+        for a, b in zip(trace, trace[1:])
+        if b["source_read_bytes"] > a["source_read_bytes"]
+    ]
+    result = dict(
+        label=args.label,
+        case=case,
+        threshold=args.threshold,
+        memory_limit=args.memory_limit,
+        max_concurrency=args.max_concurrency,
+        package_file=lance.__file__,
+        dataset_open_s=open_s,
+        elapsed_s=elapsed,
+        possible_pairs=possible_pairs,
+        output_rows=count,
+        output_batches=batches,
+        output_sha256=[h.hexdigest() for h in hashes],
+        pair_set_hash=f"{pair_set_hash:016x}",
+        pairs_per_s=possible_pairs / elapsed,
+        cpu_s=trace[-1]["cpu_s"] - trace[0]["cpu_s"],
+        cpu_cores=(trace[-1]["cpu_s"] - trace[0]["cpu_s"]) / elapsed,
+        start_rss_bytes=trace[0]["rss_bytes"],
+        peak_rss_bytes=max(point["peak_rss_bytes"] for point in trace),
+        **final,
+    )
+    for key in [
+        "disk_read_bytes",
+        "disk_write_bytes",
+        "process_rchar",
+        "process_wchar",
+        "host_rx_bytes",
+        "host_tx_bytes",
+    ]:
+        result[key] = trace[-1][key] - trace[0][key]
+    result["source_last_read_observed_s"] = (
+        source_windows[-1][1]["t_s"] if source_windows else 0
+    )
+    result["source_peak_sample_bytes_per_s"] = (
+        max(
+            ((b["source_read_bytes"] - a["source_read_bytes"]) / (b["t_s"] - a["t_s"]))
+            for a, b in source_windows
+        )
+        if source_windows
+        else 0
+    )
+    output.with_suffix(".trace.json").write_text(json.dumps(trace))
+    output.write_text(json.dumps(result, indent=2))
+    print(json.dumps(result), flush=True)
+
+
+def main():
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__)
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--credentials", help="Private AWS credential JSON; never logged"
+    )
+    commands = parser.add_subparsers(dest="command", required=True)
+    create = commands.add_parser("prepare")
+    create.add_argument("--prefix", required=True)
+    create.add_argument("--output", required=True)
+    measure = commands.add_parser("run")
+    measure.add_argument("--config", required=True)
+    measure.add_argument("--case", type=int, required=True)
+    measure.add_argument("--threshold", type=float, required=True)
+    measure.add_argument("--label", required=True)
+    measure.add_argument("--output", required=True)
+    measure.add_argument("--memory-limit", type=int)
+    measure.add_argument("--max-concurrency", type=int)
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+    credentials(args.credentials)
+    if args.command == "prepare":
+        prepare(args)
+    else:
+        run(args)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/python/python/benchmarks/test_blob.py b/python/python/benchmarks/test_blob.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c2465f36fad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/benchmarks/test_blob.py
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+from itertools import count
+from time import process_time
+
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+from lance.file import LanceFileSession
+
+# Many small blobs isolate per-row Python overhead; fewer large blobs show how
+# the bulk path behaves once payload copying accounts for more of the CPU time.
+WORKLOADS = [
+    pytest.param(50_000, 256, id="50000x256b"),
+    pytest.param(2_000, 64 * 1024, id="2000x64kib"),
+]
+
+
+def _packed_blob_benchmark(benchmark, tmpdir_factory, row_count, payload_size, mode):
+    payload = b"x" * payload_size
+    payloads = pa.repeat(payload, row_count)
+    files = LanceFileSession(str(tmpdir_factory.mktemp("packed_blob_writer")))
+    file_number = count()
+
+    if mode == "scalar_preconverted":
+        python_payloads = payloads.to_pylist()
+
+        def write():
+            writer = files.open_packed_blob_writer(
+                f"scalar-{next(file_number)}.lance", 1
+            )
+            for value in python_payloads:
+                writer.write_blob(value)
+            return writer.finish()
+
+    elif mode == "scalar_from_arrow":
+
+        def write():
+            writer = files.open_packed_blob_writer(
+                f"scalar-arrow-{next(file_number)}.lance", 1
+            )
+            for value in payloads.to_pylist():
+                writer.write_blob(value)
+            return writer.finish()
+
+    elif mode == "bulk":
+
+        def write():
+            writer = files.open_packed_blob_writer(f"bulk-{next(file_number)}.lance", 1)
+            writer.write_blobs(payloads)
+            return writer.finish_array("blob")
+
+    else:
+        raise ValueError(f"Unknown benchmark mode: {mode}")
+
+    result = benchmark.pedantic(write, iterations=1, rounds=5)
+    assert len(result) == row_count
+
+
+@pytest.mark.benchmark(group="packed_blob_writer_cpu", timer=process_time)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("row_count,payload_size", WORKLOADS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "mode",
+    ["scalar_preconverted", "scalar_from_arrow", "bulk"],
+)
+def test_packed_blob_writer(benchmark, tmpdir_factory, row_count, payload_size, mode):
+    _packed_blob_benchmark(
+        benchmark,
+        tmpdir_factory,
+        row_count,
+        payload_size,
+        mode,
+    )
diff --git a/python/python/benchmarks/test_file.py b/python/python/benchmarks/test_file.py
index 16d63c84a60..a47e925cf33 100644
--- a/python/python/benchmarks/test_file.py
+++ b/python/python/benchmarks/test_file.py
@@ -12,8 +12,8 @@
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
     "version",
-    ["2.0", "2.1"],
-    ids=["2_0", "2_1"],
+    ["2.0", "2.1", "2.2"],
+    ids=["2_0", "2_1", "2_2"],
 )
 @pytest.mark.benchmark(group="scan_single_column")
 def test_scan_integer(tmp_path: Path, benchmark, version):
@@ -47,8 +47,8 @@ def read_all():
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
     "version",
-    ["2.0", "2.1"],
-    ids=["2_0", "2_1"],
+    ["2.0", "2.1", "2.2"],
+    ids=["2_0", "2_1", "2_2"],
 )
 @pytest.mark.benchmark(group="scan_single_column")
 def test_scan_nullable_integer(tmp_path: Path, benchmark, version):
@@ -133,8 +133,8 @@ def read_all():
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
     "version",
-    ["2.0", "2.1"],
-    ids=["2_0", "2_1"],
+    ["2.0", "2.1", "2.2"],
+    ids=["2_0", "2_1", "2_2"],
 )
 @pytest.mark.benchmark(group="sample_single_column")
 def test_sample_integer(tmp_path: Path, benchmark, version):
diff --git a/python/python/benchmarks/test_index.py b/python/python/benchmarks/test_index.py
index 0c6c41295fb..622ce42cd13 100644
--- a/python/python/benchmarks/test_index.py
+++ b/python/python/benchmarks/test_index.py
@@ -8,10 +8,47 @@
 import pyarrow.compute as pc
 import pytest
 from lance.indices import IndicesBuilder, IvfModel, PqModel
+from lance.vector import find_duplicate_pairs
 
 N_DIMS = 512
 
 
+@pytest.mark.benchmark(group="duplicate_pairs")
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("index_type", ["IVF_FLAT", "IVF_PQ"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_rows", [1024, 1025, 8192])
+def test_duplicate_pairs_exhaust_partition(tmp_path, benchmark, index_type, num_rows):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(9493)
+    vectors = rng.normal(size=(num_rows, 64)).astype(np.float32)
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "vector": pa.array(vectors.tolist(), pa.list_(pa.float32(), 64)),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+    params = {}
+    if index_type == "IVF_PQ":
+        params = dict(
+            num_bits=8,
+            num_sub_vectors=16,
+            pq_codebook=rng.normal(size=(16, 256, 4)).astype(np.float32),
+        )
+    dataset.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.zeros((1, 64), dtype=np.float32),
+        **params,
+    )
+
+    def exhaust():
+        with find_duplicate_pairs(dataset, "vector", 0.0) as reader:
+            return sum(batch.num_rows for batch in reader)
+
+    assert benchmark(exhaust) == 0
+
+
 def gen_table(num_rows):
     values = pc.random(num_rows * N_DIMS).cast(pa.float32())
     vectors = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(values, N_DIMS)
diff --git a/python/python/benchmarks/test_scan.py b/python/python/benchmarks/test_scan.py
index c813ab5653d..c43e1703ac8 100644
--- a/python/python/benchmarks/test_scan.py
+++ b/python/python/benchmarks/test_scan.py
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 import pytest
 
 NUM_ROWS = 10_000
+READER_BRIDGE_ROWS = 100_000
 
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
@@ -76,6 +77,28 @@ def sample_dataset(tmpdir_factory):
     return lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
 
 
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module")
+def reader_bridge_dataset(tmpdir_factory):
+    tmp_path = Path(tmpdir_factory.mktemp("reader_bridge"))
+    table = pa.table({"value": pa.array(range(READER_BRIDGE_ROWS), type=pa.int32())})
+    return lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("batch_size", [64, 1024, 8192, 65536])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "columns",
+    [pytest.param([], id="zero_columns"), pytest.param(["value"], id="i32")],
+)
+@pytest.mark.benchmark(group="scan_reader_bridge")
+def test_scan_reader_bridge(benchmark, reader_bridge_dataset, columns, batch_size):
+    scanner = reader_bridge_dataset.scanner(columns=columns, batch_size=batch_size)
+
+    def consume_reader():
+        return sum(batch.num_rows for batch in scanner.to_reader())
+
+    assert benchmark(consume_reader) == READER_BRIDGE_ROWS
+
+
 @pytest.mark.benchmark(group="scan_table")
 def test_scan_table_full(benchmark, sample_dataset):
     result = benchmark(
diff --git a/python/python/benchmarks/test_search.py b/python/python/benchmarks/test_search.py
index 61076e61687..b86a2818e97 100644
--- a/python/python/benchmarks/test_search.py
+++ b/python/python/benchmarks/test_search.py
@@ -78,10 +78,12 @@ def create_base_dataset(data_dir: Path) -> lance.LanceDataset:
         rows_remaining -= next_batch_length
         table = create_table(next_batch_length, offset)
         if offset == 0:
-            dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, use_legacy_format=False)
+            dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+                table, tmp_path, data_storage_version="stable"
+            )
         else:
             dataset = lance.write_dataset(
-                table, tmp_path, mode="append", use_legacy_format=False
+                table, tmp_path, mode="append", data_storage_version="stable"
             )
         offset += next_batch_length
 
@@ -98,7 +100,7 @@ def create_base_dataset(data_dir: Path) -> lance.LanceDataset:
     dataset.create_scalar_index("category", "BITMAP")
     dataset.create_scalar_index("genres", "LABEL_LIST")
 
-    return lance.dataset(tmp_path, index_cache_size=64 * 1024)
+    return lance.dataset(tmp_path, index_cache_size_bytes=512 * 1024 * 1024)
 
 
 def create_delete_dataset(data_dir):
@@ -113,7 +115,7 @@ def create_delete_dataset(data_dir):
     dataset = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
     dataset.delete("filterable % 2 != 0")
 
-    return lance.dataset(tmp_path, index_cache_size=64 * 1024)
+    return lance.dataset(tmp_path, index_cache_size_bytes=512 * 1024 * 1024)
 
 
 def create_new_rows_dataset(data_dir):
@@ -129,7 +131,7 @@ def create_new_rows_dataset(data_dir):
     table = create_table(NEW_ROWS, offset=NUM_ROWS)
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, mode="append")
 
-    return lance.dataset(tmp_path, index_cache_size=64 * 1024)
+    return lance.dataset(tmp_path, index_cache_size_bytes=512 * 1024 * 1024)
 
 
 class Datasets(NamedTuple):
@@ -208,6 +210,49 @@ def test_ann_with_refine(test_dataset, benchmark):
     assert result.num_rows > 0
 
 
+N_BATCH_QUERIES = 32
+
+
+@pytest.mark.benchmark(group="query_ann_batch")
+def test_batch_ann_search(test_dataset, benchmark):
+    # One request carrying all query vectors: the index shares each partition's
+    # scan across the batch (issue #6822).
+    queries = np.random.randn(N_BATCH_QUERIES, N_DIMS).astype(np.float32)
+    result = benchmark(
+        test_dataset.to_table,
+        columns=[],
+        with_row_id=True,
+        nearest=dict(
+            column="vector",
+            q=queries,
+            k=100,
+            nprobes=10,
+        ),
+    )
+    assert result.num_rows > 0
+
+
+@pytest.mark.benchmark(group="query_ann_batch")
+def test_repeated_single_ann_search(test_dataset, benchmark):
+    # Baseline: the same query vectors issued one indexed search at a time.
+    queries = np.random.randn(N_BATCH_QUERIES, N_DIMS).astype(np.float32)
+
+    def run():
+        for q in queries:
+            test_dataset.to_table(
+                columns=[],
+                with_row_id=True,
+                nearest=dict(
+                    column="vector",
+                    q=q,
+                    k=100,
+                    nprobes=10,
+                ),
+            )
+
+    benchmark(run)
+
+
 @pytest.mark.benchmark(group="query_ann")
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("selectivity", (0.25, 0.75))
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("prefilter", (False, True))
diff --git a/python/python/benchmarks/test_take.py b/python/python/benchmarks/test_take.py
index e7c8a2a46a9..68bd91b3681 100644
--- a/python/python/benchmarks/test_take.py
+++ b/python/python/benchmarks/test_take.py
@@ -127,7 +127,9 @@ def gen_ranges(total_rows, num_rows):
 @pytest.mark.benchmark()
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("file_size", [1024 * 1024], ids=["1MB"])
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
-    "lance_format_version", [("2.0", "V2_0"), ("2.1", "V2_1")], ids=["V2_0", "V2_1"]
+    "lance_format_version",
+    [("2.0", "V2_0"), ("2.1", "V2_1"), ("2.2", "V2_2")],
+    ids=["V2_0", "V2_1", "V2_2"],
 )
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("num_rows", [100, 1000], ids=["100rows", "1000rows"])
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
diff --git a/python/python/benchmarks/zone_map_seeds.py b/python/python/benchmarks/zone_map_seeds.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..023e14cfcf7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/benchmarks/zone_map_seeds.py
@@ -0,0 +1,351 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+"""
+Benchmark: Zone Map Index Seeds vs. No Seeds
+
+Measures the time to update a zone map index when new data is appended to an
+already-indexed dataset, with and without use_seeds.
+
+Seeds allow Lance to embed per-zone min/max statistics in data files at write
+time.  When optimize_indices() runs, it harvests those pre-computed stats
+instead of re-scanning the full column, which eliminates the read I/O for
+wide data types.
+
+WHY the workflow matters
+------------------------
+Seeds only engage when merging new unindexed fragments into an existing
+non-empty index segment.  A first optimize_indices() call on a freshly
+created empty-index always does a full rebuild (no old fragments to merge
+against), so seeds would never be used.
+
+Correct workflow:
+  1. Write an initial batch of data and build the zone map index on it.
+     This creates a non-empty indexed segment; all subsequent writes will
+     embed seed buffers in their data files (when use_seeds=True).
+  2. Append the bulk of the data in multiple batches.
+  3. optimize_indices() — harvests seeds (phase 2 data) and merges them into
+     the segment from phase 1.  Without seeds, phase 3 must re-read all of
+     the phase-2 data from disk.
+
+Phases timed:
+  initial_write   write seed_fraction of total rows + create/build index
+  ingest          append remaining rows (seeds collected here when enabled)
+  update_index    optimize_indices() — seed harvest happens here
+  total           sum of the three phases above
+
+Three scenarios:
+  int64                    10 M rows   ~80 MB on disk
+  FixedSizeBinary(4096)    10 M rows   ~38 GB on disk
+  LargeBinary(20 KiB)       1 M rows   ~19 GB on disk
+
+Usage:
+    uv run python python/benchmarks/zone_map_seeds.py
+    uv run python python/benchmarks/zone_map_seeds.py --tmpdir /fast/nvme/bench
+    uv run python python/benchmarks/zone_map_seeds.py --scale 0.01
+"""
+
+import argparse
+import os
+import shutil
+import tempfile
+import time
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.indices import IndexConfig
+
+KiB = 1024
+
+# Fraction of total rows written in the initial indexed batch.
+SEED_FRACTION = 0.1
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Data generators (yield pa.Table one batch at a time)
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def gen_int_batches(num_rows: int, batch_size: int):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng()
+    for start in range(0, num_rows, batch_size):
+        n = min(batch_size, num_rows - start)
+        yield pa.table({"value": pa.array(rng.integers(0, 2**31, n, dtype=np.int64))})
+
+
+def gen_fsb_batches(num_rows: int, blob_bytes: int, batch_size: int):
+    for start in range(0, num_rows, batch_size):
+        n = min(batch_size, num_rows - start)
+        raw = os.urandom(n * blob_bytes)
+        arr = pa.FixedSizeBinaryArray.from_buffers(
+            pa.binary(blob_bytes), n, [None, pa.py_buffer(raw)]
+        )
+        yield pa.table({"value": arr})
+
+
+def gen_large_binary_batches(num_rows: int, blob_bytes: int, batch_size: int):
+    for start in range(0, num_rows, batch_size):
+        n = min(batch_size, num_rows - start)
+        yield pa.table(
+            {
+                "value": pa.array(
+                    [os.urandom(blob_bytes) for _ in range(n)],
+                    type=pa.large_binary(),
+                )
+            }
+        )
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Core benchmark runner
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def run_scenario(
+    dataset_path: Path,
+    schema: pa.Schema,
+    seed_rows: int,
+    seed_batch_size: int,
+    gen_seed_batches,  # () -> Iterator[pa.Table] for the initial write
+    gen_bulk_batches,  # () -> Iterator[pa.Table] for the appended data
+    use_seeds: bool,
+) -> dict:
+    """
+    Run one full scenario and return per-phase timings.
+
+    Seeds are only engaged by optimize_indices() when there is at least one
+    previously indexed fragment.  This scenario ensures that by writing
+    seed_rows of data and building the index before any bulk ingest.
+    """
+    if dataset_path.exists():
+        shutil.rmtree(dataset_path)
+
+    index_config = IndexConfig(
+        index_type="ZONEMAP", parameters={"use_seeds": use_seeds}
+    )
+    timings = {}
+
+    # Phase 1: initial write + index build
+    t0 = time.perf_counter()
+    ds = None
+    for batch in gen_seed_batches():
+        if ds is None:
+            ds = lance.write_dataset(batch, dataset_path, schema=schema)
+        else:
+            ds = lance.write_dataset(batch, dataset_path, mode="append")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("value", index_type=index_config, replace=True)
+    timings["initial_write"] = time.perf_counter() - t0
+
+    # Phase 2: bulk ingest — seeds are collected per-batch when enabled
+    t0 = time.perf_counter()
+    for batch in gen_bulk_batches():
+        ds = lance.write_dataset(batch, dataset_path, mode="append")
+    timings["ingest"] = time.perf_counter() - t0
+
+    # Phase 3: index update — seed harvest happens here
+    t0 = time.perf_counter()
+    ds.optimize.optimize_indices()
+    timings["update_index"] = time.perf_counter() - t0
+
+    timings["total"] = sum(timings.values())
+    shutil.rmtree(dataset_path)
+    return timings
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Output formatting
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def print_comparison(title: str, no_seeds: dict, with_seeds: dict) -> None:
+    phases = ["initial_write", "ingest", "update_index", "total"]
+    col_w = 13
+
+    print(f"\n{'=' * 70}")
+    print(f"  {title}")
+    print(f"{'=' * 70}")
+    print(
+        f"  {'Phase':<20} {'No Seeds':>{col_w}} "
+        + f"{'With Seeds':>{col_w}} {'Speedup':>{col_w}}"
+    )
+    print(f"  {'-' * (20 + col_w * 3 + 6)}")
+    for phase in phases:
+        t_no = no_seeds[phase]
+        t_yes = with_seeds[phase]
+        speedup = t_no / t_yes if t_yes > 0 else float("inf")
+        marker = "* " if phase == "total" else "  "
+        print(
+            f"{marker}{phase:<20} {t_no:>{col_w}.2f}s"
+            f" {t_yes:>{col_w}.2f}s"
+            f" {speedup:>{col_w - 1}.2f}x"
+        )
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Per-type benchmark wrappers
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def bench_integers(base: Path, num_rows: int) -> None:
+    seed_rows = max(1, int(num_rows * SEED_FRACTION))
+    bulk_rows = num_rows - seed_rows
+    # ~400 KB per seed batch; ~4 MB per bulk batch → ~20 bulk fragments
+    seed_bs = max(1, seed_rows // 5)
+    bulk_bs = max(1, bulk_rows // 20)
+    print(
+        f"\nInteger (int64): {num_rows:,} rows "
+        f"(initial={seed_rows:,}, bulk={bulk_rows:,}) ..."
+    )
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("value", pa.int64())])
+
+    no_seeds = run_scenario(
+        base / "int_no_seeds",
+        schema,
+        seed_rows,
+        seed_bs,
+        lambda: gen_int_batches(seed_rows, seed_bs),
+        lambda: gen_int_batches(bulk_rows, bulk_bs),
+        use_seeds=False,
+    )
+    with_seeds = run_scenario(
+        base / "int_with_seeds",
+        schema,
+        seed_rows,
+        seed_bs,
+        lambda: gen_int_batches(seed_rows, seed_bs),
+        lambda: gen_int_batches(bulk_rows, bulk_bs),
+        use_seeds=True,
+    )
+    print_comparison(f"int64  —  {num_rows:,} rows", no_seeds, with_seeds)
+
+
+def bench_vectors(base: Path, num_rows: int) -> None:
+    blob_bytes = 4 * KiB
+    seed_rows = max(1, int(num_rows * SEED_FRACTION))
+    bulk_rows = num_rows - seed_rows
+    total_gb = num_rows * blob_bytes / (1024**3)
+    # ~200 MB per batch to stay memory-friendly
+    seed_bs = max(1, (200 * KiB * KiB) // blob_bytes)
+    bulk_bs = seed_bs
+    print(
+        f"\nVector (FixedSizeBinary {blob_bytes // KiB} KiB): {num_rows:,} rows"
+        f"  (~{total_gb:.1f} GB)  (initial={seed_rows:,}, bulk={bulk_rows:,}) ..."
+    )
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("value", pa.binary(blob_bytes))])
+
+    no_seeds = run_scenario(
+        base / "vec_no_seeds",
+        schema,
+        seed_rows,
+        seed_bs,
+        lambda: gen_fsb_batches(seed_rows, blob_bytes, seed_bs),
+        lambda: gen_fsb_batches(bulk_rows, blob_bytes, bulk_bs),
+        use_seeds=False,
+    )
+    with_seeds = run_scenario(
+        base / "vec_with_seeds",
+        schema,
+        seed_rows,
+        seed_bs,
+        lambda: gen_fsb_batches(seed_rows, blob_bytes, seed_bs),
+        lambda: gen_fsb_batches(bulk_rows, blob_bytes, bulk_bs),
+        use_seeds=True,
+    )
+    print_comparison(
+        f"FixedSizeBinary({blob_bytes // KiB} KiB)  —  {num_rows:,} rows",
+        no_seeds,
+        with_seeds,
+    )
+
+
+def bench_large_binary(base: Path, num_rows: int) -> None:
+    blob_bytes = 20 * KiB
+    seed_rows = max(1, int(num_rows * SEED_FRACTION))
+    bulk_rows = num_rows - seed_rows
+    total_gb = num_rows * blob_bytes / (1024**3)
+    # ~200 MB per batch
+    seed_bs = max(1, (200 * KiB * KiB) // blob_bytes)
+    bulk_bs = seed_bs
+    print(
+        f"\nLargeBinary ({blob_bytes // KiB} KiB blobs): {num_rows:,} rows"
+        f"  (~{total_gb:.1f} GB)  (initial={seed_rows:,}, bulk={bulk_rows:,}) ..."
+    )
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("value", pa.large_binary())])
+
+    no_seeds = run_scenario(
+        base / "bin_no_seeds",
+        schema,
+        seed_rows,
+        seed_bs,
+        lambda: gen_large_binary_batches(seed_rows, blob_bytes, seed_bs),
+        lambda: gen_large_binary_batches(bulk_rows, blob_bytes, bulk_bs),
+        use_seeds=False,
+    )
+    with_seeds = run_scenario(
+        base / "bin_with_seeds",
+        schema,
+        seed_rows,
+        seed_bs,
+        lambda: gen_large_binary_batches(seed_rows, blob_bytes, seed_bs),
+        lambda: gen_large_binary_batches(bulk_rows, blob_bytes, bulk_bs),
+        use_seeds=True,
+    )
+    print_comparison(
+        f"LargeBinary({blob_bytes // KiB} KiB)  —  {num_rows:,} rows",
+        no_seeds,
+        with_seeds,
+    )
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Entry point
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def main() -> None:
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+        description=__doc__, formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--tmpdir",
+        type=Path,
+        default=None,
+        help="Directory for benchmark datasets (default: system temp dir)",
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--scale",
+        type=float,
+        default=1.0,
+        help="Row-count scale factor (default 1.0; use 0.01 for a quick smoke test)",
+    )
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+
+    int_rows = max(2, int(10_000_000 * args.scale))
+    vec_rows = max(2, int(10_000_000 * args.scale))
+    bin_rows = max(2, int(1_000_000 * args.scale))
+
+    print(
+        f"Scale: {args.scale}  →  "
+        f"{int_rows:,} int / {vec_rows:,} vector / {bin_rows:,} binary rows"
+    )
+
+    def run(tmp_dir: Path) -> None:
+        bench_integers(tmp_dir, int_rows)
+        bench_vectors(tmp_dir, vec_rows)
+        bench_large_binary(tmp_dir, bin_rows)
+
+    if args.tmpdir is not None:
+        args.tmpdir.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(
+            prefix="lance_zonemap_bench_", dir=args.tmpdir
+        ) as tmp:
+            run(Path(tmp))
+    else:
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(prefix="lance_zonemap_bench_") as tmp:
+            run(Path(tmp))
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmark.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmark.py
index 7d80596e305..8d17bef5ae5 100644
--- a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmark.py
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmark.py
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ def workload(dataset):
 
 import json
 from dataclasses import dataclass
-from typing import Any, Callable, List
+from typing import Any, Callable, List, Optional
 
 import pytest
 
@@ -90,6 +90,7 @@ def __call__(
         func: Callable,
         dataset: Any,
         warmup: bool = True,
+        setup: Optional[Callable[[], Any]] = None,
     ) -> Any:
         """
         Run a benchmark function with IO and memory tracking.
@@ -102,28 +103,47 @@ def __call__(
             The dataset to pass to the function.
         warmup : bool, default True
             Whether to run a warmup iteration before measuring.
+        setup : Callable, optional
+            Called before the warmup run and again before the measured run.
+            Required for workloads that mutate the dataset, so each run starts
+            from the same state. Setup runs before IO stats are reset, so its
+            own IO is never attributed to the benchmark. If it returns a value,
+            that value is passed to ``func`` instead of ``dataset`` -- use this
+            when the reset produces a new dataset handle.
 
         Returns
         -------
         Any
             The return value of the benchmark function.
         """
+
+        def prepare() -> Any:
+            if setup is None:
+                return dataset
+            replacement = setup()
+            return dataset if replacement is None else replacement
+
         # Warmup run (not measured)
         if warmup:
-            func(dataset)
+            func(prepare())
+
+        target = prepare()
 
-        # Reset IO stats before the measured run
+        # Reset IO stats before the measured run. Stats are tracked on the
+        # ObjectStore, which is shared by every handle from the same session,
+        # so resetting/reading through `dataset` also captures work that `func`
+        # performs through a handle returned by `setup`.
         dataset.io_stats_incremental()
 
         # Run with memory tracking if available
         if MEMTEST_AVAILABLE:
             memtest.reset_stats()
-            result = func(dataset)
+            result = func(target)
             mem_stats = memtest.get_stats()
             self._stats.peak_bytes = mem_stats["peak_bytes"]
             self._stats.total_allocations = mem_stats["total_allocations"]
         else:
-            result = func(dataset)
+            result = func(target)
 
         # Capture IO stats
         io_stats = dataset.io_stats_incremental()
@@ -159,7 +179,11 @@ def workload(dataset):
     if marker is None:
         # Not an io_memory_benchmark test, return a simple passthrough
         class PassthroughBenchmark:
-            def __call__(self, func, dataset, warmup=True):
+            def __call__(self, func, dataset, warmup=True, setup=None):
+                if setup is not None:
+                    replacement = setup()
+                    if replacement is not None:
+                        dataset = replacement
                 return func(dataset)
 
         yield PassthroughBenchmark()
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_count_rows.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_count_rows.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f6228b04f13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_count_rows.py
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Benchmark count_rows acceleration for IS NULL / IS NOT NULL filters.
+
+Tests five index configurations against an int32 dataset with ~1% NULL
+values.  Each configuration stores the same data in a separate column so
+that only one index type is active per measurement:
+
+  none        — no index, full column scan (baseline)
+  BITMAP      — bitmap index
+  BTREE       — btree index
+  ZONEMAP     — zone-map index
+  BLOOMFILTER — bloom-filter index
+
+Two filters are exercised for each configuration:
+  IS NULL     — count the ~1% null rows
+  IS NOT NULL — count the ~99% non-null rows
+
+Indexed configurations are tested in two cache states to separate first-load
+latency from steady-state throughput:
+
+  warm — one prewarm call is made before measuring; the same dataset instance
+         is reused so its in-memory index cache is already populated.
+  cold — a fresh ``lance.dataset()`` instance is created inside each measured
+         round so the in-memory index cache starts empty every time.  No
+         prewarm pass is performed.
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import lance
+import pytest
+from ci_benchmarks.datasets import get_dataset_uri
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Parameters
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# Indexed configs only (warm/cold dimension applies to these)
+_INDEXED_CONFIGS: list[tuple[str, str]] = [
+    ("bitmap", "value_bitmap"),
+    ("btree", "value_btree"),
+    ("zonemap", "value_zonemap"),
+    ("bloomfilter", "value_bloomfilter"),
+]
+_INDEXED_IDS = [cfg[0] for cfg in _INDEXED_CONFIGS]
+
+_FILTERS = ["is_null", "is_not_null"]
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Fixtures
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module")
+def count_rows_ds() -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    """Shared dataset instance (index cache persists across rounds — use for warm)."""
+    return lance.dataset(get_dataset_uri("count_rows"))
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module")
+def count_rows_uri() -> str:
+    return get_dataset_uri("count_rows")
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# No-index baseline (no warm/cold — there is no index cache to speak of)
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("filter_type", _FILTERS)
+def test_count_rows_no_index(
+    benchmark,
+    count_rows_ds: lance.LanceDataset,
+    filter_type: str,
+) -> None:
+    """Full-scan baseline with no scalar index."""
+    filt = (
+        "value_none IS NULL" if filter_type == "is_null" else "value_none IS NOT NULL"
+    )
+
+    def bench() -> int:
+        return count_rows_ds.count_rows(filter=filt)
+
+    benchmark.pedantic(bench, warmup_rounds=1, rounds=5)
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Indexed benchmarks — warm vs cold
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("warm", [True, False], ids=["warm", "cold"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("filter_type", _FILTERS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("index_id,column", _INDEXED_CONFIGS, ids=_INDEXED_IDS)
+def test_count_rows_indexed(
+    benchmark,
+    count_rows_ds: lance.LanceDataset,
+    count_rows_uri: str,
+    index_id: str,
+    column: str,
+    filter_type: str,
+    warm: bool,
+) -> None:
+    """Benchmark count_rows with a scalar index, in warm and cold cache states.
+
+    Args:
+        index_id: Human-readable index name (parametrize label only).
+        column: Dataset column that carries this index type.
+        filter_type: ``"is_null"`` or ``"is_not_null"``.
+        warm: If True, prewarm the index cache before measuring and reuse the
+              shared dataset instance.  If False, create a fresh dataset
+              instance on every round so the index cache starts empty.
+    """
+    filt = f"{column} IS NULL" if filter_type == "is_null" else f"{column} IS NOT NULL"
+
+    if warm:
+
+        def bench() -> int:
+            return count_rows_ds.count_rows(filter=filt)
+
+        # warmup_rounds=1 makes one unmeasured call that populates the cache.
+        benchmark.pedantic(bench, warmup_rounds=1, rounds=5)
+    else:
+
+        def bench() -> int:
+            # Fresh instance → empty in-memory index cache every round.
+            ds = lance.dataset(count_rows_uri)
+            return ds.count_rows(filter=filt)
+
+        benchmark.pedantic(bench, warmup_rounds=0, rounds=5)
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_merge_insert.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_merge_insert.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..49fcd693eb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_merge_insert.py
@@ -0,0 +1,805 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Benchmarks for `merge_insert`.
+
+merge_insert has two execution paths and the routing between them is
+structural, not a flag.  `use_index` is the one knob that selects between them,
+so every benchmark here is parametrized on it:
+
+  ``v1_indexed`` — ``use_index(True)`` with an indexed key.  Takes the legacy
+      indexed-scan path (``create_indexed_scan_joined_stream``).
+  ``v2_hash`` — ``use_index(False)``.  Disables the index gate in
+      ``can_use_create_plan``, so the DataFusion path
+      (``LanceRead + HashJoin``) runs instead.
+
+For a partial-schema source the write sink is a second, independent choice, made
+with ``write_mode``.  Under the default ``"auto"`` v1 patches columns in place
+(``UpdateMode::RewriteColumns``) while v2 rewrites whole rows
+(``RewriteRows``); the ``v2_rewrite_columns`` variants of
+``test_update_subset_*`` ask v2 for the patching sink instead.  That makes
+``write_bytes`` the interesting metric for the ``test_update_*`` benchmarks:
+which sink writes less depends on how wide the omitted columns are and how many
+rows are matched, so these sweeps are where the crossover shows up.
+
+Targets are mutated, so each measured run is preceded by an untimed restore to
+the ``merge_insert_base`` tag written by ``datagen/merge_insert.py``.
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from dataclasses import dataclass
+from datetime import timedelta
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Callable, Iterable, Optional, Sequence
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+from ci_benchmarks.datagen.merge_insert import (
+    BASE_TAG,
+    DELETED_ROW_STRIDE,
+    FRAGS_NUM_ROWS,
+    FRAGS_SCHEMA,
+    NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+    NARROW_SCHEMA,
+    UNINDEXED_TAIL_ROWS,
+    WIDE_NUM_ROWS,
+    WIDE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+    WIDE_SCALAR_COLUMNS,
+    WIDE_SCHEMA,
+    WIDE_VECTOR_DIM,
+    narrow_batch,
+)
+from ci_benchmarks.datasets import get_dataset_uri
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from lance.dataset import ExecuteResult
+
+PLANS = ["v1_indexed", "v2_hash"]
+
+# Partial-column updates have a third shape: v2 asked for the column-patching
+# sink, which is the only v2 sink that does not rewrite whole rows.
+WRITE_PLANS = ["v1_indexed", "v2_hash", "v2_rewrite_columns"]
+
+# Brackets the cold-random break-even, which the design analysis puts at
+# roughly target_rows / 4096 -- about 2.4K rows for the 10M-row narrow target.
+SOURCE_SIZES = [1_000, 10_000, 100_000]
+
+NARROW_KEYS = ["id_int", "id_uuid7", "id_uuid4"]
+
+# DataFusion accounts each 8,192-row slice of the 1.32 GiB full-schema source
+# for its shared backing buffers. Budget the resulting ~159 GiB of reservations
+# without changing the source layout measured by this benchmark.
+_MEM_POOL_SIZE = 160 * 1024**3
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module", autouse=True)
+def _merge_insert_mem_pool() -> Iterable[None]:
+    """Use a bounded pool large enough for every merge_insert benchmark."""
+    with pytest.MonkeyPatch.context() as monkeypatch:
+        monkeypatch.setenv("LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE", str(_MEM_POOL_SIZE))
+        yield
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Target management
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+@dataclass
+class Target:
+    """A merge_insert target that can be rewound to a pristine state.
+
+    ``reset`` returns a handle sitting on a fresh version whose contents match
+    the ``merge_insert_base`` tag.  It is called from an untimed benchmark
+    setup hook, so the restore never lands in the measurement.
+    """
+
+    uri: str
+    dataset: lance.LanceDataset
+    base_version: int
+
+    def reset(self, cold: bool = False) -> lance.LanceDataset:
+        if cold:
+            # A new session means an empty index cache. `checkout_version`
+            # deliberately shares the cache, so a cold run cannot reuse
+            # `self.dataset`.
+            handle = lance.dataset(self.uri)
+        else:
+            handle = self.dataset
+        reverted = handle.checkout_version(self.base_version)
+        reverted.restore()
+        return reverted
+
+
+def _open_target(name: str) -> Iterable[Target]:
+    uri = get_dataset_uri(name)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(uri)
+    tags = dataset.tags.list()
+    if BASE_TAG not in tags:
+        pytest.skip(
+            f"Dataset {name} has no {BASE_TAG} tag; "
+            "run python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/gen_all.py"
+        )
+    base_version = tags[BASE_TAG]["version"]
+
+    yield Target(uri=uri, dataset=dataset, base_version=base_version)
+
+    # Leave the dataset pristine and drop the versions and data files the
+    # benchmarks produced. Cleanup never deletes a tagged version, so the tag
+    # has to move onto the restored version first or the old base would be
+    # retained forever.
+    final = dataset.checkout_version(base_version)
+    final.restore()
+    final.tags.update(BASE_TAG, final.version)
+    final.cleanup_old_versions(older_than=timedelta(0), delete_unverified=True)
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module")
+def narrow() -> Iterable[Target]:
+    yield from _open_target("merge_insert_narrow")
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module")
+def wide() -> Iterable[Target]:
+    yield from _open_target("merge_insert_wide")
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module")
+def frags() -> Iterable[Target]:
+    yield from _open_target("merge_insert_frags")
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module")
+def deleted() -> Iterable[Target]:
+    yield from _open_target("merge_insert_deleted")
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module")
+def unindexed_tail() -> Iterable[Target]:
+    yield from _open_target("merge_insert_unindexed_tail")
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Source construction
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+#
+# Sources are built from a contiguous run of row indices.  Which key column the
+# merge joins on then decides whether those keys are clustered or scattered in
+# the index's key order: `id_int` and `id_uuid7` are monotonic in the row index,
+# `id_uuid4` scrambles it.  This keeps one source builder for all key shapes.
+
+
+def narrow_source(row_indices: np.ndarray) -> pa.Table:
+    """A full-schema narrow source. ``value`` is offset so updates are real."""
+    return pa.Table.from_batches([narrow_batch(row_indices, value_offset=1)])
+
+
+def existing_rows(num_rows: int, offset: int = 0) -> np.ndarray:
+    return np.arange(offset, offset + num_rows, dtype=np.int64)
+
+
+def new_rows(num_rows: int) -> np.ndarray:
+    """Row indices past the end of the target, so every key is a new key."""
+    return np.arange(NARROW_NUM_ROWS, NARROW_NUM_ROWS + num_rows, dtype=np.int64)
+
+
+def wide_row_indices(fraction: float) -> np.ndarray:
+    """Row indices covering ``fraction`` of every fragment's rows.
+
+    Spread evenly within each fragment rather than contiguously: that is the
+    harder case for the in-place column updater, which has to interleave
+    updated and untouched values.
+    """
+    per_fragment = max(1, round(fraction * WIDE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT))
+    num_fragments = WIDE_NUM_ROWS // WIDE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT
+    return np.concatenate(
+        [
+            fragment * WIDE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT
+            + np.linspace(0, WIDE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT - 1, per_fragment, dtype=np.int64)
+            for fragment in range(num_fragments)
+        ]
+    )
+
+
+def wide_source(row_indices: np.ndarray, columns: Sequence[str]) -> pa.Table:
+    """A wide source carrying ``id_int`` plus ``columns``."""
+    arrays = [pa.array(row_indices)]
+    names = ["id_int"]
+    for column in columns:
+        names.append(column)
+        if column == "vec":
+            values = np.linspace(
+                1.0,
+                2.0,
+                num=len(row_indices) * WIDE_VECTOR_DIM,
+                dtype=np.float32,
+            )
+            arrays.append(
+                pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(pa.array(values), WIDE_VECTOR_DIM)
+            )
+        elif WIDE_SCHEMA.field(column).type == pa.string():
+            arrays.append(
+                pa.array([f"updated_{column}_{v}" for v in row_indices], pa.string())
+            )
+        else:
+            arrays.append(pa.array(row_indices + 1))
+    return pa.table(arrays, schema=pa.schema([WIDE_SCHEMA.field(n) for n in names]))
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Runner
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def run(
+    benchmark,
+    target: Target,
+    job: Callable[[lance.LanceDataset], ExecuteResult],
+    *,
+    rounds: int = 3,
+    cold: bool = False,
+    warmup: bool = True,
+    expected_rows: Optional[int] = None,
+) -> None:
+    """Benchmark ``job``, restoring the target before every round.
+
+    ``cold`` opens a fresh session for each round so the index cache starts
+    empty.  ``warmup`` runs one unmeasured round first; turn it off for
+    expensive shapes where a second pass is not worth the wall clock.
+
+    ``expected_rows`` guards against a benchmark that silently stops doing
+    work: a semantics regression should fail the run, not post a fast time.
+    Row count is checked instead of the returned stats because it is
+    independent of which execution path ran.
+    """
+    state: dict = {}
+
+    def setup() -> None:
+        state["dataset"] = target.reset(cold=cold)
+
+    def bench() -> None:
+        dataset = state["dataset"]
+        state["stats"] = job(dataset)
+        if expected_rows is not None:
+            state["row_count"] = dataset.count_rows()
+
+    benchmark.pedantic(
+        bench,
+        setup=setup,
+        rounds=rounds,
+        iterations=1,
+        # `setup` runs before each warmup round too, so a warmup never leaves
+        # the target dirty for the measured rounds.
+        warmup_rounds=1 if warmup and not cold else 0,
+    )
+
+    if expected_rows is not None:
+        assert state["row_count"] == expected_rows, (
+            f"expected {expected_rows} rows after merge_insert, "
+            f"got {state['row_count']} (stats: {state['stats']})"
+        )
+
+
+def upsert(
+    key: str, source: pa.Table, *, use_index: bool
+) -> Callable[[lance.LanceDataset], ExecuteResult]:
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert(key)
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .use_index(use_index)
+            .execute(source)
+        )
+
+    return job
+
+
+def uses_index(plan: str) -> bool:
+    return plan == "v1_indexed"
+
+
+def write_mode_for(plan: str) -> str:
+    return "rewrite_columns" if plan == "v2_rewrite_columns" else "auto"
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# A. Cost model core -- merge_insert_narrow, 10M rows
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_upsert_point(benchmark, narrow: Target, plan: str) -> None:
+    """Single-row upsert latency -- the extreme where a probe should win."""
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(1))
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        narrow,
+        upsert("id_int", source, use_index=uses_index(plan)),
+        rounds=5,
+        expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("key", NARROW_KEYS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_rows", SOURCE_SIZES)
+def test_upsert_ratio_sweep(
+    benchmark, narrow: Target, num_rows: int, key: str, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    """Source/target ratio sweep against a warm index."""
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(num_rows))
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        narrow,
+        upsert(key, source, use_index=uses_index(plan)),
+        expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("key", ["id_int", "id_uuid4"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_rows", [1_000, 100_000])
+def test_upsert_cold_ratio_sweep(
+    benchmark, narrow: Target, num_rows: int, key: str, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    """Same sweep with a cold index cache, where page reads are not free."""
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(num_rows))
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        narrow,
+        upsert(key, source, use_index=uses_index(plan)),
+        cold=True,
+        expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_rows", [10_000, 100_000])
+def test_upsert_all_new_keys(
+    benchmark, narrow: Target, num_rows: int, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    """Time-ordered ingest: every key is new, so no index page should be read."""
+    source = narrow_source(new_rows(num_rows))
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        narrow,
+        upsert("id_uuid7", source, use_index=uses_index(plan)),
+        expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS + num_rows,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_rows", [1_000, 100_000])
+def test_upsert_unindexed_baseline(benchmark, narrow: Target, num_rows: int) -> None:
+    """Joining on a column with no index at all -- the no-index reference."""
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(num_rows))
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        narrow,
+        upsert("id_no_index", source, use_index=True),
+        expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# B. Write path -- merge_insert_wide, 1M rows
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# Fractions are of each fragment's rows, which is what decides whether the
+# in-place updater interleaves or rewrites a whole column file.
+ROW_FRACTIONS = [0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0]
+FRACTION_IDS = ["0.1pct", "1pct", "10pct", "100pct"]
+
+# Isolates the two pressures a partial-column update can exert: field count
+# (scalar columns, cheap per field) and byte volume (the vector column).
+PROJECTIONS = {
+    "one_scalar": WIDE_SCALAR_COLUMNS[:1],
+    "ten_scalars": WIDE_SCALAR_COLUMNS[:10],
+    "vector": ["vec"],
+    "vector_and_ten_scalars": ["vec"] + WIDE_SCALAR_COLUMNS[:10],
+}
+
+
+def _wide_rounds(fraction: float) -> int:
+    # A full-fragment update rewrites every column file it touches, which for
+    # the vector column is ~1 GB per round.
+    return 1 if fraction == 1.0 else 3
+
+
+def update_subset(
+    source: pa.Table, *, use_index: bool, write_mode: str = "auto"
+) -> Callable[[lance.LanceDataset], ExecuteResult]:
+    """Partial-schema update. No insert clause: matched rows only."""
+
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id_int")
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .use_index(use_index)
+            .write_mode(write_mode)
+            .execute(source)
+        )
+
+    return job
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", WRITE_PLANS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("fraction", ROW_FRACTIONS, ids=FRACTION_IDS)
+def test_update_subset_row_fraction(
+    benchmark, wide: Target, fraction: float, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    """Row-fraction sweep at a fixed, minimal projection.
+
+    Locates the crossover between patching a column in place and rewriting the
+    whole column file, without byte volume confounding it.
+    """
+    source = wide_source(wide_row_indices(fraction), PROJECTIONS["one_scalar"])
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        wide,
+        update_subset(
+            source,
+            use_index=uses_index(plan),
+            write_mode=write_mode_for(plan),
+        ),
+        rounds=_wide_rounds(fraction),
+        warmup=fraction != 1.0,
+        expected_rows=WIDE_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", WRITE_PLANS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("fraction", [0.01, 1.0], ids=["1pct", "100pct"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("projection", list(PROJECTIONS), ids=list(PROJECTIONS))
+def test_update_subset_projection(
+    benchmark, wide: Target, projection: str, fraction: float, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    """Projection sweep: field count vs byte volume, plus the cross term."""
+    source = wide_source(wide_row_indices(fraction), PROJECTIONS[projection])
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        wide,
+        update_subset(
+            source,
+            use_index=uses_index(plan),
+            write_mode=write_mode_for(plan),
+        ),
+        rounds=_wide_rounds(fraction),
+        warmup=fraction != 1.0,
+        expected_rows=WIDE_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("fraction", [0.01, 1.0], ids=["1pct", "100pct"])
+def test_upsert_wide_full_schema(
+    benchmark, wide: Target, fraction: float, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    """Full-schema baseline for the partial-column benchmarks above."""
+    row_indices = wide_row_indices(fraction)
+    source = wide_source(
+        row_indices, [f.name for f in WIDE_SCHEMA if f.name != "id_int"]
+    )
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        wide,
+        upsert("id_int", source, use_index=uses_index(plan)),
+        rounds=_wide_rounds(fraction),
+        warmup=fraction != 1.0,
+        expected_rows=WIDE_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# C. Clause shapes -- merge_insert_narrow, 10K-row source
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+CLAUSE_SOURCE_ROWS = 10_000
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_insert_if_not_exists(benchmark, narrow: Target, plan: str) -> None:
+    """Dedup ingest: half the keys already exist, matched rows are untouched.
+
+    The probe only needs to know whether a key exists, so no target payload has
+    to be read.
+    """
+    half = CLAUSE_SOURCE_ROWS // 2
+    row_indices = np.concatenate([existing_rows(half), new_rows(half)])
+    source = narrow_source(row_indices)
+
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id_int")
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .use_index(uses_index(plan))
+            .execute(source)
+        )
+
+    run(benchmark, narrow, job, expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS + half)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_update_only(benchmark, narrow: Target, plan: str) -> None:
+    """No insert clause: unmatched source rows are dropped."""
+    half = CLAUSE_SOURCE_ROWS // 2
+    row_indices = np.concatenate([existing_rows(half), new_rows(half)])
+    source = narrow_source(row_indices)
+
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id_int")
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .use_index(uses_index(plan))
+            .execute(source)
+        )
+
+    run(benchmark, narrow, job, expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS)
+
+
+def test_delete_by_source(benchmark, narrow: Target) -> None:
+    """Deleting rows absent from the source requires a full target scan.
+
+    The index gate in `can_use_create_plan` rejects this shape outright, so
+    there is no v1 variant to compare against.
+    """
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(CLAUSE_SOURCE_ROWS))
+
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id_int")
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .when_not_matched_by_source_delete()
+            .execute(source)
+        )
+
+    run(benchmark, narrow, job, expected_rows=CLAUSE_SOURCE_ROWS)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_conditional_update(benchmark, narrow: Target, plan: str) -> None:
+    """A condition on target columns forces the target payload to be read."""
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(CLAUSE_SOURCE_ROWS))
+
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id_int")
+            .when_matched_update_all(condition="source.value > target.value")
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .use_index(uses_index(plan))
+            .execute(source)
+        )
+
+    run(benchmark, narrow, job, expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_composite_key_fully_indexed(benchmark, narrow: Target, plan: str) -> None:
+    """Both key columns indexed: v1 probes each index and AND-folds."""
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(CLAUSE_SOURCE_ROWS))
+
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert(["composite_a", "composite_b"])
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .use_index(uses_index(plan))
+            .execute(source)
+        )
+
+    run(benchmark, narrow, job, expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS)
+
+
+def test_composite_key_partially_indexed(benchmark, narrow: Target) -> None:
+    """One key column unindexed, which forces the hash join regardless of flag.
+
+    A partial index probe would under-match, so `can_use_create_plan` keeps
+    this shape off the indexed path.
+    """
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(CLAUSE_SOURCE_ROWS))
+
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        # `composite_a` is indexed, `id_no_index` is not. Both are equal to the
+        # row index in source and target, so every source row matches.
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert(["composite_a", "id_no_index"])
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .execute(source)
+        )
+
+    run(benchmark, narrow, job, expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS)
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# D. Target shape
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+TARGET_SHAPE_ROWS = 10_000
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_upsert_unindexed_tail(benchmark, unindexed_tail: Target, plan: str) -> None:
+    """10% of the target was appended after indexing, so a scan is unioned in."""
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(TARGET_SHAPE_ROWS))
+    total_rows = NARROW_NUM_ROWS + UNINDEXED_TAIL_ROWS
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        unindexed_tail,
+        upsert("id_int", source, use_index=uses_index(plan)),
+        expected_rows=total_rows,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_upsert_with_deletion_files(benchmark, deleted: Target, plan: str) -> None:
+    """Every fragment carries a deletion file, which the probe has to mask."""
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(TARGET_SHAPE_ROWS))
+    # Row 0 and every DELETED_ROW_STRIDE-th row after it were deleted at
+    # generation time, so those source rows insert rather than update.
+    reinserted = TARGET_SHAPE_ROWS // DELETED_ROW_STRIDE
+    total_rows = NARROW_NUM_ROWS - NARROW_NUM_ROWS // DELETED_ROW_STRIDE + reinserted
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        deleted,
+        upsert("id_int", source, use_index=uses_index(plan)),
+        expected_rows=total_rows,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_upsert_many_small_fragments(benchmark, frags: Target, plan: str) -> None:
+    """10K fragments of 1K rows, to expose per-fragment overhead."""
+    row_indices = existing_rows(TARGET_SHAPE_ROWS)
+    source = pa.table(
+        [pa.array(row_indices), pa.array(row_indices + 1)], schema=FRAGS_SCHEMA
+    )
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        frags,
+        upsert("id_int", source, use_index=uses_index(plan)),
+        expected_rows=FRAGS_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# E. Memory and regime edges
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_upsert_streaming_source(benchmark, narrow: Target, plan: str) -> None:
+    """A one-shot reader source, which v1 has to buffer in full to fork it.
+
+    Peak memory is the number of interest here.
+    """
+    num_rows = 1_000_000
+    batch_size = 100_000
+
+    def make_reader() -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+        def batches():
+            for start in range(0, num_rows, batch_size):
+                yield narrow_batch(
+                    existing_rows(batch_size, offset=start), value_offset=1
+                )
+
+        return pa.RecordBatchReader.from_batches(NARROW_SCHEMA, batches())
+
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id_int")
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .use_index(uses_index(plan))
+            .execute(make_reader())
+        )
+
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        narrow,
+        job,
+        rounds=1,
+        warmup=False,
+        expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+def test_upsert_source_equals_target(benchmark, narrow: Target) -> None:
+    """Source the same size as the target -- the probe must not be chosen here.
+
+    v2 only: the v1 indexed path cannot run this shape at all. Its source-side
+    hash join asks for more than the whole memory pool and the operation fails
+    with "Resources exhausted". So there is no v1 baseline to compare against,
+    and this benchmark exists to keep the v2 path honest at this size.
+    """
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(NARROW_NUM_ROWS))
+    run(
+        benchmark,
+        narrow,
+        upsert("id_int", source, use_index=False),
+        rounds=1,
+        warmup=False,
+        expected_rows=NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+    )
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# IO / memory variants
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+#
+# A subset of the above, re-run under the io_memory_benchmark fixture. Write
+# amplification (`write_bytes`) is the headline for the partial-column cases and
+# peak memory is the headline for the streaming source.
+
+
+@pytest.mark.io_memory_benchmark()
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("key", NARROW_KEYS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_rows", [1_000, 100_000])
+def test_io_mem_upsert_ratio(
+    io_mem_benchmark, narrow: Target, num_rows: int, key: str, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    source = narrow_source(existing_rows(num_rows))
+    job = upsert(key, source, use_index=uses_index(plan))
+    io_mem_benchmark(job, narrow.dataset, setup=lambda: narrow.reset())
+
+
+@pytest.mark.io_memory_benchmark()
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", WRITE_PLANS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("fraction", ROW_FRACTIONS, ids=FRACTION_IDS)
+def test_io_mem_update_subset_row_fraction(
+    io_mem_benchmark, wide: Target, fraction: float, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    source = wide_source(wide_row_indices(fraction), PROJECTIONS["one_scalar"])
+    job = update_subset(
+        source, use_index=uses_index(plan), write_mode=write_mode_for(plan)
+    )
+    io_mem_benchmark(
+        job,
+        wide.dataset,
+        warmup=fraction != 1.0,
+        setup=lambda: wide.reset(),
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.io_memory_benchmark()
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", WRITE_PLANS)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("projection", list(PROJECTIONS), ids=list(PROJECTIONS))
+def test_io_mem_update_subset_projection(
+    io_mem_benchmark, wide: Target, projection: str, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    source = wide_source(wide_row_indices(0.01), PROJECTIONS[projection])
+    job = update_subset(
+        source, use_index=uses_index(plan), write_mode=write_mode_for(plan)
+    )
+    io_mem_benchmark(job, wide.dataset, setup=lambda: wide.reset())
+
+
+@pytest.mark.io_memory_benchmark()
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("plan", PLANS)
+def test_io_mem_upsert_streaming_source(
+    io_mem_benchmark, narrow: Target, plan: str
+) -> None:
+    num_rows = 1_000_000
+    batch_size = 100_000
+
+    def job(dataset: lance.LanceDataset) -> ExecuteResult:
+        def batches():
+            for start in range(0, num_rows, batch_size):
+                yield narrow_batch(
+                    existing_rows(batch_size, offset=start), value_offset=1
+                )
+
+        reader = pa.RecordBatchReader.from_batches(NARROW_SCHEMA, batches())
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id_int")
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .use_index(uses_index(plan))
+            .execute(reader)
+        )
+
+    io_mem_benchmark(job, narrow.dataset, warmup=False, setup=lambda: narrow.reset())
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_overlay_manifest.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_overlay_manifest.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4a9d8c75e83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_overlay_manifest.py
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Impact of overlay files on manifest size.
+
+Each committed overlay adds a ``DataOverlayFile`` entry (a value-file pointer
+plus a serialized coverage bitmap) to every overlaid fragment's metadata in the
+manifest. This measures how the manifest grows with the number of overlays and
+the coverage size, since manifests are read on every dataset open.
+"""
+
+import pytest
+from ci_benchmarks.overlays import (
+    commit_overlay_layers,
+    make_base_dataset,
+    manifest_size,
+)
+
+NUM_ROWS = 1_000_000
+# Single fragment so every overlay lands on the same fragment's metadata.
+ROWS_PER_FILE = NUM_ROWS
+
+# Strided 10% coverage is the worst case for bitmap size, so manifest growth is
+# measured at its upper bound rather than swept across coverage shapes.
+COVERAGE_FRACTION = 0.1
+COVERAGE_PATTERN = "stride"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_overlays", [0, 4, 64])
+def test_overlay_manifest_size(tmp_path, record_property, num_overlays):
+    base = str(tmp_path / "ds")
+    ds = make_base_dataset(base, NUM_ROWS, ROWS_PER_FILE, "int32")
+    base_bytes = manifest_size(ds)
+
+    if num_overlays:
+        ds = commit_overlay_layers(
+            ds, num_overlays, COVERAGE_FRACTION, COVERAGE_PATTERN, "int32"
+        )
+
+    total = manifest_size(ds)
+    growth = total - base_bytes
+    # Guard the fixture: committed overlays must enlarge the manifest, else the
+    # benchmark would report growth=0 for overlays that were never recorded.
+    if num_overlays:
+        assert growth > 0, "overlays did not grow the manifest"
+    per_overlay = growth / num_overlays if num_overlays else 0
+
+    record_property("manifest_bytes", total)
+    record_property("manifest_growth_bytes", growth)
+    record_property("bytes_per_overlay", per_overlay)
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_overlay_read.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_overlay_read.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a5774e5ea85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_overlay_read.py
@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Impact of overlay files on take and scan workloads.
+
+On read, every overlay covering a requested cell must be consulted and its value
+merged over the base. This measures how take and full-scan cost scale with:
+- the number of overlay layers stacked on a fragment (compaction payoff),
+- fragmentation (contiguous run vs. strided -> pages touched), and
+- value width (a 4-byte int32 vs. a wide fixed-size-list embedding).
+
+Coverage is fixed at 1% and only the default storage version is measured — these
+exist to catch regressions, not to explore the parameter space.
+
+Wall time is measured warm via pytest-benchmark; read IO (bytes + IOPS) is
+measured once cold, after dropping the page cache, via ``io_stats_incremental``.
+"""
+
+import random
+
+import lance
+import pytest
+from ci_benchmarks.overlays import commit_overlay_layers, make_base_dataset
+from ci_benchmarks.utils import wipe_os_cache
+
+NUM_ROWS = 1_000_000
+ROWS_PER_FILE = NUM_ROWS  # single fragment: isolates overlay-layer scaling
+TAKE_ROWS = 100
+
+# Wide value column: a 3072-d float32 embedding is 12 KiB/row, ~750x an int32
+# cell. Fewer rows keep the base file to ~1.2 GiB while each cell still dominates
+# read cost, so the merge/interleave a scan pays per overlay layer moves real
+# payload rather than 4-byte integers.
+WIDE_EMBEDDING_DIM = 3072
+NUM_ROWS_WIDE = 100_000
+
+# Coverage size is held constant so the sweeps isolate layer count and coverage
+# shape; 1% models a small targeted update, the case overlays are built for.
+COVERAGE_FRACTION = 0.01
+
+
+def _take_indices(num_rows: int) -> list[int]:
+    rng = random.Random(0)
+    return sorted(rng.sample(range(num_rows), TAKE_ROWS))
+
+
+def _covered_value(ds: lance.LanceDataset):
+    """``val`` at offset 0, which every coverage pattern includes.
+
+    Used to guard the fixture: after committing overlays a covered cell must
+    read back a new value, otherwise a read-invisible overlay would let the
+    benchmark silently time plain base reads.
+    """
+    return ds.take([0], columns=["val"]).column("val").to_pylist()[0]
+
+
+def _measure_cold_io(ds: lance.LanceDataset, base: str, work):
+    """Drop the page cache, run ``work`` once, return its read IO stats."""
+    wipe_os_cache(base)
+    ds.io_stats_incremental()  # reset
+    work()
+    stats = ds.io_stats_incremental()
+    return stats.read_bytes, stats.read_iops
+
+
+def _run_read(benchmark, record_property, base, ds, workload, num_rows):
+    if workload == "take":
+        indices = _take_indices(num_rows)
+
+        def work():
+            ds.take(indices, columns=["val"])
+    else:
+
+        def work():
+            ds.to_table(columns=["val"])
+
+    read_bytes, read_iops = _measure_cold_io(ds, base, work)
+    record_property("cold_read_bytes", read_bytes)
+    record_property("cold_read_iops", read_iops)
+
+    benchmark(work)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("workload", ["take", "scan"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_overlays", [0, 4])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("pattern", ["contiguous", "stride"])
+def test_overlay_read_scaling(
+    benchmark,
+    tmp_path,
+    record_property,
+    workload,
+    num_overlays,
+    pattern,
+):
+    base = str(tmp_path / "ds")
+    ds = make_base_dataset(base, NUM_ROWS, ROWS_PER_FILE, "int32")
+    if num_overlays:
+        base_val = _covered_value(ds)
+        ds = commit_overlay_layers(
+            ds, num_overlays, COVERAGE_FRACTION, pattern, "int32"
+        )
+        assert _covered_value(ds) != base_val, "overlay not visible on read"
+    _run_read(benchmark, record_property, base, ds, workload, NUM_ROWS)
+
+
+# Mirror test_overlay_read_scaling but on a wide 3072-d embedding column, so the
+# take/scan-vs-layers story can be read for a fat value column rather than a
+# 4-byte one.
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("workload", ["take", "scan"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_overlays", [0, 4])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("pattern", ["contiguous", "stride"])
+def test_overlay_read_wide(
+    benchmark,
+    tmp_path,
+    record_property,
+    workload,
+    num_overlays,
+    pattern,
+):
+    base = str(tmp_path / "ds")
+    ds = make_base_dataset(
+        base,
+        NUM_ROWS_WIDE,
+        NUM_ROWS_WIDE,
+        "embedding",
+        embedding_dim=WIDE_EMBEDDING_DIM,
+    )
+    if num_overlays:
+        base_val = _covered_value(ds)
+        ds = commit_overlay_layers(
+            ds,
+            num_overlays,
+            COVERAGE_FRACTION,
+            pattern,
+            "embedding",
+            embedding_dim=WIDE_EMBEDDING_DIM,
+        )
+        assert _covered_value(ds) != base_val, "overlay not visible on read"
+    _run_read(benchmark, record_property, base, ds, workload, NUM_ROWS_WIDE)
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_scan.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_scan.py
index 22186ea33c1..468fab7ebf3 100644
--- a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_scan.py
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_scan.py
@@ -30,4 +30,9 @@ def bench():
         ds = lance.dataset(dataset_uri)
         ds.to_table(offset=num_rows - 100, limit=50)
 
-    benchmark.pedantic(bench, rounds=1, iterations=1)
+    # A single unwarmed round measures whatever page-cache state the preceding
+    # benchmarks left behind (test_full_scan alone cycles the dataset plus a
+    # full in-memory table through RAM), not the scan itself.  Warm up once and
+    # take several rounds so the recorded value tracks the code path
+    # deterministically (see issue #8289).
+    benchmark.pedantic(bench, rounds=5, iterations=1, warmup_rounds=1)
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_search.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_search.py
index 2ca76f8d865..84eb10fc872 100644
--- a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_search.py
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/benchmarks/test_search.py
@@ -102,11 +102,17 @@ def bench():
 BASIC_LARGE_IN_FILTER = (
     "row_number IN (" + ", ".join([str(i) for i in range(100000, 100100)]) + ")"
 )
+# row_number runs 0..10M, so this selects 7M rows (70% of the dataset).  Both
+# bounds land mid-page, so the scan has to walk the great majority of the
+# btree's leaves and union their row id lists
+BASIC_LARGE_RANGE_FILTER = "row_number >= 1000000 AND row_number < 8000000"
+
 BASIC_BTREE_FILTERS = [
     None,
     "row_number = 100000",
     "row_number != 100000",
     "row_number >= 100000 AND row_number <= 100007",
+    BASIC_LARGE_RANGE_FILTER,
     BASIC_LARGE_IN_FILTER,
 ]
 
@@ -115,6 +121,7 @@ def bench():
     "equal",
     "not_equal",
     "small_range",
+    "large_range",
     "large_in",
 ]
 
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/basic.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/basic.py
index 9629ac09509..b24193907b7 100644
--- a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/basic.py
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/basic.py
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ def _create(dataset_uri: str):
             schema=SCHEMA,
             mode="create",
         )
-    if ds.list_indices() == []:
+    if not ds.describe_indices():
         ds.create_scalar_index("row_number", "BTREE")
         ds.create_scalar_index("row_number_bitmap", "BITMAP")
 
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/count_rows.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/count_rows.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ff5fa02cf8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/count_rows.py
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Generate the count_rows benchmark dataset.
+
+Creates a 10-million-row Lance dataset with five int32 columns that all hold the
+same values and the same ~1% null mask.  Each column carries a different scalar
+index so the benchmark can compare no-index, BITMAP, BTREE, ZONEMAP, and
+BLOOMFILTER side-by-side on the same underlying data.
+
+Column layout
+-------------
+value_none        — no index (full-scan baseline)
+value_bitmap      — BITMAP index
+value_btree       — BTREE index
+value_zonemap     — ZONEMAP index
+value_bloomfilter — BLOOMFILTER index
+
+Null pattern: row i is null when i % 100 == 0 (~1% of rows exactly).
+"""
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.log import LOGGER
+
+from ci_benchmarks.datasets import get_dataset_uri
+
+NUM_ROWS = 10_000_000
+BATCH_SIZE = 1_000_000  # 1 M rows per batch → 10 batches total
+
+COLUMNS = [
+    "value_none",
+    "value_bitmap",
+    "value_btree",
+    "value_zonemap",
+    "value_bloomfilter",
+]
+
+SCHEMA = pa.schema([(col, pa.int32()) for col in COLUMNS])
+
+
+def _gen_data():
+    num_batches = NUM_ROWS // BATCH_SIZE
+    for batch_idx in range(num_batches):
+        offset = batch_idx * BATCH_SIZE
+        values = np.arange(offset, offset + BATCH_SIZE, dtype=np.int32)
+        # Null mask: True where the value should be null (~1% of rows)
+        null_mask = (np.arange(BATCH_SIZE) + offset) % 100 == 0
+        col = pa.array(values, type=pa.int32(), mask=null_mask)
+        yield pa.record_batch([col] * len(COLUMNS), schema=SCHEMA)
+
+
+def gen_count_rows() -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    dataset_uri = get_dataset_uri("count_rows")
+
+    try:
+        ds = lance.dataset(dataset_uri)
+        if ds.count_rows() == NUM_ROWS:
+            LOGGER.info(
+                "count_rows dataset already exists at %s (%d rows)",
+                dataset_uri,
+                NUM_ROWS,
+            )
+            return ds
+        LOGGER.warning(
+            "count_rows dataset at %s has unexpected row count %d; regenerating",
+            dataset_uri,
+            ds.count_rows(),
+        )
+    except Exception:
+        pass
+
+    LOGGER.info(
+        "Writing count_rows dataset (%d rows, %d columns) to %s",
+        NUM_ROWS,
+        len(COLUMNS),
+        dataset_uri,
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _gen_data(),
+        dataset_uri,
+        schema=SCHEMA,
+        mode="overwrite",
+    )
+    LOGGER.info("Dataset written; building scalar indexes …")
+
+    for index_type, column in [
+        ("BITMAP", "value_bitmap"),
+        ("BTREE", "value_btree"),
+        ("ZONEMAP", "value_zonemap"),
+        ("BLOOMFILTER", "value_bloomfilter"),
+    ]:
+        LOGGER.info("  Creating %s index on %s …", index_type, column)
+        ds.create_scalar_index(column, index_type)
+
+    LOGGER.info("count_rows dataset ready.")
+    return ds
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/gen_all.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/gen_all.py
index 1da7c05fd9b..79725708bb8 100644
--- a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/gen_all.py
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/gen_all.py
@@ -6,7 +6,9 @@
 from lance.log import LOGGER
 
 from ci_benchmarks.datagen.basic import gen_basic
+from ci_benchmarks.datagen.count_rows import gen_count_rows
 from ci_benchmarks.datagen.lineitems import gen_tcph
+from ci_benchmarks.datagen.merge_insert import gen_merge_insert
 from ci_benchmarks.datagen.wikipedia import gen_wikipedia
 
 
@@ -40,6 +42,12 @@ def setup_logging():
     LOGGER.info("Generating Wikipedia dataset...")
     gen_wikipedia()
 
+    LOGGER.info("Generating count_rows benchmark dataset...")
+    gen_count_rows()
+
+    LOGGER.info("Generating merge_insert benchmark datasets...")
+    gen_merge_insert()
+
     LOGGER.info("=" * 80)
     LOGGER.info("All datasets generated successfully!")
     LOGGER.info("=" * 80)
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/lineitems.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/lineitems.py
index 9a6bb27eaed..19e9e1fe745 100644
--- a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/lineitems.py
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/lineitems.py
@@ -21,14 +21,13 @@ def _gen_data(tmpdir: str, scale_factor: int):
     con.execute("INSTALL tpch; LOAD tpch")
     con.execute(f"CALL dbgen(sf={scale_factor})")
     res = con.query("SELECT * FROM lineitem")
-    return res.fetch_arrow_reader()
+    return res.to_arrow_reader()
 
 
 def _create(dataset_uri: str, data_storage_version: str, scale_factor: int = 10):
     tmpdir = tempfile.mkdtemp(prefix=f"tpch-scale-factor-{scale_factor}-")
     try:
         ds = lance.dataset(dataset_uri)
-        print(ds.count_rows())
         if ds.count_rows() == NUM_ROWS:
             return
         elif ds.count_rows() == 0:
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/merge_insert.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/merge_insert.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d69a7f4c85f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/datagen/merge_insert.py
@@ -0,0 +1,423 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Generate the merge_insert benchmark datasets.
+
+merge_insert benchmarks mutate their target, so each dataset carries a
+``merge_insert_base`` tag pointing at a pristine version.  Benchmarks restore
+to that tag before every measured run (see ``benchmarks/test_merge_insert.py``),
+which makes the suite tolerant of a crashed run leaving stale versions behind.
+
+Datasets
+--------
+``merge_insert_narrow``
+    10M rows, 10 fragments.  The key columns differ along two independent
+    axes so benchmarks can separate them:
+
+      * ``id_int`` vs ``id_uuid7`` -- key *type* (int64 vs string), both
+        clustered.
+      * ``id_uuid7`` vs ``id_uuid4`` -- key *distribution* (clustered vs
+        random), both string.
+
+    ``id_no_index`` holds the same values as ``id_int`` with no index, for the
+    "user never built an index" baseline.  ``composite_a``/``composite_b`` are
+    both indexed, for composite-key probes.
+
+``merge_insert_wide``
+    1M rows, 10 fragments.  20 narrow scalar columns (~200 MB) plus one
+    256-dim float32 vector column (~1 GB).  These exert different pressures on
+    a partial-column update: the scalar columns stress field count and the
+    number of distinct buffers to schedule, the vector column stresses raw
+    byte volume.
+
+``merge_insert_frags``
+    10M rows in 10K fragments of 1K rows, for per-fragment overhead.
+
+``merge_insert_deleted``
+    ``merge_insert_narrow`` layout with a deletion file on every fragment.
+
+``merge_insert_unindexed_tail``
+    ``merge_insert_narrow`` layout where 10% of the rows were appended after
+    the index was built, so the probe must union an unindexed scan.
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import os
+from contextlib import contextmanager
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.log import LOGGER
+
+from ci_benchmarks.datasets import get_dataset_uri
+
+# Tag marking the pristine version that benchmarks restore to.
+BASE_TAG = "merge_insert_base"
+
+# BTREE training sorts the full column under DataFusion's FairSpillPool. The
+# default 150 MiB pool is tight for 10M 32-byte string keys (uuid columns):
+# ExternalSorterMerge has peaked near the pool edge and aborted datagen with
+# ResourcesExhausted. Index build is one-shot setup, not a measured path, so
+# temporarily enlarge the pool only around create_scalar_index.
+_INDEX_BUILD_MEM_POOL_SIZE = str(1024 * 1024 * 1024)
+
+NARROW_NUM_ROWS = 10_000_000
+NARROW_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT = 1_000_000
+
+WIDE_NUM_ROWS = 1_000_000
+WIDE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT = 100_000
+WIDE_NUM_SCALAR_COLUMNS = 20
+WIDE_VECTOR_DIM = 256
+
+FRAGS_NUM_ROWS = 10_000_000
+FRAGS_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT = 1_000
+
+# Rows appended to `merge_insert_unindexed_tail` after the index is built.
+UNINDEXED_TAIL_ROWS = NARROW_NUM_ROWS // 10
+
+# `merge_insert_deleted` deletes every Nth row, which puts a deletion file on
+# every fragment.
+DELETED_ROW_STRIDE = 1000
+
+_BATCH_SIZE = 1_000_000
+
+NARROW_INDEXED_COLUMNS = [
+    "id_int",
+    "id_uuid7",
+    "id_uuid4",
+    "composite_a",
+    "composite_b",
+]
+
+NARROW_SCHEMA = pa.schema(
+    [
+        ("id_int", pa.int64()),
+        ("id_uuid7", pa.string()),
+        ("id_uuid4", pa.string()),
+        ("id_no_index", pa.int64()),
+        ("composite_a", pa.int64()),
+        ("composite_b", pa.int64()),
+        ("value", pa.int64()),
+    ]
+)
+
+FRAGS_SCHEMA = pa.schema([("id_int", pa.int64()), ("value", pa.int64())])
+
+WIDE_SCALAR_COLUMNS = [f"scalar_{i}" for i in range(WIDE_NUM_SCALAR_COLUMNS)]
+
+# Half int64, half string, so a partial-column update touches a mix of
+# fixed-width and variable-width buffers.
+WIDE_SCHEMA = pa.schema(
+    [("id_int", pa.int64())]
+    + [
+        (name, pa.int64() if i % 2 == 0 else pa.string())
+        for i, name in enumerate(WIDE_SCALAR_COLUMNS)
+    ]
+    + [("vec", pa.list_(pa.float32(), WIDE_VECTOR_DIM))]
+)
+
+
+_GOLDEN = np.uint64(0x9E3779B97F4A7C15)
+_MIX1 = np.uint64(0xBF58476D1CE4E5B9)
+_MIX2 = np.uint64(0x94D049BB133111EB)
+_HEX_DIGITS = np.frombuffer(b"0123456789abcdef", dtype="S1")
+_NIBBLE_SHIFTS = np.arange(60, -4, -4, dtype=np.uint64)
+# Two uint64 halves rendered as hex.
+_KEY_WIDTH = 32
+
+
+def _scramble(values: np.ndarray) -> np.ndarray:
+    """splitmix64 finalizer. Wrapping uint64 arithmetic, vectorized."""
+    x = values.astype(np.uint64) * _GOLDEN
+    x = (x ^ (x >> np.uint64(30))) * _MIX1
+    x = (x ^ (x >> np.uint64(27))) * _MIX2
+    return x ^ (x >> np.uint64(31))
+
+
+def _hex_keys(high: np.ndarray, low: np.ndarray) -> pa.Array:
+    """Format two uint64 columns as 32-character lowercase hex strings.
+
+    Vectorized because the narrow dataset needs 10M of these and the
+    benchmarks rebuild source keys from row indices on every run.
+    """
+    # One nibble at a time into a preallocated byte matrix. Broadcasting all 16
+    # shifts at once would materialize an (n, 16) uint64 array per half, which is
+    # 2.5 GB of scratch for a 10M-row source.
+    num_rows = len(high)
+    half = len(_NIBBLE_SHIFTS)
+    digits = np.empty((num_rows, _KEY_WIDTH), dtype="S1")
+    for position, shift in enumerate(_NIBBLE_SHIFTS):
+        digits[:, position] = _HEX_DIGITS[(high >> shift) & np.uint64(0xF)]
+        digits[:, position + half] = _HEX_DIGITS[(low >> shift) & np.uint64(0xF)]
+
+    # Built from buffers rather than `pa.array`, which splits a numpy byte array
+    # into chunks above ~1M elements. RecordBatch needs a contiguous Array.
+    offsets = np.arange(0, _KEY_WIDTH * (num_rows + 1), _KEY_WIDTH, dtype=np.int32)
+    return pa.StringArray.from_buffers(
+        num_rows, pa.py_buffer(offsets), pa.py_buffer(digits)
+    )
+
+
+def uuid7_keys(row_indices: np.ndarray) -> pa.Array:
+    """Sortable, UUIDv7-shaped keys: monotonic prefix, scrambled suffix.
+
+    Real UUIDv7 keys are time-ordered, so a stream of them lands in a narrow,
+    advancing slice of the index.  Reproducing that ordering is what matters
+    for the benchmark; the exact bit layout is not.
+
+    Deterministic in the row index so benchmarks can reconstruct a key without
+    reading the dataset.
+    """
+    row_indices = row_indices.astype(np.uint64)
+    return _hex_keys(row_indices, _scramble(row_indices))
+
+
+def uuid4_keys(row_indices: np.ndarray) -> pa.Array:
+    """Same width as `uuid7_keys`, but scattered across the index key space.
+
+    Deterministic for the same reason, but the leading bytes are scrambled, so
+    a contiguous run of row indices maps to keys spread over the whole index
+    rather than a narrow slice.
+    """
+    row_indices = row_indices.astype(np.uint64)
+    return _hex_keys(_scramble(row_indices), row_indices)
+
+
+def narrow_batch(row_indices: np.ndarray, value_offset: int = 0) -> pa.RecordBatch:
+    """Build a full-schema narrow batch from row indices.
+
+    Shared with the benchmarks, which reconstruct source rows from row indices.
+    ``value_offset`` shifts the payload column so an update writes a value that
+    differs from what the target already holds.
+    """
+    return pa.record_batch(
+        [
+            pa.array(row_indices),
+            uuid7_keys(row_indices),
+            uuid4_keys(row_indices),
+            pa.array(row_indices),
+            pa.array(row_indices),
+            # `composite_b` is a deterministic function of `composite_a` so a
+            # source row can target an existing composite key without the
+            # benchmark tracking extra state.
+            pa.array(row_indices % 1024),
+            pa.array(row_indices + value_offset),
+        ],
+        schema=NARROW_SCHEMA,
+    )
+
+
+def _narrow_data(num_rows: int, offset: int = 0):
+    LOGGER.info("Generating %d narrow rows starting at %d", num_rows, offset)
+    for start in range(offset, offset + num_rows, _BATCH_SIZE):
+        count = min(_BATCH_SIZE, offset + num_rows - start)
+        yield narrow_batch(np.arange(start, start + count, dtype=np.int64))
+
+
+def _frags_data(num_rows: int):
+    LOGGER.info("Generating %d small-fragment rows", num_rows)
+    for start in range(0, num_rows, _BATCH_SIZE):
+        ids = np.arange(
+            start, start + min(_BATCH_SIZE, num_rows - start), dtype=np.int64
+        )
+        yield pa.record_batch([pa.array(ids), pa.array(ids)], schema=FRAGS_SCHEMA)
+
+
+def _wide_batch(offset: int, num_rows: int) -> pa.RecordBatch:
+    ids = np.arange(offset, offset + num_rows, dtype=np.int64)
+    columns: list[pa.Array] = [pa.array(ids)]
+    for i in range(WIDE_NUM_SCALAR_COLUMNS):
+        if i % 2 == 0:
+            columns.append(pa.array(ids + i))
+        else:
+            columns.append(pa.array([f"s{i}_{v}" for v in ids], type=pa.string()))
+    # Deterministic float payload; the values are irrelevant, the byte volume
+    # is the point.
+    vectors = np.linspace(
+        0.0, 1.0, num=num_rows * WIDE_VECTOR_DIM, dtype=np.float32
+    ).reshape(num_rows, WIDE_VECTOR_DIM)
+    columns.append(
+        pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+            pa.array(vectors.reshape(-1)), WIDE_VECTOR_DIM
+        )
+    )
+    return pa.record_batch(columns, schema=WIDE_SCHEMA)
+
+
+def _wide_data(num_rows: int):
+    LOGGER.info("Generating %d wide rows", num_rows)
+    # The vector column makes full batches large, so use a smaller batch here.
+    batch_size = WIDE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT
+    for start in range(0, num_rows, batch_size):
+        yield _wide_batch(start, min(batch_size, num_rows - start))
+
+
+def _tag_base(ds: lance.LanceDataset) -> None:
+    """Point BASE_TAG at the current version, creating the tag if needed."""
+    if BASE_TAG in ds.tags.list():
+        ds.tags.update(BASE_TAG, ds.version)
+    else:
+        ds.tags.create(BASE_TAG, ds.version)
+
+
+def _already_generated(uri: str, expected_rows: int) -> bool:
+    """True when a usable dataset with a pristine base tag already exists.
+
+    A previous benchmark run may have left extra versions behind, so the row
+    count is checked at the tagged version rather than at the latest one.
+
+    Incomplete generations (dataset written, tag never created) and missing
+    tags both return False so the caller can overwrite and retag.
+    """
+    try:
+        ds = lance.dataset(uri)
+    except ValueError:
+        return False
+    tags = ds.tags.list()
+    if BASE_TAG not in tags:
+        return False
+    base_version = tags[BASE_TAG]["version"]
+    return ds.checkout_version(base_version).count_rows() == expected_rows
+
+
+@contextmanager
+def _enlarged_mem_pool_for_index_build():
+    """Raise LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE only for the duration of index training."""
+    previous = os.environ.get("LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE")
+    os.environ["LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE"] = _INDEX_BUILD_MEM_POOL_SIZE
+    try:
+        yield
+    finally:
+        if previous is None:
+            os.environ.pop("LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE", None)
+        else:
+            os.environ["LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE"] = previous
+
+
+def _gen(
+    name: str,
+    data,
+    schema: pa.Schema,
+    expected_rows: int,
+    rows_per_fragment: int,
+    indexed_columns: list[str],
+) -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    dataset_uri = get_dataset_uri(name)
+    if _already_generated(dataset_uri, expected_rows):
+        LOGGER.info("Dataset %s already exists, skipping", name)
+        return lance.dataset(dataset_uri)
+
+    LOGGER.info("Creating dataset %s", name)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        data,
+        dataset_uri,
+        schema=schema,
+        mode="overwrite",
+        max_rows_per_file=rows_per_fragment,
+        max_rows_per_group=min(rows_per_fragment, 100_000),
+    )
+    with _enlarged_mem_pool_for_index_build():
+        for column in indexed_columns:
+            LOGGER.info("Building BTREE index on %s.%s", name, column)
+            ds.create_scalar_index(column, "BTREE")
+    _tag_base(ds)
+    return ds
+
+
+def gen_merge_insert_narrow() -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    return _gen(
+        "merge_insert_narrow",
+        _narrow_data(NARROW_NUM_ROWS),
+        NARROW_SCHEMA,
+        NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+        NARROW_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        NARROW_INDEXED_COLUMNS,
+    )
+
+
+def gen_merge_insert_wide() -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    return _gen(
+        "merge_insert_wide",
+        _wide_data(WIDE_NUM_ROWS),
+        WIDE_SCHEMA,
+        WIDE_NUM_ROWS,
+        WIDE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        ["id_int"],
+    )
+
+
+def gen_merge_insert_frags() -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    return _gen(
+        "merge_insert_frags",
+        _frags_data(FRAGS_NUM_ROWS),
+        FRAGS_SCHEMA,
+        FRAGS_NUM_ROWS,
+        FRAGS_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        ["id_int"],
+    )
+
+
+def gen_merge_insert_deleted() -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    """Narrow layout with a deletion file on every fragment.
+
+    One row in every `DELETED_ROW_STRIDE` is deleted, which lands in every
+    fragment.
+    """
+    name = "merge_insert_deleted"
+    dataset_uri = get_dataset_uri(name)
+    expected_rows = NARROW_NUM_ROWS - NARROW_NUM_ROWS // DELETED_ROW_STRIDE
+    if _already_generated(dataset_uri, expected_rows):
+        LOGGER.info("Dataset %s already exists, skipping", name)
+        return lance.dataset(dataset_uri)
+
+    ds = _gen(
+        name,
+        _narrow_data(NARROW_NUM_ROWS),
+        NARROW_SCHEMA,
+        NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+        NARROW_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        NARROW_INDEXED_COLUMNS,
+    )
+    LOGGER.info("Deleting rows from %s to create deletion files", name)
+    ds.delete(f"id_int % {DELETED_ROW_STRIDE} == 0")
+    _tag_base(ds)
+    return ds
+
+
+def gen_merge_insert_unindexed_tail() -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    """Narrow layout where the last 10% of rows are not covered by the index."""
+    name = "merge_insert_unindexed_tail"
+    dataset_uri = get_dataset_uri(name)
+    expected_rows = NARROW_NUM_ROWS + UNINDEXED_TAIL_ROWS
+    if _already_generated(dataset_uri, expected_rows):
+        LOGGER.info("Dataset %s already exists, skipping", name)
+        return lance.dataset(dataset_uri)
+
+    _gen(
+        name,
+        _narrow_data(NARROW_NUM_ROWS),
+        NARROW_SCHEMA,
+        NARROW_NUM_ROWS,
+        NARROW_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        NARROW_INDEXED_COLUMNS,
+    )
+    LOGGER.info("Appending %d unindexed rows to %s", UNINDEXED_TAIL_ROWS, name)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _narrow_data(UNINDEXED_TAIL_ROWS, offset=NARROW_NUM_ROWS),
+        dataset_uri,
+        schema=NARROW_SCHEMA,
+        mode="append",
+        max_rows_per_file=NARROW_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+    )
+    _tag_base(ds)
+    return ds
+
+
+def gen_merge_insert() -> None:
+    gen_merge_insert_narrow()
+    gen_merge_insert_wide()
+    gen_merge_insert_frags()
+    gen_merge_insert_deleted()
+    gen_merge_insert_unindexed_tail()
diff --git a/python/python/ci_benchmarks/overlays.py b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/overlays.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9d9d182de12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/ci_benchmarks/overlays.py
@@ -0,0 +1,168 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Shared helpers for the data-overlay benchmark suite.
+
+Data overlay files supply replacement values for a subset of (row offset, field)
+cells in a fragment, merged on read, without rewriting the base data file. These
+helpers build synthetic base datasets, commit overlay layers through the public
+``lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay`` operation, and measure their cost.
+"""
+
+import os
+
+# Data overlay support is gated off in release builds unless this is set (it is
+# always on in debug builds). Benchmarks usually run against a release build, so
+# enable it here, before lance is imported, or reading overlay datasets fails.
+os.environ.setdefault("LANCE_ENABLE_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES", "1")
+
+from typing import List  # noqa: E402
+from urllib.parse import urlparse  # noqa: E402
+
+import lance  # noqa: E402
+import numpy as np  # noqa: E402
+import pyarrow as pa  # noqa: E402
+from lance._datagen import rand_batches  # noqa: E402
+from lance.file import LanceFileWriter  # noqa: E402
+
+# Default width for the ``embedding`` dtype. Individual benchmarks override it
+# via ``embedding_dim`` to model narrow vs. wide (e.g. 3072-d) value columns.
+EMBEDDING_DIM = 128
+
+
+def _value_type(dtype: str, embedding_dim: int = EMBEDDING_DIM) -> pa.DataType:
+    if dtype == "int32":
+        return pa.int32()
+    if dtype == "embedding":
+        return pa.list_(pa.float32(), embedding_dim)
+    raise ValueError(f"unknown overlay benchmark dtype {dtype!r}")
+
+
+def _gen_values(
+    dtype: str,
+    n: int,
+    rng: np.random.Generator,
+    embedding_dim: int = EMBEDDING_DIM,
+) -> pa.Array:
+    if dtype == "int32":
+        return pa.array(rng.integers(0, 1 << 30, size=n, dtype=np.int32))
+    if dtype == "embedding":
+        flat = rng.random(n * embedding_dim, dtype=np.float32)
+        return pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(pa.array(flat), embedding_dim)
+    raise ValueError(f"unknown overlay benchmark dtype {dtype!r}")
+
+
+def make_base_dataset(
+    base_path: str,
+    num_rows: int,
+    rows_per_file: int,
+    dtype: str,
+    embedding_dim: int = EMBEDDING_DIM,
+) -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    """Create a base dataset with an ``id`` column and a ``val`` column.
+
+    ``val`` is the column overlays target. ``rows_per_file`` controls the number
+    of fragments (``num_rows // rows_per_file``), which must divide ``num_rows``.
+    ``embedding_dim`` sets the width of the ``val`` column when ``dtype`` is
+    ``embedding`` (e.g. 3072 for a wide embedding).
+    """
+    if num_rows % rows_per_file:
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"num_rows ({num_rows}) must be a multiple of rows_per_file "
+            f"({rows_per_file})"
+        )
+    schema = pa.schema({"id": pa.int64(), "val": _value_type(dtype, embedding_dim)})
+    # One fragment per batch; lance-datagen fills both columns with random data.
+    reader = rand_batches(
+        schema, num_batches=num_rows // rows_per_file, rows_per_batch=rows_per_file
+    )
+    return lance.write_dataset(reader, base_path, max_rows_per_file=rows_per_file)
+
+
+def coverage_offsets(num_rows: int, fraction: float, pattern: str) -> List[int]:
+    """Offsets within a fragment covered by an overlay.
+
+    ``contiguous`` packs the covered cells into a single leading run (few pages
+    touched); ``stride`` spreads them evenly across the fragment (many pages
+    touched). Both cover ``round(num_rows * fraction)`` cells.
+    """
+    count = max(1, int(round(num_rows * fraction)))
+    if pattern == "contiguous":
+        return list(range(count))
+    if pattern == "stride":
+        step = max(1, num_rows // count)
+        return list(range(0, num_rows, step))[:count]
+    raise ValueError(f"unknown coverage pattern {pattern!r}")
+
+
+def _val_field_id(ds: lance.LanceDataset) -> int:
+    base_df = ds.get_fragments()[0].metadata.files[0]
+    names = [f.name for f in ds.schema]
+    return base_df.fields[names.index("val")]
+
+
+def commit_overlay_layers(
+    ds: lance.LanceDataset,
+    num_layers: int,
+    fraction: float,
+    pattern: str,
+    dtype: str,
+    *,
+    seed: int = 0,
+    embedding_dim: int = EMBEDDING_DIM,
+) -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    """Commit ``num_layers`` overlays on ``val``, each covering the same offsets
+    in every fragment so that all layers must be consulted on read (the case
+    that motivates compaction). Returns the updated dataset.
+    """
+    base_df = ds.get_fragments()[0].metadata.files[0]
+    field_id = _val_field_id(ds)
+    data_dir = os.path.join(_local_path(ds), "data")
+    for layer in range(num_layers):
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(seed + layer + 1)
+        groups = []
+        for frag in ds.get_fragments():
+            offsets = coverage_offsets(frag.count_rows(), fraction, pattern)
+            values = _gen_values(dtype, len(offsets), rng, embedding_dim)
+            batch = pa.record_batch([values], names=["val"])
+            name = f"overlay_l{layer}_f{frag.fragment_id}.lance"
+            path = os.path.join(data_dir, name)
+            with LanceFileWriter(path) as writer:
+                writer.write_batch(batch)
+            df = lance.fragment.DataFile(
+                path=name,
+                fields=[field_id],
+                column_indices=[0],
+                file_major_version=base_df.file_major_version,
+                file_minor_version=base_df.file_minor_version,
+                file_size_bytes=os.path.getsize(path),
+            )
+            groups.append(
+                lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(
+                    fragment_id=frag.fragment_id,
+                    overlays=[
+                        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(
+                            data_file=df, offsets=offsets
+                        )
+                    ],
+                )
+            )
+        op = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(groups=groups)
+        ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(ds, op, read_version=ds.version)
+    return ds
+
+
+# --- Measurement helpers ----------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def _local_path(ds: lance.LanceDataset) -> str:
+    parsed = urlparse(ds.uri)
+    return parsed.path if parsed.scheme == "file" else ds.uri
+
+
+def manifest_size(ds: lance.LanceDataset) -> int:
+    """Size in bytes of the manifest for the dataset's current version."""
+    # Manifests are named `{u64::MAX - version}.manifest` so that a plain
+    # lexicographic directory listing yields newest-version-first.
+    name = f"{(1 << 64) - 1 - ds.version}.manifest"
+    return os.path.getsize(os.path.join(_local_path(ds), "_versions", name))
diff --git a/python/python/lance/__init__.py b/python/python/lance/__init__.py
index 92b32f6dc6a..b122c5755d6 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/__init__.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/__init__.py
@@ -9,11 +9,23 @@
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Dict, List, Optional, Union
 
 from . import io, log
-from .blob import Blob, BlobArray, BlobColumn, BlobFile, blob_array, blob_field
+from .blob import (
+    Blob,
+    BlobArray,
+    BlobColumn,
+    BlobDescriptor,
+    BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder,
+    BlobFile,
+    DedicatedBlobWriter,
+    PackedBlobWriter,
+    blob_array,
+    blob_field,
+)
 from .dataset import (
     DataStatistics,
     FieldStatistics,
     Index,
+    IndexFile,
     LanceDataset,
     LanceOperation,
     LanceScanner,
@@ -26,17 +38,32 @@
 )
 from .fragment import FragmentMetadata, LanceFragment
 from .lance import (
+    CleanupCandidateFile,
+    CleanupExplanation,
+    CleanupReferencedBranch,
+    CleanupStats,
     DatasetBasePath,
     FFILanceTableProvider,
+    FtsToken,
     ScanStatistics,
     bytes_read_counter,
     iops_counter,
+    simd_info,
+    tokenize,
 )
-from .namespace import (
-    DescribeTableRequest,
-    LanceNamespace,
-    LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider,
+from .mem_wal import (
+    CompactedSsTable,
+    ExecutionPlan,
+    LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    LsmScanner,
+    LsmVectorSearchPlanner,
+    ShardingField,
+    ShardingSpec,
+    ShardSnapshot,
+    ShardWriter,
+    evaluate_sharding_spec,
 )
+from .progress import IndexProgress
 from .schema import json_to_schema, schema_to_json
 from .util import sanitize_ts
 
@@ -46,6 +73,7 @@
 
     from lance.commit import CommitLock
     from lance.dependencies import pandas as pd
+    from lance.namespace import LanceNamespace
 
     ts_types = Union[datetime, pd.Timestamp, str]
 
@@ -55,18 +83,27 @@
     "BlobArray",
     "BlobColumn",
     "BlobFile",
+    "DedicatedBlobWriter",
+    "BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder",
+    "PackedBlobWriter",
+    "BlobDescriptor",
     "blob_array",
     "blob_field",
+    "CleanupCandidateFile",
+    "CleanupExplanation",
+    "CleanupReferencedBranch",
+    "CleanupStats",
     "DatasetBasePath",
     "DataStatistics",
     "FieldStatistics",
     "FragmentMetadata",
+    "FtsToken",
     "Index",
+    "IndexFile",
     "LanceDataset",
     "LanceFragment",
     "LanceOperation",
     "LanceScanner",
-    "LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider",
     "MergeInsertBuilder",
     "ScanStatistics",
     "Transaction",
@@ -79,8 +116,21 @@
     "json_to_schema",
     "schema_to_json",
     "set_logger",
+    "simd_info",
+    "tokenize",
     "write_dataset",
     "FFILanceTableProvider",
+    "IndexProgress",
+    "ExecutionPlan",
+    "LsmPointLookupPlanner",
+    "LsmScanner",
+    "LsmVectorSearchPlanner",
+    "CompactedSsTable",
+    "ShardSnapshot",
+    "ShardWriter",
+    "ShardingField",
+    "ShardingSpec",
+    "evaluate_sharding_spec",
 ]
 
 
@@ -95,11 +145,11 @@ def dataset(
     default_scan_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
     metadata_cache_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
     index_cache_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
-    read_params: Optional[Dict[str, any]] = None,
+    read_params: Optional[Dict[str, Any]] = None,
     session: Optional[Session] = None,
-    namespace: Optional[LanceNamespace] = None,
+    namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace] = None,
     table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-    storage_options_provider: Optional[Any] = None,
+    base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
 ) -> LanceDataset:
     """
     Opens the Lance dataset from the address specified.
@@ -109,7 +159,7 @@ def dataset(
     uri : str, optional
         Address to the Lance dataset. It can be a local file path `/tmp/data.lance`,
         or a cloud object store URI, i.e., `s3://bucket/data.lance`.
-        Either `uri` or (`namespace` + `table_id`) must be provided, but not both.
+        Either `uri` or (`namespace_client` + `table_id`) must be provided.
     version : optional, int | str
         If specified, load a specific version of the Lance dataset. Else, loads the
         latest version. A version number (`int`) or a tag (`str`) can be provided.
@@ -134,6 +184,13 @@ def dataset(
     storage_options : optional, dict
         Extra options that make sense for a particular storage connection. This is
         used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
+
+        For datasets with additional registered base paths, a key of the form
+        ``base_<id>.<key>`` applies ``<key>`` only to the base path with that
+        manifest id, overriding the unscoped options that every base inherits.
+        For example ``{"account_key": "shared", "base_1.account_key": "abc"}``
+        makes base 1 use ``account_key = abc`` while all other options are
+        shared.
     default_scan_options : optional, dict
         Default scan options that are used when scanning the dataset.  This accepts
         the same arguments described in :py:meth:`lance.LanceDataset.scanner`.  The
@@ -153,70 +210,81 @@ def dataset(
     read_params : optional, dict
         Dictionary of read parameters. Currently supports:
         - cache_repetition_index (bool): Whether to cache repetition indices for
-          large string/binary columns
+          large string/binary columns. This is enabled by default. You can disable
+          it globally by setting LANCE_READ_CACHE_REPETITION_INDEX=false.
         - validate_on_decode (bool): Whether to validate data during decoding
     session : optional, lance.Session
         A session to use for this dataset. This contains the caches used by the
         across multiple datasets.
-    namespace : optional, LanceNamespace
-        A namespace instance from which to fetch table location and storage options.
+    namespace_client : optional, LanceNamespace
+        A namespace client from which to fetch table location and storage options.
         Use lance.namespace.connect() to create a namespace instance.
         Must be provided together with `table_id`. Cannot be used with `uri`.
         When provided, the table location will be fetched automatically from the
         namespace via describe_table().
     table_id : optional, List[str]
         The table identifier when using a namespace (e.g., ["my_table"]).
-        Must be provided together with `namespace`. Cannot be used with `uri`.
-    storage_options_provider : optional
-        A storage options provider for automatic credential refresh. Must implement
-        `fetch_storage_options()` method that returns a dict of storage options.
-        If provided along with `namespace`, this takes precedence over the
-        namespace-created provider.
+        Must be provided together with `namespace_client`. Cannot be used with `uri`.
+    base_store_params : dict of str to dict, optional
+        Runtime-only object store parameters keyed by base path URI. Each key
+        is a base path URI (e.g., "s3://bucket/path") and each value is a dict
+        of storage options (credentials, endpoint, etc.) for that base.  These
+        take precedence over ``base_<id>.<key>`` entries in ``storage_options``.
+        When a base has no explicit entry here, the top-level
+        ``storage_options`` is used as a fallback.
 
     Notes
     -----
-    When using `namespace` and `table_id`:
+    When using `namespace_client` and `table_id`:
     - The `uri` parameter is optional and will be fetched from the namespace
     - Storage options from describe_table() will be used automatically
     - A dynamic storage options provider will be created to refresh credentials
     - Initial storage options from describe_table() will be merged with
       any provided `storage_options`
     """
-    # Validate that user provides either uri OR (namespace + table_id), not both
+    # Validate that user provides either uri OR (namespace_client + table_id), not both
     has_uri = uri is not None
-    has_namespace = namespace is not None or table_id is not None
+    has_namespace = namespace_client is not None or table_id is not None
 
     if has_uri and has_namespace:
         raise ValueError(
-            "Cannot specify both 'uri' and 'namespace/table_id'. "
-            "Please provide either 'uri' or both 'namespace' and 'table_id'."
+            "Cannot specify both 'uri' and 'namespace_client/table_id'. "
+            "Please provide either 'uri' or both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id'."
         )
     elif not has_uri and not has_namespace:
         raise ValueError(
-            "Must specify either 'uri' or both 'namespace' and 'table_id'."
+            "Must specify either 'uri' or both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id'."
         )
 
     # Handle namespace resolution in Python
-    if namespace is not None:
+    namespace_client_managed_versioning = False
+    if namespace_client is not None:
         if table_id is None:
             raise ValueError(
-                "Both 'namespace' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
+                "Both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
             )
 
-        request = DescribeTableRequest(id=table_id, version=version)
-        response = namespace.describe_table(request)
+        # Resolve the latest table metadata here. The requested dataset version is
+        # applied by the lower-level dataset open path after namespace resolution.
+        from .namespace import DescribeTableRequest
+
+        request = DescribeTableRequest(id=table_id, version=None)
+        response = namespace_client.describe_table(request)
 
         uri = response.location
         if uri is None:
             raise ValueError("Namespace did not return a 'location' for the table")
 
+        # Check if namespace manages versioning (commits go through namespace API)
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning = (
+            getattr(response, "managed_versioning", None) is True
+        )
+
         namespace_storage_options = response.storage_options
 
-        if namespace_storage_options:
-            if storage_options_provider is None:
-                storage_options_provider = LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(
-                    namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id
-                )
+        # Merge namespace storage options with user-provided options
+        # Namespace options take precedence
+        if namespace_storage_options is not None:
             if storage_options is None:
                 storage_options = namespace_storage_options
             else:
@@ -224,7 +292,9 @@ def dataset(
                 merged_options.update(namespace_storage_options)
                 storage_options = merged_options
     elif table_id is not None:
-        raise ValueError("Both 'namespace' and 'table_id' must be provided together.")
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
+        )
 
     ds = LanceDataset(
         uri,
@@ -238,7 +308,10 @@ def dataset(
         index_cache_size_bytes=index_cache_size_bytes,
         read_params=read_params,
         session=session,
-        storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+        namespace_client=namespace_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning=namespace_client_managed_versioning,
+        base_store_params=base_store_params,
     )
     if version is None and asof is not None:
         ts_cutoff = sanitize_ts(asof)
@@ -262,7 +335,10 @@ def dataset(
                 index_cache_size_bytes=index_cache_size_bytes,
                 read_params=read_params,
                 session=session,
-                storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+                namespace_client=namespace_client,
+                table_id=table_id,
+                namespace_client_managed_versioning=namespace_client_managed_versioning,
+                base_store_params=base_store_params,
             )
     else:
         return ds
@@ -287,3 +363,14 @@ def __warn_on_fork():
 
 if hasattr(os, "register_at_fork"):
     os.register_at_fork(before=__warn_on_fork)
+
+
+# `lance.namespace` pulls in the generated `lance_namespace` REST client, which
+# costs more than a second of import time. Most users never touch a namespace,
+# so resolve these re-exports on first access instead of at `import lance`.
+def __getattr__(name: str):
+    if name in ("DescribeTableRequest", "LanceNamespace"):
+        from . import namespace
+
+        return getattr(namespace, name)
+    raise AttributeError(f"module {__name__!r} has no attribute {name!r}")
diff --git a/python/python/lance/_datagen.py b/python/python/lance/_datagen.py
index b156066eca6..45826503c5b 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/_datagen.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/_datagen.py
@@ -21,10 +21,13 @@ def rand_batches(
     *,
     num_batches: Optional[int] = None,
     batch_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+    rows_per_batch: Optional[int] = None,
 ):
     if not datagen.is_datagen_supported():
         raise NotImplementedError(
             "This version of lance was not built with the datagen feature"
         )
-    batch_iter = datagen.rand_batches(schema, num_batches, batch_size_bytes)
+    batch_iter = datagen.rand_batches(
+        schema, num_batches, batch_size_bytes, rows_per_batch
+    )
     return pa.RecordBatchReader.from_batches(schema, batch_iter)
diff --git a/python/python/lance/arrow.py b/python/python/lance/arrow.py
index 54da15705f8..5e9f671ab80 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/arrow.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/arrow.py
@@ -4,10 +4,12 @@
 """Extensions to PyArrows."""
 
 import json
+import typing
 from pathlib import Path
 from typing import Callable, Iterable, Optional, Union
 
 import pyarrow as pa
+import pyarrow.compute as pc
 
 from ._arrow.bf16 import (  # noqa: F401
     BFloat16,
@@ -19,8 +21,10 @@
 from .lance import bfloat16_array
 
 __all__ = [
+    "BFloat16",
     "BFloat16Array",
     "BFloat16Type",
+    "PandasBFloat16Array",
     "bfloat16_array",
     "cast",
     "EncodedImageType",
@@ -220,14 +224,15 @@ def from_uris(
         <lance.arrow.ImageURIArray object at 0x...>
         ['file::///tmp/1.png']
         """
+        storage: pa.Array
         if isinstance(uris, (pa.StringArray, pa.LargeStringArray)):
-            pass
+            storage = uris
         elif isinstance(uris, Iterable):
-            uris = pa.array((str(uri) for uri in uris), type=pa.string())
+            storage = pa.array((str(uri) for uri in uris), type=pa.string())
         else:
             raise TypeError("Cannot build a ImageURIArray from {}".format(type(uris)))
 
-        return cls.from_storage(ImageURIType(uris.type), uris)
+        return cls.from_storage(ImageURIType(storage.type), storage)
 
     def read_uris(self, storage_type=pa.binary()) -> "EncodedImageArray":
         """
@@ -268,7 +273,8 @@ def download(url):
                     print("Failed to reach the server: ", e.reason)
                 elif hasattr(e, "code"):
                     print(
-                        "The server could not fulfill the request. Error code: ", e.code
+                        "The server could not fulfill the request. Error code: ",
+                        getattr(e, "code"),
                     )
 
         images = []
@@ -277,7 +283,9 @@ def download(url):
             if parsed_uri.scheme in ("http", "https"):
                 images.append(download(uri))
             else:
-                filesystem, path = fs.FileSystem.from_uri(uri.as_py())
+                filesystem, path = fs.FileSystem.from_uri(  # pyright: ignore[reportPrivateImportUsage]
+                    uri.as_py()
+                )
                 with filesystem.open_input_stream(path) as f:
                     images.append(f.read())
 
@@ -297,21 +305,12 @@ def __repr__(self):
         def pillow_metadata_decoder(images):
             import io
 
-            from PIL import Image
+            from PIL import Image  # pyright: ignore[reportMissingImports]
 
             img = Image.open(io.BytesIO(images[0].as_py()))
             return img
 
-        def tensorflow_metadata_decoder(images):
-            import tensorflow as tf
-
-            img = tf.io.decode_image(images[0].as_py())
-            return img
-
-        decoders = (
-            ("tensorflow", tensorflow_metadata_decoder),
-            ("PIL", pillow_metadata_decoder),
-        )
+        decoders = (("PIL", pillow_metadata_decoder),)
         decoder = None
 
         for libname, metadata_decoder in decoders:
@@ -343,7 +342,7 @@ def to_tensor(
         decoder : Callable[pa.binary()], optional
             A function that takes a binary array and returns a numpy.ndarray
             or pa.fixed_shape_tensor. If not provided, will attempt to use
-            tensorflow and then pillow decoder in that order.
+            pillow.
 
         Returns
         -------
@@ -365,27 +364,19 @@ def to_tensor(
 
         if not decoder:
 
-            def pillow_decoder(images):
+            def pillow_decoder(images) -> "np.ndarray":
                 import io
 
-                from PIL import Image
+                from PIL import Image  # pyright: ignore[reportMissingImports]
 
                 return np.stack(
-                    [Image.open(io.BytesIO(img)) for img in images.to_pylist()]
+                    [
+                        np.asarray(Image.open(io.BytesIO(img)))
+                        for img in images.to_pylist()
+                    ]
                 )
 
-            def tensorflow_decoder(images):
-                import tensorflow as tf
-
-                decoded_to_tensor = tuple(
-                    tf.io.decode_image(img) for img in images.to_pylist()
-                )
-                return tf.stack(decoded_to_tensor, axis=0).numpy()
-
-            decoders = [
-                ("tensorflow", tensorflow_decoder),
-                ("PIL", pillow_decoder),
-            ]
+            decoders = [("PIL", pillow_decoder)]
             for libname, decoder_function in decoders:
                 try:
                     __import__(libname)
@@ -395,15 +386,16 @@ def tensorflow_decoder(images):
                     pass
             else:
                 raise ValueError(
-                    "No image decoder available. Please either install one of "
-                    "tensorflow, pillow, or pass a decoder argument."
+                    "No image decoder available. Please install pillow or pass a "
+                    "decoder argument."
                 )
 
         image_array = decoder(self.storage)
         if isinstance(image_array, pa.FixedShapeTensorType):
-            shape = image_array.shape
-            arrow_type = image_array.storage_type
-            tensor_array = image_array
+            tensor = typing.cast("pa.Array", image_array)
+            shape = tensor.shape
+            arrow_type = tensor.storage_type
+            tensor_array = tensor
         else:
             shape = image_array.shape[1:]
             arrow_type = pa.from_numpy_dtype(image_array.dtype)
@@ -476,7 +468,7 @@ def to_encoded(self, encoder=None, storage_type=pa.binary()) -> "EncodedImageArr
         def pillow_encoder(x):
             import io
 
-            from PIL import Image
+            from PIL import Image  # pyright: ignore[reportMissingImports]
 
             encoded_images = []
             for y in x:
@@ -485,19 +477,8 @@ def pillow_encoder(x):
                     encoded_images.append(buf.getvalue())
             return pa.array(encoded_images, type=storage_type)
 
-        def tensorflow_encoder(x):
-            import tensorflow as tf
-
-            encoded_images = (
-                tf.io.encode_png(y).numpy() for y in tf.convert_to_tensor(x)
-            )
-            return pa.array(encoded_images, type=storage_type)
-
         if not encoder:
-            encoders = (
-                ("PIL", pillow_encoder),
-                ("tensorflow", tensorflow_encoder),
-            )
+            encoders = (("PIL", pillow_encoder),)
             for libname, encoder_function in encoders:
                 try:
                     __import__(libname)
@@ -507,8 +488,8 @@ def tensorflow_encoder(x):
                     pass
             else:
                 raise ValueError(
-                    "No image encoder available. Please either install one of "
-                    "tensorflow, pillow, or pass an encoder argument."
+                    "No image encoder available. Please install pillow or pass an "
+                    "encoder argument."
                 )
 
         return EncodedImageArray.from_storage(
@@ -571,7 +552,8 @@ def cast(
                 + f"got: {target_type}"
             )
         np_arr = arr.to_numpy()
-        float_arr = np_arr.astype(target_type.to_pandas_dtype())
+        float_type = typing.cast("pa.DataType", target_type)
+        float_arr = np_arr.astype(float_type.to_pandas_dtype())
         return pa.array(float_arr)
     elif isinstance(target_type, BFloat16Type) or target_type in ["bfloat16", "bf16"]:
         if not pa.types.is_floating(arr.type):
@@ -586,15 +568,16 @@ def cast(
         target_type
     ):
         # Casting fixed size list to fixed size list
-        if arr.type.list_size != target_type.list_size:
+        list_type = typing.cast("pa.DataType", target_type)
+        if arr.type.list_size != list_type.list_size:
             raise ValueError(
                 "Only support casting fixed size list to fixed size list "
                 f"with the same size, got: {arr.type} to {target_type}"
             )
-        values = cast(arr.values, target_type.value_type)
+        values = cast(arr.values, list_type.value_type)
         return pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
-            values=values, list_size=target_type.list_size
+            values=values, list_size=list_type.list_size
         )
 
     # Fallback to normal cast.
-    return pa.compute.cast(arr, target_type, *args, **kwargs)
+    return pc.cast(arr, target_type, *args, **kwargs)
diff --git a/python/python/lance/bitmap.py b/python/python/lance/bitmap.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cfd3224faef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/lance/bitmap.py
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+from collections.abc import MutableSet
+
+from .lance import Bitmap as Bitmap
+
+# `Bitmap` implements the whole `MutableSet` interface in Rust, but it is a
+# distinct type rather than a `set` subclass, so `isinstance(b, set)` is False.
+# Registering it here means the check that does work across set-like types,
+# `isinstance(b, collections.abc.Set)`, recognizes it. Modules that expose a
+# `Bitmap` import it from here rather than from `.lance` so the registration
+# always runs.
+MutableSet.register(Bitmap)
+
+__all__ = ["Bitmap"]
diff --git a/python/python/lance/blob.py b/python/python/lance/blob.py
index d23e6299f49..97ea422557f 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/blob.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/blob.py
@@ -1,13 +1,39 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+import ctypes
 import io
 from dataclasses import dataclass
 from typing import IO, Any, Iterator, Optional, Union
 
 import pyarrow as pa
 
-from .lance import LanceBlobFile
+from .lance import (
+    BlobDescriptor as BlobDescriptor,
+)
+from .lance import (
+    BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder as BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder,
+)
+from .lance import (
+    DedicatedBlobWriter as DedicatedBlobWriter,
+)
+from .lance import (
+    LanceBlobFile,
+)
+from .lance import (
+    PackedBlobWriter as PackedBlobWriter,
+)
+
+_BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY = b"lance-encoding:blob-inline-size-threshold"
+_BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY = (
+    b"lance-encoding:blob-dedicated-size-threshold"
+)
+_BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY = (
+    b"lance-encoding:blob-pack-file-size-threshold"
+)
+_MAX_RUST_USIZE = ctypes.c_size_t(-1).value
+# Default sequential read-ahead size in bytes.
+DEFAULT_BLOB_BUFFER_SIZE = 512 * 1024
 
 
 @dataclass(frozen=True)
@@ -15,27 +41,52 @@ class Blob:
     """
     A logical blob value for writing Lance blob columns.
 
-    A blob can be represented either by inlined bytes or by an external URI.
+    A blob can be represented as:
+    - inline bytes
+    - an external URI, optionally with a non-empty range
+
+    Every blob must use exactly one representation. Use ``None`` for a null
+    blob and :meth:`empty` for a valid empty blob.
     """
 
     data: Optional[bytes] = None
     uri: Optional[str] = None
+    position: Optional[int] = None
+    size: Optional[int] = None
 
     def __post_init__(self) -> None:
         if self.data is not None and self.uri is not None:
             raise ValueError("Blob cannot have both data and uri")
         if self.uri == "":
             raise ValueError("Blob uri cannot be empty")
+        if (self.position is not None or self.size is not None) and self.uri is None:
+            raise ValueError("External packed blob must have a uri")
+        if (self.position is None) != (self.size is None):
+            raise ValueError(
+                "External blob must set both position and size, or neither"
+            )
+        if self.data is not None and self.position is not None:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "Blob cannot have both inline data and external slice metadata"
+            )
+        if self.data is None and self.uri is None:
+            raise ValueError("Blob must set `data` or `uri`; use None for a null blob")
+        if self.size == 0:
+            raise ValueError("External blob range size must be greater than zero")
 
     @staticmethod
     def from_bytes(data: Union[bytes, bytearray, memoryview]) -> "Blob":
         return Blob(data=bytes(data))
 
     @staticmethod
-    def from_uri(uri: str) -> "Blob":
+    def from_uri(
+        uri: str, position: Optional[int] = None, size: Optional[int] = None
+    ) -> "Blob":
         if uri == "":
             raise ValueError("Blob uri cannot be empty")
-        return Blob(uri=uri)
+        if (position is not None and position < 0) or (size is not None and size < 0):
+            raise ValueError("External blob position and size must be non-negative")
+        return Blob(uri=uri, position=position, size=size)
 
     @staticmethod
     def empty() -> "Blob":
@@ -47,7 +98,13 @@ class BlobType(pa.ExtensionType):
     A PyArrow extension type for Lance blob columns.
 
     This is the "logical" type users write. Lance will store it in a compact
-    descriptor format, and reads will return descriptors by default.
+    descriptor format, and reads will return descriptors by default. Its storage
+    type defaults to ``Struct<data: LargeBinary?, uri: Utf8?, position: UInt64?,
+    size: UInt64?>``. Arrow deserialization also preserves the accepted minimal
+    ``Struct<data: LargeBinary?, uri: Utf8?>`` storage type. ``position`` and
+    ``size`` select a range within an external ``uri`` and must either both be set
+    or both be null. When set, ``size`` must be greater than zero. Every non-null
+    value must set exactly one of ``data`` and ``uri``.
     """
 
     def __init__(self) -> None:
@@ -55,6 +112,8 @@ def __init__(self) -> None:
             [
                 pa.field("data", pa.large_binary(), nullable=True),
                 pa.field("uri", pa.utf8(), nullable=True),
+                pa.field("position", pa.uint64(), nullable=True),
+                pa.field("size", pa.uint64(), nullable=True),
             ]
         )
         pa.ExtensionType.__init__(self, storage_type, "lance.blob.v2")
@@ -62,11 +121,47 @@ def __init__(self) -> None:
     def __arrow_ext_serialize__(self) -> bytes:
         return b""
 
+    @staticmethod
+    def _validate_storage_type(storage_type: pa.DataType) -> None:
+        if not pa.types.is_struct(storage_type):
+            raise TypeError("BlobType storage type must be a struct")
+
+        fields = list(storage_type)
+        if len(fields) not in (2, 4):
+            raise TypeError(
+                "BlobType storage struct must contain either data/uri or "
+                "data/uri/position/size"
+            )
+
+        expected_fields = [
+            ("data", pa.large_binary()),
+            ("uri", pa.utf8()),
+            ("position", pa.uint64()),
+            ("size", pa.uint64()),
+        ]
+        for index, field in enumerate(fields):
+            expected_name, expected_type = expected_fields[index]
+            if field.name != expected_name or field.type != expected_type:
+                raise TypeError(
+                    "BlobType storage field "
+                    f"{index} must be {expected_name}: {expected_type}, got "
+                    f"{field.name}: {field.type}"
+                )
+            if index < 2 and not field.nullable:
+                raise TypeError(f"BlobType storage field {field.name} must be nullable")
+
+    @classmethod
+    def _from_storage_type(cls, storage_type: pa.DataType) -> "BlobType":
+        cls._validate_storage_type(storage_type)
+        instance = cls.__new__(cls)
+        pa.ExtensionType.__init__(instance, storage_type, "lance.blob.v2")
+        return instance
+
     @classmethod
     def __arrow_ext_deserialize__(
         cls, storage_type: pa.DataType, serialized: bytes
     ) -> "BlobType":
-        return BlobType()
+        return cls._from_storage_type(storage_type)
 
     def __arrow_ext_class__(self):
         return BlobArray
@@ -98,18 +193,24 @@ class BlobArray(pa.ExtensionArray):
     def from_pylist(cls, values: list[Any]) -> "BlobArray":
         data_values: list[Optional[bytes]] = []
         uri_values: list[Optional[str]] = []
+        position_values: list[Optional[int]] = []
+        size_values: list[Optional[int]] = []
         null_mask: list[bool] = []
 
         for v in values:
             if v is None:
                 data_values.append(None)
                 uri_values.append(None)
+                position_values.append(None)
+                size_values.append(None)
                 null_mask.append(True)
                 continue
 
             if isinstance(v, Blob):
                 data_values.append(v.data)
                 uri_values.append(v.uri)
+                position_values.append(v.position)
+                size_values.append(v.size)
                 null_mask.append(False)
                 continue
 
@@ -118,12 +219,16 @@ def from_pylist(cls, values: list[Any]) -> "BlobArray":
                     raise ValueError("Blob uri cannot be empty")
                 data_values.append(None)
                 uri_values.append(v)
+                position_values.append(None)
+                size_values.append(None)
                 null_mask.append(False)
                 continue
 
             if isinstance(v, (bytes, bytearray, memoryview)):
                 data_values.append(bytes(v))
                 uri_values.append(None)
+                position_values.append(None)
+                size_values.append(None)
                 null_mask.append(False)
                 continue
 
@@ -134,9 +239,13 @@ def from_pylist(cls, values: list[Any]) -> "BlobArray":
 
         data_arr = pa.array(data_values, type=pa.large_binary())
         uri_arr = pa.array(uri_values, type=pa.utf8())
+        position_arr = pa.array(position_values, type=pa.uint64())
+        size_arr = pa.array(size_values, type=pa.uint64())
         mask_arr = pa.array(null_mask, type=pa.bool_())
         storage = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
-            [data_arr, uri_arr], names=["data", "uri"], mask=mask_arr
+            [data_arr, uri_arr, position_arr, size_arr],
+            names=["data", "uri", "position", "size"],
+            mask=mask_arr,
         )
         return pa.ExtensionArray.from_storage(BlobType(), storage)  # type: ignore[return-value]
 
@@ -155,9 +264,85 @@ def blob_array(values: list[Any]) -> BlobArray:
     return BlobArray.from_pylist(values)
 
 
-def blob_field(name: str, *, nullable: bool = True) -> pa.Field:
-    """Construct an Arrow field for a Lance blob column."""
-    return pa.field(name, BlobType(), nullable=nullable)
+def _validate_threshold(name: str, value: Optional[int], *, allow_zero: bool) -> None:
+    if value is None:
+        return
+    if isinstance(value, bool) or not isinstance(value, int):
+        raise TypeError(f"{name} must be an int, got {type(value).__name__}")
+    if allow_zero:
+        if value < 0:
+            raise ValueError(f"{name} must be non-negative")
+    elif value <= 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be positive")
+    if value > _MAX_RUST_USIZE:
+        raise OverflowError(f"{name} must fit in a Rust usize")
+
+
+def blob_field(
+    name: str,
+    *,
+    nullable: bool = True,
+    inline_size_threshold: Optional[int] = None,
+    dedicated_size_threshold: Optional[int] = None,
+    pack_file_size_threshold: Optional[int] = None,
+) -> pa.Field:
+    """
+    Construct an Arrow field for a Lance blob column.
+
+    The returned field uses the complete logical blob shape
+    ``Struct<data: LargeBinary?, uri: Utf8?, position: UInt64?, size: UInt64?>``.
+    Every non-null value must set exactly one of ``data`` and ``uri``. External
+    ranges must set both ``position`` and a positive ``size``. Lance preserves
+    this logical schema across create, append, and merge-insert writes while
+    storing compact descriptors internally.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    name : str
+        Field name.
+    nullable : bool, default True
+        Whether the blob column accepts null values.
+    inline_size_threshold : optional, int
+        Maximum payload size in bytes to keep inline in the data file before
+        using packed blob storage.
+    dedicated_size_threshold : optional, int
+        Maximum payload size in bytes to store in packed blob storage before
+        using dedicated blob storage. This threshold is checked before
+        ``inline_size_threshold``.
+    pack_file_size_threshold : optional, int
+        Maximum size in bytes of a single packed blob sidecar (``.pack``) file.
+        Once a sidecar reaches this size a new one is started.
+    """
+    _validate_threshold("inline_size_threshold", inline_size_threshold, allow_zero=True)
+    _validate_threshold(
+        "dedicated_size_threshold", dedicated_size_threshold, allow_zero=False
+    )
+    _validate_threshold(
+        "pack_file_size_threshold", pack_file_size_threshold, allow_zero=False
+    )
+
+    field = pa.field(name, BlobType(), nullable=nullable)
+    if (
+        inline_size_threshold is None
+        and dedicated_size_threshold is None
+        and pack_file_size_threshold is None
+    ):
+        return field
+
+    metadata = dict(field.metadata or {})
+    if inline_size_threshold is not None:
+        metadata[_BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY] = str(
+            inline_size_threshold
+        ).encode()
+    if dedicated_size_threshold is not None:
+        metadata[_BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY] = str(
+            dedicated_size_threshold
+        ).encode()
+    if pack_file_size_threshold is not None:
+        metadata[_BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY] = str(
+            pack_file_size_threshold
+        ).encode()
+    return field.with_metadata(metadata)
 
 
 class BlobIterator:
@@ -177,9 +362,11 @@ class BlobColumn:
     file-like objects.
 
     This can be useful for working with medium-to-small binary objects that need
-    to interface with APIs that expect file-like objects.  For very large binary
-    objects (4-8MB or more per value) you might be better off creating a blob column
-    and using :py:meth:`lance.Dataset.take_blobs` to access the blob data.
+    to interface with APIs that expect file-like objects. For very large binary
+    objects (4-8MB or more per value) you might be better off creating a blob
+    column. Use :py:meth:`lance.Dataset.read_blobs` when you need complete blob
+    bytes, or :py:meth:`lance.Dataset.take_blobs` when you need lazy file-like
+    access.
     """
 
     def __init__(self, blob_column: Union[pa.Array, pa.ChunkedArray]):
@@ -200,18 +387,141 @@ def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[IO[bytes]]:
         return BlobIterator(iter(self.blob_column))
 
 
-class BlobFile(io.RawIOBase):
-    """Represents a blob in a Lance dataset as a file-like object."""
+class BlobFile(io.BufferedIOBase):
+    """Represents a blob in a Lance dataset as a file-like object.
 
-    def __init__(self, inner: LanceBlobFile):
+    ``read_range`` and ``read_ranges`` do not use the sequential buffer and
+    do not change the sequential cursor.
+
+    Obtain a handle from :py:meth:`lance.dataset.Dataset.take_blobs`.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        inner: LanceBlobFile,
+        buffer_size: int = DEFAULT_BLOB_BUFFER_SIZE,
+    ):
+        super().__init__()
+        self.inner = inner
+        self.inner.set_buffer_size(_validate_buffer_size(buffer_size))
+        self._raw = _RawBlobFile(inner)
+
+    def close(self) -> None:
+        self._raw.close()
+
+    @property
+    def closed(self) -> bool:
+        return self._raw.closed
+
+    def readable(self) -> bool:
+        return True
+
+    def seek(self, offset: int, whence: int = io.SEEK_SET) -> int:
+        return self._raw.seek(offset, whence)
+
+    def seekable(self) -> bool:
+        return True
+
+    def tell(self) -> int:
+        return self._raw.tell()
+
+    def size(self) -> int:
+        """
+        Returns the size of the blob in bytes.
+        """
+        return self._raw.size()
+
+    def read(self, size: int = -1) -> bytes:
+        if self.closed:
+            raise ValueError("read of closed file")
+        if size is None or size < 0:
+            return self._raw.readall()
+        if size == 0:
+            return b""
+        buf = bytearray(size)
+        n = self.readinto(buf)
+        if n == size:
+            return bytes(buf)
+        return bytes(buf[:n])
+
+    def read1(self, size: int = -1) -> bytes:
+        if self.closed:
+            raise ValueError("read of closed file")
+        if size is None or size < 0:
+            size = io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE
+        return self._raw.read(size)
+
+    def readall(self) -> bytes:
+        if self.closed:
+            raise ValueError("read of closed file")
+        return self._raw.readall()
+
+    def readinto(self, b) -> int:
+        if isinstance(b, bytearray):
+            if self.closed:
+                raise ValueError("readinto of closed file")
+            if not b:
+                return 0
+            n = self._raw.readinto(b)
+            if n == 0 or n == len(b):
+                return n
+            return n + self._refill_readinto(memoryview(b)[n:])
+
+        view = memoryview(b).cast("B")
+        if view.readonly:
+            raise TypeError(
+                "readinto() argument must be read-write bytes-like object, "
+                f"not {type(b).__name__}"
+            )
+        if self.closed:
+            raise ValueError("readinto of closed file")
+        return self._refill_readinto(view)
+
+    def read_range(self, offset: int, length: int) -> bytes:
+        """Read a blob-local byte range without changing the current cursor."""
+        return self._raw.read_range(offset, length)
+
+    def read_ranges(self, ranges: list[tuple[int, int]]) -> list[bytes]:
         """
-        Internal only:  To obtain a BlobFile use
-        :py:meth:`lance.dataset.Dataset.take_blobs`.
+        Read multiple blob-local byte ranges without changing the current cursor.
+
+        Each range is an ``(offset, length)`` pair, matching
+        :py:meth:`read_range`. The underlying physical reads may be reordered,
+        coalesced, or split for efficiency. For every range, offset plus length
+        must fit in an unsigned 64-bit integer and must not extend beyond the
+        blob size.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        ranges : List[Tuple[int, int]]
+            The ``(offset, length)`` byte ranges to read.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        data : List[bytes]
+            One payload per requested range, in input order.
         """
+        return self._raw.read_ranges(ranges)
+
+    def __repr__(self) -> str:
+        return f"<BlobFile size={self.size()}>"
+
+    def _refill_readinto(self, view) -> int:
+        filled = 0
+        while filled < len(view):
+            n = self._raw.readinto(view[filled:])
+            if n == 0:
+                break
+            filled += n
+        return filled
+
+
+class _RawBlobFile(io.RawIOBase):
+    """One inner ``read_up_to`` per ``read`` / ``readinto``."""
+
+    def __init__(self, inner: LanceBlobFile):
         self.inner = inner
 
-    ## Note: most methods undocumented since they are defined by
-    ## the base class.
     def close(self) -> None:
         self.inner.close()
 
@@ -224,14 +534,16 @@ def readable(self) -> bool:
 
     def seek(self, offset: int, whence: int = io.SEEK_SET) -> int:
         if whence == io.SEEK_SET:
-            self.inner.seek(offset)
+            position = offset
         elif whence == io.SEEK_CUR:
-            self.inner.seek(self.inner.tell() + offset)
+            position = self.inner.tell() + offset
         elif whence == io.SEEK_END:
-            self.inner.seek(self.inner.size() + offset)
+            position = self.inner.size() + offset
         else:
             raise ValueError(f"Invalid whence: {whence}")
-
+        if position < 0:
+            raise ValueError(f"negative seek value {position}")
+        self.inner.seek(position)
         return self.inner.tell()
 
     def seekable(self) -> bool:
@@ -241,16 +553,31 @@ def tell(self) -> int:
         return self.inner.tell()
 
     def size(self) -> int:
-        """
-        Returns the size of the blob in bytes.
-        """
         return self.inner.size()
 
     def readall(self) -> bytes:
         return self.inner.readall()
 
-    def readinto(self, b: bytearray) -> int:
-        return self.inner.read_into(b)
-
-    def __repr__(self) -> str:
-        return f"<BlobFile size={self.size()}>"
+    def read_range(self, offset: int, length: int) -> bytes:
+        return self.inner.read_range(offset, length)
+
+    def read_ranges(self, ranges: list[tuple[int, int]]) -> list[bytes]:
+        return self.inner.read_ranges(ranges)
+
+    def readinto(self, b) -> int:
+        # The Rust binding requires bytearray.
+        if isinstance(b, bytearray):
+            return self.inner.read_into(b)
+        view = memoryview(b).cast("B")
+        buffer = bytearray(len(view))
+        bytes_read = self.inner.read_into(buffer)
+        view[:bytes_read] = buffer[:bytes_read]
+        return bytes_read
+
+
+def _validate_buffer_size(buffer_size: int) -> int:
+    if isinstance(buffer_size, bool) or not isinstance(buffer_size, int):
+        raise TypeError(f"buffer_size must be an int, got {type(buffer_size).__name__}")
+    if buffer_size < 0:
+        raise ValueError("buffer_size must be non-negative")
+    return buffer_size
diff --git a/python/python/lance/commit.py b/python/python/lance/commit.py
index 806067a38c5..ab46b70e55f 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/commit.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/commit.py
@@ -4,8 +4,18 @@
 from contextlib import AbstractContextManager
 from typing import Callable
 
-CommitLock = Callable[[int], AbstractContextManager]
+CommitLock = Callable[[int], AbstractContextManager[None]]
 
 
-class CommitConflictError(Exception):
-    pass
+class CommitConflictError(OSError):
+    """A commit conflicted with a concurrent transaction.
+
+    Subclasses :class:`OSError` so existing ``except OSError`` handlers keep
+    working. ``retryable`` is ``True`` when the transaction was preempted and
+    can be retried against the newer version, ``False`` when the conflict is
+    incompatible and retrying will not help.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, message: str = "", retryable: bool = True):
+        super().__init__(message)
+        self.retryable = retryable
diff --git a/python/python/lance/dataset.py b/python/python/lance/dataset.py
index 97a9a0c6775..711e4dff954 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/dataset.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/dataset.py
@@ -6,8 +6,10 @@
 import copy
 import dataclasses
 import json
+import operator
 import os
 import random
+import re
 import time
 import uuid
 import warnings
@@ -26,10 +28,10 @@
     Literal,
     Optional,
     Sequence,
-    Set,
     Tuple,
     TypedDict,
     Union,
+    cast,
 )
 
 import pyarrow as pa
@@ -38,48 +40,63 @@
 
 from lance.log import LOGGER
 
-from .blob import BlobFile
+# Imported at runtime, not only for the annotations below: importing it here
+# is what registers `Bitmap` as a `collections.abc.MutableSet`.
+from .bitmap import Bitmap  # noqa: TC001
+from .blob import DEFAULT_BLOB_BUFFER_SIZE, BlobFile, _validate_buffer_size
 from .dependencies import (
     _check_for_numpy,
     _check_for_torch,
+    _is_pydantic_base_model_class,
+    _validate_pydantic_list,
+    model_to_dict,
     torch,
 )
 from .dependencies import numpy as np
 from .dependencies import pandas as pd
 from .fragment import DataFile, FragmentMetadata, LanceFragment
-from .indices import IndexConfig, SupportedDistributedIndices
+from .indices import IndexConfig, IndexSegment, SupportedDistributedIndices
 from .lance import (
+    CleanupExplanation,
     CleanupStats,
     Compaction,
     CompactionMetrics,
     DatasetBasePath,
     IOStats,
     LanceSchema,
+    PySearchFilter,
     ScanStatistics,
     _Dataset,
+    _format_field_path,
     _MergeInsertBuilder,
+    _parse_field_path,
     _Scanner,
+    _serialize_row_addrs,
     _write_dataset,
     indices,
 )
 from .lance import __version__ as __version__
 from .lance import _Session as Session
-from .query import FullTextQuery
-from .types import _coerce_reader
+from .query import DocumentGranularity, FullTextQuery, MinHashQuery
+from .types import _coerce_reader, _is_materialized
 from .udf import BatchUDF, normalize_transform
 from .udf import BatchUDFCheckpoint as BatchUDFCheckpoint
 from .udf import batch_udf as batch_udf
-from .util import _target_partition_size_to_num_partitions, td_to_micros
+from .util import (
+    _normalize_index_segment_ids,
+    _target_partition_size_to_num_partitions,
+    td_to_micros,
+)
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from pyarrow._compute import Expression
 
     from lance.namespace import LanceNamespace
 
+    from . import mem_wal
     from .commit import CommitLock
-    from .io import StorageOptionsProvider
     from .lance.indices import IndexDescription
-    from .progress import FragmentWriteProgress
+    from .progress import FragmentWriteProgress, IndexProgress
     from .types import ReaderLike
 
     QueryVectorLike = Union[
@@ -87,9 +104,275 @@
         pa.Array,
         pa.Scalar,
         np.ndarray,
-        Iterable[float],
+        Iterable[Union[float, Iterable[float]]],
     ]
 LANCE_COMMIT_MESSAGE_KEY = "__lance_commit_message"
+# Mirrors Rust's `lance::dataset::DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT`; keep the two in sync.
+_DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT = timedelta(minutes=30)
+_BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_LAZY = "lazy"
+_BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_BYTES = "bytes"
+_BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_DESCRIPTIONS = "descriptions"
+_BLOB_PANDAS_MODES = frozenset(
+    {
+        _BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_LAZY,
+        _BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_BYTES,
+        _BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_DESCRIPTIONS,
+    }
+)
+_BLOB_ROW_ADDR_COLUMN = "_rowaddr"
+
+
+def _field_metadata_value(field: pa.Field, key: str) -> Optional[bytes]:
+    metadata = field.metadata
+    if metadata is None:
+        return None
+    return metadata.get(key.encode("utf-8"))
+
+
+def _is_blob_field(field: pa.Field) -> bool:
+    return (
+        _field_metadata_value(field, "lance-encoding:blob") == b"true"
+        or _field_metadata_value(field, "ARROW:extension:name") == b"lance.blob.v2"
+    )
+
+
+def _field_blob_paths(field: pa.Field, parent: str = "") -> Iterator[str]:
+    segment = _format_field_path([field.name])
+    field_path = f"{parent}.{segment}" if parent else segment
+    if _is_blob_field(field):
+        yield field_path
+    elif pa.types.is_struct(field.type):
+        for i in range(field.type.num_fields):
+            yield from _field_blob_paths(field.type.field(i), field_path)
+
+
+def _blob_paths_in_schema(schema: pa.Schema) -> list[str]:
+    return [path for field in schema for path in _field_blob_paths(field)]
+
+
+def _normalize_blob_pandas_mode(
+    blob_mode: str,
+) -> Literal["lazy", "bytes", "descriptions"]:
+    if blob_mode not in _BLOB_PANDAS_MODES:
+        raise ValueError("blob_mode must be one of: 'lazy', 'bytes', 'descriptions'")
+    return cast("Literal['lazy', 'bytes', 'descriptions']", blob_mode)
+
+
+def _sources_from_transforms(
+    output_paths: list[str],
+    transforms: dict[str, str],
+) -> dict[str, str]:
+    result = {}
+    for path in output_paths:
+        segments = _parse_field_path(path)
+        source_path = transforms[segments[0]]
+        result[path] = (
+            source_path
+            if not segments[1:]
+            else _format_field_path(_parse_field_path(source_path) + segments[1:])
+        )
+    return result
+
+
+def _sources_from_direct_projection(
+    output_paths: list[str],
+    dataset_schema: pa.Schema,
+) -> dict[str, str]:
+    source_paths = set(_blob_paths_in_schema(dataset_schema))
+    result = {}
+    for path in output_paths:
+        segments = _parse_field_path(path)
+        result[path] = (
+            segments[0] if len(segments) == 1 and segments[0] in source_paths else path
+        )
+    return result
+
+
+def _blob_column_sources(
+    schema: pa.Schema,
+    snapshot: Dict[str, Any],
+    dataset_schema: pa.Schema,
+) -> dict[str, str]:
+    output_paths = _blob_paths_in_schema(schema)
+    transforms = dict(snapshot.get("_columns_with_transform") or ())
+    if transforms:
+        return _sources_from_transforms(output_paths, transforms)
+    return _sources_from_direct_projection(output_paths, dataset_schema)
+
+
+def _snapshot_scanner_builder(builder: "ScannerBuilder") -> Dict[str, Any]:
+    """Capture Python-side scanner config needed to rebuild the scan later.
+
+    The native scanner object does not preserve the original builder arguments.
+    We need these values to recreate the same scan when `to_pandas` switches blob
+    handling modes or injects `_rowaddr` for lazy blob export.
+    """
+
+    def snapshot_value(value: Any) -> Any:
+        try:
+            return copy.deepcopy(value)
+        except (TypeError, AttributeError):
+            return value
+
+    return {
+        key: snapshot_value(value)
+        for key, value in vars(builder).items()
+        if key != "ds"
+    }
+
+
+def _scanner_from_snapshot(
+    ds: "LanceDataset", snapshot: Dict[str, Any]
+) -> "LanceScanner":
+    builder = ScannerBuilder(ds)
+    for key, value in snapshot.items():
+        if key == "_columns" and value is not None:
+            setattr(builder, key, list(value))
+        elif key == "_columns_with_transform" and value is not None:
+            setattr(builder, key, list(value))
+        elif key == "_fragments" and value is not None:
+            setattr(builder, key, list(value))
+        elif key == "_orderings" and value is not None:
+            setattr(builder, key, list(value))
+        else:
+            setattr(builder, key, value)
+    return builder.to_scanner()
+
+
+def _is_null_blob_description(description: Any) -> bool:
+    if description is None:
+        return True
+    if not isinstance(description, dict):
+        return False
+    if description.keys() == {"position", "size"}:
+        return description["position"] == 1 and description["size"] == 0
+    return False
+
+
+def _descriptors_at_path(table: pa.Table, path: str) -> list[Optional[Dict[str, Any]]]:
+    segments = _parse_field_path(path)
+    values = table.column(segments[0]).to_pylist()
+
+    for segment in segments[1:]:
+        values = [value.get(segment) if value is not None else None for value in values]
+
+    return values
+
+
+def _replace_value_at_path(
+    parent: Optional[Dict[str, Any]],
+    segments: list[str],
+    value: Any,
+) -> Optional[Dict[str, Any]]:
+    if parent is None:
+        return None
+
+    segment = segments[0]
+    updated = dict(parent)
+
+    if len(segments) == 1:
+        updated[segment] = value
+    else:
+        updated[segment] = _replace_value_at_path(
+            parent[segment],
+            segments[1:],
+            value,
+        )
+
+    return updated
+
+
+def _replace_in_struct_column(
+    dataframe: "pd.DataFrame",
+    path: str,
+    values: list[Optional[BlobFile]],
+) -> None:
+    segments = _parse_field_path(path)
+    parent_name = segments[0]
+    nested_segments = segments[1:]
+
+    parents = dataframe[parent_name].tolist()
+
+    dataframe[parent_name] = [
+        _replace_value_at_path(parent, nested_segments, value)
+        for parent, value in zip(parents, values)
+    ]
+
+
+def _fetch_blob_files_for_paths(
+    dataset: "LanceDataset",
+    table: pa.Table,
+    blob_paths: list[str],
+    blob_sources: dict[str, str],
+    row_addrs: list[int],
+) -> dict[str, list[Optional[BlobFile]]]:
+    blob_files: dict[str, list[Optional[BlobFile]]] = {}
+    for path in blob_paths:
+        descriptors = _descriptors_at_path(table, path)
+
+        null_mask = [
+            _is_null_blob_description(descriptor) for descriptor in descriptors
+        ]
+
+        non_null_addresses = [
+            row_addrs[index] for index, is_null in enumerate(null_mask) if not is_null
+        ]
+
+        fetched_blobs = (
+            iter(dataset.take_blobs(blob_sources[path], addresses=non_null_addresses))
+            if non_null_addresses
+            else iter([])
+        )
+
+        blobs_for_path = []
+        for is_null in null_mask:
+            if is_null:
+                blobs_for_path.append(None)
+            else:
+                blobs_for_path.append(next(fetched_blobs))
+
+        blob_files[path] = blobs_for_path
+
+    return blob_files
+
+
+def _place_blob_files(
+    dataframe: "pd.DataFrame",
+    blob_files: dict[str, list[Optional[BlobFile]]],
+    schema: pa.Schema,
+) -> None:
+    top_level: dict[str, list[Optional[BlobFile]]] = {}
+    nested: dict[str, list[Optional[BlobFile]]] = {}
+    for path, values in blob_files.items():
+        segments = _parse_field_path(path)
+        if len(segments) == 1:
+            top_level[segments[0]] = values
+        else:
+            nested[path] = values
+
+    for index, field in enumerate(schema):
+        if field.name in top_level:
+            dataframe.insert(index, field.name, top_level[field.name])
+
+    for path, values in nested.items():
+        _replace_in_struct_column(dataframe, path, values)
+
+
+def _resolve_blob_selection(
+    ids: Optional[Union[List[int], pa.Array]],
+    addresses: Optional[Union[List[int], pa.Array]],
+    indices: Optional[Union[List[int], pa.Array]],
+) -> Tuple[str, Union[List[int], pa.Array]]:
+    if sum([bool(v is not None) for v in [ids, addresses, indices]]) != 1:
+        raise ValueError("Exactly one of ids, indices, or addresses must be specified")
+
+    if ids is not None:
+        return "ids", ids
+    if addresses is not None:
+        return "addresses", addresses
+    if indices is not None:
+        return "indices", indices
+    raise ValueError("Either ids, addresses, or indices must be specified")
 
 
 class MergeInsertBuilder(_MergeInsertBuilder):
@@ -113,6 +396,12 @@ def execute(self, data_obj: ReaderLike, *, schema: Optional[pa.Schema] = None):
         """
         reader = _coerce_reader(data_obj, schema)
 
+        # Materialized sources are wrapped in an in-memory table so retries never
+        # spill and the source's statistics can drive the join; everything else is
+        # treated as a one-shot stream.
+        if _is_materialized(data_obj):
+            return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).execute_batches(reader)
+
         return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).execute(reader)
 
     def execute_uncommitted(
@@ -137,6 +426,9 @@ def execute_uncommitted(
         """
         reader = _coerce_reader(data_obj, schema)
 
+        if _is_materialized(data_obj):
+            return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).execute_uncommitted_batches(reader)
+
         return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).execute_uncommitted(reader)
 
     # These next three overrides exist only to document the methods
@@ -235,6 +527,21 @@ def retry_timeout(self, timeout: timedelta) -> "MergeInsertBuilder":
         """
         return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).retry_timeout(timeout)
 
+    def data_storage_version(self, version: str) -> "MergeInsertBuilder":
+        """Set the exact data storage version for files written by this operation.
+
+        If omitted, use the dataset's default write version without changing it.
+        Accepts "2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3", "stable", or "next" for V2
+        datasets. Release selectors are resolved by the engine; V1/V2
+        cross-family targets are rejected.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        ``dataset.merge_insert("id").data_storage_version("2.2")`` selects V2.2
+        for the files written when the builder executes.
+        """
+        return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).data_storage_version(version)
+
     def use_index(self, use_index: bool) -> "MergeInsertBuilder":
         """
         Controls whether to use indices for the merge operation.
@@ -256,15 +563,106 @@ def use_index(self, use_index: bool) -> "MergeInsertBuilder":
         """
         return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).use_index(use_index)
 
+    def write_mode(
+        self, mode: Literal["auto", "rewrite_rows", "rewrite_columns"]
+    ) -> "MergeInsertBuilder":
+        """
+        Selects how the merged rows are written to disk.
+
+        For a partial-schema update (the source omits some dataset columns) the
+        two modes have different cost shapes. ``rewrite_columns`` never reads or
+        writes the columns the source omits, but its replacement column file
+        covers every row of each fragment it touches, so the bytes written barely
+        fall as fewer rows match. ``rewrite_rows`` instead scales with the number
+        of matched rows. Patching columns wins once the fraction of rows matched
+        exceeds roughly the fraction of each row's bytes the source columns
+        occupy: for a KB-scale update of a MB-per-row table that is nearly
+        always, and for a table whose columns are all narrow it may never be.
+
+        The per-fragment matched row count that decides this is only known once
+        the join has run, so the caller picks rather than the planner guessing.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        mode : {'auto', 'rewrite_rows', 'rewrite_columns'}
+            ``auto`` (default) lets the engine choose. It rewrites whole rows,
+            except on the one path that predates this parameter: a
+            partial-schema update whose join key carries a scalar index patches
+            columns. ``rewrite_rows`` deletes the matched rows and writes whole
+            rows into new fragments; for a partial-schema update it gives up
+            that index probe, since the indexed path only ever patches columns.
+            ``rewrite_columns`` attaches new data files holding the source
+            columns to the fragments that already hold the matched rows; it
+            raises if the merge cannot be expressed that way, which requires
+            updating matched rows only (no inserts, no matched deletes, no
+            delete-by-source) with a source that omits at least one dataset
+            column, carries at least one column besides the join key, and
+            carries no blob column.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        MergeInsertBuilder
+            The builder instance for method chaining.
+        """
+        return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).write_mode(mode)
+
+    def target_bases(self, bases: List[str]) -> "MergeInsertBuilder":
+        """
+        Write new fragments produced by this merge insert to these bases.
+
+        Each entry references a base path registered in the dataset manifest,
+        by name or by path URI, like the ``target_bases`` parameter of
+        :func:`~lance.write_dataset`. An entry equal to the dataset's URI
+        includes the dataset's primary storage in the rotation, e.g.
+        ``[ds.uri, "base1", "base2"]`` spreads new data files across primary
+        storage and both bases. New data files are distributed across the
+        target bases round-robin. Data files that patch existing fragments
+        and deletion files are always written to the dataset's primary
+        storage.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        bases : List[str]
+            Base names or path URIs to write new data files to.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        MergeInsertBuilder
+            The builder instance for method chaining.
+        """
+        return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).target_bases(bases)
+
+    def target_all_bases(self, include_primary: bool = True) -> "MergeInsertBuilder":
+        """
+        Write new fragments to every base registered in the dataset manifest.
+
+        The bases are resolved when the merge insert executes, so bases added
+        later are picked up automatically. When ``include_primary`` is True
+        (the default), the dataset's primary storage participates in the
+        round-robin rotation as the first slot. Cannot be combined with
+        :meth:`target_bases`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        include_primary : bool, default True
+            Whether the dataset's primary storage is part of the rotation.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        MergeInsertBuilder
+            The builder instance for method chaining.
+        """
+        return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).target_all_bases(include_primary)
+
     def explain_plan(
         self, schema: Optional[pa.Schema] = None, verbose: bool = False
     ) -> str:
         """
         Generate the execution plan for the merge insert operation.
 
-        This method creates the execution plan that would be used for the given
-        source schema and returns it as a formatted string for debugging and
-        analysis purposes.
+        This reports the plan a *streaming* source of the given schema would run.
+        It takes a schema rather than data, so it cannot know how ``execute`` would
+        wrap the source; see the note under the example.
 
         Parameters
         ----------
@@ -298,16 +696,21 @@ def explain_plan(
         >>> print(plan) # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
         MergeInsert: on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, ...
           CoalescePartitionsExec
-            ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@1 as _rowid, _rowaddr@2 as _rowaddr, ...]
-              ProjectionExec: expr=[id@2 IS NOT NULL as __common_expr_1, ...]
-                CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=...
-                  HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Right, ...
-                    CooperativeExec
-                      LanceRead: uri=test_dataset/data, projection=[id], ...
-                    RepartitionExec: ...
-                      StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, ...
+            ProjectionExec: expr=[...]
+              HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Right, ...
+                LanceRead: uri=test_dataset/data, projection=[id], ...
+                RepartitionExec: ...
+                  ProjectionExec: expr=[..., true as __merge_source_sentinel]
+                    StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, ...
         <BLANKLINE>
 
+        This is always the streaming shape. `explain_plan` receives a schema rather
+        than data, so it cannot know how `execute` would wrap the source, and the
+        wrapping affects the plan. Use `analyze_plan`, which receives the real
+        source, when that matters. Note that `analyze_plan` runs the merge to
+        collect metrics and may write data files, whereas `explain_plan` writes
+        nothing.
+
         >>> # Or with explicit schema
         >>> source_schema = pa.schema([
         ...     pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
@@ -318,11 +721,9 @@ def explain_plan(
         >>> print(plan) # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
         MergeInsert: on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, ...
           CoalescePartitionsExec
-            ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@1 as _rowid, _rowaddr@2 as _rowaddr, ...]
-              ProjectionExec: expr=[id@2 IS NOT NULL as __common_expr_1, ...]
-                CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=...
-                  HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Right, ...
-                    ...
+            ProjectionExec: expr=[...]
+              HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Right, ...
+                ...
         """
         return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).explain_plan(schema, verbose=verbose)
 
@@ -383,14 +784,20 @@ def analyze_plan(
         >>> print(analysis) # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
             MergeInsert: elapsed=..., on=[id], ..., metrics=[..., bytes_written=..., ...]
               CoalescePartitionsExec, elapsed=..., metrics=[output_rows=..., elapsed_compute=...]
-                ProjectionExec: elapsed=..., expr=[_rowid@1 as _rowid, ...], metrics=[...]
-                  ProjectionExec: elapsed=..., expr=[id@2 IS NOT NULL as __common_expr_1, ...], metrics=[...]
-                    CoalesceBatchesExec: elapsed=..., ..., metrics=[...]
-                      HashJoinExec: elapsed=..., mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Right, ...
-                        CooperativeExec, elapsed=..., metrics=[]
-                          LanceRead: elapsed=..., ..., metrics=[..., bytes_read=..., ...]
-                        RepartitionExec: ...
-                          StreamingTableExec: ..., metrics=[]
+                ProjectionExec: elapsed=..., expr=[...], metrics=[...]
+                  RepartitionExec: ...
+                    HashJoinExec: elapsed=..., mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Left, ...
+                      ProjectionExec: elapsed=..., expr=[..., true as __merge_source_sentinel], metrics=[...]
+                        DataSourceExec: ..., metrics=[]
+                      LanceRead: elapsed=..., ..., metrics=[..., bytes_read=..., ...]
+
+        The reported plan follows how the source was passed. `new_data` above is a
+        `pa.Table`, so it is wrapped in an in-memory table that reports exact
+        statistics, while a `pa.RecordBatchReader` reports none. DataFusion chooses
+        which side of the join to collect from those statistics and from the two
+        sides' sizes, so the same merge can plan differently depending on which one
+        you hand it. Use `explain_plan` only for the streaming shape: it takes a
+        schema rather than data, so it cannot know how the source would be wrapped.
 
         The two key parts of the plan analysis are LanceRead and MergeInsert.
         LanceRead scans join keys and columns in conditions. MergeInsert writes
@@ -411,8 +818,41 @@ def analyze_plan(
         - requests: number of storage requests made
         """  # noqa: E501
         reader = _coerce_reader(data_obj, schema)
+
+        # Route exactly as execute() does, so the reported plan is the one that
+        # would run. A materialized source reports exact statistics where a stream
+        # reports none, which can change which side of the join is collected.
+        if _is_materialized(data_obj):
+            return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).analyze_plan_batches(reader)
+
         return super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).analyze_plan(reader)
 
+    def mark_sstables_as_compacted(
+        self, sstables: "List[mem_wal.CompactedSsTable]"
+    ) -> "MergeInsertBuilder":
+        """Mark MemWAL SSTables as compacted into the base table.
+
+        Call this before executing merge_insert when it compacts MemWAL SSTables.
+        The progress is recorded in the same commit as the data.
+
+        For multi-pass compaction, call this only on the final successful
+        data-changing pass. Intermediate passes must not carry compaction
+        progress. Lance cannot tell whether a caller has another pass planned,
+        so it cannot enforce this: if a delete pass carried the marker and the
+        process then died before the matching upsert, the recorded progress
+        would claim rows were copied in that never were.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        sstables : list of CompactedSsTable
+            SSTables to mark as compacted.
+        """
+        from .mem_wal import _to_raw_compacted_sstables
+
+        raw_sstables = _to_raw_compacted_sstables(sstables)
+        super(MergeInsertBuilder, self).mark_sstables_as_compacted(raw_sstables)
+        return self
+
 
 class LanceDataset(pa.dataset.Dataset):
     """A Lance Dataset in Lance format where the data is stored at the given uri."""
@@ -432,12 +872,15 @@ def __init__(
         index_cache_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
         read_params: Optional[Dict[str, Any]] = None,
         session: Optional[Session] = None,
-        storage_options_provider: Optional[Any] = None,
+        namespace_client: Optional[Any] = None,
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool = False,
+        base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
     ):
         uri = os.fspath(uri) if isinstance(uri, Path) else uri
         self._uri = uri
         self._storage_options = storage_options
-        self._storage_options_provider = storage_options_provider
+        self._base_store_params = base_store_params
 
         # Handle deprecation warning for index_cache_size
         if index_cache_size is not None:
@@ -449,6 +892,13 @@ def __init__(
                 stacklevel=2,
             )
 
+        # Store namespace_client and table_id for credential refresh in file operations
+        self._namespace_client = namespace_client
+        self._table_id = table_id
+        self._namespace_client_managed_versioning = namespace_client_managed_versioning
+
+        # Storage options provider is automatically created in Rust when
+        # namespace_client and table_id are provided
         self._ds = _Dataset(
             uri,
             version,
@@ -462,7 +912,10 @@ def __init__(
             index_cache_size_bytes=index_cache_size_bytes,
             read_params=read_params,
             session=session,
-            storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+            namespace_client=namespace_client,
+            table_id=table_id,
+            namespace_client_managed_versioning=namespace_client_managed_versioning,
+            base_store_params=base_store_params,
         )
         self._default_scan_options = default_scan_options
         self._read_params = read_params
@@ -476,6 +929,7 @@ def __deserialize__(
         manifest: bytes,
         default_scan_options: Optional[Dict[str, Any]],
         read_params: Optional[Dict[str, Any]] = None,
+        base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
     ):
         return cls(
             uri,
@@ -484,8 +938,58 @@ def __deserialize__(
             serialized_manifest=manifest,
             default_scan_options=default_scan_options,
             read_params=read_params,
+            base_store_params=base_store_params,
         )
 
+    @classmethod
+    def from_pydantic_model(
+        cls,
+        model_class,
+        data,
+        uri: Optional[Union[str, Path]] = None,
+        mode: str = "create",
+        **kwargs,
+    ) -> "LanceDataset":
+        """Create a LanceDataset from a Pydantic model class and a list of instances.
+
+        The table name is inferred from the model class name converted to snake_case.
+        The schema is inferred from the model class's field annotations, not from
+        the data, so optional fields are typed correctly even if every value in a
+        given batch happens to be None.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        model_class : type
+            A Pydantic BaseModel subclass.
+        data : list
+            A list of Pydantic model instances.
+        uri : str or Path, optional
+            The URI to write the dataset to. If not provided, the model class name
+            converted to snake_case is used as the path.
+        mode : str, optional
+            The write mode. One of "create", "overwrite", or "append".
+        **kwargs
+            Additional arguments passed to write_dataset().
+        """
+        if not _is_pydantic_base_model_class(model_class):
+            raise TypeError(
+                f"`model_class` must be a Pydantic BaseModel subclass, "
+                f"got {model_class!r}"
+            )
+        _validate_pydantic_list(data, model_class)
+        if not data:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "`data` must be a non-empty list of Pydantic model instances."
+            )
+        if uri is None:
+            uri = re.sub(r"(?<!^)(?=[A-Z])", "_", model_class.__name__).lower()
+        from .pydantic import pydantic_to_schema
+
+        dicts = [model_to_dict(item) for item in data]
+        schema = pydantic_to_schema(model_class)
+        table = pa.Table.from_pylist(dicts, schema=schema)
+        return write_dataset(table, uri, mode=mode, **kwargs)
+
     def __reduce__(self):
         return type(self).__deserialize__, (
             self.uri,
@@ -494,6 +998,7 @@ def __reduce__(self):
             self._ds.serialized_manifest(),
             self._default_scan_options,
             self._read_params,
+            self._base_store_params,
         )
 
     def __getstate__(self):
@@ -504,19 +1009,22 @@ def __getstate__(self):
             self._ds.serialized_manifest(),
             self._default_scan_options,
             self._read_params,
+            self._base_store_params,
         )
 
     def __setstate__(self, state):
-        # Handle backwards compatibility - state may not have read_params
+        # Handle backwards compatibility - state may not have read_params or
+        # base_store_params.
         (
             self._uri,
             self._storage_options,
             version,
             manifest,
             default_scan_options,
-            *rest,  # Capture optional read_params
+            *rest,  # Capture optional read_params and base_store_params.
         ) = state
         read_params = rest[0] if rest else None
+        base_store_params = rest[1] if len(rest) > 1 else None
         self._ds = _Dataset(
             self._uri,
             version,
@@ -524,16 +1032,25 @@ def __setstate__(self, state):
             manifest=manifest,
             default_scan_options=default_scan_options,
             read_params=read_params,
+            base_store_params=base_store_params,
         )
         self._default_scan_options = default_scan_options
         self._read_params = read_params
-        self._storage_options_provider = None
+        self._base_store_params = base_store_params
+        self._namespace_client = None
+        self._table_id = None
+        self._namespace_client_managed_versioning = False
 
     def __copy__(self):
         ds = LanceDataset.__new__(LanceDataset)
         ds._uri = self._uri
         ds._storage_options = self._storage_options
-        ds._storage_options_provider = self._storage_options_provider
+        ds._base_store_params = self._base_store_params
+        ds._namespace_client = self._namespace_client
+        ds._table_id = self._table_id
+        ds._namespace_client_managed_versioning = (
+            self._namespace_client_managed_versioning
+        )
         ds._ds = copy.copy(self._ds)
         ds._default_scan_options = self._default_scan_options
         ds._read_params = self._read_params.copy() if self._read_params else None
@@ -606,16 +1123,17 @@ def create_branch(
         Parameters
         ----------
         branch: str
-            Name of the branch to create.
+            Name of the branch to create. ``"main"`` is reserved for the
+            default branch and cannot be used as a new branch name.
         reference: Optional[int | str | Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]]
             An integer specifies a version number in the current branch; a string
             specifies a tag name; a Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]] specifies
             a version number in a specified branch. (None, None) means the latest
-            version_number on the main branch.
+            version_number on the default branch. ``("main", version)`` is an
+            explicit alias for the default branch in this reference context.
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]]
             Storage options for the underlying object store. If not provided,
             the storage options from the current dataset will be used.
-
         Returns
         -------
         LanceDataset
@@ -628,7 +1146,12 @@ def create_branch(
         ds._ds = new_ds
         ds._uri = new_ds.uri
         ds._storage_options = self._storage_options
-        ds._storage_options_provider = self._storage_options_provider
+        ds._base_store_params = self._base_store_params
+        ds._namespace_client = self._namespace_client
+        ds._table_id = self._table_id
+        ds._namespace_client_managed_versioning = (
+            self._namespace_client_managed_versioning
+        )
         ds._default_scan_options = self._default_scan_options
         ds._read_params = self._read_params
         return ds
@@ -637,28 +1160,49 @@ def checkout_latest(self):
         """Check out the latest version of the current branch."""
         self._ds.checkout_latest()
 
-    def list_indices(self) -> List[Index]:
+    def list_indices(self) -> List[IndexInformation]:
         """
         Returns index information for all indices in the dataset.
 
-        This method is deprecated as it requires loading the statistics for each index
-        which can be a very expensive operation.  Instead use describe_indices() to
-        list index information and index_statistics() to get the statistics for
-        individual indexes of interest.
+        This method is deprecated.  Use describe_indices() instead, which returns
+        richer per-index information.
+
+        Each returned :class:`IndexInformation` describes one index segment.
         """
-        # TODO: https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues/5237 deprecate this method
-        # warnings.warn(
-        #     "The 'list_indices' method is deprecated.  It may be removed in a future"
-        #     "version.  Use describe_indices() instead.",
-        #     DeprecationWarning,
-        # )
+        warnings.warn(
+            "The 'list_indices' method is deprecated. It may be removed in a future "
+            "version. Use describe_indices() instead.",
+            DeprecationWarning,
+        )
 
-        return self._ds.load_indices()
+        return [
+            {
+                "name": desc.name,
+                "type": desc.index_type,
+                "uuid": segment.uuid,
+                "fields": desc.field_names,
+                "version": segment.dataset_version_at_last_update,
+                "fragment_ids": segment.fragment_ids,
+                "base_id": segment.base_id,
+            }
+            for desc in self.describe_indices()
+            for segment in desc.segments
+        ]
 
     def describe_indices(self) -> List[IndexDescription]:
         """Returns index information for all indices in the dataset."""
         return self._ds.describe_indices()
 
+    def remap_row_addrs(self, addrs: "pa.Array") -> "Optional[pa.Array]":
+        """Remap row addresses across compactions still recorded in the
+        fragment-reuse index. Rows a compaction dropped become null. The index
+        retains only recent rounds (older ones are pruned as index remap catches
+        up), so remap promptly: an address whose round was pruned is returned
+        unchanged, not remapped. Returns ``None`` when there is no fragment-reuse
+        index.
+        """
+        return self._ds.remap_row_addrs(addrs)
+
     def index_statistics(self, index_name: str) -> Dict[str, Any]:
         warnings.warn(
             "LanceDataset.index_statistics() is deprecated, "
@@ -669,7 +1213,7 @@ def index_statistics(self, index_name: str) -> Dict[str, Any]:
 
     @property
     def has_index(self):
-        return len(self.list_indices()) > 0
+        return len(self.describe_indices()) > 0
 
     def _apply_default_scan_options(self, builder: ScannerBuilder):
         if self._default_scan_options:
@@ -679,16 +1223,20 @@ def _apply_default_scan_options(self, builder: ScannerBuilder):
     def scanner(
         self,
         columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
-        filter: Optional[Union[str, pa.compute.Expression]] = None,
+        filter: Optional[
+            Union[str, Expression, FullTextQuery, VectorSearchQuery, Dict[str, Any]]
+        ] = None,
         limit: Optional[int] = None,
         offset: Optional[int] = None,
-        nearest: Optional[dict] = None,
+        nearest: Optional[Union[Dict[str, Any], MinHashQuery]] = None,
         batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        batch_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
         batch_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
         fragment_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
         scan_in_order: Optional[bool] = None,
         fragments: Optional[Iterable[LanceFragment]] = None,
-        full_text_query: Optional[Union[str, dict, FullTextQuery]] = None,
+        index_segments: Optional[Iterable[Union[str, uuid.UUID]]] = None,
+        full_text_query: Optional[Union[str, Dict[str, Any], FullTextQuery]] = None,
         *,
         prefilter: Optional[bool] = None,
         with_row_id: Optional[bool] = None,
@@ -706,6 +1254,8 @@ def scanner(
         strict_batch_size: Optional[bool] = None,
         order_by: Optional[List[Union[ColumnOrdering, str]]] = None,
         disable_scoring_autoprojection: Optional[bool] = None,
+        row_addr_allowlist: Optional[bytes] = None,
+        row_addr_blocklist: Optional[bytes] = None,
     ) -> LanceScanner:
         """Return a Scanner that can support various pushdowns.
 
@@ -715,16 +1265,61 @@ def scanner(
             List of column names to be fetched.
             Or a dictionary of column names to SQL expressions.
             All columns are fetched if None or unspecified.
-        filter: pa.compute.Expression or str
-            Expression or str that is a valid SQL where clause. See
-            `Lance filter pushdown <https://lance.org/guide/read_and_write/#filter-push-down>`_
-            for valid SQL expressions.
+        filter: pa.compute.Expression, str, VectorSearchQuery, FullTextQuery or dict
+            Lance supports 2 kinds of filters: expression filter and search filter.
+
+            - Expression filter is pa.compute.Expression or str that is a valid SQL
+             where clause. See `Lance filter pushdown
+             <https://lance.org/guide/read_and_write/#filter-push-down>`_
+             for valid SQL expressions. Expression filter is applied to filtered scan,
+             full text search and vector search.
+
+            - VectorSearchQuery is a vector search that can only be applied to full
+             text search. Example:
+           .. code-block:: python
+
+             filter=VectorSearchQuery(
+                        "vector",
+                        np.array([12, 17, 300, 10], dtype=np.float32),
+                        5,
+                        20,
+                        True,
+                    )
+
+            - FullTextQuery is a full text search that can only be applied to vector
+             search. Example:
+           .. code-block:: python
+
+             filter=PhraseQuery("hello world", "col")
+
+            - Dictionary is a combined filter containing both expression filter with
+             key `expr_filter` and search filter with key `search_filter`. Example:
+           .. code-block:: python
+
+                scanner = ds.scanner(
+                    nearest={
+                        "column": "vector",
+                        "q": np.array([12, 17, 300, 10], dtype=np.float32),
+                        "k": 5,
+                        "minimum_nprobes": 20,
+                        "use_index": True,
+                    },
+                    filter={
+                        "expr_filter": "category='geography'",
+                        "search_filter": PhraseQuery("hello world", "col"),
+                    },
+                )
         limit: int, default None
             Fetch up to this many rows. All rows if None or unspecified.
         offset: int, default None
             Fetch starting with this row. 0 if None or unspecified.
-        nearest: dict, default None
-            Get the rows corresponding to the K most similar vectors. Example:
+        nearest: dict or MinHashQuery, default None
+            Get the rows corresponding to the K most similar vectors, or, when a
+            :class:`~lance.query.MinHashQuery` is given, the ``limit`` rows most
+            similar to its text under the column's MinHash LSH index (adds a
+            ``_distance`` column equal to ``1 - estimated Jaccard similarity``;
+            unindexed rows are scored on the fly unless ``fast_search`` is set).
+            Vector search example:
 
             .. code-block:: python
 
@@ -738,24 +1333,52 @@ def scanner(
                     "distance_range": (0.0, 1.0),
                 }
 
+            ``q`` may also be a 2-D array-like value, or a list of vectors, for
+            fixed-size vector columns. In that case Lance runs a batch nearest-neighbor
+            query, returns up to ``k`` rows for each query vector, and adds
+            an Int32 non-null ``query_index`` as the first output column to identify
+            the source query for each result row.
+            Flattened 1-D arrays whose length is a multiple of the vector dimension are
+            rejected. Datasets that already contain a ``query_index`` column cannot be
+            used for batch nearest-neighbor search. When ``use_index`` is true and a
+            vector index is available, each query vector is searched through the index
+            path; otherwise the flat batch path is used.
+
         batch_size: int, default None
-            The target size of batches returned.  In some cases batches can be up to
-            twice this size (but never larger than this).  In some cases batches can
-            be smaller than this size.
+            The maximum number of rows per batch.  In some cases batches can be
+            smaller than this size. If a byte limit is also configured, both
+            limits apply and the one reached first determines the batch size.
+        batch_size_bytes: int, default None
+            If set, the scanner will produce batches whose total size in bytes
+            is approximately this value. If ``batch_size`` is also set, both
+            limits apply and the one reached first determines the batch size.
+            This cannot be combined with ``strict_batch_size=True`` because
+            strict row batching can merge batches beyond the byte limit.
+            This can also be configured at the dataset level via
+            ``FileReaderOptions``.  A scanner-level setting takes precedence
+            over the dataset-level default.
         io_buffer_size: int, default None
-            The size of the IO buffer.  See ``ScannerBuilder.io_buffer_size``
-            for more information.
+            The maximum number of bytes to buffer from storage before applying
+            backpressure. See ``ScannerBuilder.io_buffer_size`` for more information.
         batch_readahead: int, optional
-            The number of batches to read ahead.
+            The number of batches to decode concurrently.
         fragment_readahead: int, optional
-            The number of fragments to read ahead.
+            The number of fragments whose reads may be scheduled concurrently.
+            This applies even when ``scan_in_order`` is true. Set this to ``1``
+            to avoid overlapping I/O from multiple fragments.
         scan_in_order: bool, default True
-            Whether to read the fragments and batches in order. If false,
-            throughput may be higher, but batches will be returned out of order
-            and memory use might increase.
+            Whether to return fragments and batches in order. This does not make
+            storage reads sequential; use ``fragment_readahead=1`` for that. If
+            false, throughput may be higher, but batches will be returned out of
+            order and memory use might increase.
         fragments: iterable of LanceFragment, default None
             If specified, only scan these fragments. If scan_in_order is True, then
             the fragments will be scanned in the order given.
+        index_segments: iterable of str or uuid.UUID, default None
+            If specified, restrict vector index search to these index segment UUIDs.
+            Only supported for vector search. If fragments is also specified, rows
+            from those fragments not covered by the selected index segments will be
+            searched with flat KNN.
         prefilter: bool, default False
             If True then the filter will be applied before the vector query is run.
             This will generate more correct results but it may be a more costly
@@ -804,12 +1427,17 @@ def scanner(
             - query: str
                 The query string to search for.
         fast_search:  bool, default False
-            If True, then the search will only be performed on the indexed data, which
-            yields faster search time.
+            If True, then vector search, full text search, and scalar-indexed
+            filters will only search indexed fragments, which yields faster
+            search time but may skip recently appended unindexed data.
         scan_stats_callback: Callable[[ScanStatistics], None], default None
             A callback function that will be called with the scan statistics after the
             scan is complete.  Errors raised by the callback will be logged but not
             re-raised.
+        strict_batch_size: bool, default False
+            If True, all batches except the last batch will have exactly
+            ``batch_size`` rows. This cannot be combined with a byte limit,
+            including one configured through ``FileReaderOptions``.
         include_deleted_rows: bool, default False
             If True, then rows that have been deleted, but are still present in the
             fragment, will be returned.  These rows will have the _rowid column set
@@ -832,6 +1460,14 @@ def scanner(
 
             This parameter allows you to opt-in to the new behavior early, to avoid
             being subject to breaking changes in the future.
+        row_addr_allowlist: bytes, default None
+            Restrict the scan to these row addresses. A serialized roaring treemap
+            over ``_rowid`` (``RowAddrTreeMap::serialize_into`` output). Applied
+            before KNN / BM25 ranking, so top-k is computed over the surviving rows
+            rather than filtered afterwards.
+        row_addr_blocklist: bytes, default None
+            Exclude these row addresses, same encoding as ``row_addr_allowlist``.
+            Combined with it when both are given.
 
 
         .. note::
@@ -874,14 +1510,18 @@ def setopt(opt, val):
 
         setopt(builder.filter, filter)
         setopt(builder.prefilter, prefilter)
+        if row_addr_allowlist is not None or row_addr_blocklist is not None:
+            builder.row_addr_prefilter(row_addr_allowlist, row_addr_blocklist)
         setopt(builder.limit, limit)
         setopt(builder.offset, offset)
         setopt(builder.batch_size, batch_size)
+        setopt(builder.batch_size_bytes, batch_size_bytes)
         setopt(builder.io_buffer_size, io_buffer_size)
         setopt(builder.batch_readahead, batch_readahead)
         setopt(builder.fragment_readahead, fragment_readahead)
         setopt(builder.scan_in_order, scan_in_order)
         setopt(builder.with_fragments, fragments)
+        setopt(builder.with_index_segments, index_segments)
         setopt(builder.late_materialization, late_materialization)
         setopt(builder.blob_handling, blob_handling)
         setopt(builder.with_row_id, with_row_id)
@@ -918,7 +1558,10 @@ def setopt(opt, val):
             elif isinstance(full_text_query, dict):
                 builder = builder.full_text_search(**full_text_query)
         if nearest is not None:
-            builder = builder.nearest(**nearest)
+            if isinstance(nearest, MinHashQuery):
+                builder = builder.minhash_search(nearest)
+            else:
+                builder = builder.nearest(**nearest)
         return builder.to_scanner()
 
     @property
@@ -941,10 +1584,22 @@ def lance_schema(self) -> "LanceSchema":
     @property
     def data_storage_version(self) -> str:
         """
-        The version of the data storage format this dataset is using
+        The default data file version for writes that omit ``data_storage_version``.
+        Existing files may use other V2 versions; this is not a snapshot version
+        summary.
         """
         return self._ds.data_storage_version
 
+    @property
+    def has_stable_row_ids(self) -> bool:
+        """
+        Whether this dataset has stable row IDs enabled.
+
+        This is based on the dataset manifest feature flag and does not depend on
+        whether the current version has any fragments.
+        """
+        return self._ds.has_stable_row_ids
+
     @property
     def max_field_id(self) -> int:
         """
@@ -955,11 +1610,12 @@ def max_field_id(self) -> int:
     def to_table(
         self,
         columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
-        filter: Optional[Union[str, pa.compute.Expression]] = None,
+        filter: Optional[Union[str, Expression]] = None,
         limit: Optional[int] = None,
         offset: Optional[int] = None,
-        nearest: Optional[dict] = None,
+        nearest: Optional[Union[Dict[str, Any], MinHashQuery]] = None,
         batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        batch_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
         batch_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
         fragment_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
         scan_in_order: Optional[bool] = None,
@@ -969,7 +1625,7 @@ def to_table(
         with_row_address: Optional[bool] = None,
         use_stats: Optional[bool] = None,
         fast_search: Optional[bool] = None,
-        full_text_query: Optional[Union[str, dict, FullTextQuery]] = None,
+        full_text_query: Optional[Union[str, Dict[str, Any], FullTextQuery]] = None,
         io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
         late_materialization: Optional[bool | List[str]] = None,
         blob_handling: Optional[str] = None,
@@ -994,8 +1650,13 @@ def to_table(
             Fetch up to this many rows. All rows if None or unspecified.
         offset: int, default None
             Fetch starting with this row. 0 if None or unspecified.
-        nearest: dict, default None
-            Get the rows corresponding to the K most similar vectors. Example:
+        nearest: dict or MinHashQuery, default None
+            Get the rows corresponding to the K most similar vectors, or, when a
+            :class:`~lance.query.MinHashQuery` is given, the ``limit`` rows most
+            similar to its text under the column's MinHash LSH index (adds a
+            ``_distance`` column equal to ``1 - estimated Jaccard similarity``;
+            unindexed rows are scored on the fly unless ``fast_search`` is set).
+            Vector search example:
 
             .. code-block:: python
 
@@ -1040,6 +1701,8 @@ def to_table(
         use_stats: bool, optional, default True
             Use stats pushdown during filters.
         fast_search: bool, optional, default False
+            Only search indexed fragments for vector, full text, and scalar-indexed
+            filter queries. This may skip recently appended unindexed data.
         full_text_query: str or dict, optional
             query string to search for, the results will be ranked by BM25.
             e.g. "hello world", would match documents contains "hello" or "world".
@@ -1087,6 +1750,7 @@ def to_table(
             offset=offset,
             nearest=nearest,
             batch_size=batch_size,
+            batch_size_bytes=batch_size_bytes,
             io_buffer_size=io_buffer_size,
             batch_readahead=batch_readahead,
             fragment_readahead=fragment_readahead,
@@ -1105,6 +1769,73 @@ def to_table(
             disable_scoring_autoprojection=disable_scoring_autoprojection,
         ).to_table()
 
+    def to_pandas(
+        self,
+        columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+        filter: Optional[Union[str, Expression]] = None,
+        limit: Optional[int] = None,
+        offset: Optional[int] = None,
+        nearest: Optional[Union[Dict[str, Any], MinHashQuery]] = None,
+        batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        batch_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
+        fragment_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
+        scan_in_order: Optional[bool] = None,
+        *,
+        prefilter: Optional[bool] = None,
+        with_row_id: Optional[bool] = None,
+        with_row_address: Optional[bool] = None,
+        use_stats: Optional[bool] = None,
+        fast_search: Optional[bool] = None,
+        full_text_query: Optional[Union[str, Dict[str, Any], FullTextQuery]] = None,
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        late_materialization: Optional[bool | List[str]] = None,
+        blob_mode: str = _BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_LAZY,
+        use_scalar_index: Optional[bool] = None,
+        include_deleted_rows: Optional[bool] = None,
+        order_by: Optional[List[ColumnOrdering]] = None,
+        disable_scoring_autoprojection: Optional[bool] = None,
+        **kwargs,
+    ) -> "pd.DataFrame":
+        """Read the data into a :py:class:`pandas.DataFrame`.
+
+        Parameters are the same as :meth:`to_table`, except pandas export uses
+        ``blob_mode`` instead of Arrow-facing ``blob_handling``.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        blob_mode: str, default "lazy"
+            Controls how blob columns are returned.
+
+            - ``"lazy"``: return :class:`lance.BlobFile` objects
+            - ``"bytes"``: return Python ``bytes``
+            - ``"descriptions"``: preserve ``to_table().to_pandas()`` behavior
+        **kwargs
+            Forwarded to :meth:`pyarrow.Table.to_pandas` for non-blob columns.
+        """
+        return self.scanner(
+            columns=columns,
+            filter=filter,
+            limit=limit,
+            offset=offset,
+            nearest=nearest,
+            batch_size=batch_size,
+            io_buffer_size=io_buffer_size,
+            batch_readahead=batch_readahead,
+            fragment_readahead=fragment_readahead,
+            late_materialization=late_materialization,
+            use_scalar_index=use_scalar_index,
+            scan_in_order=scan_in_order,
+            prefilter=prefilter,
+            with_row_id=with_row_id,
+            with_row_address=with_row_address,
+            use_stats=use_stats,
+            fast_search=fast_search,
+            full_text_query=full_text_query,
+            include_deleted_rows=include_deleted_rows,
+            order_by=order_by,
+            disable_scoring_autoprojection=disable_scoring_autoprojection,
+        ).to_pandas(blob_mode=blob_mode, **kwargs)
+
     @property
     def partition_expression(self):
         """
@@ -1458,11 +2189,12 @@ def io_stats_incremental(self) -> IOStats:
     def to_batches(
         self,
         columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
-        filter: Optional[Union[str, pa.compute.Expression]] = None,
+        filter: Optional[Union[str, Expression]] = None,
         limit: Optional[int] = None,
         offset: Optional[int] = None,
-        nearest: Optional[dict] = None,
+        nearest: Optional[Union[Dict[str, Any], MinHashQuery]] = None,
         batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        batch_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
         batch_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
         fragment_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
         scan_in_order: Optional[bool] = None,
@@ -1471,7 +2203,7 @@ def to_batches(
         with_row_id: Optional[bool] = None,
         with_row_address: Optional[bool] = None,
         use_stats: Optional[bool] = None,
-        full_text_query: Optional[Union[str, dict]] = None,
+        full_text_query: Optional[Union[str, Dict[str, Any]]] = None,
         io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
         late_materialization: Optional[bool | List[str]] = None,
         blob_handling: Optional[str] = None,
@@ -1499,6 +2231,7 @@ def to_batches(
             offset=offset,
             nearest=nearest,
             batch_size=batch_size,
+            batch_size_bytes=batch_size_bytes,
             io_buffer_size=io_buffer_size,
             batch_readahead=batch_readahead,
             fragment_readahead=fragment_readahead,
@@ -1615,7 +2348,9 @@ def take_blobs(
         ids: Optional[Union[List[int], pa.Array]] = None,
         addresses: Optional[Union[List[int], pa.Array]] = None,
         indices: Optional[Union[List[int], pa.Array]] = None,
-    ) -> List[BlobFile]:
+        *,
+        buffer_size: int = DEFAULT_BLOB_BUFFER_SIZE,
+    ) -> List[Optional[BlobFile]]:
         """
         Select blobs by row IDs.
 
@@ -1623,6 +2358,13 @@ def take_blobs(
         this API allows you to open binary blob data as a regular Python file-like
         object. For more details, see :py:class:`lance.BlobFile`.
 
+        If you plan to read each selected blob completely with ``read()`` or
+        ``readall()``, use :py:meth:`read_blobs` instead. It materializes blob
+        payloads with Lance's planned batched reader.
+
+        ``read_range`` and ``read_ranges`` do not use the sequential buffer and
+        do not change the sequential cursor.
+
         Exactly one of ids, addresses, or indices must be specified.
 
         Parameters
@@ -1635,46 +2377,228 @@ def take_blobs(
             The (unstable) row addresses to select in the dataset.
         indices : Integer Array or array-like
             The offset / indices of the row in the dataset.
+        buffer_size : int, default 512 KiB
+            Sequential read-ahead size in bytes. ``0`` disables read-ahead.
 
         Returns
         -------
-        blob_files : List[BlobFile]
+        blob_files : List[Optional[BlobFile]]
+            One element per selected row. Null blob values return ``None``;
+            valid empty blobs return a ``BlobFile`` with size zero.
         """
-        if sum([bool(v is not None) for v in [ids, addresses, indices]]) != 1:
-            raise ValueError(
-                "Exactly one of ids, indices, or addresses must be specified"
-            )
+        buffer_size = _validate_buffer_size(buffer_size)
+        selection_kind, selection_values = _resolve_blob_selection(
+            ids, addresses, indices
+        )
 
-        if ids is not None:
-            lance_blob_files = self._ds.take_blobs(ids, blob_column)
-        elif addresses is not None:
-            lance_blob_files = self._ds.take_blobs_by_addresses(addresses, blob_column)
-        elif indices is not None:
-            lance_blob_files = self._ds.take_blobs_by_indices(indices, blob_column)
+        if selection_kind == "ids":
+            lance_blob_files = self._ds.take_blobs(selection_values, blob_column)
+        elif selection_kind == "addresses":
+            lance_blob_files = self._ds.take_blobs_by_addresses(
+                selection_values, blob_column
+            )
         else:
-            raise ValueError("Either ids, addresses, or indices must be specified")
-        return [BlobFile(lance_blob_file) for lance_blob_file in lance_blob_files]
+            lance_blob_files = self._ds.take_blobs_by_indices(
+                selection_values, blob_column
+            )
+        return [
+            BlobFile(lance_blob_file, buffer_size=buffer_size)
+            if lance_blob_file is not None
+            else None
+            for lance_blob_file in lance_blob_files
+        ]
 
-    def head(self, num_rows, **kwargs):
+    def read_blobs(
+        self,
+        blob_column: str,
+        ids: Optional[Union[List[int], pa.Array]] = None,
+        addresses: Optional[Union[List[int], pa.Array]] = None,
+        indices: Optional[Union[List[int], pa.Array]] = None,
+        *,
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        preserve_order: Optional[bool] = None,
+    ) -> List[Tuple[int, Optional[bytes]]]:
         """
-        Load the first N rows of the dataset.
+        Read blobs directly into memory using Lance's planned blob reader.
+
+        Unlike :py:meth:`take_blobs`, which returns file-like :py:class:`lance.BlobFile`
+        handles for random access, this API plans and executes batched reads and
+        returns materialized blob payloads. Use this API for training loaders,
+        batch preprocessing, and other workflows that need complete blob bytes.
+
+        Exactly one of ids, addresses, or indices must be specified.
 
         Parameters
         ----------
-        num_rows : int
-            The number of rows to load.
-        **kwargs : dict, optional
-            See scanner() method for full parameter description.
+        blob_column : str
+            The name of the blob column to read.
+        ids : Integer Array or array-like
+            Row IDs to read in the dataset.
+        addresses : Integer Array or array-like
+            The (unstable) row addresses to read in the dataset.
+        indices : Integer Array or array-like
+            The offset / indices of the row in the dataset.
+        io_buffer_size : int, optional
+            Override the scheduler I/O buffer size used while materializing blobs.
+        preserve_order : bool, optional
+            If True, returned rows follow the requested selection order.
 
         Returns
         -------
-        table : Table
+        blobs : List[Tuple[int, Optional[bytes]]]
+            One ``(row_address, blob_bytes)`` pair per selected row. Null blob
+            values return ``None``; valid empty blobs return ``b""``.
         """
-        kwargs["limit"] = num_rows
-        return self.scanner(**kwargs).to_table()
+        selection_kind, selection_values = _resolve_blob_selection(
+            ids, addresses, indices
+        )
+
+        kwargs = {
+            "io_buffer_size": io_buffer_size,
+            "preserve_order": preserve_order,
+        }
+        if selection_kind == "ids":
+            return self._ds.read_blobs(selection_values, blob_column, **kwargs)
+        if selection_kind == "addresses":
+            return self._ds.read_blobs_by_addresses(
+                selection_values, blob_column, **kwargs
+            )
+        return self._ds.read_blobs_by_indices(selection_values, blob_column, **kwargs)
+
+    def read_blob_ranges(
+        self,
+        blob_column: str,
+        requests: Sequence[Tuple[int, int, int]],
+        *,
+        selector: Literal["ids", "addresses", "indices"],
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        preserve_order: Optional[bool] = None,
+    ) -> List[Tuple[int, int, Optional[bytes]]]:
+        """
+        Read row-specific blob-local byte ranges with one planned API call.
+
+        Each request is a ``(row, offset, length)`` tuple. ``selector`` defines
+        whether every ``row`` value is interpreted as a stable row ID, physical
+        row address, or dataset index. Repeat a row value to read multiple ranges
+        from the same blob. Planning, range validation, physical-source grouping,
+        request coalescing, and bounded I/O scheduling all happen in Rust; this
+        method does not use a Python thread pool.
+
+        Every request produces one result. Requests on null blobs return ``None``,
+        including when the requested range is empty. Empty ranges on non-null
+        blobs return empty bytes without issuing payload I/O. For every request,
+        offset plus length must fit in an unsigned 64-bit integer. Ranges on
+        non-null blobs must not extend beyond the logical blob size. Blob-local
+        bounds are not evaluated for null values because they have no logical
+        payload length. By default results preserve the input request order.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        blob_column : str
+            The name of the blob column to read.
+        requests : Sequence[Tuple[int, int, int]]
+            Complete ``(row, offset, length)`` requests.
+        selector : {"ids", "addresses", "indices"}
+            Interpretation of every request's ``row`` value.
+        io_buffer_size : int, optional
+            Override the scheduler I/O buffer size used while materializing ranges.
+        preserve_order : bool, optional
+            If True, returned results follow request order. If False,
+            ``request_index`` still identifies every result.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        Read two disjoint ranges from the same row index:
+
+        .. code-block:: python
+
+            dataset.read_blob_ranges(
+                "images",
+                requests=[(7, 0, 1024), (7, 4096, 1024)],
+                selector="indices",
+            )
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        results : List[Tuple[int, int, Optional[bytes]]]
+            One ``(request_index, row_address, data)`` tuple per request.
+            The Python list retains all returned payload bytes in memory; peak
+            result memory is therefore proportional to their total logical size.
+        """
+        return self._ds.read_blob_ranges(
+            list(requests),
+            blob_column,
+            selector,
+            io_buffer_size=io_buffer_size,
+            preserve_order=preserve_order,
+        )
+
+    def head(self, num_rows, **kwargs):
+        """
+        Load the first N rows of the dataset.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        num_rows : int
+            The number of rows to load.
+        **kwargs : dict, optional
+            See scanner() method for full parameter description.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        table : Table
+        """
+        kwargs["limit"] = num_rows
+        return self.scanner(**kwargs).to_table()
+
+    def slice(
+        self,
+        start: int,
+        end: int,
+        columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+    ) -> pa.Table:
+        """Select a contiguous range of rows by position.
+
+        Equivalent to ``dataset.take(list(range(start, end)))``, but pushed
+        down as an offset/limit scan instead of a materialized index list.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        start : int
+            The index of the first row to include (inclusive). Must be
+            non-negative.
+        end : int
+            The index to stop before (exclusive). Must be greater than or
+            equal to ``start``.
+        columns: list of str, or dict of str to str default None
+            List of column names to be fetched.
+            Or a dictionary of column names to SQL expressions.
+            All columns are fetched if None or unspecified.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        table : pyarrow.Table
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> import lance
+        >>> import pyarrow as pa
+        >>> tbl = pa.table({"id": range(100)})
+        >>> dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, "memory://slice_dataset")
+        >>> dataset.slice(10, 20)
+        pyarrow.Table
+        id: int64
+        ----
+        id: [[10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19]]
+        """
+        if start < 0:
+            raise ValueError(f"start must be non-negative, got {start}")
+        if end < start:
+            raise ValueError(f"end ({end}) must be >= start ({start})")
+        return self.scanner(offset=start, limit=end - start, columns=columns).to_table()
 
     def count_rows(
-        self, filter: Optional[Union[str, pa.compute.Expression]] = None, **kwargs
+        self, filter: Optional[Union[str, Expression]] = None, **kwargs: Any
     ) -> int:
         """Count rows matching the scanner filter.
 
@@ -1745,9 +2669,9 @@ def alter_columns(self, *alterations: Iterable[AlterColumn]):
                 not changed.
             - "nullable": bool, optional
                 Whether the column should be nullable. If not specified, the column
-                nullability is not changed. Only non-nullable columns can be changed
-                to nullable. Currently, you cannot change a nullable column to
-                non-nullable.
+                nullability is not changed. A non-nullable column can always be made
+                nullable. A nullable column can be made non-nullable only if it
+                contains no NULL values; otherwise an error is raised.
             - "data_type": pyarrow.DataType, optional
                 The new data type to cast the column to. If not specified, the column
                 data type is not changed.
@@ -1971,11 +2895,11 @@ def drop_columns(self, columns: List[str]):
 
     def delete(
         self,
-        predicate: Union[str, pa.compute.Expression],
+        predicate: Union[str, Expression],
         *,
         conflict_retries: int = 10,
         retry_timeout: timedelta = timedelta(seconds=30),
-    ):
+    ) -> DeleteResult:
         """
         Delete rows from the dataset.
 
@@ -1996,6 +2920,12 @@ def delete(
             regardless of how long it takes to complete. Subsequent attempts will be
             cancelled once this timeout is reached. Default is 30 seconds.
 
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            A dictionary containing the number of rows deleted, with the key
+            ``num_deleted_rows``.
+
         Examples
         --------
         >>> import lance
@@ -2003,17 +2933,14 @@ def delete(
         >>> table = pa.table({"a": [1, 2, 3], "b": ["a", "b", "c"]})
         >>> dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, "example")
         >>> dataset.delete("a = 1 or b in ('a', 'b')")
-        >>> dataset.to_table()
-        pyarrow.Table
-        a: int64
-        b: string
-        ----
-        a: [[3]]
-        b: [["c"]]
+        {'num_deleted_rows': 2}
         """
-        if isinstance(predicate, pa.compute.Expression):
-            predicate = str(predicate)
-        self._ds.delete(predicate, conflict_retries, retry_timeout)
+        encoded_predicate = (
+            _serialize_expression(predicate, self._ds.schema)
+            if isinstance(predicate, pa.compute.Expression)
+            else predicate
+        )
+        return self._ds.delete(encoded_predicate, conflict_retries, retry_timeout)
 
     def truncate_table(self) -> None:
         """
@@ -2170,9 +3097,10 @@ def merge_insert(
     def update(
         self,
         updates: Dict[str, str],
-        where: Optional[str] = None,
+        where: Optional[Union[str, Expression]] = None,
         conflict_retries: int = 10,
         retry_timeout: timedelta = timedelta(seconds=30),
+        data_storage_version: Optional[str] = None,
     ) -> UpdateResult:
         """
         Update column values for rows matching where.
@@ -2181,8 +3109,9 @@ def update(
         ----------
         updates : dict of str to str
             A mapping of column names to a SQL expression.
-        where : str, optional
-            A SQL predicate indicating which rows should be updated.
+        where : str or pa.compute.Expression, optional
+            A SQL predicate or pyarrow Expression indicating which rows should
+            be updated.
         conflict_retries : int, optional
             Number of times to retry the operation if there is contention.
             Default is 10.
@@ -2191,6 +3120,10 @@ def update(
             the operation before giving up. At least one attempt will be made,
             regardless of how long it takes to complete. Subsequent attempts will be
             cancelled once this timeout is reached. Default is 30 seconds.
+        data_storage_version : str, optional
+            Output data file version, such as "2.2", "stable", or "next". If
+            omitted, use the dataset's default write version without changing it.
+            V1/V2 cross-family targets are rejected.
 
         Returns
         -------
@@ -2211,25 +3144,62 @@ def update(
         1  4  b
         2  5  c
         """
-        if isinstance(where, pa.compute.Expression):
-            where = str(where)
-        return self._ds.update(updates, where, conflict_retries, retry_timeout)
+        encoded_where = (
+            _serialize_expression(where, self._ds.schema)
+            if isinstance(where, pa.compute.Expression)
+            else where
+        )
+        return self._ds.update(
+            updates,
+            encoded_where,
+            conflict_retries,
+            retry_timeout,
+            data_storage_version,
+        )
 
-    def versions(self):
+    def versions(self) -> List[Version]:
         """
         Return all versions in this dataset.
         """
         versions = self._ds.versions()
         for v in versions:
-            # TODO: python datetime supports only microsecond precision. When a
-            # separate Version object is implemented, expose the precise timestamp
-            # (ns) to python.
-            ts_nanos = v["timestamp"]
-            v["timestamp"] = datetime.fromtimestamp(ts_nanos // 1e9) + timedelta(
-                microseconds=(ts_nanos % 1e9) // 1e3
-            )
+            _convert_version_timestamp(v)
         return versions
 
+    def get_version(self) -> Version:
+        """
+        Return the currently checked out version, with its timestamp and the
+        summary of its manifest.
+
+        The summary is in ``metadata``. It counts the fragments, data files,
+        deletion files, rows and bytes of the version, and is computed from the
+        manifest that is already loaded, so nothing is read from storage.
+
+        Use :attr:`version` instead when only the version number is needed.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> import lance
+        >>> import pyarrow as pa
+        >>> data = pa.table({"x": [1, 2, 3]})
+        >>> dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, "memory://get_version")
+        >>> version = dataset.get_version()
+        >>> version["version"]
+        1
+        >>> version["metadata"]["total_rows"]
+        '3'
+        """
+        return _convert_version_timestamp(self._ds.current_version())
+
+    def version_refs(self) -> List[VersionRef]:
+        """
+        Return lightweight references to all attached versions in the current branch.
+
+        Unlike :meth:`versions`, this does not read or deserialize every manifest.
+        Use :attr:`latest_version` instead when only the latest version is needed.
+        """
+        return self._ds.version_refs()
+
     @property
     def version(self) -> int:
         """
@@ -2305,7 +3275,8 @@ def new_file_session(self):
         return LanceFileSession(
             base_path=self._uri,
             storage_options=self.latest_storage_options(),
-            storage_options_provider=self._storage_options_provider,
+            namespace_client=self._namespace_client,
+            table_id=self._table_id,
         )
 
     def checkout_version(
@@ -2324,7 +3295,8 @@ def checkout_version(
             An integer specifies a version number in the current branch; a string
             specifies a tag name; a Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]] specifies
             a version number in a specified branch. (None, None) means the latest
-            version_number on the main branch.
+            version_number on the default branch. ``("main", version)`` is an
+            explicit alias for the default branch in this reference context.
 
         Returns
         -------
@@ -2343,6 +3315,47 @@ def restore(self):
         """
         self._ds.restore()
 
+    def base_paths(self) -> Dict[int, DatasetBasePath]:
+        """Return the base paths registered in the current dataset snapshot.
+
+        The returned dictionary maps each base path ID to an independent
+        :class:`DatasetBasePath` object. It includes registered bases that are not
+        referenced by any data files. The primary dataset storage is not added to
+        the result unless it was explicitly registered as a base path.
+
+        This method does not refresh the dataset to the latest version. Modifying
+        the returned dictionary does not modify the dataset, and previously
+        returned values do not change when the dataset is updated or checked out
+        at another version. The dictionary iteration order is unspecified.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Dict[int, DatasetBasePath]
+            Registered base paths keyed by base path ID. Each value exposes
+            ``id``, ``name``, ``path``, and ``is_dataset_root`` as read-only
+            attributes. ``is_dataset_root`` describes the base's path layout; it
+            does not identify the dataset's current primary storage. Runtime
+            storage options are not included.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> import lance
+        >>> import pyarrow as pa
+        >>> dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        ...     pa.table({"x": [1]}),
+        ...     "memory://base-paths-example",
+        ...     initial_bases=[
+        ...         lance.DatasetBasePath(
+        ...             "memory://base-paths-data", name="data"
+        ...         )
+        ...     ],
+        ... )
+        >>> base_paths = dataset.base_paths()
+        >>> all(base_id == base.id for base_id, base in base_paths.items())
+        True
+        """
+        return self._ds.base_paths()
+
     def add_bases(
         self, new_bases: list, transaction_properties: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None
     ):
@@ -2376,6 +3389,8 @@ def cleanup_old_versions(
         *,
         delete_unverified: bool = False,
         error_if_tagged_old_versions: bool = True,
+        delete_rate_limit: Optional[int] = None,
+        versions: Optional[List[int]] = None,
     ) -> CleanupStats:
         """
         Cleans up old versions of the dataset.
@@ -2396,7 +3411,7 @@ def cleanup_old_versions(
             ``retain_versions`` are not specified, this will default to two weeks.
 
         retain_versions: int, optional
-            Retain the last N versions of the dataset.
+            Retain the last N versions of the dataset. Must be positive.
 
         delete_unverified: bool, default False
             Files leftover from a failed transaction may appear to be part of an
@@ -2415,8 +3430,19 @@ def cleanup_old_versions(
             tagged versions match the parameters. Otherwise, tagged versions will
             be ignored without any error and only untagged versions will be
             cleaned up.
+
+        delete_rate_limit: int, optional
+            Maximum number of delete operations per second. When not set (default),
+            deletions run at full speed. Set this to a positive integer to avoid
+            hitting object store request rate limits (e.g. S3 HTTP 503 SlowDown).
+            For example, ``delete_rate_limit=100`` limits to 100 operations/second.
+
+        versions: list[int], optional
+            Clean up only the specified dataset versions. The current version is
+            never removed, and tagged versions are still protected by
+            ``error_if_tagged_old_versions``.
         """
-        if older_than is None and retain_versions is None:
+        if older_than is None and retain_versions is None and versions is None:
             older_than = timedelta(days=14)
 
         return self._ds.cleanup_old_versions(
@@ -2424,8 +3450,229 @@ def cleanup_old_versions(
             retain_versions,
             delete_unverified,
             error_if_tagged_old_versions,
+            delete_rate_limit,
+            versions,
+        )
+
+    def explain_cleanup_old_versions(
+        self,
+        older_than: Optional[timedelta] = None,
+        retain_versions: Optional[int] = None,
+        *,
+        delete_unverified: bool = False,
+        error_if_tagged_old_versions: bool = True,
+        delete_rate_limit: Optional[int] = None,
+        versions: Optional[List[int]] = None,
+        include_files: bool = False,
+        max_files: int = 1000,
+    ) -> CleanupExplanation:
+        """
+        Explain what :meth:`cleanup_old_versions` would remove without deleting files.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+
+        older_than: timedelta, optional
+            Only versions older than this would be removed. If ``older_than`` and
+            ``retain_versions`` are not specified, this will default to two weeks.
+
+        retain_versions: int, optional
+            Retain the last N versions of the dataset. Must be positive.
+
+        delete_unverified: bool, default False
+            Include unverified files that cleanup would remove when this is set.
+
+        error_if_tagged_old_versions: bool, default True
+            If set to `True`, an exception will be raised if any tagged versions
+            match the parameters. Otherwise, tagged versions will be ignored.
+
+        delete_rate_limit: int, optional
+            Accepted for parity with :meth:`cleanup_old_versions`; no deletes are
+            issued by explain.
+
+        versions: list[int], optional
+            Explain cleanup only for the specified dataset versions.
+
+        include_files: bool, default False
+            If `True`, include candidate files in the explanation up to
+            ``max_files`` entries. Aggregate stats always include all candidates.
+
+        max_files: int, default 1000
+            Maximum number of candidate files to include when ``include_files``
+            is `True`.
+        """
+        if older_than is None and retain_versions is None and versions is None:
+            older_than = timedelta(days=14)
+        if max_files <= 0:
+            raise ValueError("max_files must be positive")
+
+        return self._ds.explain_cleanup_old_versions(
+            td_to_micros(older_than) if older_than else None,
+            retain_versions,
+            delete_unverified,
+            error_if_tagged_old_versions,
+            delete_rate_limit,
+            versions,
+            include_files,
+            max_files,
         )
 
+    def _prepare_scalar_index_request(
+        self,
+        column: Union[str, List[str]],
+        index_type: Union[str, IndexConfig],
+        kwargs: dict,
+    ) -> tuple[str, str, str]:
+        """Validate and normalize a scalar-index request for the native
+        ``create_index`` call.
+        """
+        if isinstance(column, str):
+            column = [column]
+
+        if len(column) > 1:
+            raise NotImplementedError(
+                "Scalar indices currently only support a single column"
+            )
+
+        column = column[0]
+        lance_field = self._ds.lance_schema.field_case_insensitive(column)
+
+        if isinstance(index_type, str):
+            index_type = index_type.upper()
+            if index_type not in [
+                "BTREE",
+                "BITMAP",
+                "NGRAM",
+                "ZONEMAP",
+                "LABEL_LIST",
+                "INVERTED",
+                "FTS",
+                "BLOOMFILTER",
+                "RTREE",
+            ]:
+                raise NotImplementedError(
+                    (
+                        'Only "BTREE", "BITMAP", "NGRAM", "ZONEMAP", "LABEL_LIST", '
+                        '"INVERTED", "BLOOMFILTER" or "RTREE" are supported for '
+                        f"scalar columns.  Received {index_type}",
+                    )
+                )
+
+            if lance_field is None:
+                if index_type in ["INVERTED", "FTS"]:
+                    # Rust resolves public FTS paths through intervening list layers.
+                    return column, index_type, index_type
+                raise KeyError(f"{column} not found in schema")
+
+            field = lance_field.to_arrow()
+
+            field_type = field.type
+            field_meta = field.metadata
+            if hasattr(field_type, "storage_type"):
+                field_type = field_type.storage_type
+
+            if index_type in ["BTREE", "BITMAP"]:
+                if (
+                    not pa.types.is_integer(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_floating(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_boolean(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_string(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_large_string(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_binary(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_large_binary(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_temporal(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_decimal128(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_decimal256(field_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_fixed_size_binary(field_type)
+                ):
+                    raise TypeError(
+                        f"BTREE/BITMAP index column {column} must be int",
+                        ", float, bool, str, large_str, binary, large_binary, "
+                        "decimal, fixed-size-binary, or temporal",
+                    )
+            elif index_type == "LABEL_LIST":
+                if not (
+                    pa.types.is_list(field_type) or pa.types.is_large_list(field_type)
+                ):
+                    raise TypeError(
+                        f"LABEL_LIST index column {column} must be a list or large list"
+                    )
+            elif index_type == "NGRAM":
+                if not pa.types.is_string(field_type) and not pa.types.is_large_string(
+                    field_type
+                ):
+                    raise TypeError(f"NGRAM index column {column} must be a string")
+            elif index_type in ["INVERTED", "FTS"]:
+                value_type = field_type
+                if pa.types.is_list(field_type) or pa.types.is_large_list(field_type):
+                    value_type = field_type.value_type
+                if (
+                    not pa.types.is_string(value_type)
+                    and not pa.types.is_large_string(value_type)
+                    and not (
+                        pa.types.is_large_binary(value_type)
+                        and field_meta[b"ARROW:extension:name"] == b"lance.json"
+                    )
+                ):
+                    raise TypeError(
+                        f"INVERTED index column {column} must be string, large string"
+                        f" or list of strings, or json, but got {value_type}"
+                    )
+
+            return column, index_type, index_type
+        elif isinstance(index_type, IndexConfig):
+            logical_index_type = index_type.index_type.upper()
+            if lance_field is None and logical_index_type not in ["INVERTED", "FTS"]:
+                raise KeyError(f"{column} not found in schema")
+            parameters = dict(index_type.parameters)
+            if logical_index_type in ["INVERTED", "FTS"]:
+                parameters["document_granularity"] = kwargs["document_granularity"]
+            config = json.dumps(parameters)
+            kwargs["config"] = indices.IndexConfig(index_type.index_type, config)
+            return column, "scalar", logical_index_type
+        else:
+            raise Exception("index_type must be str or IndexConfig")
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _normalized_index_type(
+        index_type: Union[str, IndexConfig],
+    ) -> str:
+        if isinstance(index_type, IndexConfig):
+            index_type = index_type.index_type
+        return index_type.upper()
+
+    @classmethod
+    def _is_segment_native_scalar_index_type(
+        cls,
+        index_type: Union[str, IndexConfig],
+    ) -> bool:
+        return cls._normalized_index_type(index_type) in {
+            "BTREE",
+            "BITMAP",
+            "INVERTED",
+            "FTS",
+            "NGRAM",
+            "RTREE",
+            "ZONEMAP",
+            "BLOOMFILTER",
+            "LABEL_LIST",
+        }
+
+    @classmethod
+    def _requires_uncommitted_scalar_index(
+        cls,
+        index_type: Union[str, IndexConfig],
+    ) -> bool:
+        return cls._normalized_index_type(index_type) in {
+            "BTREE",
+            "BITMAP",
+            "NGRAM",
+            "RTREE",
+            "ZONEMAP",
+            "BLOOMFILTER",
+            "LABEL_LIST",
+        }
+
     def create_scalar_index(
         self,
         column: str,
@@ -2447,8 +3694,11 @@ def create_scalar_index(
         train: bool = True,
         fragment_ids: Optional[List[int]] = None,
         index_uuid: Optional[str] = None,
-        **kwargs,
-    ):
+        progress_callback: Optional[Callable[[IndexProgress], None]] = None,
+        format_version: Optional[Union[int, str]] = None,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity = DocumentGranularity.ROW,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> None:
         """Create a scalar index on a column.
 
         Scalar indices, like vector indices, can be used to speed up scans.  A scalar
@@ -2481,7 +3731,7 @@ def create_scalar_index(
             )
 
 
-        There are 5 types of scalar indices available today.
+        Lance supports the following scalar index types:
 
         * ``BTREE``. The most common type is ``BTREE``. This index is inspired
           by the btree data structure although only the first few layers of the btree
@@ -2513,9 +3763,21 @@ def create_scalar_index(
              but can only handle filters with equals and not equals and may require
              more I/O than a btree or bitmap index```
 
-        Note that the ``LANCE_BYPASS_SPILLING`` environment variable can be used to
-        bypass spilling to disk. Setting this to true can avoid memory exhaustion
-        issues (see https://github.com/apache/datafusion/issues/10073 for more info).
+        Index training sorts can spill to disk under memory pressure.
+        ``LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE`` configures this pool in bytes; it is not a limit
+        on the process's total memory usage. Spilling still requires memory for
+        individual input batches and for sorting and merging them, so large
+        batches or a small pool can cause memory reservation failures.
+
+        Setting ``LANCE_BYPASS_SPILLING`` to any value (including ``0`` or
+        ``false``) bypasses the bounded memory pool for these sorts. Sorting then
+        stays in memory, ignoring ``LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE``. This can avoid pool
+        reservation failures but increases memory use and can exhaust system
+        memory; use it only when the sort fits in available memory. The historical
+        SortExec allocation issues in
+        https://github.com/apache/datafusion/issues/10073 were fixed upstream by
+        https://github.com/apache/datafusion/pull/14644; that fix does not remove
+        the batch-size and memory-pool constraints above.
 
         **Experimental API**
 
@@ -2523,7 +3785,8 @@ def create_scalar_index(
         ----------
         column : str
             The column to be indexed.  Must be a boolean, integer, float,
-            or string column.
+            string, binary, decimal, fixed-size-binary, or
+            supported temporal column.
         index_type : str
             The type of the index.  One of ``"BTREE"``, ``"BITMAP"``,
             ``"LABEL_LIST"``, ``"NGRAM"``, ``"ZONEMAP"``, ``"INVERTED"``,
@@ -2540,14 +3803,30 @@ def create_scalar_index(
         fragment_ids : List[int], optional
             If provided, the index will be created only on the specified fragments.
             This enables distributed/fragment-level indexing. When provided, the
-            method returns an IndexMetadata object but does not commit the index
-            to the dataset. The index can be committed later using the commit API.
+            method returns metadata for one segment but does not commit
+            the index to the dataset. The segment can be optionally merged with
+            other segments and committed later with
+            ``commit_existing_index_segments(...)``.
             This parameter is passed via kwargs internally.
         index_uuid : str, optional
-            A UUID to use for fragment-level distributed indexing
-            multiple fragment-level indices need to share UUID for later merging.
-            If not provided, a new UUID will be generated. This parameter is passed via
-            kwargs internally.
+            A UUID to use for the segment written by this call.
+            If not provided, a new UUID will be generated. This parameter is
+            passed via kwargs internally.
+        progress_callback : callable, optional
+            A callback that receives :class:`lance.progress.IndexProgress` events while
+            the index is being built.
+        format_version: int or str, optional
+            This is for the ``INVERTED`` / ``FTS`` index. Explicit on-disk FTS
+            format version to write when creating a new index. Accepts ``1``,
+            ``2``, ``3``, ``"v1"``, ``"v2"``, or ``"v3"``.
+            If unset, Lance uses ``LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION`` when present and
+            otherwise writes v2 for text analysis with ``block_size=128`` and
+            v3 for code analysis or ``block_size=256``.
+
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity, default ROW
+            This is for the ``INVERTED`` / ``FTS`` index. ``ROW`` treats all
+            selected text in one dataset row as one document. ``LIST_ELEMENT``
+            treats each element of the deepest list on ``column`` as one document.
 
         with_position: bool, default False
             This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. If True, the index will store the
@@ -2555,16 +3834,36 @@ def create_scalar_index(
             query. This will significantly increase the index size.
             It won't impact the performance of non-phrase queries even if it is set to
             True.
-        skip_merge: bool, default False
-            This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. If True, the index will skip the
-            partition merge stage after indexing. This can be useful for
-            distributed/fragment-level indexing where a later merge is desired.
+        block_size: int, default 128
+            This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. Number of documents per compressed
+            posting block. Must be one of ``128`` or ``256``.
+            ``block_size=256`` is experimental and may introduce breaking changes.
+            Use ``128`` when stable compatibility with the legacy posting layout is
+            required.
+        memory_limit: int, optional
+            This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. Total build-time memory limit in MiB.
+            If set, Lance divides this budget evenly across the workers. If unset,
+            the default will be 2 GiB per worker. This parameter is only used for the
+            current build and is not persisted with the index.
+
+            A larger memory limit will create an index with fewer shards which will
+            be easier to search so this is a trade-off between build resources and
+            search cost.
+        num_workers: int, optional
+            This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. Number of workers to use for
+            the current build. The effective worker count is clamped to
+            ``[1, num_compute_cpus]``. If unset, Lance uses ``num_compute_cpus``
+            workers unless ``LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS`` is set. This parameter is
+            only used for the current build and is not persisted with the index.
         base_tokenizer: str, default "simple"
             This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. The base tokenizer to use. The
             value can be:
             * "simple": splits tokens on whitespace and punctuation.
             * "whitespace": splits tokens on whitespace.
             * "raw": no tokenization.
+            * "ngram": produces character N-grams for substring search.
+            * "icu": ICU dictionary-based Unicode word segmentation.
+            * "icu/split": ICU segmentation with simple-style delimiter splitting.
         language: str, default "English"
             This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. The language for stemming
             and stop words. This is only used when `stem` or `remove_stop_words` is true
@@ -2574,10 +3873,10 @@ def create_scalar_index(
         lower_case: bool, default True
             This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. If True, the index will convert all
             text to lowercase.
-        stem: bool, default True
+        stem: bool, default True (False for the "ngram" tokenizer)
             This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. If True, the index will stem the
             tokens.
-        remove_stop_words: bool, default True
+        remove_stop_words: bool, default True (False for the "ngram" tokenizer)
             This is for the ``INVERTED`` index. If True, the index will remove
             stop words.
         custom_stop_words: Optional[List[str]], default None
@@ -2598,7 +3897,7 @@ def create_scalar_index(
             import lance
 
             dataset = lance.dataset("/tmp/images.lance")
-            dataset.create_index(
+            dataset.create_scalar_index(
                 "category",
                 "BTREE",
             )
@@ -2623,107 +3922,35 @@ def create_scalar_index(
         ``MaterializeIndex`` operator.
 
         """
-        if isinstance(column, str):
-            column = [column]
+        if not isinstance(document_granularity, DocumentGranularity):
+            raise TypeError(
+                "document_granularity must be a lance.query.DocumentGranularity"
+            )
+        kwargs["document_granularity"] = document_granularity.value
+        column, index_type, logical_index_type = self._prepare_scalar_index_request(
+            column, index_type, kwargs
+        )
 
-        if len(column) > 1:
-            raise NotImplementedError(
-                "Scalar indices currently only support a single column"
+        if fragment_ids is not None and self._requires_uncommitted_scalar_index(
+            logical_index_type
+        ):
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"{logical_index_type} distributed indexing uses "
+                "create_index_uncommitted(..., "
+                f'index_type="{logical_index_type}", fragment_ids=...)'
             )
+        # Add fragment_ids and index_uuid to kwargs if provided
+        if fragment_ids is not None:
+            kwargs["fragment_ids"] = fragment_ids
+        if index_uuid is not None:
+            kwargs["index_uuid"] = index_uuid
+        if progress_callback is not None:
+            kwargs["progress_callback"] = progress_callback
+        if format_version is not None:
+            kwargs["format_version"] = format_version
+        self._ds.create_index([column], index_type, name, replace, train, None, kwargs)
 
-        column = column[0]
-        lance_field = self._ds.lance_schema.field_case_insensitive(column)
-        if lance_field is None:
-            raise KeyError(f"{column} not found in schema")
-
-        # TODO: Add documentation of IndexConfig approach for creating
-        # indexes that need parameterization
-        if isinstance(index_type, str):
-            index_type = index_type.upper()
-            if index_type not in [
-                "BTREE",
-                "BITMAP",
-                "NGRAM",
-                "ZONEMAP",
-                "LABEL_LIST",
-                "INVERTED",
-                "FTS",
-                "BLOOMFILTER",
-                "RTREE",
-            ]:
-                raise NotImplementedError(
-                    (
-                        'Only "BTREE", "BITMAP", "NGRAM", "ZONEMAP", "LABEL_LIST", '
-                        '"INVERTED", "BLOOMFILTER" or "RTREE" are supported for '
-                        f"scalar columns.  Received {index_type}",
-                    )
-                )
-
-            field = lance_field.to_arrow()
-
-            field_type = field.type
-            field_meta = field.metadata
-            if hasattr(field_type, "storage_type"):
-                field_type = field_type.storage_type
-
-            if index_type in ["BTREE", "BITMAP", "ZONEMAP"]:
-                if (
-                    not pa.types.is_integer(field_type)
-                    and not pa.types.is_floating(field_type)
-                    and not pa.types.is_boolean(field_type)
-                    and not pa.types.is_string(field_type)
-                    and not pa.types.is_temporal(field_type)
-                    and not pa.types.is_fixed_size_binary(field_type)
-                ):
-                    raise TypeError(
-                        f"BTREE/BITMAP index column {column} must be int",
-                        ", float, bool, str, fixed-size-binary, or temporal ",
-                    )
-            elif index_type == "LABEL_LIST":
-                if not pa.types.is_list(field_type):
-                    raise TypeError(f"LABEL_LIST index column {column} must be a list")
-            elif index_type == "NGRAM":
-                if not pa.types.is_string(field_type) and not pa.types.is_large_string(
-                    field_type
-                ):
-                    raise TypeError(f"NGRAM index column {column} must be a string")
-            elif index_type in ["INVERTED", "FTS"]:
-                value_type = field_type
-                if pa.types.is_list(field_type) or pa.types.is_large_list(field_type):
-                    value_type = field_type.value_type
-                if (
-                    not pa.types.is_string(value_type)
-                    and not pa.types.is_large_string(value_type)
-                    and not (
-                        pa.types.is_large_binary(value_type)
-                        and field_meta[b"ARROW:extension:name"] == b"lance.json"
-                    )
-                ):
-                    raise TypeError(
-                        f"INVERTED index column {column} must be string, large string"
-                        f" or list of strings, or json, but got {value_type}"
-                    )
-
-            if pa.types.is_duration(field_type):
-                raise TypeError(
-                    f"Scalar index column {column} cannot currently be a duration"
-                )
-        elif isinstance(index_type, IndexConfig):
-            config = json.dumps(index_type.parameters)
-            kwargs["config"] = indices.IndexConfig(index_type.index_type, config)
-            index_type = "scalar"
-        else:
-            raise Exception("index_type must be str or IndexConfig")
-
-        # Add fragment_ids and index_uuid to kwargs if provided
-        if fragment_ids is not None:
-            kwargs["fragment_ids"] = fragment_ids
-        if index_uuid is not None:
-            kwargs["index_uuid"] = index_uuid
-
-        self._ds.create_index([column], index_type, name, replace, train, None, kwargs)
-
-    def create_index(
+    def _create_index_impl(
         self,
         column: Union[str, List[str]],
         index_type: str,
@@ -2742,192 +3969,29 @@ def create_index(
         index_cache_size: Optional[int] = None,
         shuffle_partition_batches: Optional[int] = None,
         shuffle_partition_concurrency: Optional[int] = None,
-        # experimental parameters
         ivf_centroids_file: Optional[str] = None,
         precomputed_partition_dataset: Optional[str] = None,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
         filter_nan: bool = True,
         train: bool = True,
-        # distributed indexing parameters
         fragment_ids: Optional[List[int]] = None,
         index_uuid: Optional[str] = None,
         *,
         target_partition_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        streaming_sample_rate: Optional[int] = None,
+        streaming_coreset_rate: Optional[int] = None,
+        streaming_refine_passes: Optional[int] = None,
+        skip_transpose: bool = False,
+        rabitq_model: Optional[str] = None,
+        require_commit: bool = True,
         **kwargs,
-    ) -> LanceDataset:
-        """Create index on column.
-
-        **Experimental API**
-
-        Parameters
-        ----------
-        column : str
-            The column to be indexed.
-        index_type : str
-            The type of the index.
-            ``"IVF_PQ, IVF_HNSW_PQ and IVF_HNSW_SQ"`` are supported now.
-        name : str, optional
-            The index name. If not provided, it will be generated from the
-            column name.
-        metric : str
-            The distance metric type, i.e., "L2" (alias to "euclidean"), "cosine"
-            or "dot" (dot product). Default is "L2".
-        replace : bool
-            Replace the existing index if it exists.
-        num_partitions : int, optional
-            The number of partitions of IVF (Inverted File Index).
-            Deprecated. Use target_partition_size instead.
-        ivf_centroids : optional
-            It can be either :py:class:`np.ndarray`,
-            :py:class:`pyarrow.FixedSizeListArray` or
-            :py:class:`pyarrow.FixedShapeTensorArray`.
-            A ``num_partitions x dimension`` array of existing K-mean centroids
-            for IVF clustering. If not provided, a new KMeans model will be trained.
-        pq_codebook : optional,
-            It can be :py:class:`np.ndarray`, :py:class:`pyarrow.FixedSizeListArray`,
-            or :py:class:`pyarrow.FixedShapeTensorArray`.
-            A ``num_sub_vectors x (2 ^ nbits * dimensions // num_sub_vectors)``
-            array of K-mean centroids for PQ codebook.
-
-            Note: ``nbits`` is always 8 for now.
-            If not provided, a new PQ model will be trained.
-        num_sub_vectors : int, optional
-            The number of sub-vectors for PQ (Product Quantization).
-        accelerator : str or ``torch.Device``, optional
-            If set, use an accelerator to speed up the training process.
-            Accepted accelerator: "cuda" (Nvidia GPU) and "mps" (Apple Silicon GPU).
-            If not set, use the CPU.
-        index_cache_size : int, optional
-            The size of the index cache in number of entries. Default value is 256.
-        shuffle_partition_batches : int, optional
-            The number of batches, using the row group size of the dataset, to include
-            in each shuffle partition. Default value is 10240.
-
-            Assuming the row group size is 1024, each shuffle partition will hold
-            10240 * 1024 = 10,485,760 rows. By making this value smaller, this shuffle
-            will consume less memory but will take longer to complete, and vice versa.
-        shuffle_partition_concurrency : int, optional
-            The number of shuffle partitions to process concurrently. Default value is 2
-
-            By making this value smaller, this shuffle will consume less memory but will
-            take longer to complete, and vice versa.
-        storage_options : optional, dict
-            Extra options that make sense for a particular storage connection. This is
-            used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
-        filter_nan: bool
-            Defaults to True. False is UNSAFE, and will cause a crash if any null/nan
-            values are present (and otherwise will not). Disables the null filter used
-            for nullable columns. Obtains a small speed boost.
-        train : bool, default True
-            If True, the index will be trained on the data (e.g., compute IVF
-            centroids, PQ codebooks). If False, an empty index structure will be
-            created without training, which can be populated later.
-        fragment_ids : List[int], optional
-            If provided, the index will be created only on the specified fragments.
-            This enables distributed/fragment-level indexing. When provided, the
-            method creates temporary index metadata but does not commit the index
-            to the dataset. The index can be committed later using
-            merge_index_metadata(index_uuid, "VECTOR", column=..., index_name=...).
-        index_uuid : str, optional
-            A UUID to use for fragment-level distributed indexing. Multiple
-            fragment-level indices need to share UUID for later merging.
-            If not provided, a new UUID will be generated.
-        target_partition_size: int, optional
-            The target partition size. If set, the number of partitions will be computed
-            based on the target partition size.
-            Otherwise, the target partition size will be set by index type.
-        kwargs :
-            Parameters passed to the index building process.
-
-
-
-        The SQ (Scalar Quantization) is available for only ``IVF_HNSW_SQ`` index type,
-        this quantization method is used to reduce the memory usage of the index,
-        it maps the float vectors to integer vectors, each integer is of ``num_bits``,
-        now only 8 bits are supported.
-
-        If ``index_type`` is "IVF_*", then the following parameters are required:
-            num_partitions
-
-        If ``index_type`` is with "PQ", then the following parameters are required:
-            num_sub_vectors
-
-        Optional parameters for `IVF_PQ`:
-
-            - ivf_centroids
-                Existing K-mean centroids for IVF clustering.
-            - num_bits
-                The number of bits for PQ (Product Quantization). Default is 8.
-                Only 4, 8 are supported.
-            - index_file_version
-                The version of the index file. Default is "V3".
-
-        Optional parameters for `IVF_HNSW_*`:
-            max_level
-                Int, the maximum number of levels in the graph.
-            m
-                Int, the number of edges per node in the graph.
-            ef_construction
-                Int, the number of nodes to examine during the construction.
-
-        Examples
-        --------
-
-        .. code-block:: python
-
-            import lance
-
-            dataset = lance.dataset("/tmp/sift.lance")
-            dataset.create_index(
-                "vector",
-                "IVF_PQ",
-                num_partitions=256,
-                num_sub_vectors=16
-            )
-
-        .. code-block:: python
-
-            import lance
-
-            dataset = lance.dataset("/tmp/sift.lance")
-            dataset.create_index(
-                "vector",
-                "IVF_HNSW_SQ",
-                num_partitions=256,
-            )
-
-        Experimental Accelerator (GPU) support:
-
-        - *accelerate*: use GPU to train IVF partitions.
-            Only supports CUDA (Nvidia) or MPS (Apple) currently.
-            Requires PyTorch being installed.
-
-        .. code-block:: python
-
-            import lance
-
-            dataset = lance.dataset("/tmp/sift.lance")
-            dataset.create_index(
-                "vector",
-                "IVF_PQ",
-                num_partitions=256,
-                num_sub_vectors=16,
-                accelerator="cuda"
+    ) -> Index:
+        if not require_commit and fragment_ids is None:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "create_index_uncommitted requires fragment_ids "
+                "for distributed index build"
             )
 
-        Note: GPU acceleration is currently supported only for the ``IVF_PQ`` index
-        type. Providing an accelerator for other index types will fall back to CPU
-        index building.
-
-        References
-        ----------
-        * `Faiss Index <https://github.com/facebookresearch/faiss/wiki/Faiss-indexes>`_
-        * IVF introduced in `Video Google: a text retrieval approach to object matching
-          in videos <https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/1238663>`_
-        * `Product quantization for nearest neighbor search
-          <https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00514462v2/document>`_
-
-        """
         # Only support building index for 1 column from the API aspect, however
         # the internal implementation might support building multi-column index later.
         if isinstance(column, str):
@@ -2975,6 +4039,17 @@ def create_index(
                     f"got {field.type.value_type}"
                 )
 
+        if index_cache_size is not None:
+            # The parameter has never reached Rust: index building does not use
+            # the index cache, and the cache is sized on the dataset or session.
+            warnings.warn(
+                "The 'index_cache_size' parameter of create_index is ignored. "
+                "The index cache is sized on the dataset, via "
+                "lance.dataset(..., index_cache_size_bytes=...) or a Session.",
+                DeprecationWarning,
+                stacklevel=3,
+            )
+
         if not isinstance(metric, str) or metric.lower() not in [
             "l2",
             "cosine",
@@ -3035,13 +4110,21 @@ def create_index(
             pass
 
         if torch_detected:
-            if fragment_ids is not None or index_uuid is not None:
-                LOGGER.info(
-                    "Torch detected; "
-                    "enforce single-node indexing (distributed is CPU-only)."
-                )
-            fragment_ids = None
-            index_uuid = None
+            if require_commit:
+                if fragment_ids is not None or index_uuid is not None:
+                    LOGGER.info(
+                        "Torch detected; "
+                        "enforce single-node indexing (distributed is CPU-only)."
+                    )
+                fragment_ids = None
+                index_uuid = None
+            else:
+                if index_uuid is not None:
+                    LOGGER.info(
+                        "Torch detected; "
+                        "enforce single-node indexing (distributed is CPU-only)."
+                    )
+                index_uuid = None
 
         if accelerator is not None:
             from .vector import (
@@ -3121,6 +4204,12 @@ def create_index(
                 kwargs["num_partitions"] = num_partitions
             if target_partition_size is not None:
                 kwargs["target_partition_size"] = target_partition_size
+            if streaming_sample_rate is not None:
+                kwargs["streaming_sample_rate"] = streaming_sample_rate
+            if streaming_coreset_rate is not None:
+                kwargs["streaming_coreset_rate"] = streaming_coreset_rate
+            if streaming_refine_passes is not None:
+                kwargs["streaming_refine_passes"] = streaming_refine_passes
 
             if (precomputed_partition_dataset is not None) and (ivf_centroids is None):
                 raise ValueError(
@@ -3162,14 +4251,26 @@ def create_index(
                 if _check_for_numpy(ivf_centroids) and isinstance(
                     ivf_centroids, np.ndarray
                 ):
-                    if (
-                        len(ivf_centroids.shape) != 2
-                        or ivf_centroids.shape[0] != num_partitions
-                    ):
+                    if len(ivf_centroids.shape) != 2:
                         raise ValueError(
                             f"Ivf centroids must be 2D array: (clusters, dim), "
                             f"got {ivf_centroids.shape}"
                         )
+                    if ivf_centroids.shape[0] == 0:
+                        # num_partitions was derived from shape[0] above, and
+                        # zero partitions panics in the Rust residual step.
+                        raise ValueError(
+                            "Ivf centroids must have at least one cluster, "
+                            f"got {ivf_centroids.shape}"
+                        )
+                    if (
+                        num_partitions is not None
+                        and ivf_centroids.shape[0] != num_partitions
+                    ):
+                        raise ValueError(
+                            f"Ivf centroids has {ivf_centroids.shape[0]} clusters, "
+                            f"but num_partitions={num_partitions}"
+                        )
                     if ivf_centroids.dtype not in [np.float16, np.float32, np.float64]:
                         raise TypeError(
                             "IVF centroids must be floating number"
@@ -3189,65 +4290,497 @@ def create_index(
                 )
             kwargs["num_sub_vectors"] = num_sub_vectors
 
-            # Always attach PQ codebook if provided (global training invariant)
-            if pq_codebook is not None:
-                # User provided PQ codebook
-                if _check_for_numpy(pq_codebook) and isinstance(
-                    pq_codebook, np.ndarray
-                ):
-                    if (
-                        len(pq_codebook.shape) != 3
-                        or pq_codebook.shape[0] != num_sub_vectors
-                        or pq_codebook.shape[1] != 256
-                    ):
-                        raise ValueError(
-                            f"PQ codebook must be 3D array: (sub_vectors, 256, dim), "
-                            f"got {pq_codebook.shape}"
-                        )
-                    if pq_codebook.dtype not in [np.float16, np.float32, np.float64]:
-                        raise TypeError(
-                            "PQ codebook must be floating number"
-                            + f"got {pq_codebook.dtype}"
-                        )
-                    values = pa.array(pq_codebook.reshape(-1))
-                    pq_codebook = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
-                        values, pq_codebook.shape[2]
-                    )
-                pq_codebook_batch = pa.RecordBatch.from_arrays(
-                    [pq_codebook], ["_pq_codebook"]
-                )
-                kwargs["pq_codebook"] = pq_codebook_batch
+            # Always attach PQ codebook if provided (global training invariant)
+            if pq_codebook is not None:
+                # User provided PQ codebook
+                if _check_for_numpy(pq_codebook) and isinstance(
+                    pq_codebook, np.ndarray
+                ):
+                    num_bits = kwargs.get("num_bits", 8)
+                    expected_centroids = 2**num_bits
+                    if (
+                        len(pq_codebook.shape) != 3
+                        or pq_codebook.shape[0] != num_sub_vectors
+                        or pq_codebook.shape[1] != expected_centroids
+                    ):
+                        raise ValueError(
+                            "PQ codebook must be 3D array: "
+                            f"(sub_vectors, {expected_centroids}, dim) "
+                            f"for num_bits={num_bits}, "
+                            f"got {pq_codebook.shape}"
+                        )
+                    if pq_codebook.dtype not in [np.float16, np.float32, np.float64]:
+                        raise TypeError(
+                            "PQ codebook must be floating number"
+                            + f"got {pq_codebook.dtype}"
+                        )
+                    values = pa.array(pq_codebook.reshape(-1))
+                    pq_codebook = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                        values, pq_codebook.shape[2]
+                    )
+                pq_codebook_batch = pa.RecordBatch.from_arrays(
+                    [pq_codebook], ["_pq_codebook"]
+                )
+                kwargs["pq_codebook"] = pq_codebook_batch
+
+        if shuffle_partition_batches is not None:
+            kwargs["shuffle_partition_batches"] = shuffle_partition_batches
+        if shuffle_partition_concurrency is not None:
+            kwargs["shuffle_partition_concurrency"] = shuffle_partition_concurrency
+
+        if skip_transpose:
+            kwargs["skip_transpose"] = True
+
+        if rabitq_model is not None:
+            kwargs["rabitq_model"] = rabitq_model
+
+        # Add fragment_ids and index_uuid to kwargs if provided for
+        # distributed indexing
+        if fragment_ids is not None:
+            kwargs["fragment_ids"] = fragment_ids
+        if index_uuid is not None:
+            kwargs["index_uuid"] = index_uuid
+
+        timers["final_create_index:start"] = time.time()
+        index = self._ds.create_index(
+            column, index_type, name, replace, train, storage_options, kwargs
+        )
+        timers["final_create_index:end"] = time.time()
+        final_create_index_time = (
+            timers["final_create_index:end"] - timers["final_create_index:start"]
+        )
+        LOGGER.info("Final create_index rust time: %ss", final_create_index_time)
+        # Save disk space
+        if "precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path" in kwargs.keys() and os.path.exists(
+            kwargs["precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path"]
+        ):
+            LOGGER.info(
+                "Temporary shuffle buffers stored at %s, you may want to delete it.",
+                kwargs["precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path"],
+            )
+        return index
+
+    def create_index(
+        self,
+        column: Union[str, List[str]],
+        index_type: str,
+        name: Optional[str] = None,
+        metric: str = "L2",
+        replace: bool = False,
+        num_partitions: Optional[int] = None,
+        ivf_centroids: Optional[
+            Union[np.ndarray, pa.FixedSizeListArray, pa.FixedShapeTensorArray]
+        ] = None,
+        pq_codebook: Optional[
+            Union[np.ndarray, pa.FixedSizeListArray, pa.FixedShapeTensorArray]
+        ] = None,
+        num_sub_vectors: Optional[int] = None,
+        accelerator: Optional[Union[str, "torch.Device"]] = None,
+        index_cache_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        shuffle_partition_batches: Optional[int] = None,
+        shuffle_partition_concurrency: Optional[int] = None,
+        # experimental parameters
+        ivf_centroids_file: Optional[str] = None,
+        precomputed_partition_dataset: Optional[str] = None,
+        storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
+        filter_nan: bool = True,
+        train: bool = True,
+        # distributed indexing parameters
+        fragment_ids: Optional[List[int]] = None,
+        index_uuid: Optional[str] = None,
+        *,
+        target_partition_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        streaming_sample_rate: Optional[int] = None,
+        streaming_coreset_rate: Optional[int] = None,
+        streaming_refine_passes: Optional[int] = None,
+        skip_transpose: bool = False,
+        progress_callback: Optional[Callable[[IndexProgress], None]] = None,
+        **kwargs,
+    ) -> LanceDataset:
+        """Create index on column.
+
+        **Experimental API**
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        column : str
+            The column to be indexed.
+        index_type : str
+            The type of the index.
+            ``"IVF_PQ, IVF_HNSW_PQ and IVF_HNSW_SQ"`` are supported now.
+        name : str, optional
+            The index name. If not provided, it will be generated from the
+            column name.
+        metric : str
+            The distance metric type, i.e., "L2" (alias to "euclidean"), "cosine"
+            or "dot" (dot product). Default is "L2".
+        replace : bool
+            Replace the existing index if it exists.
+        num_partitions : int, optional
+            The number of partitions of IVF (Inverted File Index).
+            Deprecated. Use target_partition_size instead.
+        ivf_centroids : optional
+            It can be either :py:class:`np.ndarray`,
+            :py:class:`pyarrow.FixedSizeListArray` or
+            :py:class:`pyarrow.FixedShapeTensorArray`.
+            A ``num_clusters x dimension`` array of existing K-mean centroids
+            for IVF clustering. The row count determines the number of IVF
+            partitions. If not provided, a new KMeans model will be trained.
+        pq_codebook : optional,
+            It can be :py:class:`np.ndarray`, :py:class:`pyarrow.FixedSizeListArray`,
+            or :py:class:`pyarrow.FixedShapeTensorArray`.
+            A ``num_sub_vectors x (2 ^ num_bits) x
+            (dimensions // num_sub_vectors)`` array of K-mean centroids for PQ
+            codebook. ``num_bits`` defaults to 8.
+            If not provided, a new PQ model will be trained.
+        num_sub_vectors : int, optional
+            The number of sub-vectors for PQ (Product Quantization).
+        accelerator : str or ``torch.Device``, optional
+            If set, use an accelerator to speed up the training process.
+            Accepted accelerator: "cuda" (Nvidia GPU) and "mps" (Apple Silicon GPU).
+            If not set, use the CPU.
+        index_cache_size : int, optional
+            Deprecated and ignored. Index building does not read the index cache;
+            size it on the dataset with
+            ``lance.dataset(..., index_cache_size_bytes=...)`` or on a ``Session``.
+        shuffle_partition_batches : int, optional
+            The number of batches, using the row group size of the dataset, to include
+            in each shuffle partition. Default value is 10240.
+
+            Assuming the row group size is 1024, each shuffle partition will hold
+            10240 * 1024 = 10,485,760 rows. By making this value smaller, this shuffle
+            will consume less memory but will take longer to complete, and vice versa.
+        shuffle_partition_concurrency : int, optional
+            The number of shuffle partitions to process concurrently. Default value is 2
+
+            By making this value smaller, this shuffle will consume less memory but will
+            take longer to complete, and vice versa.
+        storage_options : optional, dict
+            Extra options that make sense for a particular storage connection. This is
+            used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
+        filter_nan: bool
+            Defaults to True. False is UNSAFE, and will cause a crash if any null/nan
+            values are present (and otherwise will not). Disables the null filter used
+            for nullable columns. Obtains a small speed boost.
+        train : bool, default True
+            If True, the index will be trained on the data (e.g., compute IVF
+            centroids, PQ codebooks). If False, an empty index structure will be
+            created without training, which can be populated later.
+        fragment_ids : List[int], optional
+            If provided, the index will be created only on the specified fragments.
+            This enables distributed/fragment-level indexing. When provided, the
+            method creates one segment but does not commit the index
+            to the dataset. The returned metadata can be passed to
+            ``merge_existing_index_segments(...)`` if grouping is needed and then
+            committed with ``commit_existing_index_segments(...)``.
+
+            Vector segments support both shared and independent model scopes. If
+            the caller provides the same IVF centroids, and for IVF_PQ the same
+            PQ codebook, to each worker, the resulting segments share model
+            semantics and are suitable for workflows that physically merge
+            compatible segments. If those artifacts are omitted, each segment can
+            train its own IVF/PQ model for its assigned fragments. Such segments
+            can be committed together and are queried independently by segment
+            UUID; partition ids are interpreted within each segment's own model.
+            Keep independently trained segments as separate physical segments
+            unless the merge workflow can preserve or reconcile the model state.
+        index_uuid : str, optional
+            A UUID to use for the segment written by this call.
+            If not provided, a new UUID will be generated.
+        progress_callback : callable, optional
+            A callback that receives :class:`lance.progress.IndexProgress` events while
+            the index is being built.
+        target_partition_size: int, optional
+            The target partition size. If set, the number of partitions will be computed
+            based on the target partition size.
+            Otherwise, the target partition size will be set by index type.
+        streaming_sample_rate : int, optional
+            If set below ``sample_rate``, IVF kmeans trains incrementally and samples
+            at most ``num_partitions * streaming_sample_rate`` vectors per step. For
+            ``num_partitions > 256``, chunks are compressed into a weighted coreset
+            and final centroids are trained with weighted hierarchical kmeans.
+        streaming_coreset_rate : int, optional
+            If set, controls the final weighted coreset budget independently from
+            ``streaming_sample_rate``. The budget is
+            ``num_partitions * streaming_coreset_rate``.
+        streaming_refine_passes : int, optional
+            Number of extra streaming Lloyd refinement passes to run after streaming
+            coreset training. Each pass loads at most
+            ``num_partitions * streaming_sample_rate`` raw vectors at a time.
+        kwargs :
+            Parameters passed to the index building process.
+
+
+
+        The SQ (Scalar Quantization) is available for only ``IVF_HNSW_SQ`` index type,
+        this quantization method is used to reduce the memory usage of the index,
+        it maps the float vectors to integer vectors, each integer is of ``num_bits``,
+        now only 8 bits are supported.
+
+        If ``index_type`` is "IVF_*", then the following parameters are required:
+            num_partitions
+
+        If ``index_type`` is with "PQ", then the following parameters are required:
+            num_sub_vectors
+
+        Optional parameters for `IVF_PQ`:
+
+            - ivf_centroids
+                Existing K-mean centroids for IVF clustering.
+            - num_bits
+                The number of bits for PQ (Product Quantization). Default is 8.
+                Only 4, 8 are supported.
+            - index_file_version
+                The version of the index file. Default is "V3".
+
+        Optional parameters for `IVF_RQ`:
+
+            - num_bits
+                The number of bits for RQ (Rabit Quantization). Default is 5.
+
+        Optional parameters for `IVF_HNSW_*`:
+            max_level
+                Int, the maximum number of levels in the graph.
+            m
+                Int, the number of edges per node in the graph.
+            ef_construction
+                Int, the number of nodes to examine during the construction.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+
+        .. code-block:: python
+
+            import lance
+
+            dataset = lance.dataset("/tmp/sift.lance")
+            dataset.create_index(
+                "vector",
+                "IVF_PQ",
+                num_partitions=256,
+                num_sub_vectors=16
+            )
+
+        .. code-block:: python
+
+            import lance
+
+            dataset = lance.dataset("/tmp/sift.lance")
+            dataset.create_index(
+                "vector",
+                "IVF_HNSW_SQ",
+                num_partitions=256,
+            )
+
+        Experimental Accelerator (GPU) support:
+
+        - *accelerate*: use GPU to train IVF partitions.
+            Only supports CUDA (Nvidia) or MPS (Apple) currently.
+            Requires PyTorch being installed.
+
+        .. code-block:: python
+
+            import lance
+
+            dataset = lance.dataset("/tmp/sift.lance")
+            dataset.create_index(
+                "vector",
+                "IVF_PQ",
+                num_partitions=256,
+                num_sub_vectors=16,
+                accelerator="cuda"
+            )
 
-        if shuffle_partition_batches is not None:
-            kwargs["shuffle_partition_batches"] = shuffle_partition_batches
-        if shuffle_partition_concurrency is not None:
-            kwargs["shuffle_partition_concurrency"] = shuffle_partition_concurrency
+        Note: GPU acceleration is currently supported only for the ``IVF_PQ`` index
+        type. Providing an accelerator for other index types will fall back to CPU
+        index building.
 
-        # Add fragment_ids and index_uuid to kwargs if provided for
-        # distributed indexing
-        if fragment_ids is not None:
-            kwargs["fragment_ids"] = fragment_ids
-        if index_uuid is not None:
-            kwargs["index_uuid"] = index_uuid
+        References
+        ----------
+        * `Faiss Index <https://github.com/facebookresearch/faiss/wiki/Faiss-indexes>`_
+        * IVF introduced in `Video Google: a text retrieval approach to object matching
+          in videos <https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/1238663>`_
+        * `Product quantization for nearest neighbor search
+          <https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00514462v2/document>`_
 
-        timers["final_create_index:start"] = time.time()
-        self._ds.create_index(
-            column, index_type, name, replace, train, storage_options, kwargs
+        """
+        if progress_callback is not None:
+            kwargs["progress_callback"] = progress_callback
+        self._create_index_impl(
+            column,
+            index_type,
+            name=name,
+            metric=metric,
+            replace=replace,
+            num_partitions=num_partitions,
+            ivf_centroids=ivf_centroids,
+            pq_codebook=pq_codebook,
+            num_sub_vectors=num_sub_vectors,
+            accelerator=accelerator,
+            index_cache_size=index_cache_size,
+            shuffle_partition_batches=shuffle_partition_batches,
+            shuffle_partition_concurrency=shuffle_partition_concurrency,
+            ivf_centroids_file=ivf_centroids_file,
+            precomputed_partition_dataset=precomputed_partition_dataset,
+            storage_options=storage_options,
+            filter_nan=filter_nan,
+            train=train,
+            fragment_ids=fragment_ids,
+            index_uuid=index_uuid,
+            target_partition_size=target_partition_size,
+            streaming_sample_rate=streaming_sample_rate,
+            streaming_coreset_rate=streaming_coreset_rate,
+            streaming_refine_passes=streaming_refine_passes,
+            skip_transpose=skip_transpose,
+            require_commit=True,
+            **kwargs,
         )
-        timers["final_create_index:end"] = time.time()
-        final_create_index_time = (
-            timers["final_create_index:end"] - timers["final_create_index:start"]
+        return self
+
+    def create_index_uncommitted(
+        self,
+        column: Union[str, List[str]],
+        index_type: Union[str, IndexConfig],
+        name: Optional[str] = None,
+        metric: str = "L2",
+        replace: bool = False,
+        num_partitions: Optional[int] = None,
+        ivf_centroids: Optional[
+            Union[np.ndarray, pa.FixedSizeListArray, pa.FixedShapeTensorArray]
+        ] = None,
+        pq_codebook: Optional[
+            Union[np.ndarray, pa.FixedSizeListArray, pa.FixedShapeTensorArray]
+        ] = None,
+        num_sub_vectors: Optional[int] = None,
+        accelerator: Optional[Union[str, "torch.Device"]] = None,
+        index_cache_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        shuffle_partition_batches: Optional[int] = None,
+        shuffle_partition_concurrency: Optional[int] = None,
+        ivf_centroids_file: Optional[str] = None,
+        precomputed_partition_dataset: Optional[str] = None,
+        storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
+        filter_nan: bool = True,
+        train: bool = True,
+        fragment_ids: Optional[List[int]] = None,
+        index_uuid: Optional[str] = None,
+        *,
+        target_partition_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        streaming_sample_rate: Optional[int] = None,
+        streaming_coreset_rate: Optional[int] = None,
+        streaming_refine_passes: Optional[int] = None,
+        skip_transpose: bool = False,
+        rabitq_model: Optional[str] = None,
+        **kwargs,
+    ) -> Index:
+        """
+        Create one segment without publishing it and return its metadata.
+
+        This is the public distributed-build API for vector, BTREE scalar,
+        canonical bitmap scalar, INVERTED scalar, NGRAM scalar, RTREE scalar,
+        ZONEMAP scalar, BLOOMFILTER scalar, and LABEL_LIST scalar index construction.
+        Unlike :meth:`create_index`, this method does not publish the index into
+        the dataset manifest. Instead, it writes one segment under
+        ``_indices/<segment_uuid>/`` and returns the resulting
+        :class:`Index` metadata.
+
+        Callers should:
+
+        1. run :meth:`create_index_uncommitted` on each worker with that worker's
+           assigned ``fragment_ids``
+        2. collect the returned :class:`Index` objects
+        3. optionally merge caller-defined groups with
+           :meth:`merge_existing_index_segments`
+        4. commit the final segment list with
+           :meth:`commit_existing_index_segments`
+
+        BTREE, BITMAP, INVERTED, NGRAM, RTREE, ZONEMAP, BLOOMFILTER, and
+        LABEL_LIST segments may be merged with
+        :meth:`merge_existing_index_segments` before commit. NGRAM segments
+        built before a deferred compaction must be merged before commit so
+        their postings can be rebuilt against current row addresses.
+        Parameters are the same as :meth:`create_index`, with one additional
+        requirement:
+
+        - ``fragment_ids`` must be provided
+        - Vector segments support both shared and independent model scopes. Pass
+          the same IVF centroids, and for IVF_PQ the same PQ codebook, to each
+          worker when segments need shared model semantics or physical merge
+          compatibility. If these artifacts are omitted, each segment may train
+          its own IVF/PQ model and can be committed with other segments as one
+          logical index; query execution searches each segment by UUID and
+          interprets partition ids within that segment. Keep independently
+          trained segments as separate physical segments unless the merge
+          workflow can preserve or reconcile the model state.
+        - ``rabitq_model`` (``IVF_RQ`` only): a JSON string produced by
+          ``lance.lance.indices.build_rq_model``. It must be identical across all
+          workers for their segments to be mergeable, since it pins the RaBitQ
+          rotation so every segment rotates vectors the same way. If omitted, each
+          call generates its own random rotation, which is only safe for a single,
+          non-merged segment.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Index
+            Metadata for the segment that was written by this call.
+        """
+        is_scalar_segment_request = self._is_segment_native_scalar_index_type(
+            index_type
         )
-        LOGGER.info("Final create_index rust time: %ss", final_create_index_time)
-        # Save disk space
-        if "precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path" in kwargs.keys() and os.path.exists(
-            kwargs["precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path"]
-        ):
-            LOGGER.info(
-                "Temporary shuffle buffers stored at %s, you may want to delete it.",
-                kwargs["precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path"],
+        if is_scalar_segment_request:
+            if fragment_ids is None:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    "create_index_uncommitted requires fragment_ids "
+                    "for distributed index build"
+                )
+
+            kwargs = dict(kwargs)
+            column, rust_index_type, _ = self._prepare_scalar_index_request(
+                column, index_type, kwargs
             )
-        return self
+            kwargs["fragment_ids"] = fragment_ids
+            if index_uuid is not None:
+                kwargs["index_uuid"] = index_uuid
+
+            return self._ds.create_index(
+                [column],
+                rust_index_type,
+                name,
+                replace,
+                train,
+                storage_options,
+                kwargs,
+            )
+
+        return self._create_index_impl(
+            column,
+            index_type,
+            name=name,
+            metric=metric,
+            replace=replace,
+            num_partitions=num_partitions,
+            ivf_centroids=ivf_centroids,
+            pq_codebook=pq_codebook,
+            num_sub_vectors=num_sub_vectors,
+            accelerator=accelerator,
+            index_cache_size=index_cache_size,
+            shuffle_partition_batches=shuffle_partition_batches,
+            shuffle_partition_concurrency=shuffle_partition_concurrency,
+            ivf_centroids_file=ivf_centroids_file,
+            precomputed_partition_dataset=precomputed_partition_dataset,
+            storage_options=storage_options,
+            filter_nan=filter_nan,
+            train=train,
+            fragment_ids=fragment_ids,
+            index_uuid=index_uuid,
+            target_partition_size=target_partition_size,
+            streaming_sample_rate=streaming_sample_rate,
+            streaming_coreset_rate=streaming_coreset_rate,
+            streaming_refine_passes=streaming_refine_passes,
+            skip_transpose=skip_transpose,
+            rabitq_model=rabitq_model,
+            require_commit=False,
+            **kwargs,
+        )
 
     def drop_index(self, name: str):
         """
@@ -3255,43 +4788,67 @@ def drop_index(self, name: str):
 
         Note: Indices are dropped by "index name".  This is not the same as the field
         name. If you did not specify a name when you created the index then a name was
-        generated for you.  You can use the `list_indices` method to get the names of
-        the indices.
+        generated for you.  You can use the `describe_indices` method to get the names
+        of the indices.
         """
         return self._ds.drop_index(name)
 
-    def prewarm_index(self, name: str):
+    def prewarm_index(
+        self,
+        name: str,
+        *,
+        with_position: bool = False,
+        index_segments: Optional[Iterable[Union[str, uuid.UUID]]] = None,
+    ):
         """
         Prewarm an index
 
-        This will load the entire index into memory.  This can help avoid cold start
-        issues with index queries.  If the index does not fit in the index cache, then
-        this will result in wasted I/O.
+        By default, this will load the entire index into memory. This can help
+        avoid cold start issues with index queries. If the index does not fit in
+        the index cache, then this will result in wasted I/O.
+
+        Use ``session().index_cache_size_bytes()`` before and after prewarm to
+        inspect how much the index cache grew.
 
         Parameters
         ----------
         name: str
             The name of the index to prewarm.
-        """
-        return self._ds.prewarm_index(name)
+        with_position: bool, default False
+            This is only supported for ``INVERTED`` indices. If True, positions are
+            also loaded into the cache during prewarm so phrase queries do not need a
+            separate lazy positions read.
+        index_segments: iterable of str or uuid.UUID, default None
+            If specified, prewarm only these physical index segment UUIDs from the
+            named logical index. Use :meth:`describe_indices` to inspect logical
+            indices and obtain segment UUIDs from ``IndexDescription.segments``.
+        """
+        return self._ds.prewarm_index(
+            name,
+            with_position=with_position,
+            index_segments=_normalize_index_segment_ids(index_segments),
+        )
 
     def merge_index_metadata(
         self,
         index_uuid: str,
         index_type: str,
         batch_readhead: Optional[int] = None,
+        progress_callback: Optional[Callable[[IndexProgress], None]] = None,
     ):
         """
-        Merge distributed index metadata for supported scalar
-        and vector index types.
+        Merge distributed scalar index metadata.
 
-        This method supports all index types defined in
-        :class:`lance.indices.SupportedDistributedIndices`,
-        including scalar indices and precise vector index types.
+        Vector and Bitmap distributed indexing no longer use this API. For
+        those index families, build segments with
+        :meth:`create_index_uncommitted`, optionally merge caller-defined
+        groups with :meth:`merge_existing_index_segments`, and publish them with
+        :meth:`commit_existing_index_segments`.
 
         This method does NOT commit changes.
 
-        This API merges temporary index files (e.g., per-fragment partials).
+        This API merges temporary scalar index files (for example per-fragment
+        BTree or inverted index outputs).
         After this method returns, callers MUST explicitly commit
         the index manifest using lance.LanceDataset.commit(...)
         with a LanceOperation.CreateIndex.
@@ -3299,13 +4856,16 @@ def merge_index_metadata(
         Parameters
         ----------
         index_uuid: str
-            The shared UUID used when building fragment-level indices.
+            The shared UUID used when building fragment-level scalar indices.
         index_type: str
             Index type name. Must be one of the enum values in
             :class:`lance.indices.SupportedDistributedIndices`
-            (for example ``"IVF_PQ"``).
+            supported by scalar distributed merge.
         batch_readhead: int, optional
             Prefetch concurrency used by BTREE merge reader. Default: 1.
+        progress_callback: callable, optional
+            A callback that receives :class:`lance.progress.IndexProgress` events while
+            metadata is being merged.
         """
         # Normalize type
         t = index_type.upper()
@@ -3317,15 +4877,39 @@ def merge_index_metadata(
             )
 
         # Merge physical index files at the index directory
-        self._ds.merge_index_metadata(index_uuid, t, batch_readhead)
+        self._ds.merge_index_metadata(index_uuid, t, batch_readhead, progress_callback)
         return None
 
+    def merge_existing_index_segments(self, segments: List[Index]) -> Index:
+        """
+        Merge one caller-defined group of existing uncommitted segments.
+        """
+        return self._ds.merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+
+    def commit_existing_index_segments(
+        self, index_name: str, column: str, segments: List[Union[IndexSegment, Index]]
+    ) -> LanceDataset:
+        """
+        Commit built index segments as one logical index.
+        """
+        self._ds.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, column, segments)
+        return self
+
     def session(self) -> Session:
         """
         Return the dataset session, which holds the dataset's state.
         """
         return self._ds.session()
 
+    @staticmethod
+    def _inherit_base_store_params(
+        dataset_or_uri: Union[str, Path, LanceDataset, None],
+        base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]],
+    ) -> Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]]:
+        if base_store_params is None and isinstance(dataset_or_uri, LanceDataset):
+            return dataset_or_uri._base_store_params
+        return base_store_params
+
     @staticmethod
     def _commit(
         base_uri: Union[str, Path],
@@ -3346,12 +4930,17 @@ def commit(
         read_version: Optional[int] = None,
         commit_lock: Optional[CommitLock] = None,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-        storage_options_provider: Optional["StorageOptionsProvider"] = None,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths: Optional[bool] = None,
         detached: Optional[bool] = False,
         max_retries: int = 20,
         *,
         commit_message: Optional[str] = None,
+        enable_stable_row_ids: Optional[bool] = None,
+        namespace_client: Optional["LanceNamespace"] = None,
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool = False,
+        base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+        commit_timeout: Optional[timedelta] = _DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT,
     ) -> LanceDataset:
         """Create a new version of dataset
 
@@ -3391,8 +4980,6 @@ def commit(
         storage_options : optional, dict
             Extra options that make sense for a particular storage connection. This is
             used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
-        storage_options_provider : StorageOptionsProvider, optional
-            A provider for dynamic storage options with automatic credential refresh.
         enable_v2_manifest_paths : bool, optional
             If True, and this is a new dataset, uses the new V2 manifest paths.
             These paths provide more efficient opening of datasets with many
@@ -3413,6 +5000,23 @@ def commit(
         commit_message: str, optional
             A message to associate with this commit. This message will be stored in the
             dataset's metadata and can be retrieved using read_transaction().
+        enable_stable_row_ids: bool, optional
+            If True, enables stable row IDs when creating a new dataset.  Stable
+            row IDs assign each row a monotonically increasing id that persists
+            across compaction and other maintenance operations.  This option is
+            ignored for existing datasets.
+        namespace_client : LanceNamespace, optional
+            A namespace client. Must be provided together with table_id.
+            Use lance.namespace.connect() to create a namespace.
+        table_id : List[str], optional
+            The table identifier within the namespace (e.g., ["workspace", "table"]).
+            Must be provided together with namespace_client.
+        base_store_params : dict of str to dict, optional
+            Runtime-only object store parameters keyed by base path URI.
+        commit_timeout : timedelta, optional
+            Maximum time to wait for the commit operation (including retries on
+            conflict) to complete. Defaults to 30 minutes. Pass ``None`` to
+            disable the timeout entirely. Must be a positive duration.
 
         Returns
         -------
@@ -3440,6 +5044,10 @@ def commit(
         2  3  c
         3  4  d
         """
+        base_store_params = LanceDataset._inherit_base_store_params(
+            base_uri, base_store_params
+        )
+
         if isinstance(base_uri, Path):
             base_uri = str(base_uri)
         elif isinstance(base_uri, LanceDataset):
@@ -3466,6 +5074,9 @@ def commit(
                 "read_version is required for all operations except "
                 "Overwrite and Restore"
             )
+
+        # Storage options provider is automatically created in Rust when
+        # namespace_client and table_id are provided
         if isinstance(operation, Transaction):
             if commit_message is not None:
                 raise ValueError(
@@ -3478,10 +5089,14 @@ def commit(
                 operation,
                 commit_lock,
                 storage_options=storage_options,
-                storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
                 enable_v2_manifest_paths=enable_v2_manifest_paths,
                 detached=detached,
                 max_retries=max_retries,
+                enable_stable_row_ids=enable_stable_row_ids,
+                namespace_client=namespace_client,
+                table_id=table_id,
+                namespace_client_managed_versioning=namespace_client_managed_versioning,
+                commit_timeout=commit_timeout,
             )
         elif isinstance(operation, LanceOperation.BaseOperation):
             new_ds = _Dataset.commit(
@@ -3490,11 +5105,15 @@ def commit(
                 read_version,
                 commit_lock,
                 storage_options=storage_options,
-                storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
                 enable_v2_manifest_paths=enable_v2_manifest_paths,
                 detached=detached,
                 max_retries=max_retries,
                 commit_message=commit_message,
+                enable_stable_row_ids=enable_stable_row_ids,
+                namespace_client=namespace_client,
+                table_id=table_id,
+                namespace_client_managed_versioning=namespace_client_managed_versioning,
+                commit_timeout=commit_timeout,
             )
         else:
             raise TypeError(
@@ -3504,7 +5123,10 @@ def commit(
 
         ds = LanceDataset.__new__(LanceDataset)
         ds._storage_options = storage_options
-        ds._storage_options_provider = storage_options_provider
+        ds._base_store_params = base_store_params
+        ds._namespace_client = namespace_client
+        ds._table_id = table_id
+        ds._namespace_client_managed_versioning = namespace_client_managed_versioning
         ds._ds = new_ds
         ds._uri = new_ds.uri
         ds._default_scan_options = None
@@ -3517,10 +5139,11 @@ def commit_batch(
         transactions: Sequence[Transaction],
         commit_lock: Optional[CommitLock] = None,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-        storage_options_provider: Optional["StorageOptionsProvider"] = None,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths: Optional[bool] = None,
         detached: Optional[bool] = False,
         max_retries: int = 20,
+        base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+        commit_timeout: Optional[timedelta] = _DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT,
     ) -> BulkCommitResult:
         """Create a new version of dataset with multiple transactions.
 
@@ -3546,8 +5169,6 @@ def commit_batch(
         storage_options : optional, dict
             Extra options that make sense for a particular storage connection. This is
             used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
-        storage_options_provider : StorageOptionsProvider, optional
-            A provider for dynamic storage options with automatic credential refresh.
         enable_v2_manifest_paths : bool, optional
             If True, and this is a new dataset, uses the new V2 manifest paths.
             These paths provide more efficient opening of datasets with many
@@ -3565,6 +5186,12 @@ def commit_batch(
             the future.
         max_retries : int
             The maximum number of retries to perform when committing the dataset.
+        base_store_params : dict of str to dict, optional
+            Runtime-only object store parameters keyed by base path URI.
+        commit_timeout : timedelta, optional
+            Maximum time to wait for the commit operation (including retries on
+            conflict) to complete. Defaults to 30 minutes. Pass ``None`` to
+            disable the timeout entirely. Must be a positive duration.
 
         Returns
         -------
@@ -3574,6 +5201,10 @@ def commit_batch(
             merged: Transaction
                 The merged transaction that was applied to the dataset.
         """
+        base_store_params = LanceDataset._inherit_base_store_params(
+            dest, base_store_params
+        )
+
         if isinstance(dest, Path):
             dest = str(dest)
         elif isinstance(dest, LanceDataset):
@@ -3594,16 +5225,19 @@ def commit_batch(
             transactions,
             commit_lock,
             storage_options=storage_options,
-            storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
             enable_v2_manifest_paths=enable_v2_manifest_paths,
             detached=detached,
             max_retries=max_retries,
+            commit_timeout=commit_timeout,
         )
         ds = LanceDataset.__new__(LanceDataset)
         ds._ds = new_ds
         ds._uri = new_ds.uri
         ds._storage_options = storage_options
-        ds._storage_options_provider = storage_options_provider
+        ds._base_store_params = base_store_params
+        ds._namespace_client = None
+        ds._table_id = None
+        ds._namespace_client_managed_versioning = False
         ds._default_scan_options = None
         ds._read_params = None
         return BulkCommitResult(
@@ -3641,7 +5275,8 @@ def shallow_clone(
             An integer specifies a version number in the current branch; a string
             specifies a tag name; a Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]] specifies
             a version number in a specified branch. (None, None) means the latest
-            version_number on the main branch.
+            version_number on the default branch. ``("main", version)`` is an
+            explicit alias for the default branch in this reference context.
         storage_options : dict, optional
             Object store configuration for the new dataset (e.g., credentials,
             endpoints). If not specified, the storage options of the source dataset
@@ -3664,6 +5299,47 @@ def shallow_clone(
         # Open and return a fresh dataset at the target URI to avoid manual overrides
         return LanceDataset(target_uri, storage_options=storage_options, **kwargs)
 
+    def deep_clone(
+        self,
+        target_path: str | Path,
+        reference: int | str | Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]],
+        storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
+        **kwargs,
+    ) -> "LanceDataset":
+        """
+        Deep clone the specified version into a new dataset at target_path.
+
+        This operation copies the data, deletion, and index files referenced by
+        the selected version before committing the destination dataset.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        target_path : str or Path
+            The URI or filesystem path to clone the dataset into.
+        reference : int, str or Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]]
+            An integer specifies a version number in the current branch; a string
+            specifies a tag name; a Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]] specifies
+            a version number in a specified branch.
+        storage_options : dict, optional
+            Object store configuration for the destination dataset. If omitted,
+            the source dataset's storage options are used.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        LanceDataset
+            The deep-cloned dataset.
+        """
+        if isinstance(target_path, Path):
+            target_uri = os.fspath(target_path)
+        else:
+            target_uri = target_path
+
+        if storage_options is None:
+            storage_options = self._storage_options
+        self._ds.deep_clone(target_uri, reference, storage_options)
+
+        return LanceDataset(target_uri, storage_options=storage_options, **kwargs)
+
     def migrate_manifest_paths_v2(self):
         """
         Migrate the manifest paths to the new format.
@@ -3868,6 +5544,31 @@ def drop(
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
         ignore_not_found: Optional[bool] = None,
     ) -> None:
+        """Delete a dataset and everything under ``base_uri``.
+
+        To limit the damage a mistyped or misconfigured path can do, ``base_uri``
+        must be a dataset root, meaning it holds a manifest that can be read, or a
+        namespace declare/deregister marker. Anything else raises
+        :class:`ValueError`, including a path that holds only data files or only
+        unreadable manifests: such leftovers need an explicit storage-level delete.
+
+        Note that a path which passes this check is deleted in full, including any
+        unmanaged files kept next to the dataset.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        base_uri : str or Path
+            Root of the dataset to delete.
+        storage_options : optional, dict
+            Extra options for the storage backend.
+        ignore_not_found : optional, bool
+            If True, return successfully when ``base_uri`` does not exist.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        ValueError
+            If ``base_uri`` is not a Lance dataset root.
+        """
         _Dataset.drop(str(base_uri), storage_options, ignore_not_found=ignore_not_found)
 
     def get_ivf_model(self, index_name: str):
@@ -3888,9 +5589,19 @@ def _default_vector_index_for_column(self, column: str) -> str:
 
         Raises KeyError if no such index exists.
         """
-        for meta in self.list_indices():
-            if column in meta["fields"] and meta["type"].startswith("IVF"):
-                return meta["name"]
+        # Resolve column path to field id for describe_indices matching.
+        lance_field = self._ds.lance_schema.field_case_insensitive(column)
+        if lance_field is None:
+            raise KeyError(f"No IVF index for column '{column}'")
+        field_id = lance_field.id()
+
+        indices = self.describe_indices()
+        for idx in indices:
+            if field_id in idx.fields:
+                # Use index_stats to get the concrete IVF subtype.
+                index_type = self.stats.index_stats(idx.name).get("index_type", "")
+                if index_type.startswith("IVF"):
+                    return idx.name
         raise KeyError(f"No IVF index for column '{column}'")
 
     def centroids(
@@ -3920,6 +5631,273 @@ def centroids(
 
         return ivf.centroids
 
+    def initialize_mem_wal(
+        self,
+        *,
+        maintained_indexes: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        bucket_column: Optional[str] = None,
+        num_buckets: Optional[int] = None,
+        identity_column: Optional[str] = None,
+        unsharded: bool = False,
+        durable_write: Optional[bool] = None,
+        max_wal_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_memtable_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_memtable_rows: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_memtable_batches: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        manifest_scan_batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        backpressure_log_interval_ms: Optional[int] = None,
+        stats_log_interval_ms: Optional[int] = None,
+        hnsw_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, int]]] = None,
+    ) -> None:
+        """Initialize MemWAL on this dataset.
+
+        Must be called once before any calls to `mem_wal_writer`. Append-only
+        tables may omit primary-key metadata; primary keys are only required
+        for primary-key lookup and last-write-wins deduplication workflows.
+
+        At most one sharding mode may be selected: bucket sharding
+        (``bucket_column`` + ``num_buckets``), identity sharding
+        (``identity_column``), or ``unsharded``. With none selected, shards are
+        managed manually by passing shard IDs to `mem_wal_writer`.
+
+        Any writer-configuration keyword arguments (``durable_write``,
+        ``max_memtable_size``, ``max_wal_flush_interval_ms``, etc. — the same
+        knobs accepted by `mem_wal_writer`) are recorded as the default
+        `~lance.mem_wal.ShardWriter` configuration in the MemWAL index, so
+        every writer starts from the same defaults.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        maintained_indexes : list of str, optional
+            Names of existing indexes to keep updated as data is written
+            through the MemWAL. Must reference indexes that already exist.
+            Omitted (the default) keeps every index on the table updated,
+            including ones created later; an empty list keeps none.
+        hnsw_params : dict, optional
+            Per-index HNSW build-parameter overrides recorded as writer-config
+            defaults, keyed by maintained vector index name. Each value is a dict
+            with any of ``num_edges`` (graph degree; level 0 keeps
+            ``2 * num_edges``, equivalent to FAISS's ``M``), ``ef_construction``,
+            and ``max_level``. Without an override an index uses the default
+            parameters. These are writer config — they affect the MemTable a
+            writer builds and may be overridden per-writer in
+            :meth:`mem_wal_writer`.
+        bucket_column : str, optional
+            With ``num_buckets``, hash-bucket writes by this scalar column.
+        num_buckets : int, optional
+            Number of hash buckets (shards). Required with ``bucket_column``.
+        identity_column : str, optional
+            Shard by the raw value of this scalar column.
+        unsharded : bool, default False
+            Route every write to a single shard.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        IOError
+            - An entry in *maintained_indexes* does not exist on the dataset.
+            - MemWAL has already been initialized on this dataset.
+        ValueError
+            More than one sharding mode was selected, or bucket sharding was
+            given only one of ``bucket_column`` / ``num_buckets``.
+        """
+        self._ds.initialize_mem_wal(
+            maintained_indexes=maintained_indexes,
+            bucket_column=bucket_column,
+            num_buckets=num_buckets,
+            identity_column=identity_column,
+            unsharded=unsharded,
+            durable_write=durable_write,
+            max_wal_buffer_size=max_wal_buffer_size,
+            max_wal_flush_interval_ms=max_wal_flush_interval_ms,
+            max_memtable_size=max_memtable_size,
+            max_memtable_rows=max_memtable_rows,
+            max_memtable_batches=max_memtable_batches,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes=max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size=manifest_scan_batch_size,
+            backpressure_log_interval_ms=backpressure_log_interval_ms,
+            stats_log_interval_ms=stats_log_interval_ms,
+            hnsw_params=hnsw_params,
+        )
+
+    def mem_wal_index_details(self) -> Optional[Dict[str, Any]]:
+        """Return the MemWAL index details, or ``None`` if not initialized.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict or None
+            A dict with ``num_shards``, ``maintained_indexes``,
+            ``writer_config_defaults``, and ``sharding_specs``, or ``None`` when
+            MemWAL has not been initialized on this dataset.
+        """
+        return self._ds.mem_wal_index_details()
+
+    def mem_wal_writer(
+        self,
+        shard_id: str,
+        *,
+        durable_write: Optional[bool] = None,
+        max_wal_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_memtable_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_memtable_rows: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_memtable_batches: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        manifest_scan_batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        backpressure_log_interval_ms: Optional[int] = None,
+        stats_log_interval_ms: Optional[int] = None,
+        hnsw_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, int]]] = None,
+    ) -> "mem_wal.ShardWriter":
+        """Get a ShardWriter for the specified shard.
+
+        `initialize_mem_wal` must be called before using this method.
+        Each shard is an independent write path; use different shard IDs
+        to achieve parallel ingestion without writer contention.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        shard_id : str
+            UUID string identifying the write shard (e.g.
+            ``str(uuid.uuid4())``).
+        durable_write : bool, optional
+            Whether to fsync WAL writes (default: ``True``).
+        max_wal_buffer_size : int, optional
+            Maximum WAL buffer size in bytes (default: 10 MB).
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms : int, optional
+            Maximum WAL flush interval in milliseconds (default: 100).
+        max_memtable_size : int, optional
+            Maximum MemTable size in bytes (default: 256 MB).
+        max_memtable_rows : int, optional
+            Maximum rows per MemTable (default: 100 000).
+        max_memtable_batches : int, optional
+            Maximum batches per MemTable (default: 8 000).
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes : int, optional
+            Maximum unflushed bytes before backpressure (default: 1 GB).
+        manifest_scan_batch_size : int, optional
+            Batch size for manifest scans (default: 2).
+        backpressure_log_interval_ms : int, optional
+            Interval for backpressure log messages in milliseconds
+            (default: 30 000).
+        stats_log_interval_ms : int, optional
+            Interval for statistics log messages in milliseconds
+            (default: 60 000).  Pass ``0`` to disable.
+        hnsw_params : dict, optional
+            Per-index HNSW build-parameter overrides for the MemTable this
+            writer builds, keyed by maintained vector index name. Each value is
+            a dict with any of ``num_edges`` (graph degree; level 0 keeps
+            ``2 * num_edges``, equivalent to FAISS's ``M``), ``ef_construction``,
+            and ``max_level``. Without an override an index uses the default
+            parameters.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ShardWriter
+            A context-manager-compatible writer for the specified shard.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> import lance
+        >>> import pyarrow as pa
+        >>> import tempfile
+        >>> import uuid
+        >>> schema = pa.schema([
+        ...     pa.field("id", pa.int64(), nullable=False,
+        ...              metadata={"lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key": "true"}),
+        ...     pa.field("val", pa.float32()),
+        ... ])
+        >>> with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdir:
+        ...     ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        ...         pa.table({"id": [1], "val": [0.1]}, schema=schema),
+        ...         tmpdir,
+        ...     )
+        ...     ds.initialize_mem_wal()
+        ...     shard_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+        ...     new_data = pa.table({"id": [2], "val": [0.2]}, schema=schema)
+        ...     with ds.mem_wal_writer(shard_id) as writer:
+        ...         writer.put(new_data)
+        """
+        import lance.mem_wal as _mw
+
+        kwargs = {
+            name: val
+            for name, val in [
+                ("durable_write", durable_write),
+                ("max_wal_buffer_size", max_wal_buffer_size),
+                ("max_wal_flush_interval_ms", max_wal_flush_interval_ms),
+                ("max_memtable_size", max_memtable_size),
+                ("max_memtable_rows", max_memtable_rows),
+                ("max_memtable_batches", max_memtable_batches),
+                ("max_unflushed_memtable_bytes", max_unflushed_memtable_bytes),
+                ("manifest_scan_batch_size", manifest_scan_batch_size),
+                ("backpressure_log_interval_ms", backpressure_log_interval_ms),
+                ("stats_log_interval_ms", stats_log_interval_ms),
+                ("hnsw_params", hnsw_params),
+            ]
+            if val is not None
+        }
+        raw = self._ds.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, **kwargs)
+        return _mw.ShardWriter(raw)
+
+    def tracked_files(
+        self,
+        *,
+        min_version: Optional[int] = None,
+        progress: Optional[Callable] = None,
+    ) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+        """Stream all files referenced by any manifest version of this dataset.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        min_version : int, optional
+            If set, only include manifests with version >= min_version.
+        progress : callable, optional
+            Called after each manifest is processed with two arguments:
+            ``(manifests_processed: int, manifests_total: Optional[int])``.
+            ``manifests_total`` is ``None`` until all manifest locations
+            have been listed. Works well with ``tqdm``::
+
+                from tqdm import tqdm
+                pbar = tqdm(unit="manifest")
+                def on_progress(processed, total):
+                    if total is not None:
+                        pbar.total = total
+                    pbar.update(1)
+                reader = ds.tracked_files(progress=on_progress)
+                table = reader.read_all()
+                pbar.close()
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pyarrow.RecordBatchReader
+            Schema:
+
+            - **version** (int64): manifest version number
+            - **base_uri** (dictionary<int32, utf8>): storage root URI
+            - **path** (utf8): file path relative to ``base_uri``
+            - **type** (dictionary<int8, utf8>): one of ``manifest``,
+              ``data file``, ``deletion file``, ``transaction file``,
+              ``index file``
+
+            Output order is non-deterministic.
+        """
+        return self._ds.tracked_files(min_version=min_version, progress=progress)
+
+    def all_files(self) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+        """Stream all files physically present at this dataset's base URI.
+
+        Returns a :class:`pyarrow.RecordBatchReader` with schema:
+
+        - **base_uri** (dictionary<int32, utf8>): storage root URI
+        - **path** (utf8): file path relative to ``base_uri``
+        - **size_bytes** (int64): file size in bytes
+        - **last_modified** (timestamp[us, UTC]): last modification time
+
+        Only the primary object store is scanned; alternate ``base_paths``
+        entries are not included.
+        """
+        return self._ds.all_files()
+
 
 class SqlQuery:
     """
@@ -4003,6 +5981,41 @@ def with_row_addr(self, with_row_addr: bool = True) -> "SqlQueryBuilder":
         self._builder = self._builder.with_row_addr(with_row_addr)
         return self
 
+    def blob_handling(
+        self,
+        blob_handling: Literal["all_binary", "blobs_descriptions", "all_descriptions"],
+    ) -> "SqlQueryBuilder":
+        """
+        Control how blob columns are returned by this SQL query.
+
+        - ``"all_binary"`` materializes blob columns as binary values.
+        - ``"blobs_descriptions"`` returns blob descriptors (the default).
+        - ``"all_descriptions"`` returns descriptions for all binary-like
+          columns.
+        """
+        self._builder = self._builder.blob_handling(blob_handling)
+        return self
+
+    def batch_size(self, batch_size: int) -> "SqlQueryBuilder":
+        """
+        Set the maximum number of rows produced by each query batch.
+
+        If :meth:`batch_size_bytes` is also set, both limits apply and the one
+        reached first determines the scan batch size.
+        """
+        self._builder = self._builder.batch_size(batch_size)
+        return self
+
+    def batch_size_bytes(self, batch_size_bytes: int) -> "SqlQueryBuilder":
+        """
+        Set the approximate maximum bytes produced by each scan batch.
+
+        If :meth:`batch_size` is also set, both limits apply and the one
+        reached first determines the scan batch size.
+        """
+        self._builder = self._builder.batch_size_bytes(batch_size_bytes)
+        return self
+
     def build(self) -> SqlQuery:
         """
         Build the query.
@@ -4042,7 +6055,15 @@ def get_updated_rows(self) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
         """
         Return a streaming RecordBatchReader for updated rows.
         """
-        return self._delta.get_updated_rows()
+        return self._delta.get_updated_rows()
+
+    def get_deleted_row_ids(self) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+        """
+        Return a streaming RecordBatchReader of the row ids deleted in the range.
+
+        The batches carry a single ``_rowid`` column. Requires stable row ids.
+        """
+        return self._delta.get_deleted_row_ids()
 
 
 class _DatasetDeltaBuilder:
@@ -4088,14 +6109,19 @@ class Transaction:
 class Tag(TypedDict):
     branch: Optional[str]
     version: int
+    created_at: Optional[datetime]
+    updated_at: Optional[datetime]
     manifest_size: int
+    metadata: Dict[str, str]
 
 
 class Branch(TypedDict):
     parent_branch: Optional[str]
+    branch_identifier: List[Tuple[int, str]]
     parent_version: int
     create_at: int
     manifest_size: int
+    metadata: Dict[str, str]
 
 
 class Version(TypedDict):
@@ -4104,10 +6130,29 @@ class Version(TypedDict):
     metadata: Dict[str, str]
 
 
+def _convert_version_timestamp(version: Version) -> Version:
+    # TODO: python datetime supports only microsecond precision. When a
+    # separate Version object is implemented, expose the precise timestamp
+    # (ns) to python.
+    ts_nanos = version["timestamp"]
+    version["timestamp"] = datetime.fromtimestamp(ts_nanos // 1e9) + timedelta(
+        microseconds=(ts_nanos % 1e9) // 1e3
+    )
+    return version
+
+
+class VersionRef(TypedDict):
+    version: int
+
+
 class UpdateResult(TypedDict):
     num_rows_updated: int
 
 
+class DeleteResult(TypedDict):
+    num_deleted_rows: int
+
+
 class AlterColumn(TypedDict):
     path: str
     name: Optional[str]
@@ -4121,6 +6166,14 @@ class ExecuteResult(TypedDict):
     num_deleted_rows: int
 
 
+@dataclass
+class IndexFile:
+    """Metadata about a file in an index segment."""
+
+    path: str
+    size_bytes: int
+
+
 @dataclass
 class Index:
     """Represents an index in the dataset."""
@@ -4129,10 +6182,28 @@ class Index:
     name: str
     fields: List[int]
     dataset_version: int
-    fragment_ids: Set[int]
+    fragment_ids: Bitmap
+    """The fragments covered by this index. A ``Set[int]``/``List[int]`` is
+    also accepted when constructing an ``Index``."""
     index_version: int
     created_at: Optional[datetime] = None
     base_id: Optional[int] = None
+    files: Optional[List["IndexFile"]] = None
+    index_details: Optional[Tuple[str, bytes]] = None
+    covering_fields: List[int] = dataclasses.field(default_factory=list)
+
+
+class IndexInformation(TypedDict):
+    """Information about a single index segment, as returned by
+    :meth:`LanceDataset.list_indices`."""
+
+    name: str
+    type: str
+    uuid: str
+    fields: List[str]
+    version: int
+    fragment_ids: Bitmap
+    base_id: Optional[int]
 
 
 class AutoCleanupConfig(TypedDict):
@@ -4172,7 +6243,13 @@ class Overwrite(BaseOperation):
         new_schema: pyarrow.Schema
             The schema of the new dataset.
         fragments: list[FragmentMetadata]
-            The fragments that make up the new dataset.
+            The newly written fragments that make up the new dataset. They are
+            assigned fresh ids when the operation is committed, continuing from
+            the highest id the dataset has ever used, so any id they carry is
+            ignored. Since we reassign fragment ids, a fragment with a deletion
+            file is rejected: use :class:`LanceOperation.Delete` to commit
+            deletions, or :class:`LanceOperation.Merge` to change the schema of
+            existing fragments.
         initial_bases: list[DatasetBasePath], optional
             Base paths to register when creating a new dataset (CREATE mode only).
             **Only valid in CREATE mode**. Will raise an error if used with
@@ -4343,8 +6420,15 @@ class Update(BaseOperation):
             The ids of the fragments that have been removed entirely.
         updated_fragments: list[FragmentMetadata]
             The fragments that have been updated with new deletion vectors.
+            These are used as given, so pass back the metadata read from the
+            dataset rather than a freshly constructed object, or the fragment
+            loses its row id and version metadata.
         new_fragments: list[FragmentMetadata]
-            The fragments that contain the new rows.
+            The fragments that contain the new rows. On a dataset that uses
+            stable row ids, set ``row_id_meta`` on these to carry the ids of
+            rewritten rows over; see :class:`lance.fragment.RowIdSequence`. The
+            created-at and last-updated-at version metadata are derived during
+            the commit and should be left as None.
         fields_modified: list[int]
             If any fields are modified in updated_fragments, then they must be
             listed here so those fragments can be removed from indices covering
@@ -4352,6 +6436,11 @@ class Update(BaseOperation):
         fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: list[int]
             The fields that used to judge whether to preserve the new frag's id into
             the frag bitmap of the specified indices.
+        updated_fragment_offsets: dict[int, bytes], optional
+            Physical row offsets that matched the update, keyed by fragment id,
+            each serialized in the portable RoaringBitmap format. Set on
+            ``rewrite_columns`` updates over stable row ids so the commit
+            refreshes row-level version metadata for the matched rows only.
         """
 
         removed_fragment_ids: List[int] = dataclasses.field(default_factory=list)
@@ -4364,6 +6453,7 @@ class Update(BaseOperation):
             default_factory=list
         )
         update_mode: str = ""
+        updated_fragment_offsets: Optional[Dict[int, bytes]] = None
 
         def __post_init__(self):
             LanceOperation._validate_fragments(self.updated_fragments)
@@ -4382,6 +6472,14 @@ class Merge(BaseOperation):
         schema: LanceSchema or pyarrow.Schema
             The schema of the new dataset. Passing a LanceSchema is preferred,
             and passing a pyarrow.Schema is deprecated.
+        preserves_nullability: bool
+            True when this merge makes no nullability-affecting schema change:
+            it introduces no field that data staged against an earlier schema
+            could not safely omit. Without the assertion (the default) the
+            merge conservatively conflicts with concurrent appends, whose
+            fragments would omit new columns and read as null; that can only
+            cause a retry. Pass True when every column this merge introduces
+            is nullable to let concurrent appends commit without conflict.
 
         Warning
         -------
@@ -4427,6 +6525,7 @@ class Merge(BaseOperation):
 
         fragments: Iterable[FragmentMetadata]
         schema: LanceSchema | pa.Schema
+        preserves_nullability: bool = False
 
         def __post_init__(self):
             if isinstance(self.schema, pa.Schema):
@@ -4446,6 +6545,38 @@ class Restore(BaseOperation):
 
         version: int
 
+    @dataclass
+    class Clone(BaseOperation):
+        """Operation that creates a clone or branch from a dataset reference.
+
+        This operation is created internally by clone and branch APIs. It is
+        exposed so transactions returned by :meth:`LanceDataset.get_transactions`
+        can represent clone metadata without losing information.
+
+        Only a shallow clone can be committed directly. A deep clone must copy
+        the source files first, so committing one raises ``OSError``; use
+        :meth:`LanceDataset.deep_clone` instead.
+
+        Attributes
+        ----------
+        is_shallow: bool
+            Whether data files are shared with the source dataset.
+        ref_name: str, optional
+            Source branch name, or ``None`` for the main branch.
+        ref_version: int
+            Source dataset version.
+        ref_path: str
+            Source dataset URI.
+        branch_name: str, optional
+            Destination branch name, when the clone creates a branch.
+        """
+
+        is_shallow: bool
+        ref_name: Optional[str]
+        ref_version: int
+        ref_path: str
+        branch_name: Optional[str]
+
     @dataclass
     class RewriteGroup:
         """
@@ -4519,6 +6650,80 @@ class DataReplacement(BaseOperation):
 
         replacements: List[LanceOperation.DataReplacementGroup]
 
+    @dataclass
+    class DataOverlayFile:
+        """
+        An overlay file supplying new values for a subset of
+        ``(physical offset, field)`` cells of a fragment, resolved on read and
+        layered over the base data without rewriting the base files.
+
+        The overlay is dense or sparse depending on the shape of ``offsets``:
+        pass a single iterable of ints (e.g. a :class:`~lance.bitmap.Bitmap`
+        or a ``List[int]``) for a dense overlay (one offset set shared by
+        every field in ``data_file``), or a list of int iterables for a
+        sparse overlay (one offset set per field, in the order of the file's
+        fields). Offsets are **physical** row offsets (positions in the base
+        files, counting deleted rows), like deletion vectors.
+
+        Attributes
+        ----------
+        data_file : DataFile
+            The Lance data file storing the overlay's new cell values — one
+            value column per covered field. The value at each covered offset is
+            stored at the rank (0-based count of covered offsets below it) of
+            that offset in the field's coverage.
+        offsets : Iterable[int] | List[Iterable[int]]
+            The covered physical row offsets. A single int iterable is dense
+            coverage (shared by every field); a list of int iterables is
+            sparse coverage (in field order). Offsets are always resolved in
+            ascending order — the smallest covered offset maps to row 0 of
+            ``data_file``, the next-smallest to row 1, and so on — regardless
+            of the order values are given in, so a plain ``List[int]`` need
+            not be pre-sorted. A repeated offset raises ``ValueError``: it
+            would shift every later offset onto the wrong row.
+        committed_version : Optional[int]
+            The dataset version at which this overlay became effective. Leave as
+            ``None`` when creating an overlay to commit — the commit stamps it.
+            It is populated when reading an existing fragment's overlays so they
+            round-trip through :class:`FragmentMetadata`.
+        """
+
+        data_file: DataFile
+        offsets: Union[Iterable[int], List[Iterable[int]]]
+        committed_version: Optional[int] = None
+
+    @dataclass
+    class DataOverlayGroup:
+        """
+        Overlay files to append to a single fragment.
+
+        Attributes
+        ----------
+        fragment_id : int
+            The id of the fragment the overlays apply to.
+        overlays : List[LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile]
+            The overlay files to append, ordered oldest-first (a later entry is
+            newer and wins where coverage overlaps).
+        """
+
+        fragment_id: int
+        overlays: List[LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile]
+
+    @dataclass
+    class DataOverlay(BaseOperation):
+        """
+        Operation that appends data overlay files to fragments.
+
+        Overlays are appended to each fragment's existing overlays (overlays
+        written by concurrent commits are preserved) and resolved on read
+        over the base data without rewriting it.
+
+        If multiple groups target the same data then the values in the
+        latest group take precedence.
+        """
+
+        groups: List[LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup]
+
     @dataclass
     class Project(BaseOperation):
         """
@@ -4529,6 +6734,11 @@ class Project(BaseOperation):
         ----------
         schema: LanceSchema
             The lance schema of the new dataset.
+        preserves_nullability: bool
+            True when this projection makes no nullability-affecting schema
+            change, as a rename or a drop does not. Without the assertion
+            (the default) the projection conservatively conflicts with
+            concurrent writes, which can only cause a retry.
 
         Examples
         --------
@@ -4557,6 +6767,7 @@ class Project(BaseOperation):
         """
 
         schema: LanceSchema
+        preserves_nullability: bool = False
 
     @dataclass
     class UpdateMap:
@@ -4617,25 +6828,100 @@ class ColumnOrdering:
     nulls_first: bool = False
 
 
+def _needs_substrait_placeholder(t: pa.DataType) -> bool:
+    """Return True if *t* contains a type that PyArrow's substrait serializer
+    cannot handle at any nesting depth.
+
+    Three cases require a placeholder:
+
+    * ``fixed_size_list`` — substrait has no equivalent type.
+    * Arrow extension types (e.g. ``fixed_shape_tensor``) — substrait cannot
+      represent them.
+    * A struct whose fields carry non-``None`` metadata — substrait rejects
+      such structs.  Extension types leave ``metadata={}`` on struct fields
+      after a lance round-trip; ``{}`` is non-``None``.
+    """
+    if pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(t):
+        return True
+    if isinstance(t, pa.lib.BaseExtensionType):
+        return True
+    if pa.types.is_struct(t):
+        for i in range(t.num_fields):
+            f = t.field(i)
+            if f.metadata is not None:
+                return True
+            if _needs_substrait_placeholder(f.type):
+                return True
+    if pa.types.is_list(t) or pa.types.is_large_list(t):
+        return _needs_substrait_placeholder(t.value_type)
+    return False
+
+
+def _serialize_expression(
+    expression: pa.compute.Expression, schema: pa.Schema
+) -> bytes:
+    from pyarrow.substrait import serialize_expressions
+
+    # Keep each field's position so Substrait references still resolve against
+    # the stored schema when PyArrow cannot serialize an unrelated field's type.
+    scalar_schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            (
+                pa.field(f"__unlikely_name_placeholder_{i}", pa.int8())
+                if _needs_substrait_placeholder(field.type)
+                else field
+            )
+            for i, field in enumerate(schema)
+        ]
+    )
+    serialized = serialize_expressions([expression], ["my_filter"], scalar_schema)
+    if isinstance(serialized, memoryview):
+        return serialized.tobytes()
+    try:
+        return serialized.to_pybytes()
+    except AttributeError:
+        raise TypeError(
+            f"serialize_expressions returned unexpected type {type(serialized)}"
+        )
+
+
+def serialize_row_addrs(addrs: Iterable[int]) -> bytes:
+    """Encode row addresses for ``row_addr_allowlist`` / ``row_addr_blocklist``.
+
+    Those parameters take a serialized roaring treemap over ``_rowid``; this is
+    the way to produce one from Python.
+
+    >>> blob = serialize_row_addrs([0, 2, 4])                    # doctest: +SKIP
+    >>> ds.scanner(row_addr_allowlist=blob).to_table()           # doctest: +SKIP
+    """
+    return _serialize_row_addrs(list(addrs))
+
+
 class ScannerBuilder:
     def __init__(self, ds: LanceDataset):
         self.ds = ds
         self._limit = None
         self._filter = None
+        self._search_filter = None
         self._substrait_filter = None
         self._prefilter = False
+        self._row_addr_allowlist: Optional[bytes] = None
+        self._row_addr_blocklist: Optional[bytes] = None
         self._late_materialization = None
         self._blob_handling = None
         self._offset = None
         self._columns = None
         self._columns_with_transform = None
         self._nearest = None
+        self._minhash_query: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None
         self._batch_size: Optional[int] = None
+        self._batch_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None
         self._io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None
         self._batch_readahead: Optional[int] = None
         self._fragment_readahead: Optional[int] = None
         self._scan_in_order = True
         self._fragments = None
+        self._index_segments = None
         self._with_row_id = False
         self._with_row_address = False
         self._use_stats = True
@@ -4647,6 +6933,7 @@ def __init__(self, ds: LanceDataset):
         self._strict_batch_size = False
         self._orderings = None
         self._disable_scoring_autoprojection = False
+        self._substrait_aggregate = None
 
     def apply_defaults(self, default_opts: Dict[str, Any]) -> ScannerBuilder:
         for key, value in default_opts.items():
@@ -4660,10 +6947,28 @@ def apply_defaults(self, default_opts: Dict[str, Any]) -> ScannerBuilder:
         return self
 
     def batch_size(self, batch_size: int) -> ScannerBuilder:
-        """Set batch size for Scanner"""
+        """Set the maximum number of rows per batch.
+
+        If a byte limit is also configured, both limits apply and the one
+        reached first determines the batch size.
+        """
         self._batch_size = batch_size
         return self
 
+    def batch_size_bytes(self, batch_size_bytes: int) -> ScannerBuilder:
+        """Set the target batch size in bytes.
+
+        When set, the scanner will produce batches whose total size in bytes
+        is approximately this value. If ``batch_size`` is also set, both
+        limits apply and the one reached first determines the batch size.
+
+        This can also be configured at the dataset level via
+        ``FileReaderOptions``.  A scanner-level setting takes precedence
+        over the dataset-level default.
+        """
+        self._batch_size_bytes = batch_size_bytes
+        return self
+
     def io_buffer_size(self, io_buffer_size: int) -> ScannerBuilder:
         """
         Set the I/O buffer size for the Scanner
@@ -4673,18 +6978,14 @@ def io_buffer_size(self, io_buffer_size: int) -> ScannerBuilder:
         used by the scanner.  If the buffer is full then the scanner will block until
         the buffer is processed.
 
-        Generally this should scale with the number of concurrent I/O threads.  The
-        default is 2GiB which comfortably provides enough space for somewhere between
-        32 and 256 concurrent I/O threads.
+        Generally this should scale with the number of concurrent I/O threads.  If
+        unset, v2 scans choose a default based on the object store and
+        ``LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE`` can override that default.
 
         This value is not a hard cap on the amount of RAM the scanner will use.  Some
         space is used for the compute (which can be controlled by the batch size) and
         Lance does not keep track of memory after it is returned to the user.
 
-        Currently, if there is a single batch of data which is larger than the io buffer
-        size then the scanner will deadlock.  This is a known issue and will be fixed in
-        a future release.
-
         This parameter is only used when reading v2 files
         """
         self._io_buffer_size = io_buffer_size
@@ -4692,10 +6993,12 @@ def io_buffer_size(self, io_buffer_size: int) -> ScannerBuilder:
 
     def batch_readahead(self, nbatches: Optional[int] = None) -> ScannerBuilder:
         """
-        This parameter is ignored when reading v2 files
+        Set the maximum number of batches to decode concurrently.
+
+        This parameter must be greater than zero.
         """
-        if nbatches is not None and int(nbatches) < 0:
-            raise ValueError("batch_readahead must be non-negative")
+        if nbatches is not None and int(nbatches) <= 0:
+            raise ValueError("batch_readahead must be greater than 0")
         self._batch_readahead = nbatches
         return self
 
@@ -4747,50 +7050,56 @@ def columns(
             )
         return self
 
-    def filter(self, filter: Union[str, pa.compute.Expression]) -> ScannerBuilder:
-        if isinstance(filter, pa.compute.Expression):
-            try:
-                from pyarrow.substrait import serialize_expressions
-
-                fields_without_lists = []
-                counter = 0
-                # Pyarrow cannot handle fixed size lists when converting
-                # types to Substrait. So we can't use those in our filter,
-                # which is ok for now but we need to replace them with some
-                # kind of placeholder because Substrait is going to use
-                # ordinal field references and we want to make sure those are
-                # correct.
-                for field in self.ds.schema:
-                    if pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(field.type):
-                        pos = counter
-                        counter += 1
-                        fields_without_lists.append(
-                            pa.field(f"__unlikely_name_placeholder_{pos}", pa.int8())
-                        )
-                    else:
-                        fields_without_lists.append(field)
-                # Serialize the pyarrow compute expression toSubstrait and use
-                # that as a filter.
-                scalar_schema = pa.schema(fields_without_lists)
-                substrait_filter = serialize_expressions(
-                    [filter], ["my_filter"], scalar_schema
-                )
-                if isinstance(substrait_filter, memoryview):
-                    self._substrait_filter = substrait_filter.tobytes()
-                else:
-                    try:
-                        self._substrait_filter = substrait_filter.to_pybytes()
-                    except AttributeError:
-                        raise TypeError(
-                            "serialize_expressions returned unexpected"
-                            f"type {type(substrait_filter)}"
-                        )
-            except ImportError:
-                # serialize_expressions was introduced in pyarrow 14.  Fallback to
-                # stringifying the expression if pyarrow is too old
-                self._filter = str(filter)
-        else:
+    def filter(
+        self,
+        filter: Union[
+            str, pa.compute.Expression, FullTextQuery, VectorSearchQuery, dict
+        ],
+    ) -> ScannerBuilder:
+        """
+        Add a filter to the scanner.
+
+        :param filter: The filter to apply.  This can be a string, a pyarrow compute
+            expression, a FullTextQuery, a VectorSearchQuery, or a dictionary.
+
+        :return: The scanner builder.
+        """
+        if isinstance(filter, FullTextQuery):
+            self._search_filter = PySearchFilter.from_full_text_query(filter.inner)
+        elif isinstance(filter, VectorSearchQuery):
+            self._search_filter = PySearchFilter.from_vector_search_query(filter.inner)
+        elif isinstance(filter, str):
             self._filter = filter
+        elif isinstance(filter, pa.compute.Expression):
+            self._substrait_filter = _serialize_expression(filter, self.ds._ds.schema)
+        else:
+            expr_filter = filter.get("expr_filter")
+            if expr_filter is not None:
+                self.filter(expr_filter)
+
+            search_filter = filter.get("search_filter")
+            if search_filter is not None:
+                self.filter(search_filter)
+
+        return self
+
+    def row_addr_prefilter(
+        self,
+        allowlist: Optional[bytes] = None,
+        blocklist: Optional[bytes] = None,
+    ) -> ScannerBuilder:
+        """Restrict the scan to an externally supplied set of row addresses.
+
+        allowlist / blocklist are serialized roaring treemaps over ``_rowid``
+        (``RowAddrTreeMap::serialize_into`` output); passing neither clears the
+        mask. Applied before KNN / BM25 ranking, so top-k is computed over the
+        surviving rows rather than filtered afterwards.
+
+        Bytes rather than an object so the mask can be produced by a different
+        extension module -- nothing Rust-typed crosses the boundary.
+        """
+        self._row_addr_allowlist = allowlist
+        self._row_addr_blocklist = blocklist
         return self
 
     def prefilter(self, prefilter: bool) -> ScannerBuilder:
@@ -4874,6 +7183,12 @@ def with_fragments(
         self._fragments = fragments
         return self
 
+    def with_index_segments(
+        self, index_segments: Optional[Iterable[Union[str, uuid.UUID]]]
+    ) -> ScannerBuilder:
+        self._index_segments = _normalize_index_segment_ids(index_segments)
+        return self
+
     def nearest(
         self,
         column: str,
@@ -4886,126 +7201,62 @@ def nearest(
         refine_factor: Optional[int] = None,
         use_index: bool = True,
         ef: Optional[int] = None,
+        query_parallelism: Optional[int] = None,
+        approx_mode: Literal["fast", "normal", "accurate"] = "normal",
         distance_range: Optional[tuple[Optional[float], Optional[float]]] = None,
     ) -> ScannerBuilder:
         """Configure nearest neighbor search.
 
         Parameters
         ----------
-        column: str
-            The name of the vector column to search.
         q: QueryVectorLike
-            The query vector.
-        k: int, optional
-            The number of nearest neighbors to return.
-        metric: str, optional
-            The distance metric to use (e.g., "L2", "cosine", "dot", "hamming").
-        nprobes: int, optional
-            The number of partitions to search. Sets both minimum_nprobes and
-            maximum_nprobes to the same value.
-        minimum_nprobes: int, optional
-            The minimum number of partitions to search.
-        maximum_nprobes: int, optional
-            The maximum number of partitions to search.
-        refine_factor: int, optional
-            The refine factor for the search.
-        use_index: bool, default True
-            Whether to use the index for the search.
-        ef: int, optional
-            The ef parameter for HNSW search.
-        distance_range: tuple[Optional[float], Optional[float]], optional
-            A tuple of (lower_bound, upper_bound) to filter results by distance.
-            Both bounds are optional. The lower bound is inclusive and the upper
-            bound is exclusive, so (0.0, 1.0) keeps distances d where
-            0.0 <= d < 1.0, (None, 0.5) keeps d < 0.5, and (0.5, None) keeps d >= 0.5.
-
-        Returns
-        -------
-        ScannerBuilder
-            The scanner builder for method chaining.
-        """
-        q, q_dim = _coerce_query_vector(q)
-
-        lance_field = self.ds._ds.lance_schema.field_case_insensitive(column)
-        if lance_field is None:
-            raise ValueError(f"Embedding column {column} is not in the dataset")
-
-        column_field = lance_field.to_arrow()
-        column_type = column_field.type
-        if hasattr(column_type, "storage_type"):
-            column_type = column_type.storage_type
-        if pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(column_type):
-            dim = column_type.list_size
-        elif pa.types.is_list(column_type) and pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(
-            column_type.value_type
-        ):
-            dim = column_type.value_type.list_size
-        else:
-            raise TypeError(
-                f"Query column {column} must be a vector. Got {column_field.type}."
-            )
-
-        if q_dim != dim:
-            raise ValueError(
-                f"Query vector size {len(q)} does not match index column size {dim}"
-            )
-
-        if k is not None and int(k) <= 0:
-            raise ValueError(f"Nearest-K must be > 0 but got {k}")
-        if nprobes is not None and int(nprobes) <= 0:
-            raise ValueError(f"Nprobes must be > 0 but got {nprobes}")
-        if minimum_nprobes is not None and int(minimum_nprobes) < 0:
-            raise ValueError(f"Minimum nprobes must be >= 0 but got {minimum_nprobes}")
-        if maximum_nprobes is not None and int(maximum_nprobes) < 0:
-            raise ValueError(f"Maximum nprobes must be >= 0 but got {maximum_nprobes}")
-
-        if nprobes is not None:
-            if minimum_nprobes is not None or maximum_nprobes is not None:
-                raise ValueError(
-                    "nprobes cannot be set in combination with minimum_nprobes or "
-                    "maximum_nprobes"
-                )
-            else:
-                minimum_nprobes = nprobes
-                maximum_nprobes = nprobes
-        if (
-            minimum_nprobes is not None
-            and maximum_nprobes is not None
-            and minimum_nprobes > maximum_nprobes
-        ):
-            raise ValueError("minimum_nprobes must be <= maximum_nprobes")
-        if refine_factor is not None and int(refine_factor) < 1:
-            raise ValueError(f"Refine factor must be 1 or more got {refine_factor}")
-        if ef is not None and int(ef) <= 0:
-            # `ef` should be >= `k`, but `k` could be None so we can't check it here
-            # the rust code will check it
-            raise ValueError(f"ef must be > 0 but got {ef}")
-
-        if distance_range is not None:
-            if len(distance_range) != 2:
-                raise ValueError(
-                    "distance_range must be a tuple of (lower_bound, upper_bound)"
-                )
-
-        self._nearest = {
-            "column": column,
-            "q": q,
-            "k": k,
-            "metric": metric,
-            "minimum_nprobes": minimum_nprobes,
-            "maximum_nprobes": maximum_nprobes,
-            "refine_factor": refine_factor,
-            "use_index": use_index,
-            "ef": ef,
-            "distance_range": distance_range,
-        }
+            A single query vector or, for fixed-size vector columns, a 2-D array-like
+            or list-shaped batch of query vectors. Batch queries return up to ``k`` rows
+            per query and include Int32 non-null ``query_index`` as the first output
+            column. Flattened 1-D inputs whose length is a multiple of the vector
+            dimension are rejected. Datasets with an existing ``query_index`` column
+            cannot be used for batch search.
+            When ``use_index`` is true and a vector index is available, each query
+            vector is searched through the index path; otherwise the flat batch path
+            is used.
+        query_parallelism: int, optional
+            Maximum partition-search concurrency for a single vector query.
+            The default is 0. Value 0 uses the automatic policy, which
+            currently maps to the single-worker sequential path. Value -1 uses
+            the CPU pool size. Value 1 uses the single-worker sequential path.
+            Values >= 2 use the partition-parallel path and are clamped to the
+            CPU pool size.
+        approx_mode: {"fast", "normal", "accurate"}, default "normal"
+            Controls the speed / accuracy tradeoff for approximate vector search
+            when supported by the selected index. This currently only affects
+            RQ-quantized indexes, such as IVF_RQ. Other index types ignore this
+            setting. ``fast`` favors lower latency and may reduce recall,
+            ``normal`` uses the default balance, and ``accurate`` favors higher
+            recall and may increase latency.
+        """
+        self._nearest = _build_vector_search_query(
+            column,
+            q,
+            dataset=self.ds,
+            k=k,
+            metric=metric,
+            nprobes=nprobes,
+            minimum_nprobes=minimum_nprobes,
+            maximum_nprobes=maximum_nprobes,
+            refine_factor=refine_factor,
+            use_index=use_index,
+            ef=ef,
+            query_parallelism=query_parallelism,
+            approx_mode=approx_mode,
+            distance_range=distance_range,
+        )
         return self
 
     def fast_search(self, flag: bool) -> ScannerBuilder:
-        """Enable fast search, which only perform search on the indexed data.
+        """Enable fast search, which only performs search on indexed fragments.
 
-        Users can use `Table::optimize()` or `create_index()` to include the new data
-        into index, thus make new data searchable.
+        Users can use `Table::optimize()` or `create_index()` to include new data
+        in an index, thus making new data searchable.
         """
         self._fast_search = flag
         return self
@@ -5048,6 +7299,33 @@ def full_text_search(
             }
         return self
 
+    def minhash_search(self, query: MinHashQuery) -> ScannerBuilder:
+        """
+        Find the rows most similar to ``query.text`` using the MinHash LSH index
+        on ``query.column``.
+
+        The number of rows comes from :meth:`limit` (default 10). Results carry
+        a ``_distance`` column equal to ``1 - estimated Jaccard similarity`` and
+        are ordered by ascending distance. Cannot be combined with
+        :meth:`nearest` or :meth:`full_text_search`.
+
+        Rows the index does not cover (fragments appended after the index was
+        built, or rows changed by a data overlay) are scored on the fly, which
+        costs a scan of those rows per query; run ``optimize_indices`` to index
+        them, or enable :meth:`fast_search` to search only the indexed rows.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        query : MinHashQuery
+            The query text and the column to search.
+        """
+        if not isinstance(query, MinHashQuery):
+            raise TypeError(
+                f"minhash_search expects a MinHashQuery, got {type(query).__name__}"
+            )
+        self._minhash_query = {"column": query.column, "text": query.text}
+        return self
+
     def scan_stats_callback(
         self, callback: Callable[[ScanStatistics], None]
     ) -> ScannerBuilder:
@@ -5067,6 +7345,9 @@ def strict_batch_size(self, strict_batch_size: bool = False) -> ScannerBuilder:
         If this is true then small batches will need to be merged together
         which will require a data copy and incur a (typically very small)
         performance penalty.
+
+        This cannot be combined with ``batch_size_bytes`` because merging
+        batches to the strict row count can exceed the byte limit.
         """
         self._strict_batch_size = strict_batch_size
         return self
@@ -5090,21 +7371,41 @@ def disable_scoring_autoprojection(self, disable: bool = True) -> ScannerBuilder
         self._disable_scoring_autoprojection = disable
         return self
 
+    def substrait_aggregate(self, aggregate: bytes) -> ScannerBuilder:
+        """
+        Set a Substrait aggregate expression for the scanner.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        aggregate : bytes
+            The serialized Substrait Aggregate plan bytes.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ScannerBuilder
+            This builder for method chaining.
+        """
+        self._substrait_aggregate = aggregate
+        return self
+
     def to_scanner(self) -> LanceScanner:
         scanner = self.ds._ds.scanner(
             self._columns,
             self._columns_with_transform,
             self._filter,
+            self._search_filter,
             self._prefilter,
             self._limit,
             self._offset,
             self._nearest,
             self._batch_size,
+            self._batch_size_bytes,
             self._io_buffer_size,
             self._batch_readahead,
             self._fragment_readahead,
             self._scan_in_order,
             self._fragments,
+            self._index_segments,
             self._with_row_id,
             self._with_row_address,
             self._use_stats,
@@ -5119,14 +7420,24 @@ def to_scanner(self) -> LanceScanner:
             self._strict_batch_size,
             self._orderings,
             self._disable_scoring_autoprojection,
+            self._substrait_aggregate,
+            self._row_addr_allowlist,
+            self._row_addr_blocklist,
+            self._minhash_query,
         )
-        return LanceScanner(scanner, self.ds)
+        return LanceScanner(scanner, self.ds, _snapshot_scanner_builder(self))
 
 
 class LanceScanner(pa.dataset.Scanner):
-    def __init__(self, scanner: _Scanner, dataset: LanceDataset):
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        scanner: _Scanner,
+        dataset: LanceDataset,
+        snapshot: Optional[Dict[str, Any]] = None,
+    ):
         self._scanner = scanner
         self._ds = dataset
+        self._snapshot = snapshot
 
     def to_table(self) -> pa.Table:
         """
@@ -5140,6 +7451,66 @@ def to_reader(self) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
     def to_batches(self) -> Iterator[RecordBatch]:
         yield from self.to_reader()
 
+    def to_pandas(
+        self, *, blob_mode: str = _BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_LAZY, **kwargs: Any
+    ) -> "pd.DataFrame":
+        """Read the scan results into a :py:class:`pandas.DataFrame`.
+
+        ``blob_mode`` is pandas-specific and does not replace Arrow's
+        ``blob_handling`` setting used by :meth:`to_table`.
+        """
+        blob_mode = _normalize_blob_pandas_mode(blob_mode)
+        schema = self.projected_schema
+        blob_paths = _blob_paths_in_schema(schema)
+        if not blob_paths or blob_mode == _BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_DESCRIPTIONS:
+            return self.to_table().to_pandas(**kwargs)
+
+        if self._snapshot is None:
+            raise NotImplementedError(
+                "blob-aware to_pandas requires a scanner created from the Python API"
+            )
+
+        snapshot = dict(self._snapshot)
+        if blob_mode == _BLOB_PANDAS_MODE_BYTES:
+            snapshot["_blob_handling"] = "all_binary"
+            return (
+                _scanner_from_snapshot(self._ds, snapshot)
+                .to_table()
+                .to_pandas(**kwargs)
+            )
+
+        blob_sources = _blob_column_sources(schema, self._snapshot, self._ds.schema)
+        snapshot["_with_row_address"] = True
+        snapshot["_blob_handling"] = "blobs_descriptions"
+        table = _scanner_from_snapshot(self._ds, snapshot).to_table()
+
+        requested_rowaddr = bool(self._snapshot.get("_with_row_address", False))
+        if _BLOB_ROW_ADDR_COLUMN not in table.schema.names:
+            raise RuntimeError("blob-aware to_pandas expected _rowaddr in scan results")
+
+        row_addrs = table.column(_BLOB_ROW_ADDR_COLUMN).to_pylist()
+        blob_files = _fetch_blob_files_for_paths(
+            self._ds, table, blob_paths, blob_sources, row_addrs
+        )
+
+        columns_to_drop = []
+        for path in blob_files:
+            segments = _parse_field_path(path)
+            if len(segments) == 1 and segments[0] in table.schema.names:
+                columns_to_drop.append(segments[0])
+        if not requested_rowaddr:
+            columns_to_drop.append(_BLOB_ROW_ADDR_COLUMN)
+        non_blob_table = (
+            table.drop_columns(columns_to_drop) if columns_to_drop else table
+        )
+        if non_blob_table.num_columns == 0:
+            dataframe = pd.DataFrame(index=range(table.num_rows))
+        else:
+            dataframe = non_blob_table.to_pandas(**kwargs)
+
+        _place_blob_files(dataframe, blob_files, schema)
+        return dataframe
+
     @property
     def projected_schema(self) -> Schema:
         return self._scanner.schema
@@ -5209,7 +7580,7 @@ def head(self, num_rows):
         """
         return self.to_table()[:num_rows]
 
-    def count_rows(self):
+    def count_rows(self) -> int:
         """Count rows matching the scanner filter.
 
         Returns
@@ -5234,20 +7605,25 @@ def explain_plan(self, verbose=False) -> str:
 
         return self._scanner.explain_plan(verbose=verbose)
 
-    def analyze_plan(self) -> str:
+    def analyze_plan(self, count_rows: bool = False) -> str:
         """Execute the plan for this scanner and display with runtime metrics.
 
+        Full-text-search nodes include the execution-time ``tokenized_query``
+        text and positions.
+
         Parameters
         ----------
-        verbose : bool, default False
-            Use a verbose output format.
+        count_rows : bool, default False
+            If True, auto-apply a ``COUNT(*)`` aggregate before analyzing so
+            the returned plan reflects what :py:meth:`count_rows` would
+            execute (including the optimizer's count-pushdown decisions).
 
         Returns
         -------
         plan : str
         """
 
-        return self._scanner.analyze_plan()
+        return self._scanner.analyze_plan(count_rows=count_rows)
 
 
 class DatasetOptimizer:
@@ -5257,13 +7633,23 @@ def __init__(self, dataset: LanceDataset):
     def compact_files(
         self,
         *,
-        target_rows_per_fragment: int = 1024 * 1024,
-        max_rows_per_group: int = 1024,
+        target_rows_per_fragment: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_rows_per_group: Optional[int] = None,
         max_bytes_per_file: Optional[int] = None,
-        materialize_deletions: bool = True,
-        materialize_deletions_threshold: float = 0.1,
+        materialize_deletions: Optional[bool] = None,
+        materialize_deletions_threshold: Optional[float] = None,
+        defer_index_remap: Optional[bool] = None,
         num_threads: Optional[int] = None,
         batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        compaction_mode: Optional[
+            Literal["reencode", "try_binary_copy", "force_binary_copy"]
+        ] = None,
+        binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_source_fragments: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_source_rows: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_source_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        excluded_fragment_ids: Optional[list[int]] = None,
+        data_storage_version: Optional[str] = None,
     ) -> CompactionMetrics:
         """Compacts small files in the dataset, reducing total number of files.
 
@@ -5279,14 +7665,37 @@ def compact_files(
         not be compacted because the fragments it is adjacent to do not need
         compaction.
 
+        Default values for these options can be stored in the dataset manifest
+        config using keys prefixed with ``lance.compaction.``. For example,
+        setting the config key ``lance.compaction.target_rows_per_fragment`` to
+        ``"500000"`` will use 500,000 as the default target rows per fragment.
+        Explicitly provided parameters take precedence over manifest config
+        values, which in turn take precedence over hardcoded defaults.
+
+        Supported config keys: ``lance.compaction.target_rows_per_fragment``,
+        ``lance.compaction.max_rows_per_group``,
+        ``lance.compaction.max_bytes_per_file``,
+        ``lance.compaction.materialize_deletions``,
+        ``lance.compaction.materialize_deletions_threshold``,
+        ``lance.compaction.defer_index_remap``,
+        ``lance.compaction.batch_size``,
+        ``lance.compaction.compaction_mode``,
+        ``lance.compaction.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes``,
+        ``lance.compaction.max_source_fragments``,
+        ``lance.compaction.max_source_rows``,
+        ``lance.compaction.max_source_bytes``,
+        ``lance.compaction.data_storage_version``.
+
         Parameters
         ----------
-        target_rows_per_fragment: int, default 1024*1024
+        target_rows_per_fragment: int, optional
             The target number of rows per fragment. This is the number of rows
-            that will be in each fragment after compaction.
-        max_rows_per_group: int, default 1024
+            that will be in each fragment after compaction. If not specified,
+            uses the manifest config value, or 1024*1024.
+        max_rows_per_group: int, optional
             Max number of rows per group. This does not affect which fragments
             need compaction, but does affect how they are re-written if selected.
+            If not specified, uses the manifest config value, or 1024.
 
             This setting only affects datasets using the legacy storage format.
             The newer format does not require row groups.
@@ -5297,12 +7706,17 @@ def compact_files(
             that are smaller than `target_rows_per_fragment`.
 
             The default will use the default from ``write_dataset``.
-        materialize_deletions: bool, default True
+        materialize_deletions: bool, optional
             Whether to compact fragments with soft deleted rows so they are no
-            longer present in the file.
-        materialize_deletions_threshold: float, default 0.1
+            longer present in the file. If not specified, uses the manifest
+            config value, or True.
+        materialize_deletions_threshold: float, optional
             The fraction of original rows that are soft deleted in a fragment
-            before the fragment is a candidate for compaction.
+            before the fragment is a candidate for compaction. If not specified,
+            uses the manifest config value, or 0.1.
+        defer_index_remap: bool, optional
+            Whether to defer index remapping during compaction. If not specified,
+            uses the manifest config value, or False.
         num_threads: int, optional
             The number of threads to use when performing compaction. If not
             specified, defaults to the number of cores on the machine.
@@ -5311,6 +7725,47 @@ def compact_files(
             to reduce this if you are running out of memory during compaction.
 
             The default will use the same default from ``scanner``.
+        compaction_mode: str, optional
+            The compaction mode. Valid values:
+
+            - ``"reencode"``: Decode and re-encode data (default).
+            - ``"try_binary_copy"``: Try binary copy if fragments are
+              compatible, fall back to reencode otherwise.
+            - ``"force_binary_copy"``: Use binary copy or fail if fragments
+              are not compatible.
+        binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: int, optional
+            The batch size in bytes for reading during binary copy operations.
+            Controls how much data is read at once when performing binary copy.
+            Defaults to 16MB.
+        max_source_fragments: int, optional
+            Maximum number of source fragments to compact in a single run.
+            Compaction tasks are included until adding the next task would
+            exceed this limit, allowing compaction to proceed incrementally.
+            Fragments are processed oldest first. If not specified, uses the
+            manifest config value, or applies no limit.
+        max_source_rows: int, optional
+            Maximum number of source rows to compact in a single run. Rows are
+            counted as live rows (physical rows minus soft-deleted rows).
+            Tasks are included until adding the next task would exceed this
+            limit.
+        max_source_bytes: int, optional
+            Maximum number of source bytes to compact in a single run,
+            measured as the total size of the source fragments' data and
+            overlay files. Tasks are included until adding the next task
+            would exceed this limit. Blob v2 payloads live in separate
+            blob files and are not counted, so this is not a cap on total
+            compaction I/O for datasets with blob columns.
+        excluded_fragment_ids: list[int], optional
+            Fragment IDs to exclude from compaction planning. Excluded
+            fragments remain unchanged and act as boundaries, so fragments
+            on opposite sides are not combined into the same compaction task.
+            Duplicate and unknown IDs are ignored.
+        data_storage_version: str, optional
+            Output data file version, such as "2.2", "stable", or "next".
+            Uses the compaction config target when set, otherwise the dataset's
+            default write version. Does not change that default or the versions
+            of unselected files. V1/V2 cross-family targets are rejected.
+
         Returns
         -------
         CompactionMetrics
@@ -5320,18 +7775,30 @@ def compact_files(
         --------
         lance.optimize.Compaction
         """
-        opts = dict(
-            target_rows_per_fragment=target_rows_per_fragment,
-            max_rows_per_group=max_rows_per_group,
-            max_bytes_per_file=max_bytes_per_file,
-            materialize_deletions=materialize_deletions,
-            materialize_deletions_threshold=materialize_deletions_threshold,
-            num_threads=num_threads,
-            batch_size=batch_size,
-        )
+        opts = {
+            k: v
+            for k, v in dict(
+                target_rows_per_fragment=target_rows_per_fragment,
+                max_rows_per_group=max_rows_per_group,
+                max_bytes_per_file=max_bytes_per_file,
+                materialize_deletions=materialize_deletions,
+                materialize_deletions_threshold=materialize_deletions_threshold,
+                defer_index_remap=defer_index_remap,
+                num_threads=num_threads,
+                batch_size=batch_size,
+                compaction_mode=compaction_mode,
+                binary_copy_read_batch_bytes=binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+                max_source_fragments=max_source_fragments,
+                max_source_rows=max_source_rows,
+                max_source_bytes=max_source_bytes,
+                excluded_fragment_ids=excluded_fragment_ids,
+                data_storage_version=data_storage_version,
+            ).items()
+            if v is not None
+        }
         return Compaction.execute(self._dataset, opts)
 
-    def optimize_indices(self, **kwargs):
+    def optimize_indices(self, **kwargs) -> None:
         """Optimizes index performance.
 
         As new data arrives it is not added to existing indexes automatically.
@@ -5339,10 +7806,10 @@ def optimize_indices(self, **kwargs):
         an expensive unindexed search on the new data.  As the amount of new
         unindexed data grows this can have an impact on search latency.
         This function will add the new data to existing indexes, restoring the
-        performance.  This function does not retrain the index, it only assigns
-        the new data to existing partitions.  This means an update is much quicker
-        than retraining the entire index but may have less accuracy (especially
-        if the new data exhibits new patterns, concepts, or trends)
+        performance. By default, this function does not retrain the index, it only
+        assigns the new data to existing partitions. This means an update is much
+        quicker than retraining the entire index but may have less accuracy
+        (especially if the new data exhibits new patterns, concepts, or trends)
 
         Parameters
         ----------
@@ -5352,7 +7819,7 @@ def optimize_indices(self, **kwargs):
         index_names: List[str], default None
             The names of the indices to optimize.
             If None, all indices will be optimized.
-        retrain: bool, default False, deprecated
+        retrain: bool, default False
             Whether to retrain the whole index.
             If true, the index will be retrained based on the current data,
             `num_indices_to_merge` will be ignored,
@@ -5360,7 +7827,7 @@ def optimize_indices(self, **kwargs):
 
             This is useful when the data distribution has changed significantly,
             and we want to retrain the index to improve the search quality.
-            This would be faster than re-create the index from scratch.
+            This rebuilds the index from the source data and may be expensive.
         """
         self._dataset._ds.optimize_indices(**kwargs)
 
@@ -5403,11 +7870,13 @@ def list(self) -> dict[str, Tag]:
         Returns
         -------
         dict[str, Tag]
-            A dictionary mapping tag names to version numbers.
+            A dictionary mapping tag names to tag metadata, including the
+            referenced branch, version, timestamps, manifest size, and any
+            attached metadata.
         """
         return self._ds.tags()
 
-    def get_version(self, tag: str) -> Optional[int]:
+    def get_version(self, tag: str) -> int:
         """
         Get the version of a specific tag by name.
 
@@ -5418,12 +7887,17 @@ def get_version(self, tag: str) -> Optional[int]:
 
         Returns
         -------
-        int or None
-            The version number of the tag if it exists, otherwise None.
+        int
+            The version number of the tag.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        ValueError
+            If the tag does not exist. Use :meth:`list` to check for presence.
         """
         return self._ds.get_version(tag)
 
-    def list_ordered(self, order: Optional[str] = None) -> list[str, Tag]:
+    def list_ordered(self, order: Optional[str] = None) -> List[Tuple[str, Tag]]:
         """
         List all dataset tags.
 
@@ -5436,7 +7910,7 @@ def list_ordered(self, order: Optional[str] = None) -> list[str, Tag]:
 
         Returns
         -------
-        list[str, Tag]
+        List[Tuple[str, Tag]]
             An ordered list of tuples mapping tag names to its `Tag` metadata.
         """
         return self._ds.tags_ordered(order)
@@ -5458,7 +7932,8 @@ def create(
             An integer specifies a version number in the current branch; a string
             specifies a tag name; a Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]] specifies
             a version number in a specified branch. (None, None) means the latest
-            version_number on the main branch.
+            version_number on the default branch. ``("main", version)`` is an
+            explicit alias for the default branch in this reference context.
         """
         self._ds.create_tag(tag, reference)
 
@@ -5490,10 +7965,22 @@ def update(
             An integer specifies a version number in the current branch; a string
             specifies a tag name; a Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]] specifies
             a version number in a specified branch. (None, None) means the latest
-            version_number on the main branch.
+            version_number on the default branch. ``("main", version)`` is an
+            explicit alias for the default branch in this reference context.
         """
         self._ds.update_tag(tag, reference)
 
+    def replace_metadata(self, tag: str, metadata: Dict[str, str]) -> None:
+        """
+        Replace metadata for an existing tag.
+
+        This replaces the entire metadata map instead of merging with existing
+        keys. It does not change the tag reference, and it does not update
+        `updated_at`. `updated_at` only changes when `update()` moves the tag
+        to a different reference.
+        """
+        self._ds.replace_tag_metadata(tag, metadata)
+
 
 class Branches:
     """
@@ -5526,6 +8013,12 @@ def delete(self, branch: str) -> None:
         """
         self._ds.delete_branch(branch)
 
+    def replace_metadata(self, branch: str, metadata: Dict[str, str]) -> None:
+        """
+        Replace metadata for a branch.
+        """
+        self._ds.replace_branch_metadata(branch, metadata)
+
 
 @dataclass
 class FieldStatistics:
@@ -5594,11 +8087,13 @@ def write_dataset(
     max_rows_per_file: int = 1024 * 1024,
     max_rows_per_group: int = 1024,
     max_bytes_per_file: int = 90 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024,
+    data_cache_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+    max_page_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
     commit_lock: Optional[CommitLock] = None,
     progress: Optional[FragmentWriteProgress] = None,
     storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
     data_storage_version: Optional[
-        Literal["stable", "2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "next", "legacy", "0.1"]
+        Literal["stable", "2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3", "next", "legacy", "0.1"]
     ] = None,
     use_legacy_format: Optional[bool] = None,
     enable_v2_manifest_paths: bool = True,
@@ -5608,8 +8103,14 @@ def write_dataset(
     transaction_properties: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
     initial_bases: Optional[List[DatasetBasePath]] = None,
     target_bases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-    namespace: Optional[LanceNamespace] = None,
+    target_all_bases: Optional[bool] = None,
+    base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+    external_blob_mode: Literal["reference", "ingest"] = "reference",
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool = False,
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: Optional[int] = None,
+    namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace] = None,
     table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    session: Optional[Session] = None,
 ) -> LanceDataset:
     """Write a given data_obj to the given uri
 
@@ -5622,7 +8123,7 @@ def write_dataset(
     uri: str, Path, LanceDataset, or None
         Where to write the dataset to (directory). If a LanceDataset is passed,
         the session will be reused.
-        Either `uri` or (`namespace` + `table_id`) must be provided, but not both.
+        Either `uri` or (`namespace_client` + `table_id`) must be provided.
     schema: Schema, optional
         If specified and the input is a pandas DataFrame, use this schema
         instead of the default pandas to arrow table conversion.
@@ -5641,6 +8142,13 @@ def write_dataset(
         means larger groups may cause this to be overshot meaningfully. This
         defaults to 90 GB, since we have a hard limit of 100 GB per file on
         object stores.
+    data_cache_bytes : int, optional
+        Total bytes to buffer for column data before writing pages. The budget
+        is divided evenly across top-level columns. If not set, the current
+        file writer uses 8 MiB per column. Ignored for legacy V1 files.
+    max_page_bytes : int, optional
+        Best-effort maximum page size in bytes. If not set, the current file
+        writer uses its configured default. Ignored for legacy V1 files.
     commit_lock : CommitLock, optional
         A custom commit lock.  Only needed if your object store does not support
         atomic commits.  See the user guide for more details.
@@ -5651,10 +8159,19 @@ def write_dataset(
     storage_options : optional, dict
         Extra options that make sense for a particular storage connection. This is
         used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
+
+        For writes involving additional base paths, a key of the form
+        ``base_<id>.<key>`` applies ``<key>`` only to the base path with that
+        id, overriding the unscoped options that every base inherits. For
+        example ``{"account_key": "shared", "base_1.account_key": "abc"}``
+        makes base 1 use ``account_key = abc`` while all other options are
+        shared.
     data_storage_version: optional, str, default None
         The version of the data storage format to use. Newer versions are more
-        efficient but require newer versions of lance to read.  The default (None)
-        will use the latest stable version.  See the user guide for more details.
+        efficient but require newer versions of lance to read. For create and
+        overwrite, None uses the latest stable version. For append, None uses
+        the dataset's default write version; an explicit V2 version applies
+        only to new files and does not change that default.
     use_legacy_format : optional, bool, default None
         Deprecated method for setting the data storage version. Use the
         `data_storage_version` parameter instead.
@@ -5702,96 +8219,92 @@ def write_dataset(
 
         **CREATE mode**: References must match bases in `initial_bases`
         **APPEND/OVERWRITE modes**: References must match bases in the existing manifest
-    namespace : optional, LanceNamespace
-        A namespace instance from which to fetch table location and storage options.
+    target_all_bases: bool, optional
+        Write new data files round-robin across every base registered in the
+        manifest. When True (include primary), the dataset's primary storage
+        participates in the rotation as the first slot; when False, only the
+        registered bases are used. Cannot be combined with ``target_bases``.
+    base_store_params : dict of str to dict, optional
+        Runtime-only object store parameters keyed by base path URI. Each key
+        is a base path URI (e.g., "s3://bucket/path") and each value is a dict
+        of storage options (credentials, endpoint, etc.) for that base. These
+        are not persisted to the manifest. These take precedence over
+        ``base_<id>.<key>`` entries in ``storage_options``. When a base has no
+        explicit entry here, the top-level ``storage_options`` is used as a
+        fallback.
+    external_blob_mode: {"reference", "ingest"}, default "reference"
+        How external blob URIs are handled on write.
+
+        - ``"reference"`` stores the URI as an external blob reference.
+        - ``"ingest"`` reads the external bytes during write and stores them in
+          Lance-managed storage using the normal inline / packed / dedicated
+          thresholds.
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool, default False
+        If False, external blob URIs must map to a registered non-dataset-root
+        base path. If True, external blob URIs outside registered bases are
+        allowed. Only valid when ``external_blob_mode="reference"``. Setting
+        this to True with ``"ingest"`` mode raises an error.
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: optional, int, default None
+        Maximum size in bytes for blob v2 pack (.blob) sidecar files. When a pack
+        file reaches this size, a new one is started. If not set, defaults to 1 GiB.
+    namespace_client : optional, LanceNamespace
+        A namespace client from which to fetch table location and storage options.
         Must be provided together with `table_id`. Cannot be used with `uri`.
         When provided, the table location will be fetched automatically from the
         namespace via describe_table(). Storage options will be automatically refreshed
         before they expire.
     table_id : optional, List[str]
         The table identifier when using a namespace (e.g., ["my_table"]).
-        Must be provided together with `namespace`. Cannot be used with `uri`.
+        Must be provided together with `namespace_client`. Cannot be used with `uri`.
 
     Notes
     -----
-    When using `namespace` and `table_id`:
+    When using `namespace_client` and `table_id`:
     - The `uri` parameter is optional and will be fetched from the namespace
     - Storage options from describe_table() will be used automatically
-    - A `LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider` will be created automatically for
-      storage options refresh
+    - Storage options provider will be created automatically for credential refresh
     - Initial storage options from describe_table() will be merged with
       any provided `storage_options`
     """
-    # Validate that user provides either uri OR (namespace + table_id), not both
+    # Validate that user provides either uri OR (namespace_client + table_id), not both
     has_uri = uri is not None
-    has_namespace = namespace is not None or table_id is not None
+    has_namespace = namespace_client is not None or table_id is not None
 
     if has_uri and has_namespace:
         raise ValueError(
-            "Cannot specify both 'uri' and 'namespace/table_id'. "
-            "Please provide either 'uri' or both 'namespace' and 'table_id'."
+            "Cannot specify both 'uri' and 'namespace_client/table_id'. "
+            "Please provide either 'uri' or both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id'."
         )
     elif not has_uri and not has_namespace:
         raise ValueError(
-            "Must specify either 'uri' or both 'namespace' and 'table_id'."
+            "Must specify either 'uri' or both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id'."
         )
 
     # Handle namespace-based dataset writing
-    if namespace is not None:
+    if namespace_client is not None:
         if table_id is None:
             raise ValueError(
-                "Both 'namespace' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
+                "Both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
             )
 
         # Implement write_into_namespace logic in Python
         # This follows the same pattern as the Rust implementation:
-        # - CREATE mode: calls namespace.create_empty_table()
+        # - CREATE mode: calls namespace.declare_table()
         # - APPEND/OVERWRITE mode: calls namespace.describe_table()
         # - Both modes: create storage options provider and merge storage options
 
         from .namespace import (
-            CreateEmptyTableRequest,
             DeclareTableRequest,
             DescribeTableRequest,
-            LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider,
         )
 
         # Determine which namespace method to call based on mode
         if mode == "create":
-            # Try declare_table first, fall back to deprecated create_empty_table
-            # for backward compatibility with older namespace implementations.
-            # create_empty_table support will be removed in 3.0.0.
-            if hasattr(namespace, "declare_table"):
-                try:
-                    from lance_namespace.errors import UnsupportedOperationError
-
-                    declare_request = DeclareTableRequest(id=table_id, location=None)
-                    response = namespace.declare_table(declare_request)
-                except (UnsupportedOperationError, NotImplementedError):
-                    # Fall back to deprecated create_empty_table
-                    warnings.warn(
-                        "create_empty_table is deprecated, use declare_table instead. "
-                        "Support will be removed in 3.0.0.",
-                        DeprecationWarning,
-                        stacklevel=2,
-                    )
-                    fallback_request = CreateEmptyTableRequest(
-                        id=table_id, location=None
-                    )
-                    response = namespace.create_empty_table(fallback_request)
-            else:
-                # Namespace doesn't have declare_table, fall back to create_empty_table
-                warnings.warn(
-                    "create_empty_table is deprecated, use declare_table instead. "
-                    "Support will be removed in 3.0.0.",
-                    DeprecationWarning,
-                    stacklevel=2,
-                )
-                fallback_request = CreateEmptyTableRequest(id=table_id, location=None)
-                response = namespace.create_empty_table(fallback_request)
+            declare_request = DeclareTableRequest(id=table_id, location=None)
+            response = namespace_client.declare_table(declare_request)
         elif mode in ("append", "overwrite"):
             request = DescribeTableRequest(id=table_id, version=None)
-            response = namespace.describe_table(request)
+            response = namespace_client.describe_table(request)
         else:
             raise ValueError(f"Invalid mode: {mode}")
 
@@ -5802,30 +8315,30 @@ def write_dataset(
                 f"Namespace did not return a table location in {mode} response"
             )
 
+        # Check if namespace manages versioning (commits go through namespace API)
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning = (
+            getattr(response, "managed_versioning", None) is True
+        )
+
         # Use namespace storage options
         namespace_storage_options = response.storage_options
 
-        # Set up storage options and provider
-        if namespace_storage_options:
-            # Create the storage options provider for automatic refresh
-            storage_options_provider = LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(
-                namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id
-            )
-
-            # Merge namespace storage options with any existing options
-            # Namespace options take precedence (same as Rust implementation)
+        # Merge namespace storage options with any existing options
+        # Namespace options take precedence (same as Rust implementation)
+        # Storage options provider will be created automatically in Rust
+        if namespace_storage_options is not None:
             if storage_options is None:
                 storage_options = dict(namespace_storage_options)
             else:
                 merged_options = dict(storage_options)
                 merged_options.update(namespace_storage_options)
                 storage_options = merged_options
-        else:
-            storage_options_provider = None
     elif table_id is not None:
-        raise ValueError("Both 'namespace' and 'table_id' must be provided together.")
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
+        )
     else:
-        storage_options_provider = None
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning = False
 
     if use_legacy_format is not None:
         warnings.warn(
@@ -5840,6 +8353,7 @@ def write_dataset(
     reader = _coerce_reader(data_obj, schema)
     _validate_schema(reader.schema)
     # TODO add support for passing in LanceDataset and LanceScanner here
+    base_store_params = LanceDataset._inherit_base_store_params(uri, base_store_params)
 
     # Merge properties and commit_message with priority to commit_message
     merged_properties = _merge_message_to_properties(
@@ -5851,6 +8365,8 @@ def write_dataset(
         "max_rows_per_file": max_rows_per_file,
         "max_rows_per_group": max_rows_per_group,
         "max_bytes_per_file": max_bytes_per_file,
+        "data_cache_bytes": data_cache_bytes,
+        "max_page_bytes": max_page_bytes,
         "progress": progress,
         "storage_options": storage_options,
         "data_storage_version": data_storage_version,
@@ -5860,11 +8376,22 @@ def write_dataset(
         "transaction_properties": merged_properties,
         "initial_bases": initial_bases,
         "target_bases": target_bases,
+        "target_all_bases": target_all_bases,
+        "base_store_params": base_store_params,
+        "external_blob_mode": external_blob_mode,
+        "allow_external_blob_outside_bases": allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        "blob_pack_file_size_threshold": blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+        "session": session,
     }
 
-    # Add storage_options_provider if created from namespace
-    if storage_options_provider is not None:
-        params["storage_options_provider"] = storage_options_provider
+    # Add namespace_client and table_id for storage options provider and managed
+    # versioning. The storage options provider will be created automatically in Rust.
+    if namespace_client is not None and table_id is not None:
+        params["namespace_client"] = namespace_client
+        params["table_id"] = table_id
+        params["namespace_client_managed_versioning"] = (
+            namespace_client_managed_versioning
+        )
 
     if commit_lock:
         if not callable(commit_lock):
@@ -5882,7 +8409,10 @@ def write_dataset(
 
     ds = LanceDataset.__new__(LanceDataset)
     ds._storage_options = storage_options
-    ds._storage_options_provider = None
+    ds._base_store_params = base_store_params
+    ds._namespace_client = namespace_client
+    ds._table_id = table_id
+    ds._namespace_client_managed_versioning = namespace_client_managed_versioning
     ds._ds = inner_ds
     ds._uri = inner_ds.uri
     ds._default_scan_options = None
@@ -5914,8 +8444,7 @@ def _coerce_query_vector(query: QueryVectorLike) -> tuple[pa.Array, int]:
         if isinstance(query.type, pa.FixedSizeListType):
             query = query.values
     elif isinstance(query, (list, tuple)) or (
-        _check_for_numpy(query),
-        isinstance(query, np.ndarray),
+        _check_for_numpy(query) and isinstance(query, np.ndarray)
     ):
         query = np.array(query).astype("float64")  # workaround for GH-608
         query = pa.FloatingPointArray.from_pandas(query, type=pa.float32())
@@ -5942,6 +8471,161 @@ def _coerce_query_vector(query: QueryVectorLike) -> tuple[pa.Array, int]:
     return (query, len(query))
 
 
+def _build_vector_search_query(
+    column: str,
+    q,
+    *,
+    dataset: Optional["LanceDataset"] = None,
+    k: Optional[int] = None,
+    metric: Optional[str] = None,
+    nprobes: Optional[int] = None,
+    minimum_nprobes: Optional[int] = None,
+    maximum_nprobes: Optional[int] = None,
+    refine_factor: Optional[int] = None,
+    use_index: bool = True,
+    ef: Optional[int] = None,
+    query_parallelism: Optional[int] = None,
+    approx_mode: Literal["fast", "normal", "accurate"] = "normal",
+    distance_range: Optional[tuple[Optional[float], Optional[float]]] = None,
+) -> dict:
+    """Configure nearest neighbor search.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    column: str
+        The name of the vector column to search.
+    q: QueryVectorLike
+        The query vector. For fixed-size vector columns, this may be a 2-D
+        array-like or list-shaped batch of query vectors. Batch queries return up to
+        ``k`` rows per query vector and include Int32 non-null ``query_index`` as
+        the first output column.
+        Flattened 1-D inputs whose length is a multiple of the vector dimension are
+        rejected. Datasets with an existing ``query_index`` column cannot be used for
+        batch search. When ``use_index`` is true and a vector index is available,
+        each query vector is searched through the index path; otherwise the flat batch
+        path is used.
+    k: int, optional
+        The number of nearest neighbors to return.
+    metric: str, optional
+        The distance metric to use (e.g., "L2", "cosine", "dot", "hamming").
+    nprobes: int, optional
+        The number of partitions to search, setting both the minimum and maximum.
+    minimum_nprobes: int, optional
+        The minimum number of partitions to search.
+    maximum_nprobes: int, optional
+        The maximum number of partitions to search.
+    refine_factor: int, optional
+        The refine factor for the search.
+    use_index: bool, default True
+        Whether to use the index for the search.
+    ef: int, optional
+        The ef parameter for HNSW search.
+    query_parallelism: int, optional
+        Maximum partition-search concurrency for a single vector query.
+        The default is 0. Value 0 uses the automatic policy, which currently
+        maps to the single-worker sequential path. Value -1 uses the CPU pool
+        size. Value 1 uses the single-worker sequential path. Values >= 2 use
+        the partition-parallel path and are clamped to the CPU pool size.
+    approx_mode: {"fast", "normal", "accurate"}, default "normal"
+        Controls the speed / accuracy tradeoff for approximate vector search
+        when supported by the selected index. This currently only affects
+        RQ-quantized indexes, such as IVF_RQ. Other index types ignore this
+        setting. ``fast`` favors lower latency and may reduce recall,
+        ``normal`` uses the default balance, and ``accurate`` favors higher
+        recall and may increase latency.
+    distance_range: tuple[Optional[float], Optional[float]], optional
+        A tuple of (lower_bound, upper_bound) to filter results by distance.
+        Both bounds are optional. The lower bound is inclusive and the upper
+        bound is exclusive, so (0.0, 1.0) keeps distances d where
+        0.0 <= d < 1.0, (None, 0.5) keeps d < 0.5, and (0.5, None) keeps d >= 0.5.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ScannerBuilder
+        The scanner builder for method chaining.
+    """
+    q, q_dim = _coerce_query_vector(q)
+
+    lance_field = dataset._ds.lance_schema.field_case_insensitive(column)
+    if lance_field is None:
+        raise ValueError(f"Embedding column {column} is not in the dataset")
+
+    column_field = lance_field.to_arrow()
+    column_type = column_field.type
+    if hasattr(column_type, "storage_type"):
+        column_type = column_type.storage_type
+    if pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(column_type):
+        dim = column_type.list_size
+    elif pa.types.is_list(column_type) and pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(
+        column_type.value_type
+    ):
+        dim = column_type.value_type.list_size
+    else:
+        raise TypeError(
+            f"Query column {column} must be a vector. Got {column_field.type}."
+        )
+
+    if q_dim != dim:
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"Query vector size {len(q)} does not match index column size {dim}"
+        )
+
+    if k is not None and int(k) <= 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"Nearest-K must be > 0 but got {k}")
+    if nprobes is not None and int(nprobes) <= 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"Nprobes must be > 0 but got {nprobes}")
+    if minimum_nprobes is not None and int(minimum_nprobes) < 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"Minimum nprobes must be >= 0 but got {minimum_nprobes}")
+    if maximum_nprobes is not None and int(maximum_nprobes) < 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"Maximum nprobes must be >= 0 but got {maximum_nprobes}")
+
+    if (
+        minimum_nprobes is not None
+        and maximum_nprobes is not None
+        and minimum_nprobes > maximum_nprobes
+    ):
+        raise ValueError("minimum_nprobes must be <= maximum_nprobes")
+    if refine_factor is not None and int(refine_factor) < 1:
+        raise ValueError(f"Refine factor must be 1 or more got {refine_factor}")
+    if ef is not None and int(ef) <= 0:
+        # `ef` should be >= `k`, but `k` could be None so we can't check it here
+        # the rust code will check it
+        raise ValueError(f"ef must be > 0 but got {ef}")
+    if query_parallelism is not None:
+        query_parallelism = operator.index(query_parallelism)
+
+    if query_parallelism is not None and query_parallelism < -1:
+        raise ValueError("query_parallelism must be >= -1")
+
+    if approx_mode not in {"fast", "normal", "accurate"}:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "approx_mode must be one of 'fast', 'normal', or 'accurate', "
+            f"got {approx_mode!r}"
+        )
+
+    if distance_range is not None:
+        if len(distance_range) != 2:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "distance_range must be a tuple of (lower_bound, upper_bound)"
+            )
+
+    return {
+        "column": column,
+        "q": q,
+        "k": k,
+        "metric": metric,
+        "nprobes": nprobes,
+        "minimum_nprobes": minimum_nprobes,
+        "maximum_nprobes": maximum_nprobes,
+        "refine_factor": refine_factor,
+        "use_index": use_index,
+        "ef": ef,
+        "query_parallelism": query_parallelism,
+        "approx_mode": approx_mode,
+        "distance_range": distance_range,
+    }
+
+
 def _validate_schema(schema: pa.Schema):
     """
     Make sure the metadata is valid utf8
@@ -5990,7 +8674,6 @@ class VectorIndexReader:
     """
     This class allows you to initialize a reader for a specific vector index,
     retrieve the number of partitions,
-    access the centroids of the index,
     and read specific partitions of the index.
 
     Parameters
@@ -6047,22 +8730,6 @@ def num_partitions(self) -> int:
 
         return self.stats["indices"][0]["num_partitions"]
 
-    def centroids(self) -> np.ndarray:
-        """
-        Returns the centroids of the index
-
-        Returns
-        -------
-        np.ndarray
-            The centroids of IVF
-            with shape (num_partitions, dim)
-        """
-        # when we have more delta indices,
-        # they are with the same centroids
-        return np.array(
-            self.dataset._ds.get_index_centroids(self.stats["indices"][0]["centroids"])
-        )
-
     def read_partition(
         self, partition_id: int, *, with_vector: bool = False
     ) -> pa.Table:
@@ -6093,3 +8760,40 @@ def read_partition(
         return self.dataset._ds.read_index_partition(
             self.index_name, partition_id, with_vector
         ).read_all()
+
+
+class VectorSearchQuery:
+    _inner: dict
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        column: str,
+        q: QueryVectorLike,
+        k: Optional[int] = None,
+        metric: Optional[str] = None,
+        nprobes: Optional[int] = None,
+        minimum_nprobes: Optional[int] = None,
+        maximum_nprobes: Optional[int] = None,
+        refine_factor: Optional[int] = None,
+        use_index: bool = True,
+        ef: Optional[int] = None,
+        query_parallelism: Optional[int] = None,
+        approx_mode: Literal["fast", "normal", "accurate"] = "normal",
+    ):
+        self._inner = _build_vector_search_query(
+            column,
+            q,
+            k=k,
+            metric=metric,
+            nprobes=nprobes,
+            minimum_nprobes=minimum_nprobes,
+            maximum_nprobes=maximum_nprobes,
+            refine_factor=refine_factor,
+            use_index=use_index,
+            ef=ef,
+            query_parallelism=query_parallelism,
+            approx_mode=approx_mode,
+        )
+
+    def inner(self):
+        return self._inner
diff --git a/python/python/lance/dependencies.py b/python/python/lance/dependencies.py
index df6b71cb22f..e1435e6fca1 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/dependencies.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/dependencies.py
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@
 _CAGRA_AVAILABLE = True
 _RAFT_COMMON_AVAILABLE = True
 _HUGGING_FACE_AVAILABLE = True
-_TENSORFLOW_AVAILABLE = True
+_PYDANTIC_AVAILABLE = True
 
 
 class _LazyModule(ModuleType):
@@ -49,7 +49,6 @@ class _LazyModule(ModuleType):
         "pandas": "pd.",
         "polars": "pl.",
         "torch": "torch.",
-        "tensorflow": "tf.",
     }
 
     def __init__(
@@ -163,8 +162,7 @@ def _lazy_import(module_name: str) -> tuple[ModuleType, bool]:
     import numpy
     import pandas
     import polars
-    import tensorflow
-    import torch
+    import torch  # type: ignore[reportMissingImports]
 else:
     # heavy/optional third party libs
     numpy, _NUMPY_AVAILABLE = _lazy_import("numpy")
@@ -172,7 +170,7 @@ def _lazy_import(module_name: str) -> tuple[ModuleType, bool]:
     polars, _POLARS_AVAILABLE = _lazy_import("polars")
     torch, _TORCH_AVAILABLE = _lazy_import("torch")
     datasets, _HUGGING_FACE_AVAILABLE = _lazy_import("datasets")
-    tensorflow, _TENSORFLOW_AVAILABLE = _lazy_import("tensorflow")
+    _, _PYDANTIC_AVAILABLE = _lazy_import("pydantic")
 
 
 @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
@@ -215,33 +213,77 @@ def _check_for_hugging_face(obj: Any, *, check_type: bool = True) -> bool:
     )
 
 
-def _check_for_tensorflow(obj: Any, *, check_type: bool = True) -> bool:
-    return _TENSORFLOW_AVAILABLE and _might_be(
-        cast("Hashable", type(obj) if check_type else obj), "tensorflow"
+def _check_for_pydantic(obj: Any, *, check_type: bool = True) -> bool:
+    return _PYDANTIC_AVAILABLE and _might_be(
+        cast("Hashable", type(obj) if check_type else obj), "pydantic"
     )
 
 
+def _is_pydantic_base_model(obj: Any) -> bool:
+    if not _PYDANTIC_AVAILABLE:
+        return False
+    from pydantic import BaseModel
+
+    return isinstance(obj, BaseModel)
+
+
+def _is_pydantic_base_model_class(obj: Any) -> bool:
+    if not _PYDANTIC_AVAILABLE:
+        return False
+    from pydantic import BaseModel
+
+    return isinstance(obj, type) and issubclass(obj, BaseModel)
+
+
+def model_to_dict(obj: Any) -> dict[str, Any]:
+    return obj.model_dump() if hasattr(obj, "model_dump") else obj.dict()
+
+
+def _validate_pydantic_list(data: Any, model_class: type) -> None:
+    """Validate that `data` is a list of exact `model_class` instances.
+
+    Rejects non-list iterables (e.g. generators), which would otherwise be
+    drained by this validation loop and leave nothing for the caller to
+    serialize, and rejects subclass instances, whose extra/overridden fields
+    would not match the schema derived from `model_class`.
+    """
+    if not isinstance(data, list):
+        raise TypeError(
+            f"Pydantic model data must be provided as a list, got {type(data)!r}"
+        )
+    for i, item in enumerate(data):
+        if type(item) is not model_class:
+            raise TypeError(
+                f"data[{i}] must be an instance of {model_class!r} exactly "
+                f"(subclasses are not accepted), got {type(item)!r} "
+                f"(data has {len(data)} items)"
+            )
+
+
 __all__ = [
     # lazy-load third party libs
     "datasets",
     "numpy",
     "pandas",
     "polars",
-    "tensorflow",
     "torch",
     # lazy utilities
     "_check_for_hugging_face",
     "_check_for_numpy",
     "_check_for_pandas",
     "_check_for_polars",
-    "_check_for_tensorflow",
+    "_check_for_pydantic",
     "_check_for_torch",
+    "_is_pydantic_base_model",
+    "_is_pydantic_base_model_class",
     "_LazyModule",
+    "model_to_dict",
+    "_validate_pydantic_list",
     # exported flags/guards
     "_NUMPY_AVAILABLE",
     "_PANDAS_AVAILABLE",
     "_POLARS_AVAILABLE",
+    "_PYDANTIC_AVAILABLE",
     "_TORCH_AVAILABLE",
     "_HUGGING_FACE_AVAILABLE",
-    "_TENSORFLOW_AVAILABLE",
 ]
diff --git a/python/python/lance/download.py b/python/python/lance/download.py
index 34b43eef1d0..9dc5ecbdac4 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/download.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/download.py
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 import os
 import shutil
 import subprocess
+import sys
 import tarfile
 import traceback
 from io import BytesIO
@@ -13,6 +14,26 @@
 LANGUAGE_MODEL_HOME = language_model_home()
 
 
+def _safe_tar_extractall(tar, dest_dir):
+    """Extract tar safely, blocking path traversal attacks (CVE-2007-4559).
+
+    On Python >= 3.12 uses the built-in ``filter="data"`` safeguard.
+    On older versions, manually validates every member path.
+    """
+    if sys.version_info >= (3, 12):
+        tar.extractall(path=dest_dir, filter="data")
+    else:
+        abs_dest = os.path.realpath(dest_dir)
+        for member in tar.getmembers():
+            member_path = os.path.join(dest_dir, member.name)
+            abs_member = os.path.realpath(member_path)
+            if not abs_member.startswith(abs_dest + os.sep) and abs_member != abs_dest:
+                raise Exception(
+                    f"Tar member '{member.name}' would extract outside target directory"
+                )
+        tar.extractall(path=dest_dir)
+
+
 def check_lindera():
     if not shutil.which("lindera"):
         raise Exception(
@@ -69,7 +90,7 @@ def download_lindera(lm: str):
     try:
         os.chdir(src_dirname)
         with tarfile.open(fileobj=BytesIO(data)) as tar:
-            tar.extractall()
+            _safe_tar_extractall(tar, src_dirname)
             name = tar.getnames()[0]
         cmd = [
             "lindera",
diff --git a/python/python/lance/file.py b/python/python/lance/file.py
index 8a20e4aff2f..2e5e969d5b8 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/file.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/file.py
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+from dataclasses import dataclass
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import Dict, List, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Dict, List, Optional, Union
 
 import pyarrow as pa
 
-from .io import StorageOptionsProvider
 from .lance import (
     LanceBufferDescriptor,
     LanceColumnMetadata,
@@ -25,6 +25,10 @@
     LanceFileWriter as _LanceFileWriter,
 )
 
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from .blob import DedicatedBlobWriter, PackedBlobWriter
+    from .namespace import LanceNamespace
+
 
 class ReaderResults:
     """
@@ -67,7 +71,8 @@ def __init__(
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
         columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
         *,
-        storage_options_provider: Optional[StorageOptionsProvider] = None,
+        namespace_client: Optional["LanceNamespace"] = None,
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
         _inner_reader: Optional[_LanceFileReader] = None,
     ):
         """
@@ -82,9 +87,12 @@ def __init__(
         storage_options : optional, dict
             Extra options to be used for a particular storage connection. This is
             used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
-        storage_options_provider : optional
-            A provider that can provide storage options dynamically. This is useful
-            for credentials that need to be refreshed or vended on-demand.
+        namespace_client : optional, LanceNamespace
+            A namespace client for automatic credential refresh.
+            Must be provided together with table_id.
+        table_id : optional, List[str]
+            The table identifier within the namespace.
+            Must be provided together with namespace_client.
         columns: list of str, default None
             List of column names to be fetched.
             All columns are fetched if None or unspecified.
@@ -97,7 +105,8 @@ def __init__(
             self._reader = _LanceFileReader(
                 path,
                 storage_options=storage_options,
-                storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+                namespace_client=namespace_client,
+                table_id=table_id,
                 columns=columns,
             )
 
@@ -200,6 +209,26 @@ def num_rows(self) -> int:
         return self._reader.num_rows()
 
 
+@dataclass
+class ListResult:
+    """
+    Result of a non-recursive, delimited list (see
+    :meth:`LanceFileSession.list_with_delimiter`).
+
+    Attributes
+    ----------
+    common_prefixes : List[str]
+        The immediate child "directories" of the listed path, relative to the
+        session's base path.
+    objects : List[str]
+        The immediate child files of the listed path, relative to the session's
+        base path.
+    """
+
+    common_prefixes: List[str]
+    objects: List[str]
+
+
 class LanceFileSession:
     """
     A file session for reading and writing Lance files.
@@ -213,7 +242,8 @@ def __init__(
         self,
         base_path: str,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-        storage_options_provider: Optional[StorageOptionsProvider] = None,
+        namespace_client: Optional["LanceNamespace"] = None,
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
     ):
         """
         Creates a new file session
@@ -227,16 +257,20 @@ def __init__(
         storage_options : optional, dict
             Extra options to be used for a particular storage connection. This is
             used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
-        storage_options_provider : optional
-            A provider that can provide storage options dynamically. This is useful
-            for credentials that need to be refreshed or vended on-demand.
+        namespace_client : optional, LanceNamespace
+            A namespace client for automatic credential refresh.
+            Must be provided together with table_id.
+        table_id : optional, List[str]
+            The table identifier within the namespace.
+            Must be provided together with namespace_client.
         """
         if isinstance(base_path, Path):
             base_path = str(base_path)
         self._session = _LanceFileSession(
             base_path,
             storage_options=storage_options,
-            storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+            namespace_client=namespace_client,
+            table_id=table_id,
         )
 
     def open_reader(
@@ -274,7 +308,8 @@ def open_writer(
             If provided, creates a schema-bound writer; otherwise a lazy writer is
             created.
         data_cache_bytes : int, optional
-            Size of the row-group/page write cache in bytes.
+            Total bytes to buffer for column data before writing pages. The
+            budget is divided evenly across top-level columns.
         version : str, optional
             Lance file format version (e.g. "2"). Parsed by the Rust layer.
         keep_original_array : bool, optional
@@ -299,6 +334,24 @@ def open_writer(
             _inner_writer=inner,
         )
 
+    def open_packed_blob_writer(self, path: str, blob_id: int) -> "PackedBlobWriter":
+        """
+        Opens a packed blob writer for the given data file path.
+
+        The path will be appended to the base path of the session.
+        """
+        return self._session.open_packed_blob_writer(path, blob_id)
+
+    def open_dedicated_blob_writer(
+        self, path: str, blob_id: int
+    ) -> "DedicatedBlobWriter":
+        """
+        Opens a dedicated blob writer for the given data file path.
+
+        The path will be appended to the base path of the session.
+        """
+        return self._session.open_dedicated_blob_writer(path, blob_id)
+
     def contains(self, path: str) -> bool:
         """
         Check if a file exists at the given path (relative to this session's base path).
@@ -332,6 +385,66 @@ def list(self, path: Optional[str] = None) -> List[str]:
         """
         return self._session.list(path)
 
+    def list_with_delimiter(self, path: Optional[str] = None) -> ListResult:
+        """
+        Non-recursively list a single directory level (relative to this
+        session's base path).
+
+        Unlike :meth:`list`, which recurses into the entire subtree, this
+        returns only the immediate children of ``path``: the child
+        "directories" as ``common_prefixes`` and the direct child files as
+        ``objects``.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        path : str, optional
+            Path relative to `base_path` to list. If None, lists the base path.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ListResult
+            The immediate child prefixes and objects of `path`.
+        """
+        common_prefixes, objects = self._session.list_with_delimiter(path)
+        return ListResult(common_prefixes=common_prefixes, objects=objects)
+
+    def read_range(self, path: str, offset: int, length: int) -> bytes:
+        """
+        Read a byte range from a file (relative to this session's base path).
+
+        Issues a single ranged read. Reading a missing object raises
+        ``OSError``, consistent with ``download_file``.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        path : str
+            Path relative to `base_path` to read from.
+        offset : int
+            Byte offset at which to start reading.
+        length : int
+            Number of bytes to read.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        bytes
+            The requested byte range.
+        """
+        return self._session.read_range(path, offset, length)
+
+    def delete_file(self, path: str) -> None:
+        """
+        Delete a file (relative to this session's base path).
+
+        Deleting a path that does not exist raises ``OSError``, consistent with
+        ``download_file``.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        path : str
+            Path relative to `base_path` to delete.
+        """
+        self._session.delete_file(path)
+
     def upload_file(self, local_path: Union[str, Path], remote_path: str) -> None:
         """
         Upload a file from local filesystem to the object store.
@@ -370,6 +483,12 @@ class LanceFileWriter:
     This class is used to write Lance data files, a low level structure
     optimized for storing multi-modal tabular data.  If you are working with
     Lance datasets then you should use the LanceDataset class instead.
+
+    Attributes
+    ----------
+    size_bytes: Optional[int]
+        The final size of the file in bytes.  This is None until `close` is
+        called.
     """
 
     def __init__(
@@ -380,7 +499,8 @@ def __init__(
         data_cache_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
         version: Optional[str] = None,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-        storage_options_provider: Optional[StorageOptionsProvider] = None,
+        namespace_client: Optional["LanceNamespace"] = None,
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
         max_page_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
         _inner_writer: Optional[_LanceFileWriter] = None,
         **kwargs,
@@ -398,8 +518,9 @@ def __init__(
             the schema will be inferred from the first batch.  If the schema
             is not specified and no data is written then the write will fail.
         data_cache_bytes: int
-            How many bytes (per column) to cache before writing a page.  The
-            default is an appropriate value based on the filesystem.
+            Total bytes to buffer for column data before writing pages. The
+            budget is divided evenly across top-level columns. By default,
+            each column uses 8 MiB.
         version: str
             The version of the file format to write.  If not specified then
             the latest stable version will be used.  Newer versions are more
@@ -407,10 +528,12 @@ def __init__(
         storage_options : optional, dict
             Extra options to be used for a particular storage connection. This is
             used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
-        storage_options_provider : optional, StorageOptionsProvider
-            A storage options provider that can fetch and refresh storage options
-            dynamically. This is useful for credentials that expire and need to be
-            refreshed automatically.
+        namespace_client : optional, LanceNamespace
+            A namespace client for automatic credential refresh.
+            Must be provided together with table_id.
+        table_id : optional, List[str]
+            The table identifier within the namespace.
+            Must be provided together with namespace_client.
         max_page_bytes : optional, int
             The maximum size of a page in bytes, if a single array would create a
             page larger than this then it will be split into multiple pages. The
@@ -427,11 +550,13 @@ def __init__(
                 data_cache_bytes=data_cache_bytes,
                 version=version,
                 storage_options=storage_options,
-                storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+                namespace_client=namespace_client,
+                table_id=table_id,
                 max_page_bytes=max_page_bytes,
                 **kwargs,
             )
         self.closed = False
+        self.size_bytes: Optional[int] = None
 
     def write_batch(self, batch: Union[pa.RecordBatch, pa.Table]) -> None:
         """
@@ -453,11 +578,17 @@ def close(self) -> Optional[int]:
         Write the file metadata and close the file
 
         Returns the number of rows written to the file
+
+        After this returns, ``size_bytes`` holds the final size of the file.  This
+        is reported by the writer itself, so it is available for object stores
+        without issuing a separate metadata request.
         """
         if self.closed:
             return
         self.closed = True
-        return self._writer.finish()
+        summary = self._writer.finish()
+        self.size_bytes = summary.size_bytes
+        return summary.num_rows
 
     def add_schema_metadata(self, key: str, value: str) -> None:
         """
diff --git a/python/python/lance/fragment.py b/python/python/lance/fragment.py
index f8cff450f06..1bc9c5e5d67 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/fragment.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/fragment.py
@@ -11,8 +11,10 @@
 from pathlib import Path
 from typing import (
     TYPE_CHECKING,
+    Any,
     Callable,
     Dict,
+    Iterable,
     Iterator,
     List,
     Literal,
@@ -24,6 +26,7 @@
 
 import pyarrow as pa
 
+from .bitmap import Bitmap
 from .lance import (
     DeletionFile as DeletionFile,
 )
@@ -33,21 +36,29 @@
 from .lance import (
     RowIdMeta as RowIdMeta,
 )
+from .lance import (
+    RowIdSequence as RowIdSequence,
+)
 from .lance import _Fragment, _write_fragments, _write_fragments_transaction
+from .lance import _Session as Session
 from .progress import FragmentWriteProgress, NoopFragmentWriteProgress
 from .types import _coerce_reader
 from .udf import BatchUDF, normalize_transform
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from pyarrow._compute import Expression
+
     from .dataset import (
         ColumnOrdering,
         DatasetBasePath,
         LanceDataset,
+        LanceOperation,
         LanceScanner,
         ReaderLike,
         Transaction,
     )
     from .lance import LanceSchema
+    from .namespace import LanceNamespace
 
 
 DEFAULT_MAX_BYTES_PER_FILE = 90 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024
@@ -70,11 +81,26 @@ class FragmentMetadata:
     deletion_file : Optional[DeletionFile]
         The deletion file, if any.
     row_id_meta : Optional[RowIdMeta]
-        The row id metadata, if any.
+        The stable row ids of this fragment's rows, if any. When committing a
+        transaction by hand on a dataset that uses stable row ids, set this to
+        carry the ids of rewritten rows over to their new fragment; build it with
+        :class:`RowIdSequence`. Rows left without an id are treated as newly
+        inserted and are assigned ids during the commit.
     created_at_version_meta : Optional[RowDatasetVersionMeta]
-        The row created at version metadata, if any.
+        The dataset version each row was created in. Derived during the commit
+        from ``row_id_meta`` -- a rewritten row keeps the version it first
+        appeared in -- so leave this as None when building a transaction. Any
+        value set here is ignored for newly written fragments.
     last_updated_at_version_meta : Optional[RowDatasetVersionMeta]
-        The row last updated at version metadata, if any.
+        The dataset version each row was last modified in. Derived during the
+        commit, like ``created_at_version_meta``; leave this as None. It cannot
+        be computed ahead of time because a commit that loses a race is retried
+        against a later version than the one it was built for.
+    overlays : List[LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile]
+        The data overlay files layered over this fragment's base data, if any.
+        Overlays are created via :class:`LanceOperation.DataOverlay`; they are
+        carried here so they survive operations that round-trip fragment
+        metadata (e.g. a manual ``Delete``, ``Update``, or ``Merge`` commit).
     """
 
     id: int
@@ -84,6 +110,7 @@ class FragmentMetadata:
     row_id_meta: Optional[RowIdMeta] = None
     created_at_version_meta: Optional[RowDatasetVersionMeta] = None
     last_updated_at_version_meta: Optional[RowDatasetVersionMeta] = None
+    overlays: List["LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile"] = field(default_factory=list)
 
     @property
     def num_deletions(self) -> int:
@@ -107,12 +134,32 @@ def data_files(self) -> List[DataFile]:
 
     def to_json(self) -> dict:
         """Get this as a simple JSON-serializable dictionary."""
-        files = [asdict(f) for f in self.files]
-        for f in files:
-            f["path"] = f.pop("_path")
+
+        def _data_file_to_json(f: DataFile) -> dict:
+            d = asdict(f)
+            d["path"] = d.pop("_path")
+            return d
+
+        def _offsets_to_json(offsets):
+            # `offsets` is a Bitmap (dense) or a list of Bitmap/int-list (sparse,
+            # per field); normalize to plain (nested) lists of ints for JSON.
+            if isinstance(offsets, Bitmap):
+                return list(offsets)
+            return [list(o) if isinstance(o, Bitmap) else o for o in offsets]
+
+        files = [_data_file_to_json(f) for f in self.files]
+        overlays = [
+            dict(
+                data_file=_data_file_to_json(o.data_file),
+                offsets=_offsets_to_json(o.offsets),
+                committed_version=o.committed_version,
+            )
+            for o in self.overlays
+        ]
         return dict(
             id=self.id,
             files=files,
+            overlays=overlays,
             physical_rows=self.physical_rows,
             deletion_file=(
                 self.deletion_file.asdict() if self.deletion_file is not None else None
@@ -142,7 +189,7 @@ def from_json(json_data: str) -> FragmentMetadata:
 
         row_id_meta = json_data.get("row_id_meta")
         if row_id_meta is not None:
-            row_id_meta = RowIdMeta(**row_id_meta)
+            row_id_meta = RowIdMeta.from_dict(row_id_meta)
 
         created_at_version_meta = json_data.get("created_at_version_meta")
         if created_at_version_meta is not None:
@@ -156,6 +203,20 @@ def from_json(json_data: str) -> FragmentMetadata:
                 json.dumps(last_updated_at_version_meta)
             )
 
+        overlays = []
+        overlays_json = json_data.get("overlays")
+        if overlays_json:
+            from .dataset import LanceOperation
+
+            overlays = [
+                LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(
+                    data_file=DataFile(**o["data_file"]),
+                    offsets=o["offsets"],
+                    committed_version=o.get("committed_version"),
+                )
+                for o in overlays_json
+            ]
+
         return FragmentMetadata(
             id=json_data["id"],
             files=[DataFile(**f) for f in json_data["files"]],
@@ -164,6 +225,7 @@ def from_json(json_data: str) -> FragmentMetadata:
             row_id_meta=row_id_meta,
             created_at_version_meta=created_at_version_meta,
             last_updated_at_version_meta=last_updated_at_version_meta,
+            overlays=overlays,
         )
 
 
@@ -249,6 +311,36 @@ def field_ids(self) -> List[int]:
         )
         return self.fields
 
+    @classmethod
+    def create(
+        cls,
+        dataset: "LanceDataset",
+        path: str,
+        *,
+        base_id: Optional[int] = None,
+    ) -> "DataFile":
+        """Create a DataFile by reading metadata from an existing lance file.
+
+        This is a convenience method for creating DataFile metadata needed
+        for operations like DataReplacement. It opens the file, reads its
+        schema and version information, matches columns to the dataset's
+        schema to determine field IDs, and calculates column indices.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        dataset : LanceDataset
+            The dataset this file will belong to.
+        path : str
+            The path to the data file, relative to the dataset's data directory.
+        base_id : int, optional
+            The base path ID if the file is outside the dataset directory.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        DataFile
+        """
+        return _Fragment.create_data_file(dataset._ds, path, base_id=base_id)
+
 
 class LanceFragment(pa.dataset.Fragment):
     def __init__(
@@ -271,10 +363,7 @@ def __repr__(self):
         return self._fragment.__repr__()
 
     def __reduce__(self):
-        from .dataset import LanceDataset
-
-        ds = LanceDataset(self._ds.uri, self._ds.version)
-        return LanceFragment, (ds, self.fragment_id)
+        return LanceFragment, (self._ds, self.fragment_id)
 
     @staticmethod
     def create_from_file(
@@ -307,13 +396,16 @@ def create(
         data: ReaderLike,
         fragment_id: Optional[int] = None,
         schema: Optional[pa.Schema] = None,
-        max_rows_per_group: int = 1024,
+        max_rows_per_group: Optional[int] = 1024,
         progress: Optional[FragmentWriteProgress] = None,
         mode: str = "append",
         *,
         data_storage_version: Optional[str] = None,
         use_legacy_format: Optional[bool] = None,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
+        namespace_client: Optional["LanceNamespace"] = None,
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        session: Optional[Session] = None,
     ) -> FragmentMetadata:
         """Create a :class:`FragmentMetadata` from the given data.
 
@@ -334,8 +426,9 @@ def create(
         schema: pa.Schema, optional
             The schema of the data. If not specified, the schema will be inferred
             from the data.
-        max_rows_per_group: int, default 1024
-            The maximum number of rows per group in the data file.
+        max_rows_per_group: int, optional, default 1024
+            The maximum number of rows per group in the data file. ``None``
+            leaves the writer default in place.
         progress: FragmentWriteProgress, optional
             *Experimental API*. Progress tracking for writing the fragment. Pass
             a custom class that defines hooks to be called when each fragment is
@@ -353,6 +446,18 @@ def create(
         storage_options : optional, dict
             Extra options that make sense for a particular storage connection. This is
             used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
+        namespace_client : optional, LanceNamespace
+            A namespace client for automatic credential refresh. When provided with
+            `table_id`, a storage options provider will be created automatically to
+            refresh credentials via the namespace. Must be provided together with
+            `table_id`. The caller should provide initial/merged storage options via
+            the `storage_options` parameter.
+        table_id : optional, List[str]
+            The table identifier when using a namespace (e.g., ["my_table"]).
+            Must be provided together with `namespace_client`.
+        session : optional, Session
+            A session to reuse across operations. The session holds shared
+            caches (metadata and index) and the object store registry.
 
         See Also
         --------
@@ -368,6 +473,16 @@ def create(
         -------
         FragmentMetadata
         """
+        # Validate namespace_client and table_id are provided together
+        if namespace_client is not None and table_id is None:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "Both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
+            )
+        elif table_id is not None and namespace_client is None:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "Both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
+            )
+
         if use_legacy_format is not None:
             warnings.warn(
                 "use_legacy_format is deprecated, use data_storage_version instead",
@@ -394,15 +509,16 @@ def create(
             mode=mode,
             data_storage_version=data_storage_version,
             storage_options=storage_options,
+            namespace_client=namespace_client,
+            table_id=table_id,
+            session=session,
         )
 
     @property
     def fragment_id(self):
         return self._fragment.id()
 
-    def count_rows(
-        self, filter: Optional[Union[pa.compute.Expression, str]] = None
-    ) -> int:
+    def count_rows(self, filter: Optional[Union[Expression, str]] = None) -> int:
         if isinstance(filter, pa.compute.Expression):
             return self.scanner(
                 with_row_id=True, columns=[], filter=filter
@@ -424,6 +540,16 @@ def physical_rows(self) -> int:
         """
         return self._fragment.physical_rows
 
+    def validate(self) -> None:
+        """
+        Validate the fragment.
+
+        This checks the integrity of the fragment and will raise an exception if
+        the fragment is corrupted. Unlike :meth:`lance.LanceDataset.validate`,
+        which checks every fragment, this validates only this fragment.
+        """
+        self._fragment.validate()
+
     @property
     def physical_schema(self) -> pa.Schema:
         # override the pyarrow super class method otherwise causes segfault
@@ -442,7 +568,7 @@ def scanner(
         *,
         columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
         batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
-        filter: Optional[Union[str, pa.compute.Expression]] = None,
+        filter: Optional[Union[str, Expression]] = None,
         limit: Optional[int] = None,
         offset: Optional[int] = None,
         with_row_id: bool = False,
@@ -452,9 +578,22 @@ def scanner(
             Literal["all_binary", "blobs_descriptions", "all_descriptions"]
         ] = None,
         order_by: Optional[List[ColumnOrdering]] = None,
+        use_scalar_index: Optional[bool] = None,
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        late_materialization: Optional[bool | List[str]] = None,
+        include_deleted_rows: Optional[bool] = None,
+        batch_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        strict_batch_size: Optional[bool] = None,
     ) -> "LanceScanner":
         """See Dataset::scanner for details"""
-        filter_str = str(filter) if filter is not None else None
+        from .dataset import LanceScanner, _serialize_expression
+
+        if isinstance(filter, pa.compute.Expression):
+            filter_str = None
+            substrait_filter = _serialize_expression(filter, self._ds._ds.schema)
+        else:
+            filter_str = str(filter) if filter is not None else None
+            substrait_filter = None
 
         columns_arg = {}
         if isinstance(columns, dict):
@@ -466,6 +605,7 @@ def scanner(
         s = self._fragment.scanner(
             batch_size=batch_size,
             filter=filter_str,
+            substrait_filter=substrait_filter,
             limit=limit,
             offset=offset,
             with_row_id=with_row_id,
@@ -473,11 +613,51 @@ def scanner(
             batch_readahead=batch_readahead,
             blob_handling=blob_handling,
             order_by=order_by,
+            use_scalar_index=use_scalar_index,
+            io_buffer_size=io_buffer_size,
+            late_materialization=late_materialization,
+            include_deleted_rows=include_deleted_rows,
+            batch_size_bytes=batch_size_bytes,
+            strict_batch_size=strict_batch_size,
             **columns_arg,
         )
-        from .dataset import LanceScanner
-
-        return LanceScanner(s, self._ds)
+        snapshot = {
+            "_limit": limit,
+            "_filter": filter_str,
+            "_search_filter": None,
+            "_substrait_filter": substrait_filter,
+            "_prefilter": False,
+            "_late_materialization": late_materialization,
+            "_blob_handling": blob_handling,
+            "_offset": offset,
+            "_columns": tuple(columns) if isinstance(columns, list) else None,
+            "_columns_with_transform": (
+                tuple(columns.items()) if isinstance(columns, dict) else None
+            ),
+            "_nearest": None,
+            "_batch_size": batch_size,
+            "_batch_size_bytes": batch_size_bytes,
+            "_io_buffer_size": io_buffer_size,
+            "_batch_readahead": batch_readahead,
+            "_fragment_readahead": None,
+            "_scan_in_order": True,
+            "_fragments": (self._fragment,),
+            "_with_row_id": with_row_id,
+            "_with_row_address": with_row_address,
+            "_use_stats": True,
+            "_fast_search": False,
+            "_full_text_query": None,
+            "_use_scalar_index": use_scalar_index,
+            "_include_deleted_rows": include_deleted_rows,
+            "_scan_stats_callback": None,
+            "_strict_batch_size": (
+                strict_batch_size if strict_batch_size is not None else False
+            ),
+            "_orderings": tuple(order_by) if order_by is not None else None,
+            "_disable_scoring_autoprojection": False,
+            "_substrait_aggregate": None,
+        }
+        return LanceScanner(s, self._ds, snapshot=snapshot)
 
     def open_session(
         self,
@@ -513,7 +693,7 @@ def to_batches(
         *,
         columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
         batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
-        filter: Optional[Union[str, pa.compute.Expression]] = None,
+        filter: Optional[Union[str, Expression]] = None,
         limit: Optional[int] = None,
         offset: Optional[int] = None,
         with_row_id: bool = False,
@@ -523,6 +703,12 @@ def to_batches(
             Literal["all_binary", "blobs_descriptions", "all_descriptions"]
         ] = None,
         order_by: Optional[List[ColumnOrdering]] = None,
+        use_scalar_index: Optional[bool] = None,
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        late_materialization: Optional[bool | List[str]] = None,
+        include_deleted_rows: Optional[bool] = None,
+        batch_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        strict_batch_size: Optional[bool] = None,
     ) -> Iterator[pa.RecordBatch]:
         return self.scanner(
             columns=columns,
@@ -535,12 +721,18 @@ def to_batches(
             batch_readahead=batch_readahead,
             blob_handling=blob_handling,
             order_by=order_by,
+            use_scalar_index=use_scalar_index,
+            io_buffer_size=io_buffer_size,
+            late_materialization=late_materialization,
+            include_deleted_rows=include_deleted_rows,
+            batch_size_bytes=batch_size_bytes,
+            strict_batch_size=strict_batch_size,
         ).to_batches()
 
     def to_table(
         self,
         columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
-        filter: Optional[Union[str, pa.compute.Expression]] = None,
+        filter: Optional[Union[str, Expression]] = None,
         limit: Optional[int] = None,
         offset: Optional[int] = None,
         with_row_id: bool = False,
@@ -549,6 +741,12 @@ def to_table(
             Literal["all_binary", "blobs_descriptions", "all_descriptions"]
         ] = None,
         order_by: Optional[List[ColumnOrdering]] = None,
+        use_scalar_index: Optional[bool] = None,
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        late_materialization: Optional[bool | List[str]] = None,
+        include_deleted_rows: Optional[bool] = None,
+        batch_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        strict_batch_size: Optional[bool] = None,
     ) -> pa.Table:
         return self.scanner(
             columns=columns,
@@ -559,8 +757,57 @@ def to_table(
             with_row_address=with_row_address,
             blob_handling=blob_handling,
             order_by=order_by,
+            use_scalar_index=use_scalar_index,
+            io_buffer_size=io_buffer_size,
+            late_materialization=late_materialization,
+            include_deleted_rows=include_deleted_rows,
+            batch_size_bytes=batch_size_bytes,
+            strict_batch_size=strict_batch_size,
         ).to_table()
 
+    def to_pandas(
+        self,
+        columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+        filter: Optional[Union[str, Expression]] = None,
+        limit: Optional[int] = None,
+        offset: Optional[int] = None,
+        batch_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        with_row_id: bool = False,
+        with_row_address: bool = False,
+        blob_mode: str = "lazy",
+        order_by: Optional[List[ColumnOrdering]] = None,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Any:
+        """Read this fragment into a :py:class:`pandas.DataFrame`.
+
+        Parameters are the same as :meth:`to_table`, except pandas export uses
+        ``blob_mode`` instead of Arrow-facing ``blob_handling`` and accepts
+        ``batch_size`` for scan batching.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        blob_mode: str, default "lazy"
+            Controls how blob columns are returned.
+
+            - ``"lazy"``: return :class:`lance.BlobFile` objects
+            - ``"bytes"``: return Python ``bytes``
+            - ``"descriptions"``: preserve ``to_table().to_pandas()`` behavior
+        batch_size: int, optional
+            The maximum number of rows per scan batch.
+        **kwargs
+            Forwarded to :meth:`pyarrow.Table.to_pandas` for non-blob columns.
+        """
+        return self.scanner(
+            columns=columns,
+            filter=filter,
+            limit=limit,
+            offset=offset,
+            batch_size=batch_size,
+            with_row_id=with_row_id,
+            with_row_address=with_row_address,
+            order_by=order_by,
+        ).to_pandas(blob_mode=blob_mode, **kwargs)
+
     def merge(
         self,
         data_obj: ReaderLike,
@@ -629,17 +876,43 @@ def merge(
             right_on = left_on
 
         reader = _coerce_reader(data_obj, schema)
-        max_field_id = self._ds.max_field_id
-        metadata, schema = self._fragment.merge(reader, left_on, right_on, max_field_id)
+        metadata, schema = self._fragment.merge(reader, left_on, right_on)
         return metadata, schema
 
+    @overload
+    def update_columns(
+        self,
+        data_obj: ReaderLike,
+        left_on: str = "_rowid",
+        right_on: Optional[str] = None,
+        schema=None,
+        *,
+        with_offsets: Literal[False] = False,
+    ) -> Tuple[FragmentMetadata, List[int]]: ...
+
+    @overload
     def update_columns(
         self,
         data_obj: ReaderLike,
         left_on: str = "_rowid",
         right_on: Optional[str] = None,
         schema=None,
-    ) -> Tuple[FragmentMetadata, List[int]]:
+        *,
+        with_offsets: Literal[True],
+    ) -> Tuple[FragmentMetadata, List[int], bytes]: ...
+
+    def update_columns(
+        self,
+        data_obj: ReaderLike,
+        left_on: str = "_rowid",
+        right_on: Optional[str] = None,
+        schema=None,
+        *,
+        with_offsets: bool = False,
+    ) -> Union[
+        Tuple[FragmentMetadata, List[int]],
+        Tuple[FragmentMetadata, List[int], bytes],
+    ]:
         """
         Update existing columns in this fragment.
 
@@ -665,6 +938,14 @@ def update_columns(
             The name of the column in data_obj to join on. If None, defaults to left_on.
         schema: pa.Schema, optional
             The schema of the data. If not specified, the schema will be inferred.
+        with_offsets: bool, default False
+            If True, also return the physical row offsets (0-based within this
+            fragment) that matched the join, serialized in the portable
+            RoaringBitmap format. Pass them to
+            :class:`LanceOperation.Update <lance.LanceOperation.Update>` as
+            ``updated_fragment_offsets`` with ``update_mode="rewrite_columns"``
+            so a commit over stable row ids refreshes row-level version
+            metadata for the matched rows only.
 
         Returns
         -------
@@ -673,6 +954,10 @@ def update_columns(
             - FragmentMetadata: The updated fragment metadata
             - List[int]: The list of field IDs that were modified
 
+            When ``with_offsets`` is True, the tuple has a third element:
+            - bytes: The matched physical row offsets as portable
+              RoaringBitmap bytes
+
         Examples
         --------
 
@@ -728,9 +1013,11 @@ def update_columns(
             right_on = left_on
 
         reader = _coerce_reader(data_obj, schema)
-        metadata, fields_modified = self._fragment.update_columns(
-            reader, left_on, right_on
+        metadata, fields_modified, matched_offsets = self._fragment.update_columns(
+            reader, left_on, right_on, with_offsets
         )
+        if matched_offsets is not None:
+            return metadata, fields_modified, matched_offsets
         return metadata, fields_modified
 
     def merge_columns(
@@ -834,18 +1121,36 @@ def delete(self, predicate: str) -> FragmentMetadata | None:
             return None
         return raw_fragment.metadata()
 
+    def delete_rows(self, offsets: "Iterable[int]") -> FragmentMetadata | None:
+        """Delete rows by their local (within-fragment) physical row offsets.
+
+        Adds the given 0-based offsets to this fragment's deletion file and
+        returns a new fragment, or None if no rows are left. Unlike
+        :meth:`delete`, this deletes exactly the supplied rows without
+        re-evaluating a SQL predicate -- useful when the caller already knows
+        which rows to delete (e.g. offsets collected from a prior scan).
+
+        .. warning::
+
+            Internal API. This method is not intended to be used by end users.
+        """
+        raw_fragment = self._fragment.delete_rows([int(o) for o in offsets])
+        if raw_fragment is None:
+            return None
+        return raw_fragment.metadata()
+
     @property
     def schema(self) -> pa.Schema:
         """Return the schema of this fragment."""
 
         return self._fragment.schema()
 
-    def data_files(self):
+    def data_files(self) -> List[DataFile]:
         """Return the data files of this fragment."""
 
         return self._fragment.data_files()
 
-    def deletion_file(self):
+    def deletion_file(self) -> Optional[str]:
         """Return the deletion file, if any"""
         return self._fragment.deletion_file()
 
@@ -871,16 +1176,24 @@ def write_fragments(
         return_transaction: Literal[True],
         mode: str = "append",
         max_rows_per_file: int = 1024 * 1024,
-        max_rows_per_group: int = 1024,
+        max_rows_per_group: Optional[int] = 1024,
         max_bytes_per_file: int = DEFAULT_MAX_BYTES_PER_FILE,
+        data_cache_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_page_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
         progress: Optional[FragmentWriteProgress] = None,
         data_storage_version: Optional[str] = None,
         use_legacy_format: Optional[bool] = None,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-        storage_options_provider=None,
         enable_stable_row_ids: bool = False,
         target_bases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        target_all_bases: Optional[bool] = None,
         initial_bases: Optional[List["DatasetBasePath"]] = None,
+        base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+        external_blob_mode: Literal["reference", "ingest"] = "reference",
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool = False,
+        namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace] = None,
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        session: Optional[Session] = None,
     ) -> Transaction: ...
 
     @overload
@@ -892,16 +1205,24 @@ def write_fragments(
         return_transaction: Literal[False] = False,
         mode: str = "append",
         max_rows_per_file: int = 1024 * 1024,
-        max_rows_per_group: int = 1024,
+        max_rows_per_group: Optional[int] = 1024,
         max_bytes_per_file: int = DEFAULT_MAX_BYTES_PER_FILE,
+        data_cache_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_page_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
         progress: Optional[FragmentWriteProgress] = None,
         data_storage_version: Optional[str] = None,
         use_legacy_format: Optional[bool] = None,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-        storage_options_provider=None,
         enable_stable_row_ids: bool = False,
         target_bases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        target_all_bases: Optional[bool] = None,
         initial_bases: Optional[List["DatasetBasePath"]] = None,
+        base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+        external_blob_mode: Literal["reference", "ingest"] = "reference",
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool = False,
+        namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace] = None,
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        session: Optional[Session] = None,
     ) -> List[FragmentMetadata]: ...
 
 
@@ -913,16 +1234,24 @@ def write_fragments(
     return_transaction: bool = False,
     mode: str = "append",
     max_rows_per_file: int = 1024 * 1024,
-    max_rows_per_group: int = 1024,
+    max_rows_per_group: Optional[int] = 1024,
     max_bytes_per_file: int = DEFAULT_MAX_BYTES_PER_FILE,
+    data_cache_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+    max_page_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
     progress: Optional[FragmentWriteProgress] = None,
     data_storage_version: Optional[str] = None,
     use_legacy_format: Optional[bool] = None,
     storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-    storage_options_provider=None,
     enable_stable_row_ids: bool = False,
     target_bases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    target_all_bases: Optional[bool] = None,
     initial_bases: Optional[List["DatasetBasePath"]] = None,
+    base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+    external_blob_mode: Literal["reference", "ingest"] = "reference",
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool = False,
+    namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace] = None,
+    table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    session: Optional[Session] = None,
 ) -> List[FragmentMetadata] | Transaction:
     """
     Write data into one or more fragments.
@@ -949,14 +1278,22 @@ def write_fragments(
         "overwrite" to assign new field ids to the schema.
     max_rows_per_file : int, default 1024 * 1024
         The maximum number of rows per data file.
-    max_rows_per_group : int, default 1024
-        The maximum number of rows per group in the data file.
+    max_rows_per_group : int, optional, default 1024
+        The maximum number of rows per group in the data file. ``None`` leaves
+        the writer default in place.
     max_bytes_per_file : int, default 90 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024
         The max number of bytes to write before starting a new file. This is a
         soft limit. This limit is checked after each group is written, which
         means larger groups may cause this to be overshot meaningfully. This
         defaults to 90 GB, since we have a hard limit of 100 GB per file on
         object stores.
+    data_cache_bytes : int, optional
+        Total bytes to buffer for column data before writing pages. The budget
+        is divided evenly across top-level columns. If not set, the current
+        file writer uses 8 MiB per column. Ignored for legacy V1 files.
+    max_page_bytes : int, optional
+        Best-effort maximum page size in bytes. If not set, the current file
+        writer uses its configured default. Ignored for legacy V1 files.
     progress : FragmentWriteProgress, optional
         *Experimental API*. Progress tracking for writing the fragment. Pass
         a custom class that defines hooks to be called when each fragment is
@@ -971,15 +1308,13 @@ def write_fragments(
     storage_options : Optional[Dict[str, str]]
         Extra options that make sense for a particular storage connection. This is
         used to store connection parameters like credentials, endpoint, etc.
-    storage_options_provider : Optional[StorageOptionsProvider]
-        A storage options provider that can fetch and refresh storage options
-        dynamically. This is useful for credentials that expire and need to be
-        refreshed automatically.
     enable_stable_row_ids: bool
-        Experimental: if set to true, the writer will use stable row ids.
-        These row ids are stable after compaction operations, but not after updates.
-        This makes compaction more efficient, since with stable row ids no
-        secondary indices need to be updated to point to new row ids.
+        Has no effect. Row ids are not assigned by this function; they are
+        assigned when the fragments are committed to a dataset (e.g. via
+        :class:`lance.LanceOperation.Append`, or
+        :class:`lance.LanceOperation.Merge` when merging staged fragments
+        with existing ones, together with :meth:`lance.LanceDataset.commit`),
+        based on whether the target dataset uses stable row ids.
     target_bases : list of str, optional
         References to base paths where data should be written. Can be
         specified in all modes.
@@ -991,6 +1326,11 @@ def write_fragments(
         **CREATE mode**: References must match bases in `initial_bases`
         **APPEND/OVERWRITE modes**: References must match bases in the
         existing manifest
+    target_all_bases : bool, optional
+        Write new data files round-robin across every base registered in the
+        manifest, resolved at execution time. When True, the dataset's
+        primary storage participates as the first slot. Cannot be combined
+        with `target_bases`.
     initial_bases : list of DatasetBasePath, optional
         Base paths to register when creating a new dataset (CREATE mode only).
 
@@ -1002,6 +1342,37 @@ def write_fragments(
 
         **Only valid in CREATE mode**. Will raise an error if used with
         APPEND/OVERWRITE modes.
+    base_store_params : dict of str to dict, optional
+        Runtime-only object store parameters keyed by exact base path URI.
+        Each value is a dict of storage options for that base. These settings
+        are not persisted to the manifest. When a base has no explicit entry,
+        top-level ``storage_options`` is used as a fallback. If ``dataset_uri``
+        is a LanceDataset and this is omitted, the dataset's base store params
+        are inherited.
+    external_blob_mode: {"reference", "ingest"}, default "reference"
+        How external blob URIs are handled on write.
+
+        - ``"reference"`` stores the URI as an external blob reference.
+        - ``"ingest"`` reads the external bytes during write and stores them in
+          Lance-managed storage using the normal inline / packed / dedicated
+          thresholds.
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool, default False
+        If False, external blob URIs must map to a registered non-dataset-root
+        base path. If True, external blob URIs outside registered bases are
+        allowed. Only valid when ``external_blob_mode="reference"``. Setting
+        this to True with ``"ingest"`` mode raises an error.
+    namespace_client : optional, LanceNamespace
+        A namespace client for automatic credential refresh. When provided with
+        `table_id`, a storage options provider will be created automatically to
+        refresh credentials via the namespace. Must be provided together with
+        `table_id`. The caller should provide initial/merged storage options via
+        the `storage_options` parameter.
+    table_id : optional, List[str]
+        The table identifier when using a namespace (e.g., ["my_table"]).
+        Must be provided together with `namespace_client`.
+    session : optional, Session
+        A session to reuse across operations. The session holds shared caches
+        (metadata and index) and the object store registry.
 
     Returns
     -------
@@ -1019,11 +1390,31 @@ def write_fragments(
     """
     from .dataset import LanceDataset
 
+    # Validate namespace_client and table_id are provided together
+    if namespace_client is not None and table_id is None:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
+        )
+    elif table_id is not None and namespace_client is None:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Both 'namespace_client' and 'table_id' must be provided together."
+        )
+
     reader = _coerce_reader(data, schema)
 
     if isinstance(dataset_uri, Path):
         dataset_uri = str(dataset_uri)
     elif isinstance(dataset_uri, LanceDataset):
+        if base_store_params is None:
+            base_store_params = dataset_uri._base_store_params
+        if storage_options is None:
+            storage_options = dataset_uri._storage_options
+        if session is not None and not session.is_same_as(dataset_uri.session()):
+            raise ValueError(
+                "The provided session is not the destination dataset's own "
+                "session. Please pass the dataset's session or omit the "
+                "'session' parameter."
+            )
         dataset_uri = dataset_uri._ds
     elif not isinstance(dataset_uri, str):
         raise TypeError(f"Unknown dataset_uri type {type(dataset_uri)}")
@@ -1047,13 +1438,21 @@ def write_fragments(
         max_rows_per_file=max_rows_per_file,
         max_rows_per_group=max_rows_per_group,
         max_bytes_per_file=max_bytes_per_file,
+        data_cache_bytes=data_cache_bytes,
+        max_page_bytes=max_page_bytes,
         progress=progress,
         data_storage_version=data_storage_version,
         storage_options=storage_options,
-        storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+        namespace_client=namespace_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
         enable_stable_row_ids=enable_stable_row_ids,
         target_bases=target_bases,
+        target_all_bases=target_all_bases,
         initial_bases=initial_bases,
+        base_store_params=base_store_params,
+        external_blob_mode=external_blob_mode,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases=allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        session=session,
     )
 
 
diff --git a/python/python/lance/indices/__init__.py b/python/python/lance/indices/__init__.py
index ac586876da0..675754cc2d0 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/indices/__init__.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/indices/__init__.py
@@ -3,11 +3,23 @@
 
 from enum import Enum
 
-from lance.indices.builder import IndexConfig, IndicesBuilder
-from lance.indices.ivf import IvfModel
-from lance.indices.pq import PqModel
+from .. import lance as _lance
+from .builder import IndexConfig, IndicesBuilder
+from .ivf import IvfModel
+from .pq import PqModel
 
-__all__ = ["IndicesBuilder", "IndexConfig", "PqModel", "IvfModel", "IndexFileVersion"]
+IndexSegmentDescription = _lance.indices.IndexSegmentDescription
+IndexSegment = _lance.indices.IndexSegment
+
+__all__ = [
+    "IndicesBuilder",
+    "IndexConfig",
+    "PqModel",
+    "IvfModel",
+    "IndexFileVersion",
+    "IndexSegment",
+    "IndexSegmentDescription",
+]
 
 
 class IndexFileVersion(str, Enum):
@@ -19,9 +31,11 @@ class SupportedDistributedIndices(str, Enum):
     # Scalar index types
     BTREE = "BTREE"
     INVERTED = "INVERTED"
+
     # Precise vector index types supported by distributed merge
     IVF_FLAT = "IVF_FLAT"
     IVF_PQ = "IVF_PQ"
     IVF_SQ = "IVF_SQ"
+
     # Deprecated generic placeholder (kept for backward compatibility)
     VECTOR = "VECTOR"
diff --git a/python/python/lance/indices/builder.py b/python/python/lance/indices/builder.py
index ca033780a0e..e235f348979 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/indices/builder.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/indices/builder.py
@@ -51,11 +51,14 @@ def __init__(self, dataset, column: str):
             the dataset containing the data
         column: str
             The vector column to index, must be a fixed size list of floats
-            or 1-dimensional fixed-shape tensor column.
+            (or unsigned integers for hamming distance) or 1-dimensional
+            fixed-shape tensor column.
         """
         self.dataset = dataset
         self.column = self._normalize_column(column)
-        self.dimension = self.dataset.schema.field(self.column[0]).type.list_size
+        self.dimension = self._vector_dimension(
+            self.dataset.schema.field(self.column[0]).type
+        )
 
     def train_ivf(
         self,
@@ -65,6 +68,7 @@ def train_ivf(
         accelerator: Optional[Union[str, "torch.Device"]] = None,
         sample_rate: int = 256,
         max_iters: int = 50,
+        fragment_ids: Optional[list[int]] = None,
     ) -> IvfModel:
         """
         Train IVF centroids for the given vector column.
@@ -89,7 +93,7 @@ def train_ivf(
             overtraining, reduced recall, and require large nprobes values.  If not
             specified the default will be the integer nearest the square root of the
             number of rows.
-        distance_type: "l2" | "dot" | "cosine"
+        distance_type: "l2" | "dot" | "cosine" | "hamming"
             The distance type to used.  This is defined in more detail in the LanceDB
             documentation on creating indices.
         accelerator: str | torch.Device
@@ -105,8 +109,10 @@ def train_ivf(
             some cases, k-means will not converge but will cycle between various
             possible minima.  In these cases we must terminate or run forever.  The
             max_iters parameter defines a cutoff at which we terminate training.
+        fragment_ids: list[int], optional
+            If provided, train using only the specified fragments from the dataset.
         """
-        num_rows = self.dataset.count_rows()
+        num_rows = self._count_rows(fragment_ids)
         num_partitions = self._determine_num_partitions(num_partitions, num_rows)
         self._verify_ivf_sample_rate(sample_rate, num_partitions, num_rows)
         distance_type = self._normalize_distance_type(distance_type)
@@ -123,9 +129,14 @@ def train_ivf(
                 distance_type,
                 sample_rate,
                 max_iters,
+                fragment_ids,
             )
             return IvfModel(ivf_centroids, distance_type)
         else:
+            if fragment_ids is not None:
+                raise NotImplementedError(
+                    "fragment_ids is not supported with accelerator IVF training"
+                )
             # Use accelerator to train ivf centroids
             from lance.vector import train_ivf_centroids_on_accelerator
 
@@ -139,7 +150,7 @@ def train_ivf(
                 max_iters=max_iters,
             )
             num_dims = ivf_centroids.shape[1]
-            ivf_centroids.shape = -1
+            ivf_centroids = ivf_centroids.reshape(-1)
             flat_centroids_array = pa.array(ivf_centroids)
             centroids_array = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
                 flat_centroids_array, num_dims
@@ -153,6 +164,8 @@ def train_pq(
         *,
         sample_rate: int = 256,
         max_iters: int = 50,
+        num_bits: int = 8,
+        fragment_ids: Optional[list[int]] = None,
     ) -> PqModel:
         """
         Train a PQ model for a given column.
@@ -183,13 +196,16 @@ def train_pq(
             This parameter is used in the same way as in the IVF model.
         max_iters: int
             This parameter is used in the same way as in the IVF model.
+        num_bits: int
+            The number of bits used to encode each PQ centroid.
+        fragment_ids: list[int], optional
+            If provided, train using only the specified fragments from the dataset.
         """
         from lance.lance import indices
 
-        num_rows = self.dataset.count_rows()
-        self.dataset.schema.field(self.column[0]).type.list_size
+        num_rows = self._count_rows(fragment_ids)
         num_subvectors = self._normalize_pq_params(num_subvectors, self.dimension)
-        self._verify_pq_sample_rate(num_rows, sample_rate)
+        self._verify_pq_sample_rate(num_rows, sample_rate, num_bits)
         distance_type = ivf_model.distance_type
         pq_codebook = indices.train_pq_model(
             self.dataset._ds,
@@ -200,8 +216,10 @@ def train_pq(
             sample_rate,
             max_iters,
             ivf_model.centroids,
+            fragment_ids,
+            num_bits,
         )
-        return PqModel(num_subvectors, pq_codebook)
+        return PqModel(num_subvectors, pq_codebook, num_bits=num_bits)
 
     def prepare_global_ivf_pq(
         self,
@@ -212,11 +230,18 @@ def prepare_global_ivf_pq(
         accelerator: Optional[Union[str, "torch.Device"]] = None,
         sample_rate: int = 256,
         max_iters: int = 50,
+        num_bits: int = 8,
+        fragment_ids: Optional[list[int]] = None,
     ) -> dict:
         """
         Perform global training for IVF+PQ using existing CPU training paths and
         return preprocessed artifacts for distributed builds.
 
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        fragment_ids: list[int], optional
+            If provided, train using only the specified fragments from the dataset.
+
         Returns
         -------
         dict
@@ -238,6 +263,7 @@ def prepare_global_ivf_pq(
             accelerator=accelerator,  # None by default (CPU path)
             sample_rate=sample_rate,
             max_iters=max_iters,
+            fragment_ids=fragment_ids,
         )
 
         # Global PQ training using IVF residuals
@@ -246,6 +272,8 @@ def prepare_global_ivf_pq(
             num_subvectors,
             sample_rate=sample_rate,
             max_iters=max_iters,
+            num_bits=num_bits,
+            fragment_ids=fragment_ids,
         )
 
         return {"ivf_centroids": ivf_model.centroids, "pq_codebook": pq_model.codebook}
@@ -338,7 +366,7 @@ def transform_vectors(
         """
         from lance.lance import indices
 
-        dimension = self.dataset.schema.field(self.column[0]).type.list_size
+        dimension = self.dimension
         num_subvectors = pq.num_subvectors
         distance_type = ivf.distance_type
         if fragments is None:
@@ -359,6 +387,7 @@ def transform_vectors(
             dest_uri,
             fragments,
             partition_ds_uri,
+            pq.num_bits,
         )
 
     def shuffle_transformed_vectors(
@@ -431,7 +460,7 @@ def load_shuffled_vectors(
             The PQ model used to create the inputs.
         """
 
-        pq_dimension = self.dataset.schema.field(self.column[0]).type.list_size
+        pq_dimension = self.dimension
         num_subvectors = pq.num_subvectors
         distance_type = ivf.distance_type
 
@@ -449,6 +478,7 @@ def load_shuffled_vectors(
                 num_subvectors,
                 distance_type,
                 index_name,
+                pq.num_bits,
             )
         else:
             raise ValueError("filenames must be a list of strings")
@@ -458,6 +488,18 @@ def _determine_num_partitions(self, num_partitions: Optional[int], num_rows: int
             return round(math.sqrt(num_rows))
         return num_partitions
 
+    def _count_rows(self, fragment_ids: Optional[list[int]] = None) -> int:
+        if fragment_ids is None:
+            return self.dataset.count_rows()
+
+        num_rows = 0
+        for fragment_id in fragment_ids:
+            fragment = self.dataset.get_fragment(fragment_id)
+            if fragment is None:
+                raise ValueError(f"Fragment id does not exist: {fragment_id}")
+            num_rows += fragment.count_rows()
+        return num_rows
+
     def _normalize_pq_params(self, num_subvectors: int, dimension: int):
         if num_subvectors is None:
             if dimension % 16 == 0:
@@ -492,13 +534,17 @@ def _verify_base_sample_rate(self, sample_rate: int):
                 f"The sample_rate must be an int greater than 1, got {sample_rate}"
             )
 
-    def _verify_pq_sample_rate(self, num_rows: int, sample_rate: int):
+    def _verify_pq_sample_rate(
+        self, num_rows: int, sample_rate: int, num_bits: int = 8
+    ):
         self._verify_base_sample_rate(sample_rate)
-        if 256 * sample_rate > num_rows:
+        required_rows = (2**num_bits) * sample_rate
+        if required_rows > num_rows:
             raise ValueError(
                 "There are not enough rows in the dataset to create PQ"
-                f" codebook with a sample rate of {sample_rate}.  {sample_rate * 256}"
-                f" rows needed and there are {num_rows}"
+                f" codebook with a sample rate of {sample_rate} and num_bits"
+                f" of {num_bits}.  {required_rows} rows needed and there are"
+                f" {num_rows}"
             )
 
     def _verify_ivf_sample_rate(
@@ -529,6 +575,7 @@ def _normalize_distance_type(self, distance_type):
             "cosine",
             "euclidean",
             "dot",
+            "hamming",
         ]:
             raise ValueError(f"Distance type {distance_type} not supported.")
         return distance_type.lower()
@@ -544,25 +591,46 @@ def _normalize_column(self, column):
             if c not in self.dataset.schema.names:
                 raise KeyError(f"{c} not found in schema")
             field = self.dataset.schema.field(c)
-            if not (
-                pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(field.type)
-                or (
-                    isinstance(field.type, pa.FixedShapeTensorType)
-                    and len(field.type.shape) == 1
-                )
-            ):
+            vector_type = self._describe_vector_type(field.type)
+            if vector_type is None:
                 raise TypeError(
-                    f"Vector column {c} must be FixedSizeListArray "
+                    f"Vector column {c} must be FixedSizeListArray, "
+                    "list<FixedSizeList> (multivector), or "
                     f"1-dimensional FixedShapeTensorArray, got {field.type}"
                 )
-            if not pa.types.is_floating(field.type.value_type):
+            _, value_type = vector_type
+            if not (
+                pa.types.is_floating(value_type)
+                or pa.types.is_unsigned_integer(value_type)
+            ):
                 raise TypeError(
-                    f"Vector column {c} must have floating value type, "
-                    f"got {field.type.value_type}"
+                    f"Vector column {c} must have floating or unsigned integer "
+                    f"value type, got {value_type}"
                 )
 
         return column
 
+    def _vector_dimension(self, data_type):
+        vector_type = self._describe_vector_type(data_type)
+        if vector_type is not None:
+            return vector_type[0]
+        raise TypeError(
+            "Vector column must be FixedSizeListArray, "
+            "list<FixedSizeList> (multivector), or "
+            f"1-dimensional FixedShapeTensorArray, got {data_type}"
+        )
+
+    def _describe_vector_type(self, data_type):
+        if pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(data_type):
+            return data_type.list_size, data_type.value_type
+        if pa.types.is_list(data_type) and pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(
+            data_type.value_type
+        ):
+            return data_type.value_type.list_size, data_type.value_type.value_type
+        if isinstance(data_type, pa.FixedShapeTensorType) and len(data_type.shape) == 1:
+            return data_type.shape[0], data_type.value_type
+        return None
+
 
 @dataclass
 class IndexConfig:
diff --git a/python/python/lance/indices/ivf.py b/python/python/lance/indices/ivf.py
index fa92f744d55..fef19dde73a 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/indices/ivf.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/indices/ivf.py
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+from typing import Dict, Optional
+
 import pyarrow as pa
 
 from lance.file import LanceFileReader, LanceFileWriter
@@ -24,7 +26,7 @@ def num_partitions(self) -> int:
         """
         return len(self.centroids)
 
-    def save(self, uri: str):
+    def save(self, uri: str, *, storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None):
         """
         Save the IVF model to a lance file.
 
@@ -34,6 +36,8 @@ def save(self, uri: str):
         uri: str
             The URI to save the model to.  The URI can be a local file path or a
             cloud storage path.
+        storage_options : optional, dict
+            Extra options for the storage backend (e.g. S3 credentials).
         """
         with LanceFileWriter(
             uri,
@@ -41,12 +45,13 @@ def save(self, uri: str):
                 [pa.field("centroids", self.centroids.type)],
                 metadata={b"distance_type": self.distance_type.encode()},
             ),
+            storage_options=storage_options,
         ) as writer:
             batch = pa.table([self.centroids], names=["centroids"])
             writer.write_batch(batch)
 
     @classmethod
-    def load(cls, uri: str):
+    def load(cls, uri: str, *, storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None):
         """
         Load an IVF model from a lance file.
 
@@ -56,8 +61,10 @@ def load(cls, uri: str):
         uri: str
             The URI to load the model from.  The URI can be a local file path or a
             cloud storage path.
+        storage_options : optional, dict
+            Extra options for the storage backend (e.g. S3 credentials).
         """
-        reader = LanceFileReader(uri)
+        reader = LanceFileReader(uri, storage_options=storage_options)
         num_rows = reader.metadata().num_rows
         metadata = reader.metadata().schema.metadata
         distance_type = metadata[b"distance_type"].decode()
diff --git a/python/python/lance/indices/pq.py b/python/python/lance/indices/pq.py
index 09f34f04dfe..e3d334ccf48 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/indices/pq.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/indices/pq.py
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+from typing import Dict, Optional
+
 import pyarrow as pa
 
 from lance.file import LanceFileReader, LanceFileWriter
@@ -12,9 +14,13 @@ class PqModel:
     Can be saved / loaded to checkpoint progress.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, num_subvectors: int, codebook: pa.FixedSizeListArray):
+    def __init__(
+        self, num_subvectors: int, codebook: pa.FixedSizeListArray, *, num_bits: int = 8
+    ):
         self.num_subvectors = num_subvectors
         """The number of subvectors to divide source vectors into"""
+        self.num_bits = num_bits
+        """The number of bits used to encode each PQ centroid"""
         self.codebook = codebook
         """The centroids of the PQ clusters"""
 
@@ -23,7 +29,7 @@ def dimension(self):
         """The dimension of the vectors this model was trained on"""
         return self.codebook.type.list_size
 
-    def save(self, uri: str):
+    def save(self, uri: str, *, storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None):
         """
         Save the PQ model to a lance file.
 
@@ -33,19 +39,25 @@ def save(self, uri: str):
         uri: str
             The URI to save the model to.  The URI can be a local file path or a
             cloud storage path.
+        storage_options : optional, dict
+            Extra options for the storage backend (e.g. S3 credentials).
         """
         with LanceFileWriter(
             uri,
             pa.schema(
                 [pa.field("codebook", self.codebook.type)],
-                metadata={b"num_subvectors": str(self.num_subvectors).encode()},
+                metadata={
+                    b"num_subvectors": str(self.num_subvectors).encode(),
+                    b"num_bits": str(self.num_bits).encode(),
+                },
             ),
+            storage_options=storage_options,
         ) as writer:
             batch = pa.table([self.codebook], names=["codebook"])
             writer.write_batch(batch)
 
     @classmethod
-    def load(cls, uri: str):
+    def load(cls, uri: str, *, storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None):
         """
         Load a PQ model from a lance file.
 
@@ -55,12 +67,15 @@ def load(cls, uri: str):
         uri: str
             The URI to load the model from.  The URI can be a local file path or a
             cloud storage path.
+        storage_options : optional, dict
+            Extra options for the storage backend (e.g. S3 credentials).
         """
-        reader = LanceFileReader(uri)
+        reader = LanceFileReader(uri, storage_options=storage_options)
         num_rows = reader.metadata().num_rows
-        metadata = reader.metadata().schema.metadata
+        metadata = reader.metadata().schema.metadata or {}
         num_subvectors = int(metadata[b"num_subvectors"].decode())
+        num_bits = int(metadata.get(b"num_bits", b"8").decode())
         codebook = (
             reader.read_all(batch_size=num_rows).to_table().column("codebook").chunk(0)
         )
-        return cls(num_subvectors, codebook)
+        return cls(num_subvectors, codebook, num_bits=num_bits)
diff --git a/python/python/lance/io.py b/python/python/lance/io.py
index b12d6dc106f..bfda99d22e7 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/io.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/io.py
@@ -4,137 +4,5 @@
 """I/O utilities for Lance datasets.
 
 This module provides utilities for customizing how Lance datasets interact with
-cloud storage, including credential management for long-running operations.
+cloud storage.
 """
-
-from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
-from typing import Dict
-
-
-class StorageOptionsProvider(ABC):
-    """Abstract base class for providing storage options to Lance datasets.
-
-    Storage options providers enable automatic refresh for long-running operations
-    on cloud storage (S3, Azure, GCS). This is currently only used for refreshing
-    AWS temporary access credentials. Implement this interface to integrate with
-    custom credential management systems such as AWS STS, GCP STS, or
-    proprietary credential services.
-
-    The provider is called automatically before storage options expire, ensuring
-    uninterrupted access during long-running queries, training jobs, or data processing.
-
-    Example
-    -------
-    >>> import lance
-    >>> class MyStorageOptionsProvider(StorageOptionsProvider):
-    ...     def fetch_storage_options(self):
-    ...         # Fetch from your credential service
-    ...         return {
-    ...             "aws_access_key_id": "ASIA...",
-    ...             "aws_secret_access_key": "secret",
-    ...             "aws_session_token": "token",
-    ...             "expires_at_millis": "1234567890000",
-    ...         }
-    ...
-    >>> provider = MyStorageOptionsProvider()
-    >>> dataset = lance.dataset(  # doctest: +SKIP
-    ...     "s3://bucket/table.lance", storage_options_provider=provider
-    ... )
-
-    Error Handling
-    --------------
-    If fetch_storage_options() raises an exception, operations requiring
-    credentials will fail. Implementations should handle recoverable errors
-    internally (e.g., retry token refresh) and only raise exceptions for
-    unrecoverable errors.
-    """
-
-    @abstractmethod
-    def fetch_storage_options(self) -> Dict[str, str]:
-        """Get fresh storage credentials.
-
-        This method is called automatically before each request and before existing
-        credentials expire. It must return credentials in the format below.
-
-        Returns
-        -------
-        Dict[str, str]
-            Dictionary of string key-value pairs containing cloud storage credentials
-            and expiration time. Required keys:
-
-            - "expires_at_millis" (str): Unix timestamp in milliseconds (as string)
-              when credentials expire. Lance will automatically call
-              fetch_storage_options() again before this time.
-
-            Plus provider-specific credential keys:
-
-            AWS S3:
-              - "aws_access_key_id" (str): AWS access key
-              - "aws_secret_access_key" (str): AWS secret key
-              - "aws_session_token" (str, optional): Session token for temporary
-                credentials
-
-            Azure Blob Storage:
-              - "account_name" (str): Storage account name
-              - "account_key" (str): Storage account key
-              - Or "sas_token" (str): SAS token
-
-            Google Cloud Storage:
-              - "service_account_key" (str): Service account JSON key
-              - Or "token" (str): OAuth token
-
-        Raises
-        ------
-        Exception
-            If unable to fetch credentials, the exception will be propagated
-            and operations requiring credentials will fail.
-
-        Example
-        -------
-        >>> def fetch_storage_options(self):
-        ...     # Example: AWS temporary credentials
-        ...     response = sts_client.assume_role(
-        ...         RoleArn='arn:aws:iam::123456789012:role/DataReader',
-        ...         RoleSessionName='lance-session'
-        ...     )
-        ...     creds = response['Credentials']
-        ...     expires_at_millis = int(creds['Expiration'].timestamp() * 1000)
-        ...     return {
-        ...         "aws_access_key_id": creds['AccessKeyId'],
-        ...         "aws_secret_access_key": creds['SecretAccessKey'],
-        ...         "aws_session_token": creds['SessionToken'],
-        ...         "expires_at_millis": str(expires_at_millis),
-        ...     }
-        """
-        pass
-
-    def provider_id(self) -> str:
-        """Return a human-readable unique identifier for this provider instance.
-
-        This is used for equality comparison and hashing in the object store
-        registry. Two providers with the same ID will be treated as equal and
-        share the same cached ObjectStore instance.
-
-        The default implementation uses the class name and object's string
-        representation. Override this method to provide semantic equality based
-        on configuration.
-
-        Returns
-        -------
-        str
-            A human-readable unique identifier string.
-            For example: "MyProvider { endpoint: 'https://api.example.com' }"
-
-        Example
-        -------
-        >>> class MyProvider(StorageOptionsProvider):
-        ...     def __init__(self, endpoint):
-        ...         self.endpoint = endpoint
-        ...
-        ...     def fetch_storage_options(self):
-        ...         return {"expires_at_millis": "1234567890000"}
-        ...
-        ...     def provider_id(self):
-        ...         return f"MyProvider {{ endpoint: {self.endpoint!r} }}"
-        """
-        return f"{self.__class__.__name__} {{ repr: {str(self)!r} }}"
diff --git a/python/python/lance/lance/__init__.pyi b/python/python/lance/lance/__init__.pyi
index d976bea8cf4..d98e118df2a 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/lance/__init__.pyi
+++ b/python/python/lance/lance/__init__.pyi
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@
 #  See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 #  limitations under the License.
 
+from datetime import timedelta
 from pathlib import Path
 from typing import (
     Any,
@@ -20,6 +21,7 @@ from typing import (
     Iterable,
     Iterator,
     List,
+    Literal,
     Optional,
     Self,
     Sequence,
@@ -28,6 +30,7 @@ from typing import (
 )
 
 import pyarrow as pa
+from lance_namespace import LanceNamespace
 
 from .._arrow.bf16 import BFloat16Array
 from ..commit import CommitLock
@@ -41,15 +44,17 @@ from ..dataset import (
     Transaction,
     UpdateResult,
     Version,
+    VersionRef,
 )
 from ..fragment import (
     DataFile,
     FragmentMetadata,
 )
-from ..io import StorageOptionsProvider
 from ..progress import FragmentWriteProgress as FragmentWriteProgress
+from ..progress import IndexProgress as IndexProgress
 from ..types import ReaderLike as ReaderLike
 from ..udf import BatchUDF as BatchUDF
+from .bitmap import Bitmap as Bitmap
 from .debug import format_fragment as format_fragment
 from .debug import format_manifest as format_manifest
 from .debug import format_schema as format_schema
@@ -60,7 +65,12 @@ from .fragment import (
 from .fragment import (
     RowIdMeta as RowIdMeta,
 )
+from .fragment import (
+    RowIdSequence as RowIdSequence,
+)
 from .indices import IndexDescription as IndexDescription
+from .indices import IndexSegment as IndexSegment
+from .lance import PySearchFilter
 from .optimize import (
     Compaction as Compaction,
 )
@@ -82,9 +92,90 @@ from .trace import capture_trace_events as capture_trace_events
 from .trace import shutdown_tracing as shutdown_tracing
 from .trace import trace_to_chrome as trace_to_chrome
 
+class MetricPoint:
+    name: str
+    kind: str
+    attributes: Dict[str, str]
+    value: Optional[float]
+    buckets: Optional[List[Tuple[str, int]]]
+    count: Optional[int]
+    sum: Optional[float]
+
+class MetricDescription:
+    name: str
+    kind: str
+    unit: Optional[str]
+    description: str
+
+def register_lance_metrics_recorder() -> bool: ...
+def lance_metrics_catalog() -> List[MetricDescription]: ...
+def snapshot_lance_metrics() -> List[MetricPoint]: ...
+
+class FtsToken:
+    text: str
+    position: int
+    def __repr__(self) -> str: ...
+
+def tokenize(
+    query: str,
+    *,
+    analyzer: Optional[Literal["text", "code"]] = None,
+    base_tokenizer: Optional[str] = None,
+    language: Optional[str] = None,
+    max_token_length: Optional[int] = 40,
+    lower_case: Optional[bool] = None,
+    stem: Optional[bool] = None,
+    remove_stop_words: Optional[bool] = None,
+    custom_stop_words: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    ascii_folding: Optional[bool] = None,
+    min_ngram_length: Optional[int] = None,
+    max_ngram_length: Optional[int] = None,
+    prefix_only: Optional[bool] = None,
+    split_identifiers: Optional[bool] = None,
+    split_on_numerics: Optional[bool] = None,
+    preserve_original: Optional[bool] = None,
+    index_operators: Optional[bool] = None,
+) -> List[FtsToken]:
+    """Tokenize an FTS query without an index.
+
+    ``max_token_length`` defaults to 40; pass ``None`` to disable the limit.
+    """
+    ...
+
 class CleanupStats:
     bytes_removed: int
     old_versions: int
+    data_files_removed: int
+    transaction_files_removed: int
+    index_files_removed: int
+    deletion_files_removed: int
+    failed_deletes: int
+
+class CleanupCandidateFile:
+    path: str
+    kind: str
+    unverified: bool
+    size_bytes: int
+
+class CleanupReferencedBranch:
+    name: str
+    referenced_version: int
+    cleanup_candidate: bool
+
+class CleanupExplanation:
+    read_version: int
+    stats: CleanupStats
+    candidate_files: List[CleanupCandidateFile]
+    candidate_files_truncated: bool
+    candidate_file_limit: int
+    referenced_branches: List[CleanupReferencedBranch]
+    warnings: List[str]
+
+class LanceFileWriteSummary:
+    num_rows: int
+    size_bytes: int
+
+    def __repr__(self) -> str: ...
 
 class LanceFileWriter:
     def __init__(
@@ -94,21 +185,69 @@ class LanceFileWriter:
         data_cache_bytes: Optional[int],
         version: Optional[str],
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]],
-        storage_options_provider: Optional[StorageOptionsProvider],
+        namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace],
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]],
         keep_original_array: Optional[bool],
         max_page_bytes: Optional[int],
     ): ...
     def write_batch(self, batch: pa.RecordBatch) -> None: ...
-    def finish(self) -> int: ...
+    def finish(self) -> LanceFileWriteSummary: ...
     def add_schema_metadata(self, key: str, value: str) -> None: ...
     def add_global_buffer(self, data: bytes) -> int: ...
 
+class BlobDescriptor:
+    def __repr__(self) -> str: ...
+
+class PackedBlobWriter:
+    @property
+    def blob_id(self) -> int: ...
+    @property
+    def path(self) -> str: ...
+    @property
+    def field(self) -> pa.Field: ...
+    def write_blob(self, data: bytes) -> None: ...
+    def write_blobs(
+        self,
+        payloads: Union[
+            pa.BinaryArray,
+            pa.LargeBinaryArray,
+            pa.BinaryViewArray,
+            pa.FixedSizeBinaryArray,
+            pa.ChunkedArray,
+        ],
+    ) -> None: ...
+    def finish(self) -> List[BlobDescriptor]: ...
+    def finish_array(self, field_name: str) -> pa.StructArray: ...
+
+class DedicatedBlobWriter:
+    @property
+    def blob_id(self) -> int: ...
+    @property
+    def path(self) -> str: ...
+    def write(self, data: bytes) -> None: ...
+    def finish(self) -> BlobDescriptor: ...
+
+class BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder:
+    def __init__(self, column: str): ...
+    @property
+    def field(self) -> pa.Field: ...
+    def extend_packed(
+        self, blob_id: int, offsets: List[int], sizes: List[int]
+    ) -> None: ...
+    def append_dedicated(self, blob_id: int, size: int) -> None: ...
+    def append(self, value: BlobDescriptor) -> None: ...
+    def extend(self, values: List[BlobDescriptor]) -> None: ...
+    def append_inline(self, data: bytes) -> None: ...
+    def append_null(self) -> None: ...
+    def finish(self) -> pa.Array: ...
+
 class LanceFileSession:
     def __init__(
         self,
         base_path: str,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-        storage_options_provider: Optional[StorageOptionsProvider] = None,
+        namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace] = None,
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
     ): ...
     def open_reader(
         self, path: str, columns: Optional[List[str]] = None
@@ -122,8 +261,17 @@ class LanceFileSession:
         keep_original_array: Optional[bool] = None,
         max_page_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
     ) -> LanceFileWriter: ...
+    def open_packed_blob_writer(self, path: str, blob_id: int) -> PackedBlobWriter: ...
+    def open_dedicated_blob_writer(
+        self, path: str, blob_id: int
+    ) -> DedicatedBlobWriter: ...
     def contains(self, path: str) -> bool: ...
     def list(self, path: Optional[str] = None) -> List[str]: ...
+    def list_with_delimiter(
+        self, path: Optional[str] = None
+    ) -> tuple[List[str], List[str]]: ...
+    def read_range(self, path: str, offset: int, length: int) -> bytes: ...
+    def delete_file(self, path: str) -> None: ...
     def upload_file(self, local_path: str, remote_path: str) -> None: ...
     def download_file(self, remote_path: str, local_path: str) -> None: ...
 
@@ -132,7 +280,8 @@ class LanceFileReader:
         self,
         path: str,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]],
-        storage_options_provider: Optional[StorageOptionsProvider],
+        namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace],
+        table_id: Optional[List[str]],
         columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
     ): ...
     def read_all(
@@ -178,7 +327,25 @@ class LanceColumnStatistics:
     size_bytes: int
 
 class _Session:
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        index_cache_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        metadata_cache_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        index_cache_backend: Optional[str | Dict[str, Any]] = None,
+        metadata_cache_backend: Optional[str | Dict[str, Any]] = None,
+    ) -> None:
+        """Create a Lance session.
+
+        Cache backends may be backend URI strings such as
+        ``"moka://?capacity=1048576"`` or dictionaries such as
+        ``{"kind": "moka", "options": {"capacity": "1048576"}}``.
+        ``index_cache_backend`` is mutually exclusive with
+        ``index_cache_size_bytes``. ``metadata_cache_backend`` is mutually
+        exclusive with ``metadata_cache_size_bytes``.
+        """
+        ...
     def size_bytes(self) -> int: ...
+    def index_cache_size_bytes(self) -> int: ...
 
 class LanceBlobFile:
     def close(self): ...
@@ -187,7 +354,11 @@ class LanceBlobFile:
     def tell(self) -> int: ...
     def size(self) -> int: ...
     def readall(self) -> bytes: ...
+    def read_range(self, offset: int, length: int) -> bytes: ...
+    def read_ranges(self, ranges: List[Tuple[int, int]]) -> List[bytes]: ...
     def read_into(self, b: bytearray) -> int: ...
+    def set_buffer_size(self, buffer_size: int) -> None: ...
+    def _range_submission_count(self) -> int: ...
 
 class _Dataset:
     @property
@@ -214,15 +385,19 @@ class _Dataset:
     def replace_field_metadata(self, field_name: str, metadata: Dict[str, str]): ...
     @property
     def data_storage_version(self) -> str: ...
+    @property
+    def has_stable_row_ids(self) -> bool: ...
     def index_statistics(self, index_name: str) -> str: ...
     def serialized_manifest(self) -> bytes: ...
-    def load_indices(self) -> List[Index]: ...
+    def base_paths(self) -> Dict[int, DatasetBasePath]: ...
     def describe_indices(self) -> List[IndexDescription]: ...
+    def remap_row_addrs(self, addrs: pa.Array) -> Optional[pa.Array]: ...
     def scanner(
         self,
         columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
         columns_with_transform: Optional[List[Tuple[str, str]]] = None,
         filter: Optional[str] = None,
+        search_filter: Optional[PySearchFilter] = None,
         prefilter: Optional[bool] = None,
         limit: Optional[int] = None,
         offset: Optional[int] = None,
@@ -233,6 +408,7 @@ class _Dataset:
         fragment_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
         scan_in_order: Optional[bool] = None,
         fragments: Optional[List[_Fragment]] = None,
+        index_segments: Optional[List[str]] = None,
         with_row_id: Optional[bool] = None,
         with_row_address: Optional[bool] = None,
         use_stats: Optional[bool] = None,
@@ -243,6 +419,14 @@ class _Dataset:
         blob_handling: Optional[str] = None,
         use_scalar_index: Optional[bool] = None,
         include_deleted_rows: Optional[bool] = None,
+        scan_stats_callback: Optional[Callable[[Any], None]] = None,
+        strict_batch_size: Optional[bool] = None,
+        order_by: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+        disable_scoring_autoprojection: Optional[bool] = None,
+        substrait_aggregate: Optional[bytes] = None,
+        row_addr_allowlist: Optional[bytes] = None,
+        row_addr_blocklist: Optional[bytes] = None,
+        minhash_query: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
     ) -> _Scanner: ...
     def count_rows(self, filter: Optional[str] = None) -> int: ...
     def take(
@@ -261,17 +445,46 @@ class _Dataset:
         self,
         row_ids: List[int],
         blob_column: str,
-    ) -> List[LanceBlobFile]: ...
+    ) -> List[Optional[LanceBlobFile]]: ...
     def take_blobs_by_addresses(
         self,
         row_addresses: List[int],
         blob_column: str,
-    ) -> List[LanceBlobFile]: ...
+    ) -> List[Optional[LanceBlobFile]]: ...
     def take_blobs_by_indices(
         self,
         row_indices: List[int],
         blob_column: str,
-    ) -> List[LanceBlobFile]: ...
+    ) -> List[Optional[LanceBlobFile]]: ...
+    def read_blobs(
+        self,
+        row_ids: List[int],
+        blob_column: str,
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        preserve_order: Optional[bool] = None,
+    ) -> List[Tuple[int, Optional[bytes]]]: ...
+    def read_blobs_by_addresses(
+        self,
+        row_addresses: List[int],
+        blob_column: str,
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        preserve_order: Optional[bool] = None,
+    ) -> List[Tuple[int, Optional[bytes]]]: ...
+    def read_blobs_by_indices(
+        self,
+        row_indices: List[int],
+        blob_column: str,
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        preserve_order: Optional[bool] = None,
+    ) -> List[Tuple[int, Optional[bytes]]]: ...
+    def read_blob_ranges(
+        self,
+        requests: List[Tuple[int, int, int]],
+        blob_column: str,
+        selector: Literal["ids", "addresses", "indices"],
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        preserve_order: Optional[bool] = None,
+    ) -> List[Tuple[int, int, Optional[bytes]]]: ...
     def take_scan(
         self,
         row_slices: Iterable[Tuple[int, int]],
@@ -280,15 +493,20 @@ class _Dataset:
     ) -> pa.RecordBatchReader: ...
     def alter_columns(self, alterations: List[AlterColumn]): ...
     def merge(self, reader: pa.RecordBatchReader, left_on: str, right_on: str): ...
-    def delete(self, predicate: str): ...
+    def delete(self, predicate: str | bytes): ...
     def update(
         self,
         updates: Dict[str, str],
-        predicate: Optional[str] = None,
+        predicate: Optional[str | bytes] = None,
+        conflict_retries: Optional[int] = None,
+        retry_timeout: Optional[timedelta] = None,
+        data_storage_version: Optional[str] = None,
     ) -> UpdateResult: ...
     def count_deleted_rows(self) -> int: ...
     def versions(self) -> List[Version]: ...
+    def version_refs(self) -> List[VersionRef]: ...
     def version(self) -> int: ...
+    def current_version(self) -> Version: ...
     def latest_version(self) -> int: ...
     def checkout_version(
         self, version: int | str | Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]]
@@ -303,10 +521,22 @@ class _Dataset:
     def restore(self): ...
     def cleanup_old_versions(
         self,
-        older_than_micros: int,
+        older_than_micros: Optional[int] = None,
+        retain_versions: Optional[int] = None,
         delete_unverified: Optional[bool] = None,
         error_if_tagged_old_versions: Optional[bool] = None,
+        delete_rate_limit: Optional[int] = None,
     ) -> CleanupStats: ...
+    def explain_cleanup_old_versions(
+        self,
+        older_than_micros: Optional[int] = None,
+        retain_versions: Optional[int] = None,
+        delete_unverified: Optional[bool] = None,
+        error_if_tagged_old_versions: Optional[bool] = None,
+        delete_rate_limit: Optional[int] = None,
+        include_files: bool = False,
+        max_files: int = 1000,
+    ) -> CleanupExplanation: ...
     def get_version(self, tag: str) -> int: ...
     # Tag operations
     def tags(self) -> Dict[str, Tag]: ...
@@ -322,6 +552,11 @@ class _Dataset:
         tag: str,
         reference: Optional[int | str | Tuple[Optional[str], Optional[int]]] = None,
     ): ...
+    def replace_tag_metadata(
+        self,
+        tag: str,
+        metadata: Dict[str, str],
+    ) -> None: ...
     # Branch operations
     def branches(self) -> Dict[str, Branch]: ...
     def branches_ordered(self, order: Optional[str]) -> List[Tuple[str, Branch]]: ...
@@ -333,6 +568,11 @@ class _Dataset:
         **kwargs,
     ) -> _Dataset: ...
     def delete_branch(self, branch: str) -> None: ...
+    def replace_branch_metadata(
+        self,
+        branch: str,
+        metadata: Dict[str, str],
+    ) -> None: ...
     def optimize_indices(self, **kwargs): ...
     def create_index(
         self,
@@ -344,10 +584,24 @@ class _Dataset:
         kwargs: Optional[Dict[str, Any]] = None,
     ): ...
     def drop_index(self, name: str): ...
-    def prewarm_index(self, name: str): ...
+    def prewarm_index(
+        self,
+        name: str,
+        *,
+        with_position: bool = False,
+        index_segments: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    ): ...
     def merge_index_metadata(
-        self, index_uuid: str, index_type: str, batch_readhead: Optional[int] = None
+        self,
+        index_uuid: str,
+        index_type: str,
+        batch_readhead: Optional[int] = None,
+        progress_callback: Optional[Callable[[IndexProgress], None]] = None,
     ): ...
+    def merge_existing_index_segments(self, segments: List[Index]) -> Index: ...
+    def commit_existing_index_segments(
+        self, index_name: str, column: str, segments: List[Union[IndexSegment, Index]]
+    ) -> None: ...
     def count_fragments(self) -> int: ...
     def num_small_files(self, max_rows_per_group: int) -> int: ...
     def get_fragments(self) -> List[_Fragment]: ...
@@ -368,10 +622,11 @@ class _Dataset:
         read_version: Optional[int] = None,
         commit_lock: Optional[CommitLock] = None,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-        storage_options_provider: Optional[StorageOptionsProvider] = None,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths: Optional[bool] = None,
         detached: Optional[bool] = None,
         max_retries: Optional[int] = None,
+        enable_stable_row_ids: Optional[bool] = None,
+        commit_timeout: Optional[timedelta] = None,
         **kwargs,
     ) -> _Dataset: ...
     @staticmethod
@@ -380,10 +635,10 @@ class _Dataset:
         transactions: Sequence[Transaction],
         commit_lock: Optional[CommitLock] = None,
         storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None,
-        storage_options_provider: Optional[StorageOptionsProvider] = None,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths: Optional[bool] = None,
         detached: Optional[bool] = None,
         max_retries: Optional[int] = None,
+        commit_timeout: Optional[timedelta] = None,
     ) -> Tuple[_Dataset, Transaction]: ...
     def validate(self): ...
     def migrate_manifest_paths_v2(self): ...
@@ -402,6 +657,50 @@ class _Dataset:
     def get_transactions(
         self, recent_transactions=10
     ) -> List[Optional[Transaction]]: ...
+    def find_duplicate_pairs(
+        self,
+        column: str,
+        distance_threshold: float,
+        *,
+        memory_limit: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_concurrency: Optional[int] = None,
+    ) -> pa.RecordBatchReader: ...
+    def find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+        self,
+        column: str,
+        segment_id: str,
+        partition_id: int,
+        distance_threshold: float,
+        *,
+        memory_limit: Optional[int] = None,
+        max_concurrency: Optional[int] = None,
+    ) -> pa.RecordBatchReader: ...
+    def hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(
+        self,
+        index_name: str,
+        partition_id: int,
+        hamming_threshold: int,
+        index_segments: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    ) -> pa.RecordBatchReader: ...
+    def get_ivf_partition_info(
+        self,
+        index_name: str,
+        index_segments: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    ) -> List[dict]: ...
+    def hamming_clustering_for_sample(
+        self,
+        column: str,
+        sample_size: Optional[int],
+        hamming_threshold: int,
+    ) -> pa.RecordBatchReader: ...
+    def hamming_clustering_for_range(
+        self,
+        column: str,
+        fragment_id: int,
+        start_row: int,
+        num_rows: int,
+        hamming_threshold: int,
+    ) -> pa.RecordBatchReader: ...
 
 class _MergeInsertBuilder:
     def __init__(self, dataset: _Dataset, on: str | Iterable[str]): ...
@@ -409,13 +708,26 @@ class _MergeInsertBuilder:
     def when_matched_fail(self) -> Self: ...
     def when_not_matched_insert_all(self) -> Self: ...
     def when_not_matched_by_source_delete(self, expr: Optional[str] = None) -> Self: ...
+    def write_mode(
+        self, mode: Literal["auto", "rewrite_rows", "rewrite_columns"]
+    ) -> Self: ...
+    def data_storage_version(self, version: str) -> Self: ...
+    def target_bases(self, bases: list[str]) -> Self: ...
+    def target_all_bases(self, include_primary: bool = True) -> Self: ...
     def execute(self, new_data: pa.RecordBatchReader) -> ExecuteResult: ...
+    def execute_batches(self, new_data: pa.RecordBatchReader) -> ExecuteResult: ...
+    def execute_uncommitted(
+        self, new_data: pa.RecordBatchReader
+    ) -> tuple[Transaction, ExecuteResult]: ...
+    def execute_uncommitted_batches(
+        self, new_data: pa.RecordBatchReader
+    ) -> tuple[Transaction, ExecuteResult]: ...
 
 class _Scanner:
     @property
     def schema(self) -> pa.Schema: ...
     def explain_plan(self, verbose: bool) -> str: ...
-    def analyze_plan(self) -> str: ...
+    def analyze_plan(self, count_rows: bool = False) -> str: ...
     def count_rows(self) -> int: ...
     def to_pyarrow(self) -> pa.RecordBatchReader: ...
 
@@ -454,6 +766,13 @@ class _Fragment:
         batch_readahead: Optional[int] = None,
         blob_handling: Optional[str] = None,
         order_by: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+        use_scalar_index: Optional[bool] = None,
+        io_buffer_size: Optional[int] = None,
+        late_materialization: Optional[bool | List[str]] = None,
+        include_deleted_rows: Optional[bool] = None,
+        batch_size_bytes: Optional[int] = None,
+        strict_batch_size: Optional[bool] = None,
+        substrait_filter: Optional[bytes] = None,
     ) -> _Scanner: ...
     def add_columns_from_reader(
         self,
@@ -467,6 +786,7 @@ class _Fragment:
         batch_size: Optional[int],
     ) -> Tuple[FragmentMetadata, LanceSchema]: ...
     def delete(self, predicate: str) -> Optional[_Fragment]: ...
+    def delete_rows(self, offsets: List[int]) -> Optional[_Fragment]: ...
     def schema(self) -> pa.Schema: ...
     def data_files(self) -> List[DataFile]: ...
     def deletion_file(self) -> Optional[str]: ...
@@ -474,6 +794,7 @@ class _Fragment:
     def physical_rows(self) -> int: ...
     @property
     def num_deletions(self) -> int: ...
+    def validate(self) -> None: ...
 
 def iops_counter() -> int: ...
 def bytes_read_counter() -> int: ...
@@ -491,7 +812,16 @@ def _write_fragments(
     progress: Optional[FragmentWriteProgress],
     data_storage_version: Optional[str],
     storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]],
+    namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace],
+    table_id: Optional[List[str]],
     enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    target_bases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    target_all_bases: Optional[bool] = None,
+    initial_bases: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+    base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+    external_blob_mode: Literal["reference", "ingest"] = "reference",
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool = False,
+    session: Optional[_Session] = None,
 ): ...
 def _write_fragments_transaction(
     dataset_uri: str | Path | _Dataset,
@@ -503,10 +833,98 @@ def _write_fragments_transaction(
     progress: Optional[FragmentWriteProgress],
     data_storage_version: Optional[str],
     storage_options: Optional[Dict[str, str]],
+    namespace_client: Optional[LanceNamespace],
+    table_id: Optional[List[str]],
     enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    target_bases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    target_all_bases: Optional[bool] = None,
+    initial_bases: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+    base_store_params: Optional[Dict[str, Dict[str, str]]] = None,
+    external_blob_mode: Literal["reference", "ingest"] = "reference",
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool = False,
+    session: Optional[_Session] = None,
 ) -> Transaction: ...
 def _json_to_schema(schema_json: str) -> pa.Schema: ...
 def _schema_to_json(schema: pa.Schema) -> str: ...
+def _parse_field_path(path: str) -> list[str]: ...
+def _format_field_path(segments: list[str]) -> str: ...
+def _evaluate_sharding_spec(
+    batch: pa.RecordBatch,
+    spec: Dict[str, Any],
+    schema: LanceSchema,
+) -> pa.RecordBatch: ...
+
+class _CompactedSsTable:
+    shard_id: str
+    generation: int
+    def __init__(self, shard_id: str, generation: int) -> None: ...
+
+class _ShardSnapshot:
+    shard_id: str
+    def __init__(self, shard_id: str) -> None: ...
+    def with_spec_id(self, spec_id: int) -> Self: ...
+    def with_current_generation(self, generation: int) -> Self: ...
+    def with_sstable(self, generation: int, path: str) -> Self: ...
+
+class _ShardWriter:
+    shard_id: str
+    def put(self, data: Any) -> None: ...
+    def delete(self, keys: Any) -> None: ...
+    def close(self) -> None: ...
+    def stats(self) -> Dict[str, Any]: ...
+    def memtable_stats(self) -> Dict[str, Any]: ...
+    def lsm_scanner(
+        self, shard_snapshots: Optional[List[_ShardSnapshot]] = None
+    ) -> _LsmScanner: ...
+
+class _LsmScanner:
+    @staticmethod
+    def from_snapshots(
+        dataset: _Dataset, shard_snapshots: List[_ShardSnapshot]
+    ) -> _LsmScanner: ...
+    def project(self, columns: List[str]) -> Self: ...
+    def filter(self, expr: str) -> Self: ...
+    def limit(self, n: int, offset: Optional[int] = None) -> Self: ...
+    def with_row_address(self) -> Self: ...
+    def with_memtable_gen(self) -> Self: ...
+    def to_batch(self) -> pa.RecordBatch: ...
+    def to_batches(self) -> List[pa.RecordBatch]: ...
+    def count_rows(self) -> int: ...
+
+class _ExecutionPlan:
+    schema: pa.Schema
+    dataset_schema: pa.Schema
+    def explain(self) -> str: ...
+    def to_reader(self) -> pa.RecordBatchReader: ...
+    def to_batches(self) -> List[pa.RecordBatch]: ...
+
+class _LsmPointLookupPlanner:
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        dataset: _Dataset,
+        shard_snapshots: List[_ShardSnapshot],
+        pk_columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    ) -> None: ...
+    def plan_lookup(
+        self, pk_value: pa.Array, columns: Optional[List[str]] = None
+    ) -> _ExecutionPlan: ...
+
+class _LsmVectorSearchPlanner:
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        dataset: _Dataset,
+        shard_snapshots: List[_ShardSnapshot],
+        vector_column: str,
+        pk_columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        distance_type: Optional[str] = None,
+    ) -> None: ...
+    def plan_search(
+        self,
+        query: pa.Array,
+        k: int = 10,
+        nprobes: int = 20,
+        columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    ) -> _ExecutionPlan: ...
 
 class _Hnsw:
     @staticmethod
@@ -545,7 +963,7 @@ class BFloat16:
     def __gt__(self, other: BFloat16) -> bool: ...
     def __ge__(self, other: BFloat16) -> bool: ...
 
-def bfloat16_array(values: List[str | None]) -> BFloat16Array: ...
+def bfloat16_array(values: Sequence[float | None]) -> BFloat16Array: ...
 
 class PyFullTextQuery:
     @staticmethod
@@ -575,6 +993,13 @@ class PyFullTextQuery:
         boosts: Optional[List[float]] = None,
         operator: str = "OR",
     ) -> PyFullTextQuery: ...
+    @staticmethod
+    def combined_fields_query(
+        query: str,
+        columns: List[str],
+        boosts: Optional[List[float]] = None,
+        operator: str = "OR",
+    ) -> PyFullTextQuery: ...
 
 class ScanStatistics:
     """Statistics about a scan operation."""
@@ -585,9 +1010,39 @@ class ScanStatistics:
     indices_loaded: int
     parts_loaded: int
     index_comparisons: int
+    index_cache_hits: int
+    """Number of index cache page lookups where the loader was not executed
+    in this scan. Counts both true cache hits on already-populated entries
+    and coalesced concurrent loads (a follower attached to another caller's
+    in-flight load).
+
+    Instrumented boundaries in this release: BTree, IVF v2 (write-cache scan
+    path), inverted posting list (grouped and per-token) and its per-token
+    metadata, inverted phrase positions, bitmap (Equals / Range / IsIn),
+    ngram, rtree.
+
+    Caveats:
+
+    * IVF v2 streaming scans and legacy v1 IVF partitions bypass the cache
+      by design and are therefore reported as a miss on every call.
+    * A cold posting-list lookup on the grouped inverted layout can record
+      up to two misses (group + per-token metadata) for a single term.
+
+    Uninstrumented paths (HNSW graph pages, quantizer codebooks) do not
+    contribute to either counter."""
+    index_cache_misses: int
+    """Number of index cache page lookups where the loader ran (the page was
+    not resident and had to be materialised, typically from storage). See
+    the sibling ``index_cache_hits`` for the paired counter and the list of
+    instrumented boundaries."""
     all_counts: Dict[
         str, int
     ]  # Additional metrics for debugging purposes. Subject to change.
+    all_times: Dict[str, int]
+    """Additional debugging timings in nanoseconds. Keys are subject to change.
+
+    Nested and concurrent stages overlap; summing these values does not
+    reconstruct query wall time."""
 
 class DatasetBasePath:
     def __init__(
@@ -597,6 +1052,14 @@ class DatasetBasePath:
         is_dataset_root: bool = False,
         id: Optional[int] = None,
     ) -> None: ...
+    @property
+    def id(self) -> int: ...
+    @property
+    def name(self) -> Optional[str]: ...
+    @property
+    def path(self) -> str: ...
+    @property
+    def is_dataset_root(self) -> bool: ...
 
 __version__: str
 language_model_home: Callable[[], str]
diff --git a/python/python/lance/lance/bitmap.pyi b/python/python/lance/lance/bitmap.pyi
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f2bfcd7df51
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/lance/lance/bitmap.pyi
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+from typing import Iterable, Iterator, Optional, Union
+
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+class Bitmap:
+    """
+    A set of non-negative integers backed by a Rust ``RoaringBitmap``.
+
+    Cheap to clone and to pass into Lance APIs that accept a bitmap, since no
+    per-value Python object is created. Mutating methods (``add``,
+    ``discard``, ``update``, ...) copy-on-write: cloning a ``Bitmap`` and
+    mutating one copy never affects the other.
+
+    Implements the ``collections.abc.MutableSet`` interface and is registered
+    as one, so ``isinstance(b, collections.abc.Set)`` holds.
+    ``isinstance(b, set)`` does not: it is a distinct type, not a ``set``
+    subclass.
+
+    Anywhere a ``Bitmap`` accepts another set, it also accepts any iterable of
+    ints; order and repeats in that iterable are not significant.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        values: Optional[
+            Union[Iterable[int], pa.Array, pa.ChunkedArray, "Bitmap"]
+        ] = None,
+    ) -> None: ...
+    def __len__(self) -> int: ...
+    def __contains__(self, value: object) -> bool: ...
+    def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...
+    def __eq__(self, other: object) -> bool: ...
+    def __ne__(self, other: object) -> bool: ...
+    def __le__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> bool: ...
+    def __lt__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> bool: ...
+    def __ge__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> bool: ...
+    def __gt__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> bool: ...
+    def __and__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __rand__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __or__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __ror__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __sub__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __rsub__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __xor__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __rxor__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __iand__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __ior__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __isub__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def __ixor__(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def intersection(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def union(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def difference(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def symmetric_difference(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def issubset(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> bool: ...
+    def issuperset(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> bool: ...
+    def isdisjoint(self, other: Iterable[int]) -> bool: ...
+    def copy(self) -> "Bitmap": ...
+    def add(self, value: int) -> None: ...
+    def discard(self, value: int) -> None: ...
+    def remove(self, value: int) -> None: ...
+    def pop(self) -> int: ...
+    def clear(self) -> None: ...
+    def update(self, values: Iterable[int]) -> None: ...
diff --git a/python/python/lance/lance/fragment.pyi b/python/python/lance/lance/fragment.pyi
index 6e80f847620..c92d59b1657 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/lance/fragment.pyi
+++ b/python/python/lance/lance/fragment.pyi
@@ -1,7 +1,9 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-from typing import Literal, Optional
+from typing import Iterable, Iterator, Literal, Optional, Union
+
+import pyarrow as pa
 
 class DeletionFile:
     """
@@ -120,3 +122,86 @@ class RowIdMeta:
         ...
 
     def __reduce__(self) -> tuple: ...
+
+class RowIdSequence:
+    """
+    The stable row ids of the rows in a single fragment, in fragment order.
+
+    Use this to attach pre-existing row ids to a fragment when assembling a
+    transaction manually, so that rewritten rows keep their identity::
+
+        sequence = RowIdSequence([7, 12])
+        fragment = FragmentMetadata(..., row_id_meta=sequence.to_inline_metadata())
+
+    The sequence may be shorter than the fragment's ``physical_rows``. The ids
+    bind to the leading rows and the commit generates new ids for the remaining
+    ones, which is how a fragment holding both rewritten and newly inserted rows
+    is expressed: write the rewritten rows first and supply only their ids.
+    Passing more ids than the fragment has rows is rejected.
+
+    Warning
+    -------
+    Only duplicates within this sequence are rejected. Row ids must also be
+    unique across the dataset, and Lance does not re-check that when
+    committing, so the caller owns it. Supply only row ids that already exist
+    and are being relocated by the same transaction, which must also remove
+    every earlier occurrence of them. Do not generate ids for new rows yourself
+    -- they come from a counter in the manifest that a concurrent commit can
+    advance, so only the commit knows which values are free. Do not supply
+    unused row ids either: a sequence covering all of a fragment's rows leaves
+    the dataset's row id allocator untouched, so a later append will hand the
+    same id out again.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    row_ids : range | pa.Array | pa.ChunkedArray | Iterable[int]
+        The row ids, in the order the corresponding rows appear in the
+        fragment. A ``range`` with a step of one is stored compactly without
+        materializing its values.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self, row_ids: Union[range, pa.Array, pa.ChunkedArray, Iterable[int]]
+    ) -> None: ...
+    @staticmethod
+    def from_inline_metadata(metadata: RowIdMeta) -> RowIdSequence:
+        """
+        Read back a sequence stored inline in fragment row id metadata.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        metadata : RowIdMeta
+            Row id metadata holding an inline sequence. Metadata pointing at an
+            external file is not supported.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        RowIdSequence
+        """
+        ...
+
+    def to_inline_metadata(self) -> RowIdMeta:
+        """
+        Encode the sequence as row id metadata to store inline in the manifest.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        RowIdMeta
+            Suitable for the ``row_id_meta`` argument of
+            :class:`lance.fragment.FragmentMetadata`.
+        """
+        ...
+
+    def to_pyarrow(self) -> pa.UInt64Array:
+        """
+        Get the row ids as a ``uint64`` array, in sequence order.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pa.UInt64Array
+        """
+        ...
+
+    def __len__(self) -> int: ...
+    def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...
+    def __reduce__(self) -> tuple: ...
diff --git a/python/python/lance/lance/indices/__init__.pyi b/python/python/lance/lance/indices/__init__.pyi
index feed1f934fe..725d32687e4 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/lance/indices/__init__.pyi
+++ b/python/python/lance/lance/indices/__init__.pyi
@@ -17,10 +17,20 @@ from typing import Optional
 
 import pyarrow as pa
 
+from .. import _Fragment
+from ..bitmap import Bitmap
+
 class IndexConfig:
     index_type: str
     config: str
 
+class IndexSegment:
+    uuid: str
+    fragment_ids: Bitmap
+    index_version: int
+
+    def __repr__(self) -> str: ...
+
 def train_ivf_model(
     dataset,
     column: str,
@@ -29,7 +39,8 @@ def train_ivf_model(
     distance_type: str,
     sample_rate: int,
     max_iters: int,
-) -> pa.Array: ...
+    fragment_ids: Optional[list[int]] = None,
+) -> pa.FixedSizeListArray: ...
 def train_pq_model(
     dataset,
     column: str,
@@ -38,8 +49,12 @@ def train_pq_model(
     distance_type: str,
     sample_rate: int,
     max_iters: int,
+    # Kept as the ``Array`` base type: callers pass ``IvfModel.centroids``,
+    # which the public ``IvfModel`` constructor accepts as a plain ``pa.Array``.
     ivf_model: pa.Array,
-) -> pa.Array: ...
+    fragment_ids: Optional[list[int]] = None,
+    num_bits: int = 8,
+) -> pa.FixedSizeListArray: ...
 def transform_vectors(
     dataset,
     column: str,
@@ -49,14 +64,25 @@ def transform_vectors(
     ivf_centroids: pa.Array,
     pq_codebook: pa.Array,
     dst_uri: str,
+    fragments: list[_Fragment],
+    partitions_ds_uri: Optional[str] = None,
+    num_bits: int = 8,
 ): ...
+def build_rq_model(
+    dimension: int,
+    num_bits: int = 5,
+    dtype: str = "float32",
+) -> str: ...
 
 class IndexSegmentDescription:
     uuid: str
     dataset_version_at_last_update: int
-    fragment_ids: set[int]
+    fragment_ids: Bitmap
     index_version: int
     created_at: Optional[datetime]
+    size_bytes: Optional[int]
+    base_id: Optional[int]
+    covering_fields: list[int]
 
     def __repr__(self) -> str: ...
 
@@ -69,5 +95,6 @@ class IndexDescription:
     field_names: list[str]
     segments: list[IndexSegmentDescription]
     details: dict
+    total_size_bytes: Optional[int]
 
     def __repr__(self) -> str: ...
diff --git a/python/python/lance/lance/optimize.pyi b/python/python/lance/lance/optimize.pyi
index 9a26d23c003..c4b6b6546e6 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/lance/optimize.pyi
+++ b/python/python/lance/lance/optimize.pyi
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
 #  See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 #  limitations under the License.
 
-from typing import List
+from typing import List, Optional
 
 from lance import LanceDataset
 from lance.fragment import FragmentMetadata
@@ -51,5 +51,7 @@ class Compaction:
     def plan(dataset: "LanceDataset", options: CompactionOptions) -> CompactionPlan: ...
     @staticmethod
     def commit(
-        dataset: "LanceDataset", rewrites: List[RewriteResult]
+        dataset: "LanceDataset",
+        rewrites: List[RewriteResult],
+        options: Optional[CompactionOptions] = None,
     ) -> CompactionMetrics: ...
diff --git a/python/python/lance/lance/schema.pyi b/python/python/lance/lance/schema.pyi
index 51a1459779d..49d5229a721 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/lance/schema.pyi
+++ b/python/python/lance/lance/schema.pyi
@@ -11,9 +11,17 @@ class LanceField:
     def children(self) -> List[LanceField]: ...
     def is_unenforced_primary_key(self) -> bool: ...
     def unenforced_primary_key_position(self) -> Optional[int]: ...
+    def is_unenforced_clustering_key(self) -> bool: ...
+    def unenforced_clustering_key_position(self) -> Optional[int]: ...
 
 class LanceSchema:
+    @staticmethod
+    def _from_protos(metadata_json: str, *field_protos: bytes) -> "LanceSchema": ...
     def fields(self) -> List[LanceField]: ...
+    def field(self, name: str) -> Optional[LanceField]: ...
+    def field_case_insensitive(self, name: str) -> Optional[LanceField]: ...
+    def unenforced_primary_key(self) -> List[LanceField]: ...
+    def unenforced_clustering_key(self) -> List[LanceField]: ...
     def to_pyarrow(self) -> pa.Schema: ...
     @staticmethod
     def from_pyarrow(schema: pa.Schema) -> "LanceSchema": ...
diff --git a/python/python/lance/mem_wal.py b/python/python/lance/mem_wal.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b9a8890853a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/lance/mem_wal.py
@@ -0,0 +1,634 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""
+Python wrappers for Lance MemWAL functionality.
+
+The MemWAL feature enables high-throughput, low-latency writes to a Lance
+dataset via an LSM-tree structure.  Data flows through three levels:
+
+1. **WAL** – append-only durable log (raw writes)
+2. **Active MemTable** – in-memory write buffer
+3. **SSTable** – Lance files written to object store
+4. **Base table** – canonical Lance dataset files (after SSTable compaction)
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import math
+from dataclasses import asdict, dataclass, field
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Dict, Iterable, List, Mapping, Optional, Union
+
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+from .lance import (
+    _CompactedSsTable,
+    _evaluate_sharding_spec,
+    _ExecutionPlan,
+    _LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    _LsmScanner,
+    _LsmVectorSearchPlanner,
+    _ShardSnapshot,
+    _ShardWriter,
+)
+from .types import _coerce_reader
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    import lance
+
+__all__ = [
+    "ShardingField",
+    "ShardingSpec",
+    "evaluate_sharding_spec",
+    "CompactedSsTable",
+    "ShardSnapshot",
+    "ShardWriter",
+    "LsmScanner",
+    "ExecutionPlan",
+    "LsmPointLookupPlanner",
+    "LsmVectorSearchPlanner",
+]
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# ShardingSpec
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+@dataclass
+class ShardingField:
+    """Defines one MemWAL sharding field.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    field_id : str
+        Identifier for the derived field.
+    source_ids : list of int
+        Source field IDs used as inputs.
+    transform : str, optional
+        Optional transform name applied to the source fields.
+    expression : str, optional
+        Optional expression used to derive the field value.
+    result_type : str
+        Output type name for the derived field.
+    parameters : dict of str to str, optional
+        Extra transform parameters.
+    """
+
+    field_id: str
+    source_ids: List[int]
+    transform: Optional[str] = None
+    expression: Optional[str] = None
+    result_type: str = ""
+    parameters: Dict[str, str] = field(default_factory=dict)
+
+
+@dataclass
+class ShardingSpec:
+    """Specification for deriving MemWAL shard routing values."""
+
+    spec_id: int
+    fields: List[ShardingField]
+
+
+def evaluate_sharding_spec(
+    batch: pa.RecordBatch,
+    spec: Union[ShardingSpec, Mapping[str, object]],
+    schema: "lance.schema.LanceSchema",
+) -> pa.RecordBatch:
+    """Evaluate a MemWAL sharding spec against one PyArrow RecordBatch.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    batch : pyarrow.RecordBatch
+        Input batch containing the sharding source columns.
+    spec : ShardingSpec or dict
+        MemWAL sharding spec to evaluate.
+    schema : LanceSchema
+        Lance table schema used to resolve source field IDs in the spec to
+        input batch column names.
+    """
+    if not isinstance(batch, pa.RecordBatch):
+        raise TypeError(f"Expected pyarrow.RecordBatch, got {type(batch)!r}")
+    return _evaluate_sharding_spec(
+        batch,
+        _sharding_spec_to_dict(spec),
+        schema,
+    )
+
+
+def _sharding_spec_to_dict(spec: Union[ShardingSpec, Mapping[str, object]]) -> dict:
+    if isinstance(spec, Mapping):
+        return dict(spec)
+    return asdict(spec)
+
+
+@dataclass
+class CompactedSsTable:
+    """Points to an SSTable compacted into the base table.
+
+    Pass a list of these to mark_sstables_as_compacted
+    so Lance can record compaction progress.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    shard_id : str
+        UUID string for the write shard.
+    generation : int
+        Generation number of the compacted SSTable (as passed to
+        :meth:`ShardSnapshot.with_sstable`).
+    """
+
+    shard_id: str
+    generation: int
+
+
+class ShardSnapshot:
+    """Snapshot of a MemWAL shard's state, used when constructing scanners.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    shard_id : str
+        UUID string for the write shard.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, shard_id: str) -> None:
+        self._raw = _ShardSnapshot(shard_id)
+
+    @property
+    def shard_id(self) -> str:
+        """UUID string for this shard."""
+        return self._raw.shard_id
+
+    def with_spec_id(self, spec_id: int) -> "ShardSnapshot":
+        """Set the sharding spec ID."""
+        self._raw = self._raw.with_spec_id(spec_id)
+        return self
+
+    def with_current_generation(self, generation: int) -> "ShardSnapshot":
+        """Set the current (active) generation number."""
+        self._raw = self._raw.with_current_generation(generation)
+        return self
+
+    def with_sstable(self, generation: int, path: str) -> "ShardSnapshot":
+        """Add an SSTable with its storage path."""
+        self._raw = self._raw.with_sstable(generation, path)
+        return self
+
+    def __repr__(self) -> str:
+        return repr(self._raw)
+
+
+class ShardWriter:
+    """Stateful writer for one MemWAL shard.
+
+    Obtain an instance via mem_wal_writer.
+    Use as a context manager so the writer is closed automatically::
+
+        with dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id) as writer:
+            writer.put(batch)
+            writer.delete(pa.table({"id": [1]}))
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    _raw : _ShardWriter
+        Internal PyO3 object — do not construct directly.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, _raw: _ShardWriter) -> None:
+        self._raw = _raw
+
+    @property
+    def shard_id(self) -> str:
+        """UUID string for this writer's shard."""
+        return self._raw.shard_id
+
+    def put(self, data, *, schema: Optional[pa.Schema] = None) -> None:
+        """Write data to the MemWAL.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        data : ReaderLike
+            Any Arrow-compatible data `pyarrow.Table`,
+            `pyarrow.RecordBatch`, ``RecordBatchReader``, pandas
+            DataFrame, etc.
+        schema : pa.Schema, optional
+            Schema hint, needed when *data* is a generator.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        IOError
+            On WAL flush failure.
+        RuntimeError
+            If the writer has already been closed.
+        """
+        reader = _coerce_reader(data, schema)
+        self._raw.put(reader)
+
+    def delete(self, keys, *, schema: Optional[pa.Schema] = None) -> None:
+        """Delete rows by primary key from the MemWAL.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        keys : ReaderLike
+            Any Arrow-compatible data containing this shard's primary key
+            column(s). Non-primary-key columns, if present, are ignored by
+            the Rust core delete path.
+        schema : pa.Schema, optional
+            Schema hint, needed when *keys* is a generator.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        IOError
+            If delete validation fails, WAL flush fails, or the writer has
+            already been closed. Delete validation is centralized in Rust and
+            includes checks for primary-key metadata and tombstone-compatible
+            nullable non-key columns.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        ::
+
+            with dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id) as writer:
+                writer.delete(pa.table({"id": [42]}))
+        """
+        reader = _coerce_reader(keys, schema)
+        self._raw.delete(reader)
+
+    def close(self) -> None:
+        """Flush and close the writer.
+
+        After ``close()``, calling :meth:`put` raises an error.
+        Automatically called when used as a context manager.
+        """
+        self._raw.close()
+
+    def stats(self) -> dict:
+        """Return a snapshot of write statistics.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            Keys: ``put_count``, ``put_time_ms``, ``wal_flush_count``,
+            ``wal_flush_bytes``, ``wal_flush_time_ms``,
+            ``memtable_flush_count``, ``memtable_flush_rows``,
+            ``memtable_flush_time_ms``.
+        """
+        return self._raw.stats()
+
+    def memtable_stats(self) -> dict:
+        """Return current MemTable statistics.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            Keys: ``row_count``, ``batch_count``, ``estimated_size_bytes``,
+            ``generation``, ``frozen_count``, ``frozen_bytes``.
+        """
+        return self._raw.memtable_stats()
+
+    def lsm_scanner(
+        self, shard_snapshots: Optional[List[ShardSnapshot]] = None
+    ) -> "LsmScanner":
+        """Create an LSM scanner that includes the active MemTable.
+
+        This scanner covers the base table, the given SSTables,
+        and the current active MemTable — providing strong read-your-writes
+        consistency.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        shard_snapshots : list of ShardSnapshot, optional
+            Snapshots of other shards to include.  This writer's own shard
+            is automatically included.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        LsmScanner
+        """
+        raw_snaps = [s._raw for s in (shard_snapshots or [])]
+        return LsmScanner(self._raw.lsm_scanner(raw_snaps))
+
+    def __enter__(self) -> "ShardWriter":
+        return self
+
+    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb) -> bool:
+        self.close()
+        return False
+
+
+class LsmScanner:
+    """LSM-aware scanner covering all data levels.
+
+    Deduplicates by primary key, always returning the newest version of
+    each row across base table, SSTables, and the active MemTable.
+
+    Obtain an instance from `ShardWriter.lsm_scanner` (includes
+    active MemTable) or `LsmScanner.from_snapshots` (SSTables only).
+
+    The builder methods (`project`, `filter`, `limit`)
+    return ``self`` for chaining.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    scanner = LsmScanner.from_snapshots(dataset, [snapshot])
+    scanner.project(["id", "value"]).filter("value > 0.5")
+    table = scanner.to_table()
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, _raw: _LsmScanner) -> None:
+        self._raw = _raw
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def from_snapshots(
+        dataset: "lance.LanceDataset",
+        shard_snapshots: List[ShardSnapshot],
+    ) -> "LsmScanner":
+        """Create a scanner from dataset and shard snapshots.
+
+        Does **not** include the active MemTable; use
+        `ShardWriter.lsm_scanner` for that.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        dataset : LanceDataset
+            The base dataset to scan.
+        shard_snapshots : list of ShardSnapshot
+            Shard snapshots specifying SSTables to include.
+        """
+        raw = _LsmScanner.from_snapshots(dataset._ds, [s._raw for s in shard_snapshots])
+        return LsmScanner(raw)
+
+    def project(self, columns: List[str]) -> "LsmScanner":
+        """Select specific columns to return."""
+        self._raw = self._raw.project(columns)
+        return self
+
+    def filter(self, expr: str) -> "LsmScanner":
+        """Set a SQL filter expression (e.g. ``"value > 0.5"``)."""
+        self._raw = self._raw.filter(expr)
+        return self
+
+    def limit(
+        self, n: Optional[int] = None, offset: Optional[int] = None
+    ) -> "LsmScanner":
+        """Limit rows returned, optionally with an offset."""
+        self._raw = self._raw.limit(n, offset)
+        return self
+
+    def with_row_address(self) -> "LsmScanner":
+        """Include the ``_rowaddr`` internal column in results."""
+        self._raw = self._raw.with_row_address()
+        return self
+
+    def with_memtable_gen(self) -> "LsmScanner":
+        """Include the ``_memtable_gen`` internal column in results."""
+        self._raw = self._raw.with_memtable_gen()
+        return self
+
+    def to_batch(self) -> pa.RecordBatch:
+        """Execute the scan and return a single merged :class:`~pyarrow.RecordBatch`."""
+        return self._raw.to_batch()
+
+    def to_batches(self) -> List[pa.RecordBatch]:
+        """Execute the scan and return a list of :class:`~pyarrow.RecordBatch`."""
+        return list(self._raw.to_batches())
+
+    def to_table(self) -> pa.Table:
+        """Execute the scan and return a :class:`~pyarrow.Table`."""
+        batch = self.to_batch()
+        return pa.Table.from_batches([batch])
+
+    def count_rows(self) -> int:
+        """Return the row count without loading all column data."""
+        return self._raw.count_rows()
+
+
+class ExecutionPlan:
+    """Executable physical plan returned by MemWAL planners.
+
+    This wraps the Rust/DataFusion physical plan object. Planner classes only
+    construct plans; execution happens through this class.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    _raw : _ExecutionPlan
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, _raw: _ExecutionPlan) -> None:
+        self._raw = _raw
+
+    @property
+    def schema(self) -> pa.Schema:
+        """Output schema of this physical plan."""
+        return self._raw.schema
+
+    @property
+    def dataset_schema(self) -> pa.Schema:
+        """Base dataset schema used to construct this plan."""
+        return self._raw.dataset_schema
+
+    def explain(self) -> str:
+        """Return the physical plan as an indented string."""
+        return self._raw.explain()
+
+    def to_reader(self) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+        """Execute the plan and return a streaming reader."""
+        return self._raw.to_reader()
+
+    def to_batches(self) -> List[pa.RecordBatch]:
+        """Execute the plan and return all record batches."""
+        return list(self._raw.to_batches())
+
+    def to_table(self) -> pa.Table:
+        """Execute the plan and return a table."""
+        return self.to_reader().read_all()
+
+
+class LsmPointLookupPlanner:
+    """Plans primary-key point lookups across all LSM levels.
+
+    More efficient than `LsmScanner` for known-PK lookups due to
+    bloom filter optimizations and short-circuit evaluation.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    dataset : LanceDataset
+        The base dataset.
+    shard_snapshots : list of ShardSnapshot
+        Shard snapshots specifying SSTables to include.
+    pk_columns : list of str, optional
+        Primary key column names.  Inferred from schema metadata if omitted.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    planner = LsmPointLookupPlanner(dataset, [snapshot])
+    plan = planner.plan_lookup(pa.array([42], type=pa.int64()))
+    result = plan.to_table()
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        dataset: "lance.LanceDataset",
+        shard_snapshots: List[ShardSnapshot],
+        pk_columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    ) -> None:
+        self._raw = _LsmPointLookupPlanner(
+            dataset._ds,
+            [s._raw for s in shard_snapshots],
+            pk_columns,
+        )
+
+    def plan_lookup(
+        self,
+        pk_value: pa.Array,
+        columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    ) -> ExecutionPlan:
+        """Plan a point lookup by primary key value.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        pk_value : pa.Array
+            For single-column primary keys, a PyArrow array with exactly one
+            element. For composite primary keys, a single-row
+            `pyarrow.StructArray` with one field per primary-key column.
+        columns : list of str, optional
+            Columns to project. Returns all columns if omitted.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ExecutionPlan
+            Physical plan for the lookup. Execute it via `to_table`,
+            `to_reader`, or `to_batches`.
+        """
+        return ExecutionPlan(self._raw.plan_lookup(pk_value, columns))
+
+
+class LsmVectorSearchPlanner:
+    """Plans IVF-PQ vector KNN search across all LSM levels.
+
+    Results include staleness filtering to return only the latest version
+    of each row. The output schema includes the ``_distance`` column.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    dataset : LanceDataset
+        The base dataset.
+    shard_snapshots : list of ShardSnapshot
+        Shard snapshots specifying SSTables to include.
+    vector_column : str
+        Name of the ``FixedSizeList<float32>`` vector column.
+    pk_columns : list of str, optional
+        Primary key columns.  Inferred from schema metadata if omitted.
+    distance_type : str, optional
+        Distance metric — one of ``"l2"`` (default), ``"cosine"``,
+        ``"dot"``, ``"hamming"``.
+    filter : str, optional
+        SQL predicate applied as a prefilter to every LSM source before vector
+        candidate selection.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    import numpy as np
+    planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner(dataset, [snapshot], "vector")
+    query = pa.array(np.random.rand(128).astype("float32"))
+    plan = planner.plan_search(query, k=10)
+    result = plan.to_table()
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        dataset: "lance.LanceDataset",
+        shard_snapshots: List[ShardSnapshot],
+        vector_column: str,
+        pk_columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        distance_type: Optional[str] = None,
+        filter: Optional[str] = None,
+    ) -> None:
+        kwargs = {}
+        if pk_columns is not None:
+            kwargs["pk_columns"] = pk_columns
+        if distance_type is not None:
+            kwargs["distance_type"] = distance_type
+        if filter is not None:
+            kwargs["filter"] = filter
+        self._raw = _LsmVectorSearchPlanner(
+            dataset._ds,
+            [s._raw for s in shard_snapshots],
+            vector_column,
+            **kwargs,
+        )
+
+    def plan_search(
+        self,
+        query: pa.Array,
+        k: int = 10,
+        nprobes: int = 20,
+        columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        refine_base_table: bool = False,
+        overfetch_factor: float = 1.0,
+    ) -> ExecutionPlan:
+        """Plan a KNN vector search.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        query : pa.Array
+            A flat ``Float32Array`` of length ``vector_dim``.
+        k : int, optional
+            Number of nearest neighbours to return (default: 10).
+        nprobes : int, optional
+            Number of IVF partitions to probe (default: 20).
+        columns : list of str, optional
+            Columns to project.  Returns all columns + ``_distance`` if
+            omitted.
+        refine_base_table : bool, optional
+            When true, the base-table arm re-ranks its candidates with exact
+            distances.  Useful when the base index is approximate (e.g.
+            IVF-PQ).  Memtable arms use exact HNSW and are unaffected.
+            Auto-enabled whenever stale filtering is on (see ``overfetch_factor``).
+        overfetch_factor : float, optional
+            Over-fetch multiple for sources with rows superseded by newer
+            generations. Must be at least ``1.0``. At ``1.0`` each affected
+            source fetches exactly ``k`` candidates; above ``1.0`` it fetches
+            ``ceil(k * overfetch_factor)`` candidates so dropping stale rows is
+            less likely to under-fill the result.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ExecutionPlan
+            Physical plan for the vector search. Execute it via
+            `to_table`, `to_reader`, or `to_batches`.
+        """
+        if k <= 0:
+            raise ValueError(f"k must be positive, got {k}")
+        if nprobes <= 0:
+            raise ValueError(f"nprobes must be positive, got {nprobes}")
+        if not math.isfinite(overfetch_factor) or overfetch_factor < 1.0:
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"overfetch_factor must be finite and >= 1.0, got {overfetch_factor}"
+            )
+        return ExecutionPlan(
+            self._raw.plan_search(
+                query,
+                k,
+                nprobes,
+                columns,
+                refine_base_table,
+                overfetch_factor,
+            )
+        )
+
+
+def _unwrap_shard_id(shard_id: str) -> str:
+    """Validate shard_id is a UUID string."""
+    import uuid as _uuid
+
+    _uuid.UUID(shard_id)  # raises ValueError if invalid
+    return shard_id
+
+
+def _to_raw_compacted_sstables(
+    sstables: Iterable[CompactedSsTable],
+) -> list:
+    """Convert Python CompactedSsTable list to PyO3 _CompactedSsTable list."""
+    return [_CompactedSsTable(s.shard_id, s.generation) for s in sstables]
diff --git a/python/python/lance/namespace.py b/python/python/lance/namespace.py
index 9df0c451173..23c6b88cb3c 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/namespace.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/namespace.py
@@ -13,39 +13,101 @@
 """
 
 from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
-from typing import Dict, List, Optional
+from typing import Dict, Optional
 
 from lance_namespace import (
-    CreateEmptyTableRequest,
-    CreateEmptyTableResponse,
+    AlterTableAddColumnsRequest,
+    AlterTableAddColumnsResponse,
+    AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
+    AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse,
+    AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest,
+    AlterTableBackfillColumnsResponse,
+    AlterTableDropColumnsRequest,
+    AlterTableDropColumnsResponse,
+    AlterTransactionRequest,
+    AlterTransactionResponse,
+    AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest,
+    CountTableRowsRequest,
+    CountTableRowsResponse,
+    CreateMaterializedViewRequest,
+    CreateMaterializedViewResponse,
     CreateNamespaceRequest,
     CreateNamespaceResponse,
+    CreateTableBranchRequest,
+    CreateTableBranchResponse,
+    CreateTableIndexRequest,
+    CreateTableIndexResponse,
     CreateTableRequest,
     CreateTableResponse,
+    CreateTableTagRequest,
+    CreateTableTagResponse,
     DeclareTableRequest,
     DeclareTableResponse,
+    DeleteFromTableRequest,
+    DeleteFromTableResponse,
+    DeleteTableBranchRequest,
+    DeleteTableBranchResponse,
+    DeleteTableTagRequest,
+    DeleteTableTagResponse,
     DeregisterTableRequest,
     DeregisterTableResponse,
     DescribeNamespaceRequest,
     DescribeNamespaceResponse,
+    DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest,
+    DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse,
     DescribeTableRequest,
     DescribeTableResponse,
+    DescribeTransactionRequest,
+    DescribeTransactionResponse,
     DropNamespaceRequest,
     DropNamespaceResponse,
+    DropTableIndexRequest,
+    DropTableIndexResponse,
     DropTableRequest,
     DropTableResponse,
+    ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest,
+    GetTableStatsRequest,
+    GetTableStatsResponse,
+    GetTableTagVersionRequest,
+    GetTableTagVersionResponse,
+    InsertIntoTableRequest,
+    InsertIntoTableResponse,
     LanceNamespace,
     ListNamespacesRequest,
     ListNamespacesResponse,
+    ListTableBranchesRequest,
+    ListTableBranchesResponse,
+    ListTableIndicesRequest,
+    ListTableIndicesResponse,
     ListTablesRequest,
     ListTablesResponse,
+    ListTableTagsRequest,
+    ListTableTagsResponse,
+    ListTableVersionsRequest,
+    ListTableVersionsResponse,
+    MergeInsertIntoTableRequest,
+    MergeInsertIntoTableResponse,
     NamespaceExistsRequest,
+    NamespaceExistsResponse,
+    QueryTableResponse,
+    RefreshMaterializedViewRequest,
+    RefreshMaterializedViewResponse,
     RegisterTableRequest,
     RegisterTableResponse,
+    RenameTableRequest,
+    RenameTableResponse,
+    RestoreTableRequest,
+    RestoreTableResponse,
     TableExistsRequest,
+    TableExistsResponse,
+    UpdateTableRequest,
+    UpdateTableResponse,
+    UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest,
+    UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse,
+    UpdateTableTagRequest,
+    UpdateTableTagResponse,
 )
 
-from .io import StorageOptionsProvider
 from .lance import PyDirectoryNamespace  # Low-level Rust binding
 
 try:
@@ -62,7 +124,6 @@
     "DirectoryNamespace",
     "RestNamespace",
     "RestAdapter",
-    "LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider",
     "DynamicContextProvider",
 ]
 
@@ -263,6 +324,16 @@ class DirectoryNamespace(LanceNamespace):
                 - credential_vendor.azure_duration_millis (optional): Duration in ms
                   (default: 3600000, up to 7 days)
 
+        Testing properties:
+            - ops_metrics_enabled (optional): "true" to enable operation metrics
+              tracking. Use `retrieve_ops_metrics()` to get call counts.
+            - vend_input_storage_options (optional): "true" to return input storage
+              options in describe_table() when no credential vendor is configured.
+              Useful for testing credential refresh.
+            - vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis (optional): When set
+              with vend_input_storage_options, adds expires_at_millis to storage
+              options. Value is current_time_millis + this interval.
+
     Examples
     --------
     >>> import lance.namespace
@@ -275,12 +346,13 @@ class DirectoryNamespace(LanceNamespace):
     >>>
     >>> # With AWS credential vending (requires credential-vendor-aws feature)
     >>> # Use **dict to pass property names with dots
-    >>> ns = lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace(**{
+    >>> aws_properties = {
     ...     "root": "s3://my-bucket/data",
     ...     "credential_vendor.enabled": "true",
     ...     "credential_vendor.aws_role_arn": "arn:aws:iam::123456789012:role/MyRole",
     ...     "credential_vendor.aws_duration_millis": "3600000",
-    ... })
+    ... }
+    >>> # ns = lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace(**aws_properties)
 
     With dynamic context provider:
 
@@ -345,8 +417,11 @@ def drop_namespace(self, request: DropNamespaceRequest) -> DropNamespaceResponse
         response_dict = self._inner.drop_namespace(request.model_dump())
         return DropNamespaceResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
 
-    def namespace_exists(self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest) -> None:
+    def namespace_exists(
+        self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest
+    ) -> NamespaceExistsResponse:
         self._inner.namespace_exists(request.model_dump())
+        return NamespaceExistsResponse()
 
     # Table operations
 
@@ -362,8 +437,9 @@ def register_table(self, request: RegisterTableRequest) -> RegisterTableResponse
         response_dict = self._inner.register_table(request.model_dump())
         return RegisterTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
 
-    def table_exists(self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> None:
+    def table_exists(self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> TableExistsResponse:
         self._inner.table_exists(request.model_dump())
+        return TableExistsResponse()
 
     def drop_table(self, request: DropTableRequest) -> DropTableResponse:
         response_dict = self._inner.drop_table(request.model_dump())
@@ -381,16 +457,466 @@ def create_table(
         response_dict = self._inner.create_table(request.model_dump(), request_data)
         return CreateTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
 
-    def create_empty_table(
-        self, request: CreateEmptyTableRequest
-    ) -> CreateEmptyTableResponse:
-        response_dict = self._inner.create_empty_table(request.model_dump())
-        return CreateEmptyTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
-
     def declare_table(self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> DeclareTableResponse:
         response_dict = self._inner.declare_table(request.model_dump())
         return DeclareTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
 
+    def rename_table(self, request: RenameTableRequest) -> RenameTableResponse:
+        response_dict = self._inner.rename_table(request.model_dump())
+        return RenameTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Table version operations
+
+    def list_table_versions(
+        self, request: ListTableVersionsRequest
+    ) -> ListTableVersionsResponse:
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_table_versions(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTableVersionsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def create_table_version(self, request: dict) -> dict:
+        """Create a table version (for external manifest store integration).
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : dict
+            Request dictionary with keys:
+            - id: List[str] - Table identifier
+            - version: int - Version number to create
+            - manifest_path: str - Path to staging manifest
+            - manifest_size: int (optional) - Size in bytes
+            - e_tag: str (optional) - ETag for optimistic concurrency
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            Response dictionary with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        return self._inner.create_table_version(request)
+
+    def describe_table_version(self, request: dict) -> dict:
+        """Describe a specific table version.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : dict
+            Request dictionary with keys:
+            - id: List[str] - Table identifier
+            - version: int (optional) - Version to describe (None = latest)
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            Response dictionary with version info:
+            - version: dict with version, manifest_path, manifest_size, e_tag, timestamp
+        """
+        return self._inner.describe_table_version(request)
+
+    def batch_delete_table_versions(self, request: dict) -> dict:
+        """Delete multiple table versions in a single request.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : dict
+            Request dictionary with keys:
+            - id: List[str] - Table identifier
+            - versions: List[int] - List of version numbers to delete
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            Response dictionary with:
+            - deleted_versions: List[int] - List of successfully deleted versions
+        """
+        return self._inner.batch_delete_table_versions(request)
+
+    # Data manipulation operations
+
+    def count_table_rows(
+        self, request: CountTableRowsRequest
+    ) -> CountTableRowsResponse:
+        """Count the number of rows in a table, optionally filtered by a predicate.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : CountTableRowsRequest
+            Request with table id, optional version, and optional predicate filter
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        CountTableRowsResponse
+            Response whose ``count`` is the number of rows matching the criteria
+        """
+        count = self._inner.count_table_rows(request.model_dump())
+        return CountTableRowsResponse(count=count)
+
+    def insert_into_table(
+        self, request: InsertIntoTableRequest, request_data: bytes
+    ) -> InsertIntoTableResponse:
+        """Insert data into a table.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : InsertIntoTableRequest
+            Request with table id and write mode (append/overwrite)
+        request_data : bytes
+            Arrow IPC stream containing the data to insert
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        InsertIntoTableResponse
+            Response with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.insert_into_table(
+            request.model_dump(), request_data
+        )
+        return InsertIntoTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def merge_insert_into_table(
+        self, request: MergeInsertIntoTableRequest, request_data: bytes
+    ) -> MergeInsertIntoTableResponse:
+        """Merge-insert data into a table (upsert operation).
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : MergeInsertIntoTableRequest
+            Request with table id, merge keys, and merge behavior
+        request_data : bytes
+            Arrow IPC stream containing the data to merge
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        MergeInsertIntoTableResponse
+            Response with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.merge_insert_into_table(
+            request.model_dump(), request_data
+        )
+        return MergeInsertIntoTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def update_table(self, request: UpdateTableRequest) -> UpdateTableResponse:
+        """Update rows in a table matching a filter.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : UpdateTableRequest
+            Request with table id, filter predicate, and column updates
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        UpdateTableResponse
+            Response with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.update_table(request.model_dump())
+        return UpdateTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def delete_from_table(
+        self, request: DeleteFromTableRequest
+    ) -> DeleteFromTableResponse:
+        """Delete rows from a table matching a filter.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : DeleteFromTableRequest
+            Request with table id and filter predicate
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        DeleteFromTableResponse
+            Response with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.delete_from_table(request.model_dump())
+        return DeleteFromTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def query_table(self, request) -> QueryTableResponse:
+        """Query a table and return results as Arrow IPC.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : QueryTableRequest or dict
+            Query request with table id, optional filter, columns, vector search
+            parameters, limit/offset, etc.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        QueryTableResponse
+            Response whose ``data`` is the query results in Arrow IPC file format
+        """
+        if hasattr(request, "model_dump"):
+            request = request.model_dump()
+        data = self._inner.query_table(request)
+        return QueryTableResponse(data=data)
+
+    # Index operations
+
+    def create_table_index(
+        self, request: CreateTableIndexRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableIndexResponse:
+        """Create an index on a table.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : CreateTableIndexRequest
+            Request with table id, index name, column, and index configuration
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        CreateTableIndexResponse
+            Response with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_table_index(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateTableIndexResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def list_table_indices(
+        self, request: ListTableIndicesRequest
+    ) -> ListTableIndicesResponse:
+        """List all indices on a table.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : ListTableIndicesRequest
+            Request with table id
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ListTableIndicesResponse
+            Response with list of index metadata
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_table_indices(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTableIndicesResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def describe_table_index_stats(
+        self, request: DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest
+    ) -> DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse:
+        """Get statistics for a specific index.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest
+            Request with table id and index name
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse
+            Response with index statistics
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.describe_table_index_stats(request.model_dump())
+        return DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Transaction operations
+
+    def describe_transaction(
+        self, request: DescribeTransactionRequest
+    ) -> DescribeTransactionResponse:
+        """Describe a transaction.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : DescribeTransactionRequest
+            Request with transaction id
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        DescribeTransactionResponse
+            Response with transaction details
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.describe_transaction(request.model_dump())
+        return DescribeTransactionResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def alter_transaction(
+        self, request: AlterTransactionRequest
+    ) -> AlterTransactionResponse:
+        """Alter a transaction (commit or abort).
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : AlterTransactionRequest
+            Request with transaction id and action
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        AlterTransactionResponse
+            Response confirming the action
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_transaction(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTransactionResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Additional index operations
+
+    def create_table_scalar_index(
+        self, request: CreateTableIndexRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableIndexResponse:
+        """Create a scalar index on a table column."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_table_scalar_index(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateTableIndexResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def drop_table_index(
+        self, request: DropTableIndexRequest
+    ) -> DropTableIndexResponse:
+        """Drop an index from a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.drop_table_index(request.model_dump())
+        return DropTableIndexResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Additional table operations
+
+    def list_all_tables(self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> ListTablesResponse:
+        """List all tables recursively across all namespaces."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_all_tables(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTablesResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def restore_table(self, request: RestoreTableRequest) -> RestoreTableResponse:
+        """Restore a previously dropped table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.restore_table(request.model_dump())
+        return RestoreTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def update_table_schema_metadata(
+        self, request: UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest
+    ) -> UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse:
+        """Update the schema metadata of a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.update_table_schema_metadata(request.model_dump())
+        return UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def get_table_stats(self, request: GetTableStatsRequest) -> GetTableStatsResponse:
+        """Get statistics for a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.get_table_stats(request.model_dump())
+        return GetTableStatsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Query plan operations
+
+    def explain_table_query_plan(self, request: ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest) -> str:
+        """Explain the query plan for a table query."""
+        return self._inner.explain_table_query_plan(request.model_dump())
+
+    def analyze_table_query_plan(self, request: AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest) -> str:
+        """Analyze the query plan for a table query with execution statistics."""
+        return self._inner.analyze_table_query_plan(request.model_dump())
+
+    # Column alteration operations
+
+    def alter_table_add_columns(
+        self, request: AlterTableAddColumnsRequest
+    ) -> AlterTableAddColumnsResponse:
+        """Add columns to a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_table_add_columns(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTableAddColumnsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def alter_table_alter_columns(
+        self, request: AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest
+    ) -> AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse:
+        """Alter existing columns in a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_table_alter_columns(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def alter_table_drop_columns(
+        self, request: AlterTableDropColumnsRequest
+    ) -> AlterTableDropColumnsResponse:
+        """Drop columns from a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_table_drop_columns(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTableDropColumnsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def alter_table_backfill_columns(
+        self, request: AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest
+    ) -> AlterTableBackfillColumnsResponse:
+        """Trigger an async backfill job for a computed column."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_table_backfill_columns(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTableBackfillColumnsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def refresh_materialized_view(
+        self, request: RefreshMaterializedViewRequest
+    ) -> RefreshMaterializedViewResponse:
+        """Trigger an async materialized view refresh."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.refresh_materialized_view(request.model_dump())
+        return RefreshMaterializedViewResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def create_materialized_view(
+        self, request: CreateMaterializedViewRequest
+    ) -> CreateMaterializedViewResponse:
+        """Create a materialized view backed by an optional UDTF/chunker."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_materialized_view(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateMaterializedViewResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Table tag operations
+
+    def list_table_tags(self, request: ListTableTagsRequest) -> ListTableTagsResponse:
+        """List all tags on a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_table_tags(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTableTagsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def get_table_tag_version(
+        self, request: GetTableTagVersionRequest
+    ) -> GetTableTagVersionResponse:
+        """Get the version associated with a table tag."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.get_table_tag_version(request.model_dump())
+        return GetTableTagVersionResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def create_table_tag(
+        self, request: CreateTableTagRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableTagResponse:
+        """Create a new tag pointing to a table version."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_table_tag(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateTableTagResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def delete_table_tag(
+        self, request: DeleteTableTagRequest
+    ) -> DeleteTableTagResponse:
+        """Delete a tag from a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.delete_table_tag(request.model_dump())
+        return DeleteTableTagResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def update_table_tag(
+        self, request: UpdateTableTagRequest
+    ) -> UpdateTableTagResponse:
+        """Update a tag to point to a different version."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.update_table_tag(request.model_dump())
+        return UpdateTableTagResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def create_table_branch(
+        self, request: CreateTableBranchRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableBranchResponse:
+        """Create a new branch forked from a table version."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_table_branch(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateTableBranchResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def list_table_branches(
+        self, request: ListTableBranchesRequest
+    ) -> ListTableBranchesResponse:
+        """List all branches of a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_table_branches(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTableBranchesResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def delete_table_branch(
+        self, request: DeleteTableBranchRequest
+    ) -> DeleteTableBranchResponse:
+        """Delete a branch from a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.delete_table_branch(request.model_dump())
+        return DeleteTableBranchResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Operation metrics methods
+
+    def retrieve_ops_metrics(self) -> Dict[str, int]:
+        """Retrieve operation metrics as a dictionary.
+
+        Returns a dict where keys are operation names (e.g., "list_tables",
+        "describe_table") and values are the number of times each operation
+        was called.
+
+        Returns an empty dict if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when creating
+        the namespace.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Dict[str, int]
+            Operation name to call count mapping
+        """
+        return self._inner.retrieve_ops_metrics()
+
+    def reset_ops_metrics(self) -> None:
+        """Reset all operation metrics counters to zero.
+
+        Does nothing if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when creating the
+        namespace.
+        """
+        self._inner.reset_ops_metrics()
+
 
 class RestNamespace(LanceNamespace):
     """REST-based Lance Namespace implementation backed by Rust.
@@ -490,8 +1016,11 @@ def drop_namespace(self, request: DropNamespaceRequest) -> DropNamespaceResponse
         response_dict = self._inner.drop_namespace(request.model_dump())
         return DropNamespaceResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
 
-    def namespace_exists(self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest) -> None:
+    def namespace_exists(
+        self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest
+    ) -> NamespaceExistsResponse:
         self._inner.namespace_exists(request.model_dump())
+        return NamespaceExistsResponse()
 
     # Table operations
 
@@ -507,8 +1036,9 @@ def register_table(self, request: RegisterTableRequest) -> RegisterTableResponse
         response_dict = self._inner.register_table(request.model_dump())
         return RegisterTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
 
-    def table_exists(self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> None:
+    def table_exists(self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> TableExistsResponse:
         self._inner.table_exists(request.model_dump())
+        return TableExistsResponse()
 
     def drop_table(self, request: DropTableRequest) -> DropTableResponse:
         response_dict = self._inner.drop_table(request.model_dump())
@@ -526,16 +1056,466 @@ def create_table(
         response_dict = self._inner.create_table(request.model_dump(), request_data)
         return CreateTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
 
-    def create_empty_table(
-        self, request: CreateEmptyTableRequest
-    ) -> CreateEmptyTableResponse:
-        response_dict = self._inner.create_empty_table(request.model_dump())
-        return CreateEmptyTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
-
     def declare_table(self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> DeclareTableResponse:
         response_dict = self._inner.declare_table(request.model_dump())
         return DeclareTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
 
+    def rename_table(self, request: RenameTableRequest) -> RenameTableResponse:
+        response_dict = self._inner.rename_table(request.model_dump())
+        return RenameTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Table version operations
+
+    def list_table_versions(
+        self, request: ListTableVersionsRequest
+    ) -> ListTableVersionsResponse:
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_table_versions(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTableVersionsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def create_table_version(self, request: dict) -> dict:
+        """Create a table version (for external manifest store integration).
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : dict
+            Request dictionary with keys:
+            - id: List[str] - Table identifier
+            - version: int - Version number to create
+            - manifest_path: str - Path to staging manifest
+            - manifest_size: int (optional) - Size in bytes
+            - e_tag: str (optional) - ETag for optimistic concurrency
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            Response dictionary with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        return self._inner.create_table_version(request)
+
+    def describe_table_version(self, request: dict) -> dict:
+        """Describe a specific table version.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : dict
+            Request dictionary with keys:
+            - id: List[str] - Table identifier
+            - version: int (optional) - Version to describe (None = latest)
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            Response dictionary with version info:
+            - version: dict with version, manifest_path, manifest_size, e_tag, timestamp
+        """
+        return self._inner.describe_table_version(request)
+
+    def batch_delete_table_versions(self, request: dict) -> dict:
+        """Delete multiple table versions in a single request.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : dict
+            Request dictionary with keys:
+            - id: List[str] - Table identifier
+            - versions: List[int] - List of version numbers to delete
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            Response dictionary with:
+            - deleted_versions: List[int] - List of successfully deleted versions
+        """
+        return self._inner.batch_delete_table_versions(request)
+
+    # Data manipulation operations
+
+    def count_table_rows(
+        self, request: CountTableRowsRequest
+    ) -> CountTableRowsResponse:
+        """Count the number of rows in a table, optionally filtered by a predicate.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : CountTableRowsRequest
+            Request with table id, optional version, and optional predicate filter
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        CountTableRowsResponse
+            Response whose ``count`` is the number of rows matching the criteria
+        """
+        count = self._inner.count_table_rows(request.model_dump())
+        return CountTableRowsResponse(count=count)
+
+    def insert_into_table(
+        self, request: InsertIntoTableRequest, request_data: bytes
+    ) -> InsertIntoTableResponse:
+        """Insert data into a table.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : InsertIntoTableRequest
+            Request with table id and write mode (append/overwrite)
+        request_data : bytes
+            Arrow IPC stream containing the data to insert
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        InsertIntoTableResponse
+            Response with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.insert_into_table(
+            request.model_dump(), request_data
+        )
+        return InsertIntoTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def merge_insert_into_table(
+        self, request: MergeInsertIntoTableRequest, request_data: bytes
+    ) -> MergeInsertIntoTableResponse:
+        """Merge-insert data into a table (upsert operation).
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : MergeInsertIntoTableRequest
+            Request with table id, merge keys, and merge behavior
+        request_data : bytes
+            Arrow IPC stream containing the data to merge
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        MergeInsertIntoTableResponse
+            Response with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.merge_insert_into_table(
+            request.model_dump(), request_data
+        )
+        return MergeInsertIntoTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def update_table(self, request: UpdateTableRequest) -> UpdateTableResponse:
+        """Update rows in a table matching a filter.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : UpdateTableRequest
+            Request with table id, filter predicate, and column updates
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        UpdateTableResponse
+            Response with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.update_table(request.model_dump())
+        return UpdateTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def delete_from_table(
+        self, request: DeleteFromTableRequest
+    ) -> DeleteFromTableResponse:
+        """Delete rows from a table matching a filter.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : DeleteFromTableRequest
+            Request with table id and filter predicate
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        DeleteFromTableResponse
+            Response confirming the deletion
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.delete_from_table(request.model_dump())
+        return DeleteFromTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def query_table(self, request) -> QueryTableResponse:
+        """Query a table and return results as Arrow IPC.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : QueryTableRequest or dict
+            Query request with table id, optional filter, columns, vector search
+            parameters, limit/offset, etc.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        QueryTableResponse
+            Response whose ``data`` is the query results in Arrow IPC file format
+        """
+        if hasattr(request, "model_dump"):
+            request = request.model_dump()
+        data = self._inner.query_table(request)
+        return QueryTableResponse(data=data)
+
+    # Index operations
+
+    def create_table_index(
+        self, request: CreateTableIndexRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableIndexResponse:
+        """Create an index on a table.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : CreateTableIndexRequest
+            Request with table id, index name, column, and index configuration
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        CreateTableIndexResponse
+            Response with optional transaction_id
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_table_index(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateTableIndexResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def list_table_indices(
+        self, request: ListTableIndicesRequest
+    ) -> ListTableIndicesResponse:
+        """List all indices on a table.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : ListTableIndicesRequest
+            Request with table id
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ListTableIndicesResponse
+            Response with list of index metadata
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_table_indices(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTableIndicesResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def describe_table_index_stats(
+        self, request: DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest
+    ) -> DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse:
+        """Get statistics for a specific index.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest
+            Request with table id and index name
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse
+            Response with index statistics
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.describe_table_index_stats(request.model_dump())
+        return DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Transaction operations
+
+    def describe_transaction(
+        self, request: DescribeTransactionRequest
+    ) -> DescribeTransactionResponse:
+        """Describe a transaction.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : DescribeTransactionRequest
+            Request with transaction id
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        DescribeTransactionResponse
+            Response with transaction details
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.describe_transaction(request.model_dump())
+        return DescribeTransactionResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def alter_transaction(
+        self, request: AlterTransactionRequest
+    ) -> AlterTransactionResponse:
+        """Alter a transaction (commit or abort).
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        request : AlterTransactionRequest
+            Request with transaction id and action
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        AlterTransactionResponse
+            Response confirming the action
+        """
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_transaction(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTransactionResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Additional index operations
+
+    def create_table_scalar_index(
+        self, request: CreateTableIndexRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableIndexResponse:
+        """Create a scalar index on a table column."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_table_scalar_index(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateTableIndexResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def drop_table_index(
+        self, request: DropTableIndexRequest
+    ) -> DropTableIndexResponse:
+        """Drop an index from a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.drop_table_index(request.model_dump())
+        return DropTableIndexResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Additional table operations
+
+    def list_all_tables(self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> ListTablesResponse:
+        """List all tables recursively across all namespaces."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_all_tables(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTablesResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def restore_table(self, request: RestoreTableRequest) -> RestoreTableResponse:
+        """Restore a previously dropped table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.restore_table(request.model_dump())
+        return RestoreTableResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def update_table_schema_metadata(
+        self, request: UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest
+    ) -> UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse:
+        """Update the schema metadata of a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.update_table_schema_metadata(request.model_dump())
+        return UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def get_table_stats(self, request: GetTableStatsRequest) -> GetTableStatsResponse:
+        """Get statistics for a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.get_table_stats(request.model_dump())
+        return GetTableStatsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Query plan operations
+
+    def explain_table_query_plan(self, request: ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest) -> str:
+        """Explain the query plan for a table query."""
+        return self._inner.explain_table_query_plan(request.model_dump())
+
+    def analyze_table_query_plan(self, request: AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest) -> str:
+        """Analyze the query plan for a table query with execution statistics."""
+        return self._inner.analyze_table_query_plan(request.model_dump())
+
+    # Column alteration operations
+
+    def alter_table_add_columns(
+        self, request: AlterTableAddColumnsRequest
+    ) -> AlterTableAddColumnsResponse:
+        """Add columns to a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_table_add_columns(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTableAddColumnsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def alter_table_alter_columns(
+        self, request: AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest
+    ) -> AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse:
+        """Alter existing columns in a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_table_alter_columns(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def alter_table_drop_columns(
+        self, request: AlterTableDropColumnsRequest
+    ) -> AlterTableDropColumnsResponse:
+        """Drop columns from a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_table_drop_columns(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTableDropColumnsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def alter_table_backfill_columns(
+        self, request: AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest
+    ) -> AlterTableBackfillColumnsResponse:
+        """Trigger an async backfill job for a computed column."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.alter_table_backfill_columns(request.model_dump())
+        return AlterTableBackfillColumnsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def refresh_materialized_view(
+        self, request: RefreshMaterializedViewRequest
+    ) -> RefreshMaterializedViewResponse:
+        """Trigger an async materialized view refresh."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.refresh_materialized_view(request.model_dump())
+        return RefreshMaterializedViewResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def create_materialized_view(
+        self, request: CreateMaterializedViewRequest
+    ) -> CreateMaterializedViewResponse:
+        """Create a materialized view backed by an optional UDTF/chunker."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_materialized_view(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateMaterializedViewResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Table tag operations
+
+    def list_table_tags(self, request: ListTableTagsRequest) -> ListTableTagsResponse:
+        """List all tags on a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_table_tags(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTableTagsResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def get_table_tag_version(
+        self, request: GetTableTagVersionRequest
+    ) -> GetTableTagVersionResponse:
+        """Get the version associated with a table tag."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.get_table_tag_version(request.model_dump())
+        return GetTableTagVersionResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def create_table_tag(
+        self, request: CreateTableTagRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableTagResponse:
+        """Create a new tag pointing to a table version."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_table_tag(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateTableTagResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def delete_table_tag(
+        self, request: DeleteTableTagRequest
+    ) -> DeleteTableTagResponse:
+        """Delete a tag from a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.delete_table_tag(request.model_dump())
+        return DeleteTableTagResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def update_table_tag(
+        self, request: UpdateTableTagRequest
+    ) -> UpdateTableTagResponse:
+        """Update a tag to point to a different version."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.update_table_tag(request.model_dump())
+        return UpdateTableTagResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def create_table_branch(
+        self, request: CreateTableBranchRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableBranchResponse:
+        """Create a new branch forked from a table version."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.create_table_branch(request.model_dump())
+        return CreateTableBranchResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def list_table_branches(
+        self, request: ListTableBranchesRequest
+    ) -> ListTableBranchesResponse:
+        """List all branches of a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.list_table_branches(request.model_dump())
+        return ListTableBranchesResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    def delete_table_branch(
+        self, request: DeleteTableBranchRequest
+    ) -> DeleteTableBranchResponse:
+        """Delete a branch from a table."""
+        response_dict = self._inner.delete_table_branch(request.model_dump())
+        return DeleteTableBranchResponse.from_dict(response_dict)
+
+    # Operation metrics methods
+
+    def retrieve_ops_metrics(self) -> Dict[str, int]:
+        """Retrieve operation metrics as a dictionary.
+
+        Returns a dict where keys are operation names (e.g., "list_tables",
+        "describe_table") and values are the number of times each operation
+        was called.
+
+        Returns an empty dict if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when creating
+        the namespace.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Dict[str, int]
+            Operation name to call count mapping
+        """
+        return self._inner.retrieve_ops_metrics()
+
+    def reset_ops_metrics(self) -> None:
+        """Reset all operation metrics counters to zero.
+
+        Does nothing if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when creating the
+        namespace.
+        """
+        self._inner.reset_ops_metrics()
+
 
 class RestAdapter:
     """REST adapter server that creates a namespace backend and exposes it via REST.
@@ -547,11 +1527,12 @@ class RestAdapter:
 
     Parameters
     ----------
-    namespace_impl : str
-        Namespace implementation type ("dir", "rest", etc.)
-    namespace_properties : dict, optional
-        Configuration properties for the backend namespace.
+    namespace_client_impl : str
+        Namespace client implementation type ("dir", "rest", etc.)
+    namespace_client_properties : dict, optional
+        Configuration properties for the backend namespace client.
         For DirectoryNamespace ("dir"):
+
         - root (required): Root directory path or URI
         - manifest_enabled (optional): Enable manifest tracking (default: "true")
         - dir_listing_enabled (optional): Enable directory listing fallback
@@ -579,8 +1560,8 @@ class RestAdapter:
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        namespace_impl: str,
-        namespace_properties: Dict[str, str] = None,
+        namespace_client_impl: str,
+        namespace_client_properties: Dict[str, str] = None,
         session=None,
         host: str = None,
         port: int = None,
@@ -593,14 +1574,18 @@ def __init__(
             )
 
         # Convert to string properties
-        if namespace_properties is None:
-            namespace_properties = {}
-        str_properties = {str(k): str(v) for k, v in namespace_properties.items()}
+        if namespace_client_properties is None:
+            namespace_client_properties = {}
+        str_properties = {
+            str(k): str(v) for k, v in namespace_client_properties.items()
+        }
 
         # Create the underlying Rust adapter
-        self._inner = PyRestAdapter(namespace_impl, str_properties, session, host, port)
+        self._inner = PyRestAdapter(
+            namespace_client_impl, str_properties, session, host, port
+        )
         self.host = host
-        self.namespace_impl = namespace_impl
+        self.namespace_client_impl = namespace_client_impl
 
     @property
     def port(self) -> int:
@@ -630,117 +1615,3 @@ def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
 
     def __repr__(self) -> str:
         return f"RestAdapter(host='{self.host}', port={self.port})"
-
-
-class LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(StorageOptionsProvider):
-    """Storage options provider that fetches storage options from a LanceNamespace.
-
-    This provider automatically fetches fresh storage options by calling the
-    namespace's describe_table() method, which returns both the table location
-    and time-limited storage options. This is currently only used for refreshing
-    AWS temporary access credentials.
-
-    This is the recommended approach for LanceDB Cloud and other namespace-based
-    deployments, as it handles storage options refresh automatically.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    namespace : LanceNamespace
-        The namespace instance to fetch storage options from. Use
-        lance.namespace.connect() to create a namespace instance.
-    table_id : List[str]
-        The table identifier (e.g., ["workspace", "table_name"])
-
-    Example
-    -------
-    This example shows how to use the storage options provider with a namespace.
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        import lance
-        import lance.namespace
-
-        # Connect to a namespace
-        namespace = lance.namespace.connect("rest", {"uri": "http://localhost:4099"})
-
-        # Create storage options provider
-        provider = lance.LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(
-            namespace=namespace,
-            table_id=["workspace", "table_name"]
-        )
-
-        # Use with dataset - storage options auto-refresh!
-        dataset = lance.dataset(
-            "s3://bucket/table.lance",
-            storage_options_provider=provider
-        )
-    """
-
-    def __init__(self, namespace: LanceNamespace, table_id: List[str]):
-        """Initialize with namespace and table ID.
-
-        Parameters
-        ----------
-        namespace : LanceNamespace
-            The namespace instance with a describe_table() method
-        table_id : List[str]
-            The table identifier
-        """
-        self._namespace = namespace
-        self._table_id = table_id
-
-    def fetch_storage_options(self) -> Dict[str, str]:
-        """Fetch storage options from the namespace.
-
-        This calls namespace.describe_table() to get the latest storage options
-        and optionally their expiration time.
-
-        Returns
-        -------
-        Dict[str, str]
-            Flat dictionary of string key-value pairs containing storage options.
-            May optionally include expires_at_millis. If expires_at_millis is not
-            provided, credentials are treated as non-expiring and will not be
-            automatically refreshed.
-
-        Raises
-        ------
-        RuntimeError
-            If the namespace doesn't return storage options
-        """
-        request = DescribeTableRequest(id=self._table_id, version=None)
-        response = self._namespace.describe_table(request)
-        storage_options = response.storage_options
-        if storage_options is None:
-            raise RuntimeError(
-                "Namespace did not return storage_options. "
-                "Ensure the namespace supports storage options providing."
-            )
-
-        # Return the storage_options directly - it's already a flat Map<String, String>
-        # Note: expires_at_millis is optional. If not provided, credentials are treated
-        # as non-expiring and will not be automatically refreshed.
-        return storage_options
-
-    def provider_id(self) -> str:
-        """Return a human-readable unique identifier for this provider instance.
-
-        This creates a semantic ID based on the namespace's ID and the table ID,
-        enabling proper equality comparison and caching.
-
-        Returns
-        -------
-        str
-            A human-readable unique identifier string combining namespace and table info
-        """
-        # Try to call namespace_id() if available (lance-namespace >= 0.0.20)
-        if hasattr(self._namespace, "namespace_id"):
-            namespace_id = self._namespace.namespace_id()
-        else:
-            # Fallback for older namespace versions
-            namespace_id = str(self._namespace)
-
-        return (
-            f"LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider {{ "
-            f"namespace: {namespace_id}, table_id: {self._table_id!r} }}"
-        )
diff --git a/python/python/lance/optimize.py b/python/python/lance/optimize.py
index f04e9264c3b..ab18255c853 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/optimize.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/optimize.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-from typing import Optional, TypedDict
+from typing import Literal, Optional, TypedDict
 
 # Re-exported from native module. See src/dataset/optimize.rs for implementation.
 from .lance import Compaction as Compaction
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
 # from .lance import CompactionPlan as CompactionPlan
 
 
-class CompactionOptions(TypedDict):
+class CompactionOptions(TypedDict, total=False):
     """Options for compaction."""
 
     target_rows_per_fragment: Optional[int]
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ class CompactionOptions(TypedDict):
     Whether to compact fragments with soft deleted rows so they are no
     longer present in the file. (default: True)
     """
-    materialize_deletions_threadhold: Optional[float]
+    materialize_deletions_threshold: Optional[float]
     """
     The fraction of original rows that are soft deleted in a fragment
     before the fragment is a candidate for compaction.
@@ -59,3 +59,75 @@ class CompactionOptions(TypedDict):
 
     The default will use the same default from ``scanner``.
     """
+    io_buffer_size: Optional[int]
+    """
+    The number of bytes to allow to queue up in the I/O buffer when scanning
+    input fragments.  Increasing this can avoid a deadlock that occurs when a
+    single batch of data is larger than the I/O buffer size.
+
+    The default will use the same default from ``scanner``.
+    """
+    compaction_mode: Optional[
+        Literal["reencode", "try_binary_copy", "force_binary_copy"]
+    ]
+    """
+    The compaction mode to use. Valid values:
+
+    - ``"reencode"``: Decode and re-encode data (default).
+    - ``"try_binary_copy"``: Try binary copy if fragments are compatible,
+      fall back to reencode otherwise.
+    - ``"force_binary_copy"``: Use binary copy or fail if fragments are
+      not compatible.
+    """
+    binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: Optional[int]
+    """
+    The batch size in bytes for reading during binary copy operations.
+    Controls how much data is read at once when performing binary copy.
+    (default: 16MB)
+    """
+    defer_index_remap: Optional[bool]
+    """
+    Whether to defer index remapping during compaction (default: False).
+    """
+    max_source_fragments: Optional[int]
+    """
+    Maximum number of source fragments to compact in a single run. Tasks
+    are included until adding the next task would exceed this limit,
+    allowing for incremental compaction (e.g., compact 20 fragments at a
+    time). Fragments are processed oldest first.
+    (default: None, no limit)
+    """
+    max_source_rows: Optional[int]
+    """
+    Maximum number of source rows to compact in a single run. Rows are
+    counted as live rows (physical rows minus soft-deleted rows). Tasks
+    are included until adding the next task would exceed this limit.
+    (default: None, no limit)
+    """
+    max_source_bytes: Optional[int]
+    """
+    Maximum number of source bytes to compact in a single run, measured as
+    the total size of the source fragments' data and overlay files. Tasks
+    are included until adding the next task would exceed this limit.
+    Blob v2 payloads live in separate blob files and are not counted, so
+    this is not a cap on total compaction I/O for datasets with blob
+    columns.
+    (default: None, no limit)
+    """
+    excluded_fragment_ids: Optional[list[int]]
+    """
+    Fragment IDs to exclude from compaction planning. Excluded fragments
+    remain unchanged and act as boundaries, so fragments on opposite sides
+    are not combined into the same task. Duplicate and unknown IDs are
+    ignored. (default: None)
+    """
+    data_storage_version: Optional[str]
+    """
+    Output data file version, such as "2.2", "stable", or "next". If omitted,
+    compaction uses the compaction config target when set, otherwise the dataset's
+    default write version. It does not change that default.
+    The planner fixes release selectors to exact versions before distributing
+    tasks. V1/V2 cross-family targets are rejected. Binary copy requires matching
+    input versions and no overlays; TryBinaryCopy reencodes ineligible inputs,
+    while ForceBinaryCopy reports an error.
+    """
diff --git a/python/python/lance/otel.py b/python/python/lance/otel.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0c9ee1790fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/lance/otel.py
@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Bridge Lance's internal metrics into OpenTelemetry.
+
+Lance core publishes metrics (currently object store request counts, bytes,
+latency, errors, and throttles) through the Rust ``metrics`` facade. This module
+installs a process-global recorder that aggregates them and registers
+OpenTelemetry observable instruments that report the aggregated values into the
+user's ``MeterProvider``.
+
+The bridge is generic: every metric Lance describes is surfaced automatically,
+with no per-metric Python code. Histograms have no asynchronous OpenTelemetry
+instrument, so each is exported Prometheus-style as cumulative ``le`` buckets
+plus ``_count`` and ``_sum`` observable counters.
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import warnings
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+
+from .lance import (
+    lance_metrics_catalog,
+    register_lance_metrics_recorder,
+    snapshot_lance_metrics,
+)
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from opentelemetry.metrics import MeterProvider
+
+_INSTRUMENTED = False
+
+
+def instrument_lance_metrics(meter_provider: Optional["MeterProvider"] = None) -> bool:
+    """Register Lance metrics as OpenTelemetry observable instruments.
+
+    Installs a process-global metrics recorder and creates one observable
+    instrument per Lance metric on the given (or global) ``MeterProvider``. The
+    user's configured ``MetricReader`` then collects them on its own schedule.
+
+    Counters and gauges map directly to observable counters/gauges. Each
+    histogram is exported as cumulative ``le`` bucket counts (``<name>_bucket``,
+    with an ``le`` attribute) plus ``<name>_count`` and ``<name>_sum``.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    meter_provider : opentelemetry.metrics.MeterProvider, optional
+        The provider to register instruments on. Defaults to the global provider
+        from ``opentelemetry.metrics.get_meter_provider()``.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    bool
+        ``True`` if the recorder is installed and instruments are registered.
+        ``False`` if a different ``metrics`` recorder is already installed in
+        this process (``metrics`` permits only one global recorder), in which
+        case a warning is emitted and no instruments are created.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Requires the OpenTelemetry SDK (``pip install pylance[otel]``). Calling this
+    more than once is safe; instruments are created only on the first successful
+    call.
+    """
+    global _INSTRUMENTED
+
+    try:
+        from opentelemetry.metrics import Observation, get_meter_provider
+    except ImportError as exc:
+        raise ImportError(
+            "instrument_lance_metrics requires the OpenTelemetry API/SDK. "
+            "Install it with `pip install pylance[otel]` or "
+            "`pip install opentelemetry-sdk`."
+        ) from exc
+
+    if not register_lance_metrics_recorder():
+        warnings.warn(
+            "Could not install the Lance metrics recorder: another `metrics` "
+            "recorder is already installed in this process. Lance metrics will "
+            "not be exported via OpenTelemetry.",
+            stacklevel=2,
+        )
+        return False
+
+    if _INSTRUMENTED:
+        return True
+
+    provider = meter_provider or get_meter_provider()
+    meter = provider.get_meter("lance")
+
+    def scalar_callback(metric_name: str):
+        def callback(_options):
+            return [
+                Observation(point.value, point.attributes)
+                for point in snapshot_lance_metrics()
+                if point.name == metric_name and point.value is not None
+            ]
+
+        return callback
+
+    def bucket_callback(metric_name: str):
+        def callback(_options):
+            observations = []
+            for point in snapshot_lance_metrics():
+                if point.name != metric_name or point.buckets is None:
+                    continue
+                for le, cumulative in point.buckets:
+                    attributes = dict(point.attributes)
+                    attributes["le"] = le
+                    observations.append(Observation(cumulative, attributes))
+            return observations
+
+        return callback
+
+    def field_callback(metric_name: str, field: str):
+        def callback(_options):
+            observations = []
+            for point in snapshot_lance_metrics():
+                if point.name != metric_name:
+                    continue
+                value = getattr(point, field)
+                if value is not None:
+                    observations.append(Observation(value, point.attributes))
+            return observations
+
+        return callback
+
+    for desc in lance_metrics_catalog():
+        unit = desc.unit or ""
+        if desc.kind == "counter":
+            meter.create_observable_counter(
+                desc.name,
+                callbacks=[scalar_callback(desc.name)],
+                unit=unit,
+                description=desc.description,
+            )
+        elif desc.kind == "gauge":
+            meter.create_observable_gauge(
+                desc.name,
+                callbacks=[scalar_callback(desc.name)],
+                unit=unit,
+                description=desc.description,
+            )
+        elif desc.kind == "histogram":
+            # `_bucket` and `_count` observe cumulative counts, so they are
+            # unitless; only `_sum` carries the histogram's unit (e.g. seconds).
+            meter.create_observable_counter(
+                f"{desc.name}_bucket",
+                callbacks=[bucket_callback(desc.name)],
+                description=f"{desc.description} (cumulative buckets)",
+            )
+            meter.create_observable_counter(
+                f"{desc.name}_count",
+                callbacks=[field_callback(desc.name, "count")],
+                description=f"{desc.description} (count)",
+            )
+            meter.create_observable_counter(
+                f"{desc.name}_sum",
+                callbacks=[field_callback(desc.name, "sum")],
+                unit=unit,
+                description=f"{desc.description} (sum)",
+            )
+
+    _INSTRUMENTED = True
+    return True
diff --git a/python/python/lance/progress.py b/python/python/lance/progress.py
index 0c428638648..e5c1d934d0b 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/progress.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/progress.py
@@ -8,13 +8,49 @@
 import json
 import os
 from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Dict, Optional
+from dataclasses import dataclass
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Dict, Literal, Optional
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     # We don't import directly because of circular import
     from .fragment import FragmentMetadata
 
 
+@dataclass(frozen=True)
+class IndexProgress:
+    """Progress event emitted while creating or merging an index.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    event : str
+        The type of event. One of ``"start"``, ``"progress"``, or ``"complete"``.
+    stage : str
+        The stage name. Stage names are index-type-specific.
+    completed : int, optional
+        The amount of work completed so far, if known.
+    total : int, optional
+        The total amount of work for the stage, if known.
+    unit : str
+        The unit of work for ``completed`` / ``total``.
+    """
+
+    event: Literal["start", "progress", "complete"]
+    stage: str
+    completed: Optional[int] = None
+    total: Optional[int] = None
+    unit: str = ""
+
+    @property
+    def fraction(self) -> Optional[float]:
+        """Return fractional progress if both ``completed`` and ``total`` are known.
+
+        Returns ``None`` when ``total`` is ``None`` or ``0`` (treated as unknown).
+        """
+        if self.completed is None or self.total in (None, 0):
+            return None
+        return min(self.completed / self.total, 1.0)
+
+
 class FragmentWriteProgress(ABC):
     """Progress tracking for Writing a Dataset or Fragment.
 
diff --git a/python/python/lance/pydantic.py b/python/python/lance/pydantic.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..99226fcf664
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/lance/pydantic.py
@@ -0,0 +1,434 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+#
+# Pydantic-to-Arrow conversion, ported from
+# https://github.com/lancedb/lancedb/blob/f8dc2f78ee3219084d457a647e230b23e2f391b0/python/python/lancedb/pydantic.py
+#
+# Embedding-function-specific code (LanceModel, parse_embedding_functions,
+# EmbeddingFunctionRegistry) is intentionally excluded -- lance has no concept
+# of embedding functions, that stays in lancedb. Version detection uses
+# hasattr checks against the field/model objects instead of branching on
+# pydantic's version number, since pydantic is an optional dependency here.
+
+"""Pydantic (v1 / v2) to Arrow schema conversion"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import inspect
+import sys
+import types
+from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
+from datetime import date, datetime
+from enum import Enum
+from typing import Any, Callable, Dict, Generator, List, Type, Union, _GenericAlias
+
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pydantic
+
+from .dependencies import numpy as np
+
+_PYDANTIC_V2 = hasattr(pydantic, "GetCoreSchemaHandler")
+
+try:
+    from pydantic_core import CoreSchema, core_schema
+except ImportError:
+    if _PYDANTIC_V2:
+        raise
+
+
+class FixedSizeListMixin(ABC):
+    @staticmethod
+    @abstractmethod
+    def dim() -> int:
+        raise NotImplementedError
+
+    @staticmethod
+    @abstractmethod
+    def value_arrow_type() -> pa.DataType:
+        raise NotImplementedError
+
+
+def Vector(
+    dim: int, value_type: pa.DataType = pa.float32(), nullable: bool = True
+) -> Type[FixedSizeListMixin]:
+    """Pydantic type for a fixed-size-list embedding vector column.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> import pydantic
+    >>> from lance.pydantic import Vector
+    ...
+    >>> class MyModel(pydantic.BaseModel):
+    ...     id: int
+    ...     embedding: Vector(768)
+    """
+
+    class FixedSizeList(list, FixedSizeListMixin):
+        def __repr__(self):
+            return f"FixedSizeList(dim={dim})"
+
+        @staticmethod
+        def nullable() -> bool:
+            return nullable
+
+        @staticmethod
+        def dim() -> int:
+            return dim
+
+        @staticmethod
+        def value_arrow_type() -> pa.DataType:
+            return value_type
+
+        @classmethod
+        def __get_pydantic_core_schema__(
+            cls, _source_type: Any, _handler: pydantic.GetCoreSchemaHandler
+        ) -> CoreSchema:
+            return core_schema.no_info_after_validator_function(
+                cls,
+                core_schema.list_schema(
+                    min_length=dim,
+                    max_length=dim,
+                    items_schema=core_schema.float_schema(),
+                ),
+            )
+
+        @classmethod
+        def __get_validators__(cls) -> Generator[Callable, None, None]:
+            yield cls.validate
+
+        # For pydantic v1
+        @classmethod
+        def validate(cls, v):
+            if not isinstance(v, (list, range, np.ndarray)) or len(v) != dim:
+                raise TypeError("A list of numbers or numpy.ndarray is needed")
+            return cls(v)
+
+        if not _PYDANTIC_V2:
+
+            @classmethod
+            def __modify_schema__(cls, field_schema: Dict[str, Any]):
+                field_schema["items"] = {"type": "number"}
+                field_schema["maxItems"] = dim
+                field_schema["minItems"] = dim
+
+    return FixedSizeList
+
+
+def MultiVector(
+    dim: int, value_type: pa.DataType = pa.float32(), nullable: bool = True
+) -> Type[FixedSizeListMixin]:
+    """Pydantic type for a list of fixed-size-list embedding vectors.
+
+    Useful for models that produce multiple embeddings per input (e.g.
+    ColPali-style multi-vector embeddings).
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> import pydantic
+    >>> from lance.pydantic import MultiVector
+    ...
+    >>> class MyModel(pydantic.BaseModel):
+    ...     id: int
+    ...     embeddings: MultiVector(128)
+    """
+
+    class MultiVectorList(list, FixedSizeListMixin):
+        def __repr__(self):
+            return f"MultiVector(dim={dim})"
+
+        @staticmethod
+        def nullable() -> bool:
+            return nullable
+
+        @staticmethod
+        def dim() -> int:
+            return dim
+
+        @staticmethod
+        def value_arrow_type() -> pa.DataType:
+            return value_type
+
+        @staticmethod
+        def is_multi_vector() -> bool:
+            return True
+
+        @classmethod
+        def __get_pydantic_core_schema__(
+            cls, _source_type: Any, _handler: pydantic.GetCoreSchemaHandler
+        ) -> CoreSchema:
+            return core_schema.no_info_after_validator_function(
+                cls,
+                core_schema.list_schema(
+                    items_schema=core_schema.list_schema(
+                        min_length=dim,
+                        max_length=dim,
+                        items_schema=core_schema.float_schema(),
+                    ),
+                ),
+            )
+
+        @classmethod
+        def __get_validators__(cls) -> Generator[Callable, None, None]:
+            yield cls.validate
+
+        # For pydantic v1
+        @classmethod
+        def validate(cls, v):
+            if not isinstance(v, (list, range)):
+                raise TypeError("A list of vectors is needed")
+            for vec in v:
+                if not isinstance(vec, (list, range, np.ndarray)) or len(vec) != dim:
+                    raise TypeError(f"Each vector must be a list of {dim} numbers")
+            return cls(v)
+
+        if not _PYDANTIC_V2:
+
+            @classmethod
+            def __modify_schema__(cls, field_schema: Dict[str, Any]):
+                field_schema["items"] = {
+                    "type": "array",
+                    "items": {"type": "number"},
+                    "minItems": dim,
+                    "maxItems": dim,
+                }
+
+    return MultiVectorList
+
+
+def _field_annotation(field: Any) -> Any:
+    """Get the type annotation off a pydantic v1 ModelField or v2 FieldInfo."""
+    if hasattr(field, "annotation"):
+        # Pydantic v2 FieldInfo
+        return field.annotation
+    # Pydantic v1 ModelField -- Optional-ness is tracked via `allow_none`,
+    # not folded into `outer_type_`.
+    return field.outer_type_
+
+
+def get_extras(field: Any, key: str) -> Any:
+    """Get extra metadata (from `json_schema_extra`) off a pydantic field."""
+    if hasattr(field, "json_schema_extra"):
+        # Pydantic v2 FieldInfo
+        return (field.json_schema_extra or {}).get(key)
+    # Pydantic v1 ModelField
+    return (field.field_info.extra or {}).get("json_schema_extra", {}).get(key)
+
+
+def _py_type_to_arrow_type(py_type: Type[Any], field: Any) -> pa.DataType:
+    """Convert a field with native Python type to Arrow data type.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    TypeError
+        If the type is not supported.
+    """
+    if py_type is int:
+        return pa.int64()
+    elif py_type is float:
+        return pa.float64()
+    elif py_type is str:
+        return pa.utf8()
+    elif py_type is bool:
+        return pa.bool_()
+    elif py_type is bytes:
+        return pa.binary()
+    elif py_type is date:
+        return pa.date32()
+    elif py_type is datetime:
+        tz = get_extras(field, "tz")
+        return pa.timestamp("us", tz=tz)
+    elif getattr(py_type, "__origin__", None) in (list, tuple):
+        # A bare, unparameterised ``typing.List`` / ``typing.Tuple`` matches
+        # this branch (its ``__origin__`` is ``list`` / ``tuple``) but has no
+        # ``__args__``, so we cannot infer the element type. Raise a clear
+        # ``TypeError`` instead of crashing with an opaque ``AttributeError``.
+        args = getattr(py_type, "__args__", None)
+        if not args:
+            raise TypeError(
+                "Converting Pydantic type to Arrow Type: unsupported type "
+                f"{py_type}. Specify the element type, e.g. List[int] instead "
+                "of a bare List."
+            )
+        child = args[0]
+        return _pydantic_list_child_to_arrow(child, field)
+    raise TypeError(
+        f"Converting Pydantic type to Arrow Type: unsupported type {py_type}."
+    )
+
+
+def _pydantic_model_to_fields(model: Type[pydantic.BaseModel]) -> List[pa.Field]:
+    if hasattr(model, "model_fields"):
+        # Pydantic v2
+        return [
+            _pydantic_to_field(name, field)
+            for name, field in model.model_fields.items()
+        ]
+    # Pydantic v1
+    return [_pydantic_to_field(name, field) for name, field in model.__fields__.items()]
+
+
+def _pydantic_type_to_arrow_type(tp: Any, field: Any) -> pa.DataType:
+    def _safe_issubclass(candidate: Any, base: type) -> bool:
+        try:
+            return issubclass(candidate, base)
+        except TypeError:
+            return False
+
+    if inspect.isclass(tp):
+        if _safe_issubclass(tp, pydantic.BaseModel):
+            # Struct
+            fields = _pydantic_model_to_fields(tp)
+            return pa.struct(fields)
+        if _safe_issubclass(tp, FixedSizeListMixin):
+            if getattr(tp, "is_multi_vector", lambda: False)():
+                return pa.list_(pa.list_(tp.value_arrow_type(), tp.dim()))
+            # For regular Vector
+            return pa.list_(tp.value_arrow_type(), tp.dim())
+        if _safe_issubclass(tp, Enum):
+            # Map Enum to the Arrow type of its value.
+            # For string-valued enums, use dictionary encoding for efficiency.
+            # For integer enums, use the native type.
+            # Fall back to utf8 for mixed-type or empty enums.
+            value_types = {type(m.value) for m in tp}
+            if len(value_types) == 1:
+                value_type = value_types.pop()
+                if value_type is str:
+                    # Use dictionary encoding for string enums
+                    return pa.dictionary(pa.int32(), pa.utf8())
+                return _py_type_to_arrow_type(value_type, field)
+            return pa.utf8()
+    return _py_type_to_arrow_type(tp, field)
+
+
+def _pydantic_list_child_to_arrow(child: Any, field: Any) -> pa.DataType:
+    unwrapped = _unwrap_optional_annotation(child)
+    if unwrapped is not None:
+        return pa.list_(
+            pa.field("item", _pydantic_type_to_arrow_type(unwrapped, field), True)
+        )
+    return pa.list_(_pydantic_type_to_arrow_type(child, field))
+
+
+def _unwrap_optional_annotation(annotation: Any) -> Any | None:
+    if isinstance(annotation, (_GenericAlias, types.GenericAlias)):
+        origin = annotation.__origin__
+        args = annotation.__args__
+        if origin == Union:
+            non_none = [arg for arg in args if arg is not type(None)]
+            if len(non_none) == 1 and len(non_none) != len(args):
+                return non_none[0]
+    elif sys.version_info >= (3, 10) and isinstance(annotation, types.UnionType):
+        args = annotation.__args__
+        non_none = [arg for arg in args if arg is not type(None)]
+        if len(non_none) == 1 and len(non_none) != len(args):
+            return non_none[0]
+    return None
+
+
+def _pydantic_to_arrow_type(field: Any) -> pa.DataType:
+    """Convert a pydantic field (v1 ModelField or v2 FieldInfo) to Arrow DataType"""
+    annotation = _field_annotation(field)
+    unwrapped = _unwrap_optional_annotation(annotation)
+    if unwrapped is not None:
+        return _pydantic_type_to_arrow_type(unwrapped, field)
+    if isinstance(annotation, (_GenericAlias, types.GenericAlias)):
+        origin = annotation.__origin__
+        args = annotation.__args__
+
+        if origin is list:
+            child = args[0]
+            return _pydantic_list_child_to_arrow(child, field)
+    return _pydantic_type_to_arrow_type(annotation, field)
+
+
+def is_nullable(field: Any) -> bool:
+    """Check if a pydantic field (v1 ModelField or v2 FieldInfo) is nullable.
+
+    Only a true ``Optional``/``Union[..., None]`` annotation (or a nullable
+    ``Vector``/``MultiVector``) makes a field nullable -- a field with a
+    plain default value but a non-Optional type is not.
+    """
+    if not hasattr(field, "annotation"):
+        # Pydantic v1 ModelField: Optional-ness is tracked via `allow_none`
+        # directly, since `outer_type_` already has Optional stripped. A
+        # nullable Vector/MultiVector still overrides this, same as v2.
+        v1_type = _field_annotation(field)
+        if inspect.isclass(v1_type):
+            try:
+                if issubclass(v1_type, FixedSizeListMixin):
+                    return v1_type.nullable()
+            except TypeError:
+                pass
+        return bool(field.allow_none)
+
+    annotation = field.annotation
+    if _unwrap_optional_annotation(annotation) is not None:
+        return True
+    if isinstance(annotation, (_GenericAlias, types.GenericAlias)):
+        origin = annotation.__origin__
+        args = annotation.__args__
+        if origin == Union:
+            if any(typ is type(None) for typ in args):
+                return True
+    elif sys.version_info >= (3, 10) and isinstance(annotation, types.UnionType):
+        args = annotation.__args__
+        for typ in args:
+            if typ is type(None):
+                return True
+    elif inspect.isclass(annotation):
+        try:
+            if issubclass(annotation, FixedSizeListMixin):
+                return annotation.nullable()
+        except TypeError:
+            return False
+    return False
+
+
+def _pydantic_to_field(name: str, field: Any) -> pa.Field:
+    """Convert a pydantic field (v1 ModelField or v2 FieldInfo) to a PyArrow Field."""
+    dt = _pydantic_to_arrow_type(field)
+    return pa.field(name, dt, is_nullable(field))
+
+
+def pydantic_to_schema(model: Type[pydantic.BaseModel]) -> pa.Schema:
+    """Convert a [Pydantic Model][pydantic.BaseModel] to a
+       [PyArrow Schema][pyarrow.Schema].
+
+    Supports nested ``BaseModel`` fields (-> struct), ``Enum`` fields
+    (string-valued enums are dictionary-encoded), timezone-aware
+    ``datetime`` fields (via ``Field(json_schema_extra={"tz": ...})``), and
+    the ``Vector``/``MultiVector`` fixed-size-list types, in addition to
+    plain scalar/``Optional``/``List`` types.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    model : Type[pydantic.BaseModel]
+        The Pydantic BaseModel to convert to Arrow Schema.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pyarrow.Schema
+        The Arrow Schema
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+
+    >>> from typing import List, Optional
+    >>> import pydantic
+    >>> from lance.pydantic import pydantic_to_schema, Vector
+    >>> class FooModel(pydantic.BaseModel):
+    ...     id: int
+    ...     s: str
+    ...     vec: Vector(1536)  # fixed_size_list<item: float32>[1536]
+    ...     li: List[int]
+    ...
+    >>> schema = pydantic_to_schema(FooModel)
+    >>> assert schema == pa.schema([
+    ...     pa.field("id", pa.int64(), False),
+    ...     pa.field("s", pa.utf8(), False),
+    ...     pa.field("vec", pa.list_(pa.float32(), 1536)),
+    ...     pa.field("li", pa.list_(pa.int64()), False),
+    ... ])
+    """
+    fields = _pydantic_model_to_fields(model)
+    return pa.schema(fields)
diff --git a/python/python/lance/query.py b/python/python/lance/query.py
index 85bbf121e6e..e91087a1ba2 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/query.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/query.py
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 
 import abc
+from dataclasses import dataclass
 from enum import Enum
 from typing import Optional
 
@@ -14,6 +15,7 @@ class FullTextQueryType(Enum):
     MATCH_PHRASE = "match_phrase"
     BOOST = "boost"
     MULTI_MATCH = "multi_match"
+    COMBINED_FIELDS = "combined_fields"
     BOOLEAN = "boolean"
 
 
@@ -22,6 +24,13 @@ class FullTextOperator(Enum):
     OR = "OR"
 
 
+class DocumentGranularity(str, Enum):
+    """The unit treated as one full-text-search document."""
+
+    ROW = "row"
+    LIST_ELEMENT = "list_element"
+
+
 class Occur(Enum):
     SHOULD = "SHOULD"
     MUST = "MUST"
@@ -98,6 +107,7 @@ def __init__(
         max_expansions: int = 50,
         operator: FullTextOperator = FullTextOperator.OR,
         prefix_length: int = 0,
+        document_granularity: Optional[DocumentGranularity] = None,
     ):
         """
         Match query for full-text search.
@@ -129,6 +139,10 @@ def __init__(
         prefix_length : int, default 0
             The number of beginning characters being unchanged for fuzzy matching.
             This is useful to achieve prefix matching.
+        document_granularity : DocumentGranularity, optional
+            Explicitly select row or deepest-list-element documents. If omitted,
+            the indexed granularity is inferred. When both granularities are indexed
+            for the field, this must be specified. With no index, ``ROW`` is used.
         """
         self._inner = PyFullTextQuery.match_query(
             query,
@@ -138,6 +152,9 @@ def __init__(
             max_expansions=max_expansions,
             operator=operator.value,
             prefix_length=prefix_length,
+            document_granularity=(
+                document_granularity.value if document_granularity is not None else None
+            ),
         )
 
     def query_type(self) -> FullTextQueryType:
@@ -145,7 +162,14 @@ def query_type(self) -> FullTextQueryType:
 
 
 class PhraseQuery(FullTextQuery):
-    def __init__(self, query: str, column: str, *, slop: int = 0):
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        query: str,
+        column: str,
+        *,
+        slop: int = 0,
+        document_granularity: Optional[DocumentGranularity] = None,
+    ):
         """
         Phrase query for full-text search.
 
@@ -155,8 +179,21 @@ def __init__(self, query: str, column: str, *, slop: int = 0):
             The query string to match against.
         column : str
             The name of the column to match against.
+        slop : int, default 0
+            The maximum number of intervening positions permitted in the phrase.
+        document_granularity : DocumentGranularity, optional
+            Explicitly select row or deepest-list-element documents. If omitted,
+            the indexed granularity is inferred. When both granularities are indexed
+            for the field, this must be specified. With no index, ``ROW`` is used.
         """
-        self._inner = PyFullTextQuery.phrase_query(query, column, slop)
+        self._inner = PyFullTextQuery.phrase_query(
+            query,
+            column,
+            slop,
+            document_granularity=(
+                document_granularity.value if document_granularity is not None else None
+            ),
+        )
 
     def query_type(self) -> FullTextQueryType:
         return FullTextQueryType.MATCH_PHRASE
@@ -227,6 +264,65 @@ def query_type(self) -> FullTextQueryType:
         return FullTextQueryType.MULTI_MATCH
 
 
+class CombinedFieldsQuery(FullTextQuery):
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        query: str,
+        columns: list[str],
+        *,
+        boosts: Optional[list[float]] = None,
+        operator: FullTextOperator = FullTextOperator.OR,
+    ):
+        """
+        Combined-fields (BM25F) query for full-text search.
+
+        Unlike :class:`MultiMatchQuery`, which scores each column independently
+        and keeps the best field (Elasticsearch ``best_fields``), this query
+        treats the target columns as a single virtual field so that term
+        statistics are blended across fields (Elasticsearch ``combined_fields``
+        / Lucene ``CombinedFieldQuery``). This makes a term that is rare in one
+        field but common in another score consistently, and lets a single query
+        term match across fields (e.g. a first name in one column and a last
+        name in another).
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        query : str
+            The query string to match against.
+        columns : list[str]
+            The list of columns combined into the virtual field.
+        boosts : list[float], optional
+            Per-column weights aligned with ``columns``. Each weight must be
+            ``>= 1`` (fractional weights allowed). If not provided, every column
+            defaults to ``1.0``.
+        operator : FullTextOperator, default OR
+            The operator applied across the virtual field. If ``AND``, every
+            term must appear in at least one column. If ``OR``, at least one
+            term must match.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        All target columns must share the same tokenizer/index configuration.
+
+        At least one target column needs an FTS index. Columns without an
+        index, and rows added since the last index build, are read from the
+        data and scored together with the indexed rows.
+
+        BM25F adds up each column's contribution for a whole row, so a column
+        indexed only with
+        ``document_granularity=DocumentGranularity.LIST_ELEMENT`` is rejected,
+        because its element coordinates have no counterpart in the other columns
+        and the result carries no ``_doc_index``. A column that has both indexes
+        uses the row one.
+        """
+        self._inner = PyFullTextQuery.combined_fields_query(
+            query, columns, boosts=boosts, operator=operator.value
+        )
+
+    def query_type(self) -> FullTextQueryType:
+        return FullTextQueryType.COMBINED_FIELDS
+
+
 class BooleanQuery(FullTextQuery):
     def __init__(self, queries: list[tuple[Occur, FullTextQuery]]):
         """
@@ -235,7 +331,9 @@ def __init__(self, queries: list[tuple[Occur, FullTextQuery]]):
         Parameters
         ----------
         queries : list[tuple(Occur, FullTextQuery)]
-            The list of queries with their occurrence requirements.
+            The list of queries with their occurrence requirements. Every MUST
+            clause must match and contributes its score; matching SHOULD scores
+            are also added, while MUST_NOT clauses only exclude documents.
         """
         self._inner = PyFullTextQuery.boolean_query(
             [(occur.value, query.inner) for occur, query in queries]
@@ -243,3 +341,31 @@ def __init__(self, queries: list[tuple[Occur, FullTextQuery]]):
 
     def query_type(self) -> FullTextQueryType:
         return FullTextQueryType.BOOLEAN
+
+
+@dataclass
+class MinHashQuery:
+    """A MinHash similarity search over a column with a MinHash LSH index.
+
+    Pass it as ``nearest`` to :meth:`LanceDataset.to_table` or
+    :meth:`LanceDataset.scanner`. The result carries a ``_distance`` column
+    equal to ``1 - estimated Jaccard similarity`` between the query text and
+    each row, ordered ascending; the number of rows is the scan ``limit``
+    (default 10).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    text : str
+        The query text. It is tokenized and shingled exactly like the indexed
+        rows, using the tokenizer stored in the index.
+    column : str
+        The column that has the MinHash LSH index.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> ds.to_table(nearest=MinHashQuery("some near duplicate text", "text"),
+    ...             limit=10)  # doctest: +SKIP
+    """
+
+    text: str
+    column: str
diff --git a/python/python/lance/sampler.py b/python/python/lance/sampler.py
index b7e7230dfc6..4c17825ab04 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/sampler.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/sampler.py
@@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ def maybe_sample(
         This is employed to minimize the number of random reads necessary for sampling.
         A sufficiently large value can provide an effective random sample without
         the need for excessive random reads.
-    filter : str, optional
+    filt : str, optional
         The filter to apply to the dataset, by default None.  If a filter is provided,
         then we will first load all row ids in memory and then batch through the ids
         in random order until enough matches have been found.
diff --git a/python/python/lance/schema.py b/python/python/lance/schema.py
index aacdcb73e8e..e97e97e3322 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/schema.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/schema.py
@@ -12,17 +12,19 @@
 
 def schema_to_json(schema: pa.Schema) -> Dict[str, Any]:
     """
-    Converts a pyarrow schema to a JSON string.
+    Converts a pyarrow schema to a JSON-compatible dict.
 
     Parameters
     ----------
+    schema: pa.Schema
+        The PyArrow schema to convert.
     """
     return json.loads(_schema_to_json(schema))
 
 
 def json_to_schema(schema_json: Dict[str, Any]) -> pa.Schema:
     """
-    Converts a JSON string to a PyArrow schema.
+    Converts a JSON-compatible dict to a PyArrow schema.
 
     Parameters
     ----------
diff --git a/python/python/lance/tf/__init__.py b/python/python/lance/tf/__init__.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 1aa41beb99c..00000000000
--- a/python/python/lance/tf/__init__.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,10 +0,0 @@
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-import importlib.util
-
-if importlib.util.find_spec("tensorflow") is None:
-    raise ImportError(
-        "Tensorflow is not installed. Please install tensorflow"
-        + " to use lance.tf module.",
-    )
diff --git a/python/python/lance/tf/data.py b/python/python/lance/tf/data.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 7b6ff8e51a4..00000000000
--- a/python/python/lance/tf/data.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,408 +0,0 @@
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-
-"""Tensorflow Dataset (`tf.data <https://www.tensorflow.org/guide/data>`_)
-implementation for Lance.
-
-.. warning::
-
-    Experimental feature. API stability is not guaranteed.
-"""
-
-from __future__ import annotations
-
-from functools import partial
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Dict, Iterable, List, Optional, Tuple, Union
-
-import pyarrow as pa
-
-import lance
-from lance import LanceDataset
-from lance.arrow import EncodedImageType, FixedShapeImageTensorType, ImageURIType
-from lance.dependencies import _check_for_numpy
-from lance.dependencies import numpy as np
-from lance.dependencies import tensorflow as tf
-from lance.fragment import FragmentMetadata, LanceFragment
-from lance.log import LOGGER
-
-if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from pathlib import Path
-
-    from lance import LanceNamespace
-
-
-def arrow_data_type_to_tf(dt: pa.DataType) -> tf.DType:
-    """Convert Pyarrow DataType to Tensorflow."""
-    if pa.types.is_boolean(dt):
-        return tf.bool
-    elif pa.types.is_int8(dt):
-        return tf.int8
-    elif pa.types.is_int16(dt):
-        return tf.int16
-    elif pa.types.is_int32(dt):
-        return tf.int32
-    elif pa.types.is_int64(dt):
-        return tf.int64
-    elif pa.types.is_uint8(dt):
-        return tf.uint8
-    elif pa.types.is_uint16(dt):
-        return tf.uint16
-    elif pa.types.is_uint32(dt):
-        return tf.uint32
-    elif pa.types.is_uint64(dt):
-        return tf.uint64
-    elif pa.types.is_float16(dt):
-        return tf.float16
-    elif pa.types.is_float32(dt):
-        return tf.float32
-    elif pa.types.is_float64(dt):
-        return tf.float64
-    elif (
-        pa.types.is_string(dt)
-        or pa.types.is_large_string(dt)
-        or pa.types.is_binary(dt)
-        or pa.types.is_large_binary(dt)
-    ):
-        return tf.string
-
-    raise TypeError(f"Arrow/Tf conversion: Unsupported arrow data type: {dt}")
-
-
-def data_type_to_tensor_spec(dt: pa.DataType) -> tf.TensorSpec:
-    """Convert PyArrow DataType to Tensorflow TensorSpec."""
-    if (
-        pa.types.is_boolean(dt)
-        or pa.types.is_integer(dt)
-        or pa.types.is_floating(dt)
-        or pa.types.is_string(dt)
-        or pa.types.is_binary(dt)
-    ):
-        return tf.TensorSpec(shape=(None,), dtype=arrow_data_type_to_tf(dt))
-    elif isinstance(dt, pa.FixedShapeTensorType):
-        return tf.TensorSpec(
-            shape=(None, *dt.shape), dtype=arrow_data_type_to_tf(dt.value_type)
-        )
-    elif pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(dt):
-        return tf.TensorSpec(
-            shape=(None, dt.list_size), dtype=arrow_data_type_to_tf(dt.value_type)
-        )
-    elif pa.types.is_list(dt) or pa.types.is_large_list(dt):
-        return tf.TensorSpec(
-            shape=(
-                None,
-                None,
-            ),
-            dtype=arrow_data_type_to_tf(dt.value_type),
-        )
-    elif pa.types.is_struct(dt):
-        return {field.name: data_type_to_tensor_spec(field.type) for field in dt}
-    elif isinstance(dt, (EncodedImageType, ImageURIType)):
-        return tf.TensorSpec(shape=(None,), dtype=tf.string)
-    elif isinstance(dt, FixedShapeImageTensorType):
-        return tf.TensorSpec(
-            shape=(None, *dt.shape), dtype=arrow_data_type_to_tf(dt.arrow_type)
-        )
-
-    raise TypeError("Unsupported data type: ", dt)
-
-
-def schema_to_spec(schema: pa.Schema) -> tf.TypeSpec:
-    """Convert PyArrow Schema to Tensorflow output signature."""
-    signature = {}
-    for name in schema.names:
-        field = schema.field(name)
-        signature[name] = data_type_to_tensor_spec(field.type)
-    return signature
-
-
-def column_to_tensor(array: pa.Array, tensor_spec: tf.TensorSpec) -> tf.Tensor:
-    """Convert a PyArrow array into a TensorFlow tensor."""
-    if isinstance(tensor_spec, tf.RaggedTensorSpec):
-        return tf.ragged.constant(array.to_pylist(), dtype=tensor_spec.dtype)
-    elif isinstance(array.type, pa.FixedShapeTensorType):
-        return tf.constant(array.to_numpy_ndarray(), dtype=tensor_spec.dtype)
-    elif isinstance(array.type, FixedShapeImageTensorType):
-        return tf.constant(array.to_numpy(), dtype=tensor_spec.dtype)
-    elif isinstance(array.type, pa.StructType):
-        return {
-            field.name: column_to_tensor(array.field(i), tensor_spec[field.name])
-            for (i, field) in enumerate(array.type)
-        }
-    else:
-        return tf.constant(array.to_pylist(), dtype=tensor_spec.dtype)
-
-
-def from_lance(
-    dataset: Optional[Union[str, Path, LanceDataset]] = None,
-    *,
-    columns: Optional[Union[List[str], Dict[str, str]]] = None,
-    batch_size: int = 256,
-    filter: Optional[str] = None,
-    fragments: Union[Iterable[int], Iterable[LanceFragment], tf.data.Dataset] = None,
-    output_signature: Optional[Dict[str, tf.TypeSpec]] = None,
-    namespace: Optional["LanceNamespace"] = None,
-    table_id: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-    ignore_namespace_table_storage_options: bool = False,
-) -> tf.data.Dataset:
-    """Create a ``tf.data.Dataset`` from a Lance dataset.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    dataset : Union[str, Path, LanceDataset], optional
-        Lance dataset or dataset URI/path. Either ``dataset`` or both
-        ``namespace`` and ``table_id`` must be provided.
-    columns : Optional[List[str]], optional
-        List of columns to include in the output dataset.
-        If not set, all columns will be read.
-    batch_size : int, optional
-        Batch size, by default 256
-    filter : Optional[str], optional
-        SQL filter expression, by default None.
-    fragments : Union[List[LanceFragment], tf.data.Dataset], optional
-        If provided, only the fragments are read. It can be used to feed
-        for distributed training.
-    output_signature : Optional[tf.TypeSpec], optional
-        Override output signature of the returned tensors. If not provided,
-        the output signature is inferred from the projection Schema.
-    namespace : Optional[LanceNamespace], optional
-        Namespace to resolve the table location when ``table_id`` is provided.
-    table_id : Optional[List[str]], optional
-        Table identifier used together with ``namespace`` to locate the table.
-    ignore_namespace_table_storage_options : bool, default False
-        When using ``namespace``/``table_id``, ignore storage options returned
-        by the namespace.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        import tensorflow as tf
-        import lance.tf.data
-
-        ds = lance.tf.data.from_lance(
-            "s3://bucket/path",
-            columns=["image", "id"],
-            filter="catalog = 'train' AND split = 'train'",
-            batch_size=100)
-
-        for batch in ds.repeat(10).shuffle(128).map(io_decode):
-            print(batch["image"].shape)
-
-    ``from_lance`` can take an iterator or ``tf.data.Dataset`` of
-    Fragments. So that it can be used to feed for distributed training.
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        import tensorflow as tf
-        import lance.tf.data
-
-        seed = 200  # seed to shuffle the fragments in distributed machines.
-        fragments = lance.tf.data.lance_fragments("s3://bucket/path")
-            repeat(10).shuffle(4, seed=seed)
-        ds = lance.tf.data.from_lance(
-            "s3://bucket/path",
-            columns=["image", "id"],
-            filter="catalog = 'train' AND split = 'train'",
-            fragments=fragments,
-            batch_size=100)
-        for batch in ds.shuffle(128).map(io_decode):
-            print(batch["image"].shape)
-
-    """
-    if isinstance(dataset, LanceDataset):
-        if namespace is not None or table_id is not None:
-            raise ValueError(
-                "Cannot specify 'namespace' or 'table_id' when passing "
-                "a LanceDataset instance"
-            )
-    else:
-        dataset = lance.dataset(
-            dataset,
-            namespace=namespace,
-            table_id=table_id,
-            ignore_namespace_table_storage_options=ignore_namespace_table_storage_options,
-        )
-
-    if isinstance(fragments, tf.data.Dataset):
-        fragments = list(fragments.as_numpy_iterator())
-    elif _check_for_numpy(fragments) and isinstance(fragments, np.ndarray):
-        fragments = list(fragments)
-
-    if fragments is not None:
-
-        def gen_fragments(fragments):
-            for f in fragments:
-                if isinstance(f, int) or (
-                    _check_for_numpy(f) and isinstance(f, np.integer)
-                ):
-                    yield LanceFragment(dataset, int(f))
-                elif isinstance(f, FragmentMetadata):
-                    yield LanceFragment(dataset, f.id)
-                elif isinstance(f, LanceFragment):
-                    yield f
-                else:
-                    raise TypeError(f"Invalid type passed to `fragments`: {type(f)}")
-
-        # A Generator of Fragments
-        fragments = gen_fragments(fragments)
-
-    scanner = dataset.scanner(
-        filter=filter, columns=columns, batch_size=batch_size, fragments=fragments
-    )
-
-    if output_signature is None:
-        schema = scanner.projected_schema
-        output_signature = schema_to_spec(schema)
-    LOGGER.debug("Output signature: %s", output_signature)
-
-    def generator():
-        for batch in scanner.to_batches():
-            yield {
-                name: column_to_tensor(batch[name], output_signature[name])
-                for name in batch.schema.names
-            }
-
-    return tf.data.Dataset.from_generator(generator, output_signature=output_signature)
-
-
-def lance_fragments(dataset: Union[str, Path, LanceDataset]) -> tf.data.Dataset:
-    """Create a ``tf.data.Dataset`` of Lance Fragments in the dataset.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    dataset : Union[str, Path, LanceDataset]
-        A Lance Dataset or dataset URI/path.
-    """
-    if not isinstance(dataset, LanceDataset):
-        dataset = lance.dataset(dataset)
-    return tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices(
-        [f.fragment_id for f in dataset.get_fragments()]
-    )
-
-
-def _ith_batch(i: int, batch_size: int, total_size: int) -> Tuple[int, int]:
-    """
-    Get the start and end index of the ith batch.
-
-    This takes into account the total_size, the total number of rows in the dataset.
-    """
-    start = i * batch_size
-    end = tf.math.minimum(start + batch_size, total_size)
-    return (start, end)
-
-
-def from_lance_batches(
-    dataset: Union[str, Path, LanceDataset],
-    *,
-    shuffle: bool = False,
-    seed: Optional[int] = None,
-    batch_size: int = 1024,
-    skip: int = 0,
-) -> tf.data.Dataset:
-    """
-    Create a ``tf.data.Dataset`` of batch indices for a Lance dataset.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    dataset : Union[str, Path, LanceDataset]
-        A Lance Dataset or dataset URI/path.
-    shuffle : bool, optional
-        Shuffle the batches, by default False
-    seed : Optional[int], optional
-        Random seed for shuffling, by default None
-    batch_size : int, optional
-        Batch size, by default 1024
-    skip : int, optional
-        Number of batches to skip.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    tf.data.Dataset
-        A tensorflow dataset of batch slice ranges. These can be passed to
-        :func:`lance_take_batches` to create a Tensorflow dataset of batches.
-    """
-    if not isinstance(dataset, LanceDataset):
-        dataset = lance.dataset(dataset)
-    num_rows = dataset.count_rows()
-    num_batches = (num_rows + batch_size - 1) // batch_size
-    indices = tf.data.Dataset.range(num_batches, dtype=tf.int64)
-    if shuffle:
-        indices = indices.shuffle(num_batches, seed=seed)
-    if skip > 0:
-        indices = indices.skip(skip)
-    return indices.map(partial(_ith_batch, batch_size=batch_size, total_size=num_rows))
-
-
-def lance_take_batches(
-    dataset: Union[str, Path, LanceDataset],
-    batch_ranges: Iterable[Tuple[int, int]],
-    *,
-    columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-    output_signature: Optional[Dict[str, tf.TypeSpec]] = None,
-    batch_readahead: int = 10,
-) -> tf.data.Dataset:
-    """
-    Create a ``tf.data.Dataset`` of batches from a Lance dataset.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    dataset : Union[str, Path, LanceDataset]
-        A Lance Dataset or dataset URI/path.
-    batch_ranges : Iterable[Tuple[int, int]]
-        Iterable of batch indices.
-    columns : Optional[List[str]], optional
-        List of columns to include in the output dataset.
-        If not set, all columns will be read.
-    output_signature : Optional[tf.TypeSpec], optional
-        Override output signature of the returned tensors. If not provided,
-        the output signature is inferred from the projection Schema.
-    batch_readahead : int, default 10
-        The number of batches to read ahead in parallel.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    You can compose this with ``from_lance_batches`` to create a randomized Tensorflow
-    dataset. With ``from_lance_batches``, you can deterministically randomized the
-    batches by setting ``seed``.
-
-    .. code-block:: python
-
-        batch_iter = from_lance_batches(dataset, batch_size=100, shuffle=True, seed=200)
-        batch_iter = batch_iter.as_numpy_iterator()
-        lance_ds = lance_take_batches(dataset, batch_iter)
-        lance_ds = lance_ds.unbatch().shuffle(500, seed=42).batch(100)
-    """
-    if not isinstance(dataset, LanceDataset):
-        dataset = lance.dataset(dataset)
-
-    if output_signature is None:
-        schema = dataset.scanner(columns=columns).projected_schema
-        output_signature = schema_to_spec(schema)
-    LOGGER.debug("Output signature: %s", output_signature)
-
-    def gen_ranges():
-        for start, end in batch_ranges:
-            yield (start, end)
-
-    def gen_batches():
-        batches = dataset._ds.take_scan(
-            gen_ranges(),
-            columns=columns,
-            batch_readahead=batch_readahead,
-        )
-        for batch in batches:
-            yield {
-                name: column_to_tensor(batch[name], output_signature[name])
-                for name in batch.schema.names
-            }
-
-    return tf.data.Dataset.from_generator(
-        gen_batches, output_signature=output_signature
-    )
-
-
-# Register `from_lance` to ``tf.data.Dataset``.
-tf.data.Dataset.from_lance = from_lance
-tf.data.Dataset.from_lance_batches = from_lance_batches
diff --git a/python/python/lance/torch/bench_utils.py b/python/python/lance/torch/bench_utils.py
index b0b19fc22a9..41d8f8278f3 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/torch/bench_utils.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/torch/bench_utils.py
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ def recall(expected: np.ndarray, actual: np.ndarray) -> np.ndarray:
     ----------
     expected: ndarray
         The ground truth
-    results: ndarray
+    actual: ndarray
         The ANN results
     """
     assert expected.shape == actual.shape
diff --git a/python/python/lance/torch/data.py b/python/python/lance/torch/data.py
index d5adcbbfe19..759b5b2f50a 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/torch/data.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/torch/data.py
@@ -52,6 +52,52 @@ def __call__(
     ) -> Union[dict[str, torch.Tensor], torch.Tensor]: ...
 
 
+def _is_bfloat16_type(t: pa.DataType) -> bool:
+    """Check if a PyArrow type is the lance bfloat16 extension type."""
+    return isinstance(t, pa.ExtensionType) and t.extension_name == "lance.bfloat16"
+
+
+def _bf16_to_tensor(arr: pa.Array) -> torch.Tensor:
+    """Convert a bfloat16 extension array to a torch.bfloat16 tensor.
+
+    Reinterprets the raw bytes as uint16 and views as bfloat16,
+    since they share the same 2-byte memory layout.
+    Null values are replaced with NaN.
+    """
+    storage = arr.storage if isinstance(arr.type, pa.ExtensionType) else arr
+    buf = storage.buffers()[1]
+    offset = storage.offset * 2  # 2 bytes per bf16 value
+    try:
+        with warnings.catch_warnings():
+            warnings.filterwarnings(
+                "ignore",
+                message="The given buffer is not writable",
+                category=UserWarning,
+            )
+            tensor = torch.frombuffer(
+                memoryview(buf),
+                dtype=torch.uint16,
+                count=len(storage),
+                offset=offset,
+            ).view(torch.bfloat16)
+    except (AttributeError, RuntimeError, TypeError):
+        np_uint16 = np.frombuffer(
+            buf, dtype=np.uint16, count=len(storage), offset=offset
+        )
+        with warnings.catch_warnings():
+            warnings.filterwarnings(
+                "ignore",
+                message="The given NumPy array is not writable",
+                category=UserWarning,
+            )
+            tensor = torch.from_numpy(np_uint16).view(torch.bfloat16)
+    if arr.null_count > 0:
+        tensor = tensor.clone()
+        null_mask = torch.from_numpy(arr.is_null().to_numpy(zero_copy_only=False))
+        tensor[null_mask] = float("nan")
+    return tensor
+
+
 # Convert an Arrow FSL array into a 2D torch tensor
 def _fsl_to_tensor(arr: pa.FixedSizeListArray, dimension: int) -> torch.Tensor:
     # Note: FixedSizeListArray.values does not take offset/len into account and
@@ -104,6 +150,14 @@ def _to_tensor(
             or pa.types.is_integer(arr.type.value_type)
         ):
             tensor = _fsl_to_tensor(arr, arr.type.list_size)
+        elif pa.types.is_fixed_size_list(arr.type) and _is_bfloat16_type(
+            arr.type.value_type
+        ):
+            values = arr.values
+            start = arr.offset * arr.type.list_size
+            num_vals = len(arr) * arr.type.list_size
+            values = values.slice(start, num_vals)
+            tensor = _bf16_to_tensor(values).view(-1, arr.type.list_size)
         elif (
             pa.types.is_integer(arr.type)
             or pa.types.is_floating(arr.type)
@@ -113,13 +167,15 @@ def _to_tensor(
 
             if uint64_as_int64 and tensor.dtype == torch.uint64:
                 tensor = tensor.to(torch.int64)
+        elif _is_bfloat16_type(arr.type):
+            tensor = _bf16_to_tensor(arr)
         elif hf_converter is not None:
             tensor = hf_converter.to_pytorch(col, arr)
 
         if tensor is None:
             raise ValueError(
-                "Only support FixedSizeList<f16/f32/f64> or "
-                + f"numeric values, got: {arr.type}"
+                "Only support FixedSizeList<f16/bf16/f32/f64> or "
+                + f"numeric/bfloat16 values, got: {arr.type}"
             )
 
         del arr
@@ -443,10 +499,7 @@ def __getitems__(self, indices):
         """
         if self._ds is None:
             # Worker-process initialization
-            import os
-
-            self._ds = lance.dataset(self.uri)
-            print(f"Worker {os.getpid()} initialized dataset")
+            self._ds = lance.dataset(self.uri, **self.dataset_options)
 
         # Leverage native batch reading
         batch = self._ds.take(indices)
diff --git a/python/python/lance/torch/distance.py b/python/python/lance/torch/distance.py
index 81201027c87..ed5292cdb2f 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/torch/distance.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/torch/distance.py
@@ -150,8 +150,9 @@ def pairwise_l2(
     if x.dtype != y.dtype or (y2 is not None and x.dtype != y2.dtype):
         raise ValueError("pairwise_l2 data types do not match")
     origin_dtype = x.dtype
-    if x.device == torch.device("cpu") and x.dtype == torch.float16:
-        # Pytorch does not support `x @ y.T` for float16 on CPU
+    if x.device == torch.device("cpu") and x.dtype in (torch.float16, torch.bfloat16):
+        # Pytorch does not support `x @ y.T` for float16 on CPU, and bfloat16
+        # can hit backend-specific compiler paths. Accumulate in float32.
         x = x.type(torch.float32)
         y = y.type(torch.float32)
         if y2 is not None:
diff --git a/python/python/lance/torch/kmeans.py b/python/python/lance/torch/kmeans.py
index 44fca9ae60a..84874c47f46 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/torch/kmeans.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/torch/kmeans.py
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ def _updated_centroids(
         for idx in zero_counts.nonzero(as_tuple=False):
             # split the largest cluster and remove empty cluster
             max_idx = torch.argmax(counts).item()
-            # add 1% gassuian noise to the largest centroid
+            # add 1% gaussian noise to the largest centroid
             # do this twice so we effectively split the largest cluster into 2
             # rand_like returns on [0, 1) so we need to shift it to [-0.5, 0.5)
             noise = (torch.rand_like(centroids[idx]) - 0.5) * 0.01 + 1
diff --git a/python/python/lance/types.py b/python/python/lance/types.py
index 41cc191e4d6..3b5cc5b0683 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/types.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/types.py
@@ -9,7 +9,13 @@
 from pyarrow import RecordBatch
 
 from . import dataset
-from .dependencies import _check_for_hugging_face, _check_for_pandas
+from .dependencies import (
+    _check_for_hugging_face,
+    _check_for_pandas,
+    _is_pydantic_base_model,
+    _validate_pydantic_list,
+    model_to_dict,
+)
 from .dependencies import pandas as pd
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
@@ -52,6 +58,34 @@ def _casting_recordbatch_iter(
         yield batch
 
 
+def _is_materialized(data_obj: ReaderLike) -> bool:
+    """Whether ``data_obj`` is fully materialized in memory.
+
+    Materialized sources (tables, in-memory frames) can be wrapped in an
+    in-memory table for replay without spilling and to expose exact statistics.
+    Streaming or re-readable sources (readers, scanners, datasets, generators)
+    are not considered materialized.
+    """
+    if _check_for_pandas(data_obj) and isinstance(data_obj, pd.DataFrame):
+        return True
+    if isinstance(data_obj, (pa.Table, pa.RecordBatch)):
+        return True
+    if (
+        type(data_obj).__module__.startswith("polars")
+        and data_obj.__class__.__name__ == "DataFrame"
+    ):
+        return True
+    if isinstance(data_obj, dict):
+        return True
+    if (
+        isinstance(data_obj, list)
+        and len(data_obj) > 0
+        and isinstance(data_obj[0], dict)
+    ):
+        return True
+    return False
+
+
 def _coerce_reader(
     data_obj: ReaderLike, schema: Optional[pa.Schema] = None
 ) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
@@ -116,6 +150,20 @@ def batch_iter():
         # List of dictionaries
         batch = pa.RecordBatch.from_pylist(data_obj, schema=schema)
         return pa.RecordBatchReader.from_batches(batch.schema, [batch])
+    elif (
+        isinstance(data_obj, list)
+        and len(data_obj) > 0
+        and _is_pydantic_base_model(data_obj[0])
+    ):
+        model_class = type(data_obj[0])
+        _validate_pydantic_list(data_obj, model_class)
+        if schema is None:
+            from .pydantic import pydantic_to_schema
+
+            schema = pydantic_to_schema(model_class)
+        dicts = [model_to_dict(item) for item in data_obj]
+        batch = pa.RecordBatch.from_pylist(dicts, schema=schema)
+        return pa.RecordBatchReader.from_batches(batch.schema, [batch])
     # for other iterables, assume they are of type Iterable[RecordBatch]
     elif isinstance(data_obj, Iterable):
         if schema is not None:
diff --git a/python/python/lance/udf.py b/python/python/lance/udf.py
index de6c7c4ff59..45bd008f564 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/udf.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/udf.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 import pickle
 import sqlite3
 from contextlib import closing
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Dict, List, NamedTuple, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Callable, Dict, List, NamedTuple, Optional, Union
 
 import pyarrow as pa
 
@@ -18,6 +18,8 @@
 from .types import _coerce_reader
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from pathlib import Path
+
     from .dataset import LanceDataset, LanceFragment
     from .types import ReaderLike
 
@@ -28,20 +30,26 @@ class BatchUDF:
     Use :func:`lance.add_columns_udf` decorator to wrap a function with this class.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, func, output_schema=None, checkpoint_file=None):
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        func: Callable[[pa.RecordBatch], Any],
+        output_schema: Optional[pa.Schema] = None,
+        checkpoint_file: Optional[Union[str, Path]] = None,
+    ) -> None:
         self.func = func
         self.output_schema = output_schema
+        self.cache: Optional[BatchUDFCheckpoint]
         if checkpoint_file is not None:
             self.cache = BatchUDFCheckpoint(checkpoint_file)
         else:
             self.cache = None
 
-    def __call__(self, batch: pa.RecordBatch):
+    def __call__(self, batch: pa.RecordBatch) -> Any:
         # Directly call inner function. This is to allow the user to test the
         # function and have it behave exactly as it was written.
         return self.func(batch)
 
-    def _call(self, batch: pa.RecordBatch):
+    def _call(self, batch: pa.RecordBatch) -> pa.RecordBatch:
         if self.output_schema is None:
             raise ValueError(
                 "output_schema must be provided when using a function that "
@@ -59,7 +67,10 @@ def _call(self, batch: pa.RecordBatch):
         return result
 
 
-def batch_udf(output_schema=None, checkpoint_file=None):
+def batch_udf(
+    output_schema: Optional[pa.Schema] = None,
+    checkpoint_file: Optional[Union[str, Path]] = None,
+) -> Callable[[Callable[[pa.RecordBatch], Any]], BatchUDF]:
     """
     Create a user defined function (UDF) that adds columns to a dataset.
 
@@ -88,7 +99,7 @@ def batch_udf(output_schema=None, checkpoint_file=None):
     AddColumnsUDF
     """
 
-    def inner(func):
+    def inner(func: Callable[[pa.RecordBatch], Any]) -> BatchUDF:
         return BatchUDF(func, output_schema, checkpoint_file)
 
     return inner
@@ -205,7 +216,9 @@ def normalize_transform(
                     )
                 )
             )
-            if isinstance(sample_batch, pd.DataFrame):
+            if _check_for_pandas(sample_batch) and isinstance(
+                sample_batch, pd.DataFrame
+            ):
                 sample_batch = pa.RecordBatch.from_pandas(sample_batch)
             udf_like.output_schema = sample_batch.schema
 
@@ -233,7 +246,9 @@ def normalize_transform(
                     )
                 )
             )
-            if isinstance(sample_batch, pd.DataFrame):
+            if _check_for_pandas(sample_batch) and isinstance(
+                sample_batch, pd.DataFrame
+            ):
                 sample_batch = pa.RecordBatch.from_pandas(sample_batch)
             udf_like = BatchUDF(udf_like, output_schema=sample_batch.schema)
 
diff --git a/python/python/lance/util.py b/python/python/lance/util.py
index 5b94ad5c35a..180e2441b43 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/util.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/util.py
@@ -3,8 +3,18 @@
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
+import uuid
 from datetime import datetime, timedelta
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Iterator, Literal, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import (
+    TYPE_CHECKING,
+    Iterable,
+    Iterator,
+    List,
+    Literal,
+    Optional,
+    Union,
+    cast,
+)
 
 import pyarrow as pa
 
@@ -51,6 +61,29 @@ def td_to_micros(td: timedelta) -> int:
     return round(td / timedelta(microseconds=1))
 
 
+def _normalize_index_segment_ids(
+    index_segments: Optional[Iterable[Union[str, uuid.UUID]]],
+) -> Optional[List[str]]:
+    """Normalize a physical index segment selection to a list of UUID strings."""
+    if index_segments is None:
+        return None
+    if isinstance(index_segments, (str, uuid.UUID)):
+        raise TypeError(
+            "index_segments must be an iterable of str or uuid.UUID, "
+            f"not a single {type(index_segments)}."
+        )
+    segment_ids = []
+    for segment_id in index_segments:
+        if isinstance(segment_id, (str, uuid.UUID)):
+            segment_ids.append(str(segment_id))
+        else:
+            raise TypeError(
+                "index_segments must be an iterable of str or uuid.UUID. "
+                f"Got {type(segment_id)} instead."
+            )
+    return segment_ids
+
+
 class KMeans:
     """KMean model for clustering.
 
@@ -254,4 +287,4 @@ def _target_partition_size_to_num_partitions(
     if target_partition_size is None:
         target_partition_size = 8192
     num_partitions = num_rows // target_partition_size
-    return max(1, num_partitions, 4096)
+    return min(max(1, num_partitions), 4096)
diff --git a/python/python/lance/vector.py b/python/python/lance/vector.py
index 73f7981fe28..c1c0d5e96df 100644
--- a/python/python/lance/vector.py
+++ b/python/python/lance/vector.py
@@ -19,9 +19,10 @@
 )
 from .dependencies import numpy as np
 from .log import LOGGER
-from .util import MetricType, _normalize_metric_type
+from .util import MetricType, _normalize_index_segment_ids, _normalize_metric_type
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    import uuid
     from pathlib import Path
 
     from . import LanceDataset
@@ -197,6 +198,33 @@ def train_pq_codebook_on_accelerator(
     return pq_codebook, kmeans_list
 
 
+def _sample_init_centroids(
+    ds: Iterable["torch.Tensor"], k: int, filter_nan: bool
+) -> "torch.Tensor":
+    """Take up to k vectors from ds to seed kmeans, skipping non-finite ones."""
+    # `column is not null` does not exclude NaN vectors, so they can still be
+    # sampled here.  Training drops them (distance returns id -1), but a NaN
+    # centroid never recovers and leaves every partition NaN.
+    sampled = []
+    num_sampled = 0
+    for batch in ds:
+        if filter_nan:
+            batch = batch[batch.isfinite().flatten(1).all(dim=1)]
+        if batch.shape[0] == 0:
+            continue
+        sampled.append(batch)
+        num_sampled += batch.shape[0]
+        if num_sampled >= k:
+            break
+
+    if num_sampled == 0:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Cannot initialize centroids: the sampled vectors are all null or "
+            "non-finite"
+        )
+    return torch.cat(sampled)[:k]
+
+
 def train_ivf_centroids_on_accelerator(
     dataset: LanceDataset,
     column: str,
@@ -244,7 +272,7 @@ def train_ivf_centroids_on_accelerator(
         filter=filt,
     )
 
-    init_centroids = next(iter(ds))
+    init_centroids = _sample_init_centroids(ds, k, filter_nan)
     LOGGER.info("Done sampling: centroids shape: %s", init_centroids.shape)
 
     ds = TorchDataset(
@@ -270,10 +298,6 @@ def train_ivf_centroids_on_accelerator(
         kmeans.centroids.cpu().numpy().astype(vector_value_type.to_pandas_dtype())
     )
 
-    with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as f:
-        np.save(f, centroids)
-    LOGGER.info("Saved centroids to %s", f.name)
-
     return centroids, kmeans
 
 
@@ -292,12 +316,12 @@ def compute_pq_codes(
         Dataset to compute pq codes for.
     kmeans_list: List[lance.torch.kmeans.KMeans]
         KMeans models to use to compute pq (one per subspace)
-    batch_size: int, default 10240
+    batch_size: int, default 40960
         The batch size used to read the dataset.
     dst_dataset_uri: Union[str, Path], optional
         The path to store the partitions.  If not specified a random
         directory is used instead
-    allow_tf32: bool, default True
+    allow_cuda_tf32: bool, default True
         Whether to allow tf32 for matmul on CUDA.
 
     Returns
@@ -421,12 +445,12 @@ def compute_partitions(
         Column name of the vector column.
     kmeans: lance.torch.kmeans.KMeans
         KMeans model to use to compute partitions.
-    batch_size: int, default 10240
+    batch_size: int, default 40960
         The batch size used to read the dataset.
     dst_dataset_uri: Union[str, Path], optional
         The path to store the partitions.  If not specified a random
         directory is used instead
-    allow_tf32: bool, default True
+    allow_cuda_tf32: bool, default True
         Whether to allow tf32 for matmul on CUDA.
 
     Returns
@@ -753,3 +777,311 @@ def _partition_and_pq_codes_assignment() -> Iterable[pa.RecordBatch]:
         data_file.path for frag in ds.get_fragments() for data_file in frag.data_files()
     ]
     return dst_dataset_uri, shuffle_buffers
+
+
+# =============================================================================
+# Embedding Duplicate Pairs
+# =============================================================================
+
+
+def find_duplicate_pairs(
+    dataset: LanceDataset,
+    column: str,
+    distance_threshold: float,
+    *,
+    memory_limit: Optional[int] = None,
+    max_concurrency: Optional[int] = None,
+) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+    """Stream embedding duplicate pairs from an existing vector index.
+
+    The column must have exactly one current-format vector index covering all
+    dataset fragments. Segments and partitions are evaluated independently;
+    cross-partition and cross-segment pairs are omitted. No search or top-k
+    truncation is performed. Deleted rows are excluded at this dataset
+    snapshot. This operation does not delete rows.
+
+    Distances are computed natively between the index representations ``a``
+    and ``b`` of two rows (the vectors that the index codes reconstruct; the
+    stored vectors for IVF_FLAT) without fetching or reconstructing any
+    vector. They use the index metric's definition:
+
+    =========  ==========================================================
+    metric     distance
+    =========  ==========================================================
+    l2         squared L2 ``||a - b||^2``
+    cosine     ``1 - cos(a, b)`` in ``[0, 2]``; 0 for identical codes
+    dot        ``1 - a . b``
+    hamming    number of differing bits
+    =========  ==========================================================
+
+    Quantized cosine renormalizes the reconstructions, as exact or refined
+    search does. Unrefined ANN search over a quantized cosine index reports the
+    squared L2 of normalized vectors instead, roughly twice this value. A pair
+    qualifies when its finite distance is ``<= distance_threshold``. Distances
+    are bit-identical regardless of ``memory_limit``, ``max_concurrency`` and
+    whether this function or :func:`find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition` is used.
+
+    Returns a reader with non-null ``row_id_a: uint64``, ``row_id_b: uint64``
+    and ``distance: float32`` columns, containing every qualifying unordered
+    pair once. ``row_id_a`` is the row at the lower index storage position,
+    not the numerically smaller row ID. Close the reader to cancel further work.
+
+    Output order is deterministic: segments, partitions in ascending order, then
+    tiles of the partition's vector batches (anchor batch ``I``, candidate batch
+    ``J >= I``), row-major within a tile (anchor row, then candidate row). Pairs
+    of one ``row_id_a`` are contiguous within a tile but not across tiles. Each
+    Arrow batch holds the pairs of up to 32 anchor rows against one vector
+    batch, so it contains at most ``32 * 8,192`` rows.
+
+    Each partition's index codes are staged once, in vector batches of at most
+    8,192 rows (fewer for wide codes, targeting 16 MiB per batch, at least 32
+    rows). ``memory_limit`` (default 256 MiB) bounds the staged codes of a
+    partition; larger partitions, or any with ``memory_limit=0``, are staged to
+    temporary session spill storage, read back once per tile, and reclaimed
+    when the reader advances or closes. Staging completes before emitting pairs
+    from the partition. The budget excludes quantizer models, row masks, spill
+    metadata, source reads and in-flight scoring buffers; it is not a process
+    RSS limit. ``max_concurrency`` (positive; defaults to the CPU pool size)
+    limits in-flight scoring jobs; each shares its tile's two vector batches and
+    produces one output batch. Spilled batches are read back as decoded
+    copies; those alive at once hold at most ``memory_limit`` bytes of staged
+    codes (or three batches, if larger), even when sparse row selection leaves
+    one job per tile. Completion is ordered, so output does not depend on
+    concurrency.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        from lance.vector import find_duplicate_pairs
+
+        with find_duplicate_pairs(dataset, "embedding", 0.05) as pairs:
+            for batch in pairs:
+                consume(batch)
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition : Execute one segment/partition.
+    """
+    return dataset._ds.find_duplicate_pairs(
+        column,
+        distance_threshold,
+        memory_limit=memory_limit,
+        max_concurrency=max_concurrency,
+    )
+
+
+def find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+    dataset: LanceDataset,
+    column: str,
+    segment_id: Union[str, uuid.UUID],
+    partition_id: int,
+    distance_threshold: float,
+    *,
+    memory_limit: Optional[int] = None,
+    max_concurrency: Optional[int] = None,
+) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+    """Stream duplicate pairs from one physical index segment and partition.
+
+    Uses the same output schema, distances and ordering as
+    :func:`find_duplicate_pairs`, and returns exactly that function's output
+    for this segment and partition. ``segment_id`` is a physical index UUID,
+    not an index name or fragment ID. ``partition_id`` is local to that segment.
+    Other dataset fragments need not be indexed for this scoped operation; rows
+    they hold are not paired.
+    Distributed callers must open the same dataset version on every worker.
+    ``memory_limit`` and ``max_concurrency`` have the same meaning and
+    defaults as in :func:`find_duplicate_pairs` and apply to this invocation.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        from lance.vector import find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition
+
+        segment_id = dataset.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+        with find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+            dataset, "embedding", segment_id, 0, 0.05
+        ) as pairs:
+            for batch in pairs:
+                consume(batch)
+    """
+    return dataset._ds.find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+        column,
+        str(segment_id),
+        partition_id,
+        distance_threshold,
+        memory_limit=memory_limit,
+        max_concurrency=max_concurrency,
+    )
+
+
+# =============================================================================
+# Hamming Distance Clustering
+# =============================================================================
+
+
+def hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(
+    dataset: "LanceDataset",
+    index_name: str,
+    partition_id: int,
+    hamming_threshold: int,
+    *,
+    index_segments: Optional[Iterable[Union[str, uuid.UUID]]] = None,
+) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+    """
+    Perform hamming clustering on a partition of an IVF_FLAT index.
+
+    Loads a partition from every segment of an IVF_FLAT index on a hash
+    column, computes pairwise hamming distances between all hashes in the
+    combined partition, filters by threshold, and clusters the results using
+    union-find. All segments of the logical index must share the same global
+    IVF centroids; an error is raised if they do not.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    dataset : LanceDataset
+        The Lance dataset containing the hash column with an IVF_FLAT index.
+    index_name : str
+        Name of the IVF_FLAT index on the hash column
+    partition_id : int
+        The partition ID within the IVF_FLAT index
+    hamming_threshold : int
+        Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+    index_segments : iterable of str or uuid.UUID, optional
+        If specified, only these physical index segment UUIDs of the named
+        logical index contribute rows. Use
+        :meth:`LanceDataset.describe_indices` to obtain segment UUIDs from
+        ``IndexDescription.segments``. Defaults to all segments.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pa.RecordBatchReader
+        A reader yielding batches with columns:
+
+        - 'representative': uint64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+        - 'duplicates': list<uint64> - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+    """
+    return dataset._ds.hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(
+        index_name,
+        partition_id,
+        hamming_threshold,
+        _normalize_index_segment_ids(index_segments),
+    )
+
+
+def get_ivf_partition_info(
+    dataset: "LanceDataset",
+    index_name: str,
+    *,
+    index_segments: Optional[Iterable[Union[str, uuid.UUID]]] = None,
+) -> List[dict]:
+    """
+    Get partition information for an IVF_FLAT index.
+
+    Partition sizes are aggregated across all segments of the logical index
+    unless a subset is selected via ``index_segments``.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    dataset : LanceDataset
+        The Lance dataset containing the hash column with an IVF_FLAT index.
+    index_name : str
+        Name of the IVF_FLAT index
+    index_segments : iterable of str or uuid.UUID, optional
+        If specified, only these physical index segment UUIDs of the named
+        logical index contribute to the sizes. Defaults to all segments.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    list[dict]
+        List of partition info dicts with 'partition_id' and 'size'
+    """
+    return dataset._ds.get_ivf_partition_info(
+        index_name, _normalize_index_segment_ids(index_segments)
+    )
+
+
+def hamming_clustering_for_sample(
+    dataset: "LanceDataset",
+    column: str,
+    sample_size: Optional[int] = None,
+    hamming_threshold: int = 10,
+) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+    """
+    Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on a sample of the dataset.
+
+    Randomly samples rows from the dataset, computes pairwise hamming distances
+    between all hashes in the sample, filters by threshold, and clusters the
+    results using union-find.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    dataset : LanceDataset
+        The Lance dataset containing the hash column.
+    column : str
+        Name of the hash column (must be FixedSizeList<UInt8, N> where N is a
+        positive multiple of 8 bytes)
+    sample_size : int, optional
+        Number of rows to sample. If None, uses all rows.
+    hamming_threshold : int, default 10
+        Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pa.RecordBatchReader
+        A reader yielding batches with columns:
+
+        - 'representative': uint64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+        - 'duplicates': list<uint64> - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+    """
+    return dataset._ds.hamming_clustering_for_sample(
+        column, sample_size, hamming_threshold
+    )
+
+
+def hamming_clustering_for_range(
+    dataset: "LanceDataset",
+    column: str,
+    fragment_id: int,
+    start_row: int,
+    num_rows: int,
+    hamming_threshold: int = 10,
+) -> pa.RecordBatchReader:
+    """
+    Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on a contiguous range of rows.
+
+    Reads a contiguous range of rows from a specific fragment, computes pairwise
+    hamming distances between all hashes in the range, filters by threshold,
+    and clusters the results using union-find.
+
+    Unlike sampling, this reads sequential rows which is useful for distributed
+    processing where each worker handles a specific range of a fragment.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    dataset : LanceDataset
+        The Lance dataset containing the hash column.
+    column : str
+        Name of the hash column (must be FixedSizeList<UInt8, N> where N is a
+        positive multiple of 8 bytes)
+    fragment_id : int
+        The fragment ID to read from
+    start_row : int
+        The starting row offset within the fragment
+    num_rows : int
+        Number of rows to read from the start position
+    hamming_threshold : int, default 10
+        Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pa.RecordBatchReader
+        A reader yielding batches with columns:
+
+        - 'representative': uint64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+        - 'duplicates': list<uint64> - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+    """
+    return dataset._ds.hamming_clustering_for_range(
+        column, fragment_id, start_row, num_rows, hamming_threshold
+    )
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/compat_decorator.py b/python/python/tests/compat/compat_decorator.py
index cb9aa10c573..3b6c039cea3 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/compat/compat_decorator.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/compat_decorator.py
@@ -10,18 +10,18 @@
 
 import inspect
 import json
+import os
 import subprocess
 import sys
 import urllib.request
-from functools import lru_cache
-from typing import List
+from contextlib import contextmanager
+from typing import Any, Dict, List, Optional
 
 import pytest
 from packaging.version import Version
 
 
-@lru_cache(maxsize=1)
-def pylance_stable_versions() -> List[Version]:
+def _fetch_stable_versions() -> List[Version]:
     """Fetches and returns a sorted list of stable pylance versions from PyPI."""
     try:
         with urllib.request.urlopen(
@@ -65,12 +65,10 @@ def key(v: Version):
     return major_versions
 
 
-@lru_cache(maxsize=1)
-def last_beta_release():
+def _fetch_last_beta_release():
     """Returns the latest beta version available on fury.io.
 
     Uses pip to query the fury.io index for pre-release versions of pylance.
-    Results are cached to avoid repeated network calls.
     """
     try:
         # Use pip index to get versions from fury.io
@@ -123,10 +121,45 @@ def last_beta_release():
         return None
 
 
-VERSIONS = recent_major_versions(3)
-LAST_BETA_RELEASE = last_beta_release()
-if LAST_BETA_RELEASE is not None:
-    VERSIONS.append(LAST_BETA_RELEASE)
+_SNAPSHOT: Optional[Dict[str, Any]] = None
+
+
+def version_snapshot() -> Dict[str, Any]:
+    """The set of published pylance releases these tests are built from.
+
+    Every process collecting these tests has to agree on this, because it
+    decides the `version` parameters and pytest-xdist aborts a run whose workers
+    collected different tests. Resolving it takes two network queries, so it is
+    resolved once per process -- and once per run on the xdist controller, then
+    handed down to the workers by `pytest_configure_node` in the root tests
+    conftest.
+    """
+    global _SNAPSHOT
+    if _SNAPSHOT is None:
+        _SNAPSHOT = {
+            "stable": [str(v) for v in _fetch_stable_versions()],
+            "beta": _fetch_last_beta_release(),
+        }
+    return _SNAPSHOT
+
+
+def use_version_snapshot(snapshot: Dict[str, Any]) -> None:
+    global _SNAPSHOT
+    _SNAPSHOT = snapshot
+
+
+def pylance_stable_versions() -> List[Version]:
+    """Sorted stable pylance versions published to PyPI."""
+    return [Version(v) for v in version_snapshot()["stable"]]
+
+
+def compat_versions() -> List[str]:
+    """The pylance versions every compat test is parametrized over."""
+    versions = recent_major_versions(3)
+    beta = version_snapshot()["beta"]
+    if beta is not None:
+        versions.append(beta)
+    return versions
 
 
 class UpgradeDowngradeTest:
@@ -147,6 +180,46 @@ def check_read(self):
     def check_write(self):
         pass
 
+    def skip_read_after_current_write(self, version: str) -> bool:
+        """Return True to skip the old-version read after current-version writes."""
+        return False
+
+    def skip_write_after_current_write(self, version: str) -> bool:
+        """Return True to skip the old-version write after current-version writes."""
+        return False
+
+    def skip_downgrade(self, version: str) -> bool:
+        """Return True to skip the current-write -> old-read downgrade test."""
+        return False
+
+    def current_env(self, method_name: str) -> Dict[str, str]:
+        """Return environment overrides for methods executed in the current runtime."""
+        return {}
+
+    def compat_env(self, version: str, method_name: str) -> Dict[str, str]:
+        """Return environment overrides for methods executed in a compat venv."""
+        return {}
+
+
+@contextmanager
+def _temporary_env(overrides: Optional[Dict[str, str]]):
+    if not overrides:
+        yield
+        return
+
+    sentinel = object()
+    old_values = {key: os.environ.get(key, sentinel) for key in overrides}
+    try:
+        for key, value in overrides.items():
+            os.environ[key] = value
+        yield
+    finally:
+        for key, value in old_values.items():
+            if value is sentinel:
+                os.environ.pop(key, None)
+            else:
+                os.environ[key] = value
+
 
 def compat_test(min_version: str = "0.16.0"):
     """Decorator to generate upgrade/downgrade compatibility tests.
@@ -168,7 +241,7 @@ def compat_test(min_version: str = "0.16.0"):
     Parameters
     ----------
     versions : list of str, optional
-        List of Lance versions to test against. Defaults to VERSIONS.
+        List of Lance versions to test against. Defaults to `compat_versions()`.
 
     Example
     -------
@@ -191,8 +264,18 @@ def check_write(self):
             # Write data
             pass
     """
-    version = set([min_version, *VERSIONS])
-    versions = [v for v in version if Version(v) >= Version(min_version)]
+    # Sorted rather than taken straight off the set: set iteration order for
+    # strings depends on PYTHONHASHSEED, which differs per process, so every
+    # pytest-xdist worker would otherwise collect these parameters in its own
+    # order and xdist rejects the run as an inconsistent collection.
+    versions = sorted(
+        (
+            v
+            for v in {min_version, *compat_versions()}
+            if Version(v) >= Version(min_version)
+        ),
+        key=Version,
+    )
 
     def decorator(cls):
         # Extract existing parametrize marks from the class
@@ -285,12 +368,20 @@ def test_func({sig_params}):
     """Test that old Lance version can read data written by current version."""
     from pathlib import Path
     obj = cls(tmp_path / "data.lance", {init_params})
+    obj.compat_version = version
+    if obj.skip_downgrade(version):
+        pytest.skip(
+            "downgrade compatibility is intentionally unsupported for this test"
+        )
     # Current version: create data
-    obj.create()
+    with _temporary_env(obj.current_env("create")):
+        obj.create()
     # Old version: verify can read
     venv = venv_factory.get_venv(version)
-    venv.execute_method(obj, "check_read")
-    venv.execute_method(obj, "check_write")
+    if not obj.skip_read_after_current_write(version):
+        venv.execute_method(obj, "check_read", obj.compat_env(version, "check_read"))
+    if not obj.skip_write_after_current_write(version):
+        venv.execute_method(obj, "check_write", obj.compat_env(version, "check_write"))
 '''
     else:  # upgrade_downgrade
         func_body = f'''
@@ -298,18 +389,21 @@ def test_func({sig_params}):
     """Test round-trip compatibility: old -> current -> old."""
     from pathlib import Path
     obj = cls(tmp_path / "data.lance", {init_params})
+    obj.compat_version = version
     venv = venv_factory.get_venv(version)
     # Old version: create data
-    venv.execute_method(obj, "create")
+    venv.execute_method(obj, "create", obj.compat_env(version, "create"))
     # Current version: read and write
-    obj.check_read()
-    obj.check_write()
+    with _temporary_env(obj.current_env("check_read")):
+        obj.check_read()
+    with _temporary_env(obj.current_env("check_write")):
+        obj.check_write()
     # Old version: verify can still read
-    venv.execute_method(obj, "check_read")
-    venv.execute_method(obj, "check_write")
+    venv.execute_method(obj, "check_read", obj.compat_env(version, "check_read"))
+    venv.execute_method(obj, "check_write", obj.compat_env(version, "check_write"))
 '''
 
     # Execute to create the function
-    namespace = {"cls": cls}
+    namespace = {"cls": cls, "_temporary_env": _temporary_env, "pytest": pytest}
     exec(func_body, namespace)
     return namespace["test_func"]
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/compat_sequence.py b/python/python/tests/compat/compat_sequence.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..40330c6a1e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/compat_sequence.py
@@ -0,0 +1,529 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Cross-version index maintenance-sequence search.
+
+Runs on the same per-ref venv substrate as the rest of this package: venv_factory
+(venv_manager.py) provisions one venv per ref, so the *setup* half of a sequence runs
+under `from_ref` and the *exercise* half under `to_ref` (the version split). After each
+run an oracle checks that the reader did not panic and that an index query agrees with a
+full (unindexed) scan. This *discovers* cross-version regressions (e.g. ENT-1662)
+without hand-coding the triggering sequence.
+
+The scenario is parameterized by index *kind* so every scalar index type gets the same
+aged-lifecycle, cross-version treatment. The scalar oracle runs the same predicate twice
+-- normally and with use_scalar_index=False (lance ignores the index) -- and requires
+the results to match. If the two query plans are identical the index wasn't used, so the
+comparison is skipped rather than failed (uninformative, not a regression). FTS has no
+"ignore the index" mode to diff against, so its oracle reconstructs ground truth from a
+full scan: tokenize every live row, then require an FTS search for a spread of sampled
+terms to return exactly the rows that contain them. The FTS scenarios run under both
+on-disk format versions (1 and 2), which take different merge paths. New Lance versions
+pin this with the create-index `format_version` parameter; old Lance versions still use
+`LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION`.
+
+IVF_PQ uses a separate bounded grammar because exhaustively applying the scalar grammar
+to a trained vector index would be prohibitively expensive. It covers every ordered pair
+of vector/scalar maintenance operations plus a few deeper lifecycle sequences. Its
+oracle compares scalar-prefiltered ANN results with an exact, index-free KNN scan and
+requires at least 0.5 recall, as well as checking the scalar filter exactly.
+
+The op vocabulary and bounds are deliberately small so the search is runnable. Scalar
+and FTS cases are exhaustive over their maintenance grammar up to the configured length;
+vector cases cover every ordered pair plus the curated deeper lifecycles above.
+"""
+
+import itertools
+import os
+import shutil
+from pathlib import Path
+
+ROWS_PER_WRITE = 200
+VECTOR_ROWS_PER_WRITE = 512
+VECTOR_DIM = 8
+VECTOR_K = 10
+VECTOR_KIND = "IVF_PQ"
+VECTOR_INDEX_NAME = "vector_idx"
+VECTOR_SCALAR_INDEX_NAME = "scalar_idx"
+
+SETUP_TAIL_OPS = ["D", "C", "W"]
+EXERCISE_OPS = ["W", "D", "C", "Oa", "Om", "Od"]
+VECTOR_OPS = ("W", "D", "C", "Os", "Ov", "Om")
+
+# All ordered operation pairs are searched below. These longer cases preserve the
+# state combinations that motivated the old recurring test without growing as 6**N.
+VECTOR_CRITICAL_SEQUENCES = (
+    ("W", "Ov", "W", "Ov", "W"),  # two vector deltas, then unindexed rows
+    ("W", "Os", "W", "Ov", "Om"),
+    ("D", "C", "W", "Ov", "Om"),
+    ("W", "D", "Os", "C", "Ov"),
+    ("W", "Ov", "D", "C", "Om"),
+)
+
+OP_NAMES = {
+    "W": "write rows",
+    "I": "create index",
+    "D": "delete rows",
+    "C": "compact",
+    "Oa": "optimize (append)",
+    "Om": "optimize (merge)",
+    "Od": "optimize",
+    "Os": "optimize scalar index (append)",
+    "Ov": "optimize vector index (append)",
+}
+
+
+def describe(kind, from_ref, to_ref, setup_ops, exercise_ops, fts_version=None):
+    """A plain-English description of a scenario for failure output."""
+    writer = ", then ".join(OP_NAMES[o] for o in ["W", "I", *setup_ops])
+    reader = ", then ".join(OP_NAMES[o] for o in exercise_ops)
+    tag = f" (fts fmt v{fts_version})" if fts_version is not None else ""
+    return f"{kind}{tag} ({from_ref} -> {to_ref}): writer [{writer}]; reader [{reader}]"
+
+
+# Index kinds covered by the maintenance-sequence search.
+SCALAR_KINDS = ["BTREE", "BITMAP", "LABEL_LIST", "NGRAM", "ZONEMAP", "BLOOMFILTER"]
+ALL_KINDS = ["INVERTED", *SCALAR_KINDS, VECTOR_KIND]
+
+
+class IndexScenario:
+    """A picklable, kind-parameterized scenario run across a version split."""
+
+    def __init__(self, kind, path, setup_ops, exercise_ops, fts_version=None):
+        self.kind = kind
+        self.path = str(path)
+        self.setup_ops = list(setup_ops)
+        self.exercise_ops = list(exercise_ops)
+        self.fts_version = fts_version
+        self.next_idx = 0
+
+    # --- in-venv helpers (only lance + pyarrow available) ---
+    def _open(self):
+        import lance
+
+        session = lance.Session(index_cache_size_bytes=0, metadata_cache_size_bytes=0)
+        return lance.dataset(self.path, session=session)
+
+    def _batch(self, a, b):
+        import pyarrow as pa
+
+        idx = list(range(a, b))
+        if self.kind == VECTOR_KIND:
+            # Deterministic pseudo-random vectors keep every appended batch in the
+            # training distribution without depending on numpy or process RNG state.
+            flat = []
+            for i in idx:
+                state = ((i + 1) * 2654435761) & 0xFFFFFFFF
+                for _ in range(VECTOR_DIM):
+                    state = (state * 1664525 + 1013904223) & 0xFFFFFFFF
+                    flat.append(state / 4294967296.0)
+            vector = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                pa.array(flat, type=pa.float32()), VECTOR_DIM
+            )
+            return pa.table({"idx": idx, "vector": vector})
+        if self.kind == "INVERTED":
+            # Each row's text mixes tokens of different frequency: a unique term, a
+            # mid-frequency bucket (~1/7 of rows), and one shared by every row. Sampling
+            # across that spread exercises postings of varied length.
+            return pa.table(
+                {"idx": idx, "key": [f"term{i} bucket{i % 7} shared" for i in idx]}
+            )
+        if self.kind == "LABEL_LIST":
+            return pa.table({"idx": idx, "key": [[f"l{i % 8}"] for i in idx]})
+        if self.kind == "NGRAM":
+            return pa.table({"idx": idx, "key": [f"w{i % 50}x" for i in idx]})
+        # BTREE / BITMAP / ZONEMAP / BLOOMFILTER: integer column
+        card = 8 if self.kind == "BITMAP" else 50
+        key = [i if self.kind == "ZONEMAP" else i % card for i in idx]
+        return pa.table({"idx": idx, "key": key})
+
+    def _index_type(self):
+        return "INVERTED" if self.kind == "INVERTED" else self.kind
+
+    def _oracle_pred(self):
+        if self.kind == "LABEL_LIST":
+            return "array_has_any(key, ['l3'])"
+        if self.kind == "NGRAM":
+            return "contains(key, 'w3x')"
+        if self.kind == "ZONEMAP":
+            return "key >= 100 AND key < 300"
+        return "key == 3"  # BTREE / BITMAP / BLOOMFILTER
+
+    # --- ops ---
+    def _op_W(self):
+        import lance
+
+        num_rows = VECTOR_ROWS_PER_WRITE if self.kind == VECTOR_KIND else ROWS_PER_WRITE
+        a, b = self.next_idx, self.next_idx + num_rows
+        self.next_idx = b
+        tbl = self._batch(a, b)
+        if not os.path.exists(self.path):
+            lance.write_dataset(tbl, self.path)  # single fragment
+        else:
+            self._open().insert(tbl)
+
+    def _op_I(self):
+        if self.kind == VECTOR_KIND:
+            self._open().create_scalar_index(
+                "idx", "BTREE", name=VECTOR_SCALAR_INDEX_NAME
+            )
+            self._open().create_index(
+                "vector",
+                index_type="IVF_PQ",
+                name=VECTOR_INDEX_NAME,
+                num_partitions=2,
+                num_sub_vectors=2,
+            )
+            return
+        kwargs = {"with_position": True} if self.kind == "INVERTED" else {}
+        if self.kind == "INVERTED" and self.fts_version is not None:
+            kwargs["format_version"] = int(self.fts_version)
+        self._open().create_scalar_index("key", self._index_type(), **kwargs)
+
+    def _op_D(self):
+        # Partial-range delete inside the id space so compaction rewrites and remaps the
+        # index per-row.
+        if self.next_idx == 0:
+            return
+        lo, hi = self.next_idx // 4, self.next_idx // 2
+        if hi > lo:
+            self._open().delete(f"idx >= {lo} AND idx < {hi}")
+
+    def _op_C(self):
+        self._open().optimize.compact_files()
+
+    def _op_Oa(self):
+        self._open().optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
+
+    def _op_Om(self):
+        kwargs = {"num_indices_to_merge": 10}
+        if self.kind == VECTOR_KIND:
+            kwargs = {
+                "num_indices_to_merge": 1,
+                "index_names": [VECTOR_INDEX_NAME],
+            }
+        self._open().optimize.optimize_indices(**kwargs)
+
+    def _op_Od(self):
+        self._open().optimize.optimize_indices()
+
+    def _op_Os(self):
+        self._open().optimize.optimize_indices(
+            num_indices_to_merge=0, index_names=[VECTOR_SCALAR_INDEX_NAME]
+        )
+
+    def _op_Ov(self):
+        self._open().optimize.optimize_indices(
+            num_indices_to_merge=0, index_names=[VECTOR_INDEX_NAME]
+        )
+
+    def _run(self, ops):
+        for op in ops:
+            getattr(self, f"_op_{op}")()
+
+    # --- methods invoked across the version split ---
+    def setup(self):
+        shutil.rmtree(self.path, ignore_errors=True)
+        self.next_idx = 0
+        self._run(["W", "I"] + self.setup_ops)
+        return self.next_idx
+
+    def exercise_and_check(self):
+        self._run(self.exercise_ops)
+        ds = self._open()
+        if self.kind == VECTOR_KIND:
+            self._check_vector_prefilter(ds)
+            return
+        if self.kind == "INVERTED":
+            # Differential oracle: rebuild the token -> rows map from a full (unindexed)
+            # scan, then require an FTS search for a spread of sampled terms to return
+            # exactly those rows. Catches a merge that drops or misassigns postings, not
+            # just a row-count drift. (Tokens here are alphanumeric and space-separated,
+            # so a whitespace split reproduces lance's tokenization.)
+            rows = ds.to_table(columns=["idx", "key"])
+            idxs = rows.column("idx").to_pylist()
+            texts = rows.column("key").to_pylist()
+            truth = {}
+            for i, text in zip(idxs, texts):
+                for tok in text.split():
+                    truth.setdefault(tok, set()).add(i)
+            if not truth:
+                return  # everything deleted; nothing to search
+            vocab = sorted(truth)
+            # A spread across the vocabulary plus the most common term.
+            sample = set(vocab[:: max(1, len(vocab) // 6)])
+            sample.add(max(truth, key=lambda t: len(truth[t])))
+            for term in sorted(sample):
+                hit = ds.to_table(full_text_query={"query": term, "columns": ["key"]})
+                got = set(hit.column("idx").to_pylist())
+                want = truth[term]
+                assert got == want, (
+                    f"FTS('{term}'): index returned {len(got)} rows, corpus has "
+                    f"{len(want)} (missing {sorted(want - got)[:5]}, "
+                    f"extra {sorted(got - want)[:5]})"
+                )
+            return
+        # Same column/predicate, index on vs forced off: use_scalar_index=False makes
+        # lance ignore the index, so the plans differ iff the index is used. If they are
+        # identical the index wasn't consulted here (the planner chose a scan after
+        # deletes), so the comparison is vacuous -- skip rather than compare two scans.
+        pred = self._oracle_pred()
+        plan_index = ds.scanner(filter=pred).explain_plan(True)
+        plan_scan = ds.scanner(filter=pred, use_scalar_index=False).explain_plan(True)
+        if plan_index == plan_scan:
+            return
+        got = ds.to_table(filter=pred).num_rows
+        expected = ds.to_table(filter=pred, use_scalar_index=False).num_rows
+        assert got == expected, (
+            f"{self.kind}: index gave {got} rows, full scan {expected}, for '{pred}'"
+        )
+
+    def _check_vector_prefilter(self, ds):
+        """Check both BTREE filtering and IVF_PQ recall against index-free scans."""
+        # Both ranges avoid the deterministic delete window. The first is always in
+        # the original index while the newest range may be an unindexed append, so
+        # the same query covers the indexed + unindexed prefilter path.
+        filter_rows = VECTOR_ROWS_PER_WRITE // 8
+        lo = self.next_idx - filter_rows
+        pred = f"idx < {filter_rows} OR (idx >= {lo} AND idx < {self.next_idx})"
+
+        filtered_scan = ds.to_table(
+            columns=["idx", "vector"], filter=pred, use_scalar_index=False
+        )
+        filtered_rows = sorted(
+            zip(
+                filtered_scan.column("idx").to_pylist(),
+                filtered_scan.column("vector").to_pylist(),
+            )
+        )
+        filtered_ids = [idx for idx, _ in filtered_rows]
+        filtered_id_set = set(filtered_ids)
+        assert len(filtered_ids) == len(filtered_id_set), (
+            f"BTREE prefilter returned duplicate row ids for '{pred}'"
+        )
+        assert len(filtered_ids) >= VECTOR_K, (
+            f"not enough live rows ({len(filtered_ids)}) for vector oracle '{pred}'"
+        )
+
+        scalar_plan = ds.scanner(filter=pred).explain_plan(True)
+        scan_plan = ds.scanner(filter=pred, use_scalar_index=False).explain_plan(True)
+        scalar_markers = ("ScalarIndexQuery", "MaterializeIndex")
+        assert any(marker in scalar_plan for marker in scalar_markers), (
+            f"BTREE index was not used for '{pred}':\n{scalar_plan}"
+        )
+        assert not any(marker in scan_plan for marker in scalar_markers), (
+            f"BTREE index disabling was ignored for '{pred}':\n{scan_plan}"
+        )
+        scalar_ids = ds.to_table(columns=["idx"], filter=pred).column("idx").to_pylist()
+        assert len(scalar_ids) == len(set(scalar_ids)), (
+            f"BTREE returned duplicate row ids for '{pred}'"
+        )
+        assert set(scalar_ids) == filtered_id_set, (
+            f"BTREE returned {len(scalar_ids)} rows, full scan returned "
+            f"{len(filtered_ids)}, for '{pred}'"
+        )
+
+        query_positions = (0, len(filtered_ids) // 2, len(filtered_ids) - 1)
+        vectors = [vector for _, vector in filtered_rows]
+        for query_position in query_positions:
+            query = vectors[query_position]
+            indexed_nearest = {
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": query,
+                "k": VECTOR_K,
+                "nprobes": 2,
+                "refine_factor": 10,
+            }
+            exact_nearest = {
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": query,
+                "k": VECTOR_K,
+                "use_index": False,
+            }
+
+            ann_plan = ds.scanner(
+                nearest=indexed_nearest, filter=pred, prefilter=True
+            ).explain_plan(True)
+            exact_plan = ds.scanner(
+                nearest=exact_nearest,
+                filter=pred,
+                prefilter=True,
+                use_scalar_index=False,
+            ).explain_plan(True)
+            ann_markers = ("ANNSubIndex", "ANNIvfPartition")
+            assert any(marker in ann_plan for marker in ann_markers), (
+                f"IVF_PQ index was not used by vector search:\n{ann_plan}"
+            )
+            assert not any(marker in exact_plan for marker in ann_markers), (
+                f"IVF_PQ index disabling was ignored:\n{exact_plan}"
+            )
+            assert any(marker in ann_plan for marker in scalar_markers), (
+                f"BTREE index was not used by vector prefilter:\n{ann_plan}"
+            )
+            assert not any(marker in exact_plan for marker in scalar_markers), (
+                f"BTREE index disabling was ignored by exact prefilter:\n{exact_plan}"
+            )
+
+            got = (
+                ds.to_table(
+                    columns=["idx", "_distance"],
+                    nearest=indexed_nearest,
+                    filter=pred,
+                    prefilter=True,
+                )
+                .column("idx")
+                .to_pylist()
+            )
+            expected = (
+                ds.to_table(
+                    columns=["idx", "_distance"],
+                    nearest=exact_nearest,
+                    filter=pred,
+                    prefilter=True,
+                    use_scalar_index=False,
+                )
+                .column("idx")
+                .to_pylist()
+            )
+
+            assert len(got) == len(set(got)), "IVF_PQ search returned duplicate row ids"
+            assert len(expected) == len(set(expected)), (
+                "exact vector search returned duplicate row ids"
+            )
+            assert set(got) <= filtered_id_set, (
+                f"IVF_PQ prefilter returned ids outside '{pred}': "
+                f"{sorted(set(got) - filtered_id_set)[:5]}"
+            )
+            assert set(expected) <= filtered_id_set, (
+                f"exact prefilter returned ids outside '{pred}': "
+                f"{sorted(set(expected) - filtered_id_set)[:5]}"
+            )
+            assert len(got) == len(expected) == VECTOR_K, (
+                f"IVF_PQ returned {len(got)} rows, exact search returned "
+                f"{len(expected)}"
+            )
+            recall = len(set(got) & set(expected)) / VECTOR_K
+            assert recall >= 0.5, (
+                f"IVF_PQ prefilter recall@{VECTOR_K}={recall:.3f}; "
+                f"expected at least 0.5 (got={got}, exact={expected})"
+            )
+
+
+def generate(max_length):
+    """Yield every (setup_ops, exercise_ops) whose combined length is 1..max_length,
+    breadth-first by total length (shorter first). `max_length` is the number of
+    maintenance ops after the implicit write + create-index, split between the writer
+    (setup) and reader (exercise) at every position. The order is neutral, so finding a
+    bug is a real search, not a sorted shortcut. The space grows fast with max_length,
+    so deeper bugs (ENT-1662 needs length 5) cost more to reach."""
+    for total in range(1, max_length + 1):
+        for setup_len in range(total):  # exercise gets total - setup_len >= 1
+            for s in itertools.product(SETUP_TAIL_OPS, repeat=setup_len):
+                for e in itertools.product(EXERCISE_OPS, repeat=total - setup_len):
+                    yield list(s), list(e)
+
+
+def generate_vector(max_length):
+    """Yield a bounded IVF_PQ + BTREE maintenance search space.
+
+    Every ordered pair of operations is covered on both sides of the version split.
+    A small set of deeper cases captures multi-delta, unindexed-row, delete, compact,
+    and merge interactions without expanding the full operation grammar to 6**N.
+    """
+    seen = set()
+    for total in range(1, min(max_length, 2) + 1):
+        for sequence in itertools.product(VECTOR_OPS, repeat=total):
+            for setup_len in range(total):
+                case = (sequence[:setup_len], sequence[setup_len:])
+                if case not in seen:
+                    seen.add(case)
+                    yield list(case[0]), list(case[1])
+    for sequence in VECTOR_CRITICAL_SEQUENCES:
+        if len(sequence) > max_length:
+            continue
+        for setup_len in range(len(sequence)):
+            case = (sequence[:setup_len], sequence[setup_len:])
+            if case not in seen:
+                seen.add(case)
+                yield list(case[0]), list(case[1])
+
+
+def search(
+    venv_factory,
+    from_ref,
+    to_ref,
+    base_path,
+    kind,
+    max_length=4,
+    shard=0,
+    num_shards=1,
+    stop_on_first=True,
+    fts_version=None,
+):
+    """Search index-maintenance sequences up to `max_length` ops for one `kind`, across
+    (from_ref -> to_ref). Runs only scenarios in this shard (i % num_shards == shard) so
+    the space can be split across parallel workers. For INVERTED, `fts_version` ("1" or
+    "2") pins the on-disk FTS format on both sides. New Lance versions receive this
+    through the create-index parameter and old Lance versions receive it through
+    LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION. Both are Fst token sets and exercise distinct merge paths.
+    Returns failures; stops on the first when `stop_on_first`."""
+    from_venv = venv_factory.get_venv(from_ref)
+    to_venv = venv_factory.get_venv(to_ref)
+    env = {}
+    if kind == "INVERTED" and fts_version is not None:
+        env["LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION"] = str(fts_version)
+    base = Path(base_path)
+    failures = []
+    # Each setup's aged dataset is built once under from_ref and snapshotted; every
+    # exercise for that setup runs on a *copy* of it (a dir copy is far cheaper
+    # than rebuilding the index). Cached per shard, keyed by the setup ops.
+    snapshots = {}  # tuple(setup) -> (snapshot_path, next_idx), or None if setup failed
+    try:
+        cases = (
+            generate_vector(max_length) if kind == VECTOR_KIND else generate(max_length)
+        )
+        for i, (setup_tail, exercise) in enumerate(cases):
+            if i % num_shards != shard:
+                continue
+            key = tuple(setup_tail)
+            if key not in snapshots:
+                snap = base / f"snap_{kind}_{len(snapshots)}"
+                shutil.rmtree(snap, ignore_errors=True)
+                builder = IndexScenario(kind, snap, setup_tail, [], fts_version)
+                try:
+                    next_idx = from_venv.execute_method(builder, "setup", env)
+                    snapshots[key] = (snap, next_idx)
+                except Exception as e:
+                    label = describe(
+                        kind, from_ref, to_ref, setup_tail, [], fts_version
+                    )
+                    err = str(e).strip()
+                    failures.append({"run": i, "sequence": label, "error": err})
+                    snapshots[key] = None
+                    shutil.rmtree(snap, ignore_errors=True)
+                    if stop_on_first:
+                        break
+            entry = snapshots[key]
+            if entry is None:
+                continue  # setup failed; skip its exercises
+            snap, next_idx = entry
+            ex_path = base / f"ex_{kind}_{i}"
+            shutil.rmtree(ex_path, ignore_errors=True)
+            shutil.copytree(snap, ex_path)
+            scenario = IndexScenario(kind, ex_path, setup_tail, exercise, fts_version)
+            scenario.next_idx = next_idx
+            label = describe(kind, from_ref, to_ref, setup_tail, exercise, fts_version)
+            try:
+                to_venv.execute_method(scenario, "exercise_and_check", env)
+            except Exception as e:
+                error = str(e).strip()
+                failures.append({"run": i, "sequence": label, "error": error})
+                if stop_on_first:
+                    break
+            finally:
+                shutil.rmtree(ex_path, ignore_errors=True)
+    finally:
+        for entry in snapshots.values():
+            if entry is not None:
+                shutil.rmtree(entry[0], ignore_errors=True)
+    return failures
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/test_file_formats.py b/python/python/tests/compat/test_file_formats.py
index f65c8611ff6..90c11719fbf 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/compat/test_file_formats.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/test_file_formats.py
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 from pathlib import Path
 
 import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
 import pytest
 from lance.file import LanceFileReader, LanceFileWriter
 
@@ -18,7 +19,104 @@
     UpgradeDowngradeTest,
     compat_test,
 )
-from .util import build_basic_types, build_large
+from .util import build_basic_types, build_large, safe_data_storage_version
+
+
+class ManagedBlobCompatibility:
+    """Methods run in released clients through the existing compat venv runner."""
+
+    def __init__(self, path: Path):
+        self.path = path
+
+    def create(self):
+        field = lance.blob_field("blob").with_metadata(
+            {
+                "lance-encoding:blob-inline-size-threshold": "8",
+                "lance-encoding:blob-dedicated-size-threshold": "24",
+            }
+        )
+        table = pa.Table.from_arrays(
+            [lance.blob_array([b"p" * 16, b"d" * 32, None, b""])],
+            schema=pa.schema([field]),
+        )
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            table,
+            self.path,
+            data_storage_version="2.2",
+            max_rows_per_file=2,
+            max_rows_per_group=2,
+        )
+
+    def check_unflagged(self):
+        dataset = lance.dataset(self.path)
+        assert dataset.count_rows() == 4
+        assert [
+            row["blob"]["kind"] if row["blob"] else None
+            for row in dataset.to_table().to_pylist()
+        ] == [1, 2, None, 0]
+
+    def check_fenced(self):
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="cannot be read by this version"):
+            lance.dataset(self.path)
+        # Opening for append must also honor the table fence before publishing.
+        table = pa.Table.from_arrays(
+            [lance.blob_array([b"inline"])],
+            schema=pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob")]),
+        )
+        with pytest.raises(OSError, match="cannot be (read|written) by this version"):
+            lance.write_dataset(
+                table, self.path, mode="append", data_storage_version="2.2"
+            )
+        # The fence applies to snapshots. Historical unflagged reads remain valid;
+        # this must not be mistaken for permission to run old maintenance clients.
+        assert lance.dataset(self.path, version=1).count_rows() == 4
+
+
+@pytest.mark.compat
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("version", ["11.0.0", "13.0.0"])
+def test_managed_blob_activation_and_restore_fence(venv_factory, tmp_path, version):
+    case = ManagedBlobCompatibility(tmp_path / "blobs.lance")
+    released = venv_factory.get_venv(version)
+    released.execute_method(case, "create")
+    dataset = lance.dataset(case.path)
+    dataset.update_config({"test": "metadata-only"})
+    released.execute_method(case, "check_unflagged")
+    dataset.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=100, data_storage_version="2.2"
+    )
+    assert dataset.to_table(blob_handling="all_binary")["blob"].to_pylist() == [
+        b"p" * 16,
+        b"d" * 32,
+        None,
+        b"",
+    ]
+    version_before = dataset.version
+    released.execute_method(case, "check_fenced")
+    assert lance.dataset(case.path).version == version_before
+    old = lance.dataset(case.path, version=1)
+    old.restore()
+    released.execute_method(case, "check_fenced")
+    assert lance.dataset(case.path).to_table(blob_handling="all_binary")[
+        "blob"
+    ].to_pylist() == [
+        b"p" * 16,
+        b"d" * 32,
+        None,
+        b"",
+    ]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("lance_version", "expected_storage_version"),
+    [
+        ("0.36.0", "2.0"),
+        ("0.38.0", "2.1"),
+        ("0.39.0", "2.1"),
+        ("11.0.0", "2.1"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_safe_data_storage_version(lance_version, expected_storage_version):
+    assert safe_data_storage_version(lance_version) == expected_storage_version
 
 
 # We start testing against the first release where 2.1 was stable. Before that
@@ -48,6 +146,32 @@ def check_write(self):
             writer.write_batch(build_basic_types())
 
 
+# File format 2.2 is not in the stable 2.0.x line; gate this on the first
+# available pre-release that includes 2.2 support.
+@compat_test(min_version="4.0.0b1")
+class BasicTypes2_2(UpgradeDowngradeTest):
+    """Test file format 2.2 compatibility with basic data types."""
+
+    def __init__(self, path: Path):
+        self.path = path
+
+    def create(self):
+        batch = build_basic_types()
+        with LanceFileWriter(
+            str(self.path), version="2.2", schema=batch.schema
+        ) as writer:
+            writer.write_batch(batch)
+
+    def check_read(self):
+        reader = LanceFileReader(str(self.path))
+        table = reader.read_all().to_table()
+        assert table == build_basic_types()
+
+    def check_write(self):
+        with LanceFileWriter(str(self.path), version="2.2") as writer:
+            writer.write_batch(build_basic_types())
+
+
 @compat_test(min_version="0.16.0")
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
     "data_factory,name",
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/test_index_sequence.py b/python/python/tests/compat/test_index_sequence.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0ab1fd65869
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/test_index_sequence.py
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Cross-version index maintenance-sequence search, wired as a compat test.
+
+For each index kind, generate maintenance-op sequences from a small grammar, run the
+setup half under an older writer ref and the exercise half under a newer reader, and
+check after each that the reader did not panic and that an index query matches a full
+scan. Discovers cross-version regressions (e.g. ENT-1662, under INVERTED) with no
+hand-coded sequence.
+
+Refs and max length are environment-driven so the suite can run between two refs
+(versions, commits, or branches): COMPAT_FROM_REF / COMPAT_TO_REF / COMPAT_MAX_LENGTH /
+COMPAT_VECTOR_MAX_LENGTH / COMPAT_KINDS (comma-separated subset of kinds) /
+COMPAT_SHARDS (split each scalar/FTS kind's search into this many cases so pytest-xdist
+(`-n auto`) parallelizes them across cores) / COMPAT_VECTOR_SHARDS (the bounded IVF_PQ
+search uses fewer shards to avoid repeatedly training the same small index).
+"""
+
+import os
+from itertools import product
+
+import pytest
+
+from .compat_decorator import pylance_stable_versions
+from .compat_sequence import (
+    ALL_KINDS,
+    VECTOR_KIND,
+    VECTOR_OPS,
+    generate_vector,
+    search,
+)
+
+
+def test_vector_sequence_generation_is_bounded_and_covers_high_risk_orders():
+    cases = list(generate_vector(max_length=5))
+    combined = [tuple(setup + exercise) for setup, exercise in cases]
+
+    assert cases
+    assert len(cases) < 128
+    assert len(cases) == len(set((tuple(s), tuple(e)) for s, e in cases))
+    assert all(exercise for _, exercise in cases)
+    assert all(1 <= len(sequence) <= 5 for sequence in combined)
+
+    split_cases = {(tuple(setup), tuple(exercise)) for setup, exercise in cases}
+    for pair in product(VECTOR_OPS, repeat=2):
+        assert ((), pair) in split_cases
+        assert (pair[:1], pair[1:]) in split_cases
+
+    two_delta_then_unindexed = ("W", "Ov", "W", "Ov", "W")
+    assert {
+        (tuple(setup), tuple(exercise))
+        for setup, exercise in cases
+        if tuple(setup + exercise) == two_delta_then_unindexed
+    } == {
+        (two_delta_then_unindexed[:split], two_delta_then_unindexed[split:])
+        for split in range(len(two_delta_then_unindexed))
+    }
+
+
+def _default_refs():
+    """The two most recent published stable releases (older -> newer)."""
+    versions = pylance_stable_versions()
+    if len(versions) >= 2:
+        return str(versions[-2]), str(versions[-1])
+    return "6.0.1", "7.0.0"  # fallback if PyPI is unreachable
+
+
+_default_from, _default_to = _default_refs()
+FROM_REF = os.environ.get("COMPAT_FROM_REF") or _default_from
+TO_REF = os.environ.get("COMPAT_TO_REF") or _default_to
+MAX_LENGTH = int(os.environ.get("COMPAT_MAX_LENGTH", "4"))
+VECTOR_MAX_LENGTH = int(os.environ.get("COMPAT_VECTOR_MAX_LENGTH", str(MAX_LENGTH)))
+KINDS = os.environ.get("COMPAT_KINDS", ",".join(ALL_KINDS)).split(",")
+# Many small shards (default 4x cores) so xdist's dynamic scheduler keeps every worker
+# busy and an oversubscribed `-n` has work to overlap.
+NUM_SHARDS = int(os.environ.get("COMPAT_SHARDS", str((os.cpu_count() or 1) * 4)))
+# Training IVF_PQ once per generic shard would multiply total work without expanding
+# coverage. Four cases still parallelize the bounded vector search while retaining
+# snapshot reuse within each case.
+VECTOR_NUM_SHARDS = int(os.environ.get("COMPAT_VECTOR_SHARDS", str(min(NUM_SHARDS, 4))))
+
+
+def _cases():
+    """(kind, fts_version) cases. FTS runs under both on-disk formats (v1, v2); the
+    scalar kinds are format-agnostic and run once."""
+    cases = []
+    for kind in KINDS:
+        if kind == "INVERTED":
+            cases.extend([("INVERTED", "1"), ("INVERTED", "2")])
+        else:
+            cases.append((kind, None))
+    return cases
+
+
+def _search_cases():
+    cases = []
+    for kind, fts_version in _cases():
+        num_shards = VECTOR_NUM_SHARDS if kind == VECTOR_KIND else NUM_SHARDS
+        kind_id = kind if fts_version is None else f"{kind}-fmtv{fts_version}"
+        cases.extend(
+            pytest.param(
+                kind,
+                fts_version,
+                shard,
+                num_shards,
+                id=f"{kind_id}-shard{shard}",
+            )
+            for shard in range(num_shards)
+        )
+    return cases
+
+
+SEARCH_CASES = _search_cases()
+
+
+@pytest.mark.compat
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("kind,fts_version,shard,num_shards", SEARCH_CASES)
+def test_index_maintenance_sequence_search(
+    venv_factory, tmp_path, kind, fts_version, shard, num_shards
+):
+    max_length = VECTOR_MAX_LENGTH if kind == VECTOR_KIND else MAX_LENGTH
+    failures = search(
+        venv_factory,
+        FROM_REF,
+        TO_REF,
+        tmp_path,
+        kind,
+        max_length=max_length,
+        shard=shard,
+        num_shards=num_shards,
+        fts_version=fts_version,
+    )
+    # First line is the failure itself so it shows in pytest's bottom summary; the rest
+    # (if more than one) appears in the failure body.
+    assert not failures, "\n".join(
+        f"{f['sequence']}  ==>  {f['error']}" for f in failures
+    )
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/test_scalar_indices.py b/python/python/tests/compat/test_scalar_indices.py
index 5d42a837bdc..850c1212532 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/compat/test_scalar_indices.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/test_scalar_indices.py
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 and written by other versions.
 """
 
+import os
 import shutil
 from pathlib import Path
 
@@ -19,6 +20,7 @@
     UpgradeDowngradeTest,
     compat_test,
 )
+from .util import safe_data_storage_version
 
 
 @compat_test(min_version="0.30.0")
@@ -40,7 +42,12 @@ def create(self):
                 "btree": pa.array(range(1000)),
             }
         )
-        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.path, max_rows_per_file=100)
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            max_rows_per_file=100,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
         dataset.create_scalar_index("btree", "BTREE")
 
     def check_read(self):
@@ -92,7 +99,12 @@ def create(self):
                 "label_list": pa.array([[f"label{i}"] for i in range(1000)]),
             }
         )
-        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.path, max_rows_per_file=100)
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            max_rows_per_file=100,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
         dataset.create_scalar_index("bitmap", "BITMAP")
         dataset.create_scalar_index("label_list", "LABEL_LIST")
 
@@ -141,7 +153,12 @@ def create(self):
                 "ngram": pa.array([f"word{i}" for i in range(1000)]),
             }
         )
-        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.path, max_rows_per_file=100)
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            max_rows_per_file=100,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
         dataset.create_scalar_index("ngram", "NGRAM")
 
     def check_read(self):
@@ -177,16 +194,26 @@ def __init__(self, path: Path):
         self.path = path
 
     def create(self):
-        """Create dataset with ZONEMAP and BLOOMFILTER indices."""
+        """Create dataset with ZONEMAP and BLOOMFILTER indices.
+
+        The zonemap column contains nulls at rows 0 and 500 so that IS NULL
+        queries can be verified across version boundaries.
+        """
         shutil.rmtree(self.path, ignore_errors=True)
+        zonemap_values = [None if i in (0, 500) else i for i in range(1000)]
         data = pa.table(
             {
                 "idx": pa.array(range(1000)),
-                "zonemap": pa.array(range(1000)),
+                "zonemap": pa.array(zonemap_values, type=pa.int64()),
                 "bloomfilter": pa.array(range(1000)),
             }
         )
-        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.path, max_rows_per_file=100)
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            max_rows_per_file=100,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
         dataset.create_scalar_index("zonemap", "ZONEMAP")
         dataset.create_scalar_index("bloomfilter", "BLOOMFILTER")
 
@@ -194,11 +221,22 @@ def check_read(self):
         """Verify ZONEMAP and BLOOMFILTER indices can be queried."""
         ds = lance.dataset(self.path)
 
-        # Test ZONEMAP
+        # Test ZONEMAP equality
         table = ds.to_table(filter="zonemap == 7")
         assert table.num_rows == 1
         assert table.column("idx").to_pylist() == [7]
 
+        # Test ZONEMAP IS NULL — two nulls were inserted at rows 0 and 500.
+        # Older versions without a null bitmap fall back to a zone scan, which
+        # is still correct; newer versions may return an exact result.
+        table = ds.to_table(filter="zonemap IS NULL")
+        if 1000 in table.column("idx").to_pylist():
+            # After write, there are 3 NULLs
+            assert table.num_rows == 3
+        else:
+            # Before write, there are 2 NULLs
+            assert table.num_rows == 2
+
         # Test BLOOMFILTER
         table = ds.to_table(filter="bloomfilter == 7")
         assert table.num_rows == 1
@@ -210,7 +248,7 @@ def check_write(self):
         data = pa.table(
             {
                 "idx": pa.array([1000]),
-                "zonemap": pa.array([1000]),
+                "zonemap": pa.array([None], type=pa.int64()),
                 "bloomfilter": pa.array([1000]),
             }
         )
@@ -218,6 +256,16 @@ def check_write(self):
         ds.optimize.optimize_indices()
         ds.optimize.compact_files()
 
+        # IS NULL must still return results after the index is updated and
+        # files are compacted.  The newly inserted null must be found
+        # regardless of which version handles the seed-based index update.
+        table = ds.to_table(filter="zonemap IS NULL")
+        assert table.num_rows >= 1
+
+    def skip_downgrade(self, version: str) -> bool:
+        # In 0.X the zonemap index did not properly handle NULL in filters
+        return version.startswith("0.")
+
 
 @compat_test(min_version="0.36.0")
 class JsonIndex(UpgradeDowngradeTest):
@@ -237,7 +285,12 @@ def create(self):
                 "json": pa.array([f'{{"val": {i}}}' for i in range(1000)], pa.json_()),
             }
         )
-        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.path, max_rows_per_file=100)
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            max_rows_per_file=100,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
         dataset.create_scalar_index(
             "json",
             IndexConfig(
@@ -288,16 +341,27 @@ def create(self):
                 ),
             }
         )
-        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.path, max_rows_per_file=100)
-        dataset.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED")
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            max_rows_per_file=100,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
+        kwargs = {"with_position": True}
+        # Downgrade reads use older wheels, so current-created FTS indexes must
+        # stay on the legacy posting block layout.
+        if os.environ.get("LANCE_COMPAT_FTS_LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE") == "1":
+            kwargs["block_size"] = 128
+        dataset.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED", format_version=1, **kwargs)
 
     def check_read(self):
         """Verify FTS index can be queried."""
         ds = lance.dataset(self.path)
-        # Search for documents containing "words" and "7"
-        # Note: Actual FTS query syntax may vary
-        table = ds.to_table(filter="text LIKE '%words 7 %'")
-        assert table.num_rows > 0
+        match_table = ds.to_table(
+            full_text_query={"query": "words 7", "columns": ["text"]}
+        )
+        assert match_table.num_rows > 0
+        assert 7 in match_table.column("idx").to_pylist()
 
     def check_write(self):
         """Verify can insert data with FTS index."""
@@ -313,3 +377,21 @@ def check_write(self):
         )
         ds.insert(data)
         ds.optimize.compact_files()
+
+    def skip_downgrade(self, version: str) -> bool:
+        return version.startswith("0.")
+
+    def current_env(self, method_name: str) -> dict[str, str]:
+        if method_name == "create":
+            return {
+                "LANCE_COMPAT_FTS_LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE": "1",
+                "LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION": "1",
+            }
+        if method_name == "check_write":
+            return {"LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION": "2"}
+        return {}
+
+    def compat_env(self, version: str, method_name: str) -> dict[str, str]:
+        if method_name in {"create", "check_write"}:
+            return {"LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION": "1"}
+        return {}
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/test_vector_indices.py b/python/python/tests/compat/test_vector_indices.py
index b58ded4f5ff..e97d6be8bf6 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/compat/test_vector_indices.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/test_vector_indices.py
@@ -8,10 +8,12 @@
 can be read and written by other versions.
 """
 
+import os
 import shutil
 from pathlib import Path
 
 import lance
+import numpy as np
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pyarrow.compute as pc
 
@@ -19,6 +21,7 @@
     UpgradeDowngradeTest,
     compat_test,
 )
+from .util import safe_data_storage_version
 
 
 @compat_test(min_version="0.29.1.beta2")
@@ -43,7 +46,11 @@ def create(self):
             }
         )
 
-        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.path)
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
         dataset.create_index(
             "vec",
             "IVF_PQ",
@@ -65,6 +72,17 @@ def check_read(self):
         )
         assert result.num_rows == 4
 
+        if hasattr(ds, "describe_indices"):
+            indices = ds.describe_indices()
+            assert len(indices) >= 1
+            name = indices[0].name
+        elif self.compat_version >= "0.39.0":
+            indices = ds.list_indices()
+            assert len(indices) >= 1
+            name = indices[0]["name"]
+            stats = ds.stats.index_stats(name)
+            assert stats["num_indexed_rows"] > 0
+
     def check_write(self):
         """Verify can insert vectors and rebuild index."""
         ds = lance.dataset(self.path)
@@ -108,7 +126,11 @@ def create(self):
             }
         )
 
-        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.path)
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
         dataset.create_index(
             "vec",
             "IVF_HNSW_PQ",
@@ -130,6 +152,18 @@ def check_read(self):
         )
         assert result.num_rows == 4
 
+        if hasattr(ds, "describe_indices"):
+            indices = ds.describe_indices()
+            assert len(indices) >= 1
+            name = indices[0].name
+        else:
+            indices = ds.list_indices()
+            assert len(indices) >= 1
+            name = indices[0]["name"]
+
+        stats = ds.stats.index_stats(name)
+        assert stats["num_indexed_rows"] > 0
+
     def check_write(self):
         """Verify can insert vectors and rebuild index."""
         ds = lance.dataset(self.path)
@@ -173,7 +207,11 @@ def create(self):
             }
         )
 
-        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.path)
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
         dataset.create_index(
             "vec",
             "IVF_HNSW_SQ",
@@ -195,6 +233,18 @@ def check_read(self):
         )
         assert result.num_rows == 4
 
+        if hasattr(ds, "describe_indices"):
+            indices = ds.describe_indices()
+            assert len(indices) >= 1
+            name = indices[0].name
+        else:
+            indices = ds.list_indices()
+            assert len(indices) >= 1
+            name = indices[0]["name"]
+
+        stats = ds.stats.index_stats(name)
+        assert stats["num_indexed_rows"] > 0
+
     def check_write(self):
         """Verify can insert vectors and rebuild index."""
         ds = lance.dataset(self.path)
@@ -210,3 +260,99 @@ def check_write(self):
         ds.insert(data)
         ds.optimize.optimize_indices()
         ds.optimize.compact_files()
+
+
+@compat_test(min_version="4.0.0-beta.8")
+class IvfRqVectorIndex(UpgradeDowngradeTest):
+    """Test IVF_RQ vector index compatibility. V2 was introduced in v4.0.0-beta.8"""
+
+    def __init__(self, path: Path):
+        self.path = path
+
+    def current_env(self, method_name: str):
+        if method_name == "check_read":
+            return {"LANCE_COMPAT_CURRENT_RUNTIME": "1"}
+        return {}
+
+    def skip_read_after_current_write(self, version: str) -> bool:
+        # Newly written IVF_RQ indexes carry raw-query estimator metadata and
+        # split-code schema that older runtimes cannot query or optimize safely.
+        # The upgrade_downgrade variant still covers old 1-bit residual-query
+        # indexes being read and rewritten by the current runtime.
+        return True
+
+    def skip_write_after_current_write(self, version: str) -> bool:
+        return True
+
+    def create(self):
+        """Create dataset with IVF_RQ vector index."""
+        shutil.rmtree(self.path, ignore_errors=True)
+        ndims = 32
+        nvecs = 512
+
+        data = pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array(range(nvecs)),
+                "vec": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                    pc.random(ndims * nvecs).cast(pa.float32()), ndims
+                ),
+            }
+        )
+
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.path,
+            data_storage_version=safe_data_storage_version(self.compat_version),
+        )
+        dataset.create_index(
+            "vec",
+            "IVF_RQ",
+            num_partitions=4,
+            num_bits=1,
+        )
+
+    def check_read(self):
+        """Verify vector query can run (indexed or brute-force fallback)."""
+        ds = lance.dataset(self.path)
+        q = np.random.random(32).astype(np.float32)
+        result = ds.to_table(
+            nearest={
+                "q": q,
+                "k": 4,
+                "column": "vec",
+            }
+        )
+        assert result.num_rows == 4
+
+        if hasattr(ds, "describe_indices"):
+            indices = ds.describe_indices()
+            assert len(indices) >= 1
+            name = indices[0].name
+        else:
+            indices = ds.list_indices()
+            assert len(indices) >= 1
+            name = indices[0].name
+
+        stats = ds.stats.index_stats(name)
+        assert stats["num_indexed_rows"] > 0
+        if os.environ.get("LANCE_COMPAT_CURRENT_RUNTIME") == "1":
+            # Old 1-bit IVF_RQ indexes do not have split ex-code columns.
+            # The successful query above verifies the current reader does not
+            # require them.
+            sub_index = stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]
+            assert sub_index["num_bits"] == 1
+
+    def check_write(self):
+        """Verify can insert vectors and run optimize workflows."""
+        ds = lance.dataset(self.path)
+        data = pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([1000]),
+                "vec": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                    pc.random(32).cast(pa.float32()), 32
+                ),
+            }
+        )
+        ds.insert(data)
+        ds.optimize.optimize_indices()
+        ds.optimize.compact_files()
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/test_venv_manager.py b/python/python/tests/compat/test_venv_manager.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..18a576bf088
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/test_venv_manager.py
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+import subprocess
+
+import pytest
+
+from . import venv_manager
+from .venv_manager import _lance_namespace_dependency, _pip_install
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("version", "expected"),
+    [
+        ("2.0.1", "lance-namespace<0.7"),
+        ("4.0.0b1", "lance-namespace<0.7"),
+        ("6.0.0b5", "lance-namespace>=0.7.2,<0.8"),
+        ("6.0.0", "lance-namespace>=0.7.2,<0.8"),
+        ("7.2.0b5", "lance-namespace>=0.8.0,<0.9"),
+        ("7.2.0", "lance-namespace>=0.8.0,<0.9"),
+        ("12.0.0b5", "lance-namespace>=0.8.0,<0.9"),
+        ("12.0.0b6", "lance-namespace>=0.11.1,<0.12"),
+        ("12.0.0", "lance-namespace>=0.11.1,<0.12"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_lance_namespace_dependency(version: str, expected: str):
+    assert _lance_namespace_dependency(version) == expected
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def no_sleep(monkeypatch):
+    sleeps: list[float] = []
+    monkeypatch.setattr(venv_manager.time, "sleep", sleeps.append)
+    return sleeps
+
+
+def test_pip_install_failure_includes_pip_output(monkeypatch, no_sleep):
+    calls: list[list[str]] = []
+
+    def failing_run(cmd, **kwargs):
+        calls.append(cmd)
+        raise subprocess.CalledProcessError(
+            2, cmd, output="resolving deps", stderr="No matching distribution found"
+        )
+
+    monkeypatch.setattr(venv_manager.subprocess, "run", failing_run)
+    with pytest.raises(RuntimeError) as exc_info:
+        _pip_install("python", ["pylance==0.38.0"])
+    # The error must surface pip's captured output, which CalledProcessError hides.
+    message = str(exc_info.value)
+    assert "No matching distribution found" in message
+    assert "resolving deps" in message
+    assert "pylance==0.38.0" in message
+    assert len(calls) == venv_manager._PIP_INSTALL_ATTEMPTS
+    assert len(no_sleep) == venv_manager._PIP_INSTALL_ATTEMPTS - 1
+
+
+def test_pip_install_retries_transient_failure(monkeypatch, no_sleep):
+    calls: list[list[str]] = []
+
+    def flaky_run(cmd, **kwargs):
+        calls.append(cmd)
+        if len(calls) == 1:
+            raise subprocess.CalledProcessError(
+                2, cmd, output="", stderr="ReadTimeoutError: pypi.fury.io"
+            )
+
+    monkeypatch.setattr(venv_manager.subprocess, "run", flaky_run)
+    _pip_install("python", ["pylance==0.38.0"])
+    assert len(calls) == 2
+    assert len(no_sleep) == 1
+
+
+def test_pip_install_succeeds_first_try_without_sleeping(monkeypatch, no_sleep):
+    calls: list[list[str]] = []
+    monkeypatch.setattr(
+        venv_manager.subprocess, "run", lambda cmd, **kwargs: calls.append(cmd)
+    )
+    _pip_install("python", ["pytest"])
+    assert calls == [["python", "-m", "pip", "install", "--quiet", "pytest"]]
+    assert no_sleep == []
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/util.py b/python/python/tests/compat/util.py
index f20bc93f23f..33cc80a32cc 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/compat/util.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/util.py
@@ -9,6 +9,22 @@
 import pyarrow as pa
 
 
+def safe_data_storage_version(version_str):
+    """Return a data_storage_version safe for the given lance version.
+
+    Versions before 0.38 use "2.0"; newer released versions use "2.1".
+
+    Do not return a moving alias here: compatibility tests create data with the
+    current Lance build and then read it with the requested older release.
+    """
+    parts = version_str.split(".")
+    major = int(parts[0])
+    minor = int(parts[1]) if len(parts) > 1 else 0
+    if major == 0 and minor < 38:
+        return "2.0"
+    return "2.1"
+
+
 def build_basic_types():
     schema = pa.schema(
         [
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/venv_manager.py b/python/python/tests/compat/venv_manager.py
index 996422aea34..6b1e3b85e2d 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/compat/venv_manager.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/venv_manager.py
@@ -8,13 +8,158 @@
 with specific Lance versions installed.
 """
 
+import contextlib
+import glob
 import os
 import pickle
+import re
+import shutil
 import struct
 import subprocess
 import sys
+import time
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+
+import pytest
+from packaging.version import InvalidVersion, Version
+
+try:
+    import fcntl
+except ImportError:  # pragma: no cover - non-POSIX
+    fcntl = None
+
+
+@contextlib.contextmanager
+def _venv_lock(lock_path: Path):
+    """Hold an exclusive lock so parallel workers don't race creating the same venv."""
+    lock_path.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+    with open(lock_path, "w") as handle:
+        if fcntl is not None:
+            fcntl.flock(handle, fcntl.LOCK_EX)
+        try:
+            yield
+        finally:
+            if fcntl is not None:
+                fcntl.flock(handle, fcntl.LOCK_UN)
+
+
+_PIP_INSTALL_ATTEMPTS = 3
+_PIP_RETRY_BACKOFF_SECONDS = 2.0
+
+
+def _pip_install(python: Union[str, Path], args: list[str]) -> None:
+    """Run ``pip install`` with output captured, retrying transient failures.
+
+    pip installs hit the network (PyPI / fury.io) and a single flaky download
+    should not fail a whole test run, so retry a bounded number of times with a
+    short backoff. On final failure raise an error that includes pip's
+    stdout/stderr, which a bare CalledProcessError from ``capture_output=True``
+    would hide from the test log.
+    """
+    cmd = [str(python), "-m", "pip", "install", "--quiet", *args]
+    for attempt in range(1, _PIP_INSTALL_ATTEMPTS + 1):
+        try:
+            subprocess.run(cmd, check=True, capture_output=True, text=True)
+            return
+        except subprocess.CalledProcessError as exc:  # noqa: PERF203
+            if attempt == _PIP_INSTALL_ATTEMPTS:
+                raise RuntimeError(
+                    f"pip install failed after {attempt} attempts "
+                    f"(exit status {exc.returncode}): {cmd}\n"
+                    f"stdout:\n{exc.stdout}\n"
+                    f"stderr:\n{exc.stderr}"
+                ) from exc
+            time.sleep(_PIP_RETRY_BACKOFF_SECONDS * attempt)
+
+
+NAMESPACE_0_6_DEPENDENCY = "lance-namespace<0.7"
+NAMESPACE_0_7_DEPENDENCY = "lance-namespace>=0.7.2,<0.8"
+NAMESPACE_0_8_DEPENDENCY = "lance-namespace>=0.8.0,<0.9"
+NAMESPACE_0_11_DEPENDENCY = "lance-namespace>=0.11.1,<0.12"
+
+
+def _lance_namespace_dependency(pylance_version: str) -> str:
+    # 12.0.0b5 is the last release published while pylance still pinned
+    # lance-namespace <0.9; releases cut after that carry the 0.11 range.
+    if Version(pylance_version) > Version("12.0.0b5"):
+        return NAMESPACE_0_11_DEPENDENCY
+    if Version(pylance_version) >= Version("7.2.0b5"):
+        return NAMESPACE_0_8_DEPENDENCY
+    if Version(pylance_version) >= Version("6.0.0b0"):
+        return NAMESPACE_0_7_DEPENDENCY
+    return NAMESPACE_0_6_DEPENDENCY
+
+
+def _is_release_version(ref: str) -> bool:
+    """A ref is treated as a published release (install a wheel) if it parses as a
+    version; anything else (commit sha, branch, tag) is built from source."""
+    try:
+        Version(ref)
+        return True
+    except InvalidVersion:
+        return False
+
+
+def _prebuilt_wheel_for(ref: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    """A prebuilt wheel to install for `ref` instead of building it from source.
+
+    When CI has already built a ref (e.g. the PR head, built once by the Python build
+    job), COMPAT_PREBUILT_REF names that ref and COMPAT_PREBUILT_WHEEL points at the
+    wheel (a path or glob). Lets the PR workflow reuse that wheel rather than rebuilding
+    the reader. Returns None when no prebuilt wheel applies to `ref`.
+    """
+    if os.environ.get("COMPAT_PREBUILT_REF") != ref:
+        return None
+    pattern = os.environ.get("COMPAT_PREBUILT_WHEEL")
+    if not pattern:
+        return None
+    matches = sorted(glob.glob(pattern))
+    if not matches:
+        raise FileNotFoundError(
+            f"COMPAT_PREBUILT_WHEEL={pattern!r} matched no wheel for ref {ref!r}"
+        )
+    return matches[0]
+
+
+def _repo_root() -> Path:
+    """Lance source checkout holding this test file (used to build refs from source)."""
+    # .../python/python/tests/compat/venv_manager.py -> repo root is parents[4]
+    return Path(__file__).resolve().parents[4]
+
+
+def _safe(ref: str) -> str:
+    return re.sub(r"[^A-Za-z0-9._-]", "_", ref)
+
+
+# Explicit skip whitelist for known (lance_version, python_version) incompatibilities.
+# Each entry is (max_lance_version_inclusive, min_python_version_inclusive).
+# A test is skipped when the tested lance version <= max_lance AND the current
+# Python >= min_python.  Add entries here only after verifying the incompatibility
+# is a runtime/ABI issue rather than a format regression — anything NOT listed
+# will surface as a test failure so new problems are visible.
+_COMPAT_SKIP: list[tuple[str, tuple[int, int]]] = [
+    # lance 0.22.x abi3 wheel was built with old PyO3 (<0.23) that crashes on
+    # Python 3.14+ due to removed internal CPython APIs.
+    ("0.22.0", (3, 14)),
+]
+
+
+def _skip_reason(lance_version: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    """Return a skip reason if this lance/Python combo is whitelisted, else None."""
+    try:
+        ver = Version(lance_version)
+    except InvalidVersion:
+        return None
+    py = sys.version_info[:2]
+    for max_lance, min_python in _COMPAT_SKIP:
+        if ver <= Version(max_lance) and py >= min_python:
+            py_str = f"{py[0]}.{py[1]}"
+            return (
+                f"Lance {lance_version} + Python {py_str}: whitelisted skip "
+                f"(see _COMPAT_SKIP in venv_manager.py)"
+            )
+    return None
 
 
 class VenvExecutor:
@@ -38,6 +183,8 @@ def __init__(self, version: str, venv_path: Path, persistent: bool = False):
         self.persistent = persistent
         self._created = False
         self._subprocess: Optional[subprocess.Popen] = None
+        self._stderr_path: Optional[Path] = None
+        self._stderr_file = None
 
     @property
     def python_path(self) -> Path:
@@ -45,74 +192,132 @@ def python_path(self) -> Path:
             return self.venv_path / "Scripts" / "python.exe"
         return self.venv_path / "bin" / "python"
 
+    @property
+    def _marker_path(self) -> Path:
+        return self.venv_path / ".compat_ref"
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _python_version_tag() -> str:
+        return f"{sys.version_info.major}.{sys.version_info.minor}"
+
     def _validate_venv(self) -> bool:
-        """Check if existing venv is valid and has correct Lance version."""
-        if not self.venv_path.exists():
-            return False
+        """A cached venv is reusable if it exists, its recorded ref matches, and it was
+        built with the same Python major.minor as the current interpreter.
 
+        The marker file format is two lines: `<lance_ref>\\n<python_major.minor>`.
+        Old single-line markers (no Python version) are treated as stale so the venv
+        is rebuilt — this handles cached venvs from a different Python installation."""
         if not self.python_path.exists():
             return False
-
-        # Check if pylance is installed with correct version
         try:
-            result = subprocess.run(
-                [str(self.python_path), "-m", "pip", "show", "pylance"],
-                capture_output=True,
-                text=True,
-                timeout=5,
-            )
-            if result.returncode != 0:
-                return False
-
-            # Parse version from output
-            for line in result.stdout.splitlines():
-                if line.startswith("Version:"):
-                    installed_version = line.split(":", 1)[1].strip()
-                    return installed_version == self.version
-
-        except Exception:
+            lines = self._marker_path.read_text().strip().splitlines()
+        except OSError:
             return False
-
-        return False
+        if not lines or lines[0] != self.version:
+            return False
+        # Require a Python version line; single-line markers are stale.
+        if len(lines) < 2 or lines[1] != self._python_version_tag():
+            return False
+        return True
 
     def create(self):
         """Create the virtual environment and install the specified Lance version."""
         if self._created:
             return
-
-        # Check if persistent venv already exists and is valid
         if self.persistent and self._validate_venv():
             self._created = True
             return
 
-        # Create virtual environment
-        subprocess.run(
-            [sys.executable, "-m", "venv", str(self.venv_path)],
-            check=True,
-            capture_output=True,
-        )
+        # Lock so parallel workers don't build the same venv at once; re-check in the
+        # lock since another worker may have just finished it.
+        with _venv_lock(self.venv_path.parent / f".lock_{_safe(self.version)}"):
+            if not self._validate_venv():
+                if self.venv_path.exists():
+                    shutil.rmtree(self.venv_path)  # drop any partial build
+                subprocess.run(
+                    [sys.executable, "-m", "venv", str(self.venv_path)],
+                    check=True,
+                    capture_output=True,
+                )
+                # Prefer a wheel CI already built for this ref; else a published
+                # release installs its wheel; else build the ref (commit/branch/tag)
+                # from source -- so two arbitrary refs can be compared and only the
+                # ones without a wheel pay a build.
+                prebuilt = _prebuilt_wheel_for(self.version)
+                if prebuilt is not None:
+                    self._install_wheel(prebuilt)
+                elif _is_release_version(self.version):
+                    self._install_release_wheel()
+                else:
+                    self._build_from_source()
+                self._marker_path.write_text(
+                    f"{self.version}\n{self._python_version_tag()}"
+                )
+        self._created = True
 
-        # Install specific pylance version and pytest
-        subprocess.run(
+    def _install_wheel(self, wheel: str):
+        _pip_install(self.python_path, [wheel, "pytest"])
+
+    def _install_release_wheel(self):
+        _pip_install(
+            self.python_path,
             [
-                str(self.python_path),
-                "-m",
-                "pip",
-                "install",
-                "--quiet",
                 "--pre",
                 "--extra-index-url",
                 "https://pypi.fury.io/lance-format/",
                 "--extra-index-url",
                 "https://pypi.fury.io/lancedb/",
                 f"pylance=={self.version}",
+                # Older Lance wheels (e.g. 2.0.1, 4.0.0b1) import
+                # CreateEmptyTableRequest from lance_namespace, which was
+                # removed in lance-namespace 0.7.0. Pin to <0.7 so old wheels
+                # resolve a compatible transitive dep.
+                _lance_namespace_dependency(self.version),
                 "pytest",
             ],
+        )
+
+    def _build_from_source(self):
+        """Build a wheel for an arbitrary git ref via a worktree + maturin, then install
+        it. The worktree/build is cached by ref so it is paid at most once."""
+        py = str(self.python_path)
+        src = self.venv_path.parent / f"src_{_safe(self.version)}"
+        if not src.exists():
+            subprocess.run(
+                [
+                    "git",
+                    "-C",
+                    str(_repo_root()),
+                    "worktree",
+                    "add",
+                    "--detach",
+                    str(src),
+                    self.version,
+                ],
+                check=True,
+                capture_output=True,
+            )
+        _pip_install(py, ["maturin", "pytest", "pyarrow"])
+        wheels = src / "target" / "compat-wheels"
+        subprocess.run(
+            [
+                py,
+                "-m",
+                "maturin",
+                "build",
+                "--release",
+                "--interpreter",
+                py,
+                "-m",
+                str(src / "python" / "Cargo.toml"),
+                "--out",
+                str(wheels),
+            ],
             check=True,
             capture_output=True,
         )
-
-        self._created = True
+        wheel = next(wheels.glob("pylance-*.whl"))
+        _pip_install(py, [str(wheel)])
 
     def _ensure_subprocess(self):
         """Ensure the persistent subprocess is running."""
@@ -123,19 +328,43 @@ def _ensure_subprocess(self):
         # Start persistent subprocess
         runner_script = Path(__file__).parent / "venv_runner.py"
 
-        # Set PYTHONPATH to include the tests directory
+        # Set PYTHONPATH so the subprocess can import compat test modules.
+        # pytest adds the `tests/` directory (the first ancestor without __init__.py)
+        # to sys.path, so test modules are imported as `compat.<module>`.
         env = os.environ.copy()
         tests_dir = Path(__file__).parent.parent
         env["PYTHONPATH"] = str(tests_dir)
+        env.setdefault("RUST_BACKTRACE", "full")
 
+        # Capture stderr to a file so a Rust panic (which crashes the runner) can be
+        # surfaced in the error instead of an opaque "broken pipe".
+        self._stderr_path = self.venv_path / ".runner_stderr.log"
+        self._stderr_file = open(self._stderr_path, "w")
         self._subprocess = subprocess.Popen(
             [str(self.python_path), "-u", str(runner_script)],
             stdin=subprocess.PIPE,
             stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
-            stderr=None,  # Inherit stderr to see timing messages
+            stderr=self._stderr_file,
             env=env,
         )
 
+    def _last_panic(self) -> str:
+        """Pull the panic message from the runner's captured stderr, if any."""
+        try:
+            text = self._stderr_path.read_text()
+        except (OSError, AttributeError):
+            return ""
+        lines = text.splitlines()
+        for i, line in enumerate(lines):
+            if "panicked at" in line:
+                # Compact the long path to just "builder.rs:962:57"
+                loc = line.split("panicked at", 1)[1].strip().rstrip(":")
+                loc = loc.rsplit("/", 1)[-1]
+                msg = lines[i + 1].strip() if i + 1 < len(lines) else ""
+                return f"panic at {loc}: {msg}" if msg else f"panic at {loc}"
+        tail = [line.strip() for line in lines if line.strip()]
+        return tail[-1] if tail else ""
+
     def _send_message(self, obj: Any):
         """Send a length-prefixed pickled message to subprocess."""
         data = pickle.dumps(obj)
@@ -146,23 +375,29 @@ def _send_message(self, obj: Any):
 
     def _receive_message(self) -> Any:
         """Receive a length-prefixed pickled message from subprocess."""
-        # Read 4-byte length header
+        # Short reads mean the subprocess closed stdout (usually a crash); raise
+        # EOFError so the caller can surface the panic from captured stderr.
         length_bytes = self._subprocess.stdout.read(4)
         if len(length_bytes) < 4:
-            raise RuntimeError("Failed to read message length from subprocess")
+            raise EOFError("subprocess closed stdout before sending a message length")
 
         length = struct.unpack(">I", length_bytes)[0]
 
         # Read message data
         data = self._subprocess.stdout.read(length)
         if len(data) < length:
-            raise RuntimeError(
-                f"Incomplete message: expected {length} bytes, got {len(data)}"
+            raise EOFError(
+                f"incomplete message: expected {length} bytes, got {len(data)}"
             )
 
         return pickle.loads(data)
 
-    def execute_method(self, obj: Any, method_name: str) -> Any:
+    def execute_method(
+        self,
+        obj: Any,
+        method_name: str,
+        env_overrides: Optional[dict[str, str]] = None,
+    ) -> Any:
         """
         Execute a method on a pickled object in the virtual environment.
 
@@ -189,11 +424,15 @@ def execute_method(self, obj: Any, method_name: str) -> Any:
         if not self._created:
             raise RuntimeError("Virtual environment not created. Call create() first.")
 
+        reason = _skip_reason(self.version)
+        if reason:
+            pytest.skip(reason)
+
         # Ensure subprocess is running
         self._ensure_subprocess()
         try:
-            # Send request: (obj, method_name)
-            self._send_message((obj, method_name))
+            # Send request: (obj, method_name, env_overrides)
+            self._send_message((obj, method_name, env_overrides or {}))
 
             # Receive response
             response = self._receive_message()
@@ -210,11 +449,17 @@ def execute_method(self, obj: Any, method_name: str) -> Any:
                 raise RuntimeError(error_msg)
 
         except (BrokenPipeError, EOFError, struct.error) as e:
-            # Subprocess died or communication failed
-            raise RuntimeError(
-                f"Communication with venv subprocess failed (Lance {self.version}):\n"
-                f"Error: {e}"
-            )
+            # Subprocess died (usually a Rust panic); flush it, then surface that.
+            returncode = "unknown"
+            if self._subprocess is not None:
+                try:
+                    self._subprocess.wait(timeout=2)
+                    returncode = str(self._subprocess.returncode)
+                except Exception:
+                    pass
+            panic = self._last_panic()
+            detail = panic or f"subprocess communication failed: {e}"
+            raise RuntimeError(f"Lance {self.version} (exit={returncode}): {detail}")
 
     def cleanup(self):
         """Remove the virtual environment directory and terminate subprocess."""
@@ -232,8 +477,6 @@ def cleanup(self):
 
         # Remove venv directory
         if self.venv_path.exists():
-            import shutil
-
             shutil.rmtree(self.venv_path)
         self._created = False
 
@@ -271,7 +514,7 @@ def get_venv(self, version: str) -> VenvExecutor:
             Executor for the specified version
         """
         if version not in self.venvs:
-            venv_path = self.base_path / f"venv_{version}"
+            venv_path = self.base_path / f"venv_{_safe(version)}"
             executor = VenvExecutor(version, venv_path, persistent=self.persistent)
             executor.create()
             self.venvs[version] = executor
diff --git a/python/python/tests/compat/venv_runner.py b/python/python/tests/compat/venv_runner.py
index ce7b3c3de77..8ad7f06ba21 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/compat/venv_runner.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/compat/venv_runner.py
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@
 import sys
 import time
 import traceback
+from contextlib import contextmanager
 
 # Enable detailed timing output with DEBUG=1
 DEBUG = os.environ.get("DEBUG", "").lower() in ("1", "true", "yes")
@@ -55,17 +56,41 @@ def write_message(stream, obj):
     stream.buffer.flush()
 
 
+@contextmanager
+def temporary_env(overrides):
+    if not overrides:
+        yield
+        return
+
+    sentinel = object()
+    old_values = {key: os.environ.get(key, sentinel) for key in overrides}
+    try:
+        for key, value in overrides.items():
+            os.environ[key] = value
+        yield
+    finally:
+        for key, value in old_values.items():
+            if value is sentinel:
+                os.environ.pop(key, None)
+            else:
+                os.environ[key] = value
+
+
 def main():
     """Main loop that processes method calls until EOF."""
     while True:
         try:
-            # Read request (obj, method_name)
+            # Read request (obj, method_name, env_overrides)
             request = read_message(sys.stdin)
             if request is None:
                 # EOF - parent closed connection
                 break
 
-            obj, method_name = request
+            if len(request) == 2:
+                obj, method_name = request
+                env_overrides = {}
+            else:
+                obj, method_name, env_overrides = request
 
             # Execute method with timing
             start_time = time.time()
@@ -77,7 +102,8 @@ def main():
                 )
 
             method = getattr(obj, method_name)
-            result = method()
+            with temporary_env(env_overrides):
+                result = method()
 
             if DEBUG:
                 exec_time = time.time() - start_time
diff --git a/python/python/tests/conftest.py b/python/python/tests/conftest.py
index 49a6eeaa490..c9d8911fd2b 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/conftest.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/conftest.py
@@ -1,10 +1,46 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 import sys
+from typing import Optional
 
 import pytest
 
 
+class ProgressRecorder:
+    """Reusable progress callback recorder for index build tests."""
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        fail_after: Optional[int] = None,
+        fail_on_tag: Optional[str] = None,
+    ):
+        self.events = []
+        self.fail_after = fail_after
+        self.fail_on_tag = fail_on_tag
+
+    def __call__(self, event):
+        self.events.append(event)
+        event_tag = f"{event.event}:{event.stage}"
+        if self.fail_on_tag is not None and event_tag == self.fail_on_tag:
+            raise RuntimeError("progress callback failure")
+        if self.fail_after is not None and len(self.events) >= self.fail_after:
+            raise RuntimeError("progress callback failure")
+
+
+def progress_event_tags(events):
+    return [f"{event.event}:{event.stage}" for event in events]
+
+
+def stage_progress_values(events, stage):
+    return [
+        event.completed
+        for event in events
+        if event.event == "progress"
+        and event.stage == stage
+        and event.completed is not None
+    ]
+
+
 @pytest.fixture(params=(True, False))
 def provide_pandas(request, monkeypatch):
     if not request.param:
@@ -66,8 +102,41 @@ def pytest_configure(config):
         "compat: mark tests that run upgrade/downgrade compatibility checks",
     )
 
+    workerinput = getattr(config, "workerinput", None)
+    if workerinput is not None:
+        from compat.compat_decorator import use_version_snapshot
 
+        use_version_snapshot(workerinput["lance_compat_versions"])
+
+
+def pytest_configure_node(node):
+    """Resolve the compat version list once, on the xdist controller.
+
+    The compat tests are parametrized over the pylance releases published to
+    PyPI and fury.io, and collecting `python/tests` imports them whether or not
+    --run-compat was passed. Left to itself every worker queries for that list
+    while collecting, so a request that times out or a release that lands
+    mid-run gives one worker a different parameter set, and xdist aborts the
+    whole run with "Different tests were collected".
+    """
+    from compat.compat_decorator import version_snapshot
+
+    node.workerinput["lance_compat_versions"] = version_snapshot()
+
+
+# tryfirst because xdist reads xdist_group off each item to build its scheduling
+# groups before ordinary pytest_collection_modifyitems hooks run; a mark added
+# later is silently ignored rather than rejected.
+@pytest.hookimpl(tryfirst=True)
 def pytest_collection_modifyitems(config, items):
+    # The lindera fixture unzips a dictionary into the checked-out models tree and
+    # removes it again on teardown, and the tokenizer configs name that path
+    # relative to the repo, so it cannot be relocated per worker. Pinning these
+    # tests to one xdist worker keeps a teardown in one worker from deleting the
+    # dictionary another is still reading. Without -n it changes nothing.
+    for item in items:
+        if "lindera_ipadic" in getattr(item, "fixturenames", ()):
+            item.add_marker(pytest.mark.xdist_group("lindera"))
     if not config.getoption("--run-integration"):
         disable_items_with_mark(items, "integration", "--run-integration not specified")
     if not config.getoption("--run-slow"):
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/README.md b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/README.md
index b567e52884c..8e19d8d2522 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/README.md
+++ b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/README.md
@@ -15,22 +15,25 @@ tar xvf mecab-ipadic-2.7.0-20070801.tar.gz
 
 - Edit matrix.def, reset last column(weight) into zero, except first row.
 
+- Create `metadata.json` for the IPADIC schema. Lindera 3.x requires this file
+  when building and loading dictionaries.
+
 - build
 
 ```bash
-lindera build --dictionary-kind=ipadic mecab-ipadic-2.7.0-20070801 main
+lindera build --src mecab-ipadic-2.7.0-20070801 --dest main --metadata metadata.json
 ```
 
 - build user dict
 
 ```bash
-lindera build --build-user-dictionary --dictionary-kind=ipadic user_dict/userdict.csv user_dict2
+lindera build --user --src user_dict/userdic.csv --dest user_dict2 --metadata metadata.json
 ```
 
 ## Version Compatibility
 
 **Important**: The binary user dictionary format (`userdic.bin`) is version-specific and needs to be regenerated when upgrading lindera versions.
 
-- Current version: lindera 0.44.0
-- Last regenerated: 2025-09-09
+- Current version: lindera 3.0.7
+- Last regenerated: 2026-05-08
 - Binary format changes between versions will cause deserialization errors
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict/config.yml b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict/config.yml
index c5c6c4028f1..e3ef56934a6 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict/config.yml
+++ b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict/config.yml
@@ -1,7 +1,4 @@
 segmenter:
   mode: "normal"
-  dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
-  user_dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict/invalid.bin"
-    kind: "ipadic"
+  dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
+  user_dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict/invalid.bin"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict2/config.yml b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict2/config.yml
index a91cf728758..2d5a11587b7 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict2/config.yml
+++ b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict2/config.yml
@@ -1,7 +1,4 @@
 segmenter:
   mode: "normal"
-  dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
-  user_dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict2/ipadic_simple_userdic.bin"
-    kind: "ipadic"
+  dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
+  user_dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/invalid_dict2/ipadic_simple_userdic.bin"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/config.yml b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/config.yml
index 6b3f0af40aa..922768bdb66 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/config.yml
+++ b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/config.yml
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
 segmenter:
   mode: "normal"
-  dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
\ No newline at end of file
+  dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main.zip b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main.zip
index 4db1bab9390..ee6791dc408 100644
Binary files a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main.zip and b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main.zip differ
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_fallback/config_env.yml b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_fallback/config_env.yml
index b1efb27c00d..922768bdb66 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_fallback/config_env.yml
+++ b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_fallback/config_env.yml
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
 segmenter:
   mode: "normal"
-  dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
+  dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_priority/config.yml b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_priority/config.yml
index 8fcbd28abe3..e689d36dcb9 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_priority/config.yml
+++ b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_priority/config.yml
@@ -1,10 +1,9 @@
 segmenter:
   mode: "normal"
-  dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
+  dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
 
 character_filters:
   - kind: mapping
     args:
        mapping:
-          成田: ほげほげ
\ No newline at end of file
+          成田: ほげほげ
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_priority/config_env.yml b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_priority/config_env.yml
index b1efb27c00d..922768bdb66 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_priority/config_env.yml
+++ b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/load_config_priority/config_env.yml
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
 segmenter:
   mode: "normal"
-  dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
+  dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict/config.yml b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict/config.yml
index 9ee5ba9acee..18fc5851c82 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict/config.yml
+++ b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict/config.yml
@@ -1,7 +1,4 @@
 segmenter:
   mode: "normal"
-  dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
-  user_dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict/userdic.csv"
-    kind: "ipadic"
+  dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
+  user_dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict/userdic.csv"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/config.yml b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/config.yml
index 70209980002..bb993c5ccfc 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/config.yml
+++ b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/config.yml
@@ -1,7 +1,4 @@
 segmenter:
   mode: "normal"
-  dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
-  user_dictionary:
-    path: "./python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/userdic.bin"
-    kind: "ipadic"
+  dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/ipadic/main"
+  user_dictionary: "./python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/userdic.bin"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/userdic.bin b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/userdic.bin
index bed08ec9e12..41d2c4820b5 100644
Binary files a/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/userdic.bin and b/python/python/tests/models/lindera/user_dict2/userdic.bin differ
diff --git a/python/python/tests/recurring/test_recurring.py b/python/python/tests/recurring/test_recurring.py
deleted file mode 100644
index ab39269528a..00000000000
--- a/python/python/tests/recurring/test_recurring.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,231 +0,0 @@
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-# Recurring tests that runs all operations on a large dataset,
-# these operations are ran in random order repeated 10 times
-
-import abc
-import itertools
-from datetime import timedelta
-from typing import Optional
-
-import lance
-import numpy as np
-import pyarrow as pa
-import pytest
-
-# For testing, use smaller numbers to make tests run faster
-# In production, you might want to use: NUM_ROWS = 1_000_000
-NUM_ROWS = 1_000_000
-BATCH_SIZE = 1_000
-DIM = 32
-
-schema = pa.schema(
-    [
-        pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
-        pa.field("vector", pa.list_(pa.float32(), DIM)),
-        pa.field("text", pa.string()),
-    ]
-)
-words = ["hello", "world", "this", "is", "a", "test", "sentence"]
-
-
-def random_text(num_words: int) -> str:
-    return " ".join(np.random.choice(words, num_words))
-
-
-def random_batch(start_id: int, batch_size: int) -> pa.Table:
-    return pa.Table.from_arrays(
-        [
-            pa.array(np.arange(start_id, start_id + batch_size)),
-            pa.array(np.random.rand(batch_size, DIM).tolist()),
-            pa.array(
-                [random_text(np.random.randint(1, 10)) for _ in range(batch_size)]
-            ),
-        ],
-        schema=schema,
-    )
-
-
-def create_or_load_dataset(dataset_name: str, kwargs: dict):
-    uri = f"tests/recurring/{dataset_name}"
-
-    # Try to open existing dataset first
-    try:
-        ds = lance.dataset(uri)
-        if ds.count_rows() > 0:
-            return ds
-    except Exception:
-        pass
-
-    # Create new dataset with initial data
-    initial_batch = random_batch(0, BATCH_SIZE)
-    ds = lance.write_dataset(initial_batch, uri, schema=schema, mode="overwrite")
-
-    # Add remaining data
-    for i in range(BATCH_SIZE, NUM_ROWS, BATCH_SIZE):
-        batch = random_batch(i, BATCH_SIZE)
-        ds.insert(batch)
-
-    # Create indices
-    ds.create_scalar_index("id", index_type="BTREE", replace=True)
-    ds.create_index(
-        "vector",
-        index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        metric="cosine",
-        num_partitions=128,
-        num_sub_vectors=DIM // 8,
-        replace=True,
-    )
-
-    # Note: FTS index creation is async, but we'll handle this differently for pytest
-    # For now, we'll skip the async part and create it synchronously if possible
-    try:
-        ds.create_scalar_index(
-            "text",
-            index_type="INVERTED",
-            with_position=kwargs.get("with_position", False),
-            replace=True,
-        )
-    except Exception as e:
-        print(f"Warning: Could not create FTS index: {e}")
-
-    return ds
-
-
-class Operation(abc.ABC):
-    @abc.abstractmethod
-    def read_only(self) -> bool: ...
-
-    @abc.abstractmethod
-    def run(self, ds: lance.LanceDataset): ...
-
-
-class ReadOnlyOperation(Operation):
-    def read_only(self) -> bool:
-        return True
-
-
-class WriteOperation(Operation):
-    def read_only(self) -> bool:
-        return False
-
-
-class Append(WriteOperation):
-    def run(self, ds: lance.LanceDataset):
-        batch = random_batch(ds.count_rows(), BATCH_SIZE)
-        ds.insert(batch)
-
-
-class Delete(WriteOperation):
-    def __init__(self, delete_num_rows: int = 100):
-        self.delete_num_rows = delete_num_rows
-
-    def run(self, ds: lance.LanceDataset):
-        num_rows = ds.count_rows()
-        to_delete = np.random.randint(0, num_rows, self.delete_num_rows)
-        to_delete = ", ".join([str(v) for v in to_delete])
-        ds.delete(f"id IN ({to_delete})")
-
-
-class Optimize(WriteOperation):
-    def __init__(self, num_indices_to_merge: int, column: str):
-        self.num_indices_to_merge = num_indices_to_merge
-        self.column = column
-
-    def run(self, ds: lance.LanceDataset):
-        ds.optimize.optimize_indices(
-            num_indices_to_merge=self.num_indices_to_merge,
-            index_names=[f"{self.column}_idx"],
-        )
-
-
-class Compact(WriteOperation):
-    def run(self, ds: lance.LanceDataset):
-        ds.optimize.compact_files()
-
-
-class VectorSearch(ReadOnlyOperation):
-    def __init__(self, filter: Optional[str] = None):
-        self.filter = filter
-
-    def run(self, ds: lance.LanceDataset):
-        stats = ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
-        if stats is None:
-            print("No vector index found")
-            return
-        query_vector = np.random.rand(DIM).tolist()
-        query = ds.scanner(
-            nearest={
-                "q": query_vector,
-                "k": 10,
-                "column": "vector",
-            },
-            filter=self.filter,
-        )
-        query.analyze_plan()
-
-
-class FullTextSearch(ReadOnlyOperation):
-    def __init__(self, has_position: bool, filter: Optional[str] = None):
-        self.has_position = has_position
-        self.filter = filter
-
-    def run(self, ds: lance.LanceDataset):
-        stats = ds.stats.index_stats("text_idx")
-        if stats is None:
-            print("No text index found")
-            return
-        query_text = random_text(np.random.randint(1, 10))
-        self.do_query(ds, query_text)
-
-        if self.has_position:
-            query_text = f'"{query_text}"'
-            self.do_query(ds, query_text)
-
-    def do_query(self, ds: lance.LanceDataset, query_text: str):
-        query: lance.LanceScanner = ds.scanner(
-            full_text_query=query_text,
-            filter=self.filter,
-            limit=10,
-        )
-        query.analyze_plan()
-
-
-@pytest.mark.recurring
-@pytest.mark.parametrize("with_position", [True])
-def test_all_permutations(with_position):
-    """Test all operations on dataset without FTS position tracking"""
-    dataset_name = f"test_table_with_position_{with_position}"
-    ds = create_or_load_dataset(dataset_name, {"with_position": with_position})
-
-    write_operations = [
-        Append(),
-        Delete(delete_num_rows=1000),
-        Optimize(num_indices_to_merge=0, column="id"),
-        Optimize(num_indices_to_merge=0, column="vector"),  # delta index
-        Optimize(num_indices_to_merge=1, column="vector"),  # merge index
-        Optimize(num_indices_to_merge=0, column="text"),
-        Compact(),
-    ]
-
-    read_only_operations = [
-        # Read only operations
-        VectorSearch(),
-        VectorSearch(filter="id >= 1000 and id < 8000"),
-        FullTextSearch(has_position=False),
-        FullTextSearch(has_position=False, filter="id >= 1000 and id < 8000"),
-    ]
-
-    for permutation in itertools.permutations(range(len(write_operations))):
-        for idx in permutation:
-            write_operation = write_operations[idx]
-            print(f"Running {write_operation.__class__.__name__}")
-            write_operation.run(ds)
-            ds.cleanup_old_versions(older_than=timedelta(seconds=0))
-
-            # write operation changed the status of the table,
-            # then we need to run all read only operations after it
-            for read_only_operation in read_only_operations:
-                print(f"Running {read_only_operation.__class__.__name__}")
-                read_only_operation.run(ds)
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_arrow.py b/python/python/tests/test_arrow.py
index 4215866c2d5..a0be09846e1 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_arrow.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_arrow.py
@@ -7,10 +7,11 @@
 from pathlib import Path
 
 import lance
+import lance.arrow
 import numpy as np
 import pandas as pd
 import pyarrow as pa
-import pytest
+import pytest  # pyright: ignore[reportMissingImports]
 from lance.arrow import (
     BFloat16,
     BFloat16Array,
@@ -48,6 +49,16 @@ def test_bf16_value():
     assert not any(comparison for comparison in should_be_false)
 
 
+def test_bf16_from_bytes_roundtrip():
+    assert BFloat16.from_bytes(b"\xc0\x3f") == BFloat16(1.5)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("bad", [b"", b"\x00", b"\x00\x00\x00", b"\x00" * 4])
+def test_bf16_from_bytes_invalid_length_raises(bad):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="expected 2 bytes"):
+        BFloat16.from_bytes(bad)
+
+
 def test_bf16_repr():
     data = [1.1, None, 3.4]
     arr = bfloat16_array(data)
@@ -262,8 +273,6 @@ def test_image_uri_arrays(tmp_path: Path, png_uris):
 
 
 def test_image_tensor_arrays(tmp_path: Path, png_uris):
-    tf = pytest.importorskip("tensorflow")
-
     n = 10
 
     encoded_image_array = ImageURIArray.from_uris(png_uris).read_uris()
@@ -286,22 +295,22 @@ def test_image_tensor_arrays(tmp_path: Path, png_uris):
     assert tensor_image_array.storage.type == pa.list_(pa.uint8(), 4)
     assert tensor_image_array[2].as_py() == [42, 42, 42, 255]
 
-    test_tensor = tf.constant(
-        np.array([42, 42, 42, 255] * n, dtype=np.uint8).reshape((n, 1, 1, 4))
-    )
+    test_tensor = np.array([42, 42, 42, 255] * n, dtype=np.uint8).reshape((n, 1, 1, 4))
 
     assert test_tensor.shape == (n, 1, 1, 4)
-    assert tf.math.reduce_all(
-        tf.convert_to_tensor(tensor_image_array.to_numpy()) == test_tensor
-    )
+    assert np.array_equal(tensor_image_array.to_numpy(), test_tensor)
     assert tensor_image_array.to_encoded().to_tensor() == tensor_image_array
 
     def png_encoder(images):
-        import tensorflow as tf
+        import io
 
-        encoded_images = (
-            tf.io.encode_png(x).numpy() for x in tf.convert_to_tensor(images)
-        )
+        from PIL import Image  # pyright: ignore[reportMissingImports]
+
+        encoded_images = []
+        for image in images:
+            with io.BytesIO() as buf:
+                Image.fromarray(image).save(buf, format="PNG")
+                encoded_images.append(buf.getvalue())
         return pa.array(encoded_images, type=pa.binary())
 
     assert tensor_image_array.to_encoded(png_encoder).to_tensor() == tensor_image_array
@@ -313,20 +322,18 @@ def png_encoder(images):
         uris = [str(Path(x)) for x in uris]
 
     encoded_image_array = ImageArray.from_array(uris).read_uris()
-    with pytest.raises(
-        tf.errors.InvalidArgumentError, match="Shapes of all inputs must match"
-    ):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="all input arrays must have the same shape"):
         encoded_image_array.to_tensor()
 
     pattern = r"(object at) 0x[\w\d]+(:?>)"
     repl = r"\1 0x..\2"
-    assert re.sub(pattern, repl, encoded_image_array.__repr__()) == (
-        "<lance.arrow.EncodedImageArray object at 0x..>\n"
-        "[<tf.Tensor: shape=(1, 1, 4), dtype=uint8, numpy=array([[[ 42,  42,  42, "
-        "255]]], dtype=uint8)>, ..]\n"
+    repr_ = re.sub(pattern, repl, encoded_image_array.__repr__())
+    assert repr_.startswith("<lance.arrow.EncodedImageArray object at 0x..>\n[<PIL.")
+    assert "image mode=RGBA size=1x1" in repr_
+    assert (
         "b'\\x89PNG\\r\\n\\x1a\\n\\x00\\x00\\x00\\rIHDR\\x00\\x00\\x00\\x01\\x00\\x00"
         "\\x00\\x01\\x08\\x06\\x00\\x00\\x00\\x1f'"
-    )
+    ) in repr_
 
 
 def test_roundtrip_image_tensor(tmp_path: Path):
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_bitmap.py b/python/python/tests/test_bitmap.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..79beee89c6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_bitmap.py
@@ -0,0 +1,342 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+import collections.abc
+import pickle
+
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+from lance.bitmap import Bitmap
+
+
+def test_construct_from_list():
+    b = Bitmap([4, 1, 2, 1])
+    assert len(b) == 3
+    assert set(b) == {1, 2, 4}
+
+
+def test_construct_from_range():
+    b = Bitmap(range(1000))
+    assert len(b) == 1000
+    assert 0 in b
+    assert 999 in b
+    assert 1000 not in b
+
+
+def test_construct_empty():
+    assert len(Bitmap()) == 0
+    assert len(Bitmap([])) == 0
+
+
+def test_construct_from_bitmap():
+    original = Bitmap([1, 2, 3])
+    copy = Bitmap(original)
+    assert copy == original
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "arrow_type",
+    [
+        pa.int8(),
+        pa.int16(),
+        pa.int32(),
+        pa.int64(),
+        pa.uint8(),
+        pa.uint16(),
+        pa.uint32(),
+        pa.uint64(),
+    ],
+)
+def test_construct_from_pyarrow_array(arrow_type):
+    arr = pa.array(range(100), type=arrow_type)
+    b = Bitmap(arr)
+    assert len(b) == 100
+    assert set(b) == set(range(100))
+
+
+def test_construct_from_chunked_array():
+    chunked = pa.chunked_array(
+        [pa.array([1, 2, 3], type=pa.int32()), pa.array([4, 5], type=pa.int32())]
+    )
+    b = Bitmap(chunked)
+    assert set(b) == {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
+
+
+def test_construct_from_sliced_pyarrow_array():
+    # Values are read from the array's native buffer, which the slice shares
+    # with the unsliced array — the slice's offset and length must be honored.
+    arr = pa.array([10, 20, 30, 40], type=pa.int32()).slice(1, 2)
+    assert set(Bitmap(arr)) == {20, 30}
+
+
+def test_construct_from_unaligned_pyarrow_buffer():
+    # A buffer arriving over the Arrow C data interface may not meet the
+    # type's native alignment (here, an int32 array over a byte-offset slice).
+    # That must be handled by copying, not by panicking inside `make_array`.
+    raw = bytearray([0xFF, 1, 0, 0, 0])
+    buffer = pa.py_buffer(raw).slice(1, 4)
+    arr = pa.Array.from_buffers(pa.int32(), 1, [None, buffer])
+
+    assert arr.to_pylist() == [1]
+    assert set(Bitmap(arr)) == {1}
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "empty",
+    [
+        pa.array([], type=pa.int32()),
+        pa.chunked_array([], type=pa.int32()),
+        pa.chunked_array([pa.array([], type=pa.int32())]),
+    ],
+    ids=["array", "chunked_no_chunks", "chunked_empty_chunk"],
+)
+def test_construct_from_empty_pyarrow(empty):
+    assert len(Bitmap(empty)) == 0
+
+
+def test_construct_from_pyarrow_rejects_nulls():
+    arr = pa.array([1, 2, None], type=pa.int32())
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        Bitmap(arr)
+
+
+def test_construct_from_pyarrow_rejects_non_integer():
+    arr = pa.array([1.0, 2.0], type=pa.float64())
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="integer pyarrow array"):
+        Bitmap(arr)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("value", [-1, 2**32], ids=["negative", "too_large"])
+def test_construct_rejects_out_of_range_values(value):
+    # The error names the offending value, rather than being a bare
+    # OverflowError from the u32 conversion.
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=str(value)):
+        Bitmap([value])
+
+
+def test_construct_accepts_max_value():
+    b = Bitmap([2**32 - 1])
+    assert len(b) == 1
+    assert 2**32 - 1 in b
+
+
+def test_construct_rejects_non_integer_values():
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+        Bitmap(["not an int"])
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("value", "arrow_type"),
+    [(-1, pa.int32()), (2**33, pa.int64()), (2**64 - 1, pa.uint64())],
+    ids=["negative", "too_large_int64", "too_large_uint64"],
+)
+def test_construct_from_pyarrow_rejects_out_of_range(value, arrow_type):
+    # The offending value must be reported as itself, not silently wrapped
+    # (e.g. through a signed cast) into a misleading number.
+    arr = pa.array([value], type=arrow_type)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=str(value)):
+        Bitmap(arr)
+
+
+def test_len_iter_contains():
+    b = Bitmap([1, 2, 4])
+    assert len(b) == 3
+    assert 1 in b
+    assert 3 not in b
+    assert "not an int" not in b
+    assert sorted(b) == [1, 2, 4]
+
+
+def test_iter_is_lazy():
+    """`iter()` returns a dedicated streaming iterator (not a `list_iterator`
+    over a pre-built list), yielding values one at a time on demand."""
+    b = Bitmap(range(1000))
+    it = iter(b)
+    assert type(it).__name__ == "BitmapIterator"
+    assert next(it) == 0
+    assert next(it) == 1
+    assert list(it) == list(range(2, 1000))
+
+
+def test_equality():
+    assert Bitmap([1, 2, 3]) == Bitmap([3, 2, 1])
+    assert Bitmap([1, 2, 3]) == {1, 2, 3}
+    assert Bitmap([1, 2, 3]) != Bitmap([1, 2])
+    assert Bitmap([1, 2, 3]) != {1, 2}
+
+
+def test_equality_against_incompatible_type_is_false_not_error():
+    # Comparing to a value that isn't a Bitmap or an iterable of ints (e.g. a
+    # bare int) is simply unequal, matching normal Python `==` semantics —
+    # it must not raise just because the type differs.
+    b = Bitmap([1, 2, 3])
+    assert (b == 5) is False
+    assert (b != 5) is True
+    assert (b == "not iterable") is False
+    assert (b != "not iterable") is True
+
+
+def test_is_registered_as_a_set():
+    # `Bitmap` is not a `set` subclass, so code that must accept either has to
+    # test against the abstract base class.
+    b = Bitmap([1])
+    assert isinstance(b, collections.abc.Set)
+    assert isinstance(b, collections.abc.MutableSet)
+    assert not isinstance(b, set)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("op", "expected"),
+    [
+        (lambda a, b: a & b, {2, 3}),
+        (lambda a, b: a | b, {1, 2, 3, 4}),
+        (lambda a, b: a - b, {1}),
+        (lambda a, b: a ^ b, {1, 4}),
+    ],
+    ids=["and", "or", "sub", "xor"],
+)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "other", [Bitmap([2, 3, 4]), {2, 3, 4}, [2, 3, 4]], ids=["bitmap", "set", "list"]
+)
+def test_set_operators(op, expected, other):
+    result = op(Bitmap([1, 2, 3]), other)
+    assert isinstance(result, Bitmap)
+    assert result == expected
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("op", "expected"),
+    [
+        (lambda a, b: a & b, {2, 3}),
+        (lambda a, b: a | b, {1, 2, 3, 4}),
+        (lambda a, b: a - b, {4}),
+        (lambda a, b: a ^ b, {1, 4}),
+    ],
+    ids=["rand", "ror", "rsub", "rxor"],
+)
+def test_reflected_set_operators(op, expected):
+    # A plain `set` on the left returns NotImplemented for a `Bitmap` operand,
+    # so the reflected form has to carry the operation.
+    assert op({2, 3, 4}, Bitmap([1, 2, 3])) == expected
+
+
+def test_set_operator_with_incompatible_type_raises():
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+        Bitmap([1]) & 5
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("method", "expected"),
+    [
+        ("intersection", {2, 3}),
+        ("union", {1, 2, 3, 4}),
+        ("difference", {1}),
+        ("symmetric_difference", {1, 4}),
+    ],
+)
+def test_named_set_methods(method, expected):
+    result = getattr(Bitmap([1, 2, 3]), method)([2, 3, 4])
+    assert isinstance(result, Bitmap)
+    assert result == expected
+
+
+def test_subset_superset_and_disjoint():
+    b = Bitmap([1, 2])
+    assert b.issubset([1, 2, 3])
+    assert b <= Bitmap([1, 2])
+    assert b < Bitmap([1, 2, 3])
+    assert not b < Bitmap([1, 2])
+    assert b.issuperset([1])
+    assert b >= Bitmap([1, 2])
+    assert b > Bitmap([1])
+    assert not b > Bitmap([1, 2])
+    assert b.isdisjoint([3, 4])
+    assert not b.isdisjoint([2])
+
+
+def test_ordering_against_incompatible_type_raises():
+    # Unlike `==`, an ordering comparison against a non-set has no meaning.
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+        Bitmap([1]) < 5
+
+
+def test_repr():
+    assert repr(Bitmap([1, 2, 3])) == "Bitmap({1, 2, 3})"
+
+
+def test_repr_truncates_long_bitmaps():
+    assert repr(Bitmap(range(25))) == (
+        "Bitmap({0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, "
+        "18, 19, ...}, len=25)"
+    )
+
+
+def test_pickle_round_trip():
+    b = Bitmap(range(10_000))
+    loaded = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(b))
+    assert loaded == b
+
+
+def test_add_discard_update():
+    b = Bitmap([1, 2, 3])
+    b.add(4)
+    assert 4 in b
+    b.discard(2)
+    assert 2 not in b
+    b.discard(2)  # discarding an absent value is a no-op
+    b.update([10, 11])
+    assert {10, 11}.issubset(set(b))
+
+
+def test_remove_pop_clear():
+    b = Bitmap([1, 2, 3])
+    b.remove(2)
+    assert 2 not in b
+    with pytest.raises(KeyError):
+        b.remove(2)
+    assert b.pop() == 1  # the smallest value
+    b.clear()
+    assert len(b) == 0
+    with pytest.raises(KeyError):
+        b.pop()
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("op", "expected"),
+    [
+        ("__iand__", {2, 3}),
+        ("__ior__", {1, 2, 3, 4}),
+        ("__isub__", {1}),
+        ("__ixor__", {1, 4}),
+    ],
+)
+def test_in_place_set_operators(op, expected):
+    b = Bitmap([1, 2, 3])
+    shared = Bitmap(b)
+
+    getattr(b, op)([2, 3, 4])
+
+    assert b == expected
+    # In-place mutation still copies on write, so the alias is untouched.
+    assert shared == {1, 2, 3}
+
+
+def test_copy_is_independent():
+    original = Bitmap([1, 2, 3])
+    copy = original.copy()
+
+    copy.add(4)
+
+    assert 4 not in original
+    assert copy == {1, 2, 3, 4}
+
+
+def test_mutation_is_copy_on_write():
+    original = Bitmap([1, 2, 3])
+    other = Bitmap(original)
+
+    other.add(4)
+
+    assert 4 not in original
+    assert 4 in other
+    assert original == Bitmap([1, 2, 3])
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_blob.py b/python/python/tests/test_blob.py
index 69e8a0b75a5..65893cdc532 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_blob.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_blob.py
@@ -1,10 +1,187 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+import gc
+import importlib
+import io
+import queue
+import random
+import subprocess
+import sys
+import tarfile
+import textwrap
+import threading
+import uuid
+import zipfile
+from pathlib import Path
+
 import lance
+import pandas as pd
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pytest
-from lance import BlobColumn
+from lance import Blob, BlobColumn, BlobFile, DatasetBasePath
+from lance.blob import BlobType
+from lance.file import LanceFileSession
+from lance.fragment import write_fragments
+
+lance_dataset_module = importlib.import_module("lance.dataset")
+
+LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION = "2.1"
+
+
+def _blob_row_ids(dataset):
+    return dataset.to_table(columns=[], with_row_id=True).column("_rowid").to_pylist()
+
+
+def _blob_row_addresses(dataset):
+    return (
+        dataset.to_table(columns=["idx"], with_row_address=True)
+        .column("_rowaddr")
+        .to_pylist()
+    )
+
+
+def _commit_blob_fragments(dataset_uri, schema, fragments, initial_bases=None):
+    operation = lance.LanceOperation.Overwrite(
+        schema,
+        fragments,
+        initial_bases=initial_bases,
+    )
+    return lance.LanceDataset.commit(dataset_uri, operation)
+
+
+def _external_blob_table(blob_path, payload=b"hello"):
+    blob_path.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+    blob_path.write_bytes(payload)
+    return pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([blob_path.as_uri()])})
+
+
+def _blob_sidecar_path(data_dir, data_file_key, blob_id):
+    sidecar_name = f"{int(f'{blob_id:032b}'[::-1], 2):032b}.blob"
+    return data_dir / data_file_key / sidecar_name
+
+
+def _complete_blob_table(ids, values):
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("id", pa.int64()), lance.blob_field("blob")])
+    return pa.Table.from_arrays(
+        [pa.array(ids, type=pa.int64()), lance.blob_array(values)],
+        schema=schema,
+    )
+
+
+def _complete_blob_storage_table(data, uri, position, size):
+    storage = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+        [
+            pa.array([data], type=pa.large_binary()),
+            pa.array([uri], type=pa.utf8()),
+            pa.array([position], type=pa.uint64()),
+            pa.array([size], type=pa.uint64()),
+        ],
+        names=["data", "uri", "position", "size"],
+    )
+    blobs = pa.ExtensionArray.from_storage(BlobType(), storage)
+    return pa.Table.from_arrays([blobs], schema=pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob")]))
+
+
+def _assert_complete_blob_schema(dataset):
+    blob_type = dataset.schema.field("blob").type
+    assert isinstance(blob_type, pa.ExtensionType)
+    assert blob_type.extension_name == "lance.blob.v2"
+    assert [field.name for field in blob_type.storage_type] == [
+        "data",
+        "uri",
+        "position",
+        "size",
+    ]
+
+
+def _assert_blob_storage_type_equal(actual, expected):
+    assert isinstance(actual, pa.StructType)
+    assert isinstance(expected, pa.StructType)
+    assert len(actual) == len(expected)
+    for actual_field, expected_field in zip(actual, expected):
+        assert actual_field.equals(expected_field, check_metadata=True)
+
+
+def _inline_blob_array(storage_type, value):
+    arrays = [
+        pa.array([value], type=pa.large_binary()),
+        pa.array([None], type=pa.utf8()),
+    ]
+    if len(storage_type) == 4:
+        arrays.extend(
+            [
+                pa.array([None], type=pa.uint64()),
+                pa.array([None], type=pa.uint64()),
+            ]
+        )
+    storage = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(arrays, fields=list(storage_type))
+    blob_type = BlobType.__arrow_ext_deserialize__(storage_type, b"")
+    return pa.ExtensionArray.from_storage(blob_type, storage)
+
+
+def _add_columns_blob_v2_values(tmp_path):
+    external_base = tmp_path / "external_base"
+    external_blob = external_base / "external_blob.bin"
+    external_blob.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+    external_blob.write_bytes(b"external")
+
+    payloads = [
+        b"inline",
+        b"p" * (64 * 1024 + 1024),
+        b"d" * (4 * 1024 * 1024 + 1024),
+        b"external",
+    ]
+    values = [payloads[0], payloads[1], payloads[2], external_blob.as_uri()]
+    initial_bases = [DatasetBasePath(external_base.as_uri(), name="external", id=1)]
+    return values, payloads, initial_bases
+
+
+def _assert_blob_v2_add_columns_result(dataset, column, payloads):
+    desc = dataset.to_table(columns=[column]).column(column).chunk(0)
+
+    assert desc.field("kind").to_pylist() == [0, 4, 4, 3]
+    assert desc.field("blob_id").to_pylist()[3] == 1
+    assert desc.field("blob_uri").to_pylist()[3] == "external_blob.bin"
+
+    blobs = dataset.take_blobs(column, indices=range(len(payloads)))
+    assert [blob.readall() for blob in blobs] == payloads
+
+
+def _dataset_file_set(dataset_path):
+    return {
+        path.relative_to(dataset_path)
+        for path in dataset_path.rglob("*")
+        if path.is_file()
+    }
+
+
+def _write_two_fragment_blob_v2_seed_dataset(tmp_path, name):
+    values, payloads, initial_bases = _add_columns_blob_v2_values(tmp_path)
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / name
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": range(8)}),
+        dataset_path,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        initial_bases=initial_bases,
+        max_rows_per_file=4,
+        max_rows_per_group=4,
+    )
+    return ds, dataset_path, values, payloads
+
+
+def _out_of_order_blob_selection(dataset_with_blobs, selection_kind):
+    addresses = _blob_row_addresses(dataset_with_blobs)
+    expected = [(addresses[4], b"quux"), (addresses[0], b"foo")]
+
+    if selection_kind == "ids":
+        return [
+            _blob_row_ids(dataset_with_blobs)[4],
+            _blob_row_ids(dataset_with_blobs)[0],
+        ], expected
+    if selection_kind == "addresses":
+        return [addresses[4], addresses[0]], expected
+    return [4, 0], expected
 
 
 def test_blob_read_from_binary():
@@ -40,7 +217,11 @@ def test_blob_descriptions(tmp_path):
             ]
         ),
     )
-    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "test_ds")
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds",
+        data_storage_version=LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION,
+    )
     # These positions may be surprising but lance pads buffers to 64-byte boundaries
     expected_positions = pa.array([0, 64, 128], pa.uint64())
     expected_sizes = pa.array([3, 3, 3], pa.uint64())
@@ -63,12 +244,77 @@ def test_scan_blob_as_binary(tmp_path):
             ]
         ),
     )
-    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "test_ds")
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds",
+        data_storage_version=LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION,
+    )
 
     tbl = ds.scanner(columns=["blobs"], blob_handling="all_binary").to_table()
     assert tbl.column("blobs").to_pylist() == values
 
 
+def test_sql_blob_as_binary(tmp_path):
+    values = [b"foo", b"bar", b"baz"]
+    table = pa.table(
+        [pa.array(values, pa.large_binary())],
+        schema=pa.schema(
+            [
+                pa.field(
+                    "blobs", pa.large_binary(), metadata={"lance-encoding:blob": "true"}
+                )
+            ]
+        ),
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds",
+        data_storage_version=LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION,
+    )
+
+    batches = (
+        ds.sql("SELECT blobs FROM dataset")
+        .blob_handling("all_binary")
+        .build()
+        .to_batch_records()
+    )
+    assert pa.Table.from_batches(batches).column("blobs").to_pylist() == values
+
+
+def test_v2_0_blob_descriptor_projection_and_reads(tmp_path):
+    values = [b"abc", b"defgh", b"ijklmnop"]
+    blob_field = pa.field(
+        "blob", pa.large_binary(), metadata={"lance-encoding:blob": "true"}
+    )
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("id", pa.int32()), blob_field])
+    table = pa.table(
+        {"id": [0, 1, 2], "blob": values},
+        schema=schema,
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "test_ds", data_storage_version="2.0")
+
+    for blob_handling in [None, "all_descriptions", "blobs_descriptions"]:
+        kwargs = {} if blob_handling is None else {"blob_handling": blob_handling}
+        descriptions = ds.scanner(columns=["blob"], **kwargs).to_table().column("blob")
+        chunk = descriptions.chunk(0)
+        assert chunk.type == pa.struct(
+            [
+                pa.field("position", pa.uint64()),
+                pa.field("size", pa.uint64()),
+            ]
+        )
+        assert chunk.field("size").to_pylist() == [3, 5, 8]
+
+    tbl = ds.scanner(columns=["blob"], blob_handling="all_binary").to_table()
+    assert tbl.column("blob").to_pylist() == values
+    assert [blob.read() for blob in ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1, 2])] == values
+    assert ds.read_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1, 2]) == [
+        (0, b"abc"),
+        (1, b"defgh"),
+        (2, b"ijklmnop"),
+    ]
+
+
 def test_fragment_scan_blob_as_binary(tmp_path):
     values = [b"foo", b"bar", b"baz"]
     arr = pa.array(values, pa.large_binary())
@@ -82,7 +328,11 @@ def test_fragment_scan_blob_as_binary(tmp_path):
             ]
         ),
     )
-    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "test_ds")
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds",
+        data_storage_version=LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION,
+    )
 
     fragment = ds.get_fragments()[0]
 
@@ -108,7 +358,11 @@ def dataset_with_blobs(tmp_path):
             ]
         ),
     )
-    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "test_ds")
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds",
+        data_storage_version=LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION,
+    )
 
     values = pa.array([b"qux", b"quux", b"corge"], pa.large_binary())
     idx = pa.array([3, 4, 5], pa.uint64())
@@ -127,6 +381,44 @@ def dataset_with_blobs(tmp_path):
     return ds
 
 
+@pytest.fixture
+def dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2(tmp_path):
+    external_blob = tmp_path / "external.bin"
+    external_blob.write_bytes(b"external")
+    payloads = [b"in", b"packed!!", b"dedicated payload", b"external", None, b""]
+    values = [
+        payloads[0],
+        payloads[1],
+        payloads[2],
+        external_blob.as_uri(),
+        None,
+        payloads[5],
+    ]
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            lance.blob_field(
+                "blobs",
+                inline_size_threshold=4,
+                dedicated_size_threshold=12,
+            ),
+            pa.field("idx", pa.uint64()),
+        ]
+    )
+    table = pa.table(
+        {"blobs": lance.blob_array(values), "idx": range(len(values))}, schema=schema
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "mixed_blob_v2",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+        max_rows_per_group=2,
+    )
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 3
+    return dataset, payloads
+
+
 def test_blob_files(dataset_with_blobs):
     row_ids = (
         dataset_with_blobs.to_table(columns=[], with_row_id=True)
@@ -140,6 +432,47 @@ def test_blob_files(dataset_with_blobs):
             assert f.read() == expected
 
 
+def test_blob_files_close_no_shutdown_panic(tmp_path):
+    script = textwrap.dedent(
+        f"""
+        import pyarrow as pa
+        import lance
+
+        table = pa.table(
+            [pa.array([b"foo", b"bar"], pa.large_binary())],
+            schema=pa.schema(
+                [
+                    pa.field(
+                        "blob",
+                        pa.large_binary(),
+                        metadata={{"lance-encoding:blob": "true"}},
+                    )
+                ]
+            ),
+        )
+        ds = lance.write_dataset(
+            table,
+            {str(tmp_path / "ds")!r},
+            data_storage_version={LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION!r},
+        )
+        row_ids = ds.to_table(columns=[], with_row_id=True).column("_rowid").to_pylist()
+        blobs = ds.take_blobs("blob", ids=row_ids)
+        for blob in blobs:
+            blob.close()
+        print("done")
+        """
+    )
+    result = subprocess.run(
+        [sys.executable, "-c", script],
+        capture_output=True,
+        text=True,
+        check=False,
+    )
+    assert result.returncode == 0, result.stderr
+    assert "interpreter_lifecycle.rs" not in result.stderr
+    assert "The Python interpreter is not initialized" not in result.stderr
+
+
 def test_blob_files_by_address(dataset_with_blobs):
     addresses = (
         dataset_with_blobs.to_table(columns=[], with_row_address=True)
@@ -171,6 +504,7 @@ def test_blob_files_by_address_with_stable_row_ids(tmp_path):
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
         table,
         tmp_path / "test_ds",
+        data_storage_version=LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION,
         enable_stable_row_ids=True,
     )
 
@@ -205,6 +539,300 @@ def test_blob_by_indices(tmp_path, dataset_with_blobs):
             assert f1.read() == f2.read()
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("selection_kind", "selection_values", "expected"),
+    [
+        ("ids", [0, (1 << 32) + 1], [(0, b"foo"), ((1 << 32) + 1, b"quux")]),
+        ("addresses", [0, (1 << 32) + 1], [(0, b"foo"), ((1 << 32) + 1, b"quux")]),
+        ("indices", [0, 4], [(0, b"foo"), ((1 << 32) + 1, b"quux")]),
+    ],
+)
+def test_read_blobs(dataset_with_blobs, selection_kind, selection_values, expected):
+    kwargs = {selection_kind: selection_values}
+
+    blobs = dataset_with_blobs.read_blobs(
+        "blobs",
+        **kwargs,
+        io_buffer_size=1024,
+        preserve_order=True,
+    )
+
+    assert blobs == expected
+
+
+def test_read_blobs_requires_single_selector(dataset_with_blobs):
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError, match="Exactly one of ids, indices, or addresses must be specified"
+    ):
+        dataset_with_blobs.read_blobs("blobs", ids=[0], indices=[0])
+
+
+def test_read_blobs_requires_selector(dataset_with_blobs):
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError, match="Exactly one of ids, indices, or addresses must be specified"
+    ):
+        dataset_with_blobs.read_blobs("blobs")
+
+
+def test_read_blobs_rejects_non_blob_column(dataset_with_blobs):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="not a blob column"):
+        dataset_with_blobs.read_blobs("idx", indices=[0])
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("selection_kind", "selection_values", "expected"),
+    [
+        (
+            "ids",
+            pa.array([0, (1 << 32) + 1], type=pa.uint64()),
+            [(0, b"foo"), ((1 << 32) + 1, b"quux")],
+        ),
+        (
+            "addresses",
+            pa.array([0, (1 << 32) + 1], type=pa.uint64()),
+            [(0, b"foo"), ((1 << 32) + 1, b"quux")],
+        ),
+        (
+            "indices",
+            pa.array([0, 4], type=pa.uint64()),
+            [(0, b"foo"), ((1 << 32) + 1, b"quux")],
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_read_blobs_accepts_arrow_array_selectors(
+    dataset_with_blobs, selection_kind, selection_values, expected
+):
+    kwargs = {selection_kind: selection_values}
+
+    blobs = dataset_with_blobs.read_blobs("blobs", **kwargs)
+
+    assert blobs == expected
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("selection_kind", "selection_values"),
+    [
+        ("ids", []),
+        ("addresses", []),
+        ("indices", []),
+        ("ids", pa.array([], type=pa.uint64())),
+        ("addresses", pa.array([], type=pa.uint64())),
+        ("indices", pa.array([], type=pa.uint64())),
+    ],
+)
+def test_read_blobs_accepts_empty_selection(
+    dataset_with_blobs, selection_kind, selection_values
+):
+    kwargs = {selection_kind: selection_values}
+
+    assert dataset_with_blobs.read_blobs("blobs", **kwargs) == []
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("planner_kwargs", "error_message"),
+    [
+        ({"io_buffer_size": 0}, "io_buffer_size must be greater than 0"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_read_blobs_rejects_invalid_planner_options(
+    dataset_with_blobs, planner_kwargs, error_message
+):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=error_message):
+        dataset_with_blobs.read_blobs("blobs", indices=[0], **planner_kwargs)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("selection_kind", ["ids", "addresses", "indices"])
+def test_read_blobs_preserves_input_order(dataset_with_blobs, selection_kind):
+    selection_values, expected = _out_of_order_blob_selection(
+        dataset_with_blobs, selection_kind
+    )
+    kwargs = {selection_kind: selection_values}
+
+    blobs = dataset_with_blobs.read_blobs("blobs", **kwargs, preserve_order=True)
+
+    assert blobs == expected
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("selection_kind", ["ids", "addresses", "indices"])
+def test_read_blobs_without_preserve_order_returns_same_rows(
+    dataset_with_blobs, selection_kind
+):
+    selection_values, expected = _out_of_order_blob_selection(
+        dataset_with_blobs, selection_kind
+    )
+    kwargs = {selection_kind: selection_values}
+
+    blobs = dataset_with_blobs.read_blobs("blobs", **kwargs, preserve_order=False)
+
+    assert sorted(blobs) == sorted(expected)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("selection_kind", ["ids", "addresses", "indices"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "selected_indices",
+    [
+        [0, 5],
+        [0, 5, 4],
+        [5],
+        [0, 5, 1],
+        [4, 4, 5],
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_selection_apis_preserve_nulls_and_empty_values(
+    dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2, selection_kind, selected_indices
+):
+    dataset, payloads = dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2
+    if selection_kind == "ids":
+        all_selectors = _blob_row_ids(dataset)
+    elif selection_kind == "addresses":
+        all_selectors = _blob_row_addresses(dataset)
+    else:
+        all_selectors = list(range(len(payloads)))
+    selectors = [all_selectors[index] for index in selected_indices]
+    kwargs = {selection_kind: selectors}
+    expected = [payloads[index] for index in selected_indices]
+
+    blob_files = dataset.take_blobs("blobs", **kwargs)
+    assert [None if blob is None else blob.readall() for blob in blob_files] == expected
+
+    blobs = dataset.read_blobs("blobs", **kwargs, preserve_order=True)
+    assert [data for _, data in blobs] == expected
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("selection_kind", ["ids", "addresses", "indices"])
+def test_read_blob_ranges_mixed_sources_preserves_request_identity(
+    dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2, selection_kind
+):
+    dataset, payloads = dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2
+    selected_indices = [3, 1, 1, 0, 2, 4, 5]
+    ranges = [(1, 3), (2, 4), (0, 4), (1, 1), (5, 0), (0, 0), (0, 0)]
+    addresses = _blob_row_addresses(dataset)
+    if selection_kind == "ids":
+        all_selectors = _blob_row_ids(dataset)
+    elif selection_kind == "addresses":
+        all_selectors = addresses
+    else:
+        all_selectors = list(range(len(payloads)))
+    selectors = [all_selectors[index] for index in selected_indices]
+    requests = [
+        (row, offset, length) for row, (offset, length) in zip(selectors, ranges)
+    ]
+
+    results = dataset.read_blob_ranges(
+        "blobs",
+        requests,
+        selector=selection_kind,
+        io_buffer_size=1024,
+        preserve_order=True,
+    )
+
+    expected = []
+    for request_index, (row_index, (offset, length)) in enumerate(
+        zip(selected_indices, ranges)
+    ):
+        payload = payloads[row_index]
+        expected.append(
+            (
+                request_index,
+                addresses[row_index],
+                None if payload is None else payload[offset : offset + length],
+            )
+        )
+    assert results == expected
+
+
+def test_blob_selection_apis_preserve_blob_v1_nulls_and_empty_values(tmp_path):
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field(
+                "blobs",
+                pa.large_binary(),
+                metadata={"lance-encoding:blob": "true"},
+            ),
+            pa.field("idx", pa.uint64()),
+        ]
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"blobs": [None, b"", b"abc"], "idx": range(3)}, schema=schema),
+        tmp_path / "blob_v1_nulls",
+        data_storage_version="2.0",
+    )
+    addresses = _blob_row_addresses(dataset)
+
+    blob_files = dataset.take_blobs("blobs", indices=[0, 1, 2])
+    assert [None if blob is None else blob.readall() for blob in blob_files] == [
+        None,
+        b"",
+        b"abc",
+    ]
+
+    blobs = dataset.read_blobs("blobs", indices=[0, 1, 2])
+    assert [data for _, data in blobs] == [None, b"", b"abc"]
+
+    results = dataset.read_blob_ranges(
+        "blobs",
+        [(0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), (1, 0, 0), (2, 1, 1)],
+        selector="indices",
+    )
+
+    assert results == [
+        (0, addresses[0], None),
+        (1, addresses[0], None),
+        (2, addresses[1], b""),
+        (3, addresses[2], b"b"),
+    ]
+
+
+def test_read_blob_ranges_without_preserve_order_keeps_request_identity(
+    dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2,
+):
+    dataset, _ = dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2
+    results = dataset.read_blob_ranges(
+        "blobs",
+        [(3, 0, 1), (4, 0, 1), (1, 1, 2), (0, 0, 2)],
+        selector="indices",
+        preserve_order=False,
+    )
+
+    assert sorted(results) == sorted(
+        [
+            (0, _blob_row_addresses(dataset)[3], b"e"),
+            (1, _blob_row_addresses(dataset)[4], None),
+            (2, _blob_row_addresses(dataset)[1], b"ac"),
+            (3, _blob_row_addresses(dataset)[0], b"in"),
+        ]
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("requests", "message"),
+    [
+        ([(0, 2**64 - 1, 2)], "offset \\+ length overflowed"),
+        ([(0, 0, 4)], "exceeds blob size"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_read_blob_ranges_rejects_invalid_ranges(
+    dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2, requests, message
+):
+    dataset, _ = dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        dataset.read_blob_ranges("blobs", requests, selector="indices")
+
+
+def test_read_blob_ranges_rejects_invalid_selector(dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2):
+    dataset, _ = dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="selector must be one of"):
+        dataset.read_blob_ranges("blobs", [], selector="offsets")
+
+
+def test_read_blob_ranges_accepts_empty_batch(dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2):
+    dataset, _ = dataset_with_mixed_blob_v2
+
+    assert dataset.read_blob_ranges("blobs", [], selector="indices") == []
+
+
 def test_blob_file_seek(tmp_path, dataset_with_blobs):
     row_ids = (
         dataset_with_blobs.to_table(columns=[], with_row_id=True)
@@ -215,6 +843,95 @@ def test_blob_file_seek(tmp_path, dataset_with_blobs):
     with blobs[1] as f:
         assert f.seek(1) == 1
         assert f.read(1) == b"a"
+        assert f.seek(-1, io.SEEK_CUR) == 1
+        assert f.seek(-1, io.SEEK_END) == 2
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "whence",
+    [
+        pytest.param(io.SEEK_SET, id="set"),
+        pytest.param(io.SEEK_CUR, id="cur"),
+        pytest.param(io.SEEK_END, id="end"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_file_negative_seek_raises_value_error(dataset_with_blobs, whence):
+    blob = dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", indices=[1])[0]
+    offset = -(blob.size() + 1) if whence == io.SEEK_END else -1
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="negative seek value -1"):
+        blob.seek(offset, whence)
+    assert blob.tell() == 0
+
+
+def test_blob_file_negative_seek_does_not_move_cursor(dataset_with_blobs):
+    blob = dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", indices=[1])[0]
+    blob.seek(2)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="negative seek value -1"):
+        blob.seek(-1)
+    assert blob.tell() == 2
+
+
+def test_blob_file_read_past_eof_leaves_cursor(dataset_with_blobs):
+    with dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", indices=[1])[0] as blob:
+        past_eof = blob.size() + 1
+        assert blob.seek(past_eof) == past_eof
+        assert blob.read() == b""
+        assert blob.tell() == past_eof
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "ranges",
+    [
+        pytest.param([], id="empty_list"),
+        pytest.param([(0, 0), (4, 0)], id="empty_ranges"),
+        pytest.param([(2, 1), (0, 1), (1, 1)], id="non_monotonic"),
+        pytest.param([(1, 2), (0, 4), (1, 2), (0, 0), (2, 2)], id="dup_overlap"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_file_read_ranges_matches_read_range(dataset_with_blobs, ranges):
+    row_ids = _blob_row_ids(dataset_with_blobs)
+    blobs = dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", ids=row_ids)
+    with blobs[4] as f:
+        expected = [f.read_range(offset, length) for offset, length in ranges]
+        assert f.read_ranges(ranges) == expected
+
+
+def test_blob_file_read_ranges_preserves_input_order(dataset_with_blobs):
+    row_ids = _blob_row_ids(dataset_with_blobs)
+    blobs = dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", ids=row_ids)
+    with blobs[1] as f:
+        assert f.read_ranges([(2, 1), (0, 1), (1, 2)]) == [b"r", b"b", b"ar"]
+
+
+def test_blob_file_read_ranges_does_not_change_cursor(dataset_with_blobs):
+    row_ids = _blob_row_ids(dataset_with_blobs)
+    blobs = dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", ids=row_ids)
+    with blobs[1] as f:
+        assert f.tell() == 0
+        assert f.read_ranges([(0, 3)]) == [b"bar"]
+        assert f.tell() == 0
+        f.seek(2)
+        assert f.read_ranges([(2, 1), (0, 3)]) == [b"r", b"bar"]
+        assert f.tell() == 2
+        assert f.read(1) == b"r"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("ranges", "message"),
+    [
+        pytest.param([(2**64 - 1, 2)], "offset \\+ length overflowed", id="overflow"),
+        pytest.param([(0, 1), (1, 100)], "exceeds blob size", id="out_of_bounds"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_file_read_ranges_rejects_invalid_ranges(
+    dataset_with_blobs, ranges, message
+):
+    row_ids = _blob_row_ids(dataset_with_blobs)
+    blobs = dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", ids=row_ids)
+    with blobs[0] as f:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            f.read_ranges(ranges)
+        assert f.tell() == 0
 
 
 def test_null_blobs(tmp_path):
@@ -232,11 +949,14 @@ def test_null_blobs(tmp_path):
             ]
         ),
     )
-    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "test_ds")
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds",
+        data_storage_version=LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION,
+    )
 
     blobs = ds.take_blobs("blob", ids=range(100))
-    for blob in blobs:
-        assert blob.size() == 0
+    assert blobs == [None] * 100
 
     ds.insert(pa.table({"id": pa.array(range(100, 200), pa.uint64())}))
 
@@ -250,8 +970,7 @@ def test_null_blobs(tmp_path):
 
     for blob_col in ["blob", "more_blob"]:
         blobs = ds.take_blobs(blob_col, indices=range(100, 200))
-        for blob in blobs:
-            assert blob.size() == 0
+        assert blobs == [None] * 100
 
         blobs = ds.to_table(columns=[blob_col])
         for blob in blobs.column(blob_col):
@@ -280,55 +999,2192 @@ def test_blob_file_read_middle(tmp_path, dataset_with_blobs):
         assert f.read(1) == b"r"
 
 
-def test_take_deleted_blob(tmp_path, dataset_with_blobs):
-    row_ids = (
-        dataset_with_blobs.to_table(columns=[], with_row_id=True)
-        .column("_rowid")
-        .to_pylist()
-    )
-    dataset_with_blobs.delete("idx = 1")
+def test_blob_file_buffer_size_configures_inner():
+    inner = _CountingBlobInner(b"x")
+    blob = BlobFile(inner, buffer_size=64 * 1024)
 
-    with pytest.raises(
-        NotImplementedError,
-        match="A take operation that includes row addresses must not target deleted",
-    ):
-        dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", ids=row_ids)
+    assert isinstance(blob, io.BufferedIOBase)
+    assert inner.buffer_size == 64 * 1024
 
 
-def test_scan_blob(tmp_path, dataset_with_blobs):
-    ds = dataset_with_blobs.scanner(filter="idx = 2").to_table()
-    assert ds.num_rows == 1
+def test_blob_file_buffer_size_zero_configures_inner():
+    inner = _CountingBlobInner(b"x")
+    BlobFile(inner, buffer_size=0)
+    assert inner.buffer_size == 0
 
 
-def test_blob_extension_write_inline(tmp_path):
-    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([b"foo", b"bar"])})
+def test_blob_file_read_range_does_not_issue_sequential_read():
+    payload = bytes(range(256))
+    inner = _CountingBlobInner(payload)
+    blob = BlobFile(inner, buffer_size=64)
+
+    assert blob.read_range(1, 3) == payload[1:4]
+    assert blob.tell() == 0
+    assert inner.read_sizes == []
+    assert blob.read(2) == payload[:2]
+
+
+def test_blob_file_read_range_does_not_move_cursor():
+    payload = bytes(range(256)) * 4
+    inner = _CountingBlobInner(payload)
+    blob = BlobFile(inner, buffer_size=64)
+
+    assert blob.read(8) == payload[:8]
+    assert blob.tell() == 8
+    assert blob.read_range(20, 5) == payload[20:25]
+    assert blob.tell() == 8
+    assert blob.read(4) == payload[8:12]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("buffer_size", [32, 0])
+def test_blob_file_text_wrapper_readline(buffer_size):
+    payload = b"hello\nworld\n"
+    blob = BlobFile(_CountingBlobInner(payload), buffer_size=buffer_size)
+    wrapper = io.TextIOWrapper(blob, encoding="utf-8")
+
+    assert wrapper.readline() == "hello\n"
+    assert wrapper.readline() == "world\n"
+
+
+def test_take_blobs_sequential_small_reads_reuse_prefetch(tmp_path):
+    payload = bytes(range(256)) * 160
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table,
-        tmp_path / "test_ds_v2",
+        _complete_blob_table([0], [payload]),
+        tmp_path / "seq_prefetch",
         data_storage_version="2.2",
     )
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0], buffer_size=32 * 1024)[0]
 
-    desc = ds.to_table(columns=["blob"]).column("blob").chunk(0)
-    assert pa.types.is_struct(desc.type)
+    assert _read_in_8k_chunks(blob) == payload
+    assert blob.inner._range_submission_count() == 2
 
-    blobs = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1])
-    with blobs[0] as f:
-        assert f.read() == b"foo"
 
+def test_take_blobs_buffer_size_zero_fetches_each_sequential_read(tmp_path):
+    payload = b"x" * (24 * 1024)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _complete_blob_table([0], [payload]),
+        tmp_path / "seq_unbuffered",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0], buffer_size=0)[0]
 
-def test_blob_extension_write_external(tmp_path):
-    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
-    blob_path.write_bytes(b"hello")
-    uri = blob_path.as_uri()
+    assert _read_in_8k_chunks(blob) == payload
+    assert blob.inner._range_submission_count() == 3
 
-    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([uri])})
+
+def test_take_blobs_seek_inside_prefetch_does_not_refetch(tmp_path):
+    payload = bytes((i * 31) % 256 for i in range(40 * 1024))
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table,
-        tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_external",
+        _complete_blob_table([0], [payload]),
+        tmp_path / "seek_inside",
         data_storage_version="2.2",
     )
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0], buffer_size=32 * 1024)[0]
 
-    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
-    assert blob.size() == 5
-    with blob as f:
-        assert f.read() == b"hello"
+    assert blob.read(100) == payload[:100]
+    after_fill = blob.inner._range_submission_count()
+    blob.seek(1000)
+    assert blob.read(100) == payload[1000:1100]
+    assert blob.inner._range_submission_count() == after_fill
+
+
+def test_take_blobs_seek_outside_prefetch_issues_new_range_submission(tmp_path):
+    payload = random.Random(0).randbytes(40 * 1024)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _complete_blob_table([0], [payload]),
+        tmp_path / "seek_outside",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0], buffer_size=32 * 1024)[0]
+
+    assert blob.read(100) == payload[:100]
+    after_fill = blob.inner._range_submission_count()
+    blob.seek(33 * 1024)
+    assert blob.read(100) == payload[33 * 1024 : 33 * 1024 + 100]
+    assert blob.inner._range_submission_count() == after_fill + 1
+
+
+def test_take_blobs_read_fills_across_buffer_boundary(tmp_path):
+    payload = bytes(range(40))
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _complete_blob_table([0], [payload]),
+        tmp_path / "read_boundary",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0], buffer_size=16)[0]
+    assert blob.read(4) == payload[:4]
+    assert blob.read(20) == payload[4:24]
+    assert blob.tell() == 24
+
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0], buffer_size=16)[0]
+    assert blob.read(4) == payload[:4]
+    buf = bytearray(20)
+    assert blob.readinto(buf) == 20
+    assert bytes(buf) == payload[4:24]
+
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0], buffer_size=16)[0]
+    assert blob.read(4) == payload[:4]
+    assert blob.read1(20) == payload[4:24]
+    assert blob.tell() == 24
+
+
+def test_take_blobs_text_wrapper_readline(tmp_path):
+    payload = b"hello\nworld\n"
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _complete_blob_table([0], [payload]),
+        tmp_path / "text_wrapper",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+    wrapper = io.TextIOWrapper(blob, encoding="utf-8")
+
+    assert wrapper.readline() == "hello\n"
+    assert wrapper.readline() == "world\n"
+
+
+def test_blob_file_readinto_readonly_does_not_advance_cursor():
+    inner = _CountingBlobInner(b"abcdef")
+    blob = BlobFile(inner, buffer_size=0)
+
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="read-write"):
+        blob.readinto(b"xx")
+    assert blob.tell() == 0
+    assert inner.read_sizes == []
+
+
+def test_blob_file_empty_read_after_close_raises():
+    blob = BlobFile(_CountingBlobInner(b"abcdef"), buffer_size=0)
+    blob.close()
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="read of closed file"):
+        blob.read(0)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="readinto of closed file"):
+        blob.readinto(bytearray())
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("buffer_size", "match"),
+    [
+        pytest.param(-1, "non-negative", id="negative"),
+        pytest.param(True, "must be an int", id="bool"),
+        pytest.param(1.5, "must be an int", id="float"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_file_rejects_invalid_buffer_size(buffer_size, match):
+    with pytest.raises((TypeError, ValueError), match=match):
+        BlobFile(_CountingBlobInner(b"x"), buffer_size=buffer_size)
+
+
+def test_take_blobs_buffer_size_zero_reads_payload(dataset_with_blobs):
+    blob = dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", indices=[1], buffer_size=0)[0]
+    assert isinstance(blob, BlobFile)
+    assert blob.read() == b"bar"
+
+
+def test_take_blobs_rejects_invalid_buffer_size_for_empty_selection(dataset_with_blobs):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="non-negative"):
+        dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", indices=[], buffer_size=-1)
+
+
+def test_blob_file_zipfile_reads_payload(tmp_path):
+    archive = io.BytesIO()
+    with zipfile.ZipFile(archive, "w") as zf:
+        zf.writestr("hello.txt", "hello blob")
+    payload = archive.getvalue()
+
+    table = pa.table(
+        {"blob": lance.blob_array([payload])},
+        schema=pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob")]),
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "zip_blob",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+    with zipfile.ZipFile(blob) as zf:
+        assert zf.read("hello.txt") == b"hello blob"
+
+
+def test_take_deleted_blob(tmp_path, dataset_with_blobs):
+    row_ids = (
+        dataset_with_blobs.to_table(columns=[], with_row_id=True)
+        .column("_rowid")
+        .to_pylist()
+    )
+    dataset_with_blobs.delete("idx = 1")
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        NotImplementedError,
+        match="A take operation that includes row addresses must not target deleted",
+    ):
+        dataset_with_blobs.take_blobs("blobs", ids=row_ids)
+
+
+def test_scan_blob(tmp_path, dataset_with_blobs):
+    ds = dataset_with_blobs.scanner(filter="idx = 2").to_table()
+    assert ds.num_rows == 1
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_inline(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([b"foo", b"bar"])})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds_v2",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    desc = ds.to_table(columns=["blob"]).column("blob").chunk(0)
+    assert pa.types.is_struct(desc.type)
+
+    blobs = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1])
+    with blobs[0] as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"foo"
+
+
+def test_complete_blob_schema_survives_create(tmp_path):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "complete_blob_create"
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _complete_blob_table([0], [b"created"]),
+        dataset_path,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+    _assert_complete_blob_schema(ds)
+    assert ds.to_table(blob_handling="all_binary")["blob"].to_pylist() == [b"created"]
+
+
+def test_complete_blob_schema_survives_append(tmp_path):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "complete_blob_append"
+    lance.write_dataset(
+        _complete_blob_table([0], [b"initial"]),
+        dataset_path,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    lance.write_dataset(
+        _complete_blob_table([1], [b"appended"]), dataset_path, mode="append"
+    )
+    ds = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+    _assert_complete_blob_schema(ds)
+    result = ds.to_table(blob_handling="all_binary").sort_by("id")
+    assert result["id"].to_pylist() == [0, 1]
+    assert result["blob"].to_pylist() == [b"initial", b"appended"]
+
+
+def test_complete_blob_schema_survives_merge_insert(tmp_path):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "complete_blob_merge_insert"
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _complete_blob_table([0, 1], [b"zero", b"initial"]),
+        dataset_path,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    (
+        ds.merge_insert("id")
+        .when_matched_update_all()
+        .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+        .execute(_complete_blob_table([1, 2], [b"updated", b"inserted"]))
+    )
+    ds = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+    _assert_complete_blob_schema(ds)
+
+    result = ds.to_table(blob_handling="all_binary").sort_by("id")
+    assert result["id"].to_pylist() == [0, 1, 2]
+    assert result["blob"].to_pylist() == [b"zero", b"updated", b"inserted"]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("use_uri", "position", "size"),
+    [
+        pytest.param(True, 3, None, id="missing-size"),
+        pytest.param(False, 3, 2, id="range-without-uri"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_complete_blob_rows_reject_invalid_ranges(tmp_path, use_uri, position, size):
+    source = tmp_path / "source.bin"
+    source.write_bytes(b"0123456789")
+    storage = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+        [
+            pa.array([None], type=pa.large_binary()),
+            pa.array([source.as_uri() if use_uri else None], type=pa.utf8()),
+            pa.array([position], type=pa.uint64()),
+            pa.array([size], type=pa.uint64()),
+        ],
+        names=["data", "uri", "position", "size"],
+    )
+    blobs = pa.ExtensionArray.from_storage(BlobType(), storage)
+    table = pa.Table.from_arrays([blobs], schema=pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob")]))
+
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="position|size|uri"):
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            table,
+            tmp_path / "dataset",
+            data_storage_version="2.2",
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+        )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("mode", ["reference", "ingest"])
+def test_complete_blob_rows_reject_zero_size_range(tmp_path, mode):
+    source = tmp_path / "source.bin"
+    source.write_bytes(b"0123456789")
+    table = _complete_blob_storage_table(None, source.as_uri(), 3, 0)
+
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="greater than zero"):
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            table,
+            tmp_path / "dataset",
+            data_storage_version="2.2",
+            external_blob_mode=mode,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases=mode == "reference",
+        )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("data", "use_uri"),
+    [
+        pytest.param(b"small", True, id="both-small"),
+        pytest.param(b"x" * 70_000, True, id="both-packed"),
+        pytest.param(None, False, id="neither"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_complete_blob_rows_reject_invalid_representation(tmp_path, data, use_uri):
+    source = tmp_path / "source.bin"
+    source.write_bytes(b"external")
+    table = _complete_blob_storage_table(
+        data, source.as_uri() if use_uri else None, None, None
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="data|uri"):
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            table,
+            tmp_path / "dataset",
+            data_storage_version="2.2",
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+        )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("mode", ["reference", "ingest"])
+def test_empty_external_object_without_range(tmp_path, mode):
+    source = tmp_path / "empty.bin"
+    source.write_bytes(b"")
+
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([source.as_uri()])}),
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        external_blob_mode=mode,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases=mode == "reference",
+    )
+
+    with dataset.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0] as blob:
+        assert blob.read() == b""
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("kwargs", "message"),
+    [
+        pytest.param({}, "must set `data` or `uri`", id="neither"),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"data": b"data", "uri": "file:///source.bin"},
+            "both data and uri",
+            id="both",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"uri": "file:///source.bin", "position": 3, "size": 0},
+            "greater than zero",
+            id="zero-size",
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_rejects_invalid_logical_value(kwargs, message):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        Blob(**kwargs)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "storage_type",
+    [
+        pytest.param(
+            pa.struct(
+                [
+                    pa.field("data", pa.large_binary()),
+                    pa.field("uri", pa.utf8()),
+                ]
+            ),
+            id="minimal",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(BlobType().storage_type, id="complete-nullable-range"),
+        pytest.param(
+            pa.struct(
+                [
+                    pa.field(
+                        "data",
+                        pa.large_binary(),
+                        metadata={b"source": b"preserved"},
+                    ),
+                    pa.field("uri", pa.utf8()),
+                    pa.field("position", pa.uint64(), nullable=False),
+                    pa.field("size", pa.uint64(), nullable=False),
+                ]
+            ),
+            id="complete-required-range-with-metadata",
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_type_preserves_storage_type_through_arrow_ipc(storage_type):
+    blob_type = BlobType.__arrow_ext_deserialize__(storage_type, b"")
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("blob", blob_type)])
+    sink = pa.BufferOutputStream()
+    with pa.ipc.new_stream(sink, schema):
+        pass
+
+    restored_type = pa.ipc.open_stream(sink.getvalue()).schema.field("blob").type
+
+    assert isinstance(restored_type, BlobType)
+    _assert_blob_storage_type_equal(restored_type.storage_type, storage_type)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "storage_type",
+    [
+        pytest.param(pa.int32(), id="not-struct"),
+        pytest.param(
+            pa.struct(
+                [
+                    pa.field("data", pa.large_binary()),
+                    pa.field("uri", pa.utf8()),
+                    pa.field("position", pa.uint64()),
+                ]
+            ),
+            id="incomplete-range-shape",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            pa.struct(
+                [
+                    pa.field("data", pa.large_binary(), nullable=False),
+                    pa.field("uri", pa.utf8()),
+                ]
+            ),
+            id="required-data",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            pa.struct(
+                [
+                    pa.field("data", pa.large_binary()),
+                    pa.field("uri", pa.utf8()),
+                    pa.field("position", pa.uint64()),
+                    pa.field("size", pa.int64()),
+                ]
+            ),
+            id="wrong-range-type",
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_type_rejects_invalid_storage_type(storage_type):
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="BlobType storage"):
+        BlobType.__arrow_ext_deserialize__(storage_type, b"")
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("initial_storage_type", "append_storage_type"),
+    [
+        pytest.param(
+            pa.struct(
+                [
+                    pa.field("data", pa.large_binary()),
+                    pa.field("uri", pa.utf8()),
+                ]
+            ),
+            BlobType().storage_type,
+            id="complete-to-minimal",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            BlobType().storage_type,
+            pa.struct(
+                [
+                    pa.field("data", pa.large_binary()),
+                    pa.field("uri", pa.utf8()),
+                ]
+            ),
+            id="minimal-to-complete",
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_v2_append_accepts_mixed_logical_shapes(
+    tmp_path, initial_storage_type, append_storage_type
+):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "mixed_blob_shapes"
+    initial = pa.Table.from_arrays(
+        [_inline_blob_array(initial_storage_type, b"initial")], names=["blob"]
+    )
+    append = pa.Table.from_arrays(
+        [_inline_blob_array(append_storage_type, b"appended")], names=["blob"]
+    )
+
+    lance.write_dataset(initial, dataset_path, data_storage_version="2.2")
+    lance.write_dataset(append, dataset_path, mode="append")
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+
+    _assert_blob_storage_type_equal(
+        dataset.schema.field("blob").type.storage_type,
+        initial_storage_type,
+    )
+    blobs = dataset.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1])
+    assert [blob.readall() for blob in blobs] == [b"initial", b"appended"]
+
+
+def test_blob_field_threshold_metadata():
+    field = lance.blob_field(
+        "blob",
+        inline_size_threshold=16 * 1024,
+        dedicated_size_threshold=2 * 1024 * 1024,
+        pack_file_size_threshold=512 * 1024 * 1024,
+    )
+
+    assert field.metadata[b"lance-encoding:blob-inline-size-threshold"] == b"16384"
+    assert field.metadata[b"lance-encoding:blob-dedicated-size-threshold"] == b"2097152"
+    assert (
+        field.metadata[b"lance-encoding:blob-pack-file-size-threshold"] == b"536870912"
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("kwargs", "error", "message"),
+    [
+        pytest.param(
+            {"inline_size_threshold": -1},
+            ValueError,
+            "inline_size_threshold must be non-negative",
+            id="negative_inline",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"dedicated_size_threshold": 0},
+            ValueError,
+            "dedicated_size_threshold must be positive",
+            id="zero_dedicated",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"dedicated_size_threshold": -1},
+            ValueError,
+            "dedicated_size_threshold must be positive",
+            id="negative_dedicated",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"inline_size_threshold": True},
+            TypeError,
+            "inline_size_threshold must be an int",
+            id="bool_inline",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"dedicated_size_threshold": True},
+            TypeError,
+            "dedicated_size_threshold must be an int",
+            id="bool_dedicated",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"inline_size_threshold": 1.5},
+            TypeError,
+            "inline_size_threshold must be an int",
+            id="float_inline",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"inline_size_threshold": 2**100},
+            OverflowError,
+            "inline_size_threshold must fit in a Rust usize",
+            id="overflow_inline",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"dedicated_size_threshold": 2**100},
+            OverflowError,
+            "dedicated_size_threshold must fit in a Rust usize",
+            id="overflow_dedicated",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"pack_file_size_threshold": 0},
+            ValueError,
+            "pack_file_size_threshold must be positive",
+            id="zero_pack_file",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"pack_file_size_threshold": -1},
+            ValueError,
+            "pack_file_size_threshold must be positive",
+            id="negative_pack_file",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"pack_file_size_threshold": True},
+            TypeError,
+            "pack_file_size_threshold must be an int",
+            id="bool_pack_file",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"pack_file_size_threshold": 2**100},
+            OverflowError,
+            "pack_file_size_threshold must fit in a Rust usize",
+            id="overflow_pack_file",
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_field_rejects_invalid_thresholds(kwargs, error, message):
+    with pytest.raises(error, match=message):
+        lance.blob_field("blob", **kwargs)
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_inline_threshold_per_column(tmp_path):
+    payload = b"x" * 2048
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            lance.blob_field("inline_blob", inline_size_threshold=4096),
+            lance.blob_field("packed_blob", inline_size_threshold=1024),
+        ]
+    )
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "inline_blob": lance.blob_array([payload]),
+            "packed_blob": lance.blob_array([payload]),
+        },
+        schema=schema,
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_inline_threshold_per_column",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    desc = ds.to_table(columns=["inline_blob", "packed_blob"])
+    assert desc.column("inline_blob").chunk(0).field("kind").to_pylist() == [0]
+    assert desc.column("packed_blob").chunk(0).field("kind").to_pylist() == [4]
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_threshold_metadata_persists_after_reopen(tmp_path):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_threshold_metadata_persists"
+    schema = pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob", inline_size_threshold=1024)])
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([b"x"])}, schema=schema)
+
+    lance.write_dataset(table, dataset_path, data_storage_version="2.2")
+    reopened = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+
+    assert (
+        reopened.schema.field("blob").metadata[
+            b"lance-encoding:blob-inline-size-threshold"
+        ]
+        == b"1024"
+    )
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_append_rejects_explicit_threshold_mismatch(tmp_path):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_append_threshold_mismatch"
+    initial_schema = pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob", inline_size_threshold=4096)])
+    initial = pa.table(
+        {"blob": lance.blob_array([b"x" * 2048])},
+        schema=initial_schema,
+    )
+    lance.write_dataset(initial, dataset_path, data_storage_version="2.2")
+
+    append_schema = pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob", inline_size_threshold=1024)])
+    append = pa.table(
+        {"blob": lance.blob_array([b"x" * 2048])},
+        schema=append_schema,
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        OSError, match="Cannot append data with blob threshold metadata"
+    ):
+        lance.write_dataset(append, dataset_path, mode="append")
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_pack_file_threshold_metadata_persists_after_reopen(
+    tmp_path: Path,
+):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_pack_file_threshold_persists"
+    threshold = 512 * 1024 * 1024
+    schema = pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob", pack_file_size_threshold=threshold)])
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([b"x"])}, schema=schema)
+
+    lance.write_dataset(table, dataset_path, data_storage_version="2.2")
+    reopened = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+
+    assert (
+        reopened.schema.field("blob").metadata[
+            b"lance-encoding:blob-pack-file-size-threshold"
+        ]
+        == str(threshold).encode()
+    )
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_append_rejects_pack_file_threshold_mismatch(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_append_pack_file_mismatch"
+    initial_schema = pa.schema(
+        [lance.blob_field("blob", pack_file_size_threshold=512 * 1024 * 1024)]
+    )
+    initial = pa.table(
+        {"blob": lance.blob_array([b"x" * 2048])},
+        schema=initial_schema,
+    )
+    lance.write_dataset(initial, dataset_path, data_storage_version="2.2")
+
+    append_schema = pa.schema(
+        [lance.blob_field("blob", pack_file_size_threshold=256 * 1024 * 1024)]
+    )
+    append = pa.table(
+        {"blob": lance.blob_array([b"x" * 2048])},
+        schema=append_schema,
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        OSError, match="Cannot append data with blob threshold metadata"
+    ):
+        lance.write_dataset(append, dataset_path, mode="append")
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_dedicated_threshold_precedes_inline_threshold(tmp_path):
+    payload = b"x" * 2048
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            lance.blob_field(
+                "blob",
+                inline_size_threshold=4096,
+                dedicated_size_threshold=1024,
+            )
+        ]
+    )
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([payload])}, schema=schema)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_dedicated_precedes_inline",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    desc = ds.to_table(columns=["blob"]).column("blob").chunk(0)
+    assert desc.field("kind").to_pylist() == [4]
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_external(tmp_path):
+    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
+    blob_path.write_bytes(b"hello")
+    uri = blob_path.as_uri()
+
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([uri])})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_external",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+    )
+
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+    assert blob.size() == 5
+    with blob as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"hello"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("position", "size"),
+    [
+        pytest.param(None, None, id="explicit_none"),
+        pytest.param(1, 3, id="slice"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_from_uri_accepts_optional_slice_metadata(position, size):
+    blob = Blob.from_uri("file:///tmp/blob.bin", position=position, size=size)
+
+    assert blob.uri == "file:///tmp/blob.bin"
+    assert blob.position == position
+    assert blob.size == size
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_external_ingest(tmp_path):
+    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
+    blob_path.write_bytes(b"hello")
+    uri = blob_path.as_uri()
+
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([uri])})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_external_ingest",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        external_blob_mode="ingest",
+    )
+
+    blob_path.unlink()
+
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+    assert blob.size() == 5
+    with blob as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"hello"
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_external_ingest_rejects_reference_only_options(tmp_path):
+    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
+    blob_path.write_bytes(b"hello")
+    uri = blob_path.as_uri()
+    message = (
+        "allow_external_blob_outside_bases only applies when "
+        'external_blob_mode="reference"'
+    )
+
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([uri])})
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match=message):
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            table,
+            tmp_path / "test_ds_v2_external_ingest_invalid",
+            data_storage_version="2.2",
+            external_blob_mode="ingest",
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+        )
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_add_columns_record_batch_reader_all_kinds(tmp_path):
+    values, payloads, initial_bases = _add_columns_blob_v2_values(tmp_path)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": range(4)}),
+        tmp_path / "test_add_columns_reader_blob_v2",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        initial_bases=initial_bases,
+    )
+
+    ds.add_columns(pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array(values)}).to_reader())
+
+    _assert_blob_v2_add_columns_result(ds, "blob", payloads)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "failure_mode",
+    [
+        pytest.param("raises_after_first_fragment", id="reader_raises_mid_stream"),
+        pytest.param("wrong_schema", id="reader_yields_wrong_schema"),
+        pytest.param("too_many_rows", id="reader_produces_too_many_rows"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_extension_add_columns_record_batch_reader_failure_cleans_files(
+    tmp_path,
+    failure_mode,
+):
+    ds, dataset_path, values, payloads = _write_two_fragment_blob_v2_seed_dataset(
+        tmp_path,
+        f"test_add_columns_reader_blob_v2_fail_cleanup_{failure_mode}",
+    )
+    external_blob_path = tmp_path / "external_base" / "external_blob.bin"
+    files_before = _dataset_file_set(dataset_path)
+
+    schema = pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob")])
+    first_fragment_batch = pa.record_batch([lance.blob_array(values)], schema=schema)
+    second_fragment_batch = pa.record_batch([lance.blob_array(values)], schema=schema)
+
+    if failure_mode == "raises_after_first_fragment":
+        match = "reader failed after first fragment"
+
+        def failing_reader():
+            yield first_fragment_batch
+            raise RuntimeError("reader failed after first fragment")
+
+    elif failure_mode == "wrong_schema":
+        match = "field names"
+
+        def failing_reader():
+            yield first_fragment_batch
+            yield pa.record_batch([pa.array(range(4))], ["not_blob"])
+
+    else:
+        match = "Stream produced more values than expected for dataset"
+
+        def failing_reader():
+            yield first_fragment_batch
+            yield second_fragment_batch
+            yield pa.record_batch([lance.blob_array([payloads[0]])], schema=schema)
+
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match=match):
+        ds.add_columns(failing_reader(), reader_schema=schema)
+
+    assert ds.version == 1
+    files_after = _dataset_file_set(dataset_path)
+    assert files_before <= files_after
+    orphans = files_after - files_before
+    assert orphans and all(
+        p.parts[0] == "_blobs" and p.suffix == ".blob" for p in orphans
+    )
+    # Independent payloads from failed writes follow the existing orphan policy.
+    # No concurrent writer is running here, so immediate unverified GC is safe.
+    ds.cleanup_old_versions(delete_unverified=True)
+    assert _dataset_file_set(dataset_path) == files_before
+    assert external_blob_path.exists()
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_add_columns_batch_udf_failure_cleans_files(tmp_path):
+    ds, dataset_path, values, _ = _write_two_fragment_blob_v2_seed_dataset(
+        tmp_path,
+        "test_add_columns_udf_blob_v2_fail_cleanup",
+    )
+    external_blob_path = tmp_path / "external_base" / "external_blob.bin"
+    files_before = _dataset_file_set(dataset_path)
+    call_count = 0
+
+    @lance.batch_udf(output_schema=pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob")]))
+    def fail_on_second_fragment(batch):
+        nonlocal call_count
+        call_count += 1
+        if call_count == 2:
+            raise RuntimeError("udf failed after first fragment")
+        blob_values = [values[row.as_py() % len(values)] for row in batch["id"]]
+        return pa.record_batch(
+            [lance.blob_array(blob_values)],
+            ["blob"],
+        )
+
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="udf failed after first fragment"):
+        ds.add_columns(fail_on_second_fragment, read_columns=["id"], batch_size=4)
+
+    assert call_count == 2
+    assert ds.version == 1
+    files_after = _dataset_file_set(dataset_path)
+    assert files_before <= files_after
+    orphans = files_after - files_before
+    assert orphans and all(
+        p.parts[0] == "_blobs" and p.suffix == ".blob" for p in orphans
+    )
+    # Independent payloads from failed writes follow the existing orphan policy.
+    # No concurrent writer is running here, so immediate unverified GC is safe.
+    ds.cleanup_old_versions(delete_unverified=True)
+    assert _dataset_file_set(dataset_path) == files_before
+    assert external_blob_path.exists()
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_add_columns_batch_udf_all_kinds(tmp_path):
+    values, payloads, initial_bases = _add_columns_blob_v2_values(tmp_path)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": range(4)}),
+        tmp_path / "test_add_columns_udf_blob_v2",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        initial_bases=initial_bases,
+    )
+
+    @lance.batch_udf(output_schema=pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob")]))
+    def make_blob_column(batch):
+        return pa.record_batch(
+            [lance.blob_array([values[row.as_py()] for row in batch["id"]])],
+            ["blob"],
+        )
+
+    ds.add_columns(make_blob_column, read_columns=["id"])
+
+    _assert_blob_v2_add_columns_result(ds, "blob", payloads)
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_add_columns_all_nulls_blob_v2(tmp_path):
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": range(4)}),
+        tmp_path / "test_add_columns_all_nulls_blob_v2",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    ds.add_columns(lance.blob_field("blob"))
+
+    assert ds.to_table(columns=["blob"]).column("blob").to_pylist() == [None] * 4
+    assert ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=range(4)) == [None] * 4
+    assert [data for _, data in ds.read_blobs("blob", indices=range(4))] == [None] * 4
+    ranges = ds.read_blob_ranges(
+        "blob",
+        [(index, 0, 1) for index in range(4)],
+        selector="indices",
+    )
+    assert [data for _, _, data in ranges] == [None] * 4
+
+
+def test_blob_descriptor_array_builder_writes_prepared_packed_blob_for_data_replacement(
+    tmp_path,
+):
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_blob_descriptor_array_builder_data_replacement"
+    logical_schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.uint32(), nullable=False),
+            lance.blob_field("blob"),
+        ]
+    )
+    initial = pa.table(
+        [
+            pa.array([0], type=pa.uint32()),
+            lance.blob_array([b"initial"]),
+        ],
+        schema=logical_schema,
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(initial, dataset_uri, data_storage_version="2.2")
+
+    file_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    data_file_name = f"{file_id}.lance"
+    blob_id = 1
+    blob_path = _blob_sidecar_path(dataset_uri / "data", file_id, blob_id)
+
+    files = LanceFileSession(dataset_uri / "data")
+    blob_writer = lance.BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder("blob")
+    packed = files.open_packed_blob_writer(data_file_name, blob_id)
+    assert packed.path.endswith(blob_path.relative_to(dataset_uri).as_posix())
+    packed.write_blob(b"replacement")
+    blob_writer.extend(packed.finish())
+
+    physical_schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.uint32(), nullable=False),
+            blob_writer.field,
+        ]
+    )
+    replacement = pa.record_batch(
+        [
+            pa.array([1], type=pa.uint32()),
+            blob_writer.finish(),
+        ],
+        schema=physical_schema,
+    )
+
+    with files.open_writer(
+        data_file_name, schema=physical_schema, version="2.2"
+    ) as file_writer:
+        file_writer.write_batch(replacement)
+
+    data_file = lance.fragment.DataFile.create(ds, data_file_name)
+    operation = lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacement(
+        [lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file)]
+    )
+    ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(ds, operation, read_version=ds.version)
+
+    assert ds.to_table(columns=["id"]).column("id").to_pylist() == [1]
+    blobs = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])
+    assert len(blobs) == 1
+    assert blobs[0].readall() == b"replacement"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "payload",
+    [
+        pytest.param(b"payload", id="bytes"),
+        pytest.param(bytearray(b"payload"), id="bytearray"),
+        pytest.param(memoryview(b"payload"), id="memoryview"),
+        pytest.param(list(b"payload"), id="integer_sequence"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_packed_blob_writer_scalar_buffer_inputs(tmp_path, payload):
+    file_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    blob_id = 7
+    files = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+    packed = files.open_packed_blob_writer(f"{file_id}.lance", blob_id)
+
+    packed.write_blob(payload)
+    descriptors = packed.finish()
+
+    assert [repr(descriptor) for descriptor in descriptors] == [
+        "Packed { blob_id: 7, offset: 0, size: 7 }"
+    ]
+    assert _blob_sidecar_path(tmp_path, file_id, blob_id).read_bytes() == b"payload"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "array_type", [pa.binary(), pa.large_binary(), pa.binary_view()]
+)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("as_chunked", [False, True], ids=["array", "chunked_array"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "values,slice_offset,slice_length,expected_values,expected_data",
+    [
+        pytest.param(
+            [b"prefix", b"a", None, b"", b"bc", b"suffix"],
+            1,
+            4,
+            [b"a", None, b"", b"bc"],
+            b"abc",
+            id="interleaved_null",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            [b"prefix", b"a", b"", b"bc", b"suffix"],
+            1,
+            3,
+            [b"a", b"", b"bc"],
+            b"abc",
+            id="all_valid",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            [b"prefix", None, None, b"suffix"],
+            1,
+            2,
+            [None, None],
+            b"",
+            id="all_null",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            [b"prefix", b"suffix"],
+            1,
+            0,
+            [],
+            b"",
+            id="empty",
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_packed_blob_writer_bulk_arrow_array(
+    tmp_path,
+    array_type,
+    as_chunked,
+    values,
+    slice_offset,
+    slice_length,
+    expected_values,
+    expected_data,
+):
+    file_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    data_file_name = f"{file_id}.lance"
+    blob_id = 7
+    payloads = pa.array(values, type=array_type).slice(slice_offset, slice_length)
+    if as_chunked:
+        split_at = max(1, len(payloads) // 2)
+        payloads = pa.chunked_array(
+            [payloads.slice(0, split_at), payloads.slice(split_at)]
+        )
+
+    files = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+    packed = files.open_packed_blob_writer(data_file_name, blob_id)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="available after finish_array"):
+        packed.field
+    packed.write_blobs(payloads)
+    descriptors = packed.finish_array("image_bytes")
+    descriptor_field = packed.field
+
+    expected_descriptors = []
+    position = 0
+    for value in expected_values:
+        if value is None:
+            expected_descriptors.append(None)
+        else:
+            expected_descriptors.append(
+                {
+                    "kind": 1,
+                    "data": None,
+                    "uri": None,
+                    "blob_id": blob_id,
+                    "blob_size": len(value),
+                    "position": position,
+                }
+            )
+            position += len(value)
+
+    assert descriptors.to_pylist() == expected_descriptors
+    assert descriptor_field == lance.BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder("image_bytes").field
+    assert descriptor_field.metadata[b"ARROW:extension:name"] == b"lance.blob.v2"
+    assert pa.record_batch(
+        [descriptors], schema=pa.schema([descriptor_field])
+    ).num_rows == len(expected_values)
+    assert _blob_sidecar_path(tmp_path, file_id, blob_id).read_bytes() == expected_data
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "array_type,offset_type",
+    [
+        pytest.param(pa.binary(), pa.int32(), id="binary"),
+        pytest.param(pa.large_binary(), pa.int64(), id="large_binary"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_packed_blob_writer_bulk_excludes_physical_null_bytes(
+    tmp_path, array_type, offset_type
+):
+    offsets = pa.array([0, 1, 5, 5, 7], type=offset_type).buffers()[1]
+    payloads = pa.Array.from_buffers(
+        array_type,
+        4,
+        [
+            pa.py_buffer(bytes([0b00001101])),
+            offsets,
+            pa.py_buffer(b"aJUNKbc"),
+        ],
+    )
+    file_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    blob_id = 7
+    files = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+    packed = files.open_packed_blob_writer(f"{file_id}.lance", blob_id)
+
+    packed.write_blobs(payloads)
+    descriptors = packed.finish_array("image_bytes")
+
+    assert descriptors.to_pylist() == [
+        {
+            "kind": 1,
+            "data": None,
+            "uri": None,
+            "blob_id": blob_id,
+            "blob_size": 1,
+            "position": 0,
+        },
+        None,
+        {
+            "kind": 1,
+            "data": None,
+            "uri": None,
+            "blob_id": blob_id,
+            "blob_size": 0,
+            "position": 1,
+        },
+        {
+            "kind": 1,
+            "data": None,
+            "uri": None,
+            "blob_id": blob_id,
+            "blob_size": 2,
+            "position": 1,
+        },
+    ]
+    assert _blob_sidecar_path(tmp_path, file_id, blob_id).read_bytes() == b"abc"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "array_type,offset_type",
+    [
+        pytest.param(pa.binary(), pa.int32(), id="binary"),
+        pytest.param(pa.large_binary(), pa.int64(), id="large_binary"),
+    ],
+)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("as_chunked", [False, True], ids=["array", "chunked_array"])
+def test_packed_blob_writer_bulk_rejects_non_monotonic_offsets(
+    tmp_path, array_type, offset_type, as_chunked
+):
+    offsets = pa.array([0, 2, 1, 2], type=offset_type).buffers()[1]
+    malformed = pa.Array.from_buffers(
+        array_type,
+        3,
+        [None, offsets, pa.py_buffer(b"ab")],
+    )
+    payloads = malformed
+    expected_context = "Packed blob payload array"
+    if as_chunked:
+        payloads = pa.chunked_array([pa.array([b"valid"], type=array_type), malformed])
+        expected_context = "Packed blob payload chunk 1"
+
+    file_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    blob_id = 7
+    files = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+    packed = files.open_packed_blob_writer(f"{file_id}.lance", blob_id)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="invalid Arrow data") as error:
+        packed.write_blobs(payloads)
+    assert expected_context in str(error.value)
+    assert "non-monotonic offset" in str(error.value)
+
+    packed.write_blob(b"still usable")
+    descriptors = packed.finish_array("blob")
+    assert len(descriptors) == 1
+    assert (
+        _blob_sidecar_path(tmp_path, file_id, blob_id).read_bytes() == b"still usable"
+    )
+
+
+def test_packed_blob_writer_mixed_calls_preserve_legacy_finish_alignment(tmp_path):
+    file_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    blob_id = 7
+    files = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+    packed = files.open_packed_blob_writer(f"{file_id}.lance", blob_id)
+
+    packed.write_blob(b"s")
+    packed.write_blobs(pa.array([b"a", None, b""], type=pa.binary()))
+    packed.write_blobs(pa.array([None, b"bc"], type=pa.large_binary()))
+    descriptors = packed.finish()
+
+    assert [repr(descriptor) for descriptor in descriptors] == [
+        "Packed { blob_id: 7, offset: 0, size: 1 }",
+        "Packed { blob_id: 7, offset: 1, size: 1 }",
+        "Null",
+        "Packed { blob_id: 7, offset: 2, size: 0 }",
+        "Null",
+        "Packed { blob_id: 7, offset: 2, size: 2 }",
+    ]
+    assert _blob_sidecar_path(tmp_path, file_id, blob_id).read_bytes() == b"sabc"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "payloads",
+    [
+        pytest.param(pa.array([1, 2], type=pa.int32()), id="array"),
+        pytest.param(pa.chunked_array([[1], [2]], type=pa.int32()), id="chunked_array"),
+        pytest.param([b"not an Arrow array"], id="python_list"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_packed_blob_writer_bulk_rejects_non_binary_array(tmp_path, payloads):
+    files = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+    packed = files.open_packed_blob_writer("data-file.lance", 1)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Binary") as error:
+        packed.write_blobs(payloads)
+    if isinstance(payloads, pa.Array):
+        assert "chunk" not in str(error.value)
+
+    packed.write_blob(b"still usable")
+    assert len(packed.finish_array("blob")) == 1
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "open_writer",
+    [
+        pytest.param("open_packed_blob_writer", id="packed"),
+        pytest.param("open_dedicated_blob_writer", id="dedicated"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_failed_blob_writer_traceback_can_be_released_on_another_thread(
+    tmp_path, monkeypatch, open_writer
+):
+    failures = queue.Queue()
+
+    def fail_with_live_writer():
+        files = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+        writer = getattr(files, open_writer)("data-file.lance", 1)
+        assert writer.blob_id == 1
+        try:
+            raise OSError("simulated object-store write failure")
+        except OSError as error:
+            # The traceback retains this frame and its local writer, matching a
+            # writer-thread failure handed to an owning thread for propagation.
+            failures.put(error)
+
+    writer_thread = threading.Thread(target=fail_with_live_writer)
+    writer_thread.start()
+    writer_thread.join(timeout=10)
+    assert not writer_thread.is_alive()
+
+    unraisable = []
+    monkeypatch.setattr(sys, "unraisablehook", unraisable.append)
+    error = failures.get_nowait()
+    assert str(error) == "simulated object-store write failure"
+    del error
+    gc.collect()
+
+    assert unraisable == []
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_fragments_external_denied_by_default(tmp_path):
+    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
+
+    table = _external_blob_table(blob_path)
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="outside registered external bases"):
+        write_fragments(
+            table,
+            tmp_path / "test_fragments_v2_external_denied",
+            data_storage_version="2.2",
+            external_blob_mode="reference",
+        )
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_fragments_external_outside_base_allowed(tmp_path):
+    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_fragments_v2_external_allowed"
+
+    table = _external_blob_table(blob_path)
+    fragments = write_fragments(
+        table,
+        dataset_uri,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        external_blob_mode="reference",
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+    )
+    ds = _commit_blob_fragments(dataset_uri, table.schema, fragments)
+
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+    assert blob.size() == 5
+    with blob as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"hello"
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_fragments_transaction_external_outside_base_allowed(
+    tmp_path,
+):
+    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_fragments_transaction_v2_external_allowed"
+
+    table = _external_blob_table(blob_path)
+    transaction = write_fragments(
+        table,
+        dataset_uri,
+        mode="create",
+        return_transaction=True,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        external_blob_mode="reference",
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+    )
+    ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(dataset_uri, transaction)
+
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+    assert blob.size() == 5
+    with blob as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"hello"
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_fragments_external_registered_base(tmp_path):
+    external_base = tmp_path / "external_base"
+    blob_path = external_base / "external_blob.bin"
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_fragments_v2_external_registered_base"
+
+    table = _external_blob_table(blob_path)
+    initial_bases = [DatasetBasePath(external_base.as_uri(), name="external", id=1)]
+    fragments = write_fragments(
+        table,
+        dataset_uri,
+        mode="create",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        external_blob_mode="reference",
+        initial_bases=initial_bases,
+    )
+    ds = _commit_blob_fragments(
+        dataset_uri,
+        table.schema,
+        fragments,
+        initial_bases=initial_bases,
+    )
+
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+    assert blob.size() == 5
+    with blob as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"hello"
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_fragments_external_ingest(tmp_path):
+    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_fragments_v2_external_ingest"
+
+    table = _external_blob_table(blob_path)
+    fragments = write_fragments(
+        table,
+        dataset_uri,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        external_blob_mode="ingest",
+    )
+    ds = _commit_blob_fragments(dataset_uri, table.schema, fragments)
+
+    blob_path.unlink()
+
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+    assert blob.size() == 5
+    with blob as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"hello"
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_fragments_transaction_external_ingest(tmp_path):
+    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_fragments_transaction_v2_external_ingest"
+
+    table = _external_blob_table(blob_path)
+    transaction = write_fragments(
+        table,
+        dataset_uri,
+        mode="create",
+        return_transaction=True,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        external_blob_mode="ingest",
+    )
+    ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(dataset_uri, transaction)
+
+    blob_path.unlink()
+
+    blob = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])[0]
+    assert blob.size() == 5
+    with blob as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"hello"
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_fragments_external_ingest_rejects_reference_only_options(
+    tmp_path,
+):
+    blob_path = tmp_path / "external_blob.bin"
+    message = (
+        "allow_external_blob_outside_bases only applies when "
+        'external_blob_mode="reference"'
+    )
+
+    table = _external_blob_table(blob_path)
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match=message):
+        write_fragments(
+            table,
+            tmp_path / "test_fragments_v2_external_ingest_invalid",
+            data_storage_version="2.2",
+            external_blob_mode="ingest",
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+        )
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_external_slice(tmp_path):
+    tar_path = tmp_path / "container.tar"
+    names = ["a.bin", "b.bin", "c.bin"]
+    payloads = [b"alpha", b"bravo", b"charlie"]
+
+    # Build a tar container with three distinct binary entries.
+    with tarfile.open(tar_path, "w") as tf:
+        for name, data in zip(names, payloads):
+            info = tarfile.TarInfo(name)
+            info.size = len(data)
+            tf.addfile(info, io.BytesIO(data))
+
+    # Re-open the tar to obtain offsets and sizes for each member.
+    positions: list[int] = []
+    sizes: list[int] = []
+    with tarfile.open(tar_path, "r") as tf:
+        for name in names:
+            member = tf.getmember(name)
+            positions.append(member.offset_data)
+            sizes.append(member.size)
+
+    uri = tar_path.as_uri()
+
+    blob_values = [
+        Blob.from_uri(uri, position, size) for position, size in zip(positions, sizes)
+    ]
+
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array(blob_values)})
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "ds",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+    )
+
+    blobs = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1, 2])
+    assert len(blobs) == len(payloads)
+
+    for expected, blob_file in zip(payloads, blobs):
+        assert blob_file.size() == len(expected)
+        with blob_file as f:
+            assert f.read() == expected
+
+    assert ds.read_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1, 2]) == [
+        (0, b"alpha"),
+        (1, b"bravo"),
+        (2, b"charlie"),
+    ]
+
+
+def test_blob_extension_write_external_slice_ingest(tmp_path):
+    tar_path = tmp_path / "container.tar"
+    names = ["a.bin", "b.bin", "c.bin"]
+    payloads = [b"alpha", b"bravo", b"charlie"]
+
+    with tarfile.open(tar_path, "w") as tf:
+        for name, data in zip(names, payloads):
+            info = tarfile.TarInfo(name)
+            info.size = len(data)
+            tf.addfile(info, io.BytesIO(data))
+
+    positions: list[int] = []
+    sizes: list[int] = []
+    with tarfile.open(tar_path, "r") as tf:
+        for name in names:
+            member = tf.getmember(name)
+            positions.append(member.offset_data)
+            sizes.append(member.size)
+
+    uri = tar_path.as_uri()
+    blob_values = [
+        Blob.from_uri(uri, position, size) for position, size in zip(positions, sizes)
+    ]
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array(blob_values)})
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "ds_ingest",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        external_blob_mode="ingest",
+    )
+
+    tar_path.unlink()
+
+    blobs = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0, 1, 2])
+    assert len(blobs) == len(payloads)
+
+    for expected, blob_file in zip(payloads, blobs):
+        assert blob_file.size() == len(expected)
+        with blob_file as f:
+            assert f.read() == expected
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("payload", "is_dataset_root"),
+    [
+        (b"inline", True),
+        (b"p" * (64 * 1024 + 1024), True),
+        (b"d" * (4 * 1024 * 1024 + 1024), True),
+        (b"x" * (64 * 1024 + 1024), False),
+    ],
+    ids=["inline", "packed", "dedicated", "packed_data_only_base"],
+)
+def test_blob_extension_take_blobs_multi_base(payload, is_dataset_root, tmp_path):
+    base_path = tmp_path / "blob_base"
+    base_path.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+    table = pa.table({"blob": lance.blob_array([payload])})
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "primary_ds",
+        mode="create",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        initial_bases=[
+            DatasetBasePath(
+                str(base_path), name="blob_base", is_dataset_root=is_dataset_root
+            )
+        ],
+        target_bases=["blob_base"],
+    )
+
+    fragments = list(ds.get_fragments())
+    assert len(fragments) == 1
+    data_file = fragments[0].data_files()[0]
+    assert data_file.base_id is not None
+
+    blobs = ds.take_blobs("blob", indices=[0])
+    assert len(blobs) == 1
+    with blobs[0] as f:
+        assert f.read() == payload
+
+    assert ds.read_blobs("blob", indices=[0]) == [(0, payload)]
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3], pa.int64()),
+            "blob": pa.array([b"hello", None, b"world"], pa.large_binary()),
+            "bin": pa.array([b"x", b"y", b"z"], pa.large_binary()),
+        },
+        schema=pa.schema(
+            [
+                pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+                pa.field(
+                    "blob", pa.large_binary(), metadata={"lance-encoding:blob": "true"}
+                ),
+                pa.field("bin", pa.large_binary()),
+            ]
+        ),
+    )
+    return lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "blob_pandas_ds",
+        data_storage_version=LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def dataset_for_pandas_no_blob_tests(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3], pa.int64()),
+            "name": pa.array(["one", "two", "three"], pa.string()),
+            "bin": pa.array([b"x", b"y", b"z"], pa.large_binary()),
+        }
+    )
+    return lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "no_blob_pandas_ds")
+
+
+def _lazy_blob_values(dataset):
+    values = dataset.scanner(columns=["blob"]).to_pandas(blob_mode="lazy")["blob"]
+    return [None if value is None else value.readall() for value in values]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "values, has_sidecar",
+    [
+        pytest.param([b"", b"payload", None], False, id="leading_empty"),
+        pytest.param([b"", b"", b""], False, id="all_empty"),
+        pytest.param(
+            [b"payload", b"", None, b"tail", b""],
+            False,
+            id="payload_empty_null",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            [b"", b"p" * (64 * 1024 + 1024), None, b""],
+            True,
+            id="sidecar_backed",
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_blob_v2_lazy_preserves_empty_and_null(tmp_path, values, has_sidecar):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "blob_v2_lazy_empty"
+    schema = pa.schema([lance.blob_field("blob")])
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_arrays([lance.blob_array(values)], schema=schema),
+        dataset_path,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    descriptions = dataset.to_table(columns=["blob"]).column("blob").to_pylist()
+    assert [description is None for description in descriptions] == [
+        value is None for value in values
+    ]
+    if values[0] == b"":
+        assert descriptions[0]["position"] == 0
+        assert descriptions[0]["size"] == 0
+    if has_sidecar:
+        assert any(
+            description is not None and description["kind"] == 4
+            for description in descriptions
+        )
+        assert any(path.suffix == ".blob" for path in _dataset_file_set(dataset_path))
+
+    assert _lazy_blob_values(dataset) == values
+
+
+def test_blob_v1_lazy_preserves_empty_and_null_sentinels(tmp_path):
+    values = [b"", None, b"payload"]
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field(
+                "blob",
+                pa.large_binary(),
+                metadata={"lance-encoding:blob": "true"},
+            )
+        ]
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_arrays(
+            [pa.array(values, type=pa.large_binary())],
+            schema=schema,
+        ),
+        tmp_path / "blob_v1_lazy_empty",
+        data_storage_version="2.0",
+    )
+
+    descriptions = dataset.to_table(columns=["blob"]).column("blob").to_pylist()
+    assert descriptions[0] == {"position": 0, "size": 0}
+    assert descriptions[1] == {"position": 1, "size": 0}
+    assert _lazy_blob_values(dataset) == values
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("source", ["dataset", "scanner", "fragment"])
+def test_to_pandas_without_blobs_matches_arrow_with_kwargs(
+    dataset_for_pandas_no_blob_tests,
+    source,
+):
+    kwargs = {"types_mapper": pd.ArrowDtype}
+    ds = dataset_for_pandas_no_blob_tests
+
+    if source == "dataset":
+        actual = ds.to_pandas(**kwargs)
+        expected = ds.to_table().to_pandas(**kwargs)
+    elif source == "scanner":
+        scanner = ds.scanner(
+            columns=["id", "name"],
+            filter="id >= 2",
+            limit=2,
+            offset=0,
+            batch_size=1,
+        )
+        actual = scanner.to_pandas(**kwargs)
+        expected = scanner.to_table().to_pandas(**kwargs)
+    else:
+        fragment = ds.get_fragments()[0]
+        actual = fragment.to_pandas(
+            columns=["id", "name"],
+            filter="id >= 2",
+            limit=2,
+            offset=0,
+            batch_size=1,
+            **kwargs,
+        )
+        expected = fragment.to_table(
+            columns=["id", "name"],
+            filter="id >= 2",
+            limit=2,
+            offset=0,
+        ).to_pandas(**kwargs)
+
+    pd.testing.assert_frame_equal(actual, expected)
+    assert actual.dtypes["id"] == pd.ArrowDtype(pa.int64())
+
+
+def test_dataset_to_pandas_blob_lazy(dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests):
+    df = dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests.to_pandas()
+
+    assert list(df.columns) == ["id", "blob", "bin"]
+    assert isinstance(df.iloc[0]["blob"], BlobFile)
+    assert df.iloc[1]["blob"] is None
+    assert isinstance(df.iloc[2]["blob"], BlobFile)
+    assert df["bin"].tolist() == [b"x", b"y", b"z"]
+    assert [df.iloc[0]["blob"].readall(), df.iloc[2]["blob"].readall()] == [
+        b"hello",
+        b"world",
+    ]
+
+
+def test_dataset_to_pandas_blob_bytes(dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests):
+    df = dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests.to_pandas(blob_mode="bytes")
+
+    assert list(df.columns) == ["id", "blob", "bin"]
+    assert df["blob"].tolist() == [b"hello", None, b"world"]
+    assert df["bin"].tolist() == [b"x", b"y", b"z"]
+
+
+def test_dataset_to_pandas_blob_descriptions(dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests):
+    descriptions_df = dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests.to_pandas(blob_mode="descriptions")
+    table_df = dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests.to_table().to_pandas()
+
+    assert descriptions_df.equals(table_df)
+
+
+def test_scanner_to_pandas_blob_alias(dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests):
+    df = dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests.scanner(
+        columns={"video": "blob", "id": "id"}
+    ).to_pandas()
+
+    assert list(df.columns) == ["video", "id"]
+    assert isinstance(df.iloc[0]["video"], BlobFile)
+    assert df.iloc[1]["video"] is None
+    assert df.iloc[2]["video"].readall() == b"world"
+
+
+def test_scanner_to_pandas_blob_filter_limit_order(dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests):
+    df = dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests.scanner(
+        columns=["id", "blob"],
+        filter="id > 1",
+        limit=1,
+        order_by=["id"],
+    ).to_pandas(blob_mode="bytes")
+
+    assert list(df.columns) == ["id", "blob"]
+    assert df["id"].tolist() == [2]
+    assert df["blob"].tolist() == [None]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("source", ["dataset", "scanner", "fragment"])
+def test_to_pandas_blob_scan_parameters(dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests, source):
+    ds = dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests
+    scan_kwargs = {
+        "columns": ["id", "blob"],
+        "filter": "id > 1",
+        "limit": 1,
+        "offset": 1,
+        "batch_size": 1,
+    }
+
+    if source == "dataset":
+        df = ds.to_pandas(**scan_kwargs, blob_mode="bytes")
+    elif source == "scanner":
+        df = ds.scanner(**scan_kwargs).to_pandas(blob_mode="bytes")
+    else:
+        df = ds.get_fragments()[0].to_pandas(**scan_kwargs, blob_mode="bytes")
+
+    assert list(df.columns) == ["id", "blob"]
+    assert df["id"].tolist() == [3]
+    assert df["blob"].tolist() == [b"world"]
+
+
+def test_scanner_to_pandas_blob_empty_result(dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests):
+    df = dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests.scanner(
+        columns=["id", "blob"], filter="id > 10"
+    ).to_pandas()
+
+    assert list(df.columns) == ["id", "blob"]
+    assert df.empty
+
+
+def test_fragment_to_pandas_blob(dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests):
+    fragment = dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests.get_fragments()[0]
+    df = fragment.to_pandas(columns=["id", "blob"], batch_size=1, blob_mode="bytes")
+
+    assert list(df.columns) == ["id", "blob"]
+    assert df["blob"].tolist() == [b"hello", None, b"world"]
+
+
+def test_dataset_to_pandas_invalid_blob_mode(dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="blob_mode must be one of"):
+        dataset_for_pandas_blob_tests.to_pandas(blob_mode="inline")
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def dataset_with_nested_blobs(tmp_path):
+    blob_field = pa.field(
+        "blob", pa.large_binary(), metadata={"lance-encoding:blob": "true"}
+    )
+    info_type = pa.struct([pa.field("name", pa.string()), blob_field])
+    info_array = pa.array(
+        [
+            {"name": "a", "blob": b"foo"},
+            {"name": "b", "blob": None},
+            {"name": "c", "blob": b"baz"},
+        ],
+        type=info_type,
+    )
+    table = pa.table(
+        [pa.array([1, 2, 3], pa.int64()), info_array],
+        schema=pa.schema([pa.field("id", pa.int64()), pa.field("info", info_type)]),
+    )
+    return lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "nested_blob_ds",
+        data_storage_version=LEGACY_BLOB_STORAGE_VERSION,
+    )
+
+
+def test_to_pandas_returns_blob_file_handles_for_nested_fields(
+    dataset_with_nested_blobs,
+):
+    df = dataset_with_nested_blobs.to_pandas()
+    row0, row1, row2 = df["info"].tolist()
+
+    assert row0["blob"].readall() == b"foo"
+    assert row1["blob"] is None
+    assert row2["blob"].readall() == b"baz"
+
+
+def test_to_pandas_reads_nested_blob_bytes_directly(dataset_with_nested_blobs):
+    rows = dataset_with_nested_blobs.to_pandas(blob_mode="bytes")["info"].tolist()
+
+    assert [r["blob"] for r in rows] == [b"foo", None, b"baz"]
+
+
+def test_to_pandas_returns_descriptors_for_nested_fields(dataset_with_nested_blobs):
+    descriptions_df = dataset_with_nested_blobs.to_pandas(blob_mode="descriptions")
+    table_df = dataset_with_nested_blobs.to_table().to_pandas()
+
+    assert descriptions_df.equals(table_df)
+
+
+def test_take_blobs_resolves_nested_field_path(dataset_with_nested_blobs):
+    blobs = dataset_with_nested_blobs.take_blobs("info.blob", indices=[0, 2])
+
+    with blobs[0] as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"foo"
+    with blobs[1] as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"baz"
+
+
+def test_read_blobs_resolves_nested_field_path(dataset_with_nested_blobs):
+    results = dataset_with_nested_blobs.read_blobs("info.blob", indices=[0, 2])
+
+    assert [data for _, data in results] == [b"foo", b"baz"]
+
+
+def test_write_nested_blob_v2_and_take_by_field_path(tmp_path):
+    packed = b"x" * (70 * 1024)
+    blob_field = lance.blob_field("blob")
+    info_fields = [pa.field("name", pa.string()), blob_field]
+    info_type = pa.struct(info_fields)
+    info_array = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+        [pa.array(["a", "b", "c"]), lance.blob_array([b"foo", packed, None])],
+        fields=info_fields,
+    )
+    table = pa.table(
+        [info_array],
+        schema=pa.schema([pa.field("info", info_type)]),
+    )
+
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "nested_blob_v2",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    desc = dataset.to_table(columns=["info.blob"]).column("info.blob").chunk(0)
+    assert desc.field("kind").to_pylist()[:2] == [0, 4]
+
+    blobs = dataset.take_blobs("info.blob", indices=[0, 1])
+    with blobs[0] as f:
+        assert f.read() == b"foo"
+    with blobs[1] as f:
+        assert f.read() == packed
+
+    assert dataset.take_blobs("info.blob", indices=[2]) == [None]
+
+
+def test_write_list_struct_nested_blob_v2(tmp_path):
+    payload_fields = [
+        lance.blob_field("blob"),
+        pa.field("format", pa.string()),
+    ]
+    payload_values = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+        [
+            lance.blob_array([b"first", b"second", None]),
+            pa.array(["bin", "bin", "bin"]),
+        ],
+        fields=payload_fields,
+    )
+    media_fields = [
+        pa.field("type", pa.string()),
+        pa.field("payload", payload_values.type),
+    ]
+    media_values = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+        [pa.array(["image", "image", "image"]), payload_values],
+        fields=media_fields,
+    )
+    media = pa.ListArray.from_arrays(pa.array([0, 2, 3]), media_values)
+    table = pa.table({"media": media})
+
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "list_struct_nested_blob_v2",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    media = (
+        dataset.scanner(columns=["media"], blob_handling="all_binary")
+        .to_table()
+        .column("media")
+        .combine_chunks()
+    )
+    blobs = media.values.field("payload").field("blob")
+    assert blobs.to_pylist() == [b"first", b"second", None]
+
+
+def test_to_pandas_returns_blob_files_for_projected_nested_fields(
+    dataset_with_nested_blobs,
+):
+    images = (
+        dataset_with_nested_blobs.scanner(columns=["info.blob"])
+        .to_pandas()["info.blob"]
+        .tolist()
+    )
+
+    assert images[0].readall() == b"foo"
+    assert images[1] is None
+    assert images[2].readall() == b"baz"
+
+
+def test_to_pandas_reads_bytes_for_projected_nested_fields(dataset_with_nested_blobs):
+    df = dataset_with_nested_blobs.scanner(columns=["info.blob"]).to_pandas(
+        blob_mode="bytes"
+    )
+
+    assert df["info.blob"].tolist() == [b"foo", None, b"baz"]
+
+
+def test_to_pandas_returns_blob_files_when_nested_field_is_aliased(
+    dataset_with_nested_blobs,
+):
+    images = (
+        dataset_with_nested_blobs.scanner(columns={"my_img": "info.blob"})
+        .to_pandas()["my_img"]
+        .tolist()
+    )
+
+    assert images[0].readall() == b"foo"
+    assert images[1] is None
+    assert images[2].readall() == b"baz"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("as_chunked", [False, True], ids=["array", "chunked_array"])
+def test_packed_blob_writer_bulk_binary_view(tmp_path, as_chunked):
+    file_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    blob_id = 7
+    values = [b"hello", None, b"", b"world"]
+    payloads = pa.array(values, type=pa.binary_view())
+    if as_chunked:
+        payloads = pa.chunked_array([payloads.slice(0, 2), payloads.slice(2)])
+
+    files = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+    packed = files.open_packed_blob_writer(f"{file_id}.lance", blob_id)
+    packed.write_blobs(payloads)
+    descriptors = packed.finish_array("image_bytes")
+
+    expected_descriptors = []
+    position = 0
+    for value in values:
+        if value is None:
+            expected_descriptors.append(None)
+        else:
+            expected_descriptors.append(
+                {
+                    "kind": 1,
+                    "data": None,
+                    "uri": None,
+                    "blob_id": blob_id,
+                    "blob_size": len(value),
+                    "position": position,
+                }
+            )
+            position += len(value)
+
+    assert descriptors.to_pylist() == expected_descriptors
+    assert _blob_sidecar_path(tmp_path, file_id, blob_id).read_bytes() == b"helloworld"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("as_chunked", [False, True], ids=["array", "chunked_array"])
+def test_packed_blob_writer_bulk_fixed_size_binary(tmp_path, as_chunked):
+    file_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    blob_id = 7
+    values = [b"word", None, b"test"]
+    payloads = pa.array(values, type=pa.binary(4))
+    if as_chunked:
+        payloads = pa.chunked_array([payloads.slice(0, 2), payloads.slice(2)])
+
+    files = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+    packed = files.open_packed_blob_writer(f"{file_id}.lance", blob_id)
+    packed.write_blobs(payloads)
+    descriptors = packed.finish_array("image_bytes")
+
+    expected_descriptors = []
+    position = 0
+    for value in values:
+        if value is None:
+            expected_descriptors.append(None)
+        else:
+            expected_descriptors.append(
+                {
+                    "kind": 1,
+                    "data": None,
+                    "uri": None,
+                    "blob_id": blob_id,
+                    "blob_size": len(value),
+                    "position": position,
+                }
+            )
+            position += len(value)
+
+    assert descriptors.to_pylist() == expected_descriptors
+    assert _blob_sidecar_path(tmp_path, file_id, blob_id).read_bytes() == b"wordtest"
+
+
+class _CountingBlobInner:
+    def __init__(self, payload: bytes):
+        self._payload = payload
+        self._pos = 0
+        self._closed = False
+        self.buffer_size: int | None = None
+        self.read_sizes: list[int] = []
+
+    def set_buffer_size(self, buffer_size: int) -> None:
+        self.buffer_size = buffer_size
+
+    def close(self) -> None:
+        self._closed = True
+
+    def is_closed(self) -> bool:
+        return self._closed
+
+    def seek(self, position: int) -> None:
+        self._pos = position
+
+    def tell(self) -> int:
+        return self._pos
+
+    def size(self) -> int:
+        return len(self._payload)
+
+    def readall(self) -> bytes:
+        data = self._payload[self._pos :]
+        if data:
+            self.read_sizes.append(len(data))
+        self._pos = len(self._payload)
+        return data
+
+    def read_range(self, offset: int, length: int) -> bytes:
+        return self._payload[offset : offset + length]
+
+    def read_ranges(self, ranges: list[tuple[int, int]]) -> list[bytes]:
+        return [self.read_range(offset, length) for offset, length in ranges]
+
+    def read_into(self, b: bytearray) -> int:
+        if self._pos >= len(self._payload):
+            return 0
+        bytes_read = min(len(b), len(self._payload) - self._pos)
+        self.read_sizes.append(bytes_read)
+        b[:bytes_read] = self._payload[self._pos : self._pos + bytes_read]
+        self._pos += bytes_read
+        return bytes_read
+
+
+def _read_in_8k_chunks(blob: BlobFile) -> bytes:
+    chunks = []
+    while True:
+        chunk = blob.read(8192)
+        if not chunk:
+            break
+        chunks.append(chunk)
+    return b"".join(chunks)
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_coerce_query_vector.py b/python/python/tests/test_coerce_query_vector.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7a5d341f8e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_coerce_query_vector.py
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Tests for _coerce_query_vector to ensure invalid input types
+raise TypeError instead of falling into the numpy conversion branch."""
+
+import numpy as np
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+from lance.dataset import _coerce_query_vector
+
+
+class TestCoerceQueryVectorInvalidTypes:
+    """Non-vector inputs should raise TypeError, not numpy ValueError."""
+
+    def test_string_raises_typeerror(self):
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="query vector must be list-like"):
+            _coerce_query_vector("not a vector")
+
+    def test_integer_raises_typeerror(self):
+        with pytest.raises(
+            TypeError, match="Query vectors should be an array of floats"
+        ):
+            _coerce_query_vector(42)
+
+    def test_object_raises_typeerror(self):
+        """A random object that is not array-like should raise TypeError."""
+
+        class NotAVector:
+            pass
+
+        with pytest.raises(
+            TypeError, match="Query vectors should be an array of floats"
+        ):
+            _coerce_query_vector(NotAVector())
+
+    def test_none_raises_typeerror(self):
+        with pytest.raises(
+            TypeError, match="Query vectors should be an array of floats"
+        ):
+            _coerce_query_vector(None)
+
+
+class TestCoerceQueryVectorValidTypes:
+    """Valid vector inputs should be coerced successfully."""
+
+    def test_list_of_floats(self):
+        result, dim = _coerce_query_vector([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
+        assert isinstance(result, pa.FloatingPointArray)
+        assert dim == 3
+
+    def test_tuple_of_floats(self):
+        result, dim = _coerce_query_vector((1.0, 2.0, 3.0))
+        assert isinstance(result, pa.FloatingPointArray)
+        assert dim == 3
+
+    def test_numpy_array(self):
+        result, dim = _coerce_query_vector(np.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0]))
+        assert isinstance(result, pa.FloatingPointArray)
+        assert dim == 3
+
+    def test_pa_float_array(self):
+        result, dim = _coerce_query_vector(pa.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0]))
+        assert isinstance(result, pa.FloatingPointArray)
+        assert dim == 3
+
+    def test_pa_int_array_cast_to_float(self):
+        result, dim = _coerce_query_vector(pa.array([1, 2, 3]))
+        assert isinstance(result, pa.FloatingPointArray)
+        assert dim == 3
+
+    def test_pa_chunked_array(self):
+        chunked = pa.chunked_array([[1.0, 2.0, 3.0]])
+        result, dim = _coerce_query_vector(chunked)
+        assert isinstance(result, pa.FloatingPointArray)
+        assert dim == 3
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_column_names.py b/python/python/tests/test_column_names.py
index 5ec38085896..646309ede96 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_column_names.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_column_names.py
@@ -84,10 +84,10 @@ def test_scalar_index_with_mixed_case(self, mixed_case_dataset):
         """Scalar index creation should work with mixed-case column names."""
         mixed_case_dataset.create_scalar_index("userId", index_type="BTREE")
 
-        indices = mixed_case_dataset.list_indices()
+        indices = mixed_case_dataset.describe_indices()
         assert len(indices) == 1
-        assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["userId"]
-        assert indices[0]["name"] == "userId_idx"
+        assert indices[0].field_names == ["userId"]
+        assert indices[0].name == "userId_idx"
 
         # Query using the indexed column
         result = mixed_case_dataset.to_table(filter="userId = 50")
@@ -206,7 +206,7 @@ def test_scalar_index_on_each_case_variant(self, tmp_path, case_variant_table):
         # Create separate datasets for each test to avoid index conflicts
         ds1 = lance.write_dataset(case_variant_table, tmp_path / "ds1")
         ds1.create_scalar_index("camelCase", index_type="BTREE")
-        assert ds1.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["camelCase"]
+        assert ds1.describe_indices()[0].field_names == ["camelCase"]
 
         # Query camelCase=50 should return row 50 (where CamelCase=49, CAMELCASE=0)
         result = ds1.to_table(filter="camelCase = 50")
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ def test_scalar_index_on_each_case_variant(self, tmp_path, case_variant_table):
         # Test CamelCase index
         ds2 = lance.write_dataset(case_variant_table, tmp_path / "ds2")
         ds2.create_scalar_index("CamelCase", index_type="BTREE")
-        assert ds2.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["CamelCase"]
+        assert ds2.describe_indices()[0].field_names == ["CamelCase"]
 
         # Query CamelCase=50 should return row 49 (where camelCase=49, CAMELCASE=99)
         result = ds2.to_table(filter="CamelCase = 50")
@@ -236,7 +236,7 @@ def test_scalar_index_on_each_case_variant(self, tmp_path, case_variant_table):
         # Test CAMELCASE index
         ds3 = lance.write_dataset(case_variant_table, tmp_path / "ds3")
         ds3.create_scalar_index("CAMELCASE", index_type="BTREE")
-        assert ds3.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["CAMELCASE"]
+        assert ds3.describe_indices()[0].field_names == ["CAMELCASE"]
 
         # Query CAMELCASE=50 should return row 0 (where camelCase=0, CamelCase=99)
         result = ds3.to_table(filter="CAMELCASE = 50")
@@ -347,11 +347,10 @@ def test_scalar_index_with_special_chars(self, special_char_dataset):
         # Column name is used directly without SQL parsing
         special_char_dataset.create_scalar_index("user-id", index_type="BTREE")
 
-        indices = special_char_dataset.list_indices()
+        indices = special_char_dataset.describe_indices()
         assert len(indices) == 1
-        # Field with special chars is returned in quoted format for SQL compatibility
-        assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["`user-id`"]
-        assert indices[0]["name"] == "user-id_idx"
+        assert indices[0].field_names == ["user-id"]
+        assert indices[0].name == "user-id_idx"
 
         # Query using the indexed column (requires backticks in filter)
         result = special_char_dataset.to_table(filter="`user-id` = 50")
@@ -460,10 +459,10 @@ def test_scalar_index_with_nested_mixed_case(self, nested_mixed_case_dataset):
             "MetaData.userId", index_type="BTREE"
         )
 
-        indices = nested_mixed_case_dataset.list_indices()
+        indices = nested_mixed_case_dataset.describe_indices()
         assert len(indices) == 1
-        assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["MetaData.userId"]
-        assert indices[0]["name"] == "MetaData.userId_idx"
+        assert indices[0].name == "MetaData.userId_idx"
+        assert indices[0].field_names == ["MetaData.userId"]
 
         # Query using the indexed column
         result = nested_mixed_case_dataset.to_table(filter="MetaData.userId = 50")
@@ -482,10 +481,10 @@ def test_scalar_index_on_top_level_mixed_case(self, nested_mixed_case_dataset):
         """Scalar index on top-level mixed-case column works."""
         nested_mixed_case_dataset.create_scalar_index("rowId", index_type="BTREE")
 
-        indices = nested_mixed_case_dataset.list_indices()
+        indices = nested_mixed_case_dataset.describe_indices()
         assert len(indices) == 1
-        assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["rowId"]
-        assert indices[0]["name"] == "rowId_idx"
+        assert indices[0].name == "rowId_idx"
+        assert indices[0].field_names == ["rowId"]
 
         result = nested_mixed_case_dataset.to_table(filter="rowId = 50")
         assert result.num_rows == 1
@@ -509,10 +508,11 @@ def test_scalar_index_with_lowercased_nested_path(self, nested_mixed_case_datase
             "metadata.userid", index_type="BTREE"
         )
 
-        indices = nested_mixed_case_dataset.list_indices()
+        indices = nested_mixed_case_dataset.describe_indices()
         assert len(indices) == 1
         # Should store with correct case from schema
-        assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["MetaData.userId"]
+        assert indices[0].name == "MetaData.userId_idx"
+        assert indices[0].field_names == ["MetaData.userId"]
 
         # Query should also work with correct case
         result = nested_mixed_case_dataset.to_table(filter="MetaData.userId = 50")
@@ -574,11 +574,10 @@ def test_scalar_index_with_nested_special_chars(self, nested_special_char_datase
             "`meta-data`.`user-id`", index_type="BTREE"
         )
 
-        indices = nested_special_char_dataset.list_indices()
+        indices = nested_special_char_dataset.describe_indices()
         assert len(indices) == 1
-        # Fields with special chars are returned in quoted format for SQL compatibility
-        assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["`meta-data`.`user-id`"]
-        assert indices[0]["name"] == "meta-data.user-id_idx"
+        assert indices[0].field_names == ["meta-data.user-id"]
+        assert indices[0].name == "meta-data.user-id_idx"
 
         # Query using the indexed column (backticks required in filter)
         result = nested_special_char_dataset.to_table(
@@ -599,10 +598,9 @@ def test_scalar_index_on_top_level_special_chars(self, nested_special_char_datas
         """Scalar index on top-level special char column works."""
         nested_special_char_dataset.create_scalar_index("`row-id`", index_type="BTREE")
 
-        indices = nested_special_char_dataset.list_indices()
+        indices = nested_special_char_dataset.describe_indices()
         assert len(indices) == 1
-        # Field with special chars is returned in quoted format for SQL compatibility
-        assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["`row-id`"]
+        assert indices[0].field_names == ["row-id"]
 
         result = nested_special_char_dataset.to_table(filter="`row-id` = 50")
         assert result.num_rows == 1
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_commit_index.py b/python/python/tests/test_commit_index.py
index c5d4f3ca9d1..a6515431592 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_commit_index.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_commit_index.py
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ def _get_field_id_by_name(lance_schema, field_name):
 def test_commit_index(dataset_with_index, test_table, tmp_path):
     from lance.dataset import Index
 
-    index_id = dataset_with_index.list_indices()[0]["uuid"]
+    index_id = dataset_with_index.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
 
     # Create a new dataset without index
     dataset_without_index = lance.write_dataset(
@@ -90,13 +90,13 @@ def test_commit_index(dataset_with_index, test_table, tmp_path):
         read_version=dataset_without_index.version,
     )
 
-    # Verify that both datasets have the index
-    assert len(dataset_with_index.list_indices()) == 1
-    assert len(dataset_without_index.list_indices()) == 1
+    # Verify the manually committed index matches the original index stats
+    stats_with = dataset_with_index.stats.index_stats("meta_idx")
+    stats_without = dataset_without_index.stats.index_stats("meta_idx")
 
-    assert (
-        dataset_without_index.list_indices()[0] == dataset_with_index.list_indices()[0]
-    )
+    assert stats_without["name"] == stats_with["name"]
+    assert stats_without["index_type"] == stats_with["index_type"]
+    assert stats_without["num_indexed_rows"] == stats_with["num_indexed_rows"]
 
     # Check if the index is used in scans
     for dataset in [dataset_with_index, dataset_without_index]:
@@ -105,3 +105,235 @@ def test_commit_index(dataset_with_index, test_table, tmp_path):
         )
         plan = scanner.explain_plan()
         assert "ScalarIndexQuery: query=[meta = hello]@meta_idx" in plan
+
+
+def test_commit_index_with_files(dataset_with_index, test_table, tmp_path):
+    """Test that the files field on Index round-trips through commit."""
+    from lance.dataset import Index, IndexFile
+
+    # Get info about the existing index created by the fixture
+    original_desc = dataset_with_index.describe_indices()[0]
+    index_id = original_desc.segments[0].uuid
+
+    # Verify the original index has file sizes
+    original_size = original_desc.total_size_bytes
+    assert original_size is not None and original_size > 0
+
+    # Create a new dataset without index
+    dataset_without_index = lance.write_dataset(
+        test_table, tmp_path / "dataset_without_index"
+    )
+
+    # Copy the index files from dataset_with_index to dataset_without_index
+    src_index_dir = Path(dataset_with_index.uri) / "_indices" / index_id
+    dest_index_dir = Path(dataset_without_index.uri) / "_indices" / index_id
+    shutil.copytree(src_index_dir, dest_index_dir)
+
+    # Get the field id
+    field_id = _get_field_id_by_name(dataset_without_index.lance_schema, "meta")
+
+    # Create IndexFile objects with custom sizes to verify they round-trip
+    index_files = [
+        IndexFile(path="index.idx", size_bytes=1024),
+        IndexFile(path="auxiliary.bin", size_bytes=2048),
+    ]
+
+    # Create an Index object with the files field
+    index = Index(
+        uuid=index_id,
+        name="meta_idx",
+        fields=[field_id],
+        dataset_version=dataset_without_index.version,
+        fragment_ids=set(
+            [f.fragment_id for f in dataset_without_index.get_fragments()]
+        ),
+        index_version=0,
+        files=index_files,
+    )
+
+    create_index_op = lance.LanceOperation.CreateIndex(
+        new_indices=[index],
+        removed_indices=[],
+    )
+    dataset_without_index = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset_without_index.uri,
+        create_index_op,
+        read_version=dataset_without_index.version,
+    )
+
+    # Read back the transaction to verify the files were stored
+    transactions = dataset_without_index.get_transactions(1)
+    assert len(transactions) == 1
+    transaction = transactions[0]
+    assert transaction is not None
+    assert transaction.operation is not None
+
+    # The operation should be a CreateIndex with our index that has files
+    op = transaction.operation
+    assert len(op.new_indices) == 1
+    committed_index = op.new_indices[0]
+    assert committed_index.files is not None
+    assert len(committed_index.files) == 2
+
+    # Verify the file sizes match what we set
+    files_by_path = {f.path: f.size_bytes for f in committed_index.files}
+    assert files_by_path["index.idx"] == 1024
+    assert files_by_path["auxiliary.bin"] == 2048
+
+
+def test_commit_index_with_index_details(dataset_with_index, test_table, tmp_path):
+    """Test that index_details round-trip through Python transaction bindings."""
+    from lance.dataset import Index
+
+    original_txn = dataset_with_index.get_transactions(1)[0]
+    original_index = original_txn.operation.new_indices[0]
+    assert original_index.index_details is not None
+
+    index_id = original_index.uuid
+    dataset_without_index = lance.write_dataset(
+        test_table, tmp_path / "dataset_without_index"
+    )
+
+    src_index_dir = Path(dataset_with_index.uri) / "_indices" / index_id
+    dest_index_dir = Path(dataset_without_index.uri) / "_indices" / index_id
+    shutil.copytree(src_index_dir, dest_index_dir)
+
+    field_id = _get_field_id_by_name(dataset_without_index.lance_schema, "meta")
+    index = Index(
+        uuid=index_id,
+        name="meta_idx",
+        fields=[field_id],
+        dataset_version=dataset_without_index.version,
+        fragment_ids=set(
+            [f.fragment_id for f in dataset_without_index.get_fragments()]
+        ),
+        index_version=0,
+        index_details=original_index.index_details,
+    )
+
+    create_index_op = lance.LanceOperation.CreateIndex(
+        new_indices=[index],
+        removed_indices=[],
+    )
+    dataset_without_index = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset_without_index.uri,
+        create_index_op,
+        read_version=dataset_without_index.version,
+    )
+
+    committed_txn = dataset_without_index.get_transactions(1)[0]
+    committed_index = committed_txn.operation.new_indices[0]
+    assert committed_index.index_details == original_index.index_details
+
+
+def test_index_covering_fields_roundtrip(dataset_with_index, test_table, tmp_path):
+    """A non-empty covering declaration must survive both the transaction
+    round trip (transaction.rs) and the describe_indices round trip
+    (indices.rs)."""
+    from lance.dataset import Index
+
+    index_id = dataset_with_index.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+
+    # Create a new dataset without index
+    dataset_without_index = lance.write_dataset(
+        test_table, tmp_path / "dataset_without_index"
+    )
+
+    # Copy the index from dataset_with_index to dataset_without_index
+    src_index_dir = Path(dataset_with_index.uri) / "_indices" / index_id
+    dest_index_dir = Path(dataset_without_index.uri) / "_indices" / index_id
+    shutil.copytree(src_index_dir, dest_index_dir)
+
+    meta_id = _get_field_id_by_name(dataset_without_index.lance_schema, "meta")
+    price_id = _get_field_id_by_name(dataset_without_index.lance_schema, "price")
+
+    # `covering_fields` must be a non-empty, non-total suffix of `fields`:
+    # [price_id] is the trailing entry of [meta_id, price_id], leaving
+    # meta_id as the column the index is keyed on.
+    index = Index(
+        uuid=index_id,
+        name="meta_idx",
+        fields=[meta_id, price_id],
+        dataset_version=dataset_without_index.version,
+        fragment_ids=set(
+            [f.fragment_id for f in dataset_without_index.get_fragments()]
+        ),
+        index_version=0,
+        covering_fields=[price_id],
+    )
+
+    create_index_op = lance.LanceOperation.CreateIndex(
+        new_indices=[index],
+        removed_indices=[],
+    )
+    dataset_without_index = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset_without_index.uri,
+        create_index_op,
+        read_version=dataset_without_index.version,
+    )
+
+    # Exercises transaction.rs: the Index <-> IndexMetadata PyO3 conversion.
+    committed_txn = dataset_without_index.get_transactions(1)[0]
+    committed_index = committed_txn.operation.new_indices[0]
+    assert committed_index.covering_fields == [price_id]
+
+    # Exercises indices.rs: the IndexMetadata -> PyIndexSegmentDescription
+    # conversion used by describe_indices().
+    segment = dataset_without_index.describe_indices()[0].segments[0]
+    assert segment.covering_fields == [price_id]
+
+
+def test_commit_index_rejects_invalid_covering_fields(dataset_with_index, tmp_path):
+    """The invariant is enforced at commit, not at construction.
+
+    LanceOperation.CreateIndex is a plain dataclass; it only reaches Rust at
+    commit(), so a construction-time gate would miss this path entirely.
+    """
+    from lance.dataset import Index
+
+    index_id = dataset_with_index.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+    field_id = _get_field_id_by_name(dataset_with_index.lance_schema, "meta")
+
+    # Constructing it is fine -- this is a dataclass, nothing is validated.
+    index = Index(
+        uuid=index_id,
+        name="meta_idx",
+        fields=[field_id],
+        dataset_version=dataset_with_index.version,
+        fragment_ids=set([f.fragment_id for f in dataset_with_index.get_fragments()]),
+        index_version=0,
+        covering_fields=[field_id],  # covers the only field -- degenerate
+    )
+
+    create_index_op = lance.LanceOperation.CreateIndex(
+        new_indices=[index],
+        removed_indices=[],
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="at least one field must remain indexed"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+            dataset_with_index.uri,
+            create_index_op,
+            read_version=dataset_with_index.version,
+        )
+
+
+def test_commit_index_accepts_bitmap_fragment_ids(dataset_with_index):
+    """An `Index` read back from Rust carries a `Bitmap` fragment_ids, and must
+    commit again as-is rather than having to be converted back to a `set`."""
+    from lance.bitmap import Bitmap
+
+    index = dataset_with_index.get_transactions(1)[0].operation.new_indices[0]
+    assert isinstance(index.fragment_ids, Bitmap)
+    fragment_ids = set(index.fragment_ids)
+    assert fragment_ids == {f.fragment_id for f in dataset_with_index.get_fragments()}
+
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset_with_index.uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.CreateIndex(new_indices=[index], removed_indices=[]),
+        read_version=dataset_with_index.version,
+    )
+
+    segment = dataset.describe_indices()[0].segments[0]
+    assert set(segment.fragment_ids) == fragment_ids
+    assert dataset.stats.index_stats("meta_idx")["num_indexed_rows"] == 1000
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_compat_version_snapshot.py b/python/python/tests/test_compat_version_snapshot.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ce2ccc3d405
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_compat_version_snapshot.py
@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Coverage for the version snapshot the compat tests are parametrized over."""
+
+import shutil
+import subprocess
+import sys
+from pathlib import Path
+
+TESTS_DIR = Path(__file__).resolve().parent
+
+# Returns an extra release on gw1 only, so a worker that resolves the list itself
+# parametrizes differently from the controller and from its sibling.
+STUB_PLUGIN = """
+import os
+import sys
+from pathlib import Path
+
+sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).parent))
+
+from packaging.version import Version
+
+from compat import compat_decorator
+
+
+def _fetch_stable_versions():
+    extra = ["8.0.0"] if os.environ.get("PYTEST_XDIST_WORKER") == "gw1" else []
+    return sorted(Version(v) for v in ["6.0.0", "7.0.0", *extra])
+
+
+def _fetch_last_beta_release():
+    return "7.1.0b1"
+
+
+compat_decorator._fetch_stable_versions = _fetch_stable_versions
+compat_decorator._fetch_last_beta_release = _fetch_last_beta_release
+"""
+
+# Not run with --run-compat: the generated cases stay collected but skipped, which
+# is what makes their ids part of the collection xdist compares between workers.
+INNER_TEST = """
+import os
+
+from compat import compat_decorator
+from compat.compat_decorator import UpgradeDowngradeTest, compat_test
+
+SEEDED_AT_IMPORT = compat_decorator._SNAPSHOT is not None
+
+
+@compat_test()
+class Sample(UpgradeDowngradeTest):
+    def __init__(self, path):
+        self.path = path
+
+
+def test_snapshot_arrived_before_collection():
+    assert os.environ["PYTEST_XDIST_WORKER"]
+    assert SEEDED_AT_IMPORT, "worker resolved the version list itself"
+"""
+
+
+def test_workers_share_the_controller_version_snapshot(tmp_path):
+    """Every xdist worker parametrizes on the releases the controller resolved.
+
+    The compat suite discovers pylance releases over the network, so a worker
+    left to query for them itself can collect a different parameter set than its
+    siblings and abort the run. This pins both halves of the fix: that the
+    snapshot reaches the worker at all, and that it arrives before collection
+    imports any test module.
+    """
+    root = tmp_path / "inner"
+    (root / "compat").mkdir(parents=True)
+    shutil.copy(TESTS_DIR / "conftest.py", root / "conftest.py")
+    shutil.copy(
+        TESTS_DIR / "compat" / "compat_decorator.py",
+        root / "compat" / "compat_decorator.py",
+    )
+    (root / "compat" / "__init__.py").touch()
+    (root / "stubnet.py").write_text(STUB_PLUGIN)
+    (root / "test_snapshot.py").write_text(INNER_TEST)
+
+    result = subprocess.run(
+        [
+            sys.executable,
+            "-m",
+            "pytest",
+            "-q",
+            "-p",
+            "no:cacheprovider",
+            "-p",
+            "stubnet",
+            "-n",
+            "2",
+            "--dist",
+            "loadgroup",
+        ],
+        cwd=root,
+        capture_output=True,
+        text=True,
+    )
+    output = result.stdout + result.stderr
+
+    assert "Different tests were collected" not in output, output
+    assert "8.0.0" not in output, output
+    assert result.returncode == 0, output
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_count_pushdown.py b/python/python/tests/test_count_pushdown.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..896bd629fc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_count_pushdown.py
@@ -0,0 +1,178 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""End-to-end tests for count-from-mask pushdown.
+
+The optimizer rule under test (`CountPushdown`) rewrites
+``SELECT COUNT(*) ... WHERE indexed_col <op> v`` into
+``AggregateExec(Final) → CountFromMaskExec → ScalarIndexExec`` when the
+index covers every dataset fragment, or splits into a Union of a pushdown
+branch over the indexed fragments and a scan branch over the rest when
+coverage is partial. This is category 1 (count-from-mask) of the four
+aggregate-acceleration categories; the other three (mask-to-answer,
+zone-aware, dimension-keyed) are not implemented yet.
+
+Each test exercises a different state of the dataset (clean, with deletions,
+with updates that introduce unindexed fragments, with a fully-deleted indexed
+fragment) and asserts:
+
+  1. The returned count matches the ground truth (correctness), and
+  2. The plan routes through ``CountFromMaskExec`` (the rule fired).
+
+For the cases where the index covers the whole dataset, the tests also assert
+no ``LanceRead`` is present in the plan — proof that the count is being
+answered from index metadata, not by scanning column data. The happy-path
+test additionally re-runs the query and asserts the second call performs no
+I/O.
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from pathlib import Path
+
+
+# --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Helpers
+# --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# 4 fragments × 25 rows = 100 rows; values 0..99 in `x`.
+NUM_FRAGMENTS = 4
+ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT = 25
+NUM_ROWS = NUM_FRAGMENTS * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT  # 100
+
+
+def _make_dataset(tmp_path: Path) -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    """Build a 4-fragment dataset with a BTREE index on `x`."""
+    table = pa.table({"x": pa.array(range(NUM_ROWS), pa.int64())})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "ds",
+        max_rows_per_file=ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+    )
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == NUM_FRAGMENTS
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("x", "BTREE")
+    return dataset
+
+
+def _filtered_count_plan(dataset: lance.LanceDataset, filter: str) -> str:
+    """Return the ``analyze_plan(count_rows=True)`` output for a filtered
+    ``COUNT(*)`` — the same plan ``count_rows(filter=…)`` actually executes."""
+    return dataset.scanner(columns=[], with_row_id=True, filter=filter).analyze_plan(
+        count_rows=True
+    )
+
+
+def _assert_pushdown_fired(plan: str) -> None:
+    assert "CountFromMask" in plan, f"expected CountFromMaskExec in plan, got:\n{plan}"
+
+
+def _assert_no_column_scan(plan: str) -> None:
+    """Stricter: no LanceRead anywhere. Only applies when the index covers
+    every dataset fragment (no partial-coverage split branch)."""
+    assert "LanceRead" not in plan, (
+        f"unexpected LanceRead in plan — column data was scanned:\n{plan}"
+    )
+
+
+# --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Tests
+# --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def test_filtered_count_with_scalar_index(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Happy path: filtered count on an indexed column, run twice.
+
+    The second call must perform zero I/O — proof the rule routed the count
+    through the index/deletion-mask metadata both times and the second call
+    re-used the cache. The check uses ``dataset.io_stats_incremental()``
+    rather than parsing the plan's ``bytes_read=…`` so we get a direct
+    accounting of every object-store read the dataset performed during the
+    second call, not just what the plan happens to surface.
+    """
+    dataset = _make_dataset(tmp_path)
+    filter = "x < 50"
+    expected = 50
+
+    # Verify the rule fires for this shape.
+    _assert_pushdown_fired(_filtered_count_plan(dataset, filter))
+    _assert_no_column_scan(_filtered_count_plan(dataset, filter))
+
+    # First call warms the index + deletion-mask caches.
+    assert dataset.count_rows(filter=filter) == expected
+    # Reset counters so the next snapshot only reflects the second call.
+    dataset.io_stats_incremental()
+
+    # Second call: must do zero I/O.
+    assert dataset.count_rows(filter=filter) == expected
+    stats = dataset.io_stats_incremental()
+    assert stats.read_iops == 0, f"expected 0 read_iops, got {stats.read_iops}"
+    assert stats.read_bytes == 0, f"expected 0 read_bytes, got {stats.read_bytes}"
+
+
+def test_filtered_count_with_deleted_rows(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Some matching rows are deleted — the count must reflect the deletions.
+
+    Deletions don't change fragment coverage, so the index still covers every
+    dataset fragment and the rule emits a single pushdown branch (no scan).
+    """
+    dataset = _make_dataset(tmp_path)
+    # Delete three rows that match the filter (x < 50).
+    dataset.delete("x = 10 OR x = 20 OR x = 30")
+    plan = _filtered_count_plan(dataset, "x < 50")
+    _assert_pushdown_fired(plan)
+    _assert_no_column_scan(plan)
+    assert dataset.count_rows(filter="x < 50") == 50 - 3
+
+
+def test_filtered_count_with_updated_rows(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Updates move rows in/out of the filter set.
+
+    Before:  x < 50 ⇒ 50 rows match (values 0..49).
+    After:
+      - x = 5 → x = 100        (one row leaves the matched set)
+      - x = 7 → x = 101        (another row leaves)
+      - x = 60 → x = 8         (a row joins the matched set)
+      - x = 70 → x = 9         (another joins)
+
+    Net change: −2 + 2 = 0, so the final count is still 50, but the
+    underlying row identities have shifted. Each update is materialized as
+    a delete + insert into a new fragment in Lance — the new fragments are
+    not in the index's coverage, so the optimizer rule emits a split plan:
+    pushdown for the originally-indexed fragments, plus a scan branch for
+    the rewritten fragments. The final count must still be correct.
+    """
+    dataset = _make_dataset(tmp_path)
+    dataset.update({"x": "100"}, where="x = 5")
+    dataset.update({"x": "101"}, where="x = 7")
+    dataset.update({"x": "8"}, where="x = 60")
+    dataset.update({"x": "9"}, where="x = 70")
+
+    plan = _filtered_count_plan(dataset, "x < 50")
+    _assert_pushdown_fired(plan)
+    # 50 originally matching − 2 that left + 2 that joined = 50.
+    assert dataset.count_rows(filter="x < 50") == 50
+
+
+def test_filtered_count_with_whole_fragment_deleted(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Delete every row in one indexed fragment.
+
+    Fragment 0 covers x ∈ [0, 25). Deleting all of those rows removes 25
+    matches of `x < 50`, dropping the count from 50 to 25.
+
+    Lance retires the now-empty fragment, so the dataset has 3 fragments
+    while the index still claims 4 — the index is a strict *superset* of
+    the dataset, which is safe (the extra index entries simply don't
+    apply). The rule emits a single pushdown branch (no scan needed).
+    """
+    dataset = _make_dataset(tmp_path)
+    dataset.delete("x < 25")
+    plan = _filtered_count_plan(dataset, "x < 50")
+    _assert_pushdown_fired(plan)
+    _assert_no_column_scan(plan)
+    assert dataset.count_rows(filter="x < 50") == 25
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_create_empty_index.py b/python/python/tests/test_create_empty_index.py
index 047cbb16e59..39a2580b2ff 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_create_empty_index.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_create_empty_index.py
@@ -16,10 +16,10 @@ def test_create_empty_scalar_index():
     dataset.create_scalar_index("id", "BTREE", train=False)
 
     # Verify index exists and has correct stats
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "BTree"
-    stats = dataset.stats.index_stats(indices[0]["name"])
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "BTree"
+    stats = dataset.stats.index_stats(indices[0].name)
     assert stats["num_indexed_rows"] == 0
     assert stats["num_unindexed_rows"] == dataset.count_rows()
 
@@ -31,17 +31,31 @@ def test_create_empty_vector_index():
     data = pa.table({"vector": vectors})
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, "memory://")
 
-    # Currently, vector indices with train=False are not supported
-    try:
-        dataset.create_index(
-            "vector", "IVF_PQ", num_partitions=10, num_sub_vectors=8, train=False
-        )
-        # If we get here, the implementation has been added (unexpected for now)
-        assert False, (
-            "Expected NotImplementedError for train=False on vector index, "
-            "but succeeded"
-        )
-    except NotImplementedError as e:
-        # Expected error for unimplemented functionality
-        error_msg = str(e).lower()
-        assert "not yet implemented" in error_msg or "not implemented" in error_msg
+    dataset.create_index(
+        "vector", "IVF_PQ", num_partitions=10, num_sub_vectors=8, train=False
+    )
+
+    # Same shape the scalar case reports: listed, covering nothing yet.
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
+    assert len(indices) == 1
+    stats = dataset.stats.index_stats(indices[0].name)
+    assert stats["num_indexed_rows"] == 0
+    assert stats["num_unindexed_rows"] == dataset.count_rows()
+
+
+def test_create_vector_index_below_the_row_floor():
+    """A table too small to train the quantizer takes the index anyway."""
+    dim = 32
+    values = pc.random(100 * dim).cast(pa.float32())
+    vectors = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(values, dim)
+    data = pa.table({"vector": vectors})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, "memory://")
+
+    # 100 vectors cannot train a 256-code codebook, and train defaults to True.
+    dataset.create_index("vector", "IVF_PQ", num_partitions=10, num_sub_vectors=8)
+
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
+    assert len(indices) == 1
+    stats = dataset.stats.index_stats(indices[0].name)
+    assert stats["num_indexed_rows"] == 0
+    assert stats["num_unindexed_rows"] == dataset.count_rows()
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_custom_registry.py b/python/python/tests/test_custom_registry.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9e38f47f693
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_custom_registry.py
@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Smoke test for the runtime object-store scheme registration hook.
+
+Exercises the pyo3 additions in ``python/src/object_store.rs`` and the new
+``store_registry=`` parameter on ``Session(...)``. Registers the built-in
+``MemoryStoreProvider`` under a made-up scheme (``test-mem``) and proves that
+``lance.write_dataset(...)`` and ``lance.dataset(...)`` route reads and writes
+through the registry-selected store rather than the default built-in scheme
+resolver.
+
+The full Python-to-Rust ``ObjectStoreProvider`` callable bridge is not exercised
+here — that is a follow-up. See the module docstring in
+``python/src/object_store.rs``.
+"""
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+from lance.lance import (
+    _ObjectStoreProvider,
+    _ObjectStoreRegistry,
+    _Session,
+)
+
+
+def _make_registry_and_session(scheme: str) -> tuple[_ObjectStoreRegistry, _Session]:
+    """Return a fresh registry with ``scheme`` bound to an in-memory provider,
+    plus a Session that consults it.
+    """
+    registry = _ObjectStoreRegistry()
+    provider = _ObjectStoreProvider.memory()
+    registry.register_provider(scheme, provider)
+    session = _Session(store_registry=registry)
+    return registry, session
+
+
+def test_custom_scheme_registration_roundtrip():
+    """Register ``test-mem`` and round-trip a small table through it.
+
+    Note on lifetimes: ``ObjectStoreRegistry`` caches active stores under
+    ``Weak<ObjectStore>``. Every call to ``MemoryStoreProvider::new_store``
+    allocates a fresh ``InMemory`` backend, so the writer's dataset handle
+    must stay alive across the read to keep the same in-memory store visible
+    from the reader.
+    """
+    _registry, session = _make_registry_and_session("test-mem")
+
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "i": pa.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], type=pa.int64()),
+            "s": pa.array(["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"], type=pa.string()),
+        }
+    )
+    uri = "test-mem://cache/dataset.lance"
+
+    # Keep the write-side dataset alive across the read so the shared
+    # ObjectStore held by the registry's Weak cache remains upgradeable.
+    written = lance.write_dataset(table, uri, session=session)
+    assert written.count_rows() == 5
+
+    read_ds = lance.dataset(uri, session=session)
+    round_trip = read_ds.to_table()
+
+    assert round_trip.equals(table), (
+        "round-trip through test-mem:// scheme did not match the written table"
+    )
+    assert read_ds.count_rows() == 5
+
+
+def test_registry_repr_and_reuse():
+    """Registry ``__repr__`` reports cache stats, and reusing a registered
+    scheme with the same params returns a cached store rather than a new one.
+    """
+    registry, session = _make_registry_and_session("test-mem-reuse")
+
+    table = pa.table({"i": pa.array([1, 2, 3], type=pa.int64())})
+    uri = "test-mem-reuse://cache/reuse.lance"
+
+    written = lance.write_dataset(table, uri, session=session)
+
+    stats_after_write = repr(registry)
+    assert "active_stores=" in stats_after_write
+    assert "hits=" in stats_after_write
+    assert "misses=" in stats_after_write
+
+    # Re-open the same URI with the same session. This should hit the
+    # registry's active-stores cache (weak ref still upgradeable because
+    # ``written`` holds a strong ref).
+    _reopened = lance.dataset(uri, session=session)
+    stats_after_reopen = repr(registry)
+
+    # We do not assert exact hit counts — the registry accounts for both the
+    # write- and read-path resolutions — but the reuse call must not have
+    # produced additional active-store entries.
+    _ = stats_after_reopen  # kept for post-mortem debugging when running verbose
+    _ = written  # keep the write handle alive until the assertion above passes
+
+
+def test_missing_scheme_raises_helpful_error():
+    """A URI whose scheme is neither built-in nor registered must raise, and
+    the error message must name the missing scheme.
+    """
+    # Fresh registry with nothing custom registered.
+    session = _Session(store_registry=_ObjectStoreRegistry())
+
+    with pytest.raises(Exception) as excinfo:  # OSError or lance.LanceError
+        lance.dataset("no-such-scheme://foo/bar.lance", session=session)
+
+    assert "no-such-scheme" in str(excinfo.value), (
+        "expected the missing scheme name in the error, got: " + str(excinfo.value)
+    )
+
+
+def test_register_provider_rejects_empty_scheme():
+    """Empty schemes are rejected at registration time."""
+    registry = _ObjectStoreRegistry()
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        registry.register_provider("", _ObjectStoreProvider.memory())
+
+
+def test_from_capsule_roundtrip():
+    """Exercise the ``PyCapsule`` handoff end to end with an in-process producer.
+
+    ``_memory_capsule()`` mirrors what an external, ABI-compatible wheel emits:
+    a ``PyCapsule`` named ``lance_object_store_provider`` holding an
+    ``Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>``. ``from_capsule`` must accept it (name
+    check passes), adopt the provider, and the result must be registrable and
+    usable for a read/write round-trip — covering the clone-on-adopt and the
+    capsule's own drop when it is garbage-collected.
+    """
+    registry = _ObjectStoreRegistry()
+    capsule = _ObjectStoreProvider._memory_capsule()
+    provider = _ObjectStoreProvider.from_capsule(capsule)
+    # Drop our reference to the capsule; the adopted Arc must keep the provider
+    # alive independently of the capsule.
+    del capsule
+    registry.register_provider("test-cap", provider)
+    session = _Session(store_registry=registry)
+
+    table = pa.table({"i": pa.array([1, 2, 3, 4], type=pa.int64())})
+    uri = "test-cap://cache/cap.lance"
+    written = lance.write_dataset(table, uri, session=session)
+    assert written.count_rows() == 4
+
+    read_ds = lance.dataset(uri, session=session)
+    assert read_ds.to_table().equals(table)
+
+
+def test_from_capsule_rejects_wrong_name():
+    """A capsule whose name does not match is rejected before its pointer is
+    ever dereferenced (regression for the ``pointer_checked(None)`` bug, which
+    rejected *every* correctly-named capsule).
+    """
+    import ctypes
+
+    make = ctypes.pythonapi.PyCapsule_New
+    make.argtypes = [ctypes.c_void_p, ctypes.c_char_p, ctypes.c_void_p]
+    make.restype = ctypes.py_object
+    # A capsule with the wrong name and a dummy pointer. The name check must
+    # fail first, so the bogus pointer is never read.
+    storage = (ctypes.c_void_p * 2)()
+    capsule = make(ctypes.addressof(storage), b"not-a-lance-provider", None)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        _ObjectStoreProvider.from_capsule(capsule)
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_datagen.py b/python/python/tests/test_datagen.py
index bdc205a3187..219075eaae0 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_datagen.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_datagen.py
@@ -7,6 +7,14 @@
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pytest
 
+SCHEMA = pa.schema(
+    [
+        pa.field("int", pa.int64()),
+        pa.field("vector", pa.list_(pa.float32(), 128)),
+    ]
+)
+BYTES_PER_ROW = 8 + 128 * 4
+
 
 @pytest.mark.skipif(datagen.is_datagen_supported(), reason="datagen is supported")
 def test_import_error():
@@ -17,19 +25,29 @@ def test_import_error():
 
 
 @pytest.mark.skipif(not datagen.is_datagen_supported(), reason="datagen not supported")
-def test_rand_batches():
-    import lance._datagen as datagen
+def test_rand_batches_by_bytes():
+    reader = datagen.rand_batches(SCHEMA, batch_size_bytes=16 * 1024, num_batches=10)
 
-    schema = pa.schema(
-        [
-            pa.field("int", pa.int64()),
-            pa.field("vector", pa.list_(pa.float32(), 128)),
-        ]
-    )
+    batches = list(reader)
+    assert len(batches) == 10
+    for batch in batches:
+        assert batch.num_rows == math.ceil(16 * 1024 / BYTES_PER_ROW)
+        assert batch.schema == SCHEMA
 
-    batches = datagen.rand_batches(schema, batch_size_bytes=16 * 1024, num_batches=10)
 
-    assert len(batches) == 10
+@pytest.mark.skipif(not datagen.is_datagen_supported(), reason="datagen not supported")
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("rows_per_batch", [1, 100])
+def test_rand_batches_by_rows(rows_per_batch):
+    reader = datagen.rand_batches(SCHEMA, rows_per_batch=rows_per_batch, num_batches=3)
+
+    batches = list(reader)
+    assert len(batches) == 3
     for batch in batches:
-        assert batch.num_rows == math.ceil(16 * 1024 / (129 * 4))
-        assert batch.schema == schema
+        assert batch.num_rows == rows_per_batch
+        assert batch.schema == SCHEMA
+
+
+@pytest.mark.skipif(not datagen.is_datagen_supported(), reason="datagen not supported")
+def test_rand_batches_rejects_both_sizes():
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="mutually exclusive"):
+        datagen.rand_batches(SCHEMA, batch_size_bytes=16 * 1024, rows_per_batch=100)
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_dataset.py b/python/python/tests/test_dataset.py
index c5915aad4a3..ba71b562526 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_dataset.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_dataset.py
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 import base64
 import contextlib
+import importlib
 import os
 import pickle
 import platform
@@ -12,7 +13,7 @@
 import uuid
 from datetime import date, datetime, timedelta
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import List
+from typing import List, Optional
 from unittest import mock
 
 import lance
@@ -28,15 +29,23 @@
 import pytest
 from helper import ProgressForTest
 from lance._dataset.sharded_batch_iterator import ShardedBatchIterator
-from lance.commit import CommitConflictError
 from lance.dataset import LANCE_COMMIT_MESSAGE_KEY, AutoCleanupConfig
 from lance.debug import format_fragment
-from lance.file import stable_version
+from lance.file import LanceFileWriter, stable_version
 from lance.schema import LanceSchema
 from lance.util import validate_vector_index
 
+BaseModel = pytest.importorskip("pydantic").BaseModel
+
 # Various valid inputs for write_dataset
 input_schema = pa.schema([pa.field("a", pa.float64()), pa.field("b", pa.int64())])
+
+
+class _InputModel(BaseModel):
+    a: float
+    b: int
+
+
 input_data = [
     # (schema, data)
     (None, pa.table({"a": [1.0, 2.0], "b": [20, 30]})),
@@ -59,6 +68,8 @@
             ).to_batches()
         ),
     ),
+    # Pydantic model instances are auto-converted
+    (None, [_InputModel(a=1.0, b=20), _InputModel(a=2.0, b=30)]),
 ]
 
 
@@ -66,7 +77,138 @@
 def test_input_data(tmp_path: Path, schema, data):
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, base_dir, schema=schema)
-    assert dataset.to_table() == input_data[0][1]
+    expected = input_data[0][1]
+    # Pydantic model instances derive their schema from the model class, so
+    # required (non-Optional) fields are correctly non-nullable -- stricter
+    # than, but castable to, the nullable reference schema below.
+    assert dataset.to_table().cast(expected.schema) == expected
+
+
+def test_from_pydantic_model(tmp_path: Path):
+    class UserRecord(BaseModel):
+        name: str
+        score: float
+
+    data = [UserRecord(name="alice", score=0.9), UserRecord(name="bob", score=0.8)]
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "user_record")
+    ds = lance.LanceDataset.from_pydantic_model(UserRecord, data, uri=uri)
+
+    table = ds.to_table()
+    assert table.num_rows == 2
+    assert table.schema.names == ["name", "score"]
+    assert table.column("name").to_pylist() == ["alice", "bob"]
+    assert table.column("score").to_pylist() == [0.9, 0.8]
+
+
+def test_from_pydantic_model_rejects_non_model_class(tmp_path: Path):
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "not_a_model")
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="BaseModel subclass"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.from_pydantic_model(dict, [{"a": 1}], uri=uri)
+
+
+class _OtherRecord(BaseModel):
+    x: int
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "bad_item",
+    [{"name": "eve", "score": 1.0}, _OtherRecord(x=1)],
+    ids=["dict", "different_model"],
+)
+def test_from_pydantic_model_rejects_invalid_item(tmp_path: Path, bad_item):
+    """A dict or an instance of a different model slipped into `data` must be
+    rejected up front with the offending index, rather than either reaching
+    model_to_dict() and raising an opaque AttributeError (dict case) or being
+    silently serialized against the first item's schema (different-model
+    case)."""
+
+    class UserRecord(BaseModel):
+        name: str
+        score: float
+
+    data = [UserRecord(name="alice", score=0.9), bad_item]
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "invalid_item")
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=r"data\[1\]"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.from_pydantic_model(UserRecord, data, uri=uri)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "bad_item",
+    [{"name": "eve"}, _OtherRecord(x=1)],
+    ids=["dict", "different_model"],
+)
+def test_write_dataset_pydantic_list_rejects_invalid_item(tmp_path: Path, bad_item):
+    """Same guard as from_pydantic_model(), but via the plain write_dataset()
+    entry point (the _coerce_reader() Pydantic branch in types.py)."""
+
+    class Record(BaseModel):
+        name: str
+
+    data = [Record(name="alice"), bad_item]
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "invalid_item_write_dataset")
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=r"data\[1\]"):
+        lance.write_dataset(data, uri)
+
+
+def test_from_pydantic_model_rejects_non_list_data(tmp_path: Path):
+    """A generator (or other non-list iterable) must be rejected up front --
+    otherwise it gets drained by item validation and the caller silently
+    writes a 0-row table instead of getting an error."""
+
+    class Record(BaseModel):
+        name: str
+
+    data = (Record(name=n) for n in ["alice", "bob"])
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "generator_input")
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="must be provided as a list"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.from_pydantic_model(Record, data, uri=uri)
+
+
+class _RecordSubclass(_OtherRecord):
+    y: int = 0
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "entry_point",
+    ["from_pydantic_model", "write_dataset"],
+)
+def test_pydantic_list_rejects_subclass_instance(tmp_path: Path, entry_point):
+    """A subclass instance must not be accepted in place of the exact model
+    class: the schema is derived from the declared model class, but a
+    subclass instance may carry extra/overridden fields that model_to_dict()
+    would then try to serialize against that schema."""
+
+    data = [_OtherRecord(x=1), _RecordSubclass(x=2, y=3)]
+    uri = str(tmp_path / f"subclass_rejected_{entry_point}")
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=r"data\[1\].*exactly"):
+        if entry_point == "from_pydantic_model":
+            lance.LanceDataset.from_pydantic_model(_OtherRecord, data, uri=uri)
+        else:
+            lance.write_dataset(data, uri)
+
+
+def test_write_dataset_pydantic_optional_field_typed_correctly_when_all_none(
+    tmp_path: Path,
+):
+    """Regression test: passing a list of Pydantic instances directly to
+    write_dataset() (not via from_pydantic_model()) must still derive the
+    schema from the model class, not from the batch's row data -- otherwise
+    an Optional field that happens to be None for every row in the batch
+    gets typed as Arrow's literal null type instead of its real type."""
+
+    class Record(BaseModel):
+        name: str
+        tag: Optional[str] = None
+
+    data = [Record(name="alice"), Record(name="bob")]
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "all_none_optional")
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, uri)
+
+    assert dataset.schema.field("tag").type == pa.string()
+    assert dataset.schema.field("tag").nullable is True
+
+    dataset.insert([Record(name="carol", tag="vip")])
+    assert dataset.to_table().column("tag").to_pylist() == [None, None, "vip"]
 
 
 def test_roundtrip_types(tmp_path: Path):
@@ -93,6 +235,25 @@ def test_roundtrip_types(tmp_path: Path):
     assert dataset.to_table() == table
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("data_storage_version", ["legacy", "stable", "2.1"])
+def test_write_zero_dimension_fixed_size_list(
+    tmp_path: Path, data_storage_version: str
+):
+    # Zero-dimension fixed-size lists must be rejected with a clean error
+    # instead of a divide-by-zero panic (#5102)
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+            pa.field("vec", pa.list_(pa.float32(), 0)),
+        ]
+    )
+    table = pa.table({"id": [1], "vec": [[]]}, schema=schema)
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="dimension must be a positive integer"):
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            table, tmp_path / "ds.lance", data_storage_version=data_storage_version
+        )
+
+
 def test_dataset_overwrite(tmp_path: Path):
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}, {"a": 10, "b": 20}])
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
@@ -288,18 +449,42 @@ def test_schema_metadata(tmp_path: Path):
     assert ds.schema.field("b").metadata == {b"thisis": b"b"}
 
 
+def test_get_version(tmp_path: Path):
+    lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(10)}), tmp_path)
+    lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(5)}), tmp_path, mode="append")
+    dataset = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+    dataset.delete("a < 3")
+
+    info = dataset.get_version()
+    assert info == dataset.versions()[-1]
+    assert info["version"] == dataset.version
+    assert isinstance(info["timestamp"], datetime)
+    assert info["metadata"]["total_fragments"] == "2"
+    assert info["metadata"]["total_rows"] == "9"
+    assert info["metadata"]["total_deletion_files"] == "2"
+    assert info["metadata"]["total_deletion_file_rows"] == "6"
+
+    assert dataset.checkout_version(1).get_version() == dataset.versions()[0]
+
+
 def test_versions(tmp_path: Path):
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}, {"a": 10, "b": 20}])
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
     lance.write_dataset(table1, base_dir)
 
-    assert len(lance.dataset(base_dir).versions()) == 1
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    assert len(dataset.versions()) == 1
+    assert dataset.version_refs() == [{"version": 1}]
+    assert dataset.latest_version == dataset.version_refs()[-1]["version"]
 
     table2 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"s": "one"}, {"s": "two"}])
     time.sleep(1)
     lance.write_dataset(table2, base_dir, mode="overwrite")
 
-    assert len(lance.dataset(base_dir).versions()) == 2
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    assert len(dataset.versions()) == 2
+    assert dataset.version_refs() == [{"version": 1}, {"version": 2}]
+    assert dataset.latest_version == dataset.version_refs()[-1]["version"]
 
     v1, v2 = lance.dataset(base_dir).versions()
     assert v1["version"] == 1
@@ -329,6 +514,11 @@ def test_version_id(tmp_path: Path):
     assert updated_ds.version == 2
     assert updated_ds.latest_version == 2
 
+    historical_ds = updated_ds.checkout_version(1)
+    assert historical_ds.version == 1
+    assert historical_ds.latest_version == 2
+    assert historical_ds.checkout_version(historical_ds.latest_version).version == 2
+
 
 def test_checkout(tmp_path: Path):
     tab = pa.table({"a": range(3)})
@@ -419,18 +609,50 @@ def test_enable_stable_row_ids(tmp_path: Path):
     assert table_after["_rowaddr"][3].as_py() == (2 << 32) + 3
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("enable_stable_row_ids", [True, False])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "rows",
+    [[{"a": 1}, {"a": 2}], []],
+    ids=["non_empty", "empty"],
+)
+def test_has_stable_row_ids_property(tmp_path: Path, enable_stable_row_ids: bool, rows):
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("a", pa.int64())])
+    table = pa.Table.from_pylist(rows, schema=schema)
+
+    path = tmp_path / f"stable_row_ids_{enable_stable_row_ids}_{len(rows)}"
+    lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        path,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=enable_stable_row_ids,
+    )
+    ds = lance.dataset(path)
+
+    assert ds.count_rows() == len(rows)
+    assert len(ds.get_fragments()) == (0 if len(rows) == 0 else 1)
+    assert ds.has_stable_row_ids is enable_stable_row_ids
+
+
+def _list_manifests(versions_dir):
+    # Ignore the version hint file, which is not a manifest.
+    return [
+        name
+        for name in os.listdir(versions_dir)
+        if not name.startswith("latest_version_hint")
+    ]
+
+
 def test_v2_manifest_paths(tmp_path: Path):
     lance.write_dataset(
         pa.table({"a": range(100)}), tmp_path, enable_v2_manifest_paths=True
     )
-    manifest_path = os.listdir(tmp_path / "_versions")
+    manifest_path = _list_manifests(tmp_path / "_versions")
     assert len(manifest_path) == 1
     assert re.match(r"\d{20}\.manifest", manifest_path[0])
 
 
 def test_default_v2_manifest_paths(tmp_path: Path):
     lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(100)}), tmp_path)
-    manifest_path = os.listdir(tmp_path / "_versions")
+    manifest_path = _list_manifests(tmp_path / "_versions")
     assert len(manifest_path) == 1
     assert re.match(r"\d{20}\.manifest", manifest_path[0])
 
@@ -440,12 +662,12 @@ def test_v2_manifest_paths_migration(tmp_path: Path):
     lance.write_dataset(
         pa.table({"a": range(100)}), tmp_path, enable_v2_manifest_paths=False
     )
-    manifest_path = os.listdir(tmp_path / "_versions")
+    manifest_path = _list_manifests(tmp_path / "_versions")
     assert manifest_path == ["1.manifest"]
 
     # Migrate to v2 manifest paths
     lance.dataset(tmp_path).migrate_manifest_paths_v2()
-    manifest_path = os.listdir(tmp_path / "_versions")
+    manifest_path = _list_manifests(tmp_path / "_versions")
     assert len(manifest_path) == 1
     assert re.match(r"\d{20}\.manifest", manifest_path[0])
 
@@ -466,7 +688,15 @@ def test_tag(tmp_path: Path):
         ds.tags.delete("tag1")
 
     ds.tags.create("tag1", 1)
+    ds.tags.replace_metadata("tag1", {"description": "first tag"})
+    tag1_meta = ds.tags.list()["tag1"]
+    assert tag1_meta["created_at"] is not None
+    assert isinstance(tag1_meta["created_at"], datetime)
+    assert tag1_meta["updated_at"] is not None
+    assert isinstance(tag1_meta["updated_at"], datetime)
+    assert tag1_meta["created_at"] == tag1_meta["updated_at"]
     assert len(ds.tags.list()) == 1
+    assert ds.tags.list()["tag1"]["metadata"] == {"description": "first tag"}
 
     with pytest.raises(ValueError):
         ds.tags.create("tag1", 1)
@@ -500,13 +730,41 @@ def test_tag(tmp_path: Path):
     ):
         ds.tags.update("tag3", 1)
 
+    tag1_meta = ds.tags.list()["tag1"]
+    tag1_created_at = tag1_meta["created_at"]
+    tag1_updated_at = tag1_meta["updated_at"]
+    assert tag1_created_at is not None
+    assert tag1_updated_at is not None
+    ds.tags.replace_metadata("tag1", {"description": "updated tag"})
+    ds = lance.dataset(base_dir, "tag1")
+    assert ds.version == 1
+    replaced_tag1_meta = ds.tags.list()["tag1"]
+    assert replaced_tag1_meta["metadata"] == {"description": "updated tag"}
+    assert replaced_tag1_meta["updated_at"] == tag1_updated_at
+
+    ds.tags.replace_metadata("tag1", {"owner": "ml-team"})
+    replaced_again_tag1_meta = ds.tags.list()["tag1"]
+    assert replaced_again_tag1_meta["metadata"] == {"owner": "ml-team"}
+    assert replaced_again_tag1_meta["updated_at"] == tag1_updated_at
+
     ds.tags.update("tag1", 2)
+    updated_tag1_meta = ds.tags.list()["tag1"]
+    assert updated_tag1_meta["created_at"] == tag1_created_at
+    assert updated_tag1_meta["updated_at"] is not None
+    assert updated_tag1_meta["updated_at"] >= tag1_updated_at
+    ds = lance.dataset(base_dir, "tag1")
+    assert ds.version == 2
+    assert ds.tags.list()["tag1"]["metadata"] == {"owner": "ml-team"}
+
+    ds.tags.replace_metadata("tag1", {})
     ds = lance.dataset(base_dir, "tag1")
     assert ds.version == 2
+    assert ds.tags.list()["tag1"]["metadata"] == {}
 
     ds.tags.update("tag1", 1)
     ds = lance.dataset(base_dir, "tag1")
     assert ds.version == 1
+    assert ds.tags.list()["tag1"]["metadata"] == {}
 
     version = ds.tags.get_version("tag1")
     assert version == 1
@@ -553,6 +811,11 @@ def test_tag_order(tmp_path: Path):
 
     tags_asc = ds.tags.list_ordered(order="asc")
     assert len(tags_asc) == 3
+    first_tag = tags_asc[0][1]
+    assert first_tag["created_at"] is not None
+    assert isinstance(first_tag["created_at"], datetime)
+    assert first_tag["updated_at"] is not None
+    assert isinstance(first_tag["updated_at"], datetime)
     tag_names_asc = [t[0] for t in tags_asc]
     assert tag_names_asc == sorted(expected_tags.keys()), (
         f"Unexpected ascending order: {tag_names_asc}"
@@ -603,6 +866,51 @@ def test_take(tmp_path: Path):
     assert table2 == table1
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("data_storage_version", ["legacy", "stable"])
+def test_slice(tmp_path: Path, data_storage_version: str):
+    table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    lance.write_dataset(
+        table, base_dir, data_storage_version=data_storage_version, max_rows_per_file=10
+    )
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+
+    # Equivalent to take(range(start, end))
+    assert dataset.slice(10, 20) == dataset.take(list(range(10, 20)))
+
+    # Basic range within a single fragment
+    assert dataset.slice(5, 8) == table.slice(5, 3)
+
+    # Range spanning multiple fragments
+    assert dataset.slice(5, 25) == table.slice(5, 20)
+
+    # Skipping entire fragments
+    assert dataset.slice(50, 75) == table.slice(50, 25)
+
+    # Full dataset
+    assert dataset.slice(0, 100) == table.slice(0, 100)
+
+    # Empty range (start == end)
+    assert dataset.slice(10, 10) == table.slice(10, 0)
+
+    # Range extending past the end of the dataset
+    assert dataset.slice(90, 1000) == table.slice(90, 10)
+
+    # Range entirely past the end of the dataset
+    assert dataset.slice(100, 110) == table.slice(100, 0)
+
+    # With column projection
+    assert dataset.slice(10, 20, columns=["a"]) == table.select(["a"]).slice(10, 10)
+
+    # Invalid start
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="start must be non-negative"):
+        dataset.slice(-1, 10)
+
+    # end < start
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="must be >= start"):
+        dataset.slice(10, 5)
+
+
 def test_take_rowid_rowaddr(tmp_path: Path):
     sample_size = 10
     table1 = pa.table({"a": range(1000), "b": range(1000)})
@@ -867,6 +1175,49 @@ def test_take_with_projection(tmp_path: Path):
     assert table3 == table2
 
 
+def test_take_with_json_column(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Test that take/take_rows return JSON columns in Arrow JSON format (Utf8).
+
+    Previously, take would return lance.json (LargeBinary) instead of
+    arrow.json (Utf8), which is the user-facing format.
+    """
+    json_type = pa.json_()
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(10), type=pa.int64()),
+            "meta": pa.array(
+                [f'{{"val":{i}}}' for i in range(10)],
+                type=json_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test_take_json"
+    lance.write_dataset(data, base_dir)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+
+    # Dataset.take should return arrow.json type
+    result = dataset.take([2, 5, 8])
+    meta_field = result.schema.field("meta")
+    assert meta_field.type == pa.utf8() or meta_field.type == pa.json_(), (
+        f"Expected arrow.json (Utf8), got {meta_field.type}"
+    )
+    metas = result.column("meta").to_pylist()
+    assert metas[0] == '{"val":2}'
+    assert metas[1] == '{"val":5}'
+    assert metas[2] == '{"val":8}'
+
+    # Dataset._take_rows should also return arrow.json type
+    result = dataset._take_rows([0, 3, 9])
+    meta_field = result.schema.field("meta")
+    assert meta_field.type == pa.utf8() or meta_field.type == pa.json_(), (
+        f"Expected arrow.json (Utf8), got {meta_field.type}"
+    )
+    metas = result.column("meta").to_pylist()
+    assert metas[0] == '{"val":0}'
+    assert metas[1] == '{"val":3}'
+    assert metas[2] == '{"val":9}'
+
+
 def test_filter(tmp_path: Path):
     table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
@@ -1168,19 +1519,12 @@ def test_count_rows_via_scanner(tmp_path: Path):
     ds = lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)}), tmp_path)
 
     assert ds.scanner(filter="a < 50", columns=[], with_row_id=True).count_rows() == 50
-
-    with pytest.raises(
-        ValueError, match="should not be called on a plan selecting columns"
-    ):
-        ds.scanner(filter="a < 50", columns=["a"], with_row_id=True).count_rows()
-
-    with pytest.raises(
-        ValueError, match="should not be called on a plan selecting columns"
-    ):
-        ds.scanner(with_row_id=True).count_rows()
-
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="with_row_id is false"):
-        ds.scanner(columns=[]).count_rows()
+    assert (
+        ds.scanner(filter="a < 50", columns=["a"], with_row_id=True).count_rows() == 50
+    )
+    assert ds.scanner(with_row_id=True).count_rows() == 100
+    assert ds.scanner(columns=[]).count_rows() == 100
+    assert ds.scanner().count_rows() == 100
 
 
 def test_select_none(tmp_path: Path):
@@ -1276,13 +1620,20 @@ def test_get_fragments(tmp_path: Path):
 def test_pickle_fragment(tmp_path: Path):
     table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
-    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+    storage_options = {"allow_http": "true"}
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, storage_options=storage_options)
 
-    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir, storage_options=storage_options)
     fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
-    pickled = pickle.dumps(fragment)
+    with mock.patch.object(
+        lance.LanceDataset,
+        "__init__",
+        side_effect=AssertionError("pickling reopened the dataset"),
+    ):
+        pickled = pickle.dumps(fragment)
     unpickled = pickle.loads(pickled)
 
+    assert unpickled._ds._storage_options == storage_options
     assert fragment.to_table() == unpickled.to_table()
 
 
@@ -1317,6 +1668,45 @@ def test_cleanup_old_versions(tmp_path):
     assert stats.old_versions == 1
 
 
+def test_explain_cleanup_old_versions(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+    time.sleep(0.1)
+    moment = datetime.now()
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="overwrite")
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    before_versions = len(dataset.versions())
+
+    explanation = dataset.explain_cleanup_old_versions(
+        older_than=(datetime.now() - moment),
+        include_files=True,
+        max_files=1000,
+    )
+
+    assert explanation.read_version == dataset.version
+    assert explanation.stats.bytes_removed > 0
+    assert explanation.stats.old_versions == 1
+    assert explanation.candidate_files
+    assert not explanation.candidate_files_truncated
+    assert len(dataset.versions()) == before_versions
+
+    summary = dataset.explain_cleanup_old_versions(older_than=(datetime.now() - moment))
+    assert summary.stats.old_versions == explanation.stats.old_versions
+    assert summary.candidate_files == []
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="max_files must be positive"):
+        dataset.explain_cleanup_old_versions(
+            older_than=(datetime.now() - moment),
+            max_files=0,
+        )
+
+    stats = dataset.cleanup_old_versions(older_than=(datetime.now() - moment))
+    assert stats.bytes_removed == explanation.stats.bytes_removed
+    assert stats.old_versions == explanation.stats.old_versions
+
+
 def test_cleanup_error_when_tagged_old_versions(tmp_path):
     table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
@@ -1393,12 +1783,38 @@ def test_cleanup_with_retain_versions(tmp_path: Path):
     ds = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
 
     assert len(ds.versions()) == 4
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="retain_versions must be greater than 0, got 0"):
+        ds.cleanup_old_versions(retain_versions=0)
+    assert len(ds.versions()) == 4
+
     stats = ds.cleanup_old_versions(retain_versions=3)
     assert stats.old_versions == 1
+    assert stats.data_files_removed == 1
+    assert stats.transaction_files_removed == 1
+    assert stats.index_files_removed == 0
+    assert stats.deletion_files_removed == 0
     assert len(ds.versions()) == 3
     assert ds.count_rows() == len(ds.to_table())
 
 
+def test_cleanup_specific_versions(tmp_path: Path):
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "cleanup_specific_versions"
+    table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="create")
+    time.sleep(0.05)
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="overwrite")
+    time.sleep(0.05)
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="overwrite")
+    time.sleep(0.05)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
+
+    assert [v["version"] for v in ds.versions()] == [1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+    stats = ds.cleanup_old_versions(versions=[2])
+    assert stats.old_versions == 1
+    assert [v["version"] for v in ds.versions()] == [1, 3, 4]
+
+
 def test_cleanup_with_older_than_and_retain_versions(tmp_path: Path):
     base_dir = tmp_path / "cleanup_policy"
     table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
@@ -1419,6 +1835,27 @@ def test_cleanup_with_older_than_and_retain_versions(tmp_path: Path):
     assert ds.count_rows() == len(ds.to_table())
 
 
+def _wait_until_latest_version_is_older_than(dataset, older_than_seconds):
+    latest_timestamp = dataset.versions()[-1]["timestamp"]
+    threshold = latest_timestamp + timedelta(seconds=older_than_seconds)
+    deadline = time.monotonic() + older_than_seconds + 1
+
+    while True:
+        now = (
+            datetime.now(latest_timestamp.tzinfo)
+            if latest_timestamp.tzinfo is not None
+            else datetime.now()
+        )
+        remaining = (threshold - now).total_seconds()
+        if remaining < 0:
+            return
+
+        timeout_remaining = deadline - time.monotonic()
+        if timeout_remaining <= 0:
+            pytest.fail("latest dataset version did not pass the cleanup age threshold")
+        time.sleep(min(remaining + 0.05, timeout_remaining))
+
+
 def test_auto_cleanup(tmp_path):
     table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
@@ -1433,11 +1870,11 @@ def test_auto_cleanup(tmp_path):
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
 
-    time.sleep(5)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    _wait_until_latest_version_is_older_than(dataset, 1)
 
     # trigger cleanup
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
-    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
     assert len(dataset.versions()) == 2
 
 
@@ -1452,7 +1889,7 @@ def test_config_update_auto_cleanup(tmp_path):
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
 
-    time.sleep(5)
+    _wait_until_latest_version_is_older_than(ds, 0.001)
 
     # trigger cleanup
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
@@ -1488,12 +1925,13 @@ def test_auto_cleanup_invalid(tmp_path):
         table, base_dir, auto_cleanup_options=auto_cleanup_options, mode="append"
     )
 
-    time.sleep(3)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    assert "lance.auto_cleanup.interval" not in dataset.config()
+    assert "lance.auto_cleanup.older_than" not in dataset.config()
 
     lance.write_dataset(
         table, base_dir, auto_cleanup_options=auto_cleanup_options, mode="append"
     )
-    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
     assert len(dataset.versions()) == 4
 
 
@@ -1511,7 +1949,7 @@ def test_enable_disable_auto_cleanup(tmp_path):
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
 
-    time.sleep(5)
+    _wait_until_latest_version_is_older_than(ds, 1)
 
     # trigger cleanup
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
@@ -1519,12 +1957,14 @@ def test_enable_disable_auto_cleanup(tmp_path):
 
     # this is a transactional commit, so will increase a version
     ds.optimize.disable_auto_cleanup()
+    assert "lance.auto_cleanup.interval" not in ds.config()
+    assert "lance.auto_cleanup.older_than" not in ds.config()
 
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
 
-    time.sleep(5)
+    _wait_until_latest_version_is_older_than(ds, 1)
 
     # wait to see if cleanup would be trigger
     lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="append")
@@ -1532,6 +1972,36 @@ def test_enable_disable_auto_cleanup(tmp_path):
     assert len(ds.versions()) == 7
 
 
+def test_cleanup_with_rate_limit(tmp_path):
+    """Test that cleanup_old_versions works with delete_rate_limit parameter."""
+    table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="create")
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="overwrite")
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="overwrite")
+    lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, mode="overwrite")
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    latest_version_timestamp = dataset.versions()[-1]["timestamp"]
+    now = (
+        datetime.now(latest_version_timestamp.tzinfo)
+        if latest_version_timestamp.tzinfo is not None
+        else datetime.now()
+    )
+
+    start = time.time_ns()
+    # Cleanup with a rate limit should still remove old versions correctly
+    stats = dataset.cleanup_old_versions(
+        older_than=(now - latest_version_timestamp), delete_rate_limit=1
+    )
+    finished = time.time_ns()
+
+    assert stats.old_versions == 3
+    assert stats.bytes_removed > 0
+    assert (finished - start) >= 2_000_000_000  # 2s
+
+
 def test_create_from_commit(tmp_path: Path):
     table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
@@ -1555,10 +2025,57 @@ def test_strict_overwrite(tmp_path: Path):
     )
     with pytest.raises(
         OSError, match=f"Commit conflict for version {dataset_v1.version + 1}"
-    ):
+    ) as exc_info:
         lance.LanceDataset.commit(
             base_dir, operation, read_version=dataset_v1.version, max_retries=0
         )
+    # CommitConflict means commit-step retries were exhausted; it is safe to retry.
+    assert exc_info.value.retryable is True
+
+
+def test_commit_timeout(tmp_path: Path):
+    from datetime import timedelta
+
+    table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(10)})
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "timeout"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+
+    fragment = lance.fragment.LanceFragment.create(base_dir, table)
+    append = lance.LanceOperation.Append([fragment])
+
+    # A zero duration reaches Rust and is rejected as invalid input.
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="non-zero"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+            dataset, append, read_version=1, commit_timeout=timedelta(0)
+        )
+
+    # A negative duration is rejected by PyO3's timedelta -> Duration conversion.
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+            dataset, append, read_version=1, commit_timeout=timedelta(seconds=-1)
+        )
+
+    # None disables the timeout.
+    dataset_no_timeout = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset, append, read_version=1, commit_timeout=None
+    )
+    assert dataset_no_timeout.version == dataset.version + 1
+
+    # Explicit positive timeout works.
+    fragment2 = lance.fragment.LanceFragment.create(base_dir, table)
+    append2 = lance.LanceOperation.Append([fragment2])
+    dataset_with_timeout = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset_no_timeout,
+        append2,
+        read_version=dataset_no_timeout.version,
+        commit_timeout=timedelta(minutes=1),
+    )
+    assert dataset_with_timeout.version == dataset_no_timeout.version + 1
+
+    # Timeout *firing* behavior is covered by the Rust test
+    # `test_commit_timeout_triggers`, which uses a throttled store for a
+    # reliable trigger; reproducing it from Python without exposing
+    # throttling would be flaky on fast runners.
 
 
 def test_append_with_commit(tmp_path: Path):
@@ -1603,6 +2120,7 @@ def test_commit_batch_append():
     result = lance.LanceDataset.commit_batch(dataset, [txn2, txn3])
     dataset = result["dataset"]
     assert dataset.version == 2
+    assert dataset.checkout_version(1).version == 1
     assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 3
     assert dataset.to_table() == pa.concat_tables([data1, data2, data3])
     merged_txn = result["merged"]
@@ -1682,6 +2200,52 @@ def test_merge_insert_with_commit():
     )
 
 
+def test_update_with_commit_updated_fragment_offsets():
+    table = pa.table({"id": range(10), "updated": [False] * 10})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, "memory://test")
+
+    updates = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"id": 1, "updated": True}])
+    transaction, _ = (
+        dataset.merge_insert(on="id")
+        .when_matched_update_all()
+        .execute_uncommitted(updates)
+    )
+    assert transaction.operation.updated_fragment_offsets is None
+
+    # Portable RoaringBitmap serializations of {1, 3, 5, 7} and {0, 2, 100000}.
+    offsets = {
+        0: (
+            b"\x3a\x30\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00"
+            b"\x10\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x03\x00\x05\x00\x07\x00"
+        ),
+        2: (
+            b"\x3a\x30\x00\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x01\x00\x00"
+            b"\x00\x18\x00\x00\x00\x1c\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\xa0\x86"
+        ),
+    }
+    transaction.operation.updated_fragment_offsets = offsets
+
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(dataset, transaction)
+    read_back = dataset.read_transaction(dataset.version)
+    assert read_back.operation.updated_fragment_offsets == offsets
+
+
+def test_update_with_commit_rejects_invalid_offset_bytes():
+    table = pa.table({"id": range(10), "updated": [False] * 10})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, "memory://test")
+
+    updates = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"id": 1, "updated": True}])
+    transaction, _ = (
+        dataset.merge_insert(on="id")
+        .when_matched_update_all()
+        .execute_uncommitted(updates)
+    )
+    transaction.operation.updated_fragment_offsets = {0: b"not a bitmap"}
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="RoaringBitmap"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(dataset, transaction)
+
+
 def test_merge_with_commit(tmp_path: Path):
     table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
@@ -1705,22 +2269,84 @@ def test_merge_with_commit(tmp_path: Path):
     assert tbl == expected
 
 
-def test_merge_with_schema_holes(tmp_path: Path):
-    # Create table with 3 cols
-    table = pa.table({"a": range(10)})
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
-    dataset.add_columns({"b": "a + 1"})
-    dataset.add_columns({"c": "a + 2"})
-    # Delete the middle column to create a hole in the field ids
-    dataset.drop_columns(["b"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("delete_predicate", "expected_ids"),
+    [
+        pytest.param("id < 50", list(range(50, 150)), id="leading"),
+        pytest.param(
+            "id >= 50 AND id < 100",
+            list(range(50)) + list(range(100, 150)),
+            id="middle",
+        ),
+        pytest.param("id >= 100", list(range(100)), id="trailing"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_merge_columns_with_deleted_batch_commit(
+    tmp_path: Path, delete_predicate: str, expected_ids: list
+):
+    # A fully deleted read batch must still contribute its rows to the new data
+    # file, otherwise the fragment's data files disagree on the physical row
+    # count. The deleted run is placed at the start, middle, and end because the
+    # updater can only borrow a placeholder row from a batch that has live rows.
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    table = pa.table({"id": range(150), "value": range(150)})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir, max_rows_per_file=200)
 
-    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
-    merged, schema = fragment.merge_columns(
-        lambda _: pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict({"d": range(10, 20)})
-    )
+    dataset.delete(delete_predicate)
+    assert dataset.count_rows() == 100
 
-    merge = lance.LanceOperation.Merge([merged], schema)
-    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(tmp_path, merge, read_version=dataset.version)
+    merged_frags = []
+    schema = None
+    for frag in dataset.get_fragments():
+        live_ids = frag.scanner(columns=["id"]).to_table()["id"].to_pylist()
+        right_table = pa.table(
+            {"merged": pa.array([row_id * 10 for row_id in live_ids], pa.int64())},
+            schema=pa.schema([pa.field("merged", pa.int64(), nullable=False)]),
+        )
+        merged, schema = frag.merge_columns(right_table, batch_size=50)
+        merged_frags.append(merged)
+
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset.uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.Merge(merged_frags, schema),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+    dataset.validate()
+
+    assert dataset.to_table() == pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": expected_ids,
+            "value": expected_ids,
+            "merged": [row_id * 10 for row_id in expected_ids],
+        },
+        schema=pa.schema(
+            [
+                pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+                pa.field("value", pa.int64()),
+                # The blanks written for the deleted rows are copies of a live row,
+                # so the merged column stays non-nullable end to end.
+                pa.field("merged", pa.int64(), nullable=False),
+            ]
+        ),
+    )
+
+
+def test_merge_with_schema_holes(tmp_path: Path):
+    # Create table with 3 cols
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(10)})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    dataset.add_columns({"b": "a + 1"})
+    dataset.add_columns({"c": "a + 2"})
+    # Delete the middle column to create a hole in the field ids
+    dataset.drop_columns(["b"])
+
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+    merged, schema = fragment.merge_columns(
+        lambda _: pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict({"d": range(10, 20)})
+    )
+
+    merge = lance.LanceOperation.Merge([merged], schema)
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(tmp_path, merge, read_version=dataset.version)
 
     dataset.validate()
 
@@ -1883,8 +2509,13 @@ def test_deletion_file(tmp_path: Path):
     assert re.match(
         "_deletions/0-1-[0-9]{1,32}.arrow", new_fragment.deletion_file.path(0)
     )
-    operation = lance.LanceOperation.Overwrite(table.schema, [new_fragment])
-    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(base_dir, operation)
+    # Delete, not Overwrite: the deletion file belongs to fragment 0 of this
+    # dataset, and an overwrite's fragments are newly written ones that get fresh
+    # ids, which a deletion file cannot follow.
+    operation = lance.LanceOperation.Delete([new_fragment], [], "a < 10")
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        base_dir, operation, read_version=dataset.version
+    )
     assert dataset.count_rows() == 90
 
 
@@ -1940,7 +2571,7 @@ def test_merge_data_legacy(tmp_path: Path):
 
     # rejects partial data for non-nullable types
     new_tab = pa.table({"a": range(40), "c": range(40)})
-    with pytest.raises(OSError, match=r"Join produced null values for type: Int64"):
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match=r"Column 'c' has null values of type: Int64"):
         dataset.merge(new_tab, "a")
 
 
@@ -2049,6 +2680,38 @@ def test_delete_data(tmp_path: Path):
     assert dataset.count_rows() == 0
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "predicate, remaining_ids",
+    [
+        pytest.param(pc.field("s") != "C:\\temp", [0, 3], id="escaped_string"),
+        pytest.param(
+            pc.field("s").isin(["C:\\temp", 'say "hi"']),
+            [2, 3],
+            id="isin_and_quote",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(~(pc.field("s") == "plain"), [2, 3], id="negation"),
+        pytest.param(pc.field("s").is_null(), [0, 1, 2], id="is_null"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_delete_pyarrow_expression(tmp_path: Path, predicate, remaining_ids):
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": [0, 1, 2, 3],
+            "vec": pa.array(
+                [[0.0], [1.0], [2.0], [3.0]], type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), 1)
+            ),
+            "s": ["C:\\temp", 'say "hi"', "plain", None],
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=2)
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 2
+
+    deleted_rows = len(data) - len(remaining_ids)
+    assert dataset.count_rows(filter=predicate) == deleted_rows
+    assert dataset.delete(predicate) == {"num_deleted_rows": deleted_rows}
+    assert sorted(dataset.to_table()["id"].to_pylist()) == remaining_ids
+
+
 def check_merge_stats(merge_dict, expected):
     assert (
         merge_dict["num_inserted_rows"],
@@ -2172,6 +2835,29 @@ def test_merge_insert(tmp_path: Path):
         check_merge_stats(merge_dict, (None, None, None))
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("materialized", [True, False])
+def test_merge_insert_input_kinds(tmp_path: Path, materialized: bool):
+    # A materialized pa.Table is routed through the in-memory (MemTable) path,
+    # while a RecordBatchReader is routed through the streaming path. Both must
+    # produce identical results.
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("id", pa.int64()), pa.field("value", pa.int64())])
+    base = pa.table({"id": range(5), "value": [0] * 5}, schema=schema)
+    new = pa.table({"id": [1, 2, 5, 6], "value": [10, 20, 50, 60]}, schema=schema)
+
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(base, tmp_path / "dataset", mode="create")
+    source = new if materialized else new.to_reader()
+
+    dataset.merge_insert(
+        "id"
+    ).when_matched_update_all().when_not_matched_insert_all().execute(source)
+
+    result = dataset.to_table().sort_by("id").to_pydict()
+    assert result == {
+        "id": [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6],
+        "value": [0, 10, 20, 0, 0, 50, 60],
+    }
+
+
 def test_merge_insert_subcols(tmp_path: Path):
     initial_data = pa.table(
         {
@@ -2184,7 +2870,6 @@ def test_merge_insert_subcols(tmp_path: Path):
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(
         initial_data, tmp_path / "dataset", max_rows_per_file=5
     )
-    original_fragments = dataset.get_fragments()
 
     new_values = pa.table(
         {
@@ -2194,6 +2879,12 @@ def test_merge_insert_subcols(tmp_path: Path):
     )
     (dataset.merge_insert("a").when_matched_update_all().execute(new_values))
 
+    # Partial-schema upserts run through the v2 `FullSchemaMergeInsertExec`
+    # path (see Rust issue #6442). We only assert the semantic outcome here
+    # — the exact fragment / file layout is an implementation detail of the
+    # v1 RewriteColumns optimization that no longer applies. Column `c`
+    # (not in the source) must retain its original values for the updated
+    # rows.
     expected = pa.table(
         {
             "a": range(10),
@@ -2203,26 +2894,155 @@ def test_merge_insert_subcols(tmp_path: Path):
     )
     assert dataset.to_table().sort_by("a") == expected
 
-    # First fragment has new file
-    fragments = dataset.get_fragments()
-    assert fragments[0].fragment_id == original_fragments[0].fragment_id
-    assert fragments[1].fragment_id == original_fragments[1].fragment_id
+    new_values = pa.table(
+        {
+            "a": range(9, 12),
+            "b": range(30, 33),
+        }
+    )
+    (
+        dataset.merge_insert("a")
+        .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+        .when_matched_update_all()
+        .execute(new_values)
+    )
+
+    assert dataset.count_rows() == 12
+    # Newly inserted rows (keys 10, 11) get NULL for column `c` because
+    # the source did not provide a value for it and `c` is nullable.
+    expected = pa.table(
+        {
+            "a": range(0, 12),
+            "b": [0, 1, 2, 20, 21, 5, 6, 7, 8, 30, 31, 32],
+            "c": list(range(10, 20)) + [None] * 2,
+        }
+    )
+    assert dataset.to_table().sort_by("a") == expected
+
 
-    assert len(fragments[0].data_files()) == 2
-    assert (
-        fragments[0].data_files()[0].path == original_fragments[0].data_files()[0].path
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("container", ["struct", "list"])
+def test_merge_insert_subcols_preserves_nested_blob(tmp_path: Path, container: str):
+    blob_field = lance.blob_field("blob")
+    blob_values = lance.blob_array([b"one", b"two"])
+    if container == "struct":
+        nested_values = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+            [blob_values],
+            fields=[blob_field],
+        )
+        expected_nested = [{"blob": b"one"}, {"blob": b"two"}]
+    else:
+        nested_values = pa.ListArray.from_arrays(
+            pa.array([0, 1, 2], type=pa.int32()),
+            blob_values,
+            type=pa.list_(blob_field),
+        )
+        expected_nested = [[b"one"], [b"two"]]
+
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / f"partial_nested_blob_{container}"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([1, 2]),
+                "nested": nested_values,
+                "other": pa.array([10, 20]),
+            }
+        ),
+        dataset_uri,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+    source = pa.table({"id": pa.array([2]), "other": pa.array([200])})
+
+    dataset.merge_insert("id").when_matched_update_all().execute(source)
+
+    result = (
+        lance.dataset(dataset_uri).to_table(blob_handling="all_binary").sort_by("id")
+    )
+    assert result["other"].to_pylist() == [10, 200]
+    assert result["nested"].to_pylist() == expected_nested
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "base_version,patch_version",
+    [("2.0", "2.2"), ("2.2", "2.0"), ("2.1", "2.3"), ("2.3", "2.1")],
+)
+def test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place(tmp_path: Path, base_version, patch_version):
+    """`write_mode("rewrite_columns")` patches the source columns into the
+    fragments that already hold the matched rows.
+
+    Compare with `test_merge_insert_subcols`, which runs the same merge in the
+    default `"auto"` mode and gets whole rows rewritten into a new fragment
+    instead.
+    """
+    initial_data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "a": range(10),
+            "b": range(10),
+            "c": range(10, 20),
+        }
+    )
+    # Split across two fragments
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        initial_data,
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        max_rows_per_file=5,
+        data_storage_version=base_version,
+    )
+    fragments_before = [f.fragment_id for f in dataset.get_fragments()]
+
+    new_values = pa.table(
+        {
+            "a": range(3, 5),
+            "b": range(20, 22),
+        }
+    )
+    (
+        dataset.merge_insert("a")
+        .when_matched_update_all()
+        .write_mode("rewrite_columns")
+        .data_storage_version(patch_version)
+        .execute(new_values)
+    )
+
+    # No fragment is added, removed, or renumbered, and column `c` (absent from
+    # the source) is neither read nor written.
+    assert [f.fragment_id for f in dataset.get_fragments()] == fragments_before
+    expected = pa.table(
+        {
+            "a": range(10),
+            "b": [0, 1, 2, 20, 21, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
+            "c": range(10, 20),
+        }
     )
-    assert len(fragments[1].data_files()) == 1
-    assert str(fragments[1].data_files()[0]) == str(
-        original_fragments[1].data_files()[0]
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset.uri)
+    assert {
+        f"{file.file_major_version}.{file.file_minor_version}"
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()
+        for file in fragment.metadata.files
+    } == {base_version, patch_version}
+    assert dataset.to_table().sort_by("a") == expected
+    assert dataset.to_table(columns=["c", "b", "a"], filter="b >= 20") == (
+        expected.filter(pc.greater_equal(expected["b"], 20)).select(["c", "b", "a"])
     )
+    assert dataset.take([9, 3, 0, 4, 3]) == expected.take([9, 3, 0, 4, 3])
 
+    # Patching columns cannot add rows, so asking for it explicitly on a merge
+    # that also inserts is rejected rather than quietly rewriting whole rows.
     new_values = pa.table(
         {
             "a": range(9, 12),
             "b": range(30, 33),
         }
     )
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="adds rows, which patching cannot do"):
+        (
+            dataset.merge_insert("a")
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .write_mode("rewrite_columns")
+            .execute(new_values)
+        )
+
+    # The same merge under the default mode picks the row-rewrite sink.
     (
         dataset.merge_insert("a")
         .when_not_matched_insert_all()
@@ -2241,6 +3061,146 @@ def test_merge_insert_subcols(tmp_path: Path):
     assert dataset.to_table().sort_by("a") == expected
 
 
+def test_merge_insert_full_fragment_rewrite_json_e2e(tmp_path: Path):
+    """End-to-end test: merge_insert with JSON columns where ALL rows are updated.
+
+    This exercises the "all rows updated" fast path in handle_fragment which
+    bypasses the Updater and writes directly. Without proper JSON conversion,
+    Utf8 data (i32 offsets) is written with a LargeBinary schema (i64 offsets),
+    causing a decoder panic on subsequent reads:
+        "the offset of the new Buffer cannot exceed the existing Length:
+         slice offset=0 Length=N selfLen=N/2"
+
+    Conditions to trigger the fast path:
+    1. Subschema update (not all columns provided)
+    2. ALL rows in a fragment are matched/updated
+    3. data_storage_version = 2.2
+    """
+    import json
+
+    json_type = pa.json_()
+
+    # Create dataset with v2.2 storage format
+    initial_data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "unique_id": pa.array([f"id_{i}" for i in range(5)], type=pa.utf8()),
+            "coarse": pa.array(
+                [f'{{"original":{i}}}' for i in range(5)],
+                type=json_type,
+            ),
+            "score": pa.array(range(5), type=pa.int64()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        initial_data,
+        tmp_path / "e2e_json_rewrite",
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+    assert dataset.count_rows() == 5
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 1
+
+    # Subschema merge_insert: only provide [unique_id, coarse], update ALL rows
+    # This triggers: subschema → v1 path → all rows matched → fast path
+    update_data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "unique_id": pa.array([f"id_{i}" for i in range(5)], type=pa.utf8()),
+            "coarse": pa.array(
+                [f'{{"updated":true,"id":{i}}}' for i in range(5)],
+                type=json_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset.merge_insert("unique_id").when_matched_update_all().execute(update_data)
+
+    # Critical: read back should NOT panic
+    result = dataset.to_table().sort_by("unique_id")
+    assert result.num_rows == 5
+
+    # Verify score column (not in update) is preserved
+    scores = result.column("score").to_pylist()
+    assert scores == [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+    # Verify JSON column was updated correctly
+    coarse_values = result.column("coarse").to_pylist()
+    for i, val in enumerate(coarse_values):
+        parsed = json.loads(val) if isinstance(val, str) else val
+        assert parsed.get("updated") is True, (
+            f"Row {i} should have updated coarse, got {val}"
+        )
+
+    # Verify take also works (different read path)
+    take_result = dataset.take([0, 2, 4])
+    assert take_result.num_rows == 3
+    take_coarse = take_result.column("coarse").to_pylist()
+    for val in take_coarse:
+        parsed = json.loads(val) if isinstance(val, str) else val
+        assert parsed.get("updated") is True
+
+    # Verify sample also works
+    sample_result = dataset.sample(3)
+    assert sample_result.num_rows == 3
+
+
+def test_merge_insert_subcols_with_json_column(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Test merge_insert with subschema update on a JSON extension type column.
+
+    Previously this would fail with:
+    'Incorrect datatype for StructArray field, expected Utf8 got LargeBinary'
+    because the update_fragments path didn't handle the Arrow JSON ↔ Lance JSON
+    type mismatch during interleave.
+    """
+    import json
+
+    json_type = pa.json_()
+    initial_data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], type=pa.int64()),
+            "name": pa.array(["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"], type=pa.utf8()),
+            "score": pa.array([10, 20, 30, 40, 50], type=pa.int64()),
+            "meta": pa.array(
+                ['{"x":1}', '{"x":2}', '{"x":3}', '{"x":4}', '{"x":5}'],
+                type=json_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(initial_data, tmp_path / "merge_json_subcols")
+
+    # Subschema update: only provide id (key) + meta (JSON column to update)
+    new_values = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([2, 4], type=pa.int64()),
+            "meta": pa.array(
+                ['{"updated":true,"id":2}', '{"updated":true,"id":4}'],
+                type=json_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+
+    # This should NOT raise a type mismatch error
+    dataset.merge_insert("id").when_matched_update_all().execute(new_values)
+
+    # Verify results
+    result = dataset.to_table().sort_by("id")
+    ids = result.column("id").to_pylist()
+    scores = result.column("score").to_pylist()
+    metas = result.column("meta").to_pylist()
+
+    # Score column (not in update) should be preserved
+    assert scores == [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
+
+    # Meta column should be updated for id=2 and id=4
+    for id_val, meta_val in zip(ids, metas):
+        parsed = json.loads(meta_val) if isinstance(meta_val, str) else meta_val
+        if id_val in (2, 4):
+            assert parsed.get("updated") is True, (
+                f"id={id_val} should have updated meta, got {meta_val}"
+            )
+        else:
+            assert "x" in str(parsed), (
+                f"id={id_val} should have original meta, got {meta_val}"
+            )
+
+
 def test_merge_insert_defaults_to_pk_when_on_omitted(tmp_path):
     base_dir = tmp_path / "merge_insert_pk_default"
 
@@ -2459,6 +3419,42 @@ def test_merge_insert_multiple_keys(tmp_path: Path):
     check_merge_stats(merge_dict, (0, 350, 0))
 
 
+def test_indexed_merge_insert_deduplicates_cross_batch_candidates(tmp_path: Path):
+    target = pa.table(
+        {
+            "a": [1, 1, 2, 2],
+            "b": [10, 20, 10, 20],
+            "value": [110, 120, 210, 220],
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(target, tmp_path / "dataset")
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("a", "BTREE")
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("b", "BTREE")
+
+    first = pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict(
+        {"a": [1], "b": [10], "value": [901]}, schema=target.schema
+    )
+    # The per-column index probe for this batch also reaches (1, 10), which
+    # was already emitted for the first batch. The exact join filters that
+    # over-match, but the indexed scan must not read the target row twice.
+    second = pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict(
+        {"a": [1, 2], "b": [20, 10], "value": [902, 903]},
+        schema=target.schema,
+    )
+    source = pa.RecordBatchReader.from_batches(target.schema, [first, second])
+
+    stats = dataset.merge_insert(["a", "b"]).when_matched_update_all().execute(source)
+
+    check_merge_stats(stats, (0, 3, 0))
+    assert (
+        dataset.to_table().sort_by([("a", "ascending"), ("b", "ascending")]).to_pydict()
+    ) == {
+        "a": [1, 1, 2, 2],
+        "b": [10, 20, 10, 20],
+        "value": [901, 902, 903, 220],
+    }
+
+
 def test_merge_insert_vector_column(tmp_path: Path):
     table = pa.Table.from_pydict(
         {
@@ -2658,6 +3654,74 @@ def test_merge_insert_large():
     )
 
 
+def test_merge_insert_large_rows():
+    # Verify that merge_insert succeeds when individual batches exceed the
+    # DataFusion memory pool size (100 MiB by default).  DataFusion's sort
+    # cannot spill a single batch that is larger than the pool, so the
+    # HardCapBatchSizeExec node must rechunk before the sort.
+    #
+    # The sort path (update_fragments) is only used for partial/subcolumn
+    # updates, so the source must have a subset of the target columns.
+    #
+    # One batch of ~400 MiB which exceeds the 300 MiB memory pool.
+    # Without HardCapBatchSizeExec rechunking it before the sort, the sort
+    # would fail because it cannot handle a single batch larger than the pool.
+    os.environ["LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE"] = str(1024 * 1024 * 1024)
+    rows_per_batch = 2000
+    num_batches = 1
+    nrows = rows_per_batch * num_batches
+    # ~200 KiB per row → ~400 MiB per batch
+    blob_size = 200 * 1024
+
+    # Create dataset with id, blob, and an extra column so the source is partial.
+    full_schema = pa.schema(
+        [("id", pa.int64()), ("blob", pa.large_binary()), ("extra", pa.int32())]
+    )
+
+    def make_full_batches():
+        for i in range(num_batches):
+            start = i * rows_per_batch
+            ids = pa.array(range(start, start + rows_per_batch), type=pa.int64())
+            blobs = pa.array(
+                [b"x" * blob_size] * rows_per_batch, type=pa.large_binary()
+            )
+            extras = pa.array(range(start, start + rows_per_batch), type=pa.int32())
+            yield pa.record_batch([ids, blobs, extras], schema=full_schema)
+
+    reader = pa.RecordBatchReader.from_batches(full_schema, make_full_batches())
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(reader, "memory://")
+
+    # Partial update: only update the blob column (omit extra).
+    # This triggers the update_fragments path which uses the sort.
+    partial_schema = pa.schema([("id", pa.int64()), ("blob", pa.large_binary())])
+
+    def make_partial_batches():
+        for i in range(num_batches):
+            start = i * rows_per_batch
+            ids = pa.array(range(start, start + rows_per_batch), type=pa.int64())
+            blobs = pa.array(
+                [b"y" * blob_size] * rows_per_batch, type=pa.large_binary()
+            )
+            yield pa.record_batch([ids, blobs], schema=partial_schema)
+
+    new_reader = pa.RecordBatchReader.from_batches(
+        partial_schema, make_partial_batches()
+    )
+
+    stats = ds.merge_insert(on="id").when_matched_update_all().execute(new_reader)
+
+    assert stats["num_updated_rows"] == nrows
+    assert stats["num_inserted_rows"] == 0
+
+    result = ds.to_table()
+    assert result.num_rows == nrows
+    # Spot-check that the blobs were updated and extra column preserved.
+    assert result.column("blob")[0].as_py() == b"y" * blob_size
+    assert result.column("extra")[0].as_py() == 0
+
+    del os.environ["LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE"]
+
+
 def test_merge_insert_empty_index():
     # Reported in https://github.com/lancedb/lancedb/issues/2285
     empty_table = pa.table({"id": pa.array([], type=pa.float64())})
@@ -2727,6 +3791,42 @@ def test_merge_insert_explain_analyze_plan():
     assert "num_files_written" in analysis
 
 
+def test_merge_insert_analyze_plan_matches_execute_routing():
+    """analyze_plan must report the plan the given source would actually run.
+
+    execute() wraps a materialized source in an in-memory table, which reports
+    exact statistics; a stream reports none. DataFusion picks the collected side of
+    the join from those statistics and from the two sides' sizes, so the same merge
+    plans differently depending on which one it is handed. analyze_plan used to
+    coerce every input to a stream, so it reported the stream's plan whatever it
+    was given.
+    """
+    data = pa.table({"id": range(64), "value": [i * 10 for i in range(64)]})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, "memory://test-merge-analyze-routing")
+
+    def builder():
+        return (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id")
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+        )
+
+    # Two source rows against the target's 64 keeps the source the smaller side,
+    # which is what lets the join collect it. Raise it above 64 and the join
+    # collects the target instead and the join type stays Right.
+    source = pa.table({"id": [1, 100], "value": [999, 999]})
+
+    materialized = builder().analyze_plan(source)
+    assert "DataSourceExec" in materialized, materialized
+    assert "StreamingTableExec" not in materialized, materialized
+    assert "join_type=Left" in materialized, materialized
+
+    streaming = builder().analyze_plan(source.to_reader())
+    assert "StreamingTableExec" in streaming, streaming
+    assert "DataSourceExec" not in streaming, streaming
+    assert "join_type=Right" in streaming, streaming
+
+
 def test_merge_insert_use_index():
     """Test that use_index parameter controls whether indices are used."""
     data = pa.table({"id": range(100), "value": [i * 10 for i in range(100)]})
@@ -2935,29 +4035,147 @@ def test_update_dataset(tmp_path: Path):
     check_update_stats(update_dict, (100,))
 
 
-def test_update_dataset_all_types(tmp_path: Path):
-    table = pa.table(
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "where",
+    [
+        pytest.param(pc.field("p") == "C:\\data\\a.csv", id="escaped_string"),
+        pytest.param(pc.field("p").isin(["C:\\data\\a.csv"]), id="isin"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_update_pyarrow_expression(tmp_path: Path, where):
+    data = pa.table(
+        {"id": [0, 1, 2], "p": ["C:\\data\\a.csv", "x", "y"], "n": [0, 0, 0]}
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=2)
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 2
+
+    assert dataset.update({"n": "1"}, where=where) == {"num_rows_updated": 1}
+    assert dataset.to_table().sort_by("id")["n"].to_pylist() == [1, 0, 0]
+
+
+def test_update_dataset_scanner_after_stable_row_id_update(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "name_1": pa.array(["1", "4", "7"]),
+                "name_2": pa.array(["2", "5", "8"]),
+                "name_3": pa.array(["3", "6", "9"]),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+    )
+
+    update_dict = dataset.update(updates=dict(name_3="'xxxx'"), where="name_1 = '7'")
+    check_update_stats(update_dict, (1,))
+
+    expected = pa.table(
         {
-            "int32": pa.array([1], pa.int32()),
-            "int64": pa.array([1], pa.int64()),
-            "uint32": pa.array([1], pa.uint32()),
-            "string": pa.array(["foo"], pa.string()),
-            "large_string": pa.array(["foo"], pa.large_string()),
-            "float32": pa.array([1.0], pa.float32()),
-            "float64": pa.array([1.0], pa.float64()),
-            "bool": pa.array([True], pa.bool_()),
-            "date32": pa.array([date(2021, 1, 1)], pa.date32()),
-            "timestamp_ns": pa.array([datetime(2021, 1, 1)], pa.timestamp("ns")),
-            "timestamp_ms": pa.array([datetime(2021, 1, 1)], pa.timestamp("ms")),
-            "vec_f32": pa.array([[1.0, 2.0]], pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2)),
-            "vec_f64": pa.array([[1.0, 2.0]], pa.list_(pa.float64(), 2)),
+            "name_1": pa.array(["1", "4", "7"]),
+            "name_2": pa.array(["2", "5", "8"]),
+            "name_3": pa.array(["3", "6", "xxxx"]),
         }
     )
+    actual = dataset.to_table().sort_by("name_1")
+    assert actual == expected
 
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    scanner_table = dataset.scanner(limit=10).to_table().sort_by("name_1")
+    assert scanner_table == expected
+    assert scanner_table == actual
 
-    # One update with all matching types
-    update_dict = dataset.update(
+
+def test_update_by_rowid(tmp_path: Path):
+    nrows = 30
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(nrows), pa.int64()),
+            "name": pa.array(["foo"] * nrows, pa.string()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        max_rows_per_file=10,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+    )
+
+    orig = dataset.to_table(columns=["id"], with_row_id=True)
+    target_idx = 5
+    target_row_id = orig.column("_rowid")[target_idx].as_py()
+    target_id = orig.column("id")[target_idx].as_py()
+
+    update_dict = dataset.update(
+        updates=dict(name="'updated'"),
+        where=f"_rowid = {target_row_id}",
+    )
+    check_update_stats(update_dict, (1,))
+
+    actual = dataset.to_table().sort_by("id")
+    for row in actual.to_pylist():
+        if row["id"] == target_id:
+            assert row["name"] == "updated"
+        else:
+            assert row["name"] == "foo"
+
+
+def test_update_by_rowid_in_list(tmp_path: Path):
+    nrows = 30
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(nrows), pa.int64()),
+            "name": pa.array(["foo"] * nrows, pa.string()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        max_rows_per_file=10,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+    )
+
+    orig = dataset.to_table(columns=["id"], with_row_id=True)
+    target_indices = [3, 7, 15]
+    target_row_ids = [orig.column("_rowid")[i].as_py() for i in target_indices]
+    target_ids = {orig.column("id")[i].as_py() for i in target_indices}
+
+    in_list = ", ".join(str(rid) for rid in target_row_ids)
+    update_dict = dataset.update(
+        updates=dict(name="'updated'"),
+        where=f"_rowid IN ({in_list})",
+    )
+    check_update_stats(update_dict, (3,))
+
+    actual = dataset.to_table().sort_by("id")
+    for row in actual.to_pylist():
+        if row["id"] in target_ids:
+            assert row["name"] == "updated"
+        else:
+            assert row["name"] == "foo"
+
+
+def test_update_dataset_all_types(tmp_path: Path):
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "int32": pa.array([1], pa.int32()),
+            "int64": pa.array([1], pa.int64()),
+            "uint32": pa.array([1], pa.uint32()),
+            "string": pa.array(["foo"], pa.string()),
+            "large_string": pa.array(["foo"], pa.large_string()),
+            "float32": pa.array([1.0], pa.float32()),
+            "float64": pa.array([1.0], pa.float64()),
+            "bool": pa.array([True], pa.bool_()),
+            "date32": pa.array([date(2021, 1, 1)], pa.date32()),
+            "timestamp_ns": pa.array([datetime(2021, 1, 1)], pa.timestamp("ns")),
+            "timestamp_ms": pa.array([datetime(2021, 1, 1)], pa.timestamp("ms")),
+            "vec_f32": pa.array([[1.0, 2.0]], pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2)),
+            "vec_f64": pa.array([[1.0, 2.0]], pa.list_(pa.float64(), 2)),
+        }
+    )
+
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+
+    # One update with all matching types
+    update_dict = dataset.update(
         dict(
             int32="2",
             int64="2",
@@ -3068,6 +4286,267 @@ def test_update_with_retry_parameters(tmp_path: Path):
     check_update_stats(update_dict, (10,))
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "version", [None, "2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3", "stable", "next"]
+)
+def test_update_exact_data_storage_version(tmp_path: Path, version):
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": [1, 2], "value": [10, 20]}),
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        data_storage_version="2.1",
+        max_rows_per_file=1,
+    )
+
+    dataset.update({"value": "value + 1"}, data_storage_version=version)
+
+    files = [
+        file for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() for file in fragment.metadata.files
+    ]
+    exact = {None: "2.1", "stable": "2.2", "next": "2.3"}.get(version, version)
+    assert {
+        f"{file.file_major_version}.{file.file_minor_version}" for file in files
+    } == {exact}
+    assert dataset.data_storage_version == "2.1"
+    assert dataset.to_table().sort_by("id").to_pydict() == {
+        "id": [1, 2],
+        "value": [11, 21],
+    }
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "version", [None, "2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3", "stable", "next"]
+)
+def test_merge_insert_exact_data_storage_version(tmp_path: Path, version):
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": [1, 2], "value": [10, 20]}),
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        data_storage_version="2.1",
+        max_rows_per_file=1,
+    )
+
+    builder = (
+        dataset.merge_insert("id")
+        .when_matched_update_all()
+        .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+    )
+    if version is not None:
+        builder.data_storage_version(version)
+    builder.execute(pa.table({"id": [2, 3], "value": [21, 30]}))
+
+    versions = {
+        f"{file.file_major_version}.{file.file_minor_version}"
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()
+        for file in fragment.metadata.files
+    }
+    exact = {None: "2.1", "stable": "2.2", "next": "2.3"}.get(version, version)
+    assert versions == {"2.1", exact}
+    assert dataset.data_storage_version == "2.1"
+    assert dataset.to_table().sort_by("id").to_pydict() == {
+        "id": [1, 2, 3],
+        "value": [10, 21, 30],
+    }
+
+
+def _assert_mixed_version_reads(dataset, expected):
+    expected = expected.sort_by("id")
+    ordered = dataset.to_table(scan_in_order=True)
+    assert ordered.sort_by("id") == expected
+    assert dataset.to_table(columns=["value", "id"]).sort_by("id") == (
+        expected.select(["value", "id"])
+    )
+    assert dataset.to_table(filter="value >= 50").sort_by("id") == expected.filter(
+        pc.greater_equal(expected["value"], 50)
+    )
+    assert dataset.to_table(filter="value IS NULL").sort_by("id") == expected.filter(
+        pc.is_null(expected["value"])
+    )
+    # Updates can move rows to new fragments. Use scan order only for positional
+    # addressing; the full scan above is independently checked against the oracle.
+    indices = [len(ordered) - 1, 0, len(ordered) // 2, 0]
+    assert dataset.take(indices) == ordered.take(indices)
+    assert dataset.take(indices, columns=["value", "id"]) == ordered.take(
+        indices
+    ).select(["value", "id"])
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "versions",
+    [
+        ("2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3"),
+        ("2.1", "2.2", "2.3", "2.0"),
+        ("2.2", "2.3", "2.0", "2.1"),
+        ("2.3", "2.0", "2.1", "2.2"),
+    ],
+)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("mode", ["reencode", "try_binary_copy"])
+def test_mixed_version_mutations_preserve_data(tmp_path: Path, versions, mode):
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": range(8),
+            "value": pa.array([10, None, 30, 40, 50, 60, None, 80], pa.int64()),
+            "label": ["zero", None, "", "你好", "four", "five", "six", "seven"],
+            "items": pa.array(
+                [[0], None, [], [None, 3], [4, 5], [], [6], [7]],
+                pa.list_(pa.int64()),
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    uri = tmp_path / "dataset"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        data.slice(0, 4), uri, max_rows_per_file=2, data_storage_version=versions[0]
+    )
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), data.slice(0, 4))
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        data.slice(4),
+        dataset,
+        mode="append",
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+        data_storage_version=versions[1],
+    )
+    assert {
+        f"{file.file_major_version}.{file.file_minor_version}"
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()
+        for file in fragment.metadata.files
+    } == set(versions[:2])
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), data)
+
+    expected_rows = data.to_pylist()
+    dataset.update(
+        {"value": "coalesce(value, 0) + 100"},
+        where="id IN (1, 4)",
+        data_storage_version=versions[2],
+    )
+    expected_rows[1]["value"] = 100
+    expected_rows[4]["value"] = 150
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(
+        lance.dataset(uri), pa.Table.from_pylist(expected_rows, schema=data.schema)
+    )
+
+    merged_rows = [
+        {"id": 2, "value": None, "label": "changed", "items": [9, None]},
+        {"id": 8, "value": 800, "label": "new", "items": []},
+    ]
+    (
+        dataset.merge_insert("id")
+        .when_matched_update_all()
+        .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+        .data_storage_version(versions[3])
+        .execute(pa.Table.from_pylist(merged_rows, schema=data.schema))
+    )
+    expected_rows[2] = merged_rows[0]
+    expected_rows.append(merged_rows[1])
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(
+        lance.dataset(uri), pa.Table.from_pylist(expected_rows, schema=data.schema)
+    )
+
+    dataset.delete("id IN (0, 6)")
+    expected = pa.Table.from_pylist(
+        [row for row in expected_rows if row["id"] not in (0, 6)], schema=data.schema
+    )
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), expected)
+
+    retained = dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata
+    metrics = dataset.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=32,
+        excluded_fragment_ids=[retained.id],
+        data_storage_version=versions[0],
+        compaction_mode=mode,
+    )
+    assert metrics.fragments_removed > 0
+    assert retained in [fragment.metadata for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()]
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), expected)
+
+    dataset.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=32,
+        data_storage_version=versions[1],
+        compaction_mode=mode,
+    )
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 1
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), expected)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("copy_kind", ["shallow_clone", "deep_clone", "branch"])
+def test_mixed_version_snapshot_data_isolation(tmp_path: Path, copy_kind):
+    uri = tmp_path / "source"
+    expected = pa.table(
+        {"id": range(8), "value": pa.array([10, None, 30, 40, 50, 60, None, 80])}
+    )
+    for i, version in enumerate(["2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3"]):
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            expected.slice(i * 2, 2),
+            uri,
+            mode="create" if i == 0 else "append",
+            data_storage_version=version,
+        )
+    snapshot = dataset.version
+    assert {
+        f"{file.file_major_version}.{file.file_minor_version}"
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()
+        for file in fragment.metadata.files
+    } == {"2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3"}
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), expected)
+    if copy_kind == "branch":
+        copied = dataset.create_branch("copy", snapshot)
+    else:
+        copied = getattr(dataset, copy_kind)(tmp_path / "copy", snapshot)
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(copied.uri), expected)
+
+    copied.update({"value": "999"}, where="id = 3", data_storage_version="2.1")
+    copy_rows = expected.to_pylist()
+    copy_rows[3]["value"] = 999
+    copy_expected = pa.Table.from_pylist(copy_rows, schema=expected.schema)
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(copied.uri), copy_expected)
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), expected)
+
+    dataset.delete("id IN (0, 7)")
+    dataset.optimize.compact_files(data_storage_version="2.2")
+    changed_version = dataset.version
+    changed = expected.slice(1, 6)
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), changed)
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri, version=snapshot), expected)
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(copied.uri), copy_expected)
+
+    restored = dataset.checkout_version(snapshot)
+    restored.restore()
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), expected)
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri, version=changed_version), changed)
+    appended = pa.table({"id": [8], "value": [90]}, schema=expected.schema)
+    lance.write_dataset(appended, restored, mode="append", data_storage_version="2.3")
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(
+        lance.dataset(uri), pa.concat_tables([expected, appended])
+    )
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(copied.uri), copy_expected)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("operation", ["update", "merge_insert", "compaction"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("version", ["invalid", "legacy"])
+def test_operation_rejects_invalid_data_storage_version(
+    tmp_path: Path, operation, version
+):
+    data = pa.table({"id": [1, 2], "value": [10, 20]})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        data, tmp_path / "dataset", data_storage_version="2.1"
+    )
+    # The core validates both the selector and the V1/V2 boundary before committing.
+    error = OSError if operation == "compaction" and version == "legacy" else ValueError
+    message = (
+        "Unknown Lance storage version: invalid"
+        if version == "invalid"
+        else "V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed"
+    )
+    with pytest.raises(error, match=message):
+        if operation == "update":
+            dataset.update({"value": "value + 1"}, data_storage_version=version)
+        elif operation == "merge_insert":
+            dataset.merge_insert("id").data_storage_version(
+                version
+            ).when_matched_update_all().execute(data)
+        else:
+            dataset.optimize.compact_files(data_storage_version=version)
+    assert dataset.version == 1
+    assert dataset.to_table() == data
+
+
 def test_scan_with_batch_size(tmp_path: Path):
     base_dir = tmp_path / "dataset"
     df = pd.DataFrame({"a": range(10000), "b": range(10000)})
@@ -3650,10 +5129,14 @@ def commit_lock(_version: int):
         lance.write_dataset(
             pa.table({"a": range(100)}), tmp_path / "test2", commit_lock=commit_lock
         )
+    assert lance.dataset(tmp_path / "test2").count_rows() == 100
+
+    # Import only after the generic error case to verify users need not import it first.
+    commit_module = importlib.import_module("lance.commit")
 
     @contextlib.contextmanager
     def commit_lock(_version: int):
-        raise CommitConflictError()
+        raise commit_module.CommitConflictError()
 
     with pytest.raises(Exception, match="CommitConflictError"):
         lance.write_dataset(
@@ -4077,10 +5560,14 @@ def test_legacy_dataset(tmp_path: Path):
     fragment = list(dataset.get_fragments())[0]
     assert "major_version: 2" not in format_fragment(fragment.metadata, dataset)
 
-    # Append will write v1 if dataset was originally created with v1
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
-        table, tmp_path, data_storage_version="stable", mode="append"
-    )
+    # Explicit targets cannot cross the V1/V2 boundary. Omitting the target
+    # continues to use the dataset default.
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed"):
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            table, tmp_path, data_storage_version="stable", mode="append"
+        )
+    assert lance.dataset(tmp_path).version == dataset.version
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, mode="append")
 
     fragment = list(dataset.get_fragments())[1]
     assert "major_version: 2" not in format_fragment(fragment.metadata, dataset)
@@ -4096,9 +5583,12 @@ def test_legacy_dataset(tmp_path: Path):
 
     assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 0
 
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
-        table, tmp_path, data_storage_version="legacy", mode="append"
-    )
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed"):
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            table, tmp_path, data_storage_version="legacy", mode="append"
+        )
+    assert lance.dataset(tmp_path).version == dataset.version
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, mode="append")
 
     fragment = list(dataset.get_fragments())[0]
     assert "major_version: 2" in format_fragment(fragment.metadata, dataset)
@@ -4114,9 +5604,12 @@ def test_legacy_dataset(tmp_path: Path):
 
     assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 0
 
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
-        table, tmp_path, data_storage_version="stable", mode="append"
-    )
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed"):
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            table, tmp_path, data_storage_version="stable", mode="append"
+        )
+    assert lance.dataset(tmp_path).version == dataset.version
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, mode="append")
 
     fragment = list(dataset.get_fragments())[0]
     assert "major_version: 2" not in format_fragment(fragment.metadata, dataset)
@@ -4134,16 +5627,20 @@ def test_late_materialization_param(tmp_path: Path):
     )
     filt = "filter % 2 == 0"
 
-    assert "(values)" in dataset.scanner(
-        filter=filt, late_materialization=None
-    ).explain_plan(True)
+    # A late-materialized column is fetched by a row-stream read
+    # (`projection=[values], source=stream`); an eager column appears in the
+    # scan projection
+    late = "projection=[values], source=stream"
+    assert late in dataset.scanner(filter=filt, late_materialization=None).explain_plan(
+        True
+    )
     assert ", values" in dataset.scanner(
         filter=filt, late_materialization=False
     ).explain_plan(True)
-    assert "(values)" in dataset.scanner(
-        filter=filt, late_materialization=True
-    ).explain_plan(True)
-    assert "(values)" in dataset.scanner(
+    assert late in dataset.scanner(filter=filt, late_materialization=True).explain_plan(
+        True
+    )
+    assert late in dataset.scanner(
         filter=filt, late_materialization=["values"]
     ).explain_plan(True)
     assert ", values" in dataset.scanner(
@@ -4183,6 +5680,45 @@ def test_late_materialization_batch_size(tmp_path: Path):
         assert batch.num_rows == 32
 
 
+def test_batch_size_bytes_chopping_fallback(tmp_path: Path):
+    # Write rows with large strings (~10KiB each). The file reader's byte-size
+    # estimation is based on on-disk size which, for strings, can differ
+    # significantly from in-memory size.  The rechunk fallback should still
+    # split oversized batches so no single batch exceeds the target by too much.
+    num_rows = 200
+    row_text = "x" * 10 * 1024  # 10 KiB per row
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(num_rows), type=pa.int64()),
+            "text": pa.array([row_text] * num_rows, type=pa.large_string()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, data_storage_version="stable")
+
+    # Target ~50 KiB per batch with ~10 KiB per row → expect ~5 rows per batch.
+    # Without the rechunk fallback all 200 rows would arrive in a single batch.
+    target_bytes = 50 * 1024
+    batches = list(
+        dataset.to_batches(
+            filter="id >= 0",
+            batch_size_bytes=target_bytes,
+            late_materialization=False,
+        )
+    )
+
+    total_rows = sum(b.num_rows for b in batches)
+    assert total_rows == num_rows
+
+    # We should get many batches, not one giant batch.
+    assert len(batches) > 1, f"expected many batches, got {len(batches)}"
+    # Each batch should have a small number of rows (target ~5, allow up to 10).
+    for batch in batches:
+        assert batch.num_rows <= 10, (
+            f"batch has {batch.num_rows} rows, expected at most ~10 "
+            f"for a {target_bytes} byte target with ~10KiB rows"
+        )
+
+
 def test_use_scalar_index(tmp_path: Path):
     table = pa.table({"filter": range(100)})
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
@@ -4201,6 +5737,22 @@ def test_use_scalar_index(tmp_path: Path):
     ).explain_plan(True)
 
 
+def test_fast_search_scalar_index_skips_unindexed_fragments(tmp_path: Path):
+    table = pa.table({"filter": range(100)})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=100)
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("filter", "BTREE")
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"filter": range(100, 110)}), tmp_path, mode="append"
+    )
+
+    normal = dataset.to_table(filter="filter >= 95")
+    fast = dataset.to_table(filter="filter >= 95", fast_search=True)
+
+    assert normal.num_rows == 15
+    assert fast.num_rows == 5
+    assert sorted(fast.column("filter").to_pylist()) == list(range(95, 100))
+
+
 EXPECTED_DEFAULT_STORAGE_VERSION = stable_version()
 EXPECTED_MAJOR_VERSION = int(stable_version().split(".")[0])
 EXPECTED_MINOR_VERSION = int(stable_version().split(".")[1])
@@ -4319,6 +5871,69 @@ def test_dataset_drop(tmp_path: Path):
         lance.LanceDataset.drop(tmp_path)
 
 
+def test_dataset_drop_rejects_non_dataset_directory(tmp_path: Path):
+    warehouse = tmp_path / "warehouse"
+    lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"x": [0]}), warehouse / "t.lance")
+
+    # Pointing at the parent of a dataset must not wipe out the whole warehouse.
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="no readable Lance manifest"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.drop(warehouse)
+    assert (warehouse / "t.lance").exists()
+
+    lance.LanceDataset.drop(warehouse / "t.lance")
+    assert not (warehouse / "t.lance").exists()
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "entries",
+    [
+        # A storage root holding a "data" prefix is indistinguishable from the
+        # leftovers of a write that died before committing.
+        ["data/0.lance"],
+        # A file merely sitting under _versions/, or merely named like a manifest, is
+        # not evidence that a dataset was ever committed here.
+        ["_versions/README", "reports/q1.csv"],
+        ["_versions/1.manifest", "reports/q1.csv"],
+    ],
+)
+def test_dataset_drop_rejects_paths_without_readable_manifest(
+    tmp_path: Path, entries: list
+):
+    storage_root = tmp_path / "storage_root"
+    for entry in entries:
+        path = storage_root / entry
+        path.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+        path.write_bytes(b"irreplaceable")
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="no readable Lance manifest"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.drop(storage_root)
+    for entry in entries:
+        assert (storage_root / entry).exists()
+
+
+def test_dataset_drop_allows_create_over_uncommitted_leftovers(tmp_path: Path):
+    # Refusing to drop data files without a manifest costs nothing, because those
+    # leftovers do not stop the dataset from being created and then dropped.
+    dataset_dir = tmp_path / "t.lance"
+    (dataset_dir / "data").mkdir(parents=True)
+    (dataset_dir / "data" / "0.lance").write_bytes(b"partial")
+
+    lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"x": [0]}), dataset_dir)
+    lance.LanceDataset.drop(dataset_dir)
+    assert not dataset_dir.exists()
+
+
+def test_dataset_drop_allows_dataset_with_unmanaged_files(tmp_path: Path):
+    # Cleanup deliberately preserves unmanaged files under a dataset root, so their
+    # presence must not stop a drop either.
+    dataset_dir = tmp_path / "t.lance"
+    lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"x": [0]}), dataset_dir)
+    (dataset_dir / "notes.txt").write_text("kept next to the dataset")
+
+    lance.LanceDataset.drop(dataset_dir)
+    assert not dataset_dir.exists()
+
+
 def test_dataset_schema(tmp_path: Path):
     table = pa.table({"x": [0]})
     ds = lance.write_dataset(table, str(tmp_path))  # noqa: F841
@@ -4355,6 +5970,657 @@ def test_data_replacement(tmp_path: Path):
     assert tbl == expected
 
 
+def _write_overlay_file(
+    dataset,
+    base_dir: Path,
+    name: str,
+    batch: pa.Table,
+    fields: List[int],
+    *,
+    version: Optional[str] = None,
+):
+    """Write an overlay value file (one value column per covered field, no key
+    column) and return a DataFile mapping its columns to the given dataset
+    `fields`. Omission uses the exact version of the first base data file."""
+    base_df = dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata.files[0]
+    version = version or f"{base_df.file_major_version}.{base_df.file_minor_version}"
+    path = base_dir / "data" / name
+    with LanceFileWriter(str(path), version=version) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(batch)
+    major, minor = map(int, version.split("."))
+    return lance.fragment.DataFile(
+        path=name,
+        fields=fields,
+        column_indices=list(range(len(fields))),
+        file_major_version=major,
+        file_minor_version=minor,
+        file_size_bytes=os.path.getsize(path),
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def enable_unstable_data_overlay_files(monkeypatch):
+    monkeypatch.setenv("LANCE_ENABLE_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES", "1")
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("overlay_version", ["2.2", "2.3"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("mode", ["reencode", "try_binary_copy", "force_binary_copy"])
+def test_mixed_version_overlays_preserve_data(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files, overlay_version, mode
+):
+    uri = tmp_path / "dataset"
+    data = pa.table({"id": range(6), "value": [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data.slice(0, 3), uri, data_storage_version="2.0")
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        data.slice(3), dataset, mode="append", data_storage_version="2.1"
+    )
+    # Only the second fragment has overlays. The newer overlay replaces one
+    # covered value with NULL, while a different updated row is later deleted.
+    for name, offsets, values in [
+        ("older.lance", [0, 1, 2], [400, 500, 600]),
+        ("newer.lance", [0, 2], [None, 999]),
+    ]:
+        file = _write_overlay_file(
+            dataset,
+            uri,
+            name,
+            pa.table({"value": pa.array(values, pa.int64())}),
+            fields=[1],
+            version=overlay_version,
+        )
+        dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+            dataset,
+            lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+                [
+                    lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(
+                        1, [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(file, offsets=offsets)]
+                    )
+                ]
+            ),
+            read_version=dataset.version,
+        )
+    expected = pa.table({"id": range(6), "value": [10, 20, 30, None, 500, 999]})
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), expected)
+    dataset.delete("value = 500")
+    expected = expected.filter(pc.not_equal(expected["id"], 4))
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), expected)
+    before = dataset.version
+    options = dict(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=32,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        compaction_mode=mode,
+    )
+    if mode == "force_binary_copy":
+        with pytest.raises(OSError, match="binary copy"):
+            dataset.optimize.compact_files(**options)
+        assert lance.dataset(uri).version == before
+    else:
+        dataset.optimize.compact_files(**options)
+        assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 1
+        assert not dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata.overlays
+    _assert_mixed_version_reads(lance.dataset(uri), expected)
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_dense(tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files):
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(10), pa.int32()),
+            "val": pa.array([i * 10 for i in range(10)], pa.int32()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+
+    # Overlay `val` at physical offsets {1, 4} with new values.
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "ov.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([111, 444], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[1],
+    )
+    assert data_file.fields == [1]  # `val` is field id 1
+
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=[1, 4])
+    op = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+        [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+    )
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(dataset, op, read_version=dataset.version)
+
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.column("val").to_pylist() == [0, 111, 20, 30, 444, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90]
+    # The unrelated `id` column is untouched.
+    assert result.column("id").to_pylist() == list(range(10))
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_newest_wins(tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files):
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(10), pa.int32()),
+            "val": pa.array([i * 10 for i in range(10)], pa.int32()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+
+    older = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "older.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([111, 444], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[1],
+    )
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+            [
+                lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(
+                    0,
+                    [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(older, offsets=[1, 4])],
+                )
+            ]
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+    # A newer overlay re-covers offset 1; it must win there.
+    newer = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "newer.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([999], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[1],
+    )
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+            [
+                lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(
+                    0, [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(newer, offsets=[1])]
+                )
+            ]
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    val = dataset.to_table().column("val").to_pylist()
+    assert val[1] == 999  # newest overlay wins
+    assert val[4] == 444  # only the older overlay covers offset 4
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_sparse_per_field(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(10), pa.int32()),
+            "val": pa.array([i * 10 for i in range(10)], pa.int32()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+
+    # Sparse overlay: `id` covers offset {2}, `val` covers offset {3}. The value
+    # file carries one value per field (rank 0 of each field's coverage).
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "sparse.lance",
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([777], pa.int32()),
+                "val": pa.array([330], pa.int32()),
+            }
+        ),
+        fields=[0, 1],
+    )
+    assert data_file.fields == [0, 1]
+
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=[[2], [3]])
+    op = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+        [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+    )
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(dataset, op, read_version=dataset.version)
+
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.column("id").to_pylist()[2] == 777
+    assert result.column("val").to_pylist()[3] == 330
+    # Fields resolve independently: id at offset 3 and val at offset 2 fall through.
+    assert result.column("id").to_pylist()[3] == 3
+    assert result.column("val").to_pylist()[2] == 20
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_offsets_accept_bitmap(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    from lance.bitmap import Bitmap
+
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(10), pa.int32()),
+            "val": pa.array([i * 10 for i in range(10)], pa.int32()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+
+    # Dense coverage as a single Bitmap.
+    dense_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "dense.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([111, 444], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[1],
+    )
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+            [
+                lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(
+                    0,
+                    [
+                        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(
+                            dense_file, offsets=Bitmap([1, 4])
+                        )
+                    ],
+                )
+            ]
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.column("val").to_pylist() == [0, 111, 20, 30, 444, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90]
+
+    # Sparse coverage as a list of per-field iterables, mixing a Bitmap
+    # with a plain list.
+    sparse_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "sparse.lance",
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([777], pa.int32()),
+                "val": pa.array([330], pa.int32()),
+            }
+        ),
+        fields=[0, 1],
+    )
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+            [
+                lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(
+                    0,
+                    [
+                        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(
+                            sparse_file, offsets=[Bitmap([2]), [3]]
+                        )
+                    ],
+                )
+            ]
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.column("id").to_pylist()[2] == 777
+    assert result.column("val").to_pylist()[3] == 330
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_round_trips_through_fragment_metadata(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    import json
+
+    from lance.bitmap import Bitmap
+
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(10), pa.int32()),
+            "val": pa.array([i * 10 for i in range(10)], pa.int32()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "ov.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([111, 444], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[1],
+    )
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=[1, 4])
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+            [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+    overlay_version = dataset.version
+
+    # Reading the fragment surfaces its overlays, stamped with the commit version.
+    metadata = dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata
+    assert len(metadata.overlays) == 1
+    assert isinstance(metadata.overlays[0].offsets, Bitmap)
+    assert metadata.overlays[0].offsets == [1, 4]
+    assert metadata.overlays[0].committed_version == overlay_version
+
+    # The overlays survive a JSON round-trip of the metadata.
+    restored = lance.fragment.FragmentMetadata.from_json(json.dumps(metadata.to_json()))
+    assert len(restored.overlays) == 1
+    assert restored.overlays[0].offsets == [1, 4]
+    assert restored.overlays[0].committed_version == overlay_version
+
+    # A commit that round-trips the fragment (here an Overwrite) must keep the
+    # overlays, so the overlay still resolves on read instead of being dropped.
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.Overwrite(dataset.schema, [restored]),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.column("val").to_pylist() == [0, 111, 20, 30, 444, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90]
+    assert result.column("id").to_pylist() == list(range(10))
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_offsets_accept_one_shot_iterable(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    # `offsets` is documented as an Iterable, so a generator must work. The
+    # dense/sparse shape probe must not consume it before the sparse form is
+    # resolved, or the first field's coverage would be silently dropped.
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([0, 1, 2], pa.int32()),
+                "val": pa.array([0, 10, 20], pa.int32()),
+            }
+        ),
+        base_dir,
+    )
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "sparse.lance",
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([777], pa.int32()),
+                "val": pa.array([999], pa.int32()),
+            }
+        ),
+        fields=[0, 1],
+    )
+
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(
+        data_file, offsets=(item for item in ([1], [2]))
+    )
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+            [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.column("id").to_pylist() == [0, 777, 2]
+    assert result.column("val").to_pylist() == [0, 10, 999]
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_rejects_invalid_one_shot_iterable(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    # A one-shot iterable whose contents are invalid must be rejected at
+    # commit time, not committed as empty coverage that only fails at read.
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([0, 10, 20], pa.int32())}), base_dir
+    )
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "invalid.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([999], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[0],
+    )
+
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=iter([1, "bad"]))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="offsets must be an iterable"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+            dataset,
+            lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+                [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+            ),
+            read_version=dataset.version,
+        )
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_sparse_offsets_round_trip_through_json(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    # `to_json` has to normalize per-field Bitmaps to plain lists, the same way
+    # it does a dense one -- `json.dumps` cannot serialize a Bitmap.
+    import json
+
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array(range(4), pa.int32()),
+                "val": pa.array([i * 10 for i in range(4)], pa.int32()),
+            }
+        ),
+        base_dir,
+    )
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "sparse.lance",
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([777], pa.int32()),
+                "val": pa.array([330], pa.int32()),
+            }
+        ),
+        fields=[0, 1],
+    )
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=[[2], [3]])
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+            [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    metadata = dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata
+    assert metadata.to_json()["overlays"][0]["offsets"] == [[2], [3]]
+
+    restored = lance.fragment.FragmentMetadata.from_json(json.dumps(metadata.to_json()))
+    assert [list(o) for o in restored.overlays[0].offsets] == [[2], [3]]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "offsets",
+    [
+        [1, 1],  # dense
+        [[1, 1]],  # sparse
+    ],
+    ids=["dense", "sparse"],
+)
+def test_data_overlay_rejects_duplicate_offsets(
+    tmp_path: Path, offsets, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    # Offsets map positionally to value rows: the smallest covered offset to
+    # row 0, the next to row 1, and so on. A repeat would collapse into the
+    # coverage set and shift every later offset onto the wrong row, so it must
+    # be rejected rather than silently corrupting the mapping.
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([0, 1, 2], pa.int32())}), base_dir
+    )
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "ov.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([9, 9], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[0],
+    )
+
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=offsets)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="must not repeat an offset"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+            dataset,
+            lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+                [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+            ),
+            read_version=dataset.version,
+        )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "offsets",
+    [
+        [-1],  # dense
+        [[-1]],  # sparse
+    ],
+    ids=["dense", "sparse"],
+)
+def test_data_overlay_rejects_out_of_range_offsets(
+    tmp_path: Path, offsets, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    # The shape is unambiguous here, so the error must name the bad value
+    # rather than complaining about the shape.
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([0, 1, 2], pa.int32())}), base_dir
+    )
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "ov.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([9], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[0],
+    )
+
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=offsets)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="unsigned 32-bit integer, got -1"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+            dataset,
+            lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+                [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+            ),
+            read_version=dataset.version,
+        )
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_accepts_empty_offsets(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    # An empty iterable can't distinguish dense from sparse, and doesn't need
+    # to: it covers no rows either way.
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([0, 10, 20], pa.int32())}), base_dir
+    )
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "empty.lance",
+        # A Lance file needs at least one row to carry a schema; the empty
+        # coverage means no row of it is ever read.
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([99], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[0],
+    )
+
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=[])
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+            [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    assert dataset.to_table().column("val").to_pylist() == [0, 10, 20]
+
+
+def test_data_overlay_rejects_invalid_offsets(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    table = pa.table({"val": pa.array([0, 1, 2], pa.int32())})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "ov.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([9], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[0],
+    )
+
+    # offsets is neither an iterable of ints (dense) nor an iterable of int
+    # iterables (sparse), so the coverage shape can't be resolved.
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="offsets must be an iterable"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+            dataset,
+            lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+                [
+                    lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(
+                        0,
+                        [
+                            lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(
+                                data_file, offsets=[0, [1]]
+                            )
+                        ],
+                    )
+                ]
+            ),
+            read_version=dataset.version,
+        )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "offsets",
+    [
+        [2, 1],  # dense, descending
+        [[2, 1]],  # sparse, descending
+    ],
+)
+def test_data_overlay_accepts_any_offset_order(
+    tmp_path: Path, offsets, enable_unstable_data_overlay_files
+):
+    """Offsets are always resolved in ascending order (the smallest covered
+    offset maps to value-file row 0, the next-smallest to row 1, ...)
+    regardless of what order the caller lists them in — an out-of-order list
+    is accepted and resolves identically to a pre-sorted one."""
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
+    table = pa.table({"val": pa.array([0, 1, 2], pa.int32())})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+    data_file = _write_overlay_file(
+        dataset,
+        base_dir,
+        "ov.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([100, 200], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[0],
+    )
+
+    overlay = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=offsets)
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+            [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(0, [overlay])]
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    result = dataset.to_table().column("val").to_pylist()
+    # rank 0 (offset 1) -> value row 0 (100); rank 1 (offset 2) -> value row 1 (200)
+    assert result[1] == 100
+    assert result[2] == 200
+
+
 def test_schema_project_drop_column(tmp_path: Path):
     table = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": range(100, 200), "b": range(300, 400)})
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test"
@@ -4498,6 +6764,33 @@ def test_dataset_sql(tmp_path: Path):
     assert pa.Table.from_batches(complex_result) == expected_complex
 
 
+def test_dataset_sql_batch_size_rows(tmp_path: Path):
+    table = pa.table({"id": range(50)})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "test_sql_batch_size_rows")
+
+    batches = list(
+        ds.sql("SELECT * FROM dataset").batch_size(7).build().to_stream_reader()
+    )
+
+    assert sum(batch.num_rows for batch in batches) == 50
+    assert all(batch.num_rows <= 7 for batch in batches)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("batch_size", [0, 2**32])
+def test_dataset_sql_rejects_invalid_batch_size(tmp_path: Path, batch_size: int):
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": range(3)}), tmp_path / "test_sql_invalid_batch_size"
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="batch_size must be between 1 and 4294967295"):
+        (
+            ds.sql("SELECT * FROM dataset")
+            .batch_size(batch_size)
+            .build()
+            .to_batch_records()
+        )
+
+
 def test_file_reader_options(tmp_path: Path):
     """Test cache_repetition_index and validate_on_decode options"""
     # Create a dataset with large repetitive strings to test cache_repetition_index
@@ -4697,6 +6990,76 @@ def test_commit_message_and_get_properties(tmp_path):
     )
 
 
+def test_get_transactions_on_branch(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table({"a": [1]})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    branch = dataset.create_branch("dev")
+
+    branch = lance.write_dataset(table, branch.uri, mode="append")
+    transactions = branch.get_transactions(2)
+
+    assert len(transactions) == 2
+    assert transactions[0] is not None
+    assert isinstance(transactions[0].operation, lance.LanceOperation.Append)
+
+    clone_transaction = transactions[1]
+    assert clone_transaction is not None
+    assert clone_transaction.read_version == dataset.version
+    clone = clone_transaction.operation
+    assert isinstance(clone, lance.LanceOperation.Clone)
+    assert clone.is_shallow
+    assert clone.ref_name is None
+    assert clone.ref_version == dataset.version
+    assert clone.ref_path == dataset.uri
+    assert clone.branch_name == "dev"
+
+
+def test_commit_deep_clone_rejected(tmp_path: Path):
+    source = lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(10)}), tmp_path / "source")
+    clone = lance.LanceOperation.Clone(
+        is_shallow=False,
+        ref_name=None,
+        ref_version=source.version,
+        ref_path=source.uri,
+        branch_name=None,
+    )
+
+    # Committed directly, a deep clone would reference files never copied to
+    # the target; LanceDataset.deep_clone copies them first.
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="deep Clone cannot be committed directly"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(tmp_path / "target", clone, read_version=0)
+
+
+def test_commit_with_stable_row_ids(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Test that commit() with enable_stable_row_ids creates stable row IDs."""
+    base_uri = str(tmp_path)
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(10)})
+
+    # Create dataset via commit with Overwrite and enable_stable_row_ids
+    fragments = lance.fragment.write_fragments(table, base_uri)
+    operation = lance.LanceOperation.Overwrite(table.schema, fragments)
+    ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        base_uri,
+        operation,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+    )
+
+    # Append more data
+    table2 = pa.table({"a": range(10, 20)})
+    fragments2 = lance.fragment.write_fragments(table2, base_uri)
+    ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        base_uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.Append(fragments2),
+        read_version=ds.version,
+    )
+
+    # Verify row IDs are sequential (stable row IDs assign monotonic IDs)
+    result = ds.scanner(with_row_id=True).to_table()
+    assert len(result) == 20
+    row_ids = [result["_rowid"][i].as_py() for i in range(20)]
+    assert row_ids == list(range(20))
+
+
 def test_table_metadata_updates(tmp_path: Path):
     """Test table metadata incremental updates and full replacement."""
     arr = pa.array([1, 2, 3])
@@ -5144,6 +7507,19 @@ def test_shallow_clone(tmp_path: Path):
     assert lance.dataset(clone_branch_v3).to_table() == table_v3
 
 
+def test_deep_clone(tmp_path: Path):
+    source_dir = tmp_path / "deep_src"
+    destination_dir = tmp_path / "deep_clone"
+    expected = pa.table({"id": [1, 2, 3], "value": ["a", "b", "c"]})
+    source = lance.write_dataset(expected, source_dir)
+
+    cloned = source.deep_clone(destination_dir, source.version)
+
+    assert cloned.to_table() == expected
+    assert lance.dataset(destination_dir).to_table() == expected
+    assert list(destination_dir.glob("data/*.lance"))
+
+
 def test_branches(tmp_path: Path):
     # Step 1: create branch1 from main → append to branch1 → create branch2 from tag
     base_dir = tmp_path / "test_branches"
@@ -5151,7 +7527,10 @@ def test_branches(tmp_path: Path):
     ds_main = lance.write_dataset(main_table, base_dir)
 
     branch1 = ds_main.create_branch("branch1")
+    ds_main.branches.replace_metadata("branch1", {"description": "branch one"})
     assert branch1.version == 1
+    # The dataset returned by create_branch must be fully constructed
+    assert branch1.checkout_version(("main", None)).version == 1
     branch1_append = pa.Table.from_pydict({"a": [7, 8], "b": [9, 10]})
     branch1 = lance.write_dataset(branch1_append, branch1, mode="append")
     assert branch1.version == 2
@@ -5169,11 +7548,19 @@ def test_branches(tmp_path: Path):
     branch1.tags.create("main_latest", (None, None))
     branch1.tags.create("main_latest2", ("main", None))
     branch1.create_branch("branch_from_main", ("main", None))
+    ordered_tags = dict(branch1.tags.list_ordered())
+    branches_with_main = branch1.branches.list()
     assert branch1.tags.list()["branch1_latest"]["branch"] == "branch1"
     assert branch1.tags.list()["main_latest"]["branch"] is None
     assert branch1.tags.list()["main_latest2"]["branch"] is None
-    assert branch1.branches.list()["branch_from_main"]["parent_branch"] is None
-    assert branch1.branches.list()["branch_from_main"]["parent_version"] == 1
+    assert ordered_tags["branch1_latest"]["branch"] == "branch1"
+    assert ordered_tags["main_latest"]["branch"] is None
+    assert branches_with_main["branch_from_main"]["parent_branch"] is None
+    assert branches_with_main["branch_from_main"]["branch_identifier"][0][0] == 1
+    assert isinstance(
+        branches_with_main["branch_from_main"]["branch_identifier"][0][1], str
+    )
+    assert branches_with_main["branch_from_main"]["parent_version"] == 1
     assert branch1.checkout_version("main_latest").latest_version == 1
     assert branch1.checkout_version("main_latest2").latest_version == 1
     assert branch1.checkout_version(("branch_from_main", None)).latest_version == 1
@@ -5199,7 +7586,14 @@ def test_branches(tmp_path: Path):
     b1_meta = branches["branch1"]
     assert isinstance(b1_meta["parent_version"], int)
     assert b1_meta["manifest_size"] > 0
+    assert b1_meta["branch_identifier"][0][0] == b1_meta["parent_version"]
+    assert isinstance(b1_meta["branch_identifier"][0][1], str)
+    assert len(b1_meta["branch_identifier"][0][1]) > 0
     assert "create_at" in b1_meta
+    assert b1_meta["metadata"] == {"description": "branch one"}
+    ordered_branches = dict(ds_main.branches.list_ordered())
+    assert ordered_branches["branch1"]["metadata"] == {"description": "branch one"}
+    assert "metadata" in ordered_branches["branch2"]
 
     try:
         ds_main.checkout_version("branch_not_exists")
@@ -5256,4 +7650,33 @@ def test_default_scan_options_nearest(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
     distances = result["_distance"].to_pylist()
     assert distances == sorted(distances)
 
-    assert "id" in result.column_names
+
+def test_tracked_files(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table({"x": [1, 2, 3]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "ds")
+    ds.delete("x = 2")  # adds a deletion file
+
+    reader = ds.tracked_files()
+    assert isinstance(reader, pa.RecordBatchReader)
+
+    result = reader.read_all()
+    assert result.schema.field("version").type == pa.int64()
+    assert result.num_rows >= 2  # at least manifest + data file
+
+    types = set(result.column("type").to_pylist())
+    assert "manifest" in types
+    assert "data file" in types
+    assert "deletion file" in types
+
+
+def test_all_files(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table({"x": [1, 2, 3]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "ds")
+
+    reader = ds.all_files()
+    assert isinstance(reader, pa.RecordBatchReader)
+
+    result = reader.read_all()
+    assert result.schema.field("size_bytes").type == pa.int64()
+    assert result.num_rows >= 2  # at least manifest + data file
+    assert all(s > 0 for s in result.column("size_bytes").to_pylist())
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_delta.py b/python/python/tests/test_delta.py
index 589dab8dc3f..7875df6dd00 100755
--- a/python/python/tests/test_delta.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_delta.py
@@ -134,3 +134,28 @@ def test_delta_validation_errors():
         "and with_end_version",
     ):
         ds.delta(end_version=2)
+
+
+def test_delta_get_deleted_row_ids():
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3, 4], type=pa.int32()),
+            "val": pa.array(["a", "b", "c", "d"], type=pa.string()),
+        }
+    )
+    ds = write_dataset(
+        table, "memory://delta_api_test_delete", enable_stable_row_ids=True
+    )
+    row_ids = ds.to_table(columns=[], with_row_id=True).column("_rowid").to_pylist()
+
+    ds.delete("id in (2, 3)")
+
+    delta = ds.delta(compared_against=1)
+    reader = delta.get_deleted_row_ids()
+
+    deleted = []
+    for batch in reader:
+        assert batch.schema.names == ["_rowid"]
+        deleted.extend(batch.column("_rowid").to_pylist())
+
+    assert sorted(deleted) == sorted([row_ids[1], row_ids[2]])
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_file.py b/python/python/tests/test_file.py
index 44af6a8e2d5..9c55bca174a 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_file.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_file.py
@@ -40,6 +40,26 @@ def test_write_no_schema(tmp_path):
     assert reader.read_all().to_table() == pa.table({"a": [1, 2, 3]})
 
 
+def test_write_arrow_json_no_schema(tmp_path):
+    path = tmp_path / "foo.lance"
+    json_type = pa.json_()
+    json_values = pa.ExtensionArray.from_storage(
+        json_type, pa.array(['{"a":1}', '{"b":2}'], pa.string())
+    )
+    table = pa.table({"json": json_values})
+
+    with LanceFileWriter(str(path), version="2.1") as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(table)
+
+    reader = LanceFileReader(str(path))
+    result = reader.read_all().to_table()
+    assert result.num_rows == table.num_rows
+    assert result.schema.field("json").type == pa.large_binary()
+    assert (
+        result.schema.field("json").metadata[b"ARROW:extension:name"] == b"lance.json"
+    )
+
+
 def test_no_schema_no_data(tmp_path):
     path = tmp_path / "foo.lance"
     with pytest.raises(
@@ -61,7 +81,7 @@ def test_schema_only(tmp_path):
 def test_write_with_max_page_bytes(tmp_path):
     path = tmp_path / "foo.lance"
     schema = pa.schema([pa.field("a", pa.int64())])
-    for version in ["2.0", "2.1"]:
+    for version in ["2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3"]:
         with LanceFileWriter(
             str(path), schema, max_page_bytes=1, version=version
         ) as writer:
@@ -87,27 +107,49 @@ def test_multiple_close(tmp_path):
     writer = LanceFileWriter(str(path), schema)
     writer.write_batch(pa.table({"a": [1, 2, 3]}))
     writer.close()
+    size_bytes = writer.size_bytes
+    # The second close is a no-op and must not clear the recorded size
     writer.close()
+    assert writer.size_bytes == size_bytes
 
 
-def test_version(tmp_path):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("num_rows", [0, 3])
+def test_size_bytes(tmp_path, num_rows):
     path = tmp_path / "foo.lance"
     schema = pa.schema([pa.field("a", pa.int64())])
+    writer = LanceFileWriter(str(path), schema)
+    assert writer.size_bytes is None
+    writer.write_batch(pa.table({"a": list(range(num_rows))}))
+    assert writer.close() == num_rows
+    # Even an empty file has a footer, so the size is always positive
+    assert writer.size_bytes > 0
+    assert writer.size_bytes == os.path.getsize(path)
 
-    with LanceFileWriter(str(path), schema, version="2.0") as writer:
-        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"a": [1, 2, 3]}))
-    reader = LanceFileReader(str(path))
-    metadata = reader.metadata()
-    assert metadata.major_version == 0
-    assert metadata.minor_version == 3
 
-    path = tmp_path / "foo2.lance"
-    with LanceFileWriter(str(path), schema, version="2.1") as writer:
+def test_size_bytes_with_session(tmp_path):
+    session = LanceFileSession(tmp_path)
+    with session.open_writer("foo.lance") as writer:
         writer.write_batch(pa.table({"a": [1, 2, 3]}))
-    reader = LanceFileReader(str(path))
-    metadata = reader.metadata()
-    assert metadata.major_version == 2
-    assert metadata.minor_version == 1
+    assert writer.size_bytes == os.path.getsize(tmp_path / "foo.lance")
+
+
+def test_version(tmp_path):
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("a", pa.int64())])
+    cases = [
+        ("foo.lance", "2.0", (0, 3)),
+        ("foo2.lance", "2.1", (2, 1)),
+        ("foo3.lance", "2.2", (2, 2)),
+        ("foo4.lance", "2.3", (2, 3)),
+    ]
+
+    for file_name, version, (major, minor) in cases:
+        path = tmp_path / file_name
+        with LanceFileWriter(str(path), schema, version=version) as writer:
+            writer.write_batch(pa.table({"a": [1, 2, 3]}))
+        reader = LanceFileReader(str(path))
+        metadata = reader.metadata()
+        assert metadata.major_version == major
+        assert metadata.minor_version == minor
 
 
 def test_take(tmp_path):
@@ -244,9 +286,10 @@ def test_metadata(tmp_path):
     assert len(column.pages) == 1
 
     page = column.pages[0]
-    assert len(page.buffers) == 1
-    assert page.buffers[0].position == 0
-    assert page.buffers[0].size == 24
+    assert len(page.buffers) > 0
+    for buffer in page.buffers:
+        assert buffer.position % 64 == 0
+        assert buffer.size > 0
 
     assert len(page.encoding) > 0
 
@@ -459,18 +502,27 @@ def test_write_read_additional_schema_metadata(tmp_path):
 
 
 def test_writer_maintains_order(tmp_path):
-    # 100Ki strings, each string is a couple of KiBs
-    big_strings = [f"{i}" * 1024 for i in range(100 * 1024)]
-    table = pa.table({"big_strings": big_strings})
-
-    for i in range(4):
-        path = tmp_path / f"foo-{i}.lance"
-        with LanceFileWriter(str(path)) as writer:
-            writer.write_batch(table)
+    row_ids = list(range(8))
+    payloads = ["0123456789abcdef" * (64 * 1024)] + [
+        f"page-{row_id}" for row_id in row_ids[1:]
+    ]
+    table = pa.table({"payload": payloads, "row_id": row_ids})
+    path = tmp_path / "ordered-pages.lance"
+
+    # Before #2836, the seven cheap pages could finish encoding before the
+    # expensive first page and be written out of order.
+    with LanceFileWriter(
+        str(path),
+        table.schema,
+        version="2.0",
+        data_cache_bytes=1,
+        max_page_bytes=64 * 1024,
+    ) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(table)
 
-        reader = LanceFileReader(str(path))
-        result = reader.read_all().to_table()
-        assert result == table
+    reader = LanceFileReader(str(path))
+    assert [len(column.pages) for column in reader.metadata().columns] == [8, 1]
+    assert reader.read_all().to_table() == table
 
 
 def test_compression(tmp_path):
@@ -736,6 +788,44 @@ def test_session_list_with_trailing_slash(tmp_path):
     assert files_no_slash == ["dir/file.lance"]
 
 
+def test_session_list_with_delimiter(tmp_path):
+    """Test that LanceFileSession.list_with_delimiter() is non-recursive."""
+    session = LanceFileSession(str(tmp_path))
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("x", pa.int64())])
+
+    # Two top-level files and two nested subtrees.
+    with session.open_writer("file1.lance", schema=schema) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"x": [1]}))
+    with session.open_writer("file2.lance", schema=schema) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"x": [2]}))
+    with session.open_writer("subdir/file3.lance", schema=schema) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"x": [3]}))
+    with session.open_writer("subdir/nested/file4.lance", schema=schema) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"x": [4]}))
+    with session.open_writer("other/file5.lance", schema=schema) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"x": [5]}))
+
+    # Listing the base path returns only the immediate children: the two
+    # top-level files and the two child directories (not their contents).
+    result = session.list_with_delimiter()
+    assert sorted(result.common_prefixes) == ["other", "subdir"]
+    assert sorted(result.objects) == ["file1.lance", "file2.lance"]
+
+    # Listing a subdirectory descends exactly one level: the direct file and
+    # the nested directory, but not the file inside the nested directory.
+    subdir = session.list_with_delimiter("subdir")
+    assert subdir.common_prefixes == ["subdir/nested"]
+    assert subdir.objects == ["subdir/file3.lance"]
+
+    # Trailing slash behaves the same as no trailing slash.
+    assert session.list_with_delimiter("subdir/") == subdir
+
+    # A non-existent prefix yields empty results rather than erroring.
+    empty = session.list_with_delimiter("nonexistent")
+    assert empty.common_prefixes == []
+    assert empty.objects == []
+
+
 def test_session_contains(tmp_path):
     """Test that LanceFileSession.contains() works correctly"""
     session = LanceFileSession(str(tmp_path))
@@ -757,3 +847,73 @@ def test_session_contains(tmp_path):
 
     assert session.contains("subdir/nested.lance")
     assert not session.contains("subdir/nonexistent.lance")
+
+
+def test_session_read_range(tmp_path):
+    """Test that LanceFileSession.read_range() returns the requested bytes."""
+    session = LanceFileSession(str(tmp_path))
+
+    payload = bytes(range(256))
+    local = tmp_path / "src.bin"
+    local.write_bytes(payload)
+    session.upload_file(str(local), "data/file.bin")
+
+    # A range in the middle of the file.
+    assert session.read_range("data/file.bin", 10, 5) == payload[10:15]
+    # From the start.
+    assert session.read_range("data/file.bin", 0, 4) == payload[0:4]
+    # Up to the end.
+    assert session.read_range("data/file.bin", 250, 6) == payload[250:256]
+    # A zero-length read yields empty bytes.
+    assert session.read_range("data/file.bin", 100, 0) == b""
+
+    # Reading a missing object raises OSError (consistent with download_file).
+    with pytest.raises(OSError):
+        session.read_range("data/missing.bin", 0, 4)
+
+
+def test_session_delete_file(tmp_path):
+    """Test that LanceFileSession.delete_file() removes files and is idempotent."""
+    session = LanceFileSession(str(tmp_path))
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("x", pa.int64())])
+
+    with session.open_writer("test.lance", schema=schema) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"x": [1]}))
+    with session.open_writer("subdir/nested.lance", schema=schema) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"x": [2]}))
+
+    # Deleting an existing file removes it.
+    assert session.contains("test.lance")
+    session.delete_file("test.lance")
+    assert not session.contains("test.lance")
+
+    # Nested paths work too.
+    assert session.contains("subdir/nested.lance")
+    session.delete_file("subdir/nested.lance")
+    assert not session.contains("subdir/nested.lance")
+
+    # Deleting a missing path raises OSError (consistent with download_file).
+    with pytest.raises(OSError):
+        session.delete_file("test.lance")
+    with pytest.raises(OSError):
+        session.delete_file("never_existed.lance")
+
+
+def test_struct_null_regression():
+    import lance
+
+    # Create struct array where 2nd element is null
+    tag_array = pa.array(["valid", "null_struct", "valid", "valid"])
+    struct_array = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+        [tag_array],
+        fields=[pa.field("tag", pa.string(), nullable=True)],
+        mask=pa.array([True, False, True, True]),  # False = null struct element
+    )
+
+    # Create list containing these structs
+    offsets = pa.array([0, 4], type=pa.int32())
+    list_array = pa.ListArray.from_arrays(offsets, struct_array)
+    batch = pa.record_batch([pa.array([0]), list_array], names=["id", "value"])
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(batch, "memory://", data_storage_version="2.2")
+    ds.to_table()
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_filter.py b/python/python/tests/test_filter.py
index cb50ca07b2d..5b91904b091 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_filter.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_filter.py
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 from datetime import date, datetime, timedelta
 from decimal import Decimal
 from pathlib import Path
+from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
 
 import lance
 import numpy as np
@@ -75,6 +76,23 @@ def test_simple_predicates(dataset):
         assert dataset.to_table(filter=expr) == dataset.to_table().filter(expr)
 
 
+def test_pyarrow_predicate_with_default_row_id(tmp_path: Path):
+    table = pa.table({"uid": [1, 2, 3], "number": [10, 20, 10]})
+    lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(tmp_path, default_scan_options={"with_row_id": True})
+
+    actual = dataset.to_table(filter=pc.field("number") == 10)
+
+    expected = pa.table(
+        {
+            "uid": [1, 3],
+            "number": [10, 10],
+            "_rowid": pa.array([0, 2], pa.uint64()),
+        }
+    )
+    assert actual == expected
+
+
 def test_sql_predicates(dataset):
     # Predicate and expected number of rows
     predicates_nrows = [
@@ -108,6 +126,28 @@ def test_sql_predicates(dataset):
         assert dataset.to_table(filter=expr).num_rows == expected_num_rows
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("unit", ["s", "ms", "us"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("timezone", [None, "UTC", "America/New_York"])
+def test_timestamp_pyarrow_predicates(tmp_path: Path, unit: str, timezone: str | None):
+    # PyArrow filters reach Lance as Substrait, where the timestamp literal used to be
+    # decoded in the wrong unit.
+    tz = ZoneInfo(timezone) if timezone else None
+    start = datetime(2021, 1, 1, tzinfo=tz)
+    ts_type = pa.timestamp(unit, timezone)
+    table = pa.table(
+        {"ts": pa.array([start + timedelta(hours=i) for i in range(100)], ts_type)}
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / f"{unit}_{timezone}")
+
+    cutoff = pa.scalar(start + timedelta(hours=50), ts_type)
+    for expr in [
+        pc.field("ts") > cutoff,
+        pc.field("ts") < cutoff,
+        pc.field("ts") == cutoff,
+    ]:
+        assert dataset.to_table(filter=expr) == table.filter(expr)
+
+
 def test_sql_current_date(tmp_path: Path):
     table = pa.table(
         {"date": pa.array([date(2020, 1, 1), date(2020, 1, 2)], type=pa.date32())}
@@ -323,9 +363,56 @@ def test_struct_field_order(tmp_path):
         assert result == expected
 
 
+def test_filter_on_column_beside_struct_with_extension_type(tmp_path):
+    tensor_type = pa.fixed_shape_tensor(pa.float32(), (3,))
+    tensor_arr = pa.ExtensionArray.from_storage(
+        tensor_type,
+        pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(pa.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], pa.float32()), 3),
+    )
+    struct_arr = pa.StructArray.from_arrays([tensor_arr], names=["vec"])
+
+    arrow_table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1], pa.int64()),
+            "checkpoint": pa.array([None], pa.int64()),
+            "items": struct_arr,
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(arrow_table, tmp_path)
+
+    expr = pc.field("checkpoint").is_null() | (pc.field("checkpoint") == 0)
+    result = ds.to_table(filter=expr)
+    assert result["id"].to_pylist() == [1]
+
+
+def test_filter_on_column_beside_root_extension_type(tmp_path):
+    """Filtering should work when the schema has a top-level extension type column.
+
+    fixed_shape_tensor at the root level cannot be converted to a substrait type,
+    so it must also be replaced with a placeholder.
+    """
+    tensor_type = pa.fixed_shape_tensor(pa.float32(), (3,))
+    tensor_arr = pa.ExtensionArray.from_storage(
+        tensor_type,
+        pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(pa.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], pa.float32()), 3),
+    )
+    arrow_table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1], pa.int64()),
+            "checkpoint": pa.array([None], pa.int64()),
+            "vec": tensor_arr,
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(arrow_table, tmp_path)
+
+    expr = pc.field("checkpoint").is_null() | (pc.field("checkpoint") == 0)
+    result = ds.to_table(filter=expr)
+    assert result["id"].to_pylist() == [1]
+
+
 @pytest.mark.skip(
-    reason="enable this in recurring test https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/4190"
-    " as it requires release mode"
+    reason="requires a release build; see "
+    "https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/4190"
 )
 def test_filter_depth_limit():
     column_name = "a_very_long_column_name"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_fork.py b/python/python/tests/test_fork.py
index f36e13debed..c032781623a 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_fork.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_fork.py
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 import os
 import sys
+import traceback
 from pathlib import Path
 
 import lance
@@ -24,14 +25,7 @@ def create_table(num_rows) -> pa.Table:
     )
 
 
-@pytest.mark.skipif(sys.platform == "win32", reason="Test not applicable on Windows")
-def test_table_roundtrip(tmp_path: Path):
-    uri = tmp_path
-
-    tbl = create_table(100)
-    lance.write_dataset(tbl, uri)
-
-    os.fork()
+def check_reads(uri: Path, tbl: pa.Table):
     dataset = lance.dataset(uri)
     assert dataset.uri == str(uri.absolute())
     assert tbl.schema == dataset.schema
@@ -42,3 +36,36 @@ def test_table_roundtrip(tmp_path: Path):
 
     table = dataset.to_table(columns=["a"], limit=20)
     assert len(table) == 20
+
+
+@pytest.mark.skipif(sys.platform == "win32", reason="Test not applicable on Windows")
+def test_table_roundtrip(tmp_path: Path):
+    uri = tmp_path
+
+    tbl = create_table(100)
+    lance.write_dataset(tbl, uri)
+
+    child = os.fork()
+    if child == 0:
+        # The child has to leave through os._exit. Returning would run the rest
+        # of the pytest session a second time, and under pytest-xdist it would
+        # also report a second result for this test over the execnet connection
+        # inherited from the worker, which crashes the controller's scheduler.
+        status = 0
+        try:
+            check_reads(uri, tbl)
+        except BaseException:
+            traceback.print_exc()
+            status = 1
+        os._exit(status)
+
+    check_reads(uri, tbl)
+    _, wait_status = os.waitpid(child, 0)
+    exitcode = os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(wait_status)
+    # Nothing the child raises can reach this process, so its exit status is the
+    # only evidence the post-fork read worked. On macOS the child dies of a
+    # signal before finishing that read -- long-standing behaviour that this
+    # test could not see while it never waited on the child at all. Checking it
+    # where it does hold at least keeps the Linux path honest.
+    if sys.platform != "darwin":
+        assert exitcode == 0, "reading the dataset failed in the forked child"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_fragment.py b/python/python/tests/test_fragment.py
index 40e2a69df22..8b4a317e8db 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_fragment.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_fragment.py
@@ -21,8 +21,8 @@
     write_dataset,
 )
 from lance.debug import format_fragment
-from lance.file import LanceFileWriter
-from lance.fragment import write_fragments
+from lance.file import LanceFileReader, LanceFileWriter
+from lance.fragment import RowIdMeta, RowIdSequence, write_fragments
 from lance.progress import FileSystemFragmentWriteProgress
 
 
@@ -145,6 +145,75 @@ def test_write_fragments(tmp_path: Path):
     assert progress.complete_called == 2
 
 
+def _write_single_fragment(write_api, batches, uri, **kwargs):
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("a", pa.int64())])
+    reader = pa.RecordBatchReader.from_batches(
+        schema,
+        [pa.record_batch([pa.array(values)], schema=schema) for values in batches],
+    )
+    if write_api == "dataset":
+        dataset = write_dataset(reader, uri, **kwargs)
+        return dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata
+    return write_fragments(reader, uri, **kwargs)[0]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("write_api", ["dataset", "fragments"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "options,batches,expected_pages",
+    [
+        pytest.param(
+            {"data_cache_bytes": 1},
+            [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]],
+            2,
+            id="data-cache",
+        ),
+        pytest.param(
+            {"max_page_bytes": 1},
+            [[1, 2, 3]],
+            3,
+            id="max-page",
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_write_page_options(
+    tmp_path: Path, write_api, options, batches, expected_pages
+):
+    fragment = _write_single_fragment(
+        write_api,
+        batches,
+        tmp_path,
+        data_storage_version="2.0",
+        **options,
+    )
+    data_file = tmp_path / "data" / fragment.files[0].path
+    metadata = LanceFileReader(str(data_file)).metadata()
+    assert len(metadata.columns[0].pages) == expected_pages
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("write_api", ["dataset", "fragments"])
+def test_write_rejects_zero_max_page_bytes(tmp_path: Path, write_api):
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="max_page_bytes must be greater than 0, got 0"):
+        _write_single_fragment(
+            write_api,
+            [[1, 2, 3]],
+            tmp_path,
+            data_storage_version="2.0",
+            max_page_bytes=0,
+        )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("write_api", ["dataset", "fragments"])
+def test_write_page_options_ignored_for_legacy(tmp_path: Path, write_api):
+    fragment = _write_single_fragment(
+        write_api,
+        [[1, 2, 3]],
+        tmp_path,
+        data_storage_version="legacy",
+        max_page_bytes=0,
+    )
+    assert fragment.physical_rows == 3
+
+
 def test_write_fragments_schema_holes(tmp_path: Path):
     # Create table with 3 cols
     data = pa.table({"a": range(3)})
@@ -279,7 +348,7 @@ def test_fragment_meta():
         "file_size_bytes=100), DataFile(path='1.lance', fields=[1], column_indices=[], "
         "file_major_version=0, file_minor_version=0, file_size_bytes=None)], "
         "physical_rows=100, deletion_file=None, row_id_meta=None, "
-        "created_at_version_meta=None, last_updated_at_version_meta=None)"
+        "created_at_version_meta=None, last_updated_at_version_meta=None, overlays=[])"
     )
 
 
@@ -323,7 +392,7 @@ def test_mixed_fragment_versions(tmp_path):
 
     # Attempt to commit
     operation = lance.LanceOperation.Overwrite(ds.schema, fragments)
-    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="All data files must have the same version"):
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="Dataset snapshot mixes V1 and V2 data files"):
         lance.LanceDataset.commit(ds.uri, operation)
 
 
@@ -453,6 +522,22 @@ def test_fragment_count_rows(tmp_path: Path):
     assert fragments[0].count_rows(pc.field("a") < 200) == 200
 
 
+def test_fragment_pyarrow_expression_filter(tmp_path: Path):
+    data = pa.table({"id": [0, 1, 2], "s": ["C:\\temp", "plain", "other"]})
+    dataset = write_dataset(data, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=2)
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 2
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+    expression = pc.field("s") != "C:\\temp"
+
+    assert dataset.count_rows(filter=expression) == 2
+    assert fragment.count_rows(expression) == 1
+    assert fragment.scanner(filter=expression).to_table()["id"].to_pylist() == [1]
+    assert fragment.to_table(filter=expression)["id"].to_pylist() == [1]
+    assert fragment.to_table(filter=pc.field("s").isin(["C:\\temp"]))[
+        "id"
+    ].to_pylist() == [0]
+
+
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("enable_stable_row_ids", [False, True])
 def test_fragment_metadata_pickle(tmp_path: Path, enable_stable_row_ids: bool):
     ds = write_dataset(
@@ -472,9 +557,16 @@ def test_fragment_metadata_pickle(tmp_path: Path, enable_stable_row_ids: bool):
 
     # Pickle and unpickle the fragment metadata
     round_trip = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(frag_meta))
-
     assert frag_meta == round_trip
 
+    # JSON round-trip
+    json_data = frag_meta.to_json()
+    json_round_trip = FragmentMetadata.from_json(json.dumps(json_data))
+    assert frag_meta.id == json_round_trip.id
+    assert frag_meta.physical_rows == json_round_trip.physical_rows
+    if enable_stable_row_ids:
+        assert json_round_trip.row_id_meta is not None
+
 
 def test_deletion_file_with_base_id_serialization():
     """Test that DeletionFile with base_id serializes correctly."""
@@ -610,6 +702,139 @@ def test_fragment_update_columns_with_custom_join_key(tmp_path):
     assert result["name"][2] == "Chase"  # id=3 should have name Chase
 
 
+def test_fragment_update_columns_with_blob_v2(tmp_path):
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3, 4]),
+            "payload": lance.blob_array([b"one", b"two", b"", None]),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_dataset_update_columns_blob_v2"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        data,
+        dataset_uri,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragment(0)
+    updated_fragment, fields_modified = fragment.update_columns(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([2]),
+                "payload": lance.blob_array([b"NEW"]),
+            }
+        ),
+        left_on="id",
+    )
+
+    operation = LanceOperation.Update(
+        updated_fragments=[updated_fragment],
+        fields_modified=fields_modified,
+    )
+    updated_dataset = LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset_uri,
+        operation,
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    result = updated_dataset.to_table(blob_handling="all_binary")
+    assert result["id"].to_pylist() == [1, 2, 3, 4]
+    assert result["payload"].to_pylist() == [b"one", b"NEW", b"", None]
+
+
+def test_fragment_update_columns_with_nested_blob_v2(tmp_path):
+    def info_array(names, payloads):
+        fields = [pa.field("name", pa.string()), lance.blob_field("blob")]
+        return pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+            [pa.array(names), lance.blob_array(payloads)], fields=fields
+        )
+
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_dataset_update_columns_nested_blob_v2"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([1, 2]),
+                "info": info_array(["a", "b"], [b"one", b"two"]),
+            }
+        ),
+        dataset_uri,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+    )
+
+    updated_fragment, fields_modified = dataset.get_fragment(0).update_columns(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([2]),
+                "info": info_array(["B"], [b"NEW"]),
+            }
+        ),
+        left_on="id",
+    )
+    updated_dataset = LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset_uri,
+        LanceOperation.Update(
+            updated_fragments=[updated_fragment],
+            fields_modified=fields_modified,
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    info = updated_dataset.to_table(blob_handling="all_binary")["info"].combine_chunks()
+    assert info.field("name").to_pylist() == ["a", "B"]
+    assert info.field("blob").to_pylist() == [b"one", b"NEW"]
+
+
+def test_fragment_update_columns_preserves_external_blob_v2(tmp_path):
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_dataset_update_columns_external_blob_v2"
+    external = tmp_path / "existing-payload.bin"
+    external.write_bytes(b"outside")
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([1, 2]),
+                "payload": lance.blob_array([external.as_uri(), b"two"]),
+            }
+        ),
+        dataset_uri,
+        data_storage_version="2.2",
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases=True,
+    )
+
+    updated_fragment, fields_modified = dataset.get_fragment(0).update_columns(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([2]),
+                "payload": lance.blob_array([b"NEW"]),
+            }
+        ),
+        left_on="id",
+    )
+    updated_dataset = LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset_uri,
+        LanceOperation.Update(
+            updated_fragments=[updated_fragment],
+            fields_modified=fields_modified,
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    result = updated_dataset.to_table(blob_handling="all_binary")
+    assert result["payload"].to_pylist() == [b"outside", b"NEW"]
+
+    new_external = tmp_path / "new-payload.bin"
+    new_external.write_bytes(b"new outside")
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="outside registered external bases"):
+        updated_dataset.get_fragment(0).update_columns(
+            pa.table(
+                {
+                    "id": pa.array([2]),
+                    "payload": lance.blob_array([new_external.as_uri()]),
+                }
+            ),
+            left_on="id",
+        )
+
+
 def test_fragment_update_columns_with_nulls(tmp_path):
     """Test fragment update columns with null values."""
     # Create initial dataset
@@ -693,6 +918,54 @@ def test_fragment_update_columns_partial_update(tmp_path):
     assert result["city"] == ["NYC", "LA", "SF"]  # Unchanged
 
 
+def test_fragment_update_columns_with_offsets_rewrite_columns(tmp_path):
+    """update_columns(with_offsets=True) returns matched row offsets that a
+    rewrite_columns commit uses to refresh row version metadata for the
+    matched rows only."""
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": list(range(8)),
+            "value": [i * 10 for i in range(8)],
+        }
+    )
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_dataset_update_columns_with_offsets"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        data, dataset_uri, max_rows_per_file=4, enable_stable_row_ids=True
+    )
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 2
+
+    # Update two rows of the second fragment, joining on a user column.
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[1]
+    update_data = pa.table({"id": [5, 7], "value": [500, 700]})
+    updated_fragment, fields_modified, matched_offsets = fragment.update_columns(
+        update_data, left_on="id", with_offsets=True
+    )
+    # Portable RoaringBitmap serialization of {1, 3}: ids 5 and 7 sit at those
+    # physical offsets within the second fragment.
+    assert matched_offsets == (
+        b"\x3a\x30\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00"
+        b"\x10\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x03\x00"
+    )
+
+    op = LanceOperation.Update(
+        updated_fragments=[updated_fragment],
+        fields_modified=fields_modified,
+        update_mode="rewrite_columns",
+        updated_fragment_offsets={updated_fragment.id: matched_offsets},
+    )
+    updated_dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        str(dataset_uri), op, read_version=dataset.version
+    )
+
+    result = updated_dataset.to_table(
+        columns=["id", "value", "_row_last_updated_at_version"]
+    ).sort_by("id")
+    assert result["value"].to_pylist() == [0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 500, 60, 700]
+    # Only the matched rows carry the commit's version.
+    versions = result["_row_last_updated_at_version"].to_pylist()
+    assert versions == [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2]
+
+
 def test_fragment_update_columns_no_match(tmp_path):
     """Test update when no rows match the join condition."""
     # Create initial dataset
@@ -717,7 +990,10 @@ def test_fragment_update_columns_no_match(tmp_path):
 
     # Get the fragment and update columns
     fragment = dataset.get_fragment(0)
-    updated_fragment, fields_modified = fragment.update_columns(update_data)
+    updated_fragment, fields_modified, matched_offsets = fragment.update_columns(
+        update_data, with_offsets=True
+    )
+    assert matched_offsets == b"\x3a\x30\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00"
 
     # Commit the changes
 
@@ -793,3 +1069,605 @@ def test_fragment_update_columns_error_on_metadata_column(tmp_path):
         "metadata column" in str(exc_info.value).lower()
         or "cannot be updated" in str(exc_info.value).lower()
     )
+
+
+def test_fragment_delete_rows(tmp_path: Path):
+    # LanceFragment.delete_rows deletes by local row offset (not a predicate):
+    # exactly the given rows are removed, the rest survive, and the fragment is
+    # gone when every row is deleted.
+    data = pa.table({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+    frag = dataset.get_fragment(0)
+
+    new_meta = frag.delete_rows([0, 5, 99])
+    assert new_meta is not None
+    op = LanceOperation.Delete(
+        updated_fragments=[new_meta],
+        deleted_fragment_ids=[],
+        predicate="delete_rows([0, 5, 99])",
+    )
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(dataset.uri, op, read_version=dataset.version)
+
+    assert dataset.count_rows() == 97
+    remaining = set(dataset.to_table(columns=["a"])["a"].to_pylist())
+    assert {0, 5, 99}.isdisjoint(remaining)
+    assert {1, 98}.issubset(remaining)
+
+    # Deleting every row removes the fragment entirely (returns None).
+    frag = lance.dataset(tmp_path).get_fragment(0)
+    assert frag.delete_rows(range(100)) is None
+
+    # Offsets outside the fragment's physical rows are rejected, not silently
+    # written to the deletion file.
+    frag = lance.dataset(tmp_path).get_fragment(0)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="out of range"):
+        frag.delete_rows([100])
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="out of range"):
+        frag.delete_rows([0, 50, 1000])
+
+
+def test_fragment_take_with_json_column(tmp_path):
+    """Test that FileFragment.take returns JSON columns in Arrow JSON format."""
+    json_type = pa.json_()
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(10), type=pa.int64()),
+            "meta": pa.array(
+                [f'{{"val":{i}}}' for i in range(10)],
+                type=json_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_frag_take_json"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, dataset_uri)
+
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragment(0)
+    result = fragment.take([1, 4, 7])
+
+    # Should return arrow.json type (Utf8), not lance.json (LargeBinary)
+    meta_field = result.schema.field("meta")
+    assert meta_field.type == pa.utf8() or meta_field.type == pa.json_(), (
+        f"Expected arrow.json (Utf8), got {meta_field.type}"
+    )
+
+    metas = result.column("meta").to_pylist()
+    assert metas[0] == '{"val":1}'
+    assert metas[1] == '{"val":4}'
+    assert metas[2] == '{"val":7}'
+
+
+def test_fragment_create_with_json_column(tmp_path):
+    """Test that LanceFragment.create works with Arrow JSON extension type.
+
+    Previously the single-fragment create path skipped the Arrow JSON (Utf8) ->
+    Lance JSON (JSONB LargeBinary) conversion that write_dataset/write_fragments
+    perform, so the raw UTF-8 string bytes were written into a column whose schema
+    declared JSONB. Reads then miss-decoded the bytes and returned garbage.
+    """
+    json_type = pa.json_()
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "uid": pa.array(["a", "b", "c", "d"], type=pa.utf8()),
+            "payload": pa.array(
+                ['{"x":1}', '{"x":2}', '{"y":3}', '{"y":4}'],
+                type=json_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+
+    frag = LanceFragment.create(tmp_path, data)
+    operation = LanceOperation.Overwrite(data.schema, [frag])
+    dataset = LanceDataset.commit(tmp_path, operation)
+
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.column("uid").to_pylist() == ["a", "b", "c", "d"]
+    payloads = result.column("payload").to_pylist()
+    assert [json.loads(p) for p in payloads] == [
+        {"x": 1},
+        {"x": 2},
+        {"y": 3},
+        {"y": 4},
+    ]
+
+
+def test_fragment_update_columns_with_json_column(tmp_path):
+    """Test that fragment update_columns works with Arrow JSON extension type.
+
+    Previously this would fail with a type mismatch error because the
+    HashJoiner didn't convert Arrow JSON (Utf8) to Lance JSON (LargeBinary).
+    """
+    # Create initial dataset with a JSON extension type column
+    json_type = pa.json_()
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], type=pa.int64()),
+            "name": pa.array(["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"], type=pa.utf8()),
+            "meta": pa.array(
+                ['{"x":1}', '{"x":2}', '{"x":3}', '{"x":4}', '{"x":5}'],
+                type=json_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "test_update_cols_json"
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, dataset_uri)
+
+    # Prepare update data: update the JSON column for some rows
+    update_data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "_rowid": pa.array([1, 3], type=pa.uint64()),
+            "meta": pa.array(
+                ['{"updated":true,"id":2}', '{"updated":true,"id":4}'],
+                type=json_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+
+    # This should NOT raise a type mismatch error
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragment(0)
+    updated_fragment, fields_modified = fragment.update_columns(update_data)
+
+    assert len(fields_modified) > 0
+
+    # Commit and verify
+    op = LanceOperation.Update(
+        updated_fragments=[updated_fragment],
+        fields_modified=fields_modified,
+    )
+    updated_dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        str(dataset_uri), op, read_version=dataset.version
+    )
+
+    result = updated_dataset.to_table()
+    ids = result.column("id").to_pylist()
+    metas = result.column("meta").to_pylist()
+
+    for i, (id_val, meta_val) in enumerate(zip(ids, metas)):
+        meta = json.loads(meta_val) if isinstance(meta_val, str) else meta_val
+        if id_val == 2 or id_val == 4:
+            assert "updated" in meta_val or meta.get("updated") is True, (
+                f"id={id_val} should be updated, got {meta_val}"
+            )
+        else:
+            assert "x" in meta_val or "x" in str(meta), (
+                f"id={id_val} should have original value, got {meta_val}"
+            )
+
+
+def test_row_id_sequence_from_range():
+    # A step-of-one range is the compact case and must not materialize its ids.
+    sequence = RowIdSequence(range(10))
+
+    assert len(sequence) == 10
+    assert sequence.to_pyarrow() == pa.array(range(10), type=pa.uint64())
+    assert sequence.to_pyarrow().type == pa.uint64()
+    assert list(sequence) == list(range(10))
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "row_ids",
+    [
+        pytest.param(pa.array([1, 2, 3]), id="pyarrow_array"),
+        pytest.param(pa.array([1, 2, 3], type=pa.uint64()), id="pyarrow_uint64_array"),
+        pytest.param(pa.array([1, 2, 3], type=pa.int8()), id="pyarrow_int8_array"),
+        pytest.param(pa.array([1, 2, 3], type=pa.uint16()), id="pyarrow_uint16_array"),
+        # A slice carries an offset into a larger buffer; only the slice counts.
+        pytest.param(pa.array([9, 1, 2, 3, 9]).slice(1, 3), id="pyarrow_sliced_array"),
+        pytest.param(pa.chunked_array([[1], [2, 3]]), id="pyarrow_chunked_array"),
+        pytest.param((x for x in [1, 2, 3]), id="generator"),
+        pytest.param([1, 2, 3], id="list"),
+        pytest.param(range(1, 4), id="range"),
+        pytest.param(range(3, 0, -1), id="descending_range"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_row_id_sequence_accepts_input_types(row_ids):
+    sequence = RowIdSequence(row_ids)
+
+    assert sorted(sequence) == [1, 2, 3]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "row_ids",
+    [
+        pytest.param([], id="empty_list"),
+        pytest.param(range(0), id="empty_range"),
+        pytest.param(pa.array([], type=pa.uint64()), id="empty_array"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_row_id_sequence_empty(row_ids):
+    sequence = RowIdSequence(row_ids)
+
+    assert len(sequence) == 0
+    assert list(sequence) == []
+    assert sequence.to_pyarrow() == pa.array([], type=pa.uint64())
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "row_ids",
+    [
+        pytest.param(list(range(4100)), id="contiguous"),
+        pytest.param(list(range(0, 8200, 2)), id="gapped"),
+        pytest.param(list(range(4100))[::-1], id="unsorted"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_row_id_sequence_iterates_large_sequences(row_ids):
+    # Each shape picks a different segment encoding, so all of them have to
+    # round-trip through iteration.
+    sequence = RowIdSequence(row_ids)
+
+    assert list(sequence) == row_ids
+    # Each call must hand back a fresh iterator rather than a spent one.
+    assert list(sequence) == row_ids
+
+
+def test_row_id_sequence_from_range_above_isize():
+    # Range bounds are read as isize; beyond that the values are read one at a
+    # time instead, which must still cover the whole uint64 row id domain.
+    start = 2**63
+    sequence = RowIdSequence(range(start, start + 3))
+
+    assert list(sequence) == [start, start + 1, start + 2]
+
+
+def test_row_id_sequence_unsorted_round_trips():
+    sequence = RowIdSequence([12, 11, 10])
+
+    assert list(sequence) == [12, 11, 10]
+    assert sequence.to_pyarrow() == pa.array([12, 11, 10], type=pa.uint64())
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "row_ids",
+    [
+        pytest.param([1, 1, 2], id="adjacent"),
+        pytest.param([1, 2, 3, 1], id="separated"),
+        pytest.param(pa.array([5, 3, 5]), id="unsorted_array"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_row_id_sequence_rejects_duplicates(row_ids):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Row ids must be unique"):
+        RowIdSequence(row_ids)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("row_ids", "message"),
+    [
+        pytest.param(pa.array([1, None, 3]), "must not be null", id="null_in_array"),
+        pytest.param(pa.array([1.5, 2.5]), "array of integers", id="float_array"),
+        pytest.param(pa.array([-1, 2]), "uint64", id="negative_in_array"),
+        pytest.param(range(-5, 5), "non-negative", id="negative_range"),
+        pytest.param(5, "iterable of integers", id="not_iterable"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_row_id_sequence_rejects_invalid_input(row_ids, message):
+    with pytest.raises((ValueError, TypeError), match=message):
+        RowIdSequence(row_ids)
+
+
+def test_row_id_sequence_metadata_round_trip():
+    sequence = RowIdSequence([7, 12, 3])
+
+    metadata = sequence.to_inline_metadata()
+    assert isinstance(metadata, RowIdMeta)
+    assert RowIdSequence.from_inline_metadata(metadata) == sequence
+
+
+def test_row_id_sequence_equality_and_repr():
+    assert RowIdSequence(range(3)) == RowIdSequence([0, 1, 2])
+    assert RowIdSequence(range(3)) != RowIdSequence([0, 1])
+    # Comparing against an unrelated type is False rather than an error.
+    assert RowIdSequence(range(3)) != "not a sequence"
+
+    assert repr(RowIdSequence([1, 2])) == "RowIdSequence([1, 2])"
+    assert repr(RowIdSequence(range(12))) == (
+        "RowIdSequence([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...], len=12)"
+    )
+
+
+def test_row_id_sequence_pickle():
+    sequence = RowIdSequence([7, 12, 3])
+
+    assert pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(sequence)) == sequence
+
+
+def _row_ids_by_id(dataset: LanceDataset) -> dict:
+    table = dataset.to_table(columns=["id"], with_row_id=True)
+    return dict(zip(table["id"].to_pylist(), table["_rowid"].to_pylist()))
+
+
+def test_row_id_sequence_preserves_ids_in_manual_update(tmp_path: Path):
+    # An update assembled externally (delete the old row, append a replacement)
+    # keeps the row's identity only if the new fragment carries its row id.
+    dataset = write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": [1, 2, 3, 4], "v": [10, 20, 30, 40]}),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+    )
+    row_ids_before = _row_ids_by_id(dataset)
+
+    updated_fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0].delete("id = 2")
+    (new_fragment,) = write_fragments(pa.table({"id": [2], "v": [99]}), tmp_path)
+    new_fragment.row_id_meta = RowIdSequence([row_ids_before[2]]).to_inline_metadata()
+
+    dataset = LanceDataset.commit(
+        tmp_path,
+        LanceOperation.Update(
+            removed_fragment_ids=[],
+            updated_fragments=[updated_fragment],
+            new_fragments=[new_fragment],
+            fields_modified=[],
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    assert _row_ids_by_id(dataset) == row_ids_before
+    assert dataset.to_table().sort_by("id").to_pydict() == {
+        "id": [1, 2, 3, 4],
+        "v": [10, 99, 30, 40],
+    }
+
+
+def test_row_id_sequence_reads_back_fragment_metadata(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"a": range(10)}),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=5,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+    )
+
+    sequences = [
+        RowIdSequence.from_inline_metadata(fragment.metadata.row_id_meta)
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()
+    ]
+
+    assert [list(sequence) for sequence in sequences] == [
+        [0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
+        [5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
+    ]
+
+
+def test_fragment_validate(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"a": range(100), "b": range(100)}),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=50,
+    )
+    # A valid fragment validates without raising.
+    for fragment in dataset.get_fragments():
+        assert fragment.validate() is None
+
+
+def test_fragment_validate_across_data_files(tmp_path: Path):
+    # add_columns writes a second data file per fragment; validate must still
+    # pass (field ids increasing and unique across a fragment's data files).
+    dataset = write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(100)}), tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=50)
+    dataset.add_columns({"b": "a + 1"})
+    for fragment in dataset.get_fragments():
+        assert len(fragment.data_files()) > 1
+        fragment.validate()
+
+
+def test_fragment_validate_after_delete(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(100)}), tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=50)
+    dataset.delete("a < 10")
+    # A fragment carrying a deletion vector still validates.
+    for fragment in dataset.get_fragments():
+        fragment.validate()
+
+
+def _dataset_with_scalar_index(tmp_path: Path) -> LanceDataset:
+    dataset = write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"val": range(10000), "other": range(10000)}),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=5000,
+    )
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("val", index_type="BTREE")
+    return dataset
+
+
+def test_fragment_scanner_use_scalar_index_disables_index_query(tmp_path: Path):
+    # A filtered fragment scan on an indexed column plans a dataset-wide
+    # ScalarIndexQuery (and caches its index pages) unless the scan opts out.
+    dataset = _dataset_with_scalar_index(tmp_path)
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+    filt = "val >= 10 AND val <= 20"
+
+    default_plan = fragment.scanner(filter=filt, with_row_id=True).explain_plan(True)
+    assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in default_plan
+
+    opted_out_plan = fragment.scanner(
+        filter=filt, with_row_id=True, use_scalar_index=False
+    ).explain_plan(True)
+    assert "ScalarIndexQuery" not in opted_out_plan
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_scalar_index", [None, True, False])
+def test_fragment_scanner_matches_dataset_scanner(tmp_path: Path, use_scalar_index):
+    # The fragment scanner must build the same plan as the dataset scanner
+    # restricted to that single fragment.
+    dataset = _dataset_with_scalar_index(tmp_path)
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+    filt = "val >= 10 AND val <= 20"
+
+    frag_plan = fragment.scanner(
+        filter=filt, with_row_id=True, use_scalar_index=use_scalar_index
+    ).explain_plan(True)
+    dataset_plan = dataset.scanner(
+        fragments=[fragment],
+        filter=filt,
+        with_row_id=True,
+        use_scalar_index=use_scalar_index,
+    ).explain_plan(True)
+    assert frag_plan == dataset_plan
+
+
+def _fragment_with_deletions(tmp_path: Path) -> LanceFragment:
+    dataset = write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(20)}), tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=10)
+    dataset.delete("a < 3")
+    return dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+
+
+def test_fragment_scanner_include_deleted_rows(tmp_path: Path):
+    fragment = _fragment_with_deletions(tmp_path)
+    assert fragment.physical_rows == 10
+    assert fragment.num_deletions == 3
+
+    # By default the deleted rows are omitted.
+    default = fragment.to_table(with_row_id=True)
+    assert default.num_rows == 7
+    assert default["a"].to_pylist() == list(range(3, 10))
+
+    # With include_deleted_rows the deleted rows are surfaced with a null _rowid.
+    included = fragment.scanner(with_row_id=True, include_deleted_rows=True).to_table()
+    assert included.num_rows == fragment.physical_rows
+    assert included["a"].to_pylist() == list(range(10))
+    assert included["_rowid"].null_count == fragment.num_deletions
+
+
+def test_fragment_scanner_include_deleted_rows_requires_row_id(tmp_path: Path):
+    fragment = _fragment_with_deletions(tmp_path)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="with_row_id"):
+        fragment.scanner(include_deleted_rows=True).to_table()
+
+
+def test_fragment_scanner_include_deleted_rows_matches_dataset_scanner(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(20)}), tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=10)
+    dataset.delete("a < 3")
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+
+    frag_plan = fragment.scanner(
+        with_row_id=True, include_deleted_rows=True
+    ).explain_plan(True)
+    dataset_plan = dataset.scanner(
+        fragments=[fragment], with_row_id=True, include_deleted_rows=True
+    ).explain_plan(True)
+    assert frag_plan == dataset_plan
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("late_materialization", "is_late"),
+    [
+        pytest.param(None, False, id="default"),
+        pytest.param(True, True, id="all_late"),
+        pytest.param(False, False, id="all_early"),
+        pytest.param(["values"], True, id="late_column"),
+        pytest.param(["filter"], False, id="early_column"),
+    ],
+)
+def test_fragment_scanner_late_materialization(
+    tmp_path: Path, late_materialization, is_late
+):
+    # With no index, the plan shows whether `values` is fetched late (a take over
+    # the row stream) or early (materialized in the scan projection).
+    dataset = write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"filter": range(2000), "values": range(2000)}),
+        tmp_path,
+        data_storage_version="stable",
+    )
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+
+    plan = fragment.scanner(
+        filter="filter % 2 == 0", late_materialization=late_materialization
+    ).explain_plan(True)
+
+    if is_late:
+        assert "projection=[values], source=stream" in plan
+    else:
+        assert "projection=[filter, values]" in plan
+
+
+def test_fragment_scanner_rejects_invalid_late_materialization(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(10)}), tmp_path)
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError, match="late_materialization must be a bool or a list of strings"
+    ):
+        fragment.scanner(late_materialization=123)
+
+
+def test_fragment_scanner_io_buffer_size_forwarded(tmp_path: Path):
+    # io_buffer_size has no plan-visible marker, so assert it is accepted through
+    # both scan entry points and leaves results unchanged.
+    dataset = write_dataset(pa.table({"val": range(1000)}), tmp_path)
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+    filt = "val < 100"
+    expected = fragment.to_table(filter=filt)
+
+    assert fragment.to_table(filter=filt, io_buffer_size=4 * 1024 * 1024) == expected
+
+    batched = pa.Table.from_batches(
+        list(fragment.to_batches(filter=filt, io_buffer_size=4 * 1024 * 1024))
+    )
+    assert batched == expected
+
+
+def test_fragment_scanner_strict_batch_size(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = write_dataset(pa.table({"a": range(1000)}), tmp_path)
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+    filt = "a % 3 == 0"
+
+    # A filtered scan emits uneven, sub-batch_size batches by default.
+    loose = [b.num_rows for b in fragment.to_batches(batch_size=100, filter=filt)]
+    assert any(n < 100 for n in loose[:-1])
+
+    # strict_batch_size coalesces to exactly batch_size (except the last batch).
+    strict = [
+        b.num_rows
+        for b in fragment.to_batches(
+            batch_size=100, filter=filt, strict_batch_size=True
+        )
+    ]
+    assert all(n == 100 for n in strict[:-1])
+    assert sum(strict) == sum(loose)
+
+
+def test_fragment_scanner_batch_size_bytes(tmp_path: Path):
+    # A small byte budget over wide rows forces many more batches than the
+    # default, without changing the results.
+    dataset = write_dataset(pa.table({"s": ["x" * 1024] * 2000}), tmp_path)
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+
+    default_batches = list(fragment.to_batches())
+    small_budget = list(fragment.to_batches(batch_size_bytes=64 * 1024))
+    assert len(small_budget) > len(default_batches)
+    assert pa.Table.from_batches(small_budget) == fragment.to_table()
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("enable_stable_row_ids", [False, True])
+def test_merge_commits_staged_new_fragments(
+    tmp_path: Path, enable_stable_row_ids: bool
+):
+    # Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7702: a
+    # Merge that introduces staged fragments must assign fresh fragment ids
+    # and, on stable row id datasets, row ids at commit time.
+    tab = pa.table({"id": [1, 2, 3, 4], "v": [10, 20, 30, 40]})
+    ds = write_dataset(
+        tab,
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=enable_stable_row_ids,
+    )
+    new_frags = write_fragments(pa.table({"id": [5, 6], "v": [50, 60]}), tmp_path)
+    assert all(f.id == 0 for f in new_frags)
+
+    if enable_stable_row_ids:
+        pre = ds.to_table(with_row_id=True)
+        pre_row_ids = dict(zip(pre["id"].to_pylist(), pre["_rowid"].to_pylist()))
+
+    all_frags = [f.metadata for f in ds.get_fragments()] + list(new_frags)
+    merge = lance.LanceOperation.Merge(all_frags, ds.lance_schema)
+    ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(tmp_path, merge, read_version=ds.version)
+
+    frag_ids = [f.fragment_id for f in ds.get_fragments()]
+    assert frag_ids == [0, 1, 2]
+    table = ds.to_table(with_row_id=True)
+    assert sorted(table["id"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
+    row_ids = table["_rowid"].to_pylist()
+    assert len(set(row_ids)) == 6
+    if enable_stable_row_ids:
+        assert sorted(row_ids) == list(range(6))
+        assert all(f.metadata.row_id_meta is not None for f in ds.get_fragments())
+        # Pre-existing rows keep their exact row ids through the merge.
+        post_row_ids = dict(zip(table["id"].to_pylist(), row_ids))
+        assert {i: post_row_ids[i] for i in pre_row_ids} == pre_row_ids
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_fragment_typing.py b/python/python/tests/test_fragment_typing.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1b33b96919e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_fragment_typing.py
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Type-checking regression tests for the fragment write APIs.
+
+This module is part of the pyright target configured in ``pyproject.toml``, so
+a regression in the annotations below fails the repository type check and not
+only the runtime suite.
+
+It is separate from ``test_fragment.py`` because that file currently carries
+pre-existing pyright diagnostics unrelated to these APIs, so it cannot join the
+type-check target without a much larger cleanup.
+
+The results are bound to annotated locals on purpose: that pins the selected
+overload, and pyright rejects the ``None`` argument if ``max_rows_per_group``
+regresses to a plain ``int``.
+"""
+
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, List
+
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.fragment import FragmentMetadata, LanceFragment, write_fragments
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from lance import Transaction
+
+
+def test_write_fragments_accepts_none_max_rows_per_group(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(8)})
+
+    fragments: List[FragmentMetadata] = write_fragments(
+        table, str(tmp_path / "fragments"), max_rows_per_group=None
+    )
+    assert len(fragments) == 1
+    assert fragments[0].physical_rows == 8
+
+
+def test_write_fragments_transaction_accepts_none_max_rows_per_group(
+    tmp_path: Path,
+) -> None:
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(8)})
+
+    transaction: "Transaction" = write_fragments(
+        table,
+        str(tmp_path / "transaction"),
+        max_rows_per_group=None,
+        return_transaction=True,
+    )
+    assert transaction.operation is not None
+
+
+def test_fragment_create_accepts_none_max_rows_per_group(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(8)})
+
+    fragment: FragmentMetadata = LanceFragment.create(
+        str(tmp_path / "create"), table, max_rows_per_group=None
+    )
+    assert fragment.physical_rows == 8
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_geo.py b/python/python/tests/test_geo.py
index c011c2de3de..f7d9d7b3e1a 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_geo.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_geo.py
@@ -19,6 +19,19 @@
 )
 
 
+def _query_point_ids(dataset: lance.LanceDataset, wkt: str) -> list[int]:
+    sql = f"""
+          SELECT id, point
+          FROM dataset
+          WHERE St_Intersects(point, ST_GeomFromText('{wkt}'))
+          """
+    return [
+        value
+        for batch in dataset.sql(sql).build().to_batch_records()
+        for value in batch.column("id").to_pylist()
+    ]
+
+
 def test_geo_types(tmp_path: Path):
     uri = str(tmp_path / "test_geo_types.lance")
     # Points
@@ -153,3 +166,276 @@ def query(ds: lance.LanceDataset, has_index=False):
     table_with_index = query(ds, has_index=True)
 
     assert table_with_index == table_without_index
+
+
+def test_rtree_segment_merge_and_commit(tmp_path: Path):
+    num_points = 120
+    points_2d = points(
+        [
+            np.arange(num_points, dtype=np.float64),
+            np.arange(num_points, dtype=np.float64),
+        ]
+    )
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+            pa.field(point("xy")).with_name("point"),
+        ]
+    )
+    table = pa.Table.from_arrays(
+        [np.arange(num_points, dtype=np.int64), points_2d], schema=schema
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        str(tmp_path / "segmented_rtree.lance"),
+        max_rows_per_file=40,
+    )
+    fragments = ds.get_fragments()
+    assert len(fragments) == 3
+    segments = [
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column="point",
+            index_type="RTREE",
+            name="point_rtree",
+            fragment_ids=[fragment.fragment_id],
+        )
+        for fragment in fragments
+    ]
+
+    merged = ds.merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+    assert set(merged.fragment_ids) == {fragment.fragment_id for fragment in fragments}
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments("point_rtree", "point", [merged])
+
+    sql = """
+          SELECT id, point
+          FROM dataset
+          WHERE St_Intersects(point, ST_GeomFromText('LINESTRING (10 10, 110 110)'))
+          """
+    indexed = pa.Table.from_batches(ds.sql(sql).build().to_batch_records())
+    assert indexed["id"].to_pylist() == list(range(10, 111))
+    explain = (
+        pa.Table.from_batches(
+            ds.sql("EXPLAIN ANALYZE " + sql).build().to_batch_records()
+        )
+        .to_pandas()
+        .to_string()
+    )
+    assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in explain
+
+
+def test_staged_rtree_after_rewrite_columns(tmp_path: Path):
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "stale_rtree.lance")
+    point_type = point("xy")
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+            pa.field(point_type).with_name("point"),
+        ]
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_arrays(
+            [
+                pa.array([0, 1], type=pa.int64()),
+                points([np.array([0.0, 1.0]), np.array([0.0, 1.0])]),
+            ],
+            schema=schema,
+        ),
+        uri,
+    )
+    segment = dataset.create_index_uncommitted(
+        column="point",
+        index_type="RTREE",
+        name="point_rtree",
+        fragment_ids=[0],
+    )
+
+    update_schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("_rowid", pa.uint64()),
+            pa.field(point_type).with_name("point"),
+        ]
+    )
+    update = pa.Table.from_arrays(
+        [
+            pa.array([0], type=pa.uint64()),
+            points([np.array([10.0]), np.array([10.0])]),
+        ],
+        schema=update_schema,
+    )
+    fragment, fields = dataset.get_fragment(0).update_columns(update)
+    updated = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.Update(
+            updated_fragments=[fragment],
+            fields_modified=fields,
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    assert _query_point_ids(updated, "POINT (10 10)") == [0]
+    committed = dataset.commit_existing_index_segments(
+        "point_rtree",
+        "point",
+        [segment],
+    )
+    assert committed.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].fragment_ids == set()
+    assert _query_point_ids(committed, "POINT (10 10)") == [0]
+
+
+def test_rtree_rejects_distributed_uuid_reuse(tmp_path: Path):
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "uuid_reuse.lance")
+    num_points = 120
+    point_type = point("xy")
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+            pa.field(point_type).with_name("point"),
+        ]
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_arrays(
+            [
+                pa.array(range(num_points), type=pa.int64()),
+                points(
+                    [
+                        np.arange(num_points, dtype=np.float64),
+                        np.arange(num_points, dtype=np.float64),
+                    ]
+                ),
+            ],
+            schema=schema,
+        ),
+        uri,
+        max_rows_per_file=40,
+    )
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("point", "RTREE")
+    index_uuid = dataset.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError,
+        match="index_uuid is no longer accepted for RTree distributed index builds",
+    ):
+        dataset.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column="point",
+            index_type="RTREE",
+            name="point_rtree_reuse",
+            fragment_ids=[0],
+            index_uuid=index_uuid,
+        )
+
+    assert _query_point_ids(
+        lance.dataset(uri),
+        "LINESTRING (100 100, 110 110)",
+    ) == list(range(100, 111))
+
+
+def test_rtree_merge_all_deleted_stable_row_ids(tmp_path: Path):
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "all_deleted.lance")
+    point_type = point("xy")
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+            pa.field(point_type).with_name("point"),
+        ]
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_arrays(
+            [
+                pa.array([0, 1], type=pa.int64()),
+                points([np.array([0.0, 1.0]), np.array([0.0, 1.0])]),
+            ],
+            schema=schema,
+        ),
+        uri,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+    )
+    segment = dataset.create_index_uncommitted(
+        column="point",
+        index_type="RTREE",
+        name="point_rtree",
+        fragment_ids=[0],
+    )
+
+    dataset.delete("true")
+    merged = dataset.merge_existing_index_segments([segment])
+    assert merged.fragment_ids == set()
+    committed = dataset.commit_existing_index_segments(
+        "point_rtree",
+        "point",
+        [merged],
+    )
+    assert _query_point_ids(committed, "POINT (0 0)") == []
+
+
+def test_rtree_merge_preserves_newer_fragment_coverage(tmp_path: Path):
+    uri = str(tmp_path / "mixed_versions.lance")
+    point_type = point("xy")
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+            pa.field(point_type).with_name("point"),
+        ]
+    )
+
+    def batch(start: int, stop: int) -> pa.Table:
+        values = np.arange(start, stop, dtype=np.float64)
+        return pa.Table.from_arrays(
+            [
+                pa.array(range(start, stop), type=pa.int64()),
+                points([values, values]),
+            ],
+            schema=schema,
+        )
+
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(batch(0, 40), uri)
+    first = dataset.create_index_uncommitted(
+        column="point",
+        index_type="RTREE",
+        name="point_rtree",
+        fragment_ids=[0],
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(batch(40, 80), uri, mode="append")
+    second = dataset.create_index_uncommitted(
+        column="point",
+        index_type="RTREE",
+        name="point_rtree",
+        fragment_ids=[1],
+    )
+
+    merged = dataset.merge_existing_index_segments([first, second])
+    assert merged.fragment_ids == {0, 1}
+    assert merged.dataset_version == dataset.version
+
+    update_schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("_rowid", pa.uint64()),
+            pa.field(point_type).with_name("point"),
+        ]
+    )
+    update = pa.Table.from_arrays(
+        [
+            pa.array([1 << 32], type=pa.uint64()),
+            points([np.array([100.0]), np.array([100.0])]),
+        ],
+        schema=update_schema,
+    )
+    fragment, fields = dataset.get_fragment(1).update_columns(update)
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.Update(
+            updated_fragments=[fragment],
+            fields_modified=fields,
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+
+    committed = dataset.commit_existing_index_segments(
+        "point_rtree",
+        "point",
+        [merged],
+    )
+    assert committed.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].fragment_ids == {0}
+    assert _query_point_ids(
+        committed,
+        "POINT (100 100)",
+    ) == [40]
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_indices.py b/python/python/tests/test_indices.py
index 26ab6e99162..44db637fa5c 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_indices.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_indices.py
@@ -8,27 +8,37 @@
 import numpy as np
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pytest
-from lance.file import LanceFileReader
+from lance.file import LanceFileReader, LanceFileWriter
 from lance.indices import IndicesBuilder, IvfModel, PqModel
 
-NUM_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT = 10000
 DIMENSION = 128
 NUM_SUBVECTORS = 8
 NUM_FRAGMENTS = 3
-NUM_ROWS = NUM_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT * NUM_FRAGMENTS
-NUM_PARTITIONS = round(np.sqrt(NUM_ROWS))
-
-
 SMALL_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT = 100
 SMALL_NUM_ROWS = SMALL_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT * NUM_FRAGMENTS
-
-
-def make_ds(num_rows: int, rows_per_frag: int, tmpdir: pathlib.Path, dtype: str):
-    vectors = np.random.randn(num_rows, DIMENSION).astype(dtype)
-    vectors.shape = -1
+SMALL_NUM_PARTITIONS = round(np.sqrt(SMALL_NUM_ROWS))
+PQ_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT = 512
+PQ_NUM_ROWS = PQ_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT * NUM_FRAGMENTS
+MOSTLY_NULL_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT = 2000
+MOSTLY_NULL_NUM_ROWS = MOSTLY_NULL_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT * NUM_FRAGMENTS
+MOSTLY_NULL_NUM_PARTITIONS = round(np.sqrt(MOSTLY_NULL_NUM_ROWS))
+TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE = 2
+TRAINING_MAX_ITERS = 2
+
+
+def make_ds(
+    num_rows: int,
+    rows_per_frag: int,
+    tmpdir: pathlib.Path,
+    dtype: str,
+    name: str = "dataset",
+):
+    vectors = np.random.default_rng(42).standard_normal((num_rows, DIMENSION))
+    vectors = vectors.astype(dtype)
+    vectors = vectors.reshape(-1)
     vectors = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(vectors, DIMENSION)
     table = pa.Table.from_arrays([vectors], names=["vectors"])
-    uri = str(tmpdir / "dataset")
+    uri = str(tmpdir / name)
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(table, uri, max_rows_per_file=rows_per_frag)
     return ds
@@ -38,38 +48,95 @@ def make_ds(num_rows: int, rows_per_frag: int, tmpdir: pathlib.Path, dtype: str)
     params=[np.float16, np.float32, np.float64],
     ids=["f16", "f32", "f64"],
 )
-def rand_dataset(tmpdir, request):
-    return make_ds(NUM_ROWS, NUM_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, tmpdir, request.param)
+def small_rand_dataset(tmpdir, request):
+    return make_ds(SMALL_NUM_ROWS, SMALL_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, tmpdir, request.param)
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def small_float32_dataset(tmpdir):
+    return make_ds(SMALL_NUM_ROWS, SMALL_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, tmpdir, np.float32)
 
 
 @pytest.fixture(
     params=[np.float16, np.float32, np.float64],
     ids=["f16", "f32", "f64"],
 )
-def small_rand_dataset(tmpdir, request):
-    return make_ds(SMALL_NUM_ROWS, SMALL_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, tmpdir, request.param)
+def pq_rand_dataset(tmpdir, request):
+    return make_ds(
+        PQ_NUM_ROWS,
+        PQ_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        tmpdir,
+        request.param,
+        name="pq_dataset",
+    )
 
 
 @pytest.fixture
-def mostly_null_dataset(tmpdir, request):
-    vectors = np.random.randn(NUM_ROWS, DIMENSION).astype(np.float32)
-    vectors.shape = -1
-    vectors = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(vectors, DIMENSION)
-    vectors = vectors.to_pylist()
-    vectors = [vec if i % 10 == 0 else None for i, vec in enumerate(vectors)]
-    vectors = pa.array(vectors, pa.list_(pa.float32(), DIMENSION))
+def pq_float32_dataset(tmpdir):
+    return make_ds(
+        PQ_NUM_ROWS,
+        PQ_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        tmpdir,
+        np.float32,
+        name="pq_dataset",
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def mostly_null_dataset(tmpdir):
+    values = np.random.default_rng(42).standard_normal(MOSTLY_NULL_NUM_ROWS * DIMENSION)
+    values = pa.array(values.astype(np.float32))
+    null_mask = pa.array(np.arange(MOSTLY_NULL_NUM_ROWS) % 10 != 0)
+    vectors = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+        values,
+        DIMENSION,
+        mask=null_mask,
+    )
     table = pa.Table.from_arrays([vectors], names=["vectors"])
 
     uri = str(tmpdir / "nulls_dataset")
-    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, uri, max_rows_per_file=NUM_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        uri,
+        max_rows_per_file=MOSTLY_NULL_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+    )
     return ds
 
 
-def test_ivf_centroids(tmpdir, rand_dataset):
-    ivf = IndicesBuilder(rand_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(sample_rate=16)
+def make_multivector_dataset(tmpdir):
+    dimension = 4
+    vector_type = pa.list_(pa.list_(pa.float32(), dimension))
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+            pa.field("embeddings", vector_type),
+        ]
+    )
+    table = pa.Table.from_pylist(
+        [
+            {"id": 1, "embeddings": [[0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4], [0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5]]},
+            {"id": 2, "embeddings": [[0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5]]},
+            {"id": 3, "embeddings": [[0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.0], [0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6]]},
+            {"id": 4, "embeddings": [[0.4, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3]]},
+        ],
+        schema=schema,
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        pathlib.Path(tmpdir) / "multivector_fragment_ivf",
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+    )
+    return ds, dimension
+
+
+def test_ivf_centroids(tmpdir, small_rand_dataset):
+    ivf = IndicesBuilder(small_rand_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+    )
 
     assert ivf.distance_type == "l2"
-    assert len(ivf.centroids) == NUM_PARTITIONS
+    assert len(ivf.centroids) == SMALL_NUM_PARTITIONS
 
     ivf.save(str(tmpdir / "ivf"))
     reloaded = IvfModel.load(str(tmpdir / "ivf"))
@@ -77,43 +144,84 @@ def test_ivf_centroids(tmpdir, rand_dataset):
     assert ivf.centroids == reloaded.centroids
 
 
+def test_ivf_centroids_hamming(tmpdir):
+    num_rows = SMALL_NUM_ROWS
+    vectors = np.random.default_rng(42).integers(
+        0,
+        256,
+        size=(num_rows, DIMENSION),
+        dtype=np.uint8,
+    )
+    vectors_flat = vectors.reshape(-1)
+    vectors_arr = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+        pa.array(vectors_flat, type=pa.uint8()), DIMENSION
+    )
+    table = pa.Table.from_arrays([vectors_arr], names=["vectors"])
+    uri = str(tmpdir / "hamming_dataset")
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, uri, max_rows_per_file=SMALL_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT)
+
+    ivf = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vectors").train_ivf(
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        distance_type="hamming",
+    )
+
+    assert ivf.distance_type == "hamming"
+    expected_partitions = round(math.sqrt(num_rows))
+    assert len(ivf.centroids) == expected_partitions
+
+    ivf.save(str(tmpdir / "ivf_hamming"))
+    reloaded = IvfModel.load(str(tmpdir / "ivf_hamming"))
+    assert reloaded.distance_type == "hamming"
+    assert ivf.centroids == reloaded.centroids
+
+
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("distance_type", ["l2", "cosine", "dot"])
 def test_ivf_centroids_mostly_null(mostly_null_dataset, distance_type):
     ivf = IndicesBuilder(mostly_null_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
-        sample_rate=16, distance_type=distance_type
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        distance_type=distance_type,
     )
 
     assert ivf.distance_type == distance_type
-    assert len(ivf.centroids) == NUM_PARTITIONS
+    assert len(ivf.centroids) == MOSTLY_NULL_NUM_PARTITIONS
 
 
 @pytest.mark.cuda
-def test_ivf_centroids_cuda(rand_dataset):
-    ivf = IndicesBuilder(rand_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
-        sample_rate=16, accelerator="cuda"
+def test_ivf_centroids_cuda(small_rand_dataset):
+    ivf = IndicesBuilder(small_rand_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        accelerator="cuda",
     )
 
     assert ivf.distance_type == "l2"
-    # Can't use NUM_PARTITIONS here because
+    # Can't use SMALL_NUM_PARTITIONS here because
     # CUDA uses math.ceil and CPU uses round to calc. num_partitions
-    assert len(ivf.centroids) == math.ceil(np.sqrt(NUM_ROWS))
+    assert len(ivf.centroids) == math.ceil(np.sqrt(SMALL_NUM_ROWS))
 
 
 @pytest.mark.cuda
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("distance_type", ["l2", "cosine", "dot"])
 def test_ivf_centroids_mostly_null_cuda(mostly_null_dataset, distance_type):
     ivf = IndicesBuilder(mostly_null_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
-        sample_rate=16, accelerator="cuda", distance_type=distance_type
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        accelerator="cuda",
+        distance_type=distance_type,
     )
 
     assert ivf.distance_type == distance_type
-    assert len(ivf.centroids) == NUM_PARTITIONS
+    assert len(ivf.centroids) == MOSTLY_NULL_NUM_PARTITIONS
 
 
-def test_ivf_centroids_distance_type(tmpdir, rand_dataset):
+def test_ivf_centroids_distance_type(tmpdir, small_float32_dataset):
     def check(distance_type):
-        ivf = IndicesBuilder(rand_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
-            sample_rate=16, distance_type=distance_type
+        ivf = IndicesBuilder(small_float32_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
+            sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+            max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+            distance_type=distance_type,
         )
         assert ivf.distance_type == distance_type
         ivf.save(str(tmpdir / "ivf"))
@@ -125,31 +233,44 @@ def check(distance_type):
     check("dot")
 
 
-def test_num_partitions(rand_dataset):
-    ivf = IndicesBuilder(rand_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
-        sample_rate=16, num_partitions=10
+def test_num_partitions(small_float32_dataset):
+    ivf = IndicesBuilder(small_float32_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        num_partitions=10,
     )
     assert ivf.num_partitions == 10
 
 
 @pytest.fixture
-def rand_ivf(rand_dataset):
-    dtype = rand_dataset.schema.field("vectors").type.value_type.to_pandas_dtype()
-    centroids = np.random.rand(DIMENSION * 100).astype(dtype)
+def small_rand_ivf(small_rand_dataset):
+    dtype = small_rand_dataset.schema.field("vectors").type.value_type.to_pandas_dtype()
+    centroids = np.random.default_rng(42).random(DIMENSION * 100).astype(dtype)
     centroids = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(centroids, DIMENSION)
     return IvfModel(centroids, "l2")
 
 
 @pytest.fixture
-def small_rand_ivf(small_rand_dataset):
-    dtype = small_rand_dataset.schema.field("vectors").type.value_type.to_pandas_dtype()
-    centroids = np.random.rand(DIMENSION * 100).astype(dtype)
+def pq_rand_ivf(pq_rand_dataset):
+    dtype = pq_rand_dataset.schema.field("vectors").type.value_type.to_pandas_dtype()
+    centroids = np.random.default_rng(42).random(DIMENSION * 100).astype(dtype)
     centroids = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(centroids, DIMENSION)
     return IvfModel(centroids, "l2")
 
 
-def test_gen_pq(tmpdir, rand_dataset, rand_ivf):
-    pq = IndicesBuilder(rand_dataset, "vectors").train_pq(rand_ivf, sample_rate=2)
+@pytest.fixture
+def small_float32_ivf(small_float32_dataset):
+    centroids = np.random.default_rng(42).random(DIMENSION * 100).astype(np.float32)
+    centroids = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(centroids, DIMENSION)
+    return IvfModel(centroids, "l2")
+
+
+def test_gen_pq(tmpdir, pq_rand_dataset, pq_rand_ivf):
+    pq = IndicesBuilder(pq_rand_dataset, "vectors").train_pq(
+        pq_rand_ivf,
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+    )
     assert pq.dimension == DIMENSION
     assert pq.num_subvectors == NUM_SUBVECTORS
 
@@ -158,32 +279,211 @@ def test_gen_pq(tmpdir, rand_dataset, rand_ivf):
     assert pq.dimension == reloaded.dimension
     assert pq.codebook == reloaded.codebook
 
+    pq_4bit = IndicesBuilder(pq_rand_dataset, "vectors").train_pq(
+        pq_rand_ivf,
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        num_bits=4,
+    )
+    assert pq_4bit.num_bits == 4
+    assert len(pq_4bit.codebook) == 16
+
+    pq_4bit.save(str(tmpdir / "pq_4bit"))
+    reloaded = PqModel.load(str(tmpdir / "pq_4bit"))
+    assert reloaded.num_bits == 4
+
+    legacy_pq_uri = str(tmpdir / "legacy_pq")
+    with LanceFileWriter(
+        legacy_pq_uri,
+        pa.schema(
+            [pa.field("codebook", pq.codebook.type)],
+            metadata={b"num_subvectors": str(pq.num_subvectors).encode()},
+        ),
+    ) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table([pq.codebook], names=["codebook"]))
+    assert PqModel.load(legacy_pq_uri).num_bits == 8
+
+
+def test_ivf_centroids_fragment_ids(tmpdir):
+    rows_per_fragment = 32
+    vectors = np.concatenate(
+        [
+            np.zeros((rows_per_fragment, DIMENSION), dtype=np.float32),
+            np.full((rows_per_fragment, DIMENSION), 10.0, dtype=np.float32),
+        ],
+        axis=0,
+    )
+    vectors = vectors.reshape(-1)
+    table = pa.Table.from_arrays(
+        [pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(vectors, DIMENSION)], names=["vectors"]
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        pathlib.Path(tmpdir) / "fragment_ivf",
+        max_rows_per_file=rows_per_fragment,
+    )
+    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in ds.get_fragments()]
+
+    first_ivf = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vectors").train_ivf(
+        num_partitions=1,
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        fragment_ids=[fragment_ids[0]],
+    )
+    second_ivf = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vectors").train_ivf(
+        num_partitions=1,
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        fragment_ids=[fragment_ids[1]],
+    )
+
+    first_centroid = first_ivf.centroids.values.to_numpy().reshape(-1, DIMENSION)[0]
+    second_centroid = second_ivf.centroids.values.to_numpy().reshape(-1, DIMENSION)[0]
+
+    assert np.allclose(first_centroid, 0.0, atol=1e-4)
+    assert np.allclose(second_centroid, 10.0, atol=1e-4)
+
+
+def test_ivf_centroids_multivector_fragment_ids(tmpdir):
+    ds, dimension = make_multivector_dataset(tmpdir)
+    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "embeddings")
+    assert builder.dimension == dimension
+
+    centroids = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+        pa.array(
+            [
+                0.1,
+                0.2,
+                0.3,
+                0.4,
+                0.8,
+                0.7,
+                0.6,
+                0.5,
+            ],
+            type=pa.float32(),
+        ),
+        dimension,
+    )
+    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in ds.get_fragments()]
+
+    index = ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+        "embeddings",
+        index_type="IVF_HNSW_SQ",
+        metric="cosine",
+        num_partitions=2,
+        fragment_ids=fragment_ids,
+        index_uuid="00000000-0000-4000-8000-000000000001",
+        ivf_centroids=centroids,
+    )
+
+    from lance.bitmap import Bitmap
+
+    assert index.uuid == "00000000-0000-4000-8000-000000000001"
+    assert isinstance(index.fragment_ids, Bitmap)
+    assert index.fragment_ids == set(fragment_ids)
+    assert index.name == "embeddings_idx"
+
+
+def test_indices_builder_multivector_distributed_dimensions(tmpdir, monkeypatch):
+    ds, dimension = make_multivector_dataset(tmpdir)
+    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "embeddings")
+    centroids = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+        pa.array([0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4], type=pa.float32()),
+        dimension,
+    )
+    codebook = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+        pa.array([0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4], type=pa.float32()),
+        dimension,
+    )
+    ivf = IvfModel(centroids, "l2")
+    pq = PqModel(2, codebook)
+
+    from lance.lance import indices
+
+    captured_dimensions = {}
+
+    def train_pq_model(*args, **kwargs):
+        captured_dimensions["train_pq"] = args[2]
+        return codebook
+
+    def transform_vectors(*args):
+        captured_dimensions["transform_vectors"] = args[2]
+
+    def load_shuffled_vectors(*args):
+        captured_dimensions["load_shuffled_vectors"] = args[6]
+
+    monkeypatch.setattr(indices, "train_pq_model", train_pq_model)
+    monkeypatch.setattr(indices, "transform_vectors", transform_vectors)
+    monkeypatch.setattr(indices, "load_shuffled_vectors", load_shuffled_vectors)
+    monkeypatch.setattr(builder, "_verify_pq_sample_rate", lambda *args: None)
+
+    builder.train_pq(ivf, num_subvectors=2, sample_rate=2)
+    builder.transform_vectors(ivf, pq, str(pathlib.Path(tmpdir) / "transformed"))
+    builder.load_shuffled_vectors(["sorted"], str(tmpdir), ivf, pq)
 
-def test_pq_invalid_sub_vectors(tmpdir, rand_dataset, rand_ivf):
+    assert captured_dimensions == {
+        "train_pq": dimension,
+        "transform_vectors": dimension,
+        "load_shuffled_vectors": dimension,
+    }
+
+
+def test_pq_fragment_ids(pq_float32_dataset):
+    fragment_id = pq_float32_dataset.get_fragments()[0].fragment_id
+    ivf = IndicesBuilder(pq_float32_dataset, "vectors").train_ivf(
+        num_partitions=4,
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        fragment_ids=[fragment_id],
+    )
+
+    pq = IndicesBuilder(pq_float32_dataset, "vectors").train_pq(
+        ivf,
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+        fragment_ids=[fragment_id],
+    )
+
+    assert pq.dimension == DIMENSION
+    assert pq.num_subvectors == NUM_SUBVECTORS
+
+
+def test_pq_invalid_sub_vectors(
+    small_float32_dataset,
+    small_float32_ivf,
+):
     with pytest.raises(
         ValueError,
         match="must be divisible by num_subvectors .* without remainder",
     ):
-        IndicesBuilder(rand_dataset, "vectors").train_pq(
-            rand_ivf, sample_rate=2, num_subvectors=5
+        IndicesBuilder(small_float32_dataset, "vectors").train_pq(
+            small_float32_ivf,
+            sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+            max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+            num_subvectors=5,
         )
 
 
 def test_gen_pq_mostly_null(mostly_null_dataset):
-    centroids = np.random.rand(DIMENSION * 100).astype(np.float32)
+    centroids = np.random.default_rng(42).random(DIMENSION * 100).astype(np.float32)
     centroids = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(centroids, DIMENSION)
     ivf = IvfModel(centroids, "l2")
 
-    pq = IndicesBuilder(mostly_null_dataset, "vectors").train_pq(ivf, sample_rate=2)
+    pq = IndicesBuilder(mostly_null_dataset, "vectors").train_pq(
+        ivf,
+        sample_rate=TRAINING_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        max_iters=TRAINING_MAX_ITERS,
+    )
     assert pq.dimension == DIMENSION
     assert pq.num_subvectors == NUM_SUBVECTORS
 
 
 @pytest.mark.cuda
-def test_assign_partitions(rand_dataset, rand_ivf):
-    builder = IndicesBuilder(rand_dataset, "vectors")
+def test_assign_partitions(small_rand_dataset, small_rand_ivf):
+    builder = IndicesBuilder(small_rand_dataset, "vectors")
 
-    partitions_uri = builder.assign_ivf_partitions(rand_ivf, accelerator="cuda")
+    partitions_uri = builder.assign_ivf_partitions(small_rand_ivf, accelerator="cuda")
 
     partitions = lance.dataset(partitions_uri)
     found_row_ids = set()
@@ -194,13 +494,13 @@ def test_assign_partitions(rand_dataset, rand_ivf):
         part_ids = batch["partition"]
         for part_id in part_ids:
             assert part_id.as_py() < 100
-    assert len(found_row_ids) == rand_dataset.count_rows()
+    assert len(found_row_ids) == small_rand_dataset.count_rows()
 
 
 @pytest.mark.cuda
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("distance_type", ["l2", "cosine", "dot"])
 def test_assign_partitions_mostly_null(mostly_null_dataset, distance_type):
-    centroids = np.random.rand(DIMENSION * 100).astype(np.float32)
+    centroids = np.random.default_rng(42).random(DIMENSION * 100).astype(np.float32)
     centroids = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(centroids, DIMENSION)
     ivf = IvfModel(centroids, distance_type)
 
@@ -223,7 +523,7 @@ def test_assign_partitions_mostly_null(mostly_null_dataset, distance_type):
 @pytest.fixture
 def small_rand_pq(small_rand_dataset, small_rand_ivf):
     dtype = small_rand_dataset.schema.field("vectors").type.value_type.to_pandas_dtype()
-    codebook = np.random.rand(DIMENSION * 256).astype(dtype)
+    codebook = np.random.default_rng(42).random(DIMENSION * 256).astype(dtype)
     codebook = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(codebook, DIMENSION)
     pq = PqModel(NUM_SUBVECTORS, codebook)
     return pq
@@ -259,6 +559,23 @@ def test_vector_transform(tmpdir, small_rand_dataset, small_rand_ivf, small_rand
     assert reader.metadata().num_rows == SMALL_NUM_ROWS
 
 
+def test_vector_transform_mismatched_codebook(
+    tmpdir, small_rand_dataset, small_rand_ivf
+):
+    # The dimension comes from the column and the codebook from the caller, and
+    # the codebook is sliced with column-derived offsets.
+    dtype = small_rand_dataset.schema.field("vectors").type.value_type.to_pandas_dtype()
+    codebook = np.random.default_rng(42).random(DIMENSION * 256 * 2).astype(dtype)
+    codebook = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(codebook, DIMENSION)
+    pq = PqModel(NUM_SUBVECTORS, codebook)
+
+    builder = IndicesBuilder(small_rand_dataset, "vectors")
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="PQ codebook has"):
+        builder.transform_vectors(
+            small_rand_ivf, pq, str(tmpdir / "transformed"), fragments=None
+        )
+
+
 @pytest.mark.cuda
 def test_vector_transform_with_precomputed_partitions(
     tmpdir, small_rand_dataset, small_rand_ivf, small_rand_pq
@@ -347,6 +664,6 @@ def test_load_shuffled_vectors(
     )
 
     final_ds = lance.dataset(str(tmpdir / "dataset"))
-    assert final_ds.has_index
-    assert final_ds.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["vectors"]
-    assert len(final_ds.list_indices()[0]["fragment_ids"]) == NUM_FRAGMENTS
+    stats = final_ds.stats.index_stats("vectors_idx")
+    assert stats["name"] == "vectors_idx"
+    assert stats["num_indexed_fragments"] == NUM_FRAGMENTS
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_ingestion.py b/python/python/tests/test_ingestion.py
index 9f5ab8b53c2..af0c78b9b2f 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_ingestion.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_ingestion.py
@@ -60,7 +60,11 @@ def cannot_write(data, dataset, schema=None):
         schema=outer_nullable,
         data_storage_version=data_storage_version,
     )
-    can_write({"point": [None]}, dataset, outer_nullable)
+    if data_storage_version == "2.0":
+        with pytest.raises(OSError, match="does not encode struct validity"):
+            can_write({"point": [None]}, dataset, outer_nullable)
+    else:
+        can_write({"point": [None]}, dataset, outer_nullable)
     cannot_write({"point": [{"x": None}]}, dataset, outer_nullable)
 
     inner_nullable = pa.schema(
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_integration.py b/python/python/tests/test_integration.py
index 399565f1024..3647ec83eef 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_integration.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_integration.py
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ def test_duckdb_filter_on_rowid(tmp_path):
     expected = tab.slice(1, 1)
     actual = duckdb.query(
         f"SELECT * FROM ds WHERE _rowid = {row_ids[1]}"
-    ).fetch_arrow_table()
+    ).to_arrow_table()
 
     assert actual.to_pydict() == expected.to_pydict()
 
@@ -37,11 +37,11 @@ def test_duckdb_pushdown_extension_types(tmp_path):
     )
     ds = lance.write_dataset(tab, str(tmp_path))  # noqa: F841
     expected = tab.slice(1, 1)
-    actual = duckdb.query("SELECT * FROM ds WHERE filterme = 2").fetch_arrow_table()
+    actual = duckdb.query("SELECT * FROM ds WHERE filterme = 2").to_arrow_table()
     assert actual.to_pydict() == expected.to_pydict()
 
     expected = tab.slice(0, 1)
-    actual = duckdb.query("SELECT * FROM ds WHERE othercol = 4").fetch_arrow_table()
+    actual = duckdb.query("SELECT * FROM ds WHERE othercol = 4").to_arrow_table()
     assert actual.to_pydict() == expected.to_pydict()
 
     # Not the best error message but hopefully this is short lived until datafusion
@@ -64,6 +64,6 @@ def test_duckdb_pushdown_extension_types(tmp_path):
         "filterme IS NOT NULL",
         "filterme < 2",
     ]:
-        expected = duckdb.query(f"SELECT * FROM tab WHERE {filt}").fetch_arrow_table()
-        actual = duckdb.query(f"SELECT * FROM ds WHERE {filt}").fetch_arrow_table()
+        expected = duckdb.query(f"SELECT * FROM tab WHERE {filt}").to_arrow_table()
+        actual = duckdb.query(f"SELECT * FROM ds WHERE {filt}").to_arrow_table()
         assert actual == expected
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_ivf_centroids.py b/python/python/tests/test_ivf_centroids.py
index 01c2463ab62..34827c330ce 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_ivf_centroids.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_ivf_centroids.py
@@ -8,7 +8,10 @@
 def test_ivf_centroids_exposed(tmp_path):
     """Verify that centroids for an IVF-based index are exposed via both"""
 
-    dim, rows, parts = 4, 256, 8
+    # A partition is trained only when the data can give it a 256-code
+    # codebook's worth of vectors, so the fixture covers every partition.
+    dim, parts = 4, 8
+    rows = parts * 256
     vecs = pa.array(
         np.random.randn(rows, dim).tolist(),
         type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), dim),
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_json.py b/python/python/tests/test_json.py
index d68e0ca539a..7a6a11883dd 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_json.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_json.py
@@ -4,9 +4,30 @@
 import json
 import tempfile
 from pathlib import Path
+from typing import Union
 
 import lance
 import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+
+
+def check_json_type(ds: Union[lance.LanceDataset, pa.Table], col_name: str):
+    # TODO: In the future it should be possible to verify
+    # the logical type of a column.
+
+    schema = ds.schema
+    field = schema.field(col_name)
+    assert field.type == pa.json_()
+
+
+def check_nested_json_type(ds: Union[lance.LanceDataset, pa.Table]):
+    media_field = ds.schema.field("media")
+    extra_field = media_field.type.value_type.field("extra")
+    assert extra_field.type == pa.json_()
+
+
+def nested_extra_value(table: pa.Table):
+    return table.to_pylist()[0]["media"][0]["extra"]
 
 
 def test_json_basic_write_read():
@@ -44,29 +65,84 @@ def test_json_basic_write_read():
         logical_schema = dataset.schema
         assert len(logical_schema) == 2
         assert logical_schema.field("id").type == pa.int32()
-        logical_field = logical_schema.field("data")
-        assert (
-            str(logical_field.type) == "extension<arrow.json>"
-            or logical_field.type == pa.utf8()
-        )
+        check_json_type(dataset, "data")
 
         # Read data back
         result_table = dataset.to_table()
 
         # Check that data is returned as Arrow JSON for Python
-        result_field = result_table.schema.field("data")
-        # PyArrow extension types print as extension<arrow.json> but
-        # the storage type is utf8
-        assert (
-            str(result_field.type) == "extension<arrow.json>"
-            or result_field.type == pa.utf8()
-        )
+        check_json_type(result_table, "data")
 
         # Verify data
         assert result_table.num_rows == 5
         assert result_table.column("id").to_pylist() == [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("version", ["2.1", "2.2", "2.3"])
+def test_nested_json_large_binary_cast_roundtrip(tmp_path: Path, version: str):
+    storage_schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field(
+                "media",
+                pa.list_(
+                    pa.struct(
+                        [
+                            pa.field("uri", pa.utf8(), nullable=False),
+                            pa.field("extra", pa.large_binary()),
+                        ]
+                    )
+                ),
+            )
+        ]
+    )
+    extension_schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field(
+                "media",
+                pa.list_(
+                    pa.struct(
+                        [
+                            pa.field("uri", pa.utf8(), nullable=False),
+                            pa.field("extra", pa.json_()),
+                        ]
+                    )
+                ),
+            )
+        ]
+    )
+    table = pa.Table.from_pylist(
+        [
+            {
+                "media": [
+                    {
+                        "uri": "s3://bucket/a.mp4",
+                        "extra": b'{"codec": "h264"}',
+                    }
+                ]
+            }
+        ],
+        schema=storage_schema,
+    ).cast(extension_schema)
+
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / f"nested_json_{version.replace('.', '_')}.lance"
+    lance.write_dataset(table, dataset_path, data_storage_version=version)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+
+    check_nested_json_type(dataset)
+
+    scanned = dataset.to_table()
+    check_nested_json_type(scanned)
+    assert json.loads(nested_extra_value(scanned)) == {"codec": "h264"}
+
+    taken = dataset.take([0])
+    check_nested_json_type(taken)
+    assert json.loads(nested_extra_value(taken)) == {"codec": "h264"}
+
+    empty = dataset.take([])
+    assert empty.num_rows == 0
+    check_nested_json_type(empty)
+
+
 def test_json_with_other_types():
     """Test JSON type alongside other data types."""
 
@@ -467,8 +543,7 @@ def test_json_filter_append_missing_json_cast(tmp_path: Path):
     lance.write_dataset(initial_table, dataset_path)
     dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
     schema = dataset.schema
-    field = schema.field("article_metadata")
-    assert str(field.type) == "extension<arrow.json>" or field.type == pa.utf8()
+    check_json_type(dataset, "article_metadata")
 
     append_table = pa.table(
         {
@@ -513,6 +588,68 @@ def test_json_filter_append_missing_json_cast(tmp_path: Path):
     ]
 
 
+def test_json_with_compaction(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Test that JSON data survives compaction across fragments."""
+
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "json_compaction.lance"
+
+    # Write first fragment
+    table1 = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3], type=pa.int32()),
+            "data": pa.array(
+                [
+                    json.dumps({"name": "Alice", "score": 10}),
+                    json.dumps({"name": "Bob", "score": 20}),
+                    json.dumps({"name": "Charlie", "score": 30}),
+                ],
+                type=pa.json_(),
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    lance.write_dataset(table1, dataset_path)
+
+    # Write second fragment
+    table2 = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([4, 5], type=pa.int32()),
+            "data": pa.array(
+                [
+                    json.dumps({"name": "David", "score": 40}),
+                    json.dumps({"name": "Eve", "score": 50}),
+                ],
+                type=pa.json_(),
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    lance.write_dataset(table2, dataset_path, mode="append")
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 2
+
+    # Run compaction
+    dataset.optimize.compact_files()
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 1
+
+    # Verify data is intact
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.num_rows == 5
+    assert result.column("id").to_pylist() == [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+
+    # Verify JSON type is preserved
+    check_json_type(dataset, "data")
+
+    # Verify JSON functions still work after compaction
+    result = dataset.to_table(filter="json_get_string(data, 'name') = 'Alice'")
+    assert result.num_rows == 1
+    assert result["id"][0].as_py() == 1
+
+    result = dataset.to_table(filter="json_get_int(data, 'score') > 25")
+    assert result.num_rows == 3
+    assert result["id"].to_pylist() == [3, 4, 5]
+
+
 def test_json_limit_offset_batch_transfer_preserves_extension_metadata(tmp_path: Path):
     """Ensure JSON extension metadata survives limit/offset scans.
 
@@ -567,3 +704,191 @@ def test_json_limit_offset_batch_transfer_preserves_extension_metadata(tmp_path:
 
     # Ensure JSON functions still recognize the column as JSON.
     assert dest.to_table(filter="json_get(meta, 'i') IS NOT NULL").num_rows == num_rows
+
+
+def test_json_append(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Test appending JSON data to an existing dataset."""
+
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "json_append.lance"
+
+    # Write initial data
+    table1 = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2], type=pa.int32()),
+            "data": pa.array(
+                [
+                    json.dumps({"color": "red", "count": 1}),
+                    json.dumps({"color": "blue", "count": 2}),
+                ],
+                type=pa.json_(),
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    lance.write_dataset(table1, dataset_path)
+
+    # Append more data
+    table2 = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([3, 4, 5], type=pa.int32()),
+            "data": pa.array(
+                [
+                    json.dumps({"color": "green", "count": 3}),
+                    json.dumps({"color": "yellow", "count": 4}),
+                    None,
+                ],
+                type=pa.json_(),
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    lance.write_dataset(table2, dataset_path, mode="append")
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+    assert dataset.count_rows() == 5
+
+    # Verify JSON type is preserved
+    check_json_type(dataset, "data")
+
+    # Verify all data is readable
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.column("id").to_pylist() == [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+
+    # Verify null handling
+    data_col = result.column("data")
+    assert data_col.null_count == 1
+    assert data_col.is_null().to_pylist() == [False, False, False, False, True]
+
+    # Verify JSON functions work across both fragments
+    result = dataset.to_table(filter="json_get_string(data, 'color') = 'green'")
+    assert result.num_rows == 1
+    assert result["id"][0].as_py() == 3
+
+    result = dataset.to_table(filter="json_get_int(data, 'count') >= 2")
+    assert result.num_rows == 3
+    assert result["id"].to_pylist() == [2, 3, 4]
+
+
+def test_json_add_columns(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Test adding a JSON column to an existing dataset via add_columns."""
+
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "json_add_col.lance"
+
+    # Create a dataset without a JSON column
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3], type=pa.int32()),
+            "name": pa.array(["Alice", "Bob", "Charlie"], type=pa.string()),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, dataset_path)
+
+    # Add a JSON column using a record batch reader
+    names = table.column("name").to_pylist()
+    json_values = [json.dumps({"greeting": f"hello {n}"}) for n in names]
+    new_col = pa.record_batch([pa.array(json_values, type=pa.json_())], ["metadata"])
+    reader_schema = pa.schema([pa.field("metadata", pa.json_())])
+
+    dataset.add_columns(iter([new_col]), reader_schema=reader_schema)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+
+    # Verify the new column exists and has the right type
+    assert dataset.schema.names == ["id", "name", "metadata"]
+    check_json_type(dataset, "metadata")
+
+    # Verify data round-trips
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert result.num_rows == 3
+    metadata_values = result.column("metadata").to_pylist()
+    for name, val in zip(names, metadata_values):
+        assert json.loads(val) == {"greeting": f"hello {name}"}
+
+    result = dataset.to_table(
+        filter="json_get_string(metadata, 'greeting') = 'hello Alice'"
+    )
+    assert result.num_rows == 1
+    assert result["id"][0].as_py() == 1
+
+
+def test_json_merge_insert(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Test merge_insert with JSON data."""
+
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "json_merge_insert.lance"
+
+    # Create initial dataset
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3], type=pa.int32()),
+            "data": pa.array(
+                [
+                    json.dumps({"name": "Alice", "score": 10}),
+                    json.dumps({"name": "Bob", "score": 20}),
+                    json.dumps({"name": "Charlie", "score": 30}),
+                ],
+                type=pa.json_(),
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    lance.write_dataset(table, dataset_path)
+
+    # Merge insert: update id=2, insert id=4
+    new_data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([2, 4], type=pa.int32()),
+            "data": pa.array(
+                [
+                    json.dumps({"name": "Bob", "score": 99}),
+                    json.dumps({"name": "David", "score": 40}),
+                ],
+                type=pa.json_(),
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+    dataset.merge_insert(
+        "id"
+    ).when_matched_update_all().when_not_matched_insert_all().execute(new_data)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+
+    # Verify row count
+    assert dataset.count_rows() == 4
+
+    # Verify JSON type preserved
+    check_json_type(dataset, "data")
+
+    # Verify data is readable
+    result = dataset.to_table()
+    assert sorted(result.column("id").to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+    result = dataset.to_table(filter="json_get_int(data, 'score') >= 35")
+    assert result.num_rows == 2
+
+
+def test_json_fragment_session_take(tmp_path: Path):
+    """FragmentSession.take must return JSON columns as pa.json_(), not raw JSONB."""
+
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "json_fragment_session.lance"
+
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], type=pa.int32()),
+            "data": pa.array(
+                [json.dumps({"name": "row", "score": v}) for v in range(5)],
+                type=pa.json_(),
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    lance.write_dataset(table, dataset_path)
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+    session = fragment.open_session(columns=["id", "data"])
+    result = session.take([0, 2, 4])
+
+    # JSON column must be the logical pa.json_() type, not raw LargeBinary JSONB.
+    assert result.schema.field("data").type == pa.json_()
+    assert result.column("id").to_pylist() == [1, 3, 5]
+    assert [json.loads(v) for v in result.column("data").to_pylist()] == [
+        {"name": "row", "score": 0},
+        {"name": "row", "score": 2},
+        {"name": "row", "score": 4},
+    ]
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_kmeans.py b/python/python/tests/test_kmeans.py
index e992019f24b..f5ddfd9d8d7 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_kmeans.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_kmeans.py
@@ -26,6 +26,8 @@ def test_kmeans_dot():
     kmeans = lance.util.KMeans(32, metric_type="dot")
     data = np.random.randn(1000, 128).astype(np.float32)
     kmeans.fit(data)
+    norms = np.linalg.norm(kmeans.centroids.to_numpy_ndarray(), axis=1)
+    np.testing.assert_allclose(norms, 1.0, rtol=1e-5)
 
 
 def test_precomputed_kmeans():
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_lance.py b/python/python/tests/test_lance.py
index 0162e370665..4ba9281823d 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_lance.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_lance.py
@@ -248,6 +248,74 @@ def test_io_counters(tmp_path):
     assert lance.bytes_read_counter() > starting_bytes
 
 
+def test_simd_info():
+    info = lance.simd_info()
+    assert info["tier"] in (
+        "none",
+        "sse",
+        "avx",
+        "avx_fma",
+        "avx2",
+        "avx512",
+        "avx512_fp16",
+        "neon",
+        "lsx",
+        "lasx",
+    )
+    assert isinstance(info["target_arch"], str) and info["target_arch"]
+    if info["target_arch"] == "x86_64":
+        # The x86_64 ABI mandates SSE2.
+        assert "sse2" in info["host_features"]
+    else:
+        assert info["host_features"] == []
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("query", "options", "expected"),
+    [
+        ("the cats and dogs", {}, [("cat", 0), ("dog", 2)]),
+        (
+            "the skip alpha",
+            {"stem": False, "custom_stop_words": ["skip"]},
+            [("the", 0), ("alpha", 2)],
+        ),
+        (
+            "getUserName",
+            {"analyzer": "code", "split_identifiers": True},
+            [
+                ("getusername", 0),
+                ("get", 0),
+                ("user", 1),
+                ("name", 2),
+            ],
+        ),
+        (
+            "a::b",
+            {"analyzer": "code", "index_operators": True},
+            [("a", 0), ("::", 1), ("b", 2)],
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_tokenize_fts_query(query, options, expected):
+    tokens = lance.tokenize(query, **options)
+    assert [(token.text, token.position) for token in tokens] == expected
+
+
+def test_tokenize_fts_query_validates_analyzer_options():
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="code analyzer flags require analyzer='code'"):
+        lance.tokenize("getUserName", split_identifiers=True)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="unknown base tokenizer"):
+        lance.tokenize("hello", base_tokenizer="unknown")
+
+
+def test_tokenize_fts_query_can_disable_max_token_length():
+    long_token = "x" * 41
+    assert lance.tokenize(long_token, stem=False) == []
+    unlimited_tokens = lance.tokenize(long_token, max_token_length=None, stem=False)
+    assert [token.text for token in unlimited_tokens] == [long_token]
+
+
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
     "row_param, column_name",
     [("with_row_id", "_rowid"), ("with_row_address", "_rowaddr")],
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_log.py b/python/python/tests/test_log.py
index b00fe5813a0..1eb02957044 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_log.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_log.py
@@ -148,6 +148,36 @@ def test_lance_log_file_with_directory_creation(tmp_path):
     assert len(log_content.strip()) > 0, "Log file is empty"
 
 
+@pytest.mark.skipif(
+    sys.platform == "win32",
+    reason="subprocess does not work correctly in CI on Windows",
+)
+def test_lance_log_filters_trace_event_targets(tmp_path):
+    log_file = tmp_path / "lance_rust.log"
+
+    result = subprocess.run(
+        [
+            sys.executable,
+            "-c",
+            "import lance; import pyarrow as pa; "
+            "lance.write_dataset(pa.table({'x': range(10)}), 'memory://test')",
+        ],
+        capture_output=True,
+        env={
+            "LANCE_LOG": "warn,lance::events::dataset_events=info",
+            "LANCE_LOG_FILE": str(log_file),
+        },
+    )
+
+    assert result.returncode == 0, f"Command failed: {result.stderr.decode()}"
+
+    log_content = log_file.read_text()
+    assert "lance::events::dataset_events" in log_content
+    assert 'target="lance::dataset_events"' in log_content
+    assert "lance::events::file_audit" not in log_content
+    assert "lance::file_audit" not in log_content
+
+
 @pytest.mark.skipif(
     sys.platform == "win32",
     reason="subprocess does not work correctly in CI on Windows",
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_mem_wal.py b/python/python/tests/test_mem_wal.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d42b0e72749
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_mem_wal.py
@@ -0,0 +1,632 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+import math
+import os
+import time
+import uuid
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+from lance.mem_wal import (
+    CompactedSsTable,
+    LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    LsmScanner,
+    LsmVectorSearchPlanner,
+    ShardingField,
+    ShardingSpec,
+    ShardSnapshot,
+    evaluate_sharding_spec,
+)
+from lance.schema import LanceSchema
+
+_PK_META = {"lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key": "true"}
+_LOOKUP_SCHEMA = pa.schema(
+    [
+        pa.field("id", pa.int64(), nullable=False, metadata=_PK_META),
+        pa.field("name", pa.utf8()),
+    ]
+)
+_APPEND_ONLY_SCHEMA = pa.schema(
+    [
+        pa.field("id", pa.int64(), nullable=False),
+        pa.field("name", pa.utf8()),
+    ]
+)
+
+
+def _lookup_table(ids, prefix: str) -> pa.Table:
+    """Build a table where name = '{prefix}_{id}' for each id."""
+    return pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(ids, pa.int64()),
+            "name": pa.array([f"{prefix}_{i}" for i in ids], pa.utf8()),
+        },
+        schema=_LOOKUP_SCHEMA,
+    )
+
+
+def _append_only_table(ids, prefix: str) -> pa.Table:
+    """Build a table without primary-key metadata."""
+    return pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(ids, pa.int64()),
+            "name": pa.array([f"{prefix}_{i}" for i in ids], pa.utf8()),
+        },
+        schema=_APPEND_ONLY_SCHEMA,
+    )
+
+
+def _write_sstable(base_path: str, shard_id: str, gen_folder: str, data: pa.Table):
+    """Write an SSTable Lance dataset at the expected sub-path.
+
+    The collector resolves SSTable paths as:
+        {base_dataset_path}/_mem_wal/{shard_id}/{gen_folder}
+
+    Production flush also writes a primary-key dedup sidecar (`_pk_index/`) that
+    the LSM scanner opens to dedup across generations; stage it here too so the
+    SSTable faithfully matches what flush produces.
+    """
+    from lance.lance import _write_pk_sidecar
+
+    gen_path = os.path.join(base_path, "_mem_wal", shard_id, gen_folder)
+    lance.write_dataset(data, gen_path, schema=_LOOKUP_SCHEMA)
+    _write_pk_sidecar(gen_path, data, ["id"])
+
+
+def test_mark_sstables_as_compacted(tmp_path):
+    ds_path = str(tmp_path / "base")
+    shard_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        _lookup_table([1, 2, 3], "base"), ds_path, schema=_LOOKUP_SCHEMA
+    )
+    dataset.initialize_mem_wal()
+
+    (
+        dataset.merge_insert("id")
+        .when_matched_update_all()
+        .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+        .mark_sstables_as_compacted([CompactedSsTable(shard_id, 1)])
+        .execute(_lookup_table([2, 4], "compacted"))
+    )
+
+    assert dataset.count_rows() == 4
+
+
+def test_point_lookup_with_memtables(tmp_path):
+    """
+    Lookup against a base table that has one SSTable containing an
+    update.  The SSTable version must win over the base table version.
+
+    Setup
+    -----
+    base   : ids [1, 2, 3]  names ["base_1",  "base_2",  "base_3"]
+    gen_1  : ids [2]        names ["gen1_2"]          ← update to id=2
+
+    ShardSnapshot: sstable(gen=1, path="gen_1"), current_generation=2
+    """
+    ds_path = str(tmp_path / "base")
+    shard_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+
+    # --- Base dataset ---
+    base_ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _lookup_table([1, 2, 3], "base"), ds_path, schema=_LOOKUP_SCHEMA
+    )
+    base_ds.initialize_mem_wal()
+
+    # --- SSTable: overwrites id=2 ---
+    _write_sstable(ds_path, shard_id, "gen_1", _lookup_table([2], "gen1"))
+
+    # --- ShardSnapshot describing the SSTable state ---
+    snap = ShardSnapshot(shard_id).with_sstable(1, "gen_1").with_current_generation(2)
+
+    planner = LsmPointLookupPlanner(base_ds, [snap])
+    assert not hasattr(planner, "lookup")
+
+    # id=2 must return the SSTable version
+    plan = planner.plan_lookup(pa.array([2], type=pa.int64()))
+    assert plan.schema.names == ["id", "name"]
+    assert plan.dataset_schema.names == ["id", "name"]
+    explained = plan.explain()
+    assert "Take" in explained or "Scan" in explained or "LanceRead" in explained
+    result = plan.to_table()
+    assert len(result) == 1, "Expected exactly one row for id=2"
+    assert result.column("name")[0].as_py() == "gen1_2", (
+        "SSTable must win over base table"
+    )
+
+    # id=1 is only in the base table
+    result_base = planner.plan_lookup(pa.array([1], type=pa.int64())).to_table()
+    assert len(result_base) == 1
+    assert result_base.column("name")[0].as_py() == "base_1"
+
+    # id=99 does not exist anywhere
+    result_miss = planner.plan_lookup(pa.array([99], type=pa.int64())).to_table()
+    assert len(result_miss) == 0, "Non-existent key must return empty result"
+
+
+def test_lsm_scanner_with_memtables(tmp_path):
+    """
+    Full-scan via LsmScanner.from_snapshots deduplicates rows across LSM
+    levels: each primary key appears exactly once, from its newest level.
+
+    base  : ids [1, 2, 3]  names ["base_1",  "base_2",  "base_3"]
+    gen_1 : ids [2]        names ["gen1_2"]    ← overwrites id=2
+
+    Expected result: 3 unique rows — id=2 from gen_1, id=1 and id=3 from base.
+    """
+    ds_path = str(tmp_path / "base")
+    shard_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+
+    base_ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _lookup_table([1, 2, 3], "base"), ds_path, schema=_LOOKUP_SCHEMA
+    )
+    base_ds.initialize_mem_wal()
+
+    _write_sstable(ds_path, shard_id, "gen_1", _lookup_table([2], "gen1"))
+
+    snap = ShardSnapshot(shard_id).with_sstable(1, "gen_1").with_current_generation(2)
+
+    scanner = LsmScanner.from_snapshots(base_ds, [snap])
+    table = scanner.to_table()
+
+    assert len(table) == 3, f"Expected 3 deduplicated rows, got {len(table)}"
+    name_by_id = {row["id"]: row["name"] for row in table.to_pylist()}
+
+    assert name_by_id[1] == "base_1"
+    assert name_by_id[2] == "gen1_2", "SSTable gen must overwrite base for id=2"
+    assert name_by_id[3] == "base_3"
+
+    offset_table = (
+        LsmScanner.from_snapshots(base_ds, [snap]).limit(None, offset=1).to_table()
+    )
+    assert len(offset_table) == 2, "Offset-only LSM scan should not require a limit"
+
+
+def test_shard_writer_lsm_scanner_includes_own_sstables(tmp_path):
+    ds_path = str(tmp_path / "base")
+    shard_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(_lookup_table([0], "base"), ds_path, schema=_LOOKUP_SCHEMA)
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal()
+
+    with ds.mem_wal_writer(
+        shard_id,
+        durable_write=True,
+        max_wal_buffer_size=1,
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms=10,
+        max_memtable_batches=1,
+    ) as writer:
+        writer.put(_lookup_table([1, 2], "writer"))
+
+        deadline = time.time() + 5
+        while True:
+            table = writer.lsm_scanner().to_table()
+            name_by_id = {row["id"]: row["name"] for row in table.to_pylist()}
+            if name_by_id.get(1) == "writer_1" and name_by_id.get(2) == "writer_2":
+                break
+            if time.time() >= deadline:
+                assert False, "writer.lsm_scanner() did not include SSTable writer rows"
+            time.sleep(0.05)
+
+
+def test_shard_writer_delete_binding_masks_base_row(tmp_path):
+    ds_path = str(tmp_path / "base")
+    shard_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _lookup_table([1, 2, 3], "base"), ds_path, schema=_LOOKUP_SCHEMA
+    )
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal()
+
+    delete_keys = pa.table({"id": pa.array([2], type=pa.int64())})
+
+    with ds.mem_wal_writer(
+        shard_id,
+        durable_write=True,
+        max_wal_buffer_size=1,
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms=10,
+    ) as writer:
+        writer.put(_lookup_table([4], "writer"))
+        writer.delete(delete_keys)
+        table = writer.lsm_scanner().to_table()
+
+    rows = {row["id"]: row["name"] for row in table.to_pylist()}
+    assert rows[1] == "base_1"
+    assert 2 not in rows, "deleted base row should be masked by the tombstone"
+    assert rows[3] == "base_3"
+    assert rows[4] == "writer_4"
+
+
+_VDIM = 4  # matches Rust test fixture dimension
+
+
+def _vector_search_schema():
+    """Schema for vector-search tests: id (int32 PK) + vector column."""
+    pk_meta = {"lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key": "true"}
+    return pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int32(), nullable=False, metadata=pk_meta),
+            pa.field("vector", pa.list_(pa.float32(), _VDIM)),
+        ]
+    )
+
+
+def _vector_search_table(ids):
+    """Build a table with deterministic vectors matching the Rust fixture.
+
+    For id=N the vector is [N*0.1, N*0.1+0.1, N*0.1+0.2, N*0.1+0.3].
+    """
+    flat = []
+    for i in ids:
+        base = i * 0.1
+        flat.extend([base, base + 0.1, base + 0.2, base + 0.3])
+    storage = pa.array(flat, type=pa.float32())
+    vectors = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(storage, _VDIM)
+    return pa.table(
+        {"id": pa.array(ids, pa.int32()), "vector": vectors},
+        schema=_vector_search_schema(),
+    )
+
+
+def test_lsm_vector_search_filter_binding(tmp_path):
+    ds_path = str(tmp_path / "vec")
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _vector_search_table(range(400)), ds_path, schema=_vector_search_schema()
+    )
+    ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        name="vector_idx",
+        num_partitions=2,
+        num_sub_vectors=2,
+    )
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(maintained_indexes=["vector_idx"])
+
+    planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner(ds, [], "vector", filter="id >= 200")
+    query_id = 250
+    query = pa.array([25.0, 25.1, 25.2, 25.3], type=pa.float32())
+    table = planner.plan_search(query, k=20, nprobes=2, columns=["id"]).to_table()
+
+    ids = table.column("id").to_pylist()
+    assert ids, "filtered vector search should return at least one row"
+    assert min(ids) >= 200
+    assert query_id in ids, f"filtered vector search recall missed id={query_id}: {ids}"
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="k must be positive"):
+        planner.plan_search(query, k=0, nprobes=2, columns=["id"])
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="nprobes must be positive"):
+        planner.plan_search(query, k=20, nprobes=0, columns=["id"])
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="overfetch_factor must be finite"):
+        planner.plan_search(
+            query, k=20, nprobes=2, columns=["id"], overfetch_factor=math.inf
+        )
+
+
+VECTOR_DIM = 32
+ROWS_PER_BATCH = 50
+NUM_WRITE_ROUNDS = 3
+BATCHES_PER_ROUND = 3
+
+
+def _e2e_schema():
+    """Schema for the e2e test: id (PK), vector, text."""
+    pk_meta = {"lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key": "true"}
+    return pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64(), nullable=False, metadata=pk_meta),
+            pa.field("vector", pa.list_(pa.float32(), VECTOR_DIM)),
+            pa.field("text", pa.utf8()),
+        ]
+    )
+
+
+def _e2e_batch(schema, start_id: int, num_rows: int) -> pa.RecordBatch:
+    """Deterministic RecordBatch for the e2e test."""
+    ids = list(range(start_id, start_id + num_rows))
+    flat_vecs = [
+        math.sin((start_id + i) * 0.1 + d * 0.01)
+        for i in range(num_rows)
+        for d in range(VECTOR_DIM)
+    ]
+    storage = pa.array(flat_vecs, type=pa.float32())
+    vector_array = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(storage, VECTOR_DIM)
+    texts = [f"Sample text for row {start_id + i}" for i in range(num_rows)]
+    return pa.record_batch(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(ids, pa.int64()),
+            "vector": vector_array,
+            "text": pa.array(texts, pa.utf8()),
+        },
+        schema=schema,
+    )
+
+
+def test_shard_writer_e2e_correctness(tmp_path):
+    """
+    End-to-end correctness test for ShardWriter covering:
+    - Multi-round writes that trigger WAL and MemTable flushes
+    - File-system layout verification (_mem_wal/<shard_id>/wal/ and manifest/)
+    - SSTable data readable via LsmScanner
+    - New writer created after close can write and scan correctly
+
+    Mirrors Rust test: shard_writer_tests::test_shard_writer_e2e_correctness
+    """
+    schema = _e2e_schema()
+    ds_path = str(tmp_path / "ds")
+
+    # 500 seed rows so BTree index training succeeds
+    initial_batch = _e2e_batch(schema, start_id=0, num_rows=500)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_batches([initial_batch]), ds_path, schema=schema
+    )
+
+    ds.create_scalar_index("id", "BTREE", name="id_btree")
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(maintained_indexes=["id_btree"])
+
+    # Small buffers to trigger WAL and MemTable flushes during the test
+    shard_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    writer = ds.mem_wal_writer(
+        shard_id,
+        durable_write=True,
+        max_wal_buffer_size=10 * 1024,  # 10 KB
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms=50,
+        max_memtable_size=80,  # flush after ~80 rows
+    )
+
+    total_rows_written = 0
+    for _round in range(NUM_WRITE_ROUNDS):
+        start_id = 500 + total_rows_written
+        for i in range(BATCHES_PER_ROUND):
+            batch = _e2e_batch(schema, start_id + i * ROWS_PER_BATCH, ROWS_PER_BATCH)
+            writer.put(pa.Table.from_batches([batch]))
+        total_rows_written += BATCHES_PER_ROUND * ROWS_PER_BATCH
+        time.sleep(0.15)  # allow async WAL/memtable flush
+
+    writer.close()
+
+    # === Stats ===
+    stats = writer.stats()
+    assert stats["put_count"] == NUM_WRITE_ROUNDS * BATCHES_PER_ROUND
+    assert stats["wal_flush_count"] >= 1, "Expected at least one WAL flush"
+
+    closed_memtable_stats = writer.memtable_stats()
+    assert closed_memtable_stats["row_count"] == 0
+    assert closed_memtable_stats["batch_count"] == 0
+    assert closed_memtable_stats["generation"] >= 1
+    assert "frozen_count" in closed_memtable_stats
+    # close() flushes every frozen memtable, so nothing is still owed to flush.
+    assert closed_memtable_stats["frozen_bytes"] == 0
+
+    # === File-system layout ===
+    mem_wal_dir = os.path.join(ds_path, "_mem_wal", shard_id)
+    assert os.path.isdir(mem_wal_dir), f"MemWAL directory missing: {mem_wal_dir}"
+
+    wal_dir = os.path.join(mem_wal_dir, "wal")
+    assert os.path.isdir(wal_dir), "WAL sub-directory missing"
+    wal_files = os.listdir(wal_dir)
+    assert len(wal_files) >= 1
+    assert all(f.endswith(".arrow") for f in wal_files), (
+        f"All WAL files should have .arrow extension, got: {wal_files}"
+    )
+
+    manifest_dir = os.path.join(mem_wal_dir, "manifest")
+    assert os.path.isdir(manifest_dir), "Manifest sub-directory missing"
+    assert len(os.listdir(manifest_dir)) >= 1
+
+    # === Generation counter advanced ===
+    mt_stats = writer.memtable_stats()
+    assert mt_stats["generation"] >= 1
+
+    # === New writer: write and read back via active MemTable scanner ===
+    ds2 = lance.dataset(ds_path)
+    shard_id2 = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    with ds2.mem_wal_writer(shard_id2, durable_write=False) as writer2:
+        verify_batch = _e2e_batch(schema, start_id=10000, num_rows=10)
+        writer2.put(pa.Table.from_batches([verify_batch]))
+        result = writer2.lsm_scanner().to_table()
+
+    assert len(result) >= 10
+    new_ids = result.column("id").to_pylist()
+    assert 10000 in new_ids
+    assert 10009 in new_ids
+
+
+# === initialize_mem_wal: sharding, maintained indexes, writer defaults ===
+
+
+def _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path, name: str = "ds"):
+    """A base dataset with an unenforced primary key, ready for MemWAL init."""
+    ds_path = str(tmp_path / name)
+    return lance.write_dataset(
+        _lookup_table([1, 2, 3], "base"), ds_path, schema=_LOOKUP_SCHEMA
+    )
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_manual(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal()
+
+    details = ds.mem_wal_index_details()
+    assert details is not None
+    assert details["num_shards"] == 0
+    assert details["sharding_specs"] == []
+    assert details["maintained_indexes"] == []
+    assert details["maintain_all_indexes"] is True
+    assert details["writer_config_defaults"] == {}
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_unsharded(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(unsharded=True)
+
+    details = ds.mem_wal_index_details()
+    assert details["num_shards"] == 1
+    specs = details["sharding_specs"]
+    assert len(specs) == 1
+    assert specs[0]["fields"][0]["transform"] == "unsharded"
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_bucket_sharding(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(bucket_column="name", num_buckets=8)
+
+    details = ds.mem_wal_index_details()
+    assert details["num_shards"] == 8
+    field = details["sharding_specs"][0]["fields"][0]
+    assert field["transform"] == "bucket"
+    assert "expression" in field
+    assert field["parameters"]["num_buckets"] == "8"
+    assert len(field["source_ids"]) == 1
+
+    batch = _lookup_table([1, 2, 3], "base").to_batches()[0]
+    result = evaluate_sharding_spec(
+        batch, details["sharding_specs"][0], LanceSchema.from_pyarrow(batch.schema)
+    )
+    assert result.column_names == [field["field_id"]]
+    assert result.num_rows == batch.num_rows
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_bucket_sharding_without_primary_key(tmp_path):
+    ds_path = str(tmp_path / "append_only")
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        _append_only_table([1, 2, 3], "base"),
+        ds_path,
+        schema=_APPEND_ONLY_SCHEMA,
+    )
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(bucket_column="id", num_buckets=8)
+
+    details = ds.mem_wal_index_details()
+    assert details["num_shards"] == 8
+    field = details["sharding_specs"][0]["fields"][0]
+    assert field["transform"] == "bucket"
+    assert field["parameters"]["num_buckets"] == "8"
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_identity_sharding(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(identity_column="name")
+
+    details = ds.mem_wal_index_details()
+    # identity sharding has an open-ended shard count
+    assert details["num_shards"] == 0
+    field = details["sharding_specs"][0]["fields"][0]
+    assert field["transform"] == "identity"
+    assert field["result_type"] == "utf8"
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("id", "BTREE", name="id_btree")
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(maintained_indexes=["id_btree"])
+
+    details = ds.mem_wal_index_details()
+    assert details["maintained_indexes"] == ["id_btree"]
+    assert details["maintain_all_indexes"] is False
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_maintains_none_and_all_differently(tmp_path):
+    # Both leave maintained_indexes empty, so the flag is the only thing
+    # separating "every index the table has" from "no index at all".
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("id", "BTREE", name="id_btree")
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(maintained_indexes=[])
+
+    details = ds.mem_wal_index_details()
+    assert details["maintained_indexes"] == []
+    assert details["maintain_all_indexes"] is False
+
+    all_ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path, "all")
+    all_ds.create_scalar_index("id", "BTREE", name="id_btree")
+    all_ds.initialize_mem_wal()
+
+    all_details = all_ds.mem_wal_index_details()
+    assert all_details["maintained_indexes"] == []
+    assert all_details["maintain_all_indexes"] is True
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_writer_config_defaults(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(
+        durable_write=False,
+        max_memtable_size=8 * 1024 * 1024,
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms=250,
+    )
+
+    defaults = ds.mem_wal_index_details()["writer_config_defaults"]
+    assert defaults["durable_write"] == "false"
+    assert defaults["max_memtable_size"] == str(8 * 1024 * 1024)
+    # Duration knobs are recorded in milliseconds with a `_ms` suffix.
+    assert defaults["max_wal_flush_interval_ms"] == "250"
+    # Every ShardWriterConfig tunable is recorded once any default is set.
+    assert "enable_memtable" in defaults
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_no_writer_config_defaults_when_unset(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.initialize_mem_wal(bucket_column="id", num_buckets=4)
+    assert ds.mem_wal_index_details()["writer_config_defaults"] == {}
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_rejects_conflicting_sharding(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="at most one"):
+        ds.initialize_mem_wal(unsharded=True, bucket_column="id", num_buckets=8)
+
+
+def test_initialize_mem_wal_rejects_partial_bucket(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="num_buckets"):
+        ds.initialize_mem_wal(bucket_column="id")
+
+
+def test_evaluate_sharding_spec_python_binding():
+    batch = pa.record_batch(
+        [pa.array([1, 2, None, 3], type=pa.int32())],
+        names=["id"],
+    )
+    spec = ShardingSpec(
+        1,
+        [
+            ShardingField(
+                field_id="bucket",
+                source_ids=[0],
+                transform="bucket",
+                result_type="int32",
+                parameters={"num_buckets": "8"},
+            )
+        ],
+    )
+
+    result = evaluate_sharding_spec(batch, spec, LanceSchema.from_pyarrow(batch.schema))
+
+    assert result.column_names == ["bucket"]
+    assert result.column(0).to_pylist() == [2, 7, 0, 1]
+
+
+def test_evaluate_sharding_spec_python_binding_column_parameter():
+    batch = pa.record_batch(
+        [pa.array(["a", "b", None], type=pa.utf8())],
+        names=["key"],
+    )
+    spec = {
+        "spec_id": 1,
+        "fields": [
+            {
+                "field_id": "key_bucket",
+                "source_ids": [0],
+                "transform": "bucket",
+                "expression": None,
+                "result_type": "int32",
+                "parameters": {"num_buckets": "8"},
+            }
+        ],
+    }
+
+    result = evaluate_sharding_spec(batch, spec, LanceSchema.from_pyarrow(batch.schema))
+
+    assert result.column_names == ["key_bucket"]
+    assert result.column(0).to_pylist() == [1, 5, 0]
+
+
+def test_mem_wal_index_details_none_before_init(tmp_path):
+    ds = _mem_wal_dataset(tmp_path)
+    assert ds.mem_wal_index_details() is None
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_memory_leaks.py b/python/python/tests/test_memory_leaks.py
index 9a0d8356882..20ba1686875 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_memory_leaks.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_memory_leaks.py
@@ -5,6 +5,8 @@
 
 import gc
 import os
+import subprocess
+import sys
 from typing import Callable
 
 import lance
@@ -78,19 +80,40 @@ def assert_noleaks(
         )
 
 
+def run_isolated_probe(probe_name: str, *args: str) -> None:
+    result = subprocess.run(
+        [sys.executable, __file__, probe_name, *args],
+        check=False,
+        capture_output=True,
+        text=True,
+    )
+    assert result.returncode == 0, (
+        f"Isolated probe '{probe_name}' failed.\n"
+        f"stdout:\n{result.stdout}\n"
+        f"stderr:\n{result.stderr}"
+    )
+
+
+def probe_index_statistics_no_leak(dataset_path: str) -> None:
+    def access_index_stats() -> None:
+        d = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
+        for idx in d.describe_indices():
+            d.stats.index_stats(idx.name)
+
+    assert_noleaks(
+        access_index_stats, iterations=1000, threshold_mb=2.0, check_interval=25
+    )
+
+
 class TestMemoryLeaks:
     def test_index_statistics_no_leak(self, tmp_path) -> None:
         dataset_path = str(tmp_path / "dataset")
         data = pa.table({"id": [1]})
         ds = lance.write_dataset(data, dataset_path)
         ds.create_scalar_index("id", index_type="BTREE")
+        run_isolated_probe("index_statistics_no_leak", dataset_path)
 
-        def access_index_stats() -> None:
-            d = lance.dataset(dataset_path)
-            for idx in d.list_indices():
-                if name := idx.get("name"):
-                    d.stats.index_stats(name)
 
-        assert_noleaks(
-            access_index_stats, iterations=1000, threshold_mb=2.0, check_interval=25
-        )
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    if len(sys.argv) == 3 and sys.argv[1] == "index_statistics_no_leak":
+        probe_index_statistics_no_leak(sys.argv[2])
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_multi_base.py b/python/python/tests/test_multi_base.py
index baa437b4fc6..7e045e9b9dc 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_multi_base.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_multi_base.py
@@ -82,6 +82,60 @@ def test_multi_base_create_and_read(self):
             data.sort_values("id").reset_index(drop=True),
         )
 
+    def test_write_target_all_bases(self):
+        """target_all_bases=True rotates across primary and all initial bases."""
+        data = self.create_test_data(300)
+
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.primary_uri,
+            mode="create",
+            initial_bases=[
+                DatasetBasePath(self.path1_uri, name="path1"),
+                DatasetBasePath(self.path2_uri, name="path2"),
+            ],
+            target_all_bases=True,
+            max_rows_per_file=100,
+        )
+
+        base_ids = [f.data_files()[0].base_id for f in dataset.get_fragments()]
+        assert base_ids == [None, 1, 2]
+        assert len(dataset.to_table()) == 300
+
+    def test_base_scoped_storage_options(self):
+        """base_<id>.<key> storage options flow through write and read."""
+        data = self.create_test_data(200)
+
+        # Local stores ignore these options; this verifies base-scoped entries
+        # are resolved per base without breaking the write or read path.
+        storage_options = {
+            "shared_option": "shared",
+            "base_1.scoped_option": "base1-value",
+        }
+
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.primary_uri,
+            mode="create",
+            initial_bases=[DatasetBasePath(self.path1_uri, name="path1")],
+            target_bases=["path1"],
+            max_rows_per_file=100,
+            storage_options=storage_options,
+        )
+        assert dataset.count_rows() == 200
+
+        # Data files land in the scoped base, not the primary path
+        assert list(Path(self.path1_uri).glob("**/*.lance"))
+        assert not list((Path(self.primary_uri) / "data").glob("*.lance"))
+
+        # Reopen with the same flat options and read through the base store
+        dataset = lance.dataset(self.primary_uri, storage_options=storage_options)
+        result = dataset.to_table().to_pandas()
+        pd.testing.assert_frame_equal(
+            result.sort_values("id").reset_index(drop=True),
+            data.sort_values("id").reset_index(drop=True),
+        )
+
     def test_multi_base_append_mode(self):
         """Test appending data to a multi-base dataset."""
         # Create initial dataset
@@ -160,7 +214,7 @@ def test_multi_base_overwrite_mode_inherits_bases(self):
         assert actual_ids == expected_ids
 
         # Verify base_paths are preserved from initial dataset
-        base_paths = updated_dataset._ds.base_paths()
+        base_paths = updated_dataset.base_paths()
         assert len(base_paths) == 2
         assert any(bp.name == "path1" for bp in base_paths.values())
         assert any(bp.name == "path2" for bp in base_paths.values())
@@ -182,16 +236,14 @@ def test_multi_base_overwrite_mode_primary_path_default(self):
             max_rows_per_file=50,
         )
 
-        # Overwrite without specifying target - should use primary path
-        # This clears the old base_paths and writes to primary path only
+        # Overwrite without a target writes new files to primary storage while
+        # preserving the registered base paths.
         overwrite_data = self.create_test_data(75, id_offset=200)
 
         updated_dataset = lance.write_dataset(
             overwrite_data,
             self.primary_uri,
             mode="overwrite",
-            # No target_bases specified - data goes to primary path
-            # Old bases (path1, path2) are NOT preserved
             max_rows_per_file=25,
         )
 
@@ -205,7 +257,7 @@ def test_multi_base_overwrite_mode_primary_path_default(self):
         assert actual_ids == expected_ids
 
         # Verify base_paths are preserved from previous manifest
-        base_paths = updated_dataset._ds.base_paths()
+        base_paths = updated_dataset.base_paths()
         # Old path1 and path2 ARE preserved in manifest
         assert len(base_paths) == 2
         assert any(bp.name == "path1" for bp in base_paths.values())
@@ -272,7 +324,7 @@ def test_multi_base_append_mode_primary_path_default(self):
         assert actual_ids == expected_ids
 
         # Verify base_paths are preserved from previous manifest
-        base_paths = updated_dataset._ds.base_paths()
+        base_paths = updated_dataset.base_paths()
         assert len(base_paths) == 2
         assert any(bp.name == "path1" for bp in base_paths.values())
         assert any(bp.name == "path2" for bp in base_paths.values())
@@ -320,7 +372,7 @@ def test_multi_base_is_dataset_root_flag(self):
         )
 
         # Verify base_paths configuration
-        base_paths = dataset._ds.base_paths()
+        base_paths = dataset.base_paths()
         assert len(base_paths) == 2
 
         # Find path1 and path2 in base_paths
@@ -365,7 +417,7 @@ def test_multi_base_target_by_path_uri(self):
         )
 
         # Get the base_paths to find the actual path URI for path2
-        base_paths = dataset._ds.base_paths()
+        base_paths = dataset.base_paths()
         path2_base = None
         for base_path in base_paths.values():
             if base_path.name == "path2":
@@ -396,7 +448,7 @@ def test_multi_base_target_by_path_uri(self):
 
         # Verify that new fragments are in path2 (not primary or path1)
         fragments = list(updated_dataset.get_fragments())
-        base_paths_updated = updated_dataset._ds.base_paths()
+        base_paths_updated = updated_dataset.base_paths()
 
         path1_fragments = 0
         path2_fragments = 0
@@ -788,37 +840,104 @@ def test_add_bases_then_scan(self):
         assert len(result) == 10
 
     def test_add_bases_verify_base_paths(self):
-        """Test that get_base_paths returns added bases."""
-        # Create dataset
+        """Test that base_paths exposes every registered base by ID."""
         data = pd.DataFrame({"id": range(10), "value": range(10)})
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, self.primary_uri, mode="create")
+        assert dataset.base_paths() == {}
+
+        dataset.add_bases(
+            [
+                DatasetBasePath(self.new_base1, name="new_base1", is_dataset_root=True),
+                DatasetBasePath(self.new_base2),
+            ]
+        )
+
+        base_paths = dataset.base_paths()
+        assert len(base_paths) == 2
+        assert all(base_id == base.id for base_id, base in base_paths.items())
+
+        bases_by_path = {base.path: base for base in base_paths.values()}
+        assert set(bases_by_path) == {self.new_base1, self.new_base2}
+
+        named_base = bases_by_path[self.new_base1]
+        assert named_base.name == "new_base1"
+        assert named_base.is_dataset_root is True
+
+        unnamed_base = bases_by_path[self.new_base2]
+        assert unnamed_base.name is None
+        assert unnamed_base.is_dataset_root is False
+        assert all(base.path != self.primary_uri for base in base_paths.values())
+        assert all(not hasattr(base, "storage_options") for base in base_paths.values())
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize(
+        ("attribute", "value"),
+        [
+            pytest.param("id", 99, id="id"),
+            pytest.param("name", "changed", id="name"),
+            pytest.param("path", "changed", id="path"),
+            pytest.param("is_dataset_root", False, id="is_dataset_root"),
+        ],
+    )
+    def test_base_paths_results_are_isolated(self, attribute, value):
+        """Returned mappings are detached and base attributes are read-only."""
         dataset = lance.write_dataset(
-            data,
+            pd.DataFrame({"id": range(10)}),
             self.primary_uri,
             mode="create",
-            initial_bases=[DatasetBasePath(self.initial_base, name="initial_base")],
-            target_bases=["initial_base"],
+            initial_bases=[
+                DatasetBasePath(
+                    self.initial_base,
+                    name="initial_base",
+                    is_dataset_root=True,
+                )
+            ],
         )
 
-        # Add new bases
-        dataset = lance.dataset(self.primary_uri)
-        dataset.add_bases(
-            [
-                DatasetBasePath(self.new_base1, name="new_base1"),
-                DatasetBasePath(self.new_base2, name="new_base2"),
-            ]
+        base_paths = dataset.base_paths()
+        assert len(base_paths) == 1
+        base = next(iter(base_paths.values()))
+        assert base_paths[base.id] is base
+        base_paths.clear()
+
+        assert len(dataset.base_paths()) == 1
+        with pytest.raises(AttributeError):
+            setattr(base, attribute, value)
+
+        del dataset
+        assert base.id == 1
+        assert base.name == "initial_base"
+        assert base.path == self.initial_base
+        assert base.is_dataset_root is True
+
+    def test_base_paths_uses_current_snapshot(self):
+        """Base enumeration does not implicitly refresh an open dataset."""
+        data = pd.DataFrame({"id": range(10)})
+        stale_dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            data,
+            self.primary_uri,
+            mode="create",
+            initial_bases=[DatasetBasePath(self.initial_base, name="initial_base")],
         )
+        old_base_paths = stale_dataset.base_paths()
 
-        # Get base paths
-        base_paths = dataset._ds.base_paths()
+        latest_dataset = lance.dataset(self.primary_uri)
+        latest_dataset.add_bases([DatasetBasePath(self.new_base1, name="new_base1")])
 
-        # Should have 3 bases now (initial + 2 new)
-        assert len(base_paths) == 3
+        assert {base.name for base in old_base_paths.values()} == {"initial_base"}
+        assert {base.name for base in stale_dataset.base_paths().values()} == {
+            "initial_base"
+        }
+        assert {base.name for base in latest_dataset.base_paths().values()} == {
+            "initial_base",
+            "new_base1",
+        }
 
-        # Check that all bases are present
-        names = [bp.name for bp in base_paths.values()]
-        assert "initial_base" in names
-        assert "new_base1" in names
-        assert "new_base2" in names
+        stale_dataset.checkout_latest()
+        assert {base.name for base in stale_dataset.base_paths().values()} == {
+            "initial_base",
+            "new_base1",
+        }
+        assert {base.name for base in old_base_paths.values()} == {"initial_base"}
 
     def test_add_bases_large_data_distribution(self):
         """Test adding bases and distributing large amounts of data."""
@@ -939,7 +1058,7 @@ def test_add_bases_with_transaction_properties(self):
         )
 
         # Verify the base was added
-        base_paths = dataset._ds.base_paths()
+        base_paths = dataset.base_paths()
         names = [bp.name for bp in base_paths.values()]
         assert "new_base1" in names
 
@@ -1031,6 +1150,7 @@ def test_write_fragments_with_target_bases(self):
             dataset,
             mode="append",
             target_bases=["base2"],
+            base_store_params={self.base2_uri: {}},
             max_rows_per_file=25,
         )
 
@@ -1054,6 +1174,42 @@ def test_write_fragments_with_target_bases(self):
         data_files = list(base2_path.glob("**/*.lance"))
         assert len(data_files) > 0, "Expected data files in base2"
 
+    def test_write_fragments_with_base_store_params(self):
+        """Test write_fragments inherits base_store_params from LanceDataset."""
+        initial_data = pd.DataFrame({"id": range(10), "value": range(10)})
+
+        dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+            initial_data,
+            self.primary_uri,
+            mode="create",
+            initial_bases=[
+                DatasetBasePath(self.base1_uri, name="base1"),
+                DatasetBasePath(self.base2_uri, name="base2"),
+            ],
+            target_bases=["base1"],
+            base_store_params={self.base2_uri: {}},
+            max_rows_per_file=10,
+        )
+
+        fragment_data = pd.DataFrame({"id": range(10, 20), "value": range(10, 20)})
+        fragments = write_fragments(
+            pa.Table.from_pandas(fragment_data),
+            dataset,
+            mode="append",
+            target_bases=["base2"],
+            max_rows_per_file=10,
+        )
+
+        operation = lance.LanceOperation.Append(fragments)
+        dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+            dataset, operation, read_version=dataset.version
+        )
+
+        result = dataset.to_table().to_pandas()
+        assert len(result) == 20
+        assert set(result["id"]) == set(range(20))
+        assert list(Path(self.base2_uri).glob("**/*.lance"))
+
     def test_write_fragments_transaction_with_target_bases(self):
         """Test write_fragments with return_transaction and target_bases."""
         # Create initial dataset
@@ -1196,7 +1352,7 @@ def test_write_fragments_create_mode_with_initial_bases(self):
         assert set(result["id"]) == set(range(20))
 
         # Verify base paths are registered
-        base_paths = dataset._ds.base_paths()
+        base_paths = dataset.base_paths()
         assert len(base_paths) == 2  # 2 bases (base1, base2)
         # Check that our named bases are registered
         base_names = [bp.name for bp in base_paths.values() if bp.name is not None]
@@ -1211,3 +1367,307 @@ def test_write_fragments_create_mode_with_initial_bases(self):
         dataset_root = Path(dataset_uri)
         data_files_root = list(dataset_root.glob("*.lance"))
         assert len(data_files_root) == 0, "Should not have data files in root"
+
+
+class TestDataReplacementWithBases:
+    """DataReplacement must preserve DataFile.base_id so replacement files can
+    live in (and resolve against) a storage base other than the dataset root."""
+
+    def setup_method(self):
+        self.test_dir = tempfile.mkdtemp()
+        self.primary_uri = str(Path(self.test_dir) / "primary")
+        self.base1_uri = str(Path(self.test_dir) / "base1")
+        Path(self.base1_uri).mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+
+    def teardown_method(self):
+        if hasattr(self, "test_dir"):
+            shutil.rmtree(self.test_dir, ignore_errors=True)
+
+    def _make_two_base_dataset(self) -> "lance.LanceDataset":
+        """Fragment 0 at the dataset root, fragment 1 in base1; column a."""
+        ds = lance.write_dataset(
+            pa.table({"a": list(range(8))}),
+            self.primary_uri,
+            max_rows_per_file=8,
+        )
+        ds.add_bases([DatasetBasePath(self.base1_uri, name="b1", is_dataset_root=True)])
+        return lance.write_dataset(
+            pa.table({"a": list(range(8, 16))}),
+            self.primary_uri,
+            mode="append",
+            max_rows_per_file=8,
+            target_bases=["b1"],
+        )
+
+    def _write_bare_file(self, data_dir: str, data: pa.Table) -> str:
+        from lance.file import LanceFileWriter
+
+        name = f"{uuid.uuid4()}.lance"
+        Path(data_dir).mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+        with LanceFileWriter(f"{data_dir}/{name}") as writer:
+            writer.write_batch(data)
+        return name
+
+    def _b_data_file(self, name: str, base_id=None) -> "lance.fragment.DataFile":
+        from lance.file import stable_version
+        from lance.fragment import DataFile
+
+        return DataFile(
+            path=name,
+            fields=[1],  # field id of column "b" (a=0, b=1)
+            column_indices=[0],
+            file_major_version=int(stable_version().split(".")[0]),
+            file_minor_version=int(stable_version().split(".")[1]),
+            base_id=base_id,
+        )
+
+    def test_data_replacement_new_column_into_base(self):
+        """The all-NULL-column special case: the new column's data file for a
+        base fragment is written into that base and must keep its base_id."""
+        ds = self._make_two_base_dataset()
+        ds.add_columns(pa.field("b", pa.int32()))
+        ds = lance.dataset(self.primary_uri)
+
+        root_name = self._write_bare_file(
+            f"{self.primary_uri}/data",
+            pa.table({"b": pa.array([x * 10 for x in range(8)], pa.int32())}),
+        )
+        base_name = self._write_bare_file(
+            f"{self.base1_uri}/data",
+            pa.table({"b": pa.array([x * 10 for x in range(8, 16)], pa.int32())}),
+        )
+
+        op = lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacement(
+            [
+                lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacementGroup(
+                    0, self._b_data_file(root_name)
+                ),
+                lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacementGroup(
+                    1, self._b_data_file(base_name, base_id=1)
+                ),
+            ]
+        )
+        ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(self.primary_uri, op, read_version=ds.version)
+
+        frags = ds.get_fragments()
+        root_files = {f.path: f.base_id for f in frags[0].data_files()}
+        base_files = {f.path: f.base_id for f in frags[1].data_files()}
+        assert root_files[root_name] is None
+        assert base_files[base_name] == 1
+
+        table = ds.to_table()
+        assert table.column("b").to_pylist() == [x * 10 for x in range(16)]
+
+    def test_data_replacement_replace_existing_file_in_base(self):
+        """The replace-existing-file branch must take the new file's base_id."""
+        ds = self._make_two_base_dataset()
+        ds.add_columns(pa.field("b", pa.int32()))
+        ds = lance.dataset(self.primary_uri)
+
+        first = self._write_bare_file(
+            f"{self.base1_uri}/data",
+            pa.table({"b": pa.array([0] * 8, pa.int32())}),
+        )
+        op = lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacement(
+            [lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacementGroup(1, self._b_data_file(first, 1))]
+        )
+        ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(self.primary_uri, op, read_version=ds.version)
+
+        # Replace the same column file again, still in base1.
+        second = self._write_bare_file(
+            f"{self.base1_uri}/data",
+            pa.table({"b": pa.array([x * 10 for x in range(8, 16)], pa.int32())}),
+        )
+        op = lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacement(
+            [lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacementGroup(1, self._b_data_file(second, 1))]
+        )
+        ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(self.primary_uri, op, read_version=ds.version)
+
+        base_files = {f.path: f.base_id for f in ds.get_fragments()[1].data_files()}
+        assert base_files[second] == 1
+        assert first not in base_files
+        assert ds.to_table().column("b").to_pylist()[8:] == [
+            x * 10 for x in range(8, 16)
+        ]
+
+
+class TestMergeInsertMultiBase:
+    """Test merge insert on multi-base datasets."""
+
+    def setup_method(self):
+        """Set up test directories for each test."""
+        self.test_dir = tempfile.mkdtemp()
+        self.primary_uri = str(Path(self.test_dir) / "primary")
+        self.base1_uri = str(Path(self.test_dir) / "base1")
+        self.base2_uri = str(Path(self.test_dir) / "base2")
+        for uri in [self.primary_uri, self.base1_uri, self.base2_uri]:
+            Path(uri).mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+
+    def teardown_method(self):
+        """Clean up test directories after each test."""
+        if hasattr(self, "test_dir"):
+            shutil.rmtree(self.test_dir, ignore_errors=True)
+
+    def create_dataset(self):
+        """Dataset with two registered bases and initial data in base1."""
+        initial_data = pd.DataFrame(
+            {
+                "id": range(100),
+                "value": [f"initial_{i}" for i in range(100)],
+            }
+        )
+        return lance.write_dataset(
+            initial_data,
+            self.primary_uri,
+            mode="create",
+            initial_bases=[
+                DatasetBasePath(self.base1_uri, name="base1"),
+                DatasetBasePath(self.base2_uri, name="base2"),
+            ],
+            target_bases=["base1"],
+            max_rows_per_file=50,
+        )
+
+    def base_name_of(self, dataset, data_file):
+        base_paths = dataset.base_paths()
+        if data_file.base_id is None:
+            return None
+        return base_paths[data_file.base_id].name
+
+    def test_merge_insert_without_target_bases(self):
+        """Merge insert on a multi-base dataset writes to primary by default."""
+        dataset = self.create_dataset()
+
+        new_data = pd.DataFrame(
+            {
+                "id": range(50, 150),
+                "value": [f"updated_{i}" for i in range(50, 150)],
+            }
+        )
+        stats = (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id")
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .execute(new_data)
+        )
+        assert stats["num_updated_rows"] == 50
+        assert stats["num_inserted_rows"] == 50
+
+        result = dataset.to_table().to_pandas().sort_values("id")
+        assert len(result) == 150
+        assert list(result[result["id"] >= 50]["value"]) == [
+            f"updated_{i}" for i in range(50, 150)
+        ]
+
+        # New fragments (merge output) are in primary storage.
+        max_initial_fragment_id = 1  # 100 rows / 50 per file -> fragments 0, 1
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments():
+            is_initial = fragment.fragment_id <= max_initial_fragment_id
+            for data_file in fragment.data_files():
+                expected = "base1" if is_initial else None
+                assert self.base_name_of(dataset, data_file) == expected
+
+    def test_merge_insert_with_target_bases(self):
+        """Merge insert routes new fragments to the requested base."""
+        dataset = self.create_dataset()
+
+        new_data = pd.DataFrame(
+            {
+                "id": range(50, 150),
+                "value": [f"updated_{i}" for i in range(50, 150)],
+            }
+        )
+        stats = (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id")
+            .when_matched_update_all()
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .target_bases(["base2"])
+            .execute(new_data)
+        )
+        assert stats["num_updated_rows"] == 50
+        assert stats["num_inserted_rows"] == 50
+
+        result = dataset.to_table().to_pandas().sort_values("id")
+        assert len(result) == 150
+        assert list(result[result["id"] >= 50]["value"]) == [
+            f"updated_{i}" for i in range(50, 150)
+        ]
+
+        merge_files = 0
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments():
+            if fragment.fragment_id > 1:
+                for data_file in fragment.data_files():
+                    assert self.base_name_of(dataset, data_file) == "base2"
+                    merge_files += 1
+        assert merge_files > 0
+        assert list(Path(self.base2_uri).glob("**/*.lance"))
+
+        # The routed dataset stays readable from a fresh instance.
+        reloaded = lance.dataset(self.primary_uri)
+        assert reloaded.count_rows() == 150
+
+    def test_merge_insert_with_unknown_target_base(self):
+        """Merge insert referencing an unregistered base fails."""
+        dataset = self.create_dataset()
+
+        new_data = pd.DataFrame({"id": [1], "value": ["updated_1"]})
+        with pytest.raises(Exception, match="not found in available bases"):
+            (
+                dataset.merge_insert("id")
+                .when_matched_update_all()
+                .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+                .target_bases(["nonexistent"])
+                .execute(new_data)
+            )
+
+    def test_merge_insert_target_primary_via_uri(self):
+        """The dataset URI in target_bases selects primary storage."""
+        dataset = self.create_dataset()
+
+        new_data = pd.DataFrame({"id": [200], "value": ["inserted_200"]})
+        (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id")
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .target_bases([dataset.uri, "base2"])
+            .execute(new_data)
+        )
+        assert dataset.count_rows() == 101
+
+        # The single new file lands in the first slot: primary storage.
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments():
+            if fragment.fragment_id > 1:
+                for data_file in fragment.data_files():
+                    assert self.base_name_of(dataset, data_file) is None
+
+    def test_merge_insert_target_all_bases(self):
+        """target_all_bases spreads new files across all bases, primary first."""
+        dataset = self.create_dataset()
+
+        new_data = pd.DataFrame({"id": [300], "value": ["inserted_300"]})
+        (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id")
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .target_all_bases()
+            .execute(new_data)
+        )
+        assert dataset.count_rows() == 101
+        # A single new file lands in the first slot: primary storage.
+        newest = max(f.fragment_id for f in dataset.get_fragments())
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments():
+            if fragment.fragment_id == newest:
+                for data_file in fragment.data_files():
+                    assert self.base_name_of(dataset, data_file) is None
+
+        new_data = pd.DataFrame({"id": [301], "value": ["inserted_301"]})
+        (
+            dataset.merge_insert("id")
+            .when_not_matched_insert_all()
+            .target_all_bases(include_primary=False)
+            .execute(new_data)
+        )
+        assert dataset.count_rows() == 102
+        newest = max(f.fragment_id for f in dataset.get_fragments())
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments():
+            if fragment.fragment_id == newest:
+                for data_file in fragment.data_files():
+                    assert self.base_name_of(dataset, data_file) == "base1"
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_namespace_dir.py b/python/python/tests/test_namespace_dir.py
index 74871facf6d..78a81bd455c 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_namespace_dir.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_namespace_dir.py
@@ -8,31 +8,207 @@
 namespace implementation for organizing Lance tables and nested namespaces.
 
 These tests mirror the Rust tests in rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir.rs
+
+Additionally, tests are parameterized to run with both the native DirectoryNamespace
+and a CustomNamespace wrapper to verify Python-Rust binding works correctly for
+custom namespace implementations.
 """
 
+import subprocess
+import sys
 import tempfile
 import uuid
+from threading import Lock
+from typing import Dict, Optional
 
 import lance
 import lance.namespace
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pytest
+from lance.namespace import LanceNamespace
 from lance_namespace import (
-    CreateEmptyTableRequest,
+    CountTableRowsRequest,
+    CountTableRowsResponse,
     CreateNamespaceRequest,
+    CreateNamespaceResponse,
+    CreateTableBranchRequest,
+    CreateTableBranchResponse,
+    CreateTableIndexRequest,
+    CreateTableIndexResponse,
     CreateTableRequest,
+    CreateTableResponse,
+    CreateTableVersionRequest,
+    CreateTableVersionResponse,
+    DeclareTableRequest,
+    DeclareTableResponse,
+    DeleteTableBranchRequest,
+    DeleteTableBranchResponse,
     DeregisterTableRequest,
+    DeregisterTableResponse,
     DescribeNamespaceRequest,
+    DescribeNamespaceResponse,
+    DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest,
     DescribeTableRequest,
+    DescribeTableResponse,
+    DescribeTableVersionRequest,
+    DescribeTableVersionResponse,
     DropNamespaceRequest,
+    DropNamespaceResponse,
     DropTableRequest,
+    DropTableResponse,
+    InsertIntoTableRequest,
+    InsertIntoTableResponse,
     ListNamespacesRequest,
+    ListNamespacesResponse,
+    ListTableBranchesRequest,
+    ListTableBranchesResponse,
+    ListTableIndicesRequest,
+    ListTableIndicesResponse,
     ListTablesRequest,
+    ListTablesResponse,
+    ListTableVersionsRequest,
+    ListTableVersionsResponse,
     NamespaceExistsRequest,
+    NamespaceExistsResponse,
+    QueryTableRequest,
+    QueryTableResponse,
     RegisterTableRequest,
+    RegisterTableResponse,
     TableExistsRequest,
+    TableExistsResponse,
     connect,
 )
+from lance_namespace.errors import (
+    InvalidInputError,
+    NamespaceNotEmptyError,
+    NamespaceNotFoundError,
+    TableBranchAlreadyExistsError,
+    TableBranchNotFoundError,
+    TableNotFoundError,
+)
+
+
+class CustomNamespace(LanceNamespace):
+    """A custom namespace wrapper that delegates to DirectoryNamespace.
+
+    This class verifies that the Python-Rust binding works correctly for
+    custom namespace implementations that wrap the native DirectoryNamespace.
+    All methods simply delegate to the underlying DirectoryNamespace instance.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, inner: lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace):
+        self._inner = inner
+
+    def namespace_id(self) -> str:
+        return f"CustomNamespace[{self._inner.namespace_id()}]"
+
+    def create_namespace(
+        self, request: CreateNamespaceRequest
+    ) -> CreateNamespaceResponse:
+        return self._inner.create_namespace(request)
+
+    def describe_namespace(
+        self, request: DescribeNamespaceRequest
+    ) -> DescribeNamespaceResponse:
+        return self._inner.describe_namespace(request)
+
+    def namespace_exists(
+        self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest
+    ) -> NamespaceExistsResponse:
+        return self._inner.namespace_exists(request)
+
+    def drop_namespace(self, request: DropNamespaceRequest) -> DropNamespaceResponse:
+        return self._inner.drop_namespace(request)
+
+    def list_namespaces(self, request: ListNamespacesRequest) -> ListNamespacesResponse:
+        return self._inner.list_namespaces(request)
+
+    def create_table(
+        self, request: CreateTableRequest, data: bytes
+    ) -> CreateTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.create_table(request, data)
+
+    def declare_table(self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> DeclareTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.declare_table(request)
+
+    def describe_table(self, request: DescribeTableRequest) -> DescribeTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.describe_table(request)
+
+    def table_exists(self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> TableExistsResponse:
+        return self._inner.table_exists(request)
+
+    def drop_table(self, request: DropTableRequest) -> DropTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.drop_table(request)
+
+    def list_tables(self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> ListTablesResponse:
+        return self._inner.list_tables(request)
+
+    def register_table(self, request: RegisterTableRequest) -> RegisterTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.register_table(request)
+
+    def deregister_table(
+        self, request: DeregisterTableRequest
+    ) -> DeregisterTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.deregister_table(request)
+
+    def list_table_versions(
+        self, request: ListTableVersionsRequest
+    ) -> ListTableVersionsResponse:
+        return self._inner.list_table_versions(request)
+
+    def describe_table_version(
+        self, request: DescribeTableVersionRequest
+    ) -> DescribeTableVersionResponse:
+        return self._inner.describe_table_version(request)
+
+    def create_table_version(
+        self, request: CreateTableVersionRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableVersionResponse:
+        return self._inner.create_table_version(request)
+
+    def create_table_branch(
+        self, request: CreateTableBranchRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableBranchResponse:
+        return self._inner.create_table_branch(request)
+
+    def list_table_branches(
+        self, request: ListTableBranchesRequest
+    ) -> ListTableBranchesResponse:
+        return self._inner.list_table_branches(request)
+
+    def delete_table_branch(
+        self, request: DeleteTableBranchRequest
+    ) -> DeleteTableBranchResponse:
+        return self._inner.delete_table_branch(request)
+
+    def create_table_index(
+        self, request: CreateTableIndexRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableIndexResponse:
+        return self._inner.create_table_index(request)
+
+    def list_table_indices(
+        self, request: ListTableIndicesRequest
+    ) -> ListTableIndicesResponse:
+        return self._inner.list_table_indices(request)
+
+    def count_table_rows(
+        self, request: CountTableRowsRequest
+    ) -> CountTableRowsResponse:
+        return self._inner.count_table_rows(request)
+
+    def insert_into_table(
+        self, request: InsertIntoTableRequest, request_data: bytes
+    ) -> InsertIntoTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.insert_into_table(request, request_data)
+
+    def query_table(self, request) -> QueryTableResponse:
+        # Accept both QueryTableRequest and dict, like DirectoryNamespace does
+        if hasattr(request, "model_dump"):
+            request = request.model_dump()
+        return self._inner.query_table(request)
+
+    def retrieve_ops_metrics(self) -> Optional[Dict[str, int]]:
+        return self._inner.retrieve_ops_metrics()
 
 
 def create_test_data():
@@ -56,39 +232,57 @@ def table_to_ipc_bytes(table):
     return sink.getvalue()
 
 
-@pytest.fixture
-def temp_namespace():
-    """Create a temporary DirectoryNamespace for testing."""
+def _wrap_if_custom(ns_client, use_custom: bool):
+    """Wrap namespace client in CustomNamespace if use_custom is True."""
+    if use_custom:
+        return CustomNamespace(ns_client)
+    return ns_client
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(params=[False, True], ids=["DirectoryNamespace", "CustomNamespace"])
+def temp_ns_client(request):
+    """Create a temporary namespace client for testing.
+
+    Parameterized to test both DirectoryNamespace and CustomNamespace wrapper.
+    """
+    use_custom = request.param
     with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdir:
         # Use lance.namespace.connect() for consistency
-        ns = connect("dir", {"root": f"file://{tmpdir}"})
-        yield ns
+        # Use high commit_retries for concurrent operation tests
+        ns_client = connect(
+            "dir", {"root": f"file://{tmpdir}", "commit_retries": "2147483647"}
+        )
+        yield _wrap_if_custom(ns_client, use_custom)
+
 
+@pytest.fixture(params=[False, True], ids=["DirectoryNamespace", "CustomNamespace"])
+def memory_ns_client(request):
+    """Create a memory-based namespace client for testing.
 
-@pytest.fixture
-def memory_namespace():
-    """Create a memory-based DirectoryNamespace for testing."""
+    Parameterized to test both DirectoryNamespace and CustomNamespace wrapper.
+    """
+    use_custom = request.param
     unique_id = uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]
     # Use lance.namespace.connect() for consistency
-    ns = connect("dir", {"root": f"memory://test_{unique_id}"})
-    yield ns
+    ns_client = connect("dir", {"root": f"memory://test_{unique_id}"})
+    yield _wrap_if_custom(ns_client, use_custom)
 
 
 class TestCreateTable:
     """Tests for create_table operation - mirrors Rust test_create_table."""
 
-    def test_create_table(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_create_table(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test creating a table with data."""
         # Create parent namespace first
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Create table with data
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
 
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
-        response = memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        response = memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         assert response is not None
         assert response.location is not None
@@ -97,40 +291,40 @@ def test_create_table(self, memory_namespace):
         assert "test_table" in response.location
         assert response.version == 1
 
-    def test_create_table_without_data(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_create_table_without_data(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test creating a table without data should fail."""
         # Create parent namespace first
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
 
-        with pytest.raises(Exception) as exc_info:
-            memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, b"")
+        with pytest.raises(InvalidInputError) as exc_info:
+            memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, b"")
 
         assert "Arrow IPC" in str(exc_info.value) or "required" in str(exc_info.value)
 
-    def test_create_table_with_invalid_id(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_create_table_with_invalid_id(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test creating a table with invalid ID should fail."""
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
 
         # Test with empty ID
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=[])
-        with pytest.raises(Exception):
-            memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        with pytest.raises(InvalidInputError):
+            memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
-    def test_create_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_create_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test creating table in child namespace works with manifest enabled."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_namespace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Create table in the namespace
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["test_namespace", "table"])
-        response = memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        response = memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # Should succeed with manifest enabled
         assert response is not None
@@ -140,52 +334,52 @@ def test_create_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
 class TestListTables:
     """Tests for list_tables operation - mirrors Rust test_list_tables."""
 
-    def test_list_tables_empty(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_list_tables_empty(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test listing tables in empty namespace."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Initially, no tables
         list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        response = memory_namespace.list_tables(list_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
         assert len(response.tables) == 0
 
-    def test_list_tables_with_tables(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_list_tables_with_tables(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test listing tables after creating them."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
 
         # Create table1
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "table1"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # Create table2
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "table2"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # List tables should return both
         list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        response = memory_namespace.list_tables(list_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
         assert len(response.tables) == 2
 
         # List tables returns table names as strings
         assert "table1" in response.tables
         assert "table2" in response.tables
 
-    def test_list_tables_with_namespace_id(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_list_tables_with_namespace_id(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test listing tables in a child namespace."""
         # Create child namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_namespace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # List tables in the child namespace
         list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["test_namespace"])
-        response = memory_namespace.list_tables(list_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
 
         # Should succeed and return empty list (no tables yet)
         assert len(response.tables) == 0
@@ -194,104 +388,100 @@ def test_list_tables_with_namespace_id(self, memory_namespace):
 class TestDescribeTable:
     """Tests for describe_table operation - mirrors Rust test_describe_table."""
 
-    def test_describe_table(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_describe_table(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test describing a table."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Create a table
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # Describe the table
         describe_req = DescribeTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
-        response = memory_namespace.describe_table(describe_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.describe_table(describe_req)
 
         assert response is not None
         assert response.location is not None
         assert "test_table" in response.location
 
-    def test_describe_nonexistent_table(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_describe_nonexistent_table(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test describing a table that doesn't exist."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         describe_req = DescribeTableRequest(id=["workspace", "nonexistent"])
 
-        with pytest.raises(Exception) as exc_info:
-            memory_namespace.describe_table(describe_req)
-
-        # Check for error message indicating table doesn't exist
-        error_msg = str(exc_info.value).lower()
-        assert "not found" in error_msg or "does not exist" in error_msg
+        with pytest.raises(TableNotFoundError):
+            memory_ns_client.describe_table(describe_req)
 
 
 class TestTableOperations:
     """Tests for various table operations."""
 
-    def test_table_exists(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_table_exists(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test checking if a table exists."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Create a table
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # Check it exists (should not raise)
         exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
-        memory_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+        memory_ns_client.table_exists(exists_req)
 
-    def test_table_not_exists(self, memory_namespace):
-        """Test checking if a non-existent table exists."""
+    def test_table_not_exists(self, memory_ns_client):
+        """Test checking if a non-existent table exists raises TableNotFoundError."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["workspace", "nonexistent"])
 
-        with pytest.raises(Exception):
-            memory_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+        with pytest.raises(TableNotFoundError):
+            memory_ns_client.table_exists(exists_req)
 
-    def test_drop_table(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_drop_table(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test dropping a table."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Create table
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # Drop the table
         drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
-        response = memory_namespace.drop_table(drop_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
         assert response is not None
 
         # Verify table no longer exists
         exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
-        with pytest.raises(Exception):
-            memory_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+        with pytest.raises(TableNotFoundError):
+            memory_ns_client.table_exists(exists_req)
 
-    def test_deregister_table(self, temp_namespace):
+    def test_deregister_table(self, temp_ns_client):
         """Test deregistering a table."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        temp_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Create table using lance directly
         table_data = create_test_data()
         # Get root path from namespace
-        ns_id = temp_namespace.namespace_id()
+        ns_id = temp_ns_client.namespace_id()
         import re
 
         match = re.search(r'root: "([^"]+)"', ns_id)
@@ -306,11 +496,11 @@ def test_deregister_table(self, temp_namespace):
         register_req = RegisterTableRequest(
             id=["workspace", "test_table"], location="workspace/physical_table.lance"
         )
-        temp_namespace.register_table(register_req)
+        temp_ns_client.register_table(register_req)
 
         # Deregister it
         deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
-        response = temp_namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req)
+        response = temp_ns_client.deregister_table(deregister_req)
         assert response is not None
         # Should return full URI to deregistered table
         # (use endswith to handle path canonicalization)
@@ -320,15 +510,15 @@ def test_deregister_table(self, temp_namespace):
         )
         assert response.id == ["workspace", "test_table"]
 
-    def test_register_table(self, temp_namespace):
+    def test_register_table(self, temp_ns_client):
         """Test registering an existing table."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        temp_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Create physical table using lance
         table_data = create_test_data()
-        ns_id = temp_namespace.namespace_id()
+        ns_id = temp_ns_client.namespace_id()
         import re
 
         match = re.search(r'root: "([^"]+)"', ns_id)
@@ -344,17 +534,17 @@ def test_register_table(self, temp_namespace):
             id=["workspace", "registered_table"],
             location="workspace/physical_table.lance",
         )
-        response = temp_namespace.register_table(register_req)
+        response = temp_ns_client.register_table(register_req)
         assert response is not None
         assert response.location == "workspace/physical_table.lance"
 
         # Verify table exists
         exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["workspace", "registered_table"])
-        temp_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+        temp_ns_client.table_exists(exists_req)
 
         # Verify we can read from it
         describe_req = DescribeTableRequest(id=["workspace", "registered_table"])
-        desc_response = temp_namespace.describe_table(describe_req)
+        desc_response = temp_ns_client.describe_table(describe_req)
         assert desc_response is not None
         # Should point to the same physical location
         # (use endswith to handle path canonicalization)
@@ -363,83 +553,161 @@ def test_register_table(self, temp_namespace):
             f"got {desc_response.location}"
         )
 
-    def test_register_table_rejects_absolute_uri(self, temp_namespace):
+    def test_register_table_rejects_absolute_uri(self, temp_ns_client):
         """Test that register_table rejects absolute URIs."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        temp_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Try to register with absolute URI - should fail
         register_req = RegisterTableRequest(
             id=["workspace", "test_table"], location="s3://bucket/table.lance"
         )
-        with pytest.raises(Exception) as exc_info:
-            temp_namespace.register_table(register_req)
+        with pytest.raises(InvalidInputError) as exc_info:
+            temp_ns_client.register_table(register_req)
         assert "Absolute URIs are not allowed" in str(exc_info.value)
 
-    def test_register_table_rejects_absolute_path(self, temp_namespace):
+    def test_register_table_rejects_absolute_path(self, temp_ns_client):
         """Test that register_table rejects absolute paths."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        temp_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Try to register with absolute path - should fail
         register_req = RegisterTableRequest(
             id=["workspace", "test_table"], location="/tmp/table.lance"
         )
-        with pytest.raises(Exception) as exc_info:
-            temp_namespace.register_table(register_req)
+        with pytest.raises(InvalidInputError) as exc_info:
+            temp_ns_client.register_table(register_req)
         assert "Absolute paths are not allowed" in str(exc_info.value)
 
-    def test_register_table_rejects_path_traversal(self, temp_namespace):
+    def test_register_table_rejects_path_traversal(self, temp_ns_client):
         """Test that register_table rejects path traversal attempts."""
         # Create parent namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        temp_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Try to register with path traversal - should fail
         register_req = RegisterTableRequest(
             id=["workspace", "test_table"], location="../outside/table.lance"
         )
-        with pytest.raises(Exception) as exc_info:
-            temp_namespace.register_table(register_req)
+        with pytest.raises(InvalidInputError) as exc_info:
+            temp_ns_client.register_table(register_req)
         assert "Path traversal is not allowed" in str(exc_info.value)
 
-    def test_create_empty_table(self, memory_namespace):
-        """Test creating an empty table."""
-        # Create parent namespace
+
+class TestTableBranchOperations:
+    """Branch CRUD through the python bindings - mirrors the Rust branch
+    CRUD tests."""
+
+    def test_branch_crud_round_trip(self, temp_ns_client):
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(create_test_data())
+        table_id = ["workspace", "branched_table"]
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(CreateTableRequest(id=table_id), ipc_data)
 
-        # Create empty table with schema
-        schema = pa.schema(
-            [
-                pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
-                pa.field("name", pa.string()),
-            ]
+        temp_ns_client.create_table_branch(
+            CreateTableBranchRequest(id=table_id, name="dev")
         )
+        listed = temp_ns_client.list_table_branches(
+            ListTableBranchesRequest(id=table_id)
+        )
+        assert "dev" in listed.branches
+        assert listed.branches["dev"].parent_version == 1
 
-        create_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest(
-            id=["workspace", "empty_table"], schema=schema
+        # Duplicate creation and deleting a missing branch surface the typed
+        # branch errors (codes 23 and 22), not InternalError.
+        temp_ns_client.create_table_branch(
+            CreateTableBranchRequest(id=table_id, name="dev2")
         )
-        response = memory_namespace.create_empty_table(create_req)
+        with pytest.raises(TableBranchAlreadyExistsError):
+            temp_ns_client.create_table_branch(
+                CreateTableBranchRequest(id=table_id, name="dev2")
+            )
 
-        assert response is not None
-        assert response.location is not None
+        temp_ns_client.delete_table_branch(
+            DeleteTableBranchRequest(id=table_id, name="dev")
+        )
+        listed = temp_ns_client.list_table_branches(
+            ListTableBranchesRequest(id=table_id)
+        )
+        assert "dev" not in listed.branches
+        with pytest.raises(TableBranchNotFoundError):
+            temp_ns_client.delete_table_branch(
+                DeleteTableBranchRequest(id=table_id, name="dev")
+            )
+
+    def test_create_branch_from_other_branch(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Forking from a non-main source branch records the right parent."""
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(create_test_data())
+        table_id = ["workspace", "fork_table"]
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(CreateTableRequest(id=table_id), ipc_data)
+
+        temp_ns_client.create_table_branch(
+            CreateTableBranchRequest(id=table_id, name="dev")
+        )
+        temp_ns_client.create_table_branch(
+            CreateTableBranchRequest(id=table_id, name="child", from_branch="dev")
+        )
+        listed = temp_ns_client.list_table_branches(
+            ListTableBranchesRequest(id=table_id)
+        )
+        assert listed.branches["child"].parent_branch == "dev"
+
+
+class _ForeignCodeError(Exception):
+    """Not a LanceNamespaceError, but carries the same integer code as
+    TABLE_NOT_FOUND."""
+
+    code = 4
 
-        # Verify table exists
-        exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["workspace", "empty_table"])
-        memory_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+
+class _RaisingNamespace(LanceNamespace):
+    """A namespace whose describe_table raises the configured exception."""
+
+    def __init__(self, exc: Exception):
+        self._exc = exc
+
+    def namespace_id(self) -> str:
+        return "raising"
+
+    def describe_table(self, request: DescribeTableRequest) -> DescribeTableResponse:
+        raise self._exc
+
+
+class TestPythonNamespaceErrorMapping:
+    """The Rust adapter must trust the `code` attribute only on the
+    lance_namespace exception hierarchy."""
+
+    def test_namespace_error_identity_preserved(self):
+        ns = _RaisingNamespace(TableNotFoundError("no such table"))
+        with pytest.raises(TableNotFoundError, match="no such table"):
+            lance.dataset(namespace_client=ns, table_id=["t"])
+
+        # Branch error codes (22/23) survive the round trip too.
+        ns = _RaisingNamespace(TableBranchNotFoundError("no such branch"))
+        with pytest.raises(TableBranchNotFoundError, match="no such branch"):
+            lance.dataset(namespace_client=ns, table_id=["t"])
+
+    def test_foreign_code_attribute_not_trusted(self):
+        # The foreign exception must surface as itself, not be reinterpreted
+        # as a namespace error via its `code` attribute.
+        ns = _RaisingNamespace(_ForeignCodeError("boom"))
+        with pytest.raises(_ForeignCodeError, match="boom"):
+            lance.dataset(namespace_client=ns, table_id=["t"])
 
 
 class TestChildNamespaceOperations:
     """Tests for operations in child namespaces - mirrors Rust tests."""
 
-    def test_create_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_create_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test creating multiple tables in a child namespace."""
         # Create child namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
@@ -447,11 +715,11 @@ def test_create_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
         # Create three tables
         for i in range(1, 4):
             create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["test_ns", f"table{i}"])
-            memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+            memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # List tables
         list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["test_ns"])
-        response = memory_namespace.list_tables(list_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
 
         assert len(response.tables) == 3
         # List tables returns table names as strings
@@ -459,43 +727,50 @@ def test_create_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
         assert "table2" in response.tables
         assert "table3" in response.tables
 
-    def test_drop_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_drop_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test dropping a table in a child namespace."""
         # Create child namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Create table
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["test_ns", "table1"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # Drop table
         drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=["test_ns", "table1"])
-        memory_namespace.drop_table(drop_req)
+        memory_ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
 
         # Verify table no longer exists
         exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["test_ns", "table1"])
-        with pytest.raises(Exception):
-            memory_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+        with pytest.raises(TableNotFoundError):
+            memory_ns_client.table_exists(exists_req)
 
-    def test_empty_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
-        """Test creating an empty table in a child namespace."""
+    def test_declared_table_in_child_namespace(self, memory_ns_client):
+        """Test declaring a table in a child namespace."""
         # Create child namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
-        # Create empty table
-        schema = pa.schema([pa.field("id", pa.int64())])
-        create_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest(
-            id=["test_ns", "empty_table"], schema=schema
-        )
-        memory_namespace.create_empty_table(create_req)
+        # Declare table
+        declare_req = DeclareTableRequest(id=["test_ns", "declared_table"])
+        memory_ns_client.declare_table(declare_req)
 
         # Verify table exists
-        exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["test_ns", "empty_table"])
-        memory_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+        exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["test_ns", "declared_table"])
+        memory_ns_client.table_exists(exists_req)
+
+        describe_req = DescribeTableRequest(id=["test_ns", "declared_table"])
+        describe_resp = memory_ns_client.describe_table(describe_req)
+        assert describe_resp.is_only_declared is None
+
+        describe_req = DescribeTableRequest(
+            id=["test_ns", "declared_table"], check_declared=True
+        )
+        describe_resp = memory_ns_client.describe_table(describe_req)
+        assert describe_resp.is_only_declared is True
 
 
 class TestDeeplyNestedNamespaces:
@@ -504,14 +779,14 @@ class TestDeeplyNestedNamespaces:
     Mirrors Rust test_deeply_nested_namespace.
     """
 
-    def test_deeply_nested_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_deeply_nested_namespace(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test creating deeply nested namespace hierarchy."""
         # Create deeply nested namespace hierarchy
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["level1"]))
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["level1"]))
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(
             CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["level1", "level2"])
         )
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(
             CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["level1", "level2", "level3"])
         )
 
@@ -519,17 +794,17 @@ def test_deeply_nested_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["level1", "level2", "level3", "table1"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # Verify table exists
         exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["level1", "level2", "level3", "table1"])
-        memory_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+        memory_ns_client.table_exists(exists_req)
 
 
 class TestNamespaceProperties:
     """Tests for namespace properties - mirrors Rust test_namespace_with_properties."""
 
-    def test_namespace_with_properties(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_namespace_with_properties(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test creating a namespace with properties."""
         # Create namespace with properties
         properties = {
@@ -538,11 +813,11 @@ def test_namespace_with_properties(self, memory_namespace):
         }
 
         create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"], properties=properties)
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_req)
 
         # Describe namespace and verify properties
         describe_req = DescribeNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
-        response = memory_namespace.describe_namespace(describe_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.describe_namespace(describe_req)
 
         assert response.properties is not None
         assert response.properties.get("owner") == "test_user"
@@ -552,120 +827,121 @@ def test_namespace_with_properties(self, memory_namespace):
 class TestNamespaceConstraints:
     """Tests for namespace constraints and isolation."""
 
-    def test_cannot_drop_namespace_with_tables(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_cannot_drop_namespace_with_tables(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test that dropping a namespace with tables should fail."""
         # Create namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
         # Create table in namespace
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["test_ns", "table1"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
 
         # Try to drop namespace - should fail
         drop_req = DropNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
-        with pytest.raises(Exception) as exc_info:
-            memory_namespace.drop_namespace(drop_req)
+        with pytest.raises(NamespaceNotEmptyError):
+            memory_ns_client.drop_namespace(drop_req)
 
-        # Should contain an error message about non-empty namespace
-        assert (
-            "not empty" in str(exc_info.value).lower()
-            or "contains" in str(exc_info.value).lower()
-        )
-
-    def test_isolation_between_namespaces(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_isolation_between_namespaces(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test that namespaces are isolated from each other."""
         # Create two namespaces
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["ns1"]))
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["ns2"]))
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["ns1"]))
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["ns2"]))
 
         # Create table with same name in both namespaces
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
 
         create_req1 = CreateTableRequest(id=["ns1", "table1"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req1, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req1, ipc_data)
 
         create_req2 = CreateTableRequest(id=["ns2", "table1"])
-        memory_namespace.create_table(create_req2, ipc_data)
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req2, ipc_data)
 
         # List tables in each namespace
         list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["ns1"])
-        response = memory_namespace.list_tables(list_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
         assert len(response.tables) == 1
         assert "table1" in response.tables
 
         list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["ns2"])
-        response = memory_namespace.list_tables(list_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
         assert len(response.tables) == 1
         assert "table1" in response.tables
 
         # Drop table in ns1 shouldn't affect ns2
         drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=["ns1", "table1"])
-        memory_namespace.drop_table(drop_req)
+        memory_ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
 
         # ns1 should have no tables
         list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["ns1"])
-        response = memory_namespace.list_tables(list_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
         assert len(response.tables) == 0
 
         # ns2 should still have the table
         list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["ns2"])
-        response = memory_namespace.list_tables(list_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
         assert len(response.tables) == 1
 
 
 class TestBasicNamespaceOperations:
     """Tests for basic namespace CRUD operations."""
 
-    def test_create_and_describe_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_create_and_describe_namespace(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test creating and describing a namespace."""
         # Create namespace
         create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_req)
 
         # Describe it
         describe_req = DescribeNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        response = memory_namespace.describe_namespace(describe_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.describe_namespace(describe_req)
         assert response is not None
 
-    def test_namespace_exists(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_namespace_exists(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test checking if a namespace exists."""
         # Create namespace
         create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_req)
 
         # Check it exists (should not raise)
         exists_req = NamespaceExistsRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.namespace_exists(exists_req)
+        memory_ns_client.namespace_exists(exists_req)
+
+    def test_namespace_not_exists(self, memory_ns_client):
+        """Test that a non-existent namespace raises NamespaceNotFoundError."""
+        exists_req = NamespaceExistsRequest(id=["nonexistent"])
 
-    def test_drop_empty_namespace(self, memory_namespace):
+        with pytest.raises(NamespaceNotFoundError):
+            memory_ns_client.namespace_exists(exists_req)
+
+    def test_drop_empty_namespace(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test dropping an empty namespace."""
         # Create namespace
         create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(create_req)
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_req)
 
         # Drop it
         drop_req = DropNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        response = memory_namespace.drop_namespace(drop_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.drop_namespace(drop_req)
         assert response is not None
 
-    def test_list_namespaces(self, memory_namespace):
+    def test_list_namespaces(self, memory_ns_client):
         """Test listing namespaces."""
         # Create some child namespaces under a parent
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["parent"]))
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["parent"]))
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(
             CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["parent", "child1"])
         )
-        memory_namespace.create_namespace(
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(
             CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["parent", "child2"])
         )
 
         # List namespaces under parent
         list_req = ListNamespacesRequest(id=["parent"])
-        response = memory_namespace.list_namespaces(list_req)
+        response = memory_ns_client.list_namespaces(list_req)
 
         assert response is not None
         # Should find the child namespaces
@@ -675,42 +951,48 @@ def test_list_namespaces(self, memory_namespace):
 class TestLanceNamespaceConnect:
     """Tests for lance.namespace.connect integration."""
 
-    def test_connect_with_properties(self):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize(
+        "use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"]
+    )
+    def test_connect_with_properties(self, use_custom):
         """Test creating DirectoryNamespace via lance.namespace.connect()."""
-        import uuid
-
         unique_id = uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]
         properties = {
             "root": f"memory://test_connect_{unique_id}",
             "manifest_enabled": "true",
             "dir_listing_enabled": "true",
+            "dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled": "true",
         }
 
         # Connect via lance.namespace.connect
         # should use lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace
-        ns = connect("dir", properties)
+        inner_ns_client = connect("dir", properties)
 
         # Verify it's a DirectoryNamespace instance
-        assert isinstance(ns, lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace)
+        assert isinstance(inner_ns_client, lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace)
+
+        # Wrap if testing CustomNamespace
+        ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_ns_client, use_custom)
 
         # Verify it works
         create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["test_table"])
         table_data = create_test_data()
         ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
-        response = ns.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+        response = ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
         assert response is not None
 
         # Verify we can list the table
         list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=[])
-        list_response = ns.list_tables(list_req)
+        list_response = ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
         assert len(list_response.tables) == 1
         # tables is a list of strings
         assert list_response.tables[0] == "test_table"
 
-    def test_connect_with_storage_options(self):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize(
+        "use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"]
+    )
+    def test_connect_with_storage_options(self, use_custom):
         """Test creating DirectoryNamespace with storage options via connect()."""
-        import uuid
-
         unique_id = uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]
         properties = {
             "root": f"memory://test_storage_{unique_id}",
@@ -718,5 +1000,713 @@ def test_connect_with_storage_options(self):
         }
 
         # This should work without errors
-        ns = connect("dir", properties)
-        assert isinstance(ns, lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace)
+        inner_ns_client = connect("dir", properties)
+        assert isinstance(inner_ns_client, lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace)
+
+        # Wrap if testing CustomNamespace
+        ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+        # Verify it can be used for basic operations
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+        ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+
+def _get_ops_metric(ns_client, metric_name: str) -> int:
+    """Helper to get a specific metric count from namespace client ops metrics."""
+    metrics = ns_client.retrieve_ops_metrics()
+    return metrics.get(metric_name, 0)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_external_manifest_store_invokes_namespace_apis(use_custom):
+    """Test that namespace APIs are invoked correctly for managed versioning.
+
+    This test mirrors:
+    - Rust: test_external_manifest_store_invokes_namespace_apis
+    - Java: testExternalManifestStoreInvokesNamespaceApis
+
+    It verifies:
+    1. list_table_versions is called when opening dataset (latest version)
+    2. create_table_version is called exactly once during append
+    3. describe_table_version is called when opening specific version
+
+    Uses native ops_metrics_enabled to track API calls instead of custom wrapper.
+    The test is parameterized to verify both DirectoryNamespace and CustomNamespace.
+    """
+    with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdir:
+        # Use native namespace with ops metrics enabled
+        inner_ns_client = lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace(
+            root=tmpdir,
+            table_version_tracking_enabled="true",
+            manifest_enabled="true",
+            ops_metrics_enabled="true",
+        )
+        ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+        # Create parent namespace first (like Rust/Java tests)
+        ns_client.create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"]))
+
+        table_id = ["workspace", "test_table"]
+
+        # Create initial table
+        table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}, {"a": 10, "b": 20}])
+        ds = lance.write_dataset(
+            table1, namespace_client=ns_client, table_id=table_id, mode="create"
+        )
+        assert ds.count_rows() == 2
+        assert len(ds.versions()) == 1
+
+        # Verify describe_table returns managed_versioning=True
+        describe_resp = ns_client.describe_table(DescribeTableRequest(id=table_id))
+        assert describe_resp.managed_versioning is True, (
+            f"Expected managed_versioning=True, got {describe_resp.managed_versioning}"
+        )
+
+        # Open dataset through namespace - should call list_table_versions for latest
+        # Use inner_ns_client for metrics since CustomNamespace delegates to it
+        initial_list_count = _get_ops_metric(inner_ns_client, "list_table_versions")
+        ds_from_ns_client = lance.dataset(namespace_client=ns_client, table_id=table_id)
+        assert ds_from_ns_client.count_rows() == 2
+        assert ds_from_ns_client.version == 1
+        assert (
+            _get_ops_metric(inner_ns_client, "list_table_versions")
+            == initial_list_count + 1
+        ), "list_table_versions should be called once when opening latest version"
+
+        # Verify create_table_version was called once during CREATE
+        assert _get_ops_metric(inner_ns_client, "create_table_version") == 1, (
+            "create_table_version should have been called once during CREATE"
+        )
+
+        # Append data - should call create_table_version again
+        table2 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 100, "b": 200}, {"a": 1000, "b": 2000}])
+        ds = lance.write_dataset(
+            table2, namespace_client=ns_client, table_id=table_id, mode="append"
+        )
+        assert ds.count_rows() == 4
+        assert len(ds.versions()) == 2
+
+        assert _get_ops_metric(inner_ns_client, "create_table_version") == 2, (
+            "create_table_version should be called twice (CREATE + APPEND)"
+        )
+
+        # Open latest version - should call list_table_versions
+        list_count_before_latest = _get_ops_metric(
+            inner_ns_client, "list_table_versions"
+        )
+        latest_ds = lance.dataset(namespace_client=ns_client, table_id=table_id)
+        assert latest_ds.count_rows() == 4
+        assert latest_ds.version == 2
+        assert (
+            _get_ops_metric(inner_ns_client, "list_table_versions")
+            == list_count_before_latest + 1
+        ), "list_table_versions should be called once when opening latest version"
+
+        # Open specific version (v1) - should call describe_table_version
+        describe_count_before_v1 = _get_ops_metric(
+            inner_ns_client, "describe_table_version"
+        )
+        v1_ds = lance.dataset(namespace_client=ns_client, table_id=table_id, version=1)
+        assert v1_ds.count_rows() == 2
+        assert v1_ds.version == 1
+        assert (
+            _get_ops_metric(inner_ns_client, "describe_table_version")
+            == describe_count_before_v1 + 1
+        ), "describe_table_version should be called once when opening version 1"
+
+
+def test_dataset_namespace_open_does_not_pass_version_to_describe_table():
+    """Dataset versions are applied to dataset open, not namespace describe_table."""
+
+    class VersionRejectingNamespace(CustomNamespace):
+        def __init__(self, inner: lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace):
+            super().__init__(inner)
+            self.describe_versions = []
+
+        def describe_table(
+            self, request: DescribeTableRequest
+        ) -> DescribeTableResponse:
+            self.describe_versions.append(request.version)
+            assert request.version is None
+            return super().describe_table(request)
+
+    with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdir:
+        inner_ns_client = lance.namespace.DirectoryNamespace(root=tmpdir)
+        ns_client = VersionRejectingNamespace(inner_ns_client)
+        table_id = ["test_table"]
+
+        table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1}, {"a": 2}])
+        ds = lance.write_dataset(
+            table1, namespace_client=ns_client, table_id=table_id, mode="create"
+        )
+        assert ds.count_rows() == 2
+        assert ds.version == 1
+
+        table2 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 3}])
+        ds = lance.write_dataset(
+            table2, namespace_client=ns_client, table_id=table_id, mode="append"
+        )
+        assert ds.count_rows() == 3
+        assert ds.version == 2
+
+        version_one = lance.dataset(
+            namespace_client=ns_client, table_id=table_id, version=1
+        )
+        assert version_one.count_rows() == 2
+        assert version_one.version == 1
+        assert ns_client.describe_versions
+        assert all(version is None for version in ns_client.describe_versions)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.skipif(
+    sys.platform == "win32",
+    reason="Windows file locking prevents reliable concurrent filesystem operations",
+)
+class TestConcurrentOperations:
+    """Tests for concurrent table operations.
+
+    These tests mirror the Rust and Java concurrent tests to ensure
+    the DirectoryNamespace handles concurrent create/drop operations correctly.
+    Tests are parameterized via temp_ns_client fixture to test both
+    DirectoryNamespace and CustomNamespace.
+    """
+
+    def test_concurrent_create_and_drop_single_instance(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test concurrent create/drop with single namespace instance."""
+        import concurrent.futures
+
+        # Initialize namespace first - create parent namespace to ensure __manifest
+        # table is created before concurrent operations
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        num_tables = 10
+        success_count = 0
+        fail_count = 0
+        lock = Lock()
+
+        def create_and_drop_table(table_index):
+            nonlocal success_count, fail_count
+            try:
+                table_name = f"concurrent_table_{table_index}"
+                table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+                table_data = create_test_data()
+                ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+
+                # Create table
+                create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=table_id)
+                temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+                # Drop table
+                drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=table_id)
+                temp_ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
+
+                with lock:
+                    success_count += 1
+            except Exception as e:
+                with lock:
+                    fail_count += 1
+                raise e
+
+        with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=num_tables) as executor:
+            futures = [
+                executor.submit(create_and_drop_table, i) for i in range(num_tables)
+            ]
+            concurrent.futures.wait(futures)
+
+        assert success_count == num_tables, (
+            f"Expected {num_tables} successes, got {success_count}"
+        )
+        assert fail_count == 0, f"Expected 0 failures, got {fail_count}"
+
+        # Verify all tables are dropped
+        list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+        response = temp_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
+        assert len(response.tables) == 0, "All tables should be dropped"
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize(
+        "use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"]
+    )
+    def test_concurrent_create_and_drop_multiple_instances(self, use_custom):
+        """Test concurrent create/drop with multiple namespace instances."""
+        import concurrent.futures
+
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdir:
+            # Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+            # table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+            init_ns_client = connect(
+                "dir",
+                {"root": f"file://{tmpdir}", "commit_retries": "2147483647"},
+            )
+            init_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(init_ns_client, use_custom)
+            create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+            init_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+            num_tables = 10
+            success_count = 0
+            fail_count = 0
+            lock = Lock()
+
+            def create_and_drop_table(table_index):
+                nonlocal success_count, fail_count
+                try:
+                    # Each thread creates its own namespace client instance
+                    # Use high commit_retries to handle version collisions
+                    local_ns_client = connect(
+                        "dir",
+                        {"root": f"file://{tmpdir}", "commit_retries": "2147483647"},
+                    )
+                    local_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(local_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+                    table_name = f"multi_ns_table_{table_index}"
+                    table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+                    table_data = create_test_data()
+                    ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+
+                    # Create table
+                    create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=table_id)
+                    local_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+                    # Drop table
+                    drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=table_id)
+                    local_ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
+
+                    with lock:
+                        success_count += 1
+                except Exception as e:
+                    with lock:
+                        fail_count += 1
+                    raise e
+
+            with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(
+                max_workers=num_tables
+            ) as executor:
+                futures = [
+                    executor.submit(create_and_drop_table, i) for i in range(num_tables)
+                ]
+                concurrent.futures.wait(futures)
+
+            assert success_count == num_tables, (
+                f"Expected {num_tables} successes, got {success_count}"
+            )
+            assert fail_count == 0, f"Expected 0 failures, got {fail_count}"
+
+            # Verify with a fresh namespace client instance
+            verify_ns_client = connect(
+                "dir", {"root": f"file://{tmpdir}", "commit_retries": "2147483647"}
+            )
+            verify_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(verify_ns_client, use_custom)
+            list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+            response = verify_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
+            assert len(response.tables) == 0, "All tables should be dropped"
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize(
+        "use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"]
+    )
+    def test_concurrent_create_then_drop_from_different_instance(self, use_custom):
+        """Test creating from one set of instances, dropping from different ones."""
+        import concurrent.futures
+
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdir:
+            # Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+            # table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+            init_ns_client = connect(
+                "dir",
+                {"root": f"file://{tmpdir}", "commit_retries": "2147483647"},
+            )
+            init_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(init_ns_client, use_custom)
+            create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+            init_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+            num_tables = 10
+
+            # Phase 1: Create all tables concurrently using separate namespace instances
+            create_success_count = 0
+            create_fail_count = 0
+            create_lock = Lock()
+
+            def create_table(table_index):
+                nonlocal create_success_count, create_fail_count
+                try:
+                    # Use high commit_retries to handle version collisions
+                    local_ns_client = connect(
+                        "dir",
+                        {"root": f"file://{tmpdir}", "commit_retries": "2147483647"},
+                    )
+                    local_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(local_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+                    table_name = f"cross_instance_table_{table_index}"
+                    table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+                    table_data = create_test_data()
+                    ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+
+                    create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=table_id)
+                    local_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+                    with create_lock:
+                        create_success_count += 1
+                except Exception as e:
+                    with create_lock:
+                        create_fail_count += 1
+                    raise e
+
+            with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(
+                max_workers=num_tables
+            ) as executor:
+                futures = [executor.submit(create_table, i) for i in range(num_tables)]
+                concurrent.futures.wait(futures)
+
+            assert create_success_count == num_tables, (
+                f"All creates should succeed, got {create_success_count}"
+            )
+
+            # Phase 2: Drop all tables concurrently using NEW namespace instances
+            drop_success_count = 0
+            drop_fail_count = 0
+            drop_lock = Lock()
+
+            def drop_table(table_index):
+                nonlocal drop_success_count, drop_fail_count
+                try:
+                    # Use high commit_retries to handle version collisions
+                    local_ns_client = connect(
+                        "dir",
+                        {"root": f"file://{tmpdir}", "commit_retries": "2147483647"},
+                    )
+                    local_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(local_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+                    table_name = f"cross_instance_table_{table_index}"
+                    table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+
+                    drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=table_id)
+                    local_ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
+
+                    with drop_lock:
+                        drop_success_count += 1
+                except Exception as e:
+                    with drop_lock:
+                        drop_fail_count += 1
+                    raise e
+
+            with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(
+                max_workers=num_tables
+            ) as executor:
+                futures = [executor.submit(drop_table, i) for i in range(num_tables)]
+                concurrent.futures.wait(futures)
+
+            assert drop_success_count == num_tables, (
+                f"All drops should succeed, got {drop_success_count}"
+            )
+            assert drop_fail_count == 0, f"No drops should fail, got {drop_fail_count}"
+
+            # Verify all tables are dropped
+            verify_ns_client = connect(
+                "dir", {"root": f"file://{tmpdir}", "commit_retries": "2147483647"}
+            )
+            verify_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(verify_ns_client, use_custom)
+            list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+            response = verify_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
+            assert len(response.tables) == 0, "All tables should be dropped"
+
+
+class TestDataManipulation:
+    """Tests for data manipulation operations."""
+
+    def test_count_table_rows(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test counting rows in a table."""
+        # Create namespace and table
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        table_data = create_test_data()  # 3 rows
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Count rows
+        count_req = CountTableRowsRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        count = temp_ns_client.count_table_rows(count_req).count
+        assert count == 3
+
+    def test_count_table_rows_with_filter(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test counting rows with a filter predicate."""
+        # Create namespace and table
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        table_data = create_test_data()  # 3 rows with ages 30, 25, 35
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Count rows with predicate
+        count_req = CountTableRowsRequest(
+            id=["workspace", "test_table"], predicate="age > 28"
+        )
+        count = temp_ns_client.count_table_rows(count_req).count
+        assert count == 2  # Alice (30) and Charlie (35)
+
+    def test_insert_into_table(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test inserting data into a table."""
+        # Create namespace and table
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        table_data = create_test_data()  # 3 rows
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Insert more data
+        new_data = pa.Table.from_pylist(
+            [
+                {"id": 4, "name": "David", "age": 40},
+                {"id": 5, "name": "Eve", "age": 22},
+            ]
+        )
+        new_ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(new_data)
+        insert_req = InsertIntoTableRequest(
+            id=["workspace", "test_table"], mode="append"
+        )
+        response = temp_ns_client.insert_into_table(insert_req, new_ipc_data)
+        assert response is not None
+
+        # Verify row count increased
+        count_req = CountTableRowsRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        count = temp_ns_client.count_table_rows(count_req).count
+        assert count == 5
+
+    def test_query_table(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test querying a table."""
+        # Create namespace and table
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        table_data = create_test_data()  # 3 rows
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Query table with empty vector (for non-vector queries)
+        query_req = QueryTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"], k=10, vector={})
+        result_bytes = temp_ns_client.query_table(query_req).data
+        assert result_bytes is not None
+        assert len(result_bytes) > 0
+
+        # Parse the result
+        reader = pa.ipc.open_file(pa.BufferReader(result_bytes))
+        result_table = reader.read_all()
+        assert result_table.num_rows == 3
+        assert "id" in result_table.column_names
+        assert "name" in result_table.column_names
+
+    def test_query_table_with_filter(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test querying a table with a filter."""
+        # Create namespace and table
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        table_data = create_test_data()  # 3 rows
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Query with filter and empty vector
+        query_req = QueryTableRequest(
+            id=["workspace", "test_table"], filter="age >= 30", k=10, vector={}
+        )
+        result_bytes = temp_ns_client.query_table(query_req).data
+        reader = pa.ipc.open_file(pa.BufferReader(result_bytes))
+        result_table = reader.read_all()
+        assert result_table.num_rows == 2  # Alice and Charlie
+
+
+class TestTableVersions:
+    """Tests for table version operations."""
+
+    def test_list_table_versions(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test listing table versions."""
+        # Create namespace and table
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        table_data = create_test_data()
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # List versions
+        list_req = ListTableVersionsRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        response = temp_ns_client.list_table_versions(list_req)
+        assert response is not None
+        assert len(response.versions) >= 1
+
+    def test_describe_table_version(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test describing a specific table version."""
+        # Create namespace and table
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        table_data = create_test_data()
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Describe version 1
+        describe_req = DescribeTableVersionRequest(
+            id=["workspace", "test_table"], version=1
+        )
+        response = temp_ns_client.describe_table_version(describe_req.model_dump())
+        assert response is not None
+        assert response.get("version") is not None
+
+    def test_multiple_versions_via_insert(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test that inserts create new versions."""
+        # Create namespace and table
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        table_data = create_test_data()
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Insert more data to create version 2
+        new_data = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"id": 4, "name": "David", "age": 40}])
+        new_ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(new_data)
+        insert_req = InsertIntoTableRequest(
+            id=["workspace", "test_table"], mode="append"
+        )
+        temp_ns_client.insert_into_table(insert_req, new_ipc_data)
+
+        # List versions - should have at least 2
+        list_req = ListTableVersionsRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        response = temp_ns_client.list_table_versions(list_req)
+        assert len(response.versions) >= 2
+
+
+class TestIndexOperations:
+    """Tests for index operations."""
+
+    def test_list_indices_empty(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test listing indices on a table with no indices."""
+        # Create table with a vector column
+        import numpy as np
+
+        vector_data = pa.Table.from_pydict(
+            {
+                "id": [1, 2, 3],
+                "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                    pa.array(np.random.rand(12).astype(np.float32)), 4
+                ),
+            }
+        )
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(vector_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["vector_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # List indices (should be empty initially)
+        list_req = ListTableIndicesRequest(id=["vector_table"])
+        response = temp_ns_client.list_table_indices(list_req)
+        assert response is not None
+        # Initially no indices
+        assert len(response.indexes) == 0
+
+    def test_describe_table_index_stats(self, memory_ns_client):
+        """Test describing index stats (even when no index exists)."""
+        # Create namespace and table
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        memory_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        table_data = create_test_data()
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        memory_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Describe index stats for non-existent index should return empty/null stats
+        describe_req = DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest(
+            id=["workspace", "test_table"], index_name="nonexistent"
+        )
+        # This may raise an error or return empty stats depending on implementation
+        try:
+            response = memory_ns_client.describe_table_index_stats(describe_req)
+            # If it succeeds, verify response structure
+            assert response is not None
+        except Exception:
+            # Expected if index doesn't exist
+            pass
+
+    def test_create_scalar_index(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test creating a scalar index."""
+        # Create table at root level (without namespace)
+        table_data = create_test_data()
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["test_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Create scalar index on 'id' column
+        create_index_req = CreateTableIndexRequest(
+            id=["test_table"],
+            column="id",
+            index_type="BTREE",
+            name="id_idx",
+        )
+        response = temp_ns_client.create_table_index(create_index_req)
+        assert response is not None
+
+        # List indices to verify
+        list_req = ListTableIndicesRequest(id=["test_table"])
+        list_response = temp_ns_client.list_table_indices(list_req)
+        assert len(list_response.indexes) == 1
+        assert list_response.indexes[0].index_name == "id_idx"
+        assert list_response.indexes[0].columns == ["id"]
+
+    def test_create_vector_index(self, temp_ns_client):
+        """Test creating a vector index."""
+        import numpy as np
+
+        # Create table with 256 rows of 8-dimensional vectors (enough for IVF)
+        num_rows = 256
+        dim = 8
+        vector_data = pa.Table.from_pydict(
+            {
+                "id": list(range(num_rows)),
+                "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                    pa.array(np.random.rand(num_rows * dim).astype(np.float32)), dim
+                ),
+            }
+        )
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(vector_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["vector_table"])
+        temp_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # Create vector index using IVF_FLAT
+        create_index_req = CreateTableIndexRequest(
+            id=["vector_table"],
+            column="vector",
+            index_type="IVF_FLAT",
+            name="vector_idx",
+            distance_type="l2",
+        )
+        response = temp_ns_client.create_table_index(create_index_req)
+        assert response is not None
+
+        # List indices to verify
+        list_req = ListTableIndicesRequest(id=["vector_table"])
+        list_response = temp_ns_client.list_table_indices(list_req)
+        assert len(list_response.indexes) == 1
+        assert list_response.indexes[0].index_name == "vector_idx"
+        assert list_response.indexes[0].columns == ["vector"]
+
+
+def test_import_lance_does_not_load_namespace_client():
+    # The generated REST client is expensive to import and only needed when a
+    # namespace is actually used, so `import lance` must not pull it in.
+    code = (
+        "import sys, lance; "
+        "assert 'lance_namespace' not in sys.modules, sorted(sys.modules); "
+        "assert 'lance.namespace' not in sys.modules; "
+        "lance.LanceNamespace; lance.DescribeTableRequest; "
+        "assert 'lance_namespace' in sys.modules"
+    )
+    subprocess.run([sys.executable, "-c", code], check=True)
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_namespace_integration.py b/python/python/tests/test_namespace_integration.py
index 30489496e38..ea2c8f08c4d 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_namespace_integration.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_namespace_integration.py
@@ -4,8 +4,11 @@
 """
 Integration tests for Lance Namespace with S3 and credential refresh.
 
-This test simulates a namespace server that returns incrementing credentials
-and verifies that the credential refresh mechanism works correctly.
+This test uses DirectoryNamespace with native ops_metrics and vend_input_storage_options
+features to track API calls and test credential refresh mechanisms.
+
+Tests are parameterized to run with both DirectoryNamespace and a CustomNamespace
+wrapper to verify Python-Rust binding works correctly for custom implementations.
 
 See DEVELOPMENT.md under heading "Integration Tests" for more information.
 """
@@ -14,20 +17,146 @@
 import time
 import uuid
 from threading import Lock
-from typing import Dict
+from typing import Dict, Optional
 
 import lance
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pytest
 from lance.namespace import (
-    CreateEmptyTableRequest,
-    CreateEmptyTableResponse,
     DeclareTableRequest,
-    DeclareTableResponse,
     DescribeTableRequest,
-    DescribeTableResponse,
+    DirectoryNamespace,
     LanceNamespace,
 )
+from lance_namespace import (
+    CreateNamespaceRequest,
+    CreateNamespaceResponse,
+    CreateTableBranchRequest,
+    CreateTableBranchResponse,
+    CreateTableRequest,
+    CreateTableResponse,
+    CreateTableVersionRequest,
+    CreateTableVersionResponse,
+    DeclareTableResponse,
+    DeregisterTableRequest,
+    DeregisterTableResponse,
+    DescribeNamespaceRequest,
+    DescribeNamespaceResponse,
+    DescribeTableResponse,
+    DescribeTableVersionRequest,
+    DescribeTableVersionResponse,
+    DropNamespaceRequest,
+    DropNamespaceResponse,
+    DropTableRequest,
+    DropTableResponse,
+    ListNamespacesRequest,
+    ListNamespacesResponse,
+    ListTablesRequest,
+    ListTablesResponse,
+    ListTableVersionsRequest,
+    ListTableVersionsResponse,
+    NamespaceExistsRequest,
+    NamespaceExistsResponse,
+    RegisterTableRequest,
+    RegisterTableResponse,
+    TableExistsRequest,
+    TableExistsResponse,
+)
+
+
+class CustomNamespace(LanceNamespace):
+    """A custom namespace wrapper that delegates to DirectoryNamespace.
+
+    This class verifies that the Python-Rust binding works correctly for
+    custom namespace implementations that wrap the native DirectoryNamespace.
+    All methods simply delegate to the underlying DirectoryNamespace instance.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, inner: DirectoryNamespace):
+        self._inner = inner
+
+    def namespace_id(self) -> str:
+        return f"CustomNamespace[{self._inner.namespace_id()}]"
+
+    def create_namespace(
+        self, request: CreateNamespaceRequest
+    ) -> CreateNamespaceResponse:
+        return self._inner.create_namespace(request)
+
+    def describe_namespace(
+        self, request: DescribeNamespaceRequest
+    ) -> DescribeNamespaceResponse:
+        return self._inner.describe_namespace(request)
+
+    def namespace_exists(
+        self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest
+    ) -> NamespaceExistsResponse:
+        return self._inner.namespace_exists(request)
+
+    def drop_namespace(self, request: DropNamespaceRequest) -> DropNamespaceResponse:
+        return self._inner.drop_namespace(request)
+
+    def list_namespaces(self, request: ListNamespacesRequest) -> ListNamespacesResponse:
+        return self._inner.list_namespaces(request)
+
+    def create_table(
+        self, request: CreateTableRequest, data: bytes
+    ) -> CreateTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.create_table(request, data)
+
+    def declare_table(self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> DeclareTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.declare_table(request)
+
+    def describe_table(self, request: DescribeTableRequest) -> DescribeTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.describe_table(request)
+
+    def table_exists(self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> TableExistsResponse:
+        return self._inner.table_exists(request)
+
+    def drop_table(self, request: DropTableRequest) -> DropTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.drop_table(request)
+
+    def list_tables(self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> ListTablesResponse:
+        return self._inner.list_tables(request)
+
+    def register_table(self, request: RegisterTableRequest) -> RegisterTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.register_table(request)
+
+    def deregister_table(
+        self, request: DeregisterTableRequest
+    ) -> DeregisterTableResponse:
+        return self._inner.deregister_table(request)
+
+    def list_table_versions(
+        self, request: ListTableVersionsRequest
+    ) -> ListTableVersionsResponse:
+        return self._inner.list_table_versions(request)
+
+    def describe_table_version(
+        self, request: DescribeTableVersionRequest
+    ) -> DescribeTableVersionResponse:
+        return self._inner.describe_table_version(request)
+
+    def create_table_version(
+        self, request: CreateTableVersionRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableVersionResponse:
+        return self._inner.create_table_version(request)
+
+    def create_table_branch(
+        self, request: CreateTableBranchRequest
+    ) -> CreateTableBranchResponse:
+        return self._inner.create_table_branch(request)
+
+    def retrieve_ops_metrics(self) -> Optional[Dict[str, int]]:
+        return self._inner.retrieve_ops_metrics()
+
+
+def _wrap_if_custom(ns_client: DirectoryNamespace, use_custom: bool):
+    """Wrap namespace client in CustomNamespace if use_custom is True."""
+    if use_custom:
+        return CustomNamespace(ns_client)
+    return ns_client
+
 
 # These are all keys that are accepted by storage_options
 CONFIG = {
@@ -76,264 +205,264 @@ def delete_bucket(s3, bucket_name):
         pass
 
 
-class TrackingNamespace(LanceNamespace):
-    """Mock namespace that wraps DirectoryNamespace and tracks API calls."""
-
-    def __init__(
-        self,
-        bucket_name: str,
-        storage_options: Dict[str, str],
-        credential_expires_in_seconds: int = 60,
-    ):
-        from lance.namespace import DirectoryNamespace
-
-        self.bucket_name = bucket_name
-        self.base_storage_options = storage_options
-        self.credential_expires_in_seconds = credential_expires_in_seconds
-        self.describe_call_count = 0
-        self.create_call_count = 0
-        self.lock = Lock()
-
-        # Create underlying DirectoryNamespace with storage options
-        dir_props = {f"storage.{k}": v for k, v in storage_options.items()}
-
-        if bucket_name.startswith("/") or bucket_name.startswith("file://"):
-            dir_props["root"] = f"{bucket_name}/namespace_root"
-        else:
-            dir_props["root"] = f"s3://{bucket_name}/namespace_root"
-
-        self.inner = DirectoryNamespace(**dir_props)
-
-    def get_describe_call_count(self) -> int:
-        with self.lock:
-            return self.describe_call_count
-
-    def get_create_call_count(self) -> int:
-        with self.lock:
-            return self.create_call_count
-
-    def namespace_id(self) -> str:
-        return f"TrackingNamespace {{ inner: {self.inner.namespace_id()} }}"
-
-    def _modify_storage_options(
-        self, storage_options: Dict[str, str], count: int
-    ) -> Dict[str, str]:
-        """Add incrementing credentials with expiration timestamp."""
-        modified = copy.deepcopy(storage_options) if storage_options else {}
-
-        modified["aws_access_key_id"] = f"AKID_{count}"
-        modified["aws_secret_access_key"] = f"SECRET_{count}"
-        modified["aws_session_token"] = f"TOKEN_{count}"
-        expires_at_millis = int(
-            (time.time() + self.credential_expires_in_seconds) * 1000
-        )
-        modified["expires_at_millis"] = str(expires_at_millis)
-        # Set refresh offset to 1 second (1000ms) for short-lived credential tests
-        modified["refresh_offset_millis"] = "1000"
-
-        return modified
-
-    def create_empty_table(
-        self, request: CreateEmptyTableRequest
-    ) -> CreateEmptyTableResponse:
-        with self.lock:
-            self.create_call_count += 1
-            count = self.create_call_count
-
-        response = self.inner.create_empty_table(request)
-        response.storage_options = self._modify_storage_options(
-            response.storage_options, count
-        )
-
-        return response
-
-    def declare_table(self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> DeclareTableResponse:
-        with self.lock:
-            self.create_call_count += 1
-            count = self.create_call_count
+def create_tracking_namespace(
+    bucket_name: str,
+    storage_options: dict,
+    credential_expires_in_seconds: int = 60,
+    use_custom: bool = False,
+    managed_versioning: bool = False,
+):
+    """Create a DirectoryNamespace with ops metrics and credential vending enabled.
+
+    Uses native DirectoryNamespace features:
+    - ops_metrics_enabled=true: Tracks API call counts via retrieve_ops_metrics()
+    - vend_input_storage_options=true: Returns input storage options in responses
+    - vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis: Adds expires_at_millis
+
+    Args:
+        bucket_name: S3 bucket name or local path
+        storage_options: Storage options to pass through (credentials, endpoint, etc.)
+        credential_expires_in_seconds: Interval in seconds for credential expiration
+        use_custom: If True, wrap in CustomNamespace for testing custom implementations
+        managed_versioning: If True, enable the manifest catalog so table versions
+            are tracked by the namespace and commits route through
+            create_table_version
+
+    Returns:
+        Tuple of (namespace_client, inner_namespace_client) where inner is always
+        the DirectoryNamespace (used for metrics retrieval)
+    """
+    # Add refresh_offset_millis to storage options so that credentials are not
+    # considered expired immediately. Set to 1 second (1000ms) so that refresh
+    # checks work correctly with short-lived credentials in tests.
+    storage_options_with_refresh = dict(storage_options)
+    storage_options_with_refresh["refresh_offset_millis"] = "1000"
+
+    dir_props = {f"storage.{k}": v for k, v in storage_options_with_refresh.items()}
+
+    if bucket_name.startswith("/") or bucket_name.startswith("file://"):
+        dir_props["root"] = f"{bucket_name}/namespace_root"
+    else:
+        dir_props["root"] = f"s3://{bucket_name}/namespace_root"
+
+    # Enable ops metrics tracking
+    dir_props["ops_metrics_enabled"] = "true"
+    # Enable storage options vending
+    dir_props["vend_input_storage_options"] = "true"
+    # Set refresh interval in milliseconds
+    dir_props["vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis"] = str(
+        credential_expires_in_seconds * 1000
+    )
+    if managed_versioning:
+        dir_props["manifest_enabled"] = "true"
+        dir_props["table_version_tracking_enabled"] = "true"
+        dir_props["table_version_storage_enabled"] = "true"
 
-        response = self.inner.declare_table(request)
-        response.storage_options = self._modify_storage_options(
-            response.storage_options, count
-        )
+    inner_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**dir_props)
+    ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_ns_client, use_custom)
+    return ns_client, inner_ns_client
 
-        return response
 
-    def describe_table(self, request: DescribeTableRequest) -> DescribeTableResponse:
-        with self.lock:
-            self.describe_call_count += 1
-            count = self.describe_call_count
+def get_describe_call_count(namespace_client) -> int:
+    """Get the number of describe_table calls made to the namespace client."""
+    return namespace_client.retrieve_ops_metrics().get("describe_table", 0)
 
-        response = self.inner.describe_table(request)
-        response.storage_options = self._modify_storage_options(
-            response.storage_options, count
-        )
 
-        return response
+def get_declare_call_count(namespace_client) -> int:
+    """Get the number of declare_table calls made to the namespace client."""
+    return namespace_client.retrieve_ops_metrics().get("declare_table", 0)
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_namespace_open_dataset(s3_bucket: str):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_namespace_open_dataset(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
     """Test creating and opening datasets through namespace with credential tracking."""
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3600,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}, {"a": 10, "b": 20}])
     table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
     table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 0
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table1, namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id, mode="create"
+        table1,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
     assert len(ds.versions()) == 1
     assert ds.count_rows() == 2
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
 
-    ds_from_namespace = lance.dataset(
-        namespace=namespace,
+    ds_from_ns_client = lance.dataset(
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
         table_id=table_id,
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
 
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 1
-    assert ds_from_namespace.count_rows() == 2
-    result = ds_from_namespace.to_table()
+    # 1 describe call from lance.dataset() to get location
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
+    assert ds_from_ns_client.count_rows() == 2
+    result = ds_from_ns_client.to_table()
     assert result == table1
 
     # Test credential caching
-    call_count_before_reads = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    call_count_before_reads = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     for _ in range(3):
-        assert ds_from_namespace.count_rows() == 2
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == call_count_before_reads
+        assert ds_from_ns_client.count_rows() == 2
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == call_count_before_reads
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_namespace_with_refresh(s3_bucket: str):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_namespace_with_refresh(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
     """Test credential refresh when credentials expire."""
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}, {"a": 10, "b": 20}])
     table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
     table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 0
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
         table1,
-        namespace=namespace,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
         table_id=table_id,
         mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
     assert ds.count_rows() == 2
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
 
-    ds_from_namespace = lance.dataset(
-        namespace=namespace,
+    ds_from_ns_client = lance.dataset(
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
         table_id=table_id,
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
 
-    initial_call_count = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    # 1 describe call from lance.dataset() to get location
+    initial_call_count = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert initial_call_count == 1
-    assert ds_from_namespace.count_rows() == 2
-    result = ds_from_namespace.to_table()
+    assert ds_from_ns_client.count_rows() == 2
+    result = ds_from_ns_client.to_table()
     assert result == table1
 
-    call_count_after_initial_reads = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    call_count_after_initial_reads = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
 
     time.sleep(5)
 
-    assert ds_from_namespace.count_rows() == 2
-    result2 = ds_from_namespace.to_table()
+    assert ds_from_ns_client.count_rows() == 2
+    result2 = ds_from_ns_client.to_table()
     assert result2 == table1
 
-    final_call_count = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    final_call_count = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert final_call_count == call_count_after_initial_reads + 1
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_namespace_append_through_namespace(s3_bucket: str):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_namespace_append_through_namespace(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
     """Test appending to dataset through namespace."""
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3600,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}])
     table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
     table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 0
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table1, namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id, mode="create"
+        table1,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
     assert ds.count_rows() == 1
     assert len(ds.versions()) == 1
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
-    initial_describe_count = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
+    initial_describe_count = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
 
     table2 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 10, "b": 20}])
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table2, namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id, mode="append"
+        table2,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="append",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
     assert ds.count_rows() == 2
     assert len(ds.versions()) == 2
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == initial_describe_count + 1
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == initial_describe_count + 1
 
-    ds_from_namespace = lance.dataset(
-        namespace=namespace,
+    ds_from_ns_client = lance.dataset(
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
         table_id=table_id,
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
 
-    assert ds_from_namespace.count_rows() == 2
-    assert len(ds_from_namespace.versions()) == 2
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == initial_describe_count + 2
+    assert ds_from_ns_client.count_rows() == 2
+    assert len(ds_from_ns_client.versions()) == 2
+    # +1 for describe from lance.dataset()
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == initial_describe_count + 2
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_namespace_write_create_mode(s3_bucket: str):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_namespace_write_create_mode(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
     """Test writing dataset through namespace in CREATE mode."""
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3600,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}, {"a": 10, "b": 20}])
     table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 0
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
         table1,
-        namespace=namespace,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
         table_id=["test_ns", table_name],
         mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
     assert ds.count_rows() == 2
     assert len(ds.versions()) == 1
     result = ds.to_table()
@@ -341,133 +470,224 @@ def test_namespace_write_create_mode(s3_bucket: str):
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_namespace_write_append_mode(s3_bucket: str):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_namespace_write_append_mode(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
     """Test writing dataset through namespace in APPEND mode."""
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3600,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}])
     table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
     table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 0
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table1, namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id, mode="create"
+        table1,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
     assert ds.count_rows() == 1
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     table2 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 10, "b": 20}])
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
         table2,
-        namespace=namespace,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
         table_id=table_id,
         mode="append",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
-    describe_count_after_append = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
+    describe_count_after_append = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert describe_count_after_append == 1
     assert ds.count_rows() == 2
     assert len(ds.versions()) == 2
 
-    call_count_before_reads = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    call_count_before_reads = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     for _ in range(3):
         assert ds.count_rows() == 2
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == call_count_before_reads
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == call_count_before_reads
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_namespace_write_overwrite_mode(s3_bucket: str):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_namespace_write_overwrite_mode(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
     """Test writing dataset through namespace in OVERWRITE mode."""
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3600,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}])
     table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
     table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 0
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table1, namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id, mode="create"
+        table1,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
     assert ds.count_rows() == 1
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     table2 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 10, "b": 20}, {"a": 100, "b": 200}])
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
         table2,
-        namespace=namespace,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
         table_id=table_id,
         mode="overwrite",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
-    describe_count_after_overwrite = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
+    describe_count_after_overwrite = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert describe_count_after_overwrite == 1
     assert ds.count_rows() == 2
     assert len(ds.versions()) == 2
     result = ds.to_table()
     assert result == table2
 
-    call_count_before_reads = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    call_count_before_reads = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     for _ in range(3):
         assert ds.count_rows() == 2
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == call_count_before_reads
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == call_count_before_reads
+
+
+@pytest.mark.integration
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_namespace_managed_branches(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
+    """Branches on a managed-versioning table over S3.
+
+    Branch commits must route through the catalog (create_table_version) and
+    leave main's chain untouched. A cross-branch checkout at an overlapping
+    version number must resolve the requested chain: branch version numbers
+    continue from the fork point, so the same number exists on both chains
+    with different data.
+    """
+    storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
+
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
+        bucket_name=s3_bucket,
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+        credential_expires_in_seconds=3600,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
+        managed_versioning=True,
+    )
+
+    table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
+    table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+
+    def commit_count() -> int:
+        return inner_ns_client.retrieve_ops_metrics().get("create_table_version", 0)
+
+    lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1}]),
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 2}]),
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="append",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+    )
+    assert commit_count() >= 2
+
+    ns_client.create_table_branch(
+        CreateTableBranchRequest(id=table_id, name="dev", from_version=2)
+    )
+
+    dev = ds.checkout_version(("dev", None))
+    commits_before_branch_append = commit_count()
+    dev = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 3}]),
+        dev,
+        mode="append",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+    )
+    assert commit_count() == commits_before_branch_append + 1
+    assert sorted(dev.to_table()["a"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 3]
+
+    # Diverge main to the same version number as dev's tip.
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 100}]),
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="append",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+    )
+    assert sorted(ds.to_table()["a"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 100]
+
+    on_dev = ds.checkout_version(("dev", 3))
+    assert sorted(on_dev.to_table()["a"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 3]
+    back_on_main = dev.checkout_version(("main", None))
+    assert sorted(back_on_main.to_table()["a"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 100]
+
+    fresh = lance.dataset(
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+    )
+    assert sorted(fresh.to_table()["a"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 100]
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_namespace_distributed_write(s3_bucket: str):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_namespace_distributed_write(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
     """Test distributed write pattern through namespace."""
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3600,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
     table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
 
     request = DeclareTableRequest(id=table_id, location=None)
-    response = namespace.declare_table(request)
+    response = ns_client.declare_table(request)
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     table_uri = response.location
     assert table_uri is not None
 
-    from lance.namespace import LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider
-
-    namespace_storage_options = response.storage_options
-    assert namespace_storage_options is not None
-
-    storage_options_provider = LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(
-        namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id
-    )
+    ns_client_storage_options = response.storage_options
+    assert ns_client_storage_options is not None
 
     merged_options = dict(storage_options)
-    merged_options.update(namespace_storage_options)
+    merged_options.update(ns_client_storage_options)
 
     from lance.fragment import write_fragments
 
@@ -476,7 +696,8 @@ def test_namespace_distributed_write(s3_bucket: str):
         fragment1_data,
         table_uri,
         storage_options=merged_options,
-        storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
 
     fragment2_data = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 10, "b": 20}, {"a": 30, "b": 40}])
@@ -484,7 +705,8 @@ def test_namespace_distributed_write(s3_bucket: str):
         fragment2_data,
         table_uri,
         storage_options=merged_options,
-        storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
 
     fragment3_data = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 100, "b": 200}])
@@ -492,7 +714,8 @@ def test_namespace_distributed_write(s3_bucket: str):
         fragment3_data,
         table_uri,
         storage_options=merged_options,
-        storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
 
     all_fragments = fragment1 + fragment2 + fragment3
@@ -503,7 +726,8 @@ def test_namespace_distributed_write(s3_bucket: str):
         table_uri,
         operation,
         storage_options=merged_options,
-        storage_options_provider=storage_options_provider,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
 
     assert ds.count_rows() == 5
@@ -521,50 +745,54 @@ def test_namespace_distributed_write(s3_bucket: str):
     )
     assert result == expected
 
-    ds_from_namespace = lance.dataset(
-        namespace=namespace,
+    ds_from_ns_client = lance.dataset(
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
         table_id=table_id,
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
-    assert ds_from_namespace.count_rows() == 5
+    assert ds_from_ns_client.count_rows() == 5
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_file_writer_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
-    """Test LanceFileWriter with storage_options_provider and credential refresh."""
-    from lance import LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_file_writer_with_namespace_client(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
+    """Test LanceFileWriter with namespace_client and credential refresh."""
     from lance.file import LanceFileReader, LanceFileWriter
 
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}, {"a": 10, "b": 20}])
     table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
     table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
 
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 0
-    assert namespace.get_describe_call_count() == 0
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
+    assert get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 0
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table1, namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id, mode="create"
+        table1,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
     assert ds.count_rows() == 2
-    assert namespace.get_create_call_count() == 1
+    assert get_declare_call_count(inner_ns_client) == 1
 
-    describe_response = namespace.describe_table(
+    describe_response = ns_client.describe_table(
         DescribeTableRequest(id=table_id, version=None)
     )
-    namespace_storage_options = describe_response.storage_options
-
-    provider = LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(
-        namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id
-    )
+    merged_options = dict(storage_options)
+    if describe_response.storage_options:
+        merged_options.update(describe_response.storage_options)
 
-    initial_describe_count = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    initial_describe_count = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
 
     file_uri = f"s3://{s3_bucket}/{table_name}_file_test.lance"
     schema = pa.schema([pa.field("x", pa.int64()), pa.field("y", pa.int64())])
@@ -572,8 +800,9 @@ def test_file_writer_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     writer = LanceFileWriter(
         file_uri,
         schema=schema,
-        storage_options=namespace_storage_options,
-        storage_options_provider=provider,
+        storage_options=merged_options,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
 
     batch = pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict({"x": [1, 2, 3], "y": [4, 5, 6]}, schema=schema)
@@ -585,13 +814,14 @@ def test_file_writer_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     writer.write_batch(batch2)
     writer.close()
 
-    describe_count_after_write = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    describe_count_after_write = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert describe_count_after_write == initial_describe_count
 
     reader = LanceFileReader(
         file_uri,
-        storage_options=namespace_storage_options,
-        storage_options_provider=provider,
+        storage_options=merged_options,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
     result = reader.read_all(batch_size=1024)
     result_table = result.to_table()
@@ -609,8 +839,9 @@ def test_file_writer_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     writer2 = LanceFileWriter(
         file_uri2,
         schema=schema,
-        storage_options=namespace_storage_options,
-        storage_options_provider=provider,
+        storage_options=merged_options,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
 
     batch3 = pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict(
@@ -619,13 +850,14 @@ def test_file_writer_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     writer2.write_batch(batch3)
     writer2.close()
 
-    final_describe_count = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    final_describe_count = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert final_describe_count == describe_count_after_write + 1
 
     reader2 = LanceFileReader(
         file_uri2,
-        storage_options=namespace_storage_options,
-        storage_options_provider=provider,
+        storage_options=merged_options,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
     result2 = reader2.read_all(batch_size=1024)
     result_table2 = result2.to_table()
@@ -635,17 +867,18 @@ def test_file_writer_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_file_reader_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
-    """Test LanceFileReader with storage_options_provider and credential refresh."""
-    from lance import LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_file_reader_with_namespace_client(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
+    """Test LanceFileReader with namespace_client and credential refresh."""
     from lance.file import LanceFileReader, LanceFileWriter
 
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}, {"a": 10, "b": 20}])
@@ -653,52 +886,57 @@ def test_file_reader_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table1, namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id, mode="create"
+        table1,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
     assert ds.count_rows() == 2
 
-    describe_response = namespace.describe_table(
+    describe_response = ns_client.describe_table(
         DescribeTableRequest(id=table_id, version=None)
     )
-    namespace_storage_options = describe_response.storage_options
-
-    provider = LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(
-        namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id
-    )
+    merged_options = dict(storage_options)
+    if describe_response.storage_options:
+        merged_options.update(describe_response.storage_options)
 
     file_uri = f"s3://{s3_bucket}/{table_name}_file_reader_test.lance"
     schema = pa.schema([pa.field("x", pa.int64()), pa.field("y", pa.int64())])
 
-    # Write a file first (without provider to keep it simple)
+    # Write a file first (without namespace_client to keep it simple)
     writer = LanceFileWriter(
         file_uri,
         schema=schema,
-        storage_options=namespace_storage_options,
+        storage_options=merged_options,
     )
     batch = pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict({"x": [1, 2, 3], "y": [4, 5, 6]}, schema=schema)
     writer.write_batch(batch)
     writer.close()
 
     # Get fresh credentials for reading
-    describe_response = namespace.describe_table(
+    describe_response = ns_client.describe_table(
         DescribeTableRequest(id=table_id, version=None)
     )
-    namespace_storage_options = describe_response.storage_options
+    merged_options = dict(storage_options)
+    if describe_response.storage_options:
+        merged_options.update(describe_response.storage_options)
 
-    initial_describe_count = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    initial_describe_count = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
 
     # First read should work without needing refresh
     reader = LanceFileReader(
         file_uri,
-        storage_options=namespace_storage_options,
-        storage_options_provider=provider,
+        storage_options=merged_options,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
     result = reader.read_all(batch_size=1024)
     result_table = result.to_table()
     assert result_table.num_rows == 3
     assert result_table.schema == schema
 
-    describe_count_after_first_read = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    describe_count_after_first_read = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert describe_count_after_first_read == initial_describe_count
 
     # Wait for credentials to expire
@@ -709,7 +947,7 @@ def test_file_reader_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     writer2 = LanceFileWriter(
         file_uri2,
         schema=schema,
-        storage_options=namespace_storage_options,
+        storage_options=merged_options,
     )
     batch2 = pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict(
         {"x": [100, 200], "y": [300, 400]}, schema=schema
@@ -720,8 +958,9 @@ def test_file_reader_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     # Second read should trigger credential refresh
     reader2 = LanceFileReader(
         file_uri2,
-        storage_options=namespace_storage_options,
-        storage_options_provider=provider,
+        storage_options=merged_options,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
     result2 = reader2.read_all(batch_size=1024)
     result_table2 = result2.to_table()
@@ -729,22 +968,23 @@ def test_file_reader_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     expected_table2 = pa.table({"x": [100, 200], "y": [300, 400]}, schema=schema)
     assert result_table2 == expected_table2
 
-    final_describe_count = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    final_describe_count = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert final_describe_count == describe_count_after_first_read + 1
 
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
-def test_file_session_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
-    """Test LanceFileSession with storage_options_provider and credential refresh."""
-    from lance import LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_file_session_with_namespace_client(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
+    """Test LanceFileSession with namespace_client and credential refresh."""
     from lance.file import LanceFileSession
 
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
 
-    namespace = TrackingNamespace(
+    ns_client, inner_ns_client = create_tracking_namespace(
         bucket_name=s3_bucket,
         storage_options=storage_options,
         credential_expires_in_seconds=3,
+        use_custom=use_custom,
     )
 
     table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1, "b": 2}, {"a": 10, "b": 20}])
@@ -752,26 +992,29 @@ def test_file_session_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(
-        table1, namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id, mode="create"
+        table1,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
     )
     assert ds.count_rows() == 2
 
-    describe_response = namespace.describe_table(
+    describe_response = ns_client.describe_table(
         DescribeTableRequest(id=table_id, version=None)
     )
-    namespace_storage_options = describe_response.storage_options
-
-    provider = LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider(
-        namespace=namespace, table_id=table_id
-    )
+    merged_options = dict(storage_options)
+    if describe_response.storage_options:
+        merged_options.update(describe_response.storage_options)
 
-    initial_describe_count = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    initial_describe_count = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
 
-    # Create session with storage_options_provider
+    # Create session with namespace_client
     session = LanceFileSession(
         f"s3://{s3_bucket}/{table_name}_session",
-        storage_options=namespace_storage_options,
-        storage_options_provider=provider,
+        storage_options=merged_options,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
     )
 
     # Test contains method
@@ -792,7 +1035,7 @@ def test_file_session_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     writer.write_batch(batch)
     writer.close()
 
-    describe_count_after_first_write = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    describe_count_after_first_write = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert describe_count_after_first_write == initial_describe_count
 
     # Test contains method after write
@@ -808,7 +1051,7 @@ def test_file_session_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     expected_table = pa.table({"x": [1, 2, 3], "y": [4, 5, 6]}, schema=schema)
     assert result_table == expected_table
 
-    describe_count_after_first_read = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    describe_count_after_first_read = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert describe_count_after_first_read == describe_count_after_first_write
 
     # Wait for credentials to expire
@@ -825,7 +1068,7 @@ def test_file_session_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     writer2.write_batch(batch2)
     writer2.close()
 
-    describe_count_after_second_write = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    describe_count_after_second_write = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert describe_count_after_second_write == describe_count_after_first_read + 1
 
     # Read the second file - should not trigger another refresh since we just refreshed
@@ -836,5 +1079,303 @@ def test_file_session_with_storage_options_provider(s3_bucket: str):
     expected_table2 = pa.table({"x": [100, 200], "y": [300, 400]}, schema=schema)
     assert result_table2 == expected_table2
 
-    final_describe_count = namespace.get_describe_call_count()
+    final_describe_count = get_describe_call_count(inner_ns_client)
     assert final_describe_count == describe_count_after_second_write
+
+
+def create_test_table_data():
+    """Create test PyArrow table data for concurrent tests."""
+    return pa.Table.from_pylist(
+        [
+            {"id": 1, "name": "Alice", "age": 30},
+            {"id": 2, "name": "Bob", "age": 25},
+            {"id": 3, "name": "Charlie", "age": 35},
+        ]
+    )
+
+
+def table_to_ipc_bytes(table):
+    """Convert PyArrow table to IPC bytes."""
+    import io
+
+    sink = io.BytesIO()
+    with pa.ipc.RecordBatchStreamWriter(sink, table.schema) as writer:
+        writer.write_table(table)
+    return sink.getvalue()
+
+
+@pytest.mark.integration
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_basic_create_and_drop_on_s3(s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool):
+    """Test basic create and drop table operations on S3.
+
+    Mirrors Java: testBasicCreateAndDropOnS3
+    """
+    test_prefix = f"test-{uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]}"
+    storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
+    dir_props = {f"storage.{k}": v for k, v in storage_options.items()}
+    dir_props["root"] = f"s3://{s3_bucket}/{test_prefix}"
+    inner_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**dir_props)
+    ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+    table_name = "basic_test_table"
+    table_data = create_test_table_data()
+    table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+
+    # Create table using lance.write_dataset
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        table_data,
+        namespace_client=ns_client,
+        table_id=table_id,
+        mode="create",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+    )
+    assert ds is not None
+    assert ds.count_rows() == 3
+
+    # Drop table
+    drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=table_id)
+    drop_resp = ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
+    assert drop_resp is not None
+
+    # Verify table no longer exists
+    exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=table_id)
+    with pytest.raises(Exception):
+        ns_client.table_exists(exists_req)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.integration
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_concurrent_create_and_drop_single_instance_on_s3(
+    s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool
+):
+    """Test concurrent create/drop with single namespace instance on S3."""
+    import concurrent.futures
+
+    test_prefix = f"test-{uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]}"
+    storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
+    dir_props = {f"storage.{k}": v for k, v in storage_options.items()}
+    dir_props["root"] = f"s3://{s3_bucket}/{test_prefix}"
+    # Very high retry count to guarantee all operations succeed
+    dir_props["commit_retries"] = "2147483647"
+    inner_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**dir_props)
+    ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+    # Initialize namespace first - create parent namespace to ensure __manifest table
+    # is created before concurrent operations
+    create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+    ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+    num_tables = 10
+    success_count = 0
+    fail_count = 0
+    lock = Lock()
+
+    def create_and_drop_table(table_index):
+        nonlocal success_count, fail_count
+        try:
+            table_name = f"s3_concurrent_table_{table_index}"
+            table_data = create_test_table_data()
+            table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+            ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+
+            # Create table using atomic create_table API
+            create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=table_id)
+            ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+            # Drop table
+            drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=table_id)
+            ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
+
+            with lock:
+                success_count += 1
+        except Exception:
+            with lock:
+                fail_count += 1
+            raise
+
+    with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=num_tables) as executor:
+        futures = [executor.submit(create_and_drop_table, i) for i in range(num_tables)]
+        concurrent.futures.wait(futures)
+
+    # All operations must succeed with very high retry count
+    assert success_count == num_tables, (
+        f"Expected {num_tables} successes, got {success_count}"
+    )
+    assert fail_count == 0, f"Expected 0 failures, got {fail_count}"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.integration
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_concurrent_create_and_drop_multiple_instances_on_s3(
+    s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool
+):
+    """Test concurrent create/drop with multiple namespace instances on S3."""
+    import concurrent.futures
+
+    test_prefix = f"test-{uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]}"
+    storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
+    base_dir_props = {f"storage.{k}": v for k, v in storage_options.items()}
+    base_dir_props["root"] = f"s3://{s3_bucket}/{test_prefix}"
+    # Very high retry count to guarantee all operations succeed
+    base_dir_props["commit_retries"] = "2147483647"
+
+    # Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+    # table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+    inner_init_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**base_dir_props.copy())
+    init_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_init_ns_client, use_custom)
+    create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+    init_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+    num_tables = 10
+    success_count = 0
+    fail_count = 0
+    lock = Lock()
+
+    def create_and_drop_table(table_index):
+        nonlocal success_count, fail_count
+        try:
+            # Each thread creates its own namespace client instance
+            inner_local_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**base_dir_props.copy())
+            local_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_local_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+            table_name = f"s3_multi_ns_table_{table_index}"
+            table_data = create_test_table_data()
+            table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+            ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+
+            # Create table using atomic create_table API
+            create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=table_id)
+            local_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+            # Drop table
+            drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=table_id)
+            local_ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
+
+            with lock:
+                success_count += 1
+        except Exception:
+            with lock:
+                fail_count += 1
+            raise
+
+    with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=num_tables) as executor:
+        futures = [executor.submit(create_and_drop_table, i) for i in range(num_tables)]
+        concurrent.futures.wait(futures)
+
+    # All operations must succeed with very high retry count
+    assert success_count == num_tables, (
+        f"Expected {num_tables} successes, got {success_count}"
+    )
+    assert fail_count == 0, f"Expected 0 failures, got {fail_count}"
+
+    # Verify remaining state is consistent (no corruption)
+    inner_verify_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**base_dir_props)
+    verify_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_verify_ns_client, use_custom)
+    list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+    _ = verify_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)  # Should not error
+
+
+@pytest.mark.integration
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_custom", [False, True], ids=["DirectoryNS", "CustomNS"])
+def test_concurrent_create_then_drop_from_different_instance_on_s3(
+    s3_bucket: str, use_custom: bool
+):
+    """Test creating from one set of instances, dropping from different ones on S3."""
+    import concurrent.futures
+
+    test_prefix = f"test-{uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]}"
+    storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
+    base_dir_props = {f"storage.{k}": v for k, v in storage_options.items()}
+    base_dir_props["root"] = f"s3://{s3_bucket}/{test_prefix}"
+    # Very high retry count to guarantee all operations succeed
+    base_dir_props["commit_retries"] = "2147483647"
+
+    # Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+    # table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+    inner_init_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**base_dir_props.copy())
+    init_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_init_ns_client, use_custom)
+    create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+    init_ns_client.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+    num_tables = 10
+
+    # Phase 1: Create all tables concurrently using separate namespace client instances
+    create_success_count = 0
+    create_fail_count = 0
+    create_lock = Lock()
+
+    def create_table(table_index):
+        nonlocal create_success_count, create_fail_count
+        table_name = f"s3_cross_instance_table_{table_index}"
+        try:
+            inner_local_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**base_dir_props.copy())
+            local_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_local_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+            table_data = create_test_table_data()
+            table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+            ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+
+            # Create table using atomic create_table API
+            create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=table_id)
+            local_ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+            with create_lock:
+                create_success_count += 1
+        except Exception:
+            with create_lock:
+                create_fail_count += 1
+            raise
+
+    with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=num_tables) as executor:
+        futures = [executor.submit(create_table, i) for i in range(num_tables)]
+        concurrent.futures.wait(futures)
+
+    # All creates must succeed with very high retry count
+    assert create_success_count == num_tables, (
+        f"Expected {num_tables} create successes, got {create_success_count}"
+    )
+    assert create_fail_count == 0, (
+        f"Expected 0 create failures, got {create_fail_count}"
+    )
+
+    # Phase 2: Drop all tables using NEW namespace instances
+    drop_success_count = 0
+    drop_fail_count = 0
+    drop_lock = Lock()
+
+    def drop_table(table_index):
+        nonlocal drop_success_count, drop_fail_count
+        try:
+            inner_local_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**base_dir_props.copy())
+            local_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_local_ns_client, use_custom)
+
+            table_name = f"s3_cross_instance_table_{table_index}"
+            table_id = ["test_ns", table_name]
+
+            drop_req = DropTableRequest(id=table_id)
+            local_ns_client.drop_table(drop_req)
+
+            with drop_lock:
+                drop_success_count += 1
+        except Exception:
+            with drop_lock:
+                drop_fail_count += 1
+            raise
+
+    # Drop all tables
+    with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=num_tables) as executor:
+        futures = [executor.submit(drop_table, i) for i in range(num_tables)]
+        concurrent.futures.wait(futures)
+
+    # All drops must succeed with very high retry count
+    assert drop_success_count == num_tables, (
+        f"Expected {num_tables} drop successes, got {drop_success_count}"
+    )
+    assert drop_fail_count == 0, f"Expected 0 drop failures, got {drop_fail_count}"
+
+    # Verify remaining state is consistent (no corruption)
+    inner_verify_ns_client = DirectoryNamespace(**base_dir_props)
+    verify_ns_client = _wrap_if_custom(inner_verify_ns_client, use_custom)
+    list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=["test_ns"])
+    _ = verify_ns_client.list_tables(list_req)  # Should not error
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_namespace_rest.py b/python/python/tests/test_namespace_rest.py
index de1a57ace8d..140d9168c05 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_namespace_rest.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_namespace_rest.py
@@ -17,9 +17,9 @@
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pytest
 from lance_namespace import (
-    CreateEmptyTableRequest,
     CreateNamespaceRequest,
     CreateTableRequest,
+    DeclareTableRequest,
     DeregisterTableRequest,
     DescribeNamespaceRequest,
     DescribeTableRequest,
@@ -268,32 +268,6 @@ def test_drop_table(self, rest_namespace):
         with pytest.raises(Exception):
             rest_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
 
-    def test_create_empty_table(self, rest_namespace):
-        """Test creating an empty table."""
-        # Create parent namespace
-        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-        rest_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
-
-        # Create empty table with schema
-        schema = pa.schema(
-            [
-                pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
-                pa.field("name", pa.string()),
-            ]
-        )
-
-        create_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest(
-            id=["workspace", "empty_table"], schema=schema
-        )
-        response = rest_namespace.create_empty_table(create_req)
-
-        assert response is not None
-        assert response.location is not None
-
-        # Verify table exists
-        exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["workspace", "empty_table"])
-        rest_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
-
     def test_deregister_table(self, rest_namespace):
         """Test deregistering a table."""
         # Create parent namespace
@@ -405,6 +379,39 @@ def test_register_table_rejects_path_traversal(self, rest_namespace):
             rest_namespace.register_table(register_req)
         assert "Path traversal is not allowed" in str(exc_info.value)
 
+    def test_rename_table(self, rest_namespace):
+        """Test renaming a table."""
+        # Create parent namespace
+        create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
+        rest_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+
+        # Create table
+        table_data = create_test_data()
+        ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
+        create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        rest_namespace.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+
+        # TODO: underlying dir namespace doesn't support rename yet...
+
+        # # Rename the table
+        # rename_req = RenameTableRequest(
+        #     id=["workspace", "test_table"],
+        #     new_namespace_id=["workspace"],
+        #     new_table_name="test_table_renamed",
+        # )
+
+        # response = rest_namespace.rename_table(rename_req)
+        # assert response is not None
+
+        # # Verify table with old name no longer exists
+        # exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table"])
+        # with pytest.raises(Exception):
+        #     rest_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+
+        # # Verify table with new name exists
+        # exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["workspace", "test_table_renamed"])
+        # rest_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
+
 
 class TestChildNamespaceOperations:
     """Tests for operations in child namespaces - mirrors DirectoryNamespace tests."""
@@ -453,21 +460,18 @@ def test_drop_table_in_child_namespace(self, rest_namespace):
         with pytest.raises(Exception):
             rest_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
 
-    def test_empty_table_in_child_namespace(self, rest_namespace):
-        """Test creating an empty table in a child namespace."""
+    def test_declared_table_in_child_namespace(self, rest_namespace):
+        """Test declaring a table in a child namespace."""
         # Create child namespace
         create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["test_ns"])
         rest_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req)
 
-        # Create empty table
-        schema = pa.schema([pa.field("id", pa.int64())])
-        create_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest(
-            id=["test_ns", "empty_table"], schema=schema
-        )
-        rest_namespace.create_empty_table(create_req)
+        # Declare table
+        declare_req = DeclareTableRequest(id=["test_ns", "declared_table"])
+        rest_namespace.declare_table(declare_req)
 
         # Verify table exists
-        exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["test_ns", "empty_table"])
+        exists_req = TableExistsRequest(id=["test_ns", "declared_table"])
         rest_namespace.table_exists(exists_req)
 
 
@@ -646,18 +650,18 @@ def test_connect_with_rest(self):
 
             with lance.namespace.RestAdapter("dir", backend_config, port=0) as adapter:
                 properties = {"uri": f"http://127.0.0.1:{adapter.port}"}
-                ns = connect("rest", properties)
+                ns_client = connect("rest", properties)
 
-                assert isinstance(ns, lance.namespace.RestNamespace)
+                assert isinstance(ns_client, lance.namespace.RestNamespace)
 
                 create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["test_table"])
                 table_data = create_test_data()
                 ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
-                response = ns.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+                response = ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
                 assert response is not None
 
                 list_req = ListTablesRequest(id=[])
-                list_response = ns.list_tables(list_req)
+                list_response = ns_client.list_tables(list_req)
                 assert len(list_response.tables) == 1
                 assert list_response.tables[0] == "test_table"
 
@@ -671,14 +675,14 @@ def test_connect_with_custom_delimiter(self):
                     "uri": f"http://127.0.0.1:{adapter.port}",
                     "delimiter": "@",
                 }
-                ns = connect("rest", properties)
+                ns_client = connect("rest", properties)
 
-                assert isinstance(ns, lance.namespace.RestNamespace)
+                assert isinstance(ns_client, lance.namespace.RestNamespace)
 
                 create_req = CreateTableRequest(id=["test_table"])
                 table_data = create_test_data()
                 ipc_data = table_to_ipc_bytes(table_data)
-                response = ns.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
+                response = ns_client.create_table(create_req, ipc_data)
                 assert response is not None
 
 
@@ -701,17 +705,17 @@ def provide_context(self, info):
             backend_config = {"root": tmpdir}
 
             with lance.namespace.RestAdapter("dir", backend_config, port=0) as adapter:
-                ns = lance.namespace.RestNamespace(
+                ns_client = lance.namespace.RestNamespace(
                     uri=f"http://127.0.0.1:{adapter.port}",
                     context_provider=TestProvider(),
                 )
 
                 # Perform operations
                 create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-                ns.create_namespace(create_req)
+                ns_client.create_namespace(create_req)
 
                 list_req = ListNamespacesRequest(id=[])
-                ns.list_namespaces(list_req)
+                ns_client.list_namespaces(list_req)
 
                 # Context provider should have been called
                 assert call_count["count"] >= 2
@@ -730,7 +734,7 @@ def provide_context(self, info):
 
             with lance.namespace.RestAdapter("dir", backend_config, port=0) as adapter:
                 # Pass both explicit provider and class path - explicit should win
-                ns = lance.namespace.RestNamespace(
+                ns_client = lance.namespace.RestNamespace(
                     context_provider=ExplicitProvider(),
                     **{
                         "uri": f"http://127.0.0.1:{adapter.port}",
@@ -739,7 +743,7 @@ def provide_context(self, info):
                 )
 
                 create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest(id=["workspace"])
-                ns.create_namespace(create_req)
+                ns_client.create_namespace(create_req)
 
                 # Explicit provider should have been used
                 assert explicit_called["called"]
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_optimize.py b/python/python/tests/test_optimize.py
index 1f23f3bac48..34199956c1e 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_optimize.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_optimize.py
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+import json
 import pickle
 import random
 import re
@@ -9,6 +10,7 @@
 import lance
 import numpy as np
 import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
 from lance.lance import Compaction
 from lance.optimize import RewriteResult
 from lance.vector import vec_to_table
@@ -26,6 +28,9 @@ def test_dataset_optimize(tmp_path: Path):
         target_rows_per_fragment=1000,
         materialize_deletions=False,
         num_threads=1,
+        # Loose source budgets: all fragments still compact in one run.
+        max_source_rows=100_000,
+        max_source_bytes=1024 * 1024 * 1024,
     )
 
     assert metrics.fragments_removed == 10
@@ -36,6 +41,122 @@ def test_dataset_optimize(tmp_path: Path):
     assert dataset.version == 3
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("mode", ["reencode", "try_binary_copy", "force_binary_copy"])
+def test_compact_files_exact_data_storage_version(tmp_path: Path, mode):
+    data = pa.table({"id": range(4)})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        data, tmp_path / "dataset", max_rows_per_file=2, data_storage_version="2.1"
+    )
+    options = dict(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=4, data_storage_version="2.2", compaction_mode=mode
+    )
+    if mode == "force_binary_copy":
+        with pytest.raises(OSError, match="target is 2.2.*uses 2.1"):
+            dataset.optimize.compact_files(**options)
+        assert dataset.version == 1
+    else:
+        dataset.optimize.compact_files(**options)
+        assert {
+            (file.file_major_version, file.file_minor_version)
+            for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()
+            for file in fragment.metadata.files
+        } == {(2, 2)}
+    assert dataset.to_table() == data
+    assert dataset.data_storage_version == "2.1"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("version,expected", [(None, "2.2"), ("2.0", "2.0")])
+def test_compaction_version_config_precedence(tmp_path: Path, version, expected):
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": range(4)}),
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+        data_storage_version="2.1",
+    )
+    dataset.update_config({"lance.compaction.data_storage_version": "2.2"})
+    options = dict(data_storage_version=version)
+    plan = Compaction.plan(dataset, options)
+    assert json.loads(plan.json())["options"]["data_storage_version"] == expected
+    dataset.optimize.compact_files(**options)
+    assert {
+        f"{file.file_major_version}.{file.file_minor_version}"
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()
+        for file in fragment.metadata.files
+    } == {expected}
+    assert dataset.data_storage_version == "2.1"
+
+
+def test_dataset_optimize_excluded_fragment_ids(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"a": range(800)}),
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        max_rows_per_file=200,
+    )
+    fragments = dataset.get_fragments()
+
+    metrics = dataset.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=400,
+        excluded_fragment_ids=[1, 1, 999],
+        num_threads=1,
+    )
+
+    assert metrics.fragments_removed == 2
+    remaining_fragment_ids = {
+        fragment.fragment_id for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()
+    }
+    assert fragments[1].fragment_id in remaining_fragment_ids
+
+
+def test_compact_files_source_budgets(tmp_path: Path):
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "dataset"
+    data = pa.table({"a": range(1000), "b": range(1000)})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, base_dir, max_rows_per_file=100)
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 10
+
+    # A row budget of 250 admits the first two 100-row fragments only, so the
+    # run is incremental instead of compacting all 10 at once.
+    metrics = dataset.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=200,
+        num_threads=1,
+        max_source_rows=250,
+    )
+    assert metrics.fragments_removed == 2
+    assert metrics.fragments_added == 1
+
+    # The budgets are hard upper bounds: a budget smaller than a single task
+    # produces an empty plan and compaction is a no-op.
+    version_before = dataset.version
+    metrics = dataset.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=200,
+        num_threads=1,
+        max_source_bytes=1,
+    )
+    assert metrics.fragments_removed == 0
+    assert dataset.version == version_before
+
+    with pytest.raises(OSError, match="must be greater than 0"):
+        dataset.optimize.compact_files(max_source_rows=0)
+
+
+def test_compact_files_max_source_fragments(tmp_path: Path):
+    rows_per_fragment = 256 * 1024
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"a": pa.nulls(10 * rows_per_fragment)}),
+        tmp_path / "dataset",
+        max_rows_per_file=rows_per_fragment,
+    )
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 10
+
+    metrics = dataset.optimize.compact_files(
+        max_source_fragments=4,
+        num_threads=1,
+    )
+
+    assert metrics.fragments_removed == 4
+    assert metrics.fragments_added == 1
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 7
+
+
 def test_blob_compaction(tmp_path: Path):
     base_dir = tmp_path / "blob_dataset"
     blob_field = pa.field(
@@ -56,7 +177,7 @@ def test_blob_compaction(tmp_path: Path):
         base_dir,
         schema=schema,
         max_rows_per_file=1,
-        data_storage_version="stable",
+        data_storage_version="2.1",
     )
     assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 2
 
@@ -68,34 +189,151 @@ def test_blob_compaction(tmp_path: Path):
     assert contents == blobs
 
 
+def test_blob_compaction_with_nested_json_sibling(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset_uri = tmp_path / "nested_blob_json"
+    info_fields = [lance.blob_field("blob"), pa.field("meta", pa.json_())]
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+            pa.field("info", pa.struct(info_fields)),
+        ]
+    )
+    for index, row_id in enumerate([1, 2]):
+        info = pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+            [
+                lance.blob_array([f"blob-{row_id}".encode()]),
+                pa.array([json.dumps({"row": row_id})], type=pa.json_()),
+            ],
+            fields=info_fields,
+        )
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            pa.Table.from_arrays([pa.array([row_id]), info], schema=schema),
+            dataset_uri,
+            mode="create" if index == 0 else "append",
+            data_storage_version="2.2",
+        )
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset_uri)
+    dataset.optimize.compact_files(num_threads=1)
+
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 1
+    assert [data for _, data in dataset.read_blobs("info.blob", indices=[0, 1])] == [
+        b"blob-1",
+        b"blob-2",
+    ]
+    assert [
+        json.loads(value)
+        for value in dataset.to_table(columns=["info.meta"])["info.meta"].to_pylist()
+    ] == [{"row": 1}, {"row": 2}]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("storage_version", ["2.0", "2.1", "2.2"])
+def test_blob_compaction_preserves_null_empty_and_read_parity(
+    tmp_path: Path, storage_version: str
+):
+    base_dir = tmp_path / f"blob_dataset_{storage_version}"
+    if storage_version == "2.2":
+        blob_field = lance.blob_field("blob")
+    else:
+        blob_field = pa.field(
+            "blob",
+            pa.large_binary(),
+            metadata={"lance-encoding:blob": "true"},
+        )
+    schema = pa.schema([pa.field("id", pa.int64()), blob_field])
+
+    def make_blob_array(values):
+        if storage_version == "2.2":
+            return lance.blob_array(values)
+        return pa.array(values, type=pa.large_binary())
+
+    for index, (ids, values) in enumerate(
+        [
+            ([1, 2], [b"P1", None]),
+            ([3, 4, 5], [b"P3", None, b""]),
+        ]
+    ):
+        lance.write_dataset(
+            pa.Table.from_arrays(
+                [
+                    pa.array(ids, type=pa.int64()),
+                    make_blob_array(values),
+                ],
+                schema=schema,
+            ),
+            base_dir,
+            mode="create" if index == 0 else "append",
+            data_storage_version=storage_version,
+        )
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    dataset.delete("id = 2")
+    dataset.optimize.compact_files(num_threads=1)
+
+    expected = {1: b"P1", 3: b"P3", 4: None, 5: b""}
+    binary_table = dataset.to_table(columns=["id", "blob"], blob_handling="all_binary")
+    scan_values = dict(
+        zip(
+            binary_table.column("id").to_pylist(),
+            binary_table.column("blob").to_pylist(),
+        )
+    )
+
+    ids = dataset.to_table(columns=["id"]).column("id").to_pylist()
+    blob_files = dataset.take_blobs("blob", indices=range(len(ids)))
+    take_values = {
+        row_id: None if blob_file is None else blob_file.readall()
+        for row_id, blob_file in zip(ids, blob_files)
+    }
+
+    assert take_values == expected
+    assert scan_values == take_values
+
+    descriptor_table = dataset.to_table(columns=["id", "blob"])
+    descriptions = dict(
+        zip(
+            descriptor_table.column("id").to_pylist(),
+            descriptor_table.column("blob").to_pylist(),
+        )
+    )
+    if storage_version == "2.0":
+        assert descriptions[4] == {"position": 1, "size": 0}
+    else:
+        assert descriptions[4] is None
+    assert descriptions[5] is not None
+    assert descriptions[5]["size"] == 0
+
+
 def test_optimize_max_bytes(tmp_path: Path):
     base_dir = tmp_path / "dataset"
     arr = pa.array(range(4 * 1024 * 1024))
     arr = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(arr, 1024)
     data = pa.table({"a": arr})
 
+    # Write out 4K rows and 32MB of data
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(
         data, base_dir, max_rows_per_file=2 * 1024, data_storage_version="stable"
     )
+    # We get 2 fragments
     assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 2
 
-    # max_bytes_per_file is too small and we get tiny files
+    # Now run compaction with a small max_bytes_per_file (1000 bytes) to get more
+    # fragments.  The exact number is a bit tricky to calculate because we don't
+    # split into a new fragment until we've actually written data and that depends
+    # on how much the file format chooses to accumulate, but it should be more than 2
     metrics = dataset.optimize.compact_files(
         target_rows_per_fragment=100 * 1024,
         materialize_deletions=False,
         max_bytes_per_file=1000,
         batch_size=128,
     )
-
-    # We get 4 fragments here because we don't actually write any data to the file
-    # until we've accumulated 8MiB for a page.
     assert metrics.fragments_removed == 2
-    assert metrics.fragments_added == 4
+    assert metrics.fragments_added > 2
     assert metrics.files_removed == 2
-    assert metrics.files_added == 4
+    assert metrics.files_added > 2
 
     num_frags = len(dataset.get_fragments())
-    assert num_frags == 4
+    assert num_frags == metrics.fragments_added
 
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(
         data,
@@ -115,9 +353,9 @@ def test_optimize_max_bytes(tmp_path: Path):
     results = [task.execute(dataset) for task in plan.tasks]
     metrics = Compaction.commit(dataset, results)
     assert metrics.fragments_removed == 2
-    assert metrics.fragments_added == 4
+    assert metrics.fragments_added > 2
     assert metrics.files_removed == 2
-    assert metrics.files_added == 4
+    assert metrics.files_added > 2
 
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(
         data,
@@ -296,30 +534,160 @@ def test_index_remapping_multiple_rewrite_tasks(tmp_path: Path):
     fragments = list(ds.get_fragments())
     assert len(fragments) == 2
 
-    index = ds.list_indices()[0]
-    index_frag_ids = list(index["fragment_ids"])
+    index = ds.describe_indices()[0]
+    index_frag_ids = list(index.segments[0].fragment_ids)
     frag_ids = [frag.fragment_id for frag in fragments]
 
     assert len(index_frag_ids) == 1
     assert index_frag_ids[0] in frag_ids
 
 
-def test_dataset_distributed_optimize(tmp_path: Path):
+def test_defer_index_remap(tmp_path: Path):
     base_dir = tmp_path / "dataset"
-    data = pa.table({"a": range(800), "b": range(800)})
+    data = pa.table({"i": range(6_000), "val": range(6_000)})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, base_dir, max_rows_per_file=1_000)
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("i", "BTREE")
+    options = dict(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=2_000, defer_index_remap=True, num_threads=1
+    )
+
+    dataset.delete("i < 500")
+    dataset.optimize.compact_files(**options)
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
+    assert any(idx.name == "__lance_frag_reuse" for idx in indices)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_commit_options", [True, False])
+def test_defer_index_remap_via_commit_options(tmp_path: Path, use_commit_options: bool):
+    """Compaction.commit respects defer_index_remap passed in options.
+
+    When options={"defer_index_remap": True} is supplied to Compaction.commit
+    the __lance_frag_reuse system index must appear in describe_indices().
+    When the option is omitted (default) no such system index is written.
+    """
+    base_dir = tmp_path / f"dataset_commit_opts_{use_commit_options}"
+    data = pa.table({"i": range(6_000), "val": range(6_000)})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, base_dir, max_rows_per_file=1_000)
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("i", "BTREE")
+    dataset.delete("i < 500")
 
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, base_dir, max_rows_per_file=200)
+    plan = Compaction.plan(
+        dataset,
+        options=dict(target_rows_per_fragment=2_000, num_threads=1),
+    )
+    rewrites = [task.execute(dataset) for task in plan.tasks]
+
+    if use_commit_options:
+        Compaction.commit(dataset, rewrites, options={"defer_index_remap": True})
+    else:
+        Compaction.commit(dataset, rewrites)
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
+    has_frag_reuse = any(idx.name == "__lance_frag_reuse" for idx in indices)
+
+    if use_commit_options:
+        assert has_frag_reuse, (
+            "expected __lance_frag_reuse system index when defer_index_remap=True "
+            "is passed to Compaction.commit"
+        )
+    else:
+        assert not has_frag_reuse, (
+            "did not expect __lance_frag_reuse system index when options is omitted "
+            "from Compaction.commit"
+        )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.filterwarnings("ignore::DeprecationWarning")
+def test_describe_indices_matches_list_indices_for_frag_reuse(tmp_path: Path):
+    """describe_indices() and list_indices() must agree on the index_type
+    string for every index, including the __lance_frag_reuse system index
+    that defer_index_remap produces.
+
+    list_indices() is a wrapper over describe_indices(), so the two must stay
+    in sync. System indices are identified by name via infer_system_index_type()
+    in rust/lance/src/index.rs::IndexDescriptionImpl::try_new.
+    """
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "dataset"
+    data = pa.table({"i": range(6_000), "val": range(6_000)})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, base_dir, max_rows_per_file=1_000)
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("i", "BTREE")
+    dataset.delete("i < 500")
+    dataset.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=2_000, defer_index_remap=True, num_threads=1
+    )
+
+    dataset = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    described = {d.name: d.index_type for d in dataset.describe_indices()}
+    listed = {idx["name"]: idx["type"] for idx in dataset.list_indices()}
+
+    assert "__lance_frag_reuse" in listed, (
+        "test precondition: defer_index_remap should produce a frag-reuse index"
+    )
+    assert described == listed, (
+        "describe_indices and list_indices disagree on index_type:\n"
+        f"  describe_indices: {described}\n"
+        f"  list_indices:     {listed}"
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "version", [None, "2.0", "2.1", "2.2", "2.3", "stable", "next"]
+)
+def test_dataset_distributed_optimize(tmp_path: Path, version):
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "dataset"
+    data = pa.table({"a": range(8), "b": range(8)})
+
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        data,
+        base_dir,
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+        data_storage_version="2.1",
+    )
     fragments = dataset.get_fragments()
     assert len(fragments) == 4
 
     plan = Compaction.plan(
-        dataset, options=dict(target_rows_per_fragment=400, num_threads=1)
+        dataset,
+        options=dict(
+            target_rows_per_fragment=4,
+            num_threads=1,
+            data_storage_version=version,
+        ),
     )
     assert plan.read_version == 1
     assert plan.num_tasks() == 2
     assert plan.tasks[0].fragments == [frag.metadata for frag in fragments[0:2]]
     assert plan.tasks[1].fragments == [frag.metadata for frag in fragments[2:4]]
     assert repr(plan) == "CompactionPlan(read_version=1, tasks=<2 compaction tasks>)"
+
+    excluded_plan = Compaction.plan(
+        dataset,
+        options=dict(
+            target_rows_per_fragment=4,
+            excluded_fragment_ids=[1, 1, 999],
+            num_threads=1,
+        ),
+    )
+    assert excluded_plan.num_tasks() == 1
+    assert excluded_plan.tasks[0].fragments == [
+        frag.metadata for frag in fragments[2:4]
+    ]
+    assert pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(excluded_plan)) == excluded_plan
+
+    none_plan = Compaction.plan(
+        dataset,
+        options=dict(
+            target_rows_per_fragment=4,
+            excluded_fragment_ids=None,
+            num_threads=1,
+            data_storage_version=version,
+        ),
+    )
+    assert none_plan == plan
+
     # Plan can be pickled
     assert pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(plan)) == plan
 
@@ -327,24 +695,32 @@ def test_dataset_distributed_optimize(tmp_path: Path):
     task = pickle.loads(pickled_task)
     assert task == plan.tasks[0]
 
-    result1 = plan.tasks[0].execute(dataset)
-    result1.metrics.fragments_removed == 2
-    result1.metrics.fragments_added == 1
+    result1 = task.execute(dataset)
+    assert result1.metrics.fragments_removed == 2
+    assert result1.metrics.fragments_added == 1
 
     pickled_result = pickle.dumps(result1)
     result = pickle.loads(pickled_result)
     assert isinstance(result, RewriteResult)
     assert result == result1
+    exact = {None: "2.1", "stable": "2.2", "next": "2.3"}.get(version, version)
+    assert {
+        f"{file.file_major_version}.{file.file_minor_version}"
+        for fragment in result.new_fragments
+        for file in fragment.files
+    } == {exact}
     assert re.match(
         r"RewriteResult\(read_version=1, new_fragments=\[.+\], old_fragments=\[.+\]\)",
         repr(result),
     )
 
-    metrics = Compaction.commit(dataset, [result1])
+    metrics = Compaction.commit(dataset, [result])
     assert metrics.fragments_removed == 2
     assert metrics.fragments_added == 1
     # Compaction occurs in two transactions so it increments the version by 2.
     assert dataset.version == 3
+    assert dataset.data_storage_version == "2.1"
+    assert dataset.to_table().sort_by("a") == data
 
 
 def test_migration_via_fragment_apis(tmp_path):
@@ -393,6 +769,95 @@ def test_migration_via_fragment_apis(tmp_path):
     assert ds2.data_storage_version == "2.0"
 
 
+def test_optimize_indices_second_call_is_noop(tmp_path: Path):
+    """A second optimize_indices call when nothing has changed since the first
+    must not write any new files to the dataset directory."""
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "dataset"
+
+    def assert_optimize_is_noop(dataset: lance.LanceDataset):
+        version_before = dataset.version
+        files_before = {
+            path.relative_to(base_dir) for path in base_dir.rglob("*") if path.is_file()
+        }
+
+        dataset.optimize.optimize_indices()
+
+        files_after = {
+            path.relative_to(base_dir) for path in base_dir.rglob("*") if path.is_file()
+        }
+        assert dataset.version == version_before
+        assert files_after == files_before
+
+    n = 1024
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(0)
+    vectors = rng.standard_normal((n, 8)).astype(np.float32)
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(n), type=pa.int64()),
+            "category": pa.array([f"cat{i % 4}" for i in range(n)]),
+            "tags": pa.array([[f"t{i % 3}", f"t{(i + 1) % 3}"] for i in range(n)]),
+            "doc": pa.array([f"hello world document {i}" for i in range(n)]),
+            "name": pa.array([f"name_{i:05d}" for i in range(n)]),
+            "value": pa.array(range(n), type=pa.int64()),
+            "bloom_val": pa.array(range(n), type=pa.int64()),
+            "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                pa.array(vectors.reshape(-1), type=pa.float32()), 8
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, base_dir)
+
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("id", index_type="BTREE")
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("category", index_type="BITMAP")
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("tags", index_type="LABEL_LIST")
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("doc", index_type="INVERTED")
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("name", index_type="NGRAM")
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("value", index_type="ZONEMAP")
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("bloom_val", index_type="BLOOMFILTER")
+    # num_partitions=1 keeps this dataset balanced: the auto-rebalance check
+    # in merge_indices only finds join candidates when num_partitions > 1, and
+    # 1024 + 128 rows is well below the split threshold. Without this, the
+    # rebalance heuristic would keep finding work on the small partitions.
+    dataset.create_index(
+        "vector", index_type="IVF_PQ", num_partitions=1, num_sub_vectors=2
+    )
+
+    extra_rows = 128
+    extra_vectors = rng.standard_normal((extra_rows, 8)).astype(np.float32)
+    extra = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(n, n + extra_rows), type=pa.int64()),
+            "category": pa.array([f"cat{i % 4}" for i in range(extra_rows)]),
+            "tags": pa.array([[f"t{i % 3}"] for i in range(extra_rows)]),
+            "doc": pa.array([f"goodbye world document {i}" for i in range(extra_rows)]),
+            "name": pa.array([f"add_{i:05d}" for i in range(extra_rows)]),
+            "value": pa.array(range(n, n + extra_rows), type=pa.int64()),
+            "bloom_val": pa.array(range(n, n + extra_rows), type=pa.int64()),
+            "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                pa.array(extra_vectors.reshape(-1), type=pa.float32()), 8
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(extra, base_dir, mode="append")
+
+    # First optimize: should pull the new fragment into each index.
+    dataset.optimize.optimize_indices()
+    assert_optimize_is_noop(dataset)
+
+    # Consolidate the vector delta so every fragment has the same physical index
+    # coverage; compaction intentionally avoids mixing fragments that do not.
+    dataset.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=10)
+
+    # Compaction invalidates the old fragment coverage, so one optimize is needed
+    # to rebuild each index. Further calls must return to the same steady state.
+    compaction = dataset.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=2 * (n + extra_rows), num_threads=1
+    )
+    assert compaction.fragments_removed > 0
+    dataset.optimize.optimize_indices()
+    assert_optimize_is_noop(dataset)
+
+
 def test_compaction_generates_rewrite_transaction(tmp_path: Path):
     # Create a small dataset with multiple fragments
     base_dir = tmp_path / "rewrite_txn"
@@ -409,3 +874,38 @@ def test_compaction_generates_rewrite_transaction(tmp_path: Path):
         t is not None and t.operation.__class__.__name__ == "Rewrite"
         for t in transactions
     )
+
+
+def test_remap_row_addrs(tmp_path: Path):
+    # Dataset.remap_row_addrs follows rows across a compaction via the
+    # fragment-reuse index: an address valid before the compaction maps to the
+    # row's new address after it. None when there is no fragment-reuse index.
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "dataset"
+    data = pa.table({"id": range(1_000), "v": range(1_000)})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, base_dir, max_rows_per_file=100)  # 10 fragments
+
+    # No fragment-reuse index yet -> None (nothing to remap against).
+    addrs = pa.array([0, 1 << 32, (5 << 32) | 7], pa.uint64())
+    assert ds.remap_row_addrs(addrs) is None
+
+    before = ds.scanner(columns=["id"], with_row_address=True).to_table()
+    old = dict(zip(before["id"].to_pylist(), before["_rowaddr"].to_pylist()))
+
+    # A deferred-remap compaction records a fragment-reuse index only when it
+    # rewrites data an index covers, so index a column first.
+    ds.create_scalar_index("id", "BTREE")
+
+    ds.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=1_000, defer_index_remap=True, num_threads=1
+    )
+    ds = lance.dataset(base_dir)
+    assert any(idx.name == "__lance_frag_reuse" for idx in ds.describe_indices())
+
+    after = ds.scanner(columns=["id"], with_row_address=True).to_table()
+    new = dict(zip(after["id"].to_pylist(), after["_rowaddr"].to_pylist()))
+
+    sample = [0, 137, 999]
+    remapped = ds.remap_row_addrs(
+        pa.array([old[i] for i in sample], pa.uint64())
+    ).to_pylist()
+    assert remapped == [new[i] for i in sample]
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_otel.py b/python/python/tests/test_otel.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a96e0125f56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_otel.py
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+
+# The metrics recorder is process-global and installed once, so the whole
+# bridge is exercised in a single test to avoid cross-test global-state coupling.
+
+
+def _metrics_by_name(reader):
+    data = reader.get_metrics_data()
+    result = {}
+    for resource_metrics in data.resource_metrics:
+        for scope_metrics in resource_metrics.scope_metrics:
+            for metric in scope_metrics.metrics:
+                result[metric.name] = metric
+    return result
+
+
+def test_instrument_lance_metrics_exports_object_store_metrics(tmp_path):
+    pytest.importorskip("opentelemetry.sdk.metrics")
+    from lance.otel import instrument_lance_metrics
+    from opentelemetry.sdk.metrics import MeterProvider
+    from opentelemetry.sdk.metrics.export import InMemoryMetricReader
+
+    reader = InMemoryMetricReader()
+    provider = MeterProvider(metric_readers=[reader])
+    assert instrument_lance_metrics(provider)
+
+    # The catalog is populated once the recorder is installed.
+    from lance.lance import lance_metrics_catalog
+
+    catalog = {desc.name: desc for desc in lance_metrics_catalog()}
+    assert "lance_object_store_requests_total" in catalog
+    assert catalog["lance_object_store_request_duration_seconds"].kind == "histogram"
+    # Gauges and the retryable counter are described too, so they surface in the
+    # export even when a plain write doesn't happen to emit them.
+    assert catalog["lance_object_store_retryable_responses_total"].kind == "counter"
+    assert catalog["lance_object_store_in_flight_requests"].kind == "gauge"
+
+    # Generate object store activity on the local filesystem (scheme "file").
+    table = pa.table({"id": pa.array(range(256))})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, str(tmp_path / "ds.lance"))
+    assert dataset.to_table().num_rows == 256
+
+    metrics = _metrics_by_name(reader)
+
+    requests = metrics["lance_object_store_requests_total"]
+    points = list(requests.data.data_points)
+    assert points, "expected at least one request data point"
+    # The `base` label carries the store scheme ("file") by default.
+    assert all("base" in p.attributes and "operation" in p.attributes for p in points)
+    assert sum(p.value for p in points) > 0
+
+    # Histograms are decomposed into bucket / count / sum observable counters.
+    bucket = metrics["lance_object_store_request_duration_seconds_bucket"]
+    bucket_points = list(bucket.data.data_points)
+    assert bucket_points
+    assert all("le" in p.attributes for p in bucket_points)
+    # The implicit +Inf bucket must be present and is the cumulative maximum.
+    assert any(p.attributes["le"] == "+Inf" for p in bucket_points)
+
+    count = metrics["lance_object_store_request_duration_seconds_count"]
+    assert sum(p.value for p in count.data.data_points) > 0
+
+    # The `_sum` instrument must also be wired and report positive latency.
+    duration_sum = metrics["lance_object_store_request_duration_seconds_sum"]
+    assert sum(p.value for p in duration_sum.data.data_points) > 0
+
+
+def test_snapshot_empty_before_install_is_safe():
+    # snapshot is callable regardless of installation state and never raises.
+    from lance.lance import snapshot_lance_metrics
+
+    assert isinstance(snapshot_lance_metrics(), list)
+
+
+def test_instrument_warns_when_recorder_unavailable(monkeypatch):
+    # A foreign `metrics` recorder already installed -> register returns False;
+    # instrument_lance_metrics must warn and return False without instrumenting.
+    pytest.importorskip("opentelemetry.sdk.metrics")
+    import lance.otel as otel
+    from opentelemetry.sdk.metrics import MeterProvider
+    from opentelemetry.sdk.metrics.export import InMemoryMetricReader
+
+    monkeypatch.setattr(otel, "register_lance_metrics_recorder", lambda: False)
+
+    reader = InMemoryMetricReader()
+    provider = MeterProvider(metric_readers=[reader])
+    with pytest.warns(UserWarning, match="recorder"):
+        assert otel.instrument_lance_metrics(provider) is False
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_pydantic.py b/python/python/tests/test_pydantic.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3db60885f6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_pydantic.py
@@ -0,0 +1,177 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+from enum import Enum
+from typing import List, Optional
+
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+
+BaseModel = pytest.importorskip("pydantic").BaseModel
+Field = pytest.importorskip("pydantic").Field
+
+from lance.pydantic import (  # noqa: E402
+    MultiVector,
+    Vector,
+    is_nullable,
+    pydantic_to_schema,
+)
+
+
+def test_scalar_and_optional_and_list_unchanged():
+    class Simple(BaseModel):
+        name: str
+        score: float
+        tag: Optional[str] = None
+        values: List[int]
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Simple)
+    assert schema == pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("name", pa.utf8(), False),
+            pa.field("score", pa.float64(), False),
+            pa.field("tag", pa.utf8(), True),
+            pa.field("values", pa.list_(pa.int64()), False),
+        ]
+    )
+
+
+def test_nested_model_becomes_struct():
+    class Address(BaseModel):
+        city: str
+        zip_code: str
+
+    class Person(BaseModel):
+        name: str
+        address: Address
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Person)
+    address_type = pa.struct(
+        [
+            pa.field("city", pa.utf8(), False),
+            pa.field("zip_code", pa.utf8(), False),
+        ]
+    )
+    assert schema == pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("name", pa.utf8(), False),
+            pa.field("address", address_type, False),
+        ]
+    )
+
+
+def test_string_enum_is_dictionary_encoded():
+    class Color(str, Enum):
+        RED = "red"
+        GREEN = "green"
+
+    class Item(BaseModel):
+        color: Color
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Item)
+    assert schema.field("color").type == pa.dictionary(pa.int32(), pa.utf8())
+
+
+def test_int_enum_uses_native_type():
+    class Priority(int, Enum):
+        LOW = 0
+        HIGH = 1
+
+    class Task(BaseModel):
+        priority: Priority
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Task)
+    assert schema.field("priority").type == pa.int64()
+
+
+def test_vector_field():
+    class Doc(BaseModel):
+        id: int
+        embedding: Vector(8)
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Doc)
+    assert schema.field("embedding").type == pa.list_(pa.float32(), 8)
+    assert schema.field("embedding").nullable is True
+
+
+def test_vector_field_not_nullable():
+    class Doc(BaseModel):
+        id: int
+        embedding: Vector(8, nullable=False)
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Doc)
+    assert schema.field("embedding").nullable is False
+
+
+def test_multi_vector_field():
+    class Doc(BaseModel):
+        id: int
+        embeddings: MultiVector(4)
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Doc)
+    assert schema.field("embeddings").type == pa.list_(pa.list_(pa.float32(), 4))
+
+
+def test_tz_aware_datetime_field():
+    from datetime import datetime
+
+    class Event(BaseModel):
+        occurred_at: datetime = Field(json_schema_extra={"tz": "UTC"})
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Event)
+    assert schema.field("occurred_at").type == pa.timestamp("us", tz="UTC")
+
+
+def test_naive_datetime_field():
+    from datetime import datetime
+
+    class Event(BaseModel):
+        occurred_at: datetime
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Event)
+    assert schema.field("occurred_at").type == pa.timestamp("us", tz=None)
+
+
+def test_defaulted_non_optional_field_is_not_nullable():
+    """A plain default value (without Optional) should not make a field
+    nullable -- this matches lancedb's behavior, tightened from lance's
+    previous default-implies-nullable inference."""
+
+    class Counter(BaseModel):
+        count: int = 0
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Counter)
+    assert schema.field("count").nullable is False
+
+    field_info = Counter.model_fields["count"]
+    assert is_nullable(field_info) is False
+
+
+def test_optional_field_is_nullable():
+    class Counter(BaseModel):
+        count: Optional[int] = None
+
+    schema = pydantic_to_schema(Counter)
+    assert schema.field("count").nullable is True
+
+
+def test_v1_style_field_nullable_vector_overrides_allow_none():
+    """Simulates a Pydantic v1 ModelField (no `.annotation` attribute; type
+    is read off `.outer_type_`, nullability off `.allow_none`) to verify a
+    nullable Vector/MultiVector annotation overrides `allow_none=False`
+    under v1, matching the v2 behavior tested in test_vector_field above."""
+
+    class FakeV1Field:
+        def __init__(self, outer_type_, allow_none):
+            self.outer_type_ = outer_type_
+            self.allow_none = allow_none
+
+    nullable_vector = Vector(8, nullable=True)
+    assert is_nullable(FakeV1Field(nullable_vector, allow_none=False)) is True
+
+    non_nullable_vector = Vector(8, nullable=False)
+    assert is_nullable(FakeV1Field(non_nullable_vector, allow_none=False)) is False
+
+    # Plain (non-Vector) types still fall back to `allow_none`.
+    assert is_nullable(FakeV1Field(str, allow_none=True)) is True
+    assert is_nullable(FakeV1Field(str, allow_none=False)) is False
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_row_addr_prefilter.py b/python/python/tests/test_row_addr_prefilter.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..aef647e150f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_row_addr_prefilter.py
@@ -0,0 +1,318 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""End-to-end tests for the external row-address prefilter.
+
+``row_addr_allowlist`` / ``row_addr_blocklist`` restrict a scan to a set of row
+addresses supplied by the caller, rather than to rows a filter expression
+selects. The mask is applied before ranking, so a KNN or full-text search
+computes top-k over the surviving rows instead of trimming the result
+afterwards -- the two differ whenever k is smaller than the candidate set.
+
+Each test asserts against ``_rowid`` ground truth so a mask that is silently
+dropped (which would return every row) fails rather than passing by accident.
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import os
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
+from lance.dataset import ScannerBuilder, serialize_row_addrs
+from lance.file import LanceFileWriter
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from pathlib import Path
+
+N = 256
+DIM = 8
+
+
+def _write(tmp_path: Path, with_index: bool = False) -> lance.LanceDataset:
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(1234)
+    vectors = rng.standard_normal((N, DIM)).astype(np.float32)
+    tbl = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(N), pa.int64()),
+            "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                pa.array(vectors.reshape(-1), pa.float32()), DIM
+            ),
+            "text": pa.array([f"row {i} lorem ipsum" for i in range(N)]),
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, str(tmp_path / "t.lance"), mode="overwrite")
+    if with_index:
+        # IVF_FLAT with both probe bounds set to num_partitions is exact, so the
+        # masked result can be compared against brute force without recall slack.
+        ds.create_index("vector", index_type="IVF_FLAT", num_partitions=4, metric="l2")
+    return ds
+
+
+def _rowids(ds: lance.LanceDataset) -> list[int]:
+    return ds.to_table(with_row_id=True)["_rowid"].to_pylist()
+
+
+def test_serialize_row_addrs_round_trips_through_a_scan(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    ds = _write(tmp_path)
+    addrs = _rowids(ds)
+    want = addrs[3:9]
+
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        with_row_id=True, row_addr_allowlist=serialize_row_addrs(want)
+    ).to_table()
+    assert got["_rowid"].to_pylist() == want
+
+
+def test_allowlist_and_blocklist_combine(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    ds = _write(tmp_path)
+    addrs = _rowids(ds)
+
+    allow, block = addrs[:10], addrs[5:15]
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        with_row_id=True,
+        row_addr_allowlist=serialize_row_addrs(allow),
+        row_addr_blocklist=serialize_row_addrs(block),
+    ).to_table()
+    assert got["_rowid"].to_pylist() == addrs[:5]
+
+    # Block alone excludes and leaves everything else.
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        with_row_id=True, row_addr_blocklist=serialize_row_addrs(addrs[:5])
+    ).to_table()
+    assert got["_rowid"].to_pylist() == addrs[5:]
+
+
+def test_no_mask_reads_everything(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    # Guards the "no mask" vs "empty mask" distinction: omitting both must not
+    # be read as an allowlist of nothing.
+    ds = _write(tmp_path)
+    assert ds.scanner().to_table().num_rows == N
+
+
+def test_empty_allowlist_selects_nothing(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    ds = _write(tmp_path)
+    got = ds.scanner(row_addr_allowlist=serialize_row_addrs([])).to_table()
+    assert got.num_rows == 0
+
+
+def test_mask_composes_with_a_filter(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    ds = _write(tmp_path)
+    addrs = _rowids(ds)
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        columns=["id"],
+        filter="id % 2 == 0",
+        row_addr_allowlist=serialize_row_addrs(addrs[:20]),
+    ).to_table()
+    assert got["id"].to_pylist() == [i for i in range(20) if i % 2 == 0]
+
+
+def test_builder_setter_matches_the_kwarg(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    ds = _write(tmp_path)
+    blob = serialize_row_addrs(_rowids(ds)[2:7])
+    from_kwarg = ds.scanner(with_row_id=True, row_addr_allowlist=blob).to_table()
+    from_builder = (
+        ScannerBuilder(ds)
+        .with_row_id(True)
+        .row_addr_prefilter(allowlist=blob)
+        .to_scanner()
+        .to_table()
+    )
+    assert from_kwarg["_rowid"].to_pylist() == from_builder["_rowid"].to_pylist()
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("with_index", [False, True])
+def test_knn_topk_is_computed_over_masked_rows(
+    tmp_path: Path, with_index: bool
+) -> None:
+    # The point of a prefilter: with k=5 and a 10-row mask, post-filtering a
+    # global top-5 would usually return fewer than 5 (often 0) rows.
+    ds = _write(tmp_path, with_index=with_index)
+    addrs = _rowids(ds)
+    allowed = addrs[100:110]
+    query = np.zeros(DIM, dtype=np.float32)
+
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        nearest={
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": query,
+            "k": 5,
+            "minimum_nprobes": 4,
+            "maximum_nprobes": 4,
+        },
+        with_row_id=True,
+        row_addr_allowlist=serialize_row_addrs(allowed),
+    ).to_table()
+
+    assert got.num_rows == 5
+    assert set(got["_rowid"].to_pylist()) <= set(allowed)
+
+    # Exactly the 5 nearest *within* the mask, not the global 5 intersected.
+    vectors = np.stack(
+        [np.asarray(v) for v in ds.to_table(columns=["vector"])["vector"].to_pylist()]
+    )
+    by_addr = dict(zip(addrs, vectors))
+    expect = sorted(allowed, key=lambda a: np.linalg.norm(by_addr[a] - query))[:5]
+    assert sorted(got["_rowid"].to_pylist()) == sorted(expect)
+
+
+def test_knn_blocklist_excludes_the_nearest(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    ds = _write(tmp_path)
+    query = np.zeros(DIM, dtype=np.float32)
+    unmasked = (
+        ds.scanner(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 3}, with_row_id=True)
+        .to_table()["_rowid"]
+        .to_pylist()
+    )
+
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 3},
+        with_row_id=True,
+        row_addr_blocklist=serialize_row_addrs(unmasked[:1]),
+    ).to_table()
+
+    assert got.num_rows == 3  # refilled, not truncated
+    assert unmasked[0] not in got["_rowid"].to_pylist()
+
+
+def test_full_text_search_honors_the_mask(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    ds = _write(tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED")
+    addrs = _rowids(ds)
+    allowed = addrs[50:60]
+
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        full_text_query="lorem",
+        with_row_id=True,
+        row_addr_allowlist=serialize_row_addrs(allowed),
+        limit=5,
+    ).to_table()
+
+    assert got.num_rows == 5
+    assert set(got["_rowid"].to_pylist()) <= set(allowed)
+
+
+def test_rejects_a_malformed_mask(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    ds = _write(tmp_path)
+    with pytest.raises(Exception, match="(?i)row address mask|invalid"):
+        ds.scanner(row_addr_allowlist=b"not a treemap").to_table()
+
+
+def _overlay(
+    ds, base_dir: Path, name: str, batch: pa.Table, fields: list[int], offsets
+):
+    """Commit a data overlay covering `offsets` of fragment 0.
+
+    An overlay committed after an index makes the indexed values stale, so the
+    planner replays those rows through a separate take. That replay is a second
+    row source, and it has to honor the caller's mask like every other one.
+    """
+    path = base_dir / "data" / name
+    with LanceFileWriter(str(path)) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(batch)
+    base_df = ds.get_fragments()[0].metadata.files[0]
+    data_file = lance.fragment.DataFile(
+        path=name,
+        fields=fields,
+        column_indices=list(range(len(fields))),
+        file_major_version=base_df.file_major_version,
+        file_minor_version=base_df.file_minor_version,
+        file_size_bytes=os.path.getsize(path),
+    )
+    op = lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlay(
+        [
+            lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayGroup(
+                0, [lance.LanceOperation.DataOverlayFile(data_file, offsets=offsets)]
+            )
+        ]
+    )
+    return lance.LanceDataset.commit(ds, op, read_version=ds.version)
+
+
+def test_overlay_stale_replay_scan_respects_mask(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "ov_scan"
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array(range(10), pa.int32()),
+                "val": pa.array([i * 10 for i in range(10)], pa.int32()),
+            }
+        ),
+        base_dir,
+    )
+    # Index first, then overlay: offset 1 now reads 999 while the index still
+    # says 10, so `val = 999` can only be answered by the stale replay.
+    ds.create_scalar_index("val", index_type="BTREE")
+    ds = _overlay(
+        ds,
+        base_dir,
+        "ov.lance",
+        pa.table({"val": pa.array([999], pa.int32())}),
+        fields=[1],
+        offsets=[1],
+    )
+
+    base = ds.scanner(filter="val = 999", with_row_id=True).to_table()
+    assert base.num_rows == 1, "fixture did not produce a stale replay"
+    stale_addr = base["_rowid"].to_pylist()[0]
+
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        filter="val = 999", row_addr_allowlist=serialize_row_addrs([])
+    ).to_table()
+    assert got.num_rows == 0, "stale replay must not return rows the mask excludes"
+
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        filter="val = 999",
+        with_row_id=True,
+        row_addr_allowlist=serialize_row_addrs([stale_addr]),
+    ).to_table()
+    assert got["_rowid"].to_pylist() == [stale_addr]
+
+
+def test_overlay_stale_replay_ann_respects_mask(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    base_dir = tmp_path / "ov_ann"
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(7)
+    vectors = rng.standard_normal((N, DIM)).astype(np.float32)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array(range(N), pa.int64()),
+                "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                    pa.array(vectors.reshape(-1), pa.float32()), DIM
+                ),
+            }
+        ),
+        base_dir,
+    )
+    ds.create_index("vector", index_type="IVF_FLAT", num_partitions=4, metric="l2")
+
+    # Move two rows onto the query point after indexing. The ANN index still has
+    # their old vectors, so they can only surface through the stale replay.
+    query = np.zeros(DIM, dtype=np.float32)
+    moved = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+        pa.array(np.zeros(2 * DIM, dtype=np.float32), pa.float32()), DIM
+    )
+    ds = _overlay(
+        ds,
+        base_dir,
+        "ov_vec.lance",
+        pa.table({"vector": moved}),
+        fields=[1],
+        offsets=[3, 7],
+    )
+
+    base = ds.scanner(
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 5}, with_row_id=True
+    ).to_table()
+    assert base.num_rows > 0, "fixture did not produce ANN results"
+
+    got = ds.scanner(
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 5},
+        row_addr_allowlist=serialize_row_addrs([]),
+    ).to_table()
+    assert got.num_rows == 0, (
+        "the ANN stale replay must not return rows the mask excludes"
+    )
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_s3_ddb.py b/python/python/tests/test_s3_ddb.py
index b9c9e4be6c0..5289dd176fb 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_s3_ddb.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_s3_ddb.py
@@ -212,6 +212,58 @@ def writh_dataset_with_start_barrier():
     assert lance.dataset(table_dir).count_rows() == expected_version * 2
 
 
+@pytest.mark.integration
+def test_s3_ddb_branches(s3_bucket: str, ddb_table: str):
+    """Branches on a table committed through the DynamoDB external manifest
+    store.
+
+    The DDB store keys version chains by base uri, so each branch chain must
+    get its own entries via its branch-qualified path. Both chains are given
+    the same version number with diverged data so a wrong-chain resolution
+    cannot pass silently.
+    """
+    storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
+    table_name = uuid.uuid4().hex
+    table_dir = f"s3+ddb://{s3_bucket}/{table_name}?ddbTableName={ddb_table}"
+
+    # main: v1 (a=1), v2 (a=2)
+    lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 1}]), table_dir, storage_options=storage_options
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 2}]),
+        table_dir,
+        mode="append",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+    )
+
+    # Fork "dev" at v2 and commit on it, then diverge main to the same
+    # version number.
+    dev = ds.create_branch("dev", 2)
+    dev = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 3}]),
+        dev,
+        mode="append",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.Table.from_pylist([{"a": 100}]),
+        table_dir,
+        mode="append",
+        storage_options=storage_options,
+    )
+
+    assert sorted(dev.to_table()["a"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 3]
+    assert sorted(ds.to_table()["a"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 100]
+
+    # Cross-branch checkout at the overlapping version number resolves each
+    # chain's own data.
+    on_dev = ds.checkout_version(("dev", 3))
+    assert sorted(on_dev.to_table()["a"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 3]
+    back_on_main = dev.checkout_version(("main", None))
+    assert sorted(back_on_main.to_table()["a"].to_pylist()) == [1, 2, 100]
+
+
 @pytest.mark.integration
 def test_s3_unsafe(s3_bucket: str):
     storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
@@ -263,6 +315,29 @@ def test_file_writer_reader(s3_bucket: str):
         == global_buffer_text
     )
 
+    # The writer reports the size of the object it just wrote, so callers do not
+    # need a second client to stat it.
+    s3 = get_boto3_client("s3", endpoint_url=CONFIG["aws_endpoint"])
+    head = s3.head_object(Bucket=s3_bucket, Key="foo.lance")
+    assert writer.size_bytes == head["ContentLength"]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.integration
+def test_file_writer_size_bytes_multipart(s3_bucket: str):
+    # Large enough to exceed the single-PUT threshold, so the write goes through
+    # the multipart path where the reported size is filled in on completion.
+    storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
+    del storage_options["dynamodb_endpoint"]
+    table = pa.table({"a": pa.array(range(4 * 1024 * 1024), type=pa.int64())})
+    file_path = f"s3://{s3_bucket}/multipart.lance"
+    with LanceFileWriter(str(file_path), storage_options=storage_options) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(table)
+
+    s3 = get_boto3_client("s3", endpoint_url=CONFIG["aws_endpoint"])
+    head = s3.head_object(Bucket=s3_bucket, Key="multipart.lance")
+    assert head["ContentLength"] > 5 * 1024 * 1024
+    assert writer.size_bytes == head["ContentLength"]
+
 
 @pytest.mark.integration
 def test_file_session_upload_download(s3_bucket: str, tmp_path):
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_scalar_index.py b/python/python/tests/test_scalar_index.py
index 75ec01d9a82..ef01a775809 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_scalar_index.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_scalar_index.py
@@ -1,25 +1,36 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+import collections.abc
 import json
 import os
 import random
 import re
 import shutil
 import string
+import subprocess
+import sys
+import uuid
 import zipfile
 from datetime import date, datetime, timedelta
+from decimal import Decimal
 from pathlib import Path
 
 import lance
 import numpy as np
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pytest
+from conftest import ProgressRecorder, progress_event_tags, stage_progress_values
+from lance.dataset import ScannerBuilder
 from lance.indices import IndexConfig
 from lance.query import (
     BooleanQuery,
     BoostQuery,
+    CombinedFieldsQuery,
+    DocumentGranularity,
+    FullTextOperator,
     MatchQuery,
+    MinHashQuery,
     MultiMatchQuery,
     Occur,
     PhraseQuery,
@@ -93,87 +104,72 @@ def data_table(indexed_dataset: lance.LanceDataset):
     return indexed_dataset.scanner().to_table()
 
 
-@pytest.fixture
-def btree_comparison_datasets(tmp_path):
-    """Setup datasets for B-tree comparison tests"""
-    # Test configuration
-    num_fragments = 3
-    rows_per_fragment = 10000
-    total_rows = num_fragments * rows_per_fragment
-
-    # Create dataset for fragment-level indexing
-    fragment_ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
-        tmp_path / "fragment",
-        num_fragments=num_fragments,
-        rows_per_fragment=rows_per_fragment,
-    )
-
-    # Create dataset for complete indexing (same data structure)
-    complete_ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
-        tmp_path / "complete",
-        num_fragments=num_fragments,
-        rows_per_fragment=rows_per_fragment,
-    )
-
-    import uuid
-
-    # Build fragment-level B-tree index
-    fragment_index_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
-    fragment_index_name = "fragment_btree_precise_test"
+def _commit_segmented_btree_index(dataset, column, index_name):
+    segments = [
+        dataset.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column=column,
+            index_type="BTREE",
+            name=index_name,
+            fragment_ids=[fragment.fragment_id],
+        )
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments()
+    ]
+    return dataset.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, column, segments)
 
-    fragments = fragment_ds.get_fragments()
-    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in fragments]
 
-    # Create fragment-level indices
-    for fragment in fragments:
-        fragment_id = fragment.fragment_id
+def test_create_scalar_index_rejects_invalid_uuid(tmp_path):
+    """Invalid UUID strings passed to create_scalar_index and merge_index_metadata
+    must surface as a Python ValueError at the FFI boundary."""
+    data = pa.table({"id": pa.array(range(100), type=pa.int64())})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path / "ds")
 
-        fragment_ds.create_scalar_index(
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Invalid UUID"):
+        dataset.create_scalar_index(
             column="id",
             index_type="BTREE",
-            name=fragment_index_name,
-            replace=False,
-            index_uuid=fragment_index_id,
-            fragment_ids=[fragment_id],
+            index_uuid="not-a-uuid",
         )
 
-    # Merge fragment indices
-    fragment_ds.merge_index_metadata(fragment_index_id, index_type="BTREE")
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Invalid UUID"):
+        dataset.merge_index_metadata("also-not-a-uuid", index_type="BTREE")
 
-    # Create Index object for fragment-based index
-    from lance.dataset import Index
 
-    field_id = fragment_ds.schema.get_field_index("id")
+@pytest.fixture
+def btree_comparison_datasets(tmp_path):
+    """Setup datasets for B-tree comparison tests"""
+    num_fragments = 3
+    rows_per_fragment = 100
+    total_rows = num_fragments * rows_per_fragment
 
-    fragment_index = Index(
-        uuid=fragment_index_id,
-        name=fragment_index_name,
-        fields=[field_id],
-        dataset_version=fragment_ds.version,
-        fragment_ids=set(fragment_ids),
-        index_version=0,
+    fragment_path = tmp_path / "fragment"
+    fragment_ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        fragment_path,
+        num_fragments=num_fragments,
+        rows_per_fragment=rows_per_fragment,
     )
 
-    # Commit fragment-based index
-    create_fragment_index_op = lance.LanceOperation.CreateIndex(
-        new_indices=[fragment_index],
-        removed_indices=[],
+    complete_path = tmp_path / "complete"
+    shutil.copytree(fragment_path, complete_path)
+    complete_ds = lance.dataset(complete_path)
+    fragment_count = len(fragment_ds.get_fragments())
+    complete_count = len(complete_ds.get_fragments())
+    assert fragment_count == num_fragments, (
+        f"Expected {num_fragments} segmented fragments, got {fragment_count}"
+    )
+    assert complete_count == num_fragments, (
+        f"Expected {num_fragments} complete-index fragments, got {complete_count}"
     )
 
-    fragment_ds_committed = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
-        fragment_ds.uri,
-        create_fragment_index_op,
-        read_version=fragment_ds.version,
+    fragment_ds_committed = _commit_segmented_btree_index(
+        fragment_ds, "id", "fragment_btree_precise_test"
     )
 
-    # Build complete B-tree index
     complete_index_name = f"complete_btree_{uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]}"
     complete_ds.create_scalar_index(
         column="id",
         index_type="BTREE",
         name=complete_index_name,
     )
-    # Reload the dataset to get the indexed version
     complete_ds = lance.dataset(complete_ds.uri)
 
     return {
@@ -184,14 +180,170 @@ def btree_comparison_datasets(tmp_path):
     }
 
 
-def test_load_indices(indexed_dataset: lance.LanceDataset):
-    indices = indexed_dataset.list_indices()
-    vec_idx = next(idx for idx in indices if idx["type"] == "IVF_PQ")
-    scalar_idx = next(idx for idx in indices if idx["type"] == "BTree")
+def test_describe_indices_vector_and_scalar(indexed_dataset: lance.LanceDataset):
+    indices = indexed_dataset.describe_indices()
+    vec_idx = next(idx for idx in indices if "VectorIndex" in idx.type_url)
+    scalar_idx = next(idx for idx in indices if idx.index_type == "BTree")
     assert vec_idx is not None
     assert scalar_idx is not None
 
 
+def test_list_indices_characterization(indexed_dataset: lance.LanceDataset):
+    """Lock down the backwards-compatible shape of the deprecated list_indices().
+
+    list_indices() returns a list of plain dicts (one per index segment), not
+    Index dataclasses. This characterization test guards the dict keys and
+    values so the deprecated method stays backwards compatible.
+    """
+    from lance.bitmap import Bitmap
+
+    with pytest.warns(DeprecationWarning):
+        indices = indexed_dataset.list_indices()
+
+    assert len(indices) == 2
+    by_name = {idx["name"]: idx for idx in indices}
+    assert set(by_name) == {"vector_idx", "meta_idx"}
+
+    expected_keys = {
+        "name",
+        "type",
+        "uuid",
+        "fields",
+        "version",
+        "fragment_ids",
+        "base_id",
+    }
+    for idx in indices:
+        assert set(idx) == expected_keys
+        assert isinstance(idx["uuid"], str) and len(idx["uuid"]) > 0
+        assert isinstance(idx["fields"], list)
+        # `fragment_ids` is a Bitmap rather than a builtin `set`, so the
+        # compatibility that matters is that it still answers the abstract
+        # check and still supports set algebra.
+        assert isinstance(idx["fragment_ids"], Bitmap)
+        assert isinstance(idx["fragment_ids"], collections.abc.Set)
+        assert idx["fragment_ids"] & {0} == {0}
+        assert idx["fragment_ids"] - {0} == set()
+        assert isinstance(idx["version"], int)
+        assert idx["type"] != "Unknown"
+        assert idx["base_id"] is None
+
+    vector_idx = by_name["vector_idx"]
+    assert vector_idx["type"] == "IVF_PQ"
+    assert vector_idx["fields"] == ["vector"]
+    assert vector_idx["fragment_ids"] == {0}
+
+    meta_idx = by_name["meta_idx"]
+    assert meta_idx["type"] == "BTree"
+    assert meta_idx["fields"] == ["meta"]
+    assert meta_idx["fragment_ids"] == {0}
+
+
+def test_list_indices_nested_field_path(tmp_path):
+    """list_indices() reports nested fields as full dotted paths."""
+    schema = pa.schema(
+        [
+            pa.field("id", pa.int64()),
+            pa.field("meta", pa.struct([pa.field("lang", pa.string())])),
+        ]
+    )
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": [1, 2, 3],
+            "meta": [{"lang": "en"}, {"lang": "fr"}, {"lang": "en"}],
+        },
+        schema=schema,
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index(column="meta.lang", index_type="BTREE")
+
+    with pytest.warns(DeprecationWarning):
+        indices = ds.list_indices()
+
+    assert len(indices) == 1
+    assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["meta.lang"]
+
+
+def _commit_index(ds, index):
+    """Commit a single raw Index entry via the CreateIndex operation."""
+    return lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        ds.uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.CreateIndex(new_indices=[index], removed_indices=[]),
+        read_version=ds.version,
+    )
+
+
+def test_list_indices_index_without_details(tmp_path):
+    """An index whose manifest entry has no index details (e.g. committed by an
+    older writer) is still reported on a best-effort basis: describe_indices()
+    does not error, and the type is reported as "Unknown"."""
+    from lance.dataset import Index
+
+    data = pa.table({"id": range(100), "val": range(100)})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+
+    field_id = ds.schema.get_field_index("id")
+    fragment_ids = {f.fragment_id for f in ds.get_fragments()}
+    ds = _commit_index(
+        ds,
+        Index(
+            uuid=str(uuid.uuid4()),
+            name="legacy_idx",
+            fields=[field_id],
+            dataset_version=ds.version,
+            fragment_ids=fragment_ids,
+            index_version=0,
+        ),
+    )
+
+    described = ds.describe_indices()
+    assert len(described) == 1
+    assert described[0].name == "legacy_idx"
+    assert described[0].index_type == "Unknown"
+    assert described[0].type_url == ""
+
+    with pytest.warns(DeprecationWarning):
+        listed = ds.list_indices()
+    assert len(listed) == 1
+    assert listed[0]["name"] == "legacy_idx"
+    assert listed[0]["type"] == "Unknown"
+
+
+def test_list_indices_legacy_vector_index_without_details(tmp_path):
+    """A legacy vector index predates VectorIndexDetails: it has no index
+    details but stores a monolithic index file. Its type is recognized as
+    "Vector" from the index file rather than reported as "Unknown"."""
+    from lance.dataset import Index, IndexFile
+
+    data = pa.table({"id": range(100), "val": range(100)})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+
+    field_id = ds.schema.get_field_index("id")
+    fragment_ids = {f.fragment_id for f in ds.get_fragments()}
+    ds = _commit_index(
+        ds,
+        Index(
+            uuid=str(uuid.uuid4()),
+            name="legacy_vector_idx",
+            fields=[field_id],
+            dataset_version=ds.version,
+            fragment_ids=fragment_ids,
+            index_version=0,
+            # "index.idx" is the legacy monolithic index file name; its presence
+            # is how a pre-details vector index is recognized.
+            files=[IndexFile(path="index.idx", size_bytes=0)],
+        ),
+    )
+
+    described = ds.describe_indices()
+    assert len(described) == 1
+    assert described[0].index_type == "Vector"
+
+    with pytest.warns(DeprecationWarning):
+        listed = ds.list_indices()
+    assert listed[0]["type"] == "Vector"
+
+
 def test_indexed_scalar_scan(indexed_dataset: lance.LanceDataset, data_table: pa.Table):
     sample_meta = data_table["meta"][50]
     expected_price = data_table["price"][50]
@@ -262,6 +414,107 @@ def test_indexed_between(tmp_path):
     assert actual_data.num_rows == 0
 
 
+def test_create_inverted_index_progress_callback(tmp_path):
+    ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        tmp_path, num_fragments=2, rows_per_fragment=75
+    )
+    progress_recorder = ProgressRecorder()
+
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        column="text",
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        remove_stop_words=False,
+        progress_callback=progress_recorder,
+    )
+
+    tags = progress_event_tags(progress_recorder.events)
+    expected_order = [
+        "start:load_data",
+        "complete:load_data",
+        "start:tokenize_docs",
+        "complete:tokenize_docs",
+        "start:copy_partitions",
+        "complete:copy_partitions",
+        "start:write_metadata",
+        "complete:write_metadata",
+    ]
+    positions = [tags.index(tag) for tag in expected_order]
+    assert positions == sorted(positions)
+
+    tokenize_progress = stage_progress_values(progress_recorder.events, "tokenize_docs")
+    assert tokenize_progress
+    assert max(tokenize_progress) == ds.count_rows()
+
+    assert "progress:copy_partitions" in tags
+    assert "progress:write_metadata" in tags
+    assert "start:merge_partitions" not in tags
+
+
+def test_merge_index_metadata_inverted_index_progress_callback(tmp_path):
+    ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        tmp_path, num_fragments=3, rows_per_fragment=60
+    )
+
+    inverted_index_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    for fragment in ds.get_fragments():
+        ds.create_scalar_index(
+            column="text",
+            index_type="INVERTED",
+            name="text_inverted_progress_idx",
+            replace=False,
+            index_uuid=inverted_index_id,
+            fragment_ids=[fragment.fragment_id],
+            remove_stop_words=False,
+        )
+
+    progress_recorder = ProgressRecorder()
+    ds.merge_index_metadata(
+        inverted_index_id,
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        progress_callback=progress_recorder,
+    )
+
+    tags = progress_event_tags(progress_recorder.events)
+    expected_order = [
+        "start:read_partition_metadata",
+        "complete:read_partition_metadata",
+        "start:remap_partition_files",
+        "complete:remap_partition_files",
+        "start:write_merged_metadata",
+        "complete:write_merged_metadata",
+    ]
+    positions = [tags.index(tag) for tag in expected_order]
+    assert positions == sorted(positions)
+
+    metadata_progress = stage_progress_values(
+        progress_recorder.events, "read_partition_metadata"
+    )
+    assert metadata_progress
+    assert metadata_progress[-1] == len(ds.get_fragments())
+    assert "progress:remap_partition_files" in tags
+    assert "progress:write_merged_metadata" in tags
+
+
+def test_create_inverted_index_progress_callback_error_after_completion_is_ignored(
+    tmp_path,
+):
+    ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        tmp_path, num_fragments=2, rows_per_fragment=75
+    )
+    progress_recorder = ProgressRecorder(fail_on_tag="complete:write_metadata")
+
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        column="text",
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        remove_stop_words=False,
+        progress_callback=progress_recorder,
+    )
+
+    tags = progress_event_tags(progress_recorder.events)
+    assert tags[-1] == "complete:write_metadata"
+    assert any(idx.index_type == "Inverted" for idx in ds.describe_indices())
+
+
 def test_index_combination(tmp_path):
     # This test regresses a bug in the index combination logic.
 
@@ -395,13 +648,13 @@ def make_fts_search(ds):
     plan = make_vec_search(ds).explain_plan()
     assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in plan
     assert "KNNVectorDistance" not in plan
-    assert "LanceRead" not in plan
+    assert "num_fragments" not in plan  # no scan; the take prints as LanceRead
     assert make_vec_search(ds).to_table().num_rows == 6
 
     plan = make_fts_search(ds).explain_plan()
     assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in plan
     assert "KNNVectorDistance" not in plan
-    assert "LanceRead" not in plan
+    assert "num_fragments" not in plan  # no scan; the take prints as LanceRead
     assert make_fts_search(ds).to_table().num_rows == 6
 
     # Add new data (including 6 more results)
@@ -419,7 +672,10 @@ def make_fts_search(ds):
     assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in plan
     assert "MaterializeIndex" not in plan
     assert "FlatMatchQuery" in plan
-    assert "LanceScan" in plan
+    # Flat FTS now reads via FilteredReadExec (prints as `LanceRead`) so the
+    # BTree on `id` pushes into the unindexed-fragment scan too.
+    assert "LanceRead" in plan
+    assert "LanceScan" not in plan
     assert make_fts_search(ds).to_table().num_rows == 12
 
     # Update vector index but NOT scalar index
@@ -460,24 +716,87 @@ def test_indexed_vector_scan_postfilter(
     assert scanner.to_table().num_rows == 0
 
 
-def test_fixed_size_binary(tmp_path):
-    arr = pa.array([b"0123012301230123", b"2345234523452345"], pa.uuid())
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "index_type, data_type, values, filter_expr",
+    [
+        pytest.param(
+            "BTREE",
+            pa.uuid(),
+            [b"0123012301230123", b"2345234523452345"],
+            (
+                "value = arrow_cast(0x32333435323334353233343532333435, "
+                "'FixedSizeBinary(16)')"
+            ),
+            id="btree-fixed-size-binary",
+        ),
+        *[
+            pytest.param(
+                index_type,
+                data_type,
+                values,
+                filter_expr,
+                id=f"{index_type.lower()}-{type_name}",
+            )
+            for type_name, data_type, values, filter_expr in [
+                (
+                    "large-string",
+                    pa.large_string(),
+                    ["alpha", "beta", "gamma"],
+                    "value = 'beta'",
+                ),
+                (
+                    "binary",
+                    pa.binary(),
+                    [b"alpha", b"beta", b"gamma"],
+                    "value = arrow_cast(0x62657461, 'Binary')",
+                ),
+                (
+                    "large-binary",
+                    pa.large_binary(),
+                    [b"alpha", b"beta", b"gamma"],
+                    "value = arrow_cast(0x62657461, 'LargeBinary')",
+                ),
+                (
+                    "decimal128",
+                    pa.decimal128(10, 2),
+                    [Decimal("1.00"), Decimal("2.00"), Decimal("3.00")],
+                    "value = arrow_cast(2.00, 'Decimal128(10, 2)')",
+                ),
+                (
+                    "decimal256",
+                    pa.decimal256(76, 2),
+                    [Decimal("1.00"), Decimal("2.00"), Decimal("3.00")],
+                    "value = arrow_cast(2.00, 'Decimal256(76, 2)')",
+                ),
+                (
+                    "duration",
+                    pa.duration("ms"),
+                    [1, 2, 3],
+                    "value = arrow_cast(2, 'Duration(Millisecond)')",
+                ),
+            ]
+            for index_type in ["BTREE", "BITMAP", "ZONEMAP"]
+        ],
+    ],
+)
+def test_scalar_index_types(tmp_path, index_type, data_type, values, filter_expr):
+    values = pa.array(values, type=data_type)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"value": values}), tmp_path)
 
-    ds = lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"uuid": arr}), tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("value", index_type)
 
-    ds.create_scalar_index("uuid", "BTREE")
+    scanner = ds.scanner(filter=filter_expr)
+    assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in scanner.explain_plan()
+    assert scanner.to_table()["value"].to_pylist() == values.slice(1, 1).to_pylist()
 
-    query = (
-        "uuid = arrow_cast(0x32333435323334353233343532333435, 'FixedSizeBinary(16)')"
-    )
-    assert (
-        "ScalarIndexQuery: query=[uuid = 32333435323334353233...]@uuid_idx"
-        in ds.scanner(filter=query).explain_plan()
+    fragment_id = ds.get_fragments()[0].fragment_id
+    segment = ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+        column="value",
+        index_type=index_type,
+        name=f"{index_type.lower()}_segment_idx",
+        fragment_ids=[fragment_id],
     )
-
-    table = ds.scanner(filter=query).to_table()
-    assert table.num_rows == 1
-    assert table.column("uuid").to_pylist() == arr.slice(1, 1).to_pylist()
+    assert segment.fragment_ids == {fragment_id}
 
 
 def test_index_take_batch_size(tmp_path):
@@ -548,9 +867,13 @@ def test_lance_mem_pool_env_var(tmp_path):
 
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("with_position", [True, False])
-def test_full_text_search(dataset, with_position):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("base_tokenizer", ["simple", "icu"])
+def test_full_text_search(dataset, with_position, base_tokenizer):
     dataset.create_scalar_index(
-        "doc", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=with_position
+        "doc",
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        with_position=with_position,
+        base_tokenizer=base_tokenizer,
     )
     row = dataset.take(indices=[0], columns=["doc"])
     query = row.column(0)[0].as_py()
@@ -570,6 +893,341 @@ def test_full_text_search(dataset, with_position):
         )
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("block_size", [128, 256])
+def test_code_analyzer_does_not_split_identifiers_by_default(tmp_path, block_size):
+    table = pa.table({"code": ["GetUserName", "GetUserEmail", "user"]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "code",
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        analyzer="code",
+        block_size=block_size,
+    )
+    assert ds.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].index_version == 3
+
+    results = ds.to_table(
+        columns=["code"],
+        full_text_query=MatchQuery("user", "code"),
+    )
+    assert results["code"].to_pylist() == ["user"]
+
+    stats = ds.stats.index_stats("code_idx")["indices"][0]
+    params = stats["params"]
+    assert "analyzer" not in params
+    assert params["base_tokenizer"] == "code"
+    assert params["split_identifiers"] is False
+
+
+def test_code_analyzer_full_text_search_with_identifier_splitting(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "code": [
+                "getUserName",
+                "set_user_name",
+                "user-name",
+                "username",
+                "other",
+            ]
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "code",
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        analyzer="code",
+        split_identifiers=True,
+    )
+
+    results = ds.to_table(
+        columns=["code"],
+        full_text_query=MatchQuery("user", "code"),
+    )
+    assert set(results["code"].to_pylist()) == {
+        "getUserName",
+        "set_user_name",
+        "user-name",
+    }
+
+    stats = ds.stats.index_stats("code_idx")["indices"][0]
+    params = stats["params"]
+    assert "analyzer" not in params
+    assert params["base_tokenizer"] == "code"
+    assert params["split_identifiers"] is True
+    assert params["split_on_numerics"] is True
+    assert params["preserve_original"] is True
+    assert params["stem"] is False
+    assert params["remove_stop_words"] is False
+
+
+def test_code_analyzer_operator_search_matches_rust_turbofish(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "path": ["turbofish.rs", "comparison.rs"],
+            "code": ["value.parse::<usize>()", "value.parse<usize>()"],
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "code",
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        analyzer="code",
+        index_operators=True,
+    )
+
+    results = ds.to_table(
+        columns=["path"],
+        full_text_query=MatchQuery("::", "code", operator=FullTextOperator.OR),
+    )
+    assert results["path"].to_pylist() == ["turbofish.rs"]
+
+
+def test_code_analyzer_exact_identifier_survives_grouped_top_k(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "path": ["split_0.rs", "split_1.rs", "split_2.rs", "exact.rs"],
+            "code": ["get user name", "get user name", "get user name", "getUserName"],
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "code",
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        analyzer="code",
+        split_identifiers=True,
+    )
+
+    results = ds.scanner(
+        columns=["path", "_score"],
+        full_text_query=MatchQuery(
+            "getUserName", "code", operator=FullTextOperator.AND
+        ),
+        limit=1,
+    ).to_table()
+    assert results["path"].to_pylist() == ["exact.rs"]
+
+
+def test_code_analyzer_flags_require_code_analyzer(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table({"text": ["getUserName"]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="code analyzer flags require analyzer='code'"):
+        ds.create_scalar_index(
+            "text",
+            index_type="INVERTED",
+            split_identifiers=True,
+        )
+
+
+def test_code_analyzer_requires_fts_v3(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table({"code": ["getUserName"]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="requires FTS format_version=3"):
+        ds.create_scalar_index(
+            "code",
+            index_type="INVERTED",
+            analyzer="code",
+            format_version=2,
+        )
+
+
+def test_code_analyzer_complex_code_constructs(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "path": [
+                "edge/trait.rs",
+                "edge/impl.rs",
+                "edge/fn_pointer.rs",
+                "edge/unit_result.rs",
+                "edge/hrtb.rs",
+                "edge/associated.rs",
+                "edge/operators.rs",
+            ],
+            "code": [
+                """
+pub trait EdgeAsyncRepository<'a, T: Send + Sync>
+where
+    T: TryFrom<&'a str, Error = EdgeParseError>,
+{
+    type Output<'b>: Iterator<Item = Result<T, EdgeRepoError>>
+    where
+        Self: 'b;
+
+    async fn fetch_by_key<const N: usize>(
+        &'a self,
+        key: [u8; N],
+    ) -> Result<Self::Output<'a>, EdgeRepoError>;
+}
+""",
+                """
+impl<'a, T, S> EdgeAsyncRepository<'a, T> for EdgeStore<S>
+where
+    T: TryFrom<&'a str, Error = EdgeParseError> + Clone + Send + Sync,
+    S: EdgeBackend<T> + ?Sized,
+{
+    type Output<'b> = std::vec::IntoIter<Result<T, EdgeRepoError>> where Self: 'b;
+
+    async fn fetch_by_key<const N: usize>(
+        &'a self,
+        key: [u8; N],
+    ) -> Result<Self::Output<'a>, EdgeRepoError> {
+        self.backend.fetch::<T, N>(key).await
+    }
+}
+""",
+                """
+pub fn build_edge_handler<T, F>(
+    factory: F,
+) -> impl Fn() -> Result<EdgeHandler<T>, EdgeError>
+where
+    F: FnOnce() -> Result<T, EdgeError> + Send + 'static,
+    T: Default + Send + Sync + 'static,
+{
+    move || factory().map(EdgeHandler::new)
+}
+""",
+                """
+pub fn edge_unit_result_callback() -> Result<()> {
+    Ok(())
+}
+""",
+                """
+pub fn edge_higher_ranked<'a, T>(
+    visitor: impl for<'b> Fn(&'b T) -> Result<&'b str, EdgeVisitError>,
+    value: &'a T,
+) -> Result<&'a str, EdgeVisitError> {
+    visitor(value)
+}
+""",
+                """
+pub fn edge_collect_stream<I, E>(items: I) -> Result<Vec<E::Item>, E::Error>
+where
+    I: IntoIterator<Item = E>,
+    E: EdgeExtract,
+{
+    items.into_iter().map(E::extract).collect()
+}
+""",
+                """
+pub fn edge_operator_arrow() -> Result<EdgeArrow, EdgeError> {
+    let variant = EdgeModule::EdgeVariant;
+    if variant != EdgeModule::Default && EdgeMask::enabled() {
+        return Ok(EdgeArrow::new(variant));
+    }
+    Err(EdgeError::empty())
+}
+""",
+            ],
+        }
+    )
+    table = table.append_column("code_ops", table["code"])
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("code", index_type="INVERTED", analyzer="code")
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "code_ops",
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        analyzer="code",
+        index_operators=True,
+    )
+
+    ds.insert(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "path": ["edge/flat_unindexed.rs"],
+                "code": [
+                    """
+pub async fn edge_flat_generic_return<T, E>() -> Result<T, EdgeFlatError>
+where
+    T: TryFrom<String, Error = E> + Send,
+    E: Into<EdgeFlatError>,
+{
+    T::try_from(String::new()).map_err(Into::into)
+}
+"""
+                ],
+                "code_ops": [
+                    """
+pub async fn edge_flat_operator() -> Result<EdgeFlat, EdgeFlatError> {
+    EdgeFlat::try_new() -> Result<EdgeFlat, EdgeFlatError>
+}
+"""
+                ],
+            }
+        )
+    )
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+
+    def assert_search(column, query, expected_path, operator=FullTextOperator.AND):
+        result = ds.scanner(
+            columns=["path", "_score"],
+            full_text_query=MatchQuery(query, column, operator=operator),
+            limit=50,
+        ).to_table()
+        assert expected_path in result["path"].to_pylist()
+
+    assert_search(
+        "code",
+        "EdgeAsyncRepository fetch_by_key TryFrom EdgeRepoError",
+        "edge/trait.rs",
+    )
+    assert_search(
+        "code",
+        "EdgeStore fetch_by_key const usize where Result",
+        "edge/impl.rs",
+    )
+    assert_search(
+        "code",
+        "build_edge_handler FnOnce Result EdgeHandler",
+        "edge/fn_pointer.rs",
+    )
+    assert_search(
+        "code",
+        "edge_unit_result_callback fn () -> Result",
+        "edge/unit_result.rs",
+    )
+    assert_search(
+        "code",
+        "edge_higher_ranked for Fn EdgeVisitError Result",
+        "edge/hrtb.rs",
+    )
+    assert_search(
+        "code",
+        "edge_collect_stream IntoIterator Item Error Result",
+        "edge/associated.rs",
+    )
+    assert_search(
+        "code",
+        "edge_flat_generic_return TryFrom EdgeFlatError Result",
+        "edge/flat_unindexed.rs",
+    )
+    assert_search(
+        "code_ops",
+        "edge_operator_arrow -> Result",
+        "edge/operators.rs",
+    )
+    assert_search(
+        "code_ops",
+        "EdgeModule :: EdgeVariant !=",
+        "edge/operators.rs",
+    )
+    assert_search(
+        "code_ops",
+        "edge_flat_operator -> Result EdgeFlatError",
+        "edge/flat_unindexed.rs",
+    )
+
+    default_operator_results = ds.scanner(
+        columns=["path", "_score"],
+        full_text_query=MatchQuery("->", "code", operator=FullTextOperator.OR),
+    ).to_table()
+    operator_results = ds.scanner(
+        columns=["path", "_score"],
+        full_text_query=MatchQuery("->", "code_ops", operator=FullTextOperator.OR),
+    ).to_table()
+    assert default_operator_results.num_rows == 0
+    assert operator_results.num_rows > 0
+
+
 def test_unindexed_full_text_search_on_empty_index(tmp_path):
     # Create fts index on empty table.
     schema = pa.schema({"text": pa.string()})
@@ -635,6 +1293,51 @@ def test_fts_custom_stop_words(tmp_path):
     assert len(results["_rowid"].to_pylist()) == 1
 
 
+def test_fts_stop_words_respect_language_for_simple_tokenizer(tmp_path):
+    data = pa.table({"text": ["the lance data", "的 lance data"]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path, mode="overwrite")
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "text",
+        "INVERTED",
+        base_tokenizer="simple",
+        stem=False,
+    )
+
+    results = ds.to_table(full_text_query="the", with_row_id=True)
+    assert results.num_rows == 0
+
+    results = ds.to_table(full_text_query="的", with_row_id=True)
+    assert results["text"].to_pylist() == ["的 lance data"]
+
+
+def test_fts_icu_stop_words_are_all_or_none(tmp_path):
+    data = pa.table({"text": ["the 的 lance data", "useful data"]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path / "enabled", mode="overwrite")
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "text",
+        "INVERTED",
+        base_tokenizer="icu",
+        stem=False,
+        remove_stop_words=True,
+    )
+
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="the", with_row_id=True).num_rows == 0
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="的", with_row_id=True).num_rows == 0
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="lance", with_row_id=True).num_rows == 1
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path / "disabled", mode="overwrite")
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "text",
+        "INVERTED",
+        base_tokenizer="icu",
+        stem=False,
+        remove_stop_words=False,
+    )
+
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="the", with_row_id=True).num_rows == 1
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="的", with_row_id=True).num_rows == 1
+
+
 def test_rowid_order(dataset):
     dataset.create_scalar_index("doc", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=False)
     results = dataset.scanner(
@@ -665,7 +1368,40 @@ def test_filter_with_fts_index(dataset):
 
 def test_create_scalar_index_fts_alias(dataset):
     dataset.create_scalar_index("doc", index_type="FTS", with_position=False)
-    assert any(idx["type"] == "Inverted" for idx in dataset.list_indices())
+    assert any(idx.index_type == "Inverted" for idx in dataset.describe_indices())
+
+
+def test_create_scalar_index_fts_block_size(dataset):
+    dataset.create_scalar_index(
+        "doc", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=False, block_size=256
+    )
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
+    doc_index = next(index for index in indices if index.name == "doc_idx")
+    assert doc_index.segments[0].index_version == 3
+
+    row = dataset.take(indices=[0], columns=["doc"])
+    query = row.column(0)[0].as_py().split(" ")[0]
+    results = dataset.scanner(columns=["doc"], full_text_query=query).to_table()
+    assert results.num_rows > 0
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="block_size"):
+        dataset.create_scalar_index(
+            "doc", index_type="INVERTED", name="doc_invalid_129", block_size=129
+        )
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="block_size"):
+        dataset.create_scalar_index(
+            "doc", index_type="INVERTED", name="doc_invalid_512", block_size=512
+        )
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="block_size=256"):
+        dataset.create_scalar_index(
+            "doc",
+            index_type="INVERTED",
+            name="doc_invalid_v2_256",
+            block_size=256,
+            format_version=2,
+        )
 
 
 def test_multi_index_create(tmp_path):
@@ -677,24 +1413,23 @@ def test_multi_index_create(tmp_path):
         "ints", index_type="BITMAP", name="ints_bitmap_idx", replace=True
     )
 
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 2
 
-    assert indices[0]["name"] == "ints_idx"
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "BTree"
-    assert indices[1]["name"] == "ints_bitmap_idx"
-    assert indices[1]["type"] == "Bitmap"
+    idx_by_name = {idx.name: idx for idx in indices}
+    assert idx_by_name["ints_idx"].index_type == "BTree"
+    assert idx_by_name["ints_bitmap_idx"].index_type == "Bitmap"
 
     # Test that we can drop one of the indices
     dataset.drop_index("ints_idx")
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["name"] == "ints_bitmap_idx"
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "Bitmap"
+    assert indices[0].name == "ints_bitmap_idx"
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "Bitmap"
 
     # Test that we can drop the last index
     dataset.drop_index("ints_bitmap_idx")
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 0
 
 
@@ -738,7 +1473,8 @@ def test_ngram_fts(tmp_path):
     )
 
 
-def test_fts_fts(tmp_path):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("base_tokenizer", ["simple", "icu"])
+def test_fts_fts(tmp_path, base_tokenizer):
     # Tests creating two FTS indices with the same name but different parameters
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(
         pa.table(
@@ -753,7 +1489,11 @@ def test_fts_fts(tmp_path):
         tmp_path,
     )
     dataset.create_scalar_index(
-        "text", "INVERTED", with_position=True, remove_stop_words=False
+        "text",
+        "INVERTED",
+        with_position=True,
+        remove_stop_words=False,
+        base_tokenizer=base_tokenizer,
     )
 
     results = dataset.to_table(full_text_query='"was a puppy"', prefilter=True)
@@ -763,7 +1503,11 @@ def test_fts_fts(tmp_path):
     assert results.num_rows == 3
 
     dataset.create_scalar_index(
-        "text", "INVERTED", name="no_pos_idx", with_position=False
+        "text",
+        "INVERTED",
+        name="no_pos_idx",
+        with_position=False,
+        base_tokenizer=base_tokenizer,
     )
 
     # There is no way to currently specify which index to use.  Instead
@@ -811,14 +1555,23 @@ def test_indexed_filter_with_fts_index(tmp_path):
 
 
 def test_fts_ngram_tokenizer(tmp_path):
-    data = pa.table({"text": ["hello world", "lance database", "lance is cool"]})
-    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+    data = pa.table(
+        {"text": ["hello world", "lance database", "lance is cool", "theatre", "other"]}
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=2)
     ds.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED", base_tokenizer="ngram")
 
     results = ds.to_table(full_text_query="lan")
     assert results.num_rows == 2
     assert set(results["text"].to_pylist()) == {"lance database", "lance is cool"}
 
+    results = ds.to_table(full_text_query="the")
+    assert set(results["text"].to_pylist()) == {"theatre", "other"}
+
+    params = ds.stats.index_stats("text_idx")["indices"][0]["params"]
+    assert params["stem"] is False
+    assert params["remove_stop_words"] is False
+
     results = ds.to_table(full_text_query="nce")  # spellchecker:disable-line
     assert results.num_rows == 2
     assert set(results["text"].to_pylist()) == {"lance database", "lance is cool"}
@@ -850,7 +1603,12 @@ def test_fts_ngram_tokenizer(tmp_path):
 
 def test_fts_stats(dataset):
     dataset.create_scalar_index(
-        "doc", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=False, remove_stop_words=True
+        "doc",
+        index_type="INVERTED",
+        with_position=False,
+        remove_stop_words=True,
+        memory_limit=4096,
+        num_workers=2,
     )
     stats = dataset.stats.index_stats("doc_idx")
     assert stats["index_type"] == "Inverted"
@@ -865,9 +1623,60 @@ def test_fts_stats(dataset):
     assert params["stem"] is True
     assert params["remove_stop_words"] is True
     assert params["ascii_folding"] is True
+    assert "memory_limit" not in params
+    assert "num_workers" not in params
+
 
+def test_fts_optimize_num_indices_to_merge(tmp_path):
+    def append_rows(rows):
+        return lance.write_dataset(pa.table(rows), tmp_path, mode="append")
 
-def test_fts_score(tmp_path):
+    def num_indices(ds):
+        return ds.stats.index_stats("text_idx")["num_indices"]
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": [0, 1],
+                "text": ["alpha base phrase", "beta base phrase"],
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+    ds.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=True)
+    assert num_indices(ds) == 1
+
+    ds = append_rows({"id": [2], "text": ["gamma delta phrase"]})
+    ds.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
+    assert num_indices(ds) == 2
+
+    ds = append_rows({"id": [3], "text": ["epsilon zeta phrase"]})
+    ds.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=1)
+    assert num_indices(ds) == 2
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="epsilon")["id"].to_pylist() == [3]
+
+    ds = append_rows({"id": [4], "text": ["eta theta phrase"]})
+    ds.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
+    assert num_indices(ds) == 3
+
+    ds.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=2)
+    assert num_indices(ds) == 2
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query=PhraseQuery("eta theta", "text"))[
+        "id"
+    ].to_pylist() == [4]
+
+    ds = append_rows({"id": [5], "text": ["iota kappa phrase"]})
+    ds.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
+    assert num_indices(ds) == 3
+
+    ds.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=10)
+    assert num_indices(ds) == 1
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="alpha")["id"].to_pylist() == [0]
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="iota")["id"].to_pylist() == [5]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("base_tokenizer", ["simple", "icu"])
+def test_fts_score(tmp_path, base_tokenizer):
     # the number of tokens matters for scoring,
     # make a table that all docs have the same number of tokens
     data = pa.table(
@@ -877,7 +1686,7 @@ def test_fts_score(tmp_path):
         }
     )
     ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
-    ds.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED", base_tokenizer=base_tokenizer)
 
     results = ds.to_table(full_text_query="lance search text")
     assert results.num_rows == 3
@@ -889,7 +1698,7 @@ def test_fts_score(tmp_path):
         "text",
         "lance search text",
         tmp_path,
-        index_params={"with_position": False},
+        index_params={"with_position": False, "base_tokenizer": base_tokenizer},
     )
 
 
@@ -973,6 +1782,136 @@ def test_fts_on_list(tmp_path):
     assert results.num_rows == 6
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "list_type",
+    [
+        pa.list_(pa.string()),
+        pa.list_(pa.large_string()),
+        pa.large_list(pa.string()),
+        pa.large_list(pa.large_string()),
+    ],
+)
+def test_fts_on_list_elements(tmp_path, list_type):
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([0, 1, 2]),
+            "tags": pa.array(
+                [
+                    ["alpha beta", "gamma alpha", None, "", "delta"],
+                    ["beta", "gamma"],
+                    None,
+                ],
+                type=list_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+
+    def hits(table):
+        return sorted(zip(table["id"].to_pylist(), table["_doc_index"].to_pylist()))
+
+    list_element = DocumentGranularity.LIST_ELEMENT
+    query = MatchQuery("alpha", "tags", document_granularity=list_element)
+    flat = ds.to_table(full_text_query=query)
+    assert hits(flat) == [(0, [0]), (0, [1])]
+    assert pa.types.is_list(flat.schema.field("_doc_index").type)
+    assert flat.schema.field("_doc_index").type.value_type == pa.uint32()
+    assert hits(
+        ds.to_table(
+            full_text_query=MatchQuery(
+                "delta", "tags", document_granularity=list_element
+            )
+        )
+    ) == [(0, [4])]
+
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "tags",
+        "INVERTED",
+        with_position=True,
+        document_granularity=list_element,
+    )
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "tags",
+        IndexConfig(index_type="inverted", parameters={"with_position": True}),
+        document_granularity=list_element,
+    )
+    inferred = ds.to_table(full_text_query=MatchQuery("alpha", "tags"))
+    assert hits(inferred) == [(0, [0]), (0, [1])]
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=r"requested Row.*ListElement"):
+        ds.to_table(
+            full_text_query=MatchQuery(
+                "alpha", "tags", document_granularity=DocumentGranularity.ROW
+            )
+        )
+
+    ds.create_scalar_index("tags", "INVERTED", with_position=True)
+    index_names = {index.name for index in ds.describe_indices()}
+    assert {"tags_idx", "tags_list_element_idx"}.issubset(index_names)
+    row_auto = ds.to_table(full_text_query="alpha")
+    assert row_auto["id"].to_pylist() == [0]
+    assert "_doc_index" not in row_auto.column_names
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=r"ambiguous.*document_granularity"):
+        ds.to_table(full_text_query=MatchQuery("alpha", "tags"))
+    indexed = ds.to_table(full_text_query=query)
+    assert hits(indexed) == [(0, [0]), (0, [1])]
+    assert pa.types.is_list(indexed.schema.field("_doc_index").type)
+    assert indexed.schema.field("_doc_index").type.value_type == pa.uint32()
+    filtered = ds.to_table(full_text_query=query, filter="id = 0", prefilter=True)
+    assert hits(filtered) == [(0, [0]), (0, [1])]
+    assert hits(
+        ds.to_table(
+            full_text_query=MatchQuery(
+                "delta", "tags", document_granularity=list_element
+            )
+        )
+    ) == [(0, [4])]
+
+    phrase = ds.to_table(
+        full_text_query=PhraseQuery(
+            "beta gamma", "tags", document_granularity=list_element
+        )
+    )
+    assert phrase.num_rows == 0
+    assert hits(
+        ds.to_table(
+            full_text_query=PhraseQuery(
+                "alpha beta", "tags", document_granularity=list_element
+            )
+        )
+    ) == [(0, [0])]
+    row_phrase = ds.to_table(
+        full_text_query=PhraseQuery(
+            "beta gamma",
+            "tags",
+            document_granularity=DocumentGranularity.ROW,
+        )
+    )
+    assert sorted(row_phrase["id"].to_pylist()) == [0, 1]
+    assert "_doc_index" not in row_phrase.column_names
+
+    ds.insert(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array([3]),
+                "tags": pa.array([["alpha", "alpha again"]], type=list_type),
+            }
+        )
+    )
+    assert hits(ds.to_table(full_text_query=query)) == [
+        (0, [0]),
+        (0, [1]),
+        (3, [0]),
+        (3, [1]),
+    ]
+
+    with pytest.raises(RuntimeError, match=r"tags\[\*\]"):
+        ds.create_scalar_index(
+            "tags[*]",
+            "INVERTED",
+            document_granularity=list_element,
+        )
+
+
 def test_fts_fuzzy_query(tmp_path):
     data = pa.table(
         {
@@ -1157,6 +2096,65 @@ def test_fts_multi_match_query(tmp_path):
     )
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "operator,combined_ids,multi_ids",
+    [
+        # combined_fields treats the columns as one virtual field, so AND matches
+        # when each term appears in any field (rows 0 and 1); best_fields AND only
+        # matches row 1, where a single field holds both terms.
+        (FullTextOperator.AND, {0, 1}, {1}),
+        (FullTextOperator.OR, {0, 1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}),
+    ],
+)
+def test_fts_combined_fields_query(tmp_path, operator, combined_ids, multi_ids):
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": [0, 1, 2],
+            # row 0 splits the terms across fields, row 1 has both in one field,
+            # row 2 has only "john".
+            "title": ["john", "john smith", "john"],
+            "body": ["smith", "foo", "alice"],
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("title", "INVERTED")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("body", "INVERTED")
+
+    def ids(query):
+        return set(ds.to_table(full_text_query=query, columns=["id"])["id"].to_pylist())
+
+    assert (
+        ids(CombinedFieldsQuery("john smith", ["title", "body"], operator=operator))
+        == combined_ids
+    )
+    assert (
+        ids(MultiMatchQuery("john smith", ["title", "body"], operator=operator))
+        == multi_ids
+    )
+
+
+def test_fts_combined_fields_boost_validation(tmp_path):
+    # Per-column boosts must be >= 1 (Lucene CombinedFieldQuery constraint), and
+    # the boost count must match the column count.
+    data = pa.table({"title": ["hello"], "body": ["world"]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("title", "INVERTED")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("body", "INVERTED")
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="boost"):
+        CombinedFieldsQuery("hello", ["title", "body"], boosts=[0.5, 1.0])
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        CombinedFieldsQuery("hello", ["title", "body"], boosts=[1.0])
+
+    # Fractional weights >= 1 are accepted.
+    result = ds.to_table(
+        full_text_query=CombinedFieldsQuery(
+            "hello", ["title", "body"], boosts=[1.5, 1.0]
+        )
+    )
+    assert result.num_rows == 1
+
+
 def test_fts_boolean_query(tmp_path):
     data = pa.table(
         {
@@ -1273,6 +2271,23 @@ def test_fts_deleted_rows(tmp_path):
     assert results.num_rows == 2
 
 
+def test_fts_deleted_rows_with_stable_row_ids(tmp_path):
+    # Regression test: stable-row-id prefiltering must not leak deleted rows.
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "text": [f"dup_{i}" for i in range(200)],
+            "category": [["A", "B", "C", "D", "E"][i % 5] for i in range(200)],
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path, enable_stable_row_ids=True)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED")
+
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="dup", prefilter=True).num_rows == 200
+
+    ds.delete("category = 'A'")
+    assert ds.to_table(full_text_query="dup", prefilter=True).num_rows == 160
+
+
 def test_index_after_merge_insert(tmp_path):
     # This regresses a defect where a horizontal merge insert was not taking modified
     # fragments out of the index if the column is modified.
@@ -1467,28 +2482,93 @@ def test_lindera_ipadic_jp_tokenizer_bin_user_dict(tmp_path, lindera_ipadic):
     )
     assert len(results) == 0
     results = ds.to_table(
-        full_text_query="成田国際空港",
-        prefilter=True,
-        with_row_id=True,
+        full_text_query="成田国際空港",
+        prefilter=True,
+        with_row_id=True,
+    )
+    assert results["_rowid"].to_pylist() == [0]
+
+
+def test_jieba_tokenizer(tmp_path):
+    set_language_model_path()
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "text": ["我们都有光明的前途", "光明的前途"],
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path, mode="overwrite")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED", base_tokenizer="jieba/default")
+    results = ds.to_table(
+        full_text_query="我们",
+        prefilter=True,
+        with_row_id=True,
+    )
+    assert results["_rowid"].to_pylist() == [0]
+
+
+def test_icu_tokenizer(tmp_path):
+    data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "text": ["Hello, こんにちは世界!", "Hello, こんにちは!"],
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path, mode="overwrite")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED", base_tokenizer="icu")
+    results = ds.to_table(
+        full_text_query="世界",
+        prefilter=True,
+        with_row_id=True,
+    )
+    assert results["_rowid"].to_pylist() == [0]
+
+
+def test_icu_tokenizer_split_on_non_alphanumeric_default(tmp_path):
+    data = pa.table({"text": ["hello_world"]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path, mode="overwrite")
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "text",
+        "INVERTED",
+        base_tokenizer="icu",
+        stem=False,
+        remove_stop_words=False,
+    )
+
+    results = ds.to_table(full_text_query="hello", prefilter=True, with_row_id=True)
+    assert results.num_rows == 0
+
+    results = ds.to_table(
+        full_text_query="hello_world", prefilter=True, with_row_id=True
     )
     assert results["_rowid"].to_pylist() == [0]
 
 
-def test_jieba_tokenizer(tmp_path):
-    set_language_model_path()
+def test_icu_tokenizer_split_on_non_alphanumeric(tmp_path):
     data = pa.table(
         {
-            "text": ["我们都有光明的前途", "光明的前途"],
+            "text": [
+                "hello_world こんにちは世界",
+                "alpha.beta",
+            ],
         }
     )
     ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path, mode="overwrite")
-    ds.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED", base_tokenizer="jieba/default")
-    results = ds.to_table(
-        full_text_query="我们",
-        prefilter=True,
-        with_row_id=True,
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "text",
+        "INVERTED",
+        base_tokenizer="icu/split",
+        stem=False,
+        remove_stop_words=False,
     )
-    assert results["_rowid"].to_pylist() == [0]
+
+    for query, expected_row_ids in [
+        ("hello", [0]),
+        ("world", [0]),
+        ("世界", [0]),
+        ("alpha", [1]),
+        ("beta", [1]),
+    ]:
+        results = ds.to_table(full_text_query=query, prefilter=True, with_row_id=True)
+        assert results["_rowid"].to_pylist() == expected_row_ids
 
 
 def test_jieba_invalid_user_dict_tokenizer(tmp_path):
@@ -1549,9 +2629,9 @@ def test_bitmap_index(tmp_path: Path):
     )
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset")
     dataset.create_scalar_index("a", index_type="BITMAP")
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "Bitmap"
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "Bitmap"
 
 
 def test_bitmap_empty_range(tmp_path: Path):
@@ -1629,9 +2709,9 @@ def test_ngram_index(tmp_path: Path):
     def test_with(tbl: pa.Table):
         dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset", mode="overwrite")
         dataset.create_scalar_index("words", index_type="NGRAM")
-        indices = dataset.list_indices()
+        indices = dataset.describe_indices()
         assert len(indices) == 1
-        assert indices[0]["type"] == "NGram"
+        assert indices[0].index_type == "NGram"
 
         scan_plan = dataset.scanner(filter="contains(words, 'apple')").explain_plan(
             True
@@ -1683,7 +2763,7 @@ def test_zonemap_index(tmp_path: Path):
     tbl = pa.Table.from_arrays([pa.array([i for i in range(8193)])], names=["values"])
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset")
     dataset.create_scalar_index("values", index_type="ZONEMAP")
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
 
     # Get detailed index statistics
@@ -1738,6 +2818,87 @@ def scan_stats_callback(stats: lance.ScanStatistics):
     assert small_bytes_read < large_bytes_read
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("index_type", ["ZONEMAP", "BLOOMFILTER"])
+def test_address_domain_index_with_stable_row_ids(tmp_path: Path, index_type):
+    """Regression test for issue #7434.
+
+    Address-domain scalar indices (zonemap, bloom filter) report matches as
+    physical row addresses. On a stable-row-id dataset a row's stable id differs
+    from its physical address in every fragment except fragment 0, so the index
+    result must be translated back to the row-id domain before it prefilters the
+    scan. Without that translation the index silently drops matching rows in
+    fragments other than fragment 0 (often returning an empty result).
+    """
+
+    # A single value "a" is placed in non-adjacent fragments (0, 2, 4) so its
+    # matching rows span multiple fragments and diverge from fragment 0.
+    def block(v, n):
+        return [v] * n
+
+    vals = (
+        block("a", 5_000)
+        + block("b", 5_000)
+        + block("a", 5_000)
+        + block("c", 5_000)
+        + block("a", 5_000)
+    )
+    tbl = pa.table({"category": pa.array(vals, pa.string()), "id": range(len(vals))})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        tbl, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=5_000, enable_stable_row_ids=True
+    )
+    assert ds.has_stable_row_ids
+    assert len(ds.get_fragments()) == 5
+
+    true_count = ds.scanner(
+        filter="category = 'a'", use_scalar_index=False
+    ).count_rows()
+    assert true_count == 15_000
+
+    ds.create_scalar_index("category", index_type=index_type, replace=True)
+
+    # The index must be consulted and must return the same rows as a full scan.
+    assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in ds.scanner(filter="category = 'a'").explain_plan()
+    indexed = ds.to_table(filter="category = 'a'", columns=["id"])
+    assert indexed.num_rows == true_count
+    assert sorted(indexed["id"].to_pylist()) == sorted(
+        ds.to_table(filter="category = 'a'", columns=["id"], use_scalar_index=False)[
+            "id"
+        ].to_pylist()
+    )
+
+
+def test_zonemap_with_stable_row_ids_after_compaction(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Zonemap results stay correct after a compaction relocates rows under
+    stable row ids (physical address != stable id for the surviving rows)."""
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"x": range(0, 5_000)}),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=5_000,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"x": range(5_000, 10_000)}),
+        tmp_path,
+        mode="append",
+        max_rows_per_file=5_000,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=True,
+    )
+    # Delete part of the first fragment, then compact so surviving rows keep
+    # their small stable ids but move to a freshly numbered fragment.
+    ds.delete("x >= 1000 AND x < 2000")
+    ds.optimize.compact_files(target_rows_per_fragment=100_000)
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+    assert len(ds.get_fragments()) == 1
+
+    ds.create_scalar_index("x", index_type="ZONEMAP")
+
+    filter_expr = "x >= 6000 AND x <= 6500"
+    assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in ds.scanner(filter=filter_expr).explain_plan()
+    expected = ds.to_table(filter=filter_expr, use_scalar_index=False)["x"].to_pylist()
+    actual = ds.to_table(filter=filter_expr)["x"].to_pylist()
+    assert sorted(actual) == sorted(expected) == list(range(6000, 6501))
+
+
 def test_zonemap_deletion_handling(tmp_path: Path):
     """Test zonemap deletion handling"""
     data = pa.table(
@@ -1767,6 +2928,33 @@ def test_zonemap_deletion_handling(tmp_path: Path):
     assert ids == [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("index_type", ["ZONEMAP", "BLOOMFILTER"])
+def test_address_domain_index_not_query_with_stable_row_ids(tmp_path: Path, index_type):
+    """Regression test: != queries return correct results on stable-row-id datasets.
+
+    Address-domain indices (zonemap, bloom filter) search returns physical row
+    addresses. Translation to row IDs happens at the Query leaf before the NOT
+    node is evaluated, so the NOT operates on a correctly translated AllowList.
+    Without the address-to-row-id translation the AllowList contains wrong IDs,
+    and the subsequent NOT excludes the wrong rows.
+    """
+    vals = list(range(5_000)) + list(range(5_000, 10_000))
+    tbl = pa.table({"x": vals})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        tbl, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=5_000, enable_stable_row_ids=True
+    )
+    assert ds.has_stable_row_ids
+
+    ds.create_scalar_index("x", index_type=index_type, replace=True)
+
+    # Without address translation the NOT excludes the wrong rows, producing an
+    # incorrect result set rather than crashing.
+    expected = ds.to_table(filter="x != 42", use_scalar_index=False)["x"].to_pylist()
+    actual = ds.to_table(filter="x != 42")["x"].to_pylist()
+    assert sorted(actual) == sorted(expected)
+    assert len(actual) == 9_999
+
+
 def test_zonemap_index_remapping(tmp_path: Path):
     """Test zonemap index remapping after compaction and optimization"""
     # Create a dataset with 5 fragments by writing data in chunks
@@ -1779,9 +2967,9 @@ def test_zonemap_index_remapping(tmp_path: Path):
 
     # Train a zone map index
     dataset.create_scalar_index("values", index_type="ZONEMAP")
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "ZoneMap"
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "ZoneMap"
 
     # Confirm the zone map index is used if you search the dataset
     scanner = dataset.scanner(filter="values > 2500", prefilter=True)
@@ -1795,7 +2983,7 @@ def test_zonemap_index_remapping(tmp_path: Path):
     # Run compaction to merge fragments
     compaction = dataset.optimize.compact_files(target_rows_per_fragment=2000)
     assert compaction.fragments_removed == 5
-    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 3
+    assert len(dataset.get_fragments()) == 2
 
     # Check if the zone map index is no longer being used
     scanner = dataset.scanner(filter="values > 2500", prefilter=True)
@@ -1823,12 +3011,60 @@ def test_zonemap_index_remapping(tmp_path: Path):
     assert result.num_rows == 501  # 1000..1500 inclusive
 
 
+def test_zonemap_fsl_column(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Zone map can be created on a FixedSizeList column and accelerates IS NULL."""
+    dim = 8
+    n = 1000
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    vectors = rng.standard_normal((n, dim)).astype(np.float32)
+    vec_type = pa.list_(pa.float32(), dim)
+    # Every 10th row is null
+    vec_list = [None if i % 10 == 0 else v.tolist() for i, v in enumerate(vectors)]
+    tbl = pa.table({"vec": pa.array(vec_list, type=vec_type), "id": pa.array(range(n))})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("vec", index_type="ZONEMAP")
+
+    scanner = ds.scanner(filter="vec IS NULL", prefilter=True)
+    plan = scanner.explain_plan()
+    assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in plan
+    result = scanner.to_table()
+    assert result.num_rows == 100  # every 10th row is null
+
+
+def test_vector_and_zonemap_on_fsl_column(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Vector index and zone map can coexist on the same FSL column."""
+    dim = 16
+    n = 2000
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(0)
+    vectors = rng.standard_normal((n, dim)).astype(np.float32)
+    vec_type = pa.list_(pa.float32(), dim)
+    # Every 20th row is null
+    vec_list = [None if i % 20 == 0 else v.tolist() for i, v in enumerate(vectors)]
+    tbl = pa.table({"vec": pa.array(vec_list, type=vec_type), "id": pa.array(range(n))})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
+
+    ds.create_index("vec", index_type="IVF_PQ", num_partitions=4, num_sub_vectors=2)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("vec", index_type="ZONEMAP")
+
+    # Vector search still works
+    query = vectors[5]
+    result = ds.scanner(nearest={"column": "vec", "q": query, "k": 10}).to_table()
+    assert result.num_rows == 10
+
+    # IS NULL is zone-map-accelerated
+    scanner = ds.scanner(filter="vec IS NULL", prefilter=True)
+    plan = scanner.explain_plan()
+    assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in plan
+    null_result = scanner.to_table()
+    assert null_result.num_rows == 100  # every 20th row is null
+
+
 def test_bloomfilter_index(tmp_path: Path):
     """Test create bloomfilter index"""
     tbl = pa.Table.from_arrays([pa.array([i for i in range(10000)])], names=["values"])
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset")
     dataset.create_scalar_index("values", index_type="BLOOMFILTER")
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
 
     # Get detailed index statistics
@@ -1885,6 +3121,71 @@ def test_bloomfilter_deletion_handling(tmp_path: Path):
     assert ids == [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
 
 
+def test_minhash_lsh_index():
+    base = "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog and runs away very fast"
+    near = "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog and runs away very quickly"
+    texts = [
+        base,
+        near,
+        "completely unrelated sentence about columnar storage in lance files",
+        base,
+        None,
+        "another unrelated row that talks about vector indices and recall",
+    ]
+    tbl = pa.table({"id": list(range(len(texts))), "text": texts})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, "memory://minhash", max_rows_per_file=2)
+    assert len(ds.get_fragments()) == 3
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "text",
+        IndexConfig(
+            index_type="minhashlsh",
+            parameters={"num_hashes": 64, "num_bands": 16, "shingle_size": 2},
+        ),
+    )
+    stats = ds.stats.index_stats("text_idx")
+    assert stats["index_type"] == "MinHashLsh"
+    assert stats["indices"][0]["num_docs"] == 5
+    assert stats["indices"][0]["num_hashes"] == 64
+
+    query = MinHashQuery(base, "text")
+    plan = ds.scanner(nearest=query, limit=3).explain_plan()
+    assert "MinHashSearch: column=text, limit=3" in plan
+
+    result = ds.to_table(nearest=query, limit=3, columns=["id"])
+    assert result.column_names == ["id", "_distance"]
+    assert result["id"].to_pylist() == [0, 3, 1]
+    distances = result["_distance"].to_pylist()
+    assert distances[0] == 0.0 and distances[1] == 0.0
+    assert 0.0 < distances[2] < 0.5
+
+    # limit defaults to 10, filters prefilter the candidates
+    assert ds.to_table(nearest=query).num_rows == 3
+    filtered = ds.to_table(nearest=query, limit=3, filter="id > 0", prefilter=True)
+    assert filtered["id"].to_pylist() == [3, 1]
+
+    with pytest.raises(Exception, match="No MinHash LSH index found for column id"):
+        ds.to_table(nearest=MinHashQuery(base, "id"), limit=3)
+
+    # Rows appended after the index was built are scored on the fly
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"id": [6, 7], "text": [base, "nothing alike"]}),
+        ds,
+        mode="append",
+    )
+    plan = ds.scanner(nearest=query, limit=3).explain_plan()
+    assert "MinHashFlatSearch" in plan
+    assert ds.to_table(nearest=query, limit=3, columns=["id"])["id"].to_pylist() == [
+        0,
+        3,
+        6,
+    ]
+    assert ds.to_table(nearest=query, limit=3, columns=["id"], fast_search=True)[
+        "id"
+    ].to_pylist() == [0, 3, 1]
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+        ScannerBuilder(ds).minhash_search("not a query")  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+
+
 def test_json_index():
     vals = ['{"x": 7, "y": 10}', '{"x": 11, "y": 22}', '{"y": 0}', '{"x": 10}']
     tbl = pa.table({"jsons": pa.array(vals, pa.json_())})
@@ -1905,6 +3206,36 @@ def test_json_index():
     )
 
 
+def test_json_index_non_exact_floats():
+    # A JSON-path btree index is trained on the value extracted from the JSON
+    # column, not on the raw column itself, so the index build must sort by
+    # the extracted value rather than assuming the raw column's order matches
+    # it. Without that, range/equality queries silently miss rows whenever
+    # the extracted floats are not exactly representable in float64 (#7485).
+    vals = ['{"latitude": 10.5}', '{"latitude": 40.1}', '{"latitude": -3.2}']
+    tbl = pa.table({"data": pa.array(vals, pa.json_())})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, "memory://test")
+    ds.create_scalar_index(
+        "data",
+        IndexConfig(
+            index_type="json",
+            parameters={"target_index_type": "btree", "path": "latitude"},
+        ),
+    )
+
+    for filter in [
+        "json_get_float(data, 'latitude') > 0",
+        "json_get_float(data, 'latitude') >= 10.5",
+        "json_get_float(data, 'latitude') = 40.1",
+        "json_get_float(data, 'latitude') = 10.5",
+        "json_get_float(data, 'latitude') < 100",
+    ]:
+        assert "ScalarIndexQuery" in ds.scanner(filter=filter).explain_plan()
+        assert ds.to_table(filter=filter) == ds.to_table(
+            filter=filter, use_scalar_index=False
+        ), filter
+
+
 def test_null_handling():
     tbl = pa.table(
         {
@@ -2016,9 +3347,31 @@ def test_label_list_index(tmp_path: Path):
     tbl = pa.Table.from_arrays([tag_list], names=["tags"])
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset")
     dataset.create_scalar_index("tags", index_type="LABEL_LIST")
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "LabelList"
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "LabelList"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("stable_row_ids", [False, True])
+def test_label_list_update_removes_old_labels(tmp_path: Path, stable_row_ids):
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"labels": [["old"], ["keep"]]}),
+        tmp_path,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=stable_row_ids,
+        max_rows_per_file=1,
+        max_rows_per_group=1,
+    )
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("labels", "LABEL_LIST")
+    predicate = "array_has_any(labels, ['old'])"
+    dataset.update({"labels": "['new']"}, where=predicate)
+    assert dataset.to_table(filter=predicate).num_rows == 0
+
+    dataset.optimize.optimize_indices()
+
+    assert dataset.to_table(filter=predicate, use_scalar_index=False).num_rows == 0
+    assert dataset.to_table(filter=predicate).num_rows == 0
+    assert dataset.to_table(filter="array_has_any(labels, ['new'])").num_rows == 1
+    assert dataset.to_table(filter="array_has_any(labels, ['keep'])").num_rows == 1
 
 
 def test_label_list_index_array_contains(tmp_path: Path):
@@ -2054,6 +3407,120 @@ def test_label_list_index_array_contains(tmp_path: Path):
     assert "ScalarIndexQuery" not in explain
 
 
+def test_label_list_index_empty_list_filters(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Empty list filters should not panic and should match pre-index results."""
+    tbl = pa.table({"labels": [["foo"], ["bar"], ["foo", None], [None], [], None]})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset")
+
+    filters = [
+        "array_has_any(labels, [])",
+        "array_has_all(labels, [])",
+        "NOT array_has_all(labels, [])",
+        "NOT array_has_any(labels, [])",
+    ]
+    expected = {f: dataset.to_table(filter=f).num_rows for f in filters}
+
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("labels", index_type="LABEL_LIST")
+
+    for f in filters:
+        assert dataset.to_table(filter=f).num_rows == expected[f]
+
+
+def test_label_list_index_null_element_match(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Covers NULL elements inside non-NULL lists (list itself is never NULL)."""
+    tbl = pa.table(
+        {"labels": [["foo", None], ["foo"], ["bar", None], [None], ["bar"], []]}
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset")
+
+    filters = [
+        "array_has_any(labels, ['foo'])",
+        "array_has_all(labels, ['foo'])",
+        "array_contains(labels, 'foo')",
+        "NOT array_has_any(labels, ['foo'])",
+        "NOT array_has_all(labels, ['foo'])",
+        "NOT array_contains(labels, 'foo')",
+    ]
+    expected = {
+        f: dataset.to_table(filter=f).column("labels").to_pylist() for f in filters
+    }
+
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("labels", index_type="LABEL_LIST")
+
+    actual = {
+        f: dataset.to_table(filter=f).column("labels").to_pylist() for f in filters
+    }
+    assert actual == expected
+
+
+def test_label_list_index_null_list_match(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Covers NULL lists (list itself is NULL, elements are not NULL)."""
+    tbl = pa.table({"labels": [["foo"], ["bar"], None, []]})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset")
+
+    filters = [
+        "array_has_any(labels, ['foo'])",
+        "array_has_all(labels, ['foo'])",
+        "array_contains(labels, 'foo')",
+        "NOT array_has_any(labels, ['foo'])",
+        "NOT array_has_all(labels, ['foo'])",
+        "NOT array_contains(labels, 'foo')",
+    ]
+    expected = {
+        f: dataset.to_table(filter=f).column("labels").to_pylist() for f in filters
+    }
+
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("labels", index_type="LABEL_LIST")
+
+    actual = {
+        f: dataset.to_table(filter=f).column("labels").to_pylist() for f in filters
+    }
+    assert actual == expected
+
+
+def test_label_list_index_null_literal_filters(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Ensure filters with NULL literal needles produce consistent results with scan."""
+    tbl = pa.table(
+        {"labels": [["foo", None], ["bar", None], [None], ["foo"], ["bar"], []]}
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset")
+
+    filters = [
+        "array_has_any(labels, [NULL])",
+        "array_has_all(labels, [NULL])",
+        "array_contains(labels, NULL)",
+        "NOT array_has_any(labels, [NULL])",
+        "NOT array_has_all(labels, [NULL])",
+        "NOT array_contains(labels, NULL)",
+    ]
+    expected = {
+        f: dataset.to_table(filter=f).column("labels").to_pylist() for f in filters
+    }
+
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("labels", index_type="LABEL_LIST")
+
+    actual = {
+        f: dataset.to_table(filter=f).column("labels").to_pylist() for f in filters
+    }
+    assert actual == expected
+
+
+def test_label_list_index_explain_null_literals(tmp_path: Path):
+    tbl = pa.table({"labels": [["foo", None], ["foo"]]})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "dataset")
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("labels", index_type="LABEL_LIST")
+
+    # explain_plan should not panic when list literals include NULLs.
+    for expr in [
+        "array_has_any(labels, [NULL])",
+        "array_has_all(labels, [NULL])",
+        "array_has_any(labels, ['foo', NULL])",
+        "array_has_all(labels, ['foo', NULL])",
+    ]:
+        explain = dataset.scanner(filter=expr).explain_plan()
+        assert isinstance(explain, str)
+
+
 def test_create_index_empty_dataset(tmp_path: Path):
     # Creating an index on an empty dataset is (currently) not terribly useful but
     # we shouldn't return strange errors.
@@ -2100,8 +3567,8 @@ def test_searches():
     test_searches()
 
     # Make sure fetching index stats on empty index is ok
-    for idx in ds.list_indices():
-        ds.stats.index_stats(idx["name"])
+    for idx in ds.describe_indices():
+        ds.stats.index_stats(idx.name)
 
     # Make sure updating empty indices is ok
     ds.optimize.optimize_indices()
@@ -2166,94 +3633,294 @@ def test_drop_index(tmp_path):
         }
     )
     ds = lance.write_dataset(test_table, tmp_path)
-    ds.create_scalar_index("btree", index_type="BTREE")
-    ds.create_scalar_index("bitmap", index_type="BITMAP")
-    ds.create_scalar_index("fts", index_type="INVERTED")
-    ds.create_scalar_index("ngram", index_type="NGRAM")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("btree", index_type="BTREE")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("bitmap", index_type="BITMAP")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("fts", index_type="INVERTED")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("ngram", index_type="NGRAM")
+
+    assert len(ds.describe_indices()) == 4
+
+    # Attempt to drop index (name does not exist)
+    with pytest.raises(RuntimeError, match="index not found"):
+        ds.drop_index("nonexistent_name")
+
+    for idx in ds.describe_indices():
+        idx_name = idx.name
+        ds.drop_index(idx_name)
+
+    assert len(ds.describe_indices()) == 0
+
+    # Ensure we can still search columns
+    assert ds.to_table(filter="btree = 1").num_rows == 1
+    assert ds.to_table(filter="bitmap = 1").num_rows == 1
+    assert ds.to_table(filter="fts = 'a'").num_rows == test_table_size
+    assert ds.to_table(filter="contains(ngram, 'a')").num_rows == test_table_size
+
+
+def test_index_prewarm(tmp_path: Path):
+    scan_stats = None
+
+    def scan_stats_callback(stats: lance.ScanStatistics):
+        nonlocal scan_stats
+        scan_stats = stats
+
+    test_table_size = 100
+    test_table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "fts": ["word" for _ in range(test_table_size)],
+        }
+    )
+
+    # Write index, cache should not be populated
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(test_table, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("fts", index_type="INVERTED")
+    ds.scanner(
+        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, full_text_query="word"
+    ).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded > 0
+
+    # Fresh load, no prewarm, cache should not be populated
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.scanner(
+        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, full_text_query="word"
+    ).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded > 0
+
+    # Prewarm index, cache should be populated
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.prewarm_index("fts_idx")
+    ds.scanner(
+        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, full_text_query="word"
+    ).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded == 0
+
+    phrase_path = tmp_path / "phrase"
+    phrase_table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "fts": ["word word" for _ in range(test_table_size)],
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(phrase_table, phrase_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("fts", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=True)
+
+    ds = lance.dataset(phrase_path)
+    ds.prewarm_index("fts_idx")
+    cache_entries_after_prewarm = ds._ds.index_cache_entry_count()
+    results = ds.to_table(full_text_query=PhraseQuery("word word", "fts"))
+    assert results.num_rows == test_table_size
+    cache_entries_after_query = ds._ds.index_cache_entry_count()
+    assert cache_entries_after_query > cache_entries_after_prewarm
+
+    ds = lance.dataset(phrase_path)
+    ds.prewarm_index("fts_idx", with_position=True)
+    cache_entries_after_prewarm = ds._ds.index_cache_entry_count()
+    results = ds.to_table(full_text_query=PhraseQuery("word word", "fts"))
+    assert results.num_rows == test_table_size
+    cache_entries_after_query = ds._ds.index_cache_entry_count()
+    assert cache_entries_after_query == cache_entries_after_prewarm
+
+    segment_uuid = ds.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+    ds = lance.dataset(phrase_path)
+    ds.prewarm_index("fts_idx", with_position=True, index_segments=[segment_uuid])
+    cache_entries_after_prewarm = ds._ds.index_cache_entry_count()
+    results = ds.to_table(full_text_query=PhraseQuery("word word", "fts"))
+    assert results.num_rows == test_table_size
+    cache_entries_after_query = ds._ds.index_cache_entry_count()
+    assert cache_entries_after_query == cache_entries_after_prewarm
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        TypeError,
+        match="takes 2 positional arguments",
+    ):
+        ds.prewarm_index("fts_idx", True)
+
+
+def test_btree_prewarm(tmp_path: Path):
+    scan_stats = None
+
+    def scan_stats_callback(stats: lance.ScanStatistics):
+        nonlocal scan_stats
+        scan_stats = stats
+
+    test_table_size = 100
+    test_table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": list(range(test_table_size)),
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(test_table, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("id", index_type="BTREE")
+    ds.scanner(scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, filter="id>0").to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded > 0
+
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.scanner(scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, filter="id>0").to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded > 0
+
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.prewarm_index("id_idx")
+    ds.scanner(scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, filter="id>0").to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded == 0
+
+
+def test_btree_index_cache_hit_miss_stats(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Cold scan reports index cache misses; warm scan reports hits.
+
+    ScanStatistics.index_cache_{hits,misses} are populated at page-level cache
+    boundaries. On a freshly-loaded dataset the BTree page fetch must be a
+    miss; a second scan against the same in-memory Dataset re-uses the cached
+    page and therefore reports a hit with zero misses.
+    """
+    scan_stats = None
+
+    def scan_stats_callback(stats: lance.ScanStatistics):
+        nonlocal scan_stats
+        scan_stats = stats
+
+    test_table = pa.table({"val": list(range(1000))})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(test_table, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("val", index_type="BTREE")
+
+    # Reopen so the session cache starts cold. A single-key point lookup on
+    # a small dataset resolves to exactly one BTree page, so cold/warm counts
+    # are deterministic 1/0 and 0/1.
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.scanner(filter="val = 42", scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats is not None
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses == 1
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_hits == 0
+
+    # Same Dataset, warm cache — no new page loads, only hits.
+    ds.scanner(filter="val = 42", scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_hits == 1
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses == 0
+
+
+def test_bitmap_index_cache_hit_miss_stats(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Bitmap Range/IN queries report cold misses and warm hits; a value
+    that is not in the index never reaches the loader and must not count.
+
+    Guards against the ``BitmapIndex::search`` regressions where the
+    ``Range`` / ``IsIn`` branches used to drop the ``MetricsCollector`` (so
+    every lookup was silently ``0/0``), and where an equality on a value
+    absent from ``index_map`` recorded a spurious miss before short-circuiting
+    to the empty result.
+    """
+    scan_stats = None
+
+    def scan_stats_callback(stats: lance.ScanStatistics):
+        nonlocal scan_stats
+        scan_stats = stats
+
+    test_table = pa.table({"color": ["red", "green", "blue", "yellow"] * 25})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(test_table, tmp_path)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("color", index_type="BITMAP")
 
-    assert len(ds.list_indices()) == 4
+    # Reopen so the session cache starts cold.
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds.scanner(
+        filter="color IN ('red', 'blue')", scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback
+    ).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats is not None
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses == 2
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_hits == 0
 
-    # Attempt to drop index (name does not exist)
-    with pytest.raises(RuntimeError, match="index not found"):
-        ds.drop_index("nonexistent_name")
+    ds.scanner(
+        filter="color IN ('red', 'blue')", scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback
+    ).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_hits == 2
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses == 0
 
-    for idx in ds.list_indices():
-        idx_name = idx["name"]
-        ds.drop_index(idx_name)
+    # A value that is not in the index short-circuits before the loader and
+    # must not touch either counter.
+    ds.scanner(
+        filter="color = 'purple'", scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback
+    ).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_hits == 0
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses == 0
 
-    assert len(ds.list_indices()) == 0
 
-    # Ensure we can still search columns
-    assert ds.to_table(filter="btree = 1").num_rows == 1
-    assert ds.to_table(filter="bitmap = 1").num_rows == 1
-    assert ds.to_table(filter="fts = 'a'").num_rows == test_table_size
-    assert ds.to_table(filter="contains(ngram, 'a')").num_rows == test_table_size
+def test_phrase_query_cache_hit_miss_stats(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Phrase-query fallback populates ``PositionKey``; that boundary must
+    show up in per-query cache statistics.
 
+    Guards against ``read_positions`` silently using the non-metric
+    ``get_or_insert_with_key`` API — before this fix, a warm phrase query
+    would report zero hits for the phrase-position cache slot even though
+    the loader was skipped.
 
-def test_index_prewarm(tmp_path: Path):
+    The cold path can already record a few hits (``bm25_stats_for_terms``
+    populates ``PostingMetadataKey``, which is then re-read on the
+    posting-list path as a cross-boundary hit), so the cold assertion is
+    ``misses > hits`` rather than a strict zero.
+    """
     scan_stats = None
 
     def scan_stats_callback(stats: lance.ScanStatistics):
         nonlocal scan_stats
         scan_stats = stats
 
-    test_table_size = 100
     test_table = pa.table(
-        {
-            "fts": ["word" for _ in range(test_table_size)],
-        }
+        {"text": ["quick brown fox jumps over lazy dog" for _ in range(50)]}
     )
-
-    # Write index, cache should not be populated
     ds = lance.write_dataset(test_table, tmp_path)
-    ds.create_scalar_index("fts", index_type="INVERTED")
-    ds.scanner(
-        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, full_text_query="word"
-    ).to_table()
-    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded > 0
+    ds.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=True)
 
-    # Fresh load, no prewarm, cache should not be populated
     ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
     ds.scanner(
-        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, full_text_query="word"
+        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback,
+        full_text_query='"quick brown"',
     ).to_table()
-    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded > 0
+    assert scan_stats is not None
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses > 0
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses > scan_stats.index_cache_hits
 
-    # Prewarm index, cache should be populated
-    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
-    ds.prewarm_index("fts_idx")
     ds.scanner(
-        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, full_text_query="word"
+        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback,
+        full_text_query='"quick brown"',
     ).to_table()
-    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded == 0
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_hits > 0
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses == 0
 
 
-def test_btree_prewarm(tmp_path: Path):
+def test_fts_index_cache_hit_miss_stats(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Cold FTS scan reports misses; warm FTS scan reports hits.
+
+    Guards the wrapper-forwarding fix in ``FtsIndexMetrics``: previously the
+    two new cache-hit/miss trait methods had default no-op implementations
+    that swallowed FTS-side events, so cache activity was reported as ``0/0``
+    even for hot inverted-index scans.
+
+    The cold path can still record a few hits when the same cache key is
+    read across boundaries in one query (e.g. ``bm25_stats_for_terms``
+    populates ``PostingMetadataKey`` before ``posting_list`` re-reads it),
+    so the cold assertion is ``misses > hits`` rather than a strict zero.
+    """
     scan_stats = None
 
     def scan_stats_callback(stats: lance.ScanStatistics):
         nonlocal scan_stats
         scan_stats = stats
 
-    test_table_size = 100
-    test_table = pa.table(
-        {
-            "id": list(range(test_table_size)),
-        }
-    )
+    test_table = pa.table({"fts": ["word" for _ in range(100)]})
     ds = lance.write_dataset(test_table, tmp_path)
-    ds.create_scalar_index("id", index_type="BTREE")
-    ds.scanner(scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, filter="id>0").to_table()
-    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded > 0
+    ds.create_scalar_index("fts", index_type="INVERTED")
 
+    # Reopen so the session cache starts cold.
     ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
-    ds.scanner(scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, filter="id>0").to_table()
-    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded > 0
+    ds.scanner(
+        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, full_text_query="word"
+    ).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats is not None
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses > 0
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses > scan_stats.index_cache_hits
 
-    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
-    ds.prewarm_index("id_idx")
-    ds.scanner(scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, filter="id>0").to_table()
-    assert scan_stats.parts_loaded == 0
+    # Same Dataset, warm cache — posting-list / metadata reads must now hit.
+    ds.scanner(
+        scan_stats_callback=scan_stats_callback, full_text_query="word"
+    ).to_table()
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_hits > 0
+    assert scan_stats.index_cache_misses == 0
 
 
 def test_fts_backward_v0_27_0(tmp_path: Path):
@@ -2281,6 +3948,14 @@ def test_fts_backward_v0_27_0(tmp_path: Path):
         "frodo was a happy puppy",
     }
 
+    # Requiring both disjoint terms advances "happy" past its final document while
+    # "tail" remains live. Legacy WAND must terminate without reading the exhausted
+    # posting.
+    results = ds.to_table(
+        full_text_query=MatchQuery("happy tail", "text", operator=FullTextOperator.AND)
+    )
+    assert results.num_rows == 0
+
     data = pa.table(
         {
             "text": [
@@ -2829,6 +4504,45 @@ def generate_coherent_text():
     return ds
 
 
+def generate_multi_fragment_bitmap_dataset(
+    tmp_path, num_fragments=4, rows_per_fragment=40
+):
+    """
+    Generate a multi-fragment dataset with a low-cardinality integer column
+    suitable for distributed bitmap index tests.
+    """
+
+    def make_mock_bitmap_table(start_id: int) -> pa.Table:
+        ids = list(range(start_id, start_id + rows_per_fragment))
+        return pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array(ids, type=pa.int32()),
+                "category": pa.array([row_id % 5 for row_id in ids], type=pa.int32()),
+            }
+        )
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        make_mock_bitmap_table(0),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=rows_per_fragment,
+    )
+
+    for fragment_idx in range(1, num_fragments):
+        ds = lance.write_dataset(
+            make_mock_bitmap_table(fragment_idx * rows_per_fragment),
+            tmp_path,
+            mode="append",
+            max_rows_per_file=rows_per_fragment,
+        )
+
+    fragments = ds.get_fragments()
+    assert len(fragments) == num_fragments, (
+        f"Expected {num_fragments} fragments, got {len(fragments)}"
+    )
+
+    return ds
+
+
 # ============================================================================
 # Distributed FTS Index Unit Tests
 # ============================================================================
@@ -2849,20 +4563,10 @@ def test_build_distributed_fts_index_basic(tmp_path):
     )
 
     # Verify the index was created
-    indices = distributed_ds.list_indices()
-    assert len(indices) > 0, "No indices found after distributed index creation"
-
-    # Find our distributed index
-    distributed_index = None
-    for idx in indices:
-        if "distributed" in idx["name"]:
-            distributed_index = idx
-            break
-
-    assert distributed_index is not None, "Distributed index not found"
-    assert distributed_index["type"] == "Inverted", (
-        f"Expected Inverted index, got {distributed_index['type']}"
-    )
+    index_name = "text_distributed_idx"
+    stats = distributed_ds.stats.index_stats(index_name)
+    assert stats["name"] == index_name
+    assert stats["index_type"] == "Inverted"
 
     # Test that the index works for searching
     results = distributed_ds.scanner(
@@ -2873,6 +4577,52 @@ def test_build_distributed_fts_index_basic(tmp_path):
     assert results.num_rows > 0, "No results found for search term 'frodo'"
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("index_type", ["INVERTED", "FTS"])
+def test_segment_fts(tmp_path, index_type):
+    ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        tmp_path, num_fragments=3, rows_per_fragment=100
+    )
+
+    index_name = f"text_{index_type.lower()}_segment_idx"
+    segments = [
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column="text",
+            index_type=index_type,
+            name=index_name,
+            fragment_ids=[fragment.fragment_id],
+            with_position=False,
+            remove_stop_words=False,
+        )
+        for fragment in ds.get_fragments()
+    ]
+    committed_ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "text", segments)
+
+    query = MatchQuery("frodo", "text")
+    results_without_index = committed_ds.scanner(
+        full_text_query=query,
+        columns=["id", "text"],
+        use_scalar_index=False,
+    ).to_table()
+    results_with_index = committed_ds.scanner(
+        full_text_query=query,
+        columns=["id", "text"],
+        use_scalar_index=True,
+    ).to_table()
+
+    compare_fts_results(results_without_index, results_with_index)
+    assert any(
+        idx.name == index_name and idx.index_type == "Inverted"
+        for idx in committed_ds.describe_indices()
+    )
+    assert (
+        "FlatMatchQuery"
+        not in committed_ds.scanner(
+            full_text_query=query,
+            use_scalar_index=True,
+        ).explain_plan()
+    )
+
+
 def test_compare_fts_results_identical(tmp_path):
     """
     Test compare_fts_results function with identical results.
@@ -3277,19 +5027,9 @@ def test_distribute_fts_index_build(tmp_path):
     )
 
     # Verify the index was created and is functional
-    indices = ds_committed.list_indices()
-    assert len(indices) > 0, "No indices found after commit"
-
-    # Find our index
-    our_index = None
-    for idx in indices:
-        if idx["name"] == index_name:
-            our_index = idx
-            break
-    assert our_index is not None, f"Index '{index_name}' not found in indices list"
-    assert our_index["type"] == "Inverted", (
-        f"Expected Inverted index, got {our_index['type']}"
-    )
+    stats = ds_committed.stats.index_stats(index_name)
+    assert stats["name"] == index_name
+    assert stats["index_type"] == "Inverted"
 
     # Test that the index works for searching
     # Get a sample text from the dataset to search for
@@ -3357,10 +5097,10 @@ def test_backward_compatibility_no_fragment_ids(tmp_path):
     )
 
     # Verify the index was created
-    indices = ds.list_indices()
+    indices = ds.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["name"] == "full_dataset_idx"
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "Inverted"
+    assert indices[0].name == "full_dataset_idx"
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "Inverted"
 
     # Test that the index works
     sample_data = ds.take([0], columns=["text"])
@@ -3381,10 +5121,10 @@ def test_backward_compatibility_changed_index_protos(tmp_path):
     shutil.copytree(path, tmp_path, dirs_exist_ok=True)
     ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
 
-    indices = ds.list_indices()
+    indices = ds.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["name"] == "x_idx"
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "BTree"
+    assert indices[0].name == "x_idx"
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "BTree"
 
     results = ds.scanner(filter="x = 100").to_table()
     assert results.num_rows == 1
@@ -3393,149 +5133,376 @@ def test_backward_compatibility_changed_index_protos(tmp_path):
 
 def test_distribute_btree_index_build(tmp_path):
     """
-    Test distributed B-tree index build similar to test_distribute_fts_index_build.
-    This test creates B-tree indices on individual fragments and then
-    commits them as a single index.
+    Test distributed B-tree index build with segmented index commit.
+    This test creates B-tree segments on individual fragments and then
+    commits them as a single logical index.
     """
-    # Generate test dataset with multiple fragments
     ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
         tmp_path, num_fragments=4, rows_per_fragment=10000
     )
 
-    import uuid
-
-    index_id = str(uuid.uuid4())
     index_name = "btree_multiple_fragment_idx"
+    ds_committed = _commit_segmented_btree_index(ds, "id", index_name)
 
-    fragments = ds.get_fragments()
-    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in fragments]
+    stats = ds_committed.stats.index_stats(index_name)
+    assert stats["name"] == index_name
+    assert stats["index_type"] == "BTree"
 
-    for fragment in ds.get_fragments():
-        fragment_id = fragment.fragment_id
+    test_id = 100
+    results = ds_committed.scanner(
+        filter=f"id = {test_id}",
+        columns=["id", "text"],
+    ).to_table()
 
-        # Create B-tree scalar index for each fragment
-        # Use the same index_name for all fragments (like in FTS test)
-        ds.create_scalar_index(
-            column="id",  # Use integer column for B-tree
-            index_type="BTREE",
-            name=index_name,
-            replace=False,
-            index_uuid=index_id,
-            fragment_ids=[fragment_id],
-        )
+    assert results.num_rows == 1, f"No results found for id = {test_id}"
 
-    # test that the dataset should be searchable
-    # when the index not committed yet
-    # Test that the index works for searching
-    # Test exact equality queries
-    test_id = 100  # Should be in first fragment
-    results = ds.scanner(
+    results_range = ds_committed.scanner(
+        filter="id >= 200 AND id < 800",
+        columns=["id", "text"],
+    ).to_table()
+
+    assert results_range.num_rows > 0, "No results found for range query"
+
+    reference_ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        tmp_path / "reference", num_fragments=4, rows_per_fragment=10000
+    )
+
+    reference_ds.create_scalar_index(
+        column="id",
+        index_type="BTREE",
+        name="reference_btree_idx",
+    )
+
+    reference_results = reference_ds.scanner(
         filter=f"id = {test_id}",
         columns=["id", "text"],
     ).to_table()
 
-    assert results.num_rows == 1, f"No results found for id = {test_id}"
+    assert results.num_rows == reference_results.num_rows, (
+        f"Distributed index returned {results.num_rows} results, "
+        f"but complete index returned {reference_results.num_rows} results"
+    )
 
-    # Merge the B-tree index metadata
-    ds.merge_index_metadata(index_id, index_type="BTREE")
+    reference_range_results = reference_ds.scanner(
+        filter="id >= 200 AND id < 800",
+        columns=["id", "text"],
+    ).to_table()
 
-    # Create an Index object using the new dataclass format
-    from lance.dataset import Index
+    assert results_range.num_rows == reference_range_results.num_rows, (
+        f"Distributed index range query returned {results_range.num_rows} results, "
+        f"but complete index returned {reference_range_results.num_rows} results"
+    )
 
-    # Get the schema field for the indexed column
-    field_id = ds.schema.get_field_index("id")
 
-    index = Index(
-        uuid=index_id,
-        name=index_name,
-        fields=[field_id],  # Use field index instead of field object
-        dataset_version=ds.version,
-        fragment_ids=set(fragment_ids),
-        index_version=0,
+def test_bitmap_uncommitted_segments_can_be_committed_from_python(tmp_path):
+    dataset_path = tmp_path / "bitmap_segments.lance"
+    ds = generate_multi_fragment_bitmap_dataset(
+        dataset_path, num_fragments=4, rows_per_fragment=40
+    )
+
+    index_name = "bitmap_segment_idx"
+    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in ds.get_fragments()]
+    fragment_groups = [
+        fragment_ids[idx : idx + 2] for idx in range(0, len(fragment_ids), 2)
+    ]
+    assert len(fragment_groups) >= 2
+
+    staged_segments = [
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column="category",
+            index_type="BITMAP",
+            name=index_name,
+            fragment_ids=fragment_group,
+        )
+        for fragment_group in fragment_groups
+    ]
+
+    assert len({segment.uuid for segment in staged_segments}) == len(staged_segments)
+    for segment, fragment_group in zip(staged_segments, fragment_groups):
+        assert segment.fragment_ids == set(fragment_group)
+        assert any(file.path == "bitmap_page_lookup.lance" for file in segment.files)
+        assert all(not file.path.startswith("part_") for file in segment.files)
+
+    merged_segment = ds.merge_existing_index_segments(staged_segments)
+    assert merged_segment.uuid not in {segment.uuid for segment in staged_segments}
+    assert merged_segment.fragment_ids == set(fragment_ids)
+    assert any(file.path == "bitmap_page_lookup.lance" for file in merged_segment.files)
+    assert all(not file.path.startswith("part_") for file in merged_segment.files)
+
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "category", [merged_segment])
+    descriptions = {index.name: index for index in ds.describe_indices()}
+    assert len(descriptions[index_name].segments) == 1
+
+    filter_expr = "category = 3"
+    without_index = ds.scanner(
+        filter=filter_expr,
+        columns=["id", "category"],
+        use_scalar_index=False,
+    ).to_table()
+    with_index = ds.scanner(
+        filter=filter_expr,
+        columns=["id", "category"],
+        use_scalar_index=True,
+    ).to_table()
+
+    assert with_index.num_rows == without_index.num_rows
+    assert with_index["id"].to_pylist() == without_index["id"].to_pylist()
+    assert set(with_index["category"].to_pylist()) == {3}
+    assert (
+        "ScalarIndexQuery"
+        in ds.scanner(filter=filter_expr, use_scalar_index=True).explain_plan()
+    )
+
+
+def test_ngram_segment_merge_and_commit_from_python(tmp_path):
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "text": [
+                    "alpha needle",
+                    None,
+                    "beta needle",
+                    "gamma stack",
+                    "delta needle",
+                    "",
+                ]
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+    )
+    index_name = "text_ngram_segments"
+    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in ds.get_fragments()]
+    staged_segments = [
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column="text",
+            index_type="NGRAM",
+            name=index_name,
+            fragment_ids=[fragment_id],
+        )
+        for fragment_id in fragment_ids
+    ]
+    source_version = staged_segments[0].dataset_version
+
+    for segment, fragment_id in zip(staged_segments, fragment_ids):
+        assert segment.fragment_ids == {fragment_id}
+        assert any(file.path == "ngram_postings.lance" for file in segment.files)
+
+    merged_segment = ds.merge_existing_index_segments(staged_segments)
+    assert merged_segment.dataset_version == source_version
+    assert merged_segment.fragment_ids == set(fragment_ids)
+    assert any(file.path == "ngram_postings.lance" for file in merged_segment.files)
+
+    ds.insert(pa.table({"text": ["new stack"]}))
+    assert ds.version > source_version
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "text", [merged_segment])
+    descriptions = {index.name: index for index in ds.describe_indices()}
+    assert descriptions[index_name].index_type == "NGram"
+    assert len(descriptions[index_name].segments) == 1
+    assert (
+        descriptions[index_name].segments[0].dataset_version_at_last_update
+        == source_version
+    )
+    assert ds.count_rows("contains(text, 'needle')") == 3
+    assert ds.count_rows("text IS NULL") == 1
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "label_type",
+    [pa.list_(pa.string()), pa.large_list(pa.string())],
+    ids=["list", "large_list"],
+)
+def test_label_list_segment_index(tmp_path, label_type):
+    rows_per_fragment = 8
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array(range(rows_per_fragment * 4), type=pa.int32()),
+                "labels": pa.array(
+                    [
+                        ["distributed"] if row_id % 2 == 0 else ["other"]
+                        for row_id in range(rows_per_fragment * 4)
+                    ],
+                    type=label_type,
+                ),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=rows_per_fragment,
     )
 
-    # Create the index operation
-    create_index_op = lance.LanceOperation.CreateIndex(
-        new_indices=[index],
-        removed_indices=[],
+    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in ds.get_fragments()]
+    assert len(fragment_ids) == 4
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="create_index_uncommitted"):
+        ds.create_scalar_index(
+            column="labels",
+            index_type="LABEL_LIST",
+            fragment_ids=[fragment_ids[0]],
+        )
+
+    index_name = "labels_segment_idx"
+    segments = [
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column="labels",
+            index_type="LABEL_LIST",
+            name=index_name,
+            fragment_ids=[fragment_id],
+        )
+        for fragment_id in fragment_ids
+    ]
+
+    merged_segment = ds.merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "labels", [merged_segment])
+
+    filter_expr = "array_has_any(labels, ['distributed'])"
+    without_index = ds.scanner(
+        filter=filter_expr,
+        columns=["id", "labels"],
+        use_scalar_index=False,
+    ).to_table()
+    with_index = ds.scanner(
+        filter=filter_expr,
+        columns=["id", "labels"],
+        use_scalar_index=True,
+    ).to_table()
+
+    assert with_index.equals(without_index)
+    assert (
+        "ScalarIndexQuery"
+        in ds.scanner(filter=filter_expr, use_scalar_index=True).explain_plan()
     )
 
-    # Commit the index
-    ds_committed = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
-        ds.uri,
-        create_index_op,
-        read_version=ds.version,
+
+def test_zonemap_fragment_ids_parameter_validation(tmp_path):
+    ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        tmp_path, num_fragments=2, rows_per_fragment=100
     )
 
-    # Verify the index was created and is functional
-    indices = ds_committed.list_indices()
-    assert len(indices) > 0, "No indices found after commit"
+    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in ds.get_fragments()]
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="create_index_uncommitted"):
+        ds.create_scalar_index(
+            column="id",
+            index_type="ZONEMAP",
+            fragment_ids=[fragment_ids[0]],
+        )
 
-    # Find our index
-    our_index = None
-    for idx in indices:
-        if idx["name"] == index_name:
-            our_index = idx
-            break
 
-    assert our_index is not None, f"Index '{index_name}' not found in indices list"
-    assert our_index["type"] == "BTree", (
-        f"Expected BTree index, got {our_index['type']}"
+def test_zonemap_segment_merge_and_commit_from_python(tmp_path):
+    rows_per_fragment = 20_000
+    ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        tmp_path, num_fragments=4, rows_per_fragment=rows_per_fragment
     )
 
-    # Test that the index works for searching
-    # Test exact equality queries
-    test_id = 100  # Should be in first fragment
-    results = ds_committed.scanner(
-        filter=f"id = {test_id}",
+    index_name = "id_zonemap_segments"
+    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in ds.get_fragments()]
+    staged_segments = [
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column="id",
+            index_type="ZONEMAP",
+            name=index_name,
+            fragment_ids=[fragment_id],
+        )
+        for fragment_id in fragment_ids
+    ]
+
+    assert len({segment.uuid for segment in staged_segments}) == len(staged_segments)
+    for segment, fragment_id in zip(staged_segments, fragment_ids):
+        files = segment.files
+        assert files is not None
+        assert segment.fragment_ids == {fragment_id}
+        assert any(file.path == "zonemap.lance" for file in files)
+        assert all(not file.path.startswith("part_") for file in files)
+
+    merged_segment = ds.merge_existing_index_segments(staged_segments)
+    merged_files = merged_segment.files
+    assert merged_files is not None
+    assert merged_segment.uuid not in {segment.uuid for segment in staged_segments}
+    assert merged_segment.fragment_ids == set(fragment_ids)
+    assert any(file.path == "zonemap.lance" for file in merged_files)
+    assert all(not file.path.startswith("part_") for file in merged_files)
+
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", [merged_segment])
+    descriptions = {index.name: index for index in ds.describe_indices()}
+    assert descriptions[index_name].index_type == "ZoneMap"
+    assert len(descriptions[index_name].segments) == 1
+
+    filter_expr = "id >= 8200 AND id < 8300"
+    without_index = ds.scanner(
+        filter=filter_expr,
         columns=["id", "text"],
+        use_scalar_index=False,
     ).to_table()
-
-    assert results.num_rows == 1, f"No results found for id = {test_id}"
-
-    # Test range queries across fragments
-    results_range = ds_committed.scanner(
-        filter="id >= 200 AND id < 800",
+    with_index = ds.scanner(
+        filter=filter_expr,
         columns=["id", "text"],
+        use_scalar_index=True,
     ).to_table()
 
-    assert results_range.num_rows > 0, "No results found for range query"
-
-    # Compare with complete index results to ensure consistency
-    # Create a reference dataset with complete index
-    reference_ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
-        tmp_path / "reference", num_fragments=4, rows_per_fragment=10000
+    assert with_index.num_rows == without_index.num_rows
+    assert with_index["id"].to_pylist() == without_index["id"].to_pylist()
+    assert (
+        "ScalarIndexQuery"
+        in ds.scanner(filter=filter_expr, use_scalar_index=True).explain_plan()
     )
 
-    # Create complete B-tree index for comparison
-    reference_ds.create_scalar_index(
-        column="id",
-        index_type="BTREE",
-        name="reference_btree_idx",
+
+def test_bloomfilter_segment_merge_and_commit_from_python(tmp_path):
+    ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        tmp_path, num_fragments=3, rows_per_fragment=100
     )
 
-    # Compare exact query results
-    reference_results = reference_ds.scanner(
-        filter=f"id = {test_id}",
-        columns=["id", "text"],
-    ).to_table()
+    index_name = "id_bloomfilter_segments"
+    fragment_ids = [fragment.fragment_id for fragment in ds.get_fragments()]
+    staged_segments = [
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column="id",
+            index_type="BLOOMFILTER",
+            name=index_name,
+            fragment_ids=[fragment_id],
+        )
+        for fragment_id in fragment_ids
+    ]
 
-    assert results.num_rows == reference_results.num_rows, (
-        f"Distributed index returned {results.num_rows} results, "
-        f"but complete index returned {reference_results.num_rows} results"
-    )
+    for segment, fragment_id in zip(staged_segments, fragment_ids):
+        assert segment.fragment_ids == {fragment_id}
+        assert any(file.path == "bloomfilter.lance" for file in segment.files)
 
-    # Compare range query results
-    reference_range_results = reference_ds.scanner(
-        filter="id >= 200 AND id < 800",
+    merged_segment = ds.merge_existing_index_segments(staged_segments)
+    assert merged_segment.fragment_ids == set(fragment_ids)
+    assert any(file.path == "bloomfilter.lance" for file in merged_segment.files)
+
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", [merged_segment])
+    descriptions = {index.name: index for index in ds.describe_indices()}
+    assert descriptions[index_name].index_type == "BloomFilter"
+    assert len(descriptions[index_name].segments) == 1
+
+    filter_expr = "id = 117"
+    without_index = ds.scanner(
+        filter=filter_expr,
+        columns=["id", "text"],
+        use_scalar_index=False,
+    ).to_table()
+    with_index = ds.scanner(
+        filter=filter_expr,
         columns=["id", "text"],
+        use_scalar_index=True,
     ).to_table()
+    assert with_index.to_pydict() == without_index.to_pydict()
+    assert (
+        "ScalarIndexQuery"
+        in ds.scanner(filter=filter_expr, use_scalar_index=True).explain_plan()
+    )
 
-    assert results_range.num_rows == reference_range_results.num_rows, (
-        f"Distributed index range query returned {results_range.num_rows} results, "
-        f"but complete index returned {reference_range_results.num_rows} results"
+
+def test_merge_index_metadata_btree_soft_break(tmp_path):
+    ds = generate_multi_fragment_dataset(
+        tmp_path, num_fragments=2, rows_per_fragment=100
     )
 
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="no longer supports merge_index_metadata"):
+        ds.merge_index_metadata(str(uuid.uuid4()), index_type="BTREE")
+
 
 def test_btree_fragment_ids_parameter_validation(tmp_path):
     """
@@ -3545,103 +5512,128 @@ def test_btree_fragment_ids_parameter_validation(tmp_path):
         tmp_path, num_fragments=2, rows_per_fragment=10000
     )
 
-    # Test with valid fragment IDs
     fragments = ds.get_fragments()
     valid_fragment_id = fragments[0].fragment_id
 
-    # This should work without errors
-    ds.create_scalar_index(
-        column="id",
-        index_type="BTREE",
-        fragment_ids=[valid_fragment_id],
-    )
-
-    # Test with invalid fragment ID (should handle gracefully)
-    try:
+    # create_scalar_index no longer accepts fragment_ids for BTREE; distributed
+    # builds must go through the segmented create_index_uncommitted path.
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="create_index_uncommitted"):
         ds.create_scalar_index(
             column="id",
             index_type="BTREE",
-            fragment_ids=[999999],  # Non-existent fragment ID
+            fragment_ids=[valid_fragment_id],
         )
-    except Exception as e:
-        # It's acceptable for this to fail with an appropriate error
-        print(f"Expected error for invalid fragment ID: {e}")
 
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="index_uuid is no longer accepted"):
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            column="id",
+            index_type="BTREE",
+            fragment_ids=[valid_fragment_id],
+            index_uuid=str(uuid.uuid4()),
+        )
 
-@pytest.mark.parametrize(
-    "test_name,filter_expr",
-    [
-        # Test 1: Boundary values at fragment edges
-        ("First value", "id = 0"),
-        ("Fragment 0 last value", "id = 9999"),
-        ("Fragment 1 first value", "id = 10000"),
-        ("Fragment 1 last value", "id = 19999"),
-        ("Fragment 2 first value", "id = 20000"),
-        ("Last value", "id = 29999"),
-        # Test 2: Values in the middle of fragments
-        ("Fragment 0 middle", "id = 5000"),
-        ("Fragment 1 middle", "id = 15000"),
-        ("Fragment 2 middle", "id = 25000"),
-        # Test 3: Range queries within single fragments
-        ("Range within fragment 0", "id >= 10 AND id < 20"),
-        ("Range within fragment 1", "id >= 10010 AND id < 10020"),
-        ("Range within fragment 2", "id >= 20010 AND id < 20020"),
-        # Test 4: Range queries spanning multiple fragments
-        ("Cross fragment 0-1", "id >= 9995 AND id < 10005"),
-        ("Cross fragment 1-2", "id >= 19995 AND id < 20005"),
-        ("Cross all fragments", "id >= 5000 AND id < 25000"),
-        # Test 5: Edge cases
-        ("Non-existent small value", "id = -1"),
-        ("Non-existent large value", "id = 30100"),
-        ("Large range", "id >= 0 AND id < 30000"),
-        # Test 6: Comparison operators
-        ("Less than boundary", "id < 10000"),
-        ("Greater than boundary", "id > 19999"),
-        ("Less than or equal", "id <= 10050"),
-        ("Greater than or equal", "id >= 10050"),
-    ],
-)
-def test_btree_query_comparison_parametrized(
-    btree_comparison_datasets, test_name, filter_expr
-):
+    # Building one uncommitted segment for a valid fragment should work and
+    # return the segment metadata without committing it.
+    segment = ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+        column="id",
+        index_type="BTREE",
+        fragment_ids=[valid_fragment_id],
+    )
+    assert segment.fragment_ids == {valid_fragment_id}
+
+
+def test_btree_query_comparison(btree_comparison_datasets):
     """
-    Parametrized B-tree index query comparison test
+    B-tree index query comparison test covering representative query shapes.
 
-    Convert the original loop test to parametrized test,
-    each test case runs independently
+    Compares segmented fragment-built BTree results with a complete BTree index.
     """
     fragment_ds = btree_comparison_datasets["fragment_ds"]
     complete_ds = btree_comparison_datasets["complete_ds"]
+    rows_per_fragment = btree_comparison_datasets["rows_per_fragment"]
+    total_rows = btree_comparison_datasets["total_rows"]
+    fragment_starts = [idx * rows_per_fragment for idx in range(3)]
+    fragment_ends = [start + rows_per_fragment - 1 for start in fragment_starts]
+    fragment_middles = [start + rows_per_fragment // 2 for start in fragment_starts]
+    range_start_offset = rows_per_fragment // 10
+    range_end_offset = range_start_offset * 2
+    cross_fragment_margin = rows_per_fragment // 20
+
+    cases = [
+        # Boundary values at fragment edges
+        ("First value", f"id = {fragment_starts[0]}"),
+        ("Fragment 0 last value", f"id = {fragment_ends[0]}"),
+        ("Fragment 1 first value", f"id = {fragment_starts[1]}"),
+        ("Fragment 1 last value", f"id = {fragment_ends[1]}"),
+        ("Fragment 2 first value", f"id = {fragment_starts[2]}"),
+        ("Last value", f"id = {total_rows - 1}"),
+        # Values in the middle of fragments
+        ("Fragment 0 middle", f"id = {fragment_middles[0]}"),
+        ("Fragment 1 middle", f"id = {fragment_middles[1]}"),
+        ("Fragment 2 middle", f"id = {fragment_middles[2]}"),
+        # Range queries within single fragments
+        (
+            "Range within fragment 0",
+            f"id >= {fragment_starts[0] + range_start_offset} "
+            f"AND id < {fragment_starts[0] + range_end_offset}",
+        ),
+        (
+            "Range within fragment 1",
+            f"id >= {fragment_starts[1] + range_start_offset} "
+            f"AND id < {fragment_starts[1] + range_end_offset}",
+        ),
+        (
+            "Range within fragment 2",
+            f"id >= {fragment_starts[2] + range_start_offset} "
+            f"AND id < {fragment_starts[2] + range_end_offset}",
+        ),
+        # Range queries spanning multiple fragments
+        (
+            "Cross fragment 0-1",
+            f"id >= {fragment_ends[0] - cross_fragment_margin + 1} "
+            f"AND id < {fragment_starts[1] + cross_fragment_margin}",
+        ),
+        (
+            "Cross fragment 1-2",
+            f"id >= {fragment_ends[1] - cross_fragment_margin + 1} "
+            f"AND id < {fragment_starts[2] + cross_fragment_margin}",
+        ),
+        (
+            "Cross all fragments",
+            f"id >= {fragment_middles[0]} AND id < {fragment_middles[2]}",
+        ),
+        # Missing values and the full indexed range
+        ("Non-existent small value", f"id = {fragment_starts[0] - 1}"),
+        (
+            "Non-existent large value",
+            f"id = {total_rows + rows_per_fragment}",
+        ),
+        (
+            "Large range",
+            f"id >= {fragment_starts[0]} AND id < {total_rows}",
+        ),
+        # Comparison operators
+        ("Less than boundary", f"id < {fragment_starts[1]}"),
+        ("Greater than boundary", f"id > {fragment_ends[1]}"),
+        ("Less than or equal", f"id <= {fragment_middles[1]}"),
+        ("Greater than or equal", f"id >= {fragment_middles[1]}"),
+    ]
 
-    # Query fragment-based index
-    fragment_results = fragment_ds.scanner(
-        filter=filter_expr,
-        columns=["id", "text"],
-    ).to_table()
-
-    # Query complete index
-    complete_results = complete_ds.scanner(
-        filter=filter_expr,
-        columns=["id", "text"],
-    ).to_table()
-
-    # Compare row counts
-    assert fragment_results.num_rows == complete_results.num_rows, (
-        f"Test '{test_name}' failed: Fragment index "
-        f"returned {fragment_results.num_rows} rows, "
-        f"but complete index returned {complete_results.num_rows}"
-        f" rows for filter: {filter_expr}"
-    )
-
-    # Compare actual results if there are any
-    if fragment_results.num_rows > 0:
-        # Sort both results by id for comparison
-        fragment_ids = sorted(fragment_results.column("id").to_pylist())
-        complete_ids = sorted(complete_results.column("id").to_pylist())
-
-        assert fragment_ids == complete_ids, (
-            f"Test '{test_name}' failed: Fragment index "
-            f"and complete index returned different results for filter: {filter_expr}"
+    for test_name, filter_expr in cases:
+        fragment_results = fragment_ds.scanner(
+            filter=filter_expr,
+            columns=["id", "text"],
+        ).to_table()
+        complete_results = complete_ds.scanner(
+            filter=filter_expr,
+            columns=["id", "text"],
+        ).to_table()
+
+        fragment_results = fragment_results.sort_by([("id", "ascending")])
+        complete_results = complete_results.sort_by([("id", "ascending")])
+        assert fragment_results.equals(complete_results), (
+            f"Test '{test_name}' failed: segmented and complete BTree indexes returned "
+            f"different results for filter: {filter_expr}"
         )
 
 
@@ -3820,6 +5812,12 @@ def scan_stats_callback(stats: lance.ScanStatistics):
     assert isinstance(scan_stats.parts_loaded, int)
     assert isinstance(scan_stats.index_comparisons, int)
     assert isinstance(scan_stats.all_counts, dict)
+    assert isinstance(scan_stats.all_times, dict)
+    for key, value in scan_stats.all_times.items():
+        assert isinstance(key, str)
+        assert isinstance(value, int)
+        assert value >= 0
+    assert "all_times=" in repr(scan_stats)
 
     # Verify we got some I/O activity
     assert scan_stats.iops > 0, "Expected some I/O operations"
@@ -3869,10 +5867,10 @@ def test_nested_field_btree_index(tmp_path):
     dataset.create_scalar_index(column="meta.lang", index_type="BTREE")
 
     # Verify index was created
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["meta.lang"]
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "BTree"
+    assert indices[0].field_names == ["meta.lang"]
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "BTree"
 
     # Test query using the index - filter for English language
     result = dataset.scanner(filter="meta.lang = 'en'").to_table()
@@ -3970,10 +5968,10 @@ def test_nested_field_fts_index(tmp_path):
     ds.create_scalar_index("data.text", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=False)
 
     # Verify index was created
-    indices = ds.list_indices()
+    indices = ds.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["data.text"]
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "Inverted"
+    assert indices[0].field_names == ["data.text"]
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "Inverted"
 
     # Test full text search on nested field
     results = ds.to_table(full_text_query="lance")
@@ -4022,6 +6020,77 @@ def test_nested_field_fts_index(tmp_path):
     assert results.num_rows == 50
 
 
+def test_multiple_nested_field_fts_indices_e2e(tmp_path):
+    """Test FTS queries against multiple indexed nested string fields."""
+
+    def make_table(ids, text_values, summary_values):
+        return pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": ids,
+                "data": pa.StructArray.from_arrays(
+                    [
+                        pa.array(text_values, type=pa.string()),
+                        pa.array(summary_values, type=pa.string()),
+                    ],
+                    names=["text", "summary"],
+                ),
+            }
+        )
+
+    def result_ids(query):
+        return sorted(ds.to_table(full_text_query=query)["id"].to_pylist())
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        make_table(
+            [0, 1, 2, 3],
+            [
+                "lance nested alpha",
+                "plain text",
+                None,
+                "phrase target here",
+            ],
+            [
+                "metadata only",
+                "database nested beta",
+                "lance beta",
+                "other",
+            ],
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+
+    ds.create_scalar_index("data.text", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=True)
+    ds.create_scalar_index("data.summary", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=False)
+
+    indexed_fields = {
+        tuple(index.field_names)
+        for index in ds.describe_indices()
+        if index.index_type == "Inverted"
+    }
+    assert indexed_fields == {("data.text",), ("data.summary",)}
+
+    assert result_ids(MatchQuery("alpha", "data.text")) == [0]
+    assert result_ids(MatchQuery("beta", "data.summary")) == [1, 2]
+    assert result_ids("lance") == [0, 2]
+    assert result_ids(MultiMatchQuery("nested", ["data.text", "data.summary"])) == [
+        0,
+        1,
+    ]
+    assert result_ids(PhraseQuery("phrase target", "data.text")) == [3]
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        make_table(
+            [4, 5],
+            ["fresh lance append", "plain append"],
+            ["other", "fresh beta append"],
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+        mode="append",
+    )
+
+    assert result_ids("fresh") == [4, 5]
+
+
 def test_nested_field_bitmap_index(tmp_path):
     """Test BITMAP index creation and querying on nested fields"""
     # Create dataset with nested categorical field
@@ -4044,10 +6113,10 @@ def test_nested_field_bitmap_index(tmp_path):
     ds.create_scalar_index("attributes.color", index_type="BITMAP")
 
     # Verify index was created
-    indices = ds.list_indices()
+    indices = ds.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["attributes.color"]
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "Bitmap"
+    assert indices[0].field_names == ["attributes.color"]
+    assert indices[0].index_type == "Bitmap"
 
     # Test equality query
     results = ds.to_table(filter="attributes.color = 'red'", prefilter=True)
@@ -4154,7 +6223,11 @@ def test_json_inverted_match_query(tmp_path):
     assert results.num_rows == 1
 
 
-def test_describe_indices(tmp_path):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("format_version", "expected_format_version"),
+    [(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), ("v1", 1), ("v2", 2), ("v3", 3)],
+)
+def test_describe_indices(tmp_path, format_version, expected_format_version):
     data = pa.table(
         {
             "id": range(100),
@@ -4170,7 +6243,7 @@ def test_describe_indices(tmp_path):
         }
     )
     ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
-    ds.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED")
+    ds.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED", format_version=format_version)
     indices = ds.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
 
@@ -4184,9 +6257,13 @@ def test_describe_indices(tmp_path):
     assert indices[0].segments[0].uuid is not None
     assert indices[0].segments[0].fragment_ids == {0}
     assert indices[0].segments[0].dataset_version_at_last_update == 1
-    assert indices[0].segments[0].index_version == 1
+    assert indices[0].segments[0].index_version == expected_format_version
     assert indices[0].segments[0].created_at is not None
     assert isinstance(indices[0].segments[0].created_at, datetime)
+    assert indices[0].segments[0].size_bytes is not None
+    assert indices[0].segments[0].size_bytes > 0
+    assert indices[0].total_size_bytes is not None
+    assert indices[0].total_size_bytes > 0
 
     details = indices[0].details
     assert details is not None and len(details) > 0
@@ -4198,7 +6275,6 @@ def test_describe_indices(tmp_path):
     assert details["lower_case"]
     assert details["stem"]
     assert details["remove_stop_words"]
-    assert details["custom_stop_words"] is None
     assert details["ascii_folding"]
     assert details["min_ngram_length"] == 3
     assert details["max_ngram_length"] == 3
@@ -4267,9 +6343,260 @@ def test_describe_indices(tmp_path):
         assert indices[i].segments[0].index_version == 0
         assert indices[i].segments[0].created_at is not None
         assert isinstance(indices[i].segments[0].created_at, datetime)
+        assert indices[i].segments[0].size_bytes is not None
+        assert indices[i].segments[0].size_bytes > 0
+        assert indices[i].total_size_bytes is not None
+        assert indices[i].total_size_bytes > 0
         assert indices[i].details == json.loads(details[i])
 
     ds.delete("id < 50")
     indices = ds.describe_indices()
     for index in indices:
         assert index.num_rows_indexed == 50
+
+
+def _run_fts_format_creation_probe(
+    tmp_path, env_value, creation_options=None, expected_format_version=None
+):
+    script = """
+import json
+import sys
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+    pa.table({"text": ["document about lance database"]}), sys.argv[1]
+)
+dataset.create_scalar_index(
+    "text", index_type="INVERTED", **json.loads(sys.argv[2])
+)
+expected_format_version = json.loads(sys.argv[3])
+if expected_format_version is not None:
+    actual_format_version = dataset.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].index_version
+    assert actual_format_version == expected_format_version
+"""
+    env = os.environ.copy()
+    if env_value is None:
+        env.pop("LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION", None)
+    else:
+        env["LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION"] = env_value
+    return subprocess.run(
+        [
+            sys.executable,
+            "-c",
+            script,
+            str(tmp_path),
+            json.dumps(creation_options or {}),
+            json.dumps(expected_format_version),
+        ],
+        capture_output=True,
+        env=env,
+        text=True,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("env_value", "creation_options", "expected_format_version"),
+    [
+        ("1", {}, 1),
+        ("2", {}, 2),
+        ("3", {}, 3),
+        ("3", {"block_size": 256}, 3),
+    ],
+)
+def test_create_inverted_index_uses_env_format_version(
+    tmp_path, env_value, creation_options, expected_format_version
+):
+    result = _run_fts_format_creation_probe(
+        tmp_path,
+        env_value,
+        creation_options,
+        expected_format_version,
+    )
+
+    assert result.returncode == 0, result.stderr
+
+
+def test_create_inverted_index_explicit_format_version_overrides_env(tmp_path):
+    result = _run_fts_format_creation_probe(
+        tmp_path,
+        "invalid",
+        {"format_version": 1},
+        1,
+    )
+
+    assert result.returncode == 0, result.stderr
+
+
+def test_create_text_inverted_index_defaults_to_v2_without_env(tmp_path):
+    result = _run_fts_format_creation_probe(tmp_path, None, expected_format_version=2)
+
+    assert result.returncode == 0, result.stderr
+
+
+def test_create_inverted_index_rejects_invalid_env_format_version(tmp_path):
+    result = _run_fts_format_creation_probe(tmp_path, "invalid")
+
+    assert result.returncode != 0
+    assert "LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION" in result.stderr
+    assert "invalid" in result.stderr
+
+
+def test_create_inverted_index_rejects_invalid_format_version(tmp_path):
+    data = pa.table({"text": ["document about lance database"]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="unsupported FTS format version"):
+        ds.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED", format_version="v5")
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="unsupported FTS format version"):
+        ds.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED", format_version="v4")
+
+
+def test_vector_filter_fts_search(tmp_path):
+    # Create test data
+    ids = list(range(1, 301))
+    vectors = [[float(i)] * 4 for i in ids]
+
+    # Create text data:
+    #   "text <i>" for ids 1-255, 299, 300,
+    #   "noop <i>" for 256-298,
+    texts = []
+    for i in ids:
+        if i <= 255:
+            texts.append(f"text {i}")
+        elif i <= 298:
+            texts.append(f"noop {i}")
+        else:
+            texts.append(f"text {i}")
+
+    categories = []
+    for i in ids:
+        if i % 3 == 1:
+            categories.append("literature")
+        elif i % 3 == 2:
+            categories.append("science")
+        else:
+            categories.append("geography")
+
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": ids,
+            "vector": pa.array(vectors, type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), 4)),
+            "text": texts,
+            "category": categories,
+        }
+    )
+
+    # Write dataset and create indices
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=2,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+    )
+    ds.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=True)
+
+    # Create vector_query
+    vector_query = {
+        "column": "vector",
+        "q": np.array([300, 300, 300, 300], dtype=np.float32),
+        "k": 5,
+        "minimum_nprobes": 20,
+        "use_index": True,
+    }
+
+    # Case 1: search with prefilter=true, query_filter=vector([300,300,300,300])
+    scanner = ds.scanner(
+        prefilter=False, nearest=vector_query, filter=MatchQuery("text", "text")
+    )
+    result = scanner.to_table()
+    # The approximate IVF_PQ index can return the two nearest "text" matches
+    # (299 and 300) in either order, so assert the set of ids, not the order.
+    assert sorted(result["id"].to_pylist()) == [299, 300]
+
+    # Case 2: search with prefilter=true, search_filter=match("text"),
+    #         filter="category='geography'"
+    scanner = ds.scanner(
+        prefilter=True,
+        nearest=vector_query,
+        filter={
+            "expr_filter": "category='geography'",
+            "search_filter": MatchQuery("text", "text"),
+        },
+    )
+    result = scanner.to_table()
+    assert [300, 255, 252, 249, 246] == result["id"].to_pylist()
+
+    # Case 3: search with prefilter=false, search_filter=match("text")
+    scanner = ds.scanner(
+        prefilter=False,
+        nearest=vector_query,
+        filter=MatchQuery("text", "text"),
+    )
+    result = scanner.to_table()
+    # The approximate IVF_PQ index can return the two nearest "text" matches
+    # (299 and 300) in either order, so assert the set of ids, not the order.
+    assert sorted(result["id"].to_pylist()) == [299, 300]
+
+    # Case 4: search with prefilter=false, search_filter=match("text"),
+    #       filter="category='geography'"
+    scanner = ds.scanner(
+        prefilter=False,
+        nearest=vector_query,
+        filter={
+            "expr_filter": "category='geography'",
+            "search_filter": MatchQuery("text", "text"),
+        },
+    )
+    result = scanner.to_table()
+    assert [300] == result["id"].to_pylist()
+
+    # Case 5: search with prefilter=false, search_filter=phrase("text")
+    scanner = ds.scanner(
+        prefilter=False,
+        nearest=vector_query,
+        filter=PhraseQuery("text", "text"),
+    )
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        scanner.to_table()
+
+    # Case 6: search with prefilter=false, search_filter=phrase("text")
+    scanner = ds.scanner(
+        prefilter=False,
+        nearest=vector_query,
+        filter={
+            "expr_filter": "category='geography'",
+            "search_filter": PhraseQuery("text", "text"),
+        },
+    )
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        scanner.to_table()
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("index_type", ["BTREE", "BITMAP", "ZONEMAP"])
+def test_large_string_scalar_index(tmp_path, index_type):
+    """large_string (LargeUtf8) must be accepted by BTREE, BITMAP, and ZONEMAP."""
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([1, 2, 3], pa.int32()),
+            "category": pa.array(["alpha", "beta", "alpha"], pa.large_string()),
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    assert ds.schema.field("category").type == pa.large_string()
+
+    # Must not raise TypeError
+    ds.create_scalar_index("category", index_type=index_type)
+
+    indices = ds.describe_indices()
+    assert any("category" in idx.field_names for idx in indices), (
+        f"{index_type} index for large_string column not found in describe_indices()"
+    )
+
+    result = ds.scanner(filter="category = 'alpha'").to_table()
+    assert result.num_rows == 2
+    assert set(result.column("id").to_pylist()) == {1, 3}
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_schema.py b/python/python/tests/test_schema.py
index fcff283ebe2..67ba402a116 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_schema.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_schema.py
@@ -3,11 +3,28 @@
 
 import pickle
 from pathlib import Path
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
 
 import lance
 import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest  # pyright: ignore[reportMissingImports]
 from lance.schema import LanceSchema
 
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from typing import assert_type
+
+    from lance.lance.schema import LanceField
+
+    def _check_field_lookup_types(schema: LanceSchema) -> None:
+        """Static-only guard: both lookups return an optional field.
+
+        ``LanceField`` exists only as a stub type -- ``lance.lance`` is a
+        compiled extension that re-exports ``LanceSchema`` alone -- so these
+        assertions cannot run, but pyright checks them.
+        """
+        assert_type(schema.field("x"), Optional[LanceField])
+        assert_type(schema.field_case_insensitive("x"), Optional[LanceField])
+
 
 def test_lance_schema(tmp_path: Path):
     # Include nested fields to test the reconstruction of the schema
@@ -54,9 +71,61 @@ def test_lance_schema(tmp_path: Path):
     assert l_children[0].id() == 5
 
     # Changing column name does not change the id
-    dataset.alter_columns({"path": "s.a", "name": "new_name"})
+    # alter_columns is variadic, but its parameter is annotated
+    # Iterable[AlterColumn] rather than AlterColumn, so a single alteration
+    # does not type check. Unrelated to this file; suppressed rather than
+    # fixed here to keep the change focused.
+    dataset.alter_columns(
+        {"path": "s.a", "name": "new_name"}  # pyright: ignore[reportArgumentType]
+    )
     schema = dataset.lance_schema
     fields = schema.fields()
     s_fields = fields[1].children()
     assert s_fields[0].name() == "new_name"
     assert s_fields[0].id() == 2
+
+
+def test_lance_schema_from_protos_rejects_missing_parent():
+    # name (field 2): child; id (field 3): 7; parent_id (field 4): 42;
+    # logical_type (field 5): int32.
+    field_proto = b"\x12\x05child\x18\x07\x20\x2a\x2a\x05int32"
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError,
+        match="Field 'child' \\(id=7\\) references parent id 42",
+    ):
+        LanceSchema._from_protos("{}", field_proto)
+
+
+def test_lance_schema_field_lookup(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"x": range(2), "s": [{"a": 1}, {"a": 2}]}), tmp_path
+    )
+    schema = dataset.lance_schema
+
+    field = schema.field("x")
+    assert field is not None
+    assert field.name() == "x"
+
+    # Dotted paths address nested fields; a miss returns None rather than
+    # raising, which is what the Optional return type encodes.
+    nested = schema.field("s.a")
+    assert nested is not None
+    assert nested.name() == "a"
+    assert schema.field("does_not_exist") is None
+
+
+def test_lance_schema_field_case_insensitive(tmp_path: Path):
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"MixedCase": range(2)}), tmp_path)
+    schema = dataset.lance_schema
+
+    exact = schema.field_case_insensitive("MixedCase")
+    assert exact is not None
+    assert exact.name() == "MixedCase"
+
+    # Falls back to a case-insensitive match, preserving the original casing.
+    relaxed = schema.field_case_insensitive("mixedcase")
+    assert relaxed is not None
+    assert relaxed.name() == "MixedCase"
+
+    assert schema.field_case_insensitive("does_not_exist") is None
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_schema_evolution.py b/python/python/tests/test_schema_evolution.py
index 6560d8c7e7d..abd89e0cded 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_schema_evolution.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_schema_evolution.py
@@ -6,6 +6,8 @@
 from pathlib import Path
 
 import lance
+import lance.dependencies as dependencies
+import lance.udf as udf_module
 import numpy as np
 import pandas as pd
 import pyarrow as pa
@@ -13,6 +15,7 @@
 import pytest
 from lance import LanceDataset
 from lance.file import LanceFileReader, LanceFileWriter
+from lance.fragment import write_fragments
 
 
 def test_drop_columns(tmp_path: Path):
@@ -37,12 +40,12 @@ def test_drop_columns(tmp_path: Path):
             "c": pa.int64(),
         }
     )
-    assert len(dataset.list_indices()) == 1
+    assert len(dataset.describe_indices()) == 1
 
     # Drop vector column, index is dropped
     dataset.drop_columns(["a"])
     assert dataset.schema == pa.schema({"c": pa.int64()})
-    assert len(dataset.list_indices()) == 0
+    assert len(dataset.describe_indices()) == 0
 
     # Can't drop all columns
     with pytest.raises(ValueError):
@@ -287,6 +290,37 @@ def mapper(batch: pa.RecordBatch):
     check_add_columns(dataset, expected, use_fragments, mapper)
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_batch_udf", [False, True])
+def test_add_columns_arrow_udf_without_pandas_dependency(
+    tmp_path: Path, monkeypatch, use_batch_udf
+):
+    table = pa.table({"caption": ["a Shutterstock photo", "clean"]})
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+
+    def mapper(batch: pa.RecordBatch) -> pa.RecordBatch:
+        flags = pc.match_substring_regex(
+            pc.utf8_lower(batch["caption"]), "shutterstock"
+        )
+        return pa.record_batch([flags], names=["wm"])
+
+    if use_batch_udf:
+        mapper = lance.batch_udf()(mapper)
+
+    # CI has pandas installed, so simulate Lance's no-pandas lazy proxy state.
+    # Without the guard, accessing pd.DataFrame raises ModuleNotFoundError.
+    monkeypatch.setattr(dependencies, "_PANDAS_AVAILABLE", False)
+    monkeypatch.setattr(
+        udf_module,
+        "pd",
+        dependencies._LazyModule("pandas", module_available=False),
+    )
+
+    dataset.add_columns(mapper, read_columns=["caption"], batch_size=64)
+
+    expected = table.append_column("wm", pa.array([True, False]))
+    assert dataset.to_table() == expected
+
+
 def test_query_after_merge(tmp_path):
     # https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues/1905
     tab = pa.table(
@@ -540,3 +574,56 @@ def test_add_cols_all_null_with_sql(tmp_path: Path):
             "b": pa.int32(),
         }
     )
+
+
+def test_merge_nullability_assertion(tmp_path: Path):
+    tbl = pa.table({"value": pa.array([1, 2], pa.int32())})
+    lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
+    written_at = lance.dataset(tmp_path).version
+
+    # Stage an append against the original schema, then add a non-nullable
+    # column. The merge claims non-null, and reading it back must preserve
+    # the claim, or recommitting it would silently drop the barrier.
+    fragments = write_fragments(
+        pa.table({"value": pa.array([7], pa.int32())}), tmp_path, mode="append"
+    )
+    lance.dataset(tmp_path).add_columns({"one": "1"})
+    txn = lance.dataset(tmp_path).read_transaction(2)
+    assert txn is not None
+    assert txn.operation.preserves_nullability is False
+
+    # The stale append omits the required column, so its rows would read as
+    # null under the merged schema; the claim refuses it.
+    op = lance.LanceOperation.Append(fragments)
+    with pytest.raises(Exception, match="preempted"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(tmp_path, op, read_version=written_at)
+
+    # A nullable add preserves nullability and skips the barrier.
+    lance.dataset(tmp_path).add_columns({"copied": "value"})
+    txn = lance.dataset(tmp_path).read_transaction(3)
+    assert txn is not None
+    assert txn.operation.preserves_nullability is True
+
+
+def test_project_nullability_assertion_round_trips(tmp_path: Path):
+    tbl = pa.table({"value": pa.array([1, 2], pa.int32())})
+    lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
+    lance.dataset(tmp_path).alter_columns({"path": "value", "nullable": False})
+
+    # Reading the tightening back must preserve the claim, or recommitting it
+    # would silently drop the concurrency barrier.
+    txn = lance.dataset(tmp_path).read_transaction(2)
+    assert txn is not None
+    assert txn.operation.preserves_nullability is False
+
+    # A Python-built non-assertion must reach the barrier: race an append.
+    written_at = lance.dataset(tmp_path).version
+    appended = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"value": pa.array([7], pa.int32())}), tmp_path, mode="append"
+    )
+    assert appended.version > written_at
+    relax = lance.LanceOperation.Project(
+        schema=txn.operation.schema, preserves_nullability=False
+    )
+    with pytest.raises(Exception, match="preempted"):
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(tmp_path, relax, read_version=written_at)
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_session.py b/python/python/tests/test_session.py
index 18ffb6df7fa..05b8a637628 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_session.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_session.py
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 
 import lance
 import pyarrow as pa
+import pytest
 
 
 def test_cache_size_bytes(
@@ -37,3 +38,86 @@ def test_share_session(tmp_path: Path):
     assert ds1.session().size_bytes() == ds2.session().size_bytes()
 
     assert ds1.to_table() == ds2.to_table()
+
+
+def test_fragment_write_with_session(tmp_path: Path):
+    from lance.fragment import LanceFragment, write_fragments
+
+    data = pa.table({"a": range(10), "b": [str(i) for i in range(10)]})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
+    # Drop a column so the surviving field id is non-trivial (!= 0). Appends
+    # that infer the schema must pick up this field id from the dataset.
+    ds.drop_columns(["a"])
+    field_id = ds.lance_schema.field_case_insensitive("b").id()
+    assert field_id != 0
+
+    session = ds.session()
+    size_before = session.size_bytes()
+
+    append_data = pa.table({"b": ["x", "y"]})
+    fragments = write_fragments(
+        append_data, str(tmp_path), mode="append", session=session
+    )
+    assert len(fragments) == 1
+    assert fragments[0].files[0].fields == [field_id]
+
+    fragment = LanceFragment.create(
+        str(tmp_path), append_data, mode="append", session=session
+    )
+    assert fragment.files[0].fields == [field_id]
+
+    # The manifest loads for schema inference went through the shared session.
+    assert session.size_bytes() > size_before
+
+    # A LanceDataset destination always uses its own session; a different
+    # explicit session is rejected.
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="not the destination dataset's own session"):
+        write_fragments(append_data, ds, mode="append", session=lance.Session())
+
+
+def test_cache_backend_uri_config():
+    session = lance.Session(index_cache_backend="moka://?capacity=1048576")
+
+    assert session.index_cache_size_bytes() == 0
+
+
+def test_cache_backend_dict_config():
+    session = lance.Session(
+        index_cache_backend={
+            "kind": "MOKA",
+            "options": {"capacity": "1048576"},
+        },
+    )
+
+    assert session.index_cache_size_bytes() == 0
+
+
+def test_cache_backend_rejects_size_and_backend():
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError,
+        match="index_cache_size_bytes and index_cache_backend are mutually exclusive",
+    ):
+        lance.Session(
+            index_cache_size_bytes=1024,
+            index_cache_backend="moka://?capacity=1048576",
+        )
+
+
+def test_cache_backend_rejects_unknown_dict_key():
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="unknown dict key"):
+        lance.Session(
+            index_cache_backend={
+                "kind": "moka",
+                "capacity": "1048576",
+            },
+        )
+
+
+def test_cache_backend_rejects_moka_without_capacity():
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="capacity is required"):
+        lance.Session(index_cache_backend="moka://")
+
+
+def test_cache_backend_rejects_moka_empty_capacity():
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="capacity must not be empty"):
+        lance.Session(index_cache_backend="moka://?capacity=")
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_table_ops.py b/python/python/tests/test_table_ops.py
index 4e61feff6d0..24cf3409f91 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_table_ops.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_table_ops.py
@@ -106,3 +106,149 @@ def test_replacement_after_index(tmp_path: str):
             ),
             read_version=ds3.version,
         )
+
+
+def test_data_file_create_basic(tmp_path: str):
+    """DataFile.create should read file metadata and produce correct fields/indices."""
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(10), "b": range(10, 20)})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+
+    # Write a lance file with both columns
+    new_file_name = f"{uuid.uuid4()}.lance"
+    new_file_path = f"{tmp_path}/data/{new_file_name}"
+    with LanceFileWriter(new_file_path) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(table)
+
+    df = DataFile.create(ds, new_file_name)
+
+    # Should have both field IDs from the dataset
+    frag = ds.get_fragments()[0]
+    expected_fields = frag.data_files()[0].fields
+    assert df.fields == expected_fields
+    assert df.column_indices == [0, 1]
+    assert df.file_major_version == int(stable_version().split(".")[0])
+    assert df.file_minor_version == int(stable_version().split(".")[1])
+    assert df.file_size_bytes is not None and df.file_size_bytes > 0
+
+
+def test_data_file_create_subset_columns(tmp_path: str):
+    """DataFile.create should work for a file with a subset of dataset columns."""
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(10), "b": range(10, 20)})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    ds.add_columns({"c": "a + b"})
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+
+    # Write a file with only column b
+    new_file_name = f"{uuid.uuid4()}.lance"
+    new_file_path = f"{tmp_path}/data/{new_file_name}"
+    with LanceFileWriter(new_file_path, pa.schema([("b", pa.int64())])) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"b": range(100, 110)}))
+
+    df = DataFile.create(ds, new_file_name)
+
+    # Should only have b's field ID
+    frag = ds.get_fragments()[0]
+    all_fields = frag.data_files()[0].fields
+    # b is the second field in the original data file
+    b_field_id = all_fields[1]
+    assert df.fields == [b_field_id]
+    assert df.column_indices == [0]
+
+
+def test_data_file_create_end_to_end(tmp_path: str):
+    """DataFile.create should work end-to-end with DataReplacement."""
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(100)})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    ds.add_columns({"b": "a + 1"})
+    ds = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+
+    # Write a replacement file for column b
+    new_file_name = f"{uuid.uuid4()}.lance"
+    new_file_path = f"{tmp_path}/data/{new_file_name}"
+    replacement_data = pa.table({"b": range(200, 300)})
+    with LanceFileWriter(new_file_path, pa.schema([("b", pa.int64())])) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(replacement_data)
+
+    # Use DataFile.create instead of manual construction
+    df = DataFile.create(ds, new_file_name)
+
+    ds.commit(
+        ds.uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacement(
+            [lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacementGroup(0, df)]
+        ),
+        read_version=ds.version,
+    )
+
+    result = lance.dataset(tmp_path).to_table()
+    assert result.column("b").to_pylist() == list(range(200, 300))
+    assert result.column("a").to_pylist() == list(range(100))
+
+
+def test_data_file_create_unknown_column(tmp_path: str):
+    """DataFile.create should raise an error for a file with unknown columns."""
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(10)})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+
+    # Write a file with a column not in the dataset
+    new_file_name = f"{uuid.uuid4()}.lance"
+    new_file_path = f"{tmp_path}/data/{new_file_name}"
+    with LanceFileWriter(new_file_path) as writer:
+        writer.write_batch(pa.table({"z": range(10)}))
+
+    with pytest.raises(Exception, match="z"):
+        DataFile.create(ds, new_file_name)
+
+
+def test_commit_conflict_raises_typed_error(tmp_path: str):
+    """A losing commit should raise CommitConflictError, not a bare OSError."""
+    from lance.commit import CommitConflictError
+
+    table = pa.table({"a": range(100)})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+
+    # Two commits based on the same version; the second must conflict.
+    ds2 = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+    ds3 = lance.dataset(tmp_path)
+
+    new_data_file = make_data_file(ds, [0], pa.table({"a": range(100, 200)}))
+    ds2.commit(
+        ds2.uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacement(
+            [lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacementGroup(0, new_data_file)]
+        ),
+        read_version=ds2.version,
+    )
+
+    new_data_file = make_data_file(ds, [0], pa.table({"a": range(200, 300)}))
+    with pytest.raises(CommitConflictError) as exc_info:
+        ds3.commit(
+            ds3.uri,
+            lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacement(
+                [lance.LanceOperation.DataReplacementGroup(0, new_data_file)]
+            ),
+            read_version=ds3.version,
+        )
+
+    # It must be a CommitConflictError, still catchable as OSError, and retryable.
+    assert isinstance(exc_info.value, OSError)
+    assert exc_info.value.retryable is True
+
+
+def test_incompatible_transaction_raises_non_retryable(tmp_path: str):
+    """An incompatible transaction should raise a non-retryable CommitConflictError."""
+    from lance.commit import CommitConflictError
+
+    table = pa.table({"a": [1]})
+    uri = tmp_path
+    base = lance.write_dataset(table, uri)
+    fragment = lance.fragment.LanceFragment.create(uri, table)
+    stale_append = lance.LanceOperation.Append([fragment])
+
+    # Overwrite the table, then try to append based on the stale version.
+    lance.write_dataset(table, uri, mode="overwrite")
+    with pytest.raises(CommitConflictError) as exc_info:
+        lance.LanceDataset.commit(uri, stale_append, read_version=base.version)
+
+    assert isinstance(exc_info.value, OSError)
+    assert exc_info.value.retryable is False
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_table_provider.py b/python/python/tests/test_table_provider.py
index d4d35556e32..2252f12aa28 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_table_provider.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_table_provider.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 import numpy as np
 import pandas as pd
 import pyarrow as pa
-from datafusion import SessionContext, col
+import pytest
 from lance import FFILanceTableProvider, LanceDataset
 
 
@@ -19,6 +19,9 @@ def normalize(batches: list[pa.RecordBatch]) -> pa.RecordBatch:
 
 
 def test_table_loading():
+    pytest.importorskip("datafusion")
+    from datafusion import SessionContext, col
+
     lancedb_temp_path = "/tmp/test.lance"
     shutil.rmtree(lancedb_temp_path, ignore_errors=True)
 
@@ -57,7 +60,8 @@ def make_ctx():
         ctx.register_table("ffi_lance_table", ffi_lance_table)
         return ctx
 
-    result = normalize(make_ctx().table("ffi_lance_table").collect())
+    ctx = make_ctx()
+    result = normalize(ctx.table("ffi_lance_table").collect())
 
     assert len(result) == 1000000
     assert result.num_columns == 5
@@ -74,15 +78,44 @@ def make_ctx():
 
     pd.testing.assert_frame_equal(result.to_pandas(), expected)
 
-    result = normalize(
-        make_ctx().table("ffi_lance_table").filter(col("col1") == 4).collect()
-    )
+    ctx = make_ctx()
+    result = normalize(ctx.table("ffi_lance_table").filter(col("col1") == 4).collect())
     assert len(result) == 1
 
-    result = normalize(make_ctx().table("ffi_lance_table").limit(1).collect())
+    ctx = make_ctx()
+    result = normalize(ctx.table("ffi_lance_table").limit(1).collect())
     assert len(result) == 1
     assert result["col1"][0].as_py() == 0
 
-    result = normalize(make_ctx().table("ffi_lance_table").limit(1, offset=1).collect())
+    ctx = make_ctx()
+    result = normalize(ctx.table("ffi_lance_table").limit(1, offset=1).collect())
     assert len(result) == 1
     assert result["col1"][0].as_py() == 1
+
+
+def test_custom_udf_filter(tmp_path):
+    pytest.importorskip("datafusion")
+    from datafusion import SessionContext, udf
+
+    def is_even(values: pa.Array) -> pa.Array:
+        return pa.array([value.as_py() % 2 == 0 for value in values], type=pa.bool_())
+
+    is_even_udf = udf(
+        is_even,
+        input_fields=[pa.int64()],
+        return_field=pa.bool_(),
+        volatility="stable",
+        name="is_even",
+    )
+
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"i": [1, 2, 3, 4]}), str(tmp_path))
+    provider = FFILanceTableProvider(dataset, with_row_id=True, with_row_addr=True)
+
+    ctx = SessionContext()
+    ctx.register_table("numbers", provider)
+    ctx.register_udf(is_even_udf)
+
+    result = normalize(
+        ctx.sql("SELECT i FROM numbers WHERE i = 2 AND is_even(i)").collect()
+    )
+    assert result["i"].to_pylist() == [2]
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_tf.py b/python/python/tests/test_tf.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 432be52b482..00000000000
--- a/python/python/tests/test_tf.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,351 +0,0 @@
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-import os
-import warnings
-
-import lance
-import numpy as np
-import pandas as pd
-import pyarrow as pa
-import pytest
-from lance.arrow import ImageArray
-from lance.fragment import LanceFragment
-
-pytest.skip("Skip tensorflow tests", allow_module_level=True)
-
-try:
-    with warnings.catch_warnings():
-        warnings.filterwarnings("ignore", category=DeprecationWarning)
-        import tensorflow as tf  # noqa: F401
-except ImportError:
-    pytest.skip(
-        "Tensorflow is not installed. Please install tensorflow to "
-        + "test lance.tf module.",
-        allow_module_level=True,
-    )
-
-from lance.tf.data import (  # noqa: E402
-    from_lance,
-    from_lance_batches,
-    lance_fragments,
-    lance_take_batches,
-)
-
-
-@pytest.fixture
-def tf_dataset(tmp_path):
-    df = pd.DataFrame(
-        {
-            "a": range(10000),
-            "s": [f"val-{i}" for i in range(10000)],
-            "vec": [[i * 0.2] * 128 for i in range(10000)],
-        }
-    )
-
-    schema = pa.schema(
-        [
-            pa.field("a", pa.int64()),
-            pa.field("s", pa.string()),
-            pa.field("vec", pa.list_(pa.float32(), 128)),
-        ]
-    )
-    tbl = pa.Table.from_pandas(df, schema=schema)
-    uri = tmp_path / "dataset.lance"
-    lance.write_dataset(
-        tbl,
-        uri,
-        schema=tbl.schema,
-        max_rows_per_group=100,
-        max_rows_per_file=1000,
-    )
-    return uri
-
-
-def test_fragment_dataset(tf_dataset):
-    ds = from_lance(tf_dataset, batch_size=100)
-    for idx, batch in enumerate(ds):
-        assert batch["a"].numpy()[0] == idx * 100
-        assert batch["s"].numpy()[0] == f"val-{idx * 100}".encode("utf-8")
-        assert batch["a"].shape == (100,)
-        assert batch["vec"].shape == (
-            100,
-            128,
-        )  # Fixed size list
-
-
-def test_projection(tf_dataset):
-    ds = from_lance(tf_dataset, batch_size=100, columns=["a"])
-
-    for idx, batch in enumerate(ds):
-        assert list(batch.keys()) == ["a"]
-        assert batch["a"].numpy()[0] == idx * 100
-        assert batch["a"].shape == (100,)
-
-
-def test_filter(tf_dataset):
-    ds = from_lance(tf_dataset, batch_size=100, filter="a >= 5000")
-
-    for idx, batch in enumerate(ds):
-        assert batch["a"].numpy()[0] == idx * 100 + 5000
-        assert batch["a"].shape == (100,)
-
-
-def test_namespace_table_id(monkeypatch):
-    calls = {}
-
-    class DummyScanner:
-        def __init__(self):
-            self._batch = pa.record_batch([pa.array([1, 2])], names=["a"])
-            self.projected_schema = self._batch.schema
-
-        def to_batches(self):
-            yield self._batch
-
-    class DummyDataset:
-        def scanner(self, **kwargs):
-            return DummyScanner()
-
-    def fake_dataset(uri=None, **kwargs):
-        calls["uri"] = uri
-        calls["kwargs"] = kwargs
-        return DummyDataset()
-
-    monkeypatch.setattr(lance, "dataset", fake_dataset)
-
-    ns = object()
-    ds = from_lance(
-        None,
-        namespace=ns,
-        table_id=["tbl"],
-        ignore_namespace_table_storage_options=True,
-    )
-
-    assert calls["kwargs"]["namespace"] is ns
-    assert calls["kwargs"]["table_id"] == ["tbl"]
-    assert calls["kwargs"]["ignore_namespace_table_storage_options"] is True
-
-    batches = list(ds)
-    assert [b["a"].numpy().tolist() for b in batches] == [[1, 2]]
-
-
-def test_scan_use_tf_data(tf_dataset):
-    ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_lance(tf_dataset)
-    for idx, batch in enumerate(ds):
-        assert batch["a"].numpy()[0] == idx * 100
-        assert batch["s"].numpy()[0] == f"val-{idx * 100}".encode("utf-8")
-        assert batch["a"].shape == (100,)
-        assert batch["vec"].shape == (
-            100,
-            128,
-        )  # Fixed size list
-
-
-def test_pass_fragments(tf_dataset):
-    # Can pass fragments directly to from_lance
-    dataset = lance.dataset(tf_dataset)
-    ds = from_lance(tf_dataset, fragments=dataset.get_fragments(), batch_size=100)
-    ds_default = from_lance(tf_dataset, batch_size=100)
-    for batch, batch_default in zip(ds, ds_default):
-        assert batch["a"].numpy()[0] == batch_default["a"].numpy()[0]
-        assert batch["a"].numpy().shape == (100,)
-        assert batch["vec"].shape == (
-            100,
-            128,
-        )
-
-    # Can pass ids directly to from_lance
-    ds = from_lance(tf_dataset, fragments=[0, 1, 2], batch_size=100)
-    for idx, batch in enumerate(ds):
-        assert batch["a"].numpy()[0] == idx * 100
-        assert batch["a"].numpy().shape == (100,)
-
-
-def test_shuffle(tf_dataset):
-    fragments = lance_fragments(tf_dataset).shuffle(4, seed=20).take(3)
-
-    ds = from_lance(tf_dataset, fragments=fragments, batch_size=100)
-    raw_ds = lance.dataset(tf_dataset)
-    scanner = raw_ds.scanner(
-        fragments=[LanceFragment(raw_ds, fid) for fid in [0, 3, 1]], batch_size=100
-    )
-
-    for batch, raw_batch in zip(ds, scanner.to_batches()):
-        assert batch["a"].numpy()[0] == raw_batch.to_pydict()["a"][0]
-        assert batch["a"].numpy().shape == (100,)
-        assert batch["vec"].shape == (
-            100,
-            128,
-        )  # Fixed size list
-
-
-def test_dataset_batches(tf_dataset):
-    tf_dataset = lance.dataset(tf_dataset)
-    batch_size = 300
-    batches = list(
-        from_lance_batches(tf_dataset, batch_size=batch_size).as_numpy_iterator()
-    )
-    assert tf_dataset.count_rows() // batch_size + 1 == len(batches)
-    assert all(end - start == batch_size for start, end in batches[:-2])
-    assert batches[-1][1] - batches[-1][0] == tf_dataset.count_rows() % batch_size
-
-    skip = 5
-    batches_skipped = list(
-        from_lance_batches(
-            tf_dataset, batch_size=batch_size, skip=skip
-        ).as_numpy_iterator()
-    )
-    assert batches_skipped == batches[skip:]
-
-    batches_shuffled = list(
-        from_lance_batches(
-            tf_dataset, batch_size=batch_size, shuffle=True, seed=42
-        ).as_numpy_iterator()
-    )
-    # make sure it does a shuffle
-    assert batches_shuffled != batches
-    batches_shuffled2 = list(
-        from_lance_batches(
-            tf_dataset, batch_size=batch_size, shuffle=True, seed=42
-        ).as_numpy_iterator()
-    )
-    # make sure the shuffle can be deterministic
-    assert batches_shuffled == batches_shuffled2
-
-
-def test_take_dataset(tf_dataset):
-    tf_dataset = lance.dataset(tf_dataset)
-    batch_ds = from_lance_batches(
-        tf_dataset, batch_size=100, shuffle=True, seed=42
-    ).as_numpy_iterator()
-    lance_ds = lance_take_batches(tf_dataset, batch_ds)
-    lance_ds = lance_ds.unbatch().shuffle(400, seed=42).batch(100)
-
-    for batch in lance_ds:
-        assert batch["a"].numpy().shape == (100,)
-
-    batches = [(0, 200), (100, 200)]
-    lance_ds = lance_take_batches(tf_dataset, batches, columns=["a"])
-    for (start, end), batch in zip(batches, lance_ds):
-        assert batch["a"].numpy().tolist() == np.arange(start, end).tolist()
-        assert batch.keys() == {"a"}
-
-
-def test_var_length_list(tmp_path):
-    """Treat var length list as RaggedTensor."""
-    df = pd.DataFrame(
-        {
-            "a": range(200),
-            "l": [[i] * (i % 5 + 1) for i in range(200)],
-        }
-    )
-
-    schema = pa.schema(
-        [
-            pa.field("a", pa.int64()),
-            pa.field("l", pa.list_(pa.int32())),
-        ]
-    )
-    tbl = pa.Table.from_pandas(df, schema=schema)
-
-    uri = tmp_path / "dataset.lance"
-    lance.write_dataset(
-        tbl,
-        uri,
-        schema=tbl.schema,
-    )
-
-    output_signature = {
-        "a": tf.TensorSpec(shape=(None,), dtype=tf.int64),
-        "l": tf.RaggedTensorSpec(dtype=tf.dtypes.int32, shape=(8, None), ragged_rank=1),
-    }
-
-    ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_lance(
-        uri,
-        batch_size=8,
-        output_signature=output_signature,
-    )
-    for idx, batch in enumerate(ds):
-        assert batch["a"].numpy()[0] == idx * 8
-        assert batch["l"].shape == (8, None)
-        assert isinstance(batch["l"], tf.RaggedTensor)
-
-
-def test_nested_struct(tmp_path):
-    table = pa.table(
-        {
-            "x": pa.array(
-                [
-                    {
-                        "a": 1,
-                        "json": {"b": "hello", "x": b"abc"},
-                    },
-                    {
-                        "a": 24,
-                        "json": {"b": "world", "x": b"def"},
-                    },
-                ]
-            )
-        }
-    )
-    uri = tmp_path / "dataset.lance"
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, uri)
-
-    ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_lance(
-        dataset,
-        batch_size=8,
-    )
-
-    for batch in ds:
-        tf.debugging.assert_equal(batch["x"]["a"], tf.constant([1, 24], dtype=tf.int64))
-        tf.debugging.assert_equal(
-            batch["x"]["json"]["b"], tf.constant(["hello", "world"])
-        )
-        tf.debugging.assert_equal(
-            batch["x"]["json"]["x"], tf.constant([b"abc", b"def"])
-        )
-
-
-def test_tensor(tmp_path):
-    arr = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]], dtype=np.float32)
-    table = pa.table({"x": pa.FixedShapeTensorArray.from_numpy_ndarray(arr)})
-
-    uri = tmp_path / "dataset.lance"
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, uri)
-    ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_lance(dataset)
-
-    for batch in ds:
-        assert batch["x"].shape == (2, 2, 3)
-        assert batch["x"].dtype == tf.float32
-        assert batch["x"].numpy().tolist() == arr.tolist()
-
-
-def test_image_types(tmp_path):
-    path = [os.path.join(os.path.dirname(__file__), "images/1.png")]
-    uris = ImageArray.from_array(path * 3)
-    encoded_images = uris.read_uris()
-    tensors = encoded_images.to_tensor()
-    table = pa.table(
-        {
-            "uris": uris,
-            "encoded_images": encoded_images,
-            "tensor_images": tensors,
-        }
-    )
-
-    uri = tmp_path / "dataset.lance"
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, uri)
-    ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_lance(dataset)
-
-    for batch in ds:
-        assert batch["uris"].shape == (3,)
-        assert batch["uris"].dtype == tf.string
-        assert batch["uris"].numpy().astype("str").tolist() == uris.tolist()
-
-        assert batch["encoded_images"].shape == (3,)
-        assert batch["encoded_images"].dtype == tf.string
-        assert batch["encoded_images"].numpy().tolist() == encoded_images.tolist()
-
-        assert batch["tensor_images"].shape == (3, 1, 1, 4)
-        assert batch["tensor_images"].dtype == tf.uint8
-        assert batch["tensor_images"].numpy().tolist() == tensors.to_numpy().tolist()
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_udf.py b/python/python/tests/test_udf.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4ba53bc862e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_udf.py
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Tests for the ``BatchUDF`` public contract.
+
+This module is in the pyright target configured in ``pyproject.toml``, so it
+doubles as a strict client for the signatures: the annotated locals below fail
+the repository type check if a parameter or return type is narrowed or widened
+incorrectly -- narrowing ``checkpoint_file`` back to ``str``, for example,
+reports
+
+    error: Argument of type "Path" cannot be assigned to parameter
+           "checkpoint_file" of type "str | None"
+
+It cannot catch the annotations being *deleted*, because pyright infers the
+same types from the function bodies. That failure mode is mypy-specific
+(``no-untyped-call``); policing it would take
+``reportMissingParameterType`` on ``lance/udf.py``, which needs one more
+parameter annotated and a pre-existing narrowing diagnostic resolved.
+"""
+
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.udf import BatchUDF, batch_udf
+
+
+def _add_doubled(batch: pa.RecordBatch) -> pa.RecordBatch:
+    doubled = [value * 2 for value in batch.column("a").to_pylist()]
+    return pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict({"doubled": doubled})
+
+
+def test_batch_udf_constructor(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    output_schema = pa.schema([pa.field("doubled", pa.int64())])
+
+    udf: BatchUDF = BatchUDF(_add_doubled, output_schema=output_schema)
+    assert udf.output_schema == output_schema
+    assert udf.cache is None
+
+    # checkpoint_file accepts a Path as well as a str.
+    checkpointed: BatchUDF = BatchUDF(
+        _add_doubled,
+        output_schema=output_schema,
+        checkpoint_file=tmp_path / "checkpoint.sqlite",
+    )
+    assert checkpointed.cache is not None
+
+
+def test_batch_udf_decorator() -> None:
+    output_schema = pa.schema([pa.field("doubled", pa.int64())])
+
+    @batch_udf(output_schema=output_schema)
+    def doubled(batch: pa.RecordBatch) -> pa.RecordBatch:
+        return _add_doubled(batch)
+
+    # The decorator returns a BatchUDF, not the original function.
+    udf: BatchUDF = doubled
+    assert udf.output_schema == output_schema
+
+    # Calling it delegates straight to the wrapped function, so a UDF stays
+    # testable on its own.
+    result = udf(pa.RecordBatch.from_pydict({"a": [1, 2, 3]}))
+    assert result.column("doubled").to_pylist() == [2, 4, 6]
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_vector.py b/python/python/tests/test_vector.py
index c02c8312f88..8dd42c9c253 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_vector.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_vector.py
@@ -5,7 +5,556 @@
 import numpy as np
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pytest
-from lance.vector import vec_to_table
+from lance.vector import (
+    find_duplicate_pairs,
+    find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition,
+    get_ivf_partition_info,
+    hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition,
+    hamming_clustering_for_sample,
+    vec_to_table,
+)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("metric", ["l2", "cosine", "dot"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("index_type", ["IVF_FLAT", "IVF_HNSW_FLAT"])
+def test_duplicate_pairs_flat(tmp_path, metric, index_type):
+    vectors = np.array([[1, 0], [1, 0], [0, 1], [2, 0]], dtype=np.float32)
+    table = pa.table({"id": range(4), "vector": pa.array(vectors.tolist())})
+    table = table.set_column(
+        1, "vector", pa.array(vectors.tolist(), pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2))
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=2)
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type,
+        metric=metric,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.array([[1, 0]], dtype=np.float32),
+    )
+    ids = ds.to_table(columns=["id"], with_row_id=True).to_pylist()
+    positions = {r["_rowid"]: r["id"] for r in ids}
+    segment_id = ds.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+    threshold = -0.5 if metric == "dot" else 0.5
+    expected = {}
+    for i in range(4):
+        for j in range(i + 1, 4):
+            if metric == "l2":
+                d = np.sum((vectors[i] - vectors[j]) ** 2)
+            elif metric == "cosine":
+                d = 1 - np.dot(vectors[i], vectors[j]) / (
+                    np.linalg.norm(vectors[i]) * np.linalg.norm(vectors[j])
+                )
+            else:
+                d = 1 - np.dot(vectors[i], vectors[j])
+            if d <= threshold:
+                expected[(i, j)] = float(d)
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", threshold) as reader:
+        pairs = reader.read_all()
+    with find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+        ds, "vector", segment_id, 0, threshold
+    ) as reader:
+        assert reader.read_all().equals(pairs)
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(
+        ds, "vector", threshold, max_concurrency=1, memory_limit=0
+    ) as reader:
+        assert reader.read_all().equals(pairs)
+    actual = {}
+    for row in pairs.to_pylist():
+        a, b = row["row_id_a"], row["row_id_b"]
+        key = tuple(sorted((positions[a], positions[b])))
+        assert key not in actual
+        actual[key] = row["distance"]
+    assert actual == pytest.approx(expected)
+    # Exhaustive candidate recall, including exact threshold matches.
+    assert len(actual.keys() & expected.keys()) / len(expected) == 1.0
+    ds.delete("id = 1")
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 100) as reader:
+        result = reader.read_all().to_pylist()
+    assert all(positions[r[k]] != 1 for r in result for k in ["row_id_a", "row_id_b"])
+    assert len(result) == 3
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("metric", ["l2", "cosine", "dot"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "index_type,bits",
+    [
+        ("IVF_PQ", 4),
+        ("IVF_PQ", 8),
+        ("IVF_SQ", 8),
+        ("IVF_HNSW_PQ", 4),
+        ("IVF_HNSW_SQ", 8),
+        ("IVF_RQ", 1),
+        ("IVF_RQ", 5),
+        ("IVF_RQ", 9),
+    ],
+)
+def test_duplicate_pairs_quantized(tmp_path, metric, index_type, bits):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(7)
+    unique = rng.normal(size=(17, 8)).astype(np.float32)
+    vectors = np.repeat(unique, 2, axis=0)
+    table = pa.table({"vector": pa.array(vectors.tolist(), pa.list_(pa.float32(), 8))})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=10)
+    params = {"num_bits": bits}
+    if "PQ" in index_type:
+        params.update(
+            num_sub_vectors=4,
+            pq_codebook=rng.normal(size=(4, 2**bits, 2)).astype(np.float32),
+        )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type,
+        metric=metric,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.ones((1, 8), dtype=np.float32),
+        **params,
+    )
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 1e6) as reader:
+        expected_table = reader.read_all()
+    # Distances and order do not depend on concurrency, spilling or the
+    # scoped API.
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(
+        ds, "vector", 1e6, max_concurrency=1, memory_limit=0
+    ) as reader:
+        assert reader.read_all().equals(expected_table)
+    segment = ds.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+    with find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(ds, "vector", segment, 0, 1e6) as reader:
+        assert reader.read_all().equals(expected_table)
+    all_pairs = expected_table.to_pylist()
+    assert len(all_pairs) == len(vectors) * (len(vectors) - 1) // 2
+    keys = {tuple(sorted((r["row_id_a"], r["row_id_b"]))) for r in all_pairs}
+    assert len(keys) == len(all_pairs)
+    assert all(np.isfinite(r["distance"]) for r in all_pairs)
+    if metric == "cosine":
+        assert all(0 <= r["distance"] <= 2 for r in all_pairs)
+    if metric != "dot":
+        row_ids = ds.to_table(columns=[], with_row_id=True)["_rowid"].to_pylist()
+        expected = {(row_ids[i], row_ids[i + 1]) for i in range(0, len(vectors), 2)}
+        with find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 1e-5) as reader:
+            result = reader.read_all().to_pylist()
+        found = {tuple(sorted((r["row_id_a"], r["row_id_b"]))) for r in result}
+        assert len(expected & found) / len(expected) >= 0.5
+
+
+def test_duplicate_pairs_validation_and_snapshot(tmp_path):
+    table = pa.table(
+        {"vector": pa.array([[1.0, 0.0], None, [1.0, 0.0]], pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2))}
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="exactly one vector index"):
+        find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 0)
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        "IVF_FLAT",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.ones((1, 2), dtype=np.float32),
+    )
+    segment = ds.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+    for threshold in [float("nan"), float("inf"), -float("inf")]:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="must be finite"):
+            find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", threshold)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="partition_id"):
+        find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(ds, "vector", segment, 1, 0)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="segment_id"):
+        find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(ds, "vector", "not-a-uuid", 0, 0)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="not an active segment"):
+        find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+            ds, "vector", "00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000", 0, 0
+        )
+    reader = find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 0)
+    ds.delete("true")
+    assert reader.read_all().num_rows == 1
+    reader.close()
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 0) as empty:
+        assert empty.schema.names == ["row_id_a", "row_id_b", "distance"]
+        assert empty.read_all().num_rows == 0
+    current = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, mode="append")
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="does not cover all fragments"):
+        find_duplicate_pairs(current, "vector", 0)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("memory_limit", [0, 256 * 1024 * 1024])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("max_concurrency", [1, 4])
+def test_duplicate_pairs_cross_batch_order(tmp_path, memory_limit, max_concurrency):
+    # One anchor has matches on both sides of the vector batch boundary.
+    n = 8193
+    vectors = np.column_stack((np.arange(n), np.ones(n))).astype(np.float32)
+    vectors[-1] = vectors[0]
+    vectors[1] = vectors[0]
+    vectors[2] = vectors[0]
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": np.arange(n),
+                "vector": pa.array(vectors.tolist(), pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2)),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        "IVF_FLAT",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.ones((1, 2), dtype=np.float32),
+    )
+    # Keep the physical index boundary while limiting the number of anchors
+    # scored by this order/spill test. Removed IDs must not appear in pairs.
+    ds.delete(f"id >= 3 AND id < {n - 1}")
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(
+        ds,
+        "vector",
+        0,
+        memory_limit=memory_limit,
+        max_concurrency=max_concurrency,
+    ) as reader:
+        # Exhaust all surviving anchors, including the physical partition tail.
+        batches = list(reader)
+    # Tile order: the (batch 0, batch 0) tile, then (batch 0, batch 1), each
+    # row-major and emitted as one batch per job of up to 32 anchor rows.
+    assert [batch.num_rows for batch in batches] == [3, 3]
+    pairs = pa.Table.from_batches(batches).to_pylist()
+    assert [(p["row_id_a"], p["row_id_b"]) for p in pairs] == [
+        (0, 1),
+        (0, 2),
+        (1, 2),
+        (0, n - 1),
+        (1, n - 1),
+        (2, n - 1),
+    ]
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 1e10) as reader:
+        assert next(reader).num_rows <= 32 * 8192
+        # Closing a partially consumed reader cancels further enumeration.
+    assert ds.count_rows() == 4
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("memory_limit", [0, 256 * 1024 * 1024])
+def test_duplicate_pairs_parallel_scoring_preserves_order(tmp_path, memory_limit):
+    # 4096-d vectors cut the 8K batch maximum to 512 rows, so 1027 rows give
+    # three vector batches and every 32-row job exceeds the inline threshold.
+    # Keeping three rows per batch makes each of the six tiles a single cheap
+    # CPU-pool job, and with forced spill the next batch load has to wait for
+    # earlier jobs to release their decoded batches.
+    n, batch_rows, dim = 1027, 512, 4096
+    positions = np.arange(n)
+    vectors = np.repeat((positions % 2)[:, None], dim, axis=1).astype(np.float32)
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": positions,
+            "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                pa.array(vectors.reshape(-1)), dim
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path, max_rows_per_file=300)
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        "IVF_FLAT",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.ones((1, dim), dtype=np.float32),
+    )
+    kept = [b * batch_rows + r for b in range(n // batch_rows + 1) for r in range(3)]
+    ds.delete(f"id NOT IN ({', '.join(map(str, kept))})")
+    row_ids = {
+        r["id"]: r["_rowid"]
+        for r in ds.to_table(columns=["id"], with_row_id=True).to_pylist()
+    }
+    # Tile order: anchor batch, candidate batch, then row-major positions.
+    expected = sorted(
+        ((a, b) for i, a in enumerate(kept) for b in kept[i + 1 :] if a % 2 == b % 2),
+        key=lambda p: (p[0] // batch_rows, p[1] // batch_rows, p[0], p[1]),
+    )
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(
+        ds, "vector", 0, max_concurrency=1, memory_limit=memory_limit
+    ) as reader:
+        batches = list(reader)
+    # One output batch per tile: 1 pair on the diagonal, 5 off it.
+    assert [batch.num_rows for batch in batches] == [1, 5, 5, 1, 5, 1]
+    serial = pa.Table.from_batches(batches)
+    assert [(p["row_id_a"], p["row_id_b"]) for p in serial.to_pylist()] == [
+        (row_ids[a], row_ids[b]) for a, b in expected
+    ]
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(
+        ds, "vector", 0, max_concurrency=8, memory_limit=memory_limit
+    ) as reader:
+        assert reader.read_all().equals(serial)
+    segment = ds.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+    with find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+        ds,
+        "vector",
+        segment,
+        0,
+        0,
+        max_concurrency=4,
+        memory_limit=memory_limit,
+    ) as reader:
+        assert reader.read_all().equals(serial)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="max_concurrency must be positive"):
+        find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 0, max_concurrency=0)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("bits", [4, 8])
+def test_duplicate_pairs_exhaust_pq_partition(tmp_path, bits):
+    # Fully consume the zero-output case that exposed per-anchor source reads.
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(9493)
+    vectors = rng.normal(size=(1025, 64)).astype(np.float32)
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "vector": pa.array(vectors.tolist(), pa.list_(pa.float32(), 64)),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        "IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.zeros((1, 64), dtype=np.float32),
+        num_bits=bits,
+        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        pq_codebook=rng.normal(size=(16, 2**bits, 4)).astype(np.float32),
+    )
+    with find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 0.0) as reader:
+        assert reader.read_all().num_rows == 0
+
+
+def test_duplicate_pairs_independent_segments(tmp_path):
+    vectors = [[1.0, 0.0]] * 4
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"vector": pa.array(vectors, pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2))}),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+    )
+    segments = [
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            "vector",
+            "IVF_FLAT",
+            name="vector_idx",
+            train=True,
+            fragment_ids=[fragment.fragment_id],
+            num_partitions=1,
+            ivf_centroids=np.array([[i + 1, 0]], dtype=np.float32),
+        )
+        for i, fragment in enumerate(ds.get_fragments())
+    ]
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
+    pairs = find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 0).read_all()
+    assert pairs.num_rows == 2  # Cross-segment pairs are intentionally omitted.
+    expected = []
+    for segment in ds.describe_indices()[0].segments:
+        expected.extend(
+            find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(ds, "vector", segment.uuid, 0, 0)
+            .read_all()
+            .to_pylist()
+        )
+    assert pairs.to_pylist() == expected
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("stable_ids", [False, True])
+def test_duplicate_pairs_segment_ownership(tmp_path, stable_ids):
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"vector": pa.array([[1.0, 0.0]] * 4, pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2))}),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=stable_ids,
+    )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        "IVF_FLAT",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.ones((1, 2), dtype=np.float32),
+    )
+    fragment = ds.get_fragment(1)
+    row_ids = fragment.to_table(with_row_id=True)["_rowid"]
+    updated, fields = fragment.update_columns(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "_rowid": row_ids,
+                "vector": pa.array([[10.0, 0.0]] * 2, pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2)),
+            }
+        )
+    )
+    ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        ds.uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.Update(
+            updated_fragments=[updated],
+            fields_modified=fields,
+        ),
+        read_version=ds.version,
+    )
+    ds.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
+    ds = lance.dataset(ds.uri)
+    pairs = find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 0).read_all().to_pylist()
+    assert len(pairs) == 2
+    current = {
+        r["_rowid"]: r["vector"] for r in ds.to_table(with_row_id=True).to_pylist()
+    }
+    assert all(current[p["row_id_a"]] == current[p["row_id_b"]] for p in pairs)
+    assert len({p[k] for p in pairs for k in ["row_id_a", "row_id_b"]}) == 4
+
+
+def test_duplicate_pairs_hamming(tmp_path):
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(_binary_vectors_table(), tmp_path)
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        "IVF_FLAT",
+        metric="hamming",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=pa.array([[0] * 4], pa.list_(pa.uint8(), 4)),
+    )
+    pairs = find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 2).read_all().to_pylist()
+    assert {(p["row_id_a"], p["row_id_b"]): p["distance"] for p in pairs} == {
+        (0, 1): 2.0,
+        (1, 2): 2.0,
+    }
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("index_type", ["IVF_PQ", "IVF_SQ"])
+def test_duplicate_pairs_exactly_representable_codes(tmp_path, index_type):
+    vectors = np.array([[0, 0, 2, 2], [3, 3, 4, 4], [8, 8, 6, 6]], dtype=np.float32)
+    params = {}
+    if index_type == "IVF_PQ":
+        # Every source subvector is an exact codebook entry.
+        codebook = np.repeat(np.arange(16, dtype=np.float32), 2).reshape(16, 2)
+        params = dict(
+            num_bits=4, num_sub_vectors=2, pq_codebook=np.stack([codebook] * 2)
+        )
+    else:
+        # Endpoints of the scalar quantizer are exactly representable.
+        vectors = np.array([[0, 255], [255, 0], [0, 0]], dtype=np.float32)
+    dim = vectors.shape[1]
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "vector": pa.array(vectors.tolist(), pa.list_(pa.float32(), dim)),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.zeros((1, dim), dtype=np.float32),
+        **params,
+    )
+    result = find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 1e6).read_all().to_pylist()
+    assert len(result) == 3
+    for pair in result:
+        expected = np.sum((vectors[pair["row_id_a"]] - vectors[pair["row_id_b"]]) ** 2)
+        assert pair["distance"] == pytest.approx(expected)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("stable_ids", [False, True])
+def test_duplicate_pairs_after_compaction(tmp_path, stable_ids):
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": range(4),
+                "vector": pa.array([[1.0, 0.0]] * 4, pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2)),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+        max_rows_per_file=2,
+        enable_stable_row_ids=stable_ids,
+    )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        "IVF_FLAT",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.ones((1, 2), dtype=np.float32),
+    )
+    ds.delete("id = 1")
+    ds.optimize.compact_files(
+        target_rows_per_fragment=10,
+        defer_index_remap=not stable_ids,
+        materialize_deletions=True,
+    )
+    current = ds.to_table(with_row_id=True)["_rowid"].to_pylist()
+    result = find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 0).read_all().to_pylist()
+    assert len(result) == 3
+    assert {p[k] for p in result for k in ["row_id_a", "row_id_b"]} == set(current)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "index_type,bits",
+    [
+        ("IVF_PQ", 4),
+        ("IVF_PQ", 8),
+        ("IVF_RQ", 1),
+        ("IVF_RQ", 5),
+        ("IVF_RQ", 9),
+    ],
+)
+def test_duplicate_pairs_quantized_batch_boundary(tmp_path, index_type, bits):
+    # A 8192-row batch followed by one row exercises partial transposed PQ
+    # reads and the packed RQ tail. Deleting the rows in between keeps the
+    # scored anchors (and the output) small while staging every row.
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(83)
+    vectors = rng.normal(size=(8193, 8)).astype(np.float32)
+    vectors[-1] = vectors[0]
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": np.arange(len(vectors)),
+                "vector": pa.array(vectors.tolist(), pa.list_(pa.float32(), 8)),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+    params = {"num_bits": bits}
+    if index_type == "IVF_PQ":
+        params.update(
+            num_sub_vectors=4,
+            pq_codebook=rng.normal(size=(4, 2**bits, 2)).astype(np.float32),
+        )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.ones((1, 8), dtype=np.float32),
+        **params,
+    )
+    ds.delete("id >= 1 AND id < 8192")
+    results = []
+    for memory_limit in [0, 256 * 1024 * 1024]:
+        with find_duplicate_pairs(
+            ds, "vector", 1e6, memory_limit=memory_limit
+        ) as reader:
+            results.append(reader.read_all())
+    # Spilled and in-memory staging give bit-identical distances.
+    assert results[0].equals(results[1])
+    assert results[0].to_pylist() == [
+        {"row_id_a": 0, "row_id_b": 8192, "distance": 0.0}
+    ]
+
+
+def test_duplicate_pairs_partition_scope(tmp_path):
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "vector": pa.array(
+                    [[0.0, 0.0], [0.1, 0.0], [10.0, 0.0], [10.1, 0.0]],
+                    pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2),
+                ),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        "IVF_FLAT",
+        num_partitions=3,
+        ivf_centroids=np.array([[0, 0], [10, 0], [100, 0]], dtype=np.float32),
+    )
+    pairs = find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 1e6).read_all().to_pylist()
+    assert {(p["row_id_a"], p["row_id_b"]) for p in pairs} == {(0, 1), (2, 3)}
+    segment = ds.describe_indices()[0].segments[0].uuid
+    assert (
+        find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(ds, "vector", segment, 2, 1e6)
+        .read_all()
+        .num_rows
+        == 0
+    )
 
 
 def test_dict():
@@ -147,3 +696,178 @@ def test_binary_vectors_invalid_metric(tmp_path):
                 "metric": "l2",
             }
         ).to_table()
+
+
+def _hash_table(hashes):
+    """Build a table with a ``hash`` column of FixedSizeList<UInt8, N>.
+
+    ``hashes`` is a list of byte sequences, one per row. The byte width must
+    be a positive multiple of 8.
+    """
+    byte_width = len(hashes[0])
+    assert byte_width > 0 and byte_width % 8 == 0
+    assert all(len(row) == byte_width for row in hashes)
+    flat = [byte for row in hashes for byte in row]
+    values = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+        pa.array(flat, type=pa.uint8()), list_size=byte_width
+    )
+    return pa.Table.from_arrays([values], names=["hash"])
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("byte_width", [8, 16])
+def test_hamming_clustering_for_sample(tmp_path, byte_width):
+    hash_a = [0] * byte_width
+    hash_b = [0] * (byte_width - 8) + [255] + [0] * 7  # 8 bits from hash_a
+    hash_c = list(range(1, byte_width + 1))  # far from both
+    # Rows 0,1,2 share hash_a; rows 3,4 share hash_b; row 5 is unique.
+    table = _hash_table([hash_a, hash_a, hash_a, hash_b, hash_b, hash_c])
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "hashes")
+
+    # threshold 0 => only exact-match hashes cluster together. Full scan
+    # (sample_size=None) yields deterministic row ids 0..5.
+    result = hamming_clustering_for_sample(dataset, "hash", None, 0).read_all()
+
+    clusters = {
+        rep: sorted(dups)
+        for rep, dups in zip(
+            result["representative"].to_pylist(),
+            result["duplicates"].to_pylist(),
+        )
+    }
+    # Singleton row 5 is not emitted as a cluster.
+    assert clusters == {0: [1, 2], 3: [4]}
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("byte_width", [8, 16])
+def test_hamming_clustering_multi_segment(tmp_path, byte_width):
+    mask = (1 << 64) - 1
+
+    def hash_bytes(value):
+        if byte_width == 8:
+            lanes = [(value * 0x9E3779B97F4A7C15) & mask]
+        else:
+            # Adjacent logical values share the first 64-bit lane and differ in
+            # later lanes, so threshold-0 clustering must compare every lane.
+            lanes = [
+                ((value // 2) * 0x9E3779B97F4A7C15) & mask,
+                ((value * 0xD6E8FEB86659FD93) ^ 0xA5A5A5A5A5A5A5A5) & mask,
+            ]
+        return [
+            byte for lane_value in lanes for byte in lane_value.to_bytes(8, "little")
+        ]
+
+    # 25 distinct hash values, two copies each; the same table is written to
+    # fragment 0 and appended as fragment 1.
+    values = [i // 2 for i in range(50)]
+    table = _hash_table([hash_bytes(value) for value in values])
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "hashes")
+    dataset.create_index(
+        "hash", index_type="IVF_FLAT", num_partitions=4, metric="hamming"
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "hashes", mode="append")
+    # Optimizing with merge disabled creates a delta segment for fragment 1.
+    dataset.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
+
+    index = dataset.describe_indices()[0]
+    assert len(index.segments) == 2
+
+    infos = get_ivf_partition_info(dataset, index.name)
+    assert sum(info["size"] for info in infos) == 100
+
+    # All four copies of each value cluster together across both fragments.
+    frag1_start = 1 << 32
+    clusters = []
+    for info in infos:
+        result = hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(
+            dataset, index.name, info["partition_id"], 0
+        ).read_all()
+        clusters.extend(
+            zip(
+                result["representative"].to_pylist(),
+                result["duplicates"].to_pylist(),
+            )
+        )
+    assert len(clusters) == 25
+    for representative, duplicates in clusters:
+        assert representative < frag1_start
+        assert len(duplicates) == 3
+        assert any(dup >= frag1_start for dup in duplicates)
+
+    # Selecting the fragment-0 segment reproduces the single-segment scope.
+    first_segment = next(
+        segment for segment in index.segments if segment.fragment_ids == {0}
+    )
+    infos = get_ivf_partition_info(
+        dataset, index.name, index_segments=[first_segment.uuid]
+    )
+    assert sum(info["size"] for info in infos) == 50
+    num_selected_clusters = 0
+    for info in infos:
+        result = hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(
+            dataset,
+            index.name,
+            info["partition_id"],
+            0,
+            index_segments=[first_segment.uuid],
+        ).read_all()
+        for duplicates in result["duplicates"].to_pylist():
+            num_selected_clusters += 1
+            assert duplicates == [dup for dup in duplicates if dup < frag1_start]
+            assert len(duplicates) == 1
+    assert num_selected_clusters == 25
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="invalid index segment uuid"):
+        get_ivf_partition_info(dataset, index.name, index_segments=["not-a-uuid"])
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="str or uuid.UUID"):
+        get_ivf_partition_info(dataset, index.name, index_segments=[123])
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="not a single"):
+        get_ivf_partition_info(dataset, index.name, index_segments=first_segment.uuid)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("index_type", ["IVF_PQ", "IVF_SQ"])
+def test_duplicate_pairs_quantized_cosine_renormalizes(tmp_path, index_type):
+    # A deliberately coarse quantizer distinguishes 1 - cos of the
+    # renormalized reconstructions from their (unbounded) squared L2.
+    vectors = np.array([[1, 0], [0, 1], [-1, 0], [1, 0]], dtype=np.float32)
+    params = {}
+    if index_type == "IVF_PQ":
+        codebook = np.tile(np.array([[2, 0], [0, 3], [-2, 0]], np.float32), (86, 1))[
+            :256
+        ]
+        params = dict(num_bits=8, num_sub_vectors=1, pq_codebook=codebook[None])
+        # Codewords [2, 0] and [0, 3] are orthogonal although 13 apart.
+        reconstructed = np.array([[2, 0], [0, 3]], np.float64)
+    else:
+        # Bounds [-1, 1]: 0 truncates to code 127, reconstructed as -1/255.
+        reconstructed = np.array([[1, -1 / 255], [-1 / 255, 1]], np.float64)
+    a, b = reconstructed
+    expected = 1 - a @ b / (np.linalg.norm(a) * np.linalg.norm(b))
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table({"vector": pa.array(vectors.tolist(), pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2))}),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type,
+        metric="cosine",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=np.zeros((1, 2), np.float32),
+        **params,
+    )
+    pairs = find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", 100).read_all().to_pylist()
+    distances = {
+        tuple(sorted((p["row_id_a"], p["row_id_b"]))): p["distance"] for p in pairs
+    }
+    assert len(distances) == 6
+    assert distances[(0, 1)] == pytest.approx(expected, abs=1e-6)
+    # Identical codes score exactly zero; opposite vectors reach the bound 2.
+    assert distances[(0, 3)] == 0
+    assert distances[(0, 2)] == pytest.approx(2.0, abs=1e-4)
+    assert all(0 <= d <= 2 for d in distances.values())
+    # Threshold filtering must use the same native score as enumeration.
+    selected = (
+        find_duplicate_pairs(ds, "vector", expected - 1e-3).read_all().to_pylist()
+    )
+    assert (0, 1) not in {
+        tuple(sorted((p["row_id_a"], p["row_id_b"]))) for p in selected
+    }
diff --git a/python/python/tests/test_vector_index.py b/python/python/tests/test_vector_index.py
index 71850135ae3..ef2f74f45ce 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/test_vector_index.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/test_vector_index.py
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 # SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+import json
 import logging
 import os
 import platform
@@ -18,13 +19,74 @@
 import pyarrow as pa
 import pyarrow.compute as pc
 import pytest
+from conftest import ProgressRecorder, progress_event_tags, stage_progress_values
 from lance import LanceDataset, LanceFragment
-from lance.dataset import Index, VectorIndexReader
+from lance.dataset import VectorIndexReader
 from lance.indices import IndexFileVersion, IndicesBuilder
-from lance.util import validate_vector_index  # noqa: E402
+from lance.query import MatchQuery, PhraseQuery
+from lance.util import (  # noqa: E402
+    _target_partition_size_to_num_partitions,
+    validate_vector_index,
+)
 from lance.vector import vec_to_table  # noqa: E402
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("query_scale", [0.25, 4.0])
+def test_dot_auto_probe_overrides(tmp_path, monkeypatch, query_scale):
+    centroids = np.eye(16, dtype=np.float32)
+    vectors = np.repeat(centroids, 16, axis=0)
+    vectors *= np.tile(np.linspace(1, 2, 16, dtype=np.float32), 16)[:, None]
+    vectors += (
+        np.random.default_rng(2249).normal(0, 0.001, vectors.shape).astype(np.float32)
+    )
+    table = vec_to_table(vectors).append_column("id", pa.array(np.arange(len(vectors))))
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "dot.lance", max_rows_per_file=32)
+    dataset.create_index(
+        "vector", "IVF_FLAT", metric="dot", num_partitions=16, ivf_centroids=centroids
+    )
+    query = centroids[0] * query_scale
+    nearest = {"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 10, "metric": "dot"}
+    expected = set(np.argsort(-(vectors @ query))[:10].tolist())
+    monkeypatch.setenv("LANCE_AUTO_PROBE_MARGIN", "0")
+    monkeypatch.setenv("LANCE_AUTO_MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES", "2")
+    monkeypatch.setenv("LANCE_AUTO_MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES", "2")
+    captured = []
+    result = dataset.scanner(
+        columns=["id"], nearest=nearest, scan_stats_callback=captured.append
+    ).to_table()
+    assert set(result["id"].to_pylist()) == expected
+    assert captured[0].all_counts["partitions_searched"] == 2
+    # Python callbacks must expose the same nanosecond timings as native consumers.
+    assert captured[0].all_times["index_search_time"] > 0
+    assert captured[0].all_times["ANNSubIndexExec_elapsed_compute"] > 0
+
+    # An initial cap must not prevent later probing when filters exhaust it.
+    captured.clear()
+    filtered = dataset.scanner(
+        columns=["id"],
+        nearest=nearest,
+        filter="id >= 224",
+        prefilter=True,
+        scan_stats_callback=captured.append,
+    ).to_table()
+    assert len(filtered) == 10
+    assert min(filtered["id"].to_pylist()) >= 224
+    assert captured[0].all_counts["partitions_searched"] > 2
+    assert captured[0].all_times["index_search_time"] > 0
+    assert captured[0].all_times["ANNSubIndexExec_elapsed_compute"] > 0
+
+    monkeypatch.setenv("LANCE_AUTO_PROBE_MARGIN", "invalid")
+    with pytest.raises(pa.ArrowInvalid, match="LANCE_AUTO_PROBE_MARGIN"):
+        dataset.to_table(columns=["id"], nearest=nearest)
+    # Fixed budgets and explicitly bounded Auto retain their existing semantics.
+    fixed = dataset.to_table(columns=["id"], nearest={**nearest, "nprobes": 16})
+    assert set(fixed["id"].to_pylist()) == expected
+    bounded = dataset.to_table(
+        columns=["id"], nearest={**nearest, "maximum_nprobes": 4}
+    )
+    assert set(bounded["id"].to_pylist()) == expected
+
+
 def create_table(nvec=1000, ndim=128, nans=0, nullify=False, dtype=np.float32):
     mat = np.random.randn(nvec, ndim)
     if nans > 0:
@@ -55,18 +117,26 @@ def gen_str(n):
 
 
 def create_multivec_table(
-    nvec=1000, nvec_per_row=5, ndim=128, nans=0, nullify=False, dtype=np.float32
+    nvec=1000,
+    nvec_per_row=5,
+    ndim=128,
+    nans=0,
+    nullify=False,
+    dtype=np.float32,
+    seed=None,
 ):
-    mat = np.random.randn(nvec, nvec_per_row, ndim)
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
+    text_rng = random.Random(seed)
+    mat = rng.standard_normal((nvec, nvec_per_row, ndim))
     if nans > 0:
         nans_mat = np.empty((nans, ndim))
         nans_mat[:] = np.nan
         mat = np.concatenate((mat, nans_mat), axis=0)
     mat = mat.astype(dtype)
-    price = np.random.rand(nvec + nans) * 100
+    price = rng.random(nvec + nans) * 100
 
     def gen_str(n):
-        return "".join(random.choices(string.ascii_letters + string.digits, k=n))
+        return "".join(text_rng.choices(string.ascii_letters + string.digits, k=n))
 
     meta = np.array([gen_str(100) for _ in range(nvec + nans)])
 
@@ -107,13 +177,20 @@ def indexed_dataset(tmp_path):
     tbl = create_table()
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
     yield dataset.create_index(
-        "vector", index_type="IVF_PQ", num_partitions=4, num_sub_vectors=16
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=4,
+        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        max_iters=2,
+        sample_rate=2,
     )
 
 
 @pytest.fixture()
 def multivec_dataset():
-    tbl = create_multivec_table()
+    # Keep at least 100 logical rows for the top-k assertions below. Five
+    # vectors per row still exercises multivector deduplication and fanout.
+    tbl = create_multivec_table(nvec=128, seed=42)
     yield lance.write_dataset(tbl, "memory://")
 
 
@@ -122,8 +199,11 @@ def indexed_multivec_dataset(multivec_dataset):
     yield multivec_dataset.create_index(
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        num_bits=4,
+        max_iters=2,
+        sample_rate=2,
         metric="cosine",
     )
 
@@ -179,10 +259,269 @@ def test_flat(dataset):
     run(dataset)
 
 
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "queries",
+    [
+        np.random.randn(2, 128).astype(np.float32),
+        np.random.randn(1, 128).astype(np.float32),
+    ],
+    ids=["two_queries", "single_query"],
+)
+def test_batch_flat_query_matches_repeated_single_queries(dataset, queries):
+    k = 5
+    _assert_batch_matches_single_queries(
+        dataset,
+        queries,
+        k=k,
+        nearest_kwargs={"use_index": False},
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("metric", ["l2", "cosine"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("query_count", [3, 1], ids=["three_queries", "single_query"])
+def test_batch_indexed_query_matches_repeated_single_queries(
+    dataset, metric, query_count
+):
+    indexed = dataset.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=4,
+        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        metric=metric,
+    )
+    # Give the query vectors deliberately different magnitudes: a cosine batch
+    # that normalized the whole concatenated key by one global norm would scale
+    # them unequally and diverge from per-query single search.
+    scales = np.linspace(0.1, 10.0, query_count).reshape(-1, 1)
+    queries = (np.random.randn(query_count, 128) * scales).astype(np.float32)
+    k = 5
+
+    # nprobes covers every partition so the shared-scan batch path and the
+    # repeated single-query path search the same partitions deterministically.
+    nearest_kwargs = {"use_index": True, "nprobes": 4}
+    _assert_batch_matches_single_queries(
+        indexed,
+        queries,
+        k=k,
+        nearest_kwargs=nearest_kwargs,
+    )
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("query_count", [1, 2])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_index", [False, True])
+def test_batch_binary_query_matches_repeated_single_queries(
+    tmp_path, query_count, use_index
+):
+    vectors = np.array([[0, 0], [255, 0], [0, 255], [255, 255]], dtype=np.uint8)
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array(range(len(vectors)), type=pa.int32()),
+                "vector": pa.array(vectors.tolist(), type=pa.list_(pa.uint8(), 2)),
+            }
+        ),
+        tmp_path,
+    )
+    if use_index:
+        dataset = dataset.create_index(
+            "vector",
+            index_type="IVF_FLAT",
+            num_partitions=1,
+            metric="hamming",
+        )
+
+    queries = np.array([[0, 0], [255, 255]], dtype=np.uint8)[:query_count]
+    k = 2
+    nearest_kwargs = {"metric": "hamming", "use_index": use_index}
+    _assert_batch_matches_single_queries(
+        dataset,
+        queries,
+        k=k,
+        nearest_kwargs=nearest_kwargs,
+    )
+
+
+def _assert_batch_matches_single_queries(ds, queries, k, nearest_kwargs):
+    batch = ds.to_table(
+        columns=["id"],
+        nearest={
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": queries,
+            "k": k,
+            **nearest_kwargs,
+        },
+    )
+    query_count = len(queries)
+    assert batch.num_rows == query_count * k
+    assert batch.column_names == ["query_index", "id", "_distance"]
+    query_index_field = batch.schema.field("query_index")
+    assert query_index_field.type == pa.int32()
+    assert not query_index_field.nullable
+    assert batch["query_index"].to_pylist() == sum(
+        [[i] * k for i in range(query_count)], []
+    )
+
+    if "distance_range" in nearest_kwargs:
+        lo, hi = nearest_kwargs["distance_range"]
+        assert all(lo <= d < hi for d in batch["_distance"].to_pylist())
+
+    for query_index, query in enumerate(queries):
+        single = ds.to_table(
+            columns=["id"],
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": query,
+                "k": k,
+                **nearest_kwargs,
+            },
+        )
+        batch_slice = batch.filter(pc.field("query_index") == query_index)
+        assert batch_slice["id"].to_pylist() == single["id"].to_pylist()
+        np.testing.assert_allclose(
+            batch_slice["_distance"].to_numpy(),
+            single["_distance"].to_numpy(),
+        )
+
+
+def test_batch_vector_search_rejects_dataset_query_index_column(tmp_path):
+    dim = 128
+    table = create_table(nvec=80, ndim=dim)
+    table = table.append_column(
+        "query_index",
+        pa.array(range(80), type=pa.uint32()),
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "with_query_index")
+
+    queries = np.random.randn(2, dim).astype(np.float32)
+    with pytest.raises(Exception, match="query_index"):
+        ds.to_table(
+            columns=["id", "query_index"],
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": queries,
+                "k": 5,
+                "use_index": False,
+            },
+        )
+
+
+def test_flat_1d_query_length_multiple_of_dim_is_rejected(dataset):
+    q = np.random.randn(256).astype(np.float32)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=r"256.*128"):
+        dataset.to_table(
+            columns=["id"],
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": q,
+                "k": 5,
+                "use_index": False,
+            },
+        )
+
+
+def test_batch_fast_search_without_index_returns_empty_with_query_index(dataset):
+    queries = np.random.randn(2, 128).astype(np.float32)
+    batch = dataset.to_table(
+        columns=["id"],
+        nearest={
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": queries,
+            "k": 5,
+        },
+        fast_search=True,
+    )
+    assert batch.num_rows == 0
+    assert "query_index" in batch.column_names
+
+
 def test_ann(indexed_dataset):
     run(indexed_dataset)
 
 
+def test_create_index_progress_callback_vector(tmp_path):
+    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(tmp_path, "vector_progress", 1500, 128)
+    recorder = ProgressRecorder()
+
+    ds.create_index(
+        column="vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=4,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        progress_callback=recorder,
+    )
+
+    tags = progress_event_tags(recorder.events)
+    expected_order = [
+        "start:train_ivf",
+        "complete:train_ivf",
+        "start:train_quantizer",
+        "complete:train_quantizer",
+        "start:shuffle",
+        "complete:shuffle",
+        "start:merge_partitions",
+        "complete:merge_partitions",
+    ]
+    positions = [tags.index(tag) for tag in expected_order]
+    assert positions == sorted(positions)
+
+    shuffle_progress = stage_progress_values(recorder.events, "shuffle")
+    assert shuffle_progress
+    assert shuffle_progress[-1] == ds.count_rows()
+
+    merge_progress = stage_progress_values(recorder.events, "merge_partitions")
+    assert merge_progress
+    assert merge_progress[-1] == 4
+
+
+def test_create_index_progress_callback_error_before_completion_propagates(tmp_path):
+    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(
+        tmp_path, "vector_progress_post_commit_error", 1500, 128
+    )
+    recorder = ProgressRecorder(fail_on_tag="start:train_ivf")
+
+    with pytest.raises(RuntimeError, match="progress callback failure"):
+        ds.create_index(
+            column="vector",
+            index_type="IVF_PQ",
+            num_partitions=4,
+            num_sub_vectors=4,
+            progress_callback=recorder,
+        )
+
+    tags = progress_event_tags(recorder.events)
+    assert tags == ["start:train_ivf"]
+    assert not ds.has_index
+    assert ds.describe_indices() == []
+
+
+def test_distributed_ivf_pq_partition_window_env_override(tmp_path, monkeypatch):
+    # Keep this before other distributed vector merge tests so the process-level
+    # lazy window size initialization reads this override.
+    monkeypatch.setenv("LANCE_IVF_PQ_MERGE_PARTITION_WINDOW_SIZE", "4")
+    monkeypatch.setenv("LANCE_IVF_PQ_MERGE_PARTITION_PREFETCH_WINDOW_COUNT", "2")
+
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    matrix = rng.standard_normal((640, 32), dtype=np.float32)
+    data = vec_to_table(data=matrix).append_column("id", pa.array(range(640)))
+    q = rng.standard_normal(32).astype(np.float32)
+    assert_distributed_vector_consistency(
+        data,
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        index_params={
+            "num_partitions": 10,
+            "num_sub_vectors": 4,
+            "max_iters": 2,
+        },
+        queries=[q],
+        topk=10,
+        world=2,
+        tmp_path=tmp_path,
+        similarity_metric="recall",
+        similarity_threshold=0.80,
+    )
+
+
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
     "fixture_name,index_type,index_params,similarity_threshold",
     [
@@ -200,7 +539,7 @@ def test_distributed_vector(
     request, fixture_name, index_type, index_params, similarity_threshold
 ):
     ds = request.getfixturevalue(fixture_name)
-    q = np.random.randn(128).astype(np.float32)
+    q = np.random.default_rng(42).standard_normal(128).astype(np.float32)
     assert_distributed_vector_consistency(
         ds.to_table(),
         "vector",
@@ -298,20 +637,20 @@ def test_f16_cuda(tmp_path):
     "index_file_version", [IndexFileVersion.V3, IndexFileVersion.LEGACY]
 )
 def test_index_with_nans(tmp_path, index_file_version):
-    # 1024 rows, the entire table should be sampled
-    tbl = create_table(nvec=1000, nans=24)
+    tbl = create_table(nvec=256, ndim=32, nans=8)
 
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
     dataset = dataset.create_index(
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        max_iters=2,
         index_file_version=index_file_version,
     )
     idx_stats = dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
     assert idx_stats["indices"][0]["index_file_version"] == index_file_version
-    validate_vector_index(dataset, "vector")
+    validate_vector_index(dataset, "vector", sample_size=16)
 
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize(
@@ -320,22 +659,60 @@ def test_index_with_nans(tmp_path, index_file_version):
 def test_torch_index_with_nans(tmp_path, index_file_version):
     torch = pytest.importorskip("torch")
 
-    # 1024 rows, the entire table should be sampled
-    tbl = create_table(nvec=1000, nans=24)
+    # Torch PQ initialization samples 256 valid residuals. Keep a small margin
+    # after NaN filtering so every platform can produce a complete sample batch.
+    tbl = create_table(nvec=320, ndim=32, nans=8)
 
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
     dataset = dataset.create_index(
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        max_iters=2,
         accelerator=torch.device("cpu"),
         one_pass_ivfpq=True,
         index_file_version=index_file_version,
     )
     idx_stats = dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
     assert idx_stats["indices"][0]["index_file_version"] == index_file_version
-    validate_vector_index(dataset, "vector")
+    validate_vector_index(dataset, "vector", sample_size=16)
+
+
+def test_torch_index_nan_init_centroid(tmp_path):
+    """A NaN vector must never seed a centroid.
+
+    `vector is not null` does not exclude NaN, so sampling could pick one; with
+    a single partition that left every residual NaN and the index build failed.
+    """
+    torch = pytest.importorskip("torch")
+    from lance.torch.data import LanceDataset as TorchDataset
+    from lance.vector import _sample_init_centroids
+
+    # Only the last 8 rows are finite, so any sample that keeps NaN rows seeds
+    # the centroid with one.
+    mat = np.full((32, 8), np.nan, dtype=np.float32)
+    mat[24:] = np.random.randn(8, 8).astype(np.float32)
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(vec_to_table(data=mat), tmp_path)
+    assert dataset.to_table()["vector"].null_count == 0
+
+    ds = TorchDataset(dataset, batch_size=1, columns=["vector"], samples=32)
+    centroids = _sample_init_centroids(ds, 4, filter_nan=True)
+    assert centroids.shape[0] == 4
+    assert torch.isfinite(centroids).all()
+
+
+def test_torch_index_all_nan_rejected(tmp_path):
+    pytest.importorskip("torch")
+    from lance.torch.data import LanceDataset as TorchDataset
+    from lance.vector import _sample_init_centroids
+
+    mat = np.full((16, 8), np.nan, dtype=np.float32)
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(vec_to_table(data=mat), tmp_path)
+
+    ds = TorchDataset(dataset, batch_size=1, columns=["vector"], samples=16)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="all null or non-finite"):
+        _sample_init_centroids(ds, 1, filter_nan=True)
 
 
 def test_index_with_no_centroid_movement(tmp_path):
@@ -344,7 +721,8 @@ def test_index_with_no_centroid_movement(tmp_path):
     # this test makes the centroids essentially [1..]
     # this makes sure the early stop condition in the index building code
     # doesn't do divide by zero
-    mat = np.concatenate([np.ones((256, 32))])
+    # Torch one-pass PQ emits an 8-bit codebook, which requires 256 rows.
+    mat = np.ones((256, 16), dtype=np.float32)
 
     tbl = vec_to_table(data=mat)
 
@@ -354,25 +732,37 @@ def test_index_with_no_centroid_movement(tmp_path):
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
         num_partitions=1,
         num_sub_vectors=4,
+        max_iters=2,
         accelerator=torch.device("cpu"),
     )
-    validate_vector_index(dataset, "vector")
+    validate_vector_index(dataset, "vector", sample_size=8)
 
 
 def test_index_with_pq_codebook(tmp_path):
-    tbl = create_table(nvec=1024, ndim=128)
+    dim = 16
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    # Eight-bit PQ still requires its 256 centroid training rows even when the
+    # initial codebook is supplied; reducing the dimension keeps this fixture small.
+    vectors = rng.standard_normal((256, dim), dtype=np.float32)
+    tbl = vec_to_table(data=vectors)
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
-    pq_codebook = np.random.randn(4, 256, 128 // 4).astype(np.float32)
+    pq_codebook = rng.standard_normal((4, 256, dim // 4), dtype=np.float32)
+    ivf_centroids = rng.standard_normal((1, dim), dtype=np.float32)
 
     dataset = dataset.create_index(
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
         num_partitions=1,
         num_sub_vectors=4,
-        ivf_centroids=np.random.randn(1, 128).astype(np.float32),
+        max_iters=2,
+        ivf_centroids=ivf_centroids,
         pq_codebook=pq_codebook,
     )
-    validate_vector_index(dataset, "vector", refine_factor=10, pass_threshold=0.99)
+    index = dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert index["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["nbits"] == 8
+    validate_vector_index(
+        dataset, "vector", refine_factor=256, sample_size=8, pass_threshold=0.99
+    )
 
     pq_codebook = pa.FixedShapeTensorArray.from_numpy_ndarray(pq_codebook)
 
@@ -381,11 +771,68 @@ def test_index_with_pq_codebook(tmp_path):
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
         num_partitions=1,
         num_sub_vectors=4,
-        ivf_centroids=np.random.randn(1, 128).astype(np.float32),
+        max_iters=2,
+        ivf_centroids=ivf_centroids,
         pq_codebook=pq_codebook,
         replace=True,
     )
-    validate_vector_index(dataset, "vector", refine_factor=10, pass_threshold=0.99)
+    validate_vector_index(
+        dataset, "vector", refine_factor=256, sample_size=8, pass_threshold=0.99
+    )
+
+
+def test_index_with_4bit_numpy_pq_codebook(tmp_path):
+    dim = 32
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    vectors = rng.standard_normal((32, dim), dtype=np.float32)
+    tbl = vec_to_table(data=vectors)
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
+    pq_codebook = rng.standard_normal((4, 16, dim // 4), dtype=np.float32)
+
+    dataset = dataset.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        num_bits=4,
+        max_iters=2,
+        ivf_centroids=rng.standard_normal((1, dim), dtype=np.float32),
+        pq_codebook=pq_codebook,
+    )
+
+    index = dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert index["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["nbits"] == 4
+
+    result = dataset.to_table(
+        nearest={
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": vectors[0],
+            "k": 10,
+        }
+    )
+    assert result.num_rows == 10
+
+
+def test_index_with_pq_codebook_rejects_wrong_num_bits_shape(tmp_path):
+    dim = 16
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    tbl = vec_to_table(data=rng.standard_normal((8, dim), dtype=np.float32))
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
+    pq_codebook = rng.standard_normal((4, 256, dim // 4), dtype=np.float32)
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError,
+        match=r"\(sub_vectors, 16, dim\) for num_bits=4, got \(4, 256, 4\)",
+    ):
+        dataset.create_index(
+            "vector",
+            index_type="IVF_PQ",
+            num_partitions=1,
+            num_sub_vectors=4,
+            num_bits=4,
+            ivf_centroids=rng.standard_normal((1, dim), dtype=np.float32),
+            pq_codebook=pq_codebook,
+        )
 
 
 @pytest.mark.cuda
@@ -485,20 +932,23 @@ def test_create_index_unsupported_accelerator(tmp_path):
 
 
 def test_create_index_accelerator_fallback(tmp_path, caplog):
-    tbl = create_table()
+    tbl = create_table(nvec=64, ndim=32)
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
 
     with caplog.at_level(logging.WARNING):
         dataset = dataset.create_index(
             "vector",
             index_type="IVF_HNSW_SQ",
-            num_partitions=4,
+            num_partitions=1,
+            max_iters=2,
+            max_level=2,
+            m=4,
+            ef_construction=16,
             accelerator="cuda",
         )
 
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
-    assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["type"] == "IVF_HNSW_SQ"
+    stats = dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["index_type"] == "IVF_HNSW_SQ"
     assert any(
         "does not support GPU acceleration; falling back to CPU" in record.message
         for record in caplog.records
@@ -560,62 +1010,159 @@ def test_has_index(dataset, tmp_path):
     )
     assert ann_ds.has_index
 
-    assert ann_ds.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["vector"]
-
-
-def test_index_type(dataset, tmp_path):
-    ann_ds = lance.write_dataset(dataset.to_table(), tmp_path / "indexed.lance")
-
-    ann_ds = ann_ds.create_index(
-        "vector",
-        index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
-        replace=True,
-    )
-    assert ann_ds.list_indices()[0]["type"] == "IVF_PQ"
+    assert ann_ds.describe_indices()[0].field_names == ["vector"]
 
-    ann_ds = ann_ds.create_index(
-        "vector",
-        index_type="IVF_HNSW_SQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
-        replace=True,
-    )
-    assert ann_ds.list_indices()[0]["type"] == "IVF_HNSW_SQ"
 
-    ann_ds = ann_ds.create_index(
+def test_index_type(tmp_path):
+    index_cases = [
+        ("IVF_PQ", {"num_sub_vectors": 4, "num_bits": 4}),
+        (
+            "IVF_HNSW_SQ",
+            {"max_level": 2, "m": 4, "ef_construction": 16},
+        ),
+        (
+            "IVF_HNSW_PQ",
+            {
+                "num_sub_vectors": 4,
+                "num_bits": 4,
+                "max_level": 2,
+                "m": 4,
+                "ef_construction": 16,
+            },
+        ),
+        (
+            "IVF_HNSW_FLAT",
+            {"max_level": 2, "m": 4, "ef_construction": 16},
+        ),
+    ]
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    vectors = rng.standard_normal((64, 32), dtype=np.float32)
+    table = vec_to_table(data=vectors).append_column("id", pa.array(range(64)))
+    ann_ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "replace_index_type")
+    assert not ann_ds.has_index
+
+    for case_index, (index_type, index_options) in enumerate(index_cases):
+        ann_ds = ann_ds.create_index(
+            "vector",
+            index_type=index_type,
+            num_partitions=1,
+            max_iters=2,
+            sample_rate=2,
+            replace=case_index > 0,
+            **index_options,
+        )
+        stats = ann_ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+        assert stats["index_type"] == index_type
+        assert stats["num_indices"] == 1
+        indices = ann_ds.describe_indices()
+        assert len(indices) == 1
+        assert indices[0].field_names == ["vector"]
+
+        nearest = {
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": vectors[0],
+            "k": 10,
+            "nprobes": 1,
+            "refine_factor": 4,
+        }
+        if "HNSW" in index_type:
+            nearest["ef"] = 64
+        actual = ann_ds.to_table(columns=["id"], nearest=nearest)
+        expected = ann_ds.to_table(
+            columns=["id"],
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": vectors[0],
+                "k": 10,
+                "use_index": False,
+            },
+        )
+        actual_ids = set(actual["id"].to_pylist())
+        expected_ids = set(expected["id"].to_pylist())
+        assert actual.num_rows == 10
+        assert len(actual_ids) == 10
+        assert len(actual_ids & expected_ids) / len(expected_ids) >= 0.5
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("approx_mode", ["normal", "accurate"])
+def test_ivf_rq_dot_query_scale_invariance(tmp_path, approx_mode):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(20260921)
+    vectors = rng.normal(size=(128, 64)).astype(np.float32)
+    center = rng.normal(size=64).astype(np.float32)
+    vectors[:64] += 2 * center
+    vectors[64:] -= 2 * center
+    centroids = np.stack([2 * center, -2 * center])
+    table = vec_to_table(data=vectors).append_column("id", pa.array(range(128)))
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "scale.lance", max_rows_per_file=64)
+    ds = ds.create_index(
         "vector",
-        index_type="IVF_HNSW_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
-        replace=True,
+        "IVF_RQ",
+        metric="dot",
+        num_bits=5,
+        num_partitions=2,
+        ivf_centroids=centroids,
     )
-    assert ann_ds.list_indices()[0]["type"] == "IVF_HNSW_PQ"
-
-
-def test_create_dot_index(dataset, tmp_path):
-    assert not dataset.has_index
-    ann_ds = lance.write_dataset(dataset.to_table(), tmp_path / "indexed.lance")
+    assert len(ds.get_fragments()) == 2
+    for q in vectors[[3, 97]]:
+        truth = set(np.argsort(-(vectors.astype(np.float64) @ q))[:10])
+        for k in [10, len(vectors)]:
+            reference = None
+            for scale in [1.0, 0.125, 8.0]:
+                result = ds.to_table(
+                    columns=["id", "_distance"],
+                    nearest={
+                        "column": "vector",
+                        "q": q * scale,
+                        "k": k,
+                        "metric": "dot",
+                        "nprobes": 2,
+                        "approx_mode": approx_mode,
+                    },
+                )
+                ids = result["id"].to_numpy()
+                distances = result["_distance"].to_numpy()
+                assert len(set(ids[:10]) & truth) / 10 >= 0.5
+                if reference is None:
+                    reference = (ids, distances)
+                else:
+                    np.testing.assert_array_equal(ids, reference[0])
+                    np.testing.assert_allclose(
+                        distances,
+                        1 + scale * (reference[1] - 1),
+                        rtol=2e-4,
+                        atol=2e-4,
+                    )
+
+
+def test_create_dot_index(tmp_path):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    table = vec_to_table(data=rng.standard_normal((64, 32), dtype=np.float32))
+    ann_ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "indexed.lance")
+    assert not ann_ds.has_index
     ann_ds = ann_ds.create_index(
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        num_bits=4,
+        max_iters=2,
         metric="dot",
     )
     assert ann_ds.has_index
 
 
-def test_create_4bit_ivf_pq_index(dataset, tmp_path):
-    assert not dataset.has_index
-    ann_ds = lance.write_dataset(dataset.to_table(), tmp_path / "indexed.lance")
+def test_create_4bit_ivf_pq_index(tmp_path):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    table = vec_to_table(data=rng.standard_normal((32, 32), dtype=np.float32))
+    ann_ds = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path / "indexed.lance")
+    assert not ann_ds.has_index
     ann_ds = ann_ds.create_index(
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
         num_partitions=1,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
         num_bits=4,
+        max_iters=2,
         metric="l2",
     )
     index = ann_ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
@@ -653,6 +1200,12 @@ def test_create_ivf_pq_with_target_partition_size(dataset, tmp_path):
     assert ann_ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")["indices"][0]["num_partitions"] == 2
 
 
+def test_target_partition_size_to_num_partitions_clamps():
+    assert _target_partition_size_to_num_partitions(1000, 1000) == 1
+    assert _target_partition_size_to_num_partitions(1000, 500) == 2
+    assert _target_partition_size_to_num_partitions(8192 * 5000, 8192) == 4096
+
+
 def test_index_size_stats(tmp_path: Path):
     num_rows = 512
     dims = 32
@@ -790,7 +1343,7 @@ def test_create_ivf_sq_index(dataset, tmp_path):
         index_type="IVF_SQ",
         num_partitions=4,
     )
-    assert ann_ds.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["vector"]
+    assert ann_ds.describe_indices()[0].field_names == ["vector"]
 
 
 def test_create_ivf_rq_index():
@@ -799,22 +1352,25 @@ def test_create_ivf_rq_index():
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_RQ",
         num_partitions=4,
-        num_bits=1,
     )
-    assert ds.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["vector"]
+    assert ds.describe_indices()[0].field_names == ["vector"]
+    stats = ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["num_bits"] == 5
+    assert stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["packed"] is True
 
-    with pytest.raises(
-        NotImplementedError,
-        match="Creating empty vector indices with train=False is not yet implemented",
-    ):
-        ds.delete("id>=0")
-        ds = ds.create_index(
-            "vector",
-            index_type="IVF_RQ",
-            num_partitions=4,
-            num_bits=1,
-            replace=True,
-        )
+    # An emptied table still takes the index; it carries its settings and
+    # covers nothing until there is data to train on.
+    ds.delete("id>=0")
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_RQ",
+        num_partitions=4,
+        num_bits=1,
+        replace=True,
+    )
+    stats = ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["num_indexed_rows"] == 0
+    assert stats["num_unindexed_rows"] == 0
 
     zero_vectors = np.zeros((1000, 128)).astype(np.float32).tolist()
     tbl = pa.Table.from_pydict(
@@ -840,53 +1396,149 @@ def test_create_ivf_rq_index():
     assert res["_distance"].to_numpy().max() == 0.0
 
 
-def test_create_ivf_hnsw_pq_index(dataset, tmp_path):
-    assert not dataset.has_index
-    ann_ds = lance.write_dataset(dataset.to_table(), tmp_path / "indexed.lance")
-    ann_ds = ann_ds.create_index(
+def test_build_rq_model_default_num_bits():
+    from lance.lance import indices
+
+    model = json.loads(indices.build_rq_model(dimension=8))
+    assert model["num_bits"] == 5
+
+
+def test_create_ivf_rq_skip_transpose():
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(create_table(), "memory://")
+    ds = ds.create_index(
         "vector",
-        index_type="IVF_HNSW_PQ",
+        index_type="IVF_RQ",
         num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        num_bits=1,
+        skip_transpose=True,
     )
-    assert ann_ds.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["vector"]
+    stats = ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["packed"] is False
 
 
-def test_create_ivf_hnsw_sq_index(dataset, tmp_path):
-    assert not dataset.has_index
-    ann_ds = lance.write_dataset(dataset.to_table(), tmp_path / "indexed.lance")
-    ann_ds = ann_ds.create_index(
-        "vector",
-        index_type="IVF_HNSW_SQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+def _assert_recall_at_least(ds, query, metric=None, k=10, recall_requirement=0.5):
+    nearest = {"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": k}
+    if metric is not None:
+        nearest["metric"] = metric
+
+    gt_ids = ds.to_table(nearest=nearest, columns=["id"])["id"].to_numpy()
+    create_index_kwargs = {
+        "index_type": "IVF_RQ",
+        "num_partitions": 4,
+        "num_bits": 9,
+    }
+    if metric is not None:
+        create_index_kwargs["metric"] = metric
+    indexed = ds.create_index("vector", **create_index_kwargs)
+    result_ids = indexed.to_table(nearest=nearest, columns=["id"])["id"].to_numpy()
+
+    assert result_ids.shape[0] == k
+    recall = len(set(gt_ids) & set(result_ids)) / k
+    assert recall >= recall_requirement, (
+        f"recall={recall}, gt={gt_ids}, result={result_ids}"
     )
-    assert ann_ds.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["vector"]
+    return indexed
 
 
-def test_create_ivf_hnsw_flat_index(dataset, tmp_path):
-    assert not dataset.has_index
-    ann_ds = lance.write_dataset(dataset.to_table(), tmp_path / "indexed.lance")
-    ann_ds = ann_ds.create_index(
+def test_create_ivf_rq_multi_bit_searches_l2_and_cosine():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    mat = rng.standard_normal((1000, 128)).astype(np.float32)
+    tbl = vec_to_table(data=mat).append_column("id", pa.array(range(len(mat))))
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, "memory://")
+    ds = _assert_recall_at_least(ds, mat[0])
+    stats = ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["num_bits"] == 9
+    assert stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["query_estimator"] == "raw_query"
+    for approx_mode in ["fast", "normal", "accurate"]:
+        result = ds.to_table(
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": mat[0],
+                "k": 10,
+                "approx_mode": approx_mode,
+            },
+            columns=["id"],
+        )
+        assert result.num_rows == 10
+
+    cosine_ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, "memory://")
+    cosine_ds = _assert_recall_at_least(cosine_ds, mat[1], metric="cosine")
+    cosine_stats = cosine_ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert cosine_stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["num_bits"] == 9
+    assert cosine_stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["query_estimator"] == "raw_query"
+
+
+def test_create_ivf_rq_requires_dim_divisible_by_8():
+    vectors = np.zeros((1000, 30), dtype=np.float32).tolist()
+    tbl = pa.Table.from_pydict(
+        {"vector": pa.array(vectors, type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), 30))}
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, "memory://", mode="overwrite")
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError, match="vector dimension must be divisible by 8 for IVF_RQ"
+    ):
+        ds.create_index(
+            "vector",
+            index_type="IVF_RQ",
+            num_partitions=4,
+            num_bits=1,
+        )
+
+
+def test_create_ivf_rq_mostly_null():
+    ndim = 128
+    nvec = 100
+    nnull = 9900
+    vectors = np.random.randn(nvec, ndim).astype(np.float32).tolist()
+    vectors += [None] * nnull
+    tbl = pa.table(
+        {
+            "vector": pa.array(vectors, type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), ndim)),
+            "id": pa.array(range(nvec + nnull), type=pa.int32()),
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, "memory://")
+    ds = ds.create_index(
         "vector",
-        index_type="IVF_HNSW_FLAT",
+        index_type="IVF_RQ",
         num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        num_bits=1,
+    )
+
+    q = np.random.randn(ndim).astype(np.float32)
+    result = ds.to_table(
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 10},
     )
-    assert ann_ds.list_indices()[0]["fields"] == ["vector"]
+    assert result.num_rows == 10
 
 
 def test_multivec_ann(indexed_multivec_dataset: lance.LanceDataset):
-    query = np.random.rand(5, 128)
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    query = rng.random((5, 128))
     results = indexed_multivec_dataset.scanner(
-        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 100}
+        nearest={
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": query,
+            "k": 100,
+            "nprobes": 1,
+            "refine_factor": 2,
+        }
     ).to_table()
     assert results.num_rows == 100
     assert results["vector"].type == pa.list_(pa.list_(pa.float32(), 128))
     assert len(results["vector"][0]) == 5
+    ground_truth = indexed_multivec_dataset.to_table(
+        columns=["id"],
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 100, "use_index": False},
+    )
+    actual_ids = set(results["id"].to_pylist())
+    expected_ids = set(ground_truth["id"].to_pylist())
+    assert len(actual_ids & expected_ids) / len(expected_ids) >= 0.5
 
     # query with single vector also works
-    query = np.random.rand(128)
+    query = rng.random(128)
     results = indexed_multivec_dataset.to_table(
         nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 100}
     )
@@ -907,20 +1559,71 @@ def test_multivec_ann(indexed_multivec_dataset: lance.LanceDataset):
         )
 
     # query with a vector that dim not match
-    query = np.random.rand(256)
+    query = rng.random(256)
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="does not match index column size"):
         indexed_multivec_dataset.to_table(
             nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 100}
         )
 
     # query with a list of vectors that some dim not match
-    query = [np.random.rand(128)] * 5 + [np.random.rand(256)]
+    query = [rng.random(128)] * 5 + [rng.random(256)]
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="All query vectors must have the same length"):
         indexed_multivec_dataset.to_table(
             nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 100}
         )
 
 
+def test_multivec_search_paths(tmp_path: Path):
+    vector_type = pa.list_(pa.list_(pa.float32(), 2))
+    query = np.array([[1.0, 0.0], [0.0, 1.0]], dtype=np.float32)
+    uri = tmp_path / "multivec_distance.lance"
+
+    indexed_rows = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([0, 1], type=pa.int32()),
+            "vector": pa.array(
+                [
+                    [[1.0, 0.0], [0.0, 1.0]],
+                    [[1.0, 0.0], [1.0, 0.0]],
+                ],
+                type=vector_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(indexed_rows, uri)
+    dataset = dataset.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_FLAT",
+        metric="cosine",
+        num_partitions=1,
+    )
+
+    unindexed_rows = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([2, 3], type=pa.int32()),
+            "vector": pa.array(
+                [
+                    [[1.0, 0.0], [0.0, 1.0]],
+                    [[-1.0, 0.0], [0.0, -1.0]],
+                ],
+                type=vector_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(unindexed_rows, uri, mode="append")
+
+    nearest = {"column": "vector", "q": query, "k": 4, "metric": "cosine"}
+    flat = dataset.to_table(columns=["id"], nearest={**nearest, "use_index": False})
+    mixed = dataset.to_table(columns=["id"], nearest=nearest)
+
+    dataset.optimize.optimize_indices()
+    fully_indexed = dataset.to_table(columns=["id"], nearest=nearest, fast_search=True)
+
+    for result in [flat, mixed, fully_indexed]:
+        assert result["id"].to_pylist() == [0, 2, 1, 3]
+        np.testing.assert_allclose(result["_distance"].to_numpy(), [0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 2.0])
+
+
 def test_pre_populated_ivf_centroids(dataset, tmp_path: Path):
     centroids = np.random.randn(5, 128).astype(np.float32)  # IVF5
     dataset_with_index = dataset.create_index(
@@ -939,10 +1642,10 @@ def test_pre_populated_ivf_centroids(dataset, tmp_path: Path):
     )["id"].to_numpy()
     assert len(actual) == 10
 
-    index_meta = dataset_with_index.list_indices()[0]
-    index_uuid = index_meta["uuid"]
+    index_meta = dataset_with_index.describe_indices()[0]
+    index_uuid = index_meta.segments[0].uuid
     assert len(index_uuid) == 36
-    assert index_meta["fragment_ids"] == {0}
+    assert index_meta.segments[0].fragment_ids == {0}
 
     expected_filepath = str(tmp_path / "_indices" / index_uuid / "index.idx")
     if platform.system() == "Windows":
@@ -987,6 +1690,65 @@ def test_pre_populated_ivf_centroids(dataset, tmp_path: Path):
     partition_keys = {"size"}
     assert all([partition_keys == set(p.keys()) for p in partitions])
 
+    # num_partitions is deprecated in favor of target_partition_size, so
+    # centroids supplied without it must not be rejected. Seven clusters, so the
+    # assertion below tells the new index apart from the five-cluster one above
+    # and from the four target_partition_size would have picked.
+    new_centroids = np.random.randn(7, 128).astype(np.float32)
+    dataset_with_index = dataset.create_index(
+        ["vector"],
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        metric="cosine",
+        ivf_centroids=new_centroids,
+        # 1000 rows / 250 = 4, so this diverges from the centroid count.
+        target_partition_size=250,
+        num_sub_vectors=8,
+        replace=True,
+    )
+    stats = dataset_with_index.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["indices"][0]["num_partitions"] == 7
+
+    # A count that disagrees with an explicitly passed num_partitions is still
+    # rejected, and the message now names both numbers.
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="but num_partitions=4"):
+        dataset.create_index(
+            ["vector"],
+            index_type="IVF_PQ",
+            metric="cosine",
+            ivf_centroids=new_centroids,
+            num_partitions=4,
+            num_sub_vectors=8,
+        )
+
+    # A zero-row array passes the 2D check, and the Rust residual step panics on
+    # the empty centroid buffer.
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="at least one cluster"):
+        dataset.create_index(
+            ["vector"],
+            index_type="IVF_PQ",
+            metric="cosine",
+            ivf_centroids=np.empty((0, 128), dtype=np.float32),
+            num_sub_vectors=8,
+            # Otherwise the duplicate-name check intercepts first.
+            replace=True,
+        )
+
+
+def test_create_ivf_pq_skip_transpose(dataset, tmp_path: Path):
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(
+        dataset.to_table(), tmp_path / "indexed_skip_transpose.lance"
+    )
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=4,
+        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        skip_transpose=True,
+    )
+
+    stats = ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["transposed"] is False
+
 
 def test_optimize_index(dataset, tmp_path):
     dataset_uri = tmp_path / "dataset.lance"
@@ -1208,6 +1970,24 @@ def test_knn_with_deletions(tmp_path):
     assert expected == [r.as_py() for r in results]
 
 
+def test_create_index_warns_that_index_cache_size_is_ignored(tmp_path):
+    # The parameter is accepted for backwards compatibility but never reaches
+    # Rust, so the only honest behavior is to say so.
+    tbl = create_table(nvec=256, ndim=16)
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "test")
+
+    with pytest.warns(DeprecationWarning, match="index_cache_size"):
+        dataset.create_index(
+            "vector",
+            index_type="IVF_PQ",
+            num_partitions=2,
+            num_sub_vectors=2,
+            index_cache_size=10,
+        )
+
+    assert len(dataset.describe_indices()) == 1
+
+
 def test_index_cache_size(tmp_path):
     rng = np.random.default_rng(seed=42)
 
@@ -1222,7 +2002,9 @@ def query_index(ds, ntimes, q=None):
                 },
             )
 
-    tbl = create_table(nvec=1024, ndim=16)
+    # Each of the 128 partitions is trained only when the data can give it a
+    # 256-code codebook's worth of vectors.
+    tbl = create_table(nvec=128 * 256, ndim=16)
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "test")
 
     dataset.create_index(
@@ -1267,7 +2049,9 @@ def query_index(ds, ntimes, q=None):
                 },
             )
 
-    tbl = create_table(nvec=1024, ndim=16)
+    # Each of the 128 partitions is trained only when the data can give it a
+    # 256-code codebook's worth of vectors.
+    tbl = create_table(nvec=128 * 256, ndim=16)
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "test")
 
     dataset.create_index(
@@ -1312,17 +2096,23 @@ def test_index_cache_size_deprecation(tmp_path):
 
 
 def test_f16_index(tmp_path: Path):
-    DIM = 64
+    DIM = 32
+    total = 256
     uri = tmp_path / "f16data.lance"
-    f16_data = np.random.uniform(0, 1, 2048 * DIM).astype(np.float16)
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    f16_data = rng.uniform(0, 1, total * DIM).astype(np.float16)
     fsl = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(f16_data, DIM)
     tbl = pa.Table.from_pydict({"vector": fsl})
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, uri)
     dataset.create_index(
-        "vector", index_type="IVF_PQ", num_partitions=4, num_sub_vectors=2
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        max_iters=2,
     )
 
-    q = np.random.uniform(0, 1, DIM).astype(np.float16)
+    q = rng.uniform(0, 1, DIM).astype(np.float16)
     rst = dataset.to_table(
         nearest={
             "column": "vector",
@@ -1337,8 +2127,9 @@ def test_f16_index(tmp_path: Path):
 
 def test_vector_with_nans(tmp_path: Path):
     DIM = 32
-    TOTAL = 2048
-    data = np.random.uniform(0, 1, TOTAL * DIM).astype(np.float32)
+    TOTAL = 320
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    data = rng.uniform(0, 1, TOTAL * DIM).astype(np.float32)
 
     # Put the 1st vector as NaN.
     np.put(data, range(DIM, 2 * DIM), np.nan)
@@ -1352,12 +2143,13 @@ def test_vector_with_nans(tmp_path: Path):
     ds = dataset.create_index(
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=2,
-        num_sub_vectors=2,
+        num_partitions=1,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        max_iters=2,
         replace=True,
     )
     tbl = ds.to_table(
-        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": data[0:DIM], "k": TOTAL, "nprobes": 2},
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": data[0:DIM], "k": TOTAL, "nprobes": 1},
         with_row_id=True,
     )
     assert len(tbl) == TOTAL - 1
@@ -1413,32 +2205,39 @@ def test_dynamic_projection_with_vectors_index(tmp_path: Path):
 def test_index_cast_centroids(tmp_path):
     torch = pytest.importorskip("torch")
 
-    tbl = create_table(nvec=1000)
+    dim = 16
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    # Torch one-pass PQ emits an 8-bit codebook, which requires 256 rows.
+    tbl = vec_to_table(data=rng.standard_normal((256, dim), dtype=np.float32))
 
     dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
     dataset = dataset.create_index(
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        num_partitions=2,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        max_iters=2,
         accelerator=torch.device("cpu"),
     )
 
     # Get the centroids
-    index_name = dataset.list_indices()[0]["name"]
+    index_name = dataset.describe_indices()[0].name
     index_stats = dataset.stats.index_stats(index_name)
     centroids = index_stats["indices"][0]["centroids"]
     values = pa.array([x for arr in centroids for x in arr], pa.float32())
-    centroids = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(values, 128)
+    centroids = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(values, dim)
 
-    dataset.alter_columns(dict(path="vector", data_type=pa.list_(pa.float16(), 128)))
+    # Cast invalidates the attached index; drop it first per the new contract.
+    dataset.drop_index(index_name)
+    dataset.alter_columns(dict(path="vector", data_type=pa.list_(pa.float16(), dim)))
 
     # centroids are f32, but the column is now f16
     dataset = dataset.create_index(
         "vector",
         index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+        num_partitions=2,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        max_iters=2,
         accelerator=torch.device("cpu"),
         ivf_centroids=centroids,
     )
@@ -1506,14 +2305,14 @@ def test_fragment_scan_disallowed_on_ann_with_index_scan_prefilter(tmp_path):
     assert results == results_no_scalar_index
 
 
-def test_load_indices(dataset):
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+def test_describe_indices(dataset):
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 0
 
     dataset.create_index(
         "vector", index_type="IVF_PQ", num_partitions=4, num_sub_vectors=16
     )
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
 
 
@@ -1521,9 +2320,8 @@ def test_describe_vector_index(indexed_dataset: LanceDataset):
     info = indexed_dataset.describe_indices()[0]
 
     assert info.name == "vector_idx"
-    assert info.type_url == "/lance.table.VectorIndexDetails"
-    # This is currently Unknown because vector indices are not yet handled by plugins
-    assert info.index_type == "Unknown"
+    assert info.type_url == "/lance.index.pb.VectorIndexDetails"
+    assert info.index_type == "IVF_PQ"
     assert info.num_rows_indexed == 1000
     assert info.fields == [0]
     assert info.field_names == ["vector"]
@@ -1533,40 +2331,256 @@ def test_describe_vector_index(indexed_dataset: LanceDataset):
     assert info.segments[0].index_version == 1
     assert info.segments[0].created_at is not None
 
+    details = info.details
+    assert details["metric_type"] == "L2"
+    assert details["compression"]["type"] == "pq"
+    assert details["compression"]["num_bits"] == 8
+    assert details["compression"]["num_sub_vectors"] == 16
+
+
+def test_describe_index_runtime_hints_stored(tmp_path):
+    tbl = create_table(nvec=300, ndim=16)
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
+    dataset = dataset.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=4,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+        max_iters=100,
+        sample_rate=512,
+    )
+    details = dataset.describe_indices()[0].details
+    hints = details.get("runtime_hints", {})
+    assert hints.get("lance.ivf.max_iters") == "100"
+    assert hints.get("lance.ivf.sample_rate") == "512"
+    assert hints.get("lance.pq.max_iters") == "100"
+    assert hints.get("lance.pq.sample_rate") == "512"
+
 
 def test_optimize_indices(indexed_dataset):
     data = create_table()
     indexed_dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, indexed_dataset.uri, mode="append")
-    indices = indexed_dataset.list_indices()
-    assert len(indices) == 1
+    stats = indexed_dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["num_indices"] == 1
     indexed_dataset.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
-    indices = indexed_dataset.list_indices()
-    assert len(indices) == 2
+    stats = indexed_dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["num_indices"] == 2
 
 
-@pytest.mark.skip(reason="retrain is deprecated")
-def test_retrain_indices(indexed_dataset):
-    data = create_table()
-    indexed_dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, indexed_dataset.uri, mode="append")
-    indices = indexed_dataset.list_indices()
-    assert len(indices) == 1
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("enable_stable_row_ids", [False, True])
+def test_segment_ownership_filter_precedes_partition_topk(
+    tmp_path, enable_stable_row_ids
+):
+    ndim = 4
+
+    def table(ids, value):
+        vectors = np.full((len(ids), ndim), value, dtype=np.float32)
+        return pa.table(
+            {
+                "id": pa.array(ids, type=pa.int64()),
+                "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                    pa.array(vectors.reshape(-1), type=pa.float32()), ndim
+                ),
+            }
+        )
 
-    indexed_dataset.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
-    indices = indexed_dataset.list_indices()
-    assert len(indices) == 2
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        table(range(20), 1.0),
+        tmp_path,
+        mode="create",
+        enable_stable_row_ids=enable_stable_row_ids,
+    )
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        table(range(100, 120), 0.0), dataset.uri, mode="append"
+    )
+    dataset = dataset.create_index(
+        "vector", index_type="IVF_FLAT", metric="l2", num_partitions=1
+    )
+
+    fragment = dataset.get_fragment(1)
+    row_ids = fragment.to_table(columns=["id"], with_row_id=True)["_rowid"].to_pylist()
+    update_data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "_rowid": pa.array(row_ids, type=pa.uint64()),
+            "vector": pa.array(
+                [[10.0] * ndim] * len(row_ids), type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), ndim)
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    updated_fragment, fields_modified = fragment.update_columns(update_data)
+    dataset = lance.LanceDataset.commit(
+        dataset.uri,
+        lance.LanceOperation.Update(
+            updated_fragments=[updated_fragment], fields_modified=fields_modified
+        ),
+        read_version=dataset.version,
+    )
+    dataset.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset.uri)
+
+    def assert_current_nearest_rows():
+        result = dataset.to_table(
+            columns=["id"],
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": np.zeros(ndim, dtype=np.float32),
+                "k": 5,
+            },
+        )
+
+        assert all(row_id < 20 for row_id in result["id"].to_pylist())
+        assert result["_distance"].to_pylist() == pytest.approx([4.0] * 5)
+
+    assert_current_nearest_rows()
+    dataset.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=2)
+    dataset = lance.dataset(dataset.uri)
+    assert_current_nearest_rows()
+
+
+def test_no_stale_duplicate_after_partial_column_update(tmp_path):
+    # Regression test: updating an indexed vector column in place (via the
+    # low-level fragment.update_columns API + LanceOperation.Update) and then
+    # delta-optimizing the index must not leave a stale copy of the row in the
+    # original index segment.
+    #
+    # Mechanism: update_columns rewrites only the column data file, keeping the
+    # fragment id and row address. Committing the Update prunes the fragment
+    # from the old index segment's fragment_bitmap, but that segment's index
+    # file still physically holds the row's OLD vector. optimize_indices then
+    # builds a new delta segment with the NEW vector. Before the fix a KNN query
+    # searched both segments and returned the updated row TWICE - once with the
+    # stale vector (old segment) and once with the new value (delta segment).
+    np.random.seed(42)
+    ndim = 16
+
+    # Fragment 0: a "far" cluster bounded to [-1, 1]. No bulk vector is close to
+    # the query (all-10.8), so the bulk cannot crowd the stale copy out of top-k.
+    n_bulk = 1000
+    bulk = np.random.uniform(-1, 1, (n_bulk, ndim)).astype(np.float32)
+    table0 = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array(range(n_bulk), type=pa.int64()),
+            "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                pa.array(bulk.reshape(-1), type=pa.float32()), list_size=ndim
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table0, tmp_path, mode="create")
+
+    # Fragment 1: a single row whose ORIGINAL vector (all 2.0) is closer to the
+    # query than any bulk vector, so its stale copy ranks well inside top-k.
+    orig = np.full((1, ndim), 2.0, dtype=np.float32)
+    table1 = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": pa.array([10_000], type=pa.int64()),
+            "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+                pa.array(orig.reshape(-1), type=pa.float32()), list_size=ndim
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table1, tmp_path, mode="append")
+    assert len(ds.get_fragments()) == 2
+
+    # One index segment covering BOTH fragments {0, 1}.
+    ds = ds.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        metric="l2",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        num_sub_vectors=ndim,
+    )
+
+    # Overwrite fragment 1's vector in place and commit Update(fields_modified).
+    new_vec = [10.8] * ndim
+    frag = ds.get_fragment(1)
+    rowids = frag.to_table(columns=["id"], with_row_id=True)["_rowid"].to_pylist()
+    update_data = pa.table(
+        {
+            "_rowid": pa.array(rowids, type=pa.uint64()),
+            "vector": pa.array(
+                [new_vec] * len(rowids), type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), ndim)
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    updated_fragment, fields_modified = frag.update_columns(update_data)
+    op = lance.LanceOperation.Update(
+        updated_fragments=[updated_fragment],
+        fields_modified=fields_modified,
+    )
+    ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(ds.uri, op, read_version=ds.version)
+
+    # Delta-optimize: appends a new segment for the updated fragment; the old
+    # segment is left intact, still physically holding the stale vector.
+    ds.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
+    ds = lance.dataset(ds.uri)
+    assert ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")["num_indices"] == 2
+
+    # KNN near the NEW value via the default vector search (searches all
+    # segments). The updated row must appear EXACTLY ONCE.
+    #
+    # This pins the filtering only. With a single partition the late search
+    # returns before the shared budget is consulted, so the accounting half of
+    # the fix is pinned by the Rust unit test
+    # `test_unowned_row_does_not_fill_the_shared_budget` instead.
+    q = np.array(new_vec, dtype=np.float32)
+    res = ds.to_table(
+        columns=["id"],
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 10},
+        with_row_id=True,
+    ).to_pandas()
+    dupes = res[res["id"] == 10_000]
+    assert len(dupes) == 1, (
+        f"updated row id=10000 returned {len(dupes)} times "
+        f"(stale index segment not masked); rowids={res['_rowid'].tolist()}"
+    )
+    # A mask that over-restricts would drop the old segment wholesale and still
+    # satisfy the assertion above, so pin the full result set too.
+    assert len(res) == 10, f"expected a full top-10, got {len(res)} rows"
+    assert res["id"].is_unique, f"duplicate ids in result: {res['id'].tolist()}"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("retrain", [None, False, True])
+def test_retrain_indices(tmp_path, retrain):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    ndim = 16
+    initial_vectors = rng.standard_normal((64, ndim), dtype=np.float32)
+    appended_vectors = rng.standard_normal((64, ndim), dtype=np.float32) + 100
+    old_centroid = np.full((1, ndim), -1000, dtype=np.float32)
+
+    indexed_dataset = lance.write_dataset(vec_to_table(initial_vectors), tmp_path)
+    indexed_dataset = indexed_dataset.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_FLAT",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        ivf_centroids=old_centroid,
+        index_file_version=IndexFileVersion.V3,
+    )
+    indexed_dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        vec_to_table(appended_vectors), indexed_dataset.uri, mode="append"
+    )
 
     stats = indexed_dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
-    centroids = stats["indices"][0]["centroids"]
-    delta_centroids = stats["indices"][1]["centroids"]
-    assert centroids == delta_centroids
+    assert stats["num_indices"] == 1
 
-    indexed_dataset.optimize.optimize_indices(retrain=True)
-    new_centroids = indexed_dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")["indices"][0][
-        "centroids"
-    ]
-    indices = indexed_dataset.list_indices()
-    assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert centroids != new_centroids
+    indexed_dataset.optimize.optimize_indices(num_indices_to_merge=0)
+    stats = indexed_dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["num_indices"] == 2
+    assert all(
+        index["centroids"] == old_centroid.tolist() for index in stats["indices"]
+    )
+
+    kwargs = {} if retrain is None else {"retrain": retrain}
+    indexed_dataset.optimize.optimize_indices(**kwargs)
+    stats = indexed_dataset.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    centroids = [index["centroids"] for index in stats["indices"]]
+    if retrain:
+        expected_centroid = np.concatenate([initial_vectors, appended_vectors]).mean(
+            axis=0
+        )
+        assert stats["num_indices"] == 1
+        assert np.allclose(centroids[0][0], expected_centroid)
+    else:
+        assert all(centroid == old_centroid.tolist() for centroid in centroids)
 
 
 def test_no_include_deleted_rows(indexed_dataset):
@@ -1583,10 +2597,10 @@ def test_no_include_deleted_rows(indexed_dataset):
 
 
 def test_drop_indices(indexed_dataset):
-    idx_name = indexed_dataset.list_indices()[0]["name"]
+    idx_name = indexed_dataset.describe_indices()[0].name
 
     indexed_dataset.drop_index(idx_name)
-    indices = indexed_dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = indexed_dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 0
 
     test_vec = (
@@ -1607,7 +2621,7 @@ def test_drop_indices(indexed_dataset):
 
 
 def test_read_partition(indexed_dataset):
-    idx_name = indexed_dataset.list_indices()[0]["name"]
+    idx_name = indexed_dataset.describe_indices()[0].name
     reader = VectorIndexReader(indexed_dataset, idx_name)
 
     num_rows = indexed_dataset.count_rows()
@@ -1636,6 +2650,34 @@ def test_read_partition(indexed_dataset):
         VectorIndexReader(indexed_dataset, "id_idx")
 
 
+def test_read_partition_nested_vector_quoted_field(tmp_path):
+    num_rows = 1024
+    dimensions = 8
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
+    values = rng.integers(0, 256, size=num_rows * dimensions, dtype=np.uint8)
+    vectors = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(pa.array(values), dimensions)
+    nested = pa.StructArray.from_arrays([vectors], names=["embedding.v1"])
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"data": nested}), tmp_path)
+    # Match nested uint8 pHash indexes without introducing PQ training setup.
+    dataset = dataset.create_index(
+        "data.`embedding.v1`",
+        index_type="IVF_FLAT",
+        name="vector_idx",
+        metric="hamming",
+        num_partitions=4,
+    )
+
+    reader = VectorIndexReader(dataset, "vector_idx")
+    for with_vector in (False, True):
+        partitions = [
+            reader.read_partition(partition_id, with_vector=with_vector)
+            for partition_id in range(reader.num_partitions())
+        ]
+
+        assert all("_rowid" in partition.column_names for partition in partitions)
+        assert sum(partition.num_rows for partition in partitions) == num_rows
+
+
 def test_vector_index_with_prefilter_and_scalar_index(indexed_dataset):
     uri = indexed_dataset.uri
     new_table = create_table()
@@ -1678,12 +2720,13 @@ def test_vector_index_with_nprobes(indexed_dataset):
             "column": "vector",
             "q": np.random.randn(128),
             "k": 10,
+            "nprobes": 10,
             "minimum_nprobes": 7,
         }
     ).explain_plan()
 
     assert "minimum_nprobes=7" in res
-    assert "maximum_nprobes=None" in res
+    assert "maximum_nprobes=Some(10)" in res
 
     res = indexed_dataset.scanner(
         nearest={
@@ -1691,23 +2734,97 @@ def test_vector_index_with_nprobes(indexed_dataset):
             "q": np.random.randn(128),
             "k": 10,
             "minimum_nprobes": 7,
-            "maximum_nprobes": 10,
         }
     ).explain_plan()
 
     assert "minimum_nprobes=7" in res
-    assert "maximum_nprobes=Some(10)" in res
+    assert "maximum_nprobes=None" in res
 
     res = indexed_dataset.scanner(
         nearest={
             "column": "vector",
             "q": np.random.randn(128),
             "k": 10,
-            "maximum_nprobes": 30,
-        }
+            "minimum_nprobes": 7,
+            "maximum_nprobes": 10,
+        }
+    ).explain_plan()
+
+    assert "minimum_nprobes=7" in res
+    assert "maximum_nprobes=Some(10)" in res
+
+    res = indexed_dataset.scanner(
+        nearest={
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": np.random.randn(128),
+            "k": 10,
+            "maximum_nprobes": 30,
+        }
     ).analyze_plan()
 
 
+def test_vector_index_with_query_parallelism(indexed_dataset):
+    q = np.random.randn(128)
+
+    sequential = indexed_dataset.to_table(
+        nearest={
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": q,
+            "k": 10,
+            "query_parallelism": 0,
+        }
+    )
+    parallel = indexed_dataset.to_table(
+        nearest={
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": q,
+            "k": 10,
+            "query_parallelism": -1,
+        }
+    )
+
+    assert sequential == parallel
+
+
+def test_vector_index_invalid_query_parallelism(indexed_dataset):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="query_parallelism"):
+        indexed_dataset.scanner(
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": np.random.randn(128),
+                "k": 10,
+                "query_parallelism": -2,
+            }
+        )
+
+
+def test_vector_index_with_approx_mode(indexed_dataset):
+    q = np.random.randn(128)
+
+    for approx_mode in ["fast", "normal", "accurate"]:
+        result = indexed_dataset.to_table(
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": q,
+                "k": 10,
+                "approx_mode": approx_mode,
+            }
+        )
+        assert len(result) == 10
+
+
+def test_vector_index_invalid_approx_mode(indexed_dataset):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="approx_mode"):
+        indexed_dataset.scanner(
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": np.random.randn(128),
+                "k": 10,
+                "approx_mode": "hacc",
+            }
+        )
+
+
 def test_knn_deleted_rows(tmp_path):
     data = create_table()
     ds = lance.write_dataset(data, tmp_path)
@@ -1730,12 +2847,10 @@ def test_knn_deleted_rows(tmp_path):
 
 
 def test_nested_field_vector_index(tmp_path):
-    """Test vector index creation and querying on nested fields
+    """Test IVF_PQ indices on a vector field nested in a struct.
 
-    Note: While scalar indices work on nested fields, vector indices currently
-    have a limitation in the DataFusion integration layer that prevents them
-    from working with nested field paths. The Python validation layer now
-    correctly handles nested paths, but the Rust planner needs additional work.
+    Cover partition reads, nearest queries, appends, index optimization, and
+    cosine distance using the nested field path ``data.embedding``.
     """
     # Create a dataset with nested vector field
     dimensions = 128
@@ -1789,9 +2904,17 @@ def test_nested_field_vector_index(tmp_path):
     )
 
     # Verify index was created
-    indices = dataset.list_indices()
+    indices = dataset.describe_indices()
     assert len(indices) == 1
-    assert indices[0]["fields"] == ["data.embedding"]
+    assert indices[0].field_names == ["data.embedding"]
+
+    reader = VectorIndexReader(dataset, indices[0].name)
+    for with_vector in (False, True):
+        partition_rows = sum(
+            reader.read_partition(partition_id, with_vector=with_vector).num_rows
+            for partition_id in range(reader.num_partitions())
+        )
+        assert partition_rows == num_rows
 
     # Test querying with the index
     query_vec = vectors[0]
@@ -1889,6 +3012,24 @@ def func(rs: pa.Table):
     run(dataset, q=np.array(q), assert_func=func)
 
 
+def test_scanner_rejects_unknown_index_segments(tmp_path):
+    tbl = create_table()
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
+    dataset = dataset.create_index("vector", index_type="IVF_FLAT", num_partitions=4)
+
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError, match="with_index_segments referenced unknown index segments"
+    ):
+        dataset.scanner(
+            nearest={
+                "column": "vector",
+                "q": np.random.randn(128).astype(np.float32),
+                "k": 10,
+            },
+            index_segments=[uuid.uuid4()],
+        ).to_table()
+
+
 def test_vector_index_distance_range(tmp_path):
     """Ensure vector index honors distance_range."""
     ndim = 128
@@ -1971,7 +3112,7 @@ def test_vector_index_distance_range(tmp_path):
     assert np.all(index_distances >= distance_range[0]) and np.all(
         index_distances < distance_range[1]
     )
-    assert np.allclose(brute_distances, index_distances, rtol=0.0, atol=0.0)
+    assert np.allclose(brute_distances, index_distances, rtol=1e-5, atol=0.0)
 
 
 # =============================================================================
@@ -2012,38 +3153,64 @@ def build_distributed_vector_index(
     world=2,
     **index_params,
 ):
-    """Build a distributed vector index over fragment groups and commit.
-
-    Steps:
-    - Partition fragments into `world` groups
-    - For each group, call create_index with fragment_ids and a shared index_uuid
-    - Merge metadata (commit index manifest)
-
-    Returns the dataset (post-merge) for querying.
-    """
+    """Build a distributed vector index over fragment groups and commit."""
 
     frags = dataset.get_fragments()
     frag_ids = [f.fragment_id for f in frags]
     groups = _split_fragments_evenly(frag_ids, world)
-    shared_uuid = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    segments = []
 
     for g in groups:
         if not g:
             continue
-        dataset.create_index(
-            column=column,
-            index_type=index_type,
-            fragment_ids=g,
-            index_uuid=shared_uuid,
-            num_partitions=num_partitions,
-            num_sub_vectors=num_sub_vectors,
-            **index_params,
+        segments.append(
+            dataset.create_index_uncommitted(
+                column=column,
+                index_type=index_type,
+                fragment_ids=g,
+                num_partitions=num_partitions,
+                num_sub_vectors=num_sub_vectors,
+                **index_params,
+            )
         )
 
-    # Merge physical index metadata and commit manifest for VECTOR
-    dataset.merge_index_metadata(shared_uuid, index_type)
-    dataset = _commit_index_helper(dataset, shared_uuid, column="vector")
-    return dataset
+    return dataset.commit_existing_index_segments(f"{column}_idx", column, segments)
+
+
+def _commit_segments_helper(
+    ds, segments, column: str, index_name: Optional[str] = None
+):
+    if index_name is None:
+        index_name = f"{column}_idx"
+    return ds.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, column, segments)
+
+
+def _build_segments(
+    ds,
+    column: str,
+    index_type: str,
+    fragment_groups,
+    *,
+    index_name: Optional[str] = None,
+    **index_kwargs,
+):
+    if index_name is None:
+        index_name = f"{column}_idx"
+
+    segments = []
+    for group in fragment_groups:
+        if not group:
+            continue
+        segments.append(
+            ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+                column=column,
+                index_type=index_type,
+                name=index_name,
+                fragment_ids=group,
+                **index_kwargs,
+            )
+        )
+    return segments
 
 
 def assert_distributed_vector_consistency(
@@ -2062,17 +3229,16 @@ def assert_distributed_vector_consistency(
     """Recall-only consistency check between single-machine and distributed indices.
 
     This helper keeps the original signature for compatibility but ignores
-    similarity_metric/similarity_threshold. It compares recall@K against a ground
-    truth computed via exact search (use_index=False) on the single dataset and
-    asserts that the recall difference between single-machine and distributed
-    indices is within 10%.
+    similarity_metric. It compares recall@K against a ground truth computed via
+    exact search (use_index=False), requires both indices to reach at least 0.5
+    recall, and bounds their recall difference with similarity_threshold.
 
     Steps
     -----
     1) Write `data` to two URIs (single, distributed); ensure distributed has >=2
        fragments (rewrite with max_rows_per_file if needed)
     2) Build a single-machine index via `create_index`
-    3) Global training (IVF/PQ) using `IndicesBuilder.prepare_global_ivfpq` when
+    3) Global training (IVF/PQ) using `IndicesBuilder.prepare_global_ivf_pq` when
        appropriate; for IVF_FLAT/SQ variants, train IVF centroids via
        `IndicesBuilder.train_ivf`
     4) Build the distributed index via
@@ -2080,11 +3246,12 @@ def assert_distributed_vector_consistency(
        preprocessed artifacts
     5) For each query, compute ground-truth TopK IDs using exact search
        (use_index=False), then compute TopK using single index and the distributed
-       index with consistent nearest settings (refine_factor=1; IVF uses nprobes)
-    6) Compute recall for single and distributed using the provided formula and
-       assert the absolute difference is <= 0.10. Also print the recalls.
+       index with consistent nearest settings (refine_factor=100; IVF probes all
+       fixture partitions)
+    6) Compute recall for single and distributed, require each to be >= 0.5,
+       and bound their absolute difference with similarity_threshold.
     """
-    # Keep signature compatibility but ignore similarity_metric/threshold
+    # Keep signature compatibility but ignore the superseded metric selector.
     _ = similarity_metric
 
     index_params = index_params or {}
@@ -2110,33 +3277,37 @@ def assert_distributed_vector_consistency(
             data, dist_uri, mode="overwrite", max_rows_per_file=500
         )
 
+    num_rows = single_ds.count_rows()
+    nparts = index_params.get("num_partitions", None)
+    is_pq = index_type in {"IVF_PQ", "IVF_HNSW_PQ"}
+    # Eight-bit PQ needs at least 256 centroids and sample_rate >= 2.
+    sample_rate = 2 if is_pq else min(8, num_rows // max(1, nparts or 1))
+    max_iters = index_params.get("max_iters", 5)
+    build_params = dict(index_params)
+    build_params.setdefault("sample_rate", sample_rate)
+    build_params.setdefault("max_iters", max_iters)
+
     # Build single-machine index
     single_ds = single_ds.create_index(
         column=column,
         index_type=index_type,
-        **index_params,
+        **build_params,
     )
 
     # Global training / preparation for distributed build
     preprocessed = None
     builder = IndicesBuilder(single_ds, column)
-    nparts = index_params.get("num_partitions", None)
     nsub = index_params.get("num_sub_vectors", None)
     dist_type = index_params.get("metric", "l2")
-    num_rows = single_ds.count_rows()
-
-    # Choose a safe sample_rate that satisfies IVF (nparts*sr <= rows) and PQ
-    # (256*sr <= rows). Minimum 2 as required by builder verification.
-    safe_sr_ivf = num_rows // max(1, nparts or 1)
-    safe_sr_pq = num_rows // 256
-    safe_sr = max(2, min(safe_sr_ivf, safe_sr_pq))
 
-    if index_type in {"IVF_PQ", "IVF_HNSW_PQ"}:
+    if is_pq:
+        assert num_rows >= 512, "8-bit PQ training requires at least 512 rows"
         preprocessed = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
             nparts,
             nsub,
             distance_type=dist_type,
-            sample_rate=safe_sr,
+            sample_rate=sample_rate,
+            max_iters=max_iters,
         )
     elif (
         ("IVF_FLAT" in index_type)
@@ -2146,7 +3317,8 @@ def assert_distributed_vector_consistency(
         ivf_model = builder.train_ivf(
             nparts,
             distance_type=dist_type,
-            sample_rate=safe_sr,
+            sample_rate=sample_rate,
+            max_iters=max_iters,
         )
         preprocessed = {"ivf_centroids": ivf_model.centroids}
 
@@ -2200,7 +3372,7 @@ def assert_distributed_vector_consistency(
         # Consistent nearest settings for index-based search
         nearest = {"column": column, "q": q, "k": topk, "refine_factor": 100}
         if "IVF" in index_type:
-            nearest["nprobes"] = max(16, int(index_params.get("num_partitions", 4)) * 4)
+            nearest["nprobes"] = int(index_params.get("num_partitions", 4))
         if "HNSW" in index_type:
             # Ensure ef is large enough even when refine_factor multiplies k for HNSW
             effective_k = topk * int(
@@ -2228,10 +3400,18 @@ def compute_recall(gt: np.ndarray, result: np.ndarray) -> float:
     rs = compute_recall(gt_ids, single_ids)
     rd = compute_recall(gt_ids, dist_ids)
 
-    # Assert recall difference within 10%
-    assert abs(rs - rd) <= 1 - similarity_threshold, (
+    assert rs >= 0.5, (
+        f"Single-machine {index_type} recall below 0.5: recall={rs:.3f}, "
+        f"num_partitions={nparts}, topk={topk}, queries={len(queries)}"
+    )
+    assert rd >= 0.5, (
+        f"Distributed {index_type} recall below 0.5: recall={rd:.3f}, "
+        f"num_partitions={nparts}, topk={topk}, queries={len(queries)}"
+    )
+    max_recall_difference = 1 - similarity_threshold
+    assert abs(rs - rd) <= max_recall_difference, (
         f"Recall difference too large: single={rs:.3f}, distributed={rd:.3f}, "
-        f"diff={abs(rs - rd):.3f} (> {similarity_threshold})"
+        f"diff={abs(rs - rd):.3f} (> {max_recall_difference:.3f})"
     )
 
     # Cleanup temporary directory if used
@@ -2250,463 +3430,267 @@ def _make_sample_dataset_base(
     max_rows_per_file: int = 500,
 ):
     """Common helper to construct sample datasets for distributed index tests."""
-    mat = np.random.rand(n_rows, dim).astype(np.float32)
+    mat = np.random.default_rng(42).random((n_rows, dim), dtype=np.float32)
     ids = np.arange(n_rows)
-    arr = pa.array(mat.tolist(), type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), dim))
+    arr = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(pa.array(mat.reshape(-1)), dim)
     tbl = pa.table({"id": ids, "vector": arr})
     return lance.write_dataset(
         tbl, tmp_path / name, max_rows_per_file=max_rows_per_file
     )
 
 
-def test_prepared_global_ivfpq_distributed_merge_and_search(tmp_path: Path):
-    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(tmp_path, "preproc_ds", 2000, 128)
-
-    # Global preparation
-    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector")
-    preprocessed = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_subvectors=4,
-        distance_type="l2",
-        sample_rate=3,
-        max_iters=20,
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "index_type",
+    [
+        "IVF_FLAT",
+        "IVF_PQ",
+        "IVF_SQ",
+    ],
+)
+def test_distributed_ivf_two_shard_build_merge_and_search(tmp_path, index_type):
+    dim = 32
+    num_partitions = 2
+    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(
+        tmp_path,
+        f"dist_{index_type.lower()}",
+        n_rows=640,
+        dim=dim,
+        max_rows_per_file=320,
     )
+    frags = ds.get_fragments()
+    assert len(frags) == 2
+    fragment_groups = [[fragment.fragment_id] for fragment in frags]
+    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector")
+    build_kwargs = {"num_partitions": num_partitions}
+    if index_type == "IVF_PQ":
+        preprocessed = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
+            num_partitions=num_partitions,
+            num_subvectors=4,
+            distance_type="l2",
+            sample_rate=2,
+            max_iters=2,
+        )
+        assert set(preprocessed) == {"ivf_centroids", "pq_codebook"}
+        assert len(preprocessed["ivf_centroids"]) == num_partitions
+        assert preprocessed["ivf_centroids"].type.list_size == dim
+        assert len(preprocessed["pq_codebook"]) > 0
+        assert preprocessed["pq_codebook"].type.list_size == dim
+        build_kwargs.update(
+            num_sub_vectors=4,
+            ivf_centroids=preprocessed["ivf_centroids"],
+            pq_codebook=preprocessed["pq_codebook"],
+        )
+    else:
+        ivf_model = builder.train_ivf(
+            num_partitions=num_partitions,
+            distance_type="l2",
+            sample_rate=8,
+            max_iters=2,
+        )
+        build_kwargs["ivf_centroids"] = ivf_model.centroids
 
-    # Distributed build using prepared centroids/codebook
-    ds = build_distributed_vector_index(
+    segments = _build_segments(
         ds,
         "vector",
-        index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=4,
-        world=2,
-        ivf_centroids=preprocessed["ivf_centroids"],
-        pq_codebook=preprocessed["pq_codebook"],
+        index_type,
+        fragment_groups,
+        index_name="vector_idx",
+        **build_kwargs,
     )
+    assert len(segments) == 2
+    ds = _commit_segments_helper(ds, segments, column="vector")
 
-    # Query sanity
-    q = np.random.rand(128).astype(np.float32)
-    results = ds.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 10})
-    assert 0 < len(results) <= 10
-
+    stats = ds.stats.index_stats("vector_idx")
+    assert stats["index_type"] == index_type
+    q = np.random.default_rng(43).random(dim, dtype=np.float32)
+    results = ds.to_table(
+        nearest={
+            "column": "vector",
+            "q": q,
+            "k": 5,
+            "nprobes": num_partitions,
+            "refine_factor": 10,
+        }
+    )
+    assert 0 < len(results) <= 5
 
-def test_consistency_improves_with_preprocessed_centroids(tmp_path: Path):
-    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(tmp_path, "preproc_ds", 2000, 128)
 
-    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector")
-    pre = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_subvectors=16,
-        distance_type="l2",
-        sample_rate=7,
-        max_iters=20,
+def test_commit_existing_index_segments_accepts_index_metadata(tmp_path):
+    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(
+        tmp_path, "legacy_metadata_commit", n_rows=512, dim=32, max_rows_per_file=256
     )
+    frags = ds.get_fragments()
+    assert len(frags) == 2
 
-    # Build single-machine index as ground truth target index
-    single_ds = lance.write_dataset(ds.to_table(), tmp_path / "single_ivfpq")
-    single_ds = single_ds.create_index(
-        column="vector",
-        index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
+    ivf_model = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector").train_ivf(
+        num_partitions=2,
+        distance_type="l2",
+        sample_rate=8,
+        max_iters=2,
     )
-
-    # Distributed with preprocessed IVF centroids
-    dist_pre = lance.write_dataset(ds.to_table(), tmp_path / "dist_pre")
-    dist_pre = build_distributed_vector_index(
-        dist_pre,
-        "vector",
-        index_type="IVF_PQ",
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=16,
-        world=2,
-        ivf_centroids=pre["ivf_centroids"],
-        pq_codebook=pre["pq_codebook"],
+    base_kwargs = {
+        "column": "vector",
+        "index_type": "IVF_FLAT",
+        "num_partitions": 2,
+        "ivf_centroids": ivf_model.centroids,
+    }
+    first = ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+        **base_kwargs,
+        fragment_ids=[frags[0].fragment_id],
     )
-
-    # Evaluate recall vs exact search
-    q = np.random.rand(128).astype(np.float32)
-    topk = 10
-    gt = single_ds.to_table(
-        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": topk, "use_index": False}
+    second = ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+        **base_kwargs,
+        fragment_ids=[frags[1].fragment_id],
     )
-    res_pre = dist_pre.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": topk})
-
-    gt_ids = gt["id"].to_pylist()
-    pre_ids = res_pre["id"].to_pylist()
 
-    def _recall(gt_ids, res_ids):
-        s = set(int(x) for x in gt_ids)
-        d = set(int(x) for x in res_ids)
-        return len(s & d) / max(1, len(s))
+    merged = ds.merge_existing_index_segments([first, second])
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", [merged])
 
-    recall_pre = _recall(gt_ids, pre_ids)
+    q = np.random.rand(32).astype(np.float32)
+    results = ds.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 5})
+    assert 0 < len(results) <= 5
 
-    # Expect some non-zero recall with preprocessed IVF centroids
-    if recall_pre < 0.10:
-        pytest.skip(
-            "Distributed IVF_PQ recall below threshold in current "
-            "environment - known issue"
-        )
-    assert recall_pre >= 0.10
 
+def test_distributed_ivf_rq_shared_rotation(tmp_path):
+    """Two IVF_RQ segments built on separate fragments with one shared RaBitQ rotation
+    merge into a single committed, queryable index. The shared ``rabitq_model`` (from
+    ``lance.lance.indices.build_rq_model``) is what makes the independently built
+    segments mergeable."""
+    from lance.lance import indices
 
-def test_metadata_merge_pq_success(tmp_path):
-    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(tmp_path, "dist_ds", 2000, 128)
-    frags = ds.get_fragments()
-    assert len(frags) >= 2, "Need at least 2 fragments for distributed testing"
-    mid = max(1, len(frags) // 2)
-    node1 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags[:mid]]
-    node2 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags[mid:]]
-    shared_uuid = str(uuid.uuid4())
-    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector")
-    pre = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
-        num_partitions=8,
-        num_subvectors=16,
-        distance_type="l2",
-        sample_rate=7,
-        max_iters=20,
-    )
-    try:
-        ds.create_index(
-            column="vector",
-            index_type="IVF_PQ",
-            fragment_ids=node1,
-            index_uuid=shared_uuid,
-            num_partitions=8,
-            num_sub_vectors=16,
-            ivf_centroids=pre["ivf_centroids"],
-            pq_codebook=pre["pq_codebook"],
-        )
-        ds.create_index(
-            column="vector",
-            index_type="IVF_PQ",
-            fragment_ids=node2,
-            index_uuid=shared_uuid,
-            num_partitions=8,
-            num_sub_vectors=16,
-            ivf_centroids=pre["ivf_centroids"],
-            pq_codebook=pre["pq_codebook"],
-        )
-        ds.merge_index_metadata(shared_uuid, "IVF_PQ")
-        ds = _commit_index_helper(ds, shared_uuid, "vector")
-        q = np.random.rand(128).astype(np.float32)
-        results = ds.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 10})
-        assert 0 < len(results) <= 10
-    except ValueError as e:
-        raise e
-
-
-def test_distributed_workflow_merge_and_search(tmp_path):
-    """End-to-end: build IVF_PQ on two groups, merge, and verify search returns
-    results."""
-    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(tmp_path, "dist_ds", 2000, 128)
-    frags = ds.get_fragments()
-    if len(frags) < 2:
-        pytest.skip("Need at least 2 fragments for distributed testing")
-    shared_uuid = str(uuid.uuid4())
-    mid = len(frags) // 2
-    node1 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags[:mid]]
-    node2 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags[mid:]]
-    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector")
-    pre = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_subvectors=4,
-        distance_type="l2",
-        sample_rate=7,
-        max_iters=20,
+    dim = 32
+    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(
+        tmp_path, "dist_rq_merge", n_rows=512, dim=dim, max_rows_per_file=256
     )
-    try:
-        ds.create_index(
-            column="vector",
-            index_type="IVF_PQ",
-            fragment_ids=node1,
-            index_uuid=shared_uuid,
-            num_partitions=4,
-            num_sub_vectors=4,
-            ivf_centroids=pre["ivf_centroids"],
-            pq_codebook=pre["pq_codebook"],
-        )
-        ds.create_index(
-            column="vector",
-            index_type="IVF_PQ",
-            fragment_ids=node2,
-            index_uuid=shared_uuid,
-            num_partitions=4,
-            num_sub_vectors=4,
-            ivf_centroids=pre["ivf_centroids"],
-            pq_codebook=pre["pq_codebook"],
-        )
-        ds._ds.merge_index_metadata(shared_uuid, "IVF_PQ")
-        ds = _commit_index_helper(ds, shared_uuid, "vector")
-        q = np.random.rand(128).astype(np.float32)
-        results = ds.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 10})
-        assert 0 < len(results) <= 10
-    except ValueError as e:
-        raise e
-
-
-def test_vector_merge_two_shards_success_flat(tmp_path):
-    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(tmp_path, "dist_ds", 1000, 128)
     frags = ds.get_fragments()
-    assert len(frags) >= 2
-    shard1 = [frags[0].fragment_id]
-    shard2 = [frags[1].fragment_id]
-    shared_uuid = str(uuid.uuid4())
+    assert len(frags) == 2
 
-    # Global preparation
-    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector")
-    preprocessed = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_subvectors=4,
+    ivf_model = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector").train_ivf(
+        num_partitions=2,
         distance_type="l2",
-        sample_rate=3,
-        max_iters=20,
+        sample_rate=8,
+        max_iters=2,
     )
-
-    ds.create_index(
-        column="vector",
-        index_type="IVF_FLAT",
-        fragment_ids=shard1,
-        index_uuid=shared_uuid,
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=128,
-        ivf_centroids=preprocessed["ivf_centroids"],
-        pq_codebook=preprocessed["pq_codebook"],
+    rabitq_model = indices.build_rq_model(dimension=dim, num_bits=1)
+    base_kwargs = {
+        "column": "vector",
+        "index_type": "IVF_RQ",
+        "num_partitions": 2,
+        "num_bits": 1,
+        "ivf_centroids": ivf_model.centroids,
+        "rabitq_model": rabitq_model,
+    }
+    first = ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+        **base_kwargs,
+        fragment_ids=[frags[0].fragment_id],
     )
-    ds.create_index(
-        column="vector",
-        index_type="IVF_FLAT",
-        fragment_ids=shard2,
-        index_uuid=shared_uuid,
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_sub_vectors=128,
-        ivf_centroids=preprocessed["ivf_centroids"],
-        pq_codebook=preprocessed["pq_codebook"],
+    second = ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+        **base_kwargs,
+        fragment_ids=[frags[1].fragment_id],
     )
-    ds._ds.merge_index_metadata(shared_uuid, "IVF_FLAT", None)
-    ds = _commit_index_helper(ds, shared_uuid, column="vector")
-    q = np.random.rand(128).astype(np.float32)
-    result = ds.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 5})
-    assert 0 < len(result) <= 5
-
-
-@pytest.mark.parametrize(
-    "index_type,num_sub_vectors",
-    [
-        ("IVF_PQ", 4),
-        ("IVF_FLAT", 128),
-    ],
-)
-def test_distributed_ivf_parameterized(tmp_path, index_type, num_sub_vectors):
-    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(tmp_path, "dist_ds", 2000, 128)
-    frags = ds.get_fragments()
-    assert len(frags) >= 2
-    mid = len(frags) // 2
-    node1 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags[:mid]]
-    node2 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags[mid:]]
-    shared_uuid = str(uuid.uuid4())
-
-    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector")
-    pre = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_subvectors=num_sub_vectors,
-        distance_type="l2",
-        sample_rate=7,
-        max_iters=20,
-    )
-
-    try:
-        base_kwargs = dict(
-            column="vector",
-            index_type=index_type,
-            index_uuid=shared_uuid,
-            num_partitions=4,
-            num_sub_vectors=num_sub_vectors,
-        )
-
-        kwargs1 = dict(base_kwargs, fragment_ids=node1)
-        kwargs2 = dict(base_kwargs, fragment_ids=node2)
-
-        if pre is not None:
-            kwargs1.update(
-                ivf_centroids=pre["ivf_centroids"], pq_codebook=pre["pq_codebook"]
-            )
-            kwargs2.update(
-                ivf_centroids=pre["ivf_centroids"], pq_codebook=pre["pq_codebook"]
-            )
-
-        ds.create_index(**kwargs1)
-        ds.create_index(**kwargs2)
-
-        ds._ds.merge_index_metadata(shared_uuid, index_type, None)
-        ds = _commit_index_helper(ds, shared_uuid, "vector")
-
-        q = np.random.rand(128).astype(np.float32)
-        results = ds.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 10})
-        assert 0 < len(results) <= 10
-    except ValueError as e:
-        raise e
-
-
-def _commit_index_helper(
-    ds, index_uuid: str, column: str, index_name: Optional[str] = None
-):
-    """Helper to finalize index commit after merge_index_metadata.
-
-    Builds a lance.dataset.Index record and commits a CreateIndex operation.
-    Returns the updated dataset object.
-    """
 
-    # Resolve field id for the target column
-    lance_field = ds.lance_schema.field(column)
-    if lance_field is None:
-        raise KeyError(f"{column} not found in schema")
-    field_id = lance_field.id()
+    merged = ds.merge_existing_index_segments([first, second])
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", [merged])
 
-    # Default index name if not provided
-    if index_name is None:
-        index_name = f"{column}_idx"
+    q = np.random.rand(dim).astype(np.float32)
+    results = ds.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 5})
+    assert 0 < len(results) <= 5
 
-    # Build fragment id set
-    frag_ids = set(f.fragment_id for f in ds.get_fragments())
 
-    # Construct Index dataclass and commit operation
-    index = Index(
-        uuid=index_uuid,
-        name=index_name,
-        fields=[field_id],
-        dataset_version=ds.version,
-        fragment_ids=frag_ids,
-        index_version=0,
+def test_commit_existing_index_segments_accepts_uncommitted_vector_segments(tmp_path):
+    dim = 32
+    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(
+        tmp_path,
+        "segment_commit_ds",
+        n_rows=512,
+        dim=dim,
+        max_rows_per_file=256,
     )
-    create_index_op = lance.LanceOperation.CreateIndex(
-        new_indices=[index], removed_indices=[]
-    )
-    ds = lance.LanceDataset.commit(ds.uri, create_index_op, read_version=ds.version)
-    # Ensure unified index partitions are materialized
-    return ds
-
-
-@pytest.mark.parametrize(
-    "index_type,num_sub_vectors",
-    [
-        ("IVF_PQ", 128),
-        ("IVF_SQ", None),
-    ],
-)
-def test_merge_two_shards_parameterized(tmp_path, index_type, num_sub_vectors):
-    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(tmp_path, "dist_ds2", 2000, 128)
     frags = ds.get_fragments()
-    assert len(frags) >= 2
-    shard1 = [frags[0].fragment_id]
-    shard2 = [frags[1].fragment_id]
-    shared_uuid = str(uuid.uuid4())
-
-    builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector")
-    pre = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_subvectors=num_sub_vectors,
+    assert len(frags) == 2
+    ivf_model = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector").train_ivf(
+        num_partitions=2,
         distance_type="l2",
-        sample_rate=7,
-        max_iters=20,
+        sample_rate=8,
+        max_iters=2,
     )
 
-    base_kwargs = {
-        "column": "vector",
-        "index_type": index_type,
-        "index_uuid": shared_uuid,
-        "num_partitions": 4,
-    }
+    segments = [
+        ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+            "vector",
+            "IVF_FLAT",
+            name="vector_idx",
+            train=True,
+            fragment_ids=[fragment.fragment_id],
+            num_partitions=2,
+            ivf_centroids=ivf_model.centroids,
+        )
+        for fragment in frags
+    ]
+
+    assert len(segments) == 2
+    ds = ds.commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
 
-    # first shard
-    kwargs1 = dict(base_kwargs)
-    kwargs1["fragment_ids"] = shard1
-    if num_sub_vectors is not None:
-        kwargs1["num_sub_vectors"] = num_sub_vectors
-    if pre is not None:
-        kwargs1["ivf_centroids"] = pre["ivf_centroids"]
-        # only PQ has pq_codebook
-        if "pq_codebook" in pre:
-            kwargs1["pq_codebook"] = pre["pq_codebook"]
-    ds.create_index(**kwargs1)
-
-    # second shard
-    kwargs2 = dict(base_kwargs)
-    kwargs2["fragment_ids"] = shard2
-    if num_sub_vectors is not None:
-        kwargs2["num_sub_vectors"] = num_sub_vectors
-    if pre is not None:
-        kwargs2["ivf_centroids"] = pre["ivf_centroids"]
-        if "pq_codebook" in pre:
-            kwargs2["pq_codebook"] = pre["pq_codebook"]
-    ds.create_index(**kwargs2)
-
-    ds._ds.merge_index_metadata(shared_uuid, index_type, None)
-    ds = _commit_index_helper(ds, shared_uuid, column="vector")
-
-    q = np.random.rand(128).astype(np.float32)
+    q = np.random.rand(dim).astype(np.float32)
     results = ds.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 5})
     assert 0 < len(results) <= 5
 
 
 def test_distributed_ivf_pq_order_invariance(tmp_path: Path):
     """Ensure distributed IVF_PQ build is invariant to shard build order."""
-    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(tmp_path, "dist_ds", 2000, 128)
+    dim = 32
+    ds = _make_sample_dataset_base(
+        tmp_path, "dist_ds", n_rows=640, dim=dim, max_rows_per_file=320
+    )
 
     # Global IVF+PQ training once; artifacts are reused across shard orders.
     builder = IndicesBuilder(ds, "vector")
     pre = builder.prepare_global_ivf_pq(
-        num_partitions=4,
-        num_subvectors=16,
+        num_partitions=2,
+        num_subvectors=4,
         distance_type="l2",
-        sample_rate=7,
+        sample_rate=2,
+        max_iters=2,
     )
 
     # Copy the dataset twice so index manifests do not clash and we can vary
     # the shard build order independently on identical data.
     ds_order_12 = lance.write_dataset(
-        ds.to_table(), tmp_path / "pq_order_node1_node2", max_rows_per_file=500
+        ds.to_table(), tmp_path / "pq_order_node1_node2", max_rows_per_file=320
     )
     ds_order_21 = lance.write_dataset(
-        ds.to_table(), tmp_path / "pq_order_node2_node1", max_rows_per_file=500
+        ds.to_table(), tmp_path / "pq_order_node2_node1", max_rows_per_file=320
     )
 
     # For each copy, derive two shard groups from its own fragments.
     frags_12 = ds_order_12.get_fragments()
-    if len(frags_12) < 2:
-        pytest.skip("Need at least 2 fragments for distributed indexing (order_12)")
+    assert len(frags_12) == 2
     mid_12 = len(frags_12) // 2
     node1_12 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags_12[:mid_12]]
     node2_12 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags_12[mid_12:]]
-    if not node1_12 or not node2_12:
-        pytest.skip("Failed to split fragments into two non-empty groups (order_12)")
+    assert node1_12 and node2_12
 
     frags_21 = ds_order_21.get_fragments()
-    if len(frags_21) < 2:
-        pytest.skip("Need at least 2 fragments for distributed indexing (order_21)")
+    assert len(frags_21) == 2
     mid_21 = len(frags_21) // 2
     node1_21 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags_21[:mid_21]]
     node2_21 = [f.fragment_id for f in frags_21[mid_21:]]
-    if not node1_21 or not node2_21:
-        pytest.skip("Failed to split fragments into two non-empty groups (order_21)")
+    assert node1_21 and node2_21
 
     def build_distributed_ivf_pq(ds_copy, shard_order):
-        shared_uuid = str(uuid.uuid4())
         try:
-            for shard in shard_order:
-                ds_copy.create_index(
-                    column="vector",
-                    index_type="IVF_PQ",
-                    fragment_ids=shard,
-                    index_uuid=shared_uuid,
-                    num_partitions=4,
-                    num_sub_vectors=16,
-                    ivf_centroids=pre["ivf_centroids"],
-                    pq_codebook=pre["pq_codebook"],
-                )
-            ds_copy.merge_index_metadata(shared_uuid, "IVF_PQ")
-            return _commit_index_helper(ds_copy, shared_uuid, column="vector")
+            segments = _build_segments(
+                ds_copy,
+                "vector",
+                "IVF_PQ",
+                shard_order,
+                index_name="vector_idx",
+                num_partitions=2,
+                num_sub_vectors=4,
+                ivf_centroids=pre["ivf_centroids"],
+                pq_codebook=pre["pq_codebook"],
+            )
+            return _commit_segments_helper(ds_copy, segments, column="vector")
         except ValueError as e:
             raise e
 
@@ -2715,11 +3699,8 @@ def build_distributed_ivf_pq(ds_copy, shard_order):
 
     # Sample queries once from the original dataset and reuse for both index builds
     # to check order invariance under distributed PQ training and merging.
-    k = 10
-    sample_tbl = ds.sample(10, columns=["vector"])
-    queries = [
-        np.asarray(v, dtype=np.float32) for v in sample_tbl["vector"].to_pylist()
-    ]
+    k = 5
+    queries = np.random.default_rng(43).random((3, dim), dtype=np.float32)
 
     def collect_ids_and_distances(ds_with_index):
         ids_per_query = []
@@ -2731,8 +3712,8 @@ def collect_ids_and_distances(ds_with_index):
                     "column": "vector",
                     "q": q,
                     "k": k,
-                    "nprobes": 16,
-                    "refine_factor": 100,
+                    "nprobes": 2,
+                    "refine_factor": 10,
                 },
             )
             ids_per_query.append([int(x) for x in tbl["id"].to_pylist()])
@@ -2747,3 +3728,126 @@ def collect_ids_and_distances(ds_with_index):
     assert ids_12 == ids_21
     for a, b in zip(dists_12, dists_21):
         assert np.allclose(a, b, atol=1e-6)
+
+
+def test_fts_filter_vector_search(tmp_path):
+    # Create dataset with vector and text columns
+    ids = list(range(1, 301))
+    vectors = [[float(i)] * 4 for i in ids]
+
+    # Create text data:
+    #   "text <i>" for ids 1-255, 299, 300,
+    #   "noop <i>" for 256-298,
+    texts = []
+    for i in ids:
+        if i <= 255:
+            texts.append(f"text {i}")
+        elif i <= 298:
+            texts.append(f"noop {i}")
+        else:
+            texts.append(f"text {i}")
+
+    categories = []
+    for i in ids:
+        if i % 3 == 1:
+            categories.append("literature")
+        elif i % 3 == 2:
+            categories.append("science")
+        else:
+            categories.append("geography")
+
+    table = pa.table(
+        {
+            "id": ids,
+            "vector": pa.array(vectors, type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), 4)),
+            "text": texts,
+            "category": categories,
+        }
+    )
+
+    # Write dataset and create indices
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(table, tmp_path)
+    dataset = dataset.create_index(
+        "vector",
+        index_type="IVF_PQ",
+        num_partitions=2,
+        num_sub_vectors=4,
+    )
+    dataset.create_scalar_index("text", index_type="INVERTED", with_position=True)
+
+    query_vector = [300.0, 300.0, 300.0, 300.0]
+
+    # Case 1: search with prefilter=true, query_filter=match("text")
+    scanner = dataset.scanner(
+        filter=MatchQuery("text", "text"),
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query_vector, "k": 5},
+        prefilter=True,
+    )
+
+    result = scanner.to_table()
+    ids_result = result["id"].to_pylist()
+    assert [300, 299, 255, 254, 253] == ids_result
+
+    # Case 2: search with prefilter=true, search_filter=match("text"),
+    #         filter="category='geography'"
+    scanner = dataset.scanner(
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query_vector, "k": 5},
+        prefilter=True,
+        filter={
+            "expr_filter": "category='geography'",
+            "search_filter": MatchQuery("text", "text"),
+        },
+    )
+
+    result = scanner.to_table()
+    ids_result = result["id"].to_pylist()
+    assert [300, 255, 252, 249, 246] == ids_result
+
+    # Case 3: search with prefilter=false, search_filter=match("text")
+    scanner = dataset.scanner(
+        filter=MatchQuery("text", "text"),
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query_vector, "k": 5},
+        prefilter=False,
+    )
+
+    result = scanner.to_table()
+    ids_result = result["id"].to_pylist()
+    assert [300, 299] == ids_result
+
+    # Case 4: search with prefilter=false, search_filter=match("text"),
+    #         filter="category='geography'"
+    scanner = dataset.scanner(
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query_vector, "k": 5},
+        prefilter=False,
+        filter={
+            "expr_filter": "category='geography'",
+            "search_filter": MatchQuery("text", "text"),
+        },
+    )
+
+    result = scanner.to_table()
+    ids_result = result["id"].to_pylist()
+    assert [300] == ids_result
+
+    # Case 5: search with prefilter=false, search_filter=phrase("text")
+    scanner = dataset.scanner(
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query_vector, "k": 5},
+        prefilter=False,
+        filter=PhraseQuery("text", "text"),
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        scanner.to_table()
+
+    # Case 6: search with prefilter=false, search_filter=phrase("text")
+    scanner = dataset.scanner(
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": query_vector, "k": 5},
+        prefilter=False,
+        filter={
+            "expr_filter": "category='geography'",
+            "search_filter": PhraseQuery("text", "text"),
+        },
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        scanner.to_table()
diff --git a/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_bench_utils.py b/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_bench_utils.py
index f479bb7f158..5c4943f75bb 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_bench_utils.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_bench_utils.py
@@ -10,7 +10,6 @@
 
 torch = pytest.importorskip("torch")
 from lance.torch.bench_utils import ground_truth, sort_tensors  # noqa: E402
-from lance.torch.distance import pairwise_l2  # noqa: E402
 
 
 def test_sort_tensor():
@@ -31,23 +30,36 @@ def test_ground_truth(tmp_path: Path):
     N = 1000
     NUM_QUERIES = 50
     DIM = 128
+    K = 20
 
     device = "cpu"  # Github action friendly.
-    data = np.random.rand(N * DIM).astype(np.float32)
-    fsl = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(data, DIM)
-    data = torch.from_numpy(data.reshape((-1, DIM))).to(device)
+    # Keep the fixture independent of other tests that seed NumPy's global RNG.
+    # This seed also keeps every top-20 boundary more than 8e-3 apart.
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(4415)
+    data = rng.rand(N, DIM).astype(np.float32)
+    fsl = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(data.reshape(-1), DIM)
+    torch_data = torch.from_numpy(data).to(device)
 
     tbl = pa.Table.from_arrays([fsl], ["vec"])
 
     ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path)
 
-    idx = np.random.choice(range(N), NUM_QUERIES)
-    keys = data[idx, :]
+    idx = rng.choice(N, NUM_QUERIES)
+    keys = torch_data[idx, :]
 
-    gt = ground_truth(ds, "vec", keys, k=20, batch_size=128, device=device)
+    gt = ground_truth(ds, "vec", keys, k=K, batch_size=128, device=device)
     gt, _ = torch.sort(gt, dim=1)
 
-    actual_dists = pairwise_l2(keys, data)
-    expected, _ = torch.sort(torch.argsort(actual_dists, 1)[:, :20], dim=1)
-
-    assert torch.allclose(expected, gt)
+    # Use direct float64 distances as an oracle, independent of pairwise_l2's
+    # float32 matrix-multiplication reduction order.
+    data64 = data.astype(np.float64)
+    expected = []
+    boundary_gaps = []
+    for query in data64[idx]:
+        distances = np.sum(np.square(data64 - query), axis=1)
+        row_ids = np.argsort(distances, kind="stable")
+        expected.append(np.sort(row_ids[:K]))
+        boundary_gaps.append(distances[row_ids[K]] - distances[row_ids[K - 1]])
+
+    assert min(boundary_gaps) > 8e-3, "fixture is too close to the top-k boundary"
+    np.testing.assert_array_equal(np.stack(expected), gt.cpu().numpy())
diff --git a/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_data.py b/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_data.py
index 890a536cc9e..f997fa04e4f 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_data.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_data.py
@@ -12,7 +12,11 @@
 from lance.sampler import ShardedBatchSampler, ShardedFragmentSampler
 
 torch = pytest.importorskip("torch")
-from lance.torch.data import LanceDataset  # noqa: E402
+from lance.torch.data import (  # noqa: E402
+    LanceDataset,
+    SafeLanceDataset,
+    _bf16_to_tensor,
+)
 
 
 def test_iter_over_dataset_fixed_shape_tensor(tmp_path):
@@ -293,7 +297,7 @@ def test_blob_api(tmp_path: Path):
     tbl = pa.Table.from_arrays([ints, vals], schema=schema)
 
     uri = tmp_path / "data.lance"
-    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, uri)
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(tbl, uri, data_storage_version="2.1")
 
     torch_ds = LanceDataset(
         uri, batch_size=4, dataset_options={"version": dataset.version}
@@ -324,3 +328,121 @@ def to_tensor_fn(batch, *args, **kwargs):
     assert first["int"].shape == (4,)
     assert first["val"].dtype == torch.uint8
     assert first["val"].shape == (4, 100)
+
+
+def test_iter_over_dataset_bfloat16(tmp_path):
+    """Test that bfloat16 vector columns convert to torch.bfloat16 tensors."""
+    ml_dtypes = pytest.importorskip("ml_dtypes")
+    from lance.arrow import BFloat16Array
+
+    dim = 32
+    num_rows = 128
+    # Create random bfloat16 vectors via float32 → bfloat16 cast
+    f32_data = np.random.random(num_rows * dim).astype("f")
+    bf16_data = f32_data.astype(ml_dtypes.bfloat16)
+
+    # Build a FixedSizeList<bf16> column
+    inner = BFloat16Array.from_numpy(bf16_data)
+    fsl = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(inner, dim)
+    ids = pa.array(range(num_rows), type=pa.int32())
+    tbl = pa.Table.from_arrays([ids, fsl], ["ids", "vec"])
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "data.lance", max_rows_per_group=32)
+
+    torch_ds = LanceDataset(ds, batch_size=16, columns=["ids", "vec"])
+
+    total_rows = 0
+    for batch in torch_ds:
+        assert set(batch.keys()) == {"ids", "vec"}
+        assert batch["vec"].dtype == torch.bfloat16
+        assert batch["vec"].shape[1] == dim
+        assert batch["ids"].dtype == torch.int32
+        total_rows += batch["vec"].shape[0]
+    assert total_rows == num_rows
+
+
+def test_scalar_bfloat16_column(tmp_path):
+    """Test that a scalar bfloat16 column converts to torch.bfloat16 tensor."""
+    ml_dtypes = pytest.importorskip("ml_dtypes")
+    from lance.arrow import BFloat16Array
+
+    num_rows = 64
+    f32_data = np.random.random(num_rows).astype("f")
+    bf16_data = f32_data.astype(ml_dtypes.bfloat16)
+
+    arr = BFloat16Array.from_numpy(bf16_data)
+    tbl = pa.Table.from_arrays([arr], ["val"])
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, tmp_path / "data.lance")
+
+    torch_ds = LanceDataset(ds, batch_size=16, columns=["val"])
+
+    total_rows = 0
+    for batch in torch_ds:
+        assert batch.dtype == torch.bfloat16
+        total_rows += batch.shape[0]
+    assert total_rows == num_rows
+
+
+def test_bf16_to_tensor_zero_copy_without_nulls():
+    """Non-null bf16 arrays should alias the Arrow data buffer."""
+    ml_dtypes = pytest.importorskip("ml_dtypes")
+    from lance.arrow import BFloat16Array
+
+    values = np.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], dtype=ml_dtypes.bfloat16)
+    arr = BFloat16Array.from_numpy(values).slice(1, 2)
+
+    tensor = _bf16_to_tensor(arr)
+
+    assert tensor.dtype == torch.bfloat16
+    assert torch.equal(
+        tensor.to(torch.float32),
+        torch.tensor([2.0, 3.0], dtype=torch.float32),
+    )
+    assert (
+        tensor.data_ptr() == arr.storage.buffers()[1].address + arr.storage.offset * 2
+    )
+
+
+def test_bf16_to_tensor_clones_when_nulls_present():
+    """Null replacement requires a writable tensor, so the Arrow buffer is cloned."""
+    arr = lance.arrow.bfloat16_array([1.0, None, 3.0])
+
+    tensor = _bf16_to_tensor(arr)
+
+    assert tensor.dtype == torch.bfloat16
+    assert (
+        tensor.data_ptr() != arr.storage.buffers()[1].address + arr.storage.offset * 2
+    )
+    assert tensor[0].to(torch.float32).item() == pytest.approx(1.0)
+    assert torch.isnan(tensor[1])
+    assert tensor[2].to(torch.float32).item() == pytest.approx(3.0)
+
+
+def test_safe_lance_dataset_worker_uses_dataset_options(tmp_path: Path):
+    """Worker processes must reopen the dataset with dataset_options.
+
+    Regression test for: worker init called lance.dataset(uri) without
+    dataset_options, silently dropping version, storage_options, etc.
+    """
+    tbl_v1 = pa.table({"id": pa.array([1, 2, 3], pa.int64())})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl_v1, tmp_path / "data.lance")
+    version_1 = ds.version
+
+    # Write a second version with different data so we can distinguish them.
+    tbl_v2 = pa.table({"id": pa.array([10, 20, 30], pa.int64())})
+    lance.write_dataset(tbl_v2, tmp_path / "data.lance", mode="overwrite")
+
+    # Pin to version 1 via dataset_options.
+    safe_ds = SafeLanceDataset(
+        str(tmp_path / "data.lance"),
+        dataset_options={"version": version_1},
+    )
+
+    # Simulate worker-process state: _ds is None so __getitems__ must reopen.
+    safe_ds._ds = None
+    rows = safe_ds.__getitems__([0, 1, 2])
+
+    assert [r["id"] for r in rows] == [1, 2, 3], (
+        "Worker reopened dataset without dataset_options (got version 2 data)"
+    )
diff --git a/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_torch_kmeans.py b/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_torch_kmeans.py
index edfb0a0329a..96bbf76c51f 100644
--- a/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_torch_kmeans.py
+++ b/python/python/tests/torch_tests/test_torch_kmeans.py
@@ -10,15 +10,16 @@
 
 torch = pytest.importorskip("torch")
 
-from lance.torch import preferred_device  # noqa: E402
 from lance.torch.kmeans import KMeans  # noqa: E402
 from lance.vector import train_ivf_centroids_on_accelerator  # noqa: E402
 
 
-@pytest.mark.skip(reason="flaky")
 def test_kmeans():
     arr = np.array(range(128)).reshape(-1, 8).astype(np.float32)
-    kmeans = KMeans(4, device="cpu")
+    # These duplicate centroids reproduce the empty clusters that made this test
+    # depend on random initialization before empty-cluster recovery was fixed.
+    centroids = torch.from_numpy(arr[[5, 5, 13, 13]])
+    kmeans = KMeans(4, centroids=centroids, device="cpu")
     kmeans.fit(arr)
 
     cluster_ids = kmeans.transform(arr)
@@ -27,7 +28,6 @@ def test_kmeans():
     assert len(cnts) == 4  # all cluster has data
 
 
-@pytest.mark.skip(reason="TODO: async dataset hangs on github CI")
 def test_torch_kmeans_accept_torch_device(tmp_path: Path):
     values = pa.array(np.array(range(128)).astype(np.float32))
     arr = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(values, 8)
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ def test_torch_kmeans_accept_torch_device(tmp_path: Path):
         "vector",
         2,
         metric_type="L2",
-        accelerator=preferred_device(),
+        accelerator=torch.device("cpu"),
     )
 
 
diff --git a/python/src/arrow.rs b/python/src/arrow.rs
index f5a51de2aaf..97b70f0e61c 100644
--- a/python/src/arrow.rs
+++ b/python/src/arrow.rs
@@ -18,8 +18,8 @@ use arrow::pyarrow::*;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 use half::bf16;
-use lance::arrow::bfloat16::BFloat16Array;
 use lance::arrow::bfloat16::BFLOAT16_EXT_NAME;
+use lance::arrow::bfloat16::BFloat16Array;
 use lance::arrow::{ARROW_EXT_META_KEY, ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY};
 use pyo3::{exceptions::PyValueError, prelude::*, pyclass::CompareOp, types::PyType};
 
@@ -36,10 +36,10 @@ impl BFloat16 {
     #[classmethod]
     fn from_bytes(_cls: &Bound<'_, PyType>, bytes: &[u8]) -> PyResult<Self> {
         if bytes.len() != 2 {
-            PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
                 "BFloat16::from_bytes: expected 2 bytes, got {}",
                 bytes.len()
-            ));
+            )));
         }
         Ok(Self(bf16::from_bits(u16::from_ne_bytes([
             bytes[0], bytes[1],
diff --git a/python/src/bitmap.rs b/python/src/bitmap.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c7b23eccfdc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/src/bitmap.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,425 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::pyarrow::FromPyArrow;
+use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, make_array};
+use arrow_cast::{CastOptions, cast_with_options};
+use arrow_data::ArrayData;
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use pyo3::basic::CompareOp;
+use pyo3::exceptions::{PyKeyError, PyValueError};
+use pyo3::prelude::*;
+use pyo3::types::PyBytes;
+use pyo3::{IntoPyObjectExt, intern};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+/// A lazy, streaming iterator over a `Bitmap`'s values — yields one Python
+/// `int` per `__next__` call rather than materializing them all up front.
+#[pyclass(name = "BitmapIterator", module = "lance.bitmap")]
+pub struct PyBitmapIter(roaring::bitmap::IntoIter);
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyBitmapIter {
+    fn __iter__(slf: PyRef<'_, Self>) -> PyRef<'_, Self> {
+        slf
+    }
+
+    fn __next__(mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>) -> Option<u32> {
+        slf.0.next()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A set of non-negative integers backed by a `RoaringBitmap`.
+///
+/// Cheap to clone (an `Arc` bump) and to pass into Lance APIs that accept a
+/// bitmap, since no per-value Python object is created. Mutating methods
+/// (`add`, `discard`, `update`, ...) copy-on-write: cloning a `Bitmap` and
+/// mutating one copy never affects the other.
+///
+/// Implements the `collections.abc.MutableSet` interface — set algebra,
+/// subset/superset comparisons, and in-place updates — and is registered as
+/// one in `lance.bitmap`, so `isinstance(b, collections.abc.Set)` holds.
+/// `isinstance(b, set)` does not: it is a distinct type, not a `set` subclass.
+///
+/// Anywhere a `Bitmap` accepts another set, it also accepts any iterable of
+/// ints (a `set`, `list`, `range`, generator, ...), which is why `==` against
+/// a plain list is true when the values match. Order and repeats in that
+/// iterable are not significant.
+#[pyclass(name = "Bitmap", module = "lance.bitmap", from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
+pub struct PyBitmap(pub Arc<RoaringBitmap>);
+
+impl PyBitmap {
+    pub fn new(bitmap: RoaringBitmap) -> Self {
+        Self(Arc::new(bitmap))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether a Python value is an integer.
+///
+/// Tested by `__index__` rather than `isinstance(value, int)` so that numpy
+/// and other foreign integer scalars — which pyo3 also accepts — count.
+pub(crate) fn is_int(value: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<bool> {
+    value.hasattr(intern!(value.py(), "__index__"))
+}
+
+/// Convert one Python value to a bitmap value.
+///
+/// `u32::extract` alone raises a bare `OverflowError` that names neither the
+/// limit nor the offending value, so an integer outside the range gets a
+/// message that does. A non-integer keeps pyo3's own `TypeError`.
+pub(crate) fn value_from_py(value: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<u32> {
+    if !is_int(value)? {
+        return value.extract::<u32>();
+    }
+    value.extract::<u32>().map_err(|_| {
+        PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Bitmap values must fit in an unsigned 32-bit integer, got {value}"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+/// Collect any Python iterable of ints into a bitmap.
+pub(crate) fn bitmap_from_iterable(values: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<RoaringBitmap> {
+    values
+        .try_iter()?
+        .map(|item| value_from_py(&item?))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Read an integer pyarrow array's values into a `RoaringBitmap`, without
+/// going through per-value Python objects — the cast reads the array's native
+/// buffer and writes another one.
+fn bitmap_from_pyarrow(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<RoaringBitmap> {
+    let mut data = ArrayData::from_pyarrow_bound(ob)?;
+    if data.null_count() > 0 {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+            "Bitmap cannot be constructed from an array containing nulls",
+        ));
+    }
+    // Buffers that arrive over the Arrow C data interface carry whatever
+    // alignment the producer gave them (e.g. a sliced `pa.py_buffer`), while
+    // `make_array` requires the type's native alignment and panics otherwise.
+    // A panic can't cross the FFI boundary as a Python exception, so copy any
+    // under-aligned buffer into an aligned allocation first.
+    data.align_buffers();
+    let array = make_array(data);
+    if !array.data_type().is_integer() {
+        // Reject before casting, not after: a float array would cast
+        // "successfully" by truncating each value.
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Bitmap can only be constructed from an integer pyarrow array, got {}",
+            array.data_type()
+        )));
+    }
+    // `safe: false` makes a negative or too-large value an error naming that
+    // value, rather than a silent null.
+    let values = cast_with_options(
+        &array,
+        &DataType::UInt32,
+        &CastOptions {
+            safe: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+    )
+    .map_err(|e| {
+        PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Bitmap values must fit in an unsigned 32-bit integer: {e}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok(values
+        .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect())
+}
+
+/// Coerce the right-hand side of a set operation.
+///
+/// A `Bitmap` lends its `Arc` rather than being copied. `None` means "not a
+/// set of ints", which the operators surface as `NotImplemented` so Python can
+/// try the reflected operation before raising.
+fn operand(other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> Option<Arc<RoaringBitmap>> {
+    if let Ok(bitmap) = other.extract::<PyBitmap>() {
+        return Some(bitmap.0);
+    }
+    bitmap_from_iterable(other).ok().map(Arc::new)
+}
+
+/// Coerce the argument of a named set method (`union`, `issubset`, ...), which
+/// raises on a bad argument rather than deferring to Python, as `set` does.
+fn required_operand(other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Arc<RoaringBitmap>> {
+    if let Ok(bitmap) = other.extract::<PyBitmap>() {
+        return Ok(bitmap.0);
+    }
+    bitmap_from_iterable(other).map(Arc::new)
+}
+
+/// Run a set operator, yielding `NotImplemented` for an operand that isn't a
+/// set of ints.
+fn set_op(
+    py: Python<'_>,
+    other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    op: impl FnOnce(&RoaringBitmap) -> RoaringBitmap,
+) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+    match operand(other) {
+        Some(other) => Ok(Py::new(py, PyBitmap::new(op(&other)))?.into_any()),
+        None => Ok(py.NotImplemented()),
+    }
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyBitmap {
+    /// Construct a Bitmap from an iterable of non-negative ints (list, set,
+    /// range, generator, ...) or an integer pyarrow Array/ChunkedArray.
+    #[new]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (values=None))]
+    fn new_py(values: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let Some(values) = values else {
+            return Ok(Self::default());
+        };
+        if let Ok(existing) = values.extract::<Self>() {
+            return Ok(existing);
+        }
+        // A pyarrow `Array` supports the `__arrow_c_array__` Arrow C Data
+        // Interface export directly; a `ChunkedArray` doesn't (it only
+        // supports the streaming `__arrow_c_stream__` form), so detect it by
+        // its `combine_chunks()` method and flatten it to a single `Array`
+        // first.
+        if values.hasattr("combine_chunks")? {
+            let combined = values.call_method0("combine_chunks")?;
+            return Ok(Self::new(bitmap_from_pyarrow(&combined)?));
+        }
+        if values.hasattr("__arrow_c_array__")? {
+            return Ok(Self::new(bitmap_from_pyarrow(values)?));
+        }
+        Ok(Self::new(bitmap_from_iterable(values)?))
+    }
+
+    fn __len__(&self) -> usize {
+        self.0.len() as usize
+    }
+
+    fn __contains__(&self, value: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> bool {
+        // A value that can't be a bitmap element simply isn't in it, matching
+        // `set` — `"a" in {1}` is False, not a TypeError.
+        value.extract::<u32>().is_ok_and(|v| self.0.contains(v))
+    }
+
+    fn __iter__(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<Py<PyBitmapIter>> {
+        // Cloning the bitmap here is a native Rust-side copy of its compressed
+        // containers, not a per-value Python allocation — the point is that
+        // `PyBitmapIter` then streams values lazily instead of eagerly
+        // building a Python list of boxed ints up front.
+        Py::new(py, PyBitmapIter((*self.0).clone().into_iter()))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        const MAX_VALUES_SHOWN: usize = 20;
+        let len = self.0.len();
+        let values: Vec<String> = self
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .take(MAX_VALUES_SHOWN)
+            .map(|v| v.to_string())
+            .collect();
+        if (len as usize) > MAX_VALUES_SHOWN {
+            format!("Bitmap({{{}, ...}}, len={})", values.join(", "), len)
+        } else {
+            format!("Bitmap({{{}}})", values.join(", "))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn __richcmp__(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+        op: CompareOp,
+    ) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        let Some(other) = operand(other) else {
+            // A value that isn't a set of ints (e.g. `5`) is simply unequal,
+            // matching normal Python `==` semantics — it shouldn't raise just
+            // because the type differs. Ordering against it has no meaning, so
+            // defer to Python, which raises if nothing else handles it.
+            return match op {
+                CompareOp::Eq => false.into_py_any(py),
+                CompareOp::Ne => true.into_py_any(py),
+                _ => Ok(py.NotImplemented()),
+            };
+        };
+        match op {
+            CompareOp::Eq => (*self.0 == *other).into_py_any(py),
+            CompareOp::Ne => (*self.0 != *other).into_py_any(py),
+            CompareOp::Le => self.0.is_subset(&other).into_py_any(py),
+            CompareOp::Lt => {
+                (self.0.len() < other.len() && self.0.is_subset(&other)).into_py_any(py)
+            }
+            CompareOp::Ge => self.0.is_superset(&other).into_py_any(py),
+            CompareOp::Gt => {
+                (self.0.len() > other.len() && self.0.is_superset(&other)).into_py_any(py)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn __and__(&self, py: Python<'_>, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        set_op(py, other, |other| &*self.0 & other)
+    }
+
+    fn __rand__(&self, py: Python<'_>, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        set_op(py, other, |other| other & &*self.0)
+    }
+
+    fn __or__(&self, py: Python<'_>, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        set_op(py, other, |other| &*self.0 | other)
+    }
+
+    fn __ror__(&self, py: Python<'_>, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        set_op(py, other, |other| other | &*self.0)
+    }
+
+    fn __sub__(&self, py: Python<'_>, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        set_op(py, other, |other| &*self.0 - other)
+    }
+
+    fn __rsub__(&self, py: Python<'_>, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        set_op(py, other, |other| other - &*self.0)
+    }
+
+    fn __xor__(&self, py: Python<'_>, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        set_op(py, other, |other| &*self.0 ^ other)
+    }
+
+    fn __rxor__(&self, py: Python<'_>, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        set_op(py, other, |other| other ^ &*self.0)
+    }
+
+    /// The values present in both this bitmap and `other`.
+    fn intersection(&self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::new(&*self.0 & &*required_operand(other)?))
+    }
+
+    /// The values present in either this bitmap or `other`.
+    fn union(&self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::new(&*self.0 | &*required_operand(other)?))
+    }
+
+    /// The values present in this bitmap but not in `other`.
+    fn difference(&self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::new(&*self.0 - &*required_operand(other)?))
+    }
+
+    /// The values present in exactly one of this bitmap and `other`.
+    fn symmetric_difference(&self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::new(&*self.0 ^ &*required_operand(other)?))
+    }
+
+    /// Whether every value in this bitmap is also in `other`.
+    fn issubset(&self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<bool> {
+        Ok(self.0.is_subset(&*required_operand(other)?))
+    }
+
+    /// Whether every value in `other` is also in this bitmap.
+    fn issuperset(&self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<bool> {
+        Ok(self.0.is_superset(&*required_operand(other)?))
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this bitmap and `other` share no values.
+    fn isdisjoint(&self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<bool> {
+        Ok(self.0.is_disjoint(&*required_operand(other)?))
+    }
+
+    /// A `Bitmap` with the same values. Mutating either leaves the other
+    /// unchanged, so this shares the underlying buffer until one is written to.
+    fn copy(&self) -> Self {
+        self.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Add a value, cloning the underlying bitmap first if it is shared with
+    /// another `Bitmap`.
+    fn add(&mut self, value: u32) {
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut self.0).insert(value);
+    }
+
+    /// Remove a value if present, cloning the underlying bitmap first if it
+    /// is shared with another `Bitmap`.
+    fn discard(&mut self, value: u32) {
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut self.0).remove(value);
+    }
+
+    /// Remove a value, raising `KeyError` if it isn't present.
+    fn remove(&mut self, value: u32) -> PyResult<()> {
+        if Arc::make_mut(&mut self.0).remove(value) {
+            Ok(())
+        } else {
+            Err(PyKeyError::new_err(value))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Remove and return the smallest value, raising `KeyError` if empty.
+    fn pop(&mut self) -> PyResult<u32> {
+        let bitmap = Arc::make_mut(&mut self.0);
+        let value = bitmap
+            .min()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyKeyError::new_err("pop from an empty Bitmap"))?;
+        bitmap.remove(value);
+        Ok(value)
+    }
+
+    /// Remove every value.
+    fn clear(&mut self) {
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut self.0).clear();
+    }
+
+    /// Add all values from an iterable, cloning the underlying bitmap first
+    /// if it is shared with another `Bitmap`.
+    fn update(&mut self, values: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let other = required_operand(values)?;
+        *Arc::make_mut(&mut self.0) |= &*other;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn __ior__(&mut self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        self.update(other)
+    }
+
+    fn __iand__(&mut self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let other = required_operand(other)?;
+        *Arc::make_mut(&mut self.0) &= &*other;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn __isub__(&mut self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let other = required_operand(other)?;
+        *Arc::make_mut(&mut self.0) -= &*other;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn __ixor__(&mut self, other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let other = required_operand(other)?;
+        *Arc::make_mut(&mut self.0) ^= &*other;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn __reduce__(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<(Py<PyAny>, (Py<PyAny>,))> {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        self.0
+            .serialize_into(&mut buf)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Failed to serialize Bitmap: {e}")))?;
+        let ctor = py
+            .import("lance.bitmap")?
+            .getattr("Bitmap")?
+            .getattr("_from_bytes")?;
+        let bytes = PyBytes::new(py, &buf);
+        Ok((ctor.unbind(), (bytes.into(),)))
+    }
+
+    #[staticmethod]
+    fn _from_bytes(data: &[u8]) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let bitmap = RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(data)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Failed to deserialize Bitmap: {e}")))?;
+        Ok(Self::new(bitmap))
+    }
+}
diff --git a/python/src/blob.rs b/python/src/blob.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cb5fd84323c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/src/blob.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,490 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use crate::{error::PythonErrorExt, rt};
+use arrow::{
+    array::{Array, ArrayRef, make_array},
+    pyarrow::{FromPyArrow, ToPyArrow},
+};
+use arrow_data::ArrayData;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance::{
+    BlobDescriptor, BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder, BlobRange, DedicatedBlobWriter, PackedBlobWriter,
+};
+use lance_arrow::iter_binary_array;
+use pyo3::{
+    Bound, PyErr, PyResult,
+    exceptions::{PyRuntimeError, PyValueError},
+    pyclass, pymethods,
+    types::{PyAny, PyAnyMethods, PyDict, PyList, PyListMethods, PyModule, PyTypeMethods},
+};
+use std::{
+    borrow::Cow,
+    sync::{Arc, Mutex},
+};
+
+fn with_writer<W, R>(
+    inner: &Mutex<Option<W>>,
+    writer_name: &str,
+    operation: impl FnOnce(&W) -> R,
+) -> PyResult<R> {
+    let guard = inner.lock().map_err(|_| poisoned_writer(writer_name))?;
+    let writer = guard.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| finished_writer(writer_name))?;
+    Ok(operation(writer))
+}
+
+fn writer_mut<'a, W>(inner: &'a mut Mutex<Option<W>>, writer_name: &str) -> PyResult<&'a mut W> {
+    inner
+        .get_mut()
+        .map_err(|_| poisoned_writer(writer_name))?
+        .as_mut()
+        .ok_or_else(|| finished_writer(writer_name))
+}
+
+fn take_writer<W>(inner: &mut Mutex<Option<W>>, writer_name: &str) -> PyResult<W> {
+    inner
+        .get_mut()
+        .map_err(|_| poisoned_writer(writer_name))?
+        .take()
+        .ok_or_else(|| finished_writer(writer_name))
+}
+
+fn finished_writer(writer_name: &str) -> PyErr {
+    PyValueError::new_err(format!("{writer_name} is already finished"))
+}
+
+fn poisoned_writer(writer_name: &str) -> PyErr {
+    PyRuntimeError::new_err(format!("{writer_name} lock is poisoned"))
+}
+
+/// Reconstruct the PyArrow equivalent of [`BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::field`].
+///
+/// Arrow's array bridge does not carry the enclosing extension field, so this
+/// rebuilds the canonical six nullable blob-v2 children and
+/// `ARROW:extension:name = lance.blob.v2` metadata.
+fn descriptor_field_to_pyarrow<'py>(
+    field: &Field,
+    py: pyo3::Python<'py>,
+) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+    let pyarrow = PyModule::import(py, "pyarrow")?;
+    let child_fields = PyList::empty(py);
+    for (name, type_fn) in [
+        ("kind", "uint8"),
+        ("data", "large_binary"),
+        ("uri", "utf8"),
+        ("blob_id", "uint32"),
+        ("blob_size", "uint64"),
+        ("position", "uint64"),
+    ] {
+        let data_type = pyarrow.getattr(type_fn)?.call0()?;
+        let child = pyarrow.call_method1("field", (name, data_type, true))?;
+        child_fields.append(child)?;
+    }
+    let data_type = pyarrow.call_method1("struct", (child_fields,))?;
+    let metadata = PyDict::new(py);
+    metadata.set_item("ARROW:extension:name", "lance.blob.v2")?;
+    let kwargs = PyDict::new(py);
+    kwargs.set_item("nullable", field.is_nullable())?;
+    kwargs.set_item("metadata", metadata)?;
+    pyarrow.call_method("field", (field.name().as_str(), data_type), Some(&kwargs))
+}
+
+/// Normalize inputs accepted by [`PyPackedBlobWriter::write_blobs`] into Arrow arrays.
+///
+/// BinaryArray, LargeBinaryArray, BinaryViewArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, and
+/// ChunkedArray values of any binary type are accepted. Chunk boundaries,
+/// nulls, and empty values remain in the arrays; each row is later passed to
+/// the core writer as an optional byte slice.
+fn extract_blob_payloads(payloads: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Vec<ArrayRef>> {
+    match ArrayData::from_pyarrow_bound(payloads) {
+        Ok(data) => Ok(vec![validated_blob_payload(data, None)?]),
+        Err(_) => {
+            let pyarrow = PyModule::import(payloads.py(), "pyarrow")?;
+            let chunked_array_type = pyarrow.getattr("ChunkedArray")?;
+            if !payloads.is_instance(&chunked_array_type)? {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                    "payloads must be a pyarrow BinaryArray, LargeBinaryArray, or ChunkedArray, got {}",
+                    payloads.get_type().name()?
+                )));
+            }
+
+            let chunked_data_type = DataType::from_pyarrow_bound(&payloads.getattr("type")?)?;
+            if !chunked_data_type.is_binary() {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                    "Packed blob payloads must have a Binary Arrow type, got {chunked_data_type}"
+                )));
+            }
+
+            let chunks = payloads.getattr("chunks")?;
+            let mut arrays = Vec::with_capacity(chunks.len()?);
+            for (chunk_index, chunk) in chunks.try_iter()?.enumerate() {
+                let data = ArrayData::from_pyarrow_bound(&chunk?)?;
+                arrays.push(validated_blob_payload(data, Some(chunk_index))?);
+            }
+            Ok(arrays)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn validated_blob_payload(data: ArrayData, chunk_index: Option<usize>) -> PyResult<ArrayRef> {
+    let context = chunk_index
+        .map(|index| format!("Packed blob payload chunk {index}"))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| "Packed blob payload array".to_string());
+    if !data.data_type().is_binary() {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "{context} must have a Binary Arrow type, got {}",
+            data.data_type()
+        )));
+    }
+    if data.is_empty() {
+        // PyArrow may export an empty slice without the values preceding its
+        // nonzero first offset. Normalize it because an empty array never
+        // observes those buffers, and Arrow validation would reject the slice.
+        return Ok(make_array(ArrayData::new_empty(data.data_type())));
+    }
+    data.validate_full().map_err(|error| {
+        PyValueError::new_err(format!("{context} contains invalid Arrow data: {error}"))
+    })?;
+    Ok(make_array(data))
+}
+
+async fn write_binary_payloads(writer: &mut PackedBlobWriter, payloads: &ArrayRef) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let iter = iter_binary_array(payloads.as_ref()).map_err(|error| {
+        PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Packed blob payloads must have a Binary Arrow type, got {}: {error}",
+            payloads.data_type()
+        ))
+    })?;
+    writer.write_packed_blobs(iter).await.infer_error()
+}
+
+#[pyclass(name = "BlobDescriptor", skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct PyBlobDescriptor {
+    inner: BlobDescriptor,
+}
+
+impl From<BlobDescriptor> for PyBlobDescriptor {
+    fn from(inner: BlobDescriptor) -> Self {
+        Self { inner }
+    }
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyBlobDescriptor {
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!("{:?}", self.inner)
+    }
+}
+
+#[pyclass(name = "BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder", skip_from_py_object)]
+pub struct PyBlobDescriptorArrayBuilder {
+    field: arrow_schema::Field,
+    inner: Option<BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder>,
+}
+
+impl PyBlobDescriptorArrayBuilder {
+    fn inner_mut(&mut self) -> PyResult<&mut BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder> {
+        self.inner
+            .as_mut()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyValueError::new_err("BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder is already finished"))
+    }
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyBlobDescriptorArrayBuilder {
+    #[new]
+    pub fn new(column: String) -> Self {
+        let inner = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new(column);
+        Self {
+            field: inner.field().clone(),
+            inner: Some(inner),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn field<'py>(&self, py: pyo3::Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        descriptor_field_to_pyarrow(&self.field, py)
+    }
+
+    pub fn extend_packed(
+        &mut self,
+        blob_id: u32,
+        offsets: Vec<u64>,
+        sizes: Vec<u64>,
+    ) -> PyResult<()> {
+        if offsets.len() != sizes.len() {
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                "offsets and sizes must have the same length, got {} and {}",
+                offsets.len(),
+                sizes.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let ranges = offsets
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(sizes)
+            .map(|(offset, size)| BlobRange { offset, size })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        self.inner_mut()?
+            .extend_packed(blob_id, ranges)
+            .infer_error()
+    }
+
+    pub fn append_dedicated(&mut self, blob_id: u32, size: u64) -> PyResult<()> {
+        self.inner_mut()?
+            .push_dedicated(blob_id, size)
+            .infer_error()
+    }
+
+    pub fn append(&mut self, value: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let value = value.extract::<pyo3::PyRef<'_, PyBlobDescriptor>>()?;
+        self.inner_mut()?.push(value.inner.clone()).infer_error()
+    }
+
+    pub fn extend(&mut self, values: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let iter = values.try_iter()?;
+        for value in iter {
+            let value = value?.extract::<pyo3::PyRef<'_, PyBlobDescriptor>>()?;
+            self.inner_mut()?.push(value.inner.clone()).infer_error()?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn append_inline(&mut self, data: Vec<u8>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        self.inner_mut()?
+            .push_inline(Bytes::from(data))
+            .infer_error()
+    }
+
+    pub fn append_null(&mut self) -> PyResult<()> {
+        self.inner_mut()?.push_null().infer_error()
+    }
+
+    pub fn finish<'py>(&mut self, py: pyo3::Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let inner = self.inner.take().ok_or_else(|| {
+            PyValueError::new_err("BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder is already finished")
+        })?;
+        let column = inner.finish().infer_error()?;
+        column.array().to_data().to_pyarrow(py)
+    }
+}
+
+#[pyclass(name = "PackedBlobWriter", skip_from_py_object)]
+pub struct PyPackedBlobWriter {
+    field: Option<Field>,
+    inner: Mutex<Option<PackedBlobWriter>>,
+}
+
+impl PyPackedBlobWriter {
+    pub(crate) async fn try_new(
+        object_store: Arc<lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore>,
+        data_file_path: object_store::path::Path,
+        blob_id: u32,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let inner =
+            PackedBlobWriter::try_new(object_store.as_ref().clone(), data_file_path, blob_id)
+                .await
+                .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            field: None,
+            inner: Mutex::new(Some(inner)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn with_inner<R>(&self, operation: impl FnOnce(&PackedBlobWriter) -> R) -> PyResult<R> {
+        with_writer(&self.inner, "PackedBlobWriter", operation)
+    }
+
+    fn inner_mut(&mut self) -> PyResult<&mut PackedBlobWriter> {
+        writer_mut(&mut self.inner, "PackedBlobWriter")
+    }
+
+    fn take_inner(&mut self) -> PyResult<PackedBlobWriter> {
+        take_writer(&mut self.inner, "PackedBlobWriter")
+    }
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyPackedBlobWriter {
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn blob_id(&self) -> PyResult<u32> {
+        self.with_inner(PackedBlobWriter::blob_id)
+    }
+
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn path(&self) -> PyResult<String> {
+        self.with_inner(|writer| writer.path().to_string())
+    }
+
+    /// The descriptor field associated with the array returned by
+    /// :meth:`finish_array`.
+    ///
+    /// The field uses the name passed to ``finish_array`` and carries the
+    /// ``lance.blob.v2`` extension metadata. It is available only after
+    /// ``finish_array`` succeeds; accessing it earlier raises ``ValueError``.
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn field<'py>(&self, py: pyo3::Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let field = self.field.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            PyValueError::new_err("PackedBlobWriter field is available after finish_array")
+        })?;
+        descriptor_field_to_pyarrow(field, py)
+    }
+
+    /// Append one packed blob.
+    ///
+    /// Python ``bytes`` are borrowed without copying. Other compatible byte
+    /// sequences use owned storage for the duration of the write.
+    pub fn write_blob(&mut self, data: Cow<'_, [u8]>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        rt().block_on(None, self.inner_mut()?.write_blob(data.as_ref()))?
+            .infer_error()
+    }
+
+    /// Append a batch of packed blob payloads.
+    ///
+    /// Parameters
+    /// ----------
+    /// payloads : pyarrow.BinaryArray, pyarrow.LargeBinaryArray,
+    ///     pyarrow.BinaryViewArray, pyarrow.FixedSizeBinaryArray, or
+    ///     pyarrow.ChunkedArray
+    ///     A binary Arrow array. Every chunk of a chunked array must be binary.
+    ///     Each input row produces one descriptor row, in order, across chunks
+    ///     and repeated calls. Null rows produce null descriptors; empty but
+    ///     non-null byte strings produce valid zero-length blobs.
+    ///
+    /// Examples
+    /// --------
+    /// >>> import pyarrow as pa
+    /// >>> payloads = pa.array([b"first", None, b""], type=pa.large_binary())
+    /// >>> writer.write_blobs(payloads)
+    /// >>> descriptors = writer.finish_array("blob")
+    /// >>> len(descriptors)
+    /// 3
+    pub fn write_blobs(&mut self, payloads: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let payloads = extract_blob_payloads(payloads)?;
+        let result = {
+            let writer = self.inner_mut()?;
+            rt().block_on(None, async {
+                for payloads in payloads {
+                    write_binary_payloads(writer, &payloads).await?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            })
+        };
+        match result {
+            Ok(result) => result,
+            Err(error) => {
+                // KeyboardInterrupt drops the async batch future. Remove the core
+                // writer as well so RAII cleanup runs and a completed prefix cannot
+                // be reused as a new batch.
+                self.take_inner()?;
+                Err(error)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn finish(&mut self) -> PyResult<Vec<PyBlobDescriptor>> {
+        let inner = self.take_inner()?;
+        let values = rt().block_on(None, inner.finish())?.infer_error()?;
+        Ok(values.into_iter().map(Into::into).collect())
+    }
+
+    /// Finish the upload and return its blob descriptors as a PyArrow array.
+    ///
+    /// The returned ``pyarrow.StructArray`` has one row per payload previously
+    /// passed to :meth:`write_blob` or :meth:`write_blobs`. The writer is consumed
+    /// by this call. After it succeeds, :attr:`field` returns the matching
+    /// extension field with ``field_name`` as its name.
+    ///
+    /// Parameters
+    /// ----------
+    /// field_name : str
+    ///     Name for the descriptor field exposed by :attr:`field`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns
+    /// -------
+    /// pyarrow.StructArray
+    ///     Row-aligned blob descriptors, including null rows from bulk input.
+    ///
+    /// Examples
+    /// --------
+    /// >>> import pyarrow as pa
+    /// >>> writer.write_blobs(pa.array([b"value", None]))
+    /// >>> descriptors = writer.finish_array("payload")
+    /// >>> descriptors.is_null().to_pylist()
+    /// [False, True]
+    /// >>> writer.field.name
+    /// 'payload'
+    pub fn finish_array<'py>(
+        &mut self,
+        py: pyo3::Python<'py>,
+        field_name: String,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let inner = self.take_inner()?;
+        let values = rt().block_on(None, inner.finish())?.infer_error()?;
+        let mut builder = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new(field_name);
+        builder.extend(values).infer_error()?;
+        let column = builder.finish().infer_error()?;
+        let (field, array) = column.into_parts();
+        let array = array.to_data().to_pyarrow(py)?;
+        self.field = Some(field);
+        Ok(array)
+    }
+}
+
+#[pyclass(name = "DedicatedBlobWriter", skip_from_py_object)]
+pub struct PyDedicatedBlobWriter {
+    inner: Mutex<Option<DedicatedBlobWriter>>,
+}
+
+impl PyDedicatedBlobWriter {
+    pub(crate) async fn try_new(
+        object_store: Arc<lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore>,
+        data_file_path: object_store::path::Path,
+        blob_id: u32,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let inner =
+            DedicatedBlobWriter::try_new(object_store.as_ref().clone(), data_file_path, blob_id)
+                .await
+                .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: Mutex::new(Some(inner)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn with_inner<R>(&self, operation: impl FnOnce(&DedicatedBlobWriter) -> R) -> PyResult<R> {
+        with_writer(&self.inner, "DedicatedBlobWriter", operation)
+    }
+
+    fn inner_mut(&mut self) -> PyResult<&mut DedicatedBlobWriter> {
+        writer_mut(&mut self.inner, "DedicatedBlobWriter")
+    }
+
+    fn take_inner(&mut self) -> PyResult<DedicatedBlobWriter> {
+        take_writer(&mut self.inner, "DedicatedBlobWriter")
+    }
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyDedicatedBlobWriter {
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn blob_id(&self) -> PyResult<u32> {
+        self.with_inner(DedicatedBlobWriter::blob_id)
+    }
+
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn path(&self) -> PyResult<String> {
+        self.with_inner(|writer| writer.path().to_string())
+    }
+
+    pub fn write(&mut self, data: Vec<u8>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        rt().block_on(None, self.inner_mut()?.write(data))?
+            .infer_error()
+    }
+
+    pub fn finish(&mut self) -> PyResult<PyBlobDescriptor> {
+        let inner = self.take_inner()?;
+        let value = rt().block_on(None, inner.finish())?.infer_error()?;
+        Ok(value.into())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/python/src/datagen.rs b/python/src/datagen.rs
index b0a3c4e1b44..194ba3d6a73 100644
--- a/python/src/datagen.rs
+++ b/python/src/datagen.rs
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
 use arrow::pyarrow::PyArrowType;
-use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader};
 use arrow_schema::Schema;
-use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount};
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
 use pyo3::{
-    pyfunction,
+    Bound, PyResult, Python, pyfunction,
     types::{PyModule, PyModuleMethods},
-    wrap_pyfunction, Bound, PyResult, Python,
+    wrap_pyfunction,
 };
 
 const DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE_BYTES: u64 = 32 * 1024;
@@ -16,22 +16,44 @@ pub fn is_datagen_supported() -> bool {
     true
 }
 
+/// Generate `batch_count` batches of random data for `schema`.
+///
+/// Batch size is set either by `rows_in_batch` (exact rows per batch) or
+/// `bytes_in_batch` (approximate bytes per batch); the two are mutually
+/// exclusive. When neither is given the byte-based default is used.
 #[pyfunction]
-#[pyo3(signature=(schema, batch_count=None, bytes_in_batch=None))]
+#[pyo3(signature=(schema, batch_count=None, bytes_in_batch=None, rows_in_batch=None))]
 pub fn rand_batches(
     schema: PyArrowType<Schema>,
     batch_count: Option<u32>,
     bytes_in_batch: Option<u64>,
+    rows_in_batch: Option<u64>,
 ) -> PyResult<Vec<PyArrowType<RecordBatch>>> {
-    lance_datagen::rand(&schema.0)
-        .into_reader_bytes(
-            ByteCount::from(bytes_in_batch.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE_BYTES)),
-            BatchCount::from(batch_count.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_BATCH_COUNT)),
-            lance_datagen::RoundingBehavior::RoundUp,
-        )
-        .map_err(|e| {
-            pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("Failed to generate batches: {}", e))
-        })?
+    if rows_in_batch.is_some() && bytes_in_batch.is_some() {
+        return Err(pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(
+            "rows_in_batch and bytes_in_batch are mutually exclusive",
+        ));
+    }
+    let builder = lance_datagen::rand(&schema.0);
+    let batch_count = BatchCount::from(batch_count.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_BATCH_COUNT));
+    let reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader> = match rows_in_batch {
+        Some(rows) => Box::new(builder.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(rows), batch_count)),
+        None => Box::new(
+            builder
+                .into_reader_bytes(
+                    ByteCount::from(bytes_in_batch.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE_BYTES)),
+                    batch_count,
+                    lance_datagen::RoundingBehavior::RoundUp,
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                        "Failed to generate batches: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))
+                })?,
+        ),
+    };
+    reader
         .map(|item| {
             item.map(PyArrowType::from).map_err(|e| {
                 pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("Failed to generate batch: {}", e))
diff --git a/python/src/dataset.rs b/python/src/dataset.rs
index b4b4d8af050..a119f184791 100644
--- a/python/src/dataset.rs
+++ b/python/src/dataset.rs
@@ -3,99 +3,117 @@
 
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::str;
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::mpsc::{self, Receiver, SyncSender, TrySendError};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 
-use arrow::array::AsArray;
-use arrow::datatypes::UInt8Type;
 use arrow::ffi_stream::ArrowArrayStreamReader;
 use arrow::pyarrow::*;
 use arrow_array::Array;
-use arrow_array::{make_array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader};
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader, make_array};
+use arrow_cast::cast_with_options;
 use arrow_data::ArrayData;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use blob::LanceBlobFile;
 use chrono::{Duration, TimeDelta, Utc};
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryFutureExt};
+use lance_index::scalar::minhash_lsh::MinHashQuery;
 use lance_index::vector::bq::RQBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::RabitQuantizationMetadata;
 use log::error;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use pyo3::exceptions::{PyStopIteration, PyTypeError};
-use pyo3::types::{PyBytes, PyInt, PyList, PySet, PyString, PyTuple};
+use pyo3::types::{PyBytes, PyInt, PyList, PyString, PyTuple};
+use pyo3::{IntoPyObjectExt, prelude::*};
 use pyo3::{
+    PyResult,
     exceptions::{PyIOError, PyKeyError, PyValueError},
     intern,
     pybacked::PyBackedStr,
     pyclass,
     types::{IntoPyDict, PyDict},
-    PyResult,
 };
-use pyo3::{prelude::*, IntoPyObjectExt};
-use snafu::location;
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
-use lance::dataset::cleanup::CleanupPolicyBuilder;
+use lance::dataset::AutoCleanupParams;
+use lance::dataset::cleanup::{CleanupFileKind, CleanupPolicyBuilder};
 use lance::dataset::refs::{Ref, TagContents};
 use lance::dataset::scanner::{
-    ColumnOrdering, DatasetRecordBatchStream, ExecutionStatsCallback, MaterializationStyle,
+    AggregateExpr, ColumnOrdering, DatasetRecordBatchStream, ExecutionStatsCallback, ExprFilter,
+    MaterializationStyle, QueryFilter, RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap,
 };
 use lance::dataset::statistics::{DataStatistics, DatasetStatisticsExt};
-use lance::dataset::AutoCleanupParams;
 use lance::dataset::{
+    BatchInfo, BatchUDF, CommitBuilder, MergeStats, NewColumnTransform, UDFCheckpointStore,
+    WriteDestination,
+};
+use lance::dataset::{ColumnAlteration, ProjectionRequest, validate_dataset_root_for_drop};
+use lance::dataset::{
+    Dataset as LanceDataset, DeleteBuilder, ExternalBlobMode,
+    MergeInsertBuilder as LanceMergeInsertBuilder, MergeInsertWriteMode, ReadParams,
+    UncommittedMergeInsert, UpdateBuilder, Version, VersionRef, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched,
+    WhenNotMatchedBySource, WriteMode, WriteParams,
     fragment::FileFragment as LanceFileFragment,
     progress::WriteFragmentProgress,
     scanner::Scanner as LanceScanner,
     transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
-    Dataset as LanceDataset, DeleteBuilder, MergeInsertBuilder as LanceMergeInsertBuilder,
-    ReadParams, UncommittedMergeInsert, UpdateBuilder, Version, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched,
-    WhenNotMatchedBySource, WriteMode, WriteParams,
-};
-use lance::dataset::{
-    BatchInfo, BatchUDF, CommitBuilder, MergeStats, NewColumnTransform, UDFCheckpointStore,
-    WriteDestination,
 };
-use lance::dataset::{ColumnAlteration, ProjectionRequest};
 use lance::index::vector::utils::get_vector_type;
-use lance::index::{vector::VectorIndexParams, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+use lance::index::{
+    DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt, IndexSegment, IntoIndexSegment,
+    vector::VectorIndexParams,
+};
 use lance::{dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder, index::vector::IndexFileVersion};
 use lance_arrow::as_fixed_size_list_array;
-use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
 use lance_core::Error;
+use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
 use lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream;
 use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderConfig;
 use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
+use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::Occur;
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
-    BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, FtsQuery, MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Operator, PhraseQuery,
-};
-use lance_index::{
-    infer_system_index_type, metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector, scalar::inverted::query::Occur,
+    BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, CombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery, MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Operator,
+    PhraseQuery,
 };
 use lance_index::{
+    FtsPrewarmOptions, IndexParams, IndexType, PrewarmOptions,
     optimize::OptimizeOptions,
+    progress::{IndexBuildProgress, NoopIndexBuildProgress},
+    scalar::inverted::{DocumentGranularity, InvertedListFormatVersion},
     scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams},
     vector::{
+        ApproxMode, DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM, Query as VectorQuery,
         hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams, ivf::IvfBuildParams, pq::PQBuildParams,
         sq::builder::SQBuildParams,
     },
-    DatasetIndexExt, IndexParams, IndexType,
 };
-use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+use lance_io::object_store::{
+    LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptionsAccessor,
+};
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 use lance_table::format::{BasePath, Fragment, IndexMetadata};
 use lance_table::io::commit::CommitHandler;
+use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestCommitHandler;
 
 use crate::error::PythonErrorExt;
 use crate::file::object_store_from_uri_or_path;
 use crate::fragment::FileFragment;
-use crate::indices::{PyIndexConfig, PyIndexDescription};
+use crate::fts::FtsTokenizerOptions;
+use crate::indices::{PyIndexConfig, PyIndexDescription, PyIndexSegment};
+use crate::namespace::extract_namespace_arc;
 use crate::rt;
 use crate::scanner::ScanStatistics;
-use crate::schema::{logical_schema_from_lance, LanceSchema};
+use crate::schema::{LanceSchema, logical_schema_from_lance};
 use crate::session::Session;
 use crate::storage_options::PyStorageOptionsAccessor;
 use crate::utils::PyLance;
 use crate::{LanceReader, Scanner};
+use lance::io::commit::namespace_manifest::LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore;
 
-use self::cleanup::CleanupStats;
+use self::cleanup::{
+    CleanupCandidateFile, CleanupExplanation, CleanupReferencedBranch, CleanupStats,
+};
 use self::commit::PyCommitLock;
 use self::io_stats::IoStats;
 
@@ -108,6 +126,172 @@ pub mod stats;
 
 const DEFAULT_NPROBES: usize = 1;
 const LANCE_COMMIT_MESSAGE_KEY: &str = "__lance_commit_message";
+const INDEX_PROGRESS_QUEUE_SIZE: usize = 1024;
+
+type PyBlobBytes = Option<Py<PyBytes>>;
+type PyReadBlob = (u64, PyBlobBytes);
+type PyReadBlobRange = (usize, u64, PyBlobBytes);
+
+fn read_blobs_to_python(py: Python<'_>, blobs: Vec<lance::dataset::ReadBlob>) -> Vec<PyReadBlob> {
+    blobs
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|blob| {
+            (
+                blob.row_address,
+                blob.data.map(|data| PyBytes::new(py, &data).unbind()),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn read_blob_ranges_to_python(
+    py: Python<'_>,
+    ranges: Vec<lance::dataset::ReadBlobRange>,
+) -> Vec<PyReadBlobRange> {
+    ranges
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|range| {
+            (
+                range.request_index,
+                range.row_address,
+                range.data.map(|data| PyBytes::new(py, &data).unbind()),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn blob_range_requests_from_tuples(
+    requests: Vec<(u64, u64, u64)>,
+) -> Vec<lance::dataset::BlobRangeRequest> {
+    requests
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|(row, offset, length)| lance::dataset::BlobRangeRequest::new(row, offset, length))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn configure_read_blobs_builder(
+    mut builder: lance::dataset::ReadBlobsBuilder,
+    io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
+    preserve_order: Option<bool>,
+) -> lance::dataset::ReadBlobsBuilder {
+    if let Some(bytes) = io_buffer_size {
+        builder = builder.with_io_buffer_size_bytes(bytes);
+    }
+    if let Some(preserve) = preserve_order {
+        builder = builder.preserve_order(preserve);
+    }
+    builder
+}
+
+fn configure_read_blob_ranges_builder(
+    mut builder: lance::dataset::ReadBlobRangesBuilder,
+    io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
+    preserve_order: Option<bool>,
+) -> lance::dataset::ReadBlobRangesBuilder {
+    if let Some(bytes) = io_buffer_size {
+        builder = builder.with_io_buffer_size_bytes(bytes);
+    }
+    if let Some(preserve) = preserve_order {
+        builder = builder.preserve_order(preserve);
+    }
+    builder
+}
+
+fn stats_log_interval_from_millis(ms: u64) -> Option<std::time::Duration> {
+    if ms == 0 {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(std::time::Duration::from_millis(ms))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build a `ShardWriterConfig` from optional MemWAL writer keyword arguments.
+///
+/// Returns `None` when no keyword argument is supplied, so callers can tell
+/// "use the defaults" apart from an explicit configuration.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn writer_config_from_kwargs(
+    durable_write: Option<bool>,
+    max_wal_buffer_size: Option<usize>,
+    max_wal_flush_interval_ms: Option<u64>,
+    max_memtable_size: Option<usize>,
+    max_memtable_rows: Option<usize>,
+    max_memtable_batches: Option<usize>,
+    max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: Option<usize>,
+    manifest_scan_batch_size: Option<usize>,
+    backpressure_log_interval_ms: Option<u64>,
+    stats_log_interval_ms: Option<u64>,
+    hnsw_params: Option<HashMap<String, HashMap<String, u32>>>,
+) -> PyResult<Option<lance::dataset::mem_wal::ShardWriterConfig>> {
+    use std::time::Duration;
+
+    let mut config = lance::dataset::mem_wal::ShardWriterConfig::default();
+    let mut any = false;
+    if let Some(v) = durable_write {
+        config = config.with_durable_write(v);
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = max_wal_buffer_size {
+        config = config.with_max_wal_buffer_size(v);
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = max_wal_flush_interval_ms {
+        config = config.with_max_wal_flush_interval(Duration::from_millis(v));
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = max_memtable_size {
+        config = config.with_max_memtable_size(v);
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = max_memtable_rows {
+        config = config.with_max_memtable_rows(v);
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = max_memtable_batches {
+        config = config.with_max_memtable_batches(v);
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = max_unflushed_memtable_bytes {
+        config = config.with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(v);
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = manifest_scan_batch_size {
+        config = config.with_manifest_scan_batch_size(v);
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = backpressure_log_interval_ms {
+        config = config.with_backpressure_log_interval(Duration::from_millis(v));
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(v) = stats_log_interval_ms {
+        config = config.with_stats_log_interval(stats_log_interval_from_millis(v));
+        any = true;
+    }
+    if let Some(overrides) = hnsw_params {
+        // {index_name: {param: value}} -> HnswBuildParams, rejecting unknown
+        // keys so typos surface instead of being silently ignored.
+        for (index_name, params) in overrides {
+            let mut build = HnswBuildParams::default();
+            for (key, value) in params {
+                match key.as_str() {
+                    "num_edges" => build = build.num_edges(value as usize),
+                    "ef_construction" => build = build.ef_construction(value as usize),
+                    "max_level" => build = build.max_level(value as u16),
+                    other => {
+                        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                            "unknown HNSW build param '{}' for index '{}'; \
+                             expected one of 'num_edges', 'ef_construction', 'max_level'",
+                            other, index_name
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            config = config.with_hnsw_params(index_name, build);
+            any = true;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(any.then_some(config))
+}
 
 fn convert_reader(reader: &Bound<PyAny>) -> PyResult<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>> {
     let py = reader.py();
@@ -145,7 +329,7 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
         // schema's unenforced primary key (if configured).
         let on = if let Some(on_any) = on {
             on_any
-                .downcast::<PyString>()
+                .cast::<PyString>()
                 .map(|val| vec![val.to_string()])
                 .or_else(|_| {
                     let iterator = on_any.try_iter().map_err(|_| {
@@ -155,7 +339,7 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
                     })?;
                     let mut keys = Vec::new();
                     for key in iterator {
-                        keys.push(key?.downcast::<PyString>()?.to_string());
+                        keys.push(key?.cast::<PyString>()?.to_string());
                     }
                     PyResult::Ok(keys)
                 })?
@@ -240,11 +424,53 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
         Ok(slf)
     }
 
+    pub fn data_storage_version<'a>(
+        mut slf: PyRefMut<'a, Self>,
+        version: &str,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'a, Self>> {
+        slf.builder
+            .data_storage_version(version.parse().infer_error()?);
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+
     pub fn use_index(mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>, use_index: bool) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'_, Self>> {
         slf.builder.use_index(use_index);
         Ok(slf)
     }
 
+    pub fn write_mode<'a>(mut slf: PyRefMut<'a, Self>, mode: &str) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'a, Self>> {
+        let mode = match mode {
+            "auto" => MergeInsertWriteMode::Auto,
+            "rewrite_rows" => MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteRows,
+            "rewrite_columns" => MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns,
+            other => {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                    "Invalid write_mode: {other}. Expected one of \
+                     'auto', 'rewrite_rows', 'rewrite_columns'"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        slf.builder.write_mode(mode);
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+
+    pub fn target_bases(
+        mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>,
+        bases: Vec<String>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'_, Self>> {
+        slf.builder.target_base_names_or_paths(bases);
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+
+    #[pyo3(signature = (include_primary = true))]
+    pub fn target_all_bases(
+        mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>,
+        include_primary: bool,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'_, Self>> {
+        slf.builder.target_all_bases(include_primary);
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+
     pub fn execute(&mut self, new_data: &Bound<PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
         let py = new_data.py();
         let new_data = convert_reader(new_data)?;
@@ -288,6 +514,60 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
         Ok((PyLance(transaction), stats))
     }
 
+    /// Execute the merge insert from fully-materialized data.
+    ///
+    /// The data is read into memory and wrapped in an in-memory table, so retries
+    /// never spill to disk and the source's statistics drive the join. Callers
+    /// should only route in-memory inputs (e.g. a `pa.Table`) here.
+    pub fn execute_batches(&mut self, new_data: &Bound<PyAny>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        let py = new_data.py();
+        let reader = convert_reader(new_data)?;
+        let batches = reader
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<RecordBatch>, _>>()
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        let job = self
+            .builder
+            .try_build()
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        let (new_dataset, stats) = rt()
+            .spawn(Some(py), job.execute_batches(batches))?
+            .map_err(|err: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        let dataset = self.dataset.bind(py);
+        dataset.borrow_mut().ds = new_dataset;
+
+        Ok(Self::build_stats(&stats, py)?.into())
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::execute_batches`] without committing; returns the transaction.
+    pub fn execute_uncommitted_batches<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        new_data: &Bound<'a, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<(PyLance<Transaction>, Bound<'a, PyDict>)> {
+        let py = new_data.py();
+        let reader = convert_reader(new_data)?;
+        let batches = reader
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<RecordBatch>, _>>()
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        let job = self
+            .builder
+            .try_build()
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        let UncommittedMergeInsert {
+            transaction, stats, ..
+        } = rt()
+            .spawn(Some(py), job.execute_uncommitted_batches(batches))?
+            .map_err(|err: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        let stats = Self::build_stats(&stats, py)?;
+
+        Ok((PyLance(transaction), stats))
+    }
+
     #[pyo3(signature=(schema = None, verbose = false))]
     pub fn explain_plan(
         &mut self,
@@ -318,6 +598,84 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
         rt().block_on(None, job.analyze_plan(new_data_stream))?
             .map_err(|err| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))
     }
+
+    /// [`Self::analyze_plan`] for fully-materialized data.
+    ///
+    /// Routed to the same in-memory table `execute_batches` uses, so the reported
+    /// plan is the one such a source actually runs.
+    pub fn analyze_plan_batches(&mut self, new_data: &Bound<PyAny>) -> PyResult<String> {
+        let reader = convert_reader(new_data)?;
+        let batches = reader
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<RecordBatch>, _>>()
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+        let job = self
+            .builder
+            .clone()
+            .try_build()
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        rt().block_on(None, job.analyze_plan_batches(batches))?
+            .map_err(|err| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// Mark MemWAL SSTables as compacted into the base table.
+    ///
+    /// Call this when executing a merge_insert that compacts MemWAL SSTables.
+    /// This updates MemWAL compaction progress to prevent duplicate compactions.
+    pub fn mark_sstables_as_compacted<'a>(
+        mut slf: PyRefMut<'a, Self>,
+        sstables: Vec<Bound<'a, crate::mem_wal::PyCompactedSsTable>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'a, Self>> {
+        use lance_index::mem_wal::CompactedSsTable;
+
+        let compacted_sstables: Vec<CompactedSsTable> = sstables
+            .iter()
+            .map(|sstable| sstable.borrow().to_lance())
+            .collect::<PyResult<_>>()?;
+        slf.builder.mark_sstables_as_compacted(compacted_sstables);
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+}
+
+fn index_metadata_to_segment(metadata: IndexMetadata) -> PyResult<IndexSegment> {
+    metadata.into_index_segment().infer_error()
+}
+
+fn extract_index_segments(segments: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Vec<IndexSegment>> {
+    let mut extracted = Vec::new();
+    for item in segments.try_iter()? {
+        let item = item?;
+        match item.extract::<PyRef<'_, PyIndexSegment>>() {
+            Ok(segment) => extracted.push(segment.inner.clone()),
+            Err(segment_err) => match item.extract::<PyLance<IndexMetadata>>() {
+                Ok(metadata) => extracted.push(index_metadata_to_segment(metadata.0)?),
+                Err(metadata_err) => {
+                    return Err(PyTypeError::new_err(format!(
+                        "commit_existing_index_segments expected IndexSegment or Index items; \
+                         failed to read item as IndexSegment ({segment_err}) or Index ({metadata_err})"
+                    )));
+                }
+            },
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(extracted)
+}
+
+fn parse_index_segment_ids(index_segments: Option<Vec<String>>) -> PyResult<Option<Vec<Uuid>>> {
+    index_segments
+        .map(|segments| {
+            segments
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|segment| {
+                    Uuid::parse_str(&segment).map_err(|err| {
+                        PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                            "invalid index segment uuid '{segment}': {err}"
+                        ))
+                    })
+                })
+                .collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()
+        })
+        .transpose()
 }
 
 impl MergeInsertBuilder {
@@ -334,7 +692,7 @@ pub fn transforms_from_python(
     py: Python<'_>,
     transforms: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
 ) -> PyResult<NewColumnTransform> {
-    if let Ok(transforms) = transforms.downcast::<PyDict>() {
+    if let Ok(transforms) = transforms.cast::<PyDict>() {
         let expressions = transforms
             .iter()
             .map(|(k, v)| {
@@ -359,14 +717,11 @@ pub fn transforms_from_python(
                 let result = udf_obj
                     .call_method1(py, "_call", (py_batch,))
                     .map_err(|err| {
-                        lance::Error::invalid_input(
-                            format_python_error(err, py).unwrap(),
-                            location!(),
-                        )
+                        lance::Error::invalid_input(format_python_error(err, py).unwrap())
                     })?;
                 let result_batch: PyArrowType<RecordBatch> = result
                     .extract(py)
-                    .map_err(|err| lance::Error::invalid_input(err.to_string(), location!()))?;
+                    .map_err(|err: PyErr| lance::Error::invalid_input(err.to_string()))?;
                 Ok(result_batch.0)
             })
         };
@@ -379,8 +734,9 @@ pub fn transforms_from_python(
         }))
     }
 }
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<ColumnOrdering> {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<ColumnOrdering> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let ascending: bool = ob.getattr("ascending")?.extract()?;
         let nulls_first: bool = ob.getattr("nulls_first")?.extract()?;
         let column_name: String = ob.getattr("column_name")?.extract()?;
@@ -412,7 +768,7 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&ColumnOrdering> {
 }
 
 /// Python binding for BasePath
-#[pyclass(name = "DatasetBasePath", module = "_lib")]
+#[pyclass(name = "DatasetBasePath", module = "_lib", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct DatasetBasePath {
     #[pyo3(get)]
@@ -469,7 +825,7 @@ impl From<DatasetBasePath> for BasePath {
 }
 
 /// Lance Dataset that will be wrapped by another class in Python
-#[pyclass(name = "_Dataset", module = "_lib")]
+#[pyclass(name = "_Dataset", module = "_lib", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct Dataset {
     #[pyo3(get)]
@@ -477,12 +833,112 @@ pub struct Dataset {
     pub(crate) ds: Arc<LanceDataset>,
 }
 
+impl Dataset {
+    async fn cleanup_policy(
+        &self,
+        older_than_micros: Option<i64>,
+        retain_versions: Option<usize>,
+        delete_unverified: Option<bool>,
+        error_if_tagged_old_versions: Option<bool>,
+        delete_rate_limit: Option<u64>,
+        versions: Option<Vec<u64>>,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<lance::dataset::cleanup::CleanupPolicy> {
+        let mut builder = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default();
+        if let Some(v) = older_than_micros {
+            let older_than = Duration::microseconds(v);
+            builder = builder.before_timestamp(Utc::now() - older_than);
+        }
+        if let Some(v) = retain_versions {
+            builder = builder.retain_n_versions(self.ds.as_ref(), v).await?;
+        }
+        if let Some(v) = delete_unverified {
+            builder = builder.delete_unverified(v);
+        }
+        if let Some(v) = error_if_tagged_old_versions {
+            builder = builder.error_if_tagged_old_versions(v);
+        }
+        if let Some(v) = delete_rate_limit {
+            builder = builder.delete_rate_limit(v)?;
+        }
+        if let Some(v) = versions {
+            builder = builder.versions(v)?;
+        }
+        Ok(builder.build())
+    }
+}
+
+fn cleanup_stats(stats: lance::dataset::cleanup::RemovalStats) -> CleanupStats {
+    CleanupStats {
+        bytes_removed: stats.bytes_removed,
+        old_versions: stats.old_versions,
+        data_files_removed: stats.data_files_removed,
+        transaction_files_removed: stats.transaction_files_removed,
+        index_files_removed: stats.index_files_removed,
+        deletion_files_removed: stats.deletion_files_removed,
+        failed_deletes: stats.failed_deletes,
+    }
+}
+
+fn cleanup_file_kind(kind: CleanupFileKind) -> &'static str {
+    match kind {
+        CleanupFileKind::Manifest => "manifest",
+        CleanupFileKind::Data => "data",
+        CleanupFileKind::Transaction => "transaction",
+        CleanupFileKind::Index => "index",
+        CleanupFileKind::Deletion => "deletion",
+        CleanupFileKind::TemporaryManifest => "temporary_manifest",
+    }
+}
+
+fn cleanup_explanation(
+    explanation: lance::dataset::cleanup::CleanupExplanation,
+) -> CleanupExplanation {
+    CleanupExplanation {
+        read_version: explanation.read_version,
+        stats: cleanup_stats(explanation.stats),
+        candidate_files: explanation
+            .candidate_files
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|file| CleanupCandidateFile {
+                path: file.path,
+                kind: cleanup_file_kind(file.kind).to_string(),
+                unverified: file.unverified,
+                size_bytes: file.size_bytes,
+            })
+            .collect(),
+        candidate_files_truncated: explanation.candidate_files_truncated,
+        candidate_file_limit: explanation.candidate_file_limit,
+        referenced_branches: explanation
+            .referenced_branches
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|branch| CleanupReferencedBranch {
+                name: branch.name,
+                referenced_version: branch.referenced_version,
+                cleanup_candidate: branch.cleanup_candidate,
+            })
+            .collect(),
+        warnings: explanation.warnings,
+    }
+}
+
+fn version_to_py(py: Python<'_>, version: &Version) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+    let dict = PyDict::new(py);
+    dict.set_item("version", version.version)?;
+    dict.set_item(
+        "timestamp",
+        version.timestamp.timestamp_nanos_opt().unwrap_or_default(),
+    )?;
+    let tup: Vec<(&String, &String)> = version.metadata.iter().collect();
+    dict.set_item("metadata", tup.into_py_dict(py)?)?;
+    dict.into_py_any(py)
+}
+
 #[pymethods]
 impl Dataset {
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     #[allow(deprecated)]
     #[new]
-    #[pyo3(signature=(uri, version=None, block_size=None, index_cache_size=None, metadata_cache_size=None, commit_handler=None, storage_options=None, manifest=None, metadata_cache_size_bytes=None, index_cache_size_bytes=None, read_params=None, session=None, storage_options_provider=None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(uri, version=None, block_size=None, index_cache_size=None, metadata_cache_size=None, commit_handler=None, storage_options=None, manifest=None, metadata_cache_size_bytes=None, index_cache_size_bytes=None, read_params=None, session=None, namespace_client=None, table_id=None, namespace_client_managed_versioning=false, base_store_params=None))]
     fn new(
         py: Python,
         uri: String,
@@ -497,7 +953,10 @@ impl Dataset {
         index_cache_size_bytes: Option<usize>,
         read_params: Option<&Bound<PyDict>>,
         session: Option<Session>,
-        storage_options_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        namespace_client: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        table_id: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool,
+        base_store_params: Option<HashMap<String, HashMap<String, String>>>,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let mut params = ReadParams::default();
         if let Some(metadata_cache_size_bytes) = metadata_cache_size_bytes {
@@ -527,22 +986,24 @@ impl Dataset {
 
         // Handle read_params dict
         if let Some(read_params_dict) = read_params {
-            let cache_repetition_index = read_params_dict
+            let mut decoder_config = DecoderConfig::default();
+
+            if let Some(cache_repetition_index) = read_params_dict
                 .get_item("cache_repetition_index")
                 .unwrap_or(None)
                 .and_then(|v| v.extract::<bool>().ok())
-                .unwrap_or(false);
+            {
+                decoder_config.cache_repetition_index = cache_repetition_index;
+            }
 
-            let validate_on_decode = read_params_dict
+            if let Some(validate_on_decode) = read_params_dict
                 .get_item("validate_on_decode")
                 .unwrap_or(None)
                 .and_then(|v| v.extract::<bool>().ok())
-                .unwrap_or(false);
+            {
+                decoder_config.validate_on_decode = validate_on_decode;
+            }
 
-            let decoder_config = DecoderConfig {
-                cache_repetition_index,
-                validate_on_decode,
-            };
             let file_reader_options = FileReaderOptions {
                 decoder_config,
                 ..Default::default()
@@ -553,10 +1014,10 @@ impl Dataset {
         let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri).with_read_params(params);
 
         if let Some(ver) = version {
-            if let Ok(i) = ver.downcast::<PyInt>() {
+            if let Ok(i) = ver.cast::<PyInt>() {
                 let v: u64 = i.extract()?;
                 builder = builder.with_version(v);
-            } else if let Ok(v) = ver.downcast::<PyString>() {
+            } else if let Ok(v) = ver.cast::<PyString>() {
                 let t: &str = &v.to_string_lossy();
                 builder = builder.with_tag(t);
             } else {
@@ -565,6 +1026,9 @@ impl Dataset {
                 ));
             };
         }
+        // Save a copy of storage options for potential namespace-based credential refresh
+        let initial_storage_options = storage_options.clone();
+
         if let Some(mut storage_options) = storage_options {
             if let Some(user_agent) = storage_options.get_mut("user_agent") {
                 user_agent.push_str(&format!(" pylance/{}", env!("CARGO_PKG_VERSION")));
@@ -585,11 +1049,51 @@ impl Dataset {
             builder = builder.with_session(session.inner.clone());
         }
 
-        // Add storage options provider if provided
-        if let Some(provider_obj) = storage_options_provider {
-            use crate::storage_options::py_object_to_storage_options_provider;
-            let provider = py_object_to_storage_options_provider(provider_obj)?;
-            builder = builder.with_storage_options_provider(provider);
+        // Set up namespace-based features if namespace_client and table_id are provided
+        if let (Some(ns_client), Some(tid)) = (&namespace_client, &table_id) {
+            let ns_client = extract_namespace_arc(py, ns_client)?;
+
+            // Auto-create storage options provider from namespace client
+            // when storage_options are present (meaning credentials came from namespace.describe_table)
+            if initial_storage_options.is_some() {
+                let provider: Arc<dyn lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider> = Arc::new(
+                    LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(ns_client.clone(), tid.clone()),
+                );
+                // Create accessor with initial options and provider for credential refresh
+                let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+                    initial_storage_options.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    provider,
+                ));
+                builder = builder.with_storage_options_accessor(accessor);
+            }
+
+            // Set up commit handler only if namespace manages versioning
+            if namespace_client_managed_versioning {
+                // The store derives the branch a request targets from the base
+                // path it is handed, resolved against the table root.
+                let external_store = LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::for_table_uri(
+                    ns_client,
+                    tid.clone(),
+                    &uri,
+                )
+                .infer_error()?;
+                let commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler> =
+                    Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                        external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+                    });
+                builder = builder.with_commit_handler(commit_handler);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let Some(base_store_params) = base_store_params {
+            for (base_path, opts) in base_store_params {
+                let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(opts));
+                let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+                    storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                };
+                builder = builder.with_base_store_params(base_path, store_params);
+            }
         }
 
         let dataset = rt().block_on(Some(py), builder.load())?;
@@ -661,7 +1165,18 @@ impl Dataset {
 
     #[getter(data_storage_version)]
     fn data_storage_version(&self) -> PyResult<String> {
-        Ok(self.ds.manifest().data_storage_format.version.clone())
+        Ok(self
+            .ds
+            .manifest()
+            .data_storage_format
+            .version
+            .to_manifest_string()
+            .to_string())
+    }
+
+    #[getter(has_stable_row_ids)]
+    fn has_stable_row_ids(&self) -> bool {
+        self.ds.manifest().uses_stable_row_ids()
     }
 
     /// Get index statistics
@@ -678,6 +1193,32 @@ impl Dataset {
             })
     }
 
+    /// Remap row addresses across compactions still recorded in the
+    /// fragment-reuse index. Rows a compaction dropped become null. The index
+    /// retains only recent rounds (older ones are pruned as index remap catches
+    /// up), so remap promptly: an address whose round was pruned is returned
+    /// unchanged, not remapped. Returns None when there is no fragment-reuse
+    /// index.
+    fn remap_row_addrs(
+        &self,
+        py: Python,
+        addrs: PyArrowType<ArrayData>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Option<PyArrowType<ArrayData>>> {
+        use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+
+        let array = make_array(addrs.0);
+        let frag_reuse_index = rt()
+            .block_on(
+                Some(py),
+                self.ds.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            )?
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                PyIOError::new_err(format!("failed to open fragment reuse index: {err}"))
+            })?;
+
+        Ok(frag_reuse_index.map(|fri| PyArrowType(fri.remap_row_ids_array(array).to_data())))
+    }
+
     fn serialized_manifest(&self, py: Python) -> Py<PyAny> {
         let manifest_bytes = self.ds.manifest().serialized();
         PyBytes::new(py, &manifest_bytes).into()
@@ -698,88 +1239,26 @@ impl Dataset {
         Ok(dict.into())
     }
 
-    /// Load index metadata.
-    ///
-    /// This call will open the index and return its concrete index type.
-    fn load_indices(self_: PyRef<'_, Self>) -> PyResult<Vec<Py<PyAny>>> {
-        let index_metadata = rt()
-            .block_on(Some(self_.py()), self_.ds.load_indices())?
-            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
-        let py = self_.py();
-        index_metadata
-            .iter()
-            .map(|idx| {
-                let dict = PyDict::new(py);
-                let schema = self_.ds.schema();
-                let field_paths = idx
-                    .fields
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|field_id| schema.field_path(*field_id).unwrap())
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-                let ds = self_.ds.clone();
-                let idx_type = match rt().block_on(Some(self_.py()), async {
-                    if let Some(system_index_type) = infer_system_index_type(idx) {
-                        Ok::<_, lance::Error>(system_index_type.to_string())
-                    } else {
-                        let idx = ds
-                            .open_generic_index(
-                                &field_paths[0],
-                                &idx.uuid.to_string(),
-                                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-                            )
-                            .await?;
-                        Ok::<_, lance::Error>(idx.index_type().to_string())
-                    }
-                })? {
-                    Ok(r) => r,
-                    Err(error) => {
-                        log::warn!("Cannot derive index type for {:?}: {}", idx, error);
-                        // mark the type as unknown for any new index type
-                        "Unknown".to_owned()
-                    }
-                };
-
-                let fragment_set = PySet::empty(py).unwrap();
-                if let Some(bitmap) = &idx.fragment_bitmap {
-                    for fragment_id in bitmap.iter() {
-                        fragment_set.add(fragment_id).unwrap();
-                    }
-                }
-
-                dict.set_item("name", idx.name.clone()).unwrap();
-                // TODO: once we add more than vector indices, we need to:
-                // 1. Change protos and write path to persist index type
-                // 2. Use the new field from idx instead of hard coding it to Vector
-                dict.set_item("type", idx_type).unwrap();
-                dict.set_item("uuid", idx.uuid.to_string()).unwrap();
-                dict.set_item("fields", field_paths).unwrap();
-                dict.set_item("version", idx.dataset_version).unwrap();
-                dict.set_item("fragment_ids", fragment_set).unwrap();
-                dict.set_item("base_id", idx.base_id.map(|id| id as i64))
-                    .unwrap();
-                dict.into_py_any(py)
-            })
-            .collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()
-    }
-
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    #[pyo3(signature=(columns=None, columns_with_transform=None, filter=None, prefilter=None, limit=None, offset=None, nearest=None, batch_size=None, io_buffer_size=None, batch_readahead=None, fragment_readahead=None, scan_in_order=None, fragments=None, with_row_id=None, with_row_address=None, use_stats=None, substrait_filter=None, fast_search=None, full_text_query=None, late_materialization=None, blob_handling=None, use_scalar_index=None, include_deleted_rows=None, scan_stats_callback=None, strict_batch_size=None, order_by=None, disable_scoring_autoprojection=None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(columns=None, columns_with_transform=None, filter=None, search_filter=None, prefilter=None, limit=None, offset=None, nearest=None, batch_size=None, batch_size_bytes=None, io_buffer_size=None, batch_readahead=None, fragment_readahead=None, scan_in_order=None, fragments=None, index_segments=None, with_row_id=None, with_row_address=None, use_stats=None, substrait_filter=None, fast_search=None, full_text_query=None, late_materialization=None, blob_handling=None, use_scalar_index=None, include_deleted_rows=None, scan_stats_callback=None, strict_batch_size=None, order_by=None, disable_scoring_autoprojection=None, substrait_aggregate=None, row_addr_allowlist=None, row_addr_blocklist=None, minhash_query=None))]
     fn scanner(
         self_: PyRef<'_, Self>,
         columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
         columns_with_transform: Option<Vec<(String, String)>>,
         filter: Option<String>,
+        search_filter: Option<PySearchFilter>,
         prefilter: Option<bool>,
         limit: Option<i64>,
         offset: Option<i64>,
         nearest: Option<&Bound<PyDict>>,
         batch_size: Option<usize>,
+        batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
         io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
         batch_readahead: Option<usize>,
         fragment_readahead: Option<usize>,
         scan_in_order: Option<bool>,
         fragments: Option<Vec<FileFragment>>,
+        index_segments: Option<Vec<String>>,
         with_row_id: Option<bool>,
         with_row_address: Option<bool>,
         use_stats: Option<bool>,
@@ -794,6 +1273,10 @@ impl Dataset {
         strict_batch_size: Option<bool>,
         order_by: Option<Vec<PyLance<ColumnOrdering>>>,
         disable_scoring_autoprojection: Option<bool>,
+        substrait_aggregate: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+        row_addr_allowlist: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+        row_addr_blocklist: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+        minhash_query: Option<&Bound<PyDict>>,
     ) -> PyResult<Scanner> {
         let mut scanner: LanceScanner = self_.ds.scan();
 
@@ -813,7 +1296,7 @@ impl Dataset {
             (Some(_), Some(_)) => {
                 return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
                     "Cannot specify both columns and columns_with_transform",
-                ))
+                ));
             }
             (Some(c), None) => {
                 scanner
@@ -837,8 +1320,13 @@ impl Dataset {
                 .filter(f.as_str())
                 .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
         }
+        if let Some(qf) = search_filter {
+            scanner
+                .filter_query(qf.inner)
+                .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+        }
         if let Some(full_text_query) = full_text_query {
-            let fts_query = if let Ok(full_text_query) = full_text_query.downcast::<PyDict>() {
+            let fts_query = if let Ok(full_text_query) = full_text_query.cast::<PyDict>() {
                 let mut query = full_text_query
                     .get_item("query")?
                     .ok_or_else(|| PyKeyError::new_err("query must be specified"))?
@@ -849,7 +1337,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                     } else {
                         Some(
                             columns
-                                .downcast::<PyList>()?
+                                .cast::<PyList>()?
                                 .iter()
                                 .map(|c| c.extract::<String>())
                                 .collect::<PyResult<Vec<String>>>()?,
@@ -861,6 +1349,13 @@ impl Dataset {
 
                 let is_phrase = query.len() >= 2 && query.starts_with('"') && query.ends_with('"');
                 let is_multi_match = columns.as_ref().map(|cols| cols.len() > 1).unwrap_or(false);
+                let document_granularity = match full_text_query.get_item("document_granularity")? {
+                    Some(value) if !value.is_none() => Some(
+                        DocumentGranularity::try_from(value.extract::<String>()?.as_str())
+                            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?,
+                    ),
+                    _ => None,
+                };
 
                 if is_phrase {
                     // Remove the surrounding quotes for phrase queries
@@ -868,8 +1363,20 @@ impl Dataset {
                 }
 
                 let query: FtsQuery = match (is_phrase, is_multi_match) {
-                    (false, _) => MatchQuery::new(query).into(),
-                    (true, false) => PhraseQuery::new(query).into(),
+                    (false, _) => {
+                        let mut query = MatchQuery::new(query);
+                        if let Some(document_granularity) = document_granularity {
+                            query = query.with_document_granularity(document_granularity);
+                        }
+                        query.into()
+                    }
+                    (true, false) => {
+                        let mut query = PhraseQuery::new(query);
+                        if let Some(document_granularity) = document_granularity {
+                            query = query.with_document_granularity(document_granularity);
+                        }
+                        query.into()
+                    }
                     (true, true) => {
                         return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
                             "Phrase queries cannot be used with multiple columns.",
@@ -886,7 +1393,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                     })?;
                 }
                 query
-            } else if let Ok(query) = full_text_query.downcast::<PyFullTextQuery>() {
+            } else if let Ok(query) = full_text_query.cast::<PyFullTextQuery>() {
                 let query = query.borrow();
                 FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.inner.clone())
             } else {
@@ -905,6 +1412,18 @@ impl Dataset {
         if let Some(prefilter) = prefilter {
             scanner.prefilter(prefilter);
         }
+        // Serialized RowAddrTreeMap payloads rather than an object: a mask built by
+        // another extension module cannot hand over a Rust value, but both sides
+        // agree on this encoding. RowAddrMask::from_serialized_parts is the shared
+        // entry point, so no binding has to reimplement the allow/block combination.
+        if let Some(mask) = RowAddrMask::from_serialized_parts(
+            row_addr_allowlist.as_deref(),
+            row_addr_blocklist.as_deref(),
+        )
+        .infer_error()?
+        {
+            scanner.with_row_addr_prefilter(mask);
+        }
 
         scanner
             .limit(limit, offset)
@@ -913,6 +1432,9 @@ impl Dataset {
         if let Some(batch_size) = batch_size {
             scanner.batch_size(batch_size);
         }
+        if let Some(batch_size_bytes) = batch_size_bytes {
+            scanner.batch_size_bytes(batch_size_bytes);
+        }
         if let Some(io_buffer_size) = io_buffer_size {
             scanner.io_buffer_size(io_buffer_size);
         }
@@ -949,6 +1471,22 @@ impl Dataset {
             scanner.with_fragments(fragments);
         }
 
+        if let Some(index_segments) = index_segments {
+            let index_segments = index_segments
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|segment| {
+                    Uuid::parse_str(&segment).map_err(|err| {
+                        PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                            "invalid index segment uuid '{segment}': {err}"
+                        ))
+                    })
+                })
+                .collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            scanner
+                .with_index_segments(index_segments)
+                .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+        }
+
         if let Some(scan_stats_callback) = scan_stats_callback {
             let callback = Self::make_scan_stats_callback(scan_stats_callback.clone())?;
             scanner.scan_stats_callback(callback);
@@ -982,7 +1520,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                     other => {
                         return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
                             "Invalid blob_handling: {other}. Expected one of: all_binary, blobs_descriptions, all_descriptions"
-                        )))
+                        )));
                     }
                 }
             } else {
@@ -1001,121 +1539,39 @@ impl Dataset {
         }
 
         if let Some(nearest) = nearest {
-            let column = nearest
-                .get_item("column")?
-                .ok_or_else(|| PyKeyError::new_err("Need column for nearest"))?
-                .to_string();
-
-            let qval = nearest
-                .get_item("q")?
-                .ok_or_else(|| PyKeyError::new_err("Need q for nearest"))?;
-            let data = ArrayData::from_pyarrow_bound(&qval)?;
-            let q = make_array(data);
-
-            let k: usize = if let Some(k) = nearest.get_item("k")? {
-                if k.is_none() {
-                    // Use limit if k is not specified, default to 10.
-                    limit.unwrap_or(10) as usize
-                } else {
-                    k.extract()?
-                }
-            } else {
-                10
-            };
-
-            let mut minimum_nprobes = DEFAULT_NPROBES;
-            let mut maximum_nprobes = None;
-
-            if let Some(nprobes) = nearest.get_item("nprobes")? {
-                if !nprobes.is_none() {
-                    let extracted: usize = nprobes.extract()?;
-                    minimum_nprobes = extracted;
-                    maximum_nprobes = Some(extracted);
-                }
-            }
-
-            if let Some(min_nprobes) = nearest.get_item("minimum_nprobes")? {
-                if !min_nprobes.is_none() {
-                    minimum_nprobes = min_nprobes.extract()?;
-                }
-            }
-
-            if let Some(max_nprobes) = nearest.get_item("maximum_nprobes")? {
-                if !max_nprobes.is_none() {
-                    maximum_nprobes = Some(max_nprobes.extract()?);
-                }
-            }
-
-            if let Some(maximum_nprobes) = maximum_nprobes {
-                if minimum_nprobes > maximum_nprobes {
-                    return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
-                        "minimum_nprobes must be <= maximum_nprobes",
-                    ));
-                }
-            }
-
-            if minimum_nprobes < 1 {
-                return Err(PyValueError::new_err("minimum_nprobes must be >= 1"));
-            }
-
-            if let Some(maximum_nprobes) = maximum_nprobes {
-                if maximum_nprobes < 1 {
-                    return Err(PyValueError::new_err("maximum_nprobes must be >= 1"));
-                }
-            }
-
-            let metric_type: Option<MetricType> =
-                if let Some(metric) = nearest.get_item("metric")? {
-                    if metric.is_none() {
-                        None
-                    } else {
-                        Some(
-                            MetricType::try_from(metric.to_string().to_lowercase().as_str())
-                                .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?,
-                        )
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    None
-                };
-
-            // When refine factor is specified, a final Refine stage will be added to the I/O plan,
-            // and use Flat index over the raw vectors to refine the results.
-            // By default, `refine_factor` is None to not involve extra I/O exec node and random access.
-            let refine_factor: Option<u32> = if let Some(rf) = nearest.get_item("refine_factor")? {
-                if rf.is_none() {
-                    None
-                } else {
-                    rf.extract()?
-                }
-            } else {
-                None
-            };
-
-            let use_index: bool = if let Some(idx) = nearest.get_item("use_index")? {
-                idx.extract()?
-            } else {
-                true
-            };
-
-            let ef: Option<usize> = if let Some(ef) = nearest.get_item("ef")? {
-                if ef.is_none() {
-                    None
-                } else {
-                    ef.extract()?
-                }
-            } else {
-                None
-            };
+            let default_k: usize = limit.unwrap_or(10) as usize;
+            let (
+                column,
+                q,
+                k,
+                minimum_nprobes,
+                maximum_nprobes,
+                metric_type,
+                refine_factor,
+                use_index,
+                ef,
+                query_parallelism,
+                approx_mode,
+            ) = vector_query_params_from_dict(nearest, default_k)?;
 
             let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(self_.ds.schema(), &column)
                 .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
             let scanner = match element_type {
                 DataType::UInt8 => {
-                    let q = arrow::compute::cast(&q, &DataType::UInt8).map_err(|e| {
+                    let query_type = match q.data_type() {
+                        DataType::List(field) => DataType::List(Arc::new(
+                            field.as_ref().clone().with_data_type(DataType::UInt8),
+                        )),
+                        DataType::FixedSizeList(field, dimension) => DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                            Arc::new(field.as_ref().clone().with_data_type(DataType::UInt8)),
+                            *dimension,
+                        ),
+                        _ => DataType::UInt8,
+                    };
+                    let q = arrow::compute::cast(&q, &query_type).map_err(|e| {
                         PyValueError::new_err(format!("Failed to cast q to binary vector: {}", e))
                     })?;
-                    let q = q.as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
-                    scanner.nearest(&column, q, k)
+                    scanner.nearest(&column, q.as_ref(), k)
                 }
                 _ => scanner.nearest(&column, &q, k),
             };
@@ -1125,7 +1581,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                         None
                     } else {
                         let tuple = dr
-                            .downcast::<PyTuple>()
+                            .cast::<PyTuple>()
                             .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
                         if tuple.len() != 2 {
                             return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
@@ -1165,6 +1621,8 @@ impl Dataset {
                     if let Some(ef) = ef {
                         s = s.ef(ef);
                     }
+                    s = s.query_parallelism(query_parallelism);
+                    s = s.approx_mode(approx_mode);
                     s.use_index(use_index);
                     if let Some((lower, upper)) = distance_range {
                         s.distance_range(lower, upper);
@@ -1178,6 +1636,30 @@ impl Dataset {
                 .order_by(Some(orderings.into_iter().map(|o| o.0).collect()))
                 .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
         }
+        if let Some(aggregate_bytes) = substrait_aggregate {
+            scanner
+                .aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(aggregate_bytes))
+                .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+        }
+        if let Some(minhash_query) = minhash_query {
+            let column: String = minhash_query
+                .get_item("column")?
+                .ok_or_else(|| PyKeyError::new_err("MinHash query must specify a column"))?
+                .extract()?;
+            let text: String = minhash_query
+                .get_item("text")?
+                .ok_or_else(|| PyKeyError::new_err("MinHash query must specify text"))?
+                .extract()?;
+            if limit.is_none() {
+                // Same default as the vector `nearest` path when no limit is given
+                scanner
+                    .limit(Some(10), offset)
+                    .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+            }
+            scanner
+                .minhash_search(MinHashQuery::new(text, column))
+                .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+        }
         let scan = Arc::new(scanner);
         Ok(Scanner::new(scan))
     }
@@ -1199,7 +1681,7 @@ impl Dataset {
             (Some(_), Some(_)) => {
                 return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
                     "Cannot specify both columns and columns_with_transform",
-                ))
+                ));
             }
             (Some(columns), None) => {
                 Ok(ProjectionRequest::from_columns(columns, self_.ds.schema()))
@@ -1226,7 +1708,7 @@ impl Dataset {
             (Some(_), Some(_)) => {
                 return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
                     "Cannot specify both columns and columns_with_transform",
-                ))
+                ));
             }
             (Some(columns), None) => {
                 Ok(ProjectionRequest::from_columns(columns, self_.ds.schema()))
@@ -1250,18 +1732,21 @@ impl Dataset {
         self_: PyRef<'_, Self>,
         row_ids: Vec<u64>,
         blob_column: &str,
-    ) -> PyResult<Vec<LanceBlobFile>> {
+    ) -> PyResult<Vec<Option<LanceBlobFile>>> {
         let blobs = rt()
             .block_on(Some(self_.py()), self_.ds.take_blobs(&row_ids, blob_column))?
             .infer_error()?;
-        Ok(blobs.into_iter().map(LanceBlobFile::from).collect())
+        Ok(blobs
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|blob| blob.map(LanceBlobFile::from))
+            .collect())
     }
 
     fn take_blobs_by_addresses(
         self_: PyRef<'_, Self>,
         row_addresses: Vec<u64>,
         blob_column: &str,
-    ) -> PyResult<Vec<LanceBlobFile>> {
+    ) -> PyResult<Vec<Option<LanceBlobFile>>> {
         let blobs = rt()
             .block_on(
                 Some(self_.py()),
@@ -1270,21 +1755,145 @@ impl Dataset {
                     .take_blobs_by_addresses(&row_addresses, blob_column),
             )?
             .infer_error()?;
-        Ok(blobs.into_iter().map(LanceBlobFile::from).collect())
+        Ok(blobs
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|blob| blob.map(LanceBlobFile::from))
+            .collect())
     }
 
     fn take_blobs_by_indices(
         self_: PyRef<'_, Self>,
         row_indices: Vec<u64>,
         blob_column: &str,
-    ) -> PyResult<Vec<LanceBlobFile>> {
+    ) -> PyResult<Vec<Option<LanceBlobFile>>> {
         let blobs = rt()
             .block_on(
                 Some(self_.py()),
                 self_.ds.take_blobs_by_indices(&row_indices, blob_column),
             )?
             .infer_error()?;
-        Ok(blobs.into_iter().map(LanceBlobFile::from).collect())
+        Ok(blobs
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|blob| blob.map(LanceBlobFile::from))
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    #[pyo3(signature=(
+        row_ids,
+        blob_column,
+        io_buffer_size=None,
+        preserve_order=None
+    ))]
+    fn read_blobs(
+        self_: PyRef<'_, Self>,
+        row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+        blob_column: &str,
+        io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
+        preserve_order: Option<bool>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Vec<PyReadBlob>> {
+        let builder = configure_read_blobs_builder(
+            self_
+                .ds
+                .read_blobs(blob_column)
+                .infer_error()?
+                .with_row_ids(row_ids),
+            io_buffer_size,
+            preserve_order,
+        );
+        let blobs = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(self_.py()), builder.execute())?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(read_blobs_to_python(self_.py(), blobs))
+    }
+
+    #[pyo3(signature=(
+        row_addresses,
+        blob_column,
+        io_buffer_size=None,
+        preserve_order=None
+    ))]
+    fn read_blobs_by_addresses(
+        self_: PyRef<'_, Self>,
+        row_addresses: Vec<u64>,
+        blob_column: &str,
+        io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
+        preserve_order: Option<bool>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Vec<PyReadBlob>> {
+        let builder = configure_read_blobs_builder(
+            self_
+                .ds
+                .read_blobs(blob_column)
+                .infer_error()?
+                .with_row_addresses(row_addresses),
+            io_buffer_size,
+            preserve_order,
+        );
+        let blobs = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(self_.py()), builder.execute())?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(read_blobs_to_python(self_.py(), blobs))
+    }
+
+    #[pyo3(signature=(
+        row_indices,
+        blob_column,
+        io_buffer_size=None,
+        preserve_order=None
+    ))]
+    fn read_blobs_by_indices(
+        self_: PyRef<'_, Self>,
+        row_indices: Vec<u64>,
+        blob_column: &str,
+        io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
+        preserve_order: Option<bool>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Vec<PyReadBlob>> {
+        let builder = configure_read_blobs_builder(
+            self_
+                .ds
+                .read_blobs(blob_column)
+                .infer_error()?
+                .with_row_indices(row_indices),
+            io_buffer_size,
+            preserve_order,
+        );
+        let blobs = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(self_.py()), builder.execute())?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(read_blobs_to_python(self_.py(), blobs))
+    }
+
+    #[pyo3(signature=(
+        requests,
+        blob_column,
+        selector,
+        io_buffer_size=None,
+        preserve_order=None
+    ))]
+    fn read_blob_ranges(
+        self_: PyRef<'_, Self>,
+        requests: Vec<(u64, u64, u64)>,
+        blob_column: &str,
+        selector: &str,
+        io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
+        preserve_order: Option<bool>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Vec<PyReadBlobRange>> {
+        let requests = blob_range_requests_from_tuples(requests);
+        let builder = self_.ds.read_blob_ranges(blob_column).infer_error()?;
+        let builder = match selector {
+            "ids" => builder.with_row_ids(requests),
+            "addresses" => builder.with_row_addresses(requests),
+            "indices" => builder.with_row_indices(requests),
+            selector => {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                    "selector must be one of 'ids', 'addresses', or 'indices', got {selector:?}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        let builder = configure_read_blob_ranges_builder(builder, io_buffer_size, preserve_order);
+        let ranges = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(self_.py()), builder.execute())?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(read_blob_ranges_to_python(self_.py(), ranges))
     }
 
     #[pyo3(signature = (row_slices, columns = None, batch_readahead = 10))]
@@ -1316,10 +1925,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                 {
                     Ok((start, end)) => Some(Ok(start..end)),
                     Err(err) if err.is_instance_of::<PyStopIteration>(py) => None,
-                    Err(err) => Some(Err(lance::Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: Box::new(err),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })),
+                    Err(err) => Some(Err(lance::Error::invalid_input_source(Box::new(err)))),
                 }
             })
         });
@@ -1335,7 +1941,7 @@ impl Dataset {
         let alterations = alterations
             .iter()
             .map(|obj| {
-                let obj = obj.downcast::<PyDict>()?;
+                let obj = obj.cast::<PyDict>()?;
                 let path: String = obj
                     .get_item("path")?
                     .ok_or_else(|| PyValueError::new_err("path is required"))?
@@ -1411,11 +2017,21 @@ impl Dataset {
     #[pyo3(signature=(predicate, conflict_retries=None, retry_timeout=None))]
     fn delete(
         &mut self,
-        predicate: String,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        predicate: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
         conflict_retries: Option<u32>,
         retry_timeout: Option<std::time::Duration>,
-    ) -> PyResult<()> {
-        let mut builder = DeleteBuilder::new(self.ds.clone(), predicate);
+    ) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        let mut builder = if let Ok(sql) = predicate.cast::<PyString>() {
+            DeleteBuilder::new(self.ds.clone(), sql.to_str()?)
+        } else if let Ok(bytes) = predicate.cast::<PyBytes>() {
+            let expr = ExprFilter::Substrait(bytes.as_bytes().to_vec())
+                .to_datafusion(self.ds.schema(), self.ds.schema())
+                .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+            DeleteBuilder::from_expr(self.ds.clone(), expr)
+        } else {
+            return Err(PyTypeError::new_err("predicate must be a string or bytes"));
+        };
 
         if let Some(retries) = conflict_retries {
             builder = builder.conflict_retries(retries);
@@ -1425,26 +2041,37 @@ impl Dataset {
             builder = builder.retry_timeout(timeout);
         }
 
-        let new_dataset = rt()
+        let result = rt()
             .block_on(None, builder.execute())?
             .map_err(|err| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
-        self.ds = new_dataset;
-        Ok(())
+        self.ds = result.new_dataset;
+        let dict = PyDict::new(py);
+        dict.set_item("num_deleted_rows", result.num_deleted_rows)?;
+        Ok(dict.into())
     }
 
-    #[pyo3(signature=(updates, predicate=None, conflict_retries=None, retry_timeout=None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(updates, predicate=None, conflict_retries=None, retry_timeout=None, data_storage_version=None))]
     fn update(
         &mut self,
         updates: &Bound<'_, PyDict>,
-        predicate: Option<&str>,
+        predicate: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
         conflict_retries: Option<u32>,
         retry_timeout: Option<std::time::Duration>,
+        data_storage_version: Option<&str>,
     ) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
         let mut builder = UpdateBuilder::new(self.ds.clone());
         if let Some(predicate) = predicate {
-            builder = builder
-                .update_where(predicate)
-                .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+            builder = if let Ok(sql) = predicate.cast::<PyString>() {
+                builder.update_where(sql.to_str()?)
+            } else if let Ok(bytes) = predicate.cast::<PyBytes>() {
+                let expr = ExprFilter::Substrait(bytes.as_bytes().to_vec())
+                    .to_datafusion(self.ds.schema(), self.ds.schema())
+                    .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+                builder.update_where_expr(expr)
+            } else {
+                return Err(PyTypeError::new_err("predicate must be a string or bytes"));
+            }
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
         }
 
         if let Some(retries) = conflict_retries {
@@ -1455,9 +2082,13 @@ impl Dataset {
             builder = builder.retry_timeout(timeout);
         }
 
+        if let Some(version) = data_storage_version {
+            builder = builder.data_storage_version(version.parse().infer_error()?);
+        }
+
         for (key, value) in updates {
-            let column: PyBackedStr = key.downcast::<PyString>()?.clone().try_into()?;
-            let expr: PyBackedStr = value.downcast::<PyString>()?.clone().try_into()?;
+            let column: PyBackedStr = key.cast::<PyString>()?.clone().try_into()?;
+            let expr: PyBackedStr = value.cast::<PyString>()?.clone().try_into()?;
 
             builder = builder
                 .set(column, &expr)
@@ -1508,20 +2139,28 @@ impl Dataset {
         let versions = self_.list_versions()?;
         let pyvers: Vec<Py<PyAny>> = versions
             .iter()
-            .map(|v| {
+            .map(|v| version_to_py(py, v))
+            .collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        Ok(pyvers)
+    }
+
+    /// Fetches the currently checked out version of the dataset, with its
+    /// timestamp and the summary of its manifest.
+    fn current_version(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        version_to_py(py, &self.ds.version())
+    }
+
+    fn version_refs(self_: PyRef<'_, Self>) -> PyResult<Vec<Py<PyAny>>> {
+        let py = self_.py();
+        self_
+            .list_version_refs()?
+            .iter()
+            .map(|version| {
                 let dict = PyDict::new(py);
-                dict.set_item("version", v.version).unwrap();
-                dict.set_item(
-                    "timestamp",
-                    v.timestamp.timestamp_nanos_opt().unwrap_or_default(),
-                )
-                .unwrap();
-                let tup: Vec<(&String, &String)> = v.metadata.iter().collect();
-                dict.set_item("metadata", tup.into_py_dict(py)?).unwrap();
+                dict.set_item("version", version.version)?;
                 dict.into_py_any(py)
             })
-            .collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
-        Ok(pyvers)
+            .collect()
     }
 
     /// Fetches the currently checked out version of the dataset.
@@ -1607,6 +2246,38 @@ impl Dataset {
         })
     }
 
+    /// Deep clone the selected version into a new dataset.
+    #[pyo3(signature = (target_path, reference, storage_options=None))]
+    fn deep_clone(
+        &mut self,
+        py: Python,
+        target_path: String,
+        reference: Option<Bound<PyAny>>,
+        storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let store_params = storage_options.as_ref().map(|opts| ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
+                lance::io::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(opts.clone()),
+            )),
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+
+        let mut new_self = self.ds.as_ref().clone();
+        let reference = self.transform_ref(reference)?;
+        let ds = rt()
+            .block_on(
+                Some(py),
+                new_self.deep_clone(&target_path, reference, store_params),
+            )?
+            .map_err(|err: Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        let uri = ds.uri().to_string();
+        Ok(Self {
+            ds: Arc::new(ds),
+            uri,
+        })
+    }
+
     fn restore(&mut self) -> PyResult<()> {
         let mut new_self = self.ds.as_ref().clone();
         rt().block_on(None, new_self.restore())?
@@ -1625,38 +2296,74 @@ impl Dataset {
     }
 
     /// Cleanup old versions from the dataset
-    #[pyo3(signature = (older_than_micros = None, retain_versions = None, delete_unverified = None, error_if_tagged_old_versions = None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (older_than_micros = None, retain_versions = None, delete_unverified = None, error_if_tagged_old_versions = None, delete_rate_limit = None, versions = None))]
     fn cleanup_old_versions(
         &self,
         older_than_micros: Option<i64>,
         retain_versions: Option<usize>,
         delete_unverified: Option<bool>,
         error_if_tagged_old_versions: Option<bool>,
+        delete_rate_limit: Option<u64>,
+        versions: Option<Vec<u64>>,
     ) -> PyResult<CleanupStats> {
-        let cleanup_stats = rt()
+        let stats = rt()
             .block_on(None, async {
-                let mut builder = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default();
-                if let Some(v) = older_than_micros {
-                    let older_than = Duration::microseconds(v);
-                    builder = builder.before_timestamp(Utc::now() - older_than);
-                }
-                if let Some(v) = retain_versions {
-                    builder = builder.retain_n_versions(self.ds.as_ref(), v).await?;
-                }
-                if let Some(v) = delete_unverified {
-                    builder = builder.delete_unverified(v);
-                }
-                if let Some(v) = error_if_tagged_old_versions {
-                    builder = builder.error_if_tagged_old_versions(v);
-                }
+                let policy = self
+                    .cleanup_policy(
+                        older_than_micros,
+                        retain_versions,
+                        delete_unverified,
+                        error_if_tagged_old_versions,
+                        delete_rate_limit,
+                        versions,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                self.ds.cleanup_with_policy(policy).await
+            })?
+            .map_err(|err: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+        Ok(cleanup_stats(stats))
+    }
 
-                self.ds.cleanup_with_policy(builder.build()).await
+    /// Explain cleanup old versions from the dataset without deleting files
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (older_than_micros = None, retain_versions = None, delete_unverified = None, error_if_tagged_old_versions = None, delete_rate_limit = None, versions = None, include_files = false, max_files = 1000))]
+    fn explain_cleanup_old_versions(
+        &self,
+        older_than_micros: Option<i64>,
+        retain_versions: Option<usize>,
+        delete_unverified: Option<bool>,
+        error_if_tagged_old_versions: Option<bool>,
+        delete_rate_limit: Option<u64>,
+        versions: Option<Vec<u64>>,
+        include_files: bool,
+        max_files: usize,
+    ) -> PyResult<CleanupExplanation> {
+        let explanation = rt()
+            .block_on(None, async {
+                let policy = self
+                    .cleanup_policy(
+                        older_than_micros,
+                        retain_versions,
+                        delete_unverified,
+                        error_if_tagged_old_versions,
+                        delete_rate_limit,
+                        versions,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                self.ds
+                    .cleanup(policy)
+                    .with_max_candidate_files(max_files)
+                    .explain()
+                    .await
             })?
             .map_err(|err: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
-        Ok(CleanupStats {
-            bytes_removed: cleanup_stats.bytes_removed,
-            old_versions: cleanup_stats.old_versions,
-        })
+        let mut explanation = cleanup_explanation(explanation);
+        if !include_files {
+            explanation.candidate_files.clear();
+            explanation.candidate_files_truncated = false;
+            explanation.warnings.clear();
+        }
+        Ok(explanation)
     }
 
     fn tags_ordered(self_: PyRef<'_, Self>, order: Option<String>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
@@ -1667,8 +2374,12 @@ impl Dataset {
 
         for (tag_name, tag_content) in tags {
             let dict = PyDict::new(py);
+            dict.set_item("branch", tag_content.branch.clone())?;
             dict.set_item("version", tag_content.version)?;
+            dict.set_item("created_at", tag_content.created_at)?;
+            dict.set_item("updated_at", tag_content.updated_at)?;
             dict.set_item("manifest_size", tag_content.manifest_size)?;
+            dict.set_item("metadata", tag_content.metadata.clone())?;
 
             pylist.append((tag_name.as_str(), dict))?;
         }
@@ -1685,7 +2396,10 @@ impl Dataset {
             let dict = PyDict::new(py);
             dict.set_item("branch", v.branch.clone())?;
             dict.set_item("version", v.version)?;
+            dict.set_item("created_at", v.created_at)?;
+            dict.set_item("updated_at", v.updated_at)?;
             dict.set_item("manifest_size", v.manifest_size)?;
+            dict.set_item("metadata", v.metadata.clone())?;
             pytags.set_item(k, dict.into_py_any(py)?)?;
         }
         pytags.into_py_any(py)
@@ -1741,6 +2455,15 @@ impl Dataset {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    fn replace_tag_metadata(&self, tag: String, metadata: HashMap<String, String>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        rt().block_on(
+            None,
+            self.ds.as_ref().tags().replace_metadata(&tag, metadata),
+        )?
+        .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// Check out the latest version of the current branch
     fn checkout_latest(&mut self) -> PyResult<()> {
         let mut new_self = self.ds.as_ref().clone();
@@ -1805,14 +2528,32 @@ impl Dataset {
         for (name, meta) in branches.iter() {
             let dict = PyDict::new(py);
             dict.set_item("parent_branch", meta.parent_branch.clone())?;
+            dict.set_item("branch_identifier", meta.identifier.version_mapping.clone())?;
             dict.set_item("parent_version", meta.parent_version)?;
             dict.set_item("create_at", meta.create_at)?;
             dict.set_item("manifest_size", meta.manifest_size)?;
+            dict.set_item("metadata", meta.metadata.clone())?;
             pybranches.set_item(name, dict.into_py_any(py)?)?;
         }
         Ok(pybranches.into())
     }
 
+    fn replace_branch_metadata(
+        &self,
+        branch: String,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> PyResult<()> {
+        rt().block_on(
+            None,
+            self.ds
+                .as_ref()
+                .branches()
+                .replace_metadata(&branch, metadata),
+        )?
+        .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// List branches ordered by parent_version
     fn branches_ordered(
         &self,
@@ -1839,9 +2580,11 @@ impl Dataset {
         for (name, meta) in ordered.into_iter() {
             let dict = PyDict::new(py);
             dict.set_item("parent_branch", meta.parent_branch.clone())?;
+            dict.set_item("branch_identifier", meta.identifier.version_mapping.clone())?;
             dict.set_item("parent_version", meta.parent_version)?;
             dict.set_item("create_at", meta.create_at)?;
             dict.set_item("manifest_size", meta.manifest_size)?;
+            dict.set_item("metadata", meta.metadata.clone())?;
             out.push((name, dict.into_py_any(py)?));
         }
         Ok(out)
@@ -1855,6 +2598,9 @@ impl Dataset {
             if let Some(num_indices_to_merge) = kwargs.get_item("num_indices_to_merge")? {
                 options.num_indices_to_merge = num_indices_to_merge.extract()?;
             }
+            if let Some(retrain) = kwargs.get_item("retrain")? {
+                options.retrain = retrain.extract()?;
+            }
             if let Some(index_names) = kwargs.get_item("index_names")? {
                 options.index_names = Some(
                     index_names
@@ -1898,12 +2644,13 @@ impl Dataset {
             "LABEL_LIST" => IndexType::LabelList,
             "RTREE" => IndexType::RTree,
             "INVERTED" | "FTS" => IndexType::Inverted,
+            "FM" => IndexType::Fm,
             "IVF_FLAT" | "IVF_PQ" | "IVF_SQ" | "IVF_RQ" | "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" | "IVF_HNSW_PQ"
             | "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => IndexType::Vector,
             _ => {
                 return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
                     "Index type '{index_type}' is not supported."
-                )))
+                )));
             }
         };
 
@@ -1937,6 +2684,27 @@ impl Dataset {
                 index_type: "rtree".to_string(),
                 params: None,
             }),
+            "FM" => {
+                let mut params_json = serde_json::Map::new();
+                if let Some(kwargs) = kwargs
+                    && let Some(num_segments) = kwargs.get_item("num_segments")?
+                {
+                    let n: u32 = num_segments.extract()?;
+                    params_json.insert(
+                        "num_segments".to_string(),
+                        serde_json::Value::Number(n.into()),
+                    );
+                }
+                let params = if params_json.is_empty() {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(serde_json::Value::Object(params_json).to_string())
+                };
+                Box::new(ScalarIndexParams {
+                    index_type: "fm".to_string(),
+                    params,
+                })
+            }
             "SCALAR" => {
                 let Some(kwargs) = kwargs else {
                     return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
@@ -1957,51 +2725,81 @@ impl Dataset {
             "INVERTED" | "FTS" => {
                 let mut params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
                 if let Some(kwargs) = kwargs {
-                    if let Some(with_position) = kwargs.get_item("with_position")? {
-                        params = params.with_position(with_position.extract()?);
-                    }
-                    if let Some(base_tokenizer) = kwargs.get_item("base_tokenizer")? {
-                        params = params.base_tokenizer(base_tokenizer.extract()?);
-                    }
-                    if let Some(language) = kwargs.get_item("language")? {
-                        let language: PyBackedStr =
-                            language.downcast::<PyString>()?.clone().try_into()?;
-                        params = params.language(&language).map_err(|e| {
-                            PyValueError::new_err(format!(
-                                "can't set tokenizer language to {}: {:?}",
-                                language, e
-                            ))
-                        })?;
-                    }
-                    if let Some(max_token_length) = kwargs.get_item("max_token_length")? {
-                        params = params.max_token_length(max_token_length.extract()?);
-                    }
-                    if let Some(lower_case) = kwargs.get_item("lower_case")? {
-                        params = params.lower_case(lower_case.extract()?);
-                    }
-                    if let Some(stem) = kwargs.get_item("stem")? {
-                        params = params.stem(stem.extract()?);
-                    }
-                    if let Some(remove_stop_words) = kwargs.get_item("remove_stop_words")? {
-                        params = params.remove_stop_words(remove_stop_words.extract()?);
+                    let allowed_kwargs = [
+                        "analyzer",
+                        "document_granularity",
+                        "with_position",
+                        "base_tokenizer",
+                        "language",
+                        "max_token_length",
+                        "lower_case",
+                        "stem",
+                        "remove_stop_words",
+                        "custom_stop_words",
+                        "ascii_folding",
+                        "min_ngram_length",
+                        "max_ngram_length",
+                        "prefix_only",
+                        "block_size",
+                        "split_identifiers",
+                        "split_on_numerics",
+                        "preserve_original",
+                        "index_operators",
+                        "memory_limit",
+                        "num_workers",
+                        "format_version",
+                        "fragment_ids",
+                        "index_uuid",
+                        "progress_callback",
+                    ];
+                    for (key, _) in kwargs.iter() {
+                        let key: String = key.extract()?;
+                        if !allowed_kwargs.contains(&key.as_str()) {
+                            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                                "unknown FTS index parameter '{}'",
+                                key
+                            )));
+                        }
                     }
-                    if let Some(stop_words_file) = kwargs.get_item("custom_stop_words")? {
-                        params = params.custom_stop_words(stop_words_file.extract()?);
+
+                    params = FtsTokenizerOptions::from_kwargs(kwargs)?.apply(params)?;
+                    if let Some(document_granularity) = kwargs.get_item("document_granularity")? {
+                        let document_granularity: String = document_granularity.extract()?;
+                        params = params.document_granularity(
+                            DocumentGranularity::try_from(document_granularity.as_str())
+                                .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?,
+                        );
                     }
-                    if let Some(ascii_folding) = kwargs.get_item("ascii_folding")? {
-                        params = params.ascii_folding(ascii_folding.extract()?);
+                    if let Some(with_position) = kwargs.get_item("with_position")? {
+                        params = params.with_position(with_position.extract()?);
                     }
-                    if let Some(min_ngram_length) = kwargs.get_item("min_ngram_length")? {
-                        params = params.ngram_min_length(min_ngram_length.extract()?);
+                    if let Some(block_size) = kwargs.get_item("block_size")? {
+                        params = params
+                            .block_size(block_size.extract()?)
+                            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
                     }
-                    if let Some(max_ngram_length) = kwargs.get_item("max_ngram_length")? {
-                        params = params.ngram_max_length(max_ngram_length.extract()?);
+                    if let Some(memory_limit) = kwargs.get_item("memory_limit")? {
+                        params = params.memory_limit_mb(memory_limit.extract()?);
                     }
-                    if let Some(prefix_only) = kwargs.get_item("prefix_only")? {
-                        params = params.ngram_prefix_only(prefix_only.extract()?);
+                    if let Some(num_workers) = kwargs.get_item("num_workers")? {
+                        params = params.num_workers(num_workers.extract()?);
                     }
-                    if let Some(skip_merge) = kwargs.get_item("skip_merge")? {
-                        params = params.skip_merge(skip_merge.extract()?);
+                    if let Some(format_version) = kwargs.get_item("format_version")?
+                        && !format_version.is_none()
+                    {
+                        let value = if let Ok(value) = format_version.cast::<PyString>() {
+                            value.to_string_lossy().to_string()
+                        } else if let Ok(value) = format_version.extract::<u32>() {
+                            value.to_string()
+                        } else {
+                            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+                                "format_version must be 1, 2, 3, 'v1', 'v2', or 'v3'",
+                            ));
+                        };
+                        let format_version = value
+                            .parse::<InvertedListFormatVersion>()
+                            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+                        params = params.format_version(format_version);
                     }
                 }
                 Box::new(params)
@@ -2010,7 +2808,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                 let column_type = match self.ds.schema().field(columns[0]) {
                     Some(f) => f.data_type().clone(),
                     None => {
-                        return Err(PyValueError::new_err("Column not found in dataset schema."))
+                        return Err(PyValueError::new_err("Column not found in dataset schema."));
                     }
                 };
                 prepare_vector_index_params(&index_type, &column_type, storage_options, kwargs)?
@@ -2020,6 +2818,7 @@ impl Dataset {
         let replace = replace.unwrap_or(true);
         let train = train.unwrap_or(true); // Default to true for backward compatibility
 
+        let mut progress_handler = Self::make_index_progress_handler_from_kwargs(kwargs)?;
         let mut new_self = self.ds.as_ref().clone();
         let mut builder = new_self
             .create_index_builder(&columns, idx_type, params.as_ref())
@@ -2039,10 +2838,22 @@ impl Dataset {
             None
         };
 
-        let index_uuid: Option<String> = if let Some(kwargs) = kwargs {
+        let index_uuid: Option<Uuid> = if let Some(kwargs) = kwargs {
             kwargs
                 .get_item("index_uuid")?
-                .and_then(|v| if v.is_none() { None } else { Some(v.extract()) })
+                .and_then(|v| {
+                    if v.is_none() {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        Some(v.extract::<String>())
+                    }
+                })
+                .transpose()?
+                .map(|s| {
+                    Uuid::parse_str(&s).map_err(|e| {
+                        PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid UUID string for index_uuid: {e}"))
+                    })
+                })
                 .transpose()?
         } else {
             None
@@ -2056,20 +2867,23 @@ impl Dataset {
         if let Some(index_uuid) = index_uuid {
             builder = builder.index_uuid(index_uuid);
         }
+        if let Some(progress_handler) = progress_handler.as_ref() {
+            builder = builder.progress(progress_handler.progress.clone());
+        }
 
         use std::future::IntoFuture;
 
         // Use execute_uncommitted if fragment_ids is provided, otherwise use execute
         let index_metadata = if has_fragment_ids {
             // For fragment-level indexing, use execute_uncommitted
-            let index_metadata = rt()
-                .block_on(None, builder.execute_uncommitted())?
-                .infer_error()?;
             // Note: We don't update self.ds here as the index is not committed
-            index_metadata
+            Self::run_index_future(builder.execute_uncommitted(), progress_handler.as_mut())?
+                .infer_error()?
         } else {
             // For regular indexing, use the standard execute path
-            let index_metadata = rt().block_on(None, builder.into_future())?.infer_error()?;
+            let index_metadata =
+                Self::run_index_future(builder.into_future(), progress_handler.as_mut())?
+                    .infer_error()?;
             self.ds = Arc::new(new_self);
             index_metadata
         };
@@ -2077,32 +2891,107 @@ impl Dataset {
         Ok(PyLance(index_metadata))
     }
 
-    fn drop_index(&mut self, name: &str) -> PyResult<()> {
-        let mut new_self = self.ds.as_ref().clone();
-        rt().block_on(None, new_self.drop_index(name))?
+    fn merge_existing_index_segments(
+        &self,
+        segments: Vec<PyLance<IndexMetadata>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyLance<IndexMetadata>> {
+        let merged = rt()
+            .block_on(
+                None,
+                self.ds
+                    .merge_existing_index_segments(segments.into_iter().map(|s| s.0).collect()),
+            )?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(PyLance(merged))
+    }
+
+    fn commit_existing_index_segments(
+        &mut self,
+        index_name: &str,
+        column: &str,
+        segments: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let mut new_self = self.ds.as_ref().clone();
+        let segments = extract_index_segments(segments)?;
+        rt().block_on(
+            None,
+            new_self.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, column, segments),
+        )?
+        .infer_error()?;
+        self.ds = Arc::new(new_self);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn drop_index(&mut self, name: &str) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let mut new_self = self.ds.as_ref().clone();
+        rt().block_on(None, new_self.drop_index(name))?
             .infer_error()?;
         self.ds = Arc::new(new_self);
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn prewarm_index(&self, name: &str) -> PyResult<()> {
-        rt().block_on(None, self.ds.prewarm_index(name))?
-            .infer_error()
+    #[pyo3(signature = (name, *, with_position = false, index_segments = None))]
+    fn prewarm_index(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        with_position: bool,
+        index_segments: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let index_segments = parse_index_segment_ids(index_segments)?;
+
+        rt().block_on(None, async {
+            if with_position {
+                let options = PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::new().with_position(true));
+                if let Some(index_segments) = index_segments.as_deref() {
+                    self.ds
+                        .prewarm_index_segments_with_options(name, index_segments, &options)
+                        .await
+                } else {
+                    self.ds.prewarm_index_with_options(name, &options).await
+                }
+            } else {
+                if let Some(index_segments) = index_segments.as_deref() {
+                    self.ds.prewarm_index_segments(name, index_segments).await
+                } else {
+                    self.ds.prewarm_index(name).await
+                }
+            }
+        })?
+        .infer_error()
     }
 
-    #[pyo3(signature = (index_uuid, index_type, batch_readhead=None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (index_uuid, index_type, batch_readhead=None, progress_callback=None))]
     fn merge_index_metadata(
         &self,
         index_uuid: &str,
         index_type: &str,
         batch_readhead: Option<usize>,
+        progress_callback: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
     ) -> PyResult<()> {
-        rt().block_on(None, async {
-            self.ds
-                .merge_index_metadata(index_uuid, IndexType::try_from(index_type)?, batch_readhead)
-                .await
-        })?
+        let parsed_uuid = Uuid::parse_str(index_uuid).map_err(|e| {
+            PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid UUID string for index_uuid: {e}"))
+        })?;
+        let mut progress_handler =
+            Self::make_index_progress_handler_from_callback(progress_callback)?;
+        let progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress> = progress_handler
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|handler| handler.progress.clone() as Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress));
+
+        Self::run_index_future(
+            async {
+                self.ds
+                    .merge_index_metadata(
+                        &parsed_uuid,
+                        IndexType::try_from(index_type)?,
+                        batch_readhead,
+                        progress,
+                    )
+                    .await
+            },
+            progress_handler.as_mut(),
+        )?
         .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))
     }
 
@@ -2152,15 +3041,21 @@ impl Dataset {
     }
 
     /// Get a snapshot of current IO statistics without resetting counters
-    fn io_stats_snapshot(&self) -> IoStats {
-        let stats = self.ds.object_store().io_stats_snapshot();
-        IoStats::from_lance(stats)
+    fn io_stats_snapshot(&self) -> PyResult<IoStats> {
+        let object_store = rt()
+            .block_on(None, self.ds.object_store(None))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        let stats = object_store.io_stats_snapshot();
+        Ok(IoStats::from_lance(stats))
     }
 
     /// Get incremental IO statistics for this dataset
-    fn io_stats_incremental(&self) -> IoStats {
-        let stats = self.ds.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        IoStats::from_lance(stats)
+    fn io_stats_incremental(&self) -> PyResult<IoStats> {
+        let object_store = rt()
+            .block_on(None, self.ds.object_store(None))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        let stats = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        Ok(IoStats::from_lance(stats))
     }
 
     #[staticmethod]
@@ -2173,6 +3068,9 @@ impl Dataset {
         rt().spawn(None, async move {
             let (object_store, path) =
                 object_store_from_uri_or_path(&dest, storage_options).await?;
+            validate_dataset_root_for_drop(&object_store, &path)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
             let result = object_store.remove_dir_all(path).await;
 
             match result {
@@ -2196,18 +3094,22 @@ impl Dataset {
 
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     #[staticmethod]
-    #[pyo3(signature = (dest, operation, read_version = None, commit_lock = None, storage_options = None, storage_options_provider = None, enable_v2_manifest_paths = None, detached = None, max_retries = None, commit_message = None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (dest, operation, read_version = None, commit_lock = None, storage_options = None, enable_v2_manifest_paths = None, detached = None, max_retries = None, commit_message = None, enable_stable_row_ids = None, namespace_client = None, table_id = None, namespace_client_managed_versioning = false, commit_timeout = None))]
     fn commit(
         dest: PyWriteDest,
         operation: PyLance<Operation>,
         read_version: Option<u64>,
         commit_lock: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
         storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-        storage_options_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths: Option<bool>,
         detached: Option<bool>,
         max_retries: Option<u32>,
         commit_message: Option<String>,
+        enable_stable_row_ids: Option<bool>,
+        namespace_client: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        table_id: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool,
+        commit_timeout: Option<std::time::Duration>,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let mut transaction = Transaction::new(read_version.unwrap_or_default(), operation.0, None);
 
@@ -2223,31 +3125,37 @@ impl Dataset {
             PyLance(transaction),
             commit_lock,
             storage_options,
-            storage_options_provider,
             enable_v2_manifest_paths,
             detached,
             max_retries,
+            enable_stable_row_ids,
+            namespace_client,
+            table_id,
+            namespace_client_managed_versioning,
+            commit_timeout,
         )
     }
 
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     #[allow(deprecated)]
     #[staticmethod]
-    #[pyo3(signature = (dest, transaction, commit_lock = None, storage_options = None, storage_options_provider = None, enable_v2_manifest_paths = None, detached = None, max_retries = None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (dest, transaction, commit_lock = None, storage_options = None, enable_v2_manifest_paths = None, detached = None, max_retries = None, enable_stable_row_ids = None, namespace_client = None, table_id = None, namespace_client_managed_versioning = false, commit_timeout = None))]
     fn commit_transaction(
         dest: PyWriteDest,
         transaction: PyLance<Transaction>,
         commit_lock: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
         storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-        storage_options_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths: Option<bool>,
         detached: Option<bool>,
         max_retries: Option<u32>,
+        enable_stable_row_ids: Option<bool>,
+        namespace_client: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        table_id: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        namespace_client_managed_versioning: bool,
+        commit_timeout: Option<std::time::Duration>,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let accessor = crate::storage_options::create_accessor_from_python(
-            storage_options.clone(),
-            storage_options_provider,
-        )?;
+        let accessor =
+            crate::storage_options::create_accessor_from_storage_options(storage_options.clone())?;
 
         let object_store_params = if accessor.is_some() {
             Some(ObjectStoreParams {
@@ -2258,19 +3166,46 @@ impl Dataset {
             None
         };
 
-        let commit_handler = commit_lock
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|commit_lock| {
-                commit_lock
-                    .into_py_any(commit_lock.py())
-                    .map(|cl| Arc::new(PyCommitLock::new(cl)) as Arc<dyn CommitHandler>)
-            })
-            .transpose()?;
+        // Create commit_handler: prefer user-provided commit_lock, then namespace client-based handler
+        // (only if namespace_client_managed_versioning is true)
+        let commit_handler: Option<Arc<dyn CommitHandler>> =
+            if let Some(commit_lock) = commit_lock.as_ref() {
+                // User provided a commit_lock
+                Some(
+                    commit_lock
+                        .into_py_any(commit_lock.py())
+                        .map(|cl| Arc::new(PyCommitLock::new(cl)) as Arc<dyn CommitHandler>)?,
+                )
+            } else if namespace_client_managed_versioning
+                && let (Some(ns_client), Some(tid)) = (namespace_client, table_id)
+            {
+                // Create ExternalManifestCommitHandler from namespace client and table_id
+                // only when namespace manages versioning. The store derives the
+                // branch a request targets from the base path it is handed,
+                // resolved against the table root.
+                let ns_client = extract_namespace_arc(ns_client.py(), ns_client)?;
+                let external_store = LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::for_table_uri(
+                    ns_client,
+                    tid,
+                    &dest.table_root_uri()?,
+                )
+                .infer_error()?;
+                Some(Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                    external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+                }) as Arc<dyn CommitHandler>)
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
 
         let mut builder = CommitBuilder::new(dest.as_dest())
             .enable_v2_manifest_paths(enable_v2_manifest_paths.unwrap_or(true))
             .with_detached(detached.unwrap_or(false))
-            .with_max_retries(max_retries.unwrap_or(20));
+            .with_max_retries(max_retries.unwrap_or(20))
+            .with_timeout(commit_timeout);
+
+        if let Some(enable) = enable_stable_row_ids {
+            builder = builder.use_stable_row_ids(enable);
+        }
 
         if let Some(store_params) = object_store_params {
             builder = builder.with_store_params(store_params);
@@ -2285,7 +3220,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                 commit_lock.map(|cl| cl.py()),
                 builder.execute(transaction.0),
             )?
-            .map_err(|err: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+            .io_or_timeout_error()?;
 
         let uri = ds.uri().to_string();
         Ok(Self {
@@ -2297,21 +3232,19 @@ impl Dataset {
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     #[allow(deprecated)]
     #[staticmethod]
-    #[pyo3(signature = (dest, transactions, commit_lock = None, storage_options = None, storage_options_provider = None, enable_v2_manifest_paths = None, detached = None, max_retries = None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (dest, transactions, commit_lock = None, storage_options = None, enable_v2_manifest_paths = None, detached = None, max_retries = None, commit_timeout = None))]
     fn commit_batch(
         dest: PyWriteDest,
         transactions: Vec<PyLance<Transaction>>,
         commit_lock: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
         storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-        storage_options_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths: Option<bool>,
         detached: Option<bool>,
         max_retries: Option<u32>,
+        commit_timeout: Option<std::time::Duration>,
     ) -> PyResult<(Self, PyLance<Transaction>)> {
-        let accessor = crate::storage_options::create_accessor_from_python(
-            storage_options.clone(),
-            storage_options_provider,
-        )?;
+        let accessor =
+            crate::storage_options::create_accessor_from_storage_options(storage_options.clone())?;
 
         let object_store_params = if accessor.is_some() {
             Some(ObjectStoreParams {
@@ -2333,7 +3266,8 @@ impl Dataset {
         let mut builder = CommitBuilder::new(dest.as_dest())
             .enable_v2_manifest_paths(enable_v2_manifest_paths.unwrap_or(true))
             .with_detached(detached.unwrap_or(false))
-            .with_max_retries(max_retries.unwrap_or(20));
+            .with_max_retries(max_retries.unwrap_or(20))
+            .with_timeout(commit_timeout);
 
         if let Some(store_params) = object_store_params {
             builder = builder.with_store_params(store_params);
@@ -2350,7 +3284,7 @@ impl Dataset {
 
         let res = rt()
             .block_on(None, builder.execute_batch(transactions))?
-            .map_err(|err: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+            .io_or_timeout_error()?;
         let uri = res.dataset.uri().to_string();
         let ds = Self {
             ds: Arc::new(res.dataset),
@@ -2403,7 +3337,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                 new_self.add_columns(transforms, None, batch_size).await?;
                 Ok(new_self)
             })?
-            .map_err(|err: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+            .io_or_commit_conflict_error()?;
         self.ds = Arc::new(new_self);
 
         Ok(())
@@ -2427,7 +3361,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                     .await?;
                 Ok(new_self)
             })?
-            .map_err(|err: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+            .io_or_commit_conflict_error()?;
         self.ds = Arc::new(new_self);
 
         Ok(())
@@ -2445,7 +3379,7 @@ impl Dataset {
                 new_self.add_columns(transform, None, None).await?;
                 Ok(new_self)
             })?
-            .map_err(|err: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+            .io_or_commit_conflict_error()?;
         self.ds = Arc::new(new_self);
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -2471,6 +3405,127 @@ impl Dataset {
         Ok(PyArrowType(reader))
     }
 
+    #[pyo3(signature = (column, distance_threshold, *, memory_limit=None, max_concurrency=None))]
+    fn find_duplicate_pairs(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        column: &str,
+        distance_threshold: f32,
+        memory_limit: Option<usize>,
+        max_concurrency: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyArrowType<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>>> {
+        let mut options = lance::index::vector::dedup::DuplicatePairsOptions::default();
+        if let Some(size) = memory_limit {
+            options = options.with_memory_limit(size);
+        }
+        if let Some(concurrency) = max_concurrency {
+            options = options.with_max_concurrency(concurrency);
+        }
+        let stream = rt()
+            .block_on(
+                Some(py),
+                lance::index::vector::dedup::find_duplicate_pairs_with_options(
+                    self.ds.clone(),
+                    column,
+                    distance_threshold,
+                    options,
+                ),
+            )?
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+        Ok(PyArrowType(Box::new(LanceReader::from_stream(
+            DatasetRecordBatchStream::new(stream),
+        ))))
+    }
+
+    #[pyo3(signature = (column, segment_id, partition_id, distance_threshold, *, memory_limit=None, max_concurrency=None))]
+    // Keep the binding aligned with the Python utility's keyword-only controls.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        column: &str,
+        segment_id: &str,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        distance_threshold: f32,
+        memory_limit: Option<usize>,
+        max_concurrency: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyArrowType<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>>> {
+        let mut options = lance::index::vector::dedup::DuplicatePairsOptions::default();
+        if let Some(size) = memory_limit {
+            options = options.with_memory_limit(size);
+        }
+        if let Some(concurrency) = max_concurrency {
+            options = options.with_max_concurrency(concurrency);
+        }
+        let segment_id = uuid::Uuid::parse_str(segment_id).map_err(|err| {
+            PyValueError::new_err(format!("invalid segment_id '{segment_id}': {err}"))
+        })?;
+        let stream = rt()
+            .block_on(
+                Some(py),
+                lance::index::vector::dedup::find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition_with_options(
+                    self.ds.clone(),
+                    column,
+                    segment_id,
+                    partition_id,
+                    distance_threshold,
+                    options,
+                ),
+            )?
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+        Ok(PyArrowType(Box::new(LanceReader::from_stream(
+            DatasetRecordBatchStream::new(stream),
+        ))))
+    }
+
+    #[pyo3(signature = (*, min_version=None, progress=None))]
+    fn tracked_files(
+        &self,
+        min_version: Option<u64>,
+        progress: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyArrowType<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>>> {
+        use lance::dataset::files::{TrackedFilesOptions, TrackedFilesProgress};
+
+        let progress_cb: Option<Box<dyn Fn(TrackedFilesProgress) + Send + Sync>> =
+            if let Some(cb) = progress {
+                if !cb.is_callable() {
+                    return Err(PyValueError::new_err("progress must be callable"));
+                }
+                let cb = cb.clone().unbind();
+                Some(Box::new(move |p: TrackedFilesProgress| {
+                    Python::attach(|py| {
+                        let total: Option<usize> = p.manifests_total;
+                        match cb.call1(py, (p.manifests_processed, total)) {
+                            Ok(_) => (),
+                            Err(e) => {
+                                log::error!("Error in tracked_files progress callback: {}", e);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    });
+                }))
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+        let options = TrackedFilesOptions {
+            min_version,
+            progress: progress_cb,
+        };
+        let stream = rt().block_on(None, self.ds.tracked_files_with_options(options))?;
+        let reader = Box::new(LanceReader::from_stream(DatasetRecordBatchStream::new(
+            stream,
+        )));
+        Ok(PyArrowType(reader))
+    }
+
+    fn all_files(&self) -> PyResult<PyArrowType<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>>> {
+        let stream = rt().block_on(None, self.ds.all_files())?;
+        let reader = Box::new(LanceReader::from_stream(DatasetRecordBatchStream::new(
+            stream,
+        )));
+        Ok(PyArrowType(reader))
+    }
+
     #[pyo3(signature = (keys))]
     fn delete_config_keys(&mut self, keys: Vec<String>) -> PyResult<()> {
         let mut new_self = self.ds.as_ref().clone();
@@ -2660,11 +3715,7 @@ impl Dataset {
 
             let vindex = self
                 .ds
-                .open_vector_index(
-                    column_name,
-                    &idx_meta.uuid.to_string(),
-                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-                )
+                .open_vector_index(column_name, &idx_meta.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
                 .await
                 .infer_error()?;
 
@@ -2726,9 +3777,465 @@ impl Dataset {
         let builder = ds.delta();
         Ok(DatasetDeltaBuilder { builder })
     }
+
+    /// Initialize MemWAL on this dataset.
+    ///
+    /// Must be called once before any `mem_wal_writer()` calls. Append-only
+    /// tables may omit primary-key metadata; primary keys are only required
+    /// for primary-key lookup and last-write-wins deduplication workflows.
+    ///
+    /// At most one sharding mode may be selected: bucket sharding
+    /// (`bucket_column` + `num_buckets`), identity sharding (`identity_column`),
+    /// or `unsharded`. With none selected, shards are managed manually.
+    ///
+    /// Any writer-configuration keyword arguments are recorded as the default
+    /// `ShardWriter` configuration for the MemWAL index.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(
+        *,
+        maintained_indexes=None,
+        bucket_column=None,
+        num_buckets=None,
+        identity_column=None,
+        unsharded=false,
+        durable_write=None,
+        max_wal_buffer_size=None,
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms=None,
+        max_memtable_size=None,
+        max_memtable_rows=None,
+        max_memtable_batches=None,
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes=None,
+        manifest_scan_batch_size=None,
+        backpressure_log_interval_ms=None,
+        stats_log_interval_ms=None,
+        hnsw_params=None,
+    ))]
+    fn initialize_mem_wal(
+        &mut self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        maintained_indexes: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        bucket_column: Option<String>,
+        num_buckets: Option<u32>,
+        identity_column: Option<String>,
+        unsharded: bool,
+        durable_write: Option<bool>,
+        max_wal_buffer_size: Option<usize>,
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms: Option<u64>,
+        max_memtable_size: Option<usize>,
+        max_memtable_rows: Option<usize>,
+        max_memtable_batches: Option<usize>,
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: Option<usize>,
+        manifest_scan_batch_size: Option<usize>,
+        backpressure_log_interval_ms: Option<u64>,
+        stats_log_interval_ms: Option<u64>,
+        hnsw_params: Option<HashMap<String, HashMap<String, u32>>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<()> {
+        use lance::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+
+        let bucket = match (bucket_column.as_deref(), num_buckets) {
+            (Some(_), Some(_)) => true,
+            (None, None) => false,
+            _ => {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+                    "bucket sharding requires both `bucket_column` and `num_buckets`",
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+        let modes = [bucket, identity_column.is_some(), unsharded]
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|&m| m)
+            .count();
+        if modes > 1 {
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+                "at most one of bucket sharding, `identity_column`, or `unsharded` may be set",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let writer_config = writer_config_from_kwargs(
+            durable_write,
+            max_wal_buffer_size,
+            max_wal_flush_interval_ms,
+            max_memtable_size,
+            max_memtable_rows,
+            max_memtable_batches,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size,
+            backpressure_log_interval_ms,
+            stats_log_interval_ms,
+            hnsw_params,
+        )?;
+
+        let mut ds = Arc::clone(&self.ds);
+        let new_ds = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async move {
+                let dataset = Arc::make_mut(&mut ds);
+                let mut builder = dataset.initialize_mem_wal();
+                if let (Some(column), Some(n)) = (bucket_column, num_buckets) {
+                    builder = builder.bucket_sharding(column, n);
+                } else if let Some(column) = identity_column {
+                    builder = builder.identity_sharding(column);
+                } else if unsharded {
+                    builder = builder.unsharded();
+                }
+                // Flattening `None` to an empty list here would ask for no
+                // index at all rather than every one.
+                if let Some(maintained_indexes) = maintained_indexes {
+                    builder = builder.maintained_indexes(maintained_indexes);
+                }
+                if let Some(config) = writer_config {
+                    builder = builder.writer_config_defaults(config);
+                }
+                builder.execute().await?;
+                Ok::<Arc<LanceDataset>, lance_core::Error>(ds)
+            })?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+        self.ds = new_ds;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Return the MemWAL index details for this dataset, or `None` if MemWAL
+    /// has not been initialized.
+    ///
+    /// The returned dict has `num_shards`, `maintained_indexes`,
+    /// `maintain_all_indexes`, `writer_config_defaults`, and `sharding_specs`.
+    ///
+    /// `maintain_all_indexes` is what distinguishes maintaining every index
+    /// the table has from maintaining none: both leave `maintained_indexes`
+    /// empty.
+    fn mem_wal_index_details<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Option<Bound<'py, PyDict>>> {
+        use lance::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+
+        let ds = self.ds.clone();
+        let details = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async move { ds.mem_wal_index_details().await })?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+        let Some(details) = details else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let dict = PyDict::new(py);
+        dict.set_item("num_shards", details.num_shards)?;
+        dict.set_item("maintained_indexes", details.maintained_indexes)?;
+        dict.set_item("maintain_all_indexes", details.maintain_all_indexes)?;
+        dict.set_item("writer_config_defaults", details.writer_config_defaults)?;
+
+        let specs = PyList::empty(py);
+        for spec in &details.sharding_specs {
+            let spec_dict = PyDict::new(py);
+            spec_dict.set_item("spec_id", spec.spec_id)?;
+            let fields = PyList::empty(py);
+            for field in &spec.fields {
+                let field_dict = PyDict::new(py);
+                field_dict.set_item("field_id", &field.field_id)?;
+                field_dict.set_item("source_ids", field.source_ids.clone())?;
+                field_dict.set_item("transform", field.transform.clone())?;
+                field_dict.set_item("expression", field.expression.clone())?;
+                field_dict.set_item("result_type", &field.result_type)?;
+                field_dict.set_item("parameters", field.parameters.clone())?;
+                fields.append(field_dict)?;
+            }
+            spec_dict.set_item("fields", fields)?;
+            specs.append(spec_dict)?;
+        }
+        dict.set_item("sharding_specs", specs)?;
+        Ok(Some(dict))
+    }
+
+    /// Get a ShardWriter for the specified shard.
+    ///
+    /// `initialize_mem_wal()` must be called before using this method.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(
+        shard_id,
+        *,
+        durable_write=None,
+        max_wal_buffer_size=None,
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms=None,
+        max_memtable_size=None,
+        max_memtable_rows=None,
+        max_memtable_batches=None,
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes=None,
+        manifest_scan_batch_size=None,
+        backpressure_log_interval_ms=None,
+        stats_log_interval_ms=None,
+        hnsw_params=None,
+    ))]
+    fn mem_wal_writer(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        shard_id: String,
+        durable_write: Option<bool>,
+        max_wal_buffer_size: Option<usize>,
+        max_wal_flush_interval_ms: Option<u64>,
+        max_memtable_size: Option<usize>,
+        max_memtable_rows: Option<usize>,
+        max_memtable_batches: Option<usize>,
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: Option<usize>,
+        manifest_scan_batch_size: Option<usize>,
+        backpressure_log_interval_ms: Option<u64>,
+        stats_log_interval_ms: Option<u64>,
+        hnsw_params: Option<HashMap<String, HashMap<String, u32>>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<crate::mem_wal::PyShardWriter> {
+        use lance::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+
+        let uuid = uuid::Uuid::parse_str(&shard_id)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid shard_id UUID: {}", e)))?;
+
+        let config = writer_config_from_kwargs(
+            durable_write,
+            max_wal_buffer_size,
+            max_wal_flush_interval_ms,
+            max_memtable_size,
+            max_memtable_rows,
+            max_memtable_batches,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size,
+            backpressure_log_interval_ms,
+            stats_log_interval_ms,
+            hnsw_params,
+        )?
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        let ds = self.ds.clone();
+        let writer = rt()
+            .block_on(
+                Some(py),
+                async move { ds.mem_wal_writer(uuid, config).await },
+            )?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+
+        Ok(crate::mem_wal::PyShardWriter::new(
+            writer,
+            uuid,
+            self.ds.clone(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on a partition of an IVF_FLAT index.
+    ///
+    /// This function loads a specific partition from every segment of an IVF_FLAT
+    /// index on a hash column, computes pairwise hamming distances between all
+    /// hashes in the combined partition, filters by threshold, and clusters the
+    /// results using union-find.
+    ///
+    /// Parameters
+    /// ----------
+    /// index_name : str
+    ///     Name of the IVF_FLAT index on the hash column
+    /// partition_id : int
+    ///     The partition ID within the IVF_FLAT index
+    /// hamming_threshold : int
+    ///     Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+    /// index_segments : list of str, optional
+    ///     If specified, only these physical index segment UUIDs of the named
+    ///     logical index contribute rows. Defaults to all segments.
+    ///
+    /// Returns
+    /// -------
+    /// pyarrow.RecordBatchReader
+    ///     A reader yielding batches with columns:
+    ///     - 'representative': uint64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+    ///     - 'duplicates': list<uint64> - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+    #[pyo3(signature = (index_name, partition_id, hamming_threshold, index_segments=None))]
+    fn hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        index_name: &str,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        hamming_threshold: u32,
+        index_segments: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyArrowType<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>>> {
+        use lance::index::vector::hamming::{
+            hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition, hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_segments,
+        };
+
+        let segment_ids = parse_index_segment_ids(index_segments)?;
+        let ds = self.ds.as_ref();
+        let reader = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async {
+                match segment_ids.as_deref() {
+                    Some(segment_ids) => {
+                        hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_segments(
+                            ds,
+                            index_name,
+                            segment_ids,
+                            partition_id,
+                            hamming_threshold,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(
+                            ds,
+                            index_name,
+                            partition_id,
+                            hamming_threshold,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                    }
+                }
+            })?
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        Ok(PyArrowType(reader))
+    }
+
+    /// Get partition information for an IVF_FLAT index.
+    ///
+    /// Partition sizes are aggregated across all segments of the logical index
+    /// unless a subset is selected via ``index_segments``.
+    ///
+    /// Parameters
+    /// ----------
+    /// index_name : str
+    ///     Name of the IVF_FLAT index
+    /// index_segments : list of str, optional
+    ///     If specified, only these physical index segment UUIDs of the named
+    ///     logical index contribute to the sizes. Defaults to all segments.
+    ///
+    /// Returns
+    /// -------
+    /// List[dict]
+    ///     List of partition info dicts with 'partition_id' and 'size'
+    #[pyo3(signature = (index_name, index_segments=None))]
+    fn get_ivf_partition_info(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        index_name: &str,
+        index_segments: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Vec<Py<PyDict>>> {
+        use lance::index::vector::hamming::{
+            get_ivf_partition_info, get_ivf_partition_info_segments,
+        };
+
+        let segment_ids = parse_index_segment_ids(index_segments)?;
+        let ds = self.ds.as_ref();
+        let result = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async {
+                match segment_ids.as_deref() {
+                    Some(segment_ids) => {
+                        get_ivf_partition_info_segments(ds, index_name, segment_ids).await
+                    }
+                    None => get_ivf_partition_info(ds, index_name).await,
+                }
+            })?
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        let partitions: PyResult<Vec<_>> = result
+            .iter()
+            .map(|p| {
+                let dict = PyDict::new(py);
+                dict.set_item("partition_id", p.partition_id)?;
+                dict.set_item("size", p.size)?;
+                Ok(dict.into())
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        partitions
+    }
+
+    /// Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on sampled rows from a dataset.
+    ///
+    /// This function samples N rows randomly from the dataset, extracts hashes,
+    /// computes pairwise hamming distances, and clusters the results.
+    /// It's useful for benchmarking and testing without requiring an IVF index.
+    ///
+    /// Parameters
+    /// ----------
+    /// column : str
+    ///     Name of the hash column (must be FixedSizeList<UInt8, N> where N is
+    ///     a positive multiple of 8 bytes)
+    /// sample_size : int, optional
+    ///     Number of rows to sample (if None or >= total rows, uses all rows)
+    /// hamming_threshold : int
+    ///     Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+    ///
+    /// Returns
+    /// -------
+    /// pyarrow.RecordBatchReader
+    ///     A reader yielding batches with columns:
+    ///     - 'representative': uint64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+    ///     - 'duplicates': list<uint64> - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+    #[pyo3(signature = (column, sample_size, hamming_threshold))]
+    fn hamming_clustering_for_sample(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        column: &str,
+        sample_size: Option<usize>,
+        hamming_threshold: u32,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyArrowType<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>>> {
+        use lance::index::vector::hamming::hamming_clustering_for_sample;
+
+        let ds = self.ds.as_ref();
+        let reader = rt()
+            .block_on(
+                Some(py),
+                hamming_clustering_for_sample(ds, column, sample_size, hamming_threshold),
+            )?
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        Ok(PyArrowType(reader))
+    }
+
+    /// Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on a contiguous range of rows from a fragment.
+    ///
+    /// This function reads a contiguous range of rows from a specific fragment,
+    /// extracts hashes, computes pairwise hamming distances, and clusters the results.
+    /// Unlike sampling, this reads sequential rows which is useful for distributed
+    /// processing where each worker handles a specific range of a fragment.
+    ///
+    /// Parameters
+    /// ----------
+    /// column : str
+    ///     Name of the hash column (must be FixedSizeList<UInt8, N> where N is
+    ///     a positive multiple of 8 bytes)
+    /// fragment_id : int
+    ///     The fragment ID to read from
+    /// start_row : int
+    ///     The starting row offset within the fragment
+    /// num_rows : int
+    ///     Number of rows to read from the start position
+    /// hamming_threshold : int
+    ///     Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+    ///
+    /// Returns
+    /// -------
+    /// pyarrow.RecordBatchReader
+    ///     A reader yielding batches with columns:
+    ///     - 'representative': uint64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+    ///     - 'duplicates': list<uint64> - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+    #[pyo3(signature = (column, fragment_id, start_row, num_rows, hamming_threshold))]
+    fn hamming_clustering_for_range(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        column: &str,
+        fragment_id: usize,
+        start_row: usize,
+        num_rows: usize,
+        hamming_threshold: u32,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyArrowType<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>>> {
+        use lance::index::vector::hamming::hamming_clustering_for_range;
+
+        let ds = self.ds.as_ref();
+        let reader = rt()
+            .block_on(
+                Some(py),
+                hamming_clustering_for_range(
+                    ds,
+                    column,
+                    fragment_id,
+                    start_row,
+                    num_rows,
+                    hamming_threshold,
+                ),
+            )?
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+
+        Ok(PyArrowType(reader))
+    }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "SqlQuery", module = "_lib", subclass)]
+#[pyclass(name = "SqlQuery", module = "_lib", subclass, skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct SqlQuery {
     builder: lance::dataset::sql::SqlQueryBuilder,
@@ -2788,7 +4295,12 @@ impl SqlQuery {
     }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "SqlQueryBuilder", module = "_lib", subclass)]
+#[pyclass(
+    name = "SqlQueryBuilder",
+    module = "_lib",
+    subclass,
+    skip_from_py_object
+)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct SqlQueryBuilder {
     builder: lance::dataset::sql::SqlQueryBuilder,
@@ -2817,15 +4329,46 @@ impl SqlQueryBuilder {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Build the SQL query.
-    fn build(&self) -> PyResult<SqlQuery> {
-        Ok(SqlQuery {
-            builder: self.builder.clone(),
+    #[pyo3(signature = (blob_handling))]
+    fn blob_handling(&self, blob_handling: &str) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let blob_handling = match blob_handling {
+            "all_binary" => BlobHandling::AllBinary,
+            "blobs_descriptions" => BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions,
+            "all_descriptions" => BlobHandling::AllDescriptions,
+            other => {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                    "Invalid blob_handling: {other}. Expected one of: all_binary, blobs_descriptions, all_descriptions"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Self {
+            builder: self.builder.clone().blob_handling(blob_handling),
         })
     }
-}
-
-// -------------------- Delta API Bindings --------------------
+
+    #[pyo3(signature = (batch_size))]
+    fn batch_size(&self, batch_size: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            builder: self.builder.clone().batch_size(batch_size),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[pyo3(signature = (batch_size_bytes))]
+    fn batch_size_bytes(&self, batch_size_bytes: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            builder: self.builder.clone().batch_size_bytes(batch_size_bytes),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build the SQL query.
+    fn build(&self) -> PyResult<SqlQuery> {
+        Ok(SqlQuery {
+            builder: self.builder.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+// -------------------- Delta API Bindings --------------------
 
 #[pyclass(name = "DatasetDelta", module = "_lib", subclass)]
 pub struct DatasetDelta {
@@ -2865,9 +4408,26 @@ impl DatasetDelta {
         let reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(LanceReader::from_stream(stream));
         reader.into_pyarrow(py)
     }
+    /// Get the row ids deleted between begin_version (exclusive) and end_version (inclusive) as a stream reader.
+    ///
+    /// Requires stable row ids on the dataset.
+    fn get_deleted_row_ids<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        use arrow::pyarrow::IntoPyArrow;
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchReader;
+        let stream = rt()
+            .block_on(None, self.inner.get_deleted_row_ids())?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        let reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(LanceReader::from_stream(stream));
+        reader.into_pyarrow(py)
+    }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "DatasetDeltaBuilder", module = "_lib", subclass)]
+#[pyclass(
+    name = "DatasetDeltaBuilder",
+    module = "_lib",
+    subclass,
+    skip_from_py_object
+)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct DatasetDeltaBuilder {
     builder: lance::dataset::delta::DatasetDeltaBuilder,
@@ -2915,18 +4475,224 @@ impl PyWriteDest {
             Self::Uri(uri) => WriteDestination::Uri(uri),
         }
     }
+
+    /// The table root uri of this destination (a branch dataset resolves to
+    /// its main location). Used to root the namespace manifest store.
+    pub fn table_root_uri(&self) -> PyResult<String> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Dataset(ds) => Ok(ds.ds.branch_location().find_main().infer_error()?.uri),
+            Self::Uri(uri) => Ok(uri.to_string()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+enum IndexProgressEventType {
+    Start,
+    Progress,
+    Complete,
+}
+
+impl IndexProgressEventType {
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Start => "start",
+            Self::Progress => "progress",
+            Self::Complete => "complete",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct IndexProgressEvent {
+    event: IndexProgressEventType,
+    stage: String,
+    completed: Option<u64>,
+    total: Option<u64>,
+    unit: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct ActiveIndexProgressStage {
+    stage: Option<String>,
+    completed: Option<u64>,
+    total: Option<u64>,
+    unit: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PyIndexBuildProgress {
+    sender: SyncSender<IndexProgressEvent>,
+    active_stage: Mutex<ActiveIndexProgressStage>,
+}
+
+impl PyIndexBuildProgress {
+    fn new(sender: SyncSender<IndexProgressEvent>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            sender,
+            active_stage: Mutex::new(ActiveIndexProgressStage::default()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Send a lifecycle event (start/complete) with blocking semantics.
+    ///
+    /// These events are rare relative to the channel capacity
+    /// (`INDEX_PROGRESS_QUEUE_SIZE`), so blocking here will not stall
+    /// the tokio runtime in practice.  Progress events use the
+    /// non-blocking `try_send_progress_event` instead.
+    fn send_event(&self, event: IndexProgressEvent) -> lance::Result<()> {
+        self.sender.send(event).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input("Index progress callback receiver disconnected".to_string())
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn try_send_progress_event(&self, event: IndexProgressEvent) -> lance::Result<()> {
+        match self.sender.try_send(event) {
+            Ok(()) | Err(TrySendError::Full(_)) => Ok(()),
+            Err(TrySendError::Disconnected(_)) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Index progress callback receiver disconnected".to_string(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl IndexBuildProgress for PyIndexBuildProgress {
+    async fn stage_start(&self, stage: &str, total: Option<u64>, unit: &str) -> lance::Result<()> {
+        {
+            let mut active_stage = self.active_stage.lock().unwrap();
+            *active_stage = ActiveIndexProgressStage {
+                stage: Some(stage.to_string()),
+                completed: Some(0),
+                total,
+                unit: unit.to_string(),
+            };
+        }
+
+        self.send_event(IndexProgressEvent {
+            event: IndexProgressEventType::Start,
+            stage: stage.to_string(),
+            completed: Some(0),
+            total,
+            unit: unit.to_string(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn stage_progress(&self, stage: &str, completed: u64) -> lance::Result<()> {
+        let event = {
+            let mut active_stage = self.active_stage.lock().unwrap();
+            if active_stage.stage.is_none() {
+                active_stage.stage = Some(stage.to_string());
+            }
+            active_stage.completed = Some(completed);
+            IndexProgressEvent {
+                event: IndexProgressEventType::Progress,
+                stage: stage.to_string(),
+                completed: Some(completed),
+                total: active_stage.total,
+                unit: active_stage.unit.clone(),
+            }
+        };
+
+        self.try_send_progress_event(event)
+    }
+
+    async fn stage_complete(&self, stage: &str) -> lance::Result<()> {
+        let event = {
+            let mut active_stage = self.active_stage.lock().unwrap();
+            let completed = active_stage.completed.or(active_stage.total);
+            let total = active_stage.total;
+            let unit = active_stage.unit.clone();
+            *active_stage = ActiveIndexProgressStage::default();
+            IndexProgressEvent {
+                event: IndexProgressEventType::Complete,
+                stage: stage.to_string(),
+                completed,
+                total,
+                unit,
+            }
+        };
+
+        self.send_event(event)
+    }
+}
+
+struct IndexProgressDispatcher {
+    callback: Py<PyAny>,
+    index_progress_cls: Py<PyAny>,
+    receiver: Receiver<IndexProgressEvent>,
+}
+
+impl IndexProgressDispatcher {
+    fn new(
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        callback: Py<PyAny>,
+        receiver: Receiver<IndexProgressEvent>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let index_progress_cls = py
+            .import("lance.progress")?
+            .getattr("IndexProgress")?
+            .unbind();
+        Ok(Self {
+            callback,
+            index_progress_cls,
+            receiver,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn drain(&mut self) -> PyResult<()> {
+        while let Ok(event) = self.receiver.try_recv() {
+            let is_complete = event.event == IndexProgressEventType::Complete;
+            if let Err(err) = self.dispatch(event) {
+                if is_complete {
+                    // Complete events are purely informational — the stage's work
+                    // is already done. Propagating a callback error here would
+                    // abort the operation after the real work has succeeded.
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "Ignoring progress callback error on stage-complete event: {}",
+                        err
+                    );
+                } else {
+                    return Err(err);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn dispatch(&self, event: IndexProgressEvent) -> PyResult<()> {
+        Python::attach(|py| {
+            let progress = self.index_progress_cls.call1(
+                py,
+                (
+                    event.event.as_str(),
+                    event.stage,
+                    event.completed,
+                    event.total,
+                    event.unit,
+                ),
+            )?;
+            self.callback.call1(py, (progress,))?;
+            Ok(())
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+struct IndexProgressHandler {
+    progress: Arc<PyIndexBuildProgress>,
+    dispatcher: IndexProgressDispatcher,
 }
 
 impl Dataset {
     fn transform_ref(&self, reference: Option<Bound<PyAny>>) -> PyResult<Ref> {
         if let Some(reference) = reference {
-            if let Ok(i) = reference.downcast::<PyInt>() {
+            if let Ok(i) = reference.cast::<PyInt>() {
                 let version_number: u64 = i.extract()?;
                 Ok(version_number.into())
-            } else if let Ok(tag_name) = reference.downcast::<PyString>() {
+            } else if let Ok(tag_name) = reference.cast::<PyString>() {
                 let tag: &str = &tag_name.to_string_lossy();
                 Ok(tag.into())
-            } else if let Ok(tuple) = reference.downcast::<PyTuple>() {
+            } else if let Ok(tuple) = reference.cast::<PyTuple>() {
                 if tuple.len() == 2 {
                     let (branch_name, version_number) =
                         tuple.extract::<(Option<String>, Option<u64>)>()?;
@@ -2967,6 +4733,10 @@ impl Dataset {
         rt().block_on(None, self.ds.versions())?.infer_error()
     }
 
+    fn list_version_refs(&self) -> PyResult<Vec<VersionRef>> {
+        rt().block_on(None, self.ds.version_refs())?.infer_error()
+    }
+
     fn list_tags(&self) -> PyResult<HashMap<String, TagContents>> {
         rt().block_on(None, self.ds.tags().list())?.infer_error()
     }
@@ -3009,6 +4779,77 @@ impl Dataset {
             });
         }))
     }
+
+    fn make_index_progress_handler(
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        callback: Py<PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<IndexProgressHandler> {
+        if !callback.bind(py).is_callable() {
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err("Progress callback must be callable"));
+        }
+
+        let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::sync_channel(INDEX_PROGRESS_QUEUE_SIZE);
+        let progress = Arc::new(PyIndexBuildProgress::new(sender));
+        let dispatcher = IndexProgressDispatcher::new(py, callback, receiver)?;
+        Ok(IndexProgressHandler {
+            progress,
+            dispatcher,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn make_index_progress_handler_from_kwargs(
+        kwargs: Option<&Bound<'_, PyDict>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Option<IndexProgressHandler>> {
+        let Some(kwargs) = kwargs else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let Some(callback) = get_dict_opt::<Py<PyAny>>(kwargs, "progress_callback")? else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        Self::make_index_progress_handler(kwargs.py(), callback).map(Some)
+    }
+
+    fn make_index_progress_handler_from_callback(
+        callback: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Option<IndexProgressHandler>> {
+        let Some(callback) = callback else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        Self::make_index_progress_handler(callback.py(), callback.clone().unbind()).map(Some)
+    }
+
+    fn run_index_future<F>(
+        future: F,
+        progress_handler: Option<&mut IndexProgressHandler>,
+    ) -> PyResult<F::Output>
+    where
+        F: std::future::Future + Send,
+        F::Output: Send,
+    {
+        if let Some(progress_handler) = progress_handler {
+            rt().block_on_pumping(None, future, || progress_handler.dispatcher.drain())
+        } else {
+            rt().block_on(None, future)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Serialize row addresses into the payload the scanner's `row_addr_allowlist` /
+/// `row_addr_blocklist` parameters accept.
+///
+/// Without this those parameters are unusable from Python: they take the roaring
+/// `RowAddrTreeMap` encoding, which nothing else exposed here can produce. The
+/// result stays plain bytes, so a mask may equally be built by another extension
+/// module and handed in.
+#[pyfunction(name = "_serialize_row_addrs")]
+pub fn serialize_row_addrs(py: Python<'_>, addrs: Vec<u64>) -> PyResult<Py<PyBytes>> {
+    let treemap = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(addrs);
+    let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(treemap.serialized_size());
+    treemap.serialize_into(&mut buf).infer_error()?;
+    Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &buf).unbind())
 }
 
 #[pyfunction(name = "_write_dataset")]
@@ -3017,7 +4858,7 @@ pub fn write_dataset(
     dest: PyWriteDest,
     options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>,
 ) -> PyResult<Dataset> {
-    let params = get_write_params(options)?;
+    let params = get_write_params(options, &dest.table_root_uri()?)?;
     let py = options.py();
     let ds = if reader.is_instance_of::<Scanner>() {
         let scanner: Scanner = reader.extract()?;
@@ -3070,8 +4911,8 @@ pub fn get_commit_handler(options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<Option<Arc<dy
 // it were never present in the dictionary.  If the value is not
 // None it will try and parse it and parsing failures will be
 // returned (e.g. a parsing failure is not considered `None`)
-fn get_dict_opt<'a, 'py, D: FromPyObject<'a>>(
-    dict: &'a Bound<'py, PyDict>,
+fn get_dict_opt<'py, D: FromPyObjectOwned<'py>>(
+    dict: &Bound<'py, PyDict>,
     key: &str,
 ) -> PyResult<Option<D>> {
     let value = dict.get_item(key)?;
@@ -3080,14 +4921,19 @@ fn get_dict_opt<'a, 'py, D: FromPyObject<'a>>(
             if v.is_none() {
                 None
             } else {
-                Some(v.extract::<D>())
+                Some(v.extract::<D>().map_err(Into::into))
             }
         })
         .transpose()
 }
 
+/// `table_uri` is the destination table's root uri; it roots the namespace
+/// manifest store when `namespace_client_managed_versioning` is requested.
 #[allow(deprecated)]
-pub fn get_write_params(options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<Option<WriteParams>> {
+pub fn get_write_params(
+    options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>,
+    table_uri: &str,
+) -> PyResult<Option<WriteParams>> {
     let params = if options.is_none() {
         None
     } else {
@@ -3104,6 +4950,15 @@ pub fn get_write_params(options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<Option<WritePar
         if let Some(maybe_nbytes) = get_dict_opt::<usize>(options, "max_bytes_per_file")? {
             p.max_bytes_per_file = maybe_nbytes;
         }
+        let data_cache_bytes = get_dict_opt::<u64>(options, "data_cache_bytes")?;
+        let max_page_bytes = get_dict_opt::<u64>(options, "max_page_bytes")?;
+        if data_cache_bytes.is_some() || max_page_bytes.is_some() {
+            p.file_writer_options = Some(FileWriterOptions {
+                data_cache_bytes,
+                max_page_bytes,
+                ..Default::default()
+            });
+        }
         if let Some(data_storage_version) = get_dict_opt::<String>(options, "data_storage_version")?
         {
             p.data_storage_version = Some(data_storage_version.parse().infer_error()?);
@@ -3111,22 +4966,40 @@ pub fn get_write_params(options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<Option<WritePar
         if let Some(progress) = get_dict_opt::<Py<PyAny>>(options, "progress")? {
             p.progress = Arc::new(PyWriteProgress::new(progress.into_py_any(options.py())?));
         }
+        if let Some(session) = get_dict_opt::<Session>(options, "session")? {
+            p.session = Some(session.inner.clone());
+        }
 
         let storage_options = get_dict_opt::<HashMap<String, String>>(options, "storage_options")?;
-        let storage_options_provider =
-            get_dict_opt::<Py<PyAny>>(options, "storage_options_provider")?;
-
-        if storage_options.is_some() || storage_options_provider.is_some() {
-            let accessor = crate::storage_options::create_accessor_from_python(
-                storage_options,
-                storage_options_provider
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .map(|py_obj| py_obj.bind(options.py())),
-            )?;
-            p.store_params = Some(ObjectStoreParams {
-                storage_options_accessor: accessor,
-                ..Default::default()
-            });
+
+        // Extract namespace_client and table_id for storage options provider creation
+        let namespace_client_opt = get_dict_opt::<Bound<PyAny>>(options, "namespace_client")?;
+        let table_id_opt = get_dict_opt::<Vec<String>>(options, "table_id")?;
+
+        if let Some(so) = storage_options.clone() {
+            // If namespace_client and table_id are provided, create storage options provider from them
+            if let (Some(ns_client), Some(table_id)) =
+                (namespace_client_opt.as_ref(), table_id_opt.as_ref())
+            {
+                let ns_client = extract_namespace_arc(options.py(), ns_client)?;
+                let provider: Arc<dyn lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider> = Arc::new(
+                    LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(ns_client, table_id.clone()),
+                );
+                let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+                    so, provider,
+                ));
+                p.store_params = Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                });
+            } else {
+                // No namespace, just use storage options directly
+                let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(so));
+                p.store_params = Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                });
+            }
         }
 
         if let Some(enable_stable_row_ids) = get_dict_opt::<bool>(options, "enable_stable_row_ids")?
@@ -3184,12 +5057,45 @@ pub fn get_write_params(options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<Option<WritePar
         }
 
         // Handle target_bases parameter (list of strings - base names or paths)
-        if let Some(target_bases_list) = get_dict_opt::<Vec<String>>(options, "target_bases")? {
-            if !target_bases_list.is_empty() {
-                p = p.with_target_base_names_or_paths(target_bases_list);
+        if let Some(target_bases_list) = get_dict_opt::<Vec<String>>(options, "target_bases")?
+            && !target_bases_list.is_empty()
+        {
+            p = p.with_target_base_names_or_paths(target_bases_list);
+        }
+
+        // Handle target_all_bases parameter (bool: include primary storage)
+        if let Some(target_all_bases) = get_dict_opt::<bool>(options, "target_all_bases")? {
+            p = p.with_target_all_bases(target_all_bases);
+        }
+
+        // Handle base_store_params: per-base storage options keyed by base path URI
+        if let Some(base_store_params) =
+            get_dict_opt::<HashMap<String, HashMap<String, String>>>(options, "base_store_params")?
+        {
+            for (base_path, opts) in base_store_params {
+                let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(opts));
+                let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+                    storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                };
+                p = p.with_base_store_params(base_path, store_params);
             }
         }
 
+        if let Some(allow_external) =
+            get_dict_opt::<bool>(options, "allow_external_blob_outside_bases")?
+        {
+            p = p.with_allow_external_blob_outside_bases(allow_external);
+        }
+        if let Some(external_blob_mode) = get_dict_opt::<String>(options, "external_blob_mode")? {
+            p = p.with_external_blob_mode(
+                ExternalBlobMode::try_from(external_blob_mode.as_str()).infer_error()?,
+            );
+        }
+        if let Some(max_bytes) = get_dict_opt::<usize>(options, "blob_pack_file_size_threshold")? {
+            p = p.with_blob_pack_file_size_threshold(max_bytes);
+        }
+
         // Handle properties
         if let Some(props) =
             get_dict_opt::<HashMap<String, String>>(options, "transaction_properties")?
@@ -3205,6 +5111,30 @@ pub fn get_write_params(options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<Option<WritePar
             p.transaction_properties = Some(Arc::new(new_props));
         }
 
+        // Handle namespace_client and table_id for managed versioning (external manifest store)
+        // Only set if commit_handler is not already set by user and namespace_client_managed_versioning is true
+        let namespace_client_managed_versioning =
+            get_dict_opt::<bool>(options, "namespace_client_managed_versioning")?.unwrap_or(false);
+        if p.commit_handler.is_none()
+            && namespace_client_managed_versioning
+            && let (Some(ns_client), Some(table_id)) =
+                (namespace_client_opt.as_ref(), table_id_opt.as_ref())
+        {
+            // The store derives the branch a request targets from the base path
+            // it is handed, resolved against the table root.
+            let ns_client = extract_namespace_arc(options.py(), ns_client)?;
+            let external_store = LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::for_table_uri(
+                ns_client,
+                table_id.clone(),
+                table_uri,
+            )
+            .infer_error()?;
+            let commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler> = Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+            });
+            p.commit_handler = Some(commit_handler);
+        }
+
         Some(p)
     };
     Ok(params)
@@ -3223,6 +5153,7 @@ fn prepare_vector_index_params(
     let mut sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
     let mut rq_params = RQBuildParams::default();
     let mut index_file_version = IndexFileVersion::V3;
+    let mut skip_transpose = false;
 
     if let Some(kwargs) = kwargs {
         // Parse metric type
@@ -3239,6 +5170,22 @@ fn prepare_vector_index_params(
             sq_params.sample_rate = sample_rate;
         }
 
+        if let Some(max_iters) = kwargs.get_item("max_iters")? {
+            let max_iters: usize = max_iters.extract()?;
+            ivf_params.max_iters = max_iters;
+            pq_params.max_iters = max_iters;
+        }
+
+        if let Some(streaming_sample_rate) = kwargs.get_item("streaming_sample_rate")? {
+            ivf_params.streaming_sample_rate = Some(streaming_sample_rate.extract()?);
+        }
+        if let Some(streaming_coreset_rate) = kwargs.get_item("streaming_coreset_rate")? {
+            ivf_params.streaming_coreset_rate = Some(streaming_coreset_rate.extract()?);
+        }
+        if let Some(streaming_refine_passes) = kwargs.get_item("streaming_refine_passes")? {
+            ivf_params.streaming_refine_passes = streaming_refine_passes.extract()?;
+        }
+
         // Parse IVF params
         if let Some(n) = kwargs.get_item("num_partitions")? {
             ivf_params.num_partitions = Some(n.extract()?)
@@ -3260,18 +5207,27 @@ fn prepare_vector_index_params(
                 ));
             }
 
+            let centroid_type = match column_type {
+                DataType::List(field)
+                    if matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _)) =>
+                {
+                    field.data_type()
+                }
+                _ => column_type,
+            };
+
             // It's important that the centroids are the same data type
             // as the vectors that will be indexed.
             let mut centroids: Arc<dyn Array> = batch.column(0).clone();
-            if centroids.data_type() != column_type {
-                centroids = lance_arrow::cast::cast_with_options(
-                    centroids.as_ref(),
-                    column_type,
-                    &Default::default(),
-                )
-                .map_err(|e| {
-                    PyValueError::new_err(format!("Failed to cast centroids to column type: {}", e))
-                })?;
+            if centroids.data_type() != centroid_type {
+                centroids =
+                    cast_with_options(centroids.as_ref(), centroid_type, &Default::default())
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                                "Failed to cast centroids to vector type: {}",
+                                e
+                            ))
+                        })?;
             }
             let centroids = as_fixed_size_list_array(centroids.as_ref());
 
@@ -3287,29 +5243,26 @@ fn prepare_vector_index_params(
         }
 
         match (
-                kwargs.get_item("precomputed_shuffle_buffers")?,
-                kwargs.get_item("precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path")?
-            ) {
-                (Some(l), Some(p)) => {
-                    let path = Path::parse(p.to_string()).map_err(|e| {
-                        PyValueError::new_err(format!(
-                            "Failed to parse precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path: {}",
-                            e
-                        ))
-                    })?;
-                    let list = l.downcast::<PyList>()?
-                        .iter()
-                        .map(|f| f.to_string())
-                        .collect();
-                    ivf_params.precomputed_shuffle_buffers = Some((path, list));
-                },
-                (None, None) => {},
-                _ => {
-                    return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
-                        "precomputed_shuffle_buffers and precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path must be specified together."
+            kwargs.get_item("precomputed_shuffle_buffers")?,
+            kwargs.get_item("precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path")?,
+        ) {
+            (Some(l), Some(p)) => {
+                let path = Path::parse(p.to_string()).map_err(|e| {
+                    PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                        "Failed to parse precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path: {}",
+                        e
                     ))
-                }
+                })?;
+                let list = l.cast::<PyList>()?.iter().map(|f| f.to_string()).collect();
+                ivf_params.precomputed_shuffle_buffers = Some((path, list));
+            }
+            (None, None) => {}
+            _ => {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+                    "precomputed_shuffle_buffers and precomputed_shuffle_buffers_path must be specified together.",
+                ));
             }
+        }
 
         // Parse HNSW params
         if let Some(max_level) = kwargs.get_item("max_level")? {
@@ -3346,11 +5299,22 @@ fn prepare_vector_index_params(
             pq_params.codebook = Some(codebook.values().clone())
         };
 
+        if let Some(r) = kwargs.get_item("rabitq_model")? {
+            let json: String = r.extract()?;
+            let meta: RabitQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&json)
+                .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid rabitq_model JSON: {e}")))?;
+            rq_params.rotation = Some(meta);
+        };
+
         if let Some(version) = kwargs.get_item("index_file_version")? {
             let version: String = version.extract()?;
             index_file_version = IndexFileVersion::try_from(&version)
                 .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid index_file_version: {e}")))?;
         }
+
+        if let Some(value) = kwargs.get_item("skip_transpose")? {
+            skip_transpose = value.extract()?;
+        }
     }
 
     let mut params = match index_type {
@@ -3395,6 +5359,14 @@ fn prepare_vector_index_params(
         ))),
     }?;
     params.version(index_file_version);
+    params.skip_transpose(skip_transpose);
+    if let Some(kwargs) = kwargs
+        && let Some(acc) = kwargs.get_item("accelerator")?
+    {
+        params
+            .runtime_hints
+            .insert("lancedb.accelerator".to_string(), acc.to_string());
+    }
     Ok(params)
 }
 
@@ -3422,10 +5394,10 @@ impl WriteFragmentProgress for PyWriteProgress {
             Ok(())
         })
         .map_err(|e| {
-            lance::Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Failed to call begin() on WriteFragmentProgress: {}", e),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            lance::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Failed to call begin() on WriteFragmentProgress: {}",
+                e
+            ))
         })?;
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -3439,10 +5411,10 @@ impl WriteFragmentProgress for PyWriteProgress {
             Ok(())
         })
         .map_err(|e| {
-            lance::Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Failed to call complete() on WriteFragmentProgress: {}", e),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            lance::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Failed to call complete() on WriteFragmentProgress: {}",
+                e
+            ))
         })?;
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -3483,10 +5455,10 @@ impl UDFCheckpointStore for PyBatchUDFCheckpointWrapper {
             Ok(batch.map(|b| b.0))
         })
         .map_err(|err: PyErr| {
-            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Failed to call get_batch() on UDFCheckpointer: {}", err),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Failed to call get_batch() on UDFCheckpointer: {}",
+                err
+            ))
         })
     }
 
@@ -3499,18 +5471,18 @@ impl UDFCheckpointStore for PyBatchUDFCheckpointWrapper {
             Ok(fragment)
         })
         .map_err(|err: PyErr| {
-            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Failed to call get_fragment() on UDFCheckpointer: {}", err),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Failed to call get_fragment() on UDFCheckpointer: {}",
+                err
+            ))
         })?;
         fragment_data
             .map(|data| {
                 serde_json::from_str(&data).map_err(|err| {
-                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Failed to deserialize fragment data: {}", err),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Failed to deserialize fragment data: {}",
+                        err
+                    ))
                 })
             })
             .transpose()
@@ -3524,19 +5496,16 @@ impl UDFCheckpointStore for PyBatchUDFCheckpointWrapper {
             Ok(())
         })
         .map_err(|err: PyErr| {
-            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Failed to call insert_batch() on UDFCheckpointer: {}", err),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Failed to call insert_batch() on UDFCheckpointer: {}",
+                err
+            ))
         })
     }
 
     fn insert_fragment(&self, fragment: Fragment) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
         let data = serde_json::to_string(&fragment).map_err(|err| {
-            lance_core::Error::io(
-                format!("Failed to serialize fragment data: {}", err),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            lance_core::Error::io(format!("Failed to serialize fragment data: {}", err))
         })?;
         Python::attach(|py| {
             self.inner
@@ -3544,18 +5513,15 @@ impl UDFCheckpointStore for PyBatchUDFCheckpointWrapper {
             Ok(())
         })
         .map_err(|err: PyErr| {
-            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Failed to call insert_fragment() on UDFCheckpointer: {}",
-                    err
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Failed to call insert_fragment() on UDFCheckpointer: {}",
+                err
+            ))
         })
     }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "PyFullTextQuery")]
+#[pyclass(name = "PyFullTextQuery", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct PyFullTextQuery {
     pub(crate) inner: FtsQuery,
@@ -3564,7 +5530,8 @@ pub struct PyFullTextQuery {
 #[pymethods]
 impl PyFullTextQuery {
     #[staticmethod]
-    #[pyo3(signature = (query, column, boost=1.0, fuzziness=Some(0), max_expansions=50, operator="OR", prefix_length=0))]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (query, column, boost=1.0, fuzziness=Some(0), max_expansions=50, operator="OR", prefix_length=0, document_granularity=None))]
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     fn match_query(
         query: String,
         column: String,
@@ -3573,30 +5540,48 @@ impl PyFullTextQuery {
         max_expansions: usize,
         operator: &str,
         prefix_length: u32,
+        document_granularity: Option<&str>,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let mut query = MatchQuery::new(query)
+            .with_column(Some(column))
+            .with_boost(boost)
+            .with_fuzziness(fuzziness)
+            .with_max_expansions(max_expansions)
+            .with_operator(
+                Operator::try_from(operator)
+                    .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid operator: {}", e)))?,
+            )
+            .with_prefix_length(prefix_length);
+        if let Some(document_granularity) = document_granularity {
+            query = query.with_document_granularity(
+                DocumentGranularity::try_from(document_granularity)
+                    .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?,
+            );
+        }
         Ok(Self {
-            inner: MatchQuery::new(query)
-                .with_column(Some(column))
-                .with_boost(boost)
-                .with_fuzziness(fuzziness)
-                .with_max_expansions(max_expansions)
-                .with_operator(
-                    Operator::try_from(operator)
-                        .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid operator: {}", e)))?,
-                )
-                .with_prefix_length(prefix_length)
-                .into(),
+            inner: query.into(),
         })
     }
 
     #[staticmethod]
-    #[pyo3(signature = (query, column, slop))]
-    fn phrase_query(query: String, column: String, slop: u32) -> PyResult<Self> {
+    #[pyo3(signature = (query, column, slop, document_granularity=None))]
+    fn phrase_query(
+        query: String,
+        column: String,
+        slop: u32,
+        document_granularity: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let mut query = PhraseQuery::new(query)
+            .with_column(Some(column))
+            .with_slop(slop);
+        if let Some(document_granularity) = document_granularity {
+            query = query.with_document_granularity(
+                DocumentGranularity::try_from(document_granularity)
+                    .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?,
+            );
+        }
         Ok(Self {
-            inner: PhraseQuery::new(query)
-                .with_column(Some(column))
-                .with_slop(slop)
-                .into(),
+            inner: query.into(),
         })
     }
 
@@ -3633,6 +5618,31 @@ impl PyFullTextQuery {
         })
     }
 
+    #[staticmethod]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (query, columns, boosts=None, operator="OR"))]
+    fn combined_fields_query(
+        query: String,
+        columns: Vec<String>,
+        boosts: Option<Vec<f32>>,
+        operator: &str,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let q = CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(query, columns)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid query: {}", e)))?;
+        let q = if let Some(boosts) = boosts {
+            q.try_with_boosts(boosts)
+                .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid boosts: {}", e)))?
+        } else {
+            q
+        };
+
+        let op = Operator::try_from(operator)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid operator: {}", e)))?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: q.with_operator(op).into(),
+        })
+    }
+
     #[staticmethod]
     #[pyo3(signature = (queries))]
     fn boolean_query(queries: Vec<(String, Self)>) -> PyResult<Self> {
@@ -3648,3 +5658,237 @@ impl PyFullTextQuery {
         })
     }
 }
+
+type VectorQueryParams = (
+    String,
+    arrow_array::ArrayRef,
+    usize,
+    usize,
+    Option<usize>,
+    Option<MetricType>,
+    Option<u32>,
+    bool,
+    Option<usize>,
+    i32,
+    ApproxMode,
+);
+
+fn extract_query_parallelism(value: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<i32> {
+    let query_parallelism = value.extract()?;
+    if query_parallelism < -1 {
+        Err(PyValueError::new_err("query_parallelism must be >= -1"))
+    } else {
+        Ok(query_parallelism)
+    }
+}
+
+fn vector_query_query_parallelism_from_dict(dict: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<i32> {
+    if let Some(query_parallelism) = dict.get_item("query_parallelism")?
+        && !query_parallelism.is_none()
+    {
+        extract_query_parallelism(&query_parallelism)
+    } else {
+        Ok(DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM)
+    }
+}
+
+fn vector_query_approx_mode_from_dict(dict: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<ApproxMode> {
+    if let Some(approx_mode) = dict.get_item("approx_mode")?
+        && !approx_mode.is_none()
+    {
+        match approx_mode.to_string().to_lowercase().as_str() {
+            "fast" => Ok(ApproxMode::Fast),
+            "normal" => Ok(ApproxMode::Normal),
+            "accurate" => Ok(ApproxMode::Accurate),
+            value => Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                "approx_mode must be one of 'fast', 'normal', or 'accurate', got '{value}'"
+            ))),
+        }
+    } else {
+        Ok(ApproxMode::Normal)
+    }
+}
+
+fn vector_query_params_from_dict(
+    dict: &Bound<'_, PyDict>,
+    default_k: usize,
+) -> PyResult<VectorQueryParams> {
+    let column = dict
+        .get_item("column")?
+        .ok_or_else(|| PyKeyError::new_err("Need column for nearest"))?
+        .to_string();
+
+    let qval = dict
+        .get_item("q")?
+        .ok_or_else(|| PyKeyError::new_err("Need q for nearest"))?;
+    let data = ArrayData::from_pyarrow_bound(&qval)?;
+    let key = make_array(data);
+
+    let k: usize = if let Some(k) = dict.get_item("k")? {
+        if k.is_none() {
+            // Use limit if k is not specified, default to 10.
+            default_k
+        } else {
+            k.extract()?
+        }
+    } else {
+        default_k
+    };
+
+    let mut minimum_nprobes = DEFAULT_NPROBES;
+    let mut maximum_nprobes: Option<usize> = None;
+
+    if let Some(nprobes) = dict.get_item("nprobes")?
+        && !nprobes.is_none()
+    {
+        let extracted: usize = nprobes.extract()?;
+        minimum_nprobes = extracted;
+        maximum_nprobes = Some(extracted);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(min_nprobes) = dict.get_item("minimum_nprobes")?
+        && !min_nprobes.is_none()
+    {
+        minimum_nprobes = min_nprobes.extract()?;
+    }
+
+    if let Some(max_nprobes) = dict.get_item("maximum_nprobes")?
+        && !max_nprobes.is_none()
+    {
+        maximum_nprobes = Some(max_nprobes.extract()?);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(maximum_nprobes_val) = maximum_nprobes
+        && minimum_nprobes > maximum_nprobes_val
+    {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+            "minimum_nprobes must be <= maximum_nprobes",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    if minimum_nprobes < 1 {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err("minimum_nprobes must be >= 1"));
+    }
+
+    if let Some(maximum_nprobes_val) = maximum_nprobes
+        && maximum_nprobes_val < 1
+    {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err("maximum_nprobes must be >= 1"));
+    }
+
+    let metric_type: Option<MetricType> = if let Some(metric) = dict.get_item("metric")? {
+        if metric.is_none() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(
+                MetricType::try_from(metric.to_string().to_lowercase().as_str())
+                    .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?,
+            )
+        }
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    // When refine factor is specified, a final Refine stage will be added to the I/O plan,
+    // and use Flat index over the raw vectors to refine the results.
+    // By default, `refine_factor` is None to not involve extra I/O exec node and random access.
+    let refine_factor: Option<u32> = if let Some(rf) = dict.get_item("refine_factor")? {
+        if rf.is_none() { None } else { rf.extract()? }
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    let use_index: bool = if let Some(idx) = dict.get_item("use_index")? {
+        idx.extract()?
+    } else {
+        true
+    };
+
+    let ef: Option<usize> = if let Some(ef_obj) = dict.get_item("ef")? {
+        if ef_obj.is_none() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            ef_obj.extract()?
+        }
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    let query_parallelism = vector_query_query_parallelism_from_dict(dict)?;
+    let approx_mode = vector_query_approx_mode_from_dict(dict)?;
+
+    Ok((
+        column,
+        key,
+        k,
+        minimum_nprobes,
+        maximum_nprobes,
+        metric_type,
+        refine_factor,
+        use_index,
+        ef,
+        query_parallelism,
+        approx_mode,
+    ))
+}
+
+#[pyclass(name = "PySearchFilter", from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PySearchFilter {
+    pub(crate) inner: QueryFilter,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PySearchFilter {
+    /// Create a search filter from a full text query.
+    #[staticmethod]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (query))]
+    fn from_full_text_query(query: PyFullTextQuery) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: QueryFilter::Fts(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.inner.clone())),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Create a query filter from a vector search query dict.
+    #[staticmethod]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (query))]
+    fn from_vector_search_query(query: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let default_k = 10;
+        let (
+            column,
+            key,
+            k,
+            minimum_nprobes,
+            maximum_nprobes,
+            metric_type_opt,
+            refine_factor,
+            use_index,
+            ef,
+            query_parallelism,
+            approx_mode,
+        ) = vector_query_params_from_dict(query, default_k)?;
+
+        let metric_type = Some(metric_type_opt.unwrap_or(MetricType::L2));
+
+        let vector_query = VectorQuery {
+            column,
+            key,
+            k,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            minimum_nprobes,
+            maximum_nprobes,
+            ef,
+            refine_factor,
+            metric_type,
+            use_index,
+            query_parallelism,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode,
+        };
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: QueryFilter::Vector(vector_query),
+        })
+    }
+}
diff --git a/python/src/dataset/blob.rs b/python/src/dataset/blob.rs
index 12d0f362fea..3b9f0dc25bd 100644
--- a/python/src/dataset/blob.rs
+++ b/python/src/dataset/blob.rs
@@ -15,10 +15,10 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use pyo3::{
+    Bound, PyResult, Python,
     exceptions::PyValueError,
     pyclass, pymethods,
     types::{PyByteArray, PyByteArrayMethods, PyBytes},
-    Bound, PyResult, Python,
 };
 
 use lance::dataset::BlobFile as InnerBlobFile;
@@ -62,6 +62,49 @@ impl LanceBlobFile {
         Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &data))
     }
 
+    /// Read a blob-local byte range without changing the current cursor.
+    pub fn read_range<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        py: Python<'a>,
+        offset: u64,
+        length: usize,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'a, PyBytes>> {
+        let end = offset
+            .checked_add(length as u64)
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyValueError::new_err("offset + length overflowed"))?;
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        let data = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), inner.read_range(offset..end))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &data))
+    }
+
+    /// Read multiple blob-local `(offset, length)` ranges without changing the current cursor.
+    pub fn read_ranges<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        ranges: Vec<(u64, u64)>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Vec<Bound<'py, PyBytes>>> {
+        let ranges = ranges
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(i, (offset, length))| {
+                let end = offset.checked_add(length).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                        "Blob range request {i} offset + length overflowed u64: \
+                         offset={offset}, length={length}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                Ok(offset..end)
+            })
+            .collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        let data = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), inner.read_ranges(&ranges))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(data.iter().map(|bytes| PyBytes::new(py, bytes)).collect())
+    }
+
     pub fn read_into(&self, dst: Bound<'_, PyByteArray>) -> PyResult<usize> {
         let inner = self.inner.clone();
 
@@ -83,6 +126,18 @@ impl LanceBlobFile {
             Ok(data.len())
         }
     }
+
+    /// Sequential read-ahead size in bytes. `0` disables read-ahead.
+    pub fn set_buffer_size(&self, py: Python<'_>, buffer_size: usize) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        rt().block_on(Some(py), inner.set_buffer_size(buffer_size))?
+            .infer_error()
+    }
+
+    #[pyo3(name = "_range_submission_count")]
+    pub fn range_submission_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.range_submission_count()
+    }
 }
 
 impl From<InnerBlobFile> for LanceBlobFile {
diff --git a/python/src/dataset/cleanup.rs b/python/src/dataset/cleanup.rs
index e45bf308faa..bc2d1431057 100644
--- a/python/src/dataset/cleanup.rs
+++ b/python/src/dataset/cleanup.rs
@@ -14,11 +14,17 @@
 
 use pyo3::{pyclass, pymethods};
 
-#[pyclass(get_all)]
-#[derive(Debug)]
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 pub struct CleanupStats {
     pub bytes_removed: u64,
     pub old_versions: u64,
+    pub data_files_removed: u64,
+    pub transaction_files_removed: u64,
+    pub index_files_removed: u64,
+    pub deletion_files_removed: u64,
+    /// Files that could not be deleted; not counted as removed.
+    pub failed_deletes: u64,
 }
 
 #[pymethods]
@@ -27,3 +33,53 @@ impl CleanupStats {
         format!("{self:?}")
     }
 }
+
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct CleanupCandidateFile {
+    pub path: String,
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub unverified: bool,
+    pub size_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl CleanupCandidateFile {
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!("{self:?}")
+    }
+}
+
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct CleanupReferencedBranch {
+    pub name: String,
+    pub referenced_version: u64,
+    pub cleanup_candidate: bool,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl CleanupReferencedBranch {
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!("{self:?}")
+    }
+}
+
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct CleanupExplanation {
+    pub read_version: u64,
+    pub stats: CleanupStats,
+    pub candidate_files: Vec<CleanupCandidateFile>,
+    pub candidate_files_truncated: bool,
+    pub candidate_file_limit: usize,
+    pub referenced_branches: Vec<CleanupReferencedBranch>,
+    pub warnings: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl CleanupExplanation {
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!("{self:?}")
+    }
+}
diff --git a/python/src/dataset/commit.rs b/python/src/dataset/commit.rs
index c76a91f718c..bb904f89bf7 100644
--- a/python/src/dataset/commit.rs
+++ b/python/src/dataset/commit.rs
@@ -16,7 +16,6 @@ use std::fmt::Debug;
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 
 use lance_table::io::commit::{CommitError, CommitLease, CommitLock};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use lance_core::Error;
 
@@ -24,8 +23,7 @@ use pyo3::{exceptions::PyIOError, prelude::*};
 
 static PY_CONFLICT_ERROR: LazyLock<PyResult<Py<PyAny>>> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     Python::attach(|py| {
-        py.import("lance")
-            .and_then(|lance| lance.getattr("commit"))
+        py.import("lance.commit")
             .and_then(|commit| commit.getattr("CommitConflictError"))
             .map(|err| err.unbind())
     })
@@ -35,20 +33,20 @@ fn handle_error(py_err: PyErr, py: Python) -> CommitError {
     let conflict_err_type = match &*PY_CONFLICT_ERROR {
         Ok(err) => err.bind(py).get_type(),
         Err(import_error) => {
-            return CommitError::OtherError(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Error importing from pylance {}", import_error),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            return CommitError::OtherError(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Error importing from pylance {}",
+                import_error
+            )));
         }
     };
 
     if py_err.is_instance(py, &conflict_err_type) {
         CommitError::CommitConflict
     } else {
-        CommitError::OtherError(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("Error from commit handler: {}", py_err),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        CommitError::OtherError(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Error from commit handler: {}",
+            py_err
+        )))
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/python/src/dataset/io_stats.rs b/python/src/dataset/io_stats.rs
index fd6f10513c3..c153dc20fed 100644
--- a/python/src/dataset/io_stats.rs
+++ b/python/src/dataset/io_stats.rs
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ use pyo3::{pyclass, pymethods};
 ///
 /// Note: Calling `io_stats()` returns the statistics accumulated since the last call
 /// and resets the internal counters (incremental stats pattern).
-#[pyclass(name = "IOStats", module = "_lib", get_all)]
+#[pyclass(name = "IOStats", module = "_lib", get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 pub struct IoStats {
     /// Number of read IO operations performed
diff --git a/python/src/dataset/optimize.rs b/python/src/dataset/optimize.rs
index d398f5b7ce6..e17023b7450 100644
--- a/python/src/dataset/optimize.rs
+++ b/python/src/dataset/optimize.rs
@@ -15,16 +15,20 @@
 use lance::dataset::{
     index::DatasetIndexRemapperOptions,
     optimize::{
-        commit_compaction, compact_files, plan_compaction, CompactionMetrics, CompactionOptions,
-        CompactionPlan, CompactionTask, RewriteResult,
+        CompactionMetrics, CompactionMode, CompactionOptions, CompactionPlan, CompactionTask,
+        RewriteResult, commit_compaction, compact_files, plan_compaction,
     },
 };
 use pyo3::{exceptions::PyNotImplementedError, pyclass::CompareOp, types::PyTuple};
 
 use super::*;
 
-fn parse_compaction_options(options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<CompactionOptions> {
-    let mut opts = CompactionOptions::default();
+fn parse_compaction_options(
+    options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>,
+    config: &std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> PyResult<CompactionOptions> {
+    let mut opts = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(config)
+        .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
 
     for (key, value) in options.into_iter() {
         let key: String = key.extract()?;
@@ -45,12 +49,49 @@ fn parse_compaction_options(options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<CompactionO
             "materialize_deletions_threshold" => {
                 opts.materialize_deletions_threshold = value.extract()?;
             }
+            "defer_index_remap" => {
+                opts.defer_index_remap = value.extract()?;
+            }
             "num_threads" => {
                 opts.num_threads = value.extract()?;
             }
             "batch_size" => {
                 opts.batch_size = value.extract()?;
             }
+            "io_buffer_size" => {
+                opts.io_buffer_size = value.extract()?;
+            }
+            "compaction_mode" => {
+                let mode_str: Option<String> = value.extract()?;
+                if let Some(mode_str) = mode_str {
+                    opts.compaction_mode = Some(
+                        CompactionMode::try_from(mode_str.as_str())
+                            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?,
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+            "binary_copy_read_batch_bytes" => {
+                opts.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes = value.extract()?;
+            }
+            "max_source_fragments" => {
+                opts.max_source_fragments = value.extract()?;
+            }
+            "max_source_rows" => {
+                opts.max_source_rows = value.extract()?;
+            }
+            "max_source_bytes" => {
+                opts.max_source_bytes = value.extract()?;
+            }
+            "excluded_fragment_ids" => {
+                opts.excluded_fragment_ids =
+                    value.extract::<Option<Vec<u32>>>()?.unwrap_or_default();
+            }
+            "data_storage_version" => {
+                let version: Option<String> = value.extract()?;
+                if let Some(version) = version {
+                    opts.data_storage_version = Some(version.parse().infer_error()?);
+                }
+            }
             _ => {
                 return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
                     "Invalid compaction option: {}",
@@ -64,7 +105,8 @@ fn parse_compaction_options(options: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<CompactionO
 }
 
 fn unwrap_dataset(dataset: Bound<PyAny>) -> PyResult<Bound<Dataset>> {
-    dataset.getattr("_ds")?.extract()
+    let ds = dataset.getattr("_ds")?;
+    Ok(ds.cast::<Dataset>()?.clone())
 }
 
 fn wrap_fragment<'py>(py: Python<'py>, fragment: &Fragment) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
@@ -207,7 +249,7 @@ impl PyCompactionPlan {
     }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "CompactionTask", module = "lance.optimize")]
+#[pyclass(name = "CompactionTask", module = "lance.optimize", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct PyCompactionTask(CompactionTask);
 
@@ -325,7 +367,7 @@ impl PyCompactionTask {
 ///
 /// This result is pickle-able, so it can be serialized and sent back to the
 /// main process to be passed to :py:meth:`lance.optimize.Compaction.commit`.
-#[pyclass(name = "RewriteResult", module = "lance.optimize")]
+#[pyclass(name = "RewriteResult", module = "lance.optimize", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct PyRewriteResult(RewriteResult);
 
@@ -469,8 +511,9 @@ impl PyCompaction {
         let dataset = dataset_ref.borrow().clone();
         // Make sure we parse the options within a scoped GIL context, so we
         // aren't holding the GIL while blocking the thread on the operation.
-        let options = options.downcast::<PyDict>()?;
-        let opts = parse_compaction_options(options)?;
+        let options = options.cast::<PyDict>()?;
+        let config = dataset.ds.manifest.config.clone();
+        let opts = parse_compaction_options(options, &config)?;
         let mut new_ds = dataset.ds.as_ref().clone();
         let fut = compact_files(&mut new_ds, opts, None);
         let metrics = rt().block_on(None, async move {
@@ -502,8 +545,9 @@ impl PyCompaction {
         let dataset = dataset.borrow().clone();
         // Make sure we parse the options within a scoped GIL context, so we
         // aren't holding the GIL while blocking the thread on the operation.
-        let options = options.downcast::<PyDict>()?;
-        let opts = parse_compaction_options(options)?;
+        let options = options.cast::<PyDict>()?;
+        let config = dataset.ds.manifest.config.clone();
+        let opts = parse_compaction_options(options, &config)?;
         let plan = rt()
             .block_on(None, async move {
                 plan_compaction(dataset.ds.as_ref(), &opts).await
@@ -526,26 +570,34 @@ impl PyCompaction {
     ///     new version once committed.
     /// rewrites : List[RewriteResult]
     ///     The results of the compaction tasks to include in the commit.
+    /// options : dict, optional
+    ///     Compaction options to apply at commit time.
+    ///     When absent or ``None``, defaults to ``CompactionOptions::default()``.
     ///
     /// Returns
     /// -------
     /// CompactionMetrics
     #[staticmethod]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (dataset, rewrites, options = None))]
     pub fn commit(
         dataset: Bound<PyAny>,
         rewrites: Vec<PyRewriteResult>,
+        options: Option<Bound<PyDict>>,
     ) -> PyResult<PyCompactionMetrics> {
         let dataset_ref = unwrap_dataset(dataset)?;
         let dataset = dataset_ref.borrow().clone();
+        let config = dataset.ds.manifest.config.clone();
+        let opts = match options {
+            Some(ref dict) => parse_compaction_options(dict, &config)?,
+            None => CompactionOptions::default(),
+        };
         let rewrites: Vec<RewriteResult> = rewrites.into_iter().map(|r| r.0).collect();
         let mut new_ds = dataset.ds.as_ref().clone();
-        // TODO: pass compaction option from plan and execute time
-        let options: CompactionOptions = CompactionOptions::default();
         let fut = commit_compaction(
             &mut new_ds,
             rewrites,
             Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
-            &options,
+            &opts,
         );
         let metrics = rt()
             .block_on(None, fut)?
diff --git a/python/src/dataset/stats.rs b/python/src/dataset/stats.rs
index fc294727d60..4f4b49b5ac3 100644
--- a/python/src/dataset/stats.rs
+++ b/python/src/dataset/stats.rs
@@ -13,9 +13,9 @@
 // limitations under the License.
 
 use lance::dataset::statistics::{DataStatistics, FieldStatistics};
-use pyo3::{intern, types::PyAnyMethods, Bound, IntoPyObject, PyAny, PyErr, Python};
+use pyo3::{Bound, IntoPyObject, PyAny, PyErr, Python, intern, types::PyAnyMethods};
 
-use crate::utils::{export_vec, PyLance};
+use crate::utils::{PyLance, export_vec};
 
 impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&FieldStatistics> {
     type Target = PyAny;
diff --git a/python/src/debug.rs b/python/src/debug.rs
index 2aa6cb608e4..bc0e09aba2b 100644
--- a/python/src/debug.rs
+++ b/python/src/debug.rs
@@ -3,11 +3,11 @@
 
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use lance::{datatypes::Schema, Error};
+use lance::{Error, datatypes::Schema};
 use lance_table::format::{DeletionFile, Fragment};
 use pyo3::{exceptions::PyIOError, prelude::*};
 
-use crate::{rt, utils::PyLance, Dataset};
+use crate::{Dataset, rt, utils::PyLance};
 
 /// Format the Lance schema of a dataset as a string.
 ///
@@ -61,8 +61,8 @@ impl PrettyPrintableFragment {
                 let schema = schema.project_by_ids(&file.fields, false);
                 PrettyPrintableDataFile {
                     path: file.path.clone(),
-                    fields: file.fields.clone(),
-                    column_indices: file.column_indices.clone(),
+                    fields: file.fields.to_vec(),
+                    column_indices: file.column_indices.to_vec(),
                     schema,
                     major_version: file.file_major_version,
                     minor_version: file.file_minor_version,
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ pub fn list_transactions(
                         return Err(PyIOError::new_err(format!(
                             "Failed to checkout version: {:?}",
                             err
-                        )))
+                        )));
                     }
                 }
             }
diff --git a/python/src/error.rs b/python/src/error.rs
index 11e4146910b..c1d2235f2f7 100644
--- a/python/src/error.rs
+++ b/python/src/error.rs
@@ -14,13 +14,44 @@
 
 use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 use pyo3::{
-    exceptions::{PyIOError, PyNotImplementedError, PyRuntimeError, PyValueError},
-    types::{PyAnyMethods, PyModule},
     BoundObject, PyErr, PyResult, Python,
+    exceptions::{PyIOError, PyNotImplementedError, PyRuntimeError, PyTimeoutError, PyValueError},
+    types::{PyAnyMethods, PyModule},
 };
 
 use lance::Error as LanceError;
 
+/// Return the `retryable` flag for a commit-conflict error.
+///
+/// Mirrors the Rust conflict contract: `RetryableCommitConflict` and
+/// `CommitConflict` (commit-step retries exhausted, safe to retry) are
+/// retryable; `IncompatibleTransaction` (a conflict retrying cannot fix) is not.
+fn commit_conflict_retryable(err: &LanceError) -> bool {
+    match err {
+        LanceError::RetryableCommitConflict { .. } | LanceError::CommitConflict { .. } => true,
+        LanceError::IncompatibleTransaction { .. } => false,
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert a commit-conflict `LanceError` to the Python `CommitConflictError`.
+///
+/// The `retryable` flag is carried as a typed attribute on the exception so
+/// clients can drive retry loops without string-matching the message.
+fn commit_conflict_error(py: Python<'_>, err: &LanceError, retryable: bool) -> PyErr {
+    let message = err.to_string();
+    match PyModule::import(py, "lance.commit") {
+        Ok(module) => match module.getattr("CommitConflictError") {
+            Ok(conflict_type) => match conflict_type.call1((message.clone(), retryable)) {
+                Ok(instance) => PyErr::from_value(instance),
+                Err(_) => PyIOError::new_err(message),
+            },
+            Err(_) => PyIOError::new_err(message),
+        },
+        Err(_) => PyIOError::new_err(message),
+    }
+}
+
 /// Try to convert a NamespaceError to the corresponding Python exception.
 /// Returns the appropriate Python exception from lance_namespace.errors module.
 fn namespace_error_to_pyerr(py: Python<'_>, ns_err: &NamespaceError) -> PyErr {
@@ -66,6 +97,18 @@ pub trait PythonErrorExt<T> {
     fn not_implemented(self) -> PyResult<T>;
     /// Convert to PyIoError
     fn io_error(self) -> PyResult<T>;
+    /// Convert to PyTimeoutError
+    fn timeout_error(self) -> PyResult<T>;
+    /// Convert to PyTimeoutError for `Error::Timeout`, otherwise PyIoError.
+    ///
+    /// Used by call sites that historically mapped every `lance::Error` to
+    /// PyIoError but should surface timeouts distinctly.
+    fn io_or_timeout_error(self) -> PyResult<T>;
+    /// Convert commit conflicts to `CommitConflictError`, otherwise PyIoError.
+    ///
+    /// Used by call sites that historically mapped every `lance::Error` to
+    /// PyIoError but should surface commit conflicts distinctly.
+    fn io_or_commit_conflict_error(self) -> PyResult<T>;
 }
 
 impl<T> PythonErrorExt<T> for std::result::Result<T, LanceError> {
@@ -76,9 +119,16 @@ impl<T> PythonErrorExt<T> for std::result::Result<T, LanceError> {
                 LanceError::InvalidInput { .. } => self.value_error(),
                 LanceError::NotSupported { .. } => self.not_implemented(),
                 LanceError::IO { .. } => self.io_error(),
+                LanceError::Timeout { .. } => self.timeout_error(),
                 LanceError::NotFound { .. } => self.value_error(),
                 LanceError::RefNotFound { .. } => self.value_error(),
                 LanceError::VersionNotFound { .. } => self.value_error(),
+                LanceError::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }
+                | LanceError::CommitConflict { .. }
+                | LanceError::IncompatibleTransaction { .. } => {
+                    let retryable = commit_conflict_retryable(err);
+                    Python::attach(|py| Err(commit_conflict_error(py, err, retryable)))
+                }
                 LanceError::Namespace { source, .. } => {
                     // Try to downcast to NamespaceError and convert to proper Python exception
                     if let Some(ns_err) = source.downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>() {
@@ -112,4 +162,37 @@ impl<T> PythonErrorExt<T> for std::result::Result<T, LanceError> {
     fn io_error(self) -> PyResult<T> {
         self.map_err(|err| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))
     }
+
+    fn timeout_error(self) -> PyResult<T> {
+        self.map_err(|err| PyTimeoutError::new_err(err.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn io_or_timeout_error(self) -> PyResult<T> {
+        match &self {
+            Err(LanceError::Timeout { .. }) => self.timeout_error(),
+            Err(
+                err @ (LanceError::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }
+                | LanceError::CommitConflict { .. }
+                | LanceError::IncompatibleTransaction { .. }),
+            ) => {
+                let retryable = commit_conflict_retryable(err);
+                Python::attach(|py| Err(commit_conflict_error(py, err, retryable)))
+            }
+            _ => self.io_error(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn io_or_commit_conflict_error(self) -> PyResult<T> {
+        match &self {
+            Err(
+                err @ (LanceError::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }
+                | LanceError::CommitConflict { .. }
+                | LanceError::IncompatibleTransaction { .. }),
+            ) => {
+                let retryable = commit_conflict_retryable(err);
+                Python::attach(|py| Err(commit_conflict_error(py, err, retryable)))
+            }
+            _ => self.io_error(),
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/python/src/executor.rs b/python/src/executor.rs
index 23b08d07f80..e2c1ca4b383 100644
--- a/python/src/executor.rs
+++ b/python/src/executor.rs
@@ -15,10 +15,14 @@
 use std::sync::mpsc::RecvTimeoutError;
 
 use futures::Future;
-use pyo3::{exceptions::PyRuntimeError, PyResult, Python};
+use pyo3::{PyResult, Python, exceptions::PyRuntimeError};
 
 pub const SIGNAL_CHECK_INTERVAL: std::time::Duration = std::time::Duration::from_millis(100);
 
+fn is_python314_or_later(py: Option<Python<'_>>) -> bool {
+    py.is_some_and(|py| py.version_info() >= (3, 14))
+}
+
 /// A wrapper around tokio runtime.
 ///
 /// This is used to spawn tasks in the background and wait synchronously for them
@@ -58,8 +62,15 @@ impl BackgroundExecutor {
         if let Some(py) = py {
             py.detach(|| self.spawn_impl(task))
         } else {
-            // Python::with_gil is a no-op if the GIL is already held by the thread.
-            Python::attach(|py| py.detach(|| self.spawn_impl(task)))
+            let mut task = Some(task);
+            if let Some(result) = Python::try_attach(|py| {
+                let task = task.take().expect("task should not be taken");
+                py.detach(|| self.spawn_impl(task))
+            }) {
+                result
+            } else {
+                self.spawn_impl(task.expect("task should still be available"))
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -83,7 +94,13 @@ impl BackgroundExecutor {
 
         loop {
             // Check for keyboard interrupts
-            match Python::attach(|py| py.check_signals()) {
+            let signal_check = match Python::try_attach(|py| py.check_signals()) {
+                Some(result) => result,
+                // Python may be finalizing or unavailable. In this state we can't
+                // observe KeyboardInterrupt reliably, but we should not panic.
+                None => Ok(()),
+            };
+            match signal_check {
                 Ok(_) => {}
                 Err(err) => {
                     handle.abort();
@@ -113,12 +130,18 @@ impl BackgroundExecutor {
                 self.runtime.spawn(task);
             })
         } else {
-            // Python::with_gil is a no-op if the GIL is already held by the thread.
-            Python::attach(|py| {
+            let mut task = Some(task);
+            if Python::try_attach(|py| {
+                let task = task.take().expect("task should not be taken");
                 py.detach(|| {
                     self.runtime.spawn(task);
                 })
             })
+            .is_none()
+            {
+                self.runtime
+                    .spawn(task.expect("task should still be available"));
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -141,8 +164,103 @@ impl BackgroundExecutor {
         if let Some(py) = py {
             py.detach(move || self.runtime.block_on(future))
         } else {
-            // Python::with_gil is a no-op if the GIL is already held by the thread.
-            Python::attach(|py| py.detach(|| self.runtime.block_on(future)))
+            let mut future = Some(future);
+            if let Some(result) = Python::try_attach(|py| {
+                let future = future.take().expect("future should not be taken");
+                py.detach(|| self.runtime.block_on(future))
+            }) {
+                result
+            } else {
+                self.runtime
+                    .block_on(future.expect("future should still be available"))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Block on a future, periodically draining a caller-provided pump.
+    ///
+    /// This is intended for progress callbacks where the future emits events from
+    /// background tasks and the caller needs to run Python code while waiting for
+    /// the future to complete.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`block_on`], this method does **not** wrap the future in
+    /// `result_or_interrupt`, so keyboard interrupts are only checked on the
+    /// main thread between poll intervals (`SIGNAL_CHECK_INTERVAL`).  This is
+    /// acceptable because index operations yield frequently to emit progress
+    /// events.
+    pub fn block_on_pumping<F, P>(
+        &self,
+        py: Option<Python<'_>>,
+        future: F,
+        mut pump: P,
+    ) -> PyResult<F::Output>
+    where
+        F: Future + Send,
+        F::Output: Send,
+        P: FnMut() -> PyResult<()>,
+    {
+        let should_propagate_on_completion = is_python314_or_later(py);
+
+        let mut future = std::pin::pin!(future);
+
+        loop {
+            pump()?;
+
+            let signal_check = match Python::try_attach(|py| py.check_signals()) {
+                Some(result) => result,
+                None => Ok(()),
+            };
+            signal_check?;
+
+            let maybe_output = if let Some(py) = py {
+                py.detach(|| {
+                    self.runtime.block_on(async {
+                        tokio::select! {
+                            result = &mut future => Some(result),
+                            _ = tokio::time::sleep(SIGNAL_CHECK_INTERVAL) => None,
+                        }
+                    })
+                })
+            } else if let Some(result) = Python::try_attach(|py| {
+                py.detach(|| {
+                    self.runtime.block_on(async {
+                        tokio::select! {
+                            result = &mut future => Some(result),
+                            _ = tokio::time::sleep(SIGNAL_CHECK_INTERVAL) => None,
+                        }
+                    })
+                })
+            }) {
+                result
+            } else {
+                self.runtime.block_on(async {
+                    tokio::select! {
+                        result = &mut future => Some(result),
+                        _ = tokio::time::sleep(SIGNAL_CHECK_INTERVAL) => None,
+                    }
+                })
+            };
+
+            if let Some(output) = maybe_output {
+                // When the index build finishes so fast that no pump cycles
+                // occurred during execution, pending events sit in the channel
+                // buffer and get drained after completion. Python ≥ 3.14 changed
+                // GIL/async scheduling timing such that callback invocations may
+                // only be visible in this post-completion drain, so we propagate
+                // errors for 3.14+. For ≤ 3.13 we keep the old tolerant behavior
+                // to avoid spurious failures when scheduling shifts slightly.
+                if should_propagate_on_completion {
+                    pump()?;
+                } else {
+                    if let Err(err) = pump() {
+                        log::warn!(
+                            "Ignoring progress callback error after operation completed successfully: {}",
+                            err
+                        );
+                    }
+                }
+                return Ok(output);
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -154,7 +272,13 @@ impl BackgroundExecutor {
         let interrupt_future = async {
             loop {
                 // Check for keyboard interrupts
-                match Python::attach(|py| py.check_signals()) {
+                let signal_check = match Python::try_attach(|py| py.check_signals()) {
+                    Some(result) => result,
+                    // Python may be finalizing or unavailable. In this state we can't
+                    // observe KeyboardInterrupt reliably, but we should not panic.
+                    None => Ok(()),
+                };
+                match signal_check {
                     Ok(_) => {
                         // Wait for 100ms before checking signals again
                         tokio::time::sleep(SIGNAL_CHECK_INTERVAL).await;
diff --git a/python/src/file.rs b/python/src/file.rs
index 85a5818037e..19519207f53 100644
--- a/python/src/file.rs
+++ b/python/src/file.rs
@@ -12,6 +12,8 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
+use crate::blob::{PyDedicatedBlobWriter, PyPackedBlobWriter};
+use crate::namespace::extract_namespace_arc;
 use crate::{error::PythonErrorExt, rt};
 use arrow::pyarrow::PyArrowType;
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader, UInt32Array};
@@ -19,34 +21,35 @@ use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 use bytes::Bytes;
 use futures::stream::StreamExt;
 use lance::io::{ObjectStore, RecordBatchStream};
+use lance_arrow::json::convert_json_columns;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_core::utils::path::LancePathExt;
 use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
 use lance_file::reader::{
     BufferDescriptor, CachedFileMetadata, FileReader, FileReaderOptions, FileStatistics,
-    ReaderProjection,
 };
 use lance_file::writer::{FileWriter, FileWriterOptions};
-use lance_file::{version::LanceFileVersion, LanceEncodingsIo};
-use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+use lance_file::{LanceEncodingsIo, version::LanceFileVersion, versions as file_versions};
+use lance_io::object_store::{LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, ObjectStoreParams};
 use lance_io::{
+    ReadBatchParams,
     scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig},
+    traits::Writer,
     utils::CachedFileSize,
-    ReadBatchParams,
 };
-use object_store::path::Path;
+use object_store::{ObjectStoreExt, path::Path};
 use pyo3::{
+    Bound, IntoPyObjectExt, Py, PyErr, PyResult, Python,
     exceptions::{PyIOError, PyRuntimeError},
     pyclass, pyfunction, pymethods,
     types::PyAny,
-    Bound, IntoPyObjectExt, Py, PyErr, PyResult, Python,
 };
 use serde::Serialize;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::{pin::Pin, sync::Arc};
 use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 use tokio::sync::Mutex;
-#[pyclass(get_all)]
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize)]
 pub struct LanceBufferDescriptor {
     /// The byte offset of the buffer in the file
@@ -68,7 +71,7 @@ impl LanceBufferDescriptor {
     }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(get_all)]
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize)]
 pub struct LancePageMetadata {
     /// The buffers in the page
@@ -92,7 +95,7 @@ impl LancePageMetadata {
     }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(get_all)]
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize)]
 pub struct LanceColumnMetadata {
     /// The column-wide buffers
@@ -117,7 +120,7 @@ impl LanceColumnMetadata {
 }
 
 /// Statistics summarize some of the file metadata for quick summary info
-#[pyclass(get_all)]
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize)]
 pub struct LanceFileStatistics {
     /// Statistics about each of the columns in the file
@@ -133,7 +136,7 @@ impl LanceFileStatistics {
 }
 
 /// Summary information describing a column
-#[pyclass(get_all)]
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize)]
 pub struct LanceColumnStatistics {
     /// The number of pages in the column
@@ -168,7 +171,7 @@ impl LanceFileStatistics {
     }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(get_all)]
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize)]
 pub struct LanceFileMetadata {
     /// The schema of the file
@@ -227,6 +230,26 @@ impl LanceFileMetadata {
     }
 }
 
+/// Summary of a completed Lance file write
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize)]
+pub struct LanceFileWriteSummary {
+    /// The number of rows written to the file
+    pub num_rows: u64,
+    /// The final size of the file, in bytes
+    pub size_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl LanceFileWriteSummary {
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!(
+            "FileWriteSummary(num_rows={}, size_bytes={})",
+            self.num_rows, self.size_bytes
+        )
+    }
+}
+
 #[pyclass]
 pub struct LanceFileWriter {
     inner: Arc<Mutex<Box<FileWriter>>>,
@@ -272,21 +295,23 @@ impl LanceFileWriter {
         max_page_bytes: Option<u64>,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let object_writer = object_store.create(&path).await.infer_error()?;
+        let version = version
+            .map(|value| value.parse::<LanceFileVersion>())
+            .transpose()
+            .infer_error()?
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+            .resolve();
         let options = FileWriterOptions {
             data_cache_bytes,
             keep_original_array,
             max_page_bytes,
-            format_version: version
-                .map(|v| v.parse::<LanceFileVersion>())
-                .transpose()
-                .infer_error()?,
-            ..Default::default()
         };
         let inner = if let Some(schema) = schema {
             let lance_schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&schema.0).infer_error()?;
-            FileWriter::try_new(object_writer, lance_schema, options).infer_error()
+            file_versions::create_writer(version, object_writer, lance_schema, options)
+                .infer_error()
         } else {
-            Ok(FileWriter::new_lazy(object_writer, options))
+            file_versions::create_lazy_writer(version, object_writer, options).infer_error()
         }?;
         Ok(Self {
             inner: Arc::new(Mutex::new(Box::new(inner))),
@@ -297,7 +322,7 @@ impl LanceFileWriter {
 #[pymethods]
 impl LanceFileWriter {
     #[new]
-    #[pyo3(signature=(path, schema=None, data_cache_bytes=None, version=None, storage_options=None, storage_options_provider=None, keep_original_array=None, max_page_bytes=None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(path, schema=None, data_cache_bytes=None, version=None, storage_options=None, namespace_client=None, table_id=None, keep_original_array=None, max_page_bytes=None))]
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub fn new(
         path: String,
@@ -305,14 +330,22 @@ impl LanceFileWriter {
         data_cache_bytes: Option<u64>,
         version: Option<String>,
         storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-        storage_options_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        namespace_client: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        table_id: Option<Vec<String>>,
         keep_original_array: Option<bool>,
         max_page_bytes: Option<u64>,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        // Convert Python StorageOptionsProvider to Rust trait object
-        let provider = storage_options_provider
-            .map(crate::storage_options::py_object_to_storage_options_provider)
-            .transpose()?;
+        // Create storage options provider from namespace_client and table_id if both are provided
+        let provider = if let (Some(ns_client), Some(tid)) = (&namespace_client, &table_id) {
+            let ns_client = extract_namespace_arc(ns_client.py(), ns_client)?;
+            Some(Arc::new(LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(
+                ns_client,
+                tid.clone(),
+            ))
+                as Arc<dyn lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider>)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
 
         rt().block_on(
             None,
@@ -330,15 +363,27 @@ impl LanceFileWriter {
     }
 
     pub fn write_batch(&self, batch: PyArrowType<RecordBatch>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let batch = convert_json_columns(&batch.0)
+            .map_err(lance_core::Error::from)
+            .infer_error()?;
         rt().block_on(None, async {
-            self.inner.lock().await.write_batch(&batch.0).await
+            self.inner.lock().await.write_batch(&batch).await
         })?
         .infer_error()
     }
 
-    pub fn finish(&self) -> PyResult<u64> {
-        rt().block_on(None, async { self.inner.lock().await.finish().await })?
-            .infer_error()
+    /// Finish the file and return the row count and the final file size
+    ///
+    /// The size is reported by the object writer once the file has been closed
+    /// and so it is accurate for object stores as well as local filesystems.
+    pub fn finish(&self) -> PyResult<LanceFileWriteSummary> {
+        let summary = rt()
+            .block_on(None, async { self.inner.lock().await.finish().await })?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(LanceFileWriteSummary {
+            num_rows: summary.num_rows,
+            size_bytes: summary.size_bytes,
+        })
     }
 
     pub fn add_global_buffer(&self, bytes: Vec<u8>) -> PyResult<u32> {
@@ -446,15 +491,24 @@ impl LanceFileSession {
 #[pymethods]
 impl LanceFileSession {
     #[new]
-    #[pyo3(signature=(uri_or_path, storage_options=None, storage_options_provider=None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(uri_or_path, storage_options=None, namespace_client=None, table_id=None))]
     pub fn new(
         uri_or_path: String,
         storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-        storage_options_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        namespace_client: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        table_id: Option<Vec<String>>,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let provider = storage_options_provider
-            .map(crate::storage_options::py_object_to_storage_options_provider)
-            .transpose()?;
+        // Create storage options provider from namespace_client and table_id if both are provided
+        let provider = if let (Some(ns_client), Some(tid)) = (&namespace_client, &table_id) {
+            let ns_client = extract_namespace_arc(ns_client.py(), ns_client)?;
+            Some(Arc::new(LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(
+                ns_client,
+                tid.clone(),
+            ))
+                as Arc<dyn lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider>)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
         rt().block_on(None, Self::try_new(uri_or_path, storage_options, provider))?
     }
 
@@ -503,6 +557,30 @@ impl LanceFileSession {
         )?
     }
 
+    pub fn open_packed_blob_writer(
+        &self,
+        path: String,
+        blob_id: u32,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyPackedBlobWriter> {
+        let path = self.base_path.child_path(&Path::from(path));
+        rt().block_on(
+            None,
+            PyPackedBlobWriter::try_new(self.object_store.clone(), path, blob_id),
+        )?
+    }
+
+    pub fn open_dedicated_blob_writer(
+        &self,
+        path: String,
+        blob_id: u32,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyDedicatedBlobWriter> {
+        let path = self.base_path.child_path(&Path::from(path));
+        rt().block_on(
+            None,
+            PyDedicatedBlobWriter::try_new(self.object_store.clone(), path, blob_id),
+        )?
+    }
+
     pub fn contains(&self, path: String) -> PyResult<bool> {
         let full_path = self.base_path.child_path(&Path::from(path));
         rt().block_on(None, async {
@@ -553,6 +631,57 @@ impl LanceFileSession {
         })?
     }
 
+    /// Non-recursive, delimited list of a single directory level.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a tuple `(common_prefixes, objects)` of paths relative to the
+    /// session's `base_path`, where `common_prefixes` are the immediate child
+    /// "directories" and `objects` are the immediate child files. Unlike
+    /// `list`, this does not recurse into the subtree.
+    #[pyo3(signature=(path=None))]
+    pub fn list_with_delimiter(
+        &self,
+        path: Option<String>,
+    ) -> PyResult<(Vec<String>, Vec<String>)> {
+        rt().block_on(None, async {
+            let list_path = if let Some(prefix) = path {
+                self.base_path.child_path(&Path::from(prefix))
+            } else {
+                self.base_path.clone()
+            };
+
+            let result = self
+                .object_store
+                .list_with_delimiter(Some(&list_path))
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| PyErr::new::<pyo3::exceptions::PyRuntimeError, _>(format!("{}", e)))?;
+
+            // Strip the base_path prefix to make each path relative to the session.
+            let relativize = |location: &Path| -> PyResult<String> {
+                let relative_parts = location.prefix_match(&self.base_path).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    PyErr::new::<pyo3::exceptions::PyRuntimeError, _>(format!(
+                        "Path '{}' does not start with base path '{}'",
+                        location.as_ref(),
+                        self.base_path.as_ref()
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                Ok(Path::from_iter(relative_parts).as_ref().to_string())
+            };
+
+            let common_prefixes = result
+                .common_prefixes
+                .iter()
+                .map(relativize)
+                .collect::<PyResult<Vec<String>>>()?;
+            let objects = result
+                .objects
+                .iter()
+                .map(|meta| relativize(&meta.location))
+                .collect::<PyResult<Vec<String>>>()?;
+
+            Ok((common_prefixes, objects))
+        })?
+    }
+
     /// Upload a file from local filesystem to the object store
     ///
     /// Parameters
@@ -577,8 +706,7 @@ impl LanceFileSession {
             tokio::io::copy(&mut reader, &mut writer)
                 .await
                 .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(format!("Failed to upload file: {}", e)))?;
-            writer
-                .shutdown()
+            Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut())
                 .await
                 .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(format!("Failed to finalize upload: {}", e)))?;
 
@@ -586,6 +714,61 @@ impl LanceFileSession {
         })?
     }
 
+    /// Delete a file from the object store.
+    ///
+    /// The path is interpreted relative to the session's `base_path`, matching
+    /// `contains`/`upload_file`/`download_file`. Deleting a missing object
+    /// raises `OSError`, consistent with `download_file`.
+    ///
+    /// Parameters
+    /// ----------
+    /// path : str
+    ///     Path relative to `base_path` to delete.
+    pub fn delete_file(&self, path: String) -> PyResult<()> {
+        rt().block_on(None, async {
+            let full_path = self.base_path.child_path(&Path::from(path));
+            self.object_store
+                .inner
+                .delete(&full_path)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(format!("Failed to delete remote file: {}", e)))?;
+            Ok(())
+        })?
+    }
+
+    /// Read a byte range from a file in the object store.
+    ///
+    /// The path is interpreted relative to the session's `base_path`, matching
+    /// the other session methods. This issues a single ranged GET. Reading a
+    /// missing object raises `OSError`, consistent with `download_file`.
+    ///
+    /// Parameters
+    /// ----------
+    /// path : str
+    ///     Path relative to `base_path` to read from.
+    /// offset : int
+    ///     Byte offset at which to start reading.
+    /// length : int
+    ///     Number of bytes to read.
+    ///
+    /// Returns
+    /// -------
+    /// bytes
+    ///     The requested byte range.
+    pub fn read_range(&self, path: String, offset: usize, length: usize) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+        rt().block_on(None, async {
+            let full_path = self.base_path.child_path(&Path::from(path));
+            let bytes = self
+                .object_store
+                .read_one_range(&full_path, offset..offset + length)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    PyIOError::new_err(format!("Failed to read range from remote file: {}", e))
+                })?;
+            Ok(bytes.to_vec())
+        })?
+    }
+
     /// Download a file from object store to local filesystem
     ///
     /// Parameters
@@ -666,7 +849,7 @@ impl LanceFileReader {
         let mut base_projection = None;
         if let Some(columns) = columns {
             base_projection = Some(
-                ReaderProjection::from_column_names(
+                file_versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
                     file_metadata.version(),
                     &file_metadata.file_schema,
                     &columns.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect::<Vec<&str>>(),
@@ -716,8 +899,6 @@ impl LanceFileReader {
         batch_size: u32,
         batch_readahead: u32,
     ) -> PyResult<PyArrowType<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>>> {
-        // read_stream is a synchronous method but it launches tasks and needs to be
-        // run in the context of a tokio runtime
         let inner = self.inner.clone();
         let stream = rt().block_on(None, async move {
             inner
@@ -727,6 +908,7 @@ impl LanceFileReader {
                     batch_readahead,
                     FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                 )
+                .await
                 .infer_error()
         })??;
         Ok(PyArrowType(Box::new(LanceReaderAdapter(stream))))
@@ -736,16 +918,25 @@ impl LanceFileReader {
 #[pymethods]
 impl LanceFileReader {
     #[new]
-    #[pyo3(signature=(path, storage_options=None, storage_options_provider=None, columns=None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(path, storage_options=None, namespace_client=None, table_id=None, columns=None))]
     pub fn new(
         path: String,
         storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-        storage_options_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        namespace_client: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        table_id: Option<Vec<String>>,
         columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let provider = storage_options_provider
-            .map(crate::storage_options::py_object_to_storage_options_provider)
-            .transpose()?;
+        // Create storage options provider from namespace_client and table_id if both are provided
+        let provider = if let (Some(ns_client), Some(tid)) = (&namespace_client, &table_id) {
+            let ns_client = extract_namespace_arc(ns_client.py(), ns_client)?;
+            Some(Arc::new(LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(
+                ns_client,
+                tid.clone(),
+            ))
+                as Arc<dyn lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider>)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
         rt().block_on(None, Self::open(path, storage_options, provider, columns))?
     }
 
diff --git a/python/src/fragment.rs b/python/src/fragment.rs
index 9bfdb14beb8..60f18b6d63e 100644
--- a/python/src/fragment.rs
+++ b/python/src/fragment.rs
@@ -19,13 +19,14 @@ use arrow::ffi_stream::ArrowArrayStreamReader;
 use arrow::pyarrow::{FromPyArrow, PyArrowType, ToPyArrow};
 use arrow_array::RecordBatchReader;
 use futures::TryFutureExt;
+use lance::Error;
 use lance::dataset::fragment::FileFragment as LanceFragment;
-use lance::dataset::scanner::ColumnOrdering;
+use lance::dataset::scanner::{ColumnOrdering, MaterializationStyle};
 use lance::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-use lance::dataset::{InsertBuilder, NewColumnTransform};
-use lance::Error;
+use lance::dataset::{InsertBuilder, NewColumnTransform, WriteParams};
 use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+use lance_table::format::overlay::DataOverlayFile;
 use lance_table::format::{
     DataFile, DeletionFile, DeletionFileType, Fragment, RowDatasetVersionMeta, RowIdMeta,
 };
@@ -35,15 +36,16 @@ use pyo3::basic::CompareOp;
 use pyo3::types::PyTuple;
 use pyo3::{exceptions::*, types::PyDict};
 use pyo3::{intern, prelude::*};
-use snafu::location;
 
-use crate::dataset::{get_write_params, transforms_from_python, PyWriteDest};
+use crate::dataset::{PyWriteDest, get_write_params, transforms_from_python};
 use crate::error::PythonErrorExt;
-use crate::schema::{logical_schema_from_lance, LanceSchema};
-use crate::utils::{export_vec, extract_vec, PyLance};
-use crate::{rt, Dataset, Scanner};
+use crate::schema::{LanceSchema, logical_schema_from_lance};
+use crate::utils::{PyLance, export_vec, extract_vec};
+use crate::{Dataset, Scanner, rt};
 
-#[pyclass(name = "_Fragment", module = "_lib")]
+type UpdateColumnsResult = (PyLance<Fragment>, Vec<u32>, Option<Vec<u8>>);
+
+#[pyclass(name = "_Fragment", module = "_lib", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct FileFragment {
     fragment: LanceFragment,
@@ -97,6 +99,20 @@ impl FileFragment {
         Ok(PyLance(metadata))
     }
 
+    #[staticmethod]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (dataset, path, base_id=None))]
+    fn create_data_file(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        path: &str,
+        base_id: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyLance<DataFile>> {
+        let ds = dataset.ds.clone();
+        let data_file = rt()
+            .block_on(None, ds.create_data_file(path, base_id))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(PyLance(data_file))
+    }
+
     #[staticmethod]
     #[pyo3(signature = (dataset_uri, fragment_id, reader, **kwargs))]
     fn create(
@@ -106,7 +122,7 @@ impl FileFragment {
         kwargs: Option<&Bound<'_, PyDict>>,
     ) -> PyResult<PyLance<Fragment>> {
         let params = if let Some(kw_params) = kwargs {
-            get_write_params(kw_params)?
+            get_write_params(kw_params, dataset_uri)?
         } else {
             None
         };
@@ -197,7 +213,7 @@ impl FileFragment {
     }
 
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    #[pyo3(signature=(columns=None, columns_with_transform=None, batch_size=None, filter=None, limit=None, offset=None, with_row_id=None, with_row_address=None, batch_readahead=None, blob_handling=None, order_by=None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(columns=None, columns_with_transform=None, batch_size=None, filter=None, limit=None, offset=None, with_row_id=None, with_row_address=None, batch_readahead=None, blob_handling=None, order_by=None, use_scalar_index=None, io_buffer_size=None, late_materialization=None, include_deleted_rows=None, batch_size_bytes=None, strict_batch_size=None, substrait_filter=None))]
     fn scanner(
         self_: PyRef<'_, Self>,
         columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
@@ -211,6 +227,13 @@ impl FileFragment {
         batch_readahead: Option<usize>,
         blob_handling: Option<Bound<PyAny>>,
         order_by: Option<Vec<PyLance<ColumnOrdering>>>,
+        use_scalar_index: Option<bool>,
+        io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
+        late_materialization: Option<Bound<PyAny>>,
+        include_deleted_rows: Option<bool>,
+        batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+        strict_batch_size: Option<bool>,
+        substrait_filter: Option<Vec<u8>>,
     ) -> PyResult<Scanner> {
         let mut scanner = self_.fragment.scan();
 
@@ -237,10 +260,18 @@ impl FileFragment {
             scanner.batch_size(batch_size);
         }
         if let Some(f) = filter {
+            if substrait_filter.is_some() {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+                    "cannot specify both a string filter and a substrait filter",
+                ));
+            }
             scanner
                 .filter(&f)
                 .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
         }
+        if let Some(f) = substrait_filter {
+            scanner.filter_substrait(&f).infer_error()?;
+        }
 
         scanner
             .limit(limit, offset)
@@ -264,7 +295,7 @@ impl FileFragment {
                     other => {
                         return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
                             "Invalid blob_handling: {other}. Expected one of: all_binary, blobs_descriptions, all_descriptions"
-                        )))
+                        )));
                     }
                 }
             } else {
@@ -279,6 +310,39 @@ impl FileFragment {
                 .order_by(col_orderings)
                 .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
         }
+        if let Some(io_buffer_size) = io_buffer_size {
+            scanner.io_buffer_size(io_buffer_size);
+        }
+        if let Some(use_scalar_index) = use_scalar_index {
+            scanner.use_scalar_index(use_scalar_index);
+        }
+        if let Some(late_materialization) = late_materialization {
+            if let Ok(style_as_bool) = late_materialization.extract::<bool>() {
+                if style_as_bool {
+                    scanner.materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllLate);
+                } else {
+                    scanner.materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllEarly);
+                }
+            } else if let Ok(columns) = late_materialization.extract::<Vec<String>>() {
+                scanner.materialization_style(
+                    MaterializationStyle::all_early_except(&columns, self_.fragment.schema())
+                        .infer_error()?,
+                );
+            } else {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+                    "late_materialization must be a bool or a list of strings",
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(batch_size_bytes) = batch_size_bytes {
+            scanner.batch_size_bytes(batch_size_bytes);
+        }
+        if let Some(true) = include_deleted_rows {
+            scanner.include_deleted_rows();
+        }
+        if let Some(strict_batch_size) = strict_batch_size {
+            scanner.strict_batch_size(strict_batch_size);
+        }
         let scn = Arc::new(scanner);
         Ok(Scanner::new(scn))
     }
@@ -330,14 +394,11 @@ impl FileFragment {
         reader: PyArrowType<ArrowArrayStreamReader>,
         left_on: String,
         right_on: String,
-        max_field_id: i32,
     ) -> PyResult<(PyLance<Fragment>, LanceSchema)> {
         let mut fragment = self.fragment.clone();
         let (fragment, schema) = rt()
             .spawn(None, async move {
-                fragment
-                    .merge_columns(reader.0, &left_on, &right_on, max_field_id)
-                    .await
+                fragment.merge_columns(reader.0, &left_on, &right_on).await
             })?
             .infer_error()?;
 
@@ -349,15 +410,34 @@ impl FileFragment {
         reader: PyArrowType<ArrowArrayStreamReader>,
         left_on: String,
         right_on: String,
-    ) -> PyResult<(PyLance<Fragment>, Vec<u32>)> {
+        with_offsets: bool,
+    ) -> PyResult<UpdateColumnsResult> {
         let mut fragment = self.fragment.clone();
-        let (updated_fragment, fields_modified) = rt()
+        let result = rt()
             .spawn(None, async move {
-                fragment.update_columns(reader.0, &left_on, &right_on).await
+                fragment
+                    .update_columns_with_offsets(reader.0, &left_on, &right_on)
+                    .await
             })?
             .infer_error()?;
 
-        Ok((PyLance(updated_fragment), fields_modified))
+        let matched_offsets = if with_offsets {
+            let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(result.matched_offsets.serialized_size());
+            result
+                .matched_offsets
+                .serialize_into(&mut buf)
+                .map_err(|err| {
+                    PyIOError::new_err(format!("Failed to serialize matched row offsets: {err}"))
+                })?;
+            Some(buf)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        Ok((
+            PyLance(result.fragment),
+            result.fields_modified,
+            matched_offsets,
+        ))
     }
 
     fn delete(&self, predicate: &str) -> PyResult<Option<Self>> {
@@ -372,6 +452,38 @@ impl FileFragment {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Delete rows by their local (within-fragment) physical row offsets.
+    ///
+    /// Adds the given 0-based offsets to this fragment's deletion vector and
+    /// writes a new deletion file. Returns the updated fragment, or None if every
+    /// row is now deleted. Unlike `delete(predicate)`, this deletes exactly the
+    /// supplied rows without re-evaluating a filter -- useful when the caller
+    /// already knows which rows to delete (e.g. offsets collected from a prior
+    /// scan), avoiding a redundant predicate evaluation.
+    fn delete_rows(&self, offsets: Vec<u32>) -> PyResult<Option<Self>> {
+        let old_fragment = self.fragment.clone();
+        // The core deletion path only errors once the deletion count reaches
+        // physical_rows, so out-of-range offsets must be rejected here.
+        let updated_fragment = rt()
+            .block_on(None, async {
+                let physical_rows = old_fragment.physical_rows().await?;
+                if let Some(&offset) = offsets.iter().find(|&&o| o as usize >= physical_rows) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "delete_rows offset {offset} is out of range for fragment {} \
+                         with {physical_rows} rows",
+                        old_fragment.id()
+                    )));
+                }
+                old_fragment.extend_deletions(offsets).await
+            })?
+            .infer_error()?;
+
+        match updated_fragment {
+            Some(frag) => Ok(Some(Self::new(frag))),
+            None => Ok(None),
+        }
+    }
+
     fn schema<'py>(self_: PyRef<'py, Self>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
         let schema = self_.fragment.dataset().schema();
         let logical_schema = logical_schema_from_lance(schema);
@@ -407,6 +519,11 @@ impl FileFragment {
         rt().block_on(None, self.fragment.physical_rows())?
             .map_err(|err| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))
     }
+
+    fn validate(&self) -> PyResult<()> {
+        rt().block_on(None, self.fragment.validate())?
+            .map_err(|err| PyIOError::new_err(err.to_string()))
+    }
 }
 
 impl From<FileFragment> for LanceFragment {
@@ -422,10 +539,10 @@ fn do_write_fragments(
 ) -> PyResult<Transaction> {
     let batches = convert_reader(reader)?;
 
-    let params = kwargs
-        .and_then(|params| get_write_params(params).transpose())
-        .transpose()?
-        .unwrap_or_default();
+    let params = match kwargs {
+        Some(params) => get_write_params(params, &dest.table_root_uri()?)?.unwrap_or_default(),
+        None => WriteParams::default(),
+    };
 
     rt().block_on(
         Some(reader.py()),
@@ -448,10 +565,7 @@ pub fn write_fragments(
     let get_fragments = |operation| match operation {
         Operation::Overwrite { fragments, .. } => Ok(fragments),
         Operation::Append { fragments, .. } => Ok(fragments),
-        _ => Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: "Unexpected operation".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        _ => Err(Error::internal("Unexpected operation")),
     };
     let fragments =
         get_fragments(written.operation).map_err(|err| PyRuntimeError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
@@ -508,7 +622,7 @@ impl PyDeletionFile {
                 return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
                     "file_type must be either 'array' or 'bitmap', got '{}'",
                     file_type
-                )))
+                )));
             }
         };
         Ok(Self(DeletionFile {
@@ -631,10 +745,10 @@ pub struct PyRowDatasetVersionMeta(pub RowDatasetVersionMeta);
 
 #[pymethods]
 impl PyRowIdMeta {
-    fn asdict(&self) -> PyResult<Bound<'_, PyDict>> {
-        Err(PyNotImplementedError::new_err(
-            "PyRowIdMeta.asdict is not yet supported.s",
-        ))
+    fn asdict(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        pythonize::pythonize(py, &self.0)
+            .map(|b| b.unbind())
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Could not convert RowIdMeta: {}", err)))
     }
 
     pub fn json(&self) -> PyResult<String> {
@@ -654,6 +768,13 @@ impl PyRowIdMeta {
         Ok(Self(row_id_meta))
     }
 
+    #[staticmethod]
+    pub fn from_dict(dict: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let row_id_meta: RowIdMeta = pythonize::depythonize(dict)
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Could not load RowIdMeta: {}", err)))?;
+        Ok(Self(row_id_meta))
+    }
+
     fn __reduce__(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<(Py<PyAny>, Py<PyAny>)> {
         let state = self.json()?;
         let state = PyTuple::new(py, vec![state])?.extract()?;
@@ -724,7 +845,12 @@ impl PyRowDatasetVersionMeta {
     }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "FragmentSession", module = "_lib", subclass)]
+#[pyclass(
+    name = "FragmentSession",
+    module = "_lib",
+    subclass,
+    skip_from_py_object
+)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct FragmentSession {
     session: Arc<lance::dataset::fragment::session::FragmentSession>,
@@ -745,8 +871,9 @@ impl FragmentSession {
     }
 }
 
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<Fragment> {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &pyo3::Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<Fragment> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let files = extract_vec(&ob.getattr("files")?)?;
 
         let deletion_file: Option<PyRef<PyDeletionFile>> =
@@ -770,6 +897,10 @@ impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<Fragment> {
             row_id_meta,
             last_updated_at_version_meta,
             created_at_version_meta,
+            // Round-tripped so overlays survive operations that pass existing
+            // fragments back (a manual Delete/Update/Merge commit). Sorting
+            // newest-last is deferred to the manifest reload after commit.
+            overlays: extract_vec::<DataOverlayFile>(&ob.getattr("overlays")?)?,
         }))
     }
 }
@@ -802,6 +933,7 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Fragment> {
             .created_at_version_meta
             .as_ref()
             .map(|r| PyRowDatasetVersionMeta(r.clone()));
+        let overlays = export_vec(py, &self.0.overlays)?;
 
         cls.call1((
             self.0.id,
@@ -811,6 +943,7 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Fragment> {
             row_id_meta,
             created_at_version_meta,
             last_updated_at_version_meta,
+            overlays,
         ))
     }
 }
@@ -825,14 +958,17 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<Fragment> {
     }
 }
 
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<DataFile> {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &pyo3::Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<DataFile> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let file_size_bytes: Option<u64> = ob.getattr("file_size_bytes")?.extract()?;
         let file_size_bytes = CachedFileSize::new(file_size_bytes.unwrap_or(0));
+        let fields: Vec<i32> = ob.getattr("fields")?.extract()?;
+        let column_indices: Vec<i32> = ob.getattr("column_indices")?.extract()?;
         Ok(Self(DataFile {
             path: ob.getattr("path")?.extract()?,
-            fields: ob.getattr("fields")?.extract()?,
-            column_indices: ob.getattr("column_indices")?.extract()?,
+            fields: fields.into(),
+            column_indices: column_indices.into(),
             file_major_version: ob.getattr("file_major_version")?.extract()?,
             file_minor_version: ob.getattr("file_minor_version")?.extract()?,
             file_size_bytes,
@@ -855,8 +991,8 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&DataFile> {
         let file_size_bytes = self.0.file_size_bytes.get().map(u64::from);
         cls.call1((
             &self.0.path,
-            self.0.fields.clone(),
-            self.0.column_indices.clone(),
+            self.0.fields.to_vec(),
+            self.0.column_indices.to_vec(),
             self.0.file_major_version,
             self.0.file_minor_version,
             file_size_bytes,
diff --git a/python/src/fts.rs b/python/src/fts.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c24cefd6300
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/src/fts.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,258 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::collect_query_tokens;
+use pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError;
+use pyo3::prelude::*;
+use pyo3::types::PyDict;
+
+fn extract_kwarg<'py, T>(kwargs: &Bound<'py, PyDict>, key: &str) -> PyResult<Option<T>>
+where
+    T: FromPyObjectOwned<'py>,
+{
+    kwargs
+        .get_item(key)?
+        .map(|value| value.extract::<T>().map_err(Into::into))
+        .transpose()
+}
+
+pub(crate) struct FtsTokenizerOptions {
+    analyzer: Option<String>,
+    base_tokenizer: Option<String>,
+    language: Option<String>,
+    // The outer option tracks omission; the inner None explicitly disables the limit.
+    max_token_length: Option<Option<usize>>,
+    lower_case: Option<bool>,
+    stem: Option<bool>,
+    remove_stop_words: Option<bool>,
+    // Preserve omitted versus explicit None to match create-index keyword semantics.
+    custom_stop_words: Option<Option<Vec<String>>>,
+    ascii_folding: Option<bool>,
+    min_ngram_length: Option<u32>,
+    max_ngram_length: Option<u32>,
+    prefix_only: Option<bool>,
+    split_identifiers: Option<bool>,
+    split_on_numerics: Option<bool>,
+    preserve_original: Option<bool>,
+    index_operators: Option<bool>,
+}
+
+impl FtsTokenizerOptions {
+    pub(crate) fn from_kwargs(kwargs: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            analyzer: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "analyzer")?,
+            base_tokenizer: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "base_tokenizer")?,
+            language: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "language")?,
+            max_token_length: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "max_token_length")?,
+            lower_case: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "lower_case")?,
+            stem: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "stem")?,
+            remove_stop_words: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "remove_stop_words")?,
+            custom_stop_words: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "custom_stop_words")?,
+            ascii_folding: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "ascii_folding")?,
+            min_ngram_length: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "min_ngram_length")?,
+            max_ngram_length: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "max_ngram_length")?,
+            prefix_only: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "prefix_only")?,
+            split_identifiers: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "split_identifiers")?,
+            split_on_numerics: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "split_on_numerics")?,
+            preserve_original: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "preserve_original")?,
+            index_operators: extract_kwarg(kwargs, "index_operators")?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn apply(self, mut params: InvertedIndexParams) -> PyResult<InvertedIndexParams> {
+        match (self.analyzer.as_deref(), self.base_tokenizer.as_deref()) {
+            (Some("text"), Some("code")) => {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+                    "base_tokenizer='code' requires analyzer='code'",
+                ));
+            }
+            (Some("code"), Some(base_tokenizer)) if base_tokenizer != "code" => {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                    "analyzer='code' requires base_tokenizer='code', got '{base_tokenizer}'"
+                )));
+            }
+            _ => {}
+        }
+
+        let uses_code_analyzer = match self.analyzer.as_deref() {
+            Some("code") => true,
+            Some("text") | None => self.base_tokenizer.as_deref() == Some("code"),
+            Some(_) => true,
+        };
+        if !uses_code_analyzer
+            && [
+                self.split_identifiers,
+                self.split_on_numerics,
+                self.preserve_original,
+                self.index_operators,
+            ]
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .any(|value| value)
+        {
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+                "code analyzer flags require analyzer='code'",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        if let Some(analyzer) = self.analyzer {
+            params = params
+                .analyzer(&analyzer)
+                .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
+        }
+        if let Some(base_tokenizer) = self.base_tokenizer {
+            params = params.base_tokenizer(base_tokenizer);
+        }
+        if let Some(language) = self.language {
+            params = params.language(&language).map_err(|err| {
+                PyValueError::new_err(format!("can't set tokenizer language to {language}: {err}"))
+            })?;
+        }
+        if let Some(max_token_length) = self.max_token_length {
+            params = params.max_token_length(max_token_length);
+        }
+        if let Some(lower_case) = self.lower_case {
+            params = params.lower_case(lower_case);
+        }
+        if let Some(stem) = self.stem {
+            params = params.stem(stem);
+        }
+        if let Some(remove_stop_words) = self.remove_stop_words {
+            params = params.remove_stop_words(remove_stop_words);
+        }
+        if let Some(custom_stop_words) = self.custom_stop_words {
+            params = params.custom_stop_words(custom_stop_words);
+        }
+        if let Some(ascii_folding) = self.ascii_folding {
+            params = params.ascii_folding(ascii_folding);
+        }
+        if let Some(min_ngram_length) = self.min_ngram_length {
+            params = params.ngram_min_length(min_ngram_length);
+        }
+        if let Some(max_ngram_length) = self.max_ngram_length {
+            params = params.ngram_max_length(max_ngram_length);
+        }
+        if let Some(prefix_only) = self.prefix_only {
+            params = params.ngram_prefix_only(prefix_only);
+        }
+        if let Some(split_identifiers) = self.split_identifiers {
+            params = params.split_identifiers(split_identifiers);
+        }
+        if let Some(split_on_numerics) = self.split_on_numerics {
+            params = params.split_on_numerics(split_on_numerics);
+        }
+        if let Some(preserve_original) = self.preserve_original {
+            params = params.preserve_original(preserve_original);
+        }
+        if let Some(index_operators) = self.index_operators {
+            params = params.index_operators(index_operators);
+        }
+        Ok(params)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A token produced by the full-text search query tokenizer.
+#[pyclass(get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct FtsToken {
+    /// The token text after all configured filters have been applied.
+    pub text: String,
+    /// The position used by full-text query matching.
+    pub position: u32,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl FtsToken {
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!("FtsToken(text={:?}, position={})", self.text, self.position)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Tokenize a full-text search query without creating a dataset or index.
+///
+/// The tokenizer options are the same as the tokenizer-related options accepted by
+/// ``LanceDataset.create_scalar_index(..., index_type="INVERTED")``. ``None`` uses
+/// the selected analyzer profile's default, except ``max_token_length=None``, which
+/// disables the length limit; omitting it keeps the default limit of 40. Returned
+/// positions are normalized to the first retained token while preserving gaps left
+/// by token filters.
+///
+/// Examples
+/// --------
+/// >>> import lance
+/// >>> tokens = lance.tokenize("the Cats and Dogs")
+/// >>> [(token.text, token.position) for token in tokens]
+/// [('cat', 0), ('dog', 2)]
+#[pyfunction]
+#[pyo3(signature = (
+    query,
+    *,
+    analyzer = None,
+    base_tokenizer = None,
+    language = None,
+    max_token_length = Some(40),
+    lower_case = None,
+    stem = None,
+    remove_stop_words = None,
+    custom_stop_words = None,
+    ascii_folding = None,
+    min_ngram_length = None,
+    max_ngram_length = None,
+    prefix_only = None,
+    split_identifiers = None,
+    split_on_numerics = None,
+    preserve_original = None,
+    index_operators = None,
+))]
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub fn tokenize(
+    query: &str,
+    analyzer: Option<String>,
+    base_tokenizer: Option<String>,
+    language: Option<String>,
+    max_token_length: Option<usize>,
+    lower_case: Option<bool>,
+    stem: Option<bool>,
+    remove_stop_words: Option<bool>,
+    custom_stop_words: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ascii_folding: Option<bool>,
+    min_ngram_length: Option<u32>,
+    max_ngram_length: Option<u32>,
+    prefix_only: Option<bool>,
+    split_identifiers: Option<bool>,
+    split_on_numerics: Option<bool>,
+    preserve_original: Option<bool>,
+    index_operators: Option<bool>,
+) -> PyResult<Vec<FtsToken>> {
+    let params = FtsTokenizerOptions {
+        analyzer,
+        base_tokenizer,
+        language,
+        max_token_length: Some(max_token_length),
+        lower_case,
+        stem,
+        remove_stop_words,
+        custom_stop_words: custom_stop_words.map(Some),
+        ascii_folding,
+        min_ngram_length,
+        max_ngram_length,
+        prefix_only,
+        split_identifiers,
+        split_on_numerics,
+        preserve_original,
+        index_operators,
+    }
+    .apply(InvertedIndexParams::default())?;
+
+    let mut tokenizer = params
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Failed to build tokenizer: {err}")))?;
+    let tokens = collect_query_tokens(query, &mut tokenizer);
+    Ok((0..tokens.len())
+        .map(|index| FtsToken {
+            text: tokens.get_token(index).to_string(),
+            position: tokens.position(index),
+        })
+        .collect())
+}
diff --git a/python/src/indices.rs b/python/src/indices.rs
index 412f329d83a..7802a07ae7e 100644
--- a/python/src/indices.rs
+++ b/python/src/indices.rs
@@ -1,29 +1,35 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::fmt::Write;
+use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::pyarrow::{PyArrowType, ToPyArrow};
 use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray};
 use arrow_data::ArrayData;
 use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
 use lance::dataset::Dataset as LanceDataset;
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance::index::IndexSegment;
 use lance::index::vector::ivf::builder::write_vector_storage;
+use lance::index::vector::pq::build_pq_model_in_fragments;
 use lance::io::ObjectStore;
-use lance_index::vector::ivf::shuffler::{shuffle_vectors, IvfShuffler};
+use lance_index::progress::NoopIndexBuildProgress;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::shuffler::{IvfShuffler, shuffle_vectors};
 use lance_index::vector::{
-    ivf::{storage::IvfModel, IvfBuildParams},
+    ivf::{IvfBuildParams, storage::IvfModel},
     pq::{PQBuildParams, ProductQuantizer},
 };
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use lance_table::format::{IndexMetadata, list_index_files_with_sizes};
+use pyo3::Bound;
 use pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError;
 use pyo3::prelude::*;
 use pyo3::types::PyModuleMethods;
-use pyo3::Bound;
 use pyo3::{
-    pyfunction,
+    PyResult, Python, pyfunction,
     types::{PyList, PyModule},
-    wrap_pyfunction, PyResult, Python,
+    wrap_pyfunction,
 };
 
 use lance::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
@@ -34,10 +40,15 @@ use crate::{
     dataset::Dataset, error::PythonErrorExt, file::object_store_from_uri_or_path_no_options, rt,
 };
 use lance::index::vector::ivf::write_ivf_pq_file_from_existing_index;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexDescription};
+use lance_index::{IndexDescription, IndexType};
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
-#[pyclass(name = "IndexConfig", module = "lance.indices", get_all)]
+#[pyclass(
+    name = "IndexConfig",
+    module = "lance.indices",
+    get_all,
+    from_py_object
+)]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct PyIndexConfig {
     pub index_type: String,
@@ -55,7 +66,40 @@ impl PyIndexConfig {
     }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "IvfModel", module = "lance.indices")]
+#[pyclass(name = "IndexSegment", module = "lance.indices", skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PyIndexSegment {
+    pub(crate) inner: IndexSegment,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyIndexSegment {
+    #[getter]
+    fn uuid(&self) -> String {
+        self.inner.uuid().to_string()
+    }
+
+    #[getter]
+    fn fragment_ids(&self) -> crate::bitmap::PyBitmap {
+        crate::bitmap::PyBitmap::new(self.inner.fragment_bitmap().clone())
+    }
+
+    #[getter]
+    fn index_version(&self) -> i32 {
+        self.inner.index_version()
+    }
+
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!(
+            "IndexSegment(uuid={}, fragment_ids={}, index_version={})",
+            self.uuid(),
+            self.fragment_ids().__repr__(),
+            self.index_version()
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[pyclass(name = "IvfModel", module = "lance.indices", skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct PyIvfModel {
     pub(crate) inner: IvfModel,
@@ -100,11 +144,7 @@ async fn do_get_ivf_model(dataset: &Dataset, index_name: &str) -> PyResult<IvfMo
     // Open the vector index
     let vindex = dataset
         .ds
-        .open_vector_index(
-            column_name,
-            &idx_meta.uuid.to_string(),
-            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-        )
+        .open_vector_index(column_name, &idx_meta.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
         .await
         .infer_error()?;
 
@@ -118,6 +158,7 @@ fn get_ivf_model(py: Python<'_>, dataset: &Dataset, index_name: &str) -> PyResul
     Py::new(py, PyIvfModel { inner: ivf_model })
 }
 
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 async fn do_train_ivf_model(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
@@ -126,6 +167,7 @@ async fn do_train_ivf_model(
     distance_type: &str,
     sample_rate: u32,
     max_iters: u32,
+    fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
 ) -> PyResult<ArrayData> {
     // We verify distance_type earlier so can unwrap here
     let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(distance_type).unwrap();
@@ -141,6 +183,8 @@ async fn do_train_ivf_model(
         dimension,
         distance_type,
         &params,
+        fragment_ids.as_deref(),
+        Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
     )
     .await
     .infer_error()?;
@@ -150,6 +194,7 @@ async fn do_train_ivf_model(
 
 #[pyfunction]
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+#[pyo3(signature=(dataset, column, dimension, num_partitions, distance_type, sample_rate, max_iters, fragment_ids=None))]
 fn train_ivf_model<'py>(
     py: Python<'py>,
     dataset: &Dataset,
@@ -159,6 +204,7 @@ fn train_ivf_model<'py>(
     distance_type: &str,
     sample_rate: u32,
     max_iters: u32,
+    fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
 ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
     let centroids = rt().block_on(
         Some(py),
@@ -170,6 +216,7 @@ fn train_ivf_model<'py>(
             distance_type,
             sample_rate,
             max_iters,
+            fragment_ids,
         ),
     )??;
     centroids.to_pyarrow(py)
@@ -184,24 +231,27 @@ async fn do_train_pq_model(
     distance_type: &str,
     sample_rate: u32,
     max_iters: u32,
+    num_bits: u32,
     ivf_model: IvfModel,
+    fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
 ) -> PyResult<ArrayData> {
     // We verify distance_type earlier so can unwrap here
     let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(distance_type).unwrap();
     let params = PQBuildParams {
         num_sub_vectors: num_subvectors as usize,
-        num_bits: 8,
+        num_bits: num_bits as usize,
         max_iters: max_iters as usize,
         sample_rate: sample_rate as usize,
         ..Default::default()
     };
-    let pq_model = lance::index::vector::pq::build_pq_model(
+    let pq_model = build_pq_model_in_fragments(
         dataset.ds.as_ref(),
         column,
         dimension,
         distance_type,
         &params,
         Some(&ivf_model),
+        fragment_ids.as_deref(),
     )
     .await
     .infer_error()?;
@@ -210,6 +260,7 @@ async fn do_train_pq_model(
 
 #[pyfunction]
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+#[pyo3(signature=(dataset, column, dimension, num_subvectors, distance_type, sample_rate, max_iters, ivf_centroids, fragment_ids=None, num_bits=8))]
 fn train_pq_model<'py>(
     py: Python<'py>,
     dataset: &Dataset,
@@ -220,6 +271,8 @@ fn train_pq_model<'py>(
     sample_rate: u32,
     max_iters: u32,
     ivf_centroids: PyArrowType<ArrayData>,
+    fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+    num_bits: u32,
 ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
     let ivf_centroids = ivf_centroids.0;
     let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::from(ivf_centroids);
@@ -239,12 +292,69 @@ fn train_pq_model<'py>(
             distance_type,
             sample_rate,
             max_iters,
+            num_bits,
             ivf_model,
+            fragment_ids,
         ),
     )??;
     codebook.to_pyarrow(py)
 }
 
+/// Mint one RaBitQ rotation and return it as a JSON string.
+///
+/// Distributed IVF_RQ builds must pin a single rotation across all workers so that
+/// independently built per-fragment segments rotate vectors identically and their
+/// binary codes remain comparable when merged. A driver calls this once and broadcasts
+/// the resulting string to every `create_index_uncommitted(..., rabitq_model=...)` call.
+///
+/// The rotation is always the "fast" rotation since its sign vector is JSON-serializable,
+/// whereas the "matrix" rotation stores a dense matrix in a binary buffer that is dropped by
+/// the JSON wire format. `dtype` is accepted for API symmetry but does not affect the fast
+/// rotation.
+///
+/// # Example (Python)
+///
+/// ```python
+/// from lance.lance import indices
+///
+/// # Mint one model and broadcast `model` to every worker.
+/// model = indices.build_rq_model(dimension=128, num_bits=5)
+/// seg = ds.create_index_uncommitted(
+///     column="vector",
+///     index_type="IVF_RQ",
+///     num_partitions=256,
+///     ivf_centroids=centroids,
+///     rabitq_model=model,
+///     fragment_ids=my_fragments,
+/// )
+/// ```
+#[pyfunction]
+#[pyo3(signature = (dimension, num_bits=5, dtype="float32"))]
+pub fn build_rq_model(dimension: usize, num_bits: u8, dtype: &str) -> PyResult<String> {
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::RQRotationType;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
+    use lance_index::vector::quantizer::Quantization;
+
+    if !dimension.is_multiple_of(u8::BITS as usize) {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+            "dimension must be divisible by 8 for IVF_RQ",
+        ));
+    }
+    let dim = dimension as i32;
+    let rotation = RQRotationType::Fast;
+    let quantizer = match dtype.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+        "float16" => RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float16Type>(num_bits, dim, rotation),
+        "float32" => RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(num_bits, dim, rotation),
+        "float64" => RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float64Type>(num_bits, dim, rotation),
+        other => {
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!("unsupported dtype: {other}")));
+        }
+    };
+    serde_json::to_string(&quantizer.metadata(None))
+        .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("failed to serialize RQ model: {e}")))
+}
+
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 async fn do_transform_vectors(
     dataset: &Dataset,
@@ -290,7 +400,7 @@ async fn do_transform_vectors(
 
 #[pyfunction]
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-#[pyo3(signature=(dataset, column, dimension, num_subvectors, distance_type, ivf_centroids, pq_codebook, dst_uri, fragments, partitions_ds_uri=None))]
+#[pyo3(signature=(dataset, column, dimension, num_subvectors, distance_type, ivf_centroids, pq_codebook, dst_uri, fragments, partitions_ds_uri=None, num_bits=8))]
 pub fn transform_vectors(
     py: Python<'_>,
     dataset: &Dataset,
@@ -303,15 +413,23 @@ pub fn transform_vectors(
     dst_uri: &str,
     fragments: Vec<FileFragment>,
     partitions_ds_uri: Option<&str>,
+    num_bits: u32,
 ) -> PyResult<()> {
     let ivf_centroids = ivf_centroids.0;
     let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::from(ivf_centroids);
     let codebook = pq_codebook.0;
     let codebook = FixedSizeListArray::from(codebook);
+    lance_index::vector::pq::validate_supplied_codebook(
+        codebook.values().len(),
+        dimension,
+        num_subvectors as usize,
+        num_bits as usize,
+    )
+    .infer_error()?;
     let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(distance_type).unwrap();
     let pq = ProductQuantizer::new(
         num_subvectors as usize,
-        /*num_bits=*/ 8,
+        num_bits,
         dimension,
         codebook,
         distance_type,
@@ -412,7 +530,27 @@ async fn do_load_shuffled_vectors(
     .infer_error()?;
 
     let mut ds = dataset.ds.as_ref().clone();
-    ds.commit_existing_index(index_name, column, index_id)
+    let index_dir = ds.indices_dir().clone().join(index_id.to_string());
+    let object_store = ds.object_store(None).await.infer_error()?;
+    let files = list_index_files_with_sizes(object_store.as_ref(), &index_dir)
+        .await
+        .infer_error()?;
+    let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: index_id,
+        name: index_name.to_string(),
+        fields: vec![ds.schema().field(column).unwrap().id],
+        covering_fields: vec![],
+        dataset_version: ds.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(ds.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect()),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(
+            prost_types::Any::from_msg(&lance_index::pb::VectorIndexDetails::default()).unwrap(),
+        )),
+        index_version: IndexType::IvfPq.version(),
+        created_at: Some(Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(files),
+    };
+    ds.commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, column, vec![metadata])
         .await
         .infer_error()?;
 
@@ -420,7 +558,7 @@ async fn do_load_shuffled_vectors(
 }
 
 #[pyfunction]
-#[pyo3(signature=(filenames, dir_path, dataset, column, ivf_centroids, pq_codebook, pq_dimension, num_subvectors, distance_type, index_name=None))]
+#[pyo3(signature=(filenames, dir_path, dataset, column, ivf_centroids, pq_codebook, pq_dimension, num_subvectors, distance_type, index_name=None, num_bits=8))]
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub fn load_shuffled_vectors(
     filenames: Vec<String>,
@@ -433,6 +571,7 @@ pub fn load_shuffled_vectors(
     num_subvectors: u32,
     distance_type: &str,
     index_name: Option<&str>,
+    num_bits: u32,
 ) -> PyResult<()> {
     let mut default_idx_name = column.to_string();
     default_idx_name.push_str("_idx");
@@ -450,11 +589,18 @@ pub fn load_shuffled_vectors(
 
     let codebook = pq_codebook.0;
     let codebook = FixedSizeListArray::from(codebook);
+    lance_index::vector::pq::validate_supplied_codebook(
+        codebook.values().len(),
+        pq_dimension,
+        num_subvectors as usize,
+        num_bits as usize,
+    )
+    .infer_error()?;
 
     let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(distance_type).unwrap();
     let pq_model = ProductQuantizer::new(
         num_subvectors as usize,
-        /*num_bits=*/ 8,
+        num_bits,
         pq_dimension,
         codebook,
         distance_type,
@@ -468,7 +614,12 @@ pub fn load_shuffled_vectors(
     )?
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "IndexSegmentDescription", module = "lance.indices", get_all)]
+#[pyclass(
+    name = "IndexSegmentDescription",
+    module = "lance.indices",
+    get_all,
+    skip_from_py_object
+)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct PyIndexSegmentDescription {
     /// The UUID of the index segment
@@ -476,16 +627,52 @@ pub struct PyIndexSegmentDescription {
     /// The dataset version at which the index segment was last updated
     pub dataset_version_at_last_update: u64,
     /// The fragment ids that are covered by the index segment
-    pub fragment_ids: HashSet<u32>,
+    pub fragment_ids: crate::bitmap::PyBitmap,
     /// The version of the index
     pub index_version: i32,
     /// The timestamp when the index segment was created
     pub created_at: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
+    /// The total size in bytes of all files in this segment
+    /// (None for backward compatibility with indices created before file tracking)
+    pub size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    /// The id of the dataset base path that stores this segment
+    /// (None when the segment is stored in the dataset's default base path)
+    pub base_id: Option<i64>,
+    /// The ids of the fields whose values this segment carries but is not keyed on.
+    /// Always the trailing entries of the segment's fields.
+    pub covering_fields: Vec<i32>,
 }
 
 impl PyIndexSegmentDescription {
+    pub fn from_metadata(segment: &lance_table::format::IndexMetadata) -> Self {
+        let fragment_ids =
+            crate::bitmap::PyBitmap::new(segment.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap_or_default());
+        let size_bytes = segment.total_size_bytes();
+
+        Self {
+            uuid: segment.uuid.to_string(),
+            dataset_version_at_last_update: segment.dataset_version,
+            fragment_ids,
+            index_version: segment.index_version,
+            created_at: segment.created_at,
+            size_bytes,
+            base_id: segment.base_id.map(|id| id as i64),
+            covering_fields: segment.covering_fields.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
     pub fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
-        format!("IndexSegmentDescription(uuid={}, dataset_version_at_last_update={}, fragment_ids={:?}, index_version={}, created_at={:?})", self.uuid, self.dataset_version_at_last_update, self.fragment_ids, self.index_version, self.created_at)
+        format!(
+            "IndexSegmentDescription(uuid={}, dataset_version_at_last_update={}, fragment_ids={}, index_version={}, created_at={:?}, size_bytes={:?}, base_id={:?}, covering_fields={:?})",
+            self.uuid,
+            self.dataset_version_at_last_update,
+            self.fragment_ids.__repr__(),
+            self.index_version,
+            self.created_at,
+            self.size_bytes,
+            self.base_id,
+            self.covering_fields
+        )
     }
 }
 
@@ -499,7 +686,8 @@ pub struct PyIndexDescription {
     pub index_type: String,
     /// The ids of the fields that the index is built on
     pub fields: Vec<u32>,
-    /// The names of the fields that the index is built on
+    /// The full paths of the fields that the index is built on
+    /// (dotted, with backtick-quoted segments for non-identifier names)
     pub field_names: Vec<String>,
     /// The number of rows indexed by the index
     pub num_rows_indexed: u64,
@@ -507,6 +695,9 @@ pub struct PyIndexDescription {
     pub details: PyJson,
     /// The segments of the index
     pub segments: Vec<PyIndexSegmentDescription>,
+    /// The total size in bytes of all files across all segments
+    /// (None for backward compatibility with indices created before file tracking)
+    pub total_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
 }
 
 impl PyIndexDescription {
@@ -517,29 +708,15 @@ impl PyIndexDescription {
             .map(|field| {
                 dataset
                     .schema()
-                    .field_by_id(*field as i32)
-                    .map(|f| f.name.clone())
-                    .unwrap_or("<unknown>".to_string())
+                    .field_path_minimal(*field as i32)
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|_| "<unknown>".to_string())
             })
             .collect();
 
         let segments = index
             .metadata()
             .iter()
-            .map(|segment| {
-                let fragment_ids = segment
-                    .fragment_bitmap
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .map(|bitmap| bitmap.iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>())
-                    .unwrap_or_default();
-                PyIndexSegmentDescription {
-                    uuid: segment.uuid.to_string(),
-                    dataset_version_at_last_update: segment.dataset_version,
-                    fragment_ids,
-                    index_version: segment.index_version,
-                    created_at: segment.created_at,
-                }
-            })
+            .map(PyIndexSegmentDescription::from_metadata)
             .collect();
 
         let details = index.details().unwrap_or_else(|_| "{}".to_string());
@@ -553,6 +730,7 @@ impl PyIndexDescription {
             type_url: index.type_url().to_string(),
             num_rows_indexed: index.rows_indexed(),
             details: PyJson(details),
+            total_size_bytes: index.total_size_bytes(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -560,7 +738,20 @@ impl PyIndexDescription {
 #[pymethods]
 impl PyIndexDescription {
     pub fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
-        format!("IndexDescription(name={}, type_url={}, num_rows_indexed={}, fields={:?}, field_names={:?}, num_segments={})", self.name, self.type_url, self.num_rows_indexed, self.fields, self.field_names, self.segments.len())
+        let mut repr = format!(
+            "IndexDescription(name='{}', type_url='{}', num_rows_indexed={}, fields={:?}, field_names={:?}, num_segments={}",
+            self.name,
+            self.type_url,
+            self.num_rows_indexed,
+            self.fields,
+            self.field_names,
+            self.segments.len()
+        );
+        if let Some(byte_size) = self.total_size_bytes {
+            write!(repr, ", total_size_bytes={}", byte_size).unwrap();
+        }
+        repr.push(')');
+        repr
     }
 }
 
@@ -568,11 +759,13 @@ pub fn register_indices(py: Python, m: &Bound<'_, PyModule>) -> PyResult<()> {
     let indices = PyModule::new(py, "indices")?;
     indices.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(train_ivf_model))?;
     indices.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(train_pq_model))?;
+    indices.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(build_rq_model))?;
     indices.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(transform_vectors))?;
     indices.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(shuffle_transformed_vectors))?;
     indices.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(load_shuffled_vectors))?;
     indices.add_class::<PyIvfModel>()?;
     indices.add_class::<PyIndexConfig>()?;
+    indices.add_class::<PyIndexSegment>()?;
     indices.add_class::<PyIndexDescription>()?;
     indices.add_class::<PyIndexSegmentDescription>()?;
     indices.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(get_ivf_model))?;
diff --git a/python/src/lib.rs b/python/src/lib.rs
index 5243e0fddd4..ecb40b56792 100644
--- a/python/src/lib.rs
+++ b/python/src/lib.rs
@@ -25,39 +25,45 @@
 use std::env;
 use std::fs::OpenOptions;
 use std::path::Path;
-use std::sync::atomic::{self, Ordering};
 use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use std::ffi::CString;
+use std::sync::atomic::{self, Ordering};
 
 use ::arrow::pyarrow::PyArrowType;
 use ::arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 use ::lance::arrow::json::ArrowJsonExt;
 use ::lance::datafusion::LanceTableProvider;
+use ::lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use datafusion_ffi::proto::logical_extension_codec::FFI_LogicalExtensionCodec;
 use datafusion_ffi::table_provider::FFI_TableProvider;
 #[cfg(feature = "datagen")]
 use datagen::register_datagen;
 use dataset::blob::LanceBlobFile;
-use dataset::cleanup::CleanupStats;
+use dataset::cleanup::{
+    CleanupCandidateFile, CleanupExplanation, CleanupReferencedBranch, CleanupStats,
+};
 use dataset::io_stats::IoStats;
 use dataset::optimize::{
     PyCompaction, PyCompactionMetrics, PyCompactionPlan, PyCompactionTask, PyRewriteResult,
 };
-use dataset::{DatasetBasePath, MergeInsertBuilder, PyFullTextQuery};
+use dataset::{DatasetBasePath, MergeInsertBuilder, PyFullTextQuery, PySearchFilter};
 use env_logger::{Builder, Env};
 use file::{
-    stable_version, LanceBufferDescriptor, LanceColumnMetadata, LanceFileMetadata, LanceFileReader,
-    LanceFileStatistics, LanceFileWriter, LancePageMetadata,
+    LanceBufferDescriptor, LanceColumnMetadata, LanceFileMetadata, LanceFileReader,
+    LanceFileStatistics, LanceFileWriteSummary, LanceFileWriter, LancePageMetadata, stable_version,
 };
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use log::Level;
 use pyo3::exceptions::PyIOError;
+use pyo3::ffi::c_str;
 use pyo3::prelude::*;
 use pyo3::types::{PyAny, PyAnyMethods, PyCapsule};
 use scanner::ScanStatistics;
 use session::Session;
+use std::ffi::CString;
+use std::ptr::NonNull;
 
 pub(crate) mod arrow;
+pub(crate) mod bitmap;
+pub(crate) mod blob;
 #[cfg(feature = "datagen")]
 pub(crate) mod datagen;
 pub(crate) mod dataset;
@@ -66,9 +72,14 @@ pub(crate) mod error;
 pub(crate) mod executor;
 pub(crate) mod file;
 pub(crate) mod fragment;
+pub(crate) mod fts;
 pub(crate) mod indices;
+pub(crate) mod mem_wal;
 pub(crate) mod namespace;
+pub(crate) mod object_store;
+pub(crate) mod otel;
 pub(crate) mod reader;
+pub(crate) mod rowids;
 pub(crate) mod scanner;
 pub(crate) mod schema;
 pub(crate) mod session;
@@ -77,20 +88,25 @@ pub(crate) mod tracing;
 pub(crate) mod transaction;
 pub(crate) mod utils;
 
-pub use crate::arrow::{bfloat16_array, BFloat16};
+pub use crate::arrow::{BFloat16, bfloat16_array};
 use crate::file::LanceFileSession;
 use crate::fragment::{write_fragments, write_fragments_transaction};
-use crate::tracing::{capture_trace_events, shutdown_tracing, PyTraceEvent};
-pub use crate::tracing::{trace_to_chrome, TraceGuard};
+use crate::tracing::{PyTraceEvent, capture_trace_events, shutdown_tracing};
+pub use crate::tracing::{TraceGuard, trace_to_chrome};
 use crate::utils::Hnsw;
 use crate::utils::KMeans;
-pub use dataset::write_dataset;
 pub use dataset::Dataset;
+pub use dataset::serialize_row_addrs;
+pub use dataset::write_dataset;
 use fragment::{FileFragment, PyDeletionFile, PyRowDatasetVersionMeta, PyRowIdMeta};
 pub use indices::register_indices;
 pub use reader::LanceReader;
+use rowids::{PyRowIdSequence, PyRowIdSequenceIterator};
 pub use scanner::Scanner;
 
+use crate::blob::{
+    PyBlobDescriptor, PyBlobDescriptorArrayBuilder, PyDedicatedBlobWriter, PyPackedBlobWriter,
+};
 use crate::executor::BackgroundExecutor;
 
 const CLIENT_VERSION: &str = env!("CARGO_PKG_VERSION");
@@ -122,11 +138,13 @@ static EXECUTOR_INSTALLED: atomic::AtomicBool = atomic::AtomicBool::new(false);
 
 static ATFORK_INSTALLED: atomic::AtomicBool = atomic::AtomicBool::new(false);
 
-pub fn rt() -> &'static mut BackgroundExecutor {
+pub fn rt() -> &'static BackgroundExecutor {
     loop {
         let ptr = BACKGROUND_EXECUTOR.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
         if !ptr.is_null() {
-            return unsafe { &mut *ptr };
+            // SAFETY: installed executors are leaked and remain valid for the
+            // process lifetime. BackgroundExecutor uses shared access only.
+            return unsafe { &*ptr };
         }
         if !EXECUTOR_INSTALLED.fetch_or(true, Ordering::SeqCst) {
             break;
@@ -138,7 +156,8 @@ pub fn rt() -> &'static mut BackgroundExecutor {
     }
     let new_ptr = Box::into_raw(Box::new(create_background_executor()));
     BACKGROUND_EXECUTOR.store(new_ptr, Ordering::SeqCst);
-    unsafe { &mut *new_ptr }
+    // SAFETY: the executor is leaked and all of its operations take `&self`.
+    unsafe { &*new_ptr }
 }
 
 /// After a fork() operation, force re-creation of the BackgroundExecutor. Note: this function
@@ -207,14 +226,14 @@ fn set_log_file_target(builder: &mut env_logger::Builder) {
         let path = Path::new(&log_file_path);
 
         // Create parent directories if they don't exist
-        if let Some(parent) = path.parent() {
-            if let Err(e) = std::fs::create_dir_all(parent) {
-                println!(
-                    "Failed to create parent directories for log file '{}': {}, using stderr",
-                    log_file_path, e
-                );
-                return;
-            }
+        if let Some(parent) = path.parent()
+            && let Err(e) = std::fs::create_dir_all(parent)
+        {
+            println!(
+                "Failed to create parent directories for log file '{}': {}, using stderr",
+                log_file_path, e
+            );
+            return;
         }
 
         // Try to open/create the log file
@@ -249,11 +268,18 @@ fn lance(py: Python, m: &Bound<'_, PyModule>) -> PyResult<()> {
     m.add_class::<FileFragment>()?;
     m.add_class::<PyDeletionFile>()?;
     m.add_class::<PyRowIdMeta>()?;
+    m.add_class::<PyRowIdSequence>()?;
+    m.add_class::<PyRowIdSequenceIterator>()?;
     m.add_class::<PyRowDatasetVersionMeta>()?;
     m.add_class::<MergeInsertBuilder>()?;
     m.add_class::<LanceBlobFile>()?;
+    m.add_class::<PyBlobDescriptor>()?;
+    m.add_class::<PyBlobDescriptorArrayBuilder>()?;
+    m.add_class::<PyPackedBlobWriter>()?;
+    m.add_class::<PyDedicatedBlobWriter>()?;
     m.add_class::<LanceFileReader>()?;
     m.add_class::<LanceFileWriter>()?;
+    m.add_class::<LanceFileWriteSummary>()?;
     m.add_class::<LanceFileSession>()?;
     m.add_class::<LanceFileMetadata>()?;
     m.add_class::<LanceFileStatistics>()?;
@@ -262,6 +288,9 @@ fn lance(py: Python, m: &Bound<'_, PyModule>) -> PyResult<()> {
     m.add_class::<LanceBufferDescriptor>()?;
     m.add_class::<BFloat16>()?;
     m.add_class::<CleanupStats>()?;
+    m.add_class::<CleanupCandidateFile>()?;
+    m.add_class::<CleanupReferencedBranch>()?;
+    m.add_class::<CleanupExplanation>()?;
     m.add_class::<IoStats>()?;
     m.add_class::<KMeans>()?;
     m.add_class::<Hnsw>()?;
@@ -272,27 +301,54 @@ fn lance(py: Python, m: &Bound<'_, PyModule>) -> PyResult<()> {
     m.add_class::<PyCompactionMetrics>()?;
     m.add_class::<ScanStatistics>()?;
     m.add_class::<Session>()?;
+    m.add_class::<object_store::PyObjectStoreProvider>()?;
+    m.add_class::<object_store::PyObjectStoreRegistry>()?;
     m.add_class::<PyTraceEvent>()?;
     m.add_class::<TraceGuard>()?;
+    m.add_class::<fts::FtsToken>()?;
     m.add_class::<schema::LanceSchema>()?;
+    m.add_class::<bitmap::PyBitmap>()?;
+    m.add_class::<bitmap::PyBitmapIter>()?;
     m.add_class::<PyFullTextQuery>()?;
+    m.add_class::<PySearchFilter>()?;
     m.add_class::<namespace::PyDirectoryNamespace>()?;
     m.add_class::<namespace::PyRestNamespace>()?;
     m.add_class::<namespace::PyRestAdapter>()?;
     m.add_class::<storage_options::PyStorageOptionsAccessor>()?;
+    // MemWAL classes
+    m.add_class::<mem_wal::PyCompactedSsTable>()?;
+    m.add_class::<mem_wal::PyShardSnapshot>()?;
+    m.add_class::<mem_wal::PyShardWriter>()?;
+    m.add_class::<mem_wal::PyLsmScanner>()?;
+    m.add_class::<mem_wal::PyExecutionPlan>()?;
+    m.add_class::<mem_wal::PyLsmPointLookupPlanner>()?;
+    m.add_class::<mem_wal::PyLsmVectorSearchPlanner>()?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(mem_wal::py_evaluate_sharding_spec))?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(mem_wal::py_write_pk_sidecar))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(bfloat16_array))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(write_dataset))?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(serialize_row_addrs))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(write_fragments))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(write_fragments_transaction))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(schema_to_json))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(json_to_schema))?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(schema::parse_field_path))?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(schema::format_field_path))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(trace_to_chrome))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(capture_trace_events))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(shutdown_tracing))?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(fts::tokenize))?;
+    // OpenTelemetry metrics bridge
+    m.add_class::<otel::PyMetricPoint>()?;
+    m.add_class::<otel::PyMetricDescription>()?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(otel::register_lance_metrics_recorder))?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(otel::lance_metrics_catalog))?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(otel::snapshot_lance_metrics))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(manifest_needs_migration))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(language_model_home))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(bytes_read_counter))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(iops_counter))?;
+    m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(simd_info))?;
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(stable_version))?;
     // Debug functions
     m.add_wrapped(wrap_pyfunction!(debug::format_schema))?;
@@ -311,6 +367,37 @@ fn iops_counter() -> PyResult<u64> {
     Ok(::lance::io::iops_counter())
 }
 
+/// Returns a dict describing which SIMD tier the lance runtime dispatches to
+/// on this host, plus the raw CPU feature flags it detected.
+///
+/// Mirrors `pyarrow.runtime_info()`: a cheap, transparent way to verify that
+/// the host is hitting the expected SIMD tier (e.g., `"avx512_fp16"`,
+/// `"avx2"`) when debugging vector-search performance.
+///
+/// Returns:
+///   {
+///     "tier": str,                      # e.g. "avx2", "avx_fma", "neon", "none"
+///     "target_arch": str,               # e.g. "x86_64", "aarch64", "loongarch64"
+///     "host_features": list[str],       # raw CPU feature flags (x86_64 only)
+///   }
+///
+/// Examples:
+///   >>> import lance
+///   >>> info = lance.simd_info()
+///   >>> sorted(info)
+///   ['host_features', 'target_arch', 'tier']
+///   >>> isinstance(info["tier"], str)
+///   True
+#[pyfunction]
+pub fn simd_info(py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+    let info = lance_core::utils::cpu::simd_info();
+    let dict = pyo3::types::PyDict::new(py);
+    dict.set_item("tier", info.tier.to_string())?;
+    dict.set_item("target_arch", info.target_arch)?;
+    dict.set_item("host_features", info.host_features)?;
+    Ok(dict.into())
+}
+
 #[pyfunction(name = "bytes_read_counter")]
 fn bytes_read_counter() -> PyResult<u64> {
     Ok(::lance::io::bytes_read_counter())
@@ -366,7 +453,12 @@ fn manifest_needs_migration(dataset: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<bool> {
     ))
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "FFILanceTableProvider", module = "lance", subclass)]
+#[pyclass(
+    name = "FFILanceTableProvider",
+    module = "lance",
+    subclass,
+    skip_from_py_object
+)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 struct FFILanceTableProvider {
     dataset: Arc<::lance::Dataset>,
@@ -394,6 +486,7 @@ impl FFILanceTableProvider {
     fn __datafusion_table_provider__<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
+        session: Bound<PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyCapsule>> {
         let name = CString::new("datafusion_table_provider").unwrap();
         let a_lance_table_provider = Arc::new(LanceTableProvider::new(
@@ -402,9 +495,42 @@ impl FFILanceTableProvider {
             self.with_row_addr,
         ));
 
-        let ffi_provider =
-            FFI_TableProvider::new(a_lance_table_provider, true, rt().get_runtime_handle());
-        let capsule = PyCapsule::new(py, ffi_provider, Some(name.clone()));
-        capsule
+        let codec = ffi_logical_codec_from_pycapsule(session)?;
+        let ffi_provider = FFI_TableProvider::new_with_ffi_codec(
+            a_lance_table_provider,
+            true,
+            rt().get_runtime_handle(),
+            codec,
+        );
+        PyCapsule::new(py, ffi_provider, Some(name.clone()))
+    }
+}
+
+fn ffi_logical_codec_from_pycapsule(obj: Bound<PyAny>) -> PyResult<FFI_LogicalExtensionCodec> {
+    let attr_name = "__datafusion_logical_extension_codec__";
+    let capsule = if obj.hasattr(attr_name)? {
+        obj.getattr(attr_name)?.call0()?
+    } else {
+        obj
+    };
+
+    let capsule = capsule.cast::<PyCapsule>()?;
+    let data: NonNull<FFI_LogicalExtensionCodec> = capsule
+        .pointer_checked(Some(c_str!("datafusion_logical_extension_codec")))?
+        .cast();
+    let codec = unsafe { data.as_ref() };
+
+    Ok(codec.clone())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn background_executor_is_a_shared_singleton() {
+        let first: &'static BackgroundExecutor = rt();
+        let second: &'static BackgroundExecutor = rt();
+        assert!(std::ptr::eq(first, second));
     }
 }
diff --git a/python/src/mem_wal.rs b/python/src/mem_wal.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..48ea62d6e10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/src/mem_wal.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1104 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::ffi_stream::ArrowArrayStreamReader;
+use arrow::pyarrow::*;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader,
+    StructArray, make_array,
+};
+use arrow_data::ArrayData;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, collect, displayable};
+use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::dataset::Dataset as LanceDataset;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{
+    LsmDataSourceCollector, LsmPointLookupPlanner, LsmVectorSearchPlanner, SsTable,
+    parse_filter_expr as parse_lsm_filter_expr,
+};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::write::{MemTableStats, ShardMemory, WriteStatsSnapshot};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{
+    LsmScanner, ShardSnapshot, ShardWriter, arrow_schema_with_field_ids, evaluate_sharding_spec,
+};
+use lance_index::mem_wal::{
+    CompactedSsTable as LanceCompactedSsTable, ShardingField, ShardingSpec,
+};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use pyo3::exceptions::{PyIOError, PyRuntimeError, PyValueError};
+use pyo3::prelude::*;
+use pyo3::types::{PyDict, PyList};
+use tokio::sync::Mutex as TokioMutex;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::dataset::Dataset as PyDataset;
+use crate::rt;
+use crate::schema::LanceSchema as PyLanceSchema;
+
+/// Evaluate a MemWAL sharding spec against one PyArrow RecordBatch.
+#[pyfunction(name = "_evaluate_sharding_spec", signature = (batch, spec, schema))]
+pub fn py_evaluate_sharding_spec<'py>(
+    py: Python<'py>,
+    batch: PyArrowType<RecordBatch>,
+    spec: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    schema: &PyLanceSchema,
+) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+    let PyArrowType(batch) = batch;
+    let spec = sharding_spec_from_py(spec)?;
+    let result = evaluate_sharding_spec(&batch, &spec, &schema.0)
+        .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+    result.to_pyarrow(py)
+}
+
+/// Write a primary-key dedup sidecar (`_pk_index/`) for an SSTable
+/// dataset already written at `gen_path`, mirroring what production flush emits.
+///
+/// Test-support only: lets Python tests stage a *faithful* SSTable
+/// (dataset + sidecar). Production always writes the sidecar during flush, so a
+/// dataset-without-sidecar is not a state the system otherwise produces.
+#[pyfunction(name = "_write_pk_sidecar", signature = (gen_path, data, pk_columns))]
+pub fn py_write_pk_sidecar(
+    py: Python<'_>,
+    gen_path: String,
+    data: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let reader = ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_pyarrow_bound(data)
+        .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Cannot read data as Arrow: {}", e)))?;
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = reader
+        .collect::<Result<_, _>>()
+        .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(format!("Failed to read batches: {}", e)))?;
+    rt().block_on(Some(py), async move {
+        let pk_refs: Vec<&str> = pk_columns.iter().map(String::as_str).collect();
+        lance::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::write_pk_sidecar(&gen_path, &batches, &pk_refs).await
+    })?
+    .map_err(|e: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+}
+
+fn sharding_spec_from_py(spec: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<ShardingSpec> {
+    let spec_id = get_py_value(spec, "spec_id")?.extract::<u32>()?;
+    let fields_obj = get_py_value(spec, "fields")?;
+    let mut fields = Vec::new();
+    for field_obj in fields_obj.try_iter()? {
+        fields.push(sharding_field_from_py(&field_obj?)?);
+    }
+    Ok(ShardingSpec { spec_id, fields })
+}
+
+fn sharding_field_from_py(field: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<ShardingField> {
+    Ok(ShardingField {
+        field_id: get_py_value(field, "field_id")?.extract::<String>()?,
+        source_ids: get_py_value(field, "source_ids")?.extract::<Vec<i32>>()?,
+        transform: optional_string(get_py_value(field, "transform")?)?,
+        expression: optional_string(get_py_value(field, "expression")?)?,
+        result_type: get_py_value(field, "result_type")?.extract::<String>()?,
+        parameters: get_py_value(field, "parameters")?.extract::<HashMap<String, String>>()?,
+    })
+}
+
+fn get_py_value<'py>(obj: &Bound<'py, PyAny>, name: &str) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+    if let Ok(dict) = obj.cast::<PyDict>() {
+        dict.get_item(name)?
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Missing sharding spec field '{name}'")))
+    } else {
+        obj.getattr(name)
+    }
+}
+
+fn optional_string(value: Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Option<String>> {
+    if value.is_none() {
+        Ok(None)
+    } else {
+        value.extract::<String>().map(Some)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Points to an SSTable compacted into the base table.
+///
+/// Used with `MergeInsertBuilder.mark_sstables_as_compacted()`.
+#[pyclass(name = "_CompactedSsTable", module = "_lib")]
+pub struct PyCompactedSsTable {
+    pub shard_id: String,
+    pub generation: u64,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyCompactedSsTable {
+    #[new]
+    pub fn new(shard_id: String, generation: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            shard_id,
+            generation,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn shard_id(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.shard_id
+    }
+
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn generation(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.generation
+    }
+
+    pub fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!(
+            "_CompactedSsTable(shard_id='{}', generation={})",
+            self.shard_id, self.generation
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl PyCompactedSsTable {
+    pub fn to_lance(&self) -> PyResult<LanceCompactedSsTable> {
+        let uuid = Uuid::parse_str(&self.shard_id)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid shard_id UUID: {}", e)))?;
+        Ok(LanceCompactedSsTable::new(uuid, self.generation))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Snapshot of a MemWAL shard's state at a point in time.
+///
+/// Used to specify which SSTables to include when creating an
+/// `_LsmScanner`. Supports a builder pattern for adding generations.
+#[pyclass(name = "_ShardSnapshot", module = "_lib", skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct PyShardSnapshot {
+    pub inner: ShardSnapshot,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyShardSnapshot {
+    #[new]
+    pub fn new(shard_id: String) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let uuid = Uuid::parse_str(&shard_id)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Invalid shard_id UUID: {}", e)))?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: ShardSnapshot::new(uuid),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Set the sharding spec ID for this snapshot.
+    pub fn with_spec_id(mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>, spec_id: u32) -> PyRefMut<'_, Self> {
+        slf.inner = slf.inner.clone().with_spec_id(spec_id);
+        slf
+    }
+
+    /// Set the current (active) generation number.
+    pub fn with_current_generation(
+        mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>,
+        generation: u64,
+    ) -> PyRefMut<'_, Self> {
+        slf.inner = slf.inner.clone().with_current_generation(generation);
+        slf
+    }
+
+    /// Add an SSTable by its generation number and storage path.
+    pub fn with_sstable(
+        mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>,
+        generation: u64,
+        path: String,
+    ) -> PyRefMut<'_, Self> {
+        slf.inner = slf.inner.clone().with_sstable(generation, path);
+        slf
+    }
+
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn shard_id(&self) -> String {
+        self.inner.shard_id.to_string()
+    }
+
+    pub fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!(
+            "_ShardSnapshot(shard_id='{}', current_gen={}, sstables={})",
+            self.inner.shard_id,
+            self.inner.current_generation,
+            self.inner.sstables.len()
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+/// Long-lived stateful writer for a MemWAL shard.
+///
+/// Supports writing batches, querying statistics, creating LSM scanners,
+/// and graceful shutdown. Supports the Python context manager protocol.
+#[pyclass(name = "_ShardWriter", module = "_lib")]
+pub struct PyShardWriter {
+    inner: Arc<TokioMutex<Option<ShardWriter>>>,
+    closed_state: Arc<TokioMutex<Option<ClosedShardWriterState>>>,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    dataset: Arc<LanceDataset>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct ClosedShardWriterState {
+    stats: WriteStatsSnapshot,
+    memtable_stats: MemTableStats,
+}
+
+fn collect_record_batches(data: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+    let reader = ArrowArrayStreamReader::from_pyarrow_bound(data)
+        .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Cannot read data as Arrow: {}", e)))?;
+    reader
+        .collect::<Result<_, _>>()
+        .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(format!("Failed to read batches: {}", e)))
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyShardWriter {
+    /// Write data batches to the MemWAL.
+    ///
+    /// Accepts any PyArrow-compatible data source (RecordBatch, Table,
+    /// or an Arrow stream reader).
+    pub fn put(&self, py: Python<'_>, data: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let batches = collect_record_batches(data)?;
+
+        if batches.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        rt().block_on(Some(py), async move {
+            let guard = inner.lock().await;
+            match guard.as_ref() {
+                Some(writer) => writer.put(batches).await.map(|_| ()),
+                None => Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+                    "ShardWriter is already closed",
+                )),
+            }
+        })?
+        .map_err(|e: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// Delete rows from the MemWAL by primary key.
+    ///
+    /// Accepts any PyArrow-compatible data source carrying the shard's primary
+    /// key column(s). Rust core validates that primary keys exist and builds the
+    /// tombstone rows.
+    pub fn delete(&self, py: Python<'_>, keys: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let batches = collect_record_batches(keys)?;
+
+        if batches.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        rt().block_on(Some(py), async move {
+            let guard = inner.lock().await;
+            match guard.as_ref() {
+                Some(writer) => writer.delete(batches).await.map(|_| ()),
+                None => Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+                    "ShardWriter is already closed",
+                )),
+            }
+        })?
+        .map_err(|e: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// Flush pending data and close the writer.
+    ///
+    /// After close(), calling put() will raise an error.
+    /// This is called automatically when using the context manager.
+    pub fn close(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        let closed_state = self.closed_state.clone();
+        rt().block_on(Some(py), async move {
+            let mut guard = inner.lock().await;
+            if let Some(writer) = guard.take() {
+                let stats_handle = writer.stats_handle();
+                // Snapshot stats before close so the captured state reflects
+                // what was written, not any internal bookkeeping done by close().
+                let stats_snapshot = stats_handle.snapshot();
+                let memtable_stats_before_close = writer.memtable_stats().await?;
+                writer.close().await?;
+                let closed_memtable_stats = closed_memtable_stats(memtable_stats_before_close);
+                let mut closed_guard = closed_state.lock().await;
+                *closed_guard = Some(ClosedShardWriterState {
+                    stats: stats_snapshot,
+                    memtable_stats: closed_memtable_stats,
+                });
+                Ok(())
+            } else {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        })?
+        .map_err(|e: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// Return a snapshot of current write statistics.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a dict with keys: put_count, put_time_ms, wal_flush_count,
+    /// wal_flush_bytes, memtable_flush_count, memtable_flush_rows.
+    pub fn stats(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        let closed_state = self.closed_state.clone();
+        let stats = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async move {
+                let guard = inner.lock().await;
+                if let Some(writer) = guard.as_ref() {
+                    Ok(writer.stats())
+                } else {
+                    let closed_guard = closed_state.lock().await;
+                    closed_guard
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|state| state.stats.clone())
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            lance_core::Error::invalid_input("ShardWriter is already closed")
+                        })
+                }
+            })?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+
+        write_stats_to_pydict(py, &stats)
+    }
+
+    /// Return current MemTable statistics.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a dict with keys: row_count, batch_count, estimated_size_bytes,
+    /// index_bytes, frozen_bytes, generation.
+    pub fn memtable_stats(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        let closed_state = self.closed_state.clone();
+        let (stats, bytes) = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async move {
+                let guard = inner.lock().await;
+                match guard.as_ref() {
+                    // Byte totals come from `memory()`, the lock-free view;
+                    // `memtable_stats` carries none.
+                    Some(w) => w
+                        .memtable_stats()
+                        .await
+                        .map(|stats| (stats, Some(w.memory()))),
+                    None => {
+                        let closed_guard = closed_state.lock().await;
+                        closed_guard
+                            .as_ref()
+                            // A closed writer holds nothing, so the byte totals
+                            // are zero by construction rather than stale.
+                            .map(|state| (state.memtable_stats.clone(), None))
+                            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                lance_core::Error::invalid_input("ShardWriter is already closed")
+                            })
+                    }
+                }
+            })?
+            .map_err(|e: lance::Error| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+
+        memtable_stats_to_pydict(py, &stats, bytes.as_ref())
+    }
+
+    /// Create an LSM scanner that includes the active MemTable for strong consistency.
+    ///
+    /// The scanner covers: base table + given SSTables + current active MemTable.
+    #[pyo3(signature = (shard_snapshots=vec![]))]
+    pub fn lsm_scanner(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        shard_snapshots: Vec<Bound<'_, PyShardSnapshot>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyLsmScanner> {
+        let mut snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot> = shard_snapshots
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.borrow().inner.clone())
+            .collect();
+
+        let pk_columns = get_pk_columns(&self.dataset)?;
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
+        let shard_id = self.shard_id;
+
+        let (active_ref, writer_snapshot) = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async move {
+                let guard = inner.lock().await;
+                match guard.as_ref() {
+                    Some(w) => {
+                        let active_ref = w.active_memtable_ref().await?;
+                        let writer_snapshot = w
+                            .manifest()
+                            .await?
+                            .map(shard_snapshot_from_manifest)
+                            .unwrap_or_else(|| ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id));
+                        Ok((active_ref, writer_snapshot))
+                    }
+                    None => Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+                        "ShardWriter is already closed",
+                    )),
+                }
+            })?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+        snapshots.retain(|snapshot| snapshot.shard_id != shard_id);
+        snapshots.push(writer_snapshot);
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(dataset, snapshots, pk_columns)
+            .with_active_memtable(shard_id, active_ref);
+
+        Ok(PyLsmScanner {
+            inner: Some(scanner),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Return the shard ID as a UUID string.
+    #[getter]
+    pub fn shard_id(&self) -> String {
+        self.shard_id.to_string()
+    }
+
+    pub fn __enter__(slf: PyRef<'_, Self>) -> PyRef<'_, Self> {
+        slf
+    }
+
+    pub fn __exit__(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        _exc_type: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+        _exc_val: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+        _exc_tb: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<bool> {
+        self.close(py)?;
+        Ok(false)
+    }
+}
+
+impl PyShardWriter {
+    /// Create from a Rust ShardWriter and dataset reference.
+    pub fn new(writer: ShardWriter, shard_id: Uuid, dataset: Arc<LanceDataset>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(TokioMutex::new(Some(writer))),
+            closed_state: Arc::new(TokioMutex::new(None)),
+            shard_id,
+            dataset,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Python wrapper around a DataFusion physical execution plan.
+#[pyclass(name = "_ExecutionPlan", module = "_lib", skip_from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct PyExecutionPlan {
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    dataset_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+}
+
+impl PyExecutionPlan {
+    pub fn new(plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, dataset_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            plan,
+            dataset_schema,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyExecutionPlan {
+    #[getter]
+    fn schema<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        self.plan.schema().to_pyarrow(py)
+    }
+
+    #[getter]
+    fn dataset_schema<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        self.dataset_schema.to_pyarrow(py)
+    }
+
+    fn explain(&self) -> String {
+        format!("{}", displayable(self.plan.as_ref()).indent(true))
+    }
+
+    fn to_batches<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyList>> {
+        let plan = self.plan.clone();
+        let batches = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async move {
+                let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+                collect(plan, ctx.task_ctx()).await
+            })?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(format!("Plan execution failed: {}", e)))?;
+
+        let py_batches: Vec<Bound<'py, PyAny>> = batches
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|batch| {
+                PyArrowType(batch)
+                    .into_pyobject(py)
+                    .map(|batch| batch.into_any())
+                    .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+            })
+            .collect::<PyResult<_>>()?;
+        PyList::new(py, py_batches)
+    }
+
+    fn to_reader<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let plan = self.plan.clone();
+        let batches = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async move {
+                let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+                collect(plan, ctx.task_ctx()).await
+            })?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(format!("Plan execution failed: {}", e)))?;
+
+        let schema = self.plan.schema().clone();
+        let reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            batches.into_iter().map(Ok),
+            schema,
+        ));
+        reader.into_pyarrow(py)
+    }
+}
+
+/// LSM-aware scanner covering base table, SSTables, and active MemTable.
+///
+/// Provides deduplication by primary key, always returning the newest version
+/// of each row across all LSM levels.
+#[pyclass(name = "_LsmScanner", module = "_lib")]
+pub struct PyLsmScanner {
+    inner: Option<LsmScanner>,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyLsmScanner {
+    /// Create a scanner from dataset and shard snapshots (without active MemTable).
+    #[staticmethod]
+    pub fn from_snapshots(
+        dataset: &Bound<'_, PyDataset>,
+        shard_snapshots: Vec<Bound<'_, PyShardSnapshot>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let ds = dataset.borrow().ds.clone();
+        let snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot> = shard_snapshots
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.borrow().inner.clone())
+            .collect();
+        let pk_columns = get_pk_columns(&ds)?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: Some(LsmScanner::new(ds, snapshots, pk_columns)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Select specific columns to return.
+    pub fn project(
+        mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>,
+        columns: Vec<String>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'_, Self>> {
+        let scanner = slf
+            .inner
+            .take()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyRuntimeError::new_err("Scanner has already been consumed"))?;
+        let cols: Vec<&str> = columns.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+        slf.inner = Some(
+            scanner
+                .project(&cols)
+                .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?,
+        );
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+
+    /// Set a SQL filter expression.
+    pub fn filter(mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>, expr: String) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'_, Self>> {
+        let scanner = slf
+            .inner
+            .take()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyRuntimeError::new_err("Scanner has already been consumed"))?;
+        slf.inner = Some(
+            scanner
+                .filter(&expr)
+                .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?,
+        );
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+
+    /// Limit the number of rows returned, optionally with an offset.
+    #[pyo3(signature = (n=None, offset=None))]
+    pub fn limit(
+        mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>,
+        n: Option<usize>,
+        offset: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'_, Self>> {
+        let scanner = slf
+            .inner
+            .take()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyRuntimeError::new_err("Scanner has already been consumed"))?;
+        slf.inner = Some(
+            scanner
+                .limit(n.map(|n| n as i64), offset.map(|o| o as i64))
+                .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?,
+        );
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+
+    /// Include the `_rowaddr` internal column in results.
+    pub fn with_row_address(mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'_, Self>> {
+        let scanner = slf
+            .inner
+            .take()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyRuntimeError::new_err("Scanner has already been consumed"))?;
+        slf.inner = Some(scanner.with_row_address());
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+
+    /// Include the `_memtable_gen` internal column in results.
+    pub fn with_memtable_gen(mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>) -> PyResult<PyRefMut<'_, Self>> {
+        let scanner = slf
+            .inner
+            .take()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyRuntimeError::new_err("Scanner has already been consumed"))?;
+        slf.inner = Some(scanner.with_memtable_gen());
+        Ok(slf)
+    }
+
+    /// Execute the scan and return a single PyArrow RecordBatch.
+    pub fn to_batch<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let scanner = self
+            .inner
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyRuntimeError::new_err("Scanner has already been consumed"))?;
+        let batch = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), scanner.try_into_batch())
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+        PyArrowType(batch).into_pyobject(py).map(|b| b.into_any())
+    }
+
+    /// Execute the scan and return all batches as a Python list.
+    pub fn to_batches<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyList>> {
+        let scanner = self
+            .inner
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyRuntimeError::new_err("Scanner has already been consumed"))?;
+        let stream = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), scanner.try_into_stream())
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), stream.try_collect())
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+
+        let py_batches: Vec<Bound<'py, PyAny>> = batches
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|b| {
+                PyArrowType(b)
+                    .into_pyobject(py)
+                    .map(|b| b.into_any())
+                    .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+            })
+            .collect::<PyResult<_>>()?;
+        PyList::new(py, py_batches)
+    }
+
+    /// Return the row count without loading all data.
+    pub fn count_rows(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<u64> {
+        let scanner = self
+            .inner
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or_else(|| PyRuntimeError::new_err("Scanner has already been consumed"))?;
+        rt().block_on(Some(py), scanner.count_rows())
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Plans and executes primary key point lookups across all LSM levels.
+///
+/// More efficient than `_LsmScanner` for known-PK lookups due to bloom filter
+/// optimizations and short-circuit evaluation.
+#[pyclass(name = "_LsmPointLookupPlanner", module = "_lib")]
+pub struct PyLsmPointLookupPlanner {
+    planner: LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    dataset_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyLsmPointLookupPlanner {
+    #[new]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns=None))]
+    pub fn new(
+        dataset: &Bound<'_, PyDataset>,
+        shard_snapshots: Vec<Bound<'_, PyShardSnapshot>>,
+        pk_columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let ds = dataset.borrow().ds.clone();
+        let snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot> = shard_snapshots
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.borrow().inner.clone())
+            .collect();
+        let pk_cols = match pk_columns {
+            Some(cols) => cols,
+            None => get_pk_columns(&ds)?,
+        };
+        let base_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(ds.schema()));
+        // A sealed generation stores the names it was written with, so the
+        // planner resolves its columns by id; `base_schema` carries none.
+        let identity_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema_with_field_ids(ds.schema()));
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(ds.clone(), snapshots);
+        let planner = LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, pk_cols.clone(), base_schema.clone())
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?
+            .with_identity_schema(identity_schema);
+        Ok(Self {
+            planner,
+            dataset_schema: base_schema,
+            pk_columns: pk_cols,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Plan a single-row point lookup by primary key.
+    ///
+    /// For single-column primary keys, `pk_value` should be a PyArrow array
+    /// with exactly one element. For composite primary keys, `pk_value` must
+    /// be a StructArray with exactly one row and one field per PK column.
+    #[pyo3(signature = (pk_value, columns=None))]
+    pub fn plan_lookup(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        pk_value: PyArrowType<ArrayData>,
+        columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyExecutionPlan> {
+        let array = make_array(pk_value.0);
+        let pk_values = scalar_values_from_pk_value(array.as_ref(), &self.pk_columns)?;
+        let proj: Option<Vec<String>> = columns;
+        let planner_ref = &self.planner;
+        let plan = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async {
+                planner_ref.plan_lookup(&pk_values, proj.as_deref()).await
+            })?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+
+        Ok(PyExecutionPlan::new(plan, self.dataset_schema.clone()))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Plans and executes vector KNN search across all LSM levels.
+///
+/// Only supports IVF-PQ vector indexes maintained in MemWAL.
+/// Results include staleness filtering to return only the latest version of each row.
+#[pyclass(name = "_LsmVectorSearchPlanner", module = "_lib")]
+pub struct PyLsmVectorSearchPlanner {
+    planner: LsmVectorSearchPlanner,
+    vector_dim: usize,
+    dataset_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyLsmVectorSearchPlanner {
+    #[new]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (dataset, shard_snapshots, vector_column, pk_columns=None, distance_type=None, filter=None))]
+    pub fn new(
+        dataset: &Bound<'_, PyDataset>,
+        shard_snapshots: Vec<Bound<'_, PyShardSnapshot>>,
+        vector_column: String,
+        pk_columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        distance_type: Option<String>,
+        filter: Option<String>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let ds = dataset.borrow().ds.clone();
+        let snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot> = shard_snapshots
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.borrow().inner.clone())
+            .collect();
+        let pk_cols = match pk_columns {
+            Some(cols) => cols,
+            None => get_pk_columns(&ds)?,
+        };
+        let base_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(ds.schema()));
+        // See the point-lookup planner: a rename moves a name and keeps the id.
+        let identity_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema_with_field_ids(ds.schema()));
+
+        let dist_type = parse_distance_type(distance_type.as_deref().unwrap_or("l2"))?;
+
+        let vector_dim = get_vector_dim(&ds, &vector_column)?;
+        let filter = filter
+            .as_deref()
+            .map(|filter| {
+                parse_lsm_filter_expr(base_schema.as_ref(), filter)
+                    .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(ds.clone(), snapshots);
+        let mut planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            pk_cols,
+            base_schema.clone(),
+            vector_column,
+            dist_type,
+        )
+        .with_identity_schema(identity_schema)
+        .with_dataset(ds);
+        if let Some(filter) = filter {
+            planner = planner.with_filter(Some(filter));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            planner,
+            vector_dim,
+            dataset_schema: base_schema,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Plan a KNN vector search.
+    ///
+    /// `query` should be a flat PyArrow Float32Array with `vector_dim` elements.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (query, k=10, nprobes=20, columns=None, refine_base_table=false, overfetch_factor=1.0))]
+    pub fn plan_search(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        query: PyArrowType<ArrayData>,
+        k: usize,
+        nprobes: usize,
+        columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        refine_base_table: bool,
+        overfetch_factor: f64,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyExecutionPlan> {
+        let query_array = make_array(query.0);
+        let float32_array = query_array
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                PyValueError::new_err(
+                    "query must be a Float32Array. Use pa.array(values, type=pa.float32())",
+                )
+            })?;
+
+        if float32_array.len() != self.vector_dim {
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                "Query vector has {} dimensions, expected {}",
+                float32_array.len(),
+                self.vector_dim
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // Wrap the flat array into a FixedSizeListArray with one row
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            field,
+            self.vector_dim as i32,
+            Arc::new(float32_array.clone()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Cannot create query vector: {}", e)))?;
+
+        let planner_ref = &self.planner;
+        let plan = rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), async {
+                planner_ref
+                    .plan_search(
+                        &fsl,
+                        k,
+                        nprobes,
+                        columns.as_deref(),
+                        refine_base_table,
+                        overfetch_factor,
+                    )
+                    .await
+            })?
+            .map_err(|e| PyIOError::new_err(e.to_string()))?;
+
+        Ok(PyExecutionPlan::new(plan, self.dataset_schema.clone()))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extract primary key column names from dataset schema.
+pub(crate) fn get_pk_columns(ds: &LanceDataset) -> PyResult<Vec<String>> {
+    let pk_fields = ds.schema().unenforced_primary_key();
+    if pk_fields.is_empty() {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(
+            "Dataset has no primary key. Set 'lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key' metadata \
+             on the primary key field(s).",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(pk_fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.clone()).collect())
+}
+
+/// Parse distance type string to DistanceType enum.
+fn parse_distance_type(s: &str) -> PyResult<DistanceType> {
+    match s.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+        "l2" | "euclidean" => Ok(DistanceType::L2),
+        "cosine" => Ok(DistanceType::Cosine),
+        "dot" | "inner_product" => Ok(DistanceType::Dot),
+        "hamming" => Ok(DistanceType::Hamming),
+        _ => Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Unknown distance_type '{}'. Valid values: 'l2', 'cosine', 'dot', 'hamming'",
+            s
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Get the vector dimension from the dataset schema for a given column.
+fn get_vector_dim(ds: &LanceDataset, column: &str) -> PyResult<usize> {
+    let schema = ArrowSchema::from(ds.schema());
+    let field = schema.field_with_name(column).map_err(|_| {
+        PyValueError::new_err(format!("Column '{}' not found in dataset schema", column))
+    })?;
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, size) => Ok(*size as usize),
+        other => Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Column '{}' is not a FixedSizeList (got {:?}). \
+             Vector columns must be FixedSizeList<float32>.",
+            column, other
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn write_stats_to_pydict(py: Python<'_>, stats: &WriteStatsSnapshot) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+    let dict = PyDict::new(py);
+    dict.set_item("put_count", stats.put_count)?;
+    dict.set_item("put_time_ms", stats.put_time.as_millis() as u64)?;
+    dict.set_item("wal_flush_count", stats.wal_flush_count)?;
+    dict.set_item("wal_flush_bytes", stats.wal_flush_bytes)?;
+    dict.set_item("wal_flush_time_ms", stats.wal_flush_time.as_millis() as u64)?;
+    dict.set_item("memtable_flush_count", stats.memtable_flush_count)?;
+    dict.set_item("memtable_flush_rows", stats.memtable_flush_rows)?;
+    dict.set_item(
+        "memtable_flush_time_ms",
+        stats.memtable_flush_time.as_millis() as u64,
+    )?;
+    Ok(dict.into_any().unbind())
+}
+
+fn memtable_stats_to_pydict(
+    py: Python<'_>,
+    stats: &MemTableStats,
+    bytes: Option<&ShardMemory>,
+) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+    let dict = PyDict::new(py);
+    dict.set_item("row_count", stats.row_count)?;
+    dict.set_item("batch_count", stats.batch_count)?;
+    // Row data only, as this key has always meant; `index_bytes` below is the
+    // rest of the active memtable's footprint.
+    dict.set_item(
+        "estimated_size_bytes",
+        bytes.map_or(0, ShardMemory::row_bytes),
+    )?;
+    dict.set_item("index_bytes", bytes.map_or(0, ShardMemory::index_bytes))?;
+    dict.set_item("generation", stats.generation)?;
+    dict.set_item(
+        "max_buffered_batch_position",
+        stats.max_buffered_batch_position,
+    )?;
+    dict.set_item("durable_batch_count", stats.durable_batch_count)?;
+    dict.set_item("global_offset", stats.global_offset)?;
+    dict.set_item(
+        "pending_wal_start_batch_position",
+        stats.pending_wal_start_batch_position,
+    )?;
+    dict.set_item(
+        "pending_wal_end_batch_position",
+        stats.pending_wal_end_batch_position,
+    )?;
+    dict.set_item("pending_wal_batch_count", stats.pending_wal_batch_count)?;
+    dict.set_item("pending_wal_row_count", stats.pending_wal_row_count)?;
+    dict.set_item(
+        "pending_wal_estimated_bytes",
+        stats.pending_wal_estimated_bytes,
+    )?;
+    dict.set_item("frozen_count", stats.frozen_count)?;
+    dict.set_item("frozen_bytes", bytes.map_or(0, ShardMemory::frozen_bytes))?;
+    // Flushed generations still lingering out `frozen_memtable_grace`. Resident,
+    // but no flush reclaims them, so they are not in `frozen_bytes`.
+    dict.set_item("grace_bytes", bytes.map_or(0, ShardMemory::grace_bytes))?;
+    // The whole footprint: what a process-wide budget meters, as opposed to
+    // `frozen_bytes` + active, which is only what a flush can give back.
+    dict.set_item(
+        "retained_bytes",
+        bytes.map_or(0, ShardMemory::retained_bytes),
+    )?;
+    Ok(dict.into_any().unbind())
+}
+
+fn scalar_values_from_pk_value(
+    pk_value: &dyn Array,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+) -> PyResult<Vec<ScalarValue>> {
+    if pk_value.len() != 1 {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "pk_value must contain exactly one row, got {}",
+            pk_value.len()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    if pk_columns.len() == 1 {
+        let scalar = ScalarValue::try_from_array(pk_value, 0)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Cannot convert pk_value: {}", e)))?;
+        return Ok(vec![scalar]);
+    }
+
+    let struct_array = pk_value.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().ok_or_else(|| {
+        PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Composite primary key lookup requires a StructArray with exactly one row and {} fields",
+            pk_columns.len()
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    if struct_array.num_columns() != pk_columns.len() {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Composite primary key lookup expected {} fields, got {}",
+            pk_columns.len(),
+            struct_array.num_columns()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let mut pk_values = Vec::with_capacity(pk_columns.len());
+    for column_name in pk_columns {
+        let column = struct_array.column_by_name(column_name).ok_or_else(|| {
+            PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                "Composite primary key lookup requires field '{}' in pk_value",
+                column_name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let scalar = ScalarValue::try_from_array(column.as_ref(), 0).map_err(|e| {
+            PyValueError::new_err(format!("Cannot convert composite pk_value: {}", e))
+        })?;
+        pk_values.push(scalar);
+    }
+    Ok(pk_values)
+}
+
+fn shard_snapshot_from_manifest(manifest: lance_index::mem_wal::ShardManifest) -> ShardSnapshot {
+    ShardSnapshot {
+        shard_id: manifest.shard_id,
+        spec_id: manifest.shard_spec_id,
+        current_generation: manifest.current_generation,
+        sstables: manifest
+            .sstables
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|sstable| SsTable {
+                generation: sstable.generation,
+                path: sstable.path,
+            })
+            .collect(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn closed_memtable_stats(stats_before_close: MemTableStats) -> MemTableStats {
+    // Close awaits every frozen memtable's flush, so nothing is owed afterwards
+    // regardless of whether the active memtable had buffered batches.
+    let stats_before_close = MemTableStats {
+        frozen_count: 0,
+        ..stats_before_close
+    };
+
+    if stats_before_close.batch_count == 0 {
+        return stats_before_close;
+    }
+
+    // After a successful close every buffered batch is flushed and WAL-durable,
+    // so the synthesized empty memtable starts at the writer's global end and the
+    // durable cursor has caught up to it.
+    let global_end = stats_before_close.global_offset + stats_before_close.batch_count;
+    MemTableStats {
+        row_count: 0,
+        batch_count: 0,
+        generation: stats_before_close.generation.saturating_add(1),
+        max_buffered_batch_position: None,
+        durable_batch_count: global_end,
+        global_offset: global_end,
+        pending_wal_start_batch_position: None,
+        pending_wal_end_batch_position: None,
+        pending_wal_batch_count: 0,
+        pending_wal_row_count: 0,
+        pending_wal_estimated_bytes: 0,
+        frozen_count: 0,
+    }
+}
diff --git a/python/src/namespace.rs b/python/src/namespace.rs
index 90bc3f8fa03..996d3f92ca7 100644
--- a/python/src/namespace.rs
+++ b/python/src/namespace.rs
@@ -6,10 +6,30 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace as LanceNamespaceTrait;
+use lance_namespace::compat::merge_insert_request_from_json;
+use lance_namespace::models::{
+    AlterTableAddColumnsRequest, AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest, AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest,
+    AlterTableDropColumnsRequest, AlterTransactionRequest, AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest,
+    CountTableRowsRequest, CreateMaterializedViewRequest, CreateTableIndexRequest,
+    CreateTableTagRequest, CreateTableVersionRequest, CreateTableVersionResponse,
+    DeleteFromTableRequest, DeleteTableTagRequest, DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest,
+    DescribeTableRequest, DescribeTableResponse, DescribeTableVersionRequest,
+    DescribeTableVersionResponse, DescribeTransactionRequest, DropTableIndexRequest,
+    ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest, GetTableStatsRequest, GetTableTagVersionRequest,
+    InsertIntoTableRequest, ListTableIndicesRequest, ListTableTagsRequest,
+    ListTableVersionsRequest, ListTableVersionsResponse, ListTablesRequest, QueryTableRequest,
+    RefreshMaterializedViewRequest, RestoreTableRequest, UpdateTableRequest,
+    UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest, UpdateTableTagRequest,
+};
 use lance_namespace_impls::RestNamespaceBuilder;
 use lance_namespace_impls::{ConnectBuilder, RestAdapter, RestAdapterConfig, RestAdapterHandle};
-use lance_namespace_impls::{DirectoryNamespaceBuilder, DynamicContextProvider, OperationInfo};
+use lance_namespace_impls::{
+    DirectoryNamespace, DirectoryNamespaceBuilder, DynamicContextProvider, OperationInfo,
+    RestNamespace,
+};
 use pyo3::prelude::*;
 use pyo3::types::{PyBytes, PyDict};
 use pythonize::{depythonize, pythonize};
@@ -68,7 +88,7 @@ impl DynamicContextProvider for PyDynamicContextProvider {
                 Ok(headers_py) => {
                     // Convert Python dict to Rust HashMap
                     let bound_headers = headers_py.bind(py);
-                    if let Ok(dict) = bound_headers.downcast::<PyDict>() {
+                    if let Ok(dict) = bound_headers.cast::<PyDict>() {
                         dict_to_hashmap(dict).unwrap_or_default()
                     } else {
                         log::warn!("Context provider did not return a dict");
@@ -98,7 +118,7 @@ fn dict_to_hashmap(dict: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<HashMap<String, String>
 /// Python wrapper for DirectoryNamespace
 #[pyclass(name = "PyDirectoryNamespace", module = "lance.lance")]
 pub struct PyDirectoryNamespace {
-    inner: Arc<dyn lance_namespace::LanceNamespace>,
+    pub(crate) inner: Arc<DirectoryNamespace>,
 }
 
 #[pymethods]
@@ -298,256 +318,1441 @@ impl PyDirectoryNamespace {
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    #[allow(deprecated)]
-    fn create_empty_table<'py>(
+    fn declare_table<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
         let request = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_empty_table(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.declare_table(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
-        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+        Ok(pythonize(py, &response)?.into())
     }
 
-    fn declare_table<'py>(
+    fn rename_table<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
         let request = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.declare_table(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.rename_table(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         Ok(pythonize(py, &response)?.into())
     }
-}
 
-/// Python wrapper for RestNamespace
-#[pyclass(name = "PyRestNamespace", module = "lance.lance")]
-pub struct PyRestNamespace {
-    inner: Arc<dyn lance_namespace::LanceNamespace>,
-}
+    // Table version operations
 
-#[pymethods]
-impl PyRestNamespace {
-    /// Create a new RestNamespace from properties
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `context_provider` - Optional object with `provide_context(info: dict) -> dict` method
-    ///   for providing dynamic per-request context. Context keys that start with `headers.`
-    ///   are converted to HTTP headers by stripping the prefix. For example,
-    ///   `{"headers.Authorization": "Bearer token"}` becomes the `Authorization` header.
-    /// * `**properties` - Namespace configuration properties (uri, delimiter, header.*, etc.)
-    #[new]
-    #[pyo3(signature = (context_provider = None, **properties))]
-    fn new(
-        context_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
-        properties: Option<&Bound<'_, PyDict>>,
-    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let mut props = HashMap::new();
+    fn list_table_versions<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_table_versions(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
 
-        if let Some(dict) = properties {
-            props = dict_to_hashmap(dict)?;
-        }
+    fn create_table_version<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_version(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
 
-        let mut builder = RestNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(props).map_err(|e| {
-            pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!(
-                "Failed to create RestNamespace: {}",
-                e
-            ))
-        })?;
+    fn describe_table_version<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_table_version(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
 
-        // Add context provider if provided
-        if let Some(provider) = context_provider {
-            let py_provider = PyDynamicContextProvider::new(provider.clone().unbind());
-            builder = builder.context_provider(Arc::new(py_provider));
-        }
+    fn batch_delete_table_versions<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.batch_delete_table_versions(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
 
-        let namespace = builder.build();
+    // Table branch operations
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            inner: Arc::new(namespace),
-        })
+    fn create_table_branch<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_branch(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    /// Get the namespace ID
-    fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
-        format!("{:?}", self.inner)
+    fn list_table_branches<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_table_branches(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
-        format!("PyRestNamespace({})", self.namespace_id())
+    fn delete_table_branch<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.delete_table_branch(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    // Namespace operations
+    // Data manipulation operations
 
-    fn list_namespaces<'py>(
+    fn count_table_rows(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<i64> {
+        let request: CountTableRowsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let count = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.count_table_rows(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(count)
+    }
+
+    fn insert_into_table<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+        request_data: &Bound<'_, PyBytes>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: InsertIntoTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let data = Bytes::copy_from_slice(request_data.as_bytes());
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_namespaces(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.insert_into_table(request, data))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn describe_namespace<'py>(
+    fn merge_insert_into_table<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+        request_data: &Bound<'_, PyBytes>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request = merge_insert_request_from_json(depythonize(request)?).infer_error()?;
+        let data = Bytes::copy_from_slice(request_data.as_bytes());
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_namespace(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.merge_insert_into_table(request, data))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn create_namespace<'py>(
+    fn update_table<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: UpdateTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_namespace(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.update_table(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn drop_namespace<'py>(
+    fn delete_from_table<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: DeleteFromTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.drop_namespace(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.delete_from_table(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn namespace_exists(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
-        crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.namespace_exists(request))?
+    fn query_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
+        let request: QueryTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.query_table(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
-        Ok(())
+        Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &response))
     }
 
-    // Table operations
+    // Index operations
 
-    fn list_tables<'py>(
+    fn create_table_index<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: CreateTableIndexRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_tables(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_index(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn describe_table<'py>(
+    fn list_table_indices<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: ListTableIndicesRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_table(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_table_indices(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn register_table<'py>(
+    fn describe_table_index_stats<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.register_table(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_table_index_stats(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn table_exists(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
-        crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.table_exists(request))?
+    // Transaction operations
+
+    fn describe_transaction<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: DescribeTransactionRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_transaction(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
-        Ok(())
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn drop_table<'py>(
+    fn alter_transaction<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: AlterTransactionRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.drop_table(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_transaction(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn deregister_table<'py>(
+    // Additional index operations
+
+    fn create_table_scalar_index<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: CreateTableIndexRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.deregister_table(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_scalar_index(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn create_table<'py>(
+    fn drop_table_index<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
-        request_data: &Bound<'_, PyBytes>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
-        let data = Bytes::copy_from_slice(request_data.as_bytes());
+        let request: DropTableIndexRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table(request, data))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.drop_table_index(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Additional table operations
+
+    fn list_all_tables<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: ListTablesRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_all_tables(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    #[allow(deprecated)]
-    fn create_empty_table<'py>(
+    fn restore_table<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: RestoreTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_empty_table(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.restore_table(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
         pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    fn declare_table<'py>(
+    fn update_table_schema_metadata<'py>(
         &self,
         py: Python<'py>,
         request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
     ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
-        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let request: UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest = depythonize(request)?;
         let response = crate::rt()
-            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.declare_table(request))?
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.update_table_schema_metadata(request))?
             .infer_error()?;
-        Ok(pythonize(py, &response)?.into())
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn get_table_stats<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: GetTableStatsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.get_table_stats(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Query plan operations
+
+    fn explain_table_query_plan(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<String> {
+        let request: ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.explain_table_query_plan(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(response)
+    }
+
+    fn analyze_table_query_plan(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<String> {
+        let request: AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.analyze_table_query_plan(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(response)
+    }
+
+    // Column alteration operations
+
+    fn alter_table_add_columns<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: AlterTableAddColumnsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_table_add_columns(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn alter_table_alter_columns<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_table_alter_columns(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn alter_table_drop_columns<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: AlterTableDropColumnsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_table_drop_columns(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn alter_table_backfill_columns<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_table_backfill_columns(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn refresh_materialized_view<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: RefreshMaterializedViewRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.refresh_materialized_view(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
     }
+
+    fn create_materialized_view<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: CreateMaterializedViewRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_materialized_view(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Table tag operations
+
+    fn list_table_tags<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: ListTableTagsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_table_tags(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn get_table_tag_version<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: GetTableTagVersionRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.get_table_tag_version(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn create_table_tag<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: CreateTableTagRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_tag(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn delete_table_tag<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: DeleteTableTagRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.delete_table_tag(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn update_table_tag<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: UpdateTableTagRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.update_table_tag(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Operation metrics methods
+
+    /// Retrieve operation metrics as a dictionary.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a dict where keys are operation names (e.g., "list_tables", "describe_table")
+    /// and values are the number of times each operation was called.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an empty dict if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when creating the namespace.
+    fn retrieve_ops_metrics(&self) -> HashMap<String, u64> {
+        self.inner.retrieve_ops_metrics()
+    }
+
+    /// Reset all operation metrics counters to zero.
+    ///
+    /// Does nothing if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when creating the namespace.
+    fn reset_ops_metrics(&self) {
+        self.inner.reset_ops_metrics()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Python wrapper for RestNamespace
+#[pyclass(name = "PyRestNamespace", module = "lance.lance")]
+pub struct PyRestNamespace {
+    pub(crate) inner: Arc<RestNamespace>,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyRestNamespace {
+    /// Create a new RestNamespace from properties
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `context_provider` - Optional object with `provide_context(info: dict) -> dict` method
+    ///   for providing dynamic per-request context. Context keys that start with `headers.`
+    ///   are converted to HTTP headers by stripping the prefix. For example,
+    ///   `{"headers.Authorization": "Bearer token"}` becomes the `Authorization` header.
+    /// * `**properties` - Namespace configuration properties (uri, delimiter, header.*, etc.)
+    #[new]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (context_provider = None, **properties))]
+    fn new(
+        context_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        properties: Option<&Bound<'_, PyDict>>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let mut props = HashMap::new();
+
+        if let Some(dict) = properties {
+            props = dict_to_hashmap(dict)?;
+        }
+
+        let mut builder = RestNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(props).map_err(|e| {
+            pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                "Failed to create RestNamespace: {}",
+                e
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        // Add context provider if provided
+        if let Some(provider) = context_provider {
+            let py_provider = PyDynamicContextProvider::new(provider.clone().unbind());
+            builder = builder.context_provider(Arc::new(py_provider));
+        }
+
+        let namespace = builder.build();
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(namespace),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Get the namespace ID
+    fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
+        format!("{:?}", self.inner)
+    }
+
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!("PyRestNamespace({})", self.namespace_id())
+    }
+
+    // Namespace operations
+
+    fn list_namespaces<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_namespaces(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn describe_namespace<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_namespace(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn create_namespace<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_namespace(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn drop_namespace<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.drop_namespace(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn namespace_exists(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.namespace_exists(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    // Table operations
+
+    fn list_tables<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_tables(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn describe_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn register_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.register_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn table_exists(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.table_exists(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn drop_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.drop_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn deregister_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.deregister_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn create_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+        request_data: &Bound<'_, PyBytes>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let data = Bytes::copy_from_slice(request_data.as_bytes());
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table(request, data))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn declare_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.declare_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(pythonize(py, &response)?.into())
+    }
+
+    fn rename_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.rename_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(pythonize(py, &response)?.into())
+    }
+
+    // Table version operations
+
+    fn list_table_versions<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_table_versions(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn create_table_version<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_version(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn describe_table_version<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_table_version(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn batch_delete_table_versions<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.batch_delete_table_versions(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Table branch operations
+
+    fn create_table_branch<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_branch(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn list_table_branches<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_table_branches(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn delete_table_branch<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.delete_table_branch(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Data manipulation operations
+
+    fn count_table_rows(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<i64> {
+        let request: CountTableRowsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let count = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.count_table_rows(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(count)
+    }
+
+    fn insert_into_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+        request_data: &Bound<'_, PyBytes>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: InsertIntoTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let data = Bytes::copy_from_slice(request_data.as_bytes());
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.insert_into_table(request, data))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn merge_insert_into_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+        request_data: &Bound<'_, PyBytes>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request = merge_insert_request_from_json(depythonize(request)?).infer_error()?;
+        let data = Bytes::copy_from_slice(request_data.as_bytes());
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.merge_insert_into_table(request, data))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn update_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: UpdateTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.update_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn delete_from_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: DeleteFromTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.delete_from_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn query_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
+        let request: QueryTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.query_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &response))
+    }
+
+    // Index operations
+
+    fn create_table_index<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: CreateTableIndexRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_index(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn list_table_indices<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: ListTableIndicesRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_table_indices(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn describe_table_index_stats<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_table_index_stats(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Transaction operations
+
+    fn describe_transaction<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: DescribeTransactionRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.describe_transaction(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn alter_transaction<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: AlterTransactionRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_transaction(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Additional index operations
+
+    fn create_table_scalar_index<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: CreateTableIndexRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_scalar_index(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn drop_table_index<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: DropTableIndexRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.drop_table_index(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Additional table operations
+
+    fn list_all_tables<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: ListTablesRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_all_tables(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn restore_table<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: RestoreTableRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.restore_table(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn update_table_schema_metadata<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.update_table_schema_metadata(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn get_table_stats<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: GetTableStatsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.get_table_stats(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Query plan operations
+
+    fn explain_table_query_plan(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<String> {
+        let request: ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.explain_table_query_plan(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(response)
+    }
+
+    fn analyze_table_query_plan(&self, py: Python, request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<String> {
+        let request: AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.analyze_table_query_plan(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        Ok(response)
+    }
+
+    // Column alteration operations
+
+    fn alter_table_add_columns<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: AlterTableAddColumnsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_table_add_columns(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn alter_table_alter_columns<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_table_alter_columns(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn alter_table_drop_columns<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: AlterTableDropColumnsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_table_drop_columns(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn alter_table_backfill_columns<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.alter_table_backfill_columns(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn refresh_materialized_view<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: RefreshMaterializedViewRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.refresh_materialized_view(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn create_materialized_view<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: CreateMaterializedViewRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_materialized_view(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Table tag operations
+
+    fn list_table_tags<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: ListTableTagsRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.list_table_tags(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn get_table_tag_version<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: GetTableTagVersionRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.get_table_tag_version(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn create_table_tag<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: CreateTableTagRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.create_table_tag(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn delete_table_tag<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: DeleteTableTagRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.delete_table_tag(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    fn update_table_tag<'py>(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'py>,
+        request: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let request: UpdateTableTagRequest = depythonize(request)?;
+        let response = crate::rt()
+            .block_on(Some(py), self.inner.update_table_tag(request))?
+            .infer_error()?;
+        pythonize(py, &response).map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    // Operation metrics methods
+
+    /// Retrieve operation metrics as a dictionary.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a dict where keys are operation names (e.g., "list_tables", "describe_table")
+    /// and values are the number of times each operation was called.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an empty dict if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when creating the namespace.
+    fn retrieve_ops_metrics(&self) -> HashMap<String, u64> {
+        self.inner.retrieve_ops_metrics()
+    }
+
+    /// Reset all operation metrics counters to zero.
+    ///
+    /// Does nothing if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when creating the namespace.
+    fn reset_ops_metrics(&self) {
+        self.inner.reset_ops_metrics()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Get or create the DictWithModelDump class in Python.
+/// This class acts like a dict but also has model_dump() method.
+/// This allows it to work with both:
+/// - depythonize (which expects a dict/Mapping)
+/// - Python code that calls .model_dump() (like DirectoryNamespace wrapper)
+fn get_dict_with_model_dump_class(py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<Bound<'_, PyAny>> {
+    // Use a module-level cache via __builtins__
+    let builtins = py.import("builtins")?;
+    if builtins.hasattr("_DictWithModelDump")? {
+        return builtins.getattr("_DictWithModelDump");
+    }
+
+    // Create the class using exec
+    let locals = PyDict::new(py);
+    py.run(
+        c"class DictWithModelDump(dict):
+    def model_dump(self):
+        return dict(self)",
+        None,
+        Some(&locals),
+    )?;
+    let class = locals.get_item("DictWithModelDump")?.ok_or_else(|| {
+        pyo3::exceptions::PyRuntimeError::new_err("Failed to create DictWithModelDump class")
+    })?;
+
+    // Cache it
+    builtins.setattr("_DictWithModelDump", &class)?;
+    Ok(class)
+}
+
+/// Convert a Python namespace exception into a lance error, preserving the
+/// namespace error identity when the exception is a `lance_namespace`
+/// `LanceNamespaceError` carrying an error `code`, so callers can react to
+/// e.g. TableNotFound the same way they do for native clients. Foreign
+/// exceptions that happen to carry an integer `code` (e.g. SystemExit) must
+/// not be reinterpreted, so the extraction is gated on the exception type.
+fn namespace_error_from_py(method_name: &'static str, e: PyErr) -> lance_core::Error {
+    Python::attach(|py| {
+        let value = e.value(py);
+        let is_namespace_error = py
+            .import("lance_namespace.errors")
+            .and_then(|module| module.getattr("LanceNamespaceError"))
+            .and_then(|class| value.is_instance(&class))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+        if is_namespace_error
+            && let Ok(code) = value.getattr("code").and_then(|code| code.extract::<u32>())
+        {
+            return lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError::from_code(code, value.to_string())
+                .into();
+        }
+        lance_core::Error::io(format!("Python error in {}: {}", method_name, e))
+    })
+}
+
+/// Helper to call a Python namespace method with JSON serialization.
+/// For methods that take a request and return a response.
+/// Uses DictWithModelDump to pass a dict that also has model_dump() method,
+/// making it compatible with both depythonize and Python wrappers.
+async fn call_py_method<Req, Resp>(
+    py_namespace: Arc<Py<PyAny>>,
+    method_name: &'static str,
+    request: Req,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Resp>
+where
+    Req: serde::Serialize + Send + 'static,
+    Resp: serde::de::DeserializeOwned + Send + 'static,
+{
+    let request_json = serde_json::to_string(&request).map_err(|e| {
+        lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+            "Failed to serialize request for {}: {}",
+            method_name, e
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    let response_json = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+        Python::attach(|py| {
+            let json_module = py.import("json")?;
+            let request_dict = json_module.call_method1("loads", (&request_json,))?;
+
+            // Wrap dict in DictWithModelDump so it works with both depythonize and .model_dump()
+            let dict_class = get_dict_with_model_dump_class(py)?;
+            let request_arg = dict_class.call1((request_dict,))?;
+
+            // Call the Python method
+            let result = py_namespace.call_method1(py, method_name, (request_arg,))?;
+
+            // Convert response to dict, then to JSON
+            // Pydantic models have model_dump() method
+            let result_dict = if result.bind(py).hasattr("model_dump")? {
+                result.call_method0(py, "model_dump")?
+            } else {
+                result
+            };
+            let response_json: String = json_module
+                .call_method1("dumps", (result_dict,))?
+                .extract()?;
+            Ok::<_, PyErr>(response_json)
+        })
+    })
+    .await
+    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("Task join error for {}: {}", method_name, e)))?
+    .map_err(|e: PyErr| namespace_error_from_py(method_name, e))?;
+
+    serde_json::from_str(&response_json).map_err(|e| {
+        lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+            "Failed to deserialize response from {}: {}",
+            method_name, e
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+/// Wrapper that allows any Python object implementing LanceNamespace protocol
+/// to be used as a Rust LanceNamespace.
+///
+/// This is similar to JavaLanceNamespace in the Java bindings - it wraps a Python
+/// object and calls back into Python when namespace methods are invoked.
+///
+/// We use `Arc<Py<PyAny>>` instead of `Py<PyAny>` directly because cloning `Py`
+/// requires the GIL, but cloning `Arc` does not. This allows us to pass the
+/// namespace reference to `spawn_blocking` without holding the GIL.
+pub struct PyLanceNamespace {
+    py_namespace: Arc<Py<PyAny>>,
+    namespace_id: String,
+}
+
+impl PyLanceNamespace {
+    /// Create a new PyLanceNamespace wrapper around a Python namespace object.
+    pub fn new(_py: Python<'_>, py_namespace: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        // Get the namespace_id by calling the Python method
+        let namespace_id = py_namespace
+            .call_method0("namespace_id")?
+            .extract::<String>()?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            py_namespace: Arc::new(py_namespace.clone().unbind()),
+            namespace_id,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Create an Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> from a Python namespace object.
+    pub fn create_arc(
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        py_namespace: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Arc<dyn LanceNamespaceTrait>> {
+        let wrapper = Self::new(py, py_namespace)?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(wrapper))
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for PyLanceNamespace {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "PyLanceNamespace {{ id: {} }}", self.namespace_id)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl LanceNamespaceTrait for PyLanceNamespace {
+    fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
+        self.namespace_id.clone()
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_table(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTableRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DescribeTableResponse> {
+        call_py_method(self.py_namespace.clone(), "describe_table", request).await
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_table_version(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<DescribeTableVersionResponse> {
+        call_py_method(self.py_namespace.clone(), "describe_table_version", request).await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_version(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<CreateTableVersionResponse> {
+        call_py_method(self.py_namespace.clone(), "create_table_version", request).await
+    }
+
+    async fn list_table_versions(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTableVersionsRequest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ListTableVersionsResponse> {
+        call_py_method(self.py_namespace.clone(), "list_table_versions", request).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extract an `Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>` from a Python namespace object.
+///
+/// This function handles the different ways a Python namespace can be provided:
+/// 1. Direct PyO3 class (PyDirectoryNamespace or PyRestNamespace)
+/// 2. Python wrapper class with `_inner` attribute that holds the PyO3 class
+/// 3. Custom Python implementation (wrapped with PyLanceNamespace)
+///
+/// For Python wrapper classes (DirectoryNamespace, RestNamespace in namespace.py),
+/// we check if it's the exact wrapper class by comparing type names. Subclasses
+/// are wrapped with PyLanceNamespace to call through Python.
+pub fn extract_namespace_arc(
+    py: Python<'_>,
+    namespace_client: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+) -> PyResult<Arc<dyn LanceNamespaceTrait>> {
+    // Direct PyO3 class
+    if let Ok(dir_namespace_client) = namespace_client.cast::<PyDirectoryNamespace>() {
+        return Ok(dir_namespace_client.borrow().inner.clone() as Arc<dyn LanceNamespaceTrait>);
+    }
+    if let Ok(rest_namespace_client) = namespace_client.cast::<PyRestNamespace>() {
+        return Ok(rest_namespace_client.borrow().inner.clone() as Arc<dyn LanceNamespaceTrait>);
+    }
+
+    // Python wrapper class - check if it's the exact wrapper class
+    if let Ok(inner) = namespace_client.getattr("_inner") {
+        let type_name = namespace_client
+            .get_type()
+            .name()
+            .map(|n| n.to_string())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        if type_name == "DirectoryNamespace" {
+            if let Ok(dir_namespace_client) = inner.cast::<PyDirectoryNamespace>() {
+                return Ok(
+                    dir_namespace_client.borrow().inner.clone() as Arc<dyn LanceNamespaceTrait>
+                );
+            }
+        } else if type_name == "RestNamespace"
+            && let Ok(rest_namespace_client) = inner.cast::<PyRestNamespace>()
+        {
+            return Ok(rest_namespace_client.borrow().inner.clone() as Arc<dyn LanceNamespaceTrait>);
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Custom Python implementation or subclass - wrap with PyLanceNamespace
+    PyLanceNamespace::create_arc(py, namespace_client)
 }
 
 /// Python wrapper for REST adapter server
@@ -564,21 +1769,21 @@ impl PyRestAdapter {
     /// Default port is 2333 per REST spec. Use port 0 to let OS assign an ephemeral port.
     /// Use `port` property after `start()` to get the actual port.
     #[new]
-    #[pyo3(signature = (namespace_impl, namespace_properties, session = None, host = None, port = None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (namespace_client_impl, namespace_client_properties, session = None, host = None, port = None))]
     fn new(
-        namespace_impl: String,
-        namespace_properties: Option<&Bound<'_, PyDict>>,
+        namespace_client_impl: String,
+        namespace_client_properties: Option<&Bound<'_, PyDict>>,
         session: Option<&Bound<'_, Session>>,
         host: Option<String>,
         port: Option<u16>,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let mut props = HashMap::new();
 
-        if let Some(dict) = namespace_properties {
+        if let Some(dict) = namespace_client_properties {
             props = dict_to_hashmap(dict)?;
         }
 
-        let mut builder = ConnectBuilder::new(namespace_impl);
+        let mut builder = ConnectBuilder::new(namespace_client_impl);
         for (k, v) in props {
             builder = builder.property(k, v);
         }
diff --git a/python/src/object_store.rs b/python/src/object_store.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a7704002481
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/src/object_store.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,238 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Runtime registration hook for external `ObjectStoreProvider` implementations.
+//!
+//! This module exposes two pyclasses:
+//!
+//! - `PyObjectStoreRegistry` wraps [`lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry`]
+//!   and lets Python code register additional `ObjectStoreProvider`s under new
+//!   URL schemes. A registry constructed here can be passed to `Session` so
+//!   `lance.dataset("myscheme://...")` dispatches through the new provider.
+//! - `PyObjectStoreProvider` is a bridge that adapts a built-in Rust provider
+//!   (currently just `MemoryStoreProvider`), a Python object that implements
+//!   the `new_store` protocol, or an `Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>` produced
+//!   by a *separate* wheel and handed across a `PyCapsule`, to
+//!   `Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>`.
+//!
+//! The Python-callable path is intentionally stubbed for this first cut: the
+//! full Python-to-Rust `ObjectStore` bridge (i.e. wrapping a Python-returned
+//! object as an `object_store::ObjectStore`) is a follow-up. The smoke test
+//! against the built-in memory provider proves the registration + dispatch
+//! plumbing works end to end.
+//!
+//! # Out-of-tree providers via `PyCapsule`
+//!
+//! [`PyObjectStoreProvider::from_capsule`] lets an external wheel register a
+//! Rust `ObjectStoreProvider` it compiled itself. The external wheel builds an
+//! `Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>`, wraps it in a `PyCapsule` named
+//! [`PROVIDER_CAPSULE_NAME`], and passes that capsule here. Because Rust has
+//! no stable ABI, this is sound **only when both wheels are built in lockstep**:
+//! identical `rustc`, identical `lance-io` / `object_store` source, and
+//! identical resolved dependency versions, so the trait object's vtable and the
+//! types in `new_store`'s signature have the same layout on both sides. In
+//! Phase I both wheels are built locally from the same branch and toolchain, so
+//! the constraint holds; distributing pre-built wheels that must interoperate
+//! is deferred (a packaging-phase concern).
+
+use std::ffi::CStr;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError;
+use pyo3::prelude::*;
+use pyo3::types::{PyCapsule, PyCapsuleMethods};
+
+use lance_io::object_store::providers::memory::MemoryStoreProvider;
+use lance_io::object_store::{
+    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, ObjectStoreRegistry,
+};
+
+/// Name that every capsule passed to [`PyObjectStoreProvider::from_capsule`]
+/// must carry. External wheels create their capsule with this exact name so a
+/// capsule holding some unrelated pointer cannot be mistaken for a provider.
+pub const PROVIDER_CAPSULE_NAME: &CStr = c"lance_object_store_provider";
+
+/// Bridge between a Python object and the Rust `ObjectStoreProvider` trait.
+///
+/// For the memory variant we short-circuit to a real Rust provider so the
+/// smoke test can prove the scheme-dispatch plumbing works. For the Python
+/// callable variant we hold a `Py<PyAny>` and (in a follow-up) will call
+/// `new_store(base_path, storage_options)` on it via the GIL.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum PyProviderBridge {
+    /// Built-in `MemoryStoreProvider`, wrapped directly.
+    Memory(MemoryStoreProvider),
+    /// A Python object implementing the `new_store(base_path, storage_options)`
+    /// protocol. Not yet dispatchable end-to-end (see module docstring).
+    ///
+    /// The wrapped `Py<PyAny>` is intentionally held even though we do not
+    /// invoke it yet: keeping the Python object alive here means once the
+    /// bridge lands, we can dispatch without changing the enum shape.
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    PyCallable(Py<PyAny>),
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl ObjectStoreProvider for PyProviderBridge {
+    async fn new_store(
+        &self,
+        base_path: url::Url,
+        params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ObjectStore> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Memory(inner) => inner.new_store(base_path, params).await,
+            Self::PyCallable(_) => Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported(
+                "PyObjectStoreProvider: the Python-callable bridge is not yet \
+                 implemented. Use PyObjectStoreProvider.memory() for the current cut.",
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Python-facing wrapper around `Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>`.
+///
+/// There are three ways to construct one from Python, ordered here by how
+/// complete they are today:
+///
+/// 1. `_ObjectStoreProvider.from_capsule(capsule)` — **fully dispatches.**
+///    Adopt an `Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>` built by a separate,
+///    ABI-compatible wheel and handed over in a `PyCapsule`. `new_store` then
+///    calls that provider's own Rust implementation directly — the
+///    `PyProviderBridge` below is not involved. This is how an out-of-tree Rust
+///    provider (e.g. an on-node NVMe cache) plugs in without living in the
+///    Lance source tree; see the module docs for the `PyCapsule` handoff and
+///    its ABI-lockstep build requirement.
+/// 2. `_ObjectStoreProvider.memory()` — **fully dispatches.** Wrap the built-in
+///    `MemoryStoreProvider`; registrable under any scheme and functional for
+///    read/write. Primarily a test/reference vehicle.
+/// 3. `_ObjectStoreProvider(py_obj)` — **stub; does not dispatch yet.** Hold a
+///    Python object implementing `new_store(base_path, storage_options)`.
+///    Registration succeeds, but dispatch raises `not_supported`: the full
+///    Python-to-Rust `ObjectStore` bridge (calling back into Python from
+///    `new_store` under the GIL) is a follow-up.
+#[pyclass(name = "_ObjectStoreProvider", module = "_lib", from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct PyObjectStoreProvider {
+    pub(crate) inner: Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyObjectStoreProvider {
+    /// Wrap a Python object implementing the `new_store(base_path, storage_options)`
+    /// protocol. Registration will succeed, but scheme-dispatch will raise until
+    /// the full Python-to-Rust `ObjectStore` bridge is implemented.
+    #[new]
+    fn new(py_object: Py<PyAny>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(PyProviderBridge::PyCallable(py_object)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Return a provider backed by the built-in `MemoryStoreProvider`. Every
+    /// call to `new_store` allocates a fresh in-memory `object_store::InMemory`;
+    /// the enclosing `ObjectStoreRegistry` caches the resulting `ObjectStore`
+    /// so writers and readers using the same scheme share storage as long as
+    /// something holds a strong reference.
+    #[staticmethod]
+    fn memory() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(PyProviderBridge::Memory(MemoryStoreProvider)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Adopt an `Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>` carried in a `PyCapsule` created
+    /// by a separate wheel. The capsule must be named [`PROVIDER_CAPSULE_NAME`]
+    /// and hold exactly an `Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>`.
+    ///
+    /// See the module docstring for the ABI-lockstep requirement: the calling
+    /// wheel must be built against the identical `lance-io` / `object_store`
+    /// source and toolchain as this one.
+    #[staticmethod]
+    fn from_capsule(capsule: &Bound<'_, PyCapsule>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        // `pointer_checked(Some(name))` asks CPython for the pointer *and*
+        // requires the capsule to carry exactly this name and a non-null
+        // pointer, so a foreign or misnamed capsule is rejected here rather
+        // than dereferenced. (Passing `None` asks for a *nameless* capsule and
+        // would reject every correctly-named one.)
+        let ptr = capsule
+            .pointer_checked(Some(PROVIDER_CAPSULE_NAME))
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                    "expected a PyCapsule named {:?}: {e}",
+                    PROVIDER_CAPSULE_NAME.to_string_lossy(),
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+        // SAFETY: by the capsule-name contract above, the capsule carries an
+        // `Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>` built against the identical lance-io /
+        // object_store types (same source, rustc, and resolved dependency
+        // versions). We dereference only long enough to clone the `Arc`
+        // (bumping the strong count); the capsule keeps its own reference and
+        // its destructor drops that on GC.
+        let provider = unsafe { ptr.cast::<Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>>().as_ref() };
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: provider.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Test/reference producer: wrap the built-in memory provider in a
+    /// `PyCapsule` named [`PROVIDER_CAPSULE_NAME`], mirroring what an external,
+    /// ABI-compatible wheel emits. Lets `from_capsule` be exercised end to end
+    /// from Python without a second wheel in the tree.
+    #[staticmethod]
+    fn _memory_capsule(py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<Bound<'_, PyCapsule>> {
+        let provider: Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider> =
+            Arc::new(PyProviderBridge::Memory(MemoryStoreProvider));
+        PyCapsule::new(py, provider, Some(PROVIDER_CAPSULE_NAME.to_owned()))
+    }
+
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        format!("_ObjectStoreProvider({:?})", self.inner)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Python-facing wrapper around `Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>`.
+///
+/// A new instance starts from `ObjectStoreRegistry::default()`, so all
+/// built-in schemes (memory, file, and any of s3/az/gs/oss/... enabled at
+/// build time) are already registered. Additional providers can be inserted
+/// under new (or overridden) schemes via `register_provider`.
+///
+/// Pass an instance as the `store_registry` argument of `Session(...)` to
+/// make its schemes visible to `lance.dataset(uri, session=...)` and
+/// `lance.write_dataset(..., uri, session=...)`.
+#[pyclass(name = "_ObjectStoreRegistry", module = "_lib", from_py_object)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct PyObjectStoreRegistry {
+    pub(crate) inner: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyObjectStoreRegistry {
+    /// Create a new registry pre-populated with the built-in schemes.
+    #[new]
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Register a provider under a scheme. Idempotent: registering the same
+    /// scheme again replaces the previous provider. Registering under a
+    /// built-in scheme (e.g. `"memory"`) overrides that built-in.
+    fn register_provider(&self, scheme: &str, provider: &PyObjectStoreProvider) -> PyResult<()> {
+        if scheme.is_empty() {
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err("scheme must be a non-empty string"));
+        }
+        self.inner.insert(scheme, provider.inner.clone());
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        let stats = self.inner.stats();
+        format!(
+            "_ObjectStoreRegistry(active_stores={}, hits={}, misses={})",
+            stats.active_stores, stats.hits, stats.misses,
+        )
+    }
+}
diff --git a/python/src/otel.rs b/python/src/otel.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..71d191d7db9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/src/otel.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,640 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Bridge from the [`metrics`] crate facade to Python OpenTelemetry.
+//!
+//! Lance core publishes metrics through the global [`metrics`] facade without
+//! choosing a backend. This module installs a process-global [`Recorder`] that
+//! aggregates those metrics into lock-free cumulative storage, and exposes that
+//! state to Python so the bindings can feed it into the user's OpenTelemetry
+//! `MeterProvider`.
+//!
+//! While it targets OpenTelemetry on the Python side, the recorder is agnostic
+//! to the metric *source*: it records any metric emitted through the facade,
+//! keyed by name and labels. Object store metrics are the first producer, but
+//! nothing here is specific to them. New metrics flow through automatically;
+//! they only need to be described (see [`describe_all`]) so the Python layer can
+//! discover their name, kind, and unit up front.
+//!
+//! ## Why pull, not push
+//!
+//! OpenTelemetry collects on its own schedule and invokes observable-instrument
+//! callbacks at collection time. Cumulative counters map directly onto OTel's
+//! `ObservableCounter` semantics. So the bridge aggregates in Rust and lets the
+//! Python collection thread pull a [`snapshot`](snapshot_lance_metrics). The
+//! snapshot is lock-free, but it still walks every registered series and
+//! allocates owned copies of their names and labels, so it runs with the GIL
+//! released to avoid stalling other Python threads during collection.
+//!
+//! ## Histograms
+//!
+//! OpenTelemetry has no asynchronous histogram instrument, so histograms cannot
+//! be pulled as-is. Instead each histogram is aggregated into fixed buckets
+//! (Prometheus style) and exposed as cumulative `le` bucket counts plus a count
+//! and sum, which the Python layer surfaces as observable counters.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock, Mutex, OnceLock, RwLock};
+
+use metrics::{Counter, Gauge, Histogram, Key, KeyName, Metadata, Recorder, SharedString, Unit};
+use metrics_util::registry::{Registry, Storage};
+use pyo3::prelude::*;
+
+/// Bucket boundaries used when a histogram has no registered bounds. Covers a
+/// broad latency range so unknown histograms still produce useful buckets.
+const DEFAULT_BOUNDS: &[f64] = &[
+    0.005, 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0, 30.0, 60.0, 120.0, 300.0,
+];
+
+/// The kind of a metric, mirroring the three `metrics` instrument types.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+enum MetricKind {
+    Counter,
+    Gauge,
+    Histogram,
+}
+
+impl MetricKind {
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Counter => "counter",
+            Self::Gauge => "gauge",
+            Self::Histogram => "histogram",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Description of a metric, populated by the recorder's `describe_*` methods.
+struct MetricDescription {
+    kind: MetricKind,
+    unit: Option<String>,
+    description: String,
+}
+
+/// Catalog of described metrics, keyed by metric name. The Python layer reads
+/// this to create one OpenTelemetry instrument per metric up front.
+static CATALOG: LazyLock<Mutex<HashMap<String, MetricDescription>>> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| Mutex::new(HashMap::new()));
+
+/// Per-metric histogram bucket boundaries, keyed by metric name. Producers
+/// register their recommended bounds before any metric is recorded.
+static HISTOGRAM_BOUNDS: LazyLock<RwLock<HashMap<String, Arc<[f64]>>>> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| RwLock::new(HashMap::new()));
+
+/// The installed recorder's registry, available once installation succeeds.
+static REGISTRY: OnceLock<Arc<Registry<Key, LanceStorage>>> = OnceLock::new();
+
+fn bounds_for(name: &str) -> Arc<[f64]> {
+    HISTOGRAM_BOUNDS
+        .read()
+        .unwrap()
+        .get(name)
+        .cloned()
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| Arc::from(DEFAULT_BOUNDS))
+}
+
+/// A histogram that buckets samples at record time into fixed boundaries,
+/// keeping a cumulative count and sum. Bucketing eagerly keeps memory bounded
+/// (unlike retaining raw samples) and produces Prometheus-style `le` buckets.
+struct BucketedHistogram {
+    /// Sorted, finite upper bounds. A sample `v` falls in the first bucket whose
+    /// bound is `>= v`; samples above all bounds fall in the implicit `+Inf`
+    /// bucket stored as the final entry of `counts`.
+    bounds: Arc<[f64]>,
+    /// Per-bucket (non-cumulative) counts; length is `bounds.len() + 1`.
+    counts: Box<[AtomicU64]>,
+    count: AtomicU64,
+    /// Running sum of recorded values, stored as `f64` bits (there is no atomic
+    /// f64, so the bit pattern is held in a `u64`; see [`Self::add_to_sum`]).
+    sum_bits: AtomicU64,
+}
+
+// All atomics here use `Ordering::Relaxed`: each metric counter is independent,
+// so no happens-before relationship is needed between them, and a snapshot
+// reader tolerates slightly stale values. This matches `metrics_util`'s
+// `AtomicStorage`.
+
+impl BucketedHistogram {
+    fn new(bounds: Arc<[f64]>) -> Self {
+        let counts = (0..bounds.len() + 1)
+            .map(|_| AtomicU64::new(0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .into_boxed_slice();
+        Self {
+            bounds,
+            counts,
+            count: AtomicU64::new(0),
+            sum_bits: AtomicU64::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn add_to_sum(&self, value: f64) {
+        // No atomic offers an f64 add, so read the current bit pattern, add in
+        // float space, and CAS it back, retrying if another thread won the race.
+        let mut current = self.sum_bits.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        loop {
+            let updated = (f64::from_bits(current) + value).to_bits();
+            match self.sum_bits.compare_exchange_weak(
+                current,
+                updated,
+                Ordering::Relaxed,
+                Ordering::Relaxed,
+            ) {
+                Ok(_) => break,
+                Err(actual) => current = actual,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Cumulative `le` buckets, total count, and sum at this instant.
+    fn snapshot(&self) -> MetricValue {
+        let mut cumulative = 0u64;
+        let mut buckets = Vec::with_capacity(self.bounds.len() + 1);
+        for (i, bound) in self.bounds.iter().enumerate() {
+            cumulative += self.counts[i].load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+            buckets.push((format!("{}", bound), cumulative));
+        }
+        cumulative += self.counts[self.bounds.len()].load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        buckets.push(("+Inf".to_string(), cumulative));
+        MetricValue::Histogram {
+            buckets,
+            count: self.count.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            sum: f64::from_bits(self.sum_bits.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl metrics::HistogramFn for BucketedHistogram {
+    fn record(&self, value: f64) {
+        let idx = self.bounds.partition_point(|&bound| bound < value);
+        self.counts[idx].fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.add_to_sum(value);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Storage backing the registry. Counters and gauges are plain atomics (as in
+/// `metrics_util`'s `AtomicStorage`); histograms use [`BucketedHistogram`].
+struct LanceStorage;
+
+impl Storage<Key> for LanceStorage {
+    type Counter = Arc<AtomicU64>;
+    type Gauge = Arc<AtomicU64>;
+    type Histogram = Arc<BucketedHistogram>;
+
+    fn counter(&self, _key: &Key) -> Self::Counter {
+        Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0))
+    }
+
+    fn gauge(&self, _key: &Key) -> Self::Gauge {
+        // The `metrics` facade writes the f64 bit pattern into this `u64` (the
+        // snapshot decodes it with `f64::from_bits`), matching `AtomicStorage`.
+        // `0` decodes to `0.0`, the correct initial value.
+        Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0))
+    }
+
+    fn histogram(&self, key: &Key) -> Self::Histogram {
+        Arc::new(BucketedHistogram::new(bounds_for(key.name())))
+    }
+}
+
+struct LanceRecorder {
+    registry: Arc<Registry<Key, LanceStorage>>,
+}
+
+impl LanceRecorder {
+    fn describe(
+        &self,
+        key: KeyName,
+        kind: MetricKind,
+        unit: Option<Unit>,
+        description: SharedString,
+    ) {
+        CATALOG.lock().unwrap().insert(
+            key.as_str().to_string(),
+            MetricDescription {
+                kind,
+                unit: unit.map(|u| u.as_canonical_label().to_string()),
+                description: description.into_owned(),
+            },
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+impl Recorder for LanceRecorder {
+    fn describe_counter(&self, key: KeyName, unit: Option<Unit>, description: SharedString) {
+        self.describe(key, MetricKind::Counter, unit, description);
+    }
+
+    fn describe_gauge(&self, key: KeyName, unit: Option<Unit>, description: SharedString) {
+        self.describe(key, MetricKind::Gauge, unit, description);
+    }
+
+    fn describe_histogram(&self, key: KeyName, unit: Option<Unit>, description: SharedString) {
+        self.describe(key, MetricKind::Histogram, unit, description);
+    }
+
+    fn register_counter(&self, key: &Key, _metadata: &Metadata<'_>) -> Counter {
+        self.registry
+            .get_or_create_counter(key, |c| Counter::from_arc(c.clone()))
+    }
+
+    fn register_gauge(&self, key: &Key, _metadata: &Metadata<'_>) -> Gauge {
+        self.registry
+            .get_or_create_gauge(key, |g| Gauge::from_arc(g.clone()))
+    }
+
+    fn register_histogram(&self, key: &Key, _metadata: &Metadata<'_>) -> Histogram {
+        self.registry
+            .get_or_create_histogram(key, |h| Histogram::from_arc(h.clone()))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Register the recommended histogram bounds for every metric-emitting
+/// subsystem. New subsystems add their `histogram_bounds()` here.
+fn register_bounds() {
+    let mut bounds = HISTOGRAM_BOUNDS.write().unwrap();
+    for (name, values) in lance_io::object_store::metrics::histogram_bounds() {
+        bounds.insert((*name).to_string(), Arc::from(*values));
+    }
+}
+
+/// Describe every metric-emitting subsystem so the catalog is populated. Must
+/// run after the recorder is installed. New subsystems add their
+/// `describe_metrics()` here.
+fn describe_all() {
+    lance_io::object_store::metrics::describe_metrics();
+}
+
+enum MetricValue {
+    Scalar(f64),
+    Histogram {
+        buckets: Vec<(String, u64)>,
+        count: u64,
+        sum: f64,
+    },
+}
+
+struct MetricPoint {
+    name: String,
+    kind: &'static str,
+    attributes: HashMap<String, String>,
+    value: MetricValue,
+}
+
+fn labels(key: &Key) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+    key.labels()
+        .map(|label| (label.key().to_string(), label.value().to_string()))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn collect_points(registry: &Registry<Key, LanceStorage>) -> Vec<MetricPoint> {
+    let mut points = Vec::new();
+    for (key, handle) in registry.get_counter_handles() {
+        points.push(MetricPoint {
+            name: key.name().to_string(),
+            kind: "counter",
+            attributes: labels(&key),
+            // OpenTelemetry observations are float; counts stay well within the
+            // f64-exact integer range (2^53), so this cast is lossless in practice.
+            value: MetricValue::Scalar(handle.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as f64),
+        });
+    }
+    for (key, handle) in registry.get_gauge_handles() {
+        points.push(MetricPoint {
+            name: key.name().to_string(),
+            kind: "gauge",
+            attributes: labels(&key),
+            value: MetricValue::Scalar(f64::from_bits(handle.load(Ordering::Relaxed))),
+        });
+    }
+    for (key, handle) in registry.get_histogram_handles() {
+        points.push(MetricPoint {
+            name: key.name().to_string(),
+            kind: "histogram",
+            attributes: labels(&key),
+            value: handle.snapshot(),
+        });
+    }
+    points
+}
+
+/// One metric data point exposed to Python. For counters and gauges only
+/// `value` is set; for histograms `buckets` (cumulative `le` counts), `count`,
+/// and `sum` are set.
+#[pyclass(name = "MetricPoint", get_all)]
+pub struct PyMetricPoint {
+    name: String,
+    kind: String,
+    attributes: HashMap<String, String>,
+    value: Option<f64>,
+    buckets: Option<Vec<(String, u64)>>,
+    count: Option<u64>,
+    sum: Option<f64>,
+}
+
+impl From<MetricPoint> for PyMetricPoint {
+    fn from(point: MetricPoint) -> Self {
+        let (value, buckets, count, sum) = match point.value {
+            MetricValue::Scalar(v) => (Some(v), None, None, None),
+            MetricValue::Histogram {
+                buckets,
+                count,
+                sum,
+            } => (None, Some(buckets), Some(count), Some(sum)),
+        };
+        Self {
+            name: point.name,
+            kind: point.kind.to_string(),
+            attributes: point.attributes,
+            value,
+            buckets,
+            count,
+            sum,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A described metric, used by the Python layer to create instruments up front.
+#[pyclass(name = "MetricDescription", get_all)]
+pub struct PyMetricDescription {
+    name: String,
+    kind: String,
+    unit: Option<String>,
+    description: String,
+}
+
+/// Install the Lance metrics recorder as the process-global `metrics` recorder.
+///
+/// Returns `True` if the recorder is installed (now or previously). Returns
+/// `False` if a *different* recorder is already installed — `metrics` allows
+/// only one global recorder per process, so Lance cannot coexist with another.
+#[pyfunction]
+pub fn register_lance_metrics_recorder() -> bool {
+    if REGISTRY.get().is_some() {
+        return true;
+    }
+    let registry = Arc::new(Registry::new(LanceStorage));
+    let recorder = LanceRecorder {
+        registry: registry.clone(),
+    };
+    // Register histogram bounds *before* installing the recorder. Once the
+    // recorder is global, another thread can emit a metric and create the
+    // histogram handle concurrently; if the bounds aren't registered yet that
+    // handle would be built with the fallback bounds and keep them for the
+    // life of the process. `register_bounds()` doesn't need the recorder.
+    register_bounds();
+    match metrics::set_global_recorder(recorder) {
+        Ok(()) => {
+            let _ = REGISTRY.set(registry);
+            describe_all();
+            true
+        }
+        Err(_) => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// The catalog of described Lance metrics. Empty until the recorder is installed.
+#[pyfunction]
+pub fn lance_metrics_catalog() -> Vec<PyMetricDescription> {
+    CATALOG
+        .lock()
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(name, desc)| PyMetricDescription {
+            name: name.clone(),
+            kind: desc.kind.as_str().to_string(),
+            unit: desc.unit.clone(),
+            description: desc.description.clone(),
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// A point-in-time snapshot of every recorded metric. Empty until the recorder
+/// is installed. The read is lock-free but walks every series and allocates, so
+/// it runs with the GIL released.
+#[pyfunction]
+pub fn snapshot_lance_metrics(py: Python<'_>) -> Vec<PyMetricPoint> {
+    let Some(registry) = REGISTRY.get() else {
+        return Vec::new();
+    };
+    let points = py.detach(|| collect_points(registry));
+    points.into_iter().map(PyMetricPoint::from).collect()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use metrics::HistogramFn;
+
+    fn bucket_count(buckets: &[(String, u64)], le: &str) -> u64 {
+        buckets
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(b, _)| b == le)
+            .map(|(_, c)| *c)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("no bucket with le={le}"))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn bucketed_histogram_records_cumulative_buckets() {
+        let hist = BucketedHistogram::new(Arc::from([0.1f64, 1.0, 10.0].as_slice()));
+        hist.record(0.05); // le=0.1
+        hist.record(0.5); // le=1
+        hist.record(0.5); // le=1
+        hist.record(50.0); // +Inf
+
+        let MetricValue::Histogram {
+            buckets,
+            count,
+            sum,
+        } = hist.snapshot()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected histogram");
+        };
+
+        // Buckets are cumulative (Prometheus `le` semantics).
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "0.1"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "1"), 3);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "10"), 3);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "+Inf"), 4);
+        assert_eq!(count, 4);
+        assert!((sum - 51.05).abs() < 1e-9);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn bucketed_histogram_boundary_is_inclusive() {
+        let hist = BucketedHistogram::new(Arc::from([1.0f64].as_slice()));
+        hist.record(1.0); // exactly the bound -> le=1, not +Inf
+        let MetricValue::Histogram { buckets, .. } = hist.snapshot() else {
+            panic!("expected histogram");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "1"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "+Inf"), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn bucketed_histogram_boundary_is_inclusive_mid_range() {
+        // A value equal to a middle bound lands in that bucket, not the next.
+        let hist = BucketedHistogram::new(Arc::from([0.1f64, 1.0, 10.0].as_slice()));
+        hist.record(1.0);
+        let MetricValue::Histogram { buckets, .. } = hist.snapshot() else {
+            panic!("expected histogram");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "0.1"), 0);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "1"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "10"), 1); // cumulative, so still 1
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(&buckets, "+Inf"), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn recorder_aggregates_counters_with_labels() {
+        let registry = Arc::new(Registry::new(LanceStorage));
+        let recorder = LanceRecorder {
+            registry: registry.clone(),
+        };
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            metrics::counter!("test_requests_total", "operation" => "get", "scheme" => "s3")
+                .increment(2);
+            metrics::counter!("test_requests_total", "operation" => "get", "scheme" => "s3")
+                .increment(3);
+            // A distinct label set must produce a separate point, not merge.
+            metrics::counter!("test_requests_total", "operation" => "put", "scheme" => "gs")
+                .increment(7);
+        });
+
+        let scalar = |attrs: &[(&str, &str)]| {
+            let points = collect_points(&registry);
+            let point = points
+                .into_iter()
+                .find(|p| {
+                    p.name == "test_requests_total"
+                        && attrs
+                            .iter()
+                            .all(|(k, v)| p.attributes.get(*k).map(String::as_str) == Some(*v))
+                })
+                .expect("counter recorded for label set");
+            assert_eq!(point.kind, "counter");
+            match point.value {
+                MetricValue::Scalar(v) => v,
+                _ => panic!("expected scalar"),
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Same labels aggregate; distinct labels stay separate.
+        assert!((scalar(&[("operation", "get"), ("scheme", "s3")]) - 5.0).abs() < 1e-9);
+        assert!((scalar(&[("operation", "put"), ("scheme", "gs")]) - 7.0).abs() < 1e-9);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn recorder_records_gauges() {
+        let registry = Arc::new(Registry::new(LanceStorage));
+        let recorder = LanceRecorder {
+            registry: registry.clone(),
+        };
+        // Gauges store the f64 bit pattern in a u64; the snapshot must decode it.
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            metrics::gauge!("test_gauge", "scheme" => "s3").set(3.5);
+        });
+
+        let points = collect_points(&registry);
+        let point = points
+            .iter()
+            .find(|p| p.name == "test_gauge")
+            .expect("gauge recorded");
+        assert_eq!(point.kind, "gauge");
+        assert!(matches!(point.value, MetricValue::Scalar(v) if (v - 3.5).abs() < 1e-9));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn recorder_falls_back_to_default_bounds() {
+        // A histogram with no registered bounds uses DEFAULT_BOUNDS.
+        let name = "test_unregistered_histogram";
+        assert!(!HISTOGRAM_BOUNDS.read().unwrap().contains_key(name));
+
+        let registry = Arc::new(Registry::new(LanceStorage));
+        let recorder = LanceRecorder {
+            registry: registry.clone(),
+        };
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            metrics::histogram!(name).record(0.02);
+        });
+
+        let points = collect_points(&registry);
+        let point = points.iter().find(|p| p.name == name).expect("recorded");
+        let MetricValue::Histogram { buckets, count, .. } = &point.value else {
+            panic!("expected histogram");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(*count, 1);
+        // DEFAULT_BOUNDS yields one bucket per bound plus the implicit `+Inf`.
+        assert_eq!(buckets.len(), DEFAULT_BOUNDS.len() + 1);
+        // 0.02 falls in the le=0.025 bucket (the third DEFAULT_BOUNDS entry).
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(buckets, "0.025"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(buckets, "0.01"), 0);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(buckets, "+Inf"), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn recorder_uses_registered_histogram_bounds() {
+        let name = "test_recorder_bounds_seconds";
+        HISTOGRAM_BOUNDS
+            .write()
+            .unwrap()
+            .insert(name.to_string(), Arc::from([0.1f64, 1.0].as_slice()));
+
+        let registry = Arc::new(Registry::new(LanceStorage));
+        let recorder = LanceRecorder {
+            registry: registry.clone(),
+        };
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            metrics::histogram!(name).record(0.05);
+            metrics::histogram!(name).record(5.0);
+        });
+
+        let points = collect_points(&registry);
+        let point = points.iter().find(|p| p.name == name).expect("recorded");
+        let MetricValue::Histogram { buckets, count, .. } = &point.value else {
+            panic!("expected histogram");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(*count, 2);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(buckets, "0.1"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(bucket_count(buckets, "+Inf"), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn describe_populates_catalog() {
+        let name = "test_describe_catalog_total";
+        let registry = Arc::new(Registry::new(LanceStorage));
+        let recorder = LanceRecorder { registry };
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            metrics::describe_counter!(name, Unit::Count, "a test counter");
+        });
+
+        let catalog = CATALOG.lock().unwrap();
+        let desc = catalog.get(name).expect("described");
+        assert!(matches!(desc.kind, MetricKind::Counter));
+        assert_eq!(desc.description, "a test counter");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn describe_all_covers_object_store_metrics() {
+        use lance_io::object_store::metrics as os;
+
+        let registry = Arc::new(Registry::new(LanceStorage));
+        let recorder = LanceRecorder { registry };
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, describe_all);
+
+        let catalog = CATALOG.lock().unwrap();
+        let kind = |name: &str| catalog.get(name).expect("described").kind;
+        // Every emitted object store metric must be described so the OTel
+        // bridge can create an instrument for it, including the gauge and the
+        // retryable counter that a plain request path might never emit.
+        assert!(matches!(kind(os::METRIC_REQUESTS), MetricKind::Counter));
+        assert!(matches!(kind(os::METRIC_BYTES), MetricKind::Counter));
+        assert!(matches!(kind(os::METRIC_ERRORS), MetricKind::Counter));
+        assert!(matches!(kind(os::METRIC_THROTTLE), MetricKind::Counter));
+        assert!(matches!(kind(os::METRIC_RETRYABLE), MetricKind::Counter));
+        assert!(matches!(kind(os::METRIC_IN_FLIGHT), MetricKind::Gauge));
+        assert!(matches!(kind(os::METRIC_DURATION), MetricKind::Histogram));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/python/src/reader.rs b/python/src/reader.rs
index f8917d4ff53..3c57c49da51 100644
--- a/python/src/reader.rs
+++ b/python/src/reader.rs
@@ -14,44 +14,125 @@
 // KIND, either express or implied.  See the License for the
 // specific language governing permissions and limitations
 // under the License.
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader};
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, SchemaRef};
-use futures::lock::Mutex;
-use futures::stream::StreamExt;
+use futures::{lock::Mutex, stream::StreamExt};
+use tokio::sync::{mpsc, oneshot};
 
 use lance::dataset::scanner::{DatasetRecordBatchStream, Scanner as LanceScanner};
 use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream;
 
 use crate::rt;
 
+const READER_CHANNEL_CAPACITY: usize = 4;
+
+enum ReaderMessage {
+    Batch(Result<RecordBatch, ArrowError>),
+    Finished,
+}
+
 /// Lance's RecordBatchReader
-/// This implements Arrow's RecordBatchReader trait
-/// which is then used for FFI to turn this into
-/// an ArrowArrayStream in the Arrow C Data Interface
+///
+/// The async scan is driven by one background producer for the lifetime of the
+/// reader. The synchronous Arrow C stream consumer receives batches through a
+/// channel with capacity four, avoiding a runtime task spawn and cross-thread
+/// rendezvous for every batch while preserving backpressure. The channel can
+/// queue four batches while the producer holds at most one more pending send.
 pub struct LanceReader {
     schema: SchemaRef,
-    /// We wrap stream in a mutex so we can call `next` in the background
-    /// executor while we still have a reference to the stream on the main thread.
-    stream: Arc<Mutex<DatasetRecordBatchStream>>,
+    receiver: std::sync::Arc<Mutex<mpsc::Receiver<ReaderMessage>>>,
+    cancel_sender: Option<oneshot::Sender<()>>,
+    finished: bool,
 }
 
 impl LanceReader {
-    pub async fn try_new(mut scanner: Arc<LanceScanner>) -> ::lance::Result<Self> {
-        let stream = Arc::make_mut(&mut scanner).try_into_stream().await?;
+    pub async fn try_new(mut scanner: std::sync::Arc<LanceScanner>) -> ::lance::Result<Self> {
+        let stream = std::sync::Arc::make_mut(&mut scanner)
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await?;
+        Ok(Self::from_stream(stream))
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_stream(mut stream: DatasetRecordBatchStream) -> Self {
         let schema = stream.schema();
-        Ok(Self {
+        let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(READER_CHANNEL_CAPACITY);
+        let (cancel_sender, mut cancel_receiver) = oneshot::channel();
+        rt().spawn_background(None, async move {
+            loop {
+                let next = tokio::select! {
+                    biased;
+                    _ = &mut cancel_receiver => break,
+                    _ = sender.closed() => break,
+                    next = stream.next() => next,
+                };
+                let (message, terminal) = match next {
+                    Some(Ok(batch)) => (ReaderMessage::Batch(Ok(batch)), false),
+                    Some(Err(error)) => (ReaderMessage::Batch(Err(ArrowError::from(error))), true),
+                    None => (ReaderMessage::Finished, true),
+                };
+
+                let sent = tokio::select! {
+                    biased;
+                    _ = &mut cancel_receiver => false,
+                    _ = sender.closed() => false,
+                    result = sender.send(message) => result.is_ok(),
+                };
+                if !sent || terminal {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        });
+        Self {
             schema,
-            stream: Arc::new(Mutex::new(stream)), // needs tokio Runtime
-        })
+            receiver: std::sync::Arc::new(Mutex::new(receiver)),
+            cancel_sender: Some(cancel_sender),
+            finished: false,
+        }
     }
 
-    pub fn from_stream(stream: DatasetRecordBatchStream) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            schema: stream.schema(),
-            stream: Arc::new(Mutex::new(stream)),
+    fn finish(&mut self) {
+        self.cancel_sender.take();
+        self.finished = true;
+    }
+
+    fn cancel_producer(&mut self) {
+        if let Some(cancel_sender) = self.cancel_sender.take() {
+            let _ = cancel_sender.send(());
         }
+        self.finished = true;
+    }
+
+    fn handle_receive_result(
+        &mut self,
+        result: pyo3::PyResult<Option<ReaderMessage>>,
+    ) -> Option<Result<RecordBatch, ArrowError>> {
+        match result {
+            Ok(Some(ReaderMessage::Batch(Ok(batch)))) => Some(Ok(batch)),
+            Ok(Some(ReaderMessage::Batch(Err(error)))) => {
+                self.finish();
+                Some(Err(error))
+            }
+            Ok(Some(ReaderMessage::Finished)) => {
+                self.finish();
+                None
+            }
+            Ok(None) => {
+                self.finish();
+                Some(Err(ArrowError::ExternalError(Box::new(
+                    std::io::Error::other("Lance reader producer terminated before end of stream"),
+                ))))
+            }
+            Err(error) => {
+                self.cancel_producer();
+                Some(Err(ArrowError::ExternalError(Box::new(error))))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for LanceReader {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.cancel_producer();
     }
 }
 
@@ -59,17 +140,26 @@ impl Iterator for LanceReader {
     type Item = Result<RecordBatch, ArrowError>;
 
     fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
-        let stream = self.stream.clone();
-        rt().spawn(None, async move {
-            let mut stream = stream.lock().await;
-            stream.next().await
-        })
-        .transpose()
-        .map(|rs| match rs {
-            Ok(Ok(batch)) => Ok(batch),
-            Ok(Err(err)) => Err(ArrowError::from(err)),
-            Err(err) => Err(ArrowError::ExternalError(Box::new(err))),
-        })
+        if self.finished {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let receiver = self.receiver.clone();
+        let recv = async move { receiver.lock().await.recv().await };
+        let result = match tokio::runtime::Handle::try_current() {
+            Ok(handle) if handle.runtime_flavor() == tokio::runtime::RuntimeFlavor::MultiThread => {
+                // Tell Tokio that this worker will block before using the
+                // signal-aware cross-thread rendezvous. Without this, a task
+                // spawned onto the same runtime can remain in this worker's
+                // local queue and deadlock.
+                tokio::task::block_in_place(|| rt().spawn(None, recv))
+            }
+            // A current-thread runtime cannot be the multi-threaded Lance
+            // runtime. Hand the receive to Lance's runtime instead of nesting
+            // block_on on the caller's runtime.
+            Ok(_) => rt().spawn(None, recv),
+            Err(_) => rt().block_on(None, recv),
+        };
+        self.handle_receive_result(result)
     }
 }
 
@@ -78,3 +168,253 @@ impl RecordBatchReader for LanceReader {
         self.schema.clone()
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::{
+        sync::{Arc, mpsc::Sender},
+        time::Duration,
+    };
+
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchReader, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::{
+        error::DataFusionError,
+        physical_plan::{SendableRecordBatchStream, stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter},
+    };
+    use futures::stream;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn make_reader(
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        batches: impl futures::Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch, DataFusionError>> + Send + 'static,
+    ) -> LanceReader {
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, batches));
+        LanceReader::from_stream(DatasetRecordBatchStream::new(stream))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reader_preserves_schema_batches_and_end_of_stream() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "value",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let expected = (0..3)
+            .map(|batch_index| {
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+                        batch_index * 2,
+                        batch_index * 2 + 1,
+                    ]))],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let batches = stream::iter(expected.clone().into_iter().map(Ok));
+        let mut reader = make_reader(schema.clone(), batches);
+
+        assert_eq!(reader.schema(), schema);
+        let actual = reader.by_ref().collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+        assert!(reader.next().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reader_propagates_stream_errors() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::empty());
+        let batches = stream::once(async {
+            Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                "expected reader error".to_string(),
+            ))
+        })
+        .chain(stream::poll_fn(|_| {
+            panic!("the stream must not be polled after its first error");
+        }));
+        let mut reader = make_reader(schema, batches);
+
+        let error = reader.next().unwrap().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("expected reader error"));
+        assert!(reader.next().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reader_receive_error_cancels_producer_without_drop() {
+        pyo3::Python::initialize();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::empty());
+        let (drop_sender, drop_receiver) = std::sync::mpsc::channel();
+        let (started_sender, started_receiver) = std::sync::mpsc::channel();
+        let batches = stream::once(async move {
+            let _drop_notify = DropNotify(drop_sender);
+            started_sender.send(()).ok();
+            std::future::pending::<Result<RecordBatch, DataFusionError>>().await
+        });
+        let mut reader = make_reader(schema, batches);
+
+        started_receiver
+            .recv_timeout(Duration::from_secs(1))
+            .expect("the producer should poll the stream");
+        let error = reader
+            .handle_receive_result(Err(pyo3::exceptions::PyKeyboardInterrupt::new_err(
+                "expected interrupt",
+            )))
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("expected interrupt"));
+        drop_receiver
+            .recv_timeout(Duration::from_secs(1))
+            .expect("an interrupted receive should cancel the producer");
+        assert!(reader.next().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reader_reports_producer_panic_after_a_batch() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "value",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let expected = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = stream::iter([Ok(expected.clone())]).chain(stream::poll_fn(|_| {
+            panic!("expected producer panic");
+        }));
+        let mut reader = make_reader(schema, batches);
+
+        assert_eq!(reader.next().unwrap().unwrap(), expected);
+        let error = reader.next().unwrap().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("producer terminated before end of stream")
+        );
+        assert!(reader.next().is_none());
+    }
+
+    struct DropNotify(Sender<()>);
+
+    impl Drop for DropNotify {
+        fn drop(&mut self) {
+            self.0.send(()).ok();
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reader_drop_cancels_pending_stream() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::empty());
+        let (drop_sender, drop_receiver) = std::sync::mpsc::channel();
+        let (started_sender, started_receiver) = std::sync::mpsc::channel();
+        let batches = stream::once(async move {
+            let _drop_notify = DropNotify(drop_sender);
+            started_sender.send(()).ok();
+            std::future::pending::<Result<RecordBatch, DataFusionError>>().await
+        });
+        let reader = make_reader(schema, batches);
+
+        started_receiver
+            .recv_timeout(Duration::from_secs(1))
+            .expect("the producer should poll the stream");
+        drop(reader);
+        drop_receiver
+            .recv_timeout(Duration::from_secs(1))
+            .expect("dropping the reader should cancel and drop the producer stream");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reader_bounds_wide_batch_read_ahead() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "payload",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let (poll_sender, poll_receiver) = std::sync::mpsc::channel();
+        let batch_schema = schema.clone();
+        let batches = stream::unfold(0, move |batch_index| {
+            let poll_sender = poll_sender.clone();
+            let batch_schema = batch_schema.clone();
+            async move {
+                if batch_index == 10 {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                poll_sender.send(batch_index).ok();
+                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    batch_schema,
+                    vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::once(
+                        "x".repeat(1024 * 1024),
+                    )))],
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+                Some((Ok(batch), batch_index + 1))
+            }
+        });
+        let mut reader = make_reader(schema, batches);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            (0..5)
+                .map(|_| poll_receiver.recv_timeout(Duration::from_secs(1)).unwrap())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            poll_receiver
+                .recv_timeout(Duration::from_millis(100))
+                .is_err()
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(reader.next().unwrap().unwrap().num_rows(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            poll_receiver.recv_timeout(Duration::from_secs(1)).unwrap(),
+            5
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reader_can_be_consumed_from_background_runtime() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "value",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let expected = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = stream::iter([Ok(expected.clone())]);
+        let mut reader = make_reader(schema, batches);
+
+        let actual = rt()
+            .spawn(None, async move { reader.next().unwrap().unwrap() })
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reader_can_be_consumed_from_current_thread_runtime() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "value",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let expected = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = stream::iter([Ok(expected.clone())]);
+        let mut reader = make_reader(schema, batches);
+        let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+            .enable_all()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let actual = runtime.block_on(async move { reader.next().unwrap().unwrap() });
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/python/src/rowids.rs b/python/src/rowids.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4b6fd1de3d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python/src/rowids.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::ops::Range;
+
+use arrow::array::{Array, UInt64Array, make_array};
+use arrow::compute::CastOptions;
+use arrow::compute::kernels::cast::cast_with_options;
+use arrow::datatypes::DataType;
+use arrow::pyarrow::{FromPyArrow, ToPyArrow};
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_data::ArrayData;
+use lance_table::format::RowIdMeta;
+use lance_table::rowids::{RowIdSequence, read_row_ids, write_row_ids};
+use pyo3::basic::CompareOp;
+use pyo3::exceptions::{PyNotImplementedError, PyTypeError, PyValueError};
+use pyo3::prelude::*;
+use pyo3::types::{PyRange, PyRangeMethods, PyTuple};
+use pyo3::{IntoPyObjectExt, intern};
+
+use crate::error::PythonErrorExt;
+use crate::fragment::PyRowIdMeta;
+
+/// The number of row ids shown in `RowIdSequence.__repr__` before eliding.
+const REPR_PREVIEW_LEN: usize = 10;
+
+/// A sequence of stable row ids belonging to a single fragment.
+#[pyclass(name = "RowIdSequence", module = "lance.fragment")]
+pub struct PyRowIdSequence(pub RowIdSequence);
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyRowIdSequence {
+    #[new]
+    fn new(row_ids: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let sequence = match contiguous_range(row_ids)? {
+            // A `Range` segment is the most compact encoding, and taking it
+            // directly avoids materializing the ids of a large range.
+            Some(range) if range.is_empty() => RowIdSequence::new(),
+            Some(range) => RowIdSequence::from(range),
+            None => RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(extract_row_ids(row_ids)?).infer_error()?,
+        };
+        Ok(Self(sequence))
+    }
+
+    /// Read back the sequence stored inline in fragment row id metadata.
+    #[staticmethod]
+    fn from_inline_metadata(metadata: PyRef<'_, PyRowIdMeta>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        match &metadata.0 {
+            RowIdMeta::Inline(data) => read_row_ids(data).infer_error().map(Self),
+            RowIdMeta::Column => Err(PyNotImplementedError::new_err(
+                "Row ids stored outside the manifest cannot be read into a RowIdSequence",
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Encode the sequence as row id metadata stored inline in the manifest.
+    fn to_inline_metadata(&self) -> PyRowIdMeta {
+        PyRowIdMeta(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&self.0).into()))
+    }
+
+    fn to_pyarrow<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
+        let array = UInt64Array::from(self.0.iter().collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+        array.into_data().to_pyarrow(py)
+    }
+
+    fn __len__(&self) -> usize {
+        self.0.len() as usize
+    }
+
+    fn __iter__(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<Py<PyRowIdSequenceIterator>> {
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = self.0.iter().collect();
+        Py::new(py, PyRowIdSequenceIterator(row_ids.into_iter()))
+    }
+
+    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
+        let len = self.0.len();
+        let preview = self
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .take(REPR_PREVIEW_LEN)
+            .map(|row_id| row_id.to_string())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(", ");
+        if len > REPR_PREVIEW_LEN as u64 {
+            format!("RowIdSequence([{}, ...], len={})", preview, len)
+        } else {
+            format!("RowIdSequence([{}])", preview)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn __richcmp__(
+        &self,
+        other: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
+        op: CompareOp,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Py<PyAny>> {
+        let Ok(other) = other.cast::<Self>() else {
+            return Ok(py.NotImplemented());
+        };
+        let equal = self.0 == other.borrow().0;
+        match op {
+            CompareOp::Eq => equal.into_py_any(py),
+            CompareOp::Ne => (!equal).into_py_any(py),
+            _ => Ok(py.NotImplemented()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn __reduce__(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<(Py<PyAny>, Py<PyAny>)> {
+        let from_inline_metadata = PyModule::import(py, "lance.fragment")?
+            .getattr("RowIdSequence")?
+            .getattr("from_inline_metadata")?
+            .extract()?;
+        let metadata = Py::new(py, self.to_inline_metadata())?;
+        let state = PyTuple::new(py, [metadata])?.extract()?;
+        Ok((from_inline_metadata, state))
+    }
+}
+
+/// The row ids are materialized up front because `RowIdSequence::iter` borrows
+/// the sequence and a `#[pyclass]` cannot hold a borrowing iterator.
+///
+/// Refilling a bounded buffer from `RowIdSequence::slice` looks like the way to
+/// avoid that, but it is quadratic: slicing takes an absolute offset, and for
+/// the gapped `RangeWithHoles` and `RangeWithBitmap` encodings the slice skips
+/// its prefix one element at a time. Making iteration both lazy and linear
+/// needs a forward cursor over the private segments, which belongs in
+/// `lance-table` rather than here. Bulk callers should use `to_pyarrow`.
+#[pyclass(name = "RowIdSequenceIterator", module = "lance.fragment")]
+pub struct PyRowIdSequenceIterator(std::vec::IntoIter<u64>);
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl PyRowIdSequenceIterator {
+    fn __iter__(slf: PyRef<'_, Self>) -> PyRef<'_, Self> {
+        slf
+    }
+
+    fn __next__(mut slf: PyRefMut<'_, Self>) -> Option<u64> {
+        slf.0.next()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Recognize a `range` with a step of one, whose row ids need no materialization.
+///
+/// Returns `None` for anything else, including strided and descending ranges,
+/// which are handled by the general iterable path.
+fn contiguous_range(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Option<Range<u64>>> {
+    let Ok(range) = ob.cast::<PyRange>() else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    // Bounds are read as `isize`. A range reaching past that is well beyond any
+    // dataset's row count, so it falls through to the element-wise path, which
+    // reads each value as a u64, rather than failing.
+    let (Ok(start), Ok(stop), Ok(step)) = (range.start(), range.stop(), range.step()) else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if step != 1 {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    if start < 0 {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Row ids must be non-negative, but the range starts at {}",
+            start
+        )));
+    }
+    if stop <= start {
+        return Ok(Some(0..0));
+    }
+    Ok(Some(start as u64..stop as u64))
+}
+
+fn extract_row_ids(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Vec<u64>> {
+    let py = ob.py();
+    if ob.hasattr(intern!(py, "__arrow_c_array__"))? {
+        return row_ids_from_arrow(ob);
+    }
+    // A `pyarrow.ChunkedArray`, such as a `_rowid` column taken from a table.
+    let chunks = intern!(py, "chunks");
+    if ob.hasattr(chunks)? {
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::new();
+        for chunk in ob.getattr(chunks)?.try_iter()? {
+            row_ids.extend(row_ids_from_arrow(&chunk?)?);
+        }
+        return Ok(row_ids);
+    }
+
+    let iter = ob.try_iter().map_err(|_| {
+        PyTypeError::new_err(format!(
+            "Row ids must be an iterable of integers or an Arrow array, but got {}",
+            ob.get_type().name().map_or_else(
+                |_| "an object of unknown type".to_string(),
+                |name| name.to_string()
+            )
+        ))
+    })?;
+    iter.map(|row_id| row_id?.extract::<u64>()).collect()
+}
+
+fn row_ids_from_arrow(array: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Vec<u64>> {
+    let array = make_array(ArrayData::from_pyarrow_bound(array)?);
+    if !array.data_type().is_integer() {
+        return Err(PyTypeError::new_err(format!(
+            "Row ids must be an array of integers, but got an array of type {}",
+            array.data_type()
+        )));
+    }
+    if array.null_count() > 0 {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "Row ids must not be null, but the array has {} null values",
+            array.null_count()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    // `safe: false` so that negative values raise instead of wrapping around
+    // into the top of the row id space.
+    let cast_options = CastOptions {
+        safe: false,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let array = cast_with_options(&array, &DataType::UInt64, &cast_options)
+        .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Row ids must fit in a uint64: {}", err)))?;
+    Ok(array.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values().to_vec())
+}
diff --git a/python/src/scanner.rs b/python/src/scanner.rs
index 1e85af6711f..9aa115f5191 100644
--- a/python/src/scanner.rs
+++ b/python/src/scanner.rs
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ use crate::schema::logical_arrow_schema;
 
 /// This will be wrapped by a python class to provide
 /// additional functionality
-#[pyclass(name = "_Scanner", module = "_lib")]
+#[pyclass(name = "_Scanner", module = "_lib", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct Scanner {
     scanner: Arc<LanceScanner>,
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ impl Scanner {
     }
 }
 
-#[pyclass(name = "ScanStatistics", module = "_lib", get_all)]
+#[pyclass(name = "ScanStatistics", module = "_lib", get_all, skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 /// Statistics about the scan.
 pub struct ScanStatistics {
@@ -66,9 +66,16 @@ pub struct ScanStatistics {
     pub parts_loaded: usize,
     /// Number of index comparisons performed
     pub index_comparisons: usize,
+    /// Number of index cache page lookups that were served from memory
+    pub index_cache_hits: usize,
+    /// Number of index cache page lookups that had to load from storage
+    pub index_cache_misses: usize,
     /// Additional metrics for more detailed statistics. These are subject to change in the future
     /// and should only be used for debugging purposes.
     pub all_counts: HashMap<String, usize>,
+    /// Additional debugging timings in nanoseconds. Keys may change; nested and
+    /// concurrent stages overlap and must not be summed as query wall time.
+    pub all_times: HashMap<String, usize>,
 }
 
 impl ScanStatistics {
@@ -80,7 +87,11 @@ impl ScanStatistics {
             indices_loaded: stats.indices_loaded,
             parts_loaded: stats.parts_loaded,
             index_comparisons: stats.index_comparisons,
+            index_cache_hits: stats.index_cache_hits(),
+            index_cache_misses: stats.index_cache_misses(),
             all_counts: stats.all_counts.clone(),
+            // Keep Python callbacks consistent with native execution summaries.
+            all_times: stats.all_times.clone(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -89,8 +100,17 @@ impl ScanStatistics {
 impl ScanStatistics {
     fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
         format!(
-            "ScanStatistics(iops={}, requests={}, bytes_read={}, indices_loaded={}, parts_loaded={}, index_comparisons={}, all_counts={:?})",
-            self.iops, self.requests, self.bytes_read, self.indices_loaded, self.parts_loaded, self.index_comparisons, self.all_counts
+            "ScanStatistics(iops={}, requests={}, bytes_read={}, indices_loaded={}, parts_loaded={}, index_comparisons={}, index_cache_hits={}, index_cache_misses={}, all_counts={:?}, all_times={:?})",
+            self.iops,
+            self.requests,
+            self.bytes_read,
+            self.indices_loaded,
+            self.parts_loaded,
+            self.index_comparisons,
+            self.index_cache_hits,
+            self.index_cache_misses,
+            self.all_counts,
+            self.all_times
         )
     }
 }
@@ -119,14 +139,17 @@ impl Scanner {
         Ok(res)
     }
 
-    #[pyo3(signature = (*))]
-    fn analyze_plan(self_: PyRef<'_, Self>) -> PyResult<String> {
+    #[pyo3(signature = (*, count_rows = false))]
+    fn analyze_plan(self_: PyRef<'_, Self>, count_rows: bool) -> PyResult<String> {
         let scanner = self_.scanner.clone();
         let res = rt()
-            .spawn(
-                Some(self_.py()),
-                async move { scanner.analyze_plan().await },
-            )?
+            .spawn(Some(self_.py()), async move {
+                if count_rows {
+                    scanner.analyze_count_plan().await
+                } else {
+                    scanner.analyze_plan().await
+                }
+            })?
             .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
 
         Ok(res)
diff --git a/python/src/schema.rs b/python/src/schema.rs
index d257c009a72..8cdc2115cd1 100644
--- a/python/src/schema.rs
+++ b/python/src/schema.rs
@@ -10,14 +10,14 @@ use lance_file::datatypes::{Fields, FieldsWithMeta};
 use lance_file::format::pb;
 use prost::Message;
 use pyo3::{
+    IntoPyObjectExt,
     basic::CompareOp,
     exceptions::{PyNotImplementedError, PyValueError},
     prelude::*,
     types::PyTuple,
-    IntoPyObjectExt,
 };
 
-#[pyclass(name = "LanceField", module = "lance.schema")]
+#[pyclass(name = "LanceField", module = "lance.schema", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct LanceField(pub Field);
 
@@ -72,6 +72,21 @@ impl LanceField {
             .filter(|&pos| pos > 0)
     }
 
+    /// Check if this field is part of an unenforced clustering key.
+    pub fn is_unenforced_clustering_key(&self) -> bool {
+        self.0.is_unenforced_clustering_key()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the position of this field within a composite clustering key.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the 1-based position if explicitly set, or None if not part of
+    /// a clustering key or using schema field id ordering.
+    pub fn unenforced_clustering_key_position(&self) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.0
+            .unenforced_clustering_key_position
+            .filter(|&pos| pos > 0)
+    }
+
     pub fn to_arrow(&self) -> PyArrowType<arrow_schema::Field> {
         PyArrowType((&self.0).into())
     }
@@ -86,7 +101,7 @@ impl LanceField {
 ///
 /// The assignment of field ids is particular to each dataset, so these schemas
 /// cannot be used interchangeably between datasets.
-#[pyclass(name = "LanceSchema", module = "lance.schema")]
+#[pyclass(name = "LanceSchema", module = "lance.schema", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct LanceSchema(pub Schema);
 
@@ -164,7 +179,8 @@ impl LanceSchema {
             fields: Fields(fields),
             metadata,
         };
-        let schema = Schema::from(fields_with_meta);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(fields_with_meta)
+            .map_err(|err| PyValueError::new_err(format!("Failed to reconstruct schema: {err}")))?;
         Ok(Self(schema))
     }
 
@@ -172,6 +188,26 @@ impl LanceSchema {
         Ok(self.0.fields.iter().cloned().map(LanceField).collect())
     }
 
+    /// Get the unenforced primary key fields, ordered by position.
+    pub fn unenforced_primary_key(&self) -> Vec<LanceField> {
+        self.0
+            .unenforced_primary_key()
+            .into_iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .map(LanceField)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the unenforced clustering key fields, ordered by position.
+    pub fn unenforced_clustering_key(&self) -> Vec<LanceField> {
+        self.0
+            .unenforced_clustering_key()
+            .into_iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .map(LanceField)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
     /// Get a field by name or path.
     ///
     /// For nested fields, use dot notation (e.g., "parent.child").
@@ -217,3 +253,14 @@ pub(crate) fn logical_arrow_schema(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> ArrowSchema {
 pub(crate) fn logical_schema_from_lance(schema: &Schema) -> ArrowSchema {
     logical_arrow_schema(&ArrowSchema::from(schema))
 }
+
+#[pyfunction(name = "_parse_field_path")]
+pub fn parse_field_path(path: &str) -> PyResult<Vec<String>> {
+    lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(path).map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))
+}
+
+#[pyfunction(name = "_format_field_path")]
+pub fn format_field_path(segments: Vec<String>) -> String {
+    let refs: Vec<&str> = segments.iter().map(String::as_str).collect();
+    lance_core::datatypes::format_field_path(&refs)
+}
diff --git a/python/src/session.rs b/python/src/session.rs
index ceaa00b3ae9..99d3d904dcf 100644
--- a/python/src/session.rs
+++ b/python/src/session.rs
@@ -1,19 +1,42 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use pyo3::{pyclass, pymethods};
+use pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError;
+use pyo3::types::{PyAnyMethods, PyDict, PyDictMethods, PyString};
+use pyo3::{Bound, PyAny, PyResult, pyclass, pymethods};
 
-use lance::dataset::{DEFAULT_INDEX_CACHE_SIZE, DEFAULT_METADATA_CACHE_SIZE};
-use lance::session::Session as LanceSession;
+use lance::session::{CacheSpec, Session as LanceSession};
+use lance_core::cache::{BackendConfig, build_from_config, build_from_uri};
 
+use crate::object_store::PyObjectStoreRegistry;
 use crate::rt;
 
 /// The Session holds stateful information for a dataset.
 ///
 /// The session contains caches for opened indices and file metadata.
-#[pyclass(name = "_Session", module = "_lib")]
+///
+/// Parameters
+/// ----------
+/// index_cache_size_bytes : int, optional
+///     Capacity of the default index cache in bytes.
+/// metadata_cache_size_bytes : int, optional
+///     Capacity of the default metadata cache in bytes.
+/// index_cache_backend : str or dict, optional
+///     Custom index cache backend. Strings are backend URIs such as
+///     ``"moka://?capacity=1048576"``. Dicts must contain ``"kind"`` and may
+///     contain ``"options"``, for example
+///     ``{"kind": "moka", "options": {"capacity": "1048576"}}``.
+/// metadata_cache_backend : str or dict, optional
+///     Custom metadata cache backend with the same format as
+///     ``index_cache_backend``.
+///
+/// ``index_cache_backend`` is mutually exclusive with
+/// ``index_cache_size_bytes``. ``metadata_cache_backend`` is mutually
+/// exclusive with ``metadata_cache_size_bytes``.
+#[pyclass(name = "_Session", module = "_lib", from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct Session {
     pub inner: Arc<LanceSession>,
@@ -25,22 +48,154 @@ impl Session {
     }
 }
 
+/// Turn a Python-supplied backend descriptor into an `Arc<dyn CacheBackend>`,
+/// or return `Ok(None)` when the caller did not pass one.
+///
+/// Accepts:
+///   * `str` — treated as a URI (`moka://?capacity=...`) and passed to
+///     [`build_from_uri`].
+///   * `dict` — must have string keys `kind` (required) and `options`
+///     (optional `dict[str, str]`) matching [`BackendConfig`]; passed to
+///     [`build_from_config`].
+///
+/// Any other Python type is rejected with a clear `TypeError`-style
+/// `PyValueError`.
+///
+/// If `size_field_set` is `true` and `backend` is `Some`, both a size and a
+/// backend were provided for the same cache. Rather than silently letting
+/// one override the other (Proposal §7), this is rejected up-front so the
+/// operator gets an actionable error.
+fn resolve_cache_spec(
+    backend_field: &str,
+    backend: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+    size_field: &str,
+    size: Option<usize>,
+) -> PyResult<CacheSpec> {
+    if backend.is_some() && size.is_some() {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "{} and {} are mutually exclusive; set one or the other",
+            size_field, backend_field,
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let Some(value) = backend else {
+        return Ok(size.map(CacheSpec::Size).unwrap_or(CacheSpec::Default));
+    };
+
+    if value.cast::<PyString>().is_ok() {
+        let uri: String = value.extract()?;
+        return build_from_uri(&uri)
+            .map(CacheSpec::Backend)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("{}: {}", backend_field, e)));
+    }
+
+    if let Ok(dict) = value.cast::<PyDict>() {
+        let cfg = backend_config_from_dict(backend_field, dict)?;
+        return build_from_config(&cfg)
+            .map(CacheSpec::Backend)
+            .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("{}: {}", backend_field, e)));
+    }
+
+    let type_name: String = value.get_type().getattr("__name__")?.extract()?;
+    Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+        "{}: expected str (URI) or dict with 'kind'/'options' keys, got {}",
+        backend_field, type_name,
+    )))
+}
+
+fn backend_config_from_dict(field: &str, dict: &Bound<'_, PyDict>) -> PyResult<BackendConfig> {
+    for (key, _) in dict.iter() {
+        if key.cast::<PyString>().is_err() {
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                "{}: dict keys must be strings",
+                field
+            )));
+        }
+        let key: String = key.extract()?;
+        if key != "kind" && key != "options" {
+            return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                "{}: unknown dict key {:?}; expected 'kind' or 'options'",
+                field, key
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let kind_obj = dict.get_item("kind")?.ok_or_else(|| {
+        PyValueError::new_err(format!("{}: dict must contain a 'kind' key", field))
+    })?;
+    if kind_obj.cast::<PyString>().is_err() {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "{}: 'kind' must be a string",
+            field
+        )));
+    }
+    let kind: String = kind_obj.extract()?;
+
+    let mut options: HashMap<String, String> = HashMap::new();
+    if let Some(options_obj) = dict.get_item("options")? {
+        let options_dict = options_obj.cast::<PyDict>().map_err(|_| {
+            PyValueError::new_err(format!("{}: 'options' must be a dict[str, str]", field))
+        })?;
+        for (k, v) in options_dict.iter() {
+            if k.cast::<PyString>().is_err() {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                    "{}: 'options' keys must be strings",
+                    field
+                )));
+            }
+            if v.cast::<PyString>().is_err() {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                    "{}: 'options' values must be strings",
+                    field
+                )));
+            }
+            let key: String = k.extract()?;
+            let value: String = v.extract()?;
+            options.insert(key, value);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut config = BackendConfig::new(&kind)
+        .map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(format!("{}: {}", field, e)))?;
+    config.options = options;
+    Ok(config)
+}
+
 #[pymethods]
 impl Session {
     #[new]
-    #[pyo3(signature=(index_cache_size_bytes=None, metadata_cache_size_bytes=None))]
+    #[pyo3(signature=(
+        index_cache_size_bytes=None,
+        metadata_cache_size_bytes=None,
+        index_cache_backend=None,
+        metadata_cache_backend=None,
+        store_registry=None,
+    ))]
     fn create(
         index_cache_size_bytes: Option<usize>,
         metadata_cache_size_bytes: Option<usize>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let session = LanceSession::new(
-            index_cache_size_bytes.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_INDEX_CACHE_SIZE),
-            metadata_cache_size_bytes.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_METADATA_CACHE_SIZE),
-            Default::default(),
-        );
-        Self {
+        index_cache_backend: Option<Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        metadata_cache_backend: Option<Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
+        store_registry: Option<PyObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let index_cache = resolve_cache_spec(
+            "index_cache_backend",
+            index_cache_backend.as_ref(),
+            "index_cache_size_bytes",
+            index_cache_size_bytes,
+        )?;
+        let metadata_cache = resolve_cache_spec(
+            "metadata_cache_backend",
+            metadata_cache_backend.as_ref(),
+            "metadata_cache_size_bytes",
+            metadata_cache_size_bytes,
+        )?;
+        let store_registry = store_registry.map(|r| r.inner).unwrap_or_default();
+        let session =
+            LanceSession::with_cache_backends(index_cache, metadata_cache, store_registry);
+        Ok(Self {
             inner: Arc::new(session),
-        }
+        })
     }
 
     fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
@@ -63,6 +218,13 @@ impl Session {
         self.inner.size_bytes()
     }
 
+    /// Return the current size of the index cache in bytes.
+    pub fn index_cache_size_bytes(&self) -> PyResult<u64> {
+        rt().block_on(None, async move {
+            self.inner.index_cache_stats().await.size_bytes as u64
+        })
+    }
+
     /// Return whether the other session is the same as this one.
     pub fn is_same_as(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
         Arc::ptr_eq(&self.inner, &other.inner)
diff --git a/python/src/storage_options.rs b/python/src/storage_options.rs
index 7e2c6011ece..30fe5e166a9 100644
--- a/python/src/storage_options.rs
+++ b/python/src/storage_options.rs
@@ -4,174 +4,15 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use async_trait::async_trait;
-use lance_io::object_store::{StorageOptionsAccessor, StorageOptionsProvider};
+use lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
 use pyo3::prelude::*;
-use pyo3::types::PyDict;
 
 use crate::rt;
 
-/// Internal wrapper for Python storage options providers
-///
-/// This is not exposed to Python. Users pass their Python objects directly
-/// to dataset functions, and we wrap them internally with this struct.
-pub struct PyStorageOptionsProvider {
-    /// The Python object implementing get_storage_options()
-    inner: Py<PyAny>,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Debug for PyStorageOptionsProvider {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        // Note: We can't call provider_id() here because this is PyStorageOptionsProvider,
-        // not PyStorageOptionsProviderWrapper. Just use a simple format.
-        write!(f, "PyStorageOptionsProvider")
-    }
-}
-
-impl Clone for PyStorageOptionsProvider {
-    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
-        Python::attach(|py| Self {
-            inner: self.inner.clone_ref(py),
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-impl PyStorageOptionsProvider {
-    pub fn new(obj: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        // Verify the object has a fetch_storage_options method
-        if !obj.hasattr("fetch_storage_options")? {
-            return Err(pyo3::exceptions::PyTypeError::new_err(
-                "StorageOptionsProvider must implement fetch_storage_options() method",
-            ));
-        }
-        Ok(Self {
-            inner: obj.clone().unbind(),
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-/// Rust wrapper that implements StorageOptionsProvider trait for Python objects
-pub struct PyStorageOptionsProviderWrapper {
-    py_provider: PyStorageOptionsProvider,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Debug for PyStorageOptionsProviderWrapper {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{}", self.provider_id())
-    }
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for PyStorageOptionsProviderWrapper {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{}", self.provider_id())
-    }
-}
-
-impl PyStorageOptionsProviderWrapper {
-    pub fn new(py_provider: PyStorageOptionsProvider) -> Self {
-        Self { py_provider }
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl StorageOptionsProvider for PyStorageOptionsProviderWrapper {
-    async fn fetch_storage_options(&self) -> lance_core::Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
-        // Call Python method from async context
-        let py_provider = self.py_provider.clone();
-
-        rt().runtime
-            .spawn_blocking(move || {
-                Python::attach(|py| {
-                    // Call the Python fetch_storage_options method
-                    let result = py_provider
-                        .inner
-                        .bind(py)
-                        .call_method0("fetch_storage_options")
-                        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                                "Failed to call fetch_storage_options: {}",
-                                e
-                            ))),
-                            location: snafu::location!(),
-                        })?;
-
-                    // If result is None, return None
-                    if result.is_none() {
-                        return Ok(None);
-                    }
-
-                    // Extract the result dict - should be a flat Map<String, String>
-                    let result_dict = result.downcast::<PyDict>().map_err(|_| {
-                        lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                            source:
-                                "fetch_storage_options() must return None or a dict of string key-value pairs"
-                                    .into(),
-                            location: snafu::location!(),
-                        }
-                    })?;
-
-                    // Convert all entries to HashMap<String, String>
-                    let mut storage_options = HashMap::new();
-                    for (key, value) in result_dict.iter() {
-                        let key_str: String =
-                            key.extract().map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                                source: format!("storage option keys must be strings: {}", e).into(),
-                                location: snafu::location!(),
-                            })?;
-                        let value_str: String =
-                            value
-                                .extract()
-                                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                                    source: format!("storage option values must be strings: {}", e)
-                                        .into(),
-                                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                                })?;
-                        storage_options.insert(key_str, value_str);
-                    }
-
-                    Ok(Some(storage_options))
-                })
-            })
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to call Python fetch_storage_options: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?
-    }
-
-    fn provider_id(&self) -> String {
-        Python::attach(|py| {
-            // Call provider_id() method on the Python object
-            // This should always succeed since StorageOptionsProvider.provider_id() has a default implementation
-            let obj = self.py_provider.inner.bind(py);
-            obj.call_method0("provider_id")
-                .and_then(|result| result.extract::<String>())
-                .unwrap_or_else(|e| {
-                    panic!(
-                        "Failed to call provider_id() on Python StorageOptionsProvider: {}",
-                        e
-                    )
-                })
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-/// Convert a Python object to an Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>
-/// This is the main entry point for converting Python storage options providers to Rust
-pub fn py_object_to_storage_options_provider(
-    py_obj: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
-) -> PyResult<Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>> {
-    let py_provider = PyStorageOptionsProvider::new(py_obj)?;
-    Ok(Arc::new(PyStorageOptionsProviderWrapper::new(py_provider)))
-}
-
 /// Python wrapper for StorageOptionsAccessor
 ///
 /// This wraps a Rust StorageOptionsAccessor and exposes it to Python.
-#[pyclass(name = "StorageOptionsAccessor")]
+#[pyclass(name = "StorageOptionsAccessor", skip_from_py_object)]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct PyStorageOptionsAccessor {
     inner: Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>,
@@ -197,34 +38,6 @@ impl PyStorageOptionsAccessor {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create an accessor with a dynamic provider (no initial options)
-    ///
-    /// The refresh offset is extracted from storage options using the `refresh_offset_millis` key.
-    #[staticmethod]
-    fn with_provider(provider: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let rust_provider = py_object_to_storage_options_provider(provider)?;
-        Ok(Self {
-            inner: Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(rust_provider)),
-        })
-    }
-
-    /// Create an accessor with initial options and a dynamic provider
-    ///
-    /// The refresh offset is extracted from initial_options using the `refresh_offset_millis` key.
-    #[staticmethod]
-    fn with_initial_and_provider(
-        initial_options: HashMap<String, String>,
-        provider: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
-    ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let rust_provider = py_object_to_storage_options_provider(provider)?;
-        Ok(Self {
-            inner: Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
-                initial_options,
-                rust_provider,
-            )),
-        })
-    }
-
     /// Get current valid storage options
     fn get_storage_options(&self, py: Python<'_>) -> PyResult<HashMap<String, String>> {
         let accessor = self.inner.clone();
@@ -263,31 +76,17 @@ impl PyStorageOptionsAccessor {
     }
 }
 
-/// Create a StorageOptionsAccessor from Python parameters
+/// Create a StorageOptionsAccessor from storage options
 ///
-/// This handles the conversion from Python types to Rust StorageOptionsAccessor.
-/// The refresh offset is extracted from storage_options using the `refresh_offset_millis` key.
+/// This creates an accessor with static options only.
 #[allow(dead_code)]
-pub fn create_accessor_from_python(
+pub fn create_accessor_from_storage_options(
     storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-    storage_options_provider: Option<&Bound<'_, PyAny>>,
 ) -> PyResult<Option<Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>>> {
-    match (storage_options, storage_options_provider) {
-        (Some(opts), Some(provider)) => {
-            let rust_provider = py_object_to_storage_options_provider(provider)?;
-            Ok(Some(Arc::new(
-                StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(opts, rust_provider),
-            )))
-        }
-        (None, Some(provider)) => {
-            let rust_provider = py_object_to_storage_options_provider(provider)?;
-            Ok(Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(
-                rust_provider,
-            ))))
-        }
-        (Some(opts), None) => Ok(Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+    match storage_options {
+        Some(opts) => Ok(Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
             opts,
         )))),
-        (None, None) => Ok(None),
+        None => Ok(None),
     }
 }
diff --git a/python/src/tracing.rs b/python/src/tracing.rs
index 68bb4e24b7e..3aadae60060 100644
--- a/python/src/tracing.rs
+++ b/python/src/tracing.rs
@@ -18,37 +18,37 @@
 use crate::CLIENT_VERSION;
 use chrono::{SecondsFormat, Utc};
 use datafusion_common::HashMap;
-use pyo3::pyfunction;
-use pyo3::pymethods;
-use pyo3::types::PyDict;
-use pyo3::types::PyDictMethods;
-use pyo3::types::PyTuple;
 use pyo3::Bound;
 use pyo3::IntoPyObject;
 use pyo3::PyErr;
 use pyo3::PyResult;
 use pyo3::Python;
-use pyo3::{pyclass, Py, PyAny};
-use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
-use std::sync::mpsc;
-use std::sync::mpsc::TryRecvError;
-use std::sync::mpsc::TrySendError;
+use pyo3::pyfunction;
+use pyo3::pymethods;
+use pyo3::types::PyDict;
+use pyo3::types::PyDictMethods;
+use pyo3::types::PyTuple;
+use pyo3::{Py, PyAny, pyclass};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 use std::sync::Mutex;
 use std::sync::RwLock;
+use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
+use std::sync::mpsc;
+use std::sync::mpsc::TryRecvError;
+use std::sync::mpsc::TrySendError;
 use std::thread::JoinHandle;
+use tracing::Event;
 use tracing::field::Field;
 use tracing::field::Visit;
 use tracing::span;
 use tracing::subscriber;
-use tracing::Event;
 use tracing_chrome::ChromeLayer;
 use tracing_chrome::{ChromeLayerBuilder, TraceStyle};
+use tracing_subscriber::Registry;
 use tracing_subscriber::filter;
 use tracing_subscriber::layer::Context;
 use tracing_subscriber::prelude::*;
-use tracing_subscriber::Registry;
 
 static SUBSCRIBER: LazyLock<Arc<RwLock<Option<LoggingPassthroughState>>>> =
     LazyLock::new(|| Arc::new(RwLock::new(None)));
@@ -219,16 +219,21 @@ impl Visit for EventToMap {
     }
 }
 
+fn trace_event_log_target(target: &str) -> String {
+    let target = target.strip_prefix("lance::").unwrap_or(target);
+    format!("lance::events::{target}")
+}
+
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct LoggingPassthroughRef(Arc<RwLock<Option<LoggingPassthroughState>>>);
 
 impl LoggingPassthroughRef {
     fn inner_do<F: FnOnce(&ChromeLayer<Registry>)>(&self, f: F) {
         let state_guard = self.0.read().unwrap();
-        if let Some(state) = state_guard.as_ref() {
-            if let Some(inner) = state.inner.as_ref() {
-                f(inner)
-            }
+        if let Some(state) = state_guard.as_ref()
+            && let Some(inner) = state.inner.as_ref()
+        {
+            f(inner)
         }
     }
 }
@@ -248,7 +253,14 @@ impl tracing_subscriber::Layer<Registry> for LoggingPassthroughRef {
 
         let mut fields = EventToStr::default();
         event.record(&mut fields);
-        log::log!(target: "lance::events", state.level, "target=\"{}\" {}", event.metadata().target(), fields.str);
+        let log_target = trace_event_log_target(event.metadata().target());
+        log::log!(
+            target: &log_target,
+            state.level,
+            "target=\"{}\" {}",
+            event.metadata().target(),
+            fields.str
+        );
 
         if let Some(callback_sender) = state.callback_sender.as_ref() {
             let mut args = EventToMap::default();
diff --git a/python/src/transaction.rs b/python/src/transaction.rs
index 4f57bf3dd49..b3f2311b3f4 100644
--- a/python/src/transaction.rs
+++ b/python/src/transaction.rs
@@ -1,29 +1,68 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use crate::bitmap::{PyBitmap, bitmap_from_iterable, is_int, value_from_py};
 use crate::dataset::DatasetBasePath;
 use crate::schema::LanceSchema;
-use crate::utils::{class_name, export_vec, extract_vec, PyLance};
+use crate::utils::{PyLance, class_name, export_vec, extract_vec};
 use arrow::pyarrow::PyArrowType;
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 use lance::dataset::transaction::{
-    DataReplacementGroup, Operation, RewriteGroup, RewrittenIndex, Transaction, UpdateMap,
-    UpdateMapEntry, UpdateMode,
+    DataOverlayGroup, DataReplacementGroup, Operation, RewriteGroup, RewrittenIndex, Transaction,
+    UpdateMap, UpdateMapEntry, UpdateMode, UpdatedFragmentOffsets,
 };
 use lance::datatypes::Schema;
-use lance_table::format::{BasePath, DataFile, Fragment, IndexMetadata};
+use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+use lance_table::format::{BasePath, DataFile, Fragment, IndexFile, IndexMetadata};
 use pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError;
-use pyo3::types::PySet;
-use pyo3::{intern, prelude::*};
 use pyo3::{Bound, FromPyObject, PyAny, PyResult, Python};
+use pyo3::{intern, prelude::*};
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
-// Add Index bindings
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<IndexMetadata> {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+// IndexFile bindings
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<IndexFile> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let path = ob.getattr("path")?.extract()?;
+        let size_bytes = ob.getattr("size_bytes")?.extract()?;
+        Ok(Self(IndexFile { path, size_bytes }))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&IndexFile> {
+    type Target = PyAny;
+    type Output = Bound<'py, Self::Target>;
+    type Error = PyErr;
+
+    fn into_pyobject(self, py: Python<'py>) -> Result<Self::Output, Self::Error> {
+        let namespace = py
+            .import(intern!(py, "lance"))
+            .expect("Failed to import lance module");
+
+        let cls = namespace
+            .getattr("IndexFile")
+            .expect("Failed to get IndexFile class");
+        cls.call1((self.0.path.clone(), self.0.size_bytes))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<IndexFile> {
+    type Target = PyAny;
+    type Output = Bound<'py, Self::Target>;
+    type Error = PyErr;
+
+    fn into_pyobject(self, py: Python<'py>) -> Result<Self::Output, Self::Error> {
+        PyLance(&self.0).into_pyobject(py)
+    }
+}
+
+// IndexMetadata bindings
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<IndexMetadata> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let uuid = ob.getattr("uuid")?.to_string();
         let name = ob.getattr("name")?.extract()?;
         let fields = ob.getattr("fields")?.extract()?;
@@ -32,28 +71,41 @@ impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<IndexMetadata> {
         let fragment_ids = ob.getattr("fragment_ids")?;
         let created_at = ob.getattr("created_at")?.extract()?;
 
-        let fragment_ids_ref: &Bound<'_, PySet> = fragment_ids.downcast()?;
-        let fragment_bitmap = Some(
-            fragment_ids_ref
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|id| id.extract::<u32>())
-                .collect::<PyResult<RoaringBitmap>>()?,
-        );
+        let fragment_bitmap = Some(extract_fragment_bitmap(&fragment_ids)?);
         let base_id: Option<u32> = ob
             .getattr("base_id")?
             .extract::<Option<i64>>()?
             .map(|id| id as u32);
 
+        let files: Option<Vec<IndexFile>> = ob
+            .getattr("files")?
+            .extract::<Option<Vec<PyLance<IndexFile>>>>()?
+            .map(|v| v.into_iter().map(|f| f.0).collect());
+        let index_details = match ob.getattr("index_details") {
+            Ok(details) => details
+                .extract::<Option<(String, Vec<u8>)>>()?
+                .map(|(type_url, value)| Arc::new(prost_types::Any { type_url, value })),
+            Err(_) => None,
+        };
+        // Tolerate an object predating this attribute, as with `index_details`
+        // above: absent means the index carries no covered columns.
+        let covering_fields: Vec<i32> = match ob.getattr("covering_fields") {
+            Ok(value) => value.extract()?,
+            Err(_) => Vec::new(),
+        };
+
         Ok(Self(IndexMetadata {
             uuid: Uuid::parse_str(&uuid).map_err(|e| PyValueError::new_err(e.to_string()))?,
             name,
             fields,
+            covering_fields,
             dataset_version,
             fragment_bitmap,
-            index_details: None,
+            index_details,
             index_version,
             created_at,
             base_id,
+            files,
         }))
     }
 }
@@ -71,20 +123,23 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&IndexMetadata> {
         let uuid = self.0.uuid.to_string();
         let name = &self.0.name;
         let fields = &self.0.fields;
+        let covering_fields = &self.0.covering_fields;
         let dataset_version = self.0.dataset_version;
         let index_version = self.0.index_version;
-        let fragment_ids = self.0.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().map_or_else(
-            || PySet::empty(py).unwrap(),
-            |bitmap| {
-                let set = PySet::empty(py).unwrap();
-                for id in bitmap.iter() {
-                    set.add(id).unwrap();
-                }
-                set
-            },
-        );
+        let fragment_ids = PyBitmap::new(self.0.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap_or_default());
         let created_at = self.0.created_at;
         let base_id = self.0.base_id.map(|id| id as i64);
+        let files = self
+            .0
+            .files
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|f| export_vec(py, f.as_slice()))
+            .transpose()?;
+        let index_details = self
+            .0
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|details| (details.type_url.clone(), details.value.clone()));
 
         let cls = namespace
             .getattr("Index")
@@ -98,6 +153,9 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&IndexMetadata> {
             index_version,
             created_at,
             base_id,
+            files,
+            index_details,
+            covering_fields.clone(),
         ))
     }
 }
@@ -112,8 +170,9 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<IndexMetadata> {
     }
 }
 
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<DataReplacementGroup> {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<DataReplacementGroup> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let fragment_id = ob.getattr("fragment_id")?.extract::<u64>()?;
         let new_file = &ob.getattr("new_file")?.extract::<PyLance<DataFile>>()?;
 
@@ -132,8 +191,8 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&DataReplacementGroup> {
             .and_then(|module| module.getattr(intern!(py, "LanceOperation")))
             .expect("Failed to import LanceOperation namespace");
 
-        let fragment_id = self.0 .0;
-        let new_file = PyLance(&self.0 .1).into_pyobject(py)?;
+        let fragment_id = self.0.0;
+        let new_file = PyLance(&self.0.1).into_pyobject(py)?;
 
         let cls = namespace
             .getattr("DataReplacementGroup")
@@ -142,11 +201,204 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&DataReplacementGroup> {
     }
 }
 
+const OFFSETS_SHAPE_ERR: &str = "DataOverlayFile.offsets must be an iterable of ints (dense coverage shared by every \
+     field) or an iterable of per-field int iterables (sparse coverage)";
+
+// Fragment ids are just a set: accept a `Bitmap` or any other iterable of ints
+// (a `set`, `list`, ...) in whatever order it yields, since `RoaringBitmap`
+// defines the canonical ascending, deduplicated order. Unlike
+// `DataOverlayFile.offsets` below, a repeated fragment id means nothing here,
+// so it collapses rather than being rejected.
+fn extract_fragment_bitmap(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<RoaringBitmap> {
+    if let Ok(bitmap) = ob.extract::<PyBitmap>() {
+        return Ok((*bitmap.0).clone());
+    }
+    bitmap_from_iterable(ob)
+}
+
+// Add one covered offset, rejecting a repeat.
+//
+// Offsets map positionally to rows of the value file — the smallest covered
+// offset to row 0, the next to row 1, and so on — so a repeated offset would
+// shift every later offset onto the wrong row, producing wrong values with no
+// error at read time. A `RoaringBitmap` is a set and would swallow the repeat,
+// so it has to be caught on the way in.
+fn insert_offset(offsets: &mut RoaringBitmap, item: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let offset = value_from_py(item)?;
+    if !offsets.insert(offset) {
+        return Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+            "DataOverlayFile.offsets must not repeat an offset, but {offset} appears more than \
+             once; each offset maps positionally to a row of the overlay's value file"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+// Collect one field's covered offsets: a `Bitmap` (shared, not copied) or any
+// iterable of ints.
+fn extract_offsets(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Arc<RoaringBitmap>> {
+    if let Ok(bitmap) = ob.extract::<PyBitmap>() {
+        // Already a set, so it cannot carry a repeat.
+        return Ok(bitmap.0);
+    }
+    let mut offsets = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for item in ob
+        .try_iter()
+        .map_err(|_| PyValueError::new_err(OFFSETS_SHAPE_ERR))?
+    {
+        insert_offset(&mut offsets, &item?)?;
+    }
+    Ok(Arc::new(offsets))
+}
+
+// Resolve `offsets` into a dense (one coverage shared by every field) or
+// sparse (one per field) `OverlayCoverage`, deciding by shape: a `Bitmap` or
+// an iterable of ints is dense, an iterable of `Bitmap`s/int iterables is
+// sparse.
+//
+// The items are drained into a `Vec` before the shape is decided, because
+// `offsets` may be a one-shot iterable (a generator). Probing the dense shape
+// by iterating and then re-iterating for the sparse shape would silently drop
+// whatever the first pass consumed — committing truncated or empty coverage
+// that only fails much later, at read time.
+fn extract_coverage(offsets: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<OverlayCoverage> {
+    if let Ok(bitmap) = offsets.extract::<PyBitmap>() {
+        return Ok(OverlayCoverage::Shared(bitmap.0));
+    }
+    let items = offsets
+        .try_iter()
+        .map_err(|_| PyValueError::new_err(OFFSETS_SHAPE_ERR))?
+        .collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    let Some(first) = items.first() else {
+        // An empty iterable can't distinguish the two shapes; an empty dense
+        // coverage and an empty sparse one describe the same (no) rows.
+        return Ok(OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(RoaringBitmap::new())));
+    };
+    // The first item picks the shape, and every remaining item must match it —
+    // a mixed iterable like `[0, [1]]` is a caller mistake, not a shape. Only
+    // that mismatch is reported as a shape error; a bad offset within the
+    // chosen shape keeps the error that names it.
+    if is_int(first)? {
+        let mut dense = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for item in &items {
+            if !is_int(item)? {
+                return Err(PyValueError::new_err(OFFSETS_SHAPE_ERR));
+            }
+            insert_offset(&mut dense, item)?;
+        }
+        Ok(OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(dense)))
+    } else {
+        let per_field = items
+            .iter()
+            .map(|item| {
+                if is_int(item)? {
+                    return Err(PyValueError::new_err(OFFSETS_SHAPE_ERR));
+                }
+                extract_offsets(item)
+            })
+            .collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        Ok(OverlayCoverage::PerField(per_field))
+    }
+}
+
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<DataOverlayFile> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let data_file = ob.getattr("data_file")?.extract::<PyLance<DataFile>>()?.0;
+        let offsets = ob.getattr("offsets")?;
+
+        let coverage = extract_coverage(&offsets)?;
+
+        // Present (and preserved) when round-tripping an existing fragment's
+        // overlays; None/0 when creating an overlay to commit, since the
+        // DataOverlay commit stamps the effective version.
+        let committed_version = ob
+            .getattr("committed_version")?
+            .extract::<Option<u64>>()?
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+
+        Ok(Self(DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file,
+            coverage,
+            committed_version,
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&DataOverlayFile> {
+    type Target = PyAny;
+    type Output = Bound<'py, Self::Target>;
+    type Error = PyErr;
+
+    fn into_pyobject(self, py: Python<'py>) -> Result<Self::Output, Self::Error> {
+        let namespace = py
+            .import(intern!(py, "lance"))
+            .and_then(|module| module.getattr(intern!(py, "LanceOperation")))
+            .expect("Failed to import LanceOperation namespace");
+
+        let data_file = PyLance(&self.0.data_file).into_pyobject(py)?;
+        let cls = namespace
+            .getattr("DataOverlayFile")
+            .expect("Failed to get DataOverlayFile class");
+
+        let committed_version = self.0.committed_version;
+
+        // Mirror the read side: a dense overlay becomes a single Bitmap, a
+        // sparse overlay a list of per-field Bitmaps.
+        match &self.0.coverage {
+            OverlayCoverage::Shared(bitmap) => {
+                // `bitmap` is already an `Arc<RoaringBitmap>` — cloning it is a
+                // cheap refcount bump, not a deep copy.
+                let offsets = PyBitmap(bitmap.clone());
+                cls.call1((data_file, offsets, committed_version))
+            }
+            OverlayCoverage::PerField(bitmaps) => {
+                let offsets: Vec<PyBitmap> = bitmaps.iter().cloned().map(PyBitmap).collect();
+                cls.call1((data_file, offsets, committed_version))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<DataOverlayGroup> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        let fragment_id = ob.getattr("fragment_id")?.extract::<u64>()?;
+        let overlays = extract_vec(&ob.getattr("overlays")?)?;
+        Ok(Self(DataOverlayGroup {
+            fragment_id,
+            overlays,
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&DataOverlayGroup> {
+    type Target = PyAny;
+    type Output = Bound<'py, Self::Target>;
+    type Error = PyErr;
+
+    fn into_pyobject(self, py: Python<'py>) -> Result<Self::Output, Self::Error> {
+        let namespace = py
+            .import(intern!(py, "lance"))
+            .and_then(|module| module.getattr(intern!(py, "LanceOperation")))
+            .expect("Failed to import LanceOperation namespace");
+
+        let fragment_id = self.0.fragment_id;
+        let overlays = export_vec(py, self.0.overlays.as_slice())?;
+
+        let cls = namespace
+            .getattr("DataOverlayGroup")
+            .expect("Failed to get DataOverlayGroup class");
+        cls.call1((fragment_id, overlays))
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct PyUpdateMode(pub UpdateMode);
 
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyUpdateMode {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyUpdateMode {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let mode_str: String = ob.extract()?;
         match mode_str.as_str() {
             "rewrite_rows" => Ok(Self(UpdateMode::RewriteRows)),
@@ -159,9 +411,10 @@ impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyUpdateMode {
     }
 }
 
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<Operation> {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        match class_name(ob)?.as_str() {
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<Operation> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+        match class_name(&ob)?.as_str() {
             "Overwrite" => {
                 let schema = extract_schema(&ob.getattr("new_schema")?)?;
 
@@ -224,15 +477,41 @@ impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<Operation> {
                     .ok()
                     .map(|py_mode| py_mode.0);
 
+                // Absent on objects predating the field.
+                let updated_fragment_offsets = ob
+                    .getattr("updated_fragment_offsets")
+                    .ok()
+                    .map(|v| v.extract::<Option<HashMap<u64, Vec<u8>>>>())
+                    .transpose()?
+                    .flatten()
+                    .map(|offsets| {
+                        offsets
+                            .into_iter()
+                            .map(|(frag_id, bytes)| {
+                                RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(&bytes[..])
+                                    .map(|bitmap| (frag_id, bitmap))
+                                    .map_err(|e| {
+                                        PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                                            "updated_fragment_offsets[{frag_id}]: invalid \
+                                             portable RoaringBitmap bytes: {e}"
+                                        ))
+                                    })
+                            })
+                            .collect::<PyResult<HashMap<_, _>>>()
+                    })
+                    .transpose()?
+                    .map(UpdatedFragmentOffsets);
+
                 let op = Operation::Update {
                     removed_fragment_ids,
                     updated_fragments,
                     new_fragments,
                     fields_modified,
-                    merged_generations: vec![],
+                    compacted_sstables: vec![],
                     fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
                     update_mode,
                     inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets,
                 };
                 Ok(Self(op))
             }
@@ -244,7 +523,18 @@ impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<Operation> {
                     .extract::<Vec<PyLance<Fragment>>>()?;
                 let fragments = fragments.into_iter().map(|f| f.0).collect();
 
-                let op = Operation::Merge { schema, fragments };
+                // Absent on objects predating the field: no assertion, which
+                // conservatively conflicts.
+                let preserves_nullability = ob
+                    .getattr("preserves_nullability")
+                    .and_then(|v| v.extract())
+                    .unwrap_or(false);
+
+                let op = Operation::Merge {
+                    schema,
+                    fragments,
+                    preserves_nullability,
+                };
                 Ok(Self(op))
             }
             "Restore" => {
@@ -252,6 +542,21 @@ impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<Operation> {
                 let op = Operation::Restore { version };
                 Ok(Self(op))
             }
+            "Clone" => {
+                let is_shallow = ob.getattr("is_shallow")?.extract()?;
+                let ref_name = ob.getattr("ref_name")?.extract()?;
+                let ref_version = ob.getattr("ref_version")?.extract()?;
+                let ref_path = ob.getattr("ref_path")?.extract()?;
+                let branch_name = ob.getattr("branch_name")?.extract()?;
+                let op = Operation::Clone {
+                    is_shallow,
+                    ref_name,
+                    ref_version,
+                    ref_path,
+                    branch_name,
+                };
+                Ok(Self(op))
+            }
             "Rewrite" => {
                 let groups = extract_vec(&ob.getattr("groups")?)?;
                 let rewritten_indices = extract_vec(&ob.getattr("rewritten_indices")?)?;
@@ -283,10 +588,26 @@ impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<Operation> {
 
                 Ok(Self(op))
             }
+            "DataOverlay" => {
+                let groups = extract_vec(&ob.getattr("groups")?)?;
+
+                let op = Operation::DataOverlay { groups };
+
+                Ok(Self(op))
+            }
             "Project" => {
                 let schema = extract_schema(&ob.getattr("schema")?)?;
-
-                let op = Operation::Project { schema };
+                // Absent on objects predating the field: no assertion, which
+                // conservatively conflicts.
+                let preserves_nullability = ob
+                    .getattr("preserves_nullability")
+                    .and_then(|v| v.extract())
+                    .unwrap_or(false);
+
+                let op = Operation::Project {
+                    schema,
+                    preserves_nullability,
+                };
                 Ok(Self(op))
             }
             "UpdateConfig" => {
@@ -300,17 +621,17 @@ impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<Operation> {
                 let field_metadata_updates_py = ob.getattr("field_metadata_updates")?;
                 let mut field_metadata_updates = HashMap::new();
 
-                if !field_metadata_updates_py.is_none() {
-                    if let Ok(items) = field_metadata_updates_py.call_method0("items") {
-                        for item in items.try_iter()? {
-                            let item = item?;
-                            // Extract as a tuple and then get individual elements
-                            let tuple = item.downcast::<pyo3::types::PyTuple>()?;
-                            let field_id = tuple.get_item(0)?.extract::<i32>()?;
-                            let update_map = tuple.get_item(1)?;
-                            if let Some(map) = extract_update_map(&update_map)? {
-                                field_metadata_updates.insert(field_id, map);
-                            }
+                if !field_metadata_updates_py.is_none()
+                    && let Ok(items) = field_metadata_updates_py.call_method0("items")
+                {
+                    for item in items.try_iter()? {
+                        let item = item?;
+                        // Extract as a tuple and then get individual elements
+                        let tuple = item.cast::<pyo3::types::PyTuple>()?;
+                        let field_id = tuple.get_item(0)?.extract::<i32>()?;
+                        let update_map = tuple.get_item(1)?;
+                        if let Some(map) = extract_update_map(&update_map)? {
+                            field_metadata_updates.insert(field_id, map);
                         }
                     }
                 }
@@ -342,7 +663,7 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
             .expect("Failed to import LanceOperation namespace");
 
         match self.0 {
-            Operation::Append { ref fragments } => {
+            Operation::Append { fragments } => {
                 let fragments = export_vec(py, fragments.as_slice())?;
                 let cls = namespace
                     .getattr("Append")
@@ -350,9 +671,9 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                 cls.call1((fragments,))
             }
             Operation::Overwrite {
-                ref fragments,
-                ref schema,
-                ref initial_bases,
+                fragments,
+                schema,
+                initial_bases,
                 ..
             } => {
                 let fragments_py = export_vec(py, fragments.as_slice())?;
@@ -384,6 +705,7 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                 fields_modified,
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
                 update_mode,
+                updated_fragment_offsets,
                 ..
             } => {
                 let removed_fragment_ids = removed_fragment_ids.into_pyobject(py)?;
@@ -401,6 +723,21 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                     },
                     None => "rewrite_rows",
                 };
+                let updated_fragment_offsets =
+                    updated_fragment_offsets
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|UpdatedFragmentOffsets(offsets)| {
+                            offsets
+                                .iter()
+                                .map(|(frag_id, bitmap)| {
+                                    let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(bitmap.serialized_size());
+                                    bitmap
+                                        .serialize_into(&mut buf)
+                                        .expect("RoaringBitmap serialization cannot fail");
+                                    (*frag_id, buf)
+                                })
+                                .collect::<HashMap<u64, Vec<u8>>>()
+                        });
                 let cls = namespace
                     .getattr("Update")
                     .expect("Failed to get Update class");
@@ -411,6 +748,7 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                     fields_modified,
                     fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
                     update_mode,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets,
                 ))
             }
             Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => {
@@ -420,6 +758,13 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                     .expect("Failed to get DataReplacement class");
                 cls.call1((replacements,))
             }
+            Operation::DataOverlay { groups } => {
+                let groups = export_vec(py, groups.as_slice())?;
+                let cls = namespace
+                    .getattr("DataOverlay")
+                    .expect("Failed to get DataOverlay class");
+                cls.call1((groups,))
+            }
             Operation::Delete {
                 updated_fragments,
                 deleted_fragment_ids,
@@ -433,15 +778,16 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                 cls.call1((updated_fragments, deleted_fragment_ids, predicate))
             }
             Operation::Merge {
-                ref fragments,
-                ref schema,
+                fragments,
+                schema,
+                preserves_nullability,
             } => {
                 let fragments_py = export_vec(py, fragments.as_slice())?;
                 let schema_py = LanceSchema(schema.clone());
                 let cls = namespace
                     .getattr("Merge")
                     .expect("Failed to get Merge class");
-                cls.call1((fragments_py, schema_py))
+                cls.call1((fragments_py, schema_py, *preserves_nullability))
             }
             Operation::Restore { version } => {
                 let cls = namespace
@@ -449,9 +795,21 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                     .expect("Failed to get Restore class");
                 cls.call1((version,))
             }
+            Operation::Clone {
+                is_shallow,
+                ref_name,
+                ref_version,
+                ref_path,
+                branch_name,
+            } => {
+                let cls = namespace
+                    .getattr("Clone")
+                    .expect("Failed to get Clone class");
+                cls.call1((is_shallow, ref_name, ref_version, ref_path, branch_name))
+            }
             Operation::Rewrite {
-                ref groups,
-                ref rewritten_indices,
+                groups,
+                rewritten_indices,
                 ..
             } => {
                 let groups_py = export_vec(py, groups.as_slice())?;
@@ -462,8 +820,9 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                 cls.call1((groups_py, rewritten_indices_py))
             }
             Operation::CreateIndex {
-                ref new_indices,
-                ref removed_indices,
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices,
+                ..
             } => {
                 let new_indices_py = export_vec(py, new_indices.as_slice())?;
                 let removed_indices_py = export_vec(py, removed_indices.as_slice())?;
@@ -473,12 +832,15 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                     .expect("Failed to get CreateIndex class");
                 cls.call1((new_indices_py, removed_indices_py))
             }
-            Operation::Project { ref schema } => {
+            Operation::Project {
+                schema,
+                preserves_nullability,
+            } => {
                 let schema_py = LanceSchema(schema.clone());
                 let cls = namespace
                     .getattr("Project")
                     .expect("Failed to get Project class");
-                cls.call1((schema_py,))
+                cls.call1((schema_py, *preserves_nullability))
             }
             Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments } => {
                 if let Ok(cls) = namespace.getattr("ReserveFragments") {
@@ -489,10 +851,10 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                 }
             }
             Operation::UpdateConfig {
-                ref config_updates,
-                ref table_metadata_updates,
-                ref schema_metadata_updates,
-                ref field_metadata_updates,
+                config_updates,
+                table_metadata_updates,
+                schema_metadata_updates,
+                field_metadata_updates,
             } => {
                 if let Ok(cls) = namespace.getattr("UpdateConfig") {
                     let config = export_update_map(py, config_updates)?;
@@ -517,7 +879,7 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                     base_op.call0()
                 }
             }
-            Operation::UpdateBases { ref new_bases } => {
+            Operation::UpdateBases { new_bases } => {
                 if let Ok(cls) = namespace.getattr("UpdateBases") {
                     use crate::dataset::DatasetBasePath;
                     let new_bases_py: Vec<DatasetBasePath> = new_bases
@@ -531,13 +893,17 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&Operation> {
                     base_op.call0()
                 }
             }
-            _ => todo!(),
+            unsupported => Err(PyValueError::new_err(format!(
+                "Unsupported operation: {}",
+                unsupported.name()
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<Transaction> {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &pyo3::Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<Transaction> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let read_version = ob.getattr("read_version")?.extract()?;
         let uuid = ob.getattr("uuid")?.extract()?;
         let operation = ob.getattr("operation")?.extract::<PyLance<Operation>>()?.0;
@@ -595,8 +961,9 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<Transaction> {
     }
 }
 
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<RewriteGroup> {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<RewriteGroup> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
         Ok(Self(RewriteGroup {
             old_fragments: extract_vec(&ob.getattr("old_fragments")?)?,
             new_fragments: extract_vec(&ob.getattr("new_fragments")?)?,
@@ -623,8 +990,9 @@ impl<'py> IntoPyObject<'py> for PyLance<&RewriteGroup> {
     }
 }
 
-impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<RewrittenIndex> {
-    fn extract_bound(ob: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
+impl FromPyObject<'_, '_> for PyLance<RewrittenIndex> {
+    type Error = PyErr;
+    fn extract(ob: Borrowed<'_, '_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let old_id: String = ob.getattr("old_id")?.extract()?;
         let new_id: String = ob.getattr("new_id")?.extract()?;
         let old_id = Uuid::parse_str(&old_id)
@@ -642,6 +1010,7 @@ impl FromPyObject<'_> for PyLance<RewrittenIndex> {
                 value: new_details_value,
             },
             new_index_version,
+            new_index_files: None,
         }))
     }
 }
@@ -711,7 +1080,7 @@ fn export_update_map(py: Python<'_>, update_map: &Option<UpdateMap>) -> PyResult
 }
 
 fn extract_schema(schema: &Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Schema> {
-    match schema.downcast::<LanceSchema>() {
+    match schema.cast::<LanceSchema>() {
         Ok(schema) => Ok(schema.borrow().0.clone()),
         Err(_) => {
             let arrow_schema = schema.extract::<PyArrowType<ArrowSchema>>()?.0;
diff --git a/python/src/utils.rs b/python/src/utils.rs
index b44e357bf36..5b3801e79aa 100644
--- a/python/src/utils.rs
+++ b/python/src/utils.rs
@@ -19,17 +19,16 @@ use crate::rt;
 use arrow::compute::concat;
 use arrow::datatypes::Float32Type;
 use arrow::pyarrow::{FromPyArrow, ToPyArrow};
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, UInt32Array, cast::AsArray};
 use arrow_data::ArrayData;
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use lance::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance::Result;
+use lance::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-use lance_file::previous::writer::FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter;
-use lance_index::scalar::IndexWriter;
-use lance_index::vector::hnsw::{builder::HnswBuildParams, HNSW};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::writer::FileWriter as V1FileWriter;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::{HNSW, builder::HnswBuildParams};
 use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{
-    compute_partitions, KMeans as LanceKMeans, KMeansAlgoFloat, KMeansParams,
+    KMeans as LanceKMeans, KMeansAlgoFloat, KMeansParams, compute_partitions,
 };
 use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
@@ -37,10 +36,10 @@ use lance_table::io::manifest::ManifestDescribing;
 use pyo3::intern;
 use pyo3::types::PyNone;
 use pyo3::{
+    IntoPyObjectExt,
     exceptions::{PyIOError, PyRuntimeError, PyValueError},
     prelude::*,
     types::PyIterator,
-    IntoPyObjectExt,
 };
 
 /// A wrapper around a JSON string that converts to a Python object
@@ -243,7 +242,7 @@ impl Hnsw {
         let mut writer = rt()
             .block_on(
                 Some(py),
-                PreviousFileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
+                V1FileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
                     &object_store,
                     &path,
                     Schema::try_from(HNSW::schema().as_ref())
@@ -255,7 +254,7 @@ impl Hnsw {
         rt().block_on(Some(py), async {
             let batch = self.hnsw.to_batch()?;
             let metadata = batch.schema_ref().metadata().clone();
-            writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+            writer.write(&[batch]).await?;
             writer.finish_with_metadata(&metadata).await?;
             Result::Ok(())
         })?
@@ -274,9 +273,9 @@ impl Hnsw {
 pub struct PyLance<T>(pub T);
 
 /// Extract a Vec of PyLance types from a Python object.
-pub fn extract_vec<'a, T>(ob: &Bound<'a, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Vec<T>>
+pub fn extract_vec<'py, T>(ob: &Bound<'py, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Vec<T>>
 where
-    PyLance<T>: FromPyObject<'a>,
+    PyLance<T>: FromPyObjectOwned<'py>,
 {
     ob.extract::<Vec<PyLance<T>>>()
         .map(|v| v.into_iter().map(|t| t.0).collect())
diff --git a/python/uv.lock b/python/uv.lock
index 8f65fa0f636..5e4653040d5 100644
--- a/python/uv.lock
+++ b/python/uv.lock
@@ -1,35 +1,26 @@
 version = 1
 revision = 3
-requires-python = ">=3.9"
+requires-python = ">=3.10"
 resolution-markers = [
-    "python_full_version >= '3.13'",
+    "python_full_version >= '3.14'",
+    "python_full_version == '3.13.*'",
     "python_full_version == '3.12.*'",
     "python_full_version == '3.11.*'",
-    "python_full_version == '3.10.*'",
-    "python_full_version < '3.10'",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "absl-py"
-version = "2.3.1"
-source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
-sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/10/2a/c93173ffa1b39c1d0395b7e842bbdc62e556ca9d8d3b5572926f3e4ca752/absl_py-2.3.1.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:a97820526f7fbfd2ec1bce83f3f25e3a14840dac0d8e02a0b71cd75db3f77fc9", size = 116588, upload-time = "2025-07-03T09:31:44.05Z" }
-wheels = [
-    { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/8f/aa/ba0014cc4659328dc818a28827be78e6d97312ab0cb98105a770924dc11e/absl_py-2.3.1-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:eeecf07f0c2a93ace0772c92e596ace6d3d3996c042b2128459aaae2a76de11d", size = 135811, upload-time = "2025-07-03T09:31:42.253Z" },
+    "python_full_version < '3.11'",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aiohappyeyeballs"
-version = "2.6.1"
+version = "2.7.1"
 source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
-sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/26/30/f84a107a9c4331c14b2b586036f40965c128aa4fee4dda5d3d51cb14ad54/aiohappyeyeballs-2.6.1.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:c3f9d0113123803ccadfdf3f0faa505bc78e6a72d1cc4806cbd719826e943558", size = 22760, upload-time = "2025-03-12T01:42:48.764Z" }
+sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/ce/f4/eec0465c2f67b2664688d0240b3212d5196fd89e741df67ddb81f8d35658/aiohappyeyeballs-2.7.1.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:065665c041c42a5938ed220bdcd7230f22527fbec085e1853d2402c8a3615d9d", size = 24757, upload-time = "2026-07-01T17:11:55.501Z" }
 wheels = [
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+    { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/71/43/1947f06babed6b3f1d7f38b0c767f52df66bfb2bc10b468c4a7de9eceff2/aiohappyeyeballs-2.7.1-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:9243213661e29250eb41368e5daa826fc017156c3b8a11440826b2e3ed376472", size = 15038, upload-time = "2026-07-01T17:11:54.055Z" },
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "aiohttp"
-version = "3.12.15"
+version = "3.14.1"
 source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
 dependencies = [
     { name = "aiohappyeyeballs" },
@@ -39,95 +30,129 @@ dependencies = [
     { name = "frozenlist" },
     { name = "multidict" },
     { name = "propcache" },
+    { name = "typing-extensions", marker = "python_full_version < '3.13'" },
     { name = "yarl" },
 ]
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@@ -2415,9 +2399,9 @@ name = "pylance"
 source = { editable = "." }
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-    { name = "numpy", version = "2.3.3", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version >= '3.11'" },
+    { name = "numpy", version = "2.2.6", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
+    { name = "numpy", version = "2.4.6", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version == '3.11.*'" },
+    { name = "numpy", version = "2.5.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version >= '3.12'" },
     { name = "pyarrow" },
 ]
 
@@ -2433,6 +2417,10 @@ geo = [
     { name = "geoarrow-rust-core" },
     { name = "geoarrow-rust-io" },
 ]
+otel = [
+    { name = "opentelemetry-api" },
+    { name = "opentelemetry-sdk" },
+]
 tests = [
     { name = "boto3" },
     { name = "datafusion" },
@@ -2444,24 +2432,51 @@ tests = [
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     { name = "psutil" },
     { name = "pytest" },
-    { name = "tensorflow", marker = "sys_platform == 'linux'" },
+    { name = "pytest-xdist" },
     { name = "tqdm" },
 ]
 torch = [
     { name = "torch" },
 ]
 
+[package.dev-dependencies]
+benchmarks = [
+    { name = "pytest-benchmark" },
+]
+dev = [
+    { name = "maturin" },
+    { name = "pyright" },
+    { name = "ruff" },
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+tests = [
+    { name = "boto3" },
+    { name = "datafusion" },
+    { name = "datasets" },
+    { name = "duckdb" },
+    { name = "ml-dtypes" },
+    { name = "opentelemetry-sdk" },
+    { name = "pandas" },
+    { name = "pillow" },
+    { name = "polars", extra = ["pandas", "pyarrow"] },
+    { name = "psutil" },
+    { name = "pytest" },
+    { name = "pytest-xdist" },
+    { name = "tqdm" },
+]
+
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-    { name = "datasets", marker = "extra == 'tests'" },
-    { name = "duckdb", marker = "extra == 'tests'" },
+    { name = "datafusion", marker = "extra == 'tests'", specifier = ">=54,<55" },
+    { name = "datasets", marker = "extra == 'tests'", specifier = "==4.4.0" },
+    { name = "duckdb", marker = "extra == 'tests'", specifier = ">=1.5.0,<1.6.0" },
     { name = "geoarrow-rust-core", marker = "extra == 'geo'" },
     { name = "geoarrow-rust-io", marker = "extra == 'geo'" },
-    { name = "lance-namespace", specifier = ">=0.4.5" },
+    { name = "lance-namespace", specifier = ">=0.11.1,<0.12" },
     { name = "ml-dtypes", marker = "extra == 'tests'" },
     { name = "numpy", specifier = ">=1.22" },
+    { name = "opentelemetry-api", marker = "extra == 'otel'" },
+    { name = "opentelemetry-sdk", marker = "extra == 'otel'" },
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     { name = "pillow", marker = "extra == 'tests'" },
     { name = "polars", extras = ["pyarrow", "pandas"], marker = "extra == 'tests'" },
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     { name = "torch", marker = "extra == 'torch'", specifier = ">=2.0" },
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 ]
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 [[package]]
 name = "zipp"
-version = "3.23.0"
+version = "4.1.0"
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diff --git a/release_process.md b/release_process.md
index 0a97e3afaf5..c0403407c41 100644
--- a/release_process.md
+++ b/release_process.md
@@ -1,11 +1,14 @@
 # Release Process
 
-Lance uses [semantic versioning](https://semver.org/) and maintains a linear commit history.
-* All pull requests are merged into the `main` branch.
+Lance maintains a linear commit history with a controlled release process.
+
+* All pull requests are merged into the `main` branch first.
 * Beta releases (or preview releases) are created on-demand from the `main` branch.
 * Stable releases (non-prereleases) are created only after a voting process and come from a release branch `release/vX.Y`. These are typically created once every two weeks.
 * Release Candidates (RC) are created from release branches prior to voting.
+* Minor releases can be cut from either main branch or an existing release branch (when main is targeting a major release).
 * Patch releases are created by committing fixes directly to the release branch, voting on a new RC, and releasing.
+* All changes (features, fixes) must be committed to main first, then cherry-picked to release branches as needed.
 
 ```mermaid
 gitGraph
@@ -31,15 +34,22 @@ gitGraph
     commit tag: "1.4.1-rc.1"
     commit tag: "1.4.1"
     checkout main
-    commit tag: "1.5.0-beta.1"
+    commit tag: "2.0.0-beta.1" id: "breaking"
+    checkout "release/v1.4"
+    cherry-pick id: "breaking" tag: "1.5.0-rc.1"
+    branch "release/v1.5"
+    checkout "release/v1.5"
+    commit tag: "1.5.0"
 
 ```
 
 ## Version Semantics
 
+Lance uses version numbers inspired by semantic versioning, but with flexibility for practical release management. Specifically, minor releases can be cut from existing release branches when the main branch is targeting a major release.
+
 ### Version Format
 
-Lance uses semantic versioning with prerelease identifiers:
+Lance uses version numbers with prerelease identifiers:
 - **Stable**: `X.Y.Z` (e.g., `1.3.0`)
 - **Beta**: `X.Y.Z-beta.N` (e.g., `1.3.0-beta.1`, `1.3.0-beta.2`)
 - **RC**: `X.Y.Z-rc.N` (e.g., `1.3.0-rc.1`, `1.3.0-rc.2`)
@@ -63,32 +73,51 @@ Lance uses semantic versioning with prerelease identifiers:
 
 ### GitHub Releases and Release Notes
 
-| Release Type              | GitHub Release Type | Start Commit (exclusive)    | End Commit (inclusive) | Explanation                                                          |
-|---------------------------|---------------------|-----------------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
-| **Stable (Major/Minor)**  | Release             | `release-root/X.Y.0-beta.N` | `vX.Y.0`               | All changes from main + RC fixes                                     |
-| **Stable (Patch)**        | Release             | `vX.Y.(Z-1)`                | `vX.Y.Z`               | Only changes in this patch release                                   |
-| **RC (Major/Minor)**      | Pre-Release         | `release-root/X.Y.0-beta.N` | `vX.Y.0-rc.N`          | All changes for the release                                          |
-| **RC (Patch)**            | Pre-Release         | `vX.Y.(Z-1)`                | `vX.Y.Z-rc.N`          | Only changes in this patch release                                   |
-| **RC (Iterations)**       | Pre-Release         | `vX.Y.(Z-1)`                | `vX.Y.Z-rc.N`          | Only changes in this patch release (not changes against previous RC) |
-| **Beta (Main branch)**    | Pre-Release         | `release-root/X.Y.Z-beta.N` | `vX.Y.Z-beta.N`        | Changes since last stable release RC cut in main branch              |
-| **Beta (Release branch)** | Pre-Release         | `vX.Y.(Z-1)`                | `vX.Y.Z-beta.N`        | Changes since last stable release                                    |
+| Release Type                       | GitHub Release Type | Start Commit (exclusive)    | End Commit (inclusive) | Explanation                                                          |
+|------------------------------------|---------------------|-----------------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
+| **Stable (Major/Minor from main)** | Release             | `release-root/X.Y.0-beta.N` | `vX.Y.0`               | All changes from main + RC fixes                                     |
+| **Stable (Minor from release)**    | Release             | `vX.(Y-1).Z` (last stable)  | `vX.Y.0`               | Changes since last stable on source release branch                   |
+| **Stable (Patch)**                 | Release             | `vX.Y.(Z-1)`                | `vX.Y.Z`               | Only changes in this patch release                                   |
+| **RC (Major/Minor from main)**     | Pre-Release         | `release-root/X.Y.0-beta.N` | `vX.Y.0-rc.N`          | All changes for the release                                          |
+| **RC (Minor from release)**        | Pre-Release         | `vX.(Y-1).Z` (last stable)  | `vX.Y.0-rc.N`          | Changes since last stable on source release branch                   |
+| **RC (Patch)**                     | Pre-Release         | `vX.Y.(Z-1)`                | `vX.Y.Z-rc.N`          | Only changes in this patch release                                   |
+| **RC (Iterations)**                | Pre-Release         | Same as initial RC          | `vX.Y.Z-rc.N`          | Same comparison as initial RC (not against previous RC)              |
+| **Beta (Main branch)**             | Pre-Release         | `release-root/X.Y.Z-beta.N` | `vX.Y.Z-beta.N`        | Changes since last stable release RC cut in main branch              |
+| **Beta (Release branch)**          | Pre-Release         | `vX.Y.(Z-1)`                | `vX.Y.Z-beta.N`        | Changes since last stable release                                    |
 
 ## Branching Strategy
 
 ### Main Branch
+
 - Always contains the latest development work
 - Version format: `X.Y.Z-beta.N`
 - After RC creation, bumped to next minor version with `-beta.0` (unreleased)
   - Beta previews published by bumping to `-beta.1+`
 
 ### Release Branches
+
 - Format: `release/v{major}.{minor}` (e.g., `release/v1.3`)
 - Created when cutting initial RC for major/minor release
+- Can be created from:
+    - **Main branch**: Standard flow for major/minor releases
+    - **Existing release branch**: For minor releases when main is targeting a major release
 - Maintained for patch releases
 - Version progression: `rc.1` → `rc.2` → stable → `beta.0` → `rc.1` (for patches)
 
+### Commit Flow
+
+All changes must be committed to the main branch first:
+
+1. **Features and fixes**: Merge PR to main
+2. **Release branch needs**: Cherry-pick from main to release branch
+3. **Never commit directly to release branch** without the change existing in main first
+
+This ensures main always has the complete history and release branches only contain subsets of main's changes.
+
 ## Version Flow
 
+### Standard Flow (Major/Minor from Main)
+
 ```mermaid
 %%{init: {'theme':'base', 'themeVariables': { 'fontSize':'14px'}}}%%
 flowchart LR
@@ -112,6 +141,7 @@ flowchart LR
 ```
 
 **Flow explanation:**
+
 - **Main branch**: Commit M0 at `1.3.0-beta.2` has `release-root/1.4.0-beta.N` (created when cutting v1.3.0-rc.1, pointing to this commit) and `release-root/2.0.0-beta.N` (created when breaking changes bumped major version, pointing to same commit) → M1 bumps to `1.4.0-beta.0` (unreleased) → M2 publishes `1.4.0-beta.1` (preview, tagged) → M3 publishes `2.0.0-beta.1` after detecting breaking changes (tagged)
 - **Release branch** `release/v1.3` created from M0, starts at `1.3.0-rc.1` (tagged) → `1.3.0` (stable, tagged) → `1.3.1-beta.0` → `1.3.1-rc.1` (tagged) → `1.3.1` (stable, tagged) → `1.3.2-beta.0`
 - **Tags**: 🏷️ = version tag (points to tagged commit), 📍 = release-root tag (points to commit before RC was created, used for breaking change detection)
@@ -119,12 +149,47 @@ flowchart LR
 
 **Note**: All commits are linear on their respective branches. `beta.0` = unreleased, `beta.1+` = published previews.
 
+### Minor Release from Release Branch (When Main is Major)
+
+```mermaid
+%%{init: {'theme':'base', 'themeVariables': { 'fontSize':'14px'}}}%%
+flowchart LR
+    subgraph main["Main Branch (at 2.0.0)"]
+        direction LR
+        M1["2.0.0-beta.0"] --> M2["2.0.0-beta.1<br/>🏷️ v2.0.0-beta.1"]
+    end
+
+    subgraph release13["Release Branch: release/v1.3"]
+        direction LR
+        R1["1.3.0<br/>🏷️ v1.3.0"] --> R2["1.3.1-beta.0"]
+        R2 --> R3["1.3.1<br/>🏷️ v1.3.1"]
+    end
+
+    subgraph release14["Release Branch: release/v1.4"]
+        direction LR
+        S1["1.4.0-rc.1<br/>🏷️ v1.4.0-rc.1"] --> S2["1.4.0<br/>🏷️ v1.4.0"]
+        S2 --> S3["1.4.1-beta.0"]
+    end
+
+    R3 -.->|"create minor release<br/>(main is at 2.x)"| S1
+```
+
+**Flow explanation:**
+
+- **Main branch** is at `2.0.0-beta.N` (major version)
+- **release/v1.3** has released `1.3.1` and needs a new minor release with features
+- **release/v1.4** is created from `release/v1.3` (not from main) because main is at a different major version
+- Release notes for `v1.4.0` compare against `v1.3.1` (latest stable on source branch)
+- Main branch is NOT modified (already at 2.x)
+
 ## Workflows
 
 ### User-Facing Workflows
 
 1. **publish-beta.yml** - Publish beta preview releases from any branch
 2. **create-release-branch.yml** - Create release branch with initial RC for new major/minor version
+    - From main: Standard flow for major/minor releases
+    - From release branch: For minor releases when main is targeting a major release
 3. **create-rc.yml** - Create RC on existing release branch (for new patch release RC or iterations of an existing RC)
 4. **approve-rc.yml** - Approve any RC to stable (works for all release types)
 
@@ -140,6 +205,8 @@ flowchart LR
 
 **Result**: Creates a beta tag (e.g., `v1.4.0-beta.1`) and publishes preview artifacts to fury.io, Maven Central, and Buf Schema Registry.
 
+**Release Notes**: For the first beta (beta.1), release notes include all changes since the release-root tag. For subsequent betas (beta.2+), release notes only include incremental changes since the previous beta.
+
 <details>
 <summary>How beta versioning works</summary>
 
@@ -187,11 +254,27 @@ Release root tags mark the base commits for breaking change detection. The tag n
    - Example: When bumping 1.4.0-beta.5 → 2.0.0-beta.1, create `release-root/2.0.0-beta.N` pointing to the SAME commit with the SAME base RC version
 
 **Key properties**:
+
 - **Multiple tags, same commit**: `release-root/1.4.0-beta.N` and `release-root/2.0.0-beta.N` point to the same commit on main (the commit before the RC branch was created)
 - **Major version bumped once**: Both tags store same base RC version (1.3.0-rc.1), so we know 2.x is already a major bump from 1.3.0
 - **No additional bumps**: When at 2.0.0-beta.1, we detect breaking changes but see major already bumped (2 > 1), so just increment beta
 - **Beta reset on major bump**: When bumping major version, beta number resets to 1 (e.g., 1.4.0-beta.5 → 2.0.0-beta.1)
 
+### Minor Release Root Tag
+
+When a minor release is created from an existing release branch (not from main), a `minor-release-root` tag is created to track the comparison base for release notes.
+
+**Tag Format**: `minor-release-root/{major}.{minor}.0`
+
+- Created when using `create-release-branch` workflow with `source_release_branch` parameter
+- Tag message contains the source stable tag (e.g., `v1.3.1`)
+- Used by `determine_previous_tag` to find the correct comparison base
+
+**Example**: When creating `release/v1.4` from `release/v1.3` (where latest stable is v1.3.1):
+
+- Creates `minor-release-root/1.4.0` with message `v1.3.1`
+- Release notes for v1.4.0-rc.N and v1.4.0 will compare against v1.3.1
+
 ### Detection Process
 
 Breaking change detection happens **on every beta publish from main branch**:
@@ -219,11 +302,12 @@ Starting from v1.3.0-rc.1 cut, main at 1.4.0-beta.0 with `release-root/1.4.0-bet
 **Key insight**: Multiple beta version series can share the same release-root commit, with major version bumped only once when first detected.
 </details>
 
-## Create a Major / Minor Release
+## Create a Major / Minor Release (from Main)
 
 **Purpose**: Create a new major or minor release from the main branch.
 
 **Steps**:
+
 1. Ensure CI on main is green
 2. Trigger **"Create Release Branch"** workflow with **dry_run**: `true`
 3. Review the RC version and changes
@@ -234,6 +318,7 @@ Starting from v1.3.0-rc.1 cut, main at 1.4.0-beta.0 with `release-root/1.4.0-bet
 8. **If approved**: Trigger **"Approve RC"** workflow with **rc_tag** (e.g., `v1.3.0-rc.2`)
 
 **Result**:
+
 - Creates release branch (e.g., `release/v1.3`) with RC tag (e.g., `v1.3.0-rc.1`)
 - Bumps main to next minor (e.g., `1.4.0-beta.0`)
 - After approval: Creates stable tag (e.g., `v1.3.0`) and publishes to PyPI, crates.io, Maven Central
@@ -242,6 +327,7 @@ Starting from v1.3.0-rc.1 cut, main at 1.4.0-beta.0 with `release-root/1.4.0-bet
 <summary>What happens under the hood</summary>
 
 **Create Release Branch workflow**:
+
 - Reads current version from main (e.g., `1.3.0-beta.2`)
 - Checks for breaking changes since release-root tag
 - If breaking changes: Creates RC with bumped major (e.g., `2.0.0-rc.1`), bumps main to `2.1.0-beta.0`
@@ -250,6 +336,7 @@ Starting from v1.3.0-rc.1 cut, main at 1.4.0-beta.0 with `release-root/1.4.0-bet
 - Creates GitHub Discussion for voting
 
 **Approve RC workflow**:
+
 - Bumps version from `rc.N` to stable
 - Generates release notes comparing against `release-root/{version}-beta.N` tag
 - Creates GitHub Release and publishes stable artifacts
@@ -257,22 +344,77 @@ Starting from v1.3.0-rc.1 cut, main at 1.4.0-beta.0 with `release-root/1.4.0-bet
 - Main branch is NOT affected (already bumped in step 1)
 </details>
 
+## Create a Minor Release (from Release Branch)
+
+**Purpose**: Create a new minor release from an existing release branch when main is targeting a major release.
+
+**When to use**: When main branch has breaking changes and is targeting a major version (e.g., `2.0.0`), but you need to release new features for users who aren't ready to upgrade to the new major version.
+
+**Prerequisites**:
+
+- Main branch must be at a major version (e.g., `2.0.0-beta.N` where patch = 0 and minor = 0)
+- Source release branch must exist (e.g., `release/v1.3`)
+- Features to release must already be committed to main, then cherry-picked to the source release branch
+
+**Steps**:
+
+1. Cherry-pick desired features from main to the source release branch
+2. Trigger **"Create Release Branch"** workflow with:
+    - **source_release_branch**: e.g., `release/v1.3`
+    - **dry_run**: `true`
+3. Review the minor RC version (e.g., `1.4.0-rc.1`)
+4. Run with **dry_run**: `false` to create new release branch and RC
+5. Test RC artifacts and vote in the GitHub Discussion
+6. **If issues found**: Fix and run **"Create RC"** workflow
+7. **If approved**: Trigger **"Approve RC"** workflow
+
+**Result**:
+
+- Creates new release branch (e.g., `release/v1.4`) from source branch
+- Creates RC tag (e.g., `v1.4.0-rc.1`)
+- Main branch is NOT modified (already at major version)
+- Release notes compare against latest stable on source branch (e.g., `v1.3.1`)
+- After approval: Creates stable tag and publishes artifacts
+
+<details>
+<summary>What happens under the hood</summary>
+
+**Create Release Branch workflow (with source_release_branch)**:
+
+- Validates main is at major version (`X.0.0-beta.N` where patch = 0)
+- Checks out source release branch (e.g., `release/v1.3`)
+- Reads current version from source branch
+- Increments minor version (e.g., `1.3.1-beta.0` → `1.4.0-rc.1`)
+- Creates new release branch (e.g., `release/v1.4`) from source branch HEAD
+- Finds latest stable tag on source branch for release notes comparison
+- Does NOT modify main branch
+- Creates GitHub Discussion for voting
+
+**Key differences from main branch flow**:
+
+- No breaking change detection (assumes features are already validated)
+- No release-root tag created (not needed for this flow)
+- Main branch version unchanged
+- Release notes compare against source branch's latest stable release
+</details>
+
 ## Create a Patch / Bugfix Release
 
 **Purpose**: Release critical bug fixes for an existing release.
 
 **Steps**:
-1. Checkout the release branch (e.g., `release/v1.3`)
-2. Create and test your fix (ensure no breaking changes)
-3. Create a PR to merge into the release branch
-4. Trigger **"Create RC"** workflow with **release_branch** (e.g., `release/v1.3`) and **dry_run**: `true`
-5. Review the patch RC version
-6. Run with **dry_run**: `false` to create the patch RC
-7. Test RC artifacts and vote in the GitHub Discussion
-8. **If issues found**: Fix and run **"Create RC"** again to create `rc.2`, `rc.3`, etc.
-9. **If approved**: Trigger **"Approve RC"** workflow with **rc_tag** (e.g., `v1.3.1-rc.1`)
+
+1. Commit the fix to main branch first (all changes must go to main first)
+2. Cherry-pick the fix to the release branch (e.g., `release/v1.3`)
+3. Trigger **"Create RC"** workflow with **release_branch** (e.g., `release/v1.3`) and **dry_run**: `true`
+4. Review the patch RC version
+5. Run with **dry_run**: `false` to create the patch RC
+6. Test RC artifacts and vote in the GitHub Discussion
+7. **If issues found**: Fix and run **"Create RC"** again to create `rc.2`, `rc.3`, etc.
+8. **If approved**: Trigger **"Approve RC"** workflow with **rc_tag** (e.g., `v1.3.1-rc.1`)
 
 **Result**:
+
 - Creates patch RC tag (e.g., `v1.3.1-rc.1`) on release branch
 - After approval: Creates stable tag (e.g., `v1.3.1`) and publishes to PyPI, crates.io, Maven Central
 - Auto-bumps release branch to next patch `beta.0` (e.g., `1.3.2-beta.0`)
@@ -281,7 +423,8 @@ Starting from v1.3.0-rc.1 cut, main at 1.4.0-beta.0 with `release-root/1.4.0-bet
 <details>
 <summary>Important notes</summary>
 
-- **Breaking changes not allowed**: Release branches are for patch releases only
+- **Commit to main first**: All fixes must be committed to main before cherry-picking to release branches
+- **Breaking changes not allowed**: Patch releases should not introduce breaking changes
 - **Beta versions**: Release branches stay at `X.Y.Z-beta.N` between releases (auto-bumped after stable)
 - **Release notes**: Compares against previous stable tag (e.g., `v1.3.0`)
 - **Allowed changes**: Correctness bugs, security fixes, major performance regressions, unintentional breaking change reverts
@@ -419,7 +562,7 @@ Workflow: Create Release Branch
 ```bash
 # 1. Start with release/v1.3 @ 1.3.1-beta.0 (auto-bumped after previous stable release)
 # 2. Critical bug found in 1.3.0
-# 3. Fix committed to release/v1.3
+# 3. Fix committed to main first, then cherry-picked to release/v1.3
 # 4. Create patch RC
 Workflow: Create RC
   release_branch: release/v1.3
@@ -444,6 +587,48 @@ Workflow: Approve RC
     - Main unchanged
 ```
 
+### Minor Release from Release Branch
+
+```bash
+# Scenario: Main is at 2.0.0-beta.N (major version), need to release v1.4.0 with new features
+
+# 1. Main is at 2.0.0-beta.1 (breaking changes introduced)
+# 2. release/v1.3 is at 1.3.1-beta.0 (after releasing v1.3.1)
+# 3. Cherry-pick desired features from main to release/v1.3
+
+# 4. Create minor release branch from release/v1.3
+Workflow: Create Release Branch
+  source_release_branch: release/v1.3
+  Result:
+    - Validates main is at major version (2.0.0-beta.1)
+    - Source branch at 1.3.1-beta.0
+    - Created release/v1.4 at 1.4.0-rc.1
+    - Tagged v1.4.0-rc.1
+    - Found latest stable: v1.3.1
+    - Created GitHub Pre-Release with release notes from v1.3.1 to v1.4.0-rc.1
+    - Main NOT modified (stays at 2.0.0-beta.1)
+    - GitHub Discussion created
+
+# 5. Vote on RC (3-day voting for minor release)
+  - Navigate to Discussion thread
+  - Test RC artifacts
+  - Vote with +1, 0, -1
+
+# 6. Approve RC
+Workflow: Approve RC
+  rc_tag: v1.4.0-rc.1
+  Result:
+    - release/v1.4 @ 1.4.0
+    - Tagged v1.4.0
+    - Generated release notes comparing v1.4.0 vs v1.3.1
+    - Created GitHub Release (not pre-release)
+    - Stable artifacts published
+    - Release branch auto-bumped to 1.4.1-beta.0
+    - Main unchanged (stays at 2.0.0-beta.1)
+
+# 7. Future: Can continue with patches on release/v1.4 or create release/v1.5 from it
+```
+
 ### RC Iteration Due to Issues
 
 ```bash
diff --git a/rust-toolchain.toml b/rust-toolchain.toml
index 62b4dcbb1fa..c45ebe572c0 100644
--- a/rust-toolchain.toml
+++ b/rust-toolchain.toml
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # We keep this pinned to keep clippy and rustfmt in sync between local and CI.
 # Feel free to upgrade to bring in new lints.
 [toolchain]
-channel = "1.90.0"
+channel = "1.98.1"
 components = ["rustfmt", "clippy", "rust-analyzer"]
diff --git a/rust/AGENTS.md b/rust/AGENTS.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..70a803c6c76
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/AGENTS.md
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+# Rust Guidelines
+
+Also see [root AGENTS.md](../AGENTS.md) for cross-language standards.
+
+## Code Style
+
+- Use `Vec::with_capacity()` when size is known or estimable — prefer over-estimating capacity to multiple reallocations.
+- Wrap large or expensive-to-clone struct fields (maps, protobuf metadata, schemas) in `Arc<T>` to avoid deep copies.
+- Use `Box::pin(...)` or `.boxed()` but never both — `.boxed()` already returns `Pin<Box<...>>`.
+- Remove dead code instead of adding `#[allow(dead_code)]`. Delete unused constants instead of reducing visibility.
+- Use `column_by_name()` for `RecordBatch` column access in production code; use `batch["column_name"]` in tests.
+- Use `PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(vec)` (zero-copy) instead of `from_iter_values(vec)` for Vec-to-PrimitiveArray conversion.
+- Implement `Default` trait on config/options structs instead of standalone `default_*()` helpers.
+- Place `#[cfg(test)] mod tests` as a single block at the bottom of each file — no production code after it.
+- Place `use` imports at the top of the file, not inline within function bodies.
+- Extract substantial new logic (bin packing, scheduling) into dedicated submodules instead of inlining into large files.
+- Delete obsolete internal (`pub(crate)` / private) methods in the same PR that introduces their replacements. For public API methods, follow the deprecation path in root AGENTS.md instead.
+- Choose log levels by audience: `debug!` for routine/high-frequency ops, `info!` for infrequent operator-visible state changes, `warn!` for unexpected conditions.
+
+## Concurrency
+
+- The closure passed to `spawn_cpu()` must only consume CPU and return — it must **never** wait on anything: **no channels** (blocking send/recv), **no I/O**, **no locks**, and no `block_on`/`.blocking_*`. The CPU pool can collapse to a single worker in resource-constrained environments (`<= 3` CPUs), so a parked closure can deadlock the whole pool with a silent 0% hang. Keep the waiting in surrounding async code and hand only the pure-CPU work to `spawn_cpu()`. Only dispatch substantial work (rule of thumb: ~100µs+ of CPU); below that the pool overhead outweighs the benefit and the work is better left inline. See the doc comment on `spawn_cpu` for the rationale.
+
+## API Design
+
+- Use `with_`-prefixed builder methods for optional config (e.g., `MyStruct::new(required).with_option(v)`) — don't create separate constructor variants.
+- For public APIs, prefer `Into<T>` or `AsRef<T>` trait bounds for flexible inputs.
+- Prefer `pub(crate)` over `pub` for crate-internal items. Use `pub use` re-exports for the actual public API surface.
+- Use enums instead of magic numbers for format versions, variant types, and discriminators — leverage exhaustive `match`.
+- Use strongly-typed structs instead of `HashMap<String, String>` in APIs — convert to strings only at serialization boundaries.
+- Keep `RowAddr` (physical fragment+offset) and `RowId` (stable logical identifier) as distinct types — never raw `u64` for both.
+- Use `RowAddress` from `lance-core/src/utils/address.rs` instead of raw bitwise operations on row addresses.
+- Use `RowAddrTreeMap`/`RoaringBitmap` instead of `Vec<Range<u64>>` for physical row selections.
+- Use logical row counts (`num_rows()`) instead of `physical_rows` for user-facing metrics — subtract deletions.
+- Keep traits minimal — only core abstraction methods. Move helpers to standalone functions and config to struct fields.
+- Get column/field types from schema metadata — never materialize data rows just to inspect types.
+- Use stable, versioned serialization formats for persistent storage (e.g., index files) — avoid unstable cross-version formats.
+- Use Arrow's type-safe access (`ArrayAccessor` trait bounds, `as_*_array` helpers) instead of `arrow::compute::cast` + `downcast_ref`. Prefer `_opt` variants (e.g., `as_string_opt`) unless the data type has already been verified.
+- In `lance-io/`, use single-syscall writes for local filesystem I/O — don't reuse cloud multipart upload machinery.
+
+## Error Handling
+
+- Never use `.unwrap()`, `.expect()`, `panic!()`, or `assert!()` in library code for fallible operations — use `?` with `Result` and proper error types. Reserve `.unwrap()` for tests only.
+- Avoid bare `.unwrap()`; use `if let`, `match`, `let ... else`, `?`, or combinators. Never `.is_none()` followed by `.unwrap()`. If unavoidable, use `.expect("reason")`.
+- Return `LanceError::NotSupported` instead of `todo!()` or `unimplemented!()` for unsupported code paths. Test with `Result::Err` assertions, not `#[should_panic]`.
+- Match `Error` variant to root cause: `Error::invalid_input` for caller data issues, `Error::corrupt_file` for format/integrity issues, `Error::not_found` for missing resources, `Error::io` for I/O failures.
+- Include full context in error messages — variable names, values, sizes, types, indices. Not generic messages like `"Invalid chunk size"`.
+- Use `checked_add`/`checked_mul` instead of `wrapping_add`/`wrapping_mul` for counters and IDs — return an error on overflow.
+- Prefer `debug_assert!` over `assert!` for non-safety invariants; reserve `assert!` for conditions preventing data corruption. Always include descriptive messages.
+- Don't silently guard against impossible conditions — use `debug_assert!`, return an explicit error, or remove the check.
+- Log warnings on best-effort/cleanup failures instead of silently swallowing or propagating errors.
+- Log warnings for silent no-ops (skipped operations); omit warnings before errors since the error message is sufficient.
+- Avoid `unwrap_or(default)` on map lookups for required config params — use `.ok_or_else(|| Error::...)` and verify key names match between serialization and deserialization.
+- Advance all parallel iterators before any `continue` branches — early exits that skip `.next()` calls cause misalignment.
+- Bind `iter.next()` with `let Some(x) = iter.next() else { ... }` — never call `.next()` twice to check-then-use.
+
+## Naming
+
+- Reserve `_`-prefixed names for truly unused bindings — if a variable is read, drop the underscore.
+- Prefix boolean variables with `is_` or `has_` instead of ambiguous `with_` or bare adjectives.
+- Name booleans so `false` (zero/`Default::default()`) is the desired default — use `disable_*` instead of `enable_*` when the feature should be on by default.
+- Name functions to match their actual scope — e.g., `handle_partition_system_columns` not `handle_system_columns` if only a subset is handled.
+
+## Testing
+
+- Use `record_batch!()` from `arrow_array` to construct `RecordBatch` in tests instead of manual Schema/Arc/try_new boilerplate.
+- Use `gen_batch()` builder API (`.col()`, `.into_reader_rows()`) for test data setup instead of manual Arrow construction.
+- Use `.try_into_batch()` instead of `.try_into_stream().try_collect()` for scanner results in tests.
+- Use plain `"memory://"` URIs in tests — no atomic counters or unique suffixes needed.
+- Assert on both error variant (`assert!(matches!(error, ErrorType::Variant { .. }))`) and message content — don't just check `is_err()`.
+
+## Documentation
+
+- Add doc comments to public API elements that convey semantic meaning, valid values, and effects — don't restate type signatures.
+- Document enum variant doc comments with behavioral semantics, not just labels. For numeric parameters, state whether it's an id, count, index, etc.
+- Add doc comments to magic constants, thresholds, and non-obvious transformation functions — explain what the value represents and why it was chosen.
+- Comment fallback/guard code paths with when they trigger and why they exist.
+- Ensure doc comments match actual semantics — distinguish mutates-in-place (`&mut self`) from returns-new-value.
+- Use explicit forward-looking language (`TODO`, `FIXME`) in comments to distinguish current behavior from planned changes.
+- Document the semantic meaning of both present and absent states for `Option<T>` fields.
+- Use precise domain terminology — avoid ambiguous abbreviations (e.g., "FIXED" vs "fixed-width") or incorrect terms (e.g., "fields" when meaning "fragments").
+
+## lance-encoding
+
+Performance-critical encoding/decoding paths have additional requirements:
+
+- Hoist loop-invariant conditionals out of hot loops — branch once outside, then use separate loop bodies or monomorphized variants.
+- Pre-allocate single contiguous buffers. Default to `buf.resize(len, 0)` for safe initialization; reserve `Vec::with_capacity` + `unsafe { set_len() }` for measured hot paths only, with a `// SAFETY:` comment explaining why the buffer will be fully initialized before read (e.g., immediately followed by `read_exact`).
+- Use `spawn_cpu()` only at the async-to-CPU boundary (e.g., FSST, decompression, batch materialization) — never nest redundant `spawn_cpu()` calls.
+- Use `expect_next()` and similar utility methods instead of inlining `None`-checks with error returns.
diff --git a/rust/arrow-scalar/Cargo.toml b/rust/arrow-scalar/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b5e968faf8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-scalar/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+[package]
+name = "lance-arrow-scalar"
+version = "58.0.0"
+edition.workspace = true
+authors.workspace = true
+license.workspace = true
+repository.workspace = true
+description = "Arrow scalar type with Ord, Hash, and Eq support"
+keywords.workspace = true
+categories.workspace = true
+rust-version.workspace = true
+readme = "README.md"
+
+[dependencies]
+# Note: this is a core crate and we should aim to keep this dependency list
+# as minimal as possible.
+arrow-array = { workspace = true }
+arrow-buffer = { workspace = true }
+arrow-cast = { workspace = true }
+arrow-data = { workspace = true }
+arrow-row = { workspace = true }
+arrow-schema = { workspace = true }
+half = { workspace = true }
+
+[dev-dependencies]
+arrow-ord = { workspace = true }
+proptest = { workspace = true }
+rstest = { workspace = true }
+
+[lints]
+workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/arrow-scalar/README.md b/rust/arrow-scalar/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7173a116262
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-scalar/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+# lance-arrow-scalar
+
+A scalar type backed by Apache Arrow arrays with `Ord`, `Hash`, and `Eq` support.
+
+## Overview
+
+`ArrowScalar` wraps a single-element Arrow array and provides comparison and hashing operations by leveraging Apache Arrow's `OwnedRow` representation. This ensures:
+
+- **Correct total ordering** for all Arrow types
+- **Proper NaN handling** for floating-point values
+- **Consistent null ordering**
+- **O(1) comparisons** via cached row bytes
+
+## Features
+
+- `Eq`, `Ord`, and `Hash` traits for Arrow scalar values
+- Support for all Arrow data types
+- Serde serialization/deserialization support
+- Zero-copy conversion from Arrow arrays
+
+## Usage
+
+Add to your `Cargo.toml`:
+
+```toml
+[dependencies]
+lance-arrow-scalar = "57.0.0"
+```
+
+Then use in your code:
+
+```rust
+use lance_arrow_scalar::ArrowScalar;
+
+// Create from primitive types
+let a = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+let b = ArrowScalar::from(100i32);
+assert!(a < b);
+
+// Create from strings
+let s1 = ArrowScalar::from("hello");
+let s2 = ArrowScalar::from("world");
+assert!(s1 < s2);
+
+// Use in collections
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+let mut map = HashMap::new();
+map.insert(ArrowScalar::from("key"), ArrowScalar::from(123));
+```
+
+## Cross-Type Comparison
+
+Comparing scalars of different data types produces an arbitrary but consistent ordering based on the underlying row bytes. This allows scalars to be used as keys in sorted collections regardless of type, though the ordering across types is not semantically meaningful.
+
+## Implementation Details
+
+Comparisons and hashing are delegated to [`arrow_row::OwnedRow`], which provides efficient byte-level operations. The row representation is cached at construction time, making all comparison and hashing operations O(1).
diff --git a/rust/arrow-scalar/src/convert.rs b/rust/arrow-scalar/src/convert.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..de783a3a604
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-scalar/src/convert.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::*;
+use half::f16;
+
+use crate::ArrowScalar;
+
+macro_rules! impl_from_primitive {
+    ($native_ty:ty, $array_ty:ty) => {
+        impl From<$native_ty> for ArrowScalar {
+            fn from(value: $native_ty) -> Self {
+                let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(<$array_ty>::from(vec![value]));
+                Self::try_from_array(array).expect("single-element primitive array is always valid")
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+impl_from_primitive!(i8, Int8Array);
+impl_from_primitive!(i16, Int16Array);
+impl_from_primitive!(i32, Int32Array);
+impl_from_primitive!(i64, Int64Array);
+impl_from_primitive!(u8, UInt8Array);
+impl_from_primitive!(u16, UInt16Array);
+impl_from_primitive!(u32, UInt32Array);
+impl_from_primitive!(u64, UInt64Array);
+impl_from_primitive!(f32, Float32Array);
+impl_from_primitive!(f64, Float64Array);
+
+impl From<bool> for ArrowScalar {
+    fn from(value: bool) -> Self {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![value]));
+        Self::try_from_array(array).expect("single-element boolean array is always valid")
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<f16> for ArrowScalar {
+    fn from(value: f16) -> Self {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float16Array::from(vec![value]));
+        Self::try_from_array(array).expect("single-element f16 array is always valid")
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&str> for ArrowScalar {
+    fn from(value: &str) -> Self {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![value]));
+        Self::try_from_array(array).expect("single-element string array is always valid")
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<String> for ArrowScalar {
+    fn from(value: String) -> Self {
+        Self::from(value.as_str())
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&[u8]> for ArrowScalar {
+    fn from(value: &[u8]) -> Self {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BinaryArray::from_vec(vec![value]));
+        Self::try_from_array(array).expect("single-element binary array is always valid")
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_primitives() {
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        assert!(!s.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(format!("{s}"), "42");
+
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from(1.5f64);
+        assert!(!s.is_null());
+
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from(true);
+        assert_eq!(format!("{s}"), "true");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_string_types() {
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from("hello");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{s}"), "hello");
+
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from(String::from("world"));
+        assert_eq!(format!("{s}"), "world");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_binary() {
+        let bytes: &[u8] = &[0xDE, 0xAD];
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from(bytes);
+        assert!(!s.is_null());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_f16() {
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from(f16::from_f32(1.5));
+        assert!(!s.is_null());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/arrow-scalar/src/lib.rs b/rust/arrow-scalar/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..70c468ebb99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-scalar/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,621 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! A scalar type backed by a single-element Arrow array with [`Ord`], [`Hash`],
+//! and [`Eq`] support.
+//!
+//! Comparisons and hashing are delegated to [`arrow_row::OwnedRow`], which
+//! provides a correct total ordering for all Arrow types (including proper NaN
+//! handling for floats and null ordering).
+
+mod convert;
+pub mod serde;
+
+use std::cmp::Ordering;
+use std::fmt;
+use std::hash::{Hash, Hasher};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, make_array, new_null_array};
+use arrow_cast::display::ArrayFormatter;
+use arrow_data::transform::MutableArrayData;
+use arrow_row::{OwnedRow, RowConverter, SortField};
+use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
+
+type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, ArrowError>;
+
+/// A scalar value backed by a length-1 Arrow array.
+///
+/// `ArrowScalar` provides [`Eq`], [`Ord`], and [`Hash`] by caching an
+/// [`OwnedRow`] at construction time. This means comparisons and hashing are
+/// O(1) row-byte operations rather than per-type dispatch.
+///
+/// # Cross-type comparison
+///
+/// Comparing scalars of different data types produces an arbitrary but
+/// consistent ordering based on the underlying row bytes. This is intentional
+/// — it allows scalars to be used as keys in sorted collections regardless of
+/// type, but the ordering across types is not semantically meaningful.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_arrow_scalar::ArrowScalar;
+///
+/// let a = ArrowScalar::from(1i32);
+/// let b = ArrowScalar::from(2i32);
+/// assert!(a < b);
+///
+/// let c = ArrowScalar::from("hello");
+/// assert_eq!(c, ArrowScalar::from("hello"));
+/// ```
+pub struct ArrowScalar {
+    array: ArrayRef,
+    row: OwnedRow,
+}
+
+impl ArrowScalar {
+    /// Create a scalar by extracting the element at `offset` from `array`.
+    pub fn try_new(array: &ArrayRef, offset: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        if offset >= array.len() {
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                "Scalar index out of bounds".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let data = array.to_data();
+        let mut mutable = MutableArrayData::new(vec![&data], true, 1);
+        mutable.extend(0, offset, offset + 1);
+        let single = make_array(mutable.freeze());
+        Self::try_from_array(single)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a scalar from a length-1 array.
+    pub fn try_from_array(array: ArrayRef) -> Result<Self> {
+        if array.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "ArrowScalar requires a length-1 array, got length {}",
+                array.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let row = Self::compute_row(&array)?;
+        Ok(Self { array, row })
+    }
+
+    /// Create a null scalar of the given data type.
+    pub fn new_null(data_type: &DataType) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_from_array(new_null_array(data_type, 1))
+    }
+
+    fn compute_row(array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<OwnedRow> {
+        let sort_field = SortField::new(array.data_type().clone());
+        let converter = RowConverter::new(vec![sort_field])?;
+        let rows = converter.convert_columns(&[Arc::clone(array)])?;
+        Ok(rows.row(0).owned())
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the underlying length-1 array.
+    pub fn as_array(&self) -> &ArrayRef {
+        &self.array
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the data type of this scalar.
+    pub fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
+        self.array.data_type()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns `true` if this scalar is null.
+    pub fn is_null(&self) -> bool {
+        self.array.null_count() == 1
+    }
+
+    /// Returns `true` if this scalar is a non-null floating-point NaN.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_arrow_scalar::ArrowScalar;
+    ///
+    /// assert!(ArrowScalar::from(f32::NAN).is_nan());
+    /// assert!(!ArrowScalar::from(1.0f32).is_nan());
+    /// assert!(!ArrowScalar::from(1i32).is_nan());
+    /// ```
+    pub fn is_nan(&self) -> bool {
+        if self.is_null() {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        match self.data_type() {
+            DataType::Float16 => self.array.as_primitive::<Float16Type>().value(0).is_nan(),
+            DataType::Float32 => self.array.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().value(0).is_nan(),
+            DataType::Float64 => self.array.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().value(0).is_nan(),
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for ArrowScalar {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.row == other.row
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for ArrowScalar {}
+
+impl PartialOrd for ArrowScalar {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for ArrowScalar {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering {
+        self.row.cmp(&other.row)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Hash for ArrowScalar {
+    fn hash<H: Hasher>(&self, state: &mut H) {
+        self.row.hash(state);
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for ArrowScalar {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        if self.is_null() {
+            return write!(f, "null");
+        }
+        let formatter =
+            ArrayFormatter::try_new(&self.array, &Default::default()).map_err(|_| fmt::Error)?;
+        write!(f, "{}", formatter.value(0))
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Debug for ArrowScalar {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "ArrowScalar({}: {})", self.data_type(), self)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Clone for ArrowScalar {
+    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            array: Arc::clone(&self.array),
+            row: self.row.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::{BTreeSet, HashSet};
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_new_extracts_element() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]));
+        let s = ArrowScalar::try_new(&array, 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{s}"), "20");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_new_out_of_bounds() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1]));
+        assert!(ArrowScalar::try_new(&array, 5).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_from_array_wrong_length() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]));
+        assert!(ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_equality() {
+        let a = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        let b = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        let c = ArrowScalar::from(99i32);
+        assert_eq!(a, b);
+        assert_ne!(a, c);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ordering() {
+        let a = ArrowScalar::from(1i32);
+        let b = ArrowScalar::from(2i32);
+        let c = ArrowScalar::from(3i32);
+        assert!(a < b);
+        assert!(b < c);
+        assert_eq!(a.cmp(&a), Ordering::Equal);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hash_consistent_with_eq() {
+        use std::hash::DefaultHasher;
+
+        let a = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        let b = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        let hash_a = {
+            let mut h = DefaultHasher::new();
+            a.hash(&mut h);
+            h.finish()
+        };
+        let hash_b = {
+            let mut h = DefaultHasher::new();
+            b.hash(&mut h);
+            h.finish()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(hash_a, hash_b);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_in_hashset() {
+        let mut set = HashSet::new();
+        set.insert(ArrowScalar::from(1i32));
+        set.insert(ArrowScalar::from(2i32));
+        set.insert(ArrowScalar::from(1i32));
+        assert_eq!(set.len(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_in_btreeset() {
+        let mut set = BTreeSet::new();
+        set.insert(ArrowScalar::from(3i32));
+        set.insert(ArrowScalar::from(1i32));
+        set.insert(ArrowScalar::from(2i32));
+        let values: Vec<_> = set.iter().map(|s| format!("{s}")).collect();
+        assert_eq!(values, vec!["1", "2", "3"]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_null_scalar() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None]));
+        let s = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        assert!(s.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(format!("{s}"), "null");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_null_sorts_first() {
+        let null_scalar = {
+            let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None]));
+            ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap()
+        };
+        let value_scalar = ArrowScalar::from(0i32);
+        assert!(null_scalar < value_scalar);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::float_nan(
+        ArrowScalar::from(f64::NAN),
+        ArrowScalar::from(f64::INFINITY),
+        Ordering::Greater
+    )]
+    #[case::float_normal(ArrowScalar::from(1.0f64), ArrowScalar::from(2.0f64), Ordering::Less)]
+    fn test_float_ordering(
+        #[case] a: ArrowScalar,
+        #[case] b: ArrowScalar,
+        #[case] expected: Ordering,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(a.cmp(&b), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::float16_nan(ArrowScalar::from(half::f16::NAN), true)]
+    #[case::float32_nan(ArrowScalar::from(f32::NAN), true)]
+    #[case::float64_nan(ArrowScalar::from(f64::NAN), true)]
+    #[case::float64_finite(ArrowScalar::from(1.0f64), false)]
+    #[case::int32(ArrowScalar::from(1i32), false)]
+    fn test_is_nan(#[case] scalar: ArrowScalar, #[case] expected: bool) {
+        assert_eq!(scalar.is_nan(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_null_is_not_nan() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![None]));
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        assert!(!scalar.is_nan());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_display_string() {
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from("hello world");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{s}"), "hello world");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_debug() {
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        let debug = format!("{s:?}");
+        assert!(debug.contains("ArrowScalar"));
+        assert!(debug.contains("42"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_clone() {
+        let a = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        let b = a.clone();
+        assert_eq!(a, b);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_type() {
+        let s = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        assert_eq!(s.data_type(), &DataType::Int32);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_boolean_roundtrip() {
+        let t = ArrowScalar::from(true);
+        let f = ArrowScalar::from(false);
+        assert_eq!(t.data_type(), &DataType::Boolean);
+        assert!(!t.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(format!("{t}"), "true");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{f}"), "false");
+
+        // Extract from multi-element array
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![true, false, true]));
+        let s = ArrowScalar::try_new(&array, 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{s}"), "false");
+        assert_eq!(s.data_type(), &DataType::Boolean);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_boolean_equality_and_ordering() {
+        let t1 = ArrowScalar::from(true);
+        let t2 = ArrowScalar::from(true);
+        let f1 = ArrowScalar::from(false);
+        assert_eq!(t1, t2);
+        assert_ne!(t1, f1);
+        // false < true in arrow row encoding
+        assert!(f1 < t1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_boolean_null() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![None]));
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        assert!(scalar.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(scalar.data_type(), &DataType::Boolean);
+        assert_eq!(format!("{scalar}"), "null");
+
+        // null sorts before false
+        let f = ArrowScalar::from(false);
+        assert!(scalar < f);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_string_view_roundtrip() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec![
+            "hello world, this is a long string view",
+        ]));
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scalar.data_type(), &DataType::Utf8View);
+        assert!(!scalar.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(
+            format!("{scalar}"),
+            "hello world, this is a long string view"
+        );
+
+        // Extract from multi-element array
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec!["alpha", "beta", "gamma"]));
+        let s = ArrowScalar::try_new(&array, 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{s}"), "beta");
+        assert_eq!(s.data_type(), &DataType::Utf8View);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_binary_view_roundtrip() {
+        let values: Vec<&[u8]> = vec![b"\xDE\xAD\xBE\xEF"];
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BinaryViewArray::from(values));
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scalar.data_type(), &DataType::BinaryView);
+        assert!(!scalar.is_null());
+
+        // Extract from multi-element array
+        let values: Vec<&[u8]> = vec![b"aaa", b"bbb", b"ccc"];
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BinaryViewArray::from(values));
+        let s = ArrowScalar::try_new(&array, 2).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(s.data_type(), &DataType::BinaryView);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_string_view_equality_and_ordering() {
+        let mk = |s: &str| {
+            let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec![s]));
+            ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap()
+        };
+        let a = mk("apple");
+        let b = mk("apple");
+        let c = mk("banana");
+        assert_eq!(a, b);
+        assert_ne!(a, c);
+        assert!(a < c);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_binary_view_equality_and_ordering() {
+        let mk = |b: &[u8]| {
+            let values: Vec<&[u8]> = vec![b];
+            let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BinaryViewArray::from(values));
+            ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap()
+        };
+        let a = mk(b"\x01\x02");
+        let b = mk(b"\x01\x02");
+        let c = mk(b"\x01\x03");
+        assert_eq!(a, b);
+        assert_ne!(a, c);
+        assert!(a < c);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_string_view_in_collections() {
+        let mk = |s: &str| {
+            let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec![s]));
+            ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let mut hset = HashSet::new();
+        hset.insert(mk("foo"));
+        hset.insert(mk("bar"));
+        hset.insert(mk("foo"));
+        assert_eq!(hset.len(), 2);
+
+        let mut bset = BTreeSet::new();
+        bset.insert(mk("cherry"));
+        bset.insert(mk("apple"));
+        bset.insert(mk("banana"));
+        let sorted: Vec<_> = bset.iter().map(|s| format!("{s}")).collect();
+        assert_eq!(sorted, vec!["apple", "banana", "cherry"]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_string_view_null() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec![Option::<&str>::None]));
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        assert!(scalar.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(scalar.data_type(), &DataType::Utf8View);
+        assert_eq!(format!("{scalar}"), "null");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_binary_view_null() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BinaryViewArray::from(vec![Option::<&[u8]>::None]));
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        assert!(scalar.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(scalar.data_type(), &DataType::BinaryView);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cross_type_comparison_is_consistent() {
+        let int_scalar = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        let str_scalar = ArrowScalar::from("hello");
+        // The ordering is arbitrary but must be consistent
+        let ord1 = int_scalar.cmp(&str_scalar);
+        let ord2 = int_scalar.cmp(&str_scalar);
+        assert_eq!(ord1, ord2);
+        // And the reverse should be opposite
+        assert_eq!(str_scalar.cmp(&int_scalar), ord1.reverse());
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod prop_tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::*;
+    use arrow_ord::sort::sort;
+    use arrow_schema::SortOptions;
+    use proptest::prelude::*;
+
+    use super::ArrowScalar;
+
+    /// Generate an arbitrary Arrow array of a randomly chosen type, including
+    /// nulls. Covers primitives, booleans, string/binary types and their view
+    /// variants.
+    fn arbitrary_array() -> BoxedStrategy<ArrayRef> {
+        let len = 0..=100usize;
+
+        prop_oneof![
+            // --- integer types ---
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<i8>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(Int8Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<i16>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(Int16Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<i32>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(Int32Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<i64>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(Int64Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<u8>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<u16>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(UInt16Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<u32>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<u64>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            // --- float types ---
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<f32>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(Float32Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<f64>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(Float64Array::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            // --- boolean ---
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<bool>()), len.clone())
+                .prop_map(|v| Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
+            // --- string types ---
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<String>()), len.clone()).prop_map(
+                |v| {
+                    let refs: Vec<Option<&str>> = v.iter().map(|o| o.as_deref()).collect();
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(refs)) as ArrayRef
+                }
+            ),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<String>()), len.clone()).prop_map(
+                |v| {
+                    let refs: Vec<Option<&str>> = v.iter().map(|o| o.as_deref()).collect();
+                    Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(refs)) as ArrayRef
+                }
+            ),
+            proptest::collection::vec(proptest::option::of(any::<String>()), len.clone()).prop_map(
+                |v| {
+                    let refs: Vec<Option<&str>> = v.iter().map(|o| o.as_deref()).collect();
+                    Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(refs)) as ArrayRef
+                }
+            ),
+            // --- binary types ---
+            proptest::collection::vec(
+                proptest::option::of(proptest::collection::vec(any::<u8>(), 0..50)),
+                len.clone(),
+            )
+            .prop_map(|v| {
+                let refs: Vec<Option<&[u8]>> = v.iter().map(|o| o.as_deref()).collect();
+                Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(refs)) as ArrayRef
+            }),
+            proptest::collection::vec(
+                proptest::option::of(proptest::collection::vec(any::<u8>(), 0..50)),
+                len.clone(),
+            )
+            .prop_map(|v| {
+                let refs: Vec<Option<&[u8]>> = v.iter().map(|o| o.as_deref()).collect();
+                Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(refs)) as ArrayRef
+            }),
+            proptest::collection::vec(
+                proptest::option::of(proptest::collection::vec(any::<u8>(), 0..50)),
+                len,
+            )
+            .prop_map(|v| {
+                let refs: Vec<Option<&[u8]>> = v.iter().map(|o| o.as_deref()).collect();
+                Arc::new(BinaryViewArray::from(refs)) as ArrayRef
+            }),
+        ]
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    proptest::proptest! {
+        #[test]
+        fn sorted_array_produces_sorted_scalars(array in arbitrary_array()) {
+            let sorted = sort(
+                &array,
+                Some(SortOptions { descending: false, nulls_first: true }),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let scalars: Vec<ArrowScalar> = (0..sorted.len())
+                .map(|i| ArrowScalar::try_new(&sorted, i).unwrap())
+                .collect();
+
+            for i in 1..scalars.len() {
+                prop_assert!(
+                    scalars[i - 1] <= scalars[i],
+                    "scalar[{}] ({:?}) should be <= scalar[{}] ({:?})",
+                    i - 1, scalars[i - 1], i, scalars[i],
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/arrow-scalar/src/serde.rs b/rust/arrow-scalar/src/serde.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7a458d13887
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-scalar/src/serde.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,558 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Binary serialization for [`ArrowScalar`].
+//!
+//! Default format (with type prefix):
+//! ```text
+//! | varint: format_string_len | raw: format_string_bytes |
+//! | varint: null_flag (0 = non-null, 1 = null) |
+//! | varint: num_buffers |                          (only if non-null)
+//! | varint: buffer_0_len | ... | varint: buffer_{n-1}_len |  (only if non-null)
+//! | raw: buffer_0 bytes  | ... | raw: buffer_{n-1} bytes  |  (only if non-null)
+//! ```
+//!
+//! The format string uses the
+//! [Arrow C Data Interface](https://arrow.apache.org/docs/format/CDataInterface.html#data-type-description-format-strings)
+//! encoding. Use [`EncodeOptions`] / [`DecodeOptions`] to omit the type prefix
+//! when the caller already knows the data type.
+
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::make_array;
+use arrow_buffer::Buffer;
+use arrow_data::ArrayDataBuilder;
+use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, IntervalUnit, TimeUnit};
+
+use crate::ArrowScalar;
+
+type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, ArrowError>;
+
+/// Options for [`ArrowScalar::encode_with_options`].
+pub struct EncodeOptions {
+    /// When `true` (the default), the Arrow C Data Interface format string
+    /// for the scalar's data type is prepended as a varint-length-prefixed
+    /// UTF-8 string. Set to `false` to omit the type prefix (the caller
+    /// must then supply the `DataType` at decode time).
+    pub include_data_type: bool,
+}
+
+impl Default for EncodeOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            include_data_type: true,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Options for [`ArrowScalar::decode_with_options`].
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub struct DecodeOptions<'a> {
+    /// When `Some`, the data type is taken from this value and the encoded
+    /// bytes are assumed to contain no type prefix. When `None` (the
+    /// default), the data type is read from the encoded format-string prefix.
+    pub data_type: Option<&'a DataType>,
+}
+
+/// Encode a `u64` as a variable-length integer (LEB128).
+///
+/// Values below 128 use a single byte; the maximum encoding is 10 bytes.
+pub fn encode_varint(out: &mut Vec<u8>, mut value: u64) {
+    loop {
+        let byte = (value & 0x7F) as u8;
+        value >>= 7;
+        if value == 0 {
+            out.push(byte);
+            return;
+        }
+        out.push(byte | 0x80);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Decode a variable-length integer (LEB128) from `buf` at the given `offset`.
+///
+/// On success, `offset` is advanced past the consumed bytes.
+pub fn decode_varint(buf: &[u8], offset: &mut usize) -> Result<u64> {
+    let mut result: u64 = 0;
+    let mut shift = 0u32;
+    loop {
+        if *offset >= buf.len() {
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                "Invalid varint: unexpected EOF".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let byte = buf[*offset];
+        *offset += 1;
+
+        result |= u64::from(byte & 0x7F) << shift;
+        if byte & 0x80 == 0 {
+            return Ok(result);
+        }
+        shift += 7;
+        if shift >= 64 {
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                "Invalid varint: too many bytes".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert a [`DataType`] to its Arrow C Data Interface format string.
+///
+/// Only non-nested types are supported (nested types are already rejected by
+/// [`ArrowScalar::encode`]).
+fn data_type_to_format_string(dtype: &DataType) -> Result<Cow<'static, str>> {
+    match dtype {
+        DataType::Null => Ok("n".into()),
+        DataType::Boolean => Ok("b".into()),
+        DataType::Int8 => Ok("c".into()),
+        DataType::UInt8 => Ok("C".into()),
+        DataType::Int16 => Ok("s".into()),
+        DataType::UInt16 => Ok("S".into()),
+        DataType::Int32 => Ok("i".into()),
+        DataType::UInt32 => Ok("I".into()),
+        DataType::Int64 => Ok("l".into()),
+        DataType::UInt64 => Ok("L".into()),
+        DataType::Float16 => Ok("e".into()),
+        DataType::Float32 => Ok("f".into()),
+        DataType::Float64 => Ok("g".into()),
+        DataType::Binary => Ok("z".into()),
+        DataType::LargeBinary => Ok("Z".into()),
+        DataType::Utf8 => Ok("u".into()),
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => Ok("U".into()),
+        DataType::BinaryView => Ok("vz".into()),
+        DataType::Utf8View => Ok("vu".into()),
+        DataType::FixedSizeBinary(n) => Ok(Cow::Owned(format!("w:{n}"))),
+        DataType::Decimal32(p, s) => Ok(Cow::Owned(format!("d:{p},{s},32"))),
+        DataType::Decimal64(p, s) => Ok(Cow::Owned(format!("d:{p},{s},64"))),
+        DataType::Decimal128(p, s) => Ok(Cow::Owned(format!("d:{p},{s}"))),
+        DataType::Decimal256(p, s) => Ok(Cow::Owned(format!("d:{p},{s},256"))),
+        DataType::Date32 => Ok("tdD".into()),
+        DataType::Date64 => Ok("tdm".into()),
+        DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Second) => Ok("tts".into()),
+        DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Millisecond) => Ok("ttm".into()),
+        DataType::Time64(TimeUnit::Microsecond) => Ok("ttu".into()),
+        DataType::Time64(TimeUnit::Nanosecond) => Ok("ttn".into()),
+        DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Second, None) => Ok("tss:".into()),
+        DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Millisecond, None) => Ok("tsm:".into()),
+        DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Microsecond, None) => Ok("tsu:".into()),
+        DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, None) => Ok("tsn:".into()),
+        DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Second, Some(tz)) => Ok(Cow::Owned(format!("tss:{tz}"))),
+        DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Millisecond, Some(tz)) => Ok(Cow::Owned(format!("tsm:{tz}"))),
+        DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some(tz)) => Ok(Cow::Owned(format!("tsu:{tz}"))),
+        DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some(tz)) => Ok(Cow::Owned(format!("tsn:{tz}"))),
+        DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Second) => Ok("tDs".into()),
+        DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Millisecond) => Ok("tDm".into()),
+        DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Microsecond) => Ok("tDu".into()),
+        DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Nanosecond) => Ok("tDn".into()),
+        DataType::Interval(IntervalUnit::YearMonth) => Ok("tiM".into()),
+        DataType::Interval(IntervalUnit::DayTime) => Ok("tiD".into()),
+        DataType::Interval(IntervalUnit::MonthDayNano) => Ok("tin".into()),
+        other => Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "Cannot encode data type as format string: {other:?}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Parse an Arrow C Data Interface format string back to a [`DataType`].
+///
+/// Only non-nested types are supported.
+fn format_string_to_data_type(fmt: &str) -> Result<DataType> {
+    match fmt {
+        "n" => Ok(DataType::Null),
+        "b" => Ok(DataType::Boolean),
+        "c" => Ok(DataType::Int8),
+        "C" => Ok(DataType::UInt8),
+        "s" => Ok(DataType::Int16),
+        "S" => Ok(DataType::UInt16),
+        "i" => Ok(DataType::Int32),
+        "I" => Ok(DataType::UInt32),
+        "l" => Ok(DataType::Int64),
+        "L" => Ok(DataType::UInt64),
+        "e" => Ok(DataType::Float16),
+        "f" => Ok(DataType::Float32),
+        "g" => Ok(DataType::Float64),
+        "z" => Ok(DataType::Binary),
+        "Z" => Ok(DataType::LargeBinary),
+        "u" => Ok(DataType::Utf8),
+        "U" => Ok(DataType::LargeUtf8),
+        "vz" => Ok(DataType::BinaryView),
+        "vu" => Ok(DataType::Utf8View),
+        "tdD" => Ok(DataType::Date32),
+        "tdm" => Ok(DataType::Date64),
+        "tts" => Ok(DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Second)),
+        "ttm" => Ok(DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Millisecond)),
+        "ttu" => Ok(DataType::Time64(TimeUnit::Microsecond)),
+        "ttn" => Ok(DataType::Time64(TimeUnit::Nanosecond)),
+        "tDs" => Ok(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Second)),
+        "tDm" => Ok(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Millisecond)),
+        "tDu" => Ok(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Microsecond)),
+        "tDn" => Ok(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Nanosecond)),
+        "tiM" => Ok(DataType::Interval(IntervalUnit::YearMonth)),
+        "tiD" => Ok(DataType::Interval(IntervalUnit::DayTime)),
+        "tin" => Ok(DataType::Interval(IntervalUnit::MonthDayNano)),
+        other => {
+            let parts: Vec<&str> = other.splitn(2, ':').collect();
+            match parts.as_slice() {
+                ["w", num_bytes] => {
+                    let n = num_bytes.parse::<i32>().map_err(|_| {
+                        ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                            "FixedSizeBinary requires an integer byte count".to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    Ok(DataType::FixedSizeBinary(n))
+                }
+                ["d", extra] => {
+                    let dec_parts: Vec<&str> = extra.splitn(3, ',').collect();
+                    match dec_parts.as_slice() {
+                        [precision, scale] => {
+                            let p = precision.parse::<u8>().map_err(|_| {
+                                ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                                    "Decimal requires an integer precision".to_string(),
+                                )
+                            })?;
+                            let s = scale.parse::<i8>().map_err(|_| {
+                                ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                                    "Decimal requires an integer scale".to_string(),
+                                )
+                            })?;
+                            Ok(DataType::Decimal128(p, s))
+                        }
+                        [precision, scale, bits] => {
+                            let p = precision.parse::<u8>().map_err(|_| {
+                                ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                                    "Decimal requires an integer precision".to_string(),
+                                )
+                            })?;
+                            let s = scale.parse::<i8>().map_err(|_| {
+                                ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                                    "Decimal requires an integer scale".to_string(),
+                                )
+                            })?;
+                            match *bits {
+                                "32" => Ok(DataType::Decimal32(p, s)),
+                                "64" => Ok(DataType::Decimal64(p, s)),
+                                "128" => Ok(DataType::Decimal128(p, s)),
+                                "256" => Ok(DataType::Decimal256(p, s)),
+                                _ => Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                                    "Unsupported decimal bit width: {bits}"
+                                ))),
+                            }
+                        }
+                        _ => Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                            "Invalid decimal format string: d:{extra}"
+                        ))),
+                    }
+                }
+                ["tss", ""] => Ok(DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Second, None)),
+                ["tsm", ""] => Ok(DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Millisecond, None)),
+                ["tsu", ""] => Ok(DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Microsecond, None)),
+                ["tsn", ""] => Ok(DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, None)),
+                ["tss", tz] => Ok(DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Second, Some(Arc::from(*tz)))),
+                ["tsm", tz] => Ok(DataType::Timestamp(
+                    TimeUnit::Millisecond,
+                    Some(Arc::from(*tz)),
+                )),
+                ["tsu", tz] => Ok(DataType::Timestamp(
+                    TimeUnit::Microsecond,
+                    Some(Arc::from(*tz)),
+                )),
+                ["tsn", tz] => Ok(DataType::Timestamp(
+                    TimeUnit::Nanosecond,
+                    Some(Arc::from(*tz)),
+                )),
+                _ => Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                    "Unsupported format string: {other:?}"
+                ))),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ArrowScalar {
+    /// Serialize this scalar to a self-describing binary representation.
+    ///
+    /// The data type is encoded as a format-string prefix so that
+    /// [`decode`](Self::decode) can reconstruct the scalar without external
+    /// type information. Use [`encode_with_options`](Self::encode_with_options)
+    /// to omit the prefix when the caller already knows the type.
+    ///
+    /// Only non-nested scalars are supported. Null scalars are encoded as a
+    /// null flag with no buffer data.
+    pub fn encode(&self) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+        self.encode_with_options(&EncodeOptions::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize this scalar with the given [`EncodeOptions`].
+    pub fn encode_with_options(&self, options: &EncodeOptions) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+        let array = self.as_array();
+        let data = array.to_data();
+        if !data.child_data().is_empty() {
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                "Cannot encode nested scalar".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(64);
+
+        if options.include_data_type {
+            let fmt = data_type_to_format_string(array.data_type())?;
+            encode_varint(&mut out, fmt.len() as u64);
+            out.extend_from_slice(fmt.as_bytes());
+        }
+
+        if self.is_null() {
+            encode_varint(&mut out, 1); // null_flag = 1
+        } else {
+            encode_varint(&mut out, 0); // null_flag = 0
+            let buffers = data.buffers();
+            encode_varint(&mut out, buffers.len() as u64);
+            for b in buffers {
+                encode_varint(&mut out, b.len() as u64);
+            }
+            for b in buffers {
+                out.extend_from_slice(b.as_slice());
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize a scalar from the self-describing binary representation
+    /// produced by [`encode`](Self::encode).
+    ///
+    /// The data type is read from the format-string prefix in the encoded
+    /// bytes. Use [`decode_with_options`](Self::decode_with_options) to supply
+    /// the type externally when the prefix was omitted at encode time.
+    pub fn decode(buf: &[u8]) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::decode_with_options(buf, &DecodeOptions::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize a scalar with the given [`DecodeOptions`].
+    pub fn decode_with_options(buf: &[u8], options: &DecodeOptions) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut offset = 0;
+
+        let data_type = match options.data_type {
+            Some(dt) => dt.clone(),
+            None => {
+                let fmt_len = decode_varint(buf, &mut offset)? as usize;
+                if offset + fmt_len > buf.len() {
+                    return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                        "Invalid scalar buffer: unexpected EOF reading format string".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let fmt_str = std::str::from_utf8(&buf[offset..offset + fmt_len]).map_err(|e| {
+                    ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                        "Invalid format string: not valid UTF-8: {e}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                offset += fmt_len;
+                format_string_to_data_type(fmt_str)?
+            }
+        };
+
+        let null_flag = decode_varint(buf, &mut offset)?;
+        if null_flag == 1 {
+            if offset != buf.len() {
+                return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                    "Invalid scalar buffer: trailing bytes after null flag".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            return Self::new_null(&data_type);
+        }
+
+        let num_buffers = decode_varint(buf, &mut offset)? as usize;
+
+        let mut buffer_lens = Vec::with_capacity(num_buffers);
+        for _ in 0..num_buffers {
+            buffer_lens.push(decode_varint(buf, &mut offset)? as usize);
+        }
+
+        let mut buffers = Vec::with_capacity(num_buffers);
+        for len in &buffer_lens {
+            if offset + len > buf.len() {
+                return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                    "Invalid scalar buffer: unexpected EOF".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            buffers.push(Buffer::from_vec(buf[offset..offset + len].to_vec()));
+            offset += len;
+        }
+
+        if offset != buf.len() {
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+                "Invalid scalar buffer: trailing bytes".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut builder = ArrayDataBuilder::new(data_type).len(1).null_count(0);
+        for b in buffers {
+            builder = builder.add_buffer(b);
+        }
+        let array = make_array(builder.build()?);
+        Self::try_from_array(array)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, BinaryViewArray, Int32Array, StringArray, StringViewArray,
+        TimestampMicrosecondArray,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::DataType;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::ArrowScalar;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_varint_roundtrip() {
+        for value in [0u64, 1, 127, 128, 16383, 16384, u64::MAX] {
+            let mut buf = Vec::new();
+            encode_varint(&mut buf, value);
+            let mut offset = 0;
+            let decoded = decode_varint(&buf, &mut offset).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(decoded, value);
+            assert_eq!(offset, buf.len());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_varint_small_is_one_byte() {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        encode_varint(&mut buf, 42);
+        assert_eq!(buf.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(buf[0], 42);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::int32(Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![42])) as ArrayRef)]
+    #[case::string(Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["hello"])) as ArrayRef)]
+    #[case::string_view(Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec!["hello world, long string view"])) as ArrayRef)]
+    #[case::binary_view(Arc::new(BinaryViewArray::from(vec![b"\xDE\xAD\xBE\xEF".as_ref()])) as ArrayRef)]
+    fn test_encode_decode_roundtrip(#[case] array: ArrayRef) {
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        let encoded = scalar.encode().unwrap();
+        let decoded = ArrowScalar::decode(&encoded).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scalar, decoded);
+        assert_eq!(scalar.data_type(), decoded.data_type());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::int32(Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![42])) as ArrayRef, DataType::Int32)]
+    #[case::string(Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["hello"])) as ArrayRef, DataType::Utf8)]
+    #[case::string_view(Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec!["hello view"])) as ArrayRef, DataType::Utf8View)]
+    #[case::binary_view(Arc::new(BinaryViewArray::from(vec![b"\xCA\xFE".as_ref()])) as ArrayRef, DataType::BinaryView)]
+    fn test_encode_decode_without_type_prefix(#[case] array: ArrayRef, #[case] dt: DataType) {
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        let opts = EncodeOptions {
+            include_data_type: false,
+        };
+        let encoded = scalar.encode_with_options(&opts).unwrap();
+        let decode_opts = DecodeOptions {
+            data_type: Some(&dt),
+        };
+        let decoded = ArrowScalar::decode_with_options(&encoded, &decode_opts).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scalar, decoded);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_null_encode_decode_roundtrip() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None]));
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        assert!(scalar.is_null());
+        let encoded = scalar.encode().unwrap();
+        let decoded = ArrowScalar::decode(&encoded).unwrap();
+        assert!(decoded.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(decoded.data_type(), &DataType::Int32);
+        assert_eq!(scalar, decoded);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_null_encode_decode_without_type_prefix() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Option::<&str>::None]));
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        let opts = EncodeOptions {
+            include_data_type: false,
+        };
+        let encoded = scalar.encode_with_options(&opts).unwrap();
+        let decode_opts = DecodeOptions {
+            data_type: Some(&DataType::Utf8),
+        };
+        let decoded = ArrowScalar::decode_with_options(&encoded, &decode_opts).unwrap();
+        assert!(decoded.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(decoded.data_type(), &DataType::Utf8);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decode_trailing_bytes() {
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        let mut encoded = scalar.encode().unwrap();
+        encoded.push(0xFF);
+        assert!(ArrowScalar::decode(&encoded).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_encoded_bytes_contain_format_prefix() {
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::from(42i32);
+        let encoded = scalar.encode().unwrap();
+        // First byte is varint length of format string "i" (length 1)
+        assert_eq!(encoded[0], 1);
+        // Second byte is the format string itself
+        assert_eq!(encoded[1], b'i');
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::null(DataType::Null, "n")]
+    #[case::boolean(DataType::Boolean, "b")]
+    #[case::int8(DataType::Int8, "c")]
+    #[case::uint8(DataType::UInt8, "C")]
+    #[case::int16(DataType::Int16, "s")]
+    #[case::uint16(DataType::UInt16, "S")]
+    #[case::int32(DataType::Int32, "i")]
+    #[case::uint32(DataType::UInt32, "I")]
+    #[case::int64(DataType::Int64, "l")]
+    #[case::uint64(DataType::UInt64, "L")]
+    #[case::float16(DataType::Float16, "e")]
+    #[case::float32(DataType::Float32, "f")]
+    #[case::float64(DataType::Float64, "g")]
+    #[case::binary(DataType::Binary, "z")]
+    #[case::large_binary(DataType::LargeBinary, "Z")]
+    #[case::utf8(DataType::Utf8, "u")]
+    #[case::large_utf8(DataType::LargeUtf8, "U")]
+    #[case::binary_view(DataType::BinaryView, "vz")]
+    #[case::utf8_view(DataType::Utf8View, "vu")]
+    #[case::date32(DataType::Date32, "tdD")]
+    #[case::date64(DataType::Date64, "tdm")]
+    #[case::fixed_size_binary(DataType::FixedSizeBinary(16), "w:16")]
+    #[case::decimal128(DataType::Decimal128(10, 2), "d:10,2")]
+    #[case::decimal256(DataType::Decimal256(38, 10), "d:38,10,256")]
+    #[case::timestamp_us_utc(
+        DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some(Arc::from("UTC"))),
+        "tsu:UTC"
+    )]
+    #[case::timestamp_ns_none(DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, None), "tsn:")]
+    #[case::duration_s(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Second), "tDs")]
+    #[case::interval_ym(DataType::Interval(IntervalUnit::YearMonth), "tiM")]
+    fn test_format_string_roundtrip(#[case] dt: DataType, #[case] expected_fmt: &str) {
+        let fmt = data_type_to_format_string(&dt).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fmt.as_ref(), expected_fmt);
+        let roundtripped = format_string_to_data_type(&fmt).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(roundtripped, dt);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_timestamp_with_tz_roundtrip() {
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+            TimestampMicrosecondArray::from(vec![1_000_000]).with_timezone("America/New_York"),
+        );
+        let scalar = ArrowScalar::try_from_array(array).unwrap();
+        let encoded = scalar.encode().unwrap();
+        let decoded = ArrowScalar::decode(&encoded).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scalar, decoded);
+        assert_eq!(scalar.data_type(), decoded.data_type());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/arrow-stats/Cargo.toml b/rust/arrow-stats/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..dc5a0616e40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-stats/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+[package]
+name = "lance-arrow-stats"
+version = "58.0.0"
+edition.workspace = true
+authors.workspace = true
+license.workspace = true
+repository.workspace = true
+description = "Statistics accumulator for Arrow arrays (min, max, null_count, nan_count)"
+keywords.workspace = true
+categories.workspace = true
+rust-version.workspace = true
+readme = "README.md"
+
+[dependencies]
+arrow-array = { workspace = true }
+arrow-schema = { workspace = true }
+lance-arrow-scalar = { workspace = true }
+
+[dev-dependencies]
+arrow-select = { workspace = true }
+proptest = { workspace = true }
+rstest = { workspace = true }
+
+[lints]
+workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/arrow-stats/README.md b/rust/arrow-stats/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..553f6de2e69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-stats/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+# lance-arrow-stats
+
+Statistics accumulator for [Apache Arrow](https://arrow.apache.org/) arrays.
+
+Computes min, max, null count, NaN count, and buffer memory usage over one or
+more batches of Arrow data. Designed for use in Lance's columnar storage layer
+where page-level statistics drive predicate pushdown and query planning.
+
+## Usage
+
+```rust
+use arrow_array::{Int32Array, ArrayRef};
+use lance_arrow_stats::StatisticsAccumulator;
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+
+let batch: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(3), None, Some(1), Some(4)]));
+acc.update(&batch).unwrap();
+
+let stats = acc.finish();
+assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+```
+
+## Tracked Statistics
+
+| Statistic       | Description                                              |
+| --------------- | -------------------------------------------------------- |
+| `min`           | Minimum non-null, non-NaN value (`ArrowScalar`)          |
+| `max`           | Maximum non-null, non-NaN value (`ArrowScalar`)          |
+| `null_count`    | Total number of null values                              |
+| `nan_count`     | Total NaN values (float and float-list types only)       |
+| `item_nulls`    | Null items inside list entries (list types only)          |
+| `buffer_memory` | Total Arrow buffer memory in bytes                       |
+
+## Supported Types
+
+- **Numeric** &mdash; Int8–Int64, UInt8–UInt64, Float16/32/64
+- **Temporal** &mdash; Date32/64, Time32/64, Timestamp, Duration
+- **Boolean**
+- **String** &mdash; Utf8, LargeUtf8
+- **Binary** &mdash; Binary, LargeBinary
+- **List** &mdash; List, LargeList, FixedSizeList (computes stats over items)
+
+Dictionary, run-end encoded, and view types are accepted but min/max will be
+`None`.
+
+## Merging
+
+Accumulators of the same data type can be merged, which is useful for combining
+statistics computed in parallel across different pages or files:
+
+```rust
+use lance_arrow_stats::StatisticsAccumulator;
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+
+let mut a = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Float32);
+let mut b = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Float32);
+// ... update each with different batches ...
+a.merge(&b).unwrap();
+```
diff --git a/rust/arrow-stats/proptest-regressions/lib.txt b/rust/arrow-stats/proptest-regressions/lib.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8794b465e9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-stats/proptest-regressions/lib.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+# Seeds for failure cases proptest has generated in the past. It is
+# automatically read and these particular cases re-run before any
+# novel cases are generated.
+#
+# It is recommended to check this file in to source control so that
+# everyone who runs the test benefits from these saved cases.
+cc 81b0445f36fa8f491c1fb3162f51b61c8be140d5b2a1e792c42b4bdb7f1b6a62 # shrinks to values = [0.0, -0.0]
+cc 8651fce939497f33c6dafd842937d95965af97833bfbbd10df30d5ea00dbd07d # shrinks to values = [Some(0.0), Some(-0.0)]
diff --git a/rust/arrow-stats/src/lib.rs b/rust/arrow-stats/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3c4cec35bbe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-stats/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1318 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Statistics accumulator for streams of Arrow arrays.
+//!
+//! Tracks min, max, null_count, and optional nan_count across batches of arrays sharing
+//! the same [`DataType`]. Uses [`ArrowScalar`] for extrema tracking.
+//!
+//! # Example
+//!
+//! ```
+//! use std::sync::Arc;
+//! use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array};
+//! use arrow_schema::DataType;
+//! use lance_arrow_stats::StatisticsAccumulator;
+//!
+//! let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+//! let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)]));
+//! acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+//!
+//! let stats = acc.finish();
+//! assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+//! assert!(stats.nan_count.is_none());
+//! ```
+//!
+//! # Data Type Support
+//!
+//! All basic types are supported.  Every data type supports `null_count` and `buffer_memory`.
+//! The `nan_count` field is `Some` only for floating-point types (including lists of floats)
+//! and `None` for all other types.
+//!
+//! # List Types
+//!
+//! List types are supported.  The `item_nulls` field will be set to the number of null items within list entries.
+//! This will be `Some` only for list types.
+//!
+//! # String Types / Binary Types
+//!
+//! String & binary types are supported.  Binary comparison will be used for string types to calculate the min and the
+//! max.  This works for ASCII but may be surprising for special characters.  For example, "é" would sort after "z".
+//!
+//! In addition, string view and binary view types are supported.
+//!
+//! # Unsupported Types
+//!
+//! Special encodings (dictionary, run end encoded, view types) are not currently fully supported.  The min and max will
+//! be set to `None` for these types.  The `nan_count` will also be `None` unless the underlying
+//! type is a floating-point type.
+//!
+//! Structs are not currently supported.
+
+mod nan;
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::*;
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef};
+use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
+use lance_arrow_scalar::ArrowScalar;
+
+use nan::count_nans;
+
+type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, ArrowError>;
+
+/// Returns true if the data type can contain NaN values (float primitives
+/// or list types whose items are floats).
+fn can_have_nan(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64 => true,
+        DataType::List(f) | DataType::LargeList(f) => can_have_nan(f.data_type()),
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(f, _) => can_have_nan(f.data_type()),
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Accumulated statistics for a stream of Arrow arrays of a single [`DataType`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct StatisticsAccumulator {
+    data_type: DataType,
+    min: Option<ArrowScalar>,
+    max: Option<ArrowScalar>,
+    null_count: u64,
+    /// Count of NaN values. `Some` only for floating-point types (or lists of floats).
+    nan_count: Option<u64>,
+    /// Number of null items within list entries. `Some` only for list types.
+    item_nulls: Option<u64>,
+    buffer_memory: u64,
+}
+
+/// Snapshot of accumulated statistics.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct Statistics {
+    pub min: Option<ArrowScalar>,
+    pub max: Option<ArrowScalar>,
+    pub null_count: u64,
+    /// Count of NaN values. `None` for non-floating-point types.
+    pub nan_count: Option<u64>,
+    /// Number of null items within list entries. `None` for non-list types.
+    pub item_nulls: Option<u64>,
+    /// Total buffer memory in bytes across all arrays seen by this accumulator.
+    pub buffer_memory: u64,
+}
+
+impl StatisticsAccumulator {
+    /// Create a new accumulator for arrays of the given data type.
+    pub fn new(data_type: &DataType) -> Self {
+        let item_nulls = match data_type {
+            DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_) | DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => Some(0),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+        let nan_count = if can_have_nan(data_type) {
+            Some(0)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        Self {
+            data_type: data_type.clone(),
+            min: None,
+            max: None,
+            null_count: 0,
+            nan_count,
+            item_nulls,
+            buffer_memory: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the data type this accumulator expects.
+    pub fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
+        &self.data_type
+    }
+
+    /// Update with a new batch of values.
+    pub fn update(&mut self, array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        if array.data_type() != &self.data_type {
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "Type mismatch: expected {:?}, got {:?}",
+                self.data_type,
+                array.data_type()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        if array.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        self.buffer_memory += array.get_buffer_memory_size() as u64;
+        self.null_count += array.null_count() as u64;
+
+        match array.data_type() {
+            DataType::List(_) => {
+                let list = array.as_list::<i32>();
+                self.update_items(
+                    (0..list.len())
+                        .filter(|&i| !list.is_null(i))
+                        .map(|i| list.value(i)),
+                )
+            }
+            DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                let list = array.as_list::<i64>();
+                self.update_items(
+                    (0..list.len())
+                        .filter(|&i| !list.is_null(i))
+                        .map(|i| list.value(i)),
+                )
+            }
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => {
+                let list = array.as_fixed_size_list();
+                self.update_items(
+                    (0..list.len())
+                        .filter(|&i| !list.is_null(i))
+                        .map(|i| list.value(i)),
+                )
+            }
+            _ => {
+                if let Some(ref mut nan_count) = self.nan_count {
+                    *nan_count += count_nans(array);
+                }
+                let (batch_min, batch_max) = find_min_max(array)?;
+                self.update_min(batch_min);
+                self.update_max(batch_max);
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Process items from list entries, updating min/max, nan_count, and item_nulls.
+    fn update_items(&mut self, items: impl Iterator<Item = ArrayRef>) -> Result<()> {
+        for item_array in items {
+            self.update_item(&item_array)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Process a single item array. If it is itself a list type, recurse into
+    /// its non-null entries; otherwise treat it as a leaf and compute min/max.
+    fn update_item(&mut self, item_array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        if item_array.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        if let Some(ref mut item_nulls) = self.item_nulls {
+            *item_nulls += item_array.null_count() as u64;
+        }
+        match item_array.data_type() {
+            DataType::List(_) => {
+                let list = item_array.as_list::<i32>();
+                for i in 0..list.len() {
+                    if !list.is_null(i) {
+                        self.update_item(&list.value(i))?;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                let list = item_array.as_list::<i64>();
+                for i in 0..list.len() {
+                    if !list.is_null(i) {
+                        self.update_item(&list.value(i))?;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => {
+                let list = item_array.as_fixed_size_list();
+                for i in 0..list.len() {
+                    if !list.is_null(i) {
+                        self.update_item(&list.value(i))?;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            _ => {
+                if let Some(ref mut nan_count) = self.nan_count {
+                    *nan_count += count_nans(item_array);
+                }
+                let (batch_min, batch_max) = find_min_max(item_array)?;
+                self.update_min(batch_min);
+                self.update_max(batch_max);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn update_min(&mut self, batch_min: Option<ArrowScalar>) {
+        if let Some(new_min) = batch_min {
+            self.min = Some(match self.min.take() {
+                Some(cur) if cur <= new_min => cur,
+                _ => new_min,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn update_max(&mut self, batch_max: Option<ArrowScalar>) {
+        if let Some(new_max) = batch_max {
+            self.max = Some(match self.max.take() {
+                Some(cur) if cur >= new_max => cur,
+                _ => new_max,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Merge another accumulator into this one.
+    pub fn merge(&mut self, other: &Self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.data_type != other.data_type {
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "Type mismatch: expected {:?}, got {:?}",
+                self.data_type, other.data_type
+            )));
+        }
+
+        self.null_count += other.null_count;
+        if let (Some(a), Some(b)) = (&mut self.nan_count, other.nan_count) {
+            *a += b;
+        }
+        self.buffer_memory += other.buffer_memory;
+
+        if let (Some(a), Some(b)) = (&mut self.item_nulls, other.item_nulls) {
+            *a += b;
+        }
+
+        if let Some(ref other_min) = other.min {
+            self.min = Some(match self.min.take() {
+                Some(cur) if cur <= *other_min => cur,
+                _ => other_min.clone(),
+            });
+        }
+
+        if let Some(ref other_max) = other.max {
+            self.max = Some(match self.max.take() {
+                Some(cur) if cur >= *other_max => cur,
+                _ => other_max.clone(),
+            });
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Consume the accumulator and return a statistics snapshot.
+    pub fn finish(self) -> Statistics {
+        Statistics {
+            min: self.min,
+            max: self.max,
+            null_count: self.null_count,
+            nan_count: self.nan_count,
+            item_nulls: self.item_nulls,
+            buffer_memory: self.buffer_memory,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Return a snapshot of the current statistics without consuming the accumulator.
+    pub fn statistics(&self) -> Statistics {
+        Statistics {
+            min: self.min.clone(),
+            max: self.max.clone(),
+            null_count: self.null_count,
+            nan_count: self.nan_count,
+            item_nulls: self.item_nulls,
+            buffer_memory: self.buffer_memory,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Reset all statistics back to initial state.
+    pub fn reset(&mut self) {
+        self.min = None;
+        self.max = None;
+        self.null_count = 0;
+        if let Some(ref mut nan_count) = self.nan_count {
+            *nan_count = 0;
+        }
+        if let Some(ref mut item_nulls) = self.item_nulls {
+            *item_nulls = 0;
+        }
+        self.buffer_memory = 0;
+    }
+}
+
+macro_rules! find_extrema_primitive {
+    ($array:expr, $arrow_type:ty) => {{
+        let typed = $array.as_primitive::<$arrow_type>();
+        let mut min_idx: Option<usize> = None;
+        let mut max_idx: Option<usize> = None;
+        let mut min_val = None;
+        let mut max_val = None;
+        for i in 0..typed.len() {
+            if typed.is_null(i) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let v = typed.value(i);
+            if min_val.is_none() || v < *min_val.as_ref().unwrap() {
+                min_val = Some(v);
+                min_idx = Some(i);
+            }
+            if max_val.is_none() || v > *max_val.as_ref().unwrap() {
+                max_val = Some(v);
+                max_idx = Some(i);
+            }
+        }
+        (min_idx, max_idx)
+    }};
+}
+
+macro_rules! find_extrema_float {
+    ($array:expr, $arrow_type:ty) => {{
+        let typed = $array.as_primitive::<$arrow_type>();
+        let mut min_idx: Option<usize> = None;
+        let mut max_idx: Option<usize> = None;
+        let mut min_val = None;
+        let mut max_val = None;
+        for i in 0..typed.len() {
+            if typed.is_null(i) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let v = typed.value(i);
+            if v.is_nan() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            // Use total_cmp for a consistent total ordering that
+            // distinguishes -0.0 from 0.0 (matching ArrowScalar's Ord).
+            if min_val.is_none()
+                || v.total_cmp(min_val.as_ref().unwrap()) == std::cmp::Ordering::Less
+            {
+                min_val = Some(v);
+                min_idx = Some(i);
+            }
+            if max_val.is_none()
+                || v.total_cmp(max_val.as_ref().unwrap()) == std::cmp::Ordering::Greater
+            {
+                max_val = Some(v);
+                max_idx = Some(i);
+            }
+        }
+        (min_idx, max_idx)
+    }};
+}
+
+macro_rules! find_extrema_bytes {
+    ($array:expr, $cast:ident :: < $offset:ty >) => {{
+        let typed = $array.$cast::<$offset>();
+        let mut min_idx: Option<usize> = None;
+        let mut max_idx: Option<usize> = None;
+        let mut min_val = None;
+        let mut max_val = None;
+        for i in 0..typed.len() {
+            if typed.is_null(i) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let v = typed.value(i);
+            if min_val.is_none() || v < min_val.unwrap() {
+                min_val = Some(v);
+                min_idx = Some(i);
+            }
+            if max_val.is_none() || v > max_val.unwrap() {
+                max_val = Some(v);
+                max_idx = Some(i);
+            }
+        }
+        (min_idx, max_idx)
+    }};
+}
+
+fn find_min_max(array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<(Option<ArrowScalar>, Option<ArrowScalar>)> {
+    let (min_idx, max_idx) = find_min_max_indices(array)?;
+
+    let min_scalar = min_idx
+        .map(|i| ArrowScalar::try_new(array, i))
+        .transpose()?;
+    let max_scalar = max_idx
+        .map(|i| ArrowScalar::try_new(array, i))
+        .transpose()?;
+
+    Ok((min_scalar, max_scalar))
+}
+
+fn find_min_max_indices(array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<(Option<usize>, Option<usize>)> {
+    use DataType::*;
+
+    let result = match array.data_type() {
+        // Integer types
+        Int8 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, Int8Type),
+        Int16 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, Int16Type),
+        Int32 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, Int32Type),
+        Int64 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, Int64Type),
+        UInt8 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, UInt8Type),
+        UInt16 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, UInt16Type),
+        UInt32 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, UInt32Type),
+        UInt64 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, UInt64Type),
+
+        // Float types (skip NaN)
+        Float16 => find_extrema_float!(array, Float16Type),
+        Float32 => find_extrema_float!(array, Float32Type),
+        Float64 => find_extrema_float!(array, Float64Type),
+
+        // Decimal types
+        Decimal128(_, _) => find_extrema_primitive!(array, Decimal128Type),
+        Decimal256(_, _) => find_extrema_primitive!(array, Decimal256Type),
+
+        // Temporal types
+        Date32 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, Date32Type),
+        Date64 => find_extrema_primitive!(array, Date64Type),
+        Time32(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Second) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, Time32SecondType)
+        }
+        Time32(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Millisecond) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, Time32MillisecondType)
+        }
+        Time64(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Microsecond) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, Time64MicrosecondType)
+        }
+        Time64(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Nanosecond) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, Time64NanosecondType)
+        }
+        Timestamp(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Second, _) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, TimestampSecondType)
+        }
+        Timestamp(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Millisecond, _) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, TimestampMillisecondType)
+        }
+        Timestamp(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Microsecond, _) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, TimestampMicrosecondType)
+        }
+        Timestamp(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Nanosecond, _) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, TimestampNanosecondType)
+        }
+        Duration(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Second) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, DurationSecondType)
+        }
+        Duration(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Millisecond) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, DurationMillisecondType)
+        }
+        Duration(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Microsecond) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, DurationMicrosecondType)
+        }
+        Duration(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Nanosecond) => {
+            find_extrema_primitive!(array, DurationNanosecondType)
+        }
+
+        // Boolean
+        Boolean => {
+            let typed = array.as_boolean();
+            let mut min_idx: Option<usize> = None;
+            let mut max_idx: Option<usize> = None;
+            let mut min_val: Option<bool> = None;
+            let mut max_val: Option<bool> = None;
+            for i in 0..typed.len() {
+                if typed.is_null(i) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let v = typed.value(i);
+                if min_val.is_none() || (!v && min_val.unwrap()) {
+                    min_val = Some(v);
+                    min_idx = Some(i);
+                }
+                if max_val.is_none() || (v && !max_val.unwrap()) {
+                    max_val = Some(v);
+                    max_idx = Some(i);
+                }
+            }
+            (min_idx, max_idx)
+        }
+
+        // String types
+        Utf8 => find_extrema_bytes!(array, as_string::<i32>),
+        LargeUtf8 => find_extrema_bytes!(array, as_string::<i64>),
+
+        // Binary types
+        Binary => find_extrema_bytes!(array, as_binary::<i32>),
+        LargeBinary => find_extrema_bytes!(array, as_binary::<i64>),
+
+        // For unsupported types we skip min/max (and nan_count).
+        // null_count and buffer_memory are already tracked above.
+        _ => return Ok((None, None)),
+    };
+
+    Ok(result)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::*;
+    use arrow_schema::DataType;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_empty_array() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(Vec::<i32>::new()));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert!(stats.min.is_none());
+        assert!(stats.max.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.nan_count, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_all_nulls() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None, None, None]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert!(stats.min.is_none());
+        assert!(stats.max.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_single_value() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![42]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(stats.min.as_ref().unwrap(), stats.max.as_ref().unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "42");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_basic_int_stats() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 5, 3, 2, 4]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "5");
+        assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.nan_count, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_with_nulls() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "3");
+        assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_float_nan_excluded() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Float64);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![1.0, f64::NAN, 3.0]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1.0");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "3.0");
+        assert_eq!(stats.nan_count, Some(1));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_all_nan() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Float64);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![f64::NAN, f64::NAN]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert!(stats.min.is_none());
+        assert!(stats.max.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(stats.nan_count, Some(2));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_null_and_nan() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Float64);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![None, Some(f64::NAN)]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert!(stats.min.is_none());
+        assert!(stats.max.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.nan_count, Some(1));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multiple_updates() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let a1: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![5, 3]));
+        let a2: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(7)]));
+        acc.update(&a1).unwrap();
+        acc.update(&a2).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "7");
+        assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge() {
+        let mut acc1 = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let a1: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 5]));
+        acc1.update(&a1).unwrap();
+
+        let mut acc2 = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let a2: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(3), None, Some(10)]));
+        acc2.update(&a2).unwrap();
+
+        acc1.merge(&acc2).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc1.finish();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "10");
+        assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_type_mismatch() {
+        let acc1 = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let acc2 = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Float64);
+        let mut acc1 = acc1;
+        assert!(acc1.merge(&acc2).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_type_mismatch_error() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![1.0]));
+        assert!(acc.update(&array).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reset() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        acc.reset();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert!(stats.min.is_none());
+        assert!(stats.max.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.nan_count, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_string_stats() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Utf8);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["apple", "cherry", "banana"]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "apple");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "cherry");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_boolean_stats() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Boolean);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![true, false]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "false");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "true");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::i32(
+        DataType::Int32,
+        Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3, 1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+        "1", "3"
+    )]
+    #[case::i64(
+        DataType::Int64,
+        Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![30, 10, 20])) as ArrayRef,
+        "10", "30"
+    )]
+    #[case::u32(
+        DataType::UInt32,
+        Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![3, 1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+        "1", "3"
+    )]
+    #[case::u64(
+        DataType::UInt64,
+        Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![30, 10, 20])) as ArrayRef,
+        "10", "30"
+    )]
+    #[case::f32(
+        DataType::Float32,
+        Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![3.0f32, 1.0, 2.0])) as ArrayRef,
+        "1.0", "3.0"
+    )]
+    #[case::f64(
+        DataType::Float64,
+        Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![3.0f64, 1.0, 2.0])) as ArrayRef,
+        "1.0", "3.0"
+    )]
+    #[case::decimal128(
+        DataType::Decimal128(10, 2),
+        Arc::new(
+            Decimal128Array::from(vec![300_i128, 100, 200])
+                .with_precision_and_scale(10, 2)
+                .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef,
+        "1.00", "3.00"
+    )]
+    #[case::decimal256(
+        DataType::Decimal256(76, 2),
+        Arc::new(
+            Decimal256Array::from_iter_values(
+                [300_i64, 100, 200].into_iter().map(Into::into),
+            )
+            .with_precision_and_scale(76, 2)
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef,
+        "1.00", "3.00"
+    )]
+    fn test_rstest_primitives(
+        #[case] dt: DataType,
+        #[case] array: ArrayRef,
+        #[case] expected_min: &str,
+        #[case] expected_max: &str,
+    ) {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&dt);
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), expected_min);
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), expected_max);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_statistics_does_not_consume() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let s1 = acc.statistics();
+        let s2 = acc.statistics();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", s1.min.unwrap()), "1");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", s2.max.unwrap()), "3");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_into_empty() {
+        let mut acc1 = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let mut acc2 = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![5, 10]));
+        acc2.update(&array).unwrap();
+
+        acc1.merge(&acc2).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc1.finish();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "5");
+        assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "10");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_buffer_memory() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let a1: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]));
+        let a2: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5]));
+        let expected = a1.get_buffer_memory_size() + a2.get_buffer_memory_size();
+        acc.update(&a1).unwrap();
+        acc.update(&a2).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(stats.buffer_memory, expected as u64);
+        assert!(stats.buffer_memory > 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_buffer_memory_reset() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        assert!(acc.statistics().buffer_memory > 0);
+        acc.reset();
+        assert_eq!(acc.statistics().buffer_memory, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_non_list_item_nulls_is_none() {
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]));
+        acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, None);
+    }
+
+    mod list_tests {
+        use super::*;
+        use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, LargeListBuilder, ListBuilder};
+        use arrow_schema::Field;
+
+        fn list_data_type() -> DataType {
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)))
+        }
+
+        fn large_list_data_type() -> DataType {
+            DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)))
+        }
+
+        /// Build a ListArray from a slice of optional lists of optional i32.
+        fn build_list_array(rows: &[Option<&[Option<i32>]>]) -> ArrayRef {
+            let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new());
+            for row in rows {
+                match row {
+                    Some(items) => {
+                        for item in *items {
+                            match item {
+                                Some(v) => builder.values().append_value(*v),
+                                None => builder.values().append_null(),
+                            }
+                        }
+                        builder.append(true);
+                    }
+                    None => builder.append(false),
+                }
+            }
+            Arc::new(builder.finish())
+        }
+
+        /// Build a LargeListArray from a slice of optional lists of optional i32.
+        fn build_large_list_array(rows: &[Option<&[Option<i32>]>]) -> ArrayRef {
+            let mut builder = LargeListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new());
+            for row in rows {
+                match row {
+                    Some(items) => {
+                        for item in *items {
+                            match item {
+                                Some(v) => builder.values().append_value(*v),
+                                None => builder.values().append_null(),
+                            }
+                        }
+                        builder.append(true);
+                    }
+                    None => builder.append(false),
+                }
+            }
+            Arc::new(builder.finish())
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_basic() {
+            // [[1, 5], [3, 2, 4]]
+            let array = build_list_array(&[
+                Some(&[Some(1), Some(5)]),
+                Some(&[Some(3), Some(2), Some(4)]),
+            ]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "5");
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 0);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(0));
+            assert_eq!(stats.nan_count, None);
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_with_null_items() {
+            // [[1, null, 5], [null, 3]]
+            let array =
+                build_list_array(&[Some(&[Some(1), None, Some(5)]), Some(&[None, Some(3)])]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "5");
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 0);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(2));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_with_null_lists() {
+            // [[1, 2], null, [3]]
+            let array = build_list_array(&[Some(&[Some(1), Some(2)]), None, Some(&[Some(3)])]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "3");
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(0));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_with_null_lists_and_null_items() {
+            // [[1, null], null, [null, 3]]
+            let array = build_list_array(&[Some(&[Some(1), None]), None, Some(&[None, Some(3)])]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "3");
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(2));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_all_null_lists() {
+            let array = build_list_array(&[None, None]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert!(stats.min.is_none());
+            assert!(stats.max.is_none());
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 2);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(0));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_empty_lists() {
+            // [[], [1], []]
+            let array = build_list_array(&[Some(&[]), Some(&[Some(1)]), Some(&[])]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 0);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(0));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_all_items_null() {
+            // [[null, null]]
+            let array = build_list_array(&[Some(&[None, None])]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert!(stats.min.is_none());
+            assert!(stats.max.is_none());
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 0);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(2));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_multiple_updates() {
+            let a1 = build_list_array(&[Some(&[Some(5), Some(3)])]);
+            let a2 = build_list_array(&[Some(&[Some(1), None]), None, Some(&[Some(7)])]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&a1).unwrap();
+            acc.update(&a2).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "7");
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(1));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_merge() {
+            let a1 = build_list_array(&[Some(&[Some(1), Some(5)])]);
+            let a2 = build_list_array(&[Some(&[Some(3), None]), None, Some(&[Some(10)])]);
+
+            let mut acc1 = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc1.update(&a1).unwrap();
+            let mut acc2 = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc2.update(&a2).unwrap();
+
+            acc1.merge(&acc2).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc1.finish();
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "10");
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(1));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_list_reset() {
+            let array = build_list_array(&[Some(&[Some(1), None])]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            acc.reset();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert!(stats.min.is_none());
+            assert!(stats.max.is_none());
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 0);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(0));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_large_list() {
+            let array =
+                build_large_list_array(&[Some(&[Some(10), None, Some(1)]), None, Some(&[Some(5)])]);
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&large_list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "10");
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(1));
+        }
+
+        /// Build a List<List<Int32>> array from nested slices.
+        ///
+        /// Each outer Option represents an outer list entry (None = null outer list).
+        /// Each inner Option<&[Option<i32>]> represents an inner list entry
+        /// (None = null inner list).
+        #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
+        fn build_nested_list_array(rows: &[Option<&[Option<&[Option<i32>]>]>]) -> ArrayRef {
+            let inner_builder = ListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new());
+            let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(inner_builder);
+            for row in rows {
+                match row {
+                    Some(inner_lists) => {
+                        let inner_builder = builder.values();
+                        for inner_list in *inner_lists {
+                            match inner_list {
+                                Some(items) => {
+                                    for item in *items {
+                                        match item {
+                                            Some(v) => {
+                                                inner_builder.values().append_value(*v);
+                                            }
+                                            None => {
+                                                inner_builder.values().append_null();
+                                            }
+                                        }
+                                    }
+                                    inner_builder.append(true);
+                                }
+                                None => {
+                                    inner_builder.append(false);
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                        builder.append(true);
+                    }
+                    None => builder.append(false),
+                }
+            }
+            Arc::new(builder.finish())
+        }
+
+        fn nested_list_data_type() -> DataType {
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+                true,
+            )))
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_nested_list() {
+            // [[[1, 2], [3]], null, [[null, 5], null, [6]]]
+            let array = build_nested_list_array(&[
+                Some(&[Some(&[Some(1), Some(2)][..]), Some(&[Some(3)])]),
+                None,
+                Some(&[Some(&[None, Some(5)]), None, Some(&[Some(6)])]),
+            ]);
+
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&nested_list_data_type());
+            acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+
+            // min/max should be computed across all leaf int32 values
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.min.unwrap()), "1");
+            assert_eq!(format!("{}", stats.max.unwrap()), "6");
+            // null_count: only the one null outer list
+            assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 1);
+            // item_nulls: 1 null int32 + 1 null inner list = 2
+            assert_eq!(stats.item_nulls, Some(2));
+        }
+    }
+
+    mod proptests {
+        use super::*;
+        use arrow_select::take::take;
+        use proptest::prelude::*;
+
+        /// Shuffle an array by applying a random permutation via the `take` kernel.
+        fn shuffle(array: &ArrayRef, permutation: &[usize]) -> ArrayRef {
+            let indices =
+                UInt32Array::from(permutation.iter().map(|&i| i as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+            take(array.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// Compute stats for an array, returning (min, max) as Option<ArrowScalar>.
+        fn compute_stats(array: &ArrayRef) -> (Option<ArrowScalar>, Option<ArrowScalar>) {
+            let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(array.data_type());
+            acc.update(array).unwrap();
+            let stats = acc.finish();
+            (stats.min, stats.max)
+        }
+
+        macro_rules! prop_test_full {
+            ($name:ident, $array_ty:ty, $elem_strategy:expr) => {
+                proptest! {
+                    #[test]
+                    fn $name(
+                        values in proptest::collection::vec($elem_strategy, 1..100usize),
+                    ) {
+                        let len = values.len();
+                        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(<$array_ty>::from(values));
+                        let (orig_min, orig_max) = compute_stats(&array);
+
+                        // min <= max when both exist
+                        if let (Some(mn), Some(mx)) = (&orig_min, &orig_max) {
+                            prop_assert!(mn <= mx, "min {:?} > max {:?}", mn, mx);
+                        }
+
+                        // Reverse the array as a simple permutation
+                        let rev_indices: Vec<usize> = (0..len).rev().collect();
+                        let reversed = shuffle(&array, &rev_indices);
+                        let (rev_min, rev_max) = compute_stats(&reversed);
+                        prop_assert_eq!(&orig_min, &rev_min, "min changed after reverse");
+                        prop_assert_eq!(&orig_max, &rev_max, "max changed after reverse");
+                    }
+                }
+            };
+        }
+
+        macro_rules! prop_test_nullable_full {
+            ($name:ident, $array_ty:ty, $elem_strategy:expr) => {
+                proptest! {
+                    #[test]
+                    fn $name(
+                        values in proptest::collection::vec(
+                            proptest::option::of($elem_strategy), 1..100usize
+                        ),
+                    ) {
+                        let len = values.len();
+                        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(<$array_ty>::from(values));
+                        let (orig_min, orig_max) = compute_stats(&array);
+
+                        if let (Some(mn), Some(mx)) = (&orig_min, &orig_max) {
+                            prop_assert!(mn <= mx, "min {:?} > max {:?}", mn, mx);
+                        }
+
+                        let rev_indices: Vec<usize> = (0..len).rev().collect();
+                        let reversed = shuffle(&array, &rev_indices);
+                        let (rev_min, rev_max) = compute_stats(&reversed);
+                        prop_assert_eq!(&orig_min, &rev_min, "min changed after reverse");
+                        prop_assert_eq!(&orig_max, &rev_max, "max changed after reverse");
+
+                        // Also verify null_count and nan_count are invariant
+                        let mut acc_orig = StatisticsAccumulator::new(array.data_type());
+                        acc_orig.update(&array).unwrap();
+                        let mut acc_rev = StatisticsAccumulator::new(array.data_type());
+                        acc_rev.update(&reversed).unwrap();
+                        prop_assert_eq!(
+                            acc_orig.statistics().null_count,
+                            acc_rev.statistics().null_count,
+                            "null_count changed after shuffle"
+                        );
+                        prop_assert_eq!(
+                            acc_orig.statistics().nan_count,
+                            acc_rev.statistics().nan_count,
+                            "nan_count changed after shuffle"
+                        );
+                    }
+                }
+            };
+        }
+
+        // --- Integer types ---
+        prop_test_full!(prop_i32, Int32Array, any::<i32>());
+        prop_test_full!(prop_i64, Int64Array, any::<i64>());
+        prop_test_full!(prop_u32, UInt32Array, any::<u32>());
+        prop_test_full!(prop_u64, UInt64Array, any::<u64>());
+        prop_test_full!(prop_i8, Int8Array, any::<i8>());
+        prop_test_full!(prop_i16, Int16Array, any::<i16>());
+        prop_test_full!(prop_u8, UInt8Array, any::<u8>());
+        prop_test_full!(prop_u16, UInt16Array, any::<u16>());
+
+        // --- Nullable integer types ---
+        prop_test_nullable_full!(prop_i32_nullable, Int32Array, any::<i32>());
+        prop_test_nullable_full!(prop_i64_nullable, Int64Array, any::<i64>());
+        prop_test_nullable_full!(prop_u32_nullable, UInt32Array, any::<u32>());
+
+        // --- Float types (with NaN) ---
+        prop_test_full!(prop_f32, Float32Array, any::<f32>());
+        prop_test_full!(prop_f64, Float64Array, any::<f64>());
+        prop_test_nullable_full!(prop_f64_nullable, Float64Array, any::<f64>());
+
+        // --- String type ---
+        prop_test_full!(prop_string, StringArray, "[a-z]{0,20}");
+        prop_test_nullable_full!(prop_string_nullable, StringArray, "[a-z]{0,20}");
+
+        // --- Boolean type ---
+        prop_test_full!(prop_bool, BooleanArray, any::<bool>());
+        prop_test_nullable_full!(prop_bool_nullable, BooleanArray, any::<bool>());
+
+        // --- Random permutation shuffle test (uses prop_shuffle) ---
+        proptest! {
+            #[test]
+            fn prop_random_permutation_i32(
+                values in proptest::collection::vec(
+                    proptest::option::of(any::<i32>()), 1..100usize
+                ),
+            ) {
+                let len = values.len();
+                let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values));
+                let (orig_min, orig_max) = compute_stats(&array);
+
+                if let (Some(mn), Some(mx)) = (&orig_min, &orig_max) {
+                    prop_assert!(mn <= mx);
+                }
+
+                // Create and shuffle a permutation
+                let mut perm: Vec<usize> = (0..len).collect();
+                // Deterministic "shuffle" using a reversal + rotation
+                perm.reverse();
+                if len > 1 {
+                    perm.rotate_left(len / 2);
+                }
+
+                let shuffled = shuffle(&array, &perm);
+                let (shuf_min, shuf_max) = compute_stats(&shuffled);
+                prop_assert_eq!(&orig_min, &shuf_min);
+                prop_assert_eq!(&orig_max, &shuf_max);
+            }
+        }
+
+        proptest! {
+            /// Verify that splitting an array into two chunks and merging
+            /// the accumulators gives the same result as processing the
+            /// whole array at once.
+            #[test]
+            fn prop_merge_consistent_i32(
+                values in proptest::collection::vec(
+                    proptest::option::of(any::<i32>()), 2..100usize
+                ),
+            ) {
+                let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values.clone()));
+                let split = values.len() / 2;
+
+                let mut full_acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+                full_acc.update(&array).unwrap();
+
+                let left: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values[..split].to_vec()));
+                let right: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values[split..].to_vec()));
+                let mut left_acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+                left_acc.update(&left).unwrap();
+                let mut right_acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&DataType::Int32);
+                right_acc.update(&right).unwrap();
+                left_acc.merge(&right_acc).unwrap();
+
+                let full_stats = full_acc.finish();
+                let merged_stats = left_acc.finish();
+
+                prop_assert_eq!(&full_stats.min, &merged_stats.min);
+                prop_assert_eq!(&full_stats.max, &merged_stats.max);
+                prop_assert_eq!(full_stats.null_count, merged_stats.null_count);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_unsupported_type_tracks_null_count_and_memory() {
+        use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, StructBuilder};
+        use arrow_schema::Field;
+
+        let fields = vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)];
+        let mut builder = StructBuilder::new(fields, vec![Box::new(Int32Builder::new()) as _]);
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            builder
+                .field_builder::<Int32Builder>(0)
+                .unwrap()
+                .append_null();
+            builder.append_null();
+        }
+        let struct_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(builder.finish());
+
+        let dt = struct_array.data_type().clone();
+        let mut acc = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&dt);
+        acc.update(&struct_array).unwrap();
+
+        let stats = acc.finish();
+        assert!(stats.min.is_none());
+        assert!(stats.max.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(stats.null_count, 3);
+        assert_eq!(stats.nan_count, None);
+        assert!(stats.buffer_memory > 0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/arrow-stats/src/nan.rs b/rust/arrow-stats/src/nan.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b8b2fd3e89c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/arrow-stats/src/nan.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef};
+
+macro_rules! count_nans_typed {
+    ($array:expr, $arrow_type:ty) => {{
+        let typed = $array.as_primitive::<$arrow_type>();
+        let mut count = 0u64;
+        for i in 0..typed.len() {
+            if !typed.is_null(i) && typed.value(i).is_nan() {
+                count += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        count
+    }};
+}
+
+/// Count the number of non-null NaN values in an array.
+///
+/// Returns 0 for non-float types.
+pub fn count_nans(array: &ArrayRef) -> u64 {
+    use arrow_schema::DataType::*;
+    match array.data_type() {
+        Float16 => count_nans_typed!(array, Float16Type),
+        Float32 => count_nans_typed!(array, Float32Type),
+        Float64 => count_nans_typed!(array, Float64Type),
+        _ => 0,
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/compression/bitpacking/Cargo.toml b/rust/compression/bitpacking/Cargo.toml
index f086ede8baa..56db321ac6d 100644
--- a/rust/compression/bitpacking/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/compression/bitpacking/Cargo.toml
@@ -13,8 +13,12 @@ rust-version.workspace = true
 
 [dependencies]
 arrayref = "0.3"
+crunchy = "0.2"
 paste = "1"
 seq-macro = "0.3"
 
+[dev-dependencies]
+bitpacking = { workspace = true, features = ["bitpacker4x"] }
+
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/bitpacker4x.rs b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/bitpacker4x.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ca3c68908ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/bitpacker4x.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,820 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::BitPacker;
+
+use crate::bitpacker_internal::{Available, UnsafeBitPacker};
+
+const BLOCK_LEN: usize = 32 * 4;
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod sse3 {
+
+    use super::BLOCK_LEN;
+    use crate::bitpacker_internal::Available;
+
+    use std::arch::x86_64::__m128i as DataType;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm_and_si128 as op_and;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm_lddqu_si128 as load_unaligned;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm_or_si128 as op_or;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm_set1_epi32 as set1;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm_slli_epi32 as left_shift_32;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm_srli_epi32 as right_shift_32;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm_storeu_si128 as store_unaligned;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::{
+        _mm_add_epi32, _mm_cvtsi128_si32, _mm_shuffle_epi32, _mm_slli_si128, _mm_srli_si128,
+        _mm_sub_epi32,
+    };
+
+    #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn or_collapse_to_u32(accumulator: DataType) -> u32 {
+        let a__b__c__d_ = accumulator;
+        let ______a__b_ = _mm_srli_si128(a__b__c__d_, 8);
+        let a__b__ca_db = op_or(a__b__c__d_, ______a__b_);
+        let ___a__b__ca = _mm_srli_si128(a__b__ca_db, 4);
+        let _______cadb = op_or(a__b__ca_db, ___a__b__ca);
+        _mm_cvtsi128_si32(_______cadb) as u32
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse3")]
+    unsafe fn compute_delta(curr: DataType, prev: DataType) -> DataType {
+        _mm_sub_epi32(
+            curr,
+            op_or(_mm_slli_si128(curr, 4), _mm_srli_si128(prev, 12)),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse3")]
+    #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn integrate_delta(prev: DataType, delta: DataType) -> DataType {
+        let offset = _mm_shuffle_epi32(prev, 0xff);
+        let a__b__c__d_ = delta;
+        let ______a__b_ = _mm_slli_si128(delta, 8);
+        let a__b__ca_db = _mm_add_epi32(______a__b_, a__b__c__d_);
+        let ___a__b__ca = _mm_slli_si128(a__b__ca_db, 4);
+        let a_ab_abc_abcd: DataType = _mm_add_epi32(___a__b__ca, a__b__ca_db);
+        _mm_add_epi32(offset, a_ab_abc_abcd)
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse3")]
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn add(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        _mm_add_epi32(left, right)
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn sub(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        _mm_sub_epi32(left, right)
+    }
+
+    declare_bitpacker!(target_feature(enable = "sse3"));
+
+    impl Available for UnsafeBitPackerImpl {
+        fn available() -> bool {
+            is_x86_feature_detected!("sse3")
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+mod neon {
+
+    use super::BLOCK_LEN;
+    use crate::bitpacker_internal::Available;
+    use std::arch::aarch64::{
+        uint32x4_t, vaddq_u32, vandq_u32, vdupq_n_u32, vextq_u32, vgetq_lane_u32, vld1q_u32,
+        vorrq_u32, vshlq_n_u32, vshrq_n_u32, vst1q_u32, vsubq_u32,
+    };
+
+    pub(crate) type DataType = uint32x4_t;
+
+    #[inline]
+    /// Creates a vector with all elements set to `el`.
+    unsafe fn set1(el: i32) -> DataType {
+        vdupq_n_u32(el as u32)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn right_shift_32<const N: i32>(el: DataType) -> DataType {
+        const {
+            assert!(N >= 0);
+            assert!(N <= 32);
+        }
+
+        // We unroll here because vshrq_n_u32 only accepts constants from 1 to 32.
+        match N {
+            0 => el,
+            1 => vshrq_n_u32::<1>(el),
+            2 => vshrq_n_u32::<2>(el),
+            3 => vshrq_n_u32::<3>(el),
+            4 => vshrq_n_u32::<4>(el),
+            5 => vshrq_n_u32::<5>(el),
+            6 => vshrq_n_u32::<6>(el),
+            7 => vshrq_n_u32::<7>(el),
+            8 => vshrq_n_u32::<8>(el),
+            9 => vshrq_n_u32::<9>(el),
+            10 => vshrq_n_u32::<10>(el),
+            11 => vshrq_n_u32::<11>(el),
+            12 => vshrq_n_u32::<12>(el),
+            13 => vshrq_n_u32::<13>(el),
+            14 => vshrq_n_u32::<14>(el),
+            15 => vshrq_n_u32::<15>(el),
+            16 => vshrq_n_u32::<16>(el),
+            17 => vshrq_n_u32::<17>(el),
+            18 => vshrq_n_u32::<18>(el),
+            19 => vshrq_n_u32::<19>(el),
+            20 => vshrq_n_u32::<20>(el),
+            21 => vshrq_n_u32::<21>(el),
+            22 => vshrq_n_u32::<22>(el),
+            23 => vshrq_n_u32::<23>(el),
+            24 => vshrq_n_u32::<24>(el),
+            25 => vshrq_n_u32::<25>(el),
+            26 => vshrq_n_u32::<26>(el),
+            27 => vshrq_n_u32::<27>(el),
+            28 => vshrq_n_u32::<28>(el),
+            29 => vshrq_n_u32::<29>(el),
+            30 => vshrq_n_u32::<30>(el),
+            31 => vshrq_n_u32::<31>(el),
+            32 => vdupq_n_u32(0),
+            _ => core::hint::unreachable_unchecked(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn left_shift_32<const N: i32>(el: DataType) -> DataType {
+        const {
+            assert!(N >= 0);
+            assert!(N <= 32);
+        }
+
+        // We unroll here because vshlq_n_u32 only accepts constants from 0 to 31.
+        match N {
+            0 => el,
+            1 => vshlq_n_u32::<1>(el),
+            2 => vshlq_n_u32::<2>(el),
+            3 => vshlq_n_u32::<3>(el),
+            4 => vshlq_n_u32::<4>(el),
+            5 => vshlq_n_u32::<5>(el),
+            6 => vshlq_n_u32::<6>(el),
+            7 => vshlq_n_u32::<7>(el),
+            8 => vshlq_n_u32::<8>(el),
+            9 => vshlq_n_u32::<9>(el),
+            10 => vshlq_n_u32::<10>(el),
+            11 => vshlq_n_u32::<11>(el),
+            12 => vshlq_n_u32::<12>(el),
+            13 => vshlq_n_u32::<13>(el),
+            14 => vshlq_n_u32::<14>(el),
+            15 => vshlq_n_u32::<15>(el),
+            16 => vshlq_n_u32::<16>(el),
+            17 => vshlq_n_u32::<17>(el),
+            18 => vshlq_n_u32::<18>(el),
+            19 => vshlq_n_u32::<19>(el),
+            20 => vshlq_n_u32::<20>(el),
+            21 => vshlq_n_u32::<21>(el),
+            22 => vshlq_n_u32::<22>(el),
+            23 => vshlq_n_u32::<23>(el),
+            24 => vshlq_n_u32::<24>(el),
+            25 => vshlq_n_u32::<25>(el),
+            26 => vshlq_n_u32::<26>(el),
+            27 => vshlq_n_u32::<27>(el),
+            28 => vshlq_n_u32::<28>(el),
+            29 => vshlq_n_u32::<29>(el),
+            30 => vshlq_n_u32::<30>(el),
+            31 => vshlq_n_u32::<31>(el),
+            32 => vdupq_n_u32(0),
+            _ => core::hint::unreachable_unchecked(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    use vorrq_u32 as op_or;
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn op_and(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        vandq_u32(left, right)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn load_unaligned(addr: *const DataType) -> DataType {
+        vld1q_u32(addr.cast::<u32>())
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn store_unaligned(addr: *mut DataType, data: DataType) {
+        vst1q_u32(addr.cast::<u32>(), data);
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    /// Collapses the vector by performing a bitwise OR across all lanes
+    unsafe fn or_collapse_to_u32(acc: DataType) -> u32 {
+        vgetq_lane_u32(acc, 0)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(acc, 1)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(acc, 2)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(acc, 3)
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn compute_delta(curr: DataType, prev: DataType) -> DataType {
+        // Build a vector with [prev[3], curr[0], curr[1], curr[2]]
+        let prev_shifted = vextq_u32(prev, curr, 3);
+        vsubq_u32(curr, prev_shifted)
+    }
+
+    #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn integrate_delta(prev: DataType, delta: DataType) -> DataType {
+        let base = vdupq_n_u32(vgetq_lane_u32(prev, 3));
+        let zero = vdupq_n_u32(0);
+        let a__b__c__d_ = delta;
+        let ______a__b_ = vextq_u32(zero, a__b__c__d_, 2);
+        let a__b__ca_db = vaddq_u32(______a__b_, a__b__c__d_);
+        let ___a__b__ca = vextq_u32(zero, a__b__ca_db, 3);
+        let a_ab_abc_abcd = vaddq_u32(___a__b__ca, a__b__ca_db);
+        vaddq_u32(base, a_ab_abc_abcd)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn add(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        vaddq_u32(left, right)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn sub(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        vsubq_u32(left, right)
+    }
+
+    declare_bitpacker!(target_feature(enable = "neon"));
+
+    impl Available for UnsafeBitPackerImpl {
+        fn available() -> bool {
+            std::arch::is_aarch64_feature_detected!("neon")
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+mod scalar {
+
+    use super::BLOCK_LEN;
+    use crate::bitpacker_internal::Available;
+    use std::ptr;
+
+    pub(crate) type DataType = [u32; 4];
+
+    pub(crate) fn set1(el: i32) -> DataType {
+        [el as u32; 4]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn right_shift_32<const N: i32>(el: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [el[0] >> N, el[1] >> N, el[2] >> N, el[3] >> N]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn left_shift_32<const N: i32>(el: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [el[0] << N, el[1] << N, el[2] << N, el[3] << N]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn op_or(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            left[0] | right[0],
+            left[1] | right[1],
+            left[2] | right[2],
+            left[3] | right[3],
+        ]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn op_and(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            left[0] & right[0],
+            left[1] & right[1],
+            left[2] & right[2],
+            left[3] & right[3],
+        ]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) unsafe fn load_unaligned(addr: *const DataType) -> DataType {
+        ptr::read_unaligned(addr)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) unsafe fn store_unaligned(addr: *mut DataType, data: DataType) {
+        ptr::write_unaligned(addr, data);
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn or_collapse_to_u32(accumulator: DataType) -> u32 {
+        (accumulator[0] | accumulator[1]) | (accumulator[2] | accumulator[3])
+    }
+
+    fn compute_delta(curr: DataType, prev: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            curr[0].wrapping_sub(prev[3]),
+            curr[1].wrapping_sub(curr[0]),
+            curr[2].wrapping_sub(curr[1]),
+            curr[3].wrapping_sub(curr[2]),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    fn integrate_delta(offset: DataType, delta: DataType) -> DataType {
+        let el0 = offset[3].wrapping_add(delta[0]);
+        let el1 = el0.wrapping_add(delta[1]);
+        let el2 = el1.wrapping_add(delta[2]);
+        let el3 = el2.wrapping_add(delta[3]);
+        [el0, el1, el2, el3]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn add(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            left[0].wrapping_add(right[0]),
+            left[1].wrapping_add(right[1]),
+            left[2].wrapping_add(right[2]),
+            left[3].wrapping_add(right[3]),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn sub(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            left[0].wrapping_sub(right[0]),
+            left[1].wrapping_sub(right[1]),
+            left[2].wrapping_sub(right[2]),
+            left[3].wrapping_sub(right[3]),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    // The `allow(unused)` is here to put an attribute that has no effect.
+    //
+    // For other bitpacker, we enable specific CPU instruction set, but for the
+    // scalar bitpacker none is required.
+    declare_bitpacker!(allow(unused));
+
+    impl Available for UnsafeBitPackerImpl {
+        fn available() -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+enum InstructionSet {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    SSE3,
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+    NEON,
+    Scalar,
+}
+
+/// `BitPacker4x` packs integers in groups of 4. This gives an opportunity
+/// to leverage `SSE3` instructions to encode and decode the stream.
+///
+/// One block must contain `128 integers`.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct BitPacker4x(InstructionSet);
+
+impl BitPacker4x {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    pub(crate) fn new_sse() -> Option<Self> {
+        sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available().then_some(BitPacker4x(InstructionSet::SSE3))
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    pub(crate) fn new_sse() -> Option<Self> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+    pub(crate) fn new_neon() -> Option<Self> {
+        neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available().then_some(BitPacker4x(InstructionSet::NEON))
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little")))]
+    pub(crate) fn new_neon() -> Option<Self> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn new_scalar() -> Self {
+        BitPacker4x(InstructionSet::Scalar)
+    }
+}
+
+impl BitPacker for BitPacker4x {
+    const BLOCK_LEN: usize = BLOCK_LEN;
+
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::new_sse()
+            .or_else(Self::new_neon)
+            .unwrap_or_else(Self::new_scalar)
+    }
+
+    fn compress(&self, decompressed: &[u32], compressed: &mut [u8], num_bits: u8) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::SSE3 => {
+                    sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress(decompressed, compressed, num_bits)
+                }
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => {
+                    neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress(decompressed, compressed, num_bits)
+                }
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => {
+                    scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress(decompressed, compressed, num_bits)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn compress_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: u32,
+        decompressed: &[u32],
+        compressed: &mut [u8],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::SSE3 => sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn compress_strictly_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: Option<u32>,
+        decompressed: &[u32],
+        compressed: &mut [u8],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::SSE3 => sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decompress(&self, compressed: &[u8], decompressed: &mut [u32], num_bits: u8) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::SSE3 => {
+                    sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress(compressed, decompressed, num_bits)
+                }
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => {
+                    neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress(compressed, decompressed, num_bits)
+                }
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => {
+                    scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress(compressed, decompressed, num_bits)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decompress_strictly_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: Option<u32>,
+        compressed: &[u8],
+        decompressed: &mut [u32],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::SSE3 => sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decompress_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: u32,
+        compressed: &[u8],
+        decompressed: &mut [u32],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::SSE3 => sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn num_bits(&self, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8 {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::SSE3 => sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits(decompressed),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits(decompressed),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits(decompressed),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn num_bits_sorted(&self, initial: u32, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8 {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::SSE3 => {
+                    sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => {
+                    neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => {
+                    scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn num_bits_strictly_sorted(&self, initial: Option<u32>, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8 {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::SSE3 => {
+                    sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => {
+                    neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => {
+                    scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little")
+))]
+#[cfg(any())]
+mod tests {
+    use super::BLOCK_LEN;
+    use super::scalar;
+    use crate::bitpacker_internal::Available;
+    use crate::tests::test_util_compatible;
+    use crate::{BitPacker, BitPacker4x};
+
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compatible_sse3() {
+        use super::sse3;
+        if sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available() {
+            test_util_compatible::<scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl, sse3::UnsafeBitPackerImpl>(
+                BLOCK_LEN,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compatible_neon() {
+        use super::neon;
+        if neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available() {
+            test_util_compatible::<scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl, neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl>(
+                BLOCK_LEN,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_delta_bit_width_32() {
+        let values = vec![i32::max_value() as u32 + 1; BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN];
+        let bit_packer = BitPacker4x::new();
+        let bit_width = bit_packer.num_bits_sorted(0, &values);
+        assert_eq!(bit_width, 32);
+
+        let mut block = vec![0u8; BitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(bit_width)];
+        bit_packer.compress_sorted(0, &values, &mut block, bit_width);
+
+        let mut decoded_values = vec![0x10101010; BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN];
+        bit_packer.decompress_sorted(0, &block, &mut decoded_values, bit_width);
+
+        assert_eq!(values, decoded_values);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bit_width_32() {
+        let mut values = vec![i32::max_value() as u32 + 1; BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN];
+        values[0] = 0;
+        let bit_packer = BitPacker4x::new();
+        let bit_width = bit_packer.num_bits(&values);
+        assert_eq!(bit_width, 32);
+
+        let mut block = vec![0u8; BitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(bit_width)];
+        bit_packer.compress(&values, &mut block, bit_width);
+
+        let mut decoded_values = vec![0x10101010; BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN];
+        bit_packer.decompress(&block, &mut decoded_values, bit_width);
+
+        assert_eq!(values, decoded_values);
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::{BLOCK_LEN, BitPacker4x};
+    use crate::bitpacker_internal::BitPacker;
+    use bitpacking::{BitPacker as ExternalBitPacker, BitPacker4x as ExternalBitPacker4x};
+
+    fn mask_for_width(width: u8) -> u32 {
+        match width {
+            0 => 0,
+            32 => u32::MAX,
+            _ => (1u32 << width) - 1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn raw_values(width: u8) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let mask = mask_for_width(width);
+        (0..BLOCK_LEN)
+            .map(|idx| ((idx * 17 + 3) as u32) & mask)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn sorted_values(width: u8) -> (u32, Vec<u32>) {
+        if width == 0 {
+            return (11, vec![11; BLOCK_LEN]);
+        }
+        if width == 32 {
+            return (0, vec![u32::MAX; BLOCK_LEN]);
+        }
+
+        let mask = mask_for_width(width).min(127);
+        let initial = 11u32;
+        let mut current = initial;
+        let values = (0..BLOCK_LEN)
+            .map(|idx| {
+                current += (idx as u32 * 7 + 1) & mask;
+                current
+            })
+            .collect();
+        (initial, values)
+    }
+
+    fn strictly_sorted_values(width: u8) -> (Option<u32>, Vec<u32>) {
+        let mask = mask_for_width(width).min(127);
+        let mut current = 0u32;
+        let values = (0..BLOCK_LEN)
+            .map(|idx| {
+                if idx == 0 {
+                    current = 0;
+                } else {
+                    current += 1 + ((idx as u32 * 5) & mask);
+                }
+                current
+            })
+            .collect();
+        (None, values)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scalar_backend_matches_external_bitpacker4x() {
+        let scalar = BitPacker4x::new_scalar();
+        let external = ExternalBitPacker4x::new();
+
+        for width in 0..=32 {
+            let values = raw_values(width);
+            assert_eq!(scalar.num_bits(&values), external.num_bits(&values));
+
+            let mut actual = vec![0u8; BitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+            let actual_len = scalar.compress(&values, &mut actual, width);
+
+            let mut expected = vec![0u8; ExternalBitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+            let expected_len = external.compress(&values, &mut expected, width);
+
+            assert_eq!(actual_len, expected_len);
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "raw width {width}");
+
+            let mut decoded = vec![0u32; BLOCK_LEN];
+            assert_eq!(scalar.decompress(&actual, &mut decoded, width), actual_len);
+            assert_eq!(decoded, values);
+
+            let (initial, values) = sorted_values(width);
+            assert_eq!(
+                scalar.num_bits_sorted(initial, &values),
+                external.num_bits_sorted(initial, &values)
+            );
+
+            let mut actual = vec![0u8; BitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+            let actual_len = scalar.compress_sorted(initial, &values, &mut actual, width);
+
+            let mut expected = vec![0u8; ExternalBitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+            let expected_len = external.compress_sorted(initial, &values, &mut expected, width);
+
+            assert_eq!(actual_len, expected_len);
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "sorted width {width}");
+
+            let mut decoded = vec![0u32; BLOCK_LEN];
+            assert_eq!(
+                scalar.decompress_sorted(initial, &actual, &mut decoded, width),
+                actual_len
+            );
+            assert_eq!(decoded, values);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scalar_backend_matches_external_strictly_sorted_bitpacker4x() {
+        let scalar = BitPacker4x::new_scalar();
+        let external = ExternalBitPacker4x::new();
+
+        for width in 0..=16 {
+            let (initial, values) = strictly_sorted_values(width);
+            let num_bits = external.num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, &values);
+            assert_eq!(scalar.num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, &values), num_bits);
+
+            let mut actual = vec![0u8; BitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(num_bits)];
+            let actual_len =
+                scalar.compress_strictly_sorted(initial, &values, &mut actual, num_bits);
+
+            let mut expected = vec![0u8; ExternalBitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(num_bits)];
+            let expected_len =
+                external.compress_strictly_sorted(initial, &values, &mut expected, num_bits);
+
+            assert_eq!(actual_len, expected_len);
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "strict width {width}");
+
+            let mut decoded = vec![0u32; BLOCK_LEN];
+            assert_eq!(
+                scalar.decompress_strictly_sorted(initial, &actual, &mut decoded, num_bits),
+                actual_len
+            );
+            assert_eq!(decoded, values);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/bitpacker8x.rs b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/bitpacker8x.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b17edacabb2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/bitpacker8x.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,872 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::BitPacker;
+
+use crate::bitpacker_internal::{Available, UnsafeBitPacker};
+
+const BLOCK_LEN: usize = 32 * 8;
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod avx2 {
+    use super::BLOCK_LEN;
+    use crate::bitpacker_internal::Available;
+
+    use std::arch::x86_64::__m256i as DataType;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm256_and_si256 as op_and;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm256_lddqu_si256 as load_unaligned;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm256_or_si256 as op_or;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm256_set1_epi32 as set1;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm256_slli_epi32 as left_shift_32;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm256_srli_epi32 as right_shift_32;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::_mm256_storeu_si256 as store_unaligned;
+
+    use std::arch::x86_64::{
+        _mm256_add_epi32, _mm256_extract_epi32, _mm256_permute2f128_si256, _mm256_shuffle_epi32,
+        _mm256_slli_si256, _mm256_srli_si256, _mm256_sub_epi32,
+    };
+
+    #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+    unsafe fn or_collapse_to_u32(accumulator: DataType) -> u32 {
+        let a__b__c__d__e__f__g__h_ = accumulator;
+        let ______a__b________e__f = _mm256_srli_si256(a__b__c__d__e__f__g__h_, 8);
+        let a__b__ca_db_e__f__ge_hf = op_or(a__b__c__d__e__f__g__h_, ______a__b________e__f);
+        let ___a__b__ca____e__f__ge = _mm256_srli_si256(a__b__ca_db_e__f__ge_hf, 4);
+        let _________cadb______gehf = op_or(a__b__ca_db_e__f__ge_hf, ___a__b__ca____e__f__ge);
+        let cadb = _mm256_extract_epi32(_________cadb______gehf, 0);
+        let gehf = _mm256_extract_epi32(_________cadb______gehf, 4);
+        (cadb | gehf) as u32
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn compute_delta(curr: DataType, prev: DataType) -> DataType {
+        let left_shift = _mm256_slli_si256(curr, 4);
+        let curr_shift = _mm256_srli_si256(curr, 12);
+        let curr_right_only = _mm256_permute2f128_si256(curr_shift, curr_shift, 8);
+        let prev_shift = _mm256_srli_si256(prev, 12);
+        let sub_left = _mm256_permute2f128_si256(prev_shift, prev_shift, 3 | (8 << 4));
+        let diff = op_or(left_shift, op_or(curr_right_only, sub_left));
+        _mm256_sub_epi32(curr, diff)
+    }
+
+    #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+    unsafe fn integrate_delta(prev: DataType, delta: DataType) -> DataType {
+        let offset_repeat = _mm256_shuffle_epi32(prev, 0xff);
+        let offset = _mm256_permute2f128_si256(offset_repeat, offset_repeat, 3 | (8 << 4));
+        let a__b__c__d__e__f__g__h__ = delta;
+        let ______a__b________e__f__ = _mm256_slli_si256(delta, 8);
+        let a__b__ca_db_e__f__ge_fh_ =
+            _mm256_add_epi32(a__b__c__d__e__f__g__h__, ______a__b________e__f__);
+        let ___a__b__ca____e__f__ge_ = _mm256_slli_si256(a__b__ca_db_e__f__ge_fh_, 4);
+        let halved_prefix_sum =
+            _mm256_add_epi32(___a__b__ca____e__f__ge_, a__b__ca_db_e__f__ge_fh_);
+        let offsetted_halved_prefix_sum = _mm256_add_epi32(halved_prefix_sum, offset);
+        let select_last_low = _mm256_shuffle_epi32(offsetted_halved_prefix_sum, 0xff);
+        let high_offset = _mm256_permute2f128_si256(select_last_low, select_last_low, 8);
+        _mm256_add_epi32(high_offset, offsetted_halved_prefix_sum)
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn add(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        _mm256_add_epi32(left, right)
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn sub(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        _mm256_sub_epi32(left, right)
+    }
+
+    declare_bitpacker!(target_feature(enable = "avx2"));
+
+    impl Available for UnsafeBitPackerImpl {
+        fn available() -> bool {
+            is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2")
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+mod neon {
+    use super::BLOCK_LEN;
+    use crate::bitpacker_internal::Available;
+    use std::arch::aarch64::{
+        uint32x4_t, vaddq_u32, vandq_u32, vdupq_n_u32, vextq_u32, vgetq_lane_u32, vld1q_u32,
+        vorrq_u32, vshlq_n_u32, vshrq_n_u32, vst1q_u32, vsubq_u32,
+    };
+
+    pub(crate) type DataType = [uint32x4_t; 2];
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn set1(el: i32) -> DataType {
+        let lanes = vdupq_n_u32(el as u32);
+        [lanes, lanes]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn right_shift_32<const N: i32>(el: DataType) -> DataType {
+        const {
+            assert!(N >= 0);
+            assert!(N <= 32);
+        }
+
+        match N {
+            0 => el,
+            1 => [vshrq_n_u32::<1>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<1>(el[1])],
+            2 => [vshrq_n_u32::<2>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<2>(el[1])],
+            3 => [vshrq_n_u32::<3>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<3>(el[1])],
+            4 => [vshrq_n_u32::<4>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<4>(el[1])],
+            5 => [vshrq_n_u32::<5>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<5>(el[1])],
+            6 => [vshrq_n_u32::<6>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<6>(el[1])],
+            7 => [vshrq_n_u32::<7>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<7>(el[1])],
+            8 => [vshrq_n_u32::<8>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<8>(el[1])],
+            9 => [vshrq_n_u32::<9>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<9>(el[1])],
+            10 => [vshrq_n_u32::<10>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<10>(el[1])],
+            11 => [vshrq_n_u32::<11>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<11>(el[1])],
+            12 => [vshrq_n_u32::<12>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<12>(el[1])],
+            13 => [vshrq_n_u32::<13>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<13>(el[1])],
+            14 => [vshrq_n_u32::<14>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<14>(el[1])],
+            15 => [vshrq_n_u32::<15>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<15>(el[1])],
+            16 => [vshrq_n_u32::<16>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<16>(el[1])],
+            17 => [vshrq_n_u32::<17>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<17>(el[1])],
+            18 => [vshrq_n_u32::<18>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<18>(el[1])],
+            19 => [vshrq_n_u32::<19>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<19>(el[1])],
+            20 => [vshrq_n_u32::<20>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<20>(el[1])],
+            21 => [vshrq_n_u32::<21>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<21>(el[1])],
+            22 => [vshrq_n_u32::<22>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<22>(el[1])],
+            23 => [vshrq_n_u32::<23>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<23>(el[1])],
+            24 => [vshrq_n_u32::<24>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<24>(el[1])],
+            25 => [vshrq_n_u32::<25>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<25>(el[1])],
+            26 => [vshrq_n_u32::<26>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<26>(el[1])],
+            27 => [vshrq_n_u32::<27>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<27>(el[1])],
+            28 => [vshrq_n_u32::<28>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<28>(el[1])],
+            29 => [vshrq_n_u32::<29>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<29>(el[1])],
+            30 => [vshrq_n_u32::<30>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<30>(el[1])],
+            31 => [vshrq_n_u32::<31>(el[0]), vshrq_n_u32::<31>(el[1])],
+            32 => set1(0),
+            _ => core::hint::unreachable_unchecked(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn left_shift_32<const N: i32>(el: DataType) -> DataType {
+        const {
+            assert!(N >= 0);
+            assert!(N <= 32);
+        }
+
+        match N {
+            0 => el,
+            1 => [vshlq_n_u32::<1>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<1>(el[1])],
+            2 => [vshlq_n_u32::<2>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<2>(el[1])],
+            3 => [vshlq_n_u32::<3>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<3>(el[1])],
+            4 => [vshlq_n_u32::<4>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<4>(el[1])],
+            5 => [vshlq_n_u32::<5>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<5>(el[1])],
+            6 => [vshlq_n_u32::<6>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<6>(el[1])],
+            7 => [vshlq_n_u32::<7>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<7>(el[1])],
+            8 => [vshlq_n_u32::<8>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<8>(el[1])],
+            9 => [vshlq_n_u32::<9>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<9>(el[1])],
+            10 => [vshlq_n_u32::<10>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<10>(el[1])],
+            11 => [vshlq_n_u32::<11>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<11>(el[1])],
+            12 => [vshlq_n_u32::<12>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<12>(el[1])],
+            13 => [vshlq_n_u32::<13>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<13>(el[1])],
+            14 => [vshlq_n_u32::<14>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<14>(el[1])],
+            15 => [vshlq_n_u32::<15>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<15>(el[1])],
+            16 => [vshlq_n_u32::<16>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<16>(el[1])],
+            17 => [vshlq_n_u32::<17>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<17>(el[1])],
+            18 => [vshlq_n_u32::<18>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<18>(el[1])],
+            19 => [vshlq_n_u32::<19>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<19>(el[1])],
+            20 => [vshlq_n_u32::<20>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<20>(el[1])],
+            21 => [vshlq_n_u32::<21>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<21>(el[1])],
+            22 => [vshlq_n_u32::<22>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<22>(el[1])],
+            23 => [vshlq_n_u32::<23>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<23>(el[1])],
+            24 => [vshlq_n_u32::<24>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<24>(el[1])],
+            25 => [vshlq_n_u32::<25>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<25>(el[1])],
+            26 => [vshlq_n_u32::<26>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<26>(el[1])],
+            27 => [vshlq_n_u32::<27>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<27>(el[1])],
+            28 => [vshlq_n_u32::<28>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<28>(el[1])],
+            29 => [vshlq_n_u32::<29>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<29>(el[1])],
+            30 => [vshlq_n_u32::<30>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<30>(el[1])],
+            31 => [vshlq_n_u32::<31>(el[0]), vshlq_n_u32::<31>(el[1])],
+            32 => set1(0),
+            _ => core::hint::unreachable_unchecked(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn op_or(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [vorrq_u32(left[0], right[0]), vorrq_u32(left[1], right[1])]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn op_and(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [vandq_u32(left[0], right[0]), vandq_u32(left[1], right[1])]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn load_unaligned(addr: *const DataType) -> DataType {
+        let ptr = addr.cast::<u32>();
+        [vld1q_u32(ptr), vld1q_u32(ptr.add(4))]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn store_unaligned(addr: *mut DataType, data: DataType) {
+        let ptr = addr.cast::<u32>();
+        vst1q_u32(ptr, data[0]);
+        vst1q_u32(ptr.add(4), data[1]);
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn or_collapse_to_u32(accumulator: DataType) -> u32 {
+        vgetq_lane_u32(accumulator[0], 0)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(accumulator[0], 1)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(accumulator[0], 2)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(accumulator[0], 3)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(accumulator[1], 0)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(accumulator[1], 1)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(accumulator[1], 2)
+            | vgetq_lane_u32(accumulator[1], 3)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn compute_delta(curr: DataType, prev: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            vsubq_u32(curr[0], vextq_u32(prev[1], curr[0], 3)),
+            vsubq_u32(curr[1], vextq_u32(curr[0], curr[1], 3)),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn integrate_half(base: u32, delta: uint32x4_t) -> uint32x4_t {
+        let base = vdupq_n_u32(base);
+        let zero = vdupq_n_u32(0);
+        let a__b__c__d_ = delta;
+        let ______a__b_ = vextq_u32(zero, a__b__c__d_, 2);
+        let a__b__ca_db = vaddq_u32(______a__b_, a__b__c__d_);
+        let ___a__b__ca = vextq_u32(zero, a__b__ca_db, 3);
+        let a_ab_abc_abcd = vaddq_u32(___a__b__ca, a__b__ca_db);
+        vaddq_u32(base, a_ab_abc_abcd)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn integrate_delta(prev: DataType, delta: DataType) -> DataType {
+        let low = integrate_half(vgetq_lane_u32(prev[1], 3), delta[0]);
+        let high = integrate_half(vgetq_lane_u32(low, 3), delta[1]);
+        [low, high]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn add(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [vaddq_u32(left[0], right[0]), vaddq_u32(left[1], right[1])]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn sub(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [vsubq_u32(left[0], right[0]), vsubq_u32(left[1], right[1])]
+    }
+
+    declare_bitpacker!(target_feature(enable = "neon"));
+
+    impl Available for UnsafeBitPackerImpl {
+        fn available() -> bool {
+            std::arch::is_aarch64_feature_detected!("neon")
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+mod scalar {
+    use super::BLOCK_LEN;
+    use crate::bitpacker_internal::Available;
+    use std::ptr;
+
+    pub(crate) type DataType = [u32; 8];
+
+    pub(crate) fn set1(el: i32) -> DataType {
+        [el as u32; 8]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn right_shift_32<const N: i32>(el: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            el[0] >> N,
+            el[1] >> N,
+            el[2] >> N,
+            el[3] >> N,
+            el[4] >> N,
+            el[5] >> N,
+            el[6] >> N,
+            el[7] >> N,
+        ]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn left_shift_32<const N: i32>(el: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            el[0] << N,
+            el[1] << N,
+            el[2] << N,
+            el[3] << N,
+            el[4] << N,
+            el[5] << N,
+            el[6] << N,
+            el[7] << N,
+        ]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn op_or(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            left[0] | right[0],
+            left[1] | right[1],
+            left[2] | right[2],
+            left[3] | right[3],
+            left[4] | right[4],
+            left[5] | right[5],
+            left[6] | right[6],
+            left[7] | right[7],
+        ]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn op_and(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            left[0] & right[0],
+            left[1] & right[1],
+            left[2] & right[2],
+            left[3] & right[3],
+            left[4] & right[4],
+            left[5] & right[5],
+            left[6] & right[6],
+            left[7] & right[7],
+        ]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) unsafe fn load_unaligned(addr: *const DataType) -> DataType {
+        ptr::read_unaligned(addr)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) unsafe fn store_unaligned(addr: *mut DataType, data: DataType) {
+        ptr::write_unaligned(addr, data);
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn or_collapse_to_u32(accumulator: DataType) -> u32 {
+        ((accumulator[0] | accumulator[1]) | (accumulator[2] | accumulator[3]))
+            | ((accumulator[4] | accumulator[5]) | (accumulator[6] | accumulator[7]))
+    }
+
+    fn compute_delta(curr: DataType, prev: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            curr[0].wrapping_sub(prev[7]),
+            curr[1].wrapping_sub(curr[0]),
+            curr[2].wrapping_sub(curr[1]),
+            curr[3].wrapping_sub(curr[2]),
+            curr[4].wrapping_sub(curr[3]),
+            curr[5].wrapping_sub(curr[4]),
+            curr[6].wrapping_sub(curr[5]),
+            curr[7].wrapping_sub(curr[6]),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    fn integrate_delta(offset: DataType, delta: DataType) -> DataType {
+        let el0 = offset[7].wrapping_add(delta[0]);
+        let el1 = el0.wrapping_add(delta[1]);
+        let el2 = el1.wrapping_add(delta[2]);
+        let el3 = el2.wrapping_add(delta[3]);
+        let el4 = el3.wrapping_add(delta[4]);
+        let el5 = el4.wrapping_add(delta[5]);
+        let el6 = el5.wrapping_add(delta[6]);
+        let el7 = el6.wrapping_add(delta[7]);
+        [el0, el1, el2, el3, el4, el5, el6, el7]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn add(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            left[0].wrapping_add(right[0]),
+            left[1].wrapping_add(right[1]),
+            left[2].wrapping_add(right[2]),
+            left[3].wrapping_add(right[3]),
+            left[4].wrapping_add(right[4]),
+            left[5].wrapping_add(right[5]),
+            left[6].wrapping_add(right[6]),
+            left[7].wrapping_add(right[7]),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn sub(left: DataType, right: DataType) -> DataType {
+        [
+            left[0].wrapping_sub(right[0]),
+            left[1].wrapping_sub(right[1]),
+            left[2].wrapping_sub(right[2]),
+            left[3].wrapping_sub(right[3]),
+            left[4].wrapping_sub(right[4]),
+            left[5].wrapping_sub(right[5]),
+            left[6].wrapping_sub(right[6]),
+            left[7].wrapping_sub(right[7]),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    // The `allow(unused)` is here to put an attribute that has no effect.
+    //
+    // For other bitpackers, we enable a specific CPU instruction set, but for
+    // the scalar bitpacker none is required.
+    declare_bitpacker!(allow(unused));
+
+    impl Available for UnsafeBitPackerImpl {
+        fn available() -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+enum InstructionSet {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    AVX2,
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+    NEON,
+    Scalar,
+}
+
+/// 8-wide bitpacker implementation.
+///
+/// One block contains 256 integers.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct BitPacker8x(InstructionSet);
+
+impl BitPacker8x {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    pub(crate) fn new_avx2() -> Option<Self> {
+        avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available().then_some(BitPacker8x(InstructionSet::AVX2))
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    pub(crate) fn new_avx2() -> Option<Self> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+    pub(crate) fn new_neon() -> Option<Self> {
+        neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available().then_some(BitPacker8x(InstructionSet::NEON))
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little")))]
+    pub(crate) fn new_neon() -> Option<Self> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn new_scalar() -> Self {
+        BitPacker8x(InstructionSet::Scalar)
+    }
+}
+
+impl BitPacker for BitPacker8x {
+    const BLOCK_LEN: usize = BLOCK_LEN;
+
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::new_avx2()
+            .or_else(Self::new_neon)
+            .unwrap_or_else(Self::new_scalar)
+    }
+
+    fn compress(&self, decompressed: &[u32], compressed: &mut [u8], num_bits: u8) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::AVX2 => {
+                    avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress(decompressed, compressed, num_bits)
+                }
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => {
+                    neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress(decompressed, compressed, num_bits)
+                }
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => {
+                    scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress(decompressed, compressed, num_bits)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn compress_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: u32,
+        decompressed: &[u32],
+        compressed: &mut [u8],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::AVX2 => avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn compress_strictly_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: Option<u32>,
+        decompressed: &[u32],
+        compressed: &mut [u8],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::AVX2 => avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::compress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    decompressed,
+                    compressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decompress(&self, compressed: &[u8], decompressed: &mut [u32], num_bits: u8) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::AVX2 => {
+                    avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress(compressed, decompressed, num_bits)
+                }
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => {
+                    neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress(compressed, decompressed, num_bits)
+                }
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => {
+                    scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress(compressed, decompressed, num_bits)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decompress_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: u32,
+        compressed: &[u8],
+        decompressed: &mut [u32],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::AVX2 => avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decompress_strictly_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: Option<u32>,
+        compressed: &[u8],
+        decompressed: &mut [u32],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::AVX2 => avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::decompress_strictly_sorted(
+                    initial,
+                    compressed,
+                    decompressed,
+                    num_bits,
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn num_bits(&self, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8 {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::AVX2 => avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits(decompressed),
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits(decompressed),
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits(decompressed),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn num_bits_sorted(&self, initial: u32, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8 {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::AVX2 => {
+                    avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => {
+                    neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => {
+                    scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn num_bits_strictly_sorted(&self, initial: Option<u32>, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8 {
+        unsafe {
+            match self.0 {
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                InstructionSet::AVX2 => {
+                    avx2::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+                #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+                InstructionSet::NEON => {
+                    neon::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+                InstructionSet::Scalar => {
+                    scalar::UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, decompressed)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::BitPacker8x;
+    use crate::bitpacker_internal::BitPacker;
+    use bitpacking::{BitPacker as ExternalBitPacker, BitPacker8x as ExternalBitPacker8x};
+
+    fn mask_for_width(width: u8) -> u32 {
+        match width {
+            0 => 0,
+            32 => u32::MAX,
+            _ => (1u32 << width) - 1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn raw_values(width: u8, seed: u64) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let mask = mask_for_width(width);
+        let mut state = seed;
+        (0..BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN)
+            .map(|idx| {
+                state ^= state << 13;
+                state ^= state >> 7;
+                state ^= state << 17;
+                match seed % 4 {
+                    0 => 0,
+                    1 => mask,
+                    2 => idx as u32 & mask,
+                    _ => state as u32 & mask,
+                }
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn sorted_values(width: u8, seed: u64) -> (u32, Vec<u32>) {
+        if width == 0 {
+            return (17, vec![17; BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN]);
+        }
+        if width == 32 {
+            return (0, vec![u32::MAX; BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN]);
+        }
+
+        let mask = mask_for_width(width).min(127);
+        let mut state = seed;
+        let mut current = 17u32;
+        let values = (0..BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN)
+            .map(|_| {
+                state ^= state << 13;
+                state ^= state >> 7;
+                state ^= state << 17;
+                current += state as u32 & mask;
+                current
+            })
+            .collect();
+        (17, values)
+    }
+
+    fn strictly_sorted_values(width: u8, seed: u64) -> (Option<u32>, Vec<u32>) {
+        let mask = mask_for_width(width).min(127);
+        let mut state = seed;
+        let mut current = 0u32;
+        let values = (0..BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN)
+            .map(|idx| {
+                if idx == 0 {
+                    current = 0;
+                } else {
+                    state ^= state << 13;
+                    state ^= state >> 7;
+                    state ^= state << 17;
+                    current += 1 + (state as u32 & mask);
+                }
+                current
+            })
+            .collect();
+        (None, values)
+    }
+
+    fn assert_raw_compatible(ours: BitPacker8x, external: ExternalBitPacker8x) {
+        for width in 0..=32 {
+            for seed in [0, 1, 2, 123456789] {
+                let values = raw_values(width, seed);
+                assert_eq!(ours.num_bits(&values), external.num_bits(&values));
+
+                let mut actual = vec![0u8; BitPacker8x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+                let actual_len = ours.compress(&values, &mut actual, width);
+
+                let mut expected = vec![0u8; ExternalBitPacker8x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+                let expected_len = external.compress(&values, &mut expected, width);
+
+                assert_eq!(actual_len, expected_len);
+                assert_eq!(actual, expected, "raw width {width} seed {seed}");
+
+                let mut decoded = vec![0u32; BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN];
+                assert_eq!(ours.decompress(&actual, &mut decoded, width), actual_len);
+                assert_eq!(decoded, values);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn assert_sorted_compatible(ours: BitPacker8x, external: ExternalBitPacker8x) {
+        for width in 0..=32 {
+            for seed in [0, 1, 2, 123456789] {
+                let (initial, values) = sorted_values(width, seed);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    ours.num_bits_sorted(initial, &values),
+                    external.num_bits_sorted(initial, &values)
+                );
+
+                let mut actual = vec![0u8; BitPacker8x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+                let actual_len = ours.compress_sorted(initial, &values, &mut actual, width);
+
+                let mut expected = vec![0u8; ExternalBitPacker8x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+                let expected_len = external.compress_sorted(initial, &values, &mut expected, width);
+
+                assert_eq!(actual_len, expected_len);
+                assert_eq!(actual, expected, "sorted width {width} seed {seed}");
+
+                let mut decoded = vec![0u32; BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN];
+                assert_eq!(
+                    ours.decompress_sorted(initial, &actual, &mut decoded, width),
+                    actual_len
+                );
+                assert_eq!(decoded, values);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn assert_strictly_sorted_compatible(ours: BitPacker8x, external: ExternalBitPacker8x) {
+        for width in 0..=16 {
+            for seed in [0, 1, 2, 123456789] {
+                let (initial, values) = strictly_sorted_values(width, seed);
+                let num_bits = external.num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, &values);
+                assert_eq!(ours.num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial, &values), num_bits);
+
+                let mut actual = vec![0u8; BitPacker8x::compressed_block_size(num_bits)];
+                let actual_len =
+                    ours.compress_strictly_sorted(initial, &values, &mut actual, num_bits);
+
+                let mut expected = vec![0u8; ExternalBitPacker8x::compressed_block_size(num_bits)];
+                let expected_len =
+                    external.compress_strictly_sorted(initial, &values, &mut expected, num_bits);
+
+                assert_eq!(actual_len, expected_len);
+                assert_eq!(actual, expected, "strict width {width} seed {seed}");
+
+                let mut decoded = vec![0u32; BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN];
+                assert_eq!(
+                    ours.decompress_strictly_sorted(initial, &actual, &mut decoded, num_bits),
+                    actual_len
+                );
+                assert_eq!(decoded, values);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn bitpacker8x_raw_compatible_with_external_bitpacking() {
+        assert_raw_compatible(BitPacker8x::new(), ExternalBitPacker8x::new());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn bitpacker8x_sorted_compatible_with_external_bitpacking() {
+        assert_sorted_compatible(BitPacker8x::new(), ExternalBitPacker8x::new());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scalar_backend_matches_external_bitpacker8x() {
+        let scalar = BitPacker8x::new_scalar();
+        let external = ExternalBitPacker8x::new();
+
+        assert_raw_compatible(scalar, external);
+        assert_sorted_compatible(scalar, external);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scalar_backend_matches_external_strictly_sorted_bitpacker8x() {
+        let scalar = BitPacker8x::new_scalar();
+        let external = ExternalBitPacker8x::new();
+
+        assert_strictly_sorted_compatible(scalar, external);
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", target_endian = "little"))]
+    #[test]
+    fn neon_backend_matches_external_bitpacker8x() {
+        if let Some(neon) = BitPacker8x::new_neon() {
+            let external = ExternalBitPacker8x::new();
+
+            assert_raw_compatible(neon, external);
+            assert_sorted_compatible(neon, external);
+            assert_strictly_sorted_compatible(neon, external);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/macros.rs b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/macros.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e79686fe9af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/macros.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,669 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+macro_rules! pack_unpack_with_bits {
+
+    ($name:ident, $n:expr, $cpufeature:meta) => {
+
+
+        mod $name {
+
+            use crunchy::unroll;
+            use super::BLOCK_LEN;
+            use super::{Sink, Transformer};
+            use super::{DataType,
+                set1,
+                right_shift_32,
+                left_shift_32,
+                op_or,
+                op_and,
+                load_unaligned,
+                store_unaligned};
+
+            const NUM_BITS: usize = $n;
+            const NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK: usize = NUM_BITS * BLOCK_LEN / 8;
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            pub(crate) unsafe fn pack<TDeltaComputer: Transformer>(input_arr: &[u32], output_arr: &mut [u8], mut delta_computer: TDeltaComputer) -> usize {
+                assert_eq!(input_arr.len(), BLOCK_LEN, "Input block too small {}, (expected {})", input_arr.len(), BLOCK_LEN);
+                assert!(output_arr.len() >= NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK, "Output array too small (numbits {}). {} <= {}", NUM_BITS, output_arr.len(), NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK);
+
+                let input_ptr = input_arr.as_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+                let mut output_ptr = output_arr.as_mut_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+                let mut out_register: DataType = delta_computer.transform(load_unaligned(input_ptr));
+
+                unroll! {
+                    for iter in 0..30 {
+                        const i: usize = 1 + iter;
+
+                        const bits_filled: usize = i * NUM_BITS;
+                        const inner_cursor: usize = bits_filled % 32;
+                        const remaining: usize = 32 - inner_cursor;
+
+                        let offset_ptr = input_ptr.add(i);
+                        let in_register: DataType = delta_computer.transform(load_unaligned(offset_ptr));
+
+                        out_register =
+                            if inner_cursor > 0 {
+                                op_or(out_register, left_shift_32::<{inner_cursor as i32}>(in_register))
+                            } else {
+                                in_register
+                            };
+
+                        if remaining <= NUM_BITS {
+                            store_unaligned(output_ptr, out_register);
+                            output_ptr = output_ptr.add(1);
+                            if 0 < remaining && remaining < NUM_BITS {
+                                out_register = right_shift_32::<{remaining as i32}>(in_register);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                let in_register: DataType = delta_computer.transform(load_unaligned(input_ptr.add(31)));
+                out_register = if 32 - NUM_BITS > 0 {
+                    op_or(out_register, left_shift_32::<{32 - NUM_BITS as i32}>(in_register))
+                } else {
+                    op_or(out_register, in_register)
+                };
+                store_unaligned(output_ptr, out_register);
+
+                NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            pub(crate) unsafe fn unpack<Output: Sink>(compressed: &[u8], mut output: Output) -> usize {
+
+                assert!(compressed.len() >= NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK, "Compressed array seems too small. ({} < {}) ", compressed.len(), NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK);
+
+                let mut input_ptr = compressed.as_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+
+                let mask_scalar: u32 = ((1u64 << NUM_BITS) - 1u64) as u32;
+                let mask = set1(mask_scalar as i32);
+
+                let mut in_register: DataType = load_unaligned(input_ptr);
+
+                let out_register = op_and(in_register, mask);
+                output.process(out_register);
+
+                unroll! {
+                    for iter in 0..31 {
+                        const i: usize = iter + 1;
+
+                        const inner_cursor: usize = (i * NUM_BITS) % 32;
+                        const inner_capacity: usize = 32 - inner_cursor;
+
+                        let shifted_in_register = if inner_cursor != 0 {
+                            right_shift_32::<{inner_cursor as i32}>(in_register)
+                        } else {
+                            in_register
+                        };
+                        let mut out_register: DataType = op_and(shifted_in_register, mask);
+
+                        // We consumed our current quadruplets entirely.
+                        // We therefore read another one.
+                        if inner_capacity <= NUM_BITS && i != 31 {
+                            input_ptr = input_ptr.add(1);
+                            in_register = load_unaligned(input_ptr);
+
+                            // This quadruplets is actually cutting one of
+                            // our `DataType`. We need to read the next one.
+                            if inner_capacity < NUM_BITS {
+                                let shifted = if inner_capacity != 0 {
+                                    left_shift_32::<{inner_capacity as i32}>(in_register)
+                                } else {
+                                    in_register
+                                };
+                                let masked = op_and(shifted, mask);
+                                out_register = op_or(out_register, masked);
+                            }
+                        }
+
+                        output.process(out_register);
+                    }
+                }
+
+
+                NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+macro_rules! pack_unpack_with_bits_32 {
+    ($cpufeature:meta) => {
+        mod pack_unpack_with_bits_32 {
+            use super::BLOCK_LEN;
+            use super::{DataType, load_unaligned, store_unaligned};
+            use super::{Sink, Transformer};
+            use crunchy::unroll;
+
+            const NUM_BITS: usize = 32;
+            const NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK: usize = NUM_BITS * BLOCK_LEN / 8;
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            pub(crate) unsafe fn pack<TDeltaComputer: Transformer>(
+                input_arr: &[u32],
+                output_arr: &mut [u8],
+                mut delta_computer: TDeltaComputer,
+            ) -> usize {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    input_arr.len(),
+                    BLOCK_LEN,
+                    "Input block too small {}, (expected {})",
+                    input_arr.len(),
+                    BLOCK_LEN
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    output_arr.len() >= NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK,
+                    "Output array too small (numbits {}). {} <= {}",
+                    NUM_BITS,
+                    output_arr.len(),
+                    NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK
+                );
+
+                let input_ptr: *const DataType = input_arr.as_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+                let output_ptr = output_arr.as_mut_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+                unroll! {
+                    for i in 0..32 {
+                        let input_offset_ptr = input_ptr.add(i);
+                        let output_offset_ptr = output_ptr.add(i);
+                        let input_register = load_unaligned(input_offset_ptr);
+                        let output_register = delta_computer.transform(input_register);
+                        store_unaligned(output_offset_ptr, output_register);
+                    }
+                }
+                NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            pub(crate) unsafe fn unpack<Output: Sink>(
+                compressed: &[u8],
+                mut output: Output,
+            ) -> usize {
+                assert!(
+                    compressed.len() >= NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK,
+                    "Compressed array seems too small. ({} < {}) ",
+                    compressed.len(),
+                    NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK
+                );
+                let input_ptr = compressed.as_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+                for i in 0..32 {
+                    let input_offset_ptr = input_ptr.add(i);
+                    let in_register: DataType = load_unaligned(input_offset_ptr);
+                    output.process(in_register);
+                }
+                NUM_BYTES_PER_BLOCK
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+macro_rules! declare_bitpacker {
+    ($cpufeature:meta) => {
+        use super::super::UnsafeBitPacker;
+        use super::super::most_significant_bit;
+        use crunchy::unroll;
+
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_1, 1, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_2, 2, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_3, 3, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_4, 4, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_5, 5, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_6, 6, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_7, 7, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_8, 8, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_9, 9, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_10, 10, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_11, 11, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_12, 12, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_13, 13, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_14, 14, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_15, 15, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_16, 16, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_17, 17, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_18, 18, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_19, 19, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_20, 20, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_21, 21, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_22, 22, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_23, 23, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_24, 24, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_25, 25, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_26, 26, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_27, 27, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_28, 28, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_29, 29, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_30, 30, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits!(pack_unpack_with_bits_31, 31, $cpufeature);
+        pack_unpack_with_bits_32!($cpufeature);
+
+        unsafe fn compress_generic<DeltaComputer: Transformer>(
+            decompressed: &[u32],
+            compressed: &mut [u8],
+            num_bits: u8,
+            delta_computer: DeltaComputer,
+        ) -> usize {
+            match num_bits {
+                0 => 0,
+                1 => pack_unpack_with_bits_1::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                2 => pack_unpack_with_bits_2::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                3 => pack_unpack_with_bits_3::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                4 => pack_unpack_with_bits_4::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                5 => pack_unpack_with_bits_5::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                6 => pack_unpack_with_bits_6::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                7 => pack_unpack_with_bits_7::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                8 => pack_unpack_with_bits_8::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                9 => pack_unpack_with_bits_9::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                10 => pack_unpack_with_bits_10::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                11 => pack_unpack_with_bits_11::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                12 => pack_unpack_with_bits_12::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                13 => pack_unpack_with_bits_13::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                14 => pack_unpack_with_bits_14::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                15 => pack_unpack_with_bits_15::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                16 => pack_unpack_with_bits_16::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                17 => pack_unpack_with_bits_17::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                18 => pack_unpack_with_bits_18::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                19 => pack_unpack_with_bits_19::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                20 => pack_unpack_with_bits_20::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                21 => pack_unpack_with_bits_21::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                22 => pack_unpack_with_bits_22::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                23 => pack_unpack_with_bits_23::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                24 => pack_unpack_with_bits_24::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                25 => pack_unpack_with_bits_25::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                26 => pack_unpack_with_bits_26::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                27 => pack_unpack_with_bits_27::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                28 => pack_unpack_with_bits_28::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                29 => pack_unpack_with_bits_29::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                30 => pack_unpack_with_bits_30::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                31 => pack_unpack_with_bits_31::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                32 => pack_unpack_with_bits_32::pack(decompressed, compressed, delta_computer),
+                _ => {
+                    panic!("Num bits must be <= 32. Was {}.", num_bits);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        pub trait Transformer {
+            unsafe fn transform(&mut self, data: DataType) -> DataType;
+        }
+
+        struct NoDelta;
+
+        impl Transformer for NoDelta {
+            #[inline]
+            unsafe fn transform(&mut self, current: DataType) -> DataType {
+                current
+            }
+        }
+
+        struct DeltaComputer {
+            pub previous: DataType,
+        }
+
+        impl Transformer for DeltaComputer {
+            #[inline]
+            unsafe fn transform(&mut self, current: DataType) -> DataType {
+                let result = compute_delta(current, self.previous);
+                self.previous = current;
+                result
+            }
+        }
+
+        struct StrictDeltaComputer {
+            pub previous: DataType,
+        }
+
+        impl Transformer for StrictDeltaComputer {
+            #[inline]
+            unsafe fn transform(&mut self, current: DataType) -> DataType {
+                let result = compute_delta(current, self.previous);
+                self.previous = current;
+                sub(result, set1(1))
+            }
+        }
+
+        pub trait Sink {
+            unsafe fn process(&mut self, data_type: DataType);
+        }
+
+        struct Store {
+            output_ptr: *mut DataType,
+        }
+
+        impl Store {
+            fn new(output_ptr: *mut DataType) -> Store {
+                Store { output_ptr }
+            }
+        }
+
+        struct DeltaIntegrate {
+            current: DataType,
+            output_ptr: *mut DataType,
+        }
+
+        impl DeltaIntegrate {
+            unsafe fn new(initial: u32, output_ptr: *mut DataType) -> DeltaIntegrate {
+                DeltaIntegrate {
+                    current: set1(initial as i32),
+                    output_ptr,
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl Sink for DeltaIntegrate {
+            #[inline]
+            unsafe fn process(&mut self, delta: DataType) {
+                self.current = integrate_delta(self.current, delta);
+                store_unaligned(self.output_ptr, self.current);
+                self.output_ptr = self.output_ptr.add(1);
+            }
+        }
+
+        struct StrictDeltaIntegrate {
+            current: DataType,
+            output_ptr: *mut DataType,
+        }
+
+        impl StrictDeltaIntegrate {
+            unsafe fn new(initial: u32, output_ptr: *mut DataType) -> StrictDeltaIntegrate {
+                StrictDeltaIntegrate {
+                    current: set1(initial as i32),
+                    output_ptr,
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl Sink for StrictDeltaIntegrate {
+            #[inline]
+            unsafe fn process(&mut self, delta: DataType) {
+                self.current = integrate_delta(self.current, add(delta, set1(1)));
+                store_unaligned(self.output_ptr, self.current);
+                self.output_ptr = self.output_ptr.add(1);
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl Sink for Store {
+            #[inline]
+            unsafe fn process(&mut self, out_register: DataType) {
+                store_unaligned(self.output_ptr, out_register);
+                self.output_ptr = self.output_ptr.add(1);
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[inline]
+        unsafe fn decompress_to<Output: Sink>(
+            compressed: &[u8],
+            mut sink: Output,
+            num_bits: u8,
+        ) -> usize {
+            match num_bits {
+                0 => {
+                    let zero = set1(0i32);
+                    for _ in 0..32 {
+                        sink.process(zero);
+                    }
+                    0
+                }
+                1 => pack_unpack_with_bits_1::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                2 => pack_unpack_with_bits_2::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                3 => pack_unpack_with_bits_3::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                4 => pack_unpack_with_bits_4::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                5 => pack_unpack_with_bits_5::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                6 => pack_unpack_with_bits_6::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                7 => pack_unpack_with_bits_7::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                8 => pack_unpack_with_bits_8::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                9 => pack_unpack_with_bits_9::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                10 => pack_unpack_with_bits_10::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                11 => pack_unpack_with_bits_11::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                12 => pack_unpack_with_bits_12::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                13 => pack_unpack_with_bits_13::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                14 => pack_unpack_with_bits_14::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                15 => pack_unpack_with_bits_15::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                16 => pack_unpack_with_bits_16::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                17 => pack_unpack_with_bits_17::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                18 => pack_unpack_with_bits_18::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                19 => pack_unpack_with_bits_19::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                20 => pack_unpack_with_bits_20::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                21 => pack_unpack_with_bits_21::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                22 => pack_unpack_with_bits_22::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                23 => pack_unpack_with_bits_23::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                24 => pack_unpack_with_bits_24::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                25 => pack_unpack_with_bits_25::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                26 => pack_unpack_with_bits_26::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                27 => pack_unpack_with_bits_27::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                28 => pack_unpack_with_bits_28::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                29 => pack_unpack_with_bits_29::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                30 => pack_unpack_with_bits_30::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                31 => pack_unpack_with_bits_31::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                32 => pack_unpack_with_bits_32::unpack(compressed, sink),
+                _ => {
+                    panic!("Num bits must be <= 32. Was {}.", num_bits);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        pub struct UnsafeBitPackerImpl;
+
+        impl UnsafeBitPacker for UnsafeBitPackerImpl {
+            const BLOCK_LEN: usize = BLOCK_LEN;
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            unsafe fn compress(decompressed: &[u32], compressed: &mut [u8], num_bits: u8) -> usize {
+                compress_generic(decompressed, compressed, num_bits, NoDelta)
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            unsafe fn compress_sorted(
+                initial: u32,
+                decompressed: &[u32],
+                compressed: &mut [u8],
+                num_bits: u8,
+            ) -> usize {
+                let delta_computer = DeltaComputer {
+                    previous: set1(initial as i32),
+                };
+                compress_generic(decompressed, compressed, num_bits, delta_computer)
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            unsafe fn compress_strictly_sorted(
+                initial: Option<u32>,
+                decompressed: &[u32],
+                compressed: &mut [u8],
+                num_bits: u8,
+            ) -> usize {
+                // to allow encoding [0, 1, 2, ..], we need to permit an initial value "lower" than
+                // zero. To get a clean api, that value is None, but in practice, as we work on
+                // wrapping integers, u32::MAX/-1 does the job just fine.
+                let initial = initial.unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+                let delta_computer = StrictDeltaComputer {
+                    previous: set1(initial as i32),
+                };
+                compress_generic(decompressed, compressed, num_bits, delta_computer)
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            unsafe fn decompress(
+                compressed: &[u8],
+                decompressed: &mut [u32],
+                num_bits: u8,
+            ) -> usize {
+                assert!(
+                    decompressed.len() >= BLOCK_LEN,
+                    "The output array is not large enough : ({} >= {})",
+                    decompressed.len(),
+                    BLOCK_LEN
+                );
+                let output_ptr = decompressed.as_mut_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+                let output = Store::new(output_ptr);
+                decompress_to(compressed, output, num_bits)
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            unsafe fn decompress_sorted(
+                initial: u32,
+                compressed: &[u8],
+                decompressed: &mut [u32],
+                num_bits: u8,
+            ) -> usize {
+                assert!(
+                    decompressed.len() >= BLOCK_LEN,
+                    "The output array is not large enough : ({} >= {})",
+                    decompressed.len(),
+                    BLOCK_LEN
+                );
+                let output_ptr = decompressed.as_mut_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+                let output = DeltaIntegrate::new(initial, output_ptr);
+                decompress_to(compressed, output, num_bits)
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            unsafe fn decompress_strictly_sorted(
+                initial: Option<u32>,
+                compressed: &[u8],
+                decompressed: &mut [u32],
+                num_bits: u8,
+            ) -> usize {
+                assert!(
+                    decompressed.len() >= BLOCK_LEN,
+                    "The output array is not large enough : ({} >= {})",
+                    decompressed.len(),
+                    BLOCK_LEN
+                );
+                let initial = initial.unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+                let output_ptr = decompressed.as_mut_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+                let output = StrictDeltaIntegrate::new(initial, output_ptr);
+                decompress_to(compressed, output, num_bits)
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            unsafe fn num_bits(decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8 {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    decompressed.len(),
+                    BLOCK_LEN,
+                    "`decompressed`'s len is not `BLOCK_LEN={}`",
+                    BLOCK_LEN
+                );
+                let data: *const DataType = decompressed.as_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+                let mut accumulator = load_unaligned(data);
+                unroll! {
+                    for iter in 0..31 {
+                        let i = iter + 1;
+                        let newvec = load_unaligned(data.add(i));
+                        accumulator = op_or(accumulator, newvec);
+                    }
+                }
+                most_significant_bit(or_collapse_to_u32(accumulator))
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            unsafe fn num_bits_sorted(initial: u32, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8 {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    decompressed.len(),
+                    BLOCK_LEN,
+                    "`decompressed`'s len is not `BLOCK_LEN={}`",
+                    BLOCK_LEN
+                );
+                let initial_vec = set1(initial as i32);
+                let data: *const DataType = decompressed.as_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+
+                let first = load_unaligned(data);
+                let mut accumulator = compute_delta(load_unaligned(data), initial_vec);
+                let mut previous = first;
+
+                unroll! {
+                    for iter in 0..30 {
+                        let i = iter + 1;
+                        let current = load_unaligned(data.add(i));
+                        let delta = compute_delta(current, previous);
+                        accumulator =  op_or(accumulator, delta);
+                        previous = current;
+                    }
+                }
+                let current = load_unaligned(data.add(31));
+                let delta = compute_delta(current, previous);
+                accumulator = op_or(accumulator, delta);
+                most_significant_bit(or_collapse_to_u32(accumulator))
+            }
+
+            #[$cpufeature]
+            unsafe fn num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial: Option<u32>, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8 {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    decompressed.len(),
+                    BLOCK_LEN,
+                    "`decompressed`'s len is not `BLOCK_LEN={}`",
+                    BLOCK_LEN
+                );
+                let initial = initial.unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+                let initial_vec = set1(initial as i32);
+                let one = set1(1);
+                let data: *const DataType = decompressed.as_ptr().cast::<DataType>();
+
+                let first = load_unaligned(data);
+                let mut accumulator = sub(compute_delta(load_unaligned(data), initial_vec), one);
+                let mut previous = first;
+
+                unroll! {
+                    for iter in 0..30 {
+                        let i = iter + 1;
+                        let current = load_unaligned(data.add(i));
+                        let delta = sub(compute_delta(current, previous), one);
+                        accumulator =  op_or(accumulator, delta);
+                        previous = current;
+                    }
+                }
+                let current = load_unaligned(data.add(31));
+                let delta = sub(compute_delta(current, previous), one);
+                accumulator = op_or(accumulator, delta);
+                most_significant_bit(or_collapse_to_u32(accumulator))
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[cfg(any())]
+        mod tests {
+            use super::super::UnsafeBitPacker;
+            use super::UnsafeBitPackerImpl;
+            use crate::Available;
+            use crate::tests::{DeltaKind, test_suite_compress_decompress};
+
+            #[test]
+            fn test_num_bits() {
+                if UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available() {
+                    for num_bits in 0..32 {
+                        for pos in 0..32 {
+                            let mut vals = [0u32; UnsafeBitPackerImpl::BLOCK_LEN];
+                            if num_bits > 0 {
+                                vals[pos] = 1 << (num_bits - 1);
+                            }
+                            assert_eq!(
+                                unsafe { UnsafeBitPackerImpl::num_bits(&vals[..]) },
+                                num_bits
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            #[test]
+            fn test_bitpacker() {
+                if UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available() {
+                    test_suite_compress_decompress::<UnsafeBitPackerImpl>(DeltaKind::NoDelta);
+                }
+            }
+
+            #[test]
+            fn test_bitpacker_delta() {
+                if UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available() {
+                    test_suite_compress_decompress::<UnsafeBitPackerImpl>(DeltaKind::Delta);
+                }
+            }
+
+            #[test]
+            fn test_bitpacker_strict_delta() {
+                if UnsafeBitPackerImpl::available() {
+                    test_suite_compress_decompress::<UnsafeBitPackerImpl>(DeltaKind::StrictDelta);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
diff --git a/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/mod.rs b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..80803e50ec8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/bitpacker_internal/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+// Lance-owned u32 SIMD bitpacking kernels.
+//
+// This is adapted from the MIT-licensed `bitpacking` crate so Lance can keep the
+// hot FTS posting-list bitpacking implementation inside lance-bitpacking while
+// preserving byte compatibility with the existing 4x format.
+
+#![allow(dead_code)]
+#![allow(unsafe_op_in_unsafe_fn)]
+#![allow(clippy::redundant_pub_crate)]
+#![allow(clippy::upper_case_acronyms)]
+#![allow(clippy::use_self)]
+
+#[macro_use]
+mod macros;
+
+mod bitpacker4x;
+mod bitpacker8x;
+
+pub use bitpacker4x::BitPacker4x;
+pub use bitpacker8x::BitPacker8x;
+
+pub(crate) trait Available {
+    fn available() -> bool;
+}
+
+pub(crate) trait UnsafeBitPacker {
+    const BLOCK_LEN: usize;
+
+    unsafe fn compress(decompressed: &[u32], compressed: &mut [u8], num_bits: u8) -> usize;
+
+    unsafe fn compress_sorted(
+        initial: u32,
+        decompressed: &[u32],
+        compressed: &mut [u8],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize;
+
+    unsafe fn compress_strictly_sorted(
+        initial: Option<u32>,
+        decompressed: &[u32],
+        compressed: &mut [u8],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize;
+
+    unsafe fn decompress(compressed: &[u8], decompressed: &mut [u32], num_bits: u8) -> usize;
+
+    unsafe fn decompress_sorted(
+        initial: u32,
+        compressed: &[u8],
+        decompressed: &mut [u32],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize;
+
+    unsafe fn decompress_strictly_sorted(
+        initial: Option<u32>,
+        compressed: &[u8],
+        decompressed: &mut [u32],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize;
+
+    unsafe fn num_bits(decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8;
+
+    unsafe fn num_bits_sorted(initial: u32, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8;
+
+    unsafe fn num_bits_strictly_sorted(initial: Option<u32>, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8;
+}
+
+/// Block bitpacker for fixed-size `u32` blocks.
+///
+/// Implementations own runtime SIMD dispatch and use caller-provided buffers.
+/// Packed bytes are stable for a given implementation and bit width.
+pub trait BitPacker: Sized + Clone + Copy {
+    /// Number of `u32` values in one physical block.
+    const BLOCK_LEN: usize;
+
+    /// Select the best supported implementation for the current CPU.
+    ///
+    /// Lance uses SIMD backends when available and falls back to a scalar
+    /// backend otherwise, matching the existing allocation-free call shape used
+    /// by the upstream `bitpacking` crate.
+    fn new() -> Self;
+
+    /// Compress one full block of raw values into `compressed`.
+    fn compress(&self, decompressed: &[u32], compressed: &mut [u8], num_bits: u8) -> usize;
+
+    /// Delta-compress one full non-decreasing block into `compressed`.
+    fn compress_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: u32,
+        decompressed: &[u32],
+        compressed: &mut [u8],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize;
+
+    /// Delta-compress one full strictly increasing block into `compressed`.
+    fn compress_strictly_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: Option<u32>,
+        decompressed: &[u32],
+        compressed: &mut [u8],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize;
+
+    /// Decompress one raw block into `decompressed`.
+    fn decompress(&self, compressed: &[u8], decompressed: &mut [u32], num_bits: u8) -> usize;
+
+    /// Decompress one delta-compressed non-decreasing block.
+    fn decompress_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: u32,
+        compressed: &[u8],
+        decompressed: &mut [u32],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize;
+
+    /// Decompress one delta-compressed strictly increasing block.
+    fn decompress_strictly_sorted(
+        &self,
+        initial: Option<u32>,
+        compressed: &[u8],
+        decompressed: &mut [u32],
+        num_bits: u8,
+    ) -> usize;
+
+    /// Return the minimum bit width needed to represent a full raw block.
+    fn num_bits(&self, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8;
+
+    /// Return the minimum bit width needed to represent deltas in a full block.
+    fn num_bits_sorted(&self, initial: u32, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8;
+
+    /// Return the minimum bit width needed to represent strict deltas in a full block.
+    fn num_bits_strictly_sorted(&self, initial: Option<u32>, decompressed: &[u32]) -> u8;
+
+    /// Return the byte size of one compressed block at `num_bits`.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn compressed_block_size(num_bits: u8) -> usize {
+        Self::BLOCK_LEN * num_bits as usize / 8
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn most_significant_bit(value: u32) -> u8 {
+    (u32::BITS - value.leading_zeros()) as u8
+}
diff --git a/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/lib.rs b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/lib.rs
index 0101c4a1df0..4c2458fb153 100644
--- a/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/compression/bitpacking/src/lib.rs
@@ -14,7 +14,11 @@
 // https://github.com/spiraldb/fastlanes/blob/8e0ff374f815d919d0c0ebdccf5ffd9e6dc7d663/LICENSE
 
 use arrayref::{array_mut_ref, array_ref};
-use core::mem::size_of;
+use core::mem::{MaybeUninit, size_of};
+
+mod bitpacker_internal;
+
+pub use bitpacker_internal::{BitPacker, BitPacker4x, BitPacker8x};
 
 pub const FL_ORDER: [usize; 8] = [0, 4, 2, 6, 1, 5, 3, 7];
 
@@ -51,7 +55,7 @@ macro_rules! pack {
                 // Special case for W=T, we can just copy the input value directly to the packed value.
                 paste!(seq_t!(row in $T {
                     let idx = index(row, $lane);
-                    $packed[<$T>::LANES * row + $lane] = __kernel__!(idx);
+                    $packed[<$T>::LANES * row + $lane].write(__kernel__!(idx));
                 }));
             } else {
                 // A mask of W bits.
@@ -82,7 +86,7 @@ macro_rules! pack {
 
                     #[allow(unused_assignments)]
                     if next_word > curr_word {
-                        $packed[<$T>::LANES * curr_word + $lane] = tmp;
+                        $packed[<$T>::LANES * curr_word + $lane].write(tmp);
                         let remaining_bits: usize = ((row + 1) * $W) % T;
                         // Keep the remaining bits for the next packed value.
                         tmp = src >> $W - remaining_bits;
@@ -196,8 +200,66 @@ pub trait BitPacking: FastLanes {
     unsafe fn unchecked_unpack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]);
 }
 
-impl BitPacking for u8 {
-    unsafe fn unchecked_pack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+/// Bitpacking kernels that can initialize previously uninitialized output storage.
+pub trait BitPackingUninit: BitPacking {
+    /// Packs into potentially uninitialized output storage.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The input and output lengths have the same requirements as
+    /// [`BitPacking::unchecked_pack`]. Every output element is initialized on return.
+    unsafe fn unchecked_pack_uninit(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>]);
+
+    /// Unpacks into potentially uninitialized output storage.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The input and output lengths have the same requirements as
+    /// [`BitPacking::unchecked_unpack`]. Every output element is initialized on return.
+    unsafe fn unchecked_unpack_uninit(
+        width: usize,
+        input: &[Self],
+        output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>],
+    );
+}
+
+macro_rules! impl_bitpacking_compat {
+    ($ty:ty) => {
+        impl BitPacking for $ty {
+            unsafe fn unchecked_pack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+                let output = unsafe {
+                    core::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(
+                        output.as_mut_ptr().cast::<MaybeUninit<Self>>(),
+                        output.len(),
+                    )
+                };
+                unsafe { <Self as BitPackingUninit>::unchecked_pack_uninit(width, input, output) };
+            }
+
+            unsafe fn unchecked_unpack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+                let output = unsafe {
+                    core::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(
+                        output.as_mut_ptr().cast::<MaybeUninit<Self>>(),
+                        output.len(),
+                    )
+                };
+                unsafe {
+                    <Self as BitPackingUninit>::unchecked_unpack_uninit(width, input, output)
+                };
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+impl_bitpacking_compat!(u8);
+impl_bitpacking_compat!(u16);
+impl_bitpacking_compat!(u32);
+impl_bitpacking_compat!(u64);
+
+impl BitPackingUninit for u8 {
+    unsafe fn unchecked_pack_uninit(
+        width: usize,
+        input: &[Self],
+        output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>],
+    ) {
         let packed_len = 128 * width / size_of::<Self>();
         debug_assert_eq!(
             output.len(),
@@ -252,7 +314,11 @@ impl BitPacking for u8 {
         }
     }
 
-    unsafe fn unchecked_unpack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+    unsafe fn unchecked_unpack_uninit(
+        width: usize,
+        input: &[Self],
+        output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>],
+    ) {
         let packed_len = 128 * width / size_of::<Self>();
         debug_assert_eq!(
             input.len(),
@@ -269,7 +335,7 @@ impl BitPacking for u8 {
         match width {
             0 => {
                 // A zero-width packed chunk implies all zeros.
-                output.fill(0);
+                output.fill(MaybeUninit::new(0));
             }
             1 => unpack_8_1(
                 array_ref![input, 0, 1024 / 8],
@@ -309,8 +375,12 @@ impl BitPacking for u8 {
     }
 }
 
-impl BitPacking for u16 {
-    unsafe fn unchecked_pack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+impl BitPackingUninit for u16 {
+    unsafe fn unchecked_pack_uninit(
+        width: usize,
+        input: &[Self],
+        output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>],
+    ) {
         let packed_len = 128 * width / size_of::<Self>();
         debug_assert_eq!(
             output.len(),
@@ -398,7 +468,11 @@ impl BitPacking for u16 {
         }
     }
 
-    unsafe fn unchecked_unpack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+    unsafe fn unchecked_unpack_uninit(
+        width: usize,
+        input: &[Self],
+        output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>],
+    ) {
         let packed_len = 128 * width / size_of::<Self>();
         debug_assert_eq!(
             input.len(),
@@ -414,7 +488,7 @@ impl BitPacking for u16 {
 
         match width {
             0 => {
-                output.fill(0);
+                output.fill(MaybeUninit::new(0));
             }
             1 => unpack_16_1(
                 array_ref![input, 0, 1024 / 16],
@@ -487,8 +561,12 @@ impl BitPacking for u16 {
     }
 }
 
-impl BitPacking for u32 {
-    unsafe fn unchecked_pack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+impl BitPackingUninit for u32 {
+    unsafe fn unchecked_pack_uninit(
+        width: usize,
+        input: &[Self],
+        output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>],
+    ) {
         let packed_len = 128 * width / size_of::<Self>();
         debug_assert_eq!(
             output.len(),
@@ -642,7 +720,11 @@ impl BitPacking for u32 {
         }
     }
 
-    unsafe fn unchecked_unpack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+    unsafe fn unchecked_unpack_uninit(
+        width: usize,
+        input: &[Self],
+        output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>],
+    ) {
         let packed_len = 128 * width / size_of::<Self>();
         debug_assert_eq!(
             input.len(),
@@ -658,7 +740,7 @@ impl BitPacking for u32 {
 
         match width {
             0 => {
-                output.fill(0);
+                output.fill(MaybeUninit::new(0));
             }
             1 => unpack_32_1(
                 array_ref![input, 0, 1024 / 32],
@@ -797,8 +879,12 @@ impl BitPacking for u32 {
     }
 }
 
-impl BitPacking for u64 {
-    unsafe fn unchecked_pack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+impl BitPackingUninit for u64 {
+    unsafe fn unchecked_pack_uninit(
+        width: usize,
+        input: &[Self],
+        output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>],
+    ) {
         let packed_len = 128 * width / size_of::<Self>();
         debug_assert_eq!(
             output.len(),
@@ -1083,7 +1169,11 @@ impl BitPacking for u64 {
         }
     }
 
-    unsafe fn unchecked_unpack(width: usize, input: &[Self], output: &mut [Self]) {
+    unsafe fn unchecked_unpack_uninit(
+        width: usize,
+        input: &[Self],
+        output: &mut [MaybeUninit<Self>],
+    ) {
         let packed_len = 128 * width / size_of::<Self>();
         debug_assert_eq!(
             input.len(),
@@ -1099,7 +1189,7 @@ impl BitPacking for u64 {
 
         match width {
             0 => {
-                output.fill(0);
+                output.fill(MaybeUninit::new(0));
             }
             1 => unpack_64_1(
                 array_ref![input, 0, 1024 / 64],
@@ -1371,10 +1461,10 @@ impl BitPacking for u64 {
 
 macro_rules! unpack_8 {
     ($name:ident, $bits:expr) => {
-        fn $name(input: &[u8; 1024 * $bits / u8::T], output: &mut [u8; 1024]) {
+        fn $name(input: &[u8; 1024 * $bits / u8::T], output: &mut [MaybeUninit<u8>; 1024]) {
             for lane in 0..u8::LANES {
                 unpack!(u8, $bits, input, lane, |$idx, $elem| {
-                    output[$idx] = $elem;
+                    output[$idx].write($elem);
                 });
             }
         }
@@ -1392,7 +1482,7 @@ unpack_8!(unpack_8_8, 8);
 
 macro_rules! pack_8 {
     ($name:ident, $bits:expr) => {
-        fn $name(input: &[u8; 1024], output: &mut [u8; 1024 * $bits / u8::T]) {
+        fn $name(input: &[u8; 1024], output: &mut [MaybeUninit<u8>; 1024 * $bits / u8::T]) {
             for lane in 0..u8::LANES {
                 pack!(u8, $bits, output, lane, |$idx| { input[$idx] });
             }
@@ -1410,10 +1500,10 @@ pack_8!(pack_8_8, 8);
 
 macro_rules! unpack_16 {
     ($name:ident, $bits:expr) => {
-        fn $name(input: &[u16; 1024 * $bits / u16::T], output: &mut [u16; 1024]) {
+        fn $name(input: &[u16; 1024 * $bits / u16::T], output: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>; 1024]) {
             for lane in 0..u16::LANES {
                 unpack!(u16, $bits, input, lane, |$idx, $elem| {
-                    output[$idx] = $elem;
+                    output[$idx].write($elem);
                 });
             }
         }
@@ -1439,7 +1529,7 @@ unpack_16!(unpack_16_16, 16);
 
 macro_rules! pack_16 {
     ($name:ident, $bits:expr) => {
-        fn $name(input: &[u16; 1024], output: &mut [u16; 1024 * $bits / u16::T]) {
+        fn $name(input: &[u16; 1024], output: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>; 1024 * $bits / u16::T]) {
             for lane in 0..u16::LANES {
                 pack!(u16, $bits, output, lane, |$idx| { input[$idx] });
             }
@@ -1466,10 +1556,10 @@ pack_16!(pack_16_16, 16);
 
 macro_rules! unpack_32 {
     ($name:ident, $bit_width:expr) => {
-        fn $name(input: &[u32; 1024 * $bit_width / u32::T], output: &mut [u32; 1024]) {
+        fn $name(input: &[u32; 1024 * $bit_width / u32::T], output: &mut [MaybeUninit<u32>; 1024]) {
             for lane in 0..u32::LANES {
                 unpack!(u32, $bit_width, input, lane, |$idx, $elem| {
-                    output[$idx] = $elem
+                    output[$idx].write($elem);
                 });
             }
         }
@@ -1511,7 +1601,10 @@ unpack_32!(unpack_32_32, 32);
 
 macro_rules! pack_32 {
     ($name:ident, $bits:expr) => {
-        fn $name(input: &[u32; 1024], output: &mut [u32; 1024 * $bits / u32::BITS as usize]) {
+        fn $name(
+            input: &[u32; 1024],
+            output: &mut [MaybeUninit<u32>; 1024 * $bits / u32::BITS as usize],
+        ) {
             for lane in 0..u32::LANES {
                 pack!(u32, $bits, output, lane, |$idx| { input[$idx] });
             }
@@ -1554,10 +1647,10 @@ pack_32!(pack_32_32, 32);
 
 macro_rules! unpack_64 {
     ($name:ident, $bit_width:expr) => {
-        fn $name(input: &[u64; 1024 * $bit_width / u64::T], output: &mut [u64; 1024]) {
+        fn $name(input: &[u64; 1024 * $bit_width / u64::T], output: &mut [MaybeUninit<u64>; 1024]) {
             for lane in 0..u64::LANES {
                 unpack!(u64, $bit_width, input, lane, |$idx, $elem| {
-                    output[$idx] = $elem
+                    output[$idx].write($elem);
                 });
             }
         }
@@ -1632,7 +1725,10 @@ unpack_64!(unpack_64_64, 64);
 
 macro_rules! pack_64 {
     ($name:ident, $bits:expr) => {
-        fn $name(input: &[u64; 1024], output: &mut [u64; 1024 * $bits / u64::BITS as usize]) {
+        fn $name(
+            input: &[u64; 1024],
+            output: &mut [MaybeUninit<u64>; 1024 * $bits / u64::BITS as usize],
+        ) {
             for lane in 0..u64::LANES {
                 pack!(u64, $bits, output, lane, |$idx| { input[$idx] });
             }
@@ -1709,6 +1805,7 @@ pack_64!(pack_64_64, 64);
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
     use super::*;
+    use bitpacking::{BitPacker as ExternalBitPacker, BitPacker4x as ExternalBitPacker4x};
     use core::array;
     // a fast random number generator
     pub struct XorShift {
@@ -1730,6 +1827,104 @@ mod test {
         }
     }
 
+    fn mask_for_width(width: u8) -> u32 {
+        match width {
+            0 => 0,
+            32 => u32::MAX,
+            _ => (1u32 << width) - 1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn raw_bitpacker4x_case(width: u8, seed: u64) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let mask = mask_for_width(width);
+        let mut rng = XorShift::new(seed);
+        (0..BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN)
+            .map(|idx| match seed % 4 {
+                0 => 0,
+                1 => mask,
+                2 => idx as u32 & mask,
+                _ => (rng.next() as u32) & mask,
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn sorted_bitpacker4x_case(width: u8, seed: u64) -> (u32, Vec<u32>) {
+        if width == 0 {
+            return (17, vec![17; BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN]);
+        }
+        if width == 32 {
+            return (0, vec![u32::MAX; BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN]);
+        }
+
+        let mask = mask_for_width(width).min(127);
+        let mut rng = XorShift::new(seed);
+        let mut current = 17u32;
+        let values = (0..BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN)
+            .map(|_| {
+                current += (rng.next() as u32) & mask;
+                current
+            })
+            .collect();
+        (17, values)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitpacker4x_raw_compatible_with_external_bitpacking() {
+        let ours = BitPacker4x::new();
+        let external = ExternalBitPacker4x::new();
+
+        for width in 0..=32 {
+            for seed in [0, 1, 2, 123456789] {
+                let values = raw_bitpacker4x_case(width, seed);
+                assert_eq!(ours.num_bits(&values), external.num_bits(&values));
+
+                let mut actual = vec![0u8; BitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+                let actual_len = ours.compress(&values, &mut actual, width);
+
+                let mut expected = vec![0u8; ExternalBitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+                let expected_len = external.compress(&values, &mut expected, width);
+
+                assert_eq!(actual_len, expected_len);
+                assert_eq!(actual, expected, "width {width} seed {seed}");
+
+                let mut decoded = vec![0u32; BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN];
+                let consumed = ours.decompress(&actual, &mut decoded, width);
+                assert_eq!(consumed, actual_len);
+                assert_eq!(decoded, values);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitpacker4x_sorted_compatible_with_external_bitpacking() {
+        let ours = BitPacker4x::new();
+        let external = ExternalBitPacker4x::new();
+
+        for width in 0..=32 {
+            for seed in [0, 1, 2, 123456789] {
+                let (initial, values) = sorted_bitpacker4x_case(width, seed);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    ours.num_bits_sorted(initial, &values),
+                    external.num_bits_sorted(initial, &values)
+                );
+
+                let mut actual = vec![0u8; BitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+                let actual_len = ours.compress_sorted(initial, &values, &mut actual, width);
+
+                let mut expected = vec![0u8; ExternalBitPacker4x::compressed_block_size(width)];
+                let expected_len = external.compress_sorted(initial, &values, &mut expected, width);
+
+                assert_eq!(actual_len, expected_len);
+                assert_eq!(actual, expected, "width {width} seed {seed}");
+
+                let mut decoded = vec![0u32; BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN];
+                let consumed = ours.decompress_sorted(initial, &actual, &mut decoded, width);
+                assert_eq!(consumed, actual_len);
+                assert_eq!(decoded, values);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     // a macro version of this function generalize u8, u16, u32, u64 takes very long time for a test build, so I
     // write it for each type separately
     fn pack_unpack_u8(bit_width: usize) {
@@ -1739,13 +1934,16 @@ mod test {
             *value = (rng.next() % (1 << bit_width)) as u8;
         }
 
-        let mut packed = vec![0; 1024 * bit_width / 8];
+        let mut packed = vec![MaybeUninit::uninit(); 1024 * bit_width / 8];
         for lane in 0..u8::LANES {
             // Always loop over lanes first. This is what the compiler vectorizes.
             pack!(u8, bit_width, packed, lane, |$pos| {
                 values[$pos]
             });
         }
+        // The pack kernel writes every element of the packed output.
+        let packed =
+            unsafe { core::slice::from_raw_parts(packed.as_ptr().cast::<u8>(), packed.len()) };
 
         let mut unpacked: [u8; 1024] = [0; 1024];
         for lane in 0..u8::LANES {
@@ -1765,13 +1963,16 @@ mod test {
             *value = (rng.next() % (1 << bit_width)) as u16;
         }
 
-        let mut packed = vec![0; 1024 * bit_width / 16];
+        let mut packed = vec![MaybeUninit::uninit(); 1024 * bit_width / 16];
         for lane in 0..u16::LANES {
             // Always loop over lanes first. This is what the compiler vectorizes.
             pack!(u16, bit_width, packed, lane, |$pos| {
                 values[$pos]
             });
         }
+        // The pack kernel writes every element of the packed output.
+        let packed =
+            unsafe { core::slice::from_raw_parts(packed.as_ptr().cast::<u16>(), packed.len()) };
 
         let mut unpacked: [u16; 1024] = [0; 1024];
         for lane in 0..u16::LANES {
@@ -1791,13 +1992,16 @@ mod test {
             *value = (rng.next() % (1 << bit_width)) as u32;
         }
 
-        let mut packed = vec![0; 1024 * bit_width / 32];
+        let mut packed = vec![MaybeUninit::uninit(); 1024 * bit_width / 32];
         for lane in 0..u32::LANES {
             // Always loop over lanes first. This is what the compiler vectorizes.
             pack!(u32, bit_width, packed, lane, |$pos| {
                 values[$pos]
             });
         }
+        // The pack kernel writes every element of the packed output.
+        let packed =
+            unsafe { core::slice::from_raw_parts(packed.as_ptr().cast::<u32>(), packed.len()) };
 
         let mut unpacked: [u32; 1024] = [0; 1024];
         for lane in 0..u32::LANES {
@@ -1823,13 +2027,16 @@ mod test {
             }
         }
 
-        let mut packed = vec![0; 1024 * bit_width / 64];
+        let mut packed = vec![MaybeUninit::uninit(); 1024 * bit_width / 64];
         for lane in 0..u64::LANES {
             // Always loop over lanes first. This is what the compiler vectorizes.
             pack!(u64, bit_width, packed, lane, |$pos| {
                 values[$pos]
             });
         }
+        // The pack kernel writes every element of the packed output.
+        let packed =
+            unsafe { core::slice::from_raw_parts(packed.as_ptr().cast::<u64>(), packed.len()) };
 
         let mut unpacked: [u64; 1024] = [0; 1024];
         for lane in 0..u64::LANES {
@@ -2025,6 +2232,10 @@ mod test {
             for value in &mut values {
                 *value = rng.next();
             }
+        } else {
+            for value in &mut values {
+                *value = rng.next() % (1 << bit_width);
+            }
         }
         let mut packed = vec![0; 1024 * bit_width / u64::T];
         unsafe {
diff --git a/rust/compression/fsst/Cargo.toml b/rust/compression/fsst/Cargo.toml
index 6a0537eec64..7056896e3b9 100644
--- a/rust/compression/fsst/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/compression/fsst/Cargo.toml
@@ -16,11 +16,8 @@ arrow-array.workspace = true
 rand.workspace = true
 
 [dev-dependencies]
-arrow-array.workspace = true
 test-log.workspace = true
 tokio.workspace = true
-rand_xoshiro = { workspace = true }
-lance-datagen = { workspace = true }
 
 [[example]]
 name = "benchmark"
diff --git a/rust/compression/fsst/examples/benchmark.rs b/rust/compression/fsst/examples/benchmark.rs
index c6031a378d5..f71abeefedd 100644
--- a/rust/compression/fsst/examples/benchmark.rs
+++ b/rust/compression/fsst/examples/benchmark.rs
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ use std::fs::File;
 use std::io::{BufRead, BufReader};
 
 use arrow_array::StringArray;
-use fsst::fsst::{compress, decompress, FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE};
+use fsst::fsst::{FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE, compress, decompress};
 use rand::Rng;
 
 const TEST_NUM: usize = 20;
@@ -56,7 +56,10 @@ fn benchmark(file_path: &str) {
     let mut decompression_out_bufs = vec![];
     let mut decompression_out_offsets_bufs = vec![];
     for _ in 0..TEST_NUM {
-        let this_decom_out_buf = vec![0u8; BUFFER_SIZE * 3];
+        // `decompress` requires the output buffer to be at least 8x the compressed input (a 1-byte
+        // code can expand to an 8-byte symbol). The compressed buffer is at most `BUFFER_SIZE`, so
+        // `BUFFER_SIZE * 8` is a safe upper bound.
+        let this_decom_out_buf = vec![0u8; BUFFER_SIZE * 8];
         let this_decom_out_offsets_buf = vec![0i32; BUFFER_SIZE * 3];
         decompression_out_bufs.push(this_decom_out_buf);
         decompression_out_offsets_bufs.push(this_decom_out_offsets_buf);
diff --git a/rust/compression/fsst/src/fsst.rs b/rust/compression/fsst/src/fsst.rs
index dbbe7d880bc..c5b619ba2d2 100644
--- a/rust/compression/fsst/src/fsst.rs
+++ b/rust/compression/fsst/src/fsst.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 // the first 32-bits of a FSST compressed file is the FSST magic number
 const FSST_MAGIC: u64 = 0x46535354 << 32; // "FSST"
-                                          // when the code is FSST_ESC, the next byte should be interpreted as is
+// when the code is FSST_ESC, the next byte should be interpreted as is
 const FSST_ESC: u8 = 255;
 // when building symbol table, we have a maximum of 512 symbols, so we can use 9 bits to represent the code
 const FSST_CODE_BITS: u16 = 9;
@@ -48,6 +48,7 @@ pub const FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE: usize = 8 + 256 * 8 + 256; // 8 bytes for the
 use arrow_array::OffsetSizeTrait;
 use rand::rngs::StdRng;
 use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+use std::cell::Cell;
 use std::cmp::Ordering;
 use std::collections::BinaryHeap;
 use std::collections::HashSet;
@@ -57,6 +58,12 @@ use std::ptr;
 
 #[inline]
 fn fsst_unaligned_load_unchecked(v: *const u8) -> u64 {
+    // SAFETY: the caller must guarantee that `v` points to at least 8 readable bytes. All callers
+    // uphold this: `compress_bulk` loads from a 520-byte stack buffer at an offset < 511 (leaving
+    // >= 8 bytes), `build_symbol_table` guards the load with `word.len() > 7 && curr < word.len() - 7`,
+    // `find_longest_symbol_from_char_slice` copies into a stack `[u8; 8]` before loading, and
+    // `FsstDecoder::init` reads symbols from a `symbol_table` buffer already validated to be
+    // exactly `FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE` bytes.
     unsafe { ptr::read_unaligned(v as *const u64) }
 }
 
@@ -801,6 +808,121 @@ fn compress_bulk<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(
     Ok(())
 }
 
+fn offset_to_usize<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(offset: T) -> io::Result<usize> {
+    offset.to_usize().ok_or_else(|| {
+        io::Error::new(
+            io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+            format!(
+                "FSST offset (as usize {}) is negative or exceeds {}",
+                offset.as_usize(),
+                T::MAX_OFFSET
+            ),
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+fn validate_offsets<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(offsets: &[T], compressed_len: usize) -> io::Result<()> {
+    let Some((first, rest)) = offsets.split_first() else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+    let mut previous = offset_to_usize(*first)?;
+    if previous > compressed_len {
+        return Err(io::Error::new(
+            io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+            format!(
+                "FSST offset[0] = {previous} is out of bounds for compressed buffer of length {compressed_len}"
+            ),
+        ));
+    }
+    for (index, offset) in rest.iter().enumerate() {
+        let current = offset_to_usize(*offset)?;
+        let position = index + 1;
+        if current < previous {
+            return Err(io::Error::new(
+                io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+                format!("FSST offset at position {position} decreases: {current} < {previous}"),
+            ));
+        }
+        if current > compressed_len {
+            return Err(io::Error::new(
+                io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+                format!(
+                    "FSST offset at position {position} = {current} is out of bounds for compressed buffer of length {compressed_len}"
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        previous = current;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn encode_offset<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(value: usize) -> io::Result<T> {
+    T::from_usize(value).ok_or_else(|| {
+        io::Error::new(
+            io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+            format!("FSST decompressed size {value} does not fit in the offset type"),
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+#[inline(always)]
+fn write_symbol(out: &mut [u8], out_curr: usize, symbol: u64) {
+    debug_assert!(
+        out_curr.checked_add(8).is_some_and(|end| end <= out.len()),
+        "FSST symbol write at {out_curr} overflows buffer of length {}",
+        out.len()
+    );
+    // SAFETY: `FsstDecoder::init` rejected any declared `lens[i]` outside 1..=8 and left
+    // undeclared slots at 0, so every code advances `out_curr` by at most 8. Combined with
+    // the 8x output-buffer check, `out_curr + 8 <= out.len()` holds for every write.
+    unsafe {
+        ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(out_curr) as *mut u64, symbol);
+    }
+}
+
+fn store_out_byte(out: &mut [u8], out_curr: usize, byte: u8) {
+    debug_assert!(
+        out_curr < out.len(),
+        "FSST literal write at {out_curr} overflows buffer of length {}",
+        out.len()
+    );
+    // SAFETY: same 8x + `lens[code] <= 8` proof as `write_symbol`. A literal
+    // writes one byte at `out_curr` after a run that advanced by at most 8
+    // bytes per consumed input byte.
+    unsafe {
+        *out.get_unchecked_mut(out_curr) = byte;
+    }
+}
+
+/// Consume `FSST_ESC` at `in_curr` and emit its payload byte.
+///
+/// Returns `false` when the payload would leave the current value interval
+/// `[in_curr, in_end)`, including a dangling escape at the last byte.
+#[inline(always)]
+fn emit_escape(
+    compressed_strs: &[u8],
+    in_curr: &mut usize,
+    in_end: usize,
+    out: &mut [u8],
+    out_curr: &mut usize,
+) -> bool {
+    let payload_index = *in_curr + 1;
+    if payload_index >= in_end {
+        return false;
+    }
+    store_out_byte(out, *out_curr, compressed_strs[payload_index]);
+    *out_curr += 1;
+    *in_curr += 2;
+    true
+}
+
+fn missing_escape_payload_error() -> io::Error {
+    io::Error::new(
+        io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+        "FSST escape is missing a payload byte inside the current value",
+    )
+}
+
 fn decompress_bulk<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(
     decoder: &FsstDecoder<T>,
     compressed_strs: &[u8],
@@ -810,14 +932,28 @@ fn decompress_bulk<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(
     out_pos: &mut usize,
     out_offsets_len: &mut usize,
 ) -> io::Result<()> {
+    validate_offsets(offsets, compressed_strs.len())?;
+
     let symbols = decoder.symbols;
     let lens = decoder.lens;
+    // SAFETY invariant shared by every `unsafe` block in this closure:
+    // - `out` is sized to at least 8x `compressed_strs` (checked in `FsstDecoder::init`).
+    //   `init` also rejects any declared symbol length outside 1..=8, so each consumed
+    //   input byte yields at most 8 output bytes and `out_curr + 8 <= out.len()` at every
+    //   8-byte write, including the final one.
+    // - Offsets have been normalized with `to_usize` and checked to be non-decreasing
+    //   and within `compressed_strs.len()`, so `in_curr + 4 <= in_end` implies the
+    //   `read_unaligned::<u32>` is in bounds.
+    let corrupt_escape = Cell::new(false);
     let mut decompress = |mut in_curr: usize, in_end: usize, out_curr: &mut usize| {
         // Do SIMD operation here by 4 bytes
         while in_curr + 4 <= in_end {
             let next_block;
             let mut code;
             let mut len;
+            // SAFETY: the loop guard proves `in_curr + 4 <= in_end`. Per the closure-level
+            // invariant, `in_end <= compressed_strs.len()` is a trusted precondition (not checked
+            // here), so the 4-byte read is in bounds for well-formed input.
             unsafe {
                 next_block =
                     ptr::read_unaligned(compressed_strs.as_ptr().add(in_curr) as *const u32);
@@ -828,40 +964,28 @@ fn decompress_bulk<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(
                 // 0th byte
                 code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                 len = lens[code] as usize;
-                unsafe {
-                    let src = symbols[code];
-                    ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                }
+                write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                 in_curr += 1;
                 *out_curr += len;
 
                 // 1st byte
                 code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                 len = lens[code] as usize;
-                unsafe {
-                    let src = symbols[code];
-                    ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                }
+                write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                 in_curr += 1;
                 *out_curr += len;
 
                 // 2nd byte
                 code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                 len = lens[code] as usize;
-                unsafe {
-                    let src = symbols[code];
-                    ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                }
+                write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                 in_curr += 1;
                 *out_curr += len;
 
                 // 3rd byte
                 code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                 len = lens[code] as usize;
-                unsafe {
-                    let src = symbols[code];
-                    ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                }
+                write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                 in_curr += 1;
                 *out_curr += len;
             } else {
@@ -870,137 +994,104 @@ fn decompress_bulk<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(
                     // 0th byte
                     code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                     len = lens[code] as usize;
-                    unsafe {
-                        let src = symbols[code];
-                        ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                    }
+                    write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                     in_curr += 1;
                     *out_curr += len;
 
                     // 1st byte
                     code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                     len = lens[code] as usize;
-                    unsafe {
-                        let src = symbols[code];
-                        ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                    }
+                    write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                     in_curr += 1;
                     *out_curr += len;
 
                     // 2nd byte
                     code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                     len = lens[code] as usize;
-                    unsafe {
-                        let src = symbols[code];
-                        ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                    }
+                    write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                     in_curr += 1;
                     *out_curr += len;
 
-                    // escape byte
-                    in_curr += 2;
-                    out[*out_curr] = compressed_strs[in_curr - 1];
-                    *out_curr += 1;
+                    // ESC is the last byte of this 4-byte window; its payload is the next
+                    // byte and may lie outside the current value.
+                    if !emit_escape(compressed_strs, &mut in_curr, in_end, out, out_curr) {
+                        corrupt_escape.set(true);
+                        return;
+                    }
                 } else if first_escape_pos == 2 {
                     // 0th byte
                     code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                     len = lens[code] as usize;
-                    unsafe {
-                        let src = symbols[code];
-                        ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                    }
+                    write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                     in_curr += 1;
                     *out_curr += len;
 
                     // 1st byte
                     code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                     len = lens[code] as usize;
-                    unsafe {
-                        let src = symbols[code];
-                        ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                    }
+                    write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                     in_curr += 1;
                     *out_curr += len;
 
-                    // escape byte
+                    // payload is inside the 4-byte window (`in_curr + 4 <= in_end`)
                     in_curr += 2;
-                    out[*out_curr] = compressed_strs[in_curr - 1];
+                    store_out_byte(out, *out_curr, compressed_strs[in_curr - 1]);
                     *out_curr += 1;
                 } else if first_escape_pos == 1 {
                     // 0th byte
                     code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
                     len = lens[code] as usize;
-                    unsafe {
-                        let src = symbols[code];
-                        ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                    }
+                    write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                     in_curr += 1;
                     *out_curr += len;
 
-                    // escape byte
                     in_curr += 2;
-                    out[*out_curr] = compressed_strs[in_curr - 1];
+                    store_out_byte(out, *out_curr, compressed_strs[in_curr - 1]);
                     *out_curr += 1;
                 } else {
-                    // escape byte
                     in_curr += 2;
-                    out[*out_curr] = compressed_strs[in_curr - 1];
+                    store_out_byte(out, *out_curr, compressed_strs[in_curr - 1]);
                     *out_curr += 1;
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        // handle the remaining bytes
-        if in_curr + 2 <= in_end {
-            out[*out_curr] = compressed_strs[in_curr + 1];
-            if compressed_strs[in_curr] != FSST_ESC {
-                let code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
-                unsafe {
-                    let src = symbols[code];
-                    ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
+        while in_curr < in_end {
+            if compressed_strs[in_curr] == FSST_ESC {
+                if !emit_escape(compressed_strs, &mut in_curr, in_end, out, out_curr) {
+                    corrupt_escape.set(true);
+                    return;
                 }
+            } else {
+                let code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
+                write_symbol(out, *out_curr, symbols[code]);
                 in_curr += 1;
                 *out_curr += lens[code] as usize;
-                if compressed_strs[in_curr] != FSST_ESC {
-                    let code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
-                    unsafe {
-                        let src = symbols[code];
-                        ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
-                    }
-                    in_curr += 1;
-                    *out_curr += lens[code] as usize;
-                } else {
-                    in_curr += 2;
-                    out[*out_curr] = compressed_strs[in_curr - 1];
-                    *out_curr += 1;
-                }
-            } else {
-                in_curr += 2;
-                *out_curr += 1;
-            }
-        }
-
-        if in_curr < in_end {
-            // last code cannot be an escape code
-            let code = compressed_strs[in_curr] as usize;
-            unsafe {
-                let src = symbols[code];
-                ptr::write_unaligned(out.as_mut_ptr().add(*out_curr) as *mut u64, src);
             }
-            *out_curr += lens[code] as usize;
         }
     };
 
     let mut out_curr = *out_pos;
-    out_offsets[0] = T::from_usize(*out_pos).unwrap();
+    if offsets.is_empty() {
+        out.resize(out_curr, 0);
+        out_offsets.clear();
+        *out_offsets_len = 0;
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    out_offsets[0] = encode_offset(*out_pos)?;
     for i in 1..offsets.len() {
+        // `validate_offsets` already proved these convert and stay in range.
         let in_curr = offsets[i - 1].as_usize();
         let in_end = offsets[i].as_usize();
         decompress(in_curr, in_end, &mut out_curr);
-        out_offsets[i] = T::from_usize(out_curr).unwrap();
+        if corrupt_escape.get() {
+            return Err(missing_escape_payload_error());
+        }
+        out_offsets[i] = encode_offset(out_curr)?;
     }
     out.resize(out_curr, 0);
-    out_offsets.resize(offsets.len(), T::from_usize(0).unwrap());
+    out_offsets.resize(offsets.len(), encode_offset(0)?);
     *out_pos = out_curr;
     *out_offsets_len = offsets.len();
     Ok(())
@@ -1169,14 +1260,6 @@ impl<T: OffsetSizeTrait> FsstDecoder<T> {
         out_buf: &[u8],
         out_offsets_buf: &[T],
     ) -> io::Result<()> {
-        let st_info = u64::from_ne_bytes(symbol_table[..8].try_into().unwrap());
-        if st_info & FSST_MAGIC != FSST_MAGIC {
-            return Err(io::Error::new(
-                io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
-                "the input buffer is not a valid FSST compressed data",
-            ));
-        }
-
         if symbol_table.len() != FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE {
             return Err(io::Error::new(
                 io::ErrorKind::InvalidInput,
@@ -1187,9 +1270,33 @@ impl<T: OffsetSizeTrait> FsstDecoder<T> {
             ));
         }
 
+        let st_info = u64::from_ne_bytes(symbol_table[..8].try_into().map_err(|_| {
+            io::Error::new(
+                io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+                "FSST symbol table is too short to contain a header",
+            )
+        })?);
+        if st_info & FSST_MAGIC != FSST_MAGIC {
+            return Err(io::Error::new(
+                io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+                "the input buffer is not a valid FSST compressed data",
+            ));
+        }
+
         self.decoder_switch_on = (st_info & (1 << 24)) != 0;
-        // when decoder_switch_on is true, we make sure the out_buf is at least 3 times the size of the in_buf,
-        if self.decoder_switch_on && in_buf.len() * 3 > out_buf.len() {
+        // A single 1-byte code can decode to a symbol of up to MAX_SYMBOL_LENGTH (8) bytes, so the
+        // decoded output can be up to 8x the input. `decompress_bulk` also relies on this bound: it
+        // writes a full 8-byte word per code (advancing only by the symbol length), so the output
+        // buffer must be large enough that even the final write stays in bounds. Require out_buf to
+        // be at least 8x in_buf. `checked_mul` guards against `in_buf.len() * 8` wrapping on 32-bit
+        // targets (an input >= 512 MiB would otherwise bypass the check); treat overflow as too
+        // small.
+        if self.decoder_switch_on
+            && in_buf
+                .len()
+                .checked_mul(8)
+                .is_none_or(|needed| needed > out_buf.len())
+        {
             return Err(io::Error::new(
                 io::ErrorKind::InvalidInput,
                 "output buffer too small for FSST decoder",
@@ -1221,7 +1328,16 @@ impl<T: OffsetSizeTrait> FsstDecoder<T> {
             pos += 8;
         }
         for i in 0..symbol_num as usize {
-            self.lens[i] = symbol_table[pos];
+            let len = symbol_table[pos];
+            if !(1..=MAX_SYMBOL_LENGTH as u8).contains(&len) {
+                return Err(io::Error::new(
+                    io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+                    format!(
+                        "FSST symbol length at index {i} is {len}, expected 1..={MAX_SYMBOL_LENGTH}"
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+            self.lens[i] = len;
             pos += 1;
         }
         Ok(())
@@ -1235,6 +1351,7 @@ impl<T: OffsetSizeTrait> FsstDecoder<T> {
         out_offsets_buf: &mut Vec<T>,
     ) -> io::Result<()> {
         if !self.decoder_switch_on {
+            validate_offsets(in_offsets_buf, in_buf.len())?;
             out_buf.resize(in_buf.len(), 0);
             out_buf.copy_from_slice(in_buf);
             out_offsets_buf.resize(in_offsets_buf.len(), T::from_usize(0).unwrap());
@@ -1288,9 +1405,14 @@ pub fn compress<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(
 // the following 32 bits after FSST_MAGIC contains information about FSST encoding, such as decoder_switch_on, suffix_lim, terminator, n_symbols
 // when the decoder_switch_on is off in the in_buf header, `decompress` first make sure the out_buf is at least the same size as the in_buf, then simply copy the
 // input data to the output
-// when the decoder_switch_on is on, `decompress` first make sure the out_buf is at least 3 times the size of the in_buf, then start decoding the
-// data using the symbol table
+// when the decoder_switch_on is on, `decompress` first make sure the out_buf is at least 8 times the size of the in_buf, then start decoding the
+// data using the symbol table. The 8x bound is required for correctness: a 1-byte code can expand to
+// an 8-byte symbol, and the decode loop writes a full 8-byte word per code, so a smaller buffer can
+// be written out of bounds.
 // the out_offsets_buf should be at least the same size as the in_offsets_buf, otherwise an error is returned
+// the symbol_table, compressed bytes, and offsets are untrusted: declared symbol lengths must be
+// 1..=8 and offsets must be a non-decreasing sequence of values that fit in usize and lie within
+// the compressed buffer. Corrupt input returns InvalidData instead of writing out of bounds.
 // the symbol_table is the same symbol table created by `compression`
 pub fn decompress<T: OffsetSizeTrait>(
     symbol_table: &[u8],
@@ -1644,4 +1766,338 @@ But exactly how the acquaintance and friendship came about, we cannot say.";
             );
         }
     }
+
+    // Build a genuinely FSST-compressed (decoder_switch_on) buffer to exercise the decode-side
+    // output-buffer size contract. Returns (symbol_table, compressed_bytes, compressed_offsets).
+    fn compress_paragraph() -> ([u8; FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE], Vec<u8>, Vec<i32>) {
+        let test_input = TEST_PARAGRAPH.repeat((1024 * 1024) / TEST_PARAGRAPH.len());
+        let lines_vec = test_input.lines().collect::<Vec<&str>>();
+        let string_array = StringArray::from(lines_vec);
+        let mut compress_output_buf: Vec<u8> = vec![0; string_array.value_data().len()];
+        let mut compress_offset_buf: Vec<i32> = vec![0; string_array.value_offsets().len()];
+        let mut symbol_table = [0; FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE];
+        compress(
+            symbol_table.as_mut(),
+            string_array.value_data(),
+            string_array.value_offsets(),
+            &mut compress_output_buf,
+            &mut compress_offset_buf,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        (symbol_table, compress_output_buf, compress_offset_buf)
+    }
+
+    // The decoder writes a full 8-byte word per code, so the output buffer must be at least 8x the
+    // compressed input. A buffer sized below 8x must be rejected rather than written out of bounds.
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_decompress_rejects_undersized_output_buffer() {
+        let (symbol_table, compressed, compressed_offsets) = compress_paragraph();
+        // Sanity check: this input actually engaged FSST compression (decoder_switch_on).
+        let st_info = u64::from_ne_bytes(symbol_table[..8].try_into().unwrap());
+        assert!(st_info & (1 << 24) != 0, "expected decoder_switch_on input");
+
+        // One byte short of the 8x requirement must be rejected.
+        let mut too_small = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8 - 1];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        let err = decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut too_small,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.kind(), std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidInput);
+
+        // Exactly 8x is the tight bound and must succeed.
+        let mut exact = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut exact,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    fn declared_lens_range(symbol_table: &[u8]) -> std::ops::Range<usize> {
+        let n_symbols = (u64::from_ne_bytes(symbol_table[..8].try_into().unwrap()) & 255) as usize;
+        let start = 8 + n_symbols * 8;
+        start..start + n_symbols
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_decompress_rejects_corrupt_symbol_length() {
+        let (mut symbol_table, compressed, compressed_offsets) = compress_paragraph();
+        let lens = declared_lens_range(&symbol_table);
+        assert!(!lens.is_empty(), "expected at least one declared symbol");
+        symbol_table[lens.start] = 9;
+
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        let err = decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.kind(), std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData);
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("symbol length"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_decompress_rejects_zero_declared_symbol_length() {
+        let (mut symbol_table, compressed, compressed_offsets) = compress_paragraph();
+        let lens = declared_lens_range(&symbol_table);
+        symbol_table[lens.start] = 0;
+
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        let err = decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.kind(), std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData);
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("symbol length"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_decompress_rejects_out_of_range_offset() {
+        let (symbol_table, compressed, mut compressed_offsets) = compress_paragraph();
+        let last = compressed_offsets.len() - 1;
+        compressed_offsets[last] = i32::try_from(compressed.len()).unwrap() + 1;
+
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        let err = decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.kind(), std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData);
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("out of bounds"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_decompress_rejects_decreasing_offset() {
+        let (symbol_table, compressed, mut compressed_offsets) = compress_paragraph();
+        assert!(compressed_offsets.len() >= 2);
+        if compressed_offsets[0] == 0 {
+            compressed_offsets[0] = 1;
+        }
+        compressed_offsets[1] = compressed_offsets[0] - 1;
+
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        let err = decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.kind(), std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData);
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("decreases"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_decompress_rejects_negative_offset() {
+        let (symbol_table, compressed, mut compressed_offsets) = compress_paragraph();
+        compressed_offsets[0] = -1;
+
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        let err = decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.kind(), std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData);
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("negative") || err.to_string().contains("out of bounds"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_decompress_accepts_max_symbol_length() {
+        let (symbol_table, compressed, compressed_offsets) = compress_paragraph();
+        let lens = declared_lens_range(&symbol_table);
+        assert!(
+            symbol_table[lens].contains(&(MAX_SYMBOL_LENGTH as u8)),
+            "expected encoder to emit at least one 8-byte symbol"
+        );
+
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_undeclared_code_does_not_overflow() {
+        let (symbol_table, mut compressed, compressed_offsets) = compress_paragraph();
+        let n_symbols = (u64::from_ne_bytes(symbol_table[..8].try_into().unwrap()) & 255) as usize;
+        if n_symbols >= 255 {
+            return;
+        }
+        let undeclared = n_symbols as u8;
+        if let Some(byte) = compressed.iter_mut().find(|byte| **byte != FSST_ESC) {
+            *byte = undeclared;
+        }
+
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    fn switch_off_roundtrip() -> ([u8; FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE], Vec<u8>, Vec<i32>) {
+        let input = b"raw";
+        let offsets = [0_i32, 3];
+        let mut table = [0_u8; FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE];
+        let mut compressed = vec![0; input.len()];
+        let mut compressed_offsets = vec![0_i32; offsets.len()];
+        compress(
+            &mut table,
+            input,
+            &offsets,
+            &mut compressed,
+            &mut compressed_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let st_info = u64::from_ne_bytes(table[..8].try_into().unwrap());
+        assert!(st_info & (1 << 24) == 0, "expected decoder_switch_on off");
+        (table, compressed, compressed_offsets)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decompress_rejects_corrupt_offsets_when_switch_off() {
+        let (table, compressed, _) = switch_off_roundtrip();
+        let corrupt_offsets = [-1_i32, 99];
+        let mut out = vec![0; compressed.len()];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0_i32; corrupt_offsets.len()];
+        let err = decompress(
+            &table,
+            &compressed,
+            &corrupt_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.kind(), std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decompress_switch_off_accepts_valid_offsets() {
+        let (table, compressed, compressed_offsets) = switch_off_roundtrip();
+        let mut out = vec![0; compressed.len()];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0_i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        decompress(
+            &table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out, compressed);
+        assert_eq!(out_offsets, compressed_offsets);
+    }
+
+    fn assert_missing_escape_payload(table: &[u8], bytes: &[u8], offsets: &[i32]) {
+        let mut out = vec![0_u8; bytes.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0_i32; offsets.len()];
+        let err = decompress(table, bytes, offsets, &mut out, &mut out_offsets).unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.kind(), std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData);
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("escape"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decompress_rejects_dangling_escape_in_scalar_tail() {
+        let (table, _, _) = compress_paragraph();
+        assert_missing_escape_payload(&table, &[0, FSST_ESC], &[0, 2]);
+        assert_missing_escape_payload(&table, &[FSST_ESC], &[0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decompress_rejects_dangling_escape_in_fast_path() {
+        let (table, _, _) = compress_paragraph();
+        // 4-byte window ending in ESC: payload sits at index 4, outside in_end.
+        assert_missing_escape_payload(&table, &[0, 0, 0, FSST_ESC], &[0, 4]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decompress_rejects_escape_payload_from_next_value() {
+        let (table, _, _) = compress_paragraph();
+        // First value ends on ESC; the next value's first byte must not be stolen as payload.
+        assert_missing_escape_payload(&table, &[0, 0, 0, FSST_ESC, b'X'], &[0, 4, 5]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decompress_accepts_escape_with_payload() {
+        let (table, _, _) = compress_paragraph();
+        let bytes = [FSST_ESC, b'A'];
+        let offsets = [0_i32, 2];
+        let mut out = vec![0_u8; bytes.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0_i32; offsets.len()];
+        decompress(&table, &bytes, &offsets, &mut out, &mut out_offsets).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(&out[..], b"A");
+        assert_eq!(out_offsets, [0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decompress_accepts_fast_path_escape_with_payload() {
+        let (table, _, _) = compress_paragraph();
+        let bytes = [0, 0, 0, FSST_ESC, b'Z'];
+        let offsets = [0_i32, 5];
+        let mut out = vec![0_u8; bytes.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0_i32; offsets.len()];
+        decompress(&table, &bytes, &offsets, &mut out, &mut out_offsets).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out_offsets[0], 0);
+        assert_eq!(*out.last().unwrap(), b'Z');
+        assert_eq!(out_offsets[1], i32::try_from(out.len()).unwrap());
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/examples/Cargo.toml b/rust/examples/Cargo.toml
index b77a0a7d062..fa6d0676655 100644
--- a/rust/examples/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/examples/Cargo.toml
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ arrow-select = { workspace = true }
 clap = { workspace = true, features = ["derive"] }
 itertools = { workspace = true }
 futures = { workspace = true }
-lance = { workspace = true, features = ["aws", "azure", "gcp", "oss", "huggingface", "tencent"] }
+lance = { workspace = true, features = ["aws", "azure", "gcp", "oss", "huggingface", "tencent", "goosefs"] }
 lance-index = { workspace = true }
 lance-core = { workspace = true }
 lance-linalg = { workspace = true }
@@ -46,9 +46,9 @@ lance-datagen = { workspace = true }
 object_store = {workspace = true}
 tempfile = { workspace = true }
 tokio = { workspace = true }
-all_asserts = "2.3.1"
-env_logger = "0.11.7"
+all_asserts.workspace = true
+env_logger.workspace = true
 hf-hub = "0.4.2"
-parquet = "57.1"
+parquet = { workspace = true }
 tokenizers = "0.15.2"
 rand.workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/examples/src/full_text_search.rs b/rust/examples/src/full_text_search.rs
index e614ee17f5a..8269f590ee8 100644
--- a/rust/examples/src/full_text_search.rs
+++ b/rust/examples/src/full_text_search.rs
@@ -15,10 +15,10 @@ use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use lance::Dataset;
-use lance_datagen::{array, RowCount};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_datagen::{RowCount, array};
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::flat_full_text_search;
 use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams};
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 
 #[tokio::main]
diff --git a/rust/examples/src/hnsw.rs b/rust/examples/src/hnsw.rs
index 0c0f705d42e..52c15bd0851 100644
--- a/rust/examples/src/hnsw.rs
+++ b/rust/examples/src/hnsw.rs
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
 use std::collections::HashSet;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow::array::{types::Float32Type, Array, FixedSizeListArray};
+use arrow::array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, types::Float32Type};
 use arrow::array::{AsArray, FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
 use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
@@ -21,8 +21,8 @@ use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
 use lance_index::vector::{
     flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage,
     hnsw::{
-        builder::{HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams},
         HNSW,
+        builder::{HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams},
     },
 };
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
@@ -129,6 +129,7 @@ async fn main() {
             lower_bound: None,
             upper_bound: None,
             dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
         };
         let results: HashSet<u32> = hnsw
             .search_basic(q.clone(), k, &params, None, vector_store.as_ref())
diff --git a/rust/examples/src/ivf_hnsw.rs b/rust/examples/src/ivf_hnsw.rs
index 34bd4cbca7f..c1898e10682 100644
--- a/rust/examples/src/ivf_hnsw.rs
+++ b/rust/examples/src/ivf_hnsw.rs
@@ -5,17 +5,18 @@
 //!
 //! run with `cargo run --release --example hnsw`
 #![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
-use arrow::array::types::Float32Type;
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
+use arrow::array::types::Float32Type;
 use clap::Parser;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::Dataset;
 use lance::dataset::ProjectionRequest;
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
-use lance::Dataset;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
 use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 
 #[derive(Parser, Debug)]
diff --git a/rust/examples/src/llm_dataset_creation.rs b/rust/examples/src/llm_dataset_creation.rs
index 6a5ebbc0dd6..7f981156b4d 100644
--- a/rust/examples/src/llm_dataset_creation.rs
+++ b/rust/examples/src/llm_dataset_creation.rs
@@ -17,11 +17,11 @@ use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
 use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatchReader;
 use futures::StreamExt;
-use hf_hub::{api::sync::Api, Repo, RepoType};
+use hf_hub::{Repo, RepoType, api::sync::Api};
 use lance::dataset::WriteParams;
 use parquet::arrow::arrow_reader::ParquetRecordBatchReaderBuilder;
-use rand::seq::SliceRandom;
 use rand::SeedableRng;
+use rand::seq::SliceRandom;
 use std::error::Error;
 use std::fs::File;
 use std::io::Write;
@@ -139,24 +139,24 @@ impl Iterator for WikiTextBatchReader {
     fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
         loop {
             // If we have a current reader, try to get next batch
-            if let Some(reader) = &mut self.current_reader {
-                if let Some(batch_result) = reader.next() {
-                    return Some(batch_result.and_then(|batch| self.process_batch(&batch)));
-                }
+            if let Some(reader) = &mut self.current_reader
+                && let Some(batch_result) = reader.next()
+            {
+                return Some(batch_result.and_then(|batch| self.process_batch(&batch)));
             }
 
             // If no current reader or current reader is exhausted, try to get next reader
-            if self.current_reader_idx < self.parquet_readers.len() {
-                if let Some(builder) = self.parquet_readers[self.current_reader_idx].take() {
-                    match builder.build() {
-                        Ok(reader) => {
-                            self.current_reader = Some(Box::new(reader));
-                            self.current_reader_idx += 1;
-                            continue;
-                        }
-                        Err(e) => {
-                            return Some(Err(arrow::error::ArrowError::ExternalError(Box::new(e))))
-                        }
+            if self.current_reader_idx < self.parquet_readers.len()
+                && let Some(builder) = self.parquet_readers[self.current_reader_idx].take()
+            {
+                match builder.build() {
+                    Ok(reader) => {
+                        self.current_reader = Some(Box::new(reader));
+                        self.current_reader_idx += 1;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        return Some(Err(arrow::error::ArrowError::ExternalError(Box::new(e))));
                     }
                 }
             }
diff --git a/rust/examples/src/write_read_ds.rs b/rust/examples/src/write_read_ds.rs
index d76f603e80d..0b07aa00c16 100644
--- a/rust/examples/src/write_read_ds.rs
+++ b/rust/examples/src/write_read_ds.rs
@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ use arrow::array::UInt32Array;
 use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 use arrow::record_batch::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
 use futures::StreamExt;
+use lance::Dataset;
 use lance::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use lance::io::ObjectStore;
-use lance::Dataset;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-arrow/Cargo.toml
index 0caedbc47d2..21513e638d8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/Cargo.toml
@@ -17,11 +17,13 @@ crate-type = ["cdylib", "rlib"]
 arrow-array = { workspace = true }
 arrow-buffer = { workspace = true }
 arrow-data = { workspace = true }
-arrow-cast = { workspace = true }
+arrow-ipc = { workspace = true }
 arrow-ord = { workspace = true }
 arrow-schema = { workspace = true }
 arrow-select = { workspace = true }
+bytemuck = { workspace = true }
 bytes = { workspace = true }
+futures = { workspace = true }
 half = { workspace = true }
 jsonb ={ workspace = true }
 num-traits = { workspace = true }
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/README.md b/rust/lance-arrow/README.md
index 8c3bedac3f3..f5feccaa191 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/README.md
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/README.md
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 # lance-arrow
 
-`lance-arrow` is a internal sub-crate, containing [Apache-Arrow](https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs)
-extensions used by [Lance](https://github.com/lancedb/lance).
+`lance-arrow` is an internal sub-crate, containing [Apache-Arrow](https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs)
+extensions used by [Lance](https://github.com/lance-format/lance).
 
 **Important Note**: This crate is **not intended for external usage**. 
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/bfloat16.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/bfloat16.rs
index 0364afe300f..74c7f259a40 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/src/bfloat16.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/bfloat16.rs
@@ -6,13 +6,13 @@
 use std::fmt::Formatter;
 use std::slice;
 
-use arrow_array::{builder::BooleanBufferBuilder, Array, FixedSizeBinaryArray};
-use arrow_buffer::MutableBuffer;
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeBinaryArray, builder::BooleanBufferBuilder};
+use arrow_buffer::{Buffer, MutableBuffer};
 use arrow_data::ArrayData;
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field as ArrowField};
 use half::bf16;
 
-use crate::{FloatArray, ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY};
+use crate::{ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, FloatArray};
 
 /// The name of the bfloat16 extension in Arrow metadata
 pub const BFLOAT16_EXT_NAME: &str = "lance.bfloat16";
@@ -144,6 +144,11 @@ impl FromIterator<Option<bf16>> for BFloat16Array {
             .len(len)
             .add_buffer(buffer.into())
             .null_bit_buffer(null_buffer);
+        // SAFETY: the value buffer contains exactly `2 * len` bytes (two bytes
+        // pushed per iteration of the loop above, including the zero-fill for
+        // null slots), which matches the `FixedSizeBinary(2)` storage layout.
+        // The null bit buffer, when present, has `len` bits appended above, so
+        // its length covers the array's logical range.
         let array_data = unsafe { array_data.build_unchecked() };
         Self {
             inner: FixedSizeBinaryArray::from(array_data),
@@ -159,17 +164,20 @@ impl FromIterator<bf16> for BFloat16Array {
 
 impl From<Vec<bf16>> for BFloat16Array {
     fn from(data: Vec<bf16>) -> Self {
-        let mut buffer = MutableBuffer::with_capacity(data.len() * 2);
-
-        let bytes = data.iter().flat_map(|val| {
-            let bytes = val.to_bits().to_le_bytes();
-            bytes.to_vec()
-        });
-
-        buffer.extend(bytes);
+        let len = data.len();
+        // Zero-copy: `bf16` is `#[repr(transparent)]` over `u16` and derives
+        // `bytemuck::Pod`, so `cast_vec` reinterprets the allocation in place —
+        // no per-element copy or heap alloc. The crate-root `compile_error!`
+        // pins `target_endian = "little"`, so the resulting bytes match the
+        // `FixedSizeBinary(2)` on-disk order Lance writes elsewhere.
+        let raw: Vec<u16> = bytemuck::cast_vec(data);
         let array_data = ArrayData::builder(DataType::FixedSizeBinary(2))
-            .len(data.len())
-            .add_buffer(buffer.into());
+            .len(len)
+            .add_buffer(Buffer::from_vec(raw));
+        // SAFETY: the value buffer contains exactly `2 * len` bytes — one
+        // `u16` per element after the layout-compatible cast — matching the
+        // `FixedSizeBinary(2)` storage layout. No null buffer is attached, so
+        // every element is logically valid.
         let array_data = unsafe { array_data.build_unchecked() };
         Self {
             inner: FixedSizeBinaryArray::from(array_data),
@@ -268,12 +276,64 @@ mod from_arrow {
 impl FloatArray<BFloat16Type> for FixedSizeBinaryArray {
     type FloatType = BFloat16Type;
 
+    /// Returns the underlying `bf16` values as a borrowed slice.
+    ///
+    /// # Preconditions
+    ///
+    /// - `value_length()` must be 2 (the `FixedSizeBinary(2)` storage shape
+    ///   used by [`BFloat16Array`]). Asserted at entry.
+    /// - The value buffer must be at least 2-byte aligned. Lance's in-tree
+    ///   constructors always satisfy this: value buffers are built either via
+    ///   `MutableBuffer` (aligned to arrow-buffer's `ALIGNMENT` constant, ≥32
+    ///   bytes) or via `Buffer::from_vec::<u16>` (aligned to `align_of::<u16>()`
+    ///   == 2); both meet `bf16`'s 2-byte requirement. Externally-built
+    ///   `FixedSizeBinaryArray`s arriving via FFI, IPC, or
+    ///   `Buffer::from_custom_allocation` are not required by arrow-rs to be
+    ///   aligned beyond a single byte; passing one to this method violates the
+    ///   precondition. A `debug_assert` below catches such inputs in debug and
+    ///   test builds.
+    ///
+    /// # Endianness
+    ///
+    /// `lance-arrow` is gated on `target_endian = "little"` at the crate root,
+    /// so this method always returns values in the same byte order Lance writes
+    /// (see [`BFloat16Array::value`] and the [`FromIterator`] impls).
     fn as_slice(&self) -> &[bf16] {
         assert_eq!(
             self.value_length(),
             2,
             "BFloat16 arrays must use FixedSizeBinary(2) storage"
         );
+        debug_assert_eq!(
+            (self.value_data().as_ptr() as usize) % std::mem::align_of::<bf16>(),
+            0,
+            "BFloat16 value buffer must be at least 2-byte aligned"
+        );
+        // SAFETY:
+        // - The assert above pins `value_size == 2`, so `value_data().len() / 2`
+        //   equals the array's logical element count.
+        //   `FixedSizeBinaryArray::From<ArrayData>` constructs its value buffer
+        //   as `buffers[0].slice_with_length(offset * 2, len * 2)` (arrow-array
+        //   `fixed_size_binary_array.rs`), so `value_data()` already returns
+        //   the offset-adjusted slice. Do not replace `value_data()` with an
+        //   accessor that returns the un-sliced backing buffer.
+        // - `bf16` is `#[repr(transparent)]` over `u16` (size 2, alignment 2);
+        //   every `u16` bit pattern is a valid `bf16`, so any byte content
+        //   yields a defined value — never UB.
+        // - Alignment is the caller's responsibility per the precondition
+        //   documented above. The `debug_assert_eq!` immediately preceding this
+        //   block catches violations in debug and test builds only — release
+        //   builds rely on callers honoring the precondition. arrow-rs
+        //   declares `FixedSizeBinary(n)`'s
+        //   `BufferSpec::FixedWidth { alignment: align_of::<u8>() == 1 }`
+        //   (arrow-data `data.rs`), so arrow-rs alone does not guarantee
+        //   2-byte alignment. Lance's in-tree construction paths build value
+        //   buffers via `MutableBuffer` (arrow-buffer `ALIGNMENT` constant,
+        //   ≥32 bytes) or `Buffer::from_vec::<u16>` (2-byte aligned), both of
+        //   which satisfy `bf16`'s 2-byte requirement.
+        // - The returned slice borrows from `self`; the underlying ref-counted,
+        //   immutable Arrow buffer cannot be mutated or freed for the slice's
+        //   lifetime.
         unsafe {
             slice::from_raw_parts(
                 self.value_data().as_ptr() as *const bf16,
@@ -301,6 +361,16 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(array, array2);
         assert_eq!(array.len(), 3);
 
+        // Pin the raw little-endian bytes emitted by `From<Vec<bf16>>` (rewritten to
+        // reinterpret the Vec via `bytemuck::cast_vec`), so a layout/byte-order
+        // regression is caught directly rather than only through Debug formatting.
+        // bf16 is the high 16 bits of the f32: 1.0->0x3F80, 2.0->0x4000, 3.0->0x4040.
+        let inner = array2.clone().into_inner();
+        let raw_bytes: Vec<u8> = (0..inner.len())
+            .flat_map(|i| inner.value(i).to_vec())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(raw_bytes, vec![0x80, 0x3F, 0x00, 0x40, 0x40, 0x40]);
+
         let expected_fmt = "BFloat16Array\n[\n  1.0,\n  2.0,\n  3.0,\n]";
         assert_eq!(expected_fmt, format!("{:?}", array));
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/cast.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/cast.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 0fa4273ceea..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/src/cast.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,30 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray};
-use arrow_cast::CastOptions;
-use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
-
-/// Customized [`arrow_cast::cast_with_options`] that handles cases not supported upstream yet.
-pub fn cast_with_options(
-    array: &dyn Array,
-    to_type: &DataType,
-    cast_options: &CastOptions,
-) -> Result<ArrayRef, ArrowError> {
-    use DataType::*;
-    match (array.data_type(), to_type) {
-        (FixedSizeList(_, size_from), FixedSizeList(to_field, size_to)) if size_from == size_to => {
-            let array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<FixedSizeListArray>().unwrap();
-            let values = cast_with_options(array.values(), to_field.data_type(), cast_options)?;
-            Ok(Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
-                to_field.clone(),
-                *size_from,
-                values,
-                array.nulls().cloned(),
-            )?))
-        }
-        _ => arrow_cast::cast_with_options(array, to_type, cast_options),
-    }
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/deepcopy.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/deepcopy.rs
index 98801357878..0d859ef1bd9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/src/deepcopy.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/deepcopy.rs
@@ -3,9 +3,10 @@
 
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow_array::{make_array, Array, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, make_array};
 use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, Buffer, NullBuffer};
-use arrow_data::{transform::MutableArrayData, ArrayData, ArrayDataBuilder};
+use arrow_data::{ArrayData, ArrayDataBuilder, transform::MutableArrayData};
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
 
 pub fn deep_copy_buffer(buffer: &Buffer) -> Buffer {
     Buffer::from(buffer.as_slice())
@@ -14,6 +15,15 @@ pub fn deep_copy_buffer(buffer: &Buffer) -> Buffer {
 pub fn deep_copy_nulls(nulls: Option<&NullBuffer>) -> Option<NullBuffer> {
     let nulls = nulls?;
     let bit_buffer = deep_copy_buffer(nulls.inner().inner());
+    // SAFETY: `null_count` is taken from the source `NullBuffer`, which already
+    // upheld `NullBuffer::new_unchecked`'s invariant — the unset-bit count over
+    // the logical bit slice `[bit_offset, bit_offset + bit_len)`. `NullBuffer::slice`
+    // adjusts only `BooleanBuffer::bit_offset` / `bit_len` and never byte-advances
+    // the inner `Buffer`, so `deep_copy_buffer` (which copies the source `Buffer`'s
+    // `as_slice()` view from byte 0) reproduces the exact bit pattern at the same
+    // bit offsets; the unset-bit count is therefore preserved. `BooleanBuffer::new`
+    // panics (does not UB) if `bit_offset + bit_len > 8 * buffer.len()`, and the
+    // copy has the same length, so that check still passes.
     Some(unsafe {
         NullBuffer::new_unchecked(
             BooleanBuffer::new(bit_buffer, nulls.offset(), nulls.len()),
@@ -37,6 +47,19 @@ pub fn deep_copy_array_data(data: &ArrayData) -> ArrayData {
         .iter()
         .map(deep_copy_array_data)
         .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    // SAFETY: `build_unchecked` inherits `ArrayData::new_unchecked`'s contract —
+    // `(data_type, len, offset, nulls, buffers, child_data)` must form a valid
+    // Arrow array. This call reproduces `data` structurally: `data_type`, `len`,
+    // and `offset` are forwarded unchanged; each buffer is replaced by a byte-
+    // identical copy of its offset-applied `as_slice()` view (the output buffer
+    // is `MutableBuffer`-allocated, at least as aligned as the source); `nulls`
+    // is deep-copied with the same bit offset/length and unset-bit count (see
+    // `deep_copy_nulls`); `child_data` is recursively cloned with the same
+    // guarantee. Every value-level invariant the source upheld — UTF-8 validity,
+    // monotonic offsets, in-bounds dictionary indices, run-end monotonicity,
+    // struct child-length matching — therefore transfers to the copy. If the
+    // source `ArrayData` was itself constructed via `new_unchecked` with an
+    // invalid payload, this function faithfully reproduces that invalidity.
     unsafe {
         ArrayDataBuilder::new(data_type)
             .len(len)
@@ -69,8 +92,18 @@ pub fn deep_copy_array_data_sliced(data: &ArrayData) -> ArrayData {
     // Use MutableArrayData to efficiently copy just the slice
     let mut mutable = MutableArrayData::new(vec![data], false, data.len());
 
-    // Copy from offset to offset+len (the visible slice)
-    mutable.extend(0, data.offset(), data.offset() + data.len());
+    // Which index this takes depends on the layout, because arrow's extenders
+    // disagree about who applies `ArrayData::offset()`. The bit-packed one adds
+    // it to the raw values buffer itself, so an offset-applied index there
+    // reads from twice the offset and runs off the end of the buffer. Every
+    // other layout either reads through an already-offset-applied view or
+    // forwards the index to children carrying their own offsets, and takes the
+    // absolute index it has always been given.
+    let start = match data.data_type() {
+        DataType::Boolean => 0,
+        _ => data.offset(),
+    };
+    mutable.extend(0, start, start + data.len());
 
     // Freeze into immutable ArrayData
     mutable.freeze()
@@ -94,12 +127,118 @@ pub fn deep_copy_batch_sliced(batch: &RecordBatch) -> crate::Result<RecordBatch>
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
+mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
-    use arrow_array::{Array, Int32Array, RecordBatch, StringArray};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, BooleanArray, Int32Array, RecordBatch, StringArray};
+    use arrow_data::ArrayDataBuilder;
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 
+    #[test]
+    fn raw_sliced_fixed_size_list_data_keeps_its_child_offset() {
+        // `ArrayData::slice` records the offset on the parent and leaves the
+        // child whole -- a shape `FixedSizeListArray::slice` never produces,
+        // but a legal one this public helper can be handed directly. Arrow's
+        // extender forwards `start * size` to that unsliced child and adds
+        // nothing, so the index it gets has to be the absolute one; this is
+        // here to stop the boolean fix from being generalised over it.
+        let child = Int32Array::from(vec![10, 11, 20, 21]).to_data();
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new_list_field(DataType::Int32, false));
+        let data = ArrayDataBuilder::new(DataType::FixedSizeList(field, 2))
+            .len(2)
+            .add_child_data(child)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let sliced = data.slice(1, 1);
+
+        let copied = super::deep_copy_array_data_sliced(&sliced);
+        let copied_child = Int32Array::from(copied.child_data()[0].clone());
+        assert_eq!(copied_child.values().as_ref(), &[20, 21]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn raw_sliced_struct_of_fixed_size_list_reaches_the_right_values() {
+        // Slicing raw struct data pushes the window into the struct's children,
+        // and a fixed-size-list child takes it as its own parent offset with
+        // its values left whole. Two levels of offset, and the absolute index
+        // has to remain right through both of them.
+        let values = Int32Array::from(vec![10, 11, 20, 21, 30, 31]).to_data();
+        let item = Arc::new(Field::new_list_field(DataType::Int32, false));
+        let list = ArrayDataBuilder::new(DataType::FixedSizeList(item, 2))
+            .len(3)
+            .add_child_data(values)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("l", list.data_type().clone(), false));
+        let data = ArrayDataBuilder::new(DataType::Struct(vec![field].into()))
+            .len(3)
+            .add_child_data(list)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let sliced = data.slice(2, 1);
+
+        let copied = super::deep_copy_array_data_sliced(&sliced);
+        let copied_values = Int32Array::from(copied.child_data()[0].child_data()[0].clone());
+        assert_eq!(copied_values.values().as_ref(), &[30, 31]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn raw_parent_offset_struct_keeps_the_selected_child_row() {
+        // A struct whose children are whole and whose window is the parent
+        // offset: arrow's struct extender forwards the index to those children
+        // untouched, so it has to be the absolute one.
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false));
+        let data = ArrayDataBuilder::new(DataType::Struct(vec![field].into()))
+            .len(1)
+            .offset(1)
+            .add_child_data(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20]).to_data())
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let copied = super::deep_copy_array_data_sliced(&data);
+        let copied_child = Int32Array::from(copied.child_data()[0].clone());
+        assert_eq!(copied_child.values().as_ref(), &[20]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn sliced_boolean_deep_copy_reads_from_the_slice() {
+        // A boolean slice keeps its `ArrayData::offset()` -- the buffer cannot
+        // advance by a fraction of a byte -- so a copy that adds the offset on
+        // top of what `MutableArrayData` already applies reads past the end of
+        // the values buffer and panics.
+        let array = BooleanArray::from(vec![true, false, true, false, true, false, true, false]);
+        for (offset, len) in [(0usize, 8usize), (1, 7), (3, 5), (7, 1)] {
+            let sliced = array.slice(offset, len);
+            let copied = super::deep_copy_array_sliced(&sliced);
+            let copied = copied.as_any().downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>().unwrap();
+            let expected: Vec<bool> = (0..len).map(|i| sliced.value(i)).collect();
+            let actual: Vec<bool> = (0..len).map(|i| copied.value(i)).collect();
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "offset={offset} len={len}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn sliced_boolean_deep_copy_keeps_its_nulls() {
+        let array = BooleanArray::from(vec![
+            Some(true),
+            None,
+            Some(false),
+            Some(true),
+            None,
+            Some(false),
+        ]);
+        let sliced = array.slice(1, 4);
+        let copied = super::deep_copy_array_sliced(&sliced);
+        let copied = copied.as_any().downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>().unwrap();
+        let expected: Vec<Option<bool>> = (0..sliced.len())
+            .map(|i| (!sliced.is_null(i)).then(|| sliced.value(i)))
+            .collect();
+        let actual: Vec<Option<bool>> = (0..copied.len())
+            .map(|i| (!copied.is_null(i)).then(|| copied.value(i)))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_deep_copy_sliced_array_with_nulls() {
         let array = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/floats.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/floats.rs
index fcacbdd7eb5..ad5f3768980 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/src/floats.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/floats.rs
@@ -12,16 +12,16 @@ use std::{
 };
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
     Array, FixedSizeBinaryArray, Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array,
+    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 use half::{bf16, f16};
 use num_traits::{AsPrimitive, Bounded, Float, FromPrimitive};
 
 use super::bfloat16::{BFloat16Array, BFloat16Type};
-use crate::bfloat16::is_bfloat16_field;
 use crate::Result;
+use crate::bfloat16::is_bfloat16_field;
 
 /// Float data type.
 ///
@@ -184,6 +184,22 @@ pub trait FloatArray<T: ArrowFloatType + ?Sized>: Array + Clone + 'static {
     type FloatType: ArrowFloatType;
 
     /// Returns a reference to the underlying data as a slice.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Implementations may panic if the array's storage shape does not match
+    /// the expected element layout. In particular, the `bf16` impl panics if
+    /// `value_length() != 2` (the `FixedSizeBinary(2)` shape required by
+    /// `BFloat16Array`).
+    ///
+    /// # Preconditions
+    ///
+    /// Implementations may impose additional invariants on the underlying
+    /// buffer. The `bf16` impl requires the value buffer to be at least
+    /// 2-byte aligned — satisfied automatically by every in-tree Lance
+    /// constructor, but external callers passing externally-built arrays
+    /// (FFI, IPC, `Buffer::from_custom_allocation`) must ensure alignment.
+    /// See the impl's docstring for details.
     fn as_slice(&self) -> &[T::Native];
 
     /// Construct an array from a vector of values.
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/ipc.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/ipc.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8b6e5cf41fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/ipc.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,620 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Zero-copy Arrow IPC stream read/write utilities.
+//!
+//! Provides helpers for serializing and deserializing [`RecordBatch`]es as
+//! self-delimiting Arrow IPC streams using synchronous [`Read`]/[`Write`] I/O.
+//!
+//! These are designed for embedding IPC streams inside larger binary formats
+//! (e.g. a cache entry that contains multiple IPC sections). Each stream is
+//! self-delimiting (schema + batches + EOS marker) and can be read back
+//! independently.
+//!
+//! # Zero-copy reads
+//!
+//! [`read_ipc_stream`] and [`read_ipc_stream_single`] take `&Bytes` and use
+//! [`Bytes::slice`] to produce each message buffer. Because `Bytes::slice`
+//! increments a reference count rather than copying, the resulting
+//! [`Buffer`]s — and the array data decoded from them by [`FileDecoder`] —
+//! are all backed by the same allocation as the input.
+
+use std::io::{Read, Write};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_buffer::Buffer;
+use arrow_ipc::convert::fb_to_schema;
+use arrow_ipc::reader::FileDecoder;
+use arrow_ipc::root_as_message;
+use arrow_ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
+use arrow_schema::ArrowError;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Length-prefixed byte utilities
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Write `data` prefixed by its length as a little-endian `u64`.
+///
+/// Paired with [`read_len_prefixed_bytes`].
+pub fn write_len_prefixed_bytes(writer: &mut dyn Write, data: &[u8]) -> Result<(), ArrowError> {
+    writer
+        .write_all(&(data.len() as u64).to_le_bytes())
+        .map_err(|e| ArrowError::IoError(e.to_string(), e))?;
+    writer
+        .write_all(data)
+        .map_err(|e| ArrowError::IoError(e.to_string(), e))
+}
+
+/// Read a byte slice written by [`write_len_prefixed_bytes`].
+///
+/// Reads an 8-byte little-endian length then exactly that many bytes.
+pub fn read_len_prefixed_bytes(reader: &mut dyn Read) -> Result<Vec<u8>, ArrowError> {
+    let mut len_buf = [0u8; 8];
+    reader
+        .read_exact(&mut len_buf)
+        .map_err(|e| ArrowError::IoError(e.to_string(), e))?;
+    let len = u64::from_le_bytes(len_buf) as usize;
+    let mut buf = vec![0u8; len];
+    reader
+        .read_exact(&mut buf)
+        .map_err(|e| ArrowError::IoError(e.to_string(), e))?;
+    Ok(buf)
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// IPC stream utilities
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+// 4-byte continuation marker used by modern Arrow IPC streams.
+const IPC_CONTINUATION: [u8; 4] = [0xff; 4];
+
+/// Write `batch` as a single-batch Arrow IPC stream to `writer`.
+pub fn write_ipc_stream(batch: &RecordBatch, writer: &mut dyn Write) -> Result<(), ArrowError> {
+    let mut sw = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut *writer, batch.schema_ref())?;
+    sw.write(batch)?;
+    sw.finish()
+}
+
+/// Write all batches from `iter` as a single Arrow IPC stream to `writer`.
+///
+/// `iter` must yield at least one batch; the schema is inferred from the first
+/// batch. Returns `ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError` if the iterator is empty.
+/// If you need to write an empty stream (schema only, no rows), construct a
+/// `StreamWriter` directly.
+pub fn write_ipc_stream_batches<I>(iter: I, writer: &mut dyn Write) -> Result<(), ArrowError>
+where
+    I: IntoIterator<Item = RecordBatch>,
+{
+    let mut iter = iter.into_iter();
+    let first = iter
+        .next()
+        .ok_or_else(|| ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError("no batches to serialize".into()))?;
+    let mut sw = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut *writer, first.schema_ref())?;
+    sw.write(&first)?;
+    for batch in iter {
+        sw.write(&batch)?;
+    }
+    sw.finish()
+}
+
+/// Read one complete Arrow IPC stream message from `data` as a zero-copy [`Buffer`].
+///
+/// Parses the first message starting at byte 0 of `data`. Returns `None` on
+/// EOS (size field == 0) or empty input. The returned [`Buffer`] is backed by
+/// `data`'s allocation — no bytes are copied.
+///
+/// The caller should advance its position by `buf.len()` after each call.
+fn read_one_ipc_message(data: &Bytes) -> Result<Option<Buffer>, ArrowError> {
+    let bytes = data.as_ref();
+
+    if bytes.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    if bytes.len() < 4 {
+        return Err(ArrowError::IoError(
+            "IPC: truncated header".into(),
+            std::io::Error::new(std::io::ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof, "truncated IPC header"),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let has_continuation = bytes[..4] == IPC_CONTINUATION;
+    let (size_bytes, prefix_len): ([u8; 4], usize) = if has_continuation {
+        if bytes.len() < 8 {
+            return Err(ArrowError::IoError(
+                "IPC: truncated header after continuation".into(),
+                std::io::Error::new(
+                    std::io::ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof,
+                    "truncated after continuation",
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        (bytes[4..8].try_into().unwrap(), 8)
+    } else {
+        (bytes[..4].try_into().unwrap(), 4)
+    };
+
+    let meta_size = u32::from_le_bytes(size_bytes) as usize;
+    if meta_size == 0 {
+        return Ok(None); // EOS
+    }
+
+    let meta_end = prefix_len + meta_size;
+    if bytes.len() < meta_end {
+        return Err(ArrowError::IoError(
+            "IPC: truncated metadata".into(),
+            std::io::Error::new(std::io::ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof, "truncated IPC metadata"),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let msg = root_as_message(&bytes[prefix_len..meta_end])
+        .map_err(|e| ArrowError::ParseError(format!("IPC message parse error: {e}")))?;
+    let body_len = msg.bodyLength() as usize;
+
+    let total = meta_end + body_len;
+    if bytes.len() < total {
+        return Err(ArrowError::IoError(
+            "IPC: truncated body".into(),
+            std::io::Error::new(std::io::ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof, "truncated IPC body"),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // Zero-copy: Bytes::slice shares the backing allocation; Buffer::from
+    // wraps it without copying.
+    Ok(Some(Buffer::from(data.slice(0..total))))
+}
+
+/// Read a length-prefixed byte slice at `offset` in `data`, advancing `offset`.
+///
+/// Reads an 8-byte little-endian length, then slices exactly that many bytes
+/// from `data`. The returned [`Bytes`] is zero-copy (shares `data`'s allocation).
+pub fn read_len_prefixed_bytes_at(data: &Bytes, offset: &mut usize) -> Result<Bytes, ArrowError> {
+    let bytes = data.as_ref();
+    let len_end = offset
+        .checked_add(8)
+        .filter(|&e| e <= bytes.len())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            ArrowError::IoError(
+                "length-prefixed bytes: truncated length field".into(),
+                std::io::Error::new(std::io::ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof, "truncated length"),
+            )
+        })?;
+    let len = u64::from_le_bytes(bytes[*offset..len_end].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+    *offset = len_end;
+    let data_end = offset
+        .checked_add(len)
+        .filter(|&e| e <= bytes.len())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            ArrowError::IoError(
+                "length-prefixed bytes: truncated data".into(),
+                std::io::Error::new(std::io::ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof, "truncated data"),
+            )
+        })?;
+    let result = data.slice(*offset..data_end);
+    *offset = data_end;
+    Ok(result)
+}
+
+/// Read all [`RecordBatch`]es from one Arrow IPC stream starting at `offset`,
+/// advancing `offset` past the stream (including the EOS marker).
+///
+/// Zero-copy: array buffers borrow from `data`'s allocation.
+pub fn read_ipc_stream_at(
+    data: &Bytes,
+    offset: &mut usize,
+) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>, ArrowError> {
+    let batches = read_ipc_stream(&data.slice(*offset..))?;
+
+    // Recompute how many bytes were consumed by re-parsing message sizes.
+    // We can't get this from read_ipc_stream directly, so we re-walk the
+    // message headers (metadata only, no body re-read) to sum up lengths.
+    let slice = &data.as_ref()[*offset..];
+    let mut consumed = 0usize;
+    loop {
+        let rem = &slice[consumed..];
+        if rem.is_empty() {
+            break;
+        }
+        let has_cont = rem.len() >= 4 && rem[..4] == IPC_CONTINUATION;
+        let (size_bytes, prefix_len): ([u8; 4], usize) = if has_cont {
+            if rem.len() < 8 {
+                break;
+            }
+            (rem[4..8].try_into().unwrap(), 8)
+        } else {
+            if rem.len() < 4 {
+                break;
+            }
+            (rem[..4].try_into().unwrap(), 4)
+        };
+        let meta_size = u32::from_le_bytes(size_bytes) as usize;
+        if meta_size == 0 {
+            // EOS — consume it and stop.
+            consumed += prefix_len;
+            break;
+        }
+        let meta_end = prefix_len + meta_size;
+        if rem.len() < meta_end {
+            break;
+        }
+        let msg = root_as_message(&rem[prefix_len..meta_end])
+            .map_err(|e| ArrowError::ParseError(format!("IPC message parse error: {e}")))?;
+        let body_len = msg.bodyLength() as usize;
+        consumed += meta_end + body_len;
+    }
+    *offset += consumed;
+
+    Ok(batches)
+}
+
+/// Read exactly one [`RecordBatch`] from one Arrow IPC stream starting at `offset`,
+/// advancing `offset` past the stream (including the EOS marker).
+///
+/// Zero-copy: array buffers borrow from `data`'s allocation.
+pub fn read_ipc_stream_single_at(
+    data: &Bytes,
+    offset: &mut usize,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch, ArrowError> {
+    let mut batches = read_ipc_stream_at(data, offset)?;
+    match batches.len() {
+        1 => Ok(batches.remove(0)),
+        n => Err(ArrowError::ParseError(format!(
+            "expected exactly 1 IPC record batch, got {n}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extract the prefix length and metadata size from a raw IPC message buffer.
+///
+/// Modern IPC streams have an 8-byte prefix `[continuation: 4][size: 4]`.
+/// Legacy streams have a 4-byte prefix `[size: 4]`. Returns `(prefix_len, meta_size)`.
+fn parse_ipc_message_prefix(buf: &Buffer) -> Result<(usize, usize), ArrowError> {
+    let has_continuation = buf.len() >= 4 && buf[..4] == IPC_CONTINUATION;
+    if has_continuation {
+        if buf.len() < 8 {
+            return Err(ArrowError::ParseError(
+                "IPC message buffer too short".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let meta_size = u32::from_le_bytes(buf[4..8].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+        Ok((8, meta_size))
+    } else {
+        if buf.len() < 4 {
+            return Err(ArrowError::ParseError(
+                "IPC message buffer too short".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let meta_size = u32::from_le_bytes(buf[..4].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+        Ok((4, meta_size))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Read all [`RecordBatch`]es from one Arrow IPC stream.
+///
+/// Zero-copy: each batch's array data buffers are borrowed from the input
+/// message buffer(s) and not copied during decoding.
+///
+/// Uses [`FileDecoder`] directly (rather than `StreamDecoder`) to avoid a
+/// known edge case where `StreamDecoder` does not produce a batch for messages
+/// with a zero-length body when the message exactly fills the decode buffer.
+pub fn read_ipc_stream(data: &Bytes) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>, ArrowError> {
+    let mut offset = 0usize;
+
+    let schema_buf = read_one_ipc_message(&data.slice(offset..))?.ok_or_else(|| {
+        ArrowError::ParseError("IPC stream: expected schema message, got EOS".into())
+    })?;
+    offset += schema_buf.len();
+
+    let (prefix_len, meta_size) = parse_ipc_message_prefix(&schema_buf)?;
+    let schema_msg = root_as_message(&schema_buf[prefix_len..prefix_len + meta_size])
+        .map_err(|e| ArrowError::ParseError(format!("IPC schema parse error: {e}")))?;
+    let schema = Arc::new(fb_to_schema(schema_msg.header_as_schema().ok_or_else(
+        || ArrowError::ParseError("IPC stream: first message is not a schema".into()),
+    )?));
+    let mut decoder = FileDecoder::new(schema, schema_msg.version());
+
+    let mut batches = Vec::new();
+
+    loop {
+        let Some(buf) = read_one_ipc_message(&data.slice(offset..))? else {
+            break;
+        };
+        offset += buf.len();
+
+        let (prefix_len, meta_size) = parse_ipc_message_prefix(&buf)?;
+        let msg = root_as_message(&buf[prefix_len..prefix_len + meta_size])
+            .map_err(|e| ArrowError::ParseError(format!("IPC message parse error: {e}")))?;
+        let body_len = msg.bodyLength() as usize;
+
+        // Block offset = 0 since the buffer starts at the message boundary.
+        // metaDataLength = prefix_len + meta_size (prefix + flatbuf + padding).
+        let block = arrow_ipc::Block::new(0, (prefix_len + meta_size) as i32, body_len as i64);
+
+        match msg.header_type() {
+            arrow_ipc::MessageHeader::RecordBatch => {
+                if let Some(batch) = decoder.read_record_batch(&block, &buf)? {
+                    batches.push(batch);
+                }
+            }
+            arrow_ipc::MessageHeader::DictionaryBatch => {
+                decoder.read_dictionary(&block, &buf)?;
+            }
+            _ => break,
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(batches)
+}
+
+/// Read exactly one [`RecordBatch`] from one Arrow IPC stream.
+pub fn read_ipc_stream_single(data: &Bytes) -> Result<RecordBatch, ArrowError> {
+    let mut batches = read_ipc_stream(data)?;
+    match batches.len() {
+        1 => Ok(batches.remove(0)),
+        n => Err(ArrowError::ParseError(format!(
+            "expected exactly 1 IPC record batch, got {n}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Aligned IPC sections
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Byte alignment that each IPC section's stream start is padded to.
+///
+/// When several IPC streams are concatenated into one larger blob (e.g. a
+/// cache entry), a section that starts at an arbitrary offset would leave its
+/// array data misaligned. [`FileDecoder`] with `require_alignment = false`
+/// then silently copies each buffer into a freshly aligned allocation on
+/// every read, defeating zero-copy. Padding each section start to a 64-byte
+/// boundary keeps the decoded buffers borrowed directly from the input.
+pub const IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT: usize = 64;
+
+/// Number of zero-padding bytes needed to advance `pos` to the next
+/// [`IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT`] boundary.
+fn section_padding(pos: usize) -> usize {
+    (IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT - (pos % IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT)) % IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT
+}
+
+/// A [`Write`] adapter that counts the bytes written through it.
+struct CountingWriter<'a> {
+    inner: &'a mut dyn Write,
+    count: usize,
+}
+
+impl Write for CountingWriter<'_> {
+    fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> std::io::Result<usize> {
+        let n = self.inner.write(buf)?;
+        self.count += n;
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+
+    fn flush(&mut self) -> std::io::Result<()> {
+        self.inner.flush()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Write zero padding so the next byte lands on an [`IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT`]
+/// boundary, advancing `pos` past it.
+fn write_section_padding(writer: &mut dyn Write, pos: &mut usize) -> Result<(), ArrowError> {
+    let pad = section_padding(*pos);
+    if pad > 0 {
+        const ZEROS: [u8; IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT] = [0u8; IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT];
+        writer
+            .write_all(&ZEROS[..pad])
+            .map_err(|e| ArrowError::IoError(e.to_string(), e))?;
+        *pos += pad;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Write `batch` as a 64-byte-aligned single-batch Arrow IPC section.
+///
+/// `pos` is the absolute byte offset of `writer` within the enclosing blob.
+/// Zero padding is written first so the IPC stream begins on an
+/// [`IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT`] boundary, then the stream itself. `pos` is
+/// advanced past both the padding and the stream so the caller can write
+/// further aligned sections.
+///
+/// Paired with [`read_ipc_section_at`]. For the decoded buffers to be borrowed
+/// zero-copy, the blob must ultimately be read back from a buffer whose base
+/// address is at least 64-byte aligned.
+pub fn write_ipc_section(
+    writer: &mut dyn Write,
+    pos: &mut usize,
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+) -> Result<(), ArrowError> {
+    write_section_padding(writer, pos)?;
+
+    let mut counting = CountingWriter {
+        inner: writer,
+        count: 0,
+    };
+    write_ipc_stream(batch, &mut counting)?;
+    *pos += counting.count;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Read a single [`RecordBatch`] from an aligned IPC section at `offset`.
+///
+/// Skips the alignment padding written by [`write_ipc_section`], then reads
+/// the stream, advancing `offset` past the section (padding + stream + EOS).
+///
+/// Zero-copy: array buffers borrow from `data`'s allocation when `data`'s base
+/// address is at least 64-byte aligned (see [`write_ipc_section`]).
+pub fn read_ipc_section_at(data: &Bytes, offset: &mut usize) -> Result<RecordBatch, ArrowError> {
+    *offset += section_padding(*offset);
+    read_ipc_stream_single_at(data, offset)
+}
+
+/// Write `batches` as a single 64-byte-aligned multi-batch Arrow IPC section.
+///
+/// Like [`write_ipc_section`] but emits every batch from `iter` into one IPC
+/// stream (schema + N batches + EOS). `iter` must yield at least one batch.
+/// Paired with [`read_ipc_section_batches_at`].
+pub fn write_ipc_section_batches<I>(
+    writer: &mut dyn Write,
+    pos: &mut usize,
+    iter: I,
+) -> Result<(), ArrowError>
+where
+    I: IntoIterator<Item = RecordBatch>,
+{
+    write_section_padding(writer, pos)?;
+
+    let mut counting = CountingWriter {
+        inner: writer,
+        count: 0,
+    };
+    write_ipc_stream_batches(iter, &mut counting)?;
+    *pos += counting.count;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Read all [`RecordBatch`]es from an aligned multi-batch IPC section at
+/// `offset`, advancing `offset` past the section (padding + stream + EOS).
+///
+/// Zero-copy: array buffers borrow from `data`'s allocation when `data`'s base
+/// address is at least 64-byte aligned (see [`write_ipc_section_batches`]).
+pub fn read_ipc_section_batches_at(
+    data: &Bytes,
+    offset: &mut usize,
+) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>, ArrowError> {
+    *offset += section_padding(*offset);
+    read_ipc_stream_at(data, offset)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, record_batch};
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ipc_roundtrip() {
+        let batch1 = record_batch!(
+            ("int", Int32, [1, 2, 3]),
+            ("str", Utf8, ["foo", "bar", "baz"])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch2 = record_batch!(("int", Int32, [4, 5]), ("str", Utf8, ["qux", "quux"])).unwrap();
+        let batches = vec![batch1.clone(), batch2.clone()];
+
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        write_ipc_stream_batches(batches, &mut buf).unwrap();
+
+        let data = Bytes::from(buf);
+
+        let batches = read_ipc_stream(&data).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(batches[0], batch1);
+        assert_eq!(batches[1], batch2);
+
+        let data_base = data.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let data_end = data_base + data.len();
+        let assert_col_zero_copy = |array: &ArrayRef| {
+            for buffer in array.to_data().buffers() {
+                let ptr = buffer.as_ptr() as usize;
+                assert!(
+                    ptr >= data_base && ptr < data_end,
+                    "buffer at {ptr:#x} is not backed by the input Bytes allocation \
+                     [{data_base:#x}..{data_end:#x})"
+                );
+            }
+        };
+
+        for batch in &batches {
+            assert_eq!(batch.schema(), batch1.schema());
+            assert_col_zero_copy(batch.column(0));
+            assert_col_zero_copy(batch.column(1));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Allocate a [`Bytes`] whose base address is 64-byte aligned, modelling a
+    /// backend that reads cache entries into an aligned buffer. A plain
+    /// `Bytes::from(vec)` only guarantees the allocator's alignment for `u8`.
+    fn aligned_bytes(payload: &[u8]) -> Bytes {
+        let mut v = vec![0u8; payload.len() + IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT];
+        let pad = section_padding(v.as_ptr() as usize);
+        v[pad..pad + payload.len()].copy_from_slice(payload);
+        Bytes::from(v).slice(pad..pad + payload.len())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_aligned_ipc_sections_are_zero_copy() {
+        // A LargeBinary column exercises the i64-offset buffer whose 8-byte
+        // alignment requirement triggers a realigning memcpy when misaligned.
+        let blocks = arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray::from_vec(vec![&b"hello"[..], b"world"]);
+        let section_a = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([("a", Arc::new(blocks) as ArrayRef)]).unwrap();
+        let section_b = record_batch!(("b", Int64, [10i64, 20, 30, 40, 50])).unwrap();
+
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        // Arbitrary, deliberately non-64-aligned preamble so the first section
+        // must be padded rather than landing at offset 0 by luck.
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&[0xABu8; 7]);
+        let mut pos = buf.len();
+        // The first section's stream begins after padding the 7-byte preamble
+        // up to the next 64-byte boundary.
+        assert_eq!(7 + section_padding(7), IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT);
+        write_ipc_section(&mut buf, &mut pos, &section_a).unwrap();
+        write_ipc_section(&mut buf, &mut pos, &section_b).unwrap();
+
+        let data = aligned_bytes(&buf);
+        assert_eq!(
+            section_padding(data.as_ptr() as usize),
+            0,
+            "base not aligned"
+        );
+
+        let mut offset = 7;
+        let read_a = read_ipc_section_at(&data, &mut offset).unwrap();
+        let read_b = read_ipc_section_at(&data, &mut offset).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(read_a, section_a);
+        assert_eq!(read_b, section_b);
+
+        let data_base = data.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let data_end = data_base + data.len();
+        for batch in [&read_a, &read_b] {
+            for buffer in batch.column(0).to_data().buffers() {
+                let ptr = buffer.as_ptr() as usize;
+                assert!(
+                    ptr >= data_base && ptr < data_end,
+                    "section buffer at {ptr:#x} was realigned out of the input \
+                     [{data_base:#x}..{data_end:#x}) — misaligned section",
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_aligned_multi_batch_section_roundtrip_zero_copy() {
+        // A multi-batch section (e.g. IVF SQ storage chunks) must round-trip
+        // every batch and decode the first batch's buffers zero-copy.
+        let b1 = record_batch!(("v", Int64, [1i64, 2, 3])).unwrap();
+        let b2 = record_batch!(("v", Int64, [4i64, 5])).unwrap();
+        let b3 = record_batch!(("v", Int64, [6i64])).unwrap();
+
+        let mut buf = vec![0xCDu8; 5];
+        let mut pos = buf.len();
+        write_ipc_section_batches(&mut buf, &mut pos, [b1.clone(), b2.clone(), b3.clone()])
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let data = aligned_bytes(&buf);
+        let mut offset = 5;
+        let read = read_ipc_section_batches_at(&data, &mut offset).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(read, vec![b1, b2, b3]);
+        assert_eq!(offset, buf.len(), "offset should land at section end");
+
+        let data_base = data.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let data_end = data_base + data.len();
+        for buffer in read[0].column(0).to_data().buffers() {
+            let ptr = buffer.as_ptr() as usize;
+            assert!(
+                ptr >= data_base && ptr < data_end,
+                "first batch buffer at {ptr:#x} was realigned out of the input",
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/json.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/json.rs
index d11240ff7a4..3fadce1f30c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/src/json.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/json.rs
@@ -6,9 +6,15 @@
 use std::convert::TryFrom;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow_array::builder::LargeBinaryBuilder;
-use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, LargeBinaryArray, LargeStringArray, RecordBatch, StringArray};
-use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema};
+use arrow_array::builder::{GenericStringBuilder, LargeBinaryBuilder};
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, GenericStringArray, LargeBinaryArray, LargeListArray,
+    LargeStringArray, ListArray, MapArray, OffsetSizeTrait, RecordBatch, StringArray, StructArray,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema};
+use jsonb::OwnedJsonb;
+use jsonb::jsonpath::{JsonPath, Selector};
 
 use crate::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
 
@@ -55,6 +61,88 @@ pub fn has_json_fields(field: &ArrowField) -> bool {
     }
 }
 
+/// Check if a field or any of its descendants is an Arrow JSON field
+pub fn has_arrow_json_fields(field: &ArrowField) -> bool {
+    if is_arrow_json_field(field) {
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(fields) => fields.iter().any(|f| has_arrow_json_fields(f)),
+        DataType::List(f) | DataType::LargeList(f) | DataType::FixedSizeList(f, _) => {
+            has_arrow_json_fields(f)
+        }
+        DataType::Map(f, _) => has_arrow_json_fields(f),
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// The Arrow representation holding a JSON field's values.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum JsonEncoding {
+    /// JSONB bytes: [`JSON_EXT_NAME`] over `LargeBinary`. Lance stores JSON
+    /// this way.
+    Jsonb,
+    /// JSON text: [`ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME`] over `Utf8` or `LargeUtf8`. Callers
+    /// write JSON this way, and reads return it this way by default.
+    Text,
+}
+
+impl JsonEncoding {
+    /// The encoding of `field`'s values, or `None` when `field` does not hold
+    /// JSON.
+    pub fn of_field(field: &ArrowField) -> Option<Self> {
+        if is_json_field(field) {
+            Some(Self::Jsonb)
+        } else if is_arrow_json_field(field) {
+            Some(Self::Text)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The values of a JSON column, readable as JSONB or as text whichever
+/// encoding they arrived in.
+///
+/// Code that computes on JSON, such as tokenizers and indices, reads values
+/// through this type, so its behavior does not depend on whether they come
+/// from storage or from a caller.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct JsonValues<'a> {
+    encoding: JsonEncoding,
+    array: &'a ArrayRef,
+}
+
+impl<'a> JsonValues<'a> {
+    /// Read `array` as the values of `field`, or `None` when `field` does not
+    /// hold JSON.
+    pub fn try_new(field: &ArrowField, array: &'a ArrayRef) -> Option<Self> {
+        JsonEncoding::of_field(field).map(|encoding| Self { encoding, array })
+    }
+
+    pub fn encoding(&self) -> JsonEncoding {
+        self.encoding
+    }
+
+    /// The values as JSONB. Text values are parsed, so invalid JSON fails.
+    pub fn to_jsonb(&self) -> Result<LargeBinaryArray, ArrowError> {
+        match self.encoding {
+            JsonEncoding::Jsonb => Ok(self.array.as_binary::<i64>().clone()),
+            JsonEncoding::Text => Ok(JsonArray::try_from(self.array.clone())?.into_inner()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The values as JSON text: the input array when it already holds text,
+    /// otherwise `LargeUtf8` decoded from JSONB.
+    pub fn to_text(&self) -> ArrayRef {
+        match self.encoding {
+            JsonEncoding::Jsonb => Arc::new(decode_jsonb_array::<i64>(self.array.as_binary())),
+            JsonEncoding::Text => self.array.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// Create a JSON field with the appropriate extension metadata
 pub fn json_field(name: &str, nullable: bool) -> ArrowField {
     let mut field = ArrowField::new(name, DataType::LargeBinary, nullable);
@@ -129,28 +217,13 @@ impl JsonArray {
             return Ok(None);
         }
 
-        let jsonb_bytes = self.inner.value(i);
-        get_json_path(jsonb_bytes, path).map_err(|e| {
-            ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!("Failed to extract JSONPath: {}", e))
-        })
+        let path = parse_json_path(path)?;
+        Ok(select_json_path(self.inner.value(i), &path)?.map(|value| value.to_string()))
     }
 
     /// Convert to Arrow string array (JSON as UTF-8)
     pub fn to_arrow_json(&self) -> ArrayRef {
-        let mut builder = arrow_array::builder::StringBuilder::new();
-
-        for i in 0..self.inner.len() {
-            if self.inner.is_null(i) {
-                builder.append_null();
-            } else {
-                let jsonb_bytes = self.inner.value(i);
-                let json_str = decode_json(jsonb_bytes);
-                builder.append_value(&json_str);
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Return as UTF-8 string array (Arrow represents JSON as strings)
-        Arc::new(builder.finish())
+        Arc::new(decode_jsonb_array::<i32>(&self.inner))
     }
 
     pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
@@ -179,23 +252,7 @@ impl TryFrom<&StringArray> for JsonArray {
     type Error = ArrowError;
 
     fn try_from(array: &StringArray) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
-        let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(array.len(), array.value_data().len());
-
-        for i in 0..array.len() {
-            if array.is_null(i) {
-                builder.append_null();
-            } else {
-                let json_str = array.value(i);
-                let encoded = encode_json(json_str).map_err(|e| {
-                    ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!("Failed to encode JSON: {}", e))
-                })?;
-                builder.append_value(&encoded);
-            }
-        }
-
-        Ok(Self {
-            inner: builder.finish(),
-        })
+        encode_json_text_array(array)
     }
 }
 
@@ -211,24 +268,40 @@ impl TryFrom<&LargeStringArray> for JsonArray {
     type Error = ArrowError;
 
     fn try_from(array: &LargeStringArray) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
-        let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(array.len(), array.value_data().len());
+        encode_json_text_array(array)
+    }
+}
 
-        for i in 0..array.len() {
-            if array.is_null(i) {
-                builder.append_null();
-            } else {
-                let json_str = array.value(i);
+fn encode_json_text_array<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+    array: &GenericStringArray<O>,
+) -> Result<JsonArray, ArrowError> {
+    let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(array.len(), array.value_data().len());
+    for value in array {
+        match value {
+            Some(json_str) => {
                 let encoded = encode_json(json_str).map_err(|e| {
                     ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!("Failed to encode JSON: {}", e))
                 })?;
                 builder.append_value(&encoded);
             }
+            None => builder.append_null(),
         }
+    }
+    Ok(JsonArray {
+        inner: builder.finish(),
+    })
+}
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            inner: builder.finish(),
-        })
+fn decode_jsonb_array<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(array: &LargeBinaryArray) -> GenericStringArray<O> {
+    let mut builder =
+        GenericStringBuilder::<O>::with_capacity(array.len(), array.value_data().len());
+    for value in array {
+        match value {
+            Some(jsonb_bytes) => builder.append_value(decode_json(jsonb_bytes)),
+            None => builder.append_null(),
+        }
     }
+    builder.finish()
 }
 
 impl TryFrom<ArrayRef> for JsonArray {
@@ -272,43 +345,280 @@ pub fn decode_json(jsonb_bytes: &[u8]) -> String {
     raw_jsonb.to_string()
 }
 
-/// Extract JSONPath value from JSONB
-fn get_json_path(
+/// Parse a JSONPath expression.
+pub fn parse_json_path(path: &str) -> Result<JsonPath<'_>, ArrowError> {
+    jsonb::jsonpath::parse_json_path(path.as_bytes())
+        .map_err(|e| ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!("Invalid JSONPath '{path}': {e}")))
+}
+
+/// Select the value at `path` in a JSONB value.
+///
+/// A path matching several values selects them together as one JSON array,
+/// so no match is silently dropped.
+pub fn select_json_path(
     jsonb_bytes: &[u8],
-    path: &str,
-) -> Result<Option<String>, Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
-    let json_path = jsonb::jsonpath::parse_json_path(path.as_bytes())?;
-    let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
-    let mut selector = jsonb::jsonpath::Selector::new(raw_jsonb);
+    path: &JsonPath<'_>,
+) -> Result<Option<OwnedJsonb>, ArrowError> {
+    Selector::new(jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes))
+        .select_value(path)
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!("Failed to select JSONPath {path}: {e}"))
+        })
+}
 
-    let values = selector.select_values(&json_path)?;
-    if values.is_empty() {
-        Ok(None)
-    } else {
-        Ok(Some(values[0].to_string()))
-    }
+/// Whether `path` matches any value in a JSONB value.
+pub fn json_path_exists(jsonb_bytes: &[u8], path: &JsonPath<'_>) -> Result<bool, ArrowError> {
+    Selector::new(jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes))
+        .exists(path)
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!("Failed to match JSONPath {path}: {e}"))
+        })
+}
+
+/// Select every value matched by `path` in a JSONB value.
+pub fn select_json_path_values(
+    jsonb_bytes: &[u8],
+    path: &JsonPath<'_>,
+) -> Result<Vec<OwnedJsonb>, ArrowError> {
+    Selector::new(jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes))
+        .select_values(path)
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!("Failed to select JSONPath {path}: {e}"))
+        })
 }
 
 /// Convert an Arrow JSON field to Lance JSON field (with JSONB storage)
 pub fn arrow_json_to_lance_json(field: &ArrowField) -> ArrowField {
     if is_arrow_json_field(field) {
-        // Convert Arrow JSON (Utf8/LargeUtf8) to Lance JSON (LargeBinary)
-        // Preserve all metadata from the original field
-        let mut new_field =
-            ArrowField::new(field.name(), DataType::LargeBinary, field.is_nullable());
-
-        // Copy all metadata from the original field
-        let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
-        // Add/override the extension metadata for Lance JSON
-        metadata.insert(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string());
-
-        new_field = new_field.with_metadata(metadata);
-        new_field
-    } else {
-        field.clone()
+        return field_with_extension(field, DataType::LargeBinary, JSON_EXT_NAME);
+    }
+
+    let data_type = match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(fields) => {
+            let fields = fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| Arc::new(arrow_json_to_lance_json(field)))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(fields))
+        }
+        DataType::List(item) => DataType::List(Arc::new(arrow_json_to_lance_json(item))),
+        DataType::LargeList(item) => DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(arrow_json_to_lance_json(item))),
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(item, size) => {
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(arrow_json_to_lance_json(item)), *size)
+        }
+        DataType::Map(entries, keys_sorted) => {
+            DataType::Map(Arc::new(arrow_json_to_lance_json(entries)), *keys_sorted)
+        }
+        _ => return field.clone(),
+    };
+
+    field_with_data_type(field, data_type)
+}
+
+/// Convert a Lance JSON field to Arrow JSON field.
+pub fn lance_json_to_arrow_json(field: &ArrowField) -> ArrowField {
+    if is_json_field(field) {
+        return field_with_extension(field, DataType::Utf8, ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME);
+    }
+
+    let data_type = match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(fields) => {
+            let fields = fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| Arc::new(lance_json_to_arrow_json(field)))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(fields))
+        }
+        DataType::List(item) => DataType::List(Arc::new(lance_json_to_arrow_json(item))),
+        DataType::LargeList(item) => DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(lance_json_to_arrow_json(item))),
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(item, size) => {
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(lance_json_to_arrow_json(item)), *size)
+        }
+        DataType::Map(entries, keys_sorted) => {
+            DataType::Map(Arc::new(lance_json_to_arrow_json(entries)), *keys_sorted)
+        }
+        _ => return field.clone(),
+    };
+
+    field_with_data_type(field, data_type)
+}
+
+fn field_with_data_type(field: &ArrowField, data_type: DataType) -> ArrowField {
+    ArrowField::new(field.name(), data_type, field.is_nullable())
+        .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone())
+}
+
+fn field_with_extension(
+    field: &ArrowField,
+    data_type: DataType,
+    extension_name: &str,
+) -> ArrowField {
+    let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+    metadata.insert(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), extension_name.to_string());
+    ArrowField::new(field.name(), data_type, field.is_nullable()).with_metadata(metadata)
+}
+
+fn convert_json_array<F>(
+    field: &ArrowField,
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+    convert_leaf: &F,
+) -> Result<(ArrowField, ArrayRef, bool), ArrowError>
+where
+    F: Fn(&ArrowField, &ArrayRef) -> Result<Option<(ArrowField, ArrayRef)>, ArrowError>,
+{
+    if let Some((field, array)) = convert_leaf(field, array)? {
+        return Ok((field, array, true));
+    }
+
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(fields) => {
+            let struct_array = array.as_struct();
+            let mut new_fields = Vec::with_capacity(fields.len());
+            let mut new_columns = Vec::with_capacity(fields.len());
+            let mut changed = false;
+
+            for (field, column) in fields.iter().zip(struct_array.columns()) {
+                let (new_field, new_column, field_changed) =
+                    convert_json_array(field, column, convert_leaf)?;
+                changed |= field_changed;
+                new_fields.push(Arc::new(new_field));
+                new_columns.push(new_column);
+            }
+
+            if changed {
+                let fields = Fields::from(new_fields);
+                let new_field = field_with_data_type(field, DataType::Struct(fields.clone()));
+                let new_array =
+                    StructArray::new(fields, new_columns, struct_array.nulls().cloned());
+                Ok((new_field, Arc::new(new_array) as ArrayRef, true))
+            } else {
+                Ok((field.clone(), array.clone(), false))
+            }
+        }
+        DataType::List(item) => {
+            let list_array: &ListArray = array.as_list();
+            let (new_item, new_values, changed) =
+                convert_json_array(item, list_array.values(), convert_leaf)?;
+            if changed {
+                let new_field =
+                    field_with_data_type(field, DataType::List(Arc::new(new_item.clone())));
+                let new_array = ListArray::new(
+                    Arc::new(new_item),
+                    list_array.offsets().clone(),
+                    new_values,
+                    list_array.nulls().cloned(),
+                );
+                Ok((new_field, Arc::new(new_array) as ArrayRef, true))
+            } else {
+                Ok((field.clone(), array.clone(), false))
+            }
+        }
+        DataType::LargeList(item) => {
+            let list_array: &LargeListArray = array.as_list();
+            let (new_item, new_values, changed) =
+                convert_json_array(item, list_array.values(), convert_leaf)?;
+            if changed {
+                let new_field =
+                    field_with_data_type(field, DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(new_item.clone())));
+                let new_array = LargeListArray::new(
+                    Arc::new(new_item),
+                    list_array.offsets().clone(),
+                    new_values,
+                    list_array.nulls().cloned(),
+                );
+                Ok((new_field, Arc::new(new_array) as ArrayRef, true))
+            } else {
+                Ok((field.clone(), array.clone(), false))
+            }
+        }
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(item, size) => {
+            let list_array: &FixedSizeListArray = array.as_fixed_size_list();
+            let (new_item, new_values, changed) =
+                convert_json_array(item, list_array.values(), convert_leaf)?;
+            if changed {
+                let new_field = field_with_data_type(
+                    field,
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(new_item.clone()), *size),
+                );
+                let new_array = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_with_length(
+                    Arc::new(new_item),
+                    *size,
+                    new_values,
+                    list_array.nulls().cloned(),
+                    list_array.len(),
+                )?;
+                Ok((new_field, Arc::new(new_array) as ArrayRef, true))
+            } else {
+                Ok((field.clone(), array.clone(), false))
+            }
+        }
+        DataType::Map(entries, keys_sorted) => {
+            let map_array = array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<MapArray>()
+                .expect("DataType::Map array must be MapArray");
+            let entries_array = Arc::new(map_array.entries().clone()) as ArrayRef;
+            let (new_entries, new_entries_array, changed) =
+                convert_json_array(entries, &entries_array, convert_leaf)?;
+            if changed {
+                let entries_struct = new_entries_array
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+                    .expect("Map entries must be StructArray")
+                    .clone();
+                let new_field = field_with_data_type(
+                    field,
+                    DataType::Map(Arc::new(new_entries.clone()), *keys_sorted),
+                );
+                let new_array = MapArray::new(
+                    Arc::new(new_entries),
+                    map_array.offsets().clone(),
+                    entries_struct,
+                    map_array.nulls().cloned(),
+                    *keys_sorted,
+                );
+                Ok((new_field, Arc::new(new_array) as ArrayRef, true))
+            } else {
+                Ok((field.clone(), array.clone(), false))
+            }
+        }
+        _ => Ok((field.clone(), array.clone(), false)),
     }
 }
 
+fn convert_arrow_json_array(
+    field: &ArrowField,
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+) -> Result<(ArrowField, ArrayRef, bool), ArrowError> {
+    convert_json_array(field, array, &|field, array| {
+        if is_arrow_json_field(field) {
+            let json_array = JsonArray::try_from(array.clone())?;
+            Ok(Some((
+                arrow_json_to_lance_json(field),
+                Arc::new(json_array.into_inner()) as ArrayRef,
+            )))
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+fn convert_lance_json_array(
+    field: &ArrowField,
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+) -> Result<(ArrowField, ArrayRef, bool), ArrowError> {
+    convert_json_array(field, array, &|field, array| {
+        if is_json_field(field) {
+            Ok(Some((
+                lance_json_to_arrow_json(field),
+                Arc::new(decode_jsonb_array::<i32>(array.as_binary())) as ArrayRef,
+            )))
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+    })
+}
+
 /// Convert a RecordBatch with Lance JSON columns (JSONB) back to Arrow JSON format (strings)
 pub fn convert_lance_json_to_arrow(
     batch: &arrow_array::RecordBatch,
@@ -320,50 +630,11 @@ pub fn convert_lance_json_to_arrow(
 
     for (i, field) in schema.fields().iter().enumerate() {
         let column = batch.column(i);
+        let (new_field, new_column, changed) = convert_lance_json_array(field, column)?;
 
-        if is_json_field(field) {
-            needs_conversion = true;
-
-            // Convert the field back to Arrow JSON (Utf8)
-            let mut new_field = ArrowField::new(field.name(), DataType::Utf8, field.is_nullable());
-            let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
-            // Change from lance.json to arrow.json
-            metadata.insert(
-                ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
-                ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
-            );
-            new_field.set_metadata(metadata);
-            new_fields.push(new_field);
-
-            // Convert the data from JSONB to JSON strings
-            if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-                // For empty batches, create an empty String array
-                let empty_strings = arrow_array::builder::StringBuilder::new().finish();
-                new_columns.push(Arc::new(empty_strings) as ArrayRef);
-            } else {
-                // Convert JSONB back to JSON strings
-                // Downcast is guaranteed to succeed since is_json_field verified the type
-                let binary_array = column
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
-                    .expect("Lance JSON field must be LargeBinaryArray");
-
-                let mut builder = arrow_array::builder::StringBuilder::new();
-                for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
-                    if binary_array.is_null(i) {
-                        builder.append_null();
-                    } else {
-                        let jsonb_bytes = binary_array.value(i);
-                        let json_str = decode_json(jsonb_bytes);
-                        builder.append_value(&json_str);
-                    }
-                }
-                new_columns.push(Arc::new(builder.finish()) as ArrayRef);
-            }
-        } else {
-            new_fields.push(field.as_ref().clone());
-            new_columns.push(column.clone());
-        }
+        needs_conversion |= changed;
+        new_fields.push(new_field);
+        new_columns.push(new_column);
     }
 
     if needs_conversion {
@@ -389,40 +660,11 @@ pub fn convert_json_columns(
 
     for (i, field) in schema.fields().iter().enumerate() {
         let column = batch.column(i);
+        let (new_field, new_column, changed) = convert_arrow_json_array(field, column)?;
 
-        if is_arrow_json_field(field) {
-            needs_conversion = true;
-
-            // Convert the field metadata
-            new_fields.push(arrow_json_to_lance_json(field));
-
-            // Convert the data from JSON strings to JSONB
-            if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-                // For empty batches, create an empty LargeBinary array
-                let empty_binary = LargeBinaryBuilder::new().finish();
-                new_columns.push(Arc::new(empty_binary) as ArrayRef);
-            } else {
-                // Convert non-empty data
-                // is_arrow_json_field guarantees type is Utf8 or LargeUtf8
-                let json_array =
-                    if let Some(string_array) = column.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>() {
-                        JsonArray::try_from(string_array)?
-                    } else {
-                        let large_string_array = column
-                            .as_any()
-                            .downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>()
-                            .expect("Arrow JSON field must be Utf8 or LargeUtf8");
-                        JsonArray::try_from(large_string_array)?
-                    };
-
-                let binary_array = json_array.into_inner();
-
-                new_columns.push(Arc::new(binary_array) as ArrayRef);
-            }
-        } else {
-            new_fields.push(field.as_ref().clone());
-            new_columns.push(column.clone());
-        }
+        needs_conversion |= changed;
+        new_fields.push(new_field);
+        new_columns.push(new_column);
     }
 
     if needs_conversion {
@@ -496,6 +738,41 @@ mod tests {
 
         let age = json_array.json_path(1, "$.user.age").unwrap();
         assert_eq!(age, None);
+
+        // Several matches are selected together, as the SQL JSON functions do.
+        let json_array =
+            JsonArray::try_from_iter(vec![Some(r#"{"a": [{"b": 1}, {"b": 2}]}"#)]).unwrap();
+        let bs = json_array.json_path(0, "$.a[*].b").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bs, Some("[1,2]".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_values_read_either_encoding() {
+        let docs = vec![Some(r#"{"a":1}"#), None];
+        let text: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(docs.clone()));
+        let jsonb: ArrayRef = Arc::new(JsonArray::try_from_iter(docs).unwrap().into_inner());
+        let mut text_field = ArrowField::new("j", DataType::Utf8, true);
+        text_field.set_metadata(std::collections::HashMap::from([(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        )]));
+        let jsonb_field = json_field("j", true);
+
+        let from_text = JsonValues::try_new(&text_field, &text).unwrap();
+        let from_jsonb = JsonValues::try_new(&jsonb_field, &jsonb).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(from_text.encoding(), JsonEncoding::Text);
+        assert_eq!(from_jsonb.encoding(), JsonEncoding::Jsonb);
+
+        assert_eq!(&from_text.to_jsonb().unwrap(), jsonb.as_binary::<i64>());
+        assert_eq!(&from_jsonb.to_jsonb().unwrap(), jsonb.as_binary::<i64>());
+        assert_eq!(&from_text.to_text(), &text);
+        let decoded = from_jsonb.to_text();
+        let decoded = decoded.as_string::<i64>();
+        assert_eq!(decoded.value(0), r#"{"a":1}"#);
+        assert!(decoded.is_null(1));
+
+        let plain = ArrowField::new("j", DataType::Utf8, true);
+        assert!(JsonValues::try_new(&plain, &text).is_none());
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -546,6 +823,128 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_convert_nested_json_columns() {
+        use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+
+        let uri_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, false));
+        let mut metadata = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        );
+        let extra_field =
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("extra", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(metadata));
+        let item_fields = Fields::from(vec![uri_field, extra_field]);
+
+        let values = StructArray::new(
+            item_fields.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("a.jpg"), Some("b.jpg")])) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    Some(r#"{"codec":"h264"}"#),
+                    None::<&str>,
+                ])) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Struct(item_fields), true));
+        let media = ListArray::new(
+            item,
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+            Arc::new(values),
+            None,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "media",
+            media.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(media) as ArrayRef]).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(has_arrow_json_fields(batch.schema().field(0)));
+
+        let converted = convert_json_columns(&batch).unwrap();
+        let converted_schema = converted.schema();
+        let DataType::List(item) = converted_schema.field(0).data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected list field");
+        };
+        let DataType::Struct(fields) = item.data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected struct item");
+        };
+        assert!(is_json_field(&fields[1]));
+
+        let list_array: &ListArray = converted.column(0).as_list();
+        let values = list_array.values().as_struct();
+        let extra = values
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(decode_json(extra.value(0)).contains("h264"));
+        assert!(extra.is_null(1));
+
+        let logical = convert_lance_json_to_arrow(&converted).unwrap();
+        let logical_schema = logical.schema();
+        let DataType::List(item) = logical_schema.field(0).data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected list field");
+        };
+        let DataType::Struct(fields) = item.data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected struct item");
+        };
+        assert!(is_arrow_json_field(&fields[1]));
+
+        let list_array: &ListArray = logical.column(0).as_list();
+        let values = list_array.values().as_struct();
+        let extra = values
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(extra.value(0).contains("h264"));
+        assert!(extra.is_null(1));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_convert_fixed_size_list_zero_json_preserves_length() {
+        let mut metadata = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        );
+        let item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(metadata));
+        let values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(Vec::<Option<&str>>::new())) as ArrayRef;
+        let lists = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_with_length(item, 0, values, None, 3).unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "lists",
+            lists.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(lists) as ArrayRef]).unwrap();
+
+        let converted = convert_json_columns(&batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(converted.num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(converted.column(0).len(), 3);
+
+        let converted_schema = converted.schema();
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(item, size) = converted_schema.field(0).data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected fixed size list field");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(*size, 0);
+        assert!(is_json_field(item));
+
+        let logical = convert_lance_json_to_arrow(&converted).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(logical.num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(logical.column(0).len(), 3);
+
+        let logical_schema = logical.schema();
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(item, size) = logical_schema.field(0).data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected fixed size list field");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(*size, 0);
+        assert!(is_arrow_json_field(item));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_has_json_fields() {
         // Test direct JSON field
@@ -998,10 +1397,7 @@ mod tests {
         // Invalid JSONPath syntax should return error
         let result = json_array.json_path(0, "invalid path without $");
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Failed to extract JSONPath"));
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("Invalid JSONPath"));
     }
 
     #[test]
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/lib.rs
index 0a61a407395..391da293ab5 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/lib.rs
@@ -5,16 +5,26 @@
 //!
 //! To improve Arrow-RS ergonomic
 
+#![warn(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
+
+// lance-arrow reinterprets value bytes as native numeric types in
+// `FloatArray::as_slice` for `bf16` (rust/lance-arrow/src/bfloat16.rs), which
+// requires the host byte order to match the on-disk byte order Lance writes.
+// Lance writes little-endian; building on a big-endian target would silently
+// produce wrong numeric values.
+#[cfg(not(target_endian = "little"))]
+compile_error!("lance-arrow only supports little-endian targets");
+
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::{collections::HashMap, ptr::NonNull};
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::AsArray, Array, ArrayRef, ArrowNumericType, FixedSizeBinaryArray, FixedSizeListArray,
-    GenericListArray, LargeListArray, ListArray, OffsetSizeTrait, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch,
-    StructArray, UInt32Array, UInt8Array,
+    Array, ArrayRef, ArrowNumericType, FixedSizeBinaryArray, FixedSizeListArray, GenericListArray,
+    LargeListArray, ListArray, MapArray, OffsetSizeTrait, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, StructArray,
+    UInt8Array, UInt32Array, cast::AsArray,
 };
 use arrow_array::{
-    new_null_array, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int16Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, Int8Array,
+    Float32Array, Float64Array, Int8Array, Int16Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, new_null_array,
 };
 use arrow_buffer::MutableBuffer;
 use arrow_data::ArrayDataBuilder;
@@ -30,11 +40,12 @@ pub mod floats;
 use crate::list::ListArrayExt;
 pub use floats::*;
 
-pub mod cast;
+pub mod ipc;
 pub mod json;
 pub mod list;
 pub mod memory;
 pub mod scalar;
+pub mod stream;
 pub mod r#struct;
 
 /// Arrow extension metadata key for extension name
@@ -51,22 +62,16 @@ pub const BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME: &str = "lance.blob.v2";
 /// Metadata key for overriding the dedicated blob size threshold (in bytes)
 pub const BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY: &str =
     "lance-encoding:blob-dedicated-size-threshold";
+/// Metadata key for overriding the inline blob size threshold (in bytes)
+pub const BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY: &str = "lance-encoding:blob-inline-size-threshold";
+/// Metadata key for overriding the maximum size (in bytes) of a packed blob sidecar file
+pub const BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY: &str =
+    "lance-encoding:blob-pack-file-size-threshold";
 
 type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, ArrowError>;
 
 pub trait DataTypeExt {
-    /// Returns true if the data type is binary-like, such as (Large)Utf8 and (Large)Binary.
-    ///
-    /// ```
-    /// use lance_arrow::*;
-    /// use arrow_schema::DataType;
-    ///
-    /// assert!(DataType::Utf8.is_binary_like());
-    /// assert!(DataType::Binary.is_binary_like());
-    /// assert!(DataType::LargeUtf8.is_binary_like());
-    /// assert!(DataType::LargeBinary.is_binary_like());
-    /// assert!(!DataType::Int32.is_binary_like());
-    /// ```
+    /// Returns true if the data type is binary-like, such as Utf8, Binary, or the large and/or view variants.
     fn is_binary_like(&self) -> bool;
 
     /// Returns true if the data type is a struct.
@@ -93,7 +98,10 @@ pub trait DataTypeExt {
 impl DataTypeExt for DataType {
     fn is_binary_like(&self) -> bool {
         use DataType::*;
-        matches!(self, Utf8 | Binary | LargeUtf8 | LargeBinary)
+        matches!(
+            self,
+            Utf8 | Binary | LargeUtf8 | LargeBinary | Utf8View | BinaryView
+        )
     }
 
     fn is_struct(&self) -> bool {
@@ -296,7 +304,7 @@ impl FixedSizeListArrayExt for FixedSizeListArray {
                         field.is_nullable(),
                     )),
                     *size,
-                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter(
                         self.values()
                             .as_any()
                             .downcast_ref::<Int8Array>()
@@ -304,7 +312,7 @@ impl FixedSizeListArrayExt for FixedSizeListArray {
                                 "Fail to cast primitive array to Int8Type".to_string(),
                             ))?
                             .into_iter()
-                            .filter_map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f32)),
+                            .map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f32)),
                     )),
                     self.nulls().cloned(),
                 )),
@@ -315,15 +323,15 @@ impl FixedSizeListArrayExt for FixedSizeListArray {
                         field.is_nullable(),
                     )),
                     *size,
-                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter(
                         self.values()
                             .as_any()
                             .downcast_ref::<Int16Array>()
                             .ok_or(ArrowError::ParseError(
-                                "Fail to cast primitive array to Int8Type".to_string(),
+                                "Fail to cast primitive array to Int16Type".to_string(),
                             ))?
                             .into_iter()
-                            .filter_map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f32)),
+                            .map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f32)),
                     )),
                     self.nulls().cloned(),
                 )),
@@ -334,15 +342,15 @@ impl FixedSizeListArrayExt for FixedSizeListArray {
                         field.is_nullable(),
                     )),
                     *size,
-                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter(
                         self.values()
                             .as_any()
                             .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
                             .ok_or(ArrowError::ParseError(
-                                "Fail to cast primitive array to Int8Type".to_string(),
+                                "Fail to cast primitive array to Int32Type".to_string(),
                             ))?
                             .into_iter()
-                            .filter_map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f32)),
+                            .map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f32)),
                     )),
                     self.nulls().cloned(),
                 )),
@@ -353,15 +361,15 @@ impl FixedSizeListArrayExt for FixedSizeListArray {
                         field.is_nullable(),
                     )),
                     *size,
-                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from_iter(
                         self.values()
                             .as_any()
                             .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
                             .ok_or(ArrowError::ParseError(
-                                "Fail to cast primitive array to Int8Type".to_string(),
+                                "Fail to cast primitive array to Int64Type".to_string(),
                             ))?
                             .into_iter()
-                            .filter_map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f64)),
+                            .map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f64)),
                     )),
                     self.nulls().cloned(),
                 )),
@@ -372,15 +380,15 @@ impl FixedSizeListArrayExt for FixedSizeListArray {
                         field.is_nullable(),
                     )),
                     *size,
-                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from_iter(
                         self.values()
                             .as_any()
                             .downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
                             .ok_or(ArrowError::ParseError(
-                                "Fail to cast primitive array to Int8Type".to_string(),
+                                "Fail to cast primitive array to UInt8Type".to_string(),
                             ))?
                             .into_iter()
-                            .filter_map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f64)),
+                            .map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f64)),
                     )),
                     self.nulls().cloned(),
                 )),
@@ -391,15 +399,15 @@ impl FixedSizeListArrayExt for FixedSizeListArray {
                         field.is_nullable(),
                     )),
                     *size,
-                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from_iter(
                         self.values()
                             .as_any()
                             .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
                             .ok_or(ArrowError::ParseError(
-                                "Fail to cast primitive array to Int8Type".to_string(),
+                                "Fail to cast primitive array to UInt32Type".to_string(),
                             ))?
                             .into_iter()
-                            .filter_map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f64)),
+                            .map(|x| x.map(|y| y as f64)),
                     )),
                     self.nulls().cloned(),
                 )),
@@ -433,13 +441,9 @@ pub trait FixedSizeBinaryArrayExt {
     /// let int_values = UInt8Array::from_iter(0..10);
     /// let fixed_size_list_arr = FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_new_from_values(&int_values, 2).unwrap();
     /// assert_eq!(fixed_size_list_arr,
-    ///     FixedSizeBinaryArray::from(vec![
-    ///         Some(vec![0, 1].as_slice()),
-    ///         Some(vec![2, 3].as_slice()),
-    ///         Some(vec![4, 5].as_slice()),
-    ///         Some(vec![6, 7].as_slice()),
-    ///         Some(vec![8, 9].as_slice())
-    /// ]))
+    ///     FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_iter(
+    ///         [[0u8, 1], [2, 3], [4, 5], [6, 7], [8, 9]].into_iter()
+    ///     ).unwrap())
     /// ```
     fn try_new_from_values(values: &UInt8Array, stride: i32) -> Result<FixedSizeBinaryArray>;
 }
@@ -463,7 +467,25 @@ pub fn iter_str_array(arr: &dyn Array) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = Option<&str>>
     match arr.data_type() {
         DataType::Utf8 => Box::new(arr.as_string::<i32>().iter()),
         DataType::LargeUtf8 => Box::new(arr.as_string::<i64>().iter()),
-        _ => panic!("Expecting Utf8 or LargeUtf8, found {:?}", arr.data_type()),
+        DataType::Utf8View => Box::new(arr.as_string_view().iter()),
+        _ => panic!(
+            "Expecting Utf8, LargeUtf8 or Utf8View, found {:?}",
+            arr.data_type()
+        ),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn iter_binary_array(
+    arr: &dyn Array,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = Option<&[u8]>> + Send + '_>> {
+    match arr.data_type() {
+        DataType::Binary => Ok(Box::new(arr.as_binary::<i32>().iter())),
+        DataType::LargeBinary => Ok(Box::new(arr.as_binary::<i64>().iter())),
+        DataType::BinaryView => Ok(Box::new(arr.as_binary_view().iter())),
+        DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_) => Ok(Box::new(arr.as_fixed_size_binary().iter())),
+        data_type => Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "Expecting a binary type, found {data_type}"
+        ))),
     }
 }
 
@@ -838,6 +860,30 @@ fn project_array(array: &ArrayRef, target_field: &Field) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
                 list_arr.nulls().cloned(),
             )))
         }
+        // A nullable entries field fails MapArray::try_new unconditionally,
+        // so a (schema-invalid) map declared that way keeps the clone
+        // fallthrough it always had rather than gaining a new error.
+        DataType::Map(entries_field, sorted) if !entries_field.is_nullable() => {
+            let map_arr = array.as_map();
+            let DataType::Struct(entry_fields) = entries_field.data_type() else {
+                return Err(ArrowError::SchemaError(format!(
+                    "Map entries field must be a struct, got {}",
+                    entries_field.data_type()
+                )));
+            };
+            let projected_entries = project(map_arr.entries(), entry_fields)?;
+            // try_new re-checks the entries invariants (a non-null entries
+            // struct, two entry columns, offset bounds); null keys are ruled
+            // out one level down, by the struct rebuild against the
+            // non-nullable key field.
+            Ok(Arc::new(MapArray::try_new(
+                entries_field.clone(),
+                map_arr.offsets().clone(),
+                projected_entries,
+                map_arr.nulls().cloned(),
+                *sorted,
+            )?))
+        }
         _ => Ok(array.clone()),
     }
 }
@@ -1009,40 +1055,25 @@ fn merge_list_struct(left: &dyn Array, right: &dyn Array) -> Arc<dyn Array> {
     }
 }
 
-/// Helper function to normalize validity buffers
-/// Returns None for all-null validity (placeholder structs)
-fn normalize_validity(
-    validity: Option<&arrow_buffer::NullBuffer>,
-) -> Option<&arrow_buffer::NullBuffer> {
-    validity.and_then(|v| {
-        if v.null_count() == v.len() {
-            None
-        } else {
-            Some(v)
-        }
-    })
-}
-
-/// Helper function to merge validity buffers from two struct arrays
-/// Returns None only if both arrays are null at the same position
+/// Helper function to merge validity buffers from two struct arrays.
 ///
-/// Special handling for placeholder structs (all-null validity)
+/// A row is valid if it is valid in either input.
+/// An absent validity buffer means all rows are valid, an all-null buffer acts as the identity for this merge.
 fn merge_struct_validity(
     left_validity: Option<&arrow_buffer::NullBuffer>,
     right_validity: Option<&arrow_buffer::NullBuffer>,
 ) -> Option<arrow_buffer::NullBuffer> {
-    // Normalize both validity buffers (convert all-null to None)
-    let left_normalized = normalize_validity(left_validity);
-    let right_normalized = normalize_validity(right_validity);
-
-    match (left_normalized, right_normalized) {
+    match (left_validity, right_validity) {
         // Fast paths: no computation needed
-        (None, None) => None,
-        (Some(left), None) => Some(left.clone()),
-        (None, Some(right)) => Some(right.clone()),
+        (None, _) | (_, None) => None,
         (Some(left), Some(right)) => {
-            // Fast path: if both have no nulls, can return either one
-            if left.null_count() == 0 && right.null_count() == 0 {
+            if left.null_count() == 0 || right.null_count() == 0 {
+                return None;
+            }
+            if left.null_count() == left.len() {
+                return Some(right.clone());
+            }
+            if right.null_count() == right.len() {
                 return Some(left.clone());
             }
 
@@ -1153,6 +1184,12 @@ fn adjust_child_validity(
         Some(p) => p,
     };
 
+    // Fast path: DataType::Null arrays are always entirely null by definition and cannot
+    // carry an explicit null bitmap (Arrow rejects it). No adjustment is needed.
+    if child.data_type() == &DataType::Null {
+        return child.clone();
+    }
+
     let child_validity = child.nulls();
 
     // Compute the new validity: child_validity AND parent_validity
@@ -1231,22 +1268,23 @@ fn merge(left_struct_array: &StructArray, right_struct_array: &StructArray) -> S
                         if left_list.data_type().is_struct()
                             && right_list.data_type().is_struct() =>
                     {
-                        // If there is nothing to merge just use the left field
+                        // Identical inner types: nothing to merge, keep the left column.
                         if left_list.data_type() == right_list.data_type() {
                             fields.push(left_field.as_ref().clone());
                             columns.push(left_column.clone());
+                        } else {
+                            // The struct fields differ, so merge them structurally. merge_list_struct
+                            // only succeeds when both lists share offsets or one side is all-null;
+                            // it panics otherwise.
+                            let merged_sub_array = merge_list_struct(&left_column, &right_column);
+
+                            fields.push(Field::new(
+                                left_field.name(),
+                                merged_sub_array.data_type().clone(),
+                                left_field.is_nullable(),
+                            ));
+                            columns.push(merged_sub_array);
                         }
-                        // If we have two List<Struct> and they have different sets of fields then
-                        // we can merge them if the offsets arrays are the same.  Otherwise, we
-                        // have to consider it an error.
-                        let merged_sub_array = merge_list_struct(&left_column, &right_column);
-
-                        fields.push(Field::new(
-                            left_field.name(),
-                            merged_sub_array.data_type().clone(),
-                            left_field.is_nullable(),
-                        ));
-                        columns.push(merged_sub_array);
                     }
                     // otherwise, just use the field on the left hand side
                     _ => {
@@ -1348,11 +1386,14 @@ fn merge_with_schema(
                         let right_sub_array = right_columns[right_idx].as_struct();
                         let merged_sub_array =
                             merge_with_schema(left_sub_array, right_sub_array, child_fields);
-                        output_fields.push(Field::new(
-                            field.name(),
-                            merged_sub_array.data_type().clone(),
-                            field.is_nullable(),
-                        ));
+                        output_fields.push(
+                            Field::new(
+                                field.name(),
+                                merged_sub_array.data_type().clone(),
+                                field.is_nullable(),
+                            )
+                            .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+                        );
                         columns.push(Arc::new(merged_sub_array) as ArrayRef);
                     }
                     DataType::List(child_field) => {
@@ -1371,9 +1412,12 @@ fn merge_with_schema(
                         );
                         let merged_validity =
                             merge_struct_validity(left_list.nulls(), right_list.nulls());
+                        // `trimmed_values` starts at the first used value, so offsets
+                        // must be shifted to match or `ListArray::new` panics when the
+                        // input list was sliced (e.g. from a filtered batch).
                         let merged_list = ListArray::new(
                             child_field.clone(),
-                            left_list.offsets().clone(),
+                            left_list.trimmed_offsets(),
                             merged_values,
                             merged_validity,
                         );
@@ -1398,7 +1442,7 @@ fn merge_with_schema(
                             merge_struct_validity(left_list.nulls(), right_list.nulls());
                         let merged_list = LargeListArray::new(
                             child_field.clone(),
-                            left_list.offsets().clone(),
+                            left_list.trimmed_offsets(),
                             merged_values,
                             merged_validity,
                         );
@@ -1558,10 +1602,70 @@ impl BufferExt for arrow_buffer::Buffer {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use arrow_array::{new_empty_array, new_null_array, ListArray, StringArray};
-    use arrow_array::{Float32Array, Int32Array, StructArray};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        BinaryArray, BinaryViewArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, Float32Array, Int32Array,
+        LargeBinaryArray, ListArray, NullArray, StringArray, StructArray, new_empty_array,
+        new_null_array,
+    };
     use arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer;
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_convert_to_floating_point_preserves_inner_nulls() {
+        // A FixedSizeList<Int8> with a null inner element must convert to a
+        // FixedSizeList<Float32> with the null kept in place. Dropping it would
+        // shorten the values array and shift every later element (and, when the
+        // remaining count is not a multiple of the list size, panic).
+        let values = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3), Some(4)]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int8, true)),
+            2,
+            Arc::new(values),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let converted = fsl.convert_to_floating_point().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(converted.len(), 2);
+        let conv_values = converted
+            .values()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(conv_values.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(conv_values.value(0), 1.0);
+        assert!(conv_values.is_null(1));
+        assert_eq!(conv_values.value(2), 3.0);
+        assert_eq!(conv_values.value(3), 4.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_convert_to_floating_point_preserves_inner_nulls_f64_arm() {
+        // The Float64-producing arms (Int64/UInt8/UInt32) share the same fix as the
+        // Float32 arms; cover one representative (UInt8 -> Float64) so both branch
+        // families are exercised.
+        let values = UInt8Array::from(vec![Some(10u8), None, Some(30), Some(40)]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+            2,
+            Arc::new(values),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let converted = fsl.convert_to_floating_point().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(converted.len(), 2);
+        let conv_values = converted
+            .values()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Float64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(conv_values.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(conv_values.value(0), 10.0);
+        assert!(conv_values.is_null(1));
+        assert_eq!(conv_values.value(2), 30.0);
+        assert_eq!(conv_values.value(3), 40.0);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_merge_recursive() {
         let a_array = Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), Some(2), Some(3)]);
@@ -1779,6 +1883,105 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(merged, expected);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_list_struct_identical_schema() {
+        // Merging two batches whose `List<Struct>` columns have identical types
+        // should yield a single column equal to the input (there is nothing to
+        // merge), not a struct with the field pushed twice.
+        let x_field = Arc::new(Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![x_field.clone()])),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "list_struct",
+            DataType::List(item_field.clone()),
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        let build_list = |values: Vec<i32>| {
+            let len = values.len();
+            let item_struct = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                Fields::from(vec![x_field.clone()]),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values))],
+                None,
+            ));
+            ListArray::new(
+                item_field.clone(),
+                OffsetBuffer::from_lengths([len]),
+                item_struct,
+                None,
+            )
+        };
+
+        // Distinct values so the equality assertion proves the left column is kept,
+        // not that some column with the same values happens to be present.
+        let left =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(build_list(vec![1, 2]))]).unwrap();
+        let right = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(build_list(vec![3, 4]))]).unwrap();
+
+        let merged = left.merge(&right).unwrap();
+
+        // Exactly one column, equal to the left input: the field must not be duplicated.
+        assert_eq!(merged.num_columns(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(merged, left);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_nested_list_struct_identical_schema() {
+        // A `List<Struct>` nested inside a struct reaches the identical-type
+        // short-circuit through the recursive `merge` call. The recursion must
+        // keep the field exactly once, equal to the left input.
+        let x_field = Arc::new(Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![x_field.clone()])),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let companies_field = Arc::new(Field::new(
+            "companies",
+            DataType::List(item_field.clone()),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "outer",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![companies_field.clone()])),
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        let build_outer = |x: i32| {
+            // One list row: [{x}].
+            let item_struct = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                Fields::from(vec![x_field.clone()]),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![x]))],
+                None,
+            ));
+            let companies = Arc::new(ListArray::new(
+                item_field.clone(),
+                OffsetBuffer::from_lengths([1]),
+                item_struct,
+                None,
+            ));
+            StructArray::new(
+                Fields::from(vec![companies_field.clone()]),
+                vec![companies],
+                None,
+            )
+        };
+
+        // Distinct values so equality proves the left column is kept.
+        let left = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(build_outer(10))]).unwrap();
+        let right = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(build_outer(20))]).unwrap();
+
+        let merged = left.merge(&right).unwrap();
+
+        // The recursive identical-type merge keeps exactly one `companies` field,
+        // with no double-push inside the nested struct.
+        assert_eq!(merged.column(0).as_struct().num_columns(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(merged, left);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_byte_width_opt() {
         assert_eq!(DataType::Int32.byte_width_opt(), Some(4));
@@ -1905,6 +2108,60 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_project_rebuilds_sliced_map() {
+        // A sliced MapArray keeps its full entries array behind sliced
+        // offsets and validity; the Map projection arm must rebuild it
+        // without renormalizing either.
+        let entry_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            Field::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        let entries_field = Arc::new(Field::new(
+            "entries",
+            DataType::Struct(entry_fields.clone()),
+            false,
+        ));
+        let entries = StructArray::new(
+            entry_fields,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["k0", "k1", "k2"])) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let map = MapArray::new(
+            entries_field.clone(),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(vec![0, 1, 1, 3].into()),
+            entries,
+            Some(arrow_buffer::NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, true])),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "m",
+            DataType::Map(entries_field, false),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(map) as ArrayRef]).unwrap();
+
+        // Rows 1..3: a null slot and a two-entry slot, offsets not zero-based.
+        let projected = batch
+            .slice(1, 2)
+            .project_by_schema(schema.as_ref())
+            .unwrap();
+        let map = projected.column(0).as_map();
+        assert!(map.is_null(0));
+        assert!(map.is_valid(1));
+        assert_eq!(map.value_length(1), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            map.value(1)
+                .column(1)
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+                .values(),
+            &[2, 3]
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_project_preserves_struct_validity() {
         // Test that projecting a struct array preserves its validity (fix for issue #4385)
@@ -1983,6 +2240,72 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(width_values.value(0), 300);
         assert_eq!(width_values.value(1), 200);
         assert!(width_values.is_null(2)); // width is null when right struct was null
+
+        // An all-null validity buffer is data, not a placeholder meaning "this side has no
+        // validity": merging two of them keeps the rows null.
+        let all_null_left = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![Field::new("height", DataType::Int32, true)]),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None, None])) as ArrayRef],
+            Some(vec![false, false].into()),
+        );
+        let all_null_right = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![Field::new("width", DataType::Int32, true)]),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None, None])) as ArrayRef],
+            Some(vec![false, false].into()),
+        );
+
+        let merged = merge(&all_null_left, &all_null_right);
+        assert_eq!(merged.null_count(), 2);
+
+        // An all-null side is the identity of the merge, so the other side decides each row.
+        let partial_left = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![Field::new("height", DataType::Int32, true)]),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None])) as ArrayRef],
+            Some(vec![true, false].into()),
+        );
+        let merged = merge(&partial_left, &all_null_right);
+        assert!(!merged.is_null(0));
+        assert!(merged.is_null(1));
+
+        // A missing validity buffer means all rows are valid, which absorbs an all-null side.
+        let all_valid_left = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![Field::new("height", DataType::Int32, true)]),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef],
+            None,
+        );
+        let merged = merge(&all_valid_left, &all_null_right);
+        assert_eq!(merged.null_count(), 0);
+
+        // An explicit all-valid buffer has the same semantics as a missing buffer.
+        let all_valid: arrow_buffer::NullBuffer = vec![true, true].into();
+        let partial: arrow_buffer::NullBuffer = vec![true, false].into();
+        assert!(merge_struct_validity(Some(&all_valid), Some(&partial)).is_none());
+        assert!(merge_struct_validity(Some(&partial), Some(&all_valid)).is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_null_typed_column_with_parent_validity() {
+        // Reproduces ENT-990: panic in adjust_child_validity when a Null-typed column
+        // exists on one side and the parent struct has null rows.
+        // Arrow's Null type has no null bitmap, so passing one to ArrayData::try_new panics.
+        let left_struct = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)]),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None])) as ArrayRef],
+            Some(vec![true, false].into()),
+        );
+        let right_struct = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![Field::new("b", DataType::Null, true)]),
+            vec![Arc::new(NullArray::new(2)) as ArrayRef],
+            Some(vec![true, false].into()),
+        );
+
+        // Previously panicked: "Arrays of type Null cannot contain a null bitmask"
+        let merged = merge(&left_struct, &right_struct);
+        assert_eq!(merged.len(), 2);
+        let b_col = merged.column_by_name("b").unwrap();
+        // DataType::Null implies all-null by definition; no null bitmap is stored.
+        assert_eq!(b_col.data_type(), &DataType::Null);
+        assert_eq!(b_col.len(), 2);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -2284,6 +2607,118 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(merged_array.len(), 2);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_with_schema_sliced_list_struct() {
+        test_merge_with_schema_sliced_list_struct_generic::<i32>();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_with_schema_sliced_large_list_struct() {
+        test_merge_with_schema_sliced_list_struct_generic::<i64>();
+    }
+
+    // Regression for #6580: merge_with_schema panicked when the left list was a
+    // sliced view whose offsets did not start at zero (common after a filtered
+    // scan). Cloning those offsets alongside `trimmed_values` produced offsets
+    // larger than the trimmed child, panicking in `(Large)ListArray::new`.
+    fn test_merge_with_schema_sliced_list_struct_generic<O: OffsetSizeTrait>() {
+        let make_list_dtype = |item_field: Arc<Field>| {
+            if O::IS_LARGE {
+                DataType::LargeList(item_field)
+            } else {
+                DataType::List(item_field)
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Build a List<Struct> with two rows of 5 items each, then slice away
+        // the first row so the remaining list's offsets start at 5, not 0.
+        let struct_fields_a = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+        let left_values = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            struct_fields_a.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10)) as ArrayRef],
+            None,
+        ));
+        let full_list = GenericListArray::<O>::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(struct_fields_a), true)),
+            OffsetBuffer::<O>::from_lengths([5, 5]),
+            left_values,
+            None,
+        );
+        let sliced_left = full_list.slice(1, 1);
+        assert_eq!(sliced_left.offsets()[0].as_usize(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(sliced_left.offsets()[1].as_usize(), 10);
+
+        let struct_fields_b = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+        let right_values = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            struct_fields_b.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(100..105)) as ArrayRef],
+            None,
+        ));
+        let right_list = GenericListArray::<O>::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(struct_fields_b), true)),
+            OffsetBuffer::<O>::from_lengths([5]),
+            right_values,
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let target_item_field = Arc::new(Field::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+                Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let target_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new(
+            "items",
+            make_list_dtype(target_item_field),
+            true,
+        )]);
+
+        let left_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "items",
+                sliced_left.data_type().clone(),
+                true,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(sliced_left) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let right_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "items",
+                right_list.data_type().clone(),
+                true,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(right_list) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let merged = left_batch
+            .merge_with_schema(&right_batch, &Schema::new(target_fields.to_vec()))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let merged_list = merged
+            .column_by_name("items")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<GenericListArray<O>>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(merged_list.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(merged_list.value_length(0).as_usize(), 5);
+        let merged_struct = merged_list.values().as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(merged_struct.num_columns(), 2);
+        let a = merged_struct
+            .column_by_name("a")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        // After shifting offsets to zero, values 5..10 should be first.
+        let a_vals: Vec<i32> = a.iter().map(|v| v.unwrap()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(a_vals, vec![5, 6, 7, 8, 9]);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_project_by_schema_list_struct_reorder() {
         // Test that project_by_schema correctly reorders fields inside List<Struct>
@@ -2524,4 +2959,43 @@ mod tests {
             &Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]) as &dyn Array
         );
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_iter_binary_array_accepts_binary_variants() {
+        let binary = BinaryArray::from(vec![b"a".as_slice(), b"bc"]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            iter_binary_array(&binary).unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![Some(b"a".as_slice()), Some(b"bc".as_slice())]
+        );
+
+        let large_binary = LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![b"x".as_slice(), b"yz"]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            iter_binary_array(&large_binary)
+                .unwrap()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![Some(b"x".as_slice()), Some(b"yz".as_slice())]
+        );
+
+        let binary_view = BinaryViewArray::from(vec![b"1".as_slice(), b"23"]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            iter_binary_array(&binary_view).unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![Some(b"1".as_slice()), Some(b"23".as_slice())]
+        );
+
+        let fixed_size =
+            FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_iter([b"abcd", b"efgh"].into_iter()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            iter_binary_array(&fixed_size).unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![Some(b"abcd".as_slice()), Some(b"efgh".as_slice())]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_iter_binary_array_rejects_non_binary() {
+        let int_array = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let Err(error) = iter_binary_array(&int_array) else {
+            panic!("expected an error for non-binary array");
+        };
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Expecting a binary type"));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/list.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/list.rs
index 0c24fc579da..06b0fc592cf 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/src/list.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/list.rs
@@ -23,6 +23,16 @@ pub trait ListArrayExt {
     /// behaves similarly to `values()` except it slices the array so that it starts at
     /// the first list offset and ends at the last list offset.
     fn trimmed_values(&self) -> Arc<dyn Array>;
+    /// The offset type of the underlying list array.
+    type Offset: OffsetSizeTrait;
+    /// Returns offsets shifted so the first offset is zero, matching
+    /// [`Self::trimmed_values`].
+    ///
+    /// Sliced list arrays (e.g. a filtered batch) keep offsets that reference the
+    /// original values buffer, so combining them with trimmed values produces
+    /// offsets that exceed the values length. Use this together with
+    /// `trimmed_values` when constructing a new list array.
+    fn trimmed_offsets(&self) -> OffsetBuffer<Self::Offset>;
 }
 
 impl<OffsetSize: OffsetSizeTrait> ListArrayExt for GenericListArray<OffsetSize> {
@@ -90,6 +100,20 @@ impl<OffsetSize: OffsetSizeTrait> ListArrayExt for GenericListArray<OffsetSize>
             .unwrap_or(0);
         self.values().slice(first_value, last_value - first_value)
     }
+
+    type Offset = OffsetSize;
+
+    fn trimmed_offsets(&self) -> OffsetBuffer<OffsetSize> {
+        let offsets = self.offsets();
+        let Some(&first) = offsets.first() else {
+            return offsets.clone();
+        };
+        if first == OffsetSize::zero() {
+            return offsets.clone();
+        }
+        let shifted: Vec<OffsetSize> = offsets.iter().map(|&o| o - first).collect();
+        OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(shifted))
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/scalar.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/scalar.rs
index f32a831648b..6003eb13497 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/src/scalar.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/scalar.rs
@@ -1,10 +1,11 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use arrow_array::{make_array, ArrayRef};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, UInt64Array, make_array};
 use arrow_buffer::Buffer;
-use arrow_data::{transform::MutableArrayData, ArrayDataBuilder};
+use arrow_data::ArrayDataBuilder;
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
+use arrow_select::take::take;
 
 use crate::DataTypeExt;
 
@@ -19,10 +20,7 @@ pub fn extract_scalar_value(array: &ArrayRef, idx: usize) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         ));
     }
 
-    let data = array.to_data();
-    let mut mutable = MutableArrayData::new(vec![&data], /*use_nulls=*/ true, 1);
-    mutable.extend(0, idx, idx + 1);
-    Ok(make_array(mutable.freeze()))
+    take(array.as_ref(), &UInt64Array::from(vec![idx as u64]), None)
 }
 
 fn read_u32(buf: &[u8], offset: &mut usize) -> Result<u32> {
@@ -195,7 +193,10 @@ pub fn try_inline_value(scalar: &ArrayRef) -> Option<Vec<u8>> {
 mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
-    use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, BooleanArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        BooleanArray, DictionaryArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, Int8Array, Int32Array, StringArray,
+        cast::AsArray, types::Int8Type,
+    };
 
     use super::*;
 
@@ -212,6 +213,24 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_scalar_value_from_full_dictionary() {
+        let values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+            (0..=i8::MAX)
+                .map(|value| format!("value-{value}"))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let keys = Int8Array::from((0..=i8::MAX).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(DictionaryArray::<Int8Type>::new(keys, values));
+
+        let scalar = extract_scalar_value(&array, i8::MAX as usize).unwrap();
+
+        let scalar = scalar.as_dictionary::<Int8Type>();
+        assert_eq!(scalar.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(scalar.key(0), Some(i8::MAX as usize));
+        assert_eq!(scalar.values().len(), i8::MAX as usize + 1);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_scalar_value_buffer_utf8_round_trip() {
         let scalar: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["hello"]));
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/stream.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/stream.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2d0c57bca33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/stream.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,553 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Utilities for working with streams of [`RecordBatch`].
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, SchemaRef};
+use futures::stream::{self, Stream, StreamExt};
+use std::pin::Pin;
+
+use crate::deepcopy::deep_copy_batch_sliced;
+
+/// Rechunks a stream of [`RecordBatch`] so that each output batch has
+/// approximately `target_bytes` of array data.
+///
+/// Small input batches are accumulated (by concatenation) until at least
+/// `min_bytes` of data has been collected. If the resulting batch exceeds
+/// `max_bytes`, it is sliced into roughly equal pieces of ~`max_bytes`
+/// (assuming uniform row sizes).
+pub fn rechunk_stream_by_size<S, E>(
+    input: S,
+    input_schema: SchemaRef,
+    min_bytes: usize,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch, E>>
+where
+    S: Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch, E>>,
+    E: From<ArrowError>,
+{
+    rechunk_stream_by_size_inner(input, input_schema, min_bytes, max_bytes, false)
+}
+
+/// Like [`rechunk_stream_by_size`] but deep-copies slices so that
+/// `get_array_memory_size` reflects the true size of each output batch.
+///
+/// After a normal `RecordBatch::slice`, the backing buffers are shared with
+/// the original batch, so `get_array_memory_size` still reports the full
+/// parent size.  This variant deep-copies every slice produced during the
+/// splitting phase, which allows the stream to detect and re-split slices
+/// that still exceed `max_bytes` (e.g. because a single row is much larger
+/// than average).
+///
+/// The deep copy is a last resort and potentially expensive for large
+/// batches.  However, it is only performed when a batch actually needs to be
+/// sliced — batches that are already within the target range pass through at
+/// zero cost.  Use this only when the hard cap on `max_bytes` is a
+/// correctness requirement, not merely a performance hint.
+pub fn rechunk_stream_by_size_deep_copy<S, E>(
+    input: S,
+    input_schema: SchemaRef,
+    min_bytes: usize,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch, E>>
+where
+    S: Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch, E>>,
+    E: From<ArrowError>,
+{
+    rechunk_stream_by_size_inner(input, input_schema, min_bytes, max_bytes, true)
+}
+
+fn rechunk_stream_by_size_inner<S, E>(
+    input: S,
+    input_schema: SchemaRef,
+    min_bytes: usize,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+    deep_copy: bool,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch, E>>
+where
+    S: Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch, E>>,
+    E: From<ArrowError>,
+{
+    stream::try_unfold(
+        RechunkState {
+            input: Box::pin(input),
+            accumulated: Vec::new(),
+            acc_bytes: 0,
+            done: false,
+            input_schema,
+            min_bytes,
+            max_bytes,
+            deep_copy,
+        },
+        |mut state| async move {
+            if state.done && state.accumulated.is_empty() {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+
+            // Pull batches until we reach the byte target or exhaust input.
+            // Always pull at least one batch so that min_bytes=0 works.
+            while !state.done && (state.accumulated.is_empty() || state.acc_bytes < state.min_bytes)
+            {
+                match state.input.next().await {
+                    Some(Ok(batch)) => {
+                        state.acc_bytes += batch.get_array_memory_size();
+                        state.accumulated.push(batch);
+                    }
+                    Some(Err(e)) => return Err(e),
+                    None => {
+                        state.done = true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            if state.accumulated.is_empty() {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+
+            // Fast path: if the first accumulated batch already meets the
+            // byte threshold, deliver it directly instead of concatenating
+            // everything together (which would just get sliced back apart).
+            if state.accumulated.len() > 1
+                && state.accumulated[0].get_array_memory_size() >= state.min_bytes
+            {
+                let b = state.accumulated.remove(0);
+                state.acc_bytes -= b.get_array_memory_size();
+                return Ok(Some((b, state)));
+            }
+
+            let batch = if state.accumulated.len() == 1 {
+                state.accumulated.pop().unwrap()
+            } else {
+                let b =
+                    arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&state.input_schema, &state.accumulated)
+                        .map_err(E::from)?;
+                state.accumulated.clear();
+                b
+            };
+            state.acc_bytes = 0;
+
+            // Slice the batch into ~max_bytes pieces assuming uniform row sizes.
+            let mut slices =
+                slice_batch(batch, state.max_bytes, state.deep_copy).map_err(E::from)?;
+
+            if slices.len() == 1 {
+                Ok(Some((slices.pop().unwrap(), state)))
+            } else {
+                let first = slices.remove(0);
+
+                // Stash leftover slices for subsequent iterations.
+                for a in &slices {
+                    state.acc_bytes += a.get_array_memory_size();
+                }
+                state.accumulated = slices;
+
+                Ok(Some((first, state)))
+            }
+        },
+    )
+}
+
+/// Slice a batch into pieces of at most `max_bytes`.
+///
+/// When `deep_copy` is false, slices share buffers with the original batch
+/// and `get_array_memory_size` will still report the parent buffer size.
+/// This is fine when the caller only needs approximate sizing.
+///
+/// When `deep_copy` is true, each slice is deep-copied so that
+/// `get_array_memory_size` reflects the true size.  If a deep-copied slice
+/// still exceeds `max_bytes` (due to non-uniform row sizes), it is
+/// recursively split until every piece is within budget or contains only a
+/// single row.
+fn slice_batch(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+    deep_copy: bool,
+) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>, ArrowError> {
+    let batch_bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+    let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+
+    if batch_bytes <= max_bytes {
+        return Ok(vec![batch]);
+    }
+
+    if num_rows <= 1 {
+        // A single row cannot be split further, but the size just measured may
+        // belong to its source buffer rather than to the row:
+        // `get_array_memory_size` reports whole buffers, and a slice shares
+        // them. Returning it uncopied hands the caller that inflated figure --
+        // a 100 KB row inside a 200 MB buffer measures as 200 MB, and a caller
+        // budgeting on it concludes the row cannot fit anywhere.
+        if deep_copy {
+            return Ok(vec![deep_copy_batch_sliced(&batch)?]);
+        }
+        return Ok(vec![batch]);
+    }
+
+    let rows_per_chunk = (max_bytes as u64 * num_rows as u64 / batch_bytes as u64).max(1) as usize;
+
+    let mut result = Vec::new();
+    let mut offset = 0;
+    while offset < num_rows {
+        let len = rows_per_chunk.min(num_rows - offset);
+        let slice = batch.slice(offset, len);
+        if deep_copy {
+            let copied = deep_copy_batch_sliced(&slice)?;
+            // Recurse: the deep-copied slice has accurate sizes, so if it
+            // still exceeds max_bytes we can split further.
+            result.extend(slice_batch(copied, max_bytes, true)?);
+        } else {
+            result.push(slice);
+        }
+        offset += len;
+    }
+
+    Ok(result)
+}
+
+/// Internal state for [`rechunk_stream`].
+///
+/// Kept as a named struct so the `try_unfold` closure stays readable.
+struct RechunkState<S> {
+    input: Pin<Box<S>>,
+    accumulated: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    acc_bytes: usize,
+    done: bool,
+    input_schema: SchemaRef,
+    min_bytes: usize,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+    deep_copy: bool,
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use futures::executor::block_on;
+
+    /// A single row that shares a large source buffer must report its own
+    /// size, not the buffer's. Callers budget on this figure, and an inflated
+    /// one makes a small row look impossible to place.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_single_row_slice_reports_its_own_size() {
+        use arrow_array::LargeStringArray;
+
+        let row = "x".repeat(100 * 1024);
+        let values: Vec<&str> = (0..2000).map(|_| row.as_str()).collect();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "text",
+            DataType::LargeUtf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(values))]).unwrap();
+        let whole = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+
+        let one_row = batch.slice(7, 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            one_row.get_array_memory_size(),
+            whole,
+            "a slice shares its source buffer, which is the reason this test exists"
+        );
+
+        // Budget far below the row so the split recurses to the single-row floor.
+        let chunks = slice_batch(one_row, 1024, true).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(chunks.len(), 1);
+        let measured = chunks[0].get_array_memory_size();
+        assert_eq!(chunks[0].num_rows(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            measured < whole / 100,
+            "single row still measured as {measured} bytes against a {whole} byte source"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn make_batch(num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = test_schema();
+        let values: Vec<i32> = (0..num_rows as i32).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values))]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn test_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)]))
+    }
+
+    fn collect_rechunked(
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+        min_bytes: usize,
+        max_bytes: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        let input = stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok::<_, ArrowError>));
+        let rechunked = rechunk_stream_by_size(input, test_schema(), min_bytes, max_bytes);
+        block_on(rechunked.collect::<Vec<_>>())
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|r| r.unwrap())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn total_rows(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> usize {
+        batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_empty_stream() {
+        let result = collect_rechunked(vec![], 100, 200);
+        assert!(result.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_single_batch_passthrough() {
+        let batch = make_batch(100);
+        let bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+        // Batch is between min and max — should pass through as-is.
+        let result = collect_rechunked(vec![batch], bytes / 2, bytes * 2);
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result[0].num_rows(), 100);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_small_batches_concatenated() {
+        let one_batch_bytes = make_batch(10).get_array_memory_size();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = (0..8).map(|_| make_batch(10)).collect();
+        // min = 5 batches worth, max = 10 batches worth.
+        let result = collect_rechunked(batches, one_batch_bytes * 5, one_batch_bytes * 10);
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 80);
+        // Should have been concatenated into fewer batches than the 8 inputs.
+        assert!(
+            result.len() < 8,
+            "expected fewer output batches, got {}",
+            result.len()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_large_batch_sliced() {
+        let batch = make_batch(1000);
+        let bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+        let result = collect_rechunked(vec![batch], bytes / 8, bytes / 4);
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 1000);
+        assert!(
+            result.len() >= 4,
+            "expected at least 4 slices, got {}",
+            result.len()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sliced_leftovers_are_not_recombined() {
+        // Key test for the fast-path optimisation. When a large batch is
+        // sliced, leftover slices should be delivered one-at-a-time without
+        // being concatenated back together.  We verify this by checking that
+        // every output buffer pointer falls inside the original batch's
+        // allocation (i.e. they are all zero-copy slices, not fresh copies).
+        let batch = make_batch(1000);
+        let bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+        let orig_data = batch.column(0).to_data();
+        let orig_buf = &orig_data.buffers()[0];
+        let orig_start = orig_buf.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let orig_end = orig_start + orig_buf.len();
+
+        let result = collect_rechunked(vec![batch], bytes / 8, bytes / 4);
+
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 1000);
+        assert!(result.len() >= 4);
+
+        for (i, b) in result.iter().enumerate() {
+            let ptr = b.column(0).to_data().buffers()[0].as_ptr() as usize;
+            assert!(
+                ptr >= orig_start && ptr < orig_end,
+                "slice {i} buffer at {ptr:#x} is outside the original allocation \
+                 [{orig_start:#x}, {orig_end:#x}) — it was re-concatenated"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flush_remainder_on_stream_end() {
+        // Data below min_bytes should still be flushed when the stream ends.
+        let batch = make_batch(10);
+        let bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+        let result = collect_rechunked(vec![batch], bytes * 100, bytes * 200);
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result[0].num_rows(), 10);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_large_then_small_batches() {
+        // After a large batch is fully drained, subsequent small batches
+        // should be accumulated normally.
+        let large = make_batch(1000);
+        let small_bytes = make_batch(10).get_array_memory_size();
+        let batches = vec![
+            large,
+            make_batch(10),
+            make_batch(10),
+            make_batch(10),
+            make_batch(10),
+            make_batch(10),
+        ];
+        let result = collect_rechunked(batches, small_bytes * 3, small_bytes * 100);
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 1050);
+        // The large batch should appear (possibly sliced) followed by
+        // concatenated small batches, so we should have fewer output batches
+        // than the 6 inputs.
+        assert!(result.len() < 6);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_preservation_across_slicing() {
+        // Verify that every input row appears exactly once in the output
+        // and in the correct order after slicing.
+        let batch = make_batch(237); // odd count to exercise remainder slice
+        let bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+        let result = collect_rechunked(vec![batch], bytes / 8, bytes / 5);
+
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 237);
+
+        let values: Vec<i32> = result
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column(0)
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let expected: Vec<i32> = (0..237).collect();
+        assert_eq!(values, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_min_bytes_zero_still_yields_all_rows() {
+        // When min_bytes=0, the stream should still yield every batch.
+        // This is the "chop only, don't coalesce" use case.
+        let batches: Vec<_> = (0..5).map(|_| make_batch(100)).collect();
+        let batch_bytes = batches[0].get_array_memory_size();
+        let result = collect_rechunked(batches, 0, batch_bytes * 2);
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 500);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_min_bytes_zero_slices_oversized() {
+        // min_bytes=0 with a small max_bytes should still slice large batches.
+        let batch = make_batch(1000);
+        let bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+        let result = collect_rechunked(vec![batch], 0, bytes / 4);
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 1000);
+        assert!(
+            result.len() >= 4,
+            "expected at least 4 slices, got {}",
+            result.len()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Build a batch with one variable-length string column.
+    /// Every row is `small_size` bytes except the row at index `big_row_idx`
+    /// which is `big_size` bytes.
+    fn make_variable_batch(
+        num_rows: usize,
+        small_size: usize,
+        big_row_idx: usize,
+        big_size: usize,
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("s", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let values: Vec<String> = (0..num_rows)
+            .map(|i| {
+                if i == big_row_idx {
+                    "X".repeat(big_size)
+                } else {
+                    "x".repeat(small_size)
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let array = arrow_array::StringArray::from(values);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn variable_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("s", DataType::Utf8, false)]))
+    }
+
+    fn collect_rechunked_variable(
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+        min_bytes: usize,
+        max_bytes: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        let input = stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok::<_, ArrowError>));
+        let rechunked =
+            rechunk_stream_by_size_deep_copy(input, variable_schema(), min_bytes, max_bytes);
+        block_on(rechunked.collect::<Vec<_>>())
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|r| r.unwrap())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_oversized_row_at_end() {
+        // 100 rows: 99 small (64 bytes each) + 1 large (100KiB) at the end.
+        let batch = make_variable_batch(100, 64, 99, 100 * 1024);
+        let max_bytes = 64 * 1024;
+        let result = collect_rechunked_variable(vec![batch], 0, max_bytes);
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 100);
+        for (i, b) in result.iter().enumerate() {
+            let size = b.get_array_memory_size();
+            assert!(
+                size <= max_bytes || b.num_rows() == 1,
+                "batch {i} has {size} bytes (max {max_bytes}) and {} rows",
+                b.num_rows()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_oversized_row_at_start() {
+        // 100 rows: 1 large (100KiB) at the start + 99 small (64 bytes each).
+        let batch = make_variable_batch(100, 64, 0, 100 * 1024);
+        let max_bytes = 64 * 1024;
+        let result = collect_rechunked_variable(vec![batch], 0, max_bytes);
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 100);
+        for (i, b) in result.iter().enumerate() {
+            let size = b.get_array_memory_size();
+            assert!(
+                size <= max_bytes || b.num_rows() == 1,
+                "batch {i} has {size} bytes (max {max_bytes}) and {} rows",
+                b.num_rows()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_oversized_row_in_middle() {
+        // 100 rows: 1 large (100KiB) in the middle + 99 small (64 bytes each).
+        let batch = make_variable_batch(100, 64, 50, 100 * 1024);
+        let max_bytes = 64 * 1024;
+        let result = collect_rechunked_variable(vec![batch], 0, max_bytes);
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&result), 100);
+        for (i, b) in result.iter().enumerate() {
+            let size = b.get_array_memory_size();
+            assert!(
+                size <= max_bytes || b.num_rows() == 1,
+                "batch {i} has {size} bytes (max {max_bytes}) and {} rows",
+                b.num_rows()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_error_propagation() {
+        let input = stream::iter(vec![
+            Ok(make_batch(10)),
+            Err(ArrowError::ComputeError("boom".into())),
+            Ok(make_batch(10)),
+        ]);
+        let rechunked = rechunk_stream_by_size(input, test_schema(), 1, usize::MAX);
+        let results: Vec<Result<RecordBatch, ArrowError>> = block_on(rechunked.collect());
+        assert!(results.iter().any(|r| r.is_err()));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-arrow/src/struct.rs b/rust/lance-arrow/src/struct.rs
index 3ba09d7f0df..4dee5032bfd 100644
--- a/rust/lance-arrow/src/struct.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-arrow/src/struct.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 //! Extension to arrow struct arrays
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, make_array, Array, StructArray};
+use arrow_array::{Array, StructArray, cast::AsArray, make_array};
 use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
 use arrow_data::{ArrayData, ArrayDataBuilder};
 use arrow_schema::ArrowError;
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ impl StructArrayExt for StructArray {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, make_array, Array, Int32Array, StructArray};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, Int32Array, StructArray, cast::AsArray, make_array};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-core/Cargo.toml
index 3ca71e524c3..ececf0aa44f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-core/Cargo.toml
@@ -14,20 +14,20 @@ rust-version.workspace = true
 [dependencies]
 arrow-array.workspace = true
 arrow-buffer.workspace = true
+arrow-data.workspace = true
 arrow-schema.workspace = true
 async-trait.workspace = true
 lance-arrow.workspace = true
-byteorder.workspace = true
+blake3.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
-chrono.workspace = true
 datafusion-common = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 datafusion-sql = { workspace = true, optional = true }
-deepsize.workspace = true
+lance-derive.workspace = true
 futures.workspace = true
-itertools.workspace = true
 libc.workspace = true
-mock_instant.workspace = true
+libm.workspace = true
 moka.workspace = true
+quick_cache = "0.6"
 num_cpus = "1.0"
 object_store = { workspace = true }
 pin-project.workspace = true
@@ -38,24 +38,28 @@ serde_json.workspace = true
 snafu.workspace = true
 tempfile.workspace = true
 tokio.workspace = true
-tokio-stream.workspace = true
 tokio-util.workspace = true
 tracing.workspace = true
+twox-hash.workspace = true
 url.workspace = true
 log.workspace = true
 
-# This is used to detect CPU features at runtime.
-# See src/utils/cpu.rs
-[target.'cfg(all(any(target_arch = "aarch64", target_arch = "loongarch64"), target_os = "linux"))'.dependencies]
-libc = { version = "0.2" }
-
 [dev-dependencies]
-lance-testing.workspace = true
+criterion.workspace = true
 proptest.workspace = true
 rstest.workspace = true
+tokio-stream.workspace = true
 
 [features]
+# Capture Rust backtraces in error types. When disabled (the default),
+# the backtrace field is zero-sized with no overhead. At runtime, capture
+# is still gated by RUST_BACKTRACE=1.
+backtrace = []
 datafusion = ["dep:datafusion-common", "dep:datafusion-sql"]
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "cache_keys"
+harness = false
+
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/benches/cache_keys.rs b/rust/lance-core/benches/cache_keys.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..10f3917f10e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/benches/cache_keys.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,365 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::any::Any;
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::hash::{BuildHasher, RandomState};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Weak};
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use futures::FutureExt;
+use lance_core::cache::{
+    CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, CacheNamespace, KeyBuilder, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache,
+};
+
+struct PageKey {
+    column_index: u32,
+    page_index: u64,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for PageKey {
+    type ValueType = Vec<u8>;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("{}-{}", self.column_index, self.page_index).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "bench.Page"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("bench.page-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.column_index);
+        builder.write_u64(self.page_index);
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Eq, Hash, PartialEq)]
+struct LegacyPhysicalKey {
+    namespace: Arc<str>,
+    logical_key: Arc<str>,
+    type_name: &'static str,
+}
+
+type LegacyEntryValue = Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync>;
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct LegacyEntry {
+    value: LegacyEntryValue,
+    size_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+trait LegacyBackend: Send + Sync {
+    async fn get(&self, key: &LegacyPhysicalKey) -> Option<LegacyEntryValue>;
+    async fn insert(&self, key: &LegacyPhysicalKey, value: LegacyEntryValue, size_bytes: usize);
+}
+
+struct LegacyMokaBackend {
+    cache: moka::future::Cache<LegacyPhysicalKey, LegacyEntry>,
+}
+
+impl LegacyMokaBackend {
+    fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        let cache = moka::future::Cache::builder()
+            .max_capacity(capacity as u64)
+            .weigher(|key: &LegacyPhysicalKey, entry: &LegacyEntry| {
+                std::mem::size_of::<LegacyPhysicalKey>()
+                    .saturating_add(key.logical_key.len())
+                    .saturating_add(entry.size_bytes)
+                    .try_into()
+                    .unwrap_or(u32::MAX)
+            })
+            .support_invalidation_closures()
+            .build();
+        Self { cache }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl LegacyBackend for LegacyMokaBackend {
+    async fn get(&self, key: &LegacyPhysicalKey) -> Option<LegacyEntryValue> {
+        self.cache.get(key).await.map(|entry| entry.value)
+    }
+
+    async fn insert(&self, key: &LegacyPhysicalKey, value: LegacyEntryValue, size_bytes: usize) {
+        self.cache
+            .insert(key.clone(), LegacyEntry { value, size_bytes })
+            .await;
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct LegacyCache {
+    backend: Arc<dyn LegacyBackend>,
+    namespace: Arc<str>,
+    hits: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+    misses: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+}
+
+impl LegacyCache {
+    fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            backend: Arc::new(LegacyMokaBackend::with_capacity(capacity)),
+            namespace: Arc::from(""),
+            hits: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
+            misses: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn with_key_prefix(&self, segment: &str) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            backend: self.backend.clone(),
+            namespace: Arc::from(format!("{}{segment}/", self.namespace)),
+            hits: self.hits.clone(),
+            misses: self.misses.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn physical_key(&self, key: &PageKey) -> LegacyPhysicalKey {
+        let logical_key = key.key();
+        LegacyPhysicalKey {
+            namespace: self.namespace.clone(),
+            logical_key: Arc::from(logical_key.as_ref()),
+            type_name: PageKey::type_name(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn insert(&self, key: &PageKey, value: Arc<Vec<u8>>) {
+        let size_bytes = std::mem::size_of::<Vec<u8>>()
+            + value.capacity()
+            + std::mem::size_of::<AtomicU64>() * 2;
+        self.backend
+            .insert(&self.physical_key(key), value, size_bytes)
+            .boxed()
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    async fn get(&self, key: &PageKey) -> Option<Arc<Vec<u8>>> {
+        async {
+            let Some(value) = self.backend.get(&self.physical_key(key)).await else {
+                self.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                return None;
+            };
+            match value.downcast::<Vec<u8>>() {
+                Ok(value) => {
+                    self.hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    Some(value)
+                }
+                Err(_) => {
+                    self.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    None
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        .boxed()
+        .await
+    }
+}
+
+struct LegacyWeakCache {
+    backend: Weak<dyn LegacyBackend>,
+    namespace: Arc<str>,
+    hits: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+    misses: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+}
+
+impl LegacyWeakCache {
+    fn from(cache: &LegacyCache) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            backend: Arc::downgrade(&cache.backend),
+            namespace: cache.namespace.clone(),
+            hits: cache.hits.clone(),
+            misses: cache.misses.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn get(&self, key: &PageKey) -> Option<Arc<Vec<u8>>> {
+        let backend = self.backend.upgrade()?;
+        let logical_key = key.key();
+        let physical_key = LegacyPhysicalKey {
+            namespace: self.namespace.clone(),
+            logical_key: Arc::from(logical_key.as_ref()),
+            type_name: PageKey::type_name(),
+        };
+        let Some(value) = backend.get(&physical_key).await else {
+            self.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            return None;
+        };
+        match value.downcast::<Vec<u8>>() {
+            Ok(value) => {
+                self.hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                Some(value)
+            }
+            Err(_) => {
+                self.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                None
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn benchmark_key_preparation(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let key = PageKey {
+        column_index: 17,
+        page_index: 42,
+    };
+    let outer_hashes = RandomState::new();
+    let prefixes: [(&str, Arc<str>); 2] = [
+        ("short", Arc::from("dataset")),
+        ("long", Arc::from("p".repeat(1024))),
+    ];
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("cache_key_preparation");
+
+    for (case, prefix) in prefixes {
+        let namespace = CacheNamespace::root().child(&prefix);
+
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::new("legacy", case), &prefix, |b, prefix| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let logical_key = key.key();
+                let physical_key = LegacyPhysicalKey {
+                    namespace: Arc::clone(prefix),
+                    logical_key: Arc::from(logical_key.as_ref()),
+                    type_name: PageKey::type_name(),
+                };
+                black_box(outer_hashes.hash_one(physical_key))
+            })
+        });
+
+        group.bench_function(BenchmarkId::new("blake3_typed", case), |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let mut builder =
+                    KeyBuilder::new(namespace, PageKey::stable_type_id(), PageKey::schema());
+                key.write_key(&mut builder);
+                black_box(outer_hashes.hash_one(builder.finish()))
+            })
+        });
+    }
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn benchmark_namespace_derivation(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let root = CacheNamespace::root();
+    let long_segment = "p".repeat(160);
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("cache_namespace_derivation");
+
+    group.bench_function("root", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| black_box(CacheNamespace::root()));
+    });
+    group.bench_with_input(
+        BenchmarkId::new("child", "short"),
+        &"dataset",
+        |b, segment| {
+            b.iter(|| black_box(root.child(black_box(segment))));
+        },
+    );
+    group.bench_with_input(
+        BenchmarkId::new("child", "long"),
+        &long_segment,
+        |b, segment| {
+            b.iter(|| black_box(root.child(black_box(segment))));
+        },
+    );
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn benchmark_cache_operations(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    const CAPACITY: usize = 64 * 1024;
+    const ROTATING_KEYS: u64 = 512;
+
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let prefix = "p".repeat(1024);
+    let legacy = LegacyCache::with_capacity(CAPACITY).with_key_prefix(&prefix);
+    let legacy_weak = LegacyWeakCache::from(&legacy);
+    let fixed = LanceCache::with_capacity(CAPACITY).with_key_prefix(&prefix);
+    let fixed_weak = WeakLanceCache::from(&fixed);
+    let hit_key = PageKey {
+        column_index: 17,
+        page_index: 42,
+    };
+    runtime.block_on(async {
+        legacy.insert(&hit_key, Arc::new(vec![1_u8; 32])).await;
+        fixed
+            .insert_with_key(&hit_key, Arc::new(vec![1_u8; 32]))
+            .await;
+    });
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("cache_operations");
+    group.bench_function(BenchmarkId::new("strong_warmed_hit", "legacy"), |b| {
+        b.to_async(&runtime)
+            .iter(|| legacy.get(black_box(&hit_key)));
+    });
+    group.bench_function(BenchmarkId::new("strong_warmed_hit", "fixed"), |b| {
+        b.to_async(&runtime)
+            .iter(|| fixed.get_with_key(black_box(&hit_key)));
+    });
+    group.bench_function(BenchmarkId::new("weak_warmed_hit", "legacy"), |b| {
+        b.to_async(&runtime)
+            .iter(|| legacy_weak.get(black_box(&hit_key)));
+    });
+    group.bench_function(BenchmarkId::new("weak_warmed_hit", "fixed"), |b| {
+        b.to_async(&runtime)
+            .iter(|| fixed_weak.get_with_key(black_box(&hit_key)));
+    });
+
+    let values: Vec<_> = (0..16).map(|value| Arc::new(vec![value; 32])).collect();
+    let next_legacy_insert = AtomicU64::new(0);
+    group.bench_function(BenchmarkId::new("bounded_rotating_insert", "legacy"), |b| {
+        b.to_async(&runtime).iter(|| {
+            let sequence = next_legacy_insert.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            let page_index = sequence % ROTATING_KEYS;
+            let value = Arc::clone(&values[sequence as usize % values.len()]);
+            let legacy = &legacy;
+            async move {
+                legacy
+                    .insert(
+                        &PageKey {
+                            column_index: 17,
+                            page_index,
+                        },
+                        value,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+            }
+        });
+    });
+    let next_fixed_insert = AtomicU64::new(0);
+    group.bench_function(BenchmarkId::new("bounded_rotating_insert", "fixed"), |b| {
+        b.to_async(&runtime).iter(|| {
+            let sequence = next_fixed_insert.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            let page_index = sequence % ROTATING_KEYS;
+            let value = Arc::clone(&values[sequence as usize % values.len()]);
+            let fixed = &fixed;
+            async move {
+                fixed
+                    .insert_with_key(
+                        &PageKey {
+                            column_index: 17,
+                            page_index,
+                        },
+                        value,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+            }
+        });
+    });
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    benches,
+    benchmark_key_preparation,
+    benchmark_namespace_derivation,
+    benchmark_cache_operations
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index d771fe84f68..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/cache.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,809 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-//! Cache implementation
-
-use std::any::{Any, TypeId};
-use std::borrow::Cow;
-use std::sync::{
-    atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
-    Arc,
-};
-
-use futures::{Future, FutureExt};
-use moka::future::Cache;
-use snafu::location;
-
-use crate::Result;
-
-pub use deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
-
-type ArcAny = Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync>;
-
-#[derive(Clone)]
-pub struct SizedRecord {
-    record: ArcAny,
-    size_accessor: Arc<dyn Fn(&ArcAny) -> usize + Send + Sync>,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Debug for SizedRecord {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        f.debug_struct("SizedRecord")
-            .field("record", &self.record)
-            .finish()
-    }
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for SizedRecord {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        (self.size_accessor)(&self.record)
-    }
-}
-
-impl SizedRecord {
-    fn new<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static>(record: Arc<T>) -> Self {
-        // +8 for the size of the Arc pointer itself
-        let size_accessor =
-            |record: &ArcAny| -> usize { record.downcast_ref::<T>().unwrap().deep_size_of() + 8 };
-        Self {
-            record,
-            size_accessor: Arc::new(size_accessor),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone)]
-pub struct LanceCache {
-    cache: Arc<Cache<(String, TypeId), SizedRecord>>,
-    prefix: String,
-    hits: Arc<AtomicU64>,
-    misses: Arc<AtomicU64>,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Debug for LanceCache {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        f.debug_struct("LanceCache")
-            .field("cache", &self.cache)
-            .finish()
-    }
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for LanceCache {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        self.cache
-            .iter()
-            .map(|(_, v)| (v.size_accessor)(&v.record))
-            .sum()
-    }
-}
-
-impl LanceCache {
-    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
-        let cache = Cache::builder()
-            .max_capacity(capacity as u64)
-            .weigher(|_, v: &SizedRecord| {
-                (v.size_accessor)(&v.record).try_into().unwrap_or(u32::MAX)
-            })
-            .support_invalidation_closures()
-            .build();
-        Self {
-            cache: Arc::new(cache),
-            prefix: String::new(),
-            hits: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
-            misses: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn no_cache() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            cache: Arc::new(Cache::new(0)),
-            prefix: String::new(),
-            hits: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
-            misses: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Appends a prefix to the cache key
-    ///
-    /// If this cache already has a prefix, the new prefix will be appended to
-    /// the existing one.
-    ///
-    /// Prefixes are used to create a namespace for the cache keys to avoid
-    /// collisions between different caches.
-    pub fn with_key_prefix(&self, prefix: &str) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            cache: self.cache.clone(),
-            prefix: format!("{}{}/", self.prefix, prefix),
-            hits: self.hits.clone(),
-            misses: self.misses.clone(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn get_key(&self, key: &str) -> String {
-        if self.prefix.is_empty() {
-            key.to_string()
-        } else {
-            format!("{}/{}", self.prefix, key)
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Invalidate all entries in the cache that start with the given prefix
-    ///
-    /// The given prefix is appended to the existing prefix of the cache. If you
-    /// want to invalidate all at the current prefix, pass an empty string.
-    pub fn invalidate_prefix(&self, prefix: &str) {
-        let full_prefix = format!("{}{}", self.prefix, prefix);
-        self.cache
-            .invalidate_entries_if(move |(key, _typeid), _value| key.starts_with(&full_prefix))
-            .expect("Cache configured correctly");
-    }
-
-    pub async fn size(&self) -> usize {
-        self.cache.run_pending_tasks().await;
-        self.cache.entry_count() as usize
-    }
-
-    pub fn approx_size(&self) -> usize {
-        self.cache.entry_count() as usize
-    }
-
-    pub async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
-        self.cache.run_pending_tasks().await;
-        self.approx_size_bytes()
-    }
-
-    pub fn approx_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
-        self.cache.weighted_size() as usize
-    }
-
-    async fn insert<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static>(&self, key: &str, metadata: Arc<T>) {
-        let key = self.get_key(key);
-        let record = SizedRecord::new(metadata);
-        tracing::trace!(
-            target: "lance_cache::insert",
-            key = key,
-            type_id = std::any::type_name::<T>(),
-            size = (record.size_accessor)(&record.record),
-        );
-        self.cache.insert((key, TypeId::of::<T>()), record).await;
-    }
-
-    pub async fn insert_unsized<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static + ?Sized>(
-        &self,
-        key: &str,
-        metadata: Arc<T>,
-    ) {
-        // In order to make the data Sized, we wrap in another pointer.
-        self.insert(key, Arc::new(metadata)).await
-    }
-
-    async fn get<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static>(&self, key: &str) -> Option<Arc<T>> {
-        let key = self.get_key(key);
-        if let Some(metadata) = self.cache.get(&(key, TypeId::of::<T>())).await {
-            self.hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-            Some(metadata.record.clone().downcast::<T>().unwrap())
-        } else {
-            self.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-            None
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub async fn get_unsized<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static + ?Sized>(
-        &self,
-        key: &str,
-    ) -> Option<Arc<T>> {
-        let outer = self.get::<Arc<T>>(key).await?;
-        Some(outer.as_ref().clone())
-    }
-
-    /// Get an item
-    ///
-    /// If it exists in the cache return that
-    ///
-    /// If it doesn't then run `loader` to load the item, insert into cache, and return
-    async fn get_or_insert<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static, F, Fut>(
-        &self,
-        key: String,
-        loader: F,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<T>>
-    where
-        F: FnOnce(&str) -> Fut,
-        Fut: Future<Output = Result<T>> + Send,
-    {
-        let full_key = self.get_key(&key);
-        let cache_key = (full_key, TypeId::of::<T>());
-
-        // Use optionally_get_with to handle concurrent requests
-        let hits = self.hits.clone();
-        let misses = self.misses.clone();
-
-        // Use oneshot channels to track both errors and whether init was run
-        let (error_tx, error_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
-        let (init_run_tx, mut init_run_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
-
-        let init = Box::pin(async move {
-            let _ = init_run_tx.send(());
-            misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-            match loader(&key).await {
-                Ok(value) => Some(SizedRecord::new(Arc::new(value))),
-                Err(e) => {
-                    let _ = error_tx.send(e);
-                    None
-                }
-            }
-        });
-
-        match self.cache.optionally_get_with(cache_key, init).await {
-            Some(metadata) => {
-                // Check if init was run or if this was a cache hit
-                match init_run_rx.try_recv() {
-                    Ok(()) => {
-                        // Init was run, miss was already recorded
-                    }
-                    Err(_) => {
-                        // Init was not run, this is a cache hit
-                        hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-                    }
-                }
-                Ok(metadata.record.clone().downcast::<T>().unwrap())
-            }
-            None => {
-                // The loader returned an error, retrieve it from the channel
-                match error_rx.await {
-                    Ok(err) => Err(err),
-                    Err(_) => Err(crate::Error::Internal {
-                        message: "Failed to retrieve error from cache loader".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    }),
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub async fn stats(&self) -> CacheStats {
-        self.cache.run_pending_tasks().await;
-        CacheStats {
-            hits: self.hits.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
-            misses: self.misses.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
-            num_entries: self.cache.entry_count() as usize,
-            size_bytes: self.cache.weighted_size() as usize,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub async fn clear(&self) {
-        self.cache.invalidate_all();
-        self.cache.run_pending_tasks().await;
-        self.hits.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
-        self.misses.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
-    }
-
-    // CacheKey-based methods
-    pub async fn insert_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K, metadata: Arc<K::ValueType>)
-    where
-        K: CacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-    {
-        self.insert(&cache_key.key(), metadata).boxed().await
-    }
-
-    pub async fn get_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> Option<Arc<K::ValueType>>
-    where
-        K: CacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-    {
-        self.get::<K::ValueType>(&cache_key.key()).boxed().await
-    }
-
-    pub async fn get_or_insert_with_key<K, F, Fut>(
-        &self,
-        cache_key: K,
-        loader: F,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<K::ValueType>>
-    where
-        K: CacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-        F: FnOnce() -> Fut,
-        Fut: Future<Output = Result<K::ValueType>> + Send,
-    {
-        let key_str = cache_key.key().into_owned();
-        Box::pin(self.get_or_insert(key_str, |_| loader())).await
-    }
-
-    pub async fn insert_unsized_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K, metadata: Arc<K::ValueType>)
-    where
-        K: UnsizedCacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-    {
-        self.insert_unsized(&cache_key.key(), metadata)
-            .boxed()
-            .await
-    }
-
-    pub async fn get_unsized_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> Option<Arc<K::ValueType>>
-    where
-        K: UnsizedCacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-    {
-        self.get_unsized::<K::ValueType>(&cache_key.key())
-            .boxed()
-            .await
-    }
-}
-
-/// A weak reference to a LanceCache, used by indices to avoid circular references.
-/// When the original cache is dropped, operations on this will gracefully no-op.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct WeakLanceCache {
-    inner: std::sync::Weak<Cache<(String, TypeId), SizedRecord>>,
-    prefix: String,
-    hits: Arc<AtomicU64>,
-    misses: Arc<AtomicU64>,
-}
-
-impl WeakLanceCache {
-    /// Create a weak reference from a strong LanceCache
-    pub fn from(cache: &LanceCache) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            inner: Arc::downgrade(&cache.cache),
-            prefix: cache.prefix.clone(),
-            hits: cache.hits.clone(),
-            misses: cache.misses.clone(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Appends a prefix to the cache key
-    pub fn with_key_prefix(&self, prefix: &str) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            inner: self.inner.clone(),
-            prefix: format!("{}{}/", self.prefix, prefix),
-            hits: self.hits.clone(),
-            misses: self.misses.clone(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn get_key(&self, key: &str) -> String {
-        if self.prefix.is_empty() {
-            key.to_string()
-        } else {
-            format!("{}/{}", self.prefix, key)
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Get an item from cache if the cache is still alive
-    pub async fn get<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static>(&self, key: &str) -> Option<Arc<T>> {
-        let cache = self.inner.upgrade()?;
-        let key = self.get_key(key);
-        if let Some(metadata) = cache.get(&(key, TypeId::of::<T>())).await {
-            self.hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-            Some(metadata.record.clone().downcast::<T>().unwrap())
-        } else {
-            self.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-            None
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Insert an item if the cache is still alive
-    /// Returns true if the item was inserted, false if the cache is no longer available
-    pub async fn insert<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static>(
-        &self,
-        key: &str,
-        value: Arc<T>,
-    ) -> bool {
-        if let Some(cache) = self.inner.upgrade() {
-            let key = self.get_key(key);
-            let record = SizedRecord::new(value);
-            cache.insert((key, TypeId::of::<T>()), record).await;
-            true
-        } else {
-            log::warn!("WeakLanceCache: cache no longer available, unable to insert item");
-            false
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Get or insert an item, computing it if necessary
-    pub async fn get_or_insert<T, F, Fut>(&self, key: &str, f: F) -> Result<Arc<T>>
-    where
-        T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-        F: FnOnce() -> Fut,
-        Fut: Future<Output = Result<T>> + Send,
-    {
-        if let Some(cache) = self.inner.upgrade() {
-            let full_key = self.get_key(key);
-            let cache_key = (full_key.clone(), TypeId::of::<T>());
-
-            // Use optionally_get_with to handle concurrent requests properly
-            let hits = self.hits.clone();
-            let misses = self.misses.clone();
-
-            // Track whether init was run (for metrics)
-            let (init_run_tx, mut init_run_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
-            let (error_tx, error_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
-
-            let init = Box::pin(async move {
-                let _ = init_run_tx.send(());
-                misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-                match f().await {
-                    Ok(value) => Some(SizedRecord::new(Arc::new(value))),
-                    Err(e) => {
-                        let _ = error_tx.send(e);
-                        None
-                    }
-                }
-            });
-
-            match cache.optionally_get_with(cache_key, init).await {
-                Some(record) => {
-                    // Check if init was run or if this was a cache hit
-                    match init_run_rx.try_recv() {
-                        Ok(()) => {
-                            // Init was run, miss was already recorded
-                        }
-                        Err(_) => {
-                            // Init was not run, this was a cache hit
-                            hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Ok(record.record.clone().downcast::<T>().unwrap())
-                }
-                None => {
-                    // Init returned None, which means there was an error
-                    match error_rx.await {
-                        Ok(e) => Err(e),
-                        Err(_) => Err(crate::Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Failed to receive error from cache init function".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        }),
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        } else {
-            log::warn!("WeakLanceCache: cache no longer available, computing without caching");
-            f().await.map(Arc::new)
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Get or insert an item with a cache key type
-    pub async fn get_or_insert_with_key<K, F, Fut>(
-        &self,
-        cache_key: K,
-        loader: F,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<K::ValueType>>
-    where
-        K: CacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-        F: FnOnce() -> Fut,
-        Fut: Future<Output = Result<K::ValueType>> + Send,
-    {
-        let key_str = cache_key.key().into_owned();
-        self.get_or_insert(&key_str, loader).await
-    }
-
-    /// Insert with a cache key type
-    /// Returns true if the item was inserted, false if the cache is no longer available
-    pub async fn insert_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K, value: Arc<K::ValueType>) -> bool
-    where
-        K: CacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-    {
-        let key_str = cache_key.key().into_owned();
-        self.insert(&key_str, value).await
-    }
-
-    /// Get with a cache key type
-    pub async fn get_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> Option<Arc<K::ValueType>>
-    where
-        K: CacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-    {
-        let key_str = cache_key.key().into_owned();
-        self.get(&key_str).await
-    }
-
-    /// Get unsized item from cache
-    pub async fn get_unsized<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static + ?Sized>(
-        &self,
-        key: &str,
-    ) -> Option<Arc<T>> {
-        // For unsized types, we store Arc<T> directly
-        let cache = self.inner.upgrade()?;
-        let key = self.get_key(key);
-        if let Some(metadata) = cache.get(&(key, TypeId::of::<Arc<T>>())).await {
-            metadata
-                .record
-                .clone()
-                .downcast::<Arc<T>>()
-                .ok()
-                .map(|arc| arc.as_ref().clone())
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Insert unsized item into cache
-    pub async fn insert_unsized<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static + ?Sized>(
-        &self,
-        key: &str,
-        value: Arc<T>,
-    ) {
-        if let Some(cache) = self.inner.upgrade() {
-            let key = self.get_key(key);
-            let record = SizedRecord::new(Arc::new(value));
-            cache.insert((key, TypeId::of::<Arc<T>>()), record).await;
-        } else {
-            log::warn!("WeakLanceCache: cache no longer available, unable to insert unsized item");
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Get unsized with a cache key type
-    pub async fn get_unsized_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> Option<Arc<K::ValueType>>
-    where
-        K: UnsizedCacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-    {
-        let key_str = cache_key.key();
-        self.get_unsized(&key_str).await
-    }
-
-    /// Insert unsized with a cache key type
-    pub async fn insert_unsized_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K, value: Arc<K::ValueType>)
-    where
-        K: UnsizedCacheKey,
-        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
-    {
-        let key_str = cache_key.key();
-        self.insert_unsized(&key_str, value).await
-    }
-}
-
-pub trait CacheKey {
-    type ValueType;
-
-    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str>;
-}
-
-pub trait UnsizedCacheKey {
-    type ValueType: ?Sized;
-
-    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str>;
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct CacheStats {
-    /// Number of times `get`, `get_unsized`, or `get_or_insert` found an item in the cache.
-    pub hits: u64,
-    /// Number of times `get`, `get_unsized`, or `get_or_insert` did not find an item in the cache.
-    pub misses: u64,
-    /// Number of entries currently in the cache.
-    pub num_entries: usize,
-    /// Total size in bytes of all entries in the cache.
-    pub size_bytes: usize,
-}
-
-impl CacheStats {
-    pub fn hit_ratio(&self) -> f32 {
-        if self.hits + self.misses == 0 {
-            0.0
-        } else {
-            self.hits as f32 / (self.hits + self.misses) as f32
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn miss_ratio(&self) -> f32 {
-        if self.hits + self.misses == 0 {
-            0.0
-        } else {
-            self.misses as f32 / (self.hits + self.misses) as f32
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cache_bytes() {
-        let item = Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]);
-        let item_size = item.deep_size_of(); // Size of Arc<Vec<i32>>
-        let capacity = 10 * item_size;
-
-        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(capacity);
-        assert_eq!(cache.size_bytes().await, 0);
-        assert_eq!(cache.approx_size_bytes(), 0);
-
-        let item = Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]);
-        cache.insert("key", item.clone()).await;
-        assert_eq!(cache.size().await, 1);
-        assert_eq!(cache.size_bytes().await, item_size);
-        assert_eq!(cache.approx_size_bytes(), item_size);
-
-        let retrieved = cache.get::<Vec<i32>>("key").await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(*retrieved, *item);
-
-        // Test eviction based on size
-        for i in 0..20 {
-            cache
-                .insert(&format!("key_{}", i), Arc::new(vec![i, i, i]))
-                .await;
-        }
-        assert_eq!(cache.size_bytes().await, capacity);
-        assert_eq!(cache.size().await, 10);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cache_trait_objects() {
-        #[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
-        struct MyType(i32);
-
-        trait MyTrait: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + Any {
-            fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any;
-        }
-
-        impl MyTrait for MyType {
-            fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-                self
-            }
-        }
-
-        let item = Arc::new(MyType(42));
-        let item_dyn: Arc<dyn MyTrait> = item;
-
-        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1000);
-        cache.insert_unsized("test", item_dyn).await;
-
-        let retrieved = cache.get_unsized::<dyn MyTrait>("test").await.unwrap();
-        let retrieved = retrieved.as_any().downcast_ref::<MyType>().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(retrieved.0, 42);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cache_stats_basic() {
-        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1000);
-
-        // Initially no hits or misses
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 0);
-
-        // Miss on first get
-        let result = cache.get::<Vec<i32>>("nonexistent");
-        assert!(result.await.is_none());
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-
-        // Insert and then hit
-        cache.insert("key1", Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3])).await;
-        let result = cache.get::<Vec<i32>>("key1");
-        assert!(result.await.is_some());
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-
-        // Another hit
-        let result = cache.get::<Vec<i32>>("key1");
-        assert!(result.await.is_some());
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 2);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-
-        // Another miss
-        let result = cache.get::<Vec<i32>>("nonexistent2");
-        assert!(result.await.is_none());
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 2);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 2);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cache_stats_with_prefixes() {
-        let base_cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1000);
-        let prefixed_cache = base_cache.with_key_prefix("test");
-
-        // Stats should be shared between base and prefixed cache
-        let stats = base_cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 0);
-
-        let stats = prefixed_cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 0);
-
-        // Miss on prefixed cache
-        let result = prefixed_cache.get::<Vec<i32>>("key1");
-        assert!(result.await.is_none());
-
-        // Both should show the miss
-        let stats = base_cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-
-        let stats = prefixed_cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-
-        // Insert through prefixed cache and hit
-        prefixed_cache.insert("key1", Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3])).await;
-        let result = prefixed_cache.get::<Vec<i32>>("key1");
-        assert!(result.await.is_some());
-
-        // Both should show the hit
-        let stats = base_cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-
-        let stats = prefixed_cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cache_stats_unsized() {
-        #[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
-        struct MyType(i32);
-
-        trait MyTrait: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + Any {}
-
-        impl MyTrait for MyType {}
-
-        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1000);
-
-        // Miss on unsized get
-        let result = cache.get_unsized::<dyn MyTrait>("test");
-        assert!(result.await.is_none());
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-
-        // Insert and hit on unsized
-        let item = Arc::new(MyType(42));
-        let item_dyn: Arc<dyn MyTrait> = item;
-        cache.insert_unsized("test", item_dyn).await;
-
-        let result = cache.get_unsized::<dyn MyTrait>("test");
-        assert!(result.await.is_some());
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cache_stats_get_or_insert() {
-        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1000);
-
-        // First call should be a miss and load the value
-        let result: Arc<Vec<i32>> = cache
-            .get_or_insert("key1".to_string(), |_key| async { Ok(vec![1, 2, 3]) })
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(*result, vec![1, 2, 3]);
-
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-
-        // Second call should be a hit
-        let result: Arc<Vec<i32>> = cache
-            .get_or_insert("key1".to_string(), |_key| async {
-                panic!("Should not be called")
-            })
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(*result, vec![1, 2, 3]);
-
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 1);
-
-        // Different key should be another miss
-        let result: Arc<Vec<i32>> = cache
-            .get_or_insert("key2".to_string(), |_key| async { Ok(vec![4, 5, 6]) })
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(*result, vec![4, 5, 6]);
-
-        let stats = cache.stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.hits, 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats.misses, 2);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache/backend.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/backend.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..013f4e262e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/backend.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Backend interface for cache implementors.
+//!
+//! This module defines the trait that custom cache backends must implement,
+//! along with the entry type they operate on. Most callers should
+//! use [`LanceCache`](super::LanceCache) instead of interacting with
+//! backends directly.
+//!
+//! # Migrating custom backends
+//!
+//! Cache keys are opaque 16-byte values. Store
+//! [`InternalCacheKey::as_bytes`] directly instead of decomposing a logical
+//! prefix, key string, and Rust type name. The physical namespace must also
+//! include [`CACHE_KEY_FORMAT`](super::CACHE_KEY_FORMAT), so a future key
+//! protocol produces cold misses instead of aliases. Persistent or tiered
+//! backends can route serializable values with [`CacheCodec::type_id`].
+//!
+//! Prefix invalidation and key inventory are intentionally not part of this
+//! interface: one-way digests cannot support either operation without
+//! retaining the logical strings that fixed-size keys are designed to remove.
+//! Existing callers should migrate removed symbols as follows:
+//! - replace `with_backend_and_prefix(backend, prefix)` with
+//!   [`LanceCache::with_backend`](super::LanceCache::with_backend) followed by
+//!   [`LanceCache::with_key_prefix`](super::LanceCache::with_key_prefix);
+//! - replace `invalidate_prefix` with [`LanceCache::clear`](super::LanceCache::clear)
+//!   when clearing the shared backend is acceptable, or rotate a versioned
+//!   namespace to leave older entries to age out;
+//! - remove uses of `prefix`, `keys`, and session key-inventory methods; opaque
+//!   keys have no readable or enumerable equivalent.
+
+use std::any::Any;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use futures::Future;
+
+use crate::Result;
+use crate::deepsize::Context;
+
+use super::{CacheCodec, InternalCacheKey};
+
+/// A type-erased cache entry.
+pub type CacheEntry = Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync>;
+
+/// Low-level pluggable cache backend.
+///
+/// Implementations store entries keyed by [`InternalCacheKey`] and return
+/// type-erased [`CacheEntry`] values.
+/// [`LanceCache`](super::LanceCache) handles key construction and type safety;
+/// backend authors only need to implement storage and eviction.
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait CacheBackend: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
+    /// Look up an entry by its key.
+    ///
+    /// `codec` is provided so that persistent backends can deserialize the
+    /// entry from storage. In-memory backends can ignore it. When `codec`
+    /// is `None`, the entry type does not support serialization yet and
+    /// must be stored in-memory.
+    ///
+    /// The goal is for all cache entry types to eventually have codecs,
+    /// at which point the `Option` will be removed.
+    async fn get(&self, key: &InternalCacheKey, codec: Option<CacheCodec>) -> Option<CacheEntry>;
+
+    /// Store an entry. `size_bytes` is used for eviction accounting.
+    ///
+    /// See [`get`](Self::get) for codec semantics.
+    async fn insert(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        entry: CacheEntry,
+        size_bytes: usize,
+        codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    );
+
+    /// Get an existing entry or compute it from `loader`.
+    ///
+    /// Implementations should deduplicate concurrent loads for the same key
+    /// so the loader runs at most once, unless caching is disabled. Disabled
+    /// caches may invoke each caller's loader independently.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `(entry, was_cached)` where `was_cached` is `true` if the entry
+    /// was already present in the cache (the loader was not invoked).
+    ///
+    /// See [`get`](Self::get) for codec semantics.
+    async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+        codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) -> Result<(CacheEntry, bool)>;
+
+    /// Remove all entries.
+    async fn clear(&self);
+
+    /// Number of entries currently stored (may flush pending operations).
+    async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize;
+
+    /// Total weighted size in bytes of all stored entries (may flush pending operations).
+    async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize;
+
+    /// Approximate number of entries, callable from synchronous contexts.
+    /// Backends that cannot provide this cheaply should return 0.
+    fn approx_num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+
+    /// Approximate weighted size in bytes, callable from synchronous contexts.
+    /// Used as a `DeepSizeOf` fallback when exact entry traversal is unavailable.
+    /// Backends that cannot provide this cheaply should return 0.
+    ///
+    /// Assumes entries do not share underlying buffers; if they do, the
+    /// returned total may overcount.
+    fn approx_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+
+    /// Weighted capacity in bytes, or `None` when the backend has no fixed
+    /// capacity or cannot report it. Lets callers skip loading entries that
+    /// could never be retained.
+    fn capacity_bytes(&self) -> Option<usize> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// Computes the size of the entries currently held in memory.
+    ///
+    /// `size_of_entry` threads a shared [`Context`] through each value so
+    /// allocations shared by multiple entries are counted once. It returns
+    /// `None` when the value's concrete type was not registered by
+    /// [`LanceCache`](super::LanceCache); implementations should use the
+    /// entry's declared eviction size as a fallback in that case.
+    ///
+    /// Backends that can enumerate their in-memory entries should include the
+    /// physical key footprint in the returned total. The default returns
+    /// `None`, causing `LanceCache` to use [`approx_size_bytes`](Self::approx_size_bytes).
+    fn deep_size_of_entries(
+        &self,
+        _context: &mut Context,
+        _size_of_entry: &dyn Fn(&CacheEntry, &mut Context) -> Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Option<usize> {
+        None
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache/backend_uri.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/backend_uri.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..33daa6adbe3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/backend_uri.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,265 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! URI-based configuration for cache backends.
+//!
+//! [`build_from_uri`] parses a compact string form such as
+//! `moka://?capacity=1073741824` into a [`BackendConfig`] and hands it to
+//! the registry. This gives Python/Java bindings and configuration files a
+//! single-string representation of a backend without having to expose a
+//! typed builder for every backend.
+//!
+//! Grammar (intentionally a subset of RFC 3986 — Lance only needs a
+//! predictable, unambiguous form):
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! uri     ::= scheme ":" hier ( "?" query )?
+//! scheme  ::= ALPHA ( ALPHA | DIGIT | "+" | "-" | "." )*
+//! hier    ::= "//" authority path?   -- e.g. moka://?..., other:///path?...
+//!           | path                    -- e.g. moka:capacity=...  (rare)
+//! authority ::= *( any char except "/" | "?" )
+//! path    ::= *( any char except "?" )
+//! query   ::= pair ( "&" pair )*
+//! pair    ::= key "=" value          -- both percent-decoded
+//! ```
+//!
+//! Mapping to [`BackendConfig`]:
+//!
+//! * `scheme` becomes `kind`.
+//! * The joined `authority + path` (with any leading `//` stripped) is stored
+//!   under the option key `path` when non-empty. Empty-authority absolute
+//!   paths such as `backend:///tmp/cache` keep their leading `/`; host-style
+//!   paths such as `backend://localhost:6379/0` are stored as
+//!   `localhost:6379/0`. If the query already contains a `path` key, the
+//!   URI-supplied path wins and the parser errors on the conflict.
+//! * Each `key=value` pair from the query becomes an entry in `options`.
+//!   Duplicate keys are rejected.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use super::backend::CacheBackend;
+use super::registry::{BackendConfig, build_from_config, normalize_backend_kind};
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Parse `uri` into a [`BackendConfig`] and build the backend registered
+/// under its `scheme`.
+///
+/// Returns an error if:
+/// * the URI cannot be parsed,
+/// * no backend is registered for that scheme, or
+/// * the constructor itself fails.
+pub fn build_from_uri(uri: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn CacheBackend>> {
+    let config = parse_backend_uri(uri)?;
+    build_from_config(&config)
+}
+
+/// Parse `uri` into a [`BackendConfig`] without touching the registry.
+///
+/// See the module docs for the accepted grammar.
+pub fn parse_backend_uri(uri: &str) -> Result<BackendConfig> {
+    let (scheme, rest) = split_scheme(uri)?;
+    let (path, query) = split_path_query(rest);
+
+    let mut config = BackendConfig::new(&scheme)?;
+
+    let normalized_path = normalize_path(path);
+    if !normalized_path.is_empty() {
+        config.options.insert("path".to_string(), normalized_path);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(query) = query {
+        for raw_pair in query.split('&') {
+            if raw_pair.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let (raw_key, raw_value) = raw_pair.split_once('=').ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cache backend uri {:?}: query pair {:?} is missing '='",
+                    uri, raw_pair
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let key = percent_decode(raw_key).map_err(|err| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cache backend uri {:?}: cannot decode query key {:?}: {}",
+                    uri, raw_key, err
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let value = percent_decode(raw_value).map_err(|err| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cache backend uri {:?}: cannot decode query value {:?}: {}",
+                    uri, raw_value, err
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if config.options.contains_key(&key) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cache backend uri {:?}: option {:?} is set more than once",
+                    uri, key
+                )));
+            }
+            config.options.insert(key, value);
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(config)
+}
+
+fn split_scheme(uri: &str) -> Result<(String, &str)> {
+    let colon = uri.find(':').ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!("cache backend uri {:?} is missing ':'", uri))
+    })?;
+    let scheme = &uri[..colon];
+    let scheme = normalize_backend_kind(scheme)
+        .map_err(|err| Error::invalid_input(format!("cache backend uri {:?}: {}", uri, err)))?;
+    Ok((scheme, &uri[colon + 1..]))
+}
+
+fn split_path_query(rest: &str) -> (&str, Option<&str>) {
+    match rest.split_once('?') {
+        Some((path, query)) => (path, Some(query)),
+        None => (rest, None),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Strip leading `//authority/` boilerplate and return the useful path
+/// component. Empty authorities (e.g. `moka://`) yield an empty path, while
+/// empty-authority absolute paths (e.g. `disk:///tmp/cache`) retain their
+/// leading slash.
+fn normalize_path(raw: &str) -> String {
+    let Some(without_marker) = raw.strip_prefix("//") else {
+        return raw.to_string();
+    };
+    if without_marker.is_empty() {
+        return String::new();
+    }
+    without_marker.to_string()
+}
+
+fn percent_decode(input: &str) -> std::result::Result<String, String> {
+    let bytes = input.as_bytes();
+    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(bytes.len());
+    let mut i = 0;
+    while i < bytes.len() {
+        match bytes[i] {
+            b'%' => {
+                if i + 2 >= bytes.len() {
+                    return Err(format!("truncated percent-escape at offset {}", i));
+                }
+                let hi = decode_hex_digit(bytes[i + 1])?;
+                let lo = decode_hex_digit(bytes[i + 2])?;
+                out.push((hi << 4) | lo);
+                i += 3;
+            }
+            b => {
+                out.push(b);
+                i += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    String::from_utf8(out).map_err(|err| err.to_string())
+}
+
+fn decode_hex_digit(b: u8) -> std::result::Result<u8, String> {
+    match b {
+        b'0'..=b'9' => Ok(b - b'0'),
+        b'a'..=b'f' => Ok(10 + b - b'a'),
+        b'A'..=b'F' => Ok(10 + b - b'A'),
+        _ => Err(format!(
+            "invalid hex digit {:?} in percent-escape",
+            b as char
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_authority_only() {
+        let cfg = parse_backend_uri("moka://?capacity=1073741824").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cfg.kind, "moka");
+        assert_eq!(
+            cfg.options.get("capacity").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("1073741824")
+        );
+        assert!(!cfg.options.contains_key("path"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_path_and_query() {
+        let cfg = parse_backend_uri("example:///var/lance/cache?capacity=10G").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cfg.kind, "example");
+        assert_eq!(
+            cfg.options.get("path").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("/var/lance/cache")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cfg.options.get("capacity").map(String::as_str), Some("10G"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_host_style() {
+        // Redis-style URI with host:port + path segment. All of it lives
+        // under the "path" option; the backend is responsible for
+        // interpreting it.
+        let cfg = parse_backend_uri("redis://localhost:6379/0?prefix=lance").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cfg.kind, "redis");
+        assert_eq!(
+            cfg.options.get("path").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("localhost:6379/0"),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cfg.options.get("prefix").map(String::as_str), Some("lance"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_scheme_is_lowercased() {
+        // Different upper/lower cases must resolve to the same registry
+        // key, otherwise `Moka://` and `moka://` would look up different
+        // backends.
+        let cfg = parse_backend_uri("MOKA://?capacity=1").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cfg.kind, "moka");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_percent_decoding() {
+        let cfg = parse_backend_uri("kv://?prefix=a%2Fb&name=hello%20world&token=a+b%2Bc").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cfg.options.get("prefix").map(String::as_str), Some("a/b"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            cfg.options.get("name").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("hello world")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cfg.options.get("token").map(String::as_str), Some("a+b+c"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_empty_query_pair_is_skipped() {
+        // A trailing "&" should not cause a spurious "" pair to appear.
+        let cfg = parse_backend_uri("moka://?capacity=1&").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cfg.options.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_missing_scheme_errors() {
+        let err = parse_backend_uri("no-scheme-here").unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("missing ':'"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_invalid_scheme_errors() {
+        // Digit-leading schemes are invalid per RFC 3986 and would clash
+        // with URI-like values elsewhere in the config.
+        let err = parse_backend_uri("1moka://").unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("must start with an ASCII letter"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_duplicate_option_errors() {
+        let err = parse_backend_uri("moka://?capacity=1&capacity=2").unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("more than once"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_pair_without_equals_errors() {
+        let err = parse_backend_uri("moka://?capacity").unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("missing '='"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache/codec.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/codec.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..eff1b5e2b31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/codec.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,553 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Serialization codecs for cache entries.
+//!
+//! Implement [`CacheCodecImpl`] on concrete types, then use
+//! [`CacheCodec::from_impl`] to produce a type-erased codec for the cache.
+//!
+//! # Wire format
+//!
+//! Every serialized entry begins with a small hand-framed **envelope** so the
+//! reader can validate it before trusting the body:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! [magic: 4B = b"LCE1"]
+//! [envelope_version: u8]
+//! [type_id_len: u16 LE][type_id: utf8]   # stable, author-assigned
+//! [type_version: u32 LE]                 # per-type body schema version
+//! <body, written by the type's CacheCodecImpl::serialize>
+//! ```
+//!
+//! The envelope is deliberately *not* protobuf: it is the most
+//! stability-critical part, must parse robustly against arbitrary bytes
+//! (including data written by older, pre-stabilization builds), and never
+//! changes shape. Bodies use protobuf headers, where field-number evolution
+//! pays off.
+//!
+//! # Decode outcome
+//!
+//! Deserialization never propagates a parse failure as a hard error into the
+//! cache path. Anything the reader cannot confidently interpret — absent or
+//! wrong magic, an unknown `envelope_version`, a `type_id` mismatch, an
+//! unsupported `type_version`, or a body decode error — becomes
+//! [`CacheDecode::Miss`]. A backend turns `Miss` into a normal cache miss and
+//! recomputes the value. This is what lets data written by an older format
+//! self-heal: it simply fails the magic check and is regenerated.
+
+use std::io::Write;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+use super::{CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter};
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Envelope
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Magic bytes that prefix every stabilized cache entry.
+///
+/// An ASCII tag (`0x4C 0x43 0x45 0x31`) chosen so it cannot collide with any
+/// pre-stabilization blob: those began with either a small little-endian
+/// length (tens of bytes) or a small tag byte, never these values.
+///
+/// Exported so backends can cheaply identify Lance cache entries (e.g. when
+/// scanning a persistent store at startup) without hardcoding the bytes —
+/// prefer [`has_cache_envelope`] over comparing against this directly.
+pub const MAGIC: [u8; 4] = *b"LCE1";
+
+/// Returns `true` if `data` begins with the cache-entry [`MAGIC`].
+///
+/// A cheap prefix check for backends that need to recognize Lance cache
+/// entries without fully [`deserialize`](CacheCodec::deserialize)-ing them. A
+/// `true` result only means the framing looks like ours; the entry can still
+/// decode to a [`Miss`](CacheDecode::Miss) (e.g. wrong `type_id`).
+pub fn has_cache_envelope(data: &[u8]) -> bool {
+    data.get(..MAGIC.len()) == Some(&MAGIC[..])
+}
+
+/// Version of the envelope framing itself. Bumped only if the outer frame
+/// (magic/version/type_id/type_version layout) ever changes — expected never.
+const ENVELOPE_VERSION: u8 = 1;
+
+/// Parsed envelope borrowed from the input bytes.
+struct ParsedEnvelope<'a> {
+    type_id: &'a str,
+    type_version: u32,
+    /// Offset of the first body byte within the input.
+    body_offset: usize,
+}
+
+/// Parse and validate the envelope at the start of `data`.
+///
+/// Returns `None` for anything that is not a well-formed envelope this build
+/// understands (wrong/absent magic, unknown `envelope_version`, truncation,
+/// non-utf8 `type_id`). Callers translate `None` into [`CacheDecode::Miss`].
+fn parse_envelope(data: &Bytes) -> Option<ParsedEnvelope<'_>> {
+    let bytes = data.as_ref();
+    let mut off = 0usize;
+
+    let magic = bytes.get(off..off + 4)?;
+    if magic != MAGIC {
+        return None;
+    }
+    off += 4;
+
+    if *bytes.get(off)? != ENVELOPE_VERSION {
+        return None;
+    }
+    off += 1;
+
+    let type_id_len = u16::from_le_bytes(bytes.get(off..off + 2)?.try_into().ok()?) as usize;
+    off += 2;
+
+    let type_id = std::str::from_utf8(bytes.get(off..off + type_id_len)?).ok()?;
+    off += type_id_len;
+
+    let type_version = u32::from_le_bytes(bytes.get(off..off + 4)?.try_into().ok()?);
+    off += 4;
+
+    Some(ParsedEnvelope {
+        type_id,
+        type_version,
+        body_offset: off,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Write the envelope for `type_id`/`type_version`, returning the number of
+/// bytes written (the body's starting offset).
+fn write_envelope(writer: &mut dyn Write, type_id: &str, type_version: u32) -> Result<usize> {
+    let type_id_len = u16::try_from(type_id.len()).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::io(format!(
+            "cache codec type_id too long ({} bytes, max {})",
+            type_id.len(),
+            u16::MAX
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    writer.write_all(&MAGIC)?;
+    writer.write_all(&[ENVELOPE_VERSION])?;
+    writer.write_all(&type_id_len.to_le_bytes())?;
+    writer.write_all(type_id.as_bytes())?;
+    writer.write_all(&type_version.to_le_bytes())?;
+
+    Ok(4 + 1 + 2 + type_id.len() + 4)
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CacheDecode — first-class cache-miss outcome
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Why a cache entry could not be decoded into the expected type.
+///
+/// Carried by [`CacheDecode::Miss`] so backends can emit targeted metrics
+/// (e.g. distinguish "evicting due to a stale format" from "type collision")
+/// without re-parsing. Every reason maps to the same behavior — recompute via
+/// the loader — so callers that don't care can ignore it.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum CacheMissReason {
+    /// Absent or wrong magic, unknown `envelope_version`, truncated framing, or
+    /// a non-utf8 `type_id`. Typically an entry written by a pre-stabilization
+    /// or otherwise foreign build.
+    InvalidEnvelope,
+    /// Well-formed envelope, but its `type_id` names a different entry type than
+    /// the codec reading it.
+    TypeMismatch,
+    /// Written by a newer build whose `type_version` this build does not
+    /// understand and must not attempt to interpret.
+    VersionTooNew,
+    /// Envelope validated, but the body failed to decode (truncation, a
+    /// malformed protobuf header, an IPC error, etc.).
+    BodyError,
+}
+
+/// Outcome of deserializing a cache entry.
+///
+/// `Miss` means the bytes could not be confidently decoded into `T`; the
+/// [`CacheMissReason`] says why. A backend treats any `Miss` exactly like a key
+/// that was never present: recompute via the loader.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub enum CacheDecode<T> {
+    Hit(T),
+    Miss(CacheMissReason),
+}
+
+impl<T> CacheDecode<T> {
+    pub fn hit(self) -> Option<T> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Hit(v) => Some(v),
+            Self::Miss(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CacheCodecImpl — trait for serializable cache entry types
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Serialization trait for cache entries.
+///
+/// **Experimental**: the serialized format is not yet covered by a stability
+/// guarantee and may change between releases. When it does stabilize, the
+/// rules are: `TYPE_ID`, protobuf field numbers, and enum values are
+/// append-only forever; format changes that protobuf cannot express
+/// transparently bump [`CURRENT_VERSION`](Self::CURRENT_VERSION).
+///
+/// Implement this on concrete types that need to survive serialization through
+/// a persistent cache backend, then wire it into a
+/// [`CacheKey`](super::CacheKey) via [`CacheCodec::from_impl`].
+///
+/// The envelope (magic/version/type_id/type_version) is written and validated
+/// by the [`CacheCodec`] wrapper. [`serialize`](Self::serialize) writes only
+/// the body — a header followed by sections in a fixed, version-keyed order —
+/// and [`deserialize`](Self::deserialize) reads them back in that same order.
+/// The read sequence mirroring the write sequence for each `type_version` is
+/// the invariant the implementor owns.
+pub trait CacheCodecImpl: Send + Sync {
+    /// Stable identity for this entry type. **Must not change once shipped.**
+    /// This is a deliberate author-assigned string, not `std::any::type_name`
+    /// (which is not stable across compiler versions).
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str;
+
+    /// Body schema version this build writes. Bump when the body layout
+    /// changes in a way protobuf field additions cannot express transparently
+    /// (adding/removing/reordering sections, a raw-blob encoding change, etc.).
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32;
+
+    /// Write the body: a header, then sections in a fixed order.
+    fn serialize(&self, writer: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Reconstruct from the body. Branch on
+    /// [`reader.version()`](CacheEntryReader::version) for backward compat;
+    /// sections are read in write order.
+    fn deserialize(reader: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self>
+    where
+        Self: Sized;
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CacheCodec — type-erased codec passed to backends
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+pub(crate) type ArcAny = Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync>;
+
+/// Type-erased codec for serializing and deserializing cache entries.
+///
+/// `CacheCodec` carries the entry's stable `type_id`/`version` plus two plain
+/// function pointers — it is `Copy` and has no heap allocation. Construct one
+/// via [`CacheCodec::from_impl`] for types that implement [`CacheCodecImpl`],
+/// or [`CacheCodec::new`] for custom cases (e.g. when the orphan rule prevents
+/// a direct impl).
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct CacheCodec {
+    type_id: &'static str,
+    version: u32,
+    serialize_body: fn(&ArcAny, &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()>,
+    deserialize_body: fn(&mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<ArcAny>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for CacheCodec {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("CacheCodec")
+            .field("type_id", &self.type_id)
+            .field("version", &self.version)
+            .finish_non_exhaustive()
+    }
+}
+
+fn serialize_via_impl<T: CacheCodecImpl + 'static>(
+    any: &ArcAny,
+    writer: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let val = any
+        .downcast_ref::<T>()
+        .expect("CacheCodec::serialize called with wrong type (this is a bug in the cache layer)");
+    val.serialize(writer)
+}
+
+fn deserialize_via_impl<T: CacheCodecImpl + 'static>(
+    reader: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>,
+) -> Result<ArcAny> {
+    let val = T::deserialize(reader)?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(val) as ArcAny)
+}
+
+impl CacheCodec {
+    /// Create a `CacheCodec` from explicit body function pointers.
+    ///
+    /// Prefer [`from_impl`](Self::from_impl) when the value type implements
+    /// [`CacheCodecImpl`]. Use this for types where a direct impl isn't
+    /// possible (e.g. the orphan rule prevents it). `type_id` and `version`
+    /// play the same role as the corresponding [`CacheCodecImpl`] constants.
+    pub fn new(
+        type_id: &'static str,
+        version: u32,
+        serialize_body: fn(&ArcAny, &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()>,
+        deserialize_body: fn(&mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<ArcAny>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            type_id,
+            version,
+            serialize_body,
+            deserialize_body,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a `CacheCodec` from a [`CacheCodecImpl`] implementation.
+    pub fn from_impl<T: CacheCodecImpl + 'static>() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            type_id: T::TYPE_ID,
+            version: T::CURRENT_VERSION,
+            serialize_body: serialize_via_impl::<T>,
+            deserialize_body: deserialize_via_impl::<T>,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Return the stable entry type identity.
+    ///
+    /// Persistent and tiered backends can use this metadata to route encoded
+    /// values without retaining a readable logical cache key.
+    pub const fn type_id(&self) -> &'static str {
+        self.type_id
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize `value` into `writer`: envelope first, then the body.
+    pub fn serialize(&self, value: &ArcAny, writer: &mut dyn Write) -> Result<()> {
+        let body_offset = write_envelope(writer, self.type_id, self.version)?;
+        let mut entry_writer = CacheEntryWriter::with_pos(writer, body_offset);
+        (self.serialize_body)(value, &mut entry_writer)
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize an entry from `data`.
+    ///
+    /// Never fails: any non-fatal failure to interpret the bytes becomes a
+    /// [`CacheDecode::Miss`] with the reason why (see [`CacheMissReason`]).
+    /// Reading from an in-memory [`Bytes`] cannot do I/O, so there is no fault
+    /// channel — a miss is the only non-`Hit` outcome.
+    pub fn deserialize(&self, data: &Bytes) -> CacheDecode<ArcAny> {
+        let Some(envelope) = parse_envelope(data) else {
+            log::debug!("cache entry rejected: missing or invalid envelope");
+            return CacheDecode::Miss(CacheMissReason::InvalidEnvelope);
+        };
+
+        if envelope.type_id != self.type_id {
+            log::debug!(
+                "cache entry type_id mismatch: got {:?}, expected {:?}",
+                envelope.type_id,
+                self.type_id
+            );
+            return CacheDecode::Miss(CacheMissReason::TypeMismatch);
+        }
+
+        // A version newer than this build writes was produced by a newer build
+        // whose body layout we cannot assume to understand. Older/equal versions
+        // are the impl's responsibility to handle (branching on reader.version()).
+        if envelope.type_version > self.version {
+            log::debug!(
+                "cache entry {:?} has unsupported type_version {} (this build writes {})",
+                self.type_id,
+                envelope.type_version,
+                self.version
+            );
+            return CacheDecode::Miss(CacheMissReason::VersionTooNew);
+        }
+
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(data, envelope.body_offset, envelope.type_version);
+        match (self.deserialize_body)(&mut reader) {
+            Ok(value) => CacheDecode::Hit(value),
+            Err(e) => {
+                log::debug!(
+                    "cache entry {:?} v{} failed to decode: {e}",
+                    self.type_id,
+                    envelope.type_version
+                );
+                CacheDecode::Miss(CacheMissReason::BodyError)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    /// A trivial codec used to exercise the envelope and miss semantics
+    /// without pulling in arrow-backed payloads.
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+    struct Widget {
+        n: u32,
+    }
+
+    impl CacheCodecImpl for Widget {
+        const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "test.Widget";
+        const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+        fn serialize(&self, writer: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+            writer.write_raw(&self.n.to_le_bytes())
+        }
+
+        fn deserialize(reader: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+            let bytes = reader.read_raw()?;
+            let n = u32::from_le_bytes(
+                bytes
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .try_into()
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::io("bad widget".to_string()))?,
+            );
+            Ok(Self { n })
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn serialize_widget(widget: &Widget) -> Bytes {
+        let codec = CacheCodec::from_impl::<Widget>();
+        let any: ArcAny = Arc::new(Widget { n: widget.n });
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        codec.serialize(&any, &mut buf).unwrap();
+        Bytes::from(buf)
+    }
+
+    /// The miss reason, or `None` if the decode was a hit.
+    fn miss_reason(data: &Bytes) -> Option<CacheMissReason> {
+        match deserialize_widget(data) {
+            CacheDecode::Hit(_) => None,
+            CacheDecode::Miss(reason) => Some(reason),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize_widget(data: &Bytes) -> CacheDecode<Widget> {
+        let codec = CacheCodec::from_impl::<Widget>();
+        match codec.deserialize(data) {
+            CacheDecode::Hit(any) => {
+                CacheDecode::Hit(Arc::try_unwrap(any.downcast::<Widget>().unwrap()).unwrap())
+            }
+            CacheDecode::Miss(reason) => CacheDecode::Miss(reason),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn envelope_roundtrip_hits() {
+        let bytes = serialize_widget(&Widget { n: 0xDEADBEEF });
+        // Sanity: the entry starts with the magic.
+        assert_eq!(&bytes[..4], b"LCE1");
+        let decoded = deserialize_widget(&bytes).hit().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded, Widget { n: 0xDEADBEEF });
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn has_cache_envelope_detects_magic() {
+        let bytes = serialize_widget(&Widget { n: 1 });
+        assert!(has_cache_envelope(&bytes));
+        assert!(has_cache_envelope(&MAGIC)); // exactly the magic, nothing after
+        assert!(!has_cache_envelope(b"LCE")); // too short
+        assert!(!has_cache_envelope(b"JUNK and more"));
+        assert!(!has_cache_envelope(&[]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn wrong_magic_is_miss() {
+        let mut bytes = serialize_widget(&Widget { n: 7 }).to_vec();
+        bytes[0] = b'X';
+        assert_eq!(
+            miss_reason(&Bytes::from(bytes)),
+            Some(CacheMissReason::InvalidEnvelope)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pre_stabilization_blob_is_miss() {
+        // An old unstable blob led with a small u64 LE length prefix (a JSON
+        // header of tens of bytes) — no magic. It must self-heal to a miss.
+        let mut blob = Vec::new();
+        blob.extend_from_slice(&(42u64).to_le_bytes());
+        blob.extend_from_slice(&[0u8; 42]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            miss_reason(&Bytes::from(blob)),
+            Some(CacheMissReason::InvalidEnvelope)
+        );
+
+        // A different unstable shape led with a small u8 tag (0/1/2).
+        assert_eq!(
+            miss_reason(&Bytes::from(vec![0u8, 1, 2, 3])),
+            Some(CacheMissReason::InvalidEnvelope)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unknown_envelope_version_is_miss() {
+        let mut bytes = serialize_widget(&Widget { n: 7 }).to_vec();
+        bytes[4] = 0xFF; // envelope_version byte
+        assert_eq!(
+            miss_reason(&Bytes::from(bytes)),
+            Some(CacheMissReason::InvalidEnvelope)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn type_id_mismatch_is_miss() {
+        // Hand-build an envelope with a foreign type_id but valid framing.
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        write_envelope(&mut buf, "some.OtherType", 1).unwrap();
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&(4u64).to_le_bytes());
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&99u32.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(
+            miss_reason(&Bytes::from(buf)),
+            Some(CacheMissReason::TypeMismatch)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unsupported_future_type_version_is_miss() {
+        // An entry written by a newer build (higher type_version) must miss
+        // rather than be misread by this build.
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        write_envelope(&mut buf, Widget::TYPE_ID, Widget::CURRENT_VERSION + 1).unwrap();
+        lance_arrow::ipc::write_len_prefixed_bytes(&mut buf, &9u32.to_le_bytes()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            miss_reason(&Bytes::from(buf)),
+            Some(CacheMissReason::VersionTooNew)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn truncated_envelope_is_miss() {
+        let bytes = serialize_widget(&Widget { n: 7 });
+        for cut in [0, 1, 4, 5, 7, 9] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                miss_reason(&bytes.slice(..cut.min(bytes.len()))),
+                Some(CacheMissReason::InvalidEnvelope),
+                "truncating to {cut} bytes should miss as InvalidEnvelope"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn body_decode_error_is_miss() {
+        // Valid envelope, but the body is too short for the widget.
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        write_envelope(&mut buf, Widget::TYPE_ID, Widget::CURRENT_VERSION).unwrap();
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&(1u64).to_le_bytes());
+        buf.push(0u8);
+        assert_eq!(
+            miss_reason(&Bytes::from(buf)),
+            Some(CacheMissReason::BodyError)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn reader_exposes_envelope_version() {
+        // type_version travels through the envelope to reader.version().
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        write_envelope(&mut buf, Widget::TYPE_ID, 7).unwrap();
+        let body_off = buf.len();
+        // A widget body so the codec can decode it.
+        lance_arrow::ipc::write_len_prefixed_bytes(&mut buf, &5u32.to_le_bytes()).unwrap();
+        let data = Bytes::from(buf);
+
+        let mut r = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, body_off, 7);
+        assert_eq!(r.version(), 7);
+        assert_eq!(r.read_raw().unwrap().as_ref(), 5u32.to_le_bytes());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache/entry_io.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/entry_io.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..47a6b6a9190
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/entry_io.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,392 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Streaming readers/writers for cache entry bodies.
+//!
+//! [`CacheCodecImpl`](super::CacheCodecImpl) bodies are written and read
+//! through these wrappers. They keep serialization streaming (no buffering of
+//! the whole entry) and reads zero-copy (sections borrow from the input
+//! [`Bytes`]), while tracking the byte position needed to keep Arrow IPC
+//! sections 64-byte aligned (see [`lance_arrow::ipc`]).
+//!
+//! Body layout primitives:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! HEADER    : [header_len: u32 LE][header proto bytes]
+//! ARROW_IPC : [pad to 64B][self-delimiting IPC stream]
+//! RAW_BLOB  : [len: u64 LE][bytes]
+//! ```
+
+use std::io::Write;
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use prost::Message;
+
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Writes a cache entry body: a header followed by sections, streaming
+/// directly to the underlying writer.
+///
+/// The envelope is written by the [`CacheCodec`](super::CacheCodec) wrapper
+/// before this writer is handed to
+/// [`CacheCodecImpl::serialize`](super::CacheCodecImpl::serialize).
+pub struct CacheEntryWriter<'a> {
+    writer: &'a mut dyn Write,
+    /// Absolute byte offset within the entry, used to align IPC sections.
+    pos: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a> CacheEntryWriter<'a> {
+    /// Create a writer positioned at the start of an entry (offset 0).
+    ///
+    /// Use this for nested serialization into a standalone buffer. The
+    /// envelope-aware entry point is [`CacheCodec::serialize`](super::CacheCodec::serialize).
+    pub fn new(writer: &'a mut dyn Write) -> Self {
+        Self { writer, pos: 0 }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a writer whose section alignment accounts for `pos` bytes
+    /// already written ahead of the body (i.e. the envelope).
+    pub(crate) fn with_pos(writer: &'a mut dyn Write, pos: usize) -> Self {
+        Self { writer, pos }
+    }
+
+    /// Write a single discriminant byte (e.g. a variant tag).
+    pub fn write_u8(&mut self, value: u8) -> Result<()> {
+        self.writer.write_all(&[value])?;
+        self.pos += 1;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Write a protobuf header as `[len: u32 LE][bytes]`.
+    pub fn write_header<P: Message>(&mut self, header: &P) -> Result<()> {
+        let bytes = header.encode_to_vec();
+        let len = u32::try_from(bytes.len())
+            .map_err(|_| Error::io(format!("cache header too large: {} bytes", bytes.len())))?;
+        self.writer.write_all(&len.to_le_bytes())?;
+        self.writer.write_all(&bytes)?;
+        self.pos += 4 + bytes.len();
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Write `batch` as a 64-byte-aligned Arrow IPC section.
+    pub fn write_ipc(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        lance_arrow::ipc::write_ipc_section(self.writer, &mut self.pos, batch)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// Write `batches` as a single 64-byte-aligned multi-batch Arrow IPC
+    /// section. The iterator must yield at least one batch.
+    pub fn write_ipc_batches<I>(&mut self, batches: I) -> Result<()>
+    where
+        I: IntoIterator<Item = RecordBatch>,
+    {
+        lance_arrow::ipc::write_ipc_section_batches(self.writer, &mut self.pos, batches)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// Write a raw blob as `[len: u64 LE][bytes]`.
+    ///
+    /// Only for byte payloads that already have their own stable, portable
+    /// encoding (e.g. a roaring bitmap, a varint-packed stream).
+    pub fn write_raw(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
+        lance_arrow::ipc::write_len_prefixed_bytes(self.writer, bytes)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(e.to_string()))?;
+        self.pos += 8 + bytes.len();
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// The underlying writer, for a payload that carries its own framing.
+    ///
+    /// Use this only when the codec writes a self-delimiting or whole-body
+    /// payload — e.g. streaming a roaring bitmap as the entire body, where the
+    /// length prefix of [`write_raw`](Self::write_raw) would be redundant and
+    /// buffering to measure that length would force an extra copy. For
+    /// structured bodies prefer [`write_header`](Self::write_header) /
+    /// [`write_ipc`](Self::write_ipc) / [`write_raw`](Self::write_raw), which
+    /// give you versioning and 64-byte IPC alignment.
+    ///
+    /// Bytes written through this do **not** advance the section-alignment
+    /// position, so it must not be interleaved with [`write_ipc`](Self::write_ipc).
+    pub fn raw_writer(&mut self) -> &mut dyn Write {
+        self.writer
+    }
+}
+
+/// Reads a cache entry body, tracking an offset into the input and exposing
+/// the entry's `type_version` so implementors can branch for backward compat.
+///
+/// All reads are zero-copy: returned [`Bytes`] and the buffers behind decoded
+/// [`RecordBatch`]es borrow from the input allocation.
+pub struct CacheEntryReader<'a> {
+    data: &'a Bytes,
+    offset: usize,
+    version: u32,
+}
+
+impl<'a> CacheEntryReader<'a> {
+    /// Create a reader over `data`, starting at body byte `offset`, for an
+    /// entry written at `version`.
+    pub fn new(data: &'a Bytes, offset: usize, version: u32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            data,
+            offset,
+            version,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The `type_version` from the envelope. Branch on this for backward compat.
+    pub fn version(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.version
+    }
+
+    /// Read a single discriminant byte written by [`CacheEntryWriter::write_u8`].
+    pub fn read_u8(&mut self) -> Result<u8> {
+        let bytes = self.data.as_ref();
+        let v = *bytes
+            .get(self.offset)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("cache entry: truncated, missing tag byte".to_string()))?;
+        self.offset += 1;
+        Ok(v)
+    }
+
+    /// Read a protobuf header written by [`CacheEntryWriter::write_header`].
+    pub fn read_header<P: Message + Default>(&mut self) -> Result<P> {
+        let bytes = self.data.as_ref();
+        let len_end = self
+            .offset
+            .checked_add(4)
+            .filter(|&e| e <= bytes.len())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("cache header: truncated length prefix".to_string()))?;
+        let len = u32::from_le_bytes(bytes[self.offset..len_end].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+        let data_end = len_end
+            .checked_add(len)
+            .filter(|&e| e <= bytes.len())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("cache header: truncated body".to_string()))?;
+        let msg = P::decode(&bytes[len_end..data_end])
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("cache header decode failed: {e}")))?;
+        self.offset = data_end;
+        Ok(msg)
+    }
+
+    /// Read one [`RecordBatch`] from a 64-byte-aligned IPC section.
+    pub fn read_ipc(&mut self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        lance_arrow::ipc::read_ipc_section_at(self.data, &mut self.offset)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// Read all [`RecordBatch`]es from a 64-byte-aligned multi-batch IPC
+    /// section written by [`CacheEntryWriter::write_ipc_batches`].
+    pub fn read_ipc_batches(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        lance_arrow::ipc::read_ipc_section_batches_at(self.data, &mut self.offset)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// Read a raw blob written by [`CacheEntryWriter::write_raw`], zero-copy.
+    pub fn read_raw(&mut self) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        lance_arrow::ipc::read_len_prefixed_bytes_at(self.data, &mut self.offset)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// The not-yet-consumed body bytes as a zero-copy slice.
+    ///
+    /// For a payload that carries its own framing and is parsed with the
+    /// codec's own cursor — the read counterpart of
+    /// [`CacheEntryWriter::raw_writer`]. For structured bodies prefer
+    /// [`read_header`](Self::read_header) / [`read_ipc`](Self::read_ipc) /
+    /// [`read_raw`](Self::read_raw).
+    pub fn body(&self) -> Bytes {
+        self.data.slice(self.offset..)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, UInt64Array};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use lance_arrow::ipc::IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT;
+
+    /// Write a body starting at entry offset `pos` and return the bytes.
+    ///
+    /// `pos` models the envelope the [`CacheCodec`](super::CacheCodec) wrapper
+    /// writes ahead of the body; it only affects section alignment.
+    fn write_body(pos: usize, f: impl FnOnce(&mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>)) -> Bytes {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        let mut writer = CacheEntryWriter::with_pos(&mut buf, pos);
+        f(&mut writer);
+        Bytes::from(buf)
+    }
+
+    fn int_batch(values: Vec<i32>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("i", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.into(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values))]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_u8_roundtrip_and_truncation() {
+        let data = write_body(0, |w| {
+            w.write_u8(7).unwrap();
+            w.write_u8(255).unwrap();
+        });
+        assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), &[7, 255]);
+
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_u8().unwrap(), 7);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_u8().unwrap(), 255);
+
+        // A third read has nothing left and must say so rather than wrap around.
+        let message = reader.read_u8().unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("missing tag byte"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    /// Headers are framed as `[len: u32 LE][bytes]`; `u64` stands in for a real
+    /// header proto here (prost encodes it as `google.protobuf.UInt64Value`).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_header_roundtrip_is_length_prefixed() {
+        let data = write_body(0, |w| w.write_header(&1234u64).unwrap());
+
+        let encoded_len = 1234u64.encoded_len();
+        assert_eq!(
+            u32::from_le_bytes(data[..4].try_into().unwrap()) as usize,
+            encoded_len
+        );
+        assert_eq!(data.len(), 4 + encoded_len);
+
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_header::<u64>().unwrap(), 1234);
+        // The reader consumed exactly the prefix plus the payload.
+        assert!(reader.body().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_read_header_rejects_truncated_length_prefix() {
+        let data = Bytes::from_static(&[0, 0]);
+        let message = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, 1)
+            .read_header::<u64>()
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("truncated length prefix"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_read_header_rejects_truncated_body() {
+        // Prefix claims 16 payload bytes; only 3 follow.
+        let mut data = 16u32.to_le_bytes().to_vec();
+        data.extend_from_slice(&[1, 2, 3]);
+        let data = Bytes::from(data);
+
+        let message = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, 1)
+            .read_header::<u64>()
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("truncated body"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    /// A length prefix that is in range but whose payload is not valid protobuf
+    /// must surface as a decode error, not a panic inside prost.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_read_header_rejects_undecodable_payload() {
+        // Field 1 tagged as a varint, then a varint that never terminates.
+        let payload = [0x08u8, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF];
+        let mut data = (payload.len() as u32).to_le_bytes().to_vec();
+        data.extend_from_slice(&payload);
+        let data = Bytes::from(data);
+
+        let message = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, 1)
+            .read_header::<u64>()
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("decode failed"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_raw_roundtrip_leaves_the_rest_as_body() {
+        let data = write_body(0, |w| {
+            w.write_raw(&[1, 2, 3]).unwrap();
+            w.raw_writer().write_all(&[9, 9]).unwrap();
+        });
+        // 8-byte length prefix + 3 payload + 2 trailing.
+        assert_eq!(data.len(), 13);
+
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_raw().unwrap().as_ref(), &[1, 2, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(reader.body().as_ref(), &[9, 9]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reader_exposes_the_entry_version() {
+        let data = Bytes::from_static(&[0]);
+        assert_eq!(CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, 7).version(), 7);
+    }
+
+    /// The reason `pos` is tracked at all: an IPC section must begin on a
+    /// 64-byte boundary *of the whole entry*, so the envelope bytes ahead of the
+    /// body count toward the padding. Writer and reader have to agree on that,
+    /// and only a non-multiple-of-64 prefix makes a disagreement visible.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ipc_section_is_aligned_against_the_envelope() {
+        const ENVELOPE: usize = 13;
+        let batch = int_batch(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+        let mut buf = vec![0xAAu8; ENVELOPE];
+        let mut writer = CacheEntryWriter::with_pos(&mut buf, ENVELOPE);
+        writer.write_header(&1234u64).unwrap();
+        writer.write_ipc(&batch).unwrap();
+        let data = Bytes::from(buf);
+
+        let header_end = ENVELOPE + 4 + 1234u64.encoded_len();
+        let stream_start = header_end.next_multiple_of(IPC_SECTION_ALIGNMENT);
+        assert!(stream_start > header_end, "padding should be non-empty");
+        assert!(
+            data[header_end..stream_start].iter().all(|b| *b == 0),
+            "the gap must be zero padding"
+        );
+
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, ENVELOPE, 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_header::<u64>().unwrap(), 1234);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_ipc().unwrap(), batch);
+        assert!(reader.body().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ipc_batches_roundtrip() {
+        let batches = vec![int_batch(vec![1, 2]), int_batch(vec![3])];
+        let data = write_body(0, |w| w.write_ipc_batches(batches.clone()).unwrap());
+
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_ipc_batches().unwrap(), batches);
+    }
+
+    /// The shape a real codec writes: a discriminant, a header, an arrow section
+    /// and a blob. Each reader step has to pick up exactly where the previous one
+    /// stopped, and the arrow section still has to land on its boundary even
+    /// though a `write_u8` moved the position by one.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_mixed_sections_stay_in_sync() {
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("u", DataType::UInt64, false)]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.into(),
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![u64::MAX, 0]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let data = write_body(0, |w| {
+            w.write_u8(2).unwrap();
+            w.write_header(&99u64).unwrap();
+            w.write_ipc(&batch).unwrap();
+            w.write_raw(&[7, 7, 7]).unwrap();
+        });
+
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_u8().unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_header::<u64>().unwrap(), 99);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_ipc().unwrap(), batch);
+        assert_eq!(reader.read_raw().unwrap().as_ref(), &[7, 7, 7]);
+        assert!(reader.body().is_empty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache/key.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/key.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b7687d26459
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/key.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,476 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Canonical fixed-size cache key construction.
+//!
+//! Cache keys are BLAKE3 digests truncated to 128 bits. Logical key fields are
+//! encoded with explicit type tags, fixed-width little-endian integers, and
+//! length framing for variable-width values. This makes the pre-hash encoding
+//! unambiguous and stable across processes, platforms, and builds.
+//!
+//! The digest is a cache identity, not an authentication or access-control
+//! primitive: namespace derivation keys are deterministic and not secret.
+//! Truncating to 128 bits gives generic birthday resistance of approximately
+//! 64 bits. This protocol does not introduce a FIPS mode; BLAKE3 is the
+//! repository's selected cache-key algorithm.
+
+use std::fmt;
+
+/// Storage namespace identifier for canonical cache keys.
+///
+/// Persistent backends should include this identifier in their physical
+/// namespace so future algorithm or framing changes produce cold misses.
+pub const CACHE_KEY_FORMAT: &str = "blake3-128-v1";
+
+const KEY_FORMAT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+const NAMESPACE_CONTEXT: &str = "lance-format/lance 2026-07-17 cache namespace v1";
+const NAMESPACE_DOMAIN: &[u8] = b"lance-cache-namespace\0";
+const ENTRY_DOMAIN: &[u8] = b"lance-cache-entry\0";
+
+/// One-byte type discriminants in the stable key encoding.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+#[repr(u8)]
+enum FieldTag {
+    U8 = 1,
+    U16 = 2,
+    U32 = 3,
+    U64 = 4,
+    I32 = 5,
+    I64 = 6,
+    Bool = 7,
+    Str = 8,
+    Bytes = 9,
+    FixedBytes = 10,
+    None = 11,
+    Some = 12,
+    Variant = 13,
+    Sequence = 14,
+}
+
+impl FieldTag {
+    const fn as_u8(self) -> u8 {
+        self as u8
+    }
+}
+
+/// Versioned schema identity for fields emitted by a cache key.
+///
+/// Change the version whenever the encoded fields or their meaning changes.
+/// The identifier must be stable and globally unique to the logical layout.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub struct CacheKeySchema {
+    id: &'static str,
+    version: u32,
+}
+
+impl CacheKeySchema {
+    /// Compatibility schema used by the default string-key bridge.
+    pub const LEGACY_TEXT: Self = Self::new("lance.cache.legacy-text", 1);
+
+    /// Create a stable schema identifier and encoding version.
+    pub const fn new(id: &'static str, version: u32) -> Self {
+        Self { id, version }
+    }
+
+    /// Return the author-assigned schema identifier.
+    pub const fn id(self) -> &'static str {
+        self.id
+    }
+
+    /// Return the schema encoding version.
+    pub const fn version(self) -> u32 {
+        self.version
+    }
+}
+
+/// Opaque 128-bit key passed to cache backends.
+///
+/// The byte representation is canonical. It can be persisted directly and is
+/// independent of the host's native integer endianness.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Eq, Hash, Ord, PartialEq, PartialOrd)]
+pub struct InternalCacheKey([u8; 16]);
+
+impl InternalCacheKey {
+    /// Reconstruct a key from its canonical bytes.
+    pub const fn from_bytes(bytes: [u8; 16]) -> Self {
+        Self(bytes)
+    }
+
+    /// Borrow the canonical byte representation.
+    pub const fn as_bytes(&self) -> &[u8; 16] {
+        &self.0
+    }
+
+    /// Consume the key and return its canonical bytes.
+    pub const fn into_bytes(self) -> [u8; 16] {
+        self.0
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Debug for InternalCacheKey {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        f.write_str("InternalCacheKey(")?;
+        for byte in self.0 {
+            write!(f, "{byte:02x}")?;
+        }
+        f.write_str(")")
+    }
+}
+
+/// Pre-derived namespace key shared by entries in one logical cache scope.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub struct CacheNamespace([u8; 32]);
+
+impl CacheNamespace {
+    /// Construct the stable root namespace.
+    pub fn root() -> Self {
+        Self(blake3::derive_key(NAMESPACE_CONTEXT, b""))
+    }
+
+    /// Derive a child namespace from one framed hierarchy segment.
+    pub fn child(self, segment: &str) -> Self {
+        let mut hasher = blake3::Hasher::new_keyed(&self.0);
+        write_framed(&mut hasher, NAMESPACE_DOMAIN);
+        hasher.update(&KEY_FORMAT_VERSION.to_le_bytes());
+        write_framed(&mut hasher, segment.as_bytes());
+        Self(hasher.finalize().into())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Streams typed logical fields into a canonical cache key.
+///
+/// Integer methods use little-endian fixed-width encoding. Variable-width
+/// strings and bytes are type-tagged and length-prefixed. There is deliberately
+/// no `usize` method because cache identities must not depend on target width.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_core::cache::{CacheKeySchema, CacheNamespace, KeyBuilder};
+///
+/// let namespace = CacheNamespace::root().child("dataset");
+/// let mut builder = KeyBuilder::new(
+///     namespace,
+///     "example.Page",
+///     CacheKeySchema::new("example.page-key", 1),
+/// );
+/// builder.write_u32(7);
+/// builder.write_str("values");
+/// let key = builder.finish();
+/// assert_eq!(key.as_bytes().len(), 16);
+/// ```
+pub struct KeyBuilder {
+    hasher: blake3::Hasher,
+}
+
+impl KeyBuilder {
+    /// Start a key in a namespace with a stable value type and key schema.
+    pub fn new(
+        namespace: CacheNamespace,
+        stable_type_id: &'static str,
+        schema: CacheKeySchema,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let mut hasher = blake3::Hasher::new_keyed(&namespace.0);
+        write_framed(&mut hasher, ENTRY_DOMAIN);
+        hasher.update(&KEY_FORMAT_VERSION.to_le_bytes());
+        write_framed(&mut hasher, stable_type_id.as_bytes());
+        write_framed(&mut hasher, schema.id().as_bytes());
+        hasher.update(&schema.version().to_le_bytes());
+        Self { hasher }
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged, fixed-width `u8`.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_u8(&mut self, value: u8) {
+        self.hasher.update(&[FieldTag::U8.as_u8(), value]);
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged, little-endian `u16`.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_u16(&mut self, value: u16) {
+        let mut encoded = [0; 3];
+        encoded[0] = FieldTag::U16.as_u8();
+        encoded[1..].copy_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
+        self.hasher.update(&encoded);
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged, little-endian `u32`.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_u32(&mut self, value: u32) {
+        let mut encoded = [0; 5];
+        encoded[0] = FieldTag::U32.as_u8();
+        encoded[1..].copy_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
+        self.hasher.update(&encoded);
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged, little-endian `u64`.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_u64(&mut self, value: u64) {
+        let mut encoded = [0; 9];
+        encoded[0] = FieldTag::U64.as_u8();
+        encoded[1..].copy_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
+        self.hasher.update(&encoded);
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged, little-endian `i32`.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_i32(&mut self, value: i32) {
+        let mut encoded = [0; 5];
+        encoded[0] = FieldTag::I32.as_u8();
+        encoded[1..].copy_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
+        self.hasher.update(&encoded);
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged, little-endian `i64`.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_i64(&mut self, value: i64) {
+        let mut encoded = [0; 9];
+        encoded[0] = FieldTag::I64.as_u8();
+        encoded[1..].copy_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
+        self.hasher.update(&encoded);
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged boolean.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_bool(&mut self, value: bool) {
+        self.hasher
+            .update(&[FieldTag::Bool.as_u8(), u8::from(value)]);
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged, length-prefixed UTF-8 string.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_str(&mut self, value: &str) {
+        self.write_variable(FieldTag::Str, value.as_bytes());
+    }
+
+    /// Append tagged, length-prefixed bytes.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_bytes(&mut self, value: &[u8]) {
+        self.write_variable(FieldTag::Bytes, value);
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged fixed-size byte array, including its length.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_fixed_bytes<const N: usize>(&mut self, value: &[u8; N]) {
+        self.write_variable(FieldTag::FixedBytes, value);
+    }
+
+    /// Append the canonical marker for an absent optional value.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_none(&mut self) {
+        self.hasher.update(&[FieldTag::None.as_u8()]);
+    }
+
+    /// Append the canonical marker for a present optional value.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_some(&mut self) {
+        self.hasher.update(&[FieldTag::Some.as_u8()]);
+    }
+
+    /// Append a tagged enum variant ordinal.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_variant(&mut self, variant: u32) {
+        let mut encoded = [0; 5];
+        encoded[0] = FieldTag::Variant.as_u8();
+        encoded[1..].copy_from_slice(&variant.to_le_bytes());
+        self.hasher.update(&encoded);
+    }
+
+    /// Append the length of a following sequence.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn write_sequence_len(&mut self, len: u64) {
+        let mut encoded = [0; 9];
+        encoded[0] = FieldTag::Sequence.as_u8();
+        encoded[1..].copy_from_slice(&len.to_le_bytes());
+        self.hasher.update(&encoded);
+    }
+
+    /// Finalize and return the canonical 128-bit key.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn finish(self) -> InternalCacheKey {
+        let hash = self.hasher.finalize();
+        let mut bytes = [0; 16];
+        bytes.copy_from_slice(&hash.as_bytes()[..16]);
+        InternalCacheKey(bytes)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn write_variable(&mut self, tag: FieldTag, value: &[u8]) {
+        self.hasher.update(&[tag.as_u8()]);
+        self.hasher.update(&encoded_len(value));
+        self.hasher.update(value);
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn write_framed(hasher: &mut blake3::Hasher, value: &[u8]) {
+    hasher.update(&encoded_len(value));
+    hasher.update(value);
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn encoded_len(value: &[u8]) -> [u8; 8] {
+    (value.len() as u64).to_le_bytes()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    const SCHEMA: CacheKeySchema = CacheKeySchema::new("test.key", 1);
+
+    fn builder() -> KeyBuilder {
+        KeyBuilder::new(
+            CacheNamespace::root().child("s3://bucket/dataset"),
+            "test.Value",
+            SCHEMA,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn key_with(write: impl FnOnce(&mut KeyBuilder)) -> InternalCacheKey {
+        let mut key = builder();
+        write(&mut key);
+        key.finish()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn key_and_namespace_have_fixed_sizes() {
+        assert_eq!(std::mem::size_of::<InternalCacheKey>(), 16);
+        assert_eq!(std::mem::size_of::<CacheNamespace>(), 32);
+        assert_eq!(std::mem::size_of::<FieldTag>(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn blake3_matches_official_empty_keyed_hash_vector() {
+        let key = *b"whats the Elvish word for friend";
+        assert_eq!(
+            blake3::keyed_hash(&key, b"").as_bytes(),
+            &[
+                0x92, 0xb2, 0xb7, 0x56, 0x04, 0xed, 0x3c, 0x76, 0x1f, 0x9d, 0x6f, 0x62, 0x39, 0x2c,
+                0x8a, 0x92, 0x27, 0xad, 0x0e, 0xa3, 0xf0, 0x95, 0x73, 0xe7, 0x83, 0xf1, 0x49, 0x8a,
+                0x4e, 0xd6, 0x0d, 0x26,
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn typed_fields_and_boundaries_are_unambiguous() {
+        let cases = [
+            key_with(|key| {
+                key.write_str("ab");
+                key.write_str("c");
+            }),
+            key_with(|key| {
+                key.write_str("a");
+                key.write_str("bc");
+            }),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_str("")),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_bytes(b"")),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_fixed_bytes(b"")),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_u8(1)),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_u16(1)),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_u32(1)),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_u64(1)),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_i32(1)),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_i64(1)),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_bool(false)),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_bool(true)),
+            key_with(KeyBuilder::write_none),
+            key_with(KeyBuilder::write_some),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_variant(0)),
+            key_with(|key| key.write_variant(1)),
+        ];
+        assert_eq!(std::collections::BTreeSet::from(cases).len(), cases.len());
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            key_with(|key| {
+                key.write_sequence_len(2);
+                key.write_u32(1);
+                key.write_u32(2);
+            }),
+            key_with(|key| {
+                key.write_u32(1);
+                key.write_u32(2);
+            })
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn namespace_type_schema_and_version_are_domain_separated() {
+        let root = CacheNamespace::root();
+        let namespace = root.child("dataset").child("index");
+        let nested = KeyBuilder::new(namespace, "test.Value", SCHEMA).finish();
+        let combined = KeyBuilder::new(root.child("dataset/index"), "test.Value", SCHEMA).finish();
+        assert_ne!(nested, combined);
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            nested,
+            KeyBuilder::new(namespace, "test.OtherValue", SCHEMA).finish()
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            nested,
+            KeyBuilder::new(
+                namespace,
+                "test.Value",
+                CacheKeySchema::new("test.other-key", 1),
+            )
+            .finish()
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            nested,
+            KeyBuilder::new(namespace, "test.Value", CacheKeySchema::new("test.key", 2),).finish()
+        );
+
+        let tenant_a_memory =
+            KeyBuilder::new(root.child("tenant-a").child("memory"), "test.Value", SCHEMA).finish();
+        assert_ne!(
+            tenant_a_memory,
+            KeyBuilder::new(root.child("tenant-b").child("memory"), "test.Value", SCHEMA,).finish()
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            tenant_a_memory,
+            KeyBuilder::new(
+                root.child("tenant-a").child("persistent"),
+                "test.Value",
+                SCHEMA,
+            )
+            .finish()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn integers_use_fixed_width_little_endian_encoding() {
+        let namespace = CacheNamespace::root().child("endianness");
+        let mut key = KeyBuilder::new(namespace, "test.Value", SCHEMA);
+        key.write_u32(0x0102_0304);
+        let actual = key.finish();
+
+        let mut reference = blake3::Hasher::new_keyed(&namespace.0);
+        write_framed(&mut reference, ENTRY_DOMAIN);
+        reference.update(&KEY_FORMAT_VERSION.to_le_bytes());
+        write_framed(&mut reference, b"test.Value");
+        write_framed(&mut reference, SCHEMA.id().as_bytes());
+        reference.update(&SCHEMA.version().to_le_bytes());
+        reference.update(&[FieldTag::U32.as_u8(), 0x04, 0x03, 0x02, 0x01]);
+        let mut expected = [0; 16];
+        expected.copy_from_slice(&reference.finalize().as_bytes()[..16]);
+
+        assert_eq!(actual, InternalCacheKey::from_bytes(expected));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn key_has_stable_golden_vector() {
+        let mut key = builder();
+        key.write_u32(7);
+        key.write_str("page");
+        key.write_some();
+        key.write_fixed_bytes(&[0xAB; 16]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            key.finish().into_bytes(),
+            [
+                0xc4, 0x38, 0xff, 0x22, 0x30, 0x55, 0x30, 0xfc, 0x74, 0x16, 0x38, 0xe9, 0x7d, 0x45,
+                0xa5, 0x68,
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache/mod.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e9e3a9bce59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1485 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Lance cache system.
+//!
+//! ## For cache users
+//!
+//! Use [`LanceCache`] (or [`WeakLanceCache`]) to store and retrieve typed
+//! values. Define a [`CacheKey`] (or [`UnsizedCacheKey`] for trait objects) to
+//! describe what you're caching and its type.
+//!
+//! To make a value type serializable (so persistent backends can store it),
+//! implement [`CacheCodecImpl`] on the type, then override [`CacheKey::codec`]:
+//!
+//! ```ignore
+//! impl CacheCodecImpl for MyData {
+//!     fn serialize(&self, w: &mut dyn Write) -> Result<()> { /* ... */ }
+//!     fn deserialize(data: &Bytes) -> Result<Self> { /* ... */ }
+//! }
+//!
+//! impl CacheKey for MyDataKey {
+//!     type ValueType = MyData;
+//!     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> { /* ... */ }
+//!     fn type_name() -> &'static str { "MyData" }
+//!     fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+//!         Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<MyData>())
+//!     }
+//! }
+//! ```
+//!
+//! ## For backend implementors
+//!
+//! Implement [`CacheBackend`] to provide a custom storage layer (disk, Redis,
+//! etc.). Backends receive opaque, fixed-size [`InternalCacheKey`] values and
+//! type-erased [`CacheEntry`] values. The typed wrapping is handled by
+//! [`LanceCache`]. See the [`backend`] module for migration details.
+//!
+//! ## Serialization flow
+//!
+//! When a [`CacheKey`] provides a codec via [`CacheKey::codec`]:
+//!
+//! 1. [`LanceCache`] wraps the [`CacheCodec`] and passes it to the backend
+//!    alongside the entry on `insert` and `get` calls.
+//! 2. In-memory backends (like [`MokaCacheBackend`]) ignore the codec.
+//! 3. Persistent backends use `codec.serialize(entry, writer)` on insert and
+//!    `codec.deserialize(reader)` on get to persist entries across restarts.
+
+pub mod backend;
+mod backend_uri;
+pub mod codec;
+mod entry_io;
+mod key;
+mod moka;
+mod quick;
+mod registry;
+
+pub use backend::{CacheBackend, CacheEntry};
+pub use backend_uri::{build_from_uri, parse_backend_uri};
+pub use codec::{
+    CacheCodec, CacheCodecImpl, CacheDecode, CacheMissReason, MAGIC, has_cache_envelope,
+};
+pub use entry_io::{CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter};
+pub use key::{CACHE_KEY_FORMAT, CacheKeySchema, CacheNamespace, InternalCacheKey, KeyBuilder};
+pub use moka::MokaCacheBackend;
+pub use quick::{QuickCacheBackend, QuickCacheShardPolicy, recommended_cache_shards};
+pub use registry::{BackendBuildFn, BackendConfig, build_from_config, register_backend};
+
+use std::any::TypeId;
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::{
+    Arc, RwLock, Weak,
+    atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
+};
+
+use futures::Future;
+
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+pub use crate::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CacheKey / UnsizedCacheKey — typed key traits for cache users
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Typed cache key for sized value types.
+///
+/// Existing implementations can continue returning a logical string from
+/// [`key`](Self::key). Performance-sensitive implementations should also
+/// provide a stable schema and stream typed fields through
+/// [`write_key`](Self::write_key), avoiding construction of that string.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```ignore
+/// struct MyKey { id: u64 }
+///
+/// impl CacheKey for MyKey {
+///     type ValueType = MyData;
+///     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> { self.id.to_string().into() }
+///     fn type_name() -> &'static str { "MyData" }
+/// }
+/// ```
+pub trait CacheKey {
+    type ValueType: 'static;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str>;
+
+    /// Short, stable string identifying this value type.
+    ///
+    /// Two `CacheKey` impls that store different `ValueType`s **must** return
+    /// different type names.
+    ///
+    /// Use a short literal (e.g. `"Vec<IndexMetadata>"`), not
+    /// `std::any::type_name` — the latter is not guaranteed stable across
+    /// compiler versions or build configurations.
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str;
+
+    /// Stable identity included in the physical key.
+    ///
+    /// The compatibility default preserves existing implementations by using
+    /// their author-assigned [`type_name`](Self::type_name).
+    fn stable_type_id() -> &'static str {
+        Self::type_name()
+    }
+
+    /// Versioned schema for the logical key fields.
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::LEGACY_TEXT
+    }
+
+    /// Stream the logical key fields into the canonical key builder.
+    ///
+    /// The compatibility default hashes the existing string key. In-tree hot
+    /// paths override this with typed, allocation-free field encoding.
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_str(self.key().as_ref());
+    }
+
+    /// Optional codec for serializing/deserializing this key's value type.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` by default. Cache backends that support persistence
+    /// (e.g. disk-backed caches) use this to serialize entries on insert and
+    /// deserialize on get. Types without a codec will only be stored in-memory.
+    ///
+    /// [`CacheCodec`] is `Copy` (two plain function pointers), so returning it
+    /// by value is cheap — no allocation needed.
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// Like [`CacheKey`] but for unsized value types (e.g. `dyn Trait`).
+///
+/// The cache wraps values in an extra `Arc` layer internally; callers pass
+/// and receive `Arc<T>` where `T: ?Sized`.
+///
+/// Unsized cache entries are always in-memory only (no serialization codec).
+/// For serializable entries, use a sized [`CacheKey`] instead.
+pub trait UnsizedCacheKey {
+    type ValueType: 'static + ?Sized;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str>;
+
+    /// Short, stable string identifying this value type.
+    /// See [`CacheKey::type_name`] for requirements.
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str;
+
+    /// Stable identity included in the physical key.
+    fn stable_type_id() -> &'static str {
+        Self::type_name()
+    }
+
+    /// Versioned schema for the logical key fields.
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::LEGACY_TEXT
+    }
+
+    /// Stream the logical key fields into the canonical key builder.
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_str(self.key().as_ref());
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Internal helpers
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Size of a cached `Arc<T>`, accounting for the Arc overhead (two atomic counters).
+fn cache_entry_size<T: DeepSizeOf + ?Sized>(value: &T) -> usize {
+    value.deep_size_of() + std::mem::size_of::<std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize>() * 2
+}
+
+type CacheEntrySizeAccessor = fn(&CacheEntry, &mut Context) -> Option<usize>;
+
+fn cache_entry_size_with_context<T>(entry: &CacheEntry, context: &mut Context) -> Option<usize>
+where
+    T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+{
+    let value = entry.downcast_ref::<T>()?;
+    let entry_ptr = Arc::as_ptr(entry) as *const () as usize;
+    if !context.mark_seen(entry_ptr) {
+        return Some(0);
+    }
+    Some(
+        std::mem::size_of_val(value)
+            + value.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + std::mem::size_of::<std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize>() * 2,
+    )
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct CacheState {
+    backend: Arc<dyn CacheBackend>,
+    hits: AtomicU64,
+    misses: AtomicU64,
+    entry_size_accessors: RwLock<HashMap<TypeId, CacheEntrySizeAccessor>>,
+}
+
+impl CacheState {
+    fn new(backend: Arc<dyn CacheBackend>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            backend,
+            hits: AtomicU64::new(0),
+            misses: AtomicU64::new(0),
+            entry_size_accessors: RwLock::new(HashMap::new()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn entry_size<T>(&self, value: &T) -> usize
+    where
+        T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    {
+        let type_id = TypeId::of::<T>();
+        let is_registered = self
+            .entry_size_accessors
+            .read()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|poisoned| poisoned.into_inner())
+            .contains_key(&type_id);
+        if !is_registered {
+            self.entry_size_accessors
+                .write()
+                .unwrap_or_else(|poisoned| poisoned.into_inner())
+                .entry(type_id)
+                .or_insert(cache_entry_size_with_context::<T>);
+        }
+        cache_entry_size(value)
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// LanceCache — typed wrapper around dyn CacheBackend
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Typed cache wrapper that handles key construction and type safety.
+///
+/// Internally delegates to a [`CacheBackend`]. The default backend is
+/// [`MokaCacheBackend`]; pass a custom backend via [`LanceCache::with_backend`].
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct LanceCache {
+    state: Arc<CacheState>,
+    namespace: key::CacheNamespace,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for LanceCache {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("LanceCache")
+            .field("backend", &self.state.backend)
+            .finish_non_exhaustive()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for LanceCache {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        let state_ptr = Arc::as_ptr(&self.state) as usize;
+        if !context.mark_seen(state_ptr) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        let accessors = self
+            .state
+            .entry_size_accessors
+            .read()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|poisoned| poisoned.into_inner())
+            .clone();
+        self.state
+            .backend
+            .deep_size_of_entries(context, &|entry, context| {
+                accessors
+                    .get(&entry.as_ref().type_id())
+                    .and_then(|size_of_entry| size_of_entry(entry, context))
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.state.backend.approx_size_bytes())
+    }
+}
+
+impl LanceCache {
+    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self::with_backend(Arc::new(MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(capacity)))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a cache backed by a custom [`CacheBackend`].
+    pub fn with_backend(backend: Arc<dyn CacheBackend>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            state: Arc::new(CacheState::new(backend)),
+            namespace: key::CacheNamespace::root(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn no_cache() -> Self {
+        Self::with_backend(Arc::new(MokaCacheBackend::no_cache()))
+    }
+
+    /// Derive a child namespace for all keys in the returned cache handle.
+    ///
+    /// Each call adds one framed hierarchy segment. Consequently,
+    /// `cache.with_key_prefix("a").with_key_prefix("b")` is deliberately
+    /// distinct from `cache.with_key_prefix("a/b")`.
+    pub fn with_key_prefix(&self, prefix: &str) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            state: self.state.clone(),
+            namespace: self.namespace.child(prefix),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub async fn size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.state.backend.num_entries().await
+    }
+
+    pub fn approx_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.state.backend.approx_num_entries()
+    }
+
+    pub async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.state.backend.size_bytes().await
+    }
+
+    /// Weighted capacity in bytes, if the backend reports one.
+    pub fn capacity_bytes(&self) -> Option<usize> {
+        self.state.backend.capacity_bytes()
+    }
+
+    // -- Stats / clear --------------------------------------------------------
+
+    pub async fn stats(&self) -> CacheStats {
+        CacheStats {
+            hits: self.state.hits.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            misses: self.state.misses.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            num_entries: self.state.backend.num_entries().await,
+            size_bytes: self.state.backend.size_bytes().await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub async fn clear(&self) {
+        self.state.backend.clear().await;
+        self.state.hits.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.state.misses.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    // -- CacheKey-based methods -----------------------------------------------
+
+    pub async fn insert_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K, metadata: Arc<K::ValueType>)
+    where
+        K: CacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    {
+        let size = self.state.entry_size(metadata.as_ref());
+        let key = self.sized_key(cache_key);
+        self.state
+            .backend
+            .insert(&key, metadata, size, K::codec())
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    pub async fn get_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> Option<Arc<K::ValueType>>
+    where
+        K: CacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    {
+        let key = self.sized_key(cache_key);
+        let Some(entry) = self.state.backend.get(&key, K::codec()).await else {
+            self.state.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            return None;
+        };
+        match entry.downcast::<K::ValueType>() {
+            Ok(value) => {
+                self.state.hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                Some(value)
+            }
+            Err(_) => {
+                // Type mismatch: the backend returned a different concrete
+                // type than expected (e.g. a disk cache may store
+                // intermediate state). Treat as a miss.
+                log::warn!(
+                    "cache backend returned a value with the wrong concrete type for key type {:?}",
+                    K::stable_type_id()
+                );
+                self.state.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                None
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub async fn get_or_insert_with_key<K, F, Fut>(
+        &self,
+        cache_key: K,
+        loader: F,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<K::ValueType>>
+    where
+        K: CacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+        F: FnOnce() -> Fut + Send,
+        Fut: Future<Output = Result<K::ValueType>> + Send,
+    {
+        self.get_or_insert_with_key_hit(cache_key, loader)
+            .await
+            .map(|(value, _)| value)
+    }
+
+    /// Same as [`get_or_insert_with_key`](Self::get_or_insert_with_key), but
+    /// also returns a boolean indicating whether the loader was skipped for
+    /// this call.
+    ///
+    /// - `true` means this call did **not** execute the loader. That covers
+    ///   both a true cache hit on an already-populated entry and a coalesced
+    ///   concurrent load where an in-flight loader started by a different
+    ///   caller produced the value.
+    /// - `false` means the loader ran on this call (a real cache miss).
+    ///
+    /// Callers that want strict "served from cache" semantics should treat
+    /// coalesced loads as misses; the current backend does not distinguish the
+    /// two cases. Prefer this over rolling a caller-side `Arc<AtomicBool>`
+    /// when the caller needs per-query hit/miss counters — the backend already
+    /// tracks this bit internally and this method just exposes it.
+    pub async fn get_or_insert_with_key_hit<K, F, Fut>(
+        &self,
+        cache_key: K,
+        loader: F,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<K::ValueType>, bool)>
+    where
+        K: CacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+        F: FnOnce() -> Fut + Send,
+        Fut: Future<Output = Result<K::ValueType>> + Send,
+    {
+        let key = self.sized_key(&cache_key);
+        let state = self.state.clone();
+        let typed_loader = Box::pin(async move {
+            let value = Arc::new(loader().await?);
+            let size = state.entry_size(value.as_ref());
+            Ok((value as CacheEntry, size))
+        });
+
+        let (entry, was_cached) = self
+            .state
+            .backend
+            .get_or_insert(&key, typed_loader, K::codec())
+            .await?;
+        let entry = entry.downcast::<K::ValueType>().map_err(|_| {
+            self.state.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "cache backend returned a value with the wrong concrete type for key type {:?}",
+                K::stable_type_id()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if was_cached {
+            self.state.hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        } else {
+            self.state.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        Ok((entry, was_cached))
+    }
+
+    pub async fn insert_unsized_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K, metadata: Arc<K::ValueType>)
+    where
+        K: UnsizedCacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    {
+        let metadata = Arc::new(metadata);
+        let size = self.state.entry_size(metadata.as_ref());
+        let key = self.unsized_key(cache_key);
+        self.state.backend.insert(&key, metadata, size, None).await;
+    }
+
+    pub async fn get_or_insert_unsized_with_key<K, F, Fut>(
+        &self,
+        cache_key: K,
+        loader: F,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<K::ValueType>>
+    where
+        K: UnsizedCacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+        F: FnOnce() -> Fut + Send,
+        Fut: Future<Output = Result<Arc<K::ValueType>>> + Send,
+    {
+        let key = self.unsized_key(&cache_key);
+        let state = self.state.clone();
+        let typed_loader = Box::pin(async move {
+            let value = loader().await?;
+            let size = state.entry_size(&value);
+            Ok((Arc::new(value) as CacheEntry, size))
+        });
+
+        let (entry, was_cached) = self
+            .state
+            .backend
+            .get_or_insert(&key, typed_loader, None)
+            .await?;
+        let entry = entry.downcast::<Arc<K::ValueType>>().map_err(|_| {
+            self.state.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "cache backend returned a value with the wrong concrete type for unsized key type {:?}",
+                K::stable_type_id()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if was_cached {
+            self.state.hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        } else {
+            self.state.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        Ok(entry.as_ref().clone())
+    }
+
+    pub async fn get_unsized_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> Option<Arc<K::ValueType>>
+    where
+        K: UnsizedCacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    {
+        let key = self.unsized_key(cache_key);
+        let Some(entry) = self.state.backend.get(&key, None).await else {
+            self.state.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            return None;
+        };
+        match entry.downcast::<Arc<K::ValueType>>() {
+            Ok(value) => {
+                self.state.hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                Some(value.as_ref().clone())
+            }
+            Err(_) => {
+                // Type mismatch: the backend returned a different concrete
+                // type than expected (e.g. a disk cache may store
+                // intermediate state). Treat as a miss.
+                log::warn!(
+                    "cache backend returned a value with the wrong concrete type for unsized key type {:?}",
+                    K::stable_type_id()
+                );
+                self.state.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                None
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn sized_key<K: CacheKey>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> InternalCacheKey {
+        let mut builder = KeyBuilder::new(self.namespace, K::stable_type_id(), K::schema());
+        cache_key.write_key(&mut builder);
+        builder.finish()
+    }
+
+    fn unsized_key<K: UnsizedCacheKey>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> InternalCacheKey {
+        let mut builder = KeyBuilder::new(self.namespace, K::stable_type_id(), K::schema());
+        cache_key.write_key(&mut builder);
+        builder.finish()
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// WeakLanceCache
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// A weak reference to a LanceCache, used by indices to avoid circular references.
+/// When the original cache is dropped, operations on this will gracefully no-op.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct WeakLanceCache {
+    state: Weak<CacheState>,
+    namespace: key::CacheNamespace,
+}
+
+impl WeakLanceCache {
+    pub fn from(cache: &LanceCache) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            state: Arc::downgrade(&cache.state),
+            namespace: cache.namespace,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_key_prefix(&self, prefix: &str) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            state: self.state.clone(),
+            namespace: self.namespace.child(prefix),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Weighted capacity in bytes, if the cache is alive and its backend
+    /// reports one.
+    pub fn capacity_bytes(&self) -> Option<usize> {
+        self.upgrade()?.capacity_bytes()
+    }
+
+    pub async fn get_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> Option<Arc<K::ValueType>>
+    where
+        K: CacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    {
+        self.upgrade()?.get_with_key(cache_key).await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn insert_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K, value: Arc<K::ValueType>) -> bool
+    where
+        K: CacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    {
+        let Some(cache) = self.upgrade() else {
+            log::warn!("WeakLanceCache: cache no longer available, unable to insert item");
+            return false;
+        };
+        cache.insert_with_key(cache_key, value).await;
+        true
+    }
+
+    /// Get or insert an item, computing it if necessary.
+    ///
+    /// Deduplication of concurrent loads is handled by the backend.
+    pub async fn get_or_insert_with_key<K, F, Fut>(
+        &self,
+        cache_key: K,
+        loader: F,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<K::ValueType>>
+    where
+        K: CacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+        F: FnOnce() -> Fut + Send,
+        Fut: Future<Output = Result<K::ValueType>> + Send,
+    {
+        self.get_or_insert_with_key_hit(cache_key, loader)
+            .await
+            .map(|(value, _)| value)
+    }
+
+    /// Same as [`get_or_insert_with_key`](Self::get_or_insert_with_key), but
+    /// also returns a boolean indicating whether the loader was skipped for
+    /// this call. See [`LanceCache::get_or_insert_with_key_hit`] for the
+    /// coalesced-load caveat.
+    pub async fn get_or_insert_with_key_hit<K, F, Fut>(
+        &self,
+        cache_key: K,
+        loader: F,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<K::ValueType>, bool)>
+    where
+        K: CacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+        F: FnOnce() -> Fut + Send,
+        Fut: Future<Output = Result<K::ValueType>> + Send,
+    {
+        let Some(cache) = self.upgrade() else {
+            log::warn!("WeakLanceCache: cache no longer available, computing without caching");
+            return loader().await.map(|value| (Arc::new(value), false));
+        };
+        cache.get_or_insert_with_key_hit(cache_key, loader).await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn get_unsized_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K) -> Option<Arc<K::ValueType>>
+    where
+        K: UnsizedCacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    {
+        self.upgrade()?.get_unsized_with_key(cache_key).await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn insert_unsized_with_key<K>(&self, cache_key: &K, value: Arc<K::ValueType>)
+    where
+        K: UnsizedCacheKey,
+        K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    {
+        let Some(cache) = self.upgrade() else {
+            log::warn!("WeakLanceCache: cache no longer available, unable to insert unsized item");
+            return;
+        };
+        cache.insert_unsized_with_key(cache_key, value).await;
+    }
+
+    fn upgrade(&self) -> Option<LanceCache> {
+        Some(LanceCache {
+            state: self.state.upgrade()?,
+            namespace: self.namespace,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CacheStats
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct CacheStats {
+    /// Number of times `get`, `get_unsized`, or `get_or_insert` found an item in the cache.
+    pub hits: u64,
+    /// Number of times `get`, `get_unsized`, or `get_or_insert` did not find an item in the cache.
+    pub misses: u64,
+    /// Number of entries currently in the cache.
+    pub num_entries: usize,
+    /// Total size in bytes of all entries in the cache.
+    pub size_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+impl CacheStats {
+    pub fn hit_ratio(&self) -> f32 {
+        if self.hits + self.misses == 0 {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            self.hits as f32 / (self.hits + self.misses) as f32
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn miss_ratio(&self) -> f32 {
+        if self.hits + self.misses == 0 {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            self.misses as f32 / (self.hits + self.misses) as f32
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::pin::Pin;
+    use std::sync::{
+        atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+        mpsc,
+    };
+    use std::task::Poll;
+    use std::thread;
+    use std::time::Duration;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    async fn report_first_pending<F>(
+        future: F,
+        parked: tokio::sync::oneshot::Sender<()>,
+    ) -> F::Output
+    where
+        F: Future,
+    {
+        tokio::pin!(future);
+        let mut parked = Some(parked);
+        futures::future::poll_fn(|cx| match future.as_mut().poll(cx) {
+            Poll::Pending => {
+                if let Some(parked) = parked.take() {
+                    let _ = parked.send(());
+                }
+                Poll::Pending
+            }
+            Poll::Ready(output) => Poll::Ready(output),
+        })
+        .await
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone)]
+    struct VersionedTestKey<const SCHEMA_VERSION: u32> {
+        id: u64,
+    }
+
+    type TestKey = VersionedTestKey<1>;
+    type TestKeyV2 = VersionedTestKey<2>;
+
+    impl<const SCHEMA_VERSION: u32> VersionedTestKey<SCHEMA_VERSION> {
+        fn new(id: u64) -> Self {
+            Self { id }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl<const SCHEMA_VERSION: u32> CacheKey for VersionedTestKey<SCHEMA_VERSION> {
+        type ValueType = Vec<u32>;
+
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            self.id.to_string().into()
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "test.VecU32"
+        }
+
+        fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+            CacheKeySchema::new("test.vec-u32-key", SCHEMA_VERSION)
+        }
+
+        fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+            builder.write_u64(self.id);
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct SharedTestValue {
+        data: Arc<Vec<u8>>,
+    }
+
+    impl DeepSizeOf for SharedTestValue {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+            self.data.deep_size_of_children(context)
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct SharedTestKey(u64);
+
+    impl CacheKey for SharedTestKey {
+        type ValueType = SharedTestValue;
+
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            self.0.to_string().into()
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "test.SharedValue"
+        }
+
+        fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+            CacheKeySchema::new("test.shared-value-key", 1)
+        }
+
+        fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+            builder.write_u64(self.0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct ReentrantValue(LanceCache);
+
+    impl DeepSizeOf for ReentrantValue {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+            self.0.deep_size_of_children(context)
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct ReentrantKey;
+
+    impl CacheKey for ReentrantKey {
+        type ValueType = ReentrantValue;
+
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            Cow::Borrowed("reentrant")
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "test.ReentrantValue"
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum TestBackendKind {
+        Moka,
+        Quick,
+    }
+
+    impl TestBackendKind {
+        fn cache(self, capacity: usize) -> LanceCache {
+            match self {
+                Self::Moka => LanceCache::with_capacity(capacity),
+                Self::Quick => {
+                    LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(capacity)))
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct LegacyBridgeKey(&'static str);
+
+    impl CacheKey for LegacyBridgeKey {
+        type ValueType = Vec<u32>;
+
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            Cow::Borrowed(self.0)
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "test.LegacyBridge"
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct ExplicitBridgeKey(&'static str);
+
+    impl CacheKey for ExplicitBridgeKey {
+        type ValueType = Vec<u32>;
+
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            Cow::Borrowed(self.0)
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "test.LegacyBridge"
+        }
+
+        fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+            builder.write_str(self.0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    trait TestDynValue: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync {
+        fn values(&self) -> &[u32];
+    }
+
+    impl TestDynValue for Vec<u32> {
+        fn values(&self) -> &[u32] {
+            self
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct LegacyUnsizedBridgeKey(&'static str);
+
+    impl UnsizedCacheKey for LegacyUnsizedBridgeKey {
+        type ValueType = dyn TestDynValue;
+
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            Cow::Borrowed(self.0)
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "test.LegacyUnsizedBridge"
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct ExplicitUnsizedBridgeKey(&'static str);
+
+    impl UnsizedCacheKey for ExplicitUnsizedBridgeKey {
+        type ValueType = dyn TestDynValue;
+
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            Cow::Borrowed(self.0)
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "test.LegacyUnsizedBridge"
+        }
+
+        fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+            builder.write_str(self.0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct HashMapBackend {
+        entries: tokio::sync::Mutex<HashMap<InternalCacheKey, (CacheEntry, usize)>>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl CacheBackend for HashMapBackend {
+        async fn get(
+            &self,
+            key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> Option<CacheEntry> {
+            self.entries
+                .lock()
+                .await
+                .get(key)
+                .map(|(entry, _)| entry.clone())
+        }
+
+        async fn insert(
+            &self,
+            key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            entry: CacheEntry,
+            size_bytes: usize,
+            _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) {
+            self.entries.lock().await.insert(*key, (entry, size_bytes));
+        }
+
+        async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+            &self,
+            key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+            codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> Result<(CacheEntry, bool)> {
+            if let Some(entry) = self.get(key, codec).await {
+                return Ok((entry, true));
+            }
+            let (entry, size_bytes) = loader.await?;
+            self.insert(key, entry.clone(), size_bytes, codec).await;
+            Ok((entry, false))
+        }
+
+        async fn clear(&self) {
+            self.entries.lock().await.clear();
+        }
+
+        async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+            self.entries.lock().await.len()
+        }
+
+        async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+            self.entries
+                .lock()
+                .await
+                .values()
+                .map(|(_, size_bytes)| size_bytes)
+                .sum()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct WrongTypeBackend;
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl CacheBackend for WrongTypeBackend {
+        async fn get(
+            &self,
+            _key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> Option<CacheEntry> {
+            Some(Arc::new(String::from("wrong type")))
+        }
+
+        async fn insert(
+            &self,
+            _key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            _entry: CacheEntry,
+            _size_bytes: usize,
+            _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) {
+        }
+
+        async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+            &self,
+            _key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            _loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+            _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> Result<(CacheEntry, bool)> {
+            Ok((Arc::new(String::from("wrong type")), true))
+        }
+
+        async fn clear(&self) {}
+
+        async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+            0
+        }
+
+        async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn typed_roundtrip_stats_clear_and_namespace_isolation() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        let left = cache.with_key_prefix("left");
+        let right = cache.with_key_prefix("right");
+        left.insert_with_key(&TestKey::new(7), Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]))
+            .await;
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            left.get_with_key(&TestKey::new(7)).await.as_deref(),
+            Some(&vec![1, 2, 3])
+        );
+        assert!(right.get_with_key(&TestKey::new(7)).await.is_none());
+        let stats = cache.stats().await;
+        assert_eq!((stats.hits, stats.misses, stats.num_entries), (1, 1, 1));
+
+        cache.clear().await;
+        let stats = left.stats().await;
+        assert_eq!((stats.hits, stats.misses, stats.num_entries), (0, 0, 0));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn strong_and_weak_handles_share_state_and_namespace() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        let child = cache.with_key_prefix("child");
+        let weak = WeakLanceCache::from(&child);
+
+        assert!(
+            weak.insert_with_key(&TestKey::new(1), Arc::new(vec![1]))
+                .await
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            child.get_with_key(&TestKey::new(1)).await.as_deref(),
+            Some(&vec![1])
+        );
+        child
+            .insert_with_key(&TestKey::new(2), Arc::new(vec![2]))
+            .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            weak.get_with_key(&TestKey::new(2)).await.as_deref(),
+            Some(&vec![2])
+        );
+        assert_eq!((cache.stats().await.hits, cache.size().await), (2, 2));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn nested_namespace_segments_do_not_alias_combined_segments() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        let nested = cache.with_key_prefix("a").with_key_prefix("b");
+        let combined = cache.with_key_prefix("a/b");
+        nested
+            .insert_with_key(&TestKey::new(1), Arc::new(vec![10]))
+            .await;
+        assert!(combined.get_with_key(&TestKey::new(1)).await.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn schema_change_produces_a_cold_miss() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&TestKey::new(1), Arc::new(vec![10]))
+            .await;
+        assert!(cache.get_with_key(&TestKeyV2::new(1)).await.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn get_or_insert_with_key_hit_reports_loader_execution() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+
+        // Cold: loader runs, was_cached = false.
+        let (value, was_cached) = cache
+            .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(TestKey::new(1), || async { Ok(vec![1, 2, 3]) })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*value, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        assert!(!was_cached);
+
+        // Warm: loader must not run and was_cached = true.
+        let (value, was_cached) = cache
+            .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(TestKey::new(1), || async {
+                panic!("should not be called")
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*value, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        assert!(was_cached);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn default_string_bridge_matches_explicit_legacy_encoding() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&LegacyBridgeKey("same"), Arc::new(vec![10]))
+            .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key(&ExplicitBridgeKey("same"))
+                .await
+                .as_deref(),
+            Some(&vec![10])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unsized_default_string_bridge_matches_explicit_legacy_encoding() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        let value: Arc<dyn TestDynValue> = Arc::new(vec![10, 20]);
+        cache
+            .insert_unsized_with_key(&LegacyUnsizedBridgeKey("same"), value)
+            .await;
+
+        let cached = cache
+            .get_unsized_with_key(&ExplicitUnsizedBridgeKey("same"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cached.values(), &[10, 20]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn custom_backend_receives_opaque_keys_and_shared_clear() {
+        let backend = Arc::new(HashMapBackend::default());
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_backend(backend.clone());
+        let child = cache.with_key_prefix("child");
+        let value = Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let value_size = cache_entry_size(value.as_ref());
+
+        child.insert_with_key(&TestKey::new(7), value).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            child.get_with_key(&TestKey::new(7)).await.as_deref(),
+            Some(&vec![1, 2, 3])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(backend.entries.lock().await.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(cache.size_bytes().await, value_size);
+
+        cache.clear().await;
+        assert!(backend.entries.lock().await.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(child.stats().await.hits, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn backend_type_collisions_are_contextual_misses_or_errors() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(WrongTypeBackend));
+
+        assert!(cache.get_with_key(&TestKey::new(1)).await.is_none());
+        let error = cache
+            .get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::new(2), || async { Ok(vec![2]) })
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("test.VecU32"));
+        let stats = cache.stats().await;
+        assert_eq!((stats.hits, stats.misses), (0, 2));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn moka_weight_includes_the_fixed_physical_key() {
+        let value = Arc::new(vec![0_u32; 3]);
+        let expected = cache_entry_size(value.as_ref())
+            .checked_add(std::mem::size_of::<InternalCacheKey>())
+            .unwrap();
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(expected * 2);
+        cache.insert_with_key(&TestKey::new(1), value).await;
+        assert_eq!(cache.size_bytes().await, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::moka(TestBackendKind::Moka)]
+    #[case::quick(TestBackendKind::Quick)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn deep_size_deduplicates_shared_entry_allocations(
+        #[case] backend_kind: TestBackendKind,
+    ) {
+        let cache = backend_kind.cache(1 << 20);
+        let shared_data = Arc::new(vec![0_u8; 1024]);
+
+        for id in 0..2 {
+            let data = shared_data.clone();
+            cache
+                .get_or_insert_with_key(SharedTestKey(id), || async move {
+                    Ok(SharedTestValue { data })
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let arc_overhead = std::mem::size_of::<AtomicUsize>() * 2;
+        let shared_allocation = std::mem::size_of::<Vec<u8>>() + shared_data.capacity();
+        let expected_entries = 2 * std::mem::size_of::<InternalCacheKey>()
+            + 2 * (std::mem::size_of::<SharedTestValue>() + arc_overhead)
+            + shared_allocation;
+
+        let weighted_size = cache.size_bytes().await;
+        assert_eq!(weighted_size, expected_entries + shared_allocation);
+        assert_eq!(
+            cache.deep_size_of(),
+            std::mem::size_of::<LanceCache>() + expected_entries
+        );
+
+        let mut context = Context::new();
+        assert_eq!(cache.deep_size_of_children(&mut context), expected_entries);
+        assert_eq!(
+            cache
+                .with_key_prefix("another-handle")
+                .deep_size_of_children(&mut context),
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn sizing_can_reenter_the_same_cache() {
+        let (done_tx, done_rx) = mpsc::channel();
+        let worker = thread::spawn(move || {
+            let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .enable_all()
+                .build()
+                .unwrap();
+            runtime.block_on(async move {
+                let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+                cache
+                    .insert_with_key(&ReentrantKey, Arc::new(ReentrantValue(cache.clone())))
+                    .await;
+                done_tx.send(()).unwrap();
+            });
+        });
+
+        done_rx
+            .recv_timeout(Duration::from_secs(1))
+            .expect("cache insertion deadlocked during sizing");
+        worker.join().unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn no_cache_computes_each_time() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::no_cache();
+        let loads = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            let loads = loads.clone();
+            let value = cache
+                .get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::new(1), move || async move {
+                    loads.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    Ok(vec![42])
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(value.as_slice(), &[42]);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(loads.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 2);
+        assert_eq!(cache.size().await, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+    async fn single_flight_coalesces_success_after_contenders_are_parked() {
+        const CONTENDERS: usize = 4;
+
+        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+        let loader_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let release = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Notify::new());
+        let (started_tx, started_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
+
+        let owner = {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loader_calls = loader_calls.clone();
+            let release = release.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                cache
+                    .get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::new(10), move || async move {
+                        loader_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                        let _ = started_tx.send(());
+                        release.notified().await;
+                        Ok(vec![10])
+                    })
+                    .await
+            })
+        };
+        started_rx.await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut contenders = Vec::new();
+        let mut parked = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..CONTENDERS {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loader_calls = loader_calls.clone();
+            let (parked_tx, parked_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
+            parked.push(parked_rx);
+            contenders.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                report_first_pending(
+                    cache.get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::new(10), move || async move {
+                        loader_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                        Ok(vec![99])
+                    }),
+                    parked_tx,
+                )
+                .await
+            }));
+        }
+        for parked in parked {
+            parked
+                .await
+                .expect("contender completed instead of parking behind owner");
+        }
+        assert_eq!(loader_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        assert!(contenders.iter().all(|handle| !handle.is_finished()));
+
+        release.notify_one();
+        assert_eq!(owner.await.unwrap().unwrap().as_slice(), &[10]);
+        for contender in contenders {
+            assert_eq!(contender.await.unwrap().unwrap().as_slice(), &[10]);
+        }
+        let stats = cache.stats().await;
+        assert_eq!((stats.hits, stats.misses), (CONTENDERS as u64, 1),);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+    async fn single_flight_coalesces_errors_after_contenders_are_parked() {
+        const CONTENDERS: usize = 4;
+
+        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+        let loader_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let release = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Notify::new());
+        let (started_tx, started_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
+
+        let owner = {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loader_calls = loader_calls.clone();
+            let release = release.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                cache
+                    .get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::new(20), move || async move {
+                        loader_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                        let _ = started_tx.send(());
+                        release.notified().await;
+                        Err(Error::timeout("owner loader timed out"))
+                    })
+                    .await
+            })
+        };
+        started_rx.await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut contenders = Vec::new();
+        let mut parked = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..CONTENDERS {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loader_calls = loader_calls.clone();
+            let (parked_tx, parked_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
+            parked.push(parked_rx);
+            contenders.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                report_first_pending(
+                    cache.get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::new(20), move || async move {
+                        loader_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                        Err(Error::timeout("contender loader timed out"))
+                    }),
+                    parked_tx,
+                )
+                .await
+            }));
+        }
+        for parked in parked {
+            parked
+                .await
+                .expect("contender completed instead of parking behind owner");
+        }
+        assert_eq!(loader_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        assert!(contenders.iter().all(|handle| !handle.is_finished()));
+
+        release.notify_one();
+        assert!(matches!(owner.await.unwrap(), Err(Error::Timeout { .. })));
+        for contender in contenders {
+            assert!(matches!(
+                contender.await.unwrap(),
+                Err(Error::Timeout { .. })
+            ));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(loader_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+    async fn single_flight_retries_after_the_owner_is_cancelled() {
+        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+        let loader_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let (started_tx, started_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
+
+        let owner = {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loader_calls = loader_calls.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                cache
+                    .get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::new(30), move || async move {
+                        loader_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                        let _ = started_tx.send(());
+                        std::future::pending::<()>().await;
+                        Ok(vec![30])
+                    })
+                    .await
+            })
+        };
+        started_rx.await.unwrap();
+
+        let (parked_tx, parked_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
+        let contender = {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loader_calls = loader_calls.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                report_first_pending(
+                    cache.get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::new(30), move || async move {
+                        loader_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                        Ok(vec![31])
+                    }),
+                    parked_tx,
+                )
+                .await
+            })
+        };
+        parked_rx
+            .await
+            .expect("contender completed instead of parking behind owner");
+        assert_eq!(loader_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        assert!(!contender.is_finished());
+
+        owner.abort();
+        assert!(owner.await.unwrap_err().is_cancelled());
+        let value = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), contender)
+            .await
+            .expect("contender remained parked after owner cancellation")
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(value.as_slice(), &[31]);
+        assert_eq!(loader_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn expired_weak_cache_degrades_without_retaining_state() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        let weak = WeakLanceCache::from(&cache);
+        drop(cache);
+
+        assert!(weak.get_with_key(&TestKey::new(1)).await.is_none());
+        assert!(
+            !weak
+                .insert_with_key(&TestKey::new(1), Arc::new(vec![1]))
+                .await
+        );
+        let value = weak
+            .get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::new(1), || async { Ok(vec![7]) })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(value.as_slice(), &[7]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache/moka.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/moka.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4a09b2147fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/moka.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,431 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use futures::Future;
+
+use crate::Result;
+use crate::deepsize::Context;
+use crate::error::CloneableError;
+
+use super::backend::{CacheBackend, CacheEntry};
+use super::{CacheCodec, InternalCacheKey};
+
+/// Internal record stored in the moka cache.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+struct MokaCacheEntry {
+    entry: CacheEntry,
+    size_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+/// Per-entry key cost for eviction.
+pub(super) fn key_footprint(_key: &InternalCacheKey) -> usize {
+    std::mem::size_of::<InternalCacheKey>()
+}
+
+fn physical_size(key: &InternalCacheKey, size_bytes: usize) -> usize {
+    key_footprint(key).saturating_add(size_bytes)
+}
+
+/// Number of physical bytes represented by one Moka weight unit.
+///
+/// Moka limits each entry's weight to `u32`, so capacities above 4 GiB need
+/// coarser units to account for a single large entry without undercharging it.
+fn weight_unit(capacity: usize) -> usize {
+    capacity.div_ceil(u32::MAX as usize).max(1)
+}
+
+fn entry_weight(key: &InternalCacheKey, size_bytes: usize, weight_unit: usize) -> u32 {
+    physical_size(key, size_bytes)
+        .div_ceil(weight_unit)
+        .try_into()
+        .unwrap_or(u32::MAX)
+}
+
+/// Default [`CacheBackend`] backed by a [moka](https://crates.io/crates/moka) cache.
+///
+/// Nonzero capacities provide weighted eviction and concurrent-load deduplication.
+/// A zero capacity invokes each loader independently without caching.
+pub struct MokaCacheBackend {
+    cache: moka::future::Cache<InternalCacheKey, MokaCacheEntry>,
+    capacity: usize,
+    weight_unit: usize,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for MokaCacheBackend {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("MokaCacheBackend")
+            .field("entry_count", &self.cache.entry_count())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl MokaCacheBackend {
+    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        let weight_unit = weight_unit(capacity);
+        let capacity_weight = capacity.div_ceil(weight_unit) as u64;
+        let cache = moka::future::Cache::builder()
+            .max_capacity(capacity_weight)
+            .weigher(move |key: &InternalCacheKey, entry: &MokaCacheEntry| {
+                entry_weight(key, entry.size_bytes, weight_unit)
+            })
+            .build();
+        Self {
+            cache,
+            capacity,
+            weight_unit,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn no_cache() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            cache: moka::future::Cache::new(0),
+            capacity: 0,
+            weight_unit: 1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Configured weighted capacity in bytes.
+    pub fn capacity(&self) -> usize {
+        self.capacity
+    }
+
+    fn weighted_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cache
+            .weighted_size()
+            .saturating_mul(self.weight_unit as u64)
+            .try_into()
+            .unwrap_or(usize::MAX)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl CacheBackend for MokaCacheBackend {
+    async fn get(&self, key: &InternalCacheKey, _codec: Option<CacheCodec>) -> Option<CacheEntry> {
+        self.cache.get(key).await.map(|r| r.entry)
+    }
+
+    async fn insert(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        entry: CacheEntry,
+        size_bytes: usize,
+        _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) {
+        self.cache
+            .insert(*key, MokaCacheEntry { entry, size_bytes })
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+        _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) -> Result<(CacheEntry, bool)> {
+        // Avoid Moka's single-flight waiters when nothing can be cached.
+        if self.capacity == 0 {
+            return loader.await.map(|(entry, _)| (entry, false));
+        }
+
+        // Track whether the loader actually ran (= cache miss).
+        let was_miss = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let was_miss_clone = was_miss.clone();
+
+        let init = async move {
+            was_miss_clone.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            loader
+                .await
+                .map(|(entry, size_bytes)| MokaCacheEntry { entry, size_bytes })
+                .map_err(CloneableError)
+        };
+
+        let owned_key = *key;
+        match self.cache.try_get_with(owned_key, init).await {
+            Ok(record) => {
+                let was_cached = !was_miss.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+                Ok((record.entry, was_cached))
+            }
+            Err(error) => Err(Arc::unwrap_or_clone(error).0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn clear(&self) {
+        self.cache.invalidate_all();
+        self.cache.run_pending_tasks().await;
+    }
+
+    async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cache.run_pending_tasks().await;
+        self.cache.entry_count() as usize
+    }
+
+    async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cache.run_pending_tasks().await;
+        self.weighted_size_bytes()
+    }
+
+    fn capacity_bytes(&self) -> Option<usize> {
+        Some(self.capacity)
+    }
+
+    fn approx_num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cache.entry_count() as usize
+    }
+
+    fn approx_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        // `weighted_size()` can be stale without `run_pending_tasks()`, which
+        // is async and can't be called from this synchronous context.
+        self.weighted_size_bytes()
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size_of_entries(
+        &self,
+        context: &mut Context,
+        size_of_entry: &dyn Fn(&CacheEntry, &mut Context) -> Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Option<usize> {
+        Some(
+            self.cache
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(key, record)| {
+                    key_footprint(key.as_ref())
+                        + size_of_entry(&record.entry, context).unwrap_or(record.size_bytes)
+                })
+                .sum(),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::pin::pin;
+
+    use futures::{FutureExt, poll};
+    use tokio::sync::oneshot;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::zero_capacity_success(MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(0), false)]
+    #[case::zero_capacity_error(MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(0), true)]
+    #[case::no_cache_success(MokaCacheBackend::no_cache(), false)]
+    #[case::no_cache_error(MokaCacheBackend::no_cache(), true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn zero_capacity_loaders_run_independently(
+        #[case] backend: MokaCacheBackend,
+        #[case] loader_fails: bool,
+    ) {
+        let key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes([0; 16]);
+        let first_entry: CacheEntry = Arc::new(1_u64);
+        let second_entry: CacheEntry = Arc::new(2_u64);
+        let (release_tx, release_rx) = oneshot::channel();
+        let entry = first_entry.clone();
+        let mut first = pin!(backend.get_or_insert(
+            &key,
+            Box::pin(async move {
+                release_rx.await.unwrap();
+                Ok((entry, 8))
+            }),
+            None,
+        ));
+        assert!(poll!(first.as_mut()).is_pending());
+
+        let entry = second_entry.clone();
+        let second = backend
+            .get_or_insert(
+                &key,
+                Box::pin(async move {
+                    if loader_fails {
+                        Err(crate::Error::invalid_input("independent loader failed"))
+                    } else {
+                        Ok((entry, 8))
+                    }
+                }),
+                None,
+            )
+            .now_or_never()
+            .expect("a disabled cache must not wait for another loader on the same key");
+        if loader_fails {
+            let error = second.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(&error, crate::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("independent loader failed"));
+        } else {
+            let (entry, was_cached) = second.unwrap();
+            assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&entry, &second_entry));
+            assert!(!was_cached);
+        }
+
+        release_tx.send(()).unwrap();
+        let (entry, was_cached) = first.await.unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&entry, &first_entry));
+        assert!(!was_cached);
+        assert!(backend.get(&key, None).await.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(backend.num_entries().await, 0);
+        assert_eq!(backend.size_bytes().await, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn entry_weights_are_exact_at_byte_granularity() {
+        let key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes([0; 16]);
+        assert_eq!(weight_unit(4096), 1);
+        assert_eq!(entry_weight(&key, 7, 1), 23);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn capacity_bytes_reports_configured_capacity() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(4096).capacity_bytes(),
+            Some(4096)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(MokaCacheBackend::no_cache().capacity_bytes(), Some(0));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn size_methods_use_constant_time_weighted_accounting() {
+        let backend = MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(4096);
+        let key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes([0; 16]);
+        let entry: CacheEntry = Arc::new(());
+        let value_size = 7;
+        let expected = physical_size(&key, value_size);
+
+        backend.insert(&key, entry, value_size, None).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(backend.size_bytes().await, expected);
+        assert_eq!(backend.approx_size_bytes(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(target_pointer_width = "64")]
+    #[test]
+    fn entry_weights_scale_for_capacities_above_four_gibibytes() {
+        let key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes([0; 16]);
+        let capacity = 6 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024;
+        let weight_unit = weight_unit(capacity);
+        assert_eq!(weight_unit, 2);
+
+        let size_bytes = u32::MAX as usize + 1024;
+        let expected = physical_size(&key, size_bytes).div_ceil(weight_unit);
+        let weight = entry_weight(&key, size_bytes, weight_unit);
+        assert_eq!(weight as usize, expected);
+        assert_ne!(weight, u32::MAX);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Registry identifier for the built-in Moka backend.
+pub const MOKA_BACKEND_KIND: &str = "moka";
+
+/// [`BackendBuildFn`](super::registry::BackendBuildFn) for [`MokaCacheBackend`].
+///
+/// Recognized options:
+///   * `capacity` — total weighted capacity in bytes (`usize`).
+///     This must be present and non-empty.
+///
+/// Unknown options are rejected so typos surface immediately instead of
+/// silently falling through to the default capacity.
+pub(super) fn build_moka_backend(
+    config: &super::registry::BackendConfig,
+) -> Result<MokaCacheBackend> {
+    let mut capacity: Option<usize> = None;
+    for (key, value) in &config.options {
+        match key.as_str() {
+            "capacity" => {
+                if value.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(
+                        "moka cache backend: capacity must not be empty",
+                    ));
+                } else {
+                    capacity = Some(value.parse::<usize>().map_err(|err| {
+                        crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "moka cache backend: cannot parse capacity {:?}: {}",
+                            value, err
+                        ))
+                    })?);
+                }
+            }
+            other => {
+                return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "moka cache backend: unknown option {:?}",
+                    other
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let capacity = capacity.ok_or_else(|| {
+        crate::Error::invalid_input(
+            "moka cache backend: capacity is required; use moka://?capacity=<bytes>",
+        )
+    })?;
+    Ok(MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(capacity))
+}
+
+pub(super) fn build_moka(config: &super::registry::BackendConfig) -> Result<Arc<dyn CacheBackend>> {
+    Ok(Arc::new(build_moka_backend(config)?))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod moka_registry_tests {
+    use super::super::backend_uri::{build_from_uri, parse_backend_uri};
+    use super::super::registry::{BackendConfig, build_from_config, registry_test_lock};
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_moka_builds_from_config() {
+        let _lock = registry_test_lock();
+        let cfg = BackendConfig::new("moka")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_option("capacity", "1048576");
+        let backend = build_moka_backend(&cfg).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(backend.capacity(), 1048576);
+        let _backend = build_from_config(&cfg).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_moka_builds_from_uri() {
+        let _lock = registry_test_lock();
+        let cfg = parse_backend_uri("moka://?capacity=1048576").unwrap();
+        let backend = build_moka_backend(&cfg).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(backend.capacity(), 1048576);
+        let _backend = build_from_uri("moka://?capacity=1048576").unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_moka_rejects_unknown_option() {
+        let _lock = registry_test_lock();
+        let cfg = BackendConfig::new("moka")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_option("mystery", "1");
+        let err = build_from_config(&cfg).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("unknown option"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_moka_rejects_bad_capacity() {
+        let _lock = registry_test_lock();
+        let cfg = BackendConfig::new("moka")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_option("capacity", "not-a-number");
+        let err = build_from_config(&cfg).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("cannot parse capacity"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_moka_rejects_missing_capacity() {
+        let _lock = registry_test_lock();
+        let cfg = BackendConfig::new("moka").unwrap();
+        let err = build_from_config(&cfg).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("capacity is required"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_moka_rejects_empty_capacity() {
+        let _lock = registry_test_lock();
+        let cfg = BackendConfig::new("moka")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_option("capacity", "");
+        let err = build_from_config(&cfg).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("capacity must not be empty"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache/quick.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/quick.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..028c1cb2023
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/quick.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,607 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! [`CacheBackend`] backed by [quick_cache](https://crates.io/crates/quick_cache).
+//! A hit takes a shard read lock, clones the cached value, and marks it as
+//! accessed. There is no read-operation channel or inline eviction work.
+
+use std::pin::Pin;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use futures::Future;
+
+use super::backend::{CacheBackend, CacheEntry};
+use super::moka::key_footprint;
+use super::{CacheCodec, InternalCacheKey};
+use crate::Result;
+use crate::deepsize::Context;
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct QuickEntry {
+    entry: CacheEntry,
+    size_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct EntryWeighter;
+
+impl quick_cache::Weighter<InternalCacheKey, QuickEntry> for EntryWeighter {
+    fn weight(&self, key: &InternalCacheKey, value: &QuickEntry) -> u64 {
+        // Same accounting as the moka backend.
+        key_footprint(key).saturating_add(value.size_bytes).max(1) as u64
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct QuickCacheBackend {
+    cache: quick_cache::sync::Cache<InternalCacheKey, QuickEntry, EntryWeighter>,
+    capacity: usize,
+}
+
+/// Controls how a [`QuickCacheBackend`] divides its weight budget.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Default, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum QuickCacheShardPolicy {
+    /// Choose a shard count from the cache capacity and available parallelism.
+    #[default]
+    Recommended,
+    /// Give every entry access to one shared weight budget.
+    ///
+    /// This avoids capacity fragmentation for a small number of large,
+    /// unequal entries. Concurrent hits can still take the shard read lock.
+    Single,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for QuickCacheBackend {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("QuickCacheBackend")
+            .field("entry_count", &self.cache.len())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Minimum weight budget (4 GiB) per shard: shards don't borrow capacity, and
+/// an entry heavier than ~its shard's budget is silently refused admission.
+const MIN_SHARD_SHARE: usize = 4 << 30;
+
+/// Recommended shard count: `min(cpus / 2, capacity / 4 GiB)`, power of two
+/// in `[1, 1024]`. The cpu term bounds lock contention; the capacity term
+/// keeps each shard's budget >= 4 GiB so large entries stay admissible.
+/// Rounded down because quick_cache rounds requests up.
+pub fn recommended_cache_shards(capacity: usize) -> usize {
+    let available_parallelism = std::thread::available_parallelism()
+        .map(|n| n.get())
+        .unwrap_or(2);
+    recommended_cache_shards_for_parallelism(capacity, available_parallelism)
+}
+
+fn recommended_cache_shards_for_parallelism(
+    capacity: usize,
+    available_parallelism: usize,
+) -> usize {
+    let by_cpu = available_parallelism / 2;
+    let shards = (capacity / MIN_SHARD_SHARE).min(by_cpu).max(1);
+    let shards = if shards.is_power_of_two() {
+        shards
+    } else {
+        shards.next_power_of_two() / 2
+    };
+    shards.clamp(1, 1024)
+}
+
+/// Assumed average entry size for pre-allocation sizing.
+const ESTIMATED_AVG_ENTRY_BYTES: usize = 64 << 10;
+
+impl QuickCacheBackend {
+    /// Create a backend holding up to `capacity` bytes of weighted entries
+    /// (weight = key footprint + declared size), sharded per
+    /// [`recommended_cache_shards`].
+    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self::with_shard_policy(capacity, QuickCacheShardPolicy::Recommended)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a weighted cache with an explicit shard policy.
+    ///
+    /// `capacity` bounds the sum of key footprints and declared entry sizes.
+    /// Each shard has an independent share of that bound. In addition, the
+    /// default Quick admission policy rejects an unpinned entry heavier than
+    /// approximately 97% of one shard's share.
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_core::cache::{QuickCacheBackend, QuickCacheShardPolicy};
+    ///
+    /// let cache = QuickCacheBackend::with_shard_policy(
+    ///     8 << 30,
+    ///     QuickCacheShardPolicy::Single,
+    /// );
+    /// ```
+    pub fn with_shard_policy(capacity: usize, shard_policy: QuickCacheShardPolicy) -> Self {
+        let shards = match shard_policy {
+            QuickCacheShardPolicy::Recommended => recommended_cache_shards(capacity),
+            QuickCacheShardPolicy::Single => 1,
+        };
+        Self::with_shards(capacity, shards)
+    }
+
+    fn with_shards(capacity: usize, shards: usize) -> Self {
+        // Floor protects the shard count from quick_cache's items-per-shard
+        // heuristic; ceiling bounds pre-allocation.
+        let estimated_items = (capacity / ESTIMATED_AVG_ENTRY_BYTES).clamp(shards * 32, 1_000_000);
+        let options = quick_cache::OptionsBuilder::new()
+            .estimated_items_capacity(estimated_items)
+            .weight_capacity(capacity as u64)
+            .shards(shards)
+            .build()
+            // Only errors when weight/item capacity is missing; both are set.
+            .expect("quick_cache options");
+        let cache = quick_cache::sync::Cache::with_options(
+            options,
+            EntryWeighter,
+            Default::default(),
+            Default::default(),
+        );
+        Self { cache, capacity }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn num_shards(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cache.num_shards()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn shard_index(&self, key: &InternalCacheKey) -> usize {
+        self.cache.shard_index(key)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl CacheBackend for QuickCacheBackend {
+    async fn get(&self, key: &InternalCacheKey, _codec: Option<CacheCodec>) -> Option<CacheEntry> {
+        self.cache.get(key).map(|v| v.entry)
+    }
+
+    async fn insert(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        entry: CacheEntry,
+        size_bytes: usize,
+        _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) {
+        self.cache.insert(*key, QuickEntry { entry, size_bytes });
+    }
+
+    async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+        _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) -> Result<(CacheEntry, bool)> {
+        match self.cache.get_value_or_guard_async(key).await {
+            Ok(value) => Ok((value.entry, true)),
+            Err(guard) => {
+                let (entry, size_bytes) = loader.await?;
+                let _ = guard.insert(QuickEntry {
+                    entry: entry.clone(),
+                    size_bytes,
+                });
+                Ok((entry, false))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn clear(&self) {
+        self.cache.clear();
+    }
+
+    async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cache.len()
+    }
+
+    async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cache.weight() as usize
+    }
+
+    fn capacity_bytes(&self) -> Option<usize> {
+        Some(self.capacity)
+    }
+
+    fn approx_num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cache.len()
+    }
+
+    fn approx_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cache.weight() as usize
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size_of_entries(
+        &self,
+        context: &mut Context,
+        size_of_entry: &dyn Fn(&CacheEntry, &mut Context) -> Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Option<usize> {
+        Some(
+            self.cache
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(key, record)| {
+                    key_footprint(&key)
+                        + size_of_entry(&record.entry, context).unwrap_or(record.size_bytes)
+                })
+                .sum(),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::marker::PhantomData;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache};
+
+    const TEST_CAPACITY: usize = 1_000;
+
+    struct TestKey<T: 'static> {
+        key: String,
+        _phantom: PhantomData<T>,
+    }
+
+    impl<T: 'static> TestKey<T> {
+        fn new(key: &str) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                key: key.to_string(),
+                _phantom: PhantomData,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl<T: 'static> CacheKey for TestKey<T> {
+        type ValueType = T;
+        fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+            std::borrow::Cow::Borrowed(&self.key)
+        }
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            std::any::type_name::<T>()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn entry_weight_includes_fixed_key() {
+        let key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes([0; 16]);
+        let entry = QuickEntry {
+            entry: Arc::new(()),
+            size_bytes: 7,
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            quick_cache::Weighter::weight(&EntryWeighter, &key, &entry),
+            23
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn capacity_bytes_reports_configured_capacity() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(1 << 20).capacity_bytes(),
+            Some(1 << 20)
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn keys_in_shard(
+        cache: &QuickCacheBackend,
+        shard_index: usize,
+        count: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<InternalCacheKey> {
+        let mut keys = Vec::with_capacity(count);
+        for value in 0_u128.. {
+            let key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes(value.to_le_bytes());
+            if cache.shard_index(&key) == shard_index {
+                keys.push(key);
+                if keys.len() == count {
+                    return keys;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        unreachable!("the key space must contain enough keys for every shard")
+    }
+
+    async fn load_declared_value(
+        cache: &QuickCacheBackend,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        value: usize,
+        size_bytes: usize,
+        loads: &AtomicUsize,
+    ) -> CacheEntry {
+        let (entry, _) = cache
+            .get_or_insert(
+                key,
+                Box::pin(async {
+                    loads.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    Ok((Arc::new(value) as CacheEntry, size_bytes))
+                }),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*entry.downcast_ref::<usize>().unwrap(), value);
+        entry
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn recommended_shards_cover_large_capacity_boundaries() {
+        assert_eq!(recommended_cache_shards_for_parallelism(8 << 30, 4), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            recommended_cache_shards_for_parallelism((8 << 30) - 1, 4),
+            1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(recommended_cache_shards_for_parallelism(16 << 30, 8), 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            recommended_cache_shards_for_parallelism((16 << 30) - 1, 8),
+            2
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn single_shard_avoids_fragmentation_for_unequal_entries() {
+        // Declared entry weights, including the 16-byte key, total 660. They
+        // fit the whole cache but not one 500-byte share of a two-shard cache.
+        let sizes = [168, 188, 256];
+        let sharded = QuickCacheBackend::with_shards(TEST_CAPACITY, 2);
+        assert_eq!(sharded.num_shards(), 2);
+        let sharded_keys = keys_in_shard(&sharded, 0, sizes.len());
+        let sharded_loads = AtomicUsize::new(0);
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            for (value, (key, size_bytes)) in sharded_keys.iter().zip(sizes).enumerate() {
+                load_declared_value(&sharded, key, value, size_bytes, &sharded_loads).await;
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(sharded_loads.load(Ordering::SeqCst) > sizes.len());
+        assert!(sharded.num_entries().await < sizes.len());
+        assert!(sharded.size_bytes().await <= TEST_CAPACITY);
+
+        let single =
+            QuickCacheBackend::with_shard_policy(TEST_CAPACITY, QuickCacheShardPolicy::Single);
+        let single_loads = AtomicUsize::new(0);
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            for (value, (key, size_bytes)) in sharded_keys.iter().zip(sizes).enumerate() {
+                load_declared_value(&single, key, value, size_bytes, &single_loads).await;
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(single_loads.load(Ordering::SeqCst), sizes.len());
+        assert_eq!(single.num_entries().await, sizes.len());
+        assert_eq!(single.size_bytes().await, 660);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn direct_insert_obeys_the_same_shard_budget() {
+        let sizes = [168, 188, 256];
+        for (shards, expected_entries) in [(2, 2), (1, 3)] {
+            let cache = QuickCacheBackend::with_shards(TEST_CAPACITY, shards);
+            let keys = keys_in_shard(&cache, 0, sizes.len());
+            for (value, (key, size_bytes)) in keys.iter().zip(sizes).enumerate() {
+                cache.insert(key, Arc::new(value), size_bytes, None).await;
+            }
+            assert_eq!(cache.num_entries().await, expected_entries);
+            assert!(cache.size_bytes().await <= TEST_CAPACITY);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn single_shard_preserves_capacity_and_hot_admission_limits() {
+        let cache = QuickCacheBackend::with_shards(TEST_CAPACITY, 1);
+        let keys = keys_in_shard(&cache, 0, 4);
+
+        // The default hot target is 97% of capacity. Weight includes the key,
+        // so a declared size of 954 is admitted at weight 970, while 955 is not.
+        cache.insert(&keys[0], Arc::new(0_usize), 954, None).await;
+        assert!(cache.get(&keys[0], None).await.is_some());
+        cache.clear().await;
+        cache.insert(&keys[1], Arc::new(1_usize), 955, None).await;
+        assert!(cache.get(&keys[1], None).await.is_none());
+
+        // Individually admissible entries whose working set exceeds the total
+        // budget must still reload and remain bounded.
+        let loads = AtomicUsize::new(0);
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            for (value, key) in keys[1..].iter().enumerate() {
+                load_declared_value(&cache, key, value, 384, &loads).await;
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(loads.load(Ordering::SeqCst) > 3);
+        assert!(cache.size_bytes().await <= TEST_CAPACITY);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+    async fn concurrent_misses_share_a_load_and_retry_failure() {
+        let cache = Arc::new(QuickCacheBackend::with_shards(4096, 1));
+        let key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes([42; 16]);
+        let loads = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let release = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Notify::new());
+        let (started_tx, started_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
+
+        let owner = {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loads = loads.clone();
+            let release = release.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                cache
+                    .get_or_insert(
+                        &key,
+                        Box::pin(async move {
+                            loads.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                            let _ = started_tx.send(());
+                            release.notified().await;
+                            Err(crate::Error::timeout("test loader failed"))
+                        }),
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await
+            })
+        };
+        started_rx.await.unwrap();
+
+        let contender = {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loads = loads.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                cache
+                    .get_or_insert(
+                        &key,
+                        Box::pin(async move {
+                            loads.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                            Ok((Arc::new(7_usize) as CacheEntry, 8))
+                        }),
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await
+            })
+        };
+        tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+        assert_eq!(loads.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        release.notify_one();
+        assert!(owner.await.unwrap().is_err());
+        let (value, is_hit) = contender.await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*value.downcast_ref::<usize>().unwrap(), 7);
+        assert!(!is_hit);
+        assert_eq!(loads.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+    async fn cancelled_loader_releases_concurrent_miss() {
+        let cache = Arc::new(QuickCacheBackend::with_shards(4096, 1));
+        let key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes([24; 16]);
+        let loads = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let (started_tx, started_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
+
+        let owner = {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loads = loads.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                cache
+                    .get_or_insert(
+                        &key,
+                        Box::pin(async move {
+                            loads.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                            let _ = started_tx.send(());
+                            std::future::pending::<()>().await;
+                            Ok((Arc::new(1_usize) as CacheEntry, 8))
+                        }),
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await
+            })
+        };
+        started_rx.await.unwrap();
+
+        let contender = {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let loads = loads.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                cache
+                    .get_or_insert(
+                        &key,
+                        Box::pin(async move {
+                            loads.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                            Ok((Arc::new(2_usize) as CacheEntry, 8))
+                        }),
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await
+            })
+        };
+        tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+        assert_eq!(loads.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+
+        owner.abort();
+        assert!(owner.await.unwrap_err().is_cancelled());
+        let (value, is_hit) = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(1), contender)
+            .await
+            .expect("contender remained blocked after loader cancellation")
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*value.downcast_ref::<usize>().unwrap(), 2);
+        assert!(!is_hit);
+        assert_eq!(loads.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_quick_backend_roundtrip_singleflight_and_eviction() {
+        // Capacity must be large relative to one entry: quick_cache shards
+        // its weight budget, and an entry heavier than its shard's share is
+        // not admitted at all.
+        const CAPACITY: usize = 1 << 20;
+        let item = Arc::new(vec![1u8, 2, 3]);
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(CAPACITY)));
+
+        // insert + get roundtrip and weighted accounting
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&TestKey::<Vec<u8>>::new("a"), item.clone())
+            .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key(&TestKey::<Vec<u8>>::new("a"))
+                .await
+                .as_deref(),
+            Some(&vec![1u8, 2, 3])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cache.approx_size(), 1);
+        assert!(cache.size_bytes().await > 0);
+
+        // get_or_insert runs the loader only on a miss
+        let loads = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            let loads = loads.clone();
+            let value = cache
+                .get_or_insert_with_key(TestKey::<Vec<u8>>::new("b"), || async move {
+                    loads.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    Ok(vec![7u8])
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(value.as_ref(), &vec![7u8]);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(loads.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+
+        // capacity is enforced: overfill with 4x capacity of 16KiB entries
+        // and confirm eviction kept the weighted size within budget
+        for i in 0..256 {
+            cache
+                .insert_with_key(
+                    &TestKey::<Vec<u8>>::new(&format!("fill-{i}")),
+                    Arc::new(vec![0u8; 16 << 10]),
+                )
+                .await;
+        }
+        assert!(cache.size_bytes().await <= CAPACITY);
+        assert!(cache.size().await < 258);
+
+        cache.clear().await;
+        assert_eq!(cache.size().await, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_quick_backend_tiny_capacity() {
+        // A tiny cache must not over-provision item metadata and must still
+        // admit and evict correctly within its weight budget.
+        const CAPACITY: usize = 64 << 10;
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(CAPACITY)));
+        for i in 0..64 {
+            cache
+                .insert_with_key(
+                    &TestKey::<Vec<u8>>::new(&format!("k-{i}")),
+                    Arc::new(vec![0u8; 4 << 10]),
+                )
+                .await;
+        }
+        assert!(cache.size_bytes().await <= CAPACITY);
+        assert!(cache.size().await >= 1);
+        let hit = cache
+            .get_with_key(&TestKey::<Vec<u8>>::new("k-63"))
+            .await
+            .is_some()
+            || cache
+                .get_with_key(&TestKey::<Vec<u8>>::new("k-62"))
+                .await
+                .is_some();
+        assert!(hit, "recently inserted entries should be resident");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/cache/registry.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/registry.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f370bdd3f8f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/cache/registry.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,372 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Pluggable cache-backend registry.
+//!
+//! A [`BackendConfig`] identifies which backend to build (`kind`) and carries
+//! backend-specific string options. Backends are constructed through a
+//! [`BackendBuildFn`] registered under a unique `kind`. Third-party crates
+//! integrate by calling [`register_backend`] once at application startup;
+//! [`build_from_config`] then locates the constructor and hands it the
+//! config.
+//!
+//! The registry uses `HashMap<String, String>` for options so it can be
+//! represented naturally across FFI (Python `dict[str, str]`, Java
+//! `Map<String, String>`, etc.).
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex, MutexGuard, OnceLock};
+
+use super::backend::CacheBackend;
+use super::moka::{MOKA_BACKEND_KIND, build_moka};
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Backend-independent configuration passed to a [`BackendBuildFn`].
+///
+/// `kind` selects which registered backend to construct; `options` carries
+/// backend-specific key/value settings (e.g. `capacity`, `path`).
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct BackendConfig {
+    /// Registered backend identifier, e.g. `"moka"`.
+    pub kind: String,
+    /// Backend-specific string options.
+    pub options: HashMap<String, String>,
+}
+
+impl BackendConfig {
+    /// Build a config with no options.
+    pub fn new(kind: impl AsRef<str>) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            kind: normalize_backend_kind(kind.as_ref())?,
+            options: HashMap::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Insert a single option and return `self`, enabling chaining.
+    pub fn with_option(mut self, key: impl Into<String>, value: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        self.options.insert(key.into(), value.into());
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// Normalize and validate a cache backend kind.
+///
+/// Backend kinds share the same syntax as URI schemes. They are matched
+/// case-insensitively and stored as lowercase ASCII so registry lookups,
+/// config dictionaries, and URI parsing all address the same key.
+pub fn normalize_backend_kind(kind: &str) -> Result<String> {
+    let mut chars = kind.chars();
+    match chars.next() {
+        Some(c) if c.is_ascii_alphabetic() => {}
+        _ => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cache backend kind {:?}: must start with an ASCII letter",
+                kind
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    for c in chars {
+        let ok = c.is_ascii_alphanumeric() || matches!(c, '+' | '-' | '.');
+        if !ok {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cache backend kind {:?}: invalid character {:?}",
+                kind, c
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(kind.to_ascii_lowercase())
+}
+
+/// Constructor signature for a cache backend.
+///
+/// Constructors are synchronous. Backends that need async initialization
+/// should surface a `try_new_blocking` shim (or equivalent) and call it here.
+pub type BackendBuildFn = fn(&BackendConfig) -> Result<Arc<dyn CacheBackend>>;
+
+fn registry() -> &'static Mutex<HashMap<String, BackendBuildFn>> {
+    static REGISTRY: OnceLock<Mutex<HashMap<String, BackendBuildFn>>> = OnceLock::new();
+    REGISTRY.get_or_init(|| Mutex::new(HashMap::new()))
+}
+
+fn registry_lock() -> Result<MutexGuard<'static, HashMap<String, BackendBuildFn>>> {
+    registry()
+        .lock()
+        .map_err(|_| Error::internal("cache backend registry mutex is poisoned"))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn registry_lock_for_test() -> MutexGuard<'static, HashMap<String, BackendBuildFn>> {
+    registry()
+        .lock()
+        .unwrap_or_else(|poisoned| poisoned.into_inner())
+}
+
+/// Register a constructor for a cache backend under `kind`.
+///
+/// Returns `Err` if a non-built-in `kind` is already registered. Built-in
+/// backends may be replaced so callers can mask a built-in implementation
+/// (for example, a patched `"moka"` backend) without changing URI/config
+/// strings elsewhere.
+///
+/// Typical usage from a backend crate:
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use std::sync::Arc;
+/// # use lance_core::Result;
+/// # use lance_core::cache::{BackendConfig, CacheBackend, MokaCacheBackend, register_backend};
+/// fn build_my_backend(_config: &BackendConfig) -> Result<Arc<dyn CacheBackend>> {
+///     Ok(Arc::new(MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(1024)))
+/// }
+///
+/// # fn main() -> Result<()> {
+/// register_backend("my-backend", build_my_backend)?;
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+pub fn register_backend(kind: &str, build: BackendBuildFn) -> Result<()> {
+    let kind = normalize_backend_kind(kind)?;
+    insert_backend(&kind, build, builtin_backend(&kind).is_some())
+}
+
+fn insert_backend(kind: &str, build: BackendBuildFn, allow_replace: bool) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut map = registry_lock()?;
+    if map.contains_key(kind) && !allow_replace {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "cache backend {:?} is already registered",
+            kind
+        )));
+    }
+    map.insert(kind.to_string(), build);
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn builtin_backend(kind: &str) -> Option<BackendBuildFn> {
+    match kind {
+        MOKA_BACKEND_KIND => Some(build_moka),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Look up the constructor for `config.kind` and build a backend.
+///
+/// Returns `Err` if no backend has been registered under that identifier.
+pub fn build_from_config(config: &BackendConfig) -> Result<Arc<dyn CacheBackend>> {
+    ensure_builtin_backends()?;
+    let kind = normalize_backend_kind(&config.kind)?;
+    let config = BackendConfig {
+        kind: kind.clone(),
+        options: config.options.clone(),
+    };
+    let build = {
+        let map = registry_lock()?;
+        map.get(&kind).copied()
+    };
+    match build {
+        Some(build) => build(&config),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "unknown cache backend kind: {:?}",
+            kind
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Idempotently register the backends that ship with `lance-core`.
+///
+/// Called by [`build_from_config`] (and, transitively, by
+/// [`build_from_uri`](super::backend_uri::build_from_uri)) so a bare Lance
+/// installation can build a Moka backend without the caller having to
+/// register it. Third-party backends still have to opt in with their own
+/// `register()` call.
+///
+/// The check is against the current registry contents rather than a
+/// process-once flag so that `#[cfg(test)]` helpers which snapshot and
+/// restore the registry still see the built-in backend after they take
+/// ownership.
+fn ensure_builtin_backends() -> Result<()> {
+    let mut map = registry_lock()?;
+    if !map.contains_key(MOKA_BACKEND_KIND)
+        && let Some(build) = builtin_backend(MOKA_BACKEND_KIND)
+    {
+        map.insert(MOKA_BACKEND_KIND.to_string(), build);
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Test-only helper: replace the registry with an empty map so tests can
+/// exercise duplicate-registration logic without polluting the global one.
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(super) fn take_registry_for_test() -> HashMap<String, BackendBuildFn> {
+    let mut map = registry_lock_for_test();
+    std::mem::take(&mut *map)
+}
+
+/// Test-only helper: restore a previously captured registry state.
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(super) fn restore_registry_for_test(saved: HashMap<String, BackendBuildFn>) {
+    let mut map = registry_lock_for_test();
+    *map = saved;
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(super) fn registry_test_lock() -> std::sync::MutexGuard<'static, ()> {
+    static M: OnceLock<std::sync::Mutex<()>> = OnceLock::new();
+    M.get_or_init(|| std::sync::Mutex::new(()))
+        .lock()
+        .unwrap_or_else(|poisoned| poisoned.into_inner())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use std::pin::Pin;
+
+    use crate::cache::InternalCacheKey;
+    use crate::cache::backend::CacheEntry;
+    use crate::cache::codec::CacheCodec;
+    use futures::Future;
+
+    // A trivial no-op backend so tests do not depend on Moka or any other
+    // real backend. Every method returns "empty" / does nothing.
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct NullBackend;
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl CacheBackend for NullBackend {
+        async fn get(
+            &self,
+            _key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> Option<CacheEntry> {
+            None
+        }
+
+        async fn insert(
+            &self,
+            _key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            _entry: CacheEntry,
+            _size_bytes: usize,
+            _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) {
+        }
+
+        async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+            &self,
+            _key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = crate::Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+            _codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> crate::Result<(CacheEntry, bool)> {
+            let (entry, _size) = loader.await?;
+            Ok((entry, false))
+        }
+
+        async fn clear(&self) {}
+        async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+            0
+        }
+        async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn build_null(_cfg: &BackendConfig) -> Result<Arc<dyn CacheBackend>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(NullBackend))
+    }
+
+    struct RegistryGuard {
+        // Hold the serialization lock for the full test.
+        _lock: std::sync::MutexGuard<'static, ()>,
+        saved: HashMap<String, BackendBuildFn>,
+    }
+    impl RegistryGuard {
+        fn new() -> Self {
+            Self {
+                _lock: registry_test_lock(),
+                saved: take_registry_for_test(),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    impl Drop for RegistryGuard {
+        fn drop(&mut self) {
+            restore_registry_for_test(std::mem::take(&mut self.saved));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_register_and_build() {
+        let _guard = RegistryGuard::new();
+        register_backend("null", build_null).unwrap();
+        let backend = build_from_config(&BackendConfig::new("null").unwrap()).unwrap();
+        // Backend is opaque; we just check that the constructor ran and
+        // gave us an Arc<dyn CacheBackend>.
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&backend), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_duplicate_registration_errors() {
+        let _guard = RegistryGuard::new();
+        register_backend("dup", build_null).unwrap();
+        let err = register_backend("dup", build_null).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("already registered"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_builtin_kind_can_be_overridden() {
+        let _guard = RegistryGuard::new();
+        register_backend("moka", build_null).unwrap();
+        let backend = build_from_config(&BackendConfig::new("moka").unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&backend), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_unknown_kind_errors() {
+        let _guard = RegistryGuard::new();
+        let err = build_from_config(&BackendConfig::new("missing").unwrap()).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("unknown cache backend kind"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_backend_kind_is_normalized() {
+        let _guard = RegistryGuard::new();
+        register_backend("Echo.Backend", build_null).unwrap();
+        let backend = build_from_config(&BackendConfig::new("echo.backend").unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&backend), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_config_lookup_normalizes_direct_config() {
+        let _guard = RegistryGuard::new();
+        fn build_echo(cfg: &BackendConfig) -> Result<Arc<dyn CacheBackend>> {
+            assert_eq!(cfg.kind, "echo.backend");
+            Ok(Arc::new(NullBackend))
+        }
+        register_backend("echo.backend", build_echo).unwrap();
+        let cfg = BackendConfig {
+            kind: "ECHO.Backend".to_string(),
+            options: HashMap::new(),
+        };
+        build_from_config(&cfg).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_invalid_backend_kind_errors() {
+        let err = register_backend("not a scheme", build_null).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("invalid character"));
+        let err = BackendConfig::new("1moka").unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("must start with an ASCII letter"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_options_are_passed_through() {
+        let _guard = RegistryGuard::new();
+        fn build_echo(cfg: &BackendConfig) -> Result<Arc<dyn CacheBackend>> {
+            assert_eq!(cfg.options.get("capacity").map(String::as_str), Some("42"));
+            Ok(Arc::new(NullBackend))
+        }
+        register_backend("echo", build_echo).unwrap();
+        let cfg = BackendConfig::new("echo")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_option("capacity", "42");
+        build_from_config(&cfg).unwrap();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/container/list.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/container/list.rs
index c10b30abdb0..9d8205cb398 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/container/list.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/container/list.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 use std::collections::LinkedList;
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use crate::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 
 /// A linked list that grows exponentially. It is used to store a large number of
 /// elements in a memory-efficient way. The list grows by doubling the capacity of
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ impl<T> ExpLinkedList<T> {
 }
 
 impl<T: DeepSizeOf> DeepSizeOf for ExpLinkedList<T> {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut crate::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.inner
             .iter()
             .map(|v| v.deep_size_of_children(context))
@@ -186,10 +186,10 @@ impl<'a, T> Iterator for ExpLinkedListIter<'a, T> {
     type Item = &'a T;
 
     fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
-        if let Some(inner_iter) = &mut self.inner_iter {
-            if let Some(v) = inner_iter.next() {
-                return Some(v);
-            }
+        if let Some(inner_iter) = &mut self.inner_iter
+            && let Some(v) = inner_iter.next()
+        {
+            return Some(v);
         }
         if let Some(inner) = self.inner.next() {
             self.inner_iter = Some(inner.iter());
@@ -224,10 +224,10 @@ impl<T> Iterator for ExpLinkedListIntoIter<T> {
     type Item = T;
 
     fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
-        if let Some(inner_iter) = &mut self.inner_iter {
-            if let Some(v) = inner_iter.next() {
-                return Some(v);
-            }
+        if let Some(inner_iter) = &mut self.inner_iter
+            && let Some(v) = inner_iter.next()
+        {
+            return Some(v);
         }
         if let Some(inner) = self.inner.next() {
             self.inner_iter = Some(inner.into_iter());
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes.rs
index 704c1c4dbe6..e2b5e4c9ce0 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes.rs
@@ -7,23 +7,25 @@ use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::fmt::{self, Debug, Formatter};
 use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
 
+use crate::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, TimeUnit};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_arrow::bfloat16::{is_bfloat16_field, BFLOAT16_EXT_NAME};
+use lance_arrow::bfloat16::{BFLOAT16_EXT_NAME, is_bfloat16_field};
 use lance_arrow::{ARROW_EXT_META_KEY, ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY};
-use snafu::location;
 
 mod field;
 mod schema;
 
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 pub use field::{
-    BlobVersion, Encoding, Field, NullabilityComparison, OnTypeMismatch, SchemaCompareOptions,
+    BlobVersion, Encoding, Field, LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY, LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION,
+    LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY, LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION, NullabilityComparison,
+    OnTypeMismatch, SchemaCompareOptions,
 };
 pub use schema::{
-    escape_field_path_for_project, format_field_path, parse_field_path, BlobHandling, FieldRef,
-    OnMissing, Projectable, Projection, Schema,
+    BlobHandling, FieldRef, OnMissing, Projectable, Projection, Schema,
+    escape_field_path_for_project, format_field_path, format_field_path_minimal, parse_field_path,
+    validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions,
 };
 
 pub static BLOB_DESC_FIELDS: LazyLock<Fields> = LazyLock::new(|| {
@@ -46,6 +48,90 @@ pub static BLOB_DESC_FIELD: LazyLock<ArrowField> = LazyLock::new(|| {
 pub static BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD: LazyLock<Field> =
     LazyLock::new(|| Field::try_from(&*BLOB_DESC_FIELD).unwrap());
 
+/// The minimal logical blob v2 fields accepted from writers.
+///
+/// Logical values may also use [`BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS`] when an external
+/// object range is present.
+pub static BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS: LazyLock<Fields> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+        ArrowField::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ])
+});
+
+/// The complete logical blob v2 fields used for writer input and rewrite output.
+///
+/// `position` and `size` are an optional range within the external object named
+/// by `uri`; when present, `size` must be greater than zero. Every non-null row
+/// must set exactly one of `data` and `uri`. These fields do not describe
+/// Lance-managed data, packed, or dedicated storage.
+pub static BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS: LazyLock<Fields> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    let mut fields = BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS
+        .iter()
+        .cloned()
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    fields.extend([
+        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("position", DataType::UInt64, true)),
+        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("size", DataType::UInt64, true)),
+    ]);
+    Fields::from(fields)
+});
+
+/// The complete logical blob v2 struct type.
+pub static BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_TYPE: LazyLock<DataType> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| DataType::Struct(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.clone()));
+
+/// Writer-prepared blob v2 fields consumed by the structural encoder.
+///
+/// The populated fields depend on [`BlobKind`]:
+///
+/// - [`BlobKind::Inline`] carries `data`; the encoder derives the stored
+///   `position` and `size` from the out-of-line buffer it creates.
+/// - [`BlobKind::Packed`] carries `blob_id`, `position`, and `blob_size`.
+/// - [`BlobKind::Dedicated`] carries `blob_id` and `blob_size`; its stored
+///   `position` is zero.
+/// - [`BlobKind::Managed`] carries `uri`, `position`, and `blob_size`, with
+///   a null `blob_id` for the writer's table base. [`BlobKind::ManagedWithBase`]
+///   additionally carries an exact registered `blob_id`.
+/// - [`BlobKind::External`] carries `uri`, optional `blob_id`, `position`, and
+///   `blob_size`. A zero `blob_size` is resolved to the complete external object
+///   length when read.
+///
+/// `blob_size` is distinct from the logical `size`, which is only an optional
+/// external-object range before preparation. For external blobs, `uri` is
+/// normalized into the stable stored `blob_uri` field.
+pub static BLOB_V2_PREPARED_FIELDS: LazyLock<Fields> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("kind", DataType::UInt8, true),
+        ArrowField::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+        ArrowField::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ArrowField::new("blob_id", DataType::UInt32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("blob_size", DataType::UInt64, true),
+        ArrowField::new("position", DataType::UInt64, true),
+    ])
+});
+
+/// The writer-prepared blob v2 struct type.
+pub static BLOB_V2_PREPARED_TYPE: LazyLock<DataType> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| DataType::Struct(BLOB_V2_PREPARED_FIELDS.clone()));
+
+/// Stored blob v2 descriptor fields.
+///
+/// These field names are part of the stable file format. Their meaning depends
+/// on `kind`:
+///
+/// - [`BlobKind::Inline`]: `position` and `size` locate an out-of-line buffer in
+///   the Lance data file.
+/// - [`BlobKind::Packed`]: `blob_id` identifies a shared packed blob file, and
+///   `position` and `size` locate a range within it.
+/// - [`BlobKind::Dedicated`]: `blob_id` identifies a dedicated raw blob file,
+///   `position` is zero, and `size` is the complete file length.
+/// - [`BlobKind::Managed`]: `blob_uri` is relative to the data file's table base;
+///   `blob_id` is unused (zero). [`BlobKind::ManagedWithBase`] instead selects an
+///   exact registered base using `blob_id`. Both store a known byte range.
+/// - [`BlobKind::External`]: `blob_uri` and `blob_id` identify the object, while
+///   `position` and `size` select a range. A zero `size` is resolved to the
+///   object's complete length when read.
 pub static BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS: LazyLock<Fields> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     Fields::from(vec![
         ArrowField::new("kind", DataType::UInt8, false),
@@ -69,6 +155,96 @@ pub static BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELD: LazyLock<ArrowField> = LazyLock::new(|| {
 pub static BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD: LazyLock<Field> =
     LazyLock::new(|| Field::try_from(&*BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELD).unwrap());
 
+/// The in-memory representation of a blob v2 struct.
+#[non_exhaustive]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum BlobV2Layout {
+    /// Writer input or rewrite output.
+    ///
+    /// Both the minimal `data, uri` fields and the complete
+    /// `data, uri, position, size` fields have this layout.
+    Logical,
+    /// Kind-aware writer intermediate consumed by the structural encoder.
+    Prepared,
+    /// Stable descriptor stored in Lance files and returned by descriptor scans.
+    Descriptor,
+}
+
+impl BlobV2Layout {
+    /// Classify blob v2 child fields by name, type, order, and layout-specific
+    /// nullability requirements.
+    ///
+    /// Child metadata is not part of the representation. The complete logical
+    /// layout also accepts non-nullable `position` and `size` fields, matching
+    /// the existing writer-input contract. Descriptor child nullability is
+    /// ignored because it changed across released schemas; row nullness has
+    /// been represented by either parent struct validity or a nullable `kind`
+    /// child.
+    pub fn classify(fields: &Fields) -> Option<Self> {
+        if logical_blob_v2_fields_match(fields) {
+            Some(Self::Logical)
+        } else if blob_v2_fields_match(fields, &BLOB_V2_PREPARED_FIELDS, true) {
+            Some(Self::Prepared)
+        } else if blob_v2_fields_match(fields, &BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS, false) {
+            Some(Self::Descriptor)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for BlobV2Layout {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Logical => write!(f, "logical"),
+            Self::Prepared => write!(f, "prepared"),
+            Self::Descriptor => write!(f, "descriptor"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn blob_v2_field_matches(
+    actual: &ArrowField,
+    expected: &ArrowField,
+    compare_nullability: bool,
+) -> bool {
+    actual.name() == expected.name()
+        && actual.data_type() == expected.data_type()
+        && (!compare_nullability || actual.is_nullable() == expected.is_nullable())
+}
+
+fn blob_v2_fields_match(actual: &Fields, expected: &Fields, compare_nullability: bool) -> bool {
+    actual.len() == expected.len()
+        && actual
+            .iter()
+            .zip(expected.iter())
+            .all(|(actual, expected)| {
+                blob_v2_field_matches(actual.as_ref(), expected.as_ref(), compare_nullability)
+            })
+}
+
+fn logical_blob_v2_fields_match(fields: &Fields) -> bool {
+    if blob_v2_fields_match(fields, &BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS, true) {
+        return true;
+    }
+    fields.len() == BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.len()
+        && fields
+            .iter()
+            .zip(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.iter())
+            .enumerate()
+            .all(|(index, (actual, expected))| {
+                blob_v2_field_matches(actual.as_ref(), expected.as_ref(), index < 2)
+            })
+}
+
+/// Deprecated name for [`BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS`].
+#[deprecated(note = "use BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS")]
+pub use self::BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS as BLOB_V2_USER_FIELDS;
+
+/// Deprecated name for [`BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_TYPE`].
+#[deprecated(note = "use BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_TYPE")]
+pub use self::BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_TYPE as BLOB_V2_USER_TYPE;
+
 pub const BLOB_LOGICAL_TYPE: &str = "blob";
 
 /// LogicalType is a string presentation of arrow type.
@@ -95,7 +271,7 @@ impl LogicalType {
         self.0.starts_with("fixed_size_list:struct:")
     }
 
-    fn is_struct(&self) -> bool {
+    pub fn is_struct(&self) -> bool {
         self.0 == "struct"
     }
 
@@ -123,16 +299,24 @@ fn timeunit_to_str(unit: &TimeUnit) -> &'static str {
     }
 }
 
+fn is_supported_fixed_size_list_child(data_type: &DataType, nested: bool) -> bool {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Struct(_) => !nested,
+        DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_) | DataType::Map(_, _) => false,
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(field, _) => {
+            is_supported_fixed_size_list_child(field.data_type(), true)
+        }
+        _ => true,
+    }
+}
+
 fn parse_timeunit(unit: &str) -> Result<TimeUnit> {
     match unit {
         "s" => Ok(TimeUnit::Second),
         "ms" => Ok(TimeUnit::Millisecond),
         "us" => Ok(TimeUnit::Microsecond),
         "ns" => Ok(TimeUnit::Nanosecond),
-        _ => Err(Error::Arrow {
-            message: format!("Unsupported TimeUnit: {unit}"),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        _ => Err(Error::arrow(format!("Unsupported TimeUnit: {unit}"))),
     }
 }
 
@@ -156,8 +340,8 @@ impl TryFrom<&DataType> for LogicalType {
             DataType::Float64 => "double".to_string(),
             DataType::Decimal128(precision, scale) => format!("decimal:128:{precision}:{scale}"),
             DataType::Decimal256(precision, scale) => format!("decimal:256:{precision}:{scale}"),
-            DataType::Utf8 => "string".to_string(),
-            DataType::Binary => "binary".to_string(),
+            DataType::Utf8 | DataType::Utf8View => "string".to_string(),
+            DataType::Binary | DataType::BinaryView => "binary".to_string(),
             DataType::LargeUtf8 => "large_string".to_string(),
             DataType::LargeBinary => "large_binary".to_string(),
             DataType::Date32 => "date32:day".to_string(),
@@ -174,13 +358,21 @@ impl TryFrom<&DataType> for LogicalType {
             DataType::Duration(tu) => format!("duration:{}", timeunit_to_str(tu)),
             DataType::Struct(_) => "struct".to_string(),
             DataType::Dictionary(key_type, value_type) => {
-                format!(
-                    "dict:{}:{}:{}",
-                    Self::try_from(value_type.as_ref())?.0,
-                    Self::try_from(key_type.as_ref())?.0,
-                    // Arrow C++ Dictionary has "ordered:bool" field, but it does not exist in `arrow-rs`.
-                    false
-                )
+                let value_logical = Self::try_from(value_type.as_ref())?.0;
+                let index_logical = Self::try_from(key_type.as_ref())?.0;
+                let logical_type = format!("dict:{value_logical}:{index_logical}:false");
+                // `dict:{value}:{index}:false` inlines both component strings, but
+                // the parser splits on ':', requires exactly four segments, and
+                // resolves only leaf types - so a component carrying ':' of its own
+                // (decimal, timestamp, ...) or a struct/list value composes a string
+                // it can never parse back. `Field::data_type` unwraps that parse, so
+                // without this check `Schema::try_from` panics instead of erroring.
+                if DataType::try_from(&Self::from(logical_type.as_str())).is_err() {
+                    return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                        "Cannot encode dictionary type {dt:?}: the logical type \"{logical_type}\" does not parse back"
+                    )));
+                }
+                logical_type
             }
             DataType::List(elem) => match elem.data_type() {
                 DataType::Struct(_) => "list.struct".to_string(),
@@ -195,6 +387,8 @@ impl TryFrom<&DataType> for LogicalType {
                     // Don't want to directly use `bfloat16`, in case a built-in type is added
                     // that isn't identical to our extension type.
                     format!("fixed_size_list:lance.bfloat16:{}", *len)
+                } else if !is_supported_fixed_size_list_child(field.data_type(), false) {
+                    return Err(Error::schema(format!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", dt)));
                 } else {
                     format!(
                         "fixed_size_list:{}:{}",
@@ -209,21 +403,15 @@ impl TryFrom<&DataType> for LogicalType {
                 //  because converting a rust arrow map field to the python arrow field will
                 //  lose the keys_sorted property.
                 if *keys_sorted {
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Unsupported map data type with keys_sorted=true: {:?}",
-                            dt
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                        "Unsupported map data type with keys_sorted=true: {:?}",
+                        dt
+                    )));
                 }
                 "map".to_string()
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", dt),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::schema(format!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", dt)));
             }
         };
 
@@ -274,21 +462,14 @@ impl TryFrom<&LogicalType> for DataType {
             match splits[0] {
                 "fixed_size_list" => {
                     if splits.len() < 3 {
-                        return Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!("Unsupported logical type: {}", lt),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::schema(format!("Unsupported logical type: {}", lt)));
                     }
 
-                    let size: i32 =
-                        splits
-                            .last()
-                            .unwrap()
-                            .parse::<i32>()
-                            .map_err(|e: _| Error::Schema {
-                                message: e.to_string(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            })?;
+                    let size: i32 = splits
+                        .last()
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .parse::<i32>()
+                        .map_err(|e: _| Error::schema(e.to_string()))?;
 
                     let inner_type = splits[1..splits.len() - 1].join(":");
 
@@ -316,24 +497,20 @@ impl TryFrom<&LogicalType> for DataType {
                 }
                 "fixed_size_binary" => {
                     if splits.len() != 2 {
-                        Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!("Unsupported logical type: {}", lt),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })
+                        Err(Error::schema(format!("Unsupported logical type: {}", lt)))
                     } else {
-                        let size: i32 = splits[1].parse::<i32>().map_err(|e: _| Error::Schema {
-                            message: e.to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
+                        let size: i32 = splits[1]
+                            .parse::<i32>()
+                            .map_err(|e: _| Error::schema(e.to_string()))?;
                         Ok(FixedSizeBinary(size))
                     }
                 }
                 "dict" => {
                     if splits.len() != 4 {
-                        Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!("Unsupported dictionary type: {}", lt),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })
+                        Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                            "Unsupported dictionary type: {}",
+                            lt
+                        )))
                     } else {
                         let value_type: Self = (&LogicalType::from(splits[1])).try_into()?;
                         let index_type: Self = (&LogicalType::from(splits[2])).try_into()?;
@@ -342,59 +519,46 @@ impl TryFrom<&LogicalType> for DataType {
                 }
                 "decimal" => {
                     if splits.len() != 4 {
-                        Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!("Unsupported decimal type: {}", lt),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })
+                        Err(Error::schema(format!("Unsupported decimal type: {}", lt)))
                     } else {
-                        let bits: i16 = splits[1].parse::<i16>().map_err(|err| Error::Schema {
-                            message: err.to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-                        let precision: u8 =
-                            splits[2].parse::<u8>().map_err(|err| Error::Schema {
-                                message: err.to_string(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            })?;
-                        let scale: i8 = splits[3].parse::<i8>().map_err(|err| Error::Schema {
-                            message: err.to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
+                        let bits: i16 = splits[1]
+                            .parse::<i16>()
+                            .map_err(|err| Error::schema(err.to_string()))?;
+                        let precision: u8 = splits[2]
+                            .parse::<u8>()
+                            .map_err(|err| Error::schema(err.to_string()))?;
+                        let scale: i8 = splits[3]
+                            .parse::<i8>()
+                            .map_err(|err| Error::schema(err.to_string()))?;
 
                         if bits == 128 {
                             Ok(Decimal128(precision, scale))
                         } else if bits == 256 {
                             Ok(Decimal256(precision, scale))
                         } else {
-                            Err(Error::Schema {
-                                message: format!(
-                                    "Only Decimal128 and Decimal256 is supported. Found {bits}"
-                                ),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            })
+                            Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                                "Only Decimal128 and Decimal256 is supported. Found {bits}"
+                            )))
                         }
                     }
                 }
                 "timestamp" => {
-                    if splits.len() != 3 {
-                        Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!("Unsupported timestamp type: {}", lt),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })
+                    if splits.len() < 3 {
+                        Err(Error::schema(format!("Unsupported timestamp type: {}", lt)))
                     } else {
                         let timeunit = parse_timeunit(splits[1])?;
-                        let tz: Option<Arc<str>> = if splits[2] == "-" {
+                        // A fixed-offset timezone such as "+08:00" contains a colon, so the
+                        // trailing segments must be rejoined instead of read as a single one.
+                        let tz_str = splits[2..].join(":");
+                        let tz: Option<Arc<str>> = if tz_str == "-" {
                             None
                         } else {
-                            Some(splits[2].into())
+                            Some(tz_str.into())
                         };
                         Ok(Timestamp(timeunit, tz))
                     }
                 }
-                _ => Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("Unsupported logical type: {}", lt),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }),
+                _ => Err(Error::schema(format!("Unsupported logical type: {}", lt))),
             }
         }
     }
@@ -410,18 +574,25 @@ pub struct Dictionary {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for Dictionary {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut crate::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.values
             .as_ref()
-            .map(|v| v.get_array_memory_size())
+            .map(|v| (v.as_ref() as &dyn arrow_array::Array).deep_size_of_children(context))
             .unwrap_or(0)
     }
 }
 
 impl PartialEq for Dictionary {
     fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        // Compare the values when both sides have them: the write path leaves
+        // offset/length at 0 until the dictionary is persisted, so one append
+        // can legitimately hold the same dictionary at two positions.
+        // `From<&pb::Dictionary>` yields no values at all, and comparing only
+        // the values made that case non-reflexive, so there offset and length
+        // stand in for the content.
         match (&self.values, &other.values) {
             (Some(a), Some(b)) => a == b,
+            (None, None) => self.offset == other.offset && self.length == other.length,
             _ => false,
         }
     }
@@ -437,8 +608,27 @@ pub enum BlobKind {
     Packed = 1,
     /// Stored in a dedicated raw blob file; `blob_id` identifies the file, `size` is the full file length.
     Dedicated = 2,
-    /// Not stored by Lance; `blob_uri` holds an absolute external URI, offsets are zero.
+    /// Not stored by Lance data files.
+    ///
+    /// For external blobs:
+    /// - `blob_id == 0` means `blob_uri` is an absolute external URI.
+    /// - `blob_id > 0` means `blob_uri` is a path relative to `manifest.base_paths[blob_id]`.
+    ///
+    /// External blobs can have a position and a size. If the position is not set,
+    /// it defaults to 0, which points to the beginning of the blob.
     External = 3,
+    /// A Lance-owned immutable object, independent of the descriptor's data file.
+    /// `blob_uri` is relative to the data file's table base; `blob_id` is unused.
+    /// A local table base moves with the dataset, including its Managed objects.
+    /// `position`/`size` select a known range, and
+    /// zero size is an empty value rather than a request to discover its length.
+    /// Tables containing this kind require the Managed Blob reader and writer feature flags.
+    Managed = 4,
+    /// A Managed object relative to an explicitly registered table base.
+    /// `blob_id` is the exact base ID, including zero and `u32::MAX`.
+    /// This wire variant preserves the non-nullable descriptor layout while
+    /// distinguishing an explicit base from the implicit table base.
+    ManagedWithBase = 5,
 }
 
 impl TryFrom<u8> for BlobKind {
@@ -450,10 +640,366 @@ impl TryFrom<u8> for BlobKind {
             1 => Ok(Self::Packed),
             2 => Ok(Self::Dedicated),
             3 => Ok(Self::External),
-            other => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Unknown blob kind {other:?}").into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            4 => Ok(Self::Managed),
+            5 => Ok(Self::ManagedWithBase),
+            other => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Unknown blob kind {other:?}").into(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn dict(offset: usize, length: usize, values: Option<Vec<&str>>) -> Dictionary {
+        Dictionary {
+            offset,
+            length,
+            values: values.map(|v| Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(v)) as ArrayRef),
         }
     }
+
+    /// The manifest schema stores a dictionary as offset/length with no attached
+    /// values, so equality has to be reflexive over value-less dictionaries and
+    /// still separate different positions. `set_dictionary_values` leaves
+    /// offset/length at 0 until the dictionary is persisted, so for an in-memory
+    /// pair the values array is all there is to compare.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::reflexive_default(Dictionary::default(), Dictionary::default(), true)]
+    #[case::same_position_no_values(dict(4, 2, None), dict(4, 2, None), true)]
+    #[case::different_offset(dict(4, 2, None), dict(8, 2, None), false)]
+    #[case::different_length(dict(4, 2, None), dict(4, 3, None), false)]
+    #[case::same_values(dict(0, 0, Some(vec!["a", "b"])), dict(0, 0, Some(vec!["a", "b"])), true)]
+    #[case::different_values(dict(0, 0, Some(vec!["a", "b"])), dict(0, 0, Some(vec!["a", "c"])), false)]
+    #[case::values_on_one_side_only(dict(4, 2, Some(vec!["a", "b"])), dict(4, 2, None), false)]
+    // One side of a V1 append holds the incoming dictionary at 0/0 and the other
+    // holds the persisted one at its real position, so equal values must win
+    // over the differing offsets.
+    #[case::same_values_different_offset(
+        dict(0, 0, Some(vec!["a", "b"])),
+        dict(8, 2, Some(vec!["a", "b"])),
+        true
+    )]
+    fn test_dictionary_partial_eq_contract(
+        #[case] left: Dictionary,
+        #[case] right: Dictionary,
+        #[case] is_equal: bool,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(left == right, is_equal, "{left:?} vs {right:?}");
+        assert_eq!(right == left, is_equal, "equality must be symmetric");
+    }
+
+    /// `From<&pb::Dictionary>` restores offset and length with no values, so two
+    /// schemas read back from a manifest have to compare equal. Otherwise merge
+    /// validation reports a phantom dictionary change for every such field.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_manifest_derived_dictionary_schemas_compare_equal() {
+        let arrow = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "d",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::UInt32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let mut left = Schema::try_from(&arrow).unwrap();
+        left.fields[0].dictionary = Some(dict(12, 2, None));
+        let right = left.clone();
+
+        assert_eq!(left, right);
+        let compare_dictionary = SchemaCompareOptions {
+            compare_dictionary: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(left.compare_with_options(&right, &compare_dictionary));
+        assert_eq!(left.explain_difference(&right, &compare_dictionary), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_classify_blob_v2_layouts() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            BlobV2Layout::classify(&BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            BlobV2Layout::classify(&BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            BlobV2Layout::classify(&BLOB_V2_PREPARED_FIELDS),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            BlobV2Layout::classify(&BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_classify_blob_v2_layout_uses_structural_contract() {
+        let logical_with_required_range = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+            ArrowField::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new("position", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            ArrowField::new("size", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            BlobV2Layout::classify(&logical_with_required_range),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical)
+        );
+
+        let prepared_with_child_metadata =
+            Fields::from(
+                BLOB_V2_PREPARED_FIELDS
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|field| {
+                        Arc::new(field.as_ref().clone().with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                            "source".to_string(),
+                            "test".to_string(),
+                        )])))
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+        assert_eq!(
+            BlobV2Layout::classify(&prepared_with_child_metadata),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared)
+        );
+
+        let nullable_descriptor = Fields::from(
+            BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| Arc::new(field.as_ref().clone().with_nullable(true)))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            BlobV2Layout::classify(&nullable_descriptor),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor)
+        );
+
+        let malformed_descriptor = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("kind", DataType::UInt8, false),
+            ArrowField::new("position", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            ArrowField::new("size", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("blob_id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("blob_uri", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(BlobV2Layout::classify(&malformed_descriptor), None);
+    }
+
+    /// The `timestamp:<unit>:<timezone>` encoding embeds the timezone verbatim, so a
+    /// fixed-offset zone such as `+08:00` contributes a colon of its own. Round-tripping
+    /// every timezone shape guards the parser against splitting on that colon.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::second_no_timezone(TimeUnit::Second, None)]
+    #[case::millisecond_no_timezone(TimeUnit::Millisecond, None)]
+    #[case::microsecond_no_timezone(TimeUnit::Microsecond, None)]
+    #[case::nanosecond_no_timezone(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, None)]
+    #[case::named_utc(TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some("UTC"))]
+    #[case::named_region(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some("America/Los_Angeles"))]
+    #[case::offset_without_colon(TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some("+0800"))]
+    #[case::offset_positive(TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some("+08:00"))]
+    #[case::offset_negative(TimeUnit::Millisecond, Some("-05:00"))]
+    #[case::offset_half_hour(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some("+05:30"))]
+    #[case::offset_zero(TimeUnit::Second, Some("+00:00"))]
+    fn test_timestamp_logical_type_round_trip(
+        #[case] timeunit: TimeUnit,
+        #[case] timezone: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let data_type = DataType::Timestamp(timeunit, timezone.map(Arc::from));
+        let logical_type = LogicalType::try_from(&data_type).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            DataType::try_from(&logical_type).unwrap(),
+            data_type,
+            "logical type: {logical_type}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The `dict:{value}:{index}:false` encoding inlines both component logical
+    /// strings, but the parser splits on ':' and requires exactly four segments.
+    /// These value types keep the count at four, so they must keep working.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::string(DataType::Utf8, DataType::Utf8)]
+    #[case::large_string(DataType::LargeUtf8, DataType::LargeUtf8)]
+    #[case::binary(DataType::Binary, DataType::Binary)]
+    #[case::large_binary(DataType::LargeBinary, DataType::LargeBinary)]
+    #[case::int32(DataType::Int32, DataType::Int32)]
+    #[case::double(DataType::Float64, DataType::Float64)]
+    // The View variants share the `string` and `binary` logical types, so they
+    // parse back as their non-View counterparts. That normalization is why the
+    // encoder checks whether the composed string parses, not whether it round
+    // trips to the same `DataType`.
+    #[case::utf8_view(DataType::Utf8View, DataType::Utf8)]
+    #[case::binary_view(DataType::BinaryView, DataType::Binary)]
+    fn test_dictionary_logical_type_round_trip(
+        #[case] value_type: DataType,
+        #[case] parsed_value_type: DataType,
+    ) {
+        let key = Box::new(DataType::UInt8);
+        let logical_type =
+            LogicalType::try_from(&DataType::Dictionary(key.clone(), Box::new(value_type)))
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            DataType::try_from(&logical_type).unwrap(),
+            DataType::Dictionary(key, Box::new(parsed_value_type)),
+            "logical type: {logical_type}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Every integer index type has a colon-free logical string, so none of them
+    /// may be caught by the rejection above.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_dictionary_logical_type_accepts_every_integer_index(
+        #[values(
+            DataType::Int8,
+            DataType::Int16,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            DataType::Int64,
+            DataType::UInt8,
+            DataType::UInt16,
+            DataType::UInt32,
+            DataType::UInt64
+        )]
+        key_type: DataType,
+    ) {
+        let data_type = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(key_type), Box::new(DataType::Utf8));
+        let logical_type = LogicalType::try_from(&data_type).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(DataType::try_from(&logical_type).unwrap(), data_type);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::decimal(DataType::Decimal128(10, 2))]
+    #[case::date32(DataType::Date32)]
+    #[case::time32(DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Second))]
+    #[case::timestamp(DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Microsecond, None))]
+    #[case::timestamp_with_zone(DataType::Timestamp(
+        TimeUnit::Microsecond,
+        Some(Arc::from("+08:00"))
+    ))]
+    #[case::duration(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Second))]
+    #[case::fixed_size_binary(DataType::FixedSizeBinary(16))]
+    #[case::nested_dict(DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::UInt8), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)))]
+    // `struct` and `list` keep the segment count at four, but the parser has no
+    // arm for them: they only become a `DataType` through a field's children,
+    // which this encoding cannot carry.
+    #[case::struct_value(DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "x",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        true
+    )])))]
+    #[case::list_value(DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))))]
+    fn test_dictionary_logical_type_rejects_unparsable_value(#[case] value_type: DataType) {
+        let data_type = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::UInt8), Box::new(value_type));
+        let err = LogicalType::try_from(&data_type)
+            .expect_err("a dictionary whose logical type cannot parse back must not encode");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::Schema { .. }),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("does not parse back"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The index type is inlined in the same string, so an index type carrying
+    /// ':' is just as unparsable as such a value type.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::decimal_index(DataType::Decimal128(10, 2))]
+    #[case::dict_index(DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::UInt8), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)))]
+    fn test_dictionary_logical_type_rejects_unparsable_index(#[case] key_type: DataType) {
+        let data_type = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(key_type), Box::new(DataType::Utf8));
+        let err = LogicalType::try_from(&data_type)
+            .expect_err("a dictionary whose logical type cannot parse back must not encode");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::Schema { .. }),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("does not parse back"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Pins the on-disk spelling as well as the round trip: the timezone is written
+    /// verbatim, which is why the parser cannot assume a fixed segment count.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::no_timezone(TimeUnit::Second, None, "timestamp:s:-")]
+    #[case::named_utc(TimeUnit::Millisecond, Some("UTC"), "timestamp:ms:UTC")]
+    #[case::offset_positive(TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some("+08:00"), "timestamp:us:+08:00")]
+    #[case::offset_negative(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some("-05:00"), "timestamp:ns:-05:00")]
+    fn test_timestamp_logical_type_encoding(
+        #[case] timeunit: TimeUnit,
+        #[case] timezone: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] expected: &str,
+    ) {
+        let data_type = DataType::Timestamp(timeunit, timezone.map(Arc::from));
+        assert_eq!(
+            LogicalType::try_from(&data_type).unwrap().to_string(),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Opening an existing dataset parses the stored string directly, so cover that
+    /// direction on its own rather than only as half of a round trip.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::offset_positive("timestamp:us:+08:00", TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some("+08:00"))]
+    #[case::offset_negative("timestamp:ms:-05:00", TimeUnit::Millisecond, Some("-05:00"))]
+    #[case::offset_half_hour("timestamp:ns:+05:30", TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some("+05:30"))]
+    #[case::named_utc("timestamp:s:UTC", TimeUnit::Second, Some("UTC"))]
+    #[case::no_timezone("timestamp:us:-", TimeUnit::Microsecond, None)]
+    fn test_parse_timestamp_logical_type(
+        #[case] encoded: &str,
+        #[case] timeunit: TimeUnit,
+        #[case] timezone: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            DataType::try_from(&LogicalType::from(encoded)).unwrap(),
+            DataType::Timestamp(timeunit, timezone.map(Arc::from))
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `Field::data_type` unwraps the parse, so a timezone it cannot read surfaces as a
+    /// panic instead of an error. Walk the Arrow -> Lance -> Arrow trip end to end.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_field_round_trip_with_fixed_offset_timezone() {
+        let data_type = DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some("+08:00".into()));
+        let arrow_field = ArrowField::new("ts", data_type.clone(), true);
+        let field = Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field.data_type(), data_type);
+        assert_eq!(ArrowField::from(&field), arrow_field);
+    }
+
+    /// The conversion a write performs, mixing both timezone spellings in one schema.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_schema_round_trip_with_fixed_offset_timezone() {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "ts_offset",
+                DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some("+08:00".into())),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "ts_named",
+                DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some("UTC".into())),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ArrowSchema::from(&schema), arrow_schema);
+    }
+
+    /// A timezone cannot be recovered from fewer than three segments, and an unknown
+    /// time unit is still an error, so neither becomes collateral damage of the rejoin.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::unit_and_timezone_missing("timestamp")]
+    #[case::timezone_missing("timestamp:us")]
+    #[case::unknown_timeunit("timestamp:decade:UTC")]
+    #[case::unknown_timeunit_with_offset("timestamp:decade:+08:00")]
+    fn test_malformed_timestamp_logical_type_is_rejected(#[case] encoded: &str) {
+        assert!(
+            DataType::try_from(&LogicalType::from(encoded)).is_err(),
+            "expected {encoded} to be rejected"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/field.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/field.rs
index a2f21585b34..17545a760c7 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/field.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/field.rs
@@ -4,34 +4,34 @@
 //! Lance Schema Field
 
 use std::{
-    cmp::{max, Ordering},
+    cmp::{Ordering, max},
     collections::{HashMap, VecDeque},
     fmt,
     sync::Arc,
 };
 
+use crate::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{
-        Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, Int8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type,
+        Int8Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, UInt8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type,
     },
-    ArrayRef,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_arrow::{
+    ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, BLOB_META_KEY, BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME, DataTypeExt,
     json::{is_arrow_json_field, is_json_field},
-    DataTypeExt, ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, BLOB_META_KEY, BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME,
 };
-use snafu::location;
 
 use super::{
-    schema::{compare_fields, explain_fields_difference},
     Dictionary, LogicalType, Projection,
+    schema::{compare_fields, explain_fields_difference},
 };
 use crate::{
-    datatypes::{BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD, BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD},
     Error, Result,
+    datatypes::{BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD, BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD, BlobV2Layout},
+    utils::parse::str_is_truthy,
 };
 
 /// Use this config key in Arrow field metadata to indicate a column is a part of the primary key.
@@ -49,6 +49,18 @@ pub const LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY: &str = "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-
 pub const LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION: &str =
     "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key:position";
 
+/// Use this config key in Arrow field metadata to specify the position of a clustering key column.
+/// The value is a 1-based integer indicating the order within the composite clustering key.
+/// Clustering key fields are ordered by this position value.
+pub const LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION: &str =
+    "lance-schema:unenforced-clustering-key:position";
+
+/// Use this config key in Arrow field metadata to specify the field id of the lance field.
+/// The value should be non-negative i32 value. Any negative value will be seen as -1.
+pub const LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY: &str = "lance:field_id";
+
+const PACKED_KEYS: [&str; 2] = ["packed", "lance-encoding:packed"];
+
 fn has_blob_v2_extension(field: &ArrowField) -> bool {
     field
         .metadata()
@@ -141,6 +153,11 @@ pub struct Field {
     /// None means the field is not part of the primary key.
     /// Some(n) means this field is the nth column in the primary key.
     pub unenforced_primary_key_position: Option<u32>,
+
+    /// Position of this field in the clustering key (1-based).
+    /// None means the field is not part of the clustering key.
+    /// Some(n) means this field is the nth column in the clustering key.
+    pub unenforced_clustering_key_position: Option<u32>,
 }
 
 impl Field {
@@ -255,10 +272,15 @@ impl Field {
     }
 
     pub fn apply_projection(&self, projection: &Projection) -> Option<Self> {
-        // For Map types, we must preserve ALL children (entries struct with key/value)
-        // Map internal structure should not be subject to projection filtering
-        let children = if self.logical_type.is_map() {
-            // Map field: keep all children intact (entries struct and its key/value fields)
+        // Maps and blob descriptors are atomic physical layouts. Map children
+        // must remain together, while projected blob descriptor children may
+        // have synthetic IDs that cannot be selected independently.
+        let is_atomic_layout = self.logical_type.is_map() || self.is_blob();
+        if is_atomic_layout && !projection.contains_field_id(self.id) {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let children = if is_atomic_layout {
             self.children.clone()
         } else {
             self.children
@@ -346,12 +368,22 @@ impl Field {
                 self_name
             ));
         }
-        let children_differences = explain_fields_difference(
-            &self.children,
-            &expected.children,
-            options,
-            Some(&self_name),
-        );
+        let children_differences =
+            if let Some(shared_child_count) = self.blob_v2_logical_shared_child_count(expected) {
+                explain_fields_difference(
+                    &self.children[..shared_child_count],
+                    &expected.children[..shared_child_count],
+                    options,
+                    Some(&self_name),
+                )
+            } else {
+                explain_fields_difference(
+                    &self.children,
+                    &expected.children,
+                    options,
+                    Some(&self_name),
+                )
+            };
         if !children_differences.is_empty() {
             let children_differences = format!(
                 "`{}` had mismatched children: {}",
@@ -389,10 +421,20 @@ impl Field {
     }
 
     pub fn compare_with_options(&self, expected: &Self, options: &SchemaCompareOptions) -> bool {
+        let children_match = self
+            .blob_v2_logical_shared_child_count(expected)
+            .map(|shared_child_count| {
+                compare_fields(
+                    &self.children[..shared_child_count],
+                    &expected.children[..shared_child_count],
+                    options,
+                )
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| compare_fields(&self.children, &expected.children, options));
         self.name == expected.name
             && self.logical_type == expected.logical_type
             && Self::compare_nullability(expected.nullable, self.nullable, options)
-            && compare_fields(&self.children, &expected.children, options)
+            && children_match
             && (!options.compare_field_ids || self.id == expected.id)
             && (!options.compare_dictionary || self.dictionary == expected.dictionary)
             && (!options.compare_metadata || self.metadata == expected.metadata)
@@ -521,6 +563,82 @@ impl Field {
             .get(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY)
             .map(|name| name == BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME)
             .unwrap_or(false)
+            || self.is_blob_v2_descriptor()
+    }
+
+    /// Represent legacy blobs in this field tree as Blob v2 logical inputs, preserving their identities.
+    ///
+    /// The new logical children have unassigned IDs; callers persisting the schema
+    /// must assign them with [`Self::set_id`]. Existing Blob v2 fields are unchanged.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance_core::datatypes::Field;
+    /// # fn prepare(field: &mut Field) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    /// field.promote_blob_v2()?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn promote_blob_v2(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.is_blob() {
+            for child in &mut self.children {
+                child.promote_blob_v2()?;
+            }
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        if self.is_blob_v2() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        self.logical_type = LogicalType::from("struct");
+        self.encoding = None;
+        self.children = super::BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| Self::try_from(field.as_ref()))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        self.metadata.remove(BLOB_META_KEY);
+        self.metadata
+            .insert(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string());
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn blob_v2_layout(&self) -> Option<BlobV2Layout> {
+        if self.extension_name() != Some(BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let DataType::Struct(fields) = self.data_type() else {
+            return None;
+        };
+        BlobV2Layout::classify(&fields)
+    }
+
+    fn blob_v2_logical_shared_child_count(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<usize> {
+        if self.blob_v2_layout() == Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical)
+            && other.blob_v2_layout() == Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical)
+        {
+            Some(self.children.len().min(other.children.len()))
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_blob_v2_descriptor(&self) -> bool {
+        self.metadata.contains_key(BLOB_META_KEY)
+            && self.logical_type == BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.logical_type
+            && self.children.len() == BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.children.len()
+            && self
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .zip(BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.children.iter())
+                .all(|(child, expected)| {
+                    child.name == expected.name && child.data_type() == expected.data_type()
+                })
+    }
+
+    // Blob columns intentionally have two schema representations:
+    // the loaded value view (legacy LargeBinary or blob v2 struct) and the unloaded
+    // descriptor view used by projection/planning. Schema set operations need to
+    // treat them as the same logical column instead of ordinary incompatible types.
+    fn is_compatible_blob_projection(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.is_blob() && other.is_blob() && self.is_blob_v2() == other.is_blob_v2()
     }
 
     /// If the field is a blob, update this field with the same name and id
@@ -539,6 +657,43 @@ impl Field {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Convert a blob field to the materialized binary payload view.
+    ///
+    /// The field keeps its name and id but uses `LargeBinary` with no children.
+    /// Blob v2 fields retain their extension marker internally so scan planning
+    /// can recognize the binary view before exposing a plain Arrow binary field.
+    pub fn binary_blob_mut(&mut self) {
+        if !self.is_blob() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let is_blob_v2 = self.is_blob_v2();
+
+        self.logical_type = LogicalType::try_from(&DataType::LargeBinary)
+            .expect("LargeBinary is always a valid logical type");
+        self.children.clear();
+        self.encoding = Some(Encoding::VarBinary);
+        if is_blob_v2 {
+            self.metadata.remove(BLOB_META_KEY);
+            for key in PACKED_KEYS {
+                self.metadata.remove(key);
+            }
+            self.metadata
+                .insert(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Convert blob v2 fields in this field tree to their descriptor view.
+    pub fn unload_blobs_recursive(&mut self) {
+        if self.is_blob_v2() {
+            self.unloaded_mut();
+            return;
+        }
+
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            child.unload_blobs_recursive();
+        }
+    }
+
     pub fn project(&self, path_components: &[&str]) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut f = Self {
             name: self.name.clone(),
@@ -551,6 +706,7 @@ impl Field {
             children: vec![],
             dictionary: self.dictionary.clone(),
             unenforced_primary_key_position: self.unenforced_primary_key_position,
+            unenforced_clustering_key_position: self.unenforced_clustering_key_position,
         };
         if path_components.is_empty() {
             // Project stops here, copy all the remaining children.
@@ -631,15 +787,16 @@ impl Field {
     ///
     pub fn project_by_field(&self, other: &Self, on_type_mismatch: OnTypeMismatch) -> Result<Self> {
         if self.name != other.name {
-            return Err(Error::Schema {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Attempt to project field by different names: {} and {}",
-                    self.name, other.name,
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                "Attempt to project field by different names: {} and {}",
+                self.name, other.name,
+            )));
         };
 
+        if self.is_compatible_blob_projection(other) {
+            return Ok(self.clone());
+        }
+
         match (self.data_type(), other.data_type()) {
             (DataType::Boolean, DataType::Boolean) => Ok(self.clone()),
             (dt, other_dt)
@@ -647,13 +804,10 @@ impl Field {
                     || (dt.is_binary_like() && other_dt.is_binary_like()) =>
             {
                 if dt != other_dt {
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Attempt to project field by different types: {} and {}",
-                            dt, other_dt,
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                        "Attempt to project field by different types: {} and {}",
+                        dt, other_dt,
+                    )));
                 }
                 Ok(self.clone())
             }
@@ -667,13 +821,10 @@ impl Field {
                 let mut fields = vec![];
                 for other_field in other.children.iter() {
                     let Some(child) = self.child(&other_field.name) else {
-                        return Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "Attempt to project non-existed field: {} on {}",
-                                other_field.name, self,
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                            "Attempt to project non-existed field: {} on {}",
+                            other_field.name, self,
+                        )));
                     };
                     fields.push(child.project_by_field(other_field, on_type_mismatch)?);
                 }
@@ -706,13 +857,10 @@ impl Field {
                 Ok(self.clone())
             }
             _ => match on_type_mismatch {
-                OnTypeMismatch::Error => Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Attempt to project incompatible fields: {} and {}",
-                        self, other
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }),
+                OnTypeMismatch::Error => Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                    "Attempt to project incompatible fields: {} and {}",
+                    self, other
+                ))),
                 OnTypeMismatch::TakeSelf => Ok(self.clone()),
             },
         }
@@ -764,22 +912,31 @@ impl Field {
 
     pub(crate) fn do_intersection(&self, other: &Self, ignore_types: bool) -> Result<Self> {
         if self.name != other.name {
-            return Err(Error::Arrow {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Attempt to intersect different fields: {} and {}",
-                    self.name, other.name,
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::arrow(format!(
+                "Attempt to intersect different fields: {} and {}",
+                self.name, other.name,
+            )));
         }
 
         if self.is_blob() != other.is_blob() {
-            return Err(Error::Arrow {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Attempt to intersect blob and non-blob field: {}",
-                    self.name
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
+            if ignore_types {
+                return Ok(if self.id >= 0 {
+                    self.clone()
+                } else {
+                    other.clone()
+                });
+            }
+            return Err(Error::arrow(format!(
+                "Attempt to intersect blob and non-blob field: {}",
+                self.name
+            )));
+        }
+
+        if self.is_compatible_blob_projection(other) {
+            return Ok(if self.id >= 0 {
+                self.clone()
+            } else {
+                other.clone()
             });
         }
 
@@ -804,7 +961,7 @@ impl Field {
                 .iter()
                 .filter_map(|c| {
                     if let Some(other_child) = other.child(&c.name) {
-                        let intersection = c.intersection(other_child).ok()?;
+                        let intersection = c.do_intersection(other_child, ignore_types).ok()?;
                         Some(intersection)
                     } else {
                         None
@@ -822,18 +979,16 @@ impl Field {
                 children,
                 dictionary: self.dictionary.clone(),
                 unenforced_primary_key_position: self.unenforced_primary_key_position,
+                unenforced_clustering_key_position: self.unenforced_clustering_key_position,
             };
             return Ok(f);
         }
 
         if (!ignore_types && self_type != other_type) || self.name != other.name {
-            return Err(Error::Arrow {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Attempt to intersect different fields: ({}, {}) and ({}, {})",
-                    self.name, self_type, other.name, other_type
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::arrow(format!(
+                "Attempt to intersect different fields: ({}, {}) and ({}, {})",
+                self.name, self_type, other.name, other_type
+            )));
         }
 
         Ok(if self.id >= 0 {
@@ -885,6 +1040,7 @@ impl Field {
                 children,
                 dictionary: self.dictionary.clone(),
                 unenforced_primary_key_position: self.unenforced_primary_key_position,
+                unenforced_clustering_key_position: self.unenforced_clustering_key_position,
             })
         }
     }
@@ -918,13 +1074,10 @@ impl Field {
             }
             _ => {
                 if self.data_type() != other.data_type() {
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Attempt to merge incompatible fields: {} and {}",
-                            self, other
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                        "Attempt to merge incompatible fields: {} and {}",
+                        self, other
+                    )));
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -999,11 +1152,10 @@ impl Field {
 
     // Check if field has metadata `packed` set to true, this check is case insensitive.
     pub fn is_packed_struct(&self) -> bool {
-        const PACKED_KEYS: [&str; 2] = ["packed", "lance-encoding:packed"];
         PACKED_KEYS.iter().any(|key| {
             self.metadata
                 .get(*key)
-                .map(|value| value.eq_ignore_ascii_case("true"))
+                .map(|value| str_is_truthy(value))
                 .unwrap_or(false)
         })
     }
@@ -1019,6 +1171,10 @@ impl Field {
     pub fn is_unenforced_primary_key(&self) -> bool {
         self.unenforced_primary_key_position.is_some()
     }
+
+    pub fn is_unenforced_clustering_key(&self) -> bool {
+        self.unenforced_clustering_key_position.is_some()
+    }
 }
 
 impl fmt::Display for Field {
@@ -1050,6 +1206,14 @@ impl TryFrom<&ArrowField> for Field {
 
     fn try_from(field: &ArrowField) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+        let id = match metadata.remove(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY) {
+            Some(val) => val
+                .parse::<i32>()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?
+                .max(-1),
+            None => -1,
+        };
+
         let children = match field.data_type() {
             DataType::Struct(children) => children
                 .iter()
@@ -1065,34 +1229,27 @@ impl TryFrom<&ArrowField> for Field {
                 //  because converting a rust arrow map field to the python arrow field will
                 //  lose the keys_sorted property.
                 if *keys_sorted {
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: "Unsupported map field with keys_sorted=true".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::schema(
+                        "Unsupported map field with keys_sorted=true".to_string(),
+                    ));
                 }
                 // Validate Map entries follow Arrow specification
                 let DataType::Struct(struct_fields) = entries.data_type() else {
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: "Map entries field must be a Struct<key, value>".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::schema(
+                        "Map entries field must be a Struct<key, value>".to_string(),
+                    ));
                 };
                 if struct_fields.len() < 2 {
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: "Map entries struct must contain both key and value fields"
-                            .to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::schema(
+                        "Map entries struct must contain both key and value fields".to_string(),
+                    ));
                 }
                 let key_field = &struct_fields[0];
                 if key_field.is_nullable() {
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Map key field '{}' must be non-nullable according to Arrow Map specification",
-                            key_field.name()
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                        "Map key field '{}' must be non-nullable according to Arrow Map specification",
+                        key_field.name()
+                    )));
                 }
                 vec![Self::try_from(entries.as_ref())?]
             }
@@ -1105,9 +1262,12 @@ impl TryFrom<&ArrowField> for Field {
                 // Backward compatibility: use 0 for legacy boolean flag
                 metadata
                     .get(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY)
-                    .filter(|s| matches!(s.to_lowercase().as_str(), "true" | "1" | "yes"))
+                    .filter(|s| str_is_truthy(s))
                     .map(|_| 0)
             });
+        let unenforced_clustering_key_position = metadata
+            .get(LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION)
+            .and_then(|s| s.parse::<u32>().ok());
         let is_blob_v2 = has_blob_v2_extension(field);
 
         if is_blob_v2 {
@@ -1118,6 +1278,12 @@ impl TryFrom<&ArrowField> for Field {
 
         // Check for JSON extension types (both Arrow and Lance)
         let logical_type = if is_arrow_json_field(field) || is_json_field(field) {
+            // A `json` field is stored as Lance JSONB whatever the input
+            // representation, so record the stored extension.
+            metadata.insert(
+                ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+                lance_arrow::json::JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+            );
             LogicalType::from("json")
         } else if is_blob_v2 {
             LogicalType::from("struct")
@@ -1126,7 +1292,7 @@ impl TryFrom<&ArrowField> for Field {
         };
 
         Ok(Self {
-            id: -1,
+            id,
             parent_id: -1,
             name: field.name().clone(),
             logical_type,
@@ -1145,6 +1311,7 @@ impl TryFrom<&ArrowField> for Field {
             children,
             dictionary: None,
             unenforced_primary_key_position,
+            unenforced_clustering_key_position,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -1188,6 +1355,120 @@ mod tests {
     use arrow_schema::{Fields, TimeUnit};
     use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
     use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    use crate::datatypes::{BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS, BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS};
+
+    fn blob_v2_logical_field(children: Fields) -> Field {
+        ArrowField::new("blob", DataType::Struct(children), true)
+            .with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+                BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+            )]))
+            .try_into()
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn blob_v2_logical_shapes_are_compatible() {
+        let minimal = blob_v2_logical_field(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS.clone());
+        let complete = blob_v2_logical_field(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.clone());
+        let complete_required_range = blob_v2_logical_field(Fields::from(
+            BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(index, field)| Arc::new(field.as_ref().clone().with_nullable(index < 2)))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let options = SchemaCompareOptions::default();
+
+        for complete_shape in [&complete, &complete_required_range] {
+            assert!(minimal.compare_with_options(complete_shape, &options));
+            assert!(complete_shape.compare_with_options(&minimal, &options));
+            assert_eq!(minimal.explain_difference(complete_shape, &options), None);
+            assert_eq!(complete_shape.explain_difference(&minimal, &options), None);
+        }
+
+        assert!(!complete.compare_with_options(&complete_required_range, &options));
+        let ignore_nullability = SchemaCompareOptions {
+            compare_nullability: NullabilityComparison::Ignore,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(complete.compare_with_options(&complete_required_range, &ignore_nullability));
+
+        let complete_with_child_metadata = blob_v2_logical_field(Fields::from(
+            BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(index, field)| {
+                    let field = if index == 0 {
+                        field.as_ref().clone().with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                            "source".to_string(),
+                            "test".to_string(),
+                        )]))
+                    } else {
+                        field.as_ref().clone()
+                    };
+                    Arc::new(field)
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let compare_metadata = SchemaCompareOptions {
+            compare_metadata: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(!complete.compare_with_options(&complete_with_child_metadata, &compare_metadata));
+
+        let nested_minimal: Field = ArrowField::new(
+            "outer",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::from(&minimal)])),
+            true,
+        )
+        .try_into()
+        .unwrap();
+        let nested_complete: Field = ArrowField::new(
+            "outer",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::from(&complete)])),
+            true,
+        )
+        .try_into()
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(nested_minimal.compare_with_options(&nested_complete, &options));
+        assert!(nested_complete.compare_with_options(&nested_minimal, &options));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn malformed_blob_v2_logical_shapes_remain_incompatible() {
+        let minimal = blob_v2_logical_field(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS.clone());
+        let malformed = blob_v2_logical_field(Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+            ArrowField::new("uri", DataType::LargeUtf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let options = SchemaCompareOptions::default();
+
+        assert!(!minimal.compare_with_options(&malformed, &options));
+        assert!(!malformed.compare_with_options(&minimal, &options));
+        assert!(minimal.explain_difference(&malformed, &options).is_some());
+        assert!(malformed.explain_difference(&minimal, &options).is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn arrow_field_to_field_metadata() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), "42".to_string());
+        metadata.insert("custom".to_string(), "value".to_string());
+
+        let arrow_field =
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(metadata.clone());
+        let field = Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(field.id, 42);
+        assert!(!field.metadata.contains_key(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY));
+        assert_eq!(
+            field.metadata.get("custom").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("value")
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn arrow_field_to_field() {
         for (name, data_type) in [
@@ -1247,6 +1528,23 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_view_types_stored_as_lance_base_types() {
+        let field = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8View, true)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field.data_type(), DataType::Utf8);
+        assert_eq!(
+            LogicalType::try_from(&DataType::Utf8View).unwrap().0,
+            "string"
+        );
+
+        let field = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new("b", DataType::BinaryView, true)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field.data_type(), DataType::Binary);
+        assert_eq!(
+            LogicalType::try_from(&DataType::BinaryView).unwrap().0,
+            "binary"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_nested_types() {
         assert_eq!(
@@ -1763,6 +2061,14 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn blob_unloaded_mut_selects_layout_from_metadata() {
         let metadata = HashMap::from([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let mut binary_field: Field = ArrowField::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true)
+            .with_metadata(metadata.clone())
+            .try_into()
+            .unwrap();
+        binary_field.binary_blob_mut();
+        assert!(binary_field.metadata.contains_key(BLOB_META_KEY));
+        assert!(!binary_field.is_blob_v2());
+
         let mut field: Field = ArrowField::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true)
             .with_metadata(metadata)
             .try_into()
@@ -1770,6 +2076,12 @@ mod tests {
         field.unloaded_mut();
         assert_eq!(field.children.len(), 2);
         assert_eq!(field.logical_type, BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.logical_type);
+        assert!(field.is_blob());
+        assert!(!field.is_blob_v2());
+        field.unloaded_mut();
+        assert_eq!(field.children.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(field.logical_type, BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.logical_type);
+        assert!(!field.is_blob_v2());
 
         let metadata =
             HashMap::from([(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string())]);
@@ -1790,5 +2102,119 @@ mod tests {
         field.unloaded_mut();
         assert_eq!(field.children.len(), 5);
         assert_eq!(field.logical_type, BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.logical_type);
+        assert!(!field.metadata.contains_key(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY));
+        assert!(field.is_blob_v2());
+        field.unloaded_mut();
+        assert_eq!(field.children.len(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(field.logical_type, BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.logical_type);
+        assert!(!field.metadata.contains_key(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unload_blobs_recursive_only_unloads_blob_v2() {
+        let legacy_metadata = HashMap::from([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let blob_v2_metadata =
+            HashMap::from([(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string())]);
+
+        let mut field: Field = ArrowField::new(
+            "parent",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("legacy_blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true)
+                    .with_metadata(legacy_metadata),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "blob_v2",
+                    DataType::Struct(
+                        vec![
+                            ArrowField::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+                            ArrowField::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                        ]
+                        .into(),
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .with_metadata(blob_v2_metadata),
+            ])),
+            true,
+        )
+        .try_into()
+        .unwrap();
+
+        field.unload_blobs_recursive();
+
+        let legacy_blob = field
+            .children
+            .iter()
+            .find(|f| f.name == "legacy_blob")
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            legacy_blob.logical_type,
+            LogicalType::try_from(&DataType::LargeBinary).unwrap()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(legacy_blob.children.len(), 0);
+        assert!(legacy_blob.metadata.contains_key(BLOB_META_KEY));
+
+        let blob_v2 = field.children.iter().find(|f| f.name == "blob_v2").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob_v2.logical_type, BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.logical_type);
+        assert_eq!(blob_v2.children.len(), 5);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn project_by_field_accepts_blob_descriptor_projection() {
+        let metadata = HashMap::from([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let field: Field = ArrowField::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true)
+            .with_metadata(metadata)
+            .try_into()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut unloaded = field.clone();
+        unloaded.unloaded_mut();
+
+        let projected = field
+            .project_by_field(&unloaded, OnTypeMismatch::Error)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(projected, field);
+
+        let unloaded_projected = unloaded
+            .project_by_field(&field, OnTypeMismatch::Error)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(unloaded_projected, unloaded);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn blob_descriptor_projection_preserves_synthetic_children() {
+        let metadata =
+            HashMap::from([(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string())]);
+        let mut blob: Field = ArrowField::new(
+            "blob",
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+                    ArrowField::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            true,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(metadata)
+        .try_into()
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut next_id = 0;
+        blob.set_id(-1, &mut next_id);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(crate::datatypes::Schema {
+            fields: vec![blob],
+            metadata: HashMap::new(),
+        });
+        let descriptor_schema = Projection::full(schema)
+            .with_blob_handling(crate::datatypes::BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions)
+            .to_bare_schema();
+        assert!(
+            descriptor_schema.fields[0]
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .all(|child| child.id == -1)
+        );
+
+        let projected = Projection::full(Arc::new(descriptor_schema)).to_bare_schema();
+        assert_eq!(projected.fields[0].children.len(), 5);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/schema.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/schema.rs
index 528437341ca..0a132875ff5 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/schema.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/datatypes/schema.rs
@@ -9,17 +9,16 @@ use std::{
     sync::Arc,
 };
 
+use crate::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use lance_arrow::*;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use super::field::{Field, OnTypeMismatch, SchemaCompareOptions};
 use crate::{
-    Error, Result, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD,
-    ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD,
-    ROW_OFFSET, ROW_OFFSET_FIELD, WILDCARD,
+    Error, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD, ROW_ID,
+    ROW_ID_FIELD, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD, ROW_OFFSET,
+    ROW_OFFSET_FIELD, Result, WILDCARD,
 };
 
 /// Lance Schema.
@@ -46,18 +45,16 @@ impl FieldRef<'_> {
         match self {
             FieldRef::ById(id) => {
                 if schema.field_by_id(id).is_none() {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("Field ID {} not found in schema", id).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Field ID {} not found in schema", id).into(),
+                    ));
                 }
                 Ok(id)
             }
             FieldRef::ByPath(path) => {
-                let field = schema.field(path).ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: format!("Field '{}' not found in schema", path).into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+                let field = schema
+                    .field(path)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::field_not_found(path, schema.field_paths()))?;
                 Ok(field.id)
             }
         }
@@ -88,7 +85,6 @@ struct SchemaFieldIterPreOrder<'a> {
 }
 
 impl<'a> SchemaFieldIterPreOrder<'a> {
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     fn new(schema: &'a Schema) -> Self {
         let mut field_stack = Vec::with_capacity(schema.fields.len() * 2);
         for field in schema.fields.iter().rev() {
@@ -114,6 +110,29 @@ impl<'a> Iterator for SchemaFieldIterPreOrder<'a> {
     }
 }
 
+/// Reject `FixedSizeList` types whose dimension is not a positive integer.
+///
+/// The row count of a fixed-size list is derived by dividing the number of
+/// child items by the dimension, so a zero dimension panics with a
+/// divide-by-zero further down the write path (see issue #5102). A
+/// `FixedSizeList` of a `FixedSizeList` over a primitive collapses into a
+/// single leaf field, so the pre-order field walk never visits the inner list;
+/// recurse through the nested list types here to catch an inner zero dimension.
+///
+/// Shared by [`Schema::validate`] on the write path and the decoder's
+/// field-scheduler builders on the read path.
+pub fn validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions(field_name: &str, data_type: &DataType) -> Result<()> {
+    if let DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, dimension) = data_type {
+        if *dimension <= 0 {
+            return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                "Field \"{field_name}\" contains a FixedSizeList with dimension {dimension}; dimension must be a positive integer"
+            )));
+        }
+        validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions(field_name, inner.data_type())?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 impl Schema {
     /// The unenforced primary key fields in the schema, ordered by position.
     ///
@@ -138,6 +157,20 @@ impl Schema {
         pk_fields
     }
 
+    /// The unenforced clustering key fields in the schema, ordered by position.
+    ///
+    /// Fields are ordered by their explicit position value (1-based).
+    pub fn unenforced_clustering_key(&self) -> Vec<&Field> {
+        let mut ck_fields: Vec<&Field> = self
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .filter(|f| f.is_unenforced_clustering_key())
+            .collect();
+
+        ck_fields.sort_by_key(|f| f.unenforced_clustering_key_position.unwrap_or(0));
+
+        ck_fields
+    }
+
     pub fn compare_with_options(&self, expected: &Self, options: &SchemaCompareOptions) -> bool {
         compare_fields(&self.fields, &expected.fields, options)
             && (!options.compare_metadata || self.metadata == expected.metadata)
@@ -151,12 +184,11 @@ impl Schema {
         let mut differences =
             explain_fields_difference(&self.fields, &expected.fields, options, None);
 
-        if options.compare_metadata {
-            if let Some(difference) =
+        if options.compare_metadata
+            && let Some(difference) =
                 explain_metadata_difference(&self.metadata, &expected.metadata)
-            {
-                differences.push(difference);
-            }
+        {
+            differences.push(difference);
         }
 
         if differences.is_empty() {
@@ -173,11 +205,10 @@ impl Schema {
     pub fn check_compatible(&self, expected: &Self, options: &SchemaCompareOptions) -> Result<()> {
         if !self.compare_with_options(expected, options) {
             let difference = self.explain_difference(expected, options);
-            Err(Error::SchemaMismatch {
-                // unknown reason is messy but this shouldn't happen.
-                difference: difference.unwrap_or("unknown reason".to_string()),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            // unknown reason is messy but this shouldn't happen.
+            Err(Error::schema_mismatch(
+                difference.unwrap_or("unknown reason".to_string()),
+            ))
         } else {
             Ok(())
         }
@@ -257,20 +288,14 @@ impl Schema {
                         candidates
                             .push(Field::try_from(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD.clone())?);
                     } else {
-                        return Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "System column {} is currently not supported in projection",
-                                first
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                            "System column {} is currently not supported in projection",
+                            first
+                        )));
                     }
                 }
             } else if err_on_missing {
-                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("Column {} does not exist", col.as_ref()),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::field_not_found(col.as_ref(), self.field_paths()));
             }
         }
 
@@ -308,45 +333,50 @@ impl Schema {
 
         for field in self.fields.iter() {
             if field.name.contains('.') {
-                return Err(Error::Schema{message:format!(
+                return Err(Error::schema(format!(
                     "Top level field {} cannot contain `.`. Maybe you meant to create a struct field?",
                     field.name.clone()
-                ), location: location!(),});
+                )));
             }
 
-            let column_path = self
-                .field_ancestry_by_id(field.id)
-                .unwrap()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.name.as_str())
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                .join(".");
-            if !seen_names.insert(column_path.clone()) {
-                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Duplicate field name \"{}\" in schema:\n {:#?}",
-                        column_path, self
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+            if !seen_names.insert(field.name.as_str()) {
+                return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                    "Duplicate field name \"{}\" in schema:\n {:#?}",
+                    field.name, self
+                )));
             }
         }
 
+        // A negative id is reserved for system use; the only ones a schema may
+        // carry are the hidden row lineage columns a data file stores next to
+        // the user columns, as top-level fields under their own names. A
+        // nested field reusing one of these ids fails the duplicate check.
+        let row_lineage_ids = self
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|field| crate::row_lineage_field_id(&field.name) == Some(field.id))
+            .map(|field| field.id)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+
         // Check for duplicate field ids
         let mut seen_ids = HashSet::new();
         for field in self.fields_pre_order() {
-            if field.id < 0 {
-                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("Field {} has a negative id {}", field.name, field.id),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+            if field.id < 0 && !row_lineage_ids.contains(&field.id) {
+                return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                    "Field {} has a negative id {}",
+                    field.name, field.id
+                )));
             }
             if !seen_ids.insert(field.id) {
-                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("Duplicate field id {} in schema {:?}", field.id, self),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                    "Duplicate field id {} in schema {:?}",
+                    field.id, self
+                )));
             }
+            // The row count of a fixed-size list is derived by dividing the
+            // number of items by the dimension, so a zero dimension would
+            // panic with a divide-by-zero further down the write path.
+            validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions(&field.name, &field.data_type())?;
         }
 
         Ok(())
@@ -384,6 +414,27 @@ impl Schema {
         SchemaFieldIterPreOrder::new(self)
     }
 
+    /// Get all field paths in the schema as a list of strings.
+    ///
+    /// This returns all field paths in the schema, including nested fields.
+    /// For example, if there's a struct field "user" with a field "name",
+    /// this will return "user.name" as one of the paths.
+    pub fn field_paths(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut paths = Vec::new();
+        for field in self.fields_pre_order() {
+            let ancestry = self.field_ancestry_by_id(field.id);
+            if let Some(ancestry) = ancestry {
+                let path = ancestry
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.name.as_str())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .join(".");
+                paths.push(path);
+            }
+        }
+        paths
+    }
+
     /// Returns a new schema that only contains the fields in `column_ids`.
     ///
     /// This projection can filter out both top-level and nested fields
@@ -431,23 +482,17 @@ impl Schema {
         for field in projection.fields.iter() {
             // Ensure the field is a top-level field (no dots in the name)
             if field.name.contains('.') {
-                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Field '{}' contains dots. project_by_schema only accepts top-level fields. \
-                         Use project() method for nested field paths.",
-                        field.name
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                    "Field '{}' contains dots. project_by_schema only accepts top-level fields. \
+                     Use project() method for nested field paths.",
+                    field.name
+                )));
             }
 
             if let Some(self_field) = self.field(&field.name) {
                 new_fields.push(self_field.project_by_field(field, on_type_mismatch)?);
             } else if matches!(on_missing, OnMissing::Error) {
-                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("Field {} not found", field.name),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::schema(format!("Field {} not found", field.name)));
             }
         }
         Ok(Self {
@@ -458,17 +503,16 @@ impl Schema {
 
     /// Exclude the fields from `other` Schema, and returns a new Schema.
     pub fn exclude<T: TryInto<Self> + Debug>(&self, schema: T) -> Result<Self> {
-        let other = schema.try_into().map_err(|_| Error::Schema {
-            message: "The other schema is not compatible with this schema".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let other = schema.try_into().map_err(|_| {
+            Error::schema("The other schema is not compatible with this schema".to_string())
         })?;
         let mut fields = vec![];
         for field in self.fields.iter() {
             if let Some(other_field) = other.field(&field.name) {
-                if field.data_type().is_nested() {
-                    if let Some(f) = field.exclude(other_field) {
-                        fields.push(f)
-                    }
+                if field.data_type().is_nested()
+                    && let Some(f) = field.exclude(other_field)
+                {
+                    fields.push(f)
                 }
             } else {
                 fields.push(field.clone());
@@ -546,10 +590,7 @@ impl Schema {
     pub fn field_id(&self, column: &str) -> Result<i32> {
         self.field(column)
             .map(|f| f.id)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Schema {
-                message: "Vector column not in schema".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::schema("Vector column not in schema".to_string()))
     }
 
     pub fn top_level_field_ids(&self) -> Vec<i32> {
@@ -633,12 +674,12 @@ impl Schema {
     // TODO: pub(crate)
     pub fn set_dictionary(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
         for field in self.fields.as_mut_slice() {
-            let column = batch
-                .column_by_name(&field.name)
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("column '{}' does not exist in the record batch", field.name),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+            let column = batch.column_by_name(&field.name).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::schema(format!(
+                    "column '{}' does not exist in the record batch",
+                    field.name
+                ))
+            })?;
             field.set_dictionary(column);
         }
         Ok(())
@@ -677,13 +718,10 @@ impl Schema {
         // Validate this addition does not create any duplicate field names
         let field_names = self.fields.iter().map(|f| &f.name).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
         if field_names.len() != self.fields.len() {
-            Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Attempt to add fields [{:?}] would lead to duplicate field names",
-                    fields.iter().map(|f| f.name()).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Attempt to add fields [{:?}] would lead to duplicate field names",
+                fields.iter().map(|f| f.name()).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            )))
         } else {
             Ok(())
         }
@@ -692,7 +730,8 @@ impl Schema {
     /// Merge this schema from the other schema.
     ///
     /// After merging, the field IDs from `other` schema will be reassigned,
-    /// following the fields in `self`.
+    /// following the fields in `self`. Schema metadata is combined, with values
+    /// from `self` taking precedence when both schemas contain the same key.
     pub fn merge<S: TryInto<Self, Error = Error>>(&self, other: S) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut other: Self = other.try_into()?;
         other.reset_id();
@@ -713,12 +752,12 @@ impl Schema {
                 merged_fields.push(field.clone());
             }
         }
-        let metadata = self
-            .metadata
-            .iter()
-            .chain(other.metadata.iter())
-            .map(|(k, v)| (k.clone(), v.clone()))
-            .collect();
+        let mut metadata = other.metadata;
+        metadata.extend(
+            self.metadata
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(key, value)| (key.clone(), value.clone())),
+        );
         let schema = Self {
             fields: merged_fields,
             metadata,
@@ -726,23 +765,110 @@ impl Schema {
         Ok(schema)
     }
 
-    pub fn all_fields_nullable(&self) -> bool {
-        SchemaFieldIterPreOrder::new(self).all(|f| f.nullable)
-    }
-
     /// Returns the properly formatted path from root to the field.
     /// Field names containing dots are quoted (e.g., struct.`field.with.dot`)
+    ///
+    /// The result is suitable for SQL parsing. For a human-readable path
+    /// (e.g. for display in index metadata), use [`Self::field_path_minimal`].
     pub fn field_path(&self, field_id: i32) -> Result<String> {
         self.field_ancestry_by_id(field_id)
             .map(|ancestry| {
                 let field_refs: Vec<&str> = ancestry.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
                 format_field_path(&field_refs)
             })
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Could not find field ancestry for id {}", field_id),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!("Could not find field ancestry for id {}", field_id))
             })
     }
+
+    /// Returns the path from root to the field using *minimal* quoting.
+    ///
+    /// A segment is wrapped in backticks only when it contains a character that
+    /// [`parse_field_path`] treats specially (a `.` separator or a `` ` `` quote);
+    /// any other character — including hyphens — is left bare. Unlike
+    /// [`Self::field_path`] (which quotes for SQL-expression safety and so wraps
+    /// e.g. `my-col` in backticks), the result here is both human-readable and
+    /// round-trips back through `parse_field_path`, so it is safe to feed into
+    /// field-path APIs such as `drop_columns` / `update_field_metadata`.
+    ///
+    /// This is what should be exposed as the column name in index metadata.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    /// use lance_core::datatypes::{parse_field_path, Schema};
+    ///
+    /// let arrow = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+    ///     Field::new("my-col", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ///     Field::new(
+    ///         "parent",
+    ///         DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![Field::new("child.x", DataType::Int32, true)])),
+    ///         true,
+    ///     ),
+    /// ]);
+    /// let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow).unwrap();
+    ///
+    /// // A hyphen is not special to `parse_field_path`, so it is left bare
+    /// // (unlike `field_path`, which would quote it as `` `my-col` ``).
+    /// let hyphen_id = schema.field("my-col").unwrap().id;
+    /// assert_eq!(schema.field_path_minimal(hyphen_id).unwrap(), "my-col");
+    ///
+    /// // A `.` in a segment forces quoting so the path still round-trips.
+    /// let dotted_id = schema.field("parent").unwrap().children[0].id;
+    /// let path = schema.field_path_minimal(dotted_id).unwrap();
+    /// assert_eq!(path, "parent.`child.x`");
+    /// assert_eq!(
+    ///     parse_field_path(&path).unwrap(),
+    ///     vec!["parent".to_string(), "child.x".to_string()],
+    /// );
+    /// ```
+    pub fn field_path_minimal(&self, field_id: i32) -> Result<String> {
+        self.field_ancestry_by_id(field_id)
+            .map(|ancestry| {
+                let field_refs: Vec<&str> = ancestry.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
+                format_field_path_minimal(&field_refs)
+            })
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!("Could not find field ancestry for id {}", field_id))
+            })
+    }
+
+    pub fn verify_primary_key(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let pk = self.unenforced_primary_key();
+        for pk_col in pk.into_iter() {
+            if !pk_col.is_leaf() {
+                return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                    "Primary key column must be a leaf: {}",
+                    pk_col
+                )));
+            }
+
+            if let Some(ancestors) = self.field_ancestry_by_id(pk_col.id) {
+                for ancestor in ancestors {
+                    if ancestor.nullable {
+                        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                            "Primary key column and all its ancestors must not be nullable: {}",
+                            ancestor
+                        )));
+                    }
+
+                    if ancestor.logical_type.is_list() || ancestor.logical_type.is_large_list() {
+                        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                            "Primary key column must not be in a list type: {}",
+                            ancestor
+                        )));
+                    }
+
+                    if ancestor.logical_type.is_map() {
+                        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                            "Primary key column must not be in a map type: {}",
+                            ancestor
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 }
 
 impl PartialEq for Schema {
@@ -776,49 +902,7 @@ impl TryFrom<&ArrowSchema> for Schema {
         schema.set_field_id(None);
         schema.validate()?;
 
-        let pk = schema.unenforced_primary_key();
-        for pk_col in pk.into_iter() {
-            if !pk_col.is_leaf() {
-                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("Primary key column must be a leaf: {}", pk_col),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-
-            if let Some(ancestors) = schema.field_ancestry_by_id(pk_col.id) {
-                for ancestor in ancestors {
-                    if ancestor.nullable {
-                        return Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "Primary key column and all its ancestors must not be nullable: {}",
-                                ancestor
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-
-                    if ancestor.logical_type.is_list() || ancestor.logical_type.is_large_list() {
-                        return Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "Primary key column must not be in a list type: {}",
-                                ancestor
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-
-                    if ancestor.logical_type.is_map() {
-                        return Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "Primary key column must not be in a map type: {}",
-                                ancestor
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
+        schema.verify_primary_key()?;
 
         Ok(schema)
     }
@@ -1024,7 +1108,7 @@ impl Projectable for Schema {
 }
 
 /// Specifies how to handle blob columns when projecting
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, PartialEq)]
 pub enum BlobHandling {
     /// Read all blobs as binary
     AllBinary,
@@ -1046,6 +1130,17 @@ pub enum BlobHandling {
 }
 
 impl BlobHandling {
+    fn should_load_binary(&self, field: &Field) -> bool {
+        if !field.is_blob() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        match self {
+            Self::AllBinary => true,
+            Self::SomeBlobsBinary(set) | Self::SomeBinary(set) => set.contains(&(field.id as u32)),
+            Self::BlobsDescriptions | Self::AllDescriptions => false,
+        }
+    }
+
     fn should_unload(&self, field: &Field) -> bool {
         // Blob v2 columns are Structs, so we need to treat any blob-marked field as unloadable
         // even if the physical data type is not binary-like.
@@ -1061,10 +1156,34 @@ impl BlobHandling {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Whether `field` will be projected as a lightweight blob *description*
+    /// (offset + size) rather than its full binary value under this handling.
+    ///
+    /// A description is tiny and cheap to read eagerly; the full binary value is
+    /// not. Materialization heuristics use this to decide early vs late loading.
+    pub fn returns_description(&self, field: &Field) -> bool {
+        self.should_unload(field)
+    }
+
+    /// Apply this blob handling policy to a projected field tree.
+    ///
+    /// Blob descriptor modes convert blob leaves to descriptor views. Binary
+    /// modes convert selected blob leaves to `LargeBinary`. Non-blob nested
+    /// fields are preserved while their children are handled recursively.
     pub fn unload_if_needed(&self, mut field: Field) -> Field {
+        if self.should_load_binary(&field) {
+            field.binary_blob_mut();
+            return field;
+        }
         if self.should_unload(&field) {
             field.unloaded_mut();
+            return field;
         }
+        field.children = field
+            .children
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|child| self.unload_if_needed(child))
+            .collect();
         field
     }
 }
@@ -1182,10 +1301,9 @@ impl Projection {
                 Self::add_field_children(&mut self.field_ids, last_field);
             }
         } else if matches!(on_missing, OnMissing::Error) {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Column {} does not exist", column).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Column {} does not exist", column).into(),
+            ));
         }
         Ok(self)
     }
@@ -1462,10 +1580,7 @@ impl Projection {
 /// The result is guaranteed to contain at least one element.
 pub fn parse_field_path(path: &str) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
     if path.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: "Field path cannot be empty".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::schema("Field path cannot be empty".to_string()));
     }
 
     let mut result = Vec::new();
@@ -1486,13 +1601,13 @@ pub fn parse_field_path(path: &str) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
                         // End of quoted field
                         in_quotes = false;
                         // After closing quote, we should either see a dot or end of string
-                        if let Some(&next_ch) = chars.peek() {
-                            if next_ch != '.' {
-                                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                                    message: format!("Invalid field path '{}': expected '.' or end of string after closing quote", path),
-                                    location: location!(),
-                                });
-                            }
+                        if let Some(&next_ch) = chars.peek()
+                            && next_ch != '.'
+                        {
+                            return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                                "Invalid field path '{}': expected '.' or end of string after closing quote",
+                                path
+                            )));
                         }
                     }
                 } else if current.is_empty() {
@@ -1500,21 +1615,18 @@ pub fn parse_field_path(path: &str) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
                     in_quotes = true;
                 } else {
                     // Quote in the middle of unquoted field name
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Invalid field path '{}': unexpected quote in the middle of field name",
-                            path
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                        "Invalid field path '{}': unexpected quote in the middle of field name",
+                        path
+                    )));
                 }
             }
             '.' if !in_quotes => {
                 if current.is_empty() {
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: format!("Invalid field path '{}': empty field name", path),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                        "Invalid field path '{}': empty field name",
+                        path
+                    )));
                 }
                 result.push(current);
                 current = String::new();
@@ -1526,28 +1638,25 @@ pub fn parse_field_path(path: &str) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
     }
 
     if in_quotes {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: format!("Invalid field path '{}': unclosed quote", path),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+            "Invalid field path '{}': unclosed quote",
+            path
+        )));
     }
 
     if !current.is_empty() {
         result.push(current);
     } else if !result.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: format!("Invalid field path '{}': trailing dot", path),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+            "Invalid field path '{}': trailing dot",
+            path
+        )));
     }
 
     // This check is now redundant since we check for empty input at the beginning,
     // but keeping it for extra safety
     if result.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: format!("Invalid field path '{}'", path),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::schema(format!("Invalid field path '{}'", path)));
     }
 
     Ok(result)
@@ -1581,6 +1690,50 @@ pub fn format_field_path(fields: &[&str]) -> String {
         .join(".")
 }
 
+/// Like [`format_field_path`], but quotes a segment only when strictly required
+/// for the result to round-trip back through [`parse_field_path`].
+///
+/// `parse_field_path` only treats `.` (segment separator) and `` ` `` (quote)
+/// specially, so those are the only characters that force quoting here. Notably
+/// a hyphen does NOT force quoting (`my-col` stays `my-col`), unlike
+/// `format_field_path` which quotes any non-identifier character for
+/// SQL-expression safety. Use this for human-readable, round-trippable paths
+/// (e.g. column names in index metadata); use `format_field_path` when the
+/// result will be embedded in a SQL expression.
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_core::datatypes::{format_field_path_minimal, parse_field_path};
+///
+/// // Plain identifiers and hyphenated names are left bare.
+/// assert_eq!(format_field_path_minimal(&["parent", "my-col"]), "parent.my-col");
+/// // A `.` in a segment forces quoting.
+/// assert_eq!(format_field_path_minimal(&["parent", "child.x"]), "parent.`child.x`");
+/// // Embedded backticks are escaped by doubling them.
+/// assert_eq!(format_field_path_minimal(&["child`x"]), "`child``x`");
+///
+/// // Whatever it produces round-trips back through `parse_field_path`.
+/// for segments in [vec!["parent", "my-col"], vec!["parent", "child.x"], vec!["child`x"]] {
+///     let path = format_field_path_minimal(&segments);
+///     assert_eq!(parse_field_path(&path).unwrap(), segments);
+/// }
+/// ```
+pub fn format_field_path_minimal(fields: &[&str]) -> String {
+    fields
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| {
+            let needs_quoting = field.contains('.') || field.contains('`');
+            if needs_quoting {
+                // Escape embedded backticks by doubling them, matching parse_field_path.
+                let escaped = field.replace('`', "``");
+                format!("`{}`", escaped)
+            } else {
+                field.to_string()
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .join(".")
+}
+
 /// Escape a field path for project
 ///
 /// Parses the field path and formats it for SQL usage.
@@ -1721,6 +1874,11 @@ mod tests {
             vec!["simple".to_string()]
         );
 
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_field_path("tags[*]").unwrap(),
+            vec!["tags[*]".to_string()]
+        );
+
         // Quoted field at the end
         assert_eq!(
             parse_field_path("parent.`field.with.dot`").unwrap(),
@@ -1757,6 +1915,73 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_top_level_names_without_field_id_lookup() {
+        let mut first = Field::new_arrow("first", DataType::Int32, false).unwrap();
+        first.id = 0;
+        let mut second = Field::new_arrow("second", DataType::Int32, false).unwrap();
+        second.id = 0;
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![first, second],
+            metadata: HashMap::new(),
+        };
+
+        let error = schema.validate().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::Schema { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Duplicate field id 0"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_admits_row_lineage_ids_only_at_top_level() {
+        let uint64_field = |name: &str, id: i32| {
+            let mut field = Field::new_arrow(name, DataType::UInt64, false).unwrap();
+            field.id = id;
+            field
+        };
+        let mut key = Field::new_arrow("i", DataType::Int32, false).unwrap();
+        key.id = 0;
+
+        // A hidden lineage column: top-level, under its own name's reserved id.
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![key.clone(), uint64_field(ROW_ID, crate::ROW_ID_FIELD_ID)],
+            metadata: HashMap::new(),
+        };
+        schema.validate().unwrap();
+
+        // Another lineage column's id does not belong to this name.
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![
+                key.clone(),
+                uint64_field(ROW_ID, crate::ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID),
+            ],
+            metadata: HashMap::new(),
+        };
+        let error = schema.validate().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Schema { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("negative id"), "{error}");
+
+        // A data file stores lineage columns only at the top level.
+        let mut parent = Field::new_arrow(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            true,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        parent.id = 1;
+        parent.children[0].id = crate::ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID;
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![key, parent],
+            metadata: HashMap::new(),
+        };
+        let error = schema.validate().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Schema { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("negative id"), "{error}");
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_resolve_quoted_fields() {
         // Test that top-level fields with dots are rejected during validation
@@ -1770,9 +1995,10 @@ mod tests {
         let schema_result = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema_with_dots);
         assert!(schema_result.is_err());
         let err = schema_result.unwrap_err();
-        assert!(err
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Top level field field.with.dots cannot contain `.`"));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Top level field field.with.dots cannot contain `.`")
+        );
 
         // Test that nested fields with dots are allowed
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
@@ -2186,6 +2412,35 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(merged.max_field_id(), Some(9));
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_schema_metadata_preserves_self_values() {
+        let schema = Schema {
+            metadata: HashMap::from([
+                ("shared".to_string(), "left".to_string()),
+                ("left_only".to_string(), "left".to_string()),
+            ]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let other = Schema {
+            metadata: HashMap::from([
+                ("shared".to_string(), "right".to_string()),
+                ("right_only".to_string(), "right".to_string()),
+            ]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let merged = schema.merge(&other).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.metadata,
+            HashMap::from([
+                ("shared".to_string(), "left".to_string()),
+                ("left_only".to_string(), "left".to_string()),
+                ("right_only".to_string(), "right".to_string()),
+            ])
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_merge_arrow_schema() {
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
@@ -2454,93 +2709,20 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(res.is_none(), "Expected None, got {:?}", res);
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    pub fn test_all_fields_nullable() {
-        let test_cases = vec![
-            (
-                vec![], // empty schema
-                true,
-            ),
-            (
-                vec![
-                    Field::new_arrow("a", DataType::Int32, true).unwrap(),
-                    Field::new_arrow("b", DataType::Utf8, true).unwrap(),
-                ], // basic case
-                true,
-            ),
-            (
-                vec![
-                    Field::new_arrow("a", DataType::Int32, false).unwrap(),
-                    Field::new_arrow("b", DataType::Utf8, true).unwrap(),
-                ],
-                false,
-            ),
-            (
-                // check nested schema, parent is nullable
-                vec![Field::new_arrow(
-                    "struct",
-                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                        "a",
-                        DataType::Int32,
-                        false,
-                    )])),
-                    true,
-                )
-                .unwrap()],
-                false,
-            ),
-            (
-                // check nested schema, child is nullable
-                vec![Field::new_arrow(
-                    "struct",
-                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                        "a",
-                        DataType::Int32,
-                        true,
-                    )])),
-                    false,
-                )
-                .unwrap()],
-                false,
-            ),
-            (
-                // check nested schema, all is nullable
-                vec![Field::new_arrow(
-                    "struct",
-                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                        "a",
-                        DataType::Int32,
-                        true,
-                    )])),
-                    true,
-                )
-                .unwrap()],
-                true,
-            ),
-        ];
-
-        for (fields, expected) in test_cases {
-            let schema = Schema {
-                fields,
-                metadata: Default::default(),
-            };
-            assert_eq!(schema.all_fields_nullable(), expected);
-        }
-    }
-
     #[test]
     fn test_schema_unenforced_primary_key() {
         let cases = vec![
             ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)]),
-            ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)
-                .with_metadata(
+            ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(
                     vec![(
                         "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_owned(),
                         "true".to_owned(),
                     )]
                     .into_iter()
                     .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
-                )]),
+                ),
+            ]),
             ArrowSchema::new(vec![
                 ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(
                     vec![(
@@ -2552,19 +2734,16 @@ mod tests {
                 ),
                 ArrowField::new(
                     "b",
-                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                        "f1",
-                        DataType::Utf8,
-                        false,
-                    )
-                    .with_metadata(
-                        vec![(
-                            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_owned(),
-                            "true".to_owned(),
-                        )]
-                        .into_iter()
-                        .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
-                    )])),
+                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                        ArrowField::new("f1", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(
+                            vec![(
+                                "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_owned(),
+                                "true".to_owned(),
+                            )]
+                            .into_iter()
+                            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+                        ),
+                    ])),
                     false,
                 ),
             ]),
@@ -2591,37 +2770,24 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_schema_unenforced_primary_key_failures() {
         let cases = vec![
-            ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)
-                .with_metadata(
+            ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true).with_metadata(
                     vec![(
                         "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_owned(),
                         "true".to_owned(),
                     )]
                     .into_iter()
                     .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
-                )]),
-            ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                "b",
-                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                    "f1",
-                    DataType::Utf8,
-                    false,
-                )])),
-                false,
-            )
-            .with_metadata(
-                vec![(
-                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_owned(),
-                    "true".to_owned(),
-                )]
-                .into_iter()
-                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
-            )]),
-            ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                "b",
-                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                    "f1",
-                    DataType::Utf8,
+                ),
+            ]),
+            ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "b",
+                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                        "f1",
+                        DataType::Utf8,
+                        false,
+                    )])),
                     false,
                 )
                 .with_metadata(
@@ -2631,7 +2797,20 @@ mod tests {
                     )]
                     .into_iter()
                     .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
-                )])),
+                ),
+            ]),
+            ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "b",
+                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("f1", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(
+                        vec![(
+                            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_owned(),
+                            "true".to_owned(),
+                        )]
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+                    ),
+                ])),
                 true,
             )]),
             ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
@@ -2659,10 +2838,12 @@ mod tests {
         for (idx, case) in cases.into_iter().enumerate() {
             let result = Schema::try_from(&case);
             assert!(result.is_err());
-            assert!(result
-                .unwrap_err()
-                .to_string()
-                .contains(error_message_contains[idx]));
+            assert!(
+                result
+                    .unwrap_err()
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains(error_message_contains[idx])
+            );
         }
     }
 
@@ -2772,4 +2953,273 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(pk_fields[1].name, "e");
         assert_eq!(pk_fields[2].name, "g");
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_project_with_suggestion() {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("vector", ArrowDataType::Float32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("label", ArrowDataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new("score", ArrowDataType::Float64, false),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        // Typo: "vectr" is close to "vector" → should get suggestion
+        let err = schema.project(&["vectr"]).unwrap_err();
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("Did you mean 'vector'?"),
+            "Expected suggestion for 'vectr', got: {}",
+            msg
+        );
+        // Should also list available fields
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("Available fields:"),
+            "Expected available fields list, got: {}",
+            msg
+        );
+
+        // Completely wrong name → no suggestion but still lists fields
+        let err = schema.project(&["nonexistent_column"]).unwrap_err();
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            !msg.contains("Did you mean"),
+            "Should not suggest for completely different name, got: {}",
+            msg
+        );
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("Available fields:"),
+            "Expected available fields list even without suggestion, got: {}",
+            msg
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_field_paths() {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", ArrowDataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("vector", ArrowDataType::Float32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("name", ArrowDataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let paths = schema.field_paths();
+        assert!(paths.contains(&"id".to_string()));
+        assert!(paths.contains(&"vector".to_string()));
+        assert!(paths.contains(&"name".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_field_path_minimal() {
+        // A struct child whose own NAME contains a dot is the case that makes
+        // "just strip all backticks" wrong: it must stay quoted to round-trip.
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("mycol", ArrowDataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("my_col", ArrowDataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("my-col", ArrowDataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "parent",
+                ArrowDataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("child-field", ArrowDataType::Int32, true),
+                    ArrowField::new("child.x", ArrowDataType::Int32, true),
+                    ArrowField::new("child`x", ArrowDataType::Int32, true),
+                ])),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let id_of = |path: &str| schema.field(path).unwrap().id;
+        let child_id = |name: &str| {
+            schema
+                .field("parent")
+                .unwrap()
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .find(|c| c.name == name)
+                .unwrap()
+                .id
+        };
+
+        // Plain identifiers: unchanged by either method.
+        assert_eq!(schema.field_path_minimal(id_of("mycol")).unwrap(), "mycol");
+        assert_eq!(
+            schema.field_path_minimal(id_of("my_col")).unwrap(),
+            "my_col"
+        );
+
+        // Hyphen is NOT special to parse_field_path, so minimal quoting leaves it
+        // bare (field_path would quote it for SQL safety).
+        assert_eq!(schema.field_path(id_of("my-col")).unwrap(), "`my-col`");
+        assert_eq!(
+            schema.field_path_minimal(id_of("my-col")).unwrap(),
+            "my-col"
+        );
+
+        // Nested hyphenated leaf: bare under minimal quoting.
+        assert_eq!(
+            schema.field_path_minimal(child_id("child-field")).unwrap(),
+            "parent.child-field"
+        );
+
+        // Nested leaf whose NAME contains a dot: MUST stay quoted so it
+        // round-trips through parse_field_path (this is the regression guard).
+        let dotted = schema.field_path_minimal(child_id("child.x")).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dotted, "parent.`child.x`");
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_field_path(&dotted).unwrap(),
+            vec!["parent".to_string(), "child.x".to_string()]
+        );
+
+        // Nested leaf whose NAME contains a backtick: it must be quoted AND the
+        // backtick doubled so it round-trips through parse_field_path.
+        let backticked = schema.field_path_minimal(child_id("child`x")).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(backticked, "parent.`child``x`");
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_field_path(&backticked).unwrap(),
+            vec!["parent".to_string(), "child`x".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_rejects_zero_dimension_fixed_size_list() {
+        // A zero dimension divides-by-zero further down the write path (#5102)
+        let fsl = |dimension: i32| {
+            ArrowDataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", ArrowDataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimension,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("vec", fsl(0), true)]);
+        let err = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("dimension must be a positive integer"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+
+        // Nested inside a struct is rejected too
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "outer",
+            ArrowDataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "vec",
+                fsl(0),
+                true,
+            )])),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let err = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("dimension must be a positive integer"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+
+        // A zero-dimension FixedSizeList nested inside a positive-dimension
+        // FixedSizeList collapses into a single leaf field, so the inner
+        // dimension is not visited by the pre-order field walk and must still
+        // be rejected: FixedSizeList(FixedSizeList(Float32, 0), 4).
+        let nested =
+            ArrowDataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("inner", fsl(0), true)), 4);
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("vec", nested, true)]);
+        let err = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("dimension must be a positive integer"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+
+        // A positive dimension still validates, including nested lists
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("vec", fsl(2), true)]);
+        assert!(Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).is_ok());
+        let nested_ok =
+            ArrowDataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("inner", fsl(2), true)), 4);
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("vec", nested_ok, true)]);
+        assert!(Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_schema_unenforced_clustering_key() {
+        use crate::datatypes::field::LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION;
+
+        // No clustering key fields
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        assert!(schema.unenforced_clustering_key().is_empty());
+
+        // Single clustering key field
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION.to_owned(),
+                    "1".to_owned(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let ck = schema.unenforced_clustering_key();
+        assert_eq!(ck.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(ck[0].name, "a");
+
+        // Clustering key fields can be nullable (unlike primary keys)
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION.to_owned(),
+                    "1".to_owned(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(schema.unenforced_clustering_key().len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_schema_unenforced_clustering_key_ordering() {
+        use crate::datatypes::field::LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION;
+
+        // Fields ordered by position regardless of schema column order
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION.to_owned(),
+                    "3".to_owned(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION.to_owned(),
+                    "1".to_owned(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION.to_owned(),
+                    "2".to_owned(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("d", DataType::Float64, true),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let ck = schema.unenforced_clustering_key();
+        assert_eq!(ck.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(ck[0].name, "a");
+        assert_eq!(ck[1].name, "b");
+        assert_eq!(ck[2].name, "c");
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/deepsize.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/deepsize.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..733d1ae1442
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/deepsize.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,467 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+pub use lance_derive::DeepSizeOf;
+
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet, HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::mem::{size_of, size_of_val};
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, AtomicUsize};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex, RwLock};
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
+use arrow_data::ArrayData;
+
+pub struct Context {
+    seen: HashSet<usize>,
+}
+
+impl Default for Context {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Context {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            seen: HashSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if this pointer was NOT previously seen (i.e., it's new).
+    pub fn mark_seen(&mut self, ptr: usize) -> bool {
+        self.seen.insert(ptr)
+    }
+}
+
+pub trait DeepSizeOf {
+    fn deep_size_of(&self) -> usize {
+        size_of_val(self) + self.deep_size_of_children(&mut Context::new())
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize;
+}
+
+// Primitives — no heap children
+macro_rules! impl_deep_size_primitive {
+    ($($t:ty),*) => {
+        $(
+            impl DeepSizeOf for $t {
+                fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+                    0
+                }
+            }
+        )*
+    };
+}
+
+impl_deep_size_primitive!(
+    u8,
+    u16,
+    u32,
+    u64,
+    u128,
+    usize,
+    i8,
+    i16,
+    i32,
+    i64,
+    i128,
+    isize,
+    f32,
+    f64,
+    bool,
+    ()
+);
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for str {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for String {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.capacity()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for bytes::Bytes {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        if context.mark_seen(self.as_ptr() as usize) {
+            self.len()
+        } else {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for AtomicU64 {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for AtomicUsize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: DeepSizeOf, const N: usize> DeepSizeOf for [T; N] {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.iter()
+            .map(|item| item.deep_size_of_children(context))
+            .sum()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: DeepSizeOf> DeepSizeOf for [T] {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        // The slice's own element bytes are accounted for by the owner (e.g. the
+        // `size_of_val` in the `Arc`/`Box` impls); here we only sum the heap
+        // children of each element.
+        self.iter()
+            .map(|item| item.deep_size_of_children(context))
+            .sum()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: DeepSizeOf> DeepSizeOf for RwLock<T> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.read()
+            .map(|val| val.deep_size_of_children(context))
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: DeepSizeOf> DeepSizeOf for Mutex<T> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.lock()
+            .map(|val| val.deep_size_of_children(context))
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+}
+
+// Tuples
+macro_rules! impl_deep_size_tuple {
+    ($($name:ident),+) => {
+        impl<$($name: DeepSizeOf),+> DeepSizeOf for ($($name,)+) {
+            #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+            fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+                let ($($name,)+) = self;
+                0 $(+ $name.deep_size_of_children(context))+
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+impl_deep_size_tuple!(A, B);
+impl_deep_size_tuple!(A, B, C);
+impl_deep_size_tuple!(A, B, C, D);
+impl_deep_size_tuple!(A, B, C, D, E);
+impl_deep_size_tuple!(A, B, C, D, E, F);
+
+impl<T: DeepSizeOf> DeepSizeOf for Vec<T> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.capacity() * size_of::<T>()
+            + self
+                .iter()
+                .map(|item| item.deep_size_of_children(context))
+                .sum::<usize>()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: DeepSizeOf + ?Sized> DeepSizeOf for Box<T> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        size_of_val(&**self) + (**self).deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: DeepSizeOf + ?Sized> DeepSizeOf for Arc<T> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        if context.mark_seen(Self::as_ptr(self) as *const () as usize) {
+            size_of_val(&**self) + (**self).deep_size_of_children(context)
+        } else {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: DeepSizeOf> DeepSizeOf for Option<T> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Some(val) => val.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            None => 0,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<K: DeepSizeOf, V: DeepSizeOf, S> DeepSizeOf for HashMap<K, V, S> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        // Each bucket holds a key-value pair plus hash metadata (~1 byte control per bucket).
+        // Robin hood / Swiss table capacity is always a power of 2.
+        let capacity_bytes = self.capacity() * (size_of::<K>() + size_of::<V>() + 1);
+        let children: usize = self
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(k, v)| k.deep_size_of_children(context) + v.deep_size_of_children(context))
+            .sum();
+        capacity_bytes + children
+    }
+}
+
+impl<K: DeepSizeOf> DeepSizeOf for HashSet<K> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        let capacity_bytes = self.capacity() * (size_of::<K>() + 1);
+        let children: usize = self.iter().map(|k| k.deep_size_of_children(context)).sum();
+        capacity_bytes + children
+    }
+}
+
+impl<K: DeepSizeOf, V: DeepSizeOf> DeepSizeOf for BTreeMap<K, V> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        // BTreeMap nodes have ~11 entries each. Rough estimate: per-entry overhead ~3 pointers.
+        let per_entry = size_of::<K>() + size_of::<V>() + 3 * size_of::<usize>();
+        let overhead = self.len() * per_entry;
+        let children: usize = self
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(k, v)| k.deep_size_of_children(context) + v.deep_size_of_children(context))
+            .sum();
+        overhead + children
+    }
+}
+
+impl<K: DeepSizeOf> DeepSizeOf for BTreeSet<K> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        let per_entry = size_of::<K>() + 3 * size_of::<usize>();
+        let overhead = self.len() * per_entry;
+        let children: usize = self.iter().map(|k| k.deep_size_of_children(context)).sum();
+        overhead + children
+    }
+}
+
+// Arrow types
+
+fn record_array_data(context: &mut Context, data: &ArrayData) -> usize {
+    let mut total = 0;
+    for buffer in data.buffers() {
+        if context.mark_seen(buffer.as_ptr() as usize) {
+            total += buffer.capacity();
+        }
+    }
+    if let Some(nulls) = data.nulls() {
+        let null_buf = nulls.inner().inner();
+        if context.mark_seen(null_buf.as_ptr() as usize) {
+            total += null_buf.capacity();
+        }
+    }
+    for child in data.child_data() {
+        total += record_array_data(context, child);
+    }
+    total
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for dyn Array {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        // `to_data()` only clones Arc refs (no data copy) and allocates a small
+        // ArrayData metadata struct. This lets us walk buffer pointers for dedup.
+        // Cost is O(number_of_buffers), not O(data_size).
+        let data = self.to_data();
+        record_array_data(context, &data)
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for RecordBatch {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.columns()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|col| col.deep_size_of_children(context))
+            .sum()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> DeepSizeOf for arrow_buffer::ScalarBuffer<T>
+where
+    T: ArrowNativeType,
+{
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        // Track the underlying buffer pointer to avoid double-counting shared allocations.
+        // Use capacity() rather than len() * size_of::<T>() because sliced buffers retain
+        // their full original allocation.
+        let buf = self.inner();
+        if context.mark_seen(buf.as_ptr() as usize) {
+            buf.capacity()
+        } else {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray, StructArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema};
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_basic_record_batch() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)])),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let size = batch.deep_size_of();
+        // Should at least include the buffer for 3 i32s
+        assert!(size >= 3 * size_of::<i32>());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_same_batch_dedup() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)])),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut ctx = Context::new();
+        let size_a = batch.deep_size_of_children(&mut ctx);
+        let size_b = batch.deep_size_of_children(&mut ctx);
+
+        // First measurement should report buffer sizes
+        assert!(size_a > 0);
+        // Second measurement of the same batch should add nothing (buffers already seen)
+        assert_eq!(size_b, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_arc_dedup() {
+        let batch = Arc::new(
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)])),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let clone = Arc::clone(&batch);
+
+        let mut ctx = Context::new();
+        let size_a = batch.deep_size_of_children(&mut ctx);
+        let size_b = clone.deep_size_of_children(&mut ctx);
+
+        assert!(size_a > 0);
+        assert_eq!(size_b, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multi_column_shared_array() {
+        // Two columns pointing to the same Arc<dyn Array>
+        let array: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+
+        // Single-column batch for reference
+        let one_col = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)])),
+            vec![array.clone()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Two-column batch with the same Arc shared
+        let two_col = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![array.clone(), array]).unwrap();
+
+        let mut ctx1 = Context::new();
+        let size_one = one_col.deep_size_of_children(&mut ctx1);
+
+        let mut ctx2 = Context::new();
+        let size_two = two_col.deep_size_of_children(&mut ctx2);
+
+        // Both should report the same size since the second column's Arc is
+        // already seen and contributes nothing
+        assert_eq!(size_one, size_two);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_nested_struct_array() {
+        let int_array = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let str_array = StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"]);
+        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)),
+                Arc::new(int_array) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("y", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(str_array) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "s",
+                DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                    Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, false),
+                    Field::new("y", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ])),
+                false,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(struct_array)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let size = batch.deep_size_of();
+        // Should include buffers for both child arrays
+        assert!(size > 3 * size_of::<i32>());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_std_types() {
+        assert_eq!(42u32.deep_size_of(), size_of::<u32>());
+
+        let s = String::from("hello");
+        assert!(s.deep_size_of() >= size_of::<String>() + 5);
+
+        let v = vec![1u32, 2, 3];
+        assert!(v.deep_size_of() >= size_of::<Vec<u32>>() + 3 * size_of::<u32>());
+
+        let a = Arc::new(42u32);
+        let b = Arc::clone(&a);
+        let mut ctx = Context::new();
+        let size_a = a.deep_size_of_children(&mut ctx);
+        let size_b = b.deep_size_of_children(&mut ctx);
+        assert_eq!(size_a, size_of::<u32>());
+        assert_eq!(size_b, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_derive_macro() {
+        use lance_derive::DeepSizeOf;
+
+        #[derive(DeepSizeOf)]
+        struct Outer {
+            count: u64,
+            label: String,
+            inner: Inner,
+        }
+
+        #[derive(DeepSizeOf)]
+        struct Inner {
+            values: Vec<u32>,
+        }
+
+        let val = Outer {
+            count: 7,
+            label: String::from("hello"),
+            inner: Inner {
+                values: vec![1, 2, 3],
+            },
+        };
+
+        let size = val.deep_size_of();
+        // Must be at least the stack size + heap allocations for label + values
+        assert!(size >= std::mem::size_of::<Outer>() + 5 + 3 * std::mem::size_of::<u32>());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/error.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/error.rs
index fe943e03a1d..ba16818a90e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/error.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/error.rs
@@ -1,87 +1,325 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::fmt;
+
 use arrow_schema::ArrowError;
-use snafu::{Location, Snafu};
+use snafu::{IntoError as _, Location, Snafu};
 
 type BoxedError = Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static>;
 
+#[cfg(feature = "backtrace")]
+mod backtrace_support {
+    use std::backtrace::Backtrace;
+
+    use snafu::{AsBacktrace, GenerateImplicitData};
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    pub struct MaybeBacktrace(pub Option<Backtrace>);
+
+    impl GenerateImplicitData for MaybeBacktrace {
+        fn generate() -> Self {
+            Self(<Option<Backtrace>>::generate())
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl AsBacktrace for MaybeBacktrace {
+        fn as_backtrace(&self) -> Option<&Backtrace> {
+            self.0.as_ref()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "backtrace"))]
+mod backtrace_support {
+    use std::backtrace::Backtrace;
+
+    use snafu::{AsBacktrace, GenerateImplicitData};
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    pub struct MaybeBacktrace;
+
+    impl GenerateImplicitData for MaybeBacktrace {
+        fn generate() -> Self {
+            Self
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl AsBacktrace for MaybeBacktrace {
+        fn as_backtrace(&self) -> Option<&Backtrace> {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+use backtrace_support::MaybeBacktrace;
+
+/// Error for when a requested field is not found in a schema.
+///
+/// This error computes suggestions lazily (only when displayed) to avoid
+/// computing Levenshtein distance when the error is created but never shown.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FieldNotFoundError {
+    pub field_name: String,
+    pub candidates: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for FieldNotFoundError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "Field '{}' not found.", self.field_name)?;
+        let suggestion =
+            crate::levenshtein::find_best_suggestion(&self.field_name, &self.candidates);
+        if let Some(suggestion) = suggestion {
+            write!(f, " Did you mean '{}'?", suggestion)?;
+        }
+        write!(f, "\nAvailable fields: [")?;
+        for (i, candidate) in self.candidates.iter().take(10).enumerate() {
+            if i > 0 {
+                write!(f, ", ")?;
+            }
+            write!(f, "'{}'", candidate)?;
+        }
+        if self.candidates.len() > 10 {
+            let remaining = self.candidates.len() - 10;
+            write!(f, ", ... and {} more]", remaining)?;
+        } else {
+            write!(f, "]")?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for FieldNotFoundError {}
+
+/// A manifest commit returned an error and its final outcome could not be
+/// determined safely.
+///
+/// This is wrapped in [`Error::Wrapped`] so Lance can expose a structured
+/// source without adding a variant to the exhaustive public [`Error`] enum.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct CommitStatusUnknownError {
+    version: u64,
+    source: BoxedError,
+}
+
+impl CommitStatusUnknownError {
+    /// Return the manifest version whose commit outcome is unknown.
+    pub fn version(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.version
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for CommitStatusUnknownError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(
+            f,
+            "Commit result for version {} is unknown: the commit may or may not have been \
+             applied; check the table state before retrying: {}",
+            self.version, self.source
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for CommitStatusUnknownError {
+    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn std::error::Error + 'static)> {
+        Some(self.source.as_ref())
+    }
+}
+
 /// Allocates error on the heap and then places `e` into it.
 #[inline]
 pub fn box_error(e: impl std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static) -> BoxedError {
     Box::new(e)
 }
 
+/// Why a writer is fenced. Both reasons are terminal, but callers must tell them
+/// apart (a peer takeover vs. our own failure) rather than parse the message.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub enum FenceReason {
+    /// A successor writer claimed a higher epoch; this writer lost ownership.
+    PeerClaimedEpoch,
+    /// Our own WAL persistence failed, so in-memory state may have diverged from
+    /// the durable WAL. The writer must be reopened to replay.
+    PersistenceFailure,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for FenceReason {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        // Stable strings — surfaced in error messages.
+        let s = match self {
+            Self::PeerClaimedEpoch => "peer claimed epoch",
+            Self::PersistenceFailure => "persistence failure",
+        };
+        f.write_str(s)
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Snafu)]
 #[snafu(visibility(pub))]
 pub enum Error {
     #[snafu(display("Invalid user input: {source}, {location}"))]
     InvalidInput {
         source: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Dataset already exists: {uri}, {location}"))]
-    DatasetAlreadyExists { uri: String, location: Location },
+    DatasetAlreadyExists {
+        uri: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("Append with different schema: {difference}, location: {location}"))]
     SchemaMismatch {
         difference: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Dataset at path {path} was not found: {source}, {location}"))]
     DatasetNotFound {
         path: String,
         source: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Encountered corrupt file {path}: {source}, {location}"))]
     CorruptFile {
         path: object_store::path::Path,
         source: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
-        // TODO: add backtrace?
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Not supported: {source}, {location}"))]
     NotSupported {
         source: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Commit conflict for version {version}: {source}, {location}"))]
     CommitConflict {
         version: u64,
         source: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
+    #[snafu(display("Incompatible transaction: {source}, {location}"))]
+    IncompatibleTransaction {
+        source: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Retryable commit conflict for version {version}: {source}, {location}"))]
     RetryableCommitConflict {
         version: u64,
         source: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Too many concurrent writers. {message}, {location}"))]
-    TooMuchWriteContention { message: String, location: Location },
-    #[snafu(display("Encountered internal error. Please file a bug report at https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues. {message}, {location}"))]
-    Internal { message: String, location: Location },
+    TooMuchWriteContention {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
+    #[snafu(display("Operation timed out: {message}, {location}"))]
+    Timeout {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+    },
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "Encountered internal error. Please file a bug report at https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues. {message}, {location}"
+    ))]
+    Internal {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("A prerequisite task failed: {message}, {location}"))]
-    PrerequisiteFailed { message: String, location: Location },
+    PrerequisiteFailed {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("Unprocessable: {message}, {location}"))]
-    Unprocessable { message: String, location: Location },
+    Unprocessable {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("LanceError(Arrow): {message}, {location}"))]
-    Arrow { message: String, location: Location },
+    Arrow {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("LanceError(Schema): {message}, {location}"))]
-    Schema { message: String, location: Location },
+    Schema {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("Not found: {uri}, {location}"))]
-    NotFound { uri: String, location: Location },
+    NotFound {
+        uri: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("LanceError(IO): {source}, {location}"))]
     IO {
         source: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("LanceError(Index): {message}, {location}"))]
-    Index { message: String, location: Location },
+    Index {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("Lance index not found: {identity}, {location}"))]
     IndexNotFound {
         identity: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Cannot infer storage location from: {message}"))]
     InvalidTableLocation { message: String },
@@ -89,13 +327,29 @@ pub enum Error {
     Stop,
     #[snafu(display("Wrapped error: {error}, {location}"))]
     Wrapped {
+        #[snafu(source)]
         error: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Cloned error: {message}, {location}"))]
-    Cloned { message: String, location: Location },
+    Cloned {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("Query Execution error: {message}, {location}"))]
-    Execution { message: String, location: Location },
+    Execution {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
+    },
     #[snafu(display("Ref is invalid: {message}"))]
     InvalidRef { message: String },
     #[snafu(display("Ref conflict error: {message}"))]
@@ -111,12 +365,18 @@ pub enum Error {
         message: String,
         major_version: u16,
         minor_version: u16,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     #[snafu(display("Namespace error: {source}, {location}"))]
     Namespace {
         source: BoxedError,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
         location: Location,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        backtrace: MaybeBacktrace,
     },
     /// External error passed through from user code.
     ///
@@ -125,71 +385,393 @@ pub enum Error {
     /// or inspected using [`Error::external_source`].
     #[snafu(transparent)]
     External { source: BoxedError },
+
+    /// A requested field was not found in a schema.
+    #[snafu(transparent)]
+    FieldNotFound { source: FieldNotFoundError },
+
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "Spill disk cap of {cap_bytes} bytes exceeded; currently using {used_bytes} bytes, {location}"
+    ))]
+    DiskCapExceeded {
+        cap_bytes: u64,
+        used_bytes: u64,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+    },
+    /// A writer has been fenced and must stop (see [`FenceReason`]). The message
+    /// keeps the `Writer fenced` prefix for legacy string consumers; new code
+    /// should match on [`Error::fence_reason`].
+    #[snafu(display("Writer fenced ({reason}): {message}, {location}"))]
+    Fenced {
+        reason: FenceReason,
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+    },
+    /// A write was refused to keep the writer inside its memory budget.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike every other write error this one is *expected* under load and
+    /// carries no data loss: the write was never accepted, so a caller that
+    /// retries once the flush pipeline drains loses nothing. Callers should
+    /// surface it as a retryable "busy" signal (HTTP 503), not a failure.
+    /// Match via [`Error::is_backpressure`] rather than on the message.
+    #[snafu(display("Write rejected by backpressure: {message}, {location}"))]
+    Backpressure {
+        message: String,
+        #[snafu(implicit)]
+        location: Location,
+    },
 }
 
 impl Error {
-    pub fn corrupt_file(
-        path: object_store::path::Path,
-        message: impl Into<String>,
-        location: Location,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let message: String = message.into();
-        Self::CorruptFile {
-            path,
-            source: message.into(),
-            location,
+    /// Returns the captured Rust backtrace, if available.
+    ///
+    /// Requires the `backtrace` feature to be enabled at compile time
+    /// and `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` at runtime.
+    #[cfg(feature = "backtrace")]
+    pub fn backtrace(&self) -> Option<&std::backtrace::Backtrace> {
+        match self {
+            Self::InvalidInput { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::DatasetAlreadyExists { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::SchemaMismatch { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::DatasetNotFound { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::CorruptFile { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::NotSupported { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::CommitConflict { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::IncompatibleTransaction { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::RetryableCommitConflict { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::TooMuchWriteContention { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::Internal { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::PrerequisiteFailed { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::Unprocessable { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::Arrow { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::Schema { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::NotFound { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::IO { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::Index { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::IndexNotFound { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::Wrapped { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::Cloned { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::Execution { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::VersionConflict { backtrace, .. }
+            | Self::Namespace { backtrace, .. } => {
+                use snafu::AsBacktrace;
+                backtrace.as_backtrace()
+            }
+            // Variants without a backtrace field — listed explicitly so that
+            // adding a new variant with a backtrace field triggers a compiler error.
+            Self::InvalidTableLocation { .. }
+            | Self::Stop
+            | Self::InvalidRef { .. }
+            | Self::RefConflict { .. }
+            | Self::RefNotFound { .. }
+            | Self::Cleanup { .. }
+            | Self::VersionNotFound { .. }
+            | Self::External { .. }
+            | Self::FieldNotFound { .. }
+            | Self::Timeout { .. }
+            | Self::DiskCapExceeded { .. }
+            | Self::Fenced { .. }
+            | Self::Backpressure { .. } => None,
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn invalid_input(message: impl Into<String>, location: Location) -> Self {
-        let message: String = message.into();
-        Self::InvalidInput {
-            source: message.into(),
-            location,
+    /// Returns the captured Rust backtrace, if available.
+    ///
+    /// Always returns `None` when the `backtrace` feature is not enabled.
+    #[cfg(not(feature = "backtrace"))]
+    pub fn backtrace(&self) -> Option<&std::backtrace::Backtrace> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn corrupt_file(path: object_store::path::Path, message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        CorruptFileSnafu { path }.into_error(message.into().into())
+    }
+
+    /// Reports a corrupt file when the caller only has a logical/section name
+    /// rather than the real file path (for example, a decoder that validates an
+    /// in-memory buffer and does not know where it came from).
+    ///
+    /// `name` is carried in the `path` field of the resulting [`Error::CorruptFile`]
+    /// variant and is NOT a filesystem path; callers that have the real path should
+    /// use [`Self::corrupt_file`] instead.
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn corrupt_file_named(name: &str, message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self::corrupt_file(object_store::path::Path::from(name), message)
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn invalid_input(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        InvalidInputSnafu.into_error(message.into().into())
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn invalid_input_source(source: BoxedError) -> Self {
+        InvalidInputSnafu.into_error(source)
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn io(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        IOSnafu.into_error(message.into().into())
+    }
+
+    /// A successor writer claimed a higher epoch; this writer lost ownership.
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn fenced_by_peer(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        FencedSnafu {
+            reason: FenceReason::PeerClaimedEpoch,
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    /// Our WAL persistence failed; in-memory state may have diverged from the
+    /// durable WAL, so the writer must be reopened to replay.
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn writer_poisoned(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        FencedSnafu {
+            reason: FenceReason::PersistenceFailure,
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    /// The [`FenceReason`] if this is [`Error::Fenced`], else `None`. Prefer this
+    /// over matching the error message to decide how to react to a fence.
+    pub fn fence_reason(&self) -> Option<FenceReason> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Fenced { reason, .. } => Some(*reason),
+            _ => None,
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn io(message: impl Into<String>, location: Location) -> Self {
-        let message: String = message.into();
-        Self::IO {
-            source: message.into(),
-            location,
+    /// A write was refused because the writer is at its memory ceiling; the
+    /// data was never accepted. See [`Error::Backpressure`].
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn backpressure(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        BackpressureSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
         }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this is [`Error::Backpressure`] — i.e. a retryable "writer is
+    /// full" signal rather than a real failure. Prefer this over matching the
+    /// error message.
+    pub fn is_backpressure(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::Backpressure { .. })
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn io_source(source: BoxedError) -> Self {
+        IOSnafu.into_error(source)
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn dataset_already_exists(uri: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        DatasetAlreadyExistsSnafu { uri: uri.into() }.build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn dataset_not_found(path: impl Into<String>, source: BoxedError) -> Self {
+        DatasetNotFoundSnafu { path: path.into() }.into_error(source)
     }
 
+    #[track_caller]
     pub fn version_conflict(
         message: impl Into<String>,
         major_version: u16,
         minor_version: u16,
-        location: Location,
     ) -> Self {
-        let message: String = message.into();
-        Self::VersionConflict {
-            message,
+        VersionConflictSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
             major_version,
             minor_version,
-            location,
         }
+        .build()
     }
 
+    #[track_caller]
     pub fn not_found(uri: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
-        Self::NotFound {
-            uri: uri.into(),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
+        NotFoundSnafu { uri: uri.into() }.build()
+    }
+
+    /// Return whether this error or one of its typed sources is a missing object.
+    pub fn is_not_found(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::NotFound { .. } => true,
+            Self::Wrapped { error, .. }
+                if error.downcast_ref::<CommitStatusUnknownError>().is_some() =>
+            {
+                false
+            }
+            Self::IO { source, .. } | Self::Wrapped { error: source, .. } => {
+                error_source_is_not_found(source.as_ref())
+            }
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn wrapped(error: BoxedError) -> Self {
+        WrappedSnafu.into_error(error)
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn schema(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        SchemaSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn not_supported(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        NotSupportedSnafu.into_error(message.into().into())
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn not_supported_source(source: BoxedError) -> Self {
+        NotSupportedSnafu.into_error(source)
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn internal(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        InternalSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn timeout(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        TimeoutSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn namespace(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        NamespaceSnafu.into_error(message.into().into())
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn namespace_source(source: Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static>) -> Self {
+        NamespaceSnafu.into_error(source)
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn arrow(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        ArrowSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn execution(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        ExecutionSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn cloned(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        ClonedSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
         }
+        .build()
     }
 
-    pub fn schema(message: impl Into<String>, location: Location) -> Self {
-        let message: String = message.into();
-        Self::Schema { message, location }
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn schema_mismatch(difference: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        SchemaMismatchSnafu {
+            difference: difference.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
     }
 
-    pub fn not_supported(message: impl Into<String>, location: Location) -> Self {
-        let message: String = message.into();
-        Self::NotSupported {
-            source: message.into(),
-            location,
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn unprocessable(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        UnprocessableSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn too_much_write_contention(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        TooMuchWriteContentionSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
         }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn prerequisite_failed(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        PrerequisiteFailedSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn index(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        IndexSnafu {
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn index_not_found(identity: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        IndexNotFoundSnafu {
+            identity: identity.into(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn commit_conflict_source(version: u64, source: BoxedError) -> Self {
+        CommitConflictSnafu { version }.into_error(source)
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn retryable_commit_conflict_source(version: u64, source: BoxedError) -> Self {
+        RetryableCommitConflictSnafu { version }.into_error(source)
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn commit_status_unknown_source(version: u64, source: BoxedError) -> Self {
+        Self::wrapped(box_error(CommitStatusUnknownError { version, source }))
+    }
+
+    /// Return whether this error represents a commit whose final outcome could
+    /// not be determined safely.
+    pub fn is_commit_status_unknown(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(
+            self,
+            Self::Wrapped { error, .. }
+                if error.downcast_ref::<CommitStatusUnknownError>().is_some()
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn incompatible_transaction_source(source: BoxedError) -> Self {
+        IncompatibleTransactionSnafu.into_error(source)
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    pub fn disk_cap_exceeded(cap_bytes: u64, used_bytes: u64) -> Self {
+        DiskCapExceededSnafu {
+            cap_bytes,
+            used_bytes,
+        }
+        .build()
     }
 
     /// Create an External error from a boxed error source.
@@ -197,6 +779,16 @@ impl Error {
         Self::External { source }
     }
 
+    /// Create a FieldNotFound error with the given field name and available candidates.
+    pub fn field_not_found(field_name: impl Into<String>, candidates: Vec<String>) -> Self {
+        Self::FieldNotFound {
+            source: FieldNotFoundError {
+                field_name: field_name.into(),
+                candidates,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Returns a reference to the external error source if this is an `External` variant.
     ///
     /// This allows downcasting to recover the original error type.
@@ -218,6 +810,17 @@ impl Error {
     }
 }
 
+fn error_source_is_not_found(source: &(dyn std::error::Error + 'static)) -> bool {
+    if let Some(error) = source.downcast_ref::<Error>() {
+        return error.is_not_found();
+    }
+    if let Some(error) = source.downcast_ref::<object_store::Error>() {
+        return matches!(error, object_store::Error::NotFound { .. })
+            || std::error::Error::source(error).is_some_and(error_source_is_not_found);
+    }
+    source.source().is_some_and(error_source_is_not_found)
+}
+
 pub trait LanceOptionExt<T> {
     /// Unwraps an option, returning an internal error if the option is None.
     ///
@@ -228,21 +831,7 @@ pub trait LanceOptionExt<T> {
 impl<T> LanceOptionExt<T> for Option<T> {
     #[track_caller]
     fn expect_ok(self) -> Result<T> {
-        let location = std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location();
-        self.ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-            message: "Expected option to have value".to_string(),
-            location,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-pub trait ToSnafuLocation {
-    fn to_snafu_location(&'static self) -> snafu::Location;
-}
-
-impl ToSnafuLocation for std::panic::Location<'static> {
-    fn to_snafu_location(&'static self) -> snafu::Location {
-        snafu::Location::new(self.file(), self.line(), self.column())
+        self.ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Expected option to have value"))
     }
 }
 
@@ -262,10 +851,7 @@ impl From<ArrowError> for Error {
                     Err(source) => Self::External { source },
                 }
             }
-            other => Self::Arrow {
-                message: other.to_string(),
-                location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-            },
+            other => Self::arrow(other.to_string()),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -273,29 +859,35 @@ impl From<ArrowError> for Error {
 impl From<&ArrowError> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: &ArrowError) -> Self {
-        Self::Arrow {
-            message: e.to_string(),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::arrow(e.to_string())
     }
 }
 
 impl From<std::io::Error> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: std::io::Error) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
+        // A lance `Error` may have been wrapped in an `io::Error` (e.g. via
+        // `io::Error::other(Error::...)`) to cross an `AsyncWrite`/`AsyncRead`
+        // boundary. Recover it so typed errors such as `DiskCapExceeded`
+        // survive the round-trip instead of collapsing into an opaque `IO`.
+        if e.get_ref().is_some_and(|inner| inner.is::<Self>()) {
+            return *e
+                .into_inner()
+                .expect("checked Some above")
+                .downcast::<Self>()
+                .expect("checked type above");
         }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
 impl From<object_store::Error> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: object_store::Error) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
+        match e {
+            // source intentionally dropped; Error::NotFound carries only the path
+            object_store::Error::NotFound { path, .. } => Self::not_found(path),
+            other => Self::io_source(box_error(other)),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -303,70 +895,49 @@ impl From<object_store::Error> for Error {
 impl From<prost::DecodeError> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: prost::DecodeError) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
 impl From<prost::EncodeError> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: prost::EncodeError) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
 impl From<prost::UnknownEnumValue> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: prost::UnknownEnumValue) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
 impl From<tokio::task::JoinError> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: tokio::task::JoinError) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
 impl From<object_store::path::Error> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: object_store::path::Error) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
 impl From<url::ParseError> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: url::ParseError) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
 impl From<serde_json::Error> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: serde_json::Error) -> Self {
-        Self::Arrow {
-            message: e.to_string(),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::arrow(e.to_string())
     }
 }
 
@@ -387,10 +958,7 @@ impl From<Error> for ArrowError {
 impl From<datafusion_sql::sqlparser::parser::ParserError> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: datafusion_sql::sqlparser::parser::ParserError) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
@@ -398,10 +966,7 @@ impl From<datafusion_sql::sqlparser::parser::ParserError> for Error {
 impl From<datafusion_sql::sqlparser::tokenizer::TokenizerError> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: datafusion_sql::sqlparser::tokenizer::TokenizerError) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
@@ -417,27 +982,50 @@ impl From<Error> for datafusion_common::DataFusionError {
 impl From<datafusion_common::DataFusionError> for Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(e: datafusion_common::DataFusionError) -> Self {
-        let location = std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location();
         match e {
+            // DataFusion wraps an error to attach end-user context and source
+            // spans (`Diagnostic`), a description of what was running
+            // (`Context`), or to report several failures at once
+            // (`Collection`). All three are display-transparent, so the
+            // category has to come from the error underneath; classifying the
+            // wrapper itself reports a malformed query as an internal failure.
+            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Diagnostic(_, inner)
+            | datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Context(_, inner) => Self::from(*inner),
+            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Collection(errors) => {
+                match errors.into_iter().next() {
+                    // `Collection` reports the first error's message, so take
+                    // its category too.
+                    Some(first) => Self::from(first),
+                    None => Self::execution("DataFusion returned an empty error collection"),
+                }
+            }
             datafusion_common::DataFusionError::SQL(..)
             | datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Plan(..)
-            | datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Configuration(..) => Self::InvalidInput {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location,
-            },
-            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::SchemaError(..) => Self::Schema {
-                message: e.to_string(),
-                location,
-            },
+            | datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Configuration(..)
+            | datafusion_common::DataFusionError::SchemaError(..) => {
+                Self::invalid_input_source(box_error(e))
+            }
             datafusion_common::DataFusionError::ArrowError(arrow_err, _) => Self::from(*arrow_err),
-            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::NotImplemented(..) => Self::NotSupported {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location,
-            },
-            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Execution(..) => Self::Execution {
-                message: e.to_string(),
-                location,
-            },
+            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::NotImplemented(..) => {
+                Self::not_supported_source(box_error(e))
+            }
+            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Execution(..) => Self::execution(e.to_string()),
+            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Shared(shared) => {
+                // DataFusion shares an error across consumers (e.g. a join's
+                // build-side error fanned out to every probe partition) behind an
+                // `Arc`. If we are the sole owner we can recurse for full fidelity;
+                // otherwise re-wrap in `Shared` so the concrete error type is still
+                // reachable via `Error::source` / `downcast_ref`.
+                match std::sync::Arc::try_unwrap(shared) {
+                    Ok(inner) => Self::from(inner),
+                    Err(shared) => {
+                        let rewrapped = datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Shared(shared);
+                        Self::External {
+                            source: box_error(rewrapped),
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
             datafusion_common::DataFusionError::External(source) => {
                 // Try to downcast to lance_core::Error first
                 match source.downcast::<Self>() {
@@ -445,10 +1033,7 @@ impl From<datafusion_common::DataFusionError> for Error {
                     Err(source) => Self::External { source },
                 }
             }
-            _ => Self::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location,
-            },
+            _ => Self::io_source(box_error(e)),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -473,17 +1058,82 @@ pub fn get_caller_location() -> &'static std::panic::Location<'static> {
 /// Wrap an error in a new error type that implements Clone
 ///
 /// This is useful when two threads/streams share a common fallible source
-/// The base error will always have the full error.  Any cloned results will
-/// only have Error::Cloned with the to_string of the base error.
+/// The variants whose meaning callers read through an accessor rather than
+/// through the message survive the clone: definite not-found errors keep typed
+/// source-chain detection (`is_not_found`), fenced errors keep their
+/// [`FenceReason`] (`fence_reason`), backpressure stays backpressure
+/// (`is_backpressure`), and an unknown commit outcome keeps its version
+/// (`is_commit_status_unknown`) with the typed source degraded to its message.
+/// Timeout and I/O errors preserve their categories. Everything else becomes
+/// `Error::Cloned` carrying the string representation.
+///
+/// One gap: [`Error::External`] is not preserved, because its source is not
+/// cloneable and rebuilding it from a message would leave `external_source`
+/// returning `Some` while the downcast the caller wants fails. After a clone,
+/// `external_source` and `into_external` no longer recover the original error.
 pub struct CloneableError(pub Error);
 
+struct DisplayError(Error);
+
+impl fmt::Debug for DisplayError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        fmt::Display::fmt(self, f)
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for DisplayError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        fmt::Display::fmt(&self.0, f)
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for DisplayError {
+    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn std::error::Error + 'static)> {
+        Some(&self.0)
+    }
+}
+
 impl Clone for CloneableError {
     #[track_caller]
     fn clone(&self) -> Self {
-        Self(Error::Cloned {
-            message: self.0.to_string(),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        })
+        // Same reasoning for `is_commit_status_unknown`, but its typed source is
+        // not cloneable, so the rebuild keeps the version and carries the
+        // source's own message, as the `NotFound` arm does.
+        if let Error::Wrapped { error, .. } = &self.0
+            && let Some(unknown) = error.downcast_ref::<CommitStatusUnknownError>()
+        {
+            let source = std::error::Error::source(unknown)
+                .map(|source| source.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| unknown.to_string());
+            return Self(Error::commit_status_unknown_source(
+                unknown.version(),
+                box_error(DisplayError(Error::cloned(source))),
+            ));
+        }
+        match &self.0 {
+            Error::NotFound { uri, .. } => Self(Error::wrapped(Box::new(DisplayError(
+                Error::not_found(uri.clone()),
+            )))),
+            error if error.is_not_found() => Self(Error::wrapped(Box::new(DisplayError(
+                Error::not_found(error.to_string()),
+            )))),
+            Error::Timeout { message, .. } => Self(Error::timeout(message.clone())),
+            Error::IO { source, .. } => Self(Error::io(source.to_string())),
+            // Callers react to these via `fence_reason` / `is_backpressure`
+            // rather than the message; collapsing them into a cloned string
+            // would silently drop that signal across the clone boundary.
+            Error::Fenced {
+                reason, message, ..
+            } => Self(
+                FencedSnafu {
+                    reason: *reason,
+                    message: message.clone(),
+                }
+                .build(),
+            ),
+            Error::Backpressure { message, .. } => Self(Error::backpressure(message.clone())),
+            error => Self(Error::cloned(error.to_string())),
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -499,8 +1149,94 @@ impl<T: Clone> From<Result<T>> for CloneableResult<T> {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
     use super::*;
+    use std::error::Error as _;
     use std::fmt;
 
+    /// The variants whose meaning lives in an accessor rather than in the
+    /// message: collapsing them into a cloned string drops the signal.
+    #[test]
+    fn cloneable_error_preserves_accessor_contracts() {
+        // Both reasons, because carrying `reason` through is the arm's whole job.
+        for (original, expected) in [
+            (
+                Error::fenced_by_peer("peer claimed epoch 7"),
+                FenceReason::PeerClaimedEpoch,
+            ),
+            (
+                Error::writer_poisoned("wal flush failed"),
+                FenceReason::PersistenceFailure,
+            ),
+        ] {
+            let original = CloneableError(original);
+            assert_eq!(original.0.fence_reason(), Some(expected));
+            assert_eq!(original.clone().0.fence_reason(), Some(expected));
+        }
+
+        let original = CloneableError(Error::backpressure("writer at memory ceiling"));
+        let cloned = original.clone();
+        assert!(original.0.is_backpressure());
+        assert!(cloned.0.is_backpressure());
+
+        let original = CloneableError(Error::commit_status_unknown_source(
+            7,
+            box_error(DisplayError(Error::timeout("put timed out"))),
+        ));
+        let cloned = original.clone();
+        // Cloning the clone must not degrade it further.
+        let twice = cloned.clone();
+        assert!(original.0.is_commit_status_unknown());
+        assert!(cloned.0.is_commit_status_unknown());
+        assert!(!cloned.0.is_not_found());
+        assert!(twice.0.is_commit_status_unknown());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn cloneable_error_preserves_not_found_contract() {
+        let original = CloneableError(Error::not_found("metadata.lance"));
+        let cloned = original.clone();
+        let cloned_again = cloned.clone();
+        assert!(matches!(original.0, Error::NotFound { .. }));
+        assert!(cloned.0.is_not_found());
+        assert!(cloned_again.0.is_not_found());
+        assert!(cloned.0.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("not found"));
+        assert!(
+            cloned_again
+                .0
+                .to_string()
+                .to_lowercase()
+                .contains("not found")
+        );
+        assert!(
+            format!("{:?}", cloned.0)
+                .to_lowercase()
+                .contains("not found")
+        );
+        assert!(cloned.0.source().is_some_and(|source| source.is::<Error>()
+            || source.source().is_some_and(|source| source.is::<Error>())));
+        let downstream_error = Error::wrapped(Box::new(Error::io_source(Box::new(
+            object_store::Error::Generic {
+                store: "N/A",
+                source: Box::new(cloned.0),
+            },
+        ))));
+        assert!(downstream_error.is_not_found());
+        assert!(
+            format!("{downstream_error:?}")
+                .to_lowercase()
+                .contains("not found")
+        );
+
+        let original = CloneableError(Error::timeout("metadata read timed out"));
+        let cloned = original.clone();
+        assert!(matches!(original.0, Error::Timeout { .. }));
+        assert!(matches!(cloned.0, Error::Timeout { .. }));
+
+        let original = CloneableError(Error::io("metadata read was denied"));
+        let cloned = original.clone();
+        assert!(matches!(original.0, Error::IO { .. }));
+        assert!(matches!(cloned.0, Error::IO { .. }));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_caller_location_capture() {
         let current_fn = get_caller_location();
@@ -516,13 +1252,48 @@ mod test {
         match f().unwrap_err() {
             Error::IO { location, .. } => {
                 // +4 is the beginning of object_store::Error::Generic...
-                assert_eq!(location.line, current_fn.line() + 4, "{}", location)
+                assert_eq!(location.line(), current_fn.line() + 4, "{}", location)
             }
             #[allow(unreachable_patterns)]
             _ => panic!("expected ObjectStore error"),
         }
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_caller_location_capture_not_found() {
+        let current_fn = get_caller_location();
+        let f: Box<dyn Fn() -> Result<()>> = Box::new(|| {
+            Err(object_store::Error::NotFound {
+                path: "some/path".to_string(),
+                source: "not found".into(),
+            })?;
+            Ok(())
+        });
+        match f().unwrap_err() {
+            Error::NotFound { location, .. } => {
+                // +2 is the beginning of object_store::Error::NotFound...
+                assert_eq!(location.line(), current_fn.line() + 2, "{}", location)
+            }
+            #[allow(unreachable_patterns)]
+            other => panic!("expected NotFound, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_object_store_not_found_converts_to_not_found() {
+        let os_err = object_store::Error::NotFound {
+            path: "test/path".to_string(),
+            source: "no such file".into(),
+        };
+        let lance_err: Error = os_err.into();
+        match lance_err {
+            Error::NotFound { uri, .. } => {
+                assert_eq!(uri, "test/path");
+            }
+            other => panic!("Expected NotFound, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+    }
+
     #[derive(Debug)]
     struct MyCustomError {
         code: i32,
@@ -537,6 +1308,52 @@ mod test {
 
     impl std::error::Error for MyCustomError {}
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_io_error_recovers_wrapped_lance_error() {
+        // A lance Error wrapped in io::Error::other should round-trip back to
+        // the original variant rather than collapsing into Error::IO.
+        let io_err = std::io::Error::other(Error::disk_cap_exceeded(100, 50));
+        let recovered: Error = io_err.into();
+        match recovered {
+            Error::DiskCapExceeded {
+                cap_bytes,
+                used_bytes,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                assert_eq!(cap_bytes, 100);
+                assert_eq!(used_bytes, 50);
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected DiskCapExceeded, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_io_error_without_lance_error_stays_io() {
+        // A plain io::Error (no wrapped lance Error) should become Error::IO.
+        let io_err = std::io::Error::new(std::io::ErrorKind::NotFound, "missing");
+        let converted: Error = io_err.into();
+        assert!(matches!(converted, Error::IO { .. }));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_commit_status_unknown_is_structured_without_masking_as_not_found() {
+        let error = Error::commit_status_unknown_source(
+            42,
+            box_error(Error::not_found("temporarily invisible manifest")),
+        );
+
+        assert!(error.is_commit_status_unknown());
+        assert!(!error.is_not_found());
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("version 42 is unknown"));
+        let Error::Wrapped { error, .. } = error else {
+            panic!("commit-status-unknown must use the semver-compatible wrapper")
+        };
+        let status = error
+            .downcast_ref::<CommitStatusUnknownError>()
+            .expect("wrapper must retain the typed commit status");
+        assert_eq!(status.version(), 42);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_external_error_creation() {
         let custom_err = MyCustomError {
@@ -568,7 +1385,7 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(recovered.code, 123);
 
         // Test that non-External variants return None
-        let io_err = Error::io("test", snafu::Location::new("test", 1, 1));
+        let io_err = Error::io("test");
         assert!(io_err.external_source().is_none());
     }
 
@@ -589,7 +1406,7 @@ mod test {
         }
 
         // Test that non-External variants return Err(self)
-        let io_err = Error::io("test", snafu::Location::new("test", 1, 1));
+        let io_err = Error::io("test");
         match io_err.into_external() {
             Err(Error::IO { .. }) => {}
             _ => panic!("Expected Err with IO variant"),
@@ -632,6 +1449,114 @@ mod test {
         }
     }
 
+    #[cfg(feature = "datafusion")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_datafusion_schema_error_is_invalid_input() {
+        // Schema errors from DataFusion (e.g., a filter referencing an unknown
+        // column) are user-input failures, not internal lance failures. They
+        // must surface as `Error::InvalidInput` so downstream FFI/Python
+        // bindings can map them to the right user-facing error code.
+        use datafusion_common::Column;
+
+        let schema_err = datafusion_common::SchemaError::FieldNotFound {
+            field: Box::new(Column::from_name("missing_col")),
+            valid_fields: vec![],
+        };
+        let df_err =
+            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::SchemaError(Box::new(schema_err), Box::new(None));
+        let lance_err: Error = df_err.into();
+
+        match lance_err {
+            Error::InvalidInput { .. } => {
+                assert!(
+                    lance_err.to_string().contains("missing_col"),
+                    "expected the column name to survive in the error message, got: {lance_err}"
+                );
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected InvalidInput variant, got {:?}", lance_err),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// DataFusion wraps errors to attach end-user context (`Diagnostic`), a
+    /// description of what was running (`Context`), or to report several at
+    /// once (`Collection`). All three are display-transparent, so a wrapped
+    /// user error looks exactly like an unwrapped one but would be classified
+    /// as an internal failure if the conversion matched on the wrapper.
+    #[cfg(feature = "datafusion")]
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::diagnostic(|inner| datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Diagnostic(
+        Box::new(datafusion_common::Diagnostic::new_error("invalid function", None)),
+        Box::new(inner),
+    ))]
+    #[case::context(|inner| datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Context(
+        "type_coercion".to_string(),
+        Box::new(inner),
+    ))]
+    #[case::collection(|inner| datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Collection(vec![inner]))]
+    #[case::nested(|inner| datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Diagnostic(
+        Box::new(datafusion_common::Diagnostic::new_error("invalid function", None)),
+        Box::new(datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Context(
+            "type_coercion".to_string(),
+            Box::new(inner),
+        )),
+    ))]
+    fn test_datafusion_wrapped_plan_error_is_invalid_input(
+        #[case] wrap: fn(datafusion_common::DataFusionError) -> datafusion_common::DataFusionError,
+    ) {
+        let df_err = wrap(datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Plan(
+            "Invalid function 'no_such_function'".to_string(),
+        ));
+        let lance_err = Error::from(df_err);
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(lance_err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {lance_err:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            lance_err.to_string().contains("no_such_function"),
+            "expected the function name to survive, got: {lance_err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Unwrapping must classify by the inner error rather than assume the
+    /// wrapper always hides a user error.
+    #[cfg(feature = "datafusion")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_datafusion_wrapped_internal_error_is_not_invalid_input() {
+        let df_err = datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Context(
+            "while running".to_string(),
+            Box::new(datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "invariant violated".to_string(),
+            )),
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(Error::from(df_err), Error::IO { .. }),
+            "an internal DataFusion failure must not be reported as user input"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A Lance error that round-trips through DataFusion keeps its own
+    /// category even when DataFusion wraps it on the way back.
+    #[cfg(feature = "datafusion")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_wrapped_external_lance_error_keeps_its_category() {
+        let df_err = datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Context(
+            "while scanning".to_string(),
+            Box::new(datafusion_common::DataFusionError::from(Error::io(
+                "object store unavailable",
+            ))),
+        );
+
+        match Error::from(df_err) {
+            Error::IO { source, .. } => assert!(
+                source.to_string().contains("object store unavailable"),
+                "expected the original message, got: {source}"
+            ),
+            other => panic!("expected the original IO error, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
     #[cfg(feature = "datafusion")]
     #[test]
     fn test_datafusion_external_error_conversion() {
@@ -679,10 +1604,7 @@ mod test {
     /// (e.g., via RecordBatchIterator) before being converted back.
     #[test]
     fn test_lance_error_roundtrip_through_arrow() {
-        let original = Error::invalid_input(
-            "test validation error",
-            snafu::Location::new("test.rs", 10, 1),
-        );
+        let original = Error::invalid_input("test validation error");
 
         // Simulate what happens when using ? in an Arrow context
         let arrow_err: ArrowError = original.into();
@@ -707,10 +1629,7 @@ mod test {
     #[cfg(feature = "datafusion")]
     #[test]
     fn test_lance_error_roundtrip_through_datafusion() {
-        let original = Error::invalid_input(
-            "test validation error",
-            snafu::Location::new("test.rs", 10, 1),
-        );
+        let original = Error::invalid_input("test validation error");
 
         // Simulate what happens when using ? in a DataFusion context
         let df_err: datafusion_common::DataFusionError = original.into();
@@ -726,4 +1645,104 @@ mod test {
             _ => panic!("Expected InvalidInput variant, got {:?}", recovered),
         }
     }
+
+    /// Test that a typed error survives a multiply-owned `DataFusionError::Shared`.
+    ///
+    /// When DataFusion fans one error out to multiple consumers via `Arc`, we
+    /// cannot move the inner error out.  The typed source must still be
+    /// reachable after conversion to `lance_core::Error`.
+    #[cfg(feature = "datafusion")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_datafusion_shared_multi_owner_preserves_type() {
+        let custom_err = MyCustomError {
+            code: 42,
+            message: "shared typed error".to_string(),
+        };
+        let marker = datafusion_common::DataFusionError::External(Box::new(custom_err));
+        // Put it in an Arc and keep a second owner so try_unwrap fails.
+        let arc = std::sync::Arc::new(marker);
+        let _arc2 = arc.clone();
+        let shared = datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Shared(arc);
+
+        let lance_err: Error = shared.into();
+
+        // The concrete error must be discoverable via source chain.
+        let mut found = false;
+        let mut src: Option<&dyn std::error::Error> = Some(&lance_err);
+        while let Some(e) = src {
+            if e.downcast_ref::<MyCustomError>().is_some() {
+                found = true;
+                break;
+            }
+            src = e.source();
+        }
+        assert!(
+            found,
+            "MyCustomError not found in source chain: {lance_err:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_backtrace_accessor() {
+        // Verify that backtrace() returns the expected result based on feature state
+        let err = Error::io("test backtrace");
+        let bt = err.backtrace();
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtrace")]
+        {
+            // With the backtrace feature enabled, whether a backtrace is captured
+            // depends on the RUST_BACKTRACE env var at runtime. We just verify
+            // the accessor doesn't panic and returns a valid Option.
+            let _ = bt;
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(feature = "backtrace"))]
+        {
+            // Without the backtrace feature, this must always be None.
+            assert!(bt.is_none());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_backtrace_captured_when_feature_enabled() {
+        // Test that backtrace is actually captured when the feature is on and
+        // RUST_BACKTRACE=1 is set in the environment before the process starts.
+        //
+        // NOTE: std::backtrace::Backtrace caches the RUST_BACKTRACE env check,
+        // so set_var at runtime does not reliably enable capture. This test
+        // verifies the accessor works correctly in both cases:
+        // - If RUST_BACKTRACE=1 was set before the test binary started, we get Some.
+        // - If not, we get None (even with the feature on), which is expected.
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtrace")]
+        {
+            let err = Error::io("backtrace capture test");
+            if std::env::var("RUST_BACKTRACE").is_ok() {
+                assert!(
+                    err.backtrace().is_some(),
+                    "Expected a backtrace when RUST_BACKTRACE=1 and backtrace feature is enabled"
+                );
+            }
+            // When RUST_BACKTRACE is not set, backtrace() may return None even
+            // with the feature enabled — this is correct runtime gating behavior.
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(feature = "backtrace"))]
+        {
+            let err = Error::io("backtrace capture test");
+            assert!(err.backtrace().is_none());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_backtrace_returns_none_for_variants_without_location() {
+        let err = Error::InvalidTableLocation {
+            message: "test".to_string(),
+        };
+        assert!(err.backtrace().is_none());
+
+        let err = Error::InvalidRef {
+            message: "test".to_string(),
+        };
+        assert!(err.backtrace().is_none());
+
+        let err = Error::Stop;
+        assert!(err.backtrace().is_none());
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/levenshtein.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/levenshtein.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ebf5d890127
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/levenshtein.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+/// Calculate the Levenshtein distance between two strings.
+///
+/// The Levenshtein distance is a measure of the number of single-character edits
+/// (insertions, deletions, or substitutions) required to change one word into the other.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_core::levenshtein::levenshtein_distance;
+///
+/// assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("kitten", "sitting"), 3);
+/// assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "hello"), 0);
+/// ```
+pub fn levenshtein_distance(s1: &str, s2: &str) -> usize {
+    let s1_chars: Vec<char> = s1.chars().collect();
+    let s2_chars: Vec<char> = s2.chars().collect();
+    let m = s1_chars.len();
+    let n = s2_chars.len();
+
+    if m == 0 {
+        return n;
+    }
+    if n == 0 {
+        return m;
+    }
+
+    // Use two rows instead of full matrix for space efficiency
+    let mut prev_row: Vec<usize> = (0..=n).collect();
+    let mut curr_row: Vec<usize> = vec![0; n + 1];
+
+    for (i, s1_char) in s1_chars.iter().enumerate() {
+        curr_row[0] = i + 1;
+        for (j, s2_char) in s2_chars.iter().enumerate() {
+            let cost = if s1_char == s2_char { 0 } else { 1 };
+            curr_row[j + 1] = (prev_row[j + 1] + 1)
+                .min(curr_row[j] + 1)
+                .min(prev_row[j] + cost);
+        }
+        std::mem::swap(&mut prev_row, &mut curr_row);
+    }
+
+    prev_row[n]
+}
+
+/// Find the best suggestion from a list of options based on Levenshtein distance.
+///
+/// Returns `Some(suggestion)` if there's an option where the Levenshtein distance
+/// is at most 1/3 of the length of the input string (integer division).
+/// Otherwise returns `None`.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_core::levenshtein::find_best_suggestion;
+///
+/// let options = vec!["vector", "id", "name"];
+/// assert_eq!(find_best_suggestion("vacter", &options), Some("vector"));
+/// assert_eq!(find_best_suggestion("hello", &options), None);
+/// ```
+pub fn find_best_suggestion<'a, 'b>(
+    input: &'a str,
+    options: &'b [impl AsRef<str>],
+) -> Option<&'b str> {
+    let input_len = input.chars().count();
+    if input_len == 0 {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let threshold = input_len / 3;
+    let mut best_option: Option<(&'b str, usize)> = None;
+    for option in options {
+        let distance = levenshtein_distance(input, option.as_ref());
+        if distance <= threshold {
+            match &best_option {
+                None => best_option = Some((option.as_ref(), distance)),
+                Some((_, best_distance)) => {
+                    if distance < *best_distance {
+                        best_option = Some((option.as_ref(), distance));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    best_option.map(|(option, _)| option)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_levenshtein_distance() {
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("", ""), 0);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("a", ""), 1);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("", "a"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("abc", "abc"), 0);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("abc", ""), 3);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("", "abc"), 3);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("kitten", "sitting"), 3);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("saturday", "sunday"), 3);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("vector", "vectr"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("vector", "vextor"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("vector", "vvector"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("abc", "xyz"), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_find_best_suggestion() {
+        let options = vec!["vector", "id", "name", "column", "table"];
+
+        assert_eq!(find_best_suggestion("vacter", &options), Some("vector"));
+        assert_eq!(find_best_suggestion("vectr", &options), Some("vector"));
+        assert_eq!(find_best_suggestion("tble", &options), Some("table"));
+
+        // Should return None if no good match
+        assert_eq!(find_best_suggestion("hello", &options), None);
+        assert_eq!(find_best_suggestion("xyz", &options), None);
+
+        // Should return None if input is too short
+        assert_eq!(find_best_suggestion("v", &options), None);
+        assert_eq!(find_best_suggestion("", &options), None);
+
+        // Picks closest when multiple are close
+        assert_eq!(
+            find_best_suggestion("vecor", &["vector", "vendor"]),
+            Some("vector")
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/lib.rs
index 8c669eda223..2c93f8772a1 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/lib.rs
@@ -2,17 +2,22 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 #![cfg_attr(coverage, feature(coverage_attribute))]
 
+// Allow the derive macro to reference `lance_core::deepsize` from within this crate.
+extern crate self as lance_core;
+
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField};
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 
 pub mod cache;
 pub mod container;
 pub mod datatypes;
+pub mod deepsize;
 pub mod error;
+pub mod levenshtein;
 pub mod traits;
 pub mod utils;
 
-pub use error::{box_error, ArrowResult, Error, Result};
+pub use error::{ArrowResult, Error, FenceReason, Result, box_error};
 
 /// Wildcard to indicate all non-system columns
 pub const WILDCARD: &str = "*";
@@ -46,6 +51,33 @@ pub static ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD: LazyLock<ArrowField> =
 pub static ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD: LazyLock<ArrowField> =
     LazyLock::new(|| ArrowField::new(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, DataType::UInt64, true));
 
+/// Field id of the hidden `_rowid` column a spilled row id sequence lives in.
+///
+/// Field ids are `i32` and every negative value is reserved for system use:
+/// `-1` is the unassigned sentinel, `-2` the tombstone for a field superseded by
+/// a later data file, and `-3..=-5` the three row lineage columns.
+pub const ROW_ID_FIELD_ID: i32 = -3;
+/// Field id of the hidden `_row_created_at_version` column a spilled created-at
+/// version sequence lives in.
+pub const ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID: i32 = -4;
+/// Field id of the hidden `_row_last_updated_at_version` column a spilled
+/// last-updated-at version sequence lives in.
+pub const ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID: i32 = -5;
+
+/// The reserved field id of a row lineage column, by column name.
+///
+/// These are the only negative field ids a data file schema may carry: a
+/// lineage sequence spilled into the fragment's own data file is written as a
+/// column under this id, next to the user columns.
+pub fn row_lineage_field_id(column_name: &str) -> Option<i32> {
+    match column_name {
+        ROW_ID => Some(ROW_ID_FIELD_ID),
+        ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION => Some(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID),
+        ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION => Some(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
 /// Check if a column name is a system column.
 ///
 /// System columns are virtual columns that are computed at read time and don't
@@ -55,6 +87,9 @@ pub static ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD: LazyLock<ArrowField> =
 /// - `_rowoffset`: The row offset
 /// - `_row_last_updated_at_version`: The version when the row was last updated
 /// - `_row_created_at_version`: The version when the row was created
+///
+/// Write paths must reject a stored column named for one: the scanner injects
+/// these itself, so a stored copy collides with the injected one on read.
 pub fn is_system_column(column_name: &str) -> bool {
     matches!(
         column_name,
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/traits.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/traits.rs
index 56905703a86..cc43d7e0d66 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/traits.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/traits.rs
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ use std::fmt::Debug;
 
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 
-use crate::{datatypes::Schema, Result};
+use crate::{Result, datatypes::Schema};
 
 /// `TakeRow` trait.
 ///
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils.rs
index 663454e001b..c519fddaf3a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils.rs
@@ -2,17 +2,22 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 pub mod address;
+pub mod aimd;
 pub mod assume;
 pub mod backoff;
 pub mod bit;
 pub mod blob;
+pub mod bloomfilter;
 pub mod cpu;
 pub mod deletion;
+pub mod fragment_reuse;
 pub mod futures;
 pub mod hash;
-pub mod mask;
+pub mod io_stats;
 pub mod parse;
 pub mod path;
+pub mod row_addr_remap;
+pub mod stable_partition;
 pub mod tempfile;
 pub mod testing;
 pub mod tokio;
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/aimd.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/aimd.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..13bca4aff91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/aimd.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,679 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! AIMD (Additive Increase / Multiplicative Decrease) rate controller.
+//!
+//! This module provides a reusable AIMD algorithm for dynamically adjusting
+//! request rates. On success windows, the rate increases additively. On
+//! windows with throttle signals, the rate decreases multiplicatively.
+//!
+//! The algorithm operates in discrete time windows. At the end of each window,
+//! the throttle ratio (throttled / total) is compared against a threshold:
+//! - Above threshold: `rate = max(rate * decrease_factor, min_rate)`
+//! - At or below threshold: `rate = min(rate + additive_increment, max_rate)`
+
+use std::sync::Mutex;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use crate::Result;
+
+/// Configuration for the AIMD rate controller.
+///
+/// Use builder methods to customize. Defaults are tuned for cloud object stores
+/// and will start at about 40% of the max rate and require 10 seconds to reach
+/// the max rate.
+///
+/// - initial_rate: 2000 req/s
+/// - min_rate: 1 req/s
+/// - max_rate: 5000 req/s (0.0 disables the ceiling; must be finite otherwise)
+/// - decrease_factor: 0.5 (halve on throttle)
+/// - additive_increment: 300 req/s per success window
+/// - window_duration: 1 second
+/// - throttle_threshold: 0.0 (any throttle triggers decrease)
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct AimdConfig {
+    pub initial_rate: f64,
+    pub min_rate: f64,
+    pub max_rate: f64,
+    pub decrease_factor: f64,
+    pub additive_increment: f64,
+    pub window_duration: Duration,
+    pub throttle_threshold: f64,
+}
+
+impl Default for AimdConfig {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            initial_rate: 2000.0,
+            min_rate: 1.0,
+            max_rate: 5000.0,
+            decrease_factor: 0.5,
+            additive_increment: 300.0,
+            window_duration: Duration::from_secs(1),
+            throttle_threshold: 0.0,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AimdConfig {
+    pub fn with_initial_rate(self, initial_rate: f64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            initial_rate,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_min_rate(self, min_rate: f64) -> Self {
+        Self { min_rate, ..self }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_max_rate(self, max_rate: f64) -> Self {
+        Self { max_rate, ..self }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_decrease_factor(self, decrease_factor: f64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            decrease_factor,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_additive_increment(self, additive_increment: f64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            additive_increment,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_window_duration(self, window_duration: Duration) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            window_duration,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_throttle_threshold(self, throttle_threshold: f64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            throttle_threshold,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Validate that the configuration values are sensible.
+    pub fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        // Reject NaN and infinity first. The sign and ordering checks below
+        // compare with `<`/`>`, which are `false` for NaN and for a `+inf` on
+        // a field with no opposing bound, so a non-finite rate would otherwise
+        // slip through and silently disable throttling (a NaN rate makes the
+        // token bucket refill to full on every acquire) or, with a zero burst
+        // capacity, panic in `Duration::from_secs_f64`.
+        for (name, value) in [
+            ("initial_rate", self.initial_rate),
+            ("min_rate", self.min_rate),
+            ("max_rate", self.max_rate),
+            ("decrease_factor", self.decrease_factor),
+            ("additive_increment", self.additive_increment),
+            ("throttle_threshold", self.throttle_threshold),
+        ] {
+            if !value.is_finite() {
+                return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "{name} must be finite, got {value}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        if self.initial_rate <= 0.0 {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "initial_rate must be positive, got {}",
+                self.initial_rate
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.min_rate <= 0.0 {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "min_rate must be positive, got {}",
+                self.min_rate
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.max_rate < 0.0 {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "max_rate must be non-negative (0.0 = no ceiling), got {}",
+                self.max_rate
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.max_rate > 0.0 && self.min_rate > self.max_rate {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "min_rate ({}) must not exceed max_rate ({})",
+                self.min_rate, self.max_rate
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.decrease_factor <= 0.0 || self.decrease_factor >= 1.0 {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "decrease_factor must be in (0, 1), got {}",
+                self.decrease_factor
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.additive_increment <= 0.0 {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "additive_increment must be positive, got {}",
+                self.additive_increment
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.window_duration.is_zero() {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(
+                "window_duration must be non-zero",
+            ));
+        }
+        if !(0.0..=1.0).contains(&self.throttle_threshold) {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "throttle_threshold must be in [0.0, 1.0], got {}",
+                self.throttle_threshold
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.max_rate > 0.0 && self.initial_rate > self.max_rate {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "initial_rate ({}) must not exceed max_rate ({})",
+                self.initial_rate, self.max_rate
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.initial_rate < self.min_rate {
+            return Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "initial_rate ({}) must not be below min_rate ({})",
+                self.initial_rate, self.min_rate
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Outcome of a single request, used to feed the AIMD controller.
+///
+/// Non-throttle errors (e.g. 404, network timeout) should be mapped to
+/// `Success` since they don't indicate capacity problems.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum RequestOutcome {
+    Success,
+    Throttled,
+}
+
+struct AimdState {
+    rate: f64,
+    window_start: std::time::Instant,
+    success_count: u64,
+    throttle_count: u64,
+}
+
+/// AIMD rate controller.
+///
+/// Thread-safe: uses an internal `Mutex` to protect state. The lock is held
+/// only briefly during `record_outcome` and `current_rate`.
+pub struct AimdController {
+    config: AimdConfig,
+    state: Mutex<AimdState>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for AimdController {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("AimdController")
+            .field("config", &self.config)
+            .field("rate", &self.current_rate())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl AimdController {
+    /// Create a new AIMD controller with the given configuration.
+    pub fn new(config: AimdConfig) -> Result<Self> {
+        config.validate()?;
+        let rate = config.initial_rate;
+        Ok(Self {
+            config,
+            state: Mutex::new(AimdState {
+                rate,
+                window_start: std::time::Instant::now(),
+                success_count: 0,
+                throttle_count: 0,
+            }),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Record a request outcome and return the current rate.
+    ///
+    /// If the current time window has expired, the rate is adjusted before
+    /// recording the new outcome in a fresh window.
+    pub fn record_outcome(&self, outcome: RequestOutcome) -> f64 {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
+        self.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, outcome, std::time::Instant::now())
+    }
+
+    fn record_outcome_inner(
+        &self,
+        state: &mut AimdState,
+        outcome: RequestOutcome,
+        now: std::time::Instant,
+    ) -> f64 {
+        // Check if the window has expired
+        let elapsed = now.duration_since(state.window_start);
+        if elapsed >= self.config.window_duration {
+            let total = state.success_count + state.throttle_count;
+            if total > 0 {
+                let throttle_ratio = state.throttle_count as f64 / total as f64;
+                if throttle_ratio > self.config.throttle_threshold {
+                    // Multiplicative decrease
+                    state.rate =
+                        (state.rate * self.config.decrease_factor).max(self.config.min_rate);
+                } else {
+                    // Additive increase
+                    state.rate += self.config.additive_increment;
+                    if self.config.max_rate > 0.0 {
+                        state.rate = state.rate.min(self.config.max_rate);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            // Reset window
+            state.window_start = now;
+            state.success_count = 0;
+            state.throttle_count = 0;
+        }
+
+        // Record this outcome
+        match outcome {
+            RequestOutcome::Success => state.success_count += 1,
+            RequestOutcome::Throttled => state.throttle_count += 1,
+        }
+
+        state.rate
+    }
+
+    /// Get the current rate without recording an outcome.
+    pub fn current_rate(&self) -> f64 {
+        self.state.lock().unwrap().rate
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::zero_initial_rate(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(0.0),
+        "initial_rate must be positive"
+    )]
+    #[case::negative_min_rate(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_min_rate(-1.0),
+        "min_rate must be positive"
+    )]
+    #[case::negative_max_rate(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_max_rate(-1.0),
+        "max_rate must be non-negative"
+    )]
+    #[case::min_exceeds_max(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_min_rate(100.0).with_max_rate(10.0),
+        "min_rate (100) must not exceed max_rate (10)"
+    )]
+    #[case::decrease_factor_zero(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_decrease_factor(0.0),
+        "decrease_factor must be in (0, 1)"
+    )]
+    #[case::decrease_factor_one(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_decrease_factor(1.0),
+        "decrease_factor must be in (0, 1)"
+    )]
+    #[case::decrease_factor_over_one(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_decrease_factor(1.5),
+        "decrease_factor must be in (0, 1)"
+    )]
+    #[case::zero_additive_increment(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_additive_increment(0.0),
+        "additive_increment must be positive"
+    )]
+    #[case::zero_window_duration(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_window_duration(Duration::ZERO),
+        "window_duration must be non-zero"
+    )]
+    #[case::threshold_over_one(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_throttle_threshold(1.1),
+        "throttle_threshold must be in [0.0, 1.0]"
+    )]
+    #[case::threshold_negative(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_throttle_threshold(-0.1),
+        "throttle_threshold must be in [0.0, 1.0]"
+    )]
+    #[case::initial_exceeds_max(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(6000.0),
+        "initial_rate (6000) must not exceed max_rate (5000)"
+    )]
+    #[case::initial_below_min(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(0.5).with_min_rate(1.0),
+        "initial_rate (0.5) must not be below min_rate (1)"
+    )]
+    #[case::nan_initial_rate(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(f64::NAN),
+        "initial_rate must be finite"
+    )]
+    #[case::inf_initial_rate(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(f64::INFINITY),
+        "initial_rate must be finite"
+    )]
+    #[case::nan_min_rate(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_min_rate(f64::NAN),
+        "min_rate must be finite"
+    )]
+    #[case::nan_max_rate(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_max_rate(f64::NAN),
+        "max_rate must be finite"
+    )]
+    #[case::inf_max_rate(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_max_rate(f64::INFINITY),
+        "max_rate must be finite"
+    )]
+    #[case::nan_decrease_factor(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_decrease_factor(f64::NAN),
+        "decrease_factor must be finite"
+    )]
+    #[case::nan_additive_increment(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_additive_increment(f64::NAN),
+        "additive_increment must be finite"
+    )]
+    #[case::nan_throttle_threshold(
+        AimdConfig::default().with_throttle_threshold(f64::NAN),
+        "throttle_threshold must be finite"
+    )]
+    fn test_config_validation_rejects_invalid(
+        #[case] config: AimdConfig,
+        #[case] expected_msg: &str,
+    ) {
+        let err = config.validate().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&err, crate::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got: {err:?}"
+        );
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains(expected_msg),
+            "Expected error containing '{}', got: {}",
+            expected_msg,
+            msg
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_default_config_is_valid() {
+        AimdConfig::default().validate().unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_no_ceiling_config_is_valid() {
+        AimdConfig::default().with_max_rate(0.0).validate().unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_additive_increase_on_success_window() {
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+            .with_additive_increment(10.0)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        // Record some successes in the first window
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, start);
+        }
+
+        // Advance past the window boundary and record another success
+        let after_window = start + Duration::from_millis(150);
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, after_window);
+        }
+
+        // Rate should have increased by additive_increment
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 110.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multiplicative_decrease_on_throttle_window() {
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+            .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Throttled, start);
+        }
+
+        // Advance past window
+        let after_window = start + Duration::from_millis(150);
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, after_window);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 50.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_floor_enforcement() {
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(2.0)
+            .with_min_rate(1.0)
+            .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Throttled, start);
+        }
+
+        // After decrease: 2.0 * 0.5 = 1.0 (at floor)
+        let t1 = start + Duration::from_millis(150);
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Throttled, t1);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 1.0);
+
+        // Another decrease should stay at floor
+        let t2 = t1 + Duration::from_millis(150);
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, t2);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 1.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ceiling_enforcement() {
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(4990.0)
+            .with_max_rate(5000.0)
+            .with_additive_increment(20.0)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, start);
+        }
+
+        let t1 = start + Duration::from_millis(150);
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, t1);
+        }
+        // 4990 + 20 = 5010, clamped to 5000
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 5000.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_no_ceiling_allows_unbounded_growth() {
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+            .with_max_rate(0.0)
+            .with_additive_increment(50.0)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        let mut t = start;
+
+        for _ in 0..5 {
+            {
+                let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+                controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, t);
+            }
+            t += Duration::from_millis(150);
+        }
+
+        // Trigger final window evaluation
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, t);
+        }
+
+        // 100 + 50*5 = 350
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 350.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_empty_window_no_adjustment() {
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        // Don't record anything in the first window, just advance time
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        let after = start + Duration::from_millis(150);
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            // First outcome in a new window after empty window
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, after);
+        }
+        // No adjustment because the expired window had 0 total
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 100.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_throttle_threshold_filtering() {
+        // With threshold 0.5, less than 50% throttles should still increase
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+            .with_throttle_threshold(0.5)
+            .with_additive_increment(10.0)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            // 1 throttle out of 3 = 33% < 50% threshold
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, start);
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, start);
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Throttled, start);
+        }
+
+        // Advance past window
+        let t1 = start + Duration::from_millis(150);
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, t1);
+        }
+
+        // Should have increased because 33% <= 50%
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 110.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_throttle_threshold_triggers_decrease() {
+        // With threshold 0.5, >= 50% throttles should decrease
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+            .with_throttle_threshold(0.5)
+            .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            // 2 throttle out of 3 = 67% > 50% threshold
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, start);
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Throttled, start);
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Throttled, start);
+        }
+
+        let t1 = start + Duration::from_millis(150);
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, t1);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 50.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_recovery_after_decrease() {
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+            .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+            .with_additive_increment(10.0)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+
+        // Window 1: throttle → decrease to 50
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Throttled, start);
+        }
+        let t1 = start + Duration::from_millis(150);
+
+        // Window 2: success → increase to 60
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, t1);
+        }
+        let t2 = t1 + Duration::from_millis(150);
+
+        // Window 3: success → increase to 70
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, t2);
+        }
+        let t3 = t2 + Duration::from_millis(150);
+
+        // Trigger final evaluation
+        {
+            let mut state = controller.state.lock().unwrap();
+            controller.record_outcome_inner(&mut state, RequestOutcome::Success, t3);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 70.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_within_window_no_adjustment() {
+        let config = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+            .with_window_duration(Duration::from_secs(10));
+        let controller = AimdController::new(config).unwrap();
+
+        // Record many outcomes but all within the same window
+        for _ in 0..100 {
+            controller.record_outcome(RequestOutcome::Throttled);
+        }
+
+        // Rate should still be initial since window hasn't expired
+        assert_eq!(controller.current_rate(), 100.0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/assume.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/assume.rs
index 2560e9bf35e..05f5abb6dc9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/assume.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/assume.rs
@@ -1,29 +1,18 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-/// A macro that combines debug_assert and std::hint::assert_unchecked for optimized assertions
+/// Assert an invariant that should also be visible to the optimizer.
 ///
-/// In debug builds, this will perform a normal assertion check.
-/// In release builds, this will use hint::assert_unchecked which tells the compiler to assume
-/// the condition is true without actually checking it.
-///
-/// # Safety
-///
-/// This macro is unsafe in release builds since it uses hint::assert_unchecked.
-/// The caller must ensure the condition will always be true.
+/// Unlike [`debug_assert!`], this remains checked in release builds. This is
+/// required because the macro can be invoked from safe Rust and an invalid
+/// assumption must not become undefined behavior.
 #[macro_export]
 macro_rules! assume {
     ($cond:expr) => {
-        debug_assert!($cond);
-        // SAFETY: The debug_assert ensures this is true in debug builds.
-        // In release builds, caller must ensure the condition holds.
-        unsafe { std::hint::assert_unchecked($cond); }
+        assert!($cond)
     };
     ($cond:expr, $($arg:tt)+) => {
-        debug_assert!($cond, $($arg)+);
-        // SAFETY: The debug_assert ensures this is true in debug builds.
-        // In release builds, caller must ensure the condition holds.
-        unsafe { std::hint::assert_unchecked($cond); }
+        assert!($cond, $($arg)+)
     };
 }
 
@@ -31,11 +20,24 @@ macro_rules! assume {
 #[macro_export]
 macro_rules! assume_eq {
     ($left:expr, $right:expr) => {
-        debug_assert_eq!($left, $right);
-        unsafe { std::hint::assert_unchecked($left == $right); }
+        assert_eq!($left, $right)
     };
     ($left:expr, $right:expr, $($arg:tt)+) => {
-        debug_assert_eq!($left, $right, $($arg)+);
-        unsafe { std::hint::assert_unchecked($left == $right); }
+        assert_eq!($left, $right, $($arg)+)
     };
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    #[test]
+    fn assume_rejects_false_conditions() {
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| assume!(false)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| assume!(false, "invalid condition")).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn assume_eq_rejects_unequal_values() {
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| assume_eq!(1, 2)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| assume_eq!(1, 2, "invalid equality")).is_err());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/backoff.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/backoff.rs
index b30c757bb23..2b1f81e16be 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/backoff.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/backoff.rs
@@ -77,6 +77,15 @@ impl Backoff {
     }
 }
 
+/// Upper bound on the number of retry slots.
+///
+/// Slots double each attempt to spread contending writers apart, but a hundred
+/// or so already exceeds any realistic number of concurrent committers, so
+/// further doubling only inflates the wait without reducing collisions. Capping
+/// the count also bounds a single backoff to `(MAX_SLOTS - 1) * unit` instead of
+/// letting it grow without limit as `attempt` climbs.
+const MAX_SLOTS: u32 = 128;
+
 /// SlotBackoff is a backoff strategy that randomly chooses a time slot to retry.
 ///
 /// This is useful when you have multiple tasks that can't overlap, and each
@@ -85,7 +94,7 @@ impl Backoff {
 /// The `unit` represents the time it takes to complete one attempt. Future attempts
 /// are divided into time slots, and a random slot is chosen for the retry. The number
 /// of slots increases exponentially with each attempt. Initially, there are 4 slots,
-/// then 8, then 16, and so on.
+/// then 8, then 16, and so on, up to a fixed cap.
 ///
 /// Example:
 /// Suppose you have 10 tasks that can't overlap, each taking 1 second. The tasks
@@ -138,10 +147,15 @@ impl SlotBackoff {
     }
 
     pub fn next_backoff(&mut self) -> Duration {
-        let num_slots = self.base.saturating_pow(self.attempt + self.starting_i);
+        let num_slots = self
+            .base
+            .saturating_pow(self.attempt.saturating_add(self.starting_i))
+            .min(MAX_SLOTS);
         let slot_i = self.rng.random_range(0..num_slots);
-        self.attempt += 1;
-        Duration::from_millis((slot_i * self.unit) as u64)
+        self.attempt = self.attempt.saturating_add(1);
+        // Widen before multiplying: `unit` is the first-attempt latency, which
+        // can be large enough that a `u32` slot * unit product would overflow.
+        Duration::from_millis(slot_i as u64 * self.unit as u64)
     }
 }
 
@@ -228,4 +242,50 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(backoff.attempt(), 3);
         }
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slot_backoff_high_attempt_is_bounded() {
+        // Without the slot cap the wait grows unbounded with `attempt`. The cap
+        // holds every backoff to `(MAX_SLOTS - 1) * unit`.
+        let unit = 100_000; // 100s first attempt
+        let mut backoff = SlotBackoff::default().with_unit(unit);
+        let max_backoff = Duration::from_millis((MAX_SLOTS - 1) as u64 * unit as u64);
+        for _ in 0..40 {
+            assert!(backoff.next_backoff() <= max_backoff);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(backoff.attempt(), 40);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slot_backoff_large_unit_does_not_overflow() {
+        // With unit = u32::MAX, any slot >= 2 makes the old u32 `slot_i * unit`
+        // product overflow: a debug panic, or in release a wrap to a value that
+        // is no longer a multiple of unit. The u64 widening keeps every backoff
+        // an exact multiple of unit. Seed the RNG so the drawn slots — and thus
+        // this check — are deterministic rather than dependent on random draws.
+        let unit = u32::MAX;
+        let mut backoff = SlotBackoff::default().with_unit(unit);
+        backoff.rng = rand::rngs::SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0);
+        let mut saw_high_slot = false;
+        for _ in 0..64 {
+            let backoff_ms = backoff.next_backoff().as_millis();
+            // `slot_i * unit` is always a multiple of unit; a wrapped u32
+            // product is not.
+            assert_eq!(backoff_ms % unit as u128, 0, "{backoff_ms} wrapped");
+            saw_high_slot |= backoff_ms >= 2 * unit as u128;
+        }
+        assert!(saw_high_slot, "expected a slot >= 2 in 64 seeded draws");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slot_backoff_attempt_saturates() {
+        // At u32::MAX the counter must stay put rather than panic (debug) or
+        // wrap to 0 (release), which would restart the low-slot distribution.
+        let mut backoff = SlotBackoff {
+            attempt: u32::MAX,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let _ = backoff.next_backoff();
+        assert_eq!(backoff.attempt(), u32::MAX);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bit.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bit.rs
index ba4b882691d..d0c9eaf5a83 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bit.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bit.rs
@@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ pub fn log_2_ceil(val: u32) -> u32 {
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
+mod tests {
     use crate::utils::bit::{is_pwr_two, log_2_ceil, pad_bytes, pad_bytes_to, pad_bytes_u64};
 
     #[test]
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/blob.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/blob.rs
index b51a53895f6..c6701bea0ce 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/blob.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/blob.rs
@@ -3,25 +3,98 @@
 
 use object_store::path::Path;
 
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Validate a Managed descriptor's object-relative path and known byte range.
+pub fn validate_managed_reference(uri: &str, position: u64, size: u64) -> Result<Path> {
+    if uri.is_empty()
+        || uri.starts_with('/')
+        || uri.ends_with('/')
+        || uri.contains("://")
+        || uri.contains('\\')
+        || uri
+            .split('/')
+            .any(|part| part.is_empty() || part == "." || part == "..")
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Managed blob_uri must be a non-empty canonical relative object path, got {uri:?}"
+        )));
+    }
+    position.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Managed blob range overflows u64: position={position}, size={size}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Path::parse(uri)
+        .map_err(|error| Error::invalid_input(format!("Invalid Managed blob_uri {uri:?}: {error}")))
+}
+
 /// Format a blob sidecar path for a data file.
 ///
-/// Layout: `<base>/<data_file_key>/<blob_id>.blob`
+/// Layout: `<base>/<data_file_key>/<obfuscated_blob_id>.blob`
 /// - `base` is typically the dataset's data directory.
 /// - `data_file_key` is the stem of the data file (without extension).
-/// - `blob_id` is the hex-encoded identifier assigned during write.
+/// - `blob_id` is transformed via `reverse_bits()` before binary formatting.
 pub fn blob_path(base: &Path, data_file_key: &str, blob_id: u32) -> Path {
-    let file_name = format!("{:08x}.blob", blob_id);
-    base.child(data_file_key).child(file_name.as_str())
+    let file_name = format!("{:032b}.blob", blob_id.reverse_bits());
+    base.clone().join(data_file_key).join(file_name.as_str())
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case("")]
+    #[case("/data/a.blob")]
+    #[case("data/../a.blob")]
+    #[case("data/./a.blob")]
+    #[case("data//a.blob")]
+    #[case("data/a.blob/")]
+    #[case("s3://bucket/a.blob")]
+    #[case("data\\a.blob")]
+    fn managed_paths_reject_noncanonical_references(#[case] uri: &str) {
+        let error = validate_managed_reference(uri, 0, 1).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Managed blob_uri"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn managed_ranges_preserve_empty_values_and_reject_overflow() {
+        assert!(validate_managed_reference("data/a.blob", u64::MAX, 0).is_ok());
+        let error = validate_managed_reference("data/a.blob", u64::MAX, 1).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("position=18446744073709551615, size=1")
+        );
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_blob_path_formatting() {
         let base = Path::from("base");
         let path = blob_path(&base, "deadbeef", 2);
-        assert_eq!(path.to_string(), "base/deadbeef/00000002.blob");
+        assert_eq!(
+            path.to_string(),
+            "base/deadbeef/01000000000000000000000000000000.blob"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_blob_path_scattered_prefixes_for_sequential_ids() {
+        let base = Path::from("base");
+        let p1 = blob_path(&base, "deadbeef", 1);
+        let p2 = blob_path(&base, "deadbeef", 2);
+        assert_ne!(p1.to_string(), p2.to_string());
+        assert_eq!(
+            p1.to_string(),
+            "base/deadbeef/10000000000000000000000000000000.blob"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            p2.to_string(),
+            "base/deadbeef/01000000000000000000000000000000.blob"
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bloomfilter.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bloomfilter.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..46cc272a694
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bloomfilter.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Generic bloom filter primitives.
+//!
+//! These are storage-agnostic data structures with no Lance semantics, used by
+//! higher-level crates (e.g. the bloom filter scalar index in `lance-index`).
+
+pub mod as_bytes;
+pub mod sbbf;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter/as_bytes.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bloomfilter/as_bytes.rs
similarity index 96%
rename from rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter/as_bytes.rs
rename to rust/lance-core/src/utils/bloomfilter/as_bytes.rs
index 370880e7b3d..86b9632ce39 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter/as_bytes.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bloomfilter/as_bytes.rs
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 //! similar to parquet::data_type::AsBytes but without the external dependency.
 
 /// Trait to convert primitive types to byte slices
-/// Reference: https://arrow.apache.org/rust/src/parquet/data_type.rs.html
+/// Reference: <https://arrow.apache.org/rust/src/parquet/data_type.rs.html>
 pub trait AsBytes {
     /// Convert the value to a byte slice
     fn as_bytes(&self) -> impl AsRef<[u8]>;
@@ -87,11 +87,7 @@ impl AsBytes for [u8] {
 
 impl AsBytes for bool {
     fn as_bytes(&self) -> impl AsRef<[u8]> {
-        if *self {
-            [1u8]
-        } else {
-            [0u8]
-        }
+        if *self { [1u8] } else { [0u8] }
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter/sbbf.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bloomfilter/sbbf.rs
similarity index 98%
rename from rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter/sbbf.rs
rename to rust/lance-core/src/utils/bloomfilter/sbbf.rs
index 50574768050..0d81326712e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter/sbbf.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/bloomfilter/sbbf.rs
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@
 //! removed from Lance.
 //! <https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs/issues/8277>
 
-use crate::scalar::bloomfilter::as_bytes::AsBytes;
+use super::as_bytes::AsBytes;
 use libm::lgamma;
 use std::error::Error;
 use std::fmt;
@@ -253,11 +253,13 @@ impl Sbbf {
         }
 
         let data = bitset
-            .chunks_exact(4 * 8)
+            .as_chunks::<{ 4 * 8 }>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
             .map(|chunk| {
                 let mut block = Block::ZERO;
-                for (i, word) in chunk.chunks_exact(4).enumerate() {
-                    block[i] = u32::from_le_bytes(word.try_into().unwrap());
+                for (i, word) in chunk.as_chunks::<4>().0.iter().enumerate() {
+                    block[i] = u32::from_le_bytes(*word);
                 }
                 block
             })
@@ -316,7 +318,6 @@ impl Sbbf {
     }
 
     /// Write the bitset in serialized form to the writer
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     pub fn write_bitset<W: Write>(&self, mut writer: W) -> Result<()> {
         for block in &self.blocks {
             writer
@@ -336,19 +337,16 @@ impl Sbbf {
     }
 
     /// Get the number of blocks in this filter
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     pub fn num_blocks(&self) -> usize {
         self.blocks.len()
     }
 
     /// Get the size in bytes of this filter
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     pub fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
         self.blocks.len() * 32
     }
 
     /// Return the total in memory size of this bloom filter in bytes
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     pub fn estimated_memory_size(&self) -> usize {
         self.blocks.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<Block>()
     }
@@ -456,7 +454,6 @@ impl SbbfBuilder {
     }
 
     /// Set the number of bytes directly
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     pub fn log2_num_bytes(mut self, log2_num_bytes: u8) -> Self {
         self.log2_num_bytes = Some(log2_num_bytes);
         self
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/cpu.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/cpu.rs
index 4e7ab01871d..d1e8a498043 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/cpu.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/cpu.rs
@@ -1,14 +1,32 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::fmt;
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 
-/// A level of SIMD support for some feature
+/// A level of SIMD support for some feature.
+///
+/// `#[non_exhaustive]` so future tiers (e.g. AVX-512 BF16, AMX) can be added
+/// without breaking external `match` consumers.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[non_exhaustive]
 pub enum SimdSupport {
     None,
     Neon,
     Sse,
+    /// AVX (256-bit float ops) without FMA.
+    ///
+    /// This tier does not imply that AVX2 is absent: selecting [`Self::Avx2`]
+    /// requires both AVX2 and FMA, so a host with AVX2 but no FMA selects this
+    /// tier. Intel Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge are the typical hosts.
+    Avx,
+    /// AVX + FMA but no AVX2.
+    /// AMD Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500.
+    AvxFma,
+    /// AVX2 + FMA. Intel Haswell / AMD Excavator and later.
+    ///
+    /// Selecting this tier asserts FMA is present: the kernels it dispatches to
+    /// are `#[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]`.
     Avx2,
     Avx512,
     Avx512FP16,
@@ -16,6 +34,132 @@ pub enum SimdSupport {
     Lasx,
 }
 
+impl fmt::Display for SimdSupport {
+    /// Formats the tier name in lowercase, matching pyarrow's
+    /// `runtime_info().simd_level` convention.
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        let name = match self {
+            Self::None => "none",
+            Self::Neon => "neon",
+            Self::Sse => "sse",
+            Self::Avx => "avx",
+            Self::AvxFma => "avx_fma",
+            Self::Avx2 => "avx2",
+            Self::Avx512 => "avx512",
+            Self::Avx512FP16 => "avx512_fp16",
+            Self::Lsx => "lsx",
+            Self::Lasx => "lasx",
+        };
+        f.write_str(name)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Snapshot of the SIMD tier lance dispatches to on the current host, plus the
+/// raw CPU features detected for diagnostic purposes.
+///
+/// Mirrors the role of `pyarrow.runtime_info()`: a single, cheap call users can
+/// make to verify which SIMD tier the runtime selected and what underlying
+/// features the host advertises. Obtain one with [`simd_info()`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct SimdInfo {
+    /// The SIMD tier lance dispatches to at runtime on this host.
+    pub tier: SimdSupport,
+    /// The architecture name (e.g. "x86_64", "aarch64", "loongarch64").
+    pub target_arch: &'static str,
+    /// Raw CPU feature flags detected on this host (x86_64 only; empty on
+    /// other architectures). Each entry is a feature name like "avx2",
+    /// "fma", "avx512f", "popcnt", etc.
+    pub host_features: Vec<&'static str>,
+}
+
+/// Returns a snapshot of the SIMD tier lance is using on this host along with
+/// the raw CPU feature flags that drove the decision.
+///
+/// Useful for performance debugging and giving users a way to verify which
+/// dispatch tier they are hitting without rebuilding lance. See [`SimdInfo`]
+/// for the meaning of each field and [`SimdSupport`] for the tier values.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_core::utils::cpu::simd_info;
+///
+/// let info = simd_info();
+/// println!("dispatching to {} on {}", info.tier, info.target_arch);
+/// ```
+pub fn simd_info() -> SimdInfo {
+    SimdInfo {
+        tier: *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+        target_arch: std::env::consts::ARCH,
+        host_features: detect_host_features(),
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+fn detect_host_features() -> Vec<&'static str> {
+    // Each call must be inline: `is_x86_feature_detected!` does its own custom
+    // input parsing and rejects feature names received via a `macro_rules!`
+    // `:literal` metavariable on some toolchains.
+    let mut features = Vec::with_capacity(17);
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("sse2") {
+        features.push("sse2");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("sse3") {
+        features.push("sse3");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("ssse3") {
+        features.push("ssse3");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("sse4.1") {
+        features.push("sse4.1");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("sse4.2") {
+        features.push("sse4.2");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("popcnt") {
+        features.push("popcnt");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+        features.push("avx");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+        features.push("avx2");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") {
+        features.push("fma");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("f16c") {
+        features.push("f16c");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("bmi1") {
+        features.push("bmi1");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("bmi2") {
+        features.push("bmi2");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+        features.push("avx512f");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw") {
+        features.push("avx512bw");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512cd") {
+        features.push("avx512cd");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512dq") {
+        features.push("avx512dq");
+    }
+    if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vl") {
+        features.push("avx512vl");
+    }
+    features
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+fn detect_host_features() -> Vec<&'static str> {
+    Vec::new()
+}
+
 /// Support for SIMD operations
 pub static SIMD_SUPPORT: LazyLock<SimdSupport> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     #[cfg(all(target_arch = "aarch64", any(target_os = "ios", target_os = "tvos")))]
@@ -42,8 +186,20 @@ pub static SIMD_SUPPORT: LazyLock<SimdSupport> = LazyLock::new(|| {
             } else {
                 SimdSupport::Avx512
             }
-        } else if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+        } else if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") && is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") {
+            // FMA is checked explicitly: every kernel selected for this tier is
+            // `#[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]`, and AVX2 does not imply
+            // FMA in the ISA. Every shipping AVX2 part has FMA, so this only
+            // guards against a host that would otherwise take an FMA kernel
+            // without FMA.
             SimdSupport::Avx2
+        } else if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") {
+            // AMD Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500: 256-bit float ops + FMA but no AVX2.
+            SimdSupport::AvxFma
+        } else if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            // This includes a possible AVX2 host without FMA because the Avx2
+            // tier above requires both features.
+            SimdSupport::Avx
         } else {
             SimdSupport::None
         }
@@ -58,6 +214,14 @@ pub static SIMD_SUPPORT: LazyLock<SimdSupport> = LazyLock::new(|| {
             SimdSupport::None
         }
     }
+    #[cfg(not(any(
+        target_arch = "aarch64",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_arch = "loongarch64"
+    )))]
+    {
+        SimdSupport::None
+    }
 });
 
 #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
@@ -138,3 +302,68 @@ mod aarch64 {
         false
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn simd_info_exposes_tier() {
+        let info = simd_info();
+        assert_eq!(info.target_arch, std::env::consts::ARCH);
+        // Tier should match the detected SIMD support.
+        assert_eq!(info.tier, *SIMD_SUPPORT);
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    fn simd_info_features_include_baseline() {
+        let info = simd_info();
+        // The x86_64 ABI mandates SSE2, so it must always be present on this
+        // architecture.
+        assert!(info.host_features.contains(&"sse2"));
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    #[test]
+    fn simd_info_features_empty_off_x86_64() {
+        let info = simd_info();
+        assert!(info.host_features.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// The `Avx2` and `AvxFma` tiers both dispatch to kernels declared
+    /// `#[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]`, so neither may be selected on a
+    /// host without FMA. AVX2 does not imply FMA in the ISA, so the detection
+    /// checks it explicitly. (`Avx512*` is excluded: its kernels declare
+    /// `avx512f`, which is what `has_avx512` verifies.)
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    fn avx_fma_tiers_are_only_selected_when_fma_is_detected() {
+        if matches!(*SIMD_SUPPORT, SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma) {
+            assert!(
+                is_x86_feature_detected!("fma"),
+                "tier {} dispatches to avx,fma kernels but the host has no FMA",
+                *SIMD_SUPPORT
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::none(SimdSupport::None, "none")]
+    #[case::neon(SimdSupport::Neon, "neon")]
+    #[case::sse(SimdSupport::Sse, "sse")]
+    #[case::avx(SimdSupport::Avx, "avx")]
+    #[case::avx_fma(SimdSupport::AvxFma, "avx_fma")]
+    #[case::avx2(SimdSupport::Avx2, "avx2")]
+    #[case::avx512(SimdSupport::Avx512, "avx512")]
+    #[case::avx512_fp16(SimdSupport::Avx512FP16, "avx512_fp16")]
+    #[case::lsx(SimdSupport::Lsx, "lsx")]
+    #[case::lasx(SimdSupport::Lasx, "lasx")]
+    fn simd_support_display_matches_lowercase_convention(
+        #[case] tier: SimdSupport,
+        #[case] expected: &str,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(tier.to_string(), expected);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/deletion.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/deletion.rs
index be7934b918c..c7f8b142464 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/deletion.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/deletion.rs
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 
 use std::{collections::HashSet, ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
+use crate::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
 use arrow_array::BooleanArray;
-use deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 
 /// Threshold for when a DeletionVector::Set should be promoted to a DeletionVector::Bitmap.
@@ -32,7 +32,6 @@ impl DeepSizeOf for DeletionVector {
 }
 
 impl DeletionVector {
-    #[allow(dead_code)] // Used in tests
     pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
         match self {
             Self::NoDeletions => 0,
@@ -297,7 +296,7 @@ impl From<RoaringBitmap> for DeletionVector {
 #[cfg_attr(coverage, coverage(off))]
 mod test {
     use super::*;
-    use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+    use crate::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
     use rstest::rstest;
 
     fn set_dv(vals: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>) -> DeletionVector {
@@ -403,9 +402,11 @@ mod test {
     #[test]
     fn test_build_predicate() {
         let addrs = [0u64, 1, 2, 3, 4];
-        assert!(DeletionVector::NoDeletions
-            .build_predicate(addrs.iter())
-            .is_none());
+        assert!(
+            DeletionVector::NoDeletions
+                .build_predicate(addrs.iter())
+                .is_none()
+        );
 
         let pred = set_dv([1, 3]).build_predicate(addrs.iter()).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/fragment_reuse.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/fragment_reuse.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..44ce7f29a4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/fragment_reuse.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Readers for a single fragment rewrite. Graph traversal belongs to the FRI reader.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+
+use super::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use crate::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+/// The read contract for one mapping, independent of index types and manifests.
+///
+/// Row IDs are physical addresses. Results preserve input positions and `None`
+/// denotes a deleted source row. Addresses outside the source fragments, including
+/// out-of-range offsets, return [`Error::InvalidInput`]. Invalid persisted mapping
+/// contents return [`Error::CorruptFile`]; storage errors propagate to the caller.
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait MappingReader: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug + DeepSizeOf {
+    /// Remap one physical row ID, or return `None` if the row was deleted.
+    async fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>>;
+
+    /// Remap a batch, preserving input order and duplicates, with one result per input.
+    async fn remap_row_ids(&self, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        let mut mapped = Vec::with_capacity(row_ids.len());
+        for &row_id in row_ids {
+            mapped.push(self.remap_row_id(row_id).await?);
+        }
+        Ok(mapped)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Ordered-compaction adapter for one rewrite group's existing bitmap/rank remap.
+/// This adapter does not replace the legacy FRI reader or writer.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct OrderedCompactionMapping {
+    remap: Arc<RowAddrRemap>,
+}
+
+impl OrderedCompactionMapping {
+    /// Use a remap whose fragment layout was validated when it was constructed.
+    pub fn new(remap: Arc<RowAddrRemap>) -> Self {
+        Self { remap }
+    }
+
+    fn map_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.remap.get(row_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("row ID {row_id} is outside compaction mapping"))
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for OrderedCompactionMapping {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.remap.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl MappingReader for OrderedCompactionMapping {
+    async fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.map_row_id(row_id)
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_row_ids(&self, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        row_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&row_id| self.map_row_id(row_id))
+            .collect()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::utils::address::RowAddress;
+    use crate::utils::row_addr_remap::GroupInputWithLayout;
+    use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+
+    #[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+    struct SingleRowReader;
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl MappingReader for SingleRowReader {
+        async fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+            if row_id == u64::MAX {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input("invalid test row ID"));
+            }
+            Ok((row_id != 0).then_some(row_id))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn default_batch_preserves_positions_and_propagates_errors() {
+        let reader = SingleRowReader;
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader.remap_row_ids(&[2, 0, 1, 2]).await.unwrap(),
+            vec![Some(2), None, Some(1), Some(2)],
+        );
+        assert!(reader.remap_row_ids(&[]).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        let error = reader.remap_row_ids(&[1, u64::MAX]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("invalid test row ID"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn compaction_reader_preserves_legacy_mapping_semantics() {
+        let address = |fragment, offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment, offset));
+        let remap = Arc::new(
+            RowAddrRemap::compact_with_layout([GroupInputWithLayout {
+                rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter([
+                    address(1, 0),
+                    address(1, 2),
+                    address(2, 0),
+                ]),
+                old_frags: vec![(1, 3), (2, 1)],
+                new_frags: vec![(3, 2), (4, 1)],
+            }])
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let reader = OrderedCompactionMapping::new(remap.clone());
+        let input = [address(2, 0), address(1, 1), address(1, 0), address(1, 0)];
+        let expected: Vec<_> = input.iter().map(|&a| remap.get(a).unwrap()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(reader.remap_row_ids(&input).await.unwrap(), expected);
+        for (&row_id, &mapped) in input.iter().zip(&expected) {
+            assert_eq!(reader.remap_row_id(row_id).await.unwrap(), mapped);
+        }
+        assert!(reader.remap_row_ids(&[]).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        for invalid in [address(99, 0), address(1, 3)] {
+            for error in [
+                reader.remap_row_id(invalid).await.unwrap_err(),
+                reader
+                    .remap_row_ids(&[input[0], invalid])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_err(),
+            ] {
+                assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+                assert!(error.to_string().contains("outside compaction mapping"));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/futures.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/futures.rs
index cdf7bbbe5b1..df799ca7257 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/futures.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/futures.rs
@@ -7,8 +7,8 @@ use std::{
     task::Waker,
 };
 
-use futures::{stream::BoxStream, Stream, StreamExt};
-use pin_project::pin_project;
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, stream::BoxStream};
+use pin_project::{pin_project, pinned_drop};
 use tokio::sync::Semaphore;
 use tokio_util::sync::PollSemaphore;
 
@@ -33,6 +33,8 @@ struct InnerState<'a, T> {
     exhausted: bool,
     left_buffered: u32,
     right_buffered: u32,
+    left_dropped: bool,
+    right_dropped: bool,
     available_buffer: Option<PollSemaphore>,
 }
 
@@ -58,6 +60,8 @@ impl<'a, T: Clone> SharedStream<'a, T> {
             exhausted: false,
             left_buffered: 0,
             right_buffered: 0,
+            left_dropped: false,
+            right_dropped: false,
             available_buffer,
         };
 
@@ -75,6 +79,51 @@ impl<'a, T: Clone> SharedStream<'a, T> {
     }
 }
 
+impl<T: Clone> Drop for SharedStream<'_, T> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        let Ok(mut inner_state) = self.state.lock() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        match self.side {
+            Side::Left => inner_state.left_dropped = true,
+            Side::Right => inner_state.right_dropped = true,
+        }
+        // The buffer only ever holds items destined for one side (a side
+        // polls the inner stream only after draining its own share), so any
+        // count still pending for this side sits at the front. Pop those
+        // items and release their capacity permits, or a bounded survivor
+        // deadlocks once the budget is exhausted.
+        let pending_for_self = match self.side {
+            Side::Left => std::mem::take(&mut inner_state.left_buffered),
+            Side::Right => std::mem::take(&mut inner_state.right_buffered),
+        };
+        debug_assert!(
+            pending_for_self == 0 || inner_state.buffer.len() as u32 == pending_for_self,
+            "buffer holds items for both sides"
+        );
+        for _ in 0..pending_for_self {
+            inner_state.buffer.pop_front();
+            if let Some(available_buffer) = inner_state.available_buffer.as_mut() {
+                available_buffer.add_permits(1);
+            }
+        }
+        // If this side was mid-poll when its task went away, the inner
+        // stream holds a dead waker and the survivor would wait forever on
+        // `polling`. Let the survivor take over.
+        let was_polling = inner_state.polling == Some(self.side);
+        let to_wake = if was_polling {
+            inner_state.polling = None;
+            inner_state.waker.take()
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        drop(inner_state);
+        if let Some(waker) = to_wake {
+            waker.wake();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 impl<T: Clone> Stream for SharedStream<'_, T> {
     type Item = T;
 
@@ -119,18 +168,18 @@ impl<T: Clone> Stream for SharedStream<'_, T> {
             } else {
                 None
             };
-            if let Some(polling_side) = inner_state.polling.as_ref() {
-                if *polling_side != self.side {
-                    // Another task is already polling the inner stream, so we don't need to do anything
-
-                    // Per rust docs:
-                    //   Note that on multiple calls to poll, only the Waker from the Context
-                    //   passed to the most recent call should be scheduled to receive a wakeup.
-                    //
-                    // So it is safe to replace a potentially stale waker here.
-                    inner_state.waker = Some(cx.waker().clone());
-                    return std::task::Poll::Pending;
-                }
+            if let Some(polling_side) = inner_state.polling.as_ref()
+                && *polling_side != self.side
+            {
+                // Another task is already polling the inner stream, so we don't need to do anything
+
+                // Per rust docs:
+                //   Note that on multiple calls to poll, only the Waker from the Context
+                //   passed to the most recent call should be scheduled to receive a wakeup.
+                //
+                // So it is safe to replace a potentially stale waker here.
+                inner_state.waker = Some(cx.waker().clone());
+                return std::task::Poll::Pending;
             }
             inner_state.polling = Some(self.side);
             // Release the mutex here as polling the inner stream is potentially expensive
@@ -149,21 +198,29 @@ impl<T: Clone> Stream for SharedStream<'_, T> {
                     inner_state.polling = None;
                 }
                 std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(item)) => {
-                    // We got an item, forget the permit to mark that we can take one fewer items
-                    if let Some(permit) = permit {
-                        permit.forget();
-                    }
                     inner_state.polling = None;
-                    // Let the other side know an item is available
-                    match self.side {
-                        Side::Left => {
-                            inner_state.right_buffered += 1;
-                        }
-                        Side::Right => {
-                            inner_state.left_buffered += 1;
-                        }
+                    // Let the other side know an item is available. A dropped
+                    // side never will be: skip the clone so neither a buffer
+                    // entry nor its capacity permit is stranded.
+                    let other_alive = match self.side {
+                        Side::Left => !inner_state.right_dropped,
+                        Side::Right => !inner_state.left_dropped,
                     };
-                    inner_state.buffer.push_back(item.clone());
+                    if other_alive {
+                        // We got an item, forget the permit to mark that we can take one fewer items
+                        if let Some(permit) = permit {
+                            permit.forget();
+                        }
+                        match self.side {
+                            Side::Left => {
+                                inner_state.right_buffered += 1;
+                            }
+                            Side::Right => {
+                                inner_state.left_buffered += 1;
+                            }
+                        };
+                        inner_state.buffer.push_back(item.clone());
+                    }
                 }
                 std::task::Poll::Pending => {
                     should_wake = false;
@@ -264,13 +321,64 @@ impl<S: Stream> FinallyStreamExt<S> for S {
     }
 }
 
+/// A stream wrapper that calls a function when dropped.
+///
+/// Unlike [`FinallyStream`], which fires when the inner stream yields `None`,
+/// this fires when the wrapper is dropped — even if the stream was not fully
+/// consumed.
+#[pin_project(PinnedDrop)]
+pub struct OnDropStream<S: Stream, F: FnOnce()> {
+    #[pin]
+    stream: S,
+    f: Option<F>,
+}
+
+impl<S: Stream, F: FnOnce()> OnDropStream<S, F> {
+    pub fn new(stream: S, f: F) -> Self {
+        Self { stream, f: Some(f) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<S: Stream, F: FnOnce()> Stream for OnDropStream<S, F> {
+    type Item = S::Item;
+
+    fn poll_next(
+        self: std::pin::Pin<&mut Self>,
+        cx: &mut std::task::Context<'_>,
+    ) -> std::task::Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        self.project().stream.poll_next(cx)
+    }
+}
+
+#[pinned_drop]
+impl<S: Stream, F: FnOnce()> PinnedDrop for OnDropStream<S, F> {
+    fn drop(self: std::pin::Pin<&mut Self>) {
+        let this = self.project();
+        if let Some(f) = this.f.take() {
+            f();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub trait StreamOnDropExt: Stream + Sized {
+    /// Wrap this stream so that `f` is called when the stream is dropped.
+    fn on_drop<F: FnOnce()>(self, f: F) -> OnDropStream<Self, F> {
+        OnDropStream::new(self, f)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<S: Stream> StreamOnDropExt for S {}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
 
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
+
     use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt};
     use tokio_stream::wrappers::ReceiverStream;
 
-    use crate::utils::futures::{Capacity, SharedStreamExt};
+    use crate::utils::futures::{Capacity, SharedStreamExt, StreamOnDropExt};
 
     fn is_pending(fut: &mut (impl std::future::Future + Unpin)) -> bool {
         let noop_waker = futures::task::noop_waker();
@@ -331,6 +439,19 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(right.next().await, None);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shared_stream_replaces_waiting_waker() {
+        let inner_stream = futures::stream::pending::<u32>();
+        let (mut left, mut right) = inner_stream.boxed().share(Capacity::Unbounded);
+
+        let mut left_fut = left.next();
+        assert!(is_pending(&mut left_fut));
+
+        let mut right_fut = right.next();
+        assert!(is_pending(&mut right_fut));
+        assert!(is_pending(&mut right_fut));
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_unbounded_shared_stream() {
         let (tx, rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<u32>(10);
@@ -388,4 +509,193 @@ mod tests {
             right_handle.await.unwrap();
         }
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_on_drop_fires_on_early_drop() {
+        let called = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let called_clone = called.clone();
+
+        let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let mut stream = stream.on_drop(move || {
+            called_clone.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        });
+
+        // Consume only one item, then drop
+        assert_eq!(stream.next().await, Some(1));
+        assert!(!called.load(Ordering::SeqCst));
+        drop(stream);
+        assert!(called.load(Ordering::SeqCst));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_on_drop_fires_after_exhaustion() {
+        let called = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let called_clone = called.clone();
+
+        let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![1]);
+        let mut stream = stream.on_drop(move || {
+            called_clone.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(stream.next().await, Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(stream.next().await, None);
+        assert!(!called.load(Ordering::SeqCst));
+        drop(stream);
+        assert!(called.load(Ordering::SeqCst));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_on_drop_fires_without_polling() {
+        let called = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let called_clone = called.clone();
+
+        let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let stream = stream.on_drop(move || {
+            called_clone.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        });
+
+        assert!(!called.load(Ordering::SeqCst));
+        drop(stream);
+        assert!(called.load(Ordering::SeqCst));
+    }
+
+    /// If one side is dropped mid-stream, the survivor must still be able to
+    /// make progress. Two mechanisms used to wedge a bounded stream: items
+    /// buffered for the dropped side never released their capacity permits,
+    /// and every later fetch kept spending a permit on a clone nobody would
+    /// take, so the survivor stalled again one capacity later. The third
+    /// mechanism, a dropped side left recorded as the current poller, is
+    /// covered by the two tests below.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shared_stream_survivor_progresses_after_drop() {
+        let (tx, rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<u32>(10);
+        for i in 0..6 {
+            tx.send(i).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let (left, mut right) = ReceiverStream::new(rx).boxed().share(Capacity::Bounded(2));
+
+        // Right races ahead by the full capacity; the two buffered items are
+        // destined for left and hold the only two permits.
+        assert_eq!(right.next().await.unwrap(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(right.next().await.unwrap(), 1);
+        let mut right_fut = right.next();
+        assert!(is_pending(&mut right_fut));
+
+        drop(left);
+
+        // The stranded permits must be released so right can keep reading,
+        // including past the original capacity budget: later fetches must
+        // stop buffering clones for the dropped side at all.
+        let item = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), right_fut).await;
+        assert_eq!(item.expect("survivor wedged by dropped side").unwrap(), 2);
+        for expected in 3..6 {
+            let item = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), right.next()).await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                item.expect("survivor wedged after capacity re-spent")
+                    .unwrap(),
+                expected
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shared_stream_dropped_poller_releases_inner_stream() {
+        let (tx, rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<u32>(10);
+        let (mut left, mut right) = ReceiverStream::new(rx).boxed().share(Capacity::Unbounded);
+
+        // Left polls while the channel is empty, so it stays recorded as the
+        // poller and the inner stream keeps the waker it was polled with.
+        let mut left_fut = left.next();
+        assert!(is_pending(&mut left_fut));
+        drop(left_fut);
+        drop(left);
+
+        // An item arriving for the survivor must not be lost to the dead
+        // side's stale poll.
+        tx.send(42).await.unwrap();
+        let item = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), right.next()).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            item.expect("survivor wedged by dropped poller").unwrap(),
+            42
+        );
+    }
+    struct FlagWaker(AtomicBool);
+
+    impl futures::task::ArcWake for FlagWaker {
+        fn wake_by_ref(arc_self: &Arc<Self>) {
+            arc_self.0.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A survivor already parked behind `polling` has to be woken when the
+    /// recorded poller is dropped: the inner stream only holds the waker the
+    /// dropped side polled with, so nothing else will re-poll the survivor.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shared_stream_dropped_poller_wakes_parked_survivor() {
+        let (tx, rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<u32>(10);
+        let (mut left, mut right) = ReceiverStream::new(rx).boxed().share(Capacity::Unbounded);
+
+        // Left becomes the recorded poller and parks on the empty channel.
+        let mut left_fut = left.next();
+        assert!(is_pending(&mut left_fut));
+        drop(left_fut);
+
+        // Right parks behind `polling == Some(Left)`, leaving its waker behind.
+        let flag = Arc::new(FlagWaker(AtomicBool::new(false)));
+        let flag_waker = futures::task::waker(flag.clone());
+        let mut cx = std::task::Context::from_waker(&flag_waker);
+        let mut right_fut = right.next();
+        assert!(right_fut.poll_unpin(&mut cx).is_pending());
+        assert!(!flag.0.load(Ordering::SeqCst));
+
+        drop(left);
+        assert!(
+            flag.0.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            "dropping the poller must wake the parked survivor"
+        );
+
+        tx.send(42).await.unwrap();
+        let item = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), right_fut).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            item.expect("survivor wedged by dropped poller").unwrap(),
+            42
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// With an unbounded capacity nothing blocks, so the only observable effect
+    /// of a drop is memory: the dropped side's buffered items must be freed and
+    /// no further clone queued for it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shared_stream_unbounded_stops_buffering_for_dropped_side() {
+        let (tx, rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<u32>(10);
+        for i in 0..4 {
+            tx.send(i).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let (left, mut right) = ReceiverStream::new(rx).boxed().share(Capacity::Unbounded);
+
+        // Right reads ahead, so every item is also cloned into the buffer for left.
+        assert_eq!(right.next().await.unwrap(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(right.next().await.unwrap(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(right.state.lock().unwrap().buffer.len(), 2);
+
+        drop(left);
+        assert!(
+            right.state.lock().unwrap().buffer.is_empty(),
+            "the dropped side's buffered items must be released"
+        );
+
+        for expected in 2..4 {
+            let item = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), right.next()).await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                item.expect("survivor wedged after peer drop").unwrap(),
+                expected
+            );
+        }
+        let state = right.state.lock().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            state.buffer.is_empty(),
+            "no clone may be queued for a dropped side"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(state.left_buffered, 0);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/io_stats.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/io_stats.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e2169d71ae3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/io_stats.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::ops::Range;
+
+/// A sink that records I/O requests as they are submitted to storage.
+///
+/// This lives in `lance-core` so that the encoding layer (`lance-encoding`) and
+/// the I/O layer (`lance-io`) can both refer to it without depending on one
+/// another.  It lets a caller attach a lightweight counter to a file reader and
+/// measure the exact bytes/IOPS performed for a bounded scope (e.g. a single
+/// query); see `lance_io::scheduler::IoStats` for the concrete implementation.
+///
+/// # When to use this
+///
+/// Lance also exposes two *process-wide, cumulative* I/O accounting facilities:
+/// the global scheduler counters (`lance_io::scheduler::iops_counter` /
+/// `bytes_read_counter`) and the object-store `IOTracker` wrapper used in tests.
+/// Both aggregate every read in the process and cannot attribute I/O to a single
+/// bounded scope.  Prefer an `IoStatsRecorder` when you need the *exact* I/O of
+/// one operation (e.g. a single query): attach it to a reader with
+/// `with_io_stats`, then read the snapshot when the scope ends.  It re-uses the
+/// reader's cached metadata, so measuring costs no extra file opens and does not
+/// disturb the global counters.
+pub trait IoStatsRecorder: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
+    /// Record one completed request, given the byte ranges as actually
+    /// submitted to storage (i.e. after any coalescing/splitting), so the
+    /// counts reflect physical I/O.
+    fn record_request(&self, ranges: &[Range<u64>]);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/parse.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/parse.rs
index 7efea7cfc72..bba8fe7716e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/parse.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/parse.rs
@@ -9,3 +9,75 @@ pub fn str_is_truthy(val: &str) -> bool {
         | val.eq_ignore_ascii_case("yes")
         | val.eq_ignore_ascii_case("y")
 }
+
+/// Parse a string into an optional boolean value.
+///
+/// Returns `Some(true)` for truthy values (1/true/on/yes/y, case-insensitive).
+/// Returns `Some(false)` for falsy values (0/false/off/no/n, case-insensitive).
+/// Returns `None` for unrecognized values.
+pub fn str_to_bool(val: &str) -> Option<bool> {
+    if str_is_truthy(val) {
+        Some(true)
+    } else if val.eq_ignore_ascii_case("0")
+        || val.eq_ignore_ascii_case("false")
+        || val.eq_ignore_ascii_case("off")
+        || val.eq_ignore_ascii_case("no")
+        || val.eq_ignore_ascii_case("n")
+    {
+        Some(false)
+    } else {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// Parse an environment variable as a truthy-only boolean.
+///
+/// Returns `default_value` if the env var is not set.
+/// Returns `true` only for truthy values (1/true/on/yes/y, case-insensitive).
+/// Returns `false` for all other set values.
+pub fn parse_env_as_bool(env_var_name: &str, default_value: bool) -> bool {
+    std::env::var(env_var_name)
+        .ok()
+        .map(|value| str_is_truthy(value.trim()))
+        .unwrap_or(default_value)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_str_to_bool_truthy() {
+        for val in [
+            "1", "true", "True", "TRUE", "on", "ON", "yes", "YES", "y", "Y",
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                str_to_bool(val),
+                Some(true),
+                "expected Some(true) for {:?}",
+                val
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_str_to_bool_falsy() {
+        for val in [
+            "0", "false", "False", "FALSE", "off", "OFF", "no", "NO", "n", "N",
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                str_to_bool(val),
+                Some(false),
+                "expected Some(false) for {:?}",
+                val
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_str_to_bool_unknown() {
+        for val in ["", "2", "maybe", "truthy", "nonsense"] {
+            assert_eq!(str_to_bool(val), None, "expected None for {:?}", val);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/path.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/path.rs
index fb4ec56eb47..d8096dda925 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/path.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/path.rs
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ impl LancePathExt for Path {
     fn child_path(&self, path: &Path) -> Path {
         let mut new_path = self.clone();
         for part in path.parts() {
-            new_path = new_path.child(part);
+            new_path = new_path.clone().join(part);
         }
         new_path
     }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/row_addr_remap.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/row_addr_remap.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..71047b9d78a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/row_addr_remap.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1325 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Compact row-address remapping for compaction.
+//!
+//! Compaction rewrites rows into new fragments, so indices that store physical
+//! row addresses need an old-address to new-address mapping without building an
+//! O(total rows) `HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>`.
+//!
+//! Layout:
+//!
+//! * Old rows: `old_fragment_id -> (old_offsets, old_rows_before)`
+//!     * `old_offsets`: rewritten old row offsets in this old fragment.
+//!     * `old_rows_before`: rewritten row count before this old fragment.
+//! * New rows: ordered new-fragment ranges
+//!   `(fragment_id, new_rows_before, physical_rows)`
+//!     * `new_rows_before`: rewritten row count before this new fragment.
+//!
+//! Lookup:
+//!
+//! * An address whose fragment was not rewritten returns `None`.
+//! * For an address whose fragment was rewritten:
+//!     * Read `(old_offsets, old_rows_before)` from the old-row layout.
+//!     * If `offset` is outside the old fragment's physical row range, return
+//!       `None`; the direct-map representation would not contain that address.
+//!     * If a valid `offset` is not in `old_offsets`, return `Some(None)`
+//!       because the row was deleted.
+//!     * Otherwise, `old_offsets.rank(offset) - 1` is this row's 0-based
+//!       position among rewritten old rows in this old fragment. Add
+//!       `old_rows_before` to get `k`, the row's 0-based position among all
+//!       rewritten old rows.
+//!     * In the new-row layout, find the range
+//!       `(fragment_id, new_rows_before, physical_rows)` where
+//!       `new_rows_before <= k < new_rows_before + physical_rows`.
+//!     * The new address is `(fragment_id, k - new_rows_before)`.
+//!
+//! Ordering:
+//!
+//! Compact remap does not store each old-to-new row mapping. It computes `k`
+//! from the old-row layout, then maps it to the k-th row written to the new
+//! fragments. This requires the reader-to-writer pipeline to preserve row order.
+//!
+//! * `old_frag_ids` must match the order old fragments are read. Within each
+//!   old fragment, rewritten rows are interpreted by ascending old row offset.
+//! * `new_frags` must match the order new rows are written.
+//! * Current compaction satisfies this because it scans selected fragments in
+//!   order and writes the resulting stream without reordering rows.
+
+use crate::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use crate::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::hash::{BuildHasherDefault, Hasher};
+use std::mem::size_of;
+
+/// A queryable row-address remapping with the exact semantics of
+/// `HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>::get(&addr).copied()`:
+///
+/// * `None` — the address is not affected by this remap (keep it unchanged)
+/// * `Some(None)` — the row was deleted
+/// * `Some(Some(addr))` — the row moved to `addr`
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum RowAddrRemap {
+    /// Compact, `O(#fragments)` remap built from per-group rewritten-row
+    /// bitmaps and new-fragment layouts.
+    Compact(CompactRowAddrRemap),
+    /// Full materialized old-to-new address map. Uses `O(#rows)` memory.
+    Direct(HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>),
+}
+
+impl RowAddrRemap {
+    pub fn compact(groups: impl IntoIterator<Item = GroupInput>) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::Compact(CompactRowAddrRemap::new(groups)?))
+    }
+
+    /// Build a compact remap with physical row counts for exact validation of
+    /// addresses loaded from persisted fragment layouts.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn compact_with_layout(
+        groups: impl IntoIterator<Item = GroupInputWithLayout>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::Compact(CompactRowAddrRemap::new_with_layout(groups)?))
+    }
+
+    /// Build a remap from a fully materialized old-to-new address map.
+    pub fn direct(map: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Self {
+        Self::Direct(map)
+    }
+
+    /// Build an ordered remap chain, flattening nested chains and omitting
+    /// empty remaps.
+    pub fn chained(remaps: impl IntoIterator<Item = Self>) -> Self {
+        let mut remaps = remaps
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|remap| !remap.is_empty())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        match remaps.len() {
+            0 => Self::empty(),
+            1 => remaps.pop().unwrap(),
+            _ => Self::Compact(CompactRowAddrRemap::chained(remaps)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// An empty remap that leaves every address unchanged.
+    pub fn empty() -> Self {
+        Self::Direct(HashMap::new())
+    }
+
+    /// Look up `addr`. See [`RowAddrRemap`] for the tri-state return semantics.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn get(&self, addr: u64) -> Option<Option<u64>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(c) => c.get(addr),
+            Self::Direct(m) => m.get(&addr).copied(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Apply this remap to a batch in place.
+    ///
+    /// A `None` input remains deleted. An address missing from a remap remains
+    /// unchanged. Chained remaps are applied version-by-version so this path is
+    /// suitable for bulk index and transaction remapping without materializing
+    /// a composed per-row map.
+    pub fn remap_in_place(&self, row_addrs: &mut [Option<u64>]) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(compact) => compact.remap_in_place(row_addrs),
+            Self::Direct(_) => {
+                for row_addr in row_addrs {
+                    if let Some(addr) = *row_addr
+                        && let Some(mapped) = self.get(addr)
+                    {
+                        *row_addr = mapped;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(c) => c.is_empty(),
+            Self::Direct(m) => m.is_empty(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn affected_fragments(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(c) => c.affected_fragments(),
+            Self::Direct(m) => RoaringBitmap::from_iter(m.keys().map(|addr| (addr >> 32) as u32)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns fragments this remap can prove have no surviving physical rows.
+    ///
+    /// A non-empty direct map cannot provide this proof because it does not
+    /// record the physical row count of each fragment.
+    pub fn fully_deleted_fragments(&self) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(c) => c.fully_deleted_fragments(),
+            Self::Direct(m) if m.is_empty() => Some(RoaringBitmap::new()),
+            Self::Direct(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for RowAddrRemap {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(compact) => compact.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            Self::Direct(map) => map.deep_size_of_children(context),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Input describing one rewrite group: the old row addresses that were
+/// rewritten plus the fragment layout before/after the rewrite.
+pub struct GroupInput {
+    /// Old row addresses that were read and re-written into the new fragments.
+    pub rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap,
+    /// Old fragment ids covered by this group.
+    pub old_frag_ids: Vec<u32>,
+    /// New fragments produced by this group, as `(fragment_id, physical_rows)`,
+    pub new_frags: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
+}
+
+/// Internal compact-remap input that includes old-fragment physical row counts.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub struct GroupInputWithLayout {
+    pub rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap,
+    pub old_frags: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
+    pub new_frags: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
+}
+
+/// Keep Roaring only when its serialized representation is substantially
+/// smaller than either rank-friendly representation. This preserves compact
+/// run containers while avoiding Roaring's linear word scan for dense rank.
+/// Binary-copy compaction creates these runs with `RoaringTreemap::insert_range`,
+/// and serialization preserves them without an explicit `optimize()` call.
+const ROARING_SIZE_ADVANTAGE_FOR_RANK: usize = 4;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum RankedOffsets {
+    /// Retained for highly compressible run layouts.
+    Roaring(RoaringBitmap),
+    /// Sorted rewritten offsets. Binary search returns membership and rank in
+    /// one operation.
+    Sparse(Vec<u32>),
+    /// Dense bits with the number of rewritten rows before every word.
+    Dense(DenseRankedOffsets),
+}
+
+impl RankedOffsets {
+    fn try_new(offsets: RoaringBitmap, physical_rows: Option<u32>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let universe_rows = physical_rows.map(u64::from).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            offsets
+                .max()
+                .map(|offset| u64::from(offset) + 1)
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+        });
+        let word_count = usize::try_from(universe_rows.div_ceil(64)).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "fragment row range {universe_rows} is too large for compact rank lookup"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let sparse_bytes = usize::try_from(offsets.len())
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|len| len.checked_mul(size_of::<u32>()))
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "rewritten row count {} is too large for sparse rank lookup",
+                    offsets.len()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let dense_bytes = word_count
+            .checked_mul(size_of::<u64>() + size_of::<u32>())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "fragment row range {universe_rows} is too large for dense rank lookup"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let rank_friendly_bytes = sparse_bytes.min(dense_bytes);
+        if offsets
+            .serialized_size()
+            .checked_mul(ROARING_SIZE_ADVANTAGE_FOR_RANK)
+            .is_some_and(|roaring_bytes| roaring_bytes < rank_friendly_bytes)
+        {
+            return Ok(Self::Roaring(offsets));
+        }
+        if sparse_bytes <= dense_bytes {
+            return Ok(Self::Sparse(offsets.into_iter().collect()));
+        }
+        Ok(Self::Dense(DenseRankedOffsets::try_new(
+            offsets, word_count,
+        )?))
+    }
+
+    /// Return the zero-based rank when `offset` was rewritten.
+    #[inline]
+    fn rank_if_present(&self, offset: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Roaring(offsets) => offsets.contains(offset).then(|| offsets.rank(offset) - 1),
+            Self::Sparse(offsets) => offsets.binary_search(&offset).ok().map(|rank| rank as u64),
+            Self::Dense(offsets) => offsets.rank_if_present(offset),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Roaring(offsets) => offsets.is_empty(),
+            Self::Sparse(offsets) => offsets.is_empty(),
+            Self::Dense(offsets) => offsets.words.is_empty(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for RankedOffsets {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            // Roaring does not expose its allocation capacity. Its serialized
+            // size is a stable proxy for the retained containers.
+            Self::Roaring(offsets) => offsets.serialized_size(),
+            Self::Sparse(offsets) => offsets.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            Self::Dense(offsets) => offsets.deep_size_of_children(context),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct DenseRankedOffsets {
+    words: Vec<u64>,
+    rank_before_word: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl DenseRankedOffsets {
+    fn try_new(offsets: RoaringBitmap, word_count: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut words = vec![0u64; word_count];
+        for offset in offsets {
+            let word_idx = (offset / 64) as usize;
+            let Some(word) = words.get_mut(word_idx) else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "rewritten row offset {offset} is outside dense rank word_count={word_count}"
+                )));
+            };
+            *word |= 1u64 << (offset % 64);
+        }
+
+        let mut rank_before_word = Vec::with_capacity(word_count);
+        let mut rewritten_rows_before = 0u64;
+        for word in &words {
+            rank_before_word.push(u32::try_from(rewritten_rows_before).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "rewritten row count {rewritten_rows_before} exceeds the row-address offset range"
+                ))
+            })?);
+            rewritten_rows_before += u64::from(word.count_ones());
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            words,
+            rank_before_word,
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn rank_if_present(&self, offset: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        let word_idx = (offset / 64) as usize;
+        let word = *self.words.get(word_idx)?;
+        let bit = 1u64 << (offset % 64);
+        if word & bit == 0 {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(
+            u64::from(self.rank_before_word[word_idx]) + u64::from((word & (bit - 1)).count_ones()),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for DenseRankedOffsets {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.words.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.rank_before_word.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct OldFragmentRemap {
+    group_idx: usize,
+    rewritten_offsets: RankedOffsets,
+    rewritten_rows_before: u64,
+    physical_rows: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for OldFragmentRemap {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.rewritten_offsets.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct GroupRemap {
+    /// New fragment ranges as `(fragment_id, rewritten_rows_before, physical_rows)`,
+    /// used to map a rewritten row's group-local index to its new address via binary search.
+    new_frag_row_ranges: Vec<(u32, u64, u32)>,
+}
+
+impl GroupRemap {
+    fn new(input: GroupInput, group_idx: usize) -> Result<(Self, Vec<(u32, OldFragmentRemap)>)> {
+        Self::new_with_old_frags(
+            input.rewritten_old_row_addrs,
+            input.old_frag_ids.into_iter().map(|id| (id, None)),
+            input.new_frags,
+            group_idx,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn new_with_layout(
+        input: GroupInputWithLayout,
+        group_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<(Self, Vec<(u32, OldFragmentRemap)>)> {
+        Self::new_with_old_frags(
+            input.rewritten_old_row_addrs,
+            input
+                .old_frags
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(id, rows)| (id, Some(rows))),
+            input.new_frags,
+            group_idx,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn new_with_old_frags(
+        rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap,
+        old_frags: impl IntoIterator<Item = (u32, Option<u32>)>,
+        new_frags: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
+        group_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<(Self, Vec<(u32, OldFragmentRemap)>)> {
+        // `compute_new_addr` maps a rewritten row's group-local index by
+        // accumulating `physical_rows` in the caller-provided write order.
+        let mut new_frag_row_ranges = Vec::with_capacity(new_frags.len());
+        let mut rewritten_rows_before = 0u64;
+        for (frag_id, physical_rows) in new_frags {
+            if physical_rows == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+            new_frag_row_ranges.push((frag_id, rewritten_rows_before, physical_rows));
+            rewritten_rows_before += physical_rows as u64;
+        }
+        let total_new_rows = rewritten_rows_before;
+
+        let mut per_frag: IntMap<u32, RoaringBitmap> = rewritten_old_row_addrs
+            .bitmaps()
+            .map(|(frag_id, bitmap)| (frag_id, bitmap.clone()))
+            .collect();
+        let old_frags = old_frags.into_iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut frags = Vec::with_capacity(old_frags.len());
+        let mut seen_frag_ids = HashSet::with_capacity(old_frags.len());
+        let mut rewritten_rows_before = 0u64;
+        for &(frag_id, physical_rows) in &old_frags {
+            if !seen_frag_ids.insert(frag_id) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "rewrite group {group_idx} contains old fragment {frag_id} more than once"
+                )));
+            }
+            let bitmap = per_frag.remove(&frag_id).unwrap_or_default();
+            if let Some(physical_rows) = physical_rows
+                && bitmap.max().is_some_and(|offset| offset >= physical_rows)
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "rewrite group {group_idx} contains a row offset outside old fragment {frag_id} with physical_rows={physical_rows}"
+                )));
+            }
+            let num_rewritten_rows = bitmap.len();
+            let rewritten_offsets = RankedOffsets::try_new(bitmap, physical_rows)?;
+            frags.push((
+                frag_id,
+                OldFragmentRemap {
+                    group_idx,
+                    rewritten_offsets,
+                    rewritten_rows_before,
+                    physical_rows,
+                },
+            ));
+            rewritten_rows_before += num_rewritten_rows;
+        }
+        // Rewritten old row addresses must reference only listed old fragments.
+        if !per_frag.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "compaction rewrite group {group_idx} references rewritten old row addresses from fragments {:?} not in its old fragments {:?}",
+                per_frag.keys().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                old_frags,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // Rewritten old rows are mapped positionally onto the new rows, so the
+        // two counts must match exactly
+        let total_rewritten_old_rows = rewritten_old_row_addrs.len();
+        if total_new_rows != total_rewritten_old_rows {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "compaction rewrite group {group_idx} rewrote {total_rewritten_old_rows} old rows from fragments {:?} but the new fragments hold {total_new_rows} rows",
+                old_frags,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok((
+            Self {
+                new_frag_row_ranges,
+            },
+            frags,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn compute_new_addr(&self, rewritten_row_index: u64) -> u64 {
+        let idx =
+            match self
+                .new_frag_row_ranges
+                .binary_search_by(|(_, rewritten_rows_before, _)| {
+                    rewritten_rows_before.cmp(&rewritten_row_index)
+                }) {
+                Ok(i) => i,
+                Err(i) => i - 1,
+            };
+        let (frag_id, rewritten_rows_before, _rows) = self.new_frag_row_ranges[idx];
+        let offset = (rewritten_row_index - rewritten_rows_before) as u32;
+        u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag_id, offset))
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for GroupRemap {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.new_frag_row_ranges.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Hasher for this module's integer-keyed maps.
+///
+/// `remap_row_id` probes `CompactRemapStep::frags` once per remap step per row
+/// address, so at hundreds of millions of rows the default SipHash is a large
+/// share of consolidation CPU. The keys are internal fragment ids, never
+/// attacker-supplied, so the hash-flooding resistance it buys is worth nothing here.
+///
+/// Only single-integer keys are hashed well: `write_u32`/`write_u64`/`write_usize`
+/// replace the state rather than mixing into it, so a composite key would collide on
+/// its last field alone. Correct either way — `Eq` still decides — but keep these maps
+/// keyed by one integer.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct IntHasher(u64);
+
+/// FNV-1a offset basis, so the byte fallback does not absorb leading zero bytes.
+const FNV_OFFSET_BASIS: u64 = 0xcbf2_9ce4_8422_2325;
+
+impl Default for IntHasher {
+    #[inline]
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self(FNV_OFFSET_BASIS)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Hasher for IntHasher {
+    /// Folds the high half down: multiplication only carries upward, so without this
+    /// the low bits — which hashbrown uses to pick the bucket — would ignore the high
+    /// bits of the key, and fragment ids strided by a power of two would all land in
+    /// one bucket.
+    #[inline]
+    fn finish(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.0 ^ (self.0 >> 32)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn write(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) {
+        // Fallback for key types this module does not use.
+        for &b in bytes {
+            self.0 = (self.0 ^ u64::from(b)).wrapping_mul(0x0000_0100_0000_01b3);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn write_u32(&mut self, value: u32) {
+        self.0 = u64::from(value).wrapping_mul(0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15);
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn write_u64(&mut self, value: u64) {
+        self.0 = value.wrapping_mul(0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15);
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn write_usize(&mut self, value: usize) {
+        self.write_u64(value as u64);
+    }
+}
+
+/// `HashMap` over single-integer keys, hashed with [`IntHasher`].
+type IntMap<K, V> = HashMap<K, V, BuildHasherDefault<IntHasher>>;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct CompactRemapStep {
+    groups: Vec<GroupRemap>,
+    /// Old fragment id -> its bitmap/rank layout and rewrite group. Size is
+    /// O(#fragments), not rows.
+    frags: IntMap<u32, OldFragmentRemap>,
+}
+
+impl CompactRemapStep {
+    fn new(groups: impl IntoIterator<Item = GroupInput>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut frags = IntMap::default();
+        let mut group_remaps = Vec::new();
+        for input in groups {
+            let gi = group_remaps.len();
+            let (group_remap, group_frags) = GroupRemap::new(input, gi)?;
+            for (frag_id, frag) in group_frags {
+                if frags.insert(frag_id, frag).is_some() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "old fragment {frag_id} appears in more than one rewrite group, including group {gi}"
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+            group_remaps.push(group_remap);
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            groups: group_remaps,
+            frags,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn new_with_layout(groups: impl IntoIterator<Item = GroupInputWithLayout>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut frags = IntMap::default();
+        let mut group_remaps = Vec::new();
+        for input in groups {
+            let gi = group_remaps.len();
+            let (group_remap, group_frags) = GroupRemap::new_with_layout(input, gi)?;
+            for (frag_id, frag) in group_frags {
+                if frags.insert(frag_id, frag).is_some() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "old fragment {frag_id} appears in more than one rewrite group, including group {gi}"
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+            group_remaps.push(group_remap);
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            groups: group_remaps,
+            frags,
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn get(&self, addr: u64) -> Option<Option<u64>> {
+        let frag = (addr >> 32) as u32;
+        // Not in any rewrite group -> unaffected by this remap.
+        let old_frag = self.frags.get(&frag)?;
+        let offset = addr as u32;
+        if old_frag
+            .physical_rows
+            .is_some_and(|physical_rows| offset >= physical_rows)
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let Some(rewritten_rank) = old_frag.rewritten_offsets.rank_if_present(offset) else {
+            return Some(None);
+        };
+        let rewritten_row_index = old_frag.rewritten_rows_before + rewritten_rank;
+        Some(Some(
+            self.groups[old_frag.group_idx].compute_new_addr(rewritten_row_index),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.groups.is_empty()
+    }
+
+    fn fully_deleted_fragments(&self) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        // A group with any rewritten row moved at least one row.
+        if self
+            .frags
+            .values()
+            .any(|frag| !frag.rewritten_offsets.is_empty())
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(self.frags.keys().copied()))
+    }
+
+    fn affected_fragments(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter(self.frags.keys().copied())
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CompactRemapStep {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.groups.deep_size_of_children(context) + self.frags.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum RemapStep {
+    Compact(CompactRemapStep),
+    Direct(HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>),
+}
+
+impl RemapStep {
+    fn get(&self, addr: u64) -> Option<Option<u64>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(compact) => compact.get(addr),
+            Self::Direct(direct) => direct.get(&addr).copied(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(compact) => compact.is_empty(),
+            Self::Direct(direct) => direct.is_empty(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn affected_fragments(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(compact) => compact.affected_fragments(),
+            Self::Direct(direct) => {
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter(direct.keys().map(|addr| (addr >> 32) as u32))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn fully_deleted_fragments(&self) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(compact) => compact.fully_deleted_fragments(),
+            Self::Direct(direct) if direct.is_empty() => Some(RoaringBitmap::new()),
+            Self::Direct(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for RemapStep {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Compact(compact) => compact.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            Self::Direct(direct) => direct.deep_size_of_children(context),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compact remap backed by per-group rewritten row bitmaps + new-fragment layouts.
+///
+/// Multiple remaps are retained as ordered private steps so a version chain
+/// does not require another public [`RowAddrRemap`] variant.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct CompactRowAddrRemap {
+    steps: Vec<RemapStep>,
+}
+
+impl CompactRowAddrRemap {
+    fn new(groups: impl IntoIterator<Item = GroupInput>) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            steps: vec![RemapStep::Compact(CompactRemapStep::new(groups)?)],
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn new_with_layout(groups: impl IntoIterator<Item = GroupInputWithLayout>) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            steps: vec![RemapStep::Compact(CompactRemapStep::new_with_layout(
+                groups,
+            )?)],
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn chained(remaps: Vec<RowAddrRemap>) -> Self {
+        let mut steps = Vec::with_capacity(remaps.len());
+        for remap in remaps {
+            match remap {
+                RowAddrRemap::Compact(compact) => steps.extend(compact.steps),
+                RowAddrRemap::Direct(direct) => steps.push(RemapStep::Direct(direct)),
+            }
+        }
+        Self { steps }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn get(&self, addr: u64) -> Option<Option<u64>> {
+        let mut current = addr;
+        let mut was_affected = false;
+        for step in &self.steps {
+            match step.get(current) {
+                None => {}
+                Some(None) => return Some(None),
+                Some(Some(mapped)) => {
+                    current = mapped;
+                    was_affected = true;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        was_affected.then_some(Some(current))
+    }
+
+    fn remap_in_place(&self, row_addrs: &mut [Option<u64>]) {
+        for step in &self.steps {
+            for row_addr in row_addrs.iter_mut() {
+                if let Some(addr) = *row_addr
+                    && let Some(mapped) = step.get(addr)
+                {
+                    *row_addr = mapped;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.steps.iter().all(RemapStep::is_empty)
+    }
+
+    fn affected_fragments(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        self.steps
+            .iter()
+            .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut affected, step| {
+                affected |= step.affected_fragments();
+                affected
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn fully_deleted_fragments(&self) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        self.steps
+            .iter()
+            .try_fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut deleted, step| {
+                deleted |= step.fully_deleted_fragments()?;
+                Some(deleted)
+            })
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CompactRowAddrRemap {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.steps.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use proptest::{prop_assert, prop_assert_eq};
+
+    fn addr(frag: u32, offset: u32) -> u64 {
+        u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset))
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+    enum ExpectedRankedOffsets {
+        Sparse,
+        Dense,
+        Roaring,
+    }
+
+    fn assert_layout_matches_legacy(
+        frag_id: u32,
+        physical_rows: u32,
+        rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap,
+        new_frags: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
+        expected_representation: ExpectedRankedOffsets,
+    ) {
+        let rewritten_addrs = rewritten_old_row_addrs.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let new_addrs = new_frags
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|(new_frag_id, rows)| (0..*rows).map(|offset| addr(*new_frag_id, offset)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(rewritten_addrs.len(), new_addrs.len());
+        let expected_moved = rewritten_addrs
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .zip(new_addrs)
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+
+        let remap = RowAddrRemap::compact_with_layout([GroupInputWithLayout {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs,
+            old_frags: vec![(frag_id, physical_rows)],
+            new_frags,
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let RowAddrRemap::Compact(compact) = &remap else {
+            panic!("compact_with_layout must produce a compact remap");
+        };
+        let RemapStep::Compact(step) = &compact.steps[0] else {
+            panic!("compact_with_layout must produce a compact step");
+        };
+        let offsets = &step.frags[&frag_id].rewritten_offsets;
+        assert!(match expected_representation {
+            ExpectedRankedOffsets::Sparse => matches!(offsets, RankedOffsets::Sparse(_)),
+            ExpectedRankedOffsets::Dense => matches!(offsets, RankedOffsets::Dense(_)),
+            ExpectedRankedOffsets::Roaring => matches!(offsets, RankedOffsets::Roaring(_)),
+        });
+
+        for offset in 0..physical_rows {
+            let old_addr = addr(frag_id, offset);
+            assert_eq!(
+                remap.get(old_addr),
+                Some(expected_moved.get(&old_addr).copied()),
+                "mismatch at ({frag_id}, {offset})"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(frag_id, physical_rows)), None);
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(frag_id + 1, 0)), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sparse_ranked_offsets() {
+        let offsets = RankedOffsets::try_new(
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32, 63, 511, 9_999]),
+            Some(10_000),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(offsets, RankedOffsets::Sparse(_)));
+        assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(0), None);
+        assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(1), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(63), Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(511), Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(9_999), Some(3));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dense_ranked_offsets_across_words() {
+        let rewritten = (0..1_024u32)
+            .filter(|offset| offset % 10 != 0)
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+        let offsets = RankedOffsets::try_new(rewritten.clone(), Some(1_024)).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(offsets, RankedOffsets::Dense(_)));
+
+        let mut expected_rank = 0u64;
+        for offset in 0..1_024 {
+            if rewritten.contains(offset) {
+                assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(offset), Some(expected_rank));
+                expected_rank += 1;
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(offset), None);
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(expected_rank, rewritten.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_run_compressed_ranked_offsets() {
+        let mut rewritten = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        rewritten.insert_range(100..9_900);
+        let offsets = RankedOffsets::try_new(rewritten, Some(10_000)).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(offsets, RankedOffsets::Roaring(_)));
+        assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(99), None);
+        assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(100), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(9_899), Some(9_799));
+        assert_eq!(offsets.rank_if_present(9_900), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compact_with_layout_matches_legacy_across_rank_representations() {
+        assert_layout_matches_legacy(
+            1,
+            10_000,
+            RoaringTreemap::from_iter(
+                [1u32, 63, 511, 9_999]
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|offset| addr(1, offset)),
+            ),
+            vec![(10, 2), (11, 2)],
+            ExpectedRankedOffsets::Sparse,
+        );
+
+        let dense = (0..1_024u32)
+            .filter(|offset| offset % 10 != 0)
+            .map(|offset| addr(2, offset))
+            .collect::<RoaringTreemap>();
+        let dense_rows = u32::try_from(dense.len()).unwrap();
+        assert_layout_matches_legacy(
+            2,
+            1_024,
+            dense,
+            vec![(20, 400), (21, dense_rows - 400)],
+            ExpectedRankedOffsets::Dense,
+        );
+
+        // Binary-copy compaction captures complete fragment ranges with
+        // `RoaringTreemap::insert_range`, then persists that bitmap. The
+        // serialized round trip retains run containers without `optimize()`.
+        let mut captured = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        captured.insert_range(addr(3, 100)..addr(3, 9_900));
+        let mut serialized = Vec::with_capacity(captured.serialized_size());
+        captured.serialize_into(&mut serialized).unwrap();
+        let persisted = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(std::io::Cursor::new(serialized)).unwrap();
+        assert_layout_matches_legacy(
+            3,
+            10_000,
+            persisted,
+            vec![(31, 5_000), (30, 4_800)],
+            ExpectedRankedOffsets::Roaring,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compact_lookup() {
+        // Group A: out-of-order old frags [4, 3], split new frags (11 empty),
+        // some deletions. frag 4 (5 rows) keeps 0,2,4; frag 3 keeps 0,1, so the
+        // rewritten rows (4,0)(4,2)(4,4)(3,0)(3,1) go to new frags 10(2), 12(3).
+        // Group B is a fully-deleted fragment.
+        let group_a = GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter([
+                addr(4, 0),
+                addr(4, 2),
+                addr(4, 4),
+                addr(3, 0),
+                addr(3, 1),
+            ]),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![4, 3],
+            new_frags: vec![(10, 2), (11, 0), (12, 3)],
+        };
+        let group_b = GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::new(),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![7],
+            new_frags: vec![],
+        };
+        let remap = RowAddrRemap::compact([group_a, group_b]).unwrap();
+
+        // Moves, in rewrite order; frag 4 comes first despite the larger id.
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(4, 0)), Some(Some(addr(10, 0))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(4, 2)), Some(Some(addr(10, 1))));
+        // Rank 2 skips the zero-row new fragment 11 and lands in fragment 12.
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(4, 4)), Some(Some(addr(12, 0))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(3, 0)), Some(Some(addr(12, 1))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(3, 1)), Some(Some(addr(12, 2))));
+        // Deleted offsets inside a rewritten fragment.
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(4, 1)), Some(None));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(4, 3)), Some(None));
+        // Covered but fully-deleted fragment -> Some(None), not None.
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(7, 0)), Some(None));
+        // Fragment in no group -> unaffected.
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(9, 0)), None);
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(4, 5)), Some(None));
+        assert!(!remap.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fragment_sets() {
+        // Each deferred version deletes a different covered fragment. The
+        // chain must retain the flat direct map's union semantics.
+        let first_dead = RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::new(),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![3],
+            new_frags: vec![],
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+        let second_dead = RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::new(),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![7],
+            new_frags: vec![],
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+        let dead = RowAddrRemap::chained([first_dead.clone(), second_dead]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dead.fully_deleted_fragments(),
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3u32, 7u32]))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dead.affected_fragments(),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3u32, 7u32])
+        );
+
+        // At least one rewritten row -> not fully deleted, but both covered
+        // fragments (including the fully-deleted frag 1) are still affected.
+        let alive = RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter([addr(0, 0)]),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![0, 1],
+            new_frags: vec![(10, 1)],
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(alive.fully_deleted_fragments().is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            alive.affected_fragments(),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1u32])
+        );
+        assert!(
+            RowAddrRemap::chained([first_dead, alive])
+                .fully_deleted_fragments()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_direct_partial_map_is_not_fully_deleted() {
+        let remap = RowAddrRemap::direct(HashMap::from([(addr(5, 1), None)]));
+
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(5, 0)), None);
+        assert_eq!(remap.fully_deleted_fragments(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_chained_partial_direct_maps_are_not_fully_deleted() {
+        let remap = RowAddrRemap::chained([
+            RowAddrRemap::direct(HashMap::from([(addr(5, 1), None)])),
+            RowAddrRemap::direct(HashMap::from([(addr(6, 1), None)])),
+        ]);
+
+        assert!(matches!(remap, RowAddrRemap::Compact(_)));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(5, 0)), None);
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(6, 0)), None);
+        assert_eq!(remap.fully_deleted_fragments(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compact_rejects_rewritten_addrs_outside_old_frags() {
+        // Rewritten addresses reference frag 5, not in old_frags. The count
+        // still matches (2 == 2), so only the per-fragment split catches it.
+        let input = GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter([addr(0, 0), addr(5, 0)]),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![0],
+            new_frags: vec![(10, 2)],
+        };
+        assert!(RowAddrRemap::compact([input]).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compact_preserves_explicit_fragment_order() {
+        let remap = RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter([addr(0, 0), addr(0, 1)]),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![0],
+            new_frags: vec![(12, 1), (11, 1)],
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(0, 0)), Some(Some(addr(12, 0))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(0, 1)), Some(Some(addr(11, 0))));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_direct_and_empty() {
+        // Direct covers arbitrary maps the compact form can't express.
+        let mut map = HashMap::new();
+        map.insert(addr(2, 0), Some(addr(9, 9)));
+        map.insert(addr(5, 1), None);
+        let remap = RowAddrRemap::direct(map);
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(2, 0)), Some(Some(addr(9, 9))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(5, 1)), Some(None));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(2, 1)), None);
+        // affected_fragments over an explicit map: the fragment of every key.
+        assert_eq!(
+            remap.affected_fragments(),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 5u32])
+        );
+
+        let empty = RowAddrRemap::empty();
+        assert!(empty.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(empty.get(addr(0, 0)), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_chained_lookup_and_batch() {
+        let first = RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter([addr(0, 0), addr(0, 2)]),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![0],
+            new_frags: vec![(10, 2)],
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+        let second = RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter([addr(10, 1)]),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![10],
+            new_frags: vec![(20, 1)],
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+        let chain = RowAddrRemap::chained([first, second]);
+
+        assert_eq!(chain.get(addr(0, 0)), Some(None));
+        assert_eq!(chain.get(addr(0, 1)), Some(None));
+        assert_eq!(chain.get(addr(0, 2)), Some(Some(addr(20, 0))));
+        assert_eq!(chain.get(addr(1, 0)), None);
+
+        let mut batch = vec![
+            Some(addr(0, 0)),
+            Some(addr(0, 1)),
+            Some(addr(0, 2)),
+            Some(addr(1, 0)),
+            None,
+        ];
+        chain.remap_in_place(&mut batch);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch,
+            vec![None, None, Some(addr(20, 0)), Some(addr(1, 0)), None]
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn int_hash_of<K: std::hash::Hash>(key: &K) -> u64 {
+        use std::hash::BuildHasher;
+        BuildHasherDefault::<IntHasher>::default().hash_one(key)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_int_hasher_is_stateless_and_spreads_low_bits() {
+        // A `BuildHasherDefault` carries no seed, so a key must hash the same at insert,
+        // at lookup and after a resize; if it did not, a key could become unreachable.
+        for value in [0u32, 1, 7, 12345, 1 << 31, u32::MAX] {
+            assert_eq!(int_hash_of(&value), int_hash_of(&value));
+        }
+        // `get` borrows the key, so the borrowed form has to agree with the owned one.
+        let key = 424242u32;
+        assert_eq!(int_hash_of(&key), int_hash_of(&&key));
+
+        // Multiplication only carries upward, so without the fold in `finish` the low
+        // bits would ignore the high bits of the key and every fragment id below would
+        // land in the same bucket.
+        let buckets = |ids: &[u32]| -> usize {
+            let table_mask = 2048 - 1;
+            ids.iter()
+                .map(|id| int_hash_of(id) & table_mask)
+                .collect::<std::collections::HashSet<_>>()
+                .len()
+        };
+        let strided: Vec<u32> = (0..1024).map(|i| i << 20).collect();
+        let dense: Vec<u32> = (0..1024).collect();
+        assert!(
+            buckets(&strided) > 512,
+            "power-of-two-strided fragment ids clustered into {} of 2048 buckets",
+            buckets(&strided)
+        );
+        assert!(buckets(&dense) > 512, "dense fragment ids clustered");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_int_hasher_composite_keys_collide_on_last_field() {
+        // `write_u32`/`write_u64` replace the state instead of mixing into it, so a
+        // composite key keeps only its last integer field. Pinned because it is the
+        // documented reason these maps are single-integer-keyed: the map still answers
+        // correctly, it just degenerates to one bucket.
+        assert_eq!(int_hash_of(&(1u32, 5u32)), int_hash_of(&(999u32, 5u32)));
+        assert_eq!(int_hash_of(&("abc", 4u32)), int_hash_of(&("zzzzzz", 4u32)));
+
+        let mut map: IntMap<(u32, u32), u32> = IntMap::default();
+        for a in 0..48u32 {
+            for b in 0..48u32 {
+                map.insert((a, b), a * 1000 + b);
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(map.len(), 48 * 48);
+        for a in 0..48u32 {
+            for b in 0..48u32 {
+                assert_eq!(map.get(&(a, b)), Some(&(a * 1000 + b)));
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(map.get(&(48, 0)), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_outputs_do_not_depend_on_fragment_insertion_order() {
+        // The maps are hashed with a fixed seed, so their iteration order is stable but
+        // different from the default hasher's. Nothing observable may depend on it.
+        let remap_over = |old_frag_ids: Vec<u32>| {
+            let rewritten = RoaringTreemap::from_iter(old_frag_ids.iter().map(|f| addr(*f, 0)));
+            let num_rows = old_frag_ids.len() as u32;
+            RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+                rewritten_old_row_addrs: rewritten,
+                old_frag_ids,
+                new_frags: vec![(1000, num_rows)],
+            }])
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let forward = remap_over(vec![3, 1, 4, 1 << 20, 2 << 20, 9, 700_000]);
+        let reverse = remap_over(vec![700_000, 9, 2 << 20, 1 << 20, 4, 1, 3]);
+
+        // `old_frag_ids` order is load-bearing for the row-to-row mapping, so only the
+        // set-shaped outputs are comparable across the two.
+        assert_eq!(
+            forward.affected_fragments(),
+            reverse.affected_fragments(),
+            "affected fragments must not depend on insertion order"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            forward.fully_deleted_fragments(),
+            reverse.fully_deleted_fragments()
+        );
+    }
+
+    proptest::proptest! {
+        /// The compact remap must answer exactly like a materialized old-to-new map. A
+        /// wrong answer here silently points an index at the wrong physical row, so this
+        /// compares the two forms address by address over randomized rewrites.
+        #[test]
+        fn test_compact_matches_direct_over_random_rewrites(
+            // Fragment id shapes: dense, strided by a power of two (the integer hasher's
+            // worst case), and sparse.
+            frag_seeds in proptest::collection::vec((0..3usize, 0..64u32), 1..7),
+            rows_per_frag in 1..24u32,
+            keep in proptest::collection::vec(proptest::bool::weighted(0.75), 6 * 24),
+            gaps in proptest::collection::vec(1..4u32, 1..5),
+        ) {
+            let mut old_frag_ids: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
+            for (shape, seed) in &frag_seeds {
+                let frag_id = match shape {
+                    0 => *seed,
+                    1 => (*seed + 1) << 20,
+                    _ => seed.wrapping_mul(7919),
+                };
+                if !old_frag_ids.contains(&frag_id) {
+                    old_frag_ids.push(frag_id);
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Rewritten rows are read fragment by fragment in `old_frag_ids` order, and
+            // by ascending offset within each fragment.
+            let mut rewritten = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            let mut read_order: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+            let mut covered: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+            for (frag_index, frag_id) in old_frag_ids.iter().enumerate() {
+                for offset in 0..rows_per_frag {
+                    covered.push(addr(*frag_id, offset));
+                    if keep[frag_index * rows_per_frag as usize + offset as usize] {
+                        rewritten.insert(addr(*frag_id, offset));
+                        read_order.push(addr(*frag_id, offset));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            let total_rewritten = read_order.len() as u32;
+            proptest::prop_assume!(total_rewritten > 0);
+
+            // Spread the rewritten rows over ascending new fragment ids, every fragment
+            // non-empty so the row counts still add up.
+            let parts = gaps.len().min(total_rewritten as usize);
+            let base = total_rewritten / parts as u32;
+            let remainder = total_rewritten % parts as u32;
+            let mut new_frags: Vec<(u32, u32)> = Vec::with_capacity(parts);
+            let mut new_frag_id = 10_000u32;
+            for (part, gap) in gaps.iter().take(parts).enumerate() {
+                let rows = base + u32::from((part as u32) < remainder);
+                new_frags.push((new_frag_id, rows));
+                new_frag_id += gap;
+            }
+
+            // The same mapping, materialized one address at a time.
+            let mut direct: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> = HashMap::new();
+            let mut read_order_iter = read_order.iter();
+            for (new_frag_id, rows) in &new_frags {
+                for offset in 0..*rows {
+                    let old = read_order_iter.next().unwrap();
+                    direct.insert(*old, Some(addr(*new_frag_id, offset)));
+                }
+            }
+            prop_assert!(read_order_iter.next().is_none());
+            for old in &covered {
+                direct.entry(*old).or_insert(None);
+            }
+
+            let compact = RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+                rewritten_old_row_addrs: rewritten,
+                old_frag_ids: old_frag_ids.clone(),
+                new_frags,
+            }])
+            .unwrap();
+            let direct = RowAddrRemap::direct(direct);
+
+            for old in &covered {
+                prop_assert_eq!(
+                    compact.get(*old),
+                    direct.get(*old),
+                    "address {:#x} in fragments {:?}",
+                    old,
+                    old_frag_ids
+                );
+            }
+            // Fragments no group covers are left alone.
+            for frag_id in [0xFFFF_FFF0u32, 0x7EEE_EEEE] {
+                prop_assert_eq!(compact.get(addr(frag_id, 0)), None);
+            }
+            prop_assert_eq!(compact.affected_fragments(), direct.affected_fragments());
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/stable_partition.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/stable_partition.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..38bfcf2c81d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/stable_partition.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,697 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Stable-partition row mapping for reordered rewrites.
+//!
+//! A reordered rewrite (e.g. reclustering) reads `n` source fragments in scan
+//! order and distributes their live rows across `m` destination fragments,
+//! preserving relative row order within each destination (a stable partition).
+//! Unlike compaction, the destination of a row cannot be derived from row
+//! order alone, so the rewrite records one label per physical source row:
+//!
+//! * The label of the `i`-th physical source row (concatenated scan order) is
+//!   the index of its destination in the rewrite's ordered destination list.
+//! * A deleted source row is labeled NULL: it moved nowhere.
+//!
+//! Ordering:
+//!
+//! The labels do not carry destination offsets; offsets are reconstructed by
+//! counting, which is only correct when the rewrite obeys all of:
+//!
+//! * Labels are recorded in source physical-row order: fragments in scan
+//!   order, offsets ascending within each fragment.
+//! * Each destination receives its rows in that same source order, and rows
+//!   are never re-sorted within a destination afterwards.
+//! * The ordered destination list is fixed for the whole rewrite.
+//!
+//! A rewrite that routes rows through parallel writers must merge each
+//! destination's output back into source order before recording this
+//! mapping; otherwise the derived offsets address the wrong rows.
+//!
+//! This contract is deliberate scope, not an oversight: the format
+//! represents stable partitions only. A rewrite that sorts rows *within* a
+//! destination is not representable here — with source rows `[a, b]`
+//! written to one destination as `[b, a]`, both labels are equal, and
+//! counting would assign the offsets backwards. Such a rewrite needs a
+//! per-row final-offset (permutation) encoding, which would be a separate
+//! format rather than a relaxation of this one.
+//!
+//! Because each destination is filled in source scan order, the destination
+//! row offset of a live row equals the number of earlier source rows with the
+//! same label. This module provides that arithmetic without materializing an
+//! O(rows) address map:
+//!
+//! * [`CountsMatrix`] — for every fixed-size block of source rows, the
+//!   cumulative per-label row count through the end of that block, as a
+//!   dense `num_blocks * m` grid. A block is the unit of storage, IO and
+//!   caching for the label column. The grid size is exact and data
+//!   independent (~1.5 MB for 50M rows across 500 destinations, ~61 MB at a
+//!   1B-row rewrite across 1000); the encoded header names the
+//!   representation so sparser encodings can be added later without breaking
+//!   readers.
+//! * [`translate_in_block`] — point lookup: destination offset = cumulative
+//!   count before the row's block (one array read) + the label's rank within
+//!   the block prefix. Touches one block of labels.
+//! * [`SweepTranslator`] — sequential translation: per-label counters seeded
+//!   from a block boundary, then `offset = counter[label]++` per row. O(1)
+//!   per row, used for bulk remapping and whole-unit decodes.
+//!
+//! Label storage and file IO live in `lance-index`; this module is pure
+//! arithmetic over decoded label blocks and the counts matrix.
+
+use crate::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+
+/// Default number of source rows per block: the counts granularity and the
+/// unit of label IO.
+pub const DEFAULT_BLOCK_ROWS: u32 = 64 * 1024;
+
+/// Labels are u16 destination indices, so one rewrite addresses at most
+/// 65536 destinations.
+pub const MAX_DESTINATIONS: u32 = u16::MAX as u32 + 1;
+
+const COUNTS_MAGIC: &[u8; 4] = b"LSPC";
+const COUNTS_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+/// magic + version + repr + num_destinations + block_rows + total_rows
+const COUNTS_HEADER_BYTES: usize = 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 8;
+/// Representation tag in the encoded header. Only the dense grid is written
+/// today; other tag values are reserved for future representations (e.g.
+/// per-destination sparse postings) and rejected with a clear error by
+/// current readers.
+const REPR_DENSE: u32 = 0;
+
+fn corrupt(message: impl Into<String>) -> Error {
+    Error::corrupt_file_named("stable_partition_counts", message)
+}
+
+/// Cumulative per-destination row counts at every block boundary.
+///
+/// Row `b` of the grid holds, for each destination label `d`, the number of
+/// source rows labeled `d` in blocks `0..=b`. The final row therefore holds
+/// the total row count of every destination. Deleted (NULL-labeled) rows are
+/// not counted; the deleted count of a block is implied by
+/// `block length - sum of per-label deltas`.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct CountsMatrix {
+    /// Number of destinations `m`; labels are `0..m`.
+    num_destinations: u32,
+    /// Source rows per block. Only the final block may be shorter.
+    block_rows: u32,
+    /// Total physical source rows, including deleted rows.
+    total_rows: u64,
+    /// `num_blocks * num_destinations` cumulative counts, row-major by block.
+    cumulative: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl CountsMatrix {
+    pub fn num_destinations(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.num_destinations
+    }
+
+    pub fn block_rows(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.block_rows
+    }
+
+    pub fn total_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.total_rows
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_blocks(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cumulative.len() / self.num_destinations as usize
+    }
+
+    /// The block containing physical source row `row`.
+    pub fn block_of(&self, row: u64) -> usize {
+        (row / u64::from(self.block_rows)) as usize
+    }
+
+    /// The physical source row range covered by `block`.
+    pub fn block_range(&self, block: usize) -> std::ops::Range<u64> {
+        let start = block as u64 * u64::from(self.block_rows);
+        let end = (start + u64::from(self.block_rows)).min(self.total_rows);
+        start..end
+    }
+
+    fn block_row(&self, block: usize) -> &[u32] {
+        let m = self.num_destinations as usize;
+        &self.cumulative[block * m..(block + 1) * m]
+    }
+
+    /// Rows labeled `label` in blocks before `block`: the destination offset
+    /// of the first `label`-row inside `block`.
+    pub fn count_before(&self, block: usize, label: u16) -> u32 {
+        if block == 0 {
+            0
+        } else {
+            self.block_row(block - 1)[label as usize]
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Per-label counters at the start of `block`, seeding a
+    /// [`SweepTranslator`].
+    pub fn counters_at_block(&self, block: usize) -> Vec<u32> {
+        if block == 0 {
+            vec![0; self.num_destinations as usize]
+        } else {
+            self.block_row(block - 1).to_vec()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Total rows of destination `label`; the final cumulative row.
+    pub fn total(&self, label: u16) -> u32 {
+        let blocks = self.num_blocks();
+        if blocks == 0 {
+            0
+        } else {
+            self.block_row(blocks - 1)[label as usize]
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Total live (labeled) rows across all destinations.
+    pub fn total_live_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        let blocks = self.num_blocks();
+        if blocks == 0 {
+            0
+        } else {
+            self.block_row(blocks - 1)
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&c| u64::from(c))
+                .sum()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Deleted (NULL-labeled) rows in blocks `0..=block`.
+    pub fn deleted_through(&self, block: usize) -> u64 {
+        let rows_through = self.block_range(block).end;
+        let live_through: u64 = self.block_row(block).iter().map(|&c| u64::from(c)).sum();
+        rows_through - live_through
+    }
+
+    /// Check internal consistency: per-label counts must be non-decreasing
+    /// across blocks and each block's live rows must fit its row range.
+    /// O(num_blocks * num_destinations), no label IO. Called when a row map
+    /// is opened, so a corrupt counts buffer fails loudly instead of
+    /// translating rows to wrong addresses.
+    pub fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut prev_live = 0u64;
+        for block in 0..self.num_blocks() {
+            if block > 0 {
+                let (prev, cur) = (self.block_row(block - 1), self.block_row(block));
+                if prev.iter().zip(cur).any(|(p, c)| c < p) {
+                    return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                        "cumulative counts decrease at block {block}"
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+            let live_through: u64 = self.block_row(block).iter().map(|&c| u64::from(c)).sum();
+            let range = self.block_range(block);
+            let block_len = range.end - range.start;
+            if live_through - prev_live > block_len {
+                return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                    "block {block} accounts for more live rows than its {block_len} rows"
+                )));
+            }
+            prev_live = live_through;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize to the on-disk form stored in the row map file's global
+    /// buffer: a fixed header naming the representation, then the cumulative
+    /// counts as little-endian u32.
+    pub fn encode(&self) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(COUNTS_HEADER_BYTES + self.cumulative.len() * 4);
+        buf.extend_from_slice(COUNTS_MAGIC);
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&COUNTS_VERSION.to_le_bytes());
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&REPR_DENSE.to_le_bytes());
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&self.num_destinations.to_le_bytes());
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&self.block_rows.to_le_bytes());
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&self.total_rows.to_le_bytes());
+        for count in &self.cumulative {
+            buf.extend_from_slice(&count.to_le_bytes());
+        }
+        buf
+    }
+
+    /// Decode the on-disk form, checking structure exactly: magic, version, a
+    /// supported representation, shape legality and precise payload length.
+    /// Content invariants (monotone counts, per-block row budgets) are
+    /// checked by [`Self::validate`].
+    pub fn decode(buf: &[u8]) -> Result<Self> {
+        let header: &[u8; COUNTS_HEADER_BYTES] = buf
+            .get(..COUNTS_HEADER_BYTES)
+            .and_then(|header| header.try_into().ok())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                corrupt(format!(
+                    "counts buffer is {} bytes, shorter than the {COUNTS_HEADER_BYTES}-byte header",
+                    buf.len()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        if &header[0..4] != COUNTS_MAGIC {
+            return Err(corrupt("counts buffer has a bad magic number"));
+        }
+        let version = u32::from_le_bytes(header[4..8].try_into().unwrap());
+        if version != COUNTS_VERSION {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!("unsupported counts version {version}")));
+        }
+        let repr = u32::from_le_bytes(header[8..12].try_into().unwrap());
+        if repr != REPR_DENSE {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "unsupported counts representation {repr}; this reader only supports the dense grid ({REPR_DENSE})"
+            )));
+        }
+        let num_destinations = u32::from_le_bytes(header[12..16].try_into().unwrap());
+        let block_rows = u32::from_le_bytes(header[16..20].try_into().unwrap());
+        let total_rows = u64::from_le_bytes(header[20..28].try_into().unwrap());
+        Self::check_shape(num_destinations, block_rows)?;
+        let num_blocks = total_rows.div_ceil(u64::from(block_rows));
+        num_blocks
+            .checked_mul(u64::from(num_destinations))
+            .and_then(|cells| cells.checked_mul(4))
+            .filter(|&bytes| bytes == (buf.len() - COUNTS_HEADER_BYTES) as u64)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                corrupt(format!(
+                    "counts buffer of {} bytes does not match {num_blocks} blocks of {num_destinations} destinations",
+                    buf.len()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let mut cumulative =
+            Vec::with_capacity((num_blocks * u64::from(num_destinations)) as usize);
+        for chunk in buf[COUNTS_HEADER_BYTES..].as_chunks::<4>().0 {
+            cumulative.push(u32::from_le_bytes(*chunk));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            num_destinations,
+            block_rows,
+            total_rows,
+            cumulative,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn check_shape(num_destinations: u32, block_rows: u32) -> Result<()> {
+        if num_destinations == 0 || num_destinations > MAX_DESTINATIONS {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "stable partition needs 1..={MAX_DESTINATIONS} destinations, got {num_destinations}"
+            )));
+        }
+        if block_rows == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "stable partition block_rows must be positive",
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn check_label(&self, label: u16) -> Result<()> {
+        if u32::from(label) >= self.num_destinations {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "label {label} is outside the {} destinations of this stable partition",
+                self.num_destinations
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CountsMatrix {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.cumulative.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Streaming builder for a [`CountsMatrix`]: feed one label per physical
+/// source row in scan order.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct CountsMatrixBuilder {
+    num_destinations: u32,
+    block_rows: u32,
+    running: Vec<u32>,
+    cumulative: Vec<u32>,
+    total_rows: u64,
+    rows_in_block: u32,
+}
+
+impl CountsMatrixBuilder {
+    pub fn try_new(num_destinations: u32, block_rows: u32) -> Result<Self> {
+        CountsMatrix::check_shape(num_destinations, block_rows)?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            num_destinations,
+            block_rows,
+            running: vec![0; num_destinations as usize],
+            cumulative: Vec::new(),
+            total_rows: 0,
+            rows_in_block: 0,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Record the label of the next physical source row; `None` marks a
+    /// deleted row.
+    pub fn push(&mut self, label: Option<u16>) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(label) = label {
+            if u32::from(label) >= self.num_destinations {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "label {label} is outside the {} destinations of this stable partition",
+                    self.num_destinations
+                )));
+            }
+            let counter = &mut self.running[label as usize];
+            *counter = counter.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "destination {label} exceeds the u32 row-offset range"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        }
+        self.total_rows += 1;
+        self.rows_in_block += 1;
+        if self.rows_in_block == self.block_rows {
+            self.cumulative.extend_from_slice(&self.running);
+            self.rows_in_block = 0;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn finish(mut self) -> CountsMatrix {
+        if self.rows_in_block > 0 {
+            self.cumulative.extend_from_slice(&self.running);
+        }
+        CountsMatrix {
+            num_destinations: self.num_destinations,
+            block_rows: self.block_rows,
+            total_rows: self.total_rows,
+            cumulative: self.cumulative,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Rank of `label` among the first `upto` labels of a block: the number of
+/// valid entries equal to `label` in `values[..upto]`.
+pub fn rank_label_prefix(
+    values: &[u16],
+    validity: Option<&NullBuffer>,
+    upto: usize,
+    label: u16,
+) -> u32 {
+    match validity {
+        // NULL slots hold arbitrary values after an encoding round trip, so
+        // they must be masked out of the count.
+        Some(validity) if validity.null_count() > 0 => values[..upto]
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|&(i, &value)| value == label && validity.is_valid(i))
+            .count() as u32,
+        _ => values[..upto]
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|&&value| value == label)
+            .count() as u32,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Translate one physical source row using its decoded label block.
+///
+/// `values`/`validity` are the labels of `block` (exactly the rows of
+/// [`CountsMatrix::block_range`]); `pos_in_block` addresses the row within
+/// them. Returns `None` when the row was deleted at the source, otherwise
+/// `(destination index, destination row offset)`.
+pub fn translate_in_block(
+    counts: &CountsMatrix,
+    block: usize,
+    values: &[u16],
+    validity: Option<&NullBuffer>,
+    pos_in_block: usize,
+) -> Result<Option<(u16, u32)>> {
+    let block_range = counts.block_range(block);
+    let block_len = (block_range.end - block_range.start) as usize;
+    if values.len() != block_len {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "block {block} holds {block_len} labels but {} were supplied",
+            values.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    if pos_in_block >= block_len {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "row {pos_in_block} is outside block {block} of {block_len} rows"
+        )));
+    }
+    if validity.is_some_and(|validity| !validity.is_valid(pos_in_block)) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let label = values[pos_in_block];
+    counts.check_label(label)?;
+    let offset = counts.count_before(block, label)
+        + rank_label_prefix(values, validity, pos_in_block, label);
+    Ok(Some((label, offset)))
+}
+
+/// Sequential translator: seed per-label counters from a block boundary, then
+/// feed every physical source row's label in order.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct SweepTranslator {
+    counters: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl SweepTranslator {
+    /// Counters positioned at the first row of `start_block`.
+    pub fn new(counts: &CountsMatrix, start_block: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        if start_block >= counts.num_blocks().max(1) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "start block {start_block} is outside the {} blocks of this stable partition",
+                counts.num_blocks()
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            counters: counts.counters_at_block(start_block),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Translate the next row. `None` in, `None` out for deleted rows.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn advance(&mut self, label: Option<u16>) -> Result<Option<(u16, u32)>> {
+        let Some(label) = label else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let counter = self.counters.get_mut(label as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "label {label} is outside the destinations of this stable partition"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let offset = *counter;
+        *counter += 1;
+        Ok(Some((label, offset)))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rand::rngs::StdRng;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+
+    /// ~1/8 deleted rows, labels uniform over `m`.
+    fn random_labels(rng: &mut StdRng, rows: usize, m: u32) -> Vec<Option<u16>> {
+        (0..rows)
+            .map(|_| {
+                if rng.random_ratio(1, 8) {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(rng.random_range(0..m) as u16)
+                }
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn build(labels: &[Option<u16>], m: u32, block_rows: u32) -> CountsMatrix {
+        let mut builder = CountsMatrixBuilder::try_new(m, block_rows).unwrap();
+        for &label in labels {
+            builder.push(label).unwrap();
+        }
+        builder.finish()
+    }
+
+    /// Reference translation: scan all labels with per-destination counters.
+    fn reference(labels: &[Option<u16>]) -> Vec<Option<(u16, u32)>> {
+        let mut counters = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        labels
+            .iter()
+            .map(|label| {
+                label.map(|label| {
+                    let counter = counters.entry(label).or_insert(0u32);
+                    let offset = *counter;
+                    *counter += 1;
+                    (label, offset)
+                })
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn block_slices(
+        labels: &[Option<u16>],
+        counts: &CountsMatrix,
+        block: usize,
+    ) -> (Vec<u16>, Option<NullBuffer>) {
+        let range = counts.block_range(block);
+        let block_labels = &labels[range.start as usize..range.end as usize];
+        // NULL slots get a garbage value on purpose: after an encoding round
+        // trip their contents are undefined and must not affect ranks.
+        let values = block_labels
+            .iter()
+            .map(|label| label.unwrap_or(0xBEEF_u64 as u16))
+            .collect();
+        let has_nulls = block_labels.iter().any(Option::is_none);
+        let validity =
+            has_nulls.then(|| NullBuffer::from_iter(block_labels.iter().map(Option::is_some)));
+        (values, validity)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_counts_matrix_hand_example() {
+        // 10 rows, block_rows=4 -> blocks of 4, 4, 2. m=3, and destination 1
+        // receives nothing in blocks 0 and 2.
+        let labels = [
+            Some(0),
+            Some(2),
+            None,
+            Some(2), // block 0: d0=1, d2=2, 1 deleted
+            Some(1),
+            Some(1),
+            Some(0),
+            Some(2), // block 1: cum d0=2, d1=2, d2=3
+            None,
+            Some(0), // block 2: cum d0=3, d1=2, d2=3, 2 deleted total
+        ];
+        let counts = build(&labels, 3, 4);
+        counts.validate().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(counts.num_blocks(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(counts.total_rows(), 10);
+        assert_eq!(counts.block_range(2), 8..10);
+
+        assert_eq!(counts.count_before(0, 2), 0);
+        assert_eq!(counts.count_before(1, 2), 2);
+        assert_eq!(counts.count_before(2, 0), 2);
+        // Destination 1 received nothing in blocks 0 and 2: lookups around
+        // the gap see the count of its last change (or 0).
+        assert_eq!(counts.count_before(1, 1), 0);
+        assert_eq!(counts.count_before(3, 1), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            (counts.total(0), counts.total(1), counts.total(2)),
+            (3, 2, 3)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(counts.total_live_rows(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(counts.deleted_through(0), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counts.deleted_through(2), 2);
+        assert_eq!(counts.counters_at_block(1), vec![1, 0, 2]);
+
+        // Exact multiple of block_rows: no partial block.
+        let exact = build(&labels[..8], 3, 4);
+        assert_eq!(exact.num_blocks(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(exact.total_rows(), 8);
+
+        let empty = build(&[], 3, 4);
+        assert_eq!(empty.num_blocks(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(empty.total(1), 0);
+        assert_eq!(empty.total_live_rows(), 0);
+        empty.validate().unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_encode_decode_round_trip() {
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(7);
+        let labels = random_labels(&mut rng, 1000, 5);
+        let counts = build(&labels, 5, 64);
+        let decoded = CountsMatrix::decode(&counts.encode()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded, counts);
+        decoded.validate().unwrap();
+
+        let empty = build(&[], 5, 64);
+        assert_eq!(CountsMatrix::decode(&empty.encode()).unwrap(), empty);
+
+        // Structural corruption is caught at decode: too short, bad magic,
+        // truncated payload, unknown representation tag.
+        assert!(CountsMatrix::decode(&[]).is_err());
+        let mut bad_magic = counts.encode();
+        bad_magic[0] = b'X';
+        assert!(CountsMatrix::decode(&bad_magic).is_err());
+        let mut truncated = counts.encode();
+        truncated.pop();
+        assert!(CountsMatrix::decode(&truncated).is_err());
+        let mut bad_repr = counts.encode();
+        bad_repr[8] = 9;
+        assert!(CountsMatrix::decode(&bad_repr).is_err());
+
+        // Content corruption is caught by validate: shrink a later block's
+        // cumulative count below an earlier one.
+        let mut decreasing = counts;
+        let m = decreasing.num_destinations as usize;
+        decreasing.cumulative[m] = 0;
+        assert!(
+            CountsMatrix::decode(&decreasing.encode())
+                .unwrap()
+                .validate()
+                .is_err()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_builder_rejects_bad_shapes_and_labels() {
+        assert!(CountsMatrixBuilder::try_new(0, 64).is_err());
+        assert!(CountsMatrixBuilder::try_new(MAX_DESTINATIONS + 1, 64).is_err());
+        assert!(CountsMatrixBuilder::try_new(1, 0).is_err());
+        let mut builder = CountsMatrixBuilder::try_new(3, 4).unwrap();
+        assert!(builder.push(Some(3)).is_err());
+        assert!(builder.push(Some(2)).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_point_and_sweep_match_reference() {
+        let m = 5u32;
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
+        let labels = random_labels(&mut rng, 1000, m);
+        let counts = build(&labels, m, 64);
+        counts.validate().unwrap();
+        let expected = reference(&labels);
+
+        // Point lookups, block by block, against the reference map.
+        for block in 0..counts.num_blocks() {
+            let (values, validity) = block_slices(&labels, &counts, block);
+            let range = counts.block_range(block);
+            for pos in 0..(range.end - range.start) as usize {
+                let translated =
+                    translate_in_block(&counts, block, &values, validity.as_ref(), pos).unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    translated,
+                    expected[range.start as usize + pos],
+                    "row {}",
+                    range.start as usize + pos
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        // A sweep from the start and one from every block boundary.
+        for start_block in 0..counts.num_blocks() {
+            let mut sweep = SweepTranslator::new(&counts, start_block).unwrap();
+            let start_row = counts.block_range(start_block).start as usize;
+            for (row, &label) in labels.iter().enumerate().skip(start_row) {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    sweep.advance(label).unwrap(),
+                    expected[row],
+                    "row {row} from block {start_block}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_translate_in_block_input_checks() {
+        let labels = [Some(0), Some(1), None, Some(0)];
+        let counts = build(&labels, 2, 4);
+        let (values, validity) = block_slices(&labels, &counts, 0);
+        // Wrong slice length and out-of-range row are rejected.
+        assert!(translate_in_block(&counts, 0, &values[..3], None, 0).is_err());
+        assert!(translate_in_block(&counts, 0, &values, validity.as_ref(), 4).is_err());
+        // A label outside the destination list is data corruption.
+        assert!(translate_in_block(&counts, 0, &[0, 9, 0, 0], None, 1).is_err());
+        assert!(SweepTranslator::new(&counts, 1).is_err());
+        let mut sweep = SweepTranslator::new(&counts, 0).unwrap();
+        assert!(sweep.advance(Some(9)).is_err());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tempfile.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tempfile.rs
index f4b804c5c70..a5a13ba26f1 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tempfile.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tempfile.rs
@@ -268,12 +268,14 @@ impl Deref for TempStdFile {
     }
 }
 
-/// A temporary file that is exposed as an object store path
+/// A unique path to a temporary file, exposed as an object store path
 ///
-/// This is a wrapper around [`TempFile`] that exposes the path as an object store path.
-/// It is useful when you need to create a temporary file that is only used as an object store path.
+/// Unlike [`TempFile`], this does not create an empty file. We create a
+/// temporary directory and then construct a path inside it, following the
+/// same pattern as [`TempStdPath`]. This avoids holding an open file handle,
+/// which on Windows would prevent atomic renames to the same path.
 pub struct TempObjFile {
-    _tempfile: TempFile,
+    _tempdir: TempDir,
     path: ObjPath,
 }
 
@@ -293,10 +295,10 @@ impl std::ops::Deref for TempObjFile {
 
 impl Default for TempObjFile {
     fn default() -> Self {
-        let tempfile = TempFile::default();
-        let path = tempfile.obj_path();
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let path = ObjPath::parse(format!("{}/some_file", tempdir.path_str())).unwrap();
         Self {
-            _tempfile: tempfile,
+            _tempdir: tempdir,
             path,
         }
     }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/testing.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/testing.rs
index f19d66f67e2..96f6dd9caad 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/testing.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/testing.rs
@@ -10,14 +10,19 @@ use futures::stream::BoxStream;
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use object_store::{
-    Error as OSError, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta, ObjectStore,
-    PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, Result as OSResult,
+    CopyOptions, Error as OSError, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+    ObjectStore, PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, RenameOptions,
+    Result as OSResult,
 };
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::fmt::Debug;
 use std::future;
 use std::ops::Range;
-use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::{
+    Arc, Mutex,
+    atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+};
 
 // A policy function takes in the name of the operation (e.g. "put") and the location
 // that is being accessed / modified and returns an optional error.
@@ -121,6 +126,42 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for ProxyObjectStore {
     }
 }
 
+/// An object store wrapper that counts listing operations.
+///
+/// This increments the shared counter for both `list` and `list_with_delimiter`
+/// so tests can observe all listing-based directory and version discovery calls.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct CountingObjectStore {
+    target: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+    listing_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+}
+
+impl CountingObjectStore {
+    pub fn new(target: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>, listing_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            target,
+            listing_count,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn record_listing(&self) {
+        self.listing_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+    }
+
+    fn delegate_list(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&Path>,
+    ) -> Pin<Box<dyn futures::Stream<Item = OSResult<ObjectMeta>> + Send>> {
+        self.target.list(prefix)
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for CountingObjectStore {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "CountingObjectStore({})", self.target)
+    }
+}
+
 #[async_trait]
 impl ObjectStore for ProxyObjectStore {
     async fn put_opts(
@@ -144,12 +185,12 @@ impl ObjectStore for ProxyObjectStore {
 
     async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
         self.before_method("get_opts", location)?;
-        self.target.get_opts(location, options).await
-    }
-
-    async fn get_range(&self, location: &Path, range: Range<u64>) -> OSResult<Bytes> {
-        self.before_method("get_range", location)?;
-        self.target.get_range(location, range).await
+        let is_head = options.head;
+        let mut result = self.target.get_opts(location, options).await?;
+        if is_head {
+            result.meta = self.transform_meta("head", result.meta)?;
+        }
+        Ok(result)
     }
 
     async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
@@ -157,15 +198,24 @@ impl ObjectStore for ProxyObjectStore {
         self.target.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
     }
 
-    async fn head(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<ObjectMeta> {
-        self.before_method("head", location)?;
-        let meta = self.target.head(location).await?;
-        self.transform_meta("head", meta)
-    }
-
-    async fn delete(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        self.before_method("delete", location)?;
-        self.target.delete(location).await
+    fn delete_stream(
+        &self,
+        locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+        let policy = Arc::clone(&self.policy);
+        let checked = locations
+            .and_then(move |location| {
+                let result = {
+                    let policy = policy.lock().unwrap();
+                    policy
+                        .before_policies
+                        .values()
+                        .try_for_each(|policy| policy("delete", &location).map_err(OSError::from))
+                };
+                future::ready(result.map(|_| location))
+            })
+            .boxed();
+        self.target.delete_stream(checked)
     }
 
     fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
@@ -189,18 +239,62 @@ impl ObjectStore for ProxyObjectStore {
         self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
     }
 
-    async fn copy(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
+    async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
         self.before_method("copy", from)?;
-        self.target.copy(from, to).await
+        self.target.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
     }
 
-    async fn rename(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
+    async fn rename_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: RenameOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
         self.before_method("rename", from)?;
-        self.target.rename(from, to).await
+        self.target.rename_opts(from, to, opts).await
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ObjectStore for CountingObjectStore {
+    async fn put_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        bytes: PutPayload,
+        opts: PutOptions,
+    ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+        self.target.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+    }
+
+    async fn put_multipart_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+    ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+        self.target.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+        self.target.get_opts(location, options).await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+        self.target.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+    }
+
+    fn delete_stream(
+        &self,
+        locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+        self.target.delete_stream(locations)
+    }
+
+    fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+        self.record_listing();
+        self.delegate_list(prefix).boxed()
+    }
+
+    async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+        self.record_listing();
+        self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
     }
 
-    async fn copy_if_not_exists(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        self.before_method("copy_if_not_exists", from)?;
-        self.target.copy_if_not_exists(from, to).await
+    async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+        self.target.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tokio.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tokio.rs
index 88a8d9d9d85..9137c3631c9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tokio.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tokio.rs
@@ -2,11 +2,9 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use std::sync::atomic::Ordering;
-use std::sync::{atomic, LazyLock};
+use std::sync::{LazyLock, atomic};
 use std::time::Duration;
 
-use crate::Result;
-
 use futures::{Future, FutureExt};
 use tokio::runtime::{Builder, Runtime};
 use tracing::Span;
@@ -23,8 +21,8 @@ pub fn get_num_compute_intensive_cpus() -> usize {
 }
 
 fn calculate_num_compute_intensive_cpus() -> usize {
-    if let Ok(user_specified) = std::env::var("LANCE_CPU_THREADS") {
-        return user_specified.parse().unwrap();
+    if let Ok(raw) = std::env::var("LANCE_CPU_THREADS") {
+        return parse_env_usize("LANCE_CPU_THREADS", &raw, 1).unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("{e}"));
     }
 
     let cpus = num_cpus::get();
@@ -44,12 +42,38 @@ fn calculate_num_compute_intensive_cpus() -> usize {
     num_cpus::get() - *IO_CORE_RESERVATION
 }
 
-pub static IO_CORE_RESERVATION: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    std::env::var("LANCE_IO_CORE_RESERVATION")
-        .unwrap_or("2".to_string())
+/// Parse an integer environment variable, rejecting values below `min`.
+///
+/// The error names the variable, so a bad value is diagnosable instead of
+/// surfacing as a bare `ParseIntError` or, for `LANCE_CPU_THREADS=0`, a panic
+/// deep inside tokio's `max_blocking_threads`.
+fn parse_env_usize(name: &str, raw: &str, min: usize) -> Result<usize, String> {
+    let value: usize = raw
+        .trim()
         .parse()
-        .unwrap()
-});
+        .map_err(|e| format!("environment variable {name} must be an integer, got {raw:?}: {e}"))?;
+    if value < min {
+        return Err(format!(
+            "environment variable {name} must be at least {min}, got {value}"
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(value)
+}
+
+/// Number of CPU cores held back for I/O and control tasks.
+///
+/// Overridable via the `LANCE_IO_CORE_RESERVATION` environment variable;
+/// defaults to `2` when unset. `0` is allowed (reserve nothing);
+/// [`get_num_compute_intensive_cpus`] subtracts this from the core count to
+/// size the compute pool. A non-integer value panics on first access with an
+/// error naming the variable.
+pub static IO_CORE_RESERVATION: LazyLock<usize> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| match std::env::var("LANCE_IO_CORE_RESERVATION") {
+        Ok(raw) => {
+            parse_env_usize("LANCE_IO_CORE_RESERVATION", &raw, 0).unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("{e}"))
+        }
+        Err(_) => 2,
+    });
 
 fn create_runtime() -> Runtime {
     Builder::new_multi_thread()
@@ -68,11 +92,15 @@ static RUNTIME_INSTALLED: atomic::AtomicBool = atomic::AtomicBool::new(false);
 
 static ATFORK_INSTALLED: atomic::AtomicBool = atomic::AtomicBool::new(false);
 
-fn global_cpu_runtime() -> &'static mut Runtime {
+fn global_cpu_runtime() -> &'static Runtime {
     loop {
         let ptr = CPU_RUNTIME.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
         if !ptr.is_null() {
-            return unsafe { &mut *ptr };
+            // SAFETY: `ptr` was produced by `Box::into_raw` below and is only ever
+            // reset to null by `atfork_tokio_child` in the forked child (single-
+            // threaded, async-signal context). The `Box` is never reclaimed, so the
+            // `Runtime` lives for the rest of the process.
+            return unsafe { &*ptr };
         }
         if !RUNTIME_INSTALLED.fetch_or(true, Ordering::SeqCst) {
             break;
@@ -84,7 +112,9 @@ fn global_cpu_runtime() -> &'static mut Runtime {
     }
     let new_ptr = Box::into_raw(Box::new(create_runtime()));
     CPU_RUNTIME.store(new_ptr, Ordering::SeqCst);
-    unsafe { &mut *new_ptr }
+    // SAFETY: `new_ptr` was just obtained from `Box::into_raw`, so it is non-null,
+    // aligned, and points to a live `Runtime` that is never reclaimed.
+    unsafe { &*new_ptr }
 }
 
 /// After a fork() operation, force re-creation of the BackgroundExecutor. Note: this function
@@ -110,16 +140,133 @@ fn install_atfork() {}
 ///
 /// This can also be used to convert a big chunk of synchronous work into a future
 /// so that it can be run in parallel with something like StreamExt::buffered()
-pub fn spawn_cpu<F: FnOnce() -> Result<R> + Send + 'static, R: Send + 'static>(
+///
+/// # Only hand over substantial CPU work
+///
+/// Dispatching to the pool has real overhead (a `spawn_blocking` hop plus a oneshot
+/// channel round trip). As a rule of thumb the closure should be expected to do at
+/// least ~100µs of CPU work; below that the thread-pool overhead is likely to
+/// outweigh any parallelism benefit, and the work is better left inline.
+///
+/// # The task must never wait on anything
+///
+/// The CPU pool is sized to [`get_num_compute_intensive_cpus`], which is
+/// `max(1, num_cpus - LANCE_IO_CORE_RESERVATION)`. On a big host that is plenty of
+/// workers (e.g. 62 on a 64-core box), but in resource-constrained environments it can
+/// collapse to a **single blocking thread** — on machines with `<= 3` visible CPUs
+/// (1-vCPU VMs, CI runners, CPU-limited Kubernetes pods) the pool has exactly one
+/// worker. A closure passed to `spawn_cpu` occupies one of these threads for its entire
+/// lifetime, including any time it spends *parked*. So the closure must only consume
+/// CPU and return; it must
+/// **never** block, wait, or park. Concretely, the closure must not, directly or
+/// transitively:
+///
+/// * **No channels** — no blocking send/recv (`send_blocking`, blocking `recv`, etc.).
+///   A full/empty channel parks the thread, and whatever would drain/fill the channel
+///   may need the same pool to run.
+/// * **No I/O** — no file, network, or object-store reads/writes, and no disk spills.
+///   I/O parks the thread while making no progress on CPU work.
+/// * **No locks** — no acquiring a contended lock (or any lock that is held across an
+///   `.await` elsewhere). Waiting for the lock parks the thread.
+/// * **No `block_on` / `.blocking_*`** — never drive or wait on another async task
+///   from inside the closure.
+///
+/// If any of these hold, the parked thread can starve the exact work that would
+/// unblock it, deadlocking the whole pool with no timeout and no error — a silent
+/// hang at 0% CPU. (See <https://github.com/lancedb/lance/pull/7423>.) When work
+/// needs to wait on a channel/lock/I/O, keep the waiting in an async task and only
+/// hand the pure-CPU portion to `spawn_cpu`, e.g. build each batch with `spawn_cpu`
+/// and dispatch it with `tx.send(batch).await` in the surrounding async code.
+pub fn spawn_cpu<
+    E: std::error::Error + Send + 'static,
+    F: FnOnce() -> std::result::Result<R, E> + Send + 'static,
+    R: Send + 'static,
+>(
     func: F,
-) -> impl Future<Output = Result<R>> {
-    let (send, recv) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
+) -> impl Future<Output = std::result::Result<R, E>> {
     // Propagate the current span into the task
     let span = Span::current();
-    global_cpu_runtime().spawn_blocking(move || {
+    let handle = global_cpu_runtime().spawn_blocking(move || {
         let _span_guard = span.enter();
-        let result = func();
-        let _ = send.send(result);
+        func()
     });
-    recv.map(|res| res.unwrap())
+    // Awaited through the join handle, not a result channel: a panic in `func`
+    // arrives as a `JoinError` still carrying its payload, so resuming it
+    // re-raises the original panic in the caller. Reporting the closure's
+    // outcome over a channel instead loses that -- the sender drops unsent and
+    // every panic in any `spawn_cpu` closure surfaces identically as an opaque
+    // `RecvError`, pointing here rather than at the fault.
+    handle.map(|res| match res {
+        Ok(result) => result,
+        Err(join_error) => match join_error.try_into_panic() {
+            Ok(panic) => std::panic::resume_unwind(panic),
+            // The CPU runtime outlives every caller, so its tasks are not
+            // cancelled out from under one.
+            Err(join_error) => panic!("spawn_cpu task failed: {join_error}"),
+        },
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    /// A panic in the closure must reach the caller intact.
+    ///
+    /// Reporting the closure's outcome over a channel loses it: the sender
+    /// drops unsent and the caller can only see an opaque receive error, so
+    /// every panic in every `spawn_cpu` closure looks the same.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn spawn_cpu_reraises_the_closure_panic() {
+        let hook = std::panic::take_hook();
+        std::panic::set_hook(Box::new(|_| {}));
+        let joined = tokio::spawn(async {
+            spawn_cpu(|| -> std::result::Result<(), std::io::Error> {
+                panic!("the original message")
+            })
+            .await
+        })
+        .await;
+        std::panic::set_hook(hook);
+
+        let payload = joined
+            .expect_err("the closure's panic propagates to the caller")
+            .into_panic();
+        let message = payload
+            .downcast_ref::<&str>()
+            .copied()
+            .expect("the original payload survives");
+        assert_eq!(message, "the original message");
+    }
+
+    // The env vars feed process-global `LazyLock`s that read once and are read
+    // in parallel by other tests, so the pure parser is tested directly rather
+    // than by mutating the environment.
+
+    #[test]
+    fn parses_valid_value_and_trims_surrounding_whitespace() {
+        assert_eq!(parse_env_usize("VAR", "8", 1).unwrap(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(parse_env_usize("VAR", " 8 ", 1).unwrap(), 8);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_non_integer_naming_the_variable() {
+        let err = parse_env_usize("LANCE_CPU_THREADS", "abc", 1).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.contains("LANCE_CPU_THREADS"), "{err}");
+        assert!(err.contains("must be an integer"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_value_below_minimum() {
+        // LANCE_CPU_THREADS=0 parses fine but would panic in tokio's
+        // max_blocking_threads(0); the minimum stops it at the boundary.
+        let err = parse_env_usize("LANCE_CPU_THREADS", "0", 1).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.contains("at least 1"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn allows_zero_when_minimum_is_zero() {
+        // LANCE_IO_CORE_RESERVATION=0 is valid: no cores reserved for IO.
+        assert_eq!(parse_env_usize("VAR", "0", 0).unwrap(), 0);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tracing.rs b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tracing.rs
index e126fade06d..e1f19e3c6f4 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tracing.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-core/src/utils/tracing.rs
@@ -66,6 +66,7 @@ pub const AUDIT_TYPE_DELETION: &str = "deletion";
 pub const AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST: &str = "manifest";
 pub const AUDIT_TYPE_INDEX: &str = "index";
 pub const AUDIT_TYPE_DATA: &str = "data";
+pub const AUDIT_TYPE_TRANSACTION: &str = "transaction";
 pub const TRACE_FILE_CREATE: &str = "create";
 pub const TRACE_IO_EVENTS: &str = "lance::io_events";
 pub const IO_TYPE_OPEN_SCALAR: &str = "open_scalar_index";
@@ -84,3 +85,4 @@ pub const DATASET_DELETING_EVENT: &str = "deleting";
 pub const DATASET_COMPACTING_EVENT: &str = "compacting";
 pub const DATASET_CLEANING_EVENT: &str = "cleaning";
 pub const DATASET_LOADING_EVENT: &str = "loading";
+pub const TRACE_OBJECT_STORE_THROTTLE: &str = "lance::object_store::throttle";
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/tests/cache_key_allocations.rs b/rust/lance-core/tests/cache_key_allocations.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ef73d485ef5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-core/tests/cache_key_allocations.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout, System};
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::cell::Cell;
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, CacheNamespace, InternalCacheKey, KeyBuilder};
+
+struct TrackingAllocator;
+
+thread_local! {
+    static TRACK_ALLOCATIONS: Cell<bool> = const { Cell::new(false) };
+}
+
+static ALLOCATION_COUNT: AtomicUsize = AtomicUsize::new(0);
+
+fn record_allocation() {
+    if TRACK_ALLOCATIONS.try_with(Cell::get).unwrap_or(false) {
+        ALLOCATION_COUNT.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+}
+
+unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for TrackingAllocator {
+    unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
+        record_allocation();
+        unsafe { System.alloc(layout) }
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn alloc_zeroed(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
+        record_allocation();
+        unsafe { System.alloc_zeroed(layout) }
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout) {
+        unsafe { System.dealloc(ptr, layout) }
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn realloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout, new_size: usize) -> *mut u8 {
+        record_allocation();
+        unsafe { System.realloc(ptr, layout, new_size) }
+    }
+}
+
+#[global_allocator]
+static ALLOCATOR: TrackingAllocator = TrackingAllocator;
+
+fn measured_allocations(operation: impl FnOnce()) -> usize {
+    TRACK_ALLOCATIONS.with(|tracking| tracking.set(false));
+    ALLOCATION_COUNT.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    TRACK_ALLOCATIONS.with(|tracking| tracking.set(true));
+    operation();
+    TRACK_ALLOCATIONS.with(|tracking| tracking.set(false));
+    ALLOCATION_COUNT.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+}
+
+fn prepare_key<K: CacheKey>(namespace: CacheNamespace, key: &K) -> InternalCacheKey {
+    let mut builder = KeyBuilder::new(namespace, K::stable_type_id(), K::schema());
+    key.write_key(&mut builder);
+    builder.finish()
+}
+
+struct PageKey {
+    path: &'static str,
+    column_index: u32,
+    page_index: u64,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for PageKey {
+    type ValueType = u64;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        Cow::Borrowed("unused")
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "allocation-test-page"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("allocation-test-page", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_str(self.path);
+        builder.write_u32(self.column_index);
+        builder.write_u64(self.page_index);
+    }
+}
+
+struct OptionalUuidKey {
+    generation: u64,
+    uuid: Option<[u8; 16]>,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for OptionalUuidKey {
+    type ValueType = u64;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        Cow::Borrowed("unused")
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "allocation-test-optional-uuid"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("allocation-test-optional-uuid", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.generation);
+        match self.uuid {
+            Some(uuid) => {
+                builder.write_some();
+                builder.write_fixed_bytes(&uuid);
+            }
+            None => builder.write_none(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn production_shaped_typed_keys_allocate_nothing_after_warmup() {
+    let namespace = CacheNamespace::root()
+        .child("tenant-with-a-long-stable-identifier")
+        .child("index-with-a-long-stable-identifier");
+    let page = PageKey {
+        path: "indices/01999f62-c3c2-7d6f-820d-22e7db948f31/pages/000000000042.lance",
+        column_index: 17,
+        page_index: 42,
+    };
+    let uuid = OptionalUuidKey {
+        generation: 9,
+        uuid: Some(*b"0123456789abcdef"),
+    };
+    let no_uuid = OptionalUuidKey {
+        generation: 10,
+        uuid: None,
+    };
+
+    black_box(prepare_key(namespace, &page));
+    black_box(prepare_key(namespace, &uuid));
+    black_box(prepare_key(namespace, &no_uuid));
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        measured_allocations(|| {
+            black_box(prepare_key(namespace, &page));
+        }),
+        0
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        measured_allocations(|| {
+            black_box(prepare_key(namespace, &uuid));
+        }),
+        0
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        measured_allocations(|| {
+            black_box(prepare_key(namespace, &no_uuid));
+        }),
+        0
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-datafusion/Cargo.toml
index 47315ce4712..8b9c702d2fb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/Cargo.toml
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ version.workspace = true
 arrow = {workspace = true, features = ["ffi"]}
 arrow-array = {workspace = true, features = ["ffi"]}
 arrow-buffer.workspace = true
+arrow-cast.workspace = true
 arrow-ord.workspace = true
 arrow-schema.workspace = true
 arrow-select.workspace = true
@@ -23,24 +24,32 @@ datafusion-physical-expr.workspace = true
 datafusion-substrait = {workspace = true, optional = true}
 datafusion.workspace = true
 futures.workspace = true
+half.workspace = true
 jsonb = {workspace = true}
 lance-arrow.workspace = true
 lance-core = {workspace = true, features = ["datafusion"]}
-lance-datagen.workspace = true
-lance-geo = {workspace = true}
+lance-datagen = {workspace = true, optional = true}
+lance-geo = {workspace = true, optional = true}
 chrono.workspace = true
 log.workspace = true
 pin-project.workspace = true
 prost.workspace = true
-snafu.workspace = true
 tokio.workspace = true
 tracing.workspace = true
 
+[build-dependencies]
+prost-build.workspace = true
+protobuf-src = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+
 [dev-dependencies]
 lance-datagen.workspace = true
+rstest.workspace = true
 
 [features]
+datagen = ["dep:lance-datagen"]
+geo = ["dep:lance-geo"]
 substrait = ["dep:datafusion-substrait"]
+protoc = ["dep:protobuf-src"]
 
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/build.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/build.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..59f63c4b8ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/build.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::io::Result;
+
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=protos");
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "protoc")]
+    // Use vendored protobuf compiler if requested.
+    unsafe {
+        std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    }
+
+    let mut prost_build = prost_build::Config::new();
+    prost_build.protoc_arg("--experimental_allow_proto3_optional");
+    prost_build.enable_type_names();
+    prost_build.compile_protos(
+        &[
+            "./protos/table_identifier.proto",
+            "./protos/filtered_read.proto",
+        ],
+        &["./protos"],
+    )?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/protos b/rust/lance-datafusion/protos
new file mode 120000
index 00000000000..69d0d0d54b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/protos
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+../../protos
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/aggregate.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/aggregate.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3b4ee96b719
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/aggregate.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Aggregate specification for DataFusion aggregates.
+
+use datafusion::logical_expr::Expr;
+
+use crate::planner::Planner;
+
+/// Aggregate specification with group by and aggregate expressions.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct Aggregate {
+    /// Expressions to group by (e.g., column references).
+    pub group_by: Vec<Expr>,
+    /// Aggregate function expressions (e.g., SUM, COUNT, AVG).
+    /// Use `.alias()` on the expression to set output column names.
+    pub aggregates: Vec<Expr>,
+}
+
+impl Aggregate {
+    /// Create a new Aggregate.
+    pub fn new(group_by: Vec<Expr>, aggregates: Vec<Expr>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            group_by,
+            aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Compute column names required by this aggregate.
+    ///
+    /// For COUNT(*), this returns empty. For SUM(x), GROUP BY y, this returns [x, y].
+    pub fn required_columns(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut required_columns = Vec::new();
+        for expr in self.group_by.iter().chain(self.aggregates.iter()) {
+            required_columns.extend(Planner::column_names_in_expr(expr));
+        }
+        required_columns.sort();
+        required_columns.dedup();
+        required_columns
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/chunker.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/chunker.rs
index 8c2cc8ddadd..63523460899 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/chunker.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/chunker.rs
@@ -7,12 +7,12 @@ use std::{collections::VecDeque, task::Context};
 
 use arrow::compute::kernels;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::{stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter, SendableRecordBatchStream};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{SendableRecordBatchStream, stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter};
 use datafusion_common::DataFusionError;
-use futures::{ready, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, ready};
 
-use lance_core::error::DataFusionResult;
 use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::error::DataFusionResult;
 
 /// Wraps a [`SendableRecordBatchStream`] into a stream of RecordBatch chunks of
 /// a given size.  This slices but does not copy any buffers.
@@ -42,8 +42,8 @@ impl BatchReaderChunker {
         buffer_total - self.i
     }
 
-    async fn fill_buffer(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        while self.buffered_len() < self.output_size {
+    async fn fill_buffer(&mut self, output_size: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        while self.buffered_len() < output_size {
             match self.inner.next().await {
                 Some(Ok(batch)) => self.buffered.push_back(batch),
                 Some(Err(e)) => return Err(e.into()),
@@ -54,7 +54,11 @@ impl BatchReaderChunker {
     }
 
     async fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Result<Vec<RecordBatch>>> {
-        match self.fill_buffer().await {
+        self.next_sized(self.output_size).await
+    }
+
+    async fn next_sized(&mut self, output_size: usize) -> Option<Result<Vec<RecordBatch>>> {
+        match self.fill_buffer(output_size).await {
             Ok(_) => {}
             Err(e) => return Some(Err(e)),
         };
@@ -63,7 +67,7 @@ impl BatchReaderChunker {
 
         let mut rows_collected = 0;
 
-        while rows_collected < self.output_size {
+        while rows_collected < output_size {
             if let Some(batch) = self.buffered.pop_front() {
                 // Skip empty batch
                 if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
@@ -72,7 +76,7 @@ impl BatchReaderChunker {
 
                 let rows_remaining_in_batch = batch.num_rows() - self.i;
                 let rows_to_take =
-                    std::cmp::min(rows_remaining_in_batch, self.output_size - rows_collected);
+                    std::cmp::min(rows_remaining_in_batch, output_size - rows_collected);
 
                 if rows_to_take == rows_remaining_in_batch {
                     // We're taking the whole batch, so we can just move it
@@ -104,6 +108,53 @@ impl BatchReaderChunker {
             Some(Ok(batches))
         }
     }
+
+    async fn next_at_most(&mut self, output_size: usize) -> Option<Result<Vec<RecordBatch>>> {
+        loop {
+            let batch = match self.buffered.pop_front() {
+                Some(batch) => batch,
+                None => match self.inner.next().await {
+                    Some(Ok(batch)) => batch,
+                    Some(Err(error)) => return Some(Err(error.into())),
+                    None => return None,
+                },
+            };
+
+            if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let rows_remaining_in_batch = batch.num_rows() - self.i;
+            let rows_to_take = rows_remaining_in_batch.min(output_size);
+            if rows_to_take == rows_remaining_in_batch {
+                let batch = if self.i == 0 {
+                    batch
+                } else {
+                    batch.slice(self.i, rows_to_take)
+                };
+                self.i = 0;
+                return Some(Ok(vec![batch]));
+            }
+
+            let output = batch.slice(self.i, rows_to_take);
+            self.i += rows_to_take;
+            self.buffered.push_front(batch);
+            return Some(Ok(vec![output]));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct VariableBatchReaderChunker<I> {
+    chunker: BatchReaderChunker,
+    output_sizes: I,
+    is_done: bool,
+}
+
+struct VariableBreakStreamState<I> {
+    chunker: BatchReaderChunker,
+    output_sizes: I,
+    rows_remaining: Option<usize>,
+    is_done: bool,
 }
 
 struct BreakStreamState {
@@ -186,6 +237,210 @@ pub fn chunk_stream(
     .boxed()
 }
 
+/// Preserve input batch boundaries while inserting the requested row boundaries.
+///
+/// The requested sizes must describe the complete input. Unlike
+/// [`chunk_stream_with_sizes`], this does not combine adjacent input batches. It
+/// only slices a batch when it crosses a requested boundary.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+/// # use lance_datafusion::chunker::break_stream_with_sizes;
+/// # fn split_stream(stream: SendableRecordBatchStream) {
+/// let batches = break_stream_with_sizes(stream, vec![512, 512, 256]);
+/// # drop(batches);
+/// # }
+/// ```
+pub fn break_stream_with_sizes<I>(
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    output_sizes: I,
+) -> Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<Vec<RecordBatch>>> + Send>>
+where
+    I: IntoIterator<Item = usize>,
+    I::IntoIter: Send + 'static,
+{
+    let state = VariableBreakStreamState {
+        chunker: BatchReaderChunker::new(stream, 1),
+        output_sizes: output_sizes.into_iter(),
+        rows_remaining: None,
+        is_done: false,
+    };
+    futures::stream::unfold(state, |mut state| async move {
+        if state.is_done {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        if state.rows_remaining.is_none() {
+            let Some(output_size) = state.output_sizes.next() else {
+                return match state.chunker.next_at_most(1).await {
+                    None => None,
+                    Some(Ok(_)) => {
+                        state.is_done = true;
+                        Some((
+                            Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+                                "Input contained more rows than the requested chunk sizes",
+                            )),
+                            state,
+                        ))
+                    }
+                    Some(Err(error)) => {
+                        state.is_done = true;
+                        Some((Err(error), state))
+                    }
+                };
+            };
+            if output_size == 0 {
+                state.is_done = true;
+                return Some((
+                    Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+                        "Requested chunk sizes must be greater than zero",
+                    )),
+                    state,
+                ));
+            }
+            state.rows_remaining = Some(output_size);
+        }
+
+        let Some(rows_remaining) = state.rows_remaining else {
+            state.is_done = true;
+            return Some((
+                Err(lance_core::Error::internal(
+                    "Requested chunk boundary was not initialized",
+                )),
+                state,
+            ));
+        };
+        match state.chunker.next_at_most(rows_remaining).await {
+            Some(Ok(batches)) => {
+                let actual_size = batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>();
+                let Some(rows_remaining) = rows_remaining.checked_sub(actual_size) else {
+                    state.is_done = true;
+                    return Some((
+                        Err(lance_core::Error::internal(
+                            "A boundary-preserving chunk exceeded its requested row count",
+                        )),
+                        state,
+                    ));
+                };
+                state.rows_remaining = (rows_remaining > 0).then_some(rows_remaining);
+                Some((Ok(batches), state))
+            }
+            Some(Err(error)) => {
+                state.is_done = true;
+                Some((Err(error), state))
+            }
+            None => {
+                state.is_done = true;
+                Some((
+                    Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Input ended with {rows_remaining} rows remaining in a requested chunk"
+                    ))),
+                    state,
+                ))
+            }
+        }
+    })
+    .boxed()
+}
+
+/// Given a stream of record batches, yield chunks with the requested row counts.
+///
+/// The requested sizes must describe the complete input. An error is returned if
+/// the input ends early, contains additional rows, or a requested size is zero.
+/// Sizes are consumed lazily as chunks are requested.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+/// # use lance_datafusion::chunker::chunk_stream_with_sizes;
+/// # fn split_stream(stream: SendableRecordBatchStream) {
+/// let chunks = chunk_stream_with_sizes(stream, vec![512, 512, 256]);
+/// # drop(chunks);
+/// # }
+/// ```
+pub fn chunk_stream_with_sizes<I>(
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    output_sizes: I,
+) -> Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<Vec<RecordBatch>>> + Send>>
+where
+    I: IntoIterator<Item = usize>,
+    I::IntoIter: Send + 'static,
+{
+    let state = VariableBatchReaderChunker {
+        chunker: BatchReaderChunker::new(stream, 1),
+        output_sizes: output_sizes.into_iter(),
+        is_done: false,
+    };
+    futures::stream::unfold(state, |mut state| async move {
+        if state.is_done {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let Some(output_size) = state.output_sizes.next() else {
+            return match state.chunker.next_sized(1).await {
+                None => None,
+                Some(Ok(_)) => {
+                    state.is_done = true;
+                    Some((
+                        Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+                            "Input contained more rows than the requested chunk sizes",
+                        )),
+                        state,
+                    ))
+                }
+                Some(Err(error)) => {
+                    state.is_done = true;
+                    Some((Err(error), state))
+                }
+            };
+        };
+
+        if output_size == 0 {
+            state.is_done = true;
+            return Some((
+                Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+                    "Requested chunk sizes must be greater than zero",
+                )),
+                state,
+            ));
+        }
+
+        match state.chunker.next_sized(output_size).await {
+            Some(Ok(batches)) => {
+                let actual_size = batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>();
+                if actual_size == output_size {
+                    Some((Ok(batches), state))
+                } else {
+                    state.is_done = true;
+                    Some((
+                        Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Input ended after {actual_size} rows while filling a requested {output_size}-row chunk"
+                        ))),
+                        state,
+                    ))
+                }
+            }
+            Some(Err(error)) => {
+                state.is_done = true;
+                Some((Err(error), state))
+            }
+            None => {
+                state.is_done = true;
+                Some((
+                    Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Input ended before a requested {output_size}-row chunk could be filled"
+                    ))),
+                    state,
+                ))
+            }
+        }
+    })
+    .boxed()
+}
+
 /// Given a stream of record batches, this will yield batches of a fixed size.
 ///
 /// This stream _will_ combine record batches and so it can be fairly expensive as it will
@@ -311,12 +566,15 @@ where
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::sync::{
+        Arc,
+        atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+    };
 
     use arrow::datatypes::{Int32Type, Int64Type};
     use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
     use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
     use crate::datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt;
 
@@ -360,6 +618,82 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(chunked[2].len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(chunked[2][0].num_rows(), 8);
 
+        let sizes_consumed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let requested_sizes = [9, 10, 9].into_iter().inspect({
+            let sizes_consumed = sizes_consumed.clone();
+            move |_| {
+                sizes_consumed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            }
+        });
+        let mut chunked = super::chunk_stream_with_sizes(make_stream(), requested_sizes);
+        assert_eq!(sizes_consumed.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+        let first_chunk = chunked.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sizes_consumed.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        let mut chunked = chunked.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        chunked.insert(0, first_chunk);
+        assert_eq!(sizes_consumed.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            chunked
+                .iter()
+                .map(|batches| batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum::<usize>())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![9, 10, 9]
+        );
+
+        let error = super::chunk_stream_with_sizes(make_stream(), vec![10, 17])
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("more rows than the requested chunk sizes")
+        );
+
+        let error = super::chunk_stream_with_sizes(make_stream(), vec![10, 19])
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("ended after 18 rows"));
+
+        let sizes_consumed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let requested_sizes = [9, 10, 9].into_iter().inspect({
+            let sizes_consumed = sizes_consumed.clone();
+            move |_| {
+                sizes_consumed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            }
+        });
+        let mut broken = super::break_stream_with_sizes(make_stream(), requested_sizes);
+        assert_eq!(sizes_consumed.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+        let first_batch = broken.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sizes_consumed.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        let mut broken = broken.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        broken.insert(0, first_batch);
+        assert_eq!(sizes_consumed.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            broken
+                .iter()
+                .map(|batches| batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum::<usize>())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![9, 1, 5, 4, 9]
+        );
+
+        let error = super::break_stream_with_sizes(make_stream(), vec![27])
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("more rows than the requested chunk sizes")
+        );
+
+        let error = super::break_stream_with_sizes(make_stream(), vec![29])
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("1 rows remaining"));
+
         let chunked = super::chunk_concat_stream(make_stream(), 10)
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/dataframe.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/dataframe.rs
index 2dc0950c82b..15d9797d17f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/dataframe.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/dataframe.rs
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ impl BatchStreamGrouper {
             // end of group, so we should return the current.
             Some((
                 vec![self.current_partition.take().unwrap()],
-                self.buffer.drain(..).collect(),
+                std::mem::take(&mut self.buffer),
             ))
         } else {
             // If there is no data in the unprocessed buffer, return None as we aren't finished.
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/datagen.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/datagen.rs
index e3370088a2a..c9d039c4deb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/datagen.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/datagen.rs
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatchReader;
 use datafusion::{
     execution::SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    physical_plan::{stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter, ExecutionPlan},
+    physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter},
 };
 use datafusion_common::DataFusionError;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/exec.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/exec.rs
index 9eed7f92bfc..e48470acb91 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/exec.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/exec.rs
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 use std::{
     collections::HashMap,
     fmt::{self, Formatter},
+    num::NonZero,
     sync::{Arc, Mutex, OnceLock},
     time::Duration,
 };
@@ -14,49 +15,52 @@ use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
 
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::MetricType;
 use datafusion::{
-    catalog::streaming::StreamingTable,
+    catalog::{TableProvider, streaming::StreamingTable},
     dataframe::DataFrame,
     execution::{
+        TaskContext,
         context::{SessionConfig, SessionContext},
         disk_manager::DiskManagerBuilder,
         memory_pool::FairSpillPool,
         runtime_env::RuntimeEnvBuilder,
-        TaskContext,
     },
     physical_plan::{
+        DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, ExecutionPlanProperties, PlanProperties,
+        SendableRecordBatchStream,
         analyze::AnalyzeExec,
+        coalesce_partitions::CoalescePartitionsExec,
         display::DisplayableExecutionPlan,
         execution_plan::{Boundedness, CardinalityEffect, EmissionType},
         metrics::MetricValue,
+        sorts::sort_preserving_merge::SortPreservingMergeExec,
         stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
         streaming::PartitionStream,
-        DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties, SendableRecordBatchStream,
     },
 };
-use datafusion_common::{DataFusionError, Statistics};
+use datafusion::{execution::memory_pool::TrackConsumersPool, physical_plan::metrics::MetricType};
+use datafusion_common::{DataFusionError, Statistics, utils::get_available_parallelism};
 use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
 
-use futures::{stream, StreamExt};
+use futures::{StreamExt, stream};
 use lance_arrow::SchemaExt;
 use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
     utils::{
         futures::FinallyStreamExt,
-        tracing::{StreamTracingExt, EXECUTION_PLAN_RUN, TRACE_EXECUTION},
+        tracing::{EXECUTION_PLAN_RUN, StreamTracingExt, TRACE_EXECUTION},
     },
-    Error, Result,
 };
 use log::{debug, info, warn};
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::Span;
 
 use crate::udf::register_functions;
 use crate::{
     chunker::StrictBatchSizeStream,
     utils::{
-        MetricsExt, BYTES_READ_METRIC, INDEX_COMPARISONS_METRIC, INDICES_LOADED_METRIC,
-        IOPS_METRIC, PARTS_LOADED_METRIC, REQUESTS_METRIC,
+        BYTES_READ_METRIC, INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC, INDEX_CACHE_MISSES_METRIC,
+        INDEX_COMPARISONS_METRIC, INDICES_LOADED_METRIC, IOPS_METRIC, MetricsExt,
+        PARTS_LOADED_METRIC, REQUESTS_METRIC,
     },
 };
 
@@ -72,7 +76,7 @@ pub struct OneShotExec {
     // We save off a copy of the schema to speed up formatting and so ExecutionPlan::schema & display_as
     // can still function after exhausted
     schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
 }
 
 impl OneShotExec {
@@ -82,12 +86,12 @@ impl OneShotExec {
         Self {
             stream: Mutex::new(Some(stream)),
             schema: schema.clone(),
-            properties: PlanProperties::new(
+            properties: Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
                 EquivalenceProperties::new(schema),
                 Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
                 EmissionType::Incremental,
                 Boundedness::Bounded,
-            ),
+            )),
         }
     }
 
@@ -152,10 +156,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for OneShotExec {
         "OneShotExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef {
         self.schema.clone()
     }
@@ -196,18 +196,14 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for OneShotExec {
         }
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> datafusion_common::Result<datafusion_common::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics::new_unknown(&self.schema))
-    }
-
-    fn properties(&self) -> &datafusion::physical_plan::PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<datafusion::physical_plan::PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 }
 
 struct TracedExec {
     input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     span: Span,
 }
 
@@ -247,11 +243,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for TracedExec {
         "TracedExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -314,21 +306,36 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for LanceExecutionOptions {
     }
 }
 
-const DEFAULT_LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE: u64 = 100 * 1024 * 1024;
+const DEFAULT_LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE_PER_PARTITION: u64 = 150 * 1024 * 1024;
+/// Maximum headroom reserved for one external sort's non-spillable merge phase.
+const MAX_SORT_SPILL_RESERVATION_BYTES: u64 = 40 * 1024 * 1024;
 const DEFAULT_LANCE_MAX_TEMP_DIRECTORY_SIZE: u64 = 100 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024; // 100GB
 
 impl LanceExecutionOptions {
+    /// The number of partitions the DataFusion session will actually run with.
+    ///
+    /// When `target_partition` is not set we do not override the session config,
+    /// so the session falls back to DataFusion's default `target_partitions`,
+    /// which is the available parallelism (number of CPU cores). The memory pool
+    /// must be sized for that effective partition count, not for a single
+    /// partition, or sort-heavy plans exhaust the pool.
+    fn effective_target_partition(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.target_partition
+            .unwrap_or_else(get_available_parallelism) as u64
+    }
+
     pub fn mem_pool_size(&self) -> u64 {
+        let num_partitions = self.effective_target_partition();
         self.mem_pool_size.unwrap_or_else(|| {
             std::env::var("LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE")
                 .map(|s| match s.parse::<u64>() {
                     Ok(v) => v,
                     Err(e) => {
                         warn!("Failed to parse LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE: {}, using default", e);
-                        DEFAULT_LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE
+                        DEFAULT_LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE_PER_PARTITION * num_partitions
                     }
                 })
-                .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE)
+                .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE_PER_PARTITION * num_partitions)
         })
     }
 
@@ -353,6 +360,7 @@ impl LanceExecutionOptions {
         if !self.use_spilling {
             return false;
         }
+        // Presence enables the bypass; the value is not parsed as a boolean.
         std::env::var("LANCE_BYPASS_SPILLING")
             .map(|_| {
                 info!("Bypassing spilling because LANCE_BYPASS_SPILLING is set");
@@ -369,14 +377,25 @@ pub fn new_session_context(options: &LanceExecutionOptions) -> SessionContext {
         session_config = session_config.with_target_partitions(target_partition);
     }
     if options.use_spilling() {
+        // Reserve sort/merge headroom for each spillable sort, using up to 40 MiB
+        // instead of DataFusion's 10 MiB default. Limit it to one third of the pool
+        // to leave room for input batches in small pools. This reservation comes
+        // out of the same pool; it does not guarantee that every batch will fit.
+        let sort_spill_reservation_bytes =
+            (options.mem_pool_size() / 3).min(MAX_SORT_SPILL_RESERVATION_BYTES) as usize;
+        session_config =
+            session_config.with_sort_spill_reservation_bytes(sort_spill_reservation_bytes);
         let disk_manager_builder = DiskManagerBuilder::default()
             .with_max_temp_directory_size(options.max_temp_directory_size());
         runtime_env_builder = runtime_env_builder
             .with_disk_manager_builder(disk_manager_builder)
-            .with_memory_pool(Arc::new(FairSpillPool::new(
-                options.mem_pool_size() as usize
+            .with_memory_pool(Arc::new(TrackConsumersPool::new(
+                FairSpillPool::new(options.mem_pool_size() as usize),
+                NonZero::try_from(16).unwrap(),
             )));
     }
+    // Without spilling, DataFusion's default UnboundedMemoryPool accepts all
+    // reservations. This bypasses the configured pool limit, not actual RAM limits.
     let runtime_env = runtime_env_builder.build_arc().unwrap();
 
     let ctx = SessionContext::new_with_config_rt(session_config, runtime_env);
@@ -391,7 +410,6 @@ struct SessionContextCacheKey {
     mem_pool_size: u64,
     max_temp_directory_size: u64,
     target_partition: Option<usize>,
-    use_spilling: bool,
 }
 
 impl SessionContextCacheKey {
@@ -400,7 +418,6 @@ impl SessionContextCacheKey {
             mem_pool_size: options.mem_pool_size(),
             max_temp_directory_size: options.max_temp_directory_size(),
             target_partition: options.target_partition,
-            use_spilling: options.use_spilling(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -427,7 +444,13 @@ fn get_max_cache_size() -> usize {
     })
 }
 
+/// Reuses unbounded sessions, while giving each spilling caller a fresh bounded
+/// memory pool so concurrent sorts cannot consume each other's headroom.
 pub fn get_session_context(options: &LanceExecutionOptions) -> SessionContext {
+    if options.use_spilling() {
+        return new_session_context(options);
+    }
+
     let key = SessionContextCacheKey::from_options(options);
     let mut cache = get_session_cache()
         .lock()
@@ -440,14 +463,13 @@ pub fn get_session_context(options: &LanceExecutionOptions) -> SessionContext {
     }
 
     // Evict least recently used entry if cache is full
-    if cache.len() >= get_max_cache_size() {
-        if let Some(lru_key) = cache
+    if cache.len() >= get_max_cache_size()
+        && let Some(lru_key) = cache
             .iter()
             .min_by_key(|(_, v)| v.last_access)
             .map(|(k, _)| k.clone())
-        {
-            cache.remove(&lru_key);
-        }
+    {
+        cache.remove(&lru_key);
     }
 
     let context = new_session_context(options);
@@ -461,16 +483,25 @@ pub fn get_session_context(options: &LanceExecutionOptions) -> SessionContext {
     context
 }
 
+/// Returns a new task context to execute one plan with `options`.
+///
+/// Every execution needs its own context: Lance operators treat a task
+/// context's identity as the identity of one plan execution, for example to
+/// share a MultiMatch prefilter mask only between the fields of one query.
 fn get_task_context(
     session_ctx: &SessionContext,
     options: &LanceExecutionOptions,
 ) -> Arc<TaskContext> {
-    let mut state = session_ctx.state();
-    if let Some(batch_size) = options.batch_size.as_ref() {
-        state.config_mut().options_mut().execution.batch_size = *batch_size;
-    }
-
-    state.task_ctx()
+    // Build from the session state in place. `SessionContext::state` would clone
+    // the whole state (every function map, rule list and option) only to drop
+    // it, which is a measurable share of CPU for short queries.
+    let task_ctx = TaskContext::from(session_ctx);
+    let Some(batch_size) = options.batch_size else {
+        return Arc::new(task_ctx);
+    };
+    let mut session_config = task_ctx.session_config().clone();
+    session_config.options_mut().execution.batch_size = batch_size;
+    Arc::new(task_ctx.with_session_config(session_config))
 }
 
 #[derive(Default, Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
@@ -490,10 +521,92 @@ pub struct ExecutionSummaryCounts {
     pub index_comparisons: usize,
     /// Additional metrics for more detailed statistics.  These are subject to change in the future
     /// and should only be used for debugging purposes.
+    ///
+    /// Newer metrics (e.g. [`INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC`], [`INDEX_CACHE_MISSES_METRIC`]) are added
+    /// here rather than as `pub` fields, so this struct stays backwards compatible for callers
+    /// that construct or destructure it. Prefer the typed accessors below.
     pub all_counts: HashMap<String, usize>,
+    /// Additional time metrics for more detailed statistics, stored in nanoseconds.
+    /// Operator baseline times use `<ExecutionPlan::name()>_elapsed_compute` keys.
+    /// Timings may be nested and accumulate across concurrent work; they are not
+    /// exclusive stages that can be added to recover query wall time.
+    /// These are subject to change in the future and should only be used for debugging purposes.
+    pub all_times: HashMap<String, usize>,
+}
+
+impl ExecutionSummaryCounts {
+    /// Number of index cache page lookups where the loader was not executed
+    /// (per-page granularity).
+    ///
+    /// A "hit" is any page-level lookup at an instrumented cache boundary that
+    /// did not run the loader on this call. That covers both a true cache hit
+    /// on an already-populated entry and a coalesced concurrent load where an
+    /// in-flight loader started by a different caller produced the value.
+    ///
+    /// Instrumented boundaries in this release:
+    /// BTree page, IVF partition (v2, `write_cache=true` scan path), inverted
+    /// posting list (grouped and per-token), inverted per-token metadata
+    /// (`PostingMetadataKey`), inverted phrase positions (`PositionKey`),
+    /// bitmap posting (Equals / Range / IsIn), ngram posting, and rtree page
+    /// / null slot.
+    ///
+    /// Caveats:
+    /// * IVF v2 streaming scans and legacy v1 IVF partitions run
+    ///   `load_partition` with `write_cache=false`. Those loads always execute
+    ///   the loader and never write the result back, so they are reported as a
+    ///   miss on every call. See [`Self::index_cache_hit_ratio`].
+    /// * A cold posting-list lookup on the grouped inverted layout can record
+    ///   up to two misses (posting-list group + per-token metadata) for a
+    ///   single term.
+    ///
+    /// Other index cache boundaries such as HNSW graph pages and quantizer
+    /// codebooks are not yet instrumented; a scan that only touches those
+    /// paths returns `0` here.
+    pub fn index_cache_hits(&self) -> usize {
+        self.all_counts
+            .get(INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC)
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    /// Number of index cache page lookups that had to execute the loader
+    /// (per-page granularity).
+    ///
+    /// A "miss" is any page-level lookup at an instrumented cache boundary
+    /// where the loader ran, i.e. the page was not resident and had to be
+    /// materialised (typically from storage). See
+    /// [`Self::index_cache_hits`] for the paired counter and the list of
+    /// instrumented boundaries.
+    pub fn index_cache_misses(&self) -> usize {
+        self.all_counts
+            .get(INDEX_CACHE_MISSES_METRIC)
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    /// Ratio of index cache hits to total lookups. Returns `0.0` when no lookups
+    /// were recorded in this scan.
+    ///
+    /// This ratio only reflects paths that write their result back to the
+    /// index cache. Streaming scans (IVF v2 `write_cache=false` and legacy v1
+    /// IVF `load_partition_stream`) intentionally bypass the cache and are
+    /// counted as misses on every call, so a workload dominated by streaming
+    /// vector scans will report a hit ratio near `0.0` regardless of cache
+    /// size.
+    pub fn index_cache_hit_ratio(&self) -> f32 {
+        // Widen to u128 before summing so a pathological (hits + misses)
+        // overflow can't panic in debug builds nor wrap in release builds.
+        let hits = self.index_cache_hits() as u128;
+        let total = hits + self.index_cache_misses() as u128;
+        if total == 0 {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            hits as f32 / total as f32
+        }
+    }
 }
 
-fn visit_node(node: &dyn ExecutionPlan, counts: &mut ExecutionSummaryCounts) {
+pub fn collect_execution_metrics(node: &dyn ExecutionPlan, counts: &mut ExecutionSummaryCounts) {
     if let Some(metrics) = node.metrics() {
         for (metric_name, count) in metrics.iter_counts() {
             match metric_name.as_ref() {
@@ -512,6 +625,21 @@ fn visit_node(node: &dyn ExecutionPlan, counts: &mut ExecutionSummaryCounts) {
                 }
             }
         }
+        for (metric_name, time) in metrics.iter_times() {
+            let existing = counts
+                .all_times
+                .entry(metric_name.as_ref().to_string())
+                .or_insert(0);
+            *existing += time.value();
+        }
+        // Keep operator baselines separate: ANN elapsed time includes asynchronous waits,
+        // while operators such as SortExec report compute time. Summing them hides the stages.
+        if let Some(elapsed) = metrics.elapsed_compute() {
+            *counts
+                .all_times
+                .entry(format!("{}_elapsed_compute", node.name()))
+                .or_default() += elapsed;
+        }
         // Include gauge-based I/O metrics (some nodes record I/O as gauges)
         for (metric_name, gauge) in metrics.iter_gauges() {
             match metric_name.as_ref() {
@@ -523,7 +651,7 @@ fn visit_node(node: &dyn ExecutionPlan, counts: &mut ExecutionSummaryCounts) {
         }
     }
     for child in node.children() {
-        visit_node(child.as_ref(), counts);
+        collect_execution_metrics(child.as_ref(), counts);
     }
 }
 
@@ -533,19 +661,23 @@ fn report_plan_summary_metrics(plan: &dyn ExecutionPlan, options: &LanceExecutio
         .map(|m| m.output_rows().unwrap_or(0))
         .unwrap_or(0);
     let mut counts = ExecutionSummaryCounts::default();
-    visit_node(plan, &mut counts);
-    tracing::info!(
-        target: TRACE_EXECUTION,
-        r#type = EXECUTION_PLAN_RUN,
-        plan_summary = display_plan_one_liner(plan),
-        output_rows,
-        iops = counts.iops,
-        requests = counts.requests,
-        bytes_read = counts.bytes_read,
-        indices_loaded = counts.indices_loaded,
-        parts_loaded = counts.parts_loaded,
-        index_comparisons = counts.index_comparisons,
-    );
+    collect_execution_metrics(plan, &mut counts);
+    if !options.skip_logging {
+        tracing::info!(
+            target: TRACE_EXECUTION,
+            r#type = EXECUTION_PLAN_RUN,
+            plan_summary = display_plan_one_liner(plan),
+            output_rows,
+            iops = counts.iops,
+            requests = counts.requests,
+            bytes_read = counts.bytes_read,
+            indices_loaded = counts.indices_loaded,
+            parts_loaded = counts.parts_loaded,
+            index_comparisons = counts.index_comparisons,
+            index_cache_hits = counts.index_cache_hits(),
+            index_cache_misses = counts.index_cache_misses(),
+        );
+    }
     if let Some(callback) = options.execution_stats_callback.as_ref() {
         callback(&counts);
     }
@@ -599,14 +731,29 @@ pub fn execute_plan(
 
     let session_ctx = get_session_context(&options);
 
-    // NOTE: we are only executing the first partition here. Therefore, if
-    // the plan has more than one partition, we will be missing data.
-    assert_eq!(plan.properties().partitioning.partition_count(), 1);
+    // Coalesce to a single partition if the optimizer left more than one.
+    // EnforceDistribution may remove RepartitionExec(1) nodes when the parent
+    // declares UnspecifiedDistribution, leaving multi-partition plans here.
+    //
+    // If the plan carries an output ordering (e.g. a top-k `SortExec` whose
+    // result was later repartitioned to parallelize downstream operators),
+    // a plain `CoalescePartitionsExec` would scramble that order because it
+    // merges partitions in scheduling-dependent order. Use an order-preserving
+    // merge in that case instead, mirroring what `EnforceDistribution` itself
+    // does when it needs to merge an ordered, multi-partition plan.
+    let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = if plan.properties().partitioning.partition_count() == 1 {
+        plan
+    } else if let Some(ordering) = plan.output_ordering() {
+        Arc::new(SortPreservingMergeExec::new(ordering.clone(), plan))
+    } else {
+        Arc::new(CoalescePartitionsExec::new(plan))
+    };
+
     let stream = plan.execute(0, get_task_context(&session_ctx, &options))?;
 
     let schema = stream.schema();
     let stream = stream.finally(move || {
-        if !options.skip_logging {
+        if !options.skip_logging || options.execution_stats_callback.is_some() {
             report_plan_summary_metrics(plan.as_ref(), &options);
         }
     });
@@ -616,6 +763,22 @@ pub fn execute_plan(
 pub async fn analyze_plan(
     plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
     options: LanceExecutionOptions,
+) -> Result<String> {
+    analyze_plan_with_context(plan, options, None).await
+}
+
+/// Analyze a plan, optionally under a caller-provided [`TaskContext`].
+///
+/// When `task_context` is `Some`, the plan executes under it instead of the
+/// context derived from `options`. Callers whose nodes read session-config
+/// extensions at execution time (e.g. distributed routing identity) must pass
+/// the context carrying those extensions; otherwise the nodes error during
+/// `execute` and `AnalyzeExec` reports an empty, unexecuted plan tree instead
+/// of surfacing the error.
+pub async fn analyze_plan_with_context(
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    options: LanceExecutionOptions,
+    task_context: Option<Arc<TaskContext>>,
 ) -> Result<String> {
     // This is needed as AnalyzeExec launches a thread task per
     // partition, and we want these to be connected to the parent span
@@ -626,21 +789,18 @@ pub async fn analyze_plan(
     let analyze = Arc::new(AnalyzeExec::new(
         true,
         true,
-        vec![MetricType::SUMMARY],
+        vec![MetricType::Summary],
+        None,
         plan,
         schema,
     ));
 
     let session_ctx = get_session_context(&options);
+    let task_context = task_context.unwrap_or_else(|| get_task_context(&session_ctx, &options));
     assert_eq!(analyze.properties().partitioning.partition_count(), 1);
     let mut stream = analyze
-        .execute(0, get_task_context(&session_ctx, &options))
-        .map_err(|err| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!("Failed to execute analyze plan: {}", err),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })?;
+        .execute(0, task_context)
+        .map_err(|err| Error::io(format!("Failed to execute analyze plan: {}", err)))?;
 
     // fully execute the plan
     while (stream.next().await).is_some() {}
@@ -858,6 +1018,49 @@ impl SessionContextExt for SessionContext {
     }
 }
 
+/// Scan a [`TableProvider`] into a single-partition [`SendableRecordBatchStream`].
+///
+/// Multi-partition providers are coalesced into a single partition. This adapts a
+/// re-scannable provider back into the one stream the writer pipeline consumes;
+/// re-scanning the same provider (e.g. on a write retry) yields a fresh stream.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use std::sync::Arc;
+/// # use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch};
+/// # use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+/// # use datafusion::catalog::TableProvider;
+/// # use datafusion::datasource::MemTable;
+/// # use futures::TryStreamExt;
+/// # use lance_datafusion::exec::provider_to_stream;
+/// # #[tokio::main]
+/// # async fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+/// let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+/// let batch =
+///     RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))])?;
+/// let provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider> = Arc::new(MemTable::try_new(schema, vec![vec![batch]])?);
+///
+/// // A re-scannable provider yields a fresh stream on each call.
+/// let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = provider_to_stream(provider).await?.try_collect().await?;
+/// assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), 3);
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+pub async fn provider_to_stream(
+    provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider>,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+    let plan = provider.scan(&ctx.state(), None, &[], None).await?;
+    let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+        if plan.properties().output_partitioning().partition_count() > 1 {
+            Arc::new(CoalescePartitionsExec::new(plan))
+        } else {
+            plan
+        };
+    Ok(plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())?)
+}
+
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 pub struct StrictBatchSizeExec {
     input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
@@ -885,11 +1088,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for StrictBatchSizeExec {
         "StrictBatchSizeExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         self.input.properties()
     }
 
@@ -929,7 +1128,132 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for StrictBatchSizeExec {
     fn partition_statistics(
         &self,
         partition: Option<usize>,
-    ) -> datafusion_common::Result<Statistics> {
+    ) -> datafusion_common::Result<std::sync::Arc<Statistics>> {
+        self.input.partition_statistics(partition)
+    }
+
+    fn cardinality_effect(&self) -> CardinalityEffect {
+        CardinalityEffect::Equal
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+/// Exec node that rechunks batches so no output batch exceeds `max_bytes`.
+///
+/// # Why this exists
+///
+/// DataFusion's sort operator must reserve memory for an entire input batch,
+/// including estimated sort/merge overhead. It can spill buffered batches and
+/// retry, but still fails if the new batch's reservation cannot fit. This is
+/// separate from the historical allocation issues fixed by DataFusion PR #14644
+/// (<https://github.com/apache/datafusion/pull/14644>).
+///
+/// This node bounds input batch sizes before sorting, at the cost of potentially
+/// expensive deep copies. It does not guarantee success for every memory pool:
+/// spill/merge reservations and other consumers also need room in the pool.
+///
+/// # Deep copy
+///
+/// After slicing a RecordBatch, `get_array_memory_size` still reports the
+/// size of the *original* backing buffers, not the slice.  To get accurate
+/// sizes the slices must be deep-copied.  This is a last resort and can be
+/// expensive for large batches, but the deep copy is only performed when a
+/// batch actually needs to be sliced — batches that are already within the
+/// target range pass through at zero cost.
+///
+/// If a single row exceeds `max_bytes`, execution fails with an error.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct HardCapBatchSizeExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+impl HardCapBatchSizeExec {
+    pub fn new(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, max_bytes: usize) -> Self {
+        Self { input, max_bytes }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for HardCapBatchSizeExec {
+    fn fmt_as(
+        &self,
+        _t: datafusion::physical_plan::DisplayFormatType,
+        f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter,
+    ) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "HardCapBatchSizeExec(max_bytes={})", self.max_bytes)
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for HardCapBatchSizeExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "HardCapBatchSizeExec"
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        self.input.properties()
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> datafusion_common::Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            input: children[0].clone(),
+            max_bytes: self.max_bytes,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> datafusion_common::Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let max_bytes = self.max_bytes;
+        let rechunked = lance_arrow::stream::rechunk_stream_by_size_deep_copy(
+            stream,
+            schema.clone(),
+            0,
+            max_bytes,
+        );
+        // Check that no single-row batch exceeds the limit.
+        let validated = rechunked.map(move |result| {
+            let batch = result?;
+            if batch.num_rows() == 1 && batch.get_array_memory_size() > max_bytes {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::External(Box::new(Error::invalid_input(
+                    format!(
+                        "a single row is {} bytes which exceeds the maximum allowed batch \
+                         size of {} bytes",
+                        batch.get_array_memory_size(),
+                        max_bytes,
+                    ),
+                ))));
+            }
+            Ok(batch)
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, validated)))
+    }
+
+    fn maintains_input_order(&self) -> Vec<bool> {
+        vec![true]
+    }
+
+    fn benefits_from_input_partitioning(&self) -> Vec<bool> {
+        vec![false]
+    }
+
+    fn partition_statistics(
+        &self,
+        partition: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> datafusion_common::Result<std::sync::Arc<Statistics>> {
         self.input.partition_statistics(partition)
     }
 
@@ -945,6 +1269,15 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for StrictBatchSizeExec {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use datafusion::execution::memory_pool::MemoryConsumer;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, cast::AsArray, record_batch, types::Int32Type};
+    use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
+    use datafusion::execution::memory_pool::MemoryLimit;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
+    use datafusion_physical_expr::{LexOrdering, PhysicalSortExpr, expressions::col};
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     // Serialize cache tests since they share global state
     static CACHE_TEST_LOCK: std::sync::Mutex<()> = std::sync::Mutex::new(());
@@ -973,9 +1306,9 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(cache_guard.len(), 1);
         }
 
-        // Different options should create new entry
+        // Different non-spilling options should create a new entry.
         let opts2 = LanceExecutionOptions {
-            use_spilling: true,
+            target_partition: Some(1),
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let _ctx2 = get_session_context(&opts2);
@@ -985,6 +1318,30 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_spilling_executions_have_independent_memory_pools() {
+        let options = LanceExecutionOptions {
+            use_spilling: true,
+            mem_pool_size: Some(DEFAULT_LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE_PER_PARTITION),
+            target_partition: Some(1),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let contexts: Vec<_> = (0..3).map(|_| get_session_context(&options)).collect();
+        let mut reservations = Vec::with_capacity(contexts.len());
+
+        // Each reservation fits its own pool, but any two exceed a shared pool.
+        for context in &contexts {
+            let task_context = context.task_ctx();
+            let pool = task_context.memory_pool();
+            let reservation = MemoryConsumer::new("ExternalSorterMerge[0]").register(pool);
+            reservation.try_grow(100 * 1024 * 1024).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(pool.reserved(), 100 * 1024 * 1024);
+            reservations.push(reservation);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(reservations.len(), 3);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_session_context_cache_lru_eviction() {
         let _lock = CACHE_TEST_LOCK.lock().unwrap();
@@ -1048,4 +1405,291 @@ mod tests {
             );
         }
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_task_context_per_execution() {
+        let _lock = CACHE_TEST_LOCK.lock().unwrap();
+
+        let default_options = LanceExecutionOptions::default();
+        let session_ctx = get_session_context(&default_options);
+        let task_ctx = get_task_context(&session_ctx, &default_options);
+        // Lance operators key per-execution state on the task context's identity.
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &task_ctx,
+            &get_task_context(&session_ctx, &default_options)
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(task_ctx.session_id(), session_ctx.session_id());
+        assert_eq!(
+            task_ctx.session_config().batch_size(),
+            session_ctx.copied_config().batch_size()
+        );
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &task_ctx.runtime_env(),
+            &session_ctx.runtime_env()
+        ));
+        assert!(task_ctx.scalar_functions().contains_key("contains_tokens"));
+
+        let spill_options = LanceExecutionOptions {
+            use_spilling: true,
+            mem_pool_size: Some(64 * 1024 * 1024),
+            target_partition: Some(3),
+            batch_size: Some(17),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let spill_session_ctx = get_session_context(&spill_options);
+        let spill_task_ctx = get_task_context(&spill_session_ctx, &spill_options);
+        assert_eq!(spill_task_ctx.session_config().batch_size(), 17);
+        assert_eq!(spill_task_ctx.session_config().target_partitions(), 3);
+        assert!(
+            spill_task_ctx
+                .scalar_functions()
+                .contains_key("contains_tokens")
+        );
+        // The batch size override applies to this execution only, and the
+        // execution still shares the session's memory pool.
+        assert_ne!(spill_session_ctx.copied_config().batch_size(), 17);
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &spill_task_ctx.runtime_env(),
+            &spill_session_ctx.runtime_env()
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            spill_task_ctx.memory_pool().memory_limit(),
+            MemoryLimit::Finite(limit) if limit == 64 * 1024 * 1024
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::session_batch_size(None, &[6])]
+    #[case::batch_size_override(Some(4), &[4, 2])]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_execute_plan_batch_size(
+        #[case] batch_size: Option<usize>,
+        #[case] expected_batch_rows: &[usize],
+    ) {
+        let batch = record_batch!(("x", Int32, [5, 3, 1, 4, 2, 0])).unwrap();
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col("x", &batch.schema()).unwrap());
+        let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new(
+            LexOrdering::new([sort_expr]).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(OneShotExec::from_batch(batch.clone())),
+        ));
+        let options = LanceExecutionOptions {
+            batch_size,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = execute_plan(plan, options)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch_rows: Vec<usize> = batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).collect();
+        assert_eq!(batch_rows, expected_batch_rows);
+        let sorted = concat_batches(&batch.schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sorted["x"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>(),
+            &Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_mem_pool_size_scales_with_partitions() {
+        let default_per_partition = DEFAULT_LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE_PER_PARTITION;
+
+        // No partitions specified → the session runs with DataFusion's default
+        // target_partitions (available parallelism), so the pool must be sized
+        // for that effective partition count.
+        let opts = LanceExecutionOptions::default();
+        assert_eq!(
+            opts.mem_pool_size(),
+            default_per_partition * get_available_parallelism() as u64
+        );
+
+        // 4 partitions → 4x the per-partition size
+        let opts = LanceExecutionOptions {
+            target_partition: Some(4),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(opts.mem_pool_size(), default_per_partition * 4);
+
+        // 8 partitions → 8x the per-partition size
+        let opts = LanceExecutionOptions {
+            target_partition: Some(8),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(opts.mem_pool_size(), default_per_partition * 8);
+
+        // Explicit mem_pool_size is not scaled
+        let opts = LanceExecutionOptions {
+            mem_pool_size: Some(50 * 1024 * 1024),
+            target_partition: Some(8),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(opts.mem_pool_size(), 50 * 1024 * 1024);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_default_pool_fits_sort_merge_reservations_per_partition() {
+        let options = LanceExecutionOptions {
+            use_spilling: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let num_partitions = options.effective_target_partition() as usize;
+        let session_ctx = new_session_context(&options);
+        let task_ctx = session_ctx.task_ctx();
+        let pool = task_ctx.memory_pool();
+
+        // External sort merges cannot spill their own reservations. Keep three
+        // merge reservations per execution partition while leaving 30 MiB per
+        // partition for input batches and other operators. Before the default
+        // pool followed the effective partition count, the fourth reservation
+        // exhausted the single 150 MiB pool on machines with multiple cores.
+        let num_reservations = num_partitions * 3;
+        let mut reservations = Vec::with_capacity(num_reservations);
+        for _ in 0..num_reservations {
+            let reservation = MemoryConsumer::new("ExternalSorterMerge[0]").register(pool);
+            reservation
+                .try_grow(MAX_SORT_SPILL_RESERVATION_BYTES as usize)
+                .unwrap();
+            reservations.push(reservation);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            pool.reserved(),
+            num_reservations * MAX_SORT_SPILL_RESERVATION_BYTES as usize
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A marker a node reads from the session-config extensions at execute time.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct RequiredExtension;
+
+    /// Execution node that only succeeds when [`RequiredExtension`] is present
+    /// on the task context's session config. This mirrors distributed routing
+    /// nodes that read a session-config identity extension during `execute`.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct NeedsExtensionExec {
+        properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+        /// Set once the node reaches execution with the extension present.
+        /// Observed by the test so that dropping context forwarding (which
+        /// makes `execute` error before this point) is detectable.
+        executed: Arc<std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool>,
+    }
+
+    impl NeedsExtensionExec {
+        fn new(executed: Arc<std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool>) -> Self {
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::empty());
+            Self {
+                properties: Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+                    EquivalenceProperties::new(schema),
+                    Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
+                    EmissionType::Incremental,
+                    Boundedness::Bounded,
+                )),
+                executed,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl DisplayAs for NeedsExtensionExec {
+        fn fmt_as(&self, _t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "NeedsExtensionExec")
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl ExecutionPlan for NeedsExtensionExec {
+        fn name(&self) -> &str {
+            "NeedsExtensionExec"
+        }
+        fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+            &self.properties
+        }
+        fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+            vec![]
+        }
+        fn with_new_children(
+            self: Arc<Self>,
+            _children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+        ) -> datafusion_common::Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+            Ok(self)
+        }
+        fn execute(
+            &self,
+            _partition: usize,
+            context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+        ) -> datafusion_common::Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+            if context
+                .session_config()
+                .get_extension::<RequiredExtension>()
+                .is_none()
+            {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "missing required session-config extension".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            self.executed
+                .store(true, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+            let schema = self.schema();
+            Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema,
+                stream::empty(),
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Regression: analyze must run under a caller-provided TaskContext so nodes
+    // that read a session-config extension at execute time see it. Without the
+    // context the node errors and AnalyzeExec would otherwise report an empty,
+    // unexecuted plan tree.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_analyze_plan_uses_provided_task_context() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
+
+        let executed = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(NeedsExtensionExec::new(executed.clone()));
+
+        // Default context lacks the extension: the node errors during execute
+        // (never reaching the `executed` flag), but AnalyzeExec absorbs that
+        // per-partition failure and reports an empty, unexecuted plan tree
+        // rather than propagating the error. This is the regression symptom.
+        let report = analyze_plan(plan.clone(), LanceExecutionOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .expect("AnalyzeExec swallows the node's execute error into an Ok report");
+        assert!(
+            report.contains("NeedsExtensionExec, metrics=[]"),
+            "expected an empty, unexecuted NeedsExtensionExec node, got: {report}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !executed.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            "node must not execute successfully without the extension"
+        );
+
+        // A context carrying the extension executes the node successfully.
+        let options = LanceExecutionOptions::default();
+        let session_ctx = get_session_context(&options);
+        let config = session_ctx
+            .task_ctx()
+            .session_config()
+            .clone()
+            .with_extension(Arc::new(RequiredExtension));
+        let task_ctx = session_ctx.task_ctx();
+        let task_ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::new(
+            task_ctx.task_id(),
+            task_ctx.session_id(),
+            config,
+            task_ctx.scalar_functions().clone(),
+            task_ctx.higher_order_functions().clone(),
+            task_ctx.aggregate_functions().clone(),
+            task_ctx.window_functions().clone(),
+            task_ctx.runtime_env(),
+        ));
+        let report = analyze_plan_with_context(plan, options, Some(task_ctx))
+            .await
+            .expect("analyze should succeed when the extension is present");
+        assert!(report.contains("NeedsExtensionExec"));
+        // The node only reaches this flag when the supplied context is actually
+        // forwarded to `execute`; dropping the forwarding fails this assertion.
+        assert!(
+            executed.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            "supplied context must be forwarded so the node executes"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/expr.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/expr.rs
index d7e6ce7a56a..b7e0d03d6ae 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/expr.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/expr.rs
@@ -6,17 +6,118 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::compute::cast;
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, ArrayRef};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, cast::AsArray};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, TimeUnit};
 use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+use half::f16;
 
 const MS_PER_DAY: i64 = 86400000;
 
+/// The exact tie between the largest finite `f16` and the value that would
+/// follow it. A tie goes to the even mantissa, which there is the one that does
+/// not exist, so this magnitude and anything above it rounds to an infinity.
+const F16_OVERFLOW_THRESHOLD: f64 = 65520.0;
+
+/// The finite `f16` nearest `value`, with a tie going to the even mantissa.
+///
+/// Neither of `half`'s conversions is correctly rounded, in two different ways:
+/// the software path truncates the low 32 bits of the `f64` mantissa before it
+/// rounds ([half-rs#151]), and the x86 hardware path rounds through `f32` first
+/// ([half-rs#116]). Both land within one step of the right answer, so this starts
+/// from the software path, which at least does not vary by target, and then looks
+/// at the two neighbours. Widening `f16` to `f64` is exact, so comparing the three
+/// distances in `f64` decides exactly.
+///
+/// The caller must have excluded the overflow range first. Truncation only ever
+/// shrinks the magnitude, so below the threshold the starting point is finite.
+///
+/// [half-rs#151]: https://github.com/VoidStarKat/half-rs/issues/151
+/// [half-rs#116]: https://github.com/VoidStarKat/half-rs/issues/116
+fn nearest_finite_f16(value: f64) -> f16 {
+    let start = f16::from_f64_const(value);
+    debug_assert!(
+        start.is_finite(),
+        "caller must reject the overflow range before calling: {value}"
+    );
+    let mut best = start;
+    let mut best_distance = (value - start.to_f64()).abs();
+    let start_bits = start.to_bits();
+    // Stepping the bit pattern by one walks to the adjacent magnitude on either
+    // side of `start`, for negatives as well. Stepping off an end lands on an
+    // infinity or a NaN, which is not a candidate.
+    for candidate in [start_bits.wrapping_sub(1), start_bits.wrapping_add(1)].map(f16::from_bits) {
+        if !candidate.is_finite() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let distance = (value - candidate.to_f64()).abs();
+        let wins =
+            distance < best_distance || (distance == best_distance && candidate.to_bits() & 1 == 0);
+        if wins {
+            best = candidate;
+            best_distance = distance;
+        }
+    }
+    best
+}
+
+/// Coerce a float to `f16`, rejecting a finite value that leaves the `f16` range
+/// rather than saturating it to an infinity.
+///
+/// A value inside the range lands on the `f16` grid and is inexact in a way that
+/// shows: past 2048 the grid is coarser than the integers, so `= 2049` matches
+/// rows holding 2048. The `Float32` and `Float64` arms below are inexact too, on
+/// a finer grid, and that is not what the rejection is for.
+///
+/// The rejection is for the literal changing kind. Saturated to an infinity,
+/// `= 100000` matches rows that really hold infinity; collapsed to zero,
+/// `= 1e-30` matches real zeros. The cost is the queries where saturating would
+/// have been right: `< 100000` errors instead of returning every finite row.
+/// This function cannot see the operator, so it cannot allow saturation only
+/// where it is harmless, and an error the caller reports beats a wrong row set.
+/// An infinite or NaN input converts faithfully and is kept.
+///
+/// `Float64` to `Float32` still saturates. Reaching that takes a literal above
+/// 1e38, while `f16` overflows at 65520, which an ordinary literal passes.
+fn coerce_to_f16(value: f64) -> Option<f16> {
+    if value.is_nan() {
+        return Some(f16::NAN);
+    }
+    if value.is_infinite() {
+        return Some(if value.is_sign_positive() {
+            f16::INFINITY
+        } else {
+            f16::NEG_INFINITY
+        });
+    }
+    if value.abs() >= F16_OVERFLOW_THRESHOLD {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let nearest = nearest_finite_f16(value);
+    // `f16::ZERO == f16::NEG_ZERO`, and so does `-0.0 == 0.0`, so a signed zero
+    // literal keeps its sign here and only a genuinely nonzero value is rejected.
+    if nearest == f16::ZERO && value != 0.0 {
+        return None;
+    }
+    Some(nearest)
+}
+
 // This is slightly tedious but when we convert expressions from SQL strings to logical
 // datafusion expressions there is no type coercion that happens.  In other words "x = 7"
 // will always yield "x = 7_u64" regardless of the type of the column "x".  As a result, we
 // need to do that literal coercion ourselves.
 pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarValue> {
+    // A dictionary target coerces the value to the dictionary's value type and
+    // re-wraps it as a dictionary literal. Only an untyped `ScalarValue::Null`
+    // keeps its untyped form, matching the behavior for all other targets; a
+    // *typed* null (e.g. `Utf8(None)`) is coerced and wrapped like any other
+    // value so it produces a `Dictionary(..)` literal that matches the column.
+    if let DataType::Dictionary(key_type, value_type) = ty {
+        if matches!(value, ScalarValue::Null) {
+            return Some(value.clone());
+        }
+        let inner = safe_coerce_scalar(value, value_type)?;
+        return Some(ScalarValue::Dictionary(key_type.clone(), Box::new(inner)));
+    }
     match value {
         ScalarValue::Int8(val) => match ty {
             DataType::Int8 => Some(value.clone()),
@@ -35,6 +136,9 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
             DataType::UInt64 => {
                 val.and_then(|v| u64::try_from(v).map(|v| ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(v))).ok())
             }
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(v as f64).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(f32::from(v)))),
             DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f64::from(v)))),
             _ => None,
@@ -58,6 +162,9 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
             DataType::UInt64 => {
                 val.and_then(|v| u64::try_from(v).map(|v| ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(v))).ok())
             }
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(v as f64).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(f32::from(v)))),
             DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f64::from(v)))),
             _ => None,
@@ -86,6 +193,9 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
             // These conversions are inherently lossy as the full range of i32 cannot
             // be represented in f32.  However, there is no f32::TryFrom(i32) and its not
             // clear users would want that anyways
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(v as f64).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(v as f32))),
             DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(v as f64))),
             _ => None,
@@ -114,9 +224,22 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
                 val.and_then(|v| u64::try_from(v).map(|v| ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(v))).ok())
             }
             // See above warning about lossy float conversion
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(v as f64).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(v as f32))),
             DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(v as f64))),
             DataType::Decimal128(_, _) | DataType::Decimal256(_, _) => value.cast_to(ty).ok(),
+            DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Second) => val.and_then(|v| {
+                i32::try_from(v)
+                    .ok()
+                    .map(|v| ScalarValue::Time32Second(Some(v)))
+            }),
+            DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Millisecond) => val.and_then(|v| {
+                i32::try_from(v)
+                    .ok()
+                    .map(|v| ScalarValue::Time32Millisecond(Some(v)))
+            }),
             _ => None,
         },
         ScalarValue::UInt8(val) => match ty {
@@ -130,6 +253,9 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
             DataType::UInt16 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::UInt16(Some(u16::from(v)))),
             DataType::UInt32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(u32::from(v)))),
             DataType::UInt64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(u64::from(v)))),
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(v as f64).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(f32::from(v)))),
             DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f64::from(v)))),
             _ => None,
@@ -149,6 +275,9 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
             DataType::UInt16 => Some(value.clone()),
             DataType::UInt32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(u32::from(v)))),
             DataType::UInt64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(u64::from(v)))),
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(v as f64).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(f32::from(v)))),
             DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f64::from(v)))),
             _ => None,
@@ -173,6 +302,9 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
             DataType::UInt32 => Some(value.clone()),
             DataType::UInt64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(u64::from(v)))),
             // See above warning about lossy float conversion
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(v as f64).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(v as f32))),
             DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(v as f64))),
             _ => None,
@@ -201,16 +333,31 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
             }
             DataType::UInt64 => Some(value.clone()),
             // See above warning about lossy float conversion
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(v as f64).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(v as f32))),
             DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(v as f64))),
             _ => None,
         },
+        ScalarValue::Float16(val) => match ty {
+            DataType::Float16 => Some(value.clone()),
+            DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(v.to_f32()))),
+            DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(v.to_f64()))),
+            _ => None,
+        },
         ScalarValue::Float32(val) => match ty {
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(f64::from(v)).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => Some(value.clone()),
             DataType::Float64 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f64::from(v)))),
             _ => None,
         },
         ScalarValue::Float64(val) => match ty {
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                val.and_then(|v| coerce_to_f16(v).map(|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))))
+            }
             DataType::Float32 => val.map(|v| ScalarValue::Float32(Some(v as f32))),
             DataType::Float64 => Some(value.clone()),
             _ => None,
@@ -218,11 +365,19 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
         ScalarValue::Utf8(val) => match ty {
             DataType::Utf8 => Some(value.clone()),
             DataType::LargeUtf8 => Some(ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(val.clone())),
+            DataType::Utf8View => Some(ScalarValue::Utf8View(val.clone())),
             _ => None,
         },
         ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(val) => match ty {
             DataType::Utf8 => Some(ScalarValue::Utf8(val.clone())),
             DataType::LargeUtf8 => Some(value.clone()),
+            DataType::Utf8View => Some(ScalarValue::Utf8View(val.clone())),
+            _ => None,
+        },
+        ScalarValue::Utf8View(val) => match ty {
+            DataType::Utf8 => Some(ScalarValue::Utf8(val.clone())),
+            DataType::LargeUtf8 => Some(ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(val.clone())),
+            DataType::Utf8View => Some(value.clone()),
             _ => None,
         },
         ScalarValue::Boolean(_) => match ty {
@@ -408,6 +563,7 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
         ScalarValue::Binary(value) => match ty {
             DataType::Binary => Some(ScalarValue::Binary(value.clone())),
             DataType::LargeBinary => Some(ScalarValue::LargeBinary(value.clone())),
+            DataType::BinaryView => Some(ScalarValue::BinaryView(value.clone())),
             DataType::FixedSizeBinary(len) => {
                 if let Some(value) = value {
                     if value.len() == *len as usize {
@@ -421,16 +577,68 @@ pub fn safe_coerce_scalar(value: &ScalarValue, ty: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarVa
             }
             _ => None,
         },
+        ScalarValue::BinaryView(val) => match ty {
+            DataType::Binary => Some(ScalarValue::Binary(val.clone())),
+            DataType::LargeBinary => Some(ScalarValue::LargeBinary(val.clone())),
+            DataType::BinaryView => Some(value.clone()),
+            _ => None,
+        },
+        ScalarValue::LargeBinary(_) => match ty {
+            DataType::LargeBinary => Some(value.clone()),
+            _ => None,
+        },
+        ScalarValue::Decimal128(_, _, _) => match ty {
+            DataType::Decimal128(_, _) => value.cast_to(ty).ok(),
+            _ => None,
+        },
+        ScalarValue::Decimal256(_, _, _) => match ty {
+            DataType::Decimal256(_, _) => value.cast_to(ty).ok(),
+            _ => None,
+        },
+        ScalarValue::DurationSecond(_)
+        | ScalarValue::DurationMillisecond(_)
+        | ScalarValue::DurationMicrosecond(_)
+        | ScalarValue::DurationNanosecond(_) => match ty {
+            DataType::Duration(_) => value.cast_to(ty).ok(),
+            _ => None,
+        },
+        // A dictionary-encoded literal (e.g. produced by DataFusion's dictionary
+        // cast in the scalar-index path) coerces by unwrapping its underlying value.
+        ScalarValue::Dictionary(_, inner) => safe_coerce_scalar(inner, ty),
         _ => None,
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use arrow::datatypes::i256;
+
     use super::*;
 
     #[test]
     fn test_temporal_coerce() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5)),
+                &DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Second),
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Time32Second(Some(5)))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5000)),
+                &DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Millisecond),
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Time32Millisecond(Some(5000)))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Int64(Some(i64::MAX)),
+                &DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Second),
+            ),
+            None
+        );
+
         // Conversion from timestamps in one resolution to timestamps in another resolution is allowed
         // s->s
         assert_eq!(
@@ -702,5 +910,378 @@ mod tests {
             ),
             Some(ScalarValue::Time64Nanosecond(Some(5000000000)))
         );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::DurationNanosecond(Some(2_000_000)),
+                &DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Millisecond),
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::DurationMillisecond(Some(2)))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_string_view_coerce() {
+        // Utf8 <-> Utf8View
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("hi".into())), &DataType::Utf8View),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("hi".into())))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("hi".into())), &DataType::Utf8),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("hi".into())))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("hi".into())),
+                &DataType::LargeUtf8
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("hi".into())))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("hi".into())),
+                &DataType::Utf8View
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("hi".into())))
+        );
+        // identity
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("hi".into())),
+                &DataType::Utf8View
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("hi".into())))
+        );
+        // Binary <-> BinaryView
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Binary(Some(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                &DataType::BinaryView
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::BinaryView(Some(vec![1, 2, 3])))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::BinaryView(Some(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                &DataType::Binary
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Binary(Some(vec![1, 2, 3])))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::BinaryView(Some(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                &DataType::BinaryView
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::BinaryView(Some(vec![1, 2, 3])))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                &DataType::LargeBinary
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(vec![1, 2, 3])))
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Every numeric literal type reaches `Float16`. SQL only produces `Int64`
+    /// and `Float64`, but `safe_coerce_scalar` is public and the index layer
+    /// feeds it whatever the planner already coerced, including `Float16`
+    /// itself.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::int8(ScalarValue::Int8(Some(-2)))]
+    #[case::int16(ScalarValue::Int16(Some(-2)))]
+    #[case::int32(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(-2)))]
+    #[case::int64(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(-2)))]
+    #[case::float32(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(-2.0)))]
+    #[case::float64(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(-2.0)))]
+    #[case::float16(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f16::from_f32(-2.0))))]
+    fn numeric_literals_coerce_to_f16(#[case] value: ScalarValue) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&value, &DataType::Float16),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f16::from_f32(-2.0)))),
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::uint8(ScalarValue::UInt8(Some(2)))]
+    #[case::uint16(ScalarValue::UInt16(Some(2)))]
+    #[case::uint32(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(2)))]
+    #[case::uint64(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(2)))]
+    fn unsigned_literals_coerce_to_f16(#[case] value: ScalarValue) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&value, &DataType::Float16),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f16::from_f32(2.0)))),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A `Float16` literal also has to reach the wider float columns, so a
+    /// predicate written against one column type still filters another.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f16_literal_widens() {
+        let half = ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f16::from_f32(0.5)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&half, &DataType::Float32),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(0.5))),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&half, &DataType::Float64),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(0.5))),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(safe_coerce_scalar(&half, &DataType::Int32), None);
+    }
+
+    /// Rounding inside the `f16` range is accepted; leaving the range is not.
+    /// Expected values are spelled as bits so a change in how the input is
+    /// rounded fails here rather than being recomputed by the same library call
+    /// the code under test uses.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    // 0.1 has no exact binary form, so it lands on the nearest f16, 0x2E66.
+    #[case::rounds(0.1, Some(0x2E66))]
+    // Past 2048 the f16 grid is coarser than the integers: 2049 is the exact
+    // midpoint of 2048 and 2050, and the tie goes to the even mantissa. This is
+    // the case the doc comment cites for `= 2049` matching rows holding 2048.
+    #[case::odd_integer_ties_down(2049.0, Some(0x6800))]
+    // Above that midpoint 2050 is the nearer neighbour, and the coercion picks it.
+    // `half`'s own conversion returns 2048 here, which is the defect
+    // `nearest_finite_f16` exists to correct.
+    #[case::just_above_a_tie(2049.001, Some(0x6801))]
+    #[case::largest_finite(65504.0, Some(0x7BFF))]
+    // Rounds down to the largest finite f16 rather than overflowing.
+    #[case::just_under_overflow(65519.0, Some(0x7BFF))]
+    #[case::smallest_subnormal(6e-8, Some(0x0001))]
+    // 65520 is the first value that rounds to infinity, not 65504.
+    #[case::overflow_threshold(65520.0, None)]
+    #[case::overflow(70000.0, None)]
+    #[case::negative_overflow(-70000.0, None)]
+    #[case::f32_max(f32::MAX as f64, None)]
+    // Underflows to zero rather than silently matching real zeros.
+    #[case::underflow(1e-30, None)]
+    #[case::negative_underflow(-1e-30, None)]
+    fn test_f16_range_edges(#[case] input: f64, #[case] expected: Option<u16>) {
+        let coerced = safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Float64(Some(input)), &DataType::Float16);
+        match expected {
+            Some(bits) => assert_eq!(
+                coerced,
+                Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f16::from_bits(bits)))),
+            ),
+            None => assert_eq!(coerced, None),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A literal that is already infinite or NaN converts faithfully. Only a
+    /// finite value that overflowed is rejected.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f16_keeps_non_finite_literals() {
+        for (input, expected) in [
+            (f64::INFINITY, f16::INFINITY),
+            (f64::NEG_INFINITY, f16::NEG_INFINITY),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Float64(Some(input)), &DataType::Float16),
+                Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(expected))),
+            );
+        }
+        let nan = safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f64::NAN)), &DataType::Float16);
+        assert!(matches!(nan, Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))) if v.is_nan()));
+    }
+
+    /// Both zeros survive as themselves. Signed-zero comparison semantics are a
+    /// separate problem (#5868); coercion must at least not erase the sign.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f16_keeps_zero_sign() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Float64(Some(-0.0)), &DataType::Float16),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f16::NEG_ZERO))),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Float64(Some(0.0)), &DataType::Float16),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f16::ZERO))),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Int64(Some(0)), &DataType::Float16),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f16::ZERO))),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Sweep every rounding decision the conversion can make instead of trusting
+    /// the handful of points named above: for each adjacent pair of finite `f16`
+    /// values, the exact midpoint and the two `f64` values either side of it. A
+    /// misrounding anywhere in the range shows up here, which is how the
+    /// `2049.001` case was found in the first place.
+    ///
+    /// The expectation is stated, not recomputed: below the midpoint the lower
+    /// neighbour, above it the upper one, at it the even mantissa.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f16_rounds_to_nearest_even_across_the_whole_range() {
+        fn coerce(value: f64) -> Option<f16> {
+            match safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Float64(Some(value)), &DataType::Float16) {
+                Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))) => Some(v),
+                // Rejected, which the underflow side of the range expects.
+                None => None,
+                other => panic!("expected a Float16 literal for {value}, got {other:?}"),
+            }
+        }
+        // A nonzero literal that lands on zero is rejected rather than coerced,
+        // so the smallest pair expects `None` on its lower side.
+        fn want(expected: f16, input: f64) -> Option<f16> {
+            if expected == f16::ZERO && input != 0.0 {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(expected)
+            }
+        }
+
+        // 0x7BFF is the largest finite f16, so pairing each bit pattern with the
+        // next covers every adjacent finite pair on the positive side. Negatives
+        // are covered by the symmetry check below.
+        for lower_bits in 0..0x7BFFu16 {
+            let lower = f16::from_bits(lower_bits);
+            let upper = f16::from_bits(lower_bits + 1);
+            // Both operands are f16 widened to f64, so the average is exact.
+            let midpoint = (lower.to_f64() + upper.to_f64()) / 2.0;
+            let below = f64::from_bits(midpoint.to_bits() - 1);
+            let above = f64::from_bits(midpoint.to_bits() + 1);
+
+            assert_eq!(coerce(below), want(lower, below), "just below {midpoint}");
+            assert_eq!(coerce(above), want(upper, above), "just above {midpoint}");
+            let even = if lower.to_bits() & 1 == 0 {
+                lower
+            } else {
+                upper
+            };
+            assert_eq!(coerce(midpoint), want(even, midpoint), "at {midpoint}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Sign is not part of the rounding decision, so negating the input negates
+    /// the result. This is what lets the sweep above cover only positives.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case(0.1)]
+    #[case(2049.001)]
+    #[case(65504.0)]
+    #[case(6e-8)]
+    #[case(70000.0)]
+    #[case(1e-30)]
+    fn test_f16_coercion_is_sign_symmetric(#[case] magnitude: f64) {
+        let positive =
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Float64(Some(magnitude)), &DataType::Float16);
+        let negative =
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Float64(Some(-magnitude)), &DataType::Float16);
+        let flipped = match positive {
+            Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(v))) => Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(-v))),
+            other => other,
+        };
+        assert_eq!(negative, flipped);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decimal_coerce() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Decimal128(Some(2), 10, 0),
+                &DataType::Decimal128(12, 2),
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Decimal128(Some(200), 12, 2))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Decimal256(Some(i256::from_i128(2)), 76, 0),
+                &DataType::Decimal256(76, 2),
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Decimal256(Some(i256::from_i128(200)), 76, 2))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dictionary_coerce() {
+        let dict_ty = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int16), Box::new(DataType::Utf8));
+
+        // A string literal coerces to a dictionary target by wrapping the
+        // coerced value in a dictionary scalar.
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("com".to_string())), &dict_ty),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Dictionary(
+                Box::new(DataType::Int16),
+                Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("com".to_string()))),
+            ))
+        );
+
+        // The inner value is coerced through to the dictionary value type, so a
+        // LargeUtf8 literal lands as a Utf8 value inside the dictionary.
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("com".to_string())), &dict_ty),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Dictionary(
+                Box::new(DataType::Int16),
+                Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("com".to_string()))),
+            ))
+        );
+
+        // A dictionary literal round-trips back to its value type.
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Dictionary(
+                    Box::new(DataType::Int16),
+                    Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("com".to_string()))),
+                ),
+                &DataType::Utf8,
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("com".to_string())))
+        );
+
+        // A dictionary literal coerces to a dictionary target, adopting the
+        // target's key type.
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Dictionary(
+                    Box::new(DataType::Int32),
+                    Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("com".to_string()))),
+                ),
+                &dict_ty,
+            ),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Dictionary(
+                Box::new(DataType::Int16),
+                Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("com".to_string()))),
+            ))
+        );
+
+        // An untyped null keeps its untyped form for a dictionary target, just
+        // like for every other target type.
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Null, &dict_ty),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Null)
+        );
+
+        // A *typed* null (e.g. an API-built `Utf8(None)` literal, or an IN value
+        // already typed as Utf8) is still wrapped in the dictionary type so it
+        // matches the dictionary column. Returning a bare `Utf8(None)` here would
+        // leave `resolve_value` with a literal whose type does not line up with
+        // the column, breaking planning/evaluation the same way non-null strings
+        // used to break.
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::Utf8(None), &dict_ty),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Dictionary(
+                Box::new(DataType::Int16),
+                Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(None)),
+            ))
+        );
+
+        // The inner null is coerced through to the dictionary value type as well,
+        // so a LargeUtf8 typed null lands as a Utf8 null inside the dictionary.
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(&ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(None), &dict_ty),
+            Some(ScalarValue::Dictionary(
+                Box::new(DataType::Int16),
+                Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(None)),
+            ))
+        );
+
+        // A value that cannot be coerced to the dictionary value type fails.
+        assert_eq!(
+            safe_coerce_scalar(
+                &ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("com".to_string())),
+                &DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int16), Box::new(DataType::Int32)),
+            ),
+            None
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/lib.rs
index fa65a918191..ce67c5fdd1c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,14 +1,28 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+pub mod aggregate;
 pub mod chunker;
 pub mod dataframe;
+#[cfg(any(test, feature = "datagen"))]
 pub mod datagen;
 pub mod exec;
 pub mod expr;
 pub mod logical_expr;
 pub mod planner;
 pub mod projection;
+pub mod pb {
+    #![allow(clippy::all)]
+    #![allow(non_upper_case_globals)]
+    #![allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+    #![allow(non_snake_case)]
+    #![allow(unused)]
+    #![allow(improper_ctypes)]
+    #![allow(clippy::upper_case_acronyms)]
+    #![allow(clippy::use_self)]
+    include!(concat!(env!("OUT_DIR"), "/lance.datafusion.rs"));
+}
+mod signed_zero;
 pub mod spill;
 pub mod sql;
 #[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/logical_expr.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/logical_expr.rs
index bcd81730d7f..7738de1b651 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/logical_expr.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/logical_expr.rs
@@ -3,34 +3,26 @@
 
 //! Extends logical expression.
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 
 use crate::expr::safe_coerce_scalar;
-use datafusion::logical_expr::{expr::ScalarFunction, BinaryExpr, Operator};
-use datafusion::logical_expr::{Between, ScalarUDF, ScalarUDFImpl};
+use datafusion::logical_expr::{Between, ScalarUDFImpl};
+use datafusion::logical_expr::{BinaryExpr, Operator};
 use datafusion::prelude::*;
 use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion_functions::core::expr_ext::FieldAccessor;
 use datafusion_functions::core::getfield::GetFieldFunc;
 use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
 
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 /// Resolve a Value
 fn resolve_value(expr: &Expr, data_type: &DataType) -> Result<Expr> {
     match expr {
         Expr::Literal(scalar_value, metadata) => {
-            Ok(Expr::Literal(safe_coerce_scalar(scalar_value, data_type).ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Received literal {expr} and could not convert to literal of type '{data_type:?}'"),
-                location!(),
-            ))?, metadata.clone()))
+            Ok(Expr::Literal(safe_coerce_scalar(scalar_value, data_type).ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("Received literal {expr} and could not convert to literal of type '{data_type:?}'")))?, metadata.clone()))
         }
-        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!("Expected a literal of type '{data_type:?}' but received: {expr}"),
-            location!(),
-        )),
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("Expected a literal of type '{data_type:?}' but received: {expr}"))),
     }
 }
 
@@ -43,7 +35,7 @@ pub fn get_as_string_scalar_opt(expr: &Expr) -> Option<&str> {
     }
 }
 
-/// Given a Expr::Column or Expr::GetIndexedField, get the data type of referenced
+/// Given a column or nested `get_field` expression, get the data type of the referenced
 /// field in the schema.
 ///
 /// If the column is not found in the schema, return None. If the expression is
@@ -58,14 +50,10 @@ pub fn resolve_column_type(expr: &Expr, schema: &Schema) -> Option<DataType> {
                 field_path.push(c.name.as_str());
                 break;
             }
-            Expr::ScalarFunction(udf) => {
-                if udf.name() == GetFieldFunc::default().name() {
-                    let name = get_as_string_scalar_opt(&udf.args[1])?;
-                    field_path.push(name);
-                    current_expr = &udf.args[0];
-                } else {
-                    return None;
-                }
+            Expr::ScalarFunction(udf) if udf.name() == GetFieldFunc::default().name() => {
+                let name = get_as_string_scalar_opt(&udf.args[1])?;
+                field_path.push(name);
+                current_expr = &udf.args[0];
             }
             _ => return None,
         }
@@ -83,6 +71,24 @@ pub fn resolve_column_type(expr: &Expr, schema: &Schema) -> Option<DataType> {
     Some(field.data_type())
 }
 
+fn is_literal_only_same_type_expr(expr: &Expr) -> bool {
+    match expr {
+        Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr { left, op, right }) => {
+            (op.is_numerical_operators()
+                || matches!(
+                    op,
+                    Operator::BitwiseShiftLeft
+                        | Operator::BitwiseShiftRight
+                        | Operator::StringConcat
+                ))
+                && is_literal_only_same_type_expr(left)
+                && is_literal_only_same_type_expr(right)
+        }
+        Expr::Literal(..) => true,
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
 /// Resolve logical expression `expr`.
 ///
 /// Parameters
@@ -122,16 +128,17 @@ pub fn resolve_expr(expr: &Expr, schema: &Schema) -> Result<Expr> {
                         op: *op,
                         right: Box::new(resolve_value(right.as_ref(), &left_type)?),
                     })),
-                    // For cases complex expressions (not just literals) on right hand side like x = 1 + 1 + -2*2
-                    Expr::BinaryExpr(r) => Ok(Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
-                        left: left.clone(),
-                        op: *op,
-                        right: Box::new(Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
-                            left: coerce_expr(&r.left, &left_type).map(Box::new)?,
-                            op: r.op,
-                            right: coerce_expr(&r.right, &left_type).map(Box::new)?,
-                        })),
-                    })),
+                    // Constant expressions need the column type applied to all of their literals.
+                    Expr::BinaryExpr(_) if is_literal_only_same_type_expr(right) => {
+                        Ok(Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+                            left: left.clone(),
+                            op: *op,
+                            right: Box::new(coerce_expr(right, &left_type)?),
+                        }))
+                    }
+                    // Let DataFusion coerce other expressions. Recursively resolving them
+                    // can narrow literals to an inner column's type before arithmetic promotes
+                    // its operands, for example the 0.5 in `float_col = int_col + 0.5`.
                     _ => Ok(expr.clone()),
                 }
             } else if let Some(right_type) = resolve_column_type(right.as_ref(), schema) {
@@ -201,53 +208,30 @@ pub fn coerce_filter_type_to_boolean(expr: Expr) -> Expr {
     match expr {
         // Coerce regexp_match to boolean by checking for non-null
         Expr::ScalarFunction(sf) if sf.func.name() == "regexp_match" => {
-            log::warn!("regexp_match now is coerced to boolean, this may be changed in the future, please use `regexp_like` instead");
+            log::warn!(
+                "regexp_match now is coerced to boolean, this may be changed in the future, please use `regexp_like` instead"
+            );
             Expr::IsNotNull(Box::new(Expr::ScalarFunction(sf)))
         }
 
-        // Recurse into boolean contexts so nested regexp_match terms are also coerced
-        Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr { left, op, right }) => Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
-            left: Box::new(coerce_filter_type_to_boolean(*left)),
-            op,
-            right: Box::new(coerce_filter_type_to_boolean(*right)),
-        }),
+        // Only boolean operands need coercion. Null checks and comparisons must
+        // preserve regexp_match's nullable list result.
+        Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr { left, op, right })
+            if matches!(op, Operator::And | Operator::Or) =>
+        {
+            Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+                left: Box::new(coerce_filter_type_to_boolean(*left)),
+                op,
+                right: Box::new(coerce_filter_type_to_boolean(*right)),
+            })
+        }
         Expr::Not(inner) => Expr::Not(Box::new(coerce_filter_type_to_boolean(*inner))),
-        Expr::IsNull(inner) => Expr::IsNull(Box::new(coerce_filter_type_to_boolean(*inner))),
-        Expr::IsNotNull(inner) => Expr::IsNotNull(Box::new(coerce_filter_type_to_boolean(*inner))),
 
         // Pass-through for all other nodes
         other => other,
     }
 }
 
-// As part of the DF 37 release there are now two different ways to
-// represent a nested field access in `Expr`.  The old way is to use
-// `Expr::field` which returns a `GetStructField` and the new way is
-// to use `Expr::ScalarFunction` with a `GetFieldFunc` UDF.
-//
-// Currently, the old path leads to bugs in DF.  This is probably a
-// bug and will probably be fixed in a future version.  In the meantime
-// we need to make sure we are always using the new way to avoid this
-// bug.  This trait adds field_newstyle which lets us easily create
-// logical `Expr` that use the new style.
-pub trait ExprExt {
-    // Helper function to replace Expr::field in DF 37 since DF
-    // confuses itself with the GetStructField returned by Expr::field
-    fn field_newstyle(&self, name: &str) -> Expr;
-}
-
-impl ExprExt for Expr {
-    fn field_newstyle(&self, name: &str) -> Expr {
-        Self::ScalarFunction(ScalarFunction {
-            func: Arc::new(ScalarUDF::new_from_impl(GetFieldFunc::default())),
-            args: vec![
-                self.clone(),
-                Self::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(name.to_string())), None),
-            ],
-        })
-    }
-}
-
 /// Convert a field path string into a DataFusion expression.
 ///
 /// This function handles:
@@ -284,29 +268,62 @@ pub fn field_path_to_expr(field_path: &str) -> Result<Expr> {
     let parts = lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(field_path)?;
 
     if parts.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!("Invalid empty field path: {}", field_path),
-            location!(),
-        ));
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Invalid empty field path: {}",
+            field_path
+        )));
     }
 
-    // Build the column expression, handling nested fields
-    let mut expr = col(&parts[0]);
+    // Build the column expression, handling nested fields.
+    let mut expr = Expr::Column(datafusion::common::Column::new_unqualified(
+        parts[0].clone(),
+    ));
     for part in &parts[1..] {
-        expr = expr.field_newstyle(part);
+        expr = expr.field(part.as_str());
     }
 
     Ok(expr)
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
+mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     use super::*;
 
     use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use datafusion_functions::core::expr_ext::FieldAccessor;
+    use datafusion::common::Column;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_field_path_to_expr_preserves_case_sensitive_root_column() {
+        let expr = field_path_to_expr("VECTOR").unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(expr, Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified("VECTOR")));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::nested("Parent.Child", "Parent", vec!["Child"])]
+    #[case::deeply_nested("Parent.Child.Leaf", "Parent", vec!["Child", "Leaf"])]
+    #[case::escaped_child("Parent.`Child.With.Dot`", "Parent", vec!["Child.With.Dot"])]
+    #[case::escaped_root("`Parent.With.Dot`.Child", "Parent.With.Dot", vec!["Child"])]
+    #[case::escaped_nested(
+        "`Parent.With.Dot`.`Child.With.Dot`.Leaf",
+        "Parent.With.Dot",
+        vec!["Child.With.Dot", "Leaf"]
+    )]
+    fn test_field_path_to_expr_preserves_nested_names(
+        #[case] path: &str,
+        #[case] root: &str,
+        #[case] children: Vec<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let expr = field_path_to_expr(path).unwrap();
+        let mut expected = Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified(root));
+        for name in children {
+            expected = get_field(expected, name);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(expr, expected);
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_resolve_large_utf8() {
@@ -404,6 +421,7 @@ pub mod tests {
                 DataType::Struct(
                     vec![
                         Field::new("str", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                        Field::new("Child.With.Dot", DataType::Int32, true),
                         Field::new(
                             "st",
                             DataType::Struct(
@@ -432,6 +450,11 @@ pub mod tests {
             Some(DataType::Float64)
         );
 
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolve_column_type(&field_path_to_expr("st.`Child.With.Dot`").unwrap(), &schema),
+            Some(DataType::Int32)
+        );
+
         assert_eq!(resolve_column_type(&col("x"), &schema), None);
         assert_eq!(resolve_column_type(&col("str"), &schema), None);
         assert_eq!(resolve_column_type(&col("float"), &schema), None);
@@ -440,4 +463,86 @@ pub mod tests {
             None
         );
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_utf8view_literal_against_utf8_column() {
+        // Simulates DataFusion 43+ producing a Utf8View literal (e.g. from md5())
+        // being compared against a Utf8 column stored in Lance.
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new("hash", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let expr = Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+            left: Box::new(Expr::Column("hash".to_string().into())),
+            op: Operator::Eq,
+            right: Box::new(Expr::Literal(
+                ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("abc".to_string())),
+                None,
+            )),
+        });
+
+        let resolved = resolve_expr(&expr, &schema).unwrap();
+        match resolved {
+            Expr::BinaryExpr(be) => {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    be.right.as_ref(),
+                    &Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("abc".to_string())), None)
+                )
+            }
+            _ => unreachable!("Expected BinaryExpr"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_typed_null_against_dictionary_column() {
+        // A dictionary-encoded string column, e.g. a categorical field.
+        let dict_ty = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int16), Box::new(DataType::Utf8));
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new("etld", dict_ty, true)]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        // A typed null must be wrapped in the dictionary type, not left as a bare
+        // `Utf8(None)` literal sitting next to a `Dictionary(...)` column.
+        let expected_null = Expr::Literal(
+            ScalarValue::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int16), Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(None))),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        // `etld = <typed null>` built directly via the API, as opposed to coming
+        // through SQL parsing.
+        let expr = Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+            left: Box::new(Expr::Column("etld".to_string().into())),
+            op: Operator::Eq,
+            right: Box::new(Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(None), None)),
+        });
+        match resolve_expr(&expr, &schema).unwrap() {
+            Expr::BinaryExpr(be) => assert_eq!(be.right.as_ref(), &expected_null),
+            other => unreachable!("Expected BinaryExpr, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+
+        // `etld IN ('a', <typed null>)` — a typed value mixed with a typed null,
+        // both already typed as Utf8. Every list element is wrapped in the
+        // dictionary type.
+        let expr = Expr::in_list(
+            Expr::Column("etld".to_string().into()),
+            vec![
+                Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("a".to_string())), None),
+                Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(None), None),
+            ],
+            false,
+        );
+        let expected = Expr::in_list(
+            Expr::Column("etld".to_string().into()),
+            vec![
+                Expr::Literal(
+                    ScalarValue::Dictionary(
+                        Box::new(DataType::Int16),
+                        Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("a".to_string()))),
+                    ),
+                    None,
+                ),
+                expected_null,
+            ],
+            false,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(resolve_expr(&expr, &schema).unwrap(), expected);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/planner.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/planner.rs
index d27efc386d0..d9f5c6bb339 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/planner.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/planner.rs
@@ -7,20 +7,23 @@ use std::borrow::Cow;
 use std::collections::{BTreeSet, VecDeque};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use crate::exec::{get_session_context, LanceExecutionOptions};
+use crate::exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, get_session_context};
 use crate::expr::safe_coerce_scalar;
 use crate::logical_expr::{coerce_filter_type_to_boolean, get_as_string_scalar_opt, resolve_expr};
+use crate::signed_zero::{normalize_zero_comparisons, rewrite_signed_zero_comparisons};
 use crate::sql::{parse_sql_expr, parse_sql_filter};
 use arrow::compute::CastOptions;
 use arrow_array::ListArray;
 use arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer;
+use arrow_cast::cast_with_options;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType as ArrowDataType, Field, SchemaRef, TimeUnit};
 use arrow_select::concat::concat;
-use datafusion::common::tree_node::{TreeNode, TreeNodeRecursion, TreeNodeVisitor};
+use datafusion::catalog::Session;
 use datafusion::common::DFSchema;
+use datafusion::common::tree_node::{Transformed, TreeNode, TreeNodeRecursion, TreeNodeVisitor};
 use datafusion::config::ConfigOptions;
 use datafusion::error::Result as DFResult;
-use datafusion::execution::context::SessionState;
+use datafusion::execution::context::{SessionContext, SessionState};
 use datafusion::logical_expr::expr::ScalarFunction;
 use datafusion::logical_expr::planner::{ExprPlanner, PlannerResult, RawFieldAccessExpr};
 use datafusion::logical_expr::{
@@ -39,20 +42,49 @@ use datafusion::sql::sqlparser::ast::{
 use datafusion::{
     common::Column,
     logical_expr::{Between, BinaryExpr, Like, Operator},
-    physical_expr::execution_props::ExecutionProps,
     physical_plan::PhysicalExpr,
     prelude::Expr,
     scalar::ScalarValue,
 };
 use datafusion_functions::core::getfield::GetFieldFunc;
-use lance_arrow::cast::cast_with_options;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use chrono::Utc;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
+/// Encode a JSON string into a JSONB `LargeBinary` literal expression.
+fn encode_jsonb(json_str: &str) -> Result<Expr> {
+    let bytes = lance_arrow::json::encode_json(json_str)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to encode JSONB: {e}")))?;
+    Ok(Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(bytes)), None))
+}
+
+// The escape in `LIKE/ILIKE ... ESCAPE '<char>'` must be exactly one character.
+// Reject empty or multi-character escape strings rather than silently treating
+// them as "no escape" or truncating to the first character.
+fn parse_like_escape_char(escape_char: &Option<ValueWithSpan>) -> Result<Option<char>> {
+    let Some(value) = escape_char else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    let ValueWithSpan {
+        value: Value::SingleQuotedString(escape),
+        ..
+    } = value
+    else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Invalid escape character in LIKE expression. Expected a single character wrapped with single quotes, got {value}"
+        )));
+    };
+    let mut chars = escape.chars();
+    match (chars.next(), chars.next()) {
+        (Some(c), None) => Ok(Some(c)),
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Invalid escape character in LIKE expression. Expected a single character, got '{escape}'"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Hash)]
 struct CastListF16Udf {
     signature: Signature,
@@ -67,10 +99,6 @@ impl CastListF16Udf {
 }
 
 impl ScalarUDFImpl for CastListF16Udf {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn name(&self) -> &str {
         "_cast_list_f16"
     }
@@ -155,28 +183,39 @@ impl ScalarUDFImpl for CastListF16Udf {
 // Adapter that instructs datafusion how lance expects expressions to be interpreted
 struct LanceContextProvider {
     options: datafusion::config::ConfigOptions,
-    state: SessionState,
+    // Functions are looked up in the session's shared state rather than in a
+    // clone of it: planners are created several times per query, and cloning
+    // every function map and rule list for each one is a measurable share of
+    // CPU for short queries.
+    session: SessionContext,
     expr_planners: Vec<Arc<dyn ExprPlanner>>,
 }
 
-impl Default for LanceContextProvider {
-    fn default() -> Self {
-        let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
-        let state = ctx.state();
-        let expr_planners = state.expr_planners().to_vec();
-
+impl LanceContextProvider {
+    fn new(session: SessionContext) -> Self {
+        let expr_planners = session.state_ref().read().expr_planners().to_vec();
         Self {
             options: ConfigOptions::default(),
-            state,
+            session,
             expr_planners,
         }
     }
+
+    fn with_state<T>(&self, read: impl FnOnce(&SessionState) -> T) -> T {
+        read(&self.session.state_ref().read())
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for LanceContextProvider {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new(get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default()))
+    }
 }
 
 impl ContextProvider for LanceContextProvider {
     fn get_table_source(
         &self,
-        name: datafusion::sql::TableReference,
+        name: datafusion::common::TableReference,
     ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn datafusion::logical_expr::TableSource>> {
         Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::NotImplemented(format!(
             "Attempt to reference inner table {} not supported",
@@ -185,11 +224,18 @@ impl ContextProvider for LanceContextProvider {
     }
 
     fn get_aggregate_meta(&self, name: &str) -> Option<Arc<AggregateUDF>> {
-        self.state.aggregate_functions().get(name).cloned()
+        self.with_state(|state| state.aggregate_functions().get(name).cloned())
     }
 
     fn get_window_meta(&self, name: &str) -> Option<Arc<WindowUDF>> {
-        self.state.window_functions().get(name).cloned()
+        self.with_state(|state| state.window_functions().get(name).cloned())
+    }
+
+    fn get_higher_order_meta(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<datafusion::logical_expr::HigherOrderUDF>> {
+        self.with_state(|state| state.higher_order_functions().get(name).cloned())
     }
 
     fn get_function_meta(&self, f: &str) -> Option<Arc<ScalarUDF>> {
@@ -197,7 +243,7 @@ impl ContextProvider for LanceContextProvider {
             // TODO: cast should go thru CAST syntax instead of UDF
             // Going thru UDF makes it hard for the optimizer to find no-ops
             "_cast_list_f16" => Some(Arc::new(ScalarUDF::new_from_impl(CastListF16Udf::new()))),
-            _ => self.state.scalar_functions().get(f).cloned(),
+            _ => self.with_state(|state| state.scalar_functions().get(f).cloned()),
         }
     }
 
@@ -211,15 +257,19 @@ impl ContextProvider for LanceContextProvider {
     }
 
     fn udf_names(&self) -> Vec<String> {
-        self.state.scalar_functions().keys().cloned().collect()
+        self.with_state(|state| state.scalar_functions().keys().cloned().collect())
     }
 
     fn udaf_names(&self) -> Vec<String> {
-        self.state.aggregate_functions().keys().cloned().collect()
+        self.with_state(|state| state.aggregate_functions().keys().cloned().collect())
     }
 
     fn udwf_names(&self) -> Vec<String> {
-        self.state.window_functions().keys().cloned().collect()
+        self.with_state(|state| state.window_functions().keys().cloned().collect())
+    }
+
+    fn higher_order_function_names(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        self.with_state(|state| state.higher_order_functions().keys().cloned().collect())
     }
 
     fn get_expr_planners(&self) -> &[Arc<dyn ExprPlanner>] {
@@ -316,26 +366,99 @@ impl Planner {
             BinaryOperator::NotEq => Operator::NotEq,
             BinaryOperator::And => Operator::And,
             BinaryOperator::Or => Operator::Or,
+            BinaryOperator::PGBitwiseShiftLeft => Operator::BitwiseShiftLeft,
+            BinaryOperator::PGBitwiseShiftRight => Operator::BitwiseShiftRight,
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Operator {op} is not supported"),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Operator {op} is not supported"
+                )));
             }
         })
     }
 
+    fn is_logical_binary_op(op: &BinaryOperator) -> bool {
+        matches!(op, BinaryOperator::And | BinaryOperator::Or)
+    }
+
+    fn is_same_logical_binary_op(left: &BinaryOperator, right: &BinaryOperator) -> bool {
+        matches!(
+            (left, right),
+            (BinaryOperator::And, BinaryOperator::And) | (BinaryOperator::Or, BinaryOperator::Or)
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn flatten_logical_binary_exprs<'a>(
+        left: &'a SQLExpr,
+        op: &BinaryOperator,
+        right: &'a SQLExpr,
+    ) -> Vec<&'a SQLExpr> {
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        let mut stack = vec![right, left];
+
+        while let Some(expr) = stack.pop() {
+            match expr {
+                SQLExpr::BinaryOp {
+                    left,
+                    op: child_op,
+                    right,
+                } if Self::is_same_logical_binary_op(op, child_op) => {
+                    stack.push(right.as_ref());
+                    stack.push(left.as_ref());
+                }
+                _ => leaves.push(expr),
+            }
+        }
+
+        leaves
+    }
+
+    fn balanced_binary_expr(mut exprs: VecDeque<Expr>, op: Operator) -> Result<Expr> {
+        if exprs.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Binary expression has no operands"));
+        }
+
+        while exprs.len() > 1 {
+            let mut next = VecDeque::with_capacity(exprs.len().div_ceil(2));
+            while let Some(left) = exprs.pop_front() {
+                if let Some(right) = exprs.pop_front() {
+                    next.push_back(Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr::new(
+                        Box::new(left),
+                        op,
+                        Box::new(right),
+                    )));
+                } else {
+                    next.push_back(left);
+                }
+            }
+            exprs = next;
+        }
+
+        exprs
+            .pop_front()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Binary expression has no operands"))
+    }
+
     fn binary_expr(&self, left: &SQLExpr, op: &BinaryOperator, right: &SQLExpr) -> Result<Expr> {
+        let df_op = self.binary_op(op)?;
+        if Self::is_logical_binary_op(op) {
+            let leaves = Self::flatten_logical_binary_exprs(left, op, right);
+            let mut exprs = VecDeque::with_capacity(leaves.len());
+            for leaf in leaves {
+                exprs.push_back(self.parse_sql_expr(leaf)?);
+            }
+            return Self::balanced_binary_expr(exprs, df_op);
+        }
+
         Ok(Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr::new(
             Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(left)?),
-            self.binary_op(op)?,
+            df_op,
             Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(right)?),
         )))
     }
 
     fn unary_expr(&self, op: &UnaryOperator, expr: &SQLExpr) -> Result<Expr> {
         Ok(match op {
-            UnaryOperator::Not | UnaryOperator::PGBitwiseNot => {
+            UnaryOperator::Not | UnaryOperator::BitwiseNot => {
                 Expr::Not(Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(expr)?))
             }
 
@@ -347,10 +470,7 @@ impl Planner {
                         Err(_) => lit(-n
                             .parse::<f64>()
                             .map_err(|_e| {
-                                Error::invalid_input(
-                                    format!("negative operator can be only applied to integer and float operands, got: {n}"),
-                                    location!(),
-                                )
+                                Error::invalid_input(format!("negative operator can be only applied to integer and float operands, got: {n}"))
                             })?),
                     },
                     _ => {
@@ -360,10 +480,10 @@ impl Planner {
             }
 
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Unary operator '{:?}' is not supported", op),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Unary operator '{:?}' is not supported",
+                    op
+                )));
             }
         })
     }
@@ -378,12 +498,11 @@ impl Planner {
         };
         if let Ok(n) = value.parse::<i64>() {
             Ok(lit(n))
+        } else if let Ok(n) = value.parse::<u64>() {
+            Ok(lit(n))
         } else {
             value.parse::<f64>().map(lit).map_err(|_| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("'{value}' is not supported number value."),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("'{value}' is not supported number value."))
             })
         }
     }
@@ -405,10 +524,10 @@ impl Planner {
     fn parse_function_args(&self, func_args: &FunctionArg) -> Result<Expr> {
         match func_args {
             FunctionArg::Unnamed(FunctionArgExpr::Expr(expr)) => self.parse_sql_expr(expr),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Unsupported function args: {:?}", func_args),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported function args: {:?}",
+                func_args
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -422,29 +541,28 @@ impl Planner {
         match &func.args {
             FunctionArguments::List(args) => {
                 if func.name.0.len() != 1 {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Function name must have 1 part, got: {:?}", func.name.0),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Function name must have 1 part, got: {:?}",
+                        func.name.0
+                    )));
                 }
                 Ok(Expr::IsNotNull(Box::new(
                     self.parse_function_args(&args.args[0])?,
                 )))
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Unsupported function args: {:?}", &func.args),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported function args: {:?}",
+                func.args
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
     fn parse_function(&self, function: SQLExpr) -> Result<Expr> {
-        if let SQLExpr::Function(function) = &function {
-            if let Some(ObjectNamePart::Identifier(name)) = &function.name.0.first() {
-                if &name.value == "is_valid" {
-                    return self.legacy_parse_function(function);
-                }
-            }
+        if let SQLExpr::Function(function) = &function
+            && let Some(ObjectNamePart::Identifier(name)) = &function.name.0.first()
+            && &name.value == "is_valid"
+        {
+            return self.legacy_parse_function(function);
         }
         let sql_to_rel = SqlToRel::new_with_options(
             &self.context_provider,
@@ -463,7 +581,7 @@ impl Planner {
         let schema = DFSchema::try_from(self.schema.as_ref().clone())?;
         sql_to_rel
             .sql_to_expr(function, &schema, &mut planner_context)
-            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Error parsing function: {e}"), location!()))
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Error parsing function: {e}")))
     }
 
     fn parse_type(&self, data_type: &SQLDataType) -> Result<ArrowDataType> {
@@ -505,7 +623,6 @@ impl Planner {
                     _ => {
                         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                             "Timezone not supported in timestamp".to_string(),
-                            location!(),
                         ));
                     }
                 };
@@ -517,10 +634,10 @@ impl Planner {
                     Some(6) => TimeUnit::Microsecond,
                     Some(9) => TimeUnit::Nanosecond,
                     _ => {
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!("Unsupported datetime resolution: {:?}", resolution),
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Unsupported datetime resolution: {:?}",
+                            resolution
+                        )));
                     }
                 };
                 Ok(ArrowDataType::Timestamp(time_unit, None))
@@ -533,10 +650,10 @@ impl Planner {
                     Some(6) => TimeUnit::Microsecond,
                     Some(9) => TimeUnit::Nanosecond,
                     _ => {
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!("Unsupported datetime resolution: {:?}", resolution),
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Unsupported datetime resolution: {:?}",
+                            resolution
+                        )));
                     }
                 };
                 Ok(ArrowDataType::Timestamp(time_unit, None))
@@ -545,21 +662,15 @@ impl Planner {
                 ExactNumberInfo::PrecisionAndScale(precision, scale) => {
                     Ok(ArrowDataType::Decimal128(*precision as u8, *scale as i8))
                 }
-                _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Must provide precision and scale for decimal: {:?}",
-                        number_info
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                )),
+                _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Must provide precision and scale for decimal: {:?}",
+                    number_info
+                ))),
             },
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Unsupported data type: {:?}. Supported types: {:?}",
-                    data_type, SUPPORTED_TYPES
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported data type: {:?}. Supported types: {:?}",
+                data_type, SUPPORTED_TYPES
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -573,10 +684,7 @@ impl Planner {
                 }
             }
         }
-        Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            "Field access could not be planned",
-            location!(),
-        ))
+        Err(Error::invalid_input("Field access could not be planned"))
     }
 
     fn parse_sql_expr(&self, expr: &SQLExpr) -> Result<Expr> {
@@ -605,13 +713,10 @@ impl Planner {
                 let mut values = vec![];
 
                 let array_literal_error = |pos: usize, value: &_| {
-                    Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "Expected a literal value in array, instead got {} at position {}",
-                            value, pos
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Expected a literal value in array, instead got {} at position {}",
+                        value, pos
+                    )))
                 };
 
                 for (pos, expr) in elem.iter().enumerate() {
@@ -652,10 +757,7 @@ impl Planner {
 
                     for value in &mut values {
                         if value.data_type() != data_type {
-                            *value = safe_coerce_scalar(value, &data_type).ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(
-                                format!("Array expressions must have a consistent datatype. Expected: {}, got: {}", data_type, value.data_type()),
-                                location!()
-                            ))?;
+                            *value = safe_coerce_scalar(value, &data_type).ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("Array expressions must have a consistent datatype. Expected: {}, got: {}", data_type, value.data_type())))?;
                         }
                     }
                     Field::new("item", data_type, true)
@@ -678,13 +780,26 @@ impl Planner {
 
                 Ok(Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::List(Arc::new(values)), None))
             }
+            // JSONB literal: jsonb '{"key": "value"}'
+            SQLExpr::TypedString(TypedString {
+                data_type: SQLDataType::JSONB,
+                value,
+                ..
+            }) => match &value.value {
+                Value::SingleQuotedString(s) | Value::DoubleQuotedString(s) => encode_jsonb(s),
+                _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "Expected a string value for JSONB literal",
+                )),
+            },
             // For example, DATE '2020-01-01'
-            SQLExpr::TypedString(TypedString { data_type, value, .. }) => {
+            SQLExpr::TypedString(TypedString {
+                data_type, value, ..
+            }) => {
                 let value = value.clone().into_string().expect_ok()?;
-                Ok(Expr::Cast(datafusion::logical_expr::Cast {
-                    expr: Box::new(Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(value)), None)),
-                    data_type: self.parse_type(data_type)?,
-                }))
+                Ok(Expr::Cast(datafusion::logical_expr::Cast::new(
+                    Box::new(Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(value)), None)),
+                    self.parse_type(data_type)?,
+                )))
             }
             SQLExpr::IsFalse(expr) => Ok(Expr::IsFalse(Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(expr)?))),
             SQLExpr::IsNotFalse(expr) => Ok(Expr::IsNotFalse(Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(expr)?))),
@@ -716,14 +831,7 @@ impl Planner {
                 *negated,
                 Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(expr)?),
                 Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(pattern)?),
-                match escape_char {
-                    Some(Value::SingleQuotedString(char)) => char.chars().next(),
-                    Some(value) => return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Invalid escape character in LIKE expression. Expected a single character wrapped with single quotes, got {}", value),
-                        location!()
-                    )),
-                    None => None,
-                },
+                parse_like_escape_char(escape_char)?,
                 true,
             ))),
             SQLExpr::Like {
@@ -736,16 +844,23 @@ impl Planner {
                 *negated,
                 Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(expr)?),
                 Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(pattern)?),
-                match escape_char {
-                    Some(Value::SingleQuotedString(char)) => char.chars().next(),
-                    Some(value) => return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Invalid escape character in LIKE expression. Expected a single character wrapped with single quotes, got {}", value),
-                        location!()
-                    )),
-                    None => None,
-                },
+                parse_like_escape_char(escape_char)?,
                 false,
             ))),
+            // JSONB cast: CAST('...' AS JSONB) or '...'::jsonb
+            SQLExpr::Cast {
+                data_type: SQLDataType::JSONB,
+                expr: inner,
+                ..
+            } => match inner.as_ref() {
+                SQLExpr::Value(ValueWithSpan {
+                    value: Value::SingleQuotedString(s) | Value::DoubleQuotedString(s),
+                    ..
+                }) => encode_jsonb(s),
+                _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "CAST to JSONB only supports string literals",
+                )),
+            },
             SQLExpr::Cast {
                 expr,
                 data_type,
@@ -754,20 +869,17 @@ impl Planner {
             } => match kind {
                 datafusion::sql::sqlparser::ast::CastKind::TryCast
                 | datafusion::sql::sqlparser::ast::CastKind::SafeCast => {
-                    Ok(Expr::TryCast(datafusion::logical_expr::TryCast {
-                        expr: Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(expr)?),
-                        data_type: self.parse_type(data_type)?,
-                    }))
+                    Ok(Expr::TryCast(datafusion::logical_expr::TryCast::new(
+                        Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(expr)?),
+                        self.parse_type(data_type)?,
+                    )))
                 }
-                _ => Ok(Expr::Cast(datafusion::logical_expr::Cast {
-                    expr: Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(expr)?),
-                    data_type: self.parse_type(data_type)?,
-                })),
+                _ => Ok(Expr::Cast(datafusion::logical_expr::Cast::new(
+                    Box::new(self.parse_sql_expr(expr)?),
+                    self.parse_type(data_type)?,
+                ))),
             },
-            SQLExpr::JsonAccess { .. } => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "JSON access is not supported",
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            SQLExpr::JsonAccess { .. } => Err(Error::invalid_input("JSON access is not supported")),
             SQLExpr::CompoundFieldAccess { root, access_chain } => {
                 let mut expr = self.parse_sql_expr(root)?;
 
@@ -790,17 +902,13 @@ impl Planner {
                             GetFieldAccess::ListIndex { key }
                         }
                         AccessExpr::Subscript(Subscript::Slice { .. }) => {
-                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                                "Slice subscript is not supported",
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Slice subscript is not supported"));
                         }
                         _ => {
                             // Handle other cases like JSON access
                             // Note: JSON access is not supported in lance
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Only dot notation or index access is supported for field access",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                     };
@@ -830,10 +938,9 @@ impl Planner {
                 ));
                 Ok(between)
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Expression '{expr}' is not supported SQL in lance"),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Expression '{expr}' is not supported SQL in lance"
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -847,10 +954,7 @@ impl Planner {
         let expr = self.parse_sql_expr(&ast_expr)?;
         let schema = Schema::try_from(self.schema.as_ref())?;
         let resolved = resolve_expr(&expr, &schema).map_err(|e| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Error resolving filter expression {filter}: {e}"),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Error resolving filter expression {filter}: {e}"))
         })?;
 
         Ok(coerce_filter_type_to_boolean(resolved))
@@ -916,16 +1020,73 @@ impl Planner {
     pub fn optimize_expr(&self, expr: Expr) -> Result<Expr> {
         let df_schema = Arc::new(DFSchema::try_from(self.schema.as_ref().clone())?);
 
-        // DataFusion needs the simplify and coerce passes to be applied before
+        // DataFusion rewrites arrow_cast to Expr::Cast, whose Arrow kernel does not support
+        // integer-to-Time32 casts. Convert literal values with Lance's scalar coercion first.
+        let expr = expr
+            .transform_up(|expr| {
+                let coerced = match &expr {
+                    Expr::ScalarFunction(ScalarFunction { func, args })
+                        if func.name() == "arrow_cast" =>
+                    {
+                        match args.as_slice() {
+                            [
+                                Expr::Literal(value, metadata),
+                                Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(data_type)), _),
+                            ] => data_type
+                                .parse::<ArrowDataType>()
+                                .ok()
+                                .filter(|data_type| matches!(data_type, ArrowDataType::Time32(_)))
+                                .and_then(|data_type| {
+                                    if matches!(value, ScalarValue::Null) {
+                                        ScalarValue::try_new_null(&data_type).ok()
+                                    } else {
+                                        safe_coerce_scalar(value, &data_type)
+                                    }
+                                })
+                                .map(|value| Expr::Literal(value, metadata.clone())),
+                            _ => None,
+                        }
+                    }
+                    _ => None,
+                };
+
+                Ok(match coerced {
+                    Some(coerced) => Transformed::yes(coerced),
+                    None => Transformed::no(expr),
+                })
+            })?
+            .data;
+
+        // DataFusion needs the coerce and simplify passes to be applied before
         // expressions can be handled by the physical planner.
-        let props = ExecutionProps::new().with_query_execution_start_time(Utc::now());
-        let simplify_context = SimplifyContext::new(&props).with_schema(df_schema.clone());
+        let simplify_context = SimplifyContext::builder()
+            .with_schema(df_schema.clone())
+            .with_query_execution_start_time(Some(Utc::now()))
+            .build();
         let simplifier =
             datafusion::optimizer::simplify_expressions::ExprSimplifier::new(simplify_context);
 
-        let expr = simplifier.simplify(expr)?;
+        // Coerce before simplify to match DataFusion's analyzer-before-optimizer pipeline.
         let expr = simplifier.coerce(expr, &df_schema)?;
 
+        // Fold each comparison's own operands and rewrite it before anything above
+        // it folds. `simplify` folds an operand and everything above it in one
+        // pass, so a fully constant predicate whose zero appears only as a result
+        // of folding never presents a zero literal to the rewrite:
+        // `-1.0 * 0.0 < (1.0 - 1.0)` answered `true` where IEEE says false, and a
+        // wrapper such as `IS TRUE` or a `CAST` did the same to the comparison's
+        // own result.
+        let expr = normalize_zero_comparisons(expr, &|operand| simplifier.simplify(operand))?;
+
+        // Again after simplify, which is what expands `BETWEEN` into two
+        // comparisons and folds the casts `coerce` inserts, so those forms only
+        // become visible on this pass.
+        //
+        // Running the rewrite more than once is safe because its output is a fixed
+        // point of `optimize_expr`; `optimizing_twice_changes_nothing` pins that.
+        let expr = simplifier.simplify(expr)?;
+        let expr = rewrite_signed_zero_comparisons(expr)?;
+
         Ok(expr)
     }
 
@@ -939,6 +1100,16 @@ impl Planner {
         )?)
     }
 
+    /// Create a [`PhysicalExpr`] using the caller's DataFusion session.
+    pub fn create_physical_expr_with_session(
+        &self,
+        expr: &Expr,
+        session: &dyn Session,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>> {
+        let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(self.schema.as_ref().clone())?;
+        Ok(session.create_physical_expr(expr.clone(), &df_schema)?)
+    }
+
     /// Collect the columns in the expression.
     ///
     /// The columns are returned in sorted order.
@@ -987,13 +1158,9 @@ impl TreeNodeVisitor<'_> for ColumnCapturingVisitor {
                 self.columns.insert(path);
                 self.current_path.clear();
             }
-            Expr::ScalarFunction(udf) => {
-                if udf.name() == GetFieldFunc::default().name() {
-                    if let Some(name) = get_as_string_scalar_opt(&udf.args[1]) {
-                        self.current_path.push_front(name.to_string())
-                    } else {
-                        self.current_path.clear();
-                    }
+            Expr::ScalarFunction(udf) if udf.name() == GetFieldFunc::default().name() => {
+                if let Some(name) = get_as_string_scalar_opt(&udf.args[1]) {
+                    self.current_path.push_front(name.to_string())
                 } else {
                     self.current_path.clear();
                 }
@@ -1010,22 +1177,21 @@ impl TreeNodeVisitor<'_> for ColumnCapturingVisitor {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
 
-    use crate::logical_expr::ExprExt;
-
     use super::*;
 
     use arrow::datatypes::Float64Type;
     use arrow_array::{
         ArrayRef, BooleanArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, StringArray,
-        StructArray, TimestampMicrosecondArray, TimestampMillisecondArray,
-        TimestampNanosecondArray, TimestampSecondArray,
+        StructArray, Time32SecondArray, TimestampMicrosecondArray, TimestampMillisecondArray,
+        TimestampNanosecondArray, TimestampSecondArray, UInt64Array,
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Fields, Schema};
     use datafusion::{
-        logical_expr::{col, lit, Cast},
+        logical_expr::{Cast, col, lit},
         prelude::{array_element, get_field},
     };
     use datafusion_functions::core::expr_ext::FieldAccessor;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     #[test]
     fn test_parse_filter_simple() {
@@ -1046,7 +1212,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let expected = col("i")
             .gt(lit(3_i32))
-            .and(col("st").field_newstyle("x").lt_eq(lit(5.0_f32)))
+            .and(col("st").field("x").lt_eq(lit(5.0_f32)))
             .and(
                 col("s")
                     .eq(lit("str-4"))
@@ -1098,6 +1264,178 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::not_equal_to_integer_expression(
+        "flag != (id > 0)",
+        [false, false, true]
+    )]
+    #[case::equal_to_float_expression("flag = (x > 1.0)", [false, false, false])]
+    #[case::expression_on_left("(id > 0) != flag", [false, false, true])]
+    #[case::literal_expression("flag != (1 > 0)", [false, true, false])]
+    #[case::boolean_literal("flag != TRUE", [false, true, false])]
+    fn test_parse_boolean_column_compared_to_expression(
+        #[case] filter: &str,
+        #[case] expected: [bool; 3],
+    ) {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+            ("flag", Boolean, [true, false, true]),
+            ("id", Int32, [1, 0, -1]),
+            ("x", Float32, [0.5, 2.0, 1.0])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let planner = Planner::new(batch.schema());
+
+        let expr = planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap();
+        let expr = planner.optimize_expr(expr).unwrap();
+        let physical_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr).unwrap();
+        let predicates = physical_expr.evaluate(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            predicates.into_array(0).unwrap().as_ref(),
+            &BooleanArray::from(expected.to_vec())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::shift("u = (1 << 63)", [true, false, false])]
+    #[case::string_concat("s = ('a' || 'b')", [true, false, false])]
+    fn test_parse_comparison_to_same_type_literal_expression(
+        #[case] filter: &str,
+        #[case] expected: [bool; 3],
+    ) {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+            ("u", UInt64, [1_u64 << 63, 3, 0]),
+            ("s", LargeUtf8, ["ab", "a", "b"])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let planner = Planner::new(batch.schema());
+
+        let expr = planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap();
+        let physical_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr).unwrap();
+        let predicates = physical_expr.evaluate(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            predicates.into_array(0).unwrap().as_ref(),
+            &BooleanArray::from(expected.to_vec())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::float_literal("f = n + 0.5")]
+    #[case::float_literal_on_left("f = 0.5 + n")]
+    #[case::float_expression_on_left("n + 0.5 = f")]
+    #[case::wide_integer_literal("wide = small + 128")]
+    #[case::wide_integer_literal_on_left("wide = 128 + small")]
+    #[case::integer_expression_on_left("small + 128 = wide")]
+    fn test_parse_comparison_to_mixed_type_expression(#[case] filter: &str) {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+            ("f", Float64, [Some(1.5), Some(1.5), None, Some(1.5)]),
+            ("n", Int64, [Some(1), Some(2), Some(1), None]),
+            ("wide", Int64, [Some(129), Some(129), Some(129), None]),
+            ("small", Int8, [Some(1), Some(2), None, Some(1)])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let planner = Planner::new(batch.schema());
+
+        let expr = planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap();
+        let expr = planner.optimize_expr(expr).unwrap();
+        let physical_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr).unwrap();
+        let predicates = physical_expr.evaluate(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            predicates.into_array(batch.num_rows()).unwrap().as_ref(),
+            &BooleanArray::from(vec![Some(true), Some(false), None, None])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_filter_uint64_literal_above_i64_max() {
+        let value = u64::MAX - 1;
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", UInt64, [1, value])).unwrap();
+        let planner = Planner::new(batch.schema());
+
+        let expr = planner.parse_filter(&format!("id = {value}")).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(expr, col("id").eq(lit(value)));
+
+        let physical_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr).unwrap();
+        let predicates = physical_expr.evaluate(&batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            predicates.into_array(0).unwrap().as_ref(),
+            &BooleanArray::from(vec![false, true])
+        );
+
+        let expr = planner
+            .parse_expr("arrow_cast(NULL, 'Time32(Second)')")
+            .unwrap();
+        let expr = planner.optimize_expr(expr).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(expr, Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Time32Second(None), None));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_deep_logical_filter() {
+        let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(Schema::empty()));
+
+        for op in ["AND", "OR"] {
+            let filter = std::iter::repeat_n("true", 1000)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .join(&format!(" {op} "));
+
+            let expr = planner.parse_filter(&filter).unwrap();
+            let optimized = planner.optimize_expr(expr).unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(optimized, lit(true));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Eq, PartialEq, Hash)]
+    struct StrictFloat64Udf {
+        signature: Signature,
+    }
+
+    impl StrictFloat64Udf {
+        fn new() -> Self {
+            Self {
+                signature: Signature::exact(vec![DataType::Float64], Volatility::Immutable),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl ScalarUDFImpl for StrictFloat64Udf {
+        fn name(&self) -> &str {
+            "strict_float64"
+        }
+
+        fn signature(&self) -> &Signature {
+            &self.signature
+        }
+
+        fn return_type(&self, _arg_types: &[DataType]) -> DFResult<DataType> {
+            Ok(DataType::Float64)
+        }
+
+        fn invoke_with_args(&self, args: ScalarFunctionArgs) -> DFResult<ColumnarValue> {
+            let data_type = args.args[0].data_type();
+            assert_eq!(
+                data_type,
+                DataType::Float64,
+                "strict_float64 expected Float64, got {data_type}"
+            );
+            Ok(ColumnarValue::Scalar(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(0.0))))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_coerce_before_simplify() {
+        let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(Schema::empty()));
+        let strict_float64 = Arc::new(ScalarUDF::new_from_impl(StrictFloat64Udf::new()));
+        let expr = Expr::ScalarFunction(ScalarFunction::new_udf(strict_float64, vec![lit(0_i64)]))
+            .eq(lit(0.0_f64));
+
+        let optimized = planner.optimize_expr(expr).unwrap();
+
+        planner.create_physical_expr(&optimized).unwrap();
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_nested_col_refs() {
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
@@ -1230,6 +1568,40 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::right("value >> 32", Operator::BitwiseShiftRight, vec![0, 1, 3])]
+    #[case::left(
+        "value << 1",
+        Operator::BitwiseShiftLeft,
+        vec![0, 2_u64 << 32, ((3_u64 << 32) + 7) << 1]
+    )]
+    fn test_bitwise_shift_expressions(
+        #[case] sql: &str,
+        #[case] expected_op: Operator,
+        #[case] expected: Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        let input = vec![0, 1_u64 << 32, (3_u64 << 32) + 7];
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_from_iter([("value", Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(input)) as ArrayRef)])
+                .unwrap();
+        let planner = Planner::new(batch.schema());
+
+        let expr = planner.parse_expr(sql).unwrap();
+        let Expr::BinaryExpr(binary_expr) = &expr else {
+            panic!("expected binary expression for {sql}, got {expr}");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(binary_expr.op, expected_op);
+
+        let expr = planner.optimize_expr(expr).unwrap();
+        let physical_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr).unwrap();
+        let values = physical_expr
+            .evaluate(&batch)
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_array(batch.num_rows())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(values.as_ref(), &UInt64Array::from(expected));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_negative_array_expressions() {
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("x", DataType::Int64, false)]));
@@ -1308,6 +1680,36 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_like_escape_char() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true)]));
+        let planner = Planner::new(schema);
+
+        // A valid single-character escape is captured for both LIKE and ILIKE.
+        for filter in ["s LIKE 'a!%' ESCAPE '!'", "s ILIKE 'a!%' ESCAPE '!'"] {
+            match planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap() {
+                Expr::Like(like) => assert_eq!(like.escape_char, Some('!'), "{filter}"),
+                other => panic!("expected a LIKE expression for `{filter}`, got {other:?}"),
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Empty and multi-character escapes are rejected rather than silently
+        // dropped or truncated to the first character.
+        for filter in [
+            "s LIKE 'x' ESCAPE ''",
+            "s LIKE 'x' ESCAPE 'ab'",
+            "s ILIKE 'x' ESCAPE ''",
+            "s ILIKE 'x' ESCAPE 'ab'",
+        ] {
+            let err = planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string()
+                    .contains("Invalid escape character in LIKE expression"),
+                "unexpected error for `{filter}`: {err}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_sql_is_in() {
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true)]));
@@ -1464,7 +1866,7 @@ mod tests {
 
             match expr {
                 Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr { right, .. }) => match right.as_ref() {
-                    Expr::Cast(Cast { expr, data_type }) => {
+                    Expr::Cast(Cast { expr, field }) => {
                         match expr.as_ref() {
                             Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(value_str)), _) => {
                                 assert_eq!(value_str, expected_value_str);
@@ -1474,7 +1876,7 @@ mod tests {
                             }
                             _ => panic!("Expected cast to be applied to literal"),
                         }
-                        assert_eq!(data_type, expected_data_type);
+                        assert_eq!(field.data_type(), expected_data_type);
                     }
                     _ => panic!("Expected right to be a cast"),
                 },
@@ -1483,6 +1885,28 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_arrow_cast_int_literal_to_time32() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+            "v",
+            Arc::new(Time32SecondArray::from(vec![3725, 3726])) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let planner = Planner::new(batch.schema());
+
+        let expr = planner
+            .parse_filter("v = arrow_cast(3726, 'Time32(Second)')")
+            .unwrap();
+        let expr = planner.optimize_expr(expr).unwrap();
+        let physical_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr).unwrap();
+        let predicates = physical_expr.evaluate(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            predicates.into_array(0).unwrap().as_ref(),
+            &BooleanArray::from(vec![false, true])
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_sql_literals() {
         let cases = &[
@@ -1515,14 +1939,14 @@ mod tests {
 
             match expr {
                 Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr { right, .. }) => match right.as_ref() {
-                    Expr::Cast(Cast { expr, data_type }) => {
+                    Expr::Cast(Cast { expr, field }) => {
                         match expr.as_ref() {
                             Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(value_str)), _) => {
                                 assert_eq!(value_str, expected_value_str);
                             }
                             _ => panic!("Expected cast to be applied to literal"),
                         }
-                        assert_eq!(data_type, expected_data_type);
+                        assert_eq!(field.data_type(), expected_data_type);
                     }
                     _ => panic!("Expected right to be a cast"),
                 },
@@ -1749,6 +2173,33 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(!ctx_provider.get_expr_planners().is_empty());
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_lance_context_provider_resolves_session_functions() {
+        let session = crate::exec::new_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
+        let ctx_provider = LanceContextProvider::new(session.clone());
+        assert!(ctx_provider.get_function_meta("contains_tokens").is_some());
+        assert!(ctx_provider.get_function_meta("lower").is_some());
+        assert!(ctx_provider.get_aggregate_meta("sum").is_some());
+        assert!(ctx_provider.get_window_meta("row_number").is_some());
+        assert!(ctx_provider.get_function_meta("registered_later").is_none());
+
+        // The provider reads the session's functions instead of a copy, so a
+        // function registered on the session afterwards resolves as well.
+        session.register_udf(datafusion::logical_expr::create_udf(
+            "registered_later",
+            vec![DataType::Utf8],
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            Volatility::Immutable,
+            Arc::new(|args: &[ColumnarValue]| Ok(args[0].clone())),
+        ));
+        assert!(ctx_provider.get_function_meta("registered_later").is_some());
+        assert!(
+            ctx_provider
+                .udf_names()
+                .contains(&"registered_later".to_string())
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_regexp_match_and_non_empty_captions() {
         // Repro for a bug where regexp_match inside an AND chain wasn't coerced to boolean,
@@ -1809,27 +2260,133 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::bare("regexp_match(name, 'e[12]')", [false, true, true, false, false, false])]
+    #[case::is_not_null(
+        "regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') IS NOT NULL",
+        [false, true, true, false, false, false]
+    )]
+    #[case::is_null(
+        "regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') IS NULL",
+        [true, false, false, true, true, true]
+    )]
+    #[case::not_bare(
+        "NOT regexp_match(name, 'e[12]')",
+        [true, false, false, true, true, true]
+    )]
+    #[case::and_bare(
+        "regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') AND name <> 'name2'",
+        [false, true, false, false, false, false]
+    )]
+    #[case::or_bare(
+        "regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') OR name IS NULL",
+        [false, true, true, true, false, false]
+    )]
+    #[case::not_is_not_null(
+        "NOT (regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') IS NOT NULL)",
+        [true, false, false, true, true, true]
+    )]
+    #[case::and_is_null(
+        "regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') IS NULL AND name IS NOT NULL",
+        [true, false, false, false, true, true]
+    )]
+    #[case::or_is_not_null(
+        "regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') IS NOT NULL OR name IS NULL",
+        [false, true, true, true, false, false]
+    )]
+    fn test_regexp_match_filter_coercion(#[case] filter: &str, #[case] expected: [bool; 6]) {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!((
+            "name",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                Some("name0"),
+                Some("name1"),
+                Some("name2"),
+                None,
+                Some("name4"),
+                Some("name5")
+            ]
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        let planner = Planner::new(batch.schema());
+        let expr = planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap();
+        let physical_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr).unwrap();
+        let result = physical_expr.evaluate(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            result.into_array(batch.num_rows()).unwrap().as_ref(),
+            &BooleanArray::from(expected.to_vec())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::is_not_null("regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') IS NOT NULL")]
+    #[case::is_null("regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') IS NULL")]
+    #[case::comparison("regexp_match(name, 'e[12]') = regexp_match(name, 'e[12]')")]
+    fn test_regexp_match_preserves_value_contexts(#[case] filter: &str) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true)]));
+        let planner = Planner::new(schema);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap(),
+            planner.parse_expr(filter).unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
-    fn test_regexp_match_infer_error_without_boolean_coercion() {
-        // With the fix applied, using parse_filter should coerce regexp_match to boolean
-        // even when nested in a larger AND expression, so this should plan successfully.
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("keywords", DataType::Utf8, true),
-            Field::new("natural_caption", DataType::Utf8, true),
-            Field::new("poetic_caption", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]));
+    fn test_jsonb_literals() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "j",
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let planner = Planner::new(schema);
 
+        let cases = [
+            ("jsonb '{\"key\": \"value\"}'", r#"{"key":"value"}"#),
+            ("cast('{\"a\": 1}' as jsonb)", r#"{"a":1}"#),
+            ("'{\"a\": 1}'::jsonb", r#"{"a":1}"#),
+        ];
+        for (sql, expected) in cases {
+            let ast = parse_sql_expr(sql).unwrap();
+            let expr = planner.parse_sql_expr(&ast).unwrap();
+            match expr {
+                Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(bytes)), _) => {
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        lance_arrow::json::decode_json(&bytes),
+                        expected,
+                        "failed for: {sql}"
+                    );
+                }
+                other => panic!("Expected LargeBinary literal for '{sql}', got: {other:?}"),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_jsonb_literal_errors() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "j",
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            true,
+        )]));
         let planner = Planner::new(schema);
 
-        let expr = planner
-            .parse_filter(
-                "regexp_match(keywords, 'Liberty|revolution') AND \
-                 (natural_caption IS NOT NULL AND natural_caption <> '' AND \
-                  poetic_caption IS NOT NULL AND poetic_caption <> '')",
-            )
-            .unwrap();
+        // Invalid JSON content
+        let ast = parse_sql_expr("jsonb 'not valid json'").unwrap();
+        let err = planner.parse_sql_expr(&ast).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Failed to encode JSONB"),
+            "expected JSONB encoding error, got: {err}"
+        );
 
-        // Should not panic
-        let _physical = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr).unwrap();
+        // CAST with non-literal expression
+        let ast = parse_sql_expr("cast(j as jsonb)").unwrap();
+        let err = planner.parse_sql_expr(&ast).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("CAST to JSONB only supports string literals"),
+            "got: {err}"
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/projection.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/projection.rs
index f2f74e0f61f..a6a4ecf5c68 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/projection.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/projection.rs
@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@ use datafusion::{logical_expr::Expr, physical_plan::projection::ProjectionExec};
 use datafusion_common::{Column, DFSchema};
 use datafusion_physical_expr::PhysicalExpr;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::{
     collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
     sync::Arc,
@@ -15,21 +14,30 @@ use std::{
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 use lance_core::{
-    datatypes::{OnMissing, Projectable, Projection, Schema},
-    Error, Result, ROW_ADDR, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
-    ROW_OFFSET, WILDCARD,
+    Error, ROW_ADDR, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_OFFSET,
+    Result, WILDCARD,
+    datatypes::{OnMissing, OnTypeMismatch, Projectable, Projection, Schema},
 };
 
 use crate::{
-    exec::{execute_plan, LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec},
+    exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, execute_plan},
     planner::Planner,
 };
 
+const SCORING_COLUMNS: [&str; 2] = ["_distance", "_score"];
+
+fn canonical_scoring_column(name: &str) -> Option<&'static str> {
+    SCORING_COLUMNS
+        .into_iter()
+        .find(|scoring_column| name.eq_ignore_ascii_case(scoring_column))
+}
+
 struct ProjectionBuilder {
     base: Arc<dyn Projectable>,
     planner: Planner,
     output: HashMap<String, Expr>,
     output_cols: Vec<OutputColumn>,
+    scoring_exprs: HashMap<String, String>,
     physical_cols_set: HashSet<String>,
     physical_cols: Vec<String>,
     needs_row_id: bool,
@@ -51,6 +59,7 @@ impl ProjectionBuilder {
             planner,
             output: HashMap::default(),
             output_cols: Vec::default(),
+            scoring_exprs: HashMap::default(),
             physical_cols_set: HashSet::default(),
             physical_cols: Vec::default(),
             needs_row_id: false,
@@ -64,10 +73,10 @@ impl ProjectionBuilder {
 
     fn check_duplicate_column(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
         if self.output.contains_key(name) {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Duplicate column name: {}", name),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Duplicate column name: {}",
+                name
+            )));
         }
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -76,6 +85,18 @@ impl ProjectionBuilder {
         self.check_duplicate_column(output_name)?;
 
         let expr = self.planner.parse_expr(raw_expr)?;
+        let expr = if Self::references_scoring_column(&expr) {
+            // A scoring name can refer to either a stored column or a search-generated
+            // Float32 column. Reparse and coerce once the physical input schema disambiguates it.
+            self.scoring_exprs
+                .insert(output_name.to_string(), raw_expr.to_string());
+            expr
+        } else {
+            // Run simplification + coercion so that expressions like `coalesce(...)`
+            // (which DataFusion's physical evaluator expects to have been rewritten
+            // into a `CASE` expression by the simplifier) work correctly.
+            self.planner.optimize_expr(expr)?
+        };
 
         // If the expression is a bare column reference to a system column, mark that we need it
         if let Expr::Column(Column {
@@ -98,11 +119,23 @@ impl ProjectionBuilder {
         }
 
         for col in Planner::column_names_in_expr(&expr) {
-            if self.physical_cols_set.contains(&col) {
+            // Discovery can bind an exact provisional scoring field beside a mixed-case stored
+            // field. Load the stored field too so final-schema replanning can select the stored
+            // or search-generated field from the physical input.
+            let physical_col = if canonical_scoring_column(&col).is_some() {
+                self.base
+                    .schema()
+                    .field_case_insensitive(&col)
+                    .map(|field| field.name.clone())
+                    .unwrap_or(col)
+            } else {
+                col
+            };
+            if self.physical_cols_set.contains(&physical_col) {
                 continue;
             }
-            self.physical_cols.push(col.clone());
-            self.physical_cols_set.insert(col);
+            self.physical_cols.push(physical_col.clone());
+            self.physical_cols_set.insert(physical_col);
         }
         self.output.insert(output_name.to_string(), expr.clone());
 
@@ -114,6 +147,12 @@ impl ProjectionBuilder {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    fn references_scoring_column(expr: &Expr) -> bool {
+        Planner::column_names_in_expr(expr)
+            .iter()
+            .any(|name| canonical_scoring_column(name).is_some())
+    }
+
     fn add_columns(&mut self, columns: &[(impl AsRef<str>, impl AsRef<str>)]) -> Result<()> {
         for (output_name, raw_expr) in columns {
             if raw_expr.as_ref() == WILDCARD {
@@ -156,6 +195,7 @@ impl ProjectionBuilder {
             physical_projection,
             must_add_row_offset: self.must_add_row_offset,
             requested_output_expr: self.output_cols,
+            scoring_exprs: self.scoring_exprs,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -178,6 +218,9 @@ pub struct ProjectionPlan {
 
     /// The desired output columns
     pub requested_output_expr: Vec<OutputColumn>,
+
+    /// Original SQL for scoring expressions that must be replanned against the physical schema.
+    scoring_exprs: HashMap<String, String>,
 }
 
 impl ProjectionPlan {
@@ -196,6 +239,14 @@ impl ProjectionPlan {
         fields.push(Arc::new(
             (*lance_core::ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD).clone(),
         ));
+        // Exact scoring fields are needed for initial parsing of schema-dependent functions, even
+        // beside a mixed-case stored field. The stored field is carried into the physical
+        // projection separately, and scoring expressions are replanned against the final schema.
+        for name in SCORING_COLUMNS {
+            if schema.field_with_name(name).is_err() {
+                fields.push(Arc::new(ArrowField::new(name, DataType::Float32, true)));
+            }
+        }
         ArrowSchema::new(fields)
     }
 
@@ -258,8 +309,10 @@ impl ProjectionPlan {
             if lance_core::is_system_column(&field.name) {
                 // Handle known system columns that can be included in projections
                 if field.name == ROW_ID {
+                    // Only `_rowoffset` needs `AddRowOffsetExec`. Requesting that node for
+                    // `_rowid` leaves it without the `_rowaddr` column it reads, so the scan
+                    // fails to plan with "Input plan does not have a _rowaddr column".
                     with_row_id = true;
-                    must_add_row_offset = true;
                 } else if field.name == ROW_ADDR {
                     with_row_addr = true;
                 } else if field.name == ROW_OFFSET {
@@ -273,10 +326,10 @@ impl ProjectionPlan {
             } else {
                 // Regular data column - validate it exists in base schema
                 if base.schema().field(&field.name).is_none() {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Column '{}' not found in schema", field.name),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Column '{}' not found in schema",
+                        field.name
+                    )));
                 }
                 data_fields.push(field.clone());
             }
@@ -288,6 +341,19 @@ impl ProjectionPlan {
             metadata: projection.metadata.clone(),
         };
 
+        // Resolve the requested fields against the base schema first.
+        // `union_schema` records any field carrying a non-negative id without
+        // checking that the base knows that id, so a schema numbered
+        // independently of the dataset -- `Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema)` gives
+        // every field a fresh id -- yields a projection that silently resolves
+        // to fewer columns than were asked for, or to the wrong ones. Matching
+        // by name and type here reports that instead.
+        let data_schema = base.schema().project_by_schema(
+            &data_schema,
+            OnMissing::Error,
+            OnTypeMismatch::Error,
+        )?;
+
         // Calculate the physical projection from data columns only
         let mut physical_projection = Projection::empty(base).union_schema(&data_schema);
         physical_projection.with_row_id = with_row_id;
@@ -309,6 +375,7 @@ impl ProjectionPlan {
             physical_projection,
             requested_output_expr: exprs,
             must_add_row_offset,
+            scoring_exprs: HashMap::default(),
         })
     }
 
@@ -335,6 +402,7 @@ impl ProjectionPlan {
             physical_projection,
             must_add_row_offset: false,
             requested_output_expr,
+            scoring_exprs: HashMap::default(),
         })
     }
 
@@ -349,9 +417,16 @@ impl ProjectionPlan {
         self.requested_output_expr
             .iter()
             .map(|output_column| {
+                let expr = if let Some(raw_expr) = self.scoring_exprs.get(&output_column.name) {
+                    let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(current_schema.clone()));
+                    let expr = planner.parse_expr(raw_expr)?;
+                    planner.optimize_expr(expr)?
+                } else {
+                    output_column.expr.clone()
+                };
                 Ok((
                     datafusion::physical_expr::create_physical_expr(
-                        &output_column.expr,
+                        &expr,
                         physical_df_schema.as_ref(),
                         &Default::default(),
                     )?,
@@ -445,10 +520,7 @@ impl ProjectionPlan {
         )?;
         let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
         if batches.len() != 1 {
-            Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "Expected exactly one batch".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Error::internal("Expected exactly one batch".to_string()))
         } else {
             Ok(batches.into_iter().next().unwrap())
         }
@@ -459,8 +531,203 @@ impl ProjectionPlan {
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, Int64Array};
+    use arrow_schema::Fields;
     use lance_arrow::json::{is_json_field, json_field};
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_scoring_column_expression() {
+        for scoring_column in ["_distance", "_score"] {
+            for has_stored_column in [false, true] {
+                let base = if has_stored_column {
+                    Arc::new(
+                        Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                            scoring_column,
+                            DataType::Float64,
+                            true,
+                        )]))
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    Arc::new(Schema::default())
+                };
+                let expression = format!("1 - {scoring_column}");
+                let plan =
+                    ProjectionPlan::from_expressions(base, &[("inverted", expression.as_str())])
+                        .unwrap();
+
+                if has_stored_column {
+                    let stored_output = plan.output_schema().unwrap();
+                    assert_eq!(stored_output.field(0).data_type(), &DataType::Float64);
+                }
+
+                let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+                    scoring_column,
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.25, 0.75])) as ArrayRef,
+                )])
+                .unwrap();
+
+                let physical_exprs = plan.to_physical_exprs(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+                let values = physical_exprs[0]
+                    .0
+                    .evaluate(&batch)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .into_array(batch.num_rows())
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                assert_eq!(
+                    values.as_ref(),
+                    &Float32Array::from(vec![0.75, 0.25]),
+                    "unexpected result for {scoring_column}",
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_stored_scoring_column_does_not_break_other_expressions() {
+        for scoring_column in ["_distance", "_score"] {
+            let base = Arc::new(
+                Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+                    ArrowField::new(scoring_column, DataType::Float64, true),
+                ]))
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+
+            ProjectionPlan::from_expressions(base, &[("incremented", "id + 1")]).unwrap();
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_stored_scoring_column_is_case_insensitive() {
+        for (stored_name, requested_name) in [("_Distance", "_distance"), ("_Score", "_score")] {
+            let base = Arc::new(
+                Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    stored_name,
+                    DataType::Float64,
+                    true,
+                )]))
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let plan =
+                ProjectionPlan::from_expressions(base, &[("stored", requested_name)]).unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                plan.output_schema().unwrap().field(0).data_type(),
+                &DataType::Float64,
+            );
+
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+                requested_name,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.25, 0.75])) as ArrayRef,
+            )])
+            .unwrap();
+            let physical_exprs = plan.to_physical_exprs(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                physical_exprs[0]
+                    .0
+                    .data_type(batch.schema().as_ref())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                DataType::Float32,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_generated_scoring_function_with_mixed_case_stored_column() {
+        for (stored_name, generated_name) in [("_Distance", "_distance"), ("_Score", "_score")] {
+            let base = Arc::new(
+                Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    stored_name,
+                    DataType::Float64,
+                    true,
+                )]))
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let expression = format!("coalesce(1 - {generated_name}, 0)");
+            let plan =
+                ProjectionPlan::from_expressions(base, &[("normalized", expression.as_str())])
+                    .unwrap();
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+                generated_name,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![Some(0.25), None])) as ArrayRef,
+            )])
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let physical_exprs = plan.to_physical_exprs(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+            let values = physical_exprs[0]
+                .0
+                .evaluate(&batch)
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_array(batch.num_rows())
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(values.as_ref(), &Float32Array::from(vec![0.75, 0.0]));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_scoring_column_function_expression() {
+        for scoring_column in ["_distance", "_score"] {
+            let expression = format!("coalesce(1 - {scoring_column}, 0)");
+            let plan = ProjectionPlan::from_expressions(
+                Arc::new(Schema::default()),
+                &[("normalized", expression.as_str())],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+                scoring_column,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![Some(0.25), None])) as ArrayRef,
+            )])
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let physical_exprs = plan.to_physical_exprs(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+            let values = physical_exprs[0]
+                .0
+                .evaluate(&batch)
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_array(batch.num_rows())
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(values.as_ref(), &Float32Array::from(vec![0.75, 0.0]));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_coalesce_in_column_map() {
+        // Regression test: `coalesce` in a column-map expression used to fail with
+        // "coalesce should have been simplified to case" because the parsed expression
+        // was passed straight to `create_physical_expr` without running the simplifier.
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("col_a", DataType::Int64, true),
+            ArrowField::new("col_b", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let base_schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let base = Arc::new(base_schema);
+
+        let plan =
+            ProjectionPlan::from_expressions(base, &[("foo", "coalesce(col_a, col_b)")]).unwrap();
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3), None])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(10), Some(20), None, None])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let projected = plan.project_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        let foo = projected
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            foo.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![Some(1), Some(20), Some(3), None],
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_output_schema_preserves_json_extension_metadata() {
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
@@ -479,4 +746,84 @@ mod tests {
         let output_field = output.field_with_name("meta").unwrap();
         assert!(is_json_field(output_field));
     }
+
+    fn nested_base_schema() -> Schema {
+        Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "meta",
+                DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+                    ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ])),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]))
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// A nested child the base does not have must be reported, not dropped.
+    ///
+    /// Only top-level names are checked before the projection is built, so
+    /// `meta` passes and the walk then records every id beneath it. `c` carries
+    /// a non-negative id the base never issued, which resolves to nothing: the
+    /// caller asked for two children, silently got one.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_schema_rejects_a_nested_child_the_base_does_not_have() {
+        let requested = Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "meta",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            true,
+        )]))
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let error = ProjectionPlan::from_schema(Arc::new(nested_base_schema()), &requested)
+            .expect_err("a nested child outside the base schema must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains('c'),
+            "the error should name the offending child: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Ids must be resolved against the base, not trusted.
+    ///
+    /// A schema built on its own numbers from scratch, so `meta.b` here carries
+    /// the id the base issued to `meta.a`. Taken at face value the projection
+    /// reads the wrong column and reports no error at all.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_schema_resolves_independently_numbered_ids() {
+        let requested = Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "meta",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "b",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            )])),
+            true,
+        )]))
+        .unwrap();
+        let base_schema = nested_base_schema();
+        // Numbered alone, `b` takes an id the base issued to a different field.
+        let requested_b = requested.fields[0].children[0].id;
+        let base_b = base_schema.fields[1].children[1].id;
+        assert_ne!(
+            requested_b, base_b,
+            "the requested id must differ from the base's for this to bite"
+        );
+
+        let plan = ProjectionPlan::from_schema(Arc::new(base_schema), &requested).unwrap();
+        let projected = plan.physical_projection.to_bare_schema();
+        assert_eq!(
+            projected.fields[0]
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .map(|child| child.name.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec!["b"],
+            "the projection must follow the requested name, not the colliding id"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/signed_zero.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/signed_zero.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1b642bc2a28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/signed_zero.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,711 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Rewrites of comparisons against a floating point zero literal.
+
+use datafusion::error::Result as DFResult;
+use datafusion::logical_expr::{BinaryExpr, Operator, expr::Between, expr::InList};
+use datafusion::prelude::Expr;
+use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue::{self, Float16, Float32, Float64};
+use datafusion_common::tree_node::{Transformed, TreeNode};
+use half::f16;
+use lance_core::Result;
+
+/// Rewrite every comparison against a floating point zero literal into the form
+/// that Arrow's total-order kernels answer the way IEEE 754 and SQL define it.
+///
+/// Arrow sorts `-0.0` strictly below `+0.0` and compares the two encodings for
+/// equality by bit pattern, while IEEE 754 and SQL treat them as one number.
+/// Each comparison against a zero literal has an equivalent total-order form:
+///
+/// | written                      | evaluated                    |
+/// |------------------------------|------------------------------|
+/// | `x < 0`, `x >= 0`            | literal becomes `-0.0`       |
+/// | `x <= 0`, `x > 0`            | literal becomes `+0.0`       |
+/// | `x = 0`                      | `x IN (-0.0, 0.0)`           |
+/// | `x != 0`                     | `x NOT IN (-0.0, 0.0)`       |
+/// | `x IN (0, ..)`               | the missing encoding is added |
+/// | `0 IN (a, b)`                | `a IN (-0.0, 0.0) OR b IN (-0.0, 0.0)` |
+/// | `x IS NOT DISTINCT FROM 0`   | `x IS NOT NULL AND x IN (-0.0, 0.0)` |
+/// | `x IS DISTINCT FROM 0`       | `x IS NULL OR x NOT IN (-0.0, 0.0)` |
+///
+/// Equality has to name both encodings because a scalar index keys on the bit
+/// pattern: the btree and bitmap indices order candidates by `total_cmp`, and the
+/// bloom filter hashes the value.
+///
+/// Runs as the last step of [`crate::planner::Planner::optimize_expr`], after
+/// coercion has given the literal the column's type and the simplifier has
+/// expanded `BETWEEN` into two comparisons. Filters, computed output columns and
+/// update expressions all compile through there, which is what keeps a filter and
+/// a projected copy of the same predicate in agreement.
+///
+/// NaN is out of scope. Arrow sorts it above every other value, so `x >= -0.0`
+/// admits NaN where IEEE would not, and that holds for every comparison rather
+/// than only the ones against zero.
+pub fn rewrite_signed_zero_comparisons(expr: Expr) -> Result<Expr> {
+    Ok(expr
+        .transform_up(|node| {
+            Ok(match rewrite_node(&node) {
+                Some(rewritten) => Transformed::yes(rewritten),
+                None => Transformed::no(node),
+            })
+        })?
+        .data)
+}
+
+/// Whether the rewrite acts on comparisons under `op`.
+fn is_zero_sensitive(op: Operator) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        op,
+        Operator::Lt
+            | Operator::LtEq
+            | Operator::Gt
+            | Operator::GtEq
+            | Operator::Eq
+            | Operator::NotEq
+            | Operator::IsDistinctFrom
+            | Operator::IsNotDistinctFrom
+    )
+}
+
+/// Fold each zero-sensitive comparison's own operands and rewrite it, bottom-up,
+/// before anything above it has a chance to fold.
+///
+/// [`rewrite_signed_zero_comparisons`] alone cannot reach a comparison whose zero
+/// does not exist yet. `ExprSimplifier::simplify` folds an operand and everything
+/// above it in one pass, so `-1.0 * 0.0 < (1.0 - 1.0)` goes straight to a boolean
+/// decided by Arrow's total order, and a wrapper like `IS TRUE` or a `CAST` around
+/// it does the same to the comparison's own result.
+///
+/// Visiting bottom-up and folding only the operands of the node in hand is what
+/// closes that: by the time any container is folded, every comparison inside it
+/// already carries the corrected literal. This deliberately does not enumerate
+/// which containers are allowed above a comparison. Enumerating them is what left
+/// `IS TRUE`, `IS FALSE`, `= TRUE`, `CAST(.. AS BOOLEAN)` and `IN (TRUE)` exposed,
+/// and any list would keep missing the next spelling.
+pub fn normalize_zero_comparisons(
+    expr: Expr,
+    simplify: &dyn Fn(Expr) -> DFResult<Expr>,
+) -> Result<Expr> {
+    // A literal is already folded, and an `IN` list can hold hundreds of them.
+    // Handing each one to the simplifier anyway roughly doubled planning time on
+    // large lists, for an operand that cannot change.
+    let fold = |operand: Expr| -> DFResult<Expr> {
+        if matches!(operand, Expr::Literal(..)) {
+            return Ok(operand);
+        }
+        simplify(operand)
+    };
+    Ok(expr
+        .transform_up(|node| {
+            let folded = match node {
+                Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr { left, op, right }) if is_zero_sensitive(op) => {
+                    Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+                        left: Box::new(fold(*left)?),
+                        op,
+                        right: Box::new(fold(*right)?),
+                    })
+                }
+                Expr::Between(between) => Expr::Between(Between {
+                    expr: Box::new(fold(*between.expr)?),
+                    negated: between.negated,
+                    low: Box::new(fold(*between.low)?),
+                    high: Box::new(fold(*between.high)?),
+                }),
+                Expr::InList(in_list) => Expr::InList(InList {
+                    expr: Box::new(fold(*in_list.expr)?),
+                    list: in_list
+                        .list
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(fold)
+                        .collect::<DFResult<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                    negated: in_list.negated,
+                }),
+                other => return Ok(Transformed::no(other)),
+            };
+            Ok(match rewrite_node(&folded) {
+                Some(rewritten) => Transformed::yes(rewritten),
+                // The operands were still folded, so this is a change either way.
+                None => Transformed::yes(folded),
+            })
+        })?
+        .data)
+}
+
+/// Both encodings of a floating point zero, negative first.
+///
+/// Returns `None` for anything else, including NULL, NaN, and integer zero.
+fn zero_encodings(value: &ScalarValue) -> Option<(ScalarValue, ScalarValue)> {
+    match value {
+        Float16(Some(v)) if *v == f16::ZERO => {
+            Some((Float16(Some(f16::NEG_ZERO)), Float16(Some(f16::ZERO))))
+        }
+        Float32(Some(v)) if *v == 0.0 => Some((Float32(Some(-0.0)), Float32(Some(0.0)))),
+        Float64(Some(v)) if *v == 0.0 => Some((Float64(Some(-0.0)), Float64(Some(0.0)))),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Collect the terms of an `AND`/`OR` chain, in order, ignoring nesting.
+fn flatten_chain<'a>(expr: &'a Expr, op: Operator, terms: &mut Vec<&'a Expr>) {
+    if let Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+        left,
+        op: inner,
+        right,
+    }) = expr
+        && *inner == op
+    {
+        flatten_chain(left, op, terms);
+        flatten_chain(right, op, terms);
+        return;
+    }
+    terms.push(expr);
+}
+
+/// True for the shape this rewrite emits for `=` and `!=`: a column tested
+/// against both encodings of a floating point zero, negated or not. Only these
+/// terms are deduplicated, so an expression the caller wrote twice is left alone.
+fn is_zero_pair_over_column(expr: &Expr) -> bool {
+    let Expr::InList(InList { expr, list, .. }) = expr else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    if !matches!(expr.as_ref(), Expr::Column(_)) {
+        return false;
+    }
+    let [Expr::Literal(first, _), ..] = list.as_slice() else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    zero_encodings(first)
+        .is_some_and(|(negative, positive)| list_is_pair(list, &negative, &positive))
+}
+
+/// True when `list` is exactly the two encodings of a zero, negative first.
+fn list_is_pair(list: &[Expr], negative: &ScalarValue, positive: &ScalarValue) -> bool {
+    let [Expr::Literal(first, _), Expr::Literal(second, _)] = list else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    first == negative && second == positive
+}
+
+/// The rewritten expression, or `None` when `expr` is not a comparison against a
+/// floating point zero.
+/// The encoding a zero bound needs to answer `op` correctly, or `None` when the
+/// expression is not a zero literal.
+fn rewrite_bound(bound: &Expr, op: Operator) -> Option<Expr> {
+    let Expr::Literal(value, metadata) = bound else {
+        return None;
+    };
+    let (negative, positive) = zero_encodings(value)?;
+    let encoding = match op {
+        Operator::GtEq => negative,
+        Operator::LtEq => positive,
+        _ => return None,
+    };
+    Some(Expr::Literal(encoding, metadata.clone()))
+}
+
+fn rewrite_node(expr: &Expr) -> Option<Expr> {
+    match expr {
+        // DataFusion's simplifier expands an `IN` list of three or fewer values
+        // over a bare column back into an OR chain of equalities, so a second
+        // `optimize_expr` splits this rewrite's own output and re-runs it on each
+        // half. Both halves then produce the same list, and dropping the repeat is
+        // what makes the rewrite survive that round trip.
+        Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr { op, .. }) if matches!(op, Operator::Or | Operator::And) => {
+            let mut kept: Vec<&Expr> = Vec::new();
+            flatten_chain(expr, *op, &mut kept);
+            let mut deduped: Vec<&Expr> = Vec::with_capacity(kept.len());
+            for term in kept.iter() {
+                if is_zero_pair_over_column(term) && deduped.contains(term) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                deduped.push(term);
+            }
+            if deduped.len() == kept.len() {
+                return None;
+            }
+            deduped.into_iter().cloned().reduce(|left, right| match op {
+                Operator::Or => left.or(right),
+                _ => left.and(right),
+            })
+        }
+        Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr { left, op, right }) => {
+            // `resolve_expr` accepts the literal on either side, and the
+            // operator mirrors when it sits on the left.
+            let (literal, other, op) = match (left.as_ref(), right.as_ref()) {
+                (_, Expr::Literal(..)) => (right.as_ref(), left.as_ref(), *op),
+                (Expr::Literal(..), _) => (left.as_ref(), right.as_ref(), op.swap()?),
+                _ => return None,
+            };
+            let Expr::Literal(value, metadata) = literal else {
+                return None;
+            };
+            let (negative, positive) = zero_encodings(value)?;
+            let zero = match op {
+                Operator::Lt | Operator::GtEq => negative,
+                Operator::LtEq | Operator::Gt => positive,
+                Operator::Eq | Operator::NotEq => {
+                    return Some(Expr::InList(InList {
+                        expr: Box::new(other.clone()),
+                        list: vec![
+                            Expr::Literal(negative, metadata.clone()),
+                            Expr::Literal(positive, metadata.clone()),
+                        ],
+                        negated: op == Operator::NotEq,
+                    }));
+                }
+                Operator::IsNotDistinctFrom | Operator::IsDistinctFrom => {
+                    // Both encodings have to be listed, and the null case has to
+                    // stay decided rather than becoming NULL, so this pairs the
+                    // list with `IS [NOT] TRUE`. `NULL IN (..)` is NULL, and
+                    // `NULL IS TRUE` is false, which is what distinctness means
+                    // for a null against a non-null literal.
+                    //
+                    // The list carries `other` once. An earlier version guarded
+                    // this arm to a bare column so it could name `other` twice as
+                    // `IS NOT NULL AND IN (..)`, but bailing out left the
+                    // `filter_expr` path answering computed operands on Arrow's
+                    // sign-sensitive order, which is wrong rows rather than an
+                    // unsupported spelling.
+                    //
+                    // Always the non-negated list, so a second pass sees the same
+                    // complete pair it would leave alone anywhere else.
+                    let covered = Expr::InList(InList {
+                        expr: Box::new(other.clone()),
+                        list: vec![
+                            Expr::Literal(negative, metadata.clone()),
+                            Expr::Literal(positive, metadata.clone()),
+                        ],
+                        negated: false,
+                    });
+                    return Some(if op == Operator::IsDistinctFrom {
+                        covered.is_not_true()
+                    } else {
+                        covered.is_true()
+                    });
+                }
+                _ => return None,
+            };
+            Some(Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+                left: Box::new(other.clone()),
+                op,
+                right: Box::new(Expr::Literal(zero, metadata.clone())),
+            }))
+        }
+        // `BETWEEN` normally reaches this rewrite already expanded into `>=` and
+        // `<=` by the simplifier. It survives unexpanded when every operand is
+        // constant, because then the simplifier expands and folds it in one pass
+        // and the comparison is gone before the post-pass looks. The bounds take
+        // the encodings their expanded operators would: `low` is a `>=` bound and
+        // `high` is a `<=` bound.
+        Expr::Between(between) => {
+            let low = rewrite_bound(&between.low, Operator::GtEq);
+            let high = rewrite_bound(&between.high, Operator::LtEq);
+            if low.is_none() && high.is_none() {
+                return None;
+            }
+            Some(Expr::Between(Between {
+                expr: between.expr.clone(),
+                negated: between.negated,
+                low: Box::new(low.unwrap_or_else(|| (*between.low).clone())),
+                high: Box::new(high.unwrap_or_else(|| (*between.high).clone())),
+            }))
+        }
+        Expr::InList(InList {
+            expr,
+            list,
+            negated,
+        }) => {
+            // A zero literal on the probe side needs the same treatment. The list
+            // elements are arbitrary expressions there, so expand into the
+            // equality form the binary arm already covers. A literal probe that is
+            // not a zero compares the same way against either encoding, so it
+            // needs no widening either.
+            if let Expr::Literal(value, metadata) = expr.as_ref() {
+                let (negative, positive) = zero_encodings(value)?;
+                // The expansion below puts a zero literal in front of exactly this
+                // list, so stop rather than expanding that term again.
+                if list_is_pair(list, &negative, &positive) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let matches_any = list
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|item| {
+                        Expr::InList(InList {
+                            expr: Box::new(item.clone()),
+                            list: vec![
+                                Expr::Literal(negative.clone(), metadata.clone()),
+                                Expr::Literal(positive.clone(), metadata.clone()),
+                            ],
+                            negated: false,
+                        })
+                    })
+                    .reduce(Expr::or)?;
+                return Some(if *negated {
+                    Expr::Not(Box::new(matches_any))
+                } else {
+                    matches_any
+                });
+            }
+            Some(Expr::InList(InList {
+                expr: expr.clone(),
+                list: widen_zero_list(list)?,
+                negated: *negated,
+            }))
+        }
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Add the missing encoding next to every floating point zero in an `IN` list.
+///
+/// Returns `None` when the list holds no zero, or already spells out both
+/// encodings of each zero it holds.
+fn widen_zero_list(list: &[Expr]) -> Option<Vec<Expr>> {
+    // Most lists hold no zero, so collect what is missing before copying anything.
+    let mut missing: Vec<Expr> = Vec::new();
+    for item in list {
+        let Expr::Literal(value, metadata) = item else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let Some((negative, positive)) = zero_encodings(value) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let counterpart = if *value == negative {
+            positive
+        } else {
+            negative
+        };
+        // `ScalarValue` compares floats by bit pattern, so this distinguishes
+        // the two encodings rather than collapsing them.
+        let is_counterpart =
+            |other: &Expr| matches!(other, Expr::Literal(v, _) if *v == counterpart);
+        if list.iter().any(is_counterpart) || missing.iter().any(is_counterpart) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        missing.push(Expr::Literal(counterpart, metadata.clone()));
+    }
+    if missing.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let mut widened = Vec::with_capacity(list.len() + missing.len());
+    widened.extend(list.iter().cloned());
+    widened.append(&mut missing);
+    Some(widened)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn rewrite(expr: Expr) -> Expr {
+        rewrite_signed_zero_comparisons(expr).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn compare(left: Expr, op: Operator, right: Expr) -> Expr {
+        Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+            left: Box::new(left),
+            op,
+            right: Box::new(right),
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::lt_from_positive(Operator::Lt, 0.0, -0.0)]
+    #[case::lt_from_negative(Operator::Lt, -0.0, -0.0)]
+    #[case::lt_eq_from_positive(Operator::LtEq, 0.0, 0.0)]
+    #[case::lt_eq_from_negative(Operator::LtEq, -0.0, 0.0)]
+    #[case::gt_from_positive(Operator::Gt, 0.0, 0.0)]
+    #[case::gt_from_negative(Operator::Gt, -0.0, 0.0)]
+    #[case::gt_eq_from_positive(Operator::GtEq, 0.0, -0.0)]
+    #[case::gt_eq_from_negative(Operator::GtEq, -0.0, -0.0)]
+    fn range_comparison_uses_the_encoding_for_the_operator(
+        #[case] op: Operator,
+        #[case] written: f64,
+        #[case] evaluated: f64,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            rewrite(compare(col("x"), op, lit(written))),
+            compare(col("x"), op, lit(evaluated))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::eq(Operator::Eq, false)]
+    #[case::not_eq(Operator::NotEq, true)]
+    fn equality_covers_both_encodings(#[case] op: Operator, #[case] negated: bool) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            rewrite(compare(col("x"), op, lit(0.0))),
+            Expr::InList(InList {
+                expr: Box::new(col("x")),
+                list: vec![lit(-0.0), lit(0.0)],
+                negated,
+            })
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_literal_on_the_left_mirrors_the_operator() {
+        // `0.0 > x` is `x < 0.0`, which evaluates against the negative encoding.
+        assert_eq!(
+            rewrite(compare(lit(0.0), Operator::Gt, col("x"))),
+            compare(col("x"), Operator::Lt, lit(-0.0))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::float32(Float32(Some(-0.0)), Float32(Some(0.0)))]
+    #[case::float16(Float16(Some(f16::NEG_ZERO)), Float16(Some(f16::ZERO)))]
+    fn narrow_floats_are_rewritten_too(
+        #[case] written: ScalarValue,
+        #[case] evaluated: ScalarValue,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            rewrite(compare(
+                col("x"),
+                Operator::LtEq,
+                Expr::Literal(written, None)
+            )),
+            compare(col("x"), Operator::LtEq, Expr::Literal(evaluated, None))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn an_in_list_gains_the_missing_encoding() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            rewrite(Expr::InList(InList {
+                expr: Box::new(col("x")),
+                list: vec![lit(0.0), lit(5.0)],
+                negated: true,
+            })),
+            Expr::InList(InList {
+                expr: Box::new(col("x")),
+                list: vec![lit(0.0), lit(5.0), lit(-0.0)],
+                negated: true,
+            })
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn only_the_zero_comparison_in_a_conjunction_changes() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            rewrite(col("x").lt(lit(0.0)).and(col("y").eq(lit(1.0)))),
+            col("x").lt(lit(-0.0)).and(col("y").eq(lit(1.0)))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::non_zero(col("x").lt(lit(1.0)))]
+    #[case::integer_zero(col("x").eq(lit(0_i64)))]
+    #[case::null(compare(col("x"), Operator::Eq, Expr::Literal(Float64(None), None)))]
+    #[case::nan(col("x").lt(lit(f64::NAN)))]
+    #[case::column_on_both_sides(col("x").lt(col("y")))]
+    #[case::both_encodings_listed(Expr::InList(InList {
+        expr: Box::new(col("x")),
+        list: vec![lit(-0.0), lit(0.0)],
+        negated: false,
+    }))]
+    fn unrelated_comparisons_are_left_alone(#[case] expr: Expr) {
+        assert_eq!(rewrite(expr.clone()), expr);
+    }
+
+    /// Distinctness has to stay decided for a null operand, and it has to name
+    /// the operand once so a computed one is not evaluated twice.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::is_not_distinct_from(Operator::IsNotDistinctFrom)]
+    #[case::is_distinct_from(Operator::IsDistinctFrom)]
+    fn distinct_from_lowers_through_a_null_defaulted_list(#[case] op: Operator) {
+        let covered = Expr::InList(InList {
+            expr: Box::new(col("x")),
+            list: vec![lit(-0.0), lit(0.0)],
+            negated: false,
+        });
+        let expected = if op == Operator::IsDistinctFrom {
+            covered.is_not_true()
+        } else {
+            covered.is_true()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(rewrite(compare(col("x"), op, lit(0.0))), expected);
+    }
+
+    /// The operand does not have to be a column. Bailing out on anything else
+    /// used to leave `filter_expr` answering computed operands on Arrow's
+    /// sign-sensitive order, which returns wrong rows.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::is_not_distinct_from(Operator::IsNotDistinctFrom)]
+    #[case::is_distinct_from(Operator::IsDistinctFrom)]
+    fn distinct_from_rewrites_a_computed_operand(#[case] op: Operator) {
+        let computed = col("x") * lit(2.0);
+        let covered = Expr::InList(InList {
+            expr: Box::new(computed.clone()),
+            list: vec![lit(-0.0), lit(0.0)],
+            negated: false,
+        });
+        let expected = if op == Operator::IsDistinctFrom {
+            covered.is_not_true()
+        } else {
+            covered.is_true()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(rewrite(compare(computed, op, lit(0.0))), expected);
+    }
+
+    /// Several paths optimize the same expression more than once, so every shape
+    /// the rewrite emits has to be a fixed point.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::lt(col("x").lt(lit(0.0)))]
+    #[case::gt_eq(col("x").gt_eq(lit(0.0)))]
+    #[case::eq(col("x").eq(lit(0.0)))]
+    #[case::not_eq(col("x").not_eq(lit(0.0)))]
+    #[case::in_list(Expr::InList(InList {
+        expr: Box::new(col("x")),
+        list: vec![lit(0.0), lit(5.0)],
+        negated: false,
+    }))]
+    #[case::zero_probe(Expr::InList(InList {
+        expr: Box::new(lit(0.0)),
+        list: vec![col("a"), col("b")],
+        negated: false,
+    }))]
+    #[case::zero_probe_over_literals(Expr::InList(InList {
+        expr: Box::new(lit(0.0)),
+        list: vec![col("a"), lit(0.0)],
+        negated: false,
+    }))]
+    #[case::is_not_distinct_from(compare(col("x"), Operator::IsNotDistinctFrom, lit(0.0)))]
+    #[case::is_distinct_from(compare(col("x"), Operator::IsDistinctFrom, lit(0.0)))]
+    fn rewriting_twice_changes_nothing(#[case] expr: Expr) {
+        let once = rewrite(expr);
+        assert_eq!(rewrite(once.clone()), once);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::probe(false)]
+    #[case::negated_probe(true)]
+    fn a_zero_probe_expands_into_equalities(#[case] negated: bool) {
+        let covers = |column| {
+            Expr::InList(InList {
+                expr: Box::new(col(column)),
+                list: vec![lit(-0.0), lit(0.0)],
+                negated: false,
+            })
+        };
+        let matches_any = covers("a").or(covers("b"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            rewrite(Expr::InList(InList {
+                expr: Box::new(lit(0.0)),
+                list: vec![col("a"), col("b")],
+                negated,
+            })),
+            if negated {
+                Expr::Not(Box::new(matches_any))
+            } else {
+                matches_any
+            }
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scalar_value_keeps_the_two_zero_encodings_apart() {
+        // The `IN` list widening decides "already listed" with this comparison. A
+        // DataFusion release that made the two encodings equal would silently stop
+        // it.
+        assert_ne!(Float64(Some(-0.0)), Float64(Some(0.0)));
+        assert_ne!(Float32(Some(-0.0)), Float32(Some(0.0)));
+        assert_ne!(Float16(Some(f16::NEG_ZERO)), Float16(Some(f16::ZERO)));
+    }
+
+    /// The scan path optimizes the same expression twice, and the simplifier
+    /// expands a short `IN` list over a column back into an OR chain in between,
+    /// so a fixed point of the rewrite alone would not be enough.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::eq("value = 0.0")]
+    #[case::not_eq("value != 0.0")]
+    #[case::in_list("value IN (0.0, 1.0)")]
+    #[case::lt("value < 0.0")]
+    #[case::gt_eq("value >= 0.0")]
+    #[case::between("value BETWEEN -0.0 AND 0.0")]
+    // The dedup that makes the first three cases hold keys on the probe being a
+    // bare column, which is also what DataFusion requires before it shortens a
+    // list. This case fails if a release ever relaxes that.
+    #[case::non_column_probe("abs(value) = 0.0")]
+    // `IS [NOT] DISTINCT FROM` is missing because `Planner::parse_filter` rejects
+    // it as unsupported SQL; that arm is reachable only from a programmatically
+    // built expression, and `rewriting_twice_changes_nothing` covers it there.
+    fn optimizing_twice_changes_nothing(#[case] filter: &str) {
+        let schema =
+            std::sync::Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                "value",
+                arrow_schema::DataType::Float64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+        let planner = crate::planner::Planner::new(schema);
+        let once = planner
+            .optimize_expr(planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(planner.optimize_expr(once.clone()).unwrap(), once);
+    }
+
+    /// A comparison whose operands are all constant never reaches the rewrite if
+    /// the rewrite only runs after `simplify`: the simplifier folds it to a bare
+    /// boolean under Arrow's total order first, and there is nothing left to
+    /// repair. These fold to the IEEE answer only because the rewrite also runs
+    /// before `simplify`.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::lt("-1.0 * 0.0 < 0.0", false)]
+    #[case::eq("(-1.0 * 0.0) = 0.0", true)]
+    #[case::gt_eq("(-1.0 * 0.0) >= 0.0", true)]
+    #[case::not_eq("(-1.0 * 0.0) != 0.0", false)]
+    #[case::gt("(-1.0 * 0.0) > 0.0", false)]
+    #[case::lt_eq("(-1.0 * 0.0) <= 0.0", true)]
+    // The zero on the right is produced by folding rather than written, so these
+    // reach the rewrite only because the operands are folded before the
+    // comparison is.
+    #[case::folded_rhs_lt("-1.0 * 0.0 < (1.0 - 1.0)", false)]
+    #[case::folded_rhs_eq("(-1.0 * 0.0) = (1.0 - 1.0)", true)]
+    #[case::folded_rhs_gt_eq("(-1.0 * 0.0) >= (1.0 - 1.0)", true)]
+    #[case::folded_rhs_not_eq("(-1.0 * 0.0) != (1.0 - 1.0)", false)]
+    #[case::both_sides_folded("(0.0 * -1.0) < (1.0 - 1.0)", false)]
+    // `BETWEEN` and `IN` fold the same way, and a fully constant `BETWEEN` never
+    // reaches the rewrite already expanded, which is why the rewrite has its own
+    // arm for it.
+    #[case::folded_between("(-1.0 * 0.0) BETWEEN (1.0 - 1.0) AND 1.0", true)]
+    #[case::folded_in_list("(-1.0 * 0.0) IN ((1.0 - 1.0), 1.0)", true)]
+    #[case::folded_not_in_list("(-1.0 * 0.0) NOT IN ((1.0 - 1.0), 1.0)", false)]
+    // Nested under a connective, so the operand pass has to descend.
+    #[case::under_or("(-1.0 * 0.0) < (1.0 - 1.0) OR 1.0 > 2.0", false)]
+    #[case::under_not("NOT ((-1.0 * 0.0) < (1.0 - 1.0))", true)]
+    // Wrapped in something that folds the comparison's own result. These are why
+    // the operand folding walks every container instead of a list of allowed
+    // parents: each of these is a different spelling of the same exposure.
+    #[case::under_is_true("((-1.0 * 0.0) < (1.0 - 1.0)) IS TRUE", false)]
+    #[case::under_is_false("((-1.0 * 0.0) < (1.0 - 1.0)) IS FALSE", true)]
+    #[case::under_is_not_true("((-1.0 * 0.0) < (1.0 - 1.0)) IS NOT TRUE", true)]
+    #[case::under_eq_true("((-1.0 * 0.0) < (1.0 - 1.0)) = TRUE", false)]
+    #[case::under_cast("CAST(((-1.0 * 0.0) < (1.0 - 1.0)) AS BOOLEAN)", false)]
+    #[case::under_in_true("((-1.0 * 0.0) < (1.0 - 1.0)) IN (TRUE)", false)]
+    #[case::under_is_true_eq("((-1.0 * 0.0) = (1.0 - 1.0)) IS TRUE", true)]
+    #[case::under_nested_wrappers("NOT (((-1.0 * 0.0) < (1.0 - 1.0)) IS TRUE)", true)]
+    fn folded_constant_comparisons_use_ieee_semantics(
+        #[case] filter: &str,
+        #[case] expected: bool,
+    ) {
+        let schema =
+            std::sync::Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                "value",
+                arrow_schema::DataType::Float64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+        let planner = crate::planner::Planner::new(schema);
+        let optimized = planner
+            .optimize_expr(planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            optimized,
+            Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(expected)), None),
+            "filter: {filter}"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/spill.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/spill.rs
index 93f8a61cba5..749a9637fc5 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/spill.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/spill.rs
@@ -9,13 +9,17 @@ use std::{
 
 use arrow::ipc::{reader::StreamReader, writer::StreamWriter};
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, Schema};
+use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, Schema, SchemaRef};
 use datafusion::{
-    execution::SendableRecordBatchStream, physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
+    catalog::{TableProvider, streaming::StreamingTable},
+    execution::{SendableRecordBatchStream, TaskContext},
+    physical_plan::{stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter, streaming::PartitionStream},
 };
 use datafusion_common::DataFusionError;
+use futures::StreamExt;
 use lance_arrow::memory::MemoryAccumulator;
 use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
 
 /// Start a spill of Arrow data to a file that can be read later multiple times.
 ///
@@ -60,6 +64,141 @@ pub fn create_replay_spill(
     (sender, receiver)
 }
 
+/// Wrap a one-shot [`SendableRecordBatchStream`] in a re-scannable [`TableProvider`].
+///
+/// The source is drained in the background into a replayable spill. Two properties
+/// keep this cheap for the common case:
+///
+/// - **Memory-first.** Up to `memory_limit` bytes are buffered in memory; the spill
+///   only touches disk once that budget is exceeded. A source that fits under the
+///   limit never hits the filesystem.
+/// - **Streaming replay.** A scan can start consuming batches as soon as they land,
+///   before the source has finished draining — the first reader is not blocked
+///   waiting for the whole source to buffer.
+///
+/// Each scan of the returned provider replays the full source, which is what makes a
+/// one-shot stream usable in the write retry loop.
+///
+/// The provider reports no statistics — the source size is not known until it has
+/// been fully drained — so callers that need source statistics (e.g. to drive join
+/// ordering) should prefer a materialized or file-backed provider instead.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use std::sync::Arc;
+/// # use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch};
+/// # use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+/// # use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+/// # use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+/// # use futures::TryStreamExt;
+/// # use lance_datafusion::exec::provider_to_stream;
+/// # use lance_datafusion::spill::spilling_table_provider;
+/// # #[tokio::main]
+/// # async fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+/// let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+/// let batch =
+///     RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))])?;
+/// // A one-shot stream can only be consumed once.
+/// let source: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+///     schema.clone(),
+///     futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+/// ));
+///
+/// // Wrapping it makes it re-scannable: each scan replays the full source.
+/// let provider = spilling_table_provider(source, 100 * 1024 * 1024).await?;
+/// let first: Vec<RecordBatch> = provider_to_stream(provider.clone()).await?.try_collect().await?;
+/// let second: Vec<RecordBatch> = provider_to_stream(provider).await?.try_collect().await?;
+/// assert_eq!(first.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), 3);
+/// assert_eq!(second.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), 3);
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+pub async fn spilling_table_provider(
+    mut source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    memory_limit: usize,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn TableProvider>, DataFusionError> {
+    let schema = source.schema();
+    let tmp_dir = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(TempDir::try_new)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to spawn temp dir task: {e}")))?
+        .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to create temp dir: {e}")))?;
+    let tmp_path = tmp_dir.std_path().join("spill.arrows");
+    let (mut sender, receiver) = create_replay_spill(tmp_path, schema.clone(), memory_limit);
+
+    // Drain the one-shot source into the spill once, in the background. The spill
+    // tees to memory/disk so the first reader can consume batches as they arrive
+    // while later readers replay the complete source.
+    let drain_handle = tokio::task::spawn(async move {
+        let mut errored = false;
+        while let Some(res) = source.next().await {
+            match res {
+                Ok(batch) => {
+                    if let Err(e) = sender.write(batch).await {
+                        sender.send_error(e);
+                        errored = true;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+                Err(e) => {
+                    sender.send_error(e);
+                    errored = true;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        // Only finish on a clean drain. Calling finish() after an error would
+        // overwrite the original (replayable) error with a generic one, losing
+        // the source error's type (e.g. an external error from user code).
+        if !errored && let Err(err) = sender.finish().await {
+            sender.send_error(err);
+        }
+        sender
+    });
+
+    let partition = Arc::new(SpillPartition {
+        schema: schema.clone(),
+        receiver,
+        _tmp_dir: Arc::new(tmp_dir),
+        _drain_handle: Arc::new(drain_handle),
+    });
+    Ok(Arc::new(StreamingTable::try_new(schema, vec![partition])?))
+}
+
+/// A [`PartitionStream`] backed by a replayable spill.
+///
+/// Each call to [`PartitionStream::execute`] opens a fresh stream over the spill,
+/// so the partition can be scanned repeatedly. The spill file and the background
+/// task draining the source are kept alive for as long as this partition exists.
+struct SpillPartition {
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    receiver: SpillReceiver,
+    // The spilled data lives in this temp dir; dropping it deletes the spill file.
+    _tmp_dir: Arc<TempDir>,
+    // Keeps the background drain task (which owns the `SpillSender`) alive. The
+    // `SpillSender` must outlive the readers or they error out, so we hold the
+    // handle rather than detaching it.
+    _drain_handle: Arc<tokio::task::JoinHandle<SpillSender>>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for SpillPartition {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("SpillPartition")
+            .field("schema", &self.schema)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartitionStream for SpillPartition {
+    fn schema(&self) -> &SchemaRef {
+        &self.schema
+    }
+
+    fn execute(&self, _ctx: Arc<TaskContext>) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        self.receiver.read()
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct SpillReceiver {
     status_receiver: tokio::sync::watch::Receiver<WriteStatus>,
@@ -250,7 +389,7 @@ impl Default for DataLocation {
     }
 }
 
-/// A DataFusion error that be be emitted multiple times. We provide the
+/// A DataFusion error that can be emitted multiple times. We provide the
 /// Original error first, and subsequent conversions provide a copy with a
 /// string representation of the original error.
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -354,7 +493,7 @@ impl SpillSender {
         let (writer, batches_written) = match &mut self.state {
             SpillState::Buffering {
                 batches,
-                ref mut memory_accumulator,
+                memory_accumulator,
             } => {
                 memory_accumulator.record_batch(&batch);
 
@@ -531,7 +670,7 @@ impl AsyncStreamReader {
 mod tests {
     use arrow_array::Int32Array;
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-    use futures::{poll, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+    use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, poll};
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempStdFile, TempStdPath};
 
     use super::*;
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/sql.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/sql.rs
index 547badfdbfa..3ed420a0794 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/sql.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/sql.rs
@@ -13,7 +13,6 @@ use datafusion::sql::sqlparser::{
 };
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 #[derive(Debug, Default)]
 struct LanceDialect(GenericDialect);
 
@@ -39,6 +38,10 @@ impl Dialect for LanceDialect {
     fn is_delimited_identifier_start(&self, ch: char) -> bool {
         ch == '`'
     }
+
+    fn supports_bitwise_shift_operators(&self) -> bool {
+        self.0.supports_bitwise_shift_operators()
+    }
 }
 
 /// Parse sql filter to Expression.
@@ -46,19 +49,16 @@ pub(crate) fn parse_sql_filter(filter: &str) -> Result<Expr> {
     let sql = format!("SELECT 1 FROM t WHERE {filter}");
     let statement = parse_statement(&sql)?;
 
-    let selection = if let Statement::Query(query) = &statement {
-        if let SetExpr::Select(s) = query.body.as_ref() {
-            s.selection.as_ref()
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
+    if let Statement::Query(query) = statement
+        && let SetExpr::Select(select) = *query.body
+        && let Some(expr) = select.selection
+    {
+        Ok(expr)
     } else {
-        None
-    };
-    let expr = selection.ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input(format!("Filter is not valid: {filter}"), location!())
-    })?;
-    Ok(expr.clone())
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Filter is not valid: {filter}"
+        )))
+    }
 }
 
 /// Parse a SQL expression to Expression. This is more lenient than parse_sql_filter
@@ -67,23 +67,16 @@ pub(crate) fn parse_sql_expr(expr: &str) -> Result<Expr> {
     let sql = format!("SELECT {expr} FROM t");
     let statement = parse_statement(&sql)?;
 
-    let selection = if let Statement::Query(query) = &statement {
-        if let SetExpr::Select(s) = query.body.as_ref() {
-            if let SelectItem::UnnamedExpr(expr) = &s.projection[0] {
-                Some(expr)
-            } else {
-                None
-            }
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
+    if let Statement::Query(query) = statement
+        && let SetExpr::Select(select) = *query.body
+        && let Some(SelectItem::UnnamedExpr(expr)) = select.projection.into_iter().next()
+    {
+        Ok(expr)
     } else {
-        None
-    };
-    let expr = selection.ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input(format!("Expression is not valid: {expr}"), location!())
-    })?;
-    Ok(expr.clone())
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Expression is not valid: {expr}"
+        )))
+    }
 }
 
 fn parse_statement(statement: &str) -> Result<Statement> {
@@ -97,10 +90,7 @@ fn parse_statement(statement: &str) -> Result<Statement> {
     let mut token_iter = tokenizer
         .tokenize()
         .map_err(|e| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Error tokenizing statement: {statement} ({e})"),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Error tokenizing statement: {statement} ({e})"))
         })?
         .into_iter();
     let mut prev_token = token_iter.next().unwrap();
@@ -116,12 +106,7 @@ fn parse_statement(statement: &str) -> Result<Statement> {
     Parser::new(&dialect)
         .with_tokens(tokens)
         .parse_statement()
-        .map_err(|e| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Error parsing statement: {statement} ({e})"),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })
+        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Error parsing statement: {statement} ({e})")))
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/substrait.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/substrait.rs
index 54dc9be8808..f3dc9b4d3df 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/substrait.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/substrait.rs
@@ -1,24 +1,60 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use datafusion::{execution::SessionState, logical_expr::Expr};
+
+use crate::aggregate::Aggregate;
+use datafusion_common::DFSchema;
+use datafusion_substrait::extensions::Extensions;
+use datafusion_substrait::logical_plan::consumer::{
+    DefaultSubstraitConsumer, from_substrait_agg_func, from_substrait_rex, from_substrait_sorts,
+};
 use datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::{
+    AggregateRel, Expression, ExpressionReference, ExtendedExpression, NamedStruct, Plan, Type,
     expression::{
+        Literal, RexType,
         field_reference::{ReferenceType, RootType},
-        reference_segment, RexType,
+        literal::{LiteralType, PrecisionTimestamp},
+        reference_segment,
     },
     expression_reference::ExprType,
     function_argument::ArgType,
+    rel::RelType,
     r#type::{Kind, Struct},
-    Expression, ExpressionReference, ExtendedExpression, NamedStruct, Type,
 };
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use prost::Message;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+/// FixedSizeList has no Substrait producer support in datafusion-substrait.
+/// Other unsupported types (Null, Float16) are encoded as UserDefined and
+/// handled by `remove_extension_types` on the decode side.
+fn is_substrait_compatible(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => false,
+        DataType::List(inner) => is_substrait_compatible(inner.data_type()),
+        DataType::Struct(fields) => fields
+            .iter()
+            .all(|f| is_substrait_compatible(f.data_type())),
+        _ => true,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Removes top-level fields that contain data types that the Substrait
+/// producer cannot encode (currently only FixedSizeList).
+pub fn prune_schema_for_substrait(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> ArrowSchema {
+    ArrowSchema::new(
+        schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| is_substrait_compatible(f.data_type()))
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    )
+}
+
 /// Convert a DF Expr into a Substrait ExtendedExpressions message
 ///
 /// The schema needs to contain all of the fields that are referenced in the expression.
@@ -62,24 +98,137 @@ fn count_fields(dtype: &Type) -> usize {
     }
 }
 
+fn count_fields_without_list_children(dtype: &Type) -> usize {
+    match dtype.kind.as_ref().unwrap() {
+        Kind::Struct(struct_type) => {
+            struct_type
+                .types
+                .iter()
+                .map(count_fields_without_list_children)
+                .sum::<usize>()
+                + 1
+        }
+        Kind::List(_) => 1,
+        _ => 1,
+    }
+}
+
+fn append_nested_field_names(
+    substrait_type: &Type,
+    arrow_type: &DataType,
+    names: &mut Vec<String>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match substrait_type.kind.as_ref().unwrap() {
+        Kind::Struct(substrait_struct) => {
+            let DataType::Struct(arrow_fields) = arrow_type else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "the provided substrait schema contained a struct where the input schema contained {arrow_type}"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            };
+            if substrait_struct.types.len() != arrow_fields.len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "the provided substrait struct had {} fields but the corresponding input struct had {} fields",
+                        substrait_struct.types.len(),
+                        arrow_fields.len()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            for (substrait_field, arrow_field) in
+                substrait_struct.types.iter().zip(arrow_fields.iter())
+            {
+                names.push(arrow_field.name().to_string());
+                append_nested_field_names(substrait_field, arrow_field.data_type(), names)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Kind::List(substrait_list) => {
+            let (DataType::List(arrow_field) | DataType::LargeList(arrow_field)) = arrow_type
+            else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "the provided substrait schema contained a list where the input schema contained {arrow_type}"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            };
+            let substrait_element = substrait_list.r#type.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "the provided substrait schema contained a list without an element type".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            append_nested_field_names(substrait_element, arrow_field.data_type(), names)?;
+        }
+        _ => {}
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn normalize_substrait_names(
+    substrait_schema: &NamedStruct,
+    arrow_schema: &ArrowSchema,
+) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let fields = substrait_schema.r#struct.as_ref().unwrap();
+    let expected_names = fields.types.iter().map(count_fields).sum::<usize>();
+    if substrait_schema.names.len() == expected_names {
+        return Ok(substrait_schema.names.clone());
+    }
+
+    // PyArrow stops emitting names below list element types, while DataFusion's
+    // Substrait consumer requires the complete depth-first list of struct names.
+    let expected_pyarrow_names = fields
+        .types
+        .iter()
+        .map(count_fields_without_list_children)
+        .sum::<usize>();
+    if substrait_schema.names.len() != expected_pyarrow_names {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "the provided substrait schema had {} names but its types require either {} names or {} names when list children are omitted",
+                substrait_schema.names.len(),
+                expected_names,
+                expected_pyarrow_names
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let mut names = Vec::with_capacity(expected_names);
+    let mut name_index = 0;
+    for (substrait_field, arrow_field) in fields.types.iter().zip(arrow_schema.fields().iter()) {
+        names.push(substrait_schema.names[name_index].clone());
+        append_nested_field_names(substrait_field, arrow_field.data_type(), &mut names)?;
+        name_index += count_fields_without_list_children(substrait_field);
+    }
+    Ok(names)
+}
+
 fn remove_extension_types(
     substrait_schema: &NamedStruct,
     arrow_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
 ) -> Result<(NamedStruct, Arc<ArrowSchema>, HashMap<usize, usize>)> {
     let fields = substrait_schema.r#struct.as_ref().unwrap();
     if fields.types.len() != arrow_schema.fields.len() {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "the number of fields in the provided substrait schema did not match the number of fields in the input schema.".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source("the number of fields in the provided substrait schema did not match the number of fields in the input schema.".into()));
     }
+    let substrait_names = normalize_substrait_names(substrait_schema, arrow_schema.as_ref())?;
     let mut kept_substrait_fields = Vec::with_capacity(fields.types.len());
     let mut kept_arrow_fields = Vec::with_capacity(arrow_schema.fields.len());
-    let mut index_mapping = HashMap::with_capacity(arrow_schema.fields.len());
-    let mut field_counter = 0;
-    let mut field_index = 0;
+    let mut name_index_mapping = HashMap::with_capacity(substrait_names.len());
+    let mut field_index_mapping = HashMap::with_capacity(arrow_schema.fields.len());
+    let mut kept_name_count = 0;
+    let mut name_index = 0;
+    let mut kept_field_count = 0;
     // TODO: this logic doesn't catch user defined fields inside of struct fields
-    for (substrait_field, arrow_field) in fields.types.iter().zip(arrow_schema.fields.iter()) {
+    for (field_index, (substrait_field, arrow_field)) in fields
+        .types
+        .iter()
+        .zip(arrow_schema.fields.iter())
+        .enumerate()
+    {
         let num_fields = count_fields(substrait_field);
 
         let kind = substrait_field.kind.as_ref().unwrap();
@@ -91,21 +240,23 @@ fn remove_extension_types(
             _ => false,
         };
 
-        if !substrait_schema.names[field_index].starts_with("__unlikely_name_placeholder")
+        if !substrait_names[name_index].starts_with("__unlikely_name_placeholder")
             && !is_user_defined
         {
             kept_substrait_fields.push(substrait_field.clone());
             kept_arrow_fields.push(arrow_field.clone());
             for i in 0..num_fields {
-                index_mapping.insert(field_index + i, field_counter + i);
+                name_index_mapping.insert(name_index + i, kept_name_count + i);
             }
-            field_counter += num_fields;
+            field_index_mapping.insert(field_index, kept_field_count);
+            kept_name_count += num_fields;
+            kept_field_count += 1;
         }
-        field_index += num_fields;
+        name_index += num_fields;
     }
-    let mut names = vec![String::new(); index_mapping.len()];
-    for (old_idx, old_name) in substrait_schema.names.iter().enumerate() {
-        if let Some(new_idx) = index_mapping.get(&old_idx) {
+    let mut names = vec![String::new(); name_index_mapping.len()];
+    for (old_idx, old_name) in substrait_names.iter().enumerate() {
+        if let Some(new_idx) = name_index_mapping.get(&old_idx) {
             names[*new_idx] = old_name.clone();
         }
     }
@@ -118,101 +269,190 @@ fn remove_extension_types(
             types: kept_substrait_fields,
         }),
     };
-    Ok((new_substrait_schema, new_arrow_schema, index_mapping))
+    Ok((new_substrait_schema, new_arrow_schema, field_index_mapping))
 }
 
-fn remap_expr_references(expr: &mut Expression, mapping: &HashMap<usize, usize>) -> Result<()> {
-    match expr.rex_type.as_mut().unwrap() {
+/// Substrait's optional message fields are `None` when a producer omits them, so unwrapping one
+/// turns a malformed (or merely terse) filter into a panic. This walker runs on every filter, so
+/// report the missing field instead.
+fn missing_field(what: &str) -> Error {
+    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "filter expression was missing a required {what} field"
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Substrait's deprecated `timestamp`/`timestamp_tz` literals are always microseconds, but
+/// DataFusion takes their unit from `type_variation_reference` and reads the default 0 as
+/// seconds. PyArrow emits exactly that, so filters silently matched the wrong rows.
+///
+/// Rewrite them into the `precision_timestamp` forms, which state the unit.
+#[allow(deprecated)]
+fn normalize_deprecated_timestamp_literal(lit: &mut Literal) {
+    let precision = match lit.type_variation_reference {
+        // 0 is Substrait's default reference (microseconds); 1..=3 are DataFusion's ms/us/ns.
+        0 | 2 => 6,
+        1 => 3,
+        3 => 9,
+        _ => return,
+    };
+    let replacement = match lit.literal_type {
+        Some(LiteralType::Timestamp(value)) => {
+            LiteralType::PrecisionTimestamp(PrecisionTimestamp { precision, value })
+        }
+        Some(LiteralType::TimestampTz(value)) => {
+            LiteralType::PrecisionTimestampTz(PrecisionTimestamp { precision, value })
+        }
+        _ => return,
+    };
+    lit.literal_type = Some(replacement);
+    lit.type_variation_reference = 0;
+}
+
+/// Reject operators we cannot push down, normalize ambiguous literals, and remap field
+/// references onto the schema `remove_extension_types` left behind.
+fn normalize_expr(expr: &mut Expression, mapping: &HashMap<usize, usize>) -> Result<()> {
+    match expr
+        .rex_type
+        .as_mut()
+        .ok_or_else(|| missing_field("expression"))?
+    {
+        RexType::Literal(lit) => {
+            normalize_deprecated_timestamp_literal(lit);
+            Ok(())
+        }
         // Simple, no field references possible
-        RexType::Literal(_) | RexType::Nested(_) | RexType::DynamicParameter(_) => Ok(()),
+        RexType::Nested(_) | RexType::DynamicParameter(_) => Ok(()),
         // Enum literals are deprecated in Substrait and should only appear in older plans.
         #[allow(deprecated)]
         RexType::Enum(_) => Ok(()),
         // Complex operators not supported in filters
         RexType::WindowFunction(_) | RexType::Subquery(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
             "Window functions or subqueries not allowed in filter expression",
-            location!(),
+        )),
+        RexType::Lambda(_) | RexType::LambdaInvocation(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Lambda expressions not allowed in filter expression",
         )),
         // Pass through operators, nested children may have field references
-        RexType::ScalarFunction(ref mut func) => {
+        RexType::ScalarFunction(func) => {
             #[allow(deprecated)]
             for arg in &mut func.args {
-                remap_expr_references(arg, mapping)?;
+                normalize_expr(arg, mapping)?;
             }
             for arg in &mut func.arguments {
-                match arg.arg_type.as_mut().unwrap() {
-                    ArgType::Value(expr) => remap_expr_references(expr, mapping)?,
+                match arg
+                    .arg_type
+                    .as_mut()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| missing_field("function argument"))?
+                {
+                    ArgType::Value(expr) => normalize_expr(expr, mapping)?,
                     ArgType::Enum(_) | ArgType::Type(_) => {}
                 }
             }
             Ok(())
         }
-        RexType::IfThen(ref mut ifthen) => {
-            for clause in ifthen.ifs.iter_mut() {
-                remap_expr_references(clause.r#if.as_mut().unwrap(), mapping)?;
-                remap_expr_references(clause.then.as_mut().unwrap(), mapping)?;
+        RexType::IfThen(ifthen) => {
+            for (i, clause) in ifthen.ifs.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                normalize_expr(
+                    clause
+                        .r#if
+                        .as_mut()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| missing_field("if clause condition"))?,
+                    mapping,
+                )?;
+                match clause.then.as_mut() {
+                    Some(then) => normalize_expr(then, mapping)?,
+                    // Only the leading clause may omit `then`, in which case its condition is
+                    // the case expression being matched against.
+                    None if i == 0 => {}
+                    None => return Err(missing_field("if clause result")),
+                }
+            }
+            if let Some(otherwise) = ifthen.r#else.as_mut() {
+                normalize_expr(otherwise, mapping)?;
             }
-            remap_expr_references(ifthen.r#else.as_mut().unwrap(), mapping)?;
             Ok(())
         }
-        RexType::SwitchExpression(ref mut switch) => {
+        RexType::SwitchExpression(switch) => {
             for clause in switch.ifs.iter_mut() {
-                remap_expr_references(clause.then.as_mut().unwrap(), mapping)?;
+                if let Some(then) = clause.then.as_mut() {
+                    normalize_expr(then, mapping)?;
+                }
+            }
+            if let Some(otherwise) = switch.r#else.as_mut() {
+                normalize_expr(otherwise, mapping)?;
             }
-            remap_expr_references(switch.r#else.as_mut().unwrap(), mapping)?;
             Ok(())
         }
-        RexType::SingularOrList(ref mut orlist) => {
+        RexType::SingularOrList(orlist) => {
             for opt in orlist.options.iter_mut() {
-                remap_expr_references(opt, mapping)?;
+                normalize_expr(opt, mapping)?;
             }
-            remap_expr_references(orlist.value.as_mut().unwrap(), mapping)?;
+            normalize_expr(
+                orlist
+                    .value
+                    .as_mut()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| missing_field("IN list value"))?,
+                mapping,
+            )?;
             Ok(())
         }
-        RexType::MultiOrList(ref mut orlist) => {
+        RexType::MultiOrList(orlist) => {
             for opt in orlist.options.iter_mut() {
                 for field in opt.fields.iter_mut() {
-                    remap_expr_references(field, mapping)?;
+                    normalize_expr(field, mapping)?;
                 }
             }
             for val in orlist.value.iter_mut() {
-                remap_expr_references(val, mapping)?;
+                normalize_expr(val, mapping)?;
             }
             Ok(())
         }
-        RexType::Cast(ref mut cast) => {
-            remap_expr_references(cast.input.as_mut().unwrap(), mapping)?;
+        RexType::Cast(cast) => {
+            normalize_expr(
+                cast.input
+                    .as_mut()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| missing_field("cast input"))?,
+                mapping,
+            )?;
             Ok(())
         }
-        RexType::Selection(ref mut sel) => {
-            // Finally, the selection, which might actually have field references
-            let root_type = sel.root_type.as_mut().unwrap();
-            // These types of references do not reference input fields so no remap needed
+        RexType::Selection(sel) => {
+            // Finally, the selection, which might actually have field references.
+            // An omitted root is a reference into the input, same as RootReference.
             if matches!(
-                root_type,
-                RootType::Expression(_) | RootType::OuterReference(_)
+                sel.root_type.as_mut(),
+                Some(RootType::Expression(_) | RootType::OuterReference(_))
             ) {
+                // These types of references do not reference input fields so no remap needed
                 return Ok(());
             }
-            match sel.reference_type.as_mut().unwrap() {
+            match sel
+                .reference_type
+                .as_mut()
+                .ok_or_else(|| missing_field("field reference"))?
+            {
                 ReferenceType::DirectReference(direct) => {
-                    match direct.reference_type.as_mut().unwrap() {
+                    match direct
+                        .reference_type
+                        .as_mut()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| missing_field("reference segment"))?
+                    {
                         reference_segment::ReferenceType::ListElement(_)
                         | reference_segment::ReferenceType::MapKey(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
                             "map/list nested references not supported in pushdown filters",
-                            location!(),
                         )),
                         reference_segment::ReferenceType::StructField(field) => {
                             if field.child.is_some() {
                                 Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                     "nested references in pushdown filters not yet supported",
-                                    location!(),
                                 ))
                             } else {
                                 if let Some(new_index) = mapping.get(&(field.field as usize)) {
                                     field.field = *new_index as i32;
                                 } else {
-                                    return Err(Error::invalid_input("pushdown filter referenced a field that is not yet supported by Substrait conversion", location!()));
+                                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                                        "pushdown filter referenced a field that is not yet supported by Substrait conversion",
+                                    ));
                                 }
                                 Ok(())
                             }
@@ -221,7 +461,6 @@ fn remap_expr_references(expr: &mut Expression, mapping: &HashMap<usize, usize>)
                 }
                 ReferenceType::MaskedReference(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "masked references not yet supported in filter expressions",
-                    location!(),
                 )),
             }
         }
@@ -238,31 +477,27 @@ pub async fn parse_substrait(
 ) -> Result<Expr> {
     let envelope = ExtendedExpression::decode(expr)?;
     if envelope.referred_expr.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "the provided substrait expression is empty (contains no expressions)".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "the provided substrait expression is empty (contains no expressions)".into(),
+        ));
     }
     if envelope.referred_expr.len() > 1 {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!(
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
                 "the provided substrait expression had {} expressions when only 1 was expected",
                 envelope.referred_expr.len()
             )
             .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        ));
     }
     let mut expr = match &envelope.referred_expr[0].expr_type {
-        None => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "the provided substrait had an expression but was missing an expr_type".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "the provided substrait had an expression but was missing an expr_type".into(),
+        )),
         Some(ExprType::Expression(expr)) => Ok(expr.clone()),
-        _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "the provided substrait was not a scalar expression".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "the provided substrait was not a scalar expression".into(),
+        )),
     }?;
 
     // The Substrait may have come from a producer that uses extension types that DF doesn't support (e.g.
@@ -272,19 +507,10 @@ pub async fn parse_substrait(
         let (substrait_schema, _, index_mapping) =
             remove_extension_types(envelope.base_schema.as_ref().unwrap(), input_schema.clone())?;
 
-        if substrait_schema.r#struct.as_ref().unwrap().types.len()
-            != envelope
-                .base_schema
-                .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
-                .r#struct
-                .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
-                .types
-                .len()
-        {
-            remap_expr_references(&mut expr, &index_mapping)?;
-        }
+        // Always walk the expression: this also rejects operators we cannot push down and
+        // normalizes literals. When no fields were removed the mapping is the identity, so the
+        // remap itself is a no-op.
+        normalize_expr(&mut expr, &index_mapping)?;
 
         substrait_schema
     } else {
@@ -310,49 +536,230 @@ pub async fn parse_substrait(
     if expr_container.exprs.is_empty() {
         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
             "Substrait expression did not contain any expressions",
-            location!(),
         ));
     }
 
     if expr_container.exprs.len() > 1 {
         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
             "Substrait expression contained multiple expressions",
-            location!(),
         ));
     }
 
     Ok(expr_container.exprs.pop().unwrap().0)
 }
 
+/// Parse Substrait Plan bytes containing an AggregateRel.
+pub async fn parse_substrait_aggregate(
+    bytes: &[u8],
+    input_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    state: &SessionState,
+) -> Result<Aggregate> {
+    let plan = Plan::decode(bytes)?;
+    let (aggregate_rel, output_names) = extract_aggregate_from_plan(&plan)?;
+    let extensions = Extensions::try_from(&plan.extensions)?;
+
+    let mut agg =
+        parse_aggregate_rel_with_extensions(&aggregate_rel, input_schema, state, &extensions)
+            .await?;
+
+    // Apply aliases from RelRoot.names to expressions
+    if !output_names.is_empty() {
+        let num_groups = agg.group_by.len();
+        for (i, expr) in agg.group_by.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            if i < output_names.len() {
+                *expr = expr.clone().alias(&output_names[i]);
+            }
+        }
+        for (i, expr) in agg.aggregates.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let name_idx = num_groups + i;
+            if name_idx < output_names.len() {
+                *expr = expr.clone().alias(&output_names[name_idx]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(agg)
+}
+
+fn extract_aggregate_from_plan(plan: &Plan) -> Result<(Box<AggregateRel>, Vec<String>)> {
+    if plan.relations.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input("Substrait Plan has no relations"));
+    }
+
+    let plan_rel = &plan.relations[0];
+    let (rel, output_names) = match &plan_rel.rel_type {
+        Some(datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::plan_rel::RelType::Root(root)) => {
+            (root.input.as_ref(), root.names.clone())
+        }
+        Some(datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::plan_rel::RelType::Rel(rel)) => {
+            (Some(rel), vec![])
+        }
+        None => (None, vec![]),
+    };
+
+    let rel = rel.ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Plan relation has no input"))?;
+
+    match &rel.rel_type {
+        Some(RelType::Aggregate(agg)) => Ok((agg.clone(), output_names)),
+        Some(other) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Expected Substrait AggregateRel, got {:?}",
+            std::mem::discriminant(other)
+        ))),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input("Substrait Rel has no rel_type")),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Parse an AggregateRel proto with provided extensions.
+pub async fn parse_aggregate_rel_with_extensions(
+    aggregate_rel: &AggregateRel,
+    input_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    state: &SessionState,
+    extensions: &Extensions,
+) -> Result<Aggregate> {
+    let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(input_schema.as_ref().clone())?;
+    let consumer = DefaultSubstraitConsumer::new(extensions, state);
+    let group_by = parse_groupings(aggregate_rel, &df_schema, &consumer).await?;
+    let aggregates = parse_measures(aggregate_rel, &df_schema, &consumer).await?;
+
+    Ok(Aggregate::new(group_by, aggregates))
+}
+
+/// Parse an AggregateRel proto with default extensions.
+pub async fn parse_aggregate_rel(
+    aggregate_rel: &AggregateRel,
+    input_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    state: &SessionState,
+) -> Result<Aggregate> {
+    let extensions = Extensions::default();
+    parse_aggregate_rel_with_extensions(aggregate_rel, input_schema, state, &extensions).await
+}
+
+async fn parse_groupings(
+    agg_rel: &AggregateRel,
+    schema: &DFSchema,
+    consumer: &DefaultSubstraitConsumer<'_>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Expr>> {
+    let mut group_exprs = Vec::new();
+
+    // First, handle the new-style grouping_expressions + expression_references
+    if !agg_rel.grouping_expressions.is_empty() {
+        for grouping in &agg_rel.groupings {
+            for expr_ref in &grouping.expression_references {
+                let idx = *expr_ref as usize;
+                if idx >= agg_rel.grouping_expressions.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Grouping expression reference {} out of bounds (max: {})",
+                        idx,
+                        agg_rel.grouping_expressions.len()
+                    )));
+                }
+                let expr = &agg_rel.grouping_expressions[idx];
+                let df_expr = from_substrait_rex(consumer, expr, schema)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to parse grouping expression: {}", e))
+                    })?;
+                group_exprs.push(df_expr);
+            }
+        }
+    } else {
+        // Fallback to deprecated inline grouping_expressions within each Grouping
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        for grouping in &agg_rel.groupings {
+            for expr in &grouping.grouping_expressions {
+                let df_expr = from_substrait_rex(consumer, expr, schema)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to parse grouping expression: {}", e))
+                    })?;
+                group_exprs.push(df_expr);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(group_exprs)
+}
+
+async fn parse_measures(
+    agg_rel: &AggregateRel,
+    schema: &DFSchema,
+    consumer: &DefaultSubstraitConsumer<'_>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Expr>> {
+    let mut aggregates = Vec::new();
+
+    for measure in &agg_rel.measures {
+        if let Some(agg_func) = &measure.measure {
+            // Parse optional filter
+            let filter = if let Some(filter_expr) = &measure.filter {
+                let df_filter = from_substrait_rex(consumer, filter_expr, schema)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to parse measure filter: {}", e))
+                    })?;
+                Some(Box::new(df_filter))
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+            // Parse ordering (for ordered aggregates like ARRAY_AGG)
+            let order_by = from_substrait_sorts(consumer, &agg_func.sorts, schema)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to parse aggregate sorts: {}", e))
+                })?;
+
+            // Check for DISTINCT invocation
+            let distinct = matches!(
+                agg_func.invocation,
+                i if i == datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::aggregate_function::AggregationInvocation::Distinct as i32
+            );
+
+            // Convert Substrait AggregateFunction to DataFusion Expr
+            let df_expr =
+                from_substrait_agg_func(consumer, agg_func, schema, filter, order_by, distinct)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to parse aggregate function: {}", e))
+                    })?;
+
+            aggregates.push(df_expr.as_ref().clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(aggregates)
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, TimeUnit};
     use datafusion::{
         execution::SessionState,
-        logical_expr::{BinaryExpr, Operator},
+        logical_expr::{BinaryExpr, Case, Operator},
         prelude::{Expr, SessionContext},
     };
     use datafusion_common::{Column, ScalarValue};
     use datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::{
+        Expression, ExpressionReference, ExtendedExpression, FunctionArgument, NamedStruct, Type,
+        Version,
         expression::{
+            FieldReference, IfThen, Literal, ReferenceSegment, RexType, ScalarFunction,
             field_reference::{ReferenceType, RootReference, RootType},
+            if_then::IfClause,
             literal::LiteralType,
             reference_segment::{self, StructField},
-            FieldReference, Literal, ReferenceSegment, RexType, ScalarFunction,
         },
         expression_reference::ExprType,
         extensions::{
+            SimpleExtensionDeclaration, SimpleExtensionUrn,
             simple_extension_declaration::{ExtensionFunction, MappingType},
-            SimpleExtensionDeclaration, SimpleExtensionUri, SimpleExtensionUrn,
         },
         function_argument::ArgType,
-        r#type::{Boolean, Kind, Nullability, Struct, I32},
-        Expression, ExpressionReference, ExtendedExpression, FunctionArgument, NamedStruct, Type,
-        Version,
+        r#type::{Boolean, I32, Kind, Nullability, Struct},
     };
     use prost::Message;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     use crate::substrait::{encode_substrait, parse_substrait};
 
@@ -371,13 +778,6 @@ mod tests {
                 git_hash: "".to_string(),
                 producer: "unit-test".to_string(),
             }),
-            #[expect(deprecated)]
-            extension_uris: vec![
-                SimpleExtensionUri {
-                    extension_uri_anchor: 1,
-                    uri: "https://github.com/substrait-io/substrait/blob/main/extensions/functions_comparison.yaml".to_string(),
-                }
-            ],
             extension_urns: vec![
                 SimpleExtensionUrn {
                     extension_urn_anchor: 1,
@@ -387,8 +787,6 @@ mod tests {
             extensions: vec![
                 SimpleExtensionDeclaration {
                     mapping_type: Some(MappingType::ExtensionFunction(ExtensionFunction {
-                        #[expect(deprecated)]
-                        extension_uri_reference: 1,
                         extension_urn_reference: 1,
                         function_anchor: 1,
                         name: "lt".to_string(),
@@ -465,6 +863,211 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(df_expr, expected);
     }
 
+    /// A base schema with no extension types needs no field pruning, which is the case that
+    /// used to skip validation entirely.
+    async fn parse_unpruned_expr(rex_type: RexType) -> lance_core::Result<Expr> {
+        let expr = ExtendedExpression {
+            version: Some(Version {
+                major_number: 0,
+                minor_number: 63,
+                patch_number: 1,
+                git_hash: "".to_string(),
+                producer: "unit-test".to_string(),
+            }),
+            extension_urns: vec![],
+            extensions: vec![],
+            referred_expr: vec![ExpressionReference {
+                output_names: vec!["filter_mask".to_string()],
+                expr_type: Some(ExprType::Expression(Expression {
+                    rex_type: Some(rex_type),
+                })),
+            }],
+            base_schema: Some(NamedStruct {
+                names: vec!["x".to_string()],
+                r#struct: Some(Struct {
+                    types: vec![Type {
+                        kind: Some(Kind::I32(I32 {
+                            type_variation_reference: 0,
+                            nullability: Nullability::Nullable as i32,
+                        })),
+                    }],
+                    type_variation_reference: 0,
+                    nullability: Nullability::Required as i32,
+                }),
+            }),
+            advanced_extensions: None,
+            expected_type_urls: vec![],
+        };
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true)]));
+        parse_substrait(expr.encode_to_vec().as_slice(), schema, &session_state()).await
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unsupported_operator_rejected_without_pruning() {
+        let err = parse_unpruned_expr(RexType::Subquery(Box::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect_err("subqueries should be rejected in filter expressions");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Window functions or subqueries not allowed in filter expression"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        let err = parse_unpruned_expr(RexType::Lambda(Box::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect_err("lambdas should be rejected in filter expressions");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Lambda expressions not allowed in filter expression"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unpruned_selection_without_explicit_root() {
+        let expr = parse_unpruned_expr(RexType::Selection(Box::new(FieldReference {
+            reference_type: Some(ReferenceType::DirectReference(ReferenceSegment {
+                reference_type: Some(reference_segment::ReferenceType::StructField(Box::new(
+                    StructField {
+                        field: 0,
+                        child: None,
+                    },
+                ))),
+            })),
+            root_type: None,
+        })))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(expr, Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified("x")));
+    }
+
+    /// The deprecated literal is always microseconds, but DataFusion reads the default
+    /// variation reference as seconds.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::default_reference(0, TimeUnit::Microsecond)]
+    #[case::milli_reference(1, TimeUnit::Millisecond)]
+    #[case::micro_reference(2, TimeUnit::Microsecond)]
+    #[case::nano_reference(3, TimeUnit::Nanosecond)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deprecated_timestamp_literal_units(
+        #[case] type_variation_reference: u32,
+        #[case] expected_unit: TimeUnit,
+    ) {
+        const MICROS: i64 = 1_704_247_200_000_000;
+
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        let expr = parse_unpruned_expr(RexType::Literal(Literal {
+            nullable: false,
+            type_variation_reference,
+            literal_type: Some(LiteralType::Timestamp(MICROS)),
+        }))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let expected = match expected_unit {
+            TimeUnit::Millisecond => ScalarValue::TimestampMillisecond(Some(MICROS), None),
+            TimeUnit::Microsecond => ScalarValue::TimestampMicrosecond(Some(MICROS), None),
+            TimeUnit::Nanosecond => ScalarValue::TimestampNanosecond(Some(MICROS), None),
+            other => panic!("unexpected time unit {other:?}"),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(expr, Expr::Literal(expected, None));
+    }
+
+    /// DataFusion has no consumer branch for the deprecated `timestamp_tz`, so it failed the
+    /// filter outright rather than answering wrongly.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deprecated_timestamp_tz_literal() {
+        const MICROS: i64 = 1_704_247_200_000_000;
+
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        let expr = parse_unpruned_expr(RexType::Literal(Literal {
+            nullable: false,
+            type_variation_reference: 0,
+            literal_type: Some(LiteralType::TimestampTz(MICROS)),
+        }))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            expr,
+            Expr::Literal(
+                ScalarValue::TimestampMicrosecond(Some(MICROS), Some("UTC".into())),
+                None
+            )
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Optional message fields that a producer may legitimately omit must not panic the walker.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unpruned_if_then_with_omitted_optional_fields() {
+        let condition = Expression {
+            rex_type: Some(RexType::Literal(Literal {
+                nullable: false,
+                type_variation_reference: 0,
+                literal_type: Some(LiteralType::Boolean(true)),
+            })),
+        };
+
+        // A leading clause without `then` supplies the case expression, and `else` is optional.
+        let expr = parse_unpruned_expr(RexType::IfThen(Box::new(IfThen {
+            ifs: vec![IfClause {
+                r#if: Some(condition),
+                then: None,
+            }],
+            r#else: None,
+        })))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            expr,
+            Expr::Case(Case {
+                expr: Some(Box::new(Expr::Literal(
+                    ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(true)),
+                    None
+                ))),
+                when_then_expr: vec![],
+                else_expr: None,
+            })
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// DataFusion only tolerates an omitted `then` on the leading clause, so a later clause
+    /// missing one has to be rejected here rather than reaching the consumer.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unpruned_if_then_missing_nonleading_then() {
+        let condition = || Expression {
+            rex_type: Some(RexType::Literal(Literal {
+                nullable: false,
+                type_variation_reference: 0,
+                literal_type: Some(LiteralType::Boolean(true)),
+            })),
+        };
+
+        let err = parse_unpruned_expr(RexType::IfThen(Box::new(IfThen {
+            ifs: vec![
+                IfClause {
+                    r#if: Some(condition()),
+                    then: Some(condition()),
+                },
+                IfClause {
+                    r#if: Some(condition()),
+                    then: None,
+                },
+            ],
+            r#else: None,
+        })))
+        .await
+        .expect_err("a non-leading clause without `then` is not valid");
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("if clause result"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_expr_substrait_roundtrip() {
         let schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true)]);
@@ -535,6 +1138,93 @@ mod tests {
         assert_substrait_roundtrip(schema, id_filter("test-id")).await;
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_parse_substrait_with_pyarrow_list_struct_names() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            list_of_struct(
+                "items",
+                vec![
+                    Field::new("value", DataType::Float32, true),
+                    Field::new("label", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                ],
+            ),
+            Field::new("checkpoint", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let expr = Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+            left: Box::new(Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified("checkpoint"))),
+            op: Operator::Eq,
+            right: Box::new(Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(0)), None)),
+        });
+
+        let bytes = encode_substrait(expr.clone(), schema.clone(), &session_state()).unwrap();
+        let mut envelope = ExtendedExpression::decode(bytes.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        let base_schema = envelope.base_schema.as_mut().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            base_schema.names,
+            ["id", "items", "value", "label", "checkpoint"]
+        );
+
+        // PyArrow omits names nested beneath list element types.
+        base_schema.names = ["id", "items", "checkpoint"]
+            .map(ToString::to_string)
+            .to_vec();
+        let bytes = envelope.encode_to_vec();
+
+        let decoded = parse_substrait(bytes.as_slice(), schema, &session_state())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded, expr);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_pyarrow_shallow_names_with_placeholder_before_filter() {
+        let list_field = list_of_struct(
+            "items",
+            vec![
+                Field::new("value", DataType::Float32, true),
+                Field::new("label", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ],
+        );
+        let placeholder = "__unlikely_name_placeholder_0";
+        let serialized_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            list_field.clone(),
+            Field::new(placeholder, DataType::Int8, true),
+            Field::new("checkpoint", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let input_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            list_field,
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new("checkpoint", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let expr = Expr::BinaryExpr(BinaryExpr {
+            left: Box::new(Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified("checkpoint"))),
+            op: Operator::Eq,
+            right: Box::new(Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(0)), None)),
+        });
+
+        let bytes = encode_substrait(expr.clone(), serialized_schema, &session_state()).unwrap();
+        let mut envelope = ExtendedExpression::decode(bytes.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        envelope.base_schema.as_mut().unwrap().names = ["id", "items", placeholder, "checkpoint"]
+            .map(ToString::to_string)
+            .to_vec();
+
+        let decoded = parse_substrait(
+            envelope.encode_to_vec().as_slice(),
+            input_schema,
+            &session_state(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded, expr);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_substrait_roundtrip_with_list_struct_struct() {
         let schema = Schema::new(vec![
@@ -607,4 +1297,351 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert_substrait_roundtrip(schema, id_filter("test-id")).await;
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_substrait_roundtrip_with_null_and_float16_columns() {
+        // Float16 and Null are encoded as UserDefined types in Substrait.
+        // The decode side (remove_extension_types) strips them and remaps
+        // field references, so filters on other columns still work.
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("embedding", DataType::Float16, true),
+            Field::new("empty", DataType::Null, true),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+
+        assert_substrait_roundtrip(schema, id_filter("test-id")).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_substrait_roundtrip_with_fixed_size_list_column() {
+        // FixedSizeList has no Substrait producer support, so it must be
+        // pruned from the schema before encoding. Verify that a schema with
+        // FSL columns works when the filter references a different column.
+        use crate::substrait::prune_schema_for_substrait;
+
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 128),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+
+        // Encoding with the full schema would fail, but pruning removes the FSL column
+        let pruned = prune_schema_for_substrait(&schema);
+        assert_eq!(pruned.fields().len(), 2); // id and name only
+        assert_substrait_roundtrip(pruned, id_filter("test-id")).await;
+    }
+
+    // ==================== Aggregate parsing tests ====================
+
+    use datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::{
+        AggregateFunction, AggregateRel, Plan, PlanRel, Rel, RelRoot,
+        aggregate_function::AggregationInvocation,
+        aggregate_rel::{Grouping, Measure},
+        rel::RelType,
+    };
+
+    /// Helper to create a field reference expression for a column index
+    fn agg_field_ref(field_index: i32) -> Expression {
+        Expression {
+            rex_type: Some(RexType::Selection(Box::new(FieldReference {
+                reference_type: Some(ReferenceType::DirectReference(ReferenceSegment {
+                    reference_type: Some(reference_segment::ReferenceType::StructField(Box::new(
+                        StructField {
+                            field: field_index,
+                            child: None,
+                        },
+                    ))),
+                })),
+                root_type: Some(RootType::RootReference(RootReference {})),
+            }))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create extension declaration for an aggregate function
+    fn agg_extension(anchor: u32, name: &str) -> SimpleExtensionDeclaration {
+        SimpleExtensionDeclaration {
+            mapping_type: Some(MappingType::ExtensionFunction(ExtensionFunction {
+                extension_urn_reference: 1,
+                function_anchor: anchor,
+                name: name.to_string(),
+            })),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Helper to create a Substrait Plan with AggregateRel
+    fn create_aggregate_plan(
+        measures: Vec<Measure>,
+        grouping_expressions: Vec<Expression>,
+        groupings: Vec<Grouping>,
+        extensions: Vec<SimpleExtensionDeclaration>,
+    ) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let aggregate_rel = AggregateRel {
+            common: None,
+            input: None, // Input is ignored for pushdown
+            groupings,
+            measures,
+            grouping_expressions,
+            advanced_extension: None,
+        };
+
+        let rel = Rel {
+            rel_type: Some(RelType::Aggregate(Box::new(aggregate_rel))),
+        };
+
+        // Wrap in a Plan to include extensions
+        let plan = Plan {
+            version: Some(Version {
+                major_number: 0,
+                minor_number: 63,
+                patch_number: 0,
+                git_hash: String::new(),
+                producer: "lance-test".to_string(),
+            }),
+            extension_urns: vec![SimpleExtensionUrn {
+                extension_urn_anchor: 1,
+                urn: "https://github.com/substrait-io/substrait/blob/main/extensions/functions_aggregate_generic.yaml".to_string(),
+            }],
+            extensions,
+            relations: vec![PlanRel {
+                rel_type: Some(
+                    datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::plan_rel::RelType::Root(RelRoot {
+                        input: Some(rel),
+                        names: vec![],
+                    }),
+                ),
+            }],
+            advanced_extensions: None,
+            expected_type_urls: vec![],
+            parameter_bindings: vec![],
+            type_aliases: vec![],
+        };
+
+        plan.encode_to_vec()
+    }
+
+    /// Create a COUNT(*) measure
+    fn count_star_measure(function_ref: u32) -> Measure {
+        Measure {
+            measure: Some(AggregateFunction {
+                function_reference: function_ref,
+                arguments: vec![],
+                options: vec![],
+                output_type: None,
+                phase: 0,
+                sorts: vec![],
+                invocation: AggregationInvocation::All as i32,
+                #[allow(deprecated)]
+                args: vec![],
+            }),
+            filter: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a SUM/AVG/MIN/MAX measure on a column
+    fn simple_agg_measure(function_ref: u32, column_index: i32) -> Measure {
+        Measure {
+            measure: Some(AggregateFunction {
+                function_reference: function_ref,
+                arguments: vec![FunctionArgument {
+                    arg_type: Some(ArgType::Value(agg_field_ref(column_index))),
+                }],
+                options: vec![],
+                output_type: None,
+                phase: 0,
+                sorts: vec![],
+                invocation: AggregationInvocation::All as i32,
+                #[allow(deprecated)]
+                args: vec![],
+            }),
+            filter: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_parse_substrait_aggregate_count_star() {
+        let bytes = create_aggregate_plan(
+            vec![count_star_measure(0)],
+            vec![],
+            vec![],
+            vec![agg_extension(0, "count")],
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("y", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let result =
+            crate::substrait::parse_substrait_aggregate(&bytes, schema, &session_state()).await;
+
+        let agg = result.expect("Failed to parse COUNT(*) aggregate");
+        assert!(agg.group_by.is_empty(), "COUNT(*) should have no group by");
+        assert_eq!(agg.aggregates.len(), 1, "Should have exactly one aggregate");
+
+        // Verify it's a COUNT aggregate
+        let agg_expr = &agg.aggregates[0];
+        assert!(
+            agg_expr.schema_name().to_string().contains("count"),
+            "Expected COUNT aggregate, got: {}",
+            agg_expr.schema_name()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_parse_substrait_aggregate_sum() {
+        let bytes = create_aggregate_plan(
+            vec![simple_agg_measure(0, 1)], // SUM on column index 1 (y)
+            vec![],
+            vec![],
+            vec![agg_extension(0, "sum")],
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("y", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let result =
+            crate::substrait::parse_substrait_aggregate(&bytes, schema, &session_state()).await;
+
+        let agg = result.expect("Failed to parse SUM aggregate");
+        assert!(agg.group_by.is_empty(), "SUM should have no group by");
+        assert_eq!(agg.aggregates.len(), 1, "Should have exactly one aggregate");
+
+        // Verify it's a SUM aggregate
+        let agg_expr = &agg.aggregates[0];
+        assert!(
+            agg_expr.schema_name().to_string().contains("sum"),
+            "Expected SUM aggregate, got: {}",
+            agg_expr.schema_name()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_parse_substrait_aggregate_sum_with_group_by() {
+        // SUM(y) GROUP BY x
+        let bytes = create_aggregate_plan(
+            vec![simple_agg_measure(0, 1)], // SUM on column index 1 (y)
+            vec![agg_field_ref(0)],         // Group by column index 0 (x)
+            vec![Grouping {
+                #[allow(deprecated)]
+                grouping_expressions: vec![],
+                expression_references: vec![0], // Reference to first grouping_expression
+            }],
+            vec![agg_extension(0, "sum")],
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("y", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let result =
+            crate::substrait::parse_substrait_aggregate(&bytes, schema, &session_state()).await;
+
+        let agg = result.expect("Failed to parse SUM with GROUP BY");
+        assert_eq!(
+            agg.group_by.len(),
+            1,
+            "Should have exactly one group by expression"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(agg.aggregates.len(), 1, "Should have exactly one aggregate");
+
+        // Verify group by is column x
+        let group_expr = &agg.group_by[0];
+        assert!(
+            group_expr.schema_name().to_string().contains('x'),
+            "Expected group by on column x, got: {}",
+            group_expr.schema_name()
+        );
+
+        // Verify it's a SUM aggregate
+        let agg_expr = &agg.aggregates[0];
+        assert!(
+            agg_expr.schema_name().to_string().contains("sum"),
+            "Expected SUM aggregate, got: {}",
+            agg_expr.schema_name()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_parse_substrait_aggregate_multiple_aggregates() {
+        // COUNT(*) and SUM(y)
+        let bytes = create_aggregate_plan(
+            vec![count_star_measure(0), simple_agg_measure(1, 1)],
+            vec![],
+            vec![],
+            vec![agg_extension(0, "count"), agg_extension(1, "sum")],
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("y", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let result =
+            crate::substrait::parse_substrait_aggregate(&bytes, schema, &session_state()).await;
+
+        let agg = result.expect("Failed to parse multiple aggregates");
+        assert!(agg.group_by.is_empty(), "Should have no group by");
+        assert_eq!(agg.aggregates.len(), 2, "Should have two aggregates");
+
+        // Verify COUNT
+        assert!(
+            agg.aggregates[0]
+                .schema_name()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("count"),
+            "Expected COUNT aggregate, got: {}",
+            agg.aggregates[0].schema_name()
+        );
+
+        // Verify SUM
+        assert!(
+            agg.aggregates[1].schema_name().to_string().contains("sum"),
+            "Expected SUM aggregate, got: {}",
+            agg.aggregates[1].schema_name()
+        );
+    }
+
+    // ==================== LIKE and starts_with tests ====================
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_substrait_roundtrip_like() {
+        use datafusion::logical_expr::Like;
+
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true)]);
+
+        let like_expr = Expr::Like(Like {
+            negated: false,
+            expr: Box::new(Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified("name"))),
+            pattern: Box::new(Expr::Literal(
+                ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("test%".to_string())),
+                None,
+            )),
+            escape_char: None,
+            case_insensitive: false,
+        });
+
+        assert_substrait_roundtrip(schema, like_expr).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_substrait_roundtrip_starts_with() {
+        use datafusion::functions::string::starts_with;
+
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true)]);
+
+        let starts_with_expr = starts_with().call(vec![
+            Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified("name")),
+            Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("prefix".to_string())), None),
+        ]);
+
+        assert_substrait_roundtrip(schema, starts_with_expr).await;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/udf.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/udf.rs
index 9117b67f82e..fc43de4a216 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/udf.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/udf.rs
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, StringArray};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use datafusion::logical_expr::{create_udf, ScalarUDF, Volatility};
+use datafusion::logical_expr::{ScalarUDF, Volatility, create_udf};
 use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
 use datafusion_functions::utils::make_scalar_function;
 use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
@@ -27,7 +27,52 @@ pub fn register_functions(ctx: &SessionContext) {
     ctx.register_udf(json::json_array_contains_udf());
     ctx.register_udf(json::json_array_length_udf());
     // GEO functions
+    #[cfg(feature = "geo")]
     lance_geo::register_functions(ctx);
+    #[cfg(not(feature = "geo"))]
+    register_geo_stub_functions(ctx);
+}
+
+/// When the `geo` feature is disabled, register stub UDFs for spatial SQL functions
+/// so that users get a clear error mentioning the feature flag instead of
+/// DataFusion's generic "Unknown function" error.
+#[cfg(not(feature = "geo"))]
+fn register_geo_stub_functions(ctx: &SessionContext) {
+    let geo_funcs = [
+        "st_intersects",
+        "st_contains",
+        "st_within",
+        "st_touches",
+        "st_crosses",
+        "st_overlaps",
+        "st_covers",
+        "st_coveredby",
+        "st_distance",
+        "st_area",
+        "st_length",
+    ];
+
+    for name in geo_funcs {
+        let func_name = name.to_string();
+        let stub = Arc::new(make_scalar_function(
+            move |_args: &[ArrayRef]| {
+                Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Plan(format!(
+                    "Function '{}' requires the `geo` feature. \
+                     Rebuild with `--features geo` to enable geospatial functions.",
+                    func_name
+                )))
+            },
+            vec![],
+        ));
+
+        ctx.register_udf(create_udf(
+            name,
+            vec![DataType::Binary, DataType::Binary],
+            DataType::Boolean,
+            Volatility::Immutable,
+            stub,
+        ));
+    }
 }
 
 /// This method checks whether a string contains all specified tokens. The tokens are separated by
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/udf/json.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/udf/json.rs
index fb91b53a2d7..33b88d26ea2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/udf/json.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/udf/json.rs
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result};
 use datafusion::logical_expr::{ScalarUDF, Volatility};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::ColumnarValue;
 use datafusion::prelude::create_udf;
+use lance_arrow::json::{json_path_exists, select_json_path, select_json_path_values};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 /// Represents the type of a JSONB value
@@ -50,24 +51,6 @@ impl JsonbType {
 mod common {
     use super::*;
 
-    /// Key type for JSON field access - optimizes field/index parsing
-    #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-    pub enum KeyType {
-        Field(String),
-        Index(usize),
-    }
-
-    impl KeyType {
-        /// Parse a key string into either a field name or array index (once per operation)
-        pub fn parse(key: &str) -> Self {
-            if let Ok(index) = key.parse::<usize>() {
-                Self::Index(index)
-            } else {
-                Self::Field(key.to_string())
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
     /// Convert ColumnarValue arguments to ArrayRef vector
     ///
     /// Note: This implementation currently broadcasts scalars to arrays.
@@ -132,25 +115,30 @@ mod common {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Get JSON field/element using pre-parsed key type (avoids repeated parsing)
+    /// Get a JSON field or array element by key.
     pub fn get_json_value_by_key(
         raw_jsonb: &jsonb::RawJsonb,
-        key_type: &KeyType,
+        key: &str,
     ) -> Result<Option<jsonb::OwnedJsonb>> {
-        match key_type {
-            KeyType::Field(field) => raw_jsonb
-                .get_by_name(field, false)
-                .map_err(|e| execution_error(format!("Failed to get field '{}': {}", field, e))),
-            KeyType::Index(index) => raw_jsonb.get_by_index(*index).map_err(|e| {
-                execution_error(format!("Failed to get array element [{}]: {}", index, e))
-            }),
+        if raw_jsonb.is_object().unwrap_or(false) {
+            raw_jsonb
+                .get_by_name(key, false)
+                .map_err(|e| execution_error(format!("Failed to get field '{}': {}", key, e)))
+        } else if raw_jsonb.is_array().unwrap_or(false) {
+            match key.parse::<usize>() {
+                Ok(index) => raw_jsonb.get_by_index(index).map_err(|e| {
+                    execution_error(format!("Failed to get array element [{}]: {}", index, e))
+                }),
+                Err(_) => Ok(None),
+            }
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
         }
     }
 
     /// Parse JSONPath with proper error handling (no false returns)
     pub fn parse_json_path(path: &str) -> Result<jsonb::jsonpath::JsonPath<'_>> {
-        jsonb::jsonpath::parse_json_path(path.as_bytes())
-            .map_err(|e| execution_error(format!("Invalid JSONPath '{}': {}", path, e)))
+        lance_arrow::json::parse_json_path(path).map_err(|e| execution_error(e.to_string()))
     }
 }
 
@@ -316,8 +304,8 @@ fn json_extract_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
 
 /// Implementation of json_extract_with_type function
 fn json_extract_with_type_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
-    use arrow_array::builder::{LargeBinaryBuilder, UInt8Builder};
     use arrow_array::StructArray;
+    use arrow_array::builder::{LargeBinaryBuilder, UInt8Builder};
 
     common::validate_arg_count(args, 2, "json_extract_with_type")?;
 
@@ -376,45 +364,39 @@ fn json_extract_with_type_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
 fn extract_json_path_with_type(jsonb_bytes: &[u8], path: &str) -> Result<Option<(Vec<u8>, u8)>> {
     let json_path = common::parse_json_path(path)?;
 
-    let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
-    let mut selector = jsonb::jsonpath::Selector::new(raw_jsonb);
-    match selector.select_values(&json_path) {
-        Ok(values) => {
-            if values.is_empty() {
-                Ok(None)
-            } else {
-                // Get the first matched value
-                let owned_value = &values[0];
-                let raw = owned_value.as_raw();
-
-                // Determine type using JsonbType enum
-                let jsonb_type = if raw.is_null().unwrap_or(false) {
-                    JsonbType::Null
-                } else if raw.is_boolean().unwrap_or(false) {
-                    JsonbType::Boolean
-                } else if raw.is_number().unwrap_or(false) {
-                    // Try to determine if it's an integer or float
-                    if raw.to_i64().is_ok() {
-                        JsonbType::Int64
-                    } else {
-                        JsonbType::Float64
-                    }
-                } else if raw.is_string().unwrap_or(false) {
-                    JsonbType::String
-                } else if raw.is_array().unwrap_or(false) {
-                    JsonbType::Array
-                } else if raw.is_object().unwrap_or(false) {
-                    JsonbType::Object
+    match select_json_path(jsonb_bytes, &json_path) {
+        Ok(Some(owned_value)) => {
+            let raw = owned_value.as_raw();
+
+            // Determine type using JsonbType enum
+            let jsonb_type = if raw.is_null().unwrap_or(false) {
+                JsonbType::Null
+            } else if raw.is_boolean().unwrap_or(false) {
+                JsonbType::Boolean
+            } else if raw.is_number().unwrap_or(false) {
+                let is_float_storage =
+                    matches!(raw.as_number(), Ok(Some(jsonb::Number::Float64(_))));
+                if !is_float_storage && raw.is_i64().unwrap_or(false) {
+                    JsonbType::Int64
                 } else {
-                    JsonbType::String // default to string
-                };
+                    JsonbType::Float64
+                }
+            } else if raw.is_string().unwrap_or(false) {
+                JsonbType::String
+            } else if raw.is_array().unwrap_or(false) {
+                JsonbType::Array
+            } else if raw.is_object().unwrap_or(false) {
+                JsonbType::Object
+            } else {
+                JsonbType::String // default to string
+            };
 
-                // Return the JSONB bytes and type tag as u8
-                Ok(Some((owned_value.clone().to_vec(), jsonb_type.as_u8())))
-            }
+            // Return the JSONB bytes and type tag as u8
+            Ok(Some((owned_value.to_vec(), jsonb_type.as_u8())))
         }
+        Ok(None) => Ok(None),
         Err(e) => Err(common::execution_error(format!(
-            "Failed to select values from path '{}': {}",
+            "Failed to select value from path '{}': {}",
             path, e
         ))),
     }
@@ -422,23 +404,15 @@ fn extract_json_path_with_type(jsonb_bytes: &[u8], path: &str) -> Result<Option<
 
 /// Extract value from JSONB using JSONPath
 ///
-/// Note: Uses `select_values` instead of the deprecated `select_by_path` method
+/// Note: Uses `select_value` so JSONPath expressions matching multiple values
+/// return a JSON array instead of silently dropping all but the first match.
 fn extract_json_path(jsonb_bytes: &[u8], path: &str) -> Result<Option<String>> {
     let json_path = common::parse_json_path(path)?;
 
-    let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
-    let mut selector = jsonb::jsonpath::Selector::new(raw_jsonb);
-    match selector.select_values(&json_path) {
-        Ok(values) => {
-            if values.is_empty() {
-                Ok(None)
-            } else {
-                // Return the first matched value
-                Ok(Some(values[0].to_string()))
-            }
-        }
+    match select_json_path(jsonb_bytes, &json_path) {
+        Ok(value) => Ok(value.map(|value| value.to_string())),
         Err(e) => Err(common::execution_error(format!(
-            "Failed to select values from path '{}': {}",
+            "Failed to select value from path '{}': {}",
             path, e
         ))),
     }
@@ -497,9 +471,7 @@ fn json_exists_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
 fn check_json_path_exists(jsonb_bytes: &[u8], path: &str) -> Result<bool> {
     let json_path = common::parse_json_path(path)?;
 
-    let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
-    let mut selector = jsonb::jsonpath::Selector::new(raw_jsonb);
-    match selector.exists(&json_path) {
+    match json_path_exists(jsonb_bytes, &json_path) {
         Ok(exists) => Ok(exists),
         Err(e) => Err(common::execution_error(format!(
             "Failed to check existence of path '{}': {}",
@@ -547,10 +519,9 @@ fn json_get_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
             builder.append_null();
         } else if let Some(key) = common::get_string_value_at(key_array, i) {
             let jsonb_bytes = jsonb_array.value(i);
-            let key_type = common::KeyType::parse(key);
             let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
 
-            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, &key_type)? {
+            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, key)? {
                 Some(value) => builder.append_value(value.as_raw().as_ref()),
                 None => builder.append_null(),
             }
@@ -601,10 +572,9 @@ fn json_get_string_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
             builder.append_null();
         } else if let Some(key) = common::get_string_value_at(key_array, i) {
             let jsonb_bytes = jsonb_array.value(i);
-            let key_type = common::KeyType::parse(key);
             let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
 
-            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, &key_type)? {
+            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, key)? {
                 Some(value) => match json_value_to_string(value)? {
                     Some(string_val) => builder.append_value(&string_val),
                     None => builder.append_null(),
@@ -658,10 +628,9 @@ fn json_get_int_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
             builder.append_null();
         } else if let Some(key) = common::get_string_value_at(key_array, i) {
             let jsonb_bytes = jsonb_array.value(i);
-            let key_type = common::KeyType::parse(key);
             let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
 
-            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, &key_type)? {
+            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, key)? {
                 Some(value) => match json_value_to_int(value)? {
                     Some(int_val) => builder.append_value(int_val),
                     None => builder.append_null(),
@@ -715,10 +684,9 @@ fn json_get_float_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
             builder.append_null();
         } else if let Some(key) = common::get_string_value_at(key_array, i) {
             let jsonb_bytes = jsonb_array.value(i);
-            let key_type = common::KeyType::parse(key);
             let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
 
-            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, &key_type)? {
+            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, key)? {
                 Some(value) => match json_value_to_float(value)? {
                     Some(float_val) => builder.append_value(float_val),
                     None => builder.append_null(),
@@ -772,10 +740,9 @@ fn json_get_bool_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
             builder.append_null();
         } else if let Some(key) = common::get_string_value_at(key_array, i) {
             let jsonb_bytes = jsonb_array.value(i);
-            let key_type = common::KeyType::parse(key);
             let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
 
-            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, &key_type)? {
+            match common::get_json_value_by_key(&raw_jsonb, key)? {
                 Some(value) => match json_value_to_bool(value)? {
                     Some(bool_val) => builder.append_value(bool_val),
                     None => builder.append_null(),
@@ -851,9 +818,7 @@ fn json_array_contains_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
 fn check_array_contains(jsonb_bytes: &[u8], path: &str, value: &str) -> Result<bool> {
     let json_path = common::parse_json_path(path)?;
 
-    let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
-    let mut selector = jsonb::jsonpath::Selector::new(raw_jsonb);
-    match selector.select_values(&json_path) {
+    match select_json_path_values(jsonb_bytes, &json_path) {
         Ok(values) => {
             for v in values {
                 // Convert to raw JSONB for direct access
@@ -939,9 +904,7 @@ fn json_array_length_impl(args: &[ArrayRef]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
 fn get_array_length(jsonb_bytes: &[u8], path: &str) -> Result<Option<i64>> {
     let json_path = common::parse_json_path(path)?;
 
-    let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(jsonb_bytes);
-    let mut selector = jsonb::jsonpath::Selector::new(raw_jsonb);
-    match selector.select_values(&json_path) {
+    match select_json_path_values(jsonb_bytes, &json_path) {
         Ok(values) => {
             if values.is_empty() {
                 return Ok(None);
@@ -980,7 +943,7 @@ fn get_array_length(jsonb_bytes: &[u8], path: &str) -> Result<Option<i64>> {
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use arrow_array::builder::LargeBinaryBuilder;
-    use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, Int64Array};
+    use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, Float64Array, Int64Array};
 
     fn create_test_jsonb(json_str: &str) -> Vec<u8> {
         jsonb::parse_value(json_str.as_bytes()).unwrap().to_vec()
@@ -1010,28 +973,31 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_json_extract_udf() -> Result<()> {
-        let json = r#"{"user": {"name": "Alice", "age": 30}}"#;
+        let json = r#"{"user": {"name": "Alice", "age": 30}, "tags": ["python", "ml"]}"#;
         let jsonb_bytes = create_test_jsonb(json);
 
         let mut binary_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::new();
         binary_builder.append_value(&jsonb_bytes);
         binary_builder.append_value(&jsonb_bytes);
+        binary_builder.append_value(&jsonb_bytes);
         binary_builder.append_null();
 
         let jsonb_array = Arc::new(binary_builder.finish());
         let path_array = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
             Some("$.user.name"),
             Some("$.user.age"),
+            Some("$.tags[*]"),
             Some("$.user.name"),
         ]));
 
         let result = json_extract_impl(&[jsonb_array, path_array])?;
         let string_array = result.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>().unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(string_array.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(string_array.len(), 4);
         assert_eq!(string_array.value(0), "\"Alice\"");
         assert_eq!(string_array.value(1), "30");
-        assert!(string_array.is_null(2));
+        assert_eq!(string_array.value(2), "[\"python\",\"ml\"]");
+        assert!(string_array.is_null(3));
 
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -1101,28 +1067,85 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_json_get_int_udf() -> Result<()> {
-        let json = r#"{"int": 42, "str_num": "99", "bool": true}"#;
+        let json = r#"{"int": 42, "str_num": "99", "bool": true, "0": 7}"#;
         let jsonb_bytes = create_test_jsonb(json);
 
         let mut binary_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::new();
-        binary_builder.append_value(&jsonb_bytes);
-        binary_builder.append_value(&jsonb_bytes);
-        binary_builder.append_value(&jsonb_bytes);
+        for _ in 0..4 {
+            binary_builder.append_value(&jsonb_bytes);
+        }
 
         let jsonb_array = Arc::new(binary_builder.finish());
         let key_array = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
             Some("int"),
             Some("str_num"),
             Some("bool"),
+            Some("0"),
         ]));
 
         let result = json_get_int_impl(&[jsonb_array, key_array])?;
         let int_array = result.as_any().downcast_ref::<Int64Array>().unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(int_array.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(int_array.len(), 4);
         assert_eq!(int_array.value(0), 42);
         assert_eq!(int_array.value(1), 99);
         assert_eq!(int_array.value(2), 1); // jsonb converts true to 1
+        assert_eq!(int_array.value(3), 7);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_json_get_float_udf() -> Result<()> {
+        let json = r#"{
+            "float_decimal": 1.5,
+            "float_neg": -2.5,
+            "float_int_value": 1.0,
+            "float_exp": 1e2,
+            "int_pos": 42,
+            "int_neg": -7,
+            "big_int": 9223372036854775808,
+            "str_num": "3.5",
+            "bool_true": true,
+            "null_val": null
+        }"#;
+        let jsonb_bytes = create_test_jsonb(json);
+
+        let mut binary_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::new();
+        for _ in 0..11 {
+            binary_builder.append_value(&jsonb_bytes);
+        }
+        let jsonb_array = Arc::new(binary_builder.finish());
+        let key_array = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+            Some("float_decimal"),
+            Some("float_neg"),
+            Some("float_int_value"),
+            Some("float_exp"),
+            Some("int_pos"),
+            Some("int_neg"),
+            Some("big_int"),
+            Some("str_num"),
+            Some("bool_true"),
+            Some("null_val"),
+            Some("missing"),
+        ]));
+
+        let result = json_get_float_impl(&[jsonb_array, key_array])?;
+        let float_array = result.as_any().downcast_ref::<Float64Array>().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(float_array.len(), 11);
+        assert_eq!(float_array.value(0), 1.5);
+        assert_eq!(float_array.value(1), -2.5);
+        assert_eq!(float_array.value(2), 1.0);
+        assert_eq!(float_array.value(3), 100.0);
+        assert_eq!(float_array.value(4), 42.0);
+        assert_eq!(float_array.value(5), -7.0);
+        // 2^63 is exactly representable in f64.
+        assert_eq!(float_array.value(6), 9223372036854775808.0);
+        assert_eq!(float_array.value(7), 3.5);
+        assert_eq!(float_array.value(8), 1.0); // jsonb converts true to 1.0
+        assert!(float_array.is_null(9));
+        assert!(float_array.is_null(10));
 
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -1227,6 +1250,80 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_json_extract_with_type() -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::StructArray;
+        use arrow_array::UInt8Array;
+
+        let cases: &[(&str, JsonbType)] = &[
+            (r#"{"v": 1}"#, JsonbType::Int64),
+            (r#"{"v": 0}"#, JsonbType::Int64),
+            (r#"{"v": -42}"#, JsonbType::Int64),
+            (r#"{"v": 9223372036854775807}"#, JsonbType::Int64), // i64::MAX
+            (r#"{"v": 9223372036854775808}"#, JsonbType::Float64), // i64::MAX + 1
+            (r#"{"v": 1.0}"#, JsonbType::Float64),
+            (r#"{"v": 2.7}"#, JsonbType::Float64),
+            (r#"{"v": 1.5}"#, JsonbType::Float64),
+            (r#"{"v": -1.5}"#, JsonbType::Float64),
+            (r#"{"v": 1e2}"#, JsonbType::Float64),
+        ];
+
+        for (json, expected) in cases {
+            let bytes = create_test_jsonb(json);
+            let mut binary_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::new();
+            binary_builder.append_value(&bytes);
+            let jsonb_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(binary_builder.finish());
+            let path_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("$.v")]));
+
+            let result = json_extract_with_type_impl(&[jsonb_array, path_array])?;
+            let struct_array = result.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().unwrap();
+            let type_tags = struct_array
+                .column_by_name("type_tag")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(type_tags.value(0), expected.as_u8());
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_json_extract_with_wildcard() -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::StructArray;
+        use arrow_array::UInt8Array;
+
+        let json = r#"{"items": [{"price": 1}, {"price": 2}]}"#;
+        let jsonb_bytes = create_test_jsonb(json);
+
+        let mut binary_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::new();
+        binary_builder.append_value(&jsonb_bytes);
+
+        let jsonb_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(binary_builder.finish());
+        let path_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("$.items[*].price")]));
+
+        let result = json_extract_with_type_impl(&[jsonb_array, path_array])?;
+        let struct_array = result.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().unwrap();
+        let values = struct_array
+            .column_by_name("value")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let type_tags = struct_array
+            .column_by_name("type_tag")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(jsonb::RawJsonb::new(values.value(0)).to_string(), "[1,2]");
+        assert_eq!(type_tags.value(0), JsonbType::Array.as_u8());
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_json_array_access() -> Result<()> {
         let json = r#"["first", "second", "third"]"#;
@@ -1254,4 +1351,32 @@ mod tests {
 
         Ok(())
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_json_get_numeric_object_key() -> Result<()> {
+        let obj_bytes = create_test_jsonb(r#"{"0": "from_object", "1": 42}"#);
+        let arr_bytes = create_test_jsonb(r#"["zero", "one", "two"]"#);
+
+        let mut binary_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::new();
+        binary_builder.append_value(&obj_bytes);
+        binary_builder.append_value(&arr_bytes);
+        binary_builder.append_value(&arr_bytes);
+
+        let jsonb_array = Arc::new(binary_builder.finish());
+        let key_array = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+            Some("0"),   // Numeric key on object: looks up the "0" field.
+            Some("0"),   // Numeric key on array: looks up index 0.
+            Some("foo"), // Non-numeric key on array: no match.
+        ]));
+
+        let result = json_get_string_impl(&[jsonb_array, key_array])?;
+        let string_array = result.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(string_array.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(string_array.value(0), "from_object");
+        assert_eq!(string_array.value(1), "zero");
+        assert!(string_array.is_null(2));
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/utils.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/utils.rs
index 39d693bace8..e660c8ee44d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/utils.rs
@@ -11,17 +11,17 @@ use background_iterator::BackgroundIterator;
 use datafusion::{
     execution::RecordBatchStream,
     physical_plan::{
+        SendableRecordBatchStream,
         metrics::{
             Count, ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, Gauge, MetricBuilder, MetricValue, MetricsSet, Time,
         },
         stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
-        SendableRecordBatchStream,
     },
 };
 use datafusion_common::DataFusionError;
-use futures::{stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
 use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use tokio::task::spawn;
 
 pub mod background_iterator;
@@ -155,6 +155,7 @@ pub fn reader_to_stream(batches: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>) -> SendableR
 pub trait MetricsExt {
     fn find_count(&self, name: &str) -> Option<Count>;
     fn iter_counts(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (impl AsRef<str>, &Count)>;
+    fn iter_times(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (impl AsRef<str>, &Time)>;
     fn iter_gauges(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (impl AsRef<str>, &Gauge)>;
 }
 
@@ -179,6 +180,13 @@ impl MetricsExt for MetricsSet {
         })
     }
 
+    fn iter_times(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (impl AsRef<str>, &Time)> {
+        self.iter().filter_map(|m| match m.value() {
+            MetricValue::Time { name, time } => Some((name, time)),
+            _ => None,
+        })
+    }
+
     fn iter_gauges(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (impl AsRef<str>, &Gauge)> {
         self.iter().filter_map(|m| match m.value() {
             MetricValue::Gauge { name, gauge } => Some((name, gauge)),
@@ -236,11 +244,14 @@ pub const INDICES_LOADED_METRIC: &str = "indices_loaded";
 pub const PARTS_LOADED_METRIC: &str = "parts_loaded";
 pub const PARTITIONS_RANKED_METRIC: &str = "partitions_ranked";
 pub const INDEX_COMPARISONS_METRIC: &str = "index_comparisons";
+pub const INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC: &str = "index_cache_hits";
+pub const INDEX_CACHE_MISSES_METRIC: &str = "index_cache_misses";
 pub const FRAGMENTS_SCANNED_METRIC: &str = "fragments_scanned";
 pub const RANGES_SCANNED_METRIC: &str = "ranges_scanned";
 pub const ROWS_SCANNED_METRIC: &str = "rows_scanned";
 pub const TASK_WAIT_TIME_METRIC: &str = "task_wait_time";
 pub const DELTAS_SEARCHED_METRIC: &str = "deltas_searched";
 pub const PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC: &str = "partitions_searched";
+pub const FIND_PARTITIONS_ELAPSED_METRIC: &str = "find_partitions_elapsed";
 pub const SCALAR_INDEX_SEARCH_TIME_METRIC: &str = "search_time";
-pub const SCALAR_INDEX_SER_TIME_METRIC: &str = "ser_time";
+pub const SCALAR_INDEX_SER_TIME_METRIC: &str = "serialization_time";
diff --git a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/utils/background_iterator.rs b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/utils/background_iterator.rs
index d9f0458718e..27a8fdc15f2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datafusion/src/utils/background_iterator.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datafusion/src/utils/background_iterator.rs
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use futures::ready;
 use futures::Stream;
+use futures::ready;
 use std::{
     future::Future,
     panic,
diff --git a/rust/lance-datagen/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-datagen/Cargo.toml
index c192485b271..4a57f1f0804 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datagen/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-datagen/Cargo.toml
@@ -17,17 +17,15 @@ arrow-schema = { workspace = true }
 chrono = { workspace = true }
 futures = { workspace = true }
 half = { workspace = true }
-hex = "0.4.3"
+hex.workspace = true
 rand = { workspace = true }
 rand_distr = { workspace = true }
 rand_xoshiro = { workspace = true }
-random_word = { version = "0.5", features = ["en"] }
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 criterion = { workspace = true }
-
-[target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dev-dependencies]
-pprof = { workspace = true }
+lance-testing.workspace = true
+rstest.workspace = true
 
 [lib]
 bench = false
diff --git a/rust/lance-datagen/benches/array_gen.rs b/rust/lance-datagen/benches/array_gen.rs
index 337201bf0fe..899b349a996 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datagen/benches/array_gen.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datagen/benches/array_gen.rs
@@ -1,18 +1,18 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, Int8Type};
+use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int8Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type};
 use criterion::{
-    criterion_group, criterion_main, measurement::Measurement, BenchmarkGroup, Criterion,
-    Throughput,
+    BenchmarkGroup, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main,
+    measurement::Measurement,
 };
 
 use lance_datagen::{
-    generator::ArrayGenerator, ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, ByteCount, Dimension,
-    RoundingBehavior,
+    ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, ByteCount, Dimension, RoundingBehavior,
+    generator::ArrayGenerator,
 };
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 const NUM_BATCHES: u32 = 100;
 const KB_PER_BATCH: u64 = 128;
diff --git a/rust/lance-datagen/src/generator.rs b/rust/lance-datagen/src/generator.rs
index 068eb17c642..333592747e8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-datagen/src/generator.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-datagen/src/generator.rs
@@ -5,24 +5,22 @@ use std::{collections::HashMap, iter, marker::PhantomData, sync::Arc, sync::Lazy
 
 use arrow::{
     array::{ArrayData, AsArray, Float32Builder, GenericBinaryBuilder, GenericStringBuilder},
-    buffer::{BooleanBuffer, Buffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer},
+    buffer::{BooleanBuffer, Buffer, MutableBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer},
     datatypes::{
         ArrowPrimitiveType, Float32Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, IntervalDayTime,
         IntervalMonthDayNano, UInt32Type,
     },
 };
 use arrow_array::{
-    make_array,
-    types::{ArrowDictionaryKeyType, BinaryType, ByteArrayType, Utf8Type},
     Array, BinaryArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, LargeListArray,
     LargeStringArray, ListArray, MapArray, NullArray, OffsetSizeTrait, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch,
-    RecordBatchOptions, RecordBatchReader, StringArray, StructArray,
+    RecordBatchOptions, RecordBatchReader, StringArray, StructArray, make_array,
+    types::{ArrowDictionaryKeyType, BinaryType, ByteArrayType, Utf8Type},
 };
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field, Fields, IntervalUnit, Schema, SchemaRef};
-use futures::{stream::BoxStream, StreamExt};
-use rand::{distr::Uniform, Rng, RngCore, SeedableRng};
+use futures::{StreamExt, stream::BoxStream};
+use rand::{Rng, RngCore, SeedableRng, distr::Uniform};
 use rand_distr::Zipf;
-use random_word;
 
 use self::array::rand_with_distribution;
 
@@ -571,7 +569,19 @@ where
         };
         self.leftover_count = ((self.leftover_count as u64 + length.0) % self.repeat as u64) as u32;
         self.leftover = values.last().copied().unwrap_or(T::default());
-        Ok(Arc::new(ArrayType::from(values)))
+        let array = ArrayType::from(values);
+        // `ArrayType::from` uses the primitive type's default metadata. For
+        // timezone-aware timestamps this drops the timezone, so restore the
+        // generator's declared type when it differs.
+        if array.data_type() == &self.data_type {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(array));
+        }
+        let data = array
+            .into_data()
+            .into_builder()
+            .data_type(self.data_type.clone())
+            .build()?;
+        Ok(make_array(data))
     }
 
     fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
@@ -816,9 +826,9 @@ impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType + Send + Sync> ArrayGenerator for RandomBytesGenerato
         rng: &mut rand_xoshiro::Xoshiro256PlusPlus,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>, ArrowError> {
         let num_bytes = length.0 * Self::byte_width()?;
-        let mut bytes = vec![0; num_bytes as usize];
-        rng.fill_bytes(&mut bytes);
-        let bytes = ScalarBuffer::new(Buffer::from(bytes), 0, length.0 as usize);
+        let mut bytes = MutableBuffer::from_len_zeroed(num_bytes as usize);
+        rng.fill_bytes(bytes.as_slice_mut());
+        let bytes = ScalarBuffer::new(bytes.into(), 0, length.0 as usize);
         Ok(Arc::new(
             PrimitiveArray::<T>::new(bytes, None).with_data_type(self.data_type.clone()),
         ))
@@ -1173,24 +1183,223 @@ impl ArrayGenerator for BinaryPrefixPlusCounterGenerator {
     }
 }
 
-// Common English stop words placed at the front to be sampled more frequently
+// Common English stop words placed at the front to be sampled more frequently.
 const STOP_WORDS: &[&str] = &[
     "a", "an", "and", "are", "as", "at", "be", "but", "by", "for", "if", "in", "into", "is", "it",
     "no", "not", "of", "on", "or", "such", "that", "the", "their", "then", "there", "these",
     "they", "this", "to", "was", "will", "with",
 ];
 
+const ENGLISH_WORDS: &[&str] = &[
+    "ability",
+    "able",
+    "about",
+    "above",
+    "accept",
+    "access",
+    "account",
+    "across",
+    "action",
+    "active",
+    "activity",
+    "actual",
+    "address",
+    "adjust",
+    "admin",
+    "advance",
+    "agent",
+    "align",
+    "allow",
+    "amount",
+    "analysis",
+    "answer",
+    "application",
+    "archive",
+    "array",
+    "asset",
+    "async",
+    "attribute",
+    "available",
+    "balance",
+    "batch",
+    "binary",
+    "bitmap",
+    "block",
+    "branch",
+    "buffer",
+    "build",
+    "cache",
+    "capacity",
+    "catalog",
+    "change",
+    "chunk",
+    "client",
+    "cluster",
+    "column",
+    "commit",
+    "common",
+    "compare",
+    "compile",
+    "compute",
+    "condition",
+    "config",
+    "connect",
+    "content",
+    "context",
+    "control",
+    "convert",
+    "copy",
+    "core",
+    "count",
+    "create",
+    "current",
+    "cursor",
+    "data",
+    "dataset",
+    "decode",
+    "default",
+    "delete",
+    "delta",
+    "depend",
+    "derive",
+    "design",
+    "detail",
+    "detect",
+    "device",
+    "direct",
+    "display",
+    "document",
+    "domain",
+    "drive",
+    "dynamic",
+    "encode",
+    "engine",
+    "error",
+    "event",
+    "example",
+    "execute",
+    "expand",
+    "expect",
+    "export",
+    "extend",
+    "feature",
+    "field",
+    "filter",
+    "final",
+    "finish",
+    "format",
+    "fragment",
+    "future",
+    "generate",
+    "global",
+    "group",
+    "handle",
+    "header",
+    "index",
+    "input",
+    "insert",
+    "inspect",
+    "instance",
+    "integer",
+    "internal",
+    "item",
+    "join",
+    "kernel",
+    "large",
+    "layer",
+    "layout",
+    "length",
+    "level",
+    "limit",
+    "linear",
+    "local",
+    "logical",
+    "lookup",
+    "manage",
+    "manifest",
+    "memory",
+    "merge",
+    "metric",
+    "model",
+    "module",
+    "namespace",
+    "native",
+    "node",
+    "normal",
+    "number",
+    "object",
+    "offset",
+    "option",
+    "output",
+    "package",
+    "page",
+    "parallel",
+    "parse",
+    "partition",
+    "pattern",
+    "physical",
+    "plan",
+    "policy",
+    "prefix",
+    "prepare",
+    "primary",
+    "process",
+    "profile",
+    "project",
+    "property",
+    "query",
+    "range",
+    "reader",
+    "record",
+    "region",
+    "registry",
+    "request",
+    "resolve",
+    "resource",
+    "result",
+    "return",
+    "row",
+    "runtime",
+    "scalar",
+    "scan",
+    "schema",
+    "search",
+    "segment",
+    "select",
+    "session",
+    "setting",
+    "source",
+    "stable",
+    "stage",
+    "state",
+    "static",
+    "storage",
+    "stream",
+    "string",
+    "struct",
+    "table",
+    "target",
+    "task",
+    "thread",
+    "token",
+    "trace",
+    "transform",
+    "type",
+    "update",
+    "upload",
+    "value",
+    "vector",
+    "version",
+    "view",
+    "write",
+    "writer",
+];
+
 /// Word list with stop words at the front for Zipf sampling, computed once.
 static SENTENCE_WORDS: LazyLock<Vec<&'static str>> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    let all_words = random_word::all(random_word::Lang::En);
-    let mut words = Vec::with_capacity(STOP_WORDS.len() + all_words.len());
+    let mut words = Vec::with_capacity(STOP_WORDS.len() + ENGLISH_WORDS.len());
     words.extend(STOP_WORDS.iter().copied());
-    words.extend(
-        all_words
-            .iter()
-            .filter(|w| !STOP_WORDS.contains(w))
-            .copied(),
-    );
+    words.extend(ENGLISH_WORDS.iter().copied());
     words
 });
 
@@ -1280,7 +1489,7 @@ struct RandomWordGenerator {
 
 impl RandomWordGenerator {
     pub fn new(is_large: bool) -> Self {
-        let words = random_word::all(random_word::Lang::En);
+        let words = ENGLISH_WORDS;
         Self { words, is_large }
     }
 }
@@ -2197,9 +2406,10 @@ impl BatchGeneratorBuilder {
         if !batch_size_bytes.0.is_multiple_of(bytes_per_row) {
             match rounding {
                 RoundingBehavior::ExactOrErr => {
-                    return Err(ArrowError::NotYetImplemented(
-                        format!("Exact rounding requested but not possible.  Batch size requested {}, row size: {}", batch_size_bytes.0, bytes_per_row))
-                    );
+                    return Err(ArrowError::NotYetImplemented(format!(
+                        "Exact rounding requested but not possible.  Batch size requested {}, row size: {}",
+                        batch_size_bytes.0, bytes_per_row
+                    )));
                 }
                 RoundingBehavior::RoundUp => {
                     num_rows = RowCount::from(num_rows.0 + 1);
@@ -2258,11 +2468,11 @@ const MS_PER_DAY: i64 = 86400000;
 
 pub mod array {
 
-    use arrow::datatypes::{Int16Type, Int64Type, Int8Type};
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Int8Type, Int16Type, Int64Type};
     use arrow_array::types::{
         Decimal128Type, Decimal256Type, DurationMicrosecondType, DurationMillisecondType,
         DurationNanosecondType, DurationSecondType, Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type,
-        UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type,
+        UInt8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type,
     };
     use arrow_array::{
         ArrowNativeTypeOp, BooleanArray, Date32Array, Date64Array, Time32MillisecondArray,
@@ -2620,14 +2830,29 @@ pub mod array {
         Box::new(RandomIntervalGenerator::new(unit))
     }
 
+    /// The default sampling range for temporal generators: the 365 days ending at
+    /// 2024-01-01T00:00:00Z (exclusive)
+    ///
+    /// The range must be a fixed anchor and not derived from the wall clock
+    /// (e.g. `Utc::now()`), otherwise the same RNG seed would generate different
+    /// values depending on when the generator was created, breaking
+    /// reproducibility (e.g. of saved fuzz inputs).  Callers that need a
+    /// time-relative range can use the `*_in_range` variants.
+    fn default_temporal_range() -> (chrono::DateTime<Utc>, chrono::DateTime<Utc>) {
+        let end = chrono::DateTime::<Utc>::from_timestamp(1_704_067_200, 0)
+            .expect("2024-01-01T00:00:00Z is a valid timestamp");
+        let start = end - chrono::TimeDelta::try_days(365).expect("TimeDelta try_days");
+        (start, end)
+    }
+
     /// Create a generator of randomly sampled date32 values
     ///
-    /// Instead of sampling the entire range, all values will be drawn from the last year as this
-    /// is a more common use pattern
+    /// Instead of sampling the entire range, all values will be drawn from a fixed
+    /// one-year range (the 365 days ending at 2024-01-01 UTC) as this is a more
+    /// common use pattern.  Use [`rand_date32_in_range`] to control the range.
     pub fn rand_date32() -> Box<dyn ArrayGenerator> {
-        let now = chrono::Utc::now();
-        let one_year_ago = now - chrono::TimeDelta::try_days(365).expect("TimeDelta try days");
-        rand_date32_in_range(one_year_ago, now)
+        let (start, end) = default_temporal_range();
+        rand_date32_in_range(start, end)
     }
 
     /// Create a generator of randomly sampled date32 values in the given range
@@ -2655,12 +2880,12 @@ pub mod array {
 
     /// Create a generator of randomly sampled date64 values
     ///
-    /// Instead of sampling the entire range, all values will be drawn from the last year as this
-    /// is a more common use pattern
+    /// Instead of sampling the entire range, all values will be drawn from a fixed
+    /// one-year range (the 365 days ending at 2024-01-01 UTC) as this is a more
+    /// common use pattern.  Use [`rand_date64_in_range`] to control the range.
     pub fn rand_date64() -> Box<dyn ArrayGenerator> {
-        let now = chrono::Utc::now();
-        let one_year_ago = now - chrono::TimeDelta::try_days(365).expect("TimeDelta try_days");
-        rand_date64_in_range(one_year_ago, now)
+        let (start, end) = default_temporal_range();
+        rand_date64_in_range(start, end)
     }
 
     /// Create a generator of randomly sampled timestamp values in the given range
@@ -2716,10 +2941,14 @@ pub mod array {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Create a generator of randomly sampled timestamp values
+    ///
+    /// Instead of sampling the entire range, all values will be drawn from a fixed
+    /// one-year range (the 365 days ending at 2024-01-01 UTC) as this is a more
+    /// common use pattern.  Use [`rand_timestamp_in_range`] to control the range.
     pub fn rand_timestamp(data_type: &DataType) -> Box<dyn ArrayGenerator> {
-        let now = chrono::Utc::now();
-        let one_year_ago = now - chrono::Duration::try_days(365).unwrap();
-        rand_timestamp_in_range(one_year_ago, now, data_type)
+        let (start, end) = default_temporal_range();
+        rand_timestamp_in_range(start, end, data_type)
     }
 
     /// Create a generator of randomly sampled date64 values
@@ -2987,12 +3216,11 @@ pub fn rand_field(field: &Field) -> Box<dyn ArrayGenerator> {
         array::rand_type(field.data_type())
     };
 
-    if let Some(cardinality_str) = field.metadata().get(CARDINALITY_KEY) {
-        if let Ok(cardinality) = cardinality_str.parse::<usize>() {
-            if cardinality > 0 {
-                generator = array::low_cardinality(generator, cardinality);
-            }
-        }
+    if let Some(cardinality_str) = field.metadata().get(CARDINALITY_KEY)
+        && let Ok(cardinality) = cardinality_str.parse::<usize>()
+        && cardinality > 0
+    {
+        generator = array::low_cardinality(generator, cardinality);
     }
 
     generator
@@ -3017,11 +3245,55 @@ pub fn rand(schema: &Schema) -> BatchGeneratorBuilder {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
 
-    use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, Int16Type, Int8Type, UInt32Type};
-    use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, Float32Array, Int16Array, Int32Array, Int8Array, UInt32Array};
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, Int8Type, Int16Type, TimeUnit, UInt32Type};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        BooleanArray, Date32Array, Date64Array, Float32Array, Int8Array, Int16Array, Int32Array,
+        TimestampMicrosecondArray, TimestampMillisecondArray, TimestampNanosecondArray,
+        TimestampSecondArray, UInt32Array,
+    };
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     use super::*;
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::float16(DataType::Float16)]
+    #[case::decimal128(DataType::Decimal128(38, 10))]
+    #[case::decimal256(DataType::Decimal256(76, 10))]
+    fn test_random_bytes_generator_alignment(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
+        for length in [0, 3] {
+            let generated = array::rand_type(&data_type)
+                .generate_default(RowCount::from(length))
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(generated.data_type(), &data_type);
+            assert_eq!(generated.len(), length as usize);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_timestamp_timezone_is_preserved() {
+        let data_type = DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Millisecond, Some("UTC".into()));
+        let mut generator = array::rand_type(&data_type);
+        let generated = generator.generate_default(RowCount::from(2)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(generated.data_type(), &data_type);
+
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("timestamp", data_type, true)]);
+        let mut generator = array::rand_struct(fields.clone());
+        let generated = generator.generate_default(RowCount::from(2)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(generated.data_type(), &DataType::Struct(fields));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fn_gen_propagates_array_data_build_error() {
+        // FnGen constructors are internal. Use an incompatible declared type to
+        // verify that ArrayDataBuilder validation failures are propagated.
+        let mut generator = FnGen::<i32, Int32Array, _>::new_unknown_size(DataType::Utf8, |_| 0, 1);
+
+        assert!(matches!(
+            generator.generate_default(RowCount::from(1)),
+            Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(_))
+        ));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_step() {
         let mut rng = rand_xoshiro::Xoshiro256PlusPlus::seed_from_u64(DEFAULT_SEED.0);
@@ -3191,9 +3463,75 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(
             *genn.generate(RowCount::from(3), &mut rng).unwrap(),
             arrow_array::BinaryArray::from_iter_values([
-                vec![174, 178],
-                vec![64, 122, 207, 248],
-                vec![124, 3, 58]
+                vec![111, 9, 80],
+                vec![86, 118, 13, 209],
+                vec![68, 33, 202]
+            ])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rng_temporal_deterministic() {
+        // The default temporal generators must not depend on the wall clock: the
+        // same seed must produce the same values no matter when the generator is
+        // created (https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7913).  These
+        // exact values pin both the RNG stream and the fixed default sampling
+        // range (the 365 days ending at 2024-01-01 UTC).
+        fn gen_values(mut genn: Box<dyn ArrayGenerator>) -> Arc<dyn Array> {
+            let mut rng = rand_xoshiro::Xoshiro256PlusPlus::seed_from_u64(DEFAULT_SEED.0);
+            genn.generate(RowCount::from(3), &mut rng).unwrap()
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            *gen_values(array::rand_date32()),
+            Date32Array::from(vec![19655, 19474, 19717])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            *gen_values(array::rand_date64()),
+            Date64Array::from(vec![
+                1_698_192_000_000,
+                1_682_553_600_000,
+                1_703_548_800_000
+            ])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            *gen_values(array::rand_timestamp(&DataType::Timestamp(
+                TimeUnit::Second,
+                None
+            ))),
+            TimestampSecondArray::from(vec![1_698_211_127, 1_682_585_540, 1_703_559_286])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            *gen_values(array::rand_timestamp(&DataType::Timestamp(
+                TimeUnit::Millisecond,
+                None
+            ))),
+            TimestampMillisecondArray::from(vec![
+                1_698_211_127_056,
+                1_682_585_540_319,
+                1_703_559_286_487
+            ])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            *gen_values(array::rand_timestamp(&DataType::Timestamp(
+                TimeUnit::Microsecond,
+                None
+            ))),
+            TimestampMicrosecondArray::from(vec![
+                1_698_211_127_056_596,
+                1_682_585_540_319_384,
+                1_703_559_286_487_645
+            ])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            *gen_values(array::rand_timestamp(&DataType::Timestamp(
+                TimeUnit::Nanosecond,
+                None
+            ))),
+            TimestampNanosecondArray::from(vec![
+                1_698_211_127_056_596_085,
+                1_682_585_540_319_384_548,
+                1_703_559_286_487_645_287
             ])
         );
     }
diff --git a/rust/lance-derive/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-derive/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a51660c83a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-derive/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+[package]
+name = "lance-derive"
+version.workspace = true
+edition.workspace = true
+authors.workspace = true
+license.workspace = true
+repository.workspace = true
+readme.workspace = true
+description = "Derive macros for Lance"
+keywords.workspace = true
+categories.workspace = true
+
+[lib]
+proc-macro = true
+
+[dependencies]
+proc-macro2.workspace = true
+quote.workspace = true
+syn.workspace = true
+
+[lints]
+workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-derive/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-derive/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d0486133ddc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-derive/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use proc_macro::TokenStream;
+use quote::quote;
+use syn::{Data, DeriveInput, Fields, parse_macro_input};
+
+/// Derive macro for the `DeepSizeOf` trait.
+///
+/// Generates an implementation that sums the `deep_size_of_children` of all
+/// fields (for structs) or the active variant's fields (for enums).
+#[proc_macro_derive(DeepSizeOf)]
+pub fn derive_deep_size_of(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
+    let input = parse_macro_input!(input as DeriveInput);
+    let name = &input.ident;
+    let generics = &input.generics;
+
+    // Add DeepSizeOf bounds to all type parameters
+    let mut bounded_generics = generics.clone();
+    for param in &mut bounded_generics.params {
+        if let syn::GenericParam::Type(ref mut type_param) = *param {
+            type_param
+                .bounds
+                .push(syn::parse_quote!(lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf));
+        }
+    }
+    let (impl_generics, _, where_clause) = bounded_generics.split_for_impl();
+    let (_, ty_generics, _) = generics.split_for_impl();
+
+    let body = match &input.data {
+        Data::Struct(data) => generate_struct_body(&data.fields),
+        Data::Enum(data) => {
+            let arms: Vec<_> = data
+                .variants
+                .iter()
+                .map(|variant| {
+                    let variant_ident = &variant.ident;
+                    match &variant.fields {
+                        Fields::Unit => {
+                            quote! { Self::#variant_ident => 0 }
+                        }
+                        Fields::Unnamed(fields) => {
+                            let bindings: Vec<_> = (0..fields.unnamed.len())
+                                .map(|i| {
+                                    syn::Ident::new(
+                                        &format!("__field_{}", i),
+                                        proc_macro2::Span::call_site(),
+                                    )
+                                })
+                                .collect();
+                            let sum = bindings.iter().map(|b| {
+                                quote! { lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf::deep_size_of_children(#b, __context) }
+                            });
+                            quote! {
+                                Self::#variant_ident(#(#bindings),*) => {
+                                    0 #(+ #sum)*
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                        Fields::Named(fields) => {
+                            let field_names: Vec<_> =
+                                fields.named.iter().map(|f| &f.ident).collect();
+                            let sum = field_names.iter().map(|f| {
+                                quote! { lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf::deep_size_of_children(#f, __context) }
+                            });
+                            quote! {
+                                Self::#variant_ident { #(#field_names),* } => {
+                                    0 #(+ #sum)*
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect();
+            quote! {
+                match self {
+                    #(#arms),*
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Data::Union(_) => {
+            return syn::Error::new_spanned(&input, "DeepSizeOf cannot be derived for unions")
+                .to_compile_error()
+                .into();
+        }
+    };
+
+    let expanded = quote! {
+        impl #impl_generics lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf for #name #ty_generics #where_clause {
+            fn deep_size_of_children(&self, __context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+                #body
+            }
+        }
+    };
+
+    TokenStream::from(expanded)
+}
+
+fn generate_struct_body(fields: &Fields) -> proc_macro2::TokenStream {
+    match fields {
+        Fields::Named(fields) => {
+            let field_sizes = fields.named.iter().map(|f| {
+                let name = &f.ident;
+                quote! { lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf::deep_size_of_children(&self.#name, __context) }
+            });
+            quote! { 0 #(+ #field_sizes)* }
+        }
+        Fields::Unnamed(fields) => {
+            let field_sizes = (0..fields.unnamed.len()).map(|i| {
+                let index = syn::Index::from(i);
+                quote! { lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf::deep_size_of_children(&self.#index, __context) }
+            });
+            quote! { 0 #(+ #field_sizes)* }
+        }
+        Fields::Unit => {
+            quote! { 0 }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-encoding/Cargo.toml
index c8f23f9b914..2f2490cfb84 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/Cargo.toml
@@ -25,41 +25,35 @@ lance-bitpacking = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 bytes.workspace = true
 futures.workspace = true
 fsst.workspace = true
-hex = "0.4.3"
+hex.workspace = true
 itertools.workspace = true
 log.workspace = true
 num-traits.workspace = true
 prost.workspace = true
 hyperloglogplus.workspace = true
-prost-types.workspace = true
-rand.workspace = true
-snafu.workspace = true
-strum = { workspace =true, features = ["derive"] }
 tokio.workspace = true
 tracing.workspace = true
 xxhash-rust = { version = "0.8.15", features = ["xxh3"] }
-bytemuck = { version = "1.14", features = ["extern_crate_alloc"] }
+bytemuck.workspace = true
 byteorder.workspace = true
 lz4 = { version = "1", optional = true }
 zstd = { version = "0.13", optional = true }
 
 [dev-dependencies]
-lance-testing.workspace = true
 lance-datagen.workspace = true
 arrow-ord.workspace = true
 rand.workspace = true
 rstest.workspace = true
 test-log.workspace = true
 criterion = { workspace = true }
+lance-testing.workspace = true
 rand_xoshiro = { workspace = true }
 proptest.workspace = true
+serial_test.workspace = true
 
 [build-dependencies]
 prost-build.workspace = true
-protobuf-src = { version = "2.1", optional = true }
-
-[target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dev-dependencies]
-pprof = { workspace = true }
+protobuf-src = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 
 [features]
 default = ["lz4", "zstd", "bitpacking"]
@@ -72,6 +66,9 @@ zstd = ["dep:zstd"]
 # docs.rs uses an older version of Ubuntu that does not have the necessary protoc version
 features = ["protoc"]
 
+[package.metadata.cargo-machete]
+ignored = ["prost"]
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "decoder"
 harness = false
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/benches/buffer.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/benches/buffer.rs
index b552bcca04d..04e0718a79f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/benches/buffer.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/benches/buffer.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,9 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion, Throughput};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use lance_encoding::buffer::LanceBuffer;
 
 const NUM_VALUES: &[usize] = &[1024 * 1024, 32 * 1024, 8 * 1024];
@@ -63,7 +65,7 @@ fn bench_zip(c: &mut Criterion) {
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10)
-        .with_profiler(pprof::criterion::PProfProfiler::new(100, pprof::criterion::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+        .with_profiler(lance_testing::pprof::PProfProfiler::new(100, lance_testing::pprof::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
     targets = bench_zip);
 
 // Non-linux version does not support pprof.
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/benches/common/mod.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/benches/common/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3fc77f4f03b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/benches/common/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,277 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression::{
+        BlockCompressor, CompressionStrategy, field_metadata_params, finalize_miniblock_compressor,
+        reject_packed_struct_per_value, try_bitpacking_block, try_bitpacking_miniblock,
+        try_byte_stream_split_miniblock, try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock, try_fixed_u8_rle_block,
+        try_fixed_u8_rle_miniblock, try_general_block, try_raw_block,
+        try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock, try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock, try_raw_per_value,
+        try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock, try_variable_packed_struct_per_value,
+        try_variable_width_miniblock, try_variable_width_per_value,
+    },
+    compression_config::{CompressionFieldParams, CompressionParams},
+    data::DataBlock,
+    encoder::{
+        ColumnIndexSequence, FieldEncoder, FieldEncodingContext, FieldEncodingStrategy,
+        structural::{
+            PrimitiveFieldEncoding, PrimitivePageEncoding, try_create_binary_blob, try_create_list,
+            try_create_map, try_create_struct, try_create_structural_blob,
+            try_create_structural_fixed_size_list,
+        },
+    },
+    encodings::logical::primitive::{fullzip::PerValueCompressor, miniblock::MiniBlockCompressor},
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum BenchEncoding {
+    Array,
+    StructuralU16,
+    StructuralU32,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for BenchEncoding {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.write_str(match self {
+            Self::Array => "array",
+            Self::StructuralU16 => "structural-u16",
+            Self::StructuralU32 => "structural-u32",
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct BenchCompressionStrategy {
+    encoding: BenchEncoding,
+    params: CompressionParams,
+}
+
+impl BenchCompressionStrategy {
+    fn field_params(&self, field: &Field) -> CompressionFieldParams {
+        let mut params = self
+            .params
+            .get_field_params(&field.name, &field.data_type());
+        let mut metadata = field_metadata_params(field);
+        if self.encoding == BenchEncoding::StructuralU16
+            && metadata
+                .minichunk_size
+                .is_some_and(|size| size >= 32 * 1024)
+        {
+            metadata.minichunk_size = None;
+        }
+        params.merge(&metadata);
+        params
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompressionStrategy for BenchCompressionStrategy {
+    fn create_miniblock_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        let compressor =
+            if let Some(compressor) = try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_byte_stream_split_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_u8_rle_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_miniblock(field, data, &params)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock(data)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Mini-block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                        data.name()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            };
+        finalize_miniblock_compressor(data, compressor, &params)
+    }
+
+    fn create_per_value(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_per_value(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        let packed = match self.encoding {
+            BenchEncoding::StructuralU16 => reject_packed_struct_per_value(field, data)?,
+            BenchEncoding::StructuralU32 => {
+                try_variable_packed_struct_per_value(Arc::new(self.clone()), field, data)?
+            }
+            BenchEncoding::Array => unreachable!(),
+        };
+        if let Some(compressor) = packed {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_per_value(field, data, &params)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Per-value compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn create_block_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        if self.encoding == BenchEncoding::StructuralU32
+            && let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_u8_rle_block(data, &params)?
+        {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if self.encoding == BenchEncoding::StructuralU32
+            && let Some(compressor) = try_general_block(data, &params)?
+        {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BenchFieldEncodingStrategy {
+    encoding: BenchEncoding,
+    primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding,
+}
+
+impl FieldEncodingStrategy for BenchFieldEncodingStrategy {
+    fn create_field_encoder(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+        if let Some(encoder) =
+            try_create_binary_blob(&self.primitive, field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if self.encoding == BenchEncoding::StructuralU32
+            && let Some(encoder) =
+                try_create_structural_blob(&self.primitive, field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if field.is_blob() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Blob encoding is not available for field '{}' with data type {}",
+                    field.name,
+                    field.data_type()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if self.encoding == BenchEncoding::StructuralU32 {
+            if let Some(encoder) = try_create_map(field, column_index, context)? {
+                return Ok(encoder);
+            }
+            if let Some(encoder) =
+                try_create_structural_fixed_size_list(field, column_index, context)?
+            {
+                return Ok(encoder);
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = self.primitive.try_create(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if self.encoding == BenchEncoding::StructuralU16 {
+            if matches!(
+                field.data_type(),
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _)
+                    if matches!(item.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_))
+            ) {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "FixedSizeList<Struct> is not enabled by the selected file format".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Map(_, _)) {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "Map data type is not enabled by the selected file format".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_list(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_struct(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "{} has no field encoding for '{}' with data type {}",
+                self.encoding,
+                field.name,
+                field.data_type()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn encoding_strategy(encoding: BenchEncoding) -> Box<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy> {
+    if encoding == BenchEncoding::Array {
+        return Box::new(lance_encoding::encoder::ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::new());
+    }
+
+    let compression = Arc::new(BenchCompressionStrategy {
+        encoding,
+        params: CompressionParams::default(),
+    });
+    let page_encodings = match encoding {
+        BenchEncoding::StructuralU16 => vec![
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::reject_sparse(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::dense_u16(compression),
+        ],
+        BenchEncoding::StructuralU32 => vec![
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::reject_sparse(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::constant(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::dense_u32(compression),
+        ],
+        BenchEncoding::Array => unreachable!(),
+    };
+    Box::new(BenchFieldEncodingStrategy {
+        encoding,
+        primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding::new(page_encodings),
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/benches/decoder.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/benches/decoder.rs
index c59ef23820a..fa831b69b25 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/benches/decoder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/benches/decoder.rs
@@ -1,25 +1,42 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use std::{collections::HashMap, hint::black_box, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, TimeUnit};
 use arrow_select::take::take;
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+use bytemuck::Pod;
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use futures::StreamExt;
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+use lance_bitpacking::BitPacking;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_datagen::ArrayGeneratorExt;
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+use lance_encoding::buffer::LanceBuffer;
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+use lance_encoding::compression::BlockDecompressor;
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+use lance_encoding::data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock};
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+use lance_encoding::encodings::physical::bitpacking::{ELEMS_PER_CHUNK, InlineBitpacking};
 use lance_encoding::{
     decoder::{
-        create_decode_stream, DecodeBatchScheduler, DecoderConfig, DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression,
+        DecodeBatchScheduler, DecoderConfig, DecoderPlugins, EncodedBatchLayout, FilterExpression,
+        create_decode_stream,
     },
-    encoder::{default_encoding_strategy, encode_batch, EncodingOptions},
-    version::LanceFileVersion,
+    encoder::{EncodingOptions, encode_batch},
 };
 use tokio::sync::mpsc::unbounded_channel;
 
 use rand::Rng;
 
+pub mod common;
+use common::{BenchEncoding, encoding_strategy};
+
 const PRIMITIVE_TYPES: &[DataType] = &[
     DataType::Date32,
     DataType::Date64,
@@ -49,6 +66,15 @@ const PRIMITIVE_TYPES: &[DataType] = &[
 // schema doesn't yet parse them in the context of a fixed size list.
 const PRIMITIVE_TYPES_FOR_FSL: &[DataType] = &[DataType::Int8, DataType::Float32];
 
+fn encoded_batch_layout(encoding: BenchEncoding) -> EncodedBatchLayout {
+    match encoding {
+        BenchEncoding::Array => EncodedBatchLayout::Array,
+        BenchEncoding::StructuralU16 | BenchEncoding::StructuralU32 => {
+            EncodedBatchLayout::Structural
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 fn bench_decode(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
     let mut group = c.benchmark_group("decode_primitive");
@@ -64,7 +90,7 @@ fn bench_decode(c: &mut Criterion) {
                 .unwrap();
             let lance_schema =
                 Arc::new(lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(data.schema().as_ref()).unwrap());
-            let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(LanceFileVersion::default());
+            let encoding_strategy = encoding_strategy(BenchEncoding::StructuralU16);
             let encoded = rt
                 .block_on(encode_batch(
                     &data,
@@ -81,7 +107,7 @@ fn bench_decode(c: &mut Criterion) {
                         &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                         Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
                         false,
-                        LanceFileVersion::default(),
+                        EncodedBatchLayout::Structural,
                         Some(Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache())),
                     ))
                     .unwrap();
@@ -95,10 +121,14 @@ fn bench_decode_fsl(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
     let mut group = c.benchmark_group("decode_fsl");
     const NUM_BYTES: u64 = 1024 * 1024 * 128;
-    for version in [LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1] {
+    for encoding in [
+        BenchEncoding::Array,
+        BenchEncoding::StructuralU16,
+        BenchEncoding::StructuralU32,
+    ] {
         for data_type in PRIMITIVE_TYPES_FOR_FSL {
             for dimension in [4, 16, 32, 64, 128] {
-                let nullable_choices: &[bool] = if version == LanceFileVersion::V2_0 {
+                let nullable_choices: &[bool] = if encoding == BenchEncoding::Array {
                     &[false]
                 } else {
                     &[false, true]
@@ -106,7 +136,7 @@ fn bench_decode_fsl(c: &mut Criterion) {
                 for nullable in nullable_choices {
                     let func_name = format!(
                         "{:?}_{}_v{}_null{}",
-                        data_type, dimension, version, nullable
+                        data_type, dimension, encoding, nullable
                     )
                     .to_lowercase();
                     group.throughput(criterion::Throughput::Bytes(NUM_BYTES));
@@ -129,7 +159,7 @@ fn bench_decode_fsl(c: &mut Criterion) {
                             lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(data.schema().as_ref())
                                 .unwrap(),
                         );
-                        let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(version);
+                        let encoding_strategy = encoding_strategy(encoding);
                         let encoded = rt
                             .block_on(encode_batch(
                                 &data,
@@ -145,7 +175,7 @@ fn bench_decode_fsl(c: &mut Criterion) {
                                     &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                                     Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
                                     false,
-                                    version,
+                                    encoded_batch_layout(encoding),
                                     Some(Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache())),
                                 ))
                                 .unwrap();
@@ -195,7 +225,7 @@ fn bench_decode_str_with_dict_encoding(c: &mut Criterion) {
 
         let lance_schema =
             Arc::new(lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(data.schema().as_ref()).unwrap());
-        let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(LanceFileVersion::default());
+        let encoding_strategy = encoding_strategy(BenchEncoding::StructuralU16);
         let encoded = rt
             .block_on(encode_batch(
                 &data,
@@ -211,7 +241,7 @@ fn bench_decode_str_with_dict_encoding(c: &mut Criterion) {
                     &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                     Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
                     false,
-                    LanceFileVersion::default(),
+                    EncodedBatchLayout::Structural,
                     Some(Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache())),
                 ))
                 .unwrap();
@@ -270,7 +300,7 @@ fn bench_decode_packed_struct(c: &mut Criterion) {
             RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(new_schema.clone()), data.columns().to_vec()).unwrap();
 
         let lance_schema = Arc::new(lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&new_schema).unwrap());
-        let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(LanceFileVersion::default());
+        let encoding_strategy = encoding_strategy(BenchEncoding::StructuralU32);
         let encoded = rt
             .block_on(encode_batch(
                 &data,
@@ -287,7 +317,7 @@ fn bench_decode_packed_struct(c: &mut Criterion) {
                     &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                     Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
                     false,
-                    LanceFileVersion::default(),
+                    EncodedBatchLayout::Structural,
                     Some(Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache())),
                 ))
                 .unwrap();
@@ -296,7 +326,7 @@ fn bench_decode_packed_struct(c: &mut Criterion) {
     });
 }
 
-#[allow(dead_code)]
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 fn bench_decode_str_with_fixed_size_binary_encoding(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
     let mut group = c.benchmark_group("decode_primitive");
@@ -327,7 +357,7 @@ fn bench_decode_str_with_fixed_size_binary_encoding(c: &mut Criterion) {
 
         let lance_schema =
             Arc::new(lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(data.schema().as_ref()).unwrap());
-        let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(LanceFileVersion::default());
+        let encoding_strategy = encoding_strategy(BenchEncoding::StructuralU16);
         let encoded = rt
             .block_on(encode_batch(
                 &data,
@@ -343,7 +373,7 @@ fn bench_decode_str_with_fixed_size_binary_encoding(c: &mut Criterion) {
                     &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                     Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
                     false,
-                    LanceFileVersion::default(),
+                    EncodedBatchLayout::Structural,
                     Some(Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache())),
                 ))
                 .unwrap();
@@ -394,7 +424,7 @@ fn bench_decode_compressed(c: &mut Criterion) {
         let lance_schema =
             Arc::new(lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
         // V2_2+ required for general compression
-        let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+        let encoding_strategy = encoding_strategy(BenchEncoding::StructuralU32);
 
         // Encode once during setup
         let encoded = rt
@@ -419,7 +449,7 @@ fn bench_decode_compressed(c: &mut Criterion) {
                             &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                             Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
                             false,
-                            LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+                            EncodedBatchLayout::Structural,
                             Some(Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache())),
                         ))
                         .unwrap();
@@ -472,7 +502,7 @@ fn bench_decode_compressed_parallel(c: &mut Criterion) {
 
         let lance_schema =
             Arc::new(lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
-        let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+        let encoding_strategy = encoding_strategy(BenchEncoding::StructuralU32);
 
         let encoded = rt
             .block_on(encode_batch(
@@ -535,7 +565,9 @@ fn bench_decode_compressed_parallel(c: &mut Criterion) {
                                 BATCH_SIZE,
                                 true, // is_structural for V2_2
                                 false,
+                                false,
                                 rx,
+                                None,
                             )
                             .unwrap();
 
@@ -557,14 +589,144 @@ fn bench_decode_compressed_parallel(c: &mut Criterion) {
     }
 }
 
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+fn make_inline_bitpacking_chunk<T>(bit_width: usize) -> LanceBuffer
+where
+    T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking + Pod,
+{
+    let value_range = 1_usize << bit_width;
+    let values: Vec<T> = (0..ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize)
+        .map(|i| T::from_usize((i * 31 + 7) % value_range).unwrap())
+        .collect();
+    let packed_words = ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize * bit_width / (std::mem::size_of::<T>() * 8);
+
+    let mut chunk = Vec::with_capacity(1 + packed_words);
+    chunk.push(T::from_usize(bit_width).unwrap());
+    let payload_start = chunk.len();
+    chunk.resize(payload_start + packed_words, T::from_usize(0).unwrap());
+    unsafe {
+        BitPacking::unchecked_pack(bit_width, &values, &mut chunk[payload_start..]);
+    }
+
+    LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(chunk)
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+fn read_little_endian_header<T>(bytes: &[u8]) -> usize {
+    bytes[..std::mem::size_of::<T>()]
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .fold(0_u64, |value, (idx, byte)| {
+            value | ((*byte as u64) << (idx * 8))
+        }) as usize
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+fn legacy_copy_unchunk<T>(data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> DataBlock
+where
+    T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking + Pod,
+{
+    assert!(data.len() >= std::mem::size_of::<T>());
+    assert!(num_values <= ELEMS_PER_CHUNK);
+
+    let chunk_in_u8 = data.to_vec();
+    let bit_width_value = read_little_endian_header::<T>(&chunk_in_u8);
+    let chunk = bytemuck::cast_slice(&chunk_in_u8[std::mem::size_of::<T>()..]);
+    assert!(std::mem::size_of_val(chunk) == bit_width_value * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize / 8);
+
+    let mut decompressed = vec![T::from_usize(0).unwrap(); ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize];
+    unsafe {
+        BitPacking::unchecked_unpack(bit_width_value, chunk, &mut decompressed);
+    }
+
+    decompressed.truncate(num_values as usize);
+    DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+        data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(decompressed),
+        bits_per_value: (std::mem::size_of::<T>() * 8) as u64,
+        num_values,
+        block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+fn typed_view_unchunk(buffer: LanceBuffer, uncompressed_bits: u64, num_values: u64) -> DataBlock {
+    InlineBitpacking::new(uncompressed_bits)
+        .decompress(Some(buffer), num_values)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+fn assert_same_fixed_width_payloads(legacy: &DataBlock, typed_view: &DataBlock) {
+    let legacy = legacy.as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
+    let typed_view = typed_view.as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(legacy.num_values, typed_view.num_values);
+    assert_eq!(legacy.bits_per_value, typed_view.bits_per_value);
+    assert_eq!(legacy.data.as_ref(), typed_view.data.as_ref());
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+fn bench_inline_bitpacking_case<T>(
+    group: &mut criterion::BenchmarkGroup<'_, criterion::measurement::WallTime>,
+    name: &str,
+    bit_width: usize,
+) where
+    T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking + Pod,
+{
+    let buffer = make_inline_bitpacking_chunk::<T>(bit_width);
+    let compressed_bytes = buffer.len() as u64;
+    let uncompressed_bits = (std::mem::size_of::<T>() * 8) as u64;
+    group.throughput(criterion::Throughput::Bytes(compressed_bytes));
+
+    let legacy = legacy_copy_unchunk::<T>(buffer.clone(), ELEMS_PER_CHUNK);
+    let typed_view = typed_view_unchunk(buffer.clone(), uncompressed_bits, ELEMS_PER_CHUNK);
+    assert_same_fixed_width_payloads(&legacy, &typed_view);
+
+    group.bench_function(format!("{name}/legacy_copy/compressed_bytes"), |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            let decoded =
+                legacy_copy_unchunk::<T>(black_box(buffer.clone()), black_box(ELEMS_PER_CHUNK));
+            let fixed = decoded.as_fixed_width().unwrap();
+            black_box(fixed.data.as_ref());
+        })
+    });
+
+    group.bench_function(format!("{name}/typed_view/compressed_bytes"), |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            let decoded = typed_view_unchunk(
+                black_box(buffer.clone()),
+                black_box(uncompressed_bits),
+                black_box(ELEMS_PER_CHUNK),
+            );
+            let fixed = decoded.as_fixed_width().unwrap();
+            black_box(fixed.data.as_ref());
+        })
+    });
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+fn bench_decode_inline_bitpacking_unchunk(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("decode_inline_bitpacking_unchunk");
+    bench_inline_bitpacking_case::<u32>(&mut group, "u32_bw12_1024", 12);
+    bench_inline_bitpacking_case::<u64>(&mut group, "u64_bw23_1024", 23);
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "bitpacking"))]
+fn bench_decode_inline_bitpacking_unchunk(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("decode_inline_bitpacking_unchunk");
+    group.bench_function("bitpacking_feature_disabled", |b| b.iter(|| black_box(())));
+    group.finish();
+}
+
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10)
-        .with_profiler(pprof::criterion::PProfProfiler::new(100, pprof::criterion::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+        .with_profiler(lance_testing::pprof::PProfProfiler::new(100, lance_testing::pprof::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
     targets = bench_decode, bench_decode_fsl, bench_decode_str_with_dict_encoding, bench_decode_packed_struct,
                 bench_decode_str_with_fixed_size_binary_encoding, bench_decode_compressed,
-                bench_decode_compressed_parallel);
+                bench_decode_compressed_parallel, bench_decode_inline_bitpacking_unchunk);
 
 // Non-linux version does not support pprof.
 #[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
@@ -572,5 +734,5 @@ criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
     targets = bench_decode, bench_decode_fsl, bench_decode_str_with_dict_encoding, bench_decode_packed_struct,
-                bench_decode_compressed, bench_decode_compressed_parallel);
+                bench_decode_compressed, bench_decode_compressed_parallel, bench_decode_inline_bitpacking_unchunk);
 criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/benches/encoder.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/benches/encoder.rs
index 6a0d5b94ad2..02ffd92083c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/benches/encoder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/benches/encoder.rs
@@ -3,13 +3,28 @@
 
 use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
-use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, BooleanArray, ListArray, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
-use lance_encoding::{
-    encoder::{default_encoding_strategy, encode_batch, EncodingOptions},
-    version::LanceFileVersion,
-};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_encoding::encoder::{EncodingOptions, encode_batch};
+
+pub mod common;
+use common::{BenchEncoding, encoding_strategy};
+
+fn encode_batch_sync(rt: &tokio::runtime::Runtime, data: &RecordBatch) {
+    let lance_schema =
+        Arc::new(lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(data.schema().as_ref()).unwrap());
+    let encoding_strategy = encoding_strategy(BenchEncoding::StructuralU32);
+
+    rt.block_on(encode_batch(
+        data,
+        lance_schema,
+        encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
+        &EncodingOptions::default(),
+    ))
+    .unwrap();
+}
 
 fn bench_encode_compressed(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
@@ -53,7 +68,7 @@ fn bench_encode_compressed(c: &mut Criterion) {
         let lance_schema =
             Arc::new(lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
         // V2_2+ required for general compression
-        let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+        let encoding_strategy = encoding_strategy(BenchEncoding::StructuralU32);
 
         group.throughput(criterion::Throughput::Elements(
             (NUM_ROWS * NUM_COLUMNS) as u64,
@@ -75,17 +90,89 @@ fn bench_encode_compressed(c: &mut Criterion) {
     }
 }
 
+fn make_boolean_list_batch(array: ArrayRef, nullable: bool) -> RecordBatch {
+    let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Boolean, true));
+    let field = Field::new("values", DataType::List(item_field), nullable);
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![array]).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn dense_boolean_list(num_rows: usize, booleans_per_list: usize) -> ArrayRef {
+    let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows + 1);
+    let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * booleans_per_list);
+    offsets.push(0i32);
+
+    for _ in 0..num_rows {
+        values.extend((0..booleans_per_list).map(|idx| idx % 2 == 0));
+        offsets.push(values.len() as i32);
+    }
+
+    Arc::new(ListArray::new(
+        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Boolean, true)),
+        OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+        Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(values)),
+        None,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn sparse_boolean_list(
+    num_rows: usize,
+    num_non_empty: usize,
+    booleans_per_list: usize,
+) -> ArrayRef {
+    let step = num_rows / num_non_empty;
+    let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows + 1);
+    let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_non_empty * booleans_per_list);
+    offsets.push(0i32);
+
+    let mut next_non_empty = step / 2;
+    for row in 0..num_rows {
+        if row == next_non_empty {
+            values.extend((0..booleans_per_list).map(|idx| idx % 2 == 0));
+            next_non_empty += step;
+        }
+        offsets.push(values.len() as i32);
+    }
+
+    Arc::new(ListArray::new(
+        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Boolean, true)),
+        OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+        Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(values)),
+        None,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn bench_encode_structural_pages(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("encode_structural_pages");
+
+    const NUM_ROWS: usize = 200_000;
+    const BOOLEANS_PER_LIST: usize = 8;
+
+    let dense = make_boolean_list_batch(dense_boolean_list(NUM_ROWS, BOOLEANS_PER_LIST), false);
+    let sparse =
+        make_boolean_list_batch(sparse_boolean_list(NUM_ROWS, 10, BOOLEANS_PER_LIST), false);
+
+    group.throughput(criterion::Throughput::Elements(NUM_ROWS as u64));
+    group.bench_function("dense_boolean_list", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| encode_batch_sync(&rt, &dense))
+    });
+    group.bench_function("sparse_boolean_list", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| encode_batch_sync(&rt, &sparse))
+    });
+}
+
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10)
-        .with_profiler(pprof::criterion::PProfProfiler::new(100, pprof::criterion::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
-    targets = bench_encode_compressed);
+        .with_profiler(lance_testing::pprof::PProfProfiler::new(100, lance_testing::pprof::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+    targets = bench_encode_compressed, bench_encode_structural_pages);
 
 #[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
-    targets = bench_encode_compressed);
+    targets = bench_encode_compressed, bench_encode_structural_pages);
 
 criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/build.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/build.rs
index 92bf497beeb..92fe0358910 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/build.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/build.rs
@@ -8,7 +8,9 @@ fn main() -> Result<()> {
 
     #[cfg(feature = "protoc")]
     // Use vendored protobuf compiler if requested.
-    std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    unsafe {
+        std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    }
 
     let mut prost_build = prost_build::Config::new();
     prost_build.protoc_arg("--experimental_allow_proto3_optional");
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a76c6a186ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Encoding and decoding mechanisms described by [`crate::format::pb::ArrayEncoding`].
+//!
+//! File versions decide which mechanisms to compose and accept. This module
+//! contains only the reusable implementation of that persisted grammar.
+
+pub mod logical;
+pub mod physical;
+mod strategy;
+
+pub use strategy::ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy;
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical.rs
similarity index 100%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical.rs
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/binary.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/binary.rs
similarity index 57%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/binary.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/binary.rs
index dc30cc3ac13..4a4ea45a534 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/binary.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/binary.rs
@@ -4,14 +4,14 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, GenericByteArray, GenericListArray,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{BinaryType, ByteArrayType, LargeBinaryType, LargeUtf8Type, UInt8Type, Utf8Type},
-    Array, ArrayRef, GenericByteArray, GenericListArray,
 };
 
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
-use lance_core::Result;
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use log::trace;
 
 use crate::{
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ use crate::{
         DecodeArrayTask, FilterExpression, MessageType, NextDecodeTask, PriorityRange,
         ScheduledScanLine, SchedulerContext,
     },
-    previous::decoder::{DecoderReady, FieldScheduler, LogicalPageDecoder, SchedulingJob},
+    decoder::{DecoderReady, DrainLimit, FieldScheduler, LogicalPageDecoder, SchedulingJob},
 };
 
 /// Wraps a varbin scheduler and uses a BinaryPageDecoder to cast
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ impl SchedulingJob for BinarySchedulingJob<'_> {
             .decoders
             .into_iter()
             .map(|message| {
-                let decoder = message.into_legacy();
+                let decoder = message.into_array();
                 MessageType::DecoderReady(DecoderReady {
                     path: decoder.path,
                     decoder: Box::new(BinaryPageDecoder {
@@ -129,6 +129,10 @@ impl LogicalPageDecoder for BinaryPageDecoder {
         })
     }
 
+    fn max_rows_to_drain(&self, num_rows: u64, byte_budget: u64) -> Result<DrainLimit> {
+        self.inner.max_rows_to_drain(num_rows, byte_budget)
+    }
+
     fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
         &self.data_type
     }
@@ -152,7 +156,7 @@ pub struct BinaryArrayDecoder {
 }
 
 impl BinaryArrayDecoder {
-    fn from_list_array<T: ByteArrayType>(array: &GenericListArray<T::Offset>) -> ArrayRef {
+    fn from_list_array<T: ByteArrayType>(array: &GenericListArray<T::Offset>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         let values = array
             .values()
             .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
@@ -160,26 +164,99 @@ impl BinaryArrayDecoder {
             .inner()
             .clone();
         let offsets = array.offsets().clone();
-        Arc::new(GenericByteArray::<T>::new(
-            offsets,
-            values,
-            array.nulls().cloned(),
-        ))
+        let array = GenericByteArray::<T>::try_new(offsets, values, array.nulls().cloned())?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(array))
     }
 }
 
 impl DecodeArrayTask for BinaryArrayDecoder {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
         let data_type = self.data_type;
-        let arr = self.inner.decode()?;
-        match data_type {
-            DataType::Binary => Ok(Self::from_list_array::<BinaryType>(arr.as_list::<i32>())),
-            DataType::LargeBinary => Ok(Self::from_list_array::<LargeBinaryType>(
-                arr.as_list::<i64>(),
-            )),
-            DataType::Utf8 => Ok(Self::from_list_array::<Utf8Type>(arr.as_list::<i32>())),
-            DataType::LargeUtf8 => Ok(Self::from_list_array::<LargeUtf8Type>(arr.as_list::<i64>())),
-            _ => panic!("Binary decoder does not support this data type"),
+        let (arr, _) = self.inner.decode()?;
+        let result = match data_type {
+            DataType::Binary => Self::from_list_array::<BinaryType>(arr.as_list::<i32>())?,
+            DataType::LargeBinary => {
+                Self::from_list_array::<LargeBinaryType>(arr.as_list::<i64>())?
+            }
+            DataType::Utf8 => Self::from_list_array::<Utf8Type>(arr.as_list::<i32>())?,
+            DataType::LargeUtf8 => Self::from_list_array::<LargeUtf8Type>(arr.as_list::<i64>())?,
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Binary decoder does not support data type {other}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        // data_size is only tracked in the v2.1 structural decode path; the v2.0 array
+        // v2.0 path does not need it so we return 0.
+        Ok((result, 0))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::{ListArray, UInt8Array};
+    use arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer;
+    use arrow_schema::Field;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::decoder::DecodeArrayTask;
+
+    struct StubDecodeTask {
+        array: ArrayRef,
+    }
+
+    impl DecodeArrayTask for StubDecodeTask {
+        fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
+            Ok((self.array, 0))
         }
     }
+
+    fn make_single_byte_list(value: u8) -> ListArray {
+        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::from_lengths([1_usize]);
+        let values: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![value]));
+        ListArray::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, false)),
+            offsets,
+            values,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn logical_utf8_decode_preserves_non_overflow_arrow_error() {
+        let list = make_single_byte_list(0xFF_u8);
+        let decoder = BinaryArrayDecoder {
+            inner: Box::new(StubDecodeTask {
+                array: Arc::new(list),
+            }),
+            data_type: DataType::Utf8,
+        };
+
+        let error = Box::new(decoder).decode().unwrap_err();
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(!message.contains("more than 2GiB of string/binary data"));
+        assert!(message.to_lowercase().contains("utf"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn logical_binary_decode_returns_internal_error_for_unsupported_type() {
+        let list = make_single_byte_list(b'x');
+        let decoder = BinaryArrayDecoder {
+            inner: Box::new(StubDecodeTask {
+                array: Arc::new(list),
+            }),
+            data_type: DataType::Int32,
+        };
+
+        let error = Box::new(decoder).decode().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Binary decoder does not support data type Int32")
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/blob.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/blob.rs
similarity index 74%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/blob.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/blob.rs
index 3d79df2b03d..6789125ac0d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/blob.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/blob.rs
@@ -4,30 +4,29 @@
 use std::{collections::VecDeque, sync::Arc, vec};
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type, Array, ArrayRef, LargeBinaryArray, PrimitiveArray,
-    StructArray, UInt64Array,
+    Array, ArrayRef, LargeBinaryArray, PrimitiveArray, StructArray, UInt64Array, cast::AsArray,
+    types::UInt64Type,
 };
 use arrow_buffer::{
     BooleanBuffer, BooleanBufferBuilder, Buffer, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer,
 };
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
-use snafu::location;
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 
-use lance_core::{datatypes::BLOB_DESC_FIELDS, Error, Result};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::BLOB_DESC_FIELDS};
 
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     decoder::{
         DecodeArrayTask, FilterExpression, MessageType, NextDecodeTask, PriorityRange,
         ScheduledScanLine, SchedulerContext,
     },
+    decoder::{DecoderReady, FieldScheduler, LogicalPageDecoder, SchedulingJob},
     encoder::{EncodeTask, FieldEncoder, OutOfLineBuffers},
-    format::pb::{column_encoding, Blob, ColumnEncoding},
-    previous::decoder::{DecoderReady, FieldScheduler, LogicalPageDecoder, SchedulingJob},
+    format::pb::{Blob, ColumnEncoding, column_encoding},
     repdef::RepDefBuilder,
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
 /// A field scheduler for large binary data
@@ -68,7 +67,7 @@ impl SchedulingJob for BlobFieldSchedulingJob<'_> {
         let next_descriptions = self.descriptions_job.schedule_next(context, priority)?;
         let mut priority = priority.current_priority();
         let decoders = next_descriptions.decoders.into_iter().map(|decoder| {
-            let decoder = decoder.into_legacy();
+            let decoder = decoder.into_array();
             let path = decoder.path;
             let mut decoder = decoder.decoder;
             let num_rows = decoder.num_rows();
@@ -78,7 +77,7 @@ impl SchedulingJob for BlobFieldSchedulingJob<'_> {
                     .await
                     .unwrap();
                 let descriptions_task = decoder.drain(decoder.num_rows()).unwrap();
-                descriptions_task.task.decode()
+                descriptions_task.task.decode().map(|(arr, _)| arr)
             }
             .boxed();
             let decoder = Box::new(BlobFieldDecoder {
@@ -204,13 +203,16 @@ impl LogicalPageDecoder for BlobFieldDecoder {
                 .zip(sizes.iter())
                 .map(|(p, s)| *p != 1 || *s != 0)
                 .collect::<BooleanBuffer>();
-            self.validity.push_back(validity);
-            self.rows_loaded = end as u64;
+            // Run the I/O before mutating decoder state, so a failed load
+            // leaves the decoder untouched and `wait_for_loaded` is the single,
+            // clean point of failure.
             let bytes = self
                 .io
                 .submit_request(ranges, self.base_priority + start as u64)
                 .await?;
+            self.validity.push_back(validity);
             self.loaded.extend(bytes);
+            self.rows_loaded = end as u64;
             Ok(())
         }
         .boxed()
@@ -229,6 +231,16 @@ impl LogicalPageDecoder for BlobFieldDecoder {
     }
 
     fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<NextDecodeTask> {
+        if num_rows as usize > self.loaded.len() {
+            // `loaded` is populated by `wait_for_loaded`; guard the
+            // load-before-drain contract so a violation surfaces as an error
+            // rather than an out-of-bounds drain panic.
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "BlobFieldDecoder was asked to drain {num_rows} rows but only \
+                 {} are loaded",
+                self.loaded.len(),
+            )));
+        }
         let bytes = self.loaded.drain(0..num_rows as usize).collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let validity = self.drain_validity(num_rows as usize)?;
         self.rows_drained += num_rows;
@@ -255,7 +267,7 @@ impl BlobArrayDecodeTask {
 }
 
 impl DecodeArrayTask for BlobArrayDecodeTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
         let num_bytes = self.bytes.iter().map(|b| b.len()).sum::<usize>();
         let offsets = self
             .bytes
@@ -273,11 +285,12 @@ impl DecodeArrayTask for BlobArrayDecodeTask {
             buffer.extend_from_slice(&bytes);
         }
         let data_buf = Buffer::from_vec(buffer);
-        Ok(Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::new(
-            offsets,
-            data_buf,
-            self.validity,
-        )))
+        // data_size is only tracked in the v2.1 structural decode path; the v2.0 array
+        // v2.0 path does not need it so we return 0.
+        Ok((
+            Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::new(offsets, data_buf, self.validity)),
+            0,
+        ))
     }
 }
 
@@ -293,12 +306,11 @@ impl BlobFieldEncoder {
     }
 
     fn write_bins(array: ArrayRef, external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
-        let binarray = array
-            .as_binary_opt::<i64>()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Expected large_binary and received {}", array.data_type()).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let binarray = array.as_binary_opt::<i64>().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Expected large_binary and received {}", array.data_type()).into(),
+            )
+        })?;
         let mut positions = Vec::with_capacity(array.len());
         let mut sizes = Vec::with_capacity(array.len());
         let data = binarray.values();
@@ -306,7 +318,7 @@ impl BlobFieldEncoder {
             .nulls()
             .cloned()
             .unwrap_or(NullBuffer::new_valid(binarray.len()));
-        for (w, is_valid) in binarray.value_offsets().windows(2).zip(nulls.into_iter()) {
+        for (w, is_valid) in binarray.value_offsets().windows(2).zip(&nulls) {
             if is_valid {
                 let start = w[0] as u64;
                 let end = w[1] as u64;
@@ -388,20 +400,27 @@ impl FieldEncoder for BlobFieldEncoder {
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
+mod tests {
     use std::{
-        collections::HashMap,
+        collections::{HashMap, VecDeque},
+        ops::Range,
         sync::{Arc, LazyLock},
     };
 
-    use arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray;
+    use arrow_array::{LargeBinaryArray, PrimitiveArray, types::UInt64Type};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
     use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
+    use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
+    use super::BlobFieldDecoder;
     use crate::{
+        EncodingsIo,
+        decoder::LogicalPageDecoder,
         format::pb::column_encoding,
-        testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, check_specific_random, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
+        testing::TestEncoding,
+        testing::{TestCases, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, check_specific_random},
     };
 
     static BLOB_META: LazyLock<HashMap<String, String>> = LazyLock::new(|| {
@@ -411,12 +430,20 @@ pub mod tests {
             .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>()
     });
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_basic_blob() {
+    async fn test_basic_blob(
+        #[values(TestEncoding::Array, TestEncoding::StructuralU16)] encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
         let field = Field::new("", DataType::LargeBinary, false).with_metadata(BLOB_META.clone());
         check_specific_random(
             field,
-            TestCases::basic().with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            TestCases::basic()
+                .with_encoding(encoding)
+                .with_page_sizes(vec![page_size])
+                .with_slicing_modes([use_slicing]),
         )
         .await;
     }
@@ -427,10 +454,10 @@ pub mod tests {
         let val2: &[u8] = &[7, 8, 9];
         let array = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(val1), None, Some(val2)]));
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
+            .with_array_and_u16_encodings()
             .with_expected_encoding("packed_struct")
-            .with_verify_encoding(Arc::new(|cols, version| {
-                if version < &LanceFileVersion::V2_1 {
+            .with_verify_encoding(Arc::new(|cols, encoding| {
+                if *encoding == TestEncoding::Array {
                     // In 2.0 we used a special "column encoding" to mark blob fields.  In 2.1 we
                     // don't do this and just rely on the regular page encoding.
                     assert_eq!(cols.len(), 1);
@@ -446,9 +473,9 @@ pub mod tests {
             .await;
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
-            .with_verify_encoding(Arc::new(|cols, version| {
-                if version < &LanceFileVersion::V2_1 {
+            .with_structural_encodings()
+            .with_verify_encoding(Arc::new(|cols, encoding| {
+                if *encoding == TestEncoding::Array {
                     assert_eq!(cols.len(), 1);
                     let col = &cols[0];
                     assert!(!matches!(
@@ -460,4 +487,58 @@ pub mod tests {
         // Don't use blob encoding if not requested
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &test_cases, Default::default()).await;
     }
+
+    /// An `EncodingsIo` that rejects every request, simulating cloud storage
+    /// returning a retryable error (e.g. an exhausted HTTP 503 retry budget).
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingScheduler;
+
+    impl EncodingsIo for FailingScheduler {
+        fn submit_request(
+            &self,
+            _ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+            _priority: u64,
+        ) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<Vec<Bytes>>> {
+            std::future::ready(Err(Error::io("simulated HTTP 503 from cloud storage"))).boxed()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A failed blob load must surface through `wait_for_loaded` and leave the
+    /// decoder untouched -- never half-advanced into a state where a later
+    /// `drain` reads rows that never loaded (which panicked with "range end
+    /// index N out of range for slice of length 0").
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_io_failure_leaves_blob_decoder_consistent() {
+        let num_rows = 8u64;
+        // `positions`/`sizes` only need `num_rows` entries; the failing
+        // scheduler rejects the request regardless of the ranges it is given.
+        let descs = PrimitiveArray::<UInt64Type>::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
+            0u64,
+            num_rows as usize,
+        ));
+
+        let mut decoder = BlobFieldDecoder {
+            io: Arc::new(FailingScheduler),
+            unloaded_descriptions: None,
+            positions: descs.clone(),
+            sizes: descs,
+            num_rows,
+            loaded: VecDeque::new(),
+            validity: VecDeque::new(),
+            rows_loaded: 0,
+            rows_drained: 0,
+            base_priority: 0,
+        };
+
+        // `wait_for_loaded` propagates the I/O failure...
+        assert!(decoder.wait_for_loaded(num_rows - 1).await.is_err());
+
+        // ...and leaves no half-loaded state behind.
+        assert_eq!(decoder.rows_loaded, 0);
+        assert!(decoder.loaded.is_empty());
+        assert!(decoder.validity.is_empty());
+
+        // A drain in this state errors instead of panicking on the empty buffer.
+        assert!(decoder.drain(num_rows).is_err());
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/list.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/list.rs
similarity index 81%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/list.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/list.rs
index 8afd756567d..453e0c744c8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/list.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/list.rs
@@ -1,41 +1,58 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{collections::VecDeque, ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+use std::{
+    collections::VecDeque,
+    ops::Range,
+    sync::{Arc, OnceLock},
+};
 
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, Int32Array, Int64Array, LargeListArray, ListArray, UInt64Array,
     cast::AsArray,
     new_empty_array,
     types::{Int32Type, Int64Type, UInt64Type},
-    Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, Int32Array, Int64Array, LargeListArray, ListArray, UInt64Array,
 };
 use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, BooleanBufferBuilder, Buffer, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
-use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, Error, Result};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, cache::LanceCache, utils::parse::str_is_truthy};
 use log::trace;
-use snafu::location;
 use tokio::task::JoinHandle;
 
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
+    array_encoding::logical::r#struct::{SimpleStructDecoder, SimpleStructScheduler},
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock},
     decoder::{
-        DecodeArrayTask, DecodeBatchScheduler, FilterExpression, ListPriorityRange, MessageType,
-        NextDecodeTask, PageEncoding, PriorityRange, ScheduledScanLine, SchedulerContext,
+        DecodeArrayTask, DecodeBatchScheduler, DrainLimit, FieldScheduler, FilterExpression,
+        ListPriorityRange, LogicalPageDecoder, MessageType, NextDecodeTask, PageEncoding,
+        PriorityRange, ScheduledScanLine, SchedulerContext, SchedulingJob,
     },
-    encoder::{EncodeTask, EncodedColumn, EncodedPage, FieldEncoder, OutOfLineBuffers},
-    format::pb,
-    previous::{
-        decoder::{FieldScheduler, LogicalPageDecoder, SchedulingJob},
-        encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
-        encodings::logical::r#struct::{SimpleStructDecoder, SimpleStructScheduler},
+    encoder::{
+        ArrayEncoder, EncodeTask, EncodedArray, EncodedColumn, EncodedPage, FieldEncoder,
+        OutOfLineBuffers,
     },
+    format::pb,
     repdef::RepDefBuilder,
     utils::accumulation::AccumulationQueue,
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
+/// When set, indirect I/O in the 2.0 list scheduler bypasses the backpressure system.
+///
+/// This can be a blunt instrument to avoid deadlocks in 2.0 scenarios
+/// Set LANCE_BYPASS_INDIRECT_IO_BACKPRESSURE=1 to enable.
+static BYPASS_INDIRECT_IO_BACKPRESSURE: OnceLock<bool> = OnceLock::new();
+
+fn bypass_indirect_io_backpressure() -> bool {
+    *BYPASS_INDIRECT_IO_BACKPRESSURE.get_or_init(|| {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_BYPASS_INDIRECT_IO_BACKPRESSURE")
+            .map(|val| str_is_truthy(&val))
+            .unwrap_or(false)
+    })
+}
+
 // Scheduling lists is tricky.  Imagine the following scenario:
 //
 // * There are 2000 offsets per offsets page
@@ -295,8 +312,7 @@ fn decode_offsets(
             );
         trace!(
             "List offsets range of {} lists maps to item range {:?}",
-            num_lists,
-            items_range
+            num_lists, items_range
         );
         offsets_offset += num_offsets_to_norm as u32;
         if !items_range.is_empty() {
@@ -332,7 +348,7 @@ async fn indirect_schedule_task(
     // pages.  We can use a dummy receiver to match the decoder API
     offsets_decoder.wait_for_loaded(num_offsets - 1).await?;
     let decode_task = offsets_decoder.drain(num_offsets)?;
-    let offsets = decode_task.task.decode()?;
+    let (offsets, _) = decode_task.task.decode()?;
 
     let (item_ranges, offsets, validity) =
         decode_offsets(offsets.as_ref(), &list_requests, null_offset_adjustment);
@@ -381,7 +397,7 @@ async fn indirect_schedule_task(
 
     for message in indirect_messages {
         for decoder in message.decoders {
-            let decoder = decoder.into_legacy();
+            let decoder = decoder.into_array();
             if !decoder.path.is_empty() {
                 root_decoder.accept_child(decoder)?;
             }
@@ -434,15 +450,16 @@ impl SchedulingJob for ListFieldSchedulingJob<'_> {
         let list_reqs = self.list_requests_iter.next(offsets_scheduled);
         trace!(
             "Scheduled {} offsets which maps to list requests: {:?}",
-            offsets_scheduled,
-            list_reqs
+            offsets_scheduled, list_reqs
         );
         let null_offset_adjustment = list_reqs[0].null_offset_adjustment;
         // It shouldn't be possible for `list_reqs` to span more than one offsets page and so it shouldn't
         // be possible for the null_offset_adjustment to change
-        debug_assert!(list_reqs
-            .iter()
-            .all(|req| req.null_offset_adjustment == null_offset_adjustment));
+        debug_assert!(
+            list_reqs
+                .iter()
+                .all(|req| req.null_offset_adjustment == null_offset_adjustment)
+        );
         let num_rows = list_reqs.iter().map(|req| req.num_lists).sum::<u64>();
         // offsets is a uint64 which is guaranteed to create one decoder on each call to schedule_next
         let next_offsets_decoder = next_offsets
@@ -450,12 +467,17 @@ impl SchedulingJob for ListFieldSchedulingJob<'_> {
             .into_iter()
             .next()
             .unwrap()
-            .into_legacy()
+            .into_array()
             .decoder;
 
         let items_scheduler = self.scheduler.items_scheduler.clone();
         let items_type = self.scheduler.items_field.data_type().clone();
-        let io = context.io().clone();
+        let base_io = context.io().clone();
+        let io = if bypass_indirect_io_backpressure() {
+            base_io.with_bypass_backpressure().unwrap_or(base_io)
+        } else {
+            base_io
+        };
         let cache = context.cache().clone();
 
         // Immediately spawn the indirect scheduling
@@ -615,14 +637,59 @@ struct ListDecodeTask {
     offset_type: DataType,
 }
 
+fn oversized_batch_error(
+    items_field: &Field,
+    requested_range: Range<u64>,
+    decodable_prefix_end: u64,
+    num_items: u64,
+) -> Error {
+    let prefix_detail = if decodable_prefix_end > requested_range.start {
+        format!(
+            "rows {}..{} fit, but requesting rows {}..{} would require {num_items} {}",
+            requested_range.start,
+            decodable_prefix_end,
+            requested_range.start,
+            requested_range.end,
+            if items_field.data_type() == &DataType::UInt8 {
+                "bytes"
+            } else {
+                "items"
+            }
+        )
+    } else {
+        format!(
+            "requesting rows {}..{} would require {num_items} {}",
+            requested_range.start,
+            requested_range.end,
+            if items_field.data_type() == &DataType::UInt8 {
+                "bytes"
+            } else {
+                "items"
+            }
+        )
+    };
+    if items_field.data_type() == &DataType::UInt8 {
+        Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "Could not create array with more than 2GiB of string/binary data in a single batch \
+             ({prefix_detail}). Please reduce the batch_size, set LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE to a \
+             smaller value, or convert the column to large_string/large_binary."
+        ))
+    } else {
+        Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "Could not create a list array with more than i32::MAX items in a single batch \
+             ({prefix_detail}). Please reduce the batch_size."
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
 impl DecodeArrayTask for ListDecodeTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
         let items = self
             .items
             .map(|items| {
                 // When we run the indirect I/O we wrap things in a struct array with a single field
                 // named "item".  We can unwrap that now.
-                let wrapped_items = items.decode()?;
+                let (wrapped_items, _) = items.decode()?;
                 Result::Ok(wrapped_items.as_struct().column(0).clone())
             })
             .unwrap_or_else(|| Ok(new_empty_array(self.items_field.data_type())))?;
@@ -641,33 +708,36 @@ impl DecodeArrayTask for ListDecodeTask {
         };
         let min_offset = UInt64Array::new_scalar(offsets.value(0));
         let offsets = arrow_arith::numeric::sub(&offsets, &min_offset)?;
-        match &self.offset_type {
+        let array: ArrayRef = match &self.offset_type {
             DataType::Int32 => {
                 let offsets = arrow_cast::cast(&offsets, &DataType::Int32)?;
                 let offsets_i32 = offsets.as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
                 let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(offsets_i32.values().clone());
 
-                Ok(Arc::new(ListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ListArray::try_new(
                     self.items_field.clone(),
                     offsets,
                     items,
                     validity,
-                )?))
+                )?)
             }
             DataType::Int64 => {
                 let offsets = arrow_cast::cast(&offsets, &DataType::Int64)?;
                 let offsets_i64 = offsets.as_primitive::<Int64Type>();
                 let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(offsets_i64.values().clone());
 
-                Ok(Arc::new(LargeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(LargeListArray::try_new(
                     self.items_field.clone(),
                     offsets,
                     items,
                     validity,
-                )?))
+                )?)
             }
             _ => panic!("ListDecodeTask with data type that is not i32 or i64"),
-        }
+        };
+        // data_size is only tracked in the v2.1 structural decode path; the v2.0 array
+        // v2.0 path does not need it so we return 0.
+        Ok((array, 0))
     }
 }
 
@@ -757,11 +827,14 @@ impl LogicalPageDecoder for ListPageDecoder {
             }
         }
         if actual_num_rows < num_rows {
-            // TODO: We should be able to automatically
-            // shrink the read batch size if we detect the batches are going to be huge (maybe
-            // even achieve this with a read_batch_bytes parameter, though some estimation may
-            // still be required)
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported { source: format!("loading a batch of {} lists would require creating an array with over i32::MAX items and we don't yet support returning smaller than requested batches", num_rows).into(), location: location!() });
+            let requested_range = self.rows_drained..self.rows_drained + num_rows;
+            let num_items = self.offsets[requested_range.end as usize] - item_start;
+            return Err(oversized_batch_error(
+                self.items_field.as_ref(),
+                requested_range,
+                self.rows_drained + actual_num_rows,
+                num_items,
+            ));
         }
         let offsets = self.offsets
             [self.rows_drained as usize..(self.rows_drained + actual_num_rows + 1) as usize]
@@ -795,6 +868,55 @@ impl LogicalPageDecoder for ListPageDecoder {
         })
     }
 
+    fn max_rows_to_drain(&self, num_rows: u64, byte_budget: u64) -> Result<DrainLimit> {
+        if num_rows == 0 {
+            return Ok(DrainLimit { rows: 0, bytes: 0 });
+        }
+        let start_index = self.rows_drained as usize;
+        let end_index = start_index + num_rows as usize;
+        let start_offset = self.offsets[start_index];
+        // The list's own offsets buffer counts items; when it is i32, the cumulative
+        // item count of one output array must stay within the budget.  Offsets are
+        // rebased per output batch, so only the delta from `start_offset` counts.
+        let mut safe_rows = num_rows;
+        if self.offset_type != DataType::Int64 {
+            let max_offset = start_offset.saturating_add(byte_budget);
+            safe_rows = self.offsets[start_index + 1..=end_index]
+                .partition_point(|offset| *offset <= max_offset) as u64;
+        }
+
+        // The item array has its own offset buffers with their own budget; shrink to
+        // the largest whole number of lists whose items also fit.
+        let mut item_bytes = 0u64;
+        let mut safe_end_index = start_index + safe_rows as usize;
+        let requested_items = self.offsets[safe_end_index] - start_offset;
+        if requested_items > 0
+            && let Some(item_decoder) = &self.item_decoder
+        {
+            let item_limit = item_decoder.max_rows_to_drain(requested_items, byte_budget)?;
+            item_bytes = item_limit.bytes;
+            if item_limit.rows < requested_items {
+                let max_item_offset = start_offset + item_limit.rows;
+                safe_rows = self.offsets[start_index + 1..=safe_end_index]
+                    .partition_point(|offset| *offset <= max_item_offset)
+                    as u64;
+                safe_end_index = start_index + safe_rows as usize;
+            }
+        }
+        let items_consumed = self.offsets[safe_end_index] - start_offset;
+        let bytes = if self.offset_type != DataType::Int64 {
+            // One shared budget covers both nesting levels conservatively: charge
+            // whichever level consumes more.
+            items_consumed.max(item_bytes)
+        } else {
+            item_bytes
+        };
+        Ok(DrainLimit {
+            rows: safe_rows,
+            bytes,
+        })
+    }
+
     fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
         self.num_rows
     }
@@ -936,7 +1058,7 @@ impl ListOffsetsEncoder {
                 description: PageEncoding::Legacy(description),
                 num_rows,
                 column_idx,
-                row_number: 0, // Legacy encoders do not use
+                row_number: 0, // V2.0 encoders do not use
             })
         })
         .map(|res_res| res_res.unwrap())
@@ -1256,3 +1378,128 @@ impl FieldEncoder for ListFieldEncoder {
         .boxed()
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_buffer::BooleanBuffer;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::decoder::LogicalPageDecoder;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn oversized_binary_batch_error_is_actionable() {
+        let error = oversized_batch_error(
+            &Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, false),
+            32..160,
+            96,
+            i32::MAX as u64 + 1,
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("more than 2GiB of string/binary data")
+        );
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("rows 32..96 fit"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("requesting rows 32..160"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("batch_size"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("large_string/large_binary"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn oversized_list_batch_error_is_actionable() {
+        let error = oversized_batch_error(
+            &Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, false),
+            8..32,
+            16,
+            i32::MAX as u64 + 1,
+        );
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("list array"));
+        assert!(message.contains("more than i32::MAX items"));
+        assert!(message.contains("rows 8..16 fit"));
+        assert!(message.contains("requesting rows 8..32"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn list_decoder_overflow_reports_row_span() {
+        let mut decoder = ListPageDecoder {
+            unloaded: None,
+            offsets: Arc::<[u64]>::from(vec![0_u64, 1, 2, 3, 3 + i32::MAX as u64 + 1]),
+            validity: BooleanBuffer::from_iter([true, true, true, true]),
+            item_decoder: None,
+            num_rows: 4,
+            rows_drained: 2,
+            rows_loaded: 4,
+            items_field: Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, false)),
+            offset_type: DataType::Int32,
+            data_type: DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, false))),
+        };
+
+        let Err(error) = decoder.drain(2) else {
+            panic!("expected overflow error");
+        };
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("rows 2..3 fit"));
+        assert!(message.contains("requesting rows 2..4"));
+        assert!(message.contains(&(i32::MAX as u64 + 2).to_string()));
+        assert!(message.contains("batch_size"));
+    }
+
+    fn list_page_decoder(offsets: Vec<u64>) -> ListPageDecoder {
+        let items_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true));
+        ListPageDecoder {
+            unloaded: None,
+            validity: BooleanBuffer::new_set(offsets.len() - 1),
+            num_rows: offsets.len() as u64 - 1,
+            offsets: offsets.into(),
+            item_decoder: None,
+            rows_drained: 0,
+            rows_loaded: 0,
+            data_type: DataType::List(items_field.clone()),
+            items_field,
+            offset_type: DataType::Int32,
+        }
+    }
+
+    const FULL_BUDGET: u64 = i32::MAX as u64;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_list_page_limits_i32_offset_batches() {
+        let mut decoder = list_page_decoder(vec![0, i32::MAX as u64, i32::MAX as u64 + 1]);
+        let limit = decoder.max_rows_to_drain(2, FULL_BUDGET).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit.rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(limit.bytes, i32::MAX as u64);
+
+        // Offsets are rebased for each output batch, so the following row is safe.
+        decoder.rows_drained = 1;
+        let limit = decoder.max_rows_to_drain(1, FULL_BUDGET).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit.rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(limit.bytes, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_list_page_stays_within_reduced_budget() {
+        // Mid-batch a page sees only the budget the batch has left; splitting is
+        // by actual consumption, not page boundaries.
+        let decoder = list_page_decoder(vec![0, 10, 20, 30, 40]);
+        let limit = decoder.max_rows_to_drain(4, 25).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit.rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(limit.bytes, 20);
+        let limit = decoder.max_rows_to_drain(4, FULL_BUDGET).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit.rows, 4);
+        assert_eq!(limit.bytes, 40);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_list_page_reports_zero_rows_for_single_row_over_i32_offset_limit() {
+        // The stream root emits a zero-row limit as a single-row batch, letting a
+        // genuinely oversized row fail at the arrow layer as it always did.
+        let decoder = list_page_decoder(vec![0, i32::MAX as u64 + 1]);
+        let limit = decoder.max_rows_to_drain(1, FULL_BUDGET).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit.rows, 0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/primitive.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/primitive.rs
similarity index 82%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/primitive.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/primitive.rs
index 3326f62664b..66a6bbdcac4 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/primitive.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/primitive.rs
@@ -3,19 +3,21 @@
 
 use std::{fmt::Debug, ops::Range, sync::Arc, vec};
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, make_array, Array, ArrayRef};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, cast::AsArray, make_array};
 use arrow_buffer::bit_util;
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use log::trace;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::decoder::{ColumnBuffers, PageBuffers};
-use crate::previous::decoder::{FieldScheduler, LogicalPageDecoder, SchedulingJob};
-use crate::previous::encoder::ArrayEncodingStrategy;
+use crate::decoder::{
+    DrainLimit, FieldScheduler, I32_OFFSET_BYTE_BUDGET, LogicalPageDecoder, SchedulingJob,
+    has_i32_offsets,
+};
+use crate::encoder::ArrayEncodingStrategy;
 use crate::utils::accumulation::AccumulationQueue;
-use crate::{data::DataBlock, previous::encodings::physical::decoder_from_array_encoding};
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Field, Error, Result};
+use crate::{array_encoding::physical::decoder_from_array_encoding, data::DataBlock};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field};
 
 use crate::{
     decoder::{
@@ -134,8 +136,7 @@ impl SchedulingJob for PrimitiveFieldSchedulingJob<'_> {
         let mut cur_page = &self.scheduler.page_schedulers[self.page_idx];
         trace!(
             "Current range is {:?} and current page has {} rows",
-            range,
-            cur_page.num_rows
+            range, cur_page.num_rows
         );
         // Skip entire pages until we have some overlap with our next range
         while cur_page.num_rows + self.global_row_offset <= range.start {
@@ -290,7 +291,7 @@ struct PrimitiveFieldDecodeTask {
 }
 
 impl DecodeArrayTask for PrimitiveFieldDecodeTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
         let block = self
             .physical_decoder
             .decode(self.rows_to_skip, self.rows_to_take)?;
@@ -315,10 +316,12 @@ impl DecodeArrayTask for PrimitiveFieldDecodeTask {
                         .data_type(dict.data_type().clone())
                         .build()?,
                 );
-                return Ok(new_array);
+                return Ok((new_array, 0));
             }
         }
-        Ok(array)
+        // data_size is only tracked in the v2.1 structural decode path; the v2.0 array
+        // v2.0 path does not need it so we return 0.
+        Ok((array, 0))
     }
 }
 
@@ -343,10 +346,10 @@ impl LogicalPageDecoder for PrimitiveFieldDecoder {
 
     fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<NextDecodeTask> {
         if self.physical_decoder.as_ref().is_none() {
-            return Err(lance_core::Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("drain was called on primitive field decoder for data type {} on column {} but the decoder was never awaited", self.data_type, self.column_index),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "drain was called on primitive field decoder for data type {} on column {} but the decoder was never awaited",
+                self.data_type, self.column_index
+            )));
         }
 
         let rows_to_skip = self.rows_drained;
@@ -368,6 +371,58 @@ impl LogicalPageDecoder for PrimitiveFieldDecoder {
         })
     }
 
+    fn max_rows_to_drain(&self, num_rows: u64, byte_budget: u64) -> Result<DrainLimit> {
+        if num_rows == 0 || !has_i32_offsets(&self.data_type) {
+            return Ok(DrainLimit {
+                rows: num_rows,
+                bytes: 0,
+            });
+        }
+        let Some(physical_decoder) = self.physical_decoder.as_ref() else {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "max_rows_to_drain was called on primitive field decoder for data type {} on column {} but the decoder was never awaited",
+                self.data_type, self.column_index
+            )));
+        };
+        match physical_decoder.variable_width_bytes(self.rows_drained, num_rows)? {
+            Some(bytes) if bytes <= byte_budget => Ok(DrainLimit {
+                rows: num_rows,
+                bytes,
+            }),
+            Some(_) => {
+                // Largest prefix of the request that still fits the budget.
+                // `variable_width_bytes` is monotonically non-decreasing in the row
+                // count; zero rows always fit.
+                let mut fits = 0u64;
+                let mut too_big = num_rows;
+                while fits + 1 < too_big {
+                    let mid = fits + (too_big - fits) / 2;
+                    let mid_bytes = physical_decoder
+                        .variable_width_bytes(self.rows_drained, mid)?
+                        .unwrap_or(0);
+                    if mid_bytes <= byte_budget {
+                        fits = mid;
+                    } else {
+                        too_big = mid;
+                    }
+                }
+                let bytes = physical_decoder
+                    .variable_width_bytes(self.rows_drained, fits)?
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                Ok(DrainLimit { rows: fits, bytes })
+            }
+            // The encoding cannot report sizes.  Only accept this page's rows when
+            // the batch has accumulated no variable-width bytes yet (the budget is
+            // still whole), and charge the entire budget so nothing stacks after
+            // them; otherwise contribute nothing so the batch ends before them.
+            None if byte_budget >= I32_OFFSET_BYTE_BUDGET => Ok(DrainLimit {
+                rows: num_rows,
+                bytes: byte_budget,
+            }),
+            None => Ok(DrainLimit { rows: 0, bytes: 0 }),
+        }
+    }
+
     fn rows_loaded(&self) -> u64 {
         if self.unloaded_physical_decoder.is_some() {
             0
@@ -439,15 +494,15 @@ impl PrimitiveFieldEncoder {
                 description: PageEncoding::Legacy(description),
                 num_rows: num_values,
                 column_idx,
-                row_number: 0, // legacy encoders do not use
+                row_number: 0, // v2.0 encoders do not use
             })
         })
         .map(|res_res| {
             res_res.unwrap_or_else(|err| {
-                Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Encoding task failed with error: {:?}", err),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Encoding task failed with error: {:?}",
+                    err
+                )))
             })
         })
         .boxed())
@@ -455,6 +510,7 @@ impl PrimitiveFieldEncoder {
 
     // Creates an encode task, consuming all buffered data
     fn do_flush(&mut self, arrays: Vec<ArrayRef>) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
+        DataBlock::validate_arrays(&arrays, &self.field.name)?;
         if arrays.len() == 1 {
             let array = arrays.into_iter().next().unwrap();
             let size_bytes = array.get_buffer_memory_size();
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/struct.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/struct.rs
similarity index 85%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/struct.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/struct.rs
index 5a4dc60ee85..6153f1a0967 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/logical/struct.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/logical/struct.rs
@@ -9,17 +9,16 @@ use std::{
 
 use crate::{
     decoder::{
-        DecodeArrayTask, FilterExpression, MessageType, NextDecodeTask, PriorityRange,
+        DecodeArrayTask, DrainLimit, FilterExpression, MessageType, NextDecodeTask, PriorityRange,
         ScheduledScanLine, SchedulerContext,
     },
-    previous::decoder::{DecoderReady, FieldScheduler, LogicalPageDecoder, SchedulingJob},
+    decoder::{DecoderReady, FieldScheduler, LogicalPageDecoder, SchedulingJob},
 };
 use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StructArray};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, stream::FuturesUnordered, FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, future::BoxFuture, stream::FuturesUnordered};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use log::trace;
-use snafu::location;
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
 struct SchedulingJobWithStatus<'a> {
@@ -57,11 +56,13 @@ struct EmptyStructDecodeTask {
 }
 
 impl DecodeArrayTask for EmptyStructDecodeTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
-        Ok(Arc::new(StructArray::new_empty_fields(
-            self.num_rows as usize,
-            None,
-        )))
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
+        // data_size is only tracked in the v2.1 structural decode path; the v2.0 array
+        // v2.0 path does not need it so we return 0.
+        Ok((
+            Arc::new(StructArray::new_empty_fields(self.num_rows as usize, None)),
+            0,
+        ))
     }
 }
 
@@ -207,8 +208,7 @@ impl SchedulingJob for SimpleStructSchedulerJob<'_> {
             let child_scan = next_child.job.schedule_next(scoped.context, priority)?;
             trace!(
                 "Scheduled {} rows for child {}",
-                child_scan.rows_scheduled,
-                next_child.col_idx
+                child_scan.rows_scheduled, next_child.col_idx
             );
             next_child.rows_scheduled += child_scan.rows_scheduled;
             next_child.rows_remaining -= child_scan.rows_scheduled;
@@ -358,9 +358,7 @@ impl ChildState {
     async fn wait_for_loaded(&mut self, loaded_need: u64) -> Result<()> {
         trace!(
             "Struct child {} waiting for more than {} rows to be loaded and {} are fully loaded already",
-            self.field_index,
-            loaded_need,
-            self.rows_loaded,
+            self.field_index, loaded_need, self.rows_loaded,
         );
         let mut fully_loaded = self.rows_popped;
         for (page_idx, next_decoder) in self.scheduled.iter_mut().enumerate() {
@@ -371,10 +369,7 @@ impl ChildState {
                 let need_for_page = (rows_in_page - 1).min(current_need);
                 trace!(
                     "Struct child {} page {} will wait until more than {} rows loaded from page with {} rows",
-                    self.field_index,
-                    page_idx,
-                    need_for_page,
-                    rows_in_page,
+                    self.field_index, page_idx, need_for_page, rows_in_page,
                 );
                 // We might only await part of a page.  This is important for things
                 // like the struct<struct<...>> case where we have one outer page, one
@@ -386,10 +381,7 @@ impl ChildState {
                 fully_loaded += now_loaded;
                 trace!(
                     "Struct child {} page {} await and now has {} loaded rows and we have {} fully loaded",
-                    self.field_index,
-                    page_idx,
-                    now_loaded,
-                    fully_loaded
+                    self.field_index, page_idx, now_loaded, fully_loaded
                 );
             } else {
                 fully_loaded += next_decoder.num_rows();
@@ -401,9 +393,7 @@ impl ChildState {
         self.rows_loaded = fully_loaded;
         trace!(
             "Struct child {} loaded {} new rows and now {} are loaded",
-            self.field_index,
-            fully_loaded,
-            self.rows_loaded
+            self.field_index, fully_loaded, self.rows_loaded
         );
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -413,8 +403,7 @@ impl ChildState {
 
         trace!(
             "Draining {} rows from struct page with {} rows already drained",
-            num_rows,
-            self.rows_drained
+            num_rows, self.rows_drained
         );
         let mut remaining = num_rows;
         let mut composite = CompositeDecodeTask {
@@ -439,6 +428,31 @@ impl ChildState {
         composite.has_more = self.rows_drained != self.num_rows;
         Ok(composite)
     }
+
+    fn max_rows_to_drain(&self, num_rows: u64, byte_budget: u64) -> Result<DrainLimit> {
+        let mut safe_rows = 0;
+        let mut bytes = 0u64;
+        let mut budget = byte_budget;
+        let mut remaining = num_rows;
+        for decoder in &self.scheduled {
+            if remaining == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
+            let rows_in_page = remaining.min(decoder.rows_left());
+            let page_limit = decoder.max_rows_to_drain(rows_in_page, budget)?;
+            safe_rows += page_limit.rows;
+            bytes = bytes.saturating_add(page_limit.bytes);
+            if page_limit.rows < rows_in_page {
+                break;
+            }
+            budget = budget.saturating_sub(page_limit.bytes);
+            remaining -= rows_in_page;
+        }
+        Ok(DrainLimit {
+            rows: safe_rows,
+            bytes,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 // Wrapper around ChildState that orders using rows_unawaited
@@ -531,7 +545,7 @@ impl LogicalPageDecoder for SimpleStructDecoder {
                 .push_back(child.decoder);
         } else {
             // This decoder is intended for one of our children
-            let intended = self.children[child_idx as usize].scheduled.back_mut().ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal { message: format!("Decoder scheduled for child at index {} but we don't have any child at that index yet", child_idx), location: location!() })?;
+            let intended = self.children[child_idx as usize].scheduled.back_mut().ok_or_else(|| Error::internal(format!("Decoder scheduled for child at index {} but we don't have any child at that index yet", child_idx)))?;
             intended.accept_child(child)?;
         }
         Ok(())
@@ -558,16 +572,36 @@ impl LogicalPageDecoder for SimpleStructDecoder {
         })
     }
 
+    fn max_rows_to_drain(&self, num_rows: u64, byte_budget: u64) -> Result<DrainLimit> {
+        // Each child column concatenates into its own Arrow array, so every child
+        // gets the full budget; the most constrained child bounds the batch.
+        self.children.iter().try_fold(
+            DrainLimit {
+                rows: num_rows,
+                bytes: 0,
+            },
+            |limit, child| {
+                child
+                    .max_rows_to_drain(num_rows, byte_budget)
+                    .map(|child_limit| DrainLimit {
+                        rows: limit.rows.min(child_limit.rows),
+                        bytes: limit.bytes.max(child_limit.bytes),
+                    })
+            },
+        )
+    }
+
     fn rows_loaded(&self) -> u64 {
         self.children.iter().map(|c| c.rows_loaded).min().unwrap()
     }
 
     fn rows_drained(&self) -> u64 {
         // All children should have the same number of rows drained
-        debug_assert!(self
-            .children
-            .iter()
-            .all(|c| c.rows_drained == self.children[0].rows_drained));
+        debug_assert!(
+            self.children
+                .iter()
+                .all(|c| c.rows_drained == self.children[0].rows_drained)
+        );
         self.children[0].rows_drained
     }
 
@@ -592,7 +626,7 @@ impl CompositeDecodeTask {
         let arrays = self
             .tasks
             .into_iter()
-            .map(|task| task.decode())
+            .map(|task| task.decode().map(|(arr, _)| arr))
             .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
         let array_refs = arrays.iter().map(|arr| arr.as_ref()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
         // TODO: If this is a primitive column we should be able to avoid this
@@ -611,16 +645,17 @@ struct SimpleStructDecodeTask {
 }
 
 impl DecodeArrayTask for SimpleStructDecodeTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
         let child_arrays = self
             .children
             .into_iter()
             .map(|child| child.decode())
             .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-        Ok(Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
-            self.child_fields,
-            child_arrays,
-            None,
-        )?))
+        // data_size is only tracked in the v2.1 structural decode path; the v2.0 array
+        // v2.0 path does not need it so we return 0.
+        Ok((
+            Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(self.child_fields, child_arrays, None)?),
+            0,
+        ))
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical.rs
similarity index 95%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical.rs
index 83c9287403e..66af9e806df 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical.rs
@@ -5,16 +5,16 @@ use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
 
 use crate::{
-    buffer::LanceBuffer,
-    decoder::{PageBuffers, PageScheduler},
-    encodings::physical::block::{CompressionConfig, CompressionScheme},
-    format::pb::{self, PackedStruct},
-    previous::encodings::physical::{
+    array_encoding::physical::{
         basic::BasicPageScheduler, binary::BinaryPageScheduler, bitmap::DenseBitmapScheduler,
         dictionary::DictionaryPageScheduler, fixed_size_list::FixedListScheduler,
         fsst::FsstPageScheduler, packed_struct::PackedStructPageScheduler,
         value::ValuePageScheduler,
     },
+    buffer::LanceBuffer,
+    decoder::{PageBuffers, PageScheduler},
+    encodings::physical::block::{CompressionConfig, CompressionScheme},
+    format::pb::{self, PackedStruct},
 };
 
 pub mod basic;
@@ -47,14 +47,12 @@ fn get_buffer(buffer_desc: &pb::Buffer, buffers: &PageBuffers) -> (u64, u64) {
 /// Convert a protobuf buffer encoding into a physical page scheduler
 fn get_buffer_decoder(encoding: &pb::Flat, buffers: &PageBuffers) -> Box<dyn PageScheduler> {
     let (buffer_offset, buffer_size) = get_buffer(encoding.buffer.as_ref().unwrap(), buffers);
-    let compression_config: CompressionConfig = if encoding.compression.is_none() {
-        CompressionConfig::new(CompressionScheme::None, None)
-    } else {
-        let compression = encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap();
-        CompressionConfig::new(
+    let compression_config: CompressionConfig = match encoding.compression.as_ref() {
+        None => CompressionConfig::new(CompressionScheme::None, None),
+        Some(compression) => CompressionConfig::new(
             compression.scheme.as_str().parse().unwrap(),
             compression.level,
-        )
+        ),
     };
     match encoding.bits_per_value {
         1 => Box::new(DenseBitmapScheduler::new(buffer_offset)),
@@ -295,9 +293,9 @@ pub fn decoder_from_array_encoding(
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use crate::array_encoding::physical::get_buffer_decoder;
     use crate::decoder::{ColumnBuffers, FileBuffers, PageBuffers};
     use crate::format::pb;
-    use crate::previous::encodings::physical::get_buffer_decoder;
 
     #[test]
     fn test_get_buffer_decoder_for_compressed_buffer() {
@@ -323,6 +321,9 @@ mod tests {
                 positions_and_sizes: &[],
             },
         );
-        assert_eq!(format!("{:?}", page_scheduler).as_str(), "ValuePageScheduler { bytes_per_value: 1, buffer_offset: 0, buffer_size: 100, compression_config: CompressionConfig { scheme: Zstd, level: Some(0) } }");
+        assert_eq!(
+            format!("{:?}", page_scheduler).as_str(),
+            "ValuePageScheduler { bytes_per_value: 1, buffer_offset: 0, buffer_size: 100, compression_config: CompressionConfig { scheme: Zstd, level: Some(0) } }"
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/basic.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/basic.rs
similarity index 93%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/basic.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/basic.rs
index 97fc8c18149..fa4c5824752 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/basic.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/basic.rs
@@ -4,15 +4,15 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use log::trace;
 
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     data::{AllNullDataBlock, BlockInfo, DataBlock, NullableDataBlock},
     decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
+    encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
     format::ProtobufUtils,
-    previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
 use lance_core::Result;
@@ -156,6 +156,16 @@ struct BasicPageDecoder {
 }
 
 impl PrimitivePageDecoder for BasicPageDecoder {
+    fn variable_width_bytes(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        match &self.mode {
+            DataNullStatus::Some(decoders) => {
+                decoders.values.variable_width_bytes(rows_to_skip, num_rows)
+            }
+            DataNullStatus::All => Ok(Some(0)),
+            DataNullStatus::None(values) => values.variable_width_bytes(rows_to_skip, num_rows),
+        }
+    }
+
     fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         match &self.mode {
             DataNullStatus::Some(decoders) => {
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/binary.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/binary.rs
similarity index 59%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/binary.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/binary.rs
index 2d0e2147d37..f614b1e2ed3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/binary.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/binary.rs
@@ -4,33 +4,52 @@
 use core::panic;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
 use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
-use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
-use arrow_buffer::{bit_util, BooleanBuffer, BooleanBufferBuilder, NullBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, BooleanBufferBuilder, NullBuffer, ScalarBuffer, bit_util};
 use futures::TryFutureExt;
 
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 
+use crate::array_encoding::logical::primitive::PrimitiveFieldDecoder;
 use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
 use crate::data::{
     BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock, NullableDataBlock, VariableWidthBlock,
 };
+use crate::decoder::LogicalPageDecoder;
+use crate::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray};
 use crate::encodings::physical::block::{
     BufferCompressor, CompressionConfig, GeneralBufferCompressor,
 };
 use crate::format::ProtobufUtils;
-use crate::previous::decoder::LogicalPageDecoder;
-use crate::previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray};
-use crate::previous::encodings::logical::primitive::PrimitiveFieldDecoder;
 use crate::{
-    decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
     EncodingsIo,
+    decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
 };
 
 use arrow_array::{PrimitiveArray, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+fn oversized_binary_batch_error(num_rows: u64, num_bytes: u64) -> Error {
+    Error::not_supported(format!(
+        "Could not create array with more than 2GiB of string/binary data in a single batch \
+         ({} rows would require {} bytes). Please reduce the batch_size, set \
+         LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE to a smaller value, or convert the column to \
+         large_string/large_binary.",
+        num_rows, num_bytes
+    ))
+}
+
+fn oversized_large_binary_batch_error(num_rows: u64, num_bytes: u64) -> Error {
+    Error::not_supported(format!(
+        "Could not create large_string/large_binary array in a single batch because {} rows \
+         would require {} bytes, which exceeds i64::MAX. Please reduce the batch_size or set \
+         LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE to a smaller value.",
+        num_rows, num_bytes
+    ))
+}
 
 struct IndicesNormalizer {
     indices: Vec<u64>,
@@ -57,7 +76,7 @@ impl IndicesNormalizer {
         }
     }
 
-    fn extend(&mut self, new_indices: &PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>, is_start: bool) {
+    fn extend(&mut self, new_indices: &PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>, is_start: bool) -> Result<()> {
         let mut last = *self.indices.last().unwrap();
         if is_start {
             let (is_valid, val) = self.normalize(new_indices.value(0));
@@ -66,14 +85,25 @@ impl IndicesNormalizer {
             last += val;
         }
         let mut prev = self.normalize(*new_indices.values().first().unwrap()).1;
-        for w in new_indices.values().windows(2) {
+        for (i, w) in new_indices.values().windows(2).enumerate() {
             let (is_valid, val) = self.normalize(w[1]);
-            let next = val - prev + last;
+            let next = match val.checked_sub(prev) {
+                Some(delta) => delta + last,
+                None => {
+                    return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "corrupt binary page: normalized offset {} is less than previous offset {} \
+                             at index {}, null_adjustment={}, raw values were [{}, {}]. \
+                             This usually indicates the file data has been corrupted.",
+                        val, prev, i, self.null_adjustment, w[0], w[1]
+                    )));
+                }
+            };
             self.indices.push(next);
             self.validity.append(is_valid);
             prev = val;
             last = next;
         }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     fn into_parts(mut self) -> (Vec<u64>, BooleanBuffer) {
@@ -109,7 +139,7 @@ impl BinaryPageScheduler {
             PrimitiveFieldDecoder::new_from_data(decoder, DataType::UInt64, num_rows, false);
         let drained_task = primitive_wrapper.drain(num_rows)?;
         let indices_decode_task = drained_task.task;
-        indices_decode_task.decode()
+        indices_decode_task.decode().map(|(arr, _)| arr)
     }
 }
 
@@ -201,11 +231,12 @@ impl PageScheduler for BinaryPageScheduler {
                 let last = indices_builder
                     .normalize(*curr_indices.values().last().unwrap())
                     .1;
+
                 if first != last {
                     bytes_ranges.push(first..last);
                 }
 
-                indices_builder.extend(&curr_indices, row_start == 0);
+                indices_builder.extend(&curr_indices, row_start == 0)?;
             }
 
             let (indices, validity) = indices_builder.into_parts();
@@ -251,6 +282,21 @@ struct BinaryPageDecoder {
 }
 
 impl PrimitivePageDecoder for BinaryPageDecoder {
+    fn variable_width_bytes(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if num_rows == 0 {
+            return Ok(Some(0));
+        }
+        // `decoded_indices` holds one cumulative byte offset per row plus a final
+        // sentinel, so the value bytes for the requested rows are the difference
+        // between the bounding entries.  Only value bytes count: Arrow's i32
+        // limit constrains the final offset value, not the offset buffer size.
+        let value_bytes = self
+            .decoded_indices
+            .value((rows_to_skip + num_rows) as usize)
+            - self.decoded_indices.value(rows_to_skip as usize);
+        Ok(Some(value_bytes))
+    }
+
     // Continuing the example from BinaryPageScheduler
     // Suppose batch_size = 2. Then first, rows_to_skip=0, num_rows=2
     // Need to scan 2 rows
@@ -303,14 +349,25 @@ impl PrimitivePageDecoder for BinaryPageDecoder {
         // Normalize and cast (TODO: could fuse these into one pass for micro-optimization)
         let target_vec = target_offsets.values();
         let start = target_vec[0];
-        let offsets_buffer =
-            match bytes_per_offset {
-                4 => ScalarBuffer::from_iter(target_vec.iter().map(|x| (x - start) as i32))
-                    .into_inner(),
-                8 => ScalarBuffer::from_iter(target_vec.iter().map(|x| (x - start) as i64))
-                    .into_inner(),
-                _ => panic!("Unsupported offsets type"),
-            };
+        let end = *target_vec.last().unwrap();
+        let num_bytes = end - start;
+        let offsets_buffer = match bytes_per_offset {
+            4 => {
+                if num_bytes > i32::MAX as u64 {
+                    return Err(oversized_binary_batch_error(num_rows, num_bytes));
+                }
+                ScalarBuffer::from_iter(target_vec.iter().map(|&offset| (offset - start) as i32))
+                    .into_inner()
+            }
+            8 => {
+                if num_bytes > i64::MAX as u64 {
+                    return Err(oversized_large_binary_batch_error(num_rows, num_bytes));
+                }
+                ScalarBuffer::from_iter(target_vec.iter().map(|&offset| (offset - start) as i64))
+                    .into_inner()
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Unsupported offsets type"),
+        };
 
         let bytes_to_skip = self.decoded_indices.value(rows_to_skip as usize);
         let num_bytes = self
@@ -526,6 +583,38 @@ mod tests {
 
     use super::*;
 
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct EmptyBytesDecoder;
+
+    impl PrimitivePageDecoder for EmptyBytesDecoder {
+        fn decode(&self, _rows_to_skip: u64, _num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+            Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                bits_per_value: 8,
+                data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+                num_values: 0,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            }))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct BytesDecoder {
+        bytes: Vec<u8>,
+    }
+
+    impl PrimitivePageDecoder for BytesDecoder {
+        fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+            let start = rows_to_skip as usize;
+            let end = start + num_rows as usize;
+            Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                bits_per_value: 8,
+                data: LanceBuffer::from(self.bytes[start..end].to_vec()),
+                num_values: num_rows,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            }))
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_encode_indices_adjusts_nulls() {
         // Null entries in string arrays should be adjusted
@@ -556,4 +645,229 @@ mod tests {
         );
         assert_eq!(null_adjustment, 7);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_binary_overflow_error_is_actionable() {
+        let num_rows = 1;
+        let start = 100_u64;
+        let end = start + i32::MAX as u64 + 1;
+        let decoded_indices = UInt64Array::from(vec![start, end]);
+        let decoder = BinaryPageDecoder {
+            decoded_indices,
+            validity: BooleanBuffer::from_iter([true]),
+            offsets_type: DataType::Int32,
+            bytes_decoder: Box::new(EmptyBytesDecoder),
+        };
+
+        let error = decoder.decode(0, num_rows).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("more than 2GiB of string/binary data"));
+        assert!(message.contains("batch_size"));
+        assert!(message.contains("LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE"));
+        assert!(message.contains("large_string/large_binary"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_large_binary_overflow_error_is_actionable() {
+        let num_rows = 1;
+        let start = 100_u64;
+        let end = start + i64::MAX as u64 + 1;
+        let decoded_indices = UInt64Array::from(vec![start, end]);
+        let decoder = BinaryPageDecoder {
+            decoded_indices,
+            validity: BooleanBuffer::from_iter([true]),
+            offsets_type: DataType::Int64,
+            bytes_decoder: Box::new(EmptyBytesDecoder),
+        };
+
+        let error = decoder.decode(0, num_rows).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("large_string/large_binary"));
+        assert!(message.contains("exceeds i64::MAX"));
+        assert!(message.contains("batch_size"));
+        assert!(message.contains("LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_large_binary_decode_success_path() {
+        let decoded_indices = UInt64Array::from(vec![100_u64, 102, 105]);
+        let mut bytes = vec![0_u8; 100];
+        bytes.extend_from_slice(b"abcde");
+        let decoder = BinaryPageDecoder {
+            decoded_indices,
+            validity: BooleanBuffer::from_iter([true, true]),
+            offsets_type: DataType::Int64,
+            bytes_decoder: Box::new(BytesDecoder { bytes }),
+        };
+
+        let data = decoder.decode(0, 2).unwrap();
+        let variable = data.as_variable_width().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(variable.bits_per_offset, 64);
+        assert_eq!(variable.data.as_ref(), b"abcde");
+        assert_eq!(
+            variable.offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<i64>().as_ref(),
+            &[0_i64, 2, 5]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct NeverDecodedStub;
+
+    impl PrimitivePageDecoder for NeverDecodedStub {
+        fn decode(&self, _rows_to_skip: u64, _num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+            unreachable!("byte accounting must not decode any values")
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A real physical binary page over strings of the given byte lengths.
+    fn binary_page(value_lens: &[u64]) -> BinaryPageDecoder {
+        let mut indices = vec![0u64];
+        for len in value_lens {
+            indices.push(indices.last().unwrap() + len);
+        }
+        BinaryPageDecoder {
+            decoded_indices: UInt64Array::from(indices),
+            offsets_type: DataType::Int32,
+            validity: BooleanBuffer::new_set(value_lens.len()),
+            bytes_decoder: Box::new(NeverDecodedStub),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Variable-width value bytes of `n` rows starting at `skip` (what the
+    /// output array's i32 offsets index into).
+    fn expected_bytes(value_lens: &[u64], skip: usize, n: usize) -> u64 {
+        value_lens[skip..skip + n].iter().sum::<u64>()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_unknown_size_pages_split_at_page_boundaries() {
+        use crate::array_encoding::logical::primitive::PrimitiveFieldDecoder;
+        use crate::array_encoding::logical::r#struct::SimpleStructDecoder;
+        use crate::decoder::{DecoderReady, I32_OFFSET_BYTE_BUDGET, LogicalPageDecoder};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Fields};
+        use std::collections::VecDeque;
+
+        /// A variable-width page that cannot report sizes (default
+        /// `variable_width_bytes` returns `None`).
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct UnknownSizeStub;
+
+        impl PrimitivePageDecoder for UnknownSizeStub {
+            fn decode(&self, _rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+                Ok(DataBlock::VariableWidth(VariableWidthBlock {
+                    bits_per_offset: 32,
+                    data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+                    offsets: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32; num_rows as usize + 1]),
+                    num_values: num_rows,
+                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                }))
+            }
+        }
+
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let mut root = SimpleStructDecoder::new(fields, 6);
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            root.accept_child(DecoderReady {
+                decoder: Box::new(PrimitiveFieldDecoder::new_from_data(
+                    Arc::new(UnknownSizeStub),
+                    DataType::Utf8,
+                    3,
+                    false,
+                )),
+                path: VecDeque::from([0]),
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Each page's size is unknown, so pages must not stack in one batch:
+        // the batch takes the first page alone and stops at its boundary.
+        let limit = root.max_rows_to_drain(6, I32_OFFSET_BYTE_BUDGET).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit.rows, 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_physical_binary_page_reports_variable_width_bytes() {
+        let page = binary_page(&[4, 4, 5]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            page.variable_width_bytes(0, 3).unwrap(),
+            Some(expected_bytes(&[4, 4, 5], 0, 3))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            page.variable_width_bytes(1, 2).unwrap(),
+            Some(expected_bytes(&[4, 4, 5], 1, 2))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(page.variable_width_bytes(0, 0).unwrap(), Some(0));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_primitive_field_decoder_truncates_to_byte_budget() {
+        use crate::array_encoding::logical::primitive::PrimitiveFieldDecoder;
+        use crate::decoder::LogicalPageDecoder;
+
+        let lens = [4u64, 4, 5];
+        let decoder = PrimitiveFieldDecoder::new_from_data(
+            Arc::new(binary_page(&lens)),
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            3,
+            false,
+        );
+        let full = expected_bytes(&lens, 0, 3);
+
+        let limit = decoder.max_rows_to_drain(3, full).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!((limit.rows, limit.bytes), (3, full));
+
+        // One byte short of the full request: only two rows fit.
+        let limit = decoder.max_rows_to_drain(3, full - 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!((limit.rows, limit.bytes), (2, expected_bytes(&lens, 0, 2)));
+
+        // Nothing fits: zero rows, so the stream root can raise an error.
+        let limit = decoder.max_rows_to_drain(3, 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit.rows, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_physical_binary_pages_accumulate_budget_across_pages() {
+        use crate::array_encoding::logical::primitive::PrimitiveFieldDecoder;
+        use crate::array_encoding::logical::r#struct::SimpleStructDecoder;
+        use crate::decoder::{DecoderReady, LogicalPageDecoder};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Fields};
+        use std::collections::VecDeque;
+
+        let lens = [4u64, 4, 5];
+        let page_bytes = expected_bytes(&lens, 0, 3);
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let mut root = SimpleStructDecoder::new(fields, 6);
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            root.accept_child(DecoderReady {
+                decoder: Box::new(PrimitiveFieldDecoder::new_from_data(
+                    Arc::new(binary_page(&lens)),
+                    DataType::Utf8,
+                    3,
+                    false,
+                )),
+                path: VecDeque::from([0]),
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Both pages fit: the batch spans the page boundary.
+        let limit = root.max_rows_to_drain(6, page_bytes * 2).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!((limit.rows, limit.bytes), (6, page_bytes * 2));
+
+        // Page 1 plus the first two rows of page 2 fit.
+        let second_page_prefix = expected_bytes(&lens, 0, 2);
+        let limit = root
+            .max_rows_to_drain(6, page_bytes + second_page_prefix)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            (limit.rows, limit.bytes),
+            (5, page_bytes + second_page_prefix)
+        );
+
+        // Budget for page 1 only: the batch stops at the page boundary.
+        let limit = root.max_rows_to_drain(6, page_bytes).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!((limit.rows, limit.bytes), (3, page_bytes));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/bitmap.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/bitmap.rs
similarity index 97%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/bitmap.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/bitmap.rs
index bab8970783f..2168aff24e2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/bitmap.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/bitmap.rs
@@ -6,15 +6,15 @@ use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 use arrow_buffer::BooleanBufferBuilder;
 use bytes::Bytes;
 
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use lance_core::Result;
 use log::trace;
 
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock},
     decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
 /// A physical scheduler for bitmap buffers encoded densely as 1 bit per value
@@ -131,10 +131,10 @@ mod tests {
     use bytes::Bytes;
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
+    use crate::array_encoding::physical::bitmap::BitmapData;
     use crate::data::{DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock};
     use crate::decoder::PrimitivePageDecoder;
-    use crate::previous::encodings::physical::bitmap::BitmapData;
-    use crate::testing::{check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
+    use crate::testing::{TestCases, check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data};
 
     use super::BitmapDecoder;
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/bitpack.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/bitpack.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a76add68a29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/bitpack.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,728 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_buffer::bit_util::ceil;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::future::{BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use log::trace;
+
+use lance_bitpacking::BitPacking;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
+use crate::data::BlockInfo;
+use crate::data::{DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock};
+use crate::decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder};
+use bytemuck::cast_slice;
+
+const LOG_ELEMS_PER_CHUNK: u8 = 10;
+const ELEMS_PER_CHUNK: u64 = 1 << LOG_ELEMS_PER_CHUNK;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct BitpackedForNonNegScheduler {
+    compressed_bit_width: u64,
+    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
+    buffer_offset: u64,
+}
+
+impl BitpackedForNonNegScheduler {
+    pub fn new(
+        compressed_bit_width: u64,
+        uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
+        buffer_offset: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            compressed_bit_width,
+            uncompressed_bits_per_value,
+            buffer_offset,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn locate_chunk_start(&self, relative_row_num: u64) -> u64 {
+        let chunk_size = ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * self.compressed_bit_width / 8;
+        self.buffer_offset + (relative_row_num / ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * chunk_size)
+    }
+
+    fn locate_chunk_end(&self, relative_row_num: u64) -> u64 {
+        let chunk_size = ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * self.compressed_bit_width / 8;
+        self.buffer_offset + (relative_row_num / ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * chunk_size) + chunk_size
+    }
+}
+
+impl PageScheduler for BitpackedForNonNegScheduler {
+    fn schedule_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[std::ops::Range<u64>],
+        scheduler: &Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo>,
+        top_level_row: u64,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<Box<dyn PrimitivePageDecoder>>> {
+        assert!(!ranges.is_empty());
+
+        let mut byte_ranges = vec![];
+
+        // map one bytes to multiple ranges, one bytes has at least one range corresponding to it
+        let mut bytes_idx_to_range_indices = vec![];
+        let first_byte_range = std::ops::Range {
+            start: self.locate_chunk_start(ranges[0].start),
+            end: self.locate_chunk_end(ranges[0].end - 1),
+        }; // the ranges are half-open
+        byte_ranges.push(first_byte_range);
+        bytes_idx_to_range_indices.push(vec![ranges[0].clone()]);
+
+        for (i, range) in ranges.iter().enumerate().skip(1) {
+            let this_start = self.locate_chunk_start(range.start);
+            let this_end = self.locate_chunk_end(range.end - 1);
+
+            // when the current range start is in the same chunk as the previous range's end, we colaesce this two bytes ranges
+            // when the current range start is not in the same chunk as the previous range's end, we create a new bytes range
+            if this_start == self.locate_chunk_start(ranges[i - 1].end - 1) {
+                byte_ranges.last_mut().unwrap().end = this_end;
+                bytes_idx_to_range_indices
+                    .last_mut()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .push(range.clone());
+            } else {
+                byte_ranges.push(this_start..this_end);
+                bytes_idx_to_range_indices.push(vec![range.clone()]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        trace!(
+            "Scheduling I/O for {} ranges spread across byte range {}..{}",
+            byte_ranges.len(),
+            byte_ranges[0].start,
+            byte_ranges.last().unwrap().end
+        );
+
+        let bytes = scheduler.submit_request(byte_ranges.clone(), top_level_row);
+
+        // copy the necessary data from `self` to move into the async block
+        let compressed_bit_width = self.compressed_bit_width;
+        let uncompressed_bits_per_value = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value;
+        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|range| range.end - range.start).sum();
+
+        async move {
+            let bytes = bytes.await?;
+            let decompressed_output = bitpacked_for_non_neg_decode(
+                compressed_bit_width,
+                uncompressed_bits_per_value,
+                &bytes,
+                &bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
+                num_rows,
+            );
+            Ok(Box::new(BitpackedForNonNegPageDecoder {
+                uncompressed_bits_per_value,
+                decompressed_buf: decompressed_output,
+            }) as Box<dyn PrimitivePageDecoder>)
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BitpackedForNonNegPageDecoder {
+    // number of bits in the uncompressed value. E.g. this will be 32 for DataType::UInt32
+    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
+
+    decompressed_buf: LanceBuffer,
+}
+
+impl PrimitivePageDecoder for BitpackedForNonNegPageDecoder {
+    fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        if ![8, 16, 32, 64].contains(&self.uncompressed_bits_per_value) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source("BitpackedForNonNegPageDecoder should only has uncompressed_bits_per_value of 8, 16, 32, or 64".into()));
+        }
+
+        let elem_size_in_bytes = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value / 8;
+
+        Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: self.decompressed_buf.slice_with_length(
+                (rows_to_skip * elem_size_in_bytes) as usize,
+                (num_rows * elem_size_in_bytes) as usize,
+            ),
+            bits_per_value: self.uncompressed_bits_per_value,
+            num_values: num_rows,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+macro_rules! bitpacked_decode {
+    ($uncompressed_type:ty, $compressed_bit_width:expr, $data:expr, $bytes_idx_to_range_indices:expr, $num_rows:expr) => {{
+        let mut decompressed: Vec<$uncompressed_type> = Vec::with_capacity($num_rows as usize);
+        let packed_chunk_size_in_byte: usize = (ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * $compressed_bit_width) as usize / 8;
+        let mut decompress_chunk_buf = vec![0 as $uncompressed_type; ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize];
+
+        for (i, bytes) in $data.iter().enumerate() {
+            let mut ranges_idx = 0;
+            let mut curr_range_start = $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][0].start;
+            let mut chunk_num = 0;
+
+            while chunk_num * packed_chunk_size_in_byte < bytes.len() {
+                // Copy for memory alignment
+                // TODO: This copy should not be needed
+                let chunk_in_u8: Vec<u8> = bytes[chunk_num * packed_chunk_size_in_byte..]
+                    [..packed_chunk_size_in_byte]
+                    .to_vec();
+                chunk_num += 1;
+                let chunk = cast_slice(&chunk_in_u8);
+                unsafe {
+                    BitPacking::unchecked_unpack(
+                        $compressed_bit_width as usize,
+                        chunk,
+                        &mut decompress_chunk_buf,
+                    );
+                }
+
+                loop {
+                    // Case 1: All the elements after (curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) inside this chunk are needed.
+                    let elems_after_curr_range_start_in_this_chunk =
+                        ELEMS_PER_CHUNK - curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK;
+                    if curr_range_start + elems_after_curr_range_start_in_this_chunk
+                        <= $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][ranges_idx].end
+                    {
+                        decompressed.extend_from_slice(
+                            &decompress_chunk_buf[(curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) as usize..],
+                        );
+                        curr_range_start += elems_after_curr_range_start_in_this_chunk;
+                        break;
+                    } else {
+                        // Case 2: Only part of the elements after (curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) inside this chunk are needed.
+                        let elems_this_range_needed_in_this_chunk =
+                            ($bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][ranges_idx].end - curr_range_start)
+                                .min(ELEMS_PER_CHUNK - curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK);
+                        decompressed.extend_from_slice(
+                            &decompress_chunk_buf[(curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) as usize..]
+                                [..elems_this_range_needed_in_this_chunk as usize],
+                        );
+                        if curr_range_start + elems_this_range_needed_in_this_chunk
+                            == $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][ranges_idx].end
+                        {
+                            ranges_idx += 1;
+                            if ranges_idx == $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i].len() {
+                                break;
+                            }
+                            curr_range_start = $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][ranges_idx].start;
+                        } else {
+                            curr_range_start += elems_this_range_needed_in_this_chunk;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(decompressed)
+    }};
+}
+
+fn bitpacked_for_non_neg_decode(
+    compressed_bit_width: u64,
+    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
+    data: &[Bytes],
+    bytes_idx_to_range_indices: &[Vec<std::ops::Range<u64>>],
+    num_rows: u64,
+) -> LanceBuffer {
+    match uncompressed_bits_per_value {
+        8 => bitpacked_decode!(
+            u8,
+            compressed_bit_width,
+            data,
+            bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
+            num_rows
+        ),
+        16 => bitpacked_decode!(
+            u16,
+            compressed_bit_width,
+            data,
+            bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
+            num_rows
+        ),
+        32 => bitpacked_decode!(
+            u32,
+            compressed_bit_width,
+            data,
+            bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
+            num_rows
+        ),
+        64 => bitpacked_decode!(
+            u64,
+            compressed_bit_width,
+            data,
+            bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
+            num_rows
+        ),
+        _ => unreachable!(
+            "bitpacked_for_non_neg_decode only supports 8, 16, 32, 64 uncompressed_bits_per_value"
+        ),
+    }
+}
+
+// A physical scheduler for bitpacked buffers
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct BitpackedScheduler {
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
+    buffer_offset: u64,
+    signed: bool,
+}
+
+impl BitpackedScheduler {
+    pub fn new(
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+        uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
+        buffer_offset: u64,
+        signed: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bits_per_value,
+            uncompressed_bits_per_value,
+            buffer_offset,
+            signed,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PageScheduler for BitpackedScheduler {
+    fn schedule_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[std::ops::Range<u64>],
+        scheduler: &Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo>,
+        top_level_row: u64,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<Box<dyn PrimitivePageDecoder>>> {
+        let mut min = u64::MAX;
+        let mut max = 0;
+
+        let mut buffer_bit_start_offsets: Vec<u8> = vec![];
+        let mut buffer_bit_end_offsets: Vec<Option<u8>> = vec![];
+        let byte_ranges = ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|range| {
+                let start_byte_offset = range.start * self.bits_per_value / 8;
+                let mut end_byte_offset = range.end * self.bits_per_value / 8;
+                if !(range.end * self.bits_per_value).is_multiple_of(8) {
+                    // If the end of the range is not byte-aligned, we need to read one more byte
+                    end_byte_offset += 1;
+
+                    let end_bit_offset = range.end * self.bits_per_value % 8;
+                    buffer_bit_end_offsets.push(Some(end_bit_offset as u8));
+                } else {
+                    buffer_bit_end_offsets.push(None);
+                }
+
+                let start_bit_offset = range.start * self.bits_per_value % 8;
+                buffer_bit_start_offsets.push(start_bit_offset as u8);
+
+                let start = self.buffer_offset + start_byte_offset;
+                let end = self.buffer_offset + end_byte_offset;
+                min = min.min(start);
+                max = max.max(end);
+
+                start..end
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        trace!(
+            "Scheduling I/O for {} ranges spread across byte range {}..{}",
+            byte_ranges.len(),
+            min,
+            max
+        );
+
+        let bytes = scheduler.submit_request(byte_ranges, top_level_row);
+
+        let bits_per_value = self.bits_per_value;
+        let uncompressed_bits_per_value = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value;
+        let signed = self.signed;
+        async move {
+            let bytes = bytes.await?;
+            Ok(Box::new(BitpackedPageDecoder {
+                buffer_bit_start_offsets,
+                buffer_bit_end_offsets,
+                bits_per_value,
+                uncompressed_bits_per_value,
+                signed,
+                data: bytes,
+            }) as Box<dyn PrimitivePageDecoder>)
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BitpackedPageDecoder {
+    // bit offsets of the first value within each buffer
+    buffer_bit_start_offsets: Vec<u8>,
+
+    // bit offsets of the last value within each buffer. e.g. if there was a buffer
+    // with 2 values, packed into 5 bits, this would be [Some(3)], indicating that
+    // the bits from the 3rd->8th bit in the last byte shouldn't be decoded.
+    buffer_bit_end_offsets: Vec<Option<u8>>,
+
+    // the number of bits used to represent a compressed value. E.g. if the max value
+    // in the page was 7 (0b111), then this will be 3
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+
+    // number of bits in the uncompressed value. E.g. this will be 32 for u32
+    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
+
+    // whether or not to use the msb as a sign bit during decoding
+    signed: bool,
+
+    data: Vec<Bytes>,
+}
+
+impl PrimitivePageDecoder for BitpackedPageDecoder {
+    fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        let num_bytes = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value / 8 * num_rows;
+        let mut dest = vec![0; num_bytes as usize];
+
+        // current maximum supported bits per value = 64
+        debug_assert!(self.bits_per_value <= 64);
+
+        let mut rows_to_skip = rows_to_skip;
+        let mut rows_taken = 0;
+        let byte_len = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value / 8;
+        let mut dst_idx = 0; // index for current byte being written to destination buffer
+
+        // create bit mask for source bits
+        let mask = u64::MAX >> (64 - self.bits_per_value);
+
+        for i in 0..self.data.len() {
+            let src = &self.data[i];
+            let (mut src_idx, mut src_offset) = match compute_start_offset(
+                rows_to_skip,
+                src.len(),
+                self.bits_per_value,
+                self.buffer_bit_start_offsets[i],
+                self.buffer_bit_end_offsets[i],
+            ) {
+                StartOffset::SkipFull(rows_to_skip_here) => {
+                    rows_to_skip -= rows_to_skip_here;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                StartOffset::SkipSome(buffer_start_offset) => (
+                    buffer_start_offset.index,
+                    buffer_start_offset.bit_offset as u64,
+                ),
+            };
+
+            while src_idx < src.len() && rows_taken < num_rows {
+                rows_taken += 1;
+                let mut curr_mask = mask; // copy mask
+
+                // current source byte being written to destination
+                let mut curr_src = src[src_idx] & (curr_mask << src_offset) as u8;
+
+                // how many bits from the current source value have been written to destination
+                let mut src_bits_written = 0;
+
+                // the offset within the current destination byte to write to
+                let mut dst_offset = 0;
+
+                let is_negative = is_encoded_item_negative(
+                    src,
+                    src_idx,
+                    src_offset,
+                    self.bits_per_value as usize,
+                );
+
+                while src_bits_written < self.bits_per_value {
+                    // write bits from current source byte into destination
+                    dest[dst_idx] += (curr_src >> src_offset) << dst_offset;
+                    let bits_written = (self.bits_per_value - src_bits_written)
+                        .min(8 - src_offset)
+                        .min(8 - dst_offset);
+                    src_bits_written += bits_written;
+                    dst_offset += bits_written;
+                    src_offset += bits_written;
+                    curr_mask >>= bits_written;
+
+                    if dst_offset == 8 {
+                        dst_idx += 1;
+                        dst_offset = 0;
+                    }
+
+                    if src_offset == 8 {
+                        src_idx += 1;
+                        src_offset = 0;
+                        if src_idx == src.len() {
+                            break;
+                        }
+                        curr_src = src[src_idx] & curr_mask as u8;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // if the type is signed, need to pad out the rest of the byte with 1s
+                let mut negative_padded_current_byte = false;
+                if self.signed && is_negative && dst_offset > 0 {
+                    negative_padded_current_byte = true;
+                    while dst_offset < 8 {
+                        dest[dst_idx] |= 1 << dst_offset;
+                        dst_offset += 1;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // advance destination offset to the next location
+                // note that we don't need to do this if we wrote the full number of bits
+                // because source index would have been advanced by the inner loop above
+                if self.uncompressed_bits_per_value != self.bits_per_value {
+                    let partial_bytes_written = ceil(self.bits_per_value as usize, 8);
+
+                    // we also want to move one location to the next location in destination,
+                    // unless we wrote something byte-aligned in which case the logic above
+                    // would have already advanced dst_idx
+                    let mut to_next_byte = 1;
+                    if self.bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) {
+                        to_next_byte = 0;
+                    }
+                    let next_dst_idx =
+                        dst_idx + byte_len as usize - partial_bytes_written + to_next_byte;
+
+                    // pad remaining bytes with 1 for negative signed numbers
+                    if self.signed && is_negative {
+                        if !negative_padded_current_byte {
+                            dest[dst_idx] = 0xFF;
+                        }
+                        for i in dest.iter_mut().take(next_dst_idx).skip(dst_idx + 1) {
+                            *i = 0xFF;
+                        }
+                    }
+
+                    dst_idx = next_dst_idx;
+                }
+
+                // If we've reached the last byte, there may be some extra bits from the
+                // next value outside the range. We don't want to be taking those.
+                if let Some(buffer_bit_end_offset) = self.buffer_bit_end_offsets[i]
+                    && src_idx == src.len() - 1
+                    && src_offset >= buffer_bit_end_offset as u64
+                {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::from(dest),
+            bits_per_value: self.uncompressed_bits_per_value,
+            num_values: num_rows,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+fn is_encoded_item_negative(src: &Bytes, src_idx: usize, src_offset: u64, num_bits: usize) -> bool {
+    let mut last_byte_idx = src_idx + ((src_offset as usize + num_bits) / 8);
+    let shift_amount = (src_offset as usize + num_bits) % 8;
+    let shift_amount = if shift_amount == 0 {
+        last_byte_idx -= 1;
+        7
+    } else {
+        shift_amount - 1
+    };
+    let last_byte = src[last_byte_idx];
+    let sign_bit_mask = 1 << shift_amount;
+    let sign_bit = last_byte & sign_bit_mask;
+
+    sign_bit > 0
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+struct BufferStartOffset {
+    index: usize,
+    bit_offset: u8,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+enum StartOffset {
+    // skip the full buffer. The value is how many rows are skipped
+    // by skipping the full buffer (e.g., # rows in buffer)
+    SkipFull(u64),
+
+    // skip to some start offset in the buffer
+    SkipSome(BufferStartOffset),
+}
+
+/// compute how far ahead in this buffer should we skip ahead and start reading
+///
+/// * `rows_to_skip` - how many rows to skip
+/// * `buffer_len` - length buf buffer (in bytes)
+/// * `bits_per_value` - number of bits used to represent a single bitpacked value
+/// * `buffer_start_bit_offset` - offset of the start of the first value within the
+///   buffer's  first byte
+/// * `buffer_end_bit_offset` - end bit of the last value within the buffer. Can be
+///   `None` if the end of the last value is byte aligned with end of buffer.
+fn compute_start_offset(
+    rows_to_skip: u64,
+    buffer_len: usize,
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    buffer_start_bit_offset: u8,
+    buffer_end_bit_offset: Option<u8>,
+) -> StartOffset {
+    let rows_in_buffer = rows_in_buffer(
+        buffer_len,
+        bits_per_value,
+        buffer_start_bit_offset,
+        buffer_end_bit_offset,
+    );
+    if rows_to_skip >= rows_in_buffer {
+        return StartOffset::SkipFull(rows_in_buffer);
+    }
+
+    let start_bit = rows_to_skip * bits_per_value + buffer_start_bit_offset as u64;
+    let start_byte = start_bit / 8;
+
+    StartOffset::SkipSome(BufferStartOffset {
+        index: start_byte as usize,
+        bit_offset: (start_bit % 8) as u8,
+    })
+}
+
+/// calculates the number of rows in a buffer
+fn rows_in_buffer(
+    buffer_len: usize,
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    buffer_start_bit_offset: u8,
+    buffer_end_bit_offset: Option<u8>,
+) -> u64 {
+    let mut bits_in_buffer = (buffer_len * 8) as u64 - buffer_start_bit_offset as u64;
+
+    // if the end of the last value of the buffer isn't byte aligned, subtract the
+    // end offset from the total number of bits in buffer
+    if let Some(buffer_end_bit_offset) = buffer_end_bit_offset {
+        bits_in_buffer -= (8 - buffer_end_bit_offset) as u64;
+    }
+
+    bits_in_buffer / bits_per_value
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub mod test {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::BufferScheduler;
+
+    use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
+
+    fn fixed_width_values<T: ArrowNativeType>(block: DataBlock) -> Vec<T> {
+        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock { data, .. }) = block else {
+            panic!("expected fixed-width data");
+        };
+        data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<T>().to_vec()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rows_in_buffer() {
+        let test_cases = vec![
+            (5usize, 5u64, 0u8, None, 8u64),
+            (2, 3, 0, Some(5), 4),
+            (2, 3, 7, Some(6), 2),
+        ];
+
+        for (
+            buffer_len,
+            bits_per_value,
+            buffer_start_bit_offset,
+            buffer_end_bit_offset,
+            expected,
+        ) in test_cases
+        {
+            let result = rows_in_buffer(
+                buffer_len,
+                bits_per_value,
+                buffer_start_bit_offset,
+                buffer_end_bit_offset,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(expected, result);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compute_start_offset() {
+        let result = compute_start_offset(0, 5, 5, 0, None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            StartOffset::SkipSome(BufferStartOffset {
+                index: 0,
+                bit_offset: 0
+            }),
+            result
+        );
+
+        let result = compute_start_offset(10, 5, 5, 0, None);
+        assert_eq!(StartOffset::SkipFull(8), result);
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_bitpacked_scheduler_non_byte_aligned_ranges() {
+        // Legacy 5-bit LSB-first encoding of values 1..=10, with a two-byte prefix.
+        let data = Bytes::from_static(&[0xFA, 0xCE, 0x41, 0x0C, 0x52, 0xCC, 0x41, 0x49, 0x01]);
+        let io: Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(BufferScheduler::new(data));
+        let scheduler = BitpackedScheduler::new(5, 16, 2, false);
+
+        let decoder = scheduler
+            .schedule_ranges(&[1..3, 5..9], &io, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let decoded = decoder.decode(3, 3).unwrap();
+
+        // The scheduled rows are [2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Skipping across the first
+        // Bytes response must begin in the middle of the second response.
+        assert_eq!(fixed_width_values::<u16>(decoded), vec![7, 8, 9]);
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_bitpacked_scheduler_signed_byte_aligned() {
+        // Legacy 16-bit little-endian encoding of [513, -1, 4660, -32768].
+        let data = Bytes::from_static(&[0x01, 0x02, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0x34, 0x12, 0x00, 0x80]);
+        let io: Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(BufferScheduler::new(data));
+        let scheduler = BitpackedScheduler::new(16, 32, 0, true);
+
+        let decoder = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[1..4], &io, 0).await.unwrap();
+        let decoded = decoder.decode(0, 3).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(fixed_width_values::<i32>(decoded), vec![-1, 4660, -32768]);
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_bitpacked_for_non_negative_scheduler_chunk_boundary() {
+        const BIT_WIDTH: usize = 7;
+        const NUM_CHUNKS: usize = 2;
+        const WORDS_PER_CHUNK: usize = ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize * BIT_WIDTH / u32::BITS as usize;
+
+        let values = (0..ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize * NUM_CHUNKS)
+            .map(|index| ((index * 13 + 7) % 127) as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut packed = vec![0_u32; WORDS_PER_CHUNK * NUM_CHUNKS];
+        for chunk_index in 0..NUM_CHUNKS {
+            let value_start = chunk_index * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize;
+            let word_start = chunk_index * WORDS_PER_CHUNK;
+            // SAFETY: Both slices have the exact input and output lengths required
+            // for one 1,024-value chunk at this bit width.
+            unsafe {
+                BitPacking::unchecked_pack(
+                    BIT_WIDTH,
+                    &values[value_start..value_start + ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize],
+                    &mut packed[word_start..word_start + WORDS_PER_CHUNK],
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut data = vec![0xFA, 0xCE, 0x01];
+        data.extend_from_slice(cast_slice(&packed));
+        let io: Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(BufferScheduler::new(Bytes::from(data)));
+        let scheduler = BitpackedForNonNegScheduler::new(BIT_WIDTH as u64, 32, 3);
+
+        let decoder = scheduler
+            .schedule_ranges(&[1020..1028, 1530..1533], &io, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let decoded = decoder.decode(2, 7).unwrap();
+        let expected = (1022..1028)
+            .chain(1530..1531)
+            .map(|index| values[index])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        assert_eq!(fixed_width_values::<u32>(decoded), expected);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/block.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/block.rs
similarity index 97%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/block.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/block.rs
index 517bce4e3a7..3bbd966e24a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/block.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/block.rs
@@ -5,9 +5,9 @@ use arrow_schema::DataType;
 
 use crate::{
     data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, OpaqueBlock},
+    encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
     encodings::physical::block::{CompressedBufferEncoder, CompressionConfig, CompressionScheme},
     format::ProtobufUtils,
-    previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
 };
 
 use lance_core::Result;
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/dictionary.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/dictionary.rs
similarity index 82%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/dictionary.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/dictionary.rs
index 7ba906de556..9d02ed782a7 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/dictionary.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/dictionary.rs
@@ -8,27 +8,26 @@ use arrow_array::builder::{ArrayBuilder, StringBuilder};
 use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::types::UInt8Type;
 use arrow_array::{
-    make_array, new_null_array, Array, ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, StringArray, UInt8Array,
+    Array, ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, StringArray, UInt8Array, make_array, new_null_array,
 };
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 
+use crate::array_encoding::logical::primitive::PrimitiveFieldDecoder;
 use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
 use crate::data::{
     BlockInfo, DataBlock, DictionaryDataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock, NullableDataBlock,
     VariableWidthBlock,
 };
+use crate::decoder::LogicalPageDecoder;
 use crate::format::ProtobufUtils;
-use crate::previous::decoder::LogicalPageDecoder;
-use crate::previous::encodings::logical::primitive::PrimitiveFieldDecoder;
 use crate::{
-    decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
-    previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
     EncodingsIo,
+    decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
+    encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
 };
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -102,7 +101,7 @@ impl PageScheduler for DictionaryPageScheduler {
                 // Decode all items
                 let drained_task = primitive_wrapper.drain(copy_size)?;
                 let items_decode_task = drained_task.task;
-                let decoded_dict = items_decode_task.decode()?;
+                let (decoded_dict, _) = items_decode_task.decode()?;
 
                 let indices_decoder: Box<dyn PrimitivePageDecoder> = indices_page_decoder.await?;
 
@@ -142,6 +141,13 @@ struct DirectDictionaryPageDecoder {
 }
 
 impl PrimitivePageDecoder for DirectDictionaryPageDecoder {
+    fn variable_width_bytes(&self, _rows_to_skip: u64, _num_rows: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        // The decoded batch shares this page's dictionary values; Arrow
+        // concatenation may merge each page's values into one array, so charge
+        // the whole dictionary once per page.
+        Ok(Some(self.decoded_dict.data_size()))
+    }
+
     fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         let indices = self
             .indices_decoder
@@ -162,6 +168,37 @@ struct DictionaryPageDecoder {
 }
 
 impl PrimitivePageDecoder for DictionaryPageDecoder {
+    fn variable_width_bytes(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        // Decoding materializes each row's dictionary value into a plain string
+        // array.  The u8 indices are cheap to decode, so compute the exact value
+        // bytes by summing each requested row's dictionary entry length (index 0
+        // is the in-band null and contributes nothing).
+        let Some(strings) = self.decoded_dict.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let indices = self.indices_decoder.decode(rows_to_skip, num_rows)?;
+        let indices = match &indices {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed) => fixed,
+            DataBlock::Nullable(nullable) => {
+                let Some(fixed) = nullable.data.as_fixed_width_ref() else {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                };
+                fixed
+            }
+            _ => return Ok(None),
+        };
+        if indices.bits_per_value != 8 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let mut bytes = 0u64;
+        for &code in indices.data.as_ref() {
+            if code != 0 {
+                bytes += strings.value_length((code - 1) as usize) as u64;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Some(bytes))
+    }
+
     fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         // Decode the indices
         let indices_data = self.indices_decoder.decode(rows_to_skip, num_rows)?;
@@ -260,6 +297,16 @@ impl ArrayEncoder for AlreadyDictionaryEncoder {
             }
             _ => panic!("Expected dictionary data"),
         };
+        let declared_key_bits = key_type.byte_width() as u64 * 8;
+        if dict_data.indices.bits_per_value != declared_key_bits {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "dictionary indices use {} bits but the declared {} key type uses {} bits; the normalized dictionary has {} values",
+                dict_data.indices.bits_per_value,
+                key_type,
+                declared_key_bits,
+                dict_data.dictionary.num_values()
+            )));
+        }
         let num_dictionary_items = dict_data.dictionary.num_values() as u32;
 
         let encoded_indices = self.indices_encoder.encode(
@@ -361,14 +408,13 @@ impl ArrayEncoder for DictionaryEncoder {
         buffer_index: &mut u32,
     ) -> Result<EncodedArray> {
         if !matches!(data_type, DataType::Utf8) {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "DictionaryEncoder only supports string arrays but got {}",
                     data_type
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            ));
         }
         // We only support string arrays for now
         let str_data = make_array(data.into_arrow(DataType::Utf8, false)?);
@@ -405,16 +451,19 @@ impl ArrayEncoder for DictionaryEncoder {
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
+mod tests {
 
     use arrow_array::{
-        builder::{LargeStringBuilder, StringBuilder},
         ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, StringArray, UInt8Array,
+        builder::{LargeStringBuilder, StringBuilder},
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc, vec};
 
-    use crate::testing::{check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
+    use crate::testing::{
+        TestCases, TestEncoding, check_basic_random_case, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data,
+    };
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     use super::encode_dict_indices_and_items;
 
@@ -442,28 +491,29 @@ pub mod tests {
         assert_eq!(&dict_items, &expected_items);
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_utf8() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::Utf8, false);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
-    }
-
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_binary() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::Binary, false);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
-    }
-
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_large_binary() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::LargeBinary, true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
-    }
-
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_large_utf8() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::LargeUtf8, true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+    async fn test_random_dictionary(
+        #[values(
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            DataType::Binary,
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            DataType::LargeUtf8
+        )]
+        data_type: DataType,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
+        let nullable = matches!(data_type, DataType::LargeBinary | DataType::LargeUtf8);
+        let field = Field::new("", data_type, nullable);
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
@@ -562,14 +612,25 @@ pub mod tests {
 
     // These tests cover the case where the input is already dictionary encoded
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_random_dictionary_input() {
+    async fn test_random_dictionary_input(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
         let dict_field = Field::new(
             "",
             DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::UInt16), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
             false,
         );
-        check_basic_random(dict_field).await;
+        check_basic_random_case(dict_field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/fixed_size_binary.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/fixed_size_binary.rs
similarity index 72%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/fixed_size_binary.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/fixed_size_binary.rs
index 80d2c043f05..a5ed222e116 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/fixed_size_binary.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/fixed_size_binary.rs
@@ -4,17 +4,14 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_buffer::ScalarBuffer;
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use lance_core::Result;
 
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
-    data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock, VariableWidthBlock},
+    data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, VariableWidthBlock},
     decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
-    format::ProtobufUtils,
-    previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
 /// A scheduler for fixed size binary data
@@ -79,6 +76,10 @@ pub struct FixedSizeBinaryDecoder {
 }
 
 impl PrimitivePageDecoder for FixedSizeBinaryDecoder {
+    fn variable_width_bytes(&self, _rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        Ok(Some(num_rows * self.byte_width))
+    }
+
     fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         let rows_to_skip = rows_to_skip * self.byte_width;
         let num_bytes = num_rows * self.byte_width;
@@ -116,91 +117,50 @@ impl PrimitivePageDecoder for FixedSizeBinaryDecoder {
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct FixedSizeBinaryEncoder {
-    bytes_encoder: Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>,
-    byte_width: usize,
-}
-
-impl FixedSizeBinaryEncoder {
-    pub fn new(bytes_encoder: Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>, byte_width: usize) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            bytes_encoder,
-            byte_width,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ArrayEncoder for FixedSizeBinaryEncoder {
-    fn encode(
-        &self,
-        data: DataBlock,
-        _data_type: &DataType,
-        buffer_index: &mut u32,
-    ) -> Result<EncodedArray> {
-        let bytes_data = data.as_variable_width().unwrap();
-        let fixed_data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
-            bits_per_value: 8 * self.byte_width as u64,
-            data: bytes_data.data,
-            num_values: bytes_data.num_values,
-            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-        });
-
-        let encoded_data = self.bytes_encoder.encode(
-            fixed_data,
-            &DataType::FixedSizeBinary(self.byte_width as i32),
-            buffer_index,
-        )?;
-        let encoding =
-            ProtobufUtils::fixed_size_binary(encoded_data.encoding, self.byte_width as u32);
-
-        Ok(EncodedArray {
-            data: encoded_data.data,
-            encoding,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
     use arrow_array::{
-        builder::LargeStringBuilder, Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeBinaryArray, LargeStringArray,
-        StringArray,
+        Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeBinaryArray, LargeStringArray, StringArray,
+        builder::LargeStringBuilder,
     };
     use arrow_buffer::Buffer;
     use arrow_data::ArrayData;
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 
+    use crate::array_encoding::physical::fixed_size_binary::FixedSizeBinaryDecoder;
     use crate::data::{DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock};
     use crate::decoder::PrimitivePageDecoder;
-    use crate::previous::encodings::physical::fixed_size_binary::FixedSizeBinaryDecoder;
-    use crate::testing::{check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
-
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_fixed_size_utf8_binary() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::Utf8, false);
-        // This test only generates fixed size binary arrays anyway
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
-    }
-
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_fixed_size_binary() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::Binary, false);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
-    }
-
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_fixed_size_large_binary() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::LargeBinary, true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
-    }
+    use crate::testing::{
+        TestCases, TestEncoding, check_basic_random_case, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data,
+    };
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_fixed_size_large_utf8() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::LargeUtf8, true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+    async fn test_fixed_size_random(
+        #[values(
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            DataType::Binary,
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            DataType::LargeUtf8
+        )]
+        data_type: DataType,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
+        let nullable = matches!(data_type, DataType::LargeBinary | DataType::LargeUtf8);
+        let field = Field::new("", data_type, nullable);
+        // This test only generates fixed-size binary arrays for Utf8 and Binary.
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
@@ -351,4 +311,56 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(string_array.value(0), "aaa");
         assert_eq!(string_array.value(1), "bbb");
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_size_binary_pages_split_by_byte_budget() {
+        use crate::array_encoding::logical::primitive::PrimitiveFieldDecoder;
+        use crate::array_encoding::logical::r#struct::SimpleStructDecoder;
+        use crate::decoder::{DecoderReady, DrainLimit, LogicalPageDecoder};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Fields};
+        use lance_core::Result;
+        use std::collections::VecDeque;
+
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct NeverDecodedStub;
+
+        impl PrimitivePageDecoder for NeverDecodedStub {
+            fn decode(&self, _rows_to_skip: u64, _num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+                unreachable!("byte accounting must not decode any values")
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Two pages of 3 rows x 10 bytes each; each page fits the budget alone
+        // but the pair does not.
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let mut root = SimpleStructDecoder::new(fields, 6);
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            root.accept_child(DecoderReady {
+                decoder: Box::new(PrimitiveFieldDecoder::new_from_data(
+                    Arc::new(FixedSizeBinaryDecoder {
+                        bytes_decoder: Box::new(NeverDecodedStub),
+                        byte_width: 10,
+                        bytes_per_offset: 4,
+                    }),
+                    DataType::Utf8,
+                    3,
+                    false,
+                )),
+                path: VecDeque::from([0]),
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Budget for page 1 plus two rows of page 2.
+        let limit = root.max_rows_to_drain(6, 50).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit, DrainLimit { rows: 5, bytes: 50 });
+
+        // Budget for exactly one page: the batch stops at the page boundary.
+        let limit = root.max_rows_to_drain(6, 30).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit, DrainLimit { rows: 3, bytes: 30 });
+
+        // Both pages fit a large enough budget.
+        let limit = root.max_rows_to_drain(6, 60).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limit, DrainLimit { rows: 6, bytes: 60 });
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/fixed_size_list.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/fixed_size_list.rs
similarity index 85%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/fixed_size_list.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/fixed_size_list.rs
index a3740b852f8..49d2dbff19b 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/fixed_size_list.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/fixed_size_list.rs
@@ -4,16 +4,16 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use lance_core::Result;
 use log::trace;
 
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     data::{DataBlock, FixedSizeListBlock},
     decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
+    encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
     format::ProtobufUtils,
-    previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
 /// A scheduler for fixed size lists of primitive values
@@ -133,26 +133,34 @@ impl ArrayEncoder for FslEncoder {
 mod tests {
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
-    use arrow_array::{types::Int32Type, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array};
+    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, types::Int32Type};
     use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_array, ArrayGeneratorExt, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, RowCount, array, gen_array};
 
-    use crate::{
-        testing::{check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
+    use crate::testing::{
+        TestCases, TestEncoding, check_basic_random_case, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data,
     };
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-    const PRIMITIVE_TYPES: &[DataType] = &[DataType::Int8, DataType::Float32, DataType::Float64];
-
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_value_fsl_primitive() {
-        for data_type in PRIMITIVE_TYPES {
-            let inner_field = Field::new("item", data_type.clone(), true);
-            let data_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(inner_field), 16);
-            let field = Field::new("", data_type, false);
-            check_basic_random(field).await;
-        }
+    async fn test_value_fsl_primitive(
+        #[values(DataType::Int8, DataType::Float32, DataType::Float64)] data_type: DataType,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
+        let inner_field = Field::new("item", data_type, true);
+        let data_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(inner_field), 16);
+        let field = Field::new("", data_type, false);
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
@@ -182,7 +190,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 2])
             .with_indices(vec![1])
             .with_indices(vec![2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list], &test_cases, HashMap::default()).await;
     }
@@ -209,7 +217,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 2])
             .with_indices(vec![1])
             .with_indices(vec![2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list], &test_cases, HashMap::default()).await;
     }
@@ -260,7 +268,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_range(1..3)
             .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 2])
             .with_indices(vec![2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![outer_list], &test_cases, HashMap::default()).await;
     }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/fsst.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/fsst.rs
similarity index 91%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/fsst.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/fsst.rs
index 55024ded1cd..d6e8868eff2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/fsst.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/fsst.rs
@@ -5,17 +5,17 @@ use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_buffer::ScalarBuffer;
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 
 use lance_core::Result;
 
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, NullableDataBlock, VariableWidthBlock},
     decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
+    encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
     format::ProtobufUtils,
-    previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -62,6 +62,15 @@ struct FsstPageDecoder {
 }
 
 impl PrimitivePageDecoder for FsstPageDecoder {
+    fn variable_width_bytes(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        // FSST decompression expands by at most 8x, so the inner (compressed)
+        // byte count times 8 is a safe upper bound on the decoded size.
+        Ok(self
+            .inner_decoder
+            .variable_width_bytes(rows_to_skip, num_rows)?
+            .map(|compressed_bytes| compressed_bytes.saturating_mul(8)))
+    }
+
     fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         let compressed_data = self.inner_decoder.decode(rows_to_skip, num_rows)?;
         let (string_data, nulls) = match compressed_data {
@@ -88,7 +97,8 @@ impl PrimitivePageDecoder for FsstPageDecoder {
             &offsets,
             &mut decompressed_bytes,
             &mut decompressed_offsets,
-        )?;
+        )
+        .map_err(crate::encodings::physical::fsst::map_fsst_error)?;
 
         // TODO: Change PrimitivePageDecoder to use Vec instead of BytesMut
         // since there is no way to get BytesMut from Vec but these copies should be avoidable
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/packed_struct.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/packed_struct.rs
similarity index 92%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/packed_struct.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/packed_struct.rs
index 8b47824e1b8..aadd440c937 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/packed_struct.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/packed_struct.rs
@@ -6,20 +6,19 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Fields};
 use bytes::Bytes;
 use bytes::BytesMut;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::data::BlockInfo;
 use crate::data::FixedSizeListBlock;
 use crate::format::ProtobufUtils;
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     data::{DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock, StructDataBlock},
     decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
-    previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
-    EncodingsIo,
+    encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
 };
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -212,23 +211,23 @@ impl ArrayEncoder for PackedStructEncoder {
                     let flattened = fixed_size_list.try_into_flat().ok_or_else(|| {
                         Error::invalid_input(
                             "Packed struct encoder cannot pack nullable fixed-width data blocks",
-                            location!(),
                         )
                     })?;
                     Ok(flattened)
                 }
                 _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "Packed struct encoder currently only implemented for fixed-width data blocks",
-                    location!(),
                 )),
             })
             .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
         let total_bits_per_value = fixed_fields.iter().map(|f| f.bits_per_value).sum::<u64>();
 
         let num_values = fixed_fields[0].num_values;
-        debug_assert!(fixed_fields
-            .iter()
-            .all(|field| field.num_values == num_values));
+        debug_assert!(
+            fixed_fields
+                .iter()
+                .all(|field| field.num_values == num_values)
+        );
 
         let zipped_input = fixed_fields
             .into_iter()
@@ -257,16 +256,29 @@ impl ArrayEncoder for PackedStructEncoder {
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
+mod tests {
 
-    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, StructArray, UInt64Array, UInt8Array};
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, StructArray, UInt8Array, UInt64Array};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc, vec};
 
-    use crate::testing::{check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
+    use crate::testing::{
+        TestCases, TestEncoding, check_basic_random_case, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data,
+    };
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_random_packed_struct() {
+    async fn test_random_packed_struct(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
         let data_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
             Field::new("a", DataType::UInt64, false),
             Field::new("b", DataType::UInt32, false),
@@ -276,7 +288,7 @@ pub mod tests {
 
         let field = Field::new("", data_type, false).with_metadata(metadata);
 
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/value.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/value.rs
similarity index 97%
rename from rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/value.rs
rename to rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/value.rs
index f729ea6c42e..9f594a00252 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/value.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/physical/value.rs
@@ -3,9 +3,8 @@
 
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use log::trace;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 
@@ -17,9 +16,9 @@ use crate::encodings::physical::block::{
 use crate::encodings::physical::value::ValueEncoder;
 use crate::format::ProtobufUtils;
 use crate::{
-    decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
-    previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
     EncodingsIo,
+    decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder},
+    encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray},
 };
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
@@ -231,14 +230,13 @@ impl ArrayEncoder for ValueEncoder {
                 index,
                 None,
             )),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "Cannot encode a data block of type {} with ValueEncoder",
                     data.name()
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            )),
         }?;
         Ok(EncodedArray { data, encoding })
     }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/strategy.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/strategy.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..20439bad73f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/array_encoding/strategy.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1101 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{collections::HashMap, env, hash::RandomState, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, GenericListArray, OffsetSizeTrait, UInt8Array, cast::AsArray, make_array,
+};
+use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer};
+use arrow_data::ArrayData;
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use hyperloglogplus::{HyperLogLog, HyperLogLogPlus};
+use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
+
+use crate::{
+    array_encoding::{
+        logical::{
+            blob::BlobFieldEncoder, list::ListFieldEncoder, primitive::PrimitiveFieldEncoder,
+        },
+        physical::{
+            basic::BasicEncoder,
+            binary::BinaryEncoder,
+            dictionary::{AlreadyDictionaryEncoder, DictionaryEncoder},
+            fixed_size_list::FslEncoder,
+            fsst::FsstArrayEncoder,
+            packed_struct::PackedStructEncoder,
+        },
+    },
+    constants::{
+        COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY, COMPRESSION_META_KEY, PACKED_STRUCT_LEGACY_META_KEY,
+        PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY,
+    },
+    encoder::{
+        ArrayEncoder, ArrayEncodingStrategy, ColumnIndexSequence, EncodeTask, EncodedColumn,
+        FieldEncoder, FieldEncodingContext, FieldEncodingStrategy, OutOfLineBuffers,
+    },
+    encodings::{
+        logical::r#struct::StructFieldEncoder,
+        physical::{
+            block::{CompressionConfig, CompressionScheme},
+            value::ValueEncoder,
+        },
+    },
+};
+
+use lance_core::datatypes::{BLOB_DESC_FIELD, Field};
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Field-to-column composition for the `pb::ArrayEncoding` grammar.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy {
+    array_encoding_strategy: Arc<dyn ArrayEncodingStrategy>,
+}
+
+struct ValidatingFieldEncoder {
+    inner: Box<dyn FieldEncoder>,
+    field: Field,
+    prepared_array: Option<ArrayRef>,
+}
+
+impl ValidatingFieldEncoder {
+    fn new(inner: Box<dyn FieldEncoder>, field: Field) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner,
+            field,
+            prepared_array: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl FieldEncoder for ValidatingFieldEncoder {
+    fn prepare_array(&mut self, array: ArrayRef) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+        ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::validate_v2_0_array(array.as_ref(), &self.field, true)?;
+        let array = ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::clear_unreachable_v2_0_fsl_struct_validity(array)?;
+        self.prepared_array = Some(array.clone());
+        Ok(array)
+    }
+
+    fn maybe_encode(
+        &mut self,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
+        repdef: crate::repdef::RepDefBuilder,
+        row_number: u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
+        let array = match self.prepared_array.take() {
+            Some(prepared) if Arc::ptr_eq(&prepared, &array) => prepared,
+            _ => {
+                // Direct field encoders have historically accepted arrays whose top-level
+                // nullability differs from the declared field. Keep that API behavior while
+                // still making the v2.0 struct-validity invariant unavoidable.
+                ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::validate_v2_0_array(
+                    array.as_ref(),
+                    &self.field,
+                    false,
+                )?;
+                ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::clear_unreachable_v2_0_fsl_struct_validity(array)?
+            }
+        };
+        self.inner
+            .maybe_encode(array, external_buffers, repdef, row_number, num_rows)
+    }
+
+    fn flush(&mut self, external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
+        self.inner.flush(external_buffers)
+    }
+
+    fn finish(
+        &mut self,
+        external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
+    ) -> futures::future::BoxFuture<'_, Result<Vec<EncodedColumn>>> {
+        self.inner.finish(external_buffers)
+    }
+
+    fn num_columns(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.inner.num_columns()
+    }
+}
+
+impl ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy {
+    /// Create the field strategy for the `pb::ArrayEncoding` grammar.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_encoding::encoder::ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy;
+    ///
+    /// let strategy = ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::new();
+    /// ```
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            array_encoding_strategy: Arc::new(ArrayStrategy),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_primitive_type(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+        matches!(
+            data_type,
+            DataType::Boolean
+                | DataType::Date32
+                | DataType::Date64
+                | DataType::Decimal128(_, _)
+                | DataType::Decimal256(_, _)
+                | DataType::Duration(_)
+                | DataType::Float16
+                | DataType::Float32
+                | DataType::Float64
+                | DataType::Int16
+                | DataType::Int32
+                | DataType::Int64
+                | DataType::Int8
+                | DataType::Interval(_)
+                | DataType::Null
+                | DataType::Time32(_)
+                | DataType::Time64(_)
+                | DataType::Timestamp(_, _)
+                | DataType::UInt16
+                | DataType::UInt32
+                | DataType::UInt64
+                | DataType::UInt8
+                | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_)
+                | DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _)
+                | DataType::Binary
+                | DataType::LargeBinary
+                | DataType::Utf8
+                | DataType::LargeUtf8,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn validate_v2_0_array(
+        array: &dyn Array,
+        field: &Field,
+        enforce_field_nullability: bool,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Self::validate_v2_0_array_reachability(array, field, enforce_field_nullability, None)
+    }
+
+    fn field_requires_v2_0_validation(field: &Field, enforce_field_nullability: bool) -> bool {
+        field.logical_type.is_struct()
+            || (enforce_field_nullability && !field.nullable)
+            || field
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .any(|child| Self::field_requires_v2_0_validation(child, enforce_field_nullability))
+    }
+
+    fn is_reachable(reachable: Option<&BooleanBuffer>, index: usize) -> bool {
+        reachable.map(|mask| mask.value(index)).unwrap_or(true)
+    }
+
+    fn positional_child_reachability(
+        array: &dyn Array,
+        reachable: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Option<BooleanBuffer> {
+        if reachable.is_none() && array.null_count() == 0 {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(BooleanBuffer::from_iter((0..array.len()).map(|index| {
+            Self::is_reachable(reachable, index) && array.is_valid(index)
+        })))
+    }
+
+    fn list_child_reachability<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+        array: &GenericListArray<O>,
+        reachable: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Option<BooleanBuffer> {
+        let values_len = array.values().len();
+        let offsets = array.offsets();
+        if reachable.is_none()
+            && array.null_count() == 0
+            && offsets.first().map(|offset| offset.as_usize()) == Some(0)
+            && offsets.last().map(|offset| offset.as_usize()) == Some(values_len)
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let mut child_reachable = vec![false; values_len];
+        for index in 0..array.len() {
+            if Self::is_reachable(reachable, index) && array.is_valid(index) {
+                let start = offsets[index].as_usize();
+                let end = offsets[index + 1].as_usize();
+                for is_reachable in child_reachable.iter_mut().take(end).skip(start) {
+                    *is_reachable = true;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Some(BooleanBuffer::from_iter(child_reachable))
+    }
+
+    fn map_child_reachability(
+        array: &arrow_array::MapArray,
+        reachable: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Option<BooleanBuffer> {
+        let values_len = array.entries().len();
+        let offsets = array.offsets();
+        if reachable.is_none()
+            && array.null_count() == 0
+            && offsets.first().copied() == Some(0)
+            && offsets.last().copied() == Some(values_len as i32)
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let mut child_reachable = vec![false; values_len];
+        for index in 0..array.len() {
+            if Self::is_reachable(reachable, index) && array.is_valid(index) {
+                let start = offsets[index] as usize;
+                let end = offsets[index + 1] as usize;
+                for is_reachable in child_reachable.iter_mut().take(end).skip(start) {
+                    *is_reachable = true;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Some(BooleanBuffer::from_iter(child_reachable))
+    }
+
+    fn fixed_size_list_child_reachability(
+        array: &arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray,
+        reachable: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Option<BooleanBuffer> {
+        let values_len = array.values().len();
+        let dimension = array.value_length() as usize;
+        let (first_value, final_value) = if array.is_empty() {
+            (0, 0)
+        } else {
+            (
+                array.value_offset(0) as usize,
+                array.value_offset(array.len() - 1) as usize + dimension,
+            )
+        };
+        if reachable.is_none()
+            && array.null_count() == 0
+            && first_value == 0
+            && final_value == values_len
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let mut child_reachable = vec![false; values_len];
+        for index in 0..array.len() {
+            if Self::is_reachable(reachable, index) && array.is_valid(index) {
+                let start = array.value_offset(index) as usize;
+                for is_reachable in child_reachable.iter_mut().skip(start).take(dimension) {
+                    *is_reachable = true;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Some(BooleanBuffer::from_iter(child_reachable))
+    }
+
+    fn validate_v2_0_array_reachability(
+        array: &dyn Array,
+        field: &Field,
+        enforce_field_nullability: bool,
+        reachable: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if !Self::field_requires_v2_0_validation(field, enforce_field_nullability) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let reachable_null_count = if array.null_count() == 0 {
+            0
+        } else if let Some(reachable) = reachable {
+            (0..array.len())
+                .filter(|index| reachable.value(*index) && array.is_null(*index))
+                .count()
+        } else {
+            array.null_count()
+        };
+
+        if enforce_field_nullability && !field.nullable && reachable_null_count > 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "The field `{}` contained null values even though the field is marked non-null in the schema",
+                field.name
+            )));
+        }
+        if field.logical_type.is_struct() && reachable_null_count > 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "The struct field `{}` contains {} null value(s), but Lance file version 2.0 does not encode struct validity; use file version 2.1 or later",
+                field.name, reachable_null_count
+            )));
+        }
+
+        match array.data_type() {
+            DataType::Struct(_) => {
+                let child_reachable = Self::positional_child_reachability(array, reachable);
+                for (child_field, child_array) in
+                    field.children.iter().zip(array.as_struct().columns())
+                {
+                    Self::validate_v2_0_array_reachability(
+                        child_array.as_ref(),
+                        child_field,
+                        enforce_field_nullability,
+                        child_reachable.as_ref(),
+                    )?;
+                }
+            }
+            DataType::List(_) => {
+                let list_array = array.as_list::<i32>();
+                if let Some(child_field) = field.children.first() {
+                    let child_reachable = Self::list_child_reachability(list_array, reachable);
+                    Self::validate_v2_0_array_reachability(
+                        list_array.values().as_ref(),
+                        child_field,
+                        enforce_field_nullability,
+                        child_reachable.as_ref(),
+                    )?;
+                }
+            }
+            DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                let list_array = array.as_list::<i64>();
+                if let Some(child_field) = field.children.first() {
+                    let child_reachable = Self::list_child_reachability(list_array, reachable);
+                    Self::validate_v2_0_array_reachability(
+                        list_array.values().as_ref(),
+                        child_field,
+                        enforce_field_nullability,
+                        child_reachable.as_ref(),
+                    )?;
+                }
+            }
+            DataType::Map(_, _) => {
+                let map_array = array.as_map();
+                if let Some(child_field) = field.children.first() {
+                    let child_reachable = Self::map_child_reachability(map_array, reachable);
+                    Self::validate_v2_0_array_reachability(
+                        map_array.entries(),
+                        child_field,
+                        enforce_field_nullability,
+                        child_reachable.as_ref(),
+                    )?;
+                }
+            }
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => {
+                let list_array = array.as_fixed_size_list();
+                if let Some(child_field) = field.children.first() {
+                    let child_reachable =
+                        Self::fixed_size_list_child_reachability(list_array, reachable);
+                    Self::validate_v2_0_array_reachability(
+                        list_array.values().as_ref(),
+                        child_field,
+                        enforce_field_nullability,
+                        child_reachable.as_ref(),
+                    )?;
+                }
+            }
+            _ => {
+                let array_data = array.to_data();
+                for (child_field, child_data) in field.children.iter().zip(array_data.child_data())
+                {
+                    let child_array = make_array(child_data.clone());
+                    let child_reachable = (child_array.len() == array.len())
+                        .then(|| Self::positional_child_reachability(array, reachable))
+                        .flatten();
+                    Self::validate_v2_0_array_reachability(
+                        child_array.as_ref(),
+                        child_field,
+                        enforce_field_nullability,
+                        child_reachable.as_ref(),
+                    )?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn clear_unreachable_v2_0_fsl_struct_validity(array: ArrayRef) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+        fn force_valid_under_null_struct(
+            data: ArrayData,
+            struct_nulls: &NullBuffer,
+        ) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+            let Some(child_nulls) = data.nulls() else {
+                return Ok(data);
+            };
+            if !(0..data.len())
+                .any(|index| struct_nulls.is_null(index) && child_nulls.is_null(index))
+            {
+                return Ok(data);
+            }
+
+            let nulls =
+                NullBuffer::new(BooleanBuffer::from_iter((0..data.len()).map(|index| {
+                    struct_nulls.is_null(index) || child_nulls.is_valid(index)
+                })));
+            let nulls = (nulls.null_count() > 0).then_some(nulls);
+            Ok(data.into_builder().nulls(nulls).build()?)
+        }
+
+        fn strip_struct_validity(data: ArrayData) -> Result<(ArrayData, bool)> {
+            let struct_fields = match data.data_type() {
+                DataType::Struct(fields) => Some(fields.clone()),
+                _ => None,
+            };
+            let struct_nulls = struct_fields
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|_| data.nulls())
+                .filter(|nulls| nulls.null_count() > 0)
+                .cloned();
+            let mut children_changed = false;
+            let children = data
+                .child_data()
+                .iter()
+                .cloned()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(index, child)| {
+                    let (mut child, changed) = strip_struct_validity(child)?;
+                    children_changed |= changed;
+                    if let (Some(fields), Some(struct_nulls)) = (&struct_fields, &struct_nulls)
+                        && !fields[index].is_nullable()
+                    {
+                        let original_null_count = child.null_count();
+                        child = force_valid_under_null_struct(child, struct_nulls)?;
+                        children_changed |= child.null_count() != original_null_count;
+                    }
+                    Ok(child)
+                })
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            if struct_nulls.is_none() && !children_changed {
+                return Ok((data, false));
+            }
+
+            let mut builder = data.into_builder().child_data(children);
+            if struct_nulls.is_some() {
+                builder = builder.nulls(None);
+            }
+            Ok((builder.build()?, true))
+        }
+
+        fn normalize(data: ArrayData) -> Result<(ArrayData, bool)> {
+            let is_fixed_size_list = matches!(data.data_type(), DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _));
+            let mut children_changed = false;
+            let children = data
+                .child_data()
+                .iter()
+                .cloned()
+                .map(|child| {
+                    let (child, changed) = if is_fixed_size_list {
+                        strip_struct_validity(child)?
+                    } else {
+                        normalize(child)?
+                    };
+                    children_changed |= changed;
+                    Ok(child)
+                })
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            if !children_changed {
+                return Ok((data, false));
+            }
+            Ok((data.into_builder().child_data(children).build()?, true))
+        }
+
+        let (data, changed) = normalize(array.to_data())?;
+        if changed {
+            Ok(make_array(data))
+        } else {
+            Ok(array)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn create_field_encoder_raw(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+        let options = context.options;
+        let data_type = field.data_type();
+        if Self::is_primitive_type(&data_type) {
+            let column_index = column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32);
+            if field.metadata.contains_key(BLOB_META_KEY) {
+                let mut packed_meta = HashMap::new();
+                packed_meta.insert(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
+                let desc_field =
+                    Field::try_from(BLOB_DESC_FIELD.clone().with_metadata(packed_meta)).unwrap();
+                let desc_encoder = Box::new(PrimitiveFieldEncoder::try_new(
+                    options,
+                    self.array_encoding_strategy.clone(),
+                    column_index,
+                    desc_field,
+                )?);
+                Ok(Box::new(BlobFieldEncoder::new(desc_encoder)))
+            } else {
+                Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveFieldEncoder::try_new(
+                    options,
+                    self.array_encoding_strategy.clone(),
+                    column_index,
+                    field.clone(),
+                )?))
+            }
+        } else {
+            match data_type {
+                DataType::List(_child) | DataType::LargeList(_child) => {
+                    let list_idx = column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32);
+                    let inner_encoding =
+                        self.create_field_encoder_raw(&field.children[0], column_index, context)?;
+                    let offsets_encoder =
+                        Arc::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(ValueEncoder::default())));
+                    Ok(Box::new(ListFieldEncoder::new(
+                        inner_encoding,
+                        offsets_encoder,
+                        options.cache_bytes_per_column,
+                        options.keep_original_array,
+                        list_idx,
+                    )))
+                }
+                DataType::Struct(_) => {
+                    let field_metadata = &field.metadata;
+                    if field_metadata
+                        .get(PACKED_STRUCT_LEGACY_META_KEY)
+                        .map(|v| str_is_truthy(v))
+                        .unwrap_or(field_metadata.contains_key(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY))
+                    {
+                        Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveFieldEncoder::try_new(
+                            options,
+                            self.array_encoding_strategy.clone(),
+                            column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
+                            field.clone(),
+                        )?))
+                    } else {
+                        let header_idx = column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32);
+                        let children_encoders = field
+                            .children
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|field| {
+                                self.create_field_encoder_raw(field, column_index, context)
+                            })
+                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                        Ok(Box::new(StructFieldEncoder::new(
+                            children_encoders,
+                            header_idx,
+                        )))
+                    }
+                }
+                DataType::Dictionary(_, value_type) => {
+                    if Self::is_primitive_type(&value_type) {
+                        Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveFieldEncoder::try_new(
+                            options,
+                            self.array_encoding_strategy.clone(),
+                            column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
+                            field.clone(),
+                        )?))
+                    } else {
+                        Err(Error::not_supported_source(format!(
+                            "cannot encode a dictionary column whose value type is a logical type ({})",
+                            value_type
+                        ).into()))
+                    }
+                }
+                _ => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Lance v2.0 has no field encoding for '{}' with data type {}",
+                        field.name,
+                        field.data_type()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+impl FieldEncodingStrategy for ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy {
+    fn validate_array(&self, array: &dyn Array, field: &Field) -> Result<()> {
+        Self::validate_v2_0_array(array, field, true)
+    }
+
+    fn create_field_encoder(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+        let encoder = self.create_field_encoder_raw(field, column_index, context)?;
+        Ok(Box::new(ValidatingFieldEncoder::new(
+            encoder,
+            field.clone(),
+        )))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Page-encoding selection for the `pb::ArrayEncoding` grammar.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ArrayStrategy;
+
+impl ArrayStrategy {
+    fn get_field_compression(field_meta: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Option<CompressionConfig> {
+        let compression = field_meta.get(COMPRESSION_META_KEY)?;
+        let compression_scheme = compression.parse::<CompressionScheme>();
+        match compression_scheme {
+            Ok(compression_scheme) => Some(CompressionConfig::new(
+                compression_scheme,
+                field_meta
+                    .get(COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY)
+                    .and_then(|level| level.parse().ok()),
+            )),
+            Err(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn default_binary_encoder(
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        field_meta: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+        data_size: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>> {
+        let bin_indices_encoder =
+            Self::choose_array_encoder(arrays, &DataType::UInt64, data_size, false, None)?;
+
+        if let Some(compression) = field_meta.and_then(Self::get_field_compression) {
+            if compression.scheme() == CompressionScheme::Fsst {
+                // User requested FSST
+                let raw_encoder = Box::new(BinaryEncoder::try_new(bin_indices_encoder, None)?);
+                Ok(Box::new(FsstArrayEncoder::new(raw_encoder)))
+            } else {
+                // Generic compression
+                Ok(Box::new(BinaryEncoder::try_new(
+                    bin_indices_encoder,
+                    Some(compression),
+                )?))
+            }
+        } else {
+            Ok(Box::new(BinaryEncoder::try_new(bin_indices_encoder, None)?))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn choose_array_encoder(
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        data_type: &DataType,
+        data_size: u64,
+        use_dict_encoding: bool,
+        field_meta: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>> {
+        match data_type {
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, dimension) => {
+                Ok(Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(FslEncoder::new(
+                    Self::choose_array_encoder(
+                        arrays,
+                        inner.data_type(),
+                        data_size,
+                        use_dict_encoding,
+                        None,
+                    )?,
+                    *dimension as u32,
+                )))))
+            }
+            DataType::Dictionary(key_type, value_type) => {
+                let key_encoder =
+                    Self::choose_array_encoder(arrays, key_type, data_size, false, None)?;
+                let value_encoder =
+                    Self::choose_array_encoder(arrays, value_type, data_size, false, None)?;
+
+                Ok(Box::new(AlreadyDictionaryEncoder::new(
+                    key_encoder,
+                    value_encoder,
+                )))
+            }
+            DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeBinary => {
+                if use_dict_encoding {
+                    let dict_indices_encoder = Self::choose_array_encoder(
+                        // We need to pass arrays to this method to figure out what kind of compression to
+                        // use but we haven't actually calculated the indices yet.  For now, we just assume
+                        // worst case and use the full range.  In the future maybe we can pass in statistics
+                        // instead of the actual data
+                        &[Arc::new(UInt8Array::from_iter_values(0_u8..255_u8))],
+                        &DataType::UInt8,
+                        data_size,
+                        false,
+                        None,
+                    )?;
+                    let dict_items_encoder = Self::choose_array_encoder(
+                        arrays,
+                        &DataType::Utf8,
+                        data_size,
+                        false,
+                        None,
+                    )?;
+
+                    Ok(Box::new(DictionaryEncoder::new(
+                        dict_indices_encoder,
+                        dict_items_encoder,
+                    )))
+                } else {
+                    Self::default_binary_encoder(arrays, field_meta, data_size)
+                }
+            }
+            DataType::Struct(fields) => {
+                let num_fields = fields.len();
+                let mut inner_encoders = Vec::new();
+
+                for i in 0..num_fields {
+                    let inner_datatype = fields[i].data_type();
+                    let inner_encoder = Self::choose_array_encoder(
+                        arrays,
+                        inner_datatype,
+                        data_size,
+                        use_dict_encoding,
+                        None,
+                    )?;
+                    inner_encoders.push(inner_encoder);
+                }
+
+                Ok(Box::new(PackedStructEncoder::new(inner_encoders)))
+            }
+            DataType::UInt8 | DataType::UInt16 | DataType::UInt32 | DataType::UInt64 => Ok(
+                Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()))),
+            ),
+
+            // TODO: for signed integers, I intend to make it a cascaded encoding, a sparse array for the negative values and very wide(bit-width) values,
+            // then a bitpacked array for the narrow(bit-width) values, I need `BitpackedForNeg` to be merged first, I am
+            // thinking about putting this sparse array in the metadata so bitpacking remain using one page buffer only.
+            DataType::Int8 | DataType::Int16 | DataType::Int32 | DataType::Int64 => Ok(Box::new(
+                BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(ValueEncoder::default())),
+            )),
+            _ => Ok(Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(
+                ValueEncoder::default(),
+            )))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn get_dict_encoding_threshold() -> u64 {
+    env::var("LANCE_DICT_ENCODING_THRESHOLD")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|val| val.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(100)
+}
+
+// check whether we want to use dictionary encoding or not
+// by applying a threshold on cardinality
+// returns true if cardinality < threshold but false if the total number of rows is less than the threshold
+// The choice to use 100 is just a heuristic for now
+// hyperloglog is used for cardinality estimation
+// error rate = 1.04 / sqrt(2^p), where p is the precision
+// and error rate is 1.04 / sqrt(2^12) = 1.56%
+fn check_dict_encoding(arrays: &[ArrayRef], threshold: u64) -> bool {
+    let num_total_rows = arrays.iter().map(|arr| arr.len()).sum::<usize>();
+    if num_total_rows < threshold as usize {
+        return false;
+    }
+    const PRECISION: u8 = 12;
+
+    let mut hll: HyperLogLogPlus<String, RandomState> =
+        HyperLogLogPlus::new(PRECISION, RandomState::new()).unwrap();
+
+    for arr in arrays {
+        let string_array = arrow_array::cast::as_string_array(arr);
+        for value in string_array.iter().flatten() {
+            hll.insert(value);
+            let estimated_cardinality = hll.count() as u64;
+            if estimated_cardinality >= threshold {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    true
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn check_fixed_size_encoding(arrays: &[ArrayRef]) -> Option<u64> {
+    if arrays.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    // make sure no array has an empty string
+    if !arrays.iter().all(|arr| {
+        if let Some(arr) = arr.as_string_opt::<i32>() {
+            arr.iter().flatten().all(|s| !s.is_empty())
+        } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_binary_opt::<i32>() {
+            arr.iter().flatten().all(|s| !s.is_empty())
+        } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_string_opt::<i64>() {
+            arr.iter().flatten().all(|s| !s.is_empty())
+        } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_binary_opt::<i64>() {
+            arr.iter().flatten().all(|s| !s.is_empty())
+        } else {
+            panic!("wrong dtype");
+        }
+    }) {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let lengths = arrays
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|arr| {
+            if let Some(arr) = arr.as_string_opt::<i32>() {
+                let offsets = arr.offsets().inner();
+                offsets
+                    .windows(2)
+                    .map(|w| (w[1] - w[0]) as u64)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_binary_opt::<i32>() {
+                let offsets = arr.offsets().inner();
+                offsets
+                    .windows(2)
+                    .map(|w| (w[1] - w[0]) as u64)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_string_opt::<i64>() {
+                let offsets = arr.offsets().inner();
+                offsets
+                    .windows(2)
+                    .map(|w| (w[1] - w[0]) as u64)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_binary_opt::<i64>() {
+                let offsets = arr.offsets().inner();
+                offsets
+                    .windows(2)
+                    .map(|w| (w[1] - w[0]) as u64)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            } else {
+                panic!("wrong dtype");
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    // find first non-zero value in lengths
+    let first_non_zero = lengths.iter().position(|&x| x != 0);
+    if let Some(first_non_zero) = first_non_zero {
+        // make sure all lengths are equal to first_non_zero length or zero
+        if !lengths
+            .iter()
+            .all(|&x| x == 0 || x == lengths[first_non_zero])
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        // set the byte width
+        Some(lengths[first_non_zero])
+    } else {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+impl ArrayEncodingStrategy for ArrayStrategy {
+    fn create_array_encoder(
+        &self,
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        field: &Field,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>> {
+        let data_size = arrays
+            .iter()
+            .map(|arr| arr.get_buffer_memory_size() as u64)
+            .sum::<u64>();
+        let data_type = arrays[0].data_type();
+
+        let use_dict_encoding = data_type == &DataType::Utf8
+            && check_dict_encoding(arrays, get_dict_encoding_threshold());
+
+        Self::choose_array_encoder(
+            arrays,
+            data_type,
+            data_size,
+            use_dict_encoding,
+            Some(&field.metadata),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::{
+        ArrayEncodingStrategy, ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy, ArrayStrategy, check_dict_encoding,
+        check_fixed_size_encoding,
+    };
+    use crate::constants::{COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY, COMPRESSION_META_KEY};
+    use crate::encoder::{BatchEncoder, EncodingOptions};
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_core::{Error, datatypes::Schema};
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_unsupported_field_type_returns_error() {
+        let entries = Field::new(
+            "entries",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            false,
+        );
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "attributes",
+            DataType::Map(Arc::new(entries), false),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let error = BatchEncoder::try_new(
+            &schema,
+            &ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::new(),
+            &EncodingOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .err()
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("attributes"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Map"));
+    }
+
+    fn is_dict_encoding_applicable(arr: Vec<Option<&str>>, threshold: u64) -> bool {
+        let arr = StringArray::from(arr);
+        let arr = Arc::new(arr) as ArrayRef;
+        check_dict_encoding(&[arr], threshold)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dict_encoding_should_be_applied_if_cardinality_less_than_threshold() {
+        assert!(is_dict_encoding_applicable(
+            vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), Some("a"), Some("b")],
+            3,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dict_encoding_should_not_be_applied_if_cardinality_larger_than_threshold() {
+        assert!(!is_dict_encoding_applicable(
+            vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), Some("c"), Some("d")],
+            3,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dict_encoding_should_not_be_applied_if_cardinality_equal_to_threshold() {
+        assert!(!is_dict_encoding_applicable(
+            vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), Some("c"), Some("a")],
+            3,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dict_encoding_should_not_be_applied_for_empty_arrays() {
+        assert!(!is_dict_encoding_applicable(vec![], 3));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dict_encoding_should_not_be_applied_for_smaller_than_threshold_arrays() {
+        assert!(!is_dict_encoding_applicable(vec![Some("a"), Some("a")], 3));
+    }
+
+    fn is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(arrays: Vec<Vec<Option<&str>>>) -> bool {
+        let mut final_arrays = Vec::new();
+        for arr in arrays {
+            let arr = StringArray::from(arr);
+            let arr = Arc::new(arr) as ArrayRef;
+            final_arrays.push(arr);
+        }
+
+        check_fixed_size_encoding(&final_arrays).is_some()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_size_binary_encoding_applicable() {
+        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![vec![]]));
+
+        assert!(is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![vec![
+            Some("a"),
+            Some("b")
+        ]]));
+
+        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![vec![
+            Some("abc"),
+            Some("de")
+        ]]));
+
+        assert!(is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![vec![
+            Some("pqr"),
+            None
+        ]]));
+
+        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![vec![
+            Some("pqr"),
+            Some("")
+        ]]));
+
+        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![vec![
+            Some(""),
+            Some("")
+        ]]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_size_binary_encoding_applicable_multiple_arrays() {
+        assert!(is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![
+            vec![Some("a"), Some("b")],
+            vec![Some("c"), Some("d")]
+        ]));
+
+        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![
+            vec![Some("ab"), Some("bc")],
+            vec![Some("c"), Some("d")]
+        ]));
+
+        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![
+            vec![Some("ab"), None],
+            vec![None, Some("d")]
+        ]));
+
+        assert!(is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![
+            vec![Some("a"), None],
+            vec![None, Some("d")]
+        ]));
+
+        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![
+            vec![Some(""), None],
+            vec![None, Some("")]
+        ]));
+
+        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(vec![
+            vec![None, None],
+            vec![None, None]
+        ]));
+    }
+
+    fn verify_array_encoder(
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        field_meta: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+        expected_encoder: &str,
+    ) {
+        let encoding_strategy = ArrayStrategy;
+        let mut field = Field::new("test_field", array.data_type().clone(), true);
+        if let Some(field_meta) = field_meta {
+            field.set_metadata(field_meta);
+        }
+        let lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(field).unwrap();
+        let encoder_result = encoding_strategy.create_array_encoder(&[array], &lance_field);
+        assert!(encoder_result.is_ok());
+        let encoder = encoder_result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{:?}", encoder).as_str(), expected_encoder);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_choose_encoder_for_zstd_compressed_string_field() {
+        verify_array_encoder(
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "bb", "ccc"])),
+            Some(HashMap::from([(
+                COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                "zstd".to_string(),
+            )])),
+            "BinaryEncoder { indices_encoder: BasicEncoder { values_encoder: ValueEncoder }, compression_config: Some(CompressionConfig { scheme: Zstd, level: None }), buffer_compressor: Some(ZstdBufferCompressor { compression_level: 0 }) }",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_choose_encoder_for_zstd_compression_level() {
+        verify_array_encoder(
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "bb", "ccc"])),
+            Some(HashMap::from([
+                (COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), "zstd".to_string()),
+                (COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY.to_string(), "22".to_string()),
+            ])),
+            "BinaryEncoder { indices_encoder: BasicEncoder { values_encoder: ValueEncoder }, compression_config: Some(CompressionConfig { scheme: Zstd, level: Some(22) }), buffer_compressor: Some(ZstdBufferCompressor { compression_level: 22 }) }",
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/buffer.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/buffer.rs
index e8bcb8a3ea2..646f4f515a6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/buffer.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/buffer.rs
@@ -6,8 +6,7 @@
 use std::{ops::Deref, panic::RefUnwindSafe, ptr::NonNull, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_buffer::{ArrowNativeType, Buffer, MutableBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
-use lance_core::{utils::bit::is_pwr_two, Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, utils::bit::is_pwr_two};
 use std::borrow::Cow;
 
 /// A copy-on-write byte buffer.
@@ -154,7 +153,11 @@ impl LanceBuffer {
         let align = std::mem::align_of::<T>();
         let is_aligned = self.as_ptr().align_offset(align) == 0;
         if !self.len().is_multiple_of(std::mem::size_of::<T>()) {
-            panic!("attempt to borrow_to_typed_slice to data type of size {} but we have {} bytes which isn't evenly divisible", std::mem::size_of::<T>(), self.len());
+            panic!(
+                "attempt to borrow_to_typed_slice to data type of size {} but we have {} bytes which isn't evenly divisible",
+                std::mem::size_of::<T>(),
+                self.len()
+            );
         }
 
         if is_aligned {
@@ -185,7 +188,11 @@ impl LanceBuffer {
     pub fn borrow_to_typed_view<T: ArrowNativeType + bytemuck::Pod>(&self) -> Cow<'_, [T]> {
         let align = std::mem::align_of::<T>();
         if !self.len().is_multiple_of(std::mem::size_of::<T>()) {
-            panic!("attempt to view data type of size {} but we have {} bytes which isn't evenly divisible", std::mem::size_of::<T>(), self.len());
+            panic!(
+                "attempt to view data type of size {} but we have {} bytes which isn't evenly divisible",
+                std::mem::size_of::<T>(),
+                self.len()
+            );
         }
 
         if self.as_ptr().align_offset(align) == 0 {
@@ -224,7 +231,7 @@ impl LanceBuffer {
             if bits_per_value % 8 == 0 {
                 Ok(bits_per_value / 8)
             } else {
-                Err(Error::InvalidInput { source: format!("LanceBuffer::zip_into_one only supports full-byte buffers currently and received a buffer with {} bits per value", bits_per_value).into(), location: location!() })
+                Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!("LanceBuffer::zip_into_one only supports full-byte buffers currently and received a buffer with {} bits per value", bits_per_value).into()))
             }
         }).collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
         let total_bytes_per_value = bytes_per_value.iter().sum::<u64>();
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/compression.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/compression.rs
index 24c2c71d654..857ccd0320b 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/compression.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/compression.rs
@@ -20,13 +20,16 @@
 use crate::encodings::physical::bitpacking::{InlineBitpacking, OutOfLineBitpacking};
 use crate::{
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
-    compression_config::{BssMode, CompressionFieldParams, CompressionParams},
+    compression_config::{BssMode, CompressionFieldParams},
     constants::{
         BSS_META_KEY, COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY, COMPRESSION_META_KEY, RLE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
     },
     data::{DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock, VariableWidthBlock},
     encodings::{
-        logical::primitive::{fullzip::PerValueCompressor, miniblock::MiniBlockCompressor},
+        logical::primitive::{
+            fullzip::PerValueCompressor,
+            miniblock::{MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES, MiniBlockCompressor},
+        },
         physical::{
             binary::{
                 BinaryBlockDecompressor, BinaryMiniBlockDecompressor, BinaryMiniBlockEncoder,
@@ -37,7 +40,7 @@ use crate::{
                 GeneralBlockDecompressor,
             },
             byte_stream_split::{
-                should_use_bss, ByteStreamSplitDecompressor, ByteStreamSplitEncoder,
+                ByteStreamSplitDecompressor, ByteStreamSplitEncoder, should_use_bss,
             },
             constant::ConstantDecompressor,
             fsst::{
@@ -46,27 +49,27 @@ use crate::{
             },
             general::{GeneralMiniBlockCompressor, GeneralMiniBlockDecompressor},
             packed::{
+                PackedStructFixedPerValueDecompressor, PackedStructFixedPerValueEncoder,
                 PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockDecompressor,
                 PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockEncoder, PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor,
                 PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder, VariablePackedStructFieldDecoder,
                 VariablePackedStructFieldKind,
             },
-            rle::{RleDecompressor, RleEncoder},
+            rle::{
+                RleChildDecompressor, RleDecompressor, RleEncoder, RunLengthWidth,
+                rle_encoded_size, select_run_length_width,
+            },
             value::{ValueDecompressor, ValueEncoder},
         },
     },
-    format::{
-        pb21::{compressive_encoding::Compression, CompressiveEncoding},
-        ProtobufUtils21,
-    },
+    format::pb21::{CompressiveEncoding, compressive_encoding::Compression},
     statistics::{GetStat, Stat},
-    version::LanceFileVersion,
 };
 
 use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type};
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use fsst::fsst::{FSST_LEAST_INPUT_MAX_LENGTH, FSST_LEAST_INPUT_SIZE};
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Field, error::LanceOptionExt, Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field, error::LanceOptionExt};
 use std::{str::FromStr, sync::Arc};
 
 /// Default threshold for RLE compression selection when the user explicitly provides a threshold.
@@ -78,6 +81,7 @@ const DEFAULT_RLE_COMPRESSION_THRESHOLD: f64 = 0.5;
 
 // Minimum block size (32kb) to trigger general block compression
 const MIN_BLOCK_SIZE_FOR_GENERAL_COMPRESSION: u64 = 32 * 1024;
+const RLE_BLOCK_HEADER_BYTES: u128 = std::mem::size_of::<u64>() as u128;
 
 /// Trait for compression algorithms that compress an entire block of data into one opaque
 /// and self-described chunk.
@@ -92,11 +96,11 @@ const MIN_BLOCK_SIZE_FOR_GENERAL_COMPRESSION: u64 = 32 * 1024;
 /// required (e.g. when encoding metadata buffers like a dictionary or for encoding rep/def
 /// mini-block chunks)
 pub trait BlockCompressor: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
-    /// Compress the data into a single buffer
+    /// Compress the data into zero or one buffers and describe the codec used.
     ///
-    /// Also returns a description of the compression that can be used to decompress
-    /// when reading the data back
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<LanceBuffer>;
+    /// `None` represents a metadata-only codec. `Some` represents a physical
+    /// payload, including a zero-byte payload.
+    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, CompressiveEncoding)>;
 }
 
 /// A trait to pick which compression to use for given data
@@ -112,12 +116,12 @@ pub trait BlockCompressor: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
 ///   used for narrow data types (both fixed and variable length) where we can
 ///   fit many values into an 16KiB block.
 pub trait CompressionStrategy: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
-    /// Create a block compressor for the given data
+    /// Create a block compressor for the given data.
     fn create_block_compressor(
         &self,
         field: &Field,
         data: &DataBlock,
-    ) -> Result<(Box<dyn BlockCompressor>, CompressiveEncoding)>;
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>>;
 
     /// Create a per-value compressor for the given data
     fn create_per_value(
@@ -134,12 +138,17 @@ pub trait CompressionStrategy: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>>;
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone)]
-pub struct DefaultCompressionStrategy {
-    /// User-configured compression parameters
-    params: CompressionParams,
-    /// The lance file version for compatibilities.
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
+pub(crate) fn compress_required_block(
+    strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+    field: &Field,
+    data: DataBlock,
+) -> Result<(LanceBuffer, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    let compressor = strategy.create_block_compressor(field, &data)?;
+    let (payload, encoding) = compressor.compress(data)?;
+    let payload = payload.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal("Required block compressor selected a metadata-only codec".to_string())
+    })?;
+    Ok((payload, encoding))
 }
 
 fn try_bss_for_mini_block(
@@ -162,10 +171,7 @@ fn try_bss_for_mini_block(
     None
 }
 
-fn try_rle_for_mini_block(
-    data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
-    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
-) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+fn rle_is_applicable(data: &FixedWidthDataBlock, params: &CompressionFieldParams) -> Option<u128> {
     let bits = data.bits_per_value;
     if !matches!(bits, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
         return None;
@@ -188,43 +194,96 @@ fn try_rle_for_mini_block(
         return None;
     }
 
-    // Estimate the encoded size.
-    //
-    // RLE stores (value, run_length) pairs. Run lengths are u8 and long runs are split into
-    // multiple entries of up to 255 values. We don't know the run length distribution here,
-    // so we conservatively account for splitting with an upper bound.
-    let num_values = data.num_values;
-    let estimated_pairs = (run_count.saturating_add(num_values / 255)).min(num_values);
+    Some((data.num_values as u128) * (type_size as u128))
+}
 
-    let raw_bytes = (num_values as u128) * (type_size as u128);
-    let rle_bytes = (estimated_pairs as u128) * ((type_size + 1) as u128);
+fn rle_beats_raw_and_bitpacking(
+    data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
+    encoded_bytes: u128,
+    raw_bytes: u128,
+) -> bool {
+    if encoded_bytes >= raw_bytes {
+        return false;
+    }
 
-    if rle_bytes < raw_bytes {
-        #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    {
+        if let Some(bitpack_bytes) = estimate_inline_bitpacking_bytes(data).map(u128::from)
+            && bitpack_bytes < encoded_bytes
         {
-            if let Some(bitpack_bytes) = estimate_inline_bitpacking_bytes(data) {
-                if (bitpack_bytes as u128) < rle_bytes {
-                    return None;
-                }
-            }
+            return false;
         }
-        return Some(Box::new(RleEncoder::new()));
     }
-    None
+    true
 }
 
-fn try_rle_for_block(
+fn try_fixed_u8_rle_for_mini_block(
     data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
     params: &CompressionFieldParams,
-) -> Option<(Box<dyn BlockCompressor>, CompressiveEncoding)> {
-    if version < LanceFileVersion::V2_2 {
+) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    let raw_bytes = rle_is_applicable(data, params)?;
+    let rle_bytes = estimate_rle_size_for_width_from_data(
+        data,
+        Some(*MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES),
+        RunLengthWidth::U8,
+    )
+    .ok()?;
+    rle_beats_raw_and_bitpacking(data, rle_bytes, raw_bytes)
+        .then(|| Box::new(RleEncoder::with_run_length_width(RunLengthWidth::U8)) as _)
+}
+
+fn try_child_rle_for_mini_block(
+    data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    let raw_bytes = rle_is_applicable(data, params)?;
+    let (run_length_width, estimated_bytes) =
+        estimate_rle_width_and_size_from_data(data, Some(*MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES)).ok()?;
+    let child_compression = rle_child_compression_config(params);
+    let encoder = || {
+        RleEncoder::with_child_encoding(
+            run_length_width,
+            child_compression,
+            child_compression,
+            true,
+        )
+    };
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    let bitpack_bytes = estimate_inline_bitpacking_bytes(data).map(u128::from);
+    #[cfg(not(feature = "bitpacking"))]
+    let bitpack_bytes = None::<u128>;
+
+    let should_measure_children = (child_compression.is_some() || cfg!(feature = "bitpacking"))
+        && (estimated_bytes >= raw_bytes
+            || bitpack_bytes.is_some_and(|bytes| bytes < estimated_bytes));
+    let selected_bytes = if should_measure_children {
+        encoder().selected_payload_size(data).ok()?
+    } else {
+        estimated_bytes
+    };
+
+    rle_beats_raw_and_bitpacking(data, selected_bytes, raw_bytes).then(|| Box::new(encoder()) as _)
+}
+
+fn rle_child_compression_config(params: &CompressionFieldParams) -> Option<CompressionConfig> {
+    let raw = params.compression.as_deref()?;
+    if matches!(raw, "none" | "fsst") {
         return None;
     }
+    let scheme = CompressionScheme::from_str(raw).ok()?;
+    Some(CompressionConfig::new(scheme, params.compression_level))
+}
 
+fn try_rle_for_block_with_width(
+    data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+    run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+    rle_payload_bytes: u128,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>>> {
     let bits = data.bits_per_value;
     if !matches!(bits, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
-        return None;
+        return Ok(None);
     }
 
     let run_count = data.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::RunCount);
@@ -232,15 +291,82 @@ fn try_rle_for_block(
         .rle_threshold
         .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_RLE_COMPRESSION_THRESHOLD);
 
-    if (run_count as f64) < (data.num_values as f64) * threshold {
-        let compressor = Box::new(RleEncoder::new());
-        let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::rle(
-            ProtobufUtils21::flat(bits, None),
-            ProtobufUtils21::flat(/*bits_per_value=*/ 8, None),
-        );
-        return Some((compressor, encoding));
+    let passes_threshold = match params.rle_threshold {
+        Some(_) => (run_count as f64) < (data.num_values as f64) * threshold,
+        None => true,
+    };
+
+    if !passes_threshold {
+        return Ok(None);
     }
-    None
+
+    let raw_bytes = (data.num_values as u128) * ((bits / 8) as u128);
+    let rle_bytes = rle_payload_bytes.saturating_add(RLE_BLOCK_HEADER_BYTES);
+
+    if rle_bytes >= raw_bytes {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    {
+        if let Some(bitpack_bytes) = estimate_block_bitpacking_bytes(data)
+            && bitpack_bytes < rle_bytes
+        {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(RleEncoder::with_run_length_width(
+        run_length_width,
+    ))))
+}
+
+fn try_fixed_u8_rle_for_block(
+    data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>>> {
+    if !matches!(data.bits_per_value, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let encoded_bytes = estimate_rle_size_for_width_from_data(data, None, RunLengthWidth::U8)?;
+    try_rle_for_block_with_width(data, params, RunLengthWidth::U8, encoded_bytes)
+}
+
+fn try_variable_rle_for_block(
+    data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>>> {
+    if !matches!(data.bits_per_value, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let (width, encoded_bytes) = estimate_rle_width_and_size_from_data(data, None)?;
+    try_rle_for_block_with_width(data, params, width, encoded_bytes)
+}
+
+fn estimate_rle_width_and_size_from_data(
+    data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
+    max_segment_values: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<(RunLengthWidth, u128)> {
+    select_run_length_width(
+        &data.data,
+        data.num_values,
+        data.bits_per_value,
+        max_segment_values,
+    )
+}
+
+fn estimate_rle_size_for_width_from_data(
+    data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
+    max_segment_values: Option<u64>,
+    run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+) -> Result<u128> {
+    rle_encoded_size(
+        &data.data,
+        data.num_values,
+        data.bits_per_value,
+        max_segment_values,
+        run_length_width,
+    )
 }
 
 fn try_bitpack_for_mini_block(_data: &FixedWidthDataBlock) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
@@ -292,9 +418,7 @@ fn estimate_inline_bitpacking_bytes(data: &FixedWidthDataBlock) -> Option<u64> {
     u64::try_from(estimated_bytes).ok()
 }
 
-fn try_bitpack_for_block(
-    data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
-) -> Option<(Box<dyn BlockCompressor>, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+fn try_bitpack_for_block(data: &FixedWidthDataBlock) -> Option<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>> {
     let bits = data.bits_per_value;
     if !matches!(bits, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
         return None;
@@ -302,28 +426,86 @@ fn try_bitpack_for_block(
 
     let bit_widths = data.expect_stat(Stat::BitWidth);
     let widths = bit_widths.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-    let has_all_zeros = widths.values().contains(&0);
     let max_bit_width = *widths.values().iter().max().unwrap();
 
+    // Full-width values save no space and leave no bit savings for a runt tail.
+    if max_bit_width >= bits {
+        return None;
+    }
+
     let too_small =
         widths.len() == 1 && InlineBitpacking::min_size_bytes(widths.value(0)) >= data.data_size();
 
-    if has_all_zeros || too_small {
+    if too_small {
         return None;
     }
 
     if data.num_values <= 1024 {
-        let compressor = Box::new(InlineBitpacking::new(bits));
-        let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::inline_bitpacking(bits, None);
-        Some((compressor, encoding))
+        Some(Box::new(InlineBitpacking::new(bits)))
     } else {
-        let compressor = Box::new(OutOfLineBitpacking::new(max_bit_width, bits));
-        let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::out_of_line_bitpacking(
-            bits,
-            ProtobufUtils21::flat(max_bit_width, None),
-        );
-        Some((compressor, encoding))
+        Some(Box::new(OutOfLineBitpacking::new(max_bit_width, bits)))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+fn estimate_block_bitpacking_bytes(data: &FixedWidthDataBlock) -> Option<u128> {
+    let bits = data.bits_per_value;
+    if !matches!(bits, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) || data.num_values == 0 {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let bit_widths = data.expect_stat(Stat::BitWidth);
+    let widths = bit_widths.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let max_bit_width = *widths.values().iter().max()?;
+    let word_bytes = (bits / 8) as u128;
+
+    let bitpacked_words = if data.num_values <= 1024 {
+        1 + (1024u128 * (max_bit_width as u128)) / (bits as u128)
+    } else {
+        estimate_out_of_line_bitpacking_words(data.num_values, max_bit_width, bits)?
+    };
+    let bitpacked_bytes = bitpacked_words.saturating_mul(word_bytes);
+    if bitpacked_bytes >= data.data_size() as u128 {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    Some(bitpacked_bytes)
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+fn estimate_out_of_line_bitpacking_words(
+    num_values: u64,
+    compressed_bits_per_value: u64,
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+) -> Option<u128> {
+    let num_values = usize::try_from(num_values).ok()?;
+    let compressed_bits_per_value = usize::try_from(compressed_bits_per_value).ok()?;
+    let bits_per_value = usize::try_from(bits_per_value).ok()?;
+    if compressed_bits_per_value >= bits_per_value {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let elems_per_chunk = 1024usize;
+    let num_chunks = num_values.div_ceil(elems_per_chunk);
+    let words_per_chunk = (elems_per_chunk * compressed_bits_per_value).div_ceil(bits_per_value);
+    let last_chunk_is_runt = !num_values.is_multiple_of(elems_per_chunk);
+
+    if !last_chunk_is_runt {
+        return Some((num_chunks * words_per_chunk) as u128);
     }
+
+    let num_whole_chunks = num_chunks - 1;
+    let remaining_items = num_values - num_whole_chunks * elems_per_chunk;
+    let tail_bit_savings = bits_per_value - compressed_bits_per_value;
+    let padding_cost = compressed_bits_per_value * (elems_per_chunk - remaining_items);
+    let tail_pack_savings = tail_bit_savings * remaining_items;
+    let tail_words = if padding_cost < tail_pack_savings {
+        words_per_chunk
+    } else {
+        remaining_items
+    };
+
+    Some((num_whole_chunks * words_per_chunk + tail_words) as u128)
 }
 
 fn maybe_wrap_general_for_mini_block(
@@ -333,9 +515,8 @@ fn maybe_wrap_general_for_mini_block(
     match params.compression.as_deref() {
         None | Some("none") | Some("fsst") => Ok(inner),
         Some(raw) => {
-            let scheme = CompressionScheme::from_str(raw).map_err(|_| {
-                Error::invalid_input(format!("Unknown compression scheme: {raw}"), location!())
-            })?;
+            let scheme = CompressionScheme::from_str(raw)
+                .map_err(|_| Error::invalid_input(format!("Unknown compression scheme: {raw}")))?;
             let cfg = CompressionConfig::new(scheme, params.compression_level);
             Ok(Box::new(GeneralMiniBlockCompressor::new(inner, cfg)))
         }
@@ -343,25 +524,25 @@ fn maybe_wrap_general_for_mini_block(
 }
 
 fn try_general_compression(
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
     field_params: &CompressionFieldParams,
     data: &DataBlock,
 ) -> Result<Option<(Box<dyn BlockCompressor>, CompressionConfig)>> {
+    // Explicitly disable general compression.
+    if field_params.compression.as_deref() == Some("none") {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
     // User-requested compression (unused today but perhaps still used
     // in the future someday)
     if let Some(compression_scheme) = &field_params.compression {
-        if compression_scheme != "none" && version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_2 {
-            let scheme: CompressionScheme = compression_scheme.parse()?;
-            let config = CompressionConfig::new(scheme, field_params.compression_level);
-            let compressor = Box::new(CompressedBufferEncoder::try_new(config)?);
-            return Ok(Some((compressor, config)));
-        }
+        let scheme: CompressionScheme = compression_scheme.parse()?;
+        let config = CompressionConfig::new(scheme, field_params.compression_level);
+        let compressor = Box::new(CompressedBufferEncoder::try_new(config)?);
+        return Ok(Some((compressor, config)));
     }
 
     // Automatic compression for large blocks
-    if data.data_size() > MIN_BLOCK_SIZE_FOR_GENERAL_COMPRESSION
-        && version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_2
-    {
+    if data.data_size() > MIN_BLOCK_SIZE_FOR_GENERAL_COMPRESSION {
         let compressor = Box::new(CompressedBufferEncoder::default());
         let config = compressor.compressor.config();
         return Ok(Some((compressor, config)));
@@ -370,360 +551,360 @@ fn try_general_compression(
     Ok(None)
 }
 
-impl DefaultCompressionStrategy {
-    /// Create a new compression strategy with default behavior
-    pub fn new() -> Self {
-        Self::default()
-    }
+/// Parse field-level compression metadata without applying format-specific constraints.
+pub fn field_metadata_params(field: &Field) -> CompressionFieldParams {
+    let mut params = CompressionFieldParams::default();
 
-    /// Create a new compression strategy with user-configured parameters
-    pub fn with_params(params: CompressionParams) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            params,
-            version: LanceFileVersion::default(),
-        }
+    if let Some(compression) = field.metadata.get(COMPRESSION_META_KEY) {
+        params.compression = Some(compression.clone());
     }
-
-    /// Override the file version used to make compression decisions
-    pub fn with_version(mut self, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
-        self.version = version;
-        self
+    if let Some(level) = field.metadata.get(COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY) {
+        params.compression_level = level.parse().ok();
     }
-
-    /// Parse compression parameters from field metadata
-    fn parse_field_metadata(field: &Field, version: &LanceFileVersion) -> CompressionFieldParams {
-        let mut params = CompressionFieldParams::default();
-
-        // Parse compression method
-        if let Some(compression) = field.metadata.get(COMPRESSION_META_KEY) {
-            params.compression = Some(compression.clone());
-        }
-
-        // Parse compression level
-        if let Some(level) = field.metadata.get(COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY) {
-            params.compression_level = level.parse().ok();
-        }
-
-        // Parse RLE threshold
-        if let Some(threshold) = field.metadata.get(RLE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY) {
-            params.rle_threshold = threshold.parse().ok();
-        }
-
-        // Parse BSS mode
-        if let Some(bss_str) = field.metadata.get(BSS_META_KEY) {
-            match BssMode::parse(bss_str) {
-                Some(mode) => params.bss = Some(mode),
-                None => {
-                    log::warn!("Invalid BSS mode '{}', using default", bss_str);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Parse minichunk size
-        if let Some(minichunk_size_str) = field
-            .metadata
-            .get(super::constants::MINICHUNK_SIZE_META_KEY)
-        {
-            if let Ok(minichunk_size) = minichunk_size_str.parse::<i64>() {
-                // for lance v2.1, only 32kb or smaller is supported
-                if minichunk_size >= 32 * 1024 && *version <= LanceFileVersion::V2_1 {
-                    log::warn!(
-                        "minichunk_size '{}' too large for version '{}', using default",
-                        minichunk_size,
-                        version
-                    );
-                } else {
-                    params.minichunk_size = Some(minichunk_size);
-                }
-            } else {
-                log::warn!("Invalid minichunk_size '{}', skipping", minichunk_size_str);
-            }
+    if let Some(threshold) = field.metadata.get(RLE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY) {
+        params.rle_threshold = threshold.parse().ok();
+    }
+    if let Some(bss_str) = field.metadata.get(BSS_META_KEY) {
+        match BssMode::parse(bss_str) {
+            Some(mode) => params.bss = Some(mode),
+            None => log::warn!("Invalid BSS mode '{}', using default", bss_str),
         }
-
-        params
     }
-
-    fn build_fixed_width_compressor(
-        &self,
-        params: &CompressionFieldParams,
-        data: &FixedWidthDataBlock,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
-        if params.compression.as_deref() == Some("none") {
-            return Ok(Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()));
+    if let Some(minichunk_size_str) = field
+        .metadata
+        .get(super::constants::MINICHUNK_SIZE_META_KEY)
+    {
+        if let Ok(minichunk_size) = minichunk_size_str.parse::<i64>() {
+            params.minichunk_size = Some(minichunk_size);
+        } else {
+            log::warn!("Invalid minichunk_size '{}', skipping", minichunk_size_str);
         }
+    }
 
-        let base = try_bss_for_mini_block(data, params)
-            .or_else(|| try_rle_for_mini_block(data, params))
-            .or_else(|| try_bitpack_for_mini_block(data))
-            .unwrap_or_else(|| Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()));
+    params
+}
 
-        maybe_wrap_general_for_mini_block(base, params)
+/// Apply general-purpose compression requested for a fixed-width miniblock.
+pub fn finalize_miniblock_compressor(
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    compressor: Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    if matches!(data, DataBlock::FixedWidth(_)) {
+        maybe_wrap_general_for_mini_block(compressor, params)
+    } else {
+        Ok(compressor)
     }
+}
 
-    /// Build compressor based on parameters for variable-width data
-    fn build_variable_width_compressor(
-        &self,
-        params: &CompressionFieldParams,
-        data: &VariableWidthBlock,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
-        if data.bits_per_offset != 32 && data.bits_per_offset != 64 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Variable width compression not supported for {} bit offsets",
-                    data.bits_per_offset
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
+/// Honor an explicit `compression = none` request for fixed-width miniblocks.
+pub fn try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock(
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    (matches!(data, DataBlock::FixedWidth(_)) && params.compression.as_deref() == Some("none"))
+        .then(|| Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()) as _)
+}
 
-        // Get statistics
-        let data_size = data.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::DataSize);
-        let max_len = data.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::MaxLength);
+/// Select byte-stream-split compression for an applicable fixed-width miniblock.
+pub fn try_byte_stream_split_miniblock(
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    let DataBlock::FixedWidth(data) = data else {
+        return None;
+    };
+    try_bss_for_mini_block(data, params)
+}
 
-        // 1. Check for explicit "none" compression
-        if params.compression.as_deref() == Some("none") {
-            return Ok(Box::new(BinaryMiniBlockEncoder::new(params.minichunk_size)));
-        }
+/// Select the original fixed-u8 RLE miniblock grammar.
+pub fn try_fixed_u8_rle_miniblock(
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    let DataBlock::FixedWidth(data) = data else {
+        return None;
+    };
+    try_fixed_u8_rle_for_mini_block(data, params)
+}
 
-        // 2. Check for explicit "fsst" compression
-        if params.compression.as_deref() == Some("fsst") {
-            return Ok(Box::new(FsstMiniBlockEncoder::new(params.minichunk_size)));
-        }
+/// Select variable-width RLE with independently encoded children.
+pub fn try_child_rle_miniblock(
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    let DataBlock::FixedWidth(data) = data else {
+        return None;
+    };
+    try_child_rle_for_mini_block(data, params)
+}
 
-        // 3. Choose base encoder (FSST or Binary) based on data characteristics
-        let mut base_encoder: Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor> = if max_len
-            >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_MAX_LENGTH
-            && data_size >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_SIZE as u64
-        {
-            Box::new(FsstMiniBlockEncoder::new(params.minichunk_size))
-        } else {
-            Box::new(BinaryMiniBlockEncoder::new(params.minichunk_size))
-        };
+/// Select inline bitpacking for applicable fixed-width miniblocks.
+pub fn try_bitpacking_miniblock(data: &DataBlock) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    let DataBlock::FixedWidth(data) = data else {
+        return None;
+    };
+    try_bitpack_for_mini_block(data)
+}
 
-        // 4. Apply general compression if configured
-        if let Some(compression_scheme) = &params.compression {
-            if compression_scheme != "none" && compression_scheme != "fsst" {
-                let scheme: CompressionScheme = compression_scheme.parse()?;
-                let config = CompressionConfig::new(scheme, params.compression_level);
-                base_encoder = Box::new(GeneralMiniBlockCompressor::new(base_encoder, config));
-            }
-        }
+/// Store fixed-width miniblock values without a value codec.
+pub fn try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock(data: &DataBlock) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    matches!(data, DataBlock::FixedWidth(_)).then(|| Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()) as _)
+}
 
-        Ok(base_encoder)
+/// Encode variable-width miniblocks with binary or FSST encoding.
+pub fn try_variable_width_miniblock(
+    field: &Field,
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>>> {
+    let DataBlock::VariableWidth(data) = data else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if data.bits_per_offset != 32 && data.bits_per_offset != 64 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Variable width compression not supported for {} bit offsets",
+            data.bits_per_offset
+        )));
     }
 
-    /// Merge user-configured parameters with field metadata
-    /// Field metadata has highest priority
-    fn get_merged_field_params(&self, field: &Field) -> CompressionFieldParams {
-        let mut field_params = self
-            .params
-            .get_field_params(&field.name, &field.data_type());
-
-        // Override with field metadata if present (highest priority)
-        let metadata_params = Self::parse_field_metadata(field, &self.version);
-        field_params.merge(&metadata_params);
+    let compression = params.compression.as_deref();
+    let data_size = data.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::DataSize);
+    let max_len = data.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::MaxLength);
+    if compression == Some("none") {
+        return Ok(Some(Box::new(BinaryMiniBlockEncoder::new(
+            params.minichunk_size,
+        ))));
+    }
 
-        field_params
+    let use_fsst = compression == Some("fsst")
+        || (compression.is_none()
+            && !matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeBinary)
+            && max_len >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_MAX_LENGTH
+            && data_size >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_SIZE as u64);
+    let mut encoder: Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor> = if use_fsst {
+        Box::new(FsstMiniBlockEncoder::new(params.minichunk_size))
+    } else {
+        Box::new(BinaryMiniBlockEncoder::new(params.minichunk_size))
+    };
+    if let Some(compression_scheme) = compression.filter(|scheme| *scheme != "fsst") {
+        let scheme: CompressionScheme = compression_scheme.parse()?;
+        let config = CompressionConfig::new(scheme, params.compression_level);
+        encoder = Box::new(GeneralMiniBlockCompressor::new(encoder, config));
     }
+    Ok(Some(encoder))
 }
 
-impl CompressionStrategy for DefaultCompressionStrategy {
-    fn create_miniblock_compressor(
-        &self,
-        field: &Field,
-        data: &DataBlock,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
-        let field_params = self.get_merged_field_params(field);
-
-        match data {
-            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width_data) => {
-                self.build_fixed_width_compressor(&field_params, fixed_width_data)
-            }
-            DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable_width_data) => {
-                self.build_variable_width_compressor(&field_params, variable_width_data)
-            }
-            DataBlock::Struct(struct_data_block) => {
-                // this condition is actually checked at `PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::do_flush`,
-                // just being cautious here.
-                if struct_data_block.has_variable_width_child() {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "Packed struct mini-block encoding supports only fixed-width children",
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-                Ok(Box::new(PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockEncoder::default()))
-            }
-            DataBlock::FixedSizeList(_) => {
-                // Ideally we would compress the list items but this creates something of a challenge.
-                // We don't want to break lists across chunks and we need to worry about inner validity
-                // layers.  If we try and use a compression scheme then it is unlikely to respect these
-                // constraints.
-                //
-                // For now, we just don't compress.  In the future, we might want to consider a more
-                // sophisticated approach.
-                Ok(Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()))
-            }
-            _ => Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Mini-block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
-                    data.name()
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
-        }
+/// Encode fixed-width packed structs as miniblocks.
+pub fn try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock(
+    data: &DataBlock,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>>> {
+    let DataBlock::Struct(data) = data else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if data.has_variable_width_child() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Packed struct mini-block encoding supports only fixed-width children",
+        ));
     }
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(
+        PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockEncoder::default(),
+    )))
+}
 
-    fn create_per_value(
-        &self,
-        field: &Field,
-        data: &DataBlock,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>> {
-        let field_params = self.get_merged_field_params(field);
-
-        match data {
-            DataBlock::FixedWidth(_) => Ok(Box::new(ValueEncoder::default())),
-            DataBlock::FixedSizeList(_) => Ok(Box::new(ValueEncoder::default())),
-            DataBlock::Struct(struct_block) => {
-                if field.children.len() != struct_block.children.len() {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "Struct field metadata does not match data block children",
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-                let has_variable_child = struct_block.has_variable_width_child();
-                if has_variable_child {
-                    if self.version < LanceFileVersion::V2_2 {
-                        return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                            source: "Variable packed struct encoding requires Lance file version 2.2 or later".into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                    Ok(Box::new(PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder::new(
-                        self.clone(),
-                        field.children.clone(),
-                    )))
-                } else {
-                    Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "Packed struct per-value compression should not be used for fixed-width-only structs",
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
-                }
-            }
-            DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable_width) => {
-                // Check for explicit "none" compression
-                if field_params.compression.as_deref() == Some("none") {
-                    return Ok(Box::new(VariableEncoder::default()));
-                }
+/// Store fixed-size-list miniblocks without a value codec.
+pub fn try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock(data: &DataBlock) -> Option<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+    matches!(data, DataBlock::FixedSizeList(_)).then(|| Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()) as _)
+}
 
-                let max_len = variable_width.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::MaxLength);
-                let data_size = variable_width.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::DataSize);
+/// Store fixed-width and fixed-size-list values directly in full-zip pages.
+pub fn try_raw_per_value(data: &DataBlock) -> Option<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>> {
+    matches!(data, DataBlock::FixedWidth(_) | DataBlock::FixedSizeList(_))
+        .then(|| Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()) as _)
+}
 
-                // If values are very large then use block compression on a per-value basis
-                //
-                // TODO: Could maybe use median here
+fn validate_packed_struct(field: &Field, data: &DataBlock) -> Result<Option<bool>> {
+    let DataBlock::Struct(data) = data else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if field.children.len() != data.children.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Struct field metadata does not match data block children",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(Some(data.has_variable_width_child()))
+}
 
-                let per_value_requested =
-                    if let Some(compression) = field_params.compression.as_deref() {
-                        compression != "fsst"
-                    } else {
-                        false
-                    };
+/// Reject variable-width packed structs while preserving the fixed-width error.
+pub fn reject_packed_struct_per_value(
+    field: &Field,
+    data: &DataBlock,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>>> {
+    let Some(has_variable_child) = validate_packed_struct(field, data)? else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if has_variable_child {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            "Variable packed struct encoding is not enabled by the selected file format".into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(
+        "Packed struct per-value compression should not be used for fixed-width-only structs",
+    ))
+}
 
-                if (max_len > 32 * 1024 || per_value_requested)
-                    && data_size >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_SIZE as u64
-                {
-                    return Ok(Box::new(CompressedBufferEncoder::default()));
-                }
+/// Encode variable-width packed structs with the exact strategy recursively.
+pub fn try_variable_packed_struct_per_value(
+    strategy: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
+    field: &Field,
+    data: &DataBlock,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>>> {
+    let Some(has_variable_child) = validate_packed_struct(field, data)? else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if !has_variable_child {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Packed struct per-value compression should not be used for fixed-width-only structs",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder::new(
+        strategy,
+        field.children.clone(),
+    ))))
+}
 
-                if variable_width.bits_per_offset == 32 || variable_width.bits_per_offset == 64 {
-                    let data_size = variable_width.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::DataSize);
-                    let max_len = variable_width.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::MaxLength);
+/// Encode all packed structs with the exact strategy recursively.
+pub fn try_packed_struct_per_value(
+    strategy: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
+    field: &Field,
+    data: &DataBlock,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>>> {
+    let Some(has_variable_child) = validate_packed_struct(field, data)? else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if has_variable_child {
+        return Ok(Some(Box::new(PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder::new(
+            strategy,
+            field.children.clone(),
+        ))));
+    }
 
-                    let variable_compression = Box::new(VariableEncoder::default());
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(PackedStructFixedPerValueEncoder::new(
+        field.children.clone(),
+    ))))
+}
 
-                    // Use FSST if explicitly requested or if data characteristics warrant it
-                    if field_params.compression.as_deref() == Some("fsst")
-                        || (max_len >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_MAX_LENGTH
-                            && data_size >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_SIZE as u64)
-                    {
-                        Ok(Box::new(FsstPerValueEncoder::new(variable_compression)))
-                    } else {
-                        Ok(variable_compression)
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    panic!("Does not support MiniBlockCompression for VariableWidth DataBlock with {} bits offsets.", variable_width.bits_per_offset);
-                }
-            }
-            _ => unreachable!(
-                "Per-value compression not yet supported for block type: {}",
-                data.name()
-            ),
+/// Encode variable-width values directly, with FSST or per-value compression
+/// when applicable.
+pub fn try_variable_width_per_value(
+    field: &Field,
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>>> {
+    let DataBlock::VariableWidth(data) = data else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    let compression = params.compression.as_deref();
+    if compression == Some("none") {
+        return Ok(Some(Box::new(VariableEncoder::default())));
+    }
+
+    let max_len = data.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::MaxLength);
+    let data_size = data.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::DataSize);
+    let per_value_requested = compression.is_some_and(|compression| compression != "fsst");
+    if (max_len > 32 * 1024 || per_value_requested) && data_size >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_SIZE as u64 {
+        if compression == Some("zstd") {
+            let config = CompressionConfig::new(CompressionScheme::Zstd, params.compression_level);
+            return Ok(Some(Box::new(CompressedBufferEncoder::try_new(config)?)));
         }
+        return Ok(Some(Box::new(CompressedBufferEncoder::default())));
     }
 
-    fn create_block_compressor(
-        &self,
-        field: &Field,
-        data: &DataBlock,
-    ) -> Result<(Box<dyn BlockCompressor>, CompressiveEncoding)> {
-        let field_params = self.get_merged_field_params(field);
+    if data.bits_per_offset != 32 && data.bits_per_offset != 64 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Per-value compression does not support variable-width data with {}-bit offsets",
+            data.bits_per_offset
+        )));
+    }
+    let encoder = Box::new(VariableEncoder::default());
+    let use_fsst = compression == Some("fsst")
+        || (compression.is_none()
+            && !matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeBinary)
+            && max_len >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_MAX_LENGTH
+            && data_size >= FSST_LEAST_INPUT_SIZE as u64);
+    Ok(Some(if use_fsst {
+        Box::new(FsstPerValueEncoder::new(encoder))
+    } else {
+        encoder
+    }))
+}
 
-        match data {
-            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) => {
-                if let Some((compressor, encoding)) =
-                    try_rle_for_block(fixed_width, self.version, &field_params)
-                {
-                    return Ok((compressor, encoding));
-                }
-                if let Some((compressor, encoding)) = try_bitpack_for_block(fixed_width) {
-                    return Ok((compressor, encoding));
-                }
+/// Select fixed-u8 RLE for block compression.
+pub fn try_fixed_u8_rle_block(
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>>> {
+    let DataBlock::FixedWidth(data) = data else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    try_fixed_u8_rle_for_block(data, params)
+}
 
-                // Try general compression (user-requested or automatic over MIN_BLOCK_SIZE_FOR_GENERAL_COMPRESSION)
-                if let Some((compressor, config)) =
-                    try_general_compression(self.version, &field_params, data)?
-                {
-                    let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::wrapped(
-                        config,
-                        ProtobufUtils21::flat(fixed_width.bits_per_value, None),
-                    )?;
-                    return Ok((compressor, encoding));
-                }
+/// Select variable-width RLE for block compression.
+pub fn try_variable_rle_block(
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>>> {
+    let DataBlock::FixedWidth(data) = data else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    try_variable_rle_for_block(data, params)
+}
 
-                let encoder = Box::new(ValueEncoder::default());
-                let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::flat(fixed_width.bits_per_value, None);
-                Ok((encoder, encoding))
-            }
-            DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable_width) => {
-                // Try general compression
-                if let Some((compressor, config)) =
-                    try_general_compression(self.version, &field_params, data)?
-                {
-                    let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::wrapped(
-                        config,
-                        ProtobufUtils21::variable(
-                            ProtobufUtils21::flat(variable_width.bits_per_offset as u64, None),
-                            None,
-                        ),
-                    )?;
-                    return Ok((compressor, encoding));
-                }
+/// Select block bitpacking for applicable fixed-width values.
+pub fn try_bitpacking_block(data: &DataBlock) -> Option<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>> {
+    let DataBlock::FixedWidth(data) = data else {
+        return None;
+    };
+    try_bitpack_for_block(data)
+}
 
-                let encoder = Box::new(VariableEncoder::default());
-                let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::variable(
-                    ProtobufUtils21::flat(variable_width.bits_per_offset as u64, None),
-                    None,
-                );
-                Ok((encoder, encoding))
-            }
-            _ => unreachable!(),
+/// Select explicitly requested or automatic general-purpose block compression.
+pub fn try_general_block(
+    data: &DataBlock,
+    params: &CompressionFieldParams,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>>> {
+    let Some((compressor, _config)) = try_general_compression(params, data)? else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    Ok(Some(compressor))
+}
+
+/// Store fixed- and variable-width block values without block compression.
+pub fn try_raw_block(data: &DataBlock) -> Option<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>> {
+    match data {
+        DataBlock::FixedWidth(_) => {
+            Some(Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()) as Box<dyn BlockCompressor>)
         }
+        DataBlock::VariableWidth(_) => {
+            Some(Box::new(VariableEncoder::default()) as Box<dyn BlockCompressor>)
+        }
+        _ => None,
     }
 }
 
 pub trait MiniBlockDecompressor: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
     fn decompress(&self, data: Vec<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock>;
+
+    /// Returns the exact aggregate decoded size when it is determined solely by the value count.
+    ///
+    /// Implementations should only return `Some` when this aggregate estimate can be used by
+    /// [`DataBlockBuilder`](crate::data::DataBlockBuilder) to preallocate the decoded output
+    /// exactly. Outputs with multiple buffers or whose layout-dependent allocation cannot be
+    /// represented by one aggregate estimate should return `None`.
+    fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, _num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        None
+    }
 }
 
 pub trait FixedPerValueDecompressor: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
@@ -733,6 +914,16 @@ pub trait FixedPerValueDecompressor: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
     ///
     /// Currently (and probably long term) this must be a multiple of 8
     fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64;
+
+    /// Returns the exact aggregate decoded size when it is determined solely by the value count.
+    ///
+    /// Implementations should only return `Some` when this aggregate estimate can be used by
+    /// [`DataBlockBuilder`](crate::data::DataBlockBuilder) to preallocate the decoded output
+    /// exactly. Outputs with multiple buffers or whose layout-dependent allocation cannot be
+    /// represented by one aggregate estimate should return `None`.
+    fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, _num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        None
+    }
 }
 
 pub trait VariablePerValueDecompressor: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
@@ -741,7 +932,31 @@ pub trait VariablePerValueDecompressor: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
 }
 
 pub trait BlockDecompressor: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
-    fn decompress(&self, data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock>;
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Option<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock>;
+
+    /// Whether this codec consumes one payload buffer.
+    fn requires_payload(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    /// Inspect a block for an exact payload-derived value count when supported.
+    ///
+    /// This must not materialize the decoded values. `None` means the encoding requires an
+    /// external count or cannot safely prove one from this payload.
+    fn infer_num_values(&self, _data: &LanceBuffer) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn require_block_payload(data: Option<LanceBuffer>, codec: &str) -> Result<LanceBuffer> {
+    data.ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("{codec} requires one payload")))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn require_no_block_payload(data: Option<LanceBuffer>, codec: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    if data.is_some() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("{codec} expects no payload")));
+    }
+    Ok(())
 }
 
 pub trait DecompressionStrategy: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
@@ -783,10 +998,9 @@ impl DecompressionStrategy for DefaultDecompressionStrategy {
                 Ok(Box::new(InlineBitpacking::from_description(description)))
             }
             #[cfg(not(feature = "bitpacking"))]
-            Compression::InlineBitpacking(_) => Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "this runtime was not built with bitpacking support".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            Compression::InlineBitpacking(_) => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "this runtime was not built with bitpacking support".into(),
+            )),
             Compression::Variable(variable) => {
                 let Compression::Flat(offsets) = variable
                     .offsets
@@ -815,19 +1029,18 @@ impl DecompressionStrategy for DefaultDecompressionStrategy {
             Compression::PackedStruct(description) => Ok(Box::new(
                 PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockDecompressor::new(description),
             )),
-            Compression::VariablePackedStruct(_) => Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "variable packed struct decoding is not yet implemented".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            Compression::VariablePackedStruct(_) => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "variable packed struct decoding is not yet implemented".into(),
+            )),
             Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) => {
                 // In the future, we might need to do something more complex here if FSL supports
                 // compression.
-                Ok(Box::new(ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl)))
-            }
-            Compression::Rle(rle) => {
-                let bits_per_value = validate_rle_compression(rle)?;
-                Ok(Box::new(RleDecompressor::new(bits_per_value)))
+                Ok(Box::new(ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl)?))
             }
+            Compression::Rle(rle) => Ok(Box::new(create_rle_decompressor(
+                rle,
+                decompression_strategy,
+            )?)),
             Compression::ByteStreamSplit(bss) => {
                 let Compression::Flat(values) =
                     bss.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap()
@@ -842,14 +1055,14 @@ impl DecompressionStrategy for DefaultDecompressionStrategy {
                 // Create inner decompressor
                 let inner_decompressor = self.create_miniblock_decompressor(
                     general.values.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input("GeneralMiniBlock missing inner encoding", location!())
+                        Error::invalid_input("GeneralMiniBlock missing inner encoding")
                     })?,
                     decompression_strategy,
                 )?;
 
                 // Parse compression config
                 let compression = general.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input("GeneralMiniBlock missing compression config", location!())
+                    Error::invalid_input("GeneralMiniBlock missing compression config")
                 })?;
 
                 let scheme = compression.scheme().try_into()?;
@@ -877,7 +1090,10 @@ impl DecompressionStrategy for DefaultDecompressionStrategy {
                     .map(|v| LanceBuffer::from_bytes(v.clone(), 1)),
             ))),
             Compression::Flat(flat) => Ok(Box::new(ValueDecompressor::from_flat(flat))),
-            Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) => Ok(Box::new(ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl))),
+            Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) => Ok(Box::new(ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl)?)),
+            Compression::PackedStruct(description) => Ok(Box::new(
+                PackedStructFixedPerValueDecompressor::new(description)?,
+            )),
             _ => todo!("fixed-per-value decompressor for {:?}", description),
         }
     }
@@ -901,29 +1117,21 @@ impl DecompressionStrategy for DefaultDecompressionStrategy {
                 assert!(offsets.bits_per_value < u8::MAX as u64);
                 Ok(Box::new(VariableDecoder::default()))
             }
-            Compression::Fsst(ref fsst) => Ok(Box::new(FsstPerValueDecompressor::new(
+            Compression::Fsst(fsst) => Ok(Box::new(FsstPerValueDecompressor::new(
                 LanceBuffer::from_bytes(fsst.symbol_table.clone(), 1),
                 Box::new(VariableDecoder::default()),
             ))),
-            Compression::General(ref general) => {
-                Ok(Box::new(CompressedBufferEncoder::from_scheme(
-                    general.compression.as_ref().expect_ok()?.scheme(),
-                )?))
-            }
+            Compression::General(general) => Ok(Box::new(CompressedBufferEncoder::from_scheme(
+                general.compression.as_ref().expect_ok()?.scheme(),
+            )?)),
             Compression::VariablePackedStruct(description) => {
                 let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(description.fields.len());
                 for field in &description.fields {
                     let value_encoding = field.value.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input(
-                            "VariablePackedStruct field is missing value encoding",
-                            location!(),
-                        )
+                        Error::invalid_input("VariablePackedStruct field is missing value encoding")
                     })?;
                     let decoder = match field.layout.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input(
-                            "VariablePackedStruct field is missing layout details",
-                            location!(),
-                        )
+                        Error::invalid_input("VariablePackedStruct field is missing layout details")
                     })? {
                         crate::format::pb21::variable_packed_struct::field_encoding::Layout::BitsPerValue(
                             bits_per_value,
@@ -978,7 +1186,7 @@ impl DecompressionStrategy for DefaultDecompressionStrategy {
             }
             Compression::Variable(_) => Ok(Box::new(BinaryBlockDecompressor::default())),
             Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) => {
-                Ok(Box::new(ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref())))
+                Ok(Box::new(ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref())?))
             }
             Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(out_of_line) => {
                 // Extract the compressed bit width from the values encoding
@@ -992,10 +1200,9 @@ impl DecompressionStrategy for DefaultDecompressionStrategy {
                 {
                     Compression::Flat(flat) => flat.bits_per_value,
                     _ => {
-                        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                            location: location!(),
-                            source: "OutOfLineBitpacking values must use Flat encoding".into(),
-                        })
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "OutOfLineBitpacking values must use Flat encoding".into(),
+                        ));
                     }
                 };
                 Ok(Box::new(OutOfLineBitpacking::new(
@@ -1008,19 +1215,13 @@ impl DecompressionStrategy for DefaultDecompressionStrategy {
                     .values
                     .as_ref()
                     .ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input(
-                            "General compression missing inner encoding",
-                            location!(),
-                        )
+                        Error::invalid_input("General compression missing inner encoding")
                     })?
                     .as_ref();
                 let inner_decompressor = self.create_block_decompressor(inner_desc)?;
 
                 let compression = general.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        "General compression missing compression config",
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                    Error::invalid_input("General compression missing compression config")
                 })?;
                 let scheme = compression.scheme().try_into()?;
                 let config = CompressionConfig::new(scheme, compression.level);
@@ -1029,69 +1230,216 @@ impl DecompressionStrategy for DefaultDecompressionStrategy {
 
                 Ok(Box::new(general_decompressor))
             }
-            Compression::Rle(rle) => {
-                let bits_per_value = validate_rle_compression(rle)?;
-                Ok(Box::new(RleDecompressor::new(bits_per_value)))
-            }
+            Compression::Rle(rle) => Ok(Box::new(create_rle_decompressor(rle, self)?)),
             _ => todo!(),
         }
     }
 }
-/// Validates RLE compression format and extracts bits_per_value
-fn validate_rle_compression(rle: &crate::format::pb21::Rle) -> Result<u64> {
-    let values = rle.values.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input("RLE compression missing values encoding", location!())
-    })?;
-    let run_lengths = rle.run_lengths.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input("RLE compression missing run lengths encoding", location!())
-    })?;
+pub(crate) fn create_rle_decompressor(
+    rle: &crate::format::pb21::Rle,
+    decompression_strategy: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+) -> Result<RleDecompressor> {
+    let values = rle
+        .values
+        .as_ref()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("RLE compression missing values encoding"))?;
+    let run_lengths = rle
+        .run_lengths
+        .as_ref()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("RLE compression missing run lengths encoding"))?;
+
+    let values = create_rle_child_decompressor(values, "values", decompression_strategy)?;
+    let run_lengths =
+        create_rle_child_decompressor(run_lengths, "run lengths", decompression_strategy)?;
+
+    if !matches!(values.bits_per_value(), 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "RLE compression only supports 8, 16, 32, or 64-bit values, got {}",
+            values.bits_per_value()
+        )));
+    }
 
-    let values = values.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input("RLE compression missing values compression", location!())
-    })?;
-    let Compression::Flat(values) = values else {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            "RLE compression only supports flat values",
-            location!(),
-        ));
-    };
+    let run_length_width =
+        RunLengthWidth::from_bits(run_lengths.bits_per_value()).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RLE compression only supports 8, 16, or 32-bit run lengths, got {}",
+                run_lengths.bits_per_value()
+            ))
+        })?;
 
-    let run_lengths = run_lengths.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            "RLE compression missing run lengths compression",
-            location!(),
-        )
-    })?;
-    let Compression::Flat(run_lengths) = run_lengths else {
+    if values.requires_num_values() && run_lengths.requires_num_values() {
         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            "RLE compression only supports flat run lengths",
-            location!(),
+            "RLE values and run lengths child encodings cannot both require the run count",
         ));
-    };
+    }
 
-    if run_lengths.bits_per_value != 8 {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "RLE compression only supports 8-bit run lengths, got {}",
-                run_lengths.bits_per_value
-            ),
-            location!(),
+    if values.is_identity() && run_lengths.is_identity() {
+        return Ok(RleDecompressor::with_run_length_width(
+            values.bits_per_value(),
+            run_length_width,
         ));
     }
 
-    Ok(values.bits_per_value)
+    Ok(RleDecompressor::with_child_decompressors(
+        values.bits_per_value(),
+        run_length_width,
+        values,
+        run_lengths,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn create_rle_child_decompressor(
+    encoding: &CompressiveEncoding,
+    role: &str,
+    decompression_strategy: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+) -> Result<RleChildDecompressor> {
+    let compression = encoding
+        .compression
+        .as_ref()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("RLE {role} missing child compression")))?;
+    let (bits_per_value, requires_num_values, needs_decompressor) =
+        validate_rle_child_compression(compression, role)?;
+
+    if needs_decompressor {
+        Ok(RleChildDecompressor::block(
+            bits_per_value,
+            decompression_strategy.create_block_decompressor(encoding)?,
+            requires_num_values,
+        ))
+    } else {
+        Ok(RleChildDecompressor::flat(bits_per_value))
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_rle_child_compression(
+    compression: &Compression,
+    role: &str,
+) -> Result<(u64, bool, bool)> {
+    match compression {
+        Compression::Flat(flat) => Ok((flat.bits_per_value, false, false)),
+        Compression::General(general) => {
+            general.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "RLE {role} general child missing compression config"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let values = general.values.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("RLE {role} general child missing inner encoding"))
+            })?;
+            let inner = values.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "RLE {role} general child missing inner compression"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let (bits_per_value, requires_num_values) =
+                validate_rle_block_child_inner(inner, role)?;
+            Ok((bits_per_value, requires_num_values, true))
+        }
+        Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(out_of_line) => {
+            let values = out_of_line.values.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "RLE {role} bitpacking child missing values encoding"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let Compression::Flat(_) = values.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "RLE {role} bitpacking child missing values compression"
+                ))
+            })?
+            else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "RLE {role} bitpacking child only supports flat values"
+                )));
+            };
+            Ok((out_of_line.uncompressed_bits_per_value, true, true))
+        }
+        other => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "RLE {role} only supports flat, general, or out-of-line bitpacking child encodings, got {}",
+            compression_name(other)
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_rle_block_child_inner(compression: &Compression, role: &str) -> Result<(u64, bool)> {
+    match compression {
+        Compression::Flat(flat) => Ok((flat.bits_per_value, false)),
+        Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(out_of_line) => {
+            let values = out_of_line.values.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "RLE {role} bitpacking child missing values encoding"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let Compression::Flat(_) = values.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "RLE {role} bitpacking child missing values compression"
+                ))
+            })?
+            else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "RLE {role} bitpacking child only supports flat values"
+                )));
+            };
+            Ok((out_of_line.uncompressed_bits_per_value, true))
+        }
+        other => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "RLE {role} general child only supports flat or out-of-line bitpacking inner encodings, got {}",
+            compression_name(other)
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn compression_name(compression: &Compression) -> &'static str {
+    match compression {
+        Compression::Flat(_) => "flat",
+        Compression::Variable(_) => "variable",
+        Compression::Fsst(_) => "fsst",
+        Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(_) => "out-of-line bitpacking",
+        Compression::InlineBitpacking(_) => "inline bitpacking",
+        Compression::General(_) => "general",
+        Compression::Constant(_) => "constant",
+        Compression::Dictionary(_) => "dictionary",
+        Compression::ByteStreamSplit(_) => "byte stream split",
+        Compression::PackedStruct(_) => "packed struct",
+        Compression::FixedSizeList(_) => "fixed-size list",
+        Compression::VariablePackedStruct(_) => "variable packed struct",
+        Compression::Rle(_) => "rle",
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
+    use crate::compression_config::CompressionParams;
     use crate::data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock};
+    use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::MiniBlockCompressionContext;
     use crate::statistics::ComputeStat;
-    use crate::testing::extract_array_encoding_chain;
+    use crate::testing::{TestEncoding, extract_array_encoding_chain, test_compression_strategy};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField};
     use std::collections::HashMap;
 
+    fn strategy(encoding: TestEncoding, params: CompressionParams) -> Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy> {
+        test_compression_strategy(encoding, params)
+    }
+
+    fn baseline_strategy(params: CompressionParams) -> Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy> {
+        strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU16, params)
+    }
+
+    fn selected_block_codec(
+        strategy: &Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> (Box<dyn BlockCompressor>, CompressiveEncoding) {
+        let compressor = strategy.create_block_compressor(field, data).unwrap();
+        let (_, encoding) = compressor.compress(data.clone()).unwrap();
+        (compressor, encoding)
+    }
+
+    fn miniblock_context() -> MiniBlockCompressionContext {
+        MiniBlockCompressionContext::new(0, true, true)
+    }
+
     fn create_test_field(name: &str, data_type: DataType) -> Field {
         let arrow_field = ArrowField::new(name, data_type, true);
         let mut field = Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
@@ -1168,6 +1516,37 @@ mod tests {
         DataBlock::FixedWidth(block)
     }
 
+    fn rle_run_length_bits(encoding: &CompressiveEncoding) -> u64 {
+        let Compression::Rle(rle) = encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+            panic!("expected RLE encoding");
+        };
+        let Compression::Flat(run_lengths) = rle
+            .run_lengths
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .compression
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected flat run lengths");
+        };
+        run_lengths.bits_per_value
+    }
+
+    fn expect_rle_encoding(encoding: &CompressiveEncoding) -> &crate::format::pb21::Rle {
+        match encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap() {
+            Compression::Rle(rle) => rle,
+            Compression::General(general) => {
+                let inner = general.values.as_ref().unwrap();
+                let Compression::Rle(rle) = inner.compression.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+                    panic!("expected wrapped RLE encoding");
+                };
+                rle
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected RLE encoding, got {}", compression_name(other)),
+        }
+    }
+
     fn create_variable_width_block(
         bits_per_offset: u8,
         num_values: u64,
@@ -1229,6 +1608,10 @@ mod tests {
         DataBlock::VariableWidth(block)
     }
 
+    fn create_fsst_candidate_variable_width_block() -> DataBlock {
+        create_variable_width_block(32, 4096, FSST_LEAST_INPUT_MAX_LENGTH as usize + 16)
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_parameter_based_compression() {
         let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
@@ -1245,7 +1628,7 @@ mod tests {
             },
         );
 
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
         let field = create_test_field("user_id", DataType::Int32);
 
         // Create data with low run count for RLE
@@ -1277,7 +1660,7 @@ mod tests {
             },
         );
 
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
         let field = create_test_field("some_column", DataType::Int32);
         // Create data with very low run count (50 runs for 1000 values = 0.05 ratio)
         let data = create_fixed_width_block_with_stats(32, 1000, 50);
@@ -1287,10 +1670,108 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(format!("{:?}", compressor).contains("RleEncoder"));
     }
 
+    // Regression for #6626: an all-zero stat segment (e.g. rep/def for a long
+    // run of empty lists) used to disable block bitpacking entirely.
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn test_block_bitpacks_with_zero_segment() {
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(CompressionParams::default());
+        let field = create_test_field("levels", DataType::UInt16);
+
+        // First 1024 zeros, then 1024 ones; max bit width is 1.
+        let mut values: Vec<u16> = vec![0; 1024];
+        values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(1u16, 1024));
+        let mut block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 2048,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        block.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(block);
+
+        let compressor = strategy.create_block_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let debug_str = format!("{:?}", compressor);
+        assert!(
+            debug_str.contains("OutOfLineBitpacking"),
+            "expected OutOfLineBitpacking, got: {debug_str}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::runt_tail(1600)]
+    #[case::whole_chunks(2048)]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn test_block_skips_full_width_bitpacking(#[case] num_values: usize) {
+        let mut block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 64,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![-1_i64; num_values]),
+            num_values: num_values as u64,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        block.compute_stat();
+
+        assert!(try_bitpacking_block(&DataBlock::FixedWidth(block)).is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_block_accounts_for_header_before_selecting() {
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, CompressionParams::default());
+        let field = create_test_field("small_constant", DataType::Int32);
+        let values = vec![42i32; 2];
+        let mut block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 32,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 2,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        block.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(block);
+
+        let (compressor, encoding) = selected_block_codec(&strategy, &field, &data);
+
+        assert!(format!("{compressor:?}").contains("ValueEncoder"));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            encoding.compression.as_ref(),
+            Some(Compression::Flat(_))
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn test_rle_block_prefers_bitpacking_when_smaller() {
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, CompressionParams::default());
+        let field = create_test_field("levels", DataType::UInt16);
+
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(2048);
+        for run_idx in 0..1024 {
+            values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n((run_idx % 2) as u16, 2));
+        }
+        let mut block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 2048,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        block.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(block);
+
+        let (compressor, encoding) = selected_block_codec(&strategy, &field, &data);
+        let debug_str = format!("{compressor:?}");
+        assert!(
+            debug_str.contains("OutOfLineBitpacking"),
+            "expected OutOfLineBitpacking, got: {debug_str}"
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(
+            encoding.compression.as_ref(),
+            Some(Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(_))
+        ));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
     fn test_low_cardinality_prefers_bitpacking_over_rle() {
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::new();
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(CompressionParams::default());
         let field = create_test_field("int_score", DataType::Int64);
 
         // Low cardinality values (3/4/5) but with moderate run count:
@@ -1353,7 +1834,7 @@ mod tests {
             },
         );
 
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
         let field = create_test_field("embeddings", DataType::Float32);
         let fixed_data = create_fixed_width_block(32, 1000);
         let variable_data = create_variable_width_block(32, 10, 32 * 1024);
@@ -1362,12 +1843,16 @@ mod tests {
         let compressor = strategy
             .create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &fixed_data)
             .unwrap();
-        let (_block, encoding) = compressor.compress(fixed_data.clone()).unwrap();
+        let (_block, encoding) = compressor
+            .compress(miniblock_context(), fixed_data.clone())
+            .unwrap();
         check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, false);
         let compressor = strategy
             .create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &variable_data)
             .unwrap();
-        let (_block, encoding) = compressor.compress(variable_data.clone()).unwrap();
+        let (_block, encoding) = compressor
+            .compress(miniblock_context(), variable_data.clone())
+            .unwrap();
         check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, true);
 
         // Test pervalue
@@ -1380,40 +1865,154 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_field_metadata_none_compression() {
-        // Prepare field with metadata for none compression
-        let mut arrow_field = ArrowField::new("simple_col", DataType::Binary, true);
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-        metadata.insert(COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), "none".to_string());
-        arrow_field = arrow_field.with_metadata(metadata);
-        let field = Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
-
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(CompressionParams::new());
-
-        // Test miniblock
-        let fixed_data = create_fixed_width_block(32, 1000);
-        let variable_data = create_variable_width_block(32, 10, 32 * 1024);
+    fn test_field_metadata_none_compression() {
+        // Prepare field with metadata for none compression
+        let mut arrow_field = ArrowField::new("simple_col", DataType::Binary, true);
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), "none".to_string());
+        arrow_field = arrow_field.with_metadata(metadata);
+        let field = Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(CompressionParams::new());
+
+        // Test miniblock
+        let fixed_data = create_fixed_width_block(32, 1000);
+        let variable_data = create_variable_width_block(32, 10, 32 * 1024);
+
+        let compressor = strategy
+            .create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &fixed_data)
+            .unwrap();
+        let (_block, encoding) = compressor
+            .compress(miniblock_context(), fixed_data.clone())
+            .unwrap();
+        check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, false);
+
+        let compressor = strategy
+            .create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &variable_data)
+            .unwrap();
+        let (_block, encoding) = compressor
+            .compress(miniblock_context(), variable_data.clone())
+            .unwrap();
+        check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, true);
+
+        // Test pervalue
+        let compressor = strategy.create_per_value(&field, &fixed_data).unwrap();
+        let (_block, encoding) = compressor.compress(fixed_data).unwrap();
+        check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, false);
+
+        let compressor = strategy.create_per_value(&field, &variable_data).unwrap();
+        let (_block, encoding) = compressor.compress(variable_data).unwrap();
+        check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, true);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_auto_fsst_disabled_for_binary_fields() {
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(CompressionParams::default());
+        let field = create_test_field("bytes", DataType::Binary);
+        let variable_data = create_fsst_candidate_variable_width_block();
+
+        let miniblock = strategy
+            .create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &variable_data)
+            .unwrap();
+        let miniblock_debug = format!("{:?}", miniblock);
+        assert!(
+            miniblock_debug.contains("BinaryMiniBlockEncoder"),
+            "expected BinaryMiniBlockEncoder, got: {miniblock_debug}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !miniblock_debug.contains("FsstMiniBlockEncoder"),
+            "did not expect FsstMiniBlockEncoder, got: {miniblock_debug}"
+        );
+
+        let per_value = strategy.create_per_value(&field, &variable_data).unwrap();
+        let per_value_debug = format!("{:?}", per_value);
+        assert!(
+            per_value_debug.contains("VariableEncoder"),
+            "expected VariableEncoder, got: {per_value_debug}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !per_value_debug.contains("FsstPerValueEncoder"),
+            "did not expect FsstPerValueEncoder, got: {per_value_debug}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_auto_fsst_still_enabled_for_utf8_fields() {
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(CompressionParams::default());
+        let field = create_test_field("text", DataType::Utf8);
+        let variable_data = create_fsst_candidate_variable_width_block();
+
+        let miniblock = strategy
+            .create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &variable_data)
+            .unwrap();
+        let miniblock_debug = format!("{:?}", miniblock);
+        assert!(
+            miniblock_debug.contains("FsstMiniBlockEncoder"),
+            "expected FsstMiniBlockEncoder, got: {miniblock_debug}"
+        );
+
+        let per_value = strategy.create_per_value(&field, &variable_data).unwrap();
+        let per_value_debug = format!("{:?}", per_value);
+        assert!(
+            per_value_debug.contains("FsstPerValueEncoder"),
+            "expected FsstPerValueEncoder, got: {per_value_debug}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_explicit_fsst_still_supported_for_binary_fields() {
+        let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
+        params.columns.insert(
+            "bytes".to_string(),
+            CompressionFieldParams {
+                compression: Some("fsst".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
 
-        let compressor = strategy
-            .create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &fixed_data)
-            .unwrap();
-        let (_block, encoding) = compressor.compress(fixed_data.clone()).unwrap();
-        check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, false);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
+        let field = create_test_field("bytes", DataType::Binary);
+        let variable_data = create_fsst_candidate_variable_width_block();
 
-        let compressor = strategy
+        let miniblock = strategy
             .create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &variable_data)
             .unwrap();
-        let (_block, encoding) = compressor.compress(variable_data.clone()).unwrap();
-        check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, true);
+        let miniblock_debug = format!("{:?}", miniblock);
+        assert!(
+            miniblock_debug.contains("FsstMiniBlockEncoder"),
+            "expected FsstMiniBlockEncoder, got: {miniblock_debug}"
+        );
 
-        // Test pervalue
-        let compressor = strategy.create_per_value(&field, &fixed_data).unwrap();
-        let (_block, encoding) = compressor.compress(fixed_data).unwrap();
-        check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, false);
+        let per_value = strategy.create_per_value(&field, &variable_data).unwrap();
+        let per_value_debug = format!("{:?}", per_value);
+        assert!(
+            per_value_debug.contains("FsstPerValueEncoder"),
+            "expected FsstPerValueEncoder, got: {per_value_debug}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let compressor = strategy.create_per_value(&field, &variable_data).unwrap();
-        let (_block, encoding) = compressor.compress(variable_data).unwrap();
-        check_uncompressed_encoding(&encoding, true);
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "zstd")]
+    fn test_compression_level_honored_for_large_per_value() {
+        let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
+        params.columns.insert(
+            "html".to_string(),
+            CompressionFieldParams {
+                compression: Some("zstd".to_string()),
+                compression_level: Some(19),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
+        let field = create_test_field("html", DataType::Utf8);
+        let large = create_variable_width_block(32, 64, 40 * 1024);
+
+        let per_value = strategy.create_per_value(&field, &large).unwrap();
+        let debug = format!("{per_value:?}");
+        assert!(
+            debug.contains("ZstdBufferCompressor") && debug.contains("compression_level: 19"),
+            "expected zstd level 19 to reach the per-value compressor, got: {debug}"
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1442,12 +2041,8 @@ mod tests {
             },
         );
 
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
-
         // Get merged params
-        let merged = strategy
-            .params
-            .get_field_params("user_id", &DataType::Int32);
+        let merged = params.get_field_params("user_id", &DataType::Int32);
 
         // Column params should override type params
         assert_eq!(merged.rle_threshold, Some(0.2));
@@ -1455,9 +2050,7 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(merged.compression_level, Some(6));
 
         // Test field with only type params
-        let merged = strategy
-            .params
-            .get_field_params("other_field", &DataType::Int32);
+        let merged = params.get_field_params("other_field", &DataType::Int32);
         assert_eq!(merged.rle_threshold, Some(0.5));
         assert_eq!(merged.compression, Some("lz4".to_string()));
         assert_eq!(merged.compression_level, None);
@@ -1477,26 +2070,20 @@ mod tests {
             },
         );
 
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
-
         // Should match pattern
-        let merged = strategy
-            .params
-            .get_field_params("log_messages", &DataType::Utf8);
+        let merged = params.get_field_params("log_messages", &DataType::Utf8);
         assert_eq!(merged.compression, Some("zstd".to_string()));
         assert_eq!(merged.compression_level, Some(6));
 
         // Should not match
-        let merged = strategy
-            .params
-            .get_field_params("messages_log", &DataType::Utf8);
+        let merged = params.get_field_params("messages_log", &DataType::Utf8);
         assert_eq!(merged.compression, None);
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_legacy_metadata_support() {
         let params = CompressionParams::new();
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
 
         // Test field with "none" compression metadata
         let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
@@ -1515,7 +2102,7 @@ mod tests {
     fn test_default_behavior() {
         // Empty params should fall back to default behavior
         let params = CompressionParams::new();
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
 
         let field = create_test_field("random_column", DataType::Int32);
         // Create data with high run count that won't trigger RLE (600 runs for 1000 values = 0.6 ratio)
@@ -1530,7 +2117,7 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_field_metadata_compression() {
         let params = CompressionParams::new();
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
 
         // Test field with compression metadata
         let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
@@ -1550,7 +2137,7 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_field_metadata_rle_threshold() {
         let params = CompressionParams::new();
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
 
         // Test field with RLE threshold metadata
         let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
@@ -1570,6 +2157,277 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(debug_str.contains("RleEncoder"));
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_v2_miniblock_selects_u16_run_lengths() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(RLE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(), "1.0".to_string());
+        metadata.insert(BSS_META_KEY.to_string(), "off".to_string());
+        let mut field = create_test_field("test_column", DataType::Int32);
+        field.metadata = metadata;
+
+        let values = vec![7i32; 1000];
+        let mut data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 32,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 1000,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        data.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(data);
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, CompressionParams::default());
+        let compressor = strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), data).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rle_run_length_bits(&encoding), 16);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_v2_miniblock_keeps_u8_run_lengths_before_v2_3() {
+        for version in [TestEncoding::StructuralU16, TestEncoding::StructuralU32] {
+            let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+            metadata.insert(RLE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(), "1.0".to_string());
+            metadata.insert(BSS_META_KEY.to_string(), "off".to_string());
+            let mut field = create_test_field("test_column", DataType::Int32);
+            field.metadata = metadata;
+
+            let values = vec![7i32; 1000];
+            let mut data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                bits_per_value: 32,
+                data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+                num_values: 1000,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+            };
+            data.compute_stat();
+            let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(data);
+
+            let strategy = strategy(version, CompressionParams::default());
+            let compressor = strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+            let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), data).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(rle_run_length_bits(&encoding), 8, "version={version}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_v2_uses_selected_width_cost_before_bitpacking() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(RLE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(), "1.0".to_string());
+        metadata.insert(BSS_META_KEY.to_string(), "off".to_string());
+        let mut field = create_test_field("test_column", DataType::Int32);
+        field.metadata = metadata;
+
+        let values = vec![0i32; 4096];
+        let mut data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 32,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 4096,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        data.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(data);
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, CompressionParams::default());
+        let compressor = strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let debug_str = format!("{compressor:?}");
+        assert!(debug_str.contains("RleEncoder"));
+
+        let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), data).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rle_run_length_bits(&encoding), 16);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_v2_sorted_dictionary_indices_select_u16_run_lengths() {
+        let field = create_test_field("dict_indices", DataType::Int32);
+
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(1_200);
+        for value in 0..4 {
+            values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(value, 300));
+        }
+        let mut data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 32,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 1_200,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        data.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(data);
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, CompressionParams::default());
+        let compressor = strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), data).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rle_run_length_bits(&encoding), 16);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_v2_short_runs_keep_u8_run_lengths() {
+        let field = create_test_field("dict_indices", DataType::Int32);
+
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(1_280);
+        for value in 0..10 {
+            values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(value, 128));
+        }
+        let mut data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 32,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 1_280,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        data.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(data);
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, CompressionParams::default());
+        let compressor = strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), data).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rle_run_length_bits(&encoding), 8);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "lz4", feature = "zstd"))]
+    fn test_rle_miniblock_released_versions_keep_flat_children_when_compression_requested() {
+        for version in [TestEncoding::StructuralU16, TestEncoding::StructuralU32] {
+            let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
+            params.columns.insert(
+                "dict_indices".to_string(),
+                CompressionFieldParams {
+                    compression: Some(
+                        if cfg!(feature = "lz4") { "lz4" } else { "zstd" }.to_string(),
+                    ),
+                    rle_threshold: Some(1.0),
+                    bss: Some(BssMode::Off),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            );
+            let strategy = strategy(version, params);
+            let field = create_test_field("dict_indices", DataType::UInt32);
+
+            let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(8192 * 4);
+            for value in 0..8192u32 {
+                values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(value, 4));
+            }
+            let mut data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                bits_per_value: 32,
+                data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+                num_values: 8192 * 4,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+            };
+            data.compute_stat();
+            let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(data);
+
+            let compressor = strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+            let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), data).unwrap();
+            let rle = expect_rle_encoding(&encoding);
+
+            assert!(
+                matches!(
+                    rle.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                    Compression::Flat(_)
+                ),
+                "version={version}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                matches!(
+                    rle.run_lengths
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .compression
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    Compression::Flat(_)
+                ),
+                "version={version}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn test_rle_miniblock_strategy_bitpacks_child_values_when_smaller() {
+        let field = create_test_field("dict_indices", DataType::Int32);
+
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(8192 * 4);
+        for value in 0..8192 {
+            values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(value, 4));
+        }
+        let mut data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 32,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 8192 * 4,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        data.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(data);
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, CompressionParams::default());
+        let compressor = strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let debug_str = format!("{compressor:?}");
+        assert!(debug_str.contains("RleEncoder"));
+
+        let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), data).unwrap();
+        let Compression::Rle(rle) = encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+            panic!("expected RLE encoding");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.run_lengths
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .compression
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap(),
+            Compression::Flat(_)
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn test_rle_miniblock_keeps_child_bitpacked_rle_when_smaller_than_inline_bitpacking() {
+        let field = create_test_field("int_score", DataType::UInt64);
+
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(8192 * 8);
+        for run_idx in 0..8192 {
+            let value = match run_idx % 3 {
+                0 => 3u64,
+                1 => 4u64,
+                _ => 5u64,
+            };
+            values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(value, 8));
+        }
+        let mut data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 64,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 8192 * 8,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        data.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(data);
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, CompressionParams::default());
+        let compressor = strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let debug_str = format!("{compressor:?}");
+        assert!(
+            debug_str.contains("RleEncoder"),
+            "expected RLE to beat inline bitpacking after child selection, got: {debug_str}"
+        );
+
+        let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), data).unwrap();
+        let rle = expect_rle_encoding(&encoding);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.run_lengths
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .compression
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap(),
+            Compression::Flat(_)
+        ));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_field_metadata_override_params() {
         // Set up params with one configuration
@@ -1585,7 +2443,7 @@ mod tests {
             },
         );
 
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
 
         // Field metadata should override params
         let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
@@ -1613,7 +2471,7 @@ mod tests {
             },
         );
 
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
 
         // Field metadata provides partial override
         let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
@@ -1632,7 +2490,7 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_bss_field_metadata() {
         let params = CompressionParams::new();
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
 
         // Test BSS "on" mode with compression enabled (BSS requires compression to be effective)
         let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
@@ -1653,7 +2511,7 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_bss_with_compression() {
         let params = CompressionParams::new();
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
+        let strategy = baseline_strategy(params);
 
         // Test BSS with LZ4 compression
         let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
@@ -1686,8 +2544,7 @@ mod tests {
             },
         );
 
-        let mut strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params);
-        strategy.version = LanceFileVersion::V2_2;
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, params);
 
         let field = create_test_field("dict_values", DataType::FixedSizeBinary(3));
         let data = create_fixed_width_block(24, 1024);
@@ -1698,18 +2555,17 @@ mod tests {
         let expected_num_values = expected_block.num_values;
         let num_values = expected_num_values;
 
-        let (compressor, encoding) = strategy
+        let compressor = strategy
             .create_block_compressor(&field, &data)
             .expect("general compression should be selected");
+        let (compressed_buffer, encoding) = compressor
+            .compress(data.clone())
+            .expect("write path general compression should succeed");
         match encoding.compression.as_ref() {
             Some(Compression::General(_)) => {}
             other => panic!("expected general compression, got {:?}", other),
         }
 
-        let compressed_buffer = compressor
-            .compress(data.clone())
-            .expect("write path general compression should succeed");
-
         let decompressor = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default()
             .create_block_decompressor(&encoding)
             .expect("general block decompressor should be created");
@@ -1728,6 +2584,170 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "lz4", feature = "zstd"))]
+    fn assert_general_block_preserves_compression_level(
+        compression: &str,
+        expected_scheme: crate::format::pb21::CompressionScheme,
+        compression_level: Option<i32>,
+    ) {
+        let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
+        params.columns.insert(
+            "dict_values".to_string(),
+            CompressionFieldParams {
+                compression: Some(compression.to_string()),
+                compression_level,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, params);
+        let field = create_test_field("dict_values", DataType::FixedSizeBinary(3));
+        let data = create_fixed_width_block(24, 1024);
+
+        let compressor = strategy.create_block_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let (_, encoding) = compressor.compress(data).unwrap();
+        let Some(Compression::General(general)) = encoding.compression.as_ref() else {
+            panic!("expected general compression");
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            general.compression.as_ref(),
+            Some(&crate::format::pb21::BufferCompression {
+                scheme: expected_scheme as i32,
+                level: compression_level,
+            })
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "zstd")]
+    fn test_general_block_preserves_absent_zstd_level() {
+        assert_general_block_preserves_compression_level(
+            "zstd",
+            crate::format::pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmZstd,
+            None,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "lz4")]
+    fn test_general_block_preserves_explicit_lz4_level() {
+        assert_general_block_preserves_compression_level(
+            "lz4",
+            crate::format::pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmLz4,
+            Some(7),
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "lz4", feature = "zstd"))]
+    fn test_general_compression_not_selected_for_v2_1_even_if_requested() {
+        let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
+        params.columns.insert(
+            "dict_values".to_string(),
+            CompressionFieldParams {
+                compression: Some(if cfg!(feature = "lz4") { "lz4" } else { "zstd" }.to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU16, params);
+        let field = create_test_field("dict_values", DataType::FixedSizeBinary(3));
+        let data = create_fixed_width_block(24, 1024);
+
+        let compressor = strategy
+            .create_block_compressor(&field, &data)
+            .expect("block compressor selection should succeed");
+        let (_, encoding) = compressor.compress(data).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            !matches!(encoding.compression.as_ref(), Some(Compression::General(_))),
+            "general compression should not be selected for V2.1"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_none_compression_disables_auto_general_block_compression() {
+        let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
+        params.columns.insert(
+            "dict_values".to_string(),
+            CompressionFieldParams {
+                compression: Some("none".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, params);
+        let field = create_test_field("dict_values", DataType::FixedSizeBinary(3));
+        let data = create_fixed_width_block(24, 20_000);
+
+        assert!(
+            data.data_size() > MIN_BLOCK_SIZE_FOR_GENERAL_COMPRESSION,
+            "test requires block size above automatic general compression threshold"
+        );
+
+        let compressor = strategy
+            .create_block_compressor(&field, &data)
+            .expect("block compressor selection should succeed");
+        let (_, encoding) = compressor.compress(data).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            !matches!(encoding.compression.as_ref(), Some(Compression::General(_))),
+            "compression=none should disable automatic block general compression"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_v2_block_selects_u32_run_lengths() {
+        let field = create_test_field("dict_indices", DataType::Int32);
+        let expected_values = vec![42i32; 70_000];
+        let mut block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 32,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(expected_values.clone()),
+            num_values: expected_values.len() as u64,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        block.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(block);
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, CompressionParams::new());
+        let compressor = strategy.create_block_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(data).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rle_run_length_bits(&encoding), 32);
+        let decompressor = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default()
+            .create_block_decompressor(&encoding)
+            .unwrap();
+        let decoded = decompressor
+            .decompress(compressed, expected_values.len() as u64)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        match decoded {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) => {
+                let values = block.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<i32>();
+                assert_eq!(values.as_ref(), expected_values);
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected fixed-width block"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_v2_block_keeps_u8_run_lengths_for_v2_2() {
+        let field = create_test_field("dict_indices", DataType::Int32);
+        let values = vec![42i32; 70_000];
+        let mut block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 32,
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+            num_values: 70_000,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        };
+        block.compute_stat();
+        let data = DataBlock::FixedWidth(block);
+
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, CompressionParams::new());
+        let compressor = strategy.create_block_compressor(&field, &data).unwrap();
+        let (_, encoding) = compressor.compress(data).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rle_run_length_bits(&encoding), 8);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_rle_block_used_for_version_v2_2() {
         let field = create_test_field("test_repdef", DataType::UInt16);
@@ -1752,10 +2772,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         let data_block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(block);
 
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(CompressionParams::new())
-            .with_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, CompressionParams::new());
 
-        let (compressor, _) = strategy
+        let compressor = strategy
             .create_block_compressor(&field, &data_block)
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -1787,10 +2806,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         let data_block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(block);
 
-        let strategy = DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(CompressionParams::new())
-            .with_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let strategy = strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU16, CompressionParams::new());
 
-        let (compressor, _) = strategy
+        let compressor = strategy
             .create_block_compressor(&field, &data_block)
             .unwrap();
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/constants.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/constants.rs
index 173b1a1c085..0bd31d676cc 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/constants.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/constants.rs
@@ -26,6 +26,19 @@ pub const DICT_DIVISOR_META_KEY: &str = "lance-encoding:dict-divisor";
 /// Example: 0.8 means use dict if encoded size < 80% of raw size
 /// Default: 0.8
 pub const DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY: &str = "lance-encoding:dict-size-ratio";
+/// Metadata key for selecting general compression scheme for dictionary values
+/// Valid values: "lz4", "zstd", "none"
+pub const DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_META_KEY: &str = "lance-encoding:dict-values-compression";
+/// Metadata key for selecting compression level for dictionary values
+/// Applies to schemes that support levels (e.g. zstd)
+pub const DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY: &str =
+    "lance-encoding:dict-values-compression-level";
+
+/// Environment variable for selecting general compression scheme for dictionary values
+pub const DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_ENV_VAR: &str = "LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION";
+/// Environment variable for selecting compression level for dictionary values
+pub const DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL_ENV_VAR: &str =
+    "LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL";
 
 // NOTE: BLOB_META_KEY is defined in lance-core to avoid circular dependency
 
@@ -42,6 +55,8 @@ pub const STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY: &str = "lance-encoding:structural-encodi
 pub const STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK: &str = "miniblock";
 /// Value for fullzip structural encoding
 pub const STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP: &str = "fullzip";
+/// Value for sparse structural encoding
+pub const STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE: &str = "sparse";
 
 // Byte stream split metadata keys
 /// Metadata key for byte stream split encoding configuration
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/data.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/data.rs
index 8828673326f..84ea0300f17 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/data.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/data.rs
@@ -20,16 +20,15 @@ use std::{
 };
 
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, OffsetSizeTrait, UInt64Array,
     cast::AsArray,
     new_empty_array, new_null_array,
-    types::{ArrowDictionaryKeyType, UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type},
-    Array, ArrayRef, OffsetSizeTrait, UInt64Array,
+    types::{ArrowDictionaryKeyType, UInt8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type},
 };
 use arrow_buffer::{ArrowNativeType, BooleanBuffer, BooleanBufferBuilder, NullBuffer};
 use arrow_data::{ArrayData, ArrayDataBuilder};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
@@ -102,15 +101,11 @@ pub struct NullableDataBlock {
 }
 
 impl NullableDataBlock {
-    fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+    fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, _validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
         let nulls = self.nulls.into_buffer();
-        let data = self.data.into_arrow(data_type, validate)?.into_builder();
+        let data = self.data.into_arrow_impl(data_type, true)?.into_builder();
         let data = data.null_bit_buffer(Some(nulls));
-        if validate {
-            Ok(data.build()?)
-        } else {
-            Ok(unsafe { data.build_unchecked() })
-        }
+        Ok(data.build()?)
     }
 
     fn into_buffers(self) -> Vec<LanceBuffer> {
@@ -174,23 +169,33 @@ impl FixedWidthDataBlock {
         self,
         data_type: DataType,
         num_values: u64,
-        validate: bool,
+        _validate: bool,
     ) -> Result<ArrayData> {
-        let data_buffer = self.data.into_buffer();
+        // Booleans expanded for full-zip (bits_per_value==8, one byte each) need re-packing to
+        // Arrow's bit-packed format.
+        let data_buffer = if matches!(data_type, DataType::Boolean) && self.bits_per_value == 8 {
+            let mut builder = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(num_values as usize);
+            for &byte in self.data.as_ref().iter().take(num_values as usize) {
+                builder.append(byte != 0);
+            }
+            builder.finish().into_inner()
+        } else {
+            self.data.into_buffer()
+        };
         let builder = ArrayDataBuilder::new(data_type)
             .add_buffer(data_buffer)
             .len(num_values as usize)
             .null_count(0);
-        if validate {
-            Ok(builder.build()?)
-        } else {
-            Ok(unsafe { builder.build_unchecked() })
-        }
+        Ok(builder.build()?)
     }
 
-    pub fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+    /// Convert this block into Arrow data with full layout validation.
+    ///
+    /// The `validate` argument is retained for API compatibility. Conversion is
+    /// always validated because callers can construct this public type directly.
+    pub fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, _validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
         let root_num_values = self.num_values;
-        self.do_into_arrow(data_type, root_num_values, validate)
+        self.do_into_arrow(data_type, root_num_values, true)
     }
 
     pub fn into_buffers(self) -> Vec<LanceBuffer> {
@@ -212,7 +217,7 @@ impl FixedWidthDataBlock {
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct VariableWidthDataBlockBuilder<T: OffsetSizeTrait> {
+struct VariableWidthDataBlockBuilder<T: OffsetSizeTrait> {
     offsets: Vec<T>,
     bytes: Vec<u8>,
 }
@@ -227,28 +232,54 @@ impl<T: OffsetSizeTrait> VariableWidthDataBlockBuilder<T> {
 }
 
 impl<T: OffsetSizeTrait + bytemuck::Pod> DataBlockBuilderImpl for VariableWidthDataBlockBuilder<T> {
-    fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) {
+    fn validate_append(&self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: &Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
         let block = data_block.as_variable_width_ref().unwrap();
-        assert!(block.bits_per_offset == T::get_byte_width() as u8 * 8);
+        block.validate_offsets_for_append::<T>(selection)
+    }
+
+    fn append_validated(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        let block = data_block.as_variable_width_ref().unwrap();
+        debug_assert_eq!(block.bits_per_offset, T::get_byte_width() as u8 * 8);
         let offsets = block.offsets.borrow_to_typed_view::<T>();
 
         let start_offset = offsets[selection.start as usize];
         let end_offset = offsets[selection.end as usize];
-        let mut previous_len = self.bytes.len();
+        let selected_data_len = end_offset.as_usize() - start_offset.as_usize();
+        let new_data_len = self
+            .bytes
+            .len()
+            .checked_add(selected_data_len)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "appending variable-width data would overflow usize".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        if T::from_usize(new_data_len).is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                format!(
+                    "appending variable-width data would require {} bytes, which exceeds the \
+                     capacity of {}-bit offsets",
+                    new_data_len,
+                    T::get_byte_width() * 8
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let previous_len = self.bytes.len();
 
         self.bytes
             .extend_from_slice(&block.data[start_offset.as_usize()..end_offset.as_usize()]);
 
         self.offsets.extend(
-            offsets[selection.start as usize..selection.end as usize]
+            offsets[selection.start as usize + 1..=selection.end as usize]
                 .iter()
-                .zip(&offsets[selection.start as usize + 1..=selection.end as usize])
-                .map(|(&current, &next)| {
-                    let this_value_len = next - current;
-                    previous_len += this_value_len.as_usize();
-                    T::from_usize(previous_len).unwrap()
+                .map(|&offset| {
+                    let rebased_offset =
+                        previous_len + (offset.as_usize() - start_offset.as_usize());
+                    T::from_usize(rebased_offset).unwrap()
                 }),
         );
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     fn finish(self: Box<Self>) -> DataBlock {
@@ -277,12 +308,17 @@ impl BitmapDataBlockBuilder {
 }
 
 impl DataBlockBuilderImpl for BitmapDataBlockBuilder {
-    fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) {
+    fn validate_append(&self, _data_block: &DataBlock, _selection: &Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn append_validated(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
         let bitmap_blk = data_block.as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
         self.values.append_packed_range(
             selection.start as usize..selection.end as usize,
             &bitmap_blk.data,
         );
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     fn finish(mut self: Box<Self>) -> DataBlock {
@@ -317,12 +353,17 @@ impl FixedWidthDataBlockBuilder {
 }
 
 impl DataBlockBuilderImpl for FixedWidthDataBlockBuilder {
-    fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) {
+    fn validate_append(&self, _data_block: &DataBlock, _selection: &Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn append_validated(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
         let block = data_block.as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(self.bits_per_value, block.bits_per_value);
         let start = selection.start as usize * self.bytes_per_value as usize;
         let end = selection.end as usize * self.bytes_per_value as usize;
         self.values.extend_from_slice(&block.data[start..end]);
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     fn finish(self: Box<Self>) -> DataBlock {
@@ -348,11 +389,20 @@ impl StructDataBlockBuilder {
 }
 
 impl DataBlockBuilderImpl for StructDataBlockBuilder {
-    fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) {
+    fn validate_append(&self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: &Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
         let data_block = data_block.as_struct_ref().unwrap();
         for i in 0..self.children.len() {
-            self.children[i].append(&data_block.children[i], selection.clone());
+            self.children[i].validate_append(&data_block.children[i], selection)?;
         }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn append_validated(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        let data_block = data_block.as_struct_ref().unwrap();
+        for i in 0..self.children.len() {
+            self.children[i].append_validated(&data_block.children[i], selection.clone())?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     fn finish(self: Box<Self>) -> DataBlock {
@@ -375,8 +425,13 @@ struct AllNullDataBlockBuilder {
 }
 
 impl DataBlockBuilderImpl for AllNullDataBlockBuilder {
-    fn append(&mut self, _data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) {
+    fn validate_append(&self, _data_block: &DataBlock, _selection: &Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn append_validated(&mut self, _data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
         self.num_values += selection.end - selection.start;
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     fn finish(self: Box<Self>) -> DataBlock {
@@ -451,13 +506,13 @@ impl FixedSizeListBlock {
         }
     }
 
-    fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+    fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, _validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
         let num_values = self.num_values();
         let builder = match &data_type {
             DataType::FixedSizeList(child_field, _) => {
                 let child_data = self
                     .child
-                    .into_arrow(child_field.data_type().clone(), validate)?;
+                    .into_arrow_impl(child_field.data_type().clone(), true)?;
                 ArrayDataBuilder::new(data_type)
                     .add_child_data(child_data)
                     .len(num_values as usize)
@@ -465,11 +520,7 @@ impl FixedSizeListBlock {
             }
             _ => panic!("Expected FixedSizeList data type and got {:?}", data_type),
         };
-        if validate {
-            Ok(builder.build()?)
-        } else {
-            Ok(unsafe { builder.build_unchecked() })
-        }
+        Ok(builder.build()?)
     }
 
     fn into_buffers(self) -> Vec<LanceBuffer> {
@@ -494,10 +545,16 @@ impl FixedSizeListBlockBuilder {
 }
 
 impl DataBlockBuilderImpl for FixedSizeListBlockBuilder {
-    fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) {
+    fn validate_append(&self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: &Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        let selection = selection.start * self.dimension..selection.end * self.dimension;
+        let fsl = data_block.as_fixed_size_list_ref().unwrap();
+        self.inner.validate_append(fsl.child.as_ref(), &selection)
+    }
+
+    fn append_validated(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
         let selection = selection.start * self.dimension..selection.end * self.dimension;
         let fsl = data_block.as_fixed_size_list_ref().unwrap();
-        self.inner.append(fsl.child.as_ref(), selection);
+        self.inner.append_validated(fsl.child.as_ref(), selection)
     }
 
     fn finish(self: Box<Self>) -> DataBlock {
@@ -525,15 +582,23 @@ impl NullableDataBlockBuilder {
 }
 
 impl DataBlockBuilderImpl for NullableDataBlockBuilder {
-    fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) {
+    fn validate_append(&self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: &Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
         let nullable = data_block.as_nullable_ref().unwrap();
+        self.inner
+            .validate_append(nullable.data.as_ref(), selection)
+    }
+
+    fn append_validated(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        let nullable = data_block.as_nullable_ref().unwrap();
+        self.inner
+            .append_validated(nullable.data.as_ref(), selection.clone())?;
         let bool_buf = BooleanBuffer::new(
             nullable.nulls.clone().into_buffer(),
             selection.start as usize,
             (selection.end - selection.start) as usize,
         );
         self.validity.append_buffer(&bool_buf);
-        self.inner.append(nullable.data.as_ref(), selection);
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     fn finish(mut self: Box<Self>) -> DataBlock {
@@ -579,20 +644,315 @@ pub struct VariableWidthBlock {
     pub block_info: BlockInfo,
 }
 
+/// Proof that a [`VariableWidthBlock`] satisfies the Arrow layout contract for
+/// its target data type (offsets buffer long enough, offsets monotonic and
+/// within the data buffer, values valid UTF-8 where required).
+///
+/// Only [`VariableWidthBlock::validate_layout`] can construct it, which ties the
+/// unchecked Arrow build below to an actual validation pass instead of a
+/// caller-controlled flag.
+struct ValidVariableWidthLayout;
+
 impl VariableWidthBlock {
-    fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+    fn append_error(&self, selection: &Range<u64>, detail: impl std::fmt::Display) -> Error {
+        Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            "variable width data block",
+            format!(
+                "cannot append offsets for selection {}..{}: {} (num_values: {}, \
+                 bits_per_offset: {}, offsets buffer size: {} bytes, data buffer size: {} bytes)",
+                selection.start,
+                selection.end,
+                detail,
+                self.num_values,
+                self.bits_per_offset,
+                self.offsets.len(),
+                self.data.len(),
+            ),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn validate_offsets_for_append<T>(&self, selection: &Range<u64>) -> Result<()>
+    where
+        T: OffsetSizeTrait + bytemuck::Pod,
+    {
+        let expected_bits_per_offset = T::get_byte_width() as u8 * 8;
+        if self.bits_per_offset != expected_bits_per_offset {
+            return Err(self.append_error(
+                selection,
+                format!(
+                    "expected {}-bit offsets but found {}-bit offsets",
+                    expected_bits_per_offset, self.bits_per_offset
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let offset_size = std::mem::size_of::<T>();
+        if !self.offsets.len().is_multiple_of(offset_size) {
+            return Err(self.append_error(
+                selection,
+                format!(
+                    "offsets buffer length {} is not a multiple of the {}-byte offset width",
+                    self.offsets.len(),
+                    offset_size
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if selection.start > selection.end || selection.end > self.num_values {
+            return Err(
+                self.append_error(selection, "selection is outside the block's value range")
+            );
+        }
+        let selection_start = usize::try_from(selection.start)
+            .map_err(|_| self.append_error(selection, "selection start does not fit in usize"))?;
+        let selection_end = usize::try_from(selection.end)
+            .map_err(|_| self.append_error(selection, "selection end does not fit in usize"))?;
+        let offsets = self.offsets.borrow_to_typed_view::<T>();
+        if selection_end >= offsets.len() {
+            return Err(self.append_error(
+                selection,
+                format!(
+                    "selection requires offset {} but the buffer holds {} offsets",
+                    selection_end,
+                    offsets.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let selected_offsets = &offsets[selection_start..=selection_end];
+        if let Some(detail) =
+            Self::offset_violation_detail(selected_offsets, self.data.len(), selection_start)
+        {
+            return Err(self.append_error(selection, detail));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    // The offsets buffer comes straight from file bytes, so an unchecked build would
+    // let a corrupt file smuggle out-of-bounds offsets into an Arrow array whose
+    // consumers then read (or crash on) memory outside the data buffer.  This
+    // boundary therefore always validates the layout, ignoring the optional
+    // `validate` flag.  Lance validates the common layouts itself (a branchless
+    // scan, measurably cheaper than Arrow's element-wise checked build) and only
+    // falls back to Arrow's checked build for the cold cases.
+    fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, _validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+        let Some(expected_bits_per_offset) = Self::expected_bits_per_offset(&data_type) else {
+            // Not an [offsets, bytes] layout we know how to prove; let Arrow
+            // check it.
+            return self.into_arrow_checked(data_type);
+        };
+        if self.bits_per_offset != expected_bits_per_offset {
+            return Err(self.layout_error(
+                &data_type,
+                format!(
+                    "expected {}-bit offsets but got {}-bit offsets",
+                    expected_bits_per_offset, self.bits_per_offset
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if self.num_values == 0 {
+            // Cold path; Arrow handles the empty-offsets special cases.
+            return self.into_arrow_checked(data_type);
+        }
+        let proof = self.validate_layout(&data_type)?;
+        Ok(self.into_arrow_unchecked(data_type, proof))
+    }
+
+    /// The offset width Arrow mandates for `data_type`, or `None` if the type
+    /// does not use the `[offsets, bytes]` layout this block represents.
+    fn expected_bits_per_offset(data_type: &DataType) -> Option<u8> {
+        match data_type {
+            DataType::Binary | DataType::Utf8 => Some(32),
+            DataType::LargeBinary | DataType::LargeUtf8 => Some(64),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn layout_error(&self, data_type: &DataType, detail: impl std::fmt::Display) -> Error {
+        Self::format_layout_error(
+            data_type,
+            detail,
+            self.num_values,
+            self.bits_per_offset,
+            self.offsets.len(),
+            self.data.len(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn format_layout_error(
+        data_type: &DataType,
+        detail: impl std::fmt::Display,
+        num_values: u64,
+        bits_per_offset: u8,
+        offsets_size: usize,
+        data_size: usize,
+    ) -> Error {
+        Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            "variable width data block",
+            format!(
+                "invalid variable-width layout for {}: {} (num_values: {}, bits_per_offset: {}, \
+                 offsets buffer size: {} bytes, data buffer size: {} bytes)",
+                data_type, detail, num_values, bits_per_offset, offsets_size, data_size,
+            ),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn validate_layout(&self, data_type: &DataType) -> Result<ValidVariableWidthLayout> {
+        let bytes_per_offset = (self.bits_per_offset / 8) as u64;
+        let required_bytes = self
+            .num_values
+            .checked_add(1)
+            .and_then(|num_offsets| num_offsets.checked_mul(bytes_per_offset))
+            .ok_or_else(|| self.layout_error(data_type, "offsets buffer size overflows"))?;
+        if (self.offsets.len() as u64) < required_bytes {
+            return Err(self.layout_error(
+                data_type,
+                format!(
+                    "offsets buffer must hold at least {} offsets ({} bytes)",
+                    self.num_values + 1,
+                    required_bytes
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let validate_utf8 = matches!(data_type, DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8);
+        match self.bits_per_offset {
+            32 => self.validate_offsets_and_values::<i32>(data_type, validate_utf8),
+            64 => self.validate_offsets_and_values::<i64>(data_type, validate_utf8),
+            other => Err(self.layout_error(
+                data_type,
+                format!("unsupported offset width: {} bits", other),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validate_offsets_and_values<T: ArrowNativeType + Ord>(
+        &self,
+        data_type: &DataType,
+        validate_utf8: bool,
+    ) -> Result<ValidVariableWidthLayout> {
+        let num_offsets = self.num_values as usize + 1;
+        // Slice before borrowing: the buffer may carry padding that is not a
+        // multiple of the offset width.
+        let offsets = self
+            .offsets
+            .slice_with_length(0, num_offsets * std::mem::size_of::<T>());
+        let offsets = offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<T>();
+        let offsets: &[T] = offsets.as_ref();
+        let data = self.data.as_ref();
+
+        if let Some(detail) = Self::offset_violation_detail(offsets, data.len(), 0) {
+            return Err(self.layout_error(data_type, detail));
+        }
+
+        if validate_utf8 {
+            let (first, last) = (offsets[0].as_usize(), offsets[num_offsets - 1].as_usize());
+            let values = std::str::from_utf8(&data[first..last])
+                .map_err(|utf8_err| self.layout_error(data_type, utf8_err))?;
+            let mut on_char_boundaries = true;
+            for &offset in offsets {
+                on_char_boundaries &= values.is_char_boundary(offset.as_usize() - first);
+            }
+            if !on_char_boundaries {
+                // Cold path: rescan to pinpoint the offending offset.
+                let position = offsets
+                    .iter()
+                    .position(|offset| !values.is_char_boundary(offset.as_usize() - first))
+                    .expect("the fast scan found a non-boundary offset");
+                return Err(self.layout_error(
+                    data_type,
+                    format!("offset at position {position} splits a UTF-8 character"),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(ValidVariableWidthLayout)
+    }
+
+    fn offset_violation_detail<T: ArrowNativeType + Ord>(
+        offsets: &[T],
+        data_size: usize,
+        position_base: usize,
+    ) -> Option<String> {
+        // A monotonic sequence with a non-negative first offset and an
+        // in-bounds last offset is entirely within [0, data_size].  Keep this
+        // valid path branchless so it vectorizes, and only rescan on failure.
+        let mut is_monotonic = true;
+        for window in offsets.windows(2) {
+            is_monotonic &= window[0] <= window[1];
+        }
+        let first = offsets[0];
+        let last = offsets[offsets.len() - 1];
+        let bounds_ok =
+            first >= T::usize_as(0) && last.to_usize().is_some_and(|last| last <= data_size);
+        if is_monotonic && bounds_ok {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        for (relative_position, window) in offsets.windows(2).enumerate() {
+            if window[0] > window[1] {
+                let position = position_base + relative_position + 1;
+                return Some(format!(
+                    "non-monotonic offset at position {}: {:?} decreases from {:?}",
+                    position, window[1], window[0]
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        for (relative_position, offset) in offsets.iter().enumerate() {
+            let position = position_base + relative_position;
+            match offset.to_usize() {
+                None => {
+                    return Some(format!(
+                        "offset at position {} is negative: {:?}",
+                        position, offset
+                    ));
+                }
+                Some(offset) if offset > data_size => {
+                    return Some(format!(
+                        "offset at position {} is out of bounds: {} > {}",
+                        position, offset, data_size
+                    ));
+                }
+                Some(_) => {}
+            }
+        }
+        Some("offsets failed validation".to_string())
+    }
+
+    fn into_arrow_checked(self, data_type: DataType) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+        let num_values = self.num_values;
+        let bits_per_offset = self.bits_per_offset;
+        let offsets_size = self.offsets.len();
+        let data_size = self.data.len();
+        let builder = self.into_arrow_builder(data_type.clone());
+        builder.build().map_err(|arrow_err| {
+            Self::format_layout_error(
+                &data_type,
+                arrow_err,
+                num_values,
+                bits_per_offset,
+                offsets_size,
+                data_size,
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn into_arrow_unchecked(
+        self,
+        data_type: DataType,
+        _proof: ValidVariableWidthLayout,
+    ) -> ArrayData {
+        let builder = self.into_arrow_builder(data_type);
+        // SAFETY: `_proof` witnesses that `validate_layout` proved this block
+        // satisfies the Arrow layout contract for `data_type`.
+        unsafe { builder.build_unchecked() }
+    }
+
+    fn into_arrow_builder(self, data_type: DataType) -> ArrayDataBuilder {
+        let num_values = self.num_values;
         let data_buffer = self.data.into_buffer();
         let offsets_buffer = self.offsets.into_buffer();
-        let builder = ArrayDataBuilder::new(data_type)
+        ArrayDataBuilder::new(data_type)
             .add_buffer(offsets_buffer)
             .add_buffer(data_buffer)
-            .len(self.num_values as usize)
-            .null_count(0);
-        if validate {
-            Ok(builder.build()?)
-        } else {
-            Ok(unsafe { builder.build_unchecked() })
-        }
+            .len(num_values as usize)
+            .null_count(0)
     }
 
     fn into_buffers(self) -> Vec<LanceBuffer> {
@@ -625,12 +985,12 @@ pub struct StructDataBlock {
 }
 
 impl StructDataBlock {
-    fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+    fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, _validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
         if let DataType::Struct(fields) = &data_type {
             let mut builder = ArrayDataBuilder::new(DataType::Struct(fields.clone()));
             let mut num_rows = 0;
             for (field, child) in fields.iter().zip(self.children) {
-                let child_data = child.into_arrow(field.data_type().clone(), validate)?;
+                let child_data = child.into_arrow_impl(field.data_type().clone(), true)?;
                 num_rows = child_data.len();
                 builder = builder.add_child_data(child_data);
             }
@@ -646,16 +1006,12 @@ impl StructDataBlock {
             };
 
             let builder = builder.len(num_rows);
-            if validate {
-                Ok(builder.build()?)
-            } else {
-                Ok(unsafe { builder.build_unchecked() })
-            }
+            Ok(builder.build()?)
         } else {
-            Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Expected Struct, got {:?}", data_type),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Expected Struct, got {:?}",
+                data_type
+            )))
         }
     }
 
@@ -718,12 +1074,11 @@ impl DictionaryDataBlock {
         let indices = self.indices.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<K::Native>();
         let indices = indices.as_ref();
 
-        indices
-            .iter()
-            .map(|idx| idx.to_usize().unwrap() as u64)
-            .for_each(|idx| {
-                data_builder.append(&self.dictionary, idx..idx + 1);
-            });
+        let selections = indices.iter().map(|idx| {
+            let idx = idx.to_usize().unwrap() as u64;
+            idx..idx + 1
+        });
+        data_builder.append_ranges(&self.dictionary, selections)?;
 
         Ok(data_builder.finish())
     }
@@ -734,13 +1089,10 @@ impl DictionaryDataBlock {
             16 => self.decode_helper::<UInt16Type>(),
             32 => self.decode_helper::<UInt32Type>(),
             64 => self.decode_helper::<UInt64Type>(),
-            _ => Err(lance_core::Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Unsupported dictionary index bit width: {} bits",
-                    self.indices.bits_per_value
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "Unsupported dictionary index bit width: {} bits",
+                self.indices.bits_per_value
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -748,30 +1100,39 @@ impl DictionaryDataBlock {
         self,
         key_type: Box<DataType>,
         value_type: Box<DataType>,
-        validate: bool,
+        _validate: bool,
     ) -> Result<ArrayData> {
-        let indices = self.indices.into_arrow((*key_type).clone(), validate)?;
+        let declared_key_bits = key_type.byte_width() as u64 * 8;
+        if self.indices.bits_per_value != declared_key_bits {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "dictionary",
+                format!(
+                    "dictionary indices use {} bits but the declared {} key type uses {} bits",
+                    self.indices.bits_per_value, key_type, declared_key_bits
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let indices_num_values = self.indices.num_values;
+        let indices = self
+            .indices
+            .do_into_arrow((*key_type).clone(), indices_num_values, true)?;
         let dictionary = self
             .dictionary
-            .into_arrow((*value_type).clone(), validate)?;
+            .into_arrow_impl((*value_type).clone(), true)?;
 
         let builder = indices
             .into_builder()
             .add_child_data(dictionary)
             .data_type(DataType::Dictionary(key_type, value_type));
 
-        if validate {
-            Ok(builder.build()?)
-        } else {
-            Ok(unsafe { builder.build_unchecked() })
-        }
+        Ok(builder.build()?)
     }
 
     fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
         if let DataType::Dictionary(key_type, value_type) = data_type {
             self.into_arrow_dict(key_type, value_type, validate)
         } else {
-            self.decode()?.into_arrow(data_type, validate)
+            self.decode()?.into_arrow_impl(data_type, validate)
         }
     }
 
@@ -822,8 +1183,15 @@ pub enum DataBlock {
 }
 
 impl DataBlock {
-    /// Convert self into an Arrow ArrayData
-    pub fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+    /// Convert self into an Arrow ArrayData with full layout validation.
+    ///
+    /// The `validate` argument is retained for API compatibility. Conversion is
+    /// always validated because callers can construct data blocks directly.
+    pub fn into_arrow(self, data_type: DataType, _validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+        self.into_arrow_impl(data_type, true)
+    }
+
+    fn into_arrow_impl(self, data_type: DataType, validate: bool) -> Result<ArrayData> {
         match self {
             Self::Empty() => Ok(new_empty_array(&data_type).to_data()),
             Self::Constant(inner) => inner.into_arrow(data_type, validate),
@@ -834,10 +1202,9 @@ impl DataBlock {
             Self::VariableWidth(inner) => inner.into_arrow(data_type, validate),
             Self::Struct(inner) => inner.into_arrow(data_type, validate),
             Self::Dictionary(inner) => inner.into_arrow(data_type, validate),
-            Self::Opaque(_) => Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "Cannot convert OpaqueBlock to Arrow".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            Self::Opaque(_) => Err(Error::internal(
+                "Cannot convert OpaqueBlock to Arrow".to_string(),
+            )),
         }
     }
 
@@ -975,12 +1342,8 @@ impl DataBlock {
             Self::FixedWidth(inner) => inner.data_size(),
             Self::FixedSizeList(inner) => inner.data_size(),
             Self::VariableWidth(inner) => inner.data_size(),
-            Self::Struct(_) => {
-                todo!("the data_size method for StructDataBlock is not implemented yet")
-            }
-            Self::Dictionary(_) => {
-                todo!("the data_size method for DictionaryDataBlock is not implemented yet")
-            }
+            Self::Struct(inner) => inner.children.iter().map(|child| child.data_size()).sum(),
+            Self::Dictionary(inner) => inner.indices.data_size() + inner.dictionary.data_size(),
             Self::Opaque(inner) => inner.data_size(),
         }
     }
@@ -1001,7 +1364,7 @@ impl DataBlock {
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn make_builder(&self, estimated_size_bytes: u64) -> Box<dyn DataBlockBuilderImpl> {
+    fn make_builder(&self, estimated_size_bytes: u64) -> Box<dyn DataBlockBuilderImpl> {
         match self {
             Self::FixedWidth(inner) => {
                 if inner.bits_per_value == 1 {
@@ -1190,13 +1553,22 @@ fn arrow_binary_to_data_block(
     bits_per_offset: u8,
 ) -> DataBlock {
     let data_vec = arrays.iter().map(|arr| arr.to_data()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    arrow_binary_array_data_to_data_block(&data_vec, num_values, bits_per_offset)
+}
+
+fn arrow_binary_array_data_to_data_block(
+    data_vec: &[ArrayData],
+    num_values: u64,
+    bits_per_offset: u8,
+) -> DataBlock {
     let bytes_per_offset = bits_per_offset as usize / 8;
     let offsets = data_vec
         .iter()
         .map(|d| {
-            LanceBuffer::from(
-                d.buffers()[0].slice_with_length(d.offset(), (d.len() + 1) * bytes_per_offset),
-            )
+            LanceBuffer::from(d.buffers()[0].slice_with_length(
+                d.offset() * bytes_per_offset,
+                (d.len() + 1) * bytes_per_offset,
+            ))
         })
         .collect::<Vec<_>>();
     let (offsets, data_ranges) = if bits_per_offset == 32 {
@@ -1334,8 +1706,6 @@ fn arrow_dictionary_to_data_block(arrays: &[ArrayRef], validity: Option<NullBuff
     let mut indices = array_dict.keys();
     let num_values = indices.len() as u64;
     let mut values = array_dict.values().clone();
-    // Placeholder, if we need to upcast, we will initialize this and set `indices` to refer to it
-    let mut upcast = None;
 
     // TODO: Should we just always normalize indices to u32?  That would make logic simpler
     // and we're going to bitpack them soon anyways
@@ -1351,18 +1721,22 @@ fn arrow_dictionary_to_data_block(arrays: &[ArrayRef], validity: Option<NullBuff
         let first_invalid_index = first_invalid_index.unwrap_or_else(|| {
             let null_arr = new_null_array(values.data_type(), 1);
             values = arrow_select::concat::concat(&[values.as_ref(), null_arr.as_ref()]).unwrap();
-            let null_index = values.len() - 1;
-            let max_index_val = max_index_val(indices.data_type());
-            if null_index as u64 > max_index_val {
-                // Widen the index type
-                if max_index_val >= u32::MAX as u64 {
-                    unimplemented!("Dictionary arrays with 2^32 unique value (or more) and a null")
-                }
-                upcast = Some(arrow_cast::cast(indices, &DataType::UInt32).unwrap());
-                indices = upcast.as_ref().unwrap();
-            }
-            null_index
+            values.len() - 1
         });
+        let max_index_val = max_index_val(indices.data_type());
+        let upcast = if first_invalid_index as u64 > max_index_val {
+            // Widen the index type when the null dictionary value cannot be addressed by the
+            // declared key type, whether the value already existed or was appended above.
+            if max_index_val >= u32::MAX as u64 {
+                unimplemented!("Dictionary arrays with 2^32 unique value (or more) and a null")
+            }
+            Some(arrow_cast::cast(indices, &DataType::UInt32).unwrap())
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        if let Some(upcast) = upcast.as_ref() {
+            indices = upcast;
+        }
         // This can't fail since we already checked for fit
         let null_index_arr = arrow_cast::cast(
             &UInt64Array::from(vec![first_invalid_index as u64]),
@@ -1449,6 +1823,71 @@ fn extract_nulls(arrays: &[ArrayRef], num_values: u64) -> Nullability {
 }
 
 impl DataBlock {
+    fn validate_variable_width_offsets<T: ArrowNativeType + Ord>(
+        array_data: &ArrayData,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<(), String> {
+        if array_data.is_empty() && array_data.buffers()[0].is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let offset_size = std::mem::size_of::<T>();
+        let offset_start = array_data.offset() * offset_size;
+        let offset_len = (array_data.len() + 1) * offset_size;
+        let offset_buffer =
+            LanceBuffer::from(array_data.buffers()[0].slice_with_length(offset_start, offset_len));
+        let offsets = offset_buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<T>();
+        VariableWidthBlock::offset_violation_detail(
+            offsets.as_ref(),
+            array_data.buffers()[1].len(),
+            0,
+        )
+        .map_or(Ok(()), Err)
+    }
+
+    // `validate_full` also rescans UTF-8 contents and character boundaries on every flush.
+    // Encoding only needs a complete monotonicity and bounds proof before slicing offsets.
+    fn validate_variable_width_layouts(array_data: &ArrayData) -> std::result::Result<(), String> {
+        match array_data.data_type() {
+            DataType::Binary | DataType::Utf8 => {
+                Self::validate_variable_width_offsets::<i32>(array_data)?;
+            }
+            DataType::LargeBinary | DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
+                Self::validate_variable_width_offsets::<i64>(array_data)?;
+            }
+            _ => {}
+        }
+        for child_data in array_data.child_data() {
+            Self::validate_variable_width_layouts(child_data)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn validate_array_data(
+        array_data: &ArrayData,
+        field_name: &str,
+        array_index: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let validation = array_data
+            .validate()
+            .map_err(|error| error.to_string())
+            .and_then(|_| Self::validate_variable_width_layouts(array_data));
+        validation.map_err(|error| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Invalid Arrow array for field '{}' at buffered array {}: {}",
+                    field_name, array_index, error
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn validate_arrays(arrays: &[ArrayRef], field_name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        for (array_index, array) in arrays.iter().enumerate() {
+            Self::validate_array_data(&array.to_data(), field_name, array_index)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     pub fn from_arrays(arrays: &[ArrayRef], num_values: u64) -> Self {
         if arrays.is_empty() || num_values == 0 {
             return Self::AllNull(AllNullDataBlock { num_values: 0 });
@@ -1463,8 +1902,26 @@ impl DataBlock {
 
         let mut encoded = match data_type {
             DataType::Binary | DataType::Utf8 => arrow_binary_to_data_block(arrays, num_values, 32),
-            DataType::BinaryView | DataType::Utf8View => {
-                todo!()
+            // View types have no Lance disk representation; cast to the classic offset layout.
+            DataType::Utf8View => {
+                let casted: Vec<ArrayRef> = arrays
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|a| {
+                        arrow_cast::cast(a.as_ref(), &DataType::Utf8)
+                            .expect("Utf8View to Utf8 cast is always valid")
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                arrow_binary_to_data_block(&casted, num_values, 32)
+            }
+            DataType::BinaryView => {
+                let casted: Vec<ArrayRef> = arrays
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|a| {
+                        arrow_cast::cast(a.as_ref(), &DataType::Binary)
+                            .expect("BinaryView to Binary cast is always valid")
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                arrow_binary_to_data_block(&casted, num_values, 32)
             }
             DataType::LargeBinary | DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
                 arrow_binary_to_data_block(arrays, num_values, 64)
@@ -1592,8 +2049,16 @@ impl From<ArrayRef> for DataBlock {
     }
 }
 
-pub trait DataBlockBuilderImpl: std::fmt::Debug {
-    fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>);
+trait DataBlockBuilderImpl: std::fmt::Debug {
+    fn validate_append(&self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: &Range<u64>) -> Result<()>;
+
+    fn append_validated(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()>;
+
+    fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.validate_append(data_block, &selection)?;
+        self.append_validated(data_block, selection)
+    }
+
     fn finish(self: Box<Self>) -> DataBlock;
 }
 
@@ -1618,8 +2083,31 @@ impl DataBlockBuilder {
         self.builder.as_mut().unwrap().as_mut()
     }
 
-    pub fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) {
-        self.get_builder(data_block).append(data_block, selection);
+    pub fn append(&mut self, data_block: &DataBlock, selection: Range<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.get_builder(data_block).append(data_block, selection)
+    }
+
+    fn append_ranges(
+        &mut self,
+        data_block: &DataBlock,
+        selections: impl IntoIterator<Item = Range<u64>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let full_selection = 0..data_block.num_values();
+        let builder = self.get_builder(data_block);
+        builder.validate_append(data_block, &full_selection)?;
+        for selection in selections {
+            if selection.start > selection.end || selection.end > full_selection.end {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "data block",
+                    format!(
+                        "cannot append selection {}..{} from a block with {} values",
+                        selection.start, selection.end, full_selection.end
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+            builder.append_validated(data_block, selection)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     pub fn finish(self) -> DataBlock {
@@ -1633,20 +2121,26 @@ mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     use arrow_array::{
-        make_array, new_null_array,
-        types::{Int32Type, Int8Type},
-        ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, Int8Array, LargeBinaryArray, StringArray, UInt16Array,
-        UInt8Array,
+        ArrayRef, BinaryArray, BinaryViewArray, DictionaryArray, Int8Array, LargeBinaryArray,
+        LargeStringArray, StringArray, StringViewArray, UInt8Array, UInt16Array, make_array,
+        new_null_array,
+        types::{Int8Type, Int32Type},
     };
-    use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer};
+    use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, Buffer, NullBuffer};
+    use arrow_data::ArrayData;
 
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, ArrayGeneratorExt, RowCount, DEFAULT_SEED};
+    use lance_core::Error;
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, DEFAULT_SEED, RowCount, array};
     use rand::SeedableRng;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
 
-    use super::{AllNullDataBlock, DataBlock};
+    use super::{
+        AllNullDataBlock, BlockInfo, DataBlock, DataBlockBuilder, DictionaryDataBlock,
+        FixedWidthDataBlock, VariableWidthBlock,
+    };
 
     use arrow_array::Array;
 
@@ -1714,6 +2208,58 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(data.data, LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"abcdef"));
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_string_view_to_data_block() {
+        let views1 = StringViewArray::from(vec![Some("hello"), None, Some("world")]);
+        let views2 = StringViewArray::from(vec![Some("a"), Some("b")]);
+        let views3 = StringViewArray::from(vec![Option::<&'static str>::None, None]);
+
+        let arrays = &[views1, views2, views3]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|arr| Arc::new(arr.clone()) as ArrayRef)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let block = DataBlock::from_arrays(arrays, 7);
+
+        assert_eq!(block.num_values(), 7);
+        let block = block.as_nullable().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(block.nulls, LanceBuffer::from(vec![0b00011101]));
+        let data = block.data.as_variable_width().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            data.offsets,
+            LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0, 5, 5, 10, 11, 12, 12, 12])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(data.data, LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"helloworldab"));
+
+        let views1 = StringViewArray::from(vec![Some("a"), Some("bc")]);
+        let views2 = StringViewArray::from(vec![Some("def")]);
+
+        let arrays = &[views1, views2]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|arr| Arc::new(arr.clone()) as ArrayRef)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let block = DataBlock::from_arrays(arrays, 3);
+
+        assert_eq!(block.num_values(), 3);
+        let data = block.as_variable_width().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(data.offsets, LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0, 1, 3, 6]));
+        assert_eq!(data.data, LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"abcdef"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_binary_view_to_data_block() {
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BinaryViewArray::from(vec![
+            Some(b"foo".as_slice()),
+            None,
+            Some(b"bar".as_slice()),
+        ]));
+        let block = DataBlock::from_arrays(&[arr], 3);
+        let block = block.as_nullable().unwrap();
+        let data = block.data.as_variable_width().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(data.data, LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"foobar"));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_string_sliced() {
         let check = |arr: Vec<StringArray>, expected_off: Vec<i32>, expected_data: &[u8]| {
@@ -1748,6 +2294,70 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::utf8(
+        DataType::Utf8,
+        Buffer::from_slice_ref([0_i32, 5, 10]),
+        32,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 5])
+    )]
+    #[case::large_utf8(
+        DataType::LargeUtf8,
+        Buffer::from_slice_ref([0_i64, 5, 10]),
+        64,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i64, 5])
+    )]
+    fn test_variable_width_array_data_offset(
+        #[case] data_type: DataType,
+        #[case] offsets: Buffer,
+        #[case] bits_per_offset: u8,
+        #[case] expected_offsets: LanceBuffer,
+    ) {
+        let array_data = ArrayData::builder(data_type)
+            .len(1)
+            .offset(1)
+            .add_buffer(offsets)
+            .add_buffer(Buffer::from(b"helloworld"))
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        DataBlock::validate_array_data(&array_data, "text", 0).unwrap();
+        let data = super::arrow_binary_array_data_to_data_block(&[array_data], 1, bits_per_offset);
+
+        let data = data.as_variable_width().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(data.offsets, expected_offsets);
+        assert_eq!(data.data, LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"world"));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::utf8(DataType::Utf8, Buffer::from_slice_ref([0_i32, -1]))]
+    #[case::large_utf8(DataType::LargeUtf8, Buffer::from_slice_ref([0_i64, -1]))]
+    fn test_invalid_string_offsets_rejected_before_encoding(
+        #[case] data_type: DataType,
+        #[case] offsets: Buffer,
+    ) {
+        let array_data = unsafe {
+            ArrayData::builder(data_type)
+                .len(1)
+                .add_buffer(offsets)
+                .add_buffer(Buffer::from(b""))
+                .build_unchecked()
+        };
+
+        let error = DataBlock::validate_array_data(&array_data, "text", 0).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("field 'text'"),
+            "unexpected message: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("offset[1] (-1)"),
+            "unexpected message: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_large() {
         let arr = LargeBinaryArray::from_vec(vec![b"hello", b"world"]);
@@ -2009,4 +2619,280 @@ mod tests {
         let total_nulls_size_in_bytes = concatenated_array.nulls().unwrap().len().div_ceil(8);
         assert!(block.data_size() == (total_buffer_size + total_nulls_size_in_bytes) as u64);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn variable_width_rejects_out_of_bounds_offsets_without_optional_validation() {
+        let block = VariableWidthBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"alphabetagamma"),
+            offsets: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 5, 9, 100_000]),
+            bits_per_offset: 32,
+            num_values: 3,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        };
+
+        let error = block
+            .into_arrow(DataType::Binary, false)
+            .expect_err("out-of-bounds offsets must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got: {error}"
+        );
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("100000") && message.contains("data buffer size: 14 bytes"),
+            "error must report the offending offset and the data buffer size: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn public_fixed_width_conversion_always_validates_layout() {
+        let block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::from(vec![0_u8; 4]),
+            bits_per_value: 32,
+            num_values: 2,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        };
+
+        for validate in [false, true] {
+            block
+                .clone()
+                .into_arrow(DataType::Int32, validate)
+                .expect_err("a short values buffer must be rejected");
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(block.clone())
+                .into_arrow(DataType::Int32, validate)
+                .expect_err("a short values buffer must be rejected");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::i32_decreasing(
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 5, 2]),
+        32,
+        2,
+        "decreases"
+    )]
+    #[case::i64_decreasing(
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i64, 5, 2]),
+        64,
+        2,
+        "decreases"
+    )]
+    #[case::i32_out_of_bounds(
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 6]),
+        32,
+        1,
+        "out of bounds"
+    )]
+    fn variable_width_builder_rejects_malformed_offsets(
+        #[case] offsets: LanceBuffer,
+        #[case] bits_per_offset: u8,
+        #[case] num_values: u64,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let block = DataBlock::VariableWidth(VariableWidthBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"abcde"),
+            offsets,
+            bits_per_offset,
+            num_values,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        });
+        let mut builder = DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(5);
+
+        let error = builder
+            .append(&block, 0..num_values)
+            .expect_err("malformed offsets must fail concatenation");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(expected_message),
+            "unexpected message: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::binary_i32_tail_out_of_bounds(
+        DataType::Binary,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 5, 9, 100_000]),
+        32,
+        3,
+        b"alphabetagamma".as_slice()
+    )]
+    #[case::utf8_i32_tail_out_of_bounds(
+        DataType::Utf8,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 5, 9, 100_000]),
+        32,
+        3,
+        b"alphabetagamma".as_slice()
+    )]
+    #[case::large_binary_i64_tail_out_of_bounds(
+        DataType::LargeBinary,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i64, 5, 9, 100_000]),
+        64,
+        3,
+        b"alphabetagamma".as_slice()
+    )]
+    #[case::large_utf8_i64_tail_out_of_bounds(
+        DataType::LargeUtf8,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i64, 5, 9, 100_000]),
+        64,
+        3,
+        b"alphabetagamma".as_slice()
+    )]
+    #[case::binary_negative_offset(
+        DataType::Binary,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, -1, 9, 14]),
+        32,
+        3,
+        b"alphabetagamma".as_slice()
+    )]
+    #[case::binary_non_monotonic_offsets(
+        DataType::Binary,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 9, 5, 14]),
+        32,
+        3,
+        b"alphabetagamma".as_slice()
+    )]
+    #[case::binary_interior_offset_out_of_bounds(
+        DataType::Binary,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 100_000, 100_000, 14]),
+        32,
+        3,
+        b"alphabetagamma".as_slice()
+    )]
+    #[case::binary_offsets_buffer_too_short(
+        DataType::Binary,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 5, 9]),
+        32,
+        3,
+        b"alphabetagamma".as_slice()
+    )]
+    #[case::utf8_invalid_byte_sequence(
+        DataType::Utf8,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 1, 2, 3]),
+        32,
+        3,
+        &[b'a', 0xFF, b'b']
+    )]
+    #[case::utf8_offset_splits_multibyte_char(
+        DataType::Utf8,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 1, 2]),
+        32,
+        2,
+        "é".as_bytes()
+    )]
+    #[case::large_utf8_invalid_byte_sequence(
+        DataType::LargeUtf8,
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i64, 1, 2, 3]),
+        64,
+        3,
+        &[b'a', 0xFF, b'b']
+    )]
+    fn variable_width_rejects_malformed_layout(
+        #[case] data_type: DataType,
+        #[case] offsets: LanceBuffer,
+        #[case] bits_per_offset: u8,
+        #[case] num_values: u64,
+        #[case] data: &[u8],
+    ) {
+        let block = VariableWidthBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::copy_slice(data),
+            offsets,
+            bits_per_offset,
+            num_values,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        };
+
+        // The malformed layout must be rejected regardless of the optional
+        // `validate` flag: the flag selects extra validation, not the memory
+        // safety proof required to construct an Arrow array.
+        for validate in [false, true] {
+            let error = DataBlock::VariableWidth(block.clone())
+                .into_arrow(data_type.clone(), validate)
+                .expect_err("malformed variable-width layout must be rejected");
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+                "expected CorruptFile with validate={validate}, got: {error}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn dictionary_rejects_malformed_variable_width_values_without_optional_validation() {
+        let values = VariableWidthBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"alphabetagamma"),
+            offsets: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 5, 9, 100_000]),
+            bits_per_offset: 32,
+            num_values: 3,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        };
+        let dictionary = DataBlock::Dictionary(DictionaryDataBlock {
+            indices: FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 1, 2]),
+                bits_per_value: 32,
+                num_values: 3,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            },
+            dictionary: Box::new(DataBlock::VariableWidth(values)),
+        });
+
+        let data_type = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Binary));
+        let error = dictionary
+            .into_arrow(data_type, false)
+            .expect_err("dictionary with out-of-bounds value offsets must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn dictionary_rejects_indices_wider_than_declared_key_type() {
+        let dictionary = DataBlock::Dictionary(DictionaryDataBlock {
+            indices: FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_u32, 1, 128]),
+                bits_per_value: 32,
+                num_values: 3,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            },
+            dictionary: Box::new(DataBlock::from_array(StringArray::from(vec![
+                Some("zero"),
+                Some("one"),
+                None,
+            ]))),
+        });
+
+        let data_type = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int8), Box::new(DataType::Utf8));
+        let error = dictionary
+            .into_arrow(data_type, false)
+            .expect_err("mismatched dictionary index widths must be rejected");
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(
+                "dictionary indices use 32 bits but the declared Int8 key type uses 8 bits"
+            )
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::binary(Arc::new(BinaryArray::from_vec(vec![b"alpha", b"", b"gamma"])) as ArrayRef)]
+    #[case::large_binary(
+        Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_vec(vec![b"alpha", b"", b"gamma"])) as ArrayRef
+    )]
+    #[case::utf8(Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["héllo", "", "world"])) as ArrayRef)]
+    #[case::large_utf8(Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(vec!["héllo", "", "world"])) as ArrayRef)]
+    fn variable_width_valid_data_survives_mandatory_validation(#[case] array: ArrayRef) {
+        let block = DataBlock::from_array(array.clone());
+        for validate in [false, true] {
+            let round_tripped = make_array(
+                block
+                    .clone()
+                    .into_arrow(array.data_type().clone(), validate)
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(&round_tripped, &array);
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/decoder.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/decoder.rs
index 67996c41f3c..8a4aebbd038 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/decoder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/decoder.rs
@@ -213,29 +213,40 @@
 //!    relation to the way the data is stored.
 
 use std::collections::VecDeque;
-use std::sync::{LazyLock, Once};
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{LazyLock, Mutex, Once, OnceLock};
 use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader};
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::future::{maybe_done, BoxFuture, MaybeDone};
+use futures::channel::oneshot;
+use futures::future::{BoxFuture, MaybeDone, Shared, maybe_done};
 use futures::stream::{self, BoxStream};
 use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
-use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
-use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema, BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD};
-use lance_core::utils::futures::FinallyStreamExt;
+use lance_core::cache::{Context, DeepSizeOf, LanceCache};
+use lance_core::datatypes::{
+    BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD, Field, Schema, validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions,
+};
+use lance_core::utils::futures::{FinallyStreamExt, StreamOnDropExt};
+use lance_core::utils::parse::parse_env_as_bool;
 use log::{debug, trace, warn};
-use snafu::location;
+use prost::Message;
 use tokio::sync::mpsc::error::SendError;
 use tokio::sync::mpsc::{self, unbounded_channel};
 
-use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
+use lance_core::error::{CloneableError, LanceOptionExt};
 use lance_core::{ArrowResult, Error, Result};
 use tracing::instrument;
 
+use crate::array_encoding::logical::list::OffsetPageInfo;
+use crate::array_encoding::logical::r#struct::{SimpleStructDecoder, SimpleStructScheduler};
+use crate::array_encoding::logical::{
+    binary::BinaryFieldScheduler, blob::BlobFieldScheduler, list::ListFieldScheduler,
+    primitive::PrimitiveFieldScheduler,
+};
 use crate::compression::{DecompressionStrategy, DefaultDecompressionStrategy};
 use crate::data::DataBlock;
 use crate::encoder::EncodedBatch;
@@ -246,32 +257,184 @@ use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler;
 use crate::encodings::logical::r#struct::{StructuralStructDecoder, StructuralStructScheduler};
 use crate::format::pb::{self, column_encoding};
 use crate::format::pb21;
-use crate::previous::decoder::LogicalPageDecoder;
-use crate::previous::encodings::logical::list::OffsetPageInfo;
-use crate::previous::encodings::logical::r#struct::{SimpleStructDecoder, SimpleStructScheduler};
-use crate::previous::encodings::logical::{
-    binary::BinaryFieldScheduler, blob::BlobFieldScheduler, list::ListFieldScheduler,
-    primitive::PrimitiveFieldScheduler,
-};
 use crate::repdef::{CompositeRepDefUnraveler, RepDefUnraveler};
-use crate::version::LanceFileVersion;
 use crate::{BufferScheduler, EncodingsIo};
 
+/// Candidate batch sizes evaluated during byte-budget planning.
+/// Powers of 4, covering 1–16Ki rows in 8 probes.
+pub const CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES: [u32; 8] = [1, 4, 16, 64, 256, 1024, 4096, 16384];
+
+pub trait SchedulingJob: std::fmt::Debug {
+    fn schedule_next(
+        &mut self,
+        context: &mut SchedulerContext,
+        priority: &dyn PriorityRange,
+    ) -> Result<ScheduledScanLine>;
+
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64;
+}
+
+/// Schedules the I/O needed to decode one field.
+pub trait FieldScheduler: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
+    fn initialize<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        filter: &'a FilterExpression,
+        context: &'a SchedulerContext,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<()>>;
+
+    fn schedule_ranges<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        filter: &FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn SchedulingJob + 'a>>;
+
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64;
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct DecoderReady {
+    pub decoder: Box<dyn LogicalPageDecoder>,
+    pub path: VecDeque<u32>,
+}
+
+/// Stateful decoder for one logical page.
+pub trait LogicalPageDecoder: std::fmt::Debug + Send {
+    fn accept_child(&mut self, _child: DecoderReady) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "The decoder {:?} does not expect children but received a child",
+            self
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn wait_for_loaded(&'_ mut self, loaded_need: u64) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<()>>;
+
+    fn rows_loaded(&self) -> u64;
+
+    fn rows_unloaded(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.num_rows() - self.rows_loaded()
+    }
+
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64;
+
+    fn rows_drained(&self) -> u64;
+
+    fn rows_left(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.num_rows() - self.rows_drained()
+    }
+
+    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<NextDecodeTask>;
+
+    /// Returns how many of the requested rows can be decoded into one Arrow array
+    /// while keeping every i32 offset buffer within `byte_budget` bytes.
+    ///
+    /// Most page decoders can always drain the full request and consume no budget.
+    /// Decoders that build arrays with i32 offsets (Utf8 / Binary / List) may return
+    /// fewer rows so that the concatenated array's offsets stay representable, and
+    /// report the budget those rows consume so callers can accumulate across pages.
+    fn max_rows_to_drain(&self, num_rows: u64, _byte_budget: u64) -> Result<DrainLimit> {
+        Ok(DrainLimit {
+            rows: num_rows,
+            bytes: 0,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType;
+}
+
+/// Result of limiting a drain request to a variable-width byte budget.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct DrainLimit {
+    /// How many of the requested rows can be decoded into one Arrow array
+    pub rows: u64,
+    /// The variable-width bytes (at the most constrained i32-offset nesting level)
+    /// those rows consume from the caller's budget
+    pub bytes: u64,
+}
+
+/// The byte budget applied to each output batch of an i32-offset column.
+///
+/// Concatenating decoded pages into one Arrow array fails when a variable-width
+/// buffer's offsets exceed `i32::MAX`, so batches are split before that point.
+pub(crate) const I32_OFFSET_BYTE_BUDGET: u64 = i32::MAX as u64;
+
+/// Clamp a batch's row count to the byte-budgeted limit.
+///
+/// A batch always advances by at least one row: a first row whose (possibly
+/// over-estimated) size exceeds the whole budget is emitted alone.  A genuinely
+/// oversized row then surfaces the same arrow-level offset error it always did,
+/// while an over-estimated one decodes fine.
+fn clamp_rows_to_i32_budget(limit: DrainLimit, to_take: u64) -> u64 {
+    if to_take == 0 {
+        return 0;
+    }
+    limit.rows.clamp(1, to_take)
+}
+
+/// Returns whether concatenating arrays of this type can overflow an i32 offset buffer.
+pub(crate) fn has_i32_offsets(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Binary | DataType::Utf8 | DataType::List(_) | DataType::ListView(_) => true,
+        DataType::Map(_, _) => true,
+        DataType::LargeList(field)
+        | DataType::LargeListView(field)
+        | DataType::FixedSizeList(field, _) => has_i32_offsets(field.data_type()),
+        DataType::Struct(fields) => fields
+            .iter()
+            .any(|field| has_i32_offsets(field.data_type())),
+        DataType::Dictionary(_, values) => has_i32_offsets(values),
+        DataType::RunEndEncoded(_, values) => has_i32_offsets(values.data_type()),
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
 // If users are getting batches over 10MiB large then it's time to reduce the batch size
 const BATCH_SIZE_BYTES_WARNING: u64 = 10 * 1024 * 1024;
+const ENV_LANCE_STRUCTURAL_BATCH_DECODE_SPAWN_MODE: &str =
+    "LANCE_STRUCTURAL_BATCH_DECODE_SPAWN_MODE";
+const ENV_LANCE_READ_CACHE_REPETITION_INDEX: &str = "LANCE_READ_CACHE_REPETITION_INDEX";
+const ENV_LANCE_INLINE_SCHEDULING_THRESHOLD: &str = "LANCE_INLINE_SCHEDULING_THRESHOLD";
+
+// If a request is for at most this many rows we skip the scheduler-task spawn
+// and run scheduling inline as part of the `schedule_and_decode` await.
+const DEFAULT_INLINE_SCHEDULING_THRESHOLD: u64 = 16 * 1024;
+
+fn default_cache_repetition_index() -> bool {
+    static DEFAULT_CACHE_REPETITION_INDEX: OnceLock<bool> = OnceLock::new();
+    *DEFAULT_CACHE_REPETITION_INDEX
+        .get_or_init(|| parse_env_as_bool(ENV_LANCE_READ_CACHE_REPETITION_INDEX, true))
+}
 
-/// Top-level encoding message for a page.  Wraps both the
-/// legacy pb::ArrayEncoding and the newer pb::PageLayout
+fn inline_scheduling_threshold() -> u64 {
+    static THRESHOLD: OnceLock<u64> = OnceLock::new();
+    *THRESHOLD.get_or_init(|| {
+        std::env::var(ENV_LANCE_INLINE_SCHEDULING_THRESHOLD)
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|v| v.trim().parse::<u64>().ok())
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_INLINE_SCHEDULING_THRESHOLD)
+    })
+}
+
+/// Top-level encoding message for a page. Wraps both the v2.0
+/// [`pb::ArrayEncoding`] grammar and the structural [`pb21::PageLayout`] grammar.
 ///
 /// A file should only use one or the other and never both.
 /// 2.0 decoders can always assume this is pb::ArrayEncoding
 /// and 2.1+ decoders can always assume this is pb::PageLayout
-#[derive(Debug)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub enum PageEncoding {
     Legacy(pb::ArrayEncoding),
     Structural(pb21::PageLayout),
 }
 
+impl DeepSizeOf for PageEncoding {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(encoding) => encoding.encoded_len() * 4,
+            Self::Structural(encoding) => encoding.encoded_len() * 4,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 impl PageEncoding {
     pub fn as_legacy(&self) -> &pb::ArrayEncoding {
         match self {
@@ -309,6 +472,13 @@ pub struct PageInfo {
     pub buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc<[(u64, u64)]>,
 }
 
+impl DeepSizeOf for PageInfo {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.encoding.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
 /// Metadata describing a column in a file
 ///
 /// This is typically created by reading the metadata section of a Lance file
@@ -323,6 +493,14 @@ pub struct ColumnInfo {
     pub encoding: pb::ColumnEncoding,
 }
 
+impl DeepSizeOf for ColumnInfo {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.page_infos.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.encoding.encoded_len() * 4
+    }
+}
+
 impl ColumnInfo {
     /// Create a new instance
     pub fn new(
@@ -350,21 +528,21 @@ impl ColumnInfo {
 
 enum RootScheduler {
     Structural(Box<dyn StructuralFieldScheduler>),
-    Legacy(Arc<dyn crate::previous::decoder::FieldScheduler>),
+    Array(Arc<dyn FieldScheduler>),
 }
 
 impl RootScheduler {
-    fn as_legacy(&self) -> &Arc<dyn crate::previous::decoder::FieldScheduler> {
+    fn as_array(&self) -> &Arc<dyn FieldScheduler> {
         match self {
-            Self::Structural(_) => panic!("Expected a legacy scheduler"),
-            Self::Legacy(s) => s,
+            Self::Structural(_) => panic!("Expected an array scheduler"),
+            Self::Array(s) => s,
         }
     }
 
     fn as_structural(&self) -> &dyn StructuralFieldScheduler {
         match self {
             Self::Structural(s) => s.as_ref(),
-            Self::Legacy(_) => panic!("Expected a structural scheduler"),
+            Self::Array(_) => panic!("Expected a structural scheduler"),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -428,7 +606,6 @@ impl<'a> ColumnInfoIter<'a> {
         self.next().ok_or_else(|| {
             Error::invalid_input(
                 "there were more fields in the schema than provided column indices / infos",
-                location!(),
             )
         })
     }
@@ -515,13 +692,10 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
             .column_encoding
             .as_ref()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "the column at index {} was missing a ColumnEncoding",
-                        column_info.index
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "the column at index {} was missing a ColumnEncoding",
+                    column_info.index
+                ))
             })?;
         if matches!(
             column_encoding,
@@ -529,7 +703,10 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
         ) {
             Ok(())
         } else {
-            Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("the column at index {} mapping to the input field {} has column encoding {:?} and no decoder is registered to handle it", column_info.index, field_name, column_encoding), location!()))
+            Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "the column at index {} mapping to the input field {} has column encoding {:?} and no decoder is registered to handle it",
+                column_info.index, field_name, column_encoding
+            )))
         }
     }
 
@@ -555,14 +732,14 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
         }
     }
 
-    fn is_primitive_legacy(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+    fn is_array_primitive(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
         if data_type.is_primitive() {
             true
         } else {
             match data_type {
                 // DataType::is_primitive doesn't consider these primitive but we do
                 DataType::Boolean | DataType::Null | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_) => true,
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, _) => Self::is_primitive_legacy(inner.data_type()),
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, _) => Self::is_array_primitive(inner.data_type()),
                 _ => false,
             }
         }
@@ -573,7 +750,7 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
         field: &Field,
         column: &ColumnInfo,
         buffers: FileBuffers,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn crate::previous::decoder::FieldScheduler>> {
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldScheduler>> {
         Self::ensure_values_encoded(column, &field.name)?;
         // Primitive fields map to a single column
         let column_buffers = ColumnBuffers {
@@ -593,12 +770,12 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
     fn check_simple_struct(column_info: &ColumnInfo, field_name: &str) -> Result<()> {
         Self::ensure_values_encoded(column_info, field_name)?;
         if column_info.page_infos.len() != 1 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput { source: format!("Due to schema we expected a struct column but we received a column with {} pages and right now we only support struct columns with 1 page", column_info.page_infos.len()).into(), location: location!() });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!("Due to schema we expected a struct column but we received a column with {} pages and right now we only support struct columns with 1 page", column_info.page_infos.len()).into()));
         }
         let encoding = &column_info.page_infos[0].encoding;
         match encoding.as_legacy().array_encoding.as_ref().unwrap() {
             pb::array_encoding::ArrayEncoding::Struct(_) => Ok(()),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput { source: format!("Expected a struct encoding because we have a struct field in the schema but got the encoding {:?}", encoding).into(), location: location!() }),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!("Expected a struct encoding because we have a struct field in the schema but got the encoding {:?}", encoding).into())),
         }
     }
 
@@ -616,52 +793,57 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
         column_infos: &mut ColumnInfoIter,
         buffers: FileBuffers,
         offsets_column: &ColumnInfo,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn crate::previous::decoder::FieldScheduler>> {
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldScheduler>> {
         Self::ensure_values_encoded(offsets_column, &list_field.name)?;
         let offsets_column_buffers = ColumnBuffers {
             file_buffers: buffers,
             positions_and_sizes: &offsets_column.buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
         };
         let items_scheduler =
-            self.create_legacy_field_scheduler(&list_field.children[0], column_infos, buffers)?;
+            self.create_array_field_scheduler(&list_field.children[0], column_infos, buffers)?;
 
-        let (inner_infos, null_offset_adjustments): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = offsets_column
+        let mut inner_infos = Vec::with_capacity(offsets_column.page_infos.len());
+        let mut null_offset_adjustments = Vec::with_capacity(offsets_column.page_infos.len());
+        for (page_index, offsets_page) in offsets_column
             .page_infos
             .iter()
-            .filter(|offsets_page| offsets_page.num_rows > 0)
-            .map(|offsets_page| {
-                if let Some(pb::array_encoding::ArrayEncoding::List(list_encoding)) =
-                    &offsets_page.encoding.as_legacy().array_encoding
-                {
-                    let inner = PageInfo {
-                        buffer_offsets_and_sizes: offsets_page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.clone(),
-                        encoding: PageEncoding::Legacy(
-                            list_encoding.offsets.as_ref().unwrap().as_ref().clone(),
-                        ),
-                        num_rows: offsets_page.num_rows,
-                        priority: 0,
-                    };
-                    (
-                        inner,
-                        OffsetPageInfo {
-                            offsets_in_page: offsets_page.num_rows,
-                            null_offset_adjustment: list_encoding.null_offset_adjustment,
-                            num_items_referenced_by_page: list_encoding.num_items,
-                        },
-                    )
-                } else {
-                    // TODO: Should probably return Err here
-                    panic!("Expected a list column");
-                }
-            })
-            .unzip();
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(_, offsets_page)| offsets_page.num_rows > 0)
+        {
+            let PageEncoding::Legacy(pb::ArrayEncoding {
+                array_encoding: Some(pb::array_encoding::ArrayEncoding::List(list_encoding)),
+            }) = &offsets_page.encoding
+            else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "expected list encoding for field '{}' in column {}, page {} but got {:?}",
+                    list_field.name, offsets_column.index, page_index, offsets_page.encoding
+                )));
+            };
+            let offsets_encoding = list_encoding.offsets.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "list encoding for field '{}' in column {}, page {} is missing its offsets encoding",
+                    list_field.name, offsets_column.index, page_index
+                ))
+            })?;
+            inner_infos.push(PageInfo {
+                buffer_offsets_and_sizes: offsets_page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.clone(),
+                encoding: PageEncoding::Legacy(offsets_encoding.as_ref().clone()),
+                num_rows: offsets_page.num_rows,
+                priority: 0,
+            });
+            null_offset_adjustments.push(OffsetPageInfo {
+                offsets_in_page: offsets_page.num_rows,
+                null_offset_adjustment: list_encoding.null_offset_adjustment,
+                num_items_referenced_by_page: list_encoding.num_items,
+            });
+        }
         let inner = Arc::new(PrimitiveFieldScheduler::new(
             offsets_column.index,
             DataType::UInt64,
             Arc::from(inner_infos.into_boxed_slice()),
             offsets_column_buffers,
             self.validate_data,
-        )) as Arc<dyn crate::previous::decoder::FieldScheduler>;
+        )) as Arc<dyn FieldScheduler>;
         let items_field = match list_field.data_type() {
             DataType::List(inner) => inner,
             DataType::LargeList(inner) => inner,
@@ -699,11 +881,12 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
         column_infos: &mut ColumnInfoIter,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralFieldScheduler>> {
         let data_type = field.data_type();
+        validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions(&field.name, &data_type)?;
         if Self::is_structural_primitive(&data_type) {
             let column_info = column_infos.expect_next()?;
-            let scheduler = Box::new(StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::try_new(
-                column_info.as_ref(),
-                self.decompressor_strategy.as_ref(),
+            let scheduler = Box::new(StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::try_new_lazy(
+                column_info.clone(),
+                self.decompressor_strategy.clone(),
                 self.cache_repetition_index,
                 field,
             )?);
@@ -718,9 +901,9 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
                 if field.is_packed_struct() {
                     // Packed struct
                     let column_info = column_infos.expect_next()?;
-                    let scheduler = Box::new(StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::try_new(
-                        column_info.as_ref(),
-                        self.decompressor_strategy.as_ref(),
+                    let scheduler = Box::new(StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::try_new_lazy(
+                        column_info.clone(),
+                        self.decompressor_strategy.clone(),
                         self.cache_repetition_index,
                         field,
                     )?);
@@ -742,9 +925,9 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
                         )
                     }) {
                         let column_info = column_infos.expect_next()?;
-                        let scheduler = Box::new(StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::try_new(
-                            column_info.as_ref(),
-                            self.decompressor_strategy.as_ref(),
+                        let scheduler = Box::new(StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::try_new_lazy(
+                            column_info.clone(),
+                            self.decompressor_strategy.clone(),
                             self.cache_repetition_index,
                             field,
                         )?);
@@ -789,10 +972,7 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
                 //  because converting a rust arrow map field to the python arrow field will
                 //  lose the keys_sorted property.
                 if *keys_sorted {
-                    return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                        source: format!("Map data type is not supported with keys_sorted=true now, current value is {}", *keys_sorted).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported_source(format!("Map data type is not supported with keys_sorted=true now, current value is {}", *keys_sorted).into()));
                 }
                 let entries_child = field.children.first().expect_ok()?;
                 let child_scheduler =
@@ -804,14 +984,15 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
         }
     }
 
-    fn create_legacy_field_scheduler(
+    fn create_array_field_scheduler(
         &self,
         field: &Field,
         column_infos: &mut ColumnInfoIter,
         buffers: FileBuffers,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn crate::previous::decoder::FieldScheduler>> {
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldScheduler>> {
         let data_type = field.data_type();
-        if Self::is_primitive_legacy(&data_type) {
+        validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions(&field.name, &data_type)?;
+        if Self::is_array_primitive(&data_type) {
             let column_info = column_infos.expect_next()?;
             let scheduler = self.create_primitive_scheduler(field, column_info, buffers)?;
             return Ok(scheduler);
@@ -870,7 +1051,7 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
             DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, _dimension) => {
                 // A fixed size list column could either be a physical or a logical decoder
                 // depending on the child data type.
-                if Self::is_primitive_legacy(inner.data_type()) {
+                if Self::is_array_primitive(inner.data_type()) {
                     let primitive_col = column_infos.expect_next()?;
                     let scheduler =
                         self.create_primitive_scheduler(field, primitive_col, buffers)?;
@@ -880,20 +1061,19 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
                 }
             }
             DataType::Dictionary(_key_type, value_type) => {
-                if Self::is_primitive_legacy(value_type) || value_type.is_binary_like() {
+                if Self::is_array_primitive(value_type) || value_type.is_binary_like() {
                     let primitive_col = column_infos.expect_next()?;
                     let scheduler =
                         self.create_primitive_scheduler(field, primitive_col, buffers)?;
                     Ok(scheduler)
                 } else {
-                    Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                        source: format!(
+                    Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                        format!(
                             "No way to decode into a dictionary field of type {}",
                             value_type
                         )
                         .into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })
+                    ))
                 }
             }
             DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_) => {
@@ -925,7 +1105,7 @@ impl CoreFieldDecoderStrategy {
                     for field in &field.children {
                         column_infos.next_top_level();
                         let field_scheduler =
-                            self.create_legacy_field_scheduler(field, column_infos, buffers)?;
+                            self.create_array_field_scheduler(field, column_infos, buffers)?;
                         child_schedulers.push(Arc::from(field_scheduler));
                     }
 
@@ -959,7 +1139,7 @@ fn root_column(num_rows: u64) -> ColumnInfo {
                     pb::SimpleStruct {},
                 )),
             }),
-            priority: 0, // not used in legacy scheduler
+            priority: 0, // not used by the array scheduler
             buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc::new([]),
         })
         .collect::<Vec<_>>();
@@ -975,21 +1155,21 @@ fn root_column(num_rows: u64) -> ColumnInfo {
 
 pub enum RootDecoder {
     Structural(StructuralStructDecoder),
-    Legacy(SimpleStructDecoder),
+    Array(SimpleStructDecoder),
 }
 
 impl RootDecoder {
     pub fn into_structural(self) -> StructuralStructDecoder {
         match self {
             Self::Structural(decoder) => decoder,
-            Self::Legacy(_) => panic!("Expected a structural decoder"),
+            Self::Array(_) => panic!("Expected a structural decoder"),
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn into_legacy(self) -> SimpleStructDecoder {
+    pub fn into_array(self) -> SimpleStructDecoder {
         match self {
-            Self::Legacy(decoder) => decoder,
-            Self::Structural(_) => panic!("Expected a legacy decoder"),
+            Self::Array(decoder) => decoder,
+            Self::Structural(_) => panic!("Expected an array decoder"),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -999,6 +1179,36 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
     /// metadata of the file.
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub async fn try_new<'a>(
+        schema: &'a Schema,
+        column_indices: &[u32],
+        column_infos: &[Arc<ColumnInfo>],
+        file_buffer_positions_and_sizes: &'a Vec<(u64, u64)>,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+        io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+        filter: &FilterExpression,
+        decoder_config: &DecoderConfig,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_new_with_ranges(
+            schema,
+            column_indices,
+            column_infos,
+            file_buffer_positions_and_sizes,
+            num_rows,
+            decoder_plugins,
+            io,
+            cache,
+            None,
+            filter,
+            decoder_config,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a decode scheduler and initializes only pages overlapping known ranges.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(crate) async fn try_new_with_ranges<'a>(
         schema: &'a Schema,
         column_indices: &[u32],
         column_infos: &[Arc<ColumnInfo>],
@@ -1007,6 +1217,10 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
         _decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
         io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
         cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+        // The top-level row ranges that will be scheduled, if known. This lets
+        // the structural path initialize only the pages those ranges touch.
+        // `None` preserves `try_new`'s eager initialization behavior.
+        requested_ranges: Option<&[Range<u64>]>,
         filter: &FilterExpression,
         decoder_config: &DecoderConfig,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
@@ -1034,7 +1248,9 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
                 strategy.create_structural_field_scheduler(&root_field, &mut column_iter)?;
 
             let context = SchedulerContext::new(io, cache.clone());
-            root_scheduler.initialize(filter, &context).await?;
+            root_scheduler
+                .initialize(requested_ranges, filter, &context)
+                .await?;
 
             Ok(Self {
                 root_scheduler: RootScheduler::Structural(root_scheduler),
@@ -1055,27 +1271,27 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
             let mut column_iter = ColumnInfoIter::new(columns, &adjusted_column_indices);
             let strategy = CoreFieldDecoderStrategy::from_decoder_config(decoder_config);
             let root_scheduler =
-                strategy.create_legacy_field_scheduler(&root_field, &mut column_iter, buffers)?;
+                strategy.create_array_field_scheduler(&root_field, &mut column_iter, buffers)?;
 
             let context = SchedulerContext::new(io, cache.clone());
             root_scheduler.initialize(filter, &context).await?;
 
             Ok(Self {
-                root_scheduler: RootScheduler::Legacy(root_scheduler.into()),
+                root_scheduler: RootScheduler::Array(root_scheduler.into()),
                 root_fields,
                 cache,
             })
         }
     }
 
-    #[deprecated(since = "0.29.1", note = "This is for legacy 2.0 paths")]
+    #[deprecated(since = "0.29.1", note = "This is for v2.0 array-encoding paths")]
     pub fn from_scheduler(
-        root_scheduler: Arc<dyn crate::previous::decoder::FieldScheduler>,
+        root_scheduler: Arc<dyn FieldScheduler>,
         root_fields: Fields,
         cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
-            root_scheduler: RootScheduler::Legacy(root_scheduler),
+            root_scheduler: RootScheduler::Array(root_scheduler),
             root_fields,
             cache,
         }
@@ -1104,6 +1320,7 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
                 return;
             }
             let next_scan_lines = maybe_next_scan_lines.unwrap();
+            context.flush_io();
             if next_scan_lines.is_empty() {
                 return;
             }
@@ -1125,7 +1342,7 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
         }
     }
 
-    fn do_schedule_ranges_legacy(
+    fn do_schedule_ranges_array(
         &mut self,
         ranges: &[Range<u64>],
         filter: &FilterExpression,
@@ -1136,7 +1353,7 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
         // tasks are scheduled at the same top level row.
         priority: Option<Box<dyn PriorityRange>>,
     ) {
-        let root_scheduler = self.root_scheduler.as_legacy();
+        let root_scheduler = self.root_scheduler.as_array();
         let rows_requested = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>();
         trace!(
             "Scheduling {} ranges across {}..{} ({} rows){}",
@@ -1168,6 +1385,7 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
                 return;
             }
             let next_scan_line = maybe_next_scan_line.unwrap();
+            context.flush_io();
             priority.advance(next_scan_line.rows_scheduled);
             num_rows_scheduled += next_scan_line.rows_scheduled;
             rows_to_schedule -= next_scan_line.rows_scheduled;
@@ -1200,8 +1418,8 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
         priority: Option<Box<dyn PriorityRange>>,
     ) {
         match &self.root_scheduler {
-            RootScheduler::Legacy(_) => {
-                self.do_schedule_ranges_legacy(ranges, filter, io, schedule_action, priority)
+            RootScheduler::Array(_) => {
+                self.do_schedule_ranges_array(ranges, filter, io, schedule_action, priority)
             }
             RootScheduler::Structural(_) => {
                 self.do_schedule_ranges_structural(ranges, filter, io, schedule_action)
@@ -1241,7 +1459,7 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
     /// * `ranges` - The ranges of rows to load
     /// * `sink` - A channel to send the decode tasks
     /// * `scheduler` An I/O scheduler to issue I/O requests
-    #[instrument(skip_all)]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
     pub fn schedule_ranges(
         &mut self,
         ranges: &[Range<u64>],
@@ -1277,7 +1495,7 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
     /// * `range` - The range of rows to load
     /// * `sink` - A channel to send the decode tasks
     /// * `scheduler` An I/O scheduler to issue I/O requests
-    #[instrument(skip_all)]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
     pub fn schedule_range(
         &mut self,
         range: Range<u64>,
@@ -1302,29 +1520,22 @@ impl DecodeBatchScheduler {
         sink: mpsc::UnboundedSender<Result<DecoderMessage>>,
         scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
     ) {
-        debug_assert!(indices.windows(2).all(|w| w[0] < w[1]));
         if indices.is_empty() {
             return;
         }
         trace!("Scheduling take of {} rows", indices.len());
-        let ranges = Self::indices_to_ranges(indices);
-        self.schedule_ranges(&ranges, filter, sink, scheduler)
-    }
-
-    // coalesce continuous indices if possible (the input indices must be sorted and non-empty)
-    fn indices_to_ranges(indices: &[u64]) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
-        let mut ranges = Vec::new();
-        let mut start = indices[0];
-
-        for window in indices.windows(2) {
-            if window[1] != window[0] + 1 {
-                ranges.push(start..window[0] + 1);
-                start = window[1];
+        let ranges = match RequestedRows::indices_to_ranges(indices) {
+            Ok(ranges) => ranges,
+            Err(error) => {
+                if let Err(SendError { .. }) = sink.send(Err(error)) {
+                    debug!(
+                        "schedule_take could not report invalid indices because the decoder was dropped"
+                    );
+                }
+                return;
             }
-        }
-
-        ranges.push(start..*indices.last().unwrap() + 1);
-        ranges
+        };
+        self.schedule_ranges(&ranges, filter, sink, scheduler)
     }
 }
 
@@ -1343,6 +1554,7 @@ pub struct BatchDecodeStream {
     rows_drained: u64,
     scheduler_exhausted: bool,
     emitted_batch_size_warning: Arc<Once>,
+    limit_i32_offset_batch_size: bool,
 }
 
 impl BatchDecodeStream {
@@ -1360,6 +1572,16 @@ impl BatchDecodeStream {
         rows_per_batch: u32,
         num_rows: u64,
         root_decoder: SimpleStructDecoder,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::new_with_i32_offset_limit(scheduled, rows_per_batch, num_rows, root_decoder, true)
+    }
+
+    fn new_with_i32_offset_limit(
+        scheduled: mpsc::UnboundedReceiver<Result<DecoderMessage>>,
+        rows_per_batch: u32,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        root_decoder: SimpleStructDecoder,
+        limit_i32_offset_batch_size: bool,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             context: DecoderContext::new(scheduled),
@@ -1370,10 +1592,11 @@ impl BatchDecodeStream {
             rows_drained: 0,
             scheduler_exhausted: false,
             emitted_batch_size_warning: Arc::new(Once::new()),
+            limit_i32_offset_batch_size,
         }
     }
 
-    fn accept_decoder(&mut self, decoder: crate::previous::decoder::DecoderReady) -> Result<()> {
+    fn accept_decoder(&mut self, decoder: DecoderReady) -> Result<()> {
         if decoder.path.is_empty() {
             // The root decoder we can ignore
             Ok(())
@@ -1394,7 +1617,7 @@ impl BatchDecodeStream {
                     let scan_line = scan_line?;
                     self.rows_scheduled = scan_line.scheduled_so_far;
                     for message in scan_line.decoders {
-                        self.accept_decoder(message.into_legacy())?;
+                        self.accept_decoder(message.into_array())?;
                     }
                 }
                 None => {
@@ -1413,9 +1636,7 @@ impl BatchDecodeStream {
     async fn next_batch_task(&mut self) -> Result<Option<NextDecodeTask>> {
         trace!(
             "Draining batch task (rows_remaining={} rows_drained={} rows_scheduled={})",
-            self.rows_remaining,
-            self.rows_drained,
-            self.rows_scheduled,
+            self.rows_remaining, self.rows_drained, self.rows_scheduled,
         );
         if self.rows_remaining == 0 {
             return Ok(None);
@@ -1425,7 +1646,10 @@ impl BatchDecodeStream {
         self.rows_remaining -= to_take;
 
         let scheduled_need = (self.rows_drained + to_take).saturating_sub(self.rows_scheduled);
-        trace!("scheduled_need = {} because rows_drained = {} and to_take = {} and rows_scheduled = {}", scheduled_need, self.rows_drained, to_take, self.rows_scheduled);
+        trace!(
+            "scheduled_need = {} because rows_drained = {} and to_take = {} and rows_scheduled = {}",
+            scheduled_need, self.rows_drained, to_take, self.rows_scheduled
+        );
         if scheduled_need > 0 {
             let desired_scheduled = scheduled_need + self.rows_scheduled;
             trace!(
@@ -1451,6 +1675,17 @@ impl BatchDecodeStream {
         );
         self.root_decoder.wait_for_loaded(loaded_need).await?;
 
+        if self.limit_i32_offset_batch_size && has_i32_offsets(self.root_decoder.data_type()) {
+            let limit = LogicalPageDecoder::max_rows_to_drain(
+                &self.root_decoder,
+                to_take,
+                I32_OFFSET_BYTE_BUDGET,
+            )?;
+            let clamped = clamp_rows_to_i32_budget(limit, to_take);
+            self.rows_remaining += to_take - clamped;
+            to_take = clamped;
+        }
+
         let next_task = self.root_decoder.drain(to_take)?;
         self.rows_drained += to_take;
         Ok(Some(next_task))
@@ -1458,33 +1693,41 @@ impl BatchDecodeStream {
 
     pub fn into_stream(self) -> BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask> {
         let stream = futures::stream::unfold(self, |mut slf| async move {
-            let next_task = slf.next_batch_task().await;
-            let next_task = next_task.transpose().map(|next_task| {
-                let num_rows = next_task.as_ref().map(|t| t.num_rows).unwrap_or(0);
-                let emitted_batch_size_warning = slf.emitted_batch_size_warning.clone();
-                let task = async move {
-                    let next_task = next_task?;
-                    // Real decode work happens inside into_batch, which can block the current
-                    // thread for a long time. By spawning it as a new task, we allow Tokio's
-                    // worker threads to keep making progress.
+            let next_task = match slf.next_batch_task().await {
+                Ok(Some(next_task)) => next_task,
+                Ok(None) => return None,
+                Err(err) => {
+                    slf.rows_remaining = 0;
+                    return Some((
+                        ReadBatchTask {
+                            task: async move { Err(err) }.boxed(),
+                            num_rows: 0,
+                        },
+                        slf,
+                    ));
+                }
+            };
+            let num_rows = next_task.num_rows;
+            let emitted_batch_size_warning = slf.emitted_batch_size_warning.clone();
+            let task = async move {
+                // Real decode work happens inside into_batch, which can block the current
+                // thread for a long time. By spawning it as a new task, we allow Tokio's
+                // worker threads to keep making progress.
+                let (batch, _data_size) =
                     tokio::spawn(async move { next_task.into_batch(emitted_batch_size_warning) })
                         .await
-                        .map_err(|err| Error::Wrapped {
-                            error: err.into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?
-                };
-                (task, num_rows)
-            });
-            next_task.map(|(task, num_rows)| {
-                // This should be true since batch size is u32
-                debug_assert!(num_rows <= u32::MAX as u64);
-                let next_task = ReadBatchTask {
+                        .map_err(|err| Error::wrapped(err.into()))??;
+                Ok(batch)
+            };
+            // This should be true since batch size is u32
+            debug_assert!(num_rows <= u32::MAX as u64);
+            Some((
+                ReadBatchTask {
                     task: task.boxed(),
                     num_rows: num_rows as u32,
-                };
-                (next_task, slf)
-            })
+                },
+                slf,
+            ))
         });
         stream.boxed()
     }
@@ -1494,12 +1737,20 @@ impl BatchDecodeStream {
 // we can have a single implementation of the batch decode iterator
 enum RootDecoderMessage {
     LoadedPage(LoadedPageShard),
-    LegacyPage(crate::previous::decoder::DecoderReady),
+    ArrayPage(DecoderReady),
 }
 trait RootDecoderType {
     fn accept_message(&mut self, message: RootDecoderMessage) -> Result<()>;
     fn drain_batch(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<NextDecodeTask>;
     fn wait(&mut self, loaded_need: u64, runtime: &tokio::runtime::Runtime) -> Result<()>;
+    /// See [`LogicalPageDecoder::max_rows_to_drain`].  Decoders without i32-offset
+    /// accounting place no limit.
+    fn max_rows_to_drain(&self, num_rows: u64, _byte_budget: u64) -> Result<DrainLimit> {
+        Ok(DrainLimit {
+            rows: num_rows,
+            bytes: 0,
+        })
+    }
 }
 impl RootDecoderType for StructuralStructDecoder {
     fn accept_message(&mut self, message: RootDecoderMessage) -> Result<()> {
@@ -1518,10 +1769,10 @@ impl RootDecoderType for StructuralStructDecoder {
 }
 impl RootDecoderType for SimpleStructDecoder {
     fn accept_message(&mut self, message: RootDecoderMessage) -> Result<()> {
-        let RootDecoderMessage::LegacyPage(legacy_page) = message else {
+        let RootDecoderMessage::ArrayPage(array_page) = message else {
             unreachable!()
         };
-        self.accept_child(legacy_page)
+        self.accept_child(array_page)
     }
     fn drain_batch(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<NextDecodeTask> {
         self.drain(num_rows)
@@ -1529,6 +1780,15 @@ impl RootDecoderType for SimpleStructDecoder {
     fn wait(&mut self, loaded_need: u64, runtime: &tokio::runtime::Runtime) -> Result<()> {
         runtime.block_on(self.wait_for_loaded(loaded_need))
     }
+    fn max_rows_to_drain(&self, num_rows: u64, byte_budget: u64) -> Result<DrainLimit> {
+        if !has_i32_offsets(LogicalPageDecoder::data_type(self)) {
+            return Ok(DrainLimit {
+                rows: num_rows,
+                bytes: 0,
+            });
+        }
+        LogicalPageDecoder::max_rows_to_drain(self, num_rows, byte_budget)
+    }
 }
 
 /// A blocking batch decoder that performs synchronous decoding
@@ -1589,7 +1849,7 @@ impl<T: RootDecoderType> BatchDecodeIterator<T> {
     ///
     /// Note that `scheduled_need` is cumulative.  E.g. this method
     /// should be called with 5, 10, 15 and not 5, 5, 5
-    #[instrument(skip_all)]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
     fn wait_for_io(&mut self, scheduled_need: u64, to_take: u64) -> Result<u64> {
         while self.rows_scheduled < scheduled_need && !self.messages.is_empty() {
             let message = self.messages.pop_front().unwrap()?;
@@ -1605,7 +1865,7 @@ impl<T: RootDecoderType> BatchDecodeIterator<T> {
                         // The root decoder we can ignore
                         if !decoder_ready.path.is_empty() {
                             self.root_decoder
-                                .accept_message(RootDecoderMessage::LegacyPage(decoder_ready))?;
+                                .accept_message(RootDecoderMessage::ArrayPage(decoder_ready))?;
                         }
                     }
                 }
@@ -1623,9 +1883,7 @@ impl<T: RootDecoderType> BatchDecodeIterator<T> {
     fn next_batch_task(&mut self) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
         trace!(
             "Draining batch task (rows_remaining={} rows_drained={} rows_scheduled={})",
-            self.rows_remaining,
-            self.rows_drained,
-            self.rows_scheduled,
+            self.rows_remaining, self.rows_drained, self.rows_scheduled,
         );
         if self.rows_remaining == 0 {
             return Ok(None);
@@ -1635,7 +1893,10 @@ impl<T: RootDecoderType> BatchDecodeIterator<T> {
         self.rows_remaining -= to_take;
 
         let scheduled_need = (self.rows_drained + to_take).saturating_sub(self.rows_scheduled);
-        trace!("scheduled_need = {} because rows_drained = {} and to_take = {} and rows_scheduled = {}", scheduled_need, self.rows_drained, to_take, self.rows_scheduled);
+        trace!(
+            "scheduled_need = {} because rows_drained = {} and to_take = {} and rows_scheduled = {}",
+            scheduled_need, self.rows_drained, to_take, self.rows_scheduled
+        );
         if scheduled_need > 0 {
             let desired_scheduled = scheduled_need + self.rows_scheduled;
             trace!(
@@ -1653,11 +1914,18 @@ impl<T: RootDecoderType> BatchDecodeIterator<T> {
             return Ok(None);
         }
 
+        let limit = self
+            .root_decoder
+            .max_rows_to_drain(to_take, I32_OFFSET_BYTE_BUDGET)?;
+        let clamped = clamp_rows_to_i32_budget(limit, to_take);
+        self.rows_remaining += to_take - clamped;
+        to_take = clamped;
+
         let next_task = self.root_decoder.drain_batch(to_take)?;
 
         self.rows_drained += to_take;
 
-        let batch = next_task.into_batch(self.emitted_batch_size_warning.clone())?;
+        let (batch, _data_size) = next_task.into_batch(self.emitted_batch_size_warning.clone())?;
 
         Ok(Some(batch))
     }
@@ -1667,9 +1935,12 @@ impl<T: RootDecoderType> Iterator for BatchDecodeIterator<T> {
     type Item = ArrowResult<RecordBatch>;
 
     fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
-        self.next_batch_task()
-            .transpose()
-            .map(|r| r.map_err(ArrowError::from))
+        let next = self.next_batch_task().transpose();
+        if let Some(Err(_)) = &next {
+            // Fuse after an error instead of re-attempting every remaining batch
+            self.rows_remaining = 0;
+        }
+        next.map(|r| r.map_err(ArrowError::from))
     }
 }
 
@@ -1679,6 +1950,44 @@ impl<T: RootDecoderType> RecordBatchReader for BatchDecodeIterator<T> {
     }
 }
 
+/// Estimate the number of bytes per row for a given Arrow data type.
+///
+/// For fixed-width types this is exact. For variable-width types (strings,
+/// binary, lists) a rough default is used. The estimate is used as a
+/// starting point when `batch_size_bytes` is set; a post-decode feedback
+/// loop corrects it after the first batch.
+///
+/// This estimate ignores validity bitmaps at the moment.  We can't infer
+/// their presence simply from the data_type and their impact is probably
+/// fairly negligible.
+/// Returns a schema-based estimate of the decoded bytes per row for `data_type`.
+///
+/// Fixed-width types are exact. Variable-width types (strings, lists, etc.) use
+/// heuristic constants. This estimate is used both in batch-size planning and as
+/// a fallback for V1 files that lack structural decoders.
+pub fn estimate_bytes_per_row(data_type: &DataType) -> f64 {
+    if let Some(w) = data_type.byte_width_opt() {
+        return w as f64;
+    }
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Boolean => 1.0 / 8.0,
+        DataType::Utf8 | DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::LargeBinary => 64.0,
+        DataType::Struct(fields) => fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| estimate_bytes_per_row(f.data_type()))
+            .sum(),
+        DataType::List(child) | DataType::LargeList(child) => {
+            5.0 * estimate_bytes_per_row(child.data_type())
+        }
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(child, dim) => {
+            *dim as f64 * estimate_bytes_per_row(child.data_type())
+        }
+        DataType::Dictionary(_, value_type) => estimate_bytes_per_row(value_type),
+        DataType::Map(entries, _) => 5.0 * estimate_bytes_per_row(entries.data_type()),
+        _ => 64.0,
+    }
+}
+
 /// A stream that takes scheduled jobs and generates decode tasks from them.
 pub struct StructuralBatchDecodeStream {
     context: DecoderContext,
@@ -1689,6 +1998,23 @@ pub struct StructuralBatchDecodeStream {
     rows_drained: u64,
     scheduler_exhausted: bool,
     emitted_batch_size_warning: Arc<Once>,
+    // Decode scheduling policy selected at planning time.
+    //
+    // Performance tradeoff:
+    // - true: spawn `into_batch` onto Tokio, which improves scan throughput by allowing
+    //   more decode parallelism.
+    // - false: run `into_batch` inline, which avoids Tokio scheduling overhead and is
+    //   typically better for point lookups / small takes.
+    spawn_batch_decode_tasks: bool,
+    /// If set, target this many bytes per batch while retaining `rows_per_batch`
+    /// as an independent upper bound.
+    batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    /// Schema-based estimate of bytes per row, computed once at construction.
+    /// Only meaningful when `batch_size_bytes` is `Some`.
+    schema_bytes_per_row: f64,
+    /// Post-decode feedback: actual bytes-per-row measured from the most
+    /// recently decoded batch.  Zero means no feedback yet (use schema estimate).
+    bytes_per_row_feedback: Arc<AtomicU64>,
 }
 
 impl StructuralBatchDecodeStream {
@@ -1706,7 +2032,14 @@ impl StructuralBatchDecodeStream {
         rows_per_batch: u32,
         num_rows: u64,
         root_decoder: StructuralStructDecoder,
+        spawn_batch_decode_tasks: bool,
+        batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
     ) -> Self {
+        let schema_bytes_per_row = if batch_size_bytes.is_some() {
+            estimate_bytes_per_row(root_decoder.data_type()).max(1.0)
+        } else {
+            0.0
+        };
         Self {
             context: DecoderContext::new(scheduled),
             root_decoder,
@@ -1716,6 +2049,10 @@ impl StructuralBatchDecodeStream {
             rows_drained: 0,
             scheduler_exhausted: false,
             emitted_batch_size_warning: Arc::new(Once::new()),
+            spawn_batch_decode_tasks,
+            batch_size_bytes,
+            schema_bytes_per_row,
+            bytes_per_row_feedback: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
         }
     }
 
@@ -1752,19 +2089,32 @@ impl StructuralBatchDecodeStream {
     async fn next_batch_task(&mut self) -> Result<Option<NextDecodeTask>> {
         trace!(
             "Draining batch task (rows_remaining={} rows_drained={} rows_scheduled={})",
-            self.rows_remaining,
-            self.rows_drained,
-            self.rows_scheduled,
+            self.rows_remaining, self.rows_drained, self.rows_scheduled,
         );
         if self.rows_remaining == 0 {
             return Ok(None);
         }
 
-        let mut to_take = self.rows_remaining.min(self.rows_per_batch as u64);
+        let row_limit = self.rows_remaining.min(self.rows_per_batch as u64);
+        let mut to_take = if let Some(batch_size_bytes) = self.batch_size_bytes {
+            let feedback = self.bytes_per_row_feedback.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+            let bpr = if feedback > 0 {
+                feedback as f64
+            } else {
+                self.schema_bytes_per_row
+            };
+            let rows = (batch_size_bytes as f64 / bpr) as u64;
+            row_limit.min(rows.max(1))
+        } else {
+            row_limit
+        };
         self.rows_remaining -= to_take;
 
         let scheduled_need = (self.rows_drained + to_take).saturating_sub(self.rows_scheduled);
-        trace!("scheduled_need = {} because rows_drained = {} and to_take = {} and rows_scheduled = {}", scheduled_need, self.rows_drained, to_take, self.rows_scheduled);
+        trace!(
+            "scheduled_need = {} because rows_drained = {} and to_take = {} and rows_scheduled = {}",
+            scheduled_need, self.rows_drained, to_take, self.rows_scheduled
+        );
         if scheduled_need > 0 {
             let desired_scheduled = scheduled_need + self.rows_scheduled;
             trace!(
@@ -1789,25 +2139,60 @@ impl StructuralBatchDecodeStream {
 
     pub fn into_stream(self) -> BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask> {
         let stream = futures::stream::unfold(self, |mut slf| async move {
-            let next_task = slf.next_batch_task().await;
-            let next_task = next_task.transpose().map(|next_task| {
-                let num_rows = next_task.as_ref().map(|t| t.num_rows).unwrap_or(0);
-                let emitted_batch_size_warning = slf.emitted_batch_size_warning.clone();
-                let task = async move {
-                    let next_task = next_task?;
-                    async move { next_task.into_batch(emitted_batch_size_warning) }.await
+            let next_task = match slf.next_batch_task().await {
+                Ok(Some(next_task)) => next_task,
+                Ok(None) => return None,
+                Err(err) => {
+                    slf.rows_remaining = 0;
+                    return Some((
+                        ReadBatchTask {
+                            task: async move { Err(err) }.boxed(),
+                            num_rows: 0,
+                        },
+                        slf,
+                    ));
+                }
+            };
+            let num_rows = next_task.num_rows;
+            let emitted_batch_size_warning = slf.emitted_batch_size_warning.clone();
+            let bytes_per_row_feedback = slf.bytes_per_row_feedback.clone();
+            // Capture the per-stream policy once so every emitted batch task follows the
+            // same throughput-vs-overhead choice made by the scheduler.
+            let spawn_batch_decode_tasks = slf.spawn_batch_decode_tasks;
+            let task = async move {
+                let (batch, data_size) = if spawn_batch_decode_tasks {
+                    tokio::spawn(async move { next_task.into_batch(emitted_batch_size_warning) })
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|err| Error::wrapped(err.into()))??
+                } else {
+                    next_task.into_batch(emitted_batch_size_warning)?
                 };
-                (task, num_rows)
-            });
-            next_task.map(|(task, num_rows)| {
-                // This should be true since batch size is u32
-                debug_assert!(num_rows <= u32::MAX as u64);
-                let next_task = ReadBatchTask {
+                let num_rows = batch.num_rows() as u64;
+                if let Some(bpr) = data_size.checked_div(num_rows) {
+                    let prev = bytes_per_row_feedback.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    let next = if prev == 0 || bpr >= prev {
+                        // First batch or actual size is larger than estimate:
+                        // adopt immediately to avoid OOM.
+                        bpr
+                    } else {
+                        // Actual size is smaller: degrade gradually toward
+                        // the true value to avoid over-correcting on a
+                        // single anomalous batch.
+                        (prev + bpr) / 2
+                    };
+                    bytes_per_row_feedback.store(next.max(1), Ordering::Relaxed);
+                }
+                Ok(batch)
+            };
+            // This should be true since batch size is u32
+            debug_assert!(num_rows <= u32::MAX as u64);
+            Some((
+                ReadBatchTask {
                     task: task.boxed(),
                     num_rows: num_rows as u32,
-                };
-                (next_task, slf)
-            })
+                },
+                slf,
+            ))
         });
         stream.boxed()
     }
@@ -1833,15 +2218,89 @@ impl RequestedRows {
         }
         self
     }
+
+    fn into_ranges(self) -> Result<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Ranges(ranges) => Ok(ranges),
+            Self::Indices(indices) => Self::indices_to_ranges(&indices),
+        }
+    }
+
+    // coalesce continuous indices if possible (the input indices must be sorted)
+    fn indices_to_ranges(indices: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+
+        let mut ranges = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+        let mut start = indices[0];
+
+        for (index, pair) in indices.windows(2).enumerate() {
+            if pair[0] >= pair[1] {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Requested row indices are not strictly increasing at index {index}: {} then {}",
+                    pair[0], pair[1]
+                )));
+            }
+            let end = pair[0]
+                .checked_add(1)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Requested row index cannot equal u64::MAX"))?;
+            if pair[1] != end {
+                ranges.push(start..end);
+                start = pair[1];
+            }
+        }
+
+        let end = indices
+            .last()
+            .copied()
+            .and_then(|index| index.checked_add(1))
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Requested row index cannot equal u64::MAX"))?;
+        ranges.push(start..end);
+        Ok(ranges)
+    }
 }
 
 /// Configuration for decoder behavior
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct DecoderConfig {
-    /// Whether to cache repetition indices for better performance
+    /// Whether to cache repetition indices for better performance.
+    ///
+    /// This defaults to the `LANCE_READ_CACHE_REPETITION_INDEX` environment variable
+    /// when present and is enabled by default. Set the env var to a non-truthy
+    /// value (for example `0` or `false`) to disable it. The env var is read
+    /// once per process.
     pub cache_repetition_index: bool,
     /// Whether to validate decoded data
     pub validate_on_decode: bool,
+    /// Override the strategy used to dispatch the scheduling work in
+    /// [`schedule_and_decode`].
+    ///
+    /// `schedule_and_decode` always awaits the scheduler's `initialize` (which
+    /// performs metadata I/O) before returning.  This flag controls what
+    /// happens with the subsequent (synchronous) work of pushing decoder
+    /// messages into the channel that feeds the decode stream.
+    ///
+    /// * `None` - default behavior: the scheduling work runs inline (as part
+    ///   of the `schedule_and_decode` await) when the request is small
+    ///   (controlled by the `LANCE_INLINE_SCHEDULING_THRESHOLD` env var) and
+    ///   is dispatched onto a spawned task otherwise.
+    /// * `Some(true)` - always run scheduling inline.  The await of
+    ///   `schedule_and_decode` does not return until every decoder message
+    ///   has been queued.
+    /// * `Some(false)` - always spawn a task for scheduling so that it can
+    ///   overlap with consumption of the decode stream.
+    pub inline_scheduling: Option<bool>,
+}
+
+impl Default for DecoderConfig {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            cache_repetition_index: default_cache_repetition_index(),
+            validate_on_decode: false,
+            inline_scheduling: None,
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -1852,6 +2311,12 @@ pub struct SchedulerDecoderConfig {
     pub cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
     /// Decoder configuration
     pub decoder_config: DecoderConfig,
+    /// If set, target this many bytes per batch while retaining `batch_size` as
+    /// an independent row-count upper bound.
+    ///
+    /// Only supported for v2.1+ (structural) files. For v2.0 files this
+    /// option is ignored and a warning is logged.
+    pub batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
 }
 
 fn check_scheduler_on_drop(
@@ -1861,6 +2326,7 @@ fn check_scheduler_on_drop(
     // This is a bit weird but we create an "empty stream" that unwraps the scheduler handle (which
     // will panic if the scheduler panicked).  This let's us check if the scheduler panicked
     // when the stream finishes.
+    let abort_handle = scheduler_handle.abort_handle();
     let mut scheduler_handle = Some(scheduler_handle);
     let check_scheduler = stream::unfold((), move |_| {
         let handle = scheduler_handle.take();
@@ -1871,16 +2337,56 @@ fn check_scheduler_on_drop(
             None
         }
     });
-    stream.chain(check_scheduler).boxed()
+    stream
+        .chain(check_scheduler)
+        .on_drop(move || {
+            // Abort the scheduler task on early drop. The scheduler task holds
+            // a reference to the I/O scheduler (via config.io) which keeps the
+            // ScanScheduler alive. If the scheduler task is stuck waiting for
+            // initialization I/O (which is blocked on backpressure that will
+            // never drain because no one is consuming the stream), we need to
+            // abort it so it releases its I/O reference and allows the
+            // ScanScheduler to drop and cancel pending I/O.
+            abort_handle.abort();
+        })
+        .boxed()
 }
 
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub fn create_decode_stream(
     schema: &Schema,
     num_rows: u64,
     batch_size: u32,
     is_structural: bool,
     should_validate: bool,
+    spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks: bool,
+    rx: mpsc::UnboundedReceiver<Result<DecoderMessage>>,
+    batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
+    create_decode_stream_with_i32_offset_limit(
+        schema,
+        num_rows,
+        batch_size,
+        is_structural,
+        should_validate,
+        spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks,
+        rx,
+        batch_size_bytes,
+        true,
+    )
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn create_decode_stream_with_i32_offset_limit(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    num_rows: u64,
+    batch_size: u32,
+    is_structural: bool,
+    should_validate: bool,
+    spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks: bool,
     rx: mpsc::UnboundedReceiver<Result<DecoderMessage>>,
+    batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    limit_i32_offset_batch_size: bool,
 ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
     if is_structural {
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::from(schema);
@@ -1888,17 +2394,33 @@ pub fn create_decode_stream(
             arrow_schema.fields,
             should_validate,
             /*is_root=*/ true,
+            /*nullable=*/ false,
         )?;
-        Ok(
-            StructuralBatchDecodeStream::new(rx, batch_size, num_rows, structural_decoder)
-                .into_stream(),
+        Ok(StructuralBatchDecodeStream::new(
+            rx,
+            batch_size,
+            num_rows,
+            structural_decoder,
+            spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks,
+            batch_size_bytes,
         )
+        .into_stream())
     } else {
+        if batch_size_bytes.is_some() {
+            warn!("batch_size_bytes is not supported for v2.0 files and will be ignored");
+        }
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::from(schema);
         let root_fields = arrow_schema.fields;
 
         let simple_struct_decoder = SimpleStructDecoder::new(root_fields, num_rows);
-        Ok(BatchDecodeStream::new(rx, batch_size, num_rows, simple_struct_decoder).into_stream())
+        Ok(BatchDecodeStream::new_with_i32_offset_limit(
+            rx,
+            batch_size,
+            num_rows,
+            simple_struct_decoder,
+            limit_i32_offset_batch_size,
+        )
+        .into_stream())
     }
 }
 
@@ -1916,8 +2438,12 @@ pub fn create_decode_iterator(
     let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(schema));
     let root_fields = arrow_schema.fields.clone();
     if is_structural {
-        let simple_struct_decoder =
-            StructuralStructDecoder::new(root_fields, should_validate, /*is_root=*/ true)?;
+        let simple_struct_decoder = StructuralStructDecoder::new(
+            root_fields,
+            should_validate,
+            /*is_root=*/ true,
+            /*nullable=*/ false,
+        )?;
         Ok(Box::new(BatchDecodeIterator::new(
             messages,
             batch_size,
@@ -1937,7 +2463,7 @@ pub fn create_decode_iterator(
     }
 }
 
-fn create_scheduler_decoder(
+async fn create_scheduler_decoder(
     column_infos: Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>,
     requested_rows: RequestedRows,
     filter: FilterExpression,
@@ -1946,8 +2472,15 @@ fn create_scheduler_decoder(
     config: SchedulerDecoderConfig,
 ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
     let num_rows = requested_rows.num_rows();
+    let is_range_request = matches!(&requested_rows, RequestedRows::Ranges(_));
 
     let is_structural = column_infos[0].is_structural();
+    let mode = std::env::var(ENV_LANCE_STRUCTURAL_BATCH_DECODE_SPAWN_MODE);
+    let spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks = match mode.ok().as_deref() {
+        Some("always") => true,
+        Some("never") => false,
+        _ => is_range_request,
+    };
 
     let (tx, rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
 
@@ -1957,59 +2490,81 @@ fn create_scheduler_decoder(
         config.batch_size,
         is_structural,
         config.decoder_config.validate_on_decode,
+        spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks,
         rx,
+        config.batch_size_bytes,
     )?;
 
-    let scheduler_handle = tokio::task::spawn(async move {
-        let mut decode_scheduler = match DecodeBatchScheduler::try_new(
-            target_schema.as_ref(),
-            &column_indices,
-            &column_infos,
-            &vec![],
-            num_rows,
-            config.decoder_plugins,
-            config.io.clone(),
-            config.cache,
-            &filter,
-            &config.decoder_config,
-        )
-        .await
-        {
-            Ok(scheduler) => scheduler,
-            Err(e) => {
-                let _ = tx.send(Err(e));
-                return;
-            }
-        };
-
-        match requested_rows {
-            RequestedRows::Ranges(ranges) => {
-                decode_scheduler.schedule_ranges(&ranges, &filter, tx, config.io)
-            }
-            RequestedRows::Indices(indices) => {
-                decode_scheduler.schedule_take(&indices, &filter, tx, config.io)
-            }
-        }
-    });
+    // The scheduler's `initialize` may perform I/O to load column metadata
+    // unless that metadata is already in the cache.  This metadata loading
+    // happens as part of this call and should be parallelized if reading
+    // multiple files.  We pass the rows we are about to schedule so that the
+    // structural path only initializes the pages those rows touch.
+    let requested_ranges = requested_rows.into_ranges()?;
+    let mut decode_scheduler = DecodeBatchScheduler::try_new_with_ranges(
+        target_schema.as_ref(),
+        &column_indices,
+        &column_infos,
+        &vec![],
+        num_rows,
+        config.decoder_plugins,
+        config.io.clone(),
+        config.cache,
+        Some(&requested_ranges),
+        &filter,
+        &config.decoder_config,
+    )
+    .await?;
 
-    Ok(check_scheduler_on_drop(decode_stream, scheduler_handle))
+    // For small requests the scheduling cost is dwarfed by the overhead of
+    // spawning a task, so we run scheduling inline (still as part of this
+    // await) before returning.  The threshold is configurable via
+    // `LANCE_INLINE_SCHEDULING_THRESHOLD`, and callers can force either
+    // strategy via `DecoderConfig::inline_scheduling`.
+    let inline_scheduling = config
+        .decoder_config
+        .inline_scheduling
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| num_rows <= inline_scheduling_threshold());
+
+    if inline_scheduling {
+        decode_scheduler.schedule_ranges(&requested_ranges, &filter, tx, config.io);
+        Ok(decode_stream)
+    } else {
+        // Spawn the (still synchronous) scheduling work so that decoder
+        // messages can stream into the channel while the consumer is
+        // already pulling from the decode stream.
+        let scheduling = async move {
+            decode_scheduler.schedule_ranges(&requested_ranges, &filter, tx, config.io)
+        };
+        let scheduler_handle = tokio::task::spawn(scheduling);
+        Ok(check_scheduler_on_drop(decode_stream, scheduler_handle))
+    }
 }
 
-/// Launches a scheduler on a dedicated (spawned) task and creates a decoder to
-/// decode the scheduled data and returns the decoder as a stream of record batches.
+/// Initializes the scheduler, schedules the requested rows, and returns a
+/// stream of decode tasks for the resulting batches.
+///
+/// This is a convenience function that creates both the scheduler and the
+/// decoder, which can be a little tricky to get right.
+///
+/// # Why is this async?
 ///
-/// This is a convenience function that creates both the scheduler and the decoder
-/// which can be a little tricky to get right.
-pub fn schedule_and_decode(
+/// Constructing the scheduler runs `initialize` which will perform I/O
+/// unless the data required is already in the file metadata cache.
+///
+/// When `DecoderConfig::inline_scheduling` resolves to `true`, the
+/// subsequent (synchronous) scheduling work also runs before this function
+/// returns, leaving a fully primed decode stream.
+pub async fn schedule_and_decode(
     column_infos: Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>,
     requested_rows: RequestedRows,
     filter: FilterExpression,
     column_indices: Vec<u32>,
     target_schema: Arc<Schema>,
     config: SchedulerDecoderConfig,
-) -> BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask> {
+) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
     if requested_rows.num_rows() == 0 {
-        return stream::empty().boxed();
+        return Ok(stream::empty().boxed());
     }
 
     // If the user requested any ranges that are empty, ignore them.  They are pointless and
@@ -2018,27 +2573,19 @@ pub fn schedule_and_decode(
 
     let io = config.io.clone();
 
-    // For convenience we really want this method to be a snchronous method where all
-    // errors happen on the stream.  There is some async initialization that must happen
-    // when creating a scheduler.  We wrap that all up in the very first task.
-    match create_scheduler_decoder(
+    let stream = create_scheduler_decoder(
         column_infos,
         requested_rows,
         filter,
         column_indices,
         target_schema,
         config,
-    ) {
-        // Keep the io alive until the stream is dropped or finishes.  Otherwise the
-        // I/O drops as soon as the scheduling is finished and the I/O loop terminates.
-        Ok(stream) => stream.finally(move || drop(io)).boxed(),
-        // If the initialization failed make it look like a failed task
-        Err(e) => stream::once(std::future::ready(ReadBatchTask {
-            num_rows: 0,
-            task: std::future::ready(Err(e)).boxed(),
-        }))
-        .boxed(),
-    }
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    // Keep the io alive until the stream is dropped or finishes.  Otherwise the
+    // I/O drops as soon as the scheduling is finished and the I/O loop terminates.
+    Ok(stream.finally(move || drop(io)).boxed())
 }
 
 pub static WAITER_RT: LazyLock<tokio::runtime::Runtime> = LazyLock::new(|| {
@@ -2074,14 +2621,17 @@ pub fn schedule_and_decode_blocking(
         return Ok(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![], arrow_schema)));
     }
 
+    let requested_rows = requested_rows.trim_empty_ranges();
     let num_rows = requested_rows.num_rows();
     let is_structural = column_infos[0].is_structural();
 
     let (tx, mut rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
 
     // Initialize the scheduler.  This is still "asynchronous" but we run it with a current-thread
-    // runtime.
-    let mut decode_scheduler = WAITER_RT.block_on(DecodeBatchScheduler::try_new(
+    // runtime.  Pass the rows we are about to schedule so the structural path
+    // only initializes the pages those rows touch.
+    let requested_ranges = requested_rows.into_ranges()?;
+    let mut decode_scheduler = WAITER_RT.block_on(DecodeBatchScheduler::try_new_with_ranges(
         target_schema.as_ref(),
         &column_indices,
         &column_infos,
@@ -2090,19 +2640,13 @@ pub fn schedule_and_decode_blocking(
         config.decoder_plugins,
         config.io.clone(),
         config.cache,
+        Some(&requested_ranges),
         &filter,
         &config.decoder_config,
     ))?;
 
     // Schedule the requested rows
-    match requested_rows {
-        RequestedRows::Ranges(ranges) => {
-            decode_scheduler.schedule_ranges(&ranges, &filter, tx, config.io)
-        }
-        RequestedRows::Indices(indices) => {
-            decode_scheduler.schedule_take(&indices, &filter, tx, config.io)
-        }
-    }
+    decode_scheduler.schedule_ranges(&requested_ranges, &filter, tx, config.io);
 
     // Drain the scheduler queue into a vec of decode messages
     let mut messages = Vec::new();
@@ -2170,6 +2714,16 @@ pub trait PrimitivePageDecoder: Send + Sync {
     /// * `num_rows` - how many rows to decode
     /// * `all_null` - A mutable bool, set to true if a decoder determines all values are null
     fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock>;
+
+    /// Returns the variable-width **value** bytes (the bytes an offsets buffer
+    /// indexes into) that decoding `num_rows` rows starting at `rows_to_skip`
+    /// will produce, or `None` when the encoding cannot report sizes without
+    /// decoding.  An upper bound is acceptable; callers use this to keep i32
+    /// offset values within capacity, so over-estimating only splits batches
+    /// earlier while under-estimating would let them overflow.
+    fn variable_width_bytes(&self, _rows_to_skip: u64, _num_rows: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
 }
 
 /// A scheduler for single-column encodings of primitive data
@@ -2308,9 +2862,212 @@ impl PriorityRange for ListPriorityRange {
 }
 
 /// Contains the context for a scheduler
+/// The writer accumulates about this many bytes of values per column before it
+/// cuts pages (`EncodingOptions::cache_bytes_per_column`), and the rep/def
+/// budget of a mini-block chunk then splits that block into many small pages
+/// for nested columns. Batching reads back up to this size restores one
+/// I/O request per accumulated block.
+pub(crate) const IO_REQUEST_BATCH_BYTES: u64 = 8 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+type SharedRead = Shared<BoxFuture<'static, std::result::Result<Arc<Vec<Bytes>>, CloneableError>>>;
+
+/// What a pending read receives once its batch is submitted.
+enum SubmittedRead {
+    /// The read was alone in its batch and owns the request.
+    Alone(BoxFuture<'static, Result<Vec<Bytes>>>),
+    /// The batched request and the position of each of the read's ranges in it.
+    Shared(SharedRead, Vec<usize>),
+}
+
+struct PendingRead {
+    ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+    priority: u64,
+    tx: oneshot::Sender<SubmittedRead>,
+}
+
+/// Collects the reads submitted while one scheduling step runs and sends them
+/// to the I/O layer as a single request.
+///
+/// The I/O scheduler only coalesces the ranges of one request, so the reads a
+/// step issues for different pages, or for different columns, cost one request
+/// each even when they sit next to each other in the file. A take of a few rows
+/// reads a few bytes per column, and a file's small pages are packed together,
+/// so batching them turns dozens of requests into a handful.
+///
+/// A batch is submitted by [`Self::flush`] when the step ends, as soon as the
+/// queued reads reach [`IO_REQUEST_BATCH_BYTES`] (a page that shards its own
+/// reads to bound buffering keeps every shard in a bounded read), or when a
+/// caller awaits one of its reads, so a read queued outside a step (indirect
+/// I/O issued from a load future) never waits for a flush that does not come.
+/// That last flush waits for one yield first: sibling futures polled in the
+/// same pass (a struct's columns initializing their pages, a scan line's list
+/// columns fetching their items) all queue their reads before the first of
+/// them resumes and submits the lot.
+pub(crate) struct RequestBatch {
+    inner: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    pending: Arc<Mutex<Vec<PendingRead>>>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for RequestBatch {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("RequestBatch").finish_non_exhaustive()
+    }
+}
+
+impl RequestBatch {
+    pub(crate) fn new(inner: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner,
+            pending: Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new())),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn queued_bytes(pending: &[PendingRead]) -> u64 {
+        pending
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|read| &read.ranges)
+            .map(|range| range.end - range.start)
+            .sum()
+    }
+
+    /// Bytes requested by the reads collected so far.
+    pub(crate) fn pending_bytes(&self) -> u64 {
+        Self::queued_bytes(&self.pending.lock().unwrap())
+    }
+
+    /// Submits the collected reads as one request.
+    pub(crate) fn flush(&self) {
+        Self::flush_pending(&self.inner, &self.pending);
+    }
+
+    fn flush_pending(inner: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>, pending: &Mutex<Vec<PendingRead>>) {
+        let pending = std::mem::take(&mut *pending.lock().unwrap());
+        Self::submit_batch(inner, pending);
+    }
+
+    /// Submits `pending` as one request, sorted by file offset, and hands each
+    /// read its own slice of the result.
+    fn submit_batch(inner: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>, pending: Vec<PendingRead>) {
+        if pending.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        if pending.len() == 1 {
+            let read = pending.into_iter().next().unwrap();
+            let _ = read.tx.send(SubmittedRead::Alone(
+                inner.submit_request(read.ranges, read.priority),
+            ));
+            return;
+        }
+        // The lowest row number any of the batched reads delivers data for.
+        let priority = pending.iter().map(|read| read.priority).min().unwrap();
+        let mut ordered = pending
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .flat_map(|(read_idx, read)| {
+                read.ranges
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(move |(range_idx, range)| (range.clone(), read_idx, range_idx))
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        ordered.sort_by_key(|(range, _, _)| (range.start, range.end));
+        let ranges = ordered
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(range, _, _)| range.clone())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        // For every read, where each of its ranges landed in the sorted request.
+        let mut positions = pending
+            .iter()
+            .map(|read| vec![0; read.ranges.len()])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        for (position, (_, read_idx, range_idx)) in ordered.iter().enumerate() {
+            positions[*read_idx][*range_idx] = position;
+        }
+        let batched: SharedRead = inner
+            .submit_request(ranges, priority)
+            .map(|result| result.map(Arc::new).map_err(CloneableError))
+            .boxed()
+            .shared();
+        for (read, read_positions) in pending.into_iter().zip(positions) {
+            // The receiver is gone only when the read's future was dropped.
+            let _ = read
+                .tx
+                .send(SubmittedRead::Shared(batched.clone(), read_positions));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl EncodingsIo for RequestBatch {
+    fn submit_request(
+        &self,
+        ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+        priority: u64,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<Vec<Bytes>>> {
+        let mut pending = self.pending.lock().unwrap();
+        // Keep every batch within the budget: a page that shards its reads
+        // must not have all its shards collapse into one unbounded read.
+        let bytes = ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|range| range.end - range.start)
+            .sum::<u64>();
+        if !pending.is_empty() && Self::queued_bytes(&pending) + bytes > IO_REQUEST_BATCH_BYTES {
+            Self::submit_batch(&self.inner, std::mem::take(&mut *pending));
+        }
+        let (tx, mut rx) = oneshot::channel();
+        pending.push(PendingRead {
+            ranges,
+            priority,
+            tx,
+        });
+        drop(pending);
+        let inner = self.inner.clone();
+        let pending = self.pending.clone();
+        async move {
+            let submitted = match rx.try_recv() {
+                // The step that queued this read already flushed it.
+                Ok(Some(submitted)) => submitted,
+                _ => {
+                    // Awaiting a read is the end of whatever step queued it.
+                    // Yield once so the siblings polled in the same pass get
+                    // to queue too, then submit them all.
+                    tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+                    Self::flush_pending(&inner, &pending);
+                    rx.await.map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::internal("a batched read was dropped before the batch was submitted")
+                    })?
+                }
+            };
+            match submitted {
+                SubmittedRead::Alone(request) => request.await,
+                SubmittedRead::Shared(batched, positions) => {
+                    let bytes = batched.await.map_err(|err| err.0)?;
+                    Ok(positions
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|position| bytes[position].clone())
+                        .collect())
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn with_bypass_backpressure(&self) -> Option<Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>> {
+        self.inner.with_bypass_backpressure()
+    }
+
+    fn with_io_stats(
+        &self,
+        stats: Arc<dyn lance_core::utils::io_stats::IoStatsRecorder>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>> {
+        self.inner.with_io_stats(stats)
+    }
+}
+
 pub struct SchedulerContext {
     recv: Option<mpsc::UnboundedReceiver<DecoderMessage>>,
     io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    /// `io`, as the batch that collects one scheduling step's reads.
+    batch: Arc<RequestBatch>,
     cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
     name: String,
     path: Vec<u32>,
@@ -2330,8 +3087,10 @@ impl<'a> ScopedSchedulerContext<'a> {
 
 impl SchedulerContext {
     pub fn new(io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>, cache: Arc<LanceCache>) -> Self {
+        let batch = Arc::new(RequestBatch::new(io));
         Self {
-            io,
+            io: batch.clone(),
+            batch,
             cache,
             recv: None,
             name: "".to_string(),
@@ -2344,6 +3103,11 @@ impl SchedulerContext {
         &self.io
     }
 
+    /// Submits the reads the schedulers queued since the last step as one request.
+    pub fn flush_io(&self) {
+        self.batch.flush();
+    }
+
     pub fn cache(&self) -> &Arc<LanceCache> {
         &self.cache
     }
@@ -2372,17 +3136,14 @@ impl SchedulerContext {
         VecDeque::from_iter(self.path.iter().copied())
     }
 
-    #[deprecated(since = "0.29.1", note = "This is for legacy 2.0 paths")]
-    pub fn locate_decoder(
-        &mut self,
-        decoder: Box<dyn crate::previous::decoder::LogicalPageDecoder>,
-    ) -> crate::previous::decoder::DecoderReady {
+    #[deprecated(since = "0.29.1", note = "This is for v2.0 array-encoding paths")]
+    pub fn locate_decoder(&mut self, decoder: Box<dyn LogicalPageDecoder>) -> DecoderReady {
         trace!(
             "Scheduling decoder of type {:?} for {:?}",
             decoder.data_type(),
             self.path,
         );
-        crate::previous::decoder::DecoderReady {
+        DecoderReady {
             decoder,
             path: self.current_path(),
         }
@@ -2438,8 +3199,14 @@ impl FilterExpression {
 }
 
 pub trait StructuralFieldScheduler: Send + std::fmt::Debug {
+    /// Loads the per-page metadata this column needs before scheduling.
+    ///
+    /// When `requested_ranges` is present, only pages overlapping those
+    /// top-level row ranges are initialized. `None` initializes the complete
+    /// field.
     fn initialize<'a>(
         &'a mut self,
+        requested_ranges: Option<&'a [Range<u64>]>,
         filter: &'a FilterExpression,
         context: &'a SchedulerContext,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<()>>;
@@ -2452,13 +3219,15 @@ pub trait StructuralFieldScheduler: Send + std::fmt::Debug {
 
 /// A trait for tasks that decode data into an Arrow array
 pub trait DecodeArrayTask: Send {
-    /// Decodes the data into an Arrow array
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<ArrayRef>;
+    /// Decodes the data into an Arrow array and its data size in bytes
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)>;
 }
 
 impl DecodeArrayTask for Box<dyn StructuralDecodeArrayTask> {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
-        StructuralDecodeArrayTask::decode(*self).map(|decoded_array| decoded_array.array)
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
+        let decoded_array = StructuralDecodeArrayTask::decode(*self)?;
+        decoded_array.repdef.ensure_exhausted()?;
+        Ok((decoded_array.array, decoded_array.data_size))
     }
 }
 
@@ -2479,28 +3248,16 @@ impl NextDecodeTask {
     // If the batch is very large this function will log a warning message
     // suggesting the user try a smaller batch size.
     #[instrument(name = "task_to_batch", level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    fn into_batch(self, emitted_batch_size_warning: Arc<Once>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let struct_arr = self.task.decode();
-        match struct_arr {
-            Ok(struct_arr) => {
-                let batch = RecordBatch::from(struct_arr.as_struct());
-                let size_bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size() as u64;
-                if size_bytes > BATCH_SIZE_BYTES_WARNING {
-                    emitted_batch_size_warning.call_once(|| {
-                        let size_mb = size_bytes / 1024 / 1024;
-                        debug!("Lance read in a single batch that contained more than {}MiB of data.  You may want to consider reducing the batch size.", size_mb);
-                    });
-                }
-                Ok(batch)
-            }
-            Err(e) => {
-                let e = Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Error decoding batch: {}", e),
-                    location: location!(),
-                };
-                Err(e)
-            }
+    fn into_batch(self, emitted_batch_size_warning: Arc<Once>) -> Result<(RecordBatch, u64)> {
+        let (struct_arr, data_size) = self.task.decode()?;
+        let batch = RecordBatch::from(struct_arr.as_struct());
+        if data_size > BATCH_SIZE_BYTES_WARNING {
+            emitted_batch_size_warning.call_once(|| {
+                let size_mb = data_size / 1024 / 1024;
+                debug!("Lance read in a single batch that contained more than {}MiB of data.  You may want to consider reducing the batch size.", size_mb);
+            });
         }
+        Ok((batch, data_size))
     }
 }
 
@@ -2513,7 +3270,7 @@ pub enum MessageType {
     // decoder itself.  The messages were not sent in priority order and the decoder
     // had to wait for I/O, figuring out the correct priority.  This was a lot of
     // complexity.
-    DecoderReady(crate::previous::decoder::DecoderReady),
+    DecoderReady(DecoderReady),
     // Starting in 2.1 we use a simpler scheme where the scheduling happens in priority
     // order and the message is an unloaded decoder.  These can be awaited, in order, and
     // the decoder does not have to worry about waiting for I/O.
@@ -2521,7 +3278,7 @@ pub enum MessageType {
 }
 
 impl MessageType {
-    pub fn into_legacy(self) -> crate::previous::decoder::DecoderReady {
+    pub fn into_array(self) -> DecoderReady {
         match self {
             Self::DecoderReady(decoder) => decoder,
             Self::UnloadedPage(_) => {
@@ -2568,6 +3325,13 @@ pub trait DecodePageTask: Send + std::fmt::Debug {
 pub trait StructuralPageDecoder: std::fmt::Debug + Send {
     fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>>;
     fn num_rows(&self) -> u64;
+    /// Returns the exact decoded byte count for the next `num_rows` rows
+    /// from this decoder's current position, without consuming any rows.
+    fn decoded_bytes(&self, _num_rows: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "decoded_bytes is not implemented for this page decoder".to_string(),
+        ))
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -2598,6 +3362,8 @@ pub struct LoadedPageShard {
 pub struct DecodedArray {
     pub array: ArrayRef,
     pub repdef: CompositeRepDefUnraveler,
+    /// The number of bytes of data in this array (excluding Arrow overhead).
+    pub data_size: u64,
 }
 
 pub trait StructuralDecodeArrayTask: std::fmt::Debug + Send {
@@ -2614,18 +3380,41 @@ pub trait StructuralFieldDecoder: std::fmt::Debug + Send {
     fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralDecodeArrayTask>>;
     /// The data type of the decoded data
     fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType;
+    /// Returns the exact decoded byte count for each of [`CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES`]
+    /// row counts, clamped to `rows_remaining`.
+    ///
+    /// Implementations should do their best to estimate the exact size required for
+    /// the uncompressed data.  In cases where this is not possible they should return
+    /// a worst-case estimate.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation simply returns a "not supported" error though this
+    /// will hopefully be removed once implementation is complete.
+    fn plan_decoded_bytes(&self, _rows_remaining: u64) -> Result<[u64; 8]> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "decoded_bytes is not implemented for this field decoder".to_string(),
+        ))
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Default)]
 pub struct DecoderPlugins {}
 
+/// The top-level column layout used by an in-memory encoded batch.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum EncodedBatchLayout {
+    /// Array pages include structural columns.
+    Array,
+    /// Structural pages include only leaf columns.
+    Structural,
+}
+
 /// Decodes a batch of data from an in-memory structure created by [`crate::encoder::encode_batch`]
 pub async fn decode_batch(
     batch: &EncodedBatch,
     filter: &FilterExpression,
     decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
     should_validate: bool,
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
+    layout: EncodedBatchLayout,
     cache: Option<Arc<LanceCache>>,
 ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
     // The io is synchronous so it shouldn't be possible for any async stuff to still be in progress
@@ -2655,14 +3444,21 @@ pub async fn decode_batch(
     .await?;
     let (tx, rx) = unbounded_channel();
     decode_scheduler.schedule_range(0..batch.num_rows, filter, tx, io_scheduler);
-    let is_structural = version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1;
-    let mut decode_stream = create_decode_stream(
+    let is_structural = layout == EncodedBatchLayout::Structural;
+    let mode = std::env::var(ENV_LANCE_STRUCTURAL_BATCH_DECODE_SPAWN_MODE);
+    let spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks = !matches!(mode.ok().as_deref(), Some("never"));
+    // `EncodedBatch` is created from one RecordBatch, so every i32-offset array is
+    // already known to fit in one Arrow array. Preserve the single-batch contract here.
+    let mut decode_stream = create_decode_stream_with_i32_offset_limit(
         &batch.schema,
         batch.num_rows,
         batch.num_rows as u32,
         is_structural,
         should_validate,
+        spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks,
         rx,
+        None,
+        false,
     )?;
     decode_stream.next().await.unwrap().task.await
 }
@@ -2671,25 +3467,737 @@ pub async fn decode_batch(
 // test coalesce indices to ranges
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::StringArray;
+    use std::collections::VecDeque;
+
+    struct StaticArrayDecodeTask(ArrayRef);
+
+    impl DecodeArrayTask for StaticArrayDecodeTask {
+        fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
+            Ok((self.0, 0))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct StaticArrayPageDecoder {
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        rows_drained: u64,
+        /// Pretend each row decodes to this many bytes instead of its real size,
+        /// so budget exhaustion can be tested without gigabyte allocations.
+        fake_bytes_per_row: Option<u64>,
+    }
+
+    impl StaticArrayPageDecoder {
+        fn new(values: &[&str]) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                array: Arc::new(StringArray::from(values.to_vec())),
+                rows_drained: 0,
+                fake_bytes_per_row: None,
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn with_fake_bytes_per_row(values: &[&str], fake_bytes_per_row: u64) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                fake_bytes_per_row: Some(fake_bytes_per_row),
+                ..Self::new(values)
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn row_bytes(&self, row: usize) -> u64 {
+            self.fake_bytes_per_row.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                self.array
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .value(row)
+                    .len() as u64
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl LogicalPageDecoder for StaticArrayPageDecoder {
+        fn wait_for_loaded(&mut self, _loaded_need: u64) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<()>> {
+            std::future::ready(Ok(())).boxed()
+        }
+
+        fn rows_loaded(&self) -> u64 {
+            self.array.len() as u64
+        }
+
+        fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+            self.array.len() as u64
+        }
+
+        fn rows_drained(&self) -> u64 {
+            self.rows_drained
+        }
+
+        fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<NextDecodeTask> {
+            let array = self
+                .array
+                .slice(self.rows_drained as usize, num_rows as usize);
+            self.rows_drained += num_rows;
+            Ok(NextDecodeTask {
+                task: Box::new(StaticArrayDecodeTask(array)),
+                num_rows,
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn max_rows_to_drain(&self, num_rows: u64, byte_budget: u64) -> Result<DrainLimit> {
+            let start = self.rows_drained as usize;
+            let mut rows = 0u64;
+            let mut bytes = 0u64;
+            for row in start..start + num_rows as usize {
+                let row_bytes = self.row_bytes(row);
+                if bytes + row_bytes > byte_budget {
+                    break;
+                }
+                bytes += row_bytes;
+                rows += 1;
+            }
+            Ok(DrainLimit { rows, bytes })
+        }
+
+        fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
+            self.array.data_type()
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn array_stream_batch_sizes(
+        pages: Vec<StaticArrayPageDecoder>,
+        batch_size: u32,
+    ) -> Vec<usize> {
+        let num_rows = pages.iter().map(|page| page.num_rows()).sum::<u64>();
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let root_decoder = SimpleStructDecoder::new(fields, num_rows);
+        let (tx, rx) = unbounded_channel();
+        let pages = pages
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|page| {
+                MessageType::DecoderReady(DecoderReady {
+                    decoder: Box::new(page),
+                    path: VecDeque::from([0]),
+                })
+            })
+            .collect();
+        tx.send(Ok(DecoderMessage {
+            scheduled_so_far: num_rows,
+            decoders: pages,
+        }))
+        .unwrap();
+        drop(tx);
+
+        let mut stream =
+            BatchDecodeStream::new(rx, batch_size, num_rows, root_decoder).into_stream();
+        let mut batch_sizes = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(task) = stream.next().await {
+            batch_sizes.push(task.task.await.unwrap().num_rows());
+        }
+        batch_sizes
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_array_stream_spans_i32_offset_pages_within_budget() {
+        // Small variable-width pages must NOT split the batch at page boundaries.
+        let batch_sizes = array_stream_batch_sizes(
+            vec![
+                StaticArrayPageDecoder::new(&["a", "b"]),
+                StaticArrayPageDecoder::new(&["c", "d"]),
+            ],
+            4,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(batch_sizes, vec![4]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_array_stream_splits_when_i32_offset_budget_exhausted() {
+        // Three single-row pages pretending to hold 800MiB each: two fit the
+        // i32 offset budget (~2GiB), the third starts a new batch.
+        const FAKE_ROW_BYTES: u64 = 800 * 1024 * 1024;
+        let batch_sizes = array_stream_batch_sizes(
+            vec![
+                StaticArrayPageDecoder::with_fake_bytes_per_row(&["a"], FAKE_ROW_BYTES),
+                StaticArrayPageDecoder::with_fake_bytes_per_row(&["b"], FAKE_ROW_BYTES),
+                StaticArrayPageDecoder::with_fake_bytes_per_row(&["c"], FAKE_ROW_BYTES),
+            ],
+            4,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(batch_sizes, vec![2, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_array_stream_emits_over_budget_rows_alone() {
+        // Rows whose (possibly over-estimated) size exceeds the whole budget are
+        // emitted as single-row batches rather than failing the scan.
+        const FAKE_ROW_BYTES: u64 = 3 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024;
+        let batch_sizes = array_stream_batch_sizes(
+            vec![
+                StaticArrayPageDecoder::with_fake_bytes_per_row(&["a"], FAKE_ROW_BYTES),
+                StaticArrayPageDecoder::with_fake_bytes_per_row(&["b"], FAKE_ROW_BYTES),
+            ],
+            4,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(batch_sizes, vec![1, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn requested_row_indices_convert_to_checked_ranges() {
+        let requested_rows = RequestedRows::Indices(vec![1, 2, 5, 8, 9]);
+        let ranges = requested_rows.into_ranges().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ranges, [1..3, 5..6, 8..10]);
+
+        let error = RequestedRows::Indices(vec![2, 2])
+            .into_ranges()
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("not strictly increasing"));
+
+        let error = RequestedRows::Indices(vec![u64::MAX])
+            .into_ranges()
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("u64::MAX"));
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingPageDecoder {
+        page_data_type: DataType,
+        total_rows: u64,
+        load_error_message: &'static str,
+    }
+
+    impl FailingPageDecoder {
+        fn new(
+            page_data_type: DataType,
+            total_rows: u64,
+            load_error_message: &'static str,
+        ) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                page_data_type,
+                total_rows,
+                load_error_message,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl LogicalPageDecoder for FailingPageDecoder {
+        fn wait_for_loaded(&'_ mut self, _rows_needed: u64) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<()>> {
+            let load_error_message = self.load_error_message;
+            async move { Err(Error::io(load_error_message)) }.boxed()
+        }
+
+        fn rows_loaded(&self) -> u64 {
+            0
+        }
+
+        fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+            self.total_rows
+        }
+
+        fn rows_drained(&self) -> u64 {
+            0
+        }
+
+        fn drain(&mut self, requested_rows: u64) -> Result<NextDecodeTask> {
+            Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "failing page decoder should not be drained after load error \
+                 (requested_rows={})",
+                requested_rows
+            )))
+        }
+
+        fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
+            &self.page_data_type
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct InvalidInputDecodeTask;
+
+    impl DecodeArrayTask for InvalidInputDecodeTask {
+        fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<(ArrayRef, u64)> {
+            Err(Error::invalid_input_source("malformed sparse page".into()))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn next_decode_task_preserves_invalid_input_errors() {
+        let err = NextDecodeTask {
+            task: Box::new(InvalidInputDecodeTask),
+            num_rows: 0,
+        }
+        .into_batch(Arc::new(Once::new()))
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_read_zero_dimension_fsl_errors_instead_of_panicking() {
+        // Simulates reading a column whose stored schema declares a
+        // zero-dimension FixedSizeList, as old writers (before #5102) could
+        // persist. The read plan is built by the field-scheduler factories,
+        // which run the dimension guard before touching any column data, so
+        // an empty column iterator is sufficient to reach the guard. The read
+        // must surface a clean error rather than a divide-by-zero panic.
+        use arrow_schema::Field as ArrowField;
+
+        let zero_dim = DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            0,
+        );
+        let field = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new("vec", zero_dim, true)).unwrap();
+        let strategy = CoreFieldDecoderStrategy::default();
+
+        let mut structural_columns = ColumnInfoIter::new(vec![], &[]);
+        let err = strategy
+            .create_structural_field_scheduler(&field, &mut structural_columns)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("dimension must be a positive integer"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+
+        let mut array_columns = ColumnInfoIter::new(vec![], &[]);
+        let err = strategy
+            .create_array_field_scheduler(
+                &field,
+                &mut array_columns,
+                FileBuffers {
+                    positions_and_sizes: &[],
+                },
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("dimension must be a positive integer"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_list_page_with_non_list_encoding_returns_error() {
+        let item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let list = DataType::List(item);
+        let field = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new("values", list, true)).unwrap();
+        let values_encoding = pb::ColumnEncoding {
+            column_encoding: Some(pb::column_encoding::ColumnEncoding::Values(())),
+        };
+        let offsets_column = Arc::new(ColumnInfo::new(
+            0,
+            Arc::new([PageInfo {
+                num_rows: 1,
+                priority: 0,
+                encoding: PageEncoding::Legacy(pb::ArrayEncoding {
+                    array_encoding: Some(pb::array_encoding::ArrayEncoding::Flat(
+                        pb::Flat::default(),
+                    )),
+                }),
+                buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc::new([]),
+            }]),
+            vec![],
+            values_encoding.clone(),
+        ));
+        let items_column = Arc::new(ColumnInfo::new(1, Arc::new([]), vec![], values_encoding));
+        let column_indices = [0, 1];
+        let mut columns = ColumnInfoIter::new(vec![offsets_column, items_column], &column_indices);
+
+        let err = CoreFieldDecoderStrategy::default()
+            .create_array_field_scheduler(
+                &field,
+                &mut columns,
+                FileBuffers {
+                    positions_and_sizes: &[],
+                },
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("expected list encoding for field 'values' in column 0, page 0 but got"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_array_stream_stops_on_load_error() {
+        use arrow_schema::Field as ArrowField;
+
+        let rows_per_batch = 1;
+        let total_rows = 2;
+        let scheduled_rows = 1;
+        let page_rows = 1;
+        let batch_readahead = 2;
+        let load_error_message = "simulated page load failure";
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("vector", DataType::Float32, true)]);
+        let root_decoder = SimpleStructDecoder::new(fields, total_rows);
+        let (tx, rx) = unbounded_channel();
+
+        tx.send(Ok(DecoderMessage {
+            scheduled_so_far: scheduled_rows,
+            decoders: vec![MessageType::DecoderReady(DecoderReady {
+                decoder: Box::new(FailingPageDecoder::new(
+                    DataType::Float32,
+                    page_rows,
+                    load_error_message,
+                )),
+                path: VecDeque::from([0]),
+            })],
+        }))
+        .unwrap();
+        drop(tx);
+
+        let stream =
+            BatchDecodeStream::new(rx, rows_per_batch, total_rows, root_decoder).into_stream();
+        let mut batches = stream.map(|task| task.task).buffered(batch_readahead);
+
+        let err = batches
+            .next()
+            .await
+            .expect("stream should emit the array page-load error")
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains(load_error_message),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            batches.next().await.is_none(),
+            "stream should stop after the array page-load error"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_structural_stream_stops_on_load_error() {
+        let rows_per_batch = 1;
+        let total_rows = 2;
+        let scheduled_rows = 1;
+        let batch_readahead = 2;
+        let load_error_message = "simulated page load failure";
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("vector", DataType::Float32, true)]);
+        let root_decoder = StructuralStructDecoder::new(
+            fields, false, /*is_root=*/ true, /*nullable=*/ false,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let (tx, rx) = unbounded_channel();
+        let failed_page = async move { Err(Error::io(load_error_message)) }.boxed();
+
+        tx.send(Ok(DecoderMessage {
+            scheduled_so_far: scheduled_rows,
+            decoders: vec![MessageType::UnloadedPage(UnloadedPageShard(failed_page))],
+        }))
+        .unwrap();
+        drop(tx);
+
+        let stream = StructuralBatchDecodeStream::new(
+            rx,
+            rows_per_batch,
+            total_rows,
+            root_decoder,
+            /*spawn_batch_decode_tasks=*/ true,
+            None,
+        )
+        .into_stream();
+        let mut batches = stream.map(|task| task.task).buffered(batch_readahead);
+
+        let err = batches
+            .next()
+            .await
+            .expect("stream should emit the page-load error")
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains(load_error_message),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            batches.next().await.is_none(),
+            "stream should stop after the page-load error"
+        );
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_coalesce_indices_to_ranges_with_single_index() {
         let indices = vec![1];
-        let ranges = DecodeBatchScheduler::indices_to_ranges(&indices);
+        let ranges = RequestedRows::indices_to_ranges(&indices).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(ranges, vec![1..2]);
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_coalesce_indices_to_ranges() {
         let indices = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9];
-        let ranges = DecodeBatchScheduler::indices_to_ranges(&indices);
+        let ranges = RequestedRows::indices_to_ranges(&indices).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(ranges, vec![1..10]);
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_coalesce_indices_to_ranges_with_gaps() {
         let indices = vec![1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9];
-        let ranges = DecodeBatchScheduler::indices_to_ranges(&indices);
+        let ranges = RequestedRows::indices_to_ranges(&indices).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(ranges, vec![1..4, 5..8, 9..10]);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_estimate_bytes_per_row() {
+        assert_eq!(estimate_bytes_per_row(&DataType::Int32), 4.0);
+        assert_eq!(estimate_bytes_per_row(&DataType::Int64), 8.0);
+        assert_eq!(estimate_bytes_per_row(&DataType::Float32), 4.0);
+        assert_eq!(estimate_bytes_per_row(&DataType::Boolean), 1.0 / 8.0);
+        assert_eq!(estimate_bytes_per_row(&DataType::Utf8), 64.0);
+        assert_eq!(estimate_bytes_per_row(&DataType::Binary), 64.0);
+        // Struct of 4 x Int32 = 16 bytes
+        let struct_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("d", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        assert_eq!(estimate_bytes_per_row(&struct_type), 16.0);
+    }
+
+    /// Helper: encode a batch, then decode it as a stream with optional
+    /// `batch_size_bytes`, collecting all output batches.
+    async fn decode_batches_with_byte_limit(
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        use crate::{
+            encoder::{EncodingOptions, encode_batch},
+            testing::{TestEncoding, test_encoding_strategy},
+        };
+
+        let version = TestEncoding::StructuralU16;
+        let options = EncodingOptions::default();
+        let strategy = test_encoding_strategy(version);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let encoded = encode_batch(batch, Arc::new(schema.clone()), strategy.as_ref(), &options)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let io_scheduler =
+            Arc::new(BufferScheduler::new(encoded.data.clone())) as Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>;
+        let cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(
+            128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        ));
+        let decoder_plugins = Arc::new(DecoderPlugins::default());
+
+        let mut decode_scheduler = DecodeBatchScheduler::try_new(
+            encoded.schema.as_ref(),
+            &encoded.top_level_columns,
+            &encoded.page_table,
+            &vec![],
+            encoded.num_rows,
+            decoder_plugins,
+            io_scheduler.clone(),
+            cache,
+            &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            &DecoderConfig::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let (tx, rx) = unbounded_channel();
+        decode_scheduler.schedule_range(
+            0..encoded.num_rows,
+            &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            tx,
+            io_scheduler,
+        );
+
+        let mut decode_stream = create_decode_stream(
+            &encoded.schema,
+            encoded.num_rows,
+            batch_size,
+            /*is_structural=*/ true,
+            /*should_validate=*/ true,
+            /*spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks=*/ true,
+            rx,
+            batch_size_bytes,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut batches = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(task) = decode_stream.next().await {
+            batches.push(task.task.await.unwrap());
+        }
+        batches
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_byte_sized_batches_fixed_width() {
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+
+        // 1000 rows x 4 Int32 columns = 16 bytes/row
+        let num_rows: i32 = 1000;
+        let arrays: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> = (0..4)
+            .map(|col| {
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(move |row| row * 10 + col),
+                )) as _
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("d", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let input_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, arrays).unwrap();
+
+        // 16 bytes/row, batch_size_bytes=1600 => 100 rows/batch
+        let batches =
+            decode_batches_with_byte_limit(&input_batch, /*batch_size=*/ 1024, Some(1600)).await;
+
+        // Should produce 10 batches of 100 rows each
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 10);
+        for (i, batch) in batches.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch.num_rows(),
+                100,
+                "batch {i} should have 100 rows, got {}",
+                batch.num_rows()
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Verify roundtrip: concatenate and compare
+        let all_batches: Vec<&RecordBatch> = batches.iter().collect();
+        let concatenated =
+            arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), all_batches.iter().copied())
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(concatenated.num_rows(), num_rows as usize);
+        for col in 0..4 {
+            assert_eq!(
+                concatenated.column(col).as_ref(),
+                input_batch.column(col).as_ref(),
+                "column {col} roundtrip mismatch"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_byte_sized_batches_none_unchanged() {
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+
+        // Without batch_size_bytes, rows_per_batch controls batching
+        let num_rows: i32 = 1000;
+        let arrays: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> = (0..2)
+            .map(|col| {
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(move |row| row * 10 + col),
+                )) as _
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let input_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, arrays).unwrap();
+
+        // batch_size=250, batch_size_bytes=None => 4 batches of 250 rows
+        let batches = decode_batches_with_byte_limit(&input_batch, /*batch_size=*/ 250, None).await;
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 4);
+        for (i, batch) in batches.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch.num_rows(),
+                250,
+                "batch {i} should have 250 rows, got {}",
+                batch.num_rows()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_byte_sized_batches_respect_row_limit() {
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+
+        let num_rows: i32 = 1000;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "x",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let input_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // The byte limit can hold every row, so the 100-row limit must win.
+        let batches =
+            decode_batches_with_byte_limit(&input_batch, /*batch_size=*/ 100, Some(10_000)).await;
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 10);
+        assert!(batches.iter().all(|batch| batch.num_rows() == 100));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_byte_sized_batches_feedback_convergence() {
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+
+        // Each row has a 100-byte string. Schema estimate = 64 bytes (default
+        // for Utf8), so the first batch will overshoot. The feedback loop
+        // should correct subsequent batches toward the target.
+        let num_rows = 500;
+        let value: String = "x".repeat(100);
+        let arrays: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> = vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+            (0..num_rows).map(|_| value.as_str()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ))];
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let input_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, arrays).unwrap();
+
+        // Target 5000 bytes/batch. At 100 bytes/row the ideal is 50 rows/batch.
+        // Schema estimate is 64 bytes/row → first batch ~78 rows (overshoot).
+        // After feedback kicks in, batches should converge to ~50 rows.
+        let target_bytes: u64 = 5000;
+        let batches = decode_batches_with_byte_limit(
+            &input_batch,
+            /*batch_size=*/ 1024,
+            Some(target_bytes),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        // Verify all data round-trips correctly
+        let all_batches: Vec<&RecordBatch> = batches.iter().collect();
+        let concatenated =
+            arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), all_batches.iter().copied())
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(concatenated.num_rows(), num_rows as usize);
+        assert_eq!(
+            concatenated.column(0).as_ref(),
+            input_batch.column(0).as_ref()
+        );
+
+        // After the first batch, subsequent batches should be closer to the
+        // target. The ideal is 50 rows/batch.
+        assert!(
+            batches.len() >= 2,
+            "need at least 2 batches to test convergence"
+        );
+        // The first batch uses the schema estimate (64 bytes/row) →
+        // ~78 rows. After feedback the rows should settle near 50.
+        if batches.len() >= 3 {
+            let second_batch_rows = batches[1].num_rows();
+            let third_batch_rows = batches[2].num_rows();
+            // Both should be within 20% of the ideal (50 rows)
+            assert!(
+                (40..=60).contains(&second_batch_rows),
+                "second batch should be near 50 rows, got {second_batch_rows}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                (40..=60).contains(&third_batch_rows),
+                "third batch should be near 50 rows, got {third_batch_rows}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encoder.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encoder.rs
index 203b3b99642..ee3c7d854de 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encoder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encoder.rs
@@ -6,45 +6,72 @@
 //! Lance files are encoded using a [`FieldEncodingStrategy`] which choose
 //! what encoder to use for each field.
 //!
-//! The current strategy is the [`StructuralEncodingStrategy`] which uses "structural"
-//! encoding.  A tree of encoders is built up for each field.  The struct & list encoders
-//! simply pull off the validity and offsets and collect them.  Then, in the primitive leaf
-//! encoder the validity, offsets, and values are accumulated in an accumulation buffer.  Once
-//! enough data has been collected the primitive encoder will either use a miniblock encoding
-//! or a full zip encoding to create a page of data from the accumulation buffer.
+//! Structural strategies build a tree of encoders for each field from the
+//! version-free builders in [`structural`]. Struct and list encoders collect
+//! validity and offsets; primitive leaf encoders accumulate values and emit
+//! miniblock or full-zip pages.
 
 use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use bytes::{Bytes, BytesMut};
 use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema};
-use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
 use lance_core::utils::bit::{is_pwr_two, pad_bytes_to};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
-use crate::compression::{CompressionStrategy, DefaultCompressionStrategy};
-use crate::compression_config::CompressionParams;
+use crate::data::DataBlock;
 use crate::decoder::PageEncoding;
-use crate::encodings::logical::blob::{BlobStructuralEncoder, BlobV2StructuralEncoder};
-use crate::encodings::logical::fixed_size_list::FixedSizeListStructuralEncoder;
-use crate::encodings::logical::list::ListStructuralEncoder;
-use crate::encodings::logical::map::MapStructuralEncoder;
-use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::PrimitiveStructuralEncoder;
-use crate::encodings::logical::r#struct::StructStructuralEncoder;
 use crate::repdef::RepDefBuilder;
-use crate::version::LanceFileVersion;
 use crate::{
     decoder::{ColumnInfo, PageInfo},
     format::pb,
 };
 
+pub use crate::array_encoding::ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy;
+
+pub mod structural;
+
 /// The minimum alignment for a page buffer.  Writers must respect this.
 pub const MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT: u64 = 8;
 
+/// An array encoded with the `pb::ArrayEncoding` grammar.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct EncodedArray {
+    pub data: DataBlock,
+    pub encoding: pb::ArrayEncoding,
+}
+
+impl EncodedArray {
+    pub fn new(data: DataBlock, encoding: pb::ArrayEncoding) -> Self {
+        Self { data, encoding }
+    }
+
+    pub fn into_buffers(self) -> (Vec<LanceBuffer>, pb::ArrayEncoding) {
+        (self.data.into_buffers(), self.encoding)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Encodes one data block and describes it with `pb::ArrayEncoding`.
+pub trait ArrayEncoder: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
+    fn encode(
+        &self,
+        data: DataBlock,
+        data_type: &arrow_schema::DataType,
+        buffer_index: &mut u32,
+    ) -> Result<EncodedArray>;
+}
+
+/// Selects an `ArrayEncoder` for one page.
+pub trait ArrayEncodingStrategy: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
+    fn create_array_encoder(
+        &self,
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        field: &Field,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>>;
+}
+
 /// An encoded page of data
 ///
 /// Maps to a top-level array
@@ -146,6 +173,15 @@ pub type EncodeTask = BoxFuture<'static, Result<EncodedPage>>;
 /// tensor field) the tensor field is likely to emit encoded pages much more frequently
 /// than the boolean field.
 pub trait FieldEncoder: Send {
+    /// Validate and prepare an array before any encoder state is mutated.
+    ///
+    /// Batch-oriented callers invoke this for every root field before calling
+    /// [`Self::maybe_encode`], so a later validation failure cannot leave an
+    /// earlier field encoder partially advanced.
+    fn prepare_array(&mut self, array: ArrayRef) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+        Ok(array)
+    }
+
     /// Buffer the data and, if there is enough data in the buffer to form a page, return
     /// an encoding task to encode the data.
     ///
@@ -236,9 +272,6 @@ pub struct EncodingOptions {
     /// The encoder needs to know this so it figures the position of out-of-line
     /// buffers correctly
     pub buffer_alignment: u64,
-
-    /// The Lance file version being written
-    pub version: LanceFileVersion,
 }
 
 impl Default for EncodingOptions {
@@ -248,369 +281,44 @@ impl Default for EncodingOptions {
             max_page_bytes: 32 * 1024 * 1024,
             keep_original_array: true,
             buffer_alignment: 64,
-            version: LanceFileVersion::default(),
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl EncodingOptions {
-    /// If true (for Lance file version 2.2+), miniblock chunk sizes are u32,
-    /// to allow storing larger chunks and their sizes for better compression.
-    /// For Lance file version 2.1, miniblock chunk sizes are u16.
-    pub fn support_large_chunk(&self) -> bool {
-        self.version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_2
-    }
-}
-
 /// A trait to pick which kind of field encoding to use for a field
 ///
 /// Unlike the ArrayEncodingStrategy, the field encoding strategy is
 /// chosen before any data is generated and the same field encoder is
 /// used for all data in the field.
 pub trait FieldEncodingStrategy: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
+    /// Validate one top-level array before any field encoder state is mutated.
+    fn validate_array(&self, _array: &dyn Array, _field: &Field) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// Choose and create an appropriate field encoder for the given
     /// field.
     ///
     /// The field encoder can be chosen on the data type as well as
     /// any metadata that is attached to the field.
     ///
-    /// The `encoding_strategy_root` is the encoder that should be
-    /// used to encode any inner data in struct / list / etc. fields.
-    ///
-    /// Initially it is the same as `self` and generally should be
-    /// forwarded to any inner encoding strategy.
     fn create_field_encoder(
         &self,
-        encoding_strategy_root: &dyn FieldEncodingStrategy,
         field: &Field,
         column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
-        options: &EncodingOptions,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>;
 }
 
-pub fn default_encoding_strategy(version: LanceFileVersion) -> Box<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy> {
-    match version.resolve() {
-        LanceFileVersion::Legacy => panic!(),
-        LanceFileVersion::V2_0 => Box::new(
-            crate::previous::encoder::CoreFieldEncodingStrategy::new(version),
-        ),
-        _ => Box::new(StructuralEncodingStrategy::with_version(version)),
-    }
-}
-
-/// Create an encoding strategy with user-configured compression parameters
-pub fn default_encoding_strategy_with_params(
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
-    params: CompressionParams,
-) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy>> {
-    match version.resolve() {
-        LanceFileVersion::Legacy | LanceFileVersion::V2_0 => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            "Compression parameters are only supported in Lance file version 2.1 and later",
-            location!(),
-        )),
-        _ => {
-            let compression_strategy =
-                Arc::new(DefaultCompressionStrategy::with_params(params).with_version(version));
-            Ok(Box::new(StructuralEncodingStrategy {
-                compression_strategy,
-                version,
-            }))
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// An encoding strategy used for 2.1+ files
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct StructuralEncodingStrategy {
-    pub compression_strategy: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
-    pub version: LanceFileVersion,
-}
-
-// For some reason, clippy thinks we can add Default to the above derive but
-// rustc doesn't agree (no default for Arc<dyn Trait>)
-#[allow(clippy::derivable_impls)]
-impl Default for StructuralEncodingStrategy {
-    fn default() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            compression_strategy: Arc::new(DefaultCompressionStrategy::new()),
-            version: LanceFileVersion::default(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl StructuralEncodingStrategy {
-    pub fn with_version(version: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            compression_strategy: Arc::new(DefaultCompressionStrategy::new().with_version(version)),
-            version,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn is_primitive_type(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
-        match data_type {
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, _) => Self::is_primitive_type(inner.data_type()),
-            _ => matches!(
-                data_type,
-                DataType::Boolean
-                    | DataType::Date32
-                    | DataType::Date64
-                    | DataType::Decimal128(_, _)
-                    | DataType::Decimal256(_, _)
-                    | DataType::Duration(_)
-                    | DataType::Float16
-                    | DataType::Float32
-                    | DataType::Float64
-                    | DataType::Int16
-                    | DataType::Int32
-                    | DataType::Int64
-                    | DataType::Int8
-                    | DataType::Interval(_)
-                    | DataType::Null
-                    | DataType::Time32(_)
-                    | DataType::Time64(_)
-                    | DataType::Timestamp(_, _)
-                    | DataType::UInt16
-                    | DataType::UInt32
-                    | DataType::UInt64
-                    | DataType::UInt8
-                    | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_)
-                    | DataType::Binary
-                    | DataType::LargeBinary
-                    | DataType::Utf8
-                    | DataType::LargeUtf8,
-            ),
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn do_create_field_encoder(
-        &self,
-        _encoding_strategy_root: &dyn FieldEncodingStrategy,
-        field: &Field,
-        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
-        options: &EncodingOptions,
-        root_field_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
-        let data_type = field.data_type();
-
-        // Check if field is marked as blob
-        if field.is_blob() {
-            match data_type {
-                DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeBinary => {
-                    return Ok(Box::new(BlobStructuralEncoder::new(
-                        field,
-                        column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
-                        options,
-                        self.compression_strategy.clone(),
-                    )?));
-                }
-                DataType::Struct(_) if self.version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_2 => {
-                    return Ok(Box::new(BlobV2StructuralEncoder::new(
-                        field,
-                        column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
-                        options,
-                        self.compression_strategy.clone(),
-                    )?));
-                }
-                DataType::Struct(_) => {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: "Blob v2 struct input requires file version >= 2.2".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-                _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!(
-                            "Blob encoding only supports Binary/LargeBinary or v2 Struct, got {}",
-                            data_type
-                        )
-                        .into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        if Self::is_primitive_type(&data_type) {
-            Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::try_new(
-                options,
-                self.compression_strategy.clone(),
-                column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
-                field.clone(),
-                Arc::new(root_field_metadata.clone()),
-            )?))
-        } else {
-            match data_type {
-                DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_) => {
-                    let child = field.children.first().expect_ok()?;
-                    let child_encoder = self.do_create_field_encoder(
-                        _encoding_strategy_root,
-                        child,
-                        column_index,
-                        options,
-                        root_field_metadata,
-                    )?;
-                    Ok(Box::new(ListStructuralEncoder::new(
-                        options.keep_original_array,
-                        child_encoder,
-                    )))
-                }
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, _)
-                    if matches!(inner.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_)) =>
-                {
-                    if self.version < LanceFileVersion::V2_2 {
-                        return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                            source: format!(
-                                "FixedSizeList<Struct> is only supported in Lance file format 2.2+, current version: {}",
-                                self.version
-                            )
-                            .into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                    // Complex FixedSizeList needs structural encoding
-                    let child = field.children.first().expect_ok()?;
-                    let child_encoder = self.do_create_field_encoder(
-                        _encoding_strategy_root,
-                        child,
-                        column_index,
-                        options,
-                        root_field_metadata,
-                    )?;
-                    Ok(Box::new(FixedSizeListStructuralEncoder::new(
-                        options.keep_original_array,
-                        child_encoder,
-                    )))
-                }
-                DataType::Map(_, keys_sorted) => {
-                    // TODO: We only support keys_sorted=false for now,
-                    //  because converting a rust arrow map field to the python arrow field will
-                    //  lose the keys_sorted property.
-                    if keys_sorted {
-                        return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                            source: format!("Map data type is not supported with keys_sorted=true now, current value is {}", keys_sorted).into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                    if self.version < LanceFileVersion::V2_2 {
-                        return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                            source: format!(
-                                "Map data type is only supported in Lance file format 2.2+, current version: {}",
-                                self.version
-                            )
-                            .into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                    let entries_child = field.children.first().ok_or_else(|| Error::Schema {
-                        message: "Map should have an entries child".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-                    let DataType::Struct(struct_fields) = entries_child.data_type() else {
-                        return Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: "Map entries field must be a Struct<key, value>".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    };
-                    if struct_fields.len() < 2 {
-                        return Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: "Map entries struct must contain both key and value fields"
-                                .to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                    let key_field = &struct_fields[0];
-                    if key_field.is_nullable() {
-                        return Err(Error::Schema {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "Map key field '{}' must be non-nullable according to Arrow Map specification",
-                                key_field.name()
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                    let child_encoder = self.do_create_field_encoder(
-                        _encoding_strategy_root,
-                        entries_child,
-                        column_index,
-                        options,
-                        root_field_metadata,
-                    )?;
-                    Ok(Box::new(MapStructuralEncoder::new(
-                        options.keep_original_array,
-                        child_encoder,
-                    )))
-                }
-                DataType::Struct(fields) => {
-                    if field.is_packed_struct() || fields.is_empty() {
-                        // Both packed structs and empty structs are encoded as primitive
-                        Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::try_new(
-                            options,
-                            self.compression_strategy.clone(),
-                            column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
-                            field.clone(),
-                            Arc::new(root_field_metadata.clone()),
-                        )?))
-                    } else {
-                        let children_encoders = field
-                            .children
-                            .iter()
-                            .map(|field| {
-                                self.do_create_field_encoder(
-                                    _encoding_strategy_root,
-                                    field,
-                                    column_index,
-                                    options,
-                                    root_field_metadata,
-                                )
-                            })
-                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-                        Ok(Box::new(StructStructuralEncoder::new(
-                            options.keep_original_array,
-                            children_encoders,
-                        )))
-                    }
-                }
-                DataType::Dictionary(_, value_type) => {
-                    // A dictionary of primitive is, itself, primitive
-                    if Self::is_primitive_type(&value_type) {
-                        Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::try_new(
-                            options,
-                            self.compression_strategy.clone(),
-                            column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
-                            field.clone(),
-                            Arc::new(root_field_metadata.clone()),
-                        )?))
-                    } else {
-                        // A dictionary of logical is, itself, logical and we don't support that today
-                        // It could be possible (e.g. store indices in one column and values in remaining columns)
-                        // but would be a significant amount of work
-                        //
-                        // An easier fallback implementation would be to decode-on-write and encode-on-read
-                        Err(Error::NotSupported { source: format!("cannot encode a dictionary column whose value type is a logical type ({})", value_type).into(), location: location!() })
-                    }
-                }
-                _ => todo!("Implement encoding for field {}", field),
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl FieldEncodingStrategy for StructuralEncodingStrategy {
-    fn create_field_encoder(
-        &self,
-        encoding_strategy_root: &dyn FieldEncodingStrategy,
-        field: &Field,
-        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
-        options: &EncodingOptions,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
-        self.do_create_field_encoder(
-            encoding_strategy_root,
-            field,
-            column_index,
-            options,
-            &field.metadata,
-        )
-    }
+/// Context shared while one top-level field and all of its children are mapped
+/// to concrete field encoders.
+pub struct FieldEncodingContext<'a> {
+    /// The complete strategy composition used for recursive child fields.
+    pub strategy: &'a dyn FieldEncodingStrategy,
+    /// Runtime-only writer options.
+    pub options: &'a EncodingOptions,
+    /// Metadata inherited from the top-level field.
+    pub root_field_metadata: &'a HashMap<String, String>,
 }
 
 /// A batch encoder that encodes RecordBatch objects by delegating
@@ -632,12 +340,13 @@ impl BatchEncoder {
             .fields
             .iter()
             .map(|field| {
-                let encoder = strategy.create_field_encoder(
+                let context = FieldEncodingContext {
                     strategy,
-                    field,
-                    &mut col_idx_sequence,
                     options,
-                )?;
+                    root_field_metadata: &field.metadata,
+                };
+                let encoder =
+                    strategy.create_field_encoder(field, &mut col_idx_sequence, &context)?;
                 col_idx += encoder.as_ref().num_columns();
                 Ok(encoder)
             })
@@ -698,14 +407,13 @@ pub async fn encode_batch(
 ) -> Result<EncodedBatch> {
     if !is_pwr_two(options.buffer_alignment) || options.buffer_alignment < MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT
     {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!(
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
                 "buffer_alignment must be a power of two and at least {}",
                 MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT
             )
             .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        ));
     }
 
     let mut data_buffer = BytesMut::new();
@@ -714,17 +422,23 @@ pub async fn encode_batch(
         keep_original_array: true,
         ..*options
     };
-    let batch_encoder = BatchEncoder::try_new(&lance_schema, encoding_strategy, &options)?;
+    let mut batch_encoder = BatchEncoder::try_new(&lance_schema, encoding_strategy, &options)?;
+    let arrays = batch
+        .columns()
+        .iter()
+        .cloned()
+        .zip(batch_encoder.field_encoders.iter_mut())
+        .map(|(array, encoder)| encoder.prepare_array(array))
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
     let mut page_table = Vec::new();
     let mut col_idx_offset = 0;
-    for (arr, mut encoder) in batch.columns().iter().zip(batch_encoder.field_encoders) {
+    for (arr, mut encoder) in arrays.into_iter().zip(batch_encoder.field_encoders) {
         let mut external_buffers =
             OutOfLineBuffers::new(data_buffer.len() as u64, options.buffer_alignment);
         let repdef = RepDefBuilder::default();
         let encoder = encoder.as_mut();
         let num_rows = arr.len() as u64;
-        let mut tasks =
-            encoder.maybe_encode(arr.clone(), &mut external_buffers, repdef, 0, num_rows)?;
+        let mut tasks = encoder.maybe_encode(arr, &mut external_buffers, repdef, 0, num_rows)?;
         tasks.extend(encoder.flush(&mut external_buffers)?);
         for buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
             data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&buffer);
@@ -789,44 +503,101 @@ pub async fn encode_batch(
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use crate::compression_config::{CompressionFieldParams, CompressionParams};
+    use crate::testing::{TestEncoding, create_test_field_encoder, test_encoding_strategy};
+    use arrow_array::make_array;
+    use arrow_buffer::Buffer;
+    use arrow_data::ArrayData;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType as ArrowDataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields as ArrowFields};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_nested_variable_width_offsets_are_validated_before_dispatch(
+        #[values(TestEncoding::Array, TestEncoding::StructuralU32)] encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(ArrowDataType::Utf8, ArrowDataType::LargeUtf8)] item_type: ArrowDataType,
+    ) {
+        let offsets = match &item_type {
+            ArrowDataType::Utf8 => Buffer::from_slice_ref([0_i32, 2, 1, 3]),
+            ArrowDataType::LargeUtf8 => Buffer::from_slice_ref([0_i64, 2, 1, 3]),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        };
+        let child_data = unsafe {
+            ArrayData::builder(item_type.clone())
+                .len(3)
+                .add_buffer(offsets)
+                .add_buffer(Buffer::from(b"abc"))
+                .build_unchecked()
+        };
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", item_type, false));
+        let data_type = ArrowDataType::FixedSizeList(item_field, 1);
+        let array_data = unsafe {
+            ArrayData::builder(data_type.clone())
+                .len(3)
+                .add_child_data(child_data)
+                .build_unchecked()
+        };
+        let array = make_array(array_data);
+        let field = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new("payload", data_type, false)).unwrap();
+        let strategy = test_encoding_strategy(encoding);
+        let mut column_index = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
+        let options = EncodingOptions {
+            cache_bytes_per_column: 0,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut encoder =
+            create_test_field_encoder(strategy.as_ref(), &field, &mut column_index, &options)
+                .unwrap();
+        let mut external_buffers = OutOfLineBuffers::new(0, MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT);
+
+        let error = encoder
+            .maybe_encode(array, &mut external_buffers, RepDefBuilder::default(), 0, 3)
+            .err()
+            .expect("malformed nested offsets should fail before task dispatch");
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("field 'payload'"),
+            "unexpected message: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("non-monotonic offset at position 2"),
+            "unexpected message: {message}"
+        );
+    }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_configured_encoding_strategy() {
-        // Create test parameters
-        let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
-        params.columns.insert(
-            "*_id".to_string(),
-            CompressionFieldParams {
-                rle_threshold: Some(0.5),
-                compression: Some("lz4".to_string()),
-                compression_level: None,
-                bss: None,
-                minichunk_size: None,
-            },
+    fn test_fixed_size_list_struct_requires_v2_2() {
+        let list_item = ArrowField::new(
+            "item",
+            ArrowDataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "x",
+                ArrowDataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            )])),
+            true,
         );
+        let arrow_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "list_struct",
+            ArrowDataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(list_item), 2),
+            true,
+        );
+        let field = Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+
+        let strategy = test_encoding_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU16);
+        let mut column_index = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
+        let options = EncodingOptions::default();
 
-        // Test with V2.1 - should succeed
-        let strategy =
-            default_encoding_strategy_with_params(LanceFileVersion::V2_1, params.clone())
-                .expect("Should succeed for V2.1");
-
-        // Verify it's a StructuralEncodingStrategy
-        assert!(format!("{:?}", strategy).contains("StructuralEncodingStrategy"));
-        assert!(format!("{:?}", strategy).contains("DefaultCompressionStrategy"));
-
-        // Test with V2.0 - should fail
-        let err = default_encoding_strategy_with_params(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, params.clone())
-            .expect_err("Should fail for V2.0");
-        assert!(err
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("only supported in Lance file version 2.1"));
-
-        // Test with Legacy - should fail
-        let err = default_encoding_strategy_with_params(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, params)
-            .expect_err("Should fail for Legacy");
-        assert!(err
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("only supported in Lance file version 2.1"));
+        let result =
+            create_test_field_encoder(strategy.as_ref(), &field, &mut column_index, &options);
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "FixedSizeList<Struct> should be rejected for file version 2.1"
+        );
+        let err = result.err().unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("FixedSizeList<Struct> is not enabled by the selected file format")
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encoder/structural.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encoder/structural.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..06c9161a851
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encoder/structural.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Version-free structural field encoder builders.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field, error::LanceOptionExt};
+
+pub use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::PrimitivePageEncoding;
+
+use crate::encodings::logical::{
+    blob::{BlobStructuralEncoder, BlobV2StructuralEncoder},
+    fixed_size_list::FixedSizeListStructuralEncoder,
+    list::ListStructuralEncoder,
+    map::MapStructuralEncoder,
+    primitive::PrimitiveStructuralEncoder,
+    r#struct::StructStructuralEncoder,
+};
+
+use super::{ColumnIndexSequence, FieldEncoder, FieldEncodingContext};
+
+/// Encode primitive leaves, primitive fixed-size lists, dictionaries, and
+/// packed or empty structs using one concrete primitive page grammar.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PrimitiveFieldEncoding {
+    page_encodings: Arc<[PrimitivePageEncoding]>,
+}
+
+impl PrimitiveFieldEncoding {
+    /// Create a primitive field mechanism from ordered executable page behaviors.
+    pub fn new(page_encodings: impl IntoIterator<Item = PrimitivePageEncoding>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            page_encodings: page_encodings.into_iter().collect(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_primitive_type(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+        match data_type {
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, _) => Self::is_primitive_type(inner.data_type()),
+            _ => matches!(
+                data_type,
+                DataType::Boolean
+                    | DataType::Date32
+                    | DataType::Date64
+                    | DataType::Decimal128(_, _)
+                    | DataType::Decimal256(_, _)
+                    | DataType::Duration(_)
+                    | DataType::Float16
+                    | DataType::Float32
+                    | DataType::Float64
+                    | DataType::Int16
+                    | DataType::Int32
+                    | DataType::Int64
+                    | DataType::Int8
+                    | DataType::Interval(_)
+                    | DataType::Null
+                    | DataType::Time32(_)
+                    | DataType::Time64(_)
+                    | DataType::Timestamp(_, _)
+                    | DataType::UInt16
+                    | DataType::UInt32
+                    | DataType::UInt64
+                    | DataType::UInt8
+                    | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_)
+                    | DataType::Binary
+                    | DataType::LargeBinary
+                    | DataType::Utf8
+                    | DataType::LargeUtf8,
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Compose a primitive encoder at an already allocated physical column.
+    /// File grammars use this when another logical type, such as a Blob,
+    /// supplies the physical descriptor field instead of the logical field.
+    fn create_at(
+        &self,
+        field: Field,
+        column_index: u32,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+        Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::try_new(
+            context.options,
+            self.page_encodings.clone(),
+            column_index,
+            field,
+            Arc::new(context.root_field_metadata.clone()),
+        )?))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a primitive field encoder when this mechanism recognizes `field`.
+    pub fn try_create(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>> {
+        if field.is_blob() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let data_type = field.data_type();
+        let is_primitive = Self::is_primitive_type(&data_type);
+        let is_packed_or_empty_struct = matches!(
+            &data_type,
+            DataType::Struct(fields) if field.is_packed_struct() || fields.is_empty()
+        );
+        let is_primitive_dictionary = matches!(
+            &data_type,
+            DataType::Dictionary(_, value_type) if Self::is_primitive_type(value_type)
+        );
+
+        if !is_primitive && !is_packed_or_empty_struct && !is_primitive_dictionary {
+            if let DataType::Dictionary(_, value_type) = data_type {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "cannot encode a dictionary column whose value type is a logical type ({})",
+                        value_type
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        Ok(Some(self.create_at(
+            field.clone(),
+            column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
+            context,
+        )?))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create the original binary blob descriptor when `field` matches.
+pub fn try_create_binary_blob(
+    primitive: &PrimitiveFieldEncoding,
+    field: &Field,
+    column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+    context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>> {
+    if !field.is_blob() || !matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeBinary) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let descriptor_column_index = column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32);
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(BlobStructuralEncoder::new(
+        field,
+        |descriptor_field| primitive.create_at(descriptor_field, descriptor_column_index, context),
+    )?)))
+}
+
+/// Create the structural blob descriptor when `field` matches.
+pub fn try_create_structural_blob(
+    primitive: &PrimitiveFieldEncoding,
+    field: &Field,
+    column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+    context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>> {
+    if !field.is_blob() || !matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_)) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let descriptor_column_index = column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32);
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(BlobV2StructuralEncoder::new(
+        field,
+        |descriptor_field| primitive.create_at(descriptor_field, descriptor_column_index, context),
+    )?)))
+}
+
+/// Create a variable-size list encoder when `field` matches.
+pub fn try_create_list(
+    field: &Field,
+    column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+    context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>> {
+    if !matches!(
+        field.data_type(),
+        DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_)
+    ) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let child = field.children.first().expect_ok()?;
+    let child_encoder = context
+        .strategy
+        .create_field_encoder(child, column_index, context)?;
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(ListStructuralEncoder::new(
+        context.options.keep_original_array,
+        child_encoder,
+    ))))
+}
+
+/// Create a fixed-size-list encoder whose child is a struct when applicable.
+pub fn try_create_structural_fixed_size_list(
+    field: &Field,
+    column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+    context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>> {
+    if !matches!(
+        field.data_type(),
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, _) if matches!(inner.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_))
+    ) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let child = field.children.first().expect_ok()?;
+    let child_encoder = context
+        .strategy
+        .create_field_encoder(child, column_index, context)?;
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(FixedSizeListStructuralEncoder::new(
+        context.options.keep_original_array,
+        child_encoder,
+    ))))
+}
+
+/// Create an Arrow map encoder when `field` matches.
+pub fn try_create_map(
+    field: &Field,
+    column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+    context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>> {
+    let DataType::Map(_, keys_sorted) = field.data_type() else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if keys_sorted {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Map data type is not supported with keys_sorted=true now, current value is {}",
+                keys_sorted
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let entries_child = field
+        .children
+        .first()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::schema("Map should have an entries child".to_string()))?;
+    let DataType::Struct(struct_fields) = entries_child.data_type() else {
+        return Err(Error::schema(
+            "Map entries field must be a Struct<key, value>".to_string(),
+        ));
+    };
+    if struct_fields.len() < 2 {
+        return Err(Error::schema(
+            "Map entries struct must contain both key and value fields".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let key_field = &struct_fields[0];
+    if key_field.is_nullable() {
+        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+            "Map key field '{}' must be non-nullable according to Arrow Map specification",
+            key_field.name()
+        )));
+    }
+    let child_encoder =
+        context
+            .strategy
+            .create_field_encoder(entries_child, column_index, context)?;
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(MapStructuralEncoder::new(
+        context.options.keep_original_array,
+        child_encoder,
+    ))))
+}
+
+/// Create a non-packed, non-empty struct encoder when `field` matches.
+pub fn try_create_struct(
+    field: &Field,
+    column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+    context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>> {
+    let DataType::Struct(fields) = field.data_type() else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if field.is_blob() || field.is_packed_struct() || fields.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let children_encoders = field
+        .children
+        .iter()
+        .map(|child| {
+            context
+                .strategy
+                .create_field_encoder(child, column_index, context)
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    Ok(Some(Box::new(StructStructuralEncoder::new(
+        context.options.keep_original_array,
+        children_encoders,
+    ))))
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/fuzz_tests.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/fuzz_tests.rs
index d609d3af7d3..7fb2cb123b8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/fuzz_tests.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/fuzz_tests.rs
@@ -14,11 +14,11 @@ use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, ListBuilder};
 use arrow_array::*;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 use proptest::prelude::*;
+use proptest::test_runner::{Config, TestRunner};
 
-use crate::testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
-use crate::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use crate::testing::{TestCases, TestEncoding, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data};
 use lance_core::Result;
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, ArrayGenerator, ByteCount, Dimension, RowCount, Seed};
+use lance_datagen::{ArrayGenerator, ByteCount, Dimension, RowCount, Seed, array, gen_batch};
 
 /// Test configuration representing one of the 16 permutations
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -253,46 +253,54 @@ fn generate_test_data_for_config(
     Ok(batch.column(0).clone())
 }
 
-// Main property test for encoding round-trip
-proptest! {
-    #![proptest_config(ProptestConfig::with_cases(50))]
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_encoding_round_trip(
-        config in encoding_config_strategy(),
-        num_rows in 100..=5000usize,
-        seed in any::<u64>()
-    ) {
-        let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
-
-        rt.block_on(async {
-            // Generate test data
-            let test_data = generate_test_data_for_config(&config, num_rows, seed)
-                .expect("Failed to generate test data");
-
-            // Set up test cases
-            let _field = config.to_field("test");
-
-            let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-            // Force specific encoding through metadata hints if needed
-            if config.encoding_type == EncodingType::Miniblock {
-                metadata.insert("encoding_hint".to_string(), "miniblock".to_string());
-            }
-
-            let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-                .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
-                .with_batch_size(100)
-                .with_range(0..num_rows.min(500) as u64)
-                .with_indices(vec![0, num_rows as u64 / 2, (num_rows - 1) as u64]);
+#[rstest::rstest]
+fn test_encoding_round_trip(
+    #[values(
+        TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+        TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+        TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+    )]
+    encoding: TestEncoding,
+    #[values(
+        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
+        25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47,
+        48, 49
+    )]
+    _shard: usize,
+) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let strategy = (encoding_config_strategy(), 100..=1000usize, any::<u64>());
+    let mut runner = TestRunner::new(Config {
+        cases: 1,
+        ..Config::default()
+    });
+    runner
+        .run(&strategy, |(config, num_rows, seed)| {
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                let test_data = generate_test_data_for_config(&config, num_rows, seed)
+                    .expect("Failed to generate test data");
+
+                let _field = config.to_field("test");
+
+                let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+                if config.encoding_type == EncodingType::Miniblock {
+                    metadata.insert("encoding_hint".to_string(), "miniblock".to_string());
+                }
 
-            // Execute round-trip test
-            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
-                vec![test_data],
-                &test_cases,
-                metadata
-            ).await;
-        });
-    }
+                let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+                    .with_encoding(encoding)
+                    .with_batch_size(100)
+                    .with_range(0..num_rows.min(500) as u64)
+                    .with_indices(vec![0, num_rows as u64 / 2, (num_rows - 1) as u64]);
+
+                check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![test_data], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+            });
+            Ok(())
+        })
+        .unwrap();
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
@@ -301,7 +309,7 @@ async fn test_edge_cases_single_value() {
     let single_int32 = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![42])) as Arc<dyn Array>;
     let single_string = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["test"])) as Arc<dyn Array>;
 
-    let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+    let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
 
     check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![single_int32], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
 
@@ -317,7 +325,7 @@ async fn test_edge_cases_all_nulls() {
         vec![None, None, None] as Vec<Option<&str>>
     )) as Arc<dyn Array>;
 
-    let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+    let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
 
     check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![all_nulls_int32], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
 
@@ -347,7 +355,7 @@ proptest! {
             let list_array = Arc::new(list_builder.finish()) as Arc<dyn Array>;
 
             let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-                .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
+                .with_structural_encodings()
                 .with_range(0..list_sizes.len().min(50) as u64);
 
             check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
@@ -359,37 +367,42 @@ proptest! {
     }
 }
 
-// Test fixed size list encoding
-proptest! {
-    #[test]
-    fn test_fixed_size_list_encoding(
-        list_size in 1..=100i32,
-        num_rows in 10..=1000usize,
-        seed in any::<u64>()
-    ) {
-        let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
-
-        rt.block_on(async {
-            let config = EncodingTestConfig {
-                encoding_type: EncodingType::Miniblock,
-                data_structure: DataStructure::FixedSizeList(list_size),
-                data_width: DataWidth::Fixed(FixedWidthType::Int32),
-                nullable: false,
-            };
-
-            let test_data = generate_test_data_for_config(&config, num_rows, seed)
-                .expect("Failed to generate test data");
-
-            let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-                .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
-
-            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
-                vec![test_data],
-                &test_cases,
-                HashMap::new()
-            ).await;
-        });
-    }
+#[rstest::rstest]
+fn test_fixed_size_list_encoding(
+    #[values(
+        TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+        TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+        TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+    )]
+    encoding: TestEncoding,
+) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let strategy = (1..=100i32, 10..=1000usize, any::<u64>());
+    let mut runner = TestRunner::new(Config::default());
+    runner
+        .run(&strategy, |(list_size, num_rows, seed)| {
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                let config = EncodingTestConfig {
+                    encoding_type: EncodingType::Miniblock,
+                    data_structure: DataStructure::FixedSizeList(list_size),
+                    data_width: DataWidth::Fixed(FixedWidthType::Int32),
+                    nullable: false,
+                };
+
+                let test_data = generate_test_data_for_config(&config, num_rows, seed)
+                    .expect("Failed to generate test data");
+
+                let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_encoding(encoding);
+
+                check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![test_data], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
+                    .await;
+            });
+            Ok(())
+        })
+        .unwrap();
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
@@ -424,7 +437,7 @@ async fn test_list_dict_empty_batch() {
     let list_array = Arc::new(list_builder.finish());
 
     let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-        .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
+        .with_structural_encodings()
         // Read only the empty/null lists (rows 50-99)
         // This batch will have 0 underlying values
         .with_range(50..100);
@@ -539,7 +552,7 @@ async fn test_all_valid_combinations() {
         let test_data =
             generate_test_data_for_config(&config, 100, 42).expect("Failed to generate test data");
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![test_data], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/blob.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/blob.rs
index bc3bc80db27..aa1257eb458 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/blob.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/blob.rs
@@ -4,25 +4,25 @@
 use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, StructArray, UInt64Array,
     builder::{PrimitiveBuilder, StringBuilder},
     cast::AsArray,
-    types::{UInt32Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type},
-    Array, ArrayRef, StructArray, UInt64Array,
+    types::{UInt8Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type},
 };
 use arrow_buffer::Buffer;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields};
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use lance_core::{
-    datatypes::Field, datatypes::BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS, error::LanceOptionExt, Error, Result,
+    Error, Result,
+    datatypes::{BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS, BlobV2Layout, Field},
+    error::LanceOptionExt,
 };
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::{
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     constants::PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY,
     decoder::PageEncoding,
     encoder::{EncodeTask, EncodedColumn, EncodedPage, FieldEncoder, OutOfLineBuffers},
-    encodings::logical::primitive::PrimitiveStructuralEncoder,
     format::ProtobufUtils21,
     repdef::{DefinitionInterpretation, RepDefBuilder},
 };
@@ -43,9 +43,7 @@ pub struct BlobStructuralEncoder {
 impl BlobStructuralEncoder {
     pub fn new(
         field: &Field,
-        column_index: u32,
-        options: &crate::encoder::EncodingOptions,
-        compression_strategy: Arc<dyn crate::compression::CompressionStrategy>,
+        make_descriptor_encoder: impl FnOnce(Field) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         // Create descriptor field: struct<position: u64, size: u64>
         // Preserve the original field's metadata for packed struct
@@ -64,13 +62,7 @@ impl BlobStructuralEncoder {
         )?;
 
         // Use PrimitiveStructuralEncoder to handle the descriptor
-        let descriptor_encoder = Box::new(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::try_new(
-            options,
-            compression_strategy,
-            column_index,
-            descriptor_field,
-            Arc::new(HashMap::new()),
-        )?);
+        let descriptor_encoder = make_descriptor_encoder(descriptor_field)?;
 
         Ok(Self {
             descriptor_encoder,
@@ -90,11 +82,9 @@ impl BlobStructuralEncoder {
                     let encoded_page = encoded_page?;
 
                     let PageEncoding::Structural(inner_layout) = encoded_page.description else {
-                        return Err(Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Expected inner encoding to return structural layout"
-                                .to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::internal(
+                            "Expected inner encoding to return structural layout".to_string(),
+                        ));
                     };
 
                     let wrapped = ProtobufUtils21::blob_layout(inner_layout, &def_meaning);
@@ -128,12 +118,11 @@ impl FieldEncoder for BlobStructuralEncoder {
         }
 
         // Convert input array to LargeBinary
-        let binary_array = array
-            .as_binary_opt::<i64>()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Expected LargeBinary array, got {}", array.data_type()).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let binary_array = array.as_binary_opt::<i64>().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Expected LargeBinary array, got {}", array.data_type()).into(),
+            )
+        })?;
 
         let repdef = RepDefBuilder::serialize(vec![repdef]);
 
@@ -141,11 +130,18 @@ impl FieldEncoder for BlobStructuralEncoder {
         let def = repdef.definition_levels.as_ref();
         let def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]> = repdef.def_meaning.into();
 
-        if self.def_meaning.is_none() {
-            self.def_meaning = Some(def_meaning.clone());
-        } else {
-            debug_assert_eq!(self.def_meaning.as_ref().unwrap(), &def_meaning);
-        }
+        // A blob page stores one definition interpretation for all of its rows.
+        // The descriptor encoder can buffer multiple input arrays, so finish the
+        // pending page before a later array changes from all-valid to nullable (or
+        // vice versa).
+        let mut encode_tasks = match self.def_meaning.as_ref() {
+            Some(existing) if existing != &def_meaning => {
+                let existing = existing.clone();
+                Self::wrap_tasks(self.descriptor_encoder.flush(external_buffers)?, existing)
+            }
+            _ => Vec::new(),
+        };
+        self.def_meaning = Some(def_meaning.clone());
 
         // Collect positions and sizes
         let mut positions = Vec::with_capacity(binary_array.len());
@@ -193,15 +189,16 @@ impl FieldEncoder for BlobStructuralEncoder {
         ));
 
         // Delegate to descriptor encoder
-        let encode_tasks = self.descriptor_encoder.maybe_encode(
+        let descriptor_tasks = self.descriptor_encoder.maybe_encode(
             descriptor_array,
             external_buffers,
             RepDefBuilder::default(),
             row_number,
             num_rows,
         )?;
+        encode_tasks.extend(Self::wrap_tasks(descriptor_tasks, def_meaning));
 
-        Ok(Self::wrap_tasks(encode_tasks, def_meaning))
+        Ok(encode_tasks)
     }
 
     fn flush(&mut self, external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
@@ -237,9 +234,7 @@ pub struct BlobV2StructuralEncoder {
 impl BlobV2StructuralEncoder {
     pub fn new(
         field: &Field,
-        column_index: u32,
-        options: &crate::encoder::EncodingOptions,
-        compression_strategy: Arc<dyn crate::compression::CompressionStrategy>,
+        make_descriptor_encoder: impl FnOnce(Field) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut descriptor_metadata = HashMap::with_capacity(1);
         descriptor_metadata.insert(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
@@ -251,13 +246,7 @@ impl BlobV2StructuralEncoder {
                 .with_metadata(descriptor_metadata),
         )?;
 
-        let descriptor_encoder = Box::new(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::try_new(
-            options,
-            compression_strategy,
-            column_index,
-            descriptor_field,
-            Arc::new(HashMap::new()),
-        )?);
+        let descriptor_encoder = make_descriptor_encoder(descriptor_field)?;
 
         Ok(Self { descriptor_encoder })
     }
@@ -268,57 +257,66 @@ impl FieldEncoder for BlobV2StructuralEncoder {
         &mut self,
         array: ArrayRef,
         external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
-        mut repdef: RepDefBuilder,
+        repdef: RepDefBuilder,
         row_number: u64,
         num_rows: u64,
     ) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
-        let struct_arr = array.as_struct();
-        if let Some(validity) = struct_arr.nulls() {
-            repdef.add_validity_bitmap(validity.clone());
-        } else {
-            repdef.add_no_null(struct_arr.len());
+        let struct_arr = array
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Blob v2 encoder expected StructArray, got {}",
+                        array.data_type()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        if BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_arr.fields()) != Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) {
+            let actual = BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_arr.fields())
+                .map(|layout| layout.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| format!("unrecognized ({:?})", struct_arr.fields()));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Blob v2 encoder expected prepared array layout, got {actual} layout")
+                    .into(),
+            ));
         }
 
         let kind_col = struct_arr
             .column_by_name("kind")
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Blob v2 struct missing `kind` field".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Blob v2 struct missing `kind` field".into())
             })?
             .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
         let data_col = struct_arr
             .column_by_name("data")
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Blob v2 struct missing `data` field".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Blob v2 struct missing `data` field".into())
             })?
             .as_binary::<i64>();
         let uri_col = struct_arr
             .column_by_name("uri")
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Blob v2 struct missing `uri` field".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Blob v2 struct missing `uri` field".into())
             })?
             .as_string::<i32>();
         let blob_id_col = struct_arr
             .column_by_name("blob_id")
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Blob v2 struct missing `blob_id` field".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Blob v2 struct missing `blob_id` field".into())
             })?
             .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
         let blob_size_col = struct_arr
             .column_by_name("blob_size")
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Blob v2 struct missing `blob_size` field".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Blob v2 struct missing `blob_size` field".into())
             })?
             .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
         let packed_position_col = struct_arr
             .column_by_name("position")
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Blob v2 struct missing `position` field".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Blob v2 struct missing `position` field".into())
             })?
             .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
 
@@ -331,49 +329,95 @@ impl FieldEncoder for BlobV2StructuralEncoder {
         let mut uri_builder = StringBuilder::with_capacity(row_count, row_count * 16);
 
         for i in 0..row_count {
-            let (kind_value, position_value, size_value, blob_id_value, uri_value) =
-                if struct_arr.is_null(i) || kind_col.is_null(i) {
-                    (BlobKind::Inline as u8, 0, 0, 0, "".to_string())
-                } else {
-                    let kind_val = BlobKind::try_from(kind_col.value(i))?;
-                    match kind_val {
-                        BlobKind::Dedicated => (
-                            BlobKind::Dedicated as u8,
-                            0,
-                            blob_size_col.value(i),
-                            blob_id_col.value(i),
-                            "".to_string(),
-                        ),
-                        BlobKind::External => (
+            let (kind_value, position_value, size_value, blob_id_value, uri_value) = if struct_arr
+                .is_null(i)
+                || kind_col.is_null(i)
+            {
+                (BlobKind::Inline as u8, 0, 0, 0, "".to_string())
+            } else {
+                let kind_val = BlobKind::try_from(kind_col.value(i))?;
+                match kind_val {
+                    BlobKind::Managed | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase => {
+                        if uri_col.is_null(i)
+                            || ((kind_val == BlobKind::ManagedWithBase) != blob_id_col.is_valid(i))
+                            || packed_position_col.is_null(i)
+                            || blob_size_col.is_null(i)
+                        {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "Managed blob row {i} requires URI, position, and size, plus a base ID for an explicit base"
+                            )));
+                        }
+                        let uri = uri_col.value(i);
+                        let position = packed_position_col.value(i);
+                        let size = blob_size_col.value(i);
+                        lance_core::utils::blob::validate_managed_reference(uri, position, size)?;
+                        (
+                            kind_val as u8,
+                            position,
+                            size,
+                            if kind_val == BlobKind::ManagedWithBase {
+                                blob_id_col.value(i)
+                            } else {
+                                0
+                            },
+                            uri.to_string(),
+                        )
+                    }
+                    BlobKind::Dedicated => (
+                        BlobKind::Dedicated as u8,
+                        0,
+                        blob_size_col.value(i),
+                        blob_id_col.value(i),
+                        "".to_string(),
+                    ),
+                    BlobKind::External => {
+                        let uri = uri_col.value(i).to_string();
+                        let position = if packed_position_col.is_null(i) {
+                            0
+                        } else {
+                            packed_position_col.value(i)
+                        };
+                        let size = if blob_size_col.is_null(i) {
+                            0
+                        } else {
+                            blob_size_col.value(i)
+                        };
+                        let external_base_id = if blob_id_col.is_null(i) {
+                            0
+                        } else {
+                            blob_id_col.value(i)
+                        };
+                        (
                             BlobKind::External as u8,
+                            position,
+                            size,
+                            external_base_id,
+                            uri,
+                        )
+                    }
+                    BlobKind::Packed => (
+                        BlobKind::Packed as u8,
+                        packed_position_col.value(i),
+                        blob_size_col.value(i),
+                        blob_id_col.value(i),
+                        "".to_string(),
+                    ),
+                    BlobKind::Inline => {
+                        let data_val = data_col.value(i);
+                        let blob_len = data_val.len() as u64;
+                        let position =
+                            external_buffers.add_buffer(LanceBuffer::from(Buffer::from(data_val)));
+
+                        (
+                            BlobKind::Inline as u8,
+                            position,
+                            blob_len,
                             0,
-                            0,
-                            0,
-                            uri_col.value(i).to_string(),
-                        ),
-                        BlobKind::Packed => (
-                            BlobKind::Packed as u8,
-                            packed_position_col.value(i),
-                            blob_size_col.value(i),
-                            blob_id_col.value(i),
                             "".to_string(),
-                        ),
-                        BlobKind::Inline => {
-                            let data_val = data_col.value(i);
-                            let blob_len = data_val.len() as u64;
-                            let position = external_buffers
-                                .add_buffer(LanceBuffer::from(Buffer::from(data_val)));
-
-                            (
-                                BlobKind::Inline as u8,
-                                position,
-                                blob_len,
-                                0,
-                                "".to_string(),
-                            )
-                        }
+                        )
                     }
-                };
+                }
+            };
 
             kind_builder.append_value(kind_value);
             position_builder.append_value(position_value);
@@ -392,7 +436,7 @@ impl FieldEncoder for BlobV2StructuralEncoder {
         let descriptor_array = Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
             BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS.clone(),
             children,
-            None,
+            struct_arr.nulls().cloned(),
         )?) as ArrayRef;
 
         self.descriptor_encoder.maybe_encode(
@@ -424,33 +468,82 @@ impl FieldEncoder for BlobV2StructuralEncoder {
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use crate::{
-        compression::DefaultCompressionStrategy,
         encoder::{ColumnIndexSequence, EncodingOptions},
         testing::{
-            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data_with_expected,
-            TestCases,
+            TestCases, TestEncoding, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data,
+            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data_with_expected, create_test_field_encoder,
+            test_encoding_strategy,
         },
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
     };
     use arrow_array::{
-        ArrayRef, LargeBinaryArray, StringArray, StructArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
+        ArrayRef, LargeBinaryArray, StringArray, StructArray, UInt8Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField};
+    use lance_core::datatypes::BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS;
 
     #[test]
     fn test_blob_encoder_creation() {
-        let field =
-            Field::try_from(ArrowField::new("blob_field", DataType::LargeBinary, true)).unwrap();
+        let field = Field::try_from(
+            ArrowField::new("blob_field", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(
+                HashMap::from([(lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]),
+            ),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
         let mut column_index = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
-        let column_idx = column_index.next_column_index(0);
         let options = EncodingOptions::default();
-        let compression = Arc::new(DefaultCompressionStrategy::new());
+        let strategy = test_encoding_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU16);
 
-        let encoder = BlobStructuralEncoder::new(&field, column_idx, &options, compression);
+        let encoder =
+            create_test_field_encoder(strategy.as_ref(), &field, &mut column_index, &options);
 
         assert!(encoder.is_ok());
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_blob_v2_encoder_rejects_logical_array_layout() {
+        let field = Field::try_from(
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "blob_field",
+                DataType::Struct(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS.clone()),
+                true,
+            )
+            .with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+                lance_arrow::BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+            )])),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut column_index = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
+        let options = EncodingOptions::default();
+        let strategy = test_encoding_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32);
+        let mut encoder =
+            create_test_field_encoder(strategy.as_ref(), &field, &mut column_index, &options)
+                .unwrap();
+        let array = Arc::new(
+            StructArray::try_new(
+                BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(b"payload".as_ref())])) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>])) as ArrayRef,
+                ],
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef;
+        let mut external_buffers = OutOfLineBuffers::new(0, 8);
+        let Err(error) =
+            encoder.maybe_encode(array, &mut external_buffers, RepDefBuilder::default(), 0, 1)
+        else {
+            panic!("logical array layout unexpectedly reached the descriptor encoder");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("expected prepared array layout, got logical layout")
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_blob_encoding_simple() {
         let field = Field::try_from(
@@ -460,12 +553,12 @@ mod tests {
         )
         .unwrap();
         let mut column_index = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
-        let column_idx = column_index.next_column_index(0);
         let options = EncodingOptions::default();
-        let compression = Arc::new(DefaultCompressionStrategy::new());
+        let strategy = test_encoding_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU16);
 
         let mut encoder =
-            BlobStructuralEncoder::new(&field, column_idx, &options, compression).unwrap();
+            create_test_field_encoder(strategy.as_ref(), &field, &mut column_index, &options)
+                .unwrap();
 
         // Create test data with larger blobs
         let large_data = vec![0u8; 1024 * 100]; // 100KB blob
@@ -518,7 +611,53 @@ mod tests {
         // Use the standard test harness
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![array],
-            &TestCases::default().with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            &TestCases::default().with_array_and_u16_encodings(),
+            blob_metadata,
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_round_trip_empty_values() {
+        // Empty values share size == 0 with nulls in the descriptor layout
+        // and schedule no read; each must decode to zero-length bytes without
+        // consuming the read result of a following non-empty blob. Empties
+        // are placed before payloads so a misassignment corrupts the output
+        // instead of only exhausting the read iterator.
+        let blob_metadata =
+            HashMap::from([(lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+
+        let val1: &[u8] = &vec![1u8; 1024];
+        let val2: &[u8] = &vec![2u8; 10240];
+        let empty: &[u8] = &[];
+        let array = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![
+            Some(empty),
+            Some(val1),
+            None,
+            Some(empty),
+            Some(val2),
+            None,
+            Some(empty),
+        ]));
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &TestCases::default(), blob_metadata).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_round_trip_varying_chunk_nullability() {
+        let blob_metadata =
+            HashMap::from([(lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let all_valid = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(b"first".as_ref())]));
+        let with_null = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![
+            Some(b"second".as_ref()),
+            None,
+            Some(b"".as_ref()),
+        ]));
+        let all_valid_again = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(b"last".as_ref())]));
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
+            vec![all_valid, with_null, all_valid_again],
+            &TestCases::default().with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU16),
             blob_metadata,
         )
         .await;
@@ -596,7 +735,7 @@ mod tests {
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data_with_expected(
             vec![Arc::new(struct_array)],
             Some(Arc::new(expected_descriptor)),
-            &TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            &TestCases::default().with_u32_structural_encodings(),
             blob_metadata,
         )
         .await;
@@ -661,7 +800,69 @@ mod tests {
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data_with_expected(
             vec![Arc::new(struct_array)],
             Some(Arc::new(expected_descriptor)),
-            &TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            &TestCases::default().with_u32_structural_encodings(),
+            blob_metadata,
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_external_with_range_round_trip() {
+        let blob_metadata = HashMap::from([(
+            lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            lance_arrow::BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        )]);
+
+        let kind_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("kind", DataType::UInt8, true));
+        let data_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true));
+        let uri_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true));
+        let blob_id_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("blob_id", DataType::UInt32, true));
+        let blob_size_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("blob_size", DataType::UInt64, true));
+        let position_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("position", DataType::UInt64, true));
+
+        let kind_array = UInt8Array::from(vec![BlobKind::External as u8]);
+        let data_array = LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![None::<&[u8]>]);
+        let uri_array = StringArray::from(vec![Some("memory://container.pack")]);
+        let blob_id_array = UInt32Array::from(vec![0]);
+        let blob_size_array = UInt64Array::from(vec![42]);
+        let position_array = UInt64Array::from(vec![7]);
+
+        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (kind_field, Arc::new(kind_array) as ArrayRef),
+            (data_field, Arc::new(data_array) as ArrayRef),
+            (uri_field, Arc::new(uri_array) as ArrayRef),
+            (blob_id_field, Arc::new(blob_id_array) as ArrayRef),
+            (blob_size_field, Arc::new(blob_size_array) as ArrayRef),
+            (position_field, Arc::new(position_array) as ArrayRef),
+        ]);
+
+        let expected_descriptor = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("kind", DataType::UInt8, false)),
+                Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![BlobKind::External as u8])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("position", DataType::UInt64, false)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![7])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("size", DataType::UInt64, false)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![42])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("blob_id", DataType::UInt32, false)),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("blob_uri", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["memory://container.pack"])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data_with_expected(
+            vec![Arc::new(struct_array)],
+            Some(Arc::new(expected_descriptor)),
+            &TestCases::default().with_u32_structural_encodings(),
             blob_metadata,
         )
         .await;
@@ -723,7 +924,7 @@ mod tests {
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data_with_expected(
             vec![Arc::new(struct_array)],
             Some(Arc::new(expected_descriptor)),
-            &TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            &TestCases::default().with_u32_structural_encodings(),
             blob_metadata,
         )
         .await;
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/fixed_size_list.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/fixed_size_list.rs
index 805ab2c96bb..745139bf796 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/fixed_size_list.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/fixed_size_list.rs
@@ -9,13 +9,12 @@
 
 use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, Array, ArrayRef, GenericListArray, OffsetSizeTrait, StructArray};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, GenericListArray, OffsetSizeTrait, StructArray, cast::AsArray};
 use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBufferBuilder, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use lance_arrow::deepcopy::deep_copy_nulls;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::{
     decoder::{
@@ -54,12 +53,9 @@ impl FieldEncoder for FixedSizeListStructuralEncoder {
         row_number: u64,
         num_rows: u64,
     ) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
-        let fsl_arr = array
-            .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "FixedSizeList encoder used for non-fixed-size-list data".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let fsl_arr = array.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("FixedSizeList encoder used for non-fixed-size-list data".to_string())
+        })?;
 
         let dimension = fsl_arr.value_length() as usize;
         let values = fsl_arr.values().clone();
@@ -69,7 +65,7 @@ impl FieldEncoder for FixedSizeListStructuralEncoder {
         } else {
             deep_copy_nulls(array.nulls())
         };
-        repdef.add_fsl(validity.clone(), dimension, num_rows as usize);
+        repdef.add_fsl(validity.clone(), dimension, fsl_arr.len());
 
         // FSL forces child elements to exist even under null rows. Normalize any
         // nested lists under null FSL rows to null empty lists.
@@ -127,6 +123,27 @@ impl StructuralFixedSizeListScheduler {
             dimension: dimension as u64,
         }
     }
+
+    fn child_ranges(&self, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> Result<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+        ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|range| {
+                let start = range.start.checked_mul(self.dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "fixed-size-list child range start overflowed: {} * {}",
+                        range.start, self.dimension
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let end = range.end.checked_mul(self.dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "fixed-size-list child range end overflowed: {} * {}",
+                        range.end, self.dimension
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                Ok(start..end)
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
 }
 
 impl StructuralFieldScheduler for StructuralFixedSizeListScheduler {
@@ -136,10 +153,7 @@ impl StructuralFieldScheduler for StructuralFixedSizeListScheduler {
         filter: &FilterExpression,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralSchedulingJob + 'a>> {
         // Scale ranges by dimension for the child - each FSL row becomes `dimension` child rows
-        let child_ranges: Vec<Range<u64>> = ranges
-            .iter()
-            .map(|r| (r.start * self.dimension)..(r.end * self.dimension))
-            .collect();
+        let child_ranges = self.child_ranges(ranges)?;
         let child = self.child.schedule_ranges(&child_ranges, filter)?;
         Ok(Box::new(StructuralFixedSizeListSchedulingJob::new(
             child,
@@ -149,10 +163,21 @@ impl StructuralFieldScheduler for StructuralFixedSizeListScheduler {
 
     fn initialize<'a>(
         &'a mut self,
+        requested_ranges: Option<&'a [Range<u64>]>,
         filter: &'a FilterExpression,
         context: &'a SchedulerContext,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<()>> {
-        self.child.initialize(filter, context)
+        let child_ranges = match requested_ranges.map(|ranges| self.child_ranges(ranges)) {
+            Some(Ok(child_ranges)) => Some(child_ranges),
+            Some(Err(error)) => return std::future::ready(Err(error)).boxed(),
+            None => None,
+        };
+        async move {
+            self.child
+                .initialize(child_ranges.as_deref(), filter, context)
+                .await
+        }
+        .boxed()
     }
 }
 
@@ -210,10 +235,9 @@ impl StructuralFieldDecoder for StructuralFixedSizeListDecoder {
         let dimension = match &self.data_type {
             DataType::FixedSizeList(_, d) => *d as u64,
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "FixedSizeListDecoder has non-FSL data type".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "FixedSizeListDecoder has non-FSL data type".to_string(),
+                ));
             }
         };
         let child_task = self.child.drain(num_rows * dimension)?;
@@ -252,11 +276,15 @@ impl StructuralFixedSizeListDecodeTask {
 
 impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralFixedSizeListDecodeTask {
     fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedArray> {
-        let DecodedArray { array, mut repdef } = self.child_task.decode()?;
+        let DecodedArray {
+            array,
+            mut repdef,
+            data_size,
+        } = self.child_task.decode()?;
         match &self.data_type {
             DataType::FixedSizeList(child_field, dimension) => {
                 let num_rows = self.num_rows as usize;
-                let validity = repdef.unravel_fsl_validity(num_rows, *dimension as usize);
+                let validity = repdef.unravel_fsl_validity(num_rows, *dimension as usize)?;
                 let fsl_array = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
                     child_field.clone(),
                     *dimension,
@@ -266,12 +294,12 @@ impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralFixedSizeListDecodeTask {
                 Ok(DecodedArray {
                     array: Arc::new(fsl_array),
                     repdef,
+                    data_size,
                 })
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "FixedSizeList decoder did not have a fixed-size list field".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::internal(
+                "FixedSizeList decoder did not have a fixed-size list field".to_string(),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -521,9 +549,9 @@ mod tests {
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
     use arrow_array::{
+        Array, FixedSizeListArray,
         builder::{Int32Builder, ListBuilder},
         cast::AsArray,
-        Array, FixedSizeListArray,
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
     use rstest::rstest;
@@ -534,8 +562,7 @@ mod tests {
             STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY,
             STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK,
         },
-        testing::{check_specific_random, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
+        testing::{TestCases, TestEncoding, check_specific_random},
     };
 
     fn make_fsl_struct_type(struct_fields: Fields, dimension: i32) -> DataType {
@@ -623,21 +650,90 @@ mod tests {
         ])
     }
 
+    fn make_fsl_of_list() -> DataType {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+                true,
+            )),
+            2,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn make_fsl_of_large_list() -> DataType {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+                true,
+            )),
+            2,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn make_fsl_of_map() -> DataType {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::Map(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new(
+                        "entries",
+                        DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                            Field::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+                        ])),
+                        false,
+                    )),
+                    false,
+                ),
+                true,
+            )),
+            2,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn make_fsl_of_nested_fsl_struct() -> DataType {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new(
+                        "item",
+                        DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![Field::new(
+                            "x",
+                            DataType::Int32,
+                            true,
+                        )])),
+                        true,
+                    )),
+                    4,
+                ),
+                true,
+            )),
+            2,
+        )
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
-    #[case::simple(simple_struct_fields(), 2, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
-    #[case::nested_struct(nested_struct_fields(), 2, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
-    #[case::struct_with_list(struct_with_list_fields(), 2, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
-    #[case::struct_with_large_list(struct_with_large_list_fields(), 2, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
-    #[case::nested_struct_with_list(nested_struct_with_list_fields(), 2, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
-    #[case::struct_with_nested_fsl(struct_with_nested_fsl_fields(), 2, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
-    #[case::struct_with_map(struct_with_map_fields(), 2, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+    #[case::simple(simple_struct_fields(), 2)]
+    #[case::nested_struct(nested_struct_fields(), 2)]
+    #[case::struct_with_list(struct_with_list_fields(), 2)]
+    #[case::struct_with_large_list(struct_with_large_list_fields(), 2)]
+    #[case::nested_struct_with_list(nested_struct_with_list_fields(), 2)]
+    #[case::struct_with_nested_fsl(struct_with_nested_fsl_fields(), 2)]
+    #[case::struct_with_map(struct_with_map_fields(), 2)]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_fsl_struct_random(
         #[case] struct_fields: Fields,
         #[case] dimension: i32,
-        #[case] min_version: LanceFileVersion,
         #[values(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP)]
         structural_encoding: &str,
+        #[values(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+        #[values(1, 5, 10)] ingest_batch_count: u32,
     ) {
         let data_type = make_fsl_struct_type(struct_fields, dimension);
         let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
@@ -646,47 +742,23 @@ mod tests {
             structural_encoding.into(),
         );
         let field = Field::new("", data_type, true).with_metadata(field_metadata);
-        let test_cases = TestCases::basic().with_min_file_version(min_version);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::basic()
+            .with_encoding(encoding)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![page_size])
+            .with_slicing_modes([use_slicing])
+            .with_ingest_batch_counts([ingest_batch_count]);
         check_specific_random(field, test_cases).await;
     }
 
-    // FSL<List> and FSL<Map> are not yet supported (blocked by repdef)
-    #[test]
-    #[should_panic(expected = "Unsupported logical type: list")]
-    fn test_fsl_list_rejected() {
-        let inner = Field::new(
-            "item",
-            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
-            true,
-        );
-        let data_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(inner), 2);
-        let arrow_field = Field::new("test", data_type, true);
-        let lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
-        let _ = lance_field.data_type();
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    #[should_panic(expected = "Unsupported logical type: map")]
-    fn test_fsl_map_rejected() {
-        let inner = Field::new(
-            "item",
-            DataType::Map(
-                Arc::new(Field::new(
-                    "entries",
-                    DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
-                        Field::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                        Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
-                    ])),
-                    false,
-                )),
-                false,
-            ),
-            true,
-        );
-        let data_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(inner), 2);
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::list(make_fsl_of_list())]
+    #[case::large_list(make_fsl_of_large_list())]
+    #[case::map(make_fsl_of_map())]
+    #[case::nested_fsl_struct(make_fsl_of_nested_fsl_struct())]
+    fn test_unsupported_fsl_child_types_return_error(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
         let arrow_field = Field::new("test", data_type, true);
-        let lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
-        let _ = lance_field.data_type();
+        let err = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Unsupported data type"));
     }
 
     #[test]
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/list.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/list.rs
index fc99fddae2a..a18608acef9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/list.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/list.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, make_array, Array, ArrayRef, LargeListArray, ListArray};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, LargeListArray, ListArray, cast::AsArray, make_array};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 use lance_arrow::deepcopy::deep_copy_nulls;
@@ -120,10 +120,14 @@ impl StructuralFieldScheduler for StructuralListScheduler {
 
     fn initialize<'a>(
         &'a mut self,
+        requested_ranges: Option<&'a [Range<u64>]>,
         filter: &'a FilterExpression,
         context: &'a SchedulerContext,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<()>> {
-        self.child.initialize(filter, context)
+        // The child (items) column is scheduled with the same top-level row
+        // ranges (see `schedule_ranges`); the page repetition index maps those
+        // rows to items, so forward the ranges unchanged.
+        self.child.initialize(requested_ranges, filter, context)
     }
 }
 
@@ -176,6 +180,13 @@ impl StructuralFieldDecoder for StructuralListDecoder {
     fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
         &self.data_type
     }
+
+    fn plan_decoded_bytes(&self, _rows_remaining: u64) -> lance_core::Result<[u64; 8]> {
+        Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported(
+            "plan_decoded_bytes is not yet supported for fields with repetition (list/repeated types)"
+                .to_string(),
+        ))
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -195,7 +206,11 @@ impl StructuralListDecodeTask {
 
 impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralListDecodeTask {
     fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedArray> {
-        let DecodedArray { array, mut repdef } = self.child_task.decode()?;
+        let DecodedArray {
+            array,
+            mut repdef,
+            data_size,
+        } = self.child_task.decode()?;
         match &self.data_type {
             DataType::List(child_field) => {
                 let (offsets, validity) = repdef.unravel_offsets::<i32>()?;
@@ -209,6 +224,7 @@ impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralListDecodeTask {
                 Ok(DecodedArray {
                     array: Arc::new(list_array),
                     repdef,
+                    data_size,
                 })
             }
             DataType::LargeList(child_field) => {
@@ -218,6 +234,7 @@ impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralListDecodeTask {
                 Ok(DecodedArray {
                     array: Arc::new(list_array),
                     repdef,
+                    data_size,
                 })
             }
             _ => panic!("List decoder did not have a list field"),
@@ -234,18 +251,21 @@ mod tests {
         STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK,
     };
     use arrow_array::{
-        builder::{Int32Builder, Int64Builder, LargeListBuilder, ListBuilder, StringBuilder},
-        Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, DictionaryArray, LargeStringArray, ListArray, StructArray,
-        UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
+        Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, DictionaryArray, LargeStringArray, ListArray, StringArray,
+        StructArray, UInt8Array, UInt64Array,
+        builder::{
+            Int32Builder, Int64Builder, LargeListBuilder, ListBuilder, StringBuilder, UInt32Builder,
+        },
     };
 
     use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
+    use lance_datagen::{RowCount, Seed, array, gen_batch};
     use rstest::rstest;
 
-    use crate::{
-        testing::{check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
+    use crate::testing::{
+        TestCases, TestEncoding, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, create_test_field_encoder,
+        test_encoding_strategy,
     };
 
     fn make_list_type(inner_type: DataType) -> DataType {
@@ -256,20 +276,197 @@ mod tests {
         DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", inner_type, true)))
     }
 
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+    enum NullPattern {
+        None,
+        Mixed,
+        All,
+    }
+
+    async fn check_nested_type(
+        data_type: DataType,
+        null_pattern: NullPattern,
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        check_nested_type_with_metadata(data_type, null_pattern, encoding, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    async fn check_nested_type_with_metadata(
+        data_type: DataType,
+        null_pattern: NullPattern,
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        field_metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) {
+        let null_rate = match null_pattern {
+            NullPattern::None => None,
+            NullPattern::Mixed => Some(0.5),
+            NullPattern::All => Some(1.0),
+        };
+        let make_batch = |seed, rows| {
+            let mut generator = gen_batch()
+                .with_seed(Seed::from(seed))
+                .anon_col(array::rand_type(&data_type));
+            if let Some(null_rate) = null_rate {
+                generator.with_random_nulls(null_rate);
+            }
+            generator
+                .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(rows))
+                .unwrap()
+                .column(0)
+                .clone()
+        };
+
+        // Combine a non-zero-offset slice with an independently generated batch.
+        // This covers both offset rebasing and rep/def accumulation at the ingest
+        // boundary without repeating the full generic random-test matrix.
+        let first = make_batch(0, 513).slice(1, 512);
+        let second = make_batch(1, 513);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096])
+            .with_encoding(encoding)
+            .with_batch_size(257)
+            .with_range(510..515)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 511, 512, 1024]);
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![first, second], &test_cases, field_metadata).await;
+    }
+
+    async fn try_encode_v22_pages(
+        array: ArrayRef,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<crate::encoder::EncodedPage>> {
+        try_encode_v22_pages_with_metadata(array, HashMap::new()).await
+    }
+
+    async fn try_encode_v22_pages_with_metadata(
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        field_metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<crate::encoder::EncodedPage>> {
+        let arrow_field =
+            Field::new("", array.data_type().clone(), true).with_metadata(field_metadata);
+        let lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+        let encoding_strategy = test_encoding_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32);
+        let mut column_index_seq = crate::encoder::ColumnIndexSequence::default();
+        let encoding_options = crate::encoder::EncodingOptions::default();
+        let mut encoder = create_test_field_encoder(
+            encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
+            &lance_field,
+            &mut column_index_seq,
+            &encoding_options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut external_buffers =
+            crate::encoder::OutOfLineBuffers::new(0, crate::encoder::MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT);
+        let num_rows = array.len() as u64;
+        let mut pages = Vec::new();
+        for task in encoder
+            .maybe_encode(
+                array,
+                &mut external_buffers,
+                crate::repdef::RepDefBuilder::default(),
+                0,
+                num_rows,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        {
+            pages.push(task.await?);
+        }
+        for task in encoder.flush(&mut external_buffers).unwrap() {
+            pages.push(task.await?);
+        }
+        Ok(pages)
+    }
+
+    async fn encode_v22_pages(array: ArrayRef) -> Vec<crate::encoder::EncodedPage> {
+        try_encode_v22_pages(array).await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn assert_split_miniblock_layout(
+        pages: &[crate::encoder::EncodedPage],
+        min_miniblock_pages: usize,
+        expect_structural_only_page: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut miniblock_pages = 0;
+        let mut fullzip_pages = 0;
+        let mut structural_only_pages = 0;
+
+        for page in pages {
+            let crate::decoder::PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            match layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() {
+                crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(_) => {
+                    miniblock_pages += 1;
+                }
+                crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_) => {
+                    fullzip_pages += 1;
+                }
+                crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) => {
+                    if layout.inline_value.is_none()
+                        && (layout.num_rep_values > 0 || layout.num_def_values > 0)
+                    {
+                        structural_only_pages += 1;
+                    }
+                }
+                crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::BlobLayout(_) => {}
+                crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_) => {}
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            miniblock_pages >= min_miniblock_pages,
+            "expected at least {min_miniblock_pages} mini-block pages, got {miniblock_pages}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            fullzip_pages, 0,
+            "split list pages should not fall back to full-zip"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            structural_only_pages > 0,
+            expect_structural_only_page,
+            "structural-only page presence did not match expectation; got {structural_only_pages}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn assert_has_fullzip_layout(pages: &[crate::encoder::EncodedPage]) {
+        let has_fullzip = pages.iter().any(|page| {
+            let crate::decoder::PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+                return false;
+            };
+            matches!(
+                layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_)
+            )
+        });
+        assert!(has_fullzip, "expected at least one full-zip page");
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_list(
         #[values(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP)]
         structural_encoding: &str,
+        #[values(NullPattern::None, NullPattern::Mixed, NullPattern::All)]
+        null_pattern: NullPattern,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
     ) {
         let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
         field_metadata.insert(
             STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
             structural_encoding.into(),
         );
-        let field =
-            Field::new("", make_list_type(DataType::Int32), true).with_metadata(field_metadata);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+        check_nested_type_with_metadata(
+            make_list_type(DataType::Int32),
+            null_pattern,
+            encoding,
+            field_metadata,
+        )
+        .await;
     }
 
     #[rstest]
@@ -277,55 +474,246 @@ mod tests {
     async fn test_deeply_nested_lists(
         #[values(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP)]
         structural_encoding: &str,
+        #[values(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)] depth: usize,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        test_encoding: TestEncoding,
     ) {
-        let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
-        field_metadata.insert(
+        let mut data_type = DataType::Int32;
+        for _ in 0..depth {
+            data_type = make_list_type(data_type);
+        }
+
+        let mut generator = gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(depth as u64))
+            .anon_col(array::rand_type(&data_type));
+        generator.with_random_nulls(0.2);
+        let source = generator
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(1026))
+            .unwrap()
+            .column(0)
+            .clone();
+
+        // Two non-zero-offset slices cover nested offset rebasing across ingest
+        // batches. The selected range and indices straddle that batch boundary.
+        let data = vec![source.slice(1, 512), source.slice(513, 513)];
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096])
+            .with_encoding(test_encoding)
+            .with_batch_size(257)
+            .with_range(510..515)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 511, 512, 1024]);
+        let field_metadata = HashMap::from([(
             STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
             structural_encoding.into(),
-        );
-        let field = Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true).with_metadata(field_metadata);
-        for _ in 0..5 {
-            let field = Field::new("", make_list_type(field.data_type().clone()), true);
-            check_basic_random(field).await;
-        }
+        )]);
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(data, &test_cases, field_metadata).await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_large_list() {
-        let field = Field::new("", make_large_list_type(DataType::Int32), true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+    async fn test_large_list(
+        #[values(NullPattern::None, NullPattern::Mixed, NullPattern::All)]
+        null_pattern: NullPattern,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        check_nested_type(
+            make_large_list_type(DataType::Int32),
+            null_pattern,
+            encoding,
+        )
+        .await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_nested_strings() {
-        let field = Field::new("", make_list_type(DataType::Utf8), true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+    async fn test_nested_strings(
+        #[values(NullPattern::None, NullPattern::Mixed, NullPattern::All)]
+        null_pattern: NullPattern,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        check_nested_type(make_list_type(DataType::Utf8), null_pattern, encoding).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_nested_list(
+        #[values(NullPattern::None, NullPattern::Mixed, NullPattern::All)]
+        null_pattern: NullPattern,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        check_nested_type(
+            make_list_type(make_list_type(DataType::Int32)),
+            null_pattern,
+            encoding,
+        )
+        .await;
     }
 
+    /// Regression test: a `List<List<Float32>>` column written as MULTIPLE
+    /// batches (chunks) whose flattened leaf values cross a value-page boundary
+    /// fails to decode with "Max offset N exceeds length of values M" (Arrow
+    /// error raised by `ListArray::try_new` in `StructuralListDecodeTask::decode`).
+    ///
+    /// The trigger (verified against the production file and pylance 7.0.0b12 /
+    /// 7.0.0 / 9.0.0-beta.10) requires ALL of:
+    ///   1. >= 2 list layers (`List<List<..>>`),
+    ///   2. a leaf large enough to be chunked into multiple value pages,
+    ///   3. the column written as more than one batch.
+    /// A single batch of the identical data round-trips fine — which is why the
+    /// earlier single-chunk version of this test (and the small `test_nested_list`
+    /// cases) did not catch it. Found in production on the gaming TransNet
+    /// `dino_embedding_per_frame` column (rectangular 3 x 768 float per row).
+    ///
+    /// Each element of the `vec![..]` passed to `check_round_trip_encoding_of_data`
+    /// is encoded as a separate batch (its own `RepDefBuilder`), so we split the
+    /// rows into two chunks to exercise the multi-batch repdef accumulation path.
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_nested_list() {
-        let field = Field::new("", make_list_type(make_list_type(DataType::Int32)), true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+    async fn test_multipage_nested_float_list(
+        #[values(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP)]
+        structural_encoding: &str,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        test_encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        use arrow_array::Float32Array;
+
+        // Production shape: 3 inner lists per row, 768 floats each.
+        let inner_per_row: usize = 3;
+        let inner_len: usize = 768;
+        // Each chunk contains ~1.38 MiB of leaf values, so both cross the 1 MiB
+        // value-page limit. A read batch that spans the ingest boundary is where
+        // the multi-page outer-offset bug triggered.
+        let chunk_rows: &[usize] = &[150, 149];
+
+        let make_chunk = |start_row: usize, num_rows: usize| -> Arc<dyn Array> {
+            let total_inner = num_rows * inner_per_row;
+            let total_values = total_inner * inner_len;
+            let values = Float32Array::from(
+                (0..total_values)
+                    .map(|i| (start_row + i) as f32)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+            let inner_offsets = ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(
+                (0..=total_inner)
+                    .map(|i| (i * inner_len) as i32)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+            let inner_list = ListArray::new(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                OffsetBuffer::new(inner_offsets),
+                Arc::new(values),
+                None,
+            );
+            let outer_offsets = ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(
+                (0..=num_rows)
+                    .map(|i| (i * inner_per_row) as i32)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+            Arc::new(ListArray::new(
+                Arc::new(Field::new(
+                    "item",
+                    DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true))),
+                    true,
+                )),
+                OffsetBuffer::new(outer_offsets),
+                Arc::new(inner_list),
+                None,
+            ))
+        };
+
+        let mut start = 0;
+        let chunks: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = chunk_rows
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&n| {
+                let c = make_chunk(start, n);
+                start += n;
+                c
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        field_metadata.insert(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            structural_encoding.into(),
+        );
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
+            .with_encoding(test_encoding)
+            .with_batch_size(151)
+            .with_range(148..152)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 149, 150, 298]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(chunks, &test_cases, field_metadata).await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_list_struct_list() {
+    async fn test_list_struct_list(
+        #[values(NullPattern::None, NullPattern::Mixed, NullPattern::All)]
+        null_pattern: NullPattern,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
         let struct_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![Field::new(
             "inner_str",
             DataType::Utf8,
             false,
         )]));
 
-        let field = Field::new("", make_list_type(struct_type), true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+        check_nested_type(make_list_type(struct_type), null_pattern, encoding).await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_list_struct_empty() {
+    async fn test_list_struct_empty(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
         let fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("inner", DataType::UInt64, true)]);
         let items = UInt64Array::from(Vec::<u64>::new());
         let structs = StructArray::new(fields, vec![Arc::new(items)], None);
-        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(vec![0; 2 * 1024 * 1024 + 1]));
+        // Exceed two 1 MiB offset pages so flushing the empty struct child is
+        // still exercised multiple times (the original #2762 regression).
+        let num_rows = 2 * 1024 * 1024 / size_of::<i32>() + 1;
+        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(vec![0; num_rows + 1]));
         let lists = ListArray::new(
             Arc::new(Field::new("item", structs.data_type().clone(), true)),
             offsets,
@@ -335,7 +723,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![Arc::new(lists)],
-            &TestCases::default(),
+            &TestCases::default()
+                .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
+                .with_encoding(encoding),
             HashMap::new(),
         )
         .await;
@@ -414,7 +804,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_range(5..7)
             .with_indices(vec![1, 6])
             .with_indices(vec![6])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(outer_list)], &test_cases, field_metadata)
             .await;
     }
@@ -445,7 +835,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_range(1..3)
             .with_indices(vec![1, 3])
             .with_indices(vec![2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(list_array)], &test_cases, field_metadata)
             .await;
     }
@@ -476,7 +866,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_range(1..3)
             .with_indices(vec![1, 3])
             .with_indices(vec![2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(list_array)], &test_cases, field_metadata)
             .await;
     }
@@ -508,7 +898,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_range(1..2)
             .with_indices(vec![0])
             .with_indices(vec![1])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(list_array)], &test_cases, field_metadata)
             .await;
     }
@@ -560,7 +950,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_range(1..2)
             .with_indices(vec![1])
             .with_indices(vec![2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![Arc::new(list_arr)],
             &test_cases,
@@ -599,7 +989,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_range(1..2)
             .with_indices(vec![1])
             .with_indices(vec![2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(list_arr)], &test_cases, field_metadata)
             .await;
     }
@@ -635,7 +1025,7 @@ mod tests {
         );
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
+            .with_structural_encodings()
             .with_page_sizes(vec![100])
             .with_range(800..900);
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
@@ -795,7 +1185,7 @@ mod tests {
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..2)
             .with_indices(vec![1])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![struct_array.clone()],
             &test_cases,
@@ -817,7 +1207,7 @@ mod tests {
         outer_list_builder.append_null();
         let list_array = Arc::new(outer_list_builder.finish());
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
 
@@ -882,11 +1272,391 @@ mod tests {
 
         // This should trigger the assertion failure at primitive.rs:1362
         // debug_assert!(rows_avail > 0)
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
 
         // The bug manifests when encoding this specific pattern
         // Expected: successful round-trip encoding
         // Actual: panic at primitive.rs:1362 - assertion failed: rows_avail > 0
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_sparse_large_string_list(
+        #[values(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP)]
+        structural_encoding: &str,
+    ) {
+        // Three chunks' worth of rep/def levels (1 rep bit + 1 def bit each), so the
+        // planner must split the page. See #6184.
+        let levels_per_chunk =
+            crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::max_repdef_levels_per_chunk(2);
+        let num_rows = (levels_per_chunk * 3) as u32;
+        let num_non_empty = 100u32;
+        let strings_per_list = 10;
+
+        let items_builder = StringBuilder::new();
+        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(items_builder);
+
+        // Spread non-empty lists evenly across the range
+        let step = num_rows / num_non_empty;
+        let mut next_non_empty = step / 2;
+
+        for i in 0..num_rows {
+            if i == next_non_empty {
+                let vals: Vec<Option<&str>> = (0..strings_per_list)
+                    .map(|j| match j % 4 {
+                        0 => Some("a"),
+                        1 => Some("bb"),
+                        2 => Some("ccc"),
+                        _ => Some("d"),
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                list_builder.append_value(vals);
+                next_non_empty = next_non_empty.saturating_add(step);
+            } else {
+                list_builder.append_value([] as [Option<&str>; 0]);
+            }
+        }
+        let list_array = list_builder.finish();
+
+        let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        field_metadata.insert(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            structural_encoding.into(),
+        );
+
+        let list_array = Arc::new(list_array) as ArrayRef;
+        let pages = try_encode_v22_pages_with_metadata(list_array.clone(), field_metadata.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if structural_encoding == STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK {
+            assert_split_miniblock_layout(&pages, 2, true);
+        }
+
+        let chunk_boundary = levels_per_chunk;
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_range(chunk_boundary - 2..chunk_boundary + 2)
+            .with_indices(vec![
+                0,
+                (step / 2) as u64,
+                chunk_boundary - 1,
+                chunk_boundary,
+                num_rows as u64 - 1,
+            ])
+            .with_batch_size(64 * 1024)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, field_metadata).await;
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_sparse_boolean_list_uses_miniblock() {
+        // Redacted reproduction from a production schema shape containing ARRAY(BOOLEAN).
+        // The field names are not relevant; the failure requires sparse list structure
+        // with a 1-bit Boolean leaf value.
+        let levels_per_chunk =
+            crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::max_repdef_levels_per_chunk(2);
+        // One row past the chunk limit forces a split. Keeping values at both ends ensures
+        // both sides of that split remain mini-block pages instead of structural-only pages.
+        let num_rows = (levels_per_chunk + 1) as usize;
+        let booleans_per_list = 8usize;
+
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows + 1);
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(2 * booleans_per_list);
+        offsets.push(0i32);
+
+        for row in 0..num_rows {
+            if row == 0 || row == num_rows - 1 {
+                values.extend((0..booleans_per_list).map(|idx| idx % 2 == 0));
+            }
+            offsets.push(values.len() as i32);
+        }
+
+        let items = BooleanArray::from(values);
+        let list_array = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Boolean, true)),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+            Arc::new(items),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_range(0..1000)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, levels_per_chunk / 2, num_rows as u64 - 1])
+            .with_batch_size(64 * 1024)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32);
+        let list_array = Arc::new(list_array) as ArrayRef;
+        let pages = encode_v22_pages(list_array.clone()).await;
+        assert_split_miniblock_layout(&pages, 2, false);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_sparse_boolean_list_with_long_empty_prefix() {
+        let empty_prefix_rows = 70_000usize;
+        let trailing_empty_rows = 9usize;
+        let booleans_per_list = 8usize;
+        let num_rows = empty_prefix_rows + 1 + trailing_empty_rows;
+
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows + 1);
+        offsets.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(0i32, empty_prefix_rows + 1));
+        let values = (0..booleans_per_list)
+            .map(|idx| idx % 2 == 0)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        offsets.push(values.len() as i32);
+        offsets.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(
+            values.len() as i32,
+            trailing_empty_rows,
+        ));
+
+        let items = BooleanArray::from(values);
+        let list_array = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Boolean, true)),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+            Arc::new(items),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_range(0..num_rows as u64)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, empty_prefix_rows as u64, num_rows as u64 - 1])
+            .with_dense_encodings();
+        let list_array = Arc::new(list_array) as ArrayRef;
+        let pages = encode_v22_pages(list_array.clone()).await;
+        assert_split_miniblock_layout(&pages, 1, true);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_sparse_boolean_list_with_long_null_prefix(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        let null_prefix_rows = 70_000usize;
+        let trailing_empty_rows = 9usize;
+        let booleans_per_list = 8usize;
+        let num_rows = null_prefix_rows + 1 + trailing_empty_rows;
+
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows + 1);
+        offsets.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(0i32, null_prefix_rows + 1));
+        let values = (0..booleans_per_list)
+            .map(|idx| idx % 2 == 0)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        offsets.push(values.len() as i32);
+        offsets.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(
+            values.len() as i32,
+            trailing_empty_rows,
+        ));
+        let validity = BooleanBuffer::from_iter((0..num_rows).map(|row| row >= null_prefix_rows));
+
+        let items = BooleanArray::from(values);
+        let list_array = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Boolean, true)),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+            Arc::new(items),
+            Some(NullBuffer::new(validity)),
+        );
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_range(0..num_rows as u64)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, null_prefix_rows as u64, num_rows as u64 - 1])
+            .with_encoding(encoding);
+        let list_array = Arc::new(list_array) as ArrayRef;
+        let pages = encode_v22_pages(list_array.clone()).await;
+        assert_split_miniblock_layout(&pages, 1, true);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_sparse_boolean_list_with_amortized_long_empty_prefix() {
+        let empty_prefix_rows = 62_000usize;
+        let booleans_per_list = 8_192usize;
+        let num_rows = empty_prefix_rows + 1;
+
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows + 1);
+        offsets.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(0i32, empty_prefix_rows + 1));
+        let values = (0..booleans_per_list)
+            .map(|idx| idx % 2 == 0)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        offsets.push(values.len() as i32);
+
+        let items = BooleanArray::from(values);
+        let list_array = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Boolean, true)),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+            Arc::new(items),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_range(0..num_rows as u64)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, empty_prefix_rows as u64])
+            .with_dense_encodings();
+        let list_array = Arc::new(list_array) as ArrayRef;
+        let pages = encode_v22_pages(list_array.clone()).await;
+        assert_split_miniblock_layout(&pages, 1, true);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    fn unsplittable_nested_list(items: ArrayRef, empty_inner_lists: usize) -> ArrayRef {
+        let mut inner_offsets = vec![0i32; empty_inner_lists + 1];
+        inner_offsets.push(items.len() as i32);
+        let inner_list = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", items.data_type().clone(), true)),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(inner_offsets)),
+            items,
+            None,
+        );
+        Arc::new(ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", inner_list.data_type().clone(), true)),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0i32, empty_inner_lists as i32 + 1])),
+            Arc::new(inner_list),
+            None,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::boolean(Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![true, false, true, false, true, false, true, false])))]
+    #[case::string(Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["value", "other"])))]
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_nested_sparse_single_row_falls_back_to_fullzip(#[case] items: ArrayRef) {
+        let list = unsplittable_nested_list(items, 70_000);
+        let pages = encode_v22_pages(list.clone()).await;
+        assert_has_fullzip_layout(&pages);
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_range(0..1)
+            .with_indices(vec![0])
+            .with_dense_encodings();
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    /// Builds the HNSW-flush repro shape: a dense prefix where every row has
+    /// `NEIGHBORS_PER_ROW` distinct values, followed by a long tail of empty
+    /// lists. Mirrors `HNSW::schema()` `__neighbors` / `__dists` columns:
+    /// dense level-0 lists, then ~6x as many mostly-empty higher-level rows.
+    fn make_hnsw_shaped_list_u32() -> ListArray {
+        const DENSE_ROWS: u32 = 5_000;
+        const NEIGHBORS_PER_ROW: u32 = 32;
+        const EMPTY_TAIL_ROWS: u32 = 70_000;
+
+        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(UInt32Builder::new());
+        let mut next_val: u32 = 0;
+        for _ in 0..DENSE_ROWS {
+            for _ in 0..NEIGHBORS_PER_ROW {
+                list_builder.values().append_value(next_val);
+                next_val = next_val.wrapping_add(1);
+            }
+            list_builder.append(true);
+        }
+        for _ in 0..EMPTY_TAIL_ROWS {
+            list_builder.append(true);
+        }
+        list_builder.finish()
+    }
+
+    /// Reproduces the HNSW-flush shape at v2.2 on the auto path (no
+    /// `STRUCTURAL_ENCODING` metadata): a dense level-0 prefix followed by a
+    /// long tail of empty lists. The global levels/values ratio looks dense,
+    /// so this used to encode as a single mini-block page whose final chunk
+    /// absorbed every trailing empty list and overflowed the per-chunk `u16`
+    /// `num_levels`, corrupting the read. The structural page planner now
+    /// splits on top-level row boundaries: the dense prefix stays on
+    /// mini-block pages and the empty tail becomes structural-only pages, so
+    /// the round-trip is lossless without falling back to full-zip.
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_list_hnsw_shape_splits_to_miniblock_v2_2() {
+        let list_array = make_hnsw_shaped_list_u32();
+        let dense_rows: u64 = 5_000;
+        let total_rows = list_array.len() as u64;
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_range(0..1000)
+            .with_range(dense_rows.saturating_sub(8)..(dense_rows + 8))
+            .with_range(0..total_rows)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, dense_rows - 1, dense_rows, total_rows - 1])
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32);
+        let list_array = Arc::new(list_array) as ArrayRef;
+        let pages = encode_v22_pages(list_array.clone()).await;
+        assert_split_miniblock_layout(&pages, 1, true);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    /// Companion to the auto-path test: even when the user explicitly requests
+    /// `STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK`, the structural page planner splits the
+    /// HNSW shape so every emitted page fits the mini-block per-chunk budget.
+    /// The request is honored (the dense prefix stays on mini-block pages
+    /// rather than being forced to full-zip) and the round-trip is lossless.
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_forced_miniblock_hnsw_shape_splits_to_miniblock_v2_2() {
+        let list_array = make_hnsw_shaped_list_u32();
+        let total_rows = list_array.len() as u64;
+
+        let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        field_metadata.insert(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK.into(),
+        );
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_range(0..total_rows)
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32);
+        let list_array = Arc::new(list_array) as ArrayRef;
+        let pages = try_encode_v22_pages_with_metadata(list_array.clone(), field_metadata.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_split_miniblock_layout(&pages, 1, true);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, field_metadata).await;
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plan_decoded_bytes_list_i32_not_supported() {
+        // Lists encode items using repetition levels so the number of decoded
+        // bytes depends on the per-row list lengths, which are not known at
+        // planning time without inspecting page data.  For this PR we
+        // explicitly reject the call rather than returning a wrong estimate.
+        use crate::decoder::StructuralFieldDecoder;
+        use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder;
+        use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, ListBuilder};
+        use arrow_schema::Field;
+
+        // Build a List<i32> array where every row has a random (variable) length
+        // to illustrate the case we cannot plan for.
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new());
+        let lengths = [0usize, 3, 1, 7, 2, 0, 5];
+        let mut value = 0i32;
+        for &len in &lengths {
+            for _ in 0..len {
+                builder.values().append_value(value);
+                value += 1;
+            }
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        let _list_array = builder.finish(); // variable-length rows confirmed
+
+        // Construct the decoder tree directly (no pages needed for this check).
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let list_type = DataType::List(item_field.clone());
+
+        let child = Box::new(StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder::new(&item_field, false));
+        let decoder = super::StructuralListDecoder::new(child, list_type);
+
+        let err = decoder
+            .plan_decoded_bytes(lengths.len() as u64)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::NotSupported { .. }),
+            "expected NotSupported, got: {err:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("repetition"),
+            "error should mention repetition, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/map.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/map.rs
index 8d70b0fa532..15a00471d84 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/map.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/map.rs
@@ -9,7 +9,6 @@ use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 use lance_arrow::deepcopy::deep_copy_nulls;
 use lance_arrow::list::ListArrayExt;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::{
     decoder::{
@@ -113,10 +112,13 @@ impl StructuralFieldScheduler for StructuralMapScheduler {
 
     fn initialize<'a>(
         &'a mut self,
+        requested_ranges: Option<&'a [Range<u64>]>,
         filter: &'a FilterExpression,
         context: &'a SchedulerContext,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<()>> {
-        self.child.initialize(filter, context)
+        // Like lists, the child (entries) column is scheduled with the same
+        // top-level row ranges, so forward them unchanged.
+        self.child.initialize(requested_ranges, filter, context)
     }
 }
 
@@ -188,7 +190,11 @@ impl StructuralMapDecodeTask {
 
 impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralMapDecodeTask {
     fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedArray> {
-        let DecodedArray { array, mut repdef } = self.child_task.decode()?;
+        let DecodedArray {
+            array,
+            mut repdef,
+            data_size,
+        } = self.child_task.decode()?;
 
         // Decode the offsets from RepDef
         let (offsets, validity) = repdef.unravel_offsets::<i32>()?;
@@ -197,20 +203,18 @@ impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralMapDecodeTask {
         let (entries_field, keys_sorted) = match &self.data_type {
             DataType::Map(field, keys_sorted) => {
                 if *keys_sorted {
-                    return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                        source: "Map type decoder does not support keys_sorted=true now"
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                        "Map type decoder does not support keys_sorted=true now"
                             .to_string()
                             .into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    ));
                 }
                 (field.clone(), *keys_sorted)
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Schema {
-                    message: "Map decoder did not have a map field".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::schema(
+                    "Map decoder did not have a map field".to_string(),
+                ));
             }
         };
 
@@ -218,18 +222,17 @@ impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralMapDecodeTask {
         let entries = array
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Schema {
-                message: "Map entries should be a StructArray".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::schema("Map entries should be a StructArray".to_string()))?
             .clone();
 
         // Build the MapArray from offsets, entries, validity, and keys_sorted
-        let map_array = MapArray::new(entries_field, offsets, entries, validity, keys_sorted);
+        let map_array = MapArray::try_new(entries_field, offsets, entries, validity, keys_sorted)
+            .map_err(|error| Error::invalid_input_source(error.to_string().into()))?;
 
         Ok(DecodedArray {
             array: Arc::new(map_array),
             repdef,
+            data_size,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -239,20 +242,27 @@ mod tests {
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
     use arrow_array::{
-        builder::{Int32Builder, MapBuilder, StringBuilder},
         Array, Int32Array, MapArray, StringArray, StructArray,
+        builder::{Int32Builder, MapBuilder, StringBuilder},
     };
     use arrow_buffer::{NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
 
-    use crate::encoder::{default_encoding_strategy, ColumnIndexSequence, EncodingOptions};
-    use crate::{
-        testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
+    use crate::decoder::{DecodedArray, StructuralDecodeArrayTask};
+    use crate::encoder::{ColumnIndexSequence, EncodingOptions};
+    use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::sparse::{
+        SparseCountSet, SparsePositionSet, SparseStructuralLayerPlan, SparseStructuralPlan,
+        SparseValidityMeaning, SparseValiditySet,
+    };
+    use crate::repdef::{CompositeRepDefUnraveler, RepDefUnraveler};
+    use crate::testing::{
+        TestCases, TestEncoding, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, test_encoding_strategy,
     };
     use arrow_schema::Field as ArrowField;
     use lance_core::datatypes::Field as LanceField;
 
+    use super::StructuralMapDecodeTask;
+
     fn make_map_type(key_type: DataType, value_type: DataType) -> DataType {
         // Note: Arrow MapBuilder uses "keys" and "values" as field names (plural)
         let entries = Field::new(
@@ -266,6 +276,70 @@ mod tests {
         DataType::Map(Arc::new(entries), false)
     }
 
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct StaticMapEntriesTask {
+        entries: StructArray,
+        repdef: CompositeRepDefUnraveler,
+    }
+
+    impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StaticMapEntriesTask {
+        fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> lance_core::Result<DecodedArray> {
+            let Self { entries, repdef } = *self;
+            Ok(DecodedArray {
+                array: Arc::new(entries),
+                repdef,
+                data_size: 0,
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn malformed_sparse_map_entries_return_invalid_input() {
+        let entry_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            Field::new("keys", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("values", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        let entries = StructArray::try_new(
+            entry_fields.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2])),
+            ],
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![false])),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let validity = SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions,
+            positions: SparsePositionSet::Empty,
+        };
+        let plan = SparseStructuralPlan {
+            layers: vec![SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                num_slots: 1,
+                num_child_slots: 1,
+                non_empty_positions: SparsePositionSet::All { len: 1 },
+                counts: SparseCountSet::Constant { value: 1, len: 1 },
+                validity,
+            }],
+            num_items: 1,
+            num_visible_items: 1,
+        };
+        let child_task = StaticMapEntriesTask {
+            entries,
+            repdef: CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![RepDefUnraveler::new_sparse(plan)]),
+        };
+        let map_type = DataType::Map(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("entries", DataType::Struct(entry_fields), false)),
+            false,
+        );
+
+        let Err(err) =
+            Box::new(StructuralMapDecodeTask::new(Box::new(child_task), map_type)).decode()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected malformed map entries to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(err, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    }
+
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_simple_map() {
         // Create a simple Map<String, Int32>
@@ -289,7 +363,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..2)
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(map_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
             .await;
@@ -322,7 +396,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_range(0..4)
             .with_indices(vec![1])
             .with_indices(vec![2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(map_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
             .await;
@@ -353,7 +427,7 @@ mod tests {
             .with_range(0..2)
             .with_indices(vec![0])
             .with_indices(vec![1])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(map_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
             .await;
@@ -402,7 +476,7 @@ mod tests {
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..3)
             .with_indices(vec![0, 2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![Arc::new(struct_array)],
@@ -456,7 +530,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..3)
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![Arc::new(struct_array)],
@@ -502,7 +576,7 @@ mod tests {
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..3)
             .with_indices(vec![0, 2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(list_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
             .await;
@@ -562,7 +636,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..1)
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(outer_map)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
             .await;
@@ -592,7 +666,7 @@ mod tests {
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..2)
             .with_indices(vec![0, 1])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(map_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
             .await;
@@ -619,7 +693,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..2)
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(map_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
             .await;
@@ -640,7 +714,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..2)
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(map_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
             .await;
@@ -675,7 +749,7 @@ mod tests {
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_range(0..3)
             .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings();
 
         // This test ensures that regardless of the internal keep_original_array setting,
         // the end-to-end behavior produces equivalent results
@@ -694,11 +768,11 @@ mod tests {
         let map_field = LanceField::try_from(&map_arrow_field).unwrap();
 
         // Test encoder: Try to create encoder with V2_1 version - should fail
-        let encoder_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let encoder_strategy = test_encoding_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU16);
         let mut column_index = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
         let options = EncodingOptions::default();
 
-        let encoder_result = encoder_strategy.create_field_encoder(
+        let encoder_result = crate::testing::create_test_field_encoder(
             encoder_strategy.as_ref(),
             &map_field,
             &mut column_index,
@@ -715,9 +789,8 @@ mod tests {
 
         let encoder_err_msg = format!("{}", encoder_err);
         assert!(
-            encoder_err_msg.contains("2.2"),
-            "Encoder error message should mention version 2.2, got: {}",
-            encoder_err_msg
+            encoder_err_msg.contains("not enabled by the selected file format"),
+            "unexpected encoder error: {encoder_err_msg}"
         );
         assert!(
             encoder_err_msg.contains("Map data type"),
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive.rs
index 9e22c414d48..d22f78101d7 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive.rs
@@ -15,35 +15,42 @@ use std::{
 use crate::{
     constants::{
         STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK,
+        STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE,
     },
     data::DictionaryDataBlock,
     encodings::logical::primitive::blob::{BlobDescriptionPageScheduler, BlobPageScheduler},
     format::{
-        pb21::{self, compressive_encoding::Compression, CompressiveEncoding, PageLayout},
         ProtobufUtils21,
+        pb21::{self, CompressiveEncoding, PageLayout, compressive_encoding::Compression},
     },
 };
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, make_array, types::UInt64Type, Array, ArrayRef, PrimitiveArray};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, PrimitiveArray, cast::AsArray, make_array, new_null_array, types::UInt64Type,
+};
 use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, BooleanBufferBuilder, NullBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField};
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, stream::FuturesOrdered, FutureExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, TryStreamExt, future::BoxFuture, stream::FuturesOrdered};
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use lance_arrow::deepcopy::deep_copy_nulls;
 use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
+use lance_arrow::deepcopy::deep_copy_nulls;
 use lance_core::{
-    cache::{CacheKey, Context, DeepSizeOf},
+    cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, Context, DeepSizeOf, KeyBuilder, LanceCache},
     error::{Error, LanceOptionExt},
     utils::bit::pad_bytes,
 };
-use log::trace;
-use snafu::location;
+use log::{debug, trace};
 
+use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::MiniBlockChunk;
+use crate::encodings::physical::rle::{RleDecompressor, RleRuns};
+use crate::utils::bytepack::ByteUnpacker;
 use crate::{
     compression::{
         BlockDecompressor, CompressionStrategy, DecompressionStrategy, MiniBlockDecompressor,
+        compress_required_block, create_rle_decompressor,
     },
     data::{AllNullDataBlock, DataBlock, VariableWidthBlock},
+    decoder::{IO_REQUEST_BATCH_BYTES, RequestBatch},
     utils::bytepack::BytepackedIntegerEncoder,
 };
 use crate::{
@@ -51,25 +58,27 @@ use crate::{
     encodings::logical::primitive::fullzip::PerValueDataBlock,
 };
 use crate::{
-    encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::MiniBlockChunk, utils::bytepack::ByteUnpacker,
-};
-use crate::{
-    encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::MiniBlockCompressed,
+    encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::{MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressionContext},
     statistics::{ComputeStat, GetStat, Stat},
 };
 use crate::{
     repdef::{
-        build_control_word_iterator, CompositeRepDefUnraveler, ControlWordIterator,
-        ControlWordParser, DefinitionInterpretation, RepDefSlicer,
+        CompositeRepDefUnraveler, ControlWordIterator, ControlWordParser, DefinitionInterpretation,
+        MiniBlockRepDefBudget, NormalizedStructuralPlan, RepDefSlicer, SerializedRepDefs,
+        build_control_word_iterator, max_visible_level,
     },
     utils::accumulation::AccumulationQueue,
 };
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Field, utils::tokio::spawn_cpu, Result};
+use lance_core::{Result, datatypes::Field, utils::tokio::spawn_cpu};
 
-use crate::constants::DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY;
-use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::dict::DICT_INDICES_BITS_PER_VALUE;
-use crate::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use crate::constants::{
+    COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY, COMPRESSION_META_KEY, DICT_DIVISOR_META_KEY,
+    DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY, DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_ENV_VAR,
+    DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL_ENV_VAR, DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY,
+    DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_META_KEY,
+};
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     data::{BlockInfo, DataBlockBuilder, FixedWidthDataBlock},
     decoder::{
@@ -82,32 +91,160 @@ use crate::{
         EncodeTask, EncodedColumn, EncodedPage, EncodingOptions, FieldEncoder, OutOfLineBuffers,
     },
     repdef::{LevelBuffer, RepDefBuilder, RepDefUnraveler},
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
 pub mod blob;
+mod chunk_index;
 pub mod constant;
 pub mod dict;
 pub mod fullzip;
+mod layout;
 pub mod miniblock;
+pub(crate) mod sparse;
+
+use chunk_index::{ItemCounts, MiniBlockChunkIndex, PrefixSums, RowMapping, parse_nested_rep};
 
 const FILL_BYTE: u8 = 0xFE;
+const DEFAULT_DICT_DIVISOR: u64 = 2;
+const DEFAULT_DICT_MAX_CARDINALITY: u64 = 100_000;
+const DEFAULT_DICT_SIZE_RATIO: f64 = 0.8;
+const DEFAULT_DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION: &str = "lz4";
+
+/// Largest level count a direct legacy u16-value/U8-run RLE frame can prove.
+///
+/// Mini-block level payload sizes are u16. After the eight-byte frame header, each run needs a
+/// two-byte value and a one-byte length, and each U8 run can represent at most 255 levels.
+const MAX_LEGACY_RLE_LEVELS: u64 = ((u16::MAX as u64 - std::mem::size_of::<u64>() as u64)
+    / (std::mem::size_of::<u16>() as u64 + std::mem::size_of::<u8>() as u64))
+    * u8::MAX as u64;
 
 struct PageLoadTask {
     decoder_fut: BoxFuture<'static, Result<Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>>>,
     num_rows: u64,
 }
 
+/// The ordered initialization-buffer slots for one page.
+///
+/// Optional slots preserve the semantic position of absent buffers so range
+/// declaration and buffer consumption share one representation.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PageInitialization {
+    buffer_ranges: Vec<Option<Range<u64>>>,
+}
+
+impl PageInitialization {
+    fn new(buffer_ranges: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<Range<u64>>>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            buffer_ranges: buffer_ranges.into_iter().collect(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn required_ranges(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &Range<u64>> {
+        self.buffer_ranges.iter().flatten()
+    }
+
+    fn num_required_ranges(&self) -> usize {
+        self.required_ranges().count()
+    }
+
+    fn with_buffers(self, buffers: Vec<Bytes>) -> Result<PageInitializationBuffers> {
+        let expected = self.num_required_ranges();
+        if buffers.len() != expected {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Page initialization received {} buffers for {expected} declared ranges",
+                    buffers.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut buffers = buffers.into_iter();
+        let mut buffer_slots = Vec::with_capacity(self.buffer_ranges.len());
+        for range in self.buffer_ranges {
+            if range.is_some() {
+                let buffer = buffers.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("Page initialization buffer was not assigned")
+                })?;
+                buffer_slots.push(Some(buffer));
+            } else {
+                buffer_slots.push(None);
+            }
+        }
+        debug_assert!(
+            buffers.next().is_none(),
+            "validated page initialization buffer count must be exhausted"
+        );
+        Ok(PageInitializationBuffers { buffer_slots })
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PageInitializationBuffers {
+    buffer_slots: Vec<Option<Bytes>>,
+}
+
+impl PageInitializationBuffers {
+    fn try_into_array<const N: usize>(self, layout: &str) -> Result<[Option<Bytes>; N]> {
+        let actual = self.buffer_slots.len();
+        self.buffer_slots.try_into().map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "{layout} page initialization declared {actual} buffer slots, expected {N}"
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn into_required(self, layout: &str) -> Result<Vec<Bytes>> {
+        self.buffer_slots
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(index, buffer)| {
+                buffer.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "{layout} page initialization buffer slot {index} is absent"
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+}
+
 /// A trait for figuring out how to schedule the data within
 /// a single page.
 trait StructuralPageScheduler: std::fmt::Debug + Send {
-    /// Fetches any metadata required for the page
-    fn initialize<'a>(
+    /// Whether this page requires initialized metadata before scheduling.
+    fn needs_initialization(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    /// Describes the file byte ranges this page must read to initialize its
+    /// metadata (chunk metadata, dictionary, repetition index, ...).
+    ///
+    /// The field scheduler sorts the combined I/O request by file offset and
+    /// restores buffers to the declared slots afterward.
+    fn init_layout(&self) -> Result<PageInitialization>;
+
+    /// Returns initialized state from the bytes declared by [`Self::init_layout`].
+    ///
+    /// The caller attaches the returned state with [`Self::try_load`].
+    fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
         &'a mut self,
+        buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
         io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>>;
-    /// Loads metadata from a previous initialize call
-    fn load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>);
+
+    /// Tries to attach metadata from a previous initialization.
+    fn try_load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> Result<()>;
+
+    // Identifies the requested decode shape (e.g. blob descriptor struct vs
+    // raw bytes). Blob columns can produce multiple page scheduler variants
+    // for the same physical column depending on the target field's data type,
+    // and the cached page state types differ per variant. The stable view is
+    // mixed into the cache key so different variants do not collide.
+    fn cache_view(&self) -> PageCacheView {
+        PageCacheView::Native
+    }
+
     /// Schedules the read of the given ranges in the page
     ///
     /// The read may be split into multiple "shards" if the page is extremely large.
@@ -160,16 +297,129 @@ struct DecodeMiniBlockTask {
 }
 
 impl DecodeMiniBlockTask {
+    fn decoded_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        if self.rep_decompressor.is_some() || self.def_decompressor.is_some() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let num_values = self
+            .instructions
+            .iter()
+            .try_fold(0_u64, |total, (instruction, _)| {
+                total.checked_add(instruction.rows_to_take)
+            })?;
+        self.value_decompressor.decoded_size_bytes(num_values)
+    }
+
+    fn resolve_num_levels(
+        rep_decompressor: Option<&dyn BlockDecompressor>,
+        rep_levels: Option<&LanceBuffer>,
+        def_decompressor: Option<&dyn BlockDecompressor>,
+        def_levels: Option<&LanceBuffer>,
+        declared_num_levels: u16,
+    ) -> Result<u64> {
+        let rep_num_levels = match (rep_decompressor, rep_levels) {
+            (Some(decompressor), Some(levels)) => decompressor.infer_num_values(levels)?,
+            (None, None) => None,
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "miniblock repetition codec and payload presence disagree".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+        let def_num_levels = match (def_decompressor, def_levels) {
+            (Some(decompressor), Some(levels)) => decompressor.infer_num_values(levels)?,
+            (None, None) => None,
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "miniblock definition codec and payload presence disagree".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+
+        let inferred_num_levels = match (rep_num_levels, def_num_levels) {
+            (Some(rep_num_levels), Some(def_num_levels)) if rep_num_levels != def_num_levels => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "miniblock structural streams disagree on the level count: repetition inferred {rep_num_levels}, definition inferred {def_num_levels}"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            (Some(num_levels), _) | (_, Some(num_levels)) => num_levels,
+            (None, None) => return Ok(u64::from(declared_num_levels)),
+        };
+
+        let declared_num_levels = u64::from(declared_num_levels);
+        if inferred_num_levels == declared_num_levels {
+            return Ok(inferred_num_levels);
+        }
+        let u16_modulus = u64::from(u16::MAX) + 1;
+        if inferred_num_levels <= declared_num_levels
+            || inferred_num_levels % u16_modulus != declared_num_levels
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "miniblock payload proves {inferred_num_levels} levels but the header declared {declared_num_levels}; the counts are not congruent modulo 65536"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if inferred_num_levels > MAX_LEGACY_RLE_LEVELS {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "miniblock payload proves {inferred_num_levels} levels, exceeding the legacy RLE payload bound of {MAX_LEGACY_RLE_LEVELS}"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(inferred_num_levels)
+    }
+
     fn decode_levels(
-        rep_decompressor: &dyn BlockDecompressor,
+        decompressor: &dyn BlockDecompressor,
         levels: LanceBuffer,
-        num_levels: u16,
+        expected_num_levels: u64,
     ) -> Result<ScalarBuffer<u16>> {
-        let rep = rep_decompressor.decompress(levels, num_levels as u64)?;
-        let rep = rep.as_fixed_width().unwrap();
-        debug_assert_eq!(rep.num_values, num_levels as u64);
-        debug_assert_eq!(rep.bits_per_value, 16);
-        Ok(rep.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>())
+        let levels = decompressor.decompress(Some(levels), expected_num_levels)?;
+        let levels = levels.as_fixed_width().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "miniblock levels did not decode to fixed-width data".into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if levels.num_values != expected_num_levels {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "miniblock levels decoded {} values, expected {expected_num_levels}",
+                    levels.num_values
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if levels.bits_per_value != 16 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "miniblock levels decoded {} bits per value, expected 16",
+                    levels.bits_per_value
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let expected_bytes = expected_num_levels.checked_mul(2).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("miniblock level byte count overflowed for {expected_num_levels} levels")
+                    .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if levels.data.len() as u64 != expected_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "miniblock levels decoded {} bytes, expected {expected_bytes}",
+                    levels.data.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(levels.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>())
     }
 
     // We are building a LevelBuffer (levels) and want to copy into it `total_len`
@@ -497,6 +747,14 @@ impl DecodeMiniBlockTask {
             def
         });
 
+        let num_levels = Self::resolve_num_levels(
+            self.rep_decompressor.as_deref(),
+            rep.as_ref(),
+            self.def_decompressor.as_deref(),
+            def.as_ref(),
+            num_levels,
+        )?;
+
         let buffers = buffer_sizes
             .into_iter()
             .map(|buf_size| {
@@ -530,6 +788,19 @@ impl DecodeMiniBlockTask {
             })
             .transpose()?;
 
+        if let (Some(rep), Some(def)) = (&rep, &def)
+            && rep.len() != def.len()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "miniblock structural streams decoded different level counts: repetition {}, definition {}",
+                    rep.len(),
+                    def.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
         Ok(DecodedMiniBlockChunk { rep, def, values })
     }
 }
@@ -542,15 +813,15 @@ impl DecodePageTask for DecodeMiniBlockTask {
 
         let max_rep = self.def_meaning.iter().filter(|l| l.is_list()).count() as u16;
 
-        // This is probably an over-estimate but it's quick and easy to calculate
-        let estimated_size_bytes = self
-            .instructions
-            .iter()
-            .map(|(_, chunk)| chunk.data.len())
-            .sum::<usize>()
-            * 2;
-        let mut data_builder =
-            DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(estimated_size_bytes as u64);
+        let estimated_size_bytes = self.decoded_size_bytes().unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            // Variable-width and rep/def encoded output sizes are not known before decoding.
+            self.instructions
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(_, chunk)| chunk.data.len() as u64)
+                .sum::<u64>()
+                * 2
+        });
+        let mut data_builder = DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(estimated_size_bytes);
 
         // We need to keep track of the offset into repbuf/defbuf that we are building up
         let mut level_offset = 0;
@@ -571,9 +842,7 @@ impl DecodePageTask for DecodeMiniBlockTask {
             let should_cache_this_chunk = needs_caching[idx];
 
             let decoded_chunk = match &chunk_cache {
-                Some((cached_chunk_idx, ref cached_chunk))
-                    if *cached_chunk_idx == chunk.chunk_idx =>
-                {
+                Some((cached_chunk_idx, cached_chunk)) if *cached_chunk_idx == chunk.chunk_idx => {
                     // Clone only when we have a cache hit (much cheaper than decoding)
                     cached_chunk.clone()
                 }
@@ -607,20 +876,17 @@ impl DecodePageTask for DecodeMiniBlockTask {
                 instructions.preamble_action,
             );
             if item_range.end - item_range.start > chunk.items_in_chunk {
-                return Err(lance_core::Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Item range {:?} is greater than chunk items in chunk {:?}",
-                        item_range, chunk.items_in_chunk
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Item range {:?} is greater than chunk items in chunk {:?}",
+                    item_range, chunk.items_in_chunk
+                )));
             }
 
             // Now we append the data to the output buffers
             Self::extend_levels(level_range.clone(), &mut repbuf, &rep, level_offset);
             Self::extend_levels(level_range.clone(), &mut defbuf, &def, level_offset);
             level_offset += (level_range.end - level_range.start) as usize;
-            data_builder.append(&values, item_range);
+            data_builder.append(&values, item_range)?;
         }
 
         let mut data = data_builder.finish();
@@ -631,13 +897,10 @@ impl DecodePageTask for DecodeMiniBlockTask {
         if let Some(dictionary) = &self.dictionary_data {
             // Don't decode here, that happens later (if needed)
             let DataBlock::FixedWidth(indices) = data else {
-                return Err(lance_core::Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Expected FixedWidth DataBlock for dictionary indices, got {:?}",
-                        data
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Expected FixedWidth DataBlock for dictionary indices, got {:?}",
+                    data
+                )));
             };
             data = DataBlock::Dictionary(DictionaryDataBlock::from_parts(
                 indices,
@@ -720,12 +983,7 @@ impl StructuralPageDecoder for MiniBlockDecoder {
         // we were still in the middle of loading rows.  We do need to latch skip_in_chunk though.
         self.offset_in_current_chunk = skip_in_chunk;
 
-        let max_visible_level = self
-            .def_meaning
-            .iter()
-            .take_while(|l| !l.is_list())
-            .map(|l| l.num_def_levels())
-            .sum::<u16>();
+        let max_visible_level = max_visible_level(&self.def_meaning);
 
         Ok(Box::new(DecodeMiniBlockTask {
             instructions: drain_instructions,
@@ -745,1341 +1003,2268 @@ impl StructuralPageDecoder for MiniBlockDecoder {
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct CachedComplexAllNullState {
-    rep: Option<ScalarBuffer<u16>>,
-    def: Option<ScalarBuffer<u16>>,
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for CachedComplexAllNullState {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _ctx: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        self.rep.as_ref().map(|buf| buf.len() * 2).unwrap_or(0)
-            + self.def.as_ref().map(|buf| buf.len() * 2).unwrap_or(0)
-    }
+/// How a complex-all-null page's rep/def level buffer is compressed on disk.
+/// Captured at scheduler construction so `initialize` can keep RLE levels in run
+/// form instead of expanding them.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) enum LevelCodec {
+    /// Raw little-endian u16 levels (no block compression).
+    Uncompressed,
+    /// RLE-compressed levels; the validated physical runs select their cached representation.
+    Rle(Arc<RleDecompressor>),
+    /// Any other block compression; decoded eagerly into [`LazyLevels::Dense`]
+    /// (these encodings don't expand, so laziness buys nothing).
+    Block(Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>),
 }
 
-impl CachedPageData for CachedComplexAllNullState {
-    fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static> {
-        self
+impl LevelCodec {
+    fn try_new(
+        encoding: Option<&CompressiveEncoding>,
+        decompression_strategy: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        match encoding {
+            None => Ok(Self::Uncompressed),
+            Some(encoding) => match encoding.compression.as_ref() {
+                Some(Compression::Rle(rle)) => Ok(Self::Rle(Arc::new(create_rle_decompressor(
+                    rle,
+                    decompression_strategy,
+                )?))),
+                _ => Ok(Self::Block(Arc::from(
+                    decompression_strategy.create_block_decompressor(encoding)?,
+                ))),
+            },
+        }
     }
 }
 
-/// A scheduler for all-null data that has repetition and definition levels
-///
-/// We still need to do some I/O in this case because we need to figure out what kind of null we
-/// are dealing with (null list, null struct, what level null struct, etc.)
-///
-/// TODO: Right now we just load the entire rep/def at initialization time and cache it.  This is a touch
-/// RAM aggressive and maybe we want something more lazy in the future.  On the other hand, it's simple
-/// and fast so...maybe not :)
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct ComplexAllNullScheduler {
-    // Set from protobuf
-    buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc<[(u64, u64)]>,
-    def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
-    repdef: Option<Arc<CachedComplexAllNullState>>,
-    max_visible_level: u16,
+enum RunEnds {
+    U16(Box<[u16]>),
+    U32(Box<[u32]>),
+    U64(Box<[u64]>),
 }
 
-impl ComplexAllNullScheduler {
-    pub fn new(
-        buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc<[(u64, u64)]>,
-        def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let max_visible_level = def_meaning
-            .iter()
-            .take_while(|l| !l.is_list())
-            .map(|l| l.num_def_levels())
-            .sum::<u16>();
-        Self {
-            buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
-            def_meaning,
-            repdef: None,
-            max_visible_level,
+impl RunEnds {
+    fn width_for(num_values: usize) -> usize {
+        if u16::try_from(num_values).is_ok() {
+            std::mem::size_of::<u16>()
+        } else if u32::try_from(num_values).is_ok() {
+            std::mem::size_of::<u32>()
+        } else {
+            std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
         }
     }
-}
-
-impl StructuralPageScheduler for ComplexAllNullScheduler {
-    fn initialize<'a>(
-        &'a mut self,
-        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
-        // Fully load the rep & def buffers, as needed
-        let (rep_pos, rep_size) = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[0];
-        let (def_pos, def_size) = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[1];
-        let has_rep = rep_size > 0;
-        let has_def = def_size > 0;
 
-        let mut reads = Vec::with_capacity(2);
-        if has_rep {
-            reads.push(rep_pos..rep_pos + rep_size);
-        }
-        if has_def {
-            reads.push(def_pos..def_pos + def_size);
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U16(ends) => ends.len(),
+            Self::U32(ends) => ends.len(),
+            Self::U64(ends) => ends.len(),
         }
+    }
 
-        let data = io.submit_request(reads, 0);
+    fn get(&self, run: usize) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U16(ends) => ends[run] as usize,
+            Self::U32(ends) => ends[run] as usize,
+            Self::U64(ends) => ends[run] as usize,
+        }
+    }
 
-        async move {
-            let data = data.await?;
-            let mut data_iter = data.into_iter();
-
-            let rep = if has_rep {
-                let rep = data_iter.next().unwrap();
-                let rep = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(rep, 2);
-                let rep = rep.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>();
-                Some(rep)
-            } else {
-                None
-            };
+    fn partition_point(&self, logical_index: usize) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U16(ends) => ends.partition_point(|&end| end as usize <= logical_index),
+            Self::U32(ends) => ends.partition_point(|&end| end as usize <= logical_index),
+            Self::U64(ends) => ends.partition_point(|&end| end as usize <= logical_index),
+        }
+    }
 
-            let def = if has_def {
-                let def = data_iter.next().unwrap();
-                let def = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(def, 2);
-                let def = def.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>();
-                Some(def)
-            } else {
-                None
-            };
+    fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U16(ends) => std::mem::size_of_val(ends.as_ref()),
+            Self::U32(ends) => std::mem::size_of_val(ends.as_ref()),
+            Self::U64(ends) => std::mem::size_of_val(ends.as_ref()),
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-            let repdef = Arc::new(CachedComplexAllNullState { rep, def });
+enum RunEndsBuilder {
+    U16(Vec<u16>),
+    U32(Vec<u32>),
+    U64(Vec<u64>),
+}
 
-            self.repdef = Some(repdef.clone());
+impl RunEndsBuilder {
+    fn with_capacity(num_values: usize, capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        if u16::try_from(num_values).is_ok() {
+            Self::U16(Vec::with_capacity(capacity))
+        } else if u32::try_from(num_values).is_ok() {
+            Self::U32(Vec::with_capacity(capacity))
+        } else {
+            Self::U64(Vec::with_capacity(capacity))
+        }
+    }
 
-            Ok(repdef as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)
+    fn push(&mut self, end: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::U16(ends) => ends.push(
+                u16::try_from(end)
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::internal(format!("Run end {end} does not fit in u16")))?,
+            ),
+            Self::U32(ends) => ends.push(
+                u32::try_from(end)
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::internal(format!("Run end {end} does not fit in u32")))?,
+            ),
+            Self::U64(ends) => ends.push(end as u64),
         }
-        .boxed()
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) {
-        self.repdef = Some(
-            data.clone()
-                .as_arc_any()
-                .downcast::<CachedComplexAllNullState>()
-                .unwrap(),
-        );
+    fn set_last(&mut self, end: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::U16(ends) => {
+                let last = ends.last_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("Cannot extend an empty coalesced run buffer")
+                })?;
+                *last = u16::try_from(end)
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::internal(format!("Run end {end} does not fit in u16")))?;
+            }
+            Self::U32(ends) => {
+                let last = ends.last_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("Cannot extend an empty coalesced run buffer")
+                })?;
+                *last = u32::try_from(end)
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::internal(format!("Run end {end} does not fit in u32")))?;
+            }
+            Self::U64(ends) => {
+                let last = ends.last_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("Cannot extend an empty coalesced run buffer")
+                })?;
+                *last = end as u64;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn schedule_ranges(
-        &self,
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
-        let ranges = VecDeque::from_iter(ranges.iter().cloned());
-        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>();
-        let decoder = Box::new(ComplexAllNullPageDecoder {
-            ranges,
-            rep: self.repdef.as_ref().unwrap().rep.clone(),
-            def: self.repdef.as_ref().unwrap().def.clone(),
-            num_rows,
-            def_meaning: self.def_meaning.clone(),
-            max_visible_level: self.max_visible_level,
-        }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>;
-        let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
-            decoder_fut: std::future::ready(Ok(decoder)).boxed(),
-            num_rows,
-        };
-        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
+    fn finish(self) -> RunEnds {
+        match self {
+            Self::U16(ends) => RunEnds::U16(ends.into_boxed_slice()),
+            Self::U32(ends) => RunEnds::U32(ends.into_boxed_slice()),
+            Self::U64(ends) => RunEnds::U64(ends.into_boxed_slice()),
+        }
     }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct ComplexAllNullPageDecoder {
-    ranges: VecDeque<Range<u64>>,
-    rep: Option<ScalarBuffer<u16>>,
-    def: Option<ScalarBuffer<u16>>,
-    num_rows: u64,
-    def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
-    max_visible_level: u16,
+enum RunStorage {
+    Physical(RleRuns),
+    Coalesced { values: Box<[u16]>, ends: RunEnds },
 }
 
-impl ComplexAllNullPageDecoder {
-    fn drain_ranges(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
-        let mut rows_desired = num_rows;
-        let mut ranges = Vec::with_capacity(self.ranges.len());
-        while rows_desired > 0 {
-            let front = self.ranges.front_mut().unwrap();
-            let avail = front.end - front.start;
-            if avail > rows_desired {
-                ranges.push(front.start..front.start + rows_desired);
-                front.start += rows_desired;
-                rows_desired = 0;
-            } else {
-                ranges.push(self.ranges.pop_front().unwrap());
-                rows_desired -= avail;
-            }
+impl RunStorage {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Physical(runs) => runs.num_values(),
+            Self::Coalesced { ends, .. } => ends.get(ends.len() - 1),
         }
-        ranges
     }
-}
 
-impl StructuralPageDecoder for ComplexAllNullPageDecoder {
-    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>> {
-        let drained_ranges = self.drain_ranges(num_rows);
-        Ok(Box::new(DecodeComplexAllNullTask {
-            ranges: drained_ranges,
-            rep: self.rep.clone(),
-            def: self.def.clone(),
-            def_meaning: self.def_meaning.clone(),
-            max_visible_level: self.max_visible_level,
-        }))
+    fn num_runs(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Physical(runs) => runs.num_runs(),
+            Self::Coalesced { values, .. } => values.len(),
+        }
     }
 
-    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.num_rows
+    fn value(&self, run: usize) -> u16 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Physical(runs) => runs.value(run),
+            Self::Coalesced { values, .. } => values[run],
+        }
     }
-}
-
-/// We use `ranges` to slice into `rep` and `def` and create rep/def buffers
-/// for the null data.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct DecodeComplexAllNullTask {
-    ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
-    rep: Option<ScalarBuffer<u16>>,
-    def: Option<ScalarBuffer<u16>>,
-    def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
-    max_visible_level: u16,
-}
 
-impl DecodeComplexAllNullTask {
-    fn decode_level(
-        &self,
-        levels: &Option<ScalarBuffer<u16>>,
-        num_values: u64,
-    ) -> Option<Vec<u16>> {
-        levels.as_ref().map(|levels| {
-            let mut referenced_levels = Vec::with_capacity(num_values as usize);
-            for range in &self.ranges {
-                referenced_levels.extend(
-                    levels[range.start as usize..range.end as usize]
-                        .iter()
-                        .copied(),
-                );
-            }
-            referenced_levels
+    fn first_value_above(&self, max: u16) -> Option<(usize, u16)> {
+        (0..self.num_runs()).find_map(|run| {
+            let value = self.value(run);
+            (value > max).then_some((run, value))
         })
     }
-}
 
-impl DecodePageTask for DecodeComplexAllNullTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
-        let num_values = self.ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>();
-        let rep = self.decode_level(&self.rep, num_values);
-        let def = self.decode_level(&self.def, num_values);
-
-        // If there are definition levels there may be empty / null lists which are not visible
-        // in the items array.  We need to account for that here to figure out how many values
-        // should be in the items array.
-        let num_values = if let Some(def) = &def {
-            def.iter().filter(|&d| *d <= self.max_visible_level).count() as u64
-        } else {
-            num_values
-        };
+    fn seek(&self, position: &mut RunPosition, logical_index: usize) {
+        if logical_index >= self.len() {
+            *position = RunPosition {
+                run: self.num_runs(),
+                start: self.len(),
+                end: self.len(),
+            };
+            return;
+        }
 
-        let data = DataBlock::AllNull(AllNullDataBlock { num_values });
-        let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(rep, def, self.def_meaning, num_values);
-        Ok(DecodedPage {
-            data,
-            repdef: unraveler,
-        })
+        match self {
+            Self::Physical(runs) => {
+                if position.run >= runs.num_runs()
+                    || position.end == 0
+                    || logical_index < position.start
+                {
+                    *position = RunPosition {
+                        run: 0,
+                        start: 0,
+                        end: runs.length(0),
+                    };
+                }
+                while position.end <= logical_index {
+                    self.advance(position);
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Coalesced { ends, .. } => {
+                if logical_index < position.start || logical_index >= position.end {
+                    let run = ends.partition_point(logical_index);
+                    *position = RunPosition {
+                        run,
+                        start: if run == 0 { 0 } else { ends.get(run - 1) },
+                        end: ends.get(run),
+                    };
+                }
+            }
+        }
     }
-}
 
-/// A scheduler for simple all-null data
-///
-/// "simple" all-null data is data that is all null and only has a single level of definition and
-/// no repetition.  We don't need to read any data at all in this case.
-#[derive(Debug, Default)]
-pub struct SimpleAllNullScheduler {}
+    fn advance(&self, position: &mut RunPosition) {
+        let next_run = position.run + 1;
+        if next_run >= self.num_runs() {
+            *position = RunPosition {
+                run: self.num_runs(),
+                start: self.len(),
+                end: self.len(),
+            };
+            return;
+        }
 
-impl StructuralPageScheduler for SimpleAllNullScheduler {
-    fn initialize<'a>(
-        &'a mut self,
-        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
-        std::future::ready(Ok(Arc::new(NoCachedPageData) as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)).boxed()
+        let start = position.end;
+        position.run = next_run;
+        position.start = start;
+        position.end = match self {
+            Self::Physical(runs) => start + runs.length(next_run),
+            Self::Coalesced { ends, .. } => ends.get(next_run),
+        };
     }
 
-    fn load(&mut self, _cache: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) {}
-
-    fn schedule_ranges(
-        &self,
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
-        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>();
-        let decoder =
-            Box::new(SimpleAllNullPageDecoder { num_rows }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>;
-        let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
-            decoder_fut: std::future::ready(Ok(decoder)).boxed(),
-            num_rows,
-        };
-        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
+    fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Physical(runs) => runs.deep_size(),
+            Self::Coalesced { values, ends } => {
+                std::mem::size_of_val(values.as_ref()) + ends.deep_size()
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
-/// A page decode task for all-null data without any
-/// repetition and only a single level of definition
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct SimpleAllNullDecodePageTask {
-    num_values: u64,
+/// Rep/def levels for a complex-all-null page.
+///
+/// RLE pages retain the smallest of their validated physical runs, coalesced
+/// runs, and dense values. The decoder materializes only the per-drain slices
+/// it touches.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum LazyLevels {
+    Dense(ScalarBuffer<u16>),
+    Runs(Arc<RunStorage>),
 }
-impl DecodePageTask for SimpleAllNullDecodePageTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
-        let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
-            None,
-            Some(vec![1; self.num_values as usize]),
-            Arc::new([DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem]),
-            self.num_values,
-        );
-        Ok(DecodedPage {
-            data: DataBlock::AllNull(AllNullDataBlock {
-                num_values: self.num_values,
-            }),
-            repdef: unraveler,
-        })
-    }
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum LevelPlan {
+    Physical,
+    Coalesced,
+    Dense,
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct SimpleAllNullPageDecoder {
-    num_rows: u64,
+#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, Copy)]
+struct RunPosition {
+    run: usize,
+    start: usize,
+    end: usize,
 }
 
-impl StructuralPageDecoder for SimpleAllNullPageDecoder {
-    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>> {
-        Ok(Box::new(SimpleAllNullDecodePageTask {
-            num_values: num_rows,
-        }))
-    }
+/// Monotonic forward cursor into a [`LazyLevels`] sequence.
+///
+/// Drains seek to strictly increasing rows, so each [`LazyLevels::seek_row_start`]
+/// resumes from the last position instead of rescanning — every run is visited at
+/// most once per page while locating and counting level ranges.
+#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, Copy)]
+struct LevelCursor {
+    /// Logical level index where the current row begins.
+    level: usize,
+    /// Row index at `level` (the number of `max_rep` occurrences before it).
+    row: u64,
+    /// Run containing `level`. Unused for [`LazyLevels::Dense`].
+    run: RunPosition,
+}
 
-    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.num_rows
+impl LazyLevels {
+    fn from_rle_runs(runs: RleRuns) -> Result<Self> {
+        let plan = Self::select_plan(&runs);
+        match plan {
+            LevelPlan::Physical => Ok(Self::Runs(Arc::new(RunStorage::Physical(
+                runs.into_owned(),
+            )))),
+            LevelPlan::Coalesced => Self::build_coalesced(runs),
+            LevelPlan::Dense => Self::build_dense(runs),
+        }
     }
-}
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-struct MiniBlockSchedulerDictionary {
-    // These come from the protobuf
-    dictionary_decompressor: Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>,
-    dictionary_buf_position_and_size: (u64, u64),
-    dictionary_data_alignment: u64,
-    num_dictionary_items: u64,
-}
+    /// Minimize retained payload bytes first, then expected traversal work.
+    /// If both are equal, keep the physical runs and avoid another allocation.
+    fn select_plan(runs: &RleRuns) -> LevelPlan {
+        if runs.num_values() == 0 {
+            return LevelPlan::Dense;
+        }
 
-/// Individual block metadata within a MiniBlock repetition index.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct MiniBlockRepIndexBlock {
-    // The index of the first row that starts after the beginning of this block.  If the block
-    // has a preamble this will be the row after the preamble.  If the block is entirely preamble
-    // then this will be a row that starts in some future block.
-    first_row: u64,
-    // The number of rows in the block, including the trailer but not the preamble.
-    // Can be 0 if the block is entirely preamble
-    starts_including_trailer: u64,
-    // Whether the block has a preamble
-    has_preamble: bool,
-    // Whether the block has a trailer
-    has_trailer: bool,
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for MiniBlockRepIndexBlock {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        0
+        let run_storage_size = std::mem::size_of::<RunStorage>() as u128;
+        let physical_size = run_storage_size + runs.owned_size() as u128;
+        let coalesced_size = run_storage_size
+            + (runs.coalesced_runs() as u128)
+                * (std::mem::size_of::<u16>() + RunEnds::width_for(runs.num_values())) as u128;
+        let dense_size = (runs.num_values() as u128) * std::mem::size_of::<u16>() as u128;
+        [
+            (physical_size, runs.num_runs(), 0usize, LevelPlan::Physical),
+            (
+                coalesced_size,
+                runs.coalesced_runs(),
+                1usize,
+                LevelPlan::Coalesced,
+            ),
+            (dense_size, runs.num_values(), 2usize, LevelPlan::Dense),
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .min_by_key(|(size, traversal, priority, _)| (*size, *traversal, *priority))
+        .map(|(_, _, _, plan)| plan)
+        .unwrap_or(LevelPlan::Dense)
+    }
+
+    fn build_coalesced(runs: RleRuns) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(runs.coalesced_runs());
+        let mut ends = RunEndsBuilder::with_capacity(runs.num_values(), runs.coalesced_runs());
+        let mut logical_end = 0usize;
+        for (value, length) in runs.iter() {
+            logical_end = logical_end
+                .checked_add(length)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Validated RLE run length sum overflowed usize"))?;
+            if values.last().copied() == Some(value) {
+                ends.set_last(logical_end)?;
+            } else {
+                values.push(value);
+                ends.push(logical_end)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Self::Runs(Arc::new(RunStorage::Coalesced {
+            values: values.into_boxed_slice(),
+            ends: ends.finish(),
+        })))
+    }
+
+    fn build_dense(runs: RleRuns) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut values = Vec::new();
+        values.try_reserve_exact(runs.num_values()).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Cannot allocate {} dense repetition/definition levels",
+                runs.num_values()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        for (value, length) in runs.iter() {
+            values.resize(values.len() + length, value);
+        }
+        Ok(Self::Dense(ScalarBuffer::from(values)))
     }
-}
 
-/// Repetition index for MiniBlock encoding.
-///
-/// Stores block-level offset information to enable efficient random
-/// access to nested data structures within mini-blocks.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct MiniBlockRepIndex {
-    blocks: Vec<MiniBlockRepIndexBlock>,
-}
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Dense(buf) => buf.len(),
+            Self::Runs(runs) => runs.len(),
+        }
+    }
 
-impl DeepSizeOf for MiniBlockRepIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        self.blocks.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    fn validate_max(&self, level_type: &str, max: u16) -> Result<()> {
+        let invalid = match self {
+            Self::Dense(levels) => levels
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .find_map(|(index, &value)| (value > max).then_some(("index", index, value))),
+            Self::Runs(runs) => runs
+                .first_value_above(max)
+                .map(|(run, value)| ("run", run, value)),
+        };
+        if let Some((position_type, position, value)) = invalid {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Invalid {level_type} level {value} at {position_type} {position}: maximum is {max}"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
-}
 
-impl MiniBlockRepIndex {
-    /// Decode repetition index from chunk metadata using default values.
+    /// Advance `cursor` to the start of row `target_row`, returning that row's
+    /// starting level index.
     ///
-    /// This creates a repetition index where each chunk has no partial values
-    /// and no trailers, suitable for simple sequential data layouts.
-    pub fn default_from_chunks(chunks: &[ChunkMeta]) -> Self {
-        let mut blocks = Vec::with_capacity(chunks.len());
-        let mut offset: u64 = 0;
-
-        for c in chunks {
-            blocks.push(MiniBlockRepIndexBlock {
-                first_row: offset,
-                starts_including_trailer: c.num_values,
-                has_preamble: false,
-                has_trailer: false,
-            });
+    /// Rows begin at `max_rep` positions, so this finds the `target_row`-th one.
+    /// `target_row` must be `>= cursor.row`: the cursor only moves forward, which
+    /// is what keeps a full page decode O(runs) rather than O(rows).
+    fn seek_row_start(
+        &self,
+        cursor: &mut LevelCursor,
+        target_row: u64,
+        max_rep: u16,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let mut need = target_row.checked_sub(cursor.row).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Complex all-null row ranges are not sorted: target row {target_row} follows {}",
+                cursor.row
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if need == 0 {
+            return Ok(cursor.level);
+        }
+        match self {
+            Self::Dense(buf) => {
+                let mut level = cursor.level;
+                while need > 0 {
+                    if level >= buf.len() {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(
+                            "Invalid complex all-null layout: repetition buffer too short",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    if buf[level] != max_rep {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(
+                            "Invalid complex all-null layout: row did not start at max repetition level",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    level += 1;
+                    while level < buf.len() && buf[level] != max_rep {
+                        level += 1;
+                    }
+                    need -= 1;
+                }
+                cursor.level = level;
+                cursor.row = target_row;
+                Ok(level)
+            }
+            Self::Runs(runs) => {
+                let mut level = cursor.level;
+                let mut run = cursor.run;
+                runs.seek(&mut run, level);
+                while need > 0 {
+                    if run.run >= runs.num_runs() {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(
+                            "Invalid complex all-null layout: repetition buffer too short",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    if runs.value(run.run) != max_rep {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(
+                            "Invalid complex all-null layout: row did not start at max repetition level",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    let avail = (run.end - level) as u64;
+                    if need < avail {
+                        // Target lands inside this max-rep run.
+                        level += need as usize;
+                        need = 0;
+                    } else {
+                        // Consume every row start in this run, then skip the
+                        // trailing non-max-rep runs to reach the next row start.
+                        need -= avail;
+                        runs.advance(&mut run);
+                        while run.run < runs.num_runs() && runs.value(run.run) != max_rep {
+                            runs.advance(&mut run);
+                        }
+                        level = if run.run < runs.num_runs() {
+                            run.start
+                        } else {
+                            self.len()
+                        };
+                    }
+                }
+                cursor.level = level;
+                cursor.row = target_row;
+                cursor.run = run;
+                Ok(level)
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-            offset += c.num_values;
+    /// Count of levels in `range` that are `<= max`, resuming from `*run_cursor`
+    /// and leaving it on the last run that overlaps `range`.
+    ///
+    /// Successive calls must pass ascending, non-overlapping ranges (`range.start
+    /// >=` the previous `range.end`) so runs are swept at most once per page.
+    fn count_le_cursor(
+        &self,
+        run_cursor: &mut RunPosition,
+        range: Range<usize>,
+        max: u16,
+    ) -> (u64, RunPosition) {
+        if range.is_empty() {
+            return (0, *run_cursor);
+        }
+        match self {
+            Self::Dense(buf) => (
+                buf[range].iter().filter(|&&d| d <= max).count() as u64,
+                RunPosition::default(),
+            ),
+            Self::Runs(runs) => {
+                // Advance to the first run overlapping the range.
+                runs.seek(run_cursor, range.start);
+                let start = *run_cursor;
+                let mut count = 0u64;
+                let mut current = *run_cursor;
+                while current.run < runs.num_runs() && current.start < range.end {
+                    if runs.value(current.run) <= max {
+                        let lo = current.start.max(range.start);
+                        let hi = current.end.min(range.end);
+                        count += (hi - lo) as u64;
+                    }
+                    if current.end >= range.end {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    runs.advance(&mut current);
+                }
+                // Resume the next (ascending) range from the last overlapping run;
+                // `current` remains valid because `range` is non-empty.
+                *run_cursor = current;
+                (count, start)
+            }
         }
+    }
 
-        Self { blocks }
+    fn extend_into(&self, range: Range<usize>, run: RunPosition, out: &mut Vec<u16>) {
+        if range.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        match self {
+            Self::Dense(buf) => out.extend_from_slice(&buf[range]),
+            Self::Runs(runs) => {
+                let mut current = run;
+                runs.seek(&mut current, range.start);
+                while current.run < runs.num_runs() && current.start < range.end {
+                    let lo = current.start.max(range.start);
+                    let hi = current.end.min(range.end);
+                    if hi > lo {
+                        out.resize(out.len() + (hi - lo), runs.value(current.run));
+                    }
+                    runs.advance(&mut current);
+                }
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    /// Decode repetition index from raw bytes in little-endian format.
-    ///
-    /// The bytes should contain u64 values arranged in groups of `stride` elements,
-    /// where the first two values of each group represent ends_count and partial_count.
-    /// Returns an empty index if no bytes are provided.
-    pub fn decode_from_bytes(rep_bytes: &[u8], stride: usize) -> Self {
-        // Convert bytes to u64 slice, handling alignment automatically
-        let buffer = crate::buffer::LanceBuffer::from(rep_bytes.to_vec());
-        let u64_slice = buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
-        let n = u64_slice.len() / stride;
-
-        let mut blocks = Vec::with_capacity(n);
-        let mut chunk_has_preamble = false;
-        let mut offset: u64 = 0;
-
-        // Extract first two values from each block: ends_count and partial_count
-        for i in 0..n {
-            let base_idx = i * stride;
-            let ends = u64_slice[base_idx];
-            let partial = u64_slice[base_idx + 1];
-
-            let has_trailer = partial > 0;
-            // Convert branches to arithmetic for better compiler optimization
-            let starts_including_trailer =
-                ends + (has_trailer as u64) - (chunk_has_preamble as u64);
-
-            blocks.push(MiniBlockRepIndexBlock {
-                first_row: offset,
-                starts_including_trailer,
-                has_preamble: chunk_has_preamble,
-                has_trailer,
-            });
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.deep_size_of_children(&mut Context::new())
+    }
+}
 
-            chunk_has_preamble = has_trailer;
-            offset += starts_including_trailer;
+impl DeepSizeOf for LazyLevels {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, ctx: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Dense(buf) => buf.deep_size_of_children(ctx),
+            Self::Runs(runs) => {
+                let pointer = Arc::as_ptr(runs) as *const () as usize;
+                if ctx.mark_seen(pointer) {
+                    std::mem::size_of_val(runs.as_ref()) + runs.deep_size()
+                } else {
+                    0
+                }
+            }
         }
+    }
+}
 
-        Self { blocks }
+fn validate_complex_all_null_levels(
+    rep: &Option<LazyLevels>,
+    def: &Option<LazyLevels>,
+    max_rep: u16,
+    max_def: u16,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if let Some(rep) = rep {
+        rep.validate_max("repetition", max_rep)?;
+    }
+    if let Some(def) = def {
+        def.validate_max("definition", max_def)?;
+    }
+    if let (Some(rep), Some(def)) = (rep, def)
+        && rep.len() != def.len()
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Mismatched complex all-null level counts: repetition has {}, definition has {}",
+                rep.len(),
+                def.len()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
     }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn expected_level_bytes(num_values: u64, level_type: &str) -> Result<usize> {
+    usize::try_from(num_values)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|num_values| num_values.checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<u16>()))
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("{level_type} level count {num_values} does not fit in memory").into(),
+            )
+        })
+}
+
+fn dense_levels_from_block(
+    decompressed: DataBlock,
+    num_values: u64,
+    level_type: &str,
+) -> Result<LazyLevels> {
+    let DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) = decompressed else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Expected fixed-width data block for {level_type} levels").into(),
+        ));
+    };
+    if block.num_values != num_values {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Unexpected {level_type} level count after decompression: expected {num_values}, got {}",
+                block.num_values
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    if block.bits_per_value != 16 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Unexpected {level_type} level bit width after decompression: expected 16, got {}",
+                block.bits_per_value
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let expected_bytes = expected_level_bytes(num_values, level_type)?;
+    if block.data.len() != expected_bytes {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Unexpected decompressed {level_type} level size: expected {expected_bytes} bytes for {num_values} values, got {}",
+                block.data.len()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(LazyLevels::Dense(block.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>()))
 }
 
-/// State that is loaded once and cached for future lookups
 #[derive(Debug)]
-struct MiniBlockCacheableState {
-    /// Metadata that describes each chunk in the page
-    chunk_meta: Vec<ChunkMeta>,
-    /// The decoded repetition index
-    rep_index: MiniBlockRepIndex,
-    /// The dictionary for the page, if any
-    dictionary: Option<Arc<DataBlock>>,
+struct CachedComplexAllNullState {
+    rep: Option<LazyLevels>,
+    def: Option<LazyLevels>,
 }
 
-impl DeepSizeOf for MiniBlockCacheableState {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        self.rep_index.deep_size_of_children(context)
-            + self
-                .dictionary
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(|dict| dict.data_size() as usize)
-                .unwrap_or(0)
+impl DeepSizeOf for CachedComplexAllNullState {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, ctx: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.rep.deep_size_of_children(ctx) + self.def.deep_size_of_children(ctx)
     }
 }
 
-impl CachedPageData for MiniBlockCacheableState {
+impl CachedPageData for CachedComplexAllNullState {
     fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static> {
         self
     }
 }
 
-/// A scheduler for a page that has been encoded with the mini-block layout
+/// A scheduler for all-null data that has repetition and definition levels
 ///
-/// Scheduling mini-block encoded data is simple in concept and somewhat complex
-/// in practice.
-///
-/// First, during initialization, we load the chunk metadata, the repetition index,
-/// and the dictionary (these last two may not be present)
-///
-/// Then, during scheduling, we use the user's requested row ranges and the repetition
-/// index to determine which chunks we need and which rows we need from those chunks.
-///
-/// For example, if the repetition index is: [50, 3], [50, 0], [10, 0] and the range
-/// from the user is 40..60 then we need to:
-///
-///  - Read the first chunk and skip the first 40 rows, then read 10 full rows, and
-///    then read 3 items for the 11th row of our range.
-///  - Read the second chunk and read the remaining items in our 11th row and then read
-///    the remaining 9 full rows.
-///
-/// Then, if we are going to decode that in batches of 5, we need to make decode tasks.
-/// The first two decode tasks will just need the first chunk.  The third decode task will
-/// need the first chunk (for the trailer which has the 11th row in our range) and the second
-/// chunk.  The final decode task will just need the second chunk.
+/// We still need to do some I/O in this case because we need to figure out what kind of null we
+/// are dealing with (null list, null struct, what level null struct, etc.)
 ///
-/// The above prose descriptions are what are represented by `ChunkInstructions` and
-/// `ChunkDrainInstructions`.
+/// TODO: Right now we just load the entire rep/def at initialization time and cache it.  This is a touch
+/// RAM aggressive and maybe we want something more lazy in the future.  On the other hand, it's simple
+/// and fast so...maybe not :)
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct MiniBlockScheduler {
-    // These come from the protobuf
-    buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Vec<(u64, u64)>,
-    priority: u64,
-    items_in_page: u64,
-    repetition_index_depth: u16,
-    num_buffers: u64,
-    rep_decompressor: Option<Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>>,
-    def_decompressor: Option<Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>>,
-    value_decompressor: Arc<dyn MiniBlockDecompressor>,
+pub struct ComplexAllNullScheduler {
+    // Set from protobuf
+    buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc<[(u64, u64)]>,
     def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
-    dictionary: Option<MiniBlockSchedulerDictionary>,
-    // This is set after initialization
-    page_meta: Option<Arc<MiniBlockCacheableState>>,
-    has_large_chunk: bool,
+    repdef: Option<Arc<CachedComplexAllNullState>>,
+    max_rep: u16,
+    max_def: u16,
+    max_visible_level: u16,
+    rep_codec: LevelCodec,
+    def_codec: LevelCodec,
+    num_rep_values: u64,
+    num_def_values: u64,
 }
 
-impl MiniBlockScheduler {
-    fn try_new(
-        buffer_offsets_and_sizes: &[(u64, u64)],
-        priority: u64,
-        items_in_page: u64,
-        layout: &pb21::MiniBlockLayout,
-        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let rep_decompressor = layout
-            .rep_compression
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|rep_compression| {
-                decompressors
-                    .create_block_decompressor(rep_compression)
-                    .map(Arc::from)
-            })
-            .transpose()?;
-        let def_decompressor = layout
-            .def_compression
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|def_compression| {
-                decompressors
-                    .create_block_decompressor(def_compression)
-                    .map(Arc::from)
-            })
-            .transpose()?;
-        let def_meaning = layout
-            .layers
+impl ComplexAllNullScheduler {
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc<[(u64, u64)]>,
+        def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
+        rep_codec: LevelCodec,
+        def_codec: LevelCodec,
+        num_rep_values: u64,
+        num_def_values: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let max_rep = def_meaning.iter().filter(|l| l.is_list()).count() as u16;
+        let max_def = def_meaning
             .iter()
-            .map(|l| ProtobufUtils21::repdef_layer_to_def_interp(*l))
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let value_decompressor = decompressors.create_miniblock_decompressor(
-            layout.value_compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
-            decompressors,
-        )?;
+            .map(|meaning| meaning.num_def_levels())
+            .sum::<u16>();
+        let max_visible_level = max_visible_level(&def_meaning);
+        Self {
+            buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
+            def_meaning,
+            repdef: None,
+            max_rep,
+            max_def,
+            max_visible_level,
+            rep_codec,
+            def_codec,
+            num_rep_values,
+            num_def_values,
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-        let dictionary = if let Some(dictionary_encoding) = layout.dictionary.as_ref() {
-            let num_dictionary_items = layout.num_dictionary_items;
-            let dictionary_decompressor = decompressors
-                .create_block_decompressor(dictionary_encoding)?
-                .into();
-            let dictionary_data_alignment = match dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap()
-            {
-                Compression::Variable(_) => 4,
-                Compression::Flat(_) => 16,
-                Compression::General(_) => 1,
-                Compression::InlineBitpacking(_) | Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(_) => {
-                    crate::encoder::MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT
-                }
-                _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!(
-                            "Unsupported mini-block dictionary encoding: {:?}",
-                            dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap()
-                        )
-                        .into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })
+impl StructuralPageScheduler for ComplexAllNullScheduler {
+    fn init_layout(&self) -> Result<PageInitialization> {
+        // Fully load the rep & def buffers, as needed
+        let (rep_pos, rep_size) = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[0];
+        let (def_pos, def_size) = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[1];
+
+        Ok(PageInitialization::new([
+            (rep_size > 0).then_some(rep_pos..rep_pos + rep_size),
+            (def_size > 0).then_some(def_pos..def_pos + def_size),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
+        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
+        let rep_codec = self.rep_codec.clone();
+        let def_codec = self.def_codec.clone();
+        let num_rep_values = self.num_rep_values;
+        let num_def_values = self.num_def_values;
+        let max_rep = self.max_rep;
+        let max_def = self.max_def;
+
+        async move {
+            let [rep_bytes, def_bytes] = buffers.try_into_array("complex all-null")?;
+
+            // RLE levels select the smallest validated cache representation;
+            // everything else expands eagerly to `LazyLevels::Dense`.
+            let build_levels = |compressed_bytes: Bytes,
+                                codec: &LevelCodec,
+                                num_values: u64,
+                                level_type: &str|
+             -> Result<LazyLevels> {
+                match codec {
+                    LevelCodec::Uncompressed => {
+                        if num_values == 0 {
+                            if !compressed_bytes
+                                .len()
+                                .is_multiple_of(std::mem::size_of::<u16>())
+                            {
+                                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                    format!(
+                                        "Unexpected uncompressed {level_type} level size: {} bytes is not divisible by {}",
+                                        compressed_bytes.len(),
+                                        std::mem::size_of::<u16>()
+                                    )
+                                    .into(),
+                                ));
+                            }
+                        } else {
+                            let expected_bytes = expected_level_bytes(num_values, level_type)?;
+                            if compressed_bytes.len() != expected_bytes {
+                                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                    format!(
+                                        "Unexpected uncompressed {level_type} level size: expected {expected_bytes} bytes for {num_values} values, got {}",
+                                        compressed_bytes.len()
+                                    )
+                                    .into(),
+                                ));
+                            }
+                        }
+                        let buffer = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(compressed_bytes, 2);
+                        Ok(LazyLevels::Dense(buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>()))
+                    }
+                    LevelCodec::Rle(decompressor) => {
+                        let frame = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(compressed_bytes, 1);
+                        let runs = decompressor.decode_u16_runs(frame, num_values)?;
+                        LazyLevels::from_rle_runs(runs)
+                    }
+                    LevelCodec::Block(decompressor) => {
+                        let frame = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(compressed_bytes, 1);
+                        let decompressed = decompressor.decompress(Some(frame), num_values)?;
+                        dense_levels_from_block(decompressed, num_values, level_type)
+                    }
                 }
             };
-            Some(MiniBlockSchedulerDictionary {
-                dictionary_decompressor,
-                dictionary_buf_position_and_size: buffer_offsets_and_sizes[2],
-                dictionary_data_alignment,
-                num_dictionary_items,
-            })
-        } else {
-            None
+
+            let rep = if let Some(rep) = rep_bytes {
+                Some(build_levels(rep, &rep_codec, num_rep_values, "repetition")?)
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+            let def = if let Some(def) = def_bytes {
+                Some(build_levels(def, &def_codec, num_def_values, "definition")?)
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+            validate_complex_all_null_levels(&rep, &def, max_rep, max_def)?;
+            let repdef = Arc::new(CachedComplexAllNullState { rep, def });
+
+            Ok(repdef as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn try_load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.repdef = Some(data.clone().as_arc_any().downcast().map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Cached complex all-null page data has an unexpected type".into(),
+            )
+        })?);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn schedule_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
+        let ranges = VecDeque::from_iter(ranges.iter().cloned());
+        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>();
+        let decoder = Box::new(ComplexAllNullPageDecoder {
+            ranges,
+            rep: self.repdef.as_ref().unwrap().rep.clone(),
+            def: self.repdef.as_ref().unwrap().def.clone(),
+            num_rows,
+            def_meaning: self.def_meaning.clone(),
+            max_rep: self.max_rep,
+            max_visible_level: self.max_visible_level,
+            rep_cursor: LevelCursor::default(),
+            def_run_cursor: RunPosition::default(),
+        }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>;
+        let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
+            decoder_fut: std::future::ready(Ok(decoder)).boxed(),
+            num_rows,
         };
+        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
+    }
+}
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            buffer_offsets_and_sizes: buffer_offsets_and_sizes.to_vec(),
-            rep_decompressor,
-            def_decompressor,
-            value_decompressor: value_decompressor.into(),
-            repetition_index_depth: layout.repetition_index_depth as u16,
-            num_buffers: layout.num_buffers,
-            priority,
-            items_in_page,
-            dictionary,
-            def_meaning: def_meaning.into(),
-            page_meta: None,
-            has_large_chunk: layout.has_large_chunk,
-        })
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct ComplexAllNullPageDecoder {
+    ranges: VecDeque<Range<u64>>,
+    rep: Option<LazyLevels>,
+    def: Option<LazyLevels>,
+    num_rows: u64,
+    def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
+    max_rep: u16,
+    max_visible_level: u16,
+    /// Monotonic cursor into `rep` tracking the current row's level start.
+    rep_cursor: LevelCursor,
+    /// Monotonic run cursor into `def` for `count_le_cursor`.
+    def_run_cursor: RunPosition,
+}
+
+impl ComplexAllNullPageDecoder {
+    fn drain_ranges(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+        let mut rows_desired = num_rows;
+        let mut ranges = Vec::with_capacity(self.ranges.len());
+        while rows_desired > 0 {
+            let front = self.ranges.front_mut().unwrap();
+            let avail = front.end - front.start;
+            if avail > rows_desired {
+                ranges.push(front.start..front.start + rows_desired);
+                front.start += rows_desired;
+                rows_desired = 0;
+            } else {
+                ranges.push(self.ranges.pop_front().unwrap());
+                rows_desired -= avail;
+            }
+        }
+        ranges
     }
 
-    fn lookup_chunks(&self, chunk_indices: &[usize]) -> Vec<LoadedChunk> {
-        let page_meta = self.page_meta.as_ref().unwrap();
-        chunk_indices
-            .iter()
-            .map(|&chunk_idx| {
-                let chunk_meta = &page_meta.chunk_meta[chunk_idx];
-                let bytes_start = chunk_meta.offset_bytes;
-                let bytes_end = bytes_start + chunk_meta.chunk_size_bytes;
-                LoadedChunk {
-                    byte_range: bytes_start..bytes_end,
-                    items_in_chunk: chunk_meta.num_values,
-                    chunk_idx,
-                    data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+    /// Level index at which row `target_row` starts, advancing the monotonic
+    /// repetition cursor. Callers must request non-decreasing `target_row`.
+    fn seek_row_start(&mut self, target_row: u64) -> Result<usize> {
+        match &self.rep {
+            Some(rep) => rep.seek_row_start(&mut self.rep_cursor, target_row, self.max_rep),
+            None => {
+                // Without repetition every level is its own row.
+                self.rep_cursor.row = target_row;
+                self.rep_cursor.level = target_row as usize;
+                Ok(target_row as usize)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Number of visible items in the level range `levels` (definition levels
+    /// `<= max_visible_level`), advancing the monotonic definition cursor.
+    fn count_visible(&mut self, levels: Range<usize>) -> Result<(u64, RunPosition)> {
+        match &self.def {
+            Some(def) => {
+                if levels.end > def.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(
+                        "Invalid complex all-null layout: definition buffer too short",
+                    ));
                 }
-            })
-            .collect()
+                Ok(def.count_le_cursor(&mut self.def_run_cursor, levels, self.max_visible_level))
+            }
+            None => Ok(((levels.end - levels.start) as u64, RunPosition::default())),
+        }
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
-enum PreambleAction {
-    Take,
-    Skip,
-    Absent,
-}
+impl StructuralPageDecoder for ComplexAllNullPageDecoder {
+    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>> {
+        let drained_ranges = self.drain_ranges(num_rows);
+        let mut level_slices: Vec<LevelSlice> = Vec::with_capacity(drained_ranges.len());
+        let mut visible_items_total = 0;
+
+        // Each row range is one contiguous level slice `[start_row_level,
+        // end_row_level)`, so we seek both boundaries and count its visibility at
+        // once rather than per row. The cursors only move forward, so locating and
+        // counting all requested ranges visits each intervening run at most once.
+        for range in drained_ranges {
+            let level_start = self.seek_row_start(range.start)?;
+            let rep_run = self.rep_cursor.run;
+            let level_end = self.seek_row_start(range.end)?;
+            let (visible_items, def_run) = self.count_visible(level_start..level_end)?;
+            visible_items_total += visible_items;
+            if let Some(last) = level_slices.last_mut()
+                && last.range.end == level_start
+            {
+                last.range.end = level_end;
+            } else {
+                level_slices.push(LevelSlice {
+                    range: level_start..level_end,
+                    rep_run,
+                    def_run,
+                });
+            }
+        }
 
-// When we schedule a chunk we use the repetition index (or, if none exists, just the # of items
-// in each chunk) to map a user requested range into a set of ChunkInstruction objects which tell
-// us how exactly to read from the chunk.
-//
-// Examples:
-//
-// | Chunk 0     | Chunk 1   | Chunk 2   | Chunk 3 |
-// | xxxxyyyyzzz | zzzzzzzzz | zzzzzzzzz | aaabbcc |
-//
-// Full read (0..6)
-//
-// Chunk 0: (several rows, ends with trailer)
-//   preamble: absent
-//   rows_to_skip: 0
-//   rows_to_take: 3 (x, y, z)
-//   take_trailer: true
-//
-// Chunk 1: (all preamble, ends with trailer)
-//   preamble: take
-//   rows_to_skip: 0
-//   rows_to_take: 0
-//   take_trailer: true
-//
-// Chunk 2: (all preamble, no trailer)
-//   preamble: take
-//   rows_to_skip: 0
-//   rows_to_take: 0
-//   take_trailer: false
-//
-// Chunk 3: (several rows, no trailer or preamble)
-//   preamble: absent
-//   rows_to_skip: 0
-//   rows_to_take: 3 (a, b, c)
-//   take_trailer: false
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
-struct ChunkInstructions {
-    // The index of the chunk to read
-    chunk_idx: usize,
-    // A "preamble" is when a chunk begins with a continuation of the previous chunk's list.  If there
-    // is no repetition index there is never a preamble.
-    //
-    // It's possible for a chunk to be entirely premable.  For example, if there is a really large list
-    // that spans several chunks.
-    preamble: PreambleAction,
-    // How many complete rows (not including the preamble or trailer) to skip
-    //
-    // If this is non-zero then premable must not be Take
-    rows_to_skip: u64,
-    // How many rows to take.  If a row splits across chunks then we will count the row in the first
-    // chunk that contains the row.
-    rows_to_take: u64,
-    // A "trailer" is when a chunk ends with a partial list.  If there is no repetition index there is
-    // never a trailer.
-    //
-    // A chunk that is all preamble may or may not have a trailer.
-    //
-    // If this is true then we want to include the trailer
-    take_trailer: bool,
-}
+        Ok(Box::new(DecodeComplexAllNullTask {
+            level_slices,
+            visible_items_total,
+            rep: self.rep.clone(),
+            def: self.def.clone(),
+            def_meaning: self.def_meaning.clone(),
+            max_visible_level: self.max_visible_level,
+        }))
+    }
 
-// First, we schedule a bunch of [`ChunkInstructions`] based on the users ranges.  Then we
-// start decoding them, based on a batch size, which might not align with what we scheduled.
-//
-// This results in `ChunkDrainInstructions` which targets a contiguous slice of a `ChunkInstructions`
-//
-// So if `ChunkInstructions` is "skip preamble, skip 10, take 50, take trailer" and we are decoding in
-// batches of size 10 we might have a `ChunkDrainInstructions` that targets that chunk and has its own
-// skip of 17 and take of 10.  This would mean we decode the chunk, skip the preamble and 27 rows, and
-// then take 10 rows.
-//
-// One very confusing bit is that `rows_to_take` includes the trailer.  So if we have two chunks:
-//  -no preamble, skip 5, take 10, take trailer
-//  -take preamble, skip 0, take 50, no trailer
-//
-// and we are draining 20 rows then the drain instructions for the first batch will be:
-//  - no preamble, skip 0 (from chunk 0), take 11 (from chunk 0)
-//  - take preamble (from chunk 1), skip 0 (from chunk 1), take 9 (from chunk 1)
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
-struct ChunkDrainInstructions {
-    chunk_instructions: ChunkInstructions,
-    rows_to_skip: u64,
-    rows_to_take: u64,
-    preamble_action: PreambleAction,
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.num_rows
+    }
 }
 
-impl ChunkInstructions {
-    // Given a repetition index and a set of user ranges we need to figure out how to read from the chunks
-    //
-    // We assume that `user_ranges` are in sorted order and non-overlapping
-    //
-    // The output will be a set of `ChunkInstructions` which tell us how to read from the chunks
-    fn schedule_instructions(
-        rep_index: &MiniBlockRepIndex,
-        user_ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-    ) -> Vec<Self> {
-        // This is an in-exact capacity guess but pretty good.  The actual capacity can be
-        // smaller if instructions are merged.  It can be larger if there are multiple instructions
-        // per row which can happen with lists.
-        let mut chunk_instructions = Vec::with_capacity(user_ranges.len());
-
-        for user_range in user_ranges {
-            let mut rows_needed = user_range.end - user_range.start;
-            let mut need_preamble = false;
+/// We use `level_slices` to slice into `rep` and `def` and create rep/def buffers
+/// for the null data.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct LevelSlice {
+    range: Range<usize>,
+    rep_run: RunPosition,
+    def_run: RunPosition,
+}
 
-            // Need to find the first chunk with a first row >= user_range.start.  If there are
-            // multiple chunks with the same first row we need to take the first one.
-            let mut block_index = match rep_index
-                .blocks
-                .binary_search_by_key(&user_range.start, |block| block.first_row)
-            {
-                Ok(idx) => {
-                    // Slightly tricky case, we may need to walk backwards a bit to make sure we
-                    // are grabbing first eligible chunk
-                    let mut idx = idx;
-                    while idx > 0 && rep_index.blocks[idx - 1].first_row == user_range.start {
-                        idx -= 1;
-                    }
-                    idx
-                }
-                // Easy case.  idx is greater, and idx - 1 is smaller, so idx - 1 contains the start
-                Err(idx) => idx - 1,
-            };
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+enum LevelKind {
+    Repetition,
+    Definition,
+}
 
-            let mut to_skip = user_range.start - rep_index.blocks[block_index].first_row;
+impl LevelSlice {
+    fn run(&self, kind: LevelKind) -> RunPosition {
+        match kind {
+            LevelKind::Repetition => self.rep_run,
+            LevelKind::Definition => self.def_run,
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-            while rows_needed > 0 || need_preamble {
-                // Check if we've gone past the last block (should not happen)
-                if block_index >= rep_index.blocks.len() {
-                    log::warn!("schedule_instructions inconsistency: block_index >= rep_index.blocks.len(), exiting early");
-                    break;
-                }
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct DecodeComplexAllNullTask {
+    level_slices: Vec<LevelSlice>,
+    visible_items_total: u64,
+    rep: Option<LazyLevels>,
+    def: Option<LazyLevels>,
+    def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
+    max_visible_level: u16,
+}
 
-                let chunk = &rep_index.blocks[block_index];
-                let rows_avail = chunk.starts_including_trailer.saturating_sub(to_skip);
+impl DecodeComplexAllNullTask {
+    fn decode_level(&self, levels: &Option<LazyLevels>, kind: LevelKind) -> Option<Vec<u16>> {
+        levels.as_ref().map(|levels| {
+            let num_levels = self
+                .level_slices
+                .iter()
+                .map(|slice| slice.range.end - slice.range.start)
+                .sum();
+            let mut referenced_levels = Vec::with_capacity(num_levels);
+            for slice in &self.level_slices {
+                levels.extend_into(slice.range.clone(), slice.run(kind), &mut referenced_levels);
+            }
+            referenced_levels
+        })
+    }
+}
 
-                // Handle blocks that are entirely preamble (rows_avail = 0)
-                // These blocks have no rows to take but may have a preamble we need
-                // We only look for preamble if to_skip == 0 (we're not skipping rows)
-                if rows_avail == 0 && to_skip == 0 {
-                    // Only process if this chunk has a preamble we need
-                    if chunk.has_preamble && need_preamble {
-                        chunk_instructions.push(Self {
-                            chunk_idx: block_index,
-                            preamble: PreambleAction::Take,
-                            rows_to_skip: 0,
-                            rows_to_take: 0,
-                            // We still need to look at has_trailer to distinguish between "all preamble
-                            // and row ends at end of chunk" and "all preamble and row bleeds into next
-                            // chunk".  Both cases will have 0 rows available.
-                            take_trailer: chunk.has_trailer,
-                        });
-                        // Only set need_preamble = false if the chunk has at least one row,
-                        // Or we are reaching the last block,
-                        // Otherwise, the chunk is entirely preamble and we need the next chunk's preamble too
-                        if chunk.starts_including_trailer > 0
-                            || block_index == rep_index.blocks.len() - 1
-                        {
-                            need_preamble = false;
-                        }
-                    }
-                    // Move to next block
-                    block_index += 1;
-                    continue;
-                }
+impl DecodePageTask for DecodeComplexAllNullTask {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
+        let rep = self.decode_level(&self.rep, LevelKind::Repetition);
+        let def = self.decode_level(&self.def, LevelKind::Definition);
 
-                // Edge case: if rows_avail == 0 but to_skip > 0
-                // This theoretically shouldn't happen (binary search should avoid it)
-                // but handle it for safety
-                if rows_avail == 0 && to_skip > 0 {
-                    // This block doesn't have enough rows to skip, move to next block
-                    // Adjust to_skip by the number of rows in this block
-                    to_skip -= chunk.starts_including_trailer;
-                    block_index += 1;
-                    continue;
-                }
+        // If there are definition levels there may be empty / null lists which are not visible
+        // in the items array.  We need to account for that here to figure out how many values
+        // should be in the items array.
+        let num_values = if let Some(def) = &def {
+            def.iter().filter(|&d| *d <= self.max_visible_level).count() as u64
+        } else {
+            self.visible_items_total
+        };
 
-                let rows_to_take = rows_avail.min(rows_needed);
-                rows_needed -= rows_to_take;
+        let data = DataBlock::AllNull(AllNullDataBlock { num_values });
+        let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(rep, def, self.def_meaning, num_values);
+        Ok(DecodedPage {
+            data,
+            repdef: unraveler,
+        })
+    }
+}
 
-                let mut take_trailer = false;
-                let preamble = if chunk.has_preamble {
-                    if need_preamble {
-                        PreambleAction::Take
-                    } else {
-                        PreambleAction::Skip
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    PreambleAction::Absent
-                };
+/// A scheduler for simple all-null data
+///
+/// "simple" all-null data is data that is all null and only has a single level of definition and
+/// no repetition.  We don't need to read any data at all in this case.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct SimpleAllNullScheduler {}
 
-                // Are we taking the trailer?  If so, make sure we mark that we need the preamble
-                if rows_to_take == rows_avail && chunk.has_trailer {
-                    take_trailer = true;
-                    need_preamble = true;
-                } else {
-                    need_preamble = false;
-                };
+impl StructuralPageScheduler for SimpleAllNullScheduler {
+    fn needs_initialization(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
 
-                chunk_instructions.push(Self {
-                    preamble,
-                    chunk_idx: block_index,
-                    rows_to_skip: to_skip,
-                    rows_to_take,
-                    take_trailer,
-                });
+    fn init_layout(&self) -> Result<PageInitialization> {
+        Ok(PageInitialization::new([]))
+    }
 
-                to_skip = 0;
-                block_index += 1;
-            }
-        }
+    fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        _buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
+        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
+        std::future::ready(Ok(Arc::new(NoCachedPageData) as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)).boxed()
+    }
 
-        // If there were multiple ranges we may have multiple instructions for a single chunk.  Merge them now if they
-        // are _adjacent_ (i.e. don't merge "take first row of chunk 0" and "take third row of chunk 0" into "take 2
-        // rows of chunk 0 starting at 0")
-        if user_ranges.len() > 1 {
-            // TODO: Could probably optimize this allocation away
-            let mut merged_instructions = Vec::with_capacity(chunk_instructions.len());
-            let mut instructions_iter = chunk_instructions.into_iter();
-            merged_instructions.push(instructions_iter.next().unwrap());
-            for instruction in instructions_iter {
-                let last = merged_instructions.last_mut().unwrap();
-                if last.chunk_idx == instruction.chunk_idx
-                    && last.rows_to_take + last.rows_to_skip == instruction.rows_to_skip
-                {
-                    last.rows_to_take += instruction.rows_to_take;
-                    last.take_trailer |= instruction.take_trailer;
-                } else {
-                    merged_instructions.push(instruction);
-                }
-            }
-            merged_instructions
-        } else {
-            chunk_instructions
-        }
+    fn try_load(&mut self, _cache: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn drain_from_instruction(
+    fn schedule_ranges(
         &self,
-        rows_desired: &mut u64,
-        need_preamble: &mut bool,
-        skip_in_chunk: &mut u64,
-    ) -> (ChunkDrainInstructions, bool) {
-        // If we need the premable then we shouldn't be skipping anything
-        debug_assert!(!*need_preamble || *skip_in_chunk == 0);
-        let rows_avail = self.rows_to_take - *skip_in_chunk;
-        let has_preamble = self.preamble != PreambleAction::Absent;
-        let preamble_action = match (*need_preamble, has_preamble) {
-            (true, true) => PreambleAction::Take,
-            (true, false) => panic!("Need preamble but there isn't one"),
-            (false, true) => PreambleAction::Skip,
-            (false, false) => PreambleAction::Absent,
-        };
-
-        // How many rows are we actually taking in this take step (including the preamble
-        // and trailer both as individual rows)
-        let rows_taking = if *rows_desired >= rows_avail {
-            // We want all the rows.  If there is a trailer we are grabbing it and will need
-            // the preamble of the next chunk
-            // If there is a trailer and we are taking all the rows then we need the preamble
-            // of the next chunk.
-            //
-            // Also, if this chunk is entirely preamble (rows_avail == 0 && !take_trailer) then we
-            // need the preamble of the next chunk.
-            *need_preamble = self.take_trailer;
-            rows_avail
-        } else {
-            // We aren't taking all the rows.  Even if there is a trailer we aren't taking
-            // it so we will not need the preamble
-            *need_preamble = false;
-            *rows_desired
-        };
-        let rows_skipped = *skip_in_chunk;
-
-        // Update the state for the next iteration
-        let consumed_chunk = if *rows_desired >= rows_avail {
-            *rows_desired -= rows_avail;
-            *skip_in_chunk = 0;
-            true
-        } else {
-            *skip_in_chunk += *rows_desired;
-            *rows_desired = 0;
-            false
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
+        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>();
+        let decoder =
+            Box::new(SimpleAllNullPageDecoder { num_rows }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>;
+        let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
+            decoder_fut: std::future::ready(Ok(decoder)).boxed(),
+            num_rows,
         };
-
-        (
-            ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                chunk_instructions: self.clone(),
-                rows_to_skip: rows_skipped,
-                rows_to_take: rows_taking,
-                preamble_action,
-            },
-            consumed_chunk,
-        )
+        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
     }
 }
 
-enum Words {
-    U16(ScalarBuffer<u16>),
-    U32(ScalarBuffer<u32>),
+/// A page decode task for all-null data without any
+/// repetition and only a single level of definition
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SimpleAllNullDecodePageTask {
+    num_values: u64,
 }
-
-struct WordsIter<'a> {
-    iter: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32> + 'a>,
+impl DecodePageTask for SimpleAllNullDecodePageTask {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
+        let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
+            None,
+            Some(vec![1; self.num_values as usize]),
+            Arc::new([DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem]),
+            self.num_values,
+        );
+        Ok(DecodedPage {
+            data: DataBlock::AllNull(AllNullDataBlock {
+                num_values: self.num_values,
+            }),
+            repdef: unraveler,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
-impl Words {
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        match self {
-            Self::U16(b) => b.len(),
-            Self::U32(b) => b.len(),
-        }
-    }
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct SimpleAllNullPageDecoder {
+    num_rows: u64,
+}
 
-    pub fn iter(&self) -> WordsIter<'_> {
-        match self {
-            Self::U16(buf) => WordsIter {
-                iter: Box::new(buf.iter().map(|&x| x as u32)),
-            },
-            Self::U32(buf) => WordsIter {
-                iter: Box::new(buf.iter().copied()),
-            },
-        }
+impl StructuralPageDecoder for SimpleAllNullPageDecoder {
+    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>> {
+        Ok(Box::new(SimpleAllNullDecodePageTask {
+            num_values: num_rows,
+        }))
     }
 
-    pub fn from_bytes(bytes: Bytes, has_large_chunk: bool) -> Result<Self> {
-        let bytes_per_value = if has_large_chunk { 4 } else { 2 };
-        assert_eq!(bytes.len() % bytes_per_value, 0);
-        let buffer = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(bytes, bytes_per_value as u64);
-        if has_large_chunk {
-            Ok(Self::U32(buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u32>()))
-        } else {
-            Ok(Self::U16(buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>()))
-        }
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.num_rows
     }
 }
 
-impl<'a> Iterator for WordsIter<'a> {
-    type Item = u32;
-
-    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
-        self.iter.next()
-    }
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct MiniBlockSchedulerDictionary {
+    // These come from the protobuf
+    dictionary_decompressor: Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>,
+    dictionary_buf_position_and_size: (u64, u64),
+    dictionary_data_alignment: u64,
+    num_dictionary_items: u64,
 }
 
-impl StructuralPageScheduler for MiniBlockScheduler {
-    fn initialize<'a>(
-        &'a mut self,
-        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
-        // We always need to fetch chunk metadata.  We may also need to fetch a dictionary and
-        // we may also need to fetch the repetition index.  Here, we gather what buffers we
-        // need.
-        let (meta_buf_position, meta_buf_size) = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[0];
-        let value_buf_position = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[1].0;
-        let mut bufs_needed = 1;
-        if self.dictionary.is_some() {
-            bufs_needed += 1;
-        }
-        if self.repetition_index_depth > 0 {
-            bufs_needed += 1;
-        }
-        let mut required_ranges = Vec::with_capacity(bufs_needed);
-        required_ranges.push(meta_buf_position..meta_buf_position + meta_buf_size);
-        if let Some(ref dictionary) = self.dictionary {
-            required_ranges.push(
-                dictionary.dictionary_buf_position_and_size.0
-                    ..dictionary.dictionary_buf_position_and_size.0
-                        + dictionary.dictionary_buf_position_and_size.1,
-            );
-        }
-        if self.repetition_index_depth > 0 {
-            let (rep_index_pos, rep_index_size) = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.last().unwrap();
-            required_ranges.push(*rep_index_pos..*rep_index_pos + *rep_index_size);
-        }
-        let io_req = io.submit_request(required_ranges, 0);
-
-        async move {
-            let mut buffers = io_req.await?.into_iter().fuse();
-            let meta_bytes = buffers.next().unwrap();
-            let dictionary_bytes = self.dictionary.as_ref().and_then(|_| buffers.next());
-            let rep_index_bytes = buffers.next();
-
-            // Parse the metadata and build the chunk meta
-            let words = Words::from_bytes(meta_bytes, self.has_large_chunk)?;
-            let mut chunk_meta = Vec::with_capacity(words.len());
-
-            let mut rows_counter = 0;
-            let mut offset_bytes = value_buf_position;
-            for (word_idx, word) in words.iter().enumerate() {
-                let log_num_values = word & 0x0F;
-                let divided_bytes = word >> 4;
-                let num_bytes = (divided_bytes as usize + 1) * MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT;
-                debug_assert!(num_bytes > 0);
-                let num_values = if word_idx < words.len() - 1 {
-                    debug_assert!(log_num_values > 0);
-                    1 << log_num_values
-                } else {
-                    debug_assert!(
-                        log_num_values == 0
-                            || (1 << log_num_values) == (self.items_in_page - rows_counter)
-                    );
-                    self.items_in_page - rows_counter
-                };
-                rows_counter += num_values;
-
-                chunk_meta.push(ChunkMeta {
-                    num_values,
-                    chunk_size_bytes: num_bytes as u64,
-                    offset_bytes,
-                });
-                offset_bytes += num_bytes as u64;
-            }
-
-            // Build the repetition index
-            let rep_index = if let Some(rep_index_data) = rep_index_bytes {
-                assert!(rep_index_data.len() % 8 == 0);
-                let stride = self.repetition_index_depth as usize + 1;
-                MiniBlockRepIndex::decode_from_bytes(&rep_index_data, stride)
-            } else {
-                MiniBlockRepIndex::default_from_chunks(&chunk_meta)
-            };
-
-            let mut page_meta = MiniBlockCacheableState {
-                chunk_meta,
-                rep_index,
-                dictionary: None,
-            };
-
-            // decode dictionary
-            if let Some(ref mut dictionary) = self.dictionary {
-                let dictionary_data = dictionary_bytes.unwrap();
-                page_meta.dictionary =
-                    Some(Arc::new(dictionary.dictionary_decompressor.decompress(
-                        LanceBuffer::from_bytes(
-                            dictionary_data,
-                            dictionary.dictionary_data_alignment,
-                        ),
-                        dictionary.num_dictionary_items,
-                    )?));
-            };
-            let page_meta = Arc::new(page_meta);
-            self.page_meta = Some(page_meta.clone());
-            Ok(page_meta as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)
-        }
-        .boxed()
-    }
+/// State that is loaded once and cached for future lookups
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct MiniBlockCacheableState {
+    /// Compact per-chunk index (byte ranges + row/item mapping) for the page
+    chunk_index: MiniBlockChunkIndex,
+    /// The dictionary for the page, if any
+    dictionary: Option<Arc<DataBlock>>,
+}
 
-    fn load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) {
-        self.page_meta = Some(
-            data.clone()
-                .as_arc_any()
-                .downcast::<MiniBlockCacheableState>()
-                .unwrap(),
-        );
+impl DeepSizeOf for MiniBlockCacheableState {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.chunk_index.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .dictionary
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|dict| dict.data_size() as usize)
+                .unwrap_or(0)
     }
+}
 
-    fn schedule_ranges(
-        &self,
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
-        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
-
-        let page_meta = self.page_meta.as_ref().unwrap();
-
-        let chunk_instructions =
-            ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&page_meta.rep_index, ranges);
-
-        debug_assert_eq!(
-            num_rows,
-            chunk_instructions
-                .iter()
-                .map(|ci| ci.rows_to_take)
-                .sum::<u64>()
-        );
-
-        let chunks_needed = chunk_instructions
-            .iter()
-            .map(|ci| ci.chunk_idx)
-            .unique()
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        let mut loaded_chunks = self.lookup_chunks(&chunks_needed);
-        let chunk_ranges = loaded_chunks
-            .iter()
-            .map(|c| c.byte_range.clone())
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let loaded_chunk_data = io.submit_request(chunk_ranges, self.priority);
-
-        let rep_decompressor = self.rep_decompressor.clone();
-        let def_decompressor = self.def_decompressor.clone();
-        let value_decompressor = self.value_decompressor.clone();
-        let num_buffers = self.num_buffers;
-        let has_large_chunk = self.has_large_chunk;
-        let dictionary = page_meta
-            .dictionary
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|dictionary| dictionary.clone());
-        let def_meaning = self.def_meaning.clone();
-
-        let res = async move {
-            let loaded_chunk_data = loaded_chunk_data.await?;
-            for (loaded_chunk, chunk_data) in loaded_chunks.iter_mut().zip(loaded_chunk_data) {
-                loaded_chunk.data = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(chunk_data, 1);
-            }
-
-            Ok(Box::new(MiniBlockDecoder {
-                rep_decompressor,
-                def_decompressor,
-                value_decompressor,
-                def_meaning,
-                loaded_chunks: VecDeque::from_iter(loaded_chunks),
-                instructions: VecDeque::from(chunk_instructions),
-                offset_in_current_chunk: 0,
-                dictionary,
-                num_rows,
-                num_buffers,
-                has_large_chunk,
-            }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>)
-        }
-        .boxed();
-        let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
-            decoder_fut: res,
-            num_rows,
-        };
-        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
+impl CachedPageData for MiniBlockCacheableState {
+    fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static> {
+        self
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
-struct FullZipRepIndexDetails {
-    buf_position: u64,
-    bytes_per_value: u64, // Will be 1, 2, 4, or 8
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-enum PerValueDecompressor {
-    Fixed(Arc<dyn FixedPerValueDecompressor>),
-    Variable(Arc<dyn VariablePerValueDecompressor>),
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct FullZipDecodeDetails {
-    value_decompressor: PerValueDecompressor,
-    def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
-    ctrl_word_parser: ControlWordParser,
-    max_rep: u16,
-    max_visible_def: u16,
-}
-
-/// A scheduler for full-zip encoded data
+/// A scheduler for a page that has been encoded with the mini-block layout
 ///
-/// When the data type has a fixed-width then we simply need to map from
-/// row ranges to byte ranges using the fixed-width of the data type.
+/// Scheduling mini-block encoded data is simple in concept and somewhat complex
+/// in practice.
 ///
-/// When the data type is variable-width or has any repetition then a
-/// repetition index is required.
+/// First, during initialization, we load the chunk metadata, the repetition index,
+/// and the dictionary (these last two may not be present)
+///
+/// Then, during scheduling, we use the user's requested row ranges and the repetition
+/// index to determine which chunks we need and which rows we need from those chunks.
+///
+/// For example, if the repetition index is: [50, 3], [50, 0], [10, 0] and the range
+/// from the user is 40..60 then we need to:
+///
+///  - Read the first chunk and skip the first 40 rows, then read 10 full rows, and
+///    then read 3 items for the 11th row of our range.
+///  - Read the second chunk and read the remaining items in our 11th row and then read
+///    the remaining 9 full rows.
+///
+/// Then, if we are going to decode that in batches of 5, we need to make decode tasks.
+/// The first two decode tasks will just need the first chunk.  The third decode task will
+/// need the first chunk (for the trailer which has the 11th row in our range) and the second
+/// chunk.  The final decode task will just need the second chunk.
+///
+/// The above prose descriptions are what are represented by `ChunkInstructions` and
+/// `ChunkDrainInstructions`.
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct FullZipScheduler {
-    data_buf_position: u64,
-    rep_index: Option<FullZipRepIndexDetails>,
+pub struct MiniBlockScheduler {
+    // These come from the protobuf
+    buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Vec<(u64, u64)>,
     priority: u64,
-    rows_in_page: u64,
-    bits_per_offset: u8,
-    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
-    /// Cached state containing the decoded repetition index
-    cached_state: Option<Arc<FullZipCacheableState>>,
-    /// Whether to enable caching of repetition indices
-    enable_cache: bool,
+    items_in_page: u64,
+    repetition_index_depth: u16,
+    num_buffers: u64,
+    rep_decompressor: Option<Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>>,
+    def_decompressor: Option<Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>>,
+    value_decompressor: Arc<dyn MiniBlockDecompressor>,
+    def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
+    dictionary: Option<MiniBlockSchedulerDictionary>,
+    // This is set after initialization
+    page_meta: Option<Arc<MiniBlockCacheableState>>,
+    has_large_chunk: bool,
 }
 
-impl FullZipScheduler {
+impl MiniBlockScheduler {
     fn try_new(
         buffer_offsets_and_sizes: &[(u64, u64)],
         priority: u64,
-        rows_in_page: u64,
-        layout: &pb21::FullZipLayout,
+        items_in_page: u64,
+        layout: &pb21::MiniBlockLayout,
         decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        // We don't need the data_buf_size because either the data type is
-        // fixed-width (and we can tell size from rows_in_page) or it is not
-        // and we have a repetition index.
-        let (data_buf_position, _) = buffer_offsets_and_sizes[0];
-        let rep_index = buffer_offsets_and_sizes.get(1).map(|(pos, len)| {
-            let num_reps = rows_in_page + 1;
-            let bytes_per_rep = len / num_reps;
-            debug_assert_eq!(len % num_reps, 0);
-            debug_assert!(
-                bytes_per_rep == 1
-                    || bytes_per_rep == 2
-                    || bytes_per_rep == 4
-                    || bytes_per_rep == 8
-            );
-            FullZipRepIndexDetails {
-                buf_position: *pos,
-                bytes_per_value: bytes_per_rep,
-            }
-        });
-
-        let value_decompressor = match layout.details {
-            Some(pb21::full_zip_layout::Details::BitsPerValue(_)) => {
-                let decompressor = decompressors.create_fixed_per_value_decompressor(
-                    layout.value_compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
-                )?;
-                PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor.into())
-            }
-            Some(pb21::full_zip_layout::Details::BitsPerOffset(_)) => {
-                let decompressor = decompressors.create_variable_per_value_decompressor(
-                    layout.value_compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
-                )?;
-                PerValueDecompressor::Variable(decompressor.into())
-            }
-            None => {
-                panic!("Full-zip layout must have a `details` field");
-            }
-        };
-        let ctrl_word_parser = ControlWordParser::new(
-            layout.bits_rep.try_into().unwrap(),
-            layout.bits_def.try_into().unwrap(),
-        );
+        let rep_decompressor = layout
+            .rep_compression
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|rep_compression| {
+                decompressors
+                    .create_block_decompressor(rep_compression)
+                    .map(Arc::from)
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+        let def_decompressor = layout
+            .def_compression
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|def_compression| {
+                decompressors
+                    .create_block_decompressor(def_compression)
+                    .map(Arc::from)
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
         let def_meaning = layout
             .layers
             .iter()
             .map(|l| ProtobufUtils21::repdef_layer_to_def_interp(*l))
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let value_decompressor = decompressors.create_miniblock_decompressor(
+            layout.value_compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            decompressors,
+        )?;
 
-        let max_rep = def_meaning.iter().filter(|d| d.is_list()).count() as u16;
-        let max_visible_def = def_meaning
-            .iter()
-            .filter(|d| !d.is_list())
-            .map(|d| d.num_def_levels())
-            .sum();
-
-        let bits_per_offset = match layout.details {
-            Some(pb21::full_zip_layout::Details::BitsPerValue(_)) => 32,
-            Some(pb21::full_zip_layout::Details::BitsPerOffset(bits_per_offset)) => {
-                bits_per_offset as u8
-            }
-            None => panic!("Full-zip layout must have a `details` field"),
+        let dictionary = if let Some(dictionary_encoding) = layout.dictionary.as_ref() {
+            let num_dictionary_items = layout.num_dictionary_items;
+            let dictionary_decompressor = decompressors
+                .create_block_decompressor(dictionary_encoding)?
+                .into();
+            let dictionary_data_alignment = match dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap()
+            {
+                Compression::Variable(_) => 4,
+                Compression::Flat(_) => 16,
+                Compression::General(_) => 1,
+                Compression::InlineBitpacking(_) | Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(_) => {
+                    crate::encoder::MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Unsupported mini-block dictionary encoding: {:?}",
+                            dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap()
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            };
+            Some(MiniBlockSchedulerDictionary {
+                dictionary_decompressor,
+                dictionary_buf_position_and_size: buffer_offsets_and_sizes[2],
+                dictionary_data_alignment,
+                num_dictionary_items,
+            })
+        } else {
+            None
         };
 
-        let details = Arc::new(FullZipDecodeDetails {
-            value_decompressor,
-            def_meaning: def_meaning.into(),
-            ctrl_word_parser,
-            max_rep,
-            max_visible_def,
-        });
         Ok(Self {
-            data_buf_position,
-            rep_index,
-            details,
+            buffer_offsets_and_sizes: buffer_offsets_and_sizes.to_vec(),
+            rep_decompressor,
+            def_decompressor,
+            value_decompressor: value_decompressor.into(),
+            repetition_index_depth: layout.repetition_index_depth as u16,
+            num_buffers: layout.num_buffers,
             priority,
-            rows_in_page,
-            bits_per_offset,
-            cached_state: None,
-            enable_cache: false, // Default to false, will be set later
+            items_in_page,
+            dictionary,
+            def_meaning: def_meaning.into(),
+            page_meta: None,
+            has_large_chunk: layout.has_large_chunk,
         })
     }
 
-    /// Creates a decoder from the loaded data
-    fn create_decoder(
-        details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
-        data: VecDeque<LanceBuffer>,
-        num_rows: u64,
-        bits_per_offset: u8,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>> {
-        match &details.value_decompressor {
-            PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor) => {
-                let bits_per_value = decompressor.bits_per_value();
-                if bits_per_value == 0 {
-                    return Err(lance_core::Error::Internal {
-                        message: "Invalid encoding: bits_per_value must be greater than 0".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-                if bits_per_value % 8 != 0 {
-                    return Err(lance_core::Error::NotSupported {
-                        source: "Bit-packed full-zip encoding (non-byte-aligned values) is not yet implemented".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-                let bytes_per_value = bits_per_value / 8;
-                let total_bytes_per_value =
-                    bytes_per_value as usize + details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word();
-                Ok(Box::new(FixedFullZipDecoder {
-                    details,
-                    data,
-                    num_rows,
-                    offset_in_current: 0,
-                    bytes_per_value: bytes_per_value as usize,
-                    total_bytes_per_value,
-                }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>)
-            }
-            PerValueDecompressor::Variable(_decompressor) => {
-                Ok(Box::new(VariableFullZipDecoder::new(
-                    details,
-                    data,
-                    num_rows,
-                    bits_per_offset,
-                    bits_per_offset,
-                )))
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Extracts byte ranges from a repetition index buffer
-    /// The buffer contains pairs of (start, end) values for each range
-    fn extract_byte_ranges_from_pairs(
-        buffer: LanceBuffer,
-        bytes_per_value: u64,
-        data_buf_position: u64,
-    ) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
-        ByteUnpacker::new(buffer, bytes_per_value as usize)
-            .chunks(2)
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|mut c| {
-                let start = c.next().unwrap() + data_buf_position;
-                let end = c.next().unwrap() + data_buf_position;
-                start..end
+    fn lookup_chunks(&self, chunk_indices: &[usize]) -> Vec<LoadedChunk> {
+        let chunk_index = &self.page_meta.as_ref().unwrap().chunk_index;
+        chunk_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&chunk_idx| LoadedChunk {
+                byte_range: chunk_index.byte_range(chunk_idx),
+                items_in_chunk: chunk_index.items_in_chunk(chunk_idx),
+                chunk_idx,
+                data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
             })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .collect()
     }
+}
 
-    /// Extracts byte ranges from a cached repetition index buffer
-    /// The buffer contains all values and we need to extract specific ranges
-    fn extract_byte_ranges_from_cached(
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+enum PreambleAction {
+    Take,
+    Skip,
+    Absent,
+}
+
+// When we schedule a chunk we use the repetition index (or, if none exists, just the # of items
+// in each chunk) to map a user requested range into a set of ChunkInstruction objects which tell
+// us how exactly to read from the chunk.
+//
+// Examples:
+//
+// | Chunk 0     | Chunk 1   | Chunk 2   | Chunk 3 |
+// | xxxxyyyyzzz | zzzzzzzzz | zzzzzzzzz | aaabbcc |
+//
+// Full read (0..6)
+//
+// Chunk 0: (several rows, ends with trailer)
+//   preamble: absent
+//   rows_to_skip: 0
+//   rows_to_take: 3 (x, y, z)
+//   take_trailer: true
+//
+// Chunk 1: (all preamble, ends with trailer)
+//   preamble: take
+//   rows_to_skip: 0
+//   rows_to_take: 0
+//   take_trailer: true
+//
+// Chunk 2: (all preamble, no trailer)
+//   preamble: take
+//   rows_to_skip: 0
+//   rows_to_take: 0
+//   take_trailer: false
+//
+// Chunk 3: (several rows, no trailer or preamble)
+//   preamble: absent
+//   rows_to_skip: 0
+//   rows_to_take: 3 (a, b, c)
+//   take_trailer: false
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct ChunkInstructions {
+    // The index of the chunk to read
+    chunk_idx: usize,
+    // A "preamble" is when a chunk begins with a continuation of the previous chunk's list.  If there
+    // is no repetition index there is never a preamble.
+    //
+    // It's possible for a chunk to be entirely premable.  For example, if there is a really large list
+    // that spans several chunks.
+    preamble: PreambleAction,
+    // How many complete rows (not including the preamble or trailer) to skip
+    //
+    // If this is non-zero then premable must not be Take
+    rows_to_skip: u64,
+    // How many rows to take.  If a row splits across chunks then we will count the row in the first
+    // chunk that contains the row.
+    rows_to_take: u64,
+    // A "trailer" is when a chunk ends with a partial list.  If there is no repetition index there is
+    // never a trailer.
+    //
+    // A chunk that is all preamble may or may not have a trailer.
+    //
+    // If this is true then we want to include the trailer
+    take_trailer: bool,
+}
+
+// First, we schedule a bunch of [`ChunkInstructions`] based on the users ranges.  Then we
+// start decoding them, based on a batch size, which might not align with what we scheduled.
+//
+// This results in `ChunkDrainInstructions` which targets a contiguous slice of a `ChunkInstructions`
+//
+// So if `ChunkInstructions` is "skip preamble, skip 10, take 50, take trailer" and we are decoding in
+// batches of size 10 we might have a `ChunkDrainInstructions` that targets that chunk and has its own
+// skip of 17 and take of 10.  This would mean we decode the chunk, skip the preamble and 27 rows, and
+// then take 10 rows.
+//
+// One very confusing bit is that `rows_to_take` includes the trailer.  So if we have two chunks:
+//  -no preamble, skip 5, take 10, take trailer
+//  -take preamble, skip 0, take 50, no trailer
+//
+// and we are draining 20 rows then the drain instructions for the first batch will be:
+//  - no preamble, skip 0 (from chunk 0), take 11 (from chunk 0)
+//  - take preamble (from chunk 1), skip 0 (from chunk 1), take 9 (from chunk 1)
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct ChunkDrainInstructions {
+    chunk_instructions: ChunkInstructions,
+    rows_to_skip: u64,
+    rows_to_take: u64,
+    preamble_action: PreambleAction,
+}
+
+impl ChunkInstructions {
+    // Given a repetition index and a set of user ranges we need to figure out how to read from the chunks
+    //
+    // We assume that `user_ranges` are in sorted order and non-overlapping
+    //
+    // The output will be a set of `ChunkInstructions` which tell us how to read from the chunks
+    fn schedule_instructions(
+        chunk_index: &MiniBlockChunkIndex,
+        user_ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+    ) -> Vec<Self> {
+        // Bind the per-page chunk count once; re-deriving it each iteration
+        // costs a width match plus a length read.
+        let num_chunks = chunk_index.num_chunks();
+        // This is an in-exact capacity guess but pretty good.  The actual capacity can be
+        // smaller if instructions are merged.  It can be larger if there are multiple instructions
+        // per row which can happen with lists.
+        let mut chunk_instructions = Vec::with_capacity(user_ranges.len());
+
+        for user_range in user_ranges {
+            let mut rows_needed = user_range.end - user_range.start;
+            let mut need_preamble = false;
+
+            // Need to find the first chunk with a first row >= user_range.start.  If there are
+            // multiple chunks with the same first row we need to take the first one.
+            let mut block_index = chunk_index.find_chunk(user_range.start);
+
+            let mut to_skip = user_range.start - chunk_index.first_row(block_index);
+
+            while rows_needed > 0 || need_preamble {
+                // Check if we've gone past the last block (should not happen)
+                if block_index >= num_chunks {
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "schedule_instructions inconsistency: block_index >= num_chunks, exiting early"
+                    );
+                    break;
+                }
+
+                let starts_including_trailer = chunk_index.rows_in_chunk(block_index);
+                let has_preamble = chunk_index.has_preamble(block_index);
+                let has_trailer = chunk_index.has_trailer(block_index);
+                let rows_avail = starts_including_trailer.saturating_sub(to_skip);
+
+                // Handle blocks that are entirely preamble (rows_avail = 0)
+                // These blocks have no rows to take but may have a preamble we need
+                // We only look for preamble if to_skip == 0 (we're not skipping rows)
+                if rows_avail == 0 && to_skip == 0 {
+                    // Only process if this chunk has a preamble we need
+                    if has_preamble && need_preamble {
+                        chunk_instructions.push(Self {
+                            chunk_idx: block_index,
+                            preamble: PreambleAction::Take,
+                            rows_to_skip: 0,
+                            rows_to_take: 0,
+                            // We still need to look at has_trailer to distinguish between "all preamble
+                            // and row ends at end of chunk" and "all preamble and row bleeds into next
+                            // chunk".  Both cases will have 0 rows available.
+                            take_trailer: has_trailer,
+                        });
+                        // Only set need_preamble = false if the chunk has at least one row,
+                        // Or we are reaching the last block,
+                        // Otherwise, the chunk is entirely preamble and we need the next chunk's preamble too
+                        if starts_including_trailer > 0 || block_index == num_chunks - 1 {
+                            need_preamble = false;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    // Move to next block
+                    block_index += 1;
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                // Edge case: if rows_avail == 0 but to_skip > 0
+                // This theoretically shouldn't happen (binary search should avoid it)
+                // but handle it for safety
+                if rows_avail == 0 && to_skip > 0 {
+                    // This block doesn't have enough rows to skip, move to next block
+                    // Adjust to_skip by the number of rows in this block
+                    to_skip -= starts_including_trailer;
+                    block_index += 1;
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                let rows_to_take = rows_avail.min(rows_needed);
+                rows_needed -= rows_to_take;
+
+                let mut take_trailer = false;
+                let preamble = if has_preamble {
+                    if need_preamble {
+                        PreambleAction::Take
+                    } else {
+                        PreambleAction::Skip
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    PreambleAction::Absent
+                };
+
+                // Are we taking the trailer?  If so, make sure we mark that we need the preamble
+                if rows_to_take == rows_avail && has_trailer {
+                    take_trailer = true;
+                    need_preamble = true;
+                } else {
+                    need_preamble = false;
+                };
+
+                chunk_instructions.push(Self {
+                    preamble,
+                    chunk_idx: block_index,
+                    rows_to_skip: to_skip,
+                    rows_to_take,
+                    take_trailer,
+                });
+
+                to_skip = 0;
+                block_index += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // If there were multiple ranges we may have multiple instructions for a single chunk.  Merge them now if they
+        // are _adjacent_ (i.e. don't merge "take first row of chunk 0" and "take third row of chunk 0" into "take 2
+        // rows of chunk 0 starting at 0")
+        if user_ranges.len() > 1 {
+            // Merge adjacent instructions in place.  `write` indexes the last
+            // retained instruction; each following instruction is either folded
+            // into it (contiguous within the same chunk) or compacted forward.
+            let mut write = 0;
+            for read in 1..chunk_instructions.len() {
+                let merges = {
+                    let last = &chunk_instructions[write];
+                    let candidate = &chunk_instructions[read];
+                    last.chunk_idx == candidate.chunk_idx
+                        && last.rows_to_take + last.rows_to_skip == candidate.rows_to_skip
+                };
+                if merges {
+                    let rows_to_take = chunk_instructions[read].rows_to_take;
+                    let take_trailer = chunk_instructions[read].take_trailer;
+                    let last = &mut chunk_instructions[write];
+                    last.rows_to_take += rows_to_take;
+                    last.take_trailer |= take_trailer;
+                } else {
+                    write += 1;
+                    if write != read {
+                        chunk_instructions.swap(write, read);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            chunk_instructions.truncate(write + 1);
+        }
+        chunk_instructions
+    }
+
+    fn drain_from_instruction(
+        &self,
+        rows_desired: &mut u64,
+        need_preamble: &mut bool,
+        skip_in_chunk: &mut u64,
+    ) -> (ChunkDrainInstructions, bool) {
+        // If we need the premable then we shouldn't be skipping anything
+        debug_assert!(!*need_preamble || *skip_in_chunk == 0);
+        let rows_avail = self.rows_to_take - *skip_in_chunk;
+        let has_preamble = self.preamble != PreambleAction::Absent;
+        let preamble_action = match (*need_preamble, has_preamble) {
+            (true, true) => PreambleAction::Take,
+            (true, false) => panic!("Need preamble but there isn't one"),
+            (false, true) => PreambleAction::Skip,
+            (false, false) => PreambleAction::Absent,
+        };
+
+        // How many rows are we actually taking in this take step (including the preamble
+        // and trailer both as individual rows)
+        let rows_taking = if *rows_desired >= rows_avail {
+            // We want all the rows.  If there is a trailer we are grabbing it and will need
+            // the preamble of the next chunk
+            // If there is a trailer and we are taking all the rows then we need the preamble
+            // of the next chunk.
+            //
+            // Also, if this chunk is entirely preamble (rows_avail == 0 && !take_trailer) then we
+            // need the preamble of the next chunk.
+            *need_preamble = self.take_trailer;
+            rows_avail
+        } else {
+            // We aren't taking all the rows.  Even if there is a trailer we aren't taking
+            // it so we will not need the preamble
+            *need_preamble = false;
+            *rows_desired
+        };
+        let rows_skipped = *skip_in_chunk;
+
+        // Update the state for the next iteration
+        let consumed_chunk = if *rows_desired >= rows_avail {
+            *rows_desired -= rows_avail;
+            *skip_in_chunk = 0;
+            true
+        } else {
+            *skip_in_chunk += *rows_desired;
+            *rows_desired = 0;
+            false
+        };
+
+        (
+            ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                chunk_instructions: self.clone(),
+                rows_to_skip: rows_skipped,
+                rows_to_take: rows_taking,
+                preamble_action,
+            },
+            consumed_chunk,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+enum Words {
+    U16(ScalarBuffer<u16>),
+    U32(ScalarBuffer<u32>),
+}
+
+struct WordsIter<'a> {
+    iter: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32> + 'a>,
+}
+
+impl Words {
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U16(b) => b.len(),
+            Self::U32(b) => b.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> WordsIter<'_> {
+        match self {
+            Self::U16(buf) => WordsIter {
+                iter: Box::new(buf.iter().map(|&x| x as u32)),
+            },
+            Self::U32(buf) => WordsIter {
+                iter: Box::new(buf.iter().copied()),
+            },
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_bytes(bytes: Bytes, has_large_chunk: bool) -> Result<Self> {
+        let bytes_per_value = if has_large_chunk { 4 } else { 2 };
+        assert_eq!(bytes.len() % bytes_per_value, 0);
+        let buffer = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(bytes, bytes_per_value as u64);
+        if has_large_chunk {
+            Ok(Self::U32(buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u32>()))
+        } else {
+            Ok(Self::U16(buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>()))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> Iterator for WordsIter<'a> {
+    type Item = u32;
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        self.iter.next()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-chunk leaf value-count analysis derived from the metadata words.
+///
+/// `values_per_chunk` is the count shared by every non-last chunk (meaningful
+/// when `uniform`), and `last_chunk_values` is the final chunk's count.
+struct FlatValueCounts {
+    logs: Vec<u8>,
+    uniform: bool,
+    values_per_chunk: u64,
+    last_chunk_values: u64,
+}
+
+fn analyze_value_counts(words: &Words, items_in_page: u64) -> Result<FlatValueCounts> {
+    let num_chunks = words.len();
+    let logs = words.iter().map(|w| (w & 0x0F) as u8).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut counted = 0u64;
+    for (chunk_index, &log) in logs.iter().take(num_chunks.saturating_sub(1)).enumerate() {
+        if log == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "miniblock_metadata",
+                format!(
+                    "non-final chunk {chunk_index} of {num_chunks} has invalid log_num_values=0"
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        counted = counted.checked_add(1u64 << log).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "miniblock_metadata",
+                format!(
+                    "value count overflow at chunk {chunk_index}: counted_values={counted}, \
+                     log_num_values={log}, items_in_page={items_in_page}"
+                ),
+            )
+        })?;
+    }
+    let last_chunk_values = items_in_page.checked_sub(counted).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            "miniblock_metadata",
+            format!(
+                "non-final chunks account for counted_values={counted}, exceeding \
+                 items_in_page={items_in_page}"
+            ),
+        )
+    })?;
+    if let Some(&last_log) = logs.last()
+        && last_log != 0
+        && (1u64 << last_log) != last_chunk_values
+    {
+        return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            "miniblock_metadata",
+            format!(
+                "final chunk log_num_values={last_log} does not match \
+                 last_chunk_values={last_chunk_values}: counted_values={counted}, \
+                 items_in_page={items_in_page}"
+            ),
+        ));
+    }
+    let uniform = num_chunks <= 1 || logs[..num_chunks - 1].iter().all(|&log| log == logs[0]);
+    // A single-chunk page has no "non-last" chunk to derive a stride from; use the
+    // page item count (min 1 so it stays a valid divisor in `find_chunk`).
+    let values_per_chunk = if num_chunks <= 1 {
+        items_in_page.max(1)
+    } else {
+        1u64 << logs[0]
+    };
+    Ok(FlatValueCounts {
+        logs,
+        uniform,
+        values_per_chunk,
+        last_chunk_values,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Iterator over per-chunk value counts for a non-uniform flat page.  Non-last
+/// chunks yield `1 << log`; the last yields the validated remaining item count.
+fn flat_value_counts_iter(logs: &[u8], last_chunk_values: u64) -> impl Iterator<Item = u64> + '_ {
+    let num_chunks = logs.len();
+    (0..num_chunks).map(move |i| {
+        if i + 1 < num_chunks {
+            1u64 << logs[i]
+        } else {
+            last_chunk_values
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// Builds the compact per-chunk index from the metadata words and, for nested
+/// pages, the raw repetition-index bytes.  The row axis is picked by page shape:
+/// `UniformFlat` when all non-last chunks share a value count (fixed-width /
+/// bitpacking), `Flat` for non-uniform flat pages (RLE / FSST), else `Nested`.
+fn build_chunk_index(
+    words: &Words,
+    items_in_page: u64,
+    base: u64,
+    data_buf_size: u64,
+    rep_index_bytes: Option<&[u8]>,
+    repetition_index_depth: u16,
+) -> Result<MiniBlockChunkIndex> {
+    let num_chunks = words.len();
+    // Validate item counts before byte sizes because both share a metadata word,
+    // and an invalid count must not reach the final-chunk subtraction.
+    let value_counts = analyze_value_counts(words, items_in_page)?;
+
+    // Each chunk stores `(divided_bytes + 1) * MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT` bytes, so the
+    // deltas are the chunk sizes and their grand total is the data buffer size.
+    let byte_starts = PrefixSums::from_deltas(
+        words
+            .iter()
+            .map(|word| ((word >> 4) as u64 + 1) * MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT as u64),
+        num_chunks,
+        data_buf_size,
+    );
+
+    // Nested pages track rows via the repetition index and keep leaf item counts
+    // separately; flat pages have row == value index, so value counts are rows.
+    let rows = if let Some(rep_index_data) = rep_index_bytes {
+        assert!(rep_index_data.len() % 8 == 0);
+        let stride = repetition_index_depth as usize + 1;
+        let (row_starts, has_trailer) = parse_nested_rep(rep_index_data, stride);
+        let item_counts = if value_counts.uniform {
+            ItemCounts::Uniform {
+                values_per_chunk: value_counts.values_per_chunk,
+                last_chunk_values: value_counts.last_chunk_values,
+            }
+        } else {
+            ItemCounts::PerChunkLog {
+                logs: value_counts.logs,
+                last_chunk_values: value_counts.last_chunk_values,
+            }
+        };
+        RowMapping::Nested {
+            row_starts,
+            has_trailer,
+            item_counts,
+        }
+    } else {
+        if value_counts.uniform {
+            RowMapping::UniformFlat {
+                values_per_chunk: value_counts.values_per_chunk,
+                last_chunk_values: value_counts.last_chunk_values,
+                num_chunks,
+            }
+        } else {
+            let value_starts = PrefixSums::from_deltas(
+                flat_value_counts_iter(&value_counts.logs, value_counts.last_chunk_values),
+                num_chunks,
+                items_in_page,
+            );
+            RowMapping::Flat { value_starts }
+        }
+    };
+
+    Ok(MiniBlockChunkIndex::new(base, byte_starts, rows))
+}
+
+impl StructuralPageScheduler for MiniBlockScheduler {
+    fn init_layout(&self) -> Result<PageInitialization> {
+        // We always need to fetch chunk metadata.  We may also need to fetch a dictionary and
+        // we may also need to fetch the repetition index.  Here, we gather what buffers we
+        // need.
+        let (meta_buf_position, meta_buf_size) = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[0];
+        let dictionary_range = self.dictionary.as_ref().map(|dictionary| {
+            dictionary.dictionary_buf_position_and_size.0
+                ..dictionary.dictionary_buf_position_and_size.0
+                    + dictionary.dictionary_buf_position_and_size.1
+        });
+        let repetition_index_range = if self.repetition_index_depth > 0 {
+            let (rep_index_pos, rep_index_size) =
+                self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.last().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Mini-block page has a repetition index but no buffers".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            Some(*rep_index_pos..*rep_index_pos + *rep_index_size)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        Ok(PageInitialization::new([
+            Some(meta_buf_position..meta_buf_position + meta_buf_size),
+            dictionary_range,
+            repetition_index_range,
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
+        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
+        let base = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[1].0;
+        let data_buf_size = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[1].1;
+
+        async move {
+            let [meta_bytes, dictionary_bytes, rep_index_bytes] =
+                buffers.try_into_array("mini-block")?;
+            let meta_bytes = meta_bytes.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Mini-block page initialization is missing chunk metadata")
+            })?;
+
+            let words = Words::from_bytes(meta_bytes, self.has_large_chunk)?;
+            let chunk_index = build_chunk_index(
+                &words,
+                self.items_in_page,
+                base,
+                data_buf_size,
+                rep_index_bytes.as_deref(),
+                self.repetition_index_depth,
+            )?;
+
+            // decode dictionary
+            let dictionary = match (self.dictionary.as_ref(), dictionary_bytes) {
+                (Some(dictionary), Some(dictionary_data)) => {
+                    Some(Arc::new(dictionary.dictionary_decompressor.decompress(
+                        Some(LanceBuffer::from_bytes(
+                            dictionary_data,
+                            dictionary.dictionary_data_alignment,
+                        )),
+                        dictionary.num_dictionary_items,
+                    )?))
+                }
+                (None, None) => None,
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(
+                        "Mini-block page initialization dictionary slot does not match its layout",
+                    ));
+                }
+            };
+
+            let page_meta = Arc::new(MiniBlockCacheableState {
+                chunk_index,
+                dictionary,
+            });
+            Ok(page_meta as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn try_load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.page_meta = Some(data.clone().as_arc_any().downcast().map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Cached mini-block page data has an unexpected type".into())
+        })?);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn schedule_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
+        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
+
+        let page_meta = self.page_meta.as_ref().unwrap();
+
+        let chunk_instructions =
+            ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&page_meta.chunk_index, ranges);
+
+        debug_assert_eq!(
+            num_rows,
+            chunk_instructions
+                .iter()
+                .map(|ci| ci.rows_to_take)
+                .sum::<u64>()
+        );
+
+        let chunks_needed = chunk_instructions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|ci| ci.chunk_idx)
+            .unique()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let mut loaded_chunks = self.lookup_chunks(&chunks_needed);
+        let chunk_ranges = loaded_chunks
+            .iter()
+            .map(|c| c.byte_range.clone())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let loaded_chunk_data = io.submit_request(chunk_ranges, self.priority);
+
+        let rep_decompressor = self.rep_decompressor.clone();
+        let def_decompressor = self.def_decompressor.clone();
+        let value_decompressor = self.value_decompressor.clone();
+        let num_buffers = self.num_buffers;
+        let has_large_chunk = self.has_large_chunk;
+        let dictionary = page_meta
+            .dictionary
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|dictionary| dictionary.clone());
+        let def_meaning = self.def_meaning.clone();
+
+        let res = async move {
+            let loaded_chunk_data = loaded_chunk_data.await?;
+            for (loaded_chunk, chunk_data) in loaded_chunks.iter_mut().zip(loaded_chunk_data) {
+                loaded_chunk.data = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(chunk_data, 1);
+            }
+
+            Ok(Box::new(MiniBlockDecoder {
+                rep_decompressor,
+                def_decompressor,
+                value_decompressor,
+                def_meaning,
+                loaded_chunks: VecDeque::from_iter(loaded_chunks),
+                instructions: VecDeque::from(chunk_instructions),
+                offset_in_current_chunk: 0,
+                dictionary,
+                num_rows,
+                num_buffers,
+                has_large_chunk,
+            }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>)
+        }
+        .boxed();
+        let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
+            decoder_fut: res,
+            num_rows,
+        };
+        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct FullZipRepIndexDetails {
+    buf_position: u64,
+    bytes_per_value: u64, // Will be 1, 2, 4, or 8
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum PerValueDecompressor {
+    Fixed(Arc<dyn FixedPerValueDecompressor>),
+    Variable(Arc<dyn VariablePerValueDecompressor>),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FullZipDecodeDetails {
+    value_decompressor: PerValueDecompressor,
+    def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
+    ctrl_word_parser: ControlWordParser,
+    max_rep: u16,
+    max_visible_def: u16,
+}
+
+/// Describes where FullZip byte ranges should be read from.
+///
+/// FullZip decoding always needs a list of byte ranges, but those bytes can come
+/// from two different places:
+/// - Remote I/O (normal path): ranges are fetched from the underlying `EncodingsIo`.
+/// - A prefetched full page (full scan fast path): the entire page has already been
+///   loaded once and ranges should be sliced from memory.
+///
+/// This abstraction keeps scheduling code focused on "which ranges are needed"
+/// instead of "how bytes are fetched", and it lets full-page scans avoid the
+/// two-stage rep-index -> data I/O pipeline.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum FullZipReadSource {
+    /// Fetch ranges from the storage backend through the encoding I/O interface.
+    Remote(Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>),
+    /// Slice ranges from an already-loaded FullZip page buffer.
+    PrefetchedPage { base_offset: u64, data: LanceBuffer },
+}
+
+impl FullZipReadSource {
+    /// Materialize the requested ranges as decode-ready `LanceBuffer`s.
+    ///
+    /// The returned buffers preserve the input range order.
+    fn fetch(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        priority: u64,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<VecDeque<LanceBuffer>>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Remote(io) => {
+                let io = io.clone();
+                let ranges = ranges.to_vec();
+                async move {
+                    let data = io.submit_request(ranges, priority).await?;
+                    Ok(data
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|bytes| LanceBuffer::from_bytes(bytes, 1))
+                        .collect::<VecDeque<_>>())
+                }
+                .boxed()
+            }
+            Self::PrefetchedPage { base_offset, data } => {
+                let base_offset = *base_offset;
+                let data = data.clone();
+                let page_end = base_offset + data.len() as u64;
+                std::future::ready(
+                    ranges
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|range| {
+                            if range.start > range.end
+                                || range.start < base_offset
+                                || range.end > page_end
+                            {
+                                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                                    "Requested range {:?} is outside page range {}..{}",
+                                    range, base_offset, page_end
+                                )));
+                            }
+                            let start = (range.start - base_offset) as usize;
+                            let len = (range.end - range.start) as usize;
+                            Ok(data.slice_with_length(start, len))
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Result<VecDeque<_>>>(),
+                )
+                .boxed()
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A scheduler for full-zip encoded data
+///
+/// When the data type has a fixed-width then we simply need to map from
+/// row ranges to byte ranges using the fixed-width of the data type.
+///
+/// When the data type is variable-width or has any repetition then a
+/// repetition index is required.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FullZipScheduler {
+    data_buf_position: u64,
+    data_buf_size: u64,
+    rep_index: Option<FullZipRepIndexDetails>,
+    priority: u64,
+    rows_in_page: u64,
+    bits_per_offset: u8,
+    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
+    /// Cached state containing the decoded repetition index
+    cached_state: Option<Arc<FullZipCacheableState>>,
+    /// Whether repetition index metadata should be cached during initialize.
+    enable_cache: bool,
+}
+
+impl FullZipScheduler {
+    fn try_new(
+        buffer_offsets_and_sizes: &[(u64, u64)],
+        priority: u64,
+        rows_in_page: u64,
+        layout: &pb21::FullZipLayout,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let (data_buf_position, data_buf_size) = buffer_offsets_and_sizes[0];
+        let rep_index = buffer_offsets_and_sizes.get(1).map(|(pos, len)| {
+            let num_reps = rows_in_page + 1;
+            let bytes_per_rep = len / num_reps;
+            debug_assert_eq!(len % num_reps, 0);
+            debug_assert!(
+                bytes_per_rep == 1
+                    || bytes_per_rep == 2
+                    || bytes_per_rep == 4
+                    || bytes_per_rep == 8
+            );
+            FullZipRepIndexDetails {
+                buf_position: *pos,
+                bytes_per_value: bytes_per_rep,
+            }
+        });
+
+        let value_decompressor = match layout.details {
+            Some(pb21::full_zip_layout::Details::BitsPerValue(_)) => {
+                let decompressor = decompressors.create_fixed_per_value_decompressor(
+                    layout.value_compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                )?;
+                PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor.into())
+            }
+            Some(pb21::full_zip_layout::Details::BitsPerOffset(_)) => {
+                let decompressor = decompressors.create_variable_per_value_decompressor(
+                    layout.value_compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                )?;
+                PerValueDecompressor::Variable(decompressor.into())
+            }
+            None => {
+                panic!("Full-zip layout must have a `details` field");
+            }
+        };
+        let ctrl_word_parser = ControlWordParser::new(
+            layout.bits_rep.try_into().unwrap(),
+            layout.bits_def.try_into().unwrap(),
+        );
+        let def_meaning = layout
+            .layers
+            .iter()
+            .map(|l| ProtobufUtils21::repdef_layer_to_def_interp(*l))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let max_rep = def_meaning.iter().filter(|d| d.is_list()).count() as u16;
+        let max_visible_def = max_visible_level(&def_meaning);
+
+        let bits_per_offset = match layout.details {
+            Some(pb21::full_zip_layout::Details::BitsPerValue(_)) => 32,
+            Some(pb21::full_zip_layout::Details::BitsPerOffset(bits_per_offset)) => {
+                bits_per_offset as u8
+            }
+            None => panic!("Full-zip layout must have a `details` field"),
+        };
+
+        let details = Arc::new(FullZipDecodeDetails {
+            value_decompressor,
+            def_meaning: def_meaning.into(),
+            ctrl_word_parser,
+            max_rep,
+            max_visible_def,
+        });
+        Ok(Self {
+            data_buf_position,
+            data_buf_size,
+            rep_index,
+            details,
+            priority,
+            rows_in_page,
+            bits_per_offset,
+            cached_state: None,
+            enable_cache: false,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn covers_entire_page(ranges: &[Range<u64>], rows_in_page: u64) -> bool {
+        if ranges.is_empty() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        let mut expected_start = 0;
+        for range in ranges {
+            if range.start != expected_start || range.end > rows_in_page || range.end < range.start
+            {
+                return false;
+            }
+            expected_start = range.end;
+        }
+        expected_start == rows_in_page
+    }
+
+    fn create_page_load_task(
+        io_future: BoxFuture<'static, Result<Vec<Bytes>>>,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
+        bits_per_offset: u8,
+    ) -> PageLoadTask {
+        let load_task = async move {
+            let buffers = io_future.await?;
+            let data = buffers
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|bytes| LanceBuffer::from_bytes(bytes, 1))
+                .collect::<VecDeque<_>>();
+            Self::create_decoder(details, data, num_rows, bits_per_offset)
+        }
+        .boxed();
+        PageLoadTask {
+            decoder_fut: load_task,
+            num_rows,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a decoder from the loaded data
+    fn create_decoder(
+        details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
+        data: VecDeque<LanceBuffer>,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        bits_per_offset: u8,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>> {
+        match &details.value_decompressor {
+            PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor) => {
+                let bits_per_value = decompressor.bits_per_value();
+                if bits_per_value % 8 != 0 {
+                    return Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported_source("Bit-packed full-zip encoding (non-byte-aligned values) is not yet implemented".into()));
+                }
+                let bytes_per_value = bits_per_value / 8;
+                let total_bytes_per_value =
+                    bytes_per_value as usize + details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word();
+                // total_bytes_per_value == 0 is valid for constant-null FSL pages written by
+                // earlier encoders that produced bits_per_value=0 with no ctrl-word bytes.
+                // FixedFullZipDecoder::drain handles this case by producing AllNull output
+                // without touching the (empty) data buffer.
+                Ok(Box::new(FixedFullZipDecoder {
+                    details,
+                    data,
+                    num_rows,
+                    offset_in_current: 0,
+                    bytes_per_value: bytes_per_value as usize,
+                    total_bytes_per_value,
+                }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>)
+            }
+            PerValueDecompressor::Variable(_decompressor) => {
+                Ok(Box::new(VariableFullZipDecoder::new(
+                    details,
+                    data,
+                    num_rows,
+                    bits_per_offset,
+                    bits_per_offset,
+                )?))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Extracts byte ranges from a repetition index buffer
+    /// The buffer contains pairs of (start, end) values for each range
+    fn extract_byte_ranges_from_pairs(
+        buffer: LanceBuffer,
+        bytes_per_value: u64,
+        data_buf_position: u64,
+    ) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+        ByteUnpacker::new(buffer, bytes_per_value as usize)
+            .chunks(2)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|mut c| {
+                let start = c.next().unwrap() + data_buf_position;
+                let end = c.next().unwrap() + data_buf_position;
+                start..end
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    }
+
+    /// Extracts byte ranges from a cached repetition index buffer
+    /// The buffer contains all values and we need to extract specific ranges
+    fn extract_byte_ranges_from_cached(
         buffer: &LanceBuffer,
         ranges: &[Range<u64>],
         bytes_per_value: u64,
@@ -2087,4428 +3272,9300 @@ impl FullZipScheduler {
     ) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
         ranges
             .iter()
-            .map(|r| {
-                let start_offset = (r.start * bytes_per_value) as usize;
-                let end_offset = (r.end * bytes_per_value) as usize;
+            .map(|r| {
+                let start_offset = (r.start * bytes_per_value) as usize;
+                let end_offset = (r.end * bytes_per_value) as usize;
+
+                let start_slice = &buffer[start_offset..start_offset + bytes_per_value as usize];
+                let start_val =
+                    ByteUnpacker::new(start_slice.iter().copied(), bytes_per_value as usize)
+                        .next()
+                        .unwrap();
+
+                let end_slice = &buffer[end_offset..end_offset + bytes_per_value as usize];
+                let end_val =
+                    ByteUnpacker::new(end_slice.iter().copied(), bytes_per_value as usize)
+                        .next()
+                        .unwrap();
+
+                (data_buf_position + start_val)..(data_buf_position + end_val)
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Computes the ranges in the repetition index that need to be loaded
+    fn compute_rep_index_ranges(
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        rep_index: &FullZipRepIndexDetails,
+    ) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+        ranges
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|r| {
+                let first_val_start =
+                    rep_index.buf_position + (r.start * rep_index.bytes_per_value);
+                let first_val_end = first_val_start + rep_index.bytes_per_value;
+                let last_val_start = rep_index.buf_position + (r.end * rep_index.bytes_per_value);
+                let last_val_end = last_val_start + rep_index.bytes_per_value;
+                [first_val_start..first_val_end, last_val_start..last_val_end]
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Schedules ranges in the presence of a repetition index
+    fn schedule_ranges_rep(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        rep_index: FullZipRepIndexDetails,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
+        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
+        let data_buf_position = self.data_buf_position;
+        let priority = self.priority;
+        let details = self.details.clone();
+        let bits_per_offset = self.bits_per_offset;
+
+        if Self::covers_entire_page(ranges, self.rows_in_page) {
+            let full_range = self.data_buf_position..(self.data_buf_position + self.data_buf_size);
+            let page_data = io.submit_single(full_range.clone(), priority);
+            let load_task = async move {
+                let page_data = page_data.await?;
+                let source = FullZipReadSource::PrefetchedPage {
+                    base_offset: full_range.start,
+                    data: LanceBuffer::from_bytes(page_data, 1),
+                };
+                let read_ranges = vec![full_range];
+                let data = source.fetch(&read_ranges, priority).await?;
+                Self::create_decoder(details, data, num_rows, bits_per_offset)
+            }
+            .boxed();
+            let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
+                decoder_fut: load_task,
+                num_rows,
+            };
+            return Ok(vec![page_load_task]);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(cached_state) = &self.cached_state {
+            let byte_ranges = Self::extract_byte_ranges_from_cached(
+                &cached_state.rep_index_buffer,
+                ranges,
+                rep_index.bytes_per_value,
+                data_buf_position,
+            );
+            let io_future = io.submit_request(byte_ranges, priority);
+            let page_load_task =
+                Self::create_page_load_task(io_future, num_rows, details, bits_per_offset);
+            return Ok(vec![page_load_task]);
+        }
+
+        let rep_ranges = Self::compute_rep_index_ranges(ranges, &rep_index);
+        let rep_data = io.submit_request(rep_ranges, priority);
+        let io_clone = io.clone();
+        let load_task = async move {
+            let rep_data = rep_data.await?;
+            let rep_buffer = LanceBuffer::concat(
+                &rep_data
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|d| LanceBuffer::from_bytes(d, 1))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+            let byte_ranges = Self::extract_byte_ranges_from_pairs(
+                rep_buffer,
+                rep_index.bytes_per_value,
+                data_buf_position,
+            );
+            let source = FullZipReadSource::Remote(io_clone);
+            let data = source.fetch(&byte_ranges, priority).await?;
+            Self::create_decoder(details, data, num_rows, bits_per_offset)
+        }
+        .boxed();
+        let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
+            decoder_fut: load_task,
+            num_rows,
+        };
+        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
+    }
+
+    // In the simple case there is no repetition and we just have large fixed-width
+    // rows of data.  We can just map row ranges to byte ranges directly using the
+    // fixed-width of the data type.
+    fn schedule_ranges_simple(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
+        // Convert row ranges to item ranges (i.e. multiply by items per row)
+        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
+
+        let PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor) = &self.details.value_decompressor else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+
+        // Convert item ranges to byte ranges (i.e. multiply by bytes per item)
+        let bits_per_value = decompressor.bits_per_value();
+        if !bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Full-zip fixed-width values must be byte aligned, got {} bits per value",
+                    bits_per_value
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let bytes_per_value = bits_per_value / 8;
+        let bytes_per_cw = self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word();
+        let total_bytes_per_value = bytes_per_value + bytes_per_cw as u64;
+        let byte_ranges = ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|r| {
+                debug_assert!(r.end <= self.rows_in_page);
+                let start = self.data_buf_position + r.start * total_bytes_per_value;
+                let end = self.data_buf_position + r.end * total_bytes_per_value;
+                start..end
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let io_future = io.submit_request(byte_ranges, self.priority);
+        let page_load_task = Self::create_page_load_task(
+            io_future,
+            num_rows,
+            self.details.clone(),
+            self.bits_per_offset,
+        );
+        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
+    }
+}
+
+/// Cacheable state for FullZip encoding, storing the decoded repetition index
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FullZipCacheableState {
+    /// The raw repetition index buffer for future decoding
+    rep_index_buffer: LanceBuffer,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for FullZipCacheableState {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.rep_index_buffer.len()
+    }
+}
+
+impl CachedPageData for FullZipCacheableState {
+    fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static> {
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralPageScheduler for FullZipScheduler {
+    fn needs_initialization(&self) -> bool {
+        self.enable_cache && self.rep_index.is_some()
+    }
+
+    fn init_layout(&self) -> Result<PageInitialization> {
+        let repetition_index_range = if self.enable_cache
+            && let Some(rep_index) = self.rep_index
+        {
+            let total_size = (self.rows_in_page + 1) * rep_index.bytes_per_value;
+            Some(rep_index.buf_position..(rep_index.buf_position + total_size))
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        Ok(PageInitialization::new([repetition_index_range]))
+    }
+
+    fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
+        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
+        let [rep_index_buffer] = match buffers.try_into_array("full-zip") {
+            Ok(buffers) => buffers,
+            Err(error) => return std::future::ready(Err(error)).boxed(),
+        };
+        if let Some(rep_index_buffer) = rep_index_buffer {
+            let state = Arc::new(FullZipCacheableState {
+                rep_index_buffer: LanceBuffer::from_bytes(rep_index_buffer, 1),
+            });
+            std::future::ready(Ok(state as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)).boxed()
+        } else {
+            std::future::ready(Ok(Arc::new(NoCachedPageData) as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)).boxed()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Loads previously cached repetition index data from the cache system.
+    /// This method is called when a scheduler instance needs to use cached data
+    /// that was initialized by another instance or in a previous operation.
+    fn try_load(&mut self, cache: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.cached_state = Some(cache.clone().as_arc_any().downcast().map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Cached full-zip page data has an unexpected type".into())
+        })?);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn schedule_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
+        if let Some(rep_index) = self.rep_index {
+            self.schedule_ranges_rep(ranges, io, rep_index)
+        } else {
+            self.schedule_ranges_simple(ranges, io)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A decoder for full-zip encoded data when the data has a fixed-width
+///
+/// Here we need to unzip the control words from the values themselves and
+/// then decompress the requested values.
+///
+/// We use a PerValueDecompressor because we will only be decompressing the
+/// requested data.  This decoder / scheduler does not do any read amplification.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FixedFullZipDecoder {
+    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
+    data: VecDeque<LanceBuffer>,
+    offset_in_current: usize,
+    bytes_per_value: usize,
+    total_bytes_per_value: usize,
+    num_rows: u64,
+}
+
+impl FixedFullZipDecoder {
+    fn slice_next_task(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<FullZipDecodeTaskItem> {
+        debug_assert!(num_rows > 0);
+        let cur_buf = self.data.front_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "fixed_full_zip",
+                format!("page data ran out with {num_rows} row(s) left to decode"),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let start = self.offset_in_current;
+        if self.details.ctrl_word_parser.has_rep() {
+            // This is a slightly slower path.  In order to figure out where to split we need to
+            // examine the rep index so we can convert num_lists to num_rows
+            let mut rows_started = 0;
+            // We always need at least one value.  Now loop through until we have passed num_rows
+            // values
+            let mut num_items = 0;
+            let bytes_per_word = self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word();
+            while self.offset_in_current < cur_buf.len() {
+                // The item walk is driven by the control words themselves, so a page that
+                // disagrees with its own layout can step past the end of the buffer.  Check
+                // before every read and every advance so that a malformed page is reported
+                // instead of panicking in `slice_with_length`.
+                let bytes_avail = cur_buf.len() - self.offset_in_current;
+                if bytes_avail < bytes_per_word {
+                    return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                        "fixed_full_zip",
+                        format!(
+                            "truncated control word: {bytes_avail} byte(s) remain in the page \
+                             buffer but a control word requires {bytes_per_word}"
+                        ),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let control = self.details.ctrl_word_parser.parse_desc(
+                    &cur_buf[self.offset_in_current..],
+                    self.details.max_rep,
+                    self.details.max_visible_def,
+                );
+                if control.is_new_row {
+                    if rows_started == num_rows {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    rows_started += 1;
+                }
+                num_items += 1;
+                let bytes_in_item = if control.is_visible {
+                    self.total_bytes_per_value
+                } else {
+                    bytes_per_word
+                };
+                if bytes_in_item > bytes_avail {
+                    return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                        "fixed_full_zip",
+                        format!(
+                            "truncated item: {bytes_avail} byte(s) remain in the page buffer at \
+                             offset {} but the item requires {bytes_in_item}",
+                            self.offset_in_current
+                        ),
+                    ));
+                }
+                self.offset_in_current += bytes_in_item;
+            }
+
+            let task_slice = cur_buf.slice_with_length(start, self.offset_in_current - start);
+            if self.offset_in_current == cur_buf.len() {
+                self.data.pop_front();
+                self.offset_in_current = 0;
+            }
+
+            Ok(FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
+                data: PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                    data: task_slice,
+                    bits_per_value: self.bytes_per_value as u64 * 8,
+                    num_values: num_items,
+                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                }),
+                rows_in_buf: rows_started,
+            })
+        } else {
+            // If there's no repetition we can calculate the slicing point by just multiplying
+            // the number of rows by the total bytes per value
+            let cur_buf = self.data.front_mut().unwrap();
+            let bytes_avail = cur_buf.len() - self.offset_in_current;
+            let offset_in_cur = self.offset_in_current;
+
+            let bytes_needed = num_rows as usize * self.total_bytes_per_value;
+            let mut rows_taken = num_rows;
+            let task_slice = if bytes_needed >= bytes_avail {
+                self.offset_in_current = 0;
+                rows_taken = bytes_avail as u64 / self.total_bytes_per_value as u64;
+                self.data
+                    .pop_front()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .slice_with_length(offset_in_cur, bytes_avail)
+            } else {
+                self.offset_in_current += bytes_needed;
+                cur_buf.slice_with_length(offset_in_cur, bytes_needed)
+            };
+            Ok(FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
+                data: PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                    data: task_slice,
+                    bits_per_value: self.bytes_per_value as u64 * 8,
+                    num_values: rows_taken,
+                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                }),
+                rows_in_buf: rows_taken,
+            })
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralPageDecoder for FixedFullZipDecoder {
+    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>> {
+        if self.total_bytes_per_value == 0 {
+            // No bytes per row: constant-null page with no ctrl-word bytes.
+            // The decompressor (ConstantDecompressor) ignores its input and returns AllNull.
+            return Ok(Box::new(FixedFullZipDecodeTask {
+                details: self.details.clone(),
+                data: vec![FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
+                    data: PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                        data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+                        bits_per_value: 0,
+                        num_values: num_rows,
+                        block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                    }),
+                    rows_in_buf: num_rows,
+                }],
+                bytes_per_value: 0,
+                num_rows: num_rows as usize,
+            }));
+        }
+        let mut task_data = Vec::with_capacity(self.data.len());
+        let mut remaining = num_rows;
+        while remaining > 0 {
+            let task_item = self.slice_next_task(remaining)?;
+            remaining -= task_item.rows_in_buf;
+            task_data.push(task_item);
+        }
+        Ok(Box::new(FixedFullZipDecodeTask {
+            details: self.details.clone(),
+            data: task_data,
+            bytes_per_value: self.bytes_per_value,
+            num_rows: num_rows as usize,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.num_rows
+    }
+}
+
+/// A decoder for full-zip encoded data when the data has a variable-width
+///
+/// Here we need to unzip the control words AND lengths from the values and
+/// then decompress the requested values.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct VariableFullZipDecoder {
+    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
+    decompressor: Arc<dyn VariablePerValueDecompressor>,
+    data: LanceBuffer,
+    offsets: LanceBuffer,
+    rep: ScalarBuffer<u16>,
+    def: ScalarBuffer<u16>,
+    repdef_starts: Vec<usize>,
+    data_starts: Vec<usize>,
+    offset_starts: Vec<usize>,
+    visible_item_counts: Vec<u64>,
+    bits_per_offset: u8,
+    current_idx: usize,
+    num_rows: u64,
+}
+
+impl VariableFullZipDecoder {
+    fn new(
+        details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
+        data: VecDeque<LanceBuffer>,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        in_bits_per_length: u8,
+        out_bits_per_offset: u8,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let decompressor = match details.value_decompressor {
+            PerValueDecompressor::Variable(ref d) => d.clone(),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(in_bits_per_length % 8, 0);
+        assert!(out_bits_per_offset == 32 || out_bits_per_offset == 64);
+
+        let mut decoder = Self {
+            details,
+            decompressor,
+            data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+            offsets: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+            rep: LanceBuffer::empty().borrow_to_typed_slice(),
+            def: LanceBuffer::empty().borrow_to_typed_slice(),
+            bits_per_offset: out_bits_per_offset,
+            repdef_starts: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize + 1),
+            data_starts: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize + 1),
+            offset_starts: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize + 1),
+            visible_item_counts: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize + 1),
+            current_idx: 0,
+            num_rows,
+        };
+
+        // There's no great time to do this and this is the least worst time.  If we don't unzip then
+        // we can't slice the data during the decode phase.  This is because we need the offsets to be
+        // unpacked to know where the values start and end.
+        //
+        // We don't want to unzip on the decode thread because that is a single-threaded path
+        // We don't want to unzip on the scheduling thread because that is a single-threaded path
+        //
+        // Fortunately, we know variable length data will always be read indirectly and so we can do it
+        // here, which should be on the indirect thread.  The primary disadvantage to doing it here is that
+        // we load all the data into memory and then throw it away only to load it all into memory again during
+        // the decode.
+        //
+        // There are some alternatives to investigate:
+        //   - Instead of just reading the beginning and end of the rep index we could read the entire
+        //     range in between.  This will give us the break points that we need for slicing and won't increase
+        //     the number of IOPs but it will mean we are doing more total I/O and we need to load the rep index
+        //     even when doing a full scan.
+        //   - We could force each decode task to do a full unzip of all the data.  Each decode task now
+        //     has to do more work but the work is all fused.
+        //   - We could just try doing this work on the decode thread and see if it is a problem.
+        decoder.unzip(data, in_bits_per_length, out_bits_per_offset, num_rows)?;
+
+        Ok(decoder)
+    }
+
+    fn slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets_typed<T>(
+        data: &LanceBuffer,
+        offsets: &LanceBuffer,
+    ) -> Result<(LanceBuffer, LanceBuffer)>
+    where
+        T: arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType
+            + Copy
+            + PartialOrd
+            + std::ops::Sub<Output = T>
+            + std::fmt::Display
+            + TryInto<usize>,
+    {
+        let offsets_slice = offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<T>();
+        let offsets_slice = offsets_slice.as_ref();
+        if offsets_slice.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "Variable offsets cannot be empty".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let base = offsets_slice[0];
+        let end = *offsets_slice.last().unwrap();
+        if end < base {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Invalid variable offsets: end ({end}) is less than base ({base})"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let data_start = base.try_into().map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal(format!("Variable offset ({base}) does not fit into usize"))
+        })?;
+        let data_end = end.try_into().map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal(format!("Variable offset ({end}) does not fit into usize"))
+        })?;
+        if data_end > data.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Invalid variable offsets: end ({data_end}) exceeds data len ({})",
+                data.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut rebased_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(offsets_slice.len());
+        for &offset in offsets_slice {
+            if offset < base {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Invalid variable offsets: offset ({offset}) is less than base ({base})"
+                )));
+            }
+            rebased_offsets.push(offset - base);
+        }
+
+        let sliced_data = data.slice_with_length(data_start, data_end - data_start);
+        // Copy into a compact buffer so each output batch owns only what it references.
+        let sliced_data = LanceBuffer::copy_slice(&sliced_data);
+        let rebased_offsets = LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(rebased_offsets);
+        Ok((sliced_data, rebased_offsets))
+    }
+
+    fn slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets(
+        data: &LanceBuffer,
+        offsets: &LanceBuffer,
+        bits_per_offset: u8,
+    ) -> Result<(LanceBuffer, LanceBuffer)> {
+        match bits_per_offset {
+            32 => Self::slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets_typed::<u32>(data, offsets),
+            64 => Self::slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets_typed::<u64>(data, offsets),
+            _ => Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Unsupported bits_per_offset={bits_per_offset}"
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Reads a single length prefix from the front of `data`.
+    ///
+    /// The bytes come from the file. A page whose item walk ends with a partial
+    /// trailing item leaves fewer than `bits_per_offset / 8` bytes here, so this
+    /// is bounds checked and reports a corrupt file rather than reading past the
+    /// end of the buffer.
+    fn parse_length(data: &[u8], bits_per_offset: u8) -> Result<u64> {
+        let width = bits_per_offset as usize / 8;
+        if data.len() < width {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "variable_full_zip",
+                format!(
+                    "truncated length prefix: {} byte(s) remain in the page buffer but a \
+                     {}-bit length prefix requires {}",
+                    data.len(),
+                    bits_per_offset,
+                    width
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(match bits_per_offset {
+            8 => data[0] as u64,
+            16 => u16::from_le_bytes(data[..2].try_into().unwrap()) as u64,
+            32 => u32::from_le_bytes(data[..4].try_into().unwrap()) as u64,
+            64 => u64::from_le_bytes(data[..8].try_into().unwrap()),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn unzip(
+        &mut self,
+        data: VecDeque<LanceBuffer>,
+        in_bits_per_length: u8,
+        out_bits_per_offset: u8,
+        num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // This undercounts if there are lists but, at this point, we don't really know how many items we have
+        let mut rep = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize);
+        let mut def = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize);
+        let bytes_cw = self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word() * num_rows as usize;
+
+        // This undercounts if there are lists
+        // It can also overcount if there are invisible items
+        let bytes_per_offset = out_bits_per_offset as usize / 8;
+        let bytes_offsets = bytes_per_offset * (num_rows as usize + 1);
+        let mut offsets_data = Vec::with_capacity(bytes_offsets);
+
+        let bytes_per_length = in_bits_per_length as usize / 8;
+        let bytes_lengths = bytes_per_length * num_rows as usize;
+
+        let bytes_data = data.iter().map(|d| d.len()).sum::<usize>();
+        // This overcounts since bytes_lengths and bytes_cw are undercounts
+        // It can also undercount if there are invisible items (hence the saturating_sub)
+        let mut unzipped_data =
+            Vec::with_capacity((bytes_data - bytes_cw).saturating_sub(bytes_lengths));
+
+        let mut current_offset = 0_u64;
+        let mut visible_item_count = 0_u64;
+        for databuf in data.into_iter() {
+            let mut databuf = databuf.as_ref();
+            while !databuf.is_empty() {
+                let data_start = unzipped_data.len();
+                let offset_start = offsets_data.len();
+                // We might have only-rep or only-def, neither, or both.  They move at the same
+                // speed though so we only need one index into it
+                let repdef_start = rep.len().max(def.len());
+                // TODO: Kind of inefficient we parse the control word twice here
+                let ctrl_desc = self.details.ctrl_word_parser.parse_desc(
+                    databuf,
+                    self.details.max_rep,
+                    self.details.max_visible_def,
+                );
+                self.details
+                    .ctrl_word_parser
+                    .parse(databuf, &mut rep, &mut def);
+                databuf = &databuf[self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word()..];
+
+                if ctrl_desc.is_new_row {
+                    self.repdef_starts.push(repdef_start);
+                    self.data_starts.push(data_start);
+                    self.offset_starts.push(offset_start);
+                    self.visible_item_counts.push(visible_item_count);
+                }
+                if ctrl_desc.is_visible {
+                    visible_item_count += 1;
+                    if ctrl_desc.is_valid_item {
+                        let length = Self::parse_length(databuf, in_bits_per_length)?;
+                        match out_bits_per_offset {
+                            32 => offsets_data
+                                .extend_from_slice(&(current_offset as u32).to_le_bytes()),
+                            64 => offsets_data.extend_from_slice(&current_offset.to_le_bytes()),
+                            _ => unreachable!(),
+                        };
+                        databuf = &databuf[bytes_per_offset..];
+                        unzipped_data.extend_from_slice(&databuf[..length as usize]);
+                        databuf = &databuf[length as usize..];
+                        current_offset += length;
+                    } else {
+                        // Null items still get an offset
+                        match out_bits_per_offset {
+                            32 => offsets_data
+                                .extend_from_slice(&(current_offset as u32).to_le_bytes()),
+                            64 => offsets_data.extend_from_slice(&current_offset.to_le_bytes()),
+                            _ => unreachable!(),
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        self.repdef_starts.push(rep.len().max(def.len()));
+        self.data_starts.push(unzipped_data.len());
+        self.offset_starts.push(offsets_data.len());
+        self.visible_item_counts.push(visible_item_count);
+        match out_bits_per_offset {
+            32 => offsets_data.extend_from_slice(&(current_offset as u32).to_le_bytes()),
+            64 => offsets_data.extend_from_slice(&current_offset.to_le_bytes()),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        };
+        self.rep = ScalarBuffer::from(rep);
+        self.def = ScalarBuffer::from(def);
+        self.data = LanceBuffer::from(unzipped_data);
+        self.offsets = LanceBuffer::from(offsets_data);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralPageDecoder for VariableFullZipDecoder {
+    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>> {
+        let start = self.current_idx;
+        let end = start + num_rows as usize;
+
+        let offset_start = self.offset_starts[start];
+        let offset_end = self.offset_starts[end] + (self.bits_per_offset as usize / 8);
+        let offsets = self
+            .offsets
+            .slice_with_length(offset_start, offset_end - offset_start);
+        // Keep each batch's variable data buffer bounded to the selected rows.
+        let (data, offsets) =
+            Self::slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets(&self.data, &offsets, self.bits_per_offset)?;
+
+        let repdef_start = self.repdef_starts[start];
+        let repdef_end = self.repdef_starts[end];
+        let rep = if self.rep.is_empty() {
+            self.rep.clone()
+        } else {
+            self.rep.slice(repdef_start, repdef_end - repdef_start)
+        };
+        let def = if self.def.is_empty() {
+            self.def.clone()
+        } else {
+            self.def.slice(repdef_start, repdef_end - repdef_start)
+        };
+
+        let visible_item_counts_start = self.visible_item_counts[start];
+        let visible_item_counts_end = self.visible_item_counts[end];
+        let num_visible_items = visible_item_counts_end - visible_item_counts_start;
+
+        self.current_idx += num_rows as usize;
+
+        Ok(Box::new(VariableFullZipDecodeTask {
+            details: self.details.clone(),
+            decompressor: self.decompressor.clone(),
+            data,
+            offsets,
+            bits_per_offset: self.bits_per_offset,
+            num_visible_items,
+            rep,
+            def,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.num_rows
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct VariableFullZipDecodeTask {
+    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
+    decompressor: Arc<dyn VariablePerValueDecompressor>,
+    data: LanceBuffer,
+    offsets: LanceBuffer,
+    bits_per_offset: u8,
+    num_visible_items: u64,
+    rep: ScalarBuffer<u16>,
+    def: ScalarBuffer<u16>,
+}
+
+impl DecodePageTask for VariableFullZipDecodeTask {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
+        let block = VariableWidthBlock {
+            data: self.data,
+            offsets: self.offsets,
+            bits_per_offset: self.bits_per_offset,
+            num_values: self.num_visible_items,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        };
+        let decomopressed = self.decompressor.decompress(block)?;
+        let rep = if self.rep.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(self.rep.to_vec())
+        };
+        let def = if self.def.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(self.def.to_vec())
+        };
+        let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
+            rep,
+            def,
+            self.details.def_meaning.clone(),
+            self.num_visible_items,
+        );
+        Ok(DecodedPage {
+            data: decomopressed,
+            repdef: unraveler,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
+    data: PerValueDataBlock,
+    rows_in_buf: u64,
+}
+
+/// A task to unzip and decompress full-zip encoded data when that data
+/// has a fixed-width.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FixedFullZipDecodeTask {
+    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
+    data: Vec<FullZipDecodeTaskItem>,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    bytes_per_value: usize,
+}
+
+impl DecodePageTask for FixedFullZipDecodeTask {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
+        let estimated_size_bytes = if self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word() == 0 {
+            let PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor) = &self.details.value_decompressor else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "FixedFullZipDecodeTask requires a fixed-width decompressor",
+                ));
+            };
+            decompressor
+                .decoded_size_bytes(self.num_rows as u64)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                    self.data
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|task_item| task_item.data.data_size())
+                        .sum::<u64>()
+                        * 2
+                })
+        } else {
+            // Rep/def levels can suppress values, so the exact output size is not known
+            // until they are decoded. Keep the existing conservative estimate.
+            self.data
+                .iter()
+                .map(|task_item| task_item.data.data_size())
+                .sum::<u64>()
+                * 2
+        };
+        let mut data_builder = DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(estimated_size_bytes);
+
+        if self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word() == 0 {
+            // Fast path, no need to unzip because there is no rep/def
+            //
+            // We decompress each buffer and add it to our output buffer
+            for task_item in self.data.into_iter() {
+                let PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(fixed_data) = task_item.data else {
+                    unreachable!()
+                };
+                let PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor) = &self.details.value_decompressor
+                else {
+                    unreachable!()
+                };
+                debug_assert_eq!(fixed_data.num_values, task_item.rows_in_buf);
+                let decompressed = decompressor.decompress(fixed_data, task_item.rows_in_buf)?;
+                data_builder.append(&decompressed, 0..task_item.rows_in_buf)?;
+            }
+
+            let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
+                None,
+                None,
+                self.details.def_meaning.clone(),
+                self.num_rows as u64,
+            );
+
+            Ok(DecodedPage {
+                data: data_builder.finish(),
+                repdef: unraveler,
+            })
+        } else {
+            // Slow path, unzipping needed
+            let mut rep = Vec::with_capacity(self.num_rows);
+            let mut def = Vec::with_capacity(self.num_rows);
+
+            for task_item in self.data.into_iter() {
+                let PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(fixed_data) = task_item.data else {
+                    unreachable!()
+                };
+                let mut buf_slice = fixed_data.data.as_ref();
+                let num_values = fixed_data.num_values as usize;
+                // We will be unzipping repdef in to `rep` and `def` and the
+                // values into `values` (which contains the compressed values)
+                let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(
+                    fixed_data.data.len()
+                        - (self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word() * num_values),
+                );
+                let mut visible_items = 0;
+                for _ in 0..num_values {
+                    // Extract rep/def
+                    self.details
+                        .ctrl_word_parser
+                        .parse(buf_slice, &mut rep, &mut def);
+                    buf_slice = &buf_slice[self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word()..];
+
+                    let is_visible = def
+                        .last()
+                        .map(|d| *d <= self.details.max_visible_def)
+                        .unwrap_or(true);
+                    if is_visible {
+                        // Extract value
+                        values.extend_from_slice(buf_slice[..self.bytes_per_value].as_ref());
+                        buf_slice = &buf_slice[self.bytes_per_value..];
+                        visible_items += 1;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // Finally, we decompress the values and add them to our output buffer
+                let values_buf = LanceBuffer::from(values);
+                let fixed_data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                    bits_per_value: self.bytes_per_value as u64 * 8,
+                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                    data: values_buf,
+                    num_values: visible_items,
+                };
+                let PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor) = &self.details.value_decompressor
+                else {
+                    unreachable!()
+                };
+                let decompressed = decompressor.decompress(fixed_data, visible_items)?;
+                data_builder.append(&decompressed, 0..visible_items)?;
+            }
+
+            let repetition = if rep.is_empty() { None } else { Some(rep) };
+            let definition = if def.is_empty() { None } else { Some(def) };
+
+            let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
+                repetition,
+                definition,
+                self.details.def_meaning.clone(),
+                self.num_rows as u64,
+            );
+            let data = data_builder.finish();
+
+            Ok(DecodedPage {
+                data,
+                repdef: unraveler,
+            })
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct StructuralPrimitiveFieldSchedulingJob<'a> {
+    scheduler: &'a StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler,
+    mappings: std::vec::IntoIter<PageRangeMapping>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> StructuralPrimitiveFieldSchedulingJob<'a> {
+    pub fn try_new(
+        scheduler: &'a StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler,
+        ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mappings = map_ranges_to_pages(&scheduler.page_row_ends, &ranges)?.into_iter();
+        Ok(Self {
+            scheduler,
+            mappings,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralSchedulingJob for StructuralPrimitiveFieldSchedulingJob<'_> {
+    fn schedule_next(&mut self, context: &mut SchedulerContext) -> Result<Vec<ScheduledScanLine>> {
+        let Some(first_mapping) = self.mappings.next() else {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        };
+        // Pages are scheduled in row order until their reads add up to a
+        // batch, then submitted together so the I/O scheduler can coalesce
+        // neighbouring pages.
+        let batch = Arc::new(RequestBatch::new(context.io().clone()));
+        let batch_io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = batch.clone();
+        let cur_path = context.current_path();
+        let mut scan_lines = Vec::new();
+        let mut mapping = Some(first_mapping);
+        while let Some(cur_mapping) = mapping.take() {
+            let cur_page = self.scheduler.built_page(cur_mapping.page_idx)?;
+
+            trace!(
+                "Scheduling {} rows across {} ranges from page with {} rows (column_index={}, page_index={})",
+                cur_mapping
+                    .ranges_in_page
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|r| r.end - r.start)
+                    .sum::<u64>(),
+                cur_mapping.ranges_in_page.len(),
+                cur_page.row_range.end - cur_page.row_range.start,
+                self.scheduler.column_index,
+                cur_page.page_index,
+            );
+
+            let page_decoders = cur_page
+                .scheduler
+                .schedule_ranges(&cur_mapping.ranges_in_page, &batch_io)?;
+
+            scan_lines.extend(page_decoders.into_iter().map(|page_load_task| {
+                let cur_path = cur_path.clone();
+                let page_decoder = page_load_task.decoder_fut;
+                let unloaded_page = async move {
+                    let page_decoder = page_decoder.await?;
+                    Ok(LoadedPageShard {
+                        decoder: page_decoder,
+                        path: cur_path,
+                    })
+                }
+                .boxed();
+                ScheduledScanLine {
+                    decoders: vec![MessageType::UnloadedPage(UnloadedPageShard(unloaded_page))],
+                    rows_scheduled: page_load_task.num_rows,
+                }
+            }));
+
+            if batch.pending_bytes() < IO_REQUEST_BATCH_BYTES {
+                mapping = self.mappings.next();
+            }
+        }
+        batch.flush();
+        Ok(scan_lines)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PageInfoAndScheduler {
+    page_index: usize,
+    row_range: Range<u64>,
+    scheduler: Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>,
+}
+
+/// Everything needed to build a page scheduler from its `PageInfo` on demand.
+///
+/// Building a page scheduler clones buffer tables and instantiates
+/// decompressors, so a column with hundreds of thousands of pages must not pay
+/// for every page on every read. The field scheduler keeps this source and
+/// builds only the pages `initialize` is asked to cover.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PageSchedulerSource {
+    column_info: Arc<ColumnInfo>,
+    decompressors: Arc<dyn DecompressionStrategy>,
+    cache_repetition_index: bool,
+    target_field: Field,
+}
+
+/// A scheduler for a leaf node
+///
+/// Here we look at the layout of the various pages and delegate scheduling to a scheduler
+/// appropriate for the layout of the page.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler {
+    /// Exclusive end row of every page in the column, in page order, so page
+    /// `i` covers `page_row_ends[i - 1]..page_row_ends[i]` (page 0 starts at 0).
+    page_row_ends: Vec<u64>,
+    /// Page schedulers built so far, ordered by `page_index`. After
+    /// `initialize` this holds exactly the pages the requested ranges touch,
+    /// or every page when no ranges were given.
+    page_schedulers: Vec<PageInfoAndScheduler>,
+    /// Metadata to build pages that are not in `page_schedulers` yet. `None`
+    /// once every page has been built.
+    page_source: Option<PageSchedulerSource>,
+    column_index: u32,
+    target_data_type_tag: Arc<str>,
+}
+
+impl StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler {
+    /// Creates the scheduler and builds every page scheduler up front.
+    ///
+    /// This pays for all pages of the column on every read. Prefer
+    /// [`Self::try_new_lazy`], which builds only the pages a read touches.
+    #[deprecated(
+        since = "13.0.0",
+        note = "builds every page scheduler eagerly; use try_new_lazy"
+    )]
+    pub fn try_new(
+        column_info: &ColumnInfo,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+        cache_repetition_index: bool,
+        target_field: &Field,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let page_row_ends = Self::page_row_ends(column_info)?;
+        let mut page_schedulers = Vec::with_capacity(page_row_ends.len());
+        let mut row_start = 0_u64;
+        for (page_index, (page_info, &row_end)) in column_info
+            .page_infos
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&page_row_ends)
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            page_schedulers.push(Self::page_info_to_scheduler(
+                page_info,
+                page_index,
+                row_start..row_end,
+                decompressors,
+                cache_repetition_index,
+                target_field,
+            )?);
+            row_start = row_end;
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            page_row_ends,
+            page_schedulers,
+            page_source: None,
+            column_index: column_info.index,
+            target_data_type_tag: format!("{:?}", target_field.data_type()).into(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Creates the scheduler without building any page schedulers.
+    ///
+    /// Only the per-page row boundaries are computed here. Page schedulers
+    /// are built in [`StructuralFieldScheduler::initialize`] for the pages the
+    /// requested ranges touch (or for every page when no ranges are given), so
+    /// a small read from a column with many pages stays cheap.
+    pub fn try_new_lazy(
+        column_info: Arc<ColumnInfo>,
+        decompressors: Arc<dyn DecompressionStrategy>,
+        cache_repetition_index: bool,
+        target_field: &Field,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            page_row_ends: Self::page_row_ends(&column_info)?,
+            page_schedulers: Vec::new(),
+            column_index: column_info.index,
+            target_data_type_tag: format!("{:?}", target_field.data_type()).into(),
+            page_source: Some(PageSchedulerSource {
+                column_info,
+                decompressors,
+                cache_repetition_index,
+                target_field: target_field.clone(),
+            }),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Exclusive end row of every page of `column_info`, in page order.
+    fn page_row_ends(column_info: &ColumnInfo) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        let mut page_row_ends = Vec::with_capacity(column_info.page_infos.len());
+        let mut row_start = 0_u64;
+        for (page_index, page_info) in column_info.page_infos.iter().enumerate() {
+            let row_end = row_start.checked_add(page_info.num_rows).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Page row range overflowed for column {} at page {page_index}: start={row_start}, rows={}",
+                        column_info.index, page_info.num_rows
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            page_row_ends.push(row_end);
+            row_start = row_end;
+        }
+        Ok(page_row_ends)
+    }
+
+    /// Wraps already-built page schedulers; nothing is built lazily.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn from_page_schedulers(
+        page_schedulers: Vec<PageInfoAndScheduler>,
+        column_index: u32,
+        target_data_type_tag: Arc<str>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            page_row_ends: page_schedulers
+                .iter()
+                .map(|page| page.row_range.end)
+                .collect(),
+            page_schedulers,
+            page_source: None,
+            column_index,
+            target_data_type_tag,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn page_row_range(&self, page_index: usize) -> Range<u64> {
+        let start = match page_index.checked_sub(1) {
+            Some(previous) => self.page_row_ends[previous],
+            None => 0,
+        };
+        start..self.page_row_ends[page_index]
+    }
+
+    /// Position of `page_index` in `page_schedulers` if it has been built.
+    fn built_page_position(&self, page_index: usize) -> Option<usize> {
+        self.page_schedulers
+            .binary_search_by_key(&page_index, |page| page.page_index)
+            .ok()
+    }
+
+    fn built_page(&self, page_index: usize) -> Result<&PageInfoAndScheduler> {
+        let position = self.built_page_position(page_index).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Page {page_index} of column {} was scheduled but not initialized; the scheduled ranges must be covered by the ranges passed to initialize",
+                self.column_index
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(&self.page_schedulers[position])
+    }
+
+    /// Builds the schedulers for `page_indices` (ascending) that do not exist
+    /// yet and returns the positions of all of them in `page_schedulers`.
+    fn build_pages(&mut self, page_indices: &[usize]) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
+        if let Some(source) = &self.page_source {
+            let mut missing = Vec::new();
+            for &page_index in page_indices {
+                if self.built_page_position(page_index).is_some() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let page_info = source
+                    .column_info
+                    .page_infos
+                    .get(page_index)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Page {page_index} is out of bounds for column {} with {} pages",
+                            self.column_index,
+                            source.column_info.page_infos.len()
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                missing.push(Self::page_info_to_scheduler(
+                    page_info,
+                    page_index,
+                    self.page_row_range(page_index),
+                    source.decompressors.as_ref(),
+                    source.cache_repetition_index,
+                    &source.target_field,
+                )?);
+            }
+            if !missing.is_empty() {
+                self.page_schedulers = std::mem::take(&mut self.page_schedulers)
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .merge_by(missing, |built, new| built.page_index < new.page_index)
+                    .collect();
+            }
+            if self.page_schedulers.len() == self.page_row_ends.len() {
+                self.page_source = None;
+            }
+        }
+        page_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&page_index| {
+                self.built_page_position(page_index).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Page {page_index} of column {} is missing after construction",
+                        self.column_index
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn page_layout_to_scheduler(
+        page_info: &PageInfo,
+        page_layout: &PageLayout,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+        cache_repetition_index: bool,
+        target_field: &Field,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>> {
+        use pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+        Ok(match page_layout.layout.as_ref().expect_ok()? {
+            Layout::MiniBlockLayout(mini_block) => Box::new(MiniBlockScheduler::try_new(
+                &page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
+                page_info.priority,
+                mini_block.num_items,
+                mini_block,
+                decompressors,
+            )?),
+            Layout::SparseLayout(sparse_layout) => {
+                Box::new(sparse::SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+                    &page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
+                    page_info.priority,
+                    page_info.num_rows,
+                    target_field.data_type(),
+                    sparse_layout,
+                    decompressors,
+                )?)
+            }
+            Layout::FullZipLayout(full_zip) => {
+                let mut scheduler = FullZipScheduler::try_new(
+                    &page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
+                    page_info.priority,
+                    page_info.num_rows,
+                    full_zip,
+                    decompressors,
+                )?;
+                scheduler.enable_cache = cache_repetition_index;
+                Box::new(scheduler)
+            }
+            Layout::ConstantLayout(constant_layout) => {
+                let def_meaning = constant_layout
+                    .layers
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|l| ProtobufUtils21::repdef_layer_to_def_interp(*l))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let has_scalar_value = constant_layout.inline_value.is_some()
+                    || page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len() == 1
+                    || page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len() == 3;
+                if has_scalar_value {
+                    Box::new(constant::ConstantPageScheduler::try_new(
+                        page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.clone(),
+                        constant_layout.inline_value.clone(),
+                        target_field.data_type(),
+                        def_meaning.into(),
+                    )?) as Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>
+                } else if def_meaning.len() == 1
+                    && def_meaning[0] == DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem
+                {
+                    Box::new(SimpleAllNullScheduler::default()) as Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>
+                } else {
+                    // RLE levels select a validated cache representation; other
+                    // block compressions keep flowing through the eager decompressor.
+                    let rep_codec = LevelCodec::try_new(
+                        constant_layout.rep_compression.as_ref(),
+                        decompressors,
+                    )?;
+                    let def_codec = LevelCodec::try_new(
+                        constant_layout.def_compression.as_ref(),
+                        decompressors,
+                    )?;
+
+                    Box::new(ComplexAllNullScheduler::new(
+                        page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.clone(),
+                        def_meaning.into(),
+                        rep_codec,
+                        def_codec,
+                        constant_layout.num_rep_values,
+                        constant_layout.num_def_values,
+                    )) as Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>
+                }
+            }
+            Layout::BlobLayout(blob) => {
+                let inner_scheduler = Self::page_layout_to_scheduler(
+                    page_info,
+                    blob.inner_layout.as_ref().expect_ok()?.as_ref(),
+                    decompressors,
+                    cache_repetition_index,
+                    target_field,
+                )?;
+                let def_meaning = blob
+                    .layers
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|l| ProtobufUtils21::repdef_layer_to_def_interp(*l))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                if matches!(target_field.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_)) {
+                    // User wants to decode blob into struct
+                    Box::new(BlobDescriptionPageScheduler::new(
+                        inner_scheduler,
+                        def_meaning.into(),
+                    ))
+                } else {
+                    // User wants to decode blob into binary data
+                    Box::new(BlobPageScheduler::new(
+                        inner_scheduler,
+                        page_info.priority,
+                        page_info.num_rows,
+                        def_meaning.into(),
+                    ))
+                }
+            }
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn page_info_to_scheduler(
+        page_info: &PageInfo,
+        page_index: usize,
+        row_range: Range<u64>,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+        cache_repetition_index: bool,
+        target_field: &Field,
+    ) -> Result<PageInfoAndScheduler> {
+        let page_layout = page_info.encoding.as_structural();
+        let scheduler = Self::page_layout_to_scheduler(
+            page_info,
+            page_layout,
+            decompressors,
+            cache_repetition_index,
+            target_field,
+        )?;
+        Ok(PageInfoAndScheduler {
+            page_index,
+            row_range,
+            scheduler,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+pub trait CachedPageData: Any + Send + Sync + DeepSizeOf + 'static {
+    fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static>;
+}
+
+pub struct NoCachedPageData;
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for NoCachedPageData {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _ctx: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+}
+impl CachedPageData for NoCachedPageData {
+    fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static> {
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+#[doc = "Deprecated compatibility wrapper; new code uses per-page PageDataCacheKey entries."]
+pub struct CachedFieldData {
+    pages: Vec<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CachedFieldData {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, ctx: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.pages.deep_size_of_children(ctx)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compatibility key for the former whole-field page metadata cache.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct FieldDataCacheKey {
+    pub column_index: u32,
+    pub view_tag: String,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for FieldDataCacheKey {
+    type ValueType = CachedFieldData;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("{}:{}", self.column_index, self.view_tag).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "FieldData"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.encoding.logical.primitive.field-data-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.column_index);
+        builder.write_str(&self.view_tag);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sized wrapper around a page's cached metadata so [`PageDataCacheKey`] can use
+/// the sized [`CacheKey`] path; the concrete per-layout state still lives behind
+/// `dyn CachedPageData`.
+pub struct CachedPage {
+    data: Arc<dyn CachedPageData>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CachedPage {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, ctx: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.data.deep_size_of_children(ctx)
+    }
+}
+
+// Cache key for a single page's initialized metadata, keyed per page (not per
+// column) so a read populates and reuses only the pages it touches.
+//
+// `view` distinguishes decode shapes of one physical column: a blob column
+// materializes as a `Struct<position, size>` descriptor in one variant and raw
+// `LargeBinary` in another, each caching a different `CachedPageData` type.
+// Without it, two readers at the same column/page but different shapes collide
+// and crash on a downcast.
+/// Decode shape used to isolate cached page metadata for one physical column.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[non_exhaustive]
+pub enum PageCacheView {
+    /// The column's native non-blob representation.
+    Native,
+    /// Blob position and size descriptors materialized as a struct.
+    BlobDescriptor,
+    /// Blob contents materialized as binary values.
+    BlobPayload,
+}
+
+impl PageCacheView {
+    fn cache_tag(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Native => "n",
+            Self::BlobDescriptor => "bd",
+            Self::BlobPayload => "bp",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PageDataCacheKey {
+    pub column_index: u32,
+    pub page_index: u32,
+    pub view: PageCacheView,
+    pub target_data_type_tag: Arc<str>,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for PageDataCacheKey {
+    type ValueType = CachedPage;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!(
+            "v2/{}/{}/{}/{}",
+            self.column_index,
+            self.page_index,
+            self.view.cache_tag(),
+            self.target_data_type_tag
+        )
+        .into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "PageData"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.encoding.logical.primitive.page-data-key", 2)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.column_index);
+        builder.write_u32(self.page_index);
+        builder.write_variant(match self.view {
+            PageCacheView::Native => 0,
+            PageCacheView::BlobDescriptor => 1,
+            PageCacheView::BlobPayload => 2,
+        });
+        builder.write_str(&self.target_data_type_tag);
+    }
+}
+
+/// One page's slice of a scheduling request: the page's index and the
+/// page-local row sub-ranges (relative to the page's first row) of the request
+/// that fall in it.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PageRangeMapping {
+    page_idx: usize,
+    ranges_in_page: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+}
+
+/// Visits every intersection between ordered row ranges and ordered pages.
+///
+/// `page_row_ends` holds the exclusive end row of each page (see
+/// [`StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::page_row_ends`]). Each range
+/// binary-searches its first overlapping page and then visits only the pages
+/// it touches. For `R` ranges, `P` pages, and `T` intersections this takes
+/// `O(R log P + T)` time without scanning sparse gaps.
+fn for_each_page_range(
+    page_row_ends: &[u64],
+    ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+    mut visit: impl FnMut(usize, Range<u64>),
+) -> Result<()> {
+    for (range_idx, range) in ranges.iter().enumerate() {
+        if range.start > range.end {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Requested row range {range_idx} is reversed: {}..{}",
+                    range.start, range.end
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if range_idx > 0 {
+            let previous = &ranges[range_idx - 1];
+            if previous.start >= range.start || previous.end > range.start {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Requested row ranges overlap or are not strictly ordered at index {range_idx}: {previous:?}, then {range:?}"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    for range in ranges {
+        let mut page_idx = page_row_ends.partition_point(|page_end| *page_end <= range.start);
+        let mut page_start = match page_idx.checked_sub(1) {
+            Some(previous) => page_row_ends[previous],
+            None => 0,
+        };
+        while let Some(&page_end) = page_row_ends.get(page_idx) {
+            if page_start >= range.end {
+                break;
+            }
+            let start_in_page = range.start.max(page_start) - page_start;
+            let end_in_page = range.end.min(page_end) - page_start;
+            if start_in_page < end_in_page {
+                visit(page_idx, start_in_page..end_in_page);
+            }
+            page_idx += 1;
+            page_start = page_end;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Maps global row `ranges` onto a column's pages, yielding the page-local
+/// sub-ranges for every page any range touches.
+///
+/// `ranges` must be ascending and non-overlapping (the precondition
+/// `schedule_ranges` relies on).
+fn map_ranges_to_pages(
+    page_row_ends: &[u64],
+    ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+) -> Result<Vec<PageRangeMapping>> {
+    let mut result: Vec<PageRangeMapping> =
+        Vec::with_capacity(ranges.len().min(page_row_ends.len()));
+    for_each_page_range(page_row_ends, ranges, |page_idx, range_in_page| {
+        if let Some(mapping) = result.last_mut()
+            && mapping.page_idx == page_idx
+        {
+            mapping.ranges_in_page.push(range_in_page);
+        } else {
+            result.push(PageRangeMapping {
+                page_idx,
+                ranges_in_page: vec![range_in_page],
+            });
+        }
+    })?;
+    Ok(result)
+}
+
+fn pages_overlapping_ranges(page_row_ends: &[u64], ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
+    let mut result = Vec::with_capacity(ranges.len().min(page_row_ends.len()));
+    for_each_page_range(page_row_ends, ranges, |page_idx, _| {
+        if result.last().copied() != Some(page_idx) {
+            result.push(page_idx);
+        }
+    })?;
+    Ok(result)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PageCacheMiss {
+    /// Position of the page in `StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::page_schedulers`,
+    /// which holds only the built pages and so may differ from `page_index`.
+    page_idx: usize,
+    cache_key: PageDataCacheKey,
+    initialization: PageInitialization,
+}
+
+async fn read_page_initialization_buffers(
+    io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    all_ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Bytes>> {
+    // `submit_request` coalesces (and later un-coalesces) in one forward
+    // pass, so submit ranges in file order. Page layouts are not required
+    // to declare their initialization ranges in that order, so retain each
+    // range's original position and restore it before initializing pages.
+    let mut sorted_ranges = all_ranges.into_iter().enumerate().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    sorted_ranges.sort_unstable_by_key(|(_, range)| (range.start, range.end));
+    let sorted_requests = sorted_ranges
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(_, range)| range.clone())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let expected_buffer_count = sorted_requests.len();
+    let sorted_buffers = if sorted_requests.is_empty() {
+        Vec::new()
+    } else {
+        io.submit_request(sorted_requests, 0).await?
+    };
+    if sorted_buffers.len() != expected_buffer_count {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Page initialization I/O returned {} buffers for {} ranges",
+                sorted_buffers.len(),
+                expected_buffer_count
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let mut buffers = vec![None; expected_buffer_count];
+    for ((original_idx, _), buffer) in sorted_ranges.into_iter().zip(sorted_buffers) {
+        buffers[original_idx] = Some(buffer);
+    }
+    buffers
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|buffer| {
+            buffer.ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Page initialization buffer was not assigned"))
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+async fn cache_initialized_page(
+    cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+    cache_key: PageDataCacheKey,
+    data: Arc<dyn CachedPageData>,
+) {
+    if data
+        .clone()
+        .as_arc_any()
+        .downcast::<NoCachedPageData>()
+        .is_err()
+    {
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&cache_key, Arc::new(CachedPage { data }))
+            .await;
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler {
+    /// Checks the built pages at `positions` (ascending indices into
+    /// `page_schedulers`) against the cache and returns those still needing
+    /// initialization I/O.
+    async fn find_cache_misses(
+        &mut self,
+        positions: impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = usize>,
+        cache: &Arc<LanceCache>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PageCacheMiss>> {
+        // Serve cache hits in place; the rest are misses we must read.
+        let mut misses = Vec::with_capacity(positions.len());
+        for page_idx in positions {
+            let page = &self.page_schedulers[page_idx];
+            if !page.scheduler.needs_initialization() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let page_index = u32::try_from(page.page_index).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Page index does not fit u32: {}", page.page_index).into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            let cache_key = PageDataCacheKey {
+                column_index: self.column_index,
+                page_index,
+                view: page.scheduler.cache_view(),
+                target_data_type_tag: self.target_data_type_tag.clone(),
+            };
+            if let Some(cached_page) = cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
+                match self.page_schedulers[page_idx]
+                    .scheduler
+                    .try_load(&cached_page.data)
+                {
+                    Ok(()) => continue,
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        debug!("Replacing invalid cached page data for {cache_key:?}: {error}");
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            let initialization = self.page_schedulers[page_idx].scheduler.init_layout()?;
+            misses.push(PageCacheMiss {
+                page_idx,
+                cache_key,
+                initialization,
+            });
+        }
+        Ok(misses)
+    }
+
+    fn initialization_ranges(misses: &[PageCacheMiss]) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+        let num_ranges = misses
+            .iter()
+            .map(|miss| miss.initialization.num_required_ranges())
+            .sum();
+        let mut all_ranges = Vec::with_capacity(num_ranges);
+        for miss in misses {
+            all_ranges.extend(miss.initialization.required_ranges().cloned());
+        }
+        all_ranges
+    }
+
+    async fn initialize_cache_misses(
+        &mut self,
+        misses: Vec<PageCacheMiss>,
+        buffers: Vec<Bytes>,
+        cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut buffers = buffers.into_iter();
+
+        // Initialize each missing page from its slice of the buffers, in file
+        // order. `init_from_buffers` can perform further I/O (e.g. loading blob
+        // descriptions), so run pages concurrently; peel disjoint `&mut` page
+        // borrows off the slice to satisfy the borrow checker without a lookup
+        // table.
+        let mut tail = self.page_schedulers.as_mut_slice();
+        let mut next_page = 0;
+        let mut page_inits = FuturesOrdered::new();
+        for miss in misses {
+            let PageCacheMiss {
+                page_idx,
+                cache_key,
+                initialization,
+            } = miss;
+            let relative_idx = page_idx
+                .checked_sub(next_page)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Page initialization indices are not ordered"))?;
+            if relative_idx >= tail.len() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Page initialization index {page_idx} is out of bounds"
+                )));
+            }
+            let (_, rest) = tail.split_at_mut(relative_idx);
+            let (page, rest) = rest.split_first_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Page initialization index {page_idx} is out of bounds"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            tail = rest;
+            next_page = page_idx + 1;
+
+            let count = initialization.num_required_ranges();
+            let page_buffers = buffers.by_ref().take(count).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            if page_buffers.len() != count {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Page {page_idx} received {} initialization buffers, expected {count}",
+                        page_buffers.len()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let page_buffers = initialization.with_buffers(page_buffers)?;
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let scheduler = &mut page.scheduler;
+            page_inits.push_back(async move {
+                let cached = scheduler.init_from_buffers(page_buffers, io).await?;
+                scheduler.try_load(&cached)?;
+                cache_initialized_page(cache, cache_key, cached).await;
+                Ok::<(), Error>(())
+            });
+        }
+        if buffers.next().is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Page initialization returned unassigned buffers".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        page_inits.try_collect::<Vec<()>>().await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn initialize_pages(
+        &mut self,
+        requested_ranges: Option<&[Range<u64>]>,
+        context: &SchedulerContext,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let cache = context.cache().clone();
+        let page_indices = match requested_ranges {
+            None => (0..self.page_row_ends.len()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            Some(ranges) => pages_overlapping_ranges(&self.page_row_ends, ranges)?,
+        };
+        let positions = self.build_pages(&page_indices)?;
+        let misses = self
+            .find_cache_misses(positions.into_iter(), &cache)
+            .await?;
+
+        if misses.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        // Concatenate the misses' metadata ranges into one request so adjacent
+        // ranges coalesce into shared GETs instead of one request per page.
+        let all_ranges = Self::initialization_ranges(&misses);
+        let buffers = read_page_initialization_buffers(context.io(), all_ranges).await?;
+        self.initialize_cache_misses(misses, buffers, cache, context.io())
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralFieldScheduler for StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler {
+    fn initialize<'a>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        requested_ranges: Option<&'a [Range<u64>]>,
+        _filter: &'a FilterExpression,
+        context: &'a SchedulerContext,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<()>> {
+        self.initialize_pages(requested_ranges, context).boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn schedule_ranges<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        _filter: &FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralSchedulingJob + 'a>> {
+        let ranges = ranges.to_vec();
+        Ok(Box::new(StructuralPrimitiveFieldSchedulingJob::try_new(
+            self, ranges,
+        )?))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Takes the output from several pages decoders and
+/// concatenates them.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct StructuralCompositeDecodeArrayTask {
+    tasks: Vec<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>>,
+    should_validate: bool,
+    data_type: DataType,
+}
+
+impl StructuralCompositeDecodeArrayTask {
+    fn restore_validity(
+        array: Arc<dyn Array>,
+        unraveler: &mut CompositeRepDefUnraveler,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
+        let validity = unraveler.unravel_validity(array.len())?;
+        let Some(validity) = validity else {
+            return Ok(array);
+        };
+        if array.data_type() == &DataType::Null {
+            // We unravel from a null array but we don't add the null buffer because arrow-rs doesn't like it
+            return Ok(array);
+        }
+        if validity.len() != array.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Structural validity has {} entries for an array with {} values",
+                    validity.len(),
+                    array.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        // SAFETY: The array buffers have already been validated and the null buffer length
+        // matches the array. We are only attaching the null buffer here.
+        Ok(make_array(unsafe {
+            array
+                .to_data()
+                .into_builder()
+                .nulls(Some(validity))
+                .build_unchecked()
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralCompositeDecodeArrayTask {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedArray> {
+        let mut arrays = Vec::with_capacity(self.tasks.len());
+        let mut unravelers = Vec::with_capacity(self.tasks.len());
+        let mut data_size = 0u64;
+        for task in self.tasks {
+            let decoded = task.decode()?;
+            data_size += decoded.data.data_size();
+            unravelers.push(decoded.repdef);
+
+            let array = make_array(
+                decoded
+                    .data
+                    .into_arrow(self.data_type.clone(), self.should_validate)?,
+            );
+
+            arrays.push(array);
+        }
+        let array_refs = arrays.iter().map(|arr| arr.as_ref()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let array = arrow_select::concat::concat(&array_refs)?;
+        let mut repdef = CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(unravelers);
+
+        let array = Self::restore_validity(array, &mut repdef)?;
+
+        Ok(DecodedArray {
+            array,
+            repdef,
+            data_size,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Returns the total bytes consumed by validity bitmaps of nested child fields
+/// for `rows` logical rows of `data_type`.
+///
+/// Only `FixedSizeList` types have nested children that contribute additional
+/// bitmaps; all other fixed-width leaf types return 0.
+fn fsl_child_bitmap_bytes(data_type: &arrow_schema::DataType, rows: u64) -> u64 {
+    match data_type {
+        arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(child_field, dimension) => {
+            let child_rows = rows * *dimension as u64;
+            let own = if child_field.is_nullable() {
+                child_rows.div_ceil(8)
+            } else {
+                0
+            };
+            own + fsl_child_bitmap_bytes(child_field.data_type(), child_rows)
+        }
+        _ => 0,
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder {
+    field: Arc<ArrowField>,
+    page_decoders: VecDeque<Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>>,
+    should_validate: bool,
+    rows_drained_in_current: u64,
+}
+
+impl StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder {
+    pub fn new(field: &Arc<ArrowField>, should_validate: bool) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            field: field.clone(),
+            page_decoders: VecDeque::new(),
+            should_validate,
+            rows_drained_in_current: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decoded_bytes_for_rows(&self, rows: u64) -> lance_core::Result<u64> {
+        let mut remaining = rows;
+        let mut total = 0u64;
+        for (page_num, page) in self.page_decoders.iter().enumerate() {
+            if remaining == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
+            let available = if page_num == 0 {
+                page.num_rows().saturating_sub(self.rows_drained_in_current)
+            } else {
+                page.num_rows()
+            };
+            let take = available.min(remaining);
+            total += page.decoded_bytes(take)?;
+            remaining -= take;
+        }
+        if remaining > 0 {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "plan_decoded_bytes: queued pages cover only {} of {} requested rows",
+                rows - remaining,
+                rows,
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(total)
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralFieldDecoder for StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder {
+    fn accept_page(&mut self, child: LoadedPageShard) -> Result<()> {
+        assert!(child.path.is_empty());
+        self.page_decoders.push_back(child.decoder);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralDecodeArrayTask>> {
+        let mut remaining = num_rows;
+        let mut tasks = Vec::new();
+        while remaining > 0 {
+            let queued_pages = self.page_decoders.len();
+            let Some(cur_page) = self.page_decoders.front_mut() else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Primitive decoder missing page decoder while draining field '{}' (data_type={:?}, requested_rows={}, remaining_rows={}, rows_drained_in_current={}, queued_pages={})",
+                    self.field.name(),
+                    self.field.data_type(),
+                    num_rows,
+                    remaining,
+                    self.rows_drained_in_current,
+                    queued_pages
+                )));
+            };
+            let num_in_page = cur_page.num_rows() - self.rows_drained_in_current;
+            let to_take = num_in_page.min(remaining);
+
+            let task = cur_page.drain(to_take)?;
+            tasks.push(task);
+
+            if to_take == num_in_page {
+                self.page_decoders.pop_front();
+                self.rows_drained_in_current = 0;
+            } else {
+                self.rows_drained_in_current += to_take;
+            }
+
+            remaining -= to_take;
+        }
+        Ok(Box::new(StructuralCompositeDecodeArrayTask {
+            tasks,
+            should_validate: self.should_validate,
+            data_type: self.field.data_type().clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
+        self.field.data_type()
+    }
+
+    fn plan_decoded_bytes(&self, rows_remaining: u64) -> lance_core::Result<[u64; 8]> {
+        use crate::decoder::CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES;
+        let data_type = self.field.data_type();
+        let is_nullable = self.field.is_nullable();
+
+        // Fixed-width: exact from type metadata, no page inspection needed.
+        if let Some(byte_width) = data_type.byte_width_opt() {
+            let mut out = [0u64; 8];
+            for (i, &c) in CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES.iter().enumerate() {
+                let rows = (c as u64).min(rows_remaining);
+                out[i] = rows * byte_width as u64;
+                if is_nullable {
+                    out[i] += rows.div_ceil(8);
+                }
+                out[i] += fsl_child_bitmap_bytes(data_type, rows);
+            }
+            return Ok(out);
+        }
+
+        // Boolean: bit-packed, 1 bit per value.
+        if matches!(data_type, DataType::Boolean) {
+            let mut out = [0u64; 8];
+            for (i, &c) in CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES.iter().enumerate() {
+                let rows = (c as u64).min(rows_remaining);
+                out[i] = rows.div_ceil(8);
+                if is_nullable {
+                    out[i] += rows.div_ceil(8);
+                }
+            }
+            return Ok(out);
+        }
+
+        // Null type: no data bytes.
+        if matches!(data_type, DataType::Null) {
+            return Ok([0u64; 8]);
+        }
+
+        // Variable-width: walk page decoders for exact byte counts.
+        let mut out = [0u64; 8];
+        for (i, &c) in CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES.iter().enumerate() {
+            let rows = (c as u64).min(rows_remaining);
+            out[i] = self.decoded_bytes_for_rows(rows)?;
+            if is_nullable {
+                out[i] += rows.div_ceil(8);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The serialized representation of full-zip data
+struct SerializedFullZip {
+    /// The zipped values buffer
+    values: LanceBuffer,
+    /// The repetition index (only present if there is repetition)
+    repetition_index: Option<LanceBuffer>,
+}
+
+// We align and pad mini-blocks to 8 byte boundaries for two reasons.  First,
+// to allow us to store a chunk size in 12 bits.
+//
+// If we directly record the size in bytes with 12 bits we would be limited to
+// 4KiB which is too small.  Since we know each mini-block consists of 8 byte
+// words we can store the # of words instead which gives us 32KiB.
+//
+// Second, each chunk in a mini-block is aligned to 8 bytes.  This allows multi-byte
+// values like offsets to be stored in a mini-block and safely read back out.  It also
+// helps ensure zero-copy reads in cases where zero-copy is possible (e.g. no decoding
+// needed).
+//
+// Note: by "aligned to 8 bytes" we mean BOTH "aligned to 8 bytes from the start of
+// the page" and "aligned to 8 bytes from the start of the file."
+const MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT: usize = 8;
+
+/// An encoder for primitive (leaf) arrays
+///
+/// This encoder is fairly complicated and follows a number of paths depending
+/// on the data.
+///
+/// First, we convert the validity & offsets information into repetition and
+/// definition levels.  Then we compress the data itself into a single buffer.
+///
+/// If the data is narrow then we encode the data in small chunks (each chunk
+/// should be a few disk sectors and contains a buffer of repetition, a buffer
+/// of definition, and a buffer of value data).  This approach is called
+/// "mini-block".  These mini-blocks are stored into a single data buffer.
+///
+/// If the data is wide then we zip together the repetition and definition value
+/// with the value data into a single buffer.  This approach is called "zipped".
+///
+/// If there is any repetition information then we create a repetition index
+///
+/// In addition, the compression process may create zero or more metadata buffers.
+/// For example, a dictionary compression will create dictionary metadata.  Any
+/// mini-block approach has a metadata buffer of block sizes.  This metadata is
+/// stored in a separate buffer on disk and read at initialization time.
+///
+/// TODO: We should concatenate metadata buffers from all pages into a single buffer
+/// at (roughly) the end of the file so there is, at most, one read per column of
+/// metadata per file.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum MiniblockChunkSize {
+    U16,
+    U32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum ComplexNullEncoding {
+    RawLevels,
+    CompressedLevels,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding {
+    Exclude64Bit,
+    Include64Bit,
+}
+
+trait PrimitivePageEncodingBehavior: Send + Sync + Debug {
+    fn validate_field(&self, _field: &Field, _metadata: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn try_plan_pages(
+        &self,
+        _ctx: &PrimitivePlanContext<'_>,
+        _arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        _normalized: &NormalizedStructuralPlan,
+        _row_number: u64,
+        _num_rows: u64,
+        _num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Vec<PrimitivePageData>>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    fn try_encode_page(
+        &self,
+        _ctx: &PrimitiveEncodeContext,
+        page: PrimitivePageData,
+    ) -> Result<PrimitiveEncodeAttempt> {
+        Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Unhandled(page))
+    }
+}
+
+/// One executable primitive-page behavior selected by an exact file
+/// composition.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PrimitivePageEncoding {
+    behavior: Arc<dyn PrimitivePageEncodingBehavior>,
+}
+
+impl PrimitivePageEncoding {
+    /// Reject an explicit request for sparse structural encoding.
+    pub fn reject_sparse() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            behavior: Arc::new(RejectSparsePrimitiveEncoding),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Encode constant non-null values as a constant page when applicable.
+    pub fn constant() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            behavior: Arc::new(ConstantPrimitiveEncoding),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Plan and encode sparse structural pages when applicable.
+    pub fn sparse(compression: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            behavior: Arc::new(SparsePrimitiveEncoding { compression }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Encode dense pages with the original u16 miniblock grammar.
+    pub fn dense_u16(compression: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            behavior: Arc::new(DenseU16PrimitiveEncoding { compression }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Encode dense pages with the u32 miniblock grammar.
+    pub fn dense_u32(compression: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            behavior: Arc::new(DenseU32PrimitiveEncoding { compression }),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct RejectSparsePrimitiveEncoding;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ConstantPrimitiveEncoding;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SparsePrimitiveEncoding {
+    compression: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct DenseU16PrimitiveEncoding {
+    compression: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct DenseU32PrimitiveEncoding {
+    compression: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
+}
+
+pub struct PrimitiveStructuralEncoder {
+    // Accumulates arrays until we have enough data to justify a disk page
+    accumulation_queue: AccumulationQueue,
+
+    keep_original_array: bool,
+    accumulated_repdefs: Vec<RepDefBuilder>,
+    page_encodings: Arc<[PrimitivePageEncoding]>,
+    column_index: u32,
+    field: Field,
+    encoding_metadata: Arc<HashMap<String, String>>,
+}
+
+struct CompressedLevelsChunk {
+    data: LanceBuffer,
+    num_levels: u16,
+}
+
+struct CompressedLevels {
+    data: Vec<CompressedLevelsChunk>,
+    compression: CompressiveEncoding,
+    rep_index: Option<LanceBuffer>,
+}
+
+struct SerializedMiniBlockPage {
+    num_buffers: u64,
+    data: LanceBuffer,
+    metadata: LanceBuffer,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct DictEncodingBudget {
+    max_dict_entries: u32,
+    max_encoded_size: usize,
+}
+
+enum PrimitivePageStructure {
+    Dense {
+        repdef: SerializedRepDefs,
+        single_row_miniblock_repdef_levels: Option<u64>,
+    },
+    Sparse {
+        plan: sparse::SparseStructuralPlan,
+        prepared_values: Option<sparse::writer::PreparedSparseValues>,
+    },
+}
+
+// A primitive page after structural encoding selection and optional dense splitting.
+struct PrimitivePageData {
+    // Arrow leaf arrays that contain this page's visible values.
+    arrays: Vec<ArrayRef>,
+    // Structural representation aligned to this page.
+    structure: PrimitivePageStructure,
+    // Top-level row number of the first row in this page.
+    row_number: u64,
+    // Number of top-level rows in this page.
+    num_rows: u64,
+}
+
+struct PrimitivePlanContext<'a> {
+    column_idx: u32,
+    field: &'a Field,
+    encoding_metadata: &'a HashMap<String, String>,
+}
+
+enum PrimitiveEncodeAttempt {
+    Encoded(EncodedPage),
+    Unhandled(PrimitivePageData),
+}
+
+// Immutable encoder state shared by per-page encode tasks.
+//
+// Cloning this only clones Arc-backed configuration and field metadata.  Page data
+// stays in PrimitivePageData and is moved into exactly one task.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct PrimitiveEncodeContext {
+    // Column being encoded.
+    column_idx: u32,
+    field: Field,
+    encoding_metadata: Arc<HashMap<String, String>>,
+    is_simple_validity: bool,
+    has_repdef_info: bool,
+}
+
+impl PrimitiveStructuralEncoder {
+    pub fn try_new(
+        options: &EncodingOptions,
+        page_encodings: Arc<[PrimitivePageEncoding]>,
+        column_index: u32,
+        field: Field,
+        encoding_metadata: Arc<HashMap<String, String>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        for page_encoding in page_encodings.iter() {
+            page_encoding
+                .behavior
+                .validate_field(&field, &encoding_metadata)?;
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            accumulation_queue: AccumulationQueue::new(
+                options.cache_bytes_per_column,
+                column_index,
+                options.keep_original_array,
+            ),
+            keep_original_array: options.keep_original_array,
+            accumulated_repdefs: Vec::new(),
+            column_index,
+            page_encodings,
+            field,
+            encoding_metadata,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn encode_page(
+        page_encodings: &[PrimitivePageEncoding],
+        ctx: &PrimitiveEncodeContext,
+        mut page: PrimitivePageData,
+    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
+        for page_encoding in page_encodings {
+            match page_encoding.behavior.try_encode_page(ctx, page)? {
+                PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Encoded(page) => return Ok(page),
+                PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Unhandled(unhandled) => page = unhandled,
+            }
+        }
+        Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "No primitive page encoding atom supports field '{}'",
+                ctx.field.name
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    // TODO: This is a heuristic we may need to tune at some point
+    //
+    // As data gets narrow then the "zipping" process gets too expensive
+    //   and we prefer mini-block
+    // As data gets wide then the # of values per block shrinks (very wide)
+    //   data doesn't even fit in a mini-block and the block overhead gets
+    //   too large and we prefer zipped.
+    fn is_narrow(data_block: &DataBlock) -> bool {
+        const MINIBLOCK_MAX_BYTE_LENGTH_PER_VALUE: u64 = 256;
+
+        if let Some(max_len_array) = data_block.get_stat(Stat::MaxLength) {
+            let max_len_array = max_len_array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>>()
+                .unwrap();
+            if max_len_array.value(0) < MINIBLOCK_MAX_BYTE_LENGTH_PER_VALUE {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn prefers_miniblock(
+        data_block: &DataBlock,
+        encoding_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> bool {
+        // If the user specifically requested miniblock then use it
+        if let Some(user_requested) = encoding_metadata.get(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY) {
+            return user_requested.to_lowercase() == STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK;
+        }
+        // Otherwise only use miniblock if it is narrow
+        Self::is_narrow(data_block)
+    }
+
+    fn prefers_fullzip(encoding_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>) -> bool {
+        // Fullzip is the backup option so the only reason we wouldn't use it is if the
+        // user specifically requested not to use it (in which case we're probably going
+        // to emit an error)
+        if let Some(user_requested) = encoding_metadata.get(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY) {
+            return user_requested.to_lowercase() == STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP;
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    // Converts value data, repetition levels, and definition levels into a single
+    // buffer of mini-blocks.  In addition, creates a buffer of mini-block metadata
+    // which tells us the size of each block.  Finally, if repetition is present then
+    // we also create a buffer for the repetition index.
+    //
+    // Each chunk is serialized as:
+    // | num_bufs (1 byte) | buf_lens (2 bytes per buffer) | P | buf0 | P | buf1 | ... | bufN | P |
+    //
+    // P - Padding inserted to ensure each buffer is 8-byte aligned and the buffer size is a multiple
+    //     of 8 bytes (so that the next chunk is 8-byte aligned).
+    //
+    // Each block has a u16 word of metadata.  The upper 12 bits contain the
+    // # of 8-byte words in the block (if the block does not fill the final word
+    // then up to 7 bytes of padding are added).  The lower 4 bits describe the log_2
+    // number of values (e.g. if there are 1024 then the lower 4 bits will be
+    // 0xA)  All blocks except the last must have power-of-two number of values.
+    // This not only makes metadata smaller but it makes decoding easier since
+    // batch sizes are typically a power of 2.  4 bits would allow us to express
+    // up to 32Ki values.
+    //
+    // This means blocks can have 1 to 32Ki values and 8 - 32Ki bytes.
+    //
+    // All metadata words are serialized (as little endian) into a single buffer
+    // of metadata values.
+    //
+    // If there is repetition then we also create a repetition index.  This is a
+    // single buffer of integer vectors (stored in row major order).  There is one
+    // entry for each chunk.  The size of the vector is based on the depth of random
+    // access we want to support.
+    //
+    // A vector of size 2 is the minimum and will support row-based random access (e.g.
+    // "take the 57th row").  A vector of size 3 will support 1 level of nested access
+    // (e.g. "take the 3rd item in the 57th row").  A vector of size 4 will support 2
+    // levels of nested access and so on.
+    //
+    // The first number in the vector is the number of top-level rows that complete in
+    // the chunk.  The second number is the number of second-level rows that complete
+    // after the final top-level row completed (or beginning of the chunk if no top-level
+    // row completes in the chunk).  And so on.  The final number in the vector is always
+    // the number of leftover items not covered by earlier entries in the vector.
+    //
+    // Currently we are limited to 0 levels of nested access but that will change in the
+    // future.
+    //
+    // The repetition index and the chunk metadata are read at initialization time and
+    // cached in memory.
+    fn serialize_miniblocks(
+        miniblocks: MiniBlockCompressed,
+        rep: Option<Vec<CompressedLevelsChunk>>,
+        def: Option<Vec<CompressedLevelsChunk>>,
+        miniblock_chunk_size: MiniblockChunkSize,
+    ) -> Result<SerializedMiniBlockPage> {
+        let bytes_rep = rep
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|rep| rep.iter().map(|r| r.data.len()).sum::<usize>())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        let bytes_def = def
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|def| def.iter().map(|d| d.data.len()).sum::<usize>())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        let bytes_data = miniblocks.data.iter().map(|d| d.len()).sum::<usize>();
+        let mut num_buffers = miniblocks.data.len();
+        if rep.is_some() {
+            num_buffers += 1;
+        }
+        if def.is_some() {
+            num_buffers += 1;
+        }
+        // 2 bytes for the length of each buffer and up to 7 bytes of padding per buffer
+        let max_extra = 9 * num_buffers;
+        let mut data_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(bytes_rep + bytes_def + bytes_data + max_extra);
+        let chunk_size_bytes = match miniblock_chunk_size {
+            MiniblockChunkSize::U16 => 2,
+            MiniblockChunkSize::U32 => 4,
+        };
+        let mut meta_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(miniblocks.chunks.len() * chunk_size_bytes);
+
+        let mut rep_iter = rep.map(|r| r.into_iter());
+        let mut def_iter = def.map(|d| d.into_iter());
+
+        let mut buffer_offsets = vec![0; miniblocks.data.len()];
+        for chunk in miniblocks.chunks {
+            let start_pos = data_buffer.len();
+            // Start of chunk should be aligned
+            debug_assert_eq!(start_pos % MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT, 0);
+
+            let rep = rep_iter.as_mut().map(|r| r.next().unwrap());
+            let def = def_iter.as_mut().map(|d| d.next().unwrap());
+
+            // Write the number of levels, or 0 if there is no rep/def
+            let num_levels = rep
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|r| r.num_levels)
+                .unwrap_or(def.as_ref().map(|d| d.num_levels).unwrap_or(0));
+            data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&num_levels.to_le_bytes());
+
+            // Write the buffer lengths
+            if let Some(rep) = rep.as_ref() {
+                let bytes_rep = u16::try_from(rep.data.len()).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Repetition buffer size ({} bytes) too large",
+                        rep.data.len()
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&bytes_rep.to_le_bytes());
+            }
+            if let Some(def) = def.as_ref() {
+                let bytes_def = u16::try_from(def.data.len()).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Definition buffer size ({} bytes) too large",
+                        def.data.len()
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&bytes_def.to_le_bytes());
+            }
+
+            if miniblock_chunk_size == MiniblockChunkSize::U32 {
+                for &buffer_size in &chunk.buffer_sizes {
+                    data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&buffer_size.to_le_bytes());
+                }
+            } else {
+                for &buffer_size in &chunk.buffer_sizes {
+                    let buffer_size = u16::try_from(buffer_size).map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Mini-block buffer size ({} bytes) too large for 16-bit metadata",
+                            buffer_size
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&buffer_size.to_le_bytes());
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Pad
+            let add_padding = |data_buffer: &mut Vec<u8>| {
+                let pad = pad_bytes::<MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT>(data_buffer.len());
+                data_buffer.extend(iter::repeat_n(FILL_BYTE, pad));
+            };
+            add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
+
+            // Write the buffers themselves
+            if let Some(rep) = rep.as_ref() {
+                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&rep.data);
+                add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
+            }
+            if let Some(def) = def.as_ref() {
+                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&def.data);
+                add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
+            }
+            for (buffer_size, (buffer, buffer_offset)) in chunk
+                .buffer_sizes
+                .iter()
+                .zip(miniblocks.data.iter().zip(buffer_offsets.iter_mut()))
+            {
+                let start = *buffer_offset;
+                let end = start + *buffer_size as usize;
+                *buffer_offset += *buffer_size as usize;
+                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&buffer[start..end]);
+                add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
+            }
+
+            let chunk_bytes = data_buffer.len() - start_pos;
+            let max_chunk_size = match miniblock_chunk_size {
+                MiniblockChunkSize::U16 => 32 * 1024,
+                MiniblockChunkSize::U32 => 1_u64 << 31,
+            };
+            if chunk_bytes == 0 || chunk_bytes as u64 > max_chunk_size {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Mini-block chunk size {} bytes exceeds the {} byte metadata limit",
+                    chunk_bytes, max_chunk_size
+                )));
+            }
+            if chunk_bytes % MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT != 0 {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Mini-block chunk size {} bytes is not aligned to {} bytes",
+                    chunk_bytes, MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT
+                )));
+            }
+            if chunk.log_num_values > 15 {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Mini-block log_num_values {} exceeds the 4-bit metadata limit",
+                    chunk.log_num_values
+                )));
+            }
+            // We subtract 1 here from chunk_bytes because we want to be able to express
+            // a size of 32KiB and not (32Ki - 8)B which is what we'd get otherwise with
+            // 0xFFF
+            let divided_bytes = chunk_bytes / MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT;
+            let divided_bytes_minus_one = (divided_bytes - 1) as u64;
+
+            let metadata = (divided_bytes_minus_one << 4) | chunk.log_num_values as u64;
+            if miniblock_chunk_size == MiniblockChunkSize::U32 {
+                meta_buffer.extend_from_slice(&(metadata as u32).to_le_bytes());
+            } else {
+                meta_buffer.extend_from_slice(&(metadata as u16).to_le_bytes());
+            }
+        }
+
+        let data_buffer = LanceBuffer::from(data_buffer);
+        let metadata_buffer = LanceBuffer::from(meta_buffer);
+
+        Ok(SerializedMiniBlockPage {
+            num_buffers: miniblocks.data.len() as u64,
+            data: data_buffer,
+            metadata: metadata_buffer,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Compresses a buffer of levels into chunks
+    ///
+    /// If these are repetition levels then we also calculate the repetition index here (that
+    /// is the third return value)
+    fn compress_levels(
+        mut levels: RepDefSlicer<'_>,
+        num_elements: u64,
+        compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+        chunks: &[MiniBlockChunk],
+        // This will be 0 if we are compressing def levels
+        max_rep: u16,
+    ) -> Result<CompressedLevels> {
+        let mut rep_index = if max_rep > 0 {
+            Vec::with_capacity(chunks.len())
+        } else {
+            vec![]
+        };
+        // Make the levels into a FixedWidth data block
+        let num_levels = levels.num_levels() as u64;
+        let levels_buf = levels.all_levels().clone();
+
+        let mut fixed_width_block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: levels_buf,
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            num_values: num_levels,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        };
+        // Compute statistics to enable optimal compression for rep/def levels
+        fixed_width_block.compute_stat();
+
+        let levels_block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width_block);
+        let levels_field = Field::new_arrow("", DataType::UInt16, false)?;
+        // Pick a block compressor
+        let compressor =
+            compression_strategy.create_block_compressor(&levels_field, &levels_block)?;
+        let mut compressor_desc = None;
+        // Compress blocks of levels (sized according to the chunks)
+        let mut level_chunks = Vec::with_capacity(chunks.len());
+        let mut values_counter = 0;
+        for (chunk_idx, chunk) in chunks.iter().enumerate() {
+            let chunk_num_values = chunk.num_values(values_counter, num_elements);
+            debug_assert!(chunk_num_values > 0);
+            values_counter += chunk_num_values;
+            let chunk_levels = if chunk_idx < chunks.len() - 1 {
+                levels.slice_next(chunk_num_values as usize)
+            } else {
+                levels.slice_rest()
+            };
+            let num_chunk_levels = (chunk_levels.len() / 2) as u64;
+            if max_rep > 0 {
+                // If max_rep > 0 then we are working with rep levels and we need
+                // to calculate the repetition index.  The repetition index for a
+                // chunk is currently 2 values (in the future it may be more).
+                //
+                // The first value is the number of rows that _finish_ in the
+                // chunk.
+                //
+                // The second value is the number of "leftovers" after the last
+                // finished row in the chunk.
+                let rep_values = chunk_levels.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>();
+                let rep_values = rep_values.as_ref();
+
+                // We skip 1 here because a max_rep at spot 0 doesn't count as a finished list (we
+                // will count it in the previous chunk)
+                let mut num_rows = rep_values.iter().skip(1).filter(|v| **v == max_rep).count();
+                let num_leftovers = if chunk_idx < chunks.len() - 1 {
+                    rep_values
+                        .iter()
+                        .rev()
+                        .position(|v| *v == max_rep)
+                        // # of leftovers includes the max_rep spot
+                        .map(|pos| pos + 1)
+                        .unwrap_or(rep_values.len())
+                } else {
+                    // Last chunk can't have leftovers
+                    0
+                };
+
+                if chunk_idx != 0 && rep_values.first() == Some(&max_rep) {
+                    // This chunk starts with a new row and so, if we thought we had leftovers
+                    // in the previous chunk, we were mistaken
+                    // TODO: Can use unchecked here
+                    let rep_len = rep_index.len();
+                    if rep_index[rep_len - 1] != 0 {
+                        // We thought we had leftovers but that was actually a full row
+                        rep_index[rep_len - 2] += 1;
+                        rep_index[rep_len - 1] = 0;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                if chunk_idx == chunks.len() - 1 {
+                    // The final list
+                    num_rows += 1;
+                }
+                rep_index.push(num_rows as u64);
+                rep_index.push(num_leftovers as u64);
+            }
+            let mut chunk_fixed_width = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                data: chunk_levels,
+                bits_per_value: 16,
+                num_values: num_chunk_levels,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            };
+            chunk_fixed_width.compute_stat();
+            let chunk_levels_block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(chunk_fixed_width);
+            let (compressed_levels, chunk_compressor_desc) =
+                compressor.compress(chunk_levels_block)?;
+            if let Some(compressor_desc) = compressor_desc.as_ref() {
+                if compressor_desc != &chunk_compressor_desc {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(
+                        "Rep/def block compressor changed encoding between chunks".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            } else {
+                compressor_desc = Some(chunk_compressor_desc);
+            }
+            let compressed_levels = compressed_levels.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(
+                    "Rep/def block compressor selected a metadata-only codec".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            let num_levels = u16::try_from(num_chunk_levels).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Mini-block cannot encode {} rep/def levels in one chunk. \
+                         This usually means a top-level row contains too much nested structure \
+                         for the current layout.",
+                        num_chunk_levels
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            level_chunks.push(CompressedLevelsChunk {
+                data: compressed_levels,
+                num_levels,
+            });
+        }
+        debug_assert_eq!(levels.num_levels_remaining(), 0);
+        let rep_index = if rep_index.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(rep_index))
+        };
+        Ok(CompressedLevels {
+            data: level_chunks,
+            compression: compressor_desc.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Rep/def compression produced no chunks".to_string())
+            })?,
+            rep_index,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn encode_simple_all_null(
+        column_idx: u32,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        row_number: u64,
+    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
+        let description =
+            ProtobufUtils21::constant_layout(&[DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem], None);
+        Ok(EncodedPage {
+            column_idx,
+            data: vec![],
+            description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
+            num_rows,
+            row_number,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn encode_complex_all_null_vals(
+        data: &Arc<[u16]>,
+        compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<(LanceBuffer, pb21::CompressiveEncoding)> {
+        let buffer = LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(data.clone());
+        let mut fixed_width_block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: buffer,
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            num_values: data.len() as u64,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        };
+        fixed_width_block.compute_stat();
+
+        let levels_block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width_block);
+        let levels_field = Field::new_arrow("", DataType::UInt16, false)?;
+        let (compressed_buffer, encoding) =
+            compress_required_block(compression_strategy, &levels_field, levels_block)?;
+        Ok((compressed_buffer, encoding))
+    }
+
+    // Encodes a page where all values are null but we have rep/def
+    // information that we need to store (e.g. to distinguish between
+    // different kinds of null)
+    fn encode_complex_all_null(
+        column_idx: u32,
+        repdef: crate::repdef::SerializedRepDefs,
+        row_number: u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        complex_null_encoding: ComplexNullEncoding,
+        compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
+        if complex_null_encoding == ComplexNullEncoding::RawLevels {
+            let rep_bytes = if let Some(rep) = repdef.repetition_levels.as_ref() {
+                LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(rep.clone())
+            } else {
+                LanceBuffer::empty()
+            };
+
+            let def_bytes = if let Some(def) = repdef.definition_levels.as_ref() {
+                LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(def.clone())
+            } else {
+                LanceBuffer::empty()
+            };
+
+            let description = ProtobufUtils21::constant_layout(&repdef.def_meaning, None);
+            return Ok(EncodedPage {
+                column_idx,
+                data: vec![rep_bytes, def_bytes],
+                description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
+                num_rows,
+                row_number,
+            });
+        }
+
+        let (rep_bytes, rep_encoding, num_rep_values) = if let Some(rep) =
+            repdef.repetition_levels.as_ref()
+        {
+            let num_values = rep.len() as u64;
+            let (buffer, encoding) = Self::encode_complex_all_null_vals(rep, compression_strategy)?;
+            (buffer, Some(encoding), num_values)
+        } else {
+            (LanceBuffer::empty(), None, 0)
+        };
+
+        let (def_bytes, def_encoding, num_def_values) = if let Some(def) =
+            repdef.definition_levels.as_ref()
+        {
+            let num_values = def.len() as u64;
+            let (buffer, encoding) = Self::encode_complex_all_null_vals(def, compression_strategy)?;
+            (buffer, Some(encoding), num_values)
+        } else {
+            (LanceBuffer::empty(), None, 0)
+        };
+
+        let description = ProtobufUtils21::compressed_all_null_constant_layout(
+            &repdef.def_meaning,
+            rep_encoding,
+            def_encoding,
+            num_rep_values,
+            num_def_values,
+        );
+        Ok(EncodedPage {
+            column_idx,
+            data: vec![rep_bytes, def_bytes],
+            description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
+            num_rows,
+            row_number,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn leaf_validity(
+        repdef: &crate::repdef::SerializedRepDefs,
+        num_values: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Option<BooleanBuffer>> {
+        let rep = repdef
+            .repetition_levels
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|rep| rep.as_ref().to_vec());
+        let def = repdef
+            .definition_levels
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|def| def.as_ref().to_vec());
+        let mut unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
+            rep,
+            def,
+            repdef.def_meaning.clone().into(),
+            num_values as u64,
+        );
+        if unraveler.is_all_valid() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let mut validity = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(num_values);
+        unraveler.unravel_validity(&mut validity)?;
+        Ok(Some(validity.finish()))
+    }
+
+    fn is_constant_values(
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        scalar: &ArrayRef,
+        validity: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        debug_assert_eq!(scalar.len(), 1);
+        debug_assert_eq!(scalar.null_count(), 0);
+
+        match scalar.data_type() {
+            DataType::Boolean => {
+                let mut global_idx = 0usize;
+                let scalar_val = scalar.as_boolean().value(0);
+                for arr in arrays {
+                    let bool_arr = arr.as_boolean();
+                    for i in 0..arr.len() {
+                        let is_valid = validity.map(|v| v.value(global_idx)).unwrap_or(true);
+                        global_idx += 1;
+                        if !is_valid {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        if bool_arr.value(i) != scalar_val {
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(true)
+            }
+            DataType::Utf8 => Self::is_constant_utf8::<i32>(arrays, scalar, validity),
+            DataType::LargeUtf8 => Self::is_constant_utf8::<i64>(arrays, scalar, validity),
+            DataType::Binary => Self::is_constant_binary::<i32>(arrays, scalar, validity),
+            DataType::LargeBinary => Self::is_constant_binary::<i64>(arrays, scalar, validity),
+            data_type => {
+                let mut global_idx = 0usize;
+                let Some(byte_width) = data_type.byte_width_opt() else {
+                    return Ok(false);
+                };
+                let scalar_data = scalar.to_data();
+                if scalar_data.buffers().len() != 1 || !scalar_data.child_data().is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+                let scalar_bytes = scalar_data.buffers()[0].as_slice();
+                if scalar_bytes.len() != byte_width {
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+
+                for arr in arrays {
+                    let data = arr.to_data();
+                    if data.buffers().is_empty() {
+                        return Ok(false);
+                    }
+                    let buf = data.buffers()[0].as_slice();
+                    let base = data.offset();
+                    for i in 0..arr.len() {
+                        let is_valid = validity.map(|v| v.value(global_idx)).unwrap_or(true);
+                        global_idx += 1;
+                        if !is_valid {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        let start = (base + i) * byte_width;
+                        if buf[start..start + byte_width] != scalar_bytes[..] {
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(true)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_constant_utf8<O: arrow_array::OffsetSizeTrait>(
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        scalar: &ArrayRef,
+        validity: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        debug_assert_eq!(scalar.len(), 1);
+        let scalar_val = scalar.as_string::<O>().value(0).as_bytes();
+        let mut global_idx = 0usize;
+        for arr in arrays {
+            let str_arr = arr.as_string::<O>();
+            for i in 0..arr.len() {
+                let is_valid = validity.map(|v| v.value(global_idx)).unwrap_or(true);
+                global_idx += 1;
+                if !is_valid {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if str_arr.value(i).as_bytes() != scalar_val {
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(true)
+    }
+
+    fn is_constant_binary<O: arrow_array::OffsetSizeTrait>(
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        scalar: &ArrayRef,
+        validity: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        debug_assert_eq!(scalar.len(), 1);
+        let scalar_val = scalar.as_binary::<O>().value(0);
+        let mut global_idx = 0usize;
+        for arr in arrays {
+            let bin_arr = arr.as_binary::<O>();
+            for i in 0..arr.len() {
+                let is_valid = validity.map(|v| v.value(global_idx)).unwrap_or(true);
+                global_idx += 1;
+                if !is_valid {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if bin_arr.value(i) != scalar_val {
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(true)
+    }
+
+    fn find_constant_scalar(
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        validity: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<ArrayRef>> {
+        if arrays.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let global_scalar_idx = if let Some(validity) = validity {
+            let Some(idx) = (0..validity.len()).find(|&i| validity.value(i)) else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            idx
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+
+        let mut idx_remaining = global_scalar_idx;
+        let mut scalar_arr_idx = 0usize;
+        while scalar_arr_idx < arrays.len() {
+            let len = arrays[scalar_arr_idx].len();
+            if idx_remaining < len {
+                break;
+            }
+            idx_remaining -= len;
+            scalar_arr_idx += 1;
+        }
+
+        if scalar_arr_idx >= arrays.len() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
 
-                let start_slice = &buffer[start_offset..start_offset + bytes_per_value as usize];
-                let start_val =
-                    ByteUnpacker::new(start_slice.iter().copied(), bytes_per_value as usize)
-                        .next()
-                        .unwrap();
+        let scalar =
+            lance_arrow::scalar::extract_scalar_value(&arrays[scalar_arr_idx], idx_remaining)?;
+        if scalar.null_count() != 0 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if !Self::is_constant_values(arrays, &scalar, validity)? {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        Ok(Some(scalar))
+    }
 
-                let end_slice = &buffer[end_offset..end_offset + bytes_per_value as usize];
-                let end_val =
-                    ByteUnpacker::new(end_slice.iter().copied(), bytes_per_value as usize)
-                        .next()
-                        .unwrap();
+    fn resolve_dict_values_compression_metadata(
+        field_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+        env_compression: Option<String>,
+        env_compression_level: Option<String>,
+    ) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+
+        let compression = field_metadata
+            .get(DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_META_KEY)
+            .cloned()
+            .or(env_compression)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| DEFAULT_DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION.to_string());
+        metadata.insert(COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), compression);
+
+        if let Some(compression_level) = field_metadata
+            .get(DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY)
+            .cloned()
+            .or(env_compression_level)
+        {
+            metadata.insert(COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY.to_string(), compression_level);
+        }
+
+        metadata
+    }
+
+    fn build_dict_values_compressor_field(field: &Field) -> Result<Field> {
+        // This is an internal synthetic field used only to feed metadata into
+        // `create_block_compressor` for dictionary values. The concrete type/name here
+        // are not semantically meaningful; we rely on explicit metadata below to control
+        // general compression selection for dictionary values.
+        let mut dict_values_field = Field::new_arrow("", DataType::UInt16, false)?;
+        dict_values_field.metadata = Self::resolve_dict_values_compression_metadata(
+            &field.metadata,
+            env::var(DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_ENV_VAR).ok(),
+            env::var(DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL_ENV_VAR).ok(),
+        );
+        Ok(dict_values_field)
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn encode_miniblock(
+        column_idx: u32,
+        field: &Field,
+        compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+        data: DataBlock,
+        repdef: crate::repdef::SerializedRepDefs,
+        row_number: u64,
+        dictionary_data: Option<DataBlock>,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        miniblock_chunk_size: MiniblockChunkSize,
+    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
+        if let DataBlock::AllNull(_null_block) = data {
+            // We should not be using mini-block for all-null.  There are other structural
+            // encodings for that.
+            unreachable!()
+        }
+
+        let num_items = data.num_values();
+
+        let compressor = compression_strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(field, &data)?;
+        let common_chunk_buffers =
+            u64::from(repdef.rep_slicer().is_some()) + u64::from(repdef.def_slicer().is_some());
+        let support_large_chunk = miniblock_chunk_size == MiniblockChunkSize::U32;
+        let compression_context =
+            MiniBlockCompressionContext::new(common_chunk_buffers, support_large_chunk, true);
+        let (compressed_data, value_encoding) = compressor.compress(compression_context, data)?;
+
+        let max_rep = repdef.def_meaning.iter().filter(|l| l.is_list()).count() as u16;
+
+        let mut compressed_rep = repdef
+            .rep_slicer()
+            .map(|rep_slicer| {
+                Self::compress_levels(
+                    rep_slicer,
+                    num_items,
+                    compression_strategy,
+                    &compressed_data.chunks,
+                    max_rep,
+                )
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+
+        let (rep_index, rep_index_depth) =
+            match compressed_rep.as_mut().and_then(|cr| cr.rep_index.as_mut()) {
+                Some(rep_index) => (Some(rep_index.clone()), 1),
+                None => (None, 0),
+            };
+
+        let mut compressed_def = repdef
+            .def_slicer()
+            .map(|def_slicer| {
+                Self::compress_levels(
+                    def_slicer,
+                    num_items,
+                    compression_strategy,
+                    &compressed_data.chunks,
+                    /*max_rep=*/ 0,
+                )
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+
+        // TODO: Parquet sparsely encodes values here.  We could do the same but
+        // then we won't have log2 values per chunk.  This means more metadata
+        // and potentially more decoder asymmetry.  However, it may be worth
+        // investigating at some point
+
+        let rep_data = compressed_rep
+            .as_mut()
+            .map(|cr| std::mem::take(&mut cr.data));
+        let def_data = compressed_def
+            .as_mut()
+            .map(|cd| std::mem::take(&mut cd.data));
+
+        let serialized =
+            Self::serialize_miniblocks(compressed_data, rep_data, def_data, miniblock_chunk_size)?;
+        let has_large_chunk = miniblock_chunk_size == MiniblockChunkSize::U32;
+
+        // Metadata, Data, Dictionary, (maybe) Repetition Index
+        let mut data = Vec::with_capacity(4);
+        data.push(serialized.metadata);
+        data.push(serialized.data);
+
+        if let Some(dictionary_data) = dictionary_data {
+            let num_dictionary_items = dictionary_data.num_values();
+            let dict_values_field = Self::build_dict_values_compressor_field(field)?;
+
+            let (dictionary_buffer, dictionary_encoding) =
+                compress_required_block(compression_strategy, &dict_values_field, dictionary_data)?;
+
+            data.push(dictionary_buffer);
+            if let Some(rep_index) = rep_index {
+                data.push(rep_index);
+            }
+
+            let description = ProtobufUtils21::miniblock_layout(
+                compressed_rep.map(|cr| cr.compression),
+                compressed_def.map(|cd| cd.compression),
+                value_encoding,
+                rep_index_depth,
+                serialized.num_buffers,
+                Some((dictionary_encoding, num_dictionary_items)),
+                &repdef.def_meaning,
+                num_items,
+                has_large_chunk,
+            );
+            Ok(EncodedPage {
+                num_rows,
+                column_idx,
+                data,
+                description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
+                row_number,
+            })
+        } else {
+            let description = ProtobufUtils21::miniblock_layout(
+                compressed_rep.map(|cr| cr.compression),
+                compressed_def.map(|cd| cd.compression),
+                value_encoding,
+                rep_index_depth,
+                serialized.num_buffers,
+                None,
+                &repdef.def_meaning,
+                num_items,
+                has_large_chunk,
+            );
+
+            if let Some(rep_index) = rep_index {
+                let view = rep_index.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
+                let total = view.as_chunks::<2>().0.iter().map(|c| c[0]).sum::<u64>();
+                debug_assert_eq!(total, num_rows);
+
+                data.push(rep_index);
+            }
+
+            Ok(EncodedPage {
+                num_rows,
+                column_idx,
+                data,
+                description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
+                row_number,
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    // For fixed-size data we encode < control word | data > for each value
+    fn serialize_full_zip_fixed(
+        fixed: FixedWidthDataBlock,
+        mut repdef: ControlWordIterator,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<SerializedFullZip> {
+        if !fixed.bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Full-zip fixed-width values must be byte aligned, got {} bits per value",
+                    fixed.bits_per_value
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let len = fixed.data.len() + repdef.bytes_per_word() * num_values as usize;
+        let mut zipped_data = Vec::with_capacity(len);
+
+        let max_rep_index_val = if repdef.has_repetition() {
+            len as u64
+        } else {
+            // Setting this to 0 means we won't write a repetition index
+            0
+        };
+        let mut rep_index_builder =
+            BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(num_values as usize + 1, max_rep_index_val);
+
+        let bytes_per_value = fixed.bits_per_value as usize / 8;
+        let mut offset = 0;
+
+        if bytes_per_value == 0 {
+            // No data, just dump the repdef into the buffer
+            while let Some(control) = repdef.append_next(&mut zipped_data) {
+                if control.is_new_row {
+                    // We have finished a row
+                    debug_assert!(offset <= len);
+                    rep_index_builder.append_trusted(offset as u64);
+                }
+                offset = zipped_data.len();
+            }
+        } else {
+            // We have data, zip it with the repdef
+            let mut data_iter = fixed.data.chunks_exact(bytes_per_value);
+            while let Some(control) = repdef.append_next(&mut zipped_data) {
+                if control.is_new_row {
+                    // We have finished a row
+                    debug_assert!(offset <= len);
+                    rep_index_builder.append_trusted(offset as u64);
+                }
+                if control.is_visible {
+                    let value = data_iter.next().unwrap();
+                    zipped_data.extend_from_slice(value);
+                }
+                offset = zipped_data.len();
+            }
+        }
+
+        debug_assert_eq!(zipped_data.len(), len);
+        // Put the final value in the rep index
+        rep_index_builder.append_trusted(zipped_data.len() as u64);
+
+        let zipped_data = LanceBuffer::from(zipped_data);
+        let rep_index = rep_index_builder.into_data();
+        let rep_index = if rep_index.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(LanceBuffer::from(rep_index))
+        };
+        Ok(SerializedFullZip {
+            values: zipped_data,
+            repetition_index: rep_index,
+        })
+    }
+
+    // For variable-size data we encode < control word | length | data > for each value
+    //
+    // In addition, we create a second buffer, the repetition index
+    fn serialize_full_zip_variable(
+        variable: VariableWidthBlock,
+        mut repdef: ControlWordIterator,
+        num_items: u64,
+    ) -> Result<SerializedFullZip> {
+        let bytes_per_offset = variable.bits_per_offset as usize / 8;
+        if !variable.bits_per_offset.is_multiple_of(8) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Full-zip variable-width offsets must be byte aligned, got {} bits per offset",
+                    variable.bits_per_offset
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let len = variable.data.len()
+            + repdef.bytes_per_word() * num_items as usize
+            + bytes_per_offset * variable.num_values as usize;
+        let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(len);
+
+        let max_rep_index_val = len as u64;
+        let mut rep_index_builder =
+            BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(num_items as usize + 1, max_rep_index_val);
+
+        // TODO: byte pack the item lengths with varint encoding
+        match bytes_per_offset {
+            4 => {
+                let offs = variable.offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u32>();
+                let mut rep_offset = 0;
+                let mut windows_iter = offs.as_ref().windows(2);
+                while let Some(control) = repdef.append_next(&mut buf) {
+                    if control.is_new_row {
+                        // We have finished a row
+                        debug_assert!(rep_offset <= len);
+                        rep_index_builder.append_trusted(rep_offset as u64);
+                    }
+                    if control.is_visible {
+                        let window = windows_iter.next().unwrap();
+                        if control.is_valid_item {
+                            buf.extend_from_slice(&(window[1] - window[0]).to_le_bytes());
+                            buf.extend_from_slice(
+                                &variable.data[window[0] as usize..window[1] as usize],
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                    rep_offset = buf.len();
+                }
+            }
+            8 => {
+                let offs = variable.offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
+                let mut rep_offset = 0;
+                let mut windows_iter = offs.as_ref().windows(2);
+                while let Some(control) = repdef.append_next(&mut buf) {
+                    if control.is_new_row {
+                        // We have finished a row
+                        debug_assert!(rep_offset <= len);
+                        rep_index_builder.append_trusted(rep_offset as u64);
+                    }
+                    if control.is_visible {
+                        let window = windows_iter.next().unwrap();
+                        if control.is_valid_item {
+                            buf.extend_from_slice(&(window[1] - window[0]).to_le_bytes());
+                            buf.extend_from_slice(
+                                &variable.data[window[0] as usize..window[1] as usize],
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                    rep_offset = buf.len();
+                }
+            }
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Full-zip variable-width offsets must be 32 or 64 bits, got {} bits",
+                        variable.bits_per_offset
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
 
-                (data_buf_position + start_val)..(data_buf_position + end_val)
-            })
-            .collect()
-    }
+        // We might have saved a few bytes by not copying lengths when the length was zero.  However,
+        // if we are over `len` then we have a bug.
+        debug_assert!(buf.len() <= len);
+        // Put the final value in the rep index
+        rep_index_builder.append_trusted(buf.len() as u64);
 
-    /// Computes the ranges in the repetition index that need to be loaded
-    fn compute_rep_index_ranges(
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        rep_index: &FullZipRepIndexDetails,
-    ) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
-        ranges
-            .iter()
-            .flat_map(|r| {
-                let first_val_start =
-                    rep_index.buf_position + (r.start * rep_index.bytes_per_value);
-                let first_val_end = first_val_start + rep_index.bytes_per_value;
-                let last_val_start = rep_index.buf_position + (r.end * rep_index.bytes_per_value);
-                let last_val_end = last_val_start + rep_index.bytes_per_value;
-                [first_val_start..first_val_end, last_val_start..last_val_end]
-            })
-            .collect()
+        let zipped_data = LanceBuffer::from(buf);
+        let rep_index = rep_index_builder.into_data();
+        debug_assert!(!rep_index.is_empty());
+        let rep_index = Some(LanceBuffer::from(rep_index));
+        Ok(SerializedFullZip {
+            values: zipped_data,
+            repetition_index: rep_index,
+        })
     }
 
-    /// Resolves byte ranges from repetition index (either from cache or disk)
-    async fn resolve_byte_ranges(
-        data_buf_position: u64,
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-        rep_index: &FullZipRepIndexDetails,
-        cached_state: Option<&Arc<FullZipCacheableState>>,
-        priority: u64,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
-        if let Some(cached_state) = cached_state {
-            // Use cached repetition index
-            Ok(Self::extract_byte_ranges_from_cached(
-                &cached_state.rep_index_buffer,
-                ranges,
-                rep_index.bytes_per_value,
-                data_buf_position,
-            ))
-        } else {
-            // Load from disk
-            let rep_ranges = Self::compute_rep_index_ranges(ranges, rep_index);
-            let rep_data = io.submit_request(rep_ranges, priority).await?;
-            let rep_buffer = LanceBuffer::concat(
-                &rep_data
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|d| LanceBuffer::from_bytes(d, 1))
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            );
-            Ok(Self::extract_byte_ranges_from_pairs(
-                rep_buffer,
-                rep_index.bytes_per_value,
-                data_buf_position,
-            ))
+    /// Serializes data into a single buffer according to the full-zip format which zips
+    /// together the repetition, definition, and value data into a single buffer.
+    fn serialize_full_zip(
+        compressed_data: PerValueDataBlock,
+        repdef: ControlWordIterator,
+        num_items: u64,
+    ) -> Result<SerializedFullZip> {
+        match compressed_data {
+            PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(fixed) => {
+                Self::serialize_full_zip_fixed(fixed, repdef, num_items)
+            }
+            PerValueDataBlock::Variable(var) => {
+                Self::serialize_full_zip_variable(var, repdef, num_items)
+            }
         }
     }
 
-    /// Schedules ranges in the presence of a repetition index
-    fn schedule_ranges_rep(
-        &self,
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-        rep_index: FullZipRepIndexDetails,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
-        // Copy necessary fields to avoid lifetime issues
-        let data_buf_position = self.data_buf_position;
-        let cached_state = self.cached_state.clone();
-        let priority = self.priority;
-        let details = self.details.clone();
-        let bits_per_offset = self.bits_per_offset;
-        let ranges = ranges.to_vec();
-        let io_clone = io.clone();
-        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
-
-        let load_task = async move {
-            // Step 1: Resolve byte ranges from repetition index
-            let byte_ranges = Self::resolve_byte_ranges(
-                data_buf_position,
-                &ranges,
-                &io_clone,
-                &rep_index,
-                cached_state.as_ref(),
-                priority,
-            )
-            .await?;
-
-            // Step 2: Load data
-            let data = io_clone.submit_request(byte_ranges, priority).await?;
-            let data = data
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|d| LanceBuffer::from_bytes(d, 1))
-                .collect::<VecDeque<_>>();
-
-            // Step 3: Calculate total rows
-            let num_rows: u64 = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
-
-            // Step 4: Create decoder
-            Self::create_decoder(details, data, num_rows, bits_per_offset)
+    fn expand_boolean_to_bytes(fixed: FixedWidthDataBlock) -> FixedWidthDataBlock {
+        debug_assert_eq!(fixed.bits_per_value, 1);
+        let num_values = fixed.num_values as usize;
+        let bool_buf = BooleanBuffer::new(fixed.data.into_buffer(), 0, num_values);
+        let expanded: Vec<u8> = (0..num_values).map(|i| bool_buf.value(i) as u8).collect();
+        FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::from(expanded),
+            bits_per_value: 8,
+            num_values: fixed.num_values,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
         }
-        .boxed();
-        let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
-            decoder_fut: load_task,
-            num_rows,
-        };
-        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
     }
 
-    // In the simple case there is no repetition and we just have large fixed-width
-    // rows of data.  We can just map row ranges to byte ranges directly using the
-    // fixed-width of the data type.
-    fn schedule_ranges_simple(
-        &self,
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        io: &dyn EncodingsIo,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
-        // Convert row ranges to item ranges (i.e. multiply by items per row)
-        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
+    fn encode_full_zip(
+        column_idx: u32,
+        field: &Field,
+        compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+        data: DataBlock,
+        repdef: crate::repdef::SerializedRepDefs,
+        row_number: u64,
+        num_lists: u64,
+    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
+        let max_rep = repdef
+            .repetition_levels
+            .as_ref()
+            .map_or(0, |r| r.iter().max().copied().unwrap_or(0));
+        let max_def = repdef
+            .definition_levels
+            .as_ref()
+            .map_or(0, |d| d.iter().max().copied().unwrap_or(0));
 
-        let PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor) = &self.details.value_decompressor else {
-            unreachable!()
-        };
+        // To handle FSL we just flatten
+        // let data = data.flatten();
 
-        // Convert item ranges to byte ranges (i.e. multiply by bytes per item)
-        let bits_per_value = decompressor.bits_per_value();
-        assert_eq!(bits_per_value % 8, 0);
-        let bytes_per_value = bits_per_value / 8;
-        let bytes_per_cw = self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word();
-        let total_bytes_per_value = bytes_per_value + bytes_per_cw as u64;
-        let byte_ranges = ranges.iter().map(|r| {
-            debug_assert!(r.end <= self.rows_in_page);
-            let start = self.data_buf_position + r.start * total_bytes_per_value;
-            let end = self.data_buf_position + r.end * total_bytes_per_value;
-            start..end
-        });
+        let (num_items, num_visible_items) =
+            if let Some(rep_levels) = repdef.repetition_levels.as_ref() {
+                // If there are rep levels there may be "invisible" items and we need to encode
+                // rep_levels.len() things which might be larger than data.num_values()
+                (rep_levels.len() as u64, data.num_values())
+            } else {
+                // If there are no rep levels then we encode data.num_values() things
+                (data.num_values(), data.num_values())
+            };
 
-        // Request byte ranges
-        let data = io.submit_request(byte_ranges.collect(), self.priority);
+        let max_visible_def = repdef.max_visible_level.unwrap_or(u16::MAX);
 
-        let details = self.details.clone();
+        let repdef_iter = build_control_word_iterator(
+            repdef.repetition_levels.as_deref(),
+            max_rep,
+            repdef.definition_levels.as_deref(),
+            max_def,
+            max_visible_def,
+            num_items as usize,
+        );
+        let bits_rep = repdef_iter.bits_rep();
+        let bits_def = repdef_iter.bits_def();
 
-        let load_task = async move {
-            let data = data.await?;
-            let data = data
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|d| LanceBuffer::from_bytes(d, 1))
-                .collect();
-            Ok(Box::new(FixedFullZipDecoder {
-                details,
-                data,
-                num_rows,
-                offset_in_current: 0,
-                bytes_per_value: bytes_per_value as usize,
-                total_bytes_per_value: total_bytes_per_value as usize,
-            }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>)
-        }
-        .boxed();
-        let page_load_task = PageLoadTask {
-            decoder_fut: load_task,
-            num_rows,
+        // Full-zip requires byte-aligned values; expand 1-bit booleans to 1 byte each.
+        let data = match data {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed) if fixed.bits_per_value == 1 => {
+                DataBlock::FixedWidth(Self::expand_boolean_to_bytes(fixed))
+            }
+            other => other,
         };
-        Ok(vec![page_load_task])
-    }
-}
-
-/// Cacheable state for FullZip encoding, storing the decoded repetition index
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct FullZipCacheableState {
-    /// The raw repetition index buffer for future decoding
-    rep_index_buffer: LanceBuffer,
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for FullZipCacheableState {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        self.rep_index_buffer.len()
-    }
-}
-
-impl CachedPageData for FullZipCacheableState {
-    fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static> {
-        self
-    }
-}
 
-impl StructuralPageScheduler for FullZipScheduler {
-    /// Initializes the scheduler. If there's a repetition index, loads and caches it.
-    /// Otherwise returns NoCachedPageData.
-    fn initialize<'a>(
-        &'a mut self,
-        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
-        // Check if caching is enabled and we have a repetition index
-        if self.enable_cache && self.rep_index.is_some() {
-            let rep_index = self.rep_index.as_ref().unwrap();
-            // Calculate the total size of the repetition index
-            let total_size = (self.rows_in_page + 1) * rep_index.bytes_per_value;
-            let rep_index_range = rep_index.buf_position..(rep_index.buf_position + total_size);
+        let compressor = compression_strategy.create_per_value(field, &data)?;
+        let (compressed_data, value_encoding) = compressor.compress(data)?;
 
-            // Load the repetition index buffer
-            let io_clone = io.clone();
-            let future = async move {
-                let rep_index_data = io_clone.submit_request(vec![rep_index_range], 0).await?;
-                let rep_index_buffer = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(rep_index_data[0].clone(), 1);
+        let description = match &compressed_data {
+            PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(fixed) => ProtobufUtils21::fixed_full_zip_layout(
+                bits_rep,
+                bits_def,
+                fixed.bits_per_value as u32,
+                value_encoding,
+                &repdef.def_meaning,
+                num_items as u32,
+                num_visible_items as u32,
+            ),
+            PerValueDataBlock::Variable(variable) => ProtobufUtils21::variable_full_zip_layout(
+                bits_rep,
+                bits_def,
+                variable.bits_per_offset as u32,
+                value_encoding,
+                &repdef.def_meaning,
+                num_items as u32,
+                num_visible_items as u32,
+            ),
+        };
 
-                // Create and return the cacheable state
-                Ok(Arc::new(FullZipCacheableState { rep_index_buffer }) as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)
-            };
+        let zipped = Self::serialize_full_zip(compressed_data, repdef_iter, num_items)?;
 
-            future.boxed()
+        let data = if let Some(repindex) = zipped.repetition_index {
+            vec![zipped.values, repindex]
         } else {
-            // Caching disabled or no repetition index, skip caching
-            std::future::ready(Ok(Arc::new(NoCachedPageData) as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)).boxed()
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Loads previously cached repetition index data from the cache system.
-    /// This method is called when a scheduler instance needs to use cached data
-    /// that was initialized by another instance or in a previous operation.
-    fn load(&mut self, cache: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) {
-        // Try to downcast to our specific cache type
-        if let Ok(cached_state) = cache
-            .clone()
-            .as_arc_any()
-            .downcast::<FullZipCacheableState>()
-        {
-            // Store the cached state for use in schedule_ranges
-            self.cached_state = Some(cached_state);
-        }
-    }
+            vec![zipped.values]
+        };
 
-    fn schedule_ranges(
-        &self,
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
-        if let Some(rep_index) = self.rep_index {
-            self.schedule_ranges_rep(ranges, io, rep_index)
-        } else {
-            self.schedule_ranges_simple(ranges, io.as_ref())
-        }
+        Ok(EncodedPage {
+            num_rows: num_lists,
+            column_idx,
+            data,
+            description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
+            row_number,
+        })
     }
-}
 
-/// A decoder for full-zip encoded data when the data has a fixed-width
-///
-/// Here we need to unzip the control words from the values themselves and
-/// then decompress the requested values.
-///
-/// We use a PerValueDecompressor because we will only be decompressing the
-/// requested data.  This decoder / scheduler does not do any read amplification.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct FixedFullZipDecoder {
-    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
-    data: VecDeque<LanceBuffer>,
-    offset_in_current: usize,
-    bytes_per_value: usize,
-    total_bytes_per_value: usize,
-    num_rows: u64,
-}
+    fn should_dictionary_encode(
+        data_block: &DataBlock,
+        field: &Field,
+        fixed_width_dictionary_encoding: FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding,
+    ) -> Option<DictEncodingBudget> {
+        const DEFAULT_SAMPLE_SIZE: usize = 4096;
+        const DEFAULT_SAMPLE_UNIQUE_RATIO: f64 = 0.98;
 
-impl FixedFullZipDecoder {
-    fn slice_next_task(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
-        debug_assert!(num_rows > 0);
-        let cur_buf = self.data.front_mut().unwrap();
-        let start = self.offset_in_current;
-        if self.details.ctrl_word_parser.has_rep() {
-            // This is a slightly slower path.  In order to figure out where to split we need to
-            // examine the rep index so we can convert num_lists to num_rows
-            let mut rows_started = 0;
-            // We always need at least one value.  Now loop through until we have passed num_rows
-            // values
-            let mut num_items = 0;
-            while self.offset_in_current < cur_buf.len() {
-                let control = self.details.ctrl_word_parser.parse_desc(
-                    &cur_buf[self.offset_in_current..],
-                    self.details.max_rep,
-                    self.details.max_visible_def,
-                );
-                if control.is_new_row {
-                    if rows_started == num_rows {
-                        break;
-                    }
-                    rows_started += 1;
+        // Since we only dictionary encode FixedWidth and VariableWidth blocks for now, we skip
+        // estimating the size for other types.
+        match data_block {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed) => {
+                if fixed.bits_per_value == 64
+                    && fixed_width_dictionary_encoding == FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding::Exclude64Bit
+                {
+                    return None;
                 }
-                num_items += 1;
-                if control.is_visible {
-                    self.offset_in_current += self.total_bytes_per_value;
-                } else {
-                    self.offset_in_current += self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word();
+                if fixed.bits_per_value != 64 && fixed.bits_per_value != 128 {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                if fixed.bits_per_value % 8 != 0 {
+                    return None;
                 }
             }
-
-            let task_slice = cur_buf.slice_with_length(start, self.offset_in_current - start);
-            if self.offset_in_current == cur_buf.len() {
-                self.data.pop_front();
-                self.offset_in_current = 0;
-            }
-
-            FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
-                data: PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(FixedWidthDataBlock {
-                    data: task_slice,
-                    bits_per_value: self.bytes_per_value as u64 * 8,
-                    num_values: num_items,
-                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-                }),
-                rows_in_buf: rows_started,
-            }
-        } else {
-            // If there's no repetition we can calculate the slicing point by just multiplying
-            // the number of rows by the total bytes per value
-            let cur_buf = self.data.front_mut().unwrap();
-            let bytes_avail = cur_buf.len() - self.offset_in_current;
-            let offset_in_cur = self.offset_in_current;
-
-            let bytes_needed = num_rows as usize * self.total_bytes_per_value;
-            let mut rows_taken = num_rows;
-            let task_slice = if bytes_needed >= bytes_avail {
-                self.offset_in_current = 0;
-                rows_taken = bytes_avail as u64 / self.total_bytes_per_value as u64;
-                self.data
-                    .pop_front()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .slice_with_length(offset_in_cur, bytes_avail)
-            } else {
-                self.offset_in_current += bytes_needed;
-                cur_buf.slice_with_length(offset_in_cur, bytes_needed)
-            };
-            FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
-                data: PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(FixedWidthDataBlock {
-                    data: task_slice,
-                    bits_per_value: self.bytes_per_value as u64 * 8,
-                    num_values: rows_taken,
-                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-                }),
-                rows_in_buf: rows_taken,
+            DataBlock::VariableWidth(var) => {
+                if var.bits_per_offset != 32 && var.bits_per_offset != 64 {
+                    return None;
+                }
             }
+            _ => return None,
         }
-    }
-}
 
-impl StructuralPageDecoder for FixedFullZipDecoder {
-    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>> {
-        let mut task_data = Vec::with_capacity(self.data.len());
-        let mut remaining = num_rows;
-        while remaining > 0 {
-            let task_item = self.slice_next_task(remaining);
-            remaining -= task_item.rows_in_buf;
-            task_data.push(task_item);
+        // Don't dictionary encode tiny arrays.
+        let too_small = env::var("LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_TOO_SMALL")
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|val| val.parse().ok())
+            .unwrap_or(100);
+        if data_block.num_values() < too_small {
+            return None;
         }
-        Ok(Box::new(FixedFullZipDecodeTask {
-            details: self.details.clone(),
-            data: task_data,
-            bytes_per_value: self.bytes_per_value,
-            num_rows: num_rows as usize,
-        }))
-    }
 
-    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.num_rows
-    }
-}
+        let num_values = data_block.num_values();
 
-/// A decoder for full-zip encoded data when the data has a variable-width
-///
-/// Here we need to unzip the control words AND lengths from the values and
-/// then decompress the requested values.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct VariableFullZipDecoder {
-    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
-    decompressor: Arc<dyn VariablePerValueDecompressor>,
-    data: LanceBuffer,
-    offsets: LanceBuffer,
-    rep: ScalarBuffer<u16>,
-    def: ScalarBuffer<u16>,
-    repdef_starts: Vec<usize>,
-    data_starts: Vec<usize>,
-    offset_starts: Vec<usize>,
-    visible_item_counts: Vec<u64>,
-    bits_per_offset: u8,
-    current_idx: usize,
-    num_rows: u64,
-}
+        // Apply divisor threshold and cap. This is intentionally conservative: the goal is to
+        // avoid spending too much CPU trying to estimate very high cardinalities.
+        let divisor: u64 = field
+            .metadata
+            .get(DICT_DIVISOR_META_KEY)
+            .and_then(|val| val.parse().ok())
+            .or_else(|| {
+                env::var("LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_DIVISOR")
+                    .ok()
+                    .and_then(|val| val.parse().ok())
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_DICT_DIVISOR);
 
-impl VariableFullZipDecoder {
-    fn new(
-        details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
-        data: VecDeque<LanceBuffer>,
-        num_rows: u64,
-        in_bits_per_length: u8,
-        out_bits_per_offset: u8,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let decompressor = match details.value_decompressor {
-            PerValueDecompressor::Variable(ref d) => d.clone(),
-            _ => unreachable!(),
-        };
+        let max_cardinality: u64 = env::var("LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_MAX_CARDINALITY")
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|val| val.parse().ok())
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_DICT_MAX_CARDINALITY);
 
-        assert_eq!(in_bits_per_length % 8, 0);
-        assert!(out_bits_per_offset == 32 || out_bits_per_offset == 64);
+        let threshold_cardinality = num_values
+            .checked_div(divisor.max(1))
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+            .min(max_cardinality);
+        if threshold_cardinality == 0 {
+            return None;
+        }
 
-        let mut decoder = Self {
-            details,
-            decompressor,
-            data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
-            offsets: LanceBuffer::empty(),
-            rep: LanceBuffer::empty().borrow_to_typed_slice(),
-            def: LanceBuffer::empty().borrow_to_typed_slice(),
-            bits_per_offset: out_bits_per_offset,
-            repdef_starts: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize + 1),
-            data_starts: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize + 1),
-            offset_starts: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize + 1),
-            visible_item_counts: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize + 1),
-            current_idx: 0,
-            num_rows,
-        };
+        // Get size ratio from metadata or env var.
+        let threshold_ratio = field
+            .metadata
+            .get(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY)
+            .and_then(|val| val.parse::<f64>().ok())
+            .or_else(|| {
+                env::var("LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_SIZE_RATIO")
+                    .ok()
+                    .and_then(|val| val.parse().ok())
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_DICT_SIZE_RATIO);
 
-        // There's no great time to do this and this is the least worst time.  If we don't unzip then
-        // we can't slice the data during the decode phase.  This is because we need the offsets to be
-        // unpacked to know where the values start and end.
-        //
-        // We don't want to unzip on the decode thread because that is a single-threaded path
-        // We don't want to unzip on the scheduling thread because that is a single-threaded path
-        //
-        // Fortunately, we know variable length data will always be read indirectly and so we can do it
-        // here, which should be on the indirect thread.  The primary disadvantage to doing it here is that
-        // we load all the data into memory and then throw it away only to load it all into memory again during
-        // the decode.
-        //
-        // There are some alternatives to investigate:
-        //   - Instead of just reading the beginning and end of the rep index we could read the entire
-        //     range in between.  This will give us the break points that we need for slicing and won't increase
-        //     the number of IOPs but it will mean we are doing more total I/O and we need to load the rep index
-        //     even when doing a full scan.
-        //   - We could force each decode task to do a full unzip of all the data.  Each decode task now
-        //     has to do more work but the work is all fused.
-        //   - We could just try doing this work on the decode thread and see if it is a problem.
-        decoder.unzip(data, in_bits_per_length, out_bits_per_offset, num_rows);
+        if threshold_ratio <= 0.0 || threshold_ratio > 1.0 {
+            panic!(
+                "Invalid parameter: dict-size-ratio is {} which is not in the range (0, 1].",
+                threshold_ratio
+            );
+        }
+
+        let data_size = data_block.data_size();
+        if data_size == 0 {
+            return None;
+        }
 
-        decoder
-    }
+        let max_encoded_size = (data_size as f64 * threshold_ratio) as u64;
+        let max_encoded_size = usize::try_from(max_encoded_size).ok()?;
 
-    unsafe fn parse_length(data: &[u8], bits_per_offset: u8) -> u64 {
-        match bits_per_offset {
-            8 => *data.get_unchecked(0) as u64,
-            16 => u16::from_le_bytes([*data.get_unchecked(0), *data.get_unchecked(1)]) as u64,
-            32 => u32::from_le_bytes([
-                *data.get_unchecked(0),
-                *data.get_unchecked(1),
-                *data.get_unchecked(2),
-                *data.get_unchecked(3),
-            ]) as u64,
-            64 => u64::from_le_bytes([
-                *data.get_unchecked(0),
-                *data.get_unchecked(1),
-                *data.get_unchecked(2),
-                *data.get_unchecked(3),
-                *data.get_unchecked(4),
-                *data.get_unchecked(5),
-                *data.get_unchecked(6),
-                *data.get_unchecked(7),
-            ]),
-            _ => unreachable!(),
+        // Avoid probing dictionary encoding on data that appears to be near-unique
+        // or likely to exceed the dictionary budget.
+        if let Some(sample_unique_ratio) =
+            Self::sample_unique_ratio(data_block, DEFAULT_SAMPLE_SIZE)?
+        {
+            if sample_unique_ratio >= DEFAULT_SAMPLE_UNIQUE_RATIO {
+                return None;
+            }
+
+            let projected_cardinality = (sample_unique_ratio * num_values as f64).ceil() as u64;
+            if projected_cardinality > threshold_cardinality {
+                return None;
+            }
         }
-    }
 
-    fn unzip(
-        &mut self,
-        data: VecDeque<LanceBuffer>,
-        in_bits_per_length: u8,
-        out_bits_per_offset: u8,
-        num_rows: u64,
-    ) {
-        // This undercounts if there are lists but, at this point, we don't really know how many items we have
-        let mut rep = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize);
-        let mut def = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize);
-        let bytes_cw = self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word() * num_rows as usize;
+        let max_dict_entries = u32::try_from(threshold_cardinality.min(i32::MAX as u64)).ok()?;
+        Some(DictEncodingBudget {
+            max_dict_entries,
+            max_encoded_size,
+        })
+    }
 
-        // This undercounts if there are lists
-        // It can also overcount if there are invisible items
-        let bytes_per_offset = out_bits_per_offset as usize / 8;
-        let bytes_offsets = bytes_per_offset * (num_rows as usize + 1);
-        let mut offsets_data = Vec::with_capacity(bytes_offsets);
+    /// Samples whether a page looks near-unique before attempting dictionary encoding.
+    ///
+    /// The probe uses deterministic block sampling (not RNG sampling), which keeps
+    /// the check cheap and reproducible across runs. The result is only a gate for
+    /// whether we try dictionary encoding, not a cardinality statistic.
+    /// Returns `Some(None)` when there are too few reliable samples or the block type does not
+    /// support dictionary encoding. Returns `None` for malformed data.
+    fn sample_unique_ratio(data_block: &DataBlock, max_samples: usize) -> Option<Option<f64>> {
+        use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+        const NUM_SAMPLE_BLOCKS: usize = 32;
+        const MIN_RELIABLE_SAMPLES: usize = 1024;
+
+        let num_values = usize::try_from(data_block.num_values()).ok()?;
+        if num_values == 0 {
+            return Some(None);
+        }
 
-        let bytes_per_length = in_bits_per_length as usize / 8;
-        let bytes_lengths = bytes_per_length * num_rows as usize;
+        let sample_count = num_values.min(max_samples).max(1);
+        if sample_count < MIN_RELIABLE_SAMPLES {
+            return Some(None);
+        }
 
-        let bytes_data = data.iter().map(|d| d.len()).sum::<usize>();
-        // This overcounts since bytes_lengths and bytes_cw are undercounts
-        // It can also undercount if there are invisible items (hence the saturating_sub)
-        let mut unzipped_data =
-            Vec::with_capacity((bytes_data - bytes_cw).saturating_sub(bytes_lengths));
+        let block_count = NUM_SAMPLE_BLOCKS.min(sample_count).min(num_values).max(1);
+        let samples_per_block = (sample_count / block_count).max(1);
+        let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(sample_count);
+        for block_idx in 0..block_count {
+            let block_start = block_idx * num_values / block_count;
+            let next_block_start = ((block_idx + 1) * num_values / block_count).min(num_values);
+            let block_len = next_block_start.saturating_sub(block_start);
+            let samples_in_block = samples_per_block.min(block_len);
+            indices.extend((0..samples_in_block).map(|offset| block_start + offset));
+        }
 
-        let mut current_offset = 0_u64;
-        let mut visible_item_count = 0_u64;
-        for databuf in data.into_iter() {
-            let mut databuf = databuf.as_ref();
-            while !databuf.is_empty() {
-                let data_start = unzipped_data.len();
-                let offset_start = offsets_data.len();
-                // We might have only-rep or only-def, neither, or both.  They move at the same
-                // speed though so we only need one index into it
-                let repdef_start = rep.len().max(def.len());
-                // TODO: Kind of inefficient we parse the control word twice here
-                let ctrl_desc = self.details.ctrl_word_parser.parse_desc(
-                    databuf,
-                    self.details.max_rep,
-                    self.details.max_visible_def,
-                );
-                self.details
-                    .ctrl_word_parser
-                    .parse(databuf, &mut rep, &mut def);
-                databuf = &databuf[self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word()..];
+        if indices.len() < MIN_RELIABLE_SAMPLES {
+            return Some(None);
+        }
 
-                if ctrl_desc.is_new_row {
-                    self.repdef_starts.push(repdef_start);
-                    self.data_starts.push(data_start);
-                    self.offset_starts.push(offset_start);
-                    self.visible_item_counts.push(visible_item_count);
+        let ratio = match data_block {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed) => match fixed.bits_per_value {
+                64 => {
+                    let values = fixed.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
+                    let values = values.as_ref();
+                    let mut unique: HashSet<u64> =
+                        HashSet::with_capacity(indices.len().min(MIN_RELIABLE_SAMPLES));
+                    for idx in indices.iter().copied() {
+                        unique.insert(values.get(idx).copied()?);
+                    }
+                    unique.len() as f64 / indices.len() as f64
                 }
-                if ctrl_desc.is_visible {
-                    visible_item_count += 1;
-                    if ctrl_desc.is_valid_item {
-                        // Safety: Data should have at least bytes_per_length bytes remaining
-                        debug_assert!(databuf.len() >= bytes_per_length);
-                        let length = unsafe { Self::parse_length(databuf, in_bits_per_length) };
-                        match out_bits_per_offset {
-                            32 => offsets_data
-                                .extend_from_slice(&(current_offset as u32).to_le_bytes()),
-                            64 => offsets_data.extend_from_slice(&current_offset.to_le_bytes()),
-                            _ => unreachable!(),
-                        };
-                        databuf = &databuf[bytes_per_offset..];
-                        unzipped_data.extend_from_slice(&databuf[..length as usize]);
-                        databuf = &databuf[length as usize..];
-                        current_offset += length;
-                    } else {
-                        // Null items still get an offset
-                        match out_bits_per_offset {
-                            32 => offsets_data
-                                .extend_from_slice(&(current_offset as u32).to_le_bytes()),
-                            64 => offsets_data.extend_from_slice(&current_offset.to_le_bytes()),
-                            _ => unreachable!(),
+                128 => {
+                    let values = fixed.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u128>();
+                    let values = values.as_ref();
+                    let mut unique: HashSet<u128> =
+                        HashSet::with_capacity(indices.len().min(MIN_RELIABLE_SAMPLES));
+                    for idx in indices.iter().copied() {
+                        unique.insert(values.get(idx).copied()?);
+                    }
+                    unique.len() as f64 / indices.len() as f64
+                }
+                _ => return Some(None),
+            },
+            DataBlock::VariableWidth(var) => {
+                use xxhash_rust::xxh3::xxh3_64;
+
+                // Hash variable-width slices instead of storing borrowed slice keys.
+                let mut unique: HashSet<u64> =
+                    HashSet::with_capacity(indices.len().min(MIN_RELIABLE_SAMPLES));
+                match var.bits_per_offset {
+                    32 => {
+                        let offsets_ref = var.offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u32>();
+                        let offsets: &[u32] = offsets_ref.as_ref();
+                        for i in indices.iter().copied() {
+                            let start = usize::try_from(*offsets.get(i)?).ok()?;
+                            let end = usize::try_from(*offsets.get(i + 1)?).ok()?;
+                            if start > end || end > var.data.len() {
+                                return None;
+                            }
+                            unique.insert(xxh3_64(&var.data[start..end]));
+                        }
+                    }
+                    64 => {
+                        let offsets_ref = var.offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
+                        let offsets: &[u64] = offsets_ref.as_ref();
+                        for i in indices.iter().copied() {
+                            let start = usize::try_from(*offsets.get(i)?).ok()?;
+                            let end = usize::try_from(*offsets.get(i + 1)?).ok()?;
+                            if start > end || end > var.data.len() {
+                                return None;
+                            }
+                            unique.insert(xxh3_64(&var.data[start..end]));
                         }
                     }
+                    _ => return Some(None),
                 }
+                unique.len() as f64 / indices.len() as f64
             }
-        }
-        self.repdef_starts.push(rep.len().max(def.len()));
-        self.data_starts.push(unzipped_data.len());
-        self.offset_starts.push(offsets_data.len());
-        self.visible_item_counts.push(visible_item_count);
-        match out_bits_per_offset {
-            32 => offsets_data.extend_from_slice(&(current_offset as u32).to_le_bytes()),
-            64 => offsets_data.extend_from_slice(&current_offset.to_le_bytes()),
-            _ => unreachable!(),
+            _ => return Some(None),
         };
-        self.rep = ScalarBuffer::from(rep);
-        self.def = ScalarBuffer::from(def);
-        self.data = LanceBuffer::from(unzipped_data);
-        self.offsets = LanceBuffer::from(offsets_data);
+
+        Some(Some(ratio))
     }
-}
 
-impl StructuralPageDecoder for VariableFullZipDecoder {
-    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>> {
-        let start = self.current_idx;
-        let end = start + num_rows as usize;
+    fn slice_repdef(repdef: &SerializedRepDefs, range: Range<usize>) -> SerializedRepDefs {
+        let repetition_levels = repdef
+            .repetition_levels
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|levels| levels[range.clone()].to_vec());
+        let definition_levels = repdef
+            .definition_levels
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|levels| levels[range].to_vec());
+        SerializedRepDefs::new_with_fixed_size_list_levels(
+            repetition_levels,
+            definition_levels,
+            repdef.def_meaning.clone(),
+            repdef.has_fixed_size_list_levels(),
+        )
+    }
 
-        // This might seem a little peculiar.  We are returning the entire data for every single
-        // batch.  This is because the offsets are relative to the start of the data.  In other words
-        // imagine we have a data buffer that is 100 bytes long and the offsets are [0, 10, 20, 30, 40]
-        // and we return in batches of two.  The second set of offsets will be [20, 30, 40].
-        //
-        // So either we pay for a copy to normalize the offsets or we just return the entire data buffer
-        // which is slightly cheaper.
-        let data = self.data.clone();
+    fn slice_arrays(
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        value_start: u64,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ArrayRef>> {
+        if num_values == 0 {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
 
-        let offset_start = self.offset_starts[start];
-        let offset_end = self.offset_starts[end] + (self.bits_per_offset as usize / 8);
-        let offsets = self
-            .offsets
-            .slice_with_length(offset_start, offset_end - offset_start);
+        let mut values_to_skip = usize::try_from(value_start).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Value start {} is too large", value_start))
+        })?;
+        let mut values_remaining = usize::try_from(num_values).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Value count {} is too large", num_values))
+        })?;
+        let mut sliced = Vec::new();
+
+        for array in arrays {
+            if values_to_skip >= array.len() {
+                values_to_skip -= array.len();
+                continue;
+            }
 
-        let repdef_start = self.repdef_starts[start];
-        let repdef_end = self.repdef_starts[end];
-        let rep = if self.rep.is_empty() {
-            self.rep.clone()
-        } else {
-            self.rep.slice(repdef_start, repdef_end - repdef_start)
+            let offset = values_to_skip;
+            let len = (array.len() - offset).min(values_remaining);
+            sliced.push(array.slice(offset, len));
+            values_remaining -= len;
+            values_to_skip = 0;
+
+            if values_remaining == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if values_remaining != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Page split requested {} values starting at {}, but the page did not contain enough values",
+                num_values, value_start
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(sliced)
+    }
+
+    fn split_pages_for_miniblock_repdef_budget(
+        arrays: Vec<ArrayRef>,
+        repdef: SerializedRepDefs,
+        budget: MiniBlockRepDefBudget,
+        row_number: u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PrimitivePageData>> {
+        if budget == MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget {
+            return Ok(vec![PrimitivePageData {
+                arrays,
+                structure: PrimitivePageStructure::Dense {
+                    repdef,
+                    single_row_miniblock_repdef_levels: None,
+                },
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+            }]);
+        }
+        if let MiniBlockRepDefBudget::SingleRowOverBudget(num_levels) = budget {
+            return Ok(vec![PrimitivePageData {
+                arrays,
+                structure: PrimitivePageStructure::Dense {
+                    repdef,
+                    single_row_miniblock_repdef_levels: Some(num_levels),
+                },
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+            }]);
+        }
+
+        let MiniBlockRepDefBudget::RequiresPageSplit(splits) = budget else {
+            unreachable!();
         };
-        let def = if self.def.is_empty() {
-            self.def.clone()
-        } else {
-            self.def.slice(repdef_start, repdef_end - repdef_start)
+
+        let mut pages = Vec::with_capacity(splits.len());
+        for split in splits {
+            let arrays = Self::slice_arrays(&arrays, split.value_start, split.num_values)?;
+            let repdef = Self::slice_repdef(&repdef, split.level_range);
+            pages.push(PrimitivePageData {
+                arrays,
+                structure: PrimitivePageStructure::Dense {
+                    repdef,
+                    single_row_miniblock_repdef_levels: None,
+                },
+                row_number: row_number + split.row_start,
+                num_rows: split.num_rows,
+            });
+        }
+        Ok(pages)
+    }
+
+    fn encode_dense_page(
+        ctx: PrimitiveEncodeContext,
+        page: PrimitivePageData,
+        compression_strategy: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
+        miniblock_chunk_size: MiniblockChunkSize,
+        complex_null_encoding: ComplexNullEncoding,
+        fixed_width_dictionary_encoding: FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding,
+    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
+        let PrimitiveEncodeContext {
+            column_idx,
+            field,
+            encoding_metadata,
+            is_simple_validity,
+            has_repdef_info,
+        } = ctx;
+        let PrimitivePageData {
+            arrays,
+            structure,
+            row_number,
+            num_rows,
+        } = page;
+        let num_values = arrays.iter().map(|arr| arr.len() as u64).sum();
+
+        let (repdef, single_row_miniblock_repdef_levels) = match structure {
+            PrimitivePageStructure::Dense {
+                repdef,
+                single_row_miniblock_repdef_levels,
+            } => (repdef, single_row_miniblock_repdef_levels),
+            PrimitivePageStructure::Sparse { .. } => {
+                unreachable!("dense atom received sparse page")
+            }
         };
 
-        let visible_item_counts_start = self.visible_item_counts[start];
-        let visible_item_counts_end = self.visible_item_counts[end];
-        let num_visible_items = visible_item_counts_end - visible_item_counts_start;
+        if num_values == 0 {
+            // This page contains only structural events, such as empty/null list rows.
+            // The existing complex-null layout stores the rep/def stream without value buffers.
+            log::debug!(
+                "Encoding column {} with {} items ({} rows) using complex-null layout",
+                column_idx,
+                num_values,
+                num_rows
+            );
+            return Self::encode_complex_all_null(
+                column_idx,
+                repdef,
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+                complex_null_encoding,
+                compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let leaf_validity = Self::leaf_validity(&repdef, num_values as usize)?;
+        let all_null = leaf_validity
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|validity| validity.count_set_bits() == 0)
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+
+        if all_null {
+            return if is_simple_validity {
+                log::debug!(
+                    "Encoding column {} with {} items ({} rows) using simple-null layout",
+                    column_idx,
+                    num_values,
+                    num_rows
+                );
+                Self::encode_simple_all_null(column_idx, num_values, row_number)
+            } else {
+                log::debug!(
+                    "Encoding column {} with {} items ({} rows) using complex-null layout",
+                    column_idx,
+                    num_values,
+                    num_rows
+                );
+                Self::encode_complex_all_null(
+                    column_idx,
+                    repdef,
+                    row_number,
+                    num_rows,
+                    complex_null_encoding,
+                    compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+                )
+            };
+        }
+
+        if let DataType::Struct(fields) = &field.data_type()
+            && fields.is_empty()
+        {
+            if has_repdef_info {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!("Empty structs with rep/def information are not yet supported.  The field {} is an empty struct that either has nulls or is in a list.", field.name).into()));
+            }
+            // This is maybe a little confusing but the reader should never look at this anyways and it
+            // seems like overkill to invent a new layout just for "empty structs".
+            return Self::encode_simple_all_null(column_idx, num_values, row_number);
+        }
+
+        let data_block = DataBlock::from_arrays(&arrays, num_values);
+
+        if let Some(num_levels) = single_row_miniblock_repdef_levels {
+            let requested_encoding = encoding_metadata
+                .get(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY)
+                .map(|requested| requested.to_lowercase());
+            let fullzip_error = match &data_block {
+                // 1-bit booleans are widened to bytes inside `encode_full_zip`.
+                DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed)
+                    if fixed.bits_per_value != 1 && !fixed.bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) =>
+                {
+                    Some(format!(
+                        "Full-zip fixed-width values must be byte aligned, got {} bits per value",
+                        fixed.bits_per_value
+                    ))
+                }
+                DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable)
+                    if !variable.bits_per_offset.is_multiple_of(8) =>
+                {
+                    Some(format!(
+                        "Full-zip variable-width offsets must be byte aligned, got {} bits per offset",
+                        variable.bits_per_offset
+                    ))
+                }
+                DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable)
+                    if variable.bits_per_offset != 32 && variable.bits_per_offset != 64 =>
+                {
+                    Some(format!(
+                        "Full-zip variable-width offsets must be 32 or 64 bits, got {} bits",
+                        variable.bits_per_offset
+                    ))
+                }
+                DataBlock::Dictionary(_) => {
+                    Some("Full-zip does not encode dictionary data blocks directly".to_string())
+                }
+                DataBlock::FixedSizeList(fsl) => match fsl.clone().try_into_flat() {
+                    Some(flat) if flat.bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) => None,
+                    Some(flat) => Some(format!(
+                        "Full-zip fixed-size-list values must be byte aligned after flattening, got {} bits per value",
+                        flat.bits_per_value
+                    )),
+                    None => Some(
+                        "Full-zip fixed-size-list capability requires a flat fixed-width child"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    ),
+                },
+                DataBlock::FixedWidth(_) | DataBlock::VariableWidth(_) | DataBlock::Struct(_) => {
+                    None
+                }
+                other => Some(format!(
+                    "Full-zip does not support value block type {}",
+                    other.name()
+                )),
+            };
+            match requested_encoding.as_deref() {
+                Some(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP) => {
+                    if let Some(reason) = fullzip_error {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(reason.into()));
+                    }
+                    return Self::encode_full_zip(
+                        column_idx,
+                        &field,
+                        compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+                        data_block,
+                        repdef,
+                        row_number,
+                        num_rows,
+                    );
+                }
+                Some(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK) | None => {
+                    if requested_encoding.is_none() && fullzip_error.is_none() {
+                        log::debug!(
+                            "Encoding column {} with {} items using full-zip layout because mini-block cannot split the structural page",
+                            column_idx,
+                            num_values
+                        );
+                        return Self::encode_full_zip(
+                            column_idx,
+                            &field,
+                            compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+                            data_block,
+                            repdef,
+                            row_number,
+                            num_rows,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Mini-block cannot encode {} rep/def levels in one top-level row. \
+                             This usually means the row contains too much nested structure \
+                             for the current layout.",
+                            num_levels
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
+
+        let requires_full_zip_packed_struct =
+            if let DataBlock::Struct(ref struct_data_block) = data_block {
+                struct_data_block.has_variable_width_child()
+            } else {
+                false
+            };
+
+        if requires_full_zip_packed_struct {
+            log::debug!(
+                "Encoding column {} with {} items using full-zip packed struct layout",
+                column_idx,
+                num_values
+            );
+            return Self::encode_full_zip(
+                column_idx,
+                &field,
+                compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+                data_block,
+                repdef,
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+            );
+        }
 
-        self.current_idx += num_rows as usize;
+        if let DataBlock::Dictionary(dict) = data_block {
+            log::debug!(
+                "Encoding column {} with {} items using dictionary encoding (already dictionary encoded)",
+                column_idx,
+                num_values
+            );
+            let (mut indices_data_block, dictionary_data_block) = dict.into_parts();
+            // TODO: https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues/4809
+            // If we compute stats on dictionary_data_block => panic.
+            // If we don't compute stats on indices_data_block => panic.
+            // This is messy.  Don't make me call compute_stat ever.
+            indices_data_block.compute_stat();
+            return Self::encode_miniblock(
+                column_idx,
+                &field,
+                compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+                indices_data_block,
+                repdef,
+                row_number,
+                Some(dictionary_data_block),
+                num_rows,
+                miniblock_chunk_size,
+            );
+        }
 
-        Ok(Box::new(VariableFullZipDecodeTask {
-            details: self.details.clone(),
-            decompressor: self.decompressor.clone(),
-            data,
-            offsets,
-            bits_per_offset: self.bits_per_offset,
-            num_visible_items,
-            rep,
-            def,
-        }))
-    }
+        // Try dictionary encoding first if applicable. If encoding aborts, fall back to the
+        // preferred structural encoding.
+        let dict_result = Self::should_dictionary_encode(
+            &data_block,
+            &field,
+            fixed_width_dictionary_encoding,
+        )
+        .and_then(|budget| {
+            log::debug!(
+                "Encoding column {} with {} items using dictionary encoding (mini-block layout)",
+                column_idx,
+                num_values
+            );
+            dict::dictionary_encode(
+                &data_block,
+                budget.max_dict_entries,
+                budget.max_encoded_size,
+            )
+        });
 
-    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.num_rows
+        if let Some((indices_data_block, dictionary_data_block)) = dict_result {
+            Self::encode_miniblock(
+                column_idx,
+                &field,
+                compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+                indices_data_block,
+                repdef,
+                row_number,
+                Some(dictionary_data_block),
+                num_rows,
+                miniblock_chunk_size,
+            )
+        } else if Self::prefers_miniblock(&data_block, encoding_metadata.as_ref()) {
+            log::debug!(
+                "Encoding column {} with {} items using mini-block layout",
+                column_idx,
+                num_values
+            );
+            Self::encode_miniblock(
+                column_idx,
+                &field,
+                compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+                data_block,
+                repdef,
+                row_number,
+                None,
+                num_rows,
+                miniblock_chunk_size,
+            )
+        } else if Self::prefers_fullzip(encoding_metadata.as_ref()) {
+            log::debug!(
+                "Encoding column {} with {} items using full-zip layout",
+                column_idx,
+                num_values
+            );
+            Self::encode_full_zip(
+                column_idx,
+                &field,
+                compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+                data_block,
+                repdef,
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+            )
+        } else {
+            Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!("Cannot determine structural encoding for field {}.  This typically indicates an invalid value of the field metadata key {}", field.name, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY).into()))
+        }
     }
-}
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct VariableFullZipDecodeTask {
-    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
-    decompressor: Arc<dyn VariablePerValueDecompressor>,
-    data: LanceBuffer,
-    offsets: LanceBuffer,
-    bits_per_offset: u8,
-    num_visible_items: u64,
-    rep: ScalarBuffer<u16>,
-    def: ScalarBuffer<u16>,
-}
+    /// Rebuilds dictionary chunks whose values array is empty.
+    ///
+    /// Such chunks are entirely null and retain their key validity until rep/def has been
+    /// recorded.  At flush time their keys are zeroed and attached to a neighboring non-empty
+    /// dictionary.  If every chunk is empty, one non-null placeholder value makes key zero valid.
+    /// Rep/def retains the logical nullness, so these replacement keys are never exposed.
+    fn rebuild_empty_dictionary_chunks(arrays: Vec<ArrayRef>) -> Result<Vec<ArrayRef>> {
+        if !arrays.iter().any(|array| {
+            array
+                .as_any_dictionary_opt()
+                .is_some_and(|dictionary| dictionary.values().is_empty())
+        }) {
+            return Ok(arrays);
+        }
 
-impl DecodePageTask for VariableFullZipDecodeTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
-        let block = VariableWidthBlock {
-            data: self.data,
-            offsets: self.offsets,
-            bits_per_offset: self.bits_per_offset,
-            num_values: self.num_visible_items,
-            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        let zeroed = |data_type: &DataType, len: usize| {
+            new_null_array(data_type, len)
+                .to_data()
+                .into_builder()
+                .nulls(None)
+                .build()
+                .map(make_array)
         };
-        let decomopressed = self.decompressor.decompress(block)?;
-        let rep = if self.rep.is_empty() {
-            None
+        let rebuild =
+            |keys: Vec<ArrayRef>, data_type: &DataType, values: ArrayRef| -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+                let keys = keys.iter().map(|keys| keys.as_ref()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let keys = arrow_select::concat::concat(&keys)?;
+                let data = keys
+                    .to_data()
+                    .into_builder()
+                    .data_type(data_type.clone())
+                    .child_data(vec![values.to_data()])
+                    .build()?;
+                Ok(make_array(data))
+            };
+
+        let mut rebuilt = Vec::with_capacity(arrays.len());
+        let mut pending_keys = Vec::with_capacity(arrays.len());
+        let mut empty_data_type = None;
+        for array in arrays {
+            let Some(dictionary) = array.as_any_dictionary_opt() else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Cannot mix dictionary and non-dictionary chunks".into(),
+                ));
+            };
+            if dictionary.values().is_empty() {
+                pending_keys.push(zeroed(dictionary.keys().data_type(), array.len())?);
+                empty_data_type.get_or_insert_with(|| array.data_type().clone());
+            } else if pending_keys.is_empty() {
+                rebuilt.push(array);
+            } else {
+                pending_keys.push(make_array(dictionary.keys().to_data()));
+                rebuilt.push(rebuild(
+                    std::mem::take(&mut pending_keys),
+                    array.data_type(),
+                    dictionary.values().clone(),
+                )?);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if pending_keys.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(rebuilt);
+        }
+        if let Some(array) = rebuilt.pop() {
+            let Some(dictionary) = array.as_any_dictionary_opt() else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Cannot mix dictionary and non-dictionary chunks".into(),
+                ));
+            };
+            let mut keys = Vec::with_capacity(pending_keys.len() + 1);
+            keys.push(make_array(dictionary.keys().to_data()));
+            keys.append(&mut pending_keys);
+            rebuilt.push(rebuild(
+                keys,
+                array.data_type(),
+                dictionary.values().clone(),
+            )?);
         } else {
-            Some(self.rep.to_vec())
+            let data_type = empty_data_type.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Missing data type for an empty dictionary chunk")
+            })?;
+            let DataType::Dictionary(_, value_type) = &data_type else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Expected dictionary data type, got {data_type}"
+                )));
+            };
+            rebuilt.push(rebuild(pending_keys, &data_type, zeroed(value_type, 1)?)?);
+        }
+        Ok(rebuilt)
+    }
+
+    // Creates encode tasks, consuming all buffered data
+    fn do_flush(
+        &mut self,
+        arrays: Vec<ArrayRef>,
+        repdefs: Vec<RepDefBuilder>,
+        row_number: u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
+        let arrays = Self::rebuild_empty_dictionary_chunks(arrays)?;
+        DataBlock::validate_arrays(&arrays, &self.field.name)?;
+        let num_values = arrays.iter().map(|arr| arr.len() as u64).sum();
+        let is_simple_validity = repdefs.iter().all(|rd| rd.is_simple_validity());
+        let has_repdef_info = repdefs.iter().any(|rd| !rd.is_empty());
+        let normalized = RepDefBuilder::normalize(repdefs);
+        let plan_ctx = PrimitivePlanContext {
+            column_idx: self.column_index,
+            field: &self.field,
+            encoding_metadata: &self.encoding_metadata,
         };
-        let def = if self.def.is_empty() {
-            None
-        } else {
-            Some(self.def.to_vec())
+        let mut pages = None;
+        for page_encoding in self.page_encodings.iter() {
+            if let Some(planned) = page_encoding.behavior.try_plan_pages(
+                &plan_ctx,
+                &arrays,
+                &normalized,
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+                num_values,
+            )? {
+                pages = Some(planned);
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        let pages = pages.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "No primitive page planner supports field '{}'",
+                    self.field.name
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+
+        let mut tasks = Vec::with_capacity(pages.len());
+        let ctx = PrimitiveEncodeContext {
+            column_idx: self.column_index,
+            field: self.field.clone(),
+            encoding_metadata: self.encoding_metadata.clone(),
+            is_simple_validity,
+            has_repdef_info,
         };
-        let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
-            rep,
-            def,
-            self.details.def_meaning.clone(),
-            self.num_visible_items,
-        );
-        Ok(DecodedPage {
-            data: decomopressed,
-            repdef: unraveler,
-        })
+        for page in pages {
+            let ctx = ctx.clone();
+            let page_encodings = self.page_encodings.clone();
+            let task =
+                spawn_cpu(move || Self::encode_page(page_encodings.as_ref(), &ctx, page)).boxed();
+            tasks.push(task);
+        }
+        Ok(tasks)
     }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
-    data: PerValueDataBlock,
-    rows_in_buf: u64,
-}
-
-/// A task to unzip and decompress full-zip encoded data when that data
-/// has a fixed-width.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct FixedFullZipDecodeTask {
-    details: Arc<FullZipDecodeDetails>,
-    data: Vec<FullZipDecodeTaskItem>,
-    num_rows: usize,
-    bytes_per_value: usize,
-}
 
-impl DecodePageTask for FixedFullZipDecodeTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
-        // Multiply by 2 to make a stab at the size of the output buffer (which will be decompressed and thus bigger)
-        let estimated_size_bytes = self
-            .data
-            .iter()
-            .map(|task_item| task_item.data.data_size() as usize)
-            .sum::<usize>()
-            * 2;
-        let mut data_builder =
-            DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(estimated_size_bytes as u64);
-
-        if self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word() == 0 {
-            // Fast path, no need to unzip because there is no rep/def
-            //
-            // We decompress each buffer and add it to our output buffer
-            for task_item in self.data.into_iter() {
-                let PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(fixed_data) = task_item.data else {
-                    unreachable!()
-                };
-                let PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor) = &self.details.value_decompressor
-                else {
-                    unreachable!()
-                };
-                debug_assert_eq!(fixed_data.num_values, task_item.rows_in_buf);
-                let decompressed = decompressor.decompress(fixed_data, task_item.rows_in_buf)?;
-                data_builder.append(&decompressed, 0..task_item.rows_in_buf);
+    fn extract_validity_buf(
+        array: Arc<dyn Array>,
+        repdef: &mut RepDefBuilder,
+        keep_original_array: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
+        if let Some(validity) = array.nulls() {
+            if keep_original_array {
+                repdef.add_validity_bitmap(validity.clone());
+            } else {
+                repdef.add_validity_bitmap(deep_copy_nulls(Some(validity)).unwrap());
             }
-
-            let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
-                None,
-                None,
-                self.details.def_meaning.clone(),
-                self.num_rows as u64,
-            );
-
-            Ok(DecodedPage {
-                data: data_builder.finish(),
-                repdef: unraveler,
-            })
+            // Empty dictionaries have no valid key payload.  Keep the validity until rep/def is
+            // grouped with the buffered page; `do_flush` then rebuilds the keys against either a
+            // neighboring values array or an all-empty-page placeholder.
+            if let Some(dictionary) = array.as_any_dictionary_opt()
+                && dictionary.values().is_empty()
+            {
+                return Ok(array);
+            }
+            let data_no_nulls = array.to_data().into_builder().nulls(None).build()?;
+            Ok(make_array(data_no_nulls))
         } else {
-            // Slow path, unzipping needed
-            let mut rep = Vec::with_capacity(self.num_rows);
-            let mut def = Vec::with_capacity(self.num_rows);
-
-            for task_item in self.data.into_iter() {
-                let PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(fixed_data) = task_item.data else {
-                    unreachable!()
-                };
-                let mut buf_slice = fixed_data.data.as_ref();
-                let num_values = fixed_data.num_values as usize;
-                // We will be unzipping repdef in to `rep` and `def` and the
-                // values into `values` (which contains the compressed values)
-                let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(
-                    fixed_data.data.len()
-                        - (self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word() * num_values),
-                );
-                let mut visible_items = 0;
-                for _ in 0..num_values {
-                    // Extract rep/def
-                    self.details
-                        .ctrl_word_parser
-                        .parse(buf_slice, &mut rep, &mut def);
-                    buf_slice = &buf_slice[self.details.ctrl_word_parser.bytes_per_word()..];
-
-                    let is_visible = def
-                        .last()
-                        .map(|d| *d <= self.details.max_visible_def)
-                        .unwrap_or(true);
-                    if is_visible {
-                        // Extract value
-                        values.extend_from_slice(buf_slice[..self.bytes_per_value].as_ref());
-                        buf_slice = &buf_slice[self.bytes_per_value..];
-                        visible_items += 1;
-                    }
-                }
+            repdef.add_no_null(array.len());
+            Ok(array)
+        }
+    }
 
-                // Finally, we decompress the values and add them to our output buffer
-                let values_buf = LanceBuffer::from(values);
-                let fixed_data = FixedWidthDataBlock {
-                    bits_per_value: self.bytes_per_value as u64 * 8,
-                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-                    data: values_buf,
-                    num_values: visible_items,
-                };
-                let PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor) = &self.details.value_decompressor
-                else {
-                    unreachable!()
-                };
-                let decompressed = decompressor.decompress(fixed_data, visible_items)?;
-                data_builder.append(&decompressed, 0..visible_items);
+    fn extract_validity(
+        mut array: Arc<dyn Array>,
+        repdef: &mut RepDefBuilder,
+        keep_original_array: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
+        match array.data_type() {
+            DataType::Null => {
+                repdef.add_validity_bitmap(NullBuffer::new(BooleanBuffer::new_unset(array.len())));
+                Ok(array)
             }
+            DataType::Dictionary(_, _) => {
+                array = dict::normalize_dict_nulls(array)?;
+                array = dict::clear_out_of_range_null_keys(array)?;
+                Self::extract_validity_buf(array, repdef, keep_original_array)
+            }
+            // Extract our validity buf but NOT any child validity bufs. (they will be encoded in
+            // as part of the values).  Note: for FSL we do not use repdef.add_fsl because we do
+            // NOT want to increase the repdef depth.
+            //
+            // This would be quite catasrophic for something like vector embeddings.  Imagine we
+            // had thousands of vectors and some were null but no vector contained null items.  If
+            // we treated the vectors (primitive FSL) like we treat structural FSL we would end up
+            // with a rep/def value for every single item in the vector.
+            _ => Self::extract_validity_buf(array, repdef, keep_original_array),
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-            let repetition = if rep.is_empty() { None } else { Some(rep) };
-            let definition = if def.is_empty() { None } else { Some(def) };
-
-            let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
-                repetition,
-                definition,
-                self.details.def_meaning.clone(),
-                self.num_rows as u64,
-            );
-            let data = data_builder.finish();
-
-            Ok(DecodedPage {
-                data,
-                repdef: unraveler,
-            })
+impl PrimitivePageEncodingBehavior for RejectSparsePrimitiveEncoding {
+    fn validate_field(&self, field: &Field, metadata: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()> {
+        if metadata
+            .get(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY)
+            .is_some_and(|requested| requested.eq_ignore_ascii_case(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE))
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Field '{}' requests sparse structural encoding, which is not enabled by the selected file format",
+                    field.name
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
         }
+        Ok(())
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct StructuralPrimitiveFieldSchedulingJob<'a> {
-    scheduler: &'a StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler,
-    ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
-    page_idx: usize,
-    range_idx: usize,
-    global_row_offset: u64,
+fn plan_dense_primitive_pages(
+    arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+    normalized: &NormalizedStructuralPlan,
+    row_number: u64,
+    num_rows: u64,
+    num_values: u64,
+) -> Result<Vec<PrimitivePageData>> {
+    let (repdef, miniblock_repdef_budget) = normalized.serialize_with_miniblock_repdef_budget(
+        miniblock::max_repdef_levels_per_chunk,
+        num_rows,
+        num_values,
+    )?;
+    PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::split_pages_for_miniblock_repdef_budget(
+        arrays.to_vec(),
+        repdef,
+        miniblock_repdef_budget,
+        row_number,
+        num_rows,
+    )
 }
 
-impl<'a> StructuralPrimitiveFieldSchedulingJob<'a> {
-    pub fn new(scheduler: &'a StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler, ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            scheduler,
-            ranges,
-            page_idx: 0,
-            range_idx: 0,
-            global_row_offset: 0,
+impl PrimitivePageEncodingBehavior for DenseU16PrimitiveEncoding {
+    fn try_plan_pages(
+        &self,
+        _ctx: &PrimitivePlanContext<'_>,
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        normalized: &NormalizedStructuralPlan,
+        row_number: u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Vec<PrimitivePageData>>> {
+        Ok(Some(plan_dense_primitive_pages(
+            arrays, normalized, row_number, num_rows, num_values,
+        )?))
+    }
+
+    fn try_encode_page(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &PrimitiveEncodeContext,
+        page: PrimitivePageData,
+    ) -> Result<PrimitiveEncodeAttempt> {
+        if !matches!(&page.structure, PrimitivePageStructure::Dense { .. }) {
+            return Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Unhandled(page));
         }
+        Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Encoded(
+            PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::encode_dense_page(
+                ctx.clone(),
+                page,
+                self.compression.clone(),
+                MiniblockChunkSize::U16,
+                ComplexNullEncoding::RawLevels,
+                FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding::Exclude64Bit,
+            )?,
+        ))
     }
 }
 
-impl StructuralSchedulingJob for StructuralPrimitiveFieldSchedulingJob<'_> {
-    fn schedule_next(&mut self, context: &mut SchedulerContext) -> Result<Vec<ScheduledScanLine>> {
-        if self.range_idx >= self.ranges.len() {
-            return Ok(Vec::new());
+impl PrimitivePageEncodingBehavior for DenseU32PrimitiveEncoding {
+    fn try_plan_pages(
+        &self,
+        _ctx: &PrimitivePlanContext<'_>,
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        normalized: &NormalizedStructuralPlan,
+        row_number: u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Vec<PrimitivePageData>>> {
+        Ok(Some(plan_dense_primitive_pages(
+            arrays, normalized, row_number, num_rows, num_values,
+        )?))
+    }
+
+    fn try_encode_page(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &PrimitiveEncodeContext,
+        page: PrimitivePageData,
+    ) -> Result<PrimitiveEncodeAttempt> {
+        if !matches!(&page.structure, PrimitivePageStructure::Dense { .. }) {
+            return Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Unhandled(page));
         }
-        // Get our current range
-        let mut range = self.ranges[self.range_idx].clone();
-        let priority = range.start;
+        Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Encoded(
+            PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::encode_dense_page(
+                ctx.clone(),
+                page,
+                self.compression.clone(),
+                MiniblockChunkSize::U32,
+                ComplexNullEncoding::CompressedLevels,
+                FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding::Include64Bit,
+            )?,
+        ))
+    }
+}
 
-        let mut cur_page = &self.scheduler.page_schedulers[self.page_idx];
-        trace!(
-            "Current range is {:?} and current page has {} rows",
-            range,
-            cur_page.num_rows
-        );
-        // Skip entire pages until we have some overlap with our next range
-        while cur_page.num_rows + self.global_row_offset <= range.start {
-            self.global_row_offset += cur_page.num_rows;
-            self.page_idx += 1;
-            trace!("Skipping entire page of {} rows", cur_page.num_rows);
-            cur_page = &self.scheduler.page_schedulers[self.page_idx];
-        }
-
-        // Now the cur_page has overlap with range.  Continue looping through ranges
-        // until we find a range that exceeds the current page
-
-        let mut ranges_in_page = Vec::new();
-        while cur_page.num_rows + self.global_row_offset > range.start {
-            range.start = range.start.max(self.global_row_offset);
-            let start_in_page = range.start - self.global_row_offset;
-            let end_in_page = start_in_page + (range.end - range.start);
-            let end_in_page = end_in_page.min(cur_page.num_rows);
-            let last_in_range = (end_in_page + self.global_row_offset) >= range.end;
-
-            ranges_in_page.push(start_in_page..end_in_page);
-            if last_in_range {
-                self.range_idx += 1;
-                if self.range_idx == self.ranges.len() {
-                    break;
-                }
-                range = self.ranges[self.range_idx].clone();
-            } else {
-                break;
+impl PrimitivePageEncodingBehavior for SparsePrimitiveEncoding {
+    fn try_plan_pages(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &PrimitivePlanContext<'_>,
+        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
+        normalized: &NormalizedStructuralPlan,
+        row_number: u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Vec<PrimitivePageData>>> {
+        let requested_encoding = ctx.encoding_metadata.get(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY);
+        let requests_sparse = requested_encoding
+            .is_some_and(|requested| requested.eq_ignore_ascii_case(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE));
+        if requests_sparse {
+            let plan = sparse::writer::plan(normalized, num_values)?;
+            if sparse::writer::uses_constant_layout(&plan, ctx.field) {
+                return Ok(None);
             }
+            return Ok(Some(vec![PrimitivePageData {
+                arrays: arrays.to_vec(),
+                structure: PrimitivePageStructure::Sparse {
+                    plan,
+                    prepared_values: None,
+                },
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+            }]));
         }
 
-        trace!(
-            "Scheduling {} rows across {} ranges from page with {} rows (priority={}, column_index={}, page_index={})",
-            ranges_in_page.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>(),
-            ranges_in_page.len(),
-            cur_page.num_rows,
-            priority,
-            self.scheduler.column_index,
-            cur_page.page_index,
-        );
-
-        self.global_row_offset += cur_page.num_rows;
-        self.page_idx += 1;
-
-        let page_decoders = cur_page
-            .scheduler
-            .schedule_ranges(&ranges_in_page, context.io())?;
-
-        let cur_path = context.current_path();
-        page_decoders
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|page_load_task| {
-                let cur_path = cur_path.clone();
-                let page_decoder = page_load_task.decoder_fut;
-                let unloaded_page = async move {
-                    let page_decoder = page_decoder.await?;
-                    Ok(LoadedPageShard {
-                        decoder: page_decoder,
-                        path: cur_path,
-                    })
+        let (_, miniblock_repdef_budget) = normalized.serialize_with_miniblock_repdef_budget(
+            miniblock::max_repdef_levels_per_chunk,
+            num_rows,
+            num_values,
+        )?;
+        let automatic_sparse = layout::select_automatic_sparse(
+            requested_encoding.map(String::as_str),
+            &miniblock_repdef_budget,
+            || {
+                let data = DataBlock::from_arrays(arrays, num_values);
+                if !sparse::writer::supports_value_block(&data) {
+                    return Ok(None);
                 }
-                .boxed();
-                Ok(ScheduledScanLine {
-                    decoders: vec![MessageType::UnloadedPage(UnloadedPageShard(unloaded_page))],
-                    rows_scheduled: page_load_task.num_rows,
-                })
-            })
-            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+                let prepared_values = match sparse::writer::prepare_values(
+                    ctx.field,
+                    self.compression.as_ref(),
+                    data,
+                    MiniblockChunkSize::U32,
+                ) {
+                    Ok(prepared_values) => prepared_values,
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        debug!(
+                            "Keeping column {} on its dense structural path because sparse value preparation is unavailable: {}",
+                            ctx.column_idx, error
+                        );
+                        return Ok(None);
+                    }
+                };
+                let plan = sparse::writer::plan(normalized, num_values)?;
+                if sparse::writer::uses_constant_layout(&plan, ctx.field) {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                Ok(Some((plan, prepared_values)))
+            },
+        )?;
+        Ok(automatic_sparse.map(|(plan, prepared_values)| {
+            vec![PrimitivePageData {
+                arrays: arrays.to_vec(),
+                structure: PrimitivePageStructure::Sparse {
+                    plan,
+                    prepared_values: Some(prepared_values),
+                },
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+            }]
+        }))
     }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct PageInfoAndScheduler {
-    page_index: usize,
-    num_rows: u64,
-    scheduler: Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>,
-}
 
-/// A scheduler for a leaf node
-///
-/// Here we look at the layout of the various pages and delegate scheduling to a scheduler
-/// appropriate for the layout of the page.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler {
-    page_schedulers: Vec<PageInfoAndScheduler>,
-    column_index: u32,
+    fn try_encode_page(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &PrimitiveEncodeContext,
+        page: PrimitivePageData,
+    ) -> Result<PrimitiveEncodeAttempt> {
+        if !matches!(&page.structure, PrimitivePageStructure::Sparse { .. }) {
+            return Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Unhandled(page));
+        }
+        let PrimitivePageData {
+            arrays,
+            structure:
+                PrimitivePageStructure::Sparse {
+                    plan,
+                    prepared_values,
+                },
+            row_number,
+            num_rows,
+        } = page
+        else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        let num_values = arrays.iter().map(|array| array.len() as u64).sum();
+        log::debug!(
+            "Encoding column {} with {} visible items ({} rows) using sparse layout",
+            ctx.column_idx,
+            num_values,
+            num_rows
+        );
+        Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Encoded(
+            sparse::writer::encode_page(
+                ctx.column_idx,
+                &ctx.field,
+                self.compression.as_ref(),
+                prepared_values.map_or_else(
+                    || {
+                        sparse::writer::SparseValueInput::Unprepared(DataBlock::from_arrays(
+                            &arrays, num_values,
+                        ))
+                    },
+                    sparse::writer::SparseValueInput::Prepared,
+                ),
+                plan,
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+                MiniblockChunkSize::U32,
+            )?,
+        ))
+    }
 }
 
-impl StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler {
-    pub fn try_new(
-        column_info: &ColumnInfo,
-        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
-        cache_repetition_index: bool,
-        target_field: &Field,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let page_schedulers = column_info
-            .page_infos
-            .iter()
-            .enumerate()
-            .map(|(page_index, page_info)| {
-                Self::page_info_to_scheduler(
-                    page_info,
-                    page_index,
-                    decompressors,
-                    cache_repetition_index,
-                    target_field,
-                )
-            })
-            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-        Ok(Self {
-            page_schedulers,
-            column_index: column_info.index,
-        })
+impl PrimitivePageEncodingBehavior for ConstantPrimitiveEncoding {
+    fn try_encode_page(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &PrimitiveEncodeContext,
+        page: PrimitivePageData,
+    ) -> Result<PrimitiveEncodeAttempt> {
+        let PrimitivePageStructure::Dense { repdef, .. } = &page.structure else {
+            return Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Unhandled(page));
+        };
+        let num_values: u64 = page.arrays.iter().map(|array| array.len() as u64).sum();
+        if num_values == 0 {
+            return Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Unhandled(page));
+        }
+        let leaf_validity = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::leaf_validity(repdef, num_values as usize)?;
+        if leaf_validity
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|validity| validity.count_set_bits() == 0)
+            || matches!(ctx.field.data_type(), DataType::Struct(fields) if fields.is_empty())
+        {
+            return Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Unhandled(page));
+        }
+        let Some(scalar) =
+            PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::find_constant_scalar(&page.arrays, leaf_validity.as_ref())?
+        else {
+            return Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Unhandled(page));
+        };
+        let PrimitivePageData {
+            structure: PrimitivePageStructure::Dense { repdef, .. },
+            row_number,
+            num_rows,
+            ..
+        } = page
+        else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        log::debug!(
+            "Encoding column {} with {} items ({} rows) using constant layout",
+            ctx.column_idx,
+            num_values,
+            num_rows
+        );
+        Ok(PrimitiveEncodeAttempt::Encoded(
+            constant::encode_constant_page(ctx.column_idx, scalar, repdef, row_number, num_rows)?,
+        ))
     }
+}
 
-    fn page_layout_to_scheduler(
-        page_info: &PageInfo,
-        page_layout: &PageLayout,
-        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
-        cache_repetition_index: bool,
-        target_field: &Field,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>> {
-        use pb21::page_layout::Layout;
-        Ok(match page_layout.layout.as_ref().expect_ok()? {
-            Layout::MiniBlockLayout(mini_block) => Box::new(MiniBlockScheduler::try_new(
-                &page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
-                page_info.priority,
-                mini_block.num_items,
-                mini_block,
-                decompressors,
-            )?),
-            Layout::FullZipLayout(full_zip) => {
-                let mut scheduler = FullZipScheduler::try_new(
-                    &page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
-                    page_info.priority,
-                    page_info.num_rows,
-                    full_zip,
-                    decompressors,
-                )?;
-                scheduler.enable_cache = cache_repetition_index;
-                Box::new(scheduler)
-            }
-            Layout::ConstantLayout(constant_layout) => {
-                let def_meaning = constant_layout
-                    .layers
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|l| ProtobufUtils21::repdef_layer_to_def_interp(*l))
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                let has_scalar_value = constant_layout.inline_value.is_some()
-                    || page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len() == 1
-                    || page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len() == 3;
-                if has_scalar_value {
-                    Box::new(constant::ConstantPageScheduler::try_new(
-                        page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.clone(),
-                        constant_layout.inline_value.clone(),
-                        target_field.data_type(),
-                        def_meaning.into(),
-                    )?) as Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>
-                } else if def_meaning.len() == 1
-                    && def_meaning[0] == DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem
-                {
-                    Box::new(SimpleAllNullScheduler::default()) as Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>
-                } else {
-                    Box::new(ComplexAllNullScheduler::new(
-                        page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.clone(),
-                        def_meaning.into(),
-                    )) as Box<dyn StructuralPageScheduler>
-                }
-            }
-            Layout::BlobLayout(blob) => {
-                let inner_scheduler = Self::page_layout_to_scheduler(
-                    page_info,
-                    blob.inner_layout.as_ref().expect_ok()?.as_ref(),
-                    decompressors,
-                    cache_repetition_index,
-                    target_field,
-                )?;
-                let def_meaning = blob
-                    .layers
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|l| ProtobufUtils21::repdef_layer_to_def_interp(*l))
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                if matches!(target_field.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_)) {
-                    // User wants to decode blob into struct
-                    Box::new(BlobDescriptionPageScheduler::new(
-                        inner_scheduler,
-                        def_meaning.into(),
-                    ))
-                } else {
-                    // User wants to decode blob into binary data
-                    Box::new(BlobPageScheduler::new(
-                        inner_scheduler,
-                        page_info.priority,
-                        page_info.num_rows,
-                        def_meaning.into(),
-                    ))
-                }
-            }
-        })
+impl FieldEncoder for PrimitiveStructuralEncoder {
+    // Buffers data, if there is enough to write a page then we create an encode task
+    fn maybe_encode(
+        &mut self,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        _external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
+        mut repdef: RepDefBuilder,
+        row_number: u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
+        let array = Self::extract_validity(array, &mut repdef, self.keep_original_array)?;
+        self.accumulated_repdefs.push(repdef);
+
+        if let Some((arrays, row_number, num_rows)) =
+            self.accumulation_queue.insert(array, row_number, num_rows)
+        {
+            let accumulated_repdefs = std::mem::take(&mut self.accumulated_repdefs);
+            Ok(self.do_flush(arrays, accumulated_repdefs, row_number, num_rows)?)
+        } else {
+            Ok(vec![])
+        }
     }
 
-    fn page_info_to_scheduler(
-        page_info: &PageInfo,
-        page_index: usize,
-        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
-        cache_repetition_index: bool,
-        target_field: &Field,
-    ) -> Result<PageInfoAndScheduler> {
-        let page_layout = page_info.encoding.as_structural();
-        let scheduler = Self::page_layout_to_scheduler(
-            page_info,
-            page_layout,
-            decompressors,
-            cache_repetition_index,
-            target_field,
-        )?;
-        Ok(PageInfoAndScheduler {
-            page_index,
-            num_rows: page_info.num_rows,
-            scheduler,
-        })
+    // If there is any data left in the buffer then create an encode task from it
+    fn flush(&mut self, _external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
+        if let Some((arrays, row_number, num_rows)) = self.accumulation_queue.flush() {
+            let accumulated_repdefs = std::mem::take(&mut self.accumulated_repdefs);
+            Ok(self.do_flush(arrays, accumulated_repdefs, row_number, num_rows)?)
+        } else {
+            Ok(vec![])
+        }
     }
-}
 
-pub trait CachedPageData: Any + Send + Sync + DeepSizeOf + 'static {
-    fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static>;
+    fn num_columns(&self) -> u32 {
+        1
+    }
+
+    fn finish(
+        &mut self,
+        _external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<Vec<crate::encoder::EncodedColumn>>> {
+        std::future::ready(Ok(vec![EncodedColumn::default()])).boxed()
+    }
 }
 
-pub struct NoCachedPageData;
+#[cfg(test)]
+#[allow(clippy::single_range_in_vec_init)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::{
+        CachedPage, CachedPageData, ChunkInstructions, DataBlock, DecodeMiniBlockTask,
+        DecodePageTask, FixedFullZipDecodeTask, FixedPerValueDecompressor, FixedWidthDataBlock,
+        FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding, FullZipCacheableState, FullZipDecodeDetails,
+        FullZipDecodeTaskItem, FullZipReadSource, FullZipRepIndexDetails, FullZipScheduler,
+        LazyLevels, LevelCodec, LevelCursor, LevelPlan, MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockChunkIndex,
+        MiniBlockCompressed, MiniblockChunkSize, PageCacheView, PageDataCacheKey,
+        PageInfoAndScheduler, PageInitialization, PerValueDataBlock, PerValueDecompressor,
+        PreambleAction, RunEndsBuilder, RunPosition, RunStorage, SimpleAllNullScheduler,
+        StructuralPageScheduler, StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler, VariableFullZipDecoder,
+        dense_levels_from_block, map_ranges_to_pages, pages_overlapping_ranges,
+        validate_complex_all_null_levels,
+    };
+    use crate::EncodingsIo;
+    use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
+    use crate::compression::{
+        BlockCompressor, DefaultDecompressionStrategy, MiniBlockDecompressor,
+    };
+    use crate::constants::{
+        COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY, COMPRESSION_META_KEY, DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY,
+        DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY,
+        STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK,
+    };
+    use crate::data::BlockInfo;
+    use crate::decoder::{
+        FilterExpression, PageEncoding, RequestBatch, SchedulerContext, StructuralFieldDecoder,
+        StructuralFieldScheduler,
+    };
+    use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::fullzip::PerValueCompressor;
+    use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::{
+        ChunkDrainInstructions, LoadedChunk, PrimitiveStructuralEncoder,
+        StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder,
+    };
+    use crate::encodings::physical::rle::{RleDecompressor, RleEncoder, RleRuns, RunLengthWidth};
+    use crate::encodings::physical::value::{ValueDecompressor, ValueEncoder};
+    use crate::format::ProtobufUtils21;
+    use crate::format::pb21;
+    use crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+    use crate::repdef::build_control_word_iterator;
+    use crate::testing::TestEncoding;
+    use crate::testing::{SimulatedScheduler, TestCases, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int8Array,
+        PrimitiveArray, StringArray, UInt8Array, make_array, new_null_array, types::Int32Type,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField};
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::{collections::VecDeque, ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
-impl DeepSizeOf for NoCachedPageData {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _ctx: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        0
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct CacheMarker(u8);
+
+    impl lance_core::cache::DeepSizeOf for CacheMarker {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::cache::Context) -> usize {
+            0
+        }
     }
-}
-impl CachedPageData for NoCachedPageData {
-    fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static> {
-        self
+
+    impl CachedPageData for CacheMarker {
+        fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync + 'static> {
+            self
+        }
     }
-}
 
-pub struct CachedFieldData {
-    pages: Vec<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>,
-}
+    #[test]
+    fn test_is_narrow() {
+        let int8_array = Int8Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let array_ref: ArrayRef = Arc::new(int8_array);
+        let block = DataBlock::from_array(array_ref);
 
-impl DeepSizeOf for CachedFieldData {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, ctx: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        self.pages.deep_size_of_children(ctx)
+        assert!(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::is_narrow(&block));
+
+        let string_array = StringArray::from(vec![Some("hello"), Some("world")]);
+        let block = DataBlock::from_array(string_array);
+        assert!(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::is_narrow(&block));
+
+        let string_array = StringArray::from(vec![
+            Some("hello world".repeat(100)),
+            Some("world".to_string()),
+        ]);
+        let block = DataBlock::from_array(string_array);
+        assert!((!PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::is_narrow(&block)));
     }
-}
 
-// Cache key for field data
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct FieldDataCacheKey {
-    pub column_index: u32,
-}
+    fn valued_dictionary() -> ArrayRef {
+        Arc::new(
+            DictionaryArray::<Int32Type>::try_new(
+                PrimitiveArray::<Int32Type>::from(vec![0]),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a"])),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
 
-impl CacheKey for FieldDataCacheKey {
-    type ValueType = CachedFieldData;
+    fn empty_dictionary() -> ArrayRef {
+        new_null_array(
+            &DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            1,
+        )
+    }
 
-    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
-        self.column_index.to_string().into()
+    fn null_valued_dictionary() -> ArrayRef {
+        Arc::new(
+            DictionaryArray::<Int32Type>::try_new(
+                PrimitiveArray::<Int32Type>::from(vec![0]),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>])),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
     }
-}
 
-impl StructuralFieldScheduler for StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler {
-    fn initialize<'a>(
-        &'a mut self,
-        _filter: &'a FilterExpression,
-        context: &'a SchedulerContext,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<()>> {
-        let cache_key = FieldDataCacheKey {
-            column_index: self.column_index,
+    fn sliced_empty_dictionary_with_hidden_key_payload() -> ArrayRef {
+        let keys = PrimitiveArray::<Int32Type>::new(
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![5, 7, 9]),
+            Some(NullBuffer::new(BooleanBuffer::new_unset(3))),
+        );
+        let values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(Vec::<&str>::new())) as ArrayRef;
+        let dictionary = DictionaryArray::<Int32Type>::try_new(keys, values).unwrap();
+        Arc::new(dictionary.slice(1, 1))
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::empty_after_value(vec![valued_dictionary(), empty_dictionary()])]
+    #[case::empty_before_value(vec![empty_dictionary(), valued_dictionary()])]
+    #[case::null_value_after_value(vec![valued_dictionary(), null_valued_dictionary()])]
+    #[case::hidden_sliced_after_value(vec![
+        valued_dictionary(),
+        sliced_empty_dictionary_with_hidden_key_payload(),
+    ])]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_mixed_valued_and_all_null_dictionary_chunks(#[case] dictionaries: Vec<ArrayRef>) {
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
+            dictionaries,
+            &TestCases::default()
+                .with_structural_encodings()
+                .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+                .with_range(0..1)
+                .with_range(1..2)
+                .with_indices(vec![0])
+                .with_indices(vec![1]),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sliced_empty_dictionary_with_hidden_key_payload() {
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
+            vec![sliced_empty_dictionary_with_hidden_key_payload()],
+            &TestCases::default()
+                .with_structural_encodings()
+                .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_primitive_decoder_empty_page_queue_returns_error() {
+        let field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("vector", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let mut decoder = StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder::new(&field, false);
+
+        let err = decoder.drain(1).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&err, lance_core::Error::Internal { .. }),
+            "expected internal error, got: {err:?}"
+        );
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        for expected in [
+            "Primitive decoder missing page decoder",
+            "field 'vector'",
+            "data_type=Float32",
+            "requested_rows=1",
+            "remaining_rows=1",
+            "rows_drained_in_current=0",
+            "queued_pages=0",
+        ] {
+            assert!(
+                message.contains(expected),
+                "expected error to contain {expected:?}, got: {message}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plan_decoded_bytes_i32() {
+        use crate::decoder::CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES;
+
+        let field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false));
+        let decoder = StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder::new(&field, false);
+
+        let rows_remaining = 100u64;
+        let bytes = decoder.plan_decoded_bytes(rows_remaining).unwrap();
+
+        for (i, &candidate) in CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES.iter().enumerate() {
+            let rows = (candidate as u64).min(rows_remaining);
+            assert_eq!(bytes[i], rows * 4, "candidate batch size {candidate}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plan_decoded_bytes_i32_with_nulls() {
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+
+        // Use N == CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES[5] == 1024.  At this size both the
+        // values buffer (1024*4 = 4096 bytes) and the validity bitmap
+        // (ceil(1024/8) = 128 bytes) are naturally aligned to Arrow's 64-byte
+        // allocation boundary, so plan_decoded_bytes matches
+        // get_buffer_memory_size exactly without needing alignment arithmetic.
+        const N: i32 = 1024;
+        let array = Int32Array::from_iter((0..N).map(|i| if i % 2 == 0 { Some(i) } else { None }));
+        let expected = array.get_buffer_memory_size() as u64;
+
+        let field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let decoder = StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder::new(&field, false);
+
+        let bytes = decoder.plan_decoded_bytes(N as u64).unwrap();
+        // bytes[5] corresponds to CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES[5] == 1024 == N
+        assert_eq!(
+            bytes[5], expected,
+            "plan_decoded_bytes({N}) = {} but get_buffer_memory_size = {expected}",
+            bytes[5],
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plan_decoded_bytes_nullable_fsl_with_nullable_items() {
+        // FixedSizeList<nullable i32, DIM> where the FSL itself is also nullable.
+        // Arrow allocates three buffers:
+        //   1. FSL null bitmap:       ceil(rows / 8)
+        //   2. Child i32 null bitmap: ceil(rows * DIM / 8)
+        //   3. Child i32 values:      rows * DIM * 4
+        //
+        // N=1024, DIM=4 keeps all three naturally 64-byte aligned so the
+        // comparison against get_buffer_memory_size() is exact.
+        use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array};
+        use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+
+        const N: usize = 1024;
+        const DIM: i32 = 4;
+
+        let child_values = Int32Array::from_iter(
+            (0..(N as i32 * DIM)).map(|i| if i % 2 == 0 { Some(i) } else { None }),
+        );
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let fsl_nulls = NullBuffer::from((0..N).map(|i| i % 3 != 0).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let fsl_array = FixedSizeListArray::new(
+            item_field.clone(),
+            DIM,
+            Arc::new(child_values),
+            Some(fsl_nulls),
+        );
+        let expected = fsl_array.get_buffer_memory_size() as u64;
+
+        let fsl_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(item_field, DIM);
+        let field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("v", fsl_type, true));
+        let decoder = StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder::new(&field, false);
+
+        let bytes = decoder.plan_decoded_bytes(N as u64).unwrap();
+        // bytes[5] corresponds to CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES[5] == 1024 == N
+        assert_eq!(
+            bytes[5], expected,
+            "plan_decoded_bytes({N}) = {} but get_buffer_memory_size = {expected}",
+            bytes[5],
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plan_decoded_bytes_fixed_size_list_of_f32() {
+        use crate::decoder::CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES;
+
+        const DIMENSION: i32 = 8;
+        // Items are non-nullable, which is the typical case for vector embeddings.
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, false));
+        let fsl_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(item_field, DIMENSION);
+        let field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("vector", fsl_type, true));
+        let decoder = StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder::new(&field, false);
+
+        let rows_remaining = 100u64;
+        let bytes = decoder.plan_decoded_bytes(rows_remaining).unwrap();
+
+        // Each FSL row is DIMENSION f32 values = DIMENSION * 4 bytes, plus
+        // 1 bit of validity bitmap (the field is nullable).
+        let bytes_per_row = DIMENSION as u64 * 4;
+        for (i, &candidate) in CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES.iter().enumerate() {
+            let rows = (candidate as u64).min(rows_remaining);
+            assert_eq!(
+                bytes[i],
+                rows * bytes_per_row + rows.div_ceil(8),
+                "candidate batch size {candidate}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fullzip_fixed_rejects_non_byte_aligned_values() {
+        let fixed = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::from(vec![0_u8]),
+            bits_per_value: 1,
+            num_values: 8,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
         };
-        let cache = context.cache().clone();
+        let repdef = build_control_word_iterator(None, 0, None, 0, u16::MAX, 8);
 
-        async move {
-            if let Some(cached_data) = cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
-                self.page_schedulers
-                    .iter_mut()
-                    .zip(cached_data.pages.iter())
-                    .for_each(|(page_scheduler, cached_data)| {
-                        page_scheduler.scheduler.load(cached_data);
-                    });
-                return Ok(());
+        let Err(err) = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::serialize_full_zip_fixed(fixed, repdef, 8)
+        else {
+            panic!("expected full-zip to reject 1-bit fixed-width values");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("byte aligned"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn decode_fixed_fullzip_no_levels(
+        decompressor: Arc<dyn FixedPerValueDecompressor>,
+        data: Vec<FullZipDecodeTaskItem>,
+        num_rows: usize,
+        bytes_per_value: usize,
+    ) -> DataBlock {
+        Box::new(FixedFullZipDecodeTask {
+            details: Arc::new(FullZipDecodeDetails {
+                value_decompressor: PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(decompressor),
+                def_meaning: Arc::from([]),
+                ctrl_word_parser: crate::repdef::ControlWordParser::new(0, 0),
+                max_rep: 0,
+                max_visible_def: u16::MAX,
+            }),
+            data,
+            num_rows,
+            bytes_per_value,
+        })
+        .decode()
+        .unwrap()
+        .data
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_fullzip_decode_preallocates_exact_output_size() {
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct IdentityFixedDecompressor;
+
+        impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for IdentityFixedDecompressor {
+            fn decompress(
+                &self,
+                data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
+                num_rows: u64,
+            ) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
+                assert_eq!(data.num_values, num_rows);
+                Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(data))
             }
 
-            let page_data = self
-                .page_schedulers
-                .iter_mut()
-                .map(|s| s.scheduler.initialize(context.io()))
-                .collect::<FuturesOrdered<_>>();
+            fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
+                32
+            }
 
-            let page_data = page_data.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
-            let cached_data = Arc::new(CachedFieldData { pages: page_data });
-            cache.insert_with_key(&cache_key, cached_data).await;
-            Ok(())
+            fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+                num_values.checked_mul(4)
+            }
         }
-        .boxed()
-    }
 
-    fn schedule_ranges<'a>(
-        &'a self,
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        _filter: &FilterExpression,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralSchedulingJob + 'a>> {
-        let ranges = ranges.to_vec();
-        Ok(Box::new(StructuralPrimitiveFieldSchedulingJob::new(
-            self, ranges,
-        )))
+        let make_item = |num_rows: u64| FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
+            data: PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                data: LanceBuffer::from(vec![7_u8; num_rows as usize * 4]),
+                bits_per_value: 32,
+                num_values: num_rows,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            }),
+            rows_in_buf: num_rows,
+        };
+
+        let num_rows = 512;
+        let decoded = decode_fixed_fullzip_no_levels(
+            Arc::new(IdentityFixedDecompressor),
+            vec![make_item(128), make_item(384)],
+            num_rows,
+            4,
+        );
+        let values = decoded.as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
+        let expected_size = num_rows * 4;
+        assert_eq!(values.data.len(), expected_size);
+        assert_eq!(values.data.clone().into_buffer().capacity(), expected_size);
     }
-}
 
-/// Takes the output from several pages decoders and
-/// concatenates them.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct StructuralCompositeDecodeArrayTask {
-    tasks: Vec<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>>,
-    should_validate: bool,
-    data_type: DataType,
-}
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_fullzip_decode_falls_back_when_output_size_is_not_exact() {
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct FallbackFixedDecompressor;
 
-impl StructuralCompositeDecodeArrayTask {
-    fn restore_validity(
-        array: Arc<dyn Array>,
-        unraveler: &mut CompositeRepDefUnraveler,
-    ) -> Arc<dyn Array> {
-        let validity = unraveler.unravel_validity(array.len());
-        let Some(validity) = validity else {
-            return array;
+        impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for FallbackFixedDecompressor {
+            fn decompress(
+                &self,
+                data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
+                num_rows: u64,
+            ) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
+                assert_eq!(data.num_values, num_rows);
+                Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                    data: LanceBuffer::from(vec![7_u8; num_rows as usize * 4]),
+                    bits_per_value: 32,
+                    num_values: num_rows,
+                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                }))
+            }
+
+            fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
+                // This deliberately cannot be multiplied by num_rows. If FullZip treats
+                // bits_per_value as an exact decoded-size estimate, decoding will fail.
+                u64::MAX - 7
+            }
+        }
+
+        let num_rows = 2;
+        let decoded = decode_fixed_fullzip_no_levels(
+            Arc::new(FallbackFixedDecompressor),
+            vec![FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
+                data: PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                    data: LanceBuffer::from(vec![0_u8; num_rows * 4]),
+                    bits_per_value: 32,
+                    num_values: num_rows as u64,
+                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                }),
+                rows_in_buf: num_rows as u64,
+            }],
+            num_rows,
+            4,
+        );
+        let values = decoded.as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(values.num_values, num_rows as u64);
+        assert_eq!(values.data.len(), num_rows * 4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_fullzip_real_fsl_preallocates_exact_output_size() {
+        let num_rows = 64;
+        let dimension = 32;
+        let items = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..num_rows * dimension).map(|value| value as f32),
+        ));
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, false));
+        let sample = FixedSizeListArray::new(item_field, dimension as i32, items, None);
+
+        let (data, compression) = PerValueCompressor::compress(
+            &ValueEncoder::default(),
+            DataBlock::from_array(sample.clone()),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) = compression.compression.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("expected fixed-size-list compression");
         };
-        if array.data_type() == &DataType::Null {
-            // We unravel from a null array but we don't add the null buffer because arrow-rs doesn't like it
-            return array;
-        }
-        assert_eq!(validity.len(), array.len());
-        // SAFETY: We've should have already asserted the buffers are all valid, we are just
-        // adding null buffers to the array here
-        make_array(unsafe {
-            array
-                .to_data()
-                .into_builder()
-                .nulls(Some(validity))
-                .build_unchecked()
-        })
+        let decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let expected_size = num_rows * dimension * size_of::<f32>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            FixedPerValueDecompressor::decoded_size_bytes(&decompressor, num_rows as u64),
+            Some(expected_size as u64)
+        );
+
+        let decoded = decode_fixed_fullzip_no_levels(
+            Arc::new(decompressor),
+            vec![FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
+                data,
+                rows_in_buf: num_rows as u64,
+            }],
+            num_rows,
+            dimension * size_of::<f32>(),
+        );
+        let fsl = decoded.as_fixed_size_list_ref().unwrap();
+        let values = fsl.child.as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(values.data.len(), expected_size);
+        assert_eq!(values.data.clone().into_buffer().capacity(), expected_size);
+
+        let decoded_array = make_array(
+            decoded
+                .into_arrow(sample.data_type().clone(), true)
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(decoded_array.as_ref(), &sample);
     }
-}
 
-impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for StructuralCompositeDecodeArrayTask {
-    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedArray> {
-        let mut arrays = Vec::with_capacity(self.tasks.len());
-        let mut unravelers = Vec::with_capacity(self.tasks.len());
-        for task in self.tasks {
-            let decoded = task.decode()?;
-            unravelers.push(decoded.repdef);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_fullzip_nullable_fsl_uses_fallback_end_to_end() {
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct NullableFslDecompressor {
+            inner: ValueDecompressor,
+        }
 
-            let array = make_array(
-                decoded
-                    .data
-                    .into_arrow(self.data_type.clone(), self.should_validate)?,
-            );
+        impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for NullableFslDecompressor {
+            fn decompress(
+                &self,
+                data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
+                num_rows: u64,
+            ) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
+                FixedPerValueDecompressor::decompress(&self.inner, data, num_rows)
+            }
 
-            arrays.push(array);
+            fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
+                // FullZip must not use this physical row width as an exact decoded-size
+                // estimate for the nullable, multi-buffer Arrow output.
+                u64::MAX - 7
+            }
+
+            fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+                FixedPerValueDecompressor::decoded_size_bytes(&self.inner, num_values)
+            }
         }
-        let array_refs = arrays.iter().map(|arr| arr.as_ref()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let array = arrow_select::concat::concat(&array_refs)?;
-        let mut repdef = CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(unravelers);
 
-        let array = Self::restore_validity(array, &mut repdef);
+        let num_rows = 64;
+        let items = Arc::new(UInt8Array::from_iter(
+            (0..num_rows).map(|value| (value % 3 != 0).then_some(value as u8)),
+        ));
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true));
+        let sample = FixedSizeListArray::new(item_field, 1, items, None);
+
+        let (data, compression) = PerValueCompressor::compress(
+            &ValueEncoder::default(),
+            DataBlock::from_array(sample.clone()),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) = compression.compression.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("expected fixed-size-list compression");
+        };
+        let decompressor = NullableFslDecompressor {
+            inner: ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref()).unwrap(),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            FixedPerValueDecompressor::decoded_size_bytes(&decompressor, num_rows as u64),
+            None
+        );
 
-        Ok(DecodedArray { array, repdef })
+        let decoded = decode_fixed_fullzip_no_levels(
+            Arc::new(decompressor),
+            vec![FullZipDecodeTaskItem {
+                data,
+                rows_in_buf: num_rows as u64,
+            }],
+            num_rows,
+            2,
+        );
+        let decoded_array = make_array(
+            decoded
+                .into_arrow(sample.data_type().clone(), true)
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(decoded_array.as_ref(), &sample);
     }
-}
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder {
-    field: Arc<ArrowField>,
-    page_decoders: VecDeque<Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>>,
-    should_validate: bool,
-    rows_drained_in_current: u64,
-}
+    #[test]
+    fn test_miniblock_decode_uses_exact_fixed_width_output_size() {
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct FixedWidthMiniBlockDecompressor;
 
-impl StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder {
-    pub fn new(field: &Arc<ArrowField>, should_validate: bool) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            field: field.clone(),
-            page_decoders: VecDeque::new(),
-            should_validate,
-            rows_drained_in_current: 0,
+        impl MiniBlockDecompressor for FixedWidthMiniBlockDecompressor {
+            fn decompress(
+                &self,
+                data: Vec<LanceBuffer>,
+                num_values: u64,
+            ) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
+                assert_eq!(data.len(), 1);
+                Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                    data: data.into_iter().next().unwrap(),
+                    bits_per_value: 32,
+                    num_values,
+                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                }))
+            }
+
+            fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+                num_values.checked_mul(4)
+            }
         }
-    }
-}
 
-impl StructuralFieldDecoder for StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder {
-    fn accept_page(&mut self, child: LoadedPageShard) -> Result<()> {
-        assert!(child.path.is_empty());
-        self.page_decoders.push_back(child.decoder);
-        Ok(())
+        let num_rows = 512;
+        let expected_size = num_rows * 4;
+        let mut chunk_data = Vec::new();
+        chunk_data.extend_from_slice(&0_u16.to_le_bytes());
+        chunk_data.extend_from_slice(&(expected_size as u16).to_le_bytes());
+        let header_padding =
+            lance_core::utils::bit::pad_bytes::<{ super::MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT }>(chunk_data.len());
+        chunk_data.resize(chunk_data.len() + header_padding, 0);
+        chunk_data.resize(chunk_data.len() + expected_size as usize, 7);
+
+        let task = DecodeMiniBlockTask {
+            rep_decompressor: None,
+            def_decompressor: None,
+            value_decompressor: Arc::new(FixedWidthMiniBlockDecompressor),
+            dictionary_data: None,
+            def_meaning: Arc::from([]),
+            num_buffers: 1,
+            max_visible_level: 0,
+            instructions: vec![(
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: ChunkInstructions {
+                        chunk_idx: 0,
+                        preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                        rows_to_skip: 0,
+                        rows_to_take: num_rows,
+                        take_trailer: false,
+                    },
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    rows_to_take: num_rows,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                },
+                LoadedChunk {
+                    byte_range: 0..chunk_data.len() as u64,
+                    data: LanceBuffer::from(chunk_data),
+                    items_in_chunk: num_rows,
+                    chunk_idx: 0,
+                },
+            )],
+            has_large_chunk: false,
+        };
+
+        let decoded = Box::new(task).decode().unwrap();
+        let values = decoded.data.as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(values.data.len(), expected_size as usize);
+        assert_eq!(
+            values.data.clone().into_buffer().capacity(),
+            expected_size as usize
+        );
     }
 
-    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn StructuralDecodeArrayTask>> {
-        let mut remaining = num_rows;
-        let mut tasks = Vec::new();
-        while remaining > 0 {
-            let cur_page = self.page_decoders.front_mut().unwrap();
-            let num_in_page = cur_page.num_rows() - self.rows_drained_in_current;
-            let to_take = num_in_page.min(remaining);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_map_range() {
+        // Null in the middle
+        // [[A, B, C], [D, E], NULL, [F, G, H]]
+        let rep = Some(vec![1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0]);
+        let def = Some(vec![0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 8;
+        let max_rep = 1;
 
-            let task = cur_page.drain(to_take)?;
-            tasks.push(task);
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Absent,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-            if to_take == num_in_page {
-                self.page_decoders.pop_front();
-                self.rows_drained_in_current = 0;
-            } else {
-                self.rows_drained_in_current += to_take;
-            }
+        check(0..1, 0..3, 0..3);
+        check(1..2, 3..5, 3..5);
+        check(2..3, 5..5, 5..6);
+        check(3..4, 5..8, 6..9);
+        check(0..2, 0..5, 0..5);
+        check(1..3, 3..5, 3..6);
+        check(2..4, 5..8, 5..9);
+        check(0..3, 0..5, 0..6);
+        check(1..4, 3..8, 3..9);
+        check(0..4, 0..8, 0..9);
 
-            remaining -= to_take;
-        }
-        Ok(Box::new(StructuralCompositeDecodeArrayTask {
-            tasks,
-            should_validate: self.should_validate,
-            data_type: self.field.data_type().clone(),
-        }))
-    }
+        // Null at start
+        // [NULL, [A, B], [C]]
+        let rep = Some(vec![1, 1, 0, 1]);
+        let def = Some(vec![1, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 3;
 
-    fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
-        self.field.data_type()
-    }
-}
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Absent,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-/// The serialized representation of full-zip data
-struct SerializedFullZip {
-    /// The zipped values buffer
-    values: LanceBuffer,
-    /// The repetition index (only present if there is repetition)
-    repetition_index: Option<LanceBuffer>,
-}
+        check(0..1, 0..0, 0..1);
+        check(1..2, 0..2, 1..3);
+        check(2..3, 2..3, 3..4);
+        check(0..2, 0..2, 0..3);
+        check(1..3, 0..3, 1..4);
+        check(0..3, 0..3, 0..4);
 
-// We align and pad mini-blocks to 8 byte boundaries for two reasons.  First,
-// to allow us to store a chunk size in 12 bits.
-//
-// If we directly record the size in bytes with 12 bits we would be limited to
-// 4KiB which is too small.  Since we know each mini-block consists of 8 byte
-// words we can store the # of words instead which gives us 32KiB.  We want
-// at least 24KiB so we can handle even the worst case of
-// - 4Ki values compressed into an 8186 byte buffer
-// - 4 bytes to describe rep & def lengths
-// - 16KiB of rep & def buffer (this will almost never happen but life is easier if we
-//   plan for it)
-//
-// Second, each chunk in a mini-block is aligned to 8 bytes.  This allows multi-byte
-// values like offsets to be stored in a mini-block and safely read back out.  It also
-// helps ensure zero-copy reads in cases where zero-copy is possible (e.g. no decoding
-// needed).
-//
-// Note: by "aligned to 8 bytes" we mean BOTH "aligned to 8 bytes from the start of
-// the page" and "aligned to 8 bytes from the start of the file."
-const MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT: usize = 8;
+        // Null at end
+        // [[A], [B, C], NULL]
+        let rep = Some(vec![1, 1, 0, 1]);
+        let def = Some(vec![0, 0, 0, 1]);
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 3;
 
-/// An encoder for primitive (leaf) arrays
-///
-/// This encoder is fairly complicated and follows a number of paths depending
-/// on the data.
-///
-/// First, we convert the validity & offsets information into repetition and
-/// definition levels.  Then we compress the data itself into a single buffer.
-///
-/// If the data is narrow then we encode the data in small chunks (each chunk
-/// should be a few disk sectors and contains a buffer of repetition, a buffer
-/// of definition, and a buffer of value data).  This approach is called
-/// "mini-block".  These mini-blocks are stored into a single data buffer.
-///
-/// If the data is wide then we zip together the repetition and definition value
-/// with the value data into a single buffer.  This approach is called "zipped".
-///
-/// If there is any repetition information then we create a repetition index
-///
-/// In addition, the compression process may create zero or more metadata buffers.
-/// For example, a dictionary compression will create dictionary metadata.  Any
-/// mini-block approach has a metadata buffer of block sizes.  This metadata is
-/// stored in a separate buffer on disk and read at initialization time.
-///
-/// TODO: We should concatenate metadata buffers from all pages into a single buffer
-/// at (roughly) the end of the file so there is, at most, one read per column of
-/// metadata per file.
-pub struct PrimitiveStructuralEncoder {
-    // Accumulates arrays until we have enough data to justify a disk page
-    accumulation_queue: AccumulationQueue,
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Absent,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-    keep_original_array: bool,
-    support_large_chunk: bool,
-    accumulated_repdefs: Vec<RepDefBuilder>,
-    // The compression strategy we will use to compress the data
-    compression_strategy: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
-    column_index: u32,
-    field: Field,
-    encoding_metadata: Arc<HashMap<String, String>>,
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
-}
+        check(0..1, 0..1, 0..1);
+        check(1..2, 1..3, 1..3);
+        check(2..3, 3..3, 3..4);
+        check(0..2, 0..3, 0..3);
+        check(1..3, 1..3, 1..4);
+        check(0..3, 0..3, 0..4);
 
-struct CompressedLevelsChunk {
-    data: LanceBuffer,
-    num_levels: u16,
-}
+        // No nulls, with repetition
+        // [[A, B], [C, D], [E, F]]
+        let rep = Some(vec![1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0]);
+        let def: Option<&[u16]> = None;
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 6;
 
-struct CompressedLevels {
-    data: Vec<CompressedLevelsChunk>,
-    compression: CompressiveEncoding,
-    rep_index: Option<LanceBuffer>,
-}
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Absent,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-struct SerializedMiniBlockPage {
-    num_buffers: u64,
-    data: LanceBuffer,
-    metadata: LanceBuffer,
-}
+        check(0..1, 0..2, 0..2);
+        check(1..2, 2..4, 2..4);
+        check(2..3, 4..6, 4..6);
+        check(0..2, 0..4, 0..4);
+        check(1..3, 2..6, 2..6);
+        check(0..3, 0..6, 0..6);
 
-impl PrimitiveStructuralEncoder {
-    pub fn try_new(
-        options: &EncodingOptions,
-        compression_strategy: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
-        column_index: u32,
-        field: Field,
-        encoding_metadata: Arc<HashMap<String, String>>,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            accumulation_queue: AccumulationQueue::new(
-                options.cache_bytes_per_column,
-                column_index,
-                options.keep_original_array,
-            ),
-            support_large_chunk: options.support_large_chunk(),
-            keep_original_array: options.keep_original_array,
-            accumulated_repdefs: Vec::new(),
-            column_index,
-            compression_strategy,
-            field,
-            encoding_metadata,
-            version: options.version,
-        })
-    }
+        // No repetition, with nulls (this case is trivial)
+        // [A, B, NULL, C]
+        let rep: Option<&[u16]> = None;
+        let def = Some(vec![0, 0, 1, 0]);
+        let max_visible_def = 1;
+        let total_items = 4;
 
-    // TODO: This is a heuristic we may need to tune at some point
-    //
-    // As data gets narrow then the "zipping" process gets too expensive
-    //   and we prefer mini-block
-    // As data gets wide then the # of values per block shrinks (very wide)
-    //   data doesn't even fit in a mini-block and the block overhead gets
-    //   too large and we prefer zipped.
-    fn is_narrow(data_block: &DataBlock) -> bool {
-        const MINIBLOCK_MAX_BYTE_LENGTH_PER_VALUE: u64 = 256;
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Absent,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-        if let Some(max_len_array) = data_block.get_stat(Stat::MaxLength) {
-            let max_len_array = max_len_array
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>>()
-                .unwrap();
-            if max_len_array.value(0) < MINIBLOCK_MAX_BYTE_LENGTH_PER_VALUE {
-                return true;
-            }
-        }
-        false
-    }
+        check(0..1, 0..1, 0..1);
+        check(1..2, 1..2, 1..2);
+        check(2..3, 2..3, 2..3);
+        check(0..2, 0..2, 0..2);
+        check(1..3, 1..3, 1..3);
+        check(0..3, 0..3, 0..3);
 
-    fn prefers_miniblock(
-        data_block: &DataBlock,
-        encoding_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
-    ) -> bool {
-        // If the user specifically requested miniblock then use it
-        if let Some(user_requested) = encoding_metadata.get(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY) {
-            return user_requested.to_lowercase() == STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK;
-        }
-        // Otherwise only use miniblock if it is narrow
-        Self::is_narrow(data_block)
-    }
+        // Tricky case, this chunk is a continuation and starts with a rep-index = 0
+        // [[..., A] [B, C], NULL]
+        //
+        // What we do will depend on the preamble action
+        let rep = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 1]);
+        let def = Some(vec![0, 0, 0, 1]);
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 3;
 
-    fn prefers_fullzip(encoding_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>) -> bool {
-        // Fullzip is the backup option so the only reason we wouldn't use it is if the
-        // user specifically requested not to use it (in which case we're probably going
-        // to emit an error)
-        if let Some(user_requested) = encoding_metadata.get(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY) {
-            return user_requested.to_lowercase() == STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP;
-        }
-        true
-    }
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Take,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-    // Converts value data, repetition levels, and definition levels into a single
-    // buffer of mini-blocks.  In addition, creates a buffer of mini-block metadata
-    // which tells us the size of each block.  Finally, if repetition is present then
-    // we also create a buffer for the repetition index.
-    //
-    // Each chunk is serialized as:
-    // | num_bufs (1 byte) | buf_lens (2 bytes per buffer) | P | buf0 | P | buf1 | ... | bufN | P |
-    //
-    // P - Padding inserted to ensure each buffer is 8-byte aligned and the buffer size is a multiple
-    //     of 8 bytes (so that the next chunk is 8-byte aligned).
-    //
-    // Each block has a u16 word of metadata.  The upper 12 bits contain the
-    // # of 8-byte words in the block (if the block does not fill the final word
-    // then up to 7 bytes of padding are added).  The lower 4 bits describe the log_2
-    // number of values (e.g. if there are 1024 then the lower 4 bits will be
-    // 0xA)  All blocks except the last must have power-of-two number of values.
-    // This not only makes metadata smaller but it makes decoding easier since
-    // batch sizes are typically a power of 2.  4 bits would allow us to express
-    // up to 16Ki values but we restrict this further to 4Ki values.
-    //
-    // This means blocks can have 1 to 4Ki values and 8 - 32Ki bytes.
-    //
-    // All metadata words are serialized (as little endian) into a single buffer
-    // of metadata values.
-    //
-    // If there is repetition then we also create a repetition index.  This is a
-    // single buffer of integer vectors (stored in row major order).  There is one
-    // entry for each chunk.  The size of the vector is based on the depth of random
-    // access we want to support.
-    //
-    // A vector of size 2 is the minimum and will support row-based random access (e.g.
-    // "take the 57th row").  A vector of size 3 will support 1 level of nested access
-    // (e.g. "take the 3rd item in the 57th row").  A vector of size 4 will support 2
-    // levels of nested access and so on.
-    //
-    // The first number in the vector is the number of top-level rows that complete in
-    // the chunk.  The second number is the number of second-level rows that complete
-    // after the final top-level row completed (or beginning of the chunk if no top-level
-    // row completes in the chunk).  And so on.  The final number in the vector is always
-    // the number of leftover items not covered by earlier entries in the vector.
-    //
-    // Currently we are limited to 0 levels of nested access but that will change in the
-    // future.
-    //
-    // The repetition index and the chunk metadata are read at initialization time and
-    // cached in memory.
-    fn serialize_miniblocks(
-        miniblocks: MiniBlockCompressed,
-        rep: Option<Vec<CompressedLevelsChunk>>,
-        def: Option<Vec<CompressedLevelsChunk>>,
-        support_large_chunk: bool,
-    ) -> SerializedMiniBlockPage {
-        let bytes_rep = rep
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|rep| rep.iter().map(|r| r.data.len()).sum::<usize>())
-            .unwrap_or(0);
-        let bytes_def = def
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|def| def.iter().map(|d| d.data.len()).sum::<usize>())
-            .unwrap_or(0);
-        let bytes_data = miniblocks.data.iter().map(|d| d.len()).sum::<usize>();
-        let mut num_buffers = miniblocks.data.len();
-        if rep.is_some() {
-            num_buffers += 1;
-        }
-        if def.is_some() {
-            num_buffers += 1;
-        }
-        // 2 bytes for the length of each buffer and up to 7 bytes of padding per buffer
-        let max_extra = 9 * num_buffers;
-        let mut data_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(bytes_rep + bytes_def + bytes_data + max_extra);
-        let chunk_size_bytes = if support_large_chunk { 4 } else { 2 };
-        let mut meta_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(miniblocks.chunks.len() * chunk_size_bytes);
+        // If we are taking the preamble then the range must start at 0
+        check(0..1, 0..3, 0..3);
+        check(0..2, 0..3, 0..4);
 
-        let mut rep_iter = rep.map(|r| r.into_iter());
-        let mut def_iter = def.map(|d| d.into_iter());
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Skip,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-        let mut buffer_offsets = vec![0; miniblocks.data.len()];
-        for chunk in miniblocks.chunks {
-            let start_pos = data_buffer.len();
-            // Start of chunk should be aligned
-            debug_assert_eq!(start_pos % MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT, 0);
+        check(0..1, 1..3, 1..3);
+        check(1..2, 3..3, 3..4);
+        check(0..2, 1..3, 1..4);
+
+        // Another preamble case but now it doesn't end with a new list
+        // [[..., A], NULL, [D, E]]
+        //
+        // What we do will depend on the preamble action
+        let rep = Some(vec![0, 1, 1, 0]);
+        let def = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 0]);
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 4;
 
-            let rep = rep_iter.as_mut().map(|r| r.next().unwrap());
-            let def = def_iter.as_mut().map(|d| d.next().unwrap());
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Take,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-            // Write the number of levels, or 0 if there is no rep/def
-            let num_levels = rep
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(|r| r.num_levels)
-                .unwrap_or(def.as_ref().map(|d| d.num_levels).unwrap_or(0));
-            data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&num_levels.to_le_bytes());
+        // If we are taking the preamble then the range must start at 0
+        check(0..1, 0..1, 0..2);
+        check(0..2, 0..3, 0..4);
 
-            // Write the buffer lengths
-            if let Some(rep) = rep.as_ref() {
-                let bytes_rep = u16::try_from(rep.data.len()).unwrap();
-                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&bytes_rep.to_le_bytes());
-            }
-            if let Some(def) = def.as_ref() {
-                let bytes_def = u16::try_from(def.data.len()).unwrap();
-                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&bytes_def.to_le_bytes());
-            }
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Skip,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-            if support_large_chunk {
-                for &buffer_size in &chunk.buffer_sizes {
-                    data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&buffer_size.to_le_bytes());
-                }
-            } else {
-                for &buffer_size in &chunk.buffer_sizes {
-                    data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&(buffer_size as u16).to_le_bytes());
-                }
-            }
+        // If we are taking the preamble then the range must start at 0
+        check(0..1, 1..1, 1..2);
+        check(1..2, 1..3, 2..4);
+        check(0..2, 1..3, 1..4);
 
-            // Pad
-            let add_padding = |data_buffer: &mut Vec<u8>| {
-                let pad = pad_bytes::<MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT>(data_buffer.len());
-                data_buffer.extend(iter::repeat_n(FILL_BYTE, pad));
-            };
-            add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
+        // Now a preamble case without any definition levels
+        // [[..., A] [B, C], [D]]
+        let rep = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 1]);
+        let def: Option<Vec<u16>> = None;
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 4;
 
-            // Write the buffers themselves
-            if let Some(rep) = rep.as_ref() {
-                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&rep.data);
-                add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
-            }
-            if let Some(def) = def.as_ref() {
-                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&def.data);
-                add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
-            }
-            for (buffer_size, (buffer, buffer_offset)) in chunk
-                .buffer_sizes
-                .iter()
-                .zip(miniblocks.data.iter().zip(buffer_offsets.iter_mut()))
-            {
-                let start = *buffer_offset;
-                let end = start + *buffer_size as usize;
-                *buffer_offset += *buffer_size as usize;
-                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&buffer[start..end]);
-                add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
-            }
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Take,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-            let chunk_bytes = data_buffer.len() - start_pos;
-            let max_chunk_size = if support_large_chunk {
-                4 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024 // 4GB limit with u32 metadata
-            } else {
-                32 * 1024 // 32KiB limit with u16 metadata
-            };
-            assert!(chunk_bytes <= max_chunk_size);
-            assert!(chunk_bytes > 0);
-            assert_eq!(chunk_bytes % 8, 0);
-            // 4Ki values max
-            assert!(chunk.log_num_values <= 12);
-            // We subtract 1 here from chunk_bytes because we want to be able to express
-            // a size of 32KiB and not (32Ki - 8)B which is what we'd get otherwise with
-            // 0xFFF
-            let divided_bytes = chunk_bytes / MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT;
-            let divided_bytes_minus_one = (divided_bytes - 1) as u64;
+        // If we are taking the preamble then the range must start at 0
+        check(0..1, 0..3, 0..3);
+        check(0..2, 0..4, 0..4);
 
-            let metadata = (divided_bytes_minus_one << 4) | chunk.log_num_values as u64;
-            if support_large_chunk {
-                meta_buffer.extend_from_slice(&(metadata as u32).to_le_bytes());
-            } else {
-                meta_buffer.extend_from_slice(&(metadata as u16).to_le_bytes());
-            }
-        }
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Skip,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-        let data_buffer = LanceBuffer::from(data_buffer);
-        let metadata_buffer = LanceBuffer::from(meta_buffer);
+        check(0..1, 1..3, 1..3);
+        check(1..2, 3..4, 3..4);
+        check(0..2, 1..4, 1..4);
 
-        SerializedMiniBlockPage {
-            num_buffers: miniblocks.data.len() as u64,
-            data: data_buffer,
-            metadata: metadata_buffer,
-        }
-    }
+        // If we have nested lists then non-top level lists may be empty/null
+        // and we need to make sure we still handle them as invisible items (we
+        // failed to do this previously)
+        let rep = Some(vec![2, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]);
+        let def = Some(vec![0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let max_rep = 2;
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 4;
 
-    /// Compresses a buffer of levels into chunks
-    ///
-    /// If these are repetition levels then we also calculate the repetition index here (that
-    /// is the third return value)
-    fn compress_levels(
-        mut levels: RepDefSlicer<'_>,
-        num_elements: u64,
-        compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
-        chunks: &[MiniBlockChunk],
-        // This will be 0 if we are compressing def levels
-        max_rep: u16,
-    ) -> Result<CompressedLevels> {
-        let mut rep_index = if max_rep > 0 {
-            Vec::with_capacity(chunks.len())
-        } else {
-            vec![]
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Absent,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
         };
-        // Make the levels into a FixedWidth data block
-        let num_levels = levels.num_levels() as u64;
-        let levels_buf = levels.all_levels().clone();
 
-        let mut fixed_width_block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
-            data: levels_buf,
-            bits_per_value: 16,
-            num_values: num_levels,
-            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-        };
-        // Compute statistics to enable optimal compression for rep/def levels
-        fixed_width_block.compute_stat();
+        check(0..3, 0..4, 0..6);
+        check(0..1, 0..1, 0..2);
+        check(1..2, 1..3, 2..5);
+        check(2..3, 3..4, 5..6);
 
-        let levels_block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width_block);
-        let levels_field = Field::new_arrow("", DataType::UInt16, false)?;
-        // Pick a block compressor
-        let (compressor, compressor_desc) =
-            compression_strategy.create_block_compressor(&levels_field, &levels_block)?;
-        // Compress blocks of levels (sized according to the chunks)
-        let mut level_chunks = Vec::with_capacity(chunks.len());
-        let mut values_counter = 0;
-        for (chunk_idx, chunk) in chunks.iter().enumerate() {
-            let chunk_num_values = chunk.num_values(values_counter, num_elements);
-            debug_assert!(chunk_num_values > 0);
-            values_counter += chunk_num_values;
-            let chunk_levels = if chunk_idx < chunks.len() - 1 {
-                levels.slice_next(chunk_num_values as usize)
-            } else {
-                levels.slice_rest()
-            };
-            let num_chunk_levels = (chunk_levels.len() / 2) as u64;
-            if max_rep > 0 {
-                // If max_rep > 0 then we are working with rep levels and we need
-                // to calculate the repetition index.  The repetition index for a
-                // chunk is currently 2 values (in the future it may be more).
-                //
-                // The first value is the number of rows that _finish_ in the
-                // chunk.
-                //
-                // The second value is the number of "leftovers" after the last
-                // finished row in the chunk.
-                let rep_values = chunk_levels.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>();
-                let rep_values = rep_values.as_ref();
+        // Invisible items in a preamble that we are taking (regressing a previous failure)
+        let rep = Some(vec![0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1]);
+        let def = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let max_rep = 1;
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 5;
 
-                // We skip 1 here because a max_rep at spot 0 doesn't count as a finished list (we
-                // will count it in the previous chunk)
-                let mut num_rows = rep_values.iter().skip(1).filter(|v| **v == max_rep).count();
-                let num_leftovers = if chunk_idx < chunks.len() - 1 {
-                    rep_values
-                        .iter()
-                        .rev()
-                        .position(|v| *v == max_rep)
-                        // # of leftovers includes the max_rep spot
-                        .map(|pos| pos + 1)
-                        .unwrap_or(rep_values.len())
-                } else {
-                    // Last chunk can't have leftovers
-                    0
-                };
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Take,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        };
 
-                if chunk_idx != 0 && rep_values.first() == Some(&max_rep) {
-                    // This chunk starts with a new row and so, if we thought we had leftovers
-                    // in the previous chunk, we were mistaken
-                    // TODO: Can use unchecked here
-                    let rep_len = rep_index.len();
-                    if rep_index[rep_len - 1] != 0 {
-                        // We thought we had leftovers but that was actually a full row
-                        rep_index[rep_len - 2] += 1;
-                        rep_index[rep_len - 1] = 0;
-                    }
-                }
+        check(0..0, 0..1, 0..2);
+        check(0..1, 0..3, 0..4);
+        check(0..2, 0..4, 0..5);
 
-                if chunk_idx == chunks.len() - 1 {
-                    // The final list
-                    num_rows += 1;
-                }
-                rep_index.push(num_rows as u64);
-                rep_index.push(num_leftovers as u64);
-            }
-            let mut chunk_fixed_width = FixedWidthDataBlock {
-                data: chunk_levels,
-                bits_per_value: 16,
-                num_values: num_chunk_levels,
-                block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-            };
-            chunk_fixed_width.compute_stat();
-            let chunk_levels_block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(chunk_fixed_width);
-            let compressed_levels = compressor.compress(chunk_levels_block)?;
-            level_chunks.push(CompressedLevelsChunk {
-                data: compressed_levels,
-                num_levels: num_chunk_levels as u16,
-            });
-        }
-        debug_assert_eq!(levels.num_levels_remaining(), 0);
-        let rep_index = if rep_index.is_empty() {
-            None
-        } else {
-            Some(LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(rep_index))
+        // Skip preamble (with invis items) and skip a few rows (with invis items)
+        // and then take a few rows but not all the rows
+        let rep = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]);
+        let def = Some(vec![1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let max_rep = 1;
+        let max_visible_def = 0;
+        let total_items = 5;
+
+        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
+            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
+                range,
+                rep.as_ref(),
+                def.as_ref(),
+                max_rep,
+                max_visible_def,
+                total_items,
+                PreambleAction::Skip,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
+            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
         };
-        Ok(CompressedLevels {
-            data: level_chunks,
-            compression: compressor_desc,
-            rep_index,
-        })
+
+        check(2..3, 2..4, 5..7);
     }
 
-    fn encode_simple_all_null(
-        column_idx: u32,
-        num_rows: u64,
-        row_number: u64,
-    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
-        let description =
-            ProtobufUtils21::constant_layout(&[DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem], None);
-        Ok(EncodedPage {
-            column_idx,
-            data: vec![],
-            description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
-            num_rows,
-            row_number,
-        })
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets_u32() {
+        let data = LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"0123456789abcdefghij");
+        let offsets = LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![6_u32, 8_u32, 8_u32, 12_u32]);
+
+        let (sliced_data, normalized_offsets) =
+            VariableFullZipDecoder::slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets(&data, &offsets, 32)
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(sliced_data.as_ref(), b"6789ab");
+        let normalized = normalized_offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u32>();
+        assert_eq!(normalized.as_ref(), &[0, 2, 2, 6]);
     }
 
-    // Encodes a page where all values are null but we have rep/def
-    // information that we need to store (e.g. to distinguish between
-    // different kinds of null)
-    fn encode_complex_all_null(
-        column_idx: u32,
-        repdef: crate::repdef::SerializedRepDefs,
-        row_number: u64,
-        num_rows: u64,
-    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
-        // TODO: Actually compress repdef
-        let rep_bytes = if let Some(rep) = repdef.repetition_levels.as_ref() {
-            LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(rep.clone())
-        } else {
-            LanceBuffer::empty()
-        };
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets_u64() {
+        let data = LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz");
+        let offsets = LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![10_u64, 12_u64, 16_u64, 20_u64]);
 
-        let def_bytes = if let Some(def) = repdef.definition_levels.as_ref() {
-            LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(def.clone())
-        } else {
-            LanceBuffer::empty()
-        };
+        let (sliced_data, normalized_offsets) =
+            VariableFullZipDecoder::slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets(&data, &offsets, 64)
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let description = ProtobufUtils21::constant_layout(&repdef.def_meaning, None);
-        Ok(EncodedPage {
-            column_idx,
-            data: vec![rep_bytes, def_bytes],
-            description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
-            num_rows,
-            row_number,
-        })
+        assert_eq!(sliced_data.as_ref(), b"klmnopqrst");
+        let normalized = normalized_offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
+        assert_eq!(normalized.as_ref(), &[0, 2, 6, 10]);
     }
 
-    fn leaf_validity(
-        repdef: &crate::repdef::SerializedRepDefs,
-        num_values: usize,
-    ) -> Result<Option<BooleanBuffer>> {
-        let rep = repdef
-            .repetition_levels
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|rep| rep.as_ref().to_vec());
-        let def = repdef
-            .definition_levels
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|def| def.as_ref().to_vec());
-        let mut unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new(
-            rep,
-            def,
-            repdef.def_meaning.clone().into(),
-            num_values as u64,
-        );
-        if unraveler.is_all_valid() {
-            return Ok(None);
-        }
-        let mut validity = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(num_values);
-        unraveler.unravel_validity(&mut validity);
-        Ok(Some(validity.finish()))
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets_rejects_invalid_offsets() {
+        let data = LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"abcd");
+        let offsets = LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![3_u32, 2_u32]);
+
+        let err = VariableFullZipDecoder::slice_batch_data_and_rebase_offsets(&data, &offsets, 32)
+            .expect_err("offset end before start should error");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("less than base"));
     }
 
-    fn is_constant_values(
-        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
-        scalar: &ArrayRef,
-        validity: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
-    ) -> Result<bool> {
-        debug_assert_eq!(scalar.len(), 1);
-        debug_assert_eq!(scalar.null_count(), 0);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_schedule_instructions() {
+        // Convert repetition index to bytes for testing
+        let rep_data: Vec<u64> = vec![5, 2, 3, 0, 4, 7, 2, 0];
+        let rep_bytes: Vec<u8> = rep_data.iter().flat_map(|v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect();
+        let chunk_index = MiniBlockChunkIndex::new_nested_for_test(&rep_bytes, 2);
 
-        match scalar.data_type() {
-            DataType::Boolean => {
-                let mut global_idx = 0usize;
-                let scalar_val = scalar.as_boolean().value(0);
-                for arr in arrays {
-                    let bool_arr = arr.as_boolean();
-                    for i in 0..arr.len() {
-                        let is_valid = validity.map(|v| v.value(global_idx)).unwrap_or(true);
-                        global_idx += 1;
-                        if !is_valid {
-                            continue;
-                        }
-                        if bool_arr.value(i) != scalar_val {
-                            return Ok(false);
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-                Ok(true)
-            }
-            DataType::Utf8 => Self::is_constant_utf8::<i32>(arrays, scalar, validity),
-            DataType::LargeUtf8 => Self::is_constant_utf8::<i64>(arrays, scalar, validity),
-            DataType::Binary => Self::is_constant_binary::<i32>(arrays, scalar, validity),
-            DataType::LargeBinary => Self::is_constant_binary::<i64>(arrays, scalar, validity),
-            data_type => {
-                let mut global_idx = 0usize;
-                let Some(byte_width) = data_type.byte_width_opt() else {
-                    return Ok(false);
-                };
-                let scalar_data = scalar.to_data();
-                if scalar_data.buffers().len() != 1 || !scalar_data.child_data().is_empty() {
-                    return Ok(false);
-                }
-                let scalar_bytes = scalar_data.buffers()[0].as_slice();
-                if scalar_bytes.len() != byte_width {
-                    return Ok(false);
-                }
+        let check = |user_ranges, expected_instructions| {
+            let instructions = ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&chunk_index, user_ranges);
+            assert_eq!(instructions, expected_instructions);
+        };
 
-                for arr in arrays {
-                    let data = arr.to_data();
-                    if data.buffers().is_empty() {
-                        return Ok(false);
-                    }
-                    let buf = data.buffers()[0].as_slice();
-                    let base = data.offset();
-                    for i in 0..arr.len() {
-                        let is_valid = validity.map(|v| v.value(global_idx)).unwrap_or(true);
-                        global_idx += 1;
-                        if !is_valid {
-                            continue;
-                        }
-                        let start = (base + i) * byte_width;
-                        if buf[start..start + byte_width] != scalar_bytes[..] {
-                            return Ok(false);
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-                Ok(true)
-            }
-        }
-    }
+        // The instructions we expect if we're grabbing the whole range
+        let expected_take_all = vec![
+            ChunkInstructions {
+                chunk_idx: 0,
+                preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                rows_to_skip: 0,
+                rows_to_take: 6,
+                take_trailer: true,
+            },
+            ChunkInstructions {
+                chunk_idx: 1,
+                preamble: PreambleAction::Take,
+                rows_to_skip: 0,
+                rows_to_take: 2,
+                take_trailer: false,
+            },
+            ChunkInstructions {
+                chunk_idx: 2,
+                preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                rows_to_skip: 0,
+                rows_to_take: 5,
+                take_trailer: true,
+            },
+            ChunkInstructions {
+                chunk_idx: 3,
+                preamble: PreambleAction::Take,
+                rows_to_skip: 0,
+                rows_to_take: 1,
+                take_trailer: false,
+            },
+        ];
+
+        // Take all as 1 range
+        check(&[0..14], expected_take_all.clone());
+
+        // Take all a individual rows
+        check(
+            &[
+                0..1,
+                1..2,
+                2..3,
+                3..4,
+                4..5,
+                5..6,
+                6..7,
+                7..8,
+                8..9,
+                9..10,
+                10..11,
+                11..12,
+                12..13,
+                13..14,
+            ],
+            expected_take_all,
+        );
 
-    fn is_constant_utf8<O: arrow_array::OffsetSizeTrait>(
-        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
-        scalar: &ArrayRef,
-        validity: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
-    ) -> Result<bool> {
-        debug_assert_eq!(scalar.len(), 1);
-        let scalar_val = scalar.as_string::<O>().value(0).as_bytes();
-        let mut global_idx = 0usize;
-        for arr in arrays {
-            let str_arr = arr.as_string::<O>();
-            for i in 0..arr.len() {
-                let is_valid = validity.map(|v| v.value(global_idx)).unwrap_or(true);
-                global_idx += 1;
-                if !is_valid {
-                    continue;
-                }
-                if str_arr.value(i).as_bytes() != scalar_val {
-                    return Ok(false);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(true)
-    }
+        // Test some partial takes
 
-    fn is_constant_binary<O: arrow_array::OffsetSizeTrait>(
-        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
-        scalar: &ArrayRef,
-        validity: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
-    ) -> Result<bool> {
-        debug_assert_eq!(scalar.len(), 1);
-        let scalar_val = scalar.as_binary::<O>().value(0);
-        let mut global_idx = 0usize;
-        for arr in arrays {
-            let bin_arr = arr.as_binary::<O>();
-            for i in 0..arr.len() {
-                let is_valid = validity.map(|v| v.value(global_idx)).unwrap_or(true);
-                global_idx += 1;
-                if !is_valid {
-                    continue;
-                }
-                if bin_arr.value(i) != scalar_val {
-                    return Ok(false);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(true)
-    }
+        // 2 rows in the same chunk but not contiguous
+        check(
+            &[0..1, 3..4],
+            vec![
+                ChunkInstructions {
+                    chunk_idx: 0,
+                    preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    rows_to_take: 1,
+                    take_trailer: false,
+                },
+                ChunkInstructions {
+                    chunk_idx: 0,
+                    preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                    rows_to_skip: 3,
+                    rows_to_take: 1,
+                    take_trailer: false,
+                },
+            ],
+        );
 
-    fn find_constant_scalar(
-        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
-        validity: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
-    ) -> Result<Option<ArrayRef>> {
-        if arrays.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(None);
-        }
+        // Taking just a trailer/preamble
+        check(
+            &[5..6],
+            vec![
+                ChunkInstructions {
+                    chunk_idx: 0,
+                    preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                    rows_to_skip: 5,
+                    rows_to_take: 1,
+                    take_trailer: true,
+                },
+                ChunkInstructions {
+                    chunk_idx: 1,
+                    preamble: PreambleAction::Take,
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    rows_to_take: 0,
+                    take_trailer: false,
+                },
+            ],
+        );
 
-        let global_scalar_idx = if let Some(validity) = validity {
-            let Some(idx) = (0..validity.len()).find(|&i| validity.value(i)) else {
-                return Ok(None);
-            };
-            idx
-        } else {
-            0
-        };
+        // Skipping an entire chunk
+        check(
+            &[7..10],
+            vec![
+                ChunkInstructions {
+                    chunk_idx: 1,
+                    preamble: PreambleAction::Skip,
+                    rows_to_skip: 1,
+                    rows_to_take: 1,
+                    take_trailer: false,
+                },
+                ChunkInstructions {
+                    chunk_idx: 2,
+                    preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    rows_to_take: 2,
+                    take_trailer: false,
+                },
+            ],
+        );
+    }
 
-        let mut idx_remaining = global_scalar_idx;
-        let mut scalar_arr_idx = 0usize;
-        while scalar_arr_idx < arrays.len() {
-            let len = arrays[scalar_arr_idx].len();
-            if idx_remaining < len {
-                break;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_drain_instructions() {
+        fn drain_from_instructions(
+            instructions: &mut VecDeque<ChunkInstructions>,
+            mut rows_desired: u64,
+            need_preamble: &mut bool,
+            skip_in_chunk: &mut u64,
+        ) -> Vec<ChunkDrainInstructions> {
+            // Note: instructions.len() is an upper bound, we typically take much fewer
+            let mut drain_instructions = Vec::with_capacity(instructions.len());
+            while rows_desired > 0 || *need_preamble {
+                let (next_instructions, consumed_chunk) = instructions
+                    .front()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .drain_from_instruction(&mut rows_desired, need_preamble, skip_in_chunk);
+                if consumed_chunk {
+                    instructions.pop_front();
+                }
+                drain_instructions.push(next_instructions);
             }
-            idx_remaining -= len;
-            scalar_arr_idx += 1;
+            drain_instructions
         }
 
-        if scalar_arr_idx >= arrays.len() {
-            return Ok(None);
-        }
+        // Convert repetition index to bytes for testing
+        let rep_data: Vec<u64> = vec![5, 2, 3, 0, 4, 7, 2, 0];
+        let rep_bytes: Vec<u8> = rep_data.iter().flat_map(|v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect();
+        let chunk_index = MiniBlockChunkIndex::new_nested_for_test(&rep_bytes, 2);
+        let user_ranges = vec![1..7, 10..14];
 
-        let scalar =
-            lance_arrow::scalar::extract_scalar_value(&arrays[scalar_arr_idx], idx_remaining)?;
-        if scalar.null_count() != 0 {
-            return Ok(None);
-        }
-        if !Self::is_constant_values(arrays, &scalar, validity)? {
-            return Ok(None);
-        }
-        Ok(Some(scalar))
-    }
+        // First, schedule the ranges
+        let scheduled = ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&chunk_index, &user_ranges);
 
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn encode_miniblock(
-        column_idx: u32,
-        field: &Field,
-        compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
-        data: DataBlock,
-        repdef: crate::repdef::SerializedRepDefs,
-        row_number: u64,
-        dictionary_data: Option<DataBlock>,
-        num_rows: u64,
-        support_large_chunk: bool,
-    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
-        if let DataBlock::AllNull(_null_block) = data {
-            // We should not be using mini-block for all-null.  There are other structural
-            // encodings for that.
-            unreachable!()
-        }
+        let mut to_drain = VecDeque::from(scheduled.clone());
 
-        let num_items = data.num_values();
+        // Now we drain in batches of 4
 
-        let compressor = compression_strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(field, &data)?;
-        let (compressed_data, value_encoding) = compressor.compress(data)?;
+        let mut need_preamble = false;
+        let mut skip_in_chunk = 0;
 
-        let max_rep = repdef.def_meaning.iter().filter(|l| l.is_list()).count() as u16;
+        let next_batch =
+            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 4, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
 
-        let mut compressed_rep = repdef
-            .rep_slicer()
-            .map(|rep_slicer| {
-                Self::compress_levels(
-                    rep_slicer,
-                    num_items,
-                    compression_strategy,
-                    &compressed_data.chunks,
-                    max_rep,
-                )
-            })
-            .transpose()?;
+        assert!(!need_preamble);
+        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            next_batch,
+            vec![ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                chunk_instructions: scheduled[0].clone(),
+                rows_to_take: 4,
+                rows_to_skip: 0,
+                preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
+            }]
+        );
 
-        let (rep_index, rep_index_depth) =
-            match compressed_rep.as_mut().and_then(|cr| cr.rep_index.as_mut()) {
-                Some(rep_index) => (Some(rep_index.clone()), 1),
-                None => (None, 0),
-            };
+        let next_batch =
+            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 4, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
 
-        let mut compressed_def = repdef
-            .def_slicer()
-            .map(|def_slicer| {
-                Self::compress_levels(
-                    def_slicer,
-                    num_items,
-                    compression_strategy,
-                    &compressed_data.chunks,
-                    /*max_rep=*/ 0,
-                )
-            })
-            .transpose()?;
+        assert!(!need_preamble);
+        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 2);
 
-        // TODO: Parquet sparsely encodes values here.  We could do the same but
-        // then we won't have log2 values per chunk.  This means more metadata
-        // and potentially more decoder asymmetry.  However, it may be worth
-        // investigating at some point
+        assert_eq!(
+            next_batch,
+            vec![
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[0].clone(),
+                    rows_to_take: 1,
+                    rows_to_skip: 4,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                },
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[1].clone(),
+                    rows_to_take: 1,
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Take,
+                },
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[2].clone(),
+                    rows_to_take: 2,
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                }
+            ]
+        );
 
-        let rep_data = compressed_rep
-            .as_mut()
-            .map(|cr| std::mem::take(&mut cr.data));
-        let def_data = compressed_def
-            .as_mut()
-            .map(|cd| std::mem::take(&mut cd.data));
+        let next_batch =
+            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 2, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
 
-        let serialized =
-            Self::serialize_miniblocks(compressed_data, rep_data, def_data, support_large_chunk);
+        assert!(!need_preamble);
+        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 0);
 
-        // Metadata, Data, Dictionary, (maybe) Repetition Index
-        let mut data = Vec::with_capacity(4);
-        data.push(serialized.metadata);
-        data.push(serialized.data);
+        assert_eq!(
+            next_batch,
+            vec![
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[2].clone(),
+                    rows_to_take: 1,
+                    rows_to_skip: 2,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                },
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[3].clone(),
+                    rows_to_take: 1,
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Take,
+                },
+            ]
+        );
 
-        if let Some(dictionary_data) = dictionary_data {
-            let num_dictionary_items = dictionary_data.num_values();
-            // field in `create_block_compressor` is not used currently.
-            let dummy_dictionary_field = Field::new_arrow("", DataType::UInt16, false)?;
+        // Regression case.  Need a chunk with preamble, rows, and trailer (the middle chunk here)
+        let rep_data: Vec<u64> = vec![5, 2, 3, 3, 20, 0];
+        let rep_bytes: Vec<u8> = rep_data.iter().flat_map(|v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect();
+        let chunk_index = MiniBlockChunkIndex::new_nested_for_test(&rep_bytes, 2);
+        let user_ranges = vec![0..28];
 
-            let (compressor, dictionary_encoding) = compression_strategy
-                .create_block_compressor(&dummy_dictionary_field, &dictionary_data)?;
-            let dictionary_buffer = compressor.compress(dictionary_data)?;
+        // First, schedule the ranges
+        let scheduled = ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&chunk_index, &user_ranges);
 
-            data.push(dictionary_buffer);
-            if let Some(rep_index) = rep_index {
-                data.push(rep_index);
-            }
+        let mut to_drain = VecDeque::from(scheduled.clone());
 
-            let description = ProtobufUtils21::miniblock_layout(
-                compressed_rep.map(|cr| cr.compression),
-                compressed_def.map(|cd| cd.compression),
-                value_encoding,
-                rep_index_depth,
-                serialized.num_buffers,
-                Some((dictionary_encoding, num_dictionary_items)),
-                &repdef.def_meaning,
-                num_items,
-                support_large_chunk,
-            );
-            Ok(EncodedPage {
-                num_rows,
-                column_idx,
-                data,
-                description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
-                row_number,
-            })
-        } else {
-            let description = ProtobufUtils21::miniblock_layout(
-                compressed_rep.map(|cr| cr.compression),
-                compressed_def.map(|cd| cd.compression),
-                value_encoding,
-                rep_index_depth,
-                serialized.num_buffers,
-                None,
-                &repdef.def_meaning,
-                num_items,
-                support_large_chunk,
-            );
+        // Drain first chunk and some of second chunk
 
-            if let Some(rep_index) = rep_index {
-                let view = rep_index.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
-                let total = view.chunks_exact(2).map(|c| c[0]).sum::<u64>();
-                debug_assert_eq!(total, num_rows);
+        let mut need_preamble = false;
+        let mut skip_in_chunk = 0;
 
-                data.push(rep_index);
-            }
+        let next_batch =
+            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 7, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
 
-            Ok(EncodedPage {
-                num_rows,
-                column_idx,
-                data,
-                description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
-                row_number,
-            })
-        }
-    }
+        assert_eq!(
+            next_batch,
+            vec![
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[0].clone(),
+                    rows_to_take: 6,
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
+                },
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[1].clone(),
+                    rows_to_take: 1,
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Take,
+                },
+            ]
+        );
 
-    // For fixed-size data we encode < control word | data > for each value
-    fn serialize_full_zip_fixed(
-        fixed: FixedWidthDataBlock,
-        mut repdef: ControlWordIterator,
-        num_values: u64,
-    ) -> SerializedFullZip {
-        let len = fixed.data.len() + repdef.bytes_per_word() * num_values as usize;
-        let mut zipped_data = Vec::with_capacity(len);
+        assert!(!need_preamble);
+        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 1);
 
-        let max_rep_index_val = if repdef.has_repetition() {
-            len as u64
-        } else {
-            // Setting this to 0 means we won't write a repetition index
-            0
-        };
-        let mut rep_index_builder =
-            BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(num_values as usize + 1, max_rep_index_val);
+        // Now, the tricky part.  We drain the second chunk, including the trailer, and need to make sure
+        // we get a drain task to take the preamble of the third chunk (and nothing else)
+        let next_batch =
+            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 2, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
 
-        // I suppose we can just pad to the nearest byte but I'm not sure we need to worry about this anytime soon
-        // because it is unlikely compression of large values is going to yield a result that is not byte aligned
         assert_eq!(
-            fixed.bits_per_value % 8,
-            0,
-            "Non-byte aligned full-zip compression not yet supported"
+            next_batch,
+            vec![
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[1].clone(),
+                    rows_to_take: 2,
+                    rows_to_skip: 1,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Skip,
+                },
+                ChunkDrainInstructions {
+                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[2].clone(),
+                    rows_to_take: 0,
+                    rows_to_skip: 0,
+                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Take,
+                },
+            ]
         );
 
-        let bytes_per_value = fixed.bits_per_value as usize / 8;
-        let mut offset = 0;
+        assert!(!need_preamble);
+        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 0);
+    }
 
-        if bytes_per_value == 0 {
-            // No data, just dump the repdef into the buffer
-            while let Some(control) = repdef.append_next(&mut zipped_data) {
-                if control.is_new_row {
-                    // We have finished a row
-                    debug_assert!(offset <= len);
-                    // SAFETY: We know that `start <= len`
-                    unsafe { rep_index_builder.append(offset as u64) };
-                }
-                offset = zipped_data.len();
-            }
-        } else {
-            // We have data, zip it with the repdef
-            let mut data_iter = fixed.data.chunks_exact(bytes_per_value);
-            while let Some(control) = repdef.append_next(&mut zipped_data) {
-                if control.is_new_row {
-                    // We have finished a row
-                    debug_assert!(offset <= len);
-                    // SAFETY: We know that `start <= len`
-                    unsafe { rep_index_builder.append(offset as u64) };
-                }
-                if control.is_visible {
-                    let value = data_iter.next().unwrap();
-                    zipped_data.extend_from_slice(value);
-                }
-                offset = zipped_data.len();
-            }
+    use super::chunk_index::{PrefixSums, RowMapping};
+    use super::{MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT, Words, build_chunk_index};
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use lance_core::cache::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    /// Builds a `Words` metadata buffer (u16 words) from `(log_num_values, num_bytes)`
+    /// pairs, returning the words and the total data-buffer size.
+    fn words_from(entries: &[(u32, u32)]) -> (Words, u64) {
+        let mut raw = Vec::with_capacity(entries.len() * 2);
+        let mut total = 0u64;
+        for &(log, num_bytes) in entries {
+            assert!(num_bytes > 0 && num_bytes % MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT as u32 == 0);
+            let divided = num_bytes / MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT as u32 - 1;
+            let word = (divided << 4) | log;
+            assert!(word <= u16::MAX as u32, "test word {word} exceeds u16");
+            raw.extend_from_slice(&(word as u16).to_le_bytes());
+            total += num_bytes as u64;
+        }
+        (Words::from_bytes(Bytes::from(raw), false).unwrap(), total)
+    }
+
+    fn rep_bytes_from(values: &[u64]) -> Vec<u8> {
+        values.iter().flat_map(|v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    // Two full chunks of 8 values (log 3) plus a partial last chunk; byte sizes vary
+    // independently of value counts.
+    #[case::uniform_partial_last(&[(3, 16), (3, 24), (0, 8)], 19, "uniform_flat", 8, 3)]
+    // Single chunk covers the whole page.
+    #[case::single_chunk(&[(0, 24)], 5, "uniform_flat", 5, 5)]
+    // Last chunk is also full (exact multiple).
+    #[case::exact_multiple(&[(3, 16), (3, 16)], 16, "uniform_flat", 8, 8)]
+    // Non-last chunks differ in size, so this is a non-uniform flat page.
+    #[case::non_uniform(&[(4, 16), (2, 16), (0, 8)], 21, "flat", 16, 1)]
+    fn test_flat_detection(
+        #[case] entries: &[(u32, u32)],
+        #[case] items_in_page: u64,
+        #[case] expected_kind: &str,
+        #[case] expected_first_items: u64,
+        #[case] expected_last_items: u64,
+    ) {
+        let base = 100u64;
+        let (words, data_buf_size) = words_from(entries);
+        let index = build_chunk_index(&words, items_in_page, base, data_buf_size, None, 0).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.row_mapping_debug(), expected_kind);
+        assert_eq!(index.num_chunks(), entries.len());
+        assert_eq!(index.items_in_chunk(0), expected_first_items);
+        assert_eq!(index.items_in_chunk(entries.len() - 1), expected_last_items);
+
+        // Byte ranges are absolute, contiguous, and exactly cover the data buffer.
+        let mut expected_start = base;
+        for (i, &(_, num_bytes)) in entries.iter().enumerate() {
+            let range = index.byte_range(i);
+            assert_eq!(range.start, expected_start);
+            assert_eq!(range.end - range.start, num_bytes as u64);
+            expected_start = range.end;
         }
+        assert_eq!(expected_start, base + data_buf_size);
 
-        debug_assert_eq!(zipped_data.len(), len);
-        // Put the final value in the rep index
-        // SAFETY: `zipped_data.len() == len`
-        unsafe {
-            rep_index_builder.append(zipped_data.len() as u64);
+        // For flat pages rows == items, so the per-chunk items sum to the page total.
+        let total_items: u64 = (0..index.num_chunks())
+            .map(|i| index.items_in_chunk(i))
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_items, items_in_page);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_nested_detection_and_axes() {
+        // Repetition index (stride 2): three chunks holding 5, 4, 3 rows, no trailers.
+        let rep = rep_bytes_from(&[5, 0, 4, 0, 3, 0]);
+
+        // Uniform leaf chunking: value counts 4, 4, 2.
+        let (words, data_buf_size) = words_from(&[(2, 8), (2, 8), (0, 8)]);
+        let index = build_chunk_index(&words, 10, 0, data_buf_size, Some(&rep), 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.row_mapping_debug(), "nested");
+        assert_eq!(index.num_chunks(), 3);
+        // Rows come from the repetition index, not the value counts.
+        assert_eq!(index.first_row(0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(index.rows_in_chunk(0), 5);
+        assert_eq!(index.first_row(1), 5);
+        assert_eq!(index.rows_in_chunk(1), 4);
+        assert_eq!(index.first_row(2), 9);
+        assert_eq!(index.rows_in_chunk(2), 3);
+        // Items come from the value words.
+        assert_eq!(index.items_in_chunk(0), 4);
+        assert_eq!(index.items_in_chunk(1), 4);
+        assert_eq!(index.items_in_chunk(2), 2);
+
+        // Non-uniform leaf chunking: value counts 8, 2, 5.
+        let (words_nu, dbs_nu) = words_from(&[(3, 8), (1, 8), (0, 8)]);
+        let index_nu = build_chunk_index(&words_nu, 15, 0, dbs_nu, Some(&rep), 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index_nu.row_mapping_debug(), "nested");
+        assert_eq!(index_nu.items_in_chunk(0), 8);
+        assert_eq!(index_nu.items_in_chunk(1), 2);
+        assert_eq!(index_nu.items_in_chunk(2), 5);
+        // The row axis is unchanged by the leaf chunking.
+        assert_eq!(index_nu.rows_in_chunk(0), 5);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_uniform_flat_matches_prefix_sum_flat() {
+        // Distribution: 4 chunks of 4 values, last chunk 3 (15 items total).
+        let (words, data_buf_size) = words_from(&[(2, 8), (2, 8), (2, 8), (0, 8)]);
+        let uniform = build_chunk_index(&words, 15, 0, data_buf_size, None, 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(uniform.row_mapping_debug(), "uniform_flat");
+
+        // The same distribution expressed as a non-uniform Flat prefix-sum index.
+        let byte_starts = PrefixSums::from_deltas([8u64, 8, 8, 8].into_iter(), 4, 32);
+        let value_starts = PrefixSums::from_deltas([4u64, 4, 4, 3].into_iter(), 4, 15);
+        let flat = MiniBlockChunkIndex::new(0, byte_starts, RowMapping::Flat { value_starts });
+        assert_eq!(flat.row_mapping_debug(), "flat");
+
+        // Lookup parity: identical byte ranges and item counts.
+        for i in 0..4 {
+            assert_eq!(uniform.byte_range(i), flat.byte_range(i));
+            assert_eq!(uniform.items_in_chunk(i), flat.items_in_chunk(i));
         }
 
-        let zipped_data = LanceBuffer::from(zipped_data);
-        let rep_index = rep_index_builder.into_data();
-        let rep_index = if rep_index.is_empty() {
-            None
-        } else {
-            Some(LanceBuffer::from(rep_index))
-        };
-        SerializedFullZip {
-            values: zipped_data,
-            repetition_index: rep_index,
+        // Scheduler parity across scan / single-row / partial / scattered multi-range.
+        let range_sets: Vec<Vec<std::ops::Range<u64>>> = vec![
+            vec![0..15],
+            vec![0..1],
+            vec![7..8],
+            vec![14..15],
+            vec![3..10],
+            vec![0..2, 5..6, 12..15],
+        ];
+        for ranges in &range_sets {
+            let from_uniform = ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&uniform, ranges);
+            let from_flat = ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&flat, ranges);
+            assert_eq!(from_uniform, from_flat, "mismatch for ranges {ranges:?}");
         }
-    }
 
-    // For variable-size data we encode < control word | length | data > for each value
-    //
-    // In addition, we create a second buffer, the repetition index
-    fn serialize_full_zip_variable(
-        variable: VariableWidthBlock,
-        mut repdef: ControlWordIterator,
-        num_items: u64,
-    ) -> SerializedFullZip {
-        let bytes_per_offset = variable.bits_per_offset as usize / 8;
-        assert_eq!(
-            variable.bits_per_offset % 8,
-            0,
-            "Only byte-aligned offsets supported"
-        );
-        let len = variable.data.len()
-            + repdef.bytes_per_word() * num_items as usize
-            + bytes_per_offset * variable.num_values as usize;
-        let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(len);
+        // A full scan yields one Absent, no-trailer instruction per chunk.
+        let full = ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&uniform, &[0..15]);
+        assert_eq!(full.len(), 4);
+        for (i, inst) in full.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(inst.chunk_idx, i);
+            assert_eq!(inst.preamble, PreambleAction::Absent);
+            assert_eq!(inst.rows_to_skip, 0);
+            assert!(!inst.take_trailer);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(full.iter().map(|i| i.rows_to_take).sum::<u64>(), 15);
+    }
 
-        let max_rep_index_val = len as u64;
-        let mut rep_index_builder =
-            BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(num_items as usize + 1, max_rep_index_val);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_deep_size_per_variant_below_legacy() {
+        // The previous representation cached 48 bytes per chunk (24 for ChunkMeta plus
+        // 24 for a rep-index block); every variant's heap must be well below that.
+        const LEGACY_PER_CHUNK: usize = 48;
+        let num_chunks = 3;
+        let heap = |index: &MiniBlockChunkIndex| index.deep_size_of_children(&mut Context::new());
+
+        let (uniform_words, uniform_dbs) = words_from(&[(2, 8), (2, 8), (0, 8)]);
+        let uniform = build_chunk_index(&uniform_words, 10, 0, uniform_dbs, None, 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(uniform.row_mapping_debug(), "uniform_flat");
+        assert!(heap(&uniform) < LEGACY_PER_CHUNK * num_chunks);
+
+        let (flat_words, flat_dbs) = words_from(&[(3, 8), (1, 8), (0, 8)]);
+        let flat = build_chunk_index(&flat_words, 11, 0, flat_dbs, None, 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(flat.row_mapping_debug(), "flat");
+        assert!(heap(&flat) < LEGACY_PER_CHUNK * num_chunks);
+        // Flat carries a value-starts array that UniformFlat derives arithmetically.
+        assert!(heap(&flat) > heap(&uniform));
+
+        let rep = rep_bytes_from(&[4, 0, 3, 0, 3, 0]);
+        let (nested_words, nested_dbs) = words_from(&[(2, 8), (2, 8), (0, 8)]);
+        let nested = build_chunk_index(&nested_words, 10, 0, nested_dbs, Some(&rep), 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(nested.row_mapping_debug(), "nested");
+        assert!(heap(&nested) < LEGACY_PER_CHUNK * num_chunks);
+    }
 
-        // TODO: byte pack the item lengths with varint encoding
-        match bytes_per_offset {
-            4 => {
-                let offs = variable.offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u32>();
-                let mut rep_offset = 0;
-                let mut windows_iter = offs.as_ref().windows(2);
-                while let Some(control) = repdef.append_next(&mut buf) {
-                    if control.is_new_row {
-                        // We have finished a row
-                        debug_assert!(rep_offset <= len);
-                        // SAFETY: We know that `buf.len() <= len`
-                        unsafe { rep_index_builder.append(rep_offset as u64) };
-                    }
-                    if control.is_visible {
-                        let window = windows_iter.next().unwrap();
-                        if control.is_valid_item {
-                            buf.extend_from_slice(&(window[1] - window[0]).to_le_bytes());
-                            buf.extend_from_slice(
-                                &variable.data[window[0] as usize..window[1] as usize],
-                            );
-                        }
-                    }
-                    rep_offset = buf.len();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fullzip_initialize_is_lazy() {
+        use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
+        use std::ops::Range;
+        use std::sync::Mutex;
+
+        #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+        struct RecordingScheduler {
+            data: bytes::Bytes,
+            requests: Arc<Mutex<Vec<Vec<Range<u64>>>>>,
+        }
+
+        impl RecordingScheduler {
+            fn new(data: bytes::Bytes) -> Self {
+                Self {
+                    data,
+                    requests: Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new())),
                 }
             }
-            8 => {
-                let offs = variable.offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
-                let mut rep_offset = 0;
-                let mut windows_iter = offs.as_ref().windows(2);
-                while let Some(control) = repdef.append_next(&mut buf) {
-                    if control.is_new_row {
-                        // We have finished a row
-                        debug_assert!(rep_offset <= len);
-                        // SAFETY: We know that `buf.len() <= len`
-                        unsafe { rep_index_builder.append(rep_offset as u64) };
-                    }
-                    if control.is_visible {
-                        let window = windows_iter.next().unwrap();
-                        if control.is_valid_item {
-                            buf.extend_from_slice(&(window[1] - window[0]).to_le_bytes());
-                            buf.extend_from_slice(
-                                &variable.data[window[0] as usize..window[1] as usize],
-                            );
-                        }
-                    }
-                    rep_offset = buf.len();
-                }
+
+            fn requests(&self) -> Vec<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+                self.requests.lock().unwrap().clone()
             }
-            _ => panic!("Unsupported offset size"),
         }
 
-        // We might have saved a few bytes by not copying lengths when the length was zero.  However,
-        // if we are over `len` then we have a bug.
-        debug_assert!(buf.len() <= len);
-        // Put the final value in the rep index
-        // SAFETY: `zipped_data.len() == len`
-        unsafe {
-            rep_index_builder.append(buf.len() as u64);
+        impl crate::EncodingsIo for RecordingScheduler {
+            fn submit_request(
+                &self,
+                ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+                _priority: u64,
+            ) -> BoxFuture<'static, crate::Result<Vec<bytes::Bytes>>> {
+                self.requests.lock().unwrap().push(ranges.clone());
+                let data = ranges
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|range| self.data.slice(range.start as usize..range.end as usize))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                std::future::ready(Ok(data)).boxed()
+            }
         }
 
-        let zipped_data = LanceBuffer::from(buf);
-        let rep_index = rep_index_builder.into_data();
-        debug_assert!(!rep_index.is_empty());
-        let rep_index = Some(LanceBuffer::from(rep_index));
-        SerializedFullZip {
-            values: zipped_data,
-            repetition_index: rep_index,
-        }
-    }
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct TestFixedDecompressor;
 
-    /// Serializes data into a single buffer according to the full-zip format which zips
-    /// together the repetition, definition, and value data into a single buffer.
-    fn serialize_full_zip(
-        compressed_data: PerValueDataBlock,
-        repdef: ControlWordIterator,
-        num_items: u64,
-    ) -> SerializedFullZip {
-        match compressed_data {
-            PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(fixed) => {
-                Self::serialize_full_zip_fixed(fixed, repdef, num_items)
+        impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for TestFixedDecompressor {
+            fn decompress(
+                &self,
+                _data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
+                _num_rows: u64,
+            ) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
+                unimplemented!("Test decompressor")
             }
-            PerValueDataBlock::Variable(var) => {
-                Self::serialize_full_zip_variable(var, repdef, num_items)
+
+            fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
+                32
             }
         }
+
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::new(bytes::Bytes::from(vec![
+            0;
+            16 * 1024
+        ])));
+        let mut scheduler = FullZipScheduler {
+            data_buf_position: 0,
+            data_buf_size: 4096,
+            rep_index: Some(FullZipRepIndexDetails {
+                buf_position: 1000,
+                bytes_per_value: 4,
+            }),
+            priority: 0,
+            rows_in_page: 100,
+            bits_per_offset: 32,
+            details: Arc::new(FullZipDecodeDetails {
+                value_decompressor: PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(Arc::new(TestFixedDecompressor)),
+                def_meaning: Arc::new([crate::repdef::DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem]),
+                ctrl_word_parser: crate::repdef::ControlWordParser::new(0, 1),
+                max_rep: 0,
+                max_visible_def: 0,
+            }),
+            cached_state: None,
+            enable_cache: false,
+        };
+
+        let io_dyn: Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo> = io.clone();
+        let initialization = scheduler.init_layout().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            initialization.required_ranges().next().is_none(),
+            "FullZip should not request any ranges when caching is disabled"
+        );
+        let buffers = initialization.with_buffers(vec![]).unwrap();
+        let cached_data = scheduler.init_from_buffers(buffers, &io_dyn).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            cached_data
+                .as_arc_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<super::NoCachedPageData>()
+                .is_some(),
+            "FullZip initialize should not eagerly load repetition index data"
+        );
+        assert!(scheduler.cached_state.is_none());
+        assert!(
+            io.requests().is_empty(),
+            "FullZip initialize should not issue any I/O"
+        );
     }
 
-    fn encode_full_zip(
-        column_idx: u32,
-        field: &Field,
-        compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
-        data: DataBlock,
-        repdef: crate::repdef::SerializedRepDefs,
-        row_number: u64,
-        num_lists: u64,
-    ) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
-        let max_rep = repdef
-            .repetition_levels
-            .as_ref()
-            .map_or(0, |r| r.iter().max().copied().unwrap_or(0));
-        let max_def = repdef
-            .definition_levels
-            .as_ref()
-            .map_or(0, |d| d.iter().max().copied().unwrap_or(0));
+    /// Prove that an N-page cache miss issues one `submit_request` carrying every
+    /// page's metadata range, rather than one submission per page. The production
+    /// I/O scheduler can then coalesce adjacent ranges within that batch.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_coalesces_missed_page_metadata() {
+        use std::ops::Range;
 
-        // To handle FSL we just flatten
-        // let data = data.flatten();
+        use futures::FutureExt;
+        use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 
-        let (num_items, num_visible_items) =
-            if let Some(rep_levels) = repdef.repetition_levels.as_ref() {
-                // If there are rep levels there may be "invisible" items and we need to encode
-                // rep_levels.len() things which might be larger than data.num_values()
-                (rep_levels.len() as u64, data.num_values())
-            } else {
-                // If there are no rep levels then we encode data.num_values() things
-                (data.num_values(), data.num_values())
-            };
+        use super::{
+            CachedPage, CachedPageData, Error, PageCacheView, PageDataCacheKey,
+            PageInfoAndScheduler, PageInitialization, PageInitializationBuffers, PageLoadTask,
+            StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler,
+        };
+        use crate::decoder::{FilterExpression, SchedulerContext, StructuralFieldScheduler};
 
-        let max_visible_def = repdef.max_visible_level.unwrap_or(u16::MAX);
+        // Give each fake page one fixed-size metadata buffer. The ranges are far
+        // apart because this test observes batching, not the I/O layer's distance-
+        // based range coalescing.
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct FakePageScheduler {
+            meta_range: Range<u64>,
+        }
+        impl StructuralPageScheduler for FakePageScheduler {
+            fn init_layout(&self) -> crate::Result<PageInitialization> {
+                Ok(PageInitialization::new([Some(self.meta_range.clone())]))
+            }
+            fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
+                &'a mut self,
+                buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
+                _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+            ) -> BoxFuture<'a, crate::Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
+                let [buffer] = buffers.try_into_array("fake").unwrap();
+                let buffer = buffer.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    &buffer[..8],
+                    &self.meta_range.start.to_le_bytes(),
+                    "each page gets the buffer for its own range"
+                );
+                std::future::ready(Ok(Arc::new(CacheMarker(42)) as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)).boxed()
+            }
+            fn try_load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> crate::Result<()> {
+                data.clone()
+                    .as_arc_any()
+                    .downcast::<CacheMarker>()
+                    .map(|_| ())
+                    .map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Fake page cache data has an unexpected type".into(),
+                        )
+                    })
+            }
+            fn schedule_ranges(
+                &self,
+                _ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+                _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+            ) -> crate::Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
+                unreachable!("initialize never schedules data reads");
+            }
+        }
 
-        let repdef_iter = build_control_word_iterator(
-            repdef.repetition_levels.as_deref(),
-            max_rep,
-            repdef.definition_levels.as_deref(),
-            max_def,
-            max_visible_def,
-            num_items as usize,
+        const NUM_PAGES: u64 = 64;
+        const META_LEN: u64 = 64;
+        const STRIDE: u64 = 1024 * 1024;
+        let page_schedulers = (0..NUM_PAGES)
+            .map(|i| PageInfoAndScheduler {
+                page_index: i as usize,
+                row_range: (i * 100)..((i + 1) * 100),
+                scheduler: Box::new(FakePageScheduler {
+                    meta_range: (i * STRIDE)..(i * STRIDE + META_LEN),
+                }),
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let mut scheduler = StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::from_page_schedulers(
+            page_schedulers,
+            0,
+            Arc::from("test"),
         );
-        let bits_rep = repdef_iter.bits_rep();
-        let bits_def = repdef_iter.bits_def();
 
-        let compressor = compression_strategy.create_per_value(field, &data)?;
-        let (compressed_data, value_encoding) = compressor.compress(data)?;
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::default());
+        // A no-op cache always misses, so every page is a miss.
+        let cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache());
+        let context = SchedulerContext::new(io.clone(), cache.clone());
 
-        let description = match &compressed_data {
-            PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(fixed) => ProtobufUtils21::fixed_full_zip_layout(
-                bits_rep,
-                bits_def,
-                fixed.bits_per_value as u32,
-                value_encoding,
-                &repdef.def_meaning,
-                num_items as u32,
-                num_visible_items as u32,
-            ),
-            PerValueDataBlock::Variable(variable) => ProtobufUtils21::variable_full_zip_layout(
-                bits_rep,
-                bits_def,
-                variable.bits_per_offset as u32,
-                value_encoding,
-                &repdef.def_meaning,
-                num_items as u32,
-                num_visible_items as u32,
-            ),
-        };
+        // `None` requests every page; against an always-miss cache that's an
+        // N-page miss.
+        let filter = FilterExpression::no_filter();
+        scheduler.initialize(None, &filter, &context).await.unwrap();
+
+        {
+            let requests = io.requests.lock().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                requests.len(),
+                1,
+                "an N-page miss must issue exactly one request, not one per page"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                requests[0].len() as u64,
+                NUM_PAGES,
+                "the single request must carry every missed page's metadata range"
+            );
+        }
 
-        let zipped = Self::serialize_full_zip(compressed_data, repdef_iter, num_items);
+        io.requests.lock().unwrap().clear();
+        let cache_misses_before = cache.stats().await.misses;
+        let requested_ranges = Arc::<[Range<u64>]>::from([150..151, 6_350..6_351]);
+        scheduler
+            .initialize(Some(&requested_ranges), &filter, &context)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            cache.stats().await.misses - cache_misses_before,
+            2,
+            "range-scoped initialization must only look up touched pages"
+        );
 
-        let data = if let Some(repindex) = zipped.repetition_index {
-            vec![zipped.values, repindex]
-        } else {
-            vec![zipped.values]
+        {
+            let requests = io.requests.lock().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(requests.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                requests[0],
+                vec![
+                    STRIDE..(STRIDE + META_LEN),
+                    63 * STRIDE..(63 * STRIDE + META_LEN),
+                ],
+                "range-scoped initialization must omit untouched pages"
+            );
+        }
+
+        io.requests.lock().unwrap().clear();
+        let cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(4 * 1024));
+        let cache_key = PageDataCacheKey {
+            column_index: 9,
+            page_index: 0,
+            view: PageCacheView::Native,
+            target_data_type_tag: Arc::from("test"),
         };
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(
+                &cache_key,
+                Arc::new(CachedPage {
+                    data: Arc::new(super::NoCachedPageData),
+                }),
+            )
+            .await;
+        let mut recovering_scheduler = StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::from_page_schedulers(
+            vec![PageInfoAndScheduler {
+                page_index: 0,
+                row_range: 0..100,
+                scheduler: Box::new(FakePageScheduler {
+                    meta_range: 0..META_LEN,
+                }),
+            }],
+            9,
+            Arc::from("test"),
+        );
+        let recovering_context = SchedulerContext::new(io.clone(), cache.clone());
+        recovering_scheduler
+            .initialize(None, &filter, &recovering_context)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(io.requests.lock().unwrap().as_slice(), &[vec![0..META_LEN]]);
+
+        io.requests.lock().unwrap().clear();
+        let mut warm_scheduler = StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::from_page_schedulers(
+            vec![PageInfoAndScheduler {
+                page_index: 0,
+                row_range: 0..100,
+                scheduler: Box::new(FakePageScheduler {
+                    meta_range: 0..META_LEN,
+                }),
+            }],
+            9,
+            Arc::from("test"),
+        );
+        warm_scheduler
+            .initialize(None, &filter, &recovering_context)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            io.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "the rebuilt cache entry must be reusable"
+        );
 
-        Ok(EncodedPage {
-            num_rows: num_lists,
-            column_idx,
-            data,
-            description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
-            row_number,
-        })
+        let mut out_of_order_scheduler = StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::from_page_schedulers(
+            vec![
+                PageInfoAndScheduler {
+                    page_index: 0,
+                    row_range: 0..100,
+                    scheduler: Box::new(FakePageScheduler {
+                        meta_range: STRIDE..(STRIDE + META_LEN),
+                    }),
+                },
+                PageInfoAndScheduler {
+                    page_index: 1,
+                    row_range: 100..200,
+                    scheduler: Box::new(FakePageScheduler {
+                        meta_range: 0..META_LEN,
+                    }),
+                },
+            ],
+            0,
+            Arc::from("test"),
+        );
+        out_of_order_scheduler
+            .initialize(None, &filter, &context)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            io.requests.lock().unwrap().as_slice(),
+            &[vec![0..META_LEN, STRIDE..(STRIDE + META_LEN)]],
+            "metadata reads must be sorted without changing page buffer assignment"
+        );
     }
 
-    /// Estimates the total size of dictionary-encoded data
-    ///
-    /// Dictionary encoding splits data into two parts:
-    /// 1. Dictionary: stores unique values
-    /// 2. Indices: maps each value to a dictionary entry
-    ///
-    /// For FixedWidth:
-    /// - Dictionary values: cardinality × (bits_per_value / 8)
-    /// - Indices: num_values × 4 bytes (32-bit i32)
-    ///
-    /// For VariableWidth (strings/binary):
-    /// - Dictionary values: cardinality × avg_value_size (actual data)
-    /// - Indices: num_values × 4 bytes (32-bit i32)
-    fn estimate_dict_size(data_block: &DataBlock, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Option<u64> {
-        let cardinality = if let Some(cardinality_array) = data_block.get_stat(Stat::Cardinality) {
-            cardinality_array.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0)
-        } else {
-            return None;
-        };
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn page_cache_key_distinguishes_page_view_and_target_type() {
+        let cache = lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(4 * 1024);
+        let cases = [
+            (
+                PageDataCacheKey {
+                    column_index: 7,
+                    page_index: 0,
+                    view: PageCacheView::Native,
+                    target_data_type_tag: Arc::from("Boolean"),
+                },
+                10,
+            ),
+            (
+                PageDataCacheKey {
+                    column_index: 7,
+                    page_index: 1,
+                    view: PageCacheView::Native,
+                    target_data_type_tag: Arc::from("Boolean"),
+                },
+                11,
+            ),
+            (
+                PageDataCacheKey {
+                    column_index: 7,
+                    page_index: 0,
+                    view: PageCacheView::Native,
+                    target_data_type_tag: Arc::from("UInt8"),
+                },
+                12,
+            ),
+            (
+                PageDataCacheKey {
+                    column_index: 7,
+                    page_index: 0,
+                    view: PageCacheView::BlobDescriptor,
+                    target_data_type_tag: Arc::from("Struct"),
+                },
+                20,
+            ),
+            (
+                PageDataCacheKey {
+                    column_index: 7,
+                    page_index: 0,
+                    view: PageCacheView::BlobPayload,
+                    target_data_type_tag: Arc::from("LargeBinary"),
+                },
+                21,
+            ),
+        ];
 
-        let num_values = data_block.num_values();
-        if num_values == 0 {
-            return None;
+        for (key, marker) in &cases {
+            cache
+                .insert_with_key(
+                    key,
+                    Arc::new(CachedPage {
+                        data: Arc::new(CacheMarker(*marker)),
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await;
         }
-        match data_block {
-            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed) => {
-                if fixed.bits_per_value == 64 && version < LanceFileVersion::V2_2 {
-                    return None;
-                }
-                // The current fixed-width dictionary encoding uses i32 indices.
-                if cardinality > i32::MAX as u64 {
-                    return None;
-                }
-                // We currently only support dictionary encoding for 64-bit and 128-bit fixed-width values.
-                if fixed.bits_per_value != 64 && fixed.bits_per_value != 128 {
-                    return None;
-                }
-                if fixed.bits_per_value % 8 != 0 {
-                    return None;
-                }
-                // Dictionary: cardinality unique values at value bit width
-                let dict_size = cardinality * (fixed.bits_per_value / 8);
-                // Indices: num_values indices at 32 bits each
-                let indices_size = num_values * (DICT_INDICES_BITS_PER_VALUE / 8);
-                Some(dict_size + indices_size)
-            }
-            DataBlock::VariableWidth(var) => {
-                // Only 32-bit and 64-bit offsets are supported
-                if var.bits_per_offset != 32 && var.bits_per_offset != 64 {
-                    return None;
-                }
-                if cardinality > i32::MAX as u64 {
-                    return None;
-                }
 
-                let bytes_per_offset = var.bits_per_offset as u64 / 8;
-                let avg_value_size = (var.data.len() as u64) / num_values;
+        assert_eq!(cache.size().await, cases.len());
+        for (key, expected) in &cases {
+            let cached = cache.get_with_key(key).await.unwrap();
+            let marker = cached
+                .data
+                .clone()
+                .as_arc_any()
+                .downcast::<CacheMarker>()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(marker.0, *expected);
+        }
+    }
 
-                let dict_values_size = cardinality.checked_mul(avg_value_size)?;
-                let dict_offsets_size = cardinality.checked_mul(bytes_per_offset)?;
-                let indices_size = num_values.checked_mul(DICT_INDICES_BITS_PER_VALUE / 8)?;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn no_op_pages_do_not_create_cache_entries() {
+        let mut scheduler = StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::from_page_schedulers(
+            vec![PageInfoAndScheduler {
+                page_index: 0,
+                row_range: 0..10,
+                scheduler: Box::new(SimpleAllNullScheduler::default()),
+            }],
+            3,
+            Arc::from("test"),
+        );
+        let io: Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo> =
+            Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(bytes::Bytes::new()));
+        let cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(4 * 1024));
+        let context = SchedulerContext::new(io, cache.clone());
+
+        scheduler
+            .initialize(None, &FilterExpression::no_filter(), &context)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-                dict_values_size
-                    .checked_add(dict_offsets_size)?
-                    .checked_add(indices_size)
-            }
-            _ => None,
-        }
+        assert_eq!(cache.size().await, 0);
     }
 
-    fn should_dictionary_encode(
-        data_block: &DataBlock,
-        field: &Field,
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> bool {
-        // Since we only dictionary encode FixedWidth and VariableWidth blocks for now, we skip
-        // estimating the size
-        match data_block {
-            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed) => {
-                if fixed.bits_per_value == 64 && version < LanceFileVersion::V2_2 {
-                    return false;
-                }
-                if fixed.bits_per_value != 64 && fixed.bits_per_value != 128 {
-                    return false;
-                }
-            }
-            DataBlock::VariableWidth(_) => {}
-            _ => return false,
-        }
+    #[test]
+    fn page_initialization_preserves_optional_buffer_slots() {
+        let initialization = PageInitialization::new([None, Some(20..22), None, Some(10..11)]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            initialization
+                .required_ranges()
+                .cloned()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            [20..22, 10..11]
+        );
 
-        // Currently VariableWidth only supports 32 and 64 bits
-        if let DataBlock::VariableWidth(var) = data_block {
-            if var.bits_per_offset != 32 && var.bits_per_offset != 64 {
-                return false;
-            }
-        }
+        let buffers = initialization
+            .with_buffers(vec![
+                bytes::Bytes::from_static(b"ab"),
+                bytes::Bytes::from_static(b"c"),
+            ])
+            .unwrap();
+        let [first, second, third, fourth] = buffers.try_into_array("test").unwrap();
+        assert!(first.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(second.unwrap(), bytes::Bytes::from_static(b"ab"));
+        assert!(third.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(fourth.unwrap(), bytes::Bytes::from_static(b"c"));
 
-        // Don't dictionary encode tiny arrays
-        let too_small = env::var("LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_TOO_SMALL")
-            .ok()
-            .and_then(|val| val.parse().ok())
-            .unwrap_or(100);
-        if data_block.num_values() < too_small {
-            return false;
-        }
+        let error = PageInitialization::new([Some(0..1)])
+            .with_buffers(Vec::new())
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("1 declared ranges"));
+    }
 
-        // Get size ratio from metadata or env var, default to 0.8
-        let threshold_ratio = field
-            .metadata
-            .get(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY)
-            .and_then(|val| val.parse::<f64>().ok())
-            .or_else(|| {
-                env::var("LANCE_ENCODING_DICT_SIZE_RATIO")
-                    .ok()
-                    .and_then(|val| val.parse().ok())
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn initialize_builds_only_requested_page_schedulers() {
+        use crate::compression::DefaultDecompressionStrategy;
+        use crate::decoder::{
+            ColumnInfo, FilterExpression, PageEncoding, PageInfo, SchedulerContext,
+            StructuralFieldScheduler,
+        };
+        use crate::format::pb;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Field;
+
+        const NUM_PAGES: u64 = 64;
+        const ROWS_PER_PAGE: u64 = 100;
+        // All-null constant pages need no initialization I/O, so this test
+        // observes construction alone.
+        let page_infos = (0..NUM_PAGES)
+            .map(|page_index| PageInfo {
+                num_rows: ROWS_PER_PAGE,
+                priority: page_index * ROWS_PER_PAGE,
+                encoding: PageEncoding::Structural(pb21::PageLayout {
+                    layout: Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(
+                        pb21::ConstantLayout {
+                            layers: vec![pb21::RepDefLayer::RepdefNullableItem as i32],
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        },
+                    )),
+                }),
+                buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc::new([]),
             })
-            .unwrap_or(0.8);
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let column_info = Arc::new(ColumnInfo::new(
+            3,
+            Arc::from(page_infos),
+            Vec::new(),
+            pb::ColumnEncoding::default(),
+        ));
+        let field = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true)).unwrap();
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        let eager = StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::try_new(
+            &column_info,
+            &DefaultDecompressionStrategy {},
+            false,
+            &field,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(eager.page_schedulers.len(), NUM_PAGES as usize);
+        assert!(eager.page_source.is_none());
 
-        // Validate size ratio is in valid range
-        if threshold_ratio <= 0.0 || threshold_ratio > 1.0 {
-            panic!(
-                "Invalid parameter: dict-size-ratio is {} which is not in the range (0, 1].",
-                threshold_ratio
-            );
-        }
+        let mut scheduler = StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::try_new_lazy(
+            column_info,
+            Arc::new(DefaultDecompressionStrategy {}),
+            false,
+            &field,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            scheduler.page_schedulers.is_empty(),
+            "construction must not build page schedulers"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(scheduler.page_row_ends.len(), NUM_PAGES as usize);
 
-        // Get raw data size
-        let data_size = data_block.data_size();
+        let io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(bytes::Bytes::new()));
+        let cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache());
+        let mut context = SchedulerContext::new(io, cache);
+        let filter = FilterExpression::no_filter();
 
-        // Estimate dictionary-encoded size
-        let Some(encoded_size) = Self::estimate_dict_size(data_block, version) else {
-            return false;
+        let requested_ranges = [150..151, 6_350..6_351];
+        scheduler
+            .initialize(Some(&requested_ranges), &filter, &context)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let built_pages = |scheduler: &StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler| {
+            scheduler
+                .page_schedulers
+                .iter()
+                .map(|page| page.page_index)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
         };
+        assert_eq!(built_pages(&scheduler), [1, 63]);
+        assert_eq!(scheduler.page_schedulers[1].row_range, 6_300..6_400);
+        assert!(scheduler.page_source.is_some());
 
-        let size_ratio_actual = if data_size > 0 {
-            encoded_size as f64 / data_size as f64
-        } else {
-            return false;
-        };
-        size_ratio_actual < threshold_ratio
-    }
+        {
+            let mut job = scheduler
+                .schedule_ranges(&requested_ranges, &filter)
+                .unwrap();
+            // Both pages fit one read batch, so one call schedules them together.
+            assert_eq!(job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap().len(), 2);
+            assert!(job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap().is_empty());
+
+            // Rows outside the initialized ranges must fail cleanly, not panic
+            // on an uninitialized page.
+            let mut job = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[0..1], &filter).unwrap();
+            let error = job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::Internal { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("not initialized"));
+        }
 
-    // Creates an encode task, consuming all buffered data
-    fn do_flush(
-        &mut self,
-        arrays: Vec<ArrayRef>,
-        repdefs: Vec<RepDefBuilder>,
-        row_number: u64,
-        num_rows: u64,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
-        let column_idx = self.column_index;
-        let compression_strategy = self.compression_strategy.clone();
-        let field = self.field.clone();
-        let encoding_metadata = self.encoding_metadata.clone();
-        let support_large_chunk = self.support_large_chunk;
-        let version = self.version;
-        let task = spawn_cpu(move || {
-            let num_values = arrays.iter().map(|arr| arr.len() as u64).sum();
-            let is_simple_validity = repdefs.iter().all(|rd| rd.is_simple_validity());
-            let has_repdef_info = repdefs.iter().any(|rd| !rd.is_empty());
-            let repdef = RepDefBuilder::serialize(repdefs);
-
-            if num_values == 0 {
-                // We should not encode empty arrays.  So if we get here that should mean that we
-                // either have all empty lists or all null lists (or a mix).  We still need to encode
-                // the rep/def information but we can skip the data encoding.
-                log::debug!("Encoding column {} with {} items ({} rows) using complex-null layout", column_idx, num_values, num_rows);
-                return Self::encode_complex_all_null(column_idx, repdef, row_number, num_rows);
-            }
-
-            let leaf_validity = Self::leaf_validity(&repdef, num_values as usize)?;
-            let all_null = leaf_validity
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(|validity| validity.count_set_bits() == 0)
-                .unwrap_or(false);
+        // Widening the request builds only the new pages and keeps page order.
+        scheduler
+            .initialize(Some(&[0..250]), &filter, &context)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(built_pages(&scheduler), [0, 1, 2, 63]);
+
+        // The eager path builds every page and releases the page source.
+        scheduler.initialize(None, &filter, &context).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scheduler.page_schedulers.len(), NUM_PAGES as usize);
+        assert!(scheduler.page_source.is_none());
+        let mut job = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[0..1], &filter).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap().len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// Records every `submit_request` (ranges and priority) and answers each
+    /// range with a zero buffer that starts with the range's offset, so a test
+    /// can count requests and check that every reader got its own ranges back.
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct RecordingScheduler {
+        requests: std::sync::Mutex<Vec<Vec<Range<u64>>>>,
+        priorities: std::sync::Mutex<Vec<u64>>,
+    }
+
+    impl crate::EncodingsIo for RecordingScheduler {
+        fn submit_request(
+            &self,
+            ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+            priority: u64,
+        ) -> futures::future::BoxFuture<'static, crate::Result<Vec<Bytes>>> {
+            use futures::FutureExt;
+
+            let buffers = ranges
+                .iter()
+                .map(|range| {
+                    let mut buffer = vec![0u8; (range.end - range.start) as usize];
+                    let marker = range.start.to_le_bytes();
+                    let marker_len = marker.len().min(buffer.len());
+                    buffer[..marker_len].copy_from_slice(&marker[..marker_len]);
+                    Bytes::from(buffer)
+                })
+                .collect();
+            self.requests.lock().unwrap().push(ranges);
+            self.priorities.lock().unwrap().push(priority);
+            std::future::ready(Ok(buffers)).boxed()
+        }
+    }
 
-            if all_null {
-                return if is_simple_validity {
-                    log::debug!(
-                        "Encoding column {} with {} items ({} rows) using simple-null layout",
-                        column_idx,
-                        num_values,
-                        num_rows
-                    );
-                    Self::encode_simple_all_null(column_idx, num_values, row_number)
-                } else {
-                    log::debug!(
-                        "Encoding column {} with {} items ({} rows) using complex-null layout",
-                        column_idx,
-                        num_values,
-                        num_rows
-                    );
-                    Self::encode_complex_all_null(column_idx, repdef, row_number, num_rows)
-                };
-            }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn page_read_batch_submits_pending_reads_as_one_request() {
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::default());
+        let batch = RequestBatch::new(io.clone());
+        let first = batch.submit_request(vec![100..108, 300..308], 7);
+        let second = batch.submit_request(vec![200..208], 3);
+        assert_eq!(batch.pending_bytes(), 24);
+        assert!(
+            io.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "nothing is read before the flush"
+        );
 
-            if let DataType::Struct(fields) = &field.data_type() {
-                if fields.is_empty() {
-                    if has_repdef_info {
-                        return Err(Error::InvalidInput { source: format!("Empty structs with rep/def information are not yet supported.  The field {} is an empty struct that either has nulls or is in a list.", field.name).into(), location: location!() });
-                    }
-                    // This is maybe a little confusing but the reader should never look at this anyways and it
-                    // seems like overkill to invent a new layout just for "empty structs".
-                    return Self::encode_simple_all_null(column_idx, num_values, row_number);
-                }
-            }
+        batch.flush();
+        {
+            let requests = io.requests.lock().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(requests.len(), 1, "the batch is one request");
+            assert_eq!(
+                requests[0],
+                vec![100..108, 200..208, 300..308],
+                "the batch is sorted by file offset"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            io.priorities.lock().unwrap()[0],
+            3,
+            "the batch takes the lowest priority"
+        );
+        let first = first.await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(first[0].as_ref(), &100_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(first[1].as_ref(), &300_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        let second = second.await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(second[0].as_ref(), &200_u64.to_le_bytes());
+
+        // A read submitted after the flush is batched until it is awaited.
+        let late = batch.submit_request(vec![400..408], 9).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(late[0].as_ref(), &400_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(io.requests.lock().unwrap().len(), 2);
+
+        // Queued reads that would exceed the budget are submitted first, so
+        // no batch grows past it.
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::default());
+        let batch = RequestBatch::new(io.clone());
+        let budget = crate::decoder::IO_REQUEST_BATCH_BYTES;
+        let first = batch.submit_request(vec![0..budget], 1);
+        assert!(io.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
+        let second = batch.submit_request(vec![budget..(budget + 8)], 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            io.requests.lock().unwrap().as_slice(),
+            &[vec![0..budget]],
+            "the full batch is submitted before the read that would overflow it"
+        );
+        batch.flush();
+        assert_eq!(io.requests.lock().unwrap().len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(first.await.unwrap()[0].len(), budget as usize);
+        assert_eq!(second.await.unwrap()[0].as_ref(), &budget.to_le_bytes());
+    }
 
-            let data_block = DataBlock::from_arrays(&arrays, num_values);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn request_batch_flush_keeps_collecting_and_awaiting_flushes() {
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::default());
+        let batch = RequestBatch::new(io.clone());
+        let first = batch.submit_request(vec![100..108], 1);
+        let second = batch.submit_request(vec![300..308], 2);
+        batch.flush();
+        assert_eq!(
+            io.requests.lock().unwrap().as_slice(),
+            &[vec![100..108, 300..308]],
+            "a flush submits the collected reads as one request"
+        );
+        // The batch keeps collecting after a flush.
+        let third = batch.submit_request(vec![500..508], 3);
+        let fourth = batch.submit_request(vec![700..708], 4);
+        assert_eq!(batch.pending_bytes(), 16);
+        assert_eq!(io.requests.lock().unwrap().len(), 1);
+        // Awaiting a read submits whatever is queued, so a read queued outside
+        // a scheduling step (indirect I/O) is never stuck behind a missing flush.
+        assert_eq!(third.await.unwrap()[0].as_ref(), &500_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(
+            io.requests.lock().unwrap().as_slice(),
+            &[vec![100..108, 300..308], vec![500..508, 700..708]]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(fourth.await.unwrap()[0].as_ref(), &700_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(first.await.unwrap()[0].as_ref(), &100_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(second.await.unwrap()[0].as_ref(), &300_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(io.requests.lock().unwrap().len(), 2);
+
+        // Futures that submit when first polled and are polled in the same
+        // pass (struct children initializing, list columns fetching items)
+        // end up in one request: the flush waits for one yield.
+        let (fifth, sixth) = futures::join!(
+            async { batch.submit_request(vec![900..908], 5).await.unwrap() },
+            async { batch.submit_request(vec![1100..1108], 6).await.unwrap() },
+        );
+        assert_eq!(fifth[0].as_ref(), &900_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(sixth[0].as_ref(), &1100_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(
+            io.requests.lock().unwrap().last().unwrap(),
+            &vec![900..908, 1100..1108],
+            "reads submitted by sibling futures share one request"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(io.requests.lock().unwrap().len(), 3);
+    }
 
-            if version.resolve() >= LanceFileVersion::V2_2 {
-                if let Some(scalar) = Self::find_constant_scalar(&arrays, leaf_validity.as_ref())?
-                {
-                    log::debug!(
-                        "Encoding column {} with {} items ({} rows) using constant layout",
-                        column_idx,
-                        num_values,
-                        num_rows
-                    );
-                    return constant::encode_constant_page(
-                        column_idx,
-                        scalar,
-                        repdef,
-                        row_number,
-                        num_rows,
-                    );
-                }
-            }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn schedule_next_batches_page_reads_up_to_the_budget() {
+        use super::{
+            CachedPageData, IO_REQUEST_BATCH_BYTES, PageInfoAndScheduler, PageInitialization,
+            PageInitializationBuffers, PageLoadTask, StructuralPageScheduler,
+            StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler,
+        };
+        use crate::decoder::{FilterExpression, SchedulerContext, StructuralFieldScheduler};
 
-            let requires_full_zip_packed_struct =
-                if let DataBlock::Struct(ref struct_data_block) = data_block {
-                    struct_data_block.has_variable_width_child()
-                } else {
-                    false
-                };
+        /// A page that reads `data_ranges`, one shard (and one load task) per
+        /// range. The bytes it gets back are covered by the batch test, so its
+        /// load futures just fail and the test never has to build a decoder.
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct FakeDataPage {
+            data_ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+        }
 
-            if requires_full_zip_packed_struct {
-                log::debug!(
-                    "Encoding column {} with {} items using full-zip packed struct layout",
-                    column_idx,
-                    num_values
-                );
-                return Self::encode_full_zip(
-                    column_idx,
-                    &field,
-                    compression_strategy.as_ref(),
-                    data_block,
-                    repdef,
-                    row_number,
-                    num_rows,
-                );
+        impl StructuralPageScheduler for FakeDataPage {
+            fn needs_initialization(&self) -> bool {
+                false
             }
 
-            if let DataBlock::Dictionary(dict) = data_block {
-                log::debug!("Encoding column {} with {} items using dictionary encoding (already dictionary encoded)", column_idx, num_values);
-                let (mut indices_data_block, dictionary_data_block) = dict.into_parts();
-                // TODO: https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues/4809
-                // If we compute stats on dictionary_data_block => panic.
-                // If we don't compute stats on indices_data_block => panic.
-                // This is messy.  Don't make me call compute_stat ever.
-                indices_data_block.compute_stat();
-                Self::encode_miniblock(
-                    column_idx,
-                    &field,
-                    compression_strategy.as_ref(),
-                    indices_data_block,
-                    repdef,
-                    row_number,
-                    Some(dictionary_data_block),
-                    num_rows,
-                    support_large_chunk,
-                )
-            } else {
-                // Try dictionary encoding first if applicable. If encoding aborts, fall back to the
-                // preferred structural encoding.
-                let dict_result = if Self::should_dictionary_encode(&data_block, &field, version) {
-                    log::debug!(
-                        "Encoding column {} with {} items using dictionary encoding (mini-block layout)",
-                        column_idx,
-                        num_values
-                    );
-                    dict::dictionary_encode(data_block.clone())
-                } else {
-                    None
-                };
-
-                if let Some((indices_data_block, dictionary_data_block)) = dict_result {
-                    Self::encode_miniblock(
-                        column_idx,
-                        &field,
-                        compression_strategy.as_ref(),
-                        indices_data_block,
-                        repdef,
-                        row_number,
-                        Some(dictionary_data_block),
-                        num_rows,
-                        support_large_chunk,
-                    )
-                } else if Self::prefers_miniblock(&data_block, encoding_metadata.as_ref()) {
-                    log::debug!(
-                        "Encoding column {} with {} items using mini-block layout",
-                        column_idx,
-                        num_values
-                    );
-                    Self::encode_miniblock(
-                        column_idx,
-                        &field,
-                        compression_strategy.as_ref(),
-                        data_block,
-                        repdef,
-                        row_number,
-                        None,
-                        num_rows,
-                        support_large_chunk,
-                    )
-                } else if Self::prefers_fullzip(encoding_metadata.as_ref()) {
-                    log::debug!(
-                        "Encoding column {} with {} items using full-zip layout",
-                        column_idx,
-                        num_values
-                    );
-                    Self::encode_full_zip(
-                        column_idx,
-                        &field,
-                        compression_strategy.as_ref(),
-                        data_block,
-                        repdef,
-                        row_number,
-                        num_rows,
-                    )
-                } else {
-                    Err(Error::InvalidInput { source: format!("Cannot determine structural encoding for field {}.  This typically indicates an invalid value of the field metadata key {}", field.name, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY).into(), location: location!() })
-                }
+            fn init_layout(&self) -> crate::Result<PageInitialization> {
+                unreachable!("fake data pages need no initialization")
             }
-        })
-        .boxed();
-        Ok(vec![task])
-    }
 
-    fn extract_validity_buf(
-        array: Arc<dyn Array>,
-        repdef: &mut RepDefBuilder,
-        keep_original_array: bool,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
-        if let Some(validity) = array.nulls() {
-            if keep_original_array {
-                repdef.add_validity_bitmap(validity.clone());
-            } else {
-                repdef.add_validity_bitmap(deep_copy_nulls(Some(validity)).unwrap());
+            fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
+                &'a mut self,
+                _buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
+                _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+            ) -> futures::future::BoxFuture<'a, crate::Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>>
+            {
+                unreachable!("fake data pages need no initialization")
             }
-            let data_no_nulls = array.to_data().into_builder().nulls(None).build()?;
-            Ok(make_array(data_no_nulls))
-        } else {
-            repdef.add_no_null(array.len());
-            Ok(array)
-        }
-    }
 
-    fn extract_validity(
-        mut array: Arc<dyn Array>,
-        repdef: &mut RepDefBuilder,
-        keep_original_array: bool,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
-        match array.data_type() {
-            DataType::Null => {
-                repdef.add_validity_bitmap(NullBuffer::new(BooleanBuffer::new_unset(array.len())));
-                Ok(array)
-            }
-            DataType::Dictionary(_, _) => {
-                array = dict::normalize_dict_nulls(array)?;
-                Self::extract_validity_buf(array, repdef, keep_original_array)
+            fn try_load(&mut self, _data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> crate::Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
             }
-            // Extract our validity buf but NOT any child validity bufs. (they will be encoded in
-            // as part of the values).  Note: for FSL we do not use repdef.add_fsl because we do
-            // NOT want to increase the repdef depth.
-            //
-            // This would be quite catasrophic for something like vector embeddings.  Imagine we
-            // had thousands of vectors and some were null but no vector contained null items.  If
-            // we treated the vectors (primitive FSL) like we treat structural FSL we would end up
-            // with a rep/def value for every single item in the vector.
-            _ => Self::extract_validity_buf(array, repdef, keep_original_array),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl FieldEncoder for PrimitiveStructuralEncoder {
-    // Buffers data, if there is enough to write a page then we create an encode task
-    fn maybe_encode(
-        &mut self,
-        array: ArrayRef,
-        _external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
-        mut repdef: RepDefBuilder,
-        row_number: u64,
-        num_rows: u64,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
-        let array = Self::extract_validity(array, &mut repdef, self.keep_original_array)?;
-        self.accumulated_repdefs.push(repdef);
 
-        if let Some((arrays, row_number, num_rows)) =
-            self.accumulation_queue.insert(array, row_number, num_rows)
-        {
-            let accumulated_repdefs = std::mem::take(&mut self.accumulated_repdefs);
-            Ok(self.do_flush(arrays, accumulated_repdefs, row_number, num_rows)?)
-        } else {
-            Ok(vec![])
+            fn schedule_ranges(
+                &self,
+                ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+                io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+            ) -> crate::Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
+                use futures::FutureExt;
+
+                let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
+                Ok(self
+                    .data_ranges
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(|(shard, range)| {
+                        drop(io.submit_request(vec![range.clone()], range.start));
+                        PageLoadTask {
+                            decoder_fut: std::future::ready(Err(lance_core::Error::internal(
+                                "fake page",
+                            )))
+                            .boxed(),
+                            // The page's rows are reported once, on the first shard.
+                            num_rows: if shard == 0 { num_rows } else { 0 },
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect())
+            }
         }
-    }
 
-    // If there is any data left in the buffer then create an encode task from it
-    fn flush(&mut self, _external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
-        if let Some((arrays, row_number, num_rows)) = self.accumulation_queue.flush() {
-            let accumulated_repdefs = std::mem::take(&mut self.accumulated_repdefs);
-            Ok(self.do_flush(arrays, accumulated_repdefs, row_number, num_rows)?)
-        } else {
-            Ok(vec![])
+        fn scheduler_with_pages(
+            page_bytes: u64,
+            num_pages: u64,
+        ) -> StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler {
+            // Leave a gap between pages so the test can tell batching from
+            // the I/O layer's coalescing of adjacent ranges.
+            let stride = page_bytes * 2;
+            let pages = (0..num_pages)
+                .map(|page| PageInfoAndScheduler {
+                    page_index: page as usize,
+                    row_range: (page * 10)..((page + 1) * 10),
+                    scheduler: Box::new(FakeDataPage {
+                        data_ranges: vec![(page * stride)..(page * stride + page_bytes)],
+                    }),
+                })
+                .collect();
+            StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::from_page_schedulers(pages, 0, Arc::from("test"))
         }
-    }
 
-    fn num_columns(&self) -> u32 {
-        1
-    }
+        let filter = FilterExpression::no_filter();
+        let cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache());
+
+        // Small pages: every page of the request is read in one batch.
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::default());
+        let scheduler = scheduler_with_pages(64, 6);
+        let mut context = SchedulerContext::new(io.clone(), cache.clone());
+        let mut job = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[5..45], &filter).unwrap();
+        let scan_lines = job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap();
+        context.flush_io();
+        assert_eq!(scan_lines.len(), 5, "one scan line per touched page");
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan_lines
+                .iter()
+                .map(|line| line.rows_scheduled)
+                .sum::<u64>(),
+            40
+        );
+        assert!(job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap().is_empty());
+        {
+            let requests = io.requests.lock().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(requests.len(), 1, "five pages cost one request");
+            assert_eq!(
+                requests[0],
+                vec![0..64, 128..192, 256..320, 384..448, 512..576],
+                "the untouched last page is not read"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            io.priorities.lock().unwrap()[0],
+            0,
+            "the batch carries the first page's priority"
+        );
 
-    fn finish(
-        &mut self,
-        _external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<Vec<crate::encoder::EncodedColumn>>> {
-        std::future::ready(Ok(vec![EncodedColumn::default()])).boxed()
+        // Pages as large as the batch budget are read one request at a time.
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::default());
+        let scheduler = scheduler_with_pages(IO_REQUEST_BATCH_BYTES, 2);
+        let mut context = SchedulerContext::new(io.clone(), cache);
+        let mut job = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[0..20], &filter).unwrap();
+        let first = job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap();
+        context.flush_io();
+        assert_eq!(first.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(io.requests.lock().unwrap().len(), 1);
+        let second = job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap();
+        context.flush_io();
+        assert_eq!(second.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(io.requests.lock().unwrap().len(), 2);
+        assert!(job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap().is_empty());
+
+        // A page that shards its own reads (like a blob page) keeps every
+        // shard in a bounded read instead of one request for the whole page.
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::default());
+        let shard = IO_REQUEST_BATCH_BYTES;
+        let scheduler = StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler::from_page_schedulers(
+            vec![PageInfoAndScheduler {
+                page_index: 0,
+                row_range: 0..10,
+                scheduler: Box::new(FakeDataPage {
+                    data_ranges: vec![0..shard, (2 * shard)..(3 * shard)],
+                }),
+            }],
+            0,
+            Arc::from("test"),
+        );
+        let mut context = SchedulerContext::new(
+            io.clone(),
+            Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        );
+        let mut job = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[0..10], &filter).unwrap();
+        let scan_lines = job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap();
+        context.flush_io();
+        assert_eq!(scan_lines.len(), 2, "one scan line per shard");
+        assert_eq!(
+            io.requests.lock().unwrap().as_slice(),
+            &[vec![0..shard], vec![(2 * shard)..(3 * shard)]],
+            "each shard stays its own bounded request"
+        );
+        assert!(job.schedule_next(&mut context).unwrap().is_empty());
     }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-#[allow(clippy::single_range_in_vec_init)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::{
-        ChunkInstructions, DataBlock, DecodeMiniBlockTask, FixedPerValueDecompressor,
-        FixedWidthDataBlock, FullZipCacheableState, FullZipDecodeDetails, FullZipRepIndexDetails,
-        FullZipScheduler, MiniBlockRepIndex, PerValueDecompressor, PreambleAction,
-        StructuralPageScheduler,
-    };
-    use crate::compression::DefaultDecompressionStrategy;
-    use crate::constants::{STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK};
-    use crate::data::BlockInfo;
-    use crate::decoder::PageEncoding;
-    use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::{
-        ChunkDrainInstructions, PrimitiveStructuralEncoder,
-    };
-    use crate::format::pb21;
-    use crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
-    use crate::format::ProtobufUtils21;
-    use crate::testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
-    use crate::version::LanceFileVersion;
-    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int8Array, StringArray, UInt64Array};
-    use arrow_schema::DataType;
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-    use std::{collections::VecDeque, sync::Arc};
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_is_narrow() {
-        let int8_array = Int8Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
-        let array_ref: ArrayRef = Arc::new(int8_array);
-        let block = DataBlock::from_array(array_ref);
-
-        assert!(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::is_narrow(&block));
-
-        let string_array = StringArray::from(vec![Some("hello"), Some("world")]);
-        let block = DataBlock::from_array(string_array);
-        assert!(PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::is_narrow(&block));
+    fn page_range_mapping_validates_and_splits_ranges() {
+        // Exclusive end rows of three ten-row pages.
+        let pages = [10_u64, 20, 30];
+
+        let mappings = map_ranges_to_pages(&pages, &[8..22]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(mappings.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(mappings[0].page_idx, 0);
+        assert_eq!(mappings[0].ranges_in_page, [8..10]);
+        assert_eq!(mappings[1].page_idx, 1);
+        assert_eq!(mappings[1].ranges_in_page, [0..10]);
+        assert_eq!(mappings[2].page_idx, 2);
+        assert_eq!(mappings[2].ranges_in_page, [0..2]);
+
+        let sparse_mappings = map_ranges_to_pages(&pages, &[1..2, 3..4, 28..29]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sparse_mappings.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(sparse_mappings[0].page_idx, 0);
+        assert_eq!(sparse_mappings[0].ranges_in_page, [1..2, 3..4]);
+        assert_eq!(sparse_mappings[1].page_idx, 2);
+        assert_eq!(sparse_mappings[1].ranges_in_page, [8..9]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            pages_overlapping_ranges(&pages, &[1..2, 3..4, 28..29]).unwrap(),
+            [0, 2]
+        );
 
-        let string_array = StringArray::from(vec![
-            Some("hello world".repeat(100)),
-            Some("world".to_string()),
-        ]);
-        let block = DataBlock::from_array(string_array);
-        assert!((!PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::is_narrow(&block)));
+        for (ranges, expected_message) in [
+            (vec![Range { start: 2, end: 1 }], "is reversed"),
+            (vec![15..16, 5..6], "not strictly ordered"),
+            (vec![5..15, 10..20], "overlap"),
+            (vec![5..5, 5..6], "not strictly ordered"),
+        ] {
+            let error = map_ranges_to_pages(&pages, &ranges).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains(expected_message));
+        }
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_map_range() {
-        // Null in the middle
-        // [[A, B, C], [D, E], NULL, [F, G, H]]
-        let rep = Some(vec![1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0]);
-        let def = Some(vec![0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0]);
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 8;
-        let max_rep = 1;
-
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Absent,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fullzip_read_source_slices_prefetched_page() {
+        let page_start = 200_u64;
+        let page_data = LanceBuffer::copy_slice(&[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]);
+        let source = FullZipReadSource::PrefetchedPage {
+            base_offset: page_start,
+            data: page_data,
         };
+        let ranges = vec![
+            page_start..(page_start + 3),
+            (page_start + 4)..(page_start + 8),
+        ];
+        let mut data = source.fetch(&ranges, 0).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(data.pop_front().unwrap().as_ref(), &[0, 1, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(data.pop_front().unwrap().as_ref(), &[4, 5, 6, 7]);
+    }
 
-        check(0..1, 0..3, 0..3);
-        check(1..2, 3..5, 3..5);
-        check(2..3, 5..5, 5..6);
-        check(3..4, 5..8, 6..9);
-        check(0..2, 0..5, 0..5);
-        check(1..3, 3..5, 3..6);
-        check(2..4, 5..8, 5..9);
-        check(0..3, 0..5, 0..6);
-        check(1..4, 3..8, 3..9);
-        check(0..4, 0..8, 0..9);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fullzip_initialize_caches_rep_index_when_enabled() {
+        use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
+        use std::ops::Range;
+        use std::sync::Mutex;
+
+        #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+        struct RecordingScheduler {
+            data: bytes::Bytes,
+            requests: Arc<Mutex<Vec<Vec<Range<u64>>>>>,
+        }
 
-        // Null at start
-        // [NULL, [A, B], [C]]
-        let rep = Some(vec![1, 1, 0, 1]);
-        let def = Some(vec![1, 0, 0, 0]);
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 3;
+        impl RecordingScheduler {
+            fn new(data: bytes::Bytes) -> Self {
+                Self {
+                    data,
+                    requests: Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new())),
+                }
+            }
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Absent,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+            fn requests(&self) -> Vec<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+                self.requests.lock().unwrap().clone()
+            }
+        }
 
-        check(0..1, 0..0, 0..1);
-        check(1..2, 0..2, 1..3);
-        check(2..3, 2..3, 3..4);
-        check(0..2, 0..2, 0..3);
-        check(1..3, 0..3, 1..4);
-        check(0..3, 0..3, 0..4);
+        impl crate::EncodingsIo for RecordingScheduler {
+            fn submit_request(
+                &self,
+                ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+                _priority: u64,
+            ) -> BoxFuture<'static, crate::Result<Vec<bytes::Bytes>>> {
+                self.requests.lock().unwrap().push(ranges.clone());
+                let data = ranges
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|range| self.data.slice(range.start as usize..range.end as usize))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                std::future::ready(Ok(data)).boxed()
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Null at end
-        // [[A], [B, C], NULL]
-        let rep = Some(vec![1, 1, 0, 1]);
-        let def = Some(vec![0, 0, 0, 1]);
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 3;
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct TestFixedDecompressor;
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Absent,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+        impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for TestFixedDecompressor {
+            fn decompress(
+                &self,
+                _data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
+                _num_rows: u64,
+            ) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
+                unimplemented!("Test decompressor")
+            }
 
-        check(0..1, 0..1, 0..1);
-        check(1..2, 1..3, 1..3);
-        check(2..3, 3..3, 3..4);
-        check(0..2, 0..3, 0..3);
-        check(1..3, 1..3, 1..4);
-        check(0..3, 0..3, 0..4);
+            fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
+                32
+            }
+        }
 
-        // No nulls, with repetition
-        // [[A, B], [C, D], [E, F]]
-        let rep = Some(vec![1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0]);
-        let def: Option<&[u16]> = None;
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 6;
+        let rows_in_page = 100_u64;
+        let bytes_per_value = 4_u64;
+        let rep_start = 1000_u64;
+        let rep_size = ((rows_in_page + 1) * bytes_per_value) as usize;
+        let mut data = vec![0_u8; 16 * 1024];
+        data[rep_start as usize..rep_start as usize + rep_size].fill(7);
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::new(bytes::Bytes::from(data)));
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Absent,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        let mut scheduler = FullZipScheduler {
+            data_buf_position: 0,
+            data_buf_size: 4096,
+            rep_index: Some(FullZipRepIndexDetails {
+                buf_position: rep_start,
+                bytes_per_value,
+            }),
+            priority: 0,
+            rows_in_page,
+            bits_per_offset: 32,
+            details: Arc::new(FullZipDecodeDetails {
+                value_decompressor: PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(Arc::new(TestFixedDecompressor)),
+                def_meaning: Arc::new([crate::repdef::DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem]),
+                ctrl_word_parser: crate::repdef::ControlWordParser::new(0, 1),
+                max_rep: 0,
+                max_visible_def: 0,
+            }),
+            cached_state: None,
+            enable_cache: true,
         };
 
-        check(0..1, 0..2, 0..2);
-        check(1..2, 2..4, 2..4);
-        check(2..3, 4..6, 4..6);
-        check(0..2, 0..4, 0..4);
-        check(1..3, 2..6, 2..6);
-        check(0..3, 0..6, 0..6);
+        let io_dyn: Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo> = io.clone();
+        let initialization = scheduler.init_layout().unwrap();
+        let ranges = initialization
+            .required_ranges()
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ranges,
+            vec![rep_start..(rep_start + (rows_in_page + 1) * bytes_per_value)]
+        );
+        // The field scheduler fetches the declared ranges (coalesced across all
+        // pages) and hands the bytes back to the page to finish initialization.
+        let buffers = io_dyn.submit_request(ranges, 0).await.unwrap();
+        let buffers = initialization.with_buffers(buffers).unwrap();
+        let cached_data = scheduler.init_from_buffers(buffers, &io_dyn).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            cached_data
+                .clone()
+                .as_arc_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<FullZipCacheableState>()
+                .is_some()
+        );
+        assert!(scheduler.cached_state.is_none());
+        scheduler.try_load(&cached_data).unwrap();
+        assert!(scheduler.cached_state.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(
+            io.requests(),
+            vec![vec![
+                rep_start..(rep_start + (rows_in_page + 1) * bytes_per_value)
+            ]]
+        );
+    }
 
-        // No repetition, with nulls (this case is trivial)
-        // [A, B, NULL, C]
-        let rep: Option<&[u16]> = None;
-        let def = Some(vec![0, 0, 1, 0]);
-        let max_visible_def = 1;
-        let total_items = 4;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fullzip_full_page_bypasses_rep_index_io() {
+        use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
+        use std::ops::Range;
+        use std::sync::Mutex;
+
+        #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+        struct RecordingScheduler {
+            data: bytes::Bytes,
+            requests: Arc<Mutex<Vec<Vec<Range<u64>>>>>,
+        }
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Absent,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+        impl RecordingScheduler {
+            fn new(data: bytes::Bytes) -> Self {
+                Self {
+                    data,
+                    requests: Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new())),
+                }
+            }
 
-        check(0..1, 0..1, 0..1);
-        check(1..2, 1..2, 1..2);
-        check(2..3, 2..3, 2..3);
-        check(0..2, 0..2, 0..2);
-        check(1..3, 1..3, 1..3);
-        check(0..3, 0..3, 0..3);
+            fn requests(&self) -> Vec<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+                self.requests.lock().unwrap().clone()
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Tricky case, this chunk is a continuation and starts with a rep-index = 0
-        // [[..., A] [B, C], NULL]
-        //
-        // What we do will depend on the preamble action
-        let rep = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 1]);
-        let def = Some(vec![0, 0, 0, 1]);
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 3;
+        impl crate::EncodingsIo for RecordingScheduler {
+            fn submit_request(
+                &self,
+                ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+                _priority: u64,
+            ) -> BoxFuture<'static, crate::Result<Vec<bytes::Bytes>>> {
+                self.requests.lock().unwrap().push(ranges.clone());
+                let data = ranges
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|range| self.data.slice(range.start as usize..range.end as usize))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                std::future::ready(Ok(data)).boxed()
+            }
+        }
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Take,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct TestFixedDecompressor;
 
-        // If we are taking the preamble then the range must start at 0
-        check(0..1, 0..3, 0..3);
-        check(0..2, 0..3, 0..4);
+        impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for TestFixedDecompressor {
+            fn decompress(
+                &self,
+                _data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
+                _num_rows: u64,
+            ) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
+                unimplemented!("Test decompressor")
+            }
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Skip,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+            fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
+                32
+            }
+        }
 
-        check(0..1, 1..3, 1..3);
-        check(1..2, 3..3, 3..4);
-        check(0..2, 1..3, 1..4);
+        let rows_in_page = 100_u64;
+        let data_start = 256_u64;
+        let data_size = 500_u64;
+        let rep_start = 4096_u64;
+        let bytes_per_value = 4_u64;
 
-        // Another preamble case but now it doesn't end with a new list
-        // [[..., A], NULL, [D, E]]
-        //
-        // What we do will depend on the preamble action
-        let rep = Some(vec![0, 1, 1, 0]);
-        let def = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 0]);
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 4;
+        let mut bytes = vec![0_u8; 16 * 1024];
+        for i in 0..=rows_in_page {
+            let offset = (i * 5) as u32;
+            let pos = rep_start as usize + (i * bytes_per_value) as usize;
+            bytes[pos..pos + 4].copy_from_slice(&offset.to_le_bytes());
+        }
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingScheduler::new(bytes::Bytes::from(bytes)));
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Take,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
+        let scheduler = FullZipScheduler {
+            data_buf_position: data_start,
+            data_buf_size: data_size,
+            rep_index: Some(FullZipRepIndexDetails {
+                buf_position: rep_start,
+                bytes_per_value,
+            }),
+            priority: 0,
+            rows_in_page,
+            bits_per_offset: 32,
+            details: Arc::new(FullZipDecodeDetails {
+                value_decompressor: PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(Arc::new(TestFixedDecompressor)),
+                def_meaning: Arc::new([crate::repdef::DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem]),
+                ctrl_word_parser: crate::repdef::ControlWordParser::new(0, 1),
+                max_rep: 0,
+                max_visible_def: 0,
+            }),
+            cached_state: None,
+            enable_cache: false,
         };
 
-        // If we are taking the preamble then the range must start at 0
-        check(0..1, 0..1, 0..2);
-        check(0..2, 0..3, 0..4);
+        let io_dyn: Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo> = io.clone();
+        let tasks = scheduler
+            .schedule_ranges_rep(
+                &[0..rows_in_page],
+                &io_dyn,
+                FullZipRepIndexDetails {
+                    buf_position: rep_start,
+                    bytes_per_value,
+                },
+            )
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Skip,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+        let requests = io.requests();
+        assert_eq!(requests.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(requests[0], vec![data_start..(data_start + data_size)]);
 
-        // If we are taking the preamble then the range must start at 0
-        check(0..1, 1..1, 1..2);
-        check(1..2, 1..3, 2..4);
-        check(0..2, 1..3, 1..4);
+        let _ = tasks.into_iter().next().unwrap().decoder_fut.await.unwrap();
+        let requests_after_await = io.requests();
+        assert_eq!(
+            requests_after_await.len(),
+            1,
+            "full page path should not issue rep-index I/O"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Now a preamble case without any definition levels
-        // [[..., A] [B, C], [D]]
-        let rep = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 1]);
-        let def: Option<Vec<u16>> = None;
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 4;
+    /// This test is used to reproduce fuzz test https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues/4492
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fuzz_issue_4492_empty_rep_values() {
+        use lance_datagen::{RowCount, Seed, array, gen_batch};
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Take,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+        let seed = 1823859942947654717u64;
+        let num_rows = 2741usize;
 
-        // If we are taking the preamble then the range must start at 0
-        check(0..1, 0..3, 0..3);
-        check(0..2, 0..4, 0..4);
+        // Generate the exact same data that caused the failure
+        let batch_gen = gen_batch().with_seed(Seed::from(seed));
+        let base_generator = array::rand_type(&DataType::FixedSizeBinary(32));
+        let list_generator = array::rand_list_any(base_generator, false);
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Skip,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+        let batch = batch_gen
+            .anon_col(list_generator)
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(num_rows as u64))
+            .unwrap();
 
-        check(0..1, 1..3, 1..3);
-        check(1..2, 3..4, 3..4);
-        check(0..2, 1..4, 1..4);
+        let list_array = batch.column(0).clone();
 
-        // If we have nested lists then non-top level lists may be empty/null
-        // and we need to make sure we still handle them as invisible items (we
-        // failed to do this previously)
-        let rep = Some(vec![2, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]);
-        let def = Some(vec![0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 0]);
-        let max_rep = 2;
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 4;
+        // Force miniblock encoding
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK.to_string(),
+        );
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Absent,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_structural_encodings()
+            .with_batch_size(100)
+            .with_range(0..num_rows.min(500) as u64)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, num_rows as u64 / 2, (num_rows - 1) as u64]);
 
-        check(0..3, 0..4, 0..6);
-        check(0..1, 0..1, 0..2);
-        check(1..2, 1..3, 2..5);
-        check(2..3, 3..4, 5..6);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, metadata).await
+    }
 
-        // Invisible items in a preamble that we are taking (regressing a previous failure)
-        let rep = Some(vec![0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1]);
-        let def = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0]);
-        let max_rep = 1;
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 5;
+    async fn test_minichunk_size_helper(
+        string_data: Vec<Option<String>>,
+        minichunk_size: u64,
+        encodings: &[TestEncoding],
+    ) {
+        use crate::constants::MINICHUNK_SIZE_META_KEY;
+        use crate::testing::{TestCases, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data};
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StringArray};
+        use std::sync::Arc;
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Take,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+        let string_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(string_data));
+
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            MINICHUNK_SIZE_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            minichunk_size.to_string(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK.to_string(),
+        );
 
-        check(0..0, 0..1, 0..2);
-        check(0..1, 0..3, 0..4);
-        check(0..2, 0..4, 0..5);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encodings(encodings.iter().copied())
+            .with_batch_size(1000);
 
-        // Skip preamble (with invis items) and skip a few rows (with invis items)
-        // and then take a few rows but not all the rows
-        let rep = Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]);
-        let def = Some(vec![1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0]);
-        let max_rep = 1;
-        let max_visible_def = 0;
-        let total_items = 5;
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![string_array], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+    }
 
-        let check = |range, expected_item_range, expected_level_range| {
-            let (item_range, level_range) = DecodeMiniBlockTask::map_range(
-                range,
-                rep.as_ref(),
-                def.as_ref(),
-                max_rep,
-                max_visible_def,
-                total_items,
-                PreambleAction::Skip,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(item_range, expected_item_range);
-            assert_eq!(level_range, expected_level_range);
-        };
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_minichunk_size_roundtrip() {
+        // Test that minichunk size can be configured and works correctly in round-trip encoding
+        let mut string_data = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..100 {
+            string_data.push(Some(format!("test_string_{}", i).repeat(50)));
+        }
+        // configure minichunk size to 64 bytes (smaller than the default 4kb) for Lance 2.1
+        test_minichunk_size_helper(
+            string_data,
+            64,
+            &[
+                TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+                TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+                TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            ],
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
 
-        check(2..3, 2..4, 5..7);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_minichunk_size_128kb_v2_2() {
+        // Test that minichunk size can be configured to 128KB and works correctly with Lance 2.2
+        let mut string_data = Vec::new();
+        // create a 500kb string array
+        for i in 0..10000 {
+            string_data.push(Some(format!("test_string_{}", i).repeat(50)));
+        }
+        test_minichunk_size_helper(
+            string_data,
+            128 * 1024,
+            &[TestEncoding::StructuralU32, TestEncoding::StructuralSparse],
+        )
+        .await;
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_schedule_instructions() {
-        // Convert repetition index to bytes for testing
-        let rep_data: Vec<u64> = vec![5, 2, 3, 0, 4, 7, 2, 0];
-        let rep_bytes: Vec<u8> = rep_data.iter().flat_map(|v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect();
-        let repetition_index = MiniBlockRepIndex::decode_from_bytes(&rep_bytes, 2);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_binary_large_minichunk_size_over_max_miniblock_values() {
+        let mut string_data = Vec::new();
+        // 128kb/chunk / 6 bytes (t_9999) = 21845 items per chunk
+        for i in 0..10000 {
+            string_data.push(Some(format!("t_{}", i)));
+        }
+        test_minichunk_size_helper(
+            string_data,
+            128 * 1024,
+            &[TestEncoding::StructuralU32, TestEncoding::StructuralSparse],
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
 
-        let check = |user_ranges, expected_instructions| {
-            let instructions =
-                ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&repetition_index, user_ranges);
-            assert_eq!(instructions, expected_instructions);
-        };
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_large_dictionary_general_compression() {
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StringArray};
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
 
-        // The instructions we expect if we're grabbing the whole range
-        let expected_take_all = vec![
-            ChunkInstructions {
-                chunk_idx: 0,
-                preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                rows_to_skip: 0,
-                rows_to_take: 6,
-                take_trailer: true,
-            },
-            ChunkInstructions {
-                chunk_idx: 1,
-                preamble: PreambleAction::Take,
-                rows_to_skip: 0,
-                rows_to_take: 2,
-                take_trailer: false,
-            },
-            ChunkInstructions {
-                chunk_idx: 2,
-                preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                rows_to_skip: 0,
-                rows_to_take: 5,
-                take_trailer: true,
-            },
-            ChunkInstructions {
-                chunk_idx: 3,
-                preamble: PreambleAction::Take,
-                rows_to_skip: 0,
-                rows_to_take: 1,
-                take_trailer: false,
-            },
-        ];
+        // Create large string dictionary data (>32KiB) with low cardinality
+        // Use 100 unique strings, each 500 bytes long = 50KB dictionary
+        let unique_values: Vec<String> = (0..100)
+            .map(|i| format!("value_{:04}_{}", i, "x".repeat(500)))
+            .collect();
 
-        // Take all as 1 range
-        check(&[0..14], expected_take_all.clone());
+        // Repeat these strings many times to create a large array
+        let repeated_strings: Vec<_> = unique_values
+            .iter()
+            .cycle()
+            .take(10_000)
+            .map(|s| Some(s.as_str()))
+            .collect();
 
-        // Take all a individual rows
-        check(
-            &[
-                0..1,
-                1..2,
-                2..3,
-                3..4,
-                4..5,
-                5..6,
-                6..7,
-                7..8,
-                8..9,
-                9..10,
-                10..11,
-                11..12,
-                12..13,
-                13..14,
-            ],
-            expected_take_all,
-        );
+        let string_array = Arc::new(StringArray::from(repeated_strings)) as ArrayRef;
 
-        // Test some partial takes
+        // Configure test to use V2_2 and verify encoding
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings()
+            .with_verify_encoding(Arc::new(|cols: &[crate::encoder::EncodedColumn], _| {
+                assert_eq!(cols.len(), 1);
+                let col = &cols[0];
 
-        // 2 rows in the same chunk but not contiguous
-        check(
-            &[0..1, 3..4],
-            vec![
-                ChunkInstructions {
-                    chunk_idx: 0,
-                    preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                    rows_to_skip: 0,
-                    rows_to_take: 1,
-                    take_trailer: false,
-                },
-                ChunkInstructions {
-                    chunk_idx: 0,
-                    preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                    rows_to_skip: 3,
-                    rows_to_take: 1,
-                    take_trailer: false,
-                },
-            ],
-        );
+                // Navigate to the dictionary encoding in the page layout
+                if let Some(PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout)) =
+                    &col.final_pages.first().map(|p| &p.description)
+                    && let Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(mini_block)) =
+                        &page_layout.layout
+                    && let Some(dictionary_encoding) = &mini_block.dictionary
+                {
+                    match dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref() {
+                        Some(Compression::General(general)) => {
+                            // Verify it's using LZ4 or Zstd
+                            let compression = general.compression.as_ref().unwrap();
+                            assert!(
+                                compression.scheme()
+                                    == pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmLz4
+                                    || compression.scheme()
+                                        == pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmZstd,
+                                "Expected LZ4 or Zstd compression for large dictionary"
+                            );
+                        }
+                        _ => panic!("Expected General compression for large dictionary"),
+                    }
+                }
+            }));
 
-        // Taking just a trailer/preamble
-        check(
-            &[5..6],
-            vec![
-                ChunkInstructions {
-                    chunk_idx: 0,
-                    preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                    rows_to_skip: 5,
-                    rows_to_take: 1,
-                    take_trailer: true,
-                },
-                ChunkInstructions {
-                    chunk_idx: 1,
-                    preamble: PreambleAction::Take,
-                    rows_to_skip: 0,
-                    rows_to_take: 0,
-                    take_trailer: false,
-                },
-            ],
-        );
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![string_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
 
-        // Skipping an entire chunk
-        check(
-            &[7..10],
-            vec![
-                ChunkInstructions {
-                    chunk_idx: 1,
-                    preamble: PreambleAction::Skip,
-                    rows_to_skip: 1,
-                    rows_to_take: 1,
-                    take_trailer: false,
-                },
-                ChunkInstructions {
-                    chunk_idx: 2,
-                    preamble: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                    rows_to_skip: 0,
-                    rows_to_take: 2,
-                    take_trailer: false,
-                },
-            ],
-        );
+    fn dictionary_encoding_from_page(
+        page: &crate::encoder::EncodedPage,
+    ) -> &crate::format::pb21::CompressiveEncoding {
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+            panic!("Expected structural page encoding");
+        };
+        let pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("Expected mini-block layout");
+        };
+        layout
+            .dictionary
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("Expected dictionary encoding"))
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_drain_instructions() {
-        fn drain_from_instructions(
-            instructions: &mut VecDeque<ChunkInstructions>,
-            mut rows_desired: u64,
-            need_preamble: &mut bool,
-            skip_in_chunk: &mut u64,
-        ) -> Vec<ChunkDrainInstructions> {
-            // Note: instructions.len() is an upper bound, we typically take much fewer
-            let mut drain_instructions = Vec::with_capacity(instructions.len());
-            while rows_desired > 0 || *need_preamble {
-                let (next_instructions, consumed_chunk) = instructions
-                    .front()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .drain_from_instruction(&mut rows_desired, need_preamble, skip_in_chunk);
-                if consumed_chunk {
-                    instructions.pop_front();
-                }
-                drain_instructions.push(next_instructions);
-            }
-            drain_instructions
-        }
+    async fn encode_variable_dict_page(
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> crate::encoder::EncodedPage {
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, Int32Array, StringArray};
+
+        let values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+            (0..128)
+                .map(|i| format!("value_{i:04}_{}", "x".repeat(256)))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let keys = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..20_000).map(|i| i % 128));
+        let dict_array =
+            Arc::new(DictionaryArray::<Int32Type>::try_new(keys, values).unwrap()) as ArrayRef;
 
-        // Convert repetition index to bytes for testing
-        let rep_data: Vec<u64> = vec![5, 2, 3, 0, 4, 7, 2, 0];
-        let rep_bytes: Vec<u8> = rep_data.iter().flat_map(|v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect();
-        let repetition_index = MiniBlockRepIndex::decode_from_bytes(&rep_bytes, 2);
-        let user_ranges = vec![1..7, 10..14];
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "dict_col",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            false,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(metadata);
 
-        // First, schedule the ranges
-        let scheduled = ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&repetition_index, &user_ranges);
+        encode_first_page(field, dict_array, TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await
+    }
 
-        let mut to_drain = VecDeque::from(scheduled.clone());
+    async fn encode_auto_fixed_dict_page(
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> crate::encoder::EncodedPage {
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Decimal128Array};
+
+        // 128-bit fixed-width values with low cardinality to trigger dictionary encoding.
+        let values = (0..20_000)
+            .map(|i| match i % 3 {
+                0 => 10_i128,
+                1 => 20_i128,
+                _ => 30_i128,
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let decimal = Decimal128Array::from_iter_values(values)
+            .with_precision_and_scale(38, 0)
+            .unwrap();
+        let decimal = Arc::new(decimal) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let mut field_metadata = metadata;
+        // Strongly encourage dictionary encoding for this synthetic test data.
+        field_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-encoding:dict-size-ratio".to_string(),
+            "0.99".to_string(),
+        );
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("fixed_col", DataType::Decimal128(38, 0), false)
+            .with_metadata(field_metadata);
 
-        // Now we drain in batches of 4
+        encode_first_page(field, decimal, TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await
+    }
 
-        let mut need_preamble = false;
-        let mut skip_in_chunk = 0;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dict_values_general_compression_default_lz4_for_variable_dict_values() {
+        let page = encode_variable_dict_page(HashMap::new()).await;
+        let dictionary_encoding = dictionary_encoding_from_page(&page);
+        let Some(Compression::General(general)) = dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref() else {
+            panic!("Expected General compression for dictionary values");
+        };
+        let compression = general.compression.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            compression.scheme(),
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmLz4
+        );
+    }
 
-        let next_batch =
-            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 4, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dict_values_general_compression_default_lz4_for_fixed_dict_values() {
+        let page = encode_auto_fixed_dict_page(HashMap::new()).await;
+        let dictionary_encoding = dictionary_encoding_from_page(&page);
+        let Some(Compression::General(general)) = dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref() else {
+            panic!("Expected General compression for dictionary values");
+        };
+        let compression = general.compression.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            compression.scheme(),
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmLz4
+        );
+    }
 
-        assert!(!need_preamble);
-        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 4);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dict_values_general_compression_zstd() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "zstd".to_string(),
+        );
+        let page = encode_variable_dict_page(metadata).await;
+        let dictionary_encoding = dictionary_encoding_from_page(&page);
+        let Some(Compression::General(general)) = dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref() else {
+            panic!("Expected General compression for dictionary values");
+        };
+        let compression = general.compression.as_ref().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            next_batch,
-            vec![ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                chunk_instructions: scheduled[0].clone(),
-                rows_to_take: 4,
-                rows_to_skip: 0,
-                preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
-            }]
+            compression.scheme(),
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmZstd
         );
+    }
 
-        let next_batch =
-            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 4, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dict_values_general_compression_none() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "none".to_string(),
+        );
+        let page = encode_variable_dict_page(metadata).await;
+        let dictionary_encoding = dictionary_encoding_from_page(&page);
+        assert!(
+            !matches!(
+                dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref(),
+                Some(Compression::General(_))
+            ),
+            "Expected dictionary values to avoid General compression"
+        );
+    }
 
-        assert!(!need_preamble);
-        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 2);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_dict_values_compression_metadata_defaults_to_lz4() {
+        let metadata = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::resolve_dict_values_compression_metadata(
+            &HashMap::new(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(metadata.get(COMPRESSION_META_KEY), Some(&"lz4".to_string()),);
+        assert!(!metadata.contains_key(COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY));
+    }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_dict_values_compression_metadata_metadata_overrides_env() {
+        let field_metadata = HashMap::from([
+            (
+                DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                "none".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                DICT_VALUES_COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                "7".to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let metadata = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::resolve_dict_values_compression_metadata(
+            &field_metadata,
+            Some("zstd".to_string()),
+            Some("3".to_string()),
+        );
         assert_eq!(
-            next_batch,
-            vec![
-                ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[0].clone(),
-                    rows_to_take: 1,
-                    rows_to_skip: 4,
-                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                },
-                ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[1].clone(),
-                    rows_to_take: 1,
-                    rows_to_skip: 0,
-                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Take,
-                },
-                ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[2].clone(),
-                    rows_to_take: 2,
-                    rows_to_skip: 0,
-                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                }
-            ]
+            metadata.get(COMPRESSION_META_KEY),
+            Some(&"none".to_string()),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata.get(COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY),
+            Some(&"7".to_string()),
         );
+    }
 
-        let next_batch =
-            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 2, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_dict_values_compression_metadata_env_fallback() {
+        let metadata = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::resolve_dict_values_compression_metadata(
+            &HashMap::new(),
+            Some("zstd".to_string()),
+            Some("9".to_string()),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata.get(COMPRESSION_META_KEY),
+            Some(&"zstd".to_string()),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata.get(COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY),
+            Some(&"9".to_string()),
+        );
+    }
 
-        assert!(!need_preamble);
-        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 0);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dictionary_encode_int64() {
+        use crate::constants::{DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY};
+        use crate::testing::{TestCases, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data};
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int64Array};
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
 
-        assert_eq!(
-            next_batch,
-            vec![
-                ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[2].clone(),
-                    rows_to_take: 1,
-                    rows_to_skip: 2,
-                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                },
-                ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[3].clone(),
-                    rows_to_take: 1,
-                    rows_to_skip: 0,
-                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Take,
-                },
-            ]
+        // Low cardinality with poor RLE opportunity.
+        let values = (0..1000)
+            .map(|i| match i % 3 {
+                0 => 10i64,
+                1 => 20i64,
+                _ => 30i64,
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let array = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK.to_string(),
         );
+        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.99".to_string());
 
-        // Regression case.  Need a chunk with preamble, rows, and trailer (the middle chunk here)
-        let rep_data: Vec<u64> = vec![5, 2, 3, 3, 20, 0];
-        let rep_bytes: Vec<u8> = rep_data.iter().flat_map(|v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect();
-        let repetition_index = MiniBlockRepIndex::decode_from_bytes(&rep_bytes, 2);
-        let user_ranges = vec![0..28];
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings()
+            .with_batch_size(1000)
+            .with_range(0..1000)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 10, 999])
+            .with_expected_encoding("dictionary");
 
-        // First, schedule the ranges
-        let scheduled = ChunkInstructions::schedule_instructions(&repetition_index, &user_ranges);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+    }
 
-        let mut to_drain = VecDeque::from(scheduled.clone());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dictionary_encode_float64() {
+        use crate::constants::{DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY};
+        use crate::testing::{TestCases, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data};
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float64Array};
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
 
-        // Drain first chunk and some of second chunk
+        // Low cardinality with poor RLE opportunity.
+        let values = (0..1000)
+            .map(|i| match i % 3 {
+                0 => 0.1f64,
+                1 => 0.2f64,
+                _ => 0.3f64,
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let array = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef;
 
-        let mut need_preamble = false;
-        let mut skip_in_chunk = 0;
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK.to_string(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.99".to_string());
 
-        let next_batch =
-            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 7, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings()
+            .with_batch_size(1000)
+            .with_range(0..1000)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 10, 999])
+            .with_expected_encoding("dictionary");
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_miniblock_dictionary_out_of_line_bitpacking_decode() {
+        let rows = 10_000;
+        let unique_values = 2_000;
+
+        let dictionary_encoding =
+            ProtobufUtils21::out_of_line_bitpacking(64, ProtobufUtils21::flat(11, None));
+        let layout = pb21::MiniBlockLayout {
+            rep_compression: None,
+            def_compression: None,
+            value_compression: Some(ProtobufUtils21::flat(64, None)),
+            dictionary: Some(dictionary_encoding),
+            num_dictionary_items: unique_values,
+            layers: vec![pb21::RepDefLayer::RepdefAllValidItem as i32],
+            num_buffers: 1,
+            repetition_index_depth: 0,
+            num_items: rows,
+            has_large_chunk: false,
+        };
 
+        let buffer_offsets_and_sizes = vec![(0, 0), (0, 0), (0, 0)];
+        let scheduler = super::MiniBlockScheduler::try_new(
+            &buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
+            /*priority=*/ 0,
+            /*items_in_page=*/ rows,
+            &layout,
+            &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dictionary = scheduler.dictionary.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dictionary.num_dictionary_items, unique_values);
         assert_eq!(
-            next_batch,
-            vec![
-                ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[0].clone(),
-                    rows_to_take: 6,
-                    rows_to_skip: 0,
-                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Absent,
-                },
-                ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[1].clone(),
-                    rows_to_take: 1,
-                    rows_to_skip: 0,
-                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Take,
-                },
-            ]
+            dictionary.dictionary_data_alignment,
+            crate::encoder::MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT
         );
+    }
 
-        assert!(!need_preamble);
-        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 1);
+    // Dictionary encoding decision tests
+    fn create_test_fixed_data_block(
+        num_values: u64,
+        cardinality: u64,
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+    ) -> DataBlock {
+        assert!(cardinality > 0);
+        assert!(cardinality <= num_values);
+        let block_info = BlockInfo::default();
 
-        // Now, the tricky part.  We drain the second chunk, including the trailer, and need to make sure
-        // we get a drain task to take the preamble of the third chunk (and nothing else)
-        let next_batch =
-            drain_from_instructions(&mut to_drain, 2, &mut need_preamble, &mut skip_in_chunk);
+        assert_eq!(bits_per_value % 8, 0);
+        let data = match bits_per_value {
+            32 => {
+                let values = (0..num_values)
+                    .map(|i| (i % cardinality) as u32)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                crate::buffer::LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values)
+            }
+            64 => {
+                let values = (0..num_values).map(|i| i % cardinality).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                crate::buffer::LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values)
+            }
+            128 => {
+                let values = (0..num_values)
+                    .map(|i| (i % cardinality) as u128)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                crate::buffer::LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values)
+            }
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        };
+        DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value,
+            data,
+            num_values,
+            block_info,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Helper to create VariableWidth (string) test data block with exact cardinality
+    fn create_test_variable_width_block(num_values: u64, cardinality: u64) -> DataBlock {
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+
+        assert!(cardinality <= num_values && cardinality > 0);
 
-        assert_eq!(
-            next_batch,
-            vec![
-                ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[1].clone(),
-                    rows_to_take: 2,
-                    rows_to_skip: 1,
-                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Skip,
-                },
-                ChunkDrainInstructions {
-                    chunk_instructions: scheduled[2].clone(),
-                    rows_to_take: 0,
-                    rows_to_skip: 0,
-                    preamble_action: PreambleAction::Take,
-                },
-            ]
-        );
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_values as usize);
+        for i in 0..num_values {
+            values.push(format!("value_{:016}", i % cardinality));
+        }
 
-        assert!(!need_preamble);
-        assert_eq!(skip_in_chunk, 0);
+        let array = StringArray::from(values);
+        DataBlock::from_array(Arc::new(array) as ArrayRef)
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_fullzip_repetition_index_caching() {
-        use crate::testing::SimulatedScheduler;
-
-        // Simplified FixedPerValueDecompressor for testing
-        #[derive(Debug)]
-        struct TestFixedDecompressor;
+    fn create_sorted_string_array(num_values: u64, cardinality: u64) -> ArrayRef {
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
 
-        impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for TestFixedDecompressor {
-            fn decompress(
-                &self,
-                _data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
-                _num_rows: u64,
-            ) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
-                unimplemented!("Test decompressor")
-            }
+        assert!(cardinality <= num_values && cardinality > 0);
 
-            fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
-                32
-            }
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_values as usize);
+        for i in 0..num_values {
+            let value_idx = i * cardinality / num_values;
+            values.push(format!("value_{:016}", value_idx));
         }
 
-        // Create test repetition index data
-        let rows_in_page = 100u64;
-        let bytes_per_value = 4u64;
-        let _rep_index_size = (rows_in_page + 1) * bytes_per_value;
+        Arc::new(StringArray::from(values)) as ArrayRef
+    }
 
-        // Create mock repetition index data
-        let mut rep_index_data = Vec::new();
-        for i in 0..=rows_in_page {
-            let offset = (i * 100) as u32; // Each row starts at i * 100 bytes
-            rep_index_data.extend_from_slice(&offset.to_le_bytes());
-        }
+    fn create_sorted_variable_width_block(num_values: u64, cardinality: u64) -> DataBlock {
+        DataBlock::from_array(create_sorted_string_array(num_values, cardinality))
+    }
 
-        // Simulate storage with the repetition index at position 1000
-        let mut full_data = vec![0u8; 1000];
-        full_data.extend_from_slice(&rep_index_data);
-        full_data.extend_from_slice(&vec![0u8; 10000]); // Add some data after
+    #[test]
+    fn test_should_dictionary_encode() {
+        use crate::constants::DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Field as LanceField;
 
-        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(full_data);
-        let io = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(data));
-        let _cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024));
+        // Create data where dict encoding saves space
+        let block = create_test_variable_width_block(1000, 10);
 
-        // Create FullZipScheduler with repetition index
-        let mut scheduler = FullZipScheduler {
-            data_buf_position: 0,
-            rep_index: Some(FullZipRepIndexDetails {
-                buf_position: 1000,
-                bytes_per_value,
-            }),
-            priority: 0,
-            rows_in_page,
-            bits_per_offset: 32,
-            details: Arc::new(FullZipDecodeDetails {
-                value_decompressor: PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(Arc::new(TestFixedDecompressor)),
-                def_meaning: Arc::new([crate::repdef::DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem]),
-                ctrl_word_parser: crate::repdef::ControlWordParser::new(0, 1),
-                max_rep: 0,
-                max_visible_def: 0,
-            }),
-            cached_state: None,
-            enable_cache: true, // Enable caching for test
-        };
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.8".to_string());
+        let arrow_field =
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("test", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata);
+        let field = LanceField::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
 
-        // First initialization should load and cache the repetition index
-        let io_dyn: Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo> = io.clone();
-        let cached_data1 = scheduler.initialize(&io_dyn).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Verify that we got a FullZipCacheableState (not NoCachedPageData)
-        let is_cached = cached_data1
-            .clone()
-            .as_arc_any()
-            .downcast::<FullZipCacheableState>()
-            .is_ok();
+        let result = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::should_dictionary_encode(
+            &block,
+            &field,
+            FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding::Exclude64Bit,
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            result.is_some(),
+            "Should use dictionary encode based on size"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_sampling_detects_low_cardinality_in_short_sorted_runs() {
+        let sample_count: usize = 4096;
+        let num_values: u64 = 200_000;
+        let cardinality: u64 = 8_000;
+        let run_length = num_values / cardinality;
+        let stride = num_values as usize / sample_count;
         assert!(
-            is_cached,
-            "Expected FullZipCacheableState, got NoCachedPageData"
+            stride > run_length as usize,
+            "test must construct the stride > run_length case"
         );
 
-        // Load the cached data into the scheduler
-        scheduler.load(&cached_data1);
+        let block = create_sorted_variable_width_block(num_values, cardinality);
+        let sample_unique_ratio =
+            PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::sample_unique_ratio(&block, sample_count).unwrap();
 
-        // Verify that cached_state is now populated
         assert!(
-            scheduler.cached_state.is_some(),
-            "cached_state should be populated after load"
+            sample_unique_ratio.is_some_and(|ratio| ratio < 0.98),
+            "sorted low-cardinality data must not be classified as near-unique"
         );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_should_dictionary_encode_sorted_low_cardinality() {
+        use crate::constants::DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Field as LanceField;
 
-        // Verify the cached data contains the repetition index
-        let cached_state = scheduler.cached_state.as_ref().unwrap();
+        let block = create_sorted_variable_width_block(200_000, 8_000);
 
-        // Test that schedule_ranges_rep uses the cached data
-        let ranges = vec![0..10, 20..30];
-        let result = scheduler.schedule_ranges_rep(
-            &ranges,
-            &io_dyn,
-            FullZipRepIndexDetails {
-                buf_position: 1000,
-                bytes_per_value,
-            },
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.8".to_string());
+        let arrow_field =
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("test", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata);
+        let field = LanceField::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+
+        let result = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::should_dictionary_encode(
+            &block,
+            &field,
+            FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding::Include64Bit,
         );
 
-        // The result should be OK (not an error)
         assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "schedule_ranges_rep should succeed with cached data"
+            result.is_some(),
+            "sorted low-cardinality data should reach dictionary encoding"
         );
+    }
 
-        // Second scheduler instance should be able to use the cached data
-        let mut scheduler2 = FullZipScheduler {
-            data_buf_position: 0,
-            rep_index: Some(FullZipRepIndexDetails {
-                buf_position: 1000,
-                bytes_per_value,
-            }),
-            priority: 0,
-            rows_in_page,
-            bits_per_offset: 32,
-            details: scheduler.details.clone(),
-            cached_state: None,
-            enable_cache: true, // Enable caching for test
-        };
+    #[test]
+    fn test_should_not_dictionary_encode_sorted_high_cardinality_short_runs() {
+        use crate::constants::DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Field as LanceField;
 
-        // Load cached data from the first scheduler
-        scheduler2.load(&cached_data1);
-        assert!(
-            scheduler2.cached_state.is_some(),
-            "Second scheduler should have cached_state after load"
+        let num_values = 200_002;
+        let cardinality = 100_001;
+        let block = create_sorted_variable_width_block(num_values, cardinality);
+
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.8".to_string());
+        let arrow_field =
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("test", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata);
+        let field = LanceField::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+
+        let result = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::should_dictionary_encode(
+            &block,
+            &field,
+            FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding::Include64Bit,
         );
 
-        // Verify that both schedulers have the same cached data
-        let cached_state2 = scheduler2.cached_state.as_ref().unwrap();
         assert!(
-            Arc::ptr_eq(cached_state, cached_state2),
-            "Both schedulers should share the same cached data"
+            result.is_none(),
+            "sorted high-cardinality short runs should not trigger a full dictionary probe"
         );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_fullzip_cache_config_controls_caching() {
-        use crate::testing::SimulatedScheduler;
+    async fn test_encode_sorted_low_cardinality_uses_dictionary_layout() {
+        use crate::constants::DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY;
 
-        // Simplified FixedPerValueDecompressor for testing
-        #[derive(Debug)]
-        struct TestFixedDecompressor;
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.8".to_string());
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("test", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata);
+        let array = create_sorted_string_array(200_000, 8_000);
 
-        impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for TestFixedDecompressor {
-            fn decompress(
-                &self,
-                _data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
-                _num_rows: u64,
-            ) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
-                unimplemented!("Test decompressor")
-            }
+        let page = encode_first_page(field, array, TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await;
+        let _ = dictionary_encoding_from_page(&page);
+    }
 
-            fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
-                32
-            }
-        }
+    #[test]
+    fn test_should_not_dictionary_encode_unsupported_bits() {
+        use crate::constants::DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Field as LanceField;
 
-        // Test that enable_cache flag actually controls caching behavior
-        let rows_in_page = 1000_u64;
-        let bytes_per_value = 4_u64;
+        let block = create_test_fixed_data_block(1000, 1000, 32);
 
-        // Create simulated data
-        let rep_index_data = vec![0u8; ((rows_in_page + 1) * bytes_per_value) as usize];
-        let value_data = vec![0u8; 4000]; // Dummy value data
-        let mut full_data = vec![0u8; 1000]; // Padding before rep index
-        full_data.extend_from_slice(&rep_index_data);
-        full_data.extend_from_slice(&value_data);
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.8".to_string());
+        let arrow_field =
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("test", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(metadata);
+        let field = LanceField::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
 
-        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(full_data);
-        let io = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(data));
+        let result = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::should_dictionary_encode(
+            &block,
+            &field,
+            FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding::Exclude64Bit,
+        );
 
-        // Test 1: With caching disabled
-        let mut scheduler_no_cache = FullZipScheduler {
-            data_buf_position: 0,
-            rep_index: Some(FullZipRepIndexDetails {
-                buf_position: 1000,
-                bytes_per_value,
-            }),
-            priority: 0,
-            rows_in_page,
-            bits_per_offset: 32,
-            details: Arc::new(FullZipDecodeDetails {
-                value_decompressor: PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(Arc::new(TestFixedDecompressor)),
-                def_meaning: Arc::new([crate::repdef::DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem]),
-                ctrl_word_parser: crate::repdef::ControlWordParser::new(0, 1),
-                max_rep: 0,
-                max_visible_def: 0,
-            }),
-            cached_state: None,
-            enable_cache: false, // Caching disabled
-        };
+        assert!(
+            result.is_none(),
+            "Should not use dictionary encode for unsupported bit width"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let io_dyn: Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo> = io.clone();
-        let cached_data = scheduler_no_cache.initialize(&io_dyn).await.unwrap();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_should_not_dictionary_encode_near_unique_sample() {
+        use crate::constants::DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Field as LanceField;
+
+        let num_values = 5000;
+        let block = create_test_variable_width_block(num_values, num_values);
+
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "1.0".to_string());
+        let arrow_field =
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("test", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata);
+        let field = LanceField::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+
+        let result = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::should_dictionary_encode(
+            &block,
+            &field,
+            FixedWidthDictionaryEncoding::Exclude64Bit,
+        );
 
-        // Should return NoCachedPageData when caching is disabled
         assert!(
-            cached_data
-                .as_arc_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<super::NoCachedPageData>()
-                .is_some(),
-            "With enable_cache=false, should return NoCachedPageData"
+            result.is_none(),
+            "Should not probe dictionary encoding for near-unique data"
         );
+    }
 
-        // Test 2: With caching enabled
-        let mut scheduler_with_cache = FullZipScheduler {
-            data_buf_position: 0,
-            rep_index: Some(FullZipRepIndexDetails {
-                buf_position: 1000,
-                bytes_per_value,
-            }),
-            priority: 0,
-            rows_in_page,
-            bits_per_offset: 32,
-            details: Arc::new(FullZipDecodeDetails {
-                value_decompressor: PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(Arc::new(TestFixedDecompressor)),
-                def_meaning: Arc::new([crate::repdef::DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem]),
-                ctrl_word_parser: crate::repdef::ControlWordParser::new(0, 1),
-                max_rep: 0,
-                max_visible_def: 0,
-            }),
-            cached_state: None,
-            enable_cache: true, // Caching enabled
+    #[test]
+    fn test_v2_1_miniblock_serializes_log_num_values_15() {
+        let miniblocks = MiniBlockCompressed {
+            data: vec![LanceBuffer::from(vec![1_u8; 16])],
+            chunks: vec![
+                MiniBlockChunk {
+                    buffer_sizes: vec![8],
+                    log_num_values: 15,
+                },
+                MiniBlockChunk {
+                    buffer_sizes: vec![8],
+                    log_num_values: 0,
+                },
+            ],
+            num_values: 32_769,
         };
 
-        let cached_data2 = scheduler_with_cache.initialize(&io_dyn).await.unwrap();
+        let serialized = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::serialize_miniblocks(
+            miniblocks,
+            None,
+            None,
+            MiniblockChunkSize::U16,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Should return FullZipCacheableState when caching is enabled
-        assert!(
-            cached_data2
-                .as_arc_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<super::FullZipCacheableState>()
-                .is_some(),
-            "With enable_cache=true, should return FullZipCacheableState"
+        let chunk_metadata = serialized.metadata.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>();
+        assert_eq!(chunk_metadata.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            chunk_metadata[0] & 0x0F,
+            15,
+            "V2.1 metadata should use all 4 bits for log_num_values"
         );
     }
 
-    /// This test is used to reproduce fuzz test https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues/4492
+    async fn encode_first_page(
+        field: arrow_schema::Field,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        version: TestEncoding,
+    ) -> crate::encoder::EncodedPage {
+        use crate::repdef::RepDefBuilder;
+        use crate::{
+            encoder::{
+                ColumnIndexSequence, EncodingOptions, MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT, OutOfLineBuffers,
+            },
+            testing::{create_test_field_encoder, test_encoding_strategy},
+        };
+
+        let lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&field).unwrap();
+        let encoding_strategy = test_encoding_strategy(version);
+        let mut column_index_seq = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
+        let encoding_options = EncodingOptions {
+            cache_bytes_per_column: 1,
+            max_page_bytes: 32 * 1024 * 1024,
+            keep_original_array: true,
+            buffer_alignment: MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
+        };
+
+        let mut encoder = create_test_field_encoder(
+            encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
+            &lance_field,
+            &mut column_index_seq,
+            &encoding_options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut external_buffers = OutOfLineBuffers::new(0, MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT);
+        let repdef = RepDefBuilder::default();
+        let num_rows = array.len() as u64;
+        let mut pages = Vec::new();
+        for task in encoder
+            .maybe_encode(array, &mut external_buffers, repdef, 0, num_rows)
+            .unwrap()
+        {
+            pages.push(task.await.unwrap());
+        }
+        for task in encoder.flush(&mut external_buffers).unwrap() {
+            pages.push(task.await.unwrap());
+        }
+        pages.into_iter().next().unwrap()
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_fuzz_issue_4492_empty_rep_values() {
-        use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, RowCount, Seed};
+    async fn test_constant_layout_out_of_line_fixed_size_binary_v2_2() {
+        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
 
-        let seed = 1823859942947654717u64;
-        let num_rows = 2741usize;
+        let val = vec![0xABu8; 33];
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_sparse_iter_with_size(
+                std::iter::repeat_n(Some(val.as_slice()), 256),
+                33,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::FixedSizeBinary(33), true);
+        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await;
 
-        // Generate the exact same data that caused the failure
-        let batch_gen = gen_batch().with_seed(Seed::from(seed));
-        let base_generator = array::rand_type(&DataType::FixedSizeBinary(32));
-        let list_generator = array::rand_list_any(base_generator, false);
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
+        };
+        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+            panic!("Expected constant layout in slot 2");
+        };
+        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 1);
 
-        let batch = batch_gen
-            .anon_col(list_generator)
-            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(num_rows as u64))
-            .unwrap();
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
 
-        let list_array = batch.column(0).clone();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_constant_layout_out_of_line_utf8_v2_2() {
+        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
 
-        // Force miniblock encoding
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-        metadata.insert(
-            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK.to_string(),
-        );
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from_iter_values(
+            std::iter::repeat_n("hello", 512),
+        ));
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::Utf8, true);
+        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await;
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
-            .with_batch_size(100)
-            .with_range(0..num_rows.min(500) as u64)
-            .with_indices(vec![0, num_rows as u64 / 2, (num_rows - 1) as u64]);
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
+        };
+        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+            panic!("Expected constant layout in slot 2");
+        };
+        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 1);
 
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, metadata).await
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
 
-    async fn test_minichunk_size_helper(
-        string_data: Vec<Option<String>>,
-        minichunk_size: u64,
-        file_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        use crate::constants::MINICHUNK_SIZE_META_KEY;
-        use crate::testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
-        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StringArray};
-        use std::sync::Arc;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_constant_layout_nullable_item_v2_2() {
+        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
 
-        let string_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(string_data));
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![
+            Some(7),
+            None,
+            Some(7),
+            None,
+            Some(7),
+        ]));
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::Int32, true);
+        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await;
 
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-        metadata.insert(
-            MINICHUNK_SIZE_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            minichunk_size.to_string(),
-        );
-        metadata.insert(
-            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK.to_string(),
-        );
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
+        };
+        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+            panic!("Expected constant layout in slot 2");
+        };
+        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 2);
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(file_version)
-            .with_batch_size(1000);
-
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![string_array], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_minichunk_size_roundtrip() {
-        // Test that minichunk size can be configured and works correctly in round-trip encoding
-        let mut string_data = Vec::new();
-        for i in 0..100 {
-            string_data.push(Some(format!("test_string_{}", i).repeat(50)));
-        }
-        // configure minichunk size to 64 bytes (smaller than the default 4kb) for Lance 2.1
-        test_minichunk_size_helper(string_data, 64, LanceFileVersion::V2_1).await;
-    }
+    async fn test_constant_layout_list_repdef_v2_2() {
+        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+        use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, ListBuilder};
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_minichunk_size_128kb_v2_2() {
-        // Test that minichunk size can be configured to 128KB and works correctly with Lance 2.2
-        let mut string_data = Vec::new();
-        // create a 500kb string array
-        for i in 0..10000 {
-            string_data.push(Some(format!("test_string_{}", i).repeat(50)));
-        }
-        test_minichunk_size_helper(string_data, 128 * 1024, LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
-    }
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new());
+        builder.values().append_value(7);
+        builder.values().append_null();
+        builder.values().append_value(7);
+        builder.append(true);
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_binary_large_minichunk_size_over_max_miniblock_values() {
-        let mut string_data = Vec::new();
-        // 128kb/chunk / 6 bytes (t_9999) = 21845 > max 4096 items per chunk
-        for i in 0..10000 {
-            string_data.push(Some(format!("t_{}", i)));
-        }
-        test_minichunk_size_helper(string_data, 128 * 1024, LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
-    }
+        builder.append(true);
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_large_dictionary_general_compression() {
-        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StringArray};
-        use std::collections::HashMap;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
+        builder.values().append_value(7);
+        builder.append(true);
 
-        // Create large string dictionary data (>32KiB) with low cardinality
-        // Use 100 unique strings, each 500 bytes long = 50KB dictionary
-        let unique_values: Vec<String> = (0..100)
-            .map(|i| format!("value_{:04}_{}", i, "x".repeat(500)))
-            .collect();
+        builder.append_null();
 
-        // Repeat these strings many times to create a large array
-        let repeated_strings: Vec<_> = unique_values
-            .iter()
-            .cycle()
-            .take(100_000)
-            .map(|s| Some(s.as_str()))
-            .collect();
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(builder.finish());
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "c",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            ))),
+            true,
+        );
+        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await;
 
-        let string_array = Arc::new(StringArray::from(repeated_strings)) as ArrayRef;
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
+        };
+        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+            panic!("Expected constant layout in slot 2");
+        };
+        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 2);
 
-        // Configure test to use V2_2 and verify encoding
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_verify_encoding(Arc::new(|cols: &[crate::encoder::EncodedColumn], _| {
-                assert_eq!(cols.len(), 1);
-                let col = &cols[0];
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
 
-                // Navigate to the dictionary encoding in the page layout
-                if let Some(PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout)) = &col.final_pages.first().map(|p| &p.description) {
-                    // Check that dictionary is wrapped with general compression
-                    if let Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(mini_block)) = &page_layout.layout {
-                        if let Some(dictionary_encoding) = &mini_block.dictionary {
-                            match dictionary_encoding.compression.as_ref() {
-                                Some(Compression::General(general)) => {
-                                    // Verify it's using LZ4 or Zstd
-                                    let compression = general.compression.as_ref().unwrap();
-                                    assert!(
-                                        compression.scheme() == pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmLz4
-                                        || compression.scheme() == pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmZstd,
-                                        "Expected LZ4 or Zstd compression for large dictionary"
-                                    );
-                                }
-                                _ => panic!("Expected General compression for large dictionary"),
-                            }
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }));
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_constant_layout_fixed_size_list_not_used_v2_2() {
+        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Int32Builder};
 
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![string_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+        let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new(), 3);
+        for _ in 0..64 {
+            builder.values().append_value(1);
+            builder.values().append_null();
+            builder.values().append_value(3);
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(builder.finish());
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "c",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                3,
+            ),
+            true,
+        );
+        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await;
+
+        if let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description {
+            assert!(
+                !matches!(layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap(), Layout::ConstantLayout(_)),
+                "FixedSizeList should not use constant layout yet"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_dictionary_encode_int64() {
-        use crate::constants::{DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY};
-        use crate::testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
-        use crate::version::LanceFileVersion;
-        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int64Array};
-        use std::collections::HashMap;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
+    async fn test_constant_layout_not_written_before_v2_2() {
+        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
 
-        // Low cardinality with poor RLE opportunity.
-        let values = (0..1000)
-            .map(|i| match i % 3 {
-                0 => 10i64,
-                1 => 20i64,
-                _ => 30i64,
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let array = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![7; 1024]));
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::Int32, true);
+        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU16).await;
 
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-        metadata.insert(
-            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK.to_string(),
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+            return;
+        };
+        assert!(
+            !matches!(layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap(), Layout::ConstantLayout(_)),
+            "Should not emit constant layout before v2.2"
         );
-        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.99".to_string());
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_batch_size(1000)
-            .with_range(0..1000)
-            .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 10, 999])
-            .with_expected_encoding("dictionary");
-
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU16)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_dictionary_encode_float64() {
-        use crate::constants::{DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY};
-        use crate::testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
-        use crate::version::LanceFileVersion;
-        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float64Array};
-        use std::collections::HashMap;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
+    async fn test_all_null_constant_layout_still_works_v2_2() {
+        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
 
-        // Low cardinality with poor RLE opportunity.
-        let values = (0..1000)
-            .map(|i| match i % 3 {
-                0 => 0.1f64,
-                1 => 0.2f64,
-                _ => 0.3f64,
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let array = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![None, None, None]));
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::Int32, true);
+        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await;
 
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-        metadata.insert(
-            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK.to_string(),
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
+        };
+        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+            panic!("Expected layout in slot 2");
+        };
+        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 0);
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    fn hand_built_dictionary_with_out_of_range_null_keys() -> ArrayRef {
+        use arrow_array::{DictionaryArray, Int32Array, types::Int32Type};
+        use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+
+        let keys = Int32Array::new(
+            vec![0, 7, 7].into(),
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, false])),
         );
-        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.99".to_string());
+        let values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a"]));
+        Arc::new(DictionaryArray::<Int32Type>::try_new(keys, values).unwrap()) as ArrayRef
+    }
+
+    fn concatenated_dictionary_with_out_of_range_null_keys() -> ArrayRef {
+        use arrow_array::{builder::StringDictionaryBuilder, new_null_array, types::Int32Type};
 
+        let mut builder = StringDictionaryBuilder::<Int32Type>::new();
+        builder.append_value("a");
+        for _ in 0..7 {
+            builder.append_null();
+        }
+        let valued = Arc::new(builder.finish()) as ArrayRef;
+        let all_null = new_null_array(valued.data_type(), 8);
+        arrow_select::concat::concat(&[valued.as_ref(), all_null.as_ref()]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::hand_built(hand_built_dictionary_with_out_of_range_null_keys(), 1)]
+    #[case::concatenated(concatenated_dictionary_with_out_of_range_null_keys(), 8)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dictionary_out_of_range_null_keys_round_trip(
+        #[case] dictionary: ArrayRef,
+        #[case] split_at: usize,
+    ) {
+        let num_rows = dictionary.len();
+        let dictionaries = vec![
+            dictionary.slice(0, split_at),
+            dictionary.slice(split_at, num_rows - split_at),
+        ];
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_batch_size(1000)
-            .with_range(0..1000)
-            .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 10, 999])
-            .with_expected_encoding("dictionary");
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralU32)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(split_at as u64..num_rows as u64)
+            .with_indices(vec![split_at as u64]);
 
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(dictionaries, &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_miniblock_dictionary_out_of_line_bitpacking_decode() {
-        let rows = 10_000;
-        let unique_values = 2_000;
+    fn test_encode_decode_complex_all_null_vals_roundtrip() {
+        use crate::compression::{DecompressionStrategy, DefaultDecompressionStrategy};
 
-        let dictionary_encoding =
-            ProtobufUtils21::out_of_line_bitpacking(64, ProtobufUtils21::flat(11, None));
-        let layout = pb21::MiniBlockLayout {
-            rep_compression: None,
-            def_compression: None,
-            value_compression: Some(ProtobufUtils21::flat(64, None)),
-            dictionary: Some(dictionary_encoding),
-            num_dictionary_items: unique_values,
-            layers: vec![pb21::RepDefLayer::RepdefAllValidItem as i32],
-            num_buffers: 1,
-            repetition_index_depth: 0,
-            num_items: rows,
-            has_large_chunk: false,
-        };
+        let values: Arc<[u16]> = Arc::from((0..2048).map(|i| (i % 5) as u16).collect::<Vec<u16>>());
 
-        let buffer_offsets_and_sizes = vec![(0, 0), (0, 0), (0, 0)];
-        let scheduler = super::MiniBlockScheduler::try_new(
-            &buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
-            /*priority=*/ 0,
-            /*items_in_page=*/ rows,
-            &layout,
-            &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default(),
+        let compression_strategy = crate::testing::test_compression_strategy(
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            crate::compression_config::CompressionParams::default(),
+        );
+        let decompression_strategy = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+
+        let (compressed_buf, encoding) = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::encode_complex_all_null_vals(
+            &values,
+            compression_strategy.as_ref(),
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let dictionary = scheduler.dictionary.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(dictionary.num_dictionary_items, unique_values);
-        assert_eq!(
-            dictionary.dictionary_data_alignment,
-            crate::encoder::MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT
-        );
+        let decompressor = decompression_strategy
+            .create_block_decompressor(&encoding)
+            .unwrap();
+        let decompressed = decompressor
+            .decompress(Some(compressed_buf), values.len() as u64)
+            .unwrap();
+        let decompressed_fixed_width = decompressed.as_fixed_width().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decompressed_fixed_width.num_values, values.len() as u64);
+        assert_eq!(decompressed_fixed_width.bits_per_value, 16);
+        let rep_result = decompressed_fixed_width.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>();
+        assert_eq!(rep_result.as_ref(), values.as_ref());
     }
 
-    // Dictionary encoding decision tests
-    /// Helper to create FixedWidth test data block with exact cardinality stat injected
-    /// to ensure consistent test behavior (avoids HLL estimation error)
-    fn create_test_fixed_data_block(
-        num_values: u64,
-        cardinality: u64,
-        bits_per_value: u64,
-    ) -> DataBlock {
-        use crate::statistics::Stat;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_complex_all_null_compression_gated_by_version() {
+        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+        use arrow_array::ListArray;
 
-        let block_info = BlockInfo::default();
+        let list_array = ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type, _, _>(
+            (0..1000).map(|i| if i % 2 == 0 { None } else { Some(vec![]) }),
+        );
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(list_array);
+        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "c",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            ))),
+            true,
+        );
 
-        // Manually inject exact cardinality stat for consistent test behavior
-        let cardinality_array = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![cardinality]));
-        block_info
-            .0
-            .write()
-            .unwrap()
-            .insert(Stat::Cardinality, cardinality_array);
+        let page_v21 =
+            encode_first_page(field.clone(), arr.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU16).await;
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout_v21) = &page_v21.description else {
+            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
+        };
+        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout_v21) = layout_v21.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+            panic!("Expected constant layout");
+        };
+        assert!(layout_v21.rep_compression.is_none());
+        assert!(layout_v21.def_compression.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(layout_v21.num_rep_values, 0);
+        assert_eq!(layout_v21.num_def_values, 0);
 
-        assert_eq!(bits_per_value % 8, 0);
-        let bytes_per_value = bits_per_value / 8;
-        DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
-            bits_per_value,
-            data: crate::buffer::LanceBuffer::from(vec![
-                0u8;
-                (num_values * bytes_per_value) as usize
-            ]),
-            num_values,
-            block_info,
-        })
+        let page_v22 = encode_first_page(field, arr, TestEncoding::StructuralU32).await;
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout_v22) = &page_v22.description else {
+            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
+        };
+        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout_v22) = layout_v22.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+            panic!("Expected constant layout");
+        };
+        assert!(layout_v22.def_compression.is_some());
+        assert!(layout_v22.num_def_values > 0);
     }
 
-    /// Helper to create VariableWidth (string) test data block with exact cardinality
-    fn create_test_variable_width_block(num_values: u64, cardinality: u64) -> DataBlock {
-        use crate::statistics::Stat;
-        use arrow_array::StringArray;
-
-        assert!(cardinality <= num_values && cardinality > 0);
-
-        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_values as usize);
-        for i in 0..num_values {
-            values.push(format!("value_{:016}", i % cardinality));
-        }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_complex_all_null_round_trip() {
+        use arrow_array::ListArray;
 
-        let array = StringArray::from(values);
-        let block = DataBlock::from_array(Arc::new(array) as ArrayRef);
-
-        // Manually inject stats for consistent test behavior
-        if let DataBlock::VariableWidth(ref var_block) = block {
-            let mut info = var_block.block_info.0.write().unwrap();
-            // Cardinality: exact value to avoid HLL estimation error
-            info.insert(
-                Stat::Cardinality,
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![cardinality])),
-            );
-        }
+        let list_array = ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type, _, _>(
+            (0..1000).map(|i| if i % 2 == 0 { None } else { Some(vec![]) }),
+        );
 
-        block
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_u32_structural_encodings();
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(list_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
+            .await;
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_estimate_dict_size_fixed_width() {
-        use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::dict::DICT_INDICES_BITS_PER_VALUE;
-
-        let bits_per_value = 128;
-        let block = create_test_fixed_data_block(1000, 400, bits_per_value);
-        let estimated_size =
-            PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::estimate_dict_size(&block, LanceFileVersion::V2_1).unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_complex_all_null_constant_def_round_trip() {
+        use arrow_array::ListArray;
 
-        // Dictionary: 400 * 16 bytes (128-bit values)
-        // Indices: 1000 * 4 bytes (32-bit i32)
-        let expected_dict_size = 400 * (bits_per_value / 8);
-        let expected_indices_size = 1000 * (DICT_INDICES_BITS_PER_VALUE / 8);
-        let expected_total = expected_dict_size + expected_indices_size;
+        // Every row is a null list => constant def levels => a single RLE run,
+        // exercising the lazy run-form decode end to end.
+        let list_array = ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type, _, _>(
+            (0..5000).map(|_| None::<Vec<Option<i32>>>),
+        );
 
-        assert_eq!(estimated_size, expected_total);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_u32_structural_encodings();
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(list_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
+            .await;
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_estimate_dict_size_variable_width() {
-        let block = create_test_variable_width_block(1000, 400);
-        let estimated_size =
-            PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::estimate_dict_size(&block, LanceFileVersion::V2_1).unwrap();
-
-        // Get actual data size
-        let data_size = block.data_size();
-        let avg_value_size = data_size / 1000;
-
-        let expected = 400 * avg_value_size + 1000 * 4;
+    fn encoded_u16_frame(levels: &[u16], run_length_width: RunLengthWidth) -> LanceBuffer {
+        let block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(Arc::from(levels)),
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            num_values: levels.len() as u64,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        });
+        BlockCompressor::compress(&RleEncoder::with_run_length_width(run_length_width), block)
+            .unwrap()
+            .0
+            .unwrap()
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(estimated_size, expected);
+    fn encoded_u16_runs(levels: &[u16], run_length_width: RunLengthWidth) -> RleRuns {
+        let frame = encoded_u16_frame(levels, run_length_width);
+        RleDecompressor::with_run_length_width(16, run_length_width)
+            .decode_u16_runs(frame, levels.len() as u64)
+            .unwrap()
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_should_dictionary_encode() {
-        use crate::constants::DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY;
-        use lance_core::datatypes::Field as LanceField;
+    fn miniblock_levels_use_one_count_for_mixed_codecs() {
+        let actual_num_levels = usize::from(u16::MAX) + 8;
+        let levels = vec![1_u16; actual_num_levels];
+        let rep_frame = encoded_u16_frame(&levels, RunLengthWidth::U8);
+        let rep_decompressor = RleDecompressor::new(16);
+        let def_frame = LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(Arc::from(levels.clone()));
+        let def_decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_flat(&pb21::Flat {
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            data: None,
+        });
 
-        // Create data where dict encoding saves space
-        let block = create_test_variable_width_block(1000, 10);
+        let num_levels = DecodeMiniBlockTask::resolve_num_levels(
+            Some(&rep_decompressor),
+            Some(&rep_frame),
+            Some(&def_decompressor),
+            Some(&def_frame),
+            7,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_levels, actual_num_levels as u64);
 
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.8".to_string());
-        let arrow_field =
-            arrow_schema::Field::new("test", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(metadata);
-        let field = LanceField::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+        let rep =
+            DecodeMiniBlockTask::decode_levels(&rep_decompressor, rep_frame, num_levels).unwrap();
+        let def =
+            DecodeMiniBlockTask::decode_levels(&def_decompressor, def_frame, num_levels).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rep.as_ref(), levels);
+        assert_eq!(def, rep);
+    }
 
-        let result = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::should_dictionary_encode(
-            &block,
-            &field,
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
-        );
+    #[test]
+    fn miniblock_levels_reject_non_wrapped_count_mismatch() {
+        let frame = encoded_u16_frame(&[1_u16; 8], RunLengthWidth::U8);
+        let decompressor = RleDecompressor::new(16);
 
-        assert!(result, "Should use dictionary encode based on size");
+        let error = DecodeMiniBlockTask::resolve_num_levels(
+            Some(&decompressor),
+            Some(&frame),
+            None,
+            None,
+            7,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("not congruent modulo 65536"));
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_should_not_dictionary_encode() {
-        use crate::constants::DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY;
-        use lance_core::datatypes::Field as LanceField;
+    fn miniblock_levels_reject_cross_stream_count_disagreement() {
+        let rep_levels = vec![1_u16; usize::from(u16::MAX) + 8];
+        let def_levels = vec![1_u16; rep_levels.len() + usize::from(u16::MAX) + 1];
+        let rep_frame = encoded_u16_frame(&rep_levels, RunLengthWidth::U8);
+        let def_frame = encoded_u16_frame(&def_levels, RunLengthWidth::U8);
+        let decompressor = RleDecompressor::new(16);
+
+        let error = DecodeMiniBlockTask::resolve_num_levels(
+            Some(&decompressor),
+            Some(&rep_frame),
+            Some(&decompressor),
+            Some(&def_frame),
+            7,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("structural streams disagree on the level count")
+        );
+    }
 
-        let block = create_test_fixed_data_block(1000, 1000, 128);
+    fn physical_levels(levels: &[u16]) -> LazyLevels {
+        LazyLevels::Runs(Arc::new(RunStorage::Physical(
+            encoded_u16_runs(levels, RunLengthWidth::U8).into_owned(),
+        )))
+    }
 
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-        metadata.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.8".to_string());
-        let arrow_field =
-            arrow_schema::Field::new("test", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(metadata);
-        let field = LanceField::try_from(&arrow_field).unwrap();
+    fn coalesced_levels(levels: &[u16]) -> LazyLevels {
+        let mut values = Vec::new();
+        let mut ends = RunEndsBuilder::with_capacity(levels.len(), levels.len());
+        for (index, &value) in levels.iter().enumerate() {
+            if values.last() == Some(&value) {
+                ends.set_last(index + 1).unwrap();
+            } else {
+                values.push(value);
+                ends.push(index + 1).unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+        LazyLevels::Runs(Arc::new(RunStorage::Coalesced {
+            values: values.into_boxed_slice(),
+            ends: ends.finish(),
+        }))
+    }
 
-        let result = PrimitiveStructuralEncoder::should_dictionary_encode(
-            &block,
-            &field,
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
-        );
+    #[test]
+    fn lazy_levels_runs_match_dense() {
+        // Runs: 3x2, 1x1, 3x3, 0x2  =>  [3,3,1,3,3,3,0,0]
+        let expanded: Vec<u16> = vec![3, 3, 1, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0];
+        let coalesced = coalesced_levels(&expanded);
+        let physical = physical_levels(&expanded);
+        let dense = LazyLevels::Dense(ScalarBuffer::<u16>::from(expanded.clone()));
+        let n = expanded.len();
+
+        assert_eq!(coalesced.len(), n);
+        assert_eq!(physical.len(), n);
+        assert_eq!(dense.len(), n);
+
+        // Rows begin at each `max_rep` (3) position; row `num_rows` maps to `len`.
+        let max_rep = 3u16;
+        let row_starts: Vec<usize> = (0..n).filter(|&i| expanded[i] == max_rep).collect();
+        for target in 0..=row_starts.len() as u64 {
+            let want = row_starts.get(target as usize).copied().unwrap_or(n);
+            for runs in [&coalesced, &physical] {
+                let mut cursor = LevelCursor::default();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    runs.seek_row_start(&mut cursor, target, max_rep).unwrap(),
+                    want,
+                    "seek_row_start({target})"
+                );
+            }
+            let mut c_dense = LevelCursor::default();
+            assert_eq!(
+                dense.seek_row_start(&mut c_dense, target, max_rep).unwrap(),
+                want
+            );
+        }
 
-        assert!(!result, "Should not use dictionary encode based on size");
+        // `count_le_cursor` (fresh cursor per range) and `extend_into` agree with
+        // the dense reference on every sub-range.
+        for start in 0..=n {
+            for end in start..=n {
+                for max in [0u16, 1, 2, 3] {
+                    let want = expanded[start..end].iter().filter(|&&d| d <= max).count() as u64;
+                    for runs in [&coalesced, &physical] {
+                        let mut cursor = RunPosition::default();
+                        assert_eq!(
+                            runs.count_le_cursor(&mut cursor, start..end, max).0,
+                            want,
+                            "count_le_cursor({start}..{end}, {max})"
+                        );
+                    }
+                    let mut d_cur = RunPosition::default();
+                    assert_eq!(dense.count_le_cursor(&mut d_cur, start..end, max).0, want);
+                }
+                for runs in [&coalesced, &physical] {
+                    let mut got = Vec::new();
+                    runs.extend_into(start..end, RunPosition::default(), &mut got);
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        got,
+                        expanded[start..end].to_vec(),
+                        "extend_into({start}..{end})"
+                    );
+                }
+                let mut got_dense = Vec::new();
+                dense.extend_into(start..end, RunPosition::default(), &mut got_dense);
+                assert_eq!(got_dense, expanded[start..end].to_vec());
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn encode_first_page(
-        field: arrow_schema::Field,
-        array: ArrayRef,
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> crate::encoder::EncodedPage {
-        use crate::encoder::{
-            default_encoding_strategy, ColumnIndexSequence, EncodingOptions, OutOfLineBuffers,
-            MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
+    #[test]
+    fn physical_run_hints_support_deferred_materialization() {
+        let expanded: Vec<u16> = vec![3, 3, 1, 1, 2, 2, 0, 0];
+        let physical = physical_levels(&expanded);
+        let LazyLevels::Runs(runs) = &physical else {
+            panic!("expected physical runs");
         };
-        use crate::repdef::RepDefBuilder;
+        let mut first_hint = RunPosition::default();
+        runs.seek(&mut first_hint, 2);
+        let mut second_hint = RunPosition::default();
+        runs.seek(&mut second_hint, 6);
+
+        let mut second = Vec::new();
+        physical.extend_into(6..8, second_hint, &mut second);
+        let mut first = Vec::new();
+        physical.extend_into(2..4, first_hint, &mut first);
+        assert_eq!(second, expanded[6..8]);
+        assert_eq!(first, expanded[2..4]);
+    }
+
+    /// Fuzz parity for the run-oriented complex-all-null drain: the cursor walk
+    /// over `LazyLevels` must yield the exact level slices and visible
+    /// count that a brute-force reference over the fully expanded levels does, for
+    /// dense, physical-run, and coalesced-run forms and arbitrarily shaped range requests.
+    mod complex_all_null_drain_parity {
+        use std::ops::Range;
+
+        use arrow_buffer::ScalarBuffer;
+        use proptest::prelude::*;
+
+        use super::super::{LazyLevels, LevelCursor, RunPosition};
+        use super::{coalesced_levels, physical_levels};
+        use crate::Result;
+
+        #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+        struct DrainInput {
+            max_rep: u16,
+            max_visible: u16,
+            rep: Option<Vec<u16>>,
+            def: Option<Vec<u16>>,
+            ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+        }
 
-        let lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&field).unwrap();
-        let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(version);
-        let mut column_index_seq = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
-        let encoding_options = EncodingOptions {
-            cache_bytes_per_column: 1,
-            max_page_bytes: 32 * 1024 * 1024,
-            keep_original_array: true,
-            buffer_alignment: MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
-            version,
-        };
+        fn dense_levels(levels: &[u16]) -> LazyLevels {
+            LazyLevels::Dense(ScalarBuffer::from(levels.to_vec()))
+        }
 
-        let mut encoder = encoding_strategy
-            .create_field_encoder(
-                encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
-                &lance_field,
-                &mut column_index_seq,
-                &encoding_options,
-            )
-            .unwrap();
+        fn rle_levels(levels: &[u16]) -> LazyLevels {
+            coalesced_levels(levels)
+        }
 
-        let mut external_buffers = OutOfLineBuffers::new(0, MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT);
-        let repdef = RepDefBuilder::default();
-        let num_rows = array.len() as u64;
-        let mut pages = Vec::new();
-        for task in encoder
-            .maybe_encode(array, &mut external_buffers, repdef, 0, num_rows)
-            .unwrap()
-        {
-            pages.push(task.await.unwrap());
+        fn seek(
+            rep: Option<&LazyLevels>,
+            cursor: &mut LevelCursor,
+            row: u64,
+            max_rep: u16,
+        ) -> Result<usize> {
+            match rep {
+                Some(rep) => rep.seek_row_start(cursor, row, max_rep),
+                None => {
+                    cursor.row = row;
+                    cursor.level = row as usize;
+                    Ok(row as usize)
+                }
+            }
         }
-        for task in encoder.flush(&mut external_buffers).unwrap() {
-            pages.push(task.await.unwrap());
+
+        /// Mirror of `ComplexAllNullPageDecoder::drain`, driving the real
+        /// `seek_row_start` / `count_le_cursor` with monotonic cursors.
+        fn simulate_drain(
+            rep: Option<&LazyLevels>,
+            def: Option<&LazyLevels>,
+            max_rep: u16,
+            max_visible: u16,
+            ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        ) -> Result<(Vec<Range<usize>>, u64)> {
+            let mut rep_cursor = LevelCursor::default();
+            let mut def_run_cursor = RunPosition::default();
+            let mut slices: Vec<Range<usize>> = Vec::new();
+            let mut visible = 0u64;
+            for range in ranges {
+                let level_start = seek(rep, &mut rep_cursor, range.start, max_rep)?;
+                let level_end = seek(rep, &mut rep_cursor, range.end, max_rep)?;
+                visible += match def {
+                    Some(def) => {
+                        def.count_le_cursor(
+                            &mut def_run_cursor,
+                            level_start..level_end,
+                            max_visible,
+                        )
+                        .0
+                    }
+                    None => (level_end - level_start) as u64,
+                };
+                match slices.last_mut() {
+                    Some(last) if last.end == level_start => last.end = level_end,
+                    _ => slices.push(level_start..level_end),
+                }
+            }
+            Ok((slices, visible))
+        }
+
+        /// Independent brute-force reference over fully expanded levels.
+        fn reference_drain(
+            rep: Option<&[u16]>,
+            def: Option<&[u16]>,
+            max_rep: u16,
+            max_visible: u16,
+            ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        ) -> (Vec<Range<usize>>, u64) {
+            let total_levels = rep
+                .map(|r| r.len())
+                .or_else(|| def.map(|d| d.len()))
+                .unwrap_or(0);
+            // Level index where each row starts (or `total_levels` for the end row).
+            let row_starts: Vec<usize> = match rep {
+                Some(rep) => (0..rep.len()).filter(|&i| rep[i] == max_rep).collect(),
+                None => (0..total_levels).collect(),
+            };
+            let level_of_row = |row: u64| {
+                row_starts
+                    .get(row as usize)
+                    .copied()
+                    .unwrap_or(total_levels)
+            };
+
+            let mut slices: Vec<Range<usize>> = Vec::new();
+            let mut visible = 0u64;
+            for range in ranges {
+                let ls = level_of_row(range.start);
+                let le = level_of_row(range.end);
+                visible += match def {
+                    Some(def) => def[ls..le].iter().filter(|&&d| d <= max_visible).count() as u64,
+                    None => (le - ls) as u64,
+                };
+                match slices.last_mut() {
+                    Some(last) if last.end == ls => last.end = le,
+                    _ => slices.push(ls..le),
+                }
+            }
+            (slices, visible)
         }
-        pages.into_iter().next().unwrap()
-    }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_constant_layout_out_of_line_fixed_size_binary_v2_2() {
-        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+        fn ranges_strategy(num_rows: u64) -> BoxedStrategy<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+            if num_rows == 0 {
+                return Just(Vec::new()).boxed();
+            }
+            // (gap, len) pairs; a zero gap yields ranges adjacent in row space,
+            // which exercises the level-slice coalescing path.
+            proptest::collection::vec((0u64..=3, 1u64..=4), 0..=8)
+                .prop_map(move |pairs| {
+                    let mut ranges = Vec::new();
+                    let mut pos = 0u64;
+                    for (gap, len) in pairs {
+                        pos = pos.saturating_add(gap);
+                        if pos >= num_rows {
+                            break;
+                        }
+                        let end = (pos + len).min(num_rows);
+                        ranges.push(pos..end);
+                        pos = end;
+                    }
+                    ranges
+                })
+                .boxed()
+        }
 
-        let val = vec![0xABu8; 33];
-        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
-            arrow_array::FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_sparse_iter_with_size(
-                std::iter::repeat_n(Some(val.as_slice()), 256),
-                33,
+        fn drain_input() -> impl Strategy<Value = DrainInput> {
+            (
+                1u16..=3,
+                0u16..=3,
+                any::<bool>(),
+                any::<bool>(),
+                1usize..=48,
             )
-            .unwrap(),
-        );
-        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::FixedSizeBinary(33), true);
-        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+                .prop_flat_map(|(max_rep, max_visible, has_rep, has_def, len)| {
+                    // Complex-all-null always has definition levels when there is
+                    // no repetition, so force `def` present in that case.
+                    let has_def = has_def || !has_rep;
+                    let rep = if has_rep {
+                        proptest::collection::vec(0u16..=max_rep, len)
+                            .prop_map(move |mut v| {
+                                // Row 0 must start at a max-rep boundary.
+                                v[0] = max_rep;
+                                Some(v)
+                            })
+                            .boxed()
+                    } else {
+                        Just(None).boxed()
+                    };
+                    let def = if has_def {
+                        proptest::collection::vec(0u16..=(max_visible + 2), len)
+                            .prop_map(Some)
+                            .boxed()
+                    } else {
+                        Just(None).boxed()
+                    };
+                    (Just(max_rep), Just(max_visible), rep, def)
+                })
+                .prop_flat_map(|(max_rep, max_visible, rep, def)| {
+                    let num_rows = match &rep {
+                        Some(rep) => rep.iter().filter(|&&v| v == max_rep).count() as u64,
+                        None => def.as_ref().map(|d| d.len() as u64).unwrap_or(0),
+                    };
+                    ranges_strategy(num_rows).prop_map(move |ranges| DrainInput {
+                        max_rep,
+                        max_visible,
+                        rep: rep.clone(),
+                        def: def.clone(),
+                        ranges,
+                    })
+                })
+        }
 
-        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
-            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
-        };
-        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
-            panic!("Expected constant layout in slot 2");
-        };
-        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_none());
-        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 1);
+        proptest! {
+            #![proptest_config(ProptestConfig::with_cases(512))]
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
-    }
+            #[test]
+            fn drain_matches_reference(input in drain_input()) {
+                let DrainInput { max_rep, max_visible, rep, def, ranges } = input;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_constant_layout_out_of_line_utf8_v2_2() {
-        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+                let reference =
+                    reference_drain(rep.as_deref(), def.as_deref(), max_rep, max_visible, &ranges);
 
-        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from_iter_values(
-            std::iter::repeat_n("hello", 512),
-        ));
-        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::Utf8, true);
-        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+                let rep_dense = rep.as_deref().map(dense_levels);
+                let def_dense = def.as_deref().map(dense_levels);
+                let got_dense =
+                    simulate_drain(rep_dense.as_ref(), def_dense.as_ref(), max_rep, max_visible, &ranges)
+                        .unwrap();
+                prop_assert_eq!(&got_dense, &reference, "dense form diverged from reference");
 
-        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
-            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
-        };
-        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
-            panic!("Expected constant layout in slot 2");
-        };
-        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_none());
-        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 1);
+                let rep_rle = rep.as_deref().map(rle_levels);
+                let def_rle = def.as_deref().map(rle_levels);
+                let got_rle =
+                    simulate_drain(rep_rle.as_ref(), def_rle.as_ref(), max_rep, max_visible, &ranges)
+                        .unwrap();
+                prop_assert_eq!(&got_rle, &reference, "rle form diverged from reference");
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+                let rep_physical = rep.as_deref().map(physical_levels);
+                let def_physical = def.as_deref().map(physical_levels);
+                let got_physical =
+                    simulate_drain(rep_physical.as_ref(), def_physical.as_ref(), max_rep, max_visible, &ranges)
+                        .unwrap();
+                prop_assert_eq!(&got_physical, &reference, "physical form diverged from reference");
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_constant_layout_nullable_item_v2_2() {
-        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+    #[test]
+    fn lazy_levels_runs_are_compact() {
+        let single_run = |n: usize| {
+            let mut ends = RunEndsBuilder::with_capacity(n, 1);
+            ends.push(n).unwrap();
+            LazyLevels::Runs(Arc::new(RunStorage::Coalesced {
+                values: vec![1u16].into_boxed_slice(),
+                ends: ends.finish(),
+            }))
+        };
+        // Run-form footprint is independent of the logical length within an end width...
+        assert_eq!(single_run(100).deep_size(), single_run(10_000).deep_size());
+        assert!(single_run(10_000_000).deep_size() < 100);
+        assert_eq!(single_run(10_000_000).len(), 10_000_000);
+        // ...while Dense pays 2 bytes per value.
+        assert_eq!(
+            LazyLevels::Dense(ScalarBuffer::<u16>::from(vec![1u16; 1000])).deep_size(),
+            2000
+        );
+    }
 
-        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![
-            Some(7),
-            None,
-            Some(7),
-            None,
-            Some(7),
-        ]));
-        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::Int32, true);
-        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+    #[test]
+    fn lazy_levels_selects_smallest_representation() {
+        let runs = encoded_u16_runs(&[7u16; 10], RunLengthWidth::U8);
+        assert_eq!(LazyLevels::select_plan(&runs), LevelPlan::Dense);
 
-        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
-            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
-        };
-        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
-            panic!("Expected constant layout in slot 2");
-        };
-        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_some());
-        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 2);
+        let equal_size: Vec<u16> = std::iter::repeat_n(0, 256)
+            .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(1, 100))
+            .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(2, 100))
+            .collect();
+        let runs = encoded_u16_runs(&equal_size, RunLengthWidth::U8);
+        assert_eq!(LazyLevels::select_plan(&runs), LevelPlan::Coalesced);
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
-    }
+        let moderate_runs: Vec<u16> = (0..250)
+            .flat_map(|run| std::iter::repeat_n((run % 2) as u16, 4))
+            .collect();
+        let runs = encoded_u16_runs(&moderate_runs, RunLengthWidth::U8);
+        assert_eq!(LazyLevels::select_plan(&runs), LevelPlan::Physical);
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_constant_layout_list_repdef_v2_2() {
-        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
-        use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, ListBuilder};
+        let split_constant = vec![7u16; 5000];
+        let runs = encoded_u16_runs(&split_constant, RunLengthWidth::U8);
+        assert_eq!(LazyLevels::select_plan(&runs), LevelPlan::Coalesced);
 
-        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new());
-        builder.values().append_value(7);
-        builder.values().append_null();
-        builder.values().append_value(7);
-        builder.append(true);
+        let high_density: Vec<u16> = (0..70_000).map(|index| (index % 2) as u16).collect();
+        let runs = encoded_u16_runs(&high_density, RunLengthWidth::U32);
+        assert_eq!(LazyLevels::select_plan(&runs), LevelPlan::Dense);
+    }
 
-        builder.append(true);
+    #[test]
+    fn physical_runs_detach_from_large_encoded_frame() {
+        let levels: Vec<u16> = (0..250)
+            .flat_map(|run| std::iter::repeat_n((run % 2) as u16, 4))
+            .collect();
+        let frame = encoded_u16_frame(&levels, RunLengthWidth::U8);
+        let frame_offset = 4096;
+        let mut allocation = vec![0; frame_offset + frame.len() + 1_000_000];
+        allocation[frame_offset..frame_offset + frame.len()].copy_from_slice(frame.as_ref());
+        let frame = LanceBuffer::from(allocation).slice_with_length(frame_offset, frame.len());
+        let runs = RleDecompressor::with_run_length_width(16, RunLengthWidth::U8)
+            .decode_u16_runs(frame, levels.len() as u64)
+            .unwrap();
 
-        builder.values().append_value(7);
-        builder.append(true);
+        assert_eq!(LazyLevels::select_plan(&runs), LevelPlan::Physical);
+        let cached = LazyLevels::from_rle_runs(runs).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(cached, LazyLevels::Runs(ref runs) if matches!(runs.as_ref(), RunStorage::Physical(_)))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cached.len(), levels.len());
+        assert!(cached.deep_size() < 4096);
+    }
 
-        builder.append_null();
+    #[test]
+    fn complex_all_null_levels_reject_invalid_values_and_lengths() {
+        let invalid_levels = vec![0u16, 3];
+        for levels in [
+            LazyLevels::Dense(ScalarBuffer::from(invalid_levels.clone())),
+            physical_levels(&invalid_levels),
+            coalesced_levels(&invalid_levels),
+        ] {
+            let error = validate_complex_all_null_levels(&None, &Some(levels), 0, 2).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("Invalid definition level 3"));
+        }
 
-        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(builder.finish());
-        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new(
-            "c",
-            DataType::List(Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
-                "item",
-                DataType::Int32,
-                true,
-            ))),
-            true,
+        let rep = Some(LazyLevels::Dense(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0u16; 2])));
+        let def = Some(LazyLevels::Dense(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0u16])));
+        let error = validate_complex_all_null_levels(&rep, &def, 0, 0).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("repetition has 2, definition has 1")
         );
-        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+    }
 
-        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
-            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
-        };
-        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
-            panic!("Expected constant layout in slot 2");
+    #[test]
+    fn block_levels_reject_malformed_payload_size() {
+        let block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::from(vec![0]),
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            num_values: 1,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        });
+        let error = dense_levels_from_block(block, 1, "definition").unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("expected 2 bytes for 1 values, got 1")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn complex_all_null_level_codec_validates_rle_metadata() {
+        let encoding = pb21::CompressiveEncoding {
+            compression: Some(Compression::Rle(Box::new(pb21::Rle {
+                values: None,
+                run_lengths: Some(Box::new(ProtobufUtils21::flat(8, None))),
+            }))),
         };
-        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_some());
-        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 2);
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+        let error = LevelCodec::try_new(Some(&encoding), &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default())
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("RLE compression missing values encoding")
+        );
     }
 
+    // https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/6681
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_constant_layout_fixed_size_list_not_used_v2_2() {
-        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
-        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Int32Builder};
-
-        let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new(), 3);
-        for _ in 0..64 {
-            builder.values().append_value(1);
-            builder.values().append_null();
-            builder.values().append_value(3);
-            builder.append(true);
+    async fn test_sparse_boolean_list_roundtrip() {
+        use arrow_array::builder::{BooleanBuilder, ListBuilder};
+
+        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(BooleanBuilder::new());
+        for i in 0..1000i32 {
+            if i % 64 == 0 {
+                // Alternate true/false so the array is not constant (constant path avoids the bug).
+                list_builder.values().append_value(i % 128 == 0);
+                list_builder.append(true);
+            } else {
+                list_builder.append(false);
+            }
         }
-        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(builder.finish());
-        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new(
-            "c",
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)),
-                3,
-            ),
-            true,
-        );
-        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+        let list_array = Arc::new(list_builder.finish());
 
-        if let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description {
-            assert!(
-                !matches!(layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap(), Layout::ConstantLayout(_)),
-                "FixedSizeList should not use constant layout yet"
-            );
-        }
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![list_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    fn truncated_tail_details() -> std::sync::Arc<super::FullZipDecodeDetails> {
+        use crate::compression::VariablePerValueDecompressor;
+        use crate::encodings::physical::binary::VariableDecoder;
+        use crate::repdef::{ControlWordParser, DefinitionInterpretation};
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+        Arc::new(super::FullZipDecodeDetails {
+            value_decompressor: super::PerValueDecompressor::Variable(Arc::new(
+                VariableDecoder::default(),
+            )
+                as Arc<dyn VariablePerValueDecompressor>),
+            def_meaning: vec![DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem].into(),
+            ctrl_word_parser: ControlWordParser::new(0, 0),
+            max_rep: 0,
+            max_visible_def: 0,
+        })
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_constant_layout_not_written_before_v2_2() {
-        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+    fn decode_variable_full_zip(
+        buf: Vec<u8>,
+        bits_per_offset: u8,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<super::VariableFullZipDecoder> {
+        use std::collections::VecDeque;
+        let mut data = VecDeque::new();
+        data.push_back(crate::buffer::LanceBuffer::from(buf));
+        super::VariableFullZipDecoder::new(
+            truncated_tail_details(),
+            data,
+            1,
+            bits_per_offset,
+            bits_per_offset,
+        )
+    }
 
-        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![7; 1024]));
-        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::Int32, true);
-        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_1).await;
+    /// A well-formed length prefix decodes without incident, for both widths.
+    #[test]
+    fn variable_full_zip_wellformed_length_prefix() {
+        assert!(decode_variable_full_zip(0u32.to_le_bytes().to_vec(), 32).is_ok());
+        assert!(decode_variable_full_zip(0u64.to_le_bytes().to_vec(), 64).is_ok());
+    }
 
-        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
-            return;
-        };
-        assert!(
-            !matches!(layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap(), Layout::ConstantLayout(_)),
-            "Should not emit constant layout before v2.2"
-        );
+    /// A page whose item walk ends with a partial length prefix must surface a
+    /// corrupt-file error rather than read past the end of the buffer.
+    ///
+    /// This asserts the error variant and message rather than merely expecting a
+    /// panic: before the length prefix was bounds checked, the read was
+    /// `get_unchecked` behind a `debug_assert!`, so a debug build panicked here
+    /// (which a `#[should_panic]` test would have accepted as a pass) while a
+    /// release build read up to 8 bytes out of a 4 byte allocation.
+    #[test]
+    fn variable_full_zip_truncated_length_prefix_is_corrupt_file() {
+        use lance_core::Error;
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
-            .with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
-            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+        for (bits, buf_len) in [(32u8, 3usize), (64u8, 4usize)] {
+            let err = decode_variable_full_zip(vec![0xAA; buf_len], bits)
+                .expect_err("a truncated length prefix must not decode");
+            assert!(
+                matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+                "expected CorruptFile for a {}-bit prefix with {} byte(s), got: {:?}",
+                bits,
+                buf_len,
+                err
+            );
+            let msg = err.to_string();
+            assert!(
+                msg.contains("truncated length prefix"),
+                "error should say what is wrong, got: {msg}"
+            );
+        }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_all_null_constant_layout_still_works_v2_2() {
-        use crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+    /// Drains `num_rows` from a single-buffer fixed full-zip page built from `buf`.
+    ///
+    /// `bits_rep` picks the control word width (1 -> one byte, 9 -> two bytes) and each
+    /// visible item is a one-word control plus a 4 byte value.
+    fn drain_fixed_full_zip(buf: Vec<u8>, bits_rep: u8, num_rows: u64) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        use crate::compression::FixedPerValueDecompressor;
+        use crate::decoder::StructuralPageDecoder;
+        use crate::repdef::{ControlWordParser, DefinitionInterpretation};
+        use std::collections::VecDeque;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
 
-        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![None, None, None]));
-        let field = arrow_schema::Field::new("c", DataType::Int32, true);
-        let page = encode_first_page(field, arr.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct UnusedFixedDecompressor;
 
-        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
-            panic!("Expected structural encoding");
-        };
-        let Layout::ConstantLayout(layout) = layout.layout.as_ref().unwrap() else {
-            panic!("Expected layout in slot 2");
+        impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for UnusedFixedDecompressor {
+            fn decompress(&self, _: FixedWidthDataBlock, _: u64) -> crate::Result<DataBlock> {
+                unreachable!("these cases fail while slicing, before any value is decoded")
+            }
+
+            fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
+                32
+            }
+        }
+
+        let details = Arc::new(super::FullZipDecodeDetails {
+            value_decompressor: super::PerValueDecompressor::Fixed(Arc::new(
+                UnusedFixedDecompressor,
+            )),
+            def_meaning: vec![DefinitionInterpretation::AllValidList].into(),
+            ctrl_word_parser: ControlWordParser::new(bits_rep, 0),
+            max_rep: 1,
+            max_visible_def: 0,
+        });
+        let bytes_per_word = bits_rep.div_ceil(8) as usize;
+
+        let mut data = VecDeque::new();
+        data.push_back(crate::buffer::LanceBuffer::from(buf));
+        let mut decoder = super::FixedFullZipDecoder {
+            details,
+            data,
+            offset_in_current: 0,
+            bytes_per_value: 4,
+            total_bytes_per_value: 4 + bytes_per_word,
+            num_rows,
         };
-        assert!(layout.inline_value.is_none());
-        assert_eq!(page.data.len(), 0);
+        decoder.drain(num_rows).map(|_| ())
+    }
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_max_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
-            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096]);
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    /// Two one-item rows, each a control word plus a 4 byte value, slice cleanly.
+    #[test]
+    fn fixed_full_zip_wellformed_page_slices() {
+        assert!(drain_fixed_full_zip(vec![1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0], 1, 2).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    /// The item walk is driven by the page's own control words, so a page that disagrees
+    /// with its layout can run off the end of the buffer.  Each way of doing so must
+    /// surface a corrupt-file error.
+    ///
+    /// These assert the error variant and message rather than merely expecting a panic:
+    /// before the walk was bounds checked these aborted the process inside
+    /// `LanceBuffer::slice_with_length`, which a `#[should_panic]` test would have
+    /// accepted as a pass.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    // Second value is one byte short of a full 4 byte value
+    #[case::truncated_item(vec![1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0], 1, 2, "truncated item")]
+    // Two byte control words, with a lone trailing byte after the first item
+    #[case::truncated_control_word(
+        vec![1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1],
+        9,
+        2,
+        "truncated control word"
+    )]
+    // A well-formed two row page cannot satisfy a request for three rows
+    #[case::page_exhausted(vec![1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0], 1, 3, "page data ran out")]
+    fn fixed_full_zip_malformed_page_is_corrupt_file(
+        #[case] buf: Vec<u8>,
+        #[case] bits_rep: u8,
+        #[case] num_rows: u64,
+        #[case] expected_msg: &str,
+    ) {
+        use lance_core::Error;
+
+        let err = drain_fixed_full_zip(buf, bits_rep, num_rows)
+            .expect_err("a malformed page must not slice");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got: {err:?}"
+        );
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains(expected_msg),
+            "error should say what is wrong, got: {msg}"
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/blob.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/blob.rs
index 2d504ff37ba..d9ed1b390dd 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/blob.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/blob.rs
@@ -8,22 +8,24 @@
 
 use std::{collections::VecDeque, ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, make_array, Array, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, UInt64Array, cast::AsArray, make_array};
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
-use snafu::location;
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 
 use lance_core::{
-    cache::DeepSizeOf, datatypes::BLOB_DESC_TYPE, error::LanceOptionExt, Error, Result,
+    Error, Result, cache::DeepSizeOf, datatypes::BLOB_DESC_TYPE, error::LanceOptionExt,
 };
 
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, VariableWidthBlock},
     decoder::{DecodePageTask, DecodedPage, StructuralPageDecoder},
-    encodings::logical::primitive::{CachedPageData, PageLoadTask, StructuralPageScheduler},
+    encodings::logical::primitive::{
+        CachedPageData, PageCacheView, PageInitialization, PageInitializationBuffers, PageLoadTask,
+        StructuralPageScheduler,
+    },
     repdef::{DefinitionInterpretation, RepDefUnraveler},
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
 /// How many bytes to target in each unloaded / loaded shard.  A larger value means
@@ -66,15 +68,28 @@ impl BlobDescriptionPageScheduler {
 }
 
 impl StructuralPageScheduler for BlobDescriptionPageScheduler {
-    fn initialize<'a>(
+    fn needs_initialization(&self) -> bool {
+        self.inner_scheduler.needs_initialization()
+    }
+
+    fn init_layout(&self) -> Result<PageInitialization> {
+        self.inner_scheduler.init_layout()
+    }
+
+    fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
         &'a mut self,
+        buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
         io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
-        self.inner_scheduler.initialize(io)
+        self.inner_scheduler.init_from_buffers(buffers, io)
     }
 
-    fn load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) {
-        self.inner_scheduler.load(data);
+    fn try_load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.inner_scheduler.try_load(data)
+    }
+
+    fn cache_view(&self) -> PageCacheView {
+        PageCacheView::BlobDescriptor
     }
 
     fn schedule_ranges(
@@ -140,23 +155,18 @@ impl DecodePageTask for BlobDescriptionDecodePageTask {
 
         // Need to extract out the repdef information
         let DataBlock::Struct(descriptions) = &decoded.data else {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "Expected struct data block for descriptions".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "Expected struct data block for descriptions",
+            ));
         };
         let mut description_children = descriptions.children.iter();
         let DataBlock::FixedWidth(positions) = description_children.next().expect_ok()? else {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "Expected fixed width data block for positions".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "Expected fixed width data block for positions",
+            ));
         };
         let DataBlock::FixedWidth(sizes) = description_children.next().expect_ok()? else {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "Expected fixed width data block for sizes".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal("Expected fixed width data block for sizes"));
         };
         let positions = positions.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
         let sizes = sizes.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
@@ -207,14 +217,12 @@ impl DecodePageTask for BlobDescriptionDecodePageTask {
 struct BlobCacheableState {
     positions: Arc<UInt64Array>,
     sizes: Arc<UInt64Array>,
-    inner_state: Arc<dyn CachedPageData>,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for BlobCacheableState {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::cache::Context) -> usize {
-        self.positions.get_array_memory_size()
-            + self.sizes.get_array_memory_size()
-            + self.inner_state.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        (self.positions.as_ref() as &dyn arrow_array::Array).deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + (self.sizes.as_ref() as &dyn arrow_array::Array).deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
@@ -264,7 +272,9 @@ impl BlobPageScheduler {
             let bytes = read_fut.await?;
             let mut bytes_iter = bytes.into_iter();
             for blob in loaded_blobs.iter_mut() {
-                if blob.def == 0 {
+                // Empty values have def == 0 too but scheduled no read; their
+                // bytes were set at scheduling time.
+                if blob.def == 0 && blob.bytes.is_none() {
                     blob.set_bytes(bytes_iter.next().expect_ok()?);
                 }
             }
@@ -281,23 +291,28 @@ impl BlobPageScheduler {
 }
 
 impl StructuralPageScheduler for BlobPageScheduler {
-    fn initialize<'a>(
+    fn init_layout(&self) -> Result<PageInitialization> {
+        self.inner_scheduler.init_layout()
+    }
+
+    fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
         &'a mut self,
+        buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
         io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
         let io = io.clone();
         let num_rows = self.num_rows;
         async move {
-            let cached = self.inner_scheduler.initialize(&io).await?;
+            let cached = self.inner_scheduler.init_from_buffers(buffers, &io).await?;
+            self.inner_scheduler.try_load(&cached)?;
             let mut desc_decoders = self.inner_scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[0..num_rows], &io)?;
             if desc_decoders.len() != 1 {
                 // This can't happen yet today so being a little lazy but if it did happen we just
                 // need to concatenate the descriptions.  I'm guessing by then we might be doing something
                 // different than "load all descriptors in initialize" anyways.
-                return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                    source: "Expected exactly one descriptor decoder".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "Expected exactly one descriptor decoder".into(),
+                ));
             }
             let desc_decoder_task = desc_decoders.pop().unwrap();
             let mut desc_decoder = desc_decoder_task.decoder_fut.await?;
@@ -322,27 +337,27 @@ impl StructuralPageScheduler for BlobPageScheduler {
                     .unwrap()
                     .clone(),
             );
-            self.positions = Some(positions.clone());
-            self.sizes = Some(sizes.clone());
-            let state = Arc::new(BlobCacheableState {
-                inner_state: cached,
-                positions,
-                sizes,
-            });
+            let state = Arc::new(BlobCacheableState { positions, sizes });
             Ok(state as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)
         }
         .boxed()
     }
 
-    fn load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) {
+    fn try_load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> Result<()> {
         let blob_state = data
             .clone()
             .as_arc_any()
             .downcast::<BlobCacheableState>()
-            .unwrap();
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Cached blob page data has an unexpected type".into())
+            })?;
         self.positions = Some(blob_state.positions.clone());
         self.sizes = Some(blob_state.sizes.clone());
-        self.inner_scheduler.load(&blob_state.inner_state);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn cache_view(&self) -> PageCacheView {
+        PageCacheView::BlobPayload
     }
 
     fn schedule_ranges(
@@ -371,7 +386,17 @@ impl StructuralPageScheduler for BlobPageScheduler {
                 if size == 0 {
                     let rep = (position & 0xFFFF) as u16;
                     let def = ((position >> 16) & 0xFFFF) as u16;
-                    loaded_blobs.push(LoadedBlob::new(rep, def));
+                    let mut blob = LoadedBlob::new(rep, def);
+                    if def == 0 {
+                        // A size-0 descriptor with definition level 0 is a
+                        // valid, empty value (nulls carry their non-zero
+                        // packed rep/def levels in `position`). No read is
+                        // scheduled for it, so it gets its zero-length bytes
+                        // here rather than consuming another blob's read
+                        // result in the load task.
+                        blob.set_bytes(Bytes::new());
+                    }
+                    loaded_blobs.push(blob);
                 } else {
                     loaded_blobs.push(LoadedBlob::new(0, 0));
                     ranges_to_read.push(position..(position + size));
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/chunk_index.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/chunk_index.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..19fb0fdb041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/chunk_index.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,536 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Compact per-page chunk index for the mini-block structural encoding.
+//!
+//! The chunk index is stored on disk in an extremely compressed form that
+//! requires a lot of CPU to work with.  However, extracting it out to its full
+//! width can be RAM-intensive.  As a compromise we extract into a prefix-sum
+//! array that we fit into `u32` if possible and we avoid storing per-block row
+//! counts when those are redundant.  The scheduler looks chunks up by index
+//! (byte range, leaf value count) and by row (which chunk holds a row).
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! MiniBlockChunkIndex
+//! |- base: u64                      absolute file position of the value buffer
+//! |- byte_starts: PrefixSums        cumulative chunk byte sizes (all pages)
+//! `- rows: RowMapping
+//!    |- UniformFlat { .. }          flat page, uniform leaf chunking (arithmetic)
+//!    |- Flat { value_starts }       flat page, non-uniform leaf chunking
+//!    `- Nested { row_starts, .. }   repetition present; rows tracked as prefix sums
+//! ```
+
+use std::ops::Range;
+
+use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, BooleanBufferBuilder};
+use lance_core::cache::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+
+/// Cumulative (prefix-sum) array of length `num_chunks + 1` (entry `0` is `0`,
+/// the last entry is the grand total).  Stored as `u32` when the total fits,
+/// else `u64`.
+#[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub enum PrefixSums {
+    U32(Vec<u32>),
+    U64(Vec<u64>),
+}
+
+impl PrefixSums {
+    /// Builds the cumulative array from per-chunk `deltas`.  `total` selects the
+    /// storage width (callers must pass the true sum); `num_chunks` only pre-sizes.
+    pub fn from_deltas(deltas: impl Iterator<Item = u64>, num_chunks: usize, total: u64) -> Self {
+        if total <= u32::MAX as u64 {
+            let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_chunks + 1);
+            let mut acc = 0u32;
+            values.push(0);
+            for delta in deltas {
+                acc += delta as u32;
+                values.push(acc);
+            }
+            debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), num_chunks + 1);
+            debug_assert_eq!(acc as u64, total);
+            Self::U32(values)
+        } else {
+            let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_chunks + 1);
+            let mut acc = 0u64;
+            values.push(0);
+            for delta in deltas {
+                acc += delta;
+                values.push(acc);
+            }
+            debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), num_chunks + 1);
+            debug_assert_eq!(acc, total);
+            Self::U64(values)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Builds a `PrefixSums` from an already-cumulative array (`[0, .., total]`),
+    /// narrowing to `u32` when the total fits.  Avoids the deltas buffer
+    /// [`Self::from_deltas`] would need.
+    fn from_prefix(prefix: Vec<u64>) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(!prefix.is_empty());
+        debug_assert_eq!(prefix[0], 0);
+        let total = prefix.last().copied().unwrap_or(0);
+        if total <= u32::MAX as u64 {
+            Self::U32(prefix.into_iter().map(|v| v as u32).collect())
+        } else {
+            Self::U64(prefix)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Cumulative value at position `i` (i.e. the start of chunk `i`).
+    pub fn get(&self, i: usize) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::U32(values) => values[i] as u64,
+            Self::U64(values) => values[i],
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Start and end of chunk `i` (positions `i`, `i + 1`) behind one width
+    /// match -- halves the branching of two `get` calls on the hot per-chunk path.
+    pub fn get_pair(&self, i: usize) -> (u64, u64) {
+        match self {
+            Self::U32(values) => (values[i] as u64, values[i + 1] as u64),
+            Self::U64(values) => (values[i], values[i + 1]),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Number of chunks (array length minus the trailing total).
+    pub fn num_chunks(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U32(values) => values.len() - 1,
+            Self::U64(values) => values.len() - 1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Size of chunk `i` (the delta between consecutive cumulative values).
+    pub fn delta(&self, i: usize) -> u64 {
+        let (start, end) = self.get_pair(i);
+        end - start
+    }
+
+    /// Index of the chunk whose half-open span `[get(i), get(i+1))` contains
+    /// `value`.  On an exact hit against a chunk start, returns the *first* chunk
+    /// with that start (chunks can share a start row).
+    pub fn find(&self, value: u64) -> usize {
+        // Match the width once, then binary-search only the starts (not the
+        // trailing total).  `partition_point` already yields the first of any
+        // duplicated starts; the `idx - 1` fallback is safe since `get(0) == 0`.
+        match self {
+            Self::U32(values) => {
+                let starts = &values[..values.len() - 1];
+                let idx = starts.partition_point(|&start| (start as u64) < value);
+                if idx < starts.len() && starts[idx] as u64 == value {
+                    idx
+                } else {
+                    idx - 1
+                }
+            }
+            Self::U64(values) => {
+                let starts = &values[..values.len() - 1];
+                let idx = starts.partition_point(|&start| start < value);
+                if idx < starts.len() && starts[idx] == value {
+                    idx
+                } else {
+                    idx - 1
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Leaf value counts per chunk, needed to decode.  Tracked only for nested
+/// pages; flat pages read items off the row mapping (rows == items).
+#[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub enum ItemCounts {
+    /// Every non-last chunk holds the same number of values.
+    Uniform {
+        values_per_chunk: u64,
+        last_chunk_values: u64,
+    },
+    /// `log2` of each chunk's value count, stored as one byte per chunk rather
+    /// than the full count because this index stays cached in RAM; the last
+    /// chunk is handled via `last_chunk_values`.
+    PerChunkLog {
+        logs: Vec<u8>,
+        last_chunk_values: u64,
+    },
+}
+
+impl ItemCounts {
+    fn get(&self, i: usize, num_chunks: usize) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Uniform {
+                values_per_chunk,
+                last_chunk_values,
+            } => {
+                if i == num_chunks - 1 {
+                    *last_chunk_values
+                } else {
+                    *values_per_chunk
+                }
+            }
+            Self::PerChunkLog {
+                logs,
+                last_chunk_values,
+            } => {
+                if i == num_chunks - 1 {
+                    *last_chunk_values
+                } else {
+                    1u64 << logs[i]
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// How row ranges map onto chunks.
+///
+/// Flat pages have row == value index and no preamble/trailer.  Nested pages
+/// track rows separately from leaf items and store a trailer bit per chunk; a
+/// chunk's preamble is the previous chunk's trailer.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub enum RowMapping {
+    /// Flat page whose non-last chunks all hold `values_per_chunk` values, so
+    /// row->chunk is pure arithmetic.
+    UniformFlat {
+        values_per_chunk: u64,
+        last_chunk_values: u64,
+        num_chunks: usize,
+    },
+    /// Flat page with non-uniform chunk sizes; `value_starts` are the cumulative
+    /// value counts (final entry == number of items in the page).
+    Flat { value_starts: PrefixSums },
+    /// Nested page.  `row_starts` are cumulative row counts (final entry ==
+    /// number of rows in the page); `has_trailer[i]` is set when chunk `i` ends
+    /// with a partial list.
+    Nested {
+        row_starts: PrefixSums,
+        has_trailer: BooleanBuffer,
+        item_counts: ItemCounts,
+    },
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for RowMapping {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::UniformFlat { .. } => 0,
+            Self::Flat { value_starts } => value_starts.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            Self::Nested {
+                row_starts,
+                has_trailer,
+                item_counts,
+            } => {
+                row_starts.deep_size_of_children(context)
+                    + has_trailer.len().div_ceil(8)
+                    + item_counts.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compact per-page chunk index that avoids fully materializing the repetition
+/// index into u64's to save RAM.  See the module docs for the layout.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct MiniBlockChunkIndex {
+    base: u64,
+    byte_starts: PrefixSums,
+    rows: RowMapping,
+}
+
+impl MiniBlockChunkIndex {
+    pub fn new(base: u64, byte_starts: PrefixSums, rows: RowMapping) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            base,
+            byte_starts,
+            rows,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Number of chunks in the page.
+    pub fn num_chunks(&self) -> usize {
+        self.byte_starts.num_chunks()
+    }
+
+    /// Absolute byte range of chunk `i` within the file.
+    pub fn byte_range(&self, i: usize) -> Range<u64> {
+        let (start, end) = self.byte_starts.get_pair(i);
+        (self.base + start)..(self.base + end)
+    }
+
+    /// Number of leaf values in chunk `i` (passed to the value decompressor).
+    pub fn items_in_chunk(&self, i: usize) -> u64 {
+        let num_chunks = self.num_chunks();
+        match &self.rows {
+            RowMapping::UniformFlat {
+                values_per_chunk,
+                last_chunk_values,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                if i == num_chunks - 1 {
+                    *last_chunk_values
+                } else {
+                    *values_per_chunk
+                }
+            }
+            RowMapping::Flat { value_starts } => value_starts.delta(i),
+            RowMapping::Nested { item_counts, .. } => item_counts.get(i, num_chunks),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Index of the chunk that contains `row`.
+    pub fn find_chunk(&self, row: u64) -> usize {
+        match &self.rows {
+            RowMapping::UniformFlat {
+                values_per_chunk,
+                num_chunks,
+                ..
+            } => ((row / values_per_chunk) as usize).min(num_chunks - 1),
+            RowMapping::Flat { value_starts } => value_starts.find(row),
+            RowMapping::Nested { row_starts, .. } => row_starts.find(row),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// First row (relative to the page) that begins in chunk `i`.
+    pub fn first_row(&self, i: usize) -> u64 {
+        match &self.rows {
+            RowMapping::UniformFlat {
+                values_per_chunk, ..
+            } => i as u64 * values_per_chunk,
+            RowMapping::Flat { value_starts } => value_starts.get(i),
+            RowMapping::Nested { row_starts, .. } => row_starts.get(i),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Number of rows that start in chunk `i`, including a trailer but not a
+    /// preamble (the previous `starts_including_trailer`).
+    pub fn rows_in_chunk(&self, i: usize) -> u64 {
+        let num_chunks = self.num_chunks();
+        match &self.rows {
+            RowMapping::UniformFlat {
+                values_per_chunk,
+                last_chunk_values,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                if i == num_chunks - 1 {
+                    *last_chunk_values
+                } else {
+                    *values_per_chunk
+                }
+            }
+            RowMapping::Flat { value_starts } => value_starts.delta(i),
+            RowMapping::Nested { row_starts, .. } => row_starts.delta(i),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether chunk `i` begins with a preamble (a continuation of the previous
+    /// chunk's list).  Always false for flat pages; for nested pages this is the
+    /// previous chunk's trailer.
+    pub fn has_preamble(&self, i: usize) -> bool {
+        match &self.rows {
+            RowMapping::Nested { has_trailer, .. } => i > 0 && has_trailer.value(i - 1),
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether chunk `i` ends with a trailer (a partial list continued in the
+    /// next chunk).  Always false for flat pages.
+    pub fn has_trailer(&self, i: usize) -> bool {
+        match &self.rows {
+            RowMapping::Nested { has_trailer, .. } => has_trailer.value(i),
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Name of the active row-mapping variant, used to assert detection in tests.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub fn row_mapping_debug(&self) -> &'static str {
+        match &self.rows {
+            RowMapping::UniformFlat { .. } => "uniform_flat",
+            RowMapping::Flat { .. } => "flat",
+            RowMapping::Nested { .. } => "nested",
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Builds a nested index from raw repetition-index bytes, using placeholder
+    /// byte offsets and item counts.  Only the row axis is populated, which is
+    /// all the scheduler exercises.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub fn new_nested_for_test(rep_bytes: &[u8], stride: usize) -> Self {
+        let (row_starts, has_trailer) = parse_nested_rep(rep_bytes, stride);
+        let num_chunks = row_starts.num_chunks();
+        let byte_starts = PrefixSums::from_deltas(
+            std::iter::repeat_n(8u64, num_chunks),
+            num_chunks,
+            8 * num_chunks as u64,
+        );
+        Self {
+            base: 0,
+            byte_starts,
+            rows: RowMapping::Nested {
+                row_starts,
+                has_trailer,
+                item_counts: ItemCounts::Uniform {
+                    values_per_chunk: 1,
+                    last_chunk_values: 1,
+                },
+            },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for MiniBlockChunkIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.byte_starts.deep_size_of_children(context) + self.rows.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Parses a mini-block repetition index into the compact nested row mapping.
+///
+/// Bytes are `u64`s in groups of `stride`; the first two are `ends` (lists
+/// finishing in the chunk) and `partial` (leftover items).  Only cumulative row
+/// starts and a trailer bit are kept: `has_preamble[i] = has_trailer[i-1]` and
+/// `starts_including_trailer = ends + has_trailer - has_preamble`.
+pub fn parse_nested_rep(rep_bytes: &[u8], stride: usize) -> (PrefixSums, BooleanBuffer) {
+    // Read the two `u64`s per group straight from the little-endian bytes rather
+    // than copying the buffer to reinterpret it.  The caller guarantees
+    // `rep_bytes.len() % 8 == 0`, so the 8-byte windows stay in bounds.
+    const WORD: usize = std::mem::size_of::<u64>();
+    let read_word = |word_idx: usize| -> u64 {
+        let byte = word_idx * WORD;
+        u64::from_le_bytes(rep_bytes[byte..byte + WORD].try_into().unwrap())
+    };
+    let num_chunks = (rep_bytes.len() / WORD) / stride;
+
+    let mut has_trailer_builder = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(num_chunks);
+    // Accumulate the cumulative row starts in a single pass (entry 0 is 0, the
+    // trailing entry is the total) so there is no separate deltas buffer.
+    let mut row_starts = Vec::with_capacity(num_chunks + 1);
+    row_starts.push(0u64);
+    let mut acc = 0u64;
+    let mut chunk_has_preamble = false;
+
+    for i in 0..num_chunks {
+        let base_idx = i * stride;
+        let ends = read_word(base_idx);
+        let partial = read_word(base_idx + 1);
+
+        let has_trailer = partial > 0;
+        let starts_including_trailer = ends + (has_trailer as u64) - (chunk_has_preamble as u64);
+
+        has_trailer_builder.append(has_trailer);
+        acc += starts_including_trailer;
+        row_starts.push(acc);
+
+        chunk_has_preamble = has_trailer;
+    }
+
+    (
+        PrefixSums::from_prefix(row_starts),
+        has_trailer_builder.finish(),
+    )
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
+
+    /// Reference decode: the previous per-block repetition index, used as an
+    /// oracle for the compact `parse_nested_rep`.
+    struct RefBlock {
+        first_row: u64,
+        starts_including_trailer: u64,
+        has_preamble: bool,
+        has_trailer: bool,
+    }
+
+    fn reference_decode(rep_bytes: &[u8], stride: usize) -> Vec<RefBlock> {
+        let buffer = LanceBuffer::from(rep_bytes.to_vec());
+        let u64_slice = buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
+        let n = u64_slice.len() / stride;
+        let mut blocks = Vec::with_capacity(n);
+        let mut chunk_has_preamble = false;
+        let mut offset = 0u64;
+        for i in 0..n {
+            let base_idx = i * stride;
+            let ends = u64_slice[base_idx];
+            let partial = u64_slice[base_idx + 1];
+            let has_trailer = partial > 0;
+            let starts_including_trailer =
+                ends + (has_trailer as u64) - (chunk_has_preamble as u64);
+            blocks.push(RefBlock {
+                first_row: offset,
+                starts_including_trailer,
+                has_preamble: chunk_has_preamble,
+                has_trailer,
+            });
+            chunk_has_preamble = has_trailer;
+            offset += starts_including_trailer;
+        }
+        blocks
+    }
+
+    fn rep_bytes(values: &[u64]) -> Vec<u8> {
+        values.iter().flat_map(|v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prefix_sums_u32() {
+        let sums = PrefixSums::from_deltas([2u64, 3, 5].into_iter(), 3, 10);
+        assert!(matches!(sums, PrefixSums::U32(_)));
+        assert_eq!(sums.num_chunks(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(sums.get(0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(sums.get(1), 2);
+        assert_eq!(sums.get(3), 10);
+        assert_eq!(sums.delta(1), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prefix_sums_u64_selected_by_total() {
+        let big = u32::MAX as u64 + 1;
+        let sums = PrefixSums::from_deltas([big].into_iter(), 1, big);
+        assert!(matches!(sums, PrefixSums::U64(_)));
+        assert_eq!(sums.get(1), big);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prefix_sums_find() {
+        // Chunk starts: 0, 5, 5, 12 (a zero-width chunk creates a duplicate start)
+        let sums = PrefixSums::from_deltas([5u64, 0, 7].into_iter(), 3, 12);
+        // Inside the first chunk
+        assert_eq!(sums.find(3), 0);
+        // Exact match on a duplicated start returns the first such chunk
+        assert_eq!(sums.find(5), 1);
+        // Inside the last chunk
+        assert_eq!(sums.find(11), 2);
+        // Start of the first chunk
+        assert_eq!(sums.find(0), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_nested_rep_matches_reference() {
+        let cases: Vec<Vec<u64>> = vec![
+            vec![5, 2, 3, 0, 4, 7, 2, 0],
+            vec![5, 2, 3, 3, 20, 0],
+            vec![0, 5, 0, 3, 10, 0],
+            vec![1, 0],
+        ];
+        for values in cases {
+            let bytes = rep_bytes(&values);
+            let reference = reference_decode(&bytes, 2);
+            let (row_starts, has_trailer) = parse_nested_rep(&bytes, 2);
+            assert_eq!(row_starts.num_chunks(), reference.len());
+            for (i, block) in reference.iter().enumerate() {
+                assert_eq!(row_starts.get(i), block.first_row, "first_row[{i}]");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    row_starts.delta(i),
+                    block.starts_including_trailer,
+                    "starts_including_trailer[{i}]"
+                );
+                assert_eq!(has_trailer.value(i), block.has_trailer, "has_trailer[{i}]");
+                let derived_preamble = i > 0 && has_trailer.value(i - 1);
+                assert_eq!(derived_preamble, block.has_preamble, "has_preamble[{i}]");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/constant.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/constant.rs
index 822c90fcb3f..3ac011ceb49 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/constant.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/constant.rs
@@ -3,27 +3,28 @@
 
 use std::{any::Any, collections::VecDeque, ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
-use arrow_array::{new_empty_array, Array, ArrayRef};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, new_empty_array};
 use arrow_buffer::ScalarBuffer;
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 use futures::FutureExt;
-use snafu::location;
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 
 use lance_core::{
-    cache::{Context, DeepSizeOf},
     Error, Result,
+    cache::{Context, DeepSizeOf},
 };
 
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     decoder::PageEncoding,
     encoder::EncodedPage,
-    encodings::logical::primitive::{CachedPageData, PageLoadTask},
+    encodings::logical::primitive::{
+        CachedPageData, PageInitialization, PageInitializationBuffers, PageLoadTask,
+    },
     format::ProtobufUtils21,
-    repdef::{DefinitionInterpretation, RepDefUnraveler},
-    EncodingsIo,
+    repdef::{DefinitionInterpretation, RepDefUnraveler, max_visible_level},
 };
 
 pub(crate) fn encode_constant_page(
@@ -102,16 +103,25 @@ enum ScalarSource {
     ValueBuffer(usize),
 }
 
+/// The (scalar, rep, def) file ranges a constant page reads, in the order
+/// `init_layout` declares and `init_from_buffers` consumes them.  Any field is
+/// `None` when that buffer is absent. Computed once at construction so the two
+/// halves share one source of truth and their buffer order cannot drift.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ConstantBufferLayout {
+    scalar: Option<Range<u64>>,
+    rep: Option<Range<u64>>,
+    def: Option<Range<u64>>,
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct ConstantPageScheduler {
-    buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc<[(u64, u64)]>,
     scalar_source: ScalarSource,
-    rep_buf_idx: Option<usize>,
-    def_buf_idx: Option<usize>,
     data_type: DataType,
     def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
     max_rep: u16,
     max_visible_def: u16,
+    layout: ConstantBufferLayout,
     repdef: Option<Arc<CachedConstantState>>,
 }
 
@@ -123,11 +133,7 @@ impl ConstantPageScheduler {
         def_meaning: Arc<[DefinitionInterpretation]>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let max_rep = def_meaning.iter().filter(|d| d.is_list()).count() as u16;
-        let max_visible_def = def_meaning
-            .iter()
-            .filter(|d| !d.is_list())
-            .map(|d| d.num_def_levels())
-            .sum();
+        let max_visible_def = max_visible_level(&def_meaning);
 
         let (scalar_source, rep_buf_idx, def_buf_idx) =
             match (inline_value, buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len()) {
@@ -136,167 +142,141 @@ impl ConstantPageScheduler {
                 (None, 1) => (ScalarSource::ValueBuffer(0), None, None),
                 (None, 3) => (ScalarSource::ValueBuffer(0), Some(1), Some(2)),
                 (Some(_inline), 1) => {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "Invalid constant layout: inline_value present with {} buffers",
-                            1
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid constant layout: inline_value present with {} buffers",
+                        1
+                    )));
                 }
                 (Some(_inline), 3) => {
                     return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                         "Invalid constant layout: inline_value present with 3 buffers",
-                        location!(),
                     ));
                 }
                 (None, 0) => {
                     return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                         "Invalid constant layout: missing scalar source",
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    ));
                 }
                 (None, 2) => {
                     return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                         "Invalid constant layout: ambiguous (2 buffers and no inline_value)",
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    ));
                 }
                 (Some(_), n) => {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "Invalid constant layout: inline_value present with {} buffers",
-                            n
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid constant layout: inline_value present with {} buffers",
+                        n
+                    )));
                 }
                 (None, n) => {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Invalid constant layout: unexpected buffer count {}", n),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid constant layout: unexpected buffer count {}",
+                        n
+                    )));
                 }
             };
 
+        let range_of = |idx: usize| {
+            let (pos, len) = buffer_offsets_and_sizes[idx];
+            pos..pos + len
+        };
+        let layout = ConstantBufferLayout {
+            scalar: match &scalar_source {
+                ScalarSource::ValueBuffer(idx) => Some(range_of(*idx)),
+                ScalarSource::Inline(_) => None,
+            },
+            rep: rep_buf_idx
+                .filter(|&idx| buffer_offsets_and_sizes[idx].1 > 0)
+                .map(range_of),
+            def: def_buf_idx
+                .filter(|&idx| buffer_offsets_and_sizes[idx].1 > 0)
+                .map(range_of),
+        };
+
         Ok(Self {
-            buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
             scalar_source,
-            rep_buf_idx,
-            def_buf_idx,
             data_type,
             def_meaning,
             max_rep,
             max_visible_def,
+            layout,
             repdef: None,
         })
     }
 }
 
 impl crate::encodings::logical::primitive::StructuralPageScheduler for ConstantPageScheduler {
-    fn initialize<'a>(
+    fn init_layout(&self) -> Result<PageInitialization> {
+        // Order must match `init_from_buffers`' consumption: scalar, rep, def.
+        Ok(PageInitialization::new([
+            self.layout.scalar.clone(),
+            self.layout.rep.clone(),
+            self.layout.def.clone(),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
         &'a mut self,
-        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
+        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
-        let rep_range = self
-            .rep_buf_idx
-            .and_then(|idx| self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.get(idx).copied())
-            .filter(|(_, len)| *len > 0)
-            .map(|(pos, len)| pos..pos + len);
-
-        let def_range = self
-            .def_buf_idx
-            .and_then(|idx| self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.get(idx).copied())
-            .filter(|(_, len)| *len > 0)
-            .map(|(pos, len)| pos..pos + len);
-
-        let scalar_range = match self.scalar_source {
-            ScalarSource::ValueBuffer(idx) => {
-                let (pos, len) = self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes[idx];
-                Some(pos..pos + len)
-            }
-            ScalarSource::Inline(_) => None,
-        };
-
-        let mut reads = Vec::with_capacity(3);
-        if let Some(r) = scalar_range {
-            reads.push(r);
-        }
-        if let Some(r) = rep_range.clone() {
-            reads.push(r);
-        }
-        if let Some(r) = def_range.clone() {
-            reads.push(r);
-        }
-
-        if reads.is_empty() {
-            let ScalarSource::Inline(inline) = &self.scalar_source else {
-                return std::future::ready(Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "Invalid constant layout: missing scalar source",
-                    location!(),
-                )))
-                .boxed();
-            };
-
-            let scalar = match lance_arrow::scalar::decode_scalar_from_inline_value(
-                &self.data_type,
-                inline.as_slice(),
-            ) {
-                Ok(s) => s,
-                Err(e) => return std::future::ready(Err(e.into())).boxed(),
-            };
-            let cached = Arc::new(CachedConstantState {
-                scalar,
-                rep: None,
-                def: None,
-            });
-            self.repdef = Some(cached.clone());
-            return std::future::ready(Ok(cached as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)).boxed();
-        }
-
-        let data = io.submit_request(reads, 0);
+        // Consume `buffers` in the same scalar, rep, def order `init_layout`
+        // declared them, using the shared layout's presence flags.
         let scalar_source = self.scalar_source.clone();
         let data_type = self.data_type.clone();
         async move {
-            let mut data_iter = data.await?.into_iter();
+            let [scalar_buffer, rep_buffer, def_buffer] = buffers.try_into_array("constant")?;
 
-            let scalar = match scalar_source {
-                ScalarSource::Inline(inline) => {
+            let scalar = match (scalar_source, scalar_buffer) {
+                (ScalarSource::Inline(inline), None) => {
                     lance_arrow::scalar::decode_scalar_from_inline_value(&data_type, &inline)?
                 }
-                ScalarSource::ValueBuffer(_) => {
-                    let bytes = data_iter.next().unwrap();
+                (ScalarSource::ValueBuffer(_), Some(bytes)) => {
                     let buf = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(bytes, 1);
                     lance_arrow::scalar::decode_scalar_from_value_buffer(&data_type, buf.as_ref())?
                 }
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(
+                        "Constant page scalar buffer does not match its initialization layout",
+                    ));
+                }
             };
 
-            let rep = rep_range.map(|_| {
-                let rep = data_iter.next().unwrap();
+            let rep = rep_buffer.map(|rep| {
                 let rep = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(rep, 2);
                 rep.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>()
             });
 
-            let def = def_range.map(|_| {
-                let def = data_iter.next().unwrap();
+            let def = def_buffer.map(|def| {
                 let def = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(def, 2);
                 def.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>()
             });
 
             let cached = Arc::new(CachedConstantState { scalar, rep, def });
-            self.repdef = Some(cached.clone());
             Ok(cached as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)
         }
         .boxed()
     }
 
-    fn load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) {
-        self.repdef = Some(
-            data.clone()
-                .as_arc_any()
-                .downcast::<CachedConstantState>()
-                .unwrap(),
-        );
+    fn try_load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> Result<()> {
+        let cached: Arc<CachedConstantState> =
+            data.clone().as_arc_any().downcast().map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Cached constant page data has an unexpected type".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        if cached.scalar.data_type() != &self.data_type {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Cached constant page scalar has data type {:?}, expected {:?}",
+                    cached.scalar.data_type(),
+                    self.data_type
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.repdef = Some(cached);
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     fn schedule_ranges(
@@ -362,16 +342,14 @@ impl ConstantPageDecoder {
         let start = self.cursor_level;
         let end = if let Some(rep) = &self.rep {
             if start >= rep.len() {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "Invalid constant layout: repetition buffer too short".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "Invalid constant layout: repetition buffer too short",
+                ));
             }
             if rep[start] != self.max_rep {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "Invalid constant layout: row did not start at max_rep".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "Invalid constant layout: row did not start at max_rep",
+                ));
             }
             let mut end = start + 1;
             while end < rep.len() && rep[end] != self.max_rep {
@@ -416,11 +394,11 @@ impl crate::encodings::logical::primitive::StructuralPageDecoder for ConstantPag
             for _ in range.start..range.end {
                 let (level_range, visible) = self.take_row()?;
                 visible_items_total += visible;
-                if let Some(last) = level_slices.last_mut() {
-                    if last.end == level_range.start {
-                        last.end = level_range.end;
-                        continue;
-                    }
+                if let Some(last) = level_slices.last_mut()
+                    && last.end == level_range.start
+                {
+                    last.end = level_range.end;
+                    continue;
                 }
                 level_slices.push(level_range);
             }
@@ -473,13 +451,13 @@ impl DecodeConstantTask {
             return Ok(new_empty_array(self.scalar.data_type()));
         }
 
-        if let DataType::Struct(fields) = self.scalar.data_type() {
-            if fields.is_empty() {
-                return Ok(Arc::new(arrow_array::StructArray::new_empty_fields(
-                    num_values as usize,
-                    None,
-                )) as ArrayRef);
-            }
+        if let DataType::Struct(fields) = self.scalar.data_type()
+            && fields.is_empty()
+        {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(arrow_array::StructArray::new_empty_fields(
+                num_values as usize,
+                None,
+            )) as ArrayRef);
         }
 
         let indices = arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64; num_values as usize]);
@@ -513,3 +491,32 @@ impl crate::decoder::DecodePageTask for DecodeConstantTask {
         })
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use arrow_array::BooleanArray;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::StructuralPageScheduler;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_cached_scalar_with_different_data_type() {
+        let mut scheduler = ConstantPageScheduler::try_new(
+            Arc::from([]),
+            Some(Bytes::new()),
+            DataType::UInt8,
+            Arc::from([DefinitionInterpretation::AllValidItem]),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let cached: Arc<dyn CachedPageData> = Arc::new(CachedConstantState {
+            scalar: Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![true])),
+            rep: None,
+            def: None,
+        });
+
+        let error = scheduler.try_load(&cached).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Boolean"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("UInt8"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/dict.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/dict.rs
index 22bb0b9a009..19582c167fb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/dict.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/dict.rs
@@ -9,18 +9,17 @@ pub const DICT_FIXED_WIDTH_BITS_PER_VALUE: u64 = 128;
 pub const DICT_INDICES_BITS_PER_VALUE: u64 = 32;
 
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, DictionaryArray, PrimitiveArray, UInt64Array,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{
-        ArrowDictionaryKeyType, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, Int8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type,
-        UInt64Type, UInt8Type,
+        ArrowDictionaryKeyType, Int8Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, UInt8Type, UInt16Type,
+        UInt32Type, UInt64Type,
     },
-    Array, DictionaryArray, PrimitiveArray, UInt64Array,
 };
 use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use arrow_select::take::TakeOptions;
-use lance_core::{error::LanceOptionExt, utils::hash::U8SliceKey, Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, error::LanceOptionExt, utils::hash::U8SliceKey};
 
 use crate::{
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
@@ -100,22 +99,81 @@ pub fn normalize_dict_nulls(array: Arc<dyn Array>) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
             DataType::Int16 => normalize_dict_nulls_impl::<Int16Type>(array),
             DataType::Int32 => normalize_dict_nulls_impl::<Int32Type>(array),
             DataType::Int64 => normalize_dict_nulls_impl::<Int64Type>(array),
-            _ => Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: format!("Unsupported dictionary key type: {}", key_type).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                format!("Unsupported dictionary key type: {}", key_type).into(),
+            )),
         },
-        _ => Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("Data type is not a dictionary: {}", array.data_type()),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        _ => Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Data type is not a dictionary: {}",
+            array.data_type()
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn clear_out_of_range_null_keys_impl<K: ArrowDictionaryKeyType>(
+    array: Arc<dyn Array>,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
+    let dict_array = array.as_dictionary_opt::<K>().expect_ok()?;
+    let num_values = dict_array.values().len();
+    let Some(nulls) = dict_array.keys().nulls() else {
+        return Ok(array);
+    };
+
+    // There is no valid replacement key for an empty dictionary, so that case
+    // requires separate handling and must remain unchanged here.
+    if num_values == 0 {
+        return Ok(array);
+    }
+
+    let has_out_of_range_null_key = dict_array
+        .keys()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .zip(nulls.iter())
+        .any(|(key, is_valid)| !is_valid && key.to_usize().is_none_or(|key| key >= num_values));
+    if !has_out_of_range_null_key {
+        return Ok(array);
+    }
+
+    // Building from the logical iterator writes the default physical key into
+    // every null slot while preserving the original validity bitmap.
+    let keys = PrimitiveArray::<K>::from_iter(dict_array.keys().iter());
+    let values = dict_array.values().clone();
+    Ok(Arc::new(DictionaryArray::<K>::try_new(keys, values)?) as Arc<dyn Array>)
+}
+
+/// Replaces out-of-range physical keys in null dictionary slots with a valid key.
+///
+/// Arrow permits arbitrary keys in null slots, but the structural encoder removes
+/// key validity after recording it as rep-def. The replacement keeps the array
+/// valid when that null buffer is removed without changing its logical values.
+pub(super) fn clear_out_of_range_null_keys(array: Arc<dyn Array>) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Dictionary(key_type, _) => match key_type.as_ref() {
+            DataType::UInt8 => clear_out_of_range_null_keys_impl::<UInt8Type>(array),
+            DataType::UInt16 => clear_out_of_range_null_keys_impl::<UInt16Type>(array),
+            DataType::UInt32 => clear_out_of_range_null_keys_impl::<UInt32Type>(array),
+            DataType::UInt64 => clear_out_of_range_null_keys_impl::<UInt64Type>(array),
+            DataType::Int8 => clear_out_of_range_null_keys_impl::<Int8Type>(array),
+            DataType::Int16 => clear_out_of_range_null_keys_impl::<Int16Type>(array),
+            DataType::Int32 => clear_out_of_range_null_keys_impl::<Int32Type>(array),
+            DataType::Int64 => clear_out_of_range_null_keys_impl::<Int64Type>(array),
+            _ => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                format!("Unsupported dictionary key type: {}", key_type).into(),
+            )),
+        },
+        _ => Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Data type is not a dictionary: {}",
+            array.data_type()
+        ))),
     }
 }
 
 fn dict_encode_variable_width<T>(
     variable_width_data_block: &VariableWidthBlock,
     bits_per_offset: u8,
-    cardinality: u64,
+    max_dict_entries: u32,
+    max_encoded_size: usize,
 ) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBlock)>
 where
     T: ArrowNativeType,
@@ -134,21 +192,17 @@ where
     let max_len = max_len.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0);
 
     let max_dict_data_len = variable_width_data_block.data.len();
-    let expected_dict_data_len = max_len
-        .checked_mul(cardinality)
-        .and_then(|v| <usize as std::convert::TryFrom<u64>>::try_from(v).ok());
-    let dict_data_capacity = expected_dict_data_len
-        .map(|len| len.min(max_dict_data_len))
-        .unwrap_or(max_dict_data_len);
+    let max_len: usize = max_len.try_into().unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+    let dict_data_capacity = max_len
+        .saturating_mul(32)
+        .max(1024)
+        .min(max_dict_data_len)
+        .min(max_encoded_size);
 
     let mut dictionary_buffer: Vec<u8> = Vec::with_capacity(dict_data_capacity);
     let mut dictionary_offsets_buffer = vec![T::default()];
     let mut curr_idx = 0;
     let mut indices_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(variable_width_data_block.num_values as usize);
-    let original_size = variable_width_data_block
-        .data_size()
-        .try_into()
-        .unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
     let bytes_per_offset = (bits_per_offset / 8) as usize;
 
     for window in offsets.windows(2) {
@@ -163,6 +217,9 @@ where
         let idx = match map.entry(U8SliceKey(key)) {
             Entry::Occupied(entry) => *entry.get(),
             Entry::Vacant(entry) => {
+                if max_dict_entries == 0 || curr_idx as u32 >= max_dict_entries {
+                    return None;
+                }
                 if curr_idx == i32::MAX {
                     return None;
                 }
@@ -188,7 +245,7 @@ where
             .len()
             .saturating_add(indices_bytes)
             .saturating_add(offsets_bytes);
-        if encoded_size > original_size {
+        if encoded_size > max_encoded_size {
             return None;
         }
     }
@@ -218,15 +275,13 @@ where
 /// Currently only supported for some common cases (string / binary / 64-bit / 128-bit)
 ///
 /// Returns a block of indices (will always be a fixed width data block) and a block of dictionary
-pub fn dictionary_encode(mut data_block: DataBlock) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBlock)> {
-    let cardinality = data_block
-        .get_stat(Stat::Cardinality)
-        .unwrap()
-        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
-        .value(0);
-    let data_block_size = usize::try_from(data_block.data_size()).unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+pub fn dictionary_encode(
+    data_block: &DataBlock,
+    max_dict_entries: u32,
+    max_encoded_size: usize,
+) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBlock)> {
     match data_block {
-        DataBlock::FixedWidth(ref mut fixed_width_data_block) => {
+        DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width_data_block) => {
             use std::collections::hash_map::Entry;
 
             let bytes_per_value = match fixed_width_data_block.bits_per_value {
@@ -240,7 +295,8 @@ pub fn dictionary_encode(mut data_block: DataBlock) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBl
                     let mut map = HashMap::new();
                     let u64_slice = fixed_width_data_block.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
                     let u64_slice = u64_slice.as_ref();
-                    let mut dictionary_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(cardinality as usize);
+                    let mut dictionary_buffer =
+                        Vec::with_capacity((fixed_width_data_block.num_values as usize).min(1024));
                     let mut indices_buffer =
                         Vec::with_capacity(fixed_width_data_block.num_values as usize);
                     let mut curr_idx: i32 = 0;
@@ -249,6 +305,9 @@ pub fn dictionary_encode(mut data_block: DataBlock) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBl
                         let idx = match map.entry(value) {
                             Entry::Occupied(entry) => *entry.get(),
                             Entry::Vacant(entry) => {
+                                if max_dict_entries == 0 || curr_idx as u32 >= max_dict_entries {
+                                    return None;
+                                }
                                 if curr_idx == i32::MAX {
                                     return None;
                                 }
@@ -265,7 +324,7 @@ pub fn dictionary_encode(mut data_block: DataBlock) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBl
                             .len()
                             .saturating_mul(DICT_INDICES_BITS_PER_VALUE as usize / 8);
                         let encoded_size = dict_bytes.saturating_add(indices_bytes);
-                        if encoded_size > data_block_size {
+                        if encoded_size > max_encoded_size {
                             return None;
                         }
                     }
@@ -292,7 +351,8 @@ pub fn dictionary_encode(mut data_block: DataBlock) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBl
                     let mut map = HashMap::new();
                     let u128_slice = fixed_width_data_block.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u128>();
                     let u128_slice = u128_slice.as_ref();
-                    let mut dictionary_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(cardinality as usize);
+                    let mut dictionary_buffer =
+                        Vec::with_capacity((fixed_width_data_block.num_values as usize).min(1024));
                     let mut indices_buffer =
                         Vec::with_capacity(fixed_width_data_block.num_values as usize);
                     let mut curr_idx: i32 = 0;
@@ -301,6 +361,9 @@ pub fn dictionary_encode(mut data_block: DataBlock) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBl
                         let idx = match map.entry(value) {
                             Entry::Occupied(entry) => *entry.get(),
                             Entry::Vacant(entry) => {
+                                if max_dict_entries == 0 || curr_idx as u32 >= max_dict_entries {
+                                    return None;
+                                }
                                 if curr_idx == i32::MAX {
                                     return None;
                                 }
@@ -317,7 +380,7 @@ pub fn dictionary_encode(mut data_block: DataBlock) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBl
                             .len()
                             .saturating_mul(DICT_INDICES_BITS_PER_VALUE as usize / 8);
                         let encoded_size = dict_bytes.saturating_add(indices_bytes);
-                        if encoded_size > data_block_size {
+                        if encoded_size > max_encoded_size {
                             return None;
                         }
                     }
@@ -342,10 +405,20 @@ pub fn dictionary_encode(mut data_block: DataBlock) -> Option<(DataBlock, DataBl
                 _ => None,
             }
         }
-        DataBlock::VariableWidth(ref variable_width_data_block) => {
+        DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable_width_data_block) => {
             match variable_width_data_block.bits_per_offset {
-                32 => dict_encode_variable_width::<u32>(variable_width_data_block, 32, cardinality),
-                64 => dict_encode_variable_width::<u64>(variable_width_data_block, 64, cardinality),
+                32 => dict_encode_variable_width::<u32>(
+                    variable_width_data_block,
+                    32,
+                    max_dict_entries,
+                    max_encoded_size,
+                ),
+                64 => dict_encode_variable_width::<u64>(
+                    variable_width_data_block,
+                    64,
+                    max_dict_entries,
+                    max_encoded_size,
+                ),
                 _ => None,
             }
         }
@@ -386,7 +459,8 @@ mod tests {
         data_block.compute_stat();
 
         // Dictionary encoding should abort and return None
-        let result = dictionary_encode(data_block);
+        let max_encoded_size = usize::try_from(data_block.data_size()).unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        let result = dictionary_encode(&data_block, 1000, max_encoded_size);
         assert!(
             result.is_none(),
             "Dictionary encoding should abort for high cardinality u128 data"
@@ -416,7 +490,8 @@ mod tests {
         data_block.compute_stat();
 
         // Dictionary encoding should succeed and return Some
-        let result = dictionary_encode(data_block);
+        let max_encoded_size = usize::try_from(data_block.data_size()).unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        let result = dictionary_encode(&data_block, 1000, max_encoded_size);
         assert!(
             result.is_some(),
             "Dictionary encoding should succeed for low cardinality u128 data"
@@ -455,7 +530,8 @@ mod tests {
         let data_block = DataBlock::from_array(Arc::new(array) as Arc<dyn Array>);
 
         // Dictionary encoding should abort and return None
-        let result = dictionary_encode(data_block);
+        let max_encoded_size = usize::try_from(data_block.data_size()).unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        let result = dictionary_encode(&data_block, 10, max_encoded_size);
         assert!(
             result.is_none(),
             "Dictionary encoding should abort for high cardinality string data"
@@ -477,7 +553,8 @@ mod tests {
         let data_block = DataBlock::from_array(Arc::new(array) as Arc<dyn Array>);
 
         // Dictionary encoding should succeed and return Some
-        let result = dictionary_encode(data_block);
+        let max_encoded_size = usize::try_from(data_block.data_size()).unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        let result = dictionary_encode(&data_block, 100, max_encoded_size);
         assert!(
             result.is_some(),
             "Dictionary encoding should succeed for low cardinality data"
@@ -512,6 +589,44 @@ mod tests {
             }
             other => panic!("Expected VariableWidth data block, got {:?}", other),
         };
-        assert!(dictionary_encode(invalid_block).is_none());
+        let max_encoded_size = usize::try_from(invalid_block.data_size()).unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        assert!(dictionary_encode(&invalid_block, 100, max_encoded_size).is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dictionary_encode_respects_size_limit() {
+        let num_values = 10_000u64;
+        let cardinality = 50u64;
+
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_values as usize);
+        for i in 0..num_values {
+            values.push(format!("value_{:08}", i % cardinality));
+        }
+
+        let array = StringArray::from(values);
+        let data_block = DataBlock::from_array(Arc::new(array) as Arc<dyn Array>);
+
+        let full_size = usize::try_from(data_block.data_size()).unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        let too_small_limit = full_size / 10;
+        assert!(dictionary_encode(&data_block, 1000, too_small_limit).is_none());
+        assert!(dictionary_encode(&data_block, 1000, full_size).is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dictionary_encode_respects_entry_limit() {
+        let num_values = 10_000u64;
+        let cardinality = 200u64;
+
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_values as usize);
+        for i in 0..num_values {
+            values.push(format!("value_{:08}", i % cardinality));
+        }
+
+        let array = StringArray::from(values);
+        let data_block = DataBlock::from_array(Arc::new(array) as Arc<dyn Array>);
+
+        let max_encoded_size = usize::try_from(data_block.data_size()).unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        assert!(dictionary_encode(&data_block, 10, max_encoded_size).is_none());
+        assert!(dictionary_encode(&data_block, 500, max_encoded_size).is_some());
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/layout.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/layout.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..95df12ede6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/layout.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+
+use crate::repdef::MiniBlockRepDefBudget;
+
+/// Runs automatic sparse planning only after the dense mini-block budget makes it useful.
+pub(super) fn select_automatic_sparse<T>(
+    requested_encoding: Option<&str>,
+    dense_budget: &MiniBlockRepDefBudget,
+    candidate: impl FnOnce() -> Result<Option<T>>,
+) -> Result<Option<T>> {
+    if requested_encoding.is_some()
+        || !matches!(
+            dense_budget,
+            MiniBlockRepDefBudget::RequiresPageSplit(_)
+                | MiniBlockRepDefBudget::SingleRowOverBudget(_)
+        )
+    {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    candidate()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::constants::{
+        STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE,
+    };
+
+    #[test]
+    fn within_budget_does_not_construct_sparse_candidate() {
+        let selected =
+            select_automatic_sparse::<()>(None, &MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget, || {
+                panic!("within-budget pages must not construct sparse candidates")
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(selected.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn over_budget_selects_only_eligible_candidates() {
+        let split = MiniBlockRepDefBudget::RequiresPageSplit(Vec::new());
+        let selected = select_automatic_sparse(None, &split, || Ok(Some(42))).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(selected, Some(42));
+
+        let ineligible = select_automatic_sparse::<()>(None, &split, || Ok(None)).unwrap();
+        assert!(ineligible.is_none());
+
+        let unsplittable = MiniBlockRepDefBudget::SingleRowOverBudget(70_000);
+        let selected = select_automatic_sparse(None, &unsplittable, || Ok(Some(7))).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(selected, Some(7));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn explicit_modes_and_lance_2_2_do_not_auto_select() {
+        let split = MiniBlockRepDefBudget::RequiresPageSplit(Vec::new());
+        for requested in [
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK,
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP,
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE,
+        ] {
+            let selected = select_automatic_sparse::<()>(Some(requested), &split, || {
+                panic!("explicit modes must not invoke automatic sparse planning")
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+            assert!(selected.is_none());
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/miniblock.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/miniblock.rs
index 6da985e9ec0..0ee408a8510 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/miniblock.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/miniblock.rs
@@ -17,7 +17,30 @@ use crate::{buffer::LanceBuffer, data::DataBlock, format::pb21::CompressiveEncod
 use lance_core::Result;
 
 pub const MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES: u64 = 8 * 1024 - 6;
-pub const MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES: u64 = 4096;
+
+const DEFAULT_MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES: u64 = 4096;
+/// Maximum number of values that any mini-block decoder accepts from page metadata.
+pub(crate) const MAX_CONFIGURABLE_MINIBLOCK_VALUES: u64 = 32768;
+
+fn parse_max_miniblock_values() -> u64 {
+    let val = std::env::var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|v| v.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES);
+    val.clamp(1, MAX_CONFIGURABLE_MINIBLOCK_VALUES)
+}
+
+pub static MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES: std::sync::LazyLock<u64> =
+    std::sync::LazyLock::new(parse_max_miniblock_values);
+
+/// Maximum number of rep/def levels the structural planner should place into
+/// a single mini-block chunk.
+pub fn max_repdef_levels_per_chunk(bits_per_level: u64) -> u64 {
+    debug_assert!(bits_per_level > 0);
+    const REPDEF_BUDGET_BITS: u64 = 16 * 1024 * 8;
+    let budgeted_levels = REPDEF_BUDGET_BITS / bits_per_level;
+    budgeted_levels.min(u16::MAX as u64)
+}
 
 /// Page data that has been compressed into a series of chunks put into
 /// a single buffer.
@@ -31,15 +54,43 @@ pub struct MiniBlockCompressed {
     pub num_values: u64,
 }
 
+/// Per-page framing details that can affect a mini-block compressor's choice.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct MiniBlockCompressionContext {
+    common_chunk_buffers: u64,
+    support_large_chunk: bool,
+    allow_generic_offsets: bool,
+}
+
+impl MiniBlockCompressionContext {
+    /// Creates the framing context supplied by the owning mini-block page.
+    pub fn new(
+        common_chunk_buffers: u64,
+        support_large_chunk: bool,
+        allow_generic_offsets: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            common_chunk_buffers,
+            support_large_chunk,
+            allow_generic_offsets,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// Describes the size of a mini-block chunk of data
 ///
 /// Mini-block chunks are designed to be small (just a few disk sectors)
 /// and contain a power-of-two number of values (except for the last chunk)
 ///
-/// To enforce this we limit a chunk to 4Ki values and slightly less than
-/// 8KiB of compressed data.  This means that even in the extreme case
-/// where we have 4 bytes of rep/def then we will have at most 24KiB of
-/// data (values, repetition, and definition) per mini-block.
+/// By default we limit a chunk to 4Ki values and slightly less than
+/// 8KiB of compressed value data.  The byte budget remains the primary
+/// constraint, so only encodings that compress many values into that
+/// budget can use larger value counts when explicitly configured.
+///
+/// The maximum number of values per chunk can be configured via the
+/// `LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES` environment variable.  This is only
+/// useful in extremely bandwidth-limited environments; the default is
+/// appropriate for local disks and same-region cloud object storage.
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct MiniBlockChunk {
     // The size in bytes of each buffer in the chunk.
@@ -51,10 +102,10 @@ pub struct MiniBlockChunk {
     // then this should be 0 (the number of values will be calculated by subtracting the
     // size of all other chunks from the total size of the page)
     //
-    // For example, 1 would mean there are 2 values in the chunk and 12 would mean there
-    // are 4Ki values in the chunk.
+    // For example, 1 would mean there are 2 values in the chunk and 15 would mean there
+    // are 32Ki values in the chunk.
     //
-    // This must be <= 12 (i.e. <= 4096 values)
+    // This must be <= log2(MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES) (i.e. <= 12 at the default of 4096)
     pub log_num_values: u8,
 }
 
@@ -85,5 +136,66 @@ pub trait MiniBlockCompressor: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
     ///
     /// This method also returns a description of the encoding applied that will be
     /// used at decode time to read the data.
-    fn compress(&self, page: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)>;
+    fn compress(
+        &self,
+        context: MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+        page: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)>;
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use serial_test::serial;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    #[serial]
+    fn test_parse_default() {
+        unsafe { std::env::remove_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES") };
+        assert_eq!(parse_max_miniblock_values(), 4096);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[serial]
+    fn test_parse_custom_value() {
+        unsafe { std::env::set_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES", "256") };
+        assert_eq!(parse_max_miniblock_values(), 256);
+        unsafe { std::env::remove_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES") };
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[serial]
+    fn test_parse_can_raise_to_32k() {
+        unsafe { std::env::set_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES", "32768") };
+        assert_eq!(parse_max_miniblock_values(), 32768);
+        unsafe { std::env::remove_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES") };
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[serial]
+    fn test_parse_clamps_zero_to_one() {
+        unsafe { std::env::set_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES", "0") };
+        assert_eq!(parse_max_miniblock_values(), 1);
+        unsafe { std::env::remove_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES") };
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[serial]
+    fn test_parse_clamps_above_max() {
+        unsafe { std::env::set_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES", "99999") };
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_max_miniblock_values(),
+            MAX_CONFIGURABLE_MINIBLOCK_VALUES
+        );
+        unsafe { std::env::remove_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES") };
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[serial]
+    fn test_parse_invalid_falls_back_to_default() {
+        unsafe { std::env::set_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES", "not_a_number") };
+        assert_eq!(parse_max_miniblock_values(), DEFAULT_MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES);
+        unsafe { std::env::remove_var("LANCE_MINIBLOCK_MAX_VALUES") };
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/sparse.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/sparse.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2de814b5ad8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/sparse.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,5623 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+use arrow_array::new_empty_array;
+use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
+
+fn invalid_enum<T>(
+    value: std::result::Result<T, prost::UnknownEnumValue>,
+    label: &str,
+) -> Result<T> {
+    value.map_err(|error| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Sparse structural {label} has an invalid enum value: {error}").into(),
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+pub(super) mod writer;
+
+fn usize_from_u64(value: u64, label: &str) -> Result<usize> {
+    usize::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Sparse structural {label} {value} exceeds usize::MAX").into(),
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+/// Native sparse structural representation used by the 2.3 sparse layout.
+///
+/// Layers are stored from outer-most to inner-most, matching the order Arrow structural
+/// encoders record offsets and validity.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct SparseStructuralPlan {
+    pub(crate) layers: Vec<SparseStructuralLayerPlan>,
+    pub(crate) num_items: u64,
+    pub(crate) num_visible_items: u64,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum SparsePositionSet {
+    Empty,
+    All { len: u64 },
+    Range { start: u64, len: u64 },
+    Explicit(Vec<u64>),
+}
+
+impl SparsePositionSet {
+    pub(crate) fn from_positions(
+        positions: Vec<u64>,
+        domain_len: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if positions.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Self::Empty);
+        }
+        for window in positions.windows(2) {
+            let [previous, current] = window else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            if previous >= current {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural {label} positions must be strictly increasing")
+                        .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(position) = positions.iter().find(|position| **position >= domain_len) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} position {} is outside layer with {} slots",
+                    position, domain_len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let len = u64::try_from(positions.len()).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} position count exceeds u64::MAX").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let first = positions.first().copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} positions are unexpectedly empty").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let last = positions.last().copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} positions are unexpectedly empty").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if first == 0 && len == domain_len && domain_len > 0 && last == domain_len - 1 {
+            return Ok(Self::All { len: domain_len });
+        }
+        if last - first + 1 == len {
+            return Ok(Self::Range { start: first, len });
+        }
+        Ok(Self::Explicit(positions))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn empty() -> Self {
+        Self::Empty
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn all(len: u64) -> Self {
+        if len == 0 {
+            Self::Empty
+        } else {
+            Self::All { len }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn range(start: u64, len: u64) -> Self {
+        if len == 0 {
+            Self::Empty
+        } else {
+            Self::Range { start, len }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn len(&self) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Empty => 0,
+            Self::All { len } | Self::Range { len, .. } => *len,
+            Self::Explicit(positions) => positions.len() as u64,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Explicit(positions) => positions.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>(),
+            Self::Empty | Self::All { .. } | Self::Range { .. } => 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn materialize(&self) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Empty => Ok(Vec::new()),
+            Self::All { len } => Self::materialize_range(0, *len),
+            Self::Range { start, len } => Self::materialize_range(*start, *len),
+            Self::Explicit(positions) => Ok(positions.clone()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn materialize_range(start: u64, len: u64) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        let len_usize = usize::try_from(len).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural position range length {} exceeds usize::MAX",
+                    len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let end = start.checked_add(len).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural position range overflows".into())
+        })?;
+        let mut positions = Vec::with_capacity(len_usize);
+        positions.extend(start..end);
+        Ok(positions)
+    }
+
+    fn contains(&self, position: u64) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Empty => false,
+            Self::All { len } => position < *len,
+            Self::Range { start, len } => {
+                position >= *start && position < start.saturating_add(*len)
+            }
+            Self::Explicit(positions) => positions.binary_search(&position).is_ok(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_subset_of(&self, other: &Self, domain_len: u64) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.validate_domain(domain_len, "subset")?;
+        other.validate_domain(domain_len, "superset")?;
+        Ok(match self {
+            Self::Empty => true,
+            Self::All { .. } => other.len() == domain_len,
+            Self::Range { start, len } => {
+                let end = start.checked_add(*len).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural subset range overflows".into())
+                })?;
+                match other {
+                    Self::All { .. } => true,
+                    Self::Range {
+                        start: other_start,
+                        len: other_len,
+                    } => {
+                        let other_end = other_start.saturating_add(*other_len);
+                        *start >= *other_start && end <= other_end
+                    }
+                    Self::Explicit(positions) => {
+                        let first = positions.partition_point(|position| *position < *start);
+                        let last = positions.partition_point(|position| *position < end);
+                        u64::try_from(last.saturating_sub(first)).ok() == Some(*len)
+                    }
+                    Self::Empty => false,
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Explicit(positions) => positions.iter().all(|position| other.contains(*position)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn is_disjoint(&self, other: &Self, domain_len: u64) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.validate_domain(domain_len, "first disjoint set")?;
+        other.validate_domain(domain_len, "second disjoint set")?;
+        let (smaller, larger) = if self.len() <= other.len() {
+            (self, other)
+        } else {
+            (other, self)
+        };
+        Ok(match smaller {
+            Self::Empty => true,
+            Self::All { .. } => larger.is_empty(),
+            Self::Range { start, len } => {
+                let end = start.saturating_add(*len);
+                match larger {
+                    Self::Empty => true,
+                    Self::All { .. } => false,
+                    Self::Range {
+                        start: other_start,
+                        len: other_len,
+                    } => end <= *other_start || other_start.saturating_add(*other_len) <= *start,
+                    Self::Explicit(positions) => {
+                        let index = positions.partition_point(|position| *position < *start);
+                        positions.get(index).is_none_or(|position| *position >= end)
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Explicit(positions) => {
+                positions.iter().all(|position| !larger.contains(*position))
+            }
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum SparseValidityMeaning {
+    NullPositions,
+    ValidPositions,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct SparseValiditySet {
+    pub(crate) meaning: SparseValidityMeaning,
+    pub(crate) positions: SparsePositionSet,
+}
+
+impl SparseValiditySet {
+    pub(crate) fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.positions.deep_size()
+    }
+
+    fn contains_only_valid_positions(
+        &self,
+        positions: &SparsePositionSet,
+        num_slots: u64,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        match self.meaning {
+            SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions => {
+                positions.is_disjoint(&self.positions, num_slots)
+            }
+            SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions => {
+                positions.is_subset_of(&self.positions, num_slots)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn append_to(&self, validity: &mut BooleanBufferBuilder, num_slots: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.positions.validate_domain(num_slots, "validity")?;
+        let num_slots_usize = usize_from_u64(num_slots, "validity slot count")?;
+        match (self.meaning, &self.positions) {
+            (SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions, SparsePositionSet::Empty) => {
+                validity.append_n(num_slots_usize, true);
+            }
+            (SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions, SparsePositionSet::Empty) => {
+                validity.append_n(num_slots_usize, false);
+            }
+            (SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions, SparsePositionSet::All { .. }) => {
+                validity.append_n(num_slots_usize, false);
+            }
+            (SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions, SparsePositionSet::All { .. }) => {
+                validity.append_n(num_slots_usize, true);
+            }
+            (meaning, SparsePositionSet::Range { start, len }) => {
+                let range_end = start.checked_add(*len).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural validity range overflows".into())
+                })?;
+                let default_valid = matches!(meaning, SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions);
+                let range_valid = !default_valid;
+                validity.append_n(
+                    usize_from_u64(*start, "validity range start")?,
+                    default_valid,
+                );
+                validity.append_n(usize_from_u64(*len, "validity range length")?, range_valid);
+                validity.append_n(
+                    usize_from_u64(num_slots - range_end, "validity range tail")?,
+                    default_valid,
+                );
+            }
+            (_, SparsePositionSet::Explicit(_)) => {
+                let mut cursor = SparseValidityCursor::new(self, num_slots, "validity")?;
+                for slot in 0..num_slots {
+                    validity.append(cursor.is_valid(slot)?);
+                }
+                cursor.finish()?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl SparsePositionSet {
+    fn validate_domain(&self, domain_len: u64, label: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Empty => {}
+            Self::All { len } => {
+                if *len != domain_len {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} all set length {} does not match domain {}",
+                            len, domain_len
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Range { start, len } => {
+                let end = start.checked_add(*len).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} range overflows").into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                if end > domain_len {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} range {}..{} is outside domain {}",
+                            start, end, domain_len
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Explicit(positions) => {
+                for window in positions.windows(2) {
+                    let [previous, current] = window else {
+                        continue;
+                    };
+                    if previous >= current {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Sparse structural {label} positions must be strictly increasing"
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+                if let Some(position) = positions.last()
+                    && *position >= domain_len
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} position {} is outside layer with {} slots",
+                            position, domain_len
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+struct SparsePositionSetCursor<'a> {
+    set: &'a SparsePositionSet,
+    explicit: Option<std::iter::Peekable<std::slice::Iter<'a, u64>>>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> SparsePositionSetCursor<'a> {
+    fn new(set: &'a SparsePositionSet, domain_len: u64, label: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        set.validate_domain(domain_len, label)?;
+        let explicit = match set {
+            SparsePositionSet::Explicit(positions) => Some(positions.iter().peekable()),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+        Ok(Self { set, explicit })
+    }
+
+    fn contains(&mut self, slot: u64) -> Result<bool> {
+        Ok(match self.set {
+            SparsePositionSet::Empty => false,
+            SparsePositionSet::All { .. } => true,
+            SparsePositionSet::Range { start, len } => {
+                slot >= *start && slot < start.saturating_add(*len)
+            }
+            SparsePositionSet::Explicit(_) => {
+                let iter = self.explicit.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("Sparse structural explicit cursor is missing".to_string())
+                })?;
+                if let Some(position) = iter.peek()
+                    && **position < slot
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural explicit position {} was skipped before slot {}",
+                            **position, slot
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                if iter.peek().is_some_and(|position| **position == slot) {
+                    iter.next();
+                    true
+                } else {
+                    false
+                }
+            }
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(iter) = self.explicit.as_mut()
+            && let Some(position) = iter.next()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural explicit position {} was not consumed",
+                    position
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+struct SparseValidityCursor<'a> {
+    meaning: SparseValidityMeaning,
+    positions: SparsePositionSetCursor<'a>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> SparseValidityCursor<'a> {
+    fn new(validity: &'a SparseValiditySet, domain_len: u64, label: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            meaning: validity.meaning,
+            positions: SparsePositionSetCursor::new(&validity.positions, domain_len, label)?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn is_valid(&mut self, slot: u64) -> Result<bool> {
+        let is_stored = self.positions.contains(slot)?;
+        Ok(match self.meaning {
+            SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions => !is_stored,
+            SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions => is_stored,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.positions.finish()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum SparseCountSet {
+    Empty,
+    Constant {
+        value: u64,
+        len: u64,
+    },
+    Explicit {
+        counts: Arc<[u64]>,
+        offsets: Arc<[u64]>,
+    },
+}
+
+impl SparseCountSet {
+    pub(crate) fn from_counts(counts: Vec<u64>) -> Result<Self> {
+        if counts.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Self::Empty);
+        }
+        if let Some(first) = counts.first().copied()
+            && counts.iter().all(|count| *count == first)
+        {
+            return Ok(Self::Constant {
+                value: first,
+                len: counts.len() as u64,
+            });
+        }
+        let offsets = offsets_from_counts(&counts)?;
+        Ok(Self::Explicit {
+            counts: counts.into(),
+            offsets: offsets.into(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn constant(value: u64, len: u64) -> Self {
+        if len == 0 {
+            Self::Empty
+        } else {
+            Self::Constant { value, len }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn len(&self) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Empty => 0,
+            Self::Constant { len, .. } => *len,
+            Self::Explicit { counts, .. } => counts.len() as u64,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Explicit { counts, offsets } => {
+                counts.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+                    + offsets.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+            }
+            Self::Empty | Self::Constant { .. } => 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn materialize(&self) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Empty => Ok(Vec::new()),
+            Self::Constant { value, len } => {
+                let len = usize::try_from(*len).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural count set length exceeds usize::MAX".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Ok(vec![*value; len])
+            }
+            Self::Explicit { counts, .. } => Ok(counts.to_vec()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn sum(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Empty => Ok(0),
+            Self::Constant { value, len } => value.checked_mul(*len).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse structural constant count sum overflows: value={}, len={}",
+                        value, len
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            }),
+            Self::Explicit { offsets, .. } => offsets.last().copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural explicit count offsets are empty".into(),
+                )
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validate_positive(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let has_zero = match self {
+            Self::Empty => false,
+            Self::Constant { value, .. } => *value == 0,
+            Self::Explicit { counts, .. } => counts.contains(&0),
+        };
+        if has_zero {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural non-empty list count is zero".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum SparseStructuralLayerPlan {
+    Validity {
+        num_slots: u64,
+        validity: SparseValiditySet,
+    },
+    List {
+        num_slots: u64,
+        num_child_slots: u64,
+        non_empty_positions: SparsePositionSet,
+        counts: SparseCountSet,
+        validity: SparseValiditySet,
+    },
+    FixedSizeList {
+        num_slots: u64,
+        dimension: u64,
+        validity: SparseValiditySet,
+    },
+}
+
+impl SparseStructuralPlan {
+    fn expected_num_items(
+        layers: &[SparseStructuralLayerPlan],
+        num_visible_items: u64,
+    ) -> Result<u64> {
+        layers.iter().try_fold(num_visible_items, |items, layer| {
+            let additional = match layer {
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                    num_slots,
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    ..
+                } => num_slots
+                    .checked_sub(non_empty_positions.len())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse structural list has more non-empty positions than slots".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?,
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity { .. }
+                | SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList { .. } => 0,
+            };
+            items.checked_add(additional).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural item count overflows".into())
+            })
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn validate(&self, row_domain: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        usize_from_u64(self.num_visible_items, "visible item count")?;
+        let expected_num_items = Self::expected_num_items(&self.layers, self.num_visible_items)?;
+        if self.num_items != expected_num_items {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural item count {} does not match the {} items implied by its layers",
+                    self.num_items, expected_num_items
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut expected_slots = row_domain;
+        for (layer_index, layer) in self.layers.iter().enumerate() {
+            let (num_slots, num_child_slots, validity) = match layer {
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                    num_slots,
+                    validity,
+                } => (*num_slots, *num_slots, validity),
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                    num_slots,
+                    num_child_slots,
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    counts,
+                    validity,
+                } => {
+                    counts.validate_positive()?;
+                    if non_empty_positions.len() != counts.len() {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Sparse structural list layer {} has {} non-empty positions but {} counts",
+                                layer_index,
+                                non_empty_positions.len(),
+                                counts.len()
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    if counts.sum()? != *num_child_slots {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Sparse structural list layer {} count sum does not match {} child slots",
+                                layer_index, num_child_slots
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    if !validity.contains_only_valid_positions(non_empty_positions, *num_slots)? {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Sparse structural list layer {} contains a non-empty null slot",
+                                layer_index
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    (*num_slots, *num_child_slots, validity)
+                }
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                    num_slots,
+                    dimension,
+                    validity,
+                } => {
+                    if *dimension == 0 {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Sparse structural fixed-size-list layer {} has dimension zero",
+                                layer_index
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    let num_child_slots = num_slots.checked_mul(*dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child domain overflows".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    (*num_slots, num_child_slots, validity)
+                }
+            };
+            usize_from_u64(num_slots, "layer slot count")?;
+            usize_from_u64(num_child_slots, "layer child slot count")?;
+            if num_slots != expected_slots {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse structural layer {} has {} slots, expected {}",
+                        layer_index, num_slots, expected_slots
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            validity.positions.validate_domain(num_slots, "validity")?;
+            expected_slots = num_child_slots;
+        }
+        if expected_slots != self.num_visible_items {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural terminal domain has {} slots, expected {} visible items",
+                    expected_slots, self.num_visible_items
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct SparseStructuralUnraveler {
+    layers: Vec<SparseStructuralLayerPlan>,
+    next_layer: usize,
+    pending_fixed_size_list: bool,
+}
+
+impl SparseStructuralUnraveler {
+    pub(crate) fn new(plan: SparseStructuralPlan) -> Self {
+        let next_layer = plan.layers.len();
+        Self {
+            layers: plan.layers,
+            next_layer,
+            pending_fixed_size_list: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn current_layer(&self) -> Option<&SparseStructuralLayerPlan> {
+        self.next_layer
+            .checked_sub(1)
+            .and_then(|idx| self.layers.get(idx))
+    }
+
+    fn consume_current_layer(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.next_layer = self.next_layer.checked_sub(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural metadata has fewer layers than the Arrow schema".into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn ensure_exhausted(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.pending_fixed_size_list {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural metadata has an unconsumed fixed-size-list layer".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if self.next_layer != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural metadata has {} unconsumed layer(s)",
+                    self.next_layer
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn is_all_valid(&self) -> bool {
+        match self.current_layer() {
+            Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                num_slots,
+                validity,
+            })
+            | Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                num_slots,
+                validity,
+                ..
+            })
+            | Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                num_slots,
+                validity,
+                ..
+            }) => match validity.meaning {
+                SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions => validity.positions.is_empty(),
+                SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions => validity.positions.len() == *num_slots,
+            },
+            None => true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn max_lists(&self) -> Result<usize> {
+        match self.current_layer() {
+            Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List { num_slots, .. }) => {
+                usize_from_u64(*num_slots, "list slot count")
+            }
+            _ => Ok(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn skip_validity(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        match self.current_layer() {
+            Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity { .. }) => {
+                if self.pending_fixed_size_list {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse fixed-size-list schema does not match a validity layer".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                self.consume_current_layer()?;
+            }
+            Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList { .. }) => {
+                if !self.pending_fixed_size_list {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse fixed-size-list layer does not match the Arrow schema".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                self.pending_fixed_size_list = false;
+                self.consume_current_layer()?;
+            }
+            None => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural metadata has fewer layers than the Arrow schema".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List { .. }) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural list layer does not match an Arrow validity layer".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn unravel_validity(&mut self, validity: &mut BooleanBufferBuilder) -> Result<()> {
+        match self.current_layer() {
+            Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                num_slots,
+                validity: layer_validity,
+            }) => {
+                if self.pending_fixed_size_list {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse fixed-size-list schema does not match a validity layer".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                layer_validity.append_to(validity, *num_slots)?;
+                self.consume_current_layer()?;
+            }
+            Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                num_slots,
+                validity: layer_validity,
+                ..
+            }) => {
+                if !self.pending_fixed_size_list {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse fixed-size-list layer does not match the Arrow schema".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                layer_validity.append_to(validity, *num_slots)?;
+                self.pending_fixed_size_list = false;
+                self.consume_current_layer()?;
+            }
+            None => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural metadata has fewer layers than the Arrow schema".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List { .. }) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural list layer does not match an Arrow validity layer".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn decimate(&mut self, dimension: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.pending_fixed_size_list {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse fixed-size-list layer was decimated more than once".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+            dimension: actual_dimension,
+            ..
+        }) = self.current_layer()
+        else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural layer does not match an Arrow fixed-size-list layer".into(),
+            ));
+        };
+        if usize_from_u64(*actual_dimension, "fixed-size-list dimension")? != dimension {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural fixed-size-list dimension {} does not match Arrow dimension {}",
+                    actual_dimension, dimension
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.pending_fixed_size_list = true;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn to_offset<T: ArrowNativeType>(value: u64) -> Result<T> {
+        let value = usize::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural offset {} exceeds usize::MAX", value).into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        T::from_usize(value).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural offset does not fit the Arrow offset type".into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn unravel_offsets<T: ArrowNativeType>(
+        &mut self,
+        offsets: &mut Vec<T>,
+        validity: Option<&mut BooleanBufferBuilder>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+            num_slots,
+            num_child_slots,
+            non_empty_positions,
+            counts,
+            validity: layer_validity,
+            ..
+        }) = self.current_layer()
+        else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural layer does not match an Arrow list layer".into(),
+            ));
+        };
+        if self.pending_fixed_size_list {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse fixed-size-list schema does not match an Arrow list layer".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        if non_empty_positions.len() != counts.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural list has {} non-empty positions but {} counts",
+                    non_empty_positions.len(),
+                    counts.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let actual_child_slots = counts.sum()?;
+        if actual_child_slots != *num_child_slots {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural list count sum {} does not match child slots {}",
+                    actual_child_slots, num_child_slots
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut current_offset = offsets
+            .last()
+            .map(|offset| offset.as_usize() as u64)
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        if offsets.is_empty() {
+            offsets.push(Self::to_offset(current_offset)?);
+        }
+
+        if non_empty_positions.is_empty() {
+            if let Some(validity) = validity {
+                layer_validity.append_to(validity, *num_slots)?;
+            }
+            let offset = Self::to_offset(current_offset)?;
+            let new_len = offsets
+                .len()
+                .checked_add(usize_from_u64(*num_slots, "list slot count")?)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural list offset length overflows usize".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            offsets.resize(new_len, offset);
+            self.consume_current_layer()?;
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let non_empty_positions = non_empty_positions.materialize()?;
+        let counts = counts.materialize()?;
+        let mut non_empty_iter = non_empty_positions
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .zip(counts.iter().copied())
+            .peekable();
+        let mut validity_cursor =
+            SparseValidityCursor::new(layer_validity, *num_slots, "list validity")?;
+        let mut validity = validity;
+        for slot in 0..*num_slots {
+            let is_valid = validity_cursor.is_valid(slot)?;
+            if let Some(validity) = validity.as_mut() {
+                validity.append(is_valid);
+            }
+
+            if non_empty_iter
+                .peek()
+                .is_some_and(|(non_empty_pos, _)| *non_empty_pos == slot)
+            {
+                let (_, count) = non_empty_iter.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural list position is missing its child count".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                if !is_valid {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural list slot {} is both invalid and non-empty",
+                            slot
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                current_offset = current_offset.checked_add(count).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural list offsets overflow u64".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            }
+            offsets.push(Self::to_offset(current_offset)?);
+        }
+        validity_cursor.finish()?;
+        if let Some((extra_pos, _)) = non_empty_iter.next() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural non-empty position {} is outside layer with {} slots",
+                    extra_pos, num_slots
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        self.consume_current_layer()?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum SparsePositionSetDecoder {
+    Empty,
+    All {
+        len: u64,
+    },
+    Range {
+        start: u64,
+        len: u64,
+    },
+    Explicit {
+        decompressor: Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>,
+        encoding: CompressiveEncoding,
+        count: u64,
+        domain_len: u64,
+    },
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum SparseCountSetDecoder {
+    Empty,
+    Constant {
+        value: u64,
+        len: u64,
+    },
+    Explicit {
+        decompressor: Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>,
+        encoding: CompressiveEncoding,
+        count: u64,
+    },
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum SparseLayerDecompressors {
+    Validity {
+        num_slots: u64,
+        validity: SparseValiditySetDecoder,
+    },
+    List {
+        num_slots: u64,
+        num_child_slots: u64,
+        non_empty_positions: SparsePositionSetDecoder,
+        counts: SparseCountSetDecoder,
+        validity: SparseValiditySetDecoder,
+    },
+    FixedSizeList {
+        num_slots: u64,
+        num_child_slots: u64,
+        dimension: u64,
+        validity: SparseValiditySetDecoder,
+    },
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct SparseValiditySetDecoder {
+    meaning: SparseValidityMeaning,
+    positions: SparsePositionSetDecoder,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SparseStructuralCacheableState {
+    chunk_meta: Vec<ChunkMeta>,
+    chunk_value_offsets: Arc<[u64]>,
+    plan: SparseStructuralPlan,
+    row_domain: u64,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for SparseStructuralCacheableState {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        let structural_size = self
+            .plan
+            .layers
+            .iter()
+            .map(|layer| match layer {
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity { validity, .. } => validity.deep_size(),
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    counts,
+                    validity,
+                    ..
+                } => non_empty_positions.deep_size() + counts.deep_size() + validity.deep_size(),
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList { validity, .. } => validity.deep_size(),
+            })
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        self.chunk_meta.len() * std::mem::size_of::<ChunkMeta>()
+            + self.chunk_value_offsets.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+            + structural_size
+    }
+}
+
+impl CachedPageData for SparseStructuralCacheableState {
+    fn as_arc_any(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Any + Send + Sync + 'static> {
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct SparseStructuralScheduler {
+    buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Vec<(u64, u64)>,
+    priority: u64,
+    row_domain: u64,
+    row_scale: u64,
+    num_items: u64,
+    num_visible_items: u64,
+    num_buffers: u64,
+    value_encoding: CompressiveEncoding,
+    value_decompressor: Arc<dyn MiniBlockDecompressor>,
+    layer_decompressors: Vec<SparseLayerDecompressors>,
+    data_type: DataType,
+    page_meta: Option<Arc<SparseStructuralCacheableState>>,
+    has_large_chunk: bool,
+}
+
+impl SparseStructuralScheduler {
+    fn require_layer(
+        layer: &pb21::SparseStructuralLayer,
+    ) -> Result<&pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer> {
+        layer.layer.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural layer is missing its layer variant".into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn layer_num_slots(layer: &pb21::SparseStructuralLayer) -> Result<u64> {
+        Ok(match Self::require_layer(layer)? {
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(layer) => layer.num_slots,
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(layer) => layer.num_slots,
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(layer) => layer.num_slots,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn layer_num_child_slots(layer: &pb21::SparseStructuralLayer) -> Result<u64> {
+        Ok(match Self::require_layer(layer)? {
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(layer) => layer.num_slots,
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(layer) => layer.num_child_slots,
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(layer) => layer
+                .num_slots
+                .checked_mul(layer.dimension)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child slot count overflows: slots={}, dimension={}",
+                            layer.num_slots, layer.dimension
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn try_new(
+        buffer_offsets_and_sizes: &[(u64, u64)],
+        priority: u64,
+        encoded_row_domain: u64,
+        data_type: DataType,
+        layout: &pb21::SparseLayout,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let value_compression = layout.value_compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout is missing value compression".into())
+        })?;
+        let value_buffer_count = Self::validate_value_encoding(value_compression)?;
+        if layout.num_buffers != value_buffer_count {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout declares {} value buffers, but its compression descriptor requires {}",
+                    layout.num_buffers, value_buffer_count
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let row_domain = match layout.structural_layers.first() {
+            Some(layer) => Self::layer_num_slots(layer)?,
+            None => encoded_row_domain,
+        };
+        Self::validate_domain_chain(
+            &layout.structural_layers,
+            row_domain,
+            layout.num_items,
+            layout.num_visible_items,
+        )?;
+        let expected_buffers = 2 + Self::structural_buffer_count(&layout.structural_layers)?;
+        if buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len() != expected_buffers {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout has {} buffers, expected {}",
+                    buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len(),
+                    expected_buffers
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Self::validate_page_buffers(buffer_offsets_and_sizes, layout.num_visible_items)?;
+        let row_scale =
+            layout
+                .structural_layers
+                .iter()
+                .try_fold(1_u64, |scale, layer| -> Result<u64> {
+                    match Self::require_layer(layer)? {
+                        pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(layer) => {
+                            scale.checked_mul(layer.dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                    "Sparse structural fixed-size-list row scale overflows".into(),
+                                )
+                            })
+                        }
+                        pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(_)
+                        | pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(_) => Ok(scale),
+                    }
+                })?;
+        let expected_encoded_row_domain = row_domain.checked_mul(row_scale).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural encoded row domain overflows".into())
+        })?;
+        if encoded_row_domain != expected_encoded_row_domain {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural encoded row domain {} does not match outer domain {} * fixed-size-list scale {}",
+                    encoded_row_domain, row_domain, row_scale
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let value_decompressor = std::panic::catch_unwind(std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
+            decompressors.create_miniblock_decompressor(value_compression, decompressors)
+        }))
+        .map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse value compression descriptor caused decompressor construction to panic"
+                    .into(),
+            )
+        })?
+        .map_err(|error| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse value decompressor construction failed: {error}").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let layer_decompressors = layout
+            .structural_layers
+            .iter()
+            .map(|layer| Self::layer_decompressors(layer, decompressors))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            buffer_offsets_and_sizes: buffer_offsets_and_sizes.to_vec(),
+            priority,
+            row_domain,
+            row_scale,
+            num_items: layout.num_items,
+            num_visible_items: layout.num_visible_items,
+            num_buffers: layout.num_buffers,
+            value_encoding: value_compression.clone(),
+            value_decompressor: value_decompressor.into(),
+            layer_decompressors,
+            data_type,
+            page_meta: None,
+            has_large_chunk: layout.has_large_chunk,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn validate_compression<'a>(
+        compression: &'a CompressiveEncoding,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<&'a CompressiveEncoding> {
+        compression.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} is missing compression details").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        Ok(compression)
+    }
+
+    fn validate_buffer_compression(
+        compression: Option<&pb21::BufferCompression>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let Some(compression) = compression else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        match invalid_enum(
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::try_from(compression.scheme),
+            "compression scheme",
+        )? {
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmUnspecified => {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural {label} buffer compression is unspecified").into(),
+                ))
+            }
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmLz4
+            | pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmZstd => Ok(()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn encoding_contains_general(root: &CompressiveEncoding) -> bool {
+        use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+        let mut stack = vec![root];
+        while let Some(encoding) = stack.pop() {
+            let Some(compression) = encoding.compression.as_ref() else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            match compression {
+                Compression::General(_) => return true,
+                Compression::Variable(variable) => {
+                    stack.extend(variable.offsets.as_deref());
+                }
+                Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(bitpacking) => {
+                    stack.extend(bitpacking.values.as_deref());
+                }
+                Compression::Fsst(fsst) => stack.extend(fsst.values.as_deref()),
+                Compression::Dictionary(dictionary) => {
+                    stack.extend(dictionary.indices.as_deref());
+                    stack.extend(dictionary.items.as_deref());
+                }
+                Compression::Rle(rle) => {
+                    stack.extend(rle.values.as_deref());
+                    stack.extend(rle.run_lengths.as_deref());
+                }
+                Compression::ByteStreamSplit(split) => {
+                    stack.extend(split.values.as_deref());
+                }
+                Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) => stack.extend(fsl.values.as_deref()),
+                Compression::PackedStruct(packed) => stack.extend(packed.values.as_deref()),
+                Compression::VariablePackedStruct(packed) => {
+                    stack.extend(
+                        packed
+                            .fields
+                            .iter()
+                            .filter_map(|field| field.value.as_ref()),
+                    );
+                }
+                Compression::Flat(_)
+                | Compression::Constant(_)
+                | Compression::InlineBitpacking(_) => {}
+            }
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn require_encoding<'a>(
+        encoding: &'a Option<Box<CompressiveEncoding>>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<&'a CompressiveEncoding> {
+        encoding.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} encoding is required").into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn validate_flat(flat: &pb21::Flat, label: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        if flat.bits_per_value == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} flat bit width is zero").into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if flat.data.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} uses unsupported leaf buffer compression")
+                    .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn validate_value_encoding(encoding: &CompressiveEncoding) -> Result<u64> {
+        use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+        let compression = encoding.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse value compression is missing compression details".into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        match compression {
+            Compression::Flat(flat) => {
+                Self::validate_flat(flat, "value")?;
+                Ok(1)
+            }
+            Compression::InlineBitpacking(bitpacking) => {
+                if !matches!(bitpacking.uncompressed_bits_per_value, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse inline bitpacking width {} is not supported",
+                            bitpacking.uncompressed_bits_per_value
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                if bitpacking.values.is_some() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse inline bitpacking uses unsupported leaf buffer compression".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(1)
+            }
+            Compression::Variable(variable) => {
+                let offsets = variable.offsets.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse variable compression is missing offsets".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                let Some(Compression::Flat(offsets)) = offsets.compression.as_ref() else {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse variable offsets must use flat compression".into(),
+                    ));
+                };
+                Self::validate_flat(offsets, "variable offsets")?;
+                if !matches!(offsets.bits_per_value, 32 | 64) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse variable offset width {} is not supported",
+                            offsets.bits_per_value
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                if variable.values.is_some() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse variable values use unsupported leaf buffer compression".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(1)
+            }
+            Compression::Fsst(fsst) => {
+                if fsst.symbol_table.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse FSST compression has an empty symbol table".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let values = Self::require_encoding(&fsst.values, "FSST values")?;
+                if !matches!(values.compression.as_ref(), Some(Compression::Variable(_))) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse FSST values must use variable compression".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Self::validate_value_encoding(values)
+            }
+            Compression::ByteStreamSplit(split) => {
+                let values = Self::require_encoding(&split.values, "byte-stream-split values")?;
+                let Some(Compression::Flat(flat)) = values.compression.as_ref() else {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse byte-stream-split values must use flat compression".into(),
+                    ));
+                };
+                Self::validate_flat(flat, "byte-stream-split values")?;
+                if !matches!(flat.bits_per_value, 32 | 64) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse byte-stream-split width {} is not supported",
+                            flat.bits_per_value
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(1)
+            }
+            Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) => Self::validate_fsl_value_encoding(fsl),
+            Compression::PackedStruct(packed) => Self::validate_packed_value_encoding(packed),
+            Compression::Rle(rle) => {
+                let values = Self::require_encoding(&rle.values, "RLE values")?;
+                let lengths = Self::require_encoding(&rle.run_lengths, "RLE run lengths")?;
+                Self::validate_block_encoding(values, "RLE values")?;
+                Self::validate_block_encoding(lengths, "RLE run lengths")?;
+                Ok(2)
+            }
+            Compression::General(general) => {
+                let compression = general.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse general compression is missing its buffer compression".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Self::validate_buffer_compression(Some(compression), "general")?;
+                Self::validate_value_encoding(Self::require_encoding(
+                    &general.values,
+                    "general values",
+                )?)
+            }
+            Compression::Constant(_)
+            | Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(_)
+            | Compression::Dictionary(_)
+            | Compression::VariablePackedStruct(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse value compression uses an unsupported mini-block encoding".into(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validate_fsl_value_encoding(fsl: &pb21::FixedSizeList) -> Result<u64> {
+        use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+        if fsl.items_per_value == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse fixed-size-list value compression has dimension zero".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let values = Self::require_encoding(&fsl.values, "fixed-size-list values")?;
+        let child_buffers = match values.compression.as_ref() {
+            Some(Compression::Flat(flat)) => {
+                Self::validate_flat(flat, "fixed-size-list values")?;
+                1_u64
+            }
+            Some(Compression::FixedSizeList(inner)) => Self::validate_fsl_value_encoding(inner)?,
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse fixed-size-list values must use fixed-size-list or flat compression"
+                        .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+        child_buffers
+            .checked_add(u64::from(fsl.has_validity))
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse fixed-size-list value buffer count overflows".into(),
+                )
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn validate_packed_value_encoding(packed: &pb21::PackedStruct) -> Result<u64> {
+        use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+        if packed.bits_per_value.is_empty()
+            || packed
+                .bits_per_value
+                .iter()
+                .any(|bits| *bits == 0 || !bits.is_multiple_of(8))
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse packed-struct widths must be non-empty positive byte widths".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let values = Self::require_encoding(&packed.values, "packed-struct values")?;
+        let Some(Compression::Flat(flat)) = values.compression.as_ref() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse packed-struct values must use flat compression".into(),
+            ));
+        };
+        Self::validate_flat(flat, "packed-struct values")?;
+        let total_bits = packed.bits_per_value.iter().try_fold(0_u64, |sum, bits| {
+            sum.checked_add(*bits).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse packed-struct bit width sum overflows".into())
+            })
+        })?;
+        if total_bits != flat.bits_per_value {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse packed-struct child widths sum to {}, but values use {} bits",
+                    total_bits, flat.bits_per_value
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(1)
+    }
+
+    fn validate_block_encoding(encoding: &CompressiveEncoding, label: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+        match encoding.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} is missing compression details").into(),
+            )
+        })? {
+            Compression::Flat(flat) => Self::validate_flat(flat, label),
+            Compression::InlineBitpacking(bitpacking) => {
+                if !matches!(bitpacking.uncompressed_bits_per_value, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} inline bitpacking width {} is unsupported",
+                            bitpacking.uncompressed_bits_per_value
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                if bitpacking.values.is_some() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} uses unsupported leaf buffer compression"
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(bitpacking) => {
+                if !matches!(bitpacking.uncompressed_bits_per_value, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} out-of-line bitpacking width {} is unsupported",
+                            bitpacking.uncompressed_bits_per_value
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let values = Self::require_encoding(&bitpacking.values, label)?;
+                let Some(Compression::Flat(flat)) = values.compression.as_ref() else {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} bitpacked values must be flat").into(),
+                    ));
+                };
+                Self::validate_flat(flat, label)
+            }
+            Compression::Constant(constant) => {
+                if constant
+                    .value
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|value| value.len() != 8)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} constant must be 64 bits").into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            Compression::General(general) => {
+                let compression = general.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} general compression is missing config")
+                            .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Self::validate_buffer_compression(Some(compression), label)?;
+                Self::validate_block_encoding(
+                    Self::require_encoding(&general.values, label)?,
+                    label,
+                )
+            }
+            Compression::Rle(rle) => {
+                Self::validate_block_encoding(
+                    Self::require_encoding(&rle.values, "RLE values")?,
+                    "RLE values",
+                )?;
+                Self::validate_block_encoding(
+                    Self::require_encoding(&rle.run_lengths, "RLE run lengths")?,
+                    "RLE run lengths",
+                )
+            }
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} uses an unsupported block encoding").into(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validate_domain_chain(
+        layers: &[pb21::SparseStructuralLayer],
+        row_domain: u64,
+        num_items: u64,
+        num_visible_items: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let expected_num_items =
+            layers
+                .iter()
+                .try_fold(num_visible_items, |items, layer| -> Result<u64> {
+                    let additional = match Self::require_layer(layer)? {
+                        pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(layer) => {
+                            let positions = Self::require_position_set(
+                                &layer.non_empty_positions,
+                                "list non-empty",
+                            )?;
+                            let num_non_empty = Self::position_cardinality(
+                                positions,
+                                layer.num_slots,
+                                "list non-empty positions",
+                            )?;
+                            layer.num_slots.checked_sub(num_non_empty).ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                "Sparse structural list has more non-empty positions than slots"
+                                    .into(),
+                            )
+                            })?
+                        }
+                        pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(_)
+                        | pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(_) => 0,
+                    };
+                    items.checked_add(additional).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural item count overflows".into())
+                    })
+                })?;
+        if num_items != expected_num_items {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout has {} structural items, but its layers imply {}",
+                    num_items, expected_num_items
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut expected_slots = row_domain;
+        for (layer_index, layer) in layers.iter().enumerate() {
+            let num_slots = Self::layer_num_slots(layer)?;
+            let num_child_slots = Self::layer_num_child_slots(layer)?;
+            usize_from_u64(num_slots, "layer slot count")?;
+            usize_from_u64(num_child_slots, "layer child slot count")?;
+            if num_slots != expected_slots {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse structural layer {} has {} slots, expected {} from the outer domain",
+                        layer_index, num_slots, expected_slots
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            expected_slots = num_child_slots;
+        }
+        if expected_slots != num_visible_items {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural terminal domain has {} slots, expected {} visible items",
+                    expected_slots, num_visible_items
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn metadata_buffer(&self) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes
+            .first()
+            .copied()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout is missing metadata buffer".into())
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn value_buffer(&self) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes
+            .get(1)
+            .copied()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout is missing value buffer".into())
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn checked_buffer_range(position: u64, size: u64, label: &str) -> Result<Range<u64>> {
+        let end = position.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} buffer range overflows").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        Ok(position..end)
+    }
+
+    fn validate_page_buffers(
+        buffer_offsets_and_sizes: &[(u64, u64)],
+        num_visible_items: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let (_, metadata_size) = buffer_offsets_and_sizes.first().copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout is missing metadata buffer".into())
+        })?;
+        if !metadata_size.is_multiple_of(8) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout metadata buffer has {metadata_size} bytes, which is not a multiple of 8"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let chunk_count = metadata_size / 8;
+        if num_visible_items == 0 {
+            if chunk_count != 0 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse layout with no visible items must have empty chunk metadata".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        } else {
+            let min_chunks =
+                num_visible_items.div_ceil(miniblock::MAX_CONFIGURABLE_MINIBLOCK_VALUES);
+            if chunk_count < min_chunks || chunk_count > num_visible_items {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse layout metadata declares {chunk_count} chunks for {num_visible_items} visible items, expected {min_chunks}..={num_visible_items}"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let (_, value_size) = buffer_offsets_and_sizes.get(1).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout is missing value buffer".into())
+        })?;
+        if (num_visible_items == 0) != (value_size == 0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout value buffer has {value_size} bytes for {num_visible_items} visible items"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        for (position, size) in buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().skip(2) {
+            Self::checked_buffer_range(*position, *size, "structural")?;
+        }
+
+        for (position, size) in buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().take(2) {
+            Self::checked_buffer_range(*position, *size, "page")?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn require_position_set<'a>(
+        set: &'a Option<pb21::SparsePositionSet>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<&'a pb21::SparsePositionSet> {
+        set.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} position set is required").into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn require_count_set<'a>(
+        set: &'a Option<pb21::SparseCountSet>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<&'a pb21::SparseCountSet> {
+        set.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} count set is required").into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn require_validity_set<'a>(
+        set: &'a Option<pb21::SparseValiditySet>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<&'a pb21::SparseValiditySet> {
+        set.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} validity set is required").into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn validity_meaning(
+        validity_set: &pb21::SparseValiditySet,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<SparseValidityMeaning> {
+        match invalid_enum(
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::try_from(validity_set.meaning),
+            "validity meaning",
+        )? {
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityUnspecified => {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural {label} meaning is unspecified").into(),
+                ))
+            }
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityNullPositions => {
+                Ok(SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions)
+            }
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityValidPositions => {
+                Ok(SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validity_buffer_count(
+        validity_set: &pb21::SparseValiditySet,
+        domain_len: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<(usize, SparseValidityMeaning, u64)> {
+        let meaning = Self::validity_meaning(validity_set, label)?;
+        let position_set = validity_set.positions.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} positions are required").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let cardinality = Self::position_cardinality(position_set, domain_len, label)?;
+        let buffer_count = Self::position_buffer_count(position_set, domain_len, label)?;
+        Ok((buffer_count, meaning, cardinality))
+    }
+
+    fn position_cardinality(
+        position_set: &pb21::SparsePositionSet,
+        domain_len: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<u64> {
+        let positions = position_set.positions.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} position set is missing its variant").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let cardinality = position_set.num_positions;
+        if cardinality > domain_len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} cardinality {} exceeds domain {}",
+                    cardinality, domain_len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        match positions {
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Empty(_) => {
+                if cardinality != 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} empty set has cardinality {}",
+                            cardinality
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::All(_) => {
+                if domain_len == 0 || cardinality != domain_len {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} all set has cardinality {}, expected {}",
+                            cardinality, domain_len
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Range(range) => {
+                let end = range.start.checked_add(range.length).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} range overflows").into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                if range.length == 0 || range.length != cardinality || end > domain_len {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} range {}..{} does not match cardinality {} in domain {}",
+                            range.start, end, cardinality, domain_len
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Explicit(compression) => {
+                if cardinality == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} has compression but no values").into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Self::validate_compression(compression, label)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(cardinality)
+    }
+
+    fn position_buffer_count(
+        position_set: &pb21::SparsePositionSet,
+        domain_len: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        Self::position_cardinality(position_set, domain_len, label)?;
+        let positions = position_set.positions.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} position set is missing its variant").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        Ok(usize::from(matches!(
+            positions,
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Explicit(_)
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn count_buffer_count(
+        count_set: &pb21::SparseCountSet,
+        cardinality: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let counts = count_set.counts.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} count set is missing its variant").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        match counts {
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Empty(_) => {
+                if cardinality != 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} empty count set has cardinality {}",
+                            cardinality
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(0)
+            }
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Constant(constant) => {
+                if cardinality == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} constant count has no values").into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                if constant.value == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} constant count is zero").into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(0)
+            }
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Explicit(compression) => {
+                if cardinality == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} has compression but no values").into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Self::validate_compression(compression, label)?;
+                Ok(1)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn count_set_child_slots(
+        count_set: &pb21::SparseCountSet,
+        cardinality: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        let counts = count_set.counts.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} count set is missing its variant").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        match counts {
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Empty(_) => Ok(Some(0)),
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Constant(constant) => constant
+                .value
+                .checked_mul(cardinality)
+                .map(Some)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} constant count sum overflows: value={}, len={}",
+                            constant.value, cardinality
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                }),
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Explicit(_) => Ok(None),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn create_position_decompressor(
+        compression: &CompressiveEncoding,
+        label: &str,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>> {
+        let compression = Self::validate_compression(compression, label)?;
+        Self::validate_block_encoding(compression, label)?;
+        std::panic::catch_unwind(std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
+            decompressors.create_block_decompressor(compression)
+        }))
+        .map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} descriptor caused decompressor construction to panic"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?
+        .map(Arc::from)
+        .map_err(|error| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} decompressor construction failed: {error}")
+                    .into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn position_set_decoder(
+        position_set: &pb21::SparsePositionSet,
+        domain_len: u64,
+        label: &str,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<(SparsePositionSetDecoder, u64)> {
+        let cardinality = Self::position_cardinality(position_set, domain_len, label)?;
+        let positions = position_set.positions.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} position set is missing its variant").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        Ok((
+            match positions {
+                pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Empty(_) => SparsePositionSetDecoder::Empty,
+                pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::All(_) => {
+                    SparsePositionSetDecoder::All { len: domain_len }
+                }
+                pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Range(range) => {
+                    SparsePositionSetDecoder::Range {
+                        start: range.start,
+                        len: range.length,
+                    }
+                }
+                pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Explicit(compression) => {
+                    SparsePositionSetDecoder::Explicit {
+                        decompressor: Self::create_position_decompressor(
+                            compression,
+                            label,
+                            decompressors,
+                        )?,
+                        encoding: compression.clone(),
+                        count: cardinality,
+                        domain_len,
+                    }
+                }
+            },
+            cardinality,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn validity_set_decoder(
+        validity_set: &pb21::SparseValiditySet,
+        domain_len: u64,
+        label: &str,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<(SparseValiditySetDecoder, u64)> {
+        let meaning = Self::validity_meaning(validity_set, label)?;
+        let position_set = validity_set.positions.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} positions are required").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let (positions, cardinality) =
+            Self::position_set_decoder(position_set, domain_len, label, decompressors)?;
+        Ok((SparseValiditySetDecoder { meaning, positions }, cardinality))
+    }
+
+    fn num_valid_slots(
+        meaning: SparseValidityMeaning,
+        cardinality: u64,
+        num_slots: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<u64> {
+        match meaning {
+            SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions => {
+                num_slots.checked_sub(cardinality).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} null cardinality {} exceeds slots {}",
+                            cardinality, num_slots
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })
+            }
+            SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions => Ok(cardinality),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn count_set_decoder(
+        count_set: &pb21::SparseCountSet,
+        cardinality: u64,
+        label: &str,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<SparseCountSetDecoder> {
+        Self::count_buffer_count(count_set, cardinality, label)?;
+        let counts = count_set.counts.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} count set is missing its variant").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        Ok(match counts {
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Empty(_) => SparseCountSetDecoder::Empty,
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Constant(constant) => SparseCountSetDecoder::Constant {
+                value: constant.value,
+                len: cardinality,
+            },
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Explicit(compression) => {
+                SparseCountSetDecoder::Explicit {
+                    decompressor: Self::create_position_decompressor(
+                        compression,
+                        label,
+                        decompressors,
+                    )?,
+                    encoding: compression.clone(),
+                    count: cardinality,
+                }
+            }
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn add_buffer_count(count: &mut usize, additional: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        *count = count.checked_add(additional).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural buffer count overflows".into())
+        })?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn structural_buffer_count(layers: &[pb21::SparseStructuralLayer]) -> Result<usize> {
+        layers
+            .iter()
+            .try_fold(0_usize, |mut count, layer| -> Result<usize> {
+                match Self::require_layer(layer)? {
+                    pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(layer) => {
+                        let (validity_buffers, _, _) = Self::validity_buffer_count(
+                            Self::require_validity_set(&layer.validity, "validity")?,
+                            layer.num_slots,
+                            "validity positions",
+                        )?;
+                        Self::add_buffer_count(&mut count, validity_buffers)?;
+                    }
+                    pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(layer) => {
+                        let non_empty_positions = Self::require_position_set(
+                            &layer.non_empty_positions,
+                            "list non-empty",
+                        )?;
+                        let num_non_empty = Self::position_cardinality(
+                            non_empty_positions,
+                            layer.num_slots,
+                            "list non-empty positions",
+                        )?;
+                        let non_empty_buffers = Self::position_buffer_count(
+                            non_empty_positions,
+                            layer.num_slots,
+                            "list non-empty positions",
+                        )?;
+                        Self::add_buffer_count(&mut count, non_empty_buffers)?;
+                        let (validity_buffers, validity_meaning, validity_cardinality) =
+                            Self::validity_buffer_count(
+                                Self::require_validity_set(&layer.validity, "list")?,
+                                layer.num_slots,
+                                "list validity positions",
+                            )?;
+                        Self::add_buffer_count(&mut count, validity_buffers)?;
+                        let num_valid_slots = Self::num_valid_slots(
+                            validity_meaning,
+                            validity_cardinality,
+                            layer.num_slots,
+                            "list validity",
+                        )?;
+                        if num_non_empty > num_valid_slots {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!(
+                                    "Sparse structural list has {} non-empty slots but only {} valid slots",
+                                    num_non_empty, num_valid_slots
+                                )
+                                .into(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        let counts = Self::require_count_set(&layer.counts, "list counts")?;
+                        let count_buffers =
+                            Self::count_buffer_count(counts, num_non_empty, "list counts")?;
+                        Self::add_buffer_count(&mut count, count_buffers)?;
+                        if let Some(child_slots) =
+                            Self::count_set_child_slots(counts, num_non_empty, "list counts")?
+                            && child_slots != layer.num_child_slots
+                        {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!(
+                                    "Sparse structural list count sum {} does not match child slots {}",
+                                    child_slots, layer.num_child_slots
+                                )
+                                .into(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    }
+                    pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(layer) => {
+                        if layer.dimension == 0 {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                "Sparse structural fixed-size-list dimension is zero".into(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        layer.num_slots.checked_mul(layer.dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!(
+                                    "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child slot count overflows: slots={}, dimension={}",
+                                    layer.num_slots, layer.dimension
+                                )
+                                .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                        let (validity_buffers, _, _) = Self::validity_buffer_count(
+                            Self::require_validity_set(&layer.validity, "fixed-size-list")?,
+                            layer.num_slots,
+                            "fixed-size-list validity positions",
+                        )?;
+                        Self::add_buffer_count(&mut count, validity_buffers)?;
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(count)
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn layer_decompressors(
+        layer: &pb21::SparseStructuralLayer,
+        decompressors: &dyn DecompressionStrategy,
+    ) -> Result<SparseLayerDecompressors> {
+        Ok(match Self::require_layer(layer)? {
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(layer) => {
+                let (validity, _) = Self::validity_set_decoder(
+                    Self::require_validity_set(&layer.validity, "validity")?,
+                    layer.num_slots,
+                    "validity positions",
+                    decompressors,
+                )?;
+                SparseLayerDecompressors::Validity {
+                    num_slots: layer.num_slots,
+                    validity,
+                }
+            }
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(layer) => {
+                let non_empty_positions =
+                    Self::require_position_set(&layer.non_empty_positions, "list non-empty")?;
+                let (non_empty_positions, num_non_empty) = Self::position_set_decoder(
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    layer.num_slots,
+                    "list non-empty positions",
+                    decompressors,
+                )?;
+                let counts = Self::count_set_decoder(
+                    Self::require_count_set(&layer.counts, "list counts")?,
+                    num_non_empty,
+                    "list counts",
+                    decompressors,
+                )?;
+                let (validity, _) = Self::validity_set_decoder(
+                    Self::require_validity_set(&layer.validity, "list")?,
+                    layer.num_slots,
+                    "list validity positions",
+                    decompressors,
+                )?;
+                SparseLayerDecompressors::List {
+                    num_slots: layer.num_slots,
+                    num_child_slots: layer.num_child_slots,
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    counts,
+                    validity,
+                }
+            }
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(layer) => {
+                let (validity, _) = Self::validity_set_decoder(
+                    Self::require_validity_set(&layer.validity, "fixed-size-list")?,
+                    layer.num_slots,
+                    "fixed-size-list validity positions",
+                    decompressors,
+                )?;
+                SparseLayerDecompressors::FixedSizeList {
+                    num_slots: layer.num_slots,
+                    num_child_slots: layer.num_slots.checked_mul(layer.dimension).ok_or_else(
+                        || {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child slot count overflows"
+                                    .into(),
+                            )
+                        },
+                    )?,
+                    dimension: layer.dimension,
+                    validity,
+                }
+            }
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn parse_chunk_meta(&self, meta_bytes: Bytes) -> Result<Vec<ChunkMeta>> {
+        if !meta_bytes.len().is_multiple_of(8) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout metadata length {} is not a multiple of 8",
+                    meta_bytes.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let (value_buf_position, value_buf_size) = self.value_buffer()?;
+        let value_buf_end = value_buf_position
+            .checked_add(value_buf_size)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout value buffer range overflows".into())
+            })?;
+        let mut rows_counter = 0_u64;
+        let mut offset_bytes = value_buf_position;
+        let mut chunk_meta = Vec::with_capacity(meta_bytes.len() / 8);
+        for entry in meta_bytes.as_chunks::<8>().0 {
+            let divided_bytes_minus_one = u32::from_le_bytes(
+                entry
+                    .get(..4)
+                    .and_then(|bytes| bytes.try_into().ok())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse layout chunk byte-size field is malformed".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?,
+            );
+            let num_values = u64::from(u32::from_le_bytes(
+                entry
+                    .get(4..)
+                    .and_then(|bytes| bytes.try_into().ok())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse layout chunk value-count field is malformed".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?,
+            ));
+            if num_values == 0 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse layout contains an empty value chunk".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if num_values > miniblock::MAX_CONFIGURABLE_MINIBLOCK_VALUES {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse layout value chunk has {} values, exceeding the mini-block limit {}",
+                        num_values,
+                        miniblock::MAX_CONFIGURABLE_MINIBLOCK_VALUES
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let num_bytes = u64::from(divided_bytes_minus_one)
+                .checked_add(1)
+                .and_then(|units| units.checked_mul(MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT as u64))
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse layout value chunk byte size overflows".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            rows_counter = rows_counter.checked_add(num_values).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout visible item count overflows".into())
+            })?;
+            chunk_meta.push(ChunkMeta {
+                num_values,
+                chunk_size_bytes: num_bytes,
+                offset_bytes,
+            });
+            offset_bytes = offset_bytes.checked_add(num_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout value chunk byte range overflows".into())
+            })?;
+        }
+        if rows_counter != self.num_visible_items {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout visible item count mismatch: metadata has {}, layout has {}",
+                    rows_counter, self.num_visible_items
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if offset_bytes != value_buf_end {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout chunk metadata describes {} value bytes, but value buffer has {} bytes",
+                    offset_bytes - value_buf_position,
+                    value_buf_size
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(chunk_meta)
+    }
+
+    fn validate_general_buffer_header(
+        general: &pb21::General,
+        data: &[u8],
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let compression = general.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} general compression is missing config").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        Self::validate_buffer_compression(Some(compression), label)?;
+        let values = Self::require_encoding(&general.values, label)?;
+        if Self::encoding_contains_general(values) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} contains nested general compression, which is unsupported"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let scheme = invalid_enum(
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::try_from(compression.scheme),
+            "compression scheme",
+        )?;
+        match scheme {
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmLz4 => {
+                data.get(..4).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} LZ4 buffer is missing its length prefix"
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            }
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmZstd => {
+                data.get(..8).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural {label} Zstd buffer is missing its length prefix"
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            }
+            pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmUnspecified => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural {label} general compression scheme is unspecified")
+                        .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn validate_general_child_buffer(
+        encoding: &CompressiveEncoding,
+        data: &[u8],
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::General(general)) =
+            encoding.compression.as_ref()
+        {
+            Self::validate_general_buffer_header(general, data, label)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn validate_structural_buffer_headers(
+        encoding: &CompressiveEncoding,
+        data: &[u8],
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+        match encoding.compression.as_ref() {
+            Some(Compression::General(general)) => {
+                Self::validate_general_buffer_header(general, data, label)
+            }
+            Some(Compression::Rle(rle)) => {
+                let values_size = u64::from_le_bytes(
+                    data.get(..8)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!(
+                                    "Sparse structural {label} RLE buffer is missing its header"
+                                )
+                                .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?
+                        .try_into()
+                        .map_err(|_| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!("Sparse structural {label} RLE header is malformed").into(),
+                            )
+                        })?,
+                );
+                let values_size = usize_from_u64(values_size, "RLE values buffer size")?;
+                let values_end = 8_usize.checked_add(values_size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} RLE values range overflows").into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                let values_data = data.get(8..values_end).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} RLE values buffer is truncated").into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                let lengths_data = data.get(values_end..).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} RLE run-length buffer is missing")
+                            .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Self::validate_general_child_buffer(
+                    Self::require_encoding(&rle.values, "RLE values")?,
+                    values_data,
+                    "RLE values",
+                )?;
+                Self::validate_general_child_buffer(
+                    Self::require_encoding(&rle.run_lengths, "RLE run lengths")?,
+                    lengths_data,
+                    "RLE run lengths",
+                )
+            }
+            _ => Ok(()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decode_u64_values(
+        decompressor: &dyn BlockDecompressor,
+        encoding: &CompressiveEncoding,
+        data: Bytes,
+        num_values: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        Self::validate_structural_buffer_headers(encoding, &data, label)?;
+        let decoded = std::panic::catch_unwind(std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
+            decompressor.decompress(Some(LanceBuffer::from_bytes(data, 1)), num_values)
+        }))
+        .map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} decompression panicked").into(),
+            )
+        })?
+        .map_err(|error| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} decompression failed: {error}").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let fixed = decoded.as_fixed_width().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} did not decode to fixed width data").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if fixed.bits_per_value != 64 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} decoded to {} bits per value, expected 64",
+                    fixed.bits_per_value
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if fixed.num_values != num_values {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} decoded {} values, expected {}",
+                    fixed.num_values, num_values
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let num_values_usize = usize::try_from(num_values).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} value count exceeds usize::MAX").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let expected_len = num_values_usize
+            .checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<u64>())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural {label} decoded byte length overflows").into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        if fixed.data.len() != expected_len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} decoded {} bytes, expected {}",
+                    fixed.data.len(),
+                    expected_len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let values = fixed.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
+        if values.len() != num_values_usize {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} decoded {} u64 values, expected {}",
+                    values.len(),
+                    num_values
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(values.to_vec())
+    }
+
+    fn decode_explicit_positions(
+        decompressor: &Arc<dyn BlockDecompressor>,
+        encoding: &CompressiveEncoding,
+        data: Bytes,
+        num_positions: u64,
+        num_slots: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<SparsePositionSet> {
+        let deltas =
+            Self::decode_u64_values(decompressor.as_ref(), encoding, data, num_positions, label)?;
+        let mut positions = Vec::with_capacity(deltas.len());
+        let mut current = 0_u64;
+        for (idx, delta) in deltas.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            if idx == 0 {
+                current = delta;
+            } else {
+                if delta == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} positions must be strictly increasing")
+                            .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                current = current.checked_add(delta).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} position overflow").into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            }
+            if current >= num_slots {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse structural {label} position {} is outside layer with {} slots",
+                        current, num_slots
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            positions.push(current);
+        }
+        SparsePositionSet::from_positions(positions, num_slots, label)
+    }
+
+    fn decode_position_set(
+        decoder: &SparsePositionSetDecoder,
+        buffers: &mut impl Iterator<Item = Bytes>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<SparsePositionSet> {
+        match decoder {
+            SparsePositionSetDecoder::Empty => Ok(SparsePositionSet::empty()),
+            SparsePositionSetDecoder::All { len } => Ok(SparsePositionSet::all(*len)),
+            SparsePositionSetDecoder::Range { start, len } => {
+                Ok(SparsePositionSet::range(*start, *len))
+            }
+            SparsePositionSetDecoder::Explicit {
+                decompressor,
+                encoding,
+                count,
+                domain_len,
+            } => Self::decode_explicit_positions(
+                decompressor,
+                encoding,
+                Self::next_structural_buffer(buffers, label)?,
+                *count,
+                *domain_len,
+                label,
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decode_validity_set(
+        decoder: &SparseValiditySetDecoder,
+        buffers: &mut impl Iterator<Item = Bytes>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<SparseValiditySet> {
+        Ok(SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: decoder.meaning,
+            positions: Self::decode_position_set(&decoder.positions, buffers, label)?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn decode_count_set(
+        decoder: &SparseCountSetDecoder,
+        buffers: &mut impl Iterator<Item = Bytes>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<SparseCountSet> {
+        match decoder {
+            SparseCountSetDecoder::Empty => Ok(SparseCountSet::Empty),
+            SparseCountSetDecoder::Constant { value, len } => {
+                Ok(SparseCountSet::constant(*value, *len))
+            }
+            SparseCountSetDecoder::Explicit {
+                decompressor,
+                encoding,
+                count,
+            } => {
+                let counts = Self::decode_u64_values(
+                    decompressor.as_ref(),
+                    encoding,
+                    Self::next_structural_buffer(buffers, label)?,
+                    *count,
+                    label,
+                )?;
+                SparseCountSet::from_counts(counts)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn next_structural_buffer(
+        buffers: &mut impl Iterator<Item = Bytes>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        buffers.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} is missing its buffer").into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn decode_layer(
+        layer: &SparseLayerDecompressors,
+        buffers: &mut impl Iterator<Item = Bytes>,
+    ) -> Result<SparseStructuralLayerPlan> {
+        Ok(match layer {
+            SparseLayerDecompressors::Validity {
+                num_slots,
+                validity,
+            } => SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                num_slots: *num_slots,
+                validity: Self::decode_validity_set(validity, buffers, "validity positions")?,
+            },
+            SparseLayerDecompressors::List {
+                num_slots,
+                num_child_slots,
+                non_empty_positions,
+                counts,
+                validity,
+            } => {
+                let non_empty_positions = Self::decode_position_set(
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    buffers,
+                    "list non-empty positions",
+                )?;
+                let counts = Self::decode_count_set(counts, buffers, "list counts")?;
+                let validity =
+                    Self::decode_validity_set(validity, buffers, "list validity positions")?;
+                let actual_child_slots = counts.sum()?;
+                if actual_child_slots != *num_child_slots {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural list count sum {} does not match declared child slots {}",
+                            actual_child_slots, num_child_slots
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                    num_slots: *num_slots,
+                    num_child_slots: *num_child_slots,
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    counts,
+                    validity,
+                }
+            }
+            SparseLayerDecompressors::FixedSizeList {
+                num_slots,
+                num_child_slots,
+                dimension,
+                validity,
+            } => {
+                let expected_child_slots = num_slots.checked_mul(*dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child slot count overflows: slots={}, dimension={}",
+                            num_slots, dimension
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                if expected_child_slots != *num_child_slots {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child slot count {} does not match slots {} * dimension {}",
+                            num_child_slots, num_slots, dimension
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                    num_slots: *num_slots,
+                    dimension: *dimension,
+                    validity: Self::decode_validity_set(
+                        validity,
+                        buffers,
+                        "fixed-size-list validity positions",
+                    )?,
+                }
+            }
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn lookup_value_chunks(&self, chunk_indices: &[usize]) -> Result<Vec<LoadedChunk>> {
+        let page_meta = self.page_meta.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Sparse page scheduler has not been initialized".to_string())
+        })?;
+        chunk_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&chunk_idx| {
+                let chunk_meta = page_meta.chunk_meta.get(chunk_idx).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse layout missing value chunk metadata for chunk {chunk_idx}")
+                            .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                let bytes_start = chunk_meta.offset_bytes;
+                let bytes_end = bytes_start
+                    .checked_add(chunk_meta.chunk_size_bytes)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Sparse layout value chunk {} byte range overflows",
+                                chunk_idx
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                Ok(LoadedChunk {
+                    byte_range: bytes_start..bytes_end,
+                    items_in_chunk: chunk_meta.num_values,
+                    chunk_idx,
+                    data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+                })
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn value_chunk_index(chunk_value_offsets: &[u64], value: u64) -> Result<usize> {
+        let total_values = chunk_value_offsets.last().copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout has no value chunk offsets".into())
+        })?;
+        if chunk_value_offsets.len() < 2 || value >= total_values {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout value index {} is outside {} visible items",
+                    value, total_values
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        chunk_value_offsets
+            .partition_point(|&offset| offset <= value)
+            .checked_sub(1)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse layout value index {value} is before the first chunk").into(),
+                )
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn value_chunk_range(
+        chunk_value_offsets: &[u64],
+        value_range: Range<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<Range<usize>> {
+        if value_range.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(0..0);
+        }
+        let total_values = chunk_value_offsets.last().copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout has no value chunk offsets".into())
+        })?;
+        if value_range.start > value_range.end || value_range.end > total_values {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse layout value range {}..{} is outside {} visible items",
+                    value_range.start, value_range.end, total_values
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let start = Self::value_chunk_index(chunk_value_offsets, value_range.start)?;
+        let end = chunk_value_offsets
+            .partition_point(|&offset| offset < value_range.end)
+            .max(start + 1);
+        Ok(start..end)
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralPageScheduler for SparseStructuralScheduler {
+    fn init_layout(&self) -> Result<PageInitialization> {
+        let (meta_buf_position, meta_buf_size) = self.metadata_buffer()?;
+        let mut buffer_ranges = Vec::with_capacity(self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len() - 1);
+        buffer_ranges.push(Some(Self::checked_buffer_range(
+            meta_buf_position,
+            meta_buf_size,
+            "metadata",
+        )?));
+        for (position, size) in self.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().skip(2) {
+            buffer_ranges.push(Some(Self::checked_buffer_range(
+                *position,
+                *size,
+                "structural",
+            )?));
+        }
+        Ok(PageInitialization::new(buffer_ranges))
+    }
+
+    fn init_from_buffers<'a>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        buffers: PageInitializationBuffers,
+        _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>>> {
+        async move {
+            let mut buffers = buffers.into_required("sparse")?.into_iter();
+            let meta_bytes = buffers.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse layout is missing chunk metadata buffer".into())
+            })?;
+
+            let chunk_meta = self.parse_chunk_meta(meta_bytes)?;
+            let mut chunk_value_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(chunk_meta.len() + 1);
+            let mut value_offset = 0_u64;
+            chunk_value_offsets.push(value_offset);
+            for chunk in &chunk_meta {
+                value_offset = value_offset.checked_add(chunk.num_values).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse layout visible item offset overflows".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                chunk_value_offsets.push(value_offset);
+            }
+
+            let layers = self
+                .layer_decompressors
+                .iter()
+                .map(|layer| Self::decode_layer(layer, &mut buffers))
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            let plan = SparseStructuralPlan {
+                layers,
+                num_items: self.num_items,
+                num_visible_items: self.num_visible_items,
+            };
+            plan.validate(self.row_domain)?;
+            if buffers.next().is_some() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse layout has unused structural buffers".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+
+            let page_meta = Arc::new(SparseStructuralCacheableState {
+                chunk_meta,
+                chunk_value_offsets: chunk_value_offsets.into(),
+                plan,
+                row_domain: self.row_domain,
+            });
+            Ok(page_meta as Arc<dyn CachedPageData>)
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn try_load(&mut self, data: &Arc<dyn CachedPageData>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.page_meta = Some(data.clone().as_arc_any().downcast().map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Cached sparse page data has an unexpected type".into())
+        })?);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn schedule_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PageLoadTask>> {
+        let page_meta = self.page_meta.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Sparse page scheduler has not been initialized".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let encoded_row_domain = page_meta
+            .row_domain
+            .checked_mul(self.row_scale)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural encoded row domain overflows".into())
+            })?;
+        let num_rows = validate_slice_ranges(ranges, encoded_row_domain, "row")?;
+        let ranges = ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|range| {
+                if !range.start.is_multiple_of(self.row_scale)
+                    || !range.end.is_multiple_of(self.row_scale)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural encoded row range {}..{} is not aligned to fixed-size-list scale {}",
+                            range.start, range.end, self.row_scale
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok((range.start / self.row_scale)..(range.end / self.row_scale))
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        let mut chunks_needed = Vec::new();
+        let selection = slice_sparse_plan(&page_meta.plan, &ranges, page_meta.row_domain)?;
+        for value_range in &selection.leaf_ranges {
+            chunks_needed.extend(Self::value_chunk_range(
+                &page_meta.chunk_value_offsets,
+                value_range.clone(),
+            )?);
+        }
+        chunks_needed.sort_unstable();
+        chunks_needed.dedup();
+
+        let mut loaded_chunks = self.lookup_value_chunks(&chunks_needed)?;
+        let chunk_ranges = loaded_chunks
+            .iter()
+            .map(|chunk| chunk.byte_range.clone())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let loaded_chunk_data = io.submit_request(chunk_ranges, self.priority);
+        let ranges = VecDeque::from(ranges);
+        let value_decompressor = self.value_decompressor.clone();
+        let value_encoding = self.value_encoding.clone();
+        let data_type = self.data_type.clone();
+        let page_meta = page_meta.clone();
+        let num_buffers = self.num_buffers;
+        let has_large_chunk = self.has_large_chunk;
+        let row_scale = self.row_scale;
+
+        let res = async move {
+            let loaded_chunk_data = loaded_chunk_data.await?;
+            for (loaded_chunk, chunk_data) in loaded_chunks.iter_mut().zip(loaded_chunk_data) {
+                loaded_chunk.data = LanceBuffer::from_bytes(chunk_data, 1);
+            }
+
+            Ok(Box::new(SparseStructuralDecoder {
+                value_decompressor,
+                value_encoding,
+                data_type,
+                page_meta,
+                loaded_chunks: Arc::new(loaded_chunks),
+                ranges,
+                offset_in_current_range: 0,
+                num_rows,
+                row_scale,
+                num_buffers,
+                has_large_chunk,
+            }) as Box<dyn StructuralPageDecoder>)
+        }
+        .boxed();
+        Ok(vec![PageLoadTask {
+            decoder_fut: res,
+            num_rows,
+        }])
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SparseStructuralDecoder {
+    value_decompressor: Arc<dyn MiniBlockDecompressor>,
+    value_encoding: CompressiveEncoding,
+    data_type: DataType,
+    page_meta: Arc<SparseStructuralCacheableState>,
+    loaded_chunks: Arc<Vec<LoadedChunk>>,
+    ranges: VecDeque<Range<u64>>,
+    offset_in_current_range: u64,
+    num_rows: u64,
+    row_scale: u64,
+    num_buffers: u64,
+    has_large_chunk: bool,
+}
+
+impl SparseStructuralDecoder {
+    fn drain_ranges(&mut self, mut rows_desired: u64) -> Result<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+        if !rows_desired.is_multiple_of(self.row_scale) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse page decoder drain of {} encoded rows is not aligned to fixed-size-list scale {}",
+                    rows_desired, self.row_scale
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        rows_desired /= self.row_scale;
+        let mut ranges = Vec::new();
+        while rows_desired > 0 {
+            let range = self.ranges.front().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse page decoder was asked to drain more rows than were scheduled".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            let start = range
+                .start
+                .checked_add(self.offset_in_current_range)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse page decoder row offset overflows".into())
+                })?;
+            let rows_available = range.end.checked_sub(start).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse page decoder range offset exceeds the scheduled range".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            let rows_to_take = rows_available.min(rows_desired);
+            let end = start.checked_add(rows_to_take).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse page decoder row range overflows".into())
+            })?;
+            ranges.push(start..end);
+            rows_desired -= rows_to_take;
+            self.offset_in_current_range += rows_to_take;
+            if self.offset_in_current_range == range.end - range.start {
+                self.offset_in_current_range = 0;
+                self.ranges.pop_front();
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(ranges)
+    }
+}
+
+impl StructuralPageDecoder for SparseStructuralDecoder {
+    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<Box<dyn DecodePageTask>> {
+        Ok(Box::new(DecodeSparseStructuralTask {
+            row_ranges: self.drain_ranges(num_rows)?,
+            value_decompressor: self.value_decompressor.clone(),
+            value_encoding: self.value_encoding.clone(),
+            data_type: self.data_type.clone(),
+            page_meta: self.page_meta.clone(),
+            loaded_chunks: self.loaded_chunks.clone(),
+            num_buffers: self.num_buffers,
+            has_large_chunk: self.has_large_chunk,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.num_rows
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct DecodeSparseStructuralTask {
+    row_ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+    value_decompressor: Arc<dyn MiniBlockDecompressor>,
+    value_encoding: CompressiveEncoding,
+    data_type: DataType,
+    page_meta: Arc<SparseStructuralCacheableState>,
+    loaded_chunks: Arc<Vec<LoadedChunk>>,
+    num_buffers: u64,
+    has_large_chunk: bool,
+}
+
+impl DecodeSparseStructuralTask {
+    fn read_chunk_size(
+        buf: &[u8],
+        offset: &mut usize,
+        width: usize,
+        chunk_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<u32> {
+        let end = offset.checked_add(width).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural value chunk {chunk_idx} size header overflows").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let bytes = buf.get(*offset..end).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural value chunk {chunk_idx} has a truncated size header")
+                    .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let size = match width {
+            2 => u32::from(u16::from_le_bytes(bytes.try_into().map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural value chunk {chunk_idx} has a malformed u16 size")
+                        .into(),
+                )
+            })?)),
+            4 => u32::from_le_bytes(bytes.try_into().map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural value chunk {chunk_idx} has a malformed u32 size")
+                        .into(),
+                )
+            })?),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Unsupported sparse value chunk size width {width}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        *offset = end;
+        Ok(size)
+    }
+
+    fn expected_fixed_bytes(num_values: u64, bits_per_value: u64, label: &str) -> Result<usize> {
+        let bits = num_values.checked_mul(bits_per_value).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} decoded bit length overflows").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        usize_from_u64(bits.div_ceil(8), label)
+    }
+
+    fn validate_fixed_buffer(
+        buffer: &LanceBuffer,
+        num_values: u64,
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let expected = Self::expected_fixed_bytes(num_values, bits_per_value, label)?;
+        if buffer.len() != expected {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} buffer has {} bytes, expected {}",
+                    buffer.len(),
+                    expected
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn validate_variable_buffer(
+        buffer: &LanceBuffer,
+        num_values: u64,
+        bits_per_offset: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let width = usize_from_u64(bits_per_offset / 8, "variable offset width")?;
+        let offset_count = num_values.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse variable offset count overflows".into())
+        })?;
+        let table_len = usize_from_u64(offset_count, "variable offset count")?
+            .checked_mul(width)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse variable offset table size overflows".into())
+            })?;
+        if buffer.len() < table_len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse variable buffer has {} bytes, smaller than its {}-byte offset table",
+                    buffer.len(),
+                    table_len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut previous = None;
+        for index in 0..usize_from_u64(offset_count, "variable offset count")? {
+            let start = index.checked_mul(width).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse variable offset index overflows".into())
+            })?;
+            let end = start.checked_add(width).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse variable offset range overflows".into())
+            })?;
+            let bytes = buffer.as_ref().get(start..end).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse variable offset table is truncated".into())
+            })?;
+            let offset = match width {
+                4 => u64::from(u32::from_le_bytes(bytes.try_into().map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse variable u32 offset is malformed".into())
+                })?)),
+                8 => u64::from_le_bytes(bytes.try_into().map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse variable u64 offset is malformed".into())
+                })?),
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse variable offset width {} is unsupported",
+                            bits_per_offset
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            };
+            if offset < table_len as u64 || offset > buffer.len() as u64 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse variable offset {} is outside payload range {}..{}",
+                        offset,
+                        table_len,
+                        buffer.len()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if previous.is_some_and(|previous| offset < previous) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse variable offsets are not monotonically increasing".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            previous = Some(offset);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn validate_fsl_buffers(
+        fsl: &pb21::FixedSizeList,
+        buffers: &[LanceBuffer],
+        num_values: u64,
+        buffer_index: &mut usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+        let child_values = num_values.checked_mul(fsl.items_per_value).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse fixed-size-list value count overflows".into())
+        })?;
+        if fsl.has_validity {
+            let validity = buffers.get(*buffer_index).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse fixed-size-list value validity buffer is missing".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            Self::validate_fixed_buffer(validity, child_values, 1, "fixed-size-list validity")?;
+            *buffer_index = buffer_index.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse fixed-size-list buffer index overflows".into())
+            })?;
+        }
+        let values = fsl.values.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse fixed-size-list value encoding is missing".into())
+        })?;
+        match values.compression.as_ref() {
+            Some(Compression::FixedSizeList(inner)) => {
+                Self::validate_fsl_buffers(inner, buffers, child_values, buffer_index)
+            }
+            Some(Compression::Flat(flat)) => {
+                let values = buffers.get(*buffer_index).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse fixed-size-list leaf value buffer is missing".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Self::validate_fixed_buffer(
+                    values,
+                    child_values,
+                    flat.bits_per_value,
+                    "fixed-size-list leaf values",
+                )?;
+                *buffer_index = buffer_index.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse fixed-size-list buffer index overflows".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse fixed-size-list value encoding is malformed".into(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validate_value_buffers(&self, buffers: &[LanceBuffer], num_values: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+        let compression = self.value_encoding.compression.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse value compression is missing".into())
+        })?;
+        match compression {
+            Compression::Flat(flat) => Self::validate_fixed_buffer(
+                buffers.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse flat value buffer is missing".into())
+                })?,
+                num_values,
+                flat.bits_per_value,
+                "flat values",
+            ),
+            Compression::InlineBitpacking(bitpacking) => {
+                let buffer = buffers.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse inline-bitpacked value buffer is missing".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                if num_values > 1024 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse inline-bitpacked chunk has {} values, exceeding 1024",
+                            num_values
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let word_bytes = usize_from_u64(
+                    bitpacking.uncompressed_bits_per_value / 8,
+                    "inline bitpacking word width",
+                )?;
+                let header = buffer.as_ref().get(..word_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse inline-bitpacked buffer is missing its bit-width header".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                let bit_width =
+                    header
+                        .iter()
+                        .enumerate()
+                        .try_fold(0_u64, |value, (idx, byte)| {
+                            let shift = u32::try_from(idx.checked_mul(8).ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                    "Sparse inline bit-width shift overflows".into(),
+                                )
+                            })?)
+                            .map_err(|_| {
+                                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                    "Sparse inline bit-width shift exceeds u32".into(),
+                                )
+                            })?;
+                            Ok::<_, Error>(value | (u64::from(*byte) << shift))
+                        })?;
+                if bit_width > bitpacking.uncompressed_bits_per_value {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse inline bit width {} exceeds uncompressed width {}",
+                            bit_width, bitpacking.uncompressed_bits_per_value
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let payload_bytes = usize_from_u64(
+                    bit_width.checked_mul(1024).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse inline-bitpacked payload size overflows".into(),
+                        )
+                    })? / 8,
+                    "inline-bitpacked payload size",
+                )?;
+                let expected = word_bytes.checked_add(payload_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse inline-bitpacked buffer size overflows".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                if buffer.len() != expected {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse inline-bitpacked buffer has {} bytes, expected {}",
+                            buffer.len(),
+                            expected
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            Compression::Variable(variable) => {
+                let offsets = variable
+                    .offsets
+                    .as_deref()
+                    .and_then(|encoding| encoding.compression.as_ref())
+                    .and_then(|compression| match compression {
+                        Compression::Flat(flat) => Some(flat),
+                        _ => None,
+                    })
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse variable offset encoding is malformed".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                Self::validate_variable_buffer(
+                    buffers.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse variable value buffer is missing".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?,
+                    num_values,
+                    offsets.bits_per_value,
+                )
+            }
+            Compression::Fsst(fsst) => {
+                let variable = fsst
+                    .values
+                    .as_deref()
+                    .and_then(|encoding| encoding.compression.as_ref())
+                    .and_then(|compression| match compression {
+                        Compression::Variable(variable) => Some(variable),
+                        _ => None,
+                    })
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse FSST value encoding is malformed".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                let offsets = variable
+                    .offsets
+                    .as_deref()
+                    .and_then(|encoding| encoding.compression.as_ref())
+                    .and_then(|compression| match compression {
+                        Compression::Flat(flat) => Some(flat),
+                        _ => None,
+                    })
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse FSST offset encoding is malformed".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                Self::validate_variable_buffer(
+                    buffers.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse FSST value buffer is missing".into())
+                    })?,
+                    num_values,
+                    offsets.bits_per_value,
+                )
+            }
+            Compression::ByteStreamSplit(split) => {
+                let bits = split
+                    .values
+                    .as_deref()
+                    .and_then(|encoding| encoding.compression.as_ref())
+                    .and_then(|compression| match compression {
+                        Compression::Flat(flat) => Some(flat.bits_per_value),
+                        _ => None,
+                    })
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse byte-stream-split encoding is malformed".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                Self::validate_fixed_buffer(
+                    buffers.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse byte-stream-split buffer is missing".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?,
+                    num_values,
+                    bits,
+                    "byte-stream-split values",
+                )
+            }
+            Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) => {
+                let mut buffer_index = 0;
+                Self::validate_fsl_buffers(fsl, buffers, num_values, &mut buffer_index)?;
+                if buffer_index != buffers.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse fixed-size-list descriptor consumed {} of {} buffers",
+                            buffer_index,
+                            buffers.len()
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            Compression::PackedStruct(packed) => {
+                let bits = packed.bits_per_value.iter().try_fold(0_u64, |sum, bits| {
+                    sum.checked_add(*bits).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse packed-struct bit width sum overflows".into(),
+                        )
+                    })
+                })?;
+                Self::validate_fixed_buffer(
+                    buffers.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse packed-struct value buffer is missing".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?,
+                    num_values,
+                    bits,
+                    "packed-struct values",
+                )
+            }
+            Compression::Rle(rle) => {
+                if buffers.len() != 2 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse RLE value chunk has {} buffers, expected 2",
+                            buffers.len()
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                SparseStructuralScheduler::validate_general_child_buffer(
+                    SparseStructuralScheduler::require_encoding(&rle.values, "RLE values")?,
+                    buffers
+                        .first()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                "Sparse RLE value buffer is missing after count validation".into(),
+                            )
+                        })?
+                        .as_ref(),
+                    "value chunk RLE values",
+                )?;
+                SparseStructuralScheduler::validate_general_child_buffer(
+                    SparseStructuralScheduler::require_encoding(
+                        &rle.run_lengths,
+                        "RLE run lengths",
+                    )?,
+                    buffers
+                        .get(1)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                "Sparse RLE run-length buffer is missing after count validation"
+                                    .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?
+                        .as_ref(),
+                    "value chunk RLE run lengths",
+                )
+            }
+            Compression::General(general) => {
+                let buffer = buffers.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse general-compressed value chunk is missing its first buffer".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                SparseStructuralScheduler::validate_general_buffer_header(
+                    general,
+                    buffer.as_ref(),
+                    "value chunk",
+                )
+            }
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse value chunk uses an unsupported compression descriptor".into(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn loaded_chunk(&self, chunk_idx: usize) -> Result<&LoadedChunk> {
+        let index = self
+            .loaded_chunks
+            .binary_search_by_key(&chunk_idx, |chunk| chunk.chunk_idx)
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Sparse structural decode missing loaded value chunk {}",
+                    chunk_idx
+                ))
+            })?;
+        self.loaded_chunks.get(index).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Sparse structural loaded chunk index {} is missing",
+                index
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn decode_value_chunk(&self, chunk: &LoadedChunk) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        let buf = &chunk.data;
+        if buf.len() < 2 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural value chunk {} is too small for its header: {} bytes",
+                    chunk.chunk_idx,
+                    buf.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let num_levels = u16::from_le_bytes(
+            buf.as_ref()
+                .get(..2)
+                .and_then(|bytes| bytes.try_into().ok())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural value chunk {} has a malformed level header",
+                            chunk.chunk_idx
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?,
+        );
+        let mut offset: usize = 2;
+        if num_levels != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural value chunk unexpectedly contains {} rep/def levels",
+                    num_levels
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let size_width = if self.has_large_chunk { 4 } else { 2 };
+        let num_buffers = usize::try_from(self.num_buffers).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural value chunk has too many buffers: {}",
+                    self.num_buffers
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let sizes_len = num_buffers.checked_mul(size_width).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural value chunk buffer-size header overflows".into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let header_len = offset.checked_add(sizes_len).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural value chunk header length overflows".into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if buf.len() < header_len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural value chunk {} is too small for {} buffer sizes: {} bytes",
+                    chunk.chunk_idx,
+                    self.num_buffers,
+                    buf.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let buffer_sizes = (0..num_buffers)
+            .map(|_| Self::read_chunk_size(buf, &mut offset, size_width, chunk.chunk_idx))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        offset = offset
+            .checked_add(pad_bytes::<MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT>(offset))
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse structural value chunk {} padded header overflows",
+                        chunk.chunk_idx
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        if offset > buf.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural value chunk {} is missing padding after its header",
+                    chunk.chunk_idx
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let buffers = buffer_sizes
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|buf_size| {
+                let buf_size = buf_size as usize;
+                let end = offset.checked_add(buf_size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural value chunk {} buffer size overflows",
+                            chunk.chunk_idx
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                if end > buf.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural value chunk {} buffer extends past chunk end",
+                            chunk.chunk_idx
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let buffer = buf.slice_with_length(offset, buf_size);
+                offset = end;
+                offset = offset
+                    .checked_add(pad_bytes::<MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT>(offset))
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Sparse structural value chunk {} padded buffer range overflows",
+                                chunk.chunk_idx
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                if offset > buf.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural value chunk {} padding extends past chunk end",
+                            chunk.chunk_idx
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(buffer)
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        if offset != buf.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural value chunk {} consumed {} of {} bytes",
+                    chunk.chunk_idx,
+                    offset,
+                    buf.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        self.validate_value_buffers(&buffers, chunk.items_in_chunk)?;
+
+        let decoded = std::panic::catch_unwind(std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
+            self.value_decompressor
+                .decompress(buffers, chunk.items_in_chunk)
+        }))
+        .map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural value chunk {} decompression panicked",
+                    chunk.chunk_idx
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?
+        .map_err(|error| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural value chunk {} decompression failed: {error}",
+                    chunk.chunk_idx
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if decoded.num_values() != chunk.items_in_chunk {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural value chunk {} decoded {} values, expected {}",
+                    chunk.chunk_idx,
+                    decoded.num_values(),
+                    chunk.items_in_chunk
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(decoded)
+    }
+
+    fn append_value_range(
+        &self,
+        value_range: Range<u64>,
+        data_builder: &mut DataBlockBuilder,
+        chunk_cache: &mut Option<(usize, DataBlock)>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut value_start = value_range.start;
+        while value_start < value_range.end {
+            let chunk_idx = SparseStructuralScheduler::value_chunk_index(
+                &self.page_meta.chunk_value_offsets,
+                value_start,
+            )?;
+            let chunk_value_start = *self
+                .page_meta
+                .chunk_value_offsets
+                .get(chunk_idx)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse value chunk {} has no start offset", chunk_idx).into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            let chunk_value_end = *self
+                .page_meta
+                .chunk_value_offsets
+                .get(chunk_idx.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse value chunk index overflows".into())
+                })?)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse value chunk {} has no end offset", chunk_idx).into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            let take_end = value_range.end.min(chunk_value_end);
+            if value_start < chunk_value_start || take_end <= value_start {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse value range {}..{} does not make progress in chunk {} covering {}..{}",
+                        value_range.start,
+                        value_range.end,
+                        chunk_idx,
+                        chunk_value_start,
+                        chunk_value_end
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+
+            if !matches!(chunk_cache, Some((cached_idx, _)) if *cached_idx == chunk_idx) {
+                let chunk = self.loaded_chunk(chunk_idx)?;
+                *chunk_cache = Some((chunk_idx, self.decode_value_chunk(chunk)?));
+            }
+            let values = &chunk_cache
+                .as_ref()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Sparse structural chunk cache is empty"))?
+                .1;
+            data_builder.append(
+                values,
+                value_start - chunk_value_start..take_end - chunk_value_start,
+            )?;
+            value_start = take_end;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn decode_checked(self) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
+        let selection = slice_sparse_plan(
+            &self.page_meta.plan,
+            &self.row_ranges,
+            self.page_meta.row_domain,
+        )?;
+        let estimated_size_bytes = self
+            .loaded_chunks
+            .iter()
+            .map(|chunk| chunk.data.len())
+            .try_fold(0_usize, |total, len| total.checked_add(len))
+            .and_then(|total| total.checked_mul(2))
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural decode size estimate overflows".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        let mut data_builder = DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(
+            u64::try_from(estimated_size_bytes).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural decode size exceeds u64::MAX".into())
+            })?,
+        );
+        let mut chunk_cache: Option<(usize, DataBlock)> = None;
+        let mut appended_values = false;
+        for value_range in &selection.leaf_ranges {
+            self.append_value_range(value_range.clone(), &mut data_builder, &mut chunk_cache)?;
+            appended_values = true;
+        }
+
+        let data = if appended_values {
+            data_builder.finish()
+        } else {
+            DataBlock::from_array(new_empty_array(&self.data_type))
+        };
+        let unraveler = RepDefUnraveler::new_sparse(selection.plan);
+        Ok(DecodedPage {
+            data,
+            repdef: unraveler,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl DecodePageTask for DecodeSparseStructuralTask {
+    fn decode(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<DecodedPage> {
+        std::panic::catch_unwind(std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe(|| (*self).decode_checked()))
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural page decoding panicked on malformed input".into(),
+                )
+            })?
+    }
+}
+
+struct SparseStructuralSelection {
+    plan: SparseStructuralPlan,
+    leaf_ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+}
+
+struct SparsePositionSelection {
+    positions: SparsePositionSet,
+    ordinal_ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+}
+
+fn validate_slice_ranges(ranges: &[Range<u64>], domain_len: u64, label: &str) -> Result<u64> {
+    let mut total = 0_u64;
+    for range in ranges {
+        if range.start > range.end || range.end > domain_len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} slice {}..{} is outside domain {}",
+                    range.start, range.end, domain_len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        total = total.checked_add(range.end - range.start).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} slice length overflows").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+    }
+    Ok(total)
+}
+
+fn push_coalesced_range(ranges: &mut Vec<Range<u64>>, range: Range<u64>) {
+    if range.is_empty() {
+        return;
+    }
+    if let Some(last) = ranges.last_mut()
+        && last.end == range.start
+    {
+        last.end = range.end;
+        return;
+    }
+    ranges.push(range);
+}
+
+fn position_segments_to_set(
+    segments: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+    output_domain: u64,
+    label: &str,
+) -> Result<SparsePositionSet> {
+    let segments = coalesce_ranges(segments);
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(SparsePositionSet::empty());
+    }
+    if segments.len() == 1 {
+        let segment = segments.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Sparse structural segment unexpectedly missing".to_string())
+        })?;
+        if segment.start == 0 && segment.end == output_domain {
+            return Ok(SparsePositionSet::all(output_domain));
+        }
+        return Ok(SparsePositionSet::range(
+            segment.start,
+            segment.end - segment.start,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let total_len = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|range| range.end - range.start)
+        .try_fold(0_u64, |sum, len| {
+            sum.checked_add(len).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural {label} segment length overflows").into(),
+                )
+            })
+        })?;
+    let total_len = usize::try_from(total_len).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Sparse structural {label} segment length exceeds usize::MAX").into(),
+        )
+    })?;
+    let mut positions = Vec::with_capacity(total_len);
+    for segment in segments {
+        positions.extend(segment);
+    }
+    SparsePositionSet::from_positions(positions, output_domain, label)
+}
+
+fn select_position_set(
+    positions: &SparsePositionSet,
+    ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+    domain_len: u64,
+    label: &str,
+) -> Result<SparsePositionSelection> {
+    let output_domain = validate_slice_ranges(ranges, domain_len, label)?;
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    let mut ordinal_ranges = Vec::new();
+    let mut output_base = 0_u64;
+
+    match positions {
+        SparsePositionSet::Empty => {}
+        SparsePositionSet::All { len } => {
+            if *len != domain_len {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse structural {label} all set length {} does not match domain {}",
+                        len, domain_len
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            for range in ranges {
+                let range_len = range.end - range.start;
+                let output_end = output_base.checked_add(range_len).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} output domain overflows").into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                push_coalesced_range(&mut segments, output_base..output_end);
+                push_coalesced_range(&mut ordinal_ranges, range.clone());
+                output_base = output_end;
+            }
+        }
+        SparsePositionSet::Range { start, len } => {
+            let source_end = start.checked_add(*len).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural {label} range overflows").into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            if source_end > domain_len {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse structural {label} range {}..{} is outside domain {}",
+                        start, source_end, domain_len
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            for range in ranges {
+                let intersect_start = range.start.max(*start);
+                let intersect_end = range.end.min(source_end);
+                if intersect_start < intersect_end {
+                    let out_start = output_base
+                        .checked_add(intersect_start - range.start)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!("Sparse structural {label} output position overflows")
+                                    .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                    let out_end = output_base
+                        .checked_add(intersect_end - range.start)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!("Sparse structural {label} output position overflows")
+                                    .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                    push_coalesced_range(&mut segments, out_start..out_end);
+                    push_coalesced_range(
+                        &mut ordinal_ranges,
+                        intersect_start - *start..intersect_end - *start,
+                    );
+                }
+                output_base = output_base
+                    .checked_add(range.end - range.start)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!("Sparse structural {label} output domain overflows").into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+            }
+        }
+        SparsePositionSet::Explicit(source_positions) => {
+            let mut out_positions = Vec::new();
+            for range in ranges {
+                let idx_start =
+                    source_positions.partition_point(|position| *position < range.start);
+                let idx_end = source_positions.partition_point(|position| *position < range.end);
+                if idx_start < idx_end {
+                    let selected_positions =
+                        source_positions.get(idx_start..idx_end).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!(
+                                    "Sparse structural {label} explicit position slice is invalid"
+                                )
+                                .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                    for position in selected_positions {
+                        out_positions.push(
+                            output_base
+                                .checked_add(*position - range.start)
+                                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                        format!(
+                                            "Sparse structural {label} output position overflows"
+                                        )
+                                        .into(),
+                                    )
+                                })?,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    push_coalesced_range(&mut ordinal_ranges, idx_start as u64..idx_end as u64);
+                }
+                output_base = output_base
+                    .checked_add(range.end - range.start)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!("Sparse structural {label} output domain overflows").into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+            }
+            let positions = SparsePositionSet::from_positions(out_positions, output_domain, label)?;
+            return Ok(SparsePositionSelection {
+                positions,
+                ordinal_ranges,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(SparsePositionSelection {
+        positions: position_segments_to_set(segments, output_domain, label)?,
+        ordinal_ranges,
+    })
+}
+
+fn select_validity_set(
+    validity: &SparseValiditySet,
+    ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+    domain_len: u64,
+    label: &str,
+) -> Result<SparseValiditySet> {
+    Ok(SparseValiditySet {
+        meaning: validity.meaning,
+        positions: select_position_set(&validity.positions, ranges, domain_len, label)?.positions,
+    })
+}
+
+fn offsets_from_counts(counts: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(counts.len() + 1);
+    let mut offset = 0_u64;
+    offsets.push(offset);
+    for count in counts {
+        offset = offset.checked_add(*count).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural list count offsets overflow".into())
+        })?;
+        offsets.push(offset);
+    }
+    Ok(offsets)
+}
+
+fn coalesce_ranges(ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+    let mut coalesced: Vec<Range<u64>> = Vec::with_capacity(ranges.len());
+    for range in ranges {
+        if range.is_empty() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if let Some(last) = coalesced.last_mut()
+            && last.end == range.start
+        {
+            last.end = range.end;
+            continue;
+        }
+        coalesced.push(range);
+    }
+    coalesced
+}
+
+fn slice_list_layer(
+    num_slots: u64,
+    num_child_slots: u64,
+    non_empty_positions: &SparsePositionSet,
+    counts: &SparseCountSet,
+    validity: &SparseValiditySet,
+    ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+) -> Result<(SparseStructuralLayerPlan, Vec<Range<u64>>)> {
+    if non_empty_positions.len() != counts.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Sparse structural list has mismatched non-empty positions and counts".into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let count_sum = counts.sum()?;
+    if count_sum != num_child_slots {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Sparse structural list count sum {} does not match child slots {}",
+                count_sum, num_child_slots
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let non_empty_selection =
+        select_position_set(non_empty_positions, ranges, num_slots, "list non-empty")?;
+    let out_counts = select_count_set(
+        counts,
+        &non_empty_selection.ordinal_ranges,
+        non_empty_selection.positions.len(),
+    )?;
+    let child_ranges =
+        child_ranges_from_counts(counts, num_child_slots, &non_empty_selection.ordinal_ranges)?;
+    let out_validity = select_validity_set(validity, ranges, num_slots, "list validity")?;
+    let out_num_slots = validate_slice_ranges(ranges, num_slots, "list")?;
+    let out_num_child_slots = out_counts.sum()?;
+    Ok((
+        SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+            num_slots: out_num_slots,
+            num_child_slots: out_num_child_slots,
+            non_empty_positions: non_empty_selection.positions,
+            counts: out_counts,
+            validity: out_validity,
+        },
+        child_ranges,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn select_count_set(
+    counts: &SparseCountSet,
+    ordinal_ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+    selected_len: u64,
+) -> Result<SparseCountSet> {
+    match counts {
+        SparseCountSet::Empty => {
+            if selected_len != 0 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural selected non-empty positions but counts are empty".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            Ok(SparseCountSet::Empty)
+        }
+        SparseCountSet::Constant { value, len } => {
+            validate_ordinal_ranges(ordinal_ranges, *len, "constant list counts")?;
+            Ok(SparseCountSet::constant(*value, selected_len))
+        }
+        SparseCountSet::Explicit {
+            counts: source_counts,
+            ..
+        } => {
+            validate_ordinal_ranges(
+                ordinal_ranges,
+                source_counts.len() as u64,
+                "explicit list counts",
+            )?;
+            let selected_len = usize::try_from(selected_len).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural selected count length exceeds usize::MAX".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            let mut out_counts = Vec::with_capacity(selected_len);
+            for range in ordinal_ranges {
+                let start = usize::try_from(range.start).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural count ordinal exceeds usize::MAX".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                let end = usize::try_from(range.end).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural count ordinal exceeds usize::MAX".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                out_counts.extend_from_slice(source_counts.get(start..end).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural explicit count slice is invalid".into(),
+                    )
+                })?);
+            }
+            SparseCountSet::from_counts(out_counts)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_ordinal_ranges(ranges: &[Range<u64>], len: u64, label: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    for range in ranges {
+        if range.start > range.end || range.end > len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} ordinal range {}..{} is outside {} values",
+                    range.start, range.end, len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn child_ranges_from_counts(
+    counts: &SparseCountSet,
+    num_child_slots: u64,
+    ordinal_ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+) -> Result<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+    if ordinal_ranges.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+    let child_ranges = match counts {
+        SparseCountSet::Empty => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural selected non-empty positions but counts are empty".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        SparseCountSet::Constant { value, len } => {
+            let expected_child_slots = value.checked_mul(*len).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural list constant count sum overflows child slots".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            if expected_child_slots != num_child_slots {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse structural list constant count sum {} does not match child slots {}",
+                        expected_child_slots, num_child_slots
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            validate_ordinal_ranges(ordinal_ranges, *len, "constant list counts")?;
+            ordinal_ranges
+                .iter()
+                .map(|range| {
+                    let start = range.start.checked_mul(*value).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse structural list child range start overflows".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    let end = range.end.checked_mul(*value).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse structural list child range end overflows".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    Ok(start..end)
+                })
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+        }
+        SparseCountSet::Explicit {
+            counts,
+            offsets: value_offsets,
+        } => {
+            let last_offset = *value_offsets.last().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Sparse structural list count offsets are unexpectedly empty".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            if last_offset != num_child_slots {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse structural list count sum {} does not match child slots {}",
+                        last_offset, num_child_slots
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            validate_ordinal_ranges(ordinal_ranges, counts.len() as u64, "explicit list counts")?;
+            ordinal_ranges
+                .iter()
+                .map(|range| {
+                    let start = usize::try_from(range.start).map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse structural count ordinal exceeds usize::MAX".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    let end = usize::try_from(range.end).map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse structural count ordinal exceeds usize::MAX".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    let start_offset = *value_offsets.get(start).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse structural list start offset is missing".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    let end_offset = *value_offsets.get(end).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse structural list end offset is missing".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    Ok(start_offset..end_offset)
+                })
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+        }
+    };
+    Ok(coalesce_ranges(child_ranges))
+}
+
+fn slice_sparse_plan(
+    plan: &SparseStructuralPlan,
+    row_ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+    row_domain: u64,
+) -> Result<SparseStructuralSelection> {
+    plan.validate(row_domain)?;
+    let mut selected_ranges = row_ranges.to_vec();
+    let mut selected_domain = row_domain;
+    let mut sliced_layers = Vec::with_capacity(plan.layers.len());
+
+    for layer in &plan.layers {
+        match layer {
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                num_slots,
+                validity,
+            } => {
+                if selected_domain != *num_slots {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural validity slice domain {} does not match {} slots",
+                            selected_domain, num_slots
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let out_num_slots =
+                    validate_slice_ranges(&selected_ranges, *num_slots, "validity")?;
+                sliced_layers.push(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                    num_slots: out_num_slots,
+                    validity: select_validity_set(
+                        validity,
+                        &selected_ranges,
+                        *num_slots,
+                        "validity",
+                    )?,
+                });
+            }
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                num_slots,
+                num_child_slots,
+                non_empty_positions,
+                counts,
+                validity,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                if selected_domain != *num_slots {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural list slice domain {} does not match {} slots",
+                            selected_domain, num_slots
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let (sliced_layer, child_ranges) = slice_list_layer(
+                    *num_slots,
+                    *num_child_slots,
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    counts,
+                    validity,
+                    &selected_ranges,
+                )?;
+                sliced_layers.push(sliced_layer);
+                selected_ranges = child_ranges;
+                selected_domain = *num_child_slots;
+            }
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                num_slots,
+                dimension,
+                validity,
+            } => {
+                if selected_domain != *num_slots {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural fixed-size-list slice domain {} does not match {} slots",
+                            selected_domain, num_slots
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let num_child_slots = num_slots.checked_mul(*dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child slot count overflows: slots={}, dimension={}",
+                            num_slots, dimension
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                let out_num_slots =
+                    validate_slice_ranges(&selected_ranges, *num_slots, "fixed-size-list")?;
+                let child_ranges = selected_ranges
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|range| {
+                        let start = range.start.checked_mul(*dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child range start overflows"
+                                    .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                        let end = range.end.checked_mul(*dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child range end overflows"
+                                    .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                        Ok(start..end)
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                sliced_layers.push(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                    num_slots: out_num_slots,
+                    dimension: *dimension,
+                    validity: select_validity_set(
+                        validity,
+                        &selected_ranges,
+                        *num_slots,
+                        "fixed-size-list validity",
+                    )?,
+                });
+                selected_ranges = child_ranges;
+                selected_domain = num_child_slots;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if selected_domain != plan.num_visible_items {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Sparse structural selected terminal domain {} does not match {} visible items",
+                selected_domain, plan.num_visible_items
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let num_visible_items =
+        validate_slice_ranges(&selected_ranges, plan.num_visible_items, "visible value")?;
+    let num_items = SparseStructuralPlan::expected_num_items(&sliced_layers, num_visible_items)?;
+    Ok(SparseStructuralSelection {
+        plan: SparseStructuralPlan {
+            layers: sliced_layers,
+            num_items,
+            num_visible_items,
+        },
+        leaf_ranges: coalesce_ranges(selected_ranges),
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Mutex;
+
+    use crate::{
+        compression::DefaultDecompressionStrategy,
+        encodings::physical::block::{CompressionConfig, CompressionScheme},
+        testing::SimulatedScheduler,
+    };
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    async fn initialize_scheduler(
+        scheduler: &mut SparseStructuralScheduler,
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn CachedPageData>> {
+        let initialization = scheduler.init_layout()?;
+        let buffers = io
+            .submit_request(initialization.required_ranges().cloned().collect(), 0)
+            .await?;
+        let buffers = initialization.with_buffers(buffers)?;
+        let state = scheduler.init_from_buffers(buffers, io).await?;
+        scheduler.try_load(&state)?;
+        Ok(state)
+    }
+
+    fn position_set(
+        positions: pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions,
+        num_positions: u64,
+    ) -> Option<pb21::SparsePositionSet> {
+        Some(pb21::SparsePositionSet {
+            positions: Some(positions),
+            num_positions,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn position_empty() -> Option<pb21::SparsePositionSet> {
+        position_set(
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Empty(pb21::SparsePositionEmpty {}),
+            0,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn position_all(num_positions: u64) -> Option<pb21::SparsePositionSet> {
+        position_set(
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::All(pb21::SparsePositionAll {}),
+            num_positions,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn position_explicit(num_positions: u64) -> Option<pb21::SparsePositionSet> {
+        position_set(
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Explicit(ProtobufUtils21::flat(64, None)),
+            num_positions,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn general_lz4(values: CompressiveEncoding) -> CompressiveEncoding {
+        ProtobufUtils21::wrapped(CompressionConfig::new(CompressionScheme::Lz4, None), values)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn validity(
+        meaning: pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning,
+        positions: Option<pb21::SparsePositionSet>,
+    ) -> Option<pb21::SparseValiditySet> {
+        Some(pb21::SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: meaning as i32,
+            positions,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn null_positions(
+        positions: Option<pb21::SparsePositionSet>,
+    ) -> Option<pb21::SparseValiditySet> {
+        validity(
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityNullPositions,
+            positions,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn count_empty() -> Option<pb21::SparseCountSet> {
+        Some(pb21::SparseCountSet {
+            counts: Some(pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Empty(
+                pb21::SparseCountEmpty {},
+            )),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn count_constant(value: u64) -> Option<pb21::SparseCountSet> {
+        Some(pb21::SparseCountSet {
+            counts: Some(pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Constant(
+                pb21::SparseCountConstant { value },
+            )),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn sparse_layout() -> pb21::SparseLayout {
+        pb21::SparseLayout {
+            value_compression: Some(ProtobufUtils21::flat(32, None)),
+            num_buffers: 1,
+            num_items: 1,
+            num_visible_items: 1,
+            has_large_chunk: false,
+            structural_layers: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validity_layer(
+        num_slots: u64,
+        validity: Option<pb21::SparseValiditySet>,
+    ) -> pb21::SparseStructuralLayer {
+        pb21::SparseStructuralLayer {
+            layer: Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(
+                pb21::SparseValidityLayer {
+                    num_slots,
+                    validity,
+                },
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn list_layer(
+        num_slots: u64,
+        num_child_slots: u64,
+        non_empty_positions: Option<pb21::SparsePositionSet>,
+        counts: Option<pb21::SparseCountSet>,
+        validity: Option<pb21::SparseValiditySet>,
+    ) -> pb21::SparseStructuralLayer {
+        pb21::SparseStructuralLayer {
+            layer: Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(
+                pb21::SparseListLayer {
+                    num_slots,
+                    num_child_slots,
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    counts,
+                    validity,
+                },
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn fixed_size_list_layer(
+        num_slots: u64,
+        dimension: u64,
+        validity: Option<pb21::SparseValiditySet>,
+    ) -> pb21::SparseStructuralLayer {
+        pb21::SparseStructuralLayer {
+            layer: Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(
+                pb21::SparseFixedSizeListLayer {
+                    num_slots,
+                    dimension,
+                    validity,
+                },
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn assert_invalid_input_contains(err: Error, expected: &str) {
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(expected),
+            "expected error to contain {expected:?}, got {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_missing_layer_variants_and_item_count_mismatches() {
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout
+            .structural_layers
+            .push(pb21::SparseStructuralLayer { layer: None });
+        let err = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 0), (0, 0)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "missing its layer variant");
+
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_items = 2;
+        layout
+            .structural_layers
+            .push(validity_layer(1, null_positions(position_empty())));
+        let err = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 0), (0, 0)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "layers imply 1");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn accepts_large_structural_descriptors() {
+        let explicit_values = 8_u64 * 1024 * 1024 + 1;
+        let metadata_size = explicit_values * 8;
+        let value_position = metadata_size;
+        let value_size = explicit_values * 16;
+        let structural_position = value_position + value_size;
+        let structural_size = explicit_values * std::mem::size_of::<u64>() as u64;
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_items = explicit_values;
+        layout.num_visible_items = explicit_values;
+        layout.structural_layers.push(validity_layer(
+            explicit_values,
+            null_positions(position_explicit(explicit_values)),
+        ));
+
+        SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[
+                (0, metadata_size),
+                (value_position, value_size),
+                (structural_position, structural_size),
+            ],
+            0,
+            explicit_values,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn accepts_deep_supported_value_encodings() {
+        let encoding = (0..300).fold(ProtobufUtils21::flat(32, None), |values, _| {
+            ProtobufUtils21::fsl(1, false, values)
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            SparseStructuralScheduler::validate_value_encoding(&encoding).unwrap(),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn null_set(positions: SparsePositionSet) -> SparseValiditySet {
+        SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions,
+            positions,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn valid_set(positions: SparsePositionSet) -> SparseValiditySet {
+        SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions,
+            positions,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn semantic_position_and_count_sets_project_without_materializing_ranges() {
+        let ranges = [1..4];
+        assert_eq!(
+            select_position_set(&SparsePositionSet::Empty, &ranges, 5, "empty")
+                .unwrap()
+                .positions,
+            SparsePositionSet::Empty
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            select_position_set(&SparsePositionSet::all(5), &ranges, 5, "all")
+                .unwrap()
+                .positions,
+            SparsePositionSet::all(3)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            select_position_set(&SparsePositionSet::range(1, 3), &ranges, 5, "range")
+                .unwrap()
+                .positions,
+            SparsePositionSet::all(3)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            select_position_set(
+                &SparsePositionSet::Explicit(vec![0, 2, 4]),
+                &[0..1, 4..5],
+                5,
+                "explicit",
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .positions,
+            SparsePositionSet::all(2)
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            select_count_set(&SparseCountSet::Empty, &[], 0).unwrap(),
+            SparseCountSet::Empty
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            select_count_set(&SparseCountSet::constant(2, 3), &[0..1, 2..3], 2,).unwrap(),
+            SparseCountSet::constant(2, 2)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            select_count_set(
+                &SparseCountSet::from_counts(vec![1, 2, 3]).unwrap(),
+                &[0..1, 2..3],
+                2,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            SparseCountSet::from_counts(vec![1, 3]).unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn validity_polarities_rebuild_the_same_arrow_domain() {
+        let mut null_builder = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(4);
+        null_set(SparsePositionSet::Explicit(vec![1, 3]))
+            .append_to(&mut null_builder, 4)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            null_builder.finish().iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![true, false, true, false]
+        );
+
+        let mut valid_builder = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(4);
+        valid_set(SparsePositionSet::range(1, 2))
+            .append_to(&mut valid_builder, 4)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            valid_builder.finish().iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![false, true, true, false]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn schema_layer_mismatches_are_invalid_input() {
+        let mut missing = SparseStructuralUnraveler::new(SparseStructuralPlan {
+            layers: Vec::new(),
+            num_items: 1,
+            num_visible_items: 1,
+        });
+        let mut validity = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(1);
+        let err = missing.unravel_validity(&mut validity).unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "fewer layers than the Arrow schema");
+
+        let mut fixed_size_list = SparseStructuralUnraveler::new(SparseStructuralPlan {
+            layers: vec![SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                num_slots: 2,
+                dimension: 2,
+                validity: null_set(SparsePositionSet::empty()),
+            }],
+            num_items: 4,
+            num_visible_items: 4,
+        });
+        let mut validity = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(2);
+        let err = fixed_size_list.unravel_validity(&mut validity).unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "does not match the Arrow schema");
+
+        let extra = SparseStructuralUnraveler::new(SparseStructuralPlan {
+            layers: vec![SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                num_slots: 1,
+                validity: null_set(SparsePositionSet::empty()),
+            }],
+            num_items: 1,
+            num_visible_items: 1,
+        });
+        let err = extra.ensure_exhausted().unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "1 unconsumed layer");
+    }
+
+    fn nested_plan() -> SparseStructuralPlan {
+        SparseStructuralPlan {
+            layers: vec![
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                    num_slots: 6,
+                    validity: null_set(SparsePositionSet::Explicit(vec![1, 4])),
+                },
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                    num_slots: 6,
+                    num_child_slots: 5,
+                    non_empty_positions: SparsePositionSet::Explicit(vec![0, 2, 5]),
+                    counts: SparseCountSet::from_counts(vec![2, 1, 2]).unwrap(),
+                    validity: null_set(SparsePositionSet::Explicit(vec![1, 4])),
+                },
+                SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                    num_slots: 5,
+                    dimension: 2,
+                    validity: valid_set(SparsePositionSet::range(1, 3)),
+                },
+            ],
+            num_items: 13,
+            num_visible_items: 10,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn discontiguous_projection_preserves_outer_to_inner_order() {
+        let selection = slice_sparse_plan(&nested_plan(), &[5..6, 0..1], 6).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(selection.leaf_ranges, vec![6..10, 0..4]);
+        assert_eq!(selection.plan.num_visible_items, 8);
+        selection.plan.validate(2).unwrap();
+
+        let SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+            non_empty_positions,
+            counts,
+            ..
+        } = &selection.plan.layers[1]
+        else {
+            panic!("expected projected list layer");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(*non_empty_positions, SparsePositionSet::all(2));
+        assert_eq!(*counts, SparseCountSet::constant(2, 2));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_value_projection_keeps_empty_and_null_list_structure() {
+        let selection = slice_sparse_plan(&nested_plan(), &[1..2, 3..4], 6).unwrap();
+        assert!(selection.leaf_ranges.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(selection.plan.num_visible_items, 0);
+        selection.plan.validate(2).unwrap();
+
+        let SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+            num_slots,
+            num_child_slots,
+            non_empty_positions,
+            counts,
+            validity,
+        } = &selection.plan.layers[1]
+        else {
+            panic!("expected projected list layer");
+        };
+        assert_eq!((*num_slots, *num_child_slots), (2, 0));
+        assert_eq!(*non_empty_positions, SparsePositionSet::Empty);
+        assert_eq!(*counts, SparseCountSet::Empty);
+        assert_eq!(*validity, null_set(SparsePositionSet::range(0, 1)));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_missing_value_compression_and_buffer_count_mismatch() {
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.value_compression = None;
+        let err = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 0), (0, 0)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "missing value compression");
+
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_buffers = 2;
+        let err = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 0), (0, 0)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "declares 2 value buffers");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_inconsistent_chunk_count_before_io() {
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+
+        let layout = sparse_layout();
+        let err = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 16), (16, 8)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "declares 2 chunks for 1 visible items");
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "lz4")]
+    #[test]
+    fn accepts_large_general_decompression_headers() {
+        let encoding = general_lz4(ProtobufUtils21::flat(64, None));
+        let Some(pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::General(general)) =
+            encoding.compression.as_ref()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected General compression");
+        };
+        let declared_size = 65_u32 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+        SparseStructuralScheduler::validate_general_buffer_header(
+            general,
+            &declared_size.to_le_bytes(),
+            "test",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "lz4")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_malformed_general_structural_buffers_as_invalid_input() {
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.structural_layers.push(validity_layer(
+            1,
+            null_positions(position_set(
+                pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Explicit(general_lz4(ProtobufUtils21::flat(
+                    64, None,
+                ))),
+                1,
+            )),
+        ));
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 8), (8, 8), (16, 8)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&[0; 8]);
+        data.extend_from_slice(&8_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&[0xff; 4]);
+        let io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(Bytes::from(data)));
+        let Err(err) = initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &io).await else {
+            panic!("expected malformed General buffer to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "decompression failed");
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "lz4")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_malformed_general_value_buffer() {
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.value_compression = Some(general_lz4(ProtobufUtils21::flat(32, None)));
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 8), (8, 8)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u16.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u16.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&[0; 4]);
+        let io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(Bytes::from(data)));
+        initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &io).await.unwrap();
+        let mut page_tasks = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[0..1], &io).unwrap();
+        let mut decoder = page_tasks.pop().unwrap().decoder_fut.await.unwrap();
+        let Err(err) = decoder.drain(1).unwrap().decode() else {
+            panic!("expected malformed General value buffer to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "missing its length prefix");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_layer_domain_and_fixed_size_list_mismatches() {
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_items = 2;
+        layout.num_visible_items = 2;
+        layout
+            .structural_layers
+            .push(validity_layer(1, null_positions(position_empty())));
+        layout
+            .structural_layers
+            .push(validity_layer(2, null_positions(position_empty())));
+        let err = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 0), (0, 0)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "layer 1 has 2 slots, expected 1");
+
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_items = 4;
+        layout.num_visible_items = 4;
+        layout.structural_layers.push(fixed_size_list_layer(
+            2,
+            3,
+            null_positions(position_empty()),
+        ));
+        let err = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 0), (0, 0)],
+            0,
+            2,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "terminal domain has 6 slots");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_invalid_validity_and_list_count_semantics() {
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.structural_layers.push(validity_layer(
+            1,
+            validity(
+                pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityUnspecified,
+                position_empty(),
+            ),
+        ));
+        let err = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 0), (0, 0)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "meaning is unspecified");
+
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_items = 3;
+        layout.num_visible_items = 3;
+        layout.structural_layers.push(list_layer(
+            2,
+            3,
+            position_all(2),
+            count_constant(2),
+            null_positions(position_empty()),
+        ));
+        let err = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 0), (0, 0)],
+            0,
+            2,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "count sum 4 does not match child slots 3");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_unordered_explicit_positions_after_decompression() {
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_items = 4;
+        layout.num_visible_items = 4;
+        layout
+            .structural_layers
+            .push(validity_layer(4, null_positions(position_explicit(2))));
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 8), (8, 8), (16, 16)],
+            0,
+            4,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&4_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&[0; 8]);
+        data.extend_from_slice(&3_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        let io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(Bytes::from(data)));
+
+        let Err(err) = initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &io).await else {
+            panic!("expected unordered sparse positions to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "positions must be strictly increasing");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_chunk_metadata_value_and_byte_sum_mismatches() {
+        let layout = sparse_layout();
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 8), (8, 8)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        data.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&[0; 8]);
+        let io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(Bytes::from(data)));
+        let Err(err) = initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &io).await else {
+            panic!("expected chunk byte sum mismatch");
+        };
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "describes 16 value bytes");
+
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_items = 2;
+        layout.num_visible_items = 2;
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 8), (8, 8)],
+            0,
+            2,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&[0; 8]);
+        let io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(Bytes::from(data)));
+        let Err(err) = initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &io).await else {
+            panic!("expected chunk value sum mismatch");
+        };
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "metadata has 1, layout has 2");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_malformed_value_chunk_before_decompression() {
+        let layout = sparse_layout();
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 8), (8, 8)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&[0; 8]);
+        let io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(Bytes::from(data)));
+        initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &io).await.unwrap();
+        let mut page_tasks = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[0..1], &io).unwrap();
+        let page_task = page_tasks.pop().unwrap();
+        let mut decoder = page_task.decoder_fut.await.unwrap();
+        let decode_task = decoder.drain(1).unwrap();
+        let Err(err) = decode_task.decode() else {
+            panic!("expected malformed value chunk to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "flat values buffer has 0 bytes, expected 4");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn accepts_value_chunks_larger_than_64_mib() {
+        let chunk_size = 65_u64 * 1024 * 1024;
+        let layout = sparse_layout();
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 8), (8, chunk_size)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let words_minus_one = u32::try_from(chunk_size / MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT as u64 - 1).unwrap();
+        let mut metadata = Vec::new();
+        metadata.extend_from_slice(&words_minus_one.to_le_bytes());
+        metadata.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        let io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(Bytes::from(metadata)));
+
+        initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &io).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_value_chunks_above_the_miniblock_limit() {
+        let num_values = miniblock::MAX_CONFIGURABLE_MINIBLOCK_VALUES + 1;
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_items = num_values;
+        layout.num_visible_items = num_values;
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 16), (16, 16)],
+            0,
+            num_values,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&(num_values as u32).to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&0_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        data.extend_from_slice(&[0; 16]);
+        let io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = Arc::new(SimulatedScheduler::new(Bytes::from(data)));
+
+        let Err(err) = initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &io).await else {
+            panic!("expected oversized value chunk to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert_invalid_input_contains(err, "exceeding the mini-block limit");
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+    struct RecordingIo {
+        data: Bytes,
+        calls: Arc<Mutex<Vec<Vec<Range<u64>>>>>,
+    }
+
+    impl RecordingIo {
+        fn new(data: Bytes) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                data,
+                calls: Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new())),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl EncodingsIo for RecordingIo {
+        fn submit_request(
+            &self,
+            ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+            _priority: u64,
+        ) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<Vec<Bytes>>> {
+            self.calls.lock().unwrap().push(ranges.clone());
+            let data = self.data.clone();
+            async move {
+                ranges
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|range| {
+                        let start = usize_from_u64(range.start, "test range start")?;
+                        let end = usize_from_u64(range.end, "test range end")?;
+                        if start > end || end > data.len() {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                "Test I/O range is outside fixture data".into(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        Ok(data.slice(start..end))
+                    })
+                    .collect()
+            }
+            .boxed()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn selective_read_requests_only_intersecting_value_chunk() {
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_items = 4;
+        layout.num_visible_items = 4;
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 16), (16, 32)],
+            0,
+            4,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            data.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+            data.extend_from_slice(&2_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        }
+        for values in [[10_i32, 20], [30, 40]] {
+            data.extend_from_slice(&0_u16.to_le_bytes());
+            data.extend_from_slice(&8_u16.to_le_bytes());
+            data.extend_from_slice(&[0; 4]);
+            for value in values {
+                data.extend_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
+            }
+        }
+
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingIo::new(Bytes::from(data)));
+        let trait_io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = io.clone();
+        initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &trait_io)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut page_tasks = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[2..3], &trait_io).unwrap();
+        let page_task = page_tasks.pop().unwrap();
+        let mut decoder = page_task.decoder_fut.await.unwrap();
+        let decoded = decoder.drain(1).unwrap().decode().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded.data.num_values(), 1);
+
+        let calls = io.calls.lock().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(calls.as_slice(), &[vec![0..16], vec![32..48]]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn empty_leaf_selection_rebuilds_offsets_without_value_io() {
+        let mut layout = sparse_layout();
+        layout.num_visible_items = 0;
+        layout.structural_layers.push(list_layer(
+            1,
+            0,
+            position_empty(),
+            count_empty(),
+            null_positions(position_empty()),
+        ));
+        let decompressors = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let mut scheduler = SparseStructuralScheduler::try_new(
+            &[(0, 0), (0, 0)],
+            0,
+            1,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            &layout,
+            &decompressors,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let io = Arc::new(RecordingIo::new(Bytes::new()));
+        let trait_io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> = io.clone();
+        initialize_scheduler(&mut scheduler, &trait_io)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut page_tasks = scheduler.schedule_ranges(&[0..1], &trait_io).unwrap();
+        let page_task = page_tasks.pop().unwrap();
+        let mut decoder = page_task.decoder_fut.await.unwrap();
+        let decoded = decoder.drain(1).unwrap().decode().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded.data.num_values(), 0);
+
+        let mut repdef = CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![decoded.repdef]);
+        let (offsets, validity) = repdef.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(offsets.as_ref(), &[0, 0]);
+        assert!(validity.is_none());
+
+        let calls = io.calls.lock().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(calls.len(), 2);
+        assert!(calls[1].is_empty(), "value payload must not be requested");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/sparse/writer.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/sparse/writer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5ec1d32b5e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/primitive/sparse/writer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2407 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Sparse structural planning and serialization.
+
+use std::iter;
+
+use arrow_buffer::BooleanBuffer;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field, utils::bit::pad_bytes};
+
+use crate::{
+    buffer::LanceBuffer,
+    compression::{CompressionStrategy, compress_required_block},
+    data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock},
+    decoder::PageEncoding,
+    encoder::EncodedPage,
+    format::pb21::{self, CompressiveEncoding},
+    repdef::{NormalizedStructuralLayer, NormalizedStructuralPlan},
+    statistics::ComputeStat,
+};
+
+use super::super::MiniblockChunkSize;
+
+use super::{
+    SparseCountSet, SparsePositionSet, SparseStructuralLayerPlan, SparseStructuralPlan,
+    SparseValidityMeaning, SparseValiditySet,
+};
+use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::{
+    FILL_BYTE, MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT,
+    miniblock::{MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressionContext},
+};
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Default)]
+struct PositionSetStats {
+    count: u64,
+    first: u64,
+    last: u64,
+    is_contiguous: bool,
+}
+
+impl PositionSetStats {
+    fn observe(&mut self, position: u64) {
+        if self.count == 0 {
+            self.first = position;
+            self.is_contiguous = true;
+        } else if self.last.checked_add(1) != Some(position) {
+            self.is_contiguous = false;
+        }
+        self.last = position;
+        self.count += 1;
+    }
+
+    fn encoded_cost(&self, domain_len: u64) -> u64 {
+        if self.count == 0 || self.count == domain_len || self.is_contiguous {
+            0
+        } else {
+            self.count
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn to_set(
+        self,
+        validity: &BooleanBuffer,
+        want_valid: bool,
+        domain_len: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<SparsePositionSet> {
+        if self.count == 0 {
+            return Ok(SparsePositionSet::empty());
+        }
+        if self.count == domain_len {
+            return Ok(SparsePositionSet::all(domain_len));
+        }
+        if self.is_contiguous {
+            return Ok(SparsePositionSet::range(self.first, self.count));
+        }
+
+        let capacity = usize::try_from(self.count).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Sparse structural {label} positions exceed usize::MAX").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let mut positions = Vec::with_capacity(capacity);
+        for (index, is_valid) in validity.iter().enumerate() {
+            if is_valid == want_valid {
+                positions.push(u64::try_from(index).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Sparse structural {label} position exceeds u64::MAX").into(),
+                    )
+                })?);
+            }
+        }
+        SparsePositionSet::from_positions(positions, domain_len, label)
+    }
+}
+
+fn usize_to_u64(value: usize, label: &str) -> Result<u64> {
+    u64::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Sparse structural {label} {value} exceeds u64::MAX").into(),
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+fn validity_set(
+    validity: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    num_slots: usize,
+    label: &str,
+) -> Result<SparseValiditySet> {
+    let Some(validity) = validity else {
+        return Ok(SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions,
+            positions: SparsePositionSet::empty(),
+        });
+    };
+    if validity.len() != num_slots {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Sparse structural {label} validity length {} does not match {} slots",
+                validity.len(),
+                num_slots
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let domain_len = usize_to_u64(num_slots, "validity domain")?;
+    let mut valid_stats = PositionSetStats::default();
+    let mut null_stats = PositionSetStats::default();
+    for (index, is_valid) in validity.iter().enumerate() {
+        let index = usize_to_u64(index, "validity position")?;
+        if is_valid {
+            valid_stats.observe(index);
+        } else {
+            null_stats.observe(index);
+        }
+    }
+
+    if null_stats.count == 0 {
+        return Ok(SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions,
+            positions: SparsePositionSet::empty(),
+        });
+    }
+    if valid_stats.count == 0 {
+        return Ok(SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions,
+            positions: SparsePositionSet::empty(),
+        });
+    }
+
+    let valid_cost = valid_stats.encoded_cost(domain_len);
+    let null_cost = null_stats.encoded_cost(domain_len);
+    if valid_cost < null_cost {
+        Ok(SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions,
+            positions: valid_stats.to_set(validity, true, domain_len, label)?,
+        })
+    } else {
+        Ok(SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions,
+            positions: null_stats.to_set(validity, false, domain_len, label)?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Builds the semantic sparse plan directly from the once-normalized Arrow layers.
+pub(in crate::encodings::logical::primitive) fn plan(
+    normalized: &NormalizedStructuralPlan,
+    num_visible_items: u64,
+) -> Result<SparseStructuralPlan> {
+    let mut layers = Vec::with_capacity(normalized.layers().len());
+    let mut num_items = num_visible_items;
+
+    for layer in normalized.layers() {
+        match layer {
+            NormalizedStructuralLayer::Validity {
+                validity,
+                num_slots,
+            } => {
+                layers.push(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                    num_slots: usize_to_u64(num_slots, "validity slot count")?,
+                    validity: validity_set(validity, num_slots, "validity")?,
+                });
+            }
+            NormalizedStructuralLayer::FixedSizeList {
+                validity,
+                dimension,
+                num_slots,
+            } => {
+                if dimension == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural fixed-size-list dimension is zero".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                layers.push(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                    num_slots: usize_to_u64(num_slots, "fixed-size-list slot count")?,
+                    dimension: usize_to_u64(dimension, "fixed-size-list dimension")?,
+                    validity: validity_set(validity, num_slots, "fixed-size-list validity")?,
+                });
+            }
+            NormalizedStructuralLayer::List {
+                offsets,
+                validity,
+                num_slots,
+            } => {
+                let expected_offsets = num_slots.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural list offset count overflows".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                if offsets.len() != expected_offsets {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural list has {} offsets for {} slots",
+                            offsets.len(),
+                            num_slots
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                if offsets.first().copied() != Some(0) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Sparse structural list offsets must start at zero".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+
+                let mut non_empty_positions = Vec::new();
+                let mut counts = Vec::new();
+                for slot in 0..num_slots {
+                    let start = offsets[slot];
+                    let end = offsets[slot + 1];
+                    let count = end.checked_sub(start).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Sparse structural list offsets decrease at slot {slot}: {start}..{end}"
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    let is_valid = validity.is_none_or(|validity| validity.value(slot));
+                    if !is_valid && count != 0 {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Sparse structural null list slot {slot} has {count} child slots"
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    if is_valid && count > 0 {
+                        non_empty_positions.push(usize_to_u64(slot, "list position")?);
+                        counts.push(u64::try_from(count).map_err(|_| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!("Sparse structural list count {count} exceeds u64::MAX")
+                                    .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                let num_slots_u64 = usize_to_u64(num_slots, "list slot count")?;
+                let num_non_empty = usize_to_u64(non_empty_positions.len(), "list position count")?;
+                num_items = num_items
+                    .checked_add(num_slots_u64 - num_non_empty)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "Sparse structural item count overflows u64".into(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                let num_child_slots = offsets.last().copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("Sparse structural list has no offsets".into())
+                })?;
+                let num_child_slots = u64::try_from(num_child_slots).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural list child slot count {num_child_slots} is negative"
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                layers.push(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                    num_slots: num_slots_u64,
+                    num_child_slots,
+                    non_empty_positions: SparsePositionSet::from_positions(
+                        non_empty_positions,
+                        num_slots_u64,
+                        "list non-empty",
+                    )?,
+                    counts: SparseCountSet::from_counts(counts)?,
+                    validity: validity_set(validity, num_slots, "list validity")?,
+                });
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let row_domain = match layers.first() {
+        Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity { num_slots, .. })
+        | Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List { num_slots, .. })
+        | Some(SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList { num_slots, .. }) => *num_slots,
+        None => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Sparse structural encoding requires at least one Arrow structural layer".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+    };
+    let plan = SparseStructuralPlan {
+        layers,
+        num_items,
+        num_visible_items,
+    };
+    plan.validate(row_domain)?;
+    Ok(plan)
+}
+
+/// ConstantLayout remains the canonical representation when no value payload exists.
+pub(in crate::encodings::logical::primitive) fn uses_constant_layout(
+    plan: &SparseStructuralPlan,
+    field: &Field,
+) -> bool {
+    if plan.num_visible_items == 0 {
+        return true;
+    }
+    if matches!(field.data_type(), arrow_schema::DataType::Struct(fields) if fields.is_empty()) {
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    let Some(layer) = plan.layers.last() else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    let (num_slots, validity) = match layer {
+        SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+            num_slots,
+            validity,
+        }
+        | SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+            num_slots,
+            validity,
+            ..
+        }
+        | SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+            num_slots,
+            validity,
+            ..
+        } => (*num_slots, validity),
+    };
+    match validity.meaning {
+        SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions => validity.positions.len() == num_slots,
+        SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions => validity.positions.is_empty(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn supports_fixed_size_list_values(data: &DataBlock) -> bool {
+    match data {
+        DataBlock::FixedWidth(_) => true,
+        DataBlock::FixedSizeList(list) => supports_fixed_size_list_values(list.child.as_ref()),
+        DataBlock::Nullable(nullable) => supports_fixed_size_list_values(nullable.data.as_ref()),
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether the sparse writer can encode this value block without changing its value path.
+pub fn supports_value_block(data: &DataBlock) -> bool {
+    match data {
+        DataBlock::FixedWidth(_) | DataBlock::VariableWidth(_) => true,
+        DataBlock::Struct(data) => !data.has_variable_width_child(),
+        DataBlock::FixedSizeList(data) => supports_fixed_size_list_values(data.child.as_ref()),
+        DataBlock::Empty()
+        | DataBlock::Constant(_)
+        | DataBlock::AllNull(_)
+        | DataBlock::Nullable(_)
+        | DataBlock::Opaque(_)
+        | DataBlock::Dictionary(_) => false,
+    }
+}
+
+struct SparseMiniBlockChunk {
+    buffer_sizes: Vec<u32>,
+    num_values: u32,
+}
+
+struct SparseMiniBlockCompressed {
+    data: Vec<LanceBuffer>,
+    chunks: Vec<SparseMiniBlockChunk>,
+}
+
+struct SerializedValuePage {
+    num_buffers: u64,
+    data: LanceBuffer,
+    metadata: LanceBuffer,
+}
+
+pub struct PreparedSparseValues {
+    num_values: u64,
+    value_compression: CompressiveEncoding,
+    values: SerializedValuePage,
+}
+
+pub enum SparseValueInput {
+    Unprepared(DataBlock),
+    Prepared(PreparedSparseValues),
+}
+
+struct EncodedStructuralPlan {
+    layers: Vec<pb21::SparseStructuralLayer>,
+    buffers: Vec<LanceBuffer>,
+}
+
+fn with_explicit_value_counts(
+    compressed: MiniBlockCompressed,
+) -> Result<SparseMiniBlockCompressed> {
+    let mut values_in_previous_chunks = 0_u64;
+    let mut chunks = Vec::with_capacity(compressed.chunks.len());
+    for chunk in compressed.chunks {
+        let num_values = chunk.num_values(values_in_previous_chunks, compressed.num_values);
+        values_in_previous_chunks = values_in_previous_chunks
+            .checked_add(num_values)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Sparse value count overflows u64".to_string()))?;
+        chunks.push(SparseMiniBlockChunk {
+            buffer_sizes: chunk.buffer_sizes,
+            num_values: u32::try_from(num_values).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Sparse value chunk has {num_values} visible values, which exceeds the u32 metadata limit"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?,
+        });
+    }
+    if values_in_previous_chunks != compressed.num_values {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Sparse value chunks describe {values_in_previous_chunks} values, expected {}",
+            compressed.num_values
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(SparseMiniBlockCompressed {
+        data: compressed.data,
+        chunks,
+    })
+}
+
+fn serialize_value_chunks(
+    compressed: SparseMiniBlockCompressed,
+    miniblock_chunk_size: MiniblockChunkSize,
+) -> Result<SerializedValuePage> {
+    let bytes_data = compressed.data.iter().map(LanceBuffer::len).sum::<usize>();
+    let num_buffers = compressed.data.len();
+    let mut data_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(bytes_data + 9 * num_buffers);
+    let mut metadata = Vec::with_capacity(compressed.chunks.len() * 8);
+    let mut buffer_offsets = vec![0_usize; num_buffers];
+
+    for chunk in compressed.chunks {
+        if chunk.buffer_sizes.len() != num_buffers {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Sparse chunk has {} value buffer sizes, expected {num_buffers}",
+                chunk.buffer_sizes.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let chunk_start = data_buffer.len();
+        debug_assert_eq!(chunk_start % MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT, 0);
+        data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&0_u16.to_le_bytes());
+        if miniblock_chunk_size == MiniblockChunkSize::U32 {
+            for buffer_size in &chunk.buffer_sizes {
+                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&buffer_size.to_le_bytes());
+            }
+        } else {
+            for buffer_size in &chunk.buffer_sizes {
+                let buffer_size = u16::try_from(*buffer_size).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Sparse value buffer size ({buffer_size} bytes) exceeds 16-bit metadata"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                data_buffer.extend_from_slice(&buffer_size.to_le_bytes());
+            }
+        }
+        let add_padding = |buffer: &mut Vec<u8>| {
+            let padding = pad_bytes::<MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT>(buffer.len());
+            buffer.extend(iter::repeat_n(FILL_BYTE, padding));
+        };
+        add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
+
+        for (buffer_size, (buffer, buffer_offset)) in chunk
+            .buffer_sizes
+            .iter()
+            .zip(compressed.data.iter().zip(buffer_offsets.iter_mut()))
+        {
+            let start = *buffer_offset;
+            let end = start.checked_add(*buffer_size as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Sparse value buffer range overflows".to_string())
+            })?;
+            let bytes = buffer.as_ref().get(start..end).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Sparse value chunk requests bytes {start}..{end} from a {}-byte buffer",
+                    buffer.len()
+                ))
+            })?;
+            *buffer_offset = end;
+            data_buffer.extend_from_slice(bytes);
+            add_padding(&mut data_buffer);
+        }
+
+        let chunk_bytes = data_buffer.len() - chunk_start;
+        if chunk_bytes == 0 || !chunk_bytes.is_multiple_of(MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT) {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Sparse value chunk size {chunk_bytes} is not a positive multiple of {MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT}"
+            )));
+        }
+        let words_minus_one = chunk_bytes / MINIBLOCK_ALIGNMENT - 1;
+        metadata.extend_from_slice(
+            &u32::try_from(words_minus_one)
+                .map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Sparse value chunk size {chunk_bytes} exceeds the metadata limit"
+                    ))
+                })?
+                .to_le_bytes(),
+        );
+        metadata.extend_from_slice(&chunk.num_values.to_le_bytes());
+    }
+
+    for (index, (consumed, buffer)) in buffer_offsets
+        .iter()
+        .zip(compressed.data.iter())
+        .enumerate()
+    {
+        if *consumed != buffer.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Sparse value buffer {index} consumed {consumed} bytes, expected {}",
+                buffer.len()
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(SerializedValuePage {
+        num_buffers: usize_to_u64(num_buffers, "value buffer count")?,
+        data: LanceBuffer::from(data_buffer),
+        metadata: LanceBuffer::from(metadata),
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn prepare_values(
+    field: &Field,
+    compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+    data: DataBlock,
+    miniblock_chunk_size: MiniblockChunkSize,
+) -> Result<PreparedSparseValues> {
+    match &data {
+        DataBlock::AllNull(_) => {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "All-null values must use ConstantLayout".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        DataBlock::Dictionary(_) => {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "Sparse layout does not support dictionary data blocks".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        DataBlock::Struct(data) if data.has_variable_width_child() => {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "Sparse layout does not support variable-width packed struct data blocks".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        _ => {}
+    }
+
+    let num_values = data.num_values();
+    let compressor = compression_strategy.create_miniblock_compressor(field, &data)?;
+    let support_large_chunk = miniblock_chunk_size == MiniblockChunkSize::U32;
+    let compression_context = MiniBlockCompressionContext::new(0, support_large_chunk, false);
+    let (compressed, value_compression) = compressor.compress(compression_context, data)?;
+    let values = serialize_value_chunks(
+        with_explicit_value_counts(compressed)?,
+        miniblock_chunk_size,
+    )?;
+    Ok(PreparedSparseValues {
+        num_values,
+        value_compression,
+        values,
+    })
+}
+
+fn encode_u64_values(
+    values: Vec<u64>,
+    compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+) -> Result<(LanceBuffer, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    let num_values = usize_to_u64(values.len(), "u64 value count")?;
+    let mut block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+        data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(values),
+        bits_per_value: 64,
+        num_values,
+        block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+    });
+    block.compute_stat();
+    let field = Field::new_arrow("", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, false)?;
+    compress_required_block(compression_strategy, &field, block)
+}
+
+fn positions_to_deltas(positions: &[u64], label: &str) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    let mut previous = 0_u64;
+    positions
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(index, position)| {
+            if index > 0 && position <= previous {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Sparse structural {label} positions must be strictly increasing")
+                        .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let delta = if index == 0 {
+                position
+            } else {
+                position - previous
+            };
+            previous = position;
+            Ok(delta)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn encode_position_set(
+    positions: &SparsePositionSet,
+    compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+    label: &str,
+) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, pb21::SparsePositionSet)> {
+    let (buffer, positions_pb) = match positions {
+        SparsePositionSet::Empty => (
+            None,
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Empty(pb21::SparsePositionEmpty {}),
+        ),
+        SparsePositionSet::All { .. } => (
+            None,
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::All(pb21::SparsePositionAll {}),
+        ),
+        SparsePositionSet::Range { start, len } => (
+            None,
+            pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Range(pb21::SparsePositionRange {
+                start: *start,
+                length: *len,
+            }),
+        ),
+        SparsePositionSet::Explicit(positions) => {
+            if positions.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Sparse structural {label} explicit set is empty"
+                )));
+            }
+            let (buffer, encoding) =
+                encode_u64_values(positions_to_deltas(positions, label)?, compression_strategy)?;
+            (
+                Some(buffer),
+                pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Explicit(encoding),
+            )
+        }
+    };
+    Ok((
+        buffer,
+        pb21::SparsePositionSet {
+            positions: Some(positions_pb),
+            num_positions: positions.len(),
+        },
+    ))
+}
+
+fn encode_count_set(
+    counts: &SparseCountSet,
+    compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, pb21::SparseCountSet)> {
+    let (buffer, counts_pb) = match counts {
+        SparseCountSet::Empty => (
+            None,
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Empty(pb21::SparseCountEmpty {}),
+        ),
+        SparseCountSet::Constant { value, .. } => (
+            None,
+            pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Constant(pb21::SparseCountConstant { value: *value }),
+        ),
+        SparseCountSet::Explicit { counts, .. } => {
+            if counts.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "Sparse structural explicit count set is empty".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let (buffer, encoding) = encode_u64_values(counts.to_vec(), compression_strategy)?;
+            (
+                Some(buffer),
+                pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Explicit(encoding),
+            )
+        }
+    };
+    Ok((
+        buffer,
+        pb21::SparseCountSet {
+            counts: Some(counts_pb),
+        },
+    ))
+}
+
+fn encode_validity_set(
+    validity: &SparseValiditySet,
+    compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+    label: &str,
+) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, pb21::SparseValiditySet)> {
+    let (buffer, positions) =
+        encode_position_set(&validity.positions, compression_strategy, label)?;
+    let meaning = match validity.meaning {
+        SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions => {
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityNullPositions
+        }
+        SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions => {
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityValidPositions
+        }
+    };
+    Ok((
+        buffer,
+        pb21::SparseValiditySet {
+            meaning: meaning as i32,
+            positions: Some(positions),
+        },
+    ))
+}
+
+fn encode_structural_plan(
+    plan: &SparseStructuralPlan,
+    compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+) -> Result<EncodedStructuralPlan> {
+    let mut layers = Vec::with_capacity(plan.layers.len());
+    let mut buffers = Vec::new();
+
+    for layer in &plan.layers {
+        match layer {
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                num_slots,
+                validity,
+            } => {
+                let (validity_buffer, validity) =
+                    encode_validity_set(validity, compression_strategy, "validity")?;
+                buffers.extend(validity_buffer);
+                layers.push(pb21::SparseStructuralLayer {
+                    layer: Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(
+                        pb21::SparseValidityLayer {
+                            num_slots: *num_slots,
+                            validity: Some(validity),
+                        },
+                    )),
+                });
+            }
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                num_slots,
+                num_child_slots,
+                non_empty_positions,
+                counts,
+                validity,
+            } => {
+                if non_empty_positions.len() != counts.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural list has {} non-empty positions but {} counts",
+                            non_empty_positions.len(),
+                            counts.len()
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let (position_buffer, non_empty_positions) = encode_position_set(
+                    non_empty_positions,
+                    compression_strategy,
+                    "list non-empty",
+                )?;
+                buffers.extend(position_buffer);
+                let (count_buffer, counts) = encode_count_set(counts, compression_strategy)?;
+                buffers.extend(count_buffer);
+                let (validity_buffer, validity) =
+                    encode_validity_set(validity, compression_strategy, "list validity")?;
+                buffers.extend(validity_buffer);
+                layers.push(pb21::SparseStructuralLayer {
+                    layer: Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(
+                        pb21::SparseListLayer {
+                            num_slots: *num_slots,
+                            num_child_slots: *num_child_slots,
+                            non_empty_positions: Some(non_empty_positions),
+                            counts: Some(counts),
+                            validity: Some(validity),
+                        },
+                    )),
+                });
+            }
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::FixedSizeList {
+                num_slots,
+                dimension,
+                validity,
+            } => {
+                let (validity_buffer, validity) = encode_validity_set(
+                    validity,
+                    compression_strategy,
+                    "fixed-size-list validity",
+                )?;
+                buffers.extend(validity_buffer);
+                num_slots.checked_mul(*dimension).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Sparse structural fixed-size-list child slot count overflows: slots={num_slots}, dimension={dimension}"
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                layers.push(pb21::SparseStructuralLayer {
+                    layer: Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(
+                        pb21::SparseFixedSizeListLayer {
+                            num_slots: *num_slots,
+                            dimension: *dimension,
+                            validity: Some(validity),
+                        },
+                    )),
+                });
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(EncodedStructuralPlan { layers, buffers })
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub(in crate::encodings::logical::primitive) fn encode_page(
+    column_idx: u32,
+    field: &Field,
+    compression_strategy: &dyn CompressionStrategy,
+    values: SparseValueInput,
+    plan: SparseStructuralPlan,
+    row_number: u64,
+    num_rows: u64,
+    miniblock_chunk_size: MiniblockChunkSize,
+) -> Result<EncodedPage> {
+    let PreparedSparseValues {
+        num_values,
+        value_compression,
+        values,
+    } = match values {
+        SparseValueInput::Unprepared(data) => {
+            prepare_values(field, compression_strategy, data, miniblock_chunk_size)?
+        }
+        SparseValueInput::Prepared(prepared) => prepared,
+    };
+    if plan.num_visible_items != num_values {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Sparse structural plan has {} visible items but data has {} values",
+            plan.num_visible_items, num_values
+        )));
+    }
+    let structural = encode_structural_plan(&plan, compression_strategy)?;
+    let description = pb21::PageLayout {
+        layout: Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(
+            pb21::SparseLayout {
+                value_compression: Some(value_compression),
+                num_buffers: values.num_buffers,
+                num_items: plan.num_items,
+                num_visible_items: plan.num_visible_items,
+                has_large_chunk: miniblock_chunk_size == MiniblockChunkSize::U32,
+                structural_layers: structural.layers,
+            },
+        )),
+    };
+
+    let mut page_data = Vec::with_capacity(2 + structural.buffers.len());
+    page_data.push(values.metadata);
+    page_data.push(values.data);
+    page_data.extend(structural.buffers);
+    Ok(EncodedPage {
+        data: page_data,
+        description: PageEncoding::Structural(description),
+        num_rows,
+        row_number,
+        column_idx,
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, FixedSizeListArray, Int8Array,
+        Int32Array, LargeListArray, ListArray, StringArray, StructArray,
+        builder::{Int32Builder, MapBuilder, StringBuilder},
+        types::Int8Type,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields};
+
+    use crate::{
+        constants::{
+            PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY,
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE,
+        },
+        data::FixedSizeListBlock,
+        encoder::{
+            ColumnIndexSequence, EncodingOptions, FieldEncoder, MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
+            OutOfLineBuffers,
+        },
+        testing::{
+            TestCases, TestEncoding, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, test_encoding_strategy,
+        },
+    };
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn sparse_metadata() -> HashMap<String, String> {
+        HashMap::from([(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE.to_string(),
+        )])
+    }
+
+    fn structural_metadata(value: &str) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+        HashMap::from([(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(), value.to_string())])
+    }
+
+    fn null_buffer(validity: impl IntoIterator<Item = bool>) -> NullBuffer {
+        NullBuffer::new(BooleanBuffer::from_iter(validity))
+    }
+
+    fn list_i32(offsets: Vec<i32>, validity: Option<Vec<bool>>) -> ArrayRef {
+        let num_values = offsets.last().copied().unwrap_or_default();
+        let values = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_values)) as ArrayRef;
+        Arc::new(
+            ListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+                values,
+                validity.map(null_buffer),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn sparse_list_values(
+        num_rows: usize,
+        stride: usize,
+        values: ArrayRef,
+        item_field: Arc<ArrowField>,
+    ) -> ArrayRef {
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows + 1);
+        let mut num_values = 0_i32;
+        offsets.push(num_values);
+        for row in 0..num_rows {
+            if (row + 1).is_multiple_of(stride) || row + 1 == num_rows {
+                num_values += 1;
+            }
+            offsets.push(num_values);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(values.len(), num_values as usize);
+        Arc::new(
+            ListArray::try_new(
+                item_field,
+                OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+                values,
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn sparse_i32_list(num_rows: usize, stride: usize) -> ArrayRef {
+        let num_values = num_rows.div_ceil(stride);
+        sparse_list_values(
+            num_rows,
+            stride,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_values as i32)),
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn unsplittable_nested_list(values: ArrayRef, item_field: Arc<ArrowField>) -> ArrayRef {
+        const NUM_INNER_LISTS: usize = 70_000;
+
+        let mut inner_offsets = vec![0_i32; NUM_INNER_LISTS + 1];
+        assert!(!values.is_empty());
+        assert!(values.len() <= NUM_INNER_LISTS);
+        for value_index in 1..=values.len() {
+            inner_offsets[NUM_INNER_LISTS - values.len() + value_index] = value_index as i32;
+        }
+        let inner = Arc::new(
+            ListArray::try_new(
+                item_field,
+                OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(inner_offsets)),
+                values,
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef;
+        Arc::new(
+            ListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", inner.data_type().clone(), true)),
+                OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i32, NUM_INNER_LISTS as i32])),
+                inner,
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn variable_packed_struct_values(num_values: usize) -> (ArrayRef, Arc<ArrowField>) {
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let values = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                (0..num_values).map(|index| format!("value-{index}")),
+            ))],
+            None,
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let item_field = Arc::new(
+            ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Struct(fields), true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([
+                (PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string()),
+            ])),
+        );
+        (values, item_field)
+    }
+
+    fn dictionary_values(num_values: usize) -> (ArrayRef, Arc<ArrowField>) {
+        let keys = Int8Array::from_iter_values((0..num_values).map(|index| (index % 2) as i8));
+        let values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["value-0", "value-1"]));
+        let dictionary = Arc::new(DictionaryArray::<Int8Type>::try_new(keys, values).unwrap());
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+            "item",
+            dictionary.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        ));
+        (dictionary, item_field)
+    }
+
+    fn large_list_i32(offsets: Vec<i64>, validity: Option<Vec<bool>>) -> ArrayRef {
+        let num_values = offsets.last().copied().unwrap_or_default();
+        let values = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_values as i32)) as ArrayRef;
+        Arc::new(
+            LargeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+                values,
+                validity.map(null_buffer),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn map_i32() -> ArrayRef {
+        let mut builder = MapBuilder::new(None, StringBuilder::new(), Int32Builder::new());
+        builder.keys().append_value("a");
+        builder.values().append_value(1);
+        builder.append(true).unwrap();
+        builder.append(false).unwrap();
+        builder.append(true).unwrap();
+        builder.keys().append_value("b");
+        builder.values().append_null();
+        builder.keys().append_value("c");
+        builder.values().append_value(3);
+        builder.append(true).unwrap();
+        Arc::new(builder.finish())
+    }
+
+    fn fixed_size_list_struct() -> ArrayRef {
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+        let child = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+                Some(0),
+                Some(1),
+                None,
+                Some(3),
+                Some(4),
+                Some(5),
+                None,
+                Some(7),
+                Some(8),
+                Some(9),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            ]))],
+            Some(null_buffer([
+                true, true, false, true, true, true, true, false, true, true, true, true,
+            ])),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Struct(fields), true)),
+                2,
+                child,
+                Some(null_buffer([true, false, true, true, false, true])),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn list_fixed_size_list_struct() -> ArrayRef {
+        let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+        let structs = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            struct_fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+                Some(0),
+                None,
+                Some(2),
+                Some(3),
+                None,
+                Some(5),
+            ]))],
+            Some(null_buffer([true, true, false, true, true, true])),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let fixed_size_list = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                    "item",
+                    DataType::Struct(struct_fields),
+                    true,
+                )),
+                2,
+                structs,
+                Some(null_buffer([true, false, true])),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef;
+        Arc::new(
+            ListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                    "item",
+                    fixed_size_list.data_type().clone(),
+                    true,
+                )),
+                OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i32, 1, 1, 3, 3])),
+                fixed_size_list,
+                Some(null_buffer([true, false, true, true])),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn nullable_struct() -> ArrayRef {
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+        Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            fields,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+                Some(10),
+                Some(20),
+                None,
+                Some(40),
+                Some(50),
+            ]))],
+            Some(null_buffer([true, false, true, true, false])),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn deeply_nested() -> ArrayRef {
+        let leaf = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+            Some(0),
+            None,
+            Some(2),
+            Some(3),
+            None,
+            Some(5),
+            Some(6),
+            Some(7),
+        ])) as ArrayRef;
+        let inner = Arc::new(
+            LargeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i64, 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 8])),
+                leaf,
+                Some(null_buffer([true, false, true, true, true, true])),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef;
+        let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "inner",
+            inner.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let structs = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            struct_fields.clone(),
+            vec![inner],
+            Some(null_buffer([true, true, false, true, true, true])),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        Arc::new(
+            ListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                    "item",
+                    DataType::Struct(struct_fields),
+                    true,
+                )),
+                OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i32, 2, 2, 2, 4, 6])),
+                structs,
+                Some(null_buffer([true, false, true, true, true])),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn page_layout(page: &EncodedPage) -> &pb21::page_layout::Layout {
+        let PageEncoding::Structural(layout) = &page.description else {
+            panic!("expected structural page encoding");
+        };
+        layout.layout.as_ref().expect("page layout must be present")
+    }
+
+    fn create_encoder(
+        array: &ArrayRef,
+        version: TestEncoding,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+        let arrow_field =
+            ArrowField::new("values", array.data_type().clone(), true).with_metadata(metadata);
+        let field = Field::try_from(&arrow_field)?;
+        let strategy = test_encoding_strategy(version);
+        let options = EncodingOptions {
+            cache_bytes_per_column: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        crate::testing::create_test_field_encoder(
+            strategy.as_ref(),
+            &field,
+            &mut ColumnIndexSequence::default(),
+            &options,
+        )
+    }
+
+    async fn encode_pages(
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        version: TestEncoding,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<EncodedPage>> {
+        encode_chunks(vec![array], version, metadata).await
+    }
+
+    async fn encode_chunks(
+        arrays: Vec<ArrayRef>,
+        version: TestEncoding,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<EncodedPage>> {
+        let first = arrays
+            .first()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("test input has no arrays".to_string()))?;
+        let mut encoder = create_encoder(first, version, metadata)?;
+        let mut external_buffers = OutOfLineBuffers::new(0, MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT);
+        let mut pages = Vec::new();
+        let mut row_number = 0_u64;
+        for array in arrays {
+            let num_rows = array.len() as u64;
+            for task in encoder.maybe_encode(
+                array,
+                &mut external_buffers,
+                crate::repdef::RepDefBuilder::default(),
+                row_number,
+                num_rows,
+            )? {
+                pages.push(task.await?);
+            }
+            row_number += num_rows;
+        }
+        for task in encoder.flush(&mut external_buffers)? {
+            pages.push(task.await?);
+        }
+        for column in encoder.finish(&mut external_buffers).await? {
+            pages.extend(column.final_pages);
+        }
+        Ok(pages)
+    }
+
+    fn sparse_layout(page: &EncodedPage) -> &pb21::SparseLayout {
+        let pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(sparse) = page_layout(page) else {
+            panic!("expected SparseLayout, got {:?}", page_layout(page));
+        };
+        sparse
+    }
+
+    fn list_layer(sparse: &pb21::SparseLayout) -> &pb21::SparseListLayer {
+        sparse
+            .structural_layers
+            .iter()
+            .find_map(|layer| match layer.layer.as_ref() {
+                Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(layer)) => Some(layer),
+                _ => None,
+            })
+            .expect("expected sparse list layer")
+    }
+
+    fn validity_layer(layer: &pb21::SparseStructuralLayer) -> Option<&pb21::SparseValidityLayer> {
+        match layer.layer.as_ref() {
+            Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(layer)) => Some(layer),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn layer_num_slots(layer: &pb21::SparseStructuralLayer) -> u64 {
+        match layer.layer.as_ref().expect("expected sparse layer variant") {
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(layer) => layer.num_slots,
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(layer) => layer.num_slots,
+            pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(layer) => layer.num_slots,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn fixed_size_list_dimension(layer: &pb21::SparseStructuralLayer) -> Option<u64> {
+        match layer.layer.as_ref() {
+            Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(layer)) => {
+                Some(layer.dimension)
+            }
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sparse_value_block_eligibility() {
+        let fixed = DataBlock::from_array(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4));
+        assert!(supports_value_block(&fixed));
+
+        let variable = DataBlock::from_array(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"]));
+        assert!(supports_value_block(&variable));
+
+        let nullable = DataBlock::from_array(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None]));
+        assert!(!supports_value_block(&nullable));
+
+        let all_null = DataBlock::from_array(Int32Array::from(vec![None, None]));
+        assert!(!supports_value_block(&all_null));
+
+        let (dictionary, _) = dictionary_values(4);
+        assert!(!supports_value_block(&DataBlock::from_arrays(
+            &[dictionary],
+            4
+        )));
+
+        let fixed_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let fixed_struct = StructArray::new(
+            fixed_fields,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4))],
+            None,
+        );
+        assert!(supports_value_block(&DataBlock::from_array(fixed_struct)));
+
+        let variable_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let variable_struct = StructArray::new(
+            variable_fields,
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"]))],
+            None,
+        );
+        assert!(!supports_value_block(&DataBlock::from_array(
+            variable_struct
+        )));
+
+        let fixed_size_list = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, false)),
+            2,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4)),
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(supports_value_block(&DataBlock::from_array(
+            fixed_size_list
+        )));
+
+        let unsupported_fixed_size_list = DataBlock::FixedSizeList(FixedSizeListBlock {
+            child: Box::new(DataBlock::from_array(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "a", "b", "c", "d",
+            ]))),
+            dimension: 2,
+        });
+        assert!(!supports_value_block(&unsupported_fixed_size_list));
+    }
+
+    fn planned_list(
+        offsets: Vec<i32>,
+        list_validity: Option<Vec<bool>>,
+        leaf_validity: Option<Vec<bool>>,
+    ) -> SparseStructuralPlan {
+        let num_values = u64::try_from(*offsets.last().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        let mut builder = crate::repdef::RepDefBuilder::default();
+        assert!(!builder.add_offsets(
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+            list_validity.map(null_buffer),
+        ));
+        if let Some(leaf_validity) = leaf_validity {
+            builder.add_validity_bitmap(null_buffer(leaf_validity));
+        } else {
+            builder.add_no_null(num_values as usize);
+        }
+        let normalized = crate::repdef::RepDefBuilder::normalize(vec![builder]);
+        plan(&normalized, num_values).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn planned_list_layer(plan: &SparseStructuralPlan) -> &SparseStructuralLayerPlan {
+        plan.layers
+            .iter()
+            .find(|layer| matches!(layer, SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List { .. }))
+            .expect("expected planned list layer")
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_semantic_position_and_count_forms() {
+        let empty = planned_list(vec![0, 0, 0, 0], None, None);
+        assert_eq!(empty.num_items, 3);
+        assert_eq!(empty.num_visible_items, 0);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            planned_list_layer(&empty),
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                non_empty_positions: SparsePositionSet::Empty,
+                counts: SparseCountSet::Empty,
+                ..
+            }
+        ));
+
+        let all = planned_list(vec![0, 2, 4, 6], None, None);
+        assert_eq!(all.num_items, 6);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            planned_list_layer(&all),
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                non_empty_positions: SparsePositionSet::All { len: 3 },
+                counts: SparseCountSet::Constant { value: 2, len: 3 },
+                ..
+            }
+        ));
+
+        let range = planned_list(vec![0, 2, 4, 4, 4], None, None);
+        assert_eq!(range.num_items, 6);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            planned_list_layer(&range),
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                non_empty_positions: SparsePositionSet::Range { start: 0, len: 2 },
+                counts: SparseCountSet::Constant { value: 2, len: 2 },
+                ..
+            }
+        ));
+
+        let explicit = planned_list(vec![0, 1, 1, 4, 4, 6], None, None);
+        assert_eq!(explicit.num_items, 8);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            planned_list_layer(&explicit),
+            SparseStructuralLayerPlan::List {
+                non_empty_positions: SparsePositionSet::Explicit(positions),
+                counts: SparseCountSet::Explicit { counts, .. },
+                ..
+            } if positions == &vec![0, 2, 4] && counts.as_ref() == [1, 3, 2]
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validity_polarity_uses_semantic_encoded_cost() {
+        let mostly_valid = BooleanBuffer::from_iter([true, false, true, true, false, true]);
+        let validity = validity_set(Some(&mostly_valid), mostly_valid.len(), "test").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(validity.meaning, SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions);
+        assert!(matches!(validity.positions, SparsePositionSet::Explicit(ref p) if p == &[1, 4]));
+
+        let mostly_null = BooleanBuffer::from_iter([false, true, false, false, true, false]);
+        let validity = validity_set(Some(&mostly_null), mostly_null.len(), "test").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(validity.meaning, SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions);
+        assert!(matches!(validity.positions, SparsePositionSet::Explicit(ref p) if p == &[1, 4]));
+
+        let valid_island = BooleanBuffer::from_iter([false, false, true, true, false]);
+        let validity = validity_set(Some(&valid_island), valid_island.len(), "test").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(validity.meaning, SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            validity.positions,
+            SparsePositionSet::Range { start: 2, len: 2 }
+        ));
+
+        let all_valid = BooleanBuffer::from_iter([true, true, true]);
+        let validity = validity_set(Some(&all_valid), all_valid.len(), "test").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(validity.meaning, SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions);
+        assert!(matches!(validity.positions, SparsePositionSet::Empty));
+
+        let all_null = BooleanBuffer::from_iter([false, false, false]);
+        let validity = validity_set(Some(&all_null), all_null.len(), "test").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(validity.meaning, SparseValidityMeaning::ValidPositions);
+        assert!(matches!(validity.positions, SparsePositionSet::Empty));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_sparse_nullable_primitive_roundtrip() {
+        let array = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+            Some(10),
+            None,
+            Some(20),
+            Some(30),
+            None,
+            Some(40),
+        ])) as ArrayRef;
+        let pages = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(pages.len(), 1);
+        let sparse = sparse_layout(&pages[0]);
+        assert_eq!(sparse.num_items, 6);
+        assert_eq!(sparse.num_visible_items, 6);
+        assert_eq!(sparse.structural_layers.len(), 1);
+        let validity = validity_layer(&sparse.structural_layers[0])
+            .unwrap()
+            .validity
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            validity.meaning,
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityNullPositions as i32
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(
+            validity.positions.as_ref().unwrap().positions,
+            Some(pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Explicit(_))
+        ));
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(1..5)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 2, 5]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_sparse_nullable_struct_roundtrip() {
+        let array = nullable_struct();
+        let pages = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(pages.len(), 1);
+        let sparse = sparse_layout(&pages[0]);
+        assert_eq!(sparse.structural_layers.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            sparse
+                .structural_layers
+                .iter()
+                .all(|layer| validity_layer(layer).is_some())
+        );
+        let struct_validity = validity_layer(&sparse.structural_layers[0])
+            .unwrap()
+            .validity
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            struct_validity.meaning,
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityNullPositions as i32
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(
+            struct_validity.positions.as_ref().unwrap().positions,
+            Some(pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Explicit(_))
+        ));
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(1..5)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 2, 4]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_sparse_struct_with_constant_and_sparse_children() {
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("constant", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("sparse", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        let array = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            fields,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None::<i32>; 5])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+                    Some(10),
+                    Some(20),
+                    None,
+                    Some(40),
+                    Some(50),
+                ])),
+            ],
+            Some(null_buffer([true, false, true, true, false])),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let pages = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(pages.iter().any(|page| matches!(
+            page_layout(page),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(_)
+        )));
+        assert!(pages.iter().any(|page| matches!(
+            page_layout(page),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_)
+        )));
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(1..5)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 2, 4]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_sparse_emits_both_validity_polarities() {
+        let mostly_valid = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+            Some(0),
+            None,
+            Some(2),
+            Some(3),
+            None,
+            Some(5),
+        ])) as ArrayRef;
+        let mostly_null = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+            None,
+            Some(1),
+            None,
+            None,
+            Some(4),
+            None,
+        ])) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let null_positions = encode_pages(
+            mostly_valid.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let validity = validity_layer(&sparse_layout(&null_positions[0]).structural_layers[0])
+            .unwrap()
+            .validity
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            validity.meaning,
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityNullPositions as i32
+        );
+
+        let valid_positions = encode_pages(
+            mostly_null.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let validity = validity_layer(&sparse_layout(&valid_positions[0]).structural_layers[0])
+            .unwrap()
+            .validity
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            validity.meaning,
+            pb21::sparse_validity_set::Meaning::SparseValidityValidPositions as i32
+        );
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(1..5)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 2, 5]);
+        for array in [mostly_valid, mostly_null] {
+            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_sparse_nested_page_boundaries_range_and_take() {
+        let nested = deeply_nested();
+        let chunks = vec![nested.slice(0, 2), nested.slice(2, 3)];
+        let pages = encode_chunks(
+            chunks.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(pages.len() >= 2, "expected multiple sparse pages");
+        let sparse = pages
+            .iter()
+            .map(sparse_layout)
+            .collect::<Vec<&pb21::SparseLayout>>();
+        assert!(sparse.iter().any(|layout| {
+            layout
+                .structural_layers
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|layer| {
+                    matches!(
+                        layer.layer.as_ref(),
+                        Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(_))
+                    )
+                })
+                .count()
+                >= 2
+        }));
+        assert!(sparse.iter().any(|layout| {
+            layout
+                .structural_layers
+                .iter()
+                .any(|layer| validity_layer(layer).is_some())
+        }));
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_batch_size(2)
+            .with_range(1..5)
+            .with_range(2..4)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 2, 4])
+            .with_indices(vec![1, 3]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(chunks, &cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_sparse_list_and_large_list_null_empty_roundtrip() {
+        let list = list_i32(
+            vec![0, 0, 0, 2, 3, 3],
+            Some(vec![false, true, true, true, true]),
+        );
+        let large_list = large_list_i32(
+            vec![0, 0, 0, 2, 3, 3],
+            Some(vec![false, true, true, true, true]),
+        );
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(0..5)
+            .with_range(1..4)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 4])
+            .with_indices(vec![2, 3]);
+
+        for array in [list, large_list] {
+            let pages = encode_pages(
+                array.clone(),
+                TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+                sparse_metadata(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert!(pages.iter().map(sparse_layout).all(|layout| {
+                layout.structural_layers.iter().any(|layer| {
+                    matches!(
+                        layer.layer.as_ref(),
+                        Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(_))
+                    )
+                })
+            }));
+            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_sparse_map_and_fixed_size_list_roundtrip() {
+        let map = map_i32();
+        let map_pages = encode_pages(
+            map.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(map_pages.iter().map(sparse_layout).any(|layout| {
+            layout.structural_layers.iter().any(|layer| {
+                matches!(
+                    layer.layer.as_ref(),
+                    Some(pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(_))
+                )
+            })
+        }));
+        let map_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(1..4)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 2, 3]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![map], &map_cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+
+        let fsl = fixed_size_list_struct();
+        let fsl_pages = encode_pages(
+            fsl.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        for page in &fsl_pages {
+            let layout = sparse_layout(page);
+            let outer_slots = layer_num_slots(layout.structural_layers.first().unwrap());
+            let fixed_size_scale = layout
+                .structural_layers
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(fixed_size_list_dimension)
+                .product::<u64>();
+            assert_eq!(page.num_rows, outer_slots * fixed_size_scale);
+        }
+        assert!(fsl_pages.iter().map(sparse_layout).any(|layout| {
+            layout
+                .structural_layers
+                .iter()
+                .any(|layer| fixed_size_list_dimension(layer) == Some(2))
+        }));
+        let fsl_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(1..6)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 3, 5]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![fsl], &fsl_cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_sparse_list_fixed_size_list_struct_roundtrip() {
+        let array = list_fixed_size_list_struct();
+        let pages = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(pages.iter().map(sparse_layout).any(|layout| {
+            let kinds = layout
+                .structural_layers
+                .iter()
+                .map(|layer| match layer.layer.as_ref().unwrap() {
+                    pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(_) => "validity",
+                    pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(_) => "list",
+                    pb21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(_) => "fixed-size-list",
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            kinds.starts_with(&["list", "fixed-size-list"])
+        }));
+        for page in &pages {
+            let layout = sparse_layout(page);
+            let outer_slots = layer_num_slots(layout.structural_layers.first().unwrap());
+            assert_eq!(page.num_rows, outer_slots * 2);
+        }
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(1..4)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 2, 3])
+            .with_indices(vec![1, 3]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_sparse_serializes_semantic_list_forms() {
+        let all_array = list_i32(vec![0, 2, 4, 6], None);
+        let all = encode_pages(
+            all_array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let all_layer = list_layer(sparse_layout(&all[0]));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            all_layer.non_empty_positions.as_ref().unwrap().positions,
+            Some(pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::All(_))
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            all_layer.counts.as_ref().unwrap().counts,
+            Some(pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Constant(
+                pb21::SparseCountConstant { value: 2 }
+            ))
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(all[0].data.len(), 2);
+
+        let range_array = list_i32(vec![0, 2, 4, 4, 4], None);
+        let range = encode_pages(
+            range_array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let range_layer = list_layer(sparse_layout(&range[0]));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            range_layer.non_empty_positions.as_ref().unwrap().positions,
+            Some(pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Range(
+                pb21::SparsePositionRange {
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 2
+                }
+            ))
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            range_layer.counts.as_ref().unwrap().counts,
+            Some(pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Constant(
+                pb21::SparseCountConstant { value: 2 }
+            ))
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(range[0].data.len(), 2);
+
+        let explicit_array = list_i32(vec![0, 1, 1, 4, 4, 6], None);
+        let explicit = encode_pages(
+            explicit_array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let explicit_layer = list_layer(sparse_layout(&explicit[0]));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            explicit_layer
+                .non_empty_positions
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .positions,
+            Some(pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions::Explicit(_))
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            explicit_layer.counts.as_ref().unwrap().counts,
+            Some(pb21::sparse_count_set::Counts::Explicit(_))
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(explicit[0].data.len(), 4);
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1])
+            .with_range(1..3)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 2]);
+        for array in [all_array, range_array, explicit_array] {
+            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, sparse_metadata()).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_constant_layout_boundary_is_explicit() {
+        let structural_only = encode_pages(
+            list_i32(vec![0, 0, 0, 0], None),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&structural_only[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let empty_struct = Arc::new(StructArray::new_empty_fields(3, None)) as ArrayRef;
+        let empty_struct_pages = encode_pages(
+            empty_struct,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&empty_struct_pages[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let all_null = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None, None, None])) as ArrayRef;
+        let all_null_pages =
+            encode_pages(all_null, TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, sparse_metadata())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&all_null_pages[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let constant = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7, 7, 7])) as ArrayRef;
+        let constant_pages =
+            encode_pages(constant, TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, sparse_metadata())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&constant_pages[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_)
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_default_and_explicit_dense_layouts_are_unchanged() {
+        let array = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..16)) as ArrayRef;
+        let v2_2_default = encode_pages(array.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32, HashMap::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let v2_2_miniblock = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            structural_metadata(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(v2_2_default.len(), v2_2_miniblock.len());
+        for (default, explicit) in v2_2_default.iter().zip(v2_2_miniblock.iter()) {
+            assert!(matches!(
+                page_layout(default),
+                pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(_)
+            ));
+            assert_eq!(page_layout(default), page_layout(explicit));
+            assert_eq!(default.data, explicit.data);
+        }
+
+        let v2_3_default = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&v2_3_default[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let v2_3_miniblock = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            structural_metadata(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&v2_3_miniblock[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let v2_3_fullzip = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            structural_metadata(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&v2_3_fullzip[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let v2_3_sparse = encode_pages(array, TestEncoding::StructuralSparse, sparse_metadata())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&v2_3_sparse[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_)
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_auto_sparse_for_split_required_page() {
+        const NUM_ROWS: usize = 70_000;
+        let array = sparse_i32_list(NUM_ROWS, 2_000);
+
+        let within_budget = encode_pages(
+            sparse_i32_list(4_096, 1_024),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(within_budget.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&within_budget[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let automatic = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(automatic.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&automatic[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let miniblock = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            structural_metadata(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(miniblock.len() > 1);
+        assert!(miniblock.iter().all(|page| matches!(
+            page_layout(page),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(_)
+        )));
+
+        let fullzip = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            structural_metadata(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fullzip.len(), miniblock.len());
+        assert!(fullzip.iter().all(|page| matches!(
+            page_layout(page),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_)
+        )));
+
+        let sparse = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sparse.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&sparse[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let v2_2_default = encode_pages(array.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32, HashMap::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let v2_2_miniblock = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            structural_metadata(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(v2_2_default.len(), v2_2_miniblock.len());
+        for (default, explicit) in v2_2_default.iter().zip(v2_2_miniblock.iter()) {
+            assert_eq!(page_layout(default), page_layout(explicit));
+            assert_eq!(default.data, explicit.data);
+        }
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
+            .with_batch_size(NUM_ROWS as u32)
+            .with_range(1_999..2_002)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 1_999, 2_000, NUM_ROWS as u64 - 1]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_auto_sparse_for_single_row_over_budget() {
+        let array = unsplittable_nested_list(
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![42, 43])),
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)),
+        );
+
+        let automatic = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(automatic.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&automatic[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let v2_2 = encode_pages(array.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32, HashMap::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(v2_2.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&v2_2[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let miniblock_error = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            structural_metadata(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            miniblock_error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Mini-block cannot encode 70000 rep/def levels")
+        );
+
+        let fullzip = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            structural_metadata(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&fullzip[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let explicit_sparse = encode_pages(
+            array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&explicit_sparse[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_range(0..1)
+            .with_indices(vec![0]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_auto_sparse_keeps_unsupported_values_dense() {
+        const NUM_ROWS: usize = 70_000;
+        let num_values = NUM_ROWS.div_ceil(2_000);
+
+        let (dictionary, dictionary_field) = dictionary_values(num_values);
+        let dictionary_array = sparse_list_values(NUM_ROWS, 2_000, dictionary, dictionary_field);
+        let dictionary_pages = encode_pages(
+            dictionary_array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(dictionary_pages.len() > 1);
+        assert!(dictionary_pages.iter().all(|page| matches!(
+            page_layout(page),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(_)
+        )));
+
+        let (packed_values, packed_field) = variable_packed_struct_values(num_values);
+        let packed_array = sparse_list_values(NUM_ROWS, 2_000, packed_values, packed_field);
+        let packed_pages = encode_pages(
+            packed_array.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(packed_pages.len() > 1);
+        assert!(packed_pages.iter().all(|page| matches!(
+            page_layout(page),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_)
+        )));
+
+        let (packed_values, packed_field) = variable_packed_struct_values(2);
+        let unsplittable_packed = unsplittable_nested_list(packed_values, packed_field);
+        let packed_fallback = encode_pages(
+            unsplittable_packed.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(packed_fallback.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            page_layout(&packed_fallback[0]),
+            pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_)
+        ));
+
+        let (dictionary, dictionary_field) = dictionary_values(2);
+        let unsplittable_dictionary = unsplittable_nested_list(dictionary, dictionary_field);
+        let v2_2_error = encode_pages(
+            unsplittable_dictionary.clone(),
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        let v2_3_error = encode_pages(
+            unsplittable_dictionary,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(v2_3_error.to_string(), v2_2_error.to_string());
+        assert!(
+            v2_3_error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Mini-block cannot encode 70000 rep/def levels")
+        );
+
+        let cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
+            .with_batch_size(NUM_ROWS as u32)
+            .with_range(1_999..2_002)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 2_000, NUM_ROWS as u64 - 1]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![dictionary_array], &cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+        let packed_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
+            .with_batch_size(NUM_ROWS as u32);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![packed_array], &packed_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+
+        let single_row_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(TestEncoding::StructuralSparse)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
+            .with_range(0..1)
+            .with_indices(vec![0]);
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
+            vec![unsplittable_packed],
+            &single_row_cases,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_auto_sparse_wide_values_keep_dense_fallback() {
+        let first = vec![0xAB_u8; 5_000];
+        let second = vec![0xCD_u8; 5_000];
+        let fixed_size_binary = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_sparse_iter_with_size(
+                [Some(first.as_slice()), Some(second.as_slice())].into_iter(),
+                5_000,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef;
+
+        const FSL_DIMENSION: i32 = 2_048;
+        let fixed_size_list = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                FSL_DIMENSION,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..(FSL_DIMENSION * 2))),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef;
+
+        for (label, values) in [
+            ("fixed-size binary", fixed_size_binary),
+            ("fixed-size list", fixed_size_list),
+        ] {
+            let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", values.data_type().clone(), true));
+            let array = unsplittable_nested_list(values, item_field);
+
+            let v2_2 = encode_pages(array.clone(), TestEncoding::StructuralU32, HashMap::new())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let v2_3 = encode_pages(
+                array.clone(),
+                TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+                HashMap::new(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            for pages in [&v2_2, &v2_3] {
+                assert_eq!(pages.len(), 1, "unexpected {label} page count");
+                assert!(
+                    matches!(
+                        page_layout(&pages[0]),
+                        pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_)
+                    ),
+                    "{label} should retain the dense full-zip fallback"
+                );
+            }
+
+            let explicit_error = encode_pages(
+                array.clone(),
+                TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+                sparse_metadata(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                explicit_error.to_string().contains("too wide"),
+                "explicit sparse should preserve the {label} value error: {explicit_error}"
+            );
+
+            let cases = TestCases::default()
+                .with_u32_structural_encodings()
+                .with_range(0..1)
+                .with_indices(vec![0]);
+            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_explicit_sparse_rejects_lance_2_2() {
+        let array = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None])) as ArrayRef;
+        let Err(error) = create_encoder(&array, TestEncoding::StructuralU32, sparse_metadata())
+        else {
+            panic!("expected Lance 2.2 to reject explicit sparse encoding");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("not enabled by the selected file format")
+        );
+
+        let structural_only = list_i32(vec![0, 0, 0], None);
+        let Err(error) = create_encoder(
+            &structural_only,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            sparse_metadata(),
+        ) else {
+            panic!("expected Lance 2.2 structural-only input to reject explicit sparse encoding");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("not enabled by the selected file format")
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/struct.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/struct.rs
index 3eb9a6bd250..3f27ae6eae8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/struct.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/logical/struct.rs
@@ -21,19 +21,18 @@ use crate::{
     format::pb,
     repdef::{CompositeRepDefUnraveler, RepDefBuilder},
 };
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, Array, ArrayRef, StructArray};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, StructArray, cast::AsArray};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Fields};
 use futures::{
+    FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt,
     future::BoxFuture,
     stream::{FuturesOrdered, FuturesUnordered},
-    FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use lance_arrow::FieldExt;
 use lance_arrow::{deepcopy::deep_copy_nulls, r#struct::StructArrayExt};
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions};
 use log::trace;
-use snafu::location;
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
 struct StructuralSchedulingJobWithStatus<'a> {
@@ -146,8 +145,7 @@ impl StructuralSchedulingJob for RepDefStructSchedulingJob<'_> {
             let child_scan = next_child.ready_scan_lines.pop_front().unwrap();
             trace!(
                 "Scheduled {} rows for child {}",
-                child_scan.rows_scheduled,
-                next_child.col_idx
+                child_scan.rows_scheduled, next_child.col_idx
             );
             next_child.rows_scheduled += child_scan.rows_scheduled;
             next_child.rows_remaining -= child_scan.rows_scheduled;
@@ -211,13 +209,16 @@ impl StructuralFieldScheduler for StructuralStructScheduler {
 
     fn initialize<'a>(
         &'a mut self,
+        requested_ranges: Option<&'a [Range<u64>]>,
         filter: &'a FilterExpression,
         context: &'a SchedulerContext,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<()>> {
+        // Struct children share the parent's row coordinates 1:1 (see
+        // `schedule_ranges`), so every child gets the same ranges.
         let children_initialization = self
             .children
             .iter_mut()
-            .map(|child| child.initialize(filter, context))
+            .map(|child| child.initialize(requested_ranges, filter, context))
             .collect::<FuturesUnordered<_>>();
         async move {
             children_initialization
@@ -237,10 +238,16 @@ pub struct StructuralStructDecoder {
     child_fields: Fields,
     // The root decoder is slightly different because it cannot have nulls
     is_root: bool,
+    nullable: bool,
 }
 
 impl StructuralStructDecoder {
-    pub fn new(fields: Fields, should_validate: bool, is_root: bool) -> Result<Self> {
+    pub fn new(
+        fields: Fields,
+        should_validate: bool,
+        is_root: bool,
+        nullable: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
         let children = fields
             .iter()
             .map(|field| Self::field_to_decoder(field, should_validate))
@@ -251,6 +258,7 @@ impl StructuralStructDecoder {
             children,
             child_fields: fields,
             is_root,
+            nullable: !is_root && nullable,
         })
     }
 
@@ -265,7 +273,12 @@ impl StructuralStructDecoder {
                         StructuralPrimitiveFieldDecoder::new(&field.clone(), should_validate);
                     Ok(Box::new(decoder))
                 } else {
-                    Ok(Box::new(Self::new(fields.clone(), should_validate, false)?))
+                    Ok(Box::new(Self::new(
+                        fields.clone(),
+                        should_validate,
+                        false,
+                        field.is_nullable(),
+                    )?))
                 }
             }
             DataType::List(child_field) | DataType::LargeList(child_field) => {
@@ -278,6 +291,12 @@ impl StructuralStructDecoder {
             DataType::FixedSizeList(child_field, _)
                 if matches!(child_field.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_)) =>
             {
+                // The scheduler factories run the same guard, but the decoder tree can be
+                // built independently (e.g. `create_decode_stream`) so a zero dimension from
+                // a malformed schema must be rejected here as well.  Draining and unraveling
+                // validity both scale by the dimension and a zero would make that math
+                // degenerate.
+                validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions(field.name(), field.data_type())?;
                 // FixedSizeList containing Struct needs structural decoding
                 let child_decoder = Self::field_to_decoder(child_field, should_validate)?;
                 Ok(Box::new(StructuralFixedSizeListDecoder::new(
@@ -287,12 +306,11 @@ impl StructuralStructDecoder {
             }
             DataType::Map(entries_field, keys_sorted) => {
                 if *keys_sorted {
-                    return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                        source: "Map data type with keys_sorted=true is not supported yet"
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                        "Map data type with keys_sorted=true is not supported yet"
                             .to_string()
                             .into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    ));
                 }
                 let child_decoder = Self::field_to_decoder(entries_field, should_validate)?;
                 Ok(Box::new(StructuralMapDecoder::new(
@@ -345,6 +363,24 @@ impl StructuralFieldDecoder for StructuralStructDecoder {
     fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType {
         &self.data_type
     }
+
+    fn plan_decoded_bytes(&self, rows_remaining: u64) -> lance_core::Result<[u64; 8]> {
+        use crate::decoder::CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES;
+        let mut out = [0u64; 8];
+        for child in &self.children {
+            let child_bytes = child.plan_decoded_bytes(rows_remaining)?;
+            for (o, c) in out.iter_mut().zip(child_bytes) {
+                *o += c;
+            }
+        }
+        if self.nullable {
+            for (i, &candidate) in CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES.iter().enumerate() {
+                let rows = (candidate as u64).min(rows_remaining);
+                out[i] += rows.div_ceil(8);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(out)
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -361,6 +397,7 @@ impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for RepDefStructDecodeTask {
             return Ok(DecodedArray {
                 array: Arc::new(StructArray::new_empty_fields(self.num_rows as usize, None)),
                 repdef: CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![]),
+                data_size: 0,
             });
         }
 
@@ -370,34 +407,65 @@ impl StructuralDecodeArrayTask for RepDefStructDecodeTask {
             .map(|task| task.decode())
             .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
         let mut children = Vec::with_capacity(arrays.len());
+        let mut repdefs = Vec::with_capacity(arrays.len());
+        let mut data_size = 0u64;
         let mut arrays_iter = arrays.into_iter();
-        let first_array = arrays_iter.next().unwrap();
+        let first_array = arrays_iter.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Struct decoder unexpectedly has no child arrays".to_string())
+        })?;
         let length = first_array.array.len();
 
         // The repdef should be identical across all children at this point
-        let mut repdef = first_array.repdef;
+        repdefs.push(first_array.repdef);
+        data_size += first_array.data_size;
         children.push(first_array.array);
 
         for array in arrays_iter {
-            debug_assert_eq!(length, array.array.len());
+            if length != array.array.len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Struct child array length {} does not match sibling length {}",
+                        array.array.len(),
+                        length
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            data_size += array.data_size;
             children.push(array.array);
+            repdefs.push(array.repdef);
+        }
+
+        // Dense rep/def state can retain child-specific repetition information after a child
+        // decoder finishes, so comparing dense siblings is not meaningful. If any child carries
+        // sparse state, keep a sparse child as the canonical structural plan and compare it with
+        // every other sparse sibling so sparse metadata is never silently discarded.
+        let primary_repdef = repdefs
+            .iter()
+            .position(CompositeRepDefUnraveler::has_sparse)
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        let mut repdef = repdefs.swap_remove(primary_repdef);
+        if repdef.has_sparse() {
+            for sibling in repdefs {
+                if sibling.has_sparse() {
+                    repdef.add_compatibility_check(sibling);
+                }
+            }
         }
 
         let validity = if self.is_root {
+            repdef.ensure_exhausted()?;
             None
         } else {
-            repdef.unravel_validity(length)
+            repdef.unravel_validity(length)?
         };
 
-        let array = StructArray::try_new(self.child_fields, children, validity).map_err(|e| {
-            Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: e.to_string().into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }
-        })?;
+        let array = StructArray::try_new(self.child_fields, children, validity)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input_source(e.to_string().into()))?;
         Ok(DecodedArray {
             array: Arc::new(array),
             repdef,
+            data_size,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -500,7 +568,6 @@ pub struct StructFieldEncoder {
 }
 
 impl StructFieldEncoder {
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     pub fn new(children: Vec<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>, column_index: u32) -> Self {
         Self {
             children,
@@ -519,8 +586,8 @@ impl FieldEncoder for StructFieldEncoder {
         row_number: u64,
         num_rows: u64,
     ) -> Result<Vec<EncodeTask>> {
-        self.num_rows_seen += array.len() as u64;
         let struct_array = array.as_struct();
+        self.num_rows_seen += array.len() as u64;
         let child_tasks = self
             .children
             .iter_mut()
@@ -598,25 +665,66 @@ mod tests {
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
     use arrow_array::{
+        Array, ArrayRef, Float64Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, ListArray, StringArray, StructArray,
         builder::{Int32Builder, ListBuilder},
-        Array, ArrayRef, Int32Array, ListArray, StructArray,
     };
     use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
 
-    use crate::{
-        testing::{check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
+    use super::StructuralStructDecoder;
+    use crate::constants::{STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY};
+    use crate::decoder::StructuralFieldDecoder;
+    use crate::testing::{
+        TestCases, TestEncoding, check_basic_random_case, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data,
     };
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_zero_dimension_fsl_decoder_errors() {
+        // Simulates a stored schema declaring a zero-dimension FixedSizeList (writers reject
+        // it but old files may contain one).  Building the decoder must fail cleanly instead
+        // of letting the zero dimension reach the rep/def decimation.
+        let item_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new(
+            "vecs",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(item_fields), true)),
+                0,
+            ),
+            true,
+        )]);
+
+        let err = StructuralStructDecoder::new(
+            fields, false, /*is_root=*/ true, /*nullable=*/ false,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, lance_core::Error::Schema { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("dimension must be a positive integer"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_simple_struct() {
+    async fn test_simple_struct(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
         let data_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
             Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
             Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
         ]));
         let field = Field::new("", data_type, false);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
@@ -666,7 +774,7 @@ mod tests {
             Some(rows_validity),
         );
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(rows)], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
@@ -696,7 +804,7 @@ mod tests {
         );
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![Arc::new(struct_array)],
-            &TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            &TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings(),
             HashMap::new(),
         )
         .await;
@@ -727,14 +835,25 @@ mod tests {
         );
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![Arc::new(struct_array)],
-            &TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            &TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings(),
             HashMap::new(),
         )
         .await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_struct_list() {
+    async fn test_struct_list(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
         let data_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
             Field::new(
                 "inner_list",
@@ -744,20 +863,42 @@ mod tests {
             Field::new("outer_int", DataType::Int32, true),
         ]));
         let field = Field::new("row", data_type, false);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_empty_struct() {
+    async fn test_empty_struct(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
         // It's technically legal for a struct to have 0 children, need to
         // make sure we support that
         let data_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(Vec::<Field>::default()));
         let field = Field::new("row", data_type, false);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_complicated_struct() {
+    async fn test_complicated_struct(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
         let data_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
             Field::new("int", DataType::Int32, true),
             Field::new(
@@ -775,7 +916,192 @@ mod tests {
             Field::new("outer_binary", DataType::Binary, true),
         ]));
         let field = Field::new("row", data_type, false);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_list_of_struct_with_null_struct_element() {
+        // Regression: a list containing structs where most struct elements are null
+        // causes a length mismatch during decoding with V2_2 encoding.
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+
+        let tag_array = StringArray::from(vec![
+            Some("valid"),
+            Some("null_struct"),
+            Some("valid"),
+            Some("valid"),
+        ]);
+        let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true)]);
+        // 3 out of 4 struct elements are null
+        let struct_validity = NullBuffer::from(vec![false, true, false, false]);
+        let struct_array = StructArray::new(
+            struct_fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(tag_array)],
+            Some(struct_validity),
+        );
+
+        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(vec![0, 4]));
+        let list_field = Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(struct_fields), true);
+        let list_array =
+            ListArray::new(Arc::new(list_field), offsets, Arc::new(struct_array), None);
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
+            vec![Arc::new(list_array)],
+            &TestCases::default().with_u32_structural_encodings(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_list_of_struct_with_all_null_child() {
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+
+        let a_array = StringArray::from(vec![Some("w"), Some("x"), Some("y"), Some("z")]);
+        let b_array = StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>, None, None, None]);
+        let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+        let struct_array = StructArray::new(
+            struct_fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(a_array), Arc::new(b_array)],
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(vec![0, 2, 4]));
+        let list_field = Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(struct_fields), true);
+        let list_array =
+            ListArray::new(Arc::new(list_field), offsets, Arc::new(struct_array), None);
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
+            vec![Arc::new(list_array)],
+            &TestCases::default()
+                .with_range(0..1)
+                .with_range(1..2)
+                .with_indices(vec![0])
+                .with_indices(vec![1])
+                .with_structural_encodings(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_list_of_struct_with_constant_child_and_empty_lists() {
+        let item_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            Field::new("maneuver", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("remaining_dist", DataType::Float64, true),
+        ]);
+        let item_array = StructArray::new(
+            item_fields.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(3), Some(3), Some(3)])),
+                Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![Some(1.0), Some(2.0), Some(3.0)])),
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let list_field = Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(item_fields), true);
+        let list_array = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(list_field),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3])),
+            Arc::new(item_array),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let data_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new(
+            "maneuvers",
+            list_array.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let data_array = StructArray::new(data_fields.clone(), vec![Arc::new(list_array)], None);
+        let row_validity = NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, true, true, true, false]);
+        let row_array = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![Field::new(
+                "data",
+                DataType::Struct(data_fields),
+                true,
+            )]),
+            vec![Arc::new(data_array)],
+            Some(row_validity),
+        );
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
+            vec![Arc::new(row_array)],
+            &TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plan_decoded_bytes_struct_non_nullable_primitive() {
+        // Nullable struct containing a non-nullable i32 child.
+        // Only the struct-level bitmap contributes; the child has no bitmap.
+        //
+        // N == CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES[5] == 1024 so that all sizes are
+        // naturally aligned to Arrow's 64-byte allocation boundary.
+        use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+
+        const N: usize = 1024;
+        let x_vals = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..N as i32);
+        let struct_nulls = NullBuffer::from((0..N).map(|i| i % 2 == 0).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let struct_field = Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, false);
+        let struct_array = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![struct_field]),
+            vec![Arc::new(x_vals) as ArrayRef],
+            Some(struct_nulls),
+        );
+        let expected = struct_array.get_buffer_memory_size() as u64;
+
+        let child_field = Arc::new(Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, false));
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![child_field]);
+        let decoder = StructuralStructDecoder::new(
+            fields, false, /*is_root=*/ false, /*nullable=*/ true,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let bytes = decoder.plan_decoded_bytes(N as u64).unwrap();
+        // bytes[5] corresponds to CANDIDATE_BATCH_SIZES[5] == 1024 == N
+        assert_eq!(
+            bytes[5], expected,
+            "plan_decoded_bytes({N}) = {} but get_buffer_memory_size = {expected}",
+            bytes[5],
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plan_decoded_bytes_struct_nullable_primitive() {
+        // Nullable struct containing a nullable i32 child.
+        // Both the struct and the child contribute a validity bitmap.
+        use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+
+        const N: usize = 1024;
+        let y_vals =
+            Int32Array::from_iter((0..N as i32).map(|i| if i % 2 == 0 { Some(i) } else { None }));
+        let struct_nulls = NullBuffer::from((0..N).map(|i| i % 3 != 0).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let struct_field = Field::new("y", DataType::Int32, true);
+        let struct_array = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![struct_field]),
+            vec![Arc::new(y_vals) as ArrayRef],
+            Some(struct_nulls),
+        );
+        let expected = struct_array.get_buffer_memory_size() as u64;
+
+        let child_field = Arc::new(Field::new("y", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![child_field]);
+        let decoder = StructuralStructDecoder::new(
+            fields, false, /*is_root=*/ false, /*nullable=*/ true,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let bytes = decoder.plan_decoded_bytes(N as u64).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            bytes[5], expected,
+            "plan_decoded_bytes({N}) = {} but get_buffer_memory_size = {expected}",
+            bytes[5],
+        );
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
@@ -807,4 +1133,48 @@ mod tests {
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(struct_arrays, &TestCases::default(), HashMap::new())
             .await;
     }
+
+    /// A null list produces an "invisible" item: a rep/def entry that owns no value in the
+    /// leaf page.  The full-zip decoder works out which items own a value from
+    /// `max_visible_def`, and adding a second nullable layer *above* the list (the struct
+    /// itself) must not move that threshold.  When it does, the decoder hands a value to
+    /// every null list and each later value shifts by one.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_full_zip_invisible_items_under_nullable_struct(
+        #[values(false, true)] variable_width_items: bool,
+    ) {
+        // struct<x: list<item>> with both layers nullable:
+        //   {x: [_, _]} / {x: null} / {x: [_]} / null / {x: [_, _]}
+        let (item_type, items): (DataType, ArrayRef) = if variable_width_items {
+            (
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"])),
+            )
+        } else {
+            (
+                DataType::Int32,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5])),
+            )
+        };
+        let lists = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", item_type, true)),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0, 2, 2, 3, 3, 5])),
+            items,
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, true, true, true])),
+        );
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("x", lists.data_type().clone(), true)]);
+        let rows = StructArray::new(
+            fields,
+            vec![Arc::new(lists)],
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, true, false, true])),
+        );
+
+        let metadata = HashMap::from([(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP.to_string(),
+        )]);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(rows)], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/binary.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/binary.rs
index 8872a1502ef..e07d586a4f6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/binary.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/binary.rs
@@ -12,21 +12,22 @@
 use arrow_array::OffsetSizeTrait;
 use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian};
 use core::panic;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::compression::{
     BlockCompressor, BlockDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor, VariablePerValueDecompressor,
+    require_block_payload,
 };
 
 use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
 use crate::data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, VariableWidthBlock};
 use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::fullzip::{PerValueCompressor, PerValueDataBlock};
 use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::{
-    MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressor, MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES,
+    MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES, MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+    MiniBlockCompressor,
 };
-use crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
 use crate::format::pb21::CompressiveEncoding;
-use crate::format::{pb21, ProtobufUtils21};
+use crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+use crate::format::{ProtobufUtils21, pb21};
 
 use lance_core::utils::bit::pad_bytes_to;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
@@ -187,7 +188,7 @@ fn search_next_offset_idx<N: OffsetSizeTrait>(
         let new_size =
             existing_bytes + N::from_usize((new_num_values + 1) * N::get_byte_width()).unwrap();
         if new_size.to_i64().unwrap() <= minichunk_size {
-            if new_num_values * 2 > MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES as usize {
+            if new_num_values * 2 > *MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES as usize {
                 // hit the max number of values limit
                 break;
             }
@@ -246,17 +247,20 @@ impl BinaryMiniBlockEncoder {
 }
 
 impl MiniBlockCompressor for BinaryMiniBlockEncoder {
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    fn compress(
+        &self,
+        _context: MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+        data: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         match data {
             DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable_width) => Ok(self.chunk_data(variable_width)),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "Cannot compress a data block of type {} with BinaryMiniBlockEncoder",
                     data.name()
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -290,52 +294,144 @@ impl BinaryMiniBlockDecompressor {
     }
 }
 
+/// Cold path: pinpoint why the chunk-relative offsets of a binary mini-block
+/// chunk failed validation.
+fn chunk_offset_violation_error<T: Copy + Into<u64>>(offsets: &[T], chunk_len: usize) -> Error {
+    let mut previous: u64 = offsets[0].into();
+    for (position, &offset) in offsets.iter().enumerate().skip(1) {
+        let offset: u64 = offset.into();
+        if offset < previous {
+            return Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "binary mini-block",
+                format!(
+                    "value offset at position {position} decreases: {offset} < {previous} \
+                     (chunk is {chunk_len} bytes)"
+                ),
+            );
+        }
+        previous = offset;
+    }
+    Error::corrupt_file_named(
+        "binary mini-block",
+        format!("value offset {previous} is out of bounds for a chunk of {chunk_len} bytes"),
+    )
+}
+
 impl MiniBlockDecompressor for BinaryMiniBlockDecompressor {
     // decompress a MiniBlock of binary data, the num_values must be less than or equal
     // to the number of values this MiniBlock has, BinaryMiniBlock doesn't store `the number of values`
     // it has so assertion can not be done here and the caller of `decompress` must ensure
     // `num_values` <= number of values in the chunk.
+    //
+    // The chunk-relative value offsets at the front of the chunk come straight
+    // from the file and are used to slice the chunk buffer, so corrupt values
+    // must surface as a typed error instead of a panic or an out-of-bounds
+    // read.  The monotonicity check rides along the existing rebase loop (the
+    // `&=` accumulation keeps it branchless) so validation adds no extra pass.
     fn decompress(&self, data: Vec<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         assert_eq!(data.len(), 1);
         let data = data.into_iter().next().unwrap();
 
-        if self.bits_per_offset == 64 {
-            // offset and at least one value
-            assert!(data.len() >= 16);
+        let bytes_per_offset = self.bits_per_offset as usize / 8;
+        if !data.len().is_multiple_of(bytes_per_offset) {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "binary mini-block",
+                format!(
+                    "chunk size {} is not a multiple of the {}-byte offset width",
+                    data.len(),
+                    bytes_per_offset
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let num_offsets = (num_values as usize).checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "binary mini-block",
+                format!("cannot decode {num_values} values from a single chunk"),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if data.len() / bytes_per_offset < num_offsets {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "binary mini-block",
+                format!(
+                    "chunk of {} bytes holds {} offsets but decoding {} values requires {}",
+                    data.len(),
+                    data.len() / bytes_per_offset,
+                    num_values,
+                    num_offsets
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
 
+        // The value region must start past the offsets being decoded, otherwise
+        // the offset table itself aliases into the value bytes.  A lower bound
+        // (not equality) because a prefix read of the chunk legitimately leaves
+        // unrequested offsets between the requested prefix and the values.
+        let min_value_region_start = num_offsets * bytes_per_offset;
+        let value_region_overlap_error = |first: u64| {
+            Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "binary mini-block",
+                format!(
+                    "value region starts at offset {first} which overlaps the {num_offsets} \
+                     requested offsets ({min_value_region_start} bytes)"
+                ),
+            )
+        };
+
+        if self.bits_per_offset == 64 {
             let offsets_buffer = data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u64>();
-            let offsets = offsets_buffer.as_ref();
+            let offsets = &offsets_buffer.as_ref()[..num_offsets];
 
-            let result_offsets = offsets[0..(num_values + 1) as usize]
+            let first = offsets[0];
+            if first < min_value_region_start as u64 {
+                return Err(value_region_overlap_error(first));
+            }
+            let mut previous = first;
+            let mut is_monotonic = true;
+            let result_offsets = offsets
                 .iter()
-                .map(|offset| offset - offsets[0])
+                .map(|&offset| {
+                    is_monotonic &= previous <= offset;
+                    previous = offset;
+                    offset.wrapping_sub(first)
+                })
                 .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+            let last = offsets[num_offsets - 1];
+            if !is_monotonic || last as usize > data.len() {
+                return Err(chunk_offset_violation_error(offsets, data.len()));
+            }
 
             Ok(DataBlock::VariableWidth(VariableWidthBlock {
-                data: LanceBuffer::from(
-                    data[offsets[0] as usize..offsets[num_values as usize] as usize].to_vec(),
-                ),
+                data: LanceBuffer::from(data[first as usize..last as usize].to_vec()),
                 offsets: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(result_offsets),
                 bits_per_offset: 64,
                 num_values,
                 block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
             }))
         } else {
-            // offset and at least one value
-            assert!(data.len() >= 8);
-
             let offsets_buffer = data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u32>();
-            let offsets = offsets_buffer.as_ref();
+            let offsets = &offsets_buffer.as_ref()[..num_offsets];
 
-            let result_offsets = offsets[0..(num_values + 1) as usize]
+            let first = offsets[0];
+            if (first as u64) < min_value_region_start as u64 {
+                return Err(value_region_overlap_error(first as u64));
+            }
+            let mut previous = first;
+            let mut is_monotonic = true;
+            let result_offsets = offsets
                 .iter()
-                .map(|offset| offset - offsets[0])
+                .map(|&offset| {
+                    is_monotonic &= previous <= offset;
+                    previous = offset;
+                    offset.wrapping_sub(first)
+                })
                 .collect::<Vec<u32>>();
+            let last = offsets[num_offsets - 1];
+            if !is_monotonic || last as usize > data.len() {
+                return Err(chunk_offset_violation_error(offsets, data.len()));
+            }
 
             Ok(DataBlock::VariableWidth(VariableWidthBlock {
-                data: LanceBuffer::from(
-                    data[offsets[0] as usize..offsets[num_values as usize] as usize].to_vec(),
-                ),
+                data: LanceBuffer::from(data[first as usize..last as usize].to_vec()),
                 offsets: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(result_offsets),
                 bits_per_offset: 32,
                 num_values,
@@ -358,7 +454,15 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for BinaryMiniBlockDecompressor {
 pub struct VariableEncoder {}
 
 impl BlockCompressor for VariableEncoder {
-    fn compress(&self, mut data: DataBlock) -> Result<LanceBuffer> {
+    fn compress(&self, mut data: DataBlock) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+        let bits_per_offset = match &data {
+            DataBlock::VariableWidth(data) => data.bits_per_offset,
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "BinaryBlockEncoder requires a variable-width block",
+                ));
+            }
+        };
         match data {
             DataBlock::VariableWidth(ref mut variable_width_data) => {
                 match variable_width_data.bits_per_offset {
@@ -410,16 +514,23 @@ impl BlockCompressor for VariableEncoder {
                         output.extend_from_slice(&variable_width_data.data);
                         Ok(LanceBuffer::from(output))
                     }
-                    _ => {
-                        panic!("BinaryBlockEncoder does not work with {} bits per offset VariableWidth DataBlock.",
-                variable_width_data.bits_per_offset);
-                    }
+                    _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "BinaryBlockEncoder does not support {}-bit offsets",
+                        variable_width_data.bits_per_offset
+                    ))),
                 }
             }
-            _ => {
-                panic!("BinaryBlockEncoder can only work with Variable Width DataBlock.");
-            }
+            _ => unreachable!("variable-width input was validated above"),
         }
+        .map(|payload| {
+            (
+                Some(payload),
+                ProtobufUtils21::variable(
+                    ProtobufUtils21::flat(bits_per_offset as u64, None),
+                    None,
+                ),
+            )
+        })
     }
 }
 
@@ -450,7 +561,8 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for VariableDecoder {
 pub struct BinaryBlockDecompressor {}
 
 impl BlockDecompressor for BinaryBlockDecompressor {
-    fn decompress(&self, data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Option<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        let data = require_block_payload(data, "Binary block")?;
         // In older (not quite stable) versions we stored the bits per offset as a single byte and then the num_values
         // as four bytes.  However, this led to alignment problems and was wasteful since we already store the num_values
         // in higher layers.
@@ -462,27 +574,56 @@ impl BlockDecompressor for BinaryBlockDecompressor {
         // never be more than 255 and it's little endian so the last 3 bytes will always be 0.  These will be the least
         // significant 3 bytes of the number of values in the old scheme.  It's pretty unlikely these are all 0 (that would
         // mean there are at least 16M values in a single page) so we'll use this to determine if the old scheme is used.
+        //
+        // The header fields and the offsets themselves come straight from the file.
+        // The structural checks below (all O(1)) reject blocks whose regions do not
+        // line up; the offset *values* are validated later, by the mandatory layout
+        // validation in `VariableWidthBlock::into_arrow`, so they are not rescanned
+        // here.
+        if data.len() < 4 {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "variable-width block",
+                format!(
+                    "block of {} bytes is too small to hold a header",
+                    data.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
         let is_old_scheme = data[1] != 0 || data[2] != 0 || data[3] != 0;
 
+        let ensure_header = |header_len: usize| {
+            if data.len() < header_len {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "variable-width block",
+                    format!(
+                        "block of {} bytes is too small for a {} byte header",
+                        data.len(),
+                        header_len
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        };
         let (bits_per_offset, bytes_start_offset, offset_start) = if is_old_scheme {
             // Old scheme
             let bits_per_offset = data[0];
             match bits_per_offset {
                 32 => {
+                    ensure_header(9)?;
                     debug_assert_eq!(LittleEndian::read_u32(&data[1..5]), num_values as u32);
                     let bytes_start_offset = LittleEndian::read_u32(&data[5..9]);
-                    (bits_per_offset, bytes_start_offset as u64, 9)
+                    (bits_per_offset, bytes_start_offset as u64, 9_u64)
                 }
                 64 => {
+                    ensure_header(17)?;
                     debug_assert_eq!(LittleEndian::read_u64(&data[1..9]), num_values);
                     let bytes_start_offset = LittleEndian::read_u64(&data[9..17]);
                     (bits_per_offset, bytes_start_offset, 17)
                 }
                 _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("Unsupported bits_per_offset={}", bits_per_offset).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Unsupported bits_per_offset={}", bits_per_offset).into(),
+                    ));
                 }
             }
         } else {
@@ -490,25 +631,72 @@ impl BlockDecompressor for BinaryBlockDecompressor {
             let bits_per_offset = LittleEndian::read_u32(&data[0..4]) as u8;
             match bits_per_offset {
                 32 => {
+                    ensure_header(8)?;
                     let bytes_start_offset = LittleEndian::read_u32(&data[4..8]);
                     (bits_per_offset, bytes_start_offset as u64, 8)
                 }
                 64 => {
+                    ensure_header(16)?;
                     let bytes_start_offset = LittleEndian::read_u64(&data[8..16]);
                     (bits_per_offset, bytes_start_offset, 16)
                 }
                 _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("Unsupported bits_per_offset={}", bits_per_offset).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Unsupported bits_per_offset={}", bits_per_offset).into(),
+                    ));
                 }
             }
         };
 
+        // The offsets region sits between the header and `bytes_start_offset`
+        // and must hold exactly `num_values + 1` offsets starting at zero.
+        let expected_offsets_bytes = num_values
+            .checked_add(1)
+            .and_then(|num_offsets| num_offsets.checked_mul(bits_per_offset as u64 / 8))
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "variable-width block",
+                    format!("offsets region size overflows for {num_values} values"),
+                )
+            })?;
+        if bytes_start_offset < offset_start || bytes_start_offset > data.len() as u64 {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "variable-width block",
+                format!(
+                    "bytes start offset {} is outside the block (header: {} bytes, block: {} bytes)",
+                    bytes_start_offset,
+                    offset_start,
+                    data.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if bytes_start_offset - offset_start != expected_offsets_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "variable-width block",
+                format!(
+                    "expected {} offset bytes for {} values but found {}",
+                    expected_offsets_bytes,
+                    num_values,
+                    bytes_start_offset - offset_start
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+
         // the next `bytes_start_offset - offset_start` stores the offsets.
-        let offsets =
-            data.slice_with_length(offset_start, bytes_start_offset as usize - offset_start);
+        let offsets = data.slice_with_length(
+            offset_start as usize,
+            (bytes_start_offset - offset_start) as usize,
+        );
+        let first_offset = match bits_per_offset {
+            32 => LittleEndian::read_u32(&offsets[0..4]) as u64,
+            _ => LittleEndian::read_u64(&offsets[0..8]),
+        };
+        if first_offset != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "variable-width block",
+                format!("first offset must be 0 but found {first_offset}"),
+            ));
+        }
 
         // the rest are the binary bytes.
         let data = data.slice_with_length(
@@ -527,37 +715,49 @@ impl BlockDecompressor for BinaryBlockDecompressor {
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
+mod tests {
     use arrow_array::{
-        builder::{LargeStringBuilder, StringBuilder},
         ArrayRef, StringArray,
+        builder::{LargeStringBuilder, StringBuilder},
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 
     use crate::{
+        buffer::LanceBuffer,
         constants::{
             COMPRESSION_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY,
             STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK,
         },
+        data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, VariableWidthBlock},
         testing::check_specific_random,
     };
     use rstest::rstest;
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc, vec};
 
-    use crate::{
-        testing::{
-            check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, FnArrayGeneratorProvider,
-            TestCases,
-        },
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
+    use crate::testing::{
+        FnArrayGeneratorProvider, TestCases, TestEncoding, check_basic_random_case,
+        check_round_trip_encoding_generated, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data,
     };
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_utf8_binary() {
+    async fn test_utf8_binary(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
         let field = Field::new("", DataType::Utf8, false);
         check_specific_random(
             field,
-            TestCases::basic().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            TestCases::basic()
+                .with_encoding(encoding)
+                .with_page_sizes(vec![page_size])
+                .with_slicing_modes([use_slicing]),
         )
         .await;
     }
@@ -568,6 +768,15 @@ pub mod tests {
         #[values(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP)]
         structural_encoding: &str,
         #[values(DataType::Utf8, DataType::Binary)] data_type: DataType,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
     ) {
         let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
         field_metadata.insert(
@@ -576,7 +785,7 @@ pub mod tests {
         );
 
         let field = Field::new("", data_type, false).with_metadata(field_metadata);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
     #[rstest]
@@ -585,6 +794,14 @@ pub mod tests {
         #[values(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP)]
         structural_encoding: &str,
         #[values(DataType::Binary, DataType::Utf8)] data_type: DataType,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
     ) {
         let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
         field_metadata.insert(
@@ -594,7 +811,10 @@ pub mod tests {
         field_metadata.insert(COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), "fsst".into());
         let field = Field::new("", data_type, true).with_metadata(field_metadata);
         // TODO (https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/4783)
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(encoding)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![page_size])
+            .with_slicing_modes([use_slicing]);
         check_specific_random(field, test_cases).await;
     }
 
@@ -604,6 +824,14 @@ pub mod tests {
         #[values(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP)]
         structural_encoding: &str,
         #[values(DataType::LargeBinary, DataType::LargeUtf8)] data_type: DataType,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
     ) {
         let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
         field_metadata.insert(
@@ -614,21 +842,30 @@ pub mod tests {
         let field = Field::new("", data_type, true).with_metadata(field_metadata);
         check_specific_random(
             field,
-            TestCases::basic().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            TestCases::basic()
+                .with_encoding(encoding)
+                .with_page_sizes(vec![page_size])
+                .with_slicing_modes([use_slicing]),
         )
         .await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_large_binary() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::LargeBinary, true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
-    }
-
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_large_utf8() {
-        let field = Field::new("", DataType::LargeUtf8, true);
-        check_basic_random(field).await;
+    async fn test_large_binary_types(
+        #[values(DataType::LargeBinary, DataType::LargeUtf8)] data_type: DataType,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
+        let field = Field::new("", data_type, true);
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
     #[rstest]
@@ -636,20 +873,31 @@ pub mod tests {
     async fn test_small_strings(
         #[values(STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_MINIBLOCK, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP)]
         structural_encoding: &str,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
     ) {
-        use crate::testing::check_basic_generated;
-
         let mut field_metadata = HashMap::new();
         field_metadata.insert(
             STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
             structural_encoding.into(),
         );
         let field = Field::new("", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(field_metadata);
-        check_basic_generated(
+        check_round_trip_encoding_generated(
             field,
             Box::new(FnArrayGeneratorProvider::new(move || {
                 lance_datagen::array::utf8_prefix_plus_counter("user_", /*is_large=*/ false)
             })),
+            TestCases::basic()
+                .with_encoding(encoding)
+                .with_page_sizes(vec![page_size])
+                .with_slicing_modes([use_slicing]),
         )
         .await;
     }
@@ -700,10 +948,19 @@ pub mod tests {
         .await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_bigger_than_max_page_size() {
-        // Create an array with one single 32MiB string
-        let big_string = String::from_iter((0..(32 * 1024 * 1024)).map(|_| '0'));
+    async fn test_value_bigger_than_max_page_size(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        // Create one value larger than the configured 1MiB page budget.
+        let big_string = String::from_iter((0..(2 * 1024 * 1024)).map(|_| '0'));
         let string_array = StringArray::from(vec![
             Some(big_string),
             Some("abc".to_string()),
@@ -713,7 +970,9 @@ pub mod tests {
         ]);
 
         // Drop the max page size to 1MiB
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_max_page_size(1024 * 1024);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_max_page_size(1024 * 1024)
+            .with_encoding(encoding);
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![Arc::new(string_array)],
@@ -721,16 +980,29 @@ pub mod tests {
             HashMap::new(),
         )
         .await;
+    }
 
-        // This is a regression testing the case where a page with X rows is split into Y parts
-        // where the number of parts is not evenly divisible by the number of rows.  In this
-        // case we are splitting 90 rows into 4 parts.
-        let big_string = String::from_iter((0..(1000 * 1000)).map(|_| '0'));
+    #[rstest]
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_page_split_parts_do_not_evenly_divide_rows(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        // Regression: split 90 rows into four parts, where the part count does
+        // not evenly divide the row count.
+        let big_string = String::from_iter((0..45_000).map(|_| '0'));
         let string_array = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..90).map(|_| big_string.clone()));
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
             vec![Arc::new(string_array)],
-            &TestCases::default(),
+            &TestCases::default()
+                .with_max_page_size(1024 * 1024)
+                .with_encoding(encoding),
             HashMap::new(),
         )
         .await;
@@ -803,7 +1075,7 @@ pub mod tests {
         #[values(true, false)] with_nulls: bool,
         #[values(100, 500, 35000)] dict_size: u32,
     ) {
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
         let strings = (0..dict_size)
             .map(|i| i.to_string())
             .collect::<Vec<String>>();
@@ -831,7 +1103,7 @@ pub mod tests {
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_expected_encoding("variable")
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
 
         // Test both automatic selection and explicit configuration
         // 1. Test automatic binary encoding selection (small strings that won't trigger FSST)
@@ -970,4 +1242,195 @@ pub mod tests {
             }
         }
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_binary_miniblock_rejects_corrupt_offsets() {
+        use super::BinaryMiniBlockDecompressor;
+        use crate::compression::MiniBlockDecompressor;
+        use lance_core::Error;
+
+        // Chunk layout mirrors the on-disk format for ["alpha", "beta", "gamma"]:
+        // LE u32 offsets [16, 21, 25, 30] followed by the value bytes, padded to
+        // a multiple of 8 bytes.
+        fn chunk_u32(offsets: &[u32], values: &[u8]) -> LanceBuffer {
+            let mut chunk = offsets
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|offset| offset.to_le_bytes())
+                .collect::<Vec<u8>>();
+            chunk.extend_from_slice(values);
+            chunk.resize(chunk.len().next_multiple_of(8), 0);
+            LanceBuffer::from(chunk)
+        }
+
+        let decompressor = BinaryMiniBlockDecompressor::new(32);
+
+        // The tail offset points past the end of the 32-byte chunk.
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(
+                vec![chunk_u32(&[16, 21, 25, 100_000], b"alphabetagamma")],
+                3,
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("out of bounds"), "{err}");
+
+        // Offsets go backwards, which would underflow the rebase subtraction.
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(vec![chunk_u32(&[16, 25, 21, 30], b"alphabetagamma")], 3)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("decreases"), "{err}");
+
+        // The first offset points inside the offset table, which would alias
+        // the serialized offsets into the value bytes.
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(vec![chunk_u32(&[0, 21, 25, 30], b"alphabetagamma")], 3)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("overlaps"), "{err}");
+
+        // The chunk stores fewer offsets than the requested value count needs.
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(vec![chunk_u32(&[8, 8], &[])], 3)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("requires 4"), "{err}");
+
+        // The chunk size is not a multiple of the offset width.
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(vec![LanceBuffer::from(vec![0u8; 10])], 1)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("multiple"), "{err}");
+
+        // 64-bit offsets take the same validation path.
+        fn chunk_u64(offsets: &[u64], values: &[u8]) -> LanceBuffer {
+            let mut chunk = offsets
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|offset| offset.to_le_bytes())
+                .collect::<Vec<u8>>();
+            chunk.extend_from_slice(values);
+            chunk.resize(chunk.len().next_multiple_of(8), 0);
+            LanceBuffer::from(chunk)
+        }
+        let decompressor = BinaryMiniBlockDecompressor::new(64);
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(
+                vec![chunk_u64(&[32, 37, 41, 100_000], b"alphabetagamma")],
+                3,
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("out of bounds"), "{err}");
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(vec![chunk_u64(&[0, 37, 41, 46], b"alphabetagamma")], 3)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("overlaps"), "{err}");
+
+        // A valid chunk still decodes: offsets rebase to [0, 5, 9, 14].
+        let decompressor = BinaryMiniBlockDecompressor::new(32);
+        let block = decompressor
+            .decompress(vec![chunk_u32(&[16, 21, 25, 30], b"alphabetagamma")], 3)
+            .unwrap();
+        let DataBlock::VariableWidth(block) = block else {
+            panic!("expected a variable-width block");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(block.data.as_ref(), b"alphabetagamma");
+        assert_eq!(
+            block.offsets,
+            LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_u32, 5, 9, 14])
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn encoded_binary_block(bits_per_offset: u8) -> Vec<u8> {
+        use crate::compression::BlockCompressor;
+
+        let offsets = match bits_per_offset {
+            32 => LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i32, 5, 9, 14]),
+            64 => LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_i64, 5, 9, 14]),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        };
+        let block = DataBlock::VariableWidth(VariableWidthBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::copy_slice(b"alphabetagamma"),
+            offsets,
+            bits_per_offset,
+            num_values: 3,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        });
+        BlockCompressor::compress(&super::VariableEncoder::default(), block)
+            .unwrap()
+            .0
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_vec()
+    }
+
+    /// The block decompressor only checks the block structure (all O(1)); bad
+    /// offset values inside a structurally-sound block are rejected by the
+    /// mandatory layout validation when the block is converted to Arrow.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::i32_tail_out_of_bounds(32, 3, 100_000, "out of bounds")]
+    #[case::i64_tail_out_of_bounds(64, 3, 15, "out of bounds")]
+    #[case::i32_non_monotonic(32, 2, 4, "non-monotonic")]
+    #[case::i64_non_monotonic(64, 2, 4, "non-monotonic")]
+    fn test_binary_block_bad_offsets_rejected_at_arrow_conversion(
+        #[case] bits_per_offset: u8,
+        #[case] mutated_offset_index: usize,
+        #[case] mutated_offset_value: u64,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        use crate::compression::BlockDecompressor;
+        use lance_core::Error;
+
+        let mut encoded = encoded_binary_block(bits_per_offset);
+        let bytes_per_offset = (bits_per_offset / 8) as usize;
+        // The standard scheme header is two offset-width fields.
+        let mutated_offset_start = bytes_per_offset * (2 + mutated_offset_index);
+        encoded[mutated_offset_start..mutated_offset_start + bytes_per_offset]
+            .copy_from_slice(&mutated_offset_value.to_le_bytes()[..bytes_per_offset]);
+
+        let block = super::BinaryBlockDecompressor::default()
+            .decompress(Some(LanceBuffer::from(encoded)), 3)
+            .unwrap();
+        let data_type = match bits_per_offset {
+            32 => DataType::Binary,
+            _ => DataType::LargeBinary,
+        };
+        let err = block.into_arrow(data_type, false).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains(expected_message), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_binary_block_rejects_corrupt_structure() {
+        use crate::compression::BlockDecompressor;
+        use lance_core::Error;
+
+        let decompressor = super::BinaryBlockDecompressor::default();
+
+        // The first offset must be zero.
+        let mut encoded = encoded_binary_block(32);
+        encoded[8..12].copy_from_slice(&5_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(Some(LanceBuffer::from(encoded)), 3)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("first offset"), "{err}");
+
+        // The offsets region must hold exactly num_values + 1 offsets.
+        let encoded = encoded_binary_block(32);
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(Some(LanceBuffer::from(encoded)), 4)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("offset bytes"), "{err}");
+
+        // A block too small to hold its header is rejected, not a panic.
+        let err = decompressor
+            .decompress(Some(LanceBuffer::from(vec![0_u8; 2])), 1)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("too small"), "{err}");
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/bitpacking.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/bitpacking.rs
index 207219b58f0..6c957e31e71 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/bitpacking.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/bitpacking.rs
@@ -18,26 +18,27 @@
 use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
 use arrow_array::{Array, PrimitiveArray};
 use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
-use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian};
-use lance_bitpacking::BitPacking;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_bitpacking::BitPackingUninit;
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
 use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
-use crate::compression::{BlockCompressor, BlockDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor};
+use crate::compression::{
+    BlockCompressor, BlockDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor, require_block_payload,
+};
 use crate::data::BlockInfo;
 use crate::data::{DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock};
 use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::{
-    MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressor,
+    MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressionContext, MiniBlockCompressor,
 };
 use crate::format::pb21::CompressiveEncoding;
-use crate::format::{pb21, ProtobufUtils21};
+use crate::format::{ProtobufUtils21, pb21};
 use crate::statistics::{GetStat, Stat};
-use bytemuck::{cast_slice, AnyBitPattern};
+use bytemuck::Pod;
 
-const LOG_ELEMS_PER_CHUNK: u8 = 10;
-const ELEMS_PER_CHUNK: u64 = 1 << LOG_ELEMS_PER_CHUNK;
+pub(crate) const LOG_ELEMS_PER_CHUNK: u8 = 10;
+/// Number of values encoded in each inline bitpacking chunk.
+pub const ELEMS_PER_CHUNK: u64 = 1 << LOG_ELEMS_PER_CHUNK;
 
 #[derive(Debug, Default)]
 pub struct InlineBitpacking {
@@ -71,7 +72,7 @@ impl InlineBitpacking {
     /// Each chunk can have a different bit width
     ///
     /// Each chunk has the compressed bit width stored inline in the chunk itself.
-    fn bitpack_chunked<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
+    fn bitpack_chunked<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPackingUninit>(
         data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
     ) -> MiniBlockCompressed {
         debug_assert!(data.num_values > 0);
@@ -112,12 +113,13 @@ impl InlineBitpacking {
             output.push(T::from_usize(bit_width).unwrap());
             let output_len = output.len();
             unsafe {
-                output.set_len(output_len + *packed_chunk_size);
-                BitPacking::unchecked_pack(
+                BitPackingUninit::unchecked_pack_uninit(
                     bit_width,
                     &data_buffer[start_elem..][..ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize],
-                    &mut output[output_len..][..*packed_chunk_size],
+                    &mut output.spare_capacity_mut()[..*packed_chunk_size],
                 );
+                // The bitpacking kernel initialized every reserved output word.
+                output.set_len(output_len + *packed_chunk_size);
             }
             chunks.push(MiniBlockChunk {
                 buffer_sizes: vec![((1 + *packed_chunk_size) * std::mem::size_of::<T>()) as u32],
@@ -138,13 +140,15 @@ impl InlineBitpacking {
         let bit_width = bit_widths_array.value(bit_widths_array.len() - 1) as usize;
         output.push(T::from_usize(bit_width).unwrap());
         let output_len = output.len();
+        let packed_chunk_size = packed_chunk_sizes[bit_widths_array.len() - 1];
         unsafe {
-            output.set_len(output_len + packed_chunk_sizes[bit_widths_array.len() - 1]);
-            BitPacking::unchecked_pack(
+            BitPackingUninit::unchecked_pack_uninit(
                 bit_width,
                 &last_chunk,
-                &mut output[output_len..][..packed_chunk_sizes[bit_widths_array.len() - 1]],
+                &mut output.spare_capacity_mut()[..packed_chunk_size],
             );
+            // The bitpacking kernel initialized every reserved output word.
+            output.set_len(output_len + packed_chunk_size);
         }
         chunks.push(MiniBlockChunk {
             buffer_sizes: vec![
@@ -182,27 +186,91 @@ impl InlineBitpacking {
         )
     }
 
-    fn unchunk<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking + AnyBitPattern>(
+    fn unchunk<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPackingUninit + Pod>(
         data: LanceBuffer,
         num_values: u64,
     ) -> Result<DataBlock> {
-        // Ensure at least the header is present
-        assert!(data.len() >= std::mem::size_of::<T>());
-        assert!(num_values <= ELEMS_PER_CHUNK);
-
         // This macro decompresses a chunk(1024 values) of bitpacked values.
         let uncompressed_bit_width = std::mem::size_of::<T>() * 8;
-        let mut decompressed = vec![T::from_usize(0).unwrap(); ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize];
-
-        // Copy for memory alignment
-        let chunk_in_u8: Vec<u8> = data.to_vec();
-        let bit_width_bytes = &chunk_in_u8[..std::mem::size_of::<T>()];
-        let bit_width_value = LittleEndian::read_uint(bit_width_bytes, std::mem::size_of::<T>());
-        let chunk = cast_slice(&chunk_in_u8[std::mem::size_of::<T>()..]);
-        // The bit-packed chunk should have number of bytes (bit_width_value * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK / 8)
-        assert!(std::mem::size_of_val(chunk) == (bit_width_value * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) as usize / 8);
+        let word_size = std::mem::size_of::<T>();
+
+        if data.len() < word_size {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "inline_bitpacking",
+                format!(
+                    "Inline bitpacking chunk is too small for {}-byte header: {} bytes",
+                    word_size,
+                    data.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if !data.len().is_multiple_of(word_size) {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "inline_bitpacking",
+                format!(
+                    "Inline bitpacking chunk size must be a multiple of {} bytes, got {} bytes",
+                    word_size,
+                    data.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if num_values > ELEMS_PER_CHUNK {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "inline_bitpacking",
+                format!(
+                    "Inline bitpacking chunk has {} values, expected at most {}",
+                    num_values, ELEMS_PER_CHUNK
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let chunk_words = data.borrow_to_typed_view::<T>();
+        let bit_width_value = chunk_words[0].as_usize();
+        if bit_width_value > uncompressed_bit_width {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "inline_bitpacking",
+                format!(
+                    "Inline bitpacking width {} exceeds {}-bit values",
+                    bit_width_value, uncompressed_bit_width
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let chunk = &chunk_words[1..];
+        // bit_width_value has already been verified to be <= uncompressed_bit_width
+        // (8/16/32/64), so bit_width_value * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK (1024) can never
+        // overflow usize on supported targets. Keep checked_mul as defense in depth.
+        let expected_num_bits = bit_width_value
+            .checked_mul(ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "inline_bitpacking",
+                    format!(
+                        "Inline bitpacking width {} overflows chunk bit count",
+                        bit_width_value
+                    ),
+                )
+            })?;
+        let expected_num_bytes = expected_num_bits / 8;
+        let actual_num_bytes = std::mem::size_of_val(chunk);
+        if actual_num_bytes != expected_num_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "inline_bitpacking",
+                format!(
+                    "Inline bitpacking payload has {} bytes, expected {} bytes for bit width {}",
+                    actual_num_bytes, expected_num_bytes, bit_width_value
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut decompressed = Vec::with_capacity(ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize);
         unsafe {
-            BitPacking::unchecked_unpack(bit_width_value as usize, chunk, &mut decompressed);
+            BitPackingUninit::unchecked_unpack_uninit(
+                bit_width_value,
+                chunk,
+                &mut decompressed.spare_capacity_mut()[..ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize],
+            );
+            // The bitpacking kernel initialized all 1024 decoded values.
+            decompressed.set_len(ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize);
         }
 
         decompressed.truncate(num_values as usize);
@@ -213,29 +281,60 @@ impl InlineBitpacking {
             block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
         }))
     }
+
+    /// An empty fixed-width block, used for the `num_values == 0` short-circuit in
+    /// both decompressor entry points so empty blocks skip chunk validation entirely.
+    fn empty_block(&self) -> DataBlock {
+        DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+            bits_per_value: self.uncompressed_bit_width,
+            num_values: 0,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 impl MiniBlockCompressor for InlineBitpacking {
-    fn compress(&self, chunk: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    fn compress(
+        &self,
+        _context: MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+        chunk: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         match chunk {
             DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) => Ok(self.chunk_data(fixed_width)),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "Cannot compress a data block of type {} with BitpackMiniBlockEncoder",
                     chunk.name()
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl BlockCompressor for InlineBitpacking {
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<LanceBuffer> {
-        let fixed_width = data.as_fixed_width().unwrap();
+    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) = data else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Inline bitpacking requires fixed-width data",
+            ));
+        };
+        if fixed_width.bits_per_value != self.uncompressed_bit_width {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Inline bitpacking expects {}-bit values, got {}",
+                self.uncompressed_bit_width, fixed_width.bits_per_value
+            )));
+        }
         let (chunked, _) = self.chunk_data(fixed_width);
-        Ok(chunked.data.into_iter().next().unwrap())
+        let payload =
+            chunked.data.into_iter().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Inline bitpacking produced no payload".to_string())
+            })?;
+        Ok((
+            Some(payload),
+            ProtobufUtils21::inline_bitpacking(self.uncompressed_bit_width, None),
+        ))
     }
 }
 
@@ -243,6 +342,10 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for InlineBitpacking {
     fn decompress(&self, data: Vec<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         assert_eq!(data.len(), 1);
         let data = data.into_iter().next().unwrap();
+        if num_values == 0 {
+            // Empty mini-blocks have no inline bit-width header to decode.
+            return Ok(self.empty_block());
+        }
         match self.uncompressed_bit_width {
             8 => Self::unchunk::<u8>(data, num_values),
             16 => Self::unchunk::<u16>(data, num_values),
@@ -251,10 +354,23 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for InlineBitpacking {
             _ => unimplemented!("Bitpacking word size must be 8, 16, 32, or 64"),
         }
     }
+
+    fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        num_values
+            .checked_mul(self.uncompressed_bit_width)
+            .map(|bits| bits.div_ceil(8))
+    }
 }
 
 impl BlockDecompressor for InlineBitpacking {
-    fn decompress(&self, data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Option<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        let data = require_block_payload(data, "Inline bitpacking")?;
+        if num_values == 0 {
+            // Empty blocks carry no inline bit-width header to decode; avoid
+            // spurious "too small for header" corrupt-file errors and mirror
+            // the MiniBlockDecompressor path. See #7794.
+            return Ok(self.empty_block());
+        }
         match self.uncompressed_bit_width {
             8 => Self::unchunk::<u8>(data, num_values),
             16 => Self::unchunk::<u16>(data, num_values),
@@ -270,7 +386,7 @@ impl BlockDecompressor for InlineBitpacking {
 /// Each chunk of 1024 values is packed with a constant bit width. For the tail we compare the
 /// cost of padding and packing against storing the raw values: if padding yields a smaller
 /// representation we pack; otherwise we append the raw tail.
-fn bitpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
+fn bitpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPackingUninit>(
     data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
     compressed_bits_per_value: usize,
 ) -> LanceBuffer {
@@ -281,12 +397,7 @@ fn bitpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
     let last_chunk_is_runt = data_buffer.len() % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize != 0;
     let words_per_chunk = (ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize * compressed_bits_per_value)
         .div_ceil(data.bits_per_value as usize);
-    #[allow(clippy::uninit_vec)]
     let mut output: Vec<T> = Vec::with_capacity(num_chunks * words_per_chunk);
-    #[allow(clippy::uninit_vec)]
-    unsafe {
-        output.set_len(num_chunks * words_per_chunk);
-    }
 
     let num_whole_chunks = if last_chunk_is_runt {
         num_chunks - 1
@@ -298,14 +409,15 @@ fn bitpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
     for i in 0..num_whole_chunks {
         let input_start = i * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize;
         let input_end = input_start + ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize;
-        let output_start = i * words_per_chunk;
-        let output_end = output_start + words_per_chunk;
+        let output_start = output.len();
         unsafe {
-            BitPacking::unchecked_pack(
+            BitPackingUninit::unchecked_pack_uninit(
                 compressed_bits_per_value,
                 &data_buffer[input_start..input_end],
-                &mut output[output_start..output_end],
+                &mut output.spare_capacity_mut()[..words_per_chunk],
             );
+            // The bitpacking kernel initialized this complete packed chunk.
+            output.set_len(output_start + words_per_chunk);
         }
     }
 
@@ -314,10 +426,6 @@ fn bitpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
     }
 
     let last_chunk_start = num_whole_chunks * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize;
-    // Safety: output ensures to have those values.
-    unsafe {
-        output.set_len(num_whole_chunks * words_per_chunk);
-    }
     let remaining_items = data_buffer.len() - last_chunk_start;
 
     let uncompressed_bits = data.bits_per_value as usize;
@@ -333,13 +441,13 @@ fn bitpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
         last_chunk[..remaining_items].copy_from_slice(&data_buffer[last_chunk_start..]);
         let start = output.len();
         unsafe {
-            // Capacity reserves a full chunk for each block; extend the visible length and fill it immediately.
-            output.set_len(start + words_per_chunk);
-            BitPacking::unchecked_pack(
+            BitPackingUninit::unchecked_pack_uninit(
                 compressed_bits_per_value,
                 &last_chunk,
-                &mut output[start..start + words_per_chunk],
+                &mut output.spare_capacity_mut()[..words_per_chunk],
             );
+            // The bitpacking kernel initialized the padded tail chunk.
+            output.set_len(start + words_per_chunk);
         }
     } else {
         // Padding would waste space; append tail values as-is.
@@ -354,7 +462,7 @@ fn bitpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
 /// The compressed bit width is provided while the uncompressed width comes from `T`.
 /// Depending on the encoding decision the final chunk may be fully packed (with padding)
 /// or stored as raw tail values. We infer the layout from the buffer length.
-fn unpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
+fn unpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPackingUninit>(
     data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
     num_values: usize,
     compressed_bits_per_value: usize,
@@ -370,25 +478,21 @@ fn unpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
     let tail_is_raw = tail_values > 0 && compressed_words.len() == expected_new_len;
 
     let extra_tail_capacity = ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize;
-    #[allow(clippy::uninit_vec)]
     let mut decompressed: Vec<T> =
         Vec::with_capacity(num_values.saturating_add(extra_tail_capacity));
-    let chunk_value_len = num_whole_chunks * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize;
-    unsafe {
-        decompressed.set_len(chunk_value_len);
-    }
 
     for chunk_idx in 0..num_whole_chunks {
         let input_start = chunk_idx * words_per_chunk;
         let input_end = input_start + words_per_chunk;
-        let output_start = chunk_idx * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize;
-        let output_end = output_start + ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize;
+        let output_start = decompressed.len();
         unsafe {
-            BitPacking::unchecked_unpack(
+            BitPackingUninit::unchecked_unpack_uninit(
                 compressed_bits_per_value,
                 &compressed_words[input_start..input_end],
-                &mut decompressed[output_start..output_end],
+                &mut decompressed.spare_capacity_mut()[..ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize],
             );
+            // The bitpacking kernel initialized this complete decoded chunk.
+            decompressed.set_len(output_start + ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize);
         }
     }
 
@@ -402,14 +506,13 @@ fn unpack_out_of_line<T: ArrowNativeType + BitPacking>(
             let tail_start = expected_full_words;
             let output_start = decompressed.len();
             unsafe {
-                decompressed.set_len(output_start + ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize);
-            }
-            unsafe {
-                BitPacking::unchecked_unpack(
+                BitPackingUninit::unchecked_unpack_uninit(
                     compressed_bits_per_value,
                     &compressed_words[tail_start..tail_start + words_per_chunk],
-                    &mut decompressed[output_start..output_start + ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize],
+                    &mut decompressed.spare_capacity_mut()[..ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize],
                 );
+                // The kernel initialized a full chunk; only the requested tail stays visible.
+                decompressed.set_len(output_start + ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize);
             }
             decompressed.truncate(output_start + tail_values);
         }
@@ -466,21 +569,43 @@ impl OutOfLineBitpacking {
 }
 
 impl BlockCompressor for OutOfLineBitpacking {
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<LanceBuffer> {
-        let fixed_width = data.as_fixed_width().unwrap();
+    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) = data else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Out-of-line bitpacking requires fixed-width data",
+            ));
+        };
+        if fixed_width.bits_per_value != self.uncompressed_bit_width {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Out-of-line bitpacking expects {}-bit values, got {}",
+                self.uncompressed_bit_width, fixed_width.bits_per_value
+            )));
+        }
         let compressed = match fixed_width.bits_per_value {
             8 => bitpack_out_of_line::<u8>(fixed_width, self.compressed_bit_width as usize),
             16 => bitpack_out_of_line::<u16>(fixed_width, self.compressed_bit_width as usize),
             32 => bitpack_out_of_line::<u32>(fixed_width, self.compressed_bit_width as usize),
             64 => bitpack_out_of_line::<u64>(fixed_width, self.compressed_bit_width as usize),
-            _ => panic!("Bitpacking word size must be 8,16,32,64"),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Bitpacking word size must be 8, 16, 32, or 64, got {}",
+                    fixed_width.bits_per_value
+                )));
+            }
         };
-        Ok(compressed)
+        Ok((
+            Some(compressed),
+            ProtobufUtils21::out_of_line_bitpacking(
+                self.uncompressed_bit_width,
+                ProtobufUtils21::flat(self.compressed_bit_width, None),
+            ),
+        ))
     }
 }
 
 impl BlockDecompressor for OutOfLineBitpacking {
-    fn decompress(&self, data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Option<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        let data = require_block_payload(data, "Out-of-line bitpacking")?;
         let word_size = match self.uncompressed_bit_width {
             8 => std::mem::size_of::<u8>(),
             16 => std::mem::size_of::<u16>(),
@@ -528,20 +653,135 @@ impl BlockDecompressor for OutOfLineBitpacking {
 mod test {
     use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
-    use arrow_array::{Array, Int64Array, Int8Array};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, Int8Array, Int64Array};
+    use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
     use arrow_schema::DataType;
+    use bytemuck::Pod;
+    use lance_bitpacking::{BitPacking, BitPackingUninit};
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-    use super::{bitpack_out_of_line, unpack_out_of_line, ELEMS_PER_CHUNK};
+    use super::{ELEMS_PER_CHUNK, InlineBitpacking, bitpack_out_of_line, unpack_out_of_line};
     use crate::{
         buffer::LanceBuffer,
-        data::{BlockInfo, FixedWidthDataBlock},
-        testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
+        compression::{BlockDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor},
+        data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock},
+        testing::{TestCases, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data},
     };
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::u8(8)]
+    #[case::u16(16)]
+    #[case::u32(32)]
+    #[case::u64(64)]
+    fn test_inline_bitpacking_decompress_empty_miniblock(#[case] bit_width: u64) {
+        let decompressor = InlineBitpacking::new(bit_width);
+        let decompressed =
+            MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, vec![LanceBuffer::empty()], 0)
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) = decompressed else {
+            panic!("Expected FixedWidth block");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(block.bits_per_value, bit_width);
+        assert_eq!(block.num_values, 0);
+        assert_eq!(block.data.len(), 0);
+    }
+
+    // Regression test for #7794: the block-level decompressor must short-circuit
+    // on num_values == 0 the same way the mini-block decompressor does, instead
+    // of reporting a spurious "too small for header" corrupt-file error.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::u8(8)]
+    #[case::u16(16)]
+    #[case::u32(32)]
+    #[case::u64(64)]
+    fn test_inline_bitpacking_decompress_empty_block(#[case] bit_width: u64) {
+        let decompressor = InlineBitpacking::new(bit_width);
+        let decompressed =
+            BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, Some(LanceBuffer::empty()), 0).unwrap();
+
+        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) = decompressed else {
+            panic!("Expected FixedWidth block");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(block.bits_per_value, bit_width);
+        assert_eq!(block.num_values, 0);
+        assert_eq!(block.data.len(), 0);
+    }
+
+    fn roundtrip_unchunk<T>(values: &[T], bit_width: usize)
+    where
+        T: ArrowNativeType + BitPackingUninit + Pod,
+    {
+        assert!(values.len() <= ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize);
+        let num_values = values.len() as u64;
+
+        let mut padded = vec![T::from_usize(0).unwrap(); ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize];
+        padded[..values.len()].copy_from_slice(values);
+
+        let packed_words = ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize * bit_width / (std::mem::size_of::<T>() * 8);
+        let mut chunk: Vec<T> = Vec::with_capacity(1 + packed_words);
+        chunk.push(T::from_usize(bit_width).unwrap());
+        let out_len = chunk.len();
+        chunk.resize(out_len + packed_words, T::from_usize(0).unwrap());
+        unsafe {
+            BitPacking::unchecked_pack(bit_width, &padded, &mut chunk[out_len..]);
+        }
+
+        let data = LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(chunk);
+        let decoded = InlineBitpacking::unchunk::<T>(data, num_values).unwrap();
+        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed) = decoded else {
+            panic!("expected FixedWidth DataBlock");
+        };
+        let decoded_values = fixed.data.borrow_to_typed_view::<T>();
+        assert_eq!(decoded_values.as_ref(), values);
+    }
+
+    fn assert_corrupt_unchunk<T>(data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64, expected_message: &str)
+    where
+        T: ArrowNativeType + BitPackingUninit + Pod,
+    {
+        let err = InlineBitpacking::unchunk::<T>(data, num_values).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, lance_core::Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        let err = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            err.contains(expected_message),
+            "expected error containing {expected_message:?}, got {err:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unchunk_u32_bw12_tail() {
+        let values: Vec<u32> = (0..500).map(|i| ((i * 7) % (1 << 12)) as u32).collect();
+        roundtrip_unchunk(&values, 12);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unchunk_u64_bw23_full() {
+        let values: Vec<u64> = (0..1024).map(|i| ((i * 3) % (1 << 23)) as u64).collect();
+        roundtrip_unchunk(&values, 23);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::too_small_header(LanceBuffer::from(vec![1, 2, 3]), 1, "too small")]
+    #[case::misaligned_chunk_size(LanceBuffer::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0, 0]), 1, "multiple")]
+    #[case::too_many_values(
+        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_u32]),
+        ELEMS_PER_CHUNK + 1,
+        "expected at most"
+    )]
+    #[case::payload_size_mismatch(LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![12_u32]), 1, "payload")]
+    #[case::invalid_bit_width(LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![33_u32]), 1, "exceeds")]
+    fn unchunk_rejects(
+        #[case] data: LanceBuffer,
+        #[case] num_values: u64,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        assert_corrupt_unchunk::<u32>(data, num_values, expected_message);
+    }
+
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_miniblock_bitpack() {
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
 
         let arrays = vec![
             Arc::new(Int8Array::from(vec![100; 1024])) as Arc<dyn Array>,
@@ -580,7 +820,7 @@ mod test {
         // Test bitpacking encoding verification with varied small values that should trigger bitpacking
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_expected_encoding("inline_bitpacking")
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
 
         // Generate data with varied small values to avoid RLE
         // Mix different values but keep them small to trigger bitpacking
@@ -604,7 +844,7 @@ mod test {
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_expected_encoding("inline_bitpacking")
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
 
         // Build 2048 values: first 1024 all zeros (bit_width=0),
         // next 1024 small varied values to avoid RLE and trigger bitpacking.
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/block.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/block.rs
index 9104fd9bdd1..9d97c9e72b9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/block.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/block.rs
@@ -23,15 +23,14 @@
 
 use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use std::str::FromStr;
 
-use crate::compression::{BlockCompressor, BlockDecompressor};
+use crate::compression::{BlockCompressor, BlockDecompressor, require_block_payload};
 use crate::encodings::physical::binary::{BinaryBlockDecompressor, VariableEncoder};
 use crate::format::{
-    pb21::{self, CompressiveEncoding},
     ProtobufUtils21,
+    pb21::{self, CompressiveEncoding},
 };
 use crate::{
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
@@ -47,9 +46,20 @@ pub struct CompressionConfig {
 }
 
 impl CompressionConfig {
-    pub(crate) fn new(scheme: CompressionScheme, level: Option<i32>) -> Self {
+    /// Create a compression configuration for an encoding mechanism.
+    pub fn new(scheme: CompressionScheme, level: Option<i32>) -> Self {
         Self { scheme, level }
     }
+
+    /// Return the selected compression scheme.
+    pub fn scheme(&self) -> CompressionScheme {
+        self.scheme
+    }
+
+    /// Return the optional compression level.
+    pub fn level(&self) -> Option<i32> {
+        self.level
+    }
 }
 
 impl Default for CompressionConfig {
@@ -76,10 +86,10 @@ impl TryFrom<CompressionScheme> for pb21::CompressionScheme {
         match scheme {
             CompressionScheme::Lz4 => Ok(Self::CompressionAlgorithmLz4),
             CompressionScheme::Zstd => Ok(Self::CompressionAlgorithmZstd),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Unsupported compression scheme: {:?}", scheme),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported compression scheme: {:?}",
+                scheme
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -91,10 +101,10 @@ impl TryFrom<pb21::CompressionScheme> for CompressionScheme {
         match scheme {
             pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmLz4 => Ok(Self::Lz4),
             pb21::CompressionScheme::CompressionAlgorithmZstd => Ok(Self::Zstd),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Unsupported compression scheme: {:?}", scheme),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported compression scheme: {:?}",
+                scheme
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -120,10 +130,10 @@ impl FromStr for CompressionScheme {
             "fsst" => Ok(Self::Fsst),
             "zstd" => Ok(Self::Zstd),
             "lz4" => Ok(Self::Lz4),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Unknown compression scheme: {}", s),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unknown compression scheme: {}",
+                s
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -141,7 +151,7 @@ mod zstd {
 
     use super::*;
 
-    use ::zstd::bulk::{decompress_to_buffer, Compressor};
+    use ::zstd::bulk::{Compressor, decompress_to_buffer};
     use ::zstd::stream::copy_decode;
 
     /// A zstd buffer compressor that lazily creates and reuses compression contexts.
@@ -186,10 +196,7 @@ mod zstd {
                         .map_err(|e| e.to_string())
                 })
                 .as_ref()
-                .map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Failed to create zstd compressor: {}", e),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Failed to create zstd compressor: {}", e)))
         }
 
         // https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8878
@@ -262,10 +269,7 @@ mod zstd {
                 .lock()
                 .unwrap()
                 .compress_to_buffer(input_buf, &mut output_buf[start_pos..])
-                .map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Zstd compression error: {}", e),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+                .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Zstd compression error: {}", e)))?;
 
             output_buf.truncate(start_pos + compressed_size);
             Ok(())
@@ -318,10 +322,7 @@ mod lz4 {
                 true,
                 &mut output_buf[start_pos..],
             )
-            .map_err(|err| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("LZ4 compression error: {}", err),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("LZ4 compression error: {}", err)))?;
 
             // Truncate to actual size
             output_buf.truncate(start_pos + compressed_size);
@@ -332,10 +333,7 @@ mod lz4 {
             // When prepend_size is true, LZ4 stores the uncompressed size in the first 4 bytes
             // We can read this to know exactly how much space we need
             if input_buf.len() < 4 {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "LZ4 compressed data too short".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::internal("LZ4 compressed data too short".to_string()));
             }
 
             // Read the uncompressed size from the first 4 bytes (little-endian)
@@ -352,10 +350,7 @@ mod lz4 {
             // Now decompress directly into the buffer slice
             let decompressed_size =
                 ::lz4::block::decompress_to_buffer(input_buf, None, &mut output_buf[start_pos..])
-                    .map_err(|err| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("LZ4 decompression error: {}", err),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+                    .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("LZ4 decompression error: {}", err)))?;
 
             // Truncate to actual decompressed size (should be same as uncompressed_size)
             output_buf.truncate(start_pos + decompressed_size);
@@ -402,10 +397,9 @@ impl GeneralBufferCompressor {
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn BufferCompressor>> {
         match compression_config.scheme {
             // FSST has its own compression path and isn't implemented as a generic buffer compressor
-            CompressionScheme::Fsst => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "fsst is not usable as a general buffer compressor".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            CompressionScheme::Fsst => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "fsst is not usable as a general buffer compressor".into(),
+            )),
             CompressionScheme::Zstd => {
                 #[cfg(feature = "zstd")]
                 {
@@ -415,10 +409,9 @@ impl GeneralBufferCompressor {
                 }
                 #[cfg(not(feature = "zstd"))]
                 {
-                    Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: "package was not built with zstd support".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "package was not built with zstd support".into(),
+                    ))
                 }
             }
             CompressionScheme::Lz4 => {
@@ -428,10 +421,9 @@ impl GeneralBufferCompressor {
                 }
                 #[cfg(not(feature = "lz4"))]
                 {
-                    Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: "package was not built with lz4 support".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "package was not built with lz4 support".into(),
+                    ))
                 }
             }
             CompressionScheme::None => Ok(Box::new(NoopBufferCompressor {})),
@@ -458,11 +450,12 @@ impl GeneralBlockDecompressor {
 }
 
 impl BlockDecompressor for GeneralBlockDecompressor {
-    fn decompress(&self, data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Option<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        let data = require_block_payload(data, "General block compression")?;
         let mut decompressed = Vec::new();
         self.compressor.decompress(&data, &mut decompressed)?;
         self.inner
-            .decompress(LanceBuffer::from(decompressed), num_values)
+            .decompress(Some(LanceBuffer::from(decompressed)), num_values)
     }
 }
 
@@ -470,6 +463,9 @@ impl BlockDecompressor for GeneralBlockDecompressor {
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct CompressedBufferEncoder {
     pub(crate) compressor: Box<dyn BufferCompressor>,
+    // Runtime compressors normalize levels that they default or ignore. Block descriptors must
+    // retain the selected configuration so stable writers preserve those present/absent values.
+    block_compression: CompressionConfig,
 }
 
 impl Default for CompressedBufferEncoder {
@@ -482,25 +478,33 @@ impl Default for CompressedBufferEncoder {
         #[cfg(not(any(feature = "zstd", feature = "lz4")))]
         let (scheme, level) = (CompressionScheme::None, None);
 
-        let compressor =
-            GeneralBufferCompressor::get_compressor(CompressionConfig { scheme, level }).unwrap();
-        Self { compressor }
+        let block_compression = CompressionConfig { scheme, level };
+        let compressor = GeneralBufferCompressor::get_compressor(block_compression).unwrap();
+        Self {
+            compressor,
+            block_compression,
+        }
     }
 }
 
 impl CompressedBufferEncoder {
     pub fn try_new(compression_config: CompressionConfig) -> Result<Self> {
         let compressor = GeneralBufferCompressor::get_compressor(compression_config)?;
-        Ok(Self { compressor })
+        Ok(Self {
+            compressor,
+            block_compression: compression_config,
+        })
     }
 
     pub fn from_scheme(scheme: pb21::CompressionScheme) -> Result<Self> {
         let scheme = CompressionScheme::try_from(scheme)?;
+        let block_compression = CompressionConfig {
+            scheme,
+            level: Some(0),
+        };
         Ok(Self {
-            compressor: GeneralBufferCompressor::get_compressor(CompressionConfig {
-                scheme,
-                level: Some(0),
-            })?,
+            compressor: GeneralBufferCompressor::get_compressor(block_compression)?,
+            block_compression,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -549,13 +553,10 @@ impl CompressedBufferEncoder {
 impl PerValueCompressor for CompressedBufferEncoder {
     fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(PerValueDataBlock, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         let data_type = data.name();
-        let data = data.as_variable_width().ok_or(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!(
-                "Attempt to use CompressedBufferEncoder on data of type {}",
-                data_type
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let data = data.as_variable_width().ok_or(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Attempt to use CompressedBufferEncoder on data of type {}",
+            data_type
+        )))?;
 
         let data_bytes = &data.data;
         let mut compressed = Vec::with_capacity(data_bytes.len());
@@ -625,36 +626,52 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for CompressedBufferEncoder {
 }
 
 impl BlockCompressor for CompressedBufferEncoder {
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<LanceBuffer> {
-        let encoded = match data {
-            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) => fixed_width.data,
+    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+        let (encoded, inner_encoding) = match data {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) => (
+                fixed_width.data,
+                ProtobufUtils21::flat(fixed_width.bits_per_value, None),
+            ),
             DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable_width) => {
                 // Wrap VariableEncoder to handle the encoding
                 let encoder = VariableEncoder::default();
-                BlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable_width))?
+                let (payload, encoding) =
+                    BlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable_width))?;
+                (
+                    payload.ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(
+                            "VariableEncoder returned no payload for general compression"
+                                .to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?,
+                    encoding,
+                )
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Unsupported data block type".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Unsupported data block type".into(),
+                ));
             }
         };
 
         let mut compressed = Vec::new();
         self.compressor.compress(&encoded, &mut compressed)?;
-        Ok(LanceBuffer::from(compressed))
+        Ok((
+            Some(LanceBuffer::from(compressed)),
+            ProtobufUtils21::wrapped(self.block_compression, inner_encoding)?,
+        ))
     }
 }
 
 impl BlockDecompressor for CompressedBufferEncoder {
-    fn decompress(&self, data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Option<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        let data = require_block_payload(data, "Compressed variable block")?;
         let mut decompressed = Vec::new();
         self.compressor.decompress(&data, &mut decompressed)?;
 
         // Delegate to BinaryBlockDecompressor which handles the inline metadata
         let inner_decoder = BinaryBlockDecompressor::default();
-        inner_decoder.decompress(LanceBuffer::from(decompressed), num_values)
+        inner_decoder.decompress(Some(LanceBuffer::from(decompressed)), num_values)
     }
 }
 
@@ -787,8 +804,10 @@ mod tests {
                 STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY,
             },
             encodings::physical::block::lz4::Lz4BufferCompressor,
-            testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_generated, FnArrayGeneratorProvider, TestCases},
-            version::LanceFileVersion,
+            testing::{
+                FnArrayGeneratorProvider, TestCases, TestEncoding,
+                check_round_trip_encoding_generated,
+            },
         };
 
         #[test]
@@ -807,49 +826,59 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(input_data, decompressed_data.as_slice());
         }
 
+        #[rstest::rstest]
         #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-        async fn test_lz4_compress_round_trip() {
-            for data_type in &[
+        async fn test_lz4_compress_round_trip(
+            #[values(
                 DataType::Utf8,
                 DataType::LargeUtf8,
                 DataType::Binary,
-                DataType::LargeBinary,
-            ] {
-                let field = Field::new("", data_type.clone(), false);
-                let mut field_meta = HashMap::new();
-                field_meta.insert(COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), "lz4".to_string());
-                // Some bad cardinality estimatation causes us to use dictionary encoding currently
-                // which causes the expected encoding check to fail.
-                field_meta.insert(DICT_DIVISOR_META_KEY.to_string(), "100000".to_string());
-                field_meta.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.0001".to_string());
-                // Also disable size-based dictionary encoding
-                field_meta.insert(
-                    STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
-                    STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP.to_string(),
-                );
-                let field = field.with_metadata(field_meta);
-                let test_cases = TestCases::basic()
-                    // Need to use large pages as small pages might be too small to compress
-                    .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
-                    .with_expected_encoding("zstd")
-                    .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
-
-                // Can't use the default random provider because random data isn't compressible
-                // and we will fallback to uncompressed encoding
-                let datagen = Box::new(FnArrayGeneratorProvider::new(move || match data_type {
-                    DataType::Utf8 => utf8_prefix_plus_counter("compressme", false),
-                    DataType::Binary => {
-                        binary_prefix_plus_counter(Arc::from(b"compressme".to_owned()), false)
-                    }
-                    DataType::LargeUtf8 => utf8_prefix_plus_counter("compressme", true),
-                    DataType::LargeBinary => {
-                        binary_prefix_plus_counter(Arc::from(b"compressme".to_owned()), true)
-                    }
-                    _ => panic!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", data_type),
-                }));
-
-                check_round_trip_encoding_generated(field, datagen, test_cases).await;
-            }
+                DataType::LargeBinary
+            )]
+            data_type: DataType,
+            #[values(
+                TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+                TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+                TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+            )]
+            encoding: TestEncoding,
+            #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+        ) {
+            let field = Field::new("", data_type.clone(), false);
+            let mut field_meta = HashMap::new();
+            field_meta.insert(COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), "lz4".to_string());
+            // Some bad cardinality estimatation causes us to use dictionary encoding currently
+            // which causes the expected encoding check to fail.
+            field_meta.insert(DICT_DIVISOR_META_KEY.to_string(), "100000".to_string());
+            field_meta.insert(DICT_SIZE_RATIO_META_KEY.to_string(), "0.0001".to_string());
+            // Also disable size-based dictionary encoding
+            field_meta.insert(
+                STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP.to_string(),
+            );
+            let field = field.with_metadata(field_meta);
+            let test_cases = TestCases::basic()
+                // Need to use large pages as small pages might be too small to compress
+                .with_page_sizes(vec![1024 * 1024])
+                .with_expected_encoding("zstd")
+                .with_encoding(encoding)
+                .with_slicing_modes([use_slicing]);
+
+            // Can't use the default random provider because random data isn't compressible
+            // and we will fallback to uncompressed encoding
+            let datagen = Box::new(FnArrayGeneratorProvider::new(move || match data_type {
+                DataType::Utf8 => utf8_prefix_plus_counter("compressme", false),
+                DataType::Binary => {
+                    binary_prefix_plus_counter(Arc::from(b"compressme".to_owned()), false)
+                }
+                DataType::LargeUtf8 => utf8_prefix_plus_counter("compressme", true),
+                DataType::LargeBinary => {
+                    binary_prefix_plus_counter(Arc::from(b"compressme".to_owned()), true)
+                }
+                _ => panic!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", data_type),
+            }));
+
+            check_round_trip_encoding_generated(field, datagen, test_cases).await;
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/byte_stream_split.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/byte_stream_split.rs
index 6b442428389..ae098886eeb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/byte_stream_split.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/byte_stream_split.rs
@@ -62,14 +62,13 @@ use crate::compression::MiniBlockDecompressor;
 use crate::compression_config::BssMode;
 use crate::data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock};
 use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::{
-    MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressor,
+    MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressionContext, MiniBlockCompressor,
 };
-use crate::format::pb21::CompressiveEncoding;
 use crate::format::ProtobufUtils21;
+use crate::format::pb21::CompressiveEncoding;
 use crate::statistics::{GetStat, Stat};
 use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type};
 use lance_core::Result;
-use snafu::location;
 
 /// Byte Stream Split encoder for floating point values
 ///
@@ -108,7 +107,11 @@ impl ByteStreamSplitEncoder {
 }
 
 impl MiniBlockCompressor for ByteStreamSplitEncoder {
-    fn compress(&self, page: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    fn compress(
+        &self,
+        _context: MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+        page: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         match page {
             DataBlock::FixedWidth(data) => {
                 let num_values = data.num_values;
@@ -183,10 +186,9 @@ impl MiniBlockCompressor for ByteStreamSplitEncoder {
                     encoding,
                 ))
             }
-            _ => Err(lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "ByteStreamSplit encoding only supports FixedWidth data blocks".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "ByteStreamSplit encoding only supports FixedWidth data blocks".into(),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -226,28 +228,26 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for ByteStreamSplitDecompressor {
         let total_bytes = num_values as usize * bytes_per_value;
 
         if data.len() != 1 {
-            return Err(lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "ByteStreamSplit decompression expects 1 buffer, but got {}",
                     data.len()
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            ));
         }
 
         let input_buffer = &data[0];
 
         if input_buffer.len() != total_bytes {
-            return Err(lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "Expected {} bytes for decompression, but got {}",
                     total_bytes,
                     input_buffer.len()
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            ));
         }
 
         let mut output = vec![0u8; total_bytes];
@@ -267,6 +267,10 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for ByteStreamSplitDecompressor {
             block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
         }))
     }
+
+    fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        num_values.checked_mul(self.bytes_per_value() as u64)
+    }
 }
 
 /// Determine if BSS should be used based on mode and data characteristics
@@ -349,7 +353,9 @@ mod tests {
         });
 
         // Compress
-        let (compressed, _encoding) = encoder.compress(data_block).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _encoding) = encoder
+            .compress(MiniBlockCompressionContext::new(0, true, true), data_block)
+            .unwrap();
 
         // Decompress
         let decompressed = decompressor
@@ -362,8 +368,10 @@ mod tests {
         // Verify
         let result_bytes = decompressed_fixed.data.as_ref();
         let result_values: Vec<f32> = result_bytes
-            .chunks_exact(4)
-            .map(|chunk| f32::from_le_bytes(chunk.try_into().unwrap()))
+            .as_chunks::<4>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .map(|chunk| f32::from_le_bytes(*chunk))
             .collect();
 
         assert_eq!(values, result_values);
@@ -395,7 +403,9 @@ mod tests {
         });
 
         // Compress
-        let (compressed, _encoding) = encoder.compress(data_block).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _encoding) = encoder
+            .compress(MiniBlockCompressionContext::new(0, true, true), data_block)
+            .unwrap();
 
         // Decompress
         let decompressed = decompressor
@@ -408,8 +418,10 @@ mod tests {
         // Verify
         let result_bytes = decompressed_fixed.data.as_ref();
         let result_values: Vec<f64> = result_bytes
-            .chunks_exact(8)
-            .map(|chunk| f64::from_le_bytes(chunk.try_into().unwrap()))
+            .as_chunks::<8>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .map(|chunk| f64::from_le_bytes(*chunk))
             .collect();
 
         assert_eq!(values, result_values);
@@ -428,7 +440,9 @@ mod tests {
         });
 
         // Compress empty data
-        let (compressed, _encoding) = encoder.compress(data_block).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _encoding) = encoder
+            .compress(MiniBlockCompressionContext::new(0, true, true), data_block)
+            .unwrap();
 
         // Decompress empty data
         let decompressed = decompressor.decompress(compressed.data, 0).unwrap();
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/constant.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/constant.rs
index c3fa16863f4..dd153f789d5 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/constant.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/constant.rs
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 use crate::{
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
-    compression::{BlockDecompressor, FixedPerValueDecompressor},
+    compression::{BlockDecompressor, FixedPerValueDecompressor, require_no_block_payload},
     data::{AllNullDataBlock, ConstantDataBlock, DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock},
 };
 
@@ -24,7 +24,8 @@ impl ConstantDecompressor {
 }
 
 impl BlockDecompressor for ConstantDecompressor {
-    fn decompress(&self, _data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Option<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        require_no_block_payload(data, "Constant")?;
         if let Some(scalar) = self.scalar.clone() {
             Ok(DataBlock::Constant(ConstantDataBlock {
                 data: scalar,
@@ -34,6 +35,10 @@ impl BlockDecompressor for ConstantDecompressor {
             Ok(DataBlock::AllNull(AllNullDataBlock { num_values }))
         }
     }
+
+    fn requires_payload(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
 }
 
 impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for ConstantDecompressor {
@@ -55,3 +60,22 @@ impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for ConstantDecompressor {
             .unwrap_or(0)
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn block_constant_requires_no_payload() {
+        let decompressor = ConstantDecompressor::new(None);
+
+        assert!(!decompressor.requires_payload());
+        assert!(matches!(
+            BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, None, 3).unwrap(),
+            DataBlock::AllNull(AllNullDataBlock { num_values: 3 })
+        ));
+        assert!(
+            BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, Some(LanceBuffer::empty()), 3).is_err()
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/fsst.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/fsst.rs
index 25dac9b7896..38acd24af0b 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/fsst.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/fsst.rs
@@ -16,7 +16,6 @@
 //! FSST encoding is transparent.
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::{
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
@@ -24,16 +23,23 @@ use crate::{
     data::{BlockInfo, DataBlock, VariableWidthBlock},
     encodings::logical::primitive::{
         fullzip::{PerValueCompressor, PerValueDataBlock},
-        miniblock::{MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressor},
+        miniblock::{MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressionContext, MiniBlockCompressor},
     },
     format::{
-        pb21::{self, CompressiveEncoding},
         ProtobufUtils21,
+        pb21::{self, CompressiveEncoding},
     },
 };
 
 use super::binary::BinaryMiniBlockEncoder;
 
+pub(crate) fn map_fsst_error(err: std::io::Error) -> Error {
+    match err.kind() {
+        std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData => Error::corrupt_file_named("fsst", err.to_string()),
+        _ => err.into(),
+    }
+}
+
 struct FsstCompressed {
     data: VariableWidthBlock,
     symbol_table: Vec<u8>,
@@ -116,14 +122,13 @@ impl FsstCompressed {
                     ),
                 }
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "Cannot compress a data block of type {} with FsstEncoder",
                     data.name()
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -140,7 +145,11 @@ impl FsstMiniBlockEncoder {
 }
 
 impl MiniBlockCompressor for FsstMiniBlockEncoder {
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    fn compress(
+        &self,
+        context: MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+        data: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         let compressed = FsstCompressed::fsst_compress(data)?;
 
         let data_block = DataBlock::VariableWidth(compressed.data);
@@ -150,7 +159,7 @@ impl MiniBlockCompressor for FsstMiniBlockEncoder {
             as Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>;
 
         let (binary_miniblock_compressed, binary_array_encoding) =
-            binary_compressor.compress(data_block)?;
+            binary_compressor.compress(context, data_block)?;
 
         Ok((
             binary_miniblock_compressed,
@@ -234,7 +243,8 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for FsstPerValueDecompressor {
                     offsets,
                     &mut decompress_bytes_buf,
                     &mut decompress_offset_buf,
-                )?;
+                )
+                .map_err(map_fsst_error)?;
 
                 // Ensure the offsets array is trimmed to exactly num_values + 1 elements
                 decompress_offset_buf.truncate((num_values + 1) as usize);
@@ -264,7 +274,8 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for FsstPerValueDecompressor {
                     offsets,
                     &mut decompress_bytes_buf,
                     &mut decompress_offset_buf,
-                )?;
+                )
+                .map_err(map_fsst_error)?;
 
                 // Ensure the offsets array is trimmed to exactly num_values + 1 elements
                 decompress_offset_buf.truncate((num_values + 1) as usize);
@@ -329,7 +340,8 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for FsstMiniBlockDecompressor {
                     offsets,
                     &mut decompress_bytes_buf,
                     &mut decompress_offset_buf,
-                )?;
+                )
+                .map_err(map_fsst_error)?;
 
                 // Ensure the offsets array is trimmed to exactly num_values + 1 elements
                 decompress_offset_buf.truncate((num_values + 1) as usize);
@@ -352,7 +364,8 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for FsstMiniBlockDecompressor {
                     offsets,
                     &mut decompress_bytes_buf,
                     &mut decompress_offset_buf,
-                )?;
+                )
+                .map_err(map_fsst_error)?;
 
                 // Ensure the offsets array is trimmed to exactly num_values + 1 elements
                 decompress_offset_buf.truncate((num_values + 1) as usize);
@@ -377,18 +390,28 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for FsstMiniBlockDecompressor {
 mod tests {
     use std::collections::HashMap;
 
+    use arrow_array::StringArray;
+    use fsst::fsst::{FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE, compress, decompress};
+    use lance_core::Error;
     use lance_datagen::{ByteCount, RowCount};
 
-    use crate::{
-        testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
-    };
+    use super::map_fsst_error;
+    use crate::testing::{TestCases, TestEncoding, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data};
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_fsst() {
+    async fn test_fsst(
+        #[values(false, true)] explicit: bool,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_expected_encoding("fsst")
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_encoding(encoding);
 
         // Generate data suitable for FSST (large strings, total size > 32KB)
         let arr = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
@@ -398,14 +421,49 @@ mod tests {
             .column(0)
             .clone();
 
-        // Test both explicit metadata and automatic selection
-        // 1. Test with explicit FSST metadata
-        let metadata_explicit =
-            HashMap::from([("lance-encoding:compression".to_string(), "fsst".to_string())]);
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr.clone()], &test_cases, metadata_explicit).await;
+        let metadata = if explicit {
+            HashMap::from([("lance-encoding:compression".to_string(), "fsst".to_string())])
+        } else {
+            // Automatic selection requires max_len >= 5 and total_size >= 32KB.
+            HashMap::new()
+        };
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+    }
 
-        // 2. Test automatic FSST selection based on data characteristics
-        // FSST should be chosen automatically: max_len >= 5 and total_size >= 32KB
-        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_corrupt_fsst_symbol_table_is_corrupt_file() {
+        let input = "the rain in spain stays mainly in the plain ".repeat(2048);
+        let array = StringArray::from(vec![input.as_str()]);
+        let mut symbol_table = [0u8; FSST_SYMBOL_TABLE_SIZE];
+        let mut compressed = vec![0u8; array.value_data().len().max(1)];
+        let mut compressed_offsets = vec![0i32; array.value_offsets().len()];
+        compress(
+            symbol_table.as_mut(),
+            array.value_data(),
+            array.value_offsets(),
+            &mut compressed,
+            &mut compressed_offsets,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let st_info = u64::from_ne_bytes(symbol_table[..8].try_into().unwrap());
+        assert!(st_info & (1 << 24) != 0, "expected decoder_switch_on input");
+        let n_symbols = (st_info & 255) as usize;
+        assert!(n_symbols > 0);
+        symbol_table[8 + n_symbols * 8] = 9;
+
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; compressed.len() * 8];
+        let mut out_offsets = vec![0i32; compressed_offsets.len()];
+        let err = decompress(
+            &symbol_table,
+            &compressed,
+            &compressed_offsets,
+            &mut out,
+            &mut out_offsets,
+        )
+        .map_err(map_fsst_error)
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("symbol length"), "{err}");
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/general.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/general.rs
index faa00fdb541..bea6a85cb01 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/general.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/general.rs
@@ -4,15 +4,17 @@
 use log::trace;
 
 use crate::{
+    Result,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     compression::MiniBlockDecompressor,
     data::DataBlock,
     encodings::{
-        logical::primitive::miniblock::{MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressor},
+        logical::primitive::miniblock::{
+            MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressionContext, MiniBlockCompressor,
+        },
         physical::block::{CompressionConfig, GeneralBufferCompressor},
     },
-    format::{pb21::CompressiveEncoding, ProtobufUtils21},
-    Result,
+    format::{ProtobufUtils21, pb21::CompressiveEncoding},
 };
 
 /// A miniblock compressor that wraps another miniblock compressor and applies
@@ -35,9 +37,13 @@ const MIN_BUFFER_SIZE_FOR_COMPRESSION: usize = 4 * 1024;
 use super::super::logical::primitive::miniblock::MiniBlockChunk;
 
 impl MiniBlockCompressor for GeneralMiniBlockCompressor {
-    fn compress(&self, page: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    fn compress(
+        &self,
+        context: MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+        page: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         // First, compress with the inner compressor
-        let (inner_compressed, inner_encoding) = self.inner.compress(page)?;
+        let (inner_compressed, inner_encoding) = self.inner.compress(context, page)?;
 
         // Return the original encoding without compression if there's no data or
         // the first buffer is not large enough
@@ -132,6 +138,10 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for GeneralMiniBlockDecompressor {
 
         self.inner.decompress(data, num_values)
     }
+
+    fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.inner.decoded_size_bytes(num_values)
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -146,6 +156,10 @@ mod tests {
     use crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
     use arrow_array::{Float64Array, Int32Array};
 
+    fn miniblock_context() -> MiniBlockCompressionContext {
+        MiniBlockCompressionContext::new(0, true, true)
+    }
+
     #[derive(Debug)]
     struct TestCase {
         name: &'static str,
@@ -161,7 +175,7 @@ mod tests {
             // Small data with RLE - should not compress due to size threshold
             TestCase {
                 name: "small_rle_data",
-                inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder),
+                inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder::new()),
                 compression: CompressionConfig {
                     scheme: CompressionScheme::Lz4,
                     level: None,
@@ -173,7 +187,7 @@ mod tests {
             // Large repeated data with RLE + LZ4
             TestCase {
                 name: "large_rle_lz4",
-                inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder),
+                inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder::new()),
                 compression: CompressionConfig {
                     scheme: CompressionScheme::Lz4,
                     level: None,
@@ -185,7 +199,7 @@ mod tests {
             // Large repeated data with RLE + Zstd
             TestCase {
                 name: "large_rle_zstd",
-                inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder),
+                inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder::new()),
                 compression: CompressionConfig {
                     scheme: CompressionScheme::Zstd,
                     level: Some(3),
@@ -249,7 +263,9 @@ mod tests {
             GeneralMiniBlockCompressor::new(test_case.inner_encoder, test_case.compression);
 
         // Compress the data
-        let (compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(test_case.data).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, encoding) = compressor
+            .compress(miniblock_context(), test_case.data)
+            .unwrap();
 
         // Check if compression was applied as expected
         match &encoding.compression {
@@ -403,7 +419,7 @@ mod tests {
         // Test that small buffers don't get compressed
         let small_test = TestCase {
             name: "small_buffer_no_compression",
-            inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder),
+            inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder::new()),
             compression: CompressionConfig {
                 scheme: CompressionScheme::Lz4,
                 level: None,
@@ -461,7 +477,7 @@ mod tests {
         let compressor = GeneralMiniBlockCompressor::new(inner, compression);
 
         // Compress the data
-        let (compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(block).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), block).unwrap();
 
         // Should get GeneralMiniBlock encoding since buffer is 4KB
         match &encoding.compression {
@@ -496,14 +512,14 @@ mod tests {
         // RLE produces 2 buffers (values and lengths), test that both are handled correctly
         let data = create_repeated_i32_block(vec![1; 100]);
         let compressor = GeneralMiniBlockCompressor::new(
-            Box::new(RleEncoder),
+            Box::new(RleEncoder::new()),
             CompressionConfig {
                 scheme: CompressionScheme::Lz4,
                 level: None,
             },
         );
 
-        let (compressed, _) = compressor.compress(data).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _) = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), data).unwrap();
         // RLE produces 2 buffers, but only the first one is compressed
         assert_eq!(compressed.data.len(), 2);
     }
@@ -519,7 +535,7 @@ mod tests {
         // Test case 1: 32-bit RLE data
         let test_32 = TestCase {
             name: "rle_32bit_with_general_wrapper",
-            inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder),
+            inner_encoder: Box::new(RleEncoder::new()),
             compression: CompressionConfig {
                 scheme: CompressionScheme::Lz4,
                 level: None,
@@ -532,14 +548,16 @@ mod tests {
         // For 32-bit RLE, the compression strategy should automatically wrap it
         // Let's directly test the compressor
         let compressor = GeneralMiniBlockCompressor::new(
-            Box::new(RleEncoder),
+            Box::new(RleEncoder::new()),
             CompressionConfig {
                 scheme: CompressionScheme::Lz4,
                 level: None,
             },
         );
 
-        let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(test_32.data).unwrap();
+        let (_compressed, encoding) = compressor
+            .compress(miniblock_context(), test_32.data)
+            .unwrap();
 
         // Verify the encoding structure
         match &encoding.compression {
@@ -589,14 +607,16 @@ mod tests {
         let block_64 = DataBlock::from_array(array_64);
 
         let compressor_64 = GeneralMiniBlockCompressor::new(
-            Box::new(RleEncoder),
+            Box::new(RleEncoder::new()),
             CompressionConfig {
                 scheme: CompressionScheme::Lz4,
                 level: None,
             },
         );
 
-        let (_compressed_64, encoding_64) = compressor_64.compress(block_64).unwrap();
+        let (_compressed_64, encoding_64) = compressor_64
+            .compress(miniblock_context(), block_64)
+            .unwrap();
 
         // Verify the encoding structure for 64-bit
         match &encoding_64.compression {
@@ -650,7 +670,7 @@ mod tests {
             },
         );
 
-        let result = compressor.compress(empty_block);
+        let result = compressor.compress(miniblock_context(), empty_block);
         match result {
             Ok((compressed, _)) => {
                 assert_eq!(compressed.num_values, 0);
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/packed.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/packed.rs
index 31ce7acd1e4..3ae3dc4d6f8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/packed.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/packed.rs
@@ -12,14 +12,12 @@
 use std::{convert::TryInto, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
-
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Field, Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field};
 
 use crate::{
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
     compression::{
-        DefaultCompressionStrategy, FixedPerValueDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor,
+        CompressionStrategy, FixedPerValueDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor,
         VariablePerValueDecompressor,
     },
     data::{
@@ -28,11 +26,11 @@ use crate::{
     },
     encodings::logical::primitive::{
         fullzip::{PerValueCompressor, PerValueDataBlock},
-        miniblock::{MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressor},
+        miniblock::{MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressionContext, MiniBlockCompressor},
     },
     format::{
-        pb21::{compressive_encoding::Compression, CompressiveEncoding, PackedStruct},
         ProtobufUtils21,
+        pb21::{CompressiveEncoding, PackedStruct, compressive_encoding::Compression},
     },
     statistics::{GetStat, Stat},
 };
@@ -74,7 +72,11 @@ fn struct_data_block_to_fixed_width_data_block(
 pub struct PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockEncoder {}
 
 impl MiniBlockCompressor for PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockEncoder {
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    fn compress(
+        &self,
+        context: MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+        data: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         match data {
             DataBlock::Struct(struct_data_block) => {
                 let bits_per_values = struct_data_block.children.iter().map(|data_block| data_block.as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap().bits_per_value).collect::<Vec<_>>();
@@ -85,21 +87,18 @@ impl MiniBlockCompressor for PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockEncoder {
                 // store and transformed fixed-width data block.
                 let value_miniblock_compressor = Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()) as Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>;
                 let (value_miniblock_compressed, value_array_encoding) =
-                value_miniblock_compressor.compress(data_block)?;
+                value_miniblock_compressor.compress(context, data_block)?;
 
                 Ok((
                     value_miniblock_compressed,
                     ProtobufUtils21::packed_struct(value_array_encoding, bits_per_values),
                 ))
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Cannot compress a data block of type {} with PackedStructFixedWidthBlockEncoder",
-                    data.name()
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!(
+                "Cannot compress a data block of type {} with PackedStructFixedWidthBlockEncoder",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into())),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -112,9 +111,18 @@ pub struct PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockDecompressor {
 
 impl PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockDecompressor {
     pub fn new(description: &PackedStruct) -> Self {
-        let array_encoding: Box<dyn MiniBlockDecompressor> = match description.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap() {
+        let array_encoding: Box<dyn MiniBlockDecompressor> = match description
+            .values
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .compression
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+        {
             Compression::Flat(flat) => Box::new(ValueDecompressor::from_flat(flat)),
-            _ => panic!("Currently only `ArrayEncoding::Flat` is supported in packed struct encoding in Lance 2.1."),
+            _ => panic!(
+                "Currently only `ArrayEncoding::Flat` is supported in packed struct encoding in Lance 2.1."
+            ),
         };
         Self {
             bits_per_values: description.bits_per_value.clone(),
@@ -177,11 +185,43 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlockDecompressor {
     }
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FixedPackedFieldData {
+    block: FixedWidthDataBlock,
+}
+
+impl FixedPackedFieldData {
+    fn append_row_bytes(&self, row_idx: usize, output: &mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<()> {
+        let bits_per_value = self.block.bits_per_value;
+        if !bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Packed struct encoding requires byte-aligned fixed-width children",
+            ));
+        }
+        let bytes_per_value = (bits_per_value / 8) as usize;
+        let start = row_idx
+            .checked_mul(bytes_per_value)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Packed struct row size overflow"))?;
+        let end = start.checked_add(bytes_per_value).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Packed struct fixed child range overflow: row_idx={row_idx}, \
+                 bytes_per_value={bytes_per_value}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let data = self.block.data.as_ref();
+        if end > data.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Packed struct fixed child out of bounds",
+            ));
+        }
+        output.extend_from_slice(&data[start..end]);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug)]
 enum VariablePackedFieldData {
-    Fixed {
-        block: FixedWidthDataBlock,
-    },
+    Fixed(FixedPackedFieldData),
     Variable {
         block: VariableWidthBlock,
         bits_per_length: u64,
@@ -191,44 +231,20 @@ enum VariablePackedFieldData {
 impl VariablePackedFieldData {
     fn append_row_bytes(&self, row_idx: usize, output: &mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<()> {
         match self {
-            Self::Fixed { block } => {
-                let bits_per_value = block.bits_per_value;
-                if bits_per_value % 8 != 0 {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "Packed struct variable encoding requires byte-aligned fixed-width children",
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-                let bytes_per_value = (bits_per_value / 8) as usize;
-                let start = row_idx.checked_mul(bytes_per_value).ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input("Packed struct row size overflow", location!())
-                })?;
-                let end = start + bytes_per_value;
-                let data = block.data.as_ref();
-                if end > data.len() {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "Packed struct fixed child out of bounds",
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-                output.extend_from_slice(&data[start..end]);
-                Ok(())
-            }
+            Self::Fixed(fixed_data) => fixed_data.append_row_bytes(row_idx, output),
             Self::Variable {
                 block,
                 bits_per_length,
             } => {
-                if bits_per_length % 8 != 0 {
+                if !bits_per_length.is_multiple_of(8) {
                     return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                         "Packed struct variable children must have byte-aligned length prefixes",
-                        location!(),
                     ));
                 }
                 let prefix_bytes = (*bits_per_length / 8) as usize;
                 if !(prefix_bytes == 4 || prefix_bytes == 8) {
                     return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                         "Packed struct variable children must use 32 or 64-bit length prefixes",
-                        location!(),
                     ));
                 }
                 match block.bits_per_offset {
@@ -239,14 +255,12 @@ impl VariablePackedFieldData {
                         if end > block.data.len() {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct variable child offsets out of bounds",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         let len = (end - start) as u32;
                         if prefix_bytes != std::mem::size_of::<u32>() {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct variable child length prefix mismatch",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         output.extend_from_slice(&len.to_le_bytes());
@@ -260,14 +274,12 @@ impl VariablePackedFieldData {
                         if end > block.data.len() {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct variable child offsets out of bounds",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         let len = (end - start) as u64;
                         if prefix_bytes != std::mem::size_of::<u64>() {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct variable child length prefix mismatch",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         output.extend_from_slice(&len.to_le_bytes());
@@ -276,7 +288,6 @@ impl VariablePackedFieldData {
                     }
                     _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
                         "Packed struct variable child must use 32 or 64-bit offsets",
-                        location!(),
                     )),
                 }
             }
@@ -284,59 +295,56 @@ impl VariablePackedFieldData {
     }
 }
 
+fn check_struct_validity(data: DataBlock, field_length: usize) -> Result<StructDataBlock> {
+    let DataBlock::Struct(struct_block) = data else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Packed struct encoder requires Struct data block",
+        ));
+    };
+
+    if struct_block.children.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Packed struct encoder requires at least one child field",
+        ));
+    }
+    if struct_block.children.len() != field_length {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Struct field metadata does not match number of children",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let num_values = struct_block.children[0].num_values();
+    for child in struct_block.children.iter() {
+        if child.num_values() != num_values {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Packed struct children must have matching value counts",
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(struct_block)
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder {
-    strategy: DefaultCompressionStrategy,
+    strategy: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>,
     fields: Vec<Field>,
 }
 
 impl PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder {
-    pub fn new(strategy: DefaultCompressionStrategy, fields: Vec<Field>) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(strategy: Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy>, fields: Vec<Field>) -> Self {
         Self { strategy, fields }
     }
 }
 
 impl PerValueCompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder {
     fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(PerValueDataBlock, CompressiveEncoding)> {
-        let DataBlock::Struct(struct_block) = data else {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Packed struct encoder requires Struct data block",
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        };
-
-        if struct_block.children.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Packed struct encoder requires at least one child field",
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
-        if struct_block.children.len() != self.fields.len() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Struct field metadata does not match number of children",
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
-
+        let struct_block = check_struct_validity(data, self.fields.len())?;
         let num_values = struct_block.children[0].num_values();
-        for child in struct_block.children.iter() {
-            if child.num_values() != num_values {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "Packed struct children must have matching value counts",
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
-        }
-
         let mut field_data = Vec::with_capacity(self.fields.len());
         let mut field_metadata = Vec::with_capacity(self.fields.len());
 
-        for (field, child_block) in self.fields.iter().zip(struct_block.children.into_iter()) {
-            let compressor = crate::compression::CompressionStrategy::create_per_value(
-                &self.strategy,
-                field,
-                &child_block,
-            )?;
+        for (field, child_block) in self.fields.iter().zip(struct_block.children) {
+            let compressor = self.strategy.create_per_value(field, &child_block)?;
             let (compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(child_block)?;
             match compressed {
                 PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(block) => {
@@ -344,7 +352,8 @@ impl PerValueCompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder {
                         encoding,
                         block.bits_per_value,
                     ));
-                    field_data.push(VariablePackedFieldData::Fixed { block });
+                    let block = FixedPackedFieldData { block };
+                    field_data.push(VariablePackedFieldData::Fixed(block));
                 }
                 PerValueDataBlock::Variable(block) => {
                     let bits_per_length = block.bits_per_offset as u64;
@@ -373,9 +382,9 @@ impl PerValueCompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder {
             let end = row_data.len();
             let row_len = end - start;
             max_row_len = max_row_len.max(row_len);
-            total_bytes = total_bytes.checked_add(row_len).ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("Packed struct row data size overflow", location!())
-            })?;
+            total_bytes = total_bytes
+                .checked_add(row_len)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Packed struct row data size overflow"))?;
             row_offsets.push(end as u64);
         }
         debug_assert_eq!(total_bytes, row_data.len());
@@ -407,6 +416,83 @@ impl PerValueCompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueEncoder {
     }
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct PackedStructFixedPerValueEncoder {
+    field_len: usize,
+}
+
+impl PackedStructFixedPerValueEncoder {
+    pub(crate) fn new(fields: Vec<Field>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            field_len: fields.len(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PerValueCompressor for PackedStructFixedPerValueEncoder {
+    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(PerValueDataBlock, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+        let struct_block = check_struct_validity(data, self.field_len)?;
+
+        if struct_block.has_variable_width_child() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Packed struct fixed encoding requires all children to be fixed-width",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let num_values = struct_block.children[0].num_values();
+        // Fixed length - supporting only flat encoding
+        let compressor = Box::new(ValueEncoder::default()) as Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>;
+        let mut field_data = Vec::with_capacity(self.field_len);
+        let mut field_bits_per_value = Vec::with_capacity(self.field_len);
+        let mut bits_per_row: u64 = 0;
+
+        for child_block in struct_block.children.into_iter() {
+            let (compressed, ..) = compressor.compress(child_block)?;
+            match compressed {
+                PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(block) => {
+                    bits_per_row = bits_per_row
+                        .checked_add(block.bits_per_value)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Packed struct row width overflow"))?;
+                    field_bits_per_value.push(block.bits_per_value);
+                    field_data.push(FixedPackedFieldData { block });
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "Packed struct fixed encoding requires all children to be fixed-width",
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Children are validated byte-aligned in `append_row_bytes`, so the row width
+        // is an exact number of bytes.
+        let bytes_per_row = (bits_per_row / 8) as usize;
+        let mut row_data: Vec<u8> =
+            Vec::with_capacity(bytes_per_row.saturating_mul(num_values as usize));
+        for row in 0..num_values as usize {
+            for field in &field_data {
+                field.append_row_bytes(row, &mut row_data)?;
+            }
+            debug_assert_eq!(row_data.len(), bytes_per_row * (row + 1));
+        }
+
+        let data_block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::from(row_data),
+            bits_per_value: bits_per_row,
+            num_values,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        };
+
+        Ok((
+            PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(data_block),
+            ProtobufUtils21::packed_struct(
+                ProtobufUtils21::flat(bits_per_row, None),
+                field_bits_per_value,
+            ),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub(crate) enum VariablePackedStructFieldKind {
     Fixed {
@@ -435,19 +521,88 @@ impl PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
     }
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FixedFieldAccumulator {
+    builder: DataBlockBuilder,
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    empty_value: DataBlock,
+}
+
+impl FixedFieldAccumulator {
+    fn append_empty(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.builder.append(&self.empty_value, 0..1)
+    }
+
+    fn new(bits_per_value: u64, num_values: u64) -> Result<Self> {
+        if !bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Packed struct fixed child must be byte-aligned",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let bytes_per_value = bits_per_value.checked_div(8).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("Invalid bits per value for packed struct field")
+        })?;
+
+        let estimate = bytes_per_value
+            .checked_mul(num_values)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Packed struct fixed child allocation overflow"))?;
+
+        let empty_value = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::from(vec![0_u8; bytes_per_value as usize]),
+            bits_per_value,
+            num_values: 1,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        });
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            builder: DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(estimate),
+            bits_per_value,
+            empty_value,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn finish(self) -> Result<FixedWidthDataBlock> {
+        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) = self.builder.finish() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Expected fixed-width datablock from builder",
+            ));
+        };
+        Ok(block)
+    }
+}
+
 enum FieldAccumulator {
-    Fixed {
-        builder: DataBlockBuilder,
-        bits_per_value: u64,
-    },
+    Fixed(FixedFieldAccumulator),
     Variable32 {
         builder: DataBlockBuilder,
+        empty_value: DataBlock,
     },
     Variable64 {
         builder: DataBlockBuilder,
+        empty_value: DataBlock,
     },
 }
 
+impl FieldAccumulator {
+    // In full-zip variable packed decoding, rep/def may produce a visible row
+    // with an empty payload (e.g. null/invalid item). We still need to append
+    // one placeholder per child so child row counts remain aligned.
+    fn append_empty(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Fixed(fixed_field_accumulator) => fixed_field_accumulator.append_empty(),
+            Self::Variable32 {
+                builder,
+                empty_value,
+            } => builder.append(empty_value, 0..1),
+            Self::Variable64 {
+                builder,
+                empty_value,
+            } => builder.append(empty_value, 0..1),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
     fn decompress(&self, data: VariableWidthBlock) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         let num_values = data.num_values;
@@ -466,15 +621,13 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
             _ => {
                 return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "Packed struct row offsets must be 32 or 64 bits",
-                    location!(),
-                ))
+                ));
             }
         };
 
         if offsets_u64.len() != num_values as usize + 1 {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Packed struct row offsets length mismatch",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
@@ -482,43 +635,36 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
         for field in &self.fields {
             match &field.kind {
                 VariablePackedStructFieldKind::Fixed { bits_per_value, .. } => {
-                    if bits_per_value % 8 != 0 {
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            "Packed struct fixed child must be byte-aligned",
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
-                    }
-                    let bytes_per_value = bits_per_value.checked_div(8).ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input(
-                            "Invalid bits per value for packed struct field",
-                            location!(),
-                        )
-                    })?;
-                    let estimate = bytes_per_value.checked_mul(num_values).ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input(
-                            "Packed struct fixed child allocation overflow",
-                            location!(),
-                        )
-                    })?;
-                    accumulators.push(FieldAccumulator::Fixed {
-                        builder: DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(estimate),
-                        bits_per_value: *bits_per_value,
-                    });
+                    let accumulator = FixedFieldAccumulator::new(*bits_per_value, num_values)?;
+                    accumulators.push(FieldAccumulator::Fixed(accumulator));
                 }
                 VariablePackedStructFieldKind::Variable {
                     bits_per_length, ..
                 } => match bits_per_length {
                     32 => accumulators.push(FieldAccumulator::Variable32 {
                         builder: DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(data.data.len() as u64),
+                        empty_value: DataBlock::VariableWidth(VariableWidthBlock {
+                            data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+                            bits_per_offset: 32,
+                            offsets: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_u32, 0_u32]),
+                            num_values: 1,
+                            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                        }),
                     }),
                     64 => accumulators.push(FieldAccumulator::Variable64 {
                         builder: DataBlockBuilder::with_capacity_estimate(data.data.len() as u64),
+                        empty_value: DataBlock::VariableWidth(VariableWidthBlock {
+                            data: LanceBuffer::empty(),
+                            bits_per_offset: 64,
+                            offsets: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_u64, 0_u64]),
+                            num_values: 1,
+                            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+                        }),
                     }),
                     _ => {
                         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                             "Packed struct variable child must use 32 or 64-bit length prefixes",
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        ));
                     }
                 },
             }
@@ -530,26 +676,27 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
             if row_end > data.data.len() || row_start > row_end {
                 return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "Packed struct row bounds exceed buffer",
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
+            if row_start == row_end {
+                for accumulator in accumulators.iter_mut() {
+                    accumulator.append_empty()?;
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
             let mut cursor = row_start;
             for (field, accumulator) in self.fields.iter().zip(accumulators.iter_mut()) {
                 match (&field.kind, accumulator) {
                     (
                         VariablePackedStructFieldKind::Fixed { bits_per_value, .. },
-                        FieldAccumulator::Fixed {
-                            builder,
-                            bits_per_value: acc_bits,
-                        },
+                        FieldAccumulator::Fixed(fixed_accumulator),
                     ) => {
-                        debug_assert_eq!(bits_per_value, acc_bits);
-                        let bytes_per_value = (bits_per_value / 8) as usize;
+                        debug_assert_eq!(*bits_per_value, fixed_accumulator.bits_per_value);
+                        let bytes_per_value = (*bits_per_value / 8) as usize;
                         let end = cursor + bytes_per_value;
                         if end > row_end {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct fixed child exceeds row bounds",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         let value_block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
@@ -558,26 +705,24 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
                             num_values: 1,
                             block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
                         });
-                        builder.append(&value_block, 0..1);
+                        fixed_accumulator.builder.append(&value_block, 0..1)?;
                         cursor = end;
                     }
                     (
                         VariablePackedStructFieldKind::Variable {
                             bits_per_length, ..
                         },
-                        FieldAccumulator::Variable32 { builder },
+                        FieldAccumulator::Variable32 { builder, .. },
                     ) => {
                         if *bits_per_length != 32 {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct length prefix size mismatch",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         let end = cursor + std::mem::size_of::<u32>();
                         if end > row_end {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct variable child length prefix out of bounds",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         let len = u32::from_le_bytes(
@@ -590,7 +735,6 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
                         if value_end > row_end {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct variable child exceeds row bounds",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         let value_block = DataBlock::VariableWidth(VariableWidthBlock {
@@ -600,26 +744,24 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
                             num_values: 1,
                             block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
                         });
-                        builder.append(&value_block, 0..1);
+                        builder.append(&value_block, 0..1)?;
                         cursor = value_end;
                     }
                     (
                         VariablePackedStructFieldKind::Variable {
                             bits_per_length, ..
                         },
-                        FieldAccumulator::Variable64 { builder },
+                        FieldAccumulator::Variable64 { builder, .. },
                     ) => {
                         if *bits_per_length != 64 {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct length prefix size mismatch",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         let end = cursor + std::mem::size_of::<u64>();
                         if end > row_end {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct variable child length prefix out of bounds",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         let len = u64::from_le_bytes(
@@ -632,7 +774,6 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
                         if value_end > row_end {
                             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "Packed struct variable child exceeds row bounds",
-                                location!(),
                             ));
                         }
                         let value_block = DataBlock::VariableWidth(VariableWidthBlock {
@@ -642,38 +783,34 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
                             num_values: 1,
                             block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
                         });
-                        builder.append(&value_block, 0..1);
+                        builder.append(&value_block, 0..1)?;
                         cursor = value_end;
                     }
                     _ => {
                         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                             "Packed struct accumulator kind mismatch",
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        ));
                     }
                 }
             }
             if cursor != row_end {
                 return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "Packed struct row parsing did not consume full row",
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
         }
 
         let mut children = Vec::with_capacity(self.fields.len());
-        for (field, accumulator) in self.fields.iter().zip(accumulators.into_iter()) {
+        for (field, accumulator) in self.fields.iter().zip(accumulators) {
             match (field, accumulator) {
                 (
                     VariablePackedStructFieldDecoder {
                         kind: VariablePackedStructFieldKind::Fixed { decompressor, .. },
                     },
-                    FieldAccumulator::Fixed { builder, .. },
+                    FieldAccumulator::Fixed(fixed_accumulator),
                 ) => {
-                    let DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) = builder.finish() else {
-                        panic!("Expected fixed-width datablock from builder");
-                    };
-                    let decoded = decompressor.decompress(block, num_values)?;
+                    let finished_accumulator = fixed_accumulator.finish()?;
+                    let decoded = decompressor.decompress(finished_accumulator, num_values)?;
                     children.push(decoded);
                 }
                 (
@@ -684,7 +821,7 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
                                 decompressor,
                             },
                     },
-                    FieldAccumulator::Variable32 { builder },
+                    FieldAccumulator::Variable32 { builder, .. },
                 ) => {
                     let DataBlock::VariableWidth(mut block) = builder.finish() else {
                         panic!("Expected variable-width datablock from builder");
@@ -702,7 +839,7 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
                                 decompressor,
                             },
                     },
-                    FieldAccumulator::Variable64 { builder },
+                    FieldAccumulator::Variable64 { builder, .. },
                 ) => {
                     let DataBlock::VariableWidth(mut block) = builder.finish() else {
                         panic!("Expected variable-width datablock from builder");
@@ -715,10 +852,117 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
                 _ => {
                     return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                         "Packed struct accumulator mismatch during finalize",
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(DataBlock::Struct(StructDataBlock {
+            children,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            validity: None,
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PackedStructFixedFieldDecoder {
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    decompressor: Box<dyn FixedPerValueDecompressor>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct PackedStructFixedPerValueDecompressor {
+    decoders: Vec<PackedStructFixedFieldDecoder>,
+}
+
+impl PackedStructFixedPerValueDecompressor {
+    pub(crate) fn new(description: &PackedStruct) -> Result<Self> {
+        let compression = description
+            .values
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("PackedStruct missing values encoding"))?
+            .compression
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input("PackedStruct values missing compression encoding")
+            })?;
+
+        // The encoder always flat-encodes each child, so that is the only layout we can decode.
+        if !matches!(compression, Compression::Flat(..)) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "PackedStruct fixed encoding currently requires flat compression",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let decoders = description
+            .bits_per_value
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&bits_per_value| {
+                let flat = crate::format::pb21::Flat {
+                    bits_per_value,
+                    data: None,
+                };
+                PackedStructFixedFieldDecoder {
+                    bits_per_value,
+                    decompressor: Box::new(ValueDecompressor::from_flat(&flat)),
                 }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Ok(Self { decoders })
+    }
+}
+
+impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for PackedStructFixedPerValueDecompressor {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: FixedWidthDataBlock, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        if !data.bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Packed struct fixed encoding requires byte-aligned children",
+            ));
+        }
+        let bytes_per_row = (data.bits_per_value / 8) as usize;
+
+        // Byte offset of each child within a packed row (a running prefix sum of the
+        // child widths). The final offset must equal the packed row width.
+        let mut child_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(self.decoders.len());
+        for decoder in &self.decoders {
+            if !decoder.bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "Packed struct fixed child must be byte-aligned",
+                ));
             }
+            child_bytes.push((decoder.bits_per_value / 8) as usize);
+        }
+        if child_bytes.iter().sum::<usize>() != bytes_per_row {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Packed struct child widths do not sum to the packed row width",
+            ));
+        }
+        if bytes_per_row.saturating_mul(num_values as usize) > data.data.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Packed struct row bounds exceed buffer",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // Un-zip the row-major buffer one child at a time by gathering that child's
+        // slice out of every row, then hand the column to the child decompressor.
+        let bytes = data.data.as_ref();
+        let mut children = Vec::with_capacity(self.decoders.len());
+        let mut field_offset = 0;
+        for (decoder, &field_bytes) in self.decoders.iter().zip(child_bytes.iter()) {
+            let mut child_buf = Vec::with_capacity(field_bytes * num_values as usize);
+            for row_idx in 0..num_values as usize {
+                let start = row_idx * bytes_per_row + field_offset;
+                child_buf.extend_from_slice(&bytes[start..start + field_bytes]);
+            }
+            let child_block = FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                data: LanceBuffer::from(child_buf),
+                bits_per_value: decoder.bits_per_value,
+                num_values,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            };
+            children.push(decoder.decompressor.decompress(child_block, num_values)?);
+            field_offset += field_bytes;
         }
 
         Ok(DataBlock::Struct(StructDataBlock {
@@ -727,6 +971,13 @@ impl VariablePerValueDecompressor for PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor {
             validity: None,
         }))
     }
+
+    fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.decoders
+            .iter()
+            .map(|decoder| decoder.bits_per_value)
+            .sum()
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -734,11 +985,15 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use crate::{
         compression::CompressionStrategy,
-        compression::{DefaultCompressionStrategy, DefaultDecompressionStrategy},
-        constants::PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY,
+        compression::DefaultDecompressionStrategy,
+        compression_config::CompressionParams,
+        constants::{
+            PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY,
+        },
         statistics::ComputeStat,
-        testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
+        testing::{
+            TestCases, TestEncoding, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, test_compression_strategy,
+        },
     };
     use arrow_array::{
         Array, ArrayRef, BinaryArray, Int32Array, Int64Array, LargeStringArray, StringArray,
@@ -838,9 +1093,9 @@ mod tests {
         let data_block = DataBlock::Struct(struct_block);
 
         let compression_strategy =
-            DefaultCompressionStrategy::new().with_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            test_compression_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, CompressionParams::default());
         let compressor = crate::compression::CompressionStrategy::create_per_value(
-            &compression_strategy,
+            compression_strategy.as_ref(),
             &struct_field,
             &data_block,
         )?;
@@ -906,9 +1161,9 @@ mod tests {
         let data_block = DataBlock::Struct(struct_block);
 
         let compression_strategy =
-            DefaultCompressionStrategy::new().with_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            test_compression_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, CompressionParams::default());
         let compressor = crate::compression::CompressionStrategy::create_per_value(
-            &compression_strategy,
+            compression_strategy.as_ref(),
             &struct_field,
             &data_block,
         )?;
@@ -988,7 +1243,7 @@ mod tests {
         ]));
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings()
             .with_expected_encoding("variable_packed_struct");
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &test_cases, meta).await;
@@ -1027,9 +1282,9 @@ mod tests {
         let data_block = DataBlock::Struct(struct_block);
 
         let compression_strategy =
-            DefaultCompressionStrategy::new().with_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+            test_compression_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, CompressionParams::default());
         let compressor = crate::compression::CompressionStrategy::create_per_value(
-            &compression_strategy,
+            compression_strategy.as_ref(),
             &struct_field,
             &data_block,
         )?;
@@ -1110,10 +1365,207 @@ mod tests {
         };
 
         let compression_strategy =
-            DefaultCompressionStrategy::new().with_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            test_compression_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU16, CompressionParams::default());
         let result =
             compression_strategy.create_per_value(&struct_field, &DataBlock::Struct(struct_block));
 
         assert!(matches!(result, Err(Error::NotSupported { .. })));
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn variable_packed_struct_decompress_empty_row() -> Result<()> {
+        let strategy = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let fixed_decompressor = Arc::from(
+            crate::compression::DecompressionStrategy::create_fixed_per_value_decompressor(
+                &strategy,
+                &ProtobufUtils21::flat(32, None),
+            )?,
+        );
+        let variable_decompressor = Arc::from(
+            crate::compression::DecompressionStrategy::create_variable_per_value_decompressor(
+                &strategy,
+                &ProtobufUtils21::variable(ProtobufUtils21::flat(32, None), None),
+            )?,
+        );
+
+        let decompressor = PackedStructVariablePerValueDecompressor::new(vec![
+            VariablePackedStructFieldDecoder {
+                kind: VariablePackedStructFieldKind::Fixed {
+                    bits_per_value: 32,
+                    decompressor: fixed_decompressor,
+                },
+            },
+            VariablePackedStructFieldDecoder {
+                kind: VariablePackedStructFieldKind::Variable {
+                    bits_per_length: 32,
+                    decompressor: variable_decompressor,
+                },
+            },
+        ]);
+
+        let mut row_data = Vec::new();
+        row_data.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        row_data.extend_from_slice(&1_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        row_data.extend_from_slice(b"a");
+        row_data.extend_from_slice(&2_u32.to_le_bytes());
+        row_data.extend_from_slice(&0_u32.to_le_bytes());
+
+        let input = VariableWidthBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::from(row_data),
+            bits_per_offset: 32,
+            offsets: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(vec![0_u32, 9_u32, 9_u32, 17_u32]),
+            num_values: 3,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        };
+
+        let decoded = decompressor.decompress(input)?;
+        let DataBlock::Struct(decoded_struct) = decoded else {
+            panic!("expected struct output");
+        };
+
+        let fixed = decoded_struct.children[0].as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fixed.bits_per_value, 32);
+        assert_eq!(
+            fixed.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u32>().as_ref(),
+            &[1, 0, 2]
+        );
+
+        let variable = decoded_struct.children[1].as_variable_width_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(variable.bits_per_offset, 32);
+        assert_eq!(
+            variable.offsets.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u32>().as_ref(),
+            &[0_u32, 1_u32, 1_u32, 1_u32]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(variable.data.as_ref(), b"a");
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fixed_packed_struct_round_trip() -> Result<()> {
+        let arrow_fields: Fields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int64, false),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let arrow_struct = ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Struct(arrow_fields), false);
+        let struct_field = Field::try_from(&arrow_struct)?;
+
+        let id_block = fixed_i32_block_from_array(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4]));
+        let value_block = fixed_block_from_array(Int64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30, 40]));
+
+        let struct_block = StructDataBlock {
+            children: vec![
+                DataBlock::FixedWidth(id_block.clone()),
+                DataBlock::FixedWidth(value_block.clone()),
+            ],
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            validity: None,
+        };
+
+        let data_block = DataBlock::Struct(struct_block);
+
+        let compression_strategy =
+            test_compression_strategy(TestEncoding::StructuralU32, CompressionParams::default());
+        let compressor = CompressionStrategy::create_per_value(
+            compression_strategy.as_ref(),
+            &struct_field,
+            &data_block,
+        )?;
+        let (compressed, encoding) = compressor.compress(data_block)?;
+
+        let PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(zipped) = compressed else {
+            panic!("expected fixed-width packed struct output");
+        };
+
+        let decompression_strategy = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let decompressor =
+            crate::compression::DecompressionStrategy::create_fixed_per_value_decompressor(
+                &decompression_strategy,
+                &encoding,
+            )?;
+        let decoded = decompressor.decompress(zipped, 4)?;
+
+        let DataBlock::Struct(decoded_struct) = decoded else {
+            panic!("expected struct datablock after decode");
+        };
+
+        let decoded_id = decoded_struct.children[0].as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded_id.bits_per_value, 32);
+        assert_eq!(decoded_id.data.as_ref(), id_block.data.as_ref());
+
+        let decoded_value = decoded_struct.children[1].as_fixed_width_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded_value.bits_per_value, 64);
+        assert_eq!(decoded_value.data.as_ref(), value_block.data.as_ref());
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    // End-to-end round trip through the file writer. Requesting full-zip on an
+    // all-fixed-width struct routes to `PackedStructFixedPerValueEncoder` (mini-block
+    // is only chosen for narrow structs), exercising the writer/reader wiring rather
+    // than just the block-level compress/decompress above.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fixed_packed_struct_full_zip_round_trip() {
+        let fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)),
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int64, false)),
+        ]);
+
+        let mut meta = HashMap::new();
+        meta.insert(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
+        meta.insert(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP.to_string(),
+        );
+
+        let array = Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                fields[0].clone(),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                fields[1].clone(),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30, 40])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_u32_structural_encodings()
+            .with_expected_encoding("packed_struct");
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![array], &test_cases, meta).await;
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fixed_packed_struct_rejects_variable_child() -> Result<()> {
+        let arrow_fields: Fields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let arrow_struct = ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Struct(arrow_fields), false);
+        let struct_field = Field::try_from(&arrow_struct)?;
+
+        let struct_block = DataBlock::Struct(StructDataBlock {
+            children: vec![
+                DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_i32_block_from_array(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]))),
+                DataBlock::VariableWidth(variable_block_from_string_array(StringArray::from(
+                    vec!["a", "bb"],
+                ))),
+            ],
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            validity: None,
+        });
+
+        let encoder = PackedStructFixedPerValueEncoder::new(struct_field.children);
+        let err = encoder.compress(struct_block).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("fixed-width"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/rle.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/rle.rs
index 06580c93ece..b4f17b44cb8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/rle.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/rle.rs
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 //! RLE uses a dual-buffer format to store compressed data:
 //!
 //! - **Values Buffer**: Stores unique values in their original data type
-//! - **Lengths Buffer**: Stores the repeat count for each value as u8
+//! - **Lengths Buffer**: Stores the repeat count for each value as u8, u16, or u32
 //!
 //! ### Example
 //!
@@ -18,13 +18,13 @@
 //!
 //! Encoded as:
 //! - Values buffer: `[1, 2, 3]` (3 × 4 bytes for i32)
-//! - Lengths buffer: `[3, 2, 4]` (3 × 1 byte for u8)
+//! - Lengths buffer: `[3, 2, 4]` (3 × 1 byte for u8 in compatibility mode)
 //!
 //! ### Long Run Handling
 //!
-//! When a run exceeds 255 values, it is split into multiple runs of 255
-//! followed by a final run with the remainder. For example, a run of 1000
-//! identical values becomes 4 runs: [255, 255, 255, 235].
+//! In compatibility mode, when a run exceeds 255 values, it is split into multiple
+//! runs of 255 followed by a final run with the remainder. RLE v2 can use u16 or
+//! u32 run lengths to reduce this splitting.
 //!
 //! ## Supported Types
 //!
@@ -54,30 +54,332 @@
 //! When used in the block compression path, the encoded output is a single buffer:
 //! `[8-byte header: values buffer size][values buffer][run_lengths buffer]`.
 
-use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
+use arrow_buffer::{ArrowNativeType, ScalarBuffer};
 use log::trace;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
-use crate::compression::{BlockCompressor, BlockDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor};
+use crate::compression::{
+    BlockCompressor, BlockDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor, require_block_payload,
+};
 use crate::data::DataBlock;
 use crate::data::{BlockInfo, FixedWidthDataBlock};
 use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::{
-    MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressor, MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES,
-    MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES,
+    MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES, MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES, MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed,
+    MiniBlockCompressionContext, MiniBlockCompressor,
 };
-use crate::format::pb21::CompressiveEncoding;
+use crate::encodings::physical::block::{CompressionConfig, GeneralBufferCompressor};
 use crate::format::ProtobufUtils21;
+use crate::format::pb21::CompressiveEncoding;
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
+/// Width used to encode RLE run lengths.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum RunLengthWidth {
+    /// Compatibility mode. Runs longer than 255 values are split.
+    U8,
+    /// RLE v2 mode for runs up to 65,535 values per entry.
+    U16,
+    /// RLE v2 mode for runs up to 4,294,967,295 values per entry.
+    U32,
+}
+
+impl RunLengthWidth {
+    pub(crate) fn from_bits(bits_per_value: u64) -> Option<Self> {
+        match bits_per_value {
+            8 => Some(Self::U8),
+            16 => Some(Self::U16),
+            32 => Some(Self::U32),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn bits_per_value(self) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8 => 8,
+            Self::U16 => 16,
+            Self::U32 => 32,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn bytes_per_value(self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8 => 1,
+            Self::U16 => 2,
+            Self::U32 => 4,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn max_run_length(self) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8 => u8::MAX as u64,
+            Self::U16 => u16::MAX as u64,
+            Self::U32 => u32::MAX as u64,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn write_length(self, length: u64, dst: &mut Vec<u8>) {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8 => dst.push(length as u8),
+            Self::U16 => dst.extend_from_slice(&(length as u16).to_le_bytes()),
+            Self::U32 => dst.extend_from_slice(&(length as u32).to_le_bytes()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn read_length(self, bytes: &[u8]) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8 => bytes[0] as u64,
+            Self::U16 => u16::from_le_bytes([bytes[0], bytes[1]]) as u64,
+            Self::U32 => u32::from_le_bytes([bytes[0], bytes[1], bytes[2], bytes[3]]) as u64,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+const RUN_LENGTH_WIDTHS: [RunLengthWidth; 3] =
+    [RunLengthWidth::U8, RunLengthWidth::U16, RunLengthWidth::U32];
+
+/// Select the lowest-cost run length width from precomputed entry counts.
+pub(crate) fn select_run_length_width_from_entries(
+    entries: &[u64],
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+) -> Result<(RunLengthWidth, u128)> {
+    if entries.len() != RUN_LENGTH_WIDTHS.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "RLE run length entry statistics must have {} values, got {}",
+                RUN_LENGTH_WIDTHS.len(),
+                entries.len()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    if !matches!(bits_per_value, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("RLE encoding bits_per_value must be 8, 16, 32, or 64, got {bits_per_value}")
+                .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let mut best_width = RUN_LENGTH_WIDTHS[0];
+    let mut best_cost = rle_encoded_size_from_entries(entries[0], bits_per_value, best_width);
+    for (&width, &entry_count) in RUN_LENGTH_WIDTHS.iter().zip(entries.iter()).skip(1) {
+        let cost = rle_encoded_size_from_entries(entry_count, bits_per_value, width);
+        if cost < best_cost {
+            best_width = width;
+            best_cost = cost;
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok((best_width, best_cost))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn rle_encoded_size_from_entries(
+    entry_count: u64,
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+) -> u128 {
+    let bytes_per_value = (bits_per_value / 8) as u128;
+    let bytes_per_length = run_length_width.bytes_per_value() as u128;
+    (entry_count as u128) * (bytes_per_value + bytes_per_length)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn run_length_width_index(run_length_width: RunLengthWidth) -> usize {
+    match run_length_width {
+        RunLengthWidth::U8 => 0,
+        RunLengthWidth::U16 => 1,
+        RunLengthWidth::U32 => 2,
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn select_run_length_width(
+    data: &LanceBuffer,
+    num_values: u64,
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    max_segment_values: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<(RunLengthWidth, u128)> {
+    let entries = collect_run_length_entries(data, num_values, bits_per_value, max_segment_values)?;
+    select_run_length_width_from_entries(&entries, bits_per_value)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn rle_encoded_size(
+    data: &LanceBuffer,
+    num_values: u64,
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    max_segment_values: Option<u64>,
+    run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+) -> Result<u128> {
+    let entries = collect_run_length_entries(data, num_values, bits_per_value, max_segment_values)?;
+    let width_idx = run_length_width_index(run_length_width);
+    Ok(rle_encoded_size_from_entries(
+        entries[width_idx],
+        bits_per_value,
+        run_length_width,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn collect_run_length_entries(
+    data: &LanceBuffer,
+    num_values: u64,
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    max_segment_values: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<[u64; 3]> {
+    let num_values = usize::try_from(num_values).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("RLE num_values does not fit in usize: {num_values}").into(),
+        )
+    })?;
+
+    macro_rules! collect_entries {
+        ($ty:ty) => {{
+            let type_size = std::mem::size_of::<$ty>();
+            let expected_bytes = num_values.checked_mul(type_size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE input byte length overflow: {num_values} values of {type_size} bytes"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            if data.len() != expected_bytes {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE input data size mismatch: {} bytes for {} values of {} bytes",
+                        data.len(),
+                        num_values,
+                        type_size
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let values = data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<$ty>();
+            let values = values.get(..num_values).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE data has {} values but {} were expected",
+                        values.len(),
+                        num_values
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            Ok(collect_run_length_entries_from_slice(
+                values,
+                max_segment_values,
+            ))
+        }};
+    }
+
+    match bits_per_value {
+        8 => collect_entries!(u8),
+        16 => collect_entries!(u16),
+        32 => collect_entries!(u32),
+        64 => collect_entries!(u64),
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("RLE encoding bits_per_value must be 8, 16, 32, or 64, got {bits_per_value}")
+                .into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn collect_run_length_entries_from_slice<T: PartialEq + Copy>(
+    values: &[T],
+    max_segment_values: Option<u64>,
+) -> [u64; 3] {
+    if values.is_empty() {
+        return [0; 3];
+    }
+
+    let mut entries = [0u64; 3];
+    let mut prev = values[0];
+    let mut current_length = 1u64;
+
+    for &value in &values[1..] {
+        if value != prev {
+            accumulate_run_length_entries(current_length, max_segment_values, &mut entries);
+            prev = value;
+            current_length = 1;
+        } else {
+            current_length += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    accumulate_run_length_entries(current_length, max_segment_values, &mut entries);
+
+    entries
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn accumulate_run_length_entries(
+    run_length: u64,
+    max_segment_values: Option<u64>,
+    entries: &mut [u64; 3],
+) {
+    let max_segment_values = max_segment_values.unwrap_or(run_length).max(1);
+    let mut remaining = run_length;
+    while remaining > 0 {
+        let segment = remaining.min(max_segment_values);
+        for (idx, width) in RUN_LENGTH_WIDTHS.iter().enumerate() {
+            let entry_count = segment.div_ceil(width.max_run_length());
+            entries[idx] = entries[idx].saturating_add(entry_count);
+        }
+        remaining -= segment;
+    }
+}
+
 /// RLE encoder for miniblock format
-#[derive(Debug, Default)]
-pub struct RleEncoder;
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct RleEncoder {
+    run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+    values_compression: Option<CompressionConfig>,
+    run_lengths_compression: Option<CompressionConfig>,
+    use_child_bitpacking: bool,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct RleChildCandidate {
+    encoding: CompressiveEncoding,
+    data: LanceBuffer,
+    chunk_sizes: Vec<u32>,
+    size: usize,
+    requires_num_values: bool,
+}
+
+impl Default for RleEncoder {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
 
 impl RleEncoder {
     pub fn new() -> Self {
-        Self
+        Self {
+            run_length_width: RunLengthWidth::U8,
+            values_compression: None,
+            run_lengths_compression: None,
+            use_child_bitpacking: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_run_length_width(run_length_width: RunLengthWidth) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            run_length_width,
+            values_compression: None,
+            run_lengths_compression: None,
+            use_child_bitpacking: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_child_encoding(
+        run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+        values_compression: Option<CompressionConfig>,
+        run_lengths_compression: Option<CompressionConfig>,
+        use_child_bitpacking: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            run_length_width,
+            values_compression,
+            run_lengths_compression,
+            use_child_bitpacking,
+        }
     }
 
     fn encode_data(
@@ -90,17 +392,23 @@ impl RleEncoder {
             return Ok((Vec::new(), Vec::new()));
         }
 
+        let num_values = usize::try_from(num_values).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("RLE num_values does not fit in usize: {num_values}").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
         let bytes_per_value = (bits_per_value / 8) as usize;
+        let bytes_per_length = self.run_length_width.bytes_per_value();
 
         // Pre-allocate global buffers with estimated capacity
         // Assume average compression ratio of ~10:1 (10 values per run)
-        let estimated_runs = num_values as usize / 10;
+        let estimated_runs = num_values / 10;
         let mut all_values = Vec::with_capacity(estimated_runs * bytes_per_value);
-        let mut all_lengths = Vec::with_capacity(estimated_runs);
+        let mut all_lengths = Vec::with_capacity(estimated_runs * bytes_per_length);
         let mut chunks = Vec::new();
 
         let mut offset = 0usize;
-        let mut values_remaining = num_values as usize;
+        let mut values_remaining = num_values;
 
         while values_remaining > 0 {
             let values_start = all_values.len();
@@ -135,11 +443,26 @@ impl RleEncoder {
                     &mut all_values,
                     &mut all_lengths,
                 ),
-                _ => unreachable!("RLE encoding bits_per_value must be 8, 16, 32 or 64"),
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "RLE encoding bits_per_value must be 8, 16, 32, or 64, got {bits_per_value}"
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
             };
 
             if values_processed == 0 {
-                break;
+                // A non-final chunk needs at least two values because log_num_values == 0
+                // identifies the final chunk. Report an error instead of returning partial data.
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "RLE encoder made no progress: values_remaining={values_remaining}, \
+                     offset={offset}, data_len={}, bits_per_value={bits_per_value}, \
+                     max_miniblock_values={}",
+                    data.len(),
+                    *MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES
+                )));
             }
 
             let log_num_values = if is_last_chunk {
@@ -176,22 +499,75 @@ impl RleEncoder {
         ))
     }
 
-    /// Encodes a chunk of data using RLE compression with dynamic boundary detection.
-    ///
-    /// This function processes values sequentially, detecting runs (sequences of identical values)
-    /// and encoding them as (value, length) pairs. It dynamically determines whether this chunk
-    /// should be the last chunk based on how many values were processed.
-    ///
-    /// # Key Features:
-    /// - Tracks byte usage to ensure we don't exceed MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES
-    /// - Maintains power-of-2 checkpoints for non-last chunks
-    /// - Splits long runs (>255) into multiple entries
-    /// - Dynamically determines if this is the last chunk
-    ///
-    /// # Returns:
-    /// - num_runs: Number of runs encoded
-    /// - values_processed: Number of input values processed
-    /// - is_last_chunk: Whether this chunk processed all remaining values
+    fn encode_block_data(
+        &self,
+        data: &LanceBuffer,
+        num_values: u64,
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<LanceBuffer>> {
+        match bits_per_value {
+            8 => self.encode_block_data_generic::<u8>(data, num_values),
+            16 => self.encode_block_data_generic::<u16>(data, num_values),
+            32 => self.encode_block_data_generic::<u32>(data, num_values),
+            64 => self.encode_block_data_generic::<u64>(data, num_values),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "RLE encoding bits_per_value must be 8, 16, 32, or 64, got {bits_per_value}"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn encode_block_data_generic<T>(
+        &self,
+        data: &LanceBuffer,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<LanceBuffer>>
+    where
+        T: bytemuck::Pod + PartialEq + Copy + ArrowNativeType,
+    {
+        let num_values = usize::try_from(num_values).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("RLE num_values does not fit in usize: {num_values}").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let type_size = std::mem::size_of::<T>();
+        let expected_bytes = num_values.checked_mul(type_size).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("RLE input byte length overflow: {num_values} values of {type_size} bytes")
+                    .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if data.len() != expected_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "RLE input data size mismatch: {} bytes for {} values of {} bytes",
+                    data.len(),
+                    num_values,
+                    type_size
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if num_values == 0 {
+            return Ok(vec![LanceBuffer::empty(), LanceBuffer::empty()]);
+        }
+
+        let values_ref = data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<T>();
+        let values = values_ref.as_ref();
+        let estimated_runs = num_values / 10;
+        let mut all_values = Vec::with_capacity(estimated_runs * type_size);
+        let mut all_lengths =
+            Vec::with_capacity(estimated_runs * self.run_length_width.bytes_per_value());
+        self.encode_values(values, &mut all_values, &mut all_lengths);
+        Ok(vec![
+            LanceBuffer::from(all_values),
+            LanceBuffer::from(all_lengths),
+        ])
+    }
+
+    /// Encodes the largest valid mini-block prefix from `offset`.
     fn encode_chunk_rolling<T>(
         &self,
         data: &LanceBuffer,
@@ -204,9 +580,8 @@ impl RleEncoder {
         T: bytemuck::Pod + PartialEq + Copy + std::fmt::Debug + ArrowNativeType,
     {
         let type_size = std::mem::size_of::<T>();
-
         let chunk_start = offset * type_size;
-        let max_by_count = MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES as usize;
+        let max_by_count = *MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES as usize;
         let max_values = values_remaining.min(max_by_count);
         let chunk_end = chunk_start + max_values * type_size;
 
@@ -218,112 +593,101 @@ impl RleEncoder {
         let chunk_buffer = data.slice_with_length(chunk_start, chunk_len);
         let typed_data_ref = chunk_buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<T>();
         let typed_data: &[T] = typed_data_ref.as_ref();
+        let max_values = max_values.min(typed_data.len());
 
         if typed_data.is_empty() {
             return (0, 0, false);
         }
 
-        // Record starting positions for this chunk
         let values_start = all_values.len();
+        let all_remaining_values_fit = values_remaining <= max_by_count;
+        let encoded_size = self.encoded_size(&typed_data[..max_values]);
+        let (values_to_encode, is_last_chunk) = if all_remaining_values_fit
+            && encoded_size <= MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES as usize
+        {
+            (max_values, true)
+        } else if let Some(values_to_encode) = self.largest_power_of_two_prefix::<T>(typed_data) {
+            (values_to_encode, false)
+        } else {
+            return (0, 0, false);
+        };
 
-        let mut current_value = typed_data[0];
-        let mut current_length = 1u64;
-        let mut bytes_used = 0usize;
-        let mut total_values_encoded = 0usize; // Track total encoded values
+        self.encode_values(&typed_data[..values_to_encode], all_values, all_lengths);
 
-        // Power-of-2 checkpoints for ensuring non-last chunks have valid sizes.
-        //
-        // We start from a slightly larger minimum checkpoint for smaller types since
-        // they encode more compactly and are less likely to hit MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES.
-        let min_checkpoint_log2 = match type_size {
-            1 => 8, // 256
-            2 => 7, // 128
-            _ => 6, // 64
-        };
-        let max_checkpoint_log2 = (values_remaining.min(MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES as usize))
-            .next_power_of_two()
-            .ilog2();
-        let mut checkpoint_log2 = min_checkpoint_log2;
+        let num_runs = (all_values.len() - values_start) / type_size;
+        (num_runs, values_to_encode, is_last_chunk)
+    }
+
+    fn largest_power_of_two_prefix<T>(&self, values: &[T]) -> Option<usize>
+    where
+        T: bytemuck::Pod + PartialEq + Copy,
+    {
+        let max_prefix = values.len().min(*MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES as usize);
+        let mut prefix = 1usize << max_prefix.ilog2();
+        while prefix > 1 {
+            if self.encoded_size(&values[..prefix]) <= MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES as usize {
+                return Some(prefix);
+            }
+            prefix >>= 1;
+        }
+        None
+    }
+
+    fn encoded_size<T>(&self, values: &[T]) -> usize
+    where
+        T: bytemuck::Pod + PartialEq + Copy,
+    {
+        if values.is_empty() {
+            return 0;
+        }
 
-        // Save state at checkpoints so we can roll back if needed
-        let mut last_checkpoint_state = None;
+        let mut current_value = values[0];
+        let mut current_length = 1u64;
+        let mut encoded_size = 0usize;
 
-        for &value in typed_data[1..].iter() {
+        for &value in values.iter().skip(1) {
             if value == current_value {
                 current_length += 1;
             } else {
-                // Calculate space needed (may need multiple u8s if run > 255)
-                let run_chunks = current_length.div_ceil(255) as usize;
-                let bytes_needed = run_chunks * (type_size + 1);
-
-                // Stop if adding this run would exceed byte limit
-                if bytes_used + bytes_needed > MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES as usize {
-                    if let Some((val_pos, len_pos, _, checkpoint_values)) = last_checkpoint_state {
-                        // Roll back to last power-of-2 checkpoint
-                        all_values.truncate(val_pos);
-                        all_lengths.truncate(len_pos);
-                        let num_runs = (val_pos - values_start) / type_size;
-                        return (num_runs, checkpoint_values, false);
-                    }
-                    break;
-                }
-
-                bytes_used += self.add_run(&current_value, current_length, all_values, all_lengths);
-                total_values_encoded += current_length as usize;
+                encoded_size += self.run_size::<T>(current_length);
                 current_value = value;
                 current_length = 1;
             }
-
-            // Check if we reached a power-of-2 checkpoint.
-            while checkpoint_log2 <= max_checkpoint_log2 {
-                let checkpoint_values = 1usize << checkpoint_log2;
-                if checkpoint_values > values_remaining || total_values_encoded < checkpoint_values
-                {
-                    break;
-                }
-                last_checkpoint_state = Some((
-                    all_values.len(),
-                    all_lengths.len(),
-                    bytes_used,
-                    checkpoint_values,
-                ));
-                checkpoint_log2 += 1;
-            }
         }
+        encoded_size += self.run_size::<T>(current_length);
+        encoded_size
+    }
 
-        // After the loop, we always have a pending run that needs to be added
-        // unless we've exceeded the byte limit
-        if current_length > 0 {
-            let run_chunks = current_length.div_ceil(255) as usize;
-            let bytes_needed = run_chunks * (type_size + 1);
+    fn run_size<T>(&self, length: u64) -> usize
+    where
+        T: bytemuck::Pod,
+    {
+        let type_size = std::mem::size_of::<T>();
+        let run_chunks = length.div_ceil(self.run_length_width.max_run_length()) as usize;
+        run_chunks * (type_size + self.run_length_width.bytes_per_value())
+    }
 
-            if bytes_used + bytes_needed <= MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES as usize {
-                let _ = self.add_run(&current_value, current_length, all_values, all_lengths);
-                total_values_encoded += current_length as usize;
-            }
+    fn encode_values<T>(&self, values: &[T], all_values: &mut Vec<u8>, all_lengths: &mut Vec<u8>)
+    where
+        T: bytemuck::Pod + PartialEq + Copy,
+    {
+        if values.is_empty() {
+            return;
         }
 
-        // Determine if we've processed all remaining values
-        let is_last_chunk = total_values_encoded == values_remaining;
+        let mut current_value = values[0];
+        let mut current_length = 1u64;
 
-        // Non-last chunks must have power-of-2 values for miniblock format
-        if !is_last_chunk {
-            if total_values_encoded.is_power_of_two() {
-                // Already at power-of-2 boundary
-            } else if let Some((val_pos, len_pos, _, checkpoint_values)) = last_checkpoint_state {
-                // Roll back to last valid checkpoint
-                all_values.truncate(val_pos);
-                all_lengths.truncate(len_pos);
-                let num_runs = (val_pos - values_start) / type_size;
-                return (num_runs, checkpoint_values, false);
+        for &value in values.iter().skip(1) {
+            if value == current_value {
+                current_length += 1;
             } else {
-                // No valid checkpoint, can't create a valid chunk
-                return (0, 0, false);
+                self.add_run(&current_value, current_length, all_values, all_lengths);
+                current_value = value;
+                current_length = 1;
             }
         }
-
-        let num_runs = (all_values.len() - values_start) / type_size;
-        (num_runs, total_values_encoded, is_last_chunk)
+        self.add_run(&current_value, current_length, all_values, all_lengths);
     }
 
     fn add_run<T>(
@@ -338,29 +702,356 @@ impl RleEncoder {
     {
         let value_bytes = bytemuck::bytes_of(value);
         let type_size = std::mem::size_of::<T>();
-        let num_full_chunks = (length / 255) as usize;
-        let remainder = (length % 255) as u8;
+        let max_run_length = self.run_length_width.max_run_length();
+        let num_full_chunks = (length / max_run_length) as usize;
+        let remainder = length % max_run_length;
 
         let total_chunks = num_full_chunks + if remainder > 0 { 1 } else { 0 };
         all_values.reserve(total_chunks * type_size);
-        all_lengths.reserve(total_chunks);
+        all_lengths.reserve(total_chunks * self.run_length_width.bytes_per_value());
 
         for _ in 0..num_full_chunks {
             all_values.extend_from_slice(value_bytes);
-            all_lengths.push(255);
+            self.run_length_width
+                .write_length(max_run_length, all_lengths);
         }
 
         if remainder > 0 {
             all_values.extend_from_slice(value_bytes);
-            all_lengths.push(remainder);
+            self.run_length_width.write_length(remainder, all_lengths);
         }
 
-        total_chunks * (type_size + 1)
+        total_chunks * (type_size + self.run_length_width.bytes_per_value())
+    }
+
+    fn flat_child_candidate(
+        buffers: &[LanceBuffer],
+        chunks: &[MiniBlockChunk],
+        buffer_index: usize,
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+    ) -> RleChildCandidate {
+        RleChildCandidate {
+            encoding: ProtobufUtils21::flat(bits_per_value, None),
+            data: buffers[buffer_index].clone(),
+            chunk_sizes: chunks
+                .iter()
+                .map(|chunk| chunk.buffer_sizes[buffer_index])
+                .collect(),
+            size: buffers[buffer_index].len(),
+            requires_num_values: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn general_child_candidate(
+        buffers: &[LanceBuffer],
+        chunks: &[MiniBlockChunk],
+        buffer_index: usize,
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+        compression: CompressionConfig,
+    ) -> Result<Option<RleChildCandidate>> {
+        if buffers.is_empty() || buffers[buffer_index].is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let compressor = GeneralBufferCompressor::get_compressor(compression)?;
+        let original = &buffers[buffer_index];
+        let mut compressed = Vec::new();
+        let mut offset = 0usize;
+        let mut total_original_size = 0usize;
+        let mut compressed_sizes = Vec::with_capacity(chunks.len());
+
+        for chunk in chunks.iter() {
+            let chunk_size = chunk.buffer_sizes[buffer_index] as usize;
+            let end = offset.checked_add(chunk_size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("RLE child buffer offset overflow".into())
+            })?;
+            if end > original.len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE child buffer {} chunk size exceeds buffer length: end {}, len {}",
+                        buffer_index,
+                        end,
+                        original.len()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+
+            let start = compressed.len();
+            compressor.compress(&original.as_ref()[offset..end], &mut compressed)?;
+            let compressed_size = compressed.len() - start;
+            let compressed_size = u32::try_from(compressed_size).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE child buffer {} compressed chunk is too large: {} bytes",
+                        buffer_index, compressed_size
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            compressed_sizes.push(compressed_size);
+            total_original_size += chunk_size;
+            offset = end;
+        }
+
+        if compressed.len() >= total_original_size {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let encoding =
+            ProtobufUtils21::wrapped(compression, ProtobufUtils21::flat(bits_per_value, None))?;
+        Ok(Some(
+            RleChildCandidate {
+                encoding,
+                data: LanceBuffer::from(compressed),
+                chunk_sizes: compressed_sizes,
+                size: 0,
+                requires_num_values: false,
+            }
+            .with_size_from_data(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn bitpacked_child_candidate(
+        buffers: &[LanceBuffer],
+        chunks: &[MiniBlockChunk],
+        buffer_index: usize,
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Option<RleChildCandidate>> {
+        let original = &buffers[buffer_index];
+        if original.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let packed_bits = Self::required_bits(original, bits_per_value)?;
+        if packed_bits >= bits_per_value {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let compressor = crate::encodings::physical::bitpacking::OutOfLineBitpacking::new(
+            packed_bits,
+            bits_per_value,
+        );
+        let mut packed = Vec::new();
+        let mut offset = 0usize;
+        let mut packed_sizes = Vec::with_capacity(chunks.len());
+        let bytes_per_value = usize::try_from(bits_per_value / 8).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("RLE child bit width is too large: {bits_per_value}").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+
+        for chunk in chunks {
+            let chunk_size = chunk.buffer_sizes[buffer_index] as usize;
+            let end = offset.checked_add(chunk_size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("RLE child buffer offset overflow".into())
+            })?;
+            if end > original.len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE child buffer {} chunk size exceeds buffer length: end {}, len {}",
+                        buffer_index,
+                        end,
+                        original.len()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if bytes_per_value == 0 || !chunk_size.is_multiple_of(bytes_per_value) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE child buffer {} chunk has invalid size {} for {} bits per value",
+                        buffer_index, chunk_size, bits_per_value
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+
+            let child_values = (chunk_size / bytes_per_value) as u64;
+            let block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                bits_per_value,
+                data: original.slice_with_length(offset, chunk_size),
+                num_values: child_values,
+                block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+            });
+            let (chunk_packed, _) = BlockCompressor::compress(&compressor, block)?;
+            let chunk_packed = chunk_packed.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("RLE bitpacking child returned no payload".to_string())
+            })?;
+            let packed_size = u32::try_from(chunk_packed.len()).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE child buffer {} bitpacked chunk is too large: {} bytes",
+                        buffer_index,
+                        chunk_packed.len()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            packed_sizes.push(packed_size);
+            packed.extend_from_slice(chunk_packed.as_ref());
+            offset = end;
+        }
+
+        if packed.len() >= original.len() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        Ok(Some(
+            RleChildCandidate {
+                encoding: ProtobufUtils21::out_of_line_bitpacking(
+                    bits_per_value,
+                    ProtobufUtils21::flat(packed_bits, None),
+                ),
+                data: LanceBuffer::from(packed),
+                chunk_sizes: packed_sizes,
+                size: 0,
+                requires_num_values: true,
+            }
+            .with_size_from_data(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn required_bits(buffer: &LanceBuffer, bits_per_value: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let max_value = match bits_per_value {
+            8 => buffer.as_ref().iter().map(|value| *value as u64).max(),
+            16 => buffer
+                .as_ref()
+                .as_chunks::<2>()
+                .0
+                .iter()
+                .map(|value| u16::from_le_bytes(*value) as u64)
+                .max(),
+            32 => buffer
+                .as_ref()
+                .as_chunks::<4>()
+                .0
+                .iter()
+                .map(|value| u32::from_le_bytes(*value) as u64)
+                .max(),
+            64 => buffer
+                .as_ref()
+                .as_chunks::<8>()
+                .0
+                .iter()
+                .map(|value| u64::from_le_bytes(*value))
+                .max(),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE child bitpacking only supports 8, 16, 32, or 64-bit values, got {bits_per_value}"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        .unwrap_or(0);
+        Ok((u64::BITS - max_value.leading_zeros()).max(1) as u64)
+    }
+
+    fn child_candidates(
+        buffers: &[LanceBuffer],
+        chunks: &[MiniBlockChunk],
+        buffer_index: usize,
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+        compression: Option<CompressionConfig>,
+        use_child_bitpacking: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RleChildCandidate>> {
+        #[cfg(not(feature = "bitpacking"))]
+        let _ = use_child_bitpacking;
+        let mut candidates = vec![Self::flat_child_candidate(
+            buffers,
+            chunks,
+            buffer_index,
+            bits_per_value,
+        )];
+        if let Some(compression) = compression
+            && let Some(candidate) = Self::general_child_candidate(
+                buffers,
+                chunks,
+                buffer_index,
+                bits_per_value,
+                compression,
+            )?
+        {
+            candidates.push(candidate);
+        }
+        #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+        {
+            if use_child_bitpacking
+                && let Some(candidate) =
+                    Self::bitpacked_child_candidate(buffers, chunks, buffer_index, bits_per_value)?
+            {
+                candidates.push(candidate);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(candidates)
+    }
+
+    fn select_child_candidates(
+        values: Vec<RleChildCandidate>,
+        run_lengths: Vec<RleChildCandidate>,
+    ) -> (RleChildCandidate, RleChildCandidate) {
+        let mut best: Option<(usize, usize, usize)> = None;
+        for (value_idx, value) in values.iter().enumerate() {
+            for (length_idx, length) in run_lengths.iter().enumerate() {
+                if value.requires_num_values && length.requires_num_values {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let size = value.size + length.size;
+                if best.is_none_or(|(_, _, best_size)| size < best_size) {
+                    best = Some((value_idx, length_idx, size));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let (value_idx, length_idx, _) =
+            best.expect("flat RLE child candidates should always be selectable");
+        (values[value_idx].clone(), run_lengths[length_idx].clone())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn selected_payload_size(&self, data: &FixedWidthDataBlock) -> Result<u128> {
+        let (all_buffers, chunks) =
+            self.encode_data(&data.data, data.num_values, data.bits_per_value)?;
+        if all_buffers.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(0);
+        }
+
+        let values_candidates = Self::child_candidates(
+            &all_buffers,
+            &chunks,
+            0,
+            data.bits_per_value,
+            self.values_compression,
+            self.use_child_bitpacking,
+        )?;
+        let run_lengths_candidates = Self::child_candidates(
+            &all_buffers,
+            &chunks,
+            1,
+            self.run_length_width.bits_per_value(),
+            self.run_lengths_compression,
+            self.use_child_bitpacking,
+        )?;
+        let (values, run_lengths) =
+            Self::select_child_candidates(values_candidates, run_lengths_candidates);
+        Ok((values.size as u128).saturating_add(run_lengths.size as u128))
+    }
+}
+
+impl RleChildCandidate {
+    fn with_size_from_data(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.size = self.data.len();
+        self
     }
 }
 
 impl MiniBlockCompressor for RleEncoder {
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    fn compress(
+        &self,
+        _context: MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+        data: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         match data {
             DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) => {
                 let num_values = fixed_width.num_values;
@@ -368,38 +1059,73 @@ impl MiniBlockCompressor for RleEncoder {
 
                 let (all_buffers, chunks) =
                     self.encode_data(&fixed_width.data, num_values, bits_per_value)?;
+                if all_buffers.is_empty() {
+                    let compressed = MiniBlockCompressed {
+                        data: all_buffers,
+                        chunks,
+                        num_values,
+                    };
+                    let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::rle(
+                        ProtobufUtils21::flat(bits_per_value, None),
+                        ProtobufUtils21::flat(self.run_length_width.bits_per_value(), None),
+                    );
+                    return Ok((compressed, encoding));
+                }
+
+                let values_candidates = Self::child_candidates(
+                    &all_buffers,
+                    &chunks,
+                    0,
+                    bits_per_value,
+                    self.values_compression,
+                    self.use_child_bitpacking,
+                )?;
+                let run_lengths_candidates = Self::child_candidates(
+                    &all_buffers,
+                    &chunks,
+                    1,
+                    self.run_length_width.bits_per_value(),
+                    self.run_lengths_compression,
+                    self.use_child_bitpacking,
+                )?;
+                let (values, run_lengths) =
+                    Self::select_child_candidates(values_candidates, run_lengths_candidates);
+                let chunks = chunks
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(|(idx, chunk)| MiniBlockChunk {
+                        buffer_sizes: vec![values.chunk_sizes[idx], run_lengths.chunk_sizes[idx]],
+                        log_num_values: chunk.log_num_values,
+                    })
+                    .collect();
 
                 let compressed = MiniBlockCompressed {
-                    data: all_buffers,
+                    data: vec![values.data, run_lengths.data],
                     chunks,
                     num_values,
                 };
 
-                let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::rle(
-                    ProtobufUtils21::flat(bits_per_value, None),
-                    ProtobufUtils21::flat(/*bits_per_value=*/ 8, None),
-                );
+                let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::rle(values.encoding, run_lengths.encoding);
 
                 Ok((compressed, encoding))
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                location: location!(),
-                source: "RLE encoding only supports FixedWidth data blocks".into(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "RLE encoding only supports FixedWidth data blocks".into(),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl BlockCompressor for RleEncoder {
     // Block format: [8-byte header: values buffer size][values buffer][run_lengths buffer]
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<LanceBuffer> {
+    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         match data {
             DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) => {
                 let num_values = fixed_width.num_values;
                 let bits_per_value = fixed_width.bits_per_value;
 
-                let (all_buffers, _) =
-                    self.encode_data(&fixed_width.data, num_values, bits_per_value)?;
+                let all_buffers =
+                    self.encode_block_data(&fixed_width.data, num_values, bits_per_value)?;
 
                 let values_size = all_buffers[0].len() as u64;
 
@@ -407,12 +1133,17 @@ impl BlockCompressor for RleEncoder {
                 combined.extend_from_slice(&values_size.to_le_bytes());
                 combined.extend_from_slice(&all_buffers[0]);
                 combined.extend_from_slice(&all_buffers[1]);
-                Ok(LanceBuffer::from(combined))
+                Ok((
+                    Some(LanceBuffer::from(combined)),
+                    ProtobufUtils21::rle(
+                        ProtobufUtils21::flat(bits_per_value, None),
+                        ProtobufUtils21::flat(self.run_length_width.bits_per_value(), None),
+                    ),
+                ))
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                location: location!(),
-                source: "RLE encoding only supports FixedWidth data blocks".into(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "RLE encoding only supports FixedWidth data blocks".into(),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -421,14 +1152,170 @@ impl BlockCompressor for RleEncoder {
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct RleDecompressor {
     bits_per_value: u64,
+    run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+    values: RleChildDecompressor,
+    run_lengths: RleChildDecompressor,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct RleChildDecompressor {
+    bits_per_value: u64,
+    inner: RleChildDecompressorInner,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum RleChildDecompressorInner {
+    Flat,
+    Block {
+        decompressor: Box<dyn BlockDecompressor>,
+        requires_num_values: bool,
+    },
+}
+
+impl RleChildDecompressor {
+    pub(crate) fn flat(bits_per_value: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bits_per_value,
+            inner: RleChildDecompressorInner::Flat,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn block(
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+        decompressor: Box<dyn BlockDecompressor>,
+        requires_num_values: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bits_per_value,
+            inner: RleChildDecompressorInner::Block {
+                decompressor,
+                requires_num_values,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.bits_per_value
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn requires_num_values(&self) -> bool {
+        match &self.inner {
+            RleChildDecompressorInner::Flat => false,
+            RleChildDecompressorInner::Block {
+                requires_num_values,
+                ..
+            } => *requires_num_values,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn is_identity(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self.inner, RleChildDecompressorInner::Flat)
+    }
+
+    fn decode(
+        &self,
+        data: LanceBuffer,
+        num_values: Option<u64>,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<LanceBuffer> {
+        match &self.inner {
+            RleChildDecompressorInner::Flat => Ok(data),
+            RleChildDecompressorInner::Block {
+                decompressor,
+                requires_num_values,
+            } => {
+                let num_values = if *requires_num_values {
+                    num_values.ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!("RLE {label} child compression requires the run count").into(),
+                        )
+                    })?
+                } else {
+                    num_values.unwrap_or(0)
+                };
+                let decoded = decompressor.decompress(Some(data), num_values)?;
+                self.extract_fixed_width(decoded, num_values, label)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn extract_fixed_width(
+        &self,
+        data: DataBlock,
+        expected_num_values: u64,
+        label: &str,
+    ) -> Result<LanceBuffer> {
+        match data {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) => {
+                if block.bits_per_value != self.bits_per_value {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "RLE {label} child decoded {}-bit values, expected {}",
+                            block.bits_per_value, self.bits_per_value
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                if expected_num_values != 0 && block.num_values != expected_num_values {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "RLE {label} child decoded {} values, expected {}",
+                            block.num_values, expected_num_values
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(block.data)
+            }
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("RLE {label} child decoded to a non fixed-width block").into(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 impl RleDecompressor {
     pub fn new(bits_per_value: u64) -> Self {
-        Self { bits_per_value }
+        Self {
+            bits_per_value,
+            run_length_width: RunLengthWidth::U8,
+            values: RleChildDecompressor::flat(bits_per_value),
+            run_lengths: RleChildDecompressor::flat(RunLengthWidth::U8.bits_per_value()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_run_length_width(
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+        run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bits_per_value,
+            run_length_width,
+            values: RleChildDecompressor::flat(bits_per_value),
+            run_lengths: RleChildDecompressor::flat(run_length_width.bits_per_value()),
+        }
     }
 
-    fn decode_data(&self, data: Vec<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+    pub(crate) fn with_child_decompressors(
+        bits_per_value: u64,
+        run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+        values: RleChildDecompressor,
+        run_lengths: RleChildDecompressor,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bits_per_value,
+            run_length_width,
+            values,
+            run_lengths,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decode_data(
+        &self,
+        data: Vec<LanceBuffer>,
+        num_values: u64,
+        clamp_overflow: bool,
+    ) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         if num_values == 0 {
             return Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
                 bits_per_value: self.bits_per_value,
@@ -439,25 +1326,65 @@ impl RleDecompressor {
         }
 
         if data.len() != 2 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                location: location!(),
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "RLE decompressor expects exactly 2 buffers, got {}",
                     data.len()
                 )
                 .into(),
-            });
+            ));
         }
 
-        let values_buffer = &data[0];
-        let lengths_buffer = &data[1];
+        let mut data_iter = data.into_iter();
+        let values_buffer = data_iter.next().unwrap();
+        let lengths_buffer = data_iter.next().unwrap();
+        let (values_buffer, lengths_buffer) =
+            self.decode_child_buffers(values_buffer, lengths_buffer)?;
+
+        self.decode_child_data(&values_buffer, &lengths_buffer, num_values, clamp_overflow)
+    }
 
+    fn decode_child_data(
+        &self,
+        values_buffer: &LanceBuffer,
+        lengths_buffer: &LanceBuffer,
+        num_values: u64,
+        clamp_overflow: bool,
+    ) -> Result<DataBlock> {
         let decoded_data = match self.bits_per_value {
-            8 => self.decode_generic::<u8>(values_buffer, lengths_buffer, num_values)?,
-            16 => self.decode_generic::<u16>(values_buffer, lengths_buffer, num_values)?,
-            32 => self.decode_generic::<u32>(values_buffer, lengths_buffer, num_values)?,
-            64 => self.decode_generic::<u64>(values_buffer, lengths_buffer, num_values)?,
-            _ => unreachable!("RLE decoding bits_per_value must be 8, 16, 32, 64, or 128"),
+            8 => self.decode_generic::<u8>(
+                values_buffer,
+                lengths_buffer,
+                num_values,
+                clamp_overflow,
+            )?,
+            16 => self.decode_generic::<u16>(
+                values_buffer,
+                lengths_buffer,
+                num_values,
+                clamp_overflow,
+            )?,
+            32 => self.decode_generic::<u32>(
+                values_buffer,
+                lengths_buffer,
+                num_values,
+                clamp_overflow,
+            )?,
+            64 => self.decode_generic::<u64>(
+                values_buffer,
+                lengths_buffer,
+                num_values,
+                clamp_overflow,
+            )?,
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE decoding bits_per_value must be 8, 16, 32, or 64, got {}",
+                        self.bits_per_value
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
         };
 
         Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
@@ -468,11 +1395,147 @@ impl RleDecompressor {
         }))
     }
 
+    fn sum_run_lengths(
+        &self,
+        values_buffer: &LanceBuffer,
+        lengths_buffer: &LanceBuffer,
+    ) -> Result<u64> {
+        let (value_size, value_type) = match self.bits_per_value {
+            8 => (1, "u8"),
+            16 => (2, "u16"),
+            32 => (4, "u32"),
+            64 => (8, "u64"),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE decoding bits_per_value must be 8, 16, 32, or 64, got {}",
+                        self.bits_per_value
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+        let length_size =
+            self.validate_buffer_sizes(values_buffer, lengths_buffer, value_size, value_type)?;
+
+        lengths_buffer
+            .chunks_exact(length_size)
+            .try_fold(0_u64, |num_values, length_bytes| {
+                let length = self.run_length_width.read_length(length_bytes);
+                if length == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "RLE decoding encountered a zero run length".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                num_values.checked_add(length).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("RLE run length sum overflowed u64".into())
+                })
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn validate_buffer_sizes(
+        &self,
+        values_buffer: &LanceBuffer,
+        lengths_buffer: &LanceBuffer,
+        value_size: usize,
+        value_type: &str,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let length_size = self.run_length_width.bytes_per_value();
+        if !values_buffer.len().is_multiple_of(value_size)
+            || !lengths_buffer.len().is_multiple_of(length_size)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!(
+                "Invalid buffer sizes for RLE {value_type} decoding: values {} bytes (not divisible by {}), lengths {} bytes (not divisible by {})",
+                values_buffer.len(),
+                value_size,
+                lengths_buffer.len(),
+                length_size
+            )
+            .into()));
+        }
+
+        let num_runs = values_buffer.len() / value_size;
+        let num_length_entries = lengths_buffer.len() / length_size;
+        if num_runs != num_length_entries {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Inconsistent RLE buffers: {} runs but {} length entries",
+                    num_runs, num_length_entries
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(length_size)
+    }
+
+    fn decode_child_buffers(
+        &self,
+        values_buffer: LanceBuffer,
+        lengths_buffer: LanceBuffer,
+    ) -> Result<(LanceBuffer, LanceBuffer)> {
+        let values_requires_num_runs = self.values.requires_num_values();
+        let lengths_requires_num_runs = self.run_lengths.requires_num_values();
+        if values_requires_num_runs && lengths_requires_num_runs {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "RLE values and run lengths child compression both require the run count".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        if values_requires_num_runs {
+            let lengths_buffer = self
+                .run_lengths
+                .decode(lengths_buffer, None, "run lengths")?;
+            let num_runs = Self::num_child_values(
+                &lengths_buffer,
+                self.run_lengths.bits_per_value(),
+                "run lengths",
+            )?;
+            let values_buffer = self
+                .values
+                .decode(values_buffer, Some(num_runs), "values")?;
+            Ok((values_buffer, lengths_buffer))
+        } else if lengths_requires_num_runs {
+            let values_buffer = self.values.decode(values_buffer, None, "values")?;
+            let num_runs =
+                Self::num_child_values(&values_buffer, self.values.bits_per_value(), "values")?;
+            let lengths_buffer =
+                self.run_lengths
+                    .decode(lengths_buffer, Some(num_runs), "run lengths")?;
+            Ok((values_buffer, lengths_buffer))
+        } else {
+            let values_buffer = self.values.decode(values_buffer, None, "values")?;
+            let lengths_buffer = self
+                .run_lengths
+                .decode(lengths_buffer, None, "run lengths")?;
+            Ok((values_buffer, lengths_buffer))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn num_child_values(buffer: &LanceBuffer, bits_per_value: u64, label: &str) -> Result<u64> {
+        let bytes_per_value = usize::try_from(bits_per_value / 8).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("RLE {label} child bit width is too large: {bits_per_value}").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if bytes_per_value == 0 || !buffer.len().is_multiple_of(bytes_per_value) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "RLE {label} child decoded to {} bytes, not divisible by {}",
+                    buffer.len(),
+                    bytes_per_value
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok((buffer.len() / bytes_per_value) as u64)
+    }
+
     fn decode_generic<T>(
         &self,
         values_buffer: &LanceBuffer,
         lengths_buffer: &LanceBuffer,
         num_values: u64,
+        clamp_overflow: bool,
     ) -> Result<LanceBuffer>
     where
         T: bytemuck::Pod + Copy + std::fmt::Debug + ArrowNativeType,
@@ -483,141 +1546,654 @@ impl RleDecompressor {
             if num_values == 0 {
                 return Ok(LanceBuffer::empty());
             } else {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    location: location!(),
-                    source: format!("Empty buffers but expected {} values", num_values).into(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Empty buffers but expected {} values", num_values).into(),
+                ));
             }
         }
 
-        if !values_buffer.len().is_multiple_of(type_size) || lengths_buffer.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                location: location!(),
-                source: format!(
-                    "Invalid buffer sizes for RLE {} decoding: values {} bytes (not divisible by {}), lengths {} bytes",
-                    std::any::type_name::<T>(),
-                    values_buffer.len(),
-                    type_size,
-                    lengths_buffer.len()
+        let length_size = self.validate_buffer_sizes(
+            values_buffer,
+            lengths_buffer,
+            type_size,
+            std::any::type_name::<T>(),
+        )?;
+
+        let values_ref = values_buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<T>();
+        let values: &[T] = values_ref.as_ref();
+        let lengths = lengths_buffer.as_ref();
+
+        let expected_value_count = usize::try_from(num_values).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("RLE num_values does not fit in usize: {num_values}").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        // Legacy miniblock encoders rolled back to a power-of-2 checkpoint after a run
+        // had already crossed it, so a chunk's run lengths can sum past its declared
+        // value count (the excess values are re-encoded at the start of the next chunk).
+        // The pre-run-length-width decoder truncated the excess, so miniblock decoding
+        // clamps rather than rejects to keep those files readable. Block payloads never
+        // legitimately overflow, so they decode strictly.
+        let mut decoded: Vec<T> = Vec::new();
+        decoded
+            .try_reserve_exact(expected_value_count)
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("RLE decoding cannot allocate {expected_value_count} values").into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        for (value, length_bytes) in values.iter().zip(lengths.chunks_exact(length_size)) {
+            let length = self.run_length_width.read_length(length_bytes);
+            if length == 0 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "RLE decoding encountered a zero run length".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let length = usize::try_from(length).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("RLE run length does not fit in usize: {length}").into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            let remaining = expected_value_count - decoded.len();
+            if length > remaining {
+                if !clamp_overflow {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "RLE decoding overflowed expected value count: produced at least {}, expected {}",
+                            decoded.len() + length,
+                            expected_value_count
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                decoded.resize(expected_value_count, *value);
+                break;
+            }
+            decoded.resize(decoded.len() + length, *value);
+        }
+
+        if decoded.len() != expected_value_count {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "RLE decoding produced {} values, expected {}",
+                    decoded.len(),
+                    expected_value_count
                 )
                 .into(),
-            });
+            ));
         }
 
-        let num_runs = values_buffer.len() / type_size;
-        let num_length_entries = lengths_buffer.len();
-        if num_runs != num_length_entries {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                location: location!(),
-                source: format!(
-                    "Inconsistent RLE buffers: {} runs but {} length entries",
-                    num_runs, num_length_entries
+        trace!(
+            "RLE decoded {} {} values",
+            num_values,
+            std::any::type_name::<T>()
+        );
+        Ok(LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(decoded))
+    }
+}
+
+impl MiniBlockDecompressor for RleDecompressor {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Vec<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        self.decode_data(data, num_values, true)
+    }
+
+    fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        num_values
+            .checked_mul(self.bits_per_value)
+            .map(|bits| bits.div_ceil(8))
+    }
+}
+
+impl BlockDecompressor for RleDecompressor {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Option<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        let data = require_block_payload(data, "RLE")?;
+        let (values_buffer, lengths_buffer) = parse_rle_block_frame(&data)?;
+        self.decode_data(vec![values_buffer, lengths_buffer], num_values, false)
+    }
+
+    fn infer_num_values(&self, data: &LanceBuffer) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        // Pylance 6.0.1 used this exact RLE signature for structural levels. Newer RLE
+        // variants are not part of that compatibility case and may contain much wider,
+        // untrusted run lengths.
+        if self.bits_per_value != 16
+            || self.run_length_width != RunLengthWidth::U8
+            || !self.values.is_identity()
+            || !self.run_lengths.is_identity()
+        {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let (values_buffer, lengths_buffer) = parse_rle_block_frame(data)?;
+        self.sum_run_lengths(&values_buffer, &lengths_buffer)
+            .map(Some)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Split an RLE block-format buffer into its `(values, lengths)` sub-buffers.
+/// Frame: `[values_size: u64-le][values bytes][run-length bytes]`.
+fn parse_rle_block_frame(data: &LanceBuffer) -> Result<(LanceBuffer, LanceBuffer)> {
+    // fetch the values_size
+    if data.len() < 8 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Insufficient data size: {}", data.len()).into(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let values_size_bytes: [u8; 8] = data[..8].try_into().expect("slice length already checked");
+    let values_size: usize = u64::from_le_bytes(values_size_bytes)
+        .try_into()
+        .map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Invalid values buffer size: {}",
+                    u64::from_le_bytes(values_size_bytes)
                 )
                 .into(),
-            });
+            )
+        })?;
+
+    // parse values
+    let values_start: usize = 8;
+    let lengths_start = values_start
+        .checked_add(values_size)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Invalid RLE values buffer size".into()))?;
+
+    if data.len() < lengths_start {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Insufficient data size: {}", data.len()).into(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let values_buffer = data.slice_with_length(values_start, values_size);
+    let lengths_buffer = data.slice_with_length(lengths_start, data.len() - lengths_start);
+    Ok((values_buffer, lengths_buffer))
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+enum RleRunLengths {
+    U8(ScalarBuffer<u8>),
+    U16(ScalarBuffer<u16>),
+    U32(ScalarBuffer<u32>),
+}
+
+impl RleRunLengths {
+    fn try_new(buffer: LanceBuffer, width: RunLengthWidth) -> Result<Self> {
+        let width_bytes = width.bytes_per_value();
+        if !buffer.len().is_multiple_of(width_bytes) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Invalid RLE run lengths buffer: {} bytes (not divisible by {})",
+                    buffer.len(),
+                    width_bytes
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
         }
+        Ok(match width {
+            RunLengthWidth::U8 => Self::U8(buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice()),
+            RunLengthWidth::U16 => Self::U16(buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice()),
+            RunLengthWidth::U32 => Self::U32(buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice()),
+        })
+    }
 
-        let values_ref = values_buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<T>();
-        let values: &[T] = values_ref.as_ref();
-        let lengths: &[u8] = lengths_buffer.as_ref();
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8(lengths) => lengths.len(),
+            Self::U16(lengths) => lengths.len(),
+            Self::U32(lengths) => lengths.len(),
+        }
+    }
 
-        let expected_value_count = num_values as usize;
-        let mut decoded: Vec<T> = Vec::with_capacity(expected_value_count);
+    fn get(&self, index: usize) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8(lengths) => lengths[index] as usize,
+            Self::U16(lengths) => lengths[index] as usize,
+            Self::U32(lengths) => lengths[index] as usize,
+        }
+    }
 
-        for (value, &length) in values.iter().zip(lengths.iter()) {
-            if decoded.len() == expected_value_count {
-                break;
-            }
+    fn owned_size(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8(lengths) => std::mem::size_of_val(lengths.as_ref()),
+            Self::U16(lengths) => std::mem::size_of_val(lengths.as_ref()),
+            Self::U32(lengths) => std::mem::size_of_val(lengths.as_ref()),
+        }
+    }
 
+    fn into_owned(self) -> Self {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8(lengths) => Self::U8(ScalarBuffer::from(lengths.as_ref().to_vec())),
+            Self::U16(lengths) => Self::U16(ScalarBuffer::from(lengths.as_ref().to_vec())),
+            Self::U32(lengths) => Self::U32(ScalarBuffer::from(lengths.as_ref().to_vec())),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8(lengths) => lengths.inner().capacity(),
+            Self::U16(lengths) => lengths.inner().capacity(),
+            Self::U32(lengths) => lengths.inner().capacity(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Validated physical RLE runs for `u16` values.
+///
+/// The values and original-width lengths remain unexpanded. The constructor
+/// verifies that every length is non-zero and that the runs cover exactly
+/// `num_values` logical values.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct RleRuns {
+    values: ScalarBuffer<u16>,
+    lengths: RleRunLengths,
+    num_values: usize,
+    coalesced_runs: usize,
+}
+
+impl RleRuns {
+    fn try_new(
+        values_buffer: LanceBuffer,
+        lengths_buffer: LanceBuffer,
+        run_length_width: RunLengthWidth,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let num_values = usize::try_from(num_values).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("RLE num_values does not fit in usize: {num_values}").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let type_size = std::mem::size_of::<u16>();
+        if !values_buffer.len().is_multiple_of(type_size) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Invalid RLE u16 values buffer: {} bytes (not divisible by {})",
+                    values_buffer.len(),
+                    type_size
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let values = values_buffer.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>();
+        let lengths = RleRunLengths::try_new(lengths_buffer, run_length_width)?;
+        if values.len() != lengths.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Inconsistent RLE buffers: {} runs but {} length entries",
+                    values.len(),
+                    lengths.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if values.is_empty() && num_values != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Empty RLE buffers but expected {num_values} values").into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut decoded_values = 0usize;
+        let mut coalesced_runs = 0usize;
+        let mut previous_value = None;
+        for run in 0..values.len() {
+            let length = lengths.get(run);
             if length == 0 {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    location: location!(),
-                    source: "RLE decoding encountered a zero run length".into(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "RLE decoding encountered a zero run length".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            decoded_values = decoded_values.checked_add(length).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("RLE run length sum overflowed usize".into())
+            })?;
+            if decoded_values > num_values {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "RLE decoding overflowed expected value count: produced at least {}, expected {}",
+                        decoded_values, num_values
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if previous_value != Some(values[run]) {
+                coalesced_runs += 1;
+                previous_value = Some(values[run]);
             }
+        }
+        if decoded_values != num_values {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "RLE decoding produced {} values, expected {}",
+                    decoded_values, num_values
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            values,
+            lengths,
+            num_values,
+            coalesced_runs,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn num_values(&self) -> usize {
+        self.num_values
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn num_runs(&self) -> usize {
+        self.values.len()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn coalesced_runs(&self) -> usize {
+        self.coalesced_runs
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn owned_size(&self) -> usize {
+        std::mem::size_of_val(self.values.as_ref()) + self.lengths.owned_size()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn into_owned(self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            values: ScalarBuffer::from(self.values.as_ref().to_vec()),
+            lengths: self.lengths.into_owned(),
+            num_values: self.num_values,
+            coalesced_runs: self.coalesced_runs,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.values.inner().capacity() + self.lengths.deep_size()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn value(&self, run: usize) -> u16 {
+        self.values[run]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn length(&self, run: usize) -> usize {
+        self.lengths.get(run)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn iter(&self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = (u16, usize)> + '_ {
+        (0..self.num_runs()).map(|run| (self.value(run), self.length(run)))
+    }
+}
+
+impl RleDecompressor {
+    /// Decode and validate a block frame while preserving its physical runs.
+    pub(crate) fn decode_u16_runs(&self, data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<RleRuns> {
+        if self.bits_per_value != 16 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "RLE level values must be 16 bits, got {}",
+                    self.bits_per_value
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let (values_buffer, lengths_buffer) = parse_rle_block_frame(&data)?;
+        let (values_buffer, lengths_buffer) =
+            self.decode_child_buffers(values_buffer, lengths_buffer)?;
+        RleRuns::try_new(
+            values_buffer,
+            lengths_buffer,
+            self.run_length_width,
+            num_values,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::compression::{
+        DecompressionStrategy, DefaultDecompressionStrategy, create_rle_decompressor,
+    };
+    use crate::data::DataBlock;
+    use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES;
+    use crate::encodings::physical::block::{CompressionConfig, CompressionScheme};
+    use crate::{
+        buffer::LanceBuffer,
+        compression::{BlockCompressor, BlockDecompressor},
+    };
+    use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-            let remaining = expected_value_count - decoded.len();
-            let write_len = (length as usize).min(remaining);
+    fn compress_miniblock(
+        compressor: &dyn MiniBlockCompressor,
+        data: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+        compressor.compress(MiniBlockCompressionContext::new(0, true, true), data)
+    }
 
-            decoded.resize(decoded.len() + write_len, *value);
+    fn expand_u16_runs(runs: &RleRuns) -> Vec<u16> {
+        let mut expanded = Vec::with_capacity(runs.num_values());
+        for (value, length) in runs.iter() {
+            expanded.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(value, length));
         }
+        expanded
+    }
 
-        if decoded.len() != expected_value_count {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                location: location!(),
-                source: format!(
-                    "RLE decoding produced {} values, expected {}",
-                    decoded.len(),
-                    expected_value_count
-                )
-                .into(),
-            });
-        }
+    #[test]
+    fn decode_u16_runs_matches_eager() {
+        // Near-constant u16 levels (the all-null shape): a few long runs.
+        let mut levels: Vec<u16> = vec![1u16; 1000];
+        levels.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(0u16, 500));
+        levels.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(2u16, 300));
+        let num_values = levels.len() as u64;
 
-        trace!(
-            "RLE decoded {} {} values",
+        let block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(Arc::from(levels.clone())),
+            bits_per_value: 16,
             num_values,
-            std::any::type_name::<T>()
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        });
+        let frame = BlockCompressor::compress(&RleEncoder::new(), block)
+            .unwrap()
+            .0
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let eager = BlockDecompressor::decompress(
+            &RleDecompressor::new(16),
+            Some(frame.clone()),
+            num_values,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(eager) = eager else {
+            panic!("expected fixed-width block");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            eager.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<u16>().as_ref(),
+            levels.as_slice()
         );
-        Ok(LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(decoded))
+
+        // Lazy run form preserves boundaries and expands identically.
+        let runs = RleDecompressor::new(16)
+            .decode_u16_runs(frame, num_values)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(runs.num_values(), num_values as usize);
+        // The encoder splits each value into <=255-length runs (4 + 2 + 2 = 8
+        // on-disk runs here); the scan identifies 3 coalesced logical runs.
+        assert_eq!(runs.num_runs(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(runs.coalesced_runs(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(expand_u16_runs(&runs), levels);
     }
-}
 
-impl MiniBlockDecompressor for RleDecompressor {
-    fn decompress(&self, data: Vec<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
-        self.decode_data(data, num_values)
+    #[test]
+    fn decode_u16_runs_empty() {
+        let mut empty_frame = Vec::new();
+        empty_frame.extend_from_slice(&0u64.to_le_bytes());
+        let runs = RleDecompressor::new(16)
+            .decode_u16_runs(LanceBuffer::from(empty_frame), 0)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(runs.num_values(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(runs.num_runs(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(runs.coalesced_runs(), 0);
+
+        let error = RleDecompressor::new(16)
+            .decode_u16_runs(LanceBuffer::empty(), 0)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Insufficient data size: 0"));
     }
-}
 
-impl BlockDecompressor for RleDecompressor {
-    fn decompress(&self, data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
-        // fetch the values_size
-        if data.len() < 8 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                location: location!(),
-                source: format!("Insufficient data size: {}", data.len()).into(),
-            });
+    #[test]
+    fn legacy_block_rle_infers_value_count_without_materializing() {
+        let num_values = u64::from(u16::MAX) + 8;
+        let full_runs = num_values / u64::from(u8::MAX);
+        let remainder = num_values % u64::from(u8::MAX);
+        let num_runs = full_runs + u64::from(remainder != 0);
+        let mut frame = Vec::new();
+        frame.extend_from_slice(&(num_runs * 2).to_le_bytes());
+        frame.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(7_u16, num_runs as usize).flat_map(u16::to_le_bytes));
+        frame.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(u8::MAX, full_runs as usize));
+        if remainder != 0 {
+            frame.push(remainder as u8);
         }
 
-        let values_size_bytes: [u8; 8] =
-            data[..8].try_into().expect("slice length already checked");
-        let values_size: u64 = u64::from_le_bytes(values_size_bytes);
+        let inferred_num_values = RleDecompressor::new(16)
+            .infer_num_values(&LanceBuffer::from(frame))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(inferred_num_values, Some(num_values));
+    }
 
-        // parse values
-        let values_start: usize = 8;
-        let values_size: usize = values_size.try_into().map_err(|_| Error::InvalidInput {
-            location: location!(),
-            source: format!("Invalid values buffer size: {}", values_size).into(),
-        })?;
-        let lengths_start =
-            values_start
-                .checked_add(values_size)
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                    location: location!(),
-                    source: "Invalid RLE values buffer size".into(),
-                })?;
-
-        if data.len() < lengths_start {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                location: location!(),
-                source: format!("Insufficient data size: {}", data.len()).into(),
-            });
-        }
+    #[test]
+    fn newer_block_rle_does_not_infer_untrusted_run_sum() {
+        let mut frame = Vec::new();
+        frame.extend_from_slice(&2_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        frame.extend_from_slice(&7_u16.to_le_bytes());
+        frame.extend_from_slice(&u32::MAX.to_le_bytes());
+        let frame = LanceBuffer::from(frame);
+        let decompressor = RleDecompressor::with_run_length_width(16, RunLengthWidth::U32);
+
+        assert_eq!(decompressor.infer_num_values(&frame).unwrap(), None);
+        let error = BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, Some(frame), u64::from(u16::MAX))
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("RLE decoding overflowed expected value count")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::zero(0, 1, "zero run length")]
+    #[case::underflow(1, 2, "produced 1 values, expected 2")]
+    #[case::overflow(2, 1, "overflowed expected value count")]
+    #[case::nonempty_for_empty(1, 0, "overflowed expected value count")]
+    fn decode_u16_runs_rejects_invalid_coverage(
+        #[case] run_length: u8,
+        #[case] num_values: u64,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let mut frame = Vec::new();
+        frame.extend_from_slice(&2u64.to_le_bytes());
+        frame.extend_from_slice(&7u16.to_le_bytes());
+        frame.push(run_length);
+
+        let error = RleDecompressor::new(16)
+            .decode_u16_runs(LanceBuffer::from(frame), num_values)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(expected_message));
+    }
 
-        let values_buffer = data.slice_with_length(values_start, values_size);
-        let lengths_buffer = data.slice_with_length(lengths_start, data.len() - lengths_start);
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "lz4", feature = "zstd"))]
+    fn decode_u16_runs_supports_compressed_values_child() {
+        let levels: Vec<u16> = (0..1024)
+            .flat_map(|run| std::iter::repeat_n((run % 8) as u16, 4))
+            .collect();
+        let num_values = levels.len() as u64;
+        let block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(Arc::from(levels.clone())),
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            num_values,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        });
+        let frame = BlockCompressor::compress(&RleEncoder::new(), block)
+            .unwrap()
+            .0
+            .unwrap();
+        let (values, lengths) = parse_rle_block_frame(&frame).unwrap();
 
-        self.decode_data(vec![values_buffer, lengths_buffer], num_values)
+        let compression = test_general_compression();
+        let compressor = GeneralBufferCompressor::get_compressor(compression).unwrap();
+        let mut compressed_values = Vec::new();
+        compressor
+            .compress(values.as_ref(), &mut compressed_values)
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut compressed_frame = Vec::new();
+        compressed_frame.extend_from_slice(&(compressed_values.len() as u64).to_le_bytes());
+        compressed_frame.extend_from_slice(&compressed_values);
+        compressed_frame.extend_from_slice(lengths.as_ref());
+
+        let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::rle(
+            ProtobufUtils21::wrapped(compression, ProtobufUtils21::flat(16, None)).unwrap(),
+            ProtobufUtils21::flat(8, None),
+        );
+        let decompressor = create_rle_decompressor(
+            expect_rle(&encoding),
+            &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let runs = decompressor
+            .decode_u16_runs(LanceBuffer::from(compressed_frame), num_values)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(expand_u16_runs(&runs), levels);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn decode_u16_runs_counts_coalesced_runs() {
+        // A logically constant page is emitted as ceil(N / 255) equal-valued
+        // runs (the encoder caps run lengths at 255); the validated view records
+        // that they can collapse to a single logical run.
+        let num_values = 5000u64;
+        let constant: Vec<u16> = vec![7u16; num_values as usize];
+        let block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(Arc::from(constant)),
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            num_values,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        });
+        let frame = BlockCompressor::compress(&RleEncoder::new(), block)
+            .unwrap()
+            .0
+            .unwrap();
+        let runs = RleDecompressor::new(16)
+            .decode_u16_runs(frame, num_values)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            runs.num_runs(),
+            num_values.div_ceil(u8::MAX as u64) as usize
+        );
+        assert_eq!(runs.coalesced_runs(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(expand_u16_runs(&runs), vec![7u16; num_values as usize]);
+
+        // Distinct adjacent values must not be merged: alternating single-value
+        // runs stay separate and still expand to the original.
+        let alternating: Vec<u16> = (0..200u16).map(|i| i % 2).collect();
+        let n = alternating.len() as u64;
+        let block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_slice(Arc::from(alternating.clone())),
+            bits_per_value: 16,
+            num_values: n,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+        });
+        let frame = BlockCompressor::compress(&RleEncoder::new(), block)
+            .unwrap()
+            .0
+            .unwrap();
+        let runs = RleDecompressor::new(16).decode_u16_runs(frame, n).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            runs.coalesced_runs() as u64,
+            n,
+            "no two adjacent values are equal"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(expand_u16_runs(&runs), alternating);
     }
-}
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use crate::data::DataBlock;
-    use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES;
-    use crate::{buffer::LanceBuffer, compression::BlockDecompressor};
-    use arrow_array::Int32Array;
     // ========== Core Functionality Tests ==========
 
     #[test]
@@ -628,7 +2204,7 @@ mod tests {
         let array = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3]);
         let data_block = DataBlock::from_array(array);
 
-        let (compressed, _) = MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, data_block).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _) = compress_miniblock(&encoder, data_block).unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(compressed.num_values, 9);
         assert_eq!(compressed.chunks.len(), 1);
@@ -649,14 +2225,381 @@ mod tests {
         data.extend(&[100i32; 300]); // Will be split into 255+45
 
         let array = Int32Array::from(data);
-        let (compressed, _) =
-            MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _) = compress_miniblock(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
 
         // Should have 6 runs total (4 for first value, 2 for second)
         let lengths_buffer = &compressed.data[1];
         assert_eq!(lengths_buffer.len(), 6);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_v2_u16_miniblock_encoding() {
+        let encoder = RleEncoder::with_run_length_width(RunLengthWidth::U16);
+
+        let data = vec![42i32; 1000];
+        let array = Int32Array::from(data);
+        let (compressed, encoding) =
+            compress_miniblock(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(compressed.data[0].len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(compressed.data[1].len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(compressed.data[1].as_ref(), &1000u16.to_le_bytes());
+
+        let rle = match encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap() {
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::Rle(rle) => rle,
+            other => panic!("expected RLE encoding, got {other:?}"),
+        };
+        let run_lengths = rle.run_lengths.as_ref().unwrap();
+        let flat = match run_lengths.compression.as_ref().unwrap() {
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::Flat(flat) => flat,
+            other => panic!("expected flat run lengths, got {other:?}"),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(flat.bits_per_value, 16);
+
+        let decompressor = RleDecompressor::with_run_length_width(32, RunLengthWidth::U16);
+        let decompressed = MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(
+            &decompressor,
+            compressed.data,
+            compressed.num_values,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        match decompressed {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) => {
+                let values = block.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<i32>();
+                assert_eq!(values.as_ref(), vec![42i32; 1000]);
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected FixedWidth block"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "lz4", feature = "zstd"))]
+    fn test_rle_miniblock_compressed_values_child() {
+        let compression = test_general_compression();
+        let encoder =
+            RleEncoder::with_child_encoding(RunLengthWidth::U8, Some(compression), None, false);
+        let array = Int32Array::from(repeating_runs(1024, 4));
+        let (compressed, encoding) =
+            compress_miniblock(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
+
+        let rle = expect_rle(&encoding);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::General(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.run_lengths
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .compression
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::Flat(_)
+        ));
+
+        let decompressor = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default()
+            .create_miniblock_decompressor(&encoding, &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default())
+            .unwrap();
+        let decoded =
+            MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(decompressor.as_ref(), compressed.data, 1024 * 4)
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_decoded_i32_eq(decoded, &repeating_runs(1024, 4));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "lz4", feature = "zstd"))]
+    fn test_rle_miniblock_compressed_run_lengths_child() {
+        let compression = test_general_compression();
+        let encoder =
+            RleEncoder::with_child_encoding(RunLengthWidth::U8, None, Some(compression), false);
+        let expected = repeating_runs(1024, 4);
+        let (compressed, encoding) = compress_miniblock(
+            &encoder,
+            DataBlock::from_array(Int32Array::from(expected.clone())),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let rle = expect_rle(&encoding);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::Flat(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.run_lengths
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .compression
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::General(_)
+        ));
+
+        let decompressor = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default()
+            .create_miniblock_decompressor(&encoding, &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default())
+            .unwrap();
+        let decoded =
+            MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(decompressor.as_ref(), compressed.data, 1024 * 4)
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_decoded_i32_eq(decoded, &expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn test_rle_miniblock_bitpacked_run_lengths_child() {
+        use crate::encodings::physical::bitpacking::OutOfLineBitpacking;
+
+        let expected = repeating_runs(1024, 4);
+        let (compressed, _) = compress_miniblock(
+            &RleEncoder::new(),
+            DataBlock::from_array(Int32Array::from(expected.clone())),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let run_lengths = compressed.data[1].clone();
+        let num_runs = run_lengths.len() as u64;
+        let run_lengths_block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+            bits_per_value: 8,
+            data: run_lengths,
+            num_values: num_runs,
+            block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
+        });
+        let bitpacked_run_lengths =
+            BlockCompressor::compress(&OutOfLineBitpacking::new(3, 8), run_lengths_block)
+                .unwrap()
+                .0
+                .unwrap();
+        let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::rle(
+            ProtobufUtils21::flat(32, None),
+            ProtobufUtils21::out_of_line_bitpacking(8, ProtobufUtils21::flat(3, None)),
+        );
+
+        let decompressor = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default()
+            .create_miniblock_decompressor(&encoding, &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default())
+            .unwrap();
+        let decoded = MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(
+            decompressor.as_ref(),
+            vec![compressed.data[0].clone(), bitpacked_run_lengths],
+            expected.len() as u64,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_decoded_i32_eq(decoded, &expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn test_rle_rejects_two_count_dependent_child_encodings() {
+        let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::rle(
+            ProtobufUtils21::out_of_line_bitpacking(32, ProtobufUtils21::flat(3, None)),
+            ProtobufUtils21::out_of_line_bitpacking(8, ProtobufUtils21::flat(3, None)),
+        );
+
+        let err = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default()
+            .create_miniblock_decompressor(&encoding, &DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default())
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("cannot both require the run count")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "lz4", feature = "zstd"))]
+    fn test_general_compression() -> CompressionConfig {
+        if cfg!(feature = "zstd") {
+            CompressionConfig::new(CompressionScheme::Zstd, Some(3))
+        } else {
+            CompressionConfig::new(CompressionScheme::Lz4, None)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn repeating_runs(num_runs: usize, run_length: usize) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_runs * run_length);
+        for run in 0..num_runs {
+            values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n((run % 8) as i32, run_length));
+        }
+        values
+    }
+
+    fn expect_rle(encoding: &CompressiveEncoding) -> &crate::format::pb21::Rle {
+        match encoding.compression.as_ref().unwrap() {
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::Rle(rle) => rle,
+            other => panic!("expected RLE encoding, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn assert_decoded_i32_eq(decoded: DataBlock, expected: &[i32]) {
+        match decoded {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) => {
+                let values = block.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<i32>();
+                assert_eq!(values.as_ref(), expected);
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected FixedWidth block"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "lz4", feature = "zstd"))]
+    fn test_rle_miniblock_compressed_children_multiple_chunks() {
+        let compression = test_general_compression();
+        let encoder = RleEncoder::with_child_encoding(
+            RunLengthWidth::U8,
+            Some(compression),
+            Some(compression),
+            false,
+        );
+        let expected = repeating_runs(8192, 4);
+        let (compressed, encoding) = compress_miniblock(
+            &encoder,
+            DataBlock::from_array(Int32Array::from(expected.clone())),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(compressed.chunks.len() > 1);
+        let rle = expect_rle(&encoding);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::General(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.run_lengths
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .compression
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::General(_)
+        ));
+
+        let decoded = decompress_i32_chunks(&compressed, &encoding);
+        assert_eq!(decoded, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn test_rle_miniblock_bitpacks_values_child_when_smaller() {
+        let encoder = RleEncoder::with_child_encoding(RunLengthWidth::U8, None, None, true);
+        let expected = monotonic_runs(2048, 4);
+        let (compressed, encoding) = compress_miniblock(
+            &encoder,
+            DataBlock::from_array(Int32Array::from(expected.clone())),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let rle = expect_rle(&encoding);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.run_lengths
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .compression
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::Flat(_)
+        ));
+
+        let decoded = decompress_i32_chunks(&compressed, &encoding);
+        assert_eq!(decoded, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn test_rle_miniblock_bitpacks_run_lengths_when_values_do_not_shrink() {
+        let encoder = RleEncoder::with_child_encoding(RunLengthWidth::U8, None, None, true);
+        let expected = high_entropy_runs(2048, 4);
+        let (compressed, encoding) = compress_miniblock(
+            &encoder,
+            DataBlock::from_array(Int32Array::from(expected.clone())),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let rle = expect_rle(&encoding);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.values.as_ref().unwrap().compression.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::Flat(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            rle.run_lengths
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .compression
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap(),
+            crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(_)
+        ));
+
+        let decoded = decompress_i32_chunks(&compressed, &encoding);
+        assert_eq!(decoded, expected);
+    }
+
+    fn decompress_i32_chunks(
+        compressed: &MiniBlockCompressed,
+        encoding: &CompressiveEncoding,
+    ) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let strategy = DefaultDecompressionStrategy::default();
+        let decompressor = strategy
+            .create_miniblock_decompressor(encoding, &strategy)
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut offsets = vec![0usize; compressed.data.len()];
+        let mut values_processed = 0u64;
+        let mut decoded_values = Vec::new();
+
+        for chunk in &compressed.chunks {
+            let chunk_values = chunk.num_values(values_processed, compressed.num_values);
+            let mut chunk_buffers = Vec::with_capacity(chunk.buffer_sizes.len());
+            for (idx, size) in chunk.buffer_sizes.iter().enumerate() {
+                let size = *size as usize;
+                chunk_buffers.push(compressed.data[idx].slice_with_length(offsets[idx], size));
+                offsets[idx] += size;
+            }
+
+            let decoded = decompressor
+                .decompress(chunk_buffers, chunk_values)
+                .unwrap();
+            match decoded {
+                DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) => {
+                    let values = block.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<i32>();
+                    decoded_values.extend_from_slice(values.as_ref());
+                }
+                _ => panic!("Expected FixedWidth block"),
+            }
+            values_processed += chunk_values;
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(values_processed, compressed.num_values);
+        decoded_values
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn monotonic_runs(num_runs: usize, run_length: usize) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_runs * run_length);
+        for run in 0..num_runs {
+            values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(run as i32, run_length));
+        }
+        values
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
+    fn high_entropy_runs(num_runs: usize, run_length: usize) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_runs * run_length);
+        let mut state = 7u64;
+        for _ in 0..num_runs {
+            state = state
+                .wrapping_mul(6364136223846793005)
+                .wrapping_add(1442695040888963407);
+            values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n((state >> 32) as i32, run_length));
+        }
+        values
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_select_run_length_width_prefers_u16_for_long_runs() {
+        let mut entries = [0u64; 3];
+        accumulate_run_length_entries(300, Some(*MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES), &mut entries);
+        let (width, _) = select_run_length_width_from_entries(&entries, 32).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(width, RunLengthWidth::U16);
+    }
+
     // ========== Round-trip Tests for Different Types ==========
 
     #[test]
@@ -692,7 +2635,7 @@ mod tests {
             block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
         });
 
-        let (compressed, _) = MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, block).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _) = compress_miniblock(&encoder, block).unwrap();
         let decompressor = RleDecompressor::new(bits_per_value);
         let decompressed = MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(
             &decompressor,
@@ -726,7 +2669,7 @@ mod tests {
 
             let array = Int32Array::from(data);
             let (compressed, _) =
-                MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
+                compress_miniblock(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
 
             // Verify all non-last chunks have power-of-2 values
             for (i, chunk) in compressed.chunks.iter().enumerate() {
@@ -734,7 +2677,7 @@ mod tests {
                     assert!(chunk.log_num_values > 0);
                     let chunk_values = 1u64 << chunk.log_num_values;
                     assert!(chunk_values.is_power_of_two());
-                    assert!(chunk_values <= MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES);
+                    assert!(chunk_values <= *MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES);
                 } else {
                     assert_eq!(chunk.log_num_values, 0);
                 }
@@ -742,8 +2685,73 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::u8_lengths(RunLengthWidth::U8)]
+    #[case::u16_lengths(RunLengthWidth::U16)]
+    #[case::u32_lengths(RunLengthWidth::U32)]
+    fn test_miniblock_chunk_counts_match_encoded_runs(#[case] run_length_width: RunLengthWidth) {
+        // This pattern crosses the 2,048-value boundary in the middle of a two-value run.
+        let levels = (0..4098)
+            .map(|index| if index % 3 == 0 { 1u16 } else { 0u16 })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let num_values = levels.len() as u64;
+        let encoder = RleEncoder::with_run_length_width(run_length_width);
+        let (buffers, chunks) = encoder
+            .encode_data(
+                &LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(levels),
+                num_values,
+                u16::BITS as u64,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(buffers.len(), 2);
+        let bytes_per_length = run_length_width.bytes_per_value();
+        let mut values_offset = 0usize;
+        let mut lengths_offset = 0usize;
+        let mut values_processed = 0u64;
+
+        for chunk in &chunks {
+            let values_size = chunk.buffer_sizes[0] as usize;
+            let lengths_size = chunk.buffer_sizes[1] as usize;
+            let lengths_end = lengths_offset + lengths_size;
+            let chunk_lengths = &buffers[1].as_ref()[lengths_offset..lengths_end];
+            let length_chunks = chunk_lengths.chunks_exact(bytes_per_length);
+            assert!(length_chunks.remainder().is_empty());
+            let num_runs = length_chunks.len();
+            let encoded_values = length_chunks
+                .map(|bytes| run_length_width.read_length(bytes))
+                .sum::<u64>();
+            let declared_values = chunk.num_values(values_processed, num_values);
+
+            assert_eq!(values_size, num_runs * size_of::<u16>());
+            assert_eq!(encoded_values, declared_values);
+
+            values_offset += values_size;
+            lengths_offset = lengths_end;
+            values_processed += declared_values;
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(values_processed, num_values);
+        assert_eq!(values_offset, buffers[0].len());
+        assert_eq!(lengths_offset, buffers[1].len());
+    }
+
     // ========== Error Handling Tests ==========
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_encoder_rejects_zero_progress() {
+        let error = RleEncoder::new()
+            .encode_data(&LanceBuffer::empty(), 1, u16::BITS as u64)
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&error, Error::Internal { .. }),
+            "expected internal error, got: {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("made no progress"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("values_remaining=1"));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_invalid_buffer_count() {
         let decompressor = RleDecompressor::new(32);
@@ -753,10 +2761,12 @@ mod tests {
             10,
         );
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("expects exactly 2 buffers"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("expects exactly 2 buffers")
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -766,10 +2776,125 @@ mod tests {
         let lengths = LanceBuffer::from(vec![5, 10]); // 2 lengths - mismatch!
         let result = MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, vec![values, lengths], 15);
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Inconsistent RLE buffers"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Inconsistent RLE buffers")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_u16_length_buffer_must_be_aligned() {
+        let decompressor = RleDecompressor::with_run_length_width(32, RunLengthWidth::U16);
+        let values = LanceBuffer::from(vec![1, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let lengths = LanceBuffer::from(vec![5]);
+        let result = MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, vec![values, lengths], 5);
+        assert!(matches!(&result, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("not divisible by 2")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_rejects_underflow_and_zero_lengths_and_clamps_overflow() {
+        let decompressor = RleDecompressor::with_run_length_width(32, RunLengthWidth::U16);
+        let value = LanceBuffer::from(1i32.to_le_bytes().to_vec());
+
+        let underflow = MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(
+            &decompressor,
+            vec![
+                value.clone(),
+                LanceBuffer::from(4u16.to_le_bytes().to_vec()),
+            ],
+            5,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(underflow.to_string().contains("produced 4 values"));
+
+        let overflow = MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(
+            &decompressor,
+            vec![
+                value.clone(),
+                LanceBuffer::from(6u16.to_le_bytes().to_vec()),
+            ],
+            5,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        match overflow {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) => {
+                assert_eq!(block.num_values, 5);
+                let decoded = block.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<i32>();
+                assert_eq!(decoded.as_ref(), &[1i32; 5]);
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected FixedWidth block"),
+        }
+
+        let zero = MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(
+            &decompressor,
+            vec![value, LanceBuffer::from(0u16.to_le_bytes().to_vec())],
+            5,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(zero.to_string().contains("zero run length"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_rle_rejects_overflow() {
+        // Block payloads have no chunk boundaries, so run lengths summing past
+        // num_values can only be corruption and must stay a hard error.
+        let decompressor = RleDecompressor::with_run_length_width(32, RunLengthWidth::U16);
+        let values = 1i32.to_le_bytes();
+        let lengths = 6u16.to_le_bytes();
+        let mut payload = Vec::new();
+        payload.extend_from_slice(&(values.len() as u64).to_le_bytes());
+        payload.extend_from_slice(&values);
+        payload.extend_from_slice(&lengths);
+
+        let error =
+            BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, Some(LanceBuffer::from(payload)), 5)
+                .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("overflowed expected value count")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rle_truncates_legacy_chunk_boundary_overflow() {
+        // Legacy encoders emitted chunks declaring 2048 values whose final run crossed
+        // the checkpoint boundary (e.g. run lengths summing to 2080); the excess values
+        // are duplicated at the start of the next chunk and must be ignored here.
+        let decompressor = RleDecompressor::with_run_length_width(32, RunLengthWidth::U16);
+        let mut values = Vec::new();
+        values.extend_from_slice(&7i32.to_le_bytes());
+        values.extend_from_slice(&8i32.to_le_bytes());
+        let mut lengths = Vec::new();
+        lengths.extend_from_slice(&2000u16.to_le_bytes());
+        lengths.extend_from_slice(&80u16.to_le_bytes());
+
+        let decoded = MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(
+            &decompressor,
+            vec![LanceBuffer::from(values), LanceBuffer::from(lengths)],
+            2048,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        match decoded {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(block) => {
+                assert_eq!(block.num_values, 2048);
+                let decoded = block.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<i32>();
+                let decoded = decoded.as_ref();
+                assert_eq!(decoded.len(), 2048);
+                assert!(decoded[..2000].iter().all(|&v| v == 7));
+                assert!(decoded[2000..].iter().all(|&v| v == 8));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected FixedWidth block"),
+        }
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -784,7 +2909,7 @@ mod tests {
             block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
         });
 
-        let (compressed, _) = MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, empty_block).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _) = compress_miniblock(&encoder, empty_block).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(compressed.num_values, 0);
         assert!(compressed.data.is_empty());
 
@@ -818,8 +2943,7 @@ mod tests {
         data.extend(vec![777i32; 2000]);
 
         let array = Int32Array::from(data.clone());
-        let (compressed, _) =
-            MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _) = compress_miniblock(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
 
         // Manually decompress all chunks
         let mut reconstructed = Vec::new();
@@ -932,7 +3056,7 @@ mod tests {
             // Compress the data
             let array = Int32Array::from(data.clone());
             let (compressed, _) =
-                MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
+                compress_miniblock(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
 
             // Decompress and verify
             match MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(
@@ -1002,7 +3126,7 @@ mod tests {
             block_info: BlockInfo::default(),
         });
 
-        let (compressed, _) = MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, block).unwrap();
+        let (compressed, _) = compress_miniblock(&encoder, block).unwrap();
 
         // Debug first few chunks
         for (i, chunk) in compressed.chunks.iter().take(5).enumerate() {
@@ -1051,8 +3175,7 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_rle_encoding_verification() {
-        use crate::testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, TestCases};
-        use crate::version::LanceFileVersion;
+        use crate::testing::{TestCases, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data};
         use arrow_array::{Array, Int32Array};
         use lance_datagen::{ArrayGenerator, RowCount};
         use std::collections::HashMap;
@@ -1060,7 +3183,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_expected_encoding("rle")
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
 
         // Test both explicit metadata and automatic selection
         // 1. Test with explicit RLE threshold metadata (also disable BSS)
@@ -1110,6 +3233,30 @@ mod tests {
         ); // 20% variety
         let arr = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values)) as Arc<dyn Array>;
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+
+        #[cfg(any(feature = "lz4", feature = "zstd"))]
+        {
+            let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+            metadata.insert(
+                "lance-encoding:rle-threshold".to_string(),
+                "0.8".to_string(),
+            );
+            metadata.insert("lance-encoding:bss".to_string(), "off".to_string());
+            metadata.insert(
+                "lance-encoding:compression".to_string(),
+                if cfg!(feature = "zstd") {
+                    "zstd".to_string()
+                } else {
+                    "lz4".to_string()
+                },
+            );
+            let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(2048 * 4);
+            for run in 0..2048 {
+                values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(i32::MIN + (run % 8), 4));
+            }
+            let arr = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values)) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![arr], &test_cases, metadata).await;
+        }
     }
 
     /// Generator that produces repetitive patterns suitable for RLE
@@ -1160,24 +3307,31 @@ mod tests {
 
         let mut data = Vec::new();
         data.extend_from_slice(&u64::MAX.to_le_bytes());
-        let result = BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, LanceBuffer::from(data), 1);
+        let result = BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, Some(LanceBuffer::from(data)), 1);
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Invalid RLE values buffer size"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Invalid RLE values buffer size")
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_block_decompressor_too_small() {
         let decompressor = RleDecompressor::new(32);
-        let result =
-            BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, LanceBuffer::from(vec![1, 2, 3]), 10);
+        let result = BlockDecompressor::decompress(
+            &decompressor,
+            Some(LanceBuffer::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+            10,
+        );
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Insufficient data size: 3"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Insufficient data size: 3")
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1186,7 +3340,10 @@ mod tests {
 
         let data = vec![1i32, 1, 1];
         let array = Int32Array::from(data);
-        let compressed = BlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
+        let compressed = BlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array))
+            .unwrap()
+            .0
+            .unwrap();
 
         // Verify header format: first 8 bytes should be values_size as u64
         assert!(compressed.len() >= 8);
@@ -1210,7 +3367,7 @@ mod tests {
         let array = Int32Array::from(data.clone());
         let data_block = DataBlock::from_array(array);
 
-        let compressed = BlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, data_block).unwrap();
+        let compressed = BlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, data_block).unwrap().0;
         let decompressed =
             BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, compressed, data.len() as u64).unwrap();
 
@@ -1239,7 +3396,9 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(total_values, 10000);
 
         let array = Int32Array::from(data.clone());
-        let compressed = BlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array)).unwrap();
+        let compressed = BlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, DataBlock::from_array(array))
+            .unwrap()
+            .0;
         let decompressed =
             BlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, compressed, total_values as u64).unwrap();
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/value.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/value.rs
index a0ea0c5ba2d..0dafa478f2d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/value.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/encodings/physical/value.rs
@@ -1,24 +1,25 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use arrow_buffer::{bit_util, BooleanBufferBuilder};
-use snafu::location;
+use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBufferBuilder, bit_util};
 
 use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
 use crate::compression::{
     BlockCompressor, BlockDecompressor, FixedPerValueDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor,
+    require_block_payload,
 };
 use crate::data::{
-    BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedSizeListBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock, NullableDataBlock,
+    AllNullDataBlock, BlockInfo, DataBlock, FixedSizeListBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock,
+    NullableDataBlock,
 };
 use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::fullzip::{PerValueCompressor, PerValueDataBlock};
 use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::miniblock::{
-    MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed, MiniBlockCompressor, MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES,
-    MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES,
+    MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES, MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES, MiniBlockChunk, MiniBlockCompressed,
+    MiniBlockCompressionContext, MiniBlockCompressor,
 };
+use crate::format::ProtobufUtils21;
 use crate::format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
 use crate::format::pb21::{self, CompressiveEncoding};
-use crate::format::ProtobufUtils21;
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
@@ -28,7 +29,7 @@ pub struct ValueEncoder {}
 
 impl ValueEncoder {
     /// Use the largest chunk we can smaller than 4KiB
-    fn find_log_vals_per_chunk(bytes_per_word: u64, values_per_word: u64) -> (u64, u64) {
+    fn find_log_vals_per_chunk(bytes_per_word: u64, values_per_word: u64) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
         let mut size_bytes = 2 * bytes_per_word;
         let (mut log_num_vals, mut num_vals) = match values_per_word {
             1 => (1, 2),
@@ -36,19 +37,25 @@ impl ValueEncoder {
             _ => unreachable!(),
         };
 
-        // If the type is so wide that we can't even fit 2 values we shouldn't be here
-        assert!(size_bytes < MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES);
+        if size_bytes >= MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES {
+            let num_values = 2 * values_per_word;
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Value is too wide for miniblock encoding: {} values require {} bytes but a \
+                 miniblock chunk is limited to {} bytes.",
+                num_values, size_bytes, MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES
+            )));
+        }
 
-        while 2 * size_bytes < MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES && 2 * num_vals <= MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES {
+        while 2 * size_bytes < MAX_MINIBLOCK_BYTES && 2 * num_vals <= *MAX_MINIBLOCK_VALUES {
             log_num_vals += 1;
             size_bytes *= 2;
             num_vals *= 2;
         }
 
-        (log_num_vals, num_vals)
+        Ok((log_num_vals, num_vals))
     }
 
-    fn chunk_data(data: FixedWidthDataBlock) -> MiniBlockCompressed {
+    fn chunk_data(data: FixedWidthDataBlock) -> Result<MiniBlockCompressed> {
         // Usually there are X bytes per value.  However, when working with boolean
         // or FSL<boolean> we might have some number of bits per value that isn't
         // divisible by 8.  In this case, to avoid chunking in the middle of a byte
@@ -61,7 +68,7 @@ impl ValueEncoder {
 
         // Aim for 4KiB chunks
         let (log_vals_per_chunk, vals_per_chunk) =
-            Self::find_log_vals_per_chunk(bytes_per_word, values_per_word);
+            Self::find_log_vals_per_chunk(bytes_per_word, values_per_word)?;
         let num_chunks = bit_util::ceil(data.num_values as usize, vals_per_chunk as usize);
         debug_assert_eq!(vals_per_chunk % values_per_word, 0);
         let bytes_per_chunk = bytes_per_word * (vals_per_chunk / values_per_word);
@@ -100,11 +107,11 @@ impl ValueEncoder {
 
         debug_assert_eq!(chunks.len(), num_chunks);
 
-        MiniBlockCompressed {
+        Ok(MiniBlockCompressed {
             chunks,
             data: vec![data_buffer],
             num_values: data.num_values,
-        }
+        })
     }
 }
 
@@ -178,7 +185,7 @@ impl ValueEncoder {
         data: FixedWidthDataBlock,
         layers: Vec<MiniblockFslLayer>,
         num_rows: u64,
-    ) -> (MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding) {
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         // Count size to calculate rows per chunk
         let mut ceil_bytes_validity = 0;
         let mut cum_dim = 1;
@@ -199,7 +206,7 @@ impl ValueEncoder {
         };
         let est_bytes_per_word = (ceil_bytes_validity * vals_per_word) + cum_bytes_per_word;
         let (log_rows_per_chunk, rows_per_chunk) =
-            Self::find_log_vals_per_chunk(est_bytes_per_word, vals_per_word);
+            Self::find_log_vals_per_chunk(est_bytes_per_word, vals_per_word)?;
 
         let num_chunks = num_rows.div_ceil(rows_per_chunk) as usize;
 
@@ -259,17 +266,17 @@ impl ValueEncoder {
             .chain(std::iter::once(data.data))
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        (
+        Ok((
             MiniBlockCompressed {
                 chunks,
                 data: buffers,
                 num_values: num_rows,
             },
             encoding,
-        )
+        ))
     }
 
-    fn miniblock_fsl(data: DataBlock) -> (MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding) {
+    fn miniblock_fsl(data: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         let num_rows = data.num_values();
         let fsl = data.as_fixed_size_list().unwrap();
         let mut layers = Vec::new();
@@ -316,17 +323,18 @@ impl ValueEncoder {
     fn fsl_to_encoding(fsl: &FixedSizeListBlock) -> CompressiveEncoding {
         let mut inner = fsl.child.as_ref();
         let mut has_validity = false;
-        inner = match inner {
-            DataBlock::Nullable(nullable) => {
-                has_validity = true;
-                nullable.data.as_ref()
-            }
+        if let DataBlock::Nullable(nullable) = inner {
+            has_validity = true;
+            inner = nullable.data.as_ref();
+        }
+        let inner_encoding = match inner {
+            // All inner values are null.  Reserve validity bits (has_validity=true) so that
+            // the decoder knows one validity byte per cum_dim items is stored per row.
+            // constant(None) signals that every stored item decodes to null.
             DataBlock::AllNull(_) => {
-                return ProtobufUtils21::constant(None);
+                has_validity = true;
+                ProtobufUtils21::constant(None)
             }
-            _ => inner,
-        };
-        let inner_encoding = match inner {
             DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) => {
                 ProtobufUtils21::flat(fixed_width.bits_per_value, None)
             }
@@ -405,6 +413,19 @@ impl ValueEncoder {
                     break;
                 }
                 DataBlock::AllNull(_) => {
+                    // All inner values are null.  Add all-zero validity bits so that
+                    // bytes_per_row > 0 and the FullZip layout doesn't write bits_per_value=0,
+                    // which would crash the reader when there are also no ctrl-word bytes.
+                    bytes_per_row += cum_dim.div_ceil(8) as usize;
+                    validity_iters.push(PerValueFslValidityIter {
+                        buffer: LanceBuffer::from(vec![
+                            0u8;
+                            cum_dim.div_ceil(8) as usize
+                                * num_values as usize
+                        ]),
+                        bits_per_row: cum_dim as usize,
+                        offset: 0,
+                    });
                     data_bytes_per_row = 0;
                     data_buffer = LanceBuffer::empty();
                     break;
@@ -453,34 +474,39 @@ impl ValueEncoder {
 }
 
 impl BlockCompressor for ValueEncoder {
-    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<LanceBuffer> {
-        let data = match data {
-            DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) => fixed_width.data,
-            _ => unimplemented!(
-                "Cannot compress block of type {} with ValueEncoder",
+    fn compress(&self, data: DataBlock) -> Result<(Option<LanceBuffer>, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) = data else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "ValueEncoder cannot compress a {} block",
                 data.name()
-            ),
+            )));
         };
-        Ok(data)
+        Ok((
+            Some(fixed_width.data),
+            ProtobufUtils21::flat(fixed_width.bits_per_value, None),
+        ))
     }
 }
 
 impl MiniBlockCompressor for ValueEncoder {
-    fn compress(&self, chunk: DataBlock) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
+    fn compress(
+        &self,
+        _context: MiniBlockCompressionContext,
+        chunk: DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<(MiniBlockCompressed, CompressiveEncoding)> {
         match chunk {
             DataBlock::FixedWidth(fixed_width) => {
                 let encoding = ProtobufUtils21::flat(fixed_width.bits_per_value, None);
-                Ok((Self::chunk_data(fixed_width), encoding))
+                Ok((Self::chunk_data(fixed_width)?, encoding))
             }
-            DataBlock::FixedSizeList(_) => Ok(Self::miniblock_fsl(chunk)),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            DataBlock::FixedSizeList(_) => Self::miniblock_fsl(chunk),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "Cannot compress a data block of type {} with ValueEncoder",
                     chunk.name()
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -517,7 +543,7 @@ impl ValueDecompressor {
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn from_fsl(mut description: &pb21::FixedSizeList) -> Self {
+    pub fn from_fsl(mut description: &pb21::FixedSizeList) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut layers = Vec::new();
         let mut cum_dim = 1;
         let mut bytes_per_value = 0;
@@ -530,28 +556,45 @@ impl ValueDecompressor {
             if description.has_validity {
                 bytes_per_value += cum_dim.div_ceil(8);
             }
-            match description
+            let encoding = description
                 .values
                 .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("FSL encoding missing inner values field"))?
                 .compression
                 .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
-            {
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input("FSL encoding missing inner compression field")
+                })?;
+            match encoding {
                 Compression::FixedSizeList(inner) => {
                     description = inner;
                 }
                 Compression::Flat(flat) => {
                     let mut bits_per_value = bytes_per_value * 8;
                     bits_per_value += flat.bits_per_value * cum_dim;
-                    return Self {
+                    return Ok(Self {
                         bits_per_item: flat.bits_per_value,
                         bits_per_value,
                         items_per_value: cum_dim,
                         layers,
-                    };
+                    });
+                }
+                // All inner values are null: only validity bytes are stored per row.
+                // bits_per_item=0 signals unzip_decompress to emit AllNull for the values.
+                Compression::Constant(_) => {
+                    return Ok(Self {
+                        bits_per_item: 0,
+                        bits_per_value: bytes_per_value * 8,
+                        items_per_value: cum_dim,
+                        layers,
+                    });
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Unexpected inner encoding type in FSL descriptor: {:?}",
+                        encoding
+                    )));
                 }
-                _ => unreachable!(),
             }
         }
     }
@@ -567,7 +610,8 @@ impl ValueDecompressor {
 }
 
 impl BlockDecompressor for ValueDecompressor {
-    fn decompress(&self, data: LanceBuffer, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+    fn decompress(&self, data: Option<LanceBuffer>, num_values: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
+        let data = require_block_payload(data, "Flat block")?;
         let block = self.buffer_to_block(data, num_values);
         assert_eq!(block.num_values(), num_values);
         Ok(block)
@@ -602,6 +646,15 @@ impl MiniBlockDecompressor for ValueDecompressor {
         assert_eq!(lists.num_values(), num_values);
         Ok(lists)
     }
+
+    fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        if self.has_validity() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        num_values
+            .checked_mul(self.bits_per_value)
+            .map(|bits| bits.div_ceil(8))
+    }
 }
 
 struct FslDecompressorValidityBuilder {
@@ -686,12 +739,23 @@ impl ValueDecompressor {
         }
 
         // Finally, restore the structure
-        let mut block = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
-            bits_per_value: self.bits_per_item,
-            num_values: num_items as u64,
-            data: LanceBuffer::from(data_buffer),
-            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-        });
+        //
+        // bits_per_item=0 means the terminal encoding is constant-null (all inner values
+        // are null and only validity bits were stored).  Use AllNull so that into_arrow
+        // produces a properly typed all-null array without a zero-width data buffer.
+        let mut block = if self.bits_per_item == 0 {
+            debug_assert!(data_buffer.is_empty());
+            DataBlock::AllNull(AllNullDataBlock {
+                num_values: num_items as u64,
+            })
+        } else {
+            DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
+                bits_per_value: self.bits_per_item,
+                num_values: num_items as u64,
+                data: LanceBuffer::from(data_buffer),
+                block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
+            })
+        };
 
         let mut validity_bufs = buffer_builders
             .into_iter()
@@ -730,6 +794,15 @@ impl FixedPerValueDecompressor for ValueDecompressor {
     fn bits_per_value(&self) -> u64 {
         self.bits_per_value
     }
+
+    fn decoded_size_bytes(&self, num_values: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        if self.has_validity() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        num_values
+            .checked_mul(self.bits_per_value)
+            .map(|bits| bits.div_ceil(8))
+    }
 }
 
 impl PerValueCompressor for ValueEncoder {
@@ -751,19 +824,16 @@ impl PerValueCompressor for ValueEncoder {
 
 // public tests module because we share the PRIMITIVE_TYPES constant with fixed_size_list
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub(crate) mod tests {
-    use std::{
-        collections::HashMap,
-        sync::{Arc, LazyLock},
-    };
+mod tests {
+    use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
     use arrow_array::{
-        make_array, new_null_array, types::UInt32Type, Array, ArrayRef, Decimal128Array,
-        FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, ListArray, UInt8Array,
+        Array, ArrayRef, Decimal128Array, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, ListArray, UInt8Array,
+        make_array, new_null_array, types::UInt32Type,
     };
     use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, TimeUnit};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, ArrayGeneratorExt, Dimension, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, Dimension, RowCount, Seed, array, gen_batch};
 
     use crate::{
         compression::{FixedPerValueDecompressor, MiniBlockDecompressor},
@@ -771,20 +841,22 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
         encodings::{
             logical::primitive::{
                 fullzip::{PerValueCompressor, PerValueDataBlock},
-                miniblock::MiniBlockCompressor,
+                miniblock::{MiniBlockCompressionContext, MiniBlockCompressor},
             },
             physical::value::ValueDecompressor,
         },
         format::pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression,
         testing::{
-            check_basic_random, check_round_trip_encoding_generated,
-            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data, FnArrayGeneratorProvider, TestCases,
+            TestCases, TestEncoding, check_basic_random_case, check_round_trip_encoding_of_data,
         },
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
     };
 
     use super::ValueEncoder;
 
+    fn miniblock_context() -> MiniBlockCompressionContext {
+        MiniBlockCompressionContext::new(0, true, true)
+    }
+
     const PRIMITIVE_TYPES: &[DataType] = &[
         DataType::Null,
         DataType::FixedSizeBinary(2),
@@ -830,112 +902,125 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
             .with_indices(vec![0, 1, 2])
             .with_indices(vec![1])
             .with_indices(vec![2])
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![items], &test_cases, HashMap::default()).await;
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_simple_range() {
-        let items = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter((0..5000).map(|i| {
-            if i % 2 == 0 {
-                Some(i)
-            } else {
-                None
-            }
-        })));
+        let items = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter(
+            (0..5000).map(|i| if i % 2 == 0 { Some(i) } else { None }),
+        ));
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![items], &test_cases, HashMap::default()).await;
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_value_primitive() {
-        for data_type in PRIMITIVE_TYPES {
+        const NUM_ROWS: u32 = 1025;
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_batch_size(NUM_ROWS)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096])
+            .with_expected_encoding("flat");
+        let value_metadata =
+            HashMap::from([("lance-encoding:compression".to_string(), "none".to_string())]);
+
+        for (seed, data_type) in PRIMITIVE_TYPES.iter().enumerate() {
             log::info!("Testing encoding for {:?}", data_type);
-            let field = Field::new("", data_type.clone(), false);
-            check_basic_random(field).await;
+            let data = gen_batch()
+                .with_seed(Seed::from(seed as u64))
+                .anon_col(array::rand_type(data_type))
+                .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(NUM_ROWS as u64))
+                .unwrap()
+                .column(0)
+                .clone();
+
+            check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![data], &test_cases, value_metadata.clone())
+                .await;
         }
     }
 
-    static LARGE_TYPES: LazyLock<Vec<DataType>> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-        vec![DataType::FixedSizeList(
-            Arc::new(Field::new("", DataType::Int32, false)),
-            128,
-        )]
-    });
-
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_large_primitive() {
-        for data_type in LARGE_TYPES.iter() {
-            log::info!("Testing encoding for {:?}", data_type);
-            let field = Field::new("", data_type.clone(), false);
-            check_basic_random(field).await;
-        }
+    async fn test_large_primitive(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+        #[values(4096, 1024 * 1024)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_slicing: bool,
+    ) {
+        let data_type =
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("", DataType::Int32, false)), 128);
+        let field = Field::new("", data_type, false);
+        check_basic_random_case(field, encoding, page_size, use_slicing).await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_decimal128_dictionary_encoding() {
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+    async fn test_decimal128_dictionary_encoding(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_encoding(encoding)
+            .with_expected_encoding("dictionary");
         let decimals: Vec<i32> = (0..100).collect();
         let repeated_strings: Vec<_> = decimals
             .iter()
             .cycle()
-            .take(decimals.len() * 10000)
+            .take(decimals.len() * 1000)
             .map(|&v| Some(v as i128))
             .collect();
         let decimal_array = Arc::new(Decimal128Array::from(repeated_strings)) as ArrayRef;
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![decimal_array], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_miniblock_stress() {
+    async fn test_miniblock_stress(
+        #[values(false, true)] mixed_validity: bool,
+        #[values(10, 100, 1500, 15000)] batch_size: u32,
+        #[values(1000, 2000, 3000, 60000)] page_size: u64,
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
         // Tests for strange page sizes and batch sizes and validity scenarios for miniblock
 
-        // 10K integers, 100 per array, all valid
-        let data1 = (0..100)
-            .map(|_| Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)) as Arc<dyn Array>)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        // Same as above but with mixed validity
-        let data2 = (0..100)
+        // 10K integers, 100 per array, either all valid or mixed validity.
+        let data = (0..100)
             .map(|_| {
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter((0..100).map(|i| {
-                    if i % 2 == 0 {
-                        Some(i)
-                    } else {
-                        None
-                    }
-                }))) as Arc<dyn Array>
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        // Same as above but with all null for first half then all valid
-        // TODO: Re-enable once the all-null path is complete
-        let _data3 = (0..100)
-            .map(|chunk_idx| {
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter((0..100).map(|i| {
-                    if chunk_idx < 50 {
-                        None
-                    } else {
-                        Some(i)
-                    }
-                }))) as Arc<dyn Array>
+                if mixed_validity {
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter(
+                        (0..100).map(|i| if i % 2 == 0 { Some(i) } else { None }),
+                    )) as Arc<dyn Array>
+                } else {
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)) as Arc<dyn Array>
+                }
             })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        for data in [data1, data2 /*data3*/] {
-            for batch_size in [10, 100, 1500, 15000] {
-                // 40000 bytes of data
-                let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-                    .with_page_sizes(vec![1000, 2000, 3000, 60000])
-                    .with_batch_size(batch_size)
-                    .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![page_size])
+            .with_batch_size(batch_size)
+            .with_encoding(encoding);
 
-                check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(data.clone(), &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
-            }
-        }
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(data, &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
     }
 
     fn create_simple_fsl() -> FixedSizeListArray {
@@ -977,7 +1062,8 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
         let starting_data = DataBlock::from_array(sample_list.clone());
 
         let encoder = ValueEncoder::default();
-        let (data, compression) = MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, starting_data).unwrap();
+        let (data, compression) =
+            MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, miniblock_context(), starting_data).unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(data.num_values, 3);
         assert_eq!(data.data.len(), 3);
@@ -989,7 +1075,7 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
             panic!()
         };
 
-        let decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref());
+        let decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref()).unwrap();
 
         let decompressed =
             MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, data.data, data.num_values).unwrap();
@@ -1003,6 +1089,59 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
         assert_eq!(decompressed.as_ref(), &sample_list);
     }
 
+    fn wide_fixed_size_binary() -> ArrayRef {
+        let wide_value = vec![0xABu8; 5000];
+        Arc::new(
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_sparse_iter_with_size(
+                std::iter::repeat_n(Some(wide_value.as_slice()), 4),
+                5000,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn wide_fixed_size_list_bool() -> ArrayRef {
+        // A wide FSL<Boolean> is sub-byte, so it chunks eight values per word and the
+        // smallest unit is 16 values rather than 2.
+        let dimension = 4095;
+        let values = arrow_array::BooleanArray::from(vec![false; dimension * 2]);
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Boolean, true));
+        Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::new(
+            field,
+            dimension as i32,
+            Arc::new(values),
+            None,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::fixed_size_binary(wide_fixed_size_binary(), 2)]
+    #[case::fixed_size_list_bool(wide_fixed_size_list_bool(), 16)]
+    fn test_wide_value_miniblock_returns_error(
+        #[case] array: ArrayRef,
+        #[case] expected_min_values: u64,
+    ) {
+        let starting_data = DataBlock::from_array(array);
+
+        let encoder = ValueEncoder::default();
+        let result = MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, miniblock_context(), starting_data);
+
+        let err = result.expect_err("wide values should not be encodable as miniblock");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+        );
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("too wide for miniblock encoding"),
+            "unexpected error message: {msg}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains(&format!("{expected_min_values} values require")),
+            "unexpected error message: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_fsl_value_compression_per_value() {
         let sample_list = create_simple_fsl();
@@ -1024,9 +1163,14 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
             panic!()
         };
 
-        let decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref());
+        let decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref()).unwrap();
 
         let num_values = data.num_values;
+        assert_eq!(
+            FixedPerValueDecompressor::decoded_size_bytes(&decompressor, num_values),
+            None,
+            "nullable FSL output uses multiple buffers and requires the fallback estimate"
+        );
         let decompressed =
             FixedPerValueDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, data, num_values).unwrap();
 
@@ -1047,12 +1191,29 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
         let list_array =
             FixedSizeListArray::new(items_field, 2, items, Some(NullBuffer::new(list_nulls)));
 
-        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(list_array)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
             .await;
     }
 
+    // Regression: nullable_per_value_fsl wrote bits_per_value=0 when the child block was
+    // AllNull but the FSL had no outer null buffer (no ctrl-word bytes), making
+    // total_bytes_per_value=0 and crashing the reader with "per-row byte width must be > 0".
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_fsl_nullable_child_all_null_no_outer_nulls() {
+        // FSL<nullable Float32, dim=4>, 2 outer rows, no outer null buffer, all 8 child
+        // Float32 values are null.  DataBlock::from_arrays returns AllNull for the child,
+        // which routes into nullable_per_value_fsl.  Without this fix the encoder writes
+        // bits_per_value=0 and the decoder errors on read.
+        let items = new_null_array(&DataType::Float32, 8);
+        let items_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::new(items_field, 4, items, None);
+
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default().with_structural_encodings();
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(fsl)], &test_cases, HashMap::new()).await;
+    }
+
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn regress_list_fsl() {
         // This regresses a case where rows are large lists that span multiple
@@ -1065,7 +1226,7 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
         let list_arr = ListArray::new(list_field, OffsetBuffer::new(offsets), Arc::new(fsl), None);
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
+            .with_structural_encodings()
             .with_batch_size(1);
 
         check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(vec![Arc::new(list_arr)], &test_cases, HashMap::new())
@@ -1097,13 +1258,14 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
         );
 
         let encoder = ValueEncoder::default();
-        let (data, compression) = MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, starting_data).unwrap();
+        let (data, compression) =
+            MiniBlockCompressor::compress(&encoder, miniblock_context(), starting_data).unwrap();
 
         let Compression::FixedSizeList(fsl) = compression.compression.unwrap() else {
             panic!()
         };
 
-        let decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref());
+        let decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref()).unwrap();
 
         let decompressed =
             MiniBlockDecompressor::decompress(&decompressor, data.data, data.num_values).unwrap();
@@ -1133,7 +1295,7 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
             panic!()
         };
 
-        let decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref());
+        let decompressor = ValueDecompressor::from_fsl(fsl.as_ref()).unwrap();
 
         let PerValueDataBlock::Fixed(data) = data else {
             panic!()
@@ -1152,18 +1314,43 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
         assert_eq!(decompressed.as_ref(), sample_array.as_ref());
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_fsl_nullable_items() {
-        let datagen = Box::new(FnArrayGeneratorProvider::new(move || {
-            lance_datagen::array::rand_vec_nullable::<UInt32Type>(Dimension::from(128), 0.5)
-        }));
-
-        let field = Field::new(
-            "",
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt32, true)), 128),
-            false,
-        );
-        check_round_trip_encoding_generated(field, datagen, TestCases::default()).await;
+    async fn test_fsl_nullable_items(
+        #[values(
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        )]
+        encoding: TestEncoding,
+    ) {
+        let mut generator =
+            gen_batch()
+                .with_seed(Seed::from(0))
+                .anon_col(array::rand_vec_nullable::<UInt32Type>(
+                    Dimension::from(128),
+                    0.5,
+                ));
+        generator.with_random_nulls(0.2);
+        let source = generator
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(1026))
+            .unwrap()
+            .column(0)
+            .clone();
+        let test_cases = TestCases::default()
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![4096])
+            .with_encoding(encoding)
+            .with_batch_size(257)
+            .with_range(510..515)
+            .with_indices(vec![0, 511, 512, 1024]);
+
+        check_round_trip_encoding_of_data(
+            vec![source.slice(1, 512), source.slice(513, 513)],
+            &test_cases,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .await;
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
@@ -1172,7 +1359,7 @@ pub(crate) mod tests {
 
         let test_cases = TestCases::default()
             .with_expected_encoding("flat")
-            .with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+            .with_structural_encodings();
 
         // Test both explicit configuration and automatic fallback scenarios
         // 1. Test explicit "none" compression to force flat encoding
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/format.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/format.rs
index 7114f17e31f..f37e69b0216 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/format.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/format.rs
@@ -33,12 +33,12 @@ pub mod pb21 {
 }
 
 use pb::{
-    array_encoding::ArrayEncoding as ArrayEncodingEnum,
-    buffer::BufferType,
-    nullable::{AllNull, NoNull, Nullability, SomeNull},
     ArrayEncoding, Binary, Bitpacked, BitpackedForNonNeg, Block, Dictionary, FixedSizeBinary,
     FixedSizeList, Flat, Fsst, InlineBitpacking, Nullable, OutOfLineBitpacking, PackedStruct,
     PackedStructFixedWidthMiniBlock, Rle, Variable,
+    array_encoding::ArrayEncoding as ArrayEncodingEnum,
+    buffer::BufferType,
+    nullable::{AllNull, NoNull, Nullability, SomeNull},
 };
 
 use crate::{encodings::physical::block::CompressionConfig, repdef::DefinitionInterpretation};
@@ -678,6 +678,34 @@ impl ProtobufUtils21 {
             layout: Some(crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(
                 crate::format::pb21::ConstantLayout {
                     inline_value: inline_value.map(bytes::Bytes::from),
+                    rep_compression: None,
+                    def_compression: None,
+                    num_rep_values: 0,
+                    num_def_values: 0,
+                    layers: def_meaning
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|&def| Self::def_inter_to_repdef_layer(def))
+                        .collect(),
+                },
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn compressed_all_null_constant_layout(
+        def_meaning: &[DefinitionInterpretation],
+        rep_compression: Option<crate::format::pb21::CompressiveEncoding>,
+        def_compression: Option<crate::format::pb21::CompressiveEncoding>,
+        num_rep_values: u64,
+        num_def_values: u64,
+    ) -> crate::format::pb21::PageLayout {
+        crate::format::pb21::PageLayout {
+            layout: Some(crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(
+                crate::format::pb21::ConstantLayout {
+                    inline_value: None,
+                    rep_compression,
+                    def_compression,
+                    num_rep_values,
+                    num_def_values,
                     layers: def_meaning
                         .iter()
                         .map(|&def| Self::def_inter_to_repdef_layer(def))
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/lib.rs
index 19749e4df75..338028b79d0 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,13 +1,14 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::ops::Range;
+use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt, TryFutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, TryFutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 
 use lance_core::Result;
 
+mod array_encoding;
 pub mod buffer;
 pub mod compression;
 pub mod compression_config;
@@ -17,13 +18,11 @@ pub mod decoder;
 pub mod encoder;
 pub mod encodings;
 pub mod format;
-pub mod previous;
 pub mod repdef;
 pub mod statistics;
 #[cfg(test)]
 pub mod testing;
 pub mod utils;
-pub mod version;
 
 // We can definitely add support for big-endian machines someday.  However, it's not a priority and
 // would involve extensive testing (probably through emulation) to ensure that the encodings are
@@ -75,6 +74,33 @@ pub trait EncodingsIo: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
             .map_ok(|mut v| v.pop().unwrap())
             .boxed()
     }
+
+    /// Returns a version of this I/O service that bypasses backpressure for all requests.
+    ///
+    /// This is intended for indirect I/O (e.g. fetching items after decoding offsets) where
+    /// blocking on backpressure could cause deadlocks or excessive latency.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` if this implementation does not support bypass (e.g. in-memory or test
+    /// schedulers), in which case the caller should fall back to using self.
+    fn with_bypass_backpressure(&self) -> Option<Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a version of this I/O service that additionally records the I/O it
+    /// performs into `stats`, on top of any global accounting.  This is the seam
+    /// used to measure exact per-scope (e.g. per-query) I/O without re-opening
+    /// files: wrap a reader's I/O service, perform the reads, then inspect the
+    /// recorder.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` if this implementation does not support per-scope I/O
+    /// statistics (e.g. in-memory or test schedulers), in which case the caller
+    /// should fall back to using self (and no statistics are recorded).
+    fn with_io_stats(
+        &self,
+        _stats: Arc<dyn lance_core::utils::io_stats::IoStatsRecorder>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>> {
+        None
+    }
 }
 
 /// An implementation of EncodingsIo that serves data from an in-memory buffer
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index eb4e1bcdb0d..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-//! Legacy code for the 2.0 format that is no longer used in 2.1+
-
-pub mod decoder;
-pub mod encoder;
-pub mod encodings;
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/decoder.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/decoder.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index fd224e57f34..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/decoder.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,137 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-use std::{collections::VecDeque, ops::Range};
-
-use snafu::location;
-
-use crate::decoder::{
-    FilterExpression, NextDecodeTask, PriorityRange, ScheduledScanLine, SchedulerContext,
-};
-
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use futures::future::BoxFuture;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-
-pub trait SchedulingJob: std::fmt::Debug {
-    fn schedule_next(
-        &mut self,
-        context: &mut SchedulerContext,
-        priority: &dyn PriorityRange,
-    ) -> Result<ScheduledScanLine>;
-
-    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64;
-}
-
-/// A scheduler for a field's worth of data
-///
-/// Each field in a reader's output schema maps to one field scheduler.  This scheduler may
-/// map to more than one column.  For example, one field of struct data may
-/// cover many columns of child data.  In fact, the entire file is treated as one
-/// top-level struct field.
-///
-/// The scheduler is responsible for calculating the necessary I/O.  One schedule_range
-/// request could trigger multiple batches of I/O across multiple columns.  The scheduler
-/// should emit decoders into the sink as quickly as possible.
-///
-/// As soon as the scheduler encounters a batch of data that can decoded then the scheduler
-/// should emit a decoder in the "unloaded" state.  The decode stream will pull the decoder
-/// and start decoding.
-///
-/// The order in which decoders are emitted is important.  Pages should be emitted in
-/// row-major order allowing decode of complete rows as quickly as possible.
-///
-/// The `FieldScheduler` should be stateless and `Send` and `Sync`.  This is
-/// because it might need to be shared.  For example, a list page has a reference to
-/// the field schedulers for its items column.  This is shared with the follow-up I/O
-/// task created when the offsets are loaded.
-///
-/// See [`crate::decoder`] for more information
-pub trait FieldScheduler: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
-    /// Called at the beginning of scheduling to initialize the scheduler
-    fn initialize<'a>(
-        &'a self,
-        filter: &'a FilterExpression,
-        context: &'a SchedulerContext,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<()>>;
-    /// Schedules I/O for the requested portions of the field.
-    ///
-    /// Note: `ranges` must be ordered and non-overlapping
-    /// TODO: Support unordered or overlapping ranges in file scheduler
-    fn schedule_ranges<'a>(
-        &'a self,
-        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
-        filter: &FilterExpression,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn SchedulingJob + 'a>>;
-    /// The number of rows in this field
-    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64;
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct DecoderReady {
-    // The decoder that is ready to be decoded
-    pub decoder: Box<dyn LogicalPageDecoder>,
-    // The path to the decoder, the first value is the column index
-    // following values, if present, are nested child indices
-    //
-    // For example, a path of [1, 1, 0] would mean to grab the second
-    // column, then the second child, and then the first child.
-    //
-    // It could represent x in the following schema:
-    //
-    // score: float64
-    // points: struct
-    //   color: string
-    //   location: struct
-    //     x: float64
-    //
-    // Currently, only struct decoders have "children" although other
-    // decoders may at some point as well.  List children are only
-    // handled through indirect I/O at the moment and so they don't
-    // need to be represented (yet)
-    pub path: VecDeque<u32>,
-}
-
-/// A decoder for a field's worth of data
-///
-/// The decoder is initially "unloaded" (doesn't have all its data).  The [`Self::wait_for_loaded`]
-/// method should be called to wait for the needed I/O data before attempting to decode
-/// any further.
-///
-/// Unlike the other decoder types it is assumed that `LogicalPageDecoder` is stateful
-/// and only `Send`.  This is why we don't need a `rows_to_skip` argument in [`Self::drain`]
-pub trait LogicalPageDecoder: std::fmt::Debug + Send {
-    /// Add a newly scheduled child decoder
-    ///
-    /// The default implementation does not expect children and returns
-    /// an error.
-    fn accept_child(&mut self, _child: DecoderReady) -> Result<()> {
-        Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!(
-                "The decoder {:?} does not expect children but received a child",
-                self
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-    /// Waits until at least `num_rows` have been loaded
-    fn wait_for_loaded(&'_ mut self, loaded_need: u64) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<()>>;
-    /// The number of rows loaded so far
-    fn rows_loaded(&self) -> u64;
-    /// The number of rows that still need loading
-    fn rows_unloaded(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.num_rows() - self.rows_loaded()
-    }
-    /// The total number of rows in the field
-    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64;
-    /// The number of rows that have been drained so far
-    fn rows_drained(&self) -> u64;
-    /// The number of rows that are still available to drain
-    fn rows_left(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.num_rows() - self.rows_drained()
-    }
-    /// Creates a task to decode `num_rows` of data into an array
-    fn drain(&mut self, num_rows: u64) -> Result<NextDecodeTask>;
-    /// The data type of the decoded data
-    fn data_type(&self) -> &DataType;
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encoder.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encoder.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index b6ab35722f7..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encoder.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,811 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-use std::{collections::HashMap, env, hash::RandomState, sync::Arc};
-
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, ArrayRef, UInt8Array};
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use hyperloglogplus::{HyperLogLog, HyperLogLogPlus};
-use snafu::location;
-
-use crate::{
-    buffer::LanceBuffer,
-    data::DataBlock,
-    encoder::{ColumnIndexSequence, EncodingOptions, FieldEncoder, FieldEncodingStrategy},
-    encodings::{
-        logical::r#struct::StructFieldEncoder,
-        physical::{
-            block::{CompressionConfig, CompressionScheme},
-            value::ValueEncoder,
-        },
-    },
-    format::pb,
-    previous::encodings::{
-        logical::{
-            blob::BlobFieldEncoder, list::ListFieldEncoder, primitive::PrimitiveFieldEncoder,
-        },
-        physical::{
-            basic::BasicEncoder,
-            binary::BinaryEncoder,
-            dictionary::{AlreadyDictionaryEncoder, DictionaryEncoder},
-            fixed_size_binary::FixedSizeBinaryEncoder,
-            fixed_size_list::FslEncoder,
-            fsst::FsstArrayEncoder,
-            packed_struct::PackedStructEncoder,
-        },
-    },
-    version::LanceFileVersion,
-};
-
-#[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
-use crate::previous::encodings::physical::bitpack::{
-    compute_compressed_bit_width_for_non_neg, BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder,
-};
-
-use crate::constants::{
-    COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY, COMPRESSION_META_KEY, PACKED_STRUCT_LEGACY_META_KEY,
-    PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY,
-};
-
-use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
-use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, BLOB_DESC_FIELD};
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-
-/// An encoded array
-///
-/// Maps to a single Arrow array
-///
-/// This contains the encoded data as well as a description of the encoding that was applied which
-/// can be used to decode the data later.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct EncodedArray {
-    /// The encoded buffers
-    pub data: DataBlock,
-    /// A description of the encoding used to encode the array
-    pub encoding: pb::ArrayEncoding,
-}
-
-impl EncodedArray {
-    pub fn new(data: DataBlock, encoding: pb::ArrayEncoding) -> Self {
-        Self { data, encoding }
-    }
-
-    pub fn into_buffers(self) -> (Vec<LanceBuffer>, pb::ArrayEncoding) {
-        let buffers = self.data.into_buffers();
-        (buffers, self.encoding)
-    }
-}
-
-/// Encodes data from one format to another (hopefully more compact or useful) format
-///
-/// The array encoder must be Send + Sync.  Encoding is always done on its own
-/// thread task in the background and there could potentially be multiple encode
-/// tasks running for a column at once.
-pub trait ArrayEncoder: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
-    /// Encode data
-    ///
-    /// The result should contain a description of the encoding that was chosen.
-    /// This can be used to decode the data later.
-    fn encode(
-        &self,
-        data: DataBlock,
-        data_type: &DataType,
-        buffer_index: &mut u32,
-    ) -> Result<EncodedArray>;
-}
-
-/// A trait to pick which encoding strategy to use for a single page
-/// of data
-///
-/// Presumably, implementations will make encoding decisions based on
-/// array statistics.
-pub trait ArrayEncodingStrategy: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
-    fn create_array_encoder(
-        &self,
-        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
-        field: &Field,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>>;
-}
-
-/// The core field encoding strategy is a set of basic encodings that
-/// are generally applicable in most scenarios.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct CoreFieldEncodingStrategy {
-    pub array_encoding_strategy: Arc<dyn ArrayEncodingStrategy>,
-    pub version: LanceFileVersion,
-}
-
-impl CoreFieldEncodingStrategy {
-    pub fn new(version: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            array_encoding_strategy: Arc::new(CoreArrayEncodingStrategy::new(version)),
-            version,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn is_primitive_type(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
-        matches!(
-            data_type,
-            DataType::Boolean
-                | DataType::Date32
-                | DataType::Date64
-                | DataType::Decimal128(_, _)
-                | DataType::Decimal256(_, _)
-                | DataType::Duration(_)
-                | DataType::Float16
-                | DataType::Float32
-                | DataType::Float64
-                | DataType::Int16
-                | DataType::Int32
-                | DataType::Int64
-                | DataType::Int8
-                | DataType::Interval(_)
-                | DataType::Null
-                | DataType::Time32(_)
-                | DataType::Time64(_)
-                | DataType::Timestamp(_, _)
-                | DataType::UInt16
-                | DataType::UInt32
-                | DataType::UInt64
-                | DataType::UInt8
-                | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_)
-                | DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _)
-                | DataType::Binary
-                | DataType::LargeBinary
-                | DataType::Utf8
-                | DataType::LargeUtf8,
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl FieldEncodingStrategy for CoreFieldEncodingStrategy {
-    fn create_field_encoder(
-        &self,
-        encoding_strategy_root: &dyn FieldEncodingStrategy,
-        field: &Field,
-        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
-        options: &EncodingOptions,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
-        let data_type = field.data_type();
-        if Self::is_primitive_type(&data_type) {
-            let column_index = column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32);
-            if field.metadata.contains_key(BLOB_META_KEY) {
-                let mut packed_meta = HashMap::new();
-                packed_meta.insert(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
-                let desc_field =
-                    Field::try_from(BLOB_DESC_FIELD.clone().with_metadata(packed_meta)).unwrap();
-                let desc_encoder = Box::new(PrimitiveFieldEncoder::try_new(
-                    options,
-                    self.array_encoding_strategy.clone(),
-                    column_index,
-                    desc_field,
-                )?);
-                Ok(Box::new(BlobFieldEncoder::new(desc_encoder)))
-            } else {
-                Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveFieldEncoder::try_new(
-                    options,
-                    self.array_encoding_strategy.clone(),
-                    column_index,
-                    field.clone(),
-                )?))
-            }
-        } else {
-            match data_type {
-                DataType::List(_child) | DataType::LargeList(_child) => {
-                    let list_idx = column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32);
-                    let inner_encoding = encoding_strategy_root.create_field_encoder(
-                        encoding_strategy_root,
-                        &field.children[0],
-                        column_index,
-                        options,
-                    )?;
-                    let offsets_encoder =
-                        Arc::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(ValueEncoder::default())));
-                    Ok(Box::new(ListFieldEncoder::new(
-                        inner_encoding,
-                        offsets_encoder,
-                        options.cache_bytes_per_column,
-                        options.keep_original_array,
-                        list_idx,
-                    )))
-                }
-                DataType::Struct(_) => {
-                    let field_metadata = &field.metadata;
-                    if field_metadata
-                        .get(PACKED_STRUCT_LEGACY_META_KEY)
-                        .map(|v| v == "true")
-                        .unwrap_or(field_metadata.contains_key(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY))
-                    {
-                        Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveFieldEncoder::try_new(
-                            options,
-                            self.array_encoding_strategy.clone(),
-                            column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
-                            field.clone(),
-                        )?))
-                    } else {
-                        let header_idx = column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32);
-                        let children_encoders = field
-                            .children
-                            .iter()
-                            .map(|field| {
-                                self.create_field_encoder(
-                                    encoding_strategy_root,
-                                    field,
-                                    column_index,
-                                    options,
-                                )
-                            })
-                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-                        Ok(Box::new(StructFieldEncoder::new(
-                            children_encoders,
-                            header_idx,
-                        )))
-                    }
-                }
-                DataType::Dictionary(_, value_type) => {
-                    // A dictionary of primitive is, itself, primitive
-                    if Self::is_primitive_type(&value_type) {
-                        Ok(Box::new(PrimitiveFieldEncoder::try_new(
-                            options,
-                            self.array_encoding_strategy.clone(),
-                            column_index.next_column_index(field.id as u32),
-                            field.clone(),
-                        )?))
-                    } else {
-                        // A dictionary of logical is, itself, logical and we don't support that today
-                        // It could be possible (e.g. store indices in one column and values in remaining columns)
-                        // but would be a significant amount of work
-                        //
-                        // An easier fallback implementation would be to decode-on-write and encode-on-read
-                        Err(Error::NotSupported { source: format!("cannot encode a dictionary column whose value type is a logical type ({})", value_type).into(), location: location!() })
-                    }
-                }
-                _ => todo!("Implement encoding for field {}", field),
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// The core array encoding strategy is a set of basic encodings that
-/// are generally applicable in most scenarios.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct CoreArrayEncodingStrategy {
-    pub version: LanceFileVersion,
-}
-
-const BINARY_DATATYPES: [DataType; 4] = [
-    DataType::Binary,
-    DataType::LargeBinary,
-    DataType::Utf8,
-    DataType::LargeUtf8,
-];
-
-impl CoreArrayEncodingStrategy {
-    fn new(version: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
-        Self { version }
-    }
-}
-
-impl CoreArrayEncodingStrategy {
-    fn can_use_fsst(data_type: &DataType, data_size: u64, version: LanceFileVersion) -> bool {
-        version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-            && matches!(data_type, DataType::Utf8 | DataType::Binary)
-            && data_size > 4 * 1024 * 1024
-    }
-
-    fn get_field_compression(field_meta: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Option<CompressionConfig> {
-        let compression = field_meta.get(COMPRESSION_META_KEY)?;
-        let compression_scheme = compression.parse::<CompressionScheme>();
-        match compression_scheme {
-            Ok(compression_scheme) => Some(CompressionConfig::new(
-                compression_scheme,
-                field_meta
-                    .get(COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY)
-                    .and_then(|level| level.parse().ok()),
-            )),
-            Err(_) => None,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn default_binary_encoder(
-        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
-        data_type: &DataType,
-        field_meta: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
-        data_size: u64,
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>> {
-        let bin_indices_encoder =
-            Self::choose_array_encoder(arrays, &DataType::UInt64, data_size, false, version, None)?;
-
-        if let Some(compression) = field_meta.and_then(Self::get_field_compression) {
-            if compression.scheme == CompressionScheme::Fsst {
-                // User requested FSST
-                let raw_encoder = Box::new(BinaryEncoder::try_new(bin_indices_encoder, None)?);
-                Ok(Box::new(FsstArrayEncoder::new(raw_encoder)))
-            } else {
-                // Generic compression
-                Ok(Box::new(BinaryEncoder::try_new(
-                    bin_indices_encoder,
-                    Some(compression),
-                )?))
-            }
-        } else {
-            // No user-specified compression, use FSST if we can
-            let bin_encoder = Box::new(BinaryEncoder::try_new(bin_indices_encoder, None)?);
-            if Self::can_use_fsst(data_type, data_size, version) {
-                Ok(Box::new(FsstArrayEncoder::new(bin_encoder)))
-            } else {
-                Ok(bin_encoder)
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn choose_array_encoder(
-        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
-        data_type: &DataType,
-        data_size: u64,
-        use_dict_encoding: bool,
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
-        field_meta: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>> {
-        match data_type {
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, dimension) => {
-                Ok(Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(FslEncoder::new(
-                    Self::choose_array_encoder(
-                        arrays,
-                        inner.data_type(),
-                        data_size,
-                        use_dict_encoding,
-                        version,
-                        None,
-                    )?,
-                    *dimension as u32,
-                )))))
-            }
-            DataType::Dictionary(key_type, value_type) => {
-                let key_encoder =
-                    Self::choose_array_encoder(arrays, key_type, data_size, false, version, None)?;
-                let value_encoder = Self::choose_array_encoder(
-                    arrays, value_type, data_size, false, version, None,
-                )?;
-
-                Ok(Box::new(AlreadyDictionaryEncoder::new(
-                    key_encoder,
-                    value_encoder,
-                )))
-            }
-            DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeBinary => {
-                if use_dict_encoding {
-                    let dict_indices_encoder = Self::choose_array_encoder(
-                        // We need to pass arrays to this method to figure out what kind of compression to
-                        // use but we haven't actually calculated the indices yet.  For now, we just assume
-                        // worst case and use the full range.  In the future maybe we can pass in statistics
-                        // instead of the actual data
-                        &[Arc::new(UInt8Array::from_iter_values(0_u8..255_u8))],
-                        &DataType::UInt8,
-                        data_size,
-                        false,
-                        version,
-                        None,
-                    )?;
-                    let dict_items_encoder = Self::choose_array_encoder(
-                        arrays,
-                        &DataType::Utf8,
-                        data_size,
-                        false,
-                        version,
-                        None,
-                    )?;
-
-                    Ok(Box::new(DictionaryEncoder::new(
-                        dict_indices_encoder,
-                        dict_items_encoder,
-                    )))
-                }
-                // The parent datatype should be binary or utf8 to use the fixed size encoding
-                // The variable 'data_type' is passed through recursion so comparing with it would be incorrect
-                else if BINARY_DATATYPES.contains(arrays[0].data_type()) {
-                    if let Some(byte_width) = check_fixed_size_encoding(arrays, version) {
-                        // use FixedSizeBinaryEncoder
-                        let bytes_encoder = Self::choose_array_encoder(
-                            arrays,
-                            &DataType::UInt8,
-                            data_size,
-                            false,
-                            version,
-                            None,
-                        )?;
-
-                        Ok(Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(
-                            FixedSizeBinaryEncoder::new(bytes_encoder, byte_width as usize),
-                        ))))
-                    } else {
-                        Self::default_binary_encoder(
-                            arrays, data_type, field_meta, data_size, version,
-                        )
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    Self::default_binary_encoder(arrays, data_type, field_meta, data_size, version)
-                }
-            }
-            DataType::Struct(fields) => {
-                let num_fields = fields.len();
-                let mut inner_encoders = Vec::new();
-
-                for i in 0..num_fields {
-                    let inner_datatype = fields[i].data_type();
-                    let inner_encoder = Self::choose_array_encoder(
-                        arrays,
-                        inner_datatype,
-                        data_size,
-                        use_dict_encoding,
-                        version,
-                        None,
-                    )?;
-                    inner_encoders.push(inner_encoder);
-                }
-
-                Ok(Box::new(PackedStructEncoder::new(inner_encoders)))
-            }
-            DataType::UInt8 | DataType::UInt16 | DataType::UInt32 | DataType::UInt64 => {
-                if version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1 && arrays[0].data_type() == data_type {
-                    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
-                    {
-                        let compressed_bit_width = compute_compressed_bit_width_for_non_neg(arrays);
-                        Ok(Box::new(BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder::new(
-                            compressed_bit_width as usize,
-                            data_type.clone(),
-                        )))
-                    }
-                    #[cfg(not(feature = "bitpacking"))]
-                    {
-                        Ok(Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(
-                            ValueEncoder::default(),
-                        ))))
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    Ok(Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(
-                        ValueEncoder::default(),
-                    ))))
-                }
-            }
-
-            // TODO: for signed integers, I intend to make it a cascaded encoding, a sparse array for the negative values and very wide(bit-width) values,
-            // then a bitpacked array for the narrow(bit-width) values, I need `BitpackedForNeg` to be merged first, I am
-            // thinking about putting this sparse array in the metadata so bitpacking remain using one page buffer only.
-            DataType::Int8 | DataType::Int16 | DataType::Int32 | DataType::Int64 => {
-                if version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1 && arrays[0].data_type() == data_type {
-                    #[cfg(feature = "bitpacking")]
-                    {
-                        let compressed_bit_width = compute_compressed_bit_width_for_non_neg(arrays);
-                        Ok(Box::new(BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder::new(
-                            compressed_bit_width as usize,
-                            data_type.clone(),
-                        )))
-                    }
-                    #[cfg(not(feature = "bitpacking"))]
-                    {
-                        Ok(Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(
-                            ValueEncoder::default(),
-                        ))))
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    Ok(Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(
-                        ValueEncoder::default(),
-                    ))))
-                }
-            }
-            _ => Ok(Box::new(BasicEncoder::new(Box::new(
-                ValueEncoder::default(),
-            )))),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-fn get_dict_encoding_threshold() -> u64 {
-    env::var("LANCE_DICT_ENCODING_THRESHOLD")
-        .ok()
-        .and_then(|val| val.parse().ok())
-        .unwrap_or(100)
-}
-
-// check whether we want to use dictionary encoding or not
-// by applying a threshold on cardinality
-// returns true if cardinality < threshold but false if the total number of rows is less than the threshold
-// The choice to use 100 is just a heuristic for now
-// hyperloglog is used for cardinality estimation
-// error rate = 1.04 / sqrt(2^p), where p is the precision
-// and error rate is 1.04 / sqrt(2^12) = 1.56%
-fn check_dict_encoding(arrays: &[ArrayRef], threshold: u64) -> bool {
-    let num_total_rows = arrays.iter().map(|arr| arr.len()).sum::<usize>();
-    if num_total_rows < threshold as usize {
-        return false;
-    }
-    const PRECISION: u8 = 12;
-
-    let mut hll: HyperLogLogPlus<String, RandomState> =
-        HyperLogLogPlus::new(PRECISION, RandomState::new()).unwrap();
-
-    for arr in arrays {
-        let string_array = arrow_array::cast::as_string_array(arr);
-        for value in string_array.iter().flatten() {
-            hll.insert(value);
-            let estimated_cardinality = hll.count() as u64;
-            if estimated_cardinality >= threshold {
-                return false;
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    true
-}
-
-fn check_fixed_size_encoding(arrays: &[ArrayRef], version: LanceFileVersion) -> Option<u64> {
-    if version < LanceFileVersion::V2_1 || arrays.is_empty() {
-        return None;
-    }
-
-    // make sure no array has an empty string
-    if !arrays.iter().all(|arr| {
-        if let Some(arr) = arr.as_string_opt::<i32>() {
-            arr.iter().flatten().all(|s| !s.is_empty())
-        } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_binary_opt::<i32>() {
-            arr.iter().flatten().all(|s| !s.is_empty())
-        } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_string_opt::<i64>() {
-            arr.iter().flatten().all(|s| !s.is_empty())
-        } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_binary_opt::<i64>() {
-            arr.iter().flatten().all(|s| !s.is_empty())
-        } else {
-            panic!("wrong dtype");
-        }
-    }) {
-        return None;
-    }
-
-    let lengths = arrays
-        .iter()
-        .flat_map(|arr| {
-            if let Some(arr) = arr.as_string_opt::<i32>() {
-                let offsets = arr.offsets().inner();
-                offsets
-                    .windows(2)
-                    .map(|w| (w[1] - w[0]) as u64)
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_binary_opt::<i32>() {
-                let offsets = arr.offsets().inner();
-                offsets
-                    .windows(2)
-                    .map(|w| (w[1] - w[0]) as u64)
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_string_opt::<i64>() {
-                let offsets = arr.offsets().inner();
-                offsets
-                    .windows(2)
-                    .map(|w| (w[1] - w[0]) as u64)
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            } else if let Some(arr) = arr.as_binary_opt::<i64>() {
-                let offsets = arr.offsets().inner();
-                offsets
-                    .windows(2)
-                    .map(|w| (w[1] - w[0]) as u64)
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            } else {
-                panic!("wrong dtype");
-            }
-        })
-        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-    // find first non-zero value in lengths
-    let first_non_zero = lengths.iter().position(|&x| x != 0);
-    if let Some(first_non_zero) = first_non_zero {
-        // make sure all lengths are equal to first_non_zero length or zero
-        if !lengths
-            .iter()
-            .all(|&x| x == 0 || x == lengths[first_non_zero])
-        {
-            return None;
-        }
-
-        // set the byte width
-        Some(lengths[first_non_zero])
-    } else {
-        None
-    }
-}
-
-impl ArrayEncodingStrategy for CoreArrayEncodingStrategy {
-    fn create_array_encoder(
-        &self,
-        arrays: &[ArrayRef],
-        field: &Field,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ArrayEncoder>> {
-        let data_size = arrays
-            .iter()
-            .map(|arr| arr.get_buffer_memory_size() as u64)
-            .sum::<u64>();
-        let data_type = arrays[0].data_type();
-
-        let use_dict_encoding = data_type == &DataType::Utf8
-            && check_dict_encoding(arrays, get_dict_encoding_threshold());
-
-        Self::choose_array_encoder(
-            arrays,
-            data_type,
-            data_size,
-            use_dict_encoding,
-            self.version,
-            Some(&field.metadata),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
-    use crate::constants::{COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY, COMPRESSION_META_KEY};
-    use crate::previous::encoder::{
-        check_dict_encoding, check_fixed_size_encoding, ArrayEncodingStrategy,
-        CoreArrayEncodingStrategy,
-    };
-    use crate::version::LanceFileVersion;
-    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StringArray};
-    use arrow_schema::Field;
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-    use std::sync::Arc;
-
-    fn is_dict_encoding_applicable(arr: Vec<Option<&str>>, threshold: u64) -> bool {
-        let arr = StringArray::from(arr);
-        let arr = Arc::new(arr) as ArrayRef;
-        check_dict_encoding(&[arr], threshold)
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_dict_encoding_should_be_applied_if_cardinality_less_than_threshold() {
-        assert!(is_dict_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), Some("a"), Some("b")],
-            3,
-        ));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_dict_encoding_should_not_be_applied_if_cardinality_larger_than_threshold() {
-        assert!(!is_dict_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), Some("c"), Some("d")],
-            3,
-        ));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_dict_encoding_should_not_be_applied_if_cardinality_equal_to_threshold() {
-        assert!(!is_dict_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), Some("c"), Some("a")],
-            3,
-        ));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_dict_encoding_should_not_be_applied_for_empty_arrays() {
-        assert!(!is_dict_encoding_applicable(vec![], 3));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_dict_encoding_should_not_be_applied_for_smaller_than_threshold_arrays() {
-        assert!(!is_dict_encoding_applicable(vec![Some("a"), Some("a")], 3));
-    }
-
-    fn is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-        arrays: Vec<Vec<Option<&str>>>,
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> bool {
-        let mut final_arrays = Vec::new();
-        for arr in arrays {
-            let arr = StringArray::from(arr);
-            let arr = Arc::new(arr) as ArrayRef;
-            final_arrays.push(arr);
-        }
-
-        check_fixed_size_encoding(&final_arrays.clone(), version).is_some()
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_fixed_size_binary_encoding_applicable() {
-        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some("a"), Some("b")]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some("abc"), Some("de")]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some("pqr"), None]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some("pqr"), Some("")]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some(""), Some("")]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_fixed_size_binary_encoding_applicable_multiple_arrays() {
-        assert!(is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some("a"), Some("b")], vec![Some("c"), Some("d")]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some("ab"), Some("bc")], vec![Some("c"), Some("d")]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some("ab"), None], vec![None, Some("d")]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some("a"), None], vec![None, Some("d")]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![Some(""), None], vec![None, Some("")]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-
-        assert!(!is_fixed_size_encoding_applicable(
-            vec![vec![None, None], vec![None, None]],
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        ));
-    }
-
-    fn verify_array_encoder(
-        array: ArrayRef,
-        field_meta: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
-        expected_encoder: &str,
-    ) {
-        let encoding_strategy = CoreArrayEncodingStrategy { version };
-        let mut field = Field::new("test_field", array.data_type().clone(), true);
-        if let Some(field_meta) = field_meta {
-            field.set_metadata(field_meta);
-        }
-        let lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(field).unwrap();
-        let encoder_result = encoding_strategy.create_array_encoder(&[array], &lance_field);
-        assert!(encoder_result.is_ok());
-        let encoder = encoder_result.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(format!("{:?}", encoder).as_str(), expected_encoder);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_choose_encoder_for_zstd_compressed_string_field() {
-        verify_array_encoder(Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "bb", "ccc"])),
-                             Some(HashMap::from([(COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), "zstd".to_string())])),
-                             LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
-                             "BinaryEncoder { indices_encoder: BasicEncoder { values_encoder: ValueEncoder }, compression_config: Some(CompressionConfig { scheme: Zstd, level: None }), buffer_compressor: Some(ZstdBufferCompressor { compression_level: 0 }) }");
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_choose_encoder_for_zstd_compression_level() {
-        verify_array_encoder(Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "bb", "ccc"])),
-                             Some(HashMap::from([
-                                 (COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), "zstd".to_string()),
-                                 (COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY.to_string(), "22".to_string())
-                             ])),
-                             LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
-                             "BinaryEncoder { indices_encoder: BasicEncoder { values_encoder: ValueEncoder }, compression_config: Some(CompressionConfig { scheme: Zstd, level: Some(22) }), buffer_compressor: Some(ZstdBufferCompressor { compression_level: 22 }) }");
-    }
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 67a43993508..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-//! Legacy code for the 2.0 format that is no longer used in 2.1+
-
-pub mod logical;
-pub mod physical;
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/bitpack.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/bitpack.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 5d018469645..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/previous/encodings/physical/bitpack.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,1693 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use arrow_array::types::{
-    Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, Int8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type,
-};
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, Array, ArrayRef, ArrowPrimitiveType, PrimitiveArray};
-use arrow_buffer::bit_util::ceil;
-use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::future::{BoxFuture, FutureExt};
-use log::trace;
-use num_traits::{AsPrimitive, PrimInt};
-use snafu::location;
-
-use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
-use lance_bitpacking::BitPacking;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-
-use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
-use crate::data::BlockInfo;
-use crate::data::{DataBlock, FixedWidthDataBlock, NullableDataBlock};
-use crate::decoder::{PageScheduler, PrimitivePageDecoder};
-use crate::format::ProtobufUtils;
-use crate::previous::encoder::{ArrayEncoder, EncodedArray};
-use bytemuck::cast_slice;
-
-const LOG_ELEMS_PER_CHUNK: u8 = 10;
-const ELEMS_PER_CHUNK: u64 = 1 << LOG_ELEMS_PER_CHUNK;
-
-// Compute the compressed_bit_width for a given array of integers
-// todo: compute all statistics before encoding
-// todo: see how to use rust macro to rewrite this function
-pub fn compute_compressed_bit_width_for_non_neg(arrays: &[ArrayRef]) -> u64 {
-    debug_assert!(!arrays.is_empty());
-
-    let res;
-
-    match arrays[0].data_type() {
-        DataType::UInt8 => {
-            let mut global_max: u8 = 0;
-            for array in arrays {
-                let primitive_array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt8Type>>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                let array_max = arrow_arith::aggregate::bit_or(primitive_array);
-                global_max = global_max.max(array_max.unwrap_or(0));
-            }
-            let num_bits =
-                arrays[0].data_type().byte_width() as u64 * 8 - global_max.leading_zeros() as u64;
-            // we will have constant encoding later
-            if num_bits == 0 {
-                res = 1;
-            } else {
-                res = num_bits;
-            }
-        }
-
-        DataType::Int8 => {
-            let mut global_max_width: u64 = 0;
-            for array in arrays {
-                let primitive_array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<Int8Type>>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                let array_max_width = arrow_arith::aggregate::bit_or(primitive_array).unwrap_or(0);
-                global_max_width = global_max_width.max(8 - array_max_width.leading_zeros() as u64);
-            }
-            if global_max_width == 0 {
-                res = 1;
-            } else {
-                res = global_max_width;
-            }
-        }
-
-        DataType::UInt16 => {
-            let mut global_max: u16 = 0;
-            for array in arrays {
-                let primitive_array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt16Type>>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                let array_max = arrow_arith::aggregate::bit_or(primitive_array).unwrap_or(0);
-                global_max = global_max.max(array_max);
-            }
-            let num_bits =
-                arrays[0].data_type().byte_width() as u64 * 8 - global_max.leading_zeros() as u64;
-            if num_bits == 0 {
-                res = 1;
-            } else {
-                res = num_bits;
-            }
-        }
-
-        DataType::Int16 => {
-            let mut global_max_width: u64 = 0;
-            for array in arrays {
-                let primitive_array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<Int16Type>>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                let array_max_width = arrow_arith::aggregate::bit_or(primitive_array).unwrap_or(0);
-                global_max_width =
-                    global_max_width.max(16 - array_max_width.leading_zeros() as u64);
-            }
-            if global_max_width == 0 {
-                res = 1;
-            } else {
-                res = global_max_width;
-            }
-        }
-
-        DataType::UInt32 => {
-            let mut global_max: u32 = 0;
-            for array in arrays {
-                let primitive_array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt32Type>>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                let array_max = arrow_arith::aggregate::bit_or(primitive_array).unwrap_or(0);
-                global_max = global_max.max(array_max);
-            }
-            let num_bits =
-                arrays[0].data_type().byte_width() as u64 * 8 - global_max.leading_zeros() as u64;
-            if num_bits == 0 {
-                res = 1;
-            } else {
-                res = num_bits;
-            }
-        }
-
-        DataType::Int32 => {
-            let mut global_max_width: u64 = 0;
-            for array in arrays {
-                let primitive_array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<Int32Type>>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                let array_max_width = arrow_arith::aggregate::bit_or(primitive_array).unwrap_or(0);
-                global_max_width =
-                    global_max_width.max(32 - array_max_width.leading_zeros() as u64);
-            }
-            if global_max_width == 0 {
-                res = 1;
-            } else {
-                res = global_max_width;
-            }
-        }
-
-        DataType::UInt64 => {
-            let mut global_max: u64 = 0;
-            for array in arrays {
-                let primitive_array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                let array_max = arrow_arith::aggregate::bit_or(primitive_array).unwrap_or(0);
-                global_max = global_max.max(array_max);
-            }
-            let num_bits =
-                arrays[0].data_type().byte_width() as u64 * 8 - global_max.leading_zeros() as u64;
-            if num_bits == 0 {
-                res = 1;
-            } else {
-                res = num_bits;
-            }
-        }
-
-        DataType::Int64 => {
-            let mut global_max_width: u64 = 0;
-            for array in arrays {
-                let primitive_array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<Int64Type>>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                let array_max_width = arrow_arith::aggregate::bit_or(primitive_array).unwrap_or(0);
-                global_max_width =
-                    global_max_width.max(64 - array_max_width.leading_zeros() as u64);
-            }
-            if global_max_width == 0 {
-                res = 1;
-            } else {
-                res = global_max_width;
-            }
-        }
-        _ => {
-            panic!("BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder only supports data types of UInt8, Int8, UInt16, Int16, UInt32, Int32, UInt64, Int64");
-        }
-    };
-    res
-}
-
-// Bitpack integers using fastlanes algorithm, the input is sliced into chunks of 1024 integers, and bitpacked
-// chunk by chunk. when the input is not a multiple of 1024, the last chunk is padded with zeros, this is fine because
-// we also know the number of rows we have.
-// Here self is a borrow of BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder, unpacked is a mutable borrow of FixedWidthDataBlock,
-// data_type can be  one of u8, u16, u32, or u64.
-// buffer_index is a mutable borrow of u32, indicating the buffer index of the output EncodedArray.
-// It outputs an fastlanes bitpacked EncodedArray
-macro_rules! encode_fixed_width {
-    ($self:expr, $unpacked:expr, $data_type:ty, $buffer_index:expr) => {{
-        let num_chunks = $unpacked.num_values.div_ceil(ELEMS_PER_CHUNK);
-        let num_full_chunks = $unpacked.num_values / ELEMS_PER_CHUNK;
-        let uncompressed_bit_width = std::mem::size_of::<$data_type>() as u64 * 8;
-
-        // the output vector type is the same as the input type, for example, when input is u16, output is Vec<u16>
-        let packed_chunk_size = 1024 * $self.compressed_bit_width as usize / uncompressed_bit_width as usize;
-
-        let input_slice = $unpacked.data.borrow_to_typed_slice::<$data_type>();
-        let input = input_slice.as_ref();
-
-        let mut output = Vec::with_capacity(num_chunks as usize * packed_chunk_size);
-
-        // Loop over all but the last chunk.
-        (0..num_full_chunks).for_each(|i| {
-            let start_elem = (i * ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) as usize;
-
-            let output_len = output.len();
-            unsafe {
-                output.set_len(output_len + packed_chunk_size);
-                BitPacking::unchecked_pack(
-                    $self.compressed_bit_width,
-                    &input[start_elem..][..ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize],
-                    &mut output[output_len..][..packed_chunk_size],
-                );
-            }
-        });
-
-        if num_chunks != num_full_chunks {
-            let last_chunk_elem_num = $unpacked.num_values % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK;
-            let mut last_chunk = vec![0 as $data_type; ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize];
-            last_chunk[..last_chunk_elem_num as usize].clone_from_slice(
-                &input[$unpacked.num_values as usize - last_chunk_elem_num as usize..],
-            );
-
-            let output_len = output.len();
-            unsafe {
-                output.set_len(output_len + packed_chunk_size);
-                BitPacking::unchecked_pack(
-                    $self.compressed_bit_width,
-                    &last_chunk,
-                    &mut output[output_len..][..packed_chunk_size],
-                );
-            }
-        }
-
-        let bitpacked_for_non_neg_buffer_index = *$buffer_index;
-        *$buffer_index += 1;
-
-        let encoding = ProtobufUtils::bitpacked_for_non_neg_encoding(
-            $self.compressed_bit_width as u64,
-            uncompressed_bit_width,
-            bitpacked_for_non_neg_buffer_index,
-        );
-        let packed = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
-            bits_per_value: $self.compressed_bit_width as u64,
-            data: LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(output),
-            num_values: $unpacked.num_values,
-            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-        });
-
-        Result::Ok(EncodedArray {
-            data: packed,
-            encoding,
-        })
-    }};
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder {
-    pub compressed_bit_width: usize,
-    pub original_data_type: DataType,
-}
-
-impl BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder {
-    pub fn new(compressed_bit_width: usize, data_type: DataType) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            compressed_bit_width,
-            original_data_type: data_type,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ArrayEncoder for BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder {
-    fn encode(
-        &self,
-        data: DataBlock,
-        data_type: &DataType,
-        buffer_index: &mut u32,
-    ) -> Result<EncodedArray> {
-        match data {
-            DataBlock::AllNull(_) => {
-                let encoding = ProtobufUtils::basic_all_null_encoding();
-                Ok(EncodedArray { data, encoding })
-            }
-            DataBlock::FixedWidth(unpacked) => {
-                match data_type {
-                    DataType::UInt8 | DataType::Int8 => encode_fixed_width!(self, unpacked, u8, buffer_index),
-                    DataType::UInt16 | DataType::Int16 => encode_fixed_width!(self, unpacked, u16, buffer_index),
-                    DataType::UInt32 | DataType::Int32 => encode_fixed_width!(self, unpacked, u32, buffer_index),
-                    DataType::UInt64 | DataType::Int64 => encode_fixed_width!(self, unpacked, u64, buffer_index),
-                    _ => unreachable!("BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder only supports data types of UInt8, Int8, UInt16, Int16, UInt32, Int32, UInt64, Int64"),
-                }
-            }
-            DataBlock::Nullable(nullable) => {
-                let validity_buffer_index = *buffer_index;
-                *buffer_index += 1;
-
-                let validity_desc = ProtobufUtils::flat_encoding(
-                    1,
-                    validity_buffer_index,
-                    /*compression=*/ None,
-                );
-                let encoded_values: EncodedArray;
-                match *nullable.data {
-                    DataBlock::FixedWidth(unpacked) => {
-                        match data_type {
-                            DataType::UInt8 | DataType::Int8 => encoded_values = encode_fixed_width!(self, unpacked, u8, buffer_index)?,
-                            DataType::UInt16 | DataType::Int16 => encoded_values = encode_fixed_width!(self, unpacked, u16, buffer_index)?,
-                            DataType::UInt32 | DataType::Int32 => encoded_values = encode_fixed_width!(self, unpacked, u32, buffer_index)?,
-                            DataType::UInt64 | DataType::Int64 => encoded_values = encode_fixed_width!(self, unpacked, u64, buffer_index)?,
-                            _ => unreachable!("BitpackedForNonNegArrayEncoder only supports data types of UInt8, Int8, UInt16, Int16, UInt32, Int32, UInt64, Int64"),
-                        }
-                    }
-                    _ => {
-                        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                            source: "Bitpacking only supports fixed width data blocks or a nullable data block with fixed width data block inside or a all null data block".into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                }
-                let encoding =
-                    ProtobufUtils::basic_some_null_encoding(validity_desc, encoded_values.encoding);
-                let encoded = DataBlock::Nullable(NullableDataBlock {
-                    data: Box::new(encoded_values.data),
-                    nulls: nullable.nulls,
-                    block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-                });
-                Ok(EncodedArray {
-                    data: encoded,
-                    encoding,
-                })
-            }
-            _ => {
-                Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Bitpacking only supports fixed width data blocks or a nullable data block with fixed width data block inside or a all null data block".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct BitpackedForNonNegScheduler {
-    compressed_bit_width: u64,
-    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
-    buffer_offset: u64,
-}
-
-impl BitpackedForNonNegScheduler {
-    pub fn new(
-        compressed_bit_width: u64,
-        uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
-        buffer_offset: u64,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            compressed_bit_width,
-            uncompressed_bits_per_value,
-            buffer_offset,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn locate_chunk_start(&self, relative_row_num: u64) -> u64 {
-        let chunk_size = ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * self.compressed_bit_width / 8;
-        self.buffer_offset + (relative_row_num / ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * chunk_size)
-    }
-
-    fn locate_chunk_end(&self, relative_row_num: u64) -> u64 {
-        let chunk_size = ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * self.compressed_bit_width / 8;
-        self.buffer_offset + (relative_row_num / ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * chunk_size) + chunk_size
-    }
-}
-
-impl PageScheduler for BitpackedForNonNegScheduler {
-    fn schedule_ranges(
-        &self,
-        ranges: &[std::ops::Range<u64>],
-        scheduler: &Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo>,
-        top_level_row: u64,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<Box<dyn PrimitivePageDecoder>>> {
-        assert!(!ranges.is_empty());
-
-        let mut byte_ranges = vec![];
-
-        // map one bytes to multiple ranges, one bytes has at least one range corresponding to it
-        let mut bytes_idx_to_range_indices = vec![];
-        let first_byte_range = std::ops::Range {
-            start: self.locate_chunk_start(ranges[0].start),
-            end: self.locate_chunk_end(ranges[0].end - 1),
-        }; // the ranges are half-open
-        byte_ranges.push(first_byte_range);
-        bytes_idx_to_range_indices.push(vec![ranges[0].clone()]);
-
-        for (i, range) in ranges.iter().enumerate().skip(1) {
-            let this_start = self.locate_chunk_start(range.start);
-            let this_end = self.locate_chunk_end(range.end - 1);
-
-            // when the current range start is in the same chunk as the previous range's end, we colaesce this two bytes ranges
-            // when the current range start is not in the same chunk as the previous range's end, we create a new bytes range
-            if this_start == self.locate_chunk_start(ranges[i - 1].end - 1) {
-                byte_ranges.last_mut().unwrap().end = this_end;
-                bytes_idx_to_range_indices
-                    .last_mut()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .push(range.clone());
-            } else {
-                byte_ranges.push(this_start..this_end);
-                bytes_idx_to_range_indices.push(vec![range.clone()]);
-            }
-        }
-
-        trace!(
-            "Scheduling I/O for {} ranges spread across byte range {}..{}",
-            byte_ranges.len(),
-            byte_ranges[0].start,
-            byte_ranges.last().unwrap().end
-        );
-
-        let bytes = scheduler.submit_request(byte_ranges.clone(), top_level_row);
-
-        // copy the necessary data from `self` to move into the async block
-        let compressed_bit_width = self.compressed_bit_width;
-        let uncompressed_bits_per_value = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value;
-        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|range| range.end - range.start).sum();
-
-        async move {
-            let bytes = bytes.await?;
-            let decompressed_output = bitpacked_for_non_neg_decode(
-                compressed_bit_width,
-                uncompressed_bits_per_value,
-                &bytes,
-                &bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
-                num_rows,
-            );
-            Ok(Box::new(BitpackedForNonNegPageDecoder {
-                uncompressed_bits_per_value,
-                decompressed_buf: decompressed_output,
-            }) as Box<dyn PrimitivePageDecoder>)
-        }
-        .boxed()
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct BitpackedForNonNegPageDecoder {
-    // number of bits in the uncompressed value. E.g. this will be 32 for DataType::UInt32
-    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
-
-    decompressed_buf: LanceBuffer,
-}
-
-impl PrimitivePageDecoder for BitpackedForNonNegPageDecoder {
-    fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
-        if ![8, 16, 32, 64].contains(&self.uncompressed_bits_per_value) {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "BitpackedForNonNegPageDecoder should only has uncompressed_bits_per_value of 8, 16, 32, or 64".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
-        let elem_size_in_bytes = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value / 8;
-
-        Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
-            data: self.decompressed_buf.slice_with_length(
-                (rows_to_skip * elem_size_in_bytes) as usize,
-                (num_rows * elem_size_in_bytes) as usize,
-            ),
-            bits_per_value: self.uncompressed_bits_per_value,
-            num_values: num_rows,
-            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-        }))
-    }
-}
-
-macro_rules! bitpacked_decode {
-    ($uncompressed_type:ty, $compressed_bit_width:expr, $data:expr, $bytes_idx_to_range_indices:expr, $num_rows:expr) => {{
-        let mut decompressed: Vec<$uncompressed_type> = Vec::with_capacity($num_rows as usize);
-        let packed_chunk_size_in_byte: usize = (ELEMS_PER_CHUNK * $compressed_bit_width) as usize / 8;
-        let mut decompress_chunk_buf = vec![0 as $uncompressed_type; ELEMS_PER_CHUNK as usize];
-
-        for (i, bytes) in $data.iter().enumerate() {
-            let mut ranges_idx = 0;
-            let mut curr_range_start = $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][0].start;
-            let mut chunk_num = 0;
-
-            while chunk_num * packed_chunk_size_in_byte < bytes.len() {
-                // Copy for memory alignment
-                // TODO: This copy should not be needed
-                let chunk_in_u8: Vec<u8> = bytes[chunk_num * packed_chunk_size_in_byte..]
-                    [..packed_chunk_size_in_byte]
-                    .to_vec();
-                chunk_num += 1;
-                let chunk = cast_slice(&chunk_in_u8);
-                unsafe {
-                    BitPacking::unchecked_unpack(
-                        $compressed_bit_width as usize,
-                        chunk,
-                        &mut decompress_chunk_buf,
-                    );
-                }
-
-                loop {
-                    // Case 1: All the elements after (curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) inside this chunk are needed.
-                    let elems_after_curr_range_start_in_this_chunk =
-                        ELEMS_PER_CHUNK - curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK;
-                    if curr_range_start + elems_after_curr_range_start_in_this_chunk
-                        <= $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][ranges_idx].end
-                    {
-                        decompressed.extend_from_slice(
-                            &decompress_chunk_buf[(curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) as usize..],
-                        );
-                        curr_range_start += elems_after_curr_range_start_in_this_chunk;
-                        break;
-                    } else {
-                        // Case 2: Only part of the elements after (curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) inside this chunk are needed.
-                        let elems_this_range_needed_in_this_chunk =
-                            ($bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][ranges_idx].end - curr_range_start)
-                                .min(ELEMS_PER_CHUNK - curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK);
-                        decompressed.extend_from_slice(
-                            &decompress_chunk_buf[(curr_range_start % ELEMS_PER_CHUNK) as usize..]
-                                [..elems_this_range_needed_in_this_chunk as usize],
-                        );
-                        if curr_range_start + elems_this_range_needed_in_this_chunk
-                            == $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][ranges_idx].end
-                        {
-                            ranges_idx += 1;
-                            if ranges_idx == $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i].len() {
-                                break;
-                            }
-                            curr_range_start = $bytes_idx_to_range_indices[i][ranges_idx].start;
-                        } else {
-                            curr_range_start += elems_this_range_needed_in_this_chunk;
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        LanceBuffer::reinterpret_vec(decompressed)
-    }};
-}
-
-fn bitpacked_for_non_neg_decode(
-    compressed_bit_width: u64,
-    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
-    data: &[Bytes],
-    bytes_idx_to_range_indices: &[Vec<std::ops::Range<u64>>],
-    num_rows: u64,
-) -> LanceBuffer {
-    match uncompressed_bits_per_value {
-        8 => bitpacked_decode!(
-            u8,
-            compressed_bit_width,
-            data,
-            bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
-            num_rows
-        ),
-        16 => bitpacked_decode!(
-            u16,
-            compressed_bit_width,
-            data,
-            bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
-            num_rows
-        ),
-        32 => bitpacked_decode!(
-            u32,
-            compressed_bit_width,
-            data,
-            bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
-            num_rows
-        ),
-        64 => bitpacked_decode!(
-            u64,
-            compressed_bit_width,
-            data,
-            bytes_idx_to_range_indices,
-            num_rows
-        ),
-        _ => unreachable!(
-            "bitpacked_for_non_neg_decode only supports 8, 16, 32, 64 uncompressed_bits_per_value"
-        ),
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct BitpackParams {
-    pub num_bits: u64,
-
-    pub signed: bool,
-}
-
-// Compute the number of bits to use for each item, if this array can be encoded using
-// bitpacking encoding. Returns `None` if the type or array data is not supported.
-pub fn bitpack_params(arr: &dyn Array) -> Option<BitpackParams> {
-    match arr.data_type() {
-        DataType::UInt8 => bitpack_params_for_type::<UInt8Type>(arr.as_primitive()),
-        DataType::UInt16 => bitpack_params_for_type::<UInt16Type>(arr.as_primitive()),
-        DataType::UInt32 => bitpack_params_for_type::<UInt32Type>(arr.as_primitive()),
-        DataType::UInt64 => bitpack_params_for_type::<UInt64Type>(arr.as_primitive()),
-        DataType::Int8 => bitpack_params_for_signed_type::<Int8Type>(arr.as_primitive()),
-        DataType::Int16 => bitpack_params_for_signed_type::<Int16Type>(arr.as_primitive()),
-        DataType::Int32 => bitpack_params_for_signed_type::<Int32Type>(arr.as_primitive()),
-        DataType::Int64 => bitpack_params_for_signed_type::<Int64Type>(arr.as_primitive()),
-        // TODO -- eventually we could support temporal types as well
-        _ => None,
-    }
-}
-
-// Compute the number bits to use for bitpacking generically.
-// returns None if the array is empty or all nulls
-fn bitpack_params_for_type<T>(arr: &PrimitiveArray<T>) -> Option<BitpackParams>
-where
-    T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
-    T::Native: PrimInt + AsPrimitive<u64>,
-{
-    let max = arrow_arith::aggregate::bit_or(arr);
-    let num_bits =
-        max.map(|max| arr.data_type().byte_width() as u64 * 8 - max.leading_zeros() as u64);
-
-    // we can't bitpack into 0 bits, so the minimum is 1
-    num_bits
-        .map(|num_bits| num_bits.max(1))
-        .map(|bits| BitpackParams {
-            num_bits: bits,
-            signed: false,
-        })
-}
-
-/// determine the minimum number of bits that can be used to represent
-/// an array of signed values. It includes all the significant bits for
-/// the value + plus 1 bit to represent the sign. If there are no negative values
-/// then it will not add a signed bit
-fn bitpack_params_for_signed_type<T>(arr: &PrimitiveArray<T>) -> Option<BitpackParams>
-where
-    T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
-    T::Native: PrimInt + AsPrimitive<i64>,
-{
-    let mut add_signed_bit = false;
-    let mut min_leading_bits: Option<u64> = None;
-    for val in arr.iter() {
-        if val.is_none() {
-            continue;
-        }
-        let val = val.unwrap();
-        if min_leading_bits.is_none() {
-            min_leading_bits = Some(u64::MAX);
-        }
-
-        if val.to_i64().unwrap() < 0i64 {
-            min_leading_bits = min_leading_bits.map(|bits| bits.min(val.leading_ones() as u64));
-            add_signed_bit = true;
-        } else {
-            min_leading_bits = min_leading_bits.map(|bits| bits.min(val.leading_zeros() as u64));
-        }
-    }
-
-    let mut min_leading_bits = arr.data_type().byte_width() as u64 * 8 - min_leading_bits?;
-    if add_signed_bit {
-        // Need extra sign bit
-        min_leading_bits += 1;
-    }
-    // cannot bitpack into <1 bit
-    let num_bits = min_leading_bits.max(1);
-    Some(BitpackParams {
-        num_bits,
-        signed: add_signed_bit,
-    })
-}
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct BitpackedArrayEncoder {
-    num_bits: u64,
-    signed_type: bool,
-}
-
-impl BitpackedArrayEncoder {
-    pub fn new(num_bits: u64, signed_type: bool) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            num_bits,
-            signed_type,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ArrayEncoder for BitpackedArrayEncoder {
-    fn encode(
-        &self,
-        data: DataBlock,
-        _data_type: &DataType,
-        buffer_index: &mut u32,
-    ) -> Result<EncodedArray> {
-        // calculate the total number of bytes we need to allocate for the destination.
-        // this will be the number of items in the source array times the number of bits.
-        let dst_bytes_total = ceil(data.num_values() as usize * self.num_bits as usize, 8);
-
-        let mut dst_buffer = vec![0u8; dst_bytes_total];
-        let mut dst_idx = 0;
-        let mut dst_offset = 0;
-
-        let DataBlock::FixedWidth(unpacked) = data else {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Bitpacking only supports fixed width data blocks".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        };
-
-        pack_bits(
-            &unpacked.data,
-            self.num_bits,
-            &mut dst_buffer,
-            &mut dst_idx,
-            &mut dst_offset,
-        );
-
-        let packed = DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
-            bits_per_value: self.num_bits,
-            data: LanceBuffer::from(dst_buffer),
-            num_values: unpacked.num_values,
-            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-        });
-
-        let bitpacked_buffer_index = *buffer_index;
-        *buffer_index += 1;
-
-        let encoding = ProtobufUtils::bitpacked_encoding(
-            self.num_bits,
-            unpacked.bits_per_value,
-            bitpacked_buffer_index,
-            self.signed_type,
-        );
-
-        Ok(EncodedArray {
-            data: packed,
-            encoding,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-fn pack_bits(
-    src: &LanceBuffer,
-    num_bits: u64,
-    dst: &mut [u8],
-    dst_idx: &mut usize,
-    dst_offset: &mut u8,
-) {
-    let bit_len = src.len() as u64 * 8;
-
-    let mask = u64::MAX >> (64 - num_bits);
-
-    let mut src_idx = 0;
-    while src_idx < src.len() {
-        let mut curr_mask = mask;
-        let mut curr_src = src[src_idx] & curr_mask as u8;
-        let mut src_offset = 0;
-        let mut src_bits_written = 0;
-
-        while src_bits_written < num_bits {
-            dst[*dst_idx] += (curr_src >> src_offset) << *dst_offset as u64;
-            let bits_written = (num_bits - src_bits_written)
-                .min(8 - src_offset)
-                .min(8 - *dst_offset as u64);
-            src_bits_written += bits_written;
-            *dst_offset += bits_written as u8;
-            src_offset += bits_written;
-
-            if *dst_offset == 8 {
-                *dst_idx += 1;
-                *dst_offset = 0;
-            }
-
-            if src_offset == 8 {
-                src_idx += 1;
-                src_offset = 0;
-                curr_mask >>= 8;
-                if src_idx == src.len() {
-                    break;
-                }
-                curr_src = src[src_idx] & curr_mask as u8;
-            }
-        }
-
-        // advance source_offset to the next byte if we're not at the end..
-        // note that we don't need to do this if we wrote the full number of bits
-        // because source index would have been advanced by the inner loop above
-        if bit_len != num_bits {
-            let partial_bytes_written = ceil(num_bits as usize, 8);
-
-            // we also want to the next location in src, unless we wrote something
-            // byte-aligned in which case the logic above would have already advanced
-            let mut to_next_byte = 1;
-            if num_bits.is_multiple_of(8) {
-                to_next_byte = 0;
-            }
-
-            src_idx += src.len() - partial_bytes_written + to_next_byte;
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-// A physical scheduler for bitpacked buffers
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
-pub struct BitpackedScheduler {
-    bits_per_value: u64,
-    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
-    buffer_offset: u64,
-    signed: bool,
-}
-
-impl BitpackedScheduler {
-    pub fn new(
-        bits_per_value: u64,
-        uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
-        buffer_offset: u64,
-        signed: bool,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            bits_per_value,
-            uncompressed_bits_per_value,
-            buffer_offset,
-            signed,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl PageScheduler for BitpackedScheduler {
-    fn schedule_ranges(
-        &self,
-        ranges: &[std::ops::Range<u64>],
-        scheduler: &Arc<dyn crate::EncodingsIo>,
-        top_level_row: u64,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<Box<dyn PrimitivePageDecoder>>> {
-        let mut min = u64::MAX;
-        let mut max = 0;
-
-        let mut buffer_bit_start_offsets: Vec<u8> = vec![];
-        let mut buffer_bit_end_offsets: Vec<Option<u8>> = vec![];
-        let byte_ranges = ranges
-            .iter()
-            .map(|range| {
-                let start_byte_offset = range.start * self.bits_per_value / 8;
-                let mut end_byte_offset = range.end * self.bits_per_value / 8;
-                if !(range.end * self.bits_per_value).is_multiple_of(8) {
-                    // If the end of the range is not byte-aligned, we need to read one more byte
-                    end_byte_offset += 1;
-
-                    let end_bit_offset = range.end * self.bits_per_value % 8;
-                    buffer_bit_end_offsets.push(Some(end_bit_offset as u8));
-                } else {
-                    buffer_bit_end_offsets.push(None);
-                }
-
-                let start_bit_offset = range.start * self.bits_per_value % 8;
-                buffer_bit_start_offsets.push(start_bit_offset as u8);
-
-                let start = self.buffer_offset + start_byte_offset;
-                let end = self.buffer_offset + end_byte_offset;
-                min = min.min(start);
-                max = max.max(end);
-
-                start..end
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        trace!(
-            "Scheduling I/O for {} ranges spread across byte range {}..{}",
-            byte_ranges.len(),
-            min,
-            max
-        );
-
-        let bytes = scheduler.submit_request(byte_ranges, top_level_row);
-
-        let bits_per_value = self.bits_per_value;
-        let uncompressed_bits_per_value = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value;
-        let signed = self.signed;
-        async move {
-            let bytes = bytes.await?;
-            Ok(Box::new(BitpackedPageDecoder {
-                buffer_bit_start_offsets,
-                buffer_bit_end_offsets,
-                bits_per_value,
-                uncompressed_bits_per_value,
-                signed,
-                data: bytes,
-            }) as Box<dyn PrimitivePageDecoder>)
-        }
-        .boxed()
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct BitpackedPageDecoder {
-    // bit offsets of the first value within each buffer
-    buffer_bit_start_offsets: Vec<u8>,
-
-    // bit offsets of the last value within each buffer. e.g. if there was a buffer
-    // with 2 values, packed into 5 bits, this would be [Some(3)], indicating that
-    // the bits from the 3rd->8th bit in the last byte shouldn't be decoded.
-    buffer_bit_end_offsets: Vec<Option<u8>>,
-
-    // the number of bits used to represent a compressed value. E.g. if the max value
-    // in the page was 7 (0b111), then this will be 3
-    bits_per_value: u64,
-
-    // number of bits in the uncompressed value. E.g. this will be 32 for u32
-    uncompressed_bits_per_value: u64,
-
-    // whether or not to use the msb as a sign bit during decoding
-    signed: bool,
-
-    data: Vec<Bytes>,
-}
-
-impl PrimitivePageDecoder for BitpackedPageDecoder {
-    fn decode(&self, rows_to_skip: u64, num_rows: u64) -> Result<DataBlock> {
-        let num_bytes = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value / 8 * num_rows;
-        let mut dest = vec![0; num_bytes as usize];
-
-        // current maximum supported bits per value = 64
-        debug_assert!(self.bits_per_value <= 64);
-
-        let mut rows_to_skip = rows_to_skip;
-        let mut rows_taken = 0;
-        let byte_len = self.uncompressed_bits_per_value / 8;
-        let mut dst_idx = 0; // index for current byte being written to destination buffer
-
-        // create bit mask for source bits
-        let mask = u64::MAX >> (64 - self.bits_per_value);
-
-        for i in 0..self.data.len() {
-            let src = &self.data[i];
-            let (mut src_idx, mut src_offset) = match compute_start_offset(
-                rows_to_skip,
-                src.len(),
-                self.bits_per_value,
-                self.buffer_bit_start_offsets[i],
-                self.buffer_bit_end_offsets[i],
-            ) {
-                StartOffset::SkipFull(rows_to_skip_here) => {
-                    rows_to_skip -= rows_to_skip_here;
-                    continue;
-                }
-                StartOffset::SkipSome(buffer_start_offset) => (
-                    buffer_start_offset.index,
-                    buffer_start_offset.bit_offset as u64,
-                ),
-            };
-
-            while src_idx < src.len() && rows_taken < num_rows {
-                rows_taken += 1;
-                let mut curr_mask = mask; // copy mask
-
-                // current source byte being written to destination
-                let mut curr_src = src[src_idx] & (curr_mask << src_offset) as u8;
-
-                // how many bits from the current source value have been written to destination
-                let mut src_bits_written = 0;
-
-                // the offset within the current destination byte to write to
-                let mut dst_offset = 0;
-
-                let is_negative = is_encoded_item_negative(
-                    src,
-                    src_idx,
-                    src_offset,
-                    self.bits_per_value as usize,
-                );
-
-                while src_bits_written < self.bits_per_value {
-                    // write bits from current source byte into destination
-                    dest[dst_idx] += (curr_src >> src_offset) << dst_offset;
-                    let bits_written = (self.bits_per_value - src_bits_written)
-                        .min(8 - src_offset)
-                        .min(8 - dst_offset);
-                    src_bits_written += bits_written;
-                    dst_offset += bits_written;
-                    src_offset += bits_written;
-                    curr_mask >>= bits_written;
-
-                    if dst_offset == 8 {
-                        dst_idx += 1;
-                        dst_offset = 0;
-                    }
-
-                    if src_offset == 8 {
-                        src_idx += 1;
-                        src_offset = 0;
-                        if src_idx == src.len() {
-                            break;
-                        }
-                        curr_src = src[src_idx] & curr_mask as u8;
-                    }
-                }
-
-                // if the type is signed, need to pad out the rest of the byte with 1s
-                let mut negative_padded_current_byte = false;
-                if self.signed && is_negative && dst_offset > 0 {
-                    negative_padded_current_byte = true;
-                    while dst_offset < 8 {
-                        dest[dst_idx] |= 1 << dst_offset;
-                        dst_offset += 1;
-                    }
-                }
-
-                // advance destination offset to the next location
-                // note that we don't need to do this if we wrote the full number of bits
-                // because source index would have been advanced by the inner loop above
-                if self.uncompressed_bits_per_value != self.bits_per_value {
-                    let partial_bytes_written = ceil(self.bits_per_value as usize, 8);
-
-                    // we also want to move one location to the next location in destination,
-                    // unless we wrote something byte-aligned in which case the logic above
-                    // would have already advanced dst_idx
-                    let mut to_next_byte = 1;
-                    if self.bits_per_value.is_multiple_of(8) {
-                        to_next_byte = 0;
-                    }
-                    let next_dst_idx =
-                        dst_idx + byte_len as usize - partial_bytes_written + to_next_byte;
-
-                    // pad remaining bytes with 1 for negative signed numbers
-                    if self.signed && is_negative {
-                        if !negative_padded_current_byte {
-                            dest[dst_idx] = 0xFF;
-                        }
-                        for i in dest.iter_mut().take(next_dst_idx).skip(dst_idx + 1) {
-                            *i = 0xFF;
-                        }
-                    }
-
-                    dst_idx = next_dst_idx;
-                }
-
-                // If we've reached the last byte, there may be some extra bits from the
-                // next value outside the range. We don't want to be taking those.
-                if let Some(buffer_bit_end_offset) = self.buffer_bit_end_offsets[i] {
-                    if src_idx == src.len() - 1 && src_offset >= buffer_bit_end_offset as u64 {
-                        break;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        Ok(DataBlock::FixedWidth(FixedWidthDataBlock {
-            data: LanceBuffer::from(dest),
-            bits_per_value: self.uncompressed_bits_per_value,
-            num_values: num_rows,
-            block_info: BlockInfo::new(),
-        }))
-    }
-}
-
-fn is_encoded_item_negative(src: &Bytes, src_idx: usize, src_offset: u64, num_bits: usize) -> bool {
-    let mut last_byte_idx = src_idx + ((src_offset as usize + num_bits) / 8);
-    let shift_amount = (src_offset as usize + num_bits) % 8;
-    let shift_amount = if shift_amount == 0 {
-        last_byte_idx -= 1;
-        7
-    } else {
-        shift_amount - 1
-    };
-    let last_byte = src[last_byte_idx];
-    let sign_bit_mask = 1 << shift_amount;
-    let sign_bit = last_byte & sign_bit_mask;
-
-    sign_bit > 0
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
-struct BufferStartOffset {
-    index: usize,
-    bit_offset: u8,
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
-enum StartOffset {
-    // skip the full buffer. The value is how many rows are skipped
-    // by skipping the full buffer (e.g., # rows in buffer)
-    SkipFull(u64),
-
-    // skip to some start offset in the buffer
-    SkipSome(BufferStartOffset),
-}
-
-/// compute how far ahead in this buffer should we skip ahead and start reading
-///
-/// * `rows_to_skip` - how many rows to skip
-/// * `buffer_len` - length buf buffer (in bytes)
-/// * `bits_per_value` - number of bits used to represent a single bitpacked value
-/// * `buffer_start_bit_offset` - offset of the start of the first value within the
-///   buffer's  first byte
-/// * `buffer_end_bit_offset` - end bit of the last value within the buffer. Can be
-///   `None` if the end of the last value is byte aligned with end of buffer.
-fn compute_start_offset(
-    rows_to_skip: u64,
-    buffer_len: usize,
-    bits_per_value: u64,
-    buffer_start_bit_offset: u8,
-    buffer_end_bit_offset: Option<u8>,
-) -> StartOffset {
-    let rows_in_buffer = rows_in_buffer(
-        buffer_len,
-        bits_per_value,
-        buffer_start_bit_offset,
-        buffer_end_bit_offset,
-    );
-    if rows_to_skip >= rows_in_buffer {
-        return StartOffset::SkipFull(rows_in_buffer);
-    }
-
-    let start_bit = rows_to_skip * bits_per_value + buffer_start_bit_offset as u64;
-    let start_byte = start_bit / 8;
-
-    StartOffset::SkipSome(BufferStartOffset {
-        index: start_byte as usize,
-        bit_offset: (start_bit % 8) as u8,
-    })
-}
-
-/// calculates the number of rows in a buffer
-fn rows_in_buffer(
-    buffer_len: usize,
-    bits_per_value: u64,
-    buffer_start_bit_offset: u8,
-    buffer_end_bit_offset: Option<u8>,
-) -> u64 {
-    let mut bits_in_buffer = (buffer_len * 8) as u64 - buffer_start_bit_offset as u64;
-
-    // if the end of the last value of the buffer isn't byte aligned, subtract the
-    // end offset from the total number of bits in buffer
-    if let Some(buffer_end_bit_offset) = buffer_end_bit_offset {
-        bits_in_buffer -= (8 - buffer_end_bit_offset) as u64;
-    }
-
-    bits_in_buffer / bits_per_value
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-pub mod test {
-    use crate::{
-        format::pb,
-        testing::{check_round_trip_encoding_generated, ArrayGeneratorProvider, TestCases},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
-    };
-
-    use super::*;
-    use std::{marker::PhantomData, sync::Arc};
-
-    use arrow_array::{
-        types::{UInt16Type, UInt8Type},
-        ArrayRef, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int16Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, Int8Array,
-        UInt16Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
-    };
-
-    use arrow_schema::Field;
-    use lance_datagen::{
-        array::{fill, rand_with_distribution},
-        gen_batch, ArrayGenerator, ArrayGeneratorExt, RowCount,
-    };
-    use rand::distr::Uniform;
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_bitpack_params() {
-        fn gen_array(generator: Box<dyn ArrayGenerator>) -> ArrayRef {
-            let arr = gen_batch()
-                .anon_col(generator)
-                .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(10000))
-                .unwrap()
-                .column(0)
-                .clone();
-
-            arr
-        }
-
-        macro_rules! do_test {
-            ($num_bits:expr, $data_type:ident, $null_probability:expr) => {
-                let max = 1 << $num_bits - 1;
-                let mut arr =
-                    gen_array(fill::<$data_type>(max).with_random_nulls($null_probability));
-
-                // ensure we don't randomly generate all nulls, that won't work
-                while arr.null_count() == arr.len() {
-                    arr = gen_array(fill::<$data_type>(max).with_random_nulls($null_probability));
-                }
-                let result = bitpack_params(arr.as_ref());
-                assert!(result.is_some());
-                assert_eq!($num_bits, result.unwrap().num_bits);
-            };
-        }
-
-        let test_cases = vec![
-            (5u64, 0.0f64),
-            (5u64, 0.9f64),
-            (1u64, 0.0f64),
-            (1u64, 0.5f64),
-            (8u64, 0.0f64),
-            (8u64, 0.5f64),
-        ];
-
-        for (num_bits, null_probability) in &test_cases {
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt8Type, *null_probability);
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt16Type, *null_probability);
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt32Type, *null_probability);
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt64Type, *null_probability);
-        }
-
-        // do some test cases that that will only work on larger types
-        let test_cases = vec![
-            (13u64, 0.0f64),
-            (13u64, 0.5f64),
-            (16u64, 0.0f64),
-            (16u64, 0.5f64),
-        ];
-        for (num_bits, null_probability) in &test_cases {
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt16Type, *null_probability);
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt32Type, *null_probability);
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt64Type, *null_probability);
-        }
-        let test_cases = vec![
-            (25u64, 0.0f64),
-            (25u64, 0.5f64),
-            (32u64, 0.0f64),
-            (32u64, 0.5f64),
-        ];
-        for (num_bits, null_probability) in &test_cases {
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt32Type, *null_probability);
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt64Type, *null_probability);
-        }
-        let test_cases = vec![
-            (48u64, 0.0f64),
-            (48u64, 0.5f64),
-            (64u64, 0.0f64),
-            (64u64, 0.5f64),
-        ];
-        for (num_bits, null_probability) in &test_cases {
-            do_test!(*num_bits, UInt64Type, *null_probability);
-        }
-
-        // test that it returns None for datatypes that don't support bitpacking
-        let arr = Float64Array::from_iter_values(vec![0.1, 0.2, 0.3]);
-        let result = bitpack_params(&arr);
-        assert!(result.is_none());
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_num_compressed_bits_signed_types() {
-        let values = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, -7]);
-        let arr = values;
-        let result = bitpack_params(&arr);
-        assert!(result.is_some());
-        let result = result.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(4, result.num_bits);
-        assert!(result.signed);
-
-        // check that it doesn't add a sign bit if it doesn't need to
-        let values = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 7]);
-        let arr = values;
-        let result = bitpack_params(&arr);
-        assert!(result.is_some());
-        let result = result.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(3, result.num_bits);
-        assert!(!result.signed);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_rows_in_buffer() {
-        let test_cases = vec![
-            (5usize, 5u64, 0u8, None, 8u64),
-            (2, 3, 0, Some(5), 4),
-            (2, 3, 7, Some(6), 2),
-        ];
-
-        for (
-            buffer_len,
-            bits_per_value,
-            buffer_start_bit_offset,
-            buffer_end_bit_offset,
-            expected,
-        ) in test_cases
-        {
-            let result = rows_in_buffer(
-                buffer_len,
-                bits_per_value,
-                buffer_start_bit_offset,
-                buffer_end_bit_offset,
-            );
-            assert_eq!(expected, result);
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_compute_start_offset() {
-        let result = compute_start_offset(0, 5, 5, 0, None);
-        assert_eq!(
-            StartOffset::SkipSome(BufferStartOffset {
-                index: 0,
-                bit_offset: 0
-            }),
-            result
-        );
-
-        let result = compute_start_offset(10, 5, 5, 0, None);
-        assert_eq!(StartOffset::SkipFull(8), result);
-    }
-
-    #[test_log::test(test)]
-    fn test_will_bitpack_allowed_types_when_possible() {
-        let test_cases: Vec<(DataType, ArrayRef, u64)> = vec![
-            (
-                DataType::UInt8,
-                Arc::new(UInt8Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])),
-                3, // bits per value
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::UInt16,
-                Arc::new(UInt16Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 << 8])),
-                11,
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::UInt32,
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 << 16])),
-                19,
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::UInt64,
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 << 32])),
-                35,
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int8,
-                Arc::new(Int8Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 2, 3, 4, -5])),
-                4,
-            ),
-            (
-                // check it will not pack with signed bit if all values of signed type are positive
-                DataType::Int8,
-                Arc::new(Int8Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 2, 3, 4, 5])),
-                3,
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int16,
-                Arc::new(Int16Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, -4, 5 << 8])),
-                12,
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int32,
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, -5 << 16])),
-                20,
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int64,
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(vec![
-                    0,
-                    1,
-                    2,
-                    -3,
-                    -4,
-                    -5 << 32,
-                ])),
-                36,
-            ),
-        ];
-
-        for (data_type, arr, bits_per_value) in test_cases {
-            let mut buffed_index = 1;
-            let params = bitpack_params(arr.as_ref()).unwrap();
-            let encoder = BitpackedArrayEncoder {
-                num_bits: params.num_bits,
-                signed_type: params.signed,
-            };
-            let data = DataBlock::from_array(arr);
-            let result = encoder.encode(data, &data_type, &mut buffed_index).unwrap();
-
-            let data = result.data.as_fixed_width().unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(bits_per_value, data.bits_per_value);
-
-            let array_encoding = result.encoding.array_encoding.unwrap();
-
-            match array_encoding {
-                pb::array_encoding::ArrayEncoding::Bitpacked(bitpacked) => {
-                    assert_eq!(bits_per_value, bitpacked.compressed_bits_per_value);
-                    assert_eq!(
-                        (data_type.byte_width() * 8) as u64,
-                        bitpacked.uncompressed_bits_per_value
-                    );
-                }
-                _ => {
-                    panic!("Array did not use bitpacking encoding")
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // check it will otherwise use flat encoding
-        let test_cases: Vec<(DataType, ArrayRef)> = vec![
-            // it should use flat encoding for datatypes that don't support bitpacking
-            (
-                DataType::Float32,
-                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(vec![0.1, 0.2, 0.3])),
-            ),
-            // it should still use flat encoding if bitpacked encoding would be packed
-            // into the full byte range
-            (
-                DataType::UInt8,
-                Arc::new(UInt8Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 250])),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::UInt16,
-                Arc::new(UInt16Array::from_iter_values(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 250 << 8])),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::UInt32,
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(vec![
-                    0,
-                    1,
-                    2,
-                    3,
-                    4,
-                    250 << 24,
-                ])),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::UInt64,
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(vec![
-                    0,
-                    1,
-                    2,
-                    3,
-                    4,
-                    250 << 56,
-                ])),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int8,
-                Arc::new(Int8Array::from_iter_values(vec![-100])),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int16,
-                Arc::new(Int16Array::from_iter_values(vec![-100 << 8])),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int32,
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(vec![-100 << 24])),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int64,
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(vec![-100 << 56])),
-            ),
-        ];
-
-        for (data_type, arr) in test_cases {
-            if let Some(params) = bitpack_params(arr.as_ref()) {
-                assert_eq!(params.num_bits, data_type.byte_width() as u64 * 8);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    struct DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider<
-        DataType,
-        Dist: rand::distr::Distribution<DataType::Native> + Clone + Send + Sync + 'static,
-    >
-    where
-        DataType::Native: Copy + 'static,
-        PrimitiveArray<DataType>: From<Vec<DataType::Native>> + 'static,
-        DataType: ArrowPrimitiveType,
-    {
-        phantom: PhantomData<DataType>,
-        distribution: Dist,
-    }
-
-    impl<DataType, Dist> DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider<DataType, Dist>
-    where
-        Dist: rand::distr::Distribution<DataType::Native> + Clone + Send + Sync + 'static,
-        DataType::Native: Copy + 'static,
-        PrimitiveArray<DataType>: From<Vec<DataType::Native>> + 'static,
-        DataType: ArrowPrimitiveType,
-    {
-        fn new(dist: Dist) -> Self {
-            Self {
-                distribution: dist,
-                phantom: Default::default(),
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    impl<DataType, Dist> ArrayGeneratorProvider for DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider<DataType, Dist>
-    where
-        Dist: rand::distr::Distribution<DataType::Native> + Clone + Send + Sync + 'static,
-        DataType::Native: Copy + 'static,
-        PrimitiveArray<DataType>: From<Vec<DataType::Native>> + 'static,
-        DataType: ArrowPrimitiveType,
-    {
-        fn provide(&self) -> Box<dyn ArrayGenerator> {
-            rand_with_distribution::<DataType, Dist>(self.distribution.clone())
-        }
-
-        fn copy(&self) -> Box<dyn ArrayGeneratorProvider> {
-            Box::new(Self {
-                phantom: self.phantom,
-                distribution: self.distribution.clone(),
-            })
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_bitpack_primitive() {
-        let bitpacked_test_cases: &Vec<(DataType, Box<dyn ArrayGeneratorProvider>)> = &vec![
-            // check less than one byte for multi-byte type
-            (
-                DataType::UInt32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt32Type, Uniform<u32>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(0, 19).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // // check that more than one byte for multi-byte type
-            (
-                DataType::UInt32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt32Type, Uniform<u32>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(5 << 7, 6 << 7).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::UInt64,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt64Type, Uniform<u64>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(5 << 42, 6 << 42).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check less than one byte for single-byte type
-            (
-                DataType::UInt8,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt8Type, Uniform<u8>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(0, 19).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check less than one byte for single-byte type
-            (
-                DataType::UInt64,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt64Type, Uniform<u64>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(129, 259).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check byte aligned for single byte
-            (
-                DataType::UInt32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt32Type, Uniform<u32>>::new(
-                        // this range should always give 8 bits
-                        Uniform::new(200, 250).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check where the num_bits divides evenly into the bit length of the type
-            (
-                DataType::UInt64,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt64Type, Uniform<u64>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(1, 3).unwrap(), // 2 bits
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check byte aligned for multiple bytes
-            (
-                DataType::UInt32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt32Type, Uniform<u32>>::new(
-                        // this range should always always give 16 bits
-                        Uniform::new(200 << 8, 250 << 8).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check byte aligned where the num bits doesn't divide evenly into the byte length
-            (
-                DataType::UInt64,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt64Type, Uniform<u64>>::new(
-                        // this range should always give 24 hits
-                        Uniform::new(200 << 16, 250 << 16).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check that we can still encode an all-0 array
-            (
-                DataType::UInt32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<UInt32Type, Uniform<u32>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(0, 1).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check for signed types
-            (
-                DataType::Int16,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<Int16Type, Uniform<i16>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(-5, 5).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int64,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<Int64Type, Uniform<i64>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(-(5 << 42), 6 << 42).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            (
-                DataType::Int32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<Int32Type, Uniform<i32>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(-(5 << 7), 6 << 7).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check signed where packed to < 1 byte for multi-byte type
-            (
-                DataType::Int32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<Int32Type, Uniform<i32>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(-19, 19).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check signed byte aligned to single byte
-            (
-                DataType::Int32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<Int32Type, Uniform<i32>>::new(
-                        // this range should always give 8 bits
-                        Uniform::new(-120, 120).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check signed byte aligned to multiple bytes
-            (
-                DataType::Int32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<Int32Type, Uniform<i32>>::new(
-                        // this range should always give 16 bits
-                        Uniform::new(-120 << 8, 120 << 8).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check that it works for all positive integers even if type is signed
-            (
-                DataType::Int32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<Int32Type, Uniform<i32>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(10, 20).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            // check that all 0 works for signed type
-            (
-                DataType::Int32,
-                Box::new(
-                    DistributionArrayGeneratorProvider::<Int32Type, Uniform<i32>>::new(
-                        Uniform::new(0, 1).unwrap(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-        ];
-
-        for (data_type, array_gen_provider) in bitpacked_test_cases {
-            let field = Field::new("", data_type.clone(), false);
-            let test_cases = TestCases::basic().with_min_file_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
-            check_round_trip_encoding_generated(field, array_gen_provider.copy(), test_cases).await;
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/repdef.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/repdef.rs
index 1cbe5592f1e..1c102d1e740 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/repdef.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/repdef.rs
@@ -108,6 +108,7 @@
 
 use std::{
     iter::{Copied, Zip},
+    ops::Range,
     sync::Arc,
 };
 
@@ -115,13 +116,41 @@ use arrow_array::OffsetSizeTrait;
 use arrow_buffer::{
     ArrowNativeType, BooleanBuffer, BooleanBufferBuilder, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer,
 };
-use lance_core::{utils::bit::log_2_ceil, Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, utils::bit::log_2_ceil};
 
-use crate::buffer::LanceBuffer;
+use crate::{
+    buffer::LanceBuffer,
+    encodings::logical::primitive::sparse::{SparseStructuralPlan, SparseStructuralUnraveler},
+};
 
 pub type LevelBuffer = Vec<u16>;
 
+/// A top-level-row range whose dense rep/def stream fits one mini-block page.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) struct MiniBlockRepDefSplit {
+    /// Top-level row offset, relative to the original unsplit page.
+    pub(crate) row_start: u64,
+    /// Number of top-level rows in this split.
+    pub(crate) num_rows: u64,
+    /// Rep/def level range, relative to the original unsplit page.
+    pub(crate) level_range: Range<usize>,
+    /// Visible value offset, relative to the original unsplit page.
+    pub(crate) value_start: u64,
+    /// Number of visible values in this split.
+    pub(crate) num_values: u64,
+}
+
+/// Dense mini-block rep/def budget result for one accumulated page.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum MiniBlockRepDefBudget {
+    /// The dense rep/def stream fits one mini-block structural page.
+    WithinBudget,
+    /// The dense rep/def stream fits after splitting on top-level row boundaries.
+    RequiresPageSplit(Vec<MiniBlockRepDefSplit>),
+    /// A single top-level row has this many rep/def levels and exceeds the budget.
+    SingleRowOverBudget(u64),
+}
+
 // As we build def levels we add this to special values to indicate that they
 // are special so that we can skip over them when processing lower levels.
 //
@@ -173,6 +202,143 @@ enum RawRepDef {
     Fsl(FslDesc),
 }
 
+/// A normalized Arrow structural layer shared by dense and sparse serializers.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub(crate) enum NormalizedStructuralLayer<'a> {
+    List {
+        offsets: &'a [i64],
+        validity: Option<&'a BooleanBuffer>,
+        num_slots: usize,
+    },
+    Validity {
+        validity: Option<&'a BooleanBuffer>,
+        num_slots: usize,
+    },
+    FixedSizeList {
+        validity: Option<&'a BooleanBuffer>,
+        dimension: usize,
+        num_slots: usize,
+    },
+}
+
+/// Structural layers concatenated across input batches exactly once.
+///
+/// Dense rep/def serialization and sparse metadata planning both consume this
+/// representation so the Arrow nesting is not independently reconstructed.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct NormalizedStructuralPlan {
+    layers: Vec<RawRepDef>,
+    dense_all_valid: bool,
+}
+
+impl NormalizedStructuralPlan {
+    pub(crate) fn layers(&self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = NormalizedStructuralLayer<'_>> {
+        self.layers.iter().map(|layer| match layer {
+            RawRepDef::Offsets(OffsetDesc {
+                offsets,
+                validity,
+                num_values,
+                ..
+            }) => NormalizedStructuralLayer::List {
+                offsets,
+                validity: validity.as_ref(),
+                num_slots: *num_values,
+            },
+            RawRepDef::Validity(ValidityDesc {
+                validity,
+                num_values,
+            }) => NormalizedStructuralLayer::Validity {
+                validity: validity.as_ref(),
+                num_slots: *num_values,
+            },
+            RawRepDef::Fsl(FslDesc {
+                validity,
+                dimension,
+                num_values,
+            }) => NormalizedStructuralLayer::FixedSizeList {
+                validity: validity.as_ref(),
+                dimension: *dimension,
+                num_slots: *num_values,
+            },
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn to_serializer(&self) -> (SerializerContext, Option<u64>) {
+        if self.dense_all_valid {
+            let def_meaning = self
+                .layers
+                .iter()
+                .map(|_| DefinitionInterpretation::AllValidItem)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            return (
+                SerializerContext {
+                    def_meaning,
+                    rep_levels: LevelBuffer::default(),
+                    spare_rep: LevelBuffer::default(),
+                    def_levels: LevelBuffer::default(),
+                    spare_def: LevelBuffer::default(),
+                    current_rep: 0,
+                    current_def: 0,
+                    current_len: 0,
+                    current_num_specials: 0,
+                    has_fsl: false,
+                },
+                None,
+            );
+        }
+
+        let total_len = self.layers.last().map_or(0, RawRepDef::num_values)
+            + self
+                .layers
+                .iter()
+                .map(RawRepDef::num_specials)
+                .sum::<usize>();
+        let max_rep = self.layers.iter().map(RawRepDef::max_rep).sum::<u16>();
+        let max_def = self.layers.iter().map(RawRepDef::max_def).sum::<u16>();
+        let bits_per_rep = if max_rep > 0 {
+            u64::from(u16::BITS - max_rep.leading_zeros())
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        let bits_per_def = if max_def > 0 {
+            u64::from(u16::BITS - max_def.leading_zeros())
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        let bits_per_level =
+            (bits_per_rep + bits_per_def > 0).then_some(bits_per_rep + bits_per_def);
+
+        let num_layers = self.layers.len();
+        let mut context = SerializerContext::new(total_len, num_layers, max_rep, max_def);
+        for layer in &self.layers {
+            match layer {
+                RawRepDef::Validity(def) => context.record_validity(def),
+                RawRepDef::Offsets(rep) => context.record_offsets(rep),
+                RawRepDef::Fsl(fsl) => context.record_fsl(fsl),
+            }
+        }
+        (context, bits_per_level)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn serialize(&self) -> SerializedRepDefs {
+        self.to_serializer().0.build()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn serialize_with_miniblock_repdef_budget(
+        &self,
+        max_levels_for_bits: impl FnOnce(u64) -> u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<(SerializedRepDefs, MiniBlockRepDefBudget)> {
+        let (context, bits_per_level) = self.to_serializer();
+        context.build_with_miniblock_repdef_budget(
+            bits_per_level.map(max_levels_for_bits),
+            num_rows,
+            num_values,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
 impl RawRepDef {
     // Are there any nulls in this layer
     fn has_nulls(&self) -> bool {
@@ -254,27 +420,62 @@ pub struct SerializedRepDefs {
     ///
     /// This is None if there are no lists
     pub max_visible_level: Option<u16>,
+    has_fsl: bool,
+}
+
+/// The highest definition level whose items still map to a value in the leaf array
+///
+/// `def_meaning` is ordered leaf-first, so every layer ahead of the first list layer sits
+/// underneath that list.  Once a list boundary is crossed, a null (or empty) list at any
+/// outer layer has no value in the leaf at all and its item is "invisible".
+///
+/// Both the writer and every decoder decide whether an item owns a value by comparing
+/// `def <= max_visible_level`, so the two sides must derive it the same way.  When there
+/// are no lists this sums every layer, i.e. `max_def`, which makes all items visible.
+pub fn max_visible_level(def_meaning: &[DefinitionInterpretation]) -> u16 {
+    def_meaning
+        .iter()
+        .take_while(|level| !level.is_list())
+        .map(|level| level.num_def_levels())
+        .sum()
 }
 
 impl SerializedRepDefs {
+    /// The same rule as [`max_visible_level`], but `None` when there are no lists and so
+    /// no item can be invisible in the first place.
+    fn max_visible_level(def_meaning: &[DefinitionInterpretation]) -> Option<u16> {
+        def_meaning
+            .iter()
+            .any(|level| level.is_list())
+            .then(|| max_visible_level(def_meaning))
+    }
+
     pub fn new(
         repetition_levels: Option<LevelBuffer>,
         definition_levels: Option<LevelBuffer>,
         def_meaning: Vec<DefinitionInterpretation>,
     ) -> Self {
-        let first_list = def_meaning.iter().position(|level| level.is_list());
-        let max_visible_level = first_list.map(|first_list| {
-            def_meaning
-                .iter()
-                .map(|level| level.num_def_levels())
-                .take(first_list)
-                .sum::<u16>()
-        });
+        Self::new_with_fixed_size_list_levels(
+            repetition_levels,
+            definition_levels,
+            def_meaning,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn new_with_fixed_size_list_levels(
+        repetition_levels: Option<LevelBuffer>,
+        definition_levels: Option<LevelBuffer>,
+        def_meaning: Vec<DefinitionInterpretation>,
+        has_fsl: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let max_visible_level = Self::max_visible_level(&def_meaning);
         Self {
             repetition_levels: repetition_levels.map(Arc::from),
             definition_levels: definition_levels.map(Arc::from),
             def_meaning,
             max_visible_level,
+            has_fsl,
         }
     }
 
@@ -285,6 +486,7 @@ impl SerializedRepDefs {
             definition_levels: None,
             def_meaning,
             max_visible_level: None,
+            has_fsl: false,
         }
     }
 
@@ -299,6 +501,10 @@ impl SerializedRepDefs {
             .as_ref()
             .map(|def| RepDefSlicer::new(self, def.clone()))
     }
+
+    pub(crate) fn has_fixed_size_list_levels(&self) -> bool {
+        self.has_fsl
+    }
 }
 
 /// Slices a level buffer into pieces
@@ -462,6 +668,7 @@ struct SerializerContext {
     current_def: u16,
     current_len: usize,
     current_num_specials: usize,
+    has_fsl: bool,
 }
 
 impl SerializerContext {
@@ -493,6 +700,7 @@ impl SerializerContext {
             current_def: max_def,
             current_len: 0,
             current_num_specials: 0,
+            has_fsl: false,
         }
     }
 
@@ -630,7 +838,7 @@ impl SerializerContext {
         debug_assert!(
             self.current_len == 0 || self.current_len == validity.len() + self.current_num_specials
         );
-        self.current_len = validity.len();
+        self.current_len = validity.len() + self.current_num_specials;
 
         let mut def_read_itr = self.def_levels.iter().copied();
         let mut def_write_itr = self.spare_def.iter_mut();
@@ -734,6 +942,7 @@ impl SerializerContext {
     }
 
     fn record_fsl(&mut self, fsl_desc: &FslDesc) {
+        self.has_fsl = true;
         self.record_validity_buf(&fsl_desc.validity);
         self.multiply_levels(fsl_desc.dimension);
     }
@@ -746,9 +955,202 @@ impl SerializerContext {
         }
     }
 
+    fn normalize_specials_and_plan_splits(
+        &mut self,
+        def_meaning: &[DefinitionInterpretation],
+        max_levels_per_page: Option<u64>,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<MiniBlockRepDefBudget> {
+        // Extremely sparse lists can have many rep/def levels for very few
+        // visible leaf values.  If this ratio becomes too skewed then a
+        // mini-block rep/def chunk can exceed its packed metadata budget even
+        // though the value buffers are small.  We detect that case while
+        // normalizing special def levels and split on top-level row boundaries
+        // so each emitted dense mini-block page stays within the budget.
+        if self.def_levels.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget);
+        }
+
+        if self.rep_levels.is_empty() {
+            self.normalize_specials();
+            return Ok(MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget);
+        }
+
+        if self.rep_levels.len() != self.def_levels.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Cannot plan structural page splits with mismatched rep/def lengths: rep={}, def={}",
+                self.rep_levels.len(),
+                self.def_levels.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let Some(max_levels_per_page) = max_levels_per_page else {
+            self.normalize_specials();
+            return Ok(MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget);
+        };
+
+        if num_values == 0 {
+            self.normalize_specials();
+            return Ok(MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget);
+        }
+
+        let max_schema_rep = def_meaning.iter().filter(|level| level.is_list()).count() as u16;
+        let max_visible_level = SerializedRepDefs::max_visible_level(def_meaning);
+        let should_plan = !self.has_fsl && max_schema_rep > 0 && max_visible_level.is_some();
+
+        if !should_plan {
+            self.normalize_specials();
+            return Ok(MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget);
+        }
+
+        let max_visible_level = max_visible_level.unwrap();
+        let mut splits = Vec::new();
+        let mut counted_rows = 0u64;
+        let mut counted_values = 0u64;
+        let mut saw_structural_overhead = false;
+        let mut single_row_over_budget_levels = None;
+
+        let mut current_row_level_start = None;
+        let mut current_row_num_values = 0u64;
+
+        let mut current_page_row_start = 0u64;
+        let mut current_page_num_rows = 0u64;
+        let mut current_page_level_start = 0usize;
+        let mut current_page_level_end = 0usize;
+        let mut current_page_value_start = 0u64;
+        let mut current_page_num_values = 0u64;
+        let mut current_page_num_levels = 0u64;
+        let mut current_page_has_structural_overhead = false;
+
+        let mut finish_row =
+            |row_level_start: usize, row_level_end: usize, row_num_values: u64| -> Result<()> {
+                let row_num_levels = (row_level_end - row_level_start) as u64;
+                let row_has_structural_overhead = row_num_levels > row_num_values;
+                saw_structural_overhead |= row_has_structural_overhead;
+
+                if row_has_structural_overhead && row_num_levels > max_levels_per_page {
+                    single_row_over_budget_levels = Some(row_num_levels);
+                }
+
+                if current_page_num_rows > 0
+                    && (current_page_has_structural_overhead || row_has_structural_overhead)
+                    && current_page_num_levels + row_num_levels > max_levels_per_page
+                {
+                    splits.push(MiniBlockRepDefSplit {
+                        row_start: current_page_row_start,
+                        num_rows: current_page_num_rows,
+                        level_range: current_page_level_start..current_page_level_end,
+                        value_start: current_page_value_start,
+                        num_values: current_page_num_values,
+                    });
+                    current_page_row_start = counted_rows;
+                    current_page_num_rows = 0;
+                    current_page_level_start = row_level_start;
+                    current_page_value_start = counted_values;
+                    current_page_num_values = 0;
+                    current_page_num_levels = 0;
+                    current_page_has_structural_overhead = false;
+                }
+
+                if current_page_num_rows == 0 {
+                    current_page_level_start = row_level_start;
+                }
+                current_page_num_rows += 1;
+                current_page_level_end = row_level_end;
+                current_page_num_values += row_num_values;
+                current_page_num_levels += row_num_levels;
+                current_page_has_structural_overhead |= row_has_structural_overhead;
+                counted_rows += 1;
+                counted_values += row_num_values;
+                Ok(())
+            };
+
+        for (idx, (rep_level, def_level)) in self
+            .rep_levels
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .zip(self.def_levels.iter_mut())
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            if *def_level > SPECIAL_THRESHOLD {
+                *def_level -= SPECIAL_THRESHOLD;
+            }
+
+            if rep_level == max_schema_rep {
+                if let Some(level_start) = current_row_level_start {
+                    finish_row(level_start, idx, current_row_num_values)?;
+                    current_row_num_values = 0;
+                } else if idx != 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Cannot plan structural page splits: first top-level row starts at level {}, expected 0",
+                        idx
+                    )));
+                }
+                current_row_level_start = Some(idx);
+            }
+
+            if current_row_level_start.is_none() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "Cannot plan structural page splits: found levels before the first top-level row start",
+                ));
+            }
+            if *def_level <= max_visible_level {
+                current_row_num_values += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let Some(level_start) = current_row_level_start else {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "Cannot plan structural page splits: found no top-level row starts",
+            ));
+        };
+        finish_row(level_start, self.rep_levels.len(), current_row_num_values)?;
+
+        if counted_rows != num_rows {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Cannot plan structural page splits: expected {} top-level row starts, found {}",
+                num_rows, counted_rows
+            )));
+        }
+        if counted_values != num_values {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Cannot plan structural page splits: counted {} visible values, expected {}",
+                counted_values, num_values
+            )));
+        }
+        if !saw_structural_overhead {
+            return Ok(MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget);
+        }
+        if let Some(row_num_levels) = single_row_over_budget_levels {
+            return Ok(MiniBlockRepDefBudget::SingleRowOverBudget(row_num_levels));
+        }
+
+        if current_page_num_rows > 0 {
+            splits.push(MiniBlockRepDefSplit {
+                row_start: current_page_row_start,
+                num_rows: current_page_num_rows,
+                level_range: current_page_level_start..current_page_level_end,
+                value_start: current_page_value_start,
+                num_values: current_page_num_values,
+            });
+        }
+
+        if splits.len() > 1 {
+            Ok(MiniBlockRepDefBudget::RequiresPageSplit(splits))
+        } else {
+            Ok(MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget)
+        }
+    }
+
     fn build(mut self) -> SerializedRepDefs {
         if self.current_len == 0 {
-            return SerializedRepDefs::new(None, None, self.def_meaning);
+            return SerializedRepDefs::new_with_fixed_size_list_levels(
+                None,
+                None,
+                self.def_meaning,
+                self.has_fsl,
+            );
         }
 
         self.normalize_specials();
@@ -767,7 +1169,64 @@ impl SerializerContext {
         // Need to reverse the def meaning since we build rep / def levels in reverse
         let def_meaning = self.def_meaning.into_iter().rev().collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        SerializedRepDefs::new(repetition_levels, definition_levels, def_meaning)
+        SerializedRepDefs::new_with_fixed_size_list_levels(
+            repetition_levels,
+            definition_levels,
+            def_meaning,
+            self.has_fsl,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn build_with_miniblock_repdef_budget(
+        mut self,
+        max_levels_per_page: Option<u64>,
+        num_rows: u64,
+        num_values: u64,
+    ) -> Result<(SerializedRepDefs, MiniBlockRepDefBudget)> {
+        if self.current_len == 0 {
+            return Ok((
+                SerializedRepDefs::new_with_fixed_size_list_levels(
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                    self.def_meaning,
+                    self.has_fsl,
+                ),
+                MiniBlockRepDefBudget::WithinBudget,
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // Need to reverse the def meaning since we build rep / def levels in reverse
+        let def_meaning = std::mem::take(&mut self.def_meaning)
+            .into_iter()
+            .rev()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let budget = self.normalize_specials_and_plan_splits(
+            &def_meaning,
+            max_levels_per_page,
+            num_rows,
+            num_values,
+        )?;
+
+        let definition_levels = if self.def_levels.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(self.def_levels)
+        };
+        let repetition_levels = if self.rep_levels.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(self.rep_levels)
+        };
+
+        Ok((
+            SerializedRepDefs::new_with_fixed_size_list_levels(
+                repetition_levels,
+                definition_levels,
+                def_meaning,
+                self.has_fsl,
+            ),
+            budget,
+        ))
     }
 }
 
@@ -818,6 +1277,10 @@ impl RepDefBuilder {
     /// Registers a nullable validity bitmap
     pub fn add_validity_bitmap(&mut self, validity: NullBuffer) {
         self.check_validity_len(validity.len());
+        if validity.null_count() == 0 {
+            self.add_no_null(validity.len());
+            return;
+        }
         self.repdefs.push(RawRepDef::Validity(ValidityDesc {
             num_values: validity.len(),
             validity: Some(validity.into_inner()),
@@ -1000,7 +1463,7 @@ impl RepDefBuilder {
                         validity: None,
                         num_values: all_num_values,
                         dimension: all_dimension,
-                    })
+                    });
                 }
                 LayerKind::Offsets => {}
             }
@@ -1100,22 +1563,18 @@ impl RepDefBuilder {
     /// Converts the validity / offsets buffers that have been gathered so far
     /// into repetition and definition levels
     pub fn serialize(builders: Vec<Self>) -> SerializedRepDefs {
-        assert!(!builders.is_empty());
-        if builders.iter().all(|b| b.is_empty()) {
-            // No repetition, all-valid
-            return SerializedRepDefs::empty(
-                builders
-                    .first()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .repdefs
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|_| DefinitionInterpretation::AllValidItem)
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            );
-        }
+        Self::normalize(builders).serialize()
+    }
 
+    pub(crate) fn normalize(builders: Vec<Self>) -> NormalizedStructuralPlan {
+        assert!(!builders.is_empty());
         let num_layers = builders[0].num_layers();
-        let combined_layers = (0..num_layers)
+        debug_assert!(
+            builders
+                .iter()
+                .all(|builder| builder.num_layers() == num_layers)
+        );
+        let layers = (0..num_layers)
             .map(|layer_index| {
                 Self::concat_layers(
                     builders.iter().map(|b| &b.repdefs[layer_index]),
@@ -1123,33 +1582,10 @@ impl RepDefBuilder {
                 )
             })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        debug_assert!(builders
-            .iter()
-            .all(|b| b.num_layers() == builders[0].num_layers()));
-
-        let total_len = combined_layers.last().unwrap().num_values()
-            + combined_layers
-                .iter()
-                .map(|l| l.num_specials())
-                .sum::<usize>();
-        let max_rep = combined_layers.iter().map(|l| l.max_rep()).sum::<u16>();
-        let max_def = combined_layers.iter().map(|l| l.max_def()).sum::<u16>();
-
-        let mut context = SerializerContext::new(total_len, num_layers, max_rep, max_def);
-        for layer in combined_layers.into_iter() {
-            match layer {
-                RawRepDef::Validity(def) => {
-                    context.record_validity(&def);
-                }
-                RawRepDef::Offsets(rep) => {
-                    context.record_offsets(&rep);
-                }
-                RawRepDef::Fsl(fsl) => {
-                    context.record_fsl(&fsl);
-                }
-            }
+        NormalizedStructuralPlan {
+            layers,
+            dense_all_valid: builders.iter().all(Self::is_empty),
         }
-        context.build()
     }
 }
 
@@ -1159,6 +1595,7 @@ impl RepDefBuilder {
 /// This is used during decoding to create the necessary arrow structures
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct RepDefUnraveler {
+    sparse: Option<SparseStructuralUnraveler>,
     rep_levels: Option<LevelBuffer>,
     def_levels: Option<LevelBuffer>,
     // Maps from definition level to the rep level at which that definition level is visible
@@ -1212,6 +1649,7 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
             }
         }
         Self {
+            sparse: None,
             rep_levels,
             def_levels,
             current_def_cmp: 0,
@@ -1223,8 +1661,36 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
         }
     }
 
+    pub(crate) fn new_sparse(plan: SparseStructuralPlan) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            sparse: Some(SparseStructuralUnraveler::new(plan)),
+            rep_levels: None,
+            def_levels: None,
+            levels_to_rep: Vec::new(),
+            def_meaning: Arc::new([]),
+            current_def_cmp: 0,
+            current_rep_cmp: 0,
+            current_layer: 0,
+            num_items: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_exhausted(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(sparse) = &self.sparse {
+            sparse.ensure_exhausted()?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn is_sparse(&self) -> bool {
+        self.sparse.is_some()
+    }
+
     pub fn is_all_valid(&self) -> bool {
-        self.def_meaning[self.current_layer].is_all_valid()
+        if let Some(sparse) = &self.sparse {
+            return sparse.is_all_valid();
+        }
+        self.def_levels.is_none() || self.def_meaning[self.current_layer].is_all_valid()
     }
 
     /// If the current level is a repetition layer then this returns the number of lists
@@ -1232,15 +1698,19 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
     ///
     /// This is not valid to call when the current level is a struct/primitive layer because
     /// in some cases there may be no rep or def information to know this.
-    pub fn max_lists(&self) -> usize {
+    pub fn max_lists(&self) -> Result<usize> {
+        if let Some(sparse) = &self.sparse {
+            return sparse.max_lists();
+        }
         debug_assert!(
             self.def_meaning[self.current_layer] != DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem
         );
-        self.rep_levels
+        Ok(self
+            .rep_levels
             .as_ref()
             // Worst case every rep item is max_rep and a new list
             .map(|levels| levels.len())
-            .unwrap_or(0)
+            .unwrap_or(0))
     }
 
     /// Unravels a layer of offsets from the unraveler into the given offset width
@@ -1252,6 +1722,9 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
         offsets: &mut Vec<T>,
         validity: Option<&mut BooleanBufferBuilder>,
     ) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(sparse) = self.sparse.as_mut() {
+            return sparse.unravel_offsets(offsets, validity);
+        }
         let rep_levels = self
             .rep_levels
             .as_mut()
@@ -1278,7 +1751,7 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
         // This is the highest def level that is still visible.  Once we hit a list then
         // we stop looking because any null / empty list (or list masked by a higher level
         // null) will not be visible
-        let mut max_level = null_level.max(empty_level);
+        let mut max_level = null_level.max(empty_level).max(valid_level);
         // Anything higher than this (but less than max_level) is a null struct masking our
         // list.  We will materialize this is a null list.
         let upper_null = max_level;
@@ -1307,7 +1780,7 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
 
         let to_offset = |val: usize| {
             T::from_usize(val)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("A single batch had more than i32::MAX values and so a large container type is required", location!()))
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("A single batch had more than i32::MAX values and so a large container type is required"))
         };
         self.current_rep_cmp += 1;
         if let Some(def_levels) = &mut self.def_levels {
@@ -1388,7 +1861,11 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
             }
             let num_new_lists = offsets.len() - old_offsets_len;
             offsets.push(to_offset(curlen)?);
-            rep_levels.truncate(offsets.len() - 1);
+            // Truncate to the number of lists THIS unraveler produced (write_idx),
+            // not `offsets.len() - 1` — the latter includes offsets contributed by
+            // earlier unravelers in a multi-page read, which would leave too many
+            // rep levels for the next (outer) layer and over-count its lists.
+            rep_levels.truncate(write_idx);
             if let Some(validity) = validity {
                 // Even though we don't have validity it is possible another unraveler did and so we need
                 // to push all valids
@@ -1398,19 +1875,25 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn skip_validity(&mut self) {
-        debug_assert!(
-            self.def_meaning[self.current_layer] == DefinitionInterpretation::AllValidItem
-        );
+    pub fn skip_validity(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(sparse) = self.sparse.as_mut() {
+            return sparse.skip_validity();
+        }
+        debug_assert!(self.is_all_valid());
         self.current_layer += 1;
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     /// Unravels a layer of validity from the definition levels
-    pub fn unravel_validity(&mut self, validity: &mut BooleanBufferBuilder) {
-        if self.def_meaning[self.current_layer] == DefinitionInterpretation::AllValidItem {
+    pub fn unravel_validity(&mut self, validity: &mut BooleanBufferBuilder) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(sparse) = self.sparse.as_mut() {
+            return sparse.unravel_validity(validity);
+        }
+        let meaning = self.def_meaning[self.current_layer];
+        if meaning == DefinitionInterpretation::AllValidItem || self.def_levels.is_none() {
             self.current_layer += 1;
             validity.append_n(self.num_items as usize, true);
-            return;
+            return Ok(());
         }
 
         self.current_layer += 1;
@@ -1428,9 +1911,28 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
         }) {
             validity.append(is_valid);
         }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    pub fn decimate(&mut self, dimension: usize) {
+    /// Removes all but the first definition level of each fixed-size-list slot
+    ///
+    /// The definition levels arrive with one entry per item.  A fixed-size-list
+    /// layer has a single definition level per slot (all `dimension` items in a
+    /// slot share it) so we keep every `dimension`-th level and drop the rest.
+    ///
+    /// `dimension` must be non-zero.  A zero dimension can only come from a
+    /// malformed schema (writers reject it, see
+    /// [`lance_core::datatypes::validate_fixed_size_list_dimensions`]) and is
+    /// rejected here rather than allowed to run off the end of the buffer.
+    pub fn decimate(&mut self, dimension: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        if dimension == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Cannot decimate repetition/definition levels with a fixed-size-list dimension of 0; dimension must be a positive integer",
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(sparse) = self.sparse.as_mut() {
+            return sparse.decimate(dimension);
+        }
         if self.rep_levels.is_some() {
             // If we need to support this then I think we need to walk through the rep def levels to find
             // the spots at which we keep.  E.g. if we have:
@@ -1446,11 +1948,14 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
             todo!("Not yet supported FSL<...List<...>>");
         }
         let Some(def_levels) = self.def_levels.as_mut() else {
-            return;
+            return Ok(());
         };
         let mut read_idx = 0;
         let mut write_idx = 0;
         while read_idx < def_levels.len() {
+            // SAFETY: `read_idx` is checked against the length by the loop condition and
+            // `dimension >= 1` (checked above) means `write_idx <= read_idx`, so both
+            // indices are in bounds.
             unsafe {
                 *def_levels.get_unchecked_mut(write_idx) = *def_levels.get_unchecked(read_idx);
             }
@@ -1458,6 +1963,7 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
             read_idx += dimension;
         }
         def_levels.truncate(write_idx);
+        Ok(())
     }
 }
 
@@ -1477,44 +1983,104 @@ impl RepDefUnraveler {
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct CompositeRepDefUnraveler {
     unravelers: Vec<RepDefUnraveler>,
+    comparisons: Vec<Self>,
 }
 
 impl CompositeRepDefUnraveler {
     pub fn new(unravelers: Vec<RepDefUnraveler>) -> Self {
-        Self { unravelers }
+        Self {
+            unravelers,
+            comparisons: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn add_compatibility_check(&mut self, other: Self) {
+        self.comparisons.push(other);
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn has_sparse(&self) -> bool {
+        self.unravelers.iter().any(RepDefUnraveler::is_sparse)
+            || self.comparisons.iter().any(Self::has_sparse)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn ensure_exhausted(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        for unraveler in &self.unravelers {
+            unraveler.ensure_exhausted()?;
+        }
+        for comparison in &self.comparisons {
+            comparison.ensure_exhausted()?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn null_buffers_equal(
+        left: &Option<NullBuffer>,
+        right: &Option<NullBuffer>,
+        expected_len: usize,
+    ) -> bool {
+        match (left, right) {
+            (None, None) => true,
+            (Some(left), Some(right)) => {
+                left.len() == expected_len
+                    && right.len() == expected_len
+                    && left.iter().eq(right.iter())
+            }
+            (None, Some(right)) => right.len() == expected_len && right.null_count() == 0,
+            (Some(left), None) => left.len() == expected_len && left.null_count() == 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn decimate(&mut self, dimension: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        for unraveler in &mut self.unravelers {
+            unraveler.decimate(dimension)?;
+        }
+        for comparison in &mut self.comparisons {
+            comparison.decimate(dimension)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     /// Unravels a layer of validity
     ///
     /// Returns None if there are no null items in this layer
-    pub fn unravel_validity(&mut self, num_values: usize) -> Option<NullBuffer> {
+    pub fn unravel_validity(&mut self, num_values: usize) -> Result<Option<NullBuffer>> {
         let is_all_valid = self
             .unravelers
             .iter()
             .all(|unraveler| unraveler.is_all_valid());
 
-        if is_all_valid {
+        let validity = if is_all_valid {
             for unraveler in self.unravelers.iter_mut() {
-                unraveler.skip_validity();
+                unraveler.skip_validity()?;
             }
             None
         } else {
             let mut validity = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(num_values);
             for unraveler in self.unravelers.iter_mut() {
-                unraveler.unravel_validity(&mut validity);
+                unraveler.unravel_validity(&mut validity)?;
             }
             Some(NullBuffer::new(validity.finish()))
+        };
+        for comparison in &mut self.comparisons {
+            let other = comparison.unravel_validity(num_values)?;
+            if !Self::null_buffers_equal(&validity, &other, num_values) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Structural sibling fields have incompatible validity metadata for {num_values} values"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
         }
+        Ok(validity)
     }
 
     pub fn unravel_fsl_validity(
         &mut self,
         num_values: usize,
         dimension: usize,
-    ) -> Option<NullBuffer> {
-        for unraveler in self.unravelers.iter_mut() {
-            unraveler.decimate(dimension);
-        }
+    ) -> Result<Option<NullBuffer>> {
+        self.decimate(dimension)?;
         self.unravel_validity(num_values)
     }
 
@@ -1523,10 +2089,16 @@ impl CompositeRepDefUnraveler {
         &mut self,
     ) -> Result<(OffsetBuffer<T>, Option<NullBuffer>)> {
         let mut is_all_valid = true;
-        let mut max_num_lists = 0;
+        let mut max_num_lists: usize = 0;
         for unraveler in self.unravelers.iter() {
             is_all_valid &= unraveler.is_all_valid();
-            max_num_lists += unraveler.max_lists();
+            max_num_lists = max_num_lists
+                .checked_add(unraveler.max_lists()?)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Combined repetition/definition list count exceeds usize::MAX".into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
         }
 
         let mut validity = if is_all_valid {
@@ -1543,10 +2115,28 @@ impl CompositeRepDefUnraveler {
             unraveler.unravel_offsets(&mut offsets, validity.as_mut())?;
         }
 
-        Ok((
-            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
-            validity.map(|mut v| NullBuffer::new(v.finish())),
-        ))
+        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets));
+        let validity = validity.map(|mut v| NullBuffer::new(v.finish()));
+        for comparison in &mut self.comparisons {
+            let (other_offsets, other_validity) = comparison.unravel_offsets::<T>()?;
+            if offsets.as_ref() != other_offsets.as_ref()
+                || !Self::null_buffers_equal(
+                    &validity,
+                    &other_validity,
+                    offsets.len().saturating_sub(1),
+                )
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Structural sibling fields have incompatible list metadata for {} slots",
+                        offsets.len().saturating_sub(1)
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok((offsets, validity))
     }
 }
 
@@ -1840,6 +2430,15 @@ pub fn build_control_word_iterator<'a>(
     };
     let def_mask = if max_def == 0 { 0 } else { get_mask(def_width) };
     let total_width = rep_width + def_width;
+    // A levels array can be non-empty while the corresponding max level is 0:
+    // e.g. a page holding only valid rows after a page split has all zero
+    // definition levels.  With a zero total width the decoder reads a NIL
+    // layout (zero bytes per control word), so the writer must also emit the
+    // NIL writer instead of a Unary/Binary writer that would write one
+    // all-zero byte per word.
+    if total_width == 0 {
+        return ControlWordIterator::Nilary(NilaryControlWordIterator { len, idx: 0 });
+    }
     match (rep, def) {
         (Some(rep), Some(def)) => {
             let iter = rep.iter().copied().zip(def.iter().copied());
@@ -2245,12 +2844,47 @@ impl ControlWordParser {
 mod tests {
     use arrow_buffer::{NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
 
+    use crate::encodings::logical::primitive::sparse::{
+        SparsePositionSet, SparseStructuralLayerPlan, SparseStructuralPlan, SparseValidityMeaning,
+        SparseValiditySet,
+    };
     use crate::repdef::{
         CompositeRepDefUnraveler, DefinitionInterpretation, RepDefUnraveler, SerializedRepDefs,
+        max_visible_level,
     };
 
     use super::RepDefBuilder;
 
+    /// `def_meaning` is leaf-first, so only the layers ahead of the first list sit
+    /// underneath it.  Counting nullable layers *past* the list makes a decoder treat
+    /// invisible items as though they owned a leaf value.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    // No lists: nothing can be invisible, so every level is visible
+    #[case::no_lists(
+        &[DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem, DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem],
+        2
+    )]
+    // A nullable leaf under a list keeps its own level visible
+    #[case::nullable_leaf_under_list(
+        &[DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem, DefinitionInterpretation::NullableList],
+        1
+    )]
+    // Regression: a nullable struct above the list must not raise the threshold
+    #[case::nullable_struct_above_list(
+        &[
+            DefinitionInterpretation::AllValidItem,
+            DefinitionInterpretation::NullableList,
+            DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem,
+        ],
+        0
+    )]
+    fn test_max_visible_level(
+        #[case] def_meaning: &[DefinitionInterpretation],
+        #[case] expected: u16,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(max_visible_level(def_meaning), expected);
+    }
+
     fn validity(values: &[bool]) -> NullBuffer {
         NullBuffer::from_iter(values.iter().copied())
     }
@@ -2263,6 +2897,31 @@ mod tests {
         OffsetBuffer::<i64>::new(ScalarBuffer::from_iter(values.iter().copied()))
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn sparse_sibling_validity_mismatch_is_invalid_input() {
+        let sparse = |positions| {
+            RepDefUnraveler::new_sparse(SparseStructuralPlan {
+                layers: vec![SparseStructuralLayerPlan::Validity {
+                    num_slots: 2,
+                    validity: SparseValiditySet {
+                        meaning: SparseValidityMeaning::NullPositions,
+                        positions,
+                    },
+                }],
+                num_items: 2,
+                num_visible_items: 2,
+            })
+        };
+        let mut repdef = CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![sparse(SparsePositionSet::Empty)]);
+        repdef.add_compatibility_check(CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![sparse(
+            SparsePositionSet::Explicit(vec![0]),
+        )]));
+
+        let err = repdef.unravel_validity(2).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("incompatible validity metadata"));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_repdef_empty_offsets() {
         // Empty offsets should serialize without panicking.
@@ -2308,7 +2967,7 @@ mod tests {
         // Note: validity doesn't exactly round-trip because repdef normalizes some of the
         // redundant validity values
         assert_eq!(
-            unraveler.unravel_validity(9),
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(9).unwrap(),
             Some(validity(&[
                 true, true, true, false, false, false, true, true, false
             ]))
@@ -2446,18 +3105,48 @@ mod tests {
         )]);
 
         assert_eq!(
-            unraveler.unravel_validity(8),
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(8).unwrap(),
             Some(validity(&[
                 true, false, true, false, false, false, false, false
             ]))
         );
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_fsl_validity(4, 2), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_fsl_validity(4, 2).unwrap(), None);
         assert_eq!(
-            unraveler.unravel_fsl_validity(2, 2),
+            unraveler.unravel_fsl_validity(2, 2).unwrap(),
             Some(validity(&[true, false]))
         );
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_repdef_fsl_zero_dimension_is_invalid_input() {
+        // A zero dimension can only reach us from a malformed schema.  Decimating with it
+        // used to loop forever, writing past the end of the definition levels buffer.
+        let mut builder = RepDefBuilder::default();
+        builder.add_fsl(Some(validity(&[true, false])), 2, 2);
+        builder.add_validity_bitmap(validity(&[true, false, true, false]));
+
+        let repdefs = RepDefBuilder::serialize(vec![builder]);
+        let def = repdefs.definition_levels.unwrap();
+
+        let mut unraveler = CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![RepDefUnraveler::new(
+            None,
+            Some(def.as_ref().to_vec()),
+            repdefs.def_meaning.into(),
+            4,
+        )]);
+        // Consume the item layer so the fixed-size-list layer is next
+        unraveler.unravel_validity(4).unwrap();
+
+        let err = unraveler.unravel_fsl_validity(2, 0).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("dimension must be a positive integer"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_repdef_fsl_allvalid_item() {
         let mut builder = RepDefBuilder::default();
@@ -2489,10 +3178,10 @@ mod tests {
             8,
         )]);
 
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(8), None);
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_fsl_validity(4, 2), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(8).unwrap(), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_fsl_validity(4, 2).unwrap(), None);
         assert_eq!(
-            unraveler.unravel_fsl_validity(2, 2),
+            unraveler.unravel_fsl_validity(2, 2).unwrap(),
             Some(validity(&[true, false]))
         );
     }
@@ -2570,7 +3259,7 @@ mod tests {
             8,
         )]);
 
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(6), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(6).unwrap(), None);
         let (off, val) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(off.inner(), offsets_32(&[0, 4, 4, 4, 6]).inner());
         assert_eq!(val, None);
@@ -2596,7 +3285,7 @@ mod tests {
             9,
         )]);
 
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(9), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(9).unwrap(), None);
         let (off, val) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(off.inner(), offsets_32(&[0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9]).inner());
         assert_eq!(val, None);
@@ -2605,6 +3294,40 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(val, None);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_repdef_nested_list_multibatch_matches_single() {
+        // Single builder: List<List<i32>>, 3 rows.
+        //   outer [0,2,3,5] -> rows have 2,1,2 inner lists
+        //   inner [0,1,3,5,7,9] -> 5 inner lists, lengths 1,2,2,2,2 (9 leaf)
+        let mut single = RepDefBuilder::default();
+        single.add_offsets(offsets_64(&[0, 2, 3, 5]), None);
+        single.add_offsets(offsets_64(&[0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9]), None);
+        single.add_no_null(9);
+        let single_rep = RepDefBuilder::serialize(vec![single])
+            .repetition_levels
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Same logical data split into two batches:
+        //   batch0 = rows 0,1 : outer [0,2,3], inner [0,1,3,5] (3 inner, 5 leaf)
+        //   batch1 = row 2    : outer [0,2],   inner [0,2,4]   (2 inner, 4 leaf)
+        let mut b0 = RepDefBuilder::default();
+        b0.add_offsets(offsets_64(&[0, 2, 3]), None);
+        b0.add_offsets(offsets_64(&[0, 1, 3, 5]), None);
+        b0.add_no_null(5);
+        let mut b1 = RepDefBuilder::default();
+        b1.add_offsets(offsets_64(&[0, 2]), None);
+        b1.add_offsets(offsets_64(&[0, 2, 4]), None);
+        b1.add_no_null(4);
+        let multi_rep = RepDefBuilder::serialize(vec![b0, b1])
+            .repetition_levels
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            *single_rep, *multi_rep,
+            "multi-batch nested-list rep levels must equal single-batch"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_only_empty_lists() {
         let mut builder = RepDefBuilder::default();
@@ -2626,7 +3349,7 @@ mod tests {
             8,
         )]);
 
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(6), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(6).unwrap(), None);
         let (off, val) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(off.inner(), offsets_32(&[0, 4, 4, 4, 6]).inner());
         assert_eq!(val, None);
@@ -2656,7 +3379,7 @@ mod tests {
             8,
         )]);
 
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(6), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(6).unwrap(), None);
         let (off, val) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(off.inner(), offsets_32(&[0, 4, 4, 4, 6]).inner());
         assert_eq!(val, Some(validity(&[true, false, false, true])));
@@ -2686,12 +3409,77 @@ mod tests {
             8,
         )]);
 
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(6), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(6).unwrap(), None);
         let (off, val) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(off.inner(), offsets_32(&[0, 4, 4, 4, 6]).inner());
         assert_eq!(val, Some(validity(&[true, false, true, true])));
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_repdef_nullable_struct_in_null_and_empty_lists() {
+        let mut builder = RepDefBuilder::default();
+        builder.add_offsets(
+            offsets_32(&[0, 0, 3, 3]),
+            Some(validity(&[false, true, true])),
+        );
+        builder.add_validity_bitmap(validity(&[false, true, true]));
+        builder.add_validity_bitmap(validity(&[true, false, true]));
+
+        let repdefs = RepDefBuilder::serialize(vec![builder]);
+        let mut unraveler = CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![RepDefUnraveler::new(
+            repdefs.repetition_levels.map(|levels| levels.to_vec()),
+            repdefs.definition_levels.map(|levels| levels.to_vec()),
+            repdefs.def_meaning.into(),
+            3,
+        )]);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(3).unwrap(),
+            Some(validity(&[false, false, true]))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(3).unwrap(),
+            Some(validity(&[false, true, true]))
+        );
+        let (offsets, nulls) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(offsets.inner(), offsets_32(&[0, 0, 3, 3]).inner());
+        assert_eq!(nulls, Some(validity(&[false, true, true])));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_repdef_null_struct_valid_list() {
+        // This regresses a bug
+
+        let rep = vec![1, 0, 0, 0];
+        let def = vec![2, 0, 2, 2];
+        // AllValidList<NullableStruct<NullableItem>>
+        let def_meaning = vec![
+            DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem,
+            DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem,
+            DefinitionInterpretation::AllValidList,
+        ];
+        let num_items = 4;
+
+        let mut unraveler = CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![RepDefUnraveler::new(
+            Some(rep),
+            Some(def),
+            def_meaning.into(),
+            num_items,
+        )]);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(4).unwrap(),
+            Some(validity(&[false, true, false, false]))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(4).unwrap(),
+            Some(validity(&[false, true, false, false]))
+        );
+        let (off, val) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(off.inner(), offsets_32(&[0, 4]).inner());
+        assert_eq!(val, None);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_repdef_no_rep() {
         let mut builder = RepDefBuilder::default();
@@ -2713,14 +3501,14 @@ mod tests {
         )]);
 
         assert_eq!(
-            unraveler.unravel_validity(5),
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(5).unwrap(),
             Some(validity(&[false, false, true, true, false]))
         );
         assert_eq!(
-            unraveler.unravel_validity(5),
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(5).unwrap(),
             Some(validity(&[false, false, true, true, true]))
         );
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(5), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(5).unwrap(), None);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -2762,7 +3550,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let mut unraveler = CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![unravel1, unravel2]);
 
-        assert!(unraveler.unravel_validity(9).is_none());
+        assert!(unraveler.unravel_validity(9).unwrap().is_none());
         let (off, val) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
             off.inner(),
@@ -2799,6 +3587,26 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!([0, 0, 0, 3, 1, 1, 2, 1, 0, 0, 1], *def);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_all_valid_validity_bitmap_serializes_as_no_null() {
+        let mut from_bitmap = RepDefBuilder::default();
+        from_bitmap.add_validity_bitmap(validity(&[true, true, true, true]));
+
+        let mut from_no_null = RepDefBuilder::default();
+        from_no_null.add_no_null(4);
+
+        let from_bitmap = RepDefBuilder::serialize(vec![from_bitmap]);
+        let from_no_null = RepDefBuilder::serialize(vec![from_no_null]);
+
+        assert!(from_bitmap.repetition_levels.is_none());
+        assert!(from_bitmap.definition_levels.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(from_bitmap.def_meaning, from_no_null.def_meaning);
+        assert_eq!(
+            from_bitmap.max_visible_level,
+            from_no_null.max_visible_level
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_slicer() {
         let mut builder = RepDefBuilder::default();
@@ -2933,6 +3741,102 @@ mod tests {
         check(&[], &[], Vec::default(), 0, 0, 0);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_control_words_def_only_all_zero_levels() {
+        // A page split can produce a page whose rows are all valid, so its
+        // definition levels are all zero and the max value in the (non-empty)
+        // buffer is 0.  The decoder reads a zero-bit layout as NIL (zero bytes
+        // per control word), so the writer must emit the NIL iterator too:
+        // zero bytes per word, no writes, one new-row/visible item per level.
+        // Writing one all-zero byte per word (the pre-fix Unary behavior)
+        // would disagree with the decoder and corrupt the stream.
+        let def = [0_u16; 5];
+
+        let mut iter = super::build_control_word_iterator(
+            None,
+            0,
+            Some(&def),
+            /*max_def=*/ 0,
+            /*max_visible_def=*/ u16::MAX,
+            def.len(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(iter.bytes_per_word(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(iter.bits_rep(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(iter.bits_def(), 0);
+
+        let mut cw_vec = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..def.len() {
+            let word_desc = iter.append_next(&mut cw_vec).unwrap();
+            assert!(word_desc.is_new_row);
+            assert!(word_desc.is_visible);
+        }
+        assert!(iter.append_next(&mut cw_vec).is_none());
+        // The NIL layout writes nothing, matching what ControlWordParser::new(0, 0)
+        // reads back (Self::NIL parses nothing).
+        assert!(cw_vec.is_empty());
+
+        // The parser side of the same layout must also be NIL: zero bits on
+        // both levels parse zero bytes and yield nothing.
+        let parser = super::ControlWordParser::new(0, 0);
+        let mut rep_out = Vec::new();
+        let mut def_out = Vec::new();
+        parser.parse(&[], &mut rep_out, &mut def_out);
+        assert!(rep_out.is_empty());
+        assert!(def_out.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_control_words_rep_only_all_zero_levels() {
+        // Same NIL-layout requirement as the definition-only case, for the
+        // repetition-only branches.  Repetition levels are normally never all
+        // zero (the first entry of every list row is the schema max rep), so
+        // this is a defensive check that the writer matches the decoder if a
+        // zero-width rep buffer is ever produced.
+        let rep = [0_u16; 5];
+        let mut iter = super::build_control_word_iterator(
+            Some(&rep),
+            /*max_rep=*/ 0,
+            None,
+            0,
+            /*max_visible_def=*/ u16::MAX,
+            rep.len(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(iter.bytes_per_word(), 0);
+        let mut cw_vec = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..rep.len() {
+            assert!(iter.append_next(&mut cw_vec).unwrap().is_new_row);
+        }
+        assert!(iter.append_next(&mut cw_vec).is_none());
+        assert!(cw_vec.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_control_words_both_levels_all_zero() {
+        // Both levels non-empty but all zero: the Binary writer would emit one
+        // zero byte per word while the decoder reads a NIL layout (zero bytes
+        // per word).  The unified zero-width early return avoids that
+        // write/read asymmetry.
+        let rep = [0_u16; 5];
+        let def = [0_u16; 5];
+        let mut iter = super::build_control_word_iterator(
+            Some(&rep),
+            /*max_rep=*/ 0,
+            Some(&def),
+            /*max_def=*/ 0,
+            /*max_visible_def=*/ u16::MAX,
+            rep.len(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(iter.bytes_per_word(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(iter.bits_rep(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(iter.bits_def(), 0);
+        let mut cw_vec = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..rep.len() {
+            assert!(iter.append_next(&mut cw_vec).unwrap().is_new_row);
+        }
+        assert!(iter.append_next(&mut cw_vec).is_none());
+        assert!(cw_vec.is_empty());
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_control_words_rep_index() {
         fn check(
@@ -3038,11 +3942,11 @@ mod tests {
             0,
         )]);
 
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(0), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(0).unwrap(), None);
         let (off, val) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(off.inner(), offsets_32(&[0, 0, 0, 0]).inner());
         assert_eq!(val, Some(validity(&[false, false, false])));
-        let val = unraveler.unravel_validity(3).unwrap();
+        let val = unraveler.unravel_validity(3).unwrap().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(val.inner(), validity(&[true, false, true]).inner());
     }
 
@@ -3070,7 +3974,7 @@ mod tests {
             1,
         )]);
 
-        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(1), None);
+        assert_eq!(unraveler.unravel_validity(1).unwrap(), None);
         let (off, val) = unraveler.unravel_offsets::<i32>().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(off.inner(), offsets_32(&[0, 1, 1]).inner());
         assert_eq!(val, Some(validity(&[true, false])));
@@ -3101,7 +4005,7 @@ mod tests {
         ]);
 
         assert_eq!(
-            unraveler.unravel_validity(8),
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(8).unwrap(),
             Some(validity(&[
                 true, false, true, false, true, true, true, true
             ]))
@@ -3138,7 +4042,7 @@ mod tests {
         ]);
 
         assert_eq!(
-            unraveler.unravel_validity(4),
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(4).unwrap(),
             Some(validity(&[true, false, true, true]))
         );
         assert_eq!(
@@ -3149,4 +4053,31 @@ mod tests {
             )
         );
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_mixed_unraveler_nullable_without_def_levels() {
+        // A page can keep nullable layer metadata even when all definition levels are 0
+        // and no definition buffer needs to be materialized. This should decode as all-valid.
+        let mut unraveler = CompositeRepDefUnraveler::new(vec![
+            RepDefUnraveler::new(
+                None,
+                Some(vec![0, 1, 0, 1]),
+                vec![DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem].into(),
+                4,
+            ),
+            RepDefUnraveler::new(
+                None,
+                None,
+                vec![DefinitionInterpretation::NullableItem].into(),
+                4,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            unraveler.unravel_validity(8).unwrap(),
+            Some(validity(&[
+                true, false, true, false, true, true, true, true
+            ]))
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/statistics.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/statistics.rs
index b5cb65ee879..e312bc51389 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/statistics.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/statistics.rs
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ use std::{
     sync::Arc,
 };
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type, Array, ArrowPrimitiveType, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrowPrimitiveType, UInt64Array, cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type};
 use hyperloglogplus::{HyperLogLog, HyperLogLogPlus};
 use num_traits::PrimInt;
 
@@ -78,13 +78,10 @@ impl ComputeStat for VariableWidthBlock {
         let data_size = self.data_size();
         let data_size_array = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![data_size]));
 
-        let cardinality_array = self.cardinality();
-
         let max_length_array = self.max_length();
 
         let mut info = self.block_info.0.write().unwrap();
         info.insert(Stat::DataSize, data_size_array);
-        info.insert(Stat::Cardinality, cardinality_array);
         info.insert(Stat::MaxLength, max_length_array);
     }
 }
@@ -189,12 +186,31 @@ impl GetStat for NullableDataBlock {
 
 impl GetStat for VariableWidthBlock {
     fn get_stat(&self, stat: Stat) -> Option<Arc<dyn Array>> {
-        let block_info = self.block_info.0.read().unwrap();
+        {
+            let block_info = self.block_info.0.read().unwrap();
+            if block_info.is_empty() {
+                panic!("get_stat should be called after statistics are computed.");
+            }
+            if let Some(stat_value) = block_info.get(&stat) {
+                return Some(stat_value.clone());
+            }
+        }
 
+        if stat != Stat::Cardinality {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let computed = self.compute_cardinality();
+        let mut block_info = self.block_info.0.write().unwrap();
         if block_info.is_empty() {
             panic!("get_stat should be called after statistics are computed.");
         }
-        block_info.get(&stat).cloned()
+        Some(
+            block_info
+                .entry(stat)
+                .or_insert_with(|| computed.clone())
+                .clone(),
+        )
     }
 }
 
@@ -216,7 +232,7 @@ impl GetStat for FixedSizeListBlock {
 impl VariableWidthBlock {
     // Caveat: the computation here assumes VariableWidthBlock.offsets maps directly to VariableWidthBlock.data
     // without any adjustment(for example, no null_adjustment for offsets)
-    fn cardinality(&mut self) -> Arc<dyn Array> {
+    fn compute_cardinality(&self) -> Arc<dyn Array> {
         const PRECISION: u8 = 4;
         // The default hasher (currently sip hash 1-3) does not seem to give good results
         // with HLL.
@@ -583,12 +599,12 @@ mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     use arrow_array::{
-        ArrayRef, Int16Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, Int8Array, LargeStringArray, StringArray,
-        UInt16Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
+        ArrayRef, Int8Array, Int16Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, LargeStringArray, StringArray,
+        UInt8Array, UInt16Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
     use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, ArrayGeneratorExt, RowCount, DEFAULT_SEED};
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, DEFAULT_SEED, RowCount, array};
     use rand::SeedableRng;
 
     use crate::statistics::{GetStat, Stat};
@@ -596,9 +612,9 @@ mod tests {
     use super::DataBlock;
 
     use arrow_array::{
+        Array,
         cast::AsArray,
         types::{Int32Type, UInt64Type},
-        Array,
     };
     use arrow_select::concat::concat;
     #[test]
@@ -1227,4 +1243,27 @@ mod tests {
         let info = fixed.block_info.0.read().unwrap();
         assert!(info.contains_key(&Stat::Cardinality));
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_variable_width_cardinality_is_lazy() {
+        let string_array = StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "a"]);
+        let block = DataBlock::from_array(string_array);
+
+        let DataBlock::VariableWidth(var) = &block else {
+            panic!("Expected VariableWidth datablock");
+        };
+
+        {
+            let info = var.block_info.0.read().unwrap();
+            assert!(info.contains_key(&Stat::DataSize));
+            assert!(info.contains_key(&Stat::MaxLength));
+            assert!(!info.contains_key(&Stat::Cardinality));
+        }
+
+        let cardinality = block.expect_single_stat::<UInt64Type>(Stat::Cardinality);
+        assert_eq!(cardinality, 2);
+
+        let info = var.block_info.0.read().unwrap();
+        assert!(info.contains_key(&Stat::Cardinality));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/testing.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/testing.rs
index 37df889035f..22f7efe8e02 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/testing.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/testing.rs
@@ -7,41 +7,358 @@ use crate::{
     decoder::DecoderConfig,
     encodings::physical::block::CompressionScheme,
     format::pb21::{
-        compressive_encoding::Compression, BufferCompression, CompressiveEncoding, PageLayout,
+        BufferCompression, CompressiveEncoding, PageLayout, compressive_encoding::Compression,
     },
 };
 
-use arrow_array::{make_array, Array, StructArray, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, StructArray, UInt64Array, make_array};
 use arrow_data::transform::{Capacities, MutableArrayData};
 use arrow_ord::ord::make_comparator;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Field as ArrowField, FieldRef, Schema, SortOptions};
 use arrow_select::concat::concat;
 use bytes::{Bytes, BytesMut};
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt, StreamExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use log::{debug, info, trace};
 use tokio::sync::mpsc::{self, UnboundedSender};
 
-use lance_core::{utils::bit::pad_bytes, Result};
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, ArrayGenerator, RowCount, Seed};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field as LanceField, utils::bit::pad_bytes};
+use lance_datagen::{ArrayGenerator, RowCount, Seed, array, gen_batch};
 
+use crate::compression::try_packed_struct_per_value;
 use crate::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     buffer::LanceBuffer,
+    compression::{
+        BlockCompressor, CompressionStrategy, field_metadata_params, finalize_miniblock_compressor,
+        reject_packed_struct_per_value, try_bitpacking_block, try_bitpacking_miniblock,
+        try_byte_stream_split_miniblock, try_child_rle_miniblock,
+        try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock, try_fixed_u8_rle_block, try_fixed_u8_rle_miniblock,
+        try_general_block, try_raw_block, try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock,
+        try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock, try_raw_per_value, try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock,
+        try_variable_rle_block, try_variable_width_miniblock, try_variable_width_per_value,
+    },
+    compression_config::{CompressionFieldParams, CompressionParams},
+    data::DataBlock,
     decoder::{
-        create_decode_stream, ColumnInfo, DecodeBatchScheduler, DecoderMessage, DecoderPlugins,
-        FilterExpression, PageInfo,
+        ColumnInfo, DecodeBatchScheduler, DecoderMessage, DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression,
+        PageInfo, create_decode_stream,
     },
     encoder::{
-        default_encoding_strategy, ColumnIndexSequence, EncodedColumn, EncodedPage,
-        EncodingOptions, FieldEncoder, OutOfLineBuffers, MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
+        ColumnIndexSequence, EncodedColumn, EncodedPage, EncodingOptions, FieldEncoder,
+        FieldEncodingContext, FieldEncodingStrategy, MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT, OutOfLineBuffers,
+        structural::{
+            PrimitiveFieldEncoding, PrimitivePageEncoding, try_create_binary_blob, try_create_list,
+            try_create_map, try_create_struct, try_create_structural_blob,
+            try_create_structural_fixed_size_list,
+        },
     },
+    encodings::logical::primitive::{fullzip::PerValueCompressor, miniblock::MiniBlockCompressor},
     repdef::RepDefBuilder,
-    version::LanceFileVersion,
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 
 const MAX_PAGE_BYTES: u64 = 32 * 1024 * 1024;
 const TEST_ALIGNMENT: usize = MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as usize;
 
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum TestEncoding {
+    Array,
+    StructuralU16,
+    StructuralU32,
+    StructuralSparse,
+}
+
+impl TestEncoding {
+    fn all() -> impl Iterator<Item = Self> {
+        [
+            Self::Array,
+            Self::StructuralU16,
+            Self::StructuralU32,
+            Self::StructuralSparse,
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+    }
+
+    fn is_structural(self) -> bool {
+        self != Self::Array
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for TestEncoding {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Array => write!(f, "array"),
+            Self::StructuralU16 => write!(f, "structural-u16"),
+            Self::StructuralU32 => write!(f, "structural-u32"),
+            Self::StructuralSparse => write!(f, "structural-sparse"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct TestCompressionStrategy {
+    encoding: TestEncoding,
+    params: CompressionParams,
+}
+
+impl TestCompressionStrategy {
+    fn field_params(&self, field: &LanceField) -> CompressionFieldParams {
+        let mut params = self
+            .params
+            .get_field_params(&field.name, &field.data_type());
+        let mut metadata = field_metadata_params(field);
+        if self.encoding == TestEncoding::StructuralU16
+            && metadata
+                .minichunk_size
+                .is_some_and(|size| size >= 32 * 1024)
+        {
+            metadata.minichunk_size = None;
+        }
+        params.merge(&metadata);
+        params
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompressionStrategy for TestCompressionStrategy {
+    fn create_miniblock_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &LanceField,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        let compressor =
+            if let Some(compressor) = try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_byte_stream_split_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = match self.encoding {
+                TestEncoding::StructuralSparse => try_child_rle_miniblock(data, &params),
+                TestEncoding::Array | TestEncoding::StructuralU16 | TestEncoding::StructuralU32 => {
+                    try_fixed_u8_rle_miniblock(data, &params)
+                }
+            } {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_miniblock(field, data, &params)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock(data)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Mini-block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                        data.name()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            };
+        finalize_miniblock_compressor(data, compressor, &params)
+    }
+
+    fn create_per_value(
+        &self,
+        field: &LanceField,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_per_value(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        let packed = match self.encoding {
+            TestEncoding::Array | TestEncoding::StructuralU16 => {
+                reject_packed_struct_per_value(field, data)?
+            }
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32 | TestEncoding::StructuralSparse => {
+                try_packed_struct_per_value(Arc::new(self.clone()), field, data)?
+            }
+        };
+        if let Some(compressor) = packed {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_per_value(field, data, &params)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Per-value compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn create_block_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &LanceField,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        let rle = match self.encoding {
+            TestEncoding::Array | TestEncoding::StructuralU16 => None,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32 => try_fixed_u8_rle_block(data, &params)?,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse => try_variable_rle_block(data, &params)?,
+        };
+        if let Some(compressor) = rle {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if matches!(
+            self.encoding,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32 | TestEncoding::StructuralSparse
+        ) && let Some(compressor) = try_general_block(data, &params)?
+        {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn test_compression_strategy(
+    encoding: TestEncoding,
+    params: CompressionParams,
+) -> Arc<dyn CompressionStrategy> {
+    Arc::new(TestCompressionStrategy { encoding, params })
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct TestFieldEncodingStrategy {
+    encoding: TestEncoding,
+    primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding,
+}
+
+impl FieldEncodingStrategy for TestFieldEncodingStrategy {
+    fn create_field_encoder(
+        &self,
+        field: &LanceField,
+        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+        if let Some(encoder) =
+            try_create_binary_blob(&self.primitive, field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if self.encoding != TestEncoding::StructuralU16
+            && let Some(encoder) =
+                try_create_structural_blob(&self.primitive, field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if field.is_blob() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Blob encoding is not available for field '{}' with data type {}",
+                    field.name,
+                    field.data_type()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if self.encoding != TestEncoding::StructuralU16 {
+            if let Some(encoder) = try_create_map(field, column_index, context)? {
+                return Ok(encoder);
+            }
+            if let Some(encoder) =
+                try_create_structural_fixed_size_list(field, column_index, context)?
+            {
+                return Ok(encoder);
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = self.primitive.try_create(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if self.encoding == TestEncoding::StructuralU16 {
+            if matches!(
+                field.data_type(),
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _)
+                    if matches!(item.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_))
+            ) {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "FixedSizeList<Struct> is not enabled by the selected file format".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Map(_, _)) {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "Map data type is not enabled by the selected file format".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_list(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_struct(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "{} has no field encoding for '{}' with data type {}",
+                self.encoding,
+                field.name,
+                field.data_type()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn test_encoding_strategy(encoding: TestEncoding) -> Box<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy> {
+    if encoding == TestEncoding::Array {
+        return Box::new(crate::array_encoding::ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::new());
+    }
+
+    let compression = test_compression_strategy(encoding, CompressionParams::default());
+    let page_encodings = match encoding {
+        TestEncoding::StructuralU16 => vec![
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::reject_sparse(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::dense_u16(compression),
+        ],
+        TestEncoding::StructuralU32 => vec![
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::reject_sparse(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::constant(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::dense_u32(compression),
+        ],
+        TestEncoding::StructuralSparse => vec![
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::sparse(compression.clone()),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::constant(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::dense_u32(compression),
+        ],
+        TestEncoding::Array => unreachable!(),
+    };
+    Box::new(TestFieldEncodingStrategy {
+        encoding,
+        primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding::new(page_encodings),
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn create_test_field_encoder(
+    strategy: &dyn FieldEncodingStrategy,
+    field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+    column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+    options: &EncodingOptions,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+    let context = FieldEncodingContext {
+        strategy,
+        options,
+        root_field_metadata: &field.metadata,
+    };
+    strategy.create_field_encoder(field, column_index, &context)
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub(crate) struct SimulatedScheduler {
     data: Bytes,
@@ -179,6 +496,9 @@ async fn test_decode(
     expected: Option<Arc<dyn Array>>,
     io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
     is_structural_encoding: bool,
+    // The rows this read will schedule, used to exercise range-scoped page
+    // initialization.  `None` initializes every page (the eager path).
+    requested_ranges: Option<Arc<[Range<u64>]>>,
     schedule_fn: impl FnOnce(
         DecodeBatchScheduler,
         UnboundedSender<Result<DecoderMessage>>,
@@ -189,7 +509,7 @@ async fn test_decode(
         128 * 1024 * 1024,
     ));
     let column_indices = column_indices_from_schema(schema, is_structural_encoding);
-    let decode_scheduler = DecodeBatchScheduler::try_new(
+    let decode_scheduler = DecodeBatchScheduler::try_new_with_ranges(
         &lance_schema,
         &column_indices,
         column_infos,
@@ -198,6 +518,7 @@ async fn test_decode(
         Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
         io,
         cache,
+        requested_ranges.as_deref(),
         &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
         &DecoderConfig::default(),
     )
@@ -216,7 +537,9 @@ async fn test_decode(
         batch_size,
         is_structural_encoding,
         /*should_validate=*/ true,
+        /*spawn_structural_batch_decode_tasks=*/ is_structural_encoding,
         rx,
+        /*batch_size_bytes=*/ None,
     )
     .unwrap();
 
@@ -244,14 +567,14 @@ async fn test_decode(
                     for i in 0..expected.len() {
                         if !matches!(comparator(i, i), Ordering::Equal) {
                             panic!(
-                            "Mismatch at index {} (offset={}) expected {:?} but got {:?} first mismatch is expected {:?} but got {:?}",
-                            i,
-                            offset,
-                            expected,
-                            actual,
-                            expected.slice(i, 1),
-                            actual.slice(i, 1)
-                        );
+                                "Mismatch at index {} (offset={}) expected {:?} but got {:?} first mismatch is expected {:?} but got {:?}",
+                                i,
+                                offset,
+                                expected,
+                                actual,
+                                expected.slice(i, 1),
+                                actual.slice(i, 1)
+                            );
                         }
                     }
                 } else {
@@ -293,6 +616,27 @@ pub async fn check_basic_random(field: Field) {
     check_specific_random(field, TestCases::basic()).await;
 }
 
+/// Runs one independently schedulable slice of [`check_basic_random`].
+///
+/// The complete matrix is the Cartesian product of all encodings, page sizes,
+/// and slicing modes.  Keeping these axes outside the helper lets expensive
+/// data types preserve the full matrix without concentrating it in one test.
+pub async fn check_basic_random_case(
+    field: Field,
+    encoding: TestEncoding,
+    page_size: u64,
+    use_slicing: bool,
+) {
+    check_specific_random(
+        field,
+        TestCases::basic()
+            .with_encoding(encoding)
+            .with_page_sizes(vec![page_size])
+            .with_slicing_modes([use_slicing]),
+    )
+    .await;
+}
+
 pub async fn check_specific_random(field: Field, test_cases: TestCases) {
     let array_generator_provider = RandomArrayGeneratorProvider {
         field: field.clone(),
@@ -340,24 +684,22 @@ pub async fn check_round_trip_encoding_generated(
     let lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&field).unwrap();
     for page_size in test_cases.page_sizes.iter().copied() {
         debug!("Testing random data with a page size of {}", page_size);
-        let encoder_factory = |version: LanceFileVersion| {
-            let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(version);
+        let encoder_factory = |encoding: TestEncoding| {
+            let encoding_strategy = test_encoding_strategy(encoding);
             let mut column_index_seq = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
             let encoding_options = EncodingOptions {
                 max_page_bytes: MAX_PAGE_BYTES,
                 cache_bytes_per_column: page_size,
                 keep_original_array: true,
                 buffer_alignment: MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
-                version,
             };
-            encoding_strategy
-                .create_field_encoder(
-                    encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
-                    &lance_field,
-                    &mut column_index_seq,
-                    &encoding_options,
-                )
-                .unwrap()
+            create_test_field_encoder(
+                encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
+                &lance_field,
+                &mut column_index_seq,
+                &encoding_options,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
         };
 
         check_round_trip_random(
@@ -370,9 +712,9 @@ pub async fn check_round_trip_encoding_generated(
     }
 }
 
-fn supports_nulls(data_type: &DataType, version: LanceFileVersion) -> bool {
+fn supports_nulls(data_type: &DataType, encoding: TestEncoding) -> bool {
     if let DataType::Struct(fields) = data_type {
-        if version == LanceFileVersion::V2_0 {
+        if encoding == TestEncoding::Array {
             // 2.0 doesn't support nullability for structs
             false
         } else if fields.is_empty() {
@@ -387,7 +729,7 @@ fn supports_nulls(data_type: &DataType, version: LanceFileVersion) -> bool {
     }
 }
 
-type EncodingVerificationFn = dyn Fn(&[EncodedColumn], &LanceFileVersion);
+type EncodingVerificationFn = dyn Fn(&[EncodedColumn], &TestEncoding);
 
 // The default will just test the full read
 #[derive(Clone)]
@@ -398,8 +740,9 @@ pub struct TestCases {
     skip_validation: bool,
     max_page_size: Option<u64>,
     page_sizes: Vec<u64>,
-    min_file_version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
-    max_file_version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+    slicing_modes: Vec<bool>,
+    ingest_batch_counts: Vec<u32>,
+    encodings: Vec<TestEncoding>,
     verify_encoding: Option<Arc<EncodingVerificationFn>>,
     expected_encoding: Option<Vec<String>>,
 }
@@ -413,8 +756,9 @@ impl Default for TestCases {
             skip_validation: false,
             max_page_size: None,
             page_sizes: vec![4096, 1024 * 1024],
-            min_file_version: None,
-            max_file_version: None,
+            slicing_modes: vec![false, true],
+            ingest_batch_counts: vec![1, 5, 10],
+            encodings: TestEncoding::all().collect(),
             verify_encoding: None,
             expected_encoding: None,
         }
@@ -457,21 +801,58 @@ impl TestCases {
         self
     }
 
-    pub fn with_min_file_version(mut self, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
-        self.min_file_version = Some(version);
+    pub fn with_encoding(mut self, encoding: TestEncoding) -> Self {
+        self.encodings = vec![encoding];
         self
     }
 
-    pub fn with_max_file_version(mut self, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
-        self.max_file_version = Some(version);
+    pub fn with_encodings(mut self, encodings: impl IntoIterator<Item = TestEncoding>) -> Self {
+        self.encodings = encodings.into_iter().collect();
         self
     }
 
+    pub fn with_structural_encodings(self) -> Self {
+        self.with_encodings([
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralSparse,
+        ])
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_u32_structural_encodings(self) -> Self {
+        self.with_encodings([TestEncoding::StructuralU32, TestEncoding::StructuralSparse])
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_dense_encodings(self) -> Self {
+        self.with_encodings([
+            TestEncoding::Array,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU16,
+            TestEncoding::StructuralU32,
+        ])
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_array_and_u16_encodings(self) -> Self {
+        self.with_encodings([TestEncoding::Array, TestEncoding::StructuralU16])
+    }
+
     pub fn with_page_sizes(mut self, page_sizes: Vec<u64>) -> Self {
         self.page_sizes = page_sizes;
         self
     }
 
+    pub fn with_slicing_modes(mut self, slicing_modes: impl IntoIterator<Item = bool>) -> Self {
+        self.slicing_modes = slicing_modes.into_iter().collect();
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_ingest_batch_counts(
+        mut self,
+        ingest_batch_counts: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.ingest_batch_counts = ingest_batch_counts.into_iter().collect();
+        self
+    }
+
     pub fn with_max_page_size(mut self, max_page_size: u64) -> Self {
         self.max_page_size = Some(max_page_size);
         self
@@ -481,22 +862,8 @@ impl TestCases {
         self.max_page_size.unwrap_or(MAX_PAGE_BYTES)
     }
 
-    fn get_versions(&self) -> Vec<LanceFileVersion> {
-        LanceFileVersion::iter_non_legacy()
-            .filter(|v| {
-                if let Some(min_file_version) = &self.min_file_version {
-                    if v < min_file_version {
-                        return false;
-                    }
-                }
-                if let Some(max_file_version) = &self.max_file_version {
-                    if v > max_file_version {
-                        return false;
-                    }
-                }
-                true
-            })
-            .collect()
+    fn encodings(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = TestEncoding> + '_ {
+        self.encodings.iter().copied()
     }
 
     pub fn with_verify_encoding(mut self, verify_encoding: Arc<EncodingVerificationFn>) -> Self {
@@ -504,9 +871,9 @@ impl TestCases {
         self
     }
 
-    fn verify_encoding(&self, encoding: &[EncodedColumn], version: &LanceFileVersion) {
+    fn verify_encoding(&self, columns: &[EncodedColumn], encoding: &TestEncoding) {
         if let Some(verify_encoding) = self.verify_encoding.as_ref() {
-            verify_encoding(encoding, version);
+            verify_encoding(columns, encoding);
         }
     }
 
@@ -664,6 +1031,11 @@ fn collect_page_encoding(layout: &PageLayout, actual_chain: &mut Vec<String>) ->
                     collect_page_encoding(inner_layout.as_ref(), actual_chain)?
                 }
             }
+            Layout::SparseLayout(sparse) => {
+                if let Some(value_compression) = &sparse.value_compression {
+                    actual_chain.extend(extract_array_encoding_chain(value_compression));
+                }
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -678,7 +1050,6 @@ fn verify_page_encoding(
 ) -> Result<()> {
     use crate::decoder::PageEncoding;
     use lance_core::Error;
-    use snafu::location;
 
     let mut actual_chain = Vec::new();
 
@@ -689,32 +1060,30 @@ fn verify_page_encoding(
             // All-null structural pages may legitimately contain no encodings to verify.
             // This can happen even when compression is configured because there is no value data
             // (and rep/def compression is not currently described in the page layout).
-            if actual_chain.is_empty() && page.data.is_empty() {
-                if let Some(crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(cl)) =
+            if actual_chain.is_empty()
+                && page.data.is_empty()
+                && let Some(crate::format::pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(cl)) =
                     layout.layout.as_ref()
-                {
-                    if cl.inline_value.is_none() {
-                        return Ok(());
-                    }
-                }
+                && cl.inline_value.is_none()
+            {
+                return Ok(());
             }
         }
         PageEncoding::Legacy(_) => {
-            // We don't need to care about legacy.
+            // We don't need to care about the v2.0 array encoding.
         }
     }
 
     // Check that all expected encodings appear in the actual chain
     for expected in expected_chain {
         if !actual_chain.iter().any(|actual| actual.contains(expected)) {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "Column {} expected encoding chain {:?} but got {:?}",
                     col_idx, expected_chain, actual_chain
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            ));
         }
     }
     Ok(())
@@ -744,28 +1113,26 @@ pub async fn check_round_trip_encoding_of_data_with_expected(
     let mut field = Field::new("", example_data.data_type().clone(), true);
     field = field.with_metadata(metadata);
     let lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&field).unwrap();
-    for file_version in test_cases.get_versions() {
+    for encoding in test_cases.encodings() {
         for page_size in test_cases.page_sizes.iter() {
-            let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(file_version);
+            let encoding_strategy = test_encoding_strategy(encoding);
             let mut column_index_seq = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
             let encoding_options = EncodingOptions {
                 cache_bytes_per_column: *page_size,
                 max_page_bytes: test_cases.get_max_page_size(),
                 keep_original_array: true,
                 buffer_alignment: MIN_PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
-                version: file_version,
             };
-            let encoder = encoding_strategy
-                .create_field_encoder(
-                    encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
-                    &lance_field,
-                    &mut column_index_seq,
-                    &encoding_options,
-                )
-                .unwrap();
+            let encoder = create_test_field_encoder(
+                encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
+                &lance_field,
+                &mut column_index_seq,
+                &encoding_options,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
             info!(
-                "Testing round trip encoding of data with file version {} and page size {}",
-                file_version, page_size
+                "Testing round trip encoding of data with test encoding {} and page size {}",
+                encoding, page_size
             );
             check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
                 encoder,
@@ -773,7 +1140,7 @@ pub async fn check_round_trip_encoding_of_data_with_expected(
                 data.clone(),
                 expected_override.clone(),
                 test_cases,
-                file_version,
+                encoding,
             )
             .await
         }
@@ -846,7 +1213,7 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
     data: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>>,
     expected_override: Option<Arc<dyn Array>>,
     test_cases: &TestCases,
-    file_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    encoding: TestEncoding,
 ) {
     let mut writer = SimulatedWriter::new(encoder.num_columns());
 
@@ -887,11 +1254,11 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
             log_page(&encoded_page);
 
             // For V2.1, verify encoding in the page if expected
-            if file_version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1 {
-                if let Some(ref expected) = test_cases.expected_encoding {
-                    verify_page_encoding(&encoded_page, expected, encoded_page.column_idx as usize)
-                        .unwrap();
-                }
+            if encoding.is_structural()
+                && let Some(ref expected) = test_cases.expected_encoding
+            {
+                verify_page_encoding(&encoded_page, expected, encoded_page.column_idx as usize)
+                    .unwrap();
             }
 
             writer.write_page(encoded_page);
@@ -909,11 +1276,11 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
         log_page(&encoded_page);
 
         // For V2.1, verify encoding in the page if expected
-        if file_version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1 {
-            if let Some(ref expected) = test_cases.expected_encoding {
-                verify_page_encoding(&encoded_page, expected, encoded_page.column_idx as usize)
-                    .unwrap();
-            }
+        if encoding.is_structural()
+            && let Some(ref expected) = test_cases.expected_encoding
+        {
+            verify_page_encoding(&encoded_page, expected, encoded_page.column_idx as usize)
+                .unwrap();
         }
 
         writer.write_page(encoded_page);
@@ -921,7 +1288,7 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
 
     let mut external_buffers = writer.new_external_buffers();
     let encoded_columns = encoder.finish(&mut external_buffers).await.unwrap();
-    test_cases.verify_encoding(&encoded_columns, &file_version);
+    test_cases.verify_encoding(&encoded_columns, &encoding);
     for buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
         writer.write_lance_buffer(buffer);
     }
@@ -974,7 +1341,7 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
 
     let expected_data = expected_override.clone().or_else(|| concat_data.clone());
 
-    let is_structural_encoding = file_version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1;
+    let is_structural_encoding = encoding.is_structural();
 
     let decode_field = if is_structural_encoding {
         let mut lance_field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(field).unwrap();
@@ -1004,6 +1371,8 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
         expected_data.clone(),
         scheduler_copy.clone(),
         is_structural_encoding,
+        // Full scan exercises the eager (initialize-everything) path.
+        None,
         |mut decode_scheduler, tx| {
             async move {
                 decode_scheduler.schedule_range(
@@ -1027,6 +1396,9 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
             .map(|arr| arr.slice(range.start as usize, num_rows as usize));
         let scheduler = scheduler.clone();
         let range = range.clone();
+        // Range reads exercise the range-scoped (lazy) path: only the pages this
+        // contiguous range overlaps should be initialized.
+        let requested_ranges = Some(Arc::<[Range<u64>]>::from(vec![range.clone()]));
         test_decode(
             num_rows,
             test_cases.batch_size,
@@ -1035,6 +1407,7 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
             expected,
             scheduler.clone(),
             is_structural_encoding,
+            requested_ranges,
             |mut decode_scheduler, tx| {
                 async move {
                     decode_scheduler.schedule_range(
@@ -1083,6 +1456,11 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
 
         let scheduler = scheduler.clone();
         let indices = indices.clone();
+        // Take reads exercise the lazy path with scattered rows. One range per
+        // index is a superset of the pages `schedule_take` later touches.
+        let requested_ranges = Some(Arc::<[Range<u64>]>::from(
+            indices.iter().map(|&i| i..i + 1).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
         test_decode(
             num_rows,
             test_cases.batch_size,
@@ -1091,6 +1469,7 @@ async fn check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
             expected,
             scheduler.clone(),
             is_structural_encoding,
+            requested_ranges,
             |mut decode_scheduler, tx| {
                 async move {
                     decode_scheduler.schedule_take(
@@ -1114,20 +1493,20 @@ const NUM_RANDOM_ROWS: u32 = 10000;
 ///
 /// To test specific test cases use the
 async fn check_round_trip_random(
-    encoder_factory: impl Fn(LanceFileVersion) -> Box<dyn FieldEncoder>,
+    encoder_factory: impl Fn(TestEncoding) -> Box<dyn FieldEncoder>,
     field: Field,
     array_generator_provider: Box<dyn ArrayGeneratorProvider>,
     test_cases: &TestCases,
 ) {
     for null_rate in [None, Some(0.5), Some(1.0)] {
-        for use_slicing in [false, true] {
-            for file_version in test_cases.get_versions() {
+        for use_slicing in test_cases.slicing_modes.iter().copied() {
+            for encoding in test_cases.encodings() {
                 if null_rate != Some(1.0) && matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Null) {
                     continue;
                 }
 
                 let field = if null_rate.is_some() {
-                    if !supports_nulls(field.data_type(), file_version) {
+                    if !supports_nulls(field.data_type(), encoding) {
                         continue;
                     }
                     field.clone().with_nullable(true)
@@ -1135,7 +1514,7 @@ async fn check_round_trip_random(
                     field.clone().with_nullable(false)
                 };
 
-                for num_ingest_batches in [1, 5, 10] {
+                for num_ingest_batches in test_cases.ingest_batch_counts.iter().copied() {
                     let rows_per_batch = NUM_RANDOM_ROWS / num_ingest_batches;
                     let mut data = Vec::new();
 
@@ -1185,8 +1564,8 @@ async fn check_round_trip_random(
                     }
 
                     info!(
-                        "Testing version {} with {} rows divided across {} batches for {} rows per batch with null_rate={:?} and use_slicing={}",
-                        file_version,
+                        "Testing encoding {} with {} rows divided across {} batches for {} rows per batch with null_rate={:?} and use_slicing={}",
+                        encoding,
                         NUM_RANDOM_ROWS,
                         num_ingest_batches,
                         rows_per_batch,
@@ -1194,12 +1573,12 @@ async fn check_round_trip_random(
                         use_slicing
                     );
                     check_round_trip_encoding_inner(
-                        encoder_factory(file_version),
+                        encoder_factory(encoding),
                         &field,
                         data,
                         None,
                         test_cases,
-                        file_version,
+                        encoding,
                     )
                     .await
                 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/utils/accumulation.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/utils/accumulation.rs
index ebd64abb58d..f6255d12ecd 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/utils/accumulation.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/utils/accumulation.rs
@@ -67,8 +67,7 @@ impl AccumulationQueue {
         } else {
             trace!(
                 "Accumulating data for column {}.  Now at {} bytes",
-                self.column_index,
-                self.current_bytes
+                self.column_index, self.current_bytes
             );
             if self.keep_original_array {
                 self.buffered_arrays.push(array);
@@ -89,8 +88,7 @@ impl AccumulationQueue {
         } else {
             trace!(
                 "Final flush of column {} which has {} bytes",
-                self.column_index,
-                self.current_bytes
+                self.column_index, self.current_bytes
             );
             self.current_bytes = 0;
             let row_number = self.row_number;
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/utils/bytepack.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/utils/bytepack.rs
index 1fbf17277c1..7c92b8f86cf 100644
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/utils/bytepack.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-encoding/src/utils/bytepack.rs
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@
 //! Utilities for byte (not bit) packing for situations where saving a few
 //! bits is less important than simplicity and speed.
 
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
 pub struct U8BytePacker {
     data: Vec<u8>,
 }
@@ -15,8 +17,8 @@ impl U8BytePacker {
         }
     }
 
-    fn append(&mut self, value: u64) {
-        self.data.push(value as u8);
+    fn append(&mut self, value: u8) {
+        self.data.push(value);
     }
 }
 
@@ -31,8 +33,8 @@ impl U16BytePacker {
         }
     }
 
-    fn append(&mut self, value: u64) {
-        self.data.extend_from_slice(&(value as u16).to_le_bytes());
+    fn append(&mut self, value: u16) {
+        self.data.extend_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
     }
 }
 
@@ -47,8 +49,8 @@ impl U32BytePacker {
         }
     }
 
-    fn append(&mut self, value: u64) {
-        self.data.extend_from_slice(&(value as u32).to_le_bytes());
+    fn append(&mut self, value: u32) {
+        self.data.extend_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
     }
 }
 
@@ -105,16 +107,48 @@ impl BytepackedIntegerEncoder {
 
     /// Append a value to the encoder.
     ///
-    /// # Safety
+    /// # Errors
     ///
-    /// This function is unsafe because it doesn't check for overflow.  If the
-    /// value is too large to fit in the chosen integer type, it will be silently
-    /// truncated.
-    pub unsafe fn append(&mut self, value: u64) {
+    /// Returns an error if `value` does not fit in the width selected at
+    /// construction time.
+    pub fn append(&mut self, value: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::U8(_) if value > u8::MAX as u64 => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "value {value} does not fit in bytepacked u8"
+                )));
+            }
+            Self::U16(_) if value > u16::MAX as u64 => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "value {value} does not fit in bytepacked u16"
+                )));
+            }
+            Self::U32(_) if value > u32::MAX as u64 => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "value {value} does not fit in bytepacked u32"
+                )));
+            }
+            _ => {}
+        }
+        self.append_trusted(value);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Append a value whose range is guaranteed by the caller's construction.
+    pub(crate) fn append_trusted(&mut self, value: u64) {
         match self {
-            Self::U8(packer) => packer.append(value),
-            Self::U16(packer) => packer.append(value),
-            Self::U32(packer) => packer.append(value),
+            Self::U8(packer) => {
+                debug_assert!(u8::try_from(value).is_ok());
+                packer.append(value as u8);
+            }
+            Self::U16(packer) => {
+                debug_assert!(u16::try_from(value).is_ok());
+                packer.append(value as u16);
+            }
+            Self::U32(packer) => {
+                debug_assert!(u32::try_from(value).is_ok());
+                packer.append(value as u32);
+            }
             Self::U64(packer) => packer.append(value),
             Self::Zero => {}
         }
@@ -197,11 +231,9 @@ mod tests {
     fn test_bytepacked_integer_encoder() {
         // Fits in u8
         let mut encoder = BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(10, 100);
-        unsafe {
-            encoder.append(50);
-            encoder.append(20);
-            encoder.append(30);
-        }
+        encoder.append(50).unwrap();
+        encoder.append(20).unwrap();
+        encoder.append(30).unwrap();
         let data = encoder.into_data();
         assert_eq!(data, vec![50, 20, 30]);
 
@@ -212,11 +244,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Requires u16
         let mut encoder = BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(10, 1000);
-        unsafe {
-            encoder.append(500);
-            encoder.append(200);
-            encoder.append(300);
-        }
+        encoder.append(500).unwrap();
+        encoder.append(200).unwrap();
+        encoder.append(300).unwrap();
         let data = encoder.into_data();
         assert_eq!(data, vec![244, 1, 200, 0, 44, 1]);
 
@@ -227,11 +257,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Requires u32
         let mut encoder = BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(10, 1000000);
-        unsafe {
-            encoder.append(500000);
-            encoder.append(200000);
-            encoder.append(300000);
-        }
+        encoder.append(500000).unwrap();
+        encoder.append(200000).unwrap();
+        encoder.append(300000).unwrap();
         let data = encoder.into_data();
         assert_eq!(data, vec![32, 161, 7, 0, 64, 13, 3, 0, 224, 147, 4, 0]);
 
@@ -242,15 +270,15 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Requires u64
         let mut encoder = BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(10, 0x10000000000);
-        unsafe {
-            encoder.append(0x5000000000);
-            encoder.append(0x2000000000);
-            encoder.append(0x3000000000);
-        }
+        encoder.append(0x5000000000).unwrap();
+        encoder.append(0x2000000000).unwrap();
+        encoder.append(0x3000000000).unwrap();
         let data = encoder.into_data();
         assert_eq!(
             data,
-            vec![0, 0, 0, 0, 80, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 32, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 48, 0, 0, 0]
+            vec![
+                0, 0, 0, 0, 80, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 32, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 48, 0, 0, 0
+            ]
         );
 
         assert_eq!(
@@ -258,4 +286,21 @@ mod tests {
             vec![0x5000000000, 0x2000000000, 0x3000000000]
         );
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bytepacked_integer_encoder_rejects_overflow() {
+        for (max_value, invalid_value, expected_width) in [
+            (u8::MAX as u64, u8::MAX as u64 + 1, "u8"),
+            (u16::MAX as u64, u16::MAX as u64 + 1, "u16"),
+            (u32::MAX as u64, u32::MAX as u64 + 1, "u32"),
+        ] {
+            let mut encoder = BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(1, max_value);
+            let error = encoder.append(invalid_value).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains(expected_width), "{error}");
+        }
+
+        let mut disabled = BytepackedIntegerEncoder::with_capacity(1, 0);
+        disabled.append(u64::MAX).unwrap();
+        assert!(disabled.into_data().is_empty());
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-encoding/src/version.rs b/rust/lance-encoding/src/version.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 726f36ec3cb..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-encoding/src/version.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,137 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-use std::str::FromStr;
-
-use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
-use lance_core::datatypes::Field;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
-
-pub const LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION: &str = "0.1";
-pub const V2_FORMAT_2_0: &str = "2.0";
-pub const V2_FORMAT_2_1: &str = "2.1";
-pub const V2_FORMAT_2_2: &str = "2.2";
-
-/// Lance file version
-#[derive(Debug, Default, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, Ord, PartialOrd, strum::EnumIter)]
-pub enum LanceFileVersion {
-    // This is a little confusing but we rely on the following facts:
-    //
-    // Any version <= Next is stable
-    // The latest version before Stable is the default version for new datasets
-    // Any version >= Next is unstable
-    //
-    // As a result, 'Stable' is not the divider between stable and unstable (Next does this)
-    // but only serves to mark the default version for new datasets.
-    //
-    /// The legacy (0.1) format
-    Legacy,
-    #[default]
-    V2_0,
-    /// The latest stable release (also the default version for new datasets)
-    Stable,
-    V2_1,
-    /// The latest unstable release
-    Next,
-    V2_2,
-}
-
-impl LanceFileVersion {
-    /// Convert Stable or Next to the actual version
-    pub fn resolve(&self) -> Self {
-        match self {
-            Self::Stable => Self::V2_0,
-            Self::Next => Self::V2_1,
-            _ => *self,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_unstable(&self) -> bool {
-        self >= &Self::Next
-    }
-
-    pub fn try_from_major_minor(major: u32, minor: u32) -> Result<Self> {
-        match (major, minor) {
-            (0, 0) => Ok(Self::Legacy),
-            (0, 1) => Ok(Self::Legacy),
-            (0, 2) => Ok(Self::Legacy),
-            (0, 3) => Ok(Self::V2_0),
-            (2, 0) => Ok(Self::V2_0),
-            (2, 1) => Ok(Self::V2_1),
-            (2, 2) => Ok(Self::V2_2),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Unknown Lance storage version: {}.{}", major, minor).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn to_numbers(&self) -> (u32, u32) {
-        match self {
-            Self::Legacy => (0, 2),
-            Self::V2_0 => (2, 0),
-            Self::V2_1 => (2, 1),
-            Self::V2_2 => (2, 2),
-            Self::Stable => self.resolve().to_numbers(),
-            Self::Next => self.resolve().to_numbers(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn iter_non_legacy() -> impl Iterator<Item = Self> {
-        use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
-
-        Self::iter().filter(|&v| v != Self::Stable && v != Self::Next && v != Self::Legacy)
-    }
-
-    pub fn support_add_sub_column(&self) -> bool {
-        self > &Self::V2_1
-    }
-
-    pub fn support_remove_sub_column(&self, field: &Field) -> bool {
-        if self <= &Self::V2_1 {
-            field.data_type().is_struct()
-        } else {
-            field.data_type().is_nested()
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for LanceFileVersion {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(
-            f,
-            "{}",
-            match self {
-                Self::Legacy => LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION,
-                Self::V2_0 => V2_FORMAT_2_0,
-                Self::V2_1 => V2_FORMAT_2_1,
-                Self::V2_2 => V2_FORMAT_2_2,
-                Self::Stable => "stable",
-                Self::Next => "next",
-            }
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl FromStr for LanceFileVersion {
-    type Err = Error;
-
-    fn from_str(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
-        match value.to_lowercase().as_str() {
-            LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION => Ok(Self::Legacy),
-            V2_FORMAT_2_0 => Ok(Self::V2_0),
-            V2_FORMAT_2_1 => Ok(Self::V2_1),
-            V2_FORMAT_2_2 => Ok(Self::V2_2),
-            "stable" => Ok(Self::Stable),
-            "legacy" => Ok(Self::Legacy),
-            "next" => Ok(Self::Next),
-            // Version 0.3 is an alias of 2.0
-            "0.3" => Ok(Self::V2_0),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Unknown Lance storage version: {}", value).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-file/Cargo.toml
index abf3ea07bf1..2dfd09e8d33 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-file/Cargo.toml
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ lance-io.workspace = true
 arrow-arith.workspace = true
 arrow-array.workspace = true
 arrow-buffer.workspace = true
+arrow-cast.workspace = true
 arrow-data.workspace = true
 arrow-schema.workspace = true
 arrow-select.workspace = true
@@ -27,14 +28,13 @@ async-trait.workspace = true
 byteorder.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
 datafusion-common.workspace = true
-deepsize.workspace = true
 futures.workspace = true
 log.workspace = true
 num-traits.workspace = true
 object_store.workspace = true
 prost.workspace = true
 prost-types.workspace = true
-snafu.workspace = true
+serde.workspace = true
 tokio.workspace = true
 tracing.workspace = true
 
@@ -42,19 +42,16 @@ tracing.workspace = true
 lance-datagen.workspace = true
 lance-testing.workspace = true
 criterion.workspace = true
-rand.workspace = true
 rstest.workspace = true
 proptest.workspace = true
 pretty_assertions.workspace = true
+rand.workspace = true
 test-log.workspace = true
 libc.workspace = true
 
 [build-dependencies]
 prost-build.workspace = true
-protobuf-src = { version = "2.1", optional = true }
-
-[target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dev-dependencies]
-pprof = { workspace = true }
+protobuf-src = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 
 [features]
 protoc = ["dep:protobuf-src"]
@@ -67,5 +64,9 @@ features = ["protoc"]
 name = "reader"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "schema"
+harness = false
+
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/benches/reader.rs b/rust/lance-file/benches/reader.rs
index a00af5015fa..5d280f00d26 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/benches/reader.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/benches/reader.rs
@@ -2,9 +2,11 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, types::Int32Type, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_array::{UInt32Array, cast::AsArray, types::Int32Type};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, BatchSize, Criterion, Throughput};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{BatchSize, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt};
 use lance_core::utils::{tempfile::TempDir, tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus};
 use lance_datagen::ArrayGeneratorExt;
@@ -12,8 +14,9 @@ use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderConfig, DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
 use lance_file::{
     reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions},
     testing::test_cache,
-    version::LanceFileVersion,
-    writer::{FileWriter, FileWriterOptions},
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+    versions as file_versions,
+    writer::FileWriterOptions,
 };
 use lance_io::{
     object_store::ObjectStore,
@@ -25,7 +28,11 @@ use std::collections::HashMap;
 use tokio::runtime::Runtime;
 
 fn bench_reader(c: &mut Criterion) {
-    for version in [LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1] {
+    for version in [
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+    ] {
         let mut group = c.benchmark_group(format!("reader_{}", version));
         let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
             .anon_col(lance_datagen::array::rand_type(&DataType::Int32))
@@ -38,16 +45,14 @@ fn bench_reader(c: &mut Criterion) {
             .block_on(ObjectStore::from_uri(&tmpdir.path_str()))
             .unwrap();
 
-        let file_path = base_path.child("foo.lance");
+        let file_path = base_path.clone().join("foo.lance");
         let object_writer = rt.block_on(object_store.create(&file_path)).unwrap();
 
-        let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
+        let mut writer = file_versions::create_writer(
+            version,
             object_writer,
             data.schema().as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
-            FileWriterOptions {
-                format_version: Some(version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            },
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
         )
         .unwrap();
         rt.block_on(writer.write_batch(&data)).unwrap();
@@ -85,6 +90,7 @@ fn bench_reader(c: &mut Criterion) {
                             None,
                             FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                         )
+                        .await
                         .unwrap();
                     let stats = Arc::new(Mutex::new((0, 0)));
                     let mut stream = stream
@@ -168,7 +174,7 @@ fn get_cached_readers(
     tmpdir: &TempDir,
     filesystem: &str,
     rt: &Runtime,
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
 ) -> Arc<CachedReaders> {
     use std::sync::{LazyLock, Mutex};
 
@@ -196,7 +202,7 @@ fn get_cached_readers(
 
     // Create filename with version to avoid collisions
     let filename = format!("bench_{}.lance", version);
-    let file_path = base_path.child(filename.as_str());
+    let file_path = base_path.join(filename.as_str());
 
     // Generate data
     let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
@@ -206,13 +212,11 @@ fn get_cached_readers(
 
     // Write file
     let object_writer = rt.block_on(object_store.create(&file_path)).unwrap();
-    let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
+    let mut writer = file_versions::create_writer(
+        version,
         object_writer,
         data.schema().as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
-        FileWriterOptions {
-            format_version: Some(version),
-            ..Default::default()
-        },
+        FileWriterOptions::default(),
     )
     .unwrap();
     rt.block_on(writer.write_batch(&data)).unwrap();
@@ -301,6 +305,7 @@ fn read_task(
                 None,
                 FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await
             .unwrap();
         let stats = Arc::new(Mutex::new((0, 0)));
         let mut stream = stream.then(|batch_task| {
@@ -357,7 +362,11 @@ fn bench_random_access(c: &mut Criterion) {
 
     let mut group = c.benchmark_group("take");
 
-    let versions = [LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1];
+    let versions = [
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+    ];
 
     for filesystem in filesystems {
         for version in versions {
@@ -367,7 +376,8 @@ fn bench_random_access(c: &mut Criterion) {
             for multithreaded in [false, true] {
                 for rows_at_a_time in [1, 100] {
                     for cached in [true, false] {
-                        if !cached && (filesystem == "mem" || version == LanceFileVersion::V2_0) {
+                        if !cached && (filesystem == "mem" || version == ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)
+                        {
                             continue;
                         }
 
@@ -455,7 +465,7 @@ fn bench_random_access(c: &mut Criterion) {
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10)
-        .with_profiler(pprof::criterion::PProfProfiler::new(100, pprof::criterion::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+        .with_profiler(lance_testing::pprof::PProfProfiler::new(100, lance_testing::pprof::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
     targets = bench_reader, bench_random_access);
 
 // Non-linux version does not support pprof.
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/benches/schema.rs b/rust/lance-file/benches/schema.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b8da23d9777
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/benches/schema.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_file::{datatypes::Fields, format::pb};
+
+fn proto_field(id: i32, parent_id: i32, name: String, logical_type: &str) -> pb::Field {
+    pb::Field {
+        id,
+        parent_id,
+        name,
+        logical_type: logical_type.to_owned(),
+        ..Default::default()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Builds a pre-order flat schema with `num_physical_columns` physical leaves.
+///
+/// Each struct contributes one parent and two `int32` leaves. Root fields use
+/// `-1` as `parent_id`, and each struct consumes a three-ID block.
+fn wide_two_leaf_structs(num_physical_columns: usize) -> Fields {
+    assert_eq!(num_physical_columns % 2, 0);
+    let num_structs = num_physical_columns / 2;
+    let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(num_structs + num_physical_columns);
+
+    for struct_index in 0..num_structs {
+        let parent_id = (struct_index * 3) as i32;
+        fields.push(proto_field(
+            parent_id,
+            -1,
+            format!("struct_{struct_index}"),
+            "struct",
+        ));
+        fields.push(proto_field(
+            parent_id + 1,
+            parent_id,
+            format!("left_{struct_index}"),
+            "int32",
+        ));
+        fields.push(proto_field(
+            parent_id + 2,
+            parent_id,
+            format!("right_{struct_index}"),
+            "int32",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    Fields(fields)
+}
+
+fn bench_schema_reconstruction(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("schema_from_flat_fields");
+
+    for num_physical_columns in [1024, 4096, 16_384, 65_536] {
+        let fields = wide_two_leaf_structs(num_physical_columns);
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(fields.0.len() as u64));
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("physical_columns", num_physical_columns),
+            &fields,
+            |bencher, fields| {
+                bencher.iter(|| Schema::try_from(black_box(fields)).unwrap());
+            },
+        );
+    }
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(benches, bench_schema_reconstruction);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/build.rs b/rust/lance-file/build.rs
index 29dcd18a700..70ccdc250c8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/build.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/build.rs
@@ -8,7 +8,9 @@ fn main() -> Result<()> {
 
     #[cfg(feature = "protoc")]
     // Use vendored protobuf compiler if requested.
-    std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    unsafe {
+        std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    }
 
     let mut prost_build = prost_build::Config::new();
     prost_build.protoc_arg("--experimental_allow_proto3_optional");
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/compatibility_tests.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/compatibility_tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c63137ec6e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/compatibility_tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,524 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::builder::StringDictionaryBuilder;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::{Int8Type, Int32Type};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, Int32Array, LargeBinaryArray, ListArray, RecordBatch, StringArray,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, EncodedBatchLayout, FilterExpression, decode_batch};
+use lance_encoding::encoder::{EncodedBatch, EncodingOptions, encode_batch};
+use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+use lance_io::traits::Writer;
+use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+use rstest::rstest;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+use crate::reader::{EncodedBatchReaderExt, FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
+use crate::testing::FsFixture;
+use crate::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use crate::versions;
+use crate::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1Reader;
+use crate::versions::v1::writer::{
+    FileWriter as V1Writer, FileWriterOptions as V1WriterOptions, NotSelfDescribing,
+};
+use crate::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+
+fn compatibility_fixture_batch() -> RecordBatch {
+    let row_count = 4097;
+    let ids = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..row_count)) as ArrayRef;
+    let names = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter((0..row_count).map(|index| {
+        (index % 7 != 0).then(|| format!("value-{index:04}-deterministic-fixture"))
+    }))) as ArrayRef;
+    let items = Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(
+        (0..row_count).map(|index| {
+            (index % 11 != 0).then(|| {
+                vec![
+                    Some(index),
+                    (index % 5 != 0).then_some(index * 2),
+                    Some(index * 3),
+                ]
+            })
+        }),
+    )) as ArrayRef;
+    let mut categories = StringDictionaryBuilder::<Int8Type>::new();
+    for index in 0..row_count {
+        if index % 13 == 0 {
+            categories.append_null();
+        } else {
+            categories
+                .append(match index % 3 {
+                    0 => "red",
+                    1 => "green",
+                    _ => "blue",
+                })
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+    }
+    let categories = Arc::new(categories.finish()) as ArrayRef;
+    let blobs = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter_values(
+        (0..row_count).map(|index| format!("blob-{index:04}-deterministic-payload").into_bytes()),
+    )) as ArrayRef;
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            "lance-encoding:compression".to_string(),
+            "none".to_string(),
+        )])),
+        Field::new(
+            "items",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+            true,
+        ),
+        Field::new(
+            "category",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int8), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            true,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            "lance-encoding:dict-values-compression".to_string(),
+            "none".to_string(),
+        )])),
+        Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            "lance-encoding:blob".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        )])),
+    ]));
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![ids, names, items, categories, blobs]).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn v1_reader_expected_batch(batch: &RecordBatch) -> RecordBatch {
+    // The V1 reader historically materializes null lists as empty, null child integers as zero,
+    // and null dictionary keys as the first dictionary value.
+    let items = Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(
+        (0..batch.num_rows() as i32).map(|index| {
+            Some(if index % 11 == 0 {
+                Vec::new()
+            } else {
+                vec![
+                    Some(index),
+                    Some(if index % 5 == 0 { 0 } else { index * 2 }),
+                    Some(index * 3),
+                ]
+            })
+        }),
+    )) as ArrayRef;
+    let mut categories = StringDictionaryBuilder::<Int8Type>::new();
+    for index in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+        categories
+            .append(if index % 13 == 0 {
+                "green"
+            } else {
+                match index % 3 {
+                    0 => "red",
+                    1 => "green",
+                    _ => "blue",
+                }
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+    let categories = Arc::new(categories.finish()) as ArrayRef;
+    let mut columns = batch.columns().to_vec();
+    columns[2] = items;
+    columns[3] = categories;
+    RecordBatch::try_new(batch.schema(), columns).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn stable_fixture(version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> &'static [u8] {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => include_bytes!("../test_data/exact_versions/v1.lance"),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => {
+            include_bytes!("../test_data/exact_versions/v2_0.lance")
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => {
+            include_bytes!("../test_data/exact_versions/v2_1.lance")
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => {
+            include_bytes!("../test_data/exact_versions/v2_2.lance")
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            unreachable!("v2.3 is unstable and has no compatibility fixture")
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn assert_blob_column_eq(actual: &dyn Array, expected: &dyn Array) {
+    let actual = actual.as_binary::<i64>();
+    let expected = expected.as_binary::<i64>();
+    assert_eq!(actual.len(), expected.len());
+    for index in 0..actual.len() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual.is_null(index),
+            expected.is_null(index),
+            "blob validity differs at row {index}"
+        );
+        if actual.is_valid(index) {
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual.value(index),
+                expected.value(index),
+                "blob payload differs at row {index}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn assert_record_batch_eq(actual: &RecordBatch, expected: &RecordBatch) {
+    assert_eq!(actual.schema_ref(), expected.schema_ref());
+    assert_eq!(actual.num_rows(), expected.num_rows());
+    assert_eq!(actual.num_columns(), expected.num_columns());
+
+    for column_index in 0..actual.num_columns() {
+        if expected.schema().field(column_index).name() == "blob" {
+            assert_blob_column_eq(
+                actual.column(column_index).as_ref(),
+                expected.column(column_index).as_ref(),
+            );
+        } else if actual.column(column_index).to_data() != expected.column(column_index).to_data() {
+            let row_index = (0..actual.num_rows())
+                .find(|row_index| {
+                    actual.column(column_index).slice(*row_index, 1).to_data()
+                        != expected.column(column_index).slice(*row_index, 1).to_data()
+                })
+                .unwrap();
+            panic!(
+                "column {} ({}) differs at row {}: actual={:?}, expected={:?}",
+                column_index,
+                expected.schema().field(column_index).name(),
+                row_index,
+                actual.column(column_index).slice(row_index, 1),
+                expected.column(column_index).slice(row_index, 1)
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn footer_version(bytes: &[u8]) -> (u16, u16) {
+    let version_start = bytes.len() - 8;
+    (
+        u16::from_le_bytes([bytes[version_start], bytes[version_start + 1]]),
+        u16::from_le_bytes([bytes[version_start + 2], bytes[version_start + 3]]),
+    )
+}
+
+fn assert_wire_bytes_equal(actual: &[u8], expected: &[u8]) {
+    if let Some(offset) = actual
+        .iter()
+        .zip(expected)
+        .position(|(actual, expected)| actual != expected)
+    {
+        panic!(
+            "wire fixture first differs at byte {offset}: actual={}, expected={}",
+            actual[offset], expected[offset]
+        );
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        actual.len(),
+        expected.len(),
+        "wire fixture length changed after a common {}-byte prefix",
+        actual.len().min(expected.len())
+    );
+}
+
+async fn write_current_fixture(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    schema: &LanceSchema,
+) -> Vec<u8> {
+    let fs = FsFixture::default();
+    let object_writer = fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap();
+    let options = FileWriterOptions {
+        data_cache_bytes: Some(1),
+        max_page_bytes: Some(1024),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let summary = match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {
+            unreachable!("legacy fixtures use the legacy writer")
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => {
+            let mut writer =
+                versions::v2_0::create_writer(object_writer, schema.clone(), options).unwrap();
+            for offset in (0..batch.num_rows()).step_by(1024) {
+                let slice = batch.slice(offset, (batch.num_rows() - offset).min(1024));
+                writer.write_batch(&slice).await.unwrap();
+            }
+            writer.finish().await.unwrap()
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => {
+            let mut writer =
+                versions::v2_1::create_writer(object_writer, schema.clone(), options).unwrap();
+            for offset in (0..batch.num_rows()).step_by(1024) {
+                let slice = batch.slice(offset, (batch.num_rows() - offset).min(1024));
+                writer.write_batch(&slice).await.unwrap();
+            }
+            writer.finish().await.unwrap()
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => {
+            let mut writer =
+                versions::v2_2::create_writer(object_writer, schema.clone(), options).unwrap();
+            for offset in (0..batch.num_rows()).step_by(1024) {
+                let slice = batch.slice(offset, (batch.num_rows() - offset).min(1024));
+                writer.write_batch(&slice).await.unwrap();
+            }
+            writer.finish().await.unwrap()
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            let mut writer =
+                versions::v2_3::create_writer(object_writer, schema.clone(), options).unwrap();
+            for offset in (0..batch.num_rows()).step_by(1024) {
+                let slice = batch.slice(offset, (batch.num_rows() - offset).min(1024));
+                writer.write_batch(&slice).await.unwrap();
+            }
+            writer.finish().await.unwrap()
+        }
+    };
+    fs.object_store
+        .open(&fs.tmp_path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .get_range(0..summary.size_bytes as usize)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .to_vec()
+}
+
+async fn write_v2_0_embedded_fixtures(batch: &RecordBatch, schema: &LanceSchema) -> (Bytes, Bytes) {
+    let options = EncodingOptions {
+        cache_bytes_per_column: 1,
+        max_page_bytes: 1024,
+        keep_original_array: true,
+        buffer_alignment: 64,
+    };
+    let encoding_strategy = crate::versions::v2_0::encoding_strategy();
+    let encoded_batch = encode_batch(
+        batch,
+        Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+        encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
+        &options,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    (
+        versions::v2_0::encode_self_described_batch(&encoded_batch).unwrap(),
+        versions::v2_0::encode_mini_batch(&encoded_batch).unwrap(),
+    )
+}
+
+async fn assert_current_reader_roundtrip(
+    fixture: &[u8],
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    expected: &RecordBatch,
+) {
+    let fs = FsFixture::default();
+    let mut fixture_writer = fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap();
+    fixture_writer.write_all(fixture).await.unwrap();
+    Writer::shutdown(fixture_writer.as_mut()).await.unwrap();
+    let scheduler = fs
+        .scheduler
+        .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::new(fixture.len() as u64))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+        scheduler,
+        None,
+        Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        FileReaderOptions::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(reader.metadata().version(), version);
+    assert!(
+        reader
+            .metadata()
+            .column_metadatas
+            .iter()
+            .any(|metadata| metadata.pages.len() > 1)
+    );
+    let batches = reader
+        .read_stream(
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            1024,
+            16,
+            FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>(),
+        expected.num_rows()
+    );
+    assert!(
+        batches
+            .iter()
+            .all(|actual| actual.schema_ref() == expected.schema_ref())
+    );
+    let mut row_offset = 0;
+    for actual in &batches {
+        let expected = expected.slice(row_offset, actual.num_rows());
+        assert_record_batch_eq(actual, &expected);
+        row_offset += actual.num_rows();
+    }
+    assert_eq!(row_offset, expected.num_rows());
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::v2_0(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)]
+#[case::v2_1(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)]
+#[case::v2_2(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn stable_current_writer_and_reader_are_wire_compatible(
+    #[case] version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+) {
+    let batch = compatibility_fixture_batch();
+    let mut schema = LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+    schema.set_dictionary(&batch).unwrap();
+
+    let actual = write_current_fixture(version, &batch, &schema).await;
+    let expected = stable_fixture(version);
+    assert_wire_bytes_equal(&actual, expected);
+    assert_eq!(
+        footer_version(expected),
+        version.to_standard_footer_numbers()
+    );
+    assert_current_reader_roundtrip(expected, version, &batch).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn v2_0_embedded_writer_and_reader_are_wire_compatible() {
+    let batch = compatibility_fixture_batch()
+        .project(&[0, 1])
+        .unwrap()
+        .slice(0, 257);
+    let mut schema = LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+    schema.set_dictionary(&batch).unwrap();
+
+    let (actual_self_described, actual_mini) = write_v2_0_embedded_fixtures(&batch, &schema).await;
+    let expected_self_described =
+        include_bytes!("../test_data/exact_versions/v2_0_self_described.lance");
+    let expected_mini = include_bytes!("../test_data/exact_versions/v2_0_mini.lance");
+    assert_wire_bytes_equal(&actual_self_described, expected_self_described);
+    assert_wire_bytes_equal(&actual_mini, expected_mini);
+
+    let expected_footer = ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0.to_embedded_footer_numbers();
+    assert_eq!(footer_version(expected_self_described), expected_footer);
+    assert_eq!(footer_version(expected_mini), expected_footer);
+
+    let self_described =
+        EncodedBatch::try_from_self_described_lance(Bytes::from_static(expected_self_described))
+            .unwrap();
+    let decoded = decode_batch(
+        &self_described,
+        &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+        false,
+        EncodedBatchLayout::Array,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_record_batch_eq(&decoded, &batch);
+
+    let mini =
+        EncodedBatch::try_from_mini_lance(Bytes::from_static(expected_mini), &schema).unwrap();
+    let decoded = decode_batch(
+        &mini,
+        &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+        false,
+        EncodedBatchLayout::Array,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_record_batch_eq(&decoded, &batch);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn v2_3_output_is_deterministic_within_the_current_revision() {
+    let batch = compatibility_fixture_batch();
+    let mut schema = LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+    schema.set_dictionary(&batch).unwrap();
+
+    let first = write_current_fixture(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3, &batch, &schema).await;
+    let second = write_current_fixture(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3, &batch, &schema).await;
+    assert_eq!(first, second);
+    assert_eq!(
+        footer_version(&first),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3.to_standard_footer_numbers()
+    );
+    assert_current_reader_roundtrip(&first, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3, &batch).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn v1_writer_and_reader_are_wire_compatible() {
+    let expected = stable_fixture(ConcreteFileVersion::V1);
+    let batch = compatibility_fixture_batch();
+    let mut schema = LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+    schema.set_dictionary(&batch).unwrap();
+    let fs = FsFixture::default();
+    let mut writer = V1Writer::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        fs.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &fs.tmp_path,
+        schema.clone(),
+        &V1WriterOptions {
+            collect_stats_for_fields: Some(Vec::new()),
+        },
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    for offset in (0..batch.num_rows()).step_by(1024) {
+        let slice = batch.slice(offset, (batch.num_rows() - offset).min(1024));
+        writer.write(std::slice::from_ref(&slice)).await.unwrap();
+    }
+    let summary = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    let actual = fs
+        .object_store
+        .open(&fs.tmp_path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .get_range(0..summary.size_bytes as usize)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_wire_bytes_equal(actual.as_ref(), expected);
+    assert_eq!(
+        footer_version(expected),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1.to_standard_footer_numbers()
+    );
+
+    let fixture_fs = FsFixture::default();
+    let mut fixture_writer = fixture_fs
+        .object_store
+        .create(&fixture_fs.tmp_path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    fixture_writer.write_all(expected).await.unwrap();
+    Writer::shutdown(fixture_writer.as_mut()).await.unwrap();
+    let reader = V1Reader::try_new(
+        fixture_fs.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &fixture_fs.tmp_path,
+        schema.clone(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let actual_batch = reader
+        .read_range(0..batch.num_rows(), &schema)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(reader.num_batches(), 5);
+    assert_record_batch_eq(&actual_batch, &v1_reader_expected_batch(&batch));
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/concat.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/concat.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8b8928186da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/concat.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1600 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Concatenation of complete encoded Lance files.
+//!
+//! This module owns compatibility checks and metadata relocation for copying
+//! already-encoded pages into a new ordinary Lance file. Callers retain
+//! responsibility for dataset-level grouping, transactions, and fallbacks.
+
+use std::{
+    collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet, VecDeque},
+    fmt,
+    future::Future,
+    ops::Range,
+    sync::Arc,
+};
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, cast::AsArray, types::UInt8Type};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType as ArrowDataType, Field as ArrowField};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_arrow::FieldExt;
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    cache::LanceCache,
+    datatypes::{BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD, BlobHandling, BlobKind, Field, Schema},
+};
+use lance_encoding::decoder::{ColumnInfo, DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression, PageInfo};
+use lance_io::{ReadBatchParams, scheduler::FileScheduler, traits::Writer as ObjectWriter};
+use prost::Message;
+use prost_types::Any;
+
+use crate::{
+    reader::{CachedFileMetadata, FileReader, RawFileMetadataOpen},
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+    versions,
+    writer::{FileWriteSummary, FileWriterOptions},
+};
+
+/// Caller-defined runtime identity of the final target for Blob-bearing parts.
+///
+/// Lance only compares this value when assembling data-file parts. It does not
+/// interpret it as a dataset, base, or object-store identity, persist it, or
+/// define a recovery protocol for it. The caller must provide the same identity
+/// for every part and target that belong to one assembly operation.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct BlobTargetId(Arc<str>);
+
+impl BlobTargetId {
+    /// Create an opaque Blob target identity.
+    pub fn new(identity: impl Into<Arc<str>>) -> Self {
+        Self(identity.into())
+    }
+
+    /// Return the caller-defined target identity.
+    pub fn as_str(&self) -> &str {
+        self.0.as_ref()
+    }
+}
+
+/// One complete immutable Lance file supplied to [`concat_files`].
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct EncodedFileInput {
+    scheduler: FileScheduler,
+    expected_num_rows: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+impl EncodedFileInput {
+    /// Create an input from an already-open file scheduler.
+    pub fn new(scheduler: FileScheduler) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            scheduler,
+            expected_num_rows: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Require the file metadata to report this physical row count.
+    ///
+    /// A mismatch is an input error, not a compatibility result.
+    pub fn with_expected_num_rows(mut self, expected_num_rows: u64) -> Self {
+        self.expected_num_rows = Some(expected_num_rows);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// The path used to read this input.
+    pub fn path(&self) -> &object_store::path::Path {
+        self.scheduler.reader().path()
+    }
+
+    fn scheduler(&self) -> FileScheduler {
+        self.scheduler.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A complete ordinary Lance file validated for data-file concatenation.
+///
+/// A part is independently readable and is not an incomplete file-format
+/// fragment or a persisted Manifest entity. Opening one reads its real footer,
+/// verifies that its physical columns form a complete rectangular file, and
+/// checks Blob v2 descriptors against the caller-provided ID lease. Parts with
+/// Blob v2 columns are also bound to the caller-provided [`BlobTargetId`].
+///
+/// This runtime value has no fragment, source-row, range, dataset, or storage
+/// identity. Lance defines no serialization or recovery contract for it. The
+/// caller owns the input storage and must keep every Blob-bearing part associated
+/// with the dataset and base where its managed payloads were written. The order
+/// passed to [`concat_data_file_parts`] determines final physical row order.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_file::concat::{DataFilePart, EncodedFileInput};
+/// use lance_io::scheduler::FileScheduler;
+///
+/// # async fn open_part(file: FileScheduler) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+/// let part = DataFilePart::open(EncodedFileInput::new(file), None, None).await?;
+/// println!("part rows: {}", part.num_rows());
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct DataFilePart {
+    input: EncodedFileInput,
+    metadata: Arc<CachedFileMetadata>,
+    schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    blob_ids: Option<Range<u32>>,
+    blob_target_id: Option<BlobTargetId>,
+}
+
+impl fmt::Debug for DataFilePart {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("DataFilePart")
+            .field("path", &self.input.path())
+            .field("version", &self.metadata.version)
+            .field("num_rows", &self.metadata.num_rows)
+            .field("blob_ids", &self.blob_ids)
+            .field("blob_target_id", &self.blob_target_id)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DataFilePart {
+    /// Open and validate one complete encoded file.
+    ///
+    /// `blob_ids` is the half-open ID range leased to this part. Managed
+    /// Packed and Dedicated descriptors must fall inside it. `blob_target_id`
+    /// associates the part with one final target for runtime equality checks and
+    /// is required whenever the part contains Blob v2 columns. It does not prove
+    /// that the target belongs to a particular dataset or storage namespace.
+    /// Non-empty Inline Blob v2 descriptors and legacy Blob v1 columns are
+    /// rejected because their payload locations cannot be reused in a different
+    /// data file.
+    pub async fn open(
+        input: EncodedFileInput,
+        blob_ids: Option<Range<u32>>,
+        blob_target_id: Option<BlobTargetId>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        validate_blob_id_range(blob_ids.as_ref())?;
+        let metadata = Arc::new(FileReader::read_all_metadata(&input.scheduler()).await?);
+        let schema = Arc::new(normalize_blob_footer_schema(metadata.file_schema.as_ref()));
+        if let Some(expected_num_rows) = input.expected_num_rows
+            && metadata.num_rows != expected_num_rows
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "part at '{}' has {} physical rows but {} were expected",
+                input.path(),
+                metadata.num_rows,
+                expected_num_rows
+            )));
+        }
+        let has_blob_v1 = schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .any(|field| field.is_blob() && !field.is_blob_v2());
+        if has_blob_v1 {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "part at '{}' contains legacy Blob v1 columns",
+                input.path()
+            )));
+        }
+        let validation_schema = descriptor_projection_schema(schema.as_ref());
+        let normalized_rows = versions::validate_external_metadata(
+            metadata.version,
+            &validation_schema,
+            metadata.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .map_err(|error| {
+            Error::corrupt_file(
+                input.path().clone(),
+                format!("part has incomplete file metadata: {error}"),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if normalized_rows != metadata.num_rows {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                input.path().clone(),
+                format!(
+                    "part descriptor reports {} physical rows but its columns normalize to {normalized_rows}",
+                    metadata.num_rows
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let has_blob_v2 = schema.fields_pre_order().any(|field| field.is_blob_v2());
+        if has_blob_v2 {
+            validate_blob_descriptors(
+                &input,
+                metadata.as_ref(),
+                schema.as_ref(),
+                blob_ids.as_ref(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            if blob_target_id.is_none() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "part at '{}' contains Blob v2 columns but no Blob target ID was provided",
+                    input.path()
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            input,
+            metadata,
+            schema,
+            blob_ids,
+            blob_target_id,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Number of physical rows described by the part footer.
+    pub fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.metadata.num_rows
+    }
+}
+
+fn descriptor_projection_schema(schema: &Schema) -> Schema {
+    let mut projected = schema.clone();
+    projected.fields = projected
+        .fields
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|field| BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions.unload_if_needed(field))
+        .collect();
+    projected
+}
+
+fn descriptor_child_matches(field: &Field, expected: &Field) -> bool {
+    field.id == -1
+        && field.parent_id == -1
+        && field.name == expected.name
+        && field.logical_type == expected.logical_type
+        && field.children.is_empty()
+}
+
+fn attach_blob_descriptor_children(
+    fields: &mut [Field],
+    descriptor_children: &mut VecDeque<Vec<Field>>,
+) {
+    for field in fields {
+        if field.is_blob() && field.children.is_empty() {
+            if let Some(children) = descriptor_children.pop_front() {
+                field.children = children;
+            }
+        } else {
+            attach_blob_descriptor_children(&mut field.children, descriptor_children);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Blob descriptor children historically use anonymous field IDs in the file
+/// descriptor. Reconstruct their tree shape before applying ordinary schema
+/// projection rules. This interprets the existing footer representation and
+/// does not add persisted metadata or alter the file grammar.
+fn normalize_blob_footer_schema(schema: &Schema) -> Schema {
+    let expected = &BLOB_V2_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.children;
+    let missing_descriptor_count = schema
+        .fields_pre_order()
+        .filter(|field| field.is_blob() && field.children.is_empty())
+        .count();
+    if missing_descriptor_count == 0 {
+        return schema.clone();
+    }
+    let mut normalized = schema.clone();
+    let mut descriptor_children = VecDeque::new();
+    let mut field_index = 0;
+    while descriptor_children.len() < missing_descriptor_count
+        && field_index + expected.len() <= normalized.fields.len()
+    {
+        if normalized.fields[field_index..field_index + expected.len()]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(expected)
+            .all(|(field, expected)| descriptor_child_matches(field, expected))
+        {
+            descriptor_children.push_back(
+                normalized
+                    .fields
+                    .drain(field_index..field_index + expected.len())
+                    .collect(),
+            );
+        } else {
+            field_index += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    attach_blob_descriptor_children(&mut normalized.fields, &mut descriptor_children);
+    normalized
+}
+
+fn validate_blob_id_range(blob_ids: Option<&Range<u32>>) -> Result<()> {
+    if let Some(blob_ids) = blob_ids
+        && (blob_ids.start == 0 || blob_ids.start >= blob_ids.end)
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "part Blob ID range must be non-empty and start at 1 or greater, got {}..{}",
+            blob_ids.start, blob_ids.end
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn validate_blob_descriptors(
+    input: &EncodedFileInput,
+    metadata: &CachedFileMetadata,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    blob_ids: Option<&Range<u32>>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let projected_schema = descriptor_projection_schema(schema);
+    let blob_field_ids = projected_schema
+        .fields_pre_order()
+        .filter(|field| field.is_blob_v2())
+        .map(|field| field.id)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let unique_blob_field_ids = blob_field_ids.iter().copied().collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+    if unique_blob_field_ids.len() != blob_field_ids.len()
+        || unique_blob_field_ids
+            .first()
+            .is_some_and(|field_id| *field_id < 0)
+    {
+        return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+            input.path().clone(),
+            "Blob v2 fields in a data-file part must have unique non-negative field IDs",
+        ));
+    }
+    let blob_schema = projected_schema.project_by_ids(&blob_field_ids, true);
+    let (field_ids, column_indices) =
+        versions::data_file_columns(metadata.version, &projected_schema);
+    let field_id_to_column_index = field_ids
+        .into_iter()
+        .zip(column_indices)
+        .filter_map(|(field_id, column_index)| {
+            (field_id >= 0 && column_index >= 0).then_some((field_id as u32, column_index as u32))
+        })
+        .collect::<BTreeMap<_, _>>();
+    let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_field_ids(
+        metadata.version,
+        &blob_schema,
+        &field_id_to_column_index,
+    )?;
+    let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+        input.scheduler(),
+        Some(projection),
+        Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        Default::default(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let mut batches = reader
+        .read_stream(
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            8192,
+            4,
+            FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+    while let Some(batch) = batches.try_next().await? {
+        let selected = vec![true; batch.num_rows()];
+        for (field, array) in batch.schema().fields().iter().zip(batch.columns()) {
+            validate_blob_field(field.as_ref(), array, &selected, blob_ids, input.path())?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_blob_field(
+    field: &ArrowField,
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+    selected: &[bool],
+    blob_ids: Option<&Range<u32>>,
+    path: &object_store::path::Path,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if field.is_blob() {
+        let descriptors = array.as_struct();
+        let kinds = descriptors
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::corrupt_file(path.clone(), "Blob v2 descriptor has no kind"))?
+            .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+        let positions = descriptors
+            .column_by_name("position")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::corrupt_file(path.clone(), "Blob v2 descriptor has no position"))?
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+        let sizes = descriptors
+            .column_by_name("size")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::corrupt_file(path.clone(), "Blob v2 descriptor has no size"))?
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+        let ids = descriptors
+            .column_by_name("blob_id")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::corrupt_file(path.clone(), "Blob v2 descriptor has no blob_id"))?
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt32Type>();
+        for (row, is_selected) in selected.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+            if !is_selected || descriptors.is_null(row) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let kind = BlobKind::try_from(kinds.value(row))?;
+            match kind {
+                BlobKind::Inline if sizes.value(row) > 0 => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "part at '{}' contains a non-empty Inline Blob v2 descriptor at row {row}; data-file part concatenation requires Packed or Dedicated storage",
+                        path
+                    )));
+                }
+                BlobKind::Packed | BlobKind::Dedicated => {
+                    let blob_id = ids.value(row);
+                    let Some(blob_ids) = blob_ids else {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "part at '{}' contains managed Blob ID {blob_id} at row {row} but no Blob ID range was provided",
+                            path
+                        )));
+                    };
+                    if !blob_ids.contains(&blob_id) {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "part at '{}' contains managed Blob ID {blob_id} at row {row}, outside declared range {}..{}",
+                            path, blob_ids.start, blob_ids.end
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    if kind == BlobKind::Dedicated && positions.value(row) != 0 {
+                        return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                            path.clone(),
+                            format!(
+                                "Dedicated Blob descriptor at row {row} has non-zero position {}",
+                                positions.value(row)
+                            ),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+                BlobKind::Managed | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase => {
+                    let uris = descriptors
+                        .column_by_name("blob_uri")
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::corrupt_file(path.clone(), "Managed descriptor has no blob_uri")
+                        })?
+                        .as_string::<i32>();
+                    lance_core::utils::blob::validate_managed_reference(
+                        uris.value(row),
+                        positions.value(row),
+                        sizes.value(row),
+                    )?;
+                }
+                BlobKind::Inline | BlobKind::External => {}
+            }
+        }
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    match field.data_type() {
+        ArrowDataType::Struct(children) => {
+            let struct_array = array.as_struct();
+            let child_selected = selected
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(row, is_selected)| is_selected && struct_array.is_valid(row))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            for (child, child_array) in children.iter().zip(struct_array.columns()) {
+                validate_blob_field(child.as_ref(), child_array, &child_selected, blob_ids, path)?;
+            }
+        }
+        ArrowDataType::List(child) => {
+            let list = array.as_list::<i32>();
+            let mut child_selected = vec![false; list.values().len()];
+            for (row, is_selected) in selected.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+                if is_selected && list.is_valid(row) {
+                    let start = list.value_offsets()[row] as usize;
+                    let end = list.value_offsets()[row + 1] as usize;
+                    child_selected[start..end].fill(true);
+                }
+            }
+            validate_blob_field(
+                child.as_ref(),
+                list.values(),
+                &child_selected,
+                blob_ids,
+                path,
+            )?;
+        }
+        ArrowDataType::LargeList(child) => {
+            let list = array.as_list::<i64>();
+            let mut child_selected = vec![false; list.values().len()];
+            for (row, is_selected) in selected.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+                if is_selected && list.is_valid(row) {
+                    let start = list.value_offsets()[row] as usize;
+                    let end = list.value_offsets()[row + 1] as usize;
+                    child_selected[start..end].fill(true);
+                }
+            }
+            validate_blob_field(
+                child.as_ref(),
+                list.values(),
+                &child_selected,
+                blob_ids,
+                path,
+            )?;
+        }
+        _ => {}
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// The exact file grammar and schema required for concatenated output.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct FileConcatTarget {
+    /// Exact output grammar. Release aliases are resolved before this boundary.
+    pub version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    /// Complete schema stored in every input and regenerated in the output.
+    pub schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    blob_target_id: Option<BlobTargetId>,
+}
+
+impl FileConcatTarget {
+    /// Create a concatenation target.
+    pub fn new(version: ConcreteFileVersion, schema: Arc<Schema>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            version,
+            schema,
+            blob_target_id: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Bind Blob-bearing parts to one caller-defined final target.
+    pub fn with_blob_target_id(mut self, blob_target_id: BlobTargetId) -> Self {
+        self.blob_target_id = Some(blob_target_id);
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// Runtime controls for encoded-file concatenation.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct FileConcatOptions {
+    /// Maximum page-buffer bytes requested in one read batch.
+    pub read_batch_bytes: usize,
+    /// Options passed to the exact-version footer writer.
+    pub writer_options: FileWriterOptions,
+}
+
+impl Default for FileConcatOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            read_batch_bytes: 16 * 1024 * 1024,
+            writer_options: FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Metadata describing the complete file represented by a concat result.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct FileConcatOutput {
+    /// Exact grammar of the completed or reused file.
+    pub version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    /// Total physical rows in input order.
+    pub num_rows: u64,
+    /// Size of the completed or reused object.
+    pub size_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+/// A compatibility reason that requires a caller-controlled decode/re-encode fallback.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum FileConcatReason {
+    /// Lance v1 does not support encoded-file concatenation.
+    LegacyVersion,
+    /// An input uses a different exact grammar than the target.
+    VersionMismatch {
+        /// Zero-based input position.
+        input_index: usize,
+        /// Version found in the file footer.
+        actual: ConcreteFileVersion,
+        /// Version requested by the target.
+        expected: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    },
+    /// An input's persisted schema differs from the target schema.
+    SchemaMismatch {
+        /// Zero-based input position.
+        input_index: usize,
+    },
+    /// Inputs do not describe the same physical columns.
+    ColumnLayoutMismatch {
+        /// Zero-based input position.
+        input_index: usize,
+        /// Zero-based physical column when one could be identified.
+        column_index: Option<usize>,
+    },
+    /// A column-level encoding cannot safely combine its buffers.
+    ColumnEncodingMismatch {
+        /// Zero-based input position.
+        input_index: usize,
+        /// Zero-based physical column.
+        column_index: usize,
+    },
+    /// A column uses file-level buffers whose page references cannot be relocated.
+    ColumnBuffers {
+        /// Zero-based input position.
+        input_index: usize,
+        /// Zero-based physical column.
+        column_index: usize,
+        /// Number of column buffers referenced by the column metadata.
+        count: usize,
+    },
+    /// A file contains global buffers whose relocation semantics are not defined.
+    ExtraGlobalBuffers {
+        /// Zero-based input position.
+        input_index: usize,
+        /// Number of global buffers, including the schema descriptor.
+        count: usize,
+    },
+    /// The schema contains offsets into external blob storage.
+    BlobColumns,
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for FileConcatReason {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::LegacyVersion => f.write_str("Lance v1 files cannot be concatenated"),
+            Self::VersionMismatch {
+                input_index,
+                actual,
+                expected,
+            } => write!(
+                f,
+                "input {input_index} has file version {actual}, expected {expected}"
+            ),
+            Self::SchemaMismatch { input_index } => {
+                write!(f, "input {input_index} has a different file schema")
+            }
+            Self::ColumnLayoutMismatch {
+                input_index,
+                column_index,
+            } => match column_index {
+                Some(column_index) => write!(
+                    f,
+                    "input {input_index} has a different layout for physical column {column_index}"
+                ),
+                None => write!(
+                    f,
+                    "input {input_index} has a different physical column count"
+                ),
+            },
+            Self::ColumnEncodingMismatch {
+                input_index,
+                column_index,
+            } => write!(
+                f,
+                "input {input_index} has an incompatible encoding for physical column {column_index}"
+            ),
+            Self::ColumnBuffers {
+                input_index,
+                column_index,
+                count,
+            } => write!(
+                f,
+                "input {input_index} physical column {column_index} has {count} column buffers whose references cannot be relocated"
+            ),
+            Self::ExtraGlobalBuffers { input_index, count } => write!(
+                f,
+                "input {input_index} has {count} global buffers; only the schema descriptor is supported"
+            ),
+            Self::BlobColumns => {
+                f.write_str("schemas containing blob columns cannot be concatenated")
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Result of one encoded-file concatenation attempt.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum FileConcatResult {
+    /// A new ordinary Lance file was written.
+    Written(FileConcatOutput),
+    /// One compatible complete input already is the requested output.
+    Reused(usize, FileConcatOutput),
+    /// Compatibility was rejected before the output factory was called.
+    Unsupported(FileConcatReason),
+}
+
+struct PreparedInput<'a> {
+    input: &'a EncodedFileInput,
+    metadata: &'a CachedFileMetadata,
+    schema: &'a Schema,
+}
+
+fn encoded_column_encoding(column: &ColumnInfo) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    Ok(Any::from_msg(&column.encoding)?.encode_to_vec())
+}
+
+fn check_compatibility(
+    target: &FileConcatTarget,
+    inputs: &[PreparedInput<'_>],
+    allow_blob_columns: bool,
+) -> Result<Option<FileConcatReason>> {
+    if !allow_blob_columns
+        && target
+            .schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .any(|field| field.is_blob())
+    {
+        return Ok(Some(FileConcatReason::BlobColumns));
+    }
+
+    let Some(first) = inputs.first() else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "concat_files requires at least one complete input file",
+        ));
+    };
+    let baseline_columns = &first.metadata.column_infos;
+    let expected_schema = if allow_blob_columns {
+        descriptor_projection_schema(target.schema.as_ref())
+    } else {
+        target.schema.as_ref().clone()
+    };
+    let baseline_encodings = baseline_columns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|column| encoded_column_encoding(column))
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+    for (input_index, prepared) in inputs.iter().enumerate() {
+        let metadata = &prepared.metadata;
+        if let Some(expected_num_rows) = prepared.input.expected_num_rows
+            && metadata.num_rows != expected_num_rows
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "input {input_index} at '{}' has {} physical rows but {} were expected",
+                prepared.input.path(),
+                metadata.num_rows,
+                expected_num_rows
+            )));
+        }
+        if metadata.version != target.version {
+            return Ok(Some(FileConcatReason::VersionMismatch {
+                input_index,
+                actual: metadata.version,
+                expected: target.version,
+            }));
+        }
+        if prepared.schema != &expected_schema {
+            return Ok(Some(FileConcatReason::SchemaMismatch { input_index }));
+        }
+        let normalized_rows =
+            versions::validate_external_metadata(metadata.version, prepared.schema, metadata)
+                .map_err(|error| {
+                    Error::corrupt_file(
+                        prepared.input.path().clone(),
+                        format!("input {input_index} has incomplete file metadata: {error}"),
+                    )
+                })?;
+        if normalized_rows != metadata.num_rows {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                prepared.input.path().clone(),
+                format!(
+                    "input {input_index} descriptor reports {} physical rows but its columns normalize to {normalized_rows}",
+                    metadata.num_rows
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if metadata.file_buffers.len() > 1 {
+            return Ok(Some(FileConcatReason::ExtraGlobalBuffers {
+                input_index,
+                count: metadata.file_buffers.len(),
+            }));
+        }
+        if metadata.column_infos.len() != baseline_columns.len() {
+            return Ok(Some(FileConcatReason::ColumnLayoutMismatch {
+                input_index,
+                column_index: None,
+            }));
+        }
+        for (column_index, (column, baseline)) in metadata
+            .column_infos
+            .iter()
+            .zip(baseline_columns)
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            if !column.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.is_empty() {
+                return Ok(Some(FileConcatReason::ColumnBuffers {
+                    input_index,
+                    column_index,
+                    count: column.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len(),
+                }));
+            }
+            if column.index != baseline.index {
+                return Ok(Some(FileConcatReason::ColumnLayoutMismatch {
+                    input_index,
+                    column_index: Some(column_index),
+                }));
+            }
+            if encoded_column_encoding(column)? != baseline_encodings[column_index] {
+                return Ok(Some(FileConcatReason::ColumnEncodingMismatch {
+                    input_index,
+                    column_index,
+                }));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(None)
+}
+
+async fn copy_page_buffers(
+    writer: &mut crate::writer::FileWriter,
+    scheduler: &FileScheduler,
+    pages: &[PageInfo],
+    read_batch_bytes: u64,
+    input_index: usize,
+    column_index: usize,
+    row_offset: u64,
+) -> Result<Vec<PageInfo>> {
+    let mut copied = Vec::with_capacity(pages.len());
+    let mut page_index = 0;
+    while page_index < pages.len() {
+        let batch_start = page_index;
+        let mut batch_bytes = 0u64;
+        let mut batch_ranges = Vec::new();
+        let mut batch_buffer_counts = Vec::new();
+        while page_index < pages.len() {
+            let page = &pages[page_index];
+            let page_bytes = page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().try_fold(
+                0u64,
+                |total, (offset, size)| {
+                    offset.checked_add(*size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::corrupt_file(
+                            scheduler.reader().path().clone(),
+                            format!(
+                                "input {input_index} column {column_index} page {page_index} buffer range overflows"
+                            ),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    total.checked_add(*size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::corrupt_file(
+                            scheduler.reader().path().clone(),
+                            format!(
+                                "input {input_index} column {column_index} page {page_index} buffer sizes overflow"
+                            ),
+                        )
+                    })
+                },
+            )?;
+            if page_index > batch_start
+                && batch_bytes
+                    .checked_add(page_bytes)
+                    .is_none_or(|total| total > read_batch_bytes)
+            {
+                break;
+            }
+            batch_bytes = batch_bytes.checked_add(page_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file(
+                    scheduler.reader().path().clone(),
+                    format!("input {input_index} column {column_index} read batch size overflows"),
+                )
+            })?;
+            batch_buffer_counts.push(page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len());
+            batch_ranges.extend(
+                page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|(_, size)| *size > 0)
+                    .map(|(offset, size)| *offset..(*offset + *size)),
+            );
+            page_index += 1;
+        }
+
+        let batch_data = if batch_ranges.is_empty() {
+            Vec::new()
+        } else {
+            scheduler.submit_request(batch_ranges, 0).await?
+        };
+        let mut batch_data = batch_data.into_iter();
+        for (relative_page_index, (page, buffer_count)) in pages[batch_start..page_index]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(batch_buffer_counts)
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            let source_page_index = batch_start + relative_page_index;
+            let mut relocated_buffers = Vec::with_capacity(buffer_count);
+            for (buffer_index, (_, size)) in page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().enumerate() {
+                let data = if *size == 0 {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    let data = batch_data.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::io(format!(
+                            "short read for input {input_index} column {column_index} page {source_page_index} buffer {buffer_index}: expected {size} bytes"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    if data.len() as u64 != *size {
+                        return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                            "short read for input {input_index} column {column_index} page {source_page_index} buffer {buffer_index}: expected {size} bytes, got {}",
+                            data.len()
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    Some(data)
+                };
+                relocated_buffers.push(
+                    writer
+                        .write_external_buffer(data.as_deref().unwrap_or_default())
+                        .await?,
+                );
+            }
+            copied.push(PageInfo {
+                num_rows: page.num_rows,
+                priority: page.priority.checked_add(row_offset).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "input {input_index} column {column_index} page {source_page_index} priority overflows after row relocation"
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?,
+                encoding: page.encoding.clone(),
+                buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc::from(relocated_buffers),
+            });
+        }
+        if batch_data.next().is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "read for input {input_index} column {column_index} returned more buffers than requested"
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(copied)
+}
+
+async fn concat_prepared<Factory, FactoryFuture>(
+    target: &FileConcatTarget,
+    prepared: &[PreparedInput<'_>],
+    allow_blob_columns: bool,
+    reuse_single_input: bool,
+    output_factory: Factory,
+    options: FileConcatOptions,
+) -> Result<FileConcatResult>
+where
+    Factory: FnOnce() -> FactoryFuture,
+    FactoryFuture: Future<Output = Result<Box<dyn ObjectWriter>>>,
+{
+    if options.read_batch_bytes == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "FileConcatOptions.read_batch_bytes must be greater than zero",
+        ));
+    }
+    if let Some(reason) = check_compatibility(target, prepared, allow_blob_columns)? {
+        return Ok(FileConcatResult::Unsupported(reason));
+    }
+
+    let total_rows = prepared.iter().try_fold(0u64, |total, input| {
+        total.checked_add(input.metadata.num_rows).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source("concat_files total physical row count overflows".into())
+        })
+    })?;
+    if prepared.len() == 1 && reuse_single_input {
+        return Ok(FileConcatResult::Reused(
+            0,
+            FileConcatOutput {
+                version: target.version,
+                num_rows: total_rows,
+                size_bytes: prepared[0].metadata.file_size_bytes,
+            },
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let object_writer = output_factory().await?;
+    let mut writer =
+        versions::create_lazy_writer(target.version, object_writer, options.writer_options)?;
+    let write_result: Result<FileWriteSummary> = async {
+        let column_count = prepared[0].metadata.column_infos.len();
+        let mut output_pages = std::iter::repeat_with(Vec::new)
+            .take(column_count)
+            .collect::<Vec<Vec<PageInfo>>>();
+        let mut row_offset = 0u64;
+
+        for (input_index, prepared_input) in prepared.iter().enumerate() {
+            for (column_index, column) in prepared_input.metadata.column_infos.iter().enumerate() {
+                let has_existing_pages = !output_pages[column_index].is_empty();
+                versions::copy_external_metadata_column(
+                    target.version,
+                    target.schema.as_ref(),
+                    column_index,
+                    has_existing_pages,
+                    || async {
+                        let pages = copy_page_buffers(
+                            &mut writer,
+                            &prepared_input.input.scheduler,
+                            &column.page_infos,
+                            options.read_batch_bytes as u64,
+                            input_index,
+                            column_index,
+                            row_offset,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        output_pages[column_index].extend(pages);
+
+                        Ok(())
+                    },
+                )
+                .await?;
+            }
+            row_offset = row_offset
+                .checked_add(prepared_input.metadata.num_rows)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source("concat_files physical row offset overflows".into())
+                })?;
+        }
+
+        let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(column_count);
+        for (column_index, pages) in output_pages.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            versions::finalize_external_metadata_column(
+                target.version,
+                target.schema.as_ref(),
+                column_index,
+                pages,
+                total_rows,
+            )?;
+            let baseline = &prepared[0].metadata.column_infos[column_index];
+            columns.push(Arc::new(ColumnInfo::new(
+                baseline.index,
+                Arc::from(std::mem::take(pages)),
+                Vec::new(),
+                baseline.encoding.clone(),
+            )));
+        }
+        // The schema descriptor is the first global buffer and must start at
+        // the page-buffer alignment required by the reader.
+        writer.write_external_buffer(&[]).await?;
+        writer.initialize_with_external_columns(
+            target.schema.as_ref().clone(),
+            &columns,
+            total_rows,
+        )?;
+        writer.finish().await
+    }
+    .await;
+
+    match write_result {
+        Ok(summary) => Ok(FileConcatResult::Written(FileConcatOutput {
+            version: target.version,
+            num_rows: summary.num_rows,
+            size_bytes: summary.size_bytes,
+        })),
+        Err(error) => {
+            writer.abort().await;
+            Err(error)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Concatenate complete compatible encoded files in the supplied order.
+///
+/// Metadata is read exactly once per input. The factory is invoked only after
+/// all compatibility checks succeed and is never invoked for [`FileConcatResult::Reused`]
+/// or [`FileConcatResult::Unsupported`]. Page payloads are copied without Arrow
+/// decoding; offsets, priorities, exact-version structural metadata, and the
+/// footer are regenerated.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use std::sync::Arc;
+/// # use lance_core::Result;
+/// # use lance_file::concat::{concat_files, EncodedFileInput, FileConcatOptions, FileConcatResult, FileConcatTarget};
+/// # use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+/// # use object_store::path::Path;
+/// # async fn stitch(
+/// #     target: &FileConcatTarget,
+/// #     inputs: &[EncodedFileInput],
+/// #     output_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+/// #     output_path: Path,
+/// # ) -> Result<FileConcatResult> {
+/// let store = output_store.clone();
+/// concat_files(
+///     target,
+///     inputs,
+///     move || async move { store.create(&output_path).await },
+///     FileConcatOptions::default(),
+/// )
+/// .await
+/// # }
+/// ```
+pub async fn concat_files<Factory, FactoryFuture>(
+    target: &FileConcatTarget,
+    ordered_inputs: &[EncodedFileInput],
+    output_factory: Factory,
+    options: FileConcatOptions,
+) -> Result<FileConcatResult>
+where
+    Factory: FnOnce() -> FactoryFuture,
+    FactoryFuture: Future<Output = Result<Box<dyn ObjectWriter>>>,
+{
+    if ordered_inputs.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "concat_files requires at least one complete input file",
+        ));
+    }
+    let raw_metadata = futures::future::try_join_all(
+        ordered_inputs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|input| FileReader::read_raw_metadata_for_dispatch(&input.scheduler)),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    if target.version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+        || raw_metadata
+            .iter()
+            .any(|metadata| matches!(metadata, RawFileMetadataOpen::Legacy { .. }))
+    {
+        return Ok(FileConcatResult::Unsupported(
+            FileConcatReason::LegacyVersion,
+        ));
+    }
+    let metadata = raw_metadata
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|metadata| match metadata {
+            RawFileMetadataOpen::Current { version, metadata } => {
+                versions::finish_metadata(version, metadata)
+            }
+            RawFileMetadataOpen::Legacy { .. } => Err(Error::internal(
+                "legacy concat input reached current metadata finalization".to_string(),
+            )),
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    let prepared = ordered_inputs
+        .iter()
+        .zip(metadata.iter())
+        .map(|(input, metadata)| PreparedInput {
+            input,
+            metadata,
+            schema: metadata.file_schema.as_ref(),
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    concat_prepared(target, &prepared, false, true, output_factory, options).await
+}
+
+/// Concatenate validated data-file parts in caller-supplied row order.
+///
+/// Unlike [`concat_files`], this entry point accepts Blob v2 columns because
+/// every [`DataFilePart`] has already rejected file-relative Inline payloads
+/// and validated managed descriptors against an explicit ID lease. Leases from
+/// different parts must not overlap. No logical values or Blob payloads are
+/// decoded and re-encoded during concatenation.
+pub async fn concat_data_file_parts<Factory, FactoryFuture>(
+    target: &FileConcatTarget,
+    ordered_parts: &[DataFilePart],
+    output_factory: Factory,
+    options: FileConcatOptions,
+) -> Result<FileConcatResult>
+where
+    Factory: FnOnce() -> FactoryFuture,
+    FactoryFuture: Future<Output = Result<Box<dyn ObjectWriter>>>,
+{
+    if ordered_parts.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "concat_data_file_parts requires at least one data-file part",
+        ));
+    }
+    for (part_index, part) in ordered_parts.iter().enumerate() {
+        if part.blob_target_id != target.blob_target_id {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "part {part_index} Blob target ID {:?} does not match target ID {:?}",
+                part.blob_target_id.as_ref().map(BlobTargetId::as_str),
+                target.blob_target_id.as_ref().map(BlobTargetId::as_str)
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    let mut ranges = ordered_parts
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter_map(|(part_index, part)| {
+            part.blob_ids
+                .clone()
+                .map(|range| (range.start, range.end, part_index))
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    ranges.sort_unstable_by_key(|(start, _, _)| *start);
+    for pair in ranges.windows(2) {
+        let (left_start, left_end, left_index) = pair[0];
+        let (right_start, right_end, right_index) = pair[1];
+        if right_start < left_end {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "part Blob ID ranges overlap: part {left_index} uses {left_start}..{left_end}, part {right_index} uses {right_start}..{right_end}"
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let prepared = ordered_parts
+        .iter()
+        .map(|part| PreparedInput {
+            input: &part.input,
+            metadata: part.metadata.as_ref(),
+            schema: part.schema.as_ref(),
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    concat_prepared(target, &prepared, true, false, output_factory, options).await
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjFile;
+    use lance_io::{
+        object_store::ObjectStore,
+        scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig},
+        traits::Writer,
+        utils::CachedFileSize,
+    };
+    use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    async fn write_file(
+        store: &Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        path: &object_store::path::Path,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+        values: &[i32],
+    ) -> Arc<Schema> {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, values.to_vec())).unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::try_from(batch.schema_ref().as_ref()).unwrap());
+        let mut writer = versions::create_writer(
+            version,
+            store.create(path).await.unwrap(),
+            schema.as_ref().clone(),
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        schema
+    }
+
+    async fn input(
+        store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        path: &object_store::path::Path,
+        expected_num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> EncodedFileInput {
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(store, SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing());
+        let file = scheduler
+            .open_file(path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        EncodedFileInput::new(file).with_expected_num_rows(expected_num_rows)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn concat_writes_relocated_metadata_and_reuses_single_input() {
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let first_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let second_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let output_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let schema = write_file(&store, &first_path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[1, 2, 3]).await;
+        write_file(&store, &second_path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[4, 5]).await;
+        let inputs = vec![
+            input(store.clone(), &first_path, 3).await,
+            input(store.clone(), &second_path, 2).await,
+        ];
+        let target = FileConcatTarget::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, schema);
+        let factory_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let result = concat_files(
+            &target,
+            &inputs,
+            {
+                let store = store.clone();
+                let output_path = output_path.clone();
+                let factory_calls = factory_calls.clone();
+                move || async move {
+                    factory_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    store.create(&output_path).await
+                }
+            },
+            FileConcatOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            result,
+            FileConcatResult::Written(FileConcatOutput { num_rows: 5, .. })
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(factory_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        let output = input(store.clone(), &output_path, 5).await;
+        let metadata = FileReader::read_all_metadata(&output.scheduler)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metadata.num_rows, 5);
+        assert_eq!(metadata.column_infos[0].page_infos.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            metadata.column_infos[0].page_infos[0].priority
+                < metadata.column_infos[0].page_infos[1].priority
+        );
+
+        let reuse_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let result = concat_files(
+            &target,
+            &inputs[..1],
+            {
+                let reuse_calls = reuse_calls.clone();
+                move || async move {
+                    reuse_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    Err(Error::internal("reuse factory must not be called"))
+                }
+            },
+            FileConcatOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(result, FileConcatResult::Reused(0, _)));
+        assert_eq!(reuse_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)]
+    #[case(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)]
+    #[case(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2)]
+    #[case(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn concat_preserves_schema_metadata(#[case] version: ConcreteFileVersion) {
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let first_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let second_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let output_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+        let mut schema = Schema::try_from(batch.schema_ref().as_ref()).unwrap();
+        schema
+            .metadata
+            .insert("review-key".into(), "review-value".into());
+        let schema = Arc::new(schema);
+
+        for path in [&first_path, &second_path] {
+            let mut writer = versions::create_writer(
+                version,
+                store.create(path).await.unwrap(),
+                schema.as_ref().clone(),
+                FileWriterOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+            writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let inputs = vec![
+            input(store.clone(), &first_path, 2).await,
+            input(store.clone(), &second_path, 2).await,
+        ];
+        let result = concat_files(
+            &FileConcatTarget::new(version, schema),
+            &inputs,
+            {
+                let store = store.clone();
+                let output_path = output_path.clone();
+                move || async move { store.create(&output_path).await }
+            },
+            FileConcatOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(result, FileConcatResult::Written(_)));
+
+        let output = input(store, &output_path, 4).await;
+        let metadata = FileReader::read_all_metadata(&output.scheduler)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata.file_schema.metadata.get("review-key"),
+            Some(&"review-value".to_string())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unsupported_does_not_create_output() {
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let first_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let second_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let schema = write_file(&store, &first_path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[1]).await;
+        write_file(&store, &second_path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2, &[2]).await;
+        let inputs = vec![
+            input(store.clone(), &first_path, 1).await,
+            input(store, &second_path, 1).await,
+        ];
+        let factory_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let result = concat_files(
+            &FileConcatTarget::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, schema),
+            &inputs,
+            {
+                let factory_calls = factory_calls.clone();
+                move || async move {
+                    factory_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    Err(Error::internal("unsupported factory must not be called"))
+                }
+            },
+            FileConcatOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            result,
+            FileConcatResult::Unsupported(FileConcatReason::VersionMismatch { input_index: 1, .. })
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(factory_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn legacy_input_is_unsupported_without_creating_output() {
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let current_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let legacy_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let schema = write_file(&store, &current_path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[1]).await;
+        let mut legacy_writer = store.create(&legacy_path).await.unwrap();
+        legacy_writer
+            .write_all(include_bytes!("../test_data/exact_versions/v1.lance"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        Writer::shutdown(&mut legacy_writer).await.unwrap();
+        let factory_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+
+        let result = concat_files(
+            &FileConcatTarget::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, schema),
+            &[input(store, &legacy_path, 0).await],
+            {
+                let factory_calls = factory_calls.clone();
+                move || async move {
+                    factory_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    Err(Error::internal("legacy factory must not be called"))
+                }
+            },
+            FileConcatOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(matches!(
+            result,
+            FileConcatResult::Unsupported(FileConcatReason::LegacyVersion)
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(factory_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn incompatible_column_buffers_and_incomplete_metadata_are_rejected() {
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let schema = write_file(&store, &path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[1, 2]).await;
+        let encoded_input = input(store, &path, 2).await;
+        let target = FileConcatTarget::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, schema);
+
+        let mut with_column_buffer = FileReader::read_all_metadata(&encoded_input.scheduler)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let column = with_column_buffer.column_infos[0].as_ref();
+        with_column_buffer.column_infos[0] = Arc::new(ColumnInfo::new(
+            column.index,
+            column.page_infos.clone(),
+            vec![(0, 1)],
+            column.encoding.clone(),
+        ));
+        let prepared = [PreparedInput {
+            input: &encoded_input,
+            metadata: &with_column_buffer,
+            schema: with_column_buffer.file_schema.as_ref(),
+        }];
+        assert!(matches!(
+            check_compatibility(&target, &prepared, false).unwrap(),
+            Some(FileConcatReason::ColumnBuffers {
+                input_index: 0,
+                column_index: 0,
+                count: 1
+            })
+        ));
+
+        let mut missing_column = FileReader::read_all_metadata(&encoded_input.scheduler)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        missing_column.column_infos.clear();
+        let prepared = [PreparedInput {
+            input: &encoded_input,
+            metadata: &missing_column,
+            schema: missing_column.file_schema.as_ref(),
+        }];
+        let error = check_compatibility(&target, &prepared, false).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("schema requires 1 physical columns")
+        );
+
+        let mut wrong_rows = FileReader::read_all_metadata(&encoded_input.scheduler)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let column = wrong_rows.column_infos[0].as_ref();
+        let mut pages = column
+            .page_infos
+            .iter()
+            .map(|page| PageInfo {
+                num_rows: page.num_rows,
+                priority: page.priority,
+                encoding: page.encoding.clone(),
+                buffer_offsets_and_sizes: page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.clone(),
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        pages[0].num_rows -= 1;
+        wrong_rows.column_infos[0] = Arc::new(ColumnInfo::new(
+            column.index,
+            Arc::from(pages),
+            Vec::new(),
+            column.encoding.clone(),
+        ));
+        let prepared = [PreparedInput {
+            input: &encoded_input,
+            metadata: &wrong_rows,
+            schema: wrong_rows.file_schema.as_ref(),
+        }];
+        let error = check_compatibility(&target, &prepared, false).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("descriptor reports 2 physical rows")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn data_file_parts_reject_overlapping_blob_leases_before_output() {
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let first_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let second_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let schema = write_file(&store, &first_path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[1]).await;
+        write_file(&store, &second_path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[2]).await;
+        let first = DataFilePart::open(
+            input(store.clone(), &first_path, 1).await,
+            Some(1..10),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let second = DataFilePart::open(input(store, &second_path, 1).await, Some(5..20), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let factory_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+
+        let error = concat_data_file_parts(
+            &FileConcatTarget::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, schema),
+            &[first, second],
+            {
+                let factory_calls = factory_calls.clone();
+                move || async move {
+                    factory_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    Err(Error::internal("overlap factory must not be called"))
+                }
+            },
+            FileConcatOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("part 0 uses 1..10"), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("part 1 uses 5..20"), "{error}");
+        assert_eq!(factory_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn missing_and_corrupt_inputs_are_errors_without_output() {
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let valid_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let missing_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let corrupt_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let schema = write_file(&store, &valid_path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[1, 2]).await;
+        write_file(&store, &missing_path, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[3, 4]).await;
+        let missing_input = input(store.clone(), &missing_path, 2).await;
+        store.delete(&missing_path).await.unwrap();
+
+        let target = FileConcatTarget::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, schema.clone());
+        let factory_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let result = concat_files(
+            &target,
+            &[input(store.clone(), &valid_path, 2).await, missing_input],
+            {
+                let factory_calls = factory_calls.clone();
+                move || async move {
+                    factory_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    Err(Error::internal("error factory must not be called"))
+                }
+            },
+            FileConcatOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert_eq!(factory_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+
+        let mut corrupt_writer = store.create(&corrupt_path).await.unwrap();
+        corrupt_writer.write_all(b"not a Lance file").await.unwrap();
+        Writer::shutdown(&mut corrupt_writer).await.unwrap();
+        let corrupt_input = input(store.clone(), &corrupt_path, 2).await;
+        let result = concat_files(
+            &target,
+            &[input(store, &valid_path, 2).await, corrupt_input],
+            || async { Err(Error::internal("error factory must not be called")) },
+            FileConcatOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/datatypes.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/datatypes.rs
index c0966bf0268..3d84e99267c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/datatypes.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/datatypes.rs
@@ -1,15 +1,9 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use async_recursion::async_recursion;
-use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
 use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
 use lance_core::datatypes::{Dictionary, Encoding, Field, LogicalType, Schema};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_io::traits::Reader;
-use lance_io::utils::{read_binary_array, read_fixed_stride_array};
-use snafu::location;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 
 use crate::format::pb;
@@ -52,6 +46,11 @@ impl From<&pb::Field> for Field {
             } else {
                 None
             },
+            unenforced_clustering_key_position: if field.unenforced_clustering_key_position > 0 {
+                Some(field.unenforced_clustering_key_position)
+            } else {
+                None
+            },
         }
     }
 }
@@ -85,12 +84,42 @@ impl From<&Field> for pb::Field {
             r#type: 0,
             unenforced_primary_key: field.unenforced_primary_key_position.is_some(),
             unenforced_primary_key_position: field.unenforced_primary_key_position.unwrap_or(0),
+            unenforced_clustering_key: false,
+            unenforced_clustering_key_position: field
+                .unenforced_clustering_key_position
+                .unwrap_or(0),
         }
     }
 }
 
 pub struct Fields(pub Vec<pb::Field>);
 
+struct FieldNode {
+    field: Field,
+    child_indices: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+/// Searches in pre-order depth-first order and returns the first matching node,
+/// preserving the legacy parent tie-break for duplicate field IDs.
+fn first_field_index_by_id(
+    nodes: &[FieldNode],
+    root_indices: &[usize],
+    field_id: i32,
+) -> Option<usize> {
+    let mut to_visit = Vec::with_capacity(nodes.len());
+    to_visit.extend(root_indices.iter().rev().copied());
+
+    while let Some(node_index) = to_visit.pop() {
+        let node = &nodes[node_index];
+        if node.field.id == field_id {
+            return Some(node_index);
+        }
+        to_visit.extend(node.child_indices.iter().rev().copied());
+    }
+
+    None
+}
+
 impl From<&Field> for Fields {
     fn from(field: &Field) -> Self {
         let mut protos = vec![pb::Field::from(field)];
@@ -99,24 +128,119 @@ impl From<&Field> for Fields {
     }
 }
 
-/// Convert list of protobuf `Field` to a Schema.
-impl From<&Fields> for Schema {
-    fn from(fields: &Fields) -> Self {
-        let mut schema = Self {
-            fields: vec![],
-            metadata: HashMap::default(),
-        };
+/// Reconstruct a schema from a flat, pre-order protobuf field list.
+///
+/// Parent fields must appear before their children. Historical manifests may
+/// contain duplicate field IDs, so an ID may not identify a unique parent. For
+/// those references, reconstruction preserves the legacy
+/// [`Schema::mut_field_by_id`] tie-break by selecting the first matching field
+/// in pre-order depth-first traversal.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+/// use lance_file::{datatypes::Fields, format::pb};
+///
+/// let field = pb::Field {
+///     id: 0,
+///     parent_id: -1,
+///     name: "value".to_owned(),
+///     logical_type: "int32".to_owned(),
+///     ..Default::default()
+/// };
+/// let fields = Fields(vec![field]);
+/// let schema = Schema::try_from(&fields)?;
+/// assert_eq!(schema.fields[0].name, "value");
+/// # Ok::<(), lance_core::Error>(())
+/// ```
+impl TryFrom<&Fields> for Schema {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(fields: &Fields) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut nodes: Vec<FieldNode> = Vec::with_capacity(fields.0.len());
+        let mut root_indices = Vec::with_capacity(fields.0.len());
+        let mut field_indices: HashMap<i32, Option<usize>> = HashMap::with_capacity(fields.0.len());
+
+        for proto_field in &fields.0 {
+            let parent_index = if proto_field.parent_id == -1 {
+                None
+            } else {
+                let parent_index = match field_indices.get(&proto_field.parent_id) {
+                    Some(Some(parent_index)) => *parent_index,
+                    Some(None) => {
+                        // Duplicate IDs are invalid but occur in historical
+                        // manifests. Match the legacy tree traversal only for
+                        // these ambiguous parent references so valid schemas
+                        // retain the linear fast path.
+                        first_field_index_by_id(&nodes, &root_indices, proto_field.parent_id)
+                            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::internal(format!(
+                                    "Duplicate field id {} has no existing arena node",
+                                    proto_field.parent_id
+                                ))
+                            })?
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                            "Field '{}' (id={}) references parent id {}, which must appear earlier in the protobuf field list",
+                            proto_field.name, proto_field.id, proto_field.parent_id
+                        )));
+                    }
+                };
+                Some(parent_index)
+            };
 
-        fields.0.iter().for_each(|f| {
-            if f.parent_id == -1 {
-                schema.fields.push(Field::from(f));
+            let node_index = nodes.len();
+            if let Some(parent_index) = parent_index {
+                nodes[parent_index].child_indices.push(node_index);
             } else {
-                let parent = schema.mut_field_by_id(f.parent_id).unwrap();
-                parent.children.push(Field::from(f));
+                root_indices.push(node_index);
             }
-        });
+            nodes.push(FieldNode {
+                field: Field::from(proto_field),
+                child_indices: Vec::new(),
+            });
+
+            field_indices
+                .entry(proto_field.id)
+                .and_modify(|field_index| *field_index = None)
+                .or_insert(Some(node_index));
+        }
+
+        let mut fields_by_node = Vec::with_capacity(nodes.len());
+        fields_by_node.resize_with(nodes.len(), || None);
+        for (node_index, mut node) in nodes.into_iter().enumerate().rev() {
+            node.field.children.reserve(node.child_indices.len());
+            for child_index in node.child_indices {
+                let child = fields_by_node
+                    .get_mut(child_index)
+                    .and_then(Option::take)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Schema field arena node {child_index} was not materialized before its parent"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                node.field.children.push(child);
+            }
+            fields_by_node[node_index] = Some(node.field);
+        }
+
+        let fields = root_indices
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|root_index| {
+                fields_by_node[root_index].take().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Schema field arena root node {root_index} was not materialized"
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
 
-        schema
+        Ok(Self {
+            fields,
+            metadata: HashMap::default(),
+        })
     }
 }
 
@@ -125,9 +249,28 @@ pub struct FieldsWithMeta {
     pub metadata: HashMap<String, Vec<u8>>,
 }
 
-/// Convert list of protobuf `Field` and Metadata to a Schema.
-impl From<FieldsWithMeta> for Schema {
-    fn from(fields_with_meta: FieldsWithMeta) -> Self {
+/// Reconstruct a schema from flat protobuf fields and schema metadata.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use std::collections::HashMap;
+///
+/// use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+/// use lance_file::datatypes::{Fields, FieldsWithMeta};
+///
+/// let fields = FieldsWithMeta {
+///     fields: Fields(Vec::new()),
+///     metadata: HashMap::from([("owner".to_owned(), b"lance".to_vec())]),
+/// };
+/// let schema = Schema::try_from(fields)?;
+/// assert_eq!(schema.metadata["owner"], "lance");
+/// # Ok::<(), lance_core::Error>(())
+/// ```
+impl TryFrom<FieldsWithMeta> for Schema {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(fields_with_meta: FieldsWithMeta) -> Result<Self> {
         let lance_metadata = fields_with_meta
             .metadata
             .into_iter()
@@ -137,11 +280,11 @@ impl From<FieldsWithMeta> for Schema {
             })
             .collect();
 
-        let schema_with_fields = Self::from(&fields_with_meta.fields);
-        Self {
+        let schema_with_fields = Self::try_from(&fields_with_meta.fields)?;
+        Ok(Self {
             fields: schema_with_fields.fields,
             metadata: lance_metadata,
-        }
+        })
     }
 }
 
@@ -200,79 +343,29 @@ impl From<Encoding> for pb::Encoding {
     }
 }
 
-#[async_recursion]
-async fn load_field_dictionary<'a>(field: &mut Field, reader: &dyn Reader) -> Result<()> {
-    if let DataType::Dictionary(_, value_type) = field.data_type() {
-        assert!(field.dictionary.is_some());
-        if let Some(dict_info) = field.dictionary.as_mut() {
-            use DataType::*;
-            match value_type.as_ref() {
-                _ if value_type.is_binary_like() => {
-                    dict_info.values = Some(
-                        read_binary_array(
-                            reader,
-                            value_type.as_ref(),
-                            true, // Empty values are null
-                            dict_info.offset,
-                            dict_info.length,
-                            ..,
-                        )
-                        .await?,
-                    );
-                }
-                Int8 | Int16 | Int32 | Int64 | UInt8 | UInt16 | UInt32 | UInt64 => {
-                    dict_info.values = Some(
-                        read_fixed_stride_array(
-                            reader,
-                            value_type.as_ref(),
-                            dict_info.offset,
-                            dict_info.length,
-                            ..,
-                        )
-                        .await?,
-                    );
-                }
-                _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::Schema {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Does not support {} as dictionary value type",
-                            value_type
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-            }
-        } else {
-            panic!("Should not reach here: dictionary field does not load dictionary info")
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    } else {
-        for child in field.children.as_mut_slice() {
-            load_field_dictionary(child, reader).await?;
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-}
-
-/// Load dictionary value array from manifest files.
-// TODO: pub(crate)
-pub async fn populate_schema_dictionary(schema: &mut Schema, reader: &dyn Reader) -> Result<()> {
-    for field in schema.fields.as_mut_slice() {
-        load_field_dictionary(field, reader).await?;
-    }
-    Ok(())
-}
-
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
     use arrow_schema::DataType;
     use arrow_schema::Field as ArrowField;
     use arrow_schema::Fields as ArrowFields;
     use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+    use lance_core::Error;
     use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
 
     use super::{Fields, FieldsWithMeta};
+    use crate::format::pb;
+
+    fn proto_field(id: i32, parent_id: i32, name: String, logical_type: &str) -> pb::Field {
+        pb::Field {
+            id,
+            parent_id,
+            name,
+            logical_type: logical_type.to_owned(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_schema_set_ids() {
@@ -312,7 +405,161 @@ mod tests {
         let expected_schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
         let fields_with_meta: FieldsWithMeta = (&expected_schema).into();
 
-        let schema = Schema::from(fields_with_meta);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(fields_with_meta).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(expected_schema, schema);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reconstruct_wide_nested_schema() {
+        const NUM_STRUCTS: usize = 4096;
+
+        let mut proto_fields = Vec::with_capacity(NUM_STRUCTS * 3);
+        for struct_index in 0..NUM_STRUCTS {
+            let parent_id = (struct_index * 3) as i32;
+            proto_fields.push(proto_field(
+                parent_id,
+                -1,
+                format!("struct_{struct_index}"),
+                "struct",
+            ));
+            proto_fields.push(proto_field(
+                parent_id + 1,
+                parent_id,
+                format!("left_{struct_index}"),
+                "int32",
+            ));
+            proto_fields.push(proto_field(
+                parent_id + 2,
+                parent_id,
+                format!("right_{struct_index}"),
+                "int32",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let fields = Fields(proto_fields);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&fields).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields.len(), NUM_STRUCTS);
+        for (struct_index, field) in schema.fields.iter().enumerate() {
+            let parent_id = (struct_index * 3) as i32;
+            assert_eq!(field.id, parent_id);
+            assert_eq!(field.name, format!("struct_{struct_index}"));
+            assert_eq!(field.children.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(field.children[0].id, parent_id + 1);
+            assert_eq!(field.children[0].name, format!("left_{struct_index}"));
+            assert_eq!(field.children[1].id, parent_id + 2);
+            assert_eq!(field.children[1].name, format!("right_{struct_index}"));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reconstruct_deep_nested_schema() {
+        const DEPTH: usize = 1024;
+
+        let proto_fields = (0..DEPTH)
+            .map(|depth| {
+                proto_field(
+                    depth as i32,
+                    if depth == 0 { -1 } else { depth as i32 - 1 },
+                    format!("level_{depth}"),
+                    if depth + 1 == DEPTH {
+                        "int32"
+                    } else {
+                        "struct"
+                    },
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let fields = Fields(proto_fields);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&fields).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields.len(), 1);
+        let mut field = &schema.fields[0];
+        for depth in 0..DEPTH {
+            assert_eq!(field.id, depth as i32);
+            assert_eq!(field.name, format!("level_{depth}"));
+            if depth + 1 == DEPTH {
+                assert!(field.children.is_empty());
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(field.children.len(), 1);
+                field = &field.children[0];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reconstruct_schema_reports_missing_parent() {
+        let fields = Fields(vec![proto_field(7, 42, "child".to_owned(), "int32")]);
+
+        let error = Schema::try_from(&fields).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::Schema { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(
+                "Field 'child' (id=7) references parent id 42, which must appear earlier"
+            )
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reconstruct_schema_preserves_legacy_duplicate_id_match() {
+        let fields = Fields(vec![
+            proto_field(1, -1, "root_a".to_owned(), "struct"),
+            proto_field(2, -1, "root_b".to_owned(), "struct"),
+            proto_field(2, 1, "nested_duplicate".to_owned(), "struct"),
+            proto_field(3, 2, "child".to_owned(), "int32"),
+        ]);
+
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&fields).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields[0].name, "root_a");
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields[0].children.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields[0].children[0].name, "nested_duplicate");
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields[0].children[0].children.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields[0].children[0].children[0].name, "child");
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields[1].name, "root_b");
+        assert!(schema.fields[1].children.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_clustering_key_roundtrip() {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("region", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    "lance-schema:unenforced-clustering-key:position".to_owned(),
+                    "1".to_owned(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("date", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    "lance-schema:unenforced-clustering-key:position".to_owned(),
+                    "2".to_owned(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Float64, true),
+        ]);
+
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let ck = schema.unenforced_clustering_key();
+        assert_eq!(ck.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(ck[0].name, "region");
+        assert_eq!(ck[1].name, "date");
+
+        // Round-trip through protobuf
+        let fields_with_meta: FieldsWithMeta = (&schema).into();
+        let restored = Schema::try_from(fields_with_meta).unwrap();
+
+        let ck2 = restored.unenforced_clustering_key();
+        assert_eq!(ck2.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(ck2[0].name, "region");
+        assert_eq!(ck2[1].name, "date");
+        assert_eq!(ck2[0].unenforced_clustering_key_position, Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(ck2[1].unenforced_clustering_key_position, Some(2));
+
+        // Non-clustering-key field should not have position
+        let value_field = restored.field("value").unwrap();
+        assert!(!value_field.is_unenforced_clustering_key());
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/io.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/io.rs
index 594ba64817b..86e5189a81d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/io.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/io.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,9 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use lance_encoding::EncodingsIo;
 use lance_io::scheduler::FileScheduler;
 
@@ -29,6 +31,23 @@ impl LanceEncodingsIo {
 }
 
 impl EncodingsIo for LanceEncodingsIo {
+    fn with_bypass_backpressure(&self) -> Option<Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>> {
+        Some(Arc::new(Self {
+            scheduler: self.scheduler.with_bypass_backpressure(),
+            read_chunk_size: self.read_chunk_size,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn with_io_stats(
+        &self,
+        stats: Arc<dyn lance_core::utils::io_stats::IoStatsRecorder>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>> {
+        Some(Arc::new(Self {
+            scheduler: self.scheduler.with_io_stats(stats),
+            read_chunk_size: self.read_chunk_size,
+        }))
+    }
+
     fn submit_request(
         &self,
         ranges: Vec<std::ops::Range<u64>>,
@@ -36,14 +55,27 @@ impl EncodingsIo for LanceEncodingsIo {
     ) -> BoxFuture<'static, lance_core::Result<Vec<bytes::Bytes>>> {
         let mut split_ranges = Vec::new();
         let mut split_indices = Vec::new(); // Track which original range each split came from
+        // Large ranges (above read_chunk_size) will be split into
+        // multiple reads.  Empty ranges will skip the I/O layer
+        // entirely.  If we have either of these we will need to
+        // reassemble our results, inserting empties and merging parts
+        let mut needs_reassembly = false;
 
         // Split large ranges into smaller chunks
         //
         // TODO: consider read_chunk_size before submitting requests.
         for (idx, range) in ranges.iter().enumerate() {
+            if range.start == range.end {
+                // EncodingsIo requires one result per input range. Zero-length
+                // ranges schedule no I/O, so their empty results are restored
+                // after the non-empty requests complete.
+                needs_reassembly = true;
+                continue;
+            }
             let range_size = range.end - range.start;
 
             if range_size > self.read_chunk_size {
+                needs_reassembly = true;
                 let num_chunks = range_size.div_ceil(self.read_chunk_size);
                 let chunk_size = range_size / num_chunks;
 
@@ -68,34 +100,48 @@ impl EncodingsIo for LanceEncodingsIo {
         async move {
             let split_results = fut.await?;
 
-            // Fast path: if no splitting occurred, return results directly
-            if split_results.len() == ranges.len() {
+            if split_results.len() != split_indices.len() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Encoding I/O returned {} results for {} requested range chunks",
+                    split_results.len(),
+                    split_indices.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            if !needs_reassembly {
                 return Ok(split_results);
             }
 
-            // Slow path: reassemble split results
             let mut results = vec![Vec::new(); ranges.len()];
 
-            for (split_result, &orig_idx) in split_results.iter().zip(split_indices.iter()) {
-                results[orig_idx].push(split_result.clone());
+            for (split_result, orig_idx) in split_results.into_iter().zip(split_indices) {
+                results[orig_idx].push(split_result);
             }
 
-            Ok(results
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|chunks| {
-                    if chunks.len() == 1 {
-                        chunks.into_iter().next().unwrap()
-                    } else {
-                        // Concatenate multiple chunks
-                        let total_size: usize = chunks.iter().map(|c| c.len()).sum();
-                        let mut combined = Vec::with_capacity(total_size);
-                        for chunk in chunks {
-                            combined.extend_from_slice(&chunk);
-                        }
-                        bytes::Bytes::from(combined)
+            let mut reassembled = Vec::with_capacity(ranges.len());
+            for (range, chunks) in ranges.iter().zip(results) {
+                if chunks.is_empty() {
+                    if range.start == range.end {
+                        reassembled.push(bytes::Bytes::new());
+                        continue;
                     }
-                })
-                .collect())
+                    return Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Encoding I/O returned no data for non-empty range {}..{}",
+                        range.start, range.end
+                    )));
+                }
+                if chunks.len() == 1 {
+                    reassembled.push(chunks[0].clone());
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                let total_size: usize = chunks.iter().map(|c| c.len()).sum();
+                let mut combined = Vec::with_capacity(total_size);
+                for chunk in chunks {
+                    combined.extend_from_slice(&chunk);
+                }
+                reassembled.push(bytes::Bytes::from(combined));
+            }
+            Ok(reassembled)
         }
         .boxed()
     }
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/lib.rs
index b69f21f7cf0..c1e6714076e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,58 +1,60 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+pub mod concat;
 pub mod datatypes;
 pub mod format;
 pub(crate) mod io;
-pub mod previous;
 pub mod reader;
 pub mod testing;
+pub mod version;
+pub mod versions;
 pub mod writer;
 
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod compatibility_tests;
+
 pub use io::LanceEncodingsIo;
 
 use format::MAGIC;
-pub use lance_encoding::version;
-
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_encoding::version::LanceFileVersion;
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
+use version::ConcreteFileVersion;
 
 pub async fn determine_file_version(
     store: &ObjectStore,
     path: &Path,
     known_size: Option<usize>,
-) -> Result<LanceFileVersion> {
+) -> Result<ConcreteFileVersion> {
     let size = match known_size {
-        None => store.size(path).await.unwrap() as usize,
+        None => usize::try_from(store.size(path).await?).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("file {} is too large for this platform", path))
+        })?,
         Some(size) => size,
     };
     if size < 8 {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!(
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
                 "the file {} does not appear to be a lance file (too small)",
                 path
             )
             .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        ));
     }
     let reader = store.open_with_size(path, size).await?;
     let footer = reader.get_range((size - 8)..size).await?;
     if &footer[4..] != MAGIC {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!(
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
                 "the file {} does not appear to be a lance file (magic mismatch)",
                 path
             )
             .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        ));
     }
     let major_version = u16::from_le_bytes([footer[0], footer[1]]);
     let minor_version = u16::from_le_bytes([footer[2], footer[3]]);
 
-    LanceFileVersion::try_from_major_minor(major_version as u32, minor_version as u32)
+    ConcreteFileVersion::from_footer_numbers(major_version, minor_version)
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/mod.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/previous/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 9031d2b4992..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,9 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-//! Legacy Lance file v1 implementation kept for backwards compatibility.
-
-pub mod format;
-pub mod page_table;
-pub mod reader;
-pub mod writer;
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/reader.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/reader.rs
index 4c48edf5e9e..97ccd54f379 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/reader.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/reader.rs
@@ -2,7 +2,9 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use std::{
+    borrow::Cow,
     collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet},
+    fmt::Debug,
     io::Cursor,
     ops::Range,
     pin::Pin,
@@ -11,45 +13,46 @@ use std::{
 
 use arrow_array::RecordBatchReader;
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+use async_trait::async_trait;
 use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian, ReadBytesExt};
 use bytes::{Bytes, BytesMut};
-use deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
-use futures::{stream::BoxStream, Stream, StreamExt};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, stream::BoxStream};
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
 use lance_encoding::{
+    EncodingsIo,
     decoder::{
-        schedule_and_decode, schedule_and_decode_blocking, ColumnInfo, DecoderConfig,
-        DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression, PageEncoding, PageInfo, ReadBatchTask, RequestedRows,
-        SchedulerDecoderConfig,
+        ColumnInfo, DecoderConfig, DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression, PageEncoding, ReadBatchTask,
+        RequestedRows, SchedulerDecoderConfig, schedule_and_decode, schedule_and_decode_blocking,
     },
     encoder::EncodedBatch,
-    version::LanceFileVersion,
-    EncodingsIo,
 };
 use log::debug;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use prost::{Message, Name};
-use snafu::location;
+use prost::Message;
 
 use lance_core::{
-    cache::LanceCache,
-    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
     Error, Result,
+    cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache},
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
 };
 use lance_encoding::format::pb as pbenc;
 use lance_encoding::format::pb21 as pbenc21;
 use lance_io::{
+    ReadBatchParams,
     scheduler::FileScheduler,
     stream::{RecordBatchStream, RecordBatchStreamAdapter},
-    ReadBatchParams,
 };
 
 use crate::{
     datatypes::{Fields, FieldsWithMeta},
-    format::{pb, pbfile, MAGIC, MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION},
+    format::{MAGIC, pb, pbfile},
     io::LanceEncodingsIo,
-    writer::PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+    versions,
 };
 
+pub(crate) mod structural;
+
 /// Default chunk size for reading large pages (8MiB)
 /// Pages larger than this will be split into multiple chunks during read
 pub const DEFAULT_READ_CHUNK_SIZE: u64 = 8 * 1024 * 1024;
@@ -64,6 +67,39 @@ pub struct BufferDescriptor {
     pub size: u64,
 }
 
+impl BufferDescriptor {
+    fn checked_range(&self, buffer_index: usize, file_len: u64) -> Result<Range<u64>> {
+        let end = self.position.checked_add(self.size).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Global buffer {} range overflows: position={}, size={}",
+                    buffer_index, self.position, self.size
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if self.position > file_len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Global buffer {} position {} is outside file of size {}",
+                    buffer_index, self.position, file_len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if end > file_len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Global buffer {} range {}..{} is outside file of size {}",
+                    buffer_index, self.position, end, file_len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(self.position..end)
+    }
+}
+
 /// Statistics summarize some of the file metadata for quick summary info
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct FileStatistics {
@@ -102,34 +138,146 @@ pub struct CachedFileMetadata {
     pub num_global_buffer_bytes: u64,
     /// The number of bytes contained in the CMO and GBO tables
     pub num_footer_bytes: u64,
+    /// The major version number stored in the file footer.
     pub major_version: u16,
+    /// The minor version number stored in the file footer.
     pub minor_version: u16,
+    pub version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    /// The actual total file size in bytes, as reported by the object store.
+    pub file_size_bytes: u64,
+    /// User global buffers (index >= 1) whose bytes were already captured by the
+    /// tail read that `read_all_metadata` performs at open, keyed by buffer index.
+    ///
+    /// All global buffers are laid out contiguously starting at the schema, so on
+    /// small/medium files they land inside the captured tail window. Retaining
+    /// those bytes lets `read_global_buffer` serve them with zero additional I/O.
+    /// The bytes are copied out of the tail (rather than sliced) so the much
+    /// larger tail allocation can be dropped — we only hold what we will serve.
+    ///
+    /// The schema (buffer 0) is excluded: it is already decoded at open and is
+    /// not fetched through `read_global_buffer`. Buffers that fall outside the
+    /// window (large files) are absent here and fall back to a dedicated read.
+    pub retained_global_buffers: BTreeMap<u32, Bytes>,
+}
+
+impl CachedFileMetadata {
+    /// Total file size in bytes.
+    pub fn file_size(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.file_size_bytes
+    }
+}
+
+fn column_metadata_deep_size(column_metadatas: &[pbfile::ColumnMetadata]) -> usize {
+    column_metadatas
+        .iter()
+        .map(|cm| cm.encoded_len() * 4)
+        .sum::<usize>()
+        + std::mem::size_of_val(column_metadatas)
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for CachedFileMetadata {
-    // TODO: include size for `column_metadatas` and `column_infos`.
     fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        self.file_schema.deep_size_of_children(context)
-            + self
-                .file_buffers
-                .iter()
-                .map(|file_buffer| file_buffer.deep_size_of_children(context))
-                .sum::<usize>()
+        let schema_size = self.file_schema.deep_size_of_children(context);
+
+        let buffers_size: usize = self
+            .file_buffers
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fb| fb.deep_size_of_children(context))
+            .sum();
+
+        // column_metadatas is Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata> (protobuf generated,
+        // does not implement DeepSizeOf). We use prost::Message::encoded_len()
+        // as a proxy for in-memory size. The decoded representation is typically
+        // several times larger than the wire format due to heap-allocated
+        // repeated/string/bytes fields, so we apply a 4x multiplier.
+        let column_metadatas_size = column_metadata_deep_size(self.column_metadatas.as_slice());
+
+        // column_infos is Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>. Each ColumnInfo contains
+        // page_infos (with protobuf PageEncoding), buffer offsets, and a
+        // column-level ColumnEncoding protobuf.
+        let column_infos_size = self.column_infos.deep_size_of_children(context);
+
+        // Global buffer bytes retained for zero-IO reads (copied out of the tail).
+        let retained_buffers_size = self.retained_global_buffers.deep_size_of_children(context);
+
+        schema_size
+            + buffers_size
+            + column_metadatas_size
+            + column_infos_size
+            + retained_buffers_size
+    }
+}
+
+/// Lightweight file metadata used to locate per-column metadata on demand.
+///
+/// This contains the file-level schema, row count, global buffer descriptors,
+/// and column metadata offset table. Unlike [`CachedFileMetadata`], it does not
+/// hold decoded metadata for every column.
+#[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct FileMetadataIndex {
+    pub(crate) file_schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    pub(crate) num_rows: u64,
+    pub(crate) file_buffers: Vec<BufferDescriptor>,
+    pub(crate) column_metadata_offsets: Arc<[(u64, u64)]>,
+    pub(crate) num_columns: u32,
+    pub(crate) version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    pub(crate) file_size_bytes: u64,
+    pub(crate) retained_global_buffers: BTreeMap<u32, Bytes>,
+}
+
+impl FileMetadataIndex {
+    /// Returns the total size of the file in bytes.
+    pub fn file_size(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.file_size_bytes
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the number of physical columns in the file.
+    pub fn num_columns(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.num_columns
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct CachedColumnMetadata {
+    column_metadata: pbfile::ColumnMetadata,
+    column_info: Arc<ColumnInfo>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CachedColumnMetadata {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        column_metadata_deep_size(std::slice::from_ref(&self.column_metadata))
+            + self.column_info.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct ColumnMetadataCacheKey {
+    column_index: u32,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for ColumnMetadataCacheKey {
+    type ValueType = CachedColumnMetadata;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        Cow::Owned(format!("column_metadata/{}", self.column_index))
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "ColumnMetadata"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.file.column-metadata-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.column_index);
     }
 }
 
 impl CachedFileMetadata {
-    pub fn version(&self) -> LanceFileVersion {
-        match (self.major_version, self.minor_version) {
-            (0, 3) => LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
-            (2, 0) => LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
-            (2, 1) => LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
-            (2, 2) => LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
-            _ => panic!(
-                "Unsupported version: {}.{}",
-                self.major_version, self.minor_version
-            ),
-        }
+    pub fn version(&self) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+        self.version
     }
 }
 
@@ -202,128 +350,14 @@ pub struct ReaderProjection {
 }
 
 impl ReaderProjection {
-    fn from_field_ids_helper<'a>(
-        file_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        fields: impl Iterator<Item = &'a Field>,
-        field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
-        column_indices: &mut Vec<u32>,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        for field in fields {
-            let is_structural = file_version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1;
-            // In the 2.0 system we needed ids for intermediate fields.  In 2.1+
-            // we only need ids for leaf fields.
-            if !is_structural
-                || field.children.is_empty()
-                || field.is_blob()
-                || field.is_packed_struct()
-            {
-                if let Some(column_idx) = field_id_to_column_index.get(&(field.id as u32)).copied()
-                {
-                    column_indices.push(column_idx);
-                }
-            }
-            // Don't recurse into children if the field is a blob or packed struct in 2.1
-            if !is_structural || (!field.is_blob() && !field.is_packed_struct()) {
-                Self::from_field_ids_helper(
-                    file_version,
-                    field.children.iter(),
-                    field_id_to_column_index,
-                    column_indices,
-                )?;
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    /// Creates a projection using a mapping from field IDs to column indices
-    ///
-    /// You can obtain such a mapping when the file is written using the
-    /// [`crate::writer::FileWriter::field_id_to_column_indices`] method.
-    pub fn from_field_ids(
-        file_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        schema: &Schema,
-        field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let mut column_indices = Vec::new();
-        Self::from_field_ids_helper(
-            file_version,
-            schema.fields.iter(),
-            field_id_to_column_index,
-            &mut column_indices,
-        )?;
-        let projection = Self {
-            schema: Arc::new(schema.clone()),
-            column_indices,
-        };
-        Ok(projection)
-    }
-
-    /// Creates a projection that reads the entire file
-    ///
-    /// If the schema provided is not the schema of the entire file then
-    /// the projection will be invalid and the read will fail.
-    /// If the field is a `struct datatype` with `packed` set to true in the field metadata,
-    /// the whole struct has one column index.
-    /// To support nested `packed-struct encoding`, this method need to be further adjusted.
-    pub fn from_whole_schema(schema: &Schema, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
-        let schema = Arc::new(schema.clone());
-        let is_structural = version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1;
-        let mut column_indices = vec![];
-        let mut curr_column_idx = 0;
-        let mut packed_struct_fields_num = 0;
-        for field in schema.fields_pre_order() {
-            if packed_struct_fields_num > 0 {
-                packed_struct_fields_num -= 1;
-                continue;
-            }
-            if field.is_packed_struct() {
-                column_indices.push(curr_column_idx);
-                curr_column_idx += 1;
-                packed_struct_fields_num = field.children.len();
-            } else if field.children.is_empty() || !is_structural {
-                column_indices.push(curr_column_idx);
-                curr_column_idx += 1;
-            }
-        }
-        Self {
-            schema,
-            column_indices,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Creates a projection that reads the specified columns provided by name
-    ///
-    /// The syntax for column names is the same as [`lance_core::datatypes::Schema::project`]
+    /// Returns whether this projection is selective enough to benefit from
+    /// loading column metadata through the file's metadata index.
     ///
-    /// If the schema provided is not the schema of the entire file then
-    /// the projection will be invalid and the read will fail.
-    pub fn from_column_names(
-        file_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        schema: &Schema,
-        column_names: &[&str],
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let field_id_to_column_index = schema
-            .fields_pre_order()
-            // In the 2.0 system we needed ids for intermediate fields.  In 2.1+
-            // we only need ids for leaf fields.
-            .filter(|field| {
-                file_version < LanceFileVersion::V2_1 || field.is_leaf() || field.is_packed_struct()
-            })
-            .enumerate()
-            .map(|(idx, field)| (field.id as u32, idx as u32))
-            .collect::<BTreeMap<_, _>>();
-        let projected = schema.project(column_names)?;
-        let mut column_indices = Vec::new();
-        Self::from_field_ids_helper(
-            file_version,
-            projected.fields.iter(),
-            &field_id_to_column_index,
-            &mut column_indices,
-        )?;
-        Ok(Self {
-            schema: Arc::new(projected),
-            column_indices,
-        })
+    /// The caller must already have selected a file format that supports indexed
+    /// metadata. This method only evaluates the projection shape and selectivity.
+    pub fn prefers_indexed_metadata(&self, total_columns: usize) -> bool {
+        FileMetadataProvider::projection_matches_indexed_metadata(self)
+            && self.column_indices.len().saturating_mul(4) < total_columns
     }
 }
 
@@ -335,6 +369,14 @@ pub struct FileReaderOptions {
     /// will be read in multiple chunks to control memory usage.
     /// Default: 8MB (DEFAULT_READ_CHUNK_SIZE)
     pub read_chunk_size: u64,
+    /// If set, the reader will produce batches whose total size in bytes
+    /// is approximately this value. The row-based `batch_size` remains an
+    /// independent upper bound, and the limit reached first determines the batch size.
+    ///
+    /// This can be set at the dataset level (via `ReadParams::file_reader_options`)
+    /// to provide a default for all scans, or at the scanner level (via
+    /// `Scanner::batch_size_bytes`) to override per scan.
+    pub batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
 }
 
 impl Default for FileReaderOptions {
@@ -342,62 +384,281 @@ impl Default for FileReaderOptions {
         Self {
             decoder_config: DecoderConfig::default(),
             read_chunk_size: DEFAULT_READ_CHUNK_SIZE,
+            batch_size_bytes: None,
         }
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct PreparedProjection {
+    pub column_infos: Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>,
+    pub decoder_projection: ReaderProjection,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) enum FileMetadataProvider {
+    Full(Arc<CachedFileMetadata>),
+    Indexed(Arc<FileMetadataIndex>),
+}
+
+/// Executable projection behavior selected by an exact file-version module.
+///
+/// The shared reader invokes this behavior but never interprets a version or
+/// accepted-grammar profile.
+#[async_trait]
+pub(crate) trait ReadProjection: Debug + Send + Sync {
+    fn validate_indexed(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ReaderProjection,
+        metadata_index: &FileMetadataIndex,
+    ) -> Result<()>;
+
+    fn read_length(&self, prepared: &PreparedProjection) -> Result<u64>;
+
+    async fn prepare(
+        &self,
+        metadata_provider: &FileMetadataProvider,
+        projection: &ReaderProjection,
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        cache: &Arc<LanceCache>,
+    ) -> Result<(PreparedProjection, u64)>;
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct DecodeEngine {
+    pub scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    pub base_projection: ReaderProjection,
+    pub metadata_provider: FileMetadataProvider,
+    pub read_projection: Arc<dyn ReadProjection>,
+    pub decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+    pub cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+    pub options: FileReaderOptions,
+}
+
+/// A projection-scoped reader for a current-format Lance file.
+///
+/// This reader fixes a base projection at construction time. All later reads
+/// must stay within that projection, which lets the reader load only the column
+/// metadata needed by the base projection when opening from a [`FileMetadataIndex`].
+/// It intentionally does not expose APIs that require synchronous access to full
+/// file metadata.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ProjectedFileReader {
+    core: DecodeEngine,
+}
+
+/// A current-format Lance file reader backed by fully decoded metadata.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct FileReader {
-    scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-    // The default projection to be applied to all reads
-    base_projection: ReaderProjection,
-    num_rows: u64,
-    metadata: Arc<CachedFileMetadata>,
-    decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
-    cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
-    options: FileReaderOptions,
+    pub(crate) core: DecodeEngine,
+    pub(crate) metadata: Arc<CachedFileMetadata>,
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn tasks_to_record_batch_stream(
+    schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    tasks: Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = ReadBatchTask> + Send>>,
+    batch_readahead: u32,
+) -> Pin<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream>> {
+    let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(schema.as_ref()));
+    let batches = tasks
+        .map(|task| task.task)
+        .buffered(batch_readahead as usize)
+        .boxed();
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(arrow_schema, batches))
+}
+
+pub(crate) enum RawFileMetadataOpen {
+    Legacy {
+        major_version: u16,
+        minor_version: u16,
+    },
+    Current {
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+        metadata: RawFileMetadata,
+    },
+}
+
+pub(crate) struct RawFileMetadata {
+    pub file_schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    pub column_metadatas: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
+    pub num_rows: u64,
+    pub file_buffers: Vec<BufferDescriptor>,
+    pub num_data_bytes: u64,
+    pub num_column_metadata_bytes: u64,
+    pub num_global_buffer_bytes: u64,
+    pub num_footer_bytes: u64,
+    pub footer: Footer,
+    pub file_size_bytes: u64,
+    pub retained_global_buffers: BTreeMap<u32, Bytes>,
 }
+
 #[derive(Debug)]
-struct Footer {
+pub(crate) struct Footer {
     #[allow(dead_code)]
-    column_meta_start: u64,
+    pub column_meta_start: u64,
     // We don't use this today because we always load metadata for every column
     // and don't yet support "metadata projection"
     #[allow(dead_code)]
-    column_meta_offsets_start: u64,
-    global_buff_offsets_start: u64,
-    num_global_buffers: u32,
-    num_columns: u32,
-    major_version: u16,
-    minor_version: u16,
+    pub column_meta_offsets_start: u64,
+    pub global_buff_offsets_start: u64,
+    pub num_global_buffers: u32,
+    pub num_columns: u32,
+    pub major_version: u16,
+    pub minor_version: u16,
 }
 
 const FOOTER_LEN: usize = 40;
 
+// Count the V2.1 physical columns required to reconstruct a projected field.
+// This is the same DFS shape consumed by `ColumnInfoIter`: ordinary structural
+// nodes are transparent and leaves contribute columns. Indexed metadata loading
+// can therefore compact any ordinary structural projection into 0..N while
+// preserving this order.
+//
+// Blob and packed-struct fields remain unsupported by indexed projection. Their
+// opaque decode semantics are handled by the existing full-metadata reader.
+fn indexed_projection_column_count(field: &Field) -> Option<usize> {
+    if field.is_blob() || field.is_packed_struct() {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    if field.children.is_empty() {
+        return Some(1);
+    }
+
+    field.children.iter().try_fold(0usize, |count, child| {
+        count.checked_add(indexed_projection_column_count(child)?)
+    })
+}
+
+// The reader combines a projection's columns into rectangular batches, so they
+// must all have the same length.  Returns that common length, or a descriptive
+// error (naming each column's length) when they differ. Ordinary files always
+// pass; only files written with `FileWriter::write_column` whose columns ended up
+// unequal can fail, and those must be read separately.
+pub(crate) fn normalized_column_num_rows(info: &ColumnInfo) -> Result<u64> {
+    info.page_infos.iter().try_fold(0_u64, |rows, page| {
+        let page_rows = match &page.encoding {
+            PageEncoding::Structural(layout) => match &layout.layout {
+                Some(pbenc21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(sparse)) => sparse
+                    .structural_layers
+                    .first()
+                    .and_then(|layer| layer.layer.as_ref())
+                    .map_or(page.num_rows, |layer| match layer {
+                        pbenc21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::Validity(layer) => layer.num_slots,
+                        pbenc21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::List(layer) => layer.num_slots,
+                        pbenc21::sparse_structural_layer::Layer::FixedSizeList(layer) => {
+                            layer.num_slots
+                        }
+                    }),
+                _ => page.num_rows,
+            },
+            _ => page.num_rows,
+        };
+        rows.checked_add(page_rows)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Column row count overflows u64".into()))
+    })
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn verify_uniform_lengths(field_lengths: &[(&str, u64)]) -> Result<u64> {
+    let first = field_lengths.first().map_or(0, |&(_, len)| len);
+    if field_lengths.iter().all(|&(_, len)| len == first) {
+        return Ok(first);
+    }
+    let columns = field_lengths
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(name, len)| format!("{name}={len}"))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .join(", ");
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "cannot read columns of differing lengths together ({columns}); \
+         read each column (or equal-length group) separately"
+    )))
+}
+
 impl FileReader {
+    pub(crate) fn base_projection(&self) -> &ReaderProjection {
+        &self.core.base_projection
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn full_projection(&self, projection: ReaderProjection) -> PreparedProjection {
+        PreparedProjection {
+            column_infos: self.metadata.column_infos.clone(),
+            decoder_projection: projection,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn read_prepared_tasks(
+        &self,
+        params: ReadBatchParams,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        prepared: PreparedProjection,
+        read_len: u64,
+        filter: FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = ReadBatchTask> + Send>>> {
+        self.core
+            .read_prepared_tasks(params, batch_size, prepared, read_len, filter)
+            .await
+    }
+
     pub fn with_scheduler(&self, scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>) -> Self {
         Self {
-            scheduler,
-            base_projection: self.base_projection.clone(),
-            cache: self.cache.clone(),
-            decoder_plugins: self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
+            core: self.core.with_scheduler(scheduler),
             metadata: self.metadata.clone(),
-            options: self.options.clone(),
-            num_rows: self.num_rows,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a clone of this reader whose I/O is additionally recorded into
+    /// `stats`, on top of the scheduler's global accounting.
+    ///
+    /// All cached metadata is shared with `self`, so no file is re-opened and
+    /// only a few `Arc` clones are performed.  If the underlying I/O service
+    /// does not support per-scope statistics (e.g. an in-memory scheduler), the
+    /// returned reader is an ordinary, uninstrumented clone.
+    pub fn with_io_stats(
+        &self,
+        stats: Arc<dyn lance_core::utils::io_stats::IoStatsRecorder>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        match self.core.scheduler.with_io_stats(stats) {
+            Some(scheduler) => self.with_scheduler(scheduler),
+            None => self.clone(),
         }
     }
 
     pub fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.num_rows
+        self.core.num_rows()
+    }
+
+    /// The number of rows stored in a single physical column.
+    ///
+    /// For ordinary (rectangular) files every column has the same length, equal
+    /// to [`num_rows`](Self::num_rows). Files written with
+    /// [`FileWriter::write_column`](crate::writer::FileWriter::write_column)
+    /// may have columns of differing lengths; this returns the length of one
+    /// such column, derived by summing its pages' row counts. Errors if
+    /// `column_index` is out of bounds.
+    pub fn column_num_rows(&self, column_index: usize) -> Result<u64> {
+        let column = self
+            .metadata
+            .column_metadatas
+            .get(column_index)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "column index {} is out of bounds (file has {} columns)",
+                    column_index,
+                    self.metadata.column_metadatas.len()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        Ok(column.pages.iter().map(|page| page.length).sum())
     }
 
     pub fn metadata(&self) -> &Arc<CachedFileMetadata> {
         &self.metadata
     }
 
-    pub fn file_statistics(&self) -> FileStatistics {
-        let column_metadatas = &self.metadata().column_metadatas;
-
+    fn statistics_from_column_metadata(
+        column_metadatas: &[pbfile::ColumnMetadata],
+    ) -> FileStatistics {
         let column_stats = column_metadatas
             .iter()
             .map(|col_metadata| {
@@ -419,14 +680,12 @@ impl FileReader {
         }
     }
 
+    pub fn file_statistics(&self) -> FileStatistics {
+        Self::statistics_from_column_metadata(&self.metadata().column_metadatas)
+    }
+
     pub async fn read_global_buffer(&self, index: u32) -> Result<Bytes> {
-        let buffer_desc = self.metadata.file_buffers.get(index as usize).ok_or_else(||Error::invalid_input(format!("request for global buffer at index {} but there were only {} global buffers in the file", index, self.metadata.file_buffers.len()), location!()))?;
-        self.scheduler
-            .submit_single(
-                buffer_desc.position..buffer_desc.position + buffer_desc.size,
-                0,
-            )
-            .await
+        self.core.read_global_buffer(index).await
     }
 
     async fn read_tail(scheduler: &FileScheduler) -> Result<(Bytes, u64)> {
@@ -440,18 +699,53 @@ impl FileReader {
         Ok((tail_bytes, file_size))
     }
 
+    async fn read_range_from_tail_or_scheduler(
+        tail_bytes: &Bytes,
+        tail_offset: u64,
+        scheduler: &FileScheduler,
+        range: Range<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        let tail_end = tail_offset + tail_bytes.len() as u64;
+        if range.start >= tail_offset && range.end <= tail_end {
+            let rel_start = (range.start - tail_offset) as usize;
+            let rel_end = (range.end - tail_offset) as usize;
+            Ok(tail_bytes.slice(rel_start..rel_end))
+        } else {
+            scheduler.submit_single(range, 0).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn retained_global_buffers_from_tail(
+        gbo_table: &[BufferDescriptor],
+        tail_bytes: &Bytes,
+        tail_offset: u64,
+        file_len: u64,
+    ) -> Result<BTreeMap<u32, Bytes>> {
+        let tail_end = tail_offset
+            .checked_add(tail_bytes.len() as u64)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Tail byte range overflows".into()))?;
+        let mut retained_buffers = BTreeMap::new();
+        for (index, buffer) in gbo_table.iter().enumerate().skip(1) {
+            let range = buffer.checked_range(index, file_len)?;
+            if range.start >= tail_offset && range.end <= tail_end {
+                let rel_start = (range.start - tail_offset) as usize;
+                let rel_end = (range.end - tail_offset) as usize;
+                let bytes = Bytes::copy_from_slice(&tail_bytes[rel_start..rel_end]);
+                retained_buffers.insert(index as u32, bytes);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(retained_buffers)
+    }
+
     // Checks to make sure the footer is written correctly and returns the
     // position of the file descriptor (which comes from the footer)
     fn decode_footer(footer_bytes: &Bytes) -> Result<Footer> {
         let len = footer_bytes.len();
         if len < FOOTER_LEN {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "does not have sufficient data, len: {}, bytes: {:?}",
-                    len, footer_bytes
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "does not have sufficient data, len: {}, bytes: {:?}",
+                len, footer_bytes
+            )));
         }
         let mut cursor = Cursor::new(footer_bytes.slice(len - FOOTER_LEN..));
 
@@ -463,24 +757,12 @@ impl FileReader {
         let major_version = cursor.read_u16::<LittleEndian>()?;
         let minor_version = cursor.read_u16::<LittleEndian>()?;
 
-        if major_version == MAJOR_VERSION as u16 && minor_version == MINOR_VERSION as u16 {
-            return Err(Error::version_conflict(
-                "Attempt to use the lance v2 reader to read a legacy file".to_string(),
-                major_version,
-                minor_version,
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
-
         let magic_bytes = footer_bytes.slice(len - 4..);
         if magic_bytes.as_ref() != MAGIC {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "file does not appear to be a Lance file (invalid magic: {:?})",
-                    MAGIC
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "file does not appear to be a Lance file (invalid magic: {:?})",
+                MAGIC
+            )));
         }
         Ok(Footer {
             column_meta_start,
@@ -493,6 +775,22 @@ impl FileReader {
         })
     }
 
+    fn current_file_version(footer: &Footer) -> Result<ConcreteFileVersion> {
+        let version =
+            ConcreteFileVersion::from_footer_numbers(footer.major_version, footer.minor_version)?;
+        match version {
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::version_conflict(
+                "Attempt to use the lance v2 reader to read a legacy file".to_string(),
+                footer.major_version,
+                footer.minor_version,
+            )),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => Ok(version),
+        }
+    }
+
     // TODO: Once we have coalesced I/O we should only read the column metadatas that we need
     fn read_all_column_metadata(
         column_metadata_bytes: Bytes,
@@ -501,15 +799,22 @@ impl FileReader {
         let column_metadata_start = footer.column_meta_start;
         // cmo == column_metadata_offsets
         let cmo_table_size = 16 * footer.num_columns as usize;
+        if column_metadata_bytes.len() < cmo_table_size {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "column metadata region has {} bytes but CMO table needs {} bytes for {} columns",
+                column_metadata_bytes.len(),
+                cmo_table_size,
+                footer.num_columns
+            )));
+        }
         let cmo_table = column_metadata_bytes.slice(column_metadata_bytes.len() - cmo_table_size..);
+        let column_metadata_offsets = Self::decode_cmo_table(cmo_table, footer)?;
 
-        (0..footer.num_columns)
-            .map(|col_idx| {
-                let offset = (col_idx * 16) as usize;
-                let position = LittleEndian::read_u64(&cmo_table[offset..offset + 8]);
-                let length = LittleEndian::read_u64(&cmo_table[offset + 8..offset + 16]);
-                let normalized_position = (position - column_metadata_start) as usize;
-                let normalized_end = normalized_position + (length as usize);
+        column_metadata_offsets
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(position, length)| {
+                let normalized_position = (*position - column_metadata_start) as usize;
+                let normalized_end = normalized_position + (*length as usize);
                 Ok(pbfile::ColumnMetadata::decode(
                     &column_metadata_bytes[normalized_position..normalized_end],
                 )?)
@@ -517,13 +822,59 @@ impl FileReader {
             .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
     }
 
+    fn decode_cmo_table(cmo_table: Bytes, footer: &Footer) -> Result<Arc<[(u64, u64)]>> {
+        let expected_size = 16 * footer.num_columns as usize;
+        if cmo_table.len() != expected_size {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "column metadata offset table has {} bytes but expected {} bytes for {} columns",
+                cmo_table.len(),
+                expected_size,
+                footer.num_columns
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(footer.num_columns as usize);
+        for col_idx in 0..footer.num_columns {
+            let offset = (col_idx * 16) as usize;
+            let position = LittleEndian::read_u64(&cmo_table[offset..offset + 8]);
+            let length = LittleEndian::read_u64(&cmo_table[offset + 8..offset + 16]);
+            let end = position.checked_add(length).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "column metadata range overflows for column index {}, position={}, length={}",
+                    col_idx, position, length
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if position < footer.column_meta_start || end > footer.column_meta_offsets_start {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "column metadata range for column index {} is outside metadata region: position={}, length={}, metadata_start={}, cmo_start={}",
+                    col_idx,
+                    position,
+                    length,
+                    footer.column_meta_start,
+                    footer.column_meta_offsets_start
+                )));
+            }
+            offsets.push((position, length));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Arc::from(offsets))
+    }
+
     async fn optimistic_tail_read(
         data: &Bytes,
         start_pos: u64,
         scheduler: &FileScheduler,
         file_len: u64,
     ) -> Result<Bytes> {
-        let num_bytes_needed = (file_len - start_pos) as usize;
+        let num_bytes_needed = file_len.checked_sub(start_pos).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Tail read position {} is outside file of size {}",
+                    start_pos, file_len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })? as usize;
         if data.len() >= num_bytes_needed {
             Ok(data.slice((data.len() - num_bytes_needed)..))
         } else {
@@ -539,19 +890,12 @@ impl FileReader {
         }
     }
 
-    fn do_decode_gbo_table(
-        gbo_bytes: &Bytes,
-        footer: &Footer,
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<BufferDescriptor>> {
+    fn do_decode_gbo_table(gbo_bytes: &Bytes, footer: &Footer) -> Result<Vec<BufferDescriptor>> {
         let mut global_bufs_cursor = Cursor::new(gbo_bytes);
 
         let mut global_buffers = Vec::with_capacity(footer.num_global_buffers as usize);
         for _ in 0..footer.num_global_buffers {
             let buf_pos = global_bufs_cursor.read_u64::<LittleEndian>()?;
-            assert!(
-                version < LanceFileVersion::V2_1 || buf_pos % PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64 == 0
-            );
             let buf_size = global_bufs_cursor.read_u64::<LittleEndian>()?;
             global_buffers.push(BufferDescriptor {
                 position: buf_pos,
@@ -562,12 +906,24 @@ impl FileReader {
         Ok(global_buffers)
     }
 
+    fn validate_gbo_table(
+        gbo_table: &[BufferDescriptor],
+        file_len: u64,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        versions::validate_global_buffers(version, gbo_table)?;
+        for (buffer_index, buffer) in gbo_table.iter().enumerate() {
+            buffer.checked_range(buffer_index, file_len)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     async fn decode_gbo_table(
         tail_bytes: &Bytes,
         file_len: u64,
         scheduler: &FileScheduler,
         footer: &Footer,
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
     ) -> Result<Vec<BufferDescriptor>> {
         // This could, in theory, trigger another IOP but the GBO table should never be large
         // enough for that to happen
@@ -578,7 +934,9 @@ impl FileReader {
             file_len,
         )
         .await?;
-        Self::do_decode_gbo_table(&gbo_bytes, footer, version)
+        let gbo_table = Self::do_decode_gbo_table(&gbo_bytes, footer)?;
+        Self::validate_gbo_table(&gbo_table, file_len, version)?;
+        Ok(gbo_table)
     }
 
     fn decode_schema(schema_bytes: Bytes) -> Result<(u64, lance_core::datatypes::Schema)> {
@@ -589,56 +947,48 @@ impl FileReader {
             fields: Fields(pb_schema.fields),
             metadata: pb_schema.metadata,
         };
-        let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::from(fields_with_meta);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(fields_with_meta)?;
         Ok((num_rows, schema))
     }
 
-    // TODO: Support late projection.  Currently, if we want to perform a
-    // projected read of a file, we load all of the column metadata, and then
-    // only read the column data that is requested.  This is fine for most cases.
-    //
-    // However, if there are many columns then loading all of the column metadata
-    // may be expensive.  We should support a mode where we only load the column
-    // metadata for the columns that are requested (the file format supports this).
-    //
-    // The main challenge is that we either need to ignore the column metadata cache
-    // or have a more sophisticated cache that can cache per-column metadata.
-    //
-    // Also, if the number of columns is fairly small, it's faster to read them as a
-    // single IOP, but we can fix this through coalescing.
-    pub async fn read_all_metadata(scheduler: &FileScheduler) -> Result<CachedFileMetadata> {
-        // 1. read the footer
+    pub(crate) async fn read_raw_metadata_for_dispatch(
+        scheduler: &FileScheduler,
+    ) -> Result<RawFileMetadataOpen> {
         let (tail_bytes, file_len) = Self::read_tail(scheduler).await?;
+        let tail_offset = file_len - tail_bytes.len() as u64;
         let footer = Self::decode_footer(&tail_bytes)?;
-
-        let file_version = LanceFileVersion::try_from_major_minor(
-            footer.major_version as u32,
-            footer.minor_version as u32,
-        )?;
+        let version =
+            ConcreteFileVersion::from_footer_numbers(footer.major_version, footer.minor_version)?;
+        if version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+            return Ok(RawFileMetadataOpen::Legacy {
+                major_version: footer.major_version,
+                minor_version: footer.minor_version,
+            });
+        }
 
         let gbo_table =
-            Self::decode_gbo_table(&tail_bytes, file_len, scheduler, &footer, file_version).await?;
+            Self::decode_gbo_table(&tail_bytes, file_len, scheduler, &footer, version).await?;
         if gbo_table.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "File did not contain any global buffers, schema expected".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "File did not contain any global buffers, schema expected".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
         let schema_start = gbo_table[0].position;
         let schema_size = gbo_table[0].size;
-
-        let num_footer_bytes = file_len - schema_start;
-
-        // By default we read all column metadatas.  We do NOT read the column metadata buffers
-        // at this point.  We only want to read the column metadata for columns we are actually loading.
+        let num_footer_bytes = file_len.checked_sub(schema_start).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Schema position {} is outside file of size {}",
+                    schema_start, file_len
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
         let all_metadata_bytes =
             Self::optimistic_tail_read(&tail_bytes, schema_start, scheduler, file_len).await?;
-
         let schema_bytes = all_metadata_bytes.slice(0..schema_size as usize);
         let (num_rows, schema) = Self::decode_schema(schema_bytes)?;
 
-        // Next, read the metadata for the columns
-        // This is both the column metadata and the CMO table
         let column_metadata_start = (footer.column_meta_start - schema_start) as usize;
         let column_metadata_end = (footer.global_buff_offsets_start - schema_start) as usize;
         let column_metadata_bytes =
@@ -648,103 +998,123 @@ impl FileReader {
         let num_global_buffer_bytes = gbo_table.iter().map(|buf| buf.size).sum::<u64>();
         let num_data_bytes = footer.column_meta_start - num_global_buffer_bytes;
         let num_column_metadata_bytes = footer.global_buff_offsets_start - footer.column_meta_start;
+        // The tail read above already pulled in any global buffer that lives within
+        // the captured window. Copy those user buffers (index >= 1; the schema at 0
+        // is decoded above and never fetched via read_global_buffer) out of the tail
+        // so read_global_buffer can serve them without I/O. We copy rather than slice
+        // so the much larger tail allocation can be released once decoding is done.
+        let retained_global_buffers = Self::retained_global_buffers_from_tail(
+            &gbo_table,
+            &tail_bytes,
+            tail_offset,
+            file_len,
+        )?;
+
+        Ok(RawFileMetadataOpen::Current {
+            version,
+            metadata: RawFileMetadata {
+                file_schema: Arc::new(schema),
+                column_metadatas,
+                num_rows,
+                file_buffers: gbo_table,
+                num_data_bytes,
+                num_column_metadata_bytes,
+                num_global_buffer_bytes,
+                num_footer_bytes,
+                footer,
+                file_size_bytes: file_len,
+                retained_global_buffers,
+            },
+        })
+    }
 
-        let column_infos = Self::meta_to_col_infos(column_metadatas.as_slice(), file_version);
+    async fn read_raw_metadata_index_with_known_schema(
+        scheduler: &FileScheduler,
+        known_schema: Option<(Arc<Schema>, u64)>,
+    ) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+        let (tail_bytes, file_len) = Self::read_tail(scheduler).await?;
+        let tail_offset = file_len - tail_bytes.len() as u64;
+        let footer = Self::decode_footer(&tail_bytes)?;
 
-        Ok(CachedFileMetadata {
-            file_schema: Arc::new(schema),
-            column_metadatas,
-            column_infos,
+        let file_version = Self::current_file_version(&footer)?;
+
+        let gbo_table =
+            Self::decode_gbo_table(&tail_bytes, file_len, scheduler, &footer, file_version).await?;
+        if gbo_table.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "File did not contain any global buffers, schema expected".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let (file_schema, num_rows) = match known_schema {
+            Some((file_schema, num_rows)) => (file_schema, num_rows),
+            None => {
+                let schema_buffer = &gbo_table[0];
+                let schema_range = schema_buffer.checked_range(0, file_len)?;
+                let schema_bytes = Self::read_range_from_tail_or_scheduler(
+                    &tail_bytes,
+                    tail_offset,
+                    scheduler,
+                    schema_range,
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let (num_rows, schema) = Self::decode_schema(schema_bytes)?;
+                (Arc::new(schema), num_rows)
+            }
+        };
+
+        let cmo_table = Self::read_range_from_tail_or_scheduler(
+            &tail_bytes,
+            tail_offset,
+            scheduler,
+            footer.column_meta_offsets_start..footer.global_buff_offsets_start,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let column_metadata_offsets = Self::decode_cmo_table(cmo_table, &footer)?;
+
+        let retained_global_buffers = Self::retained_global_buffers_from_tail(
+            &gbo_table,
+            &tail_bytes,
+            tail_offset,
+            file_len,
+        )?;
+
+        Ok(FileMetadataIndex {
+            file_schema,
             num_rows,
-            num_data_bytes,
-            num_column_metadata_bytes,
-            num_global_buffer_bytes,
-            num_footer_bytes,
             file_buffers: gbo_table,
-            major_version: footer.major_version,
-            minor_version: footer.minor_version,
+            column_metadata_offsets,
+            num_columns: footer.num_columns,
+            version: file_version,
+            file_size_bytes: file_len,
+            retained_global_buffers,
         })
     }
 
-    fn fetch_encoding<M: Default + Name + Sized>(encoding: &pbfile::Encoding) -> M {
-        match &encoding.location {
-            Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Indirect(_)) => todo!(),
-            Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(encoding)) => {
-                let encoding_buf = Bytes::from(encoding.encoding.clone());
-                let encoding_any = prost_types::Any::decode(encoding_buf).unwrap();
-                encoding_any.to_msg::<M>().unwrap()
-            }
-            Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::None(_)) => panic!(),
-            None => panic!(),
-        }
+    /// Reads the lightweight metadata index from a file.
+    ///
+    /// This reads the file schema from the schema global buffer. Use
+    /// [`Self::read_metadata_index_with_schema`] when the caller already has
+    /// the schema and row count from a higher-level metadata source.
+    pub(crate) async fn read_raw_metadata_index(
+        scheduler: &FileScheduler,
+    ) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+        Self::read_raw_metadata_index_with_known_schema(scheduler, None).await
     }
 
-    fn meta_to_col_infos(
-        column_metadatas: &[pbfile::ColumnMetadata],
-        file_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>> {
-        column_metadatas
-            .iter()
-            .enumerate()
-            .map(|(col_idx, col_meta)| {
-                let page_infos = col_meta
-                    .pages
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|page| {
-                        let num_rows = page.length;
-                        let encoding = match file_version {
-                            LanceFileVersion::V2_0 => {
-                                PageEncoding::Legacy(Self::fetch_encoding::<pbenc::ArrayEncoding>(
-                                    page.encoding.as_ref().unwrap(),
-                                ))
-                            }
-                            _ => PageEncoding::Structural(Self::fetch_encoding::<
-                                pbenc21::PageLayout,
-                            >(
-                                page.encoding.as_ref().unwrap()
-                            )),
-                        };
-                        let buffer_offsets_and_sizes = Arc::from(
-                            page.buffer_offsets
-                                .iter()
-                                .zip(page.buffer_sizes.iter())
-                                .map(|(offset, size)| {
-                                    // Starting with version 2.1 we can assert that page buffers are aligned
-                                    assert!(
-                                        file_version < LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-                                            || offset % PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64 == 0
-                                    );
-                                    (*offset, *size)
-                                })
-                                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-                        );
-                        PageInfo {
-                            buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
-                            encoding,
-                            num_rows,
-                            priority: page.priority,
-                        }
-                    })
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                let buffer_offsets_and_sizes = Arc::from(
-                    col_meta
-                        .buffer_offsets
-                        .iter()
-                        .zip(col_meta.buffer_sizes.iter())
-                        .map(|(offset, size)| (*offset, *size))
-                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-                );
-                Arc::new(ColumnInfo {
-                    index: col_idx as u32,
-                    page_infos: Arc::from(page_infos),
-                    buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
-                    encoding: Self::fetch_encoding(col_meta.encoding.as_ref().unwrap()),
-                })
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    /// Reads the metadata index without fetching the schema global buffer.
+    ///
+    /// Use this when the caller already has the file schema and physical row
+    /// count from an enclosing metadata layer, such as a dataset manifest.
+    pub(crate) async fn read_raw_metadata_index_with_schema(
+        scheduler: &FileScheduler,
+        file_schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+        Self::read_raw_metadata_index_with_known_schema(scheduler, Some((file_schema, num_rows)))
+            .await
     }
 
-    fn validate_projection(
+    pub(crate) fn validate_projection(
         projection: &ReaderProjection,
         metadata: &CachedFileMetadata,
     ) -> Result<()> {
@@ -752,93 +1122,27 @@ impl FileReader {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Attempt to read zero columns from the file, at least one column must be specified"
                     .to_string(),
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
         let mut column_indices_seen = BTreeSet::new();
         for column_index in &projection.column_indices {
             if !column_indices_seen.insert(*column_index) {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "The projection specified the column index {} more than once",
-                        column_index
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "The projection specified the column index {} more than once",
+                    column_index
+                )));
             }
             if *column_index >= metadata.column_infos.len() as u32 {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("The projection specified the column index {} but there are only {} columns in the file", column_index, metadata.column_infos.len()), location!()));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "The projection specified the column index {} but there are only {} columns in the file",
+                    column_index,
+                    metadata.column_infos.len()
+                )));
             }
         }
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    /// Opens a new file reader without any pre-existing knowledge
-    ///
-    /// This will read the file schema from the file itself and thus requires a bit more I/O
-    ///
-    /// A `base_projection` can also be provided.  If provided, then the projection will apply
-    /// to all reads from the file that do not specify their own projection.
-    pub async fn try_open(
-        scheduler: FileScheduler,
-        base_projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
-        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
-        cache: &LanceCache,
-        options: FileReaderOptions,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let file_metadata = Arc::new(Self::read_all_metadata(&scheduler).await?);
-        let path = scheduler.reader().path().clone();
-
-        // Create LanceEncodingsIo with read chunk size from options
-        let encodings_io =
-            LanceEncodingsIo::new(scheduler).with_read_chunk_size(options.read_chunk_size);
-
-        Self::try_open_with_file_metadata(
-            Arc::new(encodings_io),
-            path,
-            base_projection,
-            decoder_plugins,
-            file_metadata,
-            cache,
-            options,
-        )
-        .await
-    }
-
-    /// Same as `try_open` but with the file metadata already loaded.
-    ///
-    /// This method also can accept any kind of `EncodingsIo` implementation allowing
-    /// for custom strategies to be used for I/O scheduling (e.g. for takes on fast
-    /// disks it may be better to avoid asynchronous overhead).
-    pub async fn try_open_with_file_metadata(
-        scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
-        path: Path,
-        base_projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
-        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
-        file_metadata: Arc<CachedFileMetadata>,
-        cache: &LanceCache,
-        options: FileReaderOptions,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let cache = Arc::new(cache.with_key_prefix(path.as_ref()));
-
-        if let Some(base_projection) = base_projection.as_ref() {
-            Self::validate_projection(base_projection, &file_metadata)?;
-        }
-        let num_rows = file_metadata.num_rows;
-        Ok(Self {
-            scheduler,
-            base_projection: base_projection.unwrap_or(ReaderProjection::from_whole_schema(
-                file_metadata.file_schema.as_ref(),
-                file_metadata.version(),
-            )),
-            num_rows,
-            metadata: file_metadata,
-            decoder_plugins,
-            cache,
-            options,
-        })
-    }
-
     // The actual decoder needs all the column infos that make up a type.  In other words, if
     // the first type in the schema is Struct<i32, i32> then the decoder will need 3 column infos.
     //
@@ -860,7 +1164,7 @@ impl FileReader {
     }
 
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn do_read_range(
+    async fn do_read_range(
         column_infos: Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>,
         io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
         cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
@@ -871,6 +1175,7 @@ impl FileReader {
         projection: ReaderProjection,
         filter: FilterExpression,
         decoder_config: DecoderConfig,
+        batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
     ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
         debug!(
             "Reading range {:?} with batch_size {} from file with {} rows and {} columns into schema with {} columns",
@@ -887,44 +1192,24 @@ impl FileReader {
             decoder_plugins,
             io,
             decoder_config,
+            batch_size_bytes,
         };
 
         let requested_rows = RequestedRows::Ranges(vec![range]);
 
-        Ok(schedule_and_decode(
+        schedule_and_decode(
             column_infos,
             requested_rows,
             filter,
             projection.column_indices,
             projection.schema,
             config,
-        ))
-    }
-
-    fn read_range(
-        &self,
-        range: Range<u64>,
-        batch_size: u32,
-        projection: ReaderProjection,
-        filter: FilterExpression,
-    ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
-        // Create and initialize the stream
-        Self::do_read_range(
-            self.collect_columns_from_projection(&projection)?,
-            self.scheduler.clone(),
-            self.cache.clone(),
-            self.num_rows,
-            self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
-            range,
-            batch_size,
-            projection,
-            filter,
-            self.options.decoder_config.clone(),
         )
+        .await
     }
 
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn do_take_rows(
+    async fn do_take_rows(
         column_infos: Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>,
         io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
         cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
@@ -934,6 +1219,7 @@ impl FileReader {
         projection: ReaderProjection,
         filter: FilterExpression,
         decoder_config: DecoderConfig,
+        batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
     ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
         debug!(
             "Taking {} rows spread across range {}..{} with batch_size {} from columns {:?}",
@@ -950,42 +1236,24 @@ impl FileReader {
             decoder_plugins,
             io,
             decoder_config,
+            batch_size_bytes,
         };
 
         let requested_rows = RequestedRows::Indices(indices);
 
-        Ok(schedule_and_decode(
+        schedule_and_decode(
             column_infos,
             requested_rows,
             filter,
             projection.column_indices,
             projection.schema,
             config,
-        ))
-    }
-
-    fn take_rows(
-        &self,
-        indices: Vec<u64>,
-        batch_size: u32,
-        projection: ReaderProjection,
-    ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
-        // Create and initialize the stream
-        Self::do_take_rows(
-            self.collect_columns_from_projection(&projection)?,
-            self.scheduler.clone(),
-            self.cache.clone(),
-            self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
-            indices,
-            batch_size,
-            projection,
-            FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-            self.options.decoder_config.clone(),
         )
+        .await
     }
 
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn do_read_ranges(
+    async fn do_read_ranges(
         column_infos: Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>,
         io: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
         cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
@@ -995,6 +1263,7 @@ impl FileReader {
         projection: ReaderProjection,
         filter: FilterExpression,
         decoder_config: DecoderConfig,
+        batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
     ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
         let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>();
         debug!(
@@ -1013,165 +1282,20 @@ impl FileReader {
             decoder_plugins,
             io,
             decoder_config,
+            batch_size_bytes,
         };
 
         let requested_rows = RequestedRows::Ranges(ranges);
 
-        Ok(schedule_and_decode(
+        schedule_and_decode(
             column_infos,
             requested_rows,
             filter,
             projection.column_indices,
             projection.schema,
             config,
-        ))
-    }
-
-    fn read_ranges(
-        &self,
-        ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
-        batch_size: u32,
-        projection: ReaderProjection,
-        filter: FilterExpression,
-    ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
-        Self::do_read_ranges(
-            self.collect_columns_from_projection(&projection)?,
-            self.scheduler.clone(),
-            self.cache.clone(),
-            self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
-            ranges,
-            batch_size,
-            projection,
-            filter,
-            self.options.decoder_config.clone(),
         )
-    }
-
-    /// Creates a stream of "read tasks" to read the data from the file
-    ///
-    /// The arguments are similar to [`Self::read_stream_projected`] but instead of returning a stream
-    /// of record batches it returns a stream of "read tasks".
-    ///
-    /// The tasks should be consumed with some kind of `buffered` argument if CPU parallelism is desired.
-    ///
-    /// Note that "read task" is probably a bit imprecise.  The tasks are actually "decode tasks".  The
-    /// reading happens asynchronously in the background.  In other words, a single read task may map to
-    /// multiple I/O operations or a single I/O operation may map to multiple read tasks.
-    pub fn read_tasks(
-        &self,
-        params: ReadBatchParams,
-        batch_size: u32,
-        projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
-        filter: FilterExpression,
-    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = ReadBatchTask> + Send>>> {
-        let projection = projection.unwrap_or_else(|| self.base_projection.clone());
-        Self::validate_projection(&projection, &self.metadata)?;
-        let verify_bound = |params: &ReadBatchParams, bound: u64, inclusive: bool| {
-            if bound > self.num_rows || bound == self.num_rows && inclusive {
-                Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "cannot read {:?} from file with {} rows",
-                        params, self.num_rows
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ))
-            } else {
-                Ok(())
-            }
-        };
-        match &params {
-            ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => {
-                for idx in indices {
-                    match idx {
-                        None => {
-                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                                "Null value in indices array",
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
-                        }
-                        Some(idx) => {
-                            verify_bound(&params, idx as u64, true)?;
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-                let indices = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.unwrap() as u64).collect();
-                self.take_rows(indices, batch_size, projection)
-            }
-            ReadBatchParams::Range(range) => {
-                verify_bound(&params, range.end as u64, false)?;
-                self.read_range(
-                    range.start as u64..range.end as u64,
-                    batch_size,
-                    projection,
-                    filter,
-                )
-            }
-            ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges) => {
-                let mut ranges_u64 = Vec::with_capacity(ranges.len());
-                for range in ranges.as_ref() {
-                    verify_bound(&params, range.end, false)?;
-                    ranges_u64.push(range.start..range.end);
-                }
-                self.read_ranges(ranges_u64, batch_size, projection, filter)
-            }
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(range) => {
-                verify_bound(&params, range.start as u64, true)?;
-                self.read_range(
-                    range.start as u64..self.num_rows,
-                    batch_size,
-                    projection,
-                    filter,
-                )
-            }
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(range) => {
-                verify_bound(&params, range.end as u64, false)?;
-                self.read_range(0..range.end as u64, batch_size, projection, filter)
-            }
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => {
-                self.read_range(0..self.num_rows, batch_size, projection, filter)
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Reads data from the file as a stream of record batches
-    ///
-    /// * `params` - Specifies the range (or indices) of data to read
-    /// * `batch_size` - The maximum size of a single batch.  A batch may be smaller
-    ///   if it is the last batch or if it is not possible to create a batch of the
-    ///   requested size.
-    ///
-    ///   For example, if the batch size is 1024 and one of the columns is a string
-    ///   column then there may be some ranges of 1024 rows that contain more than
-    ///   2^31 bytes of string data (which is the maximum size of a string column
-    ///   in Arrow).  In this case smaller batches may be emitted.
-    /// * `batch_readahead` - The number of batches to read ahead.  This controls the
-    ///   amount of CPU parallelism of the read.  In other words it controls how many
-    ///   batches will be decoded in parallel.  It has no effect on the I/O parallelism
-    ///   of the read (how many I/O requests are in flight at once).
-    ///
-    ///   This parameter also is also related to backpressure.  If the consumer of the
-    ///   stream is slow then the reader will build up RAM.
-    /// * `projection` - A projection to apply to the read.  This controls which columns
-    ///   are read from the file.  The projection is NOT applied on top of the base
-    ///   projection.  The projection is applied directly to the file schema.
-    pub fn read_stream_projected(
-        &self,
-        params: ReadBatchParams,
-        batch_size: u32,
-        batch_readahead: u32,
-        projection: ReaderProjection,
-        filter: FilterExpression,
-    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream>>> {
-        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(projection.schema.as_ref()));
-        let tasks_stream = self.read_tasks(params, batch_size, Some(projection), filter)?;
-        let batch_stream = tasks_stream
-            .map(|task| task.task)
-            .buffered(batch_readahead as usize)
-            .boxed();
-        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            arrow_schema,
-            batch_stream,
-        )))
+        .await
     }
 
     fn take_rows_blocking(
@@ -1193,10 +1317,11 @@ impl FileReader {
 
         let config = SchedulerDecoderConfig {
             batch_size,
-            cache: self.cache.clone(),
-            decoder_plugins: self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
-            io: self.scheduler.clone(),
-            decoder_config: self.options.decoder_config.clone(),
+            cache: self.core.cache.clone(),
+            decoder_plugins: self.core.decoder_plugins.clone(),
+            io: self.core.scheduler.clone(),
+            decoder_config: self.core.options.decoder_config.clone(),
+            batch_size_bytes: self.core.options.batch_size_bytes,
         };
 
         let requested_rows = RequestedRows::Indices(indices);
@@ -1232,10 +1357,11 @@ impl FileReader {
 
         let config = SchedulerDecoderConfig {
             batch_size,
-            cache: self.cache.clone(),
-            decoder_plugins: self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
-            io: self.scheduler.clone(),
-            decoder_config: self.options.decoder_config.clone(),
+            cache: self.core.cache.clone(),
+            decoder_plugins: self.core.decoder_plugins.clone(),
+            io: self.core.scheduler.clone(),
+            decoder_config: self.core.options.decoder_config.clone(),
+            batch_size_bytes: self.core.options.batch_size_bytes,
         };
 
         let requested_rows = RequestedRows::Ranges(ranges);
@@ -1258,7 +1384,7 @@ impl FileReader {
         filter: FilterExpression,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static>> {
         let column_infos = self.collect_columns_from_projection(&projection)?;
-        let num_rows = self.num_rows;
+        let num_rows = self.core.num_rows();
 
         debug!(
             "Reading range {:?} with batch_size {} from file with {} rows and {} columns into schema with {} columns",
@@ -1271,10 +1397,11 @@ impl FileReader {
 
         let config = SchedulerDecoderConfig {
             batch_size,
-            cache: self.cache.clone(),
-            decoder_plugins: self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
-            io: self.scheduler.clone(),
-            decoder_config: self.options.decoder_config.clone(),
+            cache: self.core.cache.clone(),
+            decoder_plugins: self.core.decoder_plugins.clone(),
+            io: self.core.scheduler.clone(),
+            decoder_config: self.core.options.decoder_config.clone(),
+            batch_size_bytes: self.core.options.batch_size_bytes,
         };
 
         let requested_rows = RequestedRows::Ranges(vec![range]);
@@ -1289,55 +1416,33 @@ impl FileReader {
         )
     }
 
-    /// Read data from the file as an iterator of record batches
-    ///
-    /// This is a blocking variant of [`Self::read_stream_projected`] that runs entirely in the
-    /// calling thread.  It will block on I/O if the decode is faster than the I/O.  It is useful
-    /// for benchmarking and potentially from "take"ing small batches from fast disks.
-    ///
-    /// Large scans of in-memory data will still benefit from threading (and should therefore not
-    /// use this method) because we can parallelize the decode.
-    ///
-    /// Note: calling this from within a tokio runtime will panic.  It is acceptable to call this
-    /// from a spawn_blocking context.
-    pub fn read_stream_projected_blocking(
+    pub(crate) fn read_prepared_blocking(
         &self,
         params: ReadBatchParams,
         batch_size: u32,
-        projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        prepared: PreparedProjection,
+        read_len: u64,
         filter: FilterExpression,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static>> {
-        let projection = projection.unwrap_or_else(|| self.base_projection.clone());
-        Self::validate_projection(&projection, &self.metadata)?;
+        let projection = prepared.decoder_projection;
         let verify_bound = |params: &ReadBatchParams, bound: u64, inclusive: bool| {
-            if bound > self.num_rows || bound == self.num_rows && inclusive {
-                Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "cannot read {:?} from file with {} rows",
-                        params, self.num_rows
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ))
+            if bound > read_len || (bound == read_len && inclusive) {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cannot read {params:?} from columns with {read_len} rows"
+                )))
             } else {
                 Ok(())
             }
         };
         match &params {
             ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => {
-                for idx in indices {
-                    match idx {
-                        None => {
-                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                                "Null value in indices array",
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
-                        }
-                        Some(idx) => {
-                            verify_bound(&params, idx as u64, true)?;
-                        }
+                for index in indices {
+                    match index {
+                        None => return Err(Error::invalid_input("Null value in indices array")),
+                        Some(index) => verify_bound(&params, index as u64, true)?,
                     }
                 }
-                let indices = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.unwrap() as u64).collect();
+                let indices = indices.iter().map(|index| index.unwrap() as u64).collect();
                 self.take_rows_blocking(indices, batch_size, projection, filter)
             }
             ReadBatchParams::Range(range) => {
@@ -1360,7 +1465,7 @@ impl FileReader {
             ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(range) => {
                 verify_bound(&params, range.start as u64, true)?;
                 self.read_range_blocking(
-                    range.start as u64..self.num_rows,
+                    range.start as u64..read_len,
                     batch_size,
                     projection,
                     filter,
@@ -1371,17 +1476,668 @@ impl FileReader {
                 self.read_range_blocking(0..range.end as u64, batch_size, projection, filter)
             }
             ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => {
-                self.read_range_blocking(0..self.num_rows, batch_size, projection, filter)
+                self.read_range_blocking(0..read_len, batch_size, projection, filter)
             }
         }
     }
 
-    /// Reads data from the file as a stream of record batches
-    ///
-    /// This is similar to [`Self::read_stream_projected`] but uses the base projection
-    /// provided when the file was opened (or reads all columns if the file was
-    /// opened without a base projection)
-    pub fn read_stream(
+    pub fn schema(&self) -> &Arc<Schema> {
+        self.core.schema()
+    }
+}
+
+impl FileMetadataProvider {
+    pub(crate) fn version(&self) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+        match self {
+            Self::Full(metadata) => metadata.version,
+            Self::Indexed(metadata_index) => metadata_index.version,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Full(metadata) => metadata.num_rows,
+            Self::Indexed(metadata_index) => metadata_index.num_rows,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn schema(&self) -> &Arc<Schema> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Full(metadata) => &metadata.file_schema,
+            Self::Indexed(metadata_index) => &metadata_index.file_schema,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn file_buffers(&self) -> &Vec<BufferDescriptor> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Full(metadata) => &metadata.file_buffers,
+            Self::Indexed(metadata_index) => &metadata_index.file_buffers,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn retained_global_buffers(&self) -> &BTreeMap<u32, Bytes> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Full(metadata) => &metadata.retained_global_buffers,
+            Self::Indexed(metadata_index) => &metadata_index.retained_global_buffers,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn file_size(&self) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Full(metadata) => metadata.file_size_bytes,
+            Self::Indexed(metadata_index) => metadata_index.file_size_bytes,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn file_statistics(&self) -> Option<FileStatistics> {
+        let metadata = match self {
+            Self::Full(metadata) => metadata,
+            Self::Indexed(_) => return None,
+        };
+        Some(FileReader::statistics_from_column_metadata(
+            &metadata.column_metadatas,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn projection_matches_indexed_metadata(projection: &ReaderProjection) -> bool {
+        if projection.schema.fields.is_empty() {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        projection
+            .schema
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .try_fold(0usize, |count, field| {
+                count.checked_add(indexed_projection_column_count(field)?)
+            })
+            == Some(projection.column_indices.len())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn validate_indexed_projection_structure(
+        projection: &ReaderProjection,
+        metadata_index: &FileMetadataIndex,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if projection.schema.fields.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Attempt to read zero columns from the file, at least one column must be specified"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut column_indices_seen = BTreeSet::new();
+        for column_index in &projection.column_indices {
+            if !column_indices_seen.insert(*column_index) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "The projection specified the column index {} more than once",
+                    column_index
+                )));
+            }
+            if *column_index >= metadata_index.num_columns {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "The projection specified the column index {} but there are only {} columns in the file",
+                    column_index, metadata_index.num_columns
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn indexed_projection_error(
+        projection: &ReaderProjection,
+        metadata_index: &FileMetadataIndex,
+    ) -> Error {
+        Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "lazy column metadata loading requires a V2.1+ ordinary structural projection without blob or packed-struct fields whose physical-column count matches the projection; got file version {:?}, {} schema fields, and {} column indices",
+            metadata_index.version,
+            projection.schema.fields.len(),
+            projection.column_indices.len()
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn column_metadata_range(
+        metadata_index: &FileMetadataIndex,
+        column_index: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Range<u64>> {
+        let (position, length) = metadata_index
+            .column_metadata_offsets
+            .get(column_index as usize)
+            .copied()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "The projection specified the column index {} but there are only {} columns in the file",
+                    column_index, metadata_index.num_columns
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let end = position.checked_add(length).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "column metadata range overflows for column index {}, position={}, length={}",
+                column_index, position, length
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(position..end)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn load_indexed_column_infos<F>(
+        metadata_index: &FileMetadataIndex,
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        cache: &Arc<LanceCache>,
+        column_indices: &[u32],
+        decode_column: F,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>>
+    where
+        F: Fn(u32, &pbfile::ColumnMetadata) -> Result<Arc<ColumnInfo>>,
+    {
+        let mut column_infos = vec![None; column_indices.len()];
+        let mut missing_columns = Vec::new();
+
+        for (result_index, column_index) in column_indices.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+            let cache_key = ColumnMetadataCacheKey { column_index };
+            if let Some(cached) = cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
+                column_infos[result_index] = Some(cached.column_info.clone());
+            } else {
+                let range = Self::column_metadata_range(metadata_index, column_index)?;
+                missing_columns.push((result_index, column_index, range));
+            }
+        }
+
+        missing_columns.sort_by_key(|(_, _, range)| range.start);
+        if !missing_columns.is_empty() {
+            let ranges = missing_columns
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(_, _, range)| range.clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let metadata_bytes = io.submit_request(ranges, 0).await?;
+            for ((result_index, column_index, _), bytes) in
+                missing_columns.into_iter().zip(metadata_bytes)
+            {
+                let column_metadata = pbfile::ColumnMetadata::decode(bytes)?;
+                let column_info = decode_column(column_index, &column_metadata)?;
+                let cached = Arc::new(CachedColumnMetadata {
+                    column_metadata,
+                    column_info: column_info.clone(),
+                });
+                let cache_key = ColumnMetadataCacheKey { column_index };
+                cache.insert_with_key(&cache_key, cached).await;
+                column_infos[result_index] = Some(column_info);
+            }
+        }
+
+        column_infos
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(idx, column_info)| {
+                column_info.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "lazy metadata loader did not load requested projection column at position {}",
+                        idx
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DecodeEngine {
+    pub(crate) fn try_new(
+        scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        base_projection: ReaderProjection,
+        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+        metadata_provider: FileMetadataProvider,
+        read_projection: Arc<dyn ReadProjection>,
+        cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+        options: FileReaderOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            scheduler,
+            base_projection,
+            metadata_provider,
+            read_projection,
+            decoder_plugins,
+            cache,
+            options,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_scheduler(&self, scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            scheduler,
+            base_projection: self.base_projection.clone(),
+            metadata_provider: self.metadata_provider.clone(),
+            read_projection: self.read_projection.clone(),
+            decoder_plugins: self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
+            cache: self.cache.clone(),
+            options: self.options.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.metadata_provider.num_rows()
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> &Arc<Schema> {
+        self.metadata_provider.schema()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn read_global_buffer(&self, index: u32) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        let file_buffers = self.metadata_provider.file_buffers();
+        let buffer_desc = file_buffers.get(index as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "request for global buffer at index {} but there were only {} global buffers in the file",
+                index,
+                file_buffers.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        if let Some(bytes) = self.metadata_provider.retained_global_buffers().get(&index) {
+            return Ok(bytes.clone());
+        }
+
+        let bytes = self
+            .scheduler
+            .submit_request(
+                vec![
+                    buffer_desc
+                        .checked_range(index as usize, self.metadata_provider.file_size())?,
+                ],
+                0,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        bytes.into_iter().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "global buffer read for index {} returned no bytes",
+                index
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn read_range(
+        &self,
+        range: Range<u64>,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        prepared: PreparedProjection,
+        filter: FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
+        FileReader::do_read_range(
+            prepared.column_infos,
+            self.scheduler.clone(),
+            self.cache.clone(),
+            self.num_rows(),
+            self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
+            range,
+            batch_size,
+            prepared.decoder_projection,
+            filter,
+            self.options.decoder_config.clone(),
+            self.options.batch_size_bytes,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn take_rows(
+        &self,
+        indices: Vec<u64>,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        prepared: PreparedProjection,
+    ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
+        FileReader::do_take_rows(
+            prepared.column_infos,
+            self.scheduler.clone(),
+            self.cache.clone(),
+            self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
+            indices,
+            batch_size,
+            prepared.decoder_projection,
+            FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            self.options.decoder_config.clone(),
+            self.options.batch_size_bytes,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn read_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        prepared: PreparedProjection,
+        filter: FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>> {
+        FileReader::do_read_ranges(
+            prepared.column_infos,
+            self.scheduler.clone(),
+            self.cache.clone(),
+            self.decoder_plugins.clone(),
+            ranges,
+            batch_size,
+            prepared.decoder_projection,
+            filter,
+            self.options.decoder_config.clone(),
+            self.options.batch_size_bytes,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn read_prepared_tasks(
+        &self,
+        params: ReadBatchParams,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        prepared: PreparedProjection,
+        read_len: u64,
+        filter: FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = ReadBatchTask> + Send>>> {
+        let verify_bound = |params: &ReadBatchParams, bound: u64, inclusive: bool| {
+            if bound > read_len || (bound == read_len && inclusive) {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cannot read {params:?} from columns with {read_len} rows"
+                )))
+            } else {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        };
+        match &params {
+            ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => {
+                for idx in indices {
+                    match idx {
+                        None => {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Null value in indices array"));
+                        }
+                        Some(idx) => {
+                            verify_bound(&params, idx as u64, true)?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                let indices = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.unwrap() as u64).collect();
+                self.take_rows(indices, batch_size, prepared).await
+            }
+            ReadBatchParams::Range(range) => {
+                verify_bound(&params, range.end as u64, false)?;
+                self.read_range(
+                    range.start as u64..range.end as u64,
+                    batch_size,
+                    prepared,
+                    filter,
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+            ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges) => {
+                let mut ranges_u64 = Vec::with_capacity(ranges.len());
+                for range in ranges.as_ref() {
+                    verify_bound(&params, range.end, false)?;
+                    ranges_u64.push(range.start..range.end);
+                }
+                self.read_ranges(ranges_u64, batch_size, prepared, filter)
+                    .await
+            }
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(range) => {
+                verify_bound(&params, range.start as u64, true)?;
+                self.read_range(range.start as u64..read_len, batch_size, prepared, filter)
+                    .await
+            }
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(range) => {
+                verify_bound(&params, range.end as u64, false)?;
+                self.read_range(0..range.end as u64, batch_size, prepared, filter)
+                    .await
+            }
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => {
+                self.read_range(0..read_len, batch_size, prepared, filter)
+                    .await
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ProjectedFileReader {
+    pub(crate) fn base_projection(&self) -> &ReaderProjection {
+        &self.core.base_projection
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn read_prepared_tasks(
+        &self,
+        params: ReadBatchParams,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        prepared: PreparedProjection,
+        read_len: u64,
+        filter: FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = ReadBatchTask> + Send>>> {
+        self.core
+            .read_prepared_tasks(params, batch_size, prepared, read_len, filter)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a clone of this reader using a different scheduler.
+    pub fn with_scheduler(&self, scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            core: self.core.with_scheduler(scheduler),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the number of rows in the file.
+    pub fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.core.num_rows()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the file schema visible to this reader.
+    pub fn schema(&self) -> &Arc<Schema> {
+        self.core.schema()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns file statistics when this reader has full file metadata.
+    pub fn file_statistics(&self) -> Option<FileStatistics> {
+        self.core.metadata_provider.file_statistics()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn metadata_index(&self) -> Option<&Arc<FileMetadataIndex>> {
+        match &self.core.metadata_provider {
+            FileMetadataProvider::Indexed(metadata_index) => Some(metadata_index),
+            FileMetadataProvider::Full(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Reads a global buffer by index.
+    pub async fn read_global_buffer(&self, index: u32) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        self.core.read_global_buffer(index).await
+    }
+}
+
+impl FileReader {
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn scheduler(&self) -> Arc<dyn EncodingsIo> {
+        self.core.scheduler.clone()
+    }
+
+    pub async fn try_open(
+        scheduler: FileScheduler,
+        base_projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        options: FileReaderOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        match Self::try_open_for_dispatch(
+            scheduler,
+            base_projection,
+            decoder_plugins,
+            cache,
+            options,
+        )
+        .await?
+        {
+            versions::OpenedFileReader::V1 {
+                major_version,
+                minor_version,
+            } => Err(Error::version_conflict(
+                "Attempt to use the Lance current-format reader to read a v1 file".to_string(),
+                major_version,
+                minor_version,
+            )),
+            versions::OpenedFileReader::Current(reader) => Ok(reader),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn try_open_for_dispatch(
+        scheduler: FileScheduler,
+        base_projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        options: FileReaderOptions,
+    ) -> Result<versions::OpenedFileReader> {
+        let metadata = match Self::read_raw_metadata_for_dispatch(&scheduler).await? {
+            RawFileMetadataOpen::Legacy {
+                major_version,
+                minor_version,
+            } => {
+                return Ok(versions::OpenedFileReader::V1 {
+                    major_version,
+                    minor_version,
+                });
+            }
+            RawFileMetadataOpen::Current { version, metadata } => {
+                Arc::new(versions::finish_metadata(version, metadata)?)
+            }
+        };
+        let path = scheduler.reader().path().clone();
+        let io = Arc::new(
+            LanceEncodingsIo::new(scheduler).with_read_chunk_size(options.read_chunk_size),
+        );
+        Self::try_open_with_file_metadata(
+            io,
+            path,
+            base_projection,
+            decoder_plugins,
+            metadata,
+            cache,
+            options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .map(versions::OpenedFileReader::Current)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn try_open_with_file_metadata(
+        scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        path: Path,
+        base_projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+        metadata: Arc<CachedFileMetadata>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        options: FileReaderOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if metadata.version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+            return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+                "Attempt to use the Lance current-format reader with v1 metadata".to_string(),
+                metadata.major_version,
+                metadata.minor_version,
+            ));
+        }
+        let read_projection = versions::read_projection(metadata.version)?;
+        let has_explicit_projection = base_projection.is_some();
+        let base_projection = base_projection.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(&metadata.file_schema, metadata.version)
+        });
+        if has_explicit_projection {
+            Self::validate_projection(&base_projection, &metadata)?;
+        }
+        let cache = Arc::new(cache.with_key_prefix(path.as_ref()));
+        let core = DecodeEngine::try_new(
+            scheduler,
+            base_projection,
+            decoder_plugins,
+            FileMetadataProvider::Full(metadata.clone()),
+            read_projection,
+            cache,
+            options,
+        )?;
+        Ok(Self { core, metadata })
+    }
+
+    pub async fn read_all_metadata(scheduler: &FileScheduler) -> Result<CachedFileMetadata> {
+        match Self::read_raw_metadata_for_dispatch(scheduler).await? {
+            RawFileMetadataOpen::Legacy {
+                major_version,
+                minor_version,
+            } => Err(Error::version_conflict(
+                "Attempt to use the Lance current-format reader to read v1 metadata".to_string(),
+                major_version,
+                minor_version,
+            )),
+            RawFileMetadataOpen::Current { version, metadata } => {
+                versions::finish_metadata(version, metadata)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub async fn read_metadata_index(scheduler: &FileScheduler) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+        let index = Self::read_raw_metadata_index(scheduler).await?;
+        versions::finish_metadata_index(index)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn read_metadata_index_with_schema(
+        scheduler: &FileScheduler,
+        file_schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+        let index =
+            Self::read_raw_metadata_index_with_schema(scheduler, file_schema, num_rows).await?;
+        versions::finish_metadata_index(index)
+    }
+
+    pub fn version(&self) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+        self.metadata.version
+    }
+
+    async fn prepare(&self, projection: ReaderProjection) -> Result<(PreparedProjection, u64)> {
+        self.core
+            .read_projection
+            .prepare(
+                &self.core.metadata_provider,
+                &projection,
+                &self.core.scheduler,
+                &self.core.cache,
+            )
+            .await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn read_tasks(
+        &self,
+        params: ReadBatchParams,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        filter: FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = ReadBatchTask> + Send>>> {
+        let projection = projection.unwrap_or_else(|| self.base_projection().clone());
+        let (prepared, read_len) = self.prepare(projection).await?;
+        self.read_prepared_tasks(params, batch_size, prepared, read_len, filter)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn read_stream_projected(
+        &self,
+        params: ReadBatchParams,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        batch_readahead: u32,
+        projection: ReaderProjection,
+        filter: FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream>>> {
+        let schema = projection.schema.clone();
+        let tasks = self
+            .read_tasks(params, batch_size, Some(projection), filter)
+            .await?;
+        Ok(tasks_to_record_batch_stream(schema, tasks, batch_readahead))
+    }
+
+    pub fn read_stream_projected_blocking(
+        &self,
+        params: ReadBatchParams,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        filter: FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static>> {
+        let projection = projection.unwrap_or_else(|| self.base_projection().clone());
+        Self::validate_projection(&projection, self.metadata())?;
+        let prepared = self.full_projection(projection);
+        let read_len = self.core.read_projection.read_length(&prepared)?;
+        self.read_prepared_blocking(params, batch_size, prepared, read_len, filter)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn read_stream(
         &self,
         params: ReadBatchParams,
         batch_size: u32,
@@ -1392,13 +2148,138 @@ impl FileReader {
             params,
             batch_size,
             batch_readahead,
-            self.base_projection.clone(),
+            self.base_projection().clone(),
             filter,
         )
+        .await
     }
+}
 
-    pub fn schema(&self) -> &Arc<Schema> {
-        &self.metadata.file_schema
+impl ProjectedFileReader {
+    pub async fn try_open(
+        scheduler: FileScheduler,
+        base_projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        options: FileReaderOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let base_projection = base_projection.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("ProjectedReader requires an explicit base projection")
+        })?;
+        let metadata_index = Arc::new(FileReader::read_metadata_index(&scheduler).await?);
+        let path = scheduler.reader().path().clone();
+        let io = Arc::new(
+            LanceEncodingsIo::new(scheduler).with_read_chunk_size(options.read_chunk_size),
+        );
+        Self::try_open_with_metadata_index(
+            io,
+            path,
+            Some(base_projection),
+            decoder_plugins,
+            metadata_index,
+            cache,
+            options,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn try_open_with_metadata_index(
+        scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        path: Path,
+        base_projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+        metadata_index: Arc<FileMetadataIndex>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        options: FileReaderOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if metadata_index.version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+            return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+                "Attempt to use the Lance projected current-format reader with v1 metadata"
+                    .to_string(),
+                0,
+                2,
+            ));
+        }
+        let base_projection = base_projection.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("ProjectedReader requires an explicit base projection")
+        })?;
+        let read_projection = versions::read_projection(metadata_index.version)?;
+        read_projection.validate_indexed(&base_projection, &metadata_index)?;
+        let cache = Arc::new(cache.with_key_prefix(path.as_ref()));
+        let core = DecodeEngine::try_new(
+            scheduler,
+            base_projection,
+            decoder_plugins,
+            FileMetadataProvider::Indexed(metadata_index),
+            read_projection,
+            cache,
+            options,
+        )?;
+        Ok(Self { core })
+    }
+
+    pub async fn try_open_with_file_metadata(
+        scheduler: Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        path: Path,
+        base_projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+        metadata: Arc<CachedFileMetadata>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        options: FileReaderOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if metadata.version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+            return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+                "Attempt to use the Lance projected current-format reader with v1 metadata"
+                    .to_string(),
+                metadata.major_version,
+                metadata.minor_version,
+            ));
+        }
+        let read_projection = versions::read_projection(metadata.version)?;
+        let has_explicit_projection = base_projection.is_some();
+        let base_projection = base_projection.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(&metadata.file_schema, metadata.version)
+        });
+        if has_explicit_projection {
+            FileReader::validate_projection(&base_projection, &metadata)?;
+        }
+        let cache = Arc::new(cache.with_key_prefix(path.as_ref()));
+        let core = DecodeEngine::try_new(
+            scheduler,
+            base_projection,
+            decoder_plugins,
+            FileMetadataProvider::Full(metadata),
+            read_projection,
+            cache,
+            options,
+        )?;
+        Ok(Self { core })
+    }
+
+    pub fn version(&self) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+        self.core.metadata_provider.version()
+    }
+
+    pub async fn read_tasks(
+        &self,
+        params: ReadBatchParams,
+        batch_size: u32,
+        projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
+        filter: FilterExpression,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = ReadBatchTask> + Send>>> {
+        let projection = projection.unwrap_or_else(|| self.base_projection().clone());
+        let (prepared, read_len) = self
+            .core
+            .read_projection
+            .prepare(
+                &self.core.metadata_provider,
+                &projection,
+                &self.core.scheduler,
+                &self.core.cache,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        self.read_prepared_tasks(params, batch_size, prepared, read_len, filter)
+            .await
     }
 }
 
@@ -1452,11 +2333,7 @@ pub fn describe_encoding(page: &pbfile::column_metadata::Page) -> String {
 }
 
 pub trait EncodedBatchReaderExt {
-    fn try_from_mini_lance(
-        bytes: Bytes,
-        schema: &Schema,
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<Self>
+    fn try_from_mini_lance(bytes: Bytes, schema: &Schema) -> Result<Self>
     where
         Self: Sized;
     fn try_from_self_described_lance(bytes: Bytes) -> Result<Self>
@@ -1465,16 +2342,13 @@ pub trait EncodedBatchReaderExt {
 }
 
 impl EncodedBatchReaderExt for EncodedBatch {
-    fn try_from_mini_lance(
-        bytes: Bytes,
-        schema: &Schema,
-        file_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<Self>
+    fn try_from_mini_lance(bytes: Bytes, schema: &Schema) -> Result<Self>
     where
         Self: Sized,
     {
-        let projection = ReaderProjection::from_whole_schema(schema, file_version);
         let footer = FileReader::decode_footer(&bytes)?;
+        let file_version = FileReader::current_file_version(&footer)?;
+        let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(schema, file_version);
 
         // Next, read the metadata for the columns
         // This is both the column metadata and the CMO table
@@ -1484,12 +2358,7 @@ impl EncodedBatchReaderExt for EncodedBatch {
         let column_metadatas =
             FileReader::read_all_column_metadata(column_metadata_bytes, &footer)?;
 
-        let file_version = LanceFileVersion::try_from_major_minor(
-            footer.major_version as u32,
-            footer.minor_version as u32,
-        )?;
-
-        let page_table = FileReader::meta_to_col_infos(&column_metadatas, file_version);
+        let page_table = versions::decode_column_metadata(file_version, &column_metadatas)?;
 
         Ok(Self {
             data: bytes,
@@ -1508,82 +2377,285 @@ impl EncodedBatchReaderExt for EncodedBatch {
         Self: Sized,
     {
         let footer = FileReader::decode_footer(&bytes)?;
-        let file_version = LanceFileVersion::try_from_major_minor(
-            footer.major_version as u32,
-            footer.minor_version as u32,
-        )?;
+        let file_version = FileReader::current_file_version(&footer)?;
 
+        let file_len = bytes.len() as u64;
         let gbo_table = FileReader::do_decode_gbo_table(
             &bytes.slice(footer.global_buff_offsets_start as usize..),
             &footer,
-            file_version,
         )?;
+        FileReader::validate_gbo_table(&gbo_table, file_len, file_version)?;
         if gbo_table.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "File did not contain any global buffers, schema expected".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "File did not contain any global buffers, schema expected".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
-        let schema_start = gbo_table[0].position as usize;
-        let schema_size = gbo_table[0].size as usize;
+        let schema_range = gbo_table[0].checked_range(0, file_len)?;
+        let schema_start = schema_range.start as usize;
+        let schema_end = schema_range.end as usize;
 
-        let schema_bytes = bytes.slice(schema_start..(schema_start + schema_size));
+        let schema_bytes = bytes.slice(schema_start..schema_end);
         let (_, schema) = FileReader::decode_schema(schema_bytes)?;
-        let projection = ReaderProjection::from_whole_schema(&schema, file_version);
+        let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(&schema, file_version);
+
+        // Next, read the metadata for the columns
+        // This is both the column metadata and the CMO table
+        let column_metadata_start = footer.column_meta_start as usize;
+        let column_metadata_end = footer.global_buff_offsets_start as usize;
+        let column_metadata_bytes = bytes.slice(column_metadata_start..column_metadata_end);
+        let column_metadatas =
+            FileReader::read_all_column_metadata(column_metadata_bytes, &footer)?;
+
+        let page_table = versions::decode_column_metadata(file_version, &column_metadatas)?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            data: bytes,
+            num_rows: page_table
+                .first()
+                .map(|col| col.page_infos.iter().map(|page| page.num_rows).sum::<u64>())
+                .unwrap_or(0),
+            page_table,
+            top_level_columns: projection.column_indices,
+            schema: Arc::new(schema),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::{
+        collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap},
+        pin::Pin,
+        sync::Arc,
+    };
+
+    use arrow_array::{
+        DictionaryArray, Int8Array, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+        StringArray, UInt32Array,
+        cast::AsArray,
+        types::{Float64Type, Int8Type, Int32Type},
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::{NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use futures::{StreamExt, prelude::stream::TryStreamExt};
+    use lance_arrow::{BLOB_META_KEY, RecordBatchExt};
+    use lance_core::{ArrowResult, datatypes::Schema};
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_encoding::{
+        constants::{STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE},
+        decoder::{
+            DecodeBatchScheduler, DecoderPlugins, EncodedBatchLayout, FilterExpression,
+            PageEncoding, ReadBatchTask, decode_batch,
+        },
+        encoder::{EncodedBatch, EncodingOptions, encode_batch},
+        format::pb21,
+    };
+    use lance_io::{stream::RecordBatchStream, utils::CachedFileSize};
+    use log::debug;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use tokio::sync::mpsc;
+
+    use crate::reader::{
+        EncodedBatchReaderExt, FileReader, FileReaderOptions, ProjectedFileReader, ReaderProjection,
+    };
+    use crate::testing::{FsFixture, WrittenFile, test_cache, write_lance_file};
+    use crate::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+    use crate::versions;
+    use crate::writer::{FileWriterOptions, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT};
+    use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderConfig;
+
+    fn footer_version(bytes: &[u8]) -> (u16, u16) {
+        let version_start = bytes.len() - 8;
+        (
+            u16::from_le_bytes([bytes[version_start], bytes[version_start + 1]]),
+            u16::from_le_bytes([bytes[version_start + 2], bytes[version_start + 3]]),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn sparse_file_writer_reader_scan_range_and_take_roundtrip() {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let sparse_metadata = HashMap::from([(
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_SPARSE.to_string(),
+        )]);
+        let value_field =
+            Field::new("values", DataType::Int32, true).with_metadata(sparse_metadata.clone());
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let list_field = Field::new("items", DataType::List(item_field.clone()), true)
+            .with_metadata(sparse_metadata);
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![value_field, list_field]));
+        let list = ListArray::try_new(
+            item_field,
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i32, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 5])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+                Some(1),
+                None,
+                Some(3),
+                Some(4),
+                Some(5),
+            ])),
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, true, true, true, true])),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+                    Some(10),
+                    None,
+                    Some(30),
+                    Some(40),
+                    None,
+                    Some(60),
+                ])),
+                Arc::new(list),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let input = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], arrow_schema);
+        write_lance_file(
+            input,
+            &fs,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(file_reader.metadata().column_infos.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            file_reader
+                .metadata()
+                .column_infos
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|column| column.page_infos.iter())
+                .all(|page| {
+                    matches!(
+                        &page.encoding,
+                        PageEncoding::Structural(layout)
+                            if matches!(
+                                layout.layout,
+                                Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_))
+                            )
+                    )
+                })
+        );
 
-        // Next, read the metadata for the columns
-        // This is both the column metadata and the CMO table
-        let column_metadata_start = footer.column_meta_start as usize;
-        let column_metadata_end = footer.global_buff_offsets_start as usize;
-        let column_metadata_bytes = bytes.slice(column_metadata_start..column_metadata_end);
-        let column_metadatas =
-            FileReader::read_all_column_metadata(column_metadata_bytes, &footer)?;
+        let scan = file_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                1024,
+                1,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan, vec![batch.clone()]);
 
-        let page_table = FileReader::meta_to_col_infos(&column_metadatas, file_version);
+        let range = file_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(1..5),
+                1024,
+                1,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(range, vec![batch.slice(1, 4)]);
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            data: bytes,
-            num_rows: page_table
-                .first()
-                .map(|col| col.page_infos.iter().map(|page| page.num_rows).sum::<u64>())
-                .unwrap_or(0),
-            page_table,
-            top_level_columns: projection.column_indices,
-            schema: Arc::new(schema),
-        })
+        let indices = UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 3, 5]);
+        let take = file_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices.clone()),
+                1024,
+                1,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(take, vec![batch.take(&indices).unwrap()]);
     }
-}
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
-    use std::{collections::BTreeMap, pin::Pin, sync::Arc};
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_int8_dictionary_v2_2_roundtrip() {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+            (0..=i8::MAX)
+                .map(|value| format!("value-{value}"))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let keys = Int8Array::from((0..=i8::MAX).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let dictionary = Arc::new(DictionaryArray::<Int8Type>::new(keys, values));
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "dictionary",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int8), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![dictionary]).unwrap();
 
-    use arrow_array::{
-        types::{Float64Type, Int32Type},
-        RecordBatch, UInt32Array,
-    };
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use bytes::Bytes;
-    use futures::{prelude::stream::TryStreamExt, StreamExt};
-    use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
-    use lance_core::{datatypes::Schema, ArrowResult};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
-    use lance_encoding::{
-        decoder::{decode_batch, DecodeBatchScheduler, DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression},
-        encoder::{default_encoding_strategy, encode_batch, EncodedBatch, EncodingOptions},
-        version::LanceFileVersion,
-    };
-    use lance_io::{stream::RecordBatchStream, utils::CachedFileSize};
-    use log::debug;
-    use rstest::rstest;
-    use tokio::sync::mpsc;
+        write_lance_file(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], arrow_schema),
+            &fs,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await;
 
-    use crate::reader::{EncodedBatchReaderExt, FileReader, FileReaderOptions, ReaderProjection};
-    use crate::testing::{test_cache, write_lance_file, FsFixture, WrittenFile};
-    use crate::writer::{EncodedBatchWriteExt, FileWriter, FileWriterOptions};
-    use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderConfig;
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let actual = file_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                1024,
+                1,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-    async fn create_some_file(fs: &FsFixture, version: LanceFileVersion) -> WrittenFile {
+        assert_eq!(actual, vec![batch]);
+    }
+
+    async fn create_some_file(fs: &FsFixture, version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> WrittenFile {
         let location_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
             Field::new("x", DataType::Float64, true),
             Field::new("y", DataType::Float64, true),
@@ -1595,18 +2667,76 @@ pub mod tests {
             .col("location", array::rand_type(&location_type))
             .col("categories", array::rand_type(&categories_type))
             .col("binary", array::rand_type(&DataType::Binary));
-        if version <= LanceFileVersion::V2_0 {
+        if version == ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 {
             reader = reader.col("large_bin", array::rand_type(&DataType::LargeBinary));
         }
         let reader = reader.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(100));
 
+        write_lance_file(reader, fs, version, FileWriterOptions::default()).await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_wide_direct_file(fs: &FsFixture, num_columns: usize) -> WrittenFile {
+        let mut reader = gen_batch();
+        for column_idx in 0..num_columns {
+            reader = reader.col(format!("c{column_idx}"), array::step::<Int32Type>());
+        }
+        let reader = reader.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(100));
+
         write_lance_file(
             reader,
             fs,
-            FileWriterOptions {
-                format_version: Some(version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            },
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_wide_fixed_size_list_file(fs: &FsFixture, num_columns: usize) -> WrittenFile {
+        let data_type =
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4);
+        let mut reader = gen_batch();
+        for column_idx in 0..num_columns {
+            reader = reader.col(
+                format!("c{column_idx}"),
+                array::rand_type(&data_type).with_random_nulls(0.1),
+            );
+        }
+        let reader = reader.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(64), BatchCount::from(4));
+
+        write_lance_file(
+            reader,
+            fs,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_wide_structural_file(fs: &FsFixture, num_groups: usize) -> WrittenFile {
+        let struct_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+            Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let list_type = DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)));
+        let mut reader = gen_batch();
+        for group_idx in 0..num_groups {
+            reader = reader
+                .col(
+                    format!("s{group_idx}"),
+                    array::rand_type(&struct_type).with_random_nulls(0.5),
+                )
+                .col(
+                    format!("l{group_idx}"),
+                    array::rand_type(&list_type).with_random_nulls(0.5),
+                );
+        }
+        let reader = reader.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(64), BatchCount::from(4));
+
+        write_lance_file(
+            reader,
+            fs,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
         )
         .await
     }
@@ -1663,11 +2793,333 @@ pub mod tests {
         assert_eq!(remaining, 0);
     }
 
+    async fn collect_read_tasks(
+        tasks: Pin<Box<dyn futures::Stream<Item = ReadBatchTask> + Send>>,
+        readahead: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        tasks
+            .map(|task| task.task)
+            .buffered(readahead)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Writes `batch` to a fresh file, overwrites `patch` bytes at `patch_offset`
+    /// into the single occurrence of `pattern`, and reads the file back with the
+    /// default reader configuration.
+    async fn read_file_with_mutated_bytes(
+        version: LanceFileVersion,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        pattern: &[u8],
+        patch_offset: usize,
+        patch: &[u8],
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        write_lance_file(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &fs,
+            version.resolve(),
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let mut bytes = fs
+            .object_store
+            .read_one_all(&fs.tmp_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_vec();
+        let matches = bytes
+            .windows(pattern.len())
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter_map(|(position, window)| (window == pattern).then_some(position))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            matches.len(),
+            1,
+            "expected the byte pattern to appear exactly once in the file"
+        );
+        let patch_start = matches[0] + patch_offset;
+        bytes[patch_start..patch_start + patch.len()].copy_from_slice(patch);
+        fs.object_store.put(&fs.tmp_path, &bytes).await.unwrap();
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        file_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                1024,
+                16,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await?
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_reader_rejects_excess_miniblock_row_counts() {
+        let batch =
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", UInt64, (0..2048_u64).collect::<Vec<_>>())).unwrap();
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        write_lance_file(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            &fs,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let mut bytes = fs
+            .object_store
+            .read_one_all(&fs.tmp_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_vec();
+        // V2.1 places this column's first mini-block metadata word at byte zero.
+        // The issue's mutation makes its non-final item count exceed the page total.
+        bytes[0] ^= 0xf7;
+        fs.object_store.put(&fs.tmp_path, &bytes).await.unwrap();
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let result = file_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                1024,
+                16,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await;
+        let error = match result {
+            Ok(stream) => stream
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .expect_err("excess mini-block row counts must fail the read"),
+            Err(error) => error,
+        };
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, lance_core::Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("exceeding items_in_page"),
+            "unexpected message: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A corrupt file whose variable-width offsets point outside the value bytes
+    /// must fail with a typed error under the default reader configuration
+    /// (`validate_on_decode` disabled) instead of materializing values outside
+    /// the data buffer.
+    ///
+    /// Uses a dictionary-encoded string column because its values page stores
+    /// the offsets verbatim, so flipping the tail offset in the file reaches the
+    /// Arrow conversion boundary without being rejected by an intermediate
+    /// decompressor.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_default_reader_rejects_out_of_bounds_variable_width_offsets(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_1, LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)]
+        version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        use arrow_array::{Array, DictionaryArray, Int32Array, StringArray};
+
+        let values = StringArray::from(vec!["alpha", "beta", "gamma"]);
+        let indices = Int32Array::from((0..300).map(|i| i % 3).collect::<Vec<i32>>());
+        let dictionary = DictionaryArray::new(indices, Arc::new(values));
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "category",
+            dictionary.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema, vec![Arc::new(dictionary)]).unwrap();
+
+        // The dictionary values page stores the value offsets as plain
+        // little-endian i32s ending with [5, 9, 14] (2.1 also stores the leading
+        // zero, 2.2+ omits it).  If a future encoding change stops storing these
+        // offsets verbatim this lookup fails loudly and the test needs a new
+        // byte pattern.  The patch rewrites the tail offset so it points far
+        // beyond the value bytes.
+        let offsets_tail_pattern = [5_i32, 9, 14]
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|value| value.to_le_bytes())
+            .collect::<Vec<u8>>();
+        let error = read_file_with_mutated_bytes(
+            version,
+            batch,
+            &offsets_tail_pattern,
+            8,
+            &100_000_i32.to_le_bytes(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("out-of-bounds offsets must fail the read");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, lance_core::Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("out of bounds"),
+            "unexpected message: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Storage dictionaries expand their values through `DataBlockBuilder`
+    /// before the final Arrow layout validation.  Corrupt dictionary offsets
+    /// must therefore fail at the append boundary instead of reaching a slice
+    /// operation with a decreasing range.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_default_reader_rejects_non_monotonic_storage_dictionary_offsets(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_1, LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)]
+        version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+
+        let metadata = HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "lance-encoding:dict-size-ratio".to_string(),
+                "0.99".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance-encoding:dict-values-compression".to_string(),
+                "none".to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata),
+        ]));
+        let values = (0..300)
+            .map(|index| match index % 3 {
+                0 => "alpha",
+                1 => "beta",
+                _ => "gamma",
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema, vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(values))]).unwrap();
+
+        let offsets_tail_pattern = [5_i32, 9, 14]
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|value| value.to_le_bytes())
+            .collect::<Vec<u8>>();
+        let error = read_file_with_mutated_bytes(
+            version,
+            batch,
+            &offsets_tail_pattern,
+            4,
+            &2_i32.to_le_bytes(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("non-monotonic dictionary offsets must fail the read");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, lance_core::Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("decreases"),
+            "unexpected message: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Same contract as the test above, but for a plain (non-dictionary) string
+    /// column: the mini-block chunk stores chunk-relative value offsets that are
+    /// used to slice the chunk, so a corrupt tail offset must surface as a typed
+    /// error from the chunk decompressor instead of a panic in the decode task.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_default_reader_rejects_out_of_bounds_miniblock_offsets(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_1, LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)]
+        version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "strings",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["alpha", "beta", "gamma"]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // For ["alpha", "beta", "gamma"] the chunk stores LE i32 offsets
+        // [16, 21, 25, 30] (chunk-relative: a 16-byte offsets region precedes
+        // the value bytes).  The patch rewrites the tail offset to point far
+        // past the chunk.
+        let chunk_offsets_pattern = [16_i32, 21, 25, 30]
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|value| value.to_le_bytes())
+            .collect::<Vec<u8>>();
+        let error = read_file_with_mutated_bytes(
+            version,
+            batch,
+            &chunk_offsets_pattern,
+            12,
+            &100_000_i32.to_le_bytes(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("an out-of-bounds chunk offset must fail the read");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, lance_core::Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("out of bounds"),
+            "unexpected message: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_round_trip() {
         let fs = FsFixture::default();
 
-        let WrittenFile { data, .. } = create_some_file(&fs, LanceFileVersion::V2_0).await;
+        let WrittenFile { data, .. } = create_some_file(&fs, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0).await;
+
+        let file_size = fs.object_store.size(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap() as usize;
+        let footer = fs
+            .object_store
+            .open(&fs.tmp_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .get_range(file_size - 8..file_size)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(footer_version(&footer), (0, 3));
+        assert_eq!(
+            crate::determine_file_version(&fs.object_store, &fs.tmp_path, Some(file_size))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        );
 
         for read_size in [32, 1024, 1024 * 1024] {
             let file_scheduler = fs
@@ -1685,6 +3137,13 @@ pub mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
+            assert_eq!(
+                (
+                    file_reader.metadata().major_version,
+                    file_reader.metadata().minor_version
+                ),
+                (0, 3)
+            );
             let schema = file_reader.schema();
             assert_eq!(schema.metadata.get("foo").unwrap(), "bar");
 
@@ -1695,6 +3154,7 @@ pub mod tests {
                     16,
                     FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                 )
+                .await
                 .unwrap();
 
             verify_expected(&data, batch_stream, read_size, None).await;
@@ -1705,7 +3165,7 @@ pub mod tests {
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_encoded_batch_round_trip(
         // TODO: Add V2_1 (currently fails)
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)] version: ConcreteFileVersion,
     ) {
         let data = gen_batch()
             .col("x", array::rand::<Int32Type>())
@@ -1720,10 +3180,9 @@ pub mod tests {
             max_page_bytes: 32 * 1024 * 1024,
             keep_original_array: true,
             buffer_alignment: 64,
-            version,
         };
 
-        let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(version);
+        let encoding_strategy = crate::versions::v2_0::encoding_strategy();
 
         let encoded_batch = encode_batch(
             &data,
@@ -1735,208 +3194,753 @@ pub mod tests {
         .unwrap();
 
         // Test self described
-        let bytes = encoded_batch.try_to_self_described_lance(version).unwrap();
+        let bytes = versions::encode_self_described_batch(version, &encoded_batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(footer_version(&bytes), (2, 0));
+
+        let decoded_batch = EncodedBatch::try_from_self_described_lance(bytes).unwrap();
+
+        let decoded = decode_batch(
+            &decoded_batch,
+            &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            false,
+            EncodedBatchLayout::Array,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(data, decoded);
+
+        // Test mini
+        let bytes = versions::encode_mini_batch(version, &encoded_batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(footer_version(&bytes), (2, 0));
+        let decoded_batch =
+            EncodedBatch::try_from_mini_lance(bytes, lance_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let decoded = decode_batch(
+            &decoded_batch,
+            &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            false,
+            EncodedBatchLayout::Array,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(data, decoded);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_projection(
+        #[values(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        )]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+
+        let written_file = create_some_file(&fs, version).await;
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let field_id_mapping = written_file
+            .field_id_mapping
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeMap<_, _>>();
+
+        let empty_projection = ReaderProjection {
+            column_indices: Vec::default(),
+            schema: Arc::new(Schema::default()),
+        };
+
+        for columns in [
+            vec!["score"],
+            vec!["location"],
+            vec!["categories"],
+            vec!["score.x"],
+            vec!["score", "categories"],
+            vec!["score", "location"],
+            vec!["location", "categories"],
+            vec!["score.y", "location", "categories"],
+        ] {
+            debug!("Testing round trip with projection {:?}", columns);
+            for use_field_ids in [true, false] {
+                // We can specify the projection as part of the read operation via read_stream_projected
+                let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+                    file_scheduler.clone(),
+                    None,
+                    Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                    &test_cache(),
+                    FileReaderOptions::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+                let projected_schema = written_file.schema.project(&columns).unwrap();
+                let projection = if use_field_ids {
+                    versions::reader_projection_from_field_ids(
+                        file_reader.metadata().version(),
+                        &projected_schema,
+                        &field_id_mapping,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap()
+                } else {
+                    versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+                        file_reader.metadata().version(),
+                        &written_file.schema,
+                        &columns,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap()
+                };
+
+                let batch_stream = file_reader
+                    .read_stream_projected(
+                        lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                        1024,
+                        16,
+                        projection.clone(),
+                        FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                let projection_arrow = ArrowSchema::from(projection.schema.as_ref());
+                verify_expected(
+                    &written_file.data,
+                    batch_stream,
+                    1024,
+                    Some(Box::new(move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+                        batch.project_by_schema(&projection_arrow).unwrap()
+                    })),
+                )
+                .await;
+
+                // We can also specify the projection as a base projection when we open the file
+                let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+                    file_scheduler.clone(),
+                    Some(projection.clone()),
+                    Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                    &test_cache(),
+                    FileReaderOptions::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+                let batch_stream = file_reader
+                    .read_stream(
+                        lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                        1024,
+                        16,
+                        FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                let projection_arrow = ArrowSchema::from(projection.schema.as_ref());
+                verify_expected(
+                    &written_file.data,
+                    batch_stream,
+                    1024,
+                    Some(Box::new(move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+                        batch.project_by_schema(&projection_arrow).unwrap()
+                    })),
+                )
+                .await;
+
+                assert!(
+                    file_reader
+                        .read_stream_projected(
+                            lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                            1024,
+                            16,
+                            empty_projection.clone(),
+                            FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .is_err()
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            FileReader::try_open(
+                file_scheduler.clone(),
+                Some(empty_projection),
+                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                &test_cache(),
+                FileReaderOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .is_err()
+        );
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let projection_with_dupes = ReaderProjection {
+            column_indices: vec![0, 0],
+            schema: Arc::new(schema),
+        };
+
+        assert!(
+            FileReader::try_open(
+                file_scheduler.clone(),
+                Some(projection_with_dupes),
+                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                &test_cache(),
+                FileReaderOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .is_err()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lazy_reader_direct_projection_matches_eager_reader() {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let written_file = create_wide_direct_file(&fs, 16).await;
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            &written_file.schema,
+            &["c10"],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let eager_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler.clone(),
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let expected = eager_reader
+            .read_stream_projected(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                127,
+                16,
+                projection.clone(),
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let cache = test_cache();
+        let lazy_reader = ProjectedFileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            Some(projection.clone()),
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &cache,
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let tasks = lazy_reader
+            .read_tasks(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                127,
+                None,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let actual = collect_read_tasks(tasks, 16).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lazy_reader_loads_only_requested_column_metadata() {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let written_file = create_wide_direct_file(&fs, 512).await;
+
+        let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            &written_file.schema,
+            &["c0"],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let lazy_reader = ProjectedFileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            Some(projection.clone()),
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let selected_column = projection.column_indices[0] as usize;
+        let requested_metadata_bytes = lazy_reader
+            .metadata_index()
+            .unwrap()
+            .column_metadata_offsets[selected_column]
+            .1;
+        let total_metadata_bytes = lazy_reader
+            .metadata_index()
+            .unwrap()
+            .column_metadata_offsets
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, length)| *length)
+            .sum::<u64>();
+        assert!(
+            total_metadata_bytes > 8 * fs.object_store.block_size() as u64,
+            "test file metadata is too small to prove lazy loading: {total_metadata_bytes} bytes"
+        );
+
+        fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let tasks = lazy_reader
+            .read_tasks(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(0..0),
+                1024,
+                Some(projection.clone()),
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches = collect_read_tasks(tasks, 1).await;
+        assert!(batches.is_empty());
+
+        let stats = fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(
+            stats.read_bytes < total_metadata_bytes / 2,
+            "lazy read fetched too much metadata: read {} bytes, requested column metadata is {} bytes, total column metadata is {} bytes",
+            stats.read_bytes,
+            requested_metadata_bytes,
+            total_metadata_bytes
+        );
+
+        fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let tasks = lazy_reader
+            .read_tasks(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(0..0),
+                1024,
+                Some(projection),
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches = collect_read_tasks(tasks, 1).await;
+        assert!(batches.is_empty());
 
-        let decoded_batch = EncodedBatch::try_from_self_described_lance(bytes).unwrap();
+        let stats = fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.read_iops, 0,
+            "cached column metadata should avoid repeat metadata I/O"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.read_bytes, 0,
+            "cached column metadata should avoid repeat metadata reads"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let decoded = decode_batch(
-            &decoded_batch,
-            &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            false,
-            version,
+    async fn assert_lazy_projection_matches_eager_and_reads_metadata_subset(
+        fs: &FsFixture,
+        projection: ReaderProjection,
+        shape: &str,
+    ) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let eager_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler.clone(),
             None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
+        let expected = eager_reader
+            .read_stream_projected(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                127,
+                16,
+                projection.clone(),
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(data, decoded);
-
-        // Test mini
-        let bytes = encoded_batch.try_to_mini_lance(version).unwrap();
-        let decoded_batch =
-            EncodedBatch::try_from_mini_lance(bytes, lance_schema.as_ref(), LanceFileVersion::V2_0)
-                .unwrap();
-        let decoded = decode_batch(
-            &decoded_batch,
-            &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        let cache = test_cache();
+        let lazy_reader = ProjectedFileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            Some(projection.clone()),
             Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            false,
-            version,
-            None,
+            &cache,
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
+        let metadata_index = lazy_reader.metadata_index().unwrap();
+        let requested_metadata_bytes = projection
+            .column_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|column_index| metadata_index.column_metadata_offsets[*column_index as usize].1)
+            .sum::<u64>();
+        let total_metadata_bytes = metadata_index
+            .column_metadata_offsets
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, length)| *length)
+            .sum::<u64>();
+        assert!(total_metadata_bytes > requested_metadata_bytes * 8);
 
-        assert_eq!(data, decoded);
+        fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let tasks = lazy_reader
+            .read_tasks(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(0..0),
+                127,
+                None,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(collect_read_tasks(tasks, 1).await.is_empty());
+        let metadata_stats = fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(
+            metadata_stats.read_bytes < total_metadata_bytes / 2,
+            "lazy {shape} read fetched too much metadata: read {} bytes, requested column metadata is {} bytes, total column metadata is {} bytes",
+            metadata_stats.read_bytes,
+            requested_metadata_bytes,
+            total_metadata_bytes
+        );
+
+        let tasks = lazy_reader
+            .read_tasks(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                127,
+                None,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let actual = collect_read_tasks(tasks, 16).await;
+        assert_eq!(expected, actual);
+        actual
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_projection(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lazy_reader_fixed_size_list_projection_matches_eager_reader() {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let written_file = create_wide_fixed_size_list_file(&fs, 512).await;
+        let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            &written_file.schema,
+            &["c17", "c509"],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(projection.prefers_indexed_metadata(512));
+        assert_lazy_projection_matches_eager_and_reads_metadata_subset(
+            &fs,
+            projection,
+            "fixed-size-list",
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_0_rejects_indexed_metadata_reader() {
         let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let written_file = create_some_file(&fs, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0).await;
+        let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            &written_file.schema,
+            &["score"],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(projection.prefers_indexed_metadata(100));
 
-        let written_file = create_some_file(&fs, version).await;
         let file_scheduler = fs
             .scheduler
             .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let err = ProjectedFileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            Some(projection),
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::NotSupported { .. }),
+            "expected V2.0 indexed metadata open to fail, got {err:?}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let field_id_mapping = written_file
-            .field_id_mapping
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .collect::<BTreeMap<_, _>>();
-
-        let empty_projection = ReaderProjection {
-            column_indices: Vec::default(),
-            schema: Arc::new(Schema::default()),
-        };
-
-        for columns in [
-            vec!["score"],
-            vec!["location"],
-            vec!["categories"],
-            vec!["score.x"],
-            vec!["score", "categories"],
-            vec!["score", "location"],
-            vec!["location", "categories"],
-            vec!["score.y", "location", "categories"],
-        ] {
-            debug!("Testing round trip with projection {:?}", columns);
-            for use_field_ids in [true, false] {
-                // We can specify the projection as part of the read operation via read_stream_projected
-                let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-                    file_scheduler.clone(),
-                    None,
-                    Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-                    &test_cache(),
-                    FileReaderOptions::default(),
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lazy_reader_nested_projection_compacts_physical_columns() {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let written_file = create_wide_structural_file(&fs, 128).await;
+        let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            &written_file.schema,
+            &["s97.y", "l4", "s3"],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-                let projected_schema = written_file.schema.project(&columns).unwrap();
-                let projection = if use_field_ids {
-                    ReaderProjection::from_field_ids(
-                        file_reader.metadata.version(),
-                        &projected_schema,
-                        &field_id_mapping,
-                    )
-                    .unwrap()
-                } else {
-                    ReaderProjection::from_column_names(
-                        file_reader.metadata.version(),
-                        &written_file.schema,
-                        &columns,
-                    )
-                    .unwrap()
-                };
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection
+                .schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec!["s97", "l4", "s3"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.schema.fields[0].children.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(projection.schema.fields[0].children[0].name, "y");
+        assert_eq!(projection.schema.fields[2].children.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(projection.column_indices.len(), 4);
+        assert!(
+            projection
+                .column_indices
+                .windows(2)
+                .any(|indices| indices[0] > indices[1]),
+            "the projection must reorder physical columns to exercise compact remapping"
+        );
+        assert!(projection.prefers_indexed_metadata(128 * 4));
+        let actual = assert_lazy_projection_matches_eager_and_reads_metadata_subset(
+            &fs, projection, "nested",
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert!(
+            actual
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|batch| batch.columns())
+                .any(|column| column.null_count() > 0),
+            "the structural projection must exercise nullable arrays"
+        );
+    }
 
-                let batch_stream = file_reader
-                    .read_stream_projected(
-                        lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
-                        1024,
-                        16,
-                        projection.clone(),
-                        FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                    )
-                    .unwrap();
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::before_metadata_region(90, 5)]
+    #[case::after_metadata_region(190, 20)]
+    fn test_decode_cmo_table_rejects_out_of_range_offsets(
+        #[case] position: u64,
+        #[case] length: u64,
+    ) {
+        let mut cmo_table = [0; 16];
+        cmo_table[0..8].copy_from_slice(&position.to_le_bytes());
+        cmo_table[8..16].copy_from_slice(&length.to_le_bytes());
+        let footer = super::Footer {
+            column_meta_start: 100,
+            column_meta_offsets_start: 200,
+            global_buff_offsets_start: 200,
+            num_global_buffers: 0,
+            num_columns: 1,
+            major_version: 2,
+            minor_version: 1,
+        };
 
-                let projection_arrow = ArrowSchema::from(projection.schema.as_ref());
-                verify_expected(
-                    &written_file.data,
-                    batch_stream,
-                    1024,
-                    Some(Box::new(move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
-                        batch.project_by_schema(&projection_arrow).unwrap()
-                    })),
-                )
-                .await;
+        let err = FileReader::decode_cmo_table(Bytes::copy_from_slice(&cmo_table), &footer)
+            .expect_err("out-of-range CMO entries must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+        );
+    }
 
-                // We can also specify the projection as a base projection when we open the file
-                let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-                    file_scheduler.clone(),
-                    Some(projection.clone()),
-                    Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-                    &test_cache(),
-                    FileReaderOptions::default(),
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::blob(BLOB_META_KEY)]
+    #[case::packed_struct("lance-encoding:packed")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lazy_reader_rejects_opaque_projection(#[case] metadata_key: &str) {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let written_file = create_some_file(&fs, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1).await;
 
-                let batch_stream = file_reader
-                    .read_stream(
-                        lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
-                        1024,
-                        16,
-                        FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                    )
-                    .unwrap();
+        let ordinary_projection = versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            &written_file.schema,
+            &["location.x"],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ordinary_projection.schema.fields[0].children.len(), 1);
+        assert!(ordinary_projection.prefers_indexed_metadata(100));
 
-                let projection_arrow = ArrowSchema::from(projection.schema.as_ref());
-                verify_expected(
-                    &written_file.data,
-                    batch_stream,
-                    1024,
-                    Some(Box::new(move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
-                        batch.project_by_schema(&projection_arrow).unwrap()
-                    })),
-                )
-                .await;
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = ProjectedFileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler.clone(),
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+        );
 
-                assert!(file_reader
-                    .read_stream_projected(
-                        lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
-                        1024,
-                        16,
-                        empty_projection.clone(),
-                        FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                    )
-                    .is_err());
-            }
-        }
+        let mut projection = ordinary_projection;
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut projection.schema).fields[0]
+            .metadata
+            .insert(metadata_key.to_string(), "true".to_string());
+        assert!(!projection.prefers_indexed_metadata(100));
 
-        assert!(FileReader::try_open(
-            file_scheduler.clone(),
-            Some(empty_projection),
+        let err = ProjectedFileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            Some(projection),
             Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
             &test_cache(),
             FileReaderOptions::default(),
         )
         .await
-        .is_err());
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::NotSupported { .. }),
+            "expected NotSupported for {metadata_key}, got {err:?}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
-            Field::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
-        ]);
-        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+    // The projection-length validation lives in `DecodeEngine`, shared by the
+    // eager and the lazy (indexed) metadata providers. The indexed provider loads
+    // only the projected columns and renumbers them 0..N, so this checks that the
+    // renumbered `column_infos`/`column_indices` still line up for the length
+    // check: a mismatched-length projection is rejected through
+    // `ProjectedFileReader`, and a single short column resolves to its own length.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lazy_reader_validates_unequal_length_projection() {
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("c", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let lance_schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = versions::v2_1::create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        // "a" has 5 rows, "c" has 1 -- an unequal-length file.
+        writer
+            .write_column(0, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_column(1, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let cache = test_cache();
+        let open_indexed = |names: &[&str]| {
+            let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+                &lance_schema,
+                names,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            ProjectedFileReader::try_open(
+                file_scheduler.clone(),
+                Some(projection),
+                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                &cache,
+                FileReaderOptions::default(),
+            )
+        };
 
-        let projection_with_dupes = ReaderProjection {
-            column_indices: vec![0, 0],
-            schema: Arc::new(schema),
+        // A mismatched-length projection [a, c] (5 vs 1) is rejected at read time,
+        // through the indexed provider's renumbered column infos.
+        let lazy = open_indexed(&["a", "c"]).await.unwrap();
+        // (`read_tasks` yields a stream, which is not `Debug`, so match rather
+        // than `unwrap_err`.)
+        let err = match lazy
+            .read_tasks(
+                ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                1024,
+                None,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(_) => panic!("expected the mismatched-length projection to be rejected"),
+            Err(e) => e.to_string(),
         };
+        assert!(
+            err.contains("a=5") && err.contains("c=1"),
+            "error should name each column's length, got: {err}"
+        );
 
-        assert!(FileReader::try_open(
-            file_scheduler.clone(),
-            Some(projection_with_dupes),
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            &test_cache(),
-            FileReaderOptions::default(),
-        )
-        .await
-        .is_err());
+        // A single short column resolves to its own length (1), not the file's
+        // longest column.
+        let lazy = open_indexed(&["c"]).await.unwrap();
+        let tasks = lazy
+            .read_tasks(
+                ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                1024,
+                None,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches = collect_read_tasks(tasks, 16).await;
+        let values: Vec<Option<i32>> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column(0)
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(values, vec![Some(100)]);
     }
 
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_compressing_buffer() {
         let fs = FsFixture::default();
 
-        let written_file = create_some_file(&fs, LanceFileVersion::V2_0).await;
+        let written_file = create_some_file(&fs, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0).await;
         let file_scheduler = fs
             .scheduler
             .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
@@ -1973,6 +3977,7 @@ pub mod tests {
                 projection.clone(),
                 FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await
             .unwrap();
 
         let projection_arrow = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(projection.schema.as_ref()));
@@ -1990,7 +3995,7 @@ pub mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_read_all() {
         let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        let WrittenFile { data, .. } = create_some_file(&fs, LanceFileVersion::V2_0).await;
+        let WrittenFile { data, .. } = create_some_file(&fs, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0).await;
         let total_rows = data.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
 
         let file_scheduler = fs
@@ -2015,6 +4020,7 @@ pub mod tests {
                 16,
                 FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await
             .unwrap()
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
@@ -2023,10 +4029,156 @@ pub mod tests {
         assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), total_rows);
     }
 
+    /// The writer cuts a column into many small pages when its buffer is
+    /// small (or, for nested columns, when the rep/def levels of a page hit
+    /// the mini-block budget). Reading them must not cost one request per page.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_batches_page_reads_into_one_request() {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        // Every batch is 40 KiB of values, so the 64 KiB buffer flushes a page
+        // after every second batch.
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10_000), BatchCount::from(10));
+        write_lance_file(
+            reader,
+            &fs,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions {
+                data_cache_bytes: Some(64 * 1024),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let num_pages = file_reader.metadata().column_infos[0].page_infos.len();
+        assert!(
+            num_pages > 4,
+            "the writer must cut several pages, got {num_pages}"
+        );
+
+        let read_all = || async {
+            file_reader
+                .read_stream(
+                    lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                    100_000,
+                    16,
+                    FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        // The first read also initializes the page metadata; the cache keeps
+        // it, so the second read is data I/O only.
+        read_all().await;
+        fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let batches = read_all().await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(),
+            100_000
+        );
+        let stats = fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.read_iops, 1,
+            "{num_pages} adjacent pages must be read together, not one request each"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_take_batches_column_reads_into_one_request(
+        #[values(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        // 16 int32 columns of 256 rows: one 1 KiB page each, written back to
+        // back, so one row's reads sit within the local 4 KiB block size.
+        let mut generator = gen_batch();
+        for i in 0..16 {
+            generator = generator.col(format!("c{i}"), array::step::<Int32Type>());
+        }
+        write_lance_file(
+            generator.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(256), BatchCount::from(1)),
+            &fs,
+            version,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let take = |row: u32| {
+            let file_reader = &file_reader;
+            async move {
+                file_reader
+                    .read_stream(
+                        lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Indices(UInt32Array::from(vec![row])),
+                        1,
+                        1,
+                        FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            }
+        };
+        // The first take also initializes the page metadata; the cache keeps
+        // it, so the second take is data I/O only.
+        take(3).await;
+        fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let batches = take(200).await;
+        let stats = fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.read_iops, 1,
+            "one row across 16 adjacent column pages must be one request, not one per column"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_columns(), 16);
+        for column in batches[0].columns() {
+            assert_eq!(column.as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 200);
+        }
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_blocking_take(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        )]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
     ) {
         let fs = FsFixture::default();
         let WrittenFile { data, schema, .. } = create_some_file(&fs, version).await;
@@ -2039,7 +4191,10 @@ pub mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
             file_scheduler.clone(),
-            Some(ReaderProjection::from_column_names(version, &schema, &["score"]).unwrap()),
+            Some(
+                versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(version, &schema, &["score"])
+                    .unwrap(),
+            ),
             Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
             &test_cache(),
             FileReaderOptions::default(),
@@ -2070,7 +4225,7 @@ pub mod tests {
     #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
     async fn test_drop_in_progress() {
         let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        let WrittenFile { data, .. } = create_some_file(&fs, LanceFileVersion::V2_0).await;
+        let WrittenFile { data, .. } = create_some_file(&fs, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0).await;
         let total_rows = data.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
 
         let file_scheduler = fs
@@ -2095,6 +4250,7 @@ pub mod tests {
                 16,
                 FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await
             .unwrap();
 
         drop(file_reader);
@@ -2118,7 +4274,7 @@ pub mod tests {
         // if the stream was dropped before it finished.
 
         let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        let written_file = create_some_file(&fs, LanceFileVersion::V2_0).await;
+        let written_file = create_some_file(&fs, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0).await;
         let total_rows = written_file
             .data
             .iter()
@@ -2140,11 +4296,11 @@ pub mod tests {
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let projection =
-            ReaderProjection::from_whole_schema(&written_file.schema, LanceFileVersion::V2_0);
-        let column_infos = file_reader
-            .collect_columns_from_projection(&projection)
-            .unwrap();
+        let projection = versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(
+            &written_file.schema,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+        );
+        let column_infos = file_reader.metadata().column_infos.clone();
         let mut decode_scheduler = DecodeBatchScheduler::try_new(
             &projection.schema,
             &projection.column_indices,
@@ -2152,7 +4308,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             &vec![],
             total_rows as u64,
             Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            file_reader.scheduler.clone(),
+            file_reader.scheduler(),
             test_cache(),
             &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             &DecoderConfig::default(),
@@ -2172,14 +4328,14 @@ pub mod tests {
             range,
             &FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             tx,
-            file_reader.scheduler.clone(),
+            file_reader.scheduler(),
         )
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_read_empty_range() {
         let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        create_some_file(&fs, LanceFileVersion::V2_0).await;
+        create_some_file(&fs, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0).await;
 
         let file_scheduler = fs
             .scheduler
@@ -2204,6 +4360,7 @@ pub mod tests {
                 16,
                 FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await
             .unwrap()
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
@@ -2219,6 +4376,7 @@ pub mod tests {
                 16,
                 FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await
             .unwrap()
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
@@ -2226,10 +4384,7 @@ pub mod tests {
         assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_global_buffers() {
-        let fs = FsFixture::default();
-
+    async fn write_file_with_global_buffer(fs: &FsFixture, buffer: Bytes) {
         let lance_schema =
             lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
                 "foo",
@@ -2238,23 +4393,128 @@ pub mod tests {
             )]))
             .unwrap();
 
-        let mut file_writer = FileWriter::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = versions::v2_1::create_writer(
             fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
-            lance_schema.clone(),
+            lance_schema,
             FileWriterOptions::default(),
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let test_bytes = Bytes::from_static(b"hello");
+        let buf_index = file_writer.add_global_buffer(buffer).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(buf_index, 1);
+
+        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum MetadataReadPath {
+        Full,
+        Indexed,
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum InvalidGboDescriptor {
+        Unaligned,
+        PastEof,
+        Overflowing,
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::full_unaligned(MetadataReadPath::Full, InvalidGboDescriptor::Unaligned, "not aligned")]
+    #[case::full_past_eof(MetadataReadPath::Full, InvalidGboDescriptor::PastEof, "outside file")]
+    #[case::full_overflowing(
+        MetadataReadPath::Full,
+        InvalidGboDescriptor::Overflowing,
+        "overflows"
+    )]
+    #[case::indexed_unaligned(
+        MetadataReadPath::Indexed,
+        InvalidGboDescriptor::Unaligned,
+        "not aligned"
+    )]
+    #[case::indexed_past_eof(
+        MetadataReadPath::Indexed,
+        InvalidGboDescriptor::PastEof,
+        "outside file"
+    )]
+    #[case::indexed_overflowing(
+        MetadataReadPath::Indexed,
+        InvalidGboDescriptor::Overflowing,
+        "overflows"
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_metadata_rejects_invalid_gbo_descriptor(
+        #[case] read_path: MetadataReadPath,
+        #[case] invalid_descriptor: InvalidGboDescriptor,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        write_file_with_global_buffer(&fs, Bytes::from_static(b"hello")).await;
+
+        let mut file_bytes = fs
+            .object_store
+            .read_one_all(&fs.tmp_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_vec();
+        let file_len = file_bytes.len() as u64;
+        let footer = FileReader::decode_footer(&Bytes::copy_from_slice(&file_bytes)).unwrap();
+        let gbo_table_start = usize::try_from(footer.global_buff_offsets_start).unwrap();
+        let alignment = PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64;
+        let (position, size) = match invalid_descriptor {
+            InvalidGboDescriptor::Unaligned => (1, 0),
+            InvalidGboDescriptor::PastEof => (((file_len + alignment) / alignment) * alignment, 0),
+            InvalidGboDescriptor::Overflowing => (u64::MAX - (u64::MAX % alignment), alignment),
+        };
+        file_bytes[gbo_table_start..gbo_table_start + 8].copy_from_slice(&position.to_le_bytes());
+        file_bytes[gbo_table_start + 8..gbo_table_start + 16].copy_from_slice(&size.to_le_bytes());
+        fs.object_store
+            .put(&fs.tmp_path, &file_bytes)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let buf_index = file_writer
-            .add_global_buffer(test_bytes.clone())
+        let scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let error = match read_path {
+            MetadataReadPath::Full => FileReader::read_all_metadata(&scheduler).await.map(|_| ()),
+            MetadataReadPath::Indexed => FileReader::read_metadata_index(&scheduler)
+                .await
+                .map(|_| ()),
+        }
+        .expect_err("invalid GBO descriptor must fail before metadata I/O");
 
-        assert_eq!(buf_index, 1);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(expected_message),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    /// A global buffer that fits inside the tail region captured at open is served
+    /// from memory with no additional I/O.  A buffer larger than that window cannot
+    /// fit and falls back to a dedicated read.  Both must round-trip correctly.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::within_tail_window(true)]
+    #[case::outside_tail_window(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_global_buffer(#[case] within_window: bool) {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+
+        let block_size = fs.object_store.block_size();
+        let buffer = if within_window {
+            Bytes::from_static(b"hello")
+        } else {
+            Bytes::from(vec![7u8; 2 * block_size])
+        };
+        let expected_read_iops = if within_window { 0 } else { 1 };
+
+        write_file_with_global_buffer(&fs, buffer.clone()).await;
 
         let file_scheduler = fs
             .scheduler
@@ -2262,7 +4522,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-            file_scheduler.clone(),
+            file_scheduler,
             None,
             Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
             &test_cache(),
@@ -2271,7 +4531,274 @@ pub mod tests {
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
+        // The user buffer should be retained only when it fits the tail window, and
+        // the schema (buffer 0) is never retained.
+        let retained = &file_reader.metadata().retained_global_buffers;
+        assert!(!retained.contains_key(&0), "schema must not be retained");
+        assert_eq!(retained.contains_key(&1), within_window);
+
+        // Reset the IO counters so we only measure the read_global_buffer call.
+        fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+
         let buf = file_reader.read_global_buffer(1).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(buf, test_bytes);
+        assert_eq!(buf, buffer);
+
+        let stats = fs.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_eq!(stats.read_iops, expected_read_iops);
+    }
+
+    /// A file whose only global buffer is the schema (i.e. a plain data file, the
+    /// common case) must retain nothing — there is no user buffer to serve.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_global_buffer_no_user_buffers() {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        create_some_file(&fs, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1).await;
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let metadata = file_reader.metadata();
+        assert_eq!(metadata.file_buffers.len(), 1, "expected only the schema");
+        assert!(
+            metadata.retained_global_buffers.is_empty(),
+            "a file with no user global buffers must retain nothing"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deep_size_of_includes_column_metadata(
+        #[values(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+        )]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        // Regression test: CachedFileMetadata::deep_size_of must account for
+        // column_metadatas and column_infos, otherwise the moka cache weigher
+        // dramatically underestimates entry sizes and never evicts, causing
+        // unbounded memory growth on random-access workloads.
+        use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let _written = create_some_file(&fs, version).await;
+        let cache = test_cache();
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &cache,
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let metadata = file_reader.metadata();
+        let deep_size = metadata.deep_size_of();
+
+        // The file has multiple columns (score, location, categories, binary,
+        // maybe large_bin). The deep_size_of must be substantially more than
+        // just the schema — it should include column_metadatas + column_infos.
+        // A naive implementation that ignores these fields reports < 1 KB;
+        // a correct one should report at least several KB for this test file.
+        assert!(
+            deep_size > 1024,
+            "deep_size_of ({deep_size}) is suspiciously small — \
+             column_metadatas and column_infos may not be accounted for"
+        );
+
+        // Verify column_metadatas is non-empty (sanity check).
+        assert!(
+            !metadata.column_metadatas.is_empty(),
+            "Expected non-empty column_metadatas"
+        );
+
+        // Verify the size scales with the number of columns: a file with more
+        // columns should have a larger deep_size_of.
+        let num_columns = metadata.column_metadatas.len();
+        assert!(
+            deep_size > num_columns * 50,
+            "deep_size_of ({deep_size}) should scale with column count ({num_columns})"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_global_buffer_out_of_range() {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+
+        write_file_with_global_buffer(&fs, Bytes::from_static(b"hello")).await;
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &test_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // The file has two global buffers (schema at 0, "hello" at 1); index 2 is
+        // out of range and must surface a descriptive error rather than panicking.
+        let err = file_reader.read_global_buffer(2).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got: {err:?}"
+        );
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains('2'), "error should mention the index: {msg}");
+    }
+
+    // Exercises the projection length-validation walk in isolation, feeding
+    // synthetic per-column lengths so we can reach cases no current writer can
+    // actually produce -- in particular a struct whose children diverge in
+    // length, which the decoders would otherwise panic on or misread.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_validate_struct_child_lengths(#[values(false, true)] is_structural: bool) {
+        let run = |dt: DataType, indices: &[u32], lengths: Vec<u64>| -> lance_core::Result<u64> {
+            let arrow = ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new("s", dt, true)]);
+            let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow).unwrap();
+            if is_structural {
+                versions::v2_1::test_projection_length(&schema, indices, &lengths)
+            } else {
+                versions::v2_0::test_projection_length(&schema, indices, &lengths)
+            }
+        };
+
+        let struct_ty = || {
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+                Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]))
+        };
+
+        // In 2.1 a struct contributes no column of its own (just its two leaves);
+        // in 2.0 it also has its own column first.
+        let (indices, equal, unequal): (&[u32], Vec<u64>, Vec<u64>) = if is_structural {
+            (&[0, 1], vec![5, 5], vec![5, 3])
+        } else {
+            (&[0, 1, 2], vec![5, 5, 5], vec![5, 5, 3])
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(run(struct_ty(), indices, equal).unwrap(), 5);
+
+        let err = run(struct_ty(), indices, unequal).unwrap_err();
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("differing lengths") && msg.contains('b'),
+            "expected a child-length error naming 'b', got: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_v2_0_unloaded_blob_projection_is_opaque() {
+        let metadata = HashMap::from([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let arrow = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(metadata),
+        ]);
+        let mut schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow).unwrap();
+        schema.fields[0].unloaded_mut();
+        let projection = ReaderProjection {
+            schema: Arc::new(schema),
+            column_indices: vec![0],
+        };
+        let rows = versions::v2_0::test_projection_length(
+            &projection.schema,
+            &projection.column_indices,
+            &[3],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(rows, 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_length_list_and_empty_struct() {
+        let validate = |dt: DataType,
+                        is_structural: bool,
+                        indices: &[u32],
+                        lengths: Vec<u64>|
+         -> lance_core::Result<u64> {
+            let arrow = ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new("f", dt, true)]);
+            let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow).unwrap();
+            if is_structural {
+                versions::v2_1::test_projection_length(&schema, indices, &lengths)
+            } else {
+                versions::v2_0::test_projection_length(&schema, indices, &lengths)
+            }
+        };
+
+        // A list's items have a different cardinality than its rows; that gap
+        // must not be flagged as a mismatch. In 2.0 the list is an offsets column
+        // (rows) plus an items column (item count); in 2.1 it is a single column
+        // whose page rows are the top-level row count.
+        let list_ty = DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            validate(list_ty.clone(), false, &[0, 1], vec![5, 17]).unwrap(),
+            5
+        );
+        assert_eq!(validate(list_ty, true, &[0], vec![5]).unwrap(), 5);
+
+        // A list of structs: the struct's children sit below the list boundary, so
+        // their (item-count) lengths must NOT be compared against the list's row
+        // count. In 2.0 each field has a column [list, struct, a, b] = [6, 6, 29,
+        // 29]; the list resolves to its own row count (6) and the struct's longer
+        // children are not flagged. (Regression: this previously errored because
+        // the nested struct's children were checked against the struct's count.)
+        let list_of_struct = DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+                Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            true,
+        )));
+        assert_eq!(
+            validate(
+                list_of_struct.clone(),
+                false,
+                &[0, 1, 2, 3],
+                vec![6, 6, 29, 29]
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            6
+        );
+        // In 2.1 only the two leaves carry columns; still no false mismatch.
+        assert_eq!(
+            validate(list_of_struct, true, &[0, 1], vec![29, 29]).unwrap(),
+            29
+        );
+
+        // An empty struct contributes a single column and validates to its length.
+        let empty_struct = DataType::Struct(Fields::empty());
+        assert_eq!(
+            validate(empty_struct.clone(), false, &[0], vec![9]).unwrap(),
+            9
+        );
+        assert_eq!(validate(empty_struct, true, &[0], vec![9]).unwrap(), 9);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/reader/structural.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/reader/structural.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..18bda6eb933
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/reader/structural.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,445 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    cache::LanceCache,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    EncodingsIo,
+    decoder::{ColumnInfo, PageEncoding, PageInfo},
+    format::{pb, pb21},
+};
+use prost::{Message, Name};
+
+use crate::{
+    format::pbfile,
+    reader::{
+        BufferDescriptor, FileMetadataIndex, FileMetadataProvider, FileReader, PreparedProjection,
+        ReadProjection, ReaderProjection, normalized_column_num_rows, verify_uniform_lengths,
+    },
+    writer::PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
+};
+
+fn fetch_encoding<M: Default + Name + Sized>(encoding: &pbfile::Encoding) -> Result<M> {
+    match &encoding.location {
+        Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Indirect(_)) => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Indirect file encodings are not supported".into(),
+        )),
+        Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(encoding)) => {
+            let envelope = prost_types::Any::decode(Bytes::from(encoding.encoding.clone()))
+                .map_err(|error| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Invalid direct {} encoding envelope: {error}", M::NAME).into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            envelope.to_msg::<M>().map_err(|error| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Invalid direct {} encoding: {error}", M::NAME).into(),
+                )
+            })
+        }
+        Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::None(_)) => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Missing {} encoding description", M::NAME).into(),
+        )),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Missing {} encoding location", M::NAME).into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Decode structural page syntax before an exact reader validates its grammar.
+pub fn decode_page_layout(
+    column_index: u32,
+    page_index: usize,
+    page: &pbfile::column_metadata::Page,
+) -> Result<pb21::PageLayout> {
+    fetch_encoding(page.encoding.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Column {} page {} is missing its encoding",
+                column_index, page_index
+            )
+            .into(),
+        )
+    })?)
+}
+
+/// Build normalized page metadata after exact grammar validation.
+pub fn build_page_info(
+    column_index: u32,
+    page_index: usize,
+    page: &pbfile::column_metadata::Page,
+    page_layout: pb21::PageLayout,
+) -> Result<PageInfo> {
+    if page.buffer_offsets.len() != page.buffer_sizes.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Column {} page {} has {} buffer offsets but {} buffer sizes",
+                column_index,
+                page_index,
+                page.buffer_offsets.len(),
+                page.buffer_sizes.len()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let buffer_offsets_and_sizes = Arc::from(
+        page.buffer_offsets
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&page.buffer_sizes)
+            .map(|(offset, size)| {
+                if offset % PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64 != 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Column {} page {} buffer offset {} is not aligned to {} bytes",
+                            column_index, page_index, offset, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok((*offset, *size))
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+    );
+    Ok(PageInfo {
+        buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
+        encoding: PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout),
+        num_rows: page.length,
+        priority: page.priority,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Finish normalized column metadata after all pages have been validated.
+pub fn build_column_info(
+    column_index: u32,
+    metadata: &pbfile::ColumnMetadata,
+    page_infos: Vec<PageInfo>,
+) -> Result<Arc<ColumnInfo>> {
+    if metadata.buffer_offsets.len() != metadata.buffer_sizes.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Column {} has {} buffer offsets but {} buffer sizes",
+                column_index,
+                metadata.buffer_offsets.len(),
+                metadata.buffer_sizes.len()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let buffer_offsets_and_sizes = Arc::from(
+        metadata
+            .buffer_offsets
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&metadata.buffer_sizes)
+            .map(|(offset, size)| (*offset, *size))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    );
+    let encoding: pb::ColumnEncoding =
+        fetch_encoding(metadata.encoding.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Column {} is missing its encoding", column_index).into(),
+            )
+        })?)?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(ColumnInfo {
+        index: column_index,
+        page_infos: Arc::from(page_infos),
+        buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
+        encoding,
+    }))
+}
+
+/// Validate the structural global-buffer alignment contract.
+pub fn validate_global_buffers(buffers: &[BufferDescriptor]) -> Result<()> {
+    for (buffer_index, buffer) in buffers.iter().enumerate() {
+        if buffer.position % PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64 != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Global buffer {} position {} is not aligned to {} bytes",
+                    buffer_index, buffer.position, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn field_column_shape(field: &Field) -> (bool, bool) {
+    if field.is_blob() || field.is_packed_struct() {
+        return (true, false);
+    }
+    (field.children.is_empty(), !field.children.is_empty())
+}
+
+/// Count physical columns in the leaf-column layout used by v2.1+.
+pub fn physical_column_count(field: &Field) -> usize {
+    if field.children.is_empty() || field.is_blob() || field.is_packed_struct() {
+        1
+    } else {
+        field.children.iter().map(physical_column_count).sum()
+    }
+}
+
+fn append_physical_fields(
+    fields: &[Field],
+    field_ids: &mut Vec<i32>,
+    column_indices: &mut Vec<i32>,
+    next_column: &mut i32,
+) {
+    for field in fields {
+        if field.children.is_empty() || field.is_blob() || field.is_packed_struct() {
+            field_ids.push(field.id);
+            column_indices.push(*next_column);
+            *next_column += 1;
+        } else {
+            append_physical_fields(&field.children, field_ids, column_indices, next_column);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build persisted field-to-column entries for the v2.1+ leaf layout.
+pub fn data_file_columns(schema: &Schema) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
+    let mut field_ids = Vec::new();
+    let mut column_indices = Vec::new();
+    append_physical_fields(&schema.fields, &mut field_ids, &mut column_indices, &mut 0);
+    (field_ids, column_indices)
+}
+
+/// Build the field-id lookup for the v2.1+ leaf layout.
+pub fn field_id_to_column_index(schema: &Schema) -> BTreeMap<u32, u32> {
+    let (field_ids, column_indices) = data_file_columns(schema);
+    field_ids
+        .into_iter()
+        .zip(column_indices)
+        .filter_map(|(field_id, column_index)| {
+            (column_index >= 0).then_some((field_id as u32, column_index as u32))
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn append_field_ids(
+    fields: &[Field],
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+    column_indices: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) {
+    for field in fields {
+        let (contributes, recurse) = field_column_shape(field);
+        if contributes
+            && let Some(column_index) = field_id_to_column_index.get(&(field.id as u32)).copied()
+        {
+            column_indices.push(column_index);
+        }
+        if recurse {
+            append_field_ids(&field.children, field_id_to_column_index, column_indices);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build the leaf-column projection selected by a v2.1+ exact reader.
+pub fn projection_from_field_ids(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+) -> ReaderProjection {
+    let mut column_indices = Vec::new();
+    append_field_ids(
+        &schema.fields,
+        field_id_to_column_index,
+        &mut column_indices,
+    );
+    ReaderProjection {
+        schema: Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+        column_indices,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Project names using a caller-selected leaf-column mapping.
+pub fn projection_from_column_names(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_names: &[&str],
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+) -> Result<ReaderProjection> {
+    let projected = schema.project(column_names)?;
+    Ok(projection_from_field_ids(
+        &projected,
+        field_id_to_column_index,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn children_share_parent_length(field: &Field) -> bool {
+    field.logical_type.is_struct()
+}
+
+fn validate_field_length<F: Fn(usize) -> Result<u64>>(
+    field: &Field,
+    comparable: bool,
+    column_indices: &[u32],
+    cursor: &mut usize,
+    column_len: &F,
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    let (contributes, recurse) = field_column_shape(field);
+    let mut field_rows = None;
+    if contributes {
+        let column = *column_indices.get(*cursor).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "projection supplied fewer column indices than its fields require (ran out at field '{}')",
+                field.name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        *cursor += 1;
+        field_rows = Some(column_len(column as usize)?);
+    }
+    if recurse {
+        let enforce_children = comparable && children_share_parent_length(field);
+        for child in &field.children {
+            let child_rows =
+                validate_field_length(child, enforce_children, column_indices, cursor, column_len)?;
+            let expected = *field_rows.get_or_insert(child_rows);
+            if enforce_children && child_rows != expected {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cannot read field '{}': its children have differing lengths (child '{}' has {} rows, but the field has {}); a struct's children must all have the same length",
+                    field.name, child.name, child_rows, expected
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    field_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "projected field '{}' maps to no columns",
+            field.name
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+/// Determine the normalized logical read length for a structural projection.
+pub fn prepared_read_length(prepared: &PreparedProjection) -> Result<u64> {
+    let column_len = |column: usize| {
+        let info = prepared.column_infos.get(column).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "projection references column index {} but only {} columns are available",
+                column,
+                prepared.column_infos.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        normalized_column_num_rows(info)
+    };
+    projection_length(
+        &prepared.decoder_projection.schema,
+        &prepared.decoder_projection.column_indices,
+        &column_len,
+    )
+}
+
+fn projection_length<F: Fn(usize) -> Result<u64>>(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_indices: &[u32],
+    column_len: &F,
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    let mut cursor = 0;
+    let mut field_lengths = Vec::with_capacity(schema.fields.len());
+    for field in &schema.fields {
+        let rows = validate_field_length(field, true, column_indices, &mut cursor, column_len)?;
+        field_lengths.push((field.name.as_str(), rows));
+    }
+    if cursor != column_indices.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "projection supplied {} column indices but its fields require {}",
+            column_indices.len(),
+            cursor
+        )));
+    }
+    verify_uniform_lengths(&field_lengths)
+}
+
+pub type DecodeColumn = fn(u32, &pbfile::ColumnMetadata) -> Result<Arc<ColumnInfo>>;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct StructuralReadProjection {
+    decode_column: DecodeColumn,
+}
+
+/// Compose structural projection execution with an exact column grammar.
+pub fn read_projection(decode_column: DecodeColumn) -> Arc<dyn ReadProjection> {
+    Arc::new(StructuralReadProjection { decode_column })
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ReadProjection for StructuralReadProjection {
+    fn validate_indexed(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ReaderProjection,
+        metadata_index: &FileMetadataIndex,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        FileMetadataProvider::validate_indexed_projection_structure(projection, metadata_index)?;
+        if FileMetadataProvider::projection_matches_indexed_metadata(projection) {
+            Ok(())
+        } else {
+            Err(FileMetadataProvider::indexed_projection_error(
+                projection,
+                metadata_index,
+            ))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn read_length(&self, prepared: &PreparedProjection) -> Result<u64> {
+        prepared_read_length(prepared)
+    }
+
+    async fn prepare(
+        &self,
+        metadata_provider: &FileMetadataProvider,
+        projection: &ReaderProjection,
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        cache: &Arc<LanceCache>,
+    ) -> Result<(PreparedProjection, u64)> {
+        let prepared = match metadata_provider {
+            FileMetadataProvider::Full(metadata) => {
+                FileReader::validate_projection(projection, metadata)?;
+                PreparedProjection {
+                    column_infos: metadata.column_infos.clone(),
+                    decoder_projection: projection.clone(),
+                }
+            }
+            FileMetadataProvider::Indexed(metadata_index) => {
+                self.validate_indexed(projection, metadata_index)?;
+                let column_infos = FileMetadataProvider::load_indexed_column_infos(
+                    metadata_index,
+                    io,
+                    cache,
+                    &projection.column_indices,
+                    self.decode_column,
+                )
+                .await?;
+                PreparedProjection {
+                    column_infos,
+                    decoder_projection: ReaderProjection {
+                        schema: projection.schema.clone(),
+                        column_indices: (0..projection.column_indices.len())
+                            .map(|index| index as u32)
+                            .collect(),
+                    },
+                }
+            }
+        };
+        let read_len = self.read_length(&prepared)?;
+        Ok((prepared, read_len))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn test_projection_length(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_indices: &[u32],
+    column_lengths: &[u64],
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    projection_length(schema, column_indices, &|column| {
+        column_lengths.get(column).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("missing synthetic length for column {column}"))
+        })
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/testing.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/testing.rs
index 52e419cd427..65b340e7641 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/testing.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/testing.rs
@@ -9,14 +9,15 @@ use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, datatypes::Schema, utils::tempfile::TempObjFile};
 use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
 use lance_io::{
+    ReadBatchParams,
     object_store::ObjectStore,
     scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig},
     utils::CachedFileSize,
-    ReadBatchParams,
 };
 
 use crate::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
-use crate::writer::{FileWriter, FileWriterOptions};
+use crate::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use crate::{versions, writer::FileWriterOptions};
 
 pub struct FsFixture {
     pub tmp_path: TempObjFile,
@@ -47,13 +48,15 @@ pub struct WrittenFile {
 pub async fn write_lance_file(
     data: impl RecordBatchReader,
     fs: &FsFixture,
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
     options: FileWriterOptions,
 ) -> WrittenFile {
     let writer = fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap();
 
     let lance_schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(data.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
 
-    let mut file_writer = FileWriter::try_new(writer, lance_schema.clone(), options).unwrap();
+    let mut file_writer =
+        versions::create_writer(version, writer, lance_schema.clone(), options).unwrap();
 
     let data = data
         .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, ArrowError>>()
@@ -101,6 +104,7 @@ pub async fn read_lance_file(
 
     let batch_stream = file_reader
         .read_stream(ReadBatchParams::RangeFull, 1024, 16, filter)
+        .await
         .unwrap();
 
     batch_stream.try_collect().await.unwrap()
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/version.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/version.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9313cd72750
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/version.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,430 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{
+    fmt::{Display, Formatter},
+    str::FromStr,
+};
+
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Deserializer, Serialize, Serializer};
+
+pub const LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION: &str = "0.1";
+pub const V2_FORMAT_2_0: &str = "2.0";
+pub const V2_FORMAT_2_1: &str = "2.1";
+pub const V2_FORMAT_2_2: &str = "2.2";
+pub const V2_FORMAT_2_3: &str = "2.3";
+
+/// Resolve the current stable release policy to an exact file version.
+pub const fn stable_file_version() -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+    ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+}
+
+/// Resolve the current next release policy to an exact file version.
+pub const fn next_file_version() -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+    ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+}
+
+/// A caller-facing Lance file-version request.
+///
+/// `Stable` and `Next` are release selectors. They resolve to an exact
+/// [`ConcreteFileVersion`] before file or dataset dispatch and are never persisted.
+#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum LanceFileVersion {
+    /// The legacy v1 format.
+    Legacy,
+    /// Exact v2.0.
+    V2_0,
+    /// Exact v2.1.
+    V2_1,
+    /// The latest stable release.
+    Stable,
+    /// Exact v2.2 and the current default.
+    #[default]
+    V2_2,
+    /// The latest unstable release.
+    Next,
+    /// Exact v2.3.
+    V2_3,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for LanceFileVersion {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+}
+
+impl LanceFileVersion {
+    /// Resolve this request through the current release policy.
+    pub const fn resolve(self) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy => ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
+            Self::V2_0 => ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            Self::V2_1 => ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            Self::Stable => stable_file_version(),
+            Self::V2_2 => ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+            Self::Next => next_file_version(),
+            Self::V2_3 => ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this request resolves to an unstable exact format.
+    pub const fn is_unstable(self) -> bool {
+        self.resolve().is_unstable()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Display for LanceFileVersion {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.write_str(match self {
+            Self::Legacy => LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION,
+            Self::V2_0 => V2_FORMAT_2_0,
+            Self::V2_1 => V2_FORMAT_2_1,
+            Self::V2_2 => V2_FORMAT_2_2,
+            Self::V2_3 => V2_FORMAT_2_3,
+            Self::Stable => "stable",
+            Self::Next => "next",
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl FromStr for LanceFileVersion {
+    type Err = Error;
+
+    fn from_str(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+            LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION | "legacy" => Ok(Self::Legacy),
+            V2_FORMAT_2_0 | "0.3" => Ok(Self::V2_0),
+            V2_FORMAT_2_1 => Ok(Self::V2_1),
+            V2_FORMAT_2_2 => Ok(Self::V2_2),
+            V2_FORMAT_2_3 => Ok(Self::V2_3),
+            "stable" => Ok(Self::Stable),
+            "next" => Ok(Self::Next),
+            _ => Err(unknown_version(value)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Serialize for LanceFileVersion {
+    fn serialize<S>(&self, serializer: S) -> std::result::Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
+    where
+        S: Serializer,
+    {
+        serializer.serialize_str(&self.to_string())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for LanceFileVersion {
+    fn deserialize<D>(deserializer: D) -> std::result::Result<Self, D::Error>
+    where
+        D: Deserializer<'de>,
+    {
+        let value = String::deserialize(deserializer)?;
+        Self::from_str(&value).map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The exact persisted identity of a Lance file format.
+///
+/// Unlike [`LanceFileVersion`], this type cannot represent release selectors such as
+/// `stable` or `next`. Exact versions deliberately have no ordering because format
+/// capabilities are not implied by release order.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub enum ConcreteFileVersion {
+    /// The legacy v1 file format.
+    V1,
+    /// The v2.0 file format.
+    V2_0,
+    /// The v2.1 file format.
+    V2_1,
+    /// The v2.2 file format.
+    V2_2,
+    /// The v2.3 file format.
+    V2_3,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for ConcreteFileVersion {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+}
+
+impl ConcreteFileVersion {
+    /// Convert this exact identity to the corresponding exact public selector.
+    ///
+    /// This never produces the release selectors `stable` or `next`.
+    pub const fn to_selector(self) -> LanceFileVersion {
+        match self {
+            Self::V1 => LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
+            Self::V2_0 => LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+            Self::V2_1 => LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+            Self::V2_2 => LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+            Self::V2_3 => LanceFileVersion::V2_3,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this exact format is covered only by the unstable release policy.
+    pub const fn is_unstable(self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::V2_3)
+    }
+
+    /// Decode the exact version string stored in a dataset manifest.
+    ///
+    /// Public selector aliases such as `legacy`, `0.3`, `stable`, and `next` are
+    /// intentionally rejected because manifests only store canonical exact versions.
+    pub fn from_manifest_string(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value {
+            LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION => Ok(Self::V1),
+            V2_FORMAT_2_0 => Ok(Self::V2_0),
+            V2_FORMAT_2_1 => Ok(Self::V2_1),
+            V2_FORMAT_2_2 => Ok(Self::V2_2),
+            V2_FORMAT_2_3 => Ok(Self::V2_3),
+            _ => Err(unknown_version(value)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Encode this exact version as the canonical string stored in a dataset manifest.
+    pub const fn to_manifest_string(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::V1 => LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION,
+            Self::V2_0 => V2_FORMAT_2_0,
+            Self::V2_1 => V2_FORMAT_2_1,
+            Self::V2_2 => V2_FORMAT_2_2,
+            Self::V2_3 => V2_FORMAT_2_3,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Decode the major/minor version stored in `DataFile` metadata.
+    ///
+    /// Legacy manifests may omit these fields and decode to `(0, 0)`, so all legacy
+    /// v1 number pairs accepted by the historical decoder remain valid inputs. The
+    /// historical generic decoder also accepted the standard v2.0 footer pair `(0, 3)`;
+    /// decoding retains that compatibility while encoding always emits `(2, 0)`.
+    pub fn from_data_file_numbers(major: u32, minor: u32) -> Result<Self> {
+        match (major, minor) {
+            (0, 0..=2) => Ok(Self::V1),
+            (0, 3) | (2, 0) => Ok(Self::V2_0),
+            (2, 1) => Ok(Self::V2_1),
+            (2, 2) => Ok(Self::V2_2),
+            (2, 3) => Ok(Self::V2_3),
+            _ => Err(unknown_version(format_args!("{}.{}", major, minor))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Encode the canonical major/minor pair stored in `DataFile` metadata.
+    pub const fn to_data_file_numbers(self) -> (u32, u32) {
+        match self {
+            Self::V1 => (0, 2),
+            Self::V2_0 => (2, 0),
+            Self::V2_1 => (2, 1),
+            Self::V2_2 => (2, 2),
+            Self::V2_3 => (2, 3),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Decode the major/minor version stored in a Lance file footer.
+    ///
+    /// V2.0 has two accepted representations: `(0, 3)` from the standard file writer
+    /// and `(2, 0)` from self-described and mini-lance writers.
+    pub fn from_footer_numbers(major: u16, minor: u16) -> Result<Self> {
+        match (major, minor) {
+            (0, 0..=2) => Ok(Self::V1),
+            (0, 3) | (2, 0) => Ok(Self::V2_0),
+            (2, 1) => Ok(Self::V2_1),
+            (2, 2) => Ok(Self::V2_2),
+            (2, 3) => Ok(Self::V2_3),
+            _ => Err(unknown_version(format_args!("{}.{}", major, minor))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Encode the footer numbers emitted by the standard Lance file writer.
+    pub const fn to_standard_footer_numbers(self) -> (u16, u16) {
+        match self {
+            Self::V1 => (0, 2),
+            Self::V2_0 => (0, 3),
+            Self::V2_1 => (2, 1),
+            Self::V2_2 => (2, 2),
+            Self::V2_3 => (2, 3),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Encode the footer numbers emitted by self-described and mini-lance writers.
+    pub const fn to_embedded_footer_numbers(self) -> (u16, u16) {
+        match self {
+            Self::V1 => (0, 2),
+            Self::V2_0 => (2, 0),
+            Self::V2_1 => (2, 1),
+            Self::V2_2 => (2, 2),
+            Self::V2_3 => (2, 3),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Display for ConcreteFileVersion {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.write_str(self.to_manifest_string())
+    }
+}
+
+fn unknown_version(value: impl Display) -> Error {
+    Error::invalid_input_source(format!("Unknown Lance storage version: {}", value).into())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::str::FromStr;
+
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use object_store::path::Path;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    const EXACT_VERSIONS: [ConcreteFileVersion; 5] = [
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3,
+    ];
+
+    #[test]
+    fn selector_resolution_is_exact() {
+        let cases = [
+            (LanceFileVersion::Legacy, ConcreteFileVersion::V1),
+            (LanceFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            (LanceFileVersion::V2_1, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1),
+            (LanceFileVersion::Stable, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2),
+            (LanceFileVersion::V2_2, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2),
+            (LanceFileVersion::Next, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3),
+            (LanceFileVersion::V2_3, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3),
+        ];
+
+        for (selector, expected) in cases {
+            assert_eq!(selector.resolve(), expected);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(LanceFileVersion::default(), LanceFileVersion::V2_2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn public_selector_aliases_remain_unchanged() {
+        let cases = [
+            ("0.1", LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+            ("legacy", LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+            ("2.0", LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ("0.3", LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ("2.1", LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ("stable", LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+            ("2.2", LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ("next", LanceFileVersion::Next),
+            ("2.3", LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+        ];
+
+        for (value, expected) in cases {
+            assert_eq!(LanceFileVersion::from_str(value).unwrap(), expected);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn manifest_codec_only_accepts_canonical_exact_versions() {
+        for version in EXACT_VERSIONS {
+            let encoded = version.to_manifest_string();
+            assert_eq!(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::from_manifest_string(encoded).unwrap(),
+                version
+            );
+        }
+
+        for selector_or_alias in ["legacy", "0.3", "stable", "next"] {
+            assert!(ConcreteFileVersion::from_manifest_string(selector_or_alias).is_err());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn data_file_codec_preserves_wire_numbers() {
+        let cases = [
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V1, (0, 2)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, (2, 0)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, (2, 1)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2, (2, 2)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3, (2, 3)),
+        ];
+
+        for (version, encoded) in cases {
+            assert_eq!(version.to_data_file_numbers(), encoded);
+            assert_eq!(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::from_data_file_numbers(encoded.0, encoded.1).unwrap(),
+                version
+            );
+        }
+        for minor in 0..=2 {
+            assert_eq!(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::from_data_file_numbers(0, minor).unwrap(),
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::from_data_file_numbers(0, 3).unwrap(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn footer_codec_preserves_both_v2_0_writer_representations() {
+        let standard_cases = [
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V1, (0, 2)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, (0, 3)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, (2, 1)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2, (2, 2)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3, (2, 3)),
+        ];
+        let embedded_cases = [
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V1, (0, 2)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, (2, 0)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, (2, 1)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2, (2, 2)),
+            (ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3, (2, 3)),
+        ];
+
+        for (version, encoded) in standard_cases {
+            assert_eq!(version.to_standard_footer_numbers(), encoded);
+            assert_eq!(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::from_footer_numbers(encoded.0, encoded.1).unwrap(),
+                version
+            );
+        }
+        for (version, encoded) in embedded_cases {
+            assert_eq!(version.to_embedded_footer_numbers(), encoded);
+            assert_eq!(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::from_footer_numbers(encoded.0, encoded.1).unwrap(),
+                version
+            );
+        }
+        for minor in 0..=2 {
+            assert_eq!(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::from_footer_numbers(0, minor).unwrap(),
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn file_version_detection_accepts_all_legacy_footer_aliases() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        for minor in 0u16..=2 {
+            let path = Path::from(format!("legacy-{minor}.lance"));
+            let mut footer = Vec::with_capacity(8);
+            footer.extend_from_slice(&0u16.to_le_bytes());
+            footer.extend_from_slice(&minor.to_le_bytes());
+            footer.extend_from_slice(crate::format::MAGIC);
+            object_store.put(&path, &footer).await.unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                crate::determine_file_version(&object_store, &path, Some(footer.len()))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/mod.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..580e29bf28b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,428 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Exact file-format composition roots.
+//!
+//! Each version module lists the mechanisms used by that file format. Callers
+//! resolve release selectors before entering this module. Prefer APIs under a
+//! concrete module such as [`v2_1`] when the version is statically known. The
+//! root functions perform the single exhaustive dispatch for runtime versions.
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    decoder::{ColumnInfo, DecoderPlugins, PageInfo},
+    encoder::EncodedBatch,
+};
+use lance_io::{scheduler::FileScheduler, traits::Writer};
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, future::Future, sync::Arc};
+
+use crate::{
+    format::pbfile,
+    reader::{
+        BufferDescriptor, CachedFileMetadata, FileMetadataIndex, FileMetadataProvider, FileReader,
+        FileReaderOptions, PreparedProjection, ProjectedFileReader, RawFileMetadata,
+        ReadProjection, ReaderProjection,
+    },
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+    writer::{FileWriter, FileWriterOptions},
+};
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+
+pub mod v1;
+pub mod v2_0;
+pub mod v2_1;
+pub mod v2_2;
+pub mod v2_3;
+
+pub(crate) fn read_projection(version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Result<Arc<dyn ReadProjection>> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::internal(
+            "current reader composition received Lance v1".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => Ok(v2_0::read_projection()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => Ok(v2_1::read_projection()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => Ok(v2_2::read_projection()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => Ok(v2_3::read_projection()),
+    }
+}
+
+/// A self-described file reader selected by the exact footer version.
+pub enum OpenedFileReader {
+    /// A v1 file. The persisted footer numbers are retained for diagnostics.
+    V1 {
+        /// The major version stored in the footer.
+        major_version: u16,
+        /// The minor version stored in the footer.
+        minor_version: u16,
+    },
+    /// A current-format reader selected from the exact footer identity.
+    Current(FileReader),
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn finish_metadata(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    metadata: RawFileMetadata,
+) -> Result<CachedFileMetadata> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::internal(
+            "current metadata dispatch received a Lance v1 file".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::finish_metadata(metadata),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::finish_metadata(metadata),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::finish_metadata(metadata),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::finish_metadata(metadata),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Validate that decoded metadata is a complete rectangular file for an exact
+/// grammar and return its normalized physical row count.
+pub(crate) fn validate_external_metadata(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    metadata: &CachedFileMetadata,
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    let projection = reader_projection_from_whole_schema(schema, version);
+    if projection.column_indices.len() != metadata.column_infos.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "schema requires {} physical columns but file metadata contains {}",
+            projection.column_indices.len(),
+            metadata.column_infos.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    FileReader::validate_projection(&projection, metadata)?;
+    for (expected_index, column) in metadata.column_infos.iter().enumerate() {
+        if column.index != expected_index as u32 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "physical column {} reports index {}",
+                expected_index, column.index
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    let prepared = PreparedProjection {
+        column_infos: metadata.column_infos.clone(),
+        decoder_projection: projection,
+    };
+    read_projection(version)?.read_length(&prepared)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn finish_metadata_index(index: FileMetadataIndex) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+    match index.version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::version_conflict(
+            "Attempt to use the Lance current-format reader with a v1 metadata index".to_string(),
+            0,
+            2,
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::finish_metadata_index(index),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::finish_metadata_index(index),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::finish_metadata_index(index),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::finish_metadata_index(index),
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn decode_column_metadata(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    column_metadatas: &[pbfile::ColumnMetadata],
+) -> Result<Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "self-described batches are not part of the Lance v1 grammar".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::decode_column_metadata(column_metadatas),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::decode_column_metadata(column_metadatas),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::decode_column_metadata(column_metadatas),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::decode_column_metadata(column_metadatas),
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn validate_global_buffers(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    buffers: &[BufferDescriptor],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Ok(()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::validate_global_buffers(buffers),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::validate_global_buffers(buffers),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::validate_global_buffers(buffers),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::validate_global_buffers(buffers),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn reader_projection_from_field_ids(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+) -> Result<ReaderProjection> {
+    Ok(match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => v1::projection_from_field_ids(schema, field_id_to_column_index),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => {
+            v2_0::projection_from_field_ids(schema, field_id_to_column_index)
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => {
+            v2_1::projection_from_field_ids(schema, field_id_to_column_index)
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => {
+            v2_2::projection_from_field_ids(schema, field_id_to_column_index)
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            v2_3::projection_from_field_ids(schema, field_id_to_column_index)
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn reader_projection_from_whole_schema(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+) -> ReaderProjection {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => v1::projection_from_whole_schema(schema),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::projection_from_whole_schema(schema),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::projection_from_whole_schema(schema),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::projection_from_whole_schema(schema),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::projection_from_whole_schema(schema),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn reader_projection_from_column_names(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_names: &[&str],
+) -> Result<ReaderProjection> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => v1::projection_from_column_names(schema, column_names),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::projection_from_column_names(schema, column_names),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::projection_from_column_names(schema, column_names),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::projection_from_column_names(schema, column_names),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::projection_from_column_names(schema, column_names),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Count the physical columns represented by one field in an exact grammar.
+pub fn physical_column_count(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+) -> usize {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => v1::physical_column_count(field),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::physical_column_count(field),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::physical_column_count(field),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::physical_column_count(field),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::physical_column_count(field),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build persisted field-to-column entries for an exact grammar.
+pub fn data_file_columns(version: ConcreteFileVersion, schema: &Schema) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => v1::data_file_columns(schema),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::data_file_columns(schema),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::data_file_columns(schema),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::data_file_columns(schema),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::data_file_columns(schema),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Copy one column's external metadata and buffers according to the exact file
+/// grammar.
+///
+/// The caller supplies the version-free I/O operation. V2.0 may suppress that
+/// operation when a structural header page has already been copied.
+pub async fn copy_external_metadata_column<Copy, CopyFuture>(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_index: usize,
+    has_existing_pages: bool,
+    copy: Copy,
+) -> Result<()>
+where
+    Copy: FnOnce() -> CopyFuture + Send,
+    CopyFuture: Future<Output = Result<()>> + Send,
+{
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "binary-copy metadata operations are not supported for Lance v1".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => {
+            if v2_0::should_copy_external_metadata_column(schema, column_index, has_existing_pages)
+            {
+                copy().await
+            } else {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            copy().await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Normalize one copied column before an exact-version footer is written.
+pub fn finalize_external_metadata_column(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_index: usize,
+    pages: &mut Vec<PageInfo>,
+    num_rows: u64,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "binary-copy metadata operations are not supported for Lance v1".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => {
+            v2_0::finalize_external_metadata_column(schema, column_index, pages, num_rows);
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => Ok(()),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Open a projected reader while keeping exact metadata-form selection in the
+/// file layer.
+///
+/// `open_indexed` returns `None` when the loaded index is not selective enough
+/// to justify a projected reader. V2.0 never invokes it because indexed
+/// metadata is not part of that reader's accepted grammar.
+pub async fn open_projected_reader<OpenIndexed, IndexedFuture, OpenFull, FullFuture>(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    projection: &ReaderProjection,
+    prefer_indexed: bool,
+    open_indexed: OpenIndexed,
+    open_full: OpenFull,
+) -> Result<ProjectedFileReader>
+where
+    OpenIndexed: FnOnce() -> IndexedFuture + Send,
+    IndexedFuture: Future<Output = Result<Option<ProjectedFileReader>>> + Send,
+    OpenFull: FnOnce() -> FullFuture + Send,
+    FullFuture: Future<Output = Result<ProjectedFileReader>> + Send,
+{
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "projected current-format readers cannot open Lance v1 files".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => open_full().await,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            if prefer_indexed
+                && FileMetadataProvider::projection_matches_indexed_metadata(projection)
+                && let Some(reader) = open_indexed().await?
+            {
+                return Ok(reader);
+            }
+            open_full().await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Open a self-described file and dispatch to the matching reader.
+///
+/// The current-format reader's optimistic tail read is also used for exact
+/// version detection, so current files do not pay for a separate footer probe.
+pub async fn open_self_described_reader(
+    scheduler: FileScheduler,
+    decoder_plugins: Arc<DecoderPlugins>,
+    cache: &LanceCache,
+    options: FileReaderOptions,
+) -> Result<OpenedFileReader> {
+    FileReader::try_open_for_dispatch(scheduler, None, decoder_plugins, cache, options).await
+}
+
+/// Create a current-format writer for an exact file version.
+///
+/// V1 uses [`v1::writer::FileWriter`] directly because its manifest provider is
+/// part of the writer type.
+pub fn create_writer(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    object_writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
+    schema: Schema,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Result<FileWriter> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Lance v1 files must be created with versions::v1::writer::FileWriter".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => {
+            v2_0::create_writer(object_writer, schema, options).map(Into::into)
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => {
+            v2_1::create_writer(object_writer, schema, options).map(Into::into)
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => {
+            v2_2::create_writer(object_writer, schema, options).map(Into::into)
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            v2_3::create_writer(object_writer, schema, options).map(Into::into)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create a lazy current-format writer for an exact file version.
+pub fn create_lazy_writer(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    object_writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Result<FileWriter> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "legacy v1 files require an explicit schema and manifest provider".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => Ok(v2_0::create_lazy_writer(object_writer, options).into()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => Ok(v2_1::create_lazy_writer(object_writer, options).into()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => Ok(v2_2::create_lazy_writer(object_writer, options).into()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => Ok(v2_3::create_lazy_writer(object_writer, options).into()),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Encode a self-described batch for an exact file version.
+pub fn encode_self_described_batch(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    batch: &EncodedBatch,
+) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Lance v1 does not support self-described current-format batches".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::encode_self_described_batch(batch),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::encode_self_described_batch(batch),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::encode_self_described_batch(batch),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::encode_self_described_batch(batch),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Encode a mini-lance batch for an exact file version.
+pub fn encode_mini_batch(version: ConcreteFileVersion, batch: &EncodedBatch) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Lance v1 does not support mini-lance current-format batches".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => v2_0::encode_mini_batch(batch),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => v2_1::encode_mini_batch(batch),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => v2_2::encode_mini_batch(batch),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => v2_3::encode_mini_batch(batch),
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn v1_rejects_current_format_embedded_batches() {
+        let batch = EncodedBatch {
+            data: Bytes::new(),
+            page_table: Vec::new(),
+            schema: Arc::new(Schema::default()),
+            top_level_columns: Vec::new(),
+            num_rows: 0,
+        };
+
+        assert!(matches!(
+            encode_self_described_batch(ConcreteFileVersion::V1, &batch),
+            Err(Error::NotSupported { .. })
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            encode_mini_batch(ConcreteFileVersion::V1, &batch),
+            Err(Error::NotSupported { .. })
+        ));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..674fd357fad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,192 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Lance v1 column encoding grammar.
+//!
+//! These codecs own the v1 wire layout, including schema dictionary payloads.
+//! They are intentionally not exposed through the version-free I/O layer.
+
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef,
+    types::{BinaryType, LargeBinaryType, LargeUtf8Type, Utf8Type},
+};
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use async_recursion::async_recursion;
+
+pub mod binary;
+pub mod dictionary;
+pub mod plain;
+
+use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+};
+use lance_io::{
+    ReadBatchParams,
+    traits::{Reader, Writer},
+};
+
+use self::{
+    binary::{BinaryDecoder, BinaryEncoder},
+    plain::{PlainDecoder, PlainEncoder},
+};
+
+/// Decode a binary-like array from a v1 values region.
+pub async fn read_binary_array(
+    reader: &dyn Reader,
+    data_type: &DataType,
+    nullable: bool,
+    position: usize,
+    length: usize,
+    params: impl Into<ReadBatchParams>,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    use arrow_schema::DataType::*;
+
+    let params = params.into();
+    match data_type {
+        Utf8 => {
+            BinaryDecoder::<Utf8Type>::new(reader, position, length, nullable)
+                .get(params)
+                .await
+        }
+        Binary => {
+            BinaryDecoder::<BinaryType>::new(reader, position, length, nullable)
+                .get(params)
+                .await
+        }
+        LargeUtf8 => {
+            BinaryDecoder::<LargeUtf8Type>::new(reader, position, length, nullable)
+                .get(params)
+                .await
+        }
+        LargeBinary => {
+            BinaryDecoder::<LargeBinaryType>::new(reader, position, length, nullable)
+                .get(params)
+                .await
+        }
+        _ => Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "unsupported v1 binary data type: {data_type}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Decode a fixed-stride array from a v1 values region.
+pub async fn read_fixed_stride_array(
+    reader: &dyn Reader,
+    data_type: &DataType,
+    position: usize,
+    length: usize,
+    params: impl Into<ReadBatchParams>,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    if !lance_arrow::DataTypeExt::is_fixed_stride(data_type) {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::schema(format!(
+            "{data_type} is not a fixed stride type"
+        )));
+    }
+    PlainDecoder::new(reader, data_type, position, length)?
+        .get(params.into())
+        .await
+}
+
+/// Persist every schema dictionary using the v1 value codecs.
+pub async fn write_schema_dictionaries(writer: &mut dyn Writer, schema: &mut Schema) -> Result<()> {
+    let max_field_id = schema.max_field_id().unwrap_or(-1);
+    for field_id in 0..=max_field_id {
+        let Some(field) = schema.mut_field_by_id(field_id) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        if !field.data_type().is_dictionary() {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let dict_info = field.dictionary.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "v1 dictionary field '{}' is missing dictionary metadata",
+                field.name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let values = dict_info.values.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "v1 dictionary field '{}' is missing dictionary values",
+                field.name
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        let data_type = values.data_type();
+        let position = if data_type.is_numeric() {
+            PlainEncoder::new(writer, data_type)
+                .encode(&[values])
+                .await?
+        } else if data_type.is_binary_like() {
+            BinaryEncoder::new(writer).encode(&[values]).await?
+        } else {
+            return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                "v1 dictionary values do not support data type {data_type}"
+            )));
+        };
+        dict_info.offset = position;
+        dict_info.length = values.len();
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[async_recursion]
+async fn populate_field_dictionary(field: &mut Field, reader: &dyn Reader) -> Result<()> {
+    if let DataType::Dictionary(_, value_type) = field.data_type() {
+        let dict_info = field.dictionary.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "v1 dictionary field '{}' is missing dictionary metadata",
+                field.name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let values = if value_type.is_binary_like() {
+            read_binary_array(
+                reader,
+                value_type.as_ref(),
+                true,
+                dict_info.offset,
+                dict_info.length,
+                ..,
+            )
+            .await?
+        } else if matches!(
+            value_type.as_ref(),
+            DataType::Int8
+                | DataType::Int16
+                | DataType::Int32
+                | DataType::Int64
+                | DataType::UInt8
+                | DataType::UInt16
+                | DataType::UInt32
+                | DataType::UInt64
+        ) {
+            read_fixed_stride_array(
+                reader,
+                value_type.as_ref(),
+                dict_info.offset,
+                dict_info.length,
+                ..,
+            )
+            .await?
+        } else {
+            return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                "v1 dictionary values do not support data type {value_type}"
+            )));
+        };
+        dict_info.values = Some(values);
+    } else {
+        for child in &mut field.children {
+            populate_field_dictionary(child, reader).await?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Load every persisted v1 schema dictionary into its in-memory field.
+pub async fn populate_schema_dictionaries(schema: &mut Schema, reader: &dyn Reader) -> Result<()> {
+    for field in &mut schema.fields {
+        populate_field_dictionary(field, reader).await?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/encodings/binary.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding/binary.rs
similarity index 88%
rename from rust/lance-io/src/encodings/binary.rs
rename to rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding/binary.rs
index 1d2c23030fe..38aaa0de72d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/encodings/binary.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding/binary.rs
@@ -5,35 +5,35 @@
 //!
 
 use std::marker::PhantomData;
-use std::ops::{Range, RangeFrom, RangeFull, RangeTo};
+use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_arith::numeric::sub;
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, GenericByteArray, Int64Array, OffsetSizeTrait, UInt32Array,
     builder::{ArrayBuilder, PrimitiveBuilder},
-    cast::as_primitive_array,
     cast::AsArray,
+    cast::as_primitive_array,
     new_empty_array,
     types::{
         BinaryType, ByteArrayType, Int64Type, LargeBinaryType, LargeUtf8Type, UInt32Type, Utf8Type,
     },
-    Array, ArrayRef, GenericByteArray, Int64Array, OffsetSizeTrait, UInt32Array,
 };
-use arrow_buffer::{bit_util, ArrowNativeType, Buffer, MutableBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+use arrow_buffer::{ArrowNativeType, Buffer, MutableBuffer, ScalarBuffer, bit_util};
 use arrow_cast::cast::cast;
 use arrow_data::ArrayDataBuilder;
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::BufferExt;
-use snafu::location;
 use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 
-use super::ReadBatchParams;
-use super::{plain::PlainDecoder, AsyncIndex, Decoder, Encoder};
-use crate::traits::{Reader, Writer};
+use super::plain::PlainDecoder;
 use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_io::{
+    ReadBatchParams,
+    traits::{Reader, Writer},
+};
 
 /// Encoder for Var-binary encoding.
 pub struct BinaryEncoder<'a> {
@@ -88,9 +88,8 @@ impl<'a> BinaryEncoder<'a> {
     }
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl Encoder for BinaryEncoder<'_> {
-    async fn encode(&mut self, arrs: &[&dyn Array]) -> Result<usize> {
+impl BinaryEncoder<'_> {
+    pub async fn encode(&mut self, arrs: &[&dyn Array]) -> Result<usize> {
         assert!(!arrs.is_empty());
         let data_type = arrs[0].data_type();
         match data_type {
@@ -98,12 +97,10 @@ impl Encoder for BinaryEncoder<'_> {
             DataType::Binary => self.encode_typed_arr::<BinaryType>(arrs).await,
             DataType::LargeUtf8 => self.encode_typed_arr::<LargeUtf8Type>(arrs).await,
             DataType::LargeBinary => self.encode_typed_arr::<LargeBinaryType>(arrs).await,
-            _ => {
-                return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Unsupported data type for binary encoding: {}", data_type),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
+            _ => Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported data type for binary encoding: {}",
+                data_type
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -135,7 +132,8 @@ impl<'a, T: ByteArrayType> BinaryDecoder<'a, T> {
     /// ```rust
     /// use arrow_array::types::Utf8Type;
     /// use object_store::path::Path;
-    /// use lance_io::{local::LocalObjectReader, encodings::binary::BinaryDecoder, traits::Reader};
+    /// use lance_file::versions::v1::encoding::binary::BinaryDecoder;
+    /// use lance_io::{local::LocalObjectReader, traits::Reader};
     ///
     /// async {
     ///     let reader = LocalObjectReader::open_local_path("/tmp/foo.lance", 2048, None).await.unwrap();
@@ -286,16 +284,15 @@ fn plan_take_chunks(
     Ok(chunks)
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl<T: ByteArrayType> Decoder for BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
-    async fn decode(&self) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+impl<T: ByteArrayType> BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
+    pub async fn decode(&self) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         self.get(..).await
     }
 
     /// Take the values at the given indices.
     ///
     /// This function assumes indices are sorted.
-    async fn take(&self, indices: &UInt32Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    pub async fn take(&self, indices: &UInt32Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         if indices.is_empty() {
             return Ok(new_empty_array(&T::DATA_TYPE));
         }
@@ -394,64 +391,17 @@ impl<T: ByteArrayType> Decoder for BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
     }
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl<T: ByteArrayType> AsyncIndex<usize> for BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, index: usize) -> Self::Output {
-        self.get(index..index + 1).await
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl<T: ByteArrayType> AsyncIndex<RangeFrom<usize>> for BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, index: RangeFrom<usize>) -> Self::Output {
-        self.get(index.start..self.length).await
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl<T: ByteArrayType> AsyncIndex<RangeTo<usize>> for BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, index: RangeTo<usize>) -> Self::Output {
-        self.get(0..index.end).await
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl<T: ByteArrayType> AsyncIndex<RangeFull> for BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, _: RangeFull) -> Self::Output {
-        self.get(0..self.length).await
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl<T: ByteArrayType> AsyncIndex<ReadBatchParams> for BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, params: ReadBatchParams) -> Self::Output {
-        match params {
-            ReadBatchParams::Range(r) => self.get(r).await,
-            // Ranges not supported in v1 files
-            ReadBatchParams::Ranges(_) => unimplemented!(),
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => self.get(..).await,
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(r) => self.get(r).await,
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(r) => self.get(r).await,
-            ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => self.take(&indices).await,
+impl<T: ByteArrayType> BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
+    async fn decode_range(&self, index: Range<usize>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+        if index.end > self.length {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "v1 binary row range {}..{} exceeds length {}",
+                index.start, index.end, self.length
+            )));
+        }
+        if index.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(new_empty_array(&T::DATA_TYPE));
         }
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl<T: ByteArrayType> AsyncIndex<Range<usize>> for BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, index: Range<usize>) -> Self::Output {
         let position_decoder = PlainDecoder::new(
             self.reader,
             &DataType::Int64,
@@ -463,6 +413,19 @@ impl<T: ByteArrayType> AsyncIndex<Range<usize>> for BinaryDecoder<'_, T> {
 
         self.get_range(int64_positions, 0..index.len()).await
     }
+
+    pub async fn get(&self, params: impl Into<ReadBatchParams>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+        match params.into() {
+            ReadBatchParams::Range(range) => self.decode_range(range).await,
+            ReadBatchParams::Ranges(_) => Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+                "multiple ranges are not supported by v1 binary encoding",
+            )),
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => self.decode_range(0..self.length).await,
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(range) => self.decode_range(0..range.end).await,
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(range) => self.decode_range(range.start..self.length).await,
+            ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => self.take(&indices).await,
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -470,12 +433,12 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
     use arrow_array::{
-        types::GenericStringType, BinaryArray, GenericStringArray, LargeStringArray, StringArray,
+        BinaryArray, GenericStringArray, LargeStringArray, StringArray, types::GenericStringType,
     };
     use arrow_select::concat::concat;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdFile;
 
-    use crate::local::LocalObjectReader;
+    use lance_io::local::LocalObjectReader;
 
     async fn write_test_data<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
         path: impl AsRef<std::path::Path>,
@@ -488,7 +451,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let arrs = arr.iter().map(|a| a as &dyn Array).collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let pos = encoder.encode(arrs.as_slice()).await.unwrap();
-        writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+        AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
         Ok(pos)
     }
 
@@ -562,7 +525,7 @@ mod tests {
         object_writer.write_all(b"1234").await.unwrap();
         let mut encoder = BinaryEncoder::new(&mut object_writer);
         let pos = encoder.encode(&[&data]).await.unwrap();
-        object_writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+        AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(&mut object_writer).await.unwrap();
 
         let reader = LocalObjectReader::open_local_path(&path, 1024, None)
             .await
@@ -731,7 +694,7 @@ mod tests {
 
             // let arrs = arr.iter().map(|a| a as &dyn Array).collect::<Vec<_>>();
             let pos = encoder.encode(&[&data]).await.unwrap();
-            object_writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+            AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(&mut object_writer).await.unwrap();
             pos
         };
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/encodings/dictionary.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding/dictionary.rs
similarity index 79%
rename from rust/lance-io/src/encodings/dictionary.rs
rename to rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding/dictionary.rs
index ecc2bce1aec..0056632f725 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/encodings/dictionary.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding/dictionary.rs
@@ -9,24 +9,19 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::cast::{as_dictionary_array, as_primitive_array};
 use arrow_array::types::{
-    ArrowDictionaryKeyType, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, Int8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type,
-    UInt64Type, UInt8Type,
+    ArrowDictionaryKeyType, Int8Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, UInt8Type, UInt16Type,
+    UInt32Type, UInt64Type,
 };
 use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, PrimitiveArray, UInt32Array};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use async_trait::async_trait;
-use snafu::location;
 
-use crate::{
-    traits::{Reader, Writer},
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_io::{
     ReadBatchParams,
+    traits::{Reader, Writer},
 };
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
-use super::plain::PlainEncoder;
-use super::AsyncIndex;
-use crate::encodings::plain::PlainDecoder;
-use crate::encodings::{Decoder, Encoder};
+use super::plain::{PlainDecoder, PlainEncoder};
 
 /// Encoder for Dictionary encoding.
 pub struct DictionaryEncoder<'a> {
@@ -61,9 +56,8 @@ impl<'a> DictionaryEncoder<'a> {
     }
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl Encoder for DictionaryEncoder<'_> {
-    async fn encode(&mut self, array: &[&dyn Array]) -> Result<usize> {
+impl DictionaryEncoder<'_> {
+    pub async fn encode(&mut self, array: &[&dyn Array]) -> Result<usize> {
         use DataType::*;
 
         match self.key_type {
@@ -75,13 +69,10 @@ impl Encoder for DictionaryEncoder<'_> {
             Int16 => self.write_typed_array::<Int16Type>(array).await,
             Int32 => self.write_typed_array::<Int32Type>(array).await,
             Int64 => self.write_typed_array::<Int64Type>(array).await,
-            _ => Err(Error::Schema {
-                message: format!(
-                    "DictionaryEncoder: unsupported key type: {:?}",
-                    self.key_type
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                "DictionaryEncoder: unsupported key type: {:?}",
+                self.key_type
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -133,10 +124,10 @@ impl<'a> DictionaryDecoder<'a> {
             assert!(key_type.as_ref().is_dictionary_key_type());
             key_type.as_ref()
         } else {
-            return Err(Error::Arrow {
-                message: format!("Not a dictionary type: {}", self.data_type),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::arrow(format!(
+                "Not a dictionary type: {}",
+                self.data_type
+            )));
         };
 
         let decoder = PlainDecoder::new(self.reader, index_type, self.position, self.length)?;
@@ -151,10 +142,9 @@ impl<'a> DictionaryDecoder<'a> {
             DataType::UInt16 => self.make_dict_array::<UInt16Type>(keys).await,
             DataType::UInt32 => self.make_dict_array::<UInt32Type>(keys).await,
             DataType::UInt64 => self.make_dict_array::<UInt64Type>(keys).await,
-            _ => Err(Error::Arrow {
-                message: format!("Dictionary encoding does not support index type: {index_type}",),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::arrow(format!(
+                "Dictionary encoding does not support index type: {index_type}",
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -170,37 +160,17 @@ impl<'a> DictionaryDecoder<'a> {
     }
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl Decoder for DictionaryDecoder<'_> {
-    async fn decode(&self) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+impl DictionaryDecoder<'_> {
+    pub async fn decode(&self) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         self.decode_impl(..).await
     }
 
-    async fn take(&self, indices: &UInt32Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    pub async fn take(&self, indices: &UInt32Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         self.decode_impl(indices.clone()).await
     }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl AsyncIndex<usize> for DictionaryDecoder<'_> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, _index: usize) -> Self::Output {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "DictionaryDecoder does not support get()"
-                .to_string()
-                .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl AsyncIndex<ReadBatchParams> for DictionaryDecoder<'_> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
 
-    async fn get(&self, params: ReadBatchParams) -> Self::Output {
-        self.decode_impl(params.clone()).await
+    pub async fn get(&self, params: impl Into<ReadBatchParams>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+        self.decode_impl(params).await
     }
 }
 
@@ -208,10 +178,10 @@ impl AsyncIndex<ReadBatchParams> for DictionaryDecoder<'_> {
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
-    use crate::local::LocalObjectReader;
     use arrow_array::StringArray;
     use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdFile;
+    use lance_io::local::LocalObjectReader;
     use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 
     async fn test_dict_decoder_for_type<T: ArrowDictionaryKeyType>() {
@@ -243,7 +213,7 @@ mod tests {
             let mut object_writer = tokio::fs::File::create(&path).await.unwrap();
             let mut encoder = PlainEncoder::new(&mut object_writer, arr1.keys().data_type());
             pos = encoder.encode(arrs.as_slice()).await.unwrap();
-            object_writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+            AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(&mut object_writer).await.unwrap();
         }
 
         let reader = LocalObjectReader::open_local_path(&path, 2048, None)
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/encodings/plain.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding/plain.rs
similarity index 87%
rename from rust/lance-io/src/encodings/plain.rs
rename to rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding/plain.rs
index 9966d8b33ec..18910e9251e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/encodings/plain.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/encoding/plain.rs
@@ -6,34 +6,29 @@
 //! Plain encoding works with fixed stride types, i.e., `boolean`, `i8...i64`, `f16...f64`,
 //! it stores the array directly in the file. It offers O(1) read access.
 
-use std::ops::{Range, RangeFrom, RangeFull, RangeTo};
+use std::ops::Range;
 use std::slice::from_raw_parts;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use crate::{
-    traits::{Reader, Writer},
-    ReadBatchParams,
-};
 use arrow_arith::numeric::sub;
 use arrow_array::{
-    builder::BooleanBuilder, cast::AsArray, make_array, new_empty_array, Array, ArrayRef,
-    BooleanArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, FixedSizeListArray, UInt32Array, UInt8Array,
+    Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array,
+    UInt32Array, builder::BooleanBuilder, cast::AsArray, make_array, new_empty_array,
 };
-use arrow_buffer::{bit_util, Buffer};
-use arrow_data::{layout, ArrayDataBuilder, BufferSpec};
+use arrow_buffer::{Buffer, bit_util};
+use arrow_data::{ArrayDataBuilder, BufferSpec, layout};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 use arrow_select::{concat::concat, take::take};
 use async_recursion::async_recursion;
-use async_trait::async_trait;
-use bytes::Bytes;
 use futures::stream::{self, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::*;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_io::{
+    ReadBatchParams,
+    traits::{Reader, Writer},
+};
 use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 
-use crate::encodings::{AsyncIndex, Decoder};
-
 /// Encoder for plain encoding.
 ///
 pub struct PlainEncoder<'a> {
@@ -132,9 +127,11 @@ impl<'a> PlainEncoder<'a> {
             let list_array = array
                 .as_any()
                 .downcast_ref::<FixedSizeListArray>()
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("Needed a FixedSizeListArray but got {}", array.data_type()),
-                    location: location!(),
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::schema(format!(
+                        "Needed a FixedSizeListArray but got {}",
+                        array.data_type()
+                    ))
                 })?;
             let offset = list_array.value_offset(0) as usize;
             let length = list_array.len();
@@ -174,52 +171,41 @@ fn get_byte_range(data_type: &DataType, row_range: Range<usize>) -> Range<usize>
     }
 }
 
-pub fn bytes_to_array(
+fn bytes_to_array(
     data_type: &DataType,
-    bytes: Bytes,
+    bytes: bytes::Bytes,
     len: usize,
     offset: usize,
 ) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
     let layout = layout(data_type);
-
     if layout.buffers.len() != 1 {
-        return Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!(
-                "Can only convert datatypes that require one buffer, found {:?}",
-                data_type
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "v1 plain encoding requires one value buffer, found {data_type}"
+        )));
     }
 
-    let buf: Buffer = if let BufferSpec::FixedWidth {
+    let buffer = if let BufferSpec::FixedWidth {
         byte_width,
         alignment,
     } = &layout.buffers[0]
     {
-        // this code is taken from
-        // https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs/blob/master/arrow-data/src/data.rs#L748-L768
-        let len_plus_offset = len + offset;
-        let min_buffer_size = len_plus_offset.saturating_mul(*byte_width);
-
-        // alignment or size isn't right -- just make a copy
+        let min_buffer_size = (len + offset).saturating_mul(*byte_width);
         if bytes.len() < min_buffer_size {
             Buffer::copy_bytes_bytes(bytes, min_buffer_size)
         } else {
             Buffer::from_bytes_bytes(bytes, *alignment as u64)
         }
     } else {
-        // cases we don't handle, just copy
         Buffer::from_slice_ref(bytes)
     };
 
-    let array_data = ArrayDataBuilder::new(data_type.clone())
+    let data = ArrayDataBuilder::new(data_type.clone())
         .len(len)
         .offset(offset)
         .null_count(0)
-        .add_buffer(buf)
+        .add_buffer(buffer)
         .build()?;
-    Ok(make_array(array_data))
+    Ok(make_array(data))
 }
 
 impl<'a> PlainDecoder<'a> {
@@ -241,13 +227,10 @@ impl<'a> PlainDecoder<'a> {
     ///
     async fn decode_primitive(&self, start: usize, end: usize) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         if end > self.length {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "PlainDecoder: request([{}..{}]) out of range: [0..{}]",
-                    start, end, self.length
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "PlainDecoder: request([{}..{}]) out of range: [0..{}]",
+                start, end, self.length
+            )));
         }
         let byte_range = get_byte_range(self.data_type, start..end);
         let range = Range {
@@ -274,13 +257,10 @@ impl<'a> PlainDecoder<'a> {
         end: usize,
     ) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         if !items.data_type().is_fixed_stride() {
-            return Err(Error::Schema {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Items for fixed size list should be primitives but found {}",
-                    items.data_type()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                "Items for fixed size list should be primitives but found {}",
+                items.data_type()
+            )));
         };
         let item_decoder = PlainDecoder::new(
             self.reader,
@@ -317,9 +297,8 @@ impl<'a> PlainDecoder<'a> {
         let values = bytes_array
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Schema {
-                message: "Could not cast to UInt8Array for FixedSizeBinary".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::schema("Could not cast to UInt8Array for FixedSizeBinary".to_string())
             })?;
         Ok(Arc::new(FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_new_from_values(values, stride)?) as ArrayRef)
     }
@@ -392,13 +371,12 @@ fn make_chunked_requests(
     chunked_ranges
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl Decoder for PlainDecoder<'_> {
-    async fn decode(&self) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+impl PlainDecoder<'_> {
+    pub async fn decode(&self) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         self.get(0..self.length).await
     }
 
-    async fn take(&self, indices: &UInt32Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    pub async fn take(&self, indices: &UInt32Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         if indices.is_empty() {
             return Ok(new_empty_array(self.data_type));
         }
@@ -428,23 +406,9 @@ impl Decoder for PlainDecoder<'_> {
         let references = arrays.iter().map(|a| a.as_ref()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
         Ok(concat(&references)?)
     }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl AsyncIndex<usize> for PlainDecoder<'_> {
-    // TODO: should this return a Scalar value?
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, index: usize) -> Self::Output {
-        self.get(index..index + 1).await
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl AsyncIndex<Range<usize>> for PlainDecoder<'_> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
 
-    async fn get(&self, index: Range<usize>) -> Self::Output {
+    #[async_recursion]
+    async fn decode_range(&self, index: Range<usize>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         if index.is_empty() {
             return Ok(new_empty_array(self.data_type));
         }
@@ -460,47 +424,16 @@ impl AsyncIndex<Range<usize>> for PlainDecoder<'_> {
             _ => self.decode_primitive(index.start, index.end).await,
         }
     }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl AsyncIndex<RangeFrom<usize>> for PlainDecoder<'_> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, index: RangeFrom<usize>) -> Self::Output {
-        self.get(index.start..self.length).await
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl AsyncIndex<RangeTo<usize>> for PlainDecoder<'_> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, index: RangeTo<usize>) -> Self::Output {
-        self.get(0..index.end).await
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl AsyncIndex<RangeFull> for PlainDecoder<'_> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, _: RangeFull) -> Self::Output {
-        self.get(0..self.length).await
-    }
-}
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl AsyncIndex<ReadBatchParams> for PlainDecoder<'_> {
-    type Output = Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    async fn get(&self, params: ReadBatchParams) -> Self::Output {
-        match params {
-            ReadBatchParams::Range(r) => self.get(r).await,
-            // Ranges not supported in v1 files
-            ReadBatchParams::Ranges(_) => unimplemented!(),
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => self.get(..).await,
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(r) => self.get(r).await,
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(r) => self.get(r).await,
+    pub async fn get(&self, params: impl Into<ReadBatchParams>) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+        match params.into() {
+            ReadBatchParams::Range(range) => self.decode_range(range).await,
+            ReadBatchParams::Ranges(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "multiple ranges are not supported by v1 plain encoding",
+            )),
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => self.decode_range(0..self.length).await,
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(range) => self.decode_range(0..range.end).await,
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(range) => self.decode_range(range.start..self.length).await,
             ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => self.take(&indices).await,
         }
     }
@@ -511,11 +444,14 @@ mod tests {
     use std::ops::Deref;
 
     use arrow_array::*;
+    use arrow_buffer::Buffer;
+    use arrow_data::ArrayDataBuilder;
+    use bytes::Bytes;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdFile;
+    use lance_io::local::LocalObjectReader;
     use rand::prelude::*;
 
     use super::*;
-    use crate::local::LocalObjectReader;
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_encode_decode_primitive_array() {
@@ -691,7 +627,7 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     async fn make_array_(data_type: &DataType, buffer: &Buffer) -> ArrayRef {
-        make_array(
+        arrow_array::make_array(
             ArrayDataBuilder::new(data_type.clone())
                 .len(126)
                 .add_buffer(buffer.clone())
@@ -756,7 +692,7 @@ mod tests {
             let mut writer = tokio::fs::File::create(&path).await.unwrap();
             let mut encoder = PlainEncoder::new(&mut writer, array.data_type());
             assert_eq!(encoder.encode(&[&array]).await.unwrap(), 0);
-            writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+            AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
         }
 
         let reader = LocalObjectReader::open_local_path(&path, 2048, None)
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/format/metadata.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/format/metadata.rs
similarity index 95%
rename from rust/lance-file/src/previous/format/metadata.rs
rename to rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/format/metadata.rs
index 4724506218e..209d0733cec 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/format/metadata.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/format/metadata.rs
@@ -6,11 +6,10 @@ use std::ops::Range;
 
 use crate::datatypes::{Fields, FieldsWithMeta};
 use crate::format::pb;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_io::traits::ProtoStruct;
-use snafu::location;
 
 /// Data File Metadata
 #[derive(Debug, Default, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
@@ -63,10 +62,10 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::Metadata> for Metadata {
             manifest_position: Some(m.manifest_position as usize),
             stats_metadata: if let Some(stats_meta) = m.statistics {
                 Some(StatisticsMetadata {
-                    schema: Schema::from(FieldsWithMeta {
+                    schema: Schema::try_from(FieldsWithMeta {
                         fields: Fields(stats_meta.schema),
                         metadata: Default::default(),
-                    }),
+                    })?,
                     leaf_field_ids: stats_meta.fields,
                     page_table_position: stats_meta.page_table_position as usize,
                 })
@@ -169,14 +168,11 @@ impl Metadata {
     // TODO: pub(crate)
     pub fn range_to_batches(&self, range: Range<usize>) -> Result<Vec<(i32, Range<usize>)>> {
         if range.end > *(self.batch_offsets.last().unwrap()) as usize {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Range {:?} is out of bounds {}",
-                    range,
-                    self.batch_offsets.last().unwrap()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Range {:?} is out of bounds {}",
+                range,
+                self.batch_offsets.last().unwrap()
+            )));
         }
         let offsets = self.batch_offsets.as_slice();
         let mut batch_id = offsets
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/format/mod.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/format/mod.rs
similarity index 100%
rename from rust/lance-file/src/previous/format/mod.rs
rename to rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/format/mod.rs
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/mod.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a7da08de11e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Lance v1 file implementation.
+//!
+//! This module is the canonical home of the v1 reader, writer, metadata, and
+//! page-table grammar. V1 accepts footer versions `(0, 0)` through `(0, 2)` and
+//! writes the `(0, 2)` identity used by [`writer::FileWriter`].
+
+pub mod encoding;
+pub mod format;
+pub mod page_table;
+pub mod reader;
+pub mod writer;
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use lance_core::{
+    Result,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+};
+
+use crate::reader::ReaderProjection;
+
+fn append_field_ids(
+    fields: &[Field],
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+    column_indices: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) {
+    for field in fields {
+        if let Some(column_index) = field_id_to_column_index.get(&(field.id as u32)).copied() {
+            column_indices.push(column_index);
+        }
+        if !field.is_blob() && !field.is_packed_struct() {
+            append_field_ids(&field.children, field_id_to_column_index, column_indices);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_field_ids(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+) -> ReaderProjection {
+    let mut column_indices = Vec::new();
+    append_field_ids(
+        &schema.fields,
+        field_id_to_column_index,
+        &mut column_indices,
+    );
+    ReaderProjection {
+        schema: Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+        column_indices,
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_whole_schema(schema: &Schema) -> ReaderProjection {
+    projection_from_field_ids(schema, &field_id_to_column_index(schema))
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_column_names(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_names: &[&str],
+) -> Result<ReaderProjection> {
+    let field_id_to_column_index = field_id_to_column_index(schema);
+    let projected = schema.project(column_names)?;
+    Ok(projection_from_field_ids(
+        &projected,
+        &field_id_to_column_index,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Count physical columns represented by a field in a v1 footer.
+pub fn physical_column_count(field: &Field) -> usize {
+    if field.is_blob() || field.is_packed_struct() {
+        1
+    } else {
+        1 + field
+            .children
+            .iter()
+            .map(physical_column_count)
+            .sum::<usize>()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build persisted field-to-column entries for a v1 data file.
+pub fn data_file_columns(schema: &Schema) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
+    let mut field_ids = Vec::new();
+    let mut column_indices = Vec::new();
+    append_physical_fields(&schema.fields, &mut field_ids, &mut column_indices, &mut 0);
+    (field_ids, column_indices)
+}
+
+fn field_id_to_column_index(schema: &Schema) -> BTreeMap<u32, u32> {
+    let (field_ids, column_indices) = data_file_columns(schema);
+    field_ids
+        .into_iter()
+        .zip(column_indices)
+        .map(|(field_id, column_index)| (field_id as u32, column_index as u32))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn append_physical_fields(
+    fields: &[Field],
+    field_ids: &mut Vec<i32>,
+    column_indices: &mut Vec<i32>,
+    next_column: &mut i32,
+) {
+    for field in fields {
+        field_ids.push(field.id);
+        column_indices.push(*next_column);
+        *next_column += 1;
+        if !field.is_blob() && !field.is_packed_struct() {
+            append_physical_fields(&field.children, field_ids, column_indices, next_column);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/page_table.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/page_table.rs
similarity index 91%
rename from rust/lance-file/src/previous/page_table.rs
rename to rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/page_table.rs
index 3089a400790..b2ff750c13a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/page_table.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/page_table.rs
@@ -4,16 +4,15 @@
 use arrow_array::builder::Int64Builder;
 use arrow_array::{Array, Int64Array};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_io::encodings::plain::PlainDecoder;
-use lance_io::encodings::Decoder;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use std::collections::BTreeMap;
 use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_io::traits::{Reader, Writer};
 
+use super::encoding::plain::PlainDecoder;
+
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct PageInfo {
     pub position: usize,
@@ -59,13 +58,10 @@ impl PageTable {
         num_batches: i32,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         if max_field_id < min_field_id {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "max_field_id {} is less than min_field_id {}",
-                    max_field_id, min_field_id
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "max_field_id {} is less than min_field_id {}",
+                max_field_id, min_field_id
+            )));
         }
 
         let field_ids = min_field_id..=max_field_id;
@@ -106,21 +102,15 @@ impl PageTable {
     /// holes in the field ids as well as struct fields which have no data pages.
     pub async fn write(&self, writer: &mut dyn Writer, min_field_id: i32) -> Result<usize> {
         if self.pages.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "empty page table".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source("empty page table".into()));
         }
 
         let observed_min = *self.pages.keys().min().unwrap();
         if min_field_id > *self.pages.keys().min().unwrap() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "field_id_offset {} is greater than the minimum field_id {}",
-                    min_field_id, observed_min
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "field_id_offset {} is greater than the minimum field_id {}",
+                min_field_id, observed_min
+            )));
         }
         let max_field_id = *self.pages.keys().max().unwrap();
         let field_ids = min_field_id..=max_field_id;
@@ -214,7 +204,7 @@ mod tests {
             .write(&mut writer, starting_field_id)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+        AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
 
         let reader = LocalObjectReader::open_local_path(&path, 1024, None)
             .await
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/reader.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/reader.rs
similarity index 88%
rename from rust/lance-file/src/previous/reader.rs
rename to rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/reader.rs
index b6d70aafad4..0c1d490d5a6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/reader.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/reader.rs
@@ -9,38 +9,34 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_arith::numeric::sub;
 use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, ArrowNativeTypeOp, ArrowNumericType, NullArray, OffsetSizeTrait, PrimitiveArray,
+    RecordBatch, StructArray, UInt32Array,
     builder::PrimitiveBuilder,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{Int32Type, Int64Type},
-    ArrayRef, ArrowNativeTypeOp, ArrowNumericType, NullArray, OffsetSizeTrait, PrimitiveArray,
-    RecordBatch, StructArray, UInt32Array,
 };
 use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, FieldRef, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use arrow_select::concat::{self, concat_batches};
 use async_recursion::async_recursion;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::{stream, Future, FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::{Future, FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
 use lance_arrow::*;
-use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache};
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache};
 use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_io::encodings::dictionary::DictionaryDecoder;
-use lance_io::encodings::AsyncIndex;
 use lance_io::stream::{RecordBatchStream, RecordBatchStreamAdapter};
 use lance_io::traits::Reader;
-use lance_io::utils::{
-    read_fixed_stride_array, read_metadata_offset, read_struct, read_struct_from_buf,
-};
-use lance_io::{object_store::ObjectStore, ReadBatchParams};
+use lance_io::utils::{read_metadata_offset, read_struct, read_struct_from_buf};
+use lance_io::{ReadBatchParams, object_store::ObjectStore};
 use std::borrow::Cow;
 
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
-use crate::previous::format::metadata::Metadata;
-use crate::previous::page_table::{PageInfo, PageTable};
+use crate::versions::v1::encoding::{dictionary::DictionaryDecoder, read_fixed_stride_array};
+use crate::versions::v1::format::metadata::Metadata;
+use crate::versions::v1::page_table::{PageInfo, PageTable};
 
 /// Lance File Reader.
 ///
@@ -84,12 +80,46 @@ impl<'a, T> StringCacheKey<'a, T> {
     }
 }
 
-impl<T> CacheKey for StringCacheKey<'_, T> {
+trait StableStringCacheValue: 'static {
+    const STABLE_TYPE_ID: &'static str;
+}
+
+impl StableStringCacheValue for Metadata {
+    const STABLE_TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.file.previous.Metadata";
+}
+
+impl StableStringCacheValue for PageTable {
+    const STABLE_TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.file.previous.PageTable";
+}
+
+impl StableStringCacheValue for Option<PageTable> {
+    const STABLE_TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.file.previous.OptionalPageTable";
+}
+
+impl<T: StableStringCacheValue> CacheKey for StringCacheKey<'_, T> {
     type ValueType = T;
 
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
         self.key.into()
     }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        // Keep the legacy diagnostic name for compatibility. `stable_type_id`
+        // provides the compiler-independent identity used by physical keys.
+        std::any::type_name::<T>()
+    }
+
+    fn stable_type_id() -> &'static str {
+        T::STABLE_TYPE_ID
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.file.previous.string-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_str(self.key);
+    }
 }
 
 impl FileReader {
@@ -211,35 +241,40 @@ impl FileReader {
         cache: Option<&LanceCache>,
     ) -> Result<Arc<Option<PageTable>>> {
         // To prevent collisions, we cache this at a child path
-        Self::load_from_cache(cache, reader.path().child("stats").to_string(), |_| async {
-            let metadata = Self::read_metadata(reader, cache).await?;
-
-            if let Some(stats_meta) = metadata.stats_metadata.as_ref() {
-                Ok(Some(
-                    PageTable::load(
-                        reader,
-                        stats_meta.page_table_position,
-                        /*min_field_id=*/ 0,
-                        /*max_field_id=*/ *stats_meta.leaf_field_ids.iter().max().unwrap(),
-                        /*num_batches=*/ 1,
-                    )
-                    .await?,
-                ))
-            } else {
-                Ok(None)
-            }
-        })
+        Self::load_from_cache(
+            cache,
+            reader.path().clone().join("stats").to_string(),
+            |_| async {
+                let metadata = Self::read_metadata(reader, cache).await?;
+
+                if let Some(stats_meta) = metadata.stats_metadata.as_ref() {
+                    Ok(Some(
+                        PageTable::load(
+                            reader,
+                            stats_meta.page_table_position,
+                            /*min_field_id=*/ 0,
+                            /*max_field_id=*/
+                            *stats_meta.leaf_field_ids.iter().max().unwrap(),
+                            /*num_batches=*/ 1,
+                        )
+                        .await?,
+                    ))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(None)
+                }
+            },
+        )
         .await
     }
 
     /// Load some metadata about the fragment from the cache, if there is one.
-    async fn load_from_cache<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static, F, Fut>(
+    async fn load_from_cache<T: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + StableStringCacheValue, F, Fut>(
         cache: Option<&LanceCache>,
         key: String,
         loader: F,
     ) -> Result<Arc<T>>
     where
-        F: Fn(&str) -> Fut,
+        F: Fn(&str) -> Fut + Send + Sync,
         Fut: Future<Output = Result<T>> + Send,
     {
         if let Some(cache) = cache {
@@ -339,15 +374,13 @@ impl FileReader {
         let batches = stream::iter(indices_in_batches)
             .map(|batch| async move {
                 if batch.batch_id >= num_batches as i32 {
-                    Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("batch_id: {} out of bounds", batch.batch_id).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("batch_id: {} out of bounds", batch.batch_id).into(),
+                    ))
                 } else if *batch.offsets.last().expect("got empty batch") > num_rows {
-                    Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("indices: {:?} out of bounds", batch.offsets).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("indices: {:?} out of bounds", batch.offsets).into(),
+                    ))
                 } else {
                     self.read_batch(batch.batch_id, batch.offsets.as_slice(), projection)
                         .await
@@ -367,12 +400,12 @@ impl FileReader {
         self.metadata.stats_metadata.as_ref().map(|meta| {
             let mut stats_field_ids = vec![];
             for stats_field in &meta.schema.fields {
-                if let Ok(stats_field_id) = stats_field.name.parse::<i32>() {
-                    if field_ids.contains(&stats_field_id) {
-                        stats_field_ids.push(stats_field.id);
-                        for child in &stats_field.children {
-                            stats_field_ids.push(child.id);
-                        }
+                if let Ok(stats_field_id) = stats_field.name.parse::<i32>()
+                    && field_ids.contains(&stats_field_id)
+                {
+                    stats_field_ids.push(stats_field.id);
+                    for child in &stats_field.children {
+                        stats_field_ids.push(child.id);
                     }
                 }
             }
@@ -469,7 +502,7 @@ pub async fn read_batch(
         let arrs = arrs.await?;
         Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(schema.into()), arrs)?)
     } else {
-        Err(Error::invalid_input("no fields requested", location!()))
+        Err(Error::invalid_input("no fields requested"))
     }
 }
 
@@ -516,13 +549,10 @@ fn get_page_info<'a>(
     batch_id: i32,
 ) -> Result<&'a PageInfo> {
     page_table.get(field.id, batch_id).ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "No page info found for field: {}, field_id={} batch={}",
-                field.name, field.id, batch_id
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        )
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "No page info found for field: {}, field_id={} batch={}",
+            field.name, field.id, batch_id
+        ))
     })
 }
 
@@ -560,13 +590,10 @@ fn read_null_array(
             } else {
                 let idx_max = *indices.values().iter().max().unwrap() as u64;
                 if idx_max >= page_info.length as u64 {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "NullArray Reader: request([{}]) out of range: [0..{}]",
-                            idx_max, page_info.length
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "NullArray Reader: request([{}]) out of range: [0..{}]",
+                        idx_max, page_info.length
+                    )));
                 }
                 indices.len()
             }
@@ -580,16 +607,13 @@ fn read_null_array(
                 _ => unreachable!(),
             };
             if idx_end > page_info.length {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "NullArray Reader: request([{}..{}]) out of range: [0..{}]",
-                        // and wrap it in here.
-                        idx_start,
-                        idx_end,
-                        page_info.length
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "NullArray Reader: request([{}..{}]) out of range: [0..{}]",
+                    // and wrap it in here.
+                    idx_start,
+                    idx_end,
+                    page_info.length
+                )));
             }
             idx_end - idx_start
         }
@@ -607,7 +631,7 @@ async fn read_binary_array(
 ) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
     let page_info = get_page_info(page_table, field, batch_id)?;
 
-    lance_io::utils::read_binary_array(
+    crate::versions::v1::encoding::read_binary_array(
         reader.object_reader.as_ref(),
         &field.data_type(),
         field.nullable,
@@ -752,10 +776,9 @@ where
             positions.value(0).as_usize()..positions.value(range.end - range.start).as_usize(),
         ),
         ReadBatchParams::Ranges(_) => {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "ReadBatchParams::Ranges should not be used in v1 files".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "ReadBatchParams::Ranges should not be used in v1 files".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
         ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(RangeTo { end }) => {
             ReadBatchParams::from(..positions.value(*end).as_usize())
@@ -786,21 +809,49 @@ where
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use crate::previous::writer::{FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter, NotSelfDescribing};
+    use crate::versions::v1::writer::{FileWriter as V1FileWriter, NotSelfDescribing};
 
     use super::*;
 
     use arrow_array::{
+        Array, DictionaryArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, LargeListArray, ListArray, StringArray,
+        UInt8Array,
         builder::{Int32Builder, LargeListBuilder, ListBuilder, StringBuilder},
         cast::{as_string_array, as_struct_array},
         types::UInt8Type,
-        Array, DictionaryArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, LargeListArray, ListArray, StringArray,
-        UInt8Array,
     };
     use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, Int32Array};
     use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Fields as ArrowFields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
     use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
 
+    #[test]
+    fn string_cache_key_discriminators_are_stable_and_type_scoped() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            [
+                <StringCacheKey<'static, Metadata> as CacheKey>::stable_type_id(),
+                <StringCacheKey<'static, PageTable> as CacheKey>::stable_type_id(),
+                <StringCacheKey<'static, Option<PageTable>> as CacheKey>::stable_type_id(),
+            ],
+            [
+                "lance.file.previous.Metadata",
+                "lance.file.previous.PageTable",
+                "lance.file.previous.OptionalPageTable",
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            [
+                <StringCacheKey<'static, Metadata> as CacheKey>::type_name(),
+                <StringCacheKey<'static, PageTable> as CacheKey>::type_name(),
+                <StringCacheKey<'static, Option<PageTable>> as CacheKey>::type_name(),
+            ],
+            [
+                std::any::type_name::<Metadata>(),
+                std::any::type_name::<PageTable>(),
+                std::any::type_name::<Option<PageTable>>(),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_take() {
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
@@ -841,7 +892,7 @@ mod tests {
         }
         schema.set_dictionary(&batches[0]).unwrap();
 
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -905,7 +956,7 @@ mod tests {
         )]));
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![struct_arr]).unwrap();
 
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -959,7 +1010,7 @@ mod tests {
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let batches_ref = batches.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -986,7 +1037,7 @@ mod tests {
         let schema: Schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![struct_array.clone()]).unwrap();
 
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -1111,7 +1162,7 @@ mod tests {
         // write to a lance file
         let store = ObjectStore::memory();
         let path = Path::from("/takes");
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -1228,7 +1279,7 @@ mod tests {
         let store = ObjectStore::memory();
         let path = Path::from("/take_list");
         let schema: Schema = (&arrow_schema).try_into().unwrap();
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -1305,7 +1356,7 @@ mod tests {
         .unwrap();
 
         let schema: Schema = (&arrow_schema).try_into().unwrap();
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -1339,7 +1390,7 @@ mod tests {
         // write to a lance file
         let store = ObjectStore::memory();
         let path = Path::from("/read_range");
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -1366,7 +1417,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true)]);
         let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
-        let mut writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -1426,7 +1477,7 @@ mod tests {
             false,
         )]));
         let schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -1471,7 +1522,7 @@ mod tests {
         let partial_schema = schema.project(&["f50"]).unwrap();
         let partial_arrow: ArrowSchema = (&partial_schema).into();
 
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             partial_schema.clone(),
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/writer/mod.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/writer/mod.rs
similarity index 89%
rename from rust/lance-file/src/previous/writer/mod.rs
rename to rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/writer/mod.rs
index 7006442e08c..e3188e0d6a7 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/writer/mod.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/writer/mod.rs
@@ -18,19 +18,19 @@ use async_trait::async_trait;
 use lance_arrow::*;
 use lance_core::datatypes::{Encoding, Field, NullabilityComparison, Schema, SchemaCompareOptions};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_io::encodings::{
-    binary::BinaryEncoder, dictionary::DictionaryEncoder, plain::PlainEncoder, Encoder,
-};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use lance_io::object_writer::ObjectWriter;
 use lance_io::traits::{WriteExt, Writer};
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 
 use crate::format::{MAGIC, MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION};
-use crate::previous::format::metadata::{Metadata, StatisticsMetadata};
-use crate::previous::page_table::{PageInfo, PageTable};
+use crate::versions::v1::encoding::{
+    binary::BinaryEncoder, dictionary::DictionaryEncoder, plain::PlainEncoder,
+    write_schema_dictionaries,
+};
+use crate::versions::v1::format::metadata::{Metadata, StatisticsMetadata};
+use crate::versions::v1::page_table::{PageInfo, PageTable};
+use crate::writer::FileWriteSummary;
 
 /// The file format currently includes a "manifest" where it stores the schema for
 /// self-describing files.  Historically this has been a table format manifest that
@@ -47,10 +47,8 @@ pub trait ManifestProvider {
     ///
     /// Note: the dictionaries have already been written by this point and the schema should
     /// be populated with the dictionary lengths/offsets
-    async fn store_schema(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
-        schema: &Schema,
-    ) -> Result<Option<usize>>;
+    async fn store_schema(object_writer: &mut dyn Writer, schema: &Schema)
+    -> Result<Option<usize>>;
 }
 
 /// Implementation of ManifestProvider that does not store the schema
@@ -60,7 +58,7 @@ pub(crate) struct NotSelfDescribing {}
 #[cfg(test)]
 #[async_trait]
 impl ManifestProvider for NotSelfDescribing {
-    async fn store_schema(_: &mut ObjectWriter, _: &Schema) -> Result<Option<usize>> {
+    async fn store_schema(_: &mut dyn Writer, _: &Schema) -> Result<Option<usize>> {
         Ok(None)
     }
 }
@@ -79,7 +77,7 @@ impl ManifestProvider for NotSelfDescribing {
 /// file_writer.shutdown();
 /// ```
 pub struct FileWriter<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> {
-    pub object_writer: ObjectWriter,
+    pub object_writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
     schema: Schema,
     batch_id: i32,
     page_table: PageTable,
@@ -109,7 +107,7 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
     }
 
     pub fn with_object_writer(
-        object_writer: ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
         schema: Schema,
         options: &FileWriterOptions,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
@@ -145,7 +143,10 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
 
     fn verify_field_nullability(arr: &ArrayData, field: &Field) -> Result<()> {
         if !field.nullable && arr.null_count() > 0 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("The field `{}` contained null values even though the field is marked non-null in the schema", field.name), location!()));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "The field `{}` contained null values even though the field is marked non-null in the schema",
+                field.name
+            )));
         }
 
         for (child_field, child_arr) in field.children.iter().zip(arr.child_data()) {
@@ -204,16 +205,16 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
                 .iter()
                 .map(|batch| {
                     batch.column_by_name(&field.name).ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!("FileWriter::write: Field '{}' not found", field.name),
-                            location!(),
-                        )
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "FileWriter::write: Field '{}' not found",
+                            field.name
+                        ))
                     })
                 })
                 .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
 
             Self::write_array(
-                &mut self.object_writer,
+                self.object_writer.as_mut(),
                 field,
                 &arrs,
                 self.batch_id,
@@ -244,23 +245,29 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
     pub async fn finish_with_metadata(
         &mut self,
         metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
-    ) -> Result<usize> {
+    ) -> Result<FileWriteSummary> {
         self.schema
             .metadata
             .extend(metadata.iter().map(|(k, y)| (k.clone(), y.clone())));
         self.finish().await
     }
 
-    pub async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<usize> {
+    pub async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<FileWriteSummary> {
         self.write_footer().await?;
-        self.object_writer.shutdown().await?;
+        // `shutdown` flushes the footer and reports the authoritative on-disk
+        // byte count, so the size is sourced here instead of via a later
+        // `tell()` that would rely on the cursor surviving shutdown.
+        let write_result = Writer::shutdown(self.object_writer.as_mut()).await?;
         let num_rows = self
             .metadata
             .batch_offsets
             .last()
             .cloned()
             .unwrap_or_default();
-        Ok(num_rows as usize)
+        Ok(FileWriteSummary {
+            num_rows: num_rows as u64,
+            size_bytes: write_result.size as u64,
+        })
     }
 
     /// Total records written in this file.
@@ -284,7 +291,7 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
 
     #[async_recursion]
     async fn write_array(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: &mut dyn Writer,
         field: &Field,
         arrs: &[&ArrayRef],
         batch_id: i32,
@@ -377,15 +384,14 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
                 )
                 .await
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::Schema {
-                message: format!("FileWriter::write: unsupported data type: {data_type}"),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::schema(format!(
+                "FileWriter::write: unsupported data type: {data_type}"
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
     async fn write_null_array(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: &mut dyn Writer,
         field: &Field,
         arrs: &[&dyn Array],
         batch_id: i32,
@@ -399,7 +405,7 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
 
     /// Write fixed size array, including, primtiives, fixed size binary, and fixed size list.
     async fn write_fixed_stride_array(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: &mut dyn Writer,
         field: &Field,
         arrs: &[&dyn Array],
         batch_id: i32,
@@ -419,7 +425,7 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
 
     /// Write var-length binary arrays.
     async fn write_binary_array(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: &mut dyn Writer,
         field: &Field,
         arrs: &[&dyn Array],
         batch_id: i32,
@@ -435,7 +441,7 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
     }
 
     async fn write_dictionary_arr(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: &mut dyn Writer,
         field: &Field,
         arrs: &[&dyn Array],
         key_type: &DataType,
@@ -455,7 +461,7 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
 
     #[async_recursion]
     async fn write_struct_array(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: &mut dyn Writer,
         field: &Field,
         arrays: &[&StructArray],
         batch_id: i32,
@@ -470,14 +476,11 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
             for struct_array in arrays {
                 let arr = struct_array
                     .column_by_name(&child.name)
-                    .ok_or(Error::Schema {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "FileWriter: schema mismatch: column {} does not exist in array: {:?}",
-                            child.name,
-                            struct_array.data_type()
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
+                    .ok_or(Error::schema(format!(
+                        "FileWriter: schema mismatch: column {} does not exist in array: {:?}",
+                        child.name,
+                        struct_array.data_type()
+                    )))?;
                 arrs.push(arr);
             }
             Self::write_array(object_writer, child, arrs.as_slice(), batch_id, page_table).await?;
@@ -486,7 +489,7 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
     }
 
     async fn write_list_array(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: &mut dyn Writer,
         field: &Field,
         arrs: &[&dyn Array],
         batch_id: i32,
@@ -534,7 +537,7 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
     }
 
     async fn write_large_list_array(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: &mut dyn Writer,
         field: &Field,
         arrs: &[&dyn Array],
         batch_id: i32,
@@ -597,7 +600,7 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
                 let mut stats_page_table = PageTable::default();
                 for (i, field) in schema.fields.iter().enumerate() {
                     Self::write_array(
-                        &mut self.object_writer,
+                        self.object_writer.as_mut(),
                         field,
                         &[stats_batch.column(i)],
                         0, // Only one batch for statistics.
@@ -606,8 +609,9 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
                     .await?;
                 }
 
-                let page_table_position =
-                    stats_page_table.write(&mut self.object_writer, 0).await?;
+                let page_table_position = stats_page_table
+                    .write(self.object_writer.as_mut(), 0)
+                    .await?;
 
                 Ok(Some(StatisticsMetadata {
                     schema,
@@ -620,67 +624,12 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Writes the dictionaries (using plain/binary encoding) into the file
-    ///
-    /// The offsets and lengths of the written buffers are stored in the given
-    /// schema so that the dictionaries can be loaded in the future.
-    async fn write_dictionaries(writer: &mut ObjectWriter, schema: &mut Schema) -> Result<()> {
-        // Write dictionary values.
-        let max_field_id = schema.max_field_id().unwrap_or(-1);
-        for field_id in 0..max_field_id + 1 {
-            if let Some(field) = schema.mut_field_by_id(field_id) {
-                if field.data_type().is_dictionary() {
-                    let dict_info = field.dictionary.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::io(
-                            format!("Lance field {} misses dictionary info", field.name),
-                            // and wrap it in here.
-                            location!(),
-                        )
-                    })?;
-
-                    let value_arr = dict_info.values.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!(
-                        "Lance field {} is dictionary type, but misses the dictionary value array",
-                        field.name),
-                            location!(),
-                        )
-                    })?;
-
-                    let data_type = value_arr.data_type();
-                    let pos = match data_type {
-                        dt if dt.is_numeric() => {
-                            let mut encoder = PlainEncoder::new(writer, dt);
-                            encoder.encode(&[value_arr]).await?
-                        }
-                        dt if dt.is_binary_like() => {
-                            let mut encoder = BinaryEncoder::new(writer);
-                            encoder.encode(&[value_arr]).await?
-                        }
-                        _ => {
-                            return Err(Error::schema(
-                                format!(
-                                    "Does not support {} as dictionary value type",
-                                    value_arr.data_type()
-                                ),
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
-                        }
-                    };
-                    dict_info.offset = pos;
-                    dict_info.length = value_arr.len();
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
     async fn write_footer(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
         // Step 1. Write page table.
         let field_id_offset = *self.schema.field_ids().iter().min().unwrap();
         let pos = self
             .page_table
-            .write(&mut self.object_writer, field_id_offset)
+            .write(self.object_writer.as_mut(), field_id_offset)
             .await?;
         self.metadata.page_table_position = pos;
 
@@ -688,8 +637,8 @@ impl<M: ManifestProvider + Send + Sync> FileWriter<M> {
         self.metadata.stats_metadata = self.write_statistics().await?;
 
         // Step 3. Write manifest and dictionary values.
-        Self::write_dictionaries(&mut self.object_writer, &mut self.schema).await?;
-        let pos = M::store_schema(&mut self.object_writer, &self.schema).await?;
+        write_schema_dictionaries(self.object_writer.as_mut(), &mut self.schema).await?;
+        let pos = M::store_schema(self.object_writer.as_mut(), &self.schema).await?;
 
         // Step 4. Write metadata.
         self.metadata.manifest_position = pos;
@@ -749,11 +698,11 @@ mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     use arrow_array::{
-        types::UInt32Type, BooleanArray, Decimal128Array, Decimal256Array, DictionaryArray,
-        DurationMicrosecondArray, DurationMillisecondArray, DurationNanosecondArray,
-        DurationSecondArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array,
-        Int64Array, ListArray, NullArray, StringArray, TimestampMicrosecondArray,
-        TimestampSecondArray, UInt8Array,
+        BooleanArray, Decimal128Array, Decimal256Array, DictionaryArray, DurationMicrosecondArray,
+        DurationMillisecondArray, DurationNanosecondArray, DurationSecondArray,
+        FixedSizeBinaryArray, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, ListArray,
+        NullArray, StringArray, TimestampMicrosecondArray, TimestampSecondArray, UInt8Array,
+        types::UInt32Type,
     };
     use arrow_buffer::i256;
     use arrow_schema::{
@@ -761,7 +710,7 @@ mod tests {
     };
     use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
 
-    use crate::previous::reader::FileReader;
+    use crate::versions::v1::reader::FileReader;
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_write_file() {
@@ -1033,6 +982,37 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(actual, batch);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_empty_non_nullable_string() {
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "value",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let path = Path::from("/empty");
+        let mut file_writer = FileWriter::<NotSelfDescribing>::try_new(
+            &store,
+            &path,
+            schema.clone(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        file_writer
+            .write(&[RecordBatch::new_empty(arrow_schema)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let summary = file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(summary.num_rows, 0);
+
+        let reader = FileReader::try_new(&store, &path, schema).await.unwrap();
+        let actual = reader.read_batch(0, .., reader.schema()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual.num_rows(), 0);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_collect_stats() {
         // Validate:
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/writer/statistics.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/writer/statistics.rs
similarity index 88%
rename from rust/lance-file/src/previous/writer/statistics.rs
rename to rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/writer/statistics.rs
index 48f4531dda5..7a013abd635 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/previous/writer/statistics.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v1/writer/statistics.rs
@@ -8,26 +8,26 @@ use std::collections::BTreeMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    builder::{make_builder, ArrayBuilder, BooleanBuilder, PrimitiveBuilder},
+    Array, ArrayRef, ArrowNumericType, ArrowPrimitiveType, OffsetSizeTrait, PrimitiveArray,
+    RecordBatch, StructArray,
+    builder::{ArrayBuilder, BooleanBuilder, PrimitiveBuilder, make_builder},
     builder::{GenericBinaryBuilder, GenericStringBuilder},
-    cast::{as_generic_binary_array, as_primitive_array, AsArray},
+    cast::{AsArray, as_generic_binary_array, as_primitive_array},
     types::{
         ArrowDictionaryKeyType, Date32Type, Date64Type, Decimal128Type, DurationMicrosecondType,
         DurationMillisecondType, DurationNanosecondType, DurationSecondType, Float32Type,
-        Float64Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, Int8Type, Time32MillisecondType,
+        Float64Type, Int8Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, Time32MillisecondType,
         Time32SecondType, Time64MicrosecondType, Time64NanosecondType, TimestampMicrosecondType,
-        TimestampMillisecondType, TimestampNanosecondType, TimestampSecondType, UInt16Type,
-        UInt32Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type,
+        TimestampMillisecondType, TimestampNanosecondType, TimestampSecondType, UInt8Type,
+        UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type,
     },
-    Array, ArrayRef, ArrowNumericType, ArrowPrimitiveType, OffsetSizeTrait, PrimitiveArray,
-    RecordBatch, StructArray,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema, TimeUnit};
 use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
-use lance_arrow::{as_fixed_size_binary_array, DataTypeExt};
-use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema};
+use lance_arrow::{DataTypeExt, as_fixed_size_binary_array};
 use lance_core::Result;
-use num_traits::{bounds::Bounded, Float, Zero};
+use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema};
+use num_traits::{Float, Zero, bounds::Bounded};
 use std::str;
 
 /// Max number of bytes that are included in statistics for binary columns.
@@ -642,8 +642,10 @@ impl StatisticsCollector {
             let max_value = Arc::new(builder.max_value.finish());
             let struct_fields = vec![
                 ArrowField::new("null_count", DataType::Int64, false),
-                ArrowField::new("min_value", field.data_type(), field.nullable),
-                ArrowField::new("max_value", field.data_type(), field.nullable),
+                // Bounds can be absent for empty pages regardless of the data field's
+                // nullability.
+                ArrowField::new("min_value", field.data_type(), true),
+                ArrowField::new("max_value", field.data_type(), true),
             ];
 
             let stats = StructArray::new(
@@ -930,14 +932,15 @@ impl StatisticsBuilder {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use arrow_array::{
-        builder::StringDictionaryBuilder, make_array, new_empty_array, new_null_array, BinaryArray,
-        BooleanArray, Date32Array, Date64Array, Datum, Decimal128Array, DictionaryArray,
-        DurationMicrosecondArray, DurationMillisecondArray, DurationNanosecondArray,
-        DurationSecondArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int16Array,
-        Int32Array, Int64Array, Int8Array, LargeBinaryArray, LargeStringArray, StringArray,
-        Time32MillisecondArray, Time32SecondArray, Time64MicrosecondArray, Time64NanosecondArray,
-        TimestampMicrosecondArray, TimestampMillisecondArray, TimestampNanosecondArray,
-        TimestampSecondArray, UInt16Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
+        BinaryArray, BooleanArray, Date32Array, Date64Array, Datum, Decimal128Array,
+        DictionaryArray, DurationMicrosecondArray, DurationMillisecondArray,
+        DurationNanosecondArray, DurationSecondArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, Float32Array,
+        Float64Array, Int8Array, Int16Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, LargeBinaryArray,
+        LargeStringArray, StringArray, Time32MillisecondArray, Time32SecondArray,
+        Time64MicrosecondArray, Time64NanosecondArray, TimestampMicrosecondArray,
+        TimestampMillisecondArray, TimestampNanosecondArray, TimestampSecondArray, UInt8Array,
+        UInt16Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array, builder::StringDictionaryBuilder, make_array,
+        new_empty_array, new_null_array,
     };
     use arrow_select::interleave::interleave;
     use num_traits::One;
@@ -1385,213 +1388,209 @@ mod tests {
             stats: StatisticsRow,
         }
 
-        let cases: [TestCase; 13] =
-            [
-                // StringArray
-                // Whole strings are used if short enough
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![
-                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("foo"), None, Some("bar")])),
-                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["yee", "haw"])),
-                    ],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 1,
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::from("bar"),
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::from("yee"),
-                    },
+        let cases: [TestCase; 13] = [
+            // StringArray
+            // Whole strings are used if short enough
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("foo"), None, Some("bar")])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["yee", "haw"])),
+                ],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 1,
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::from("bar"),
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::from("yee"),
                 },
-                // Prefixes are used if strings are too long. Multi-byte characters are
-                // not split.
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
-                        format!("{}{}", filler, "bacteriologists🧑‍🔬"),
-                        format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planet"),
-                    ]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        // Bacteriologists is just 15 bytes, but the next character is multi-byte
-                        // so we truncate before.
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::from(
-                            format!("{}{}", filler, "bacteriologists").as_str(),
-                        ),
-                        // Increment the last character to make sure it's greater than max value
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::from(
-                            format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planf").as_str(),
-                        ),
-                    },
+            },
+            // Prefixes are used if strings are too long. Multi-byte characters are
+            // not split.
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    format!("{}{}", filler, "bacteriologists🧑‍🔬"),
+                    format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planet"),
+                ]))],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    // Bacteriologists is just 15 bytes, but the next character is multi-byte
+                    // so we truncate before.
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::from(
+                        format!("{}{}", filler, "bacteriologists").as_str(),
+                    ),
+                    // Increment the last character to make sure it's greater than max value
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::from(
+                        format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planf").as_str(),
+                    ),
                 },
-                // Sting is not incremented if it's exact length of the limit
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![format!(
-                        "{}{}",
-                        filler, "terrestial planf"
-                    )]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::from(
-                            format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planf").as_str(),
-                        ),
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::from(
-                            format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planf").as_str(),
-                        ),
-                    },
+            },
+            // Sting is not incremented if it's exact length of the limit
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![format!(
+                    "{}{}",
+                    filler, "terrestial planf"
+                )]))],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::from(
+                        format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planf").as_str(),
+                    ),
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::from(
+                        format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planf").as_str(),
+                    ),
                 },
-                // LargeStringArray
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![
-                        Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(vec![Some("foo"), None, Some("bar")])),
-                        Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(vec!["yee", "haw"])),
-                    ],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 1,
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("bar".to_string())),
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("yee".to_string())),
-                    },
+            },
+            // LargeStringArray
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![
+                    Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(vec![Some("foo"), None, Some("bar")])),
+                    Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(vec!["yee", "haw"])),
+                ],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 1,
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("bar".to_string())),
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("yee".to_string())),
                 },
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(vec![
-                        format!("{}{}", filler, "bacteriologists🧑‍🔬"),
-                        format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planet"),
-                    ]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        // Bacteriologists is just 15 bytes, but the next character is multi-byte
-                        // so we truncate before.
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(format!(
-                            "{}{}",
-                            filler, "bacteriologists"
-                        ))),
-                        // Increment the last character to make sure it's greater than max value
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(format!(
-                            "{}{}",
-                            filler, "terrestial planf"
-                        ))),
-                    },
+            },
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(vec![
+                    format!("{}{}", filler, "bacteriologists🧑‍🔬"),
+                    format!("{}{}", filler, "terrestial planet"),
+                ]))],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    // Bacteriologists is just 15 bytes, but the next character is multi-byte
+                    // so we truncate before.
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(format!(
+                        "{}{}",
+                        filler, "bacteriologists"
+                    ))),
+                    // Increment the last character to make sure it's greater than max value
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(format!(
+                        "{}{}",
+                        filler, "terrestial planf"
+                    ))),
                 },
-                // Sting is not incremented if it's exact length of the limit
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(vec![format!(
+            },
+            // Sting is not incremented if it's exact length of the limit
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(vec![format!(
+                    "{}{}",
+                    filler, "terrestial planf"
+                )]))],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(format!(
                         "{}{}",
                         filler, "terrestial planf"
-                    )]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(format!(
-                            "{}{}",
-                            filler, "terrestial planf"
-                        ))),
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(format!(
-                            "{}{}",
-                            filler, "terrestial planf"
-                        ))),
-                    },
+                    ))),
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(format!(
+                        "{}{}",
+                        filler, "terrestial planf"
+                    ))),
                 },
-                // BinaryArray
-                // If not truncated max value exists (in the edge case where the value is
-                // 0xFF up until the limit), just return null as max.)
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(vec![vec![
-                        0xFFu8;
-                        BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH
-                            + 5
-                    ]
-                    .as_ref()]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        // We can truncate the minimum value, since the prefix is less than the full value
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::Binary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
-                        // We can't truncate the max value, so we return None
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::Binary(None),
-                    },
+            },
+            // BinaryArray
+            // If not truncated max value exists (in the edge case where the value is
+            // 0xFF up until the limit), just return null as max.)
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(vec![
+                    vec![0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH + 5].as_ref(),
+                ]))],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    // We can truncate the minimum value, since the prefix is less than the full value
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::Binary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
+                    // We can't truncate the max value, so we return None
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::Binary(None),
                 },
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(vec![
-                        vec![0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH].as_ref(),
-                    ]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::Binary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::Binary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
-                    },
+            },
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(vec![
+                    vec![0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH].as_ref(),
+                ]))],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::Binary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::Binary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
                 },
-                // LargeBinaryArray
-                // If not truncated max value exists (in the edge case where the value is
-                // 0xFF up until the limit), just return null as max.)
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![vec![
-                        0xFFu8;
-                        BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH
-                            + 5
-                    ]
-                    .as_ref()]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        // We can truncate the minimum value, since the prefix is less than the full value
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
-                        // We can't truncate the max value, so we return None
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::LargeBinary(None),
-                    },
+            },
+            // LargeBinaryArray
+            // If not truncated max value exists (in the edge case where the value is
+            // 0xFF up until the limit), just return null as max.)
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![
+                    vec![0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH + 5].as_ref(),
+                ]))],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    // We can truncate the minimum value, since the prefix is less than the full value
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
+                    // We can't truncate the max value, so we return None
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::LargeBinary(None),
                 },
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![
-                        vec![0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH].as_ref(),
-                    ]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        // We can truncate the minimum value, since the prefix is less than the full value
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
-                    },
+            },
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![
+                    vec![0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH].as_ref(),
+                ]))],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    // We can truncate the minimum value, since the prefix is less than the full value
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(min_binary_value.clone())),
                 },
-                // FixedSizeBinaryArray
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(FixedSizeBinaryArray::from(vec![
-                        Some(vec![0, 1].as_slice()),
-                        Some(vec![2, 3].as_slice()),
-                        Some(vec![4, 5].as_slice()),
-                        Some(vec![6, 7].as_slice()),
-                        Some(vec![8, 9].as_slice()),
-                    ]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(2, Some(vec![0, 1])),
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(2, Some(vec![8, 9])),
-                    },
+            },
+            // FixedSizeBinaryArray
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_iter(
+                        [[0u8, 1], [2, 3], [4, 5], [6, 7], [8, 9]].into_iter(),
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                )],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(2, Some(vec![0, 1])),
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(2, Some(vec![8, 9])),
                 },
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(FixedSizeBinaryArray::from(vec![
-                        min_binary_value.as_slice(),
-                    ]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(
-                            BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH.try_into().unwrap(),
-                            Some(min_binary_value.clone()),
-                        ),
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(
-                            BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH.try_into().unwrap(),
-                            Some(min_binary_value),
-                        ),
-                    },
+            },
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_iter([min_binary_value.as_slice()].into_iter())
+                        .unwrap(),
+                )],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(
+                        BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH.try_into().unwrap(),
+                        Some(min_binary_value.clone()),
+                    ),
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(
+                        BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH.try_into().unwrap(),
+                        Some(min_binary_value),
+                    ),
                 },
-                TestCase {
-                    source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(FixedSizeBinaryArray::from(vec![
-                        &[0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH + 7],
-                    ]))],
-                    stats: StatisticsRow {
-                        null_count: 0,
-                        min_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(
-                            (BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH + 7).try_into().unwrap(),
-                            Some(vec![0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH]),
-                        ),
-                        // We can't truncate the max value, so we return None
-                        max_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(
-                            (BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH).try_into().unwrap(),
-                            None,
-                        ),
-                    },
+            },
+            TestCase {
+                source_arrays: vec![Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_iter(
+                        [[0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH + 7]].into_iter(),
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                )],
+                stats: StatisticsRow {
+                    null_count: 0,
+                    min_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(
+                        (BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH + 7).try_into().unwrap(),
+                        Some(vec![0xFFu8; BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH]),
+                    ),
+                    // We can't truncate the max value, so we return None
+                    max_value: ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(
+                        (BINARY_PREFIX_LENGTH).try_into().unwrap(),
+                        None,
+                    ),
                 },
-            ];
+            },
+        ];
 
         for case in cases {
             let array_refs = case.source_arrays.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
@@ -2041,8 +2040,8 @@ mod tests {
 
     // Property 2: The min and max should always be less than / greater than
     // all values in the array respectively.
-    fn assert_min_max_ordering_float<F: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-    ) -> std::result::Result<(), TestCaseError>
+    fn assert_min_max_ordering_float<F: ArrowPrimitiveType>()
+    -> std::result::Result<(), TestCaseError>
     where
         F::Native: Float,
     {
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_0/mod.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_0/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..83efef58289
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_0/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,164 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Lance v2.0 file composition.
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::{
+    Result,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    decoder::PageInfo,
+    encoder::{ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy, EncodedBatch, FieldEncodingStrategy},
+};
+use lance_io::traits::Writer as ObjectWriter;
+
+use crate::{reader::ReadProjection, writer::FileWriterOptions};
+
+mod reader;
+mod writer;
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(crate) use reader::test_projection_length;
+pub(crate) use reader::{
+    decode_column_metadata, finish_metadata, finish_metadata_index, validate_global_buffers,
+};
+pub use reader::{
+    projection_from_column_names, projection_from_field_ids, projection_from_whole_schema,
+};
+pub use writer::Writer;
+
+pub(crate) fn read_projection() -> Arc<dyn ReadProjection> {
+    reader::read_projection()
+}
+
+/// Count physical columns represented by a field in a v2.0 footer.
+pub fn physical_column_count(field: &Field) -> usize {
+    if field.is_blob() || field.is_packed_struct() {
+        1
+    } else {
+        1 + field
+            .children
+            .iter()
+            .map(physical_column_count)
+            .sum::<usize>()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build persisted field-to-column entries for a v2.0 data file.
+pub fn data_file_columns(schema: &Schema) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
+    let mut field_ids = Vec::new();
+    let mut column_indices = Vec::new();
+    append_physical_fields(&schema.fields, &mut field_ids, &mut column_indices, &mut 0);
+    (field_ids, column_indices)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn field_id_to_column_index(schema: &Schema) -> BTreeMap<u32, u32> {
+    let (field_ids, column_indices) = data_file_columns(schema);
+    field_ids
+        .into_iter()
+        .zip(column_indices)
+        .map(|(field_id, column_index)| (field_id as u32, column_index as u32))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn append_physical_fields(
+    fields: &[Field],
+    field_ids: &mut Vec<i32>,
+    column_indices: &mut Vec<i32>,
+    next_column: &mut i32,
+) {
+    for field in fields {
+        field_ids.push(field.id);
+        column_indices.push(*next_column);
+        *next_column += 1;
+        if !field.is_blob() && !field.is_packed_struct() {
+            append_physical_fields(&field.children, field_ids, column_indices, next_column);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn is_external_metadata_structural_header(
+    fields: &[Field],
+    target_column: usize,
+    next_column: &mut usize,
+) -> Option<bool> {
+    for field in fields {
+        if *next_column == target_column {
+            return Some(field.logical_type.is_struct() && !field.is_packed_struct());
+        }
+        *next_column += 1;
+        if !field.is_blob()
+            && !field.is_packed_struct()
+            && let Some(is_header) =
+                is_external_metadata_structural_header(&field.children, target_column, next_column)
+        {
+            return Some(is_header);
+        }
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+pub(super) fn should_copy_external_metadata_column(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_index: usize,
+    has_existing_pages: bool,
+) -> bool {
+    let mut next_column = 0;
+    let is_header =
+        is_external_metadata_structural_header(&schema.fields, column_index, &mut next_column)
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+    !is_header || !has_existing_pages
+}
+
+pub(super) fn finalize_external_metadata_column(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_index: usize,
+    pages: &mut Vec<PageInfo>,
+    num_rows: u64,
+) {
+    let mut next_column = 0;
+    let is_header =
+        is_external_metadata_structural_header(&schema.fields, column_index, &mut next_column)
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+    if is_header && !pages.is_empty() {
+        pages[0].num_rows = num_rows;
+        pages[0].priority = 0;
+        pages.truncate(1);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compose the v2.0 field encoding mechanisms.
+pub fn encoding_strategy() -> Arc<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy> {
+    Arc::new(ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::new())
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.0 writer with an explicit schema.
+pub fn create_writer(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    schema: Schema,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Result<Writer> {
+    Writer::try_new(object_writer, schema, options)
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.0 writer whose schema is inferred from the first batch.
+pub fn create_lazy_writer(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Writer {
+    Writer::new_lazy(object_writer, options)
+}
+
+/// Encode a self-described v2.0 batch.
+pub fn encode_self_described_batch(batch: &EncodedBatch) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    writer::concat_lance_footer(batch, true)
+}
+
+/// Encode a mini-lance v2.0 batch.
+pub fn encode_mini_batch(batch: &EncodedBatch) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    writer::concat_lance_footer(batch, false)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_0/reader.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_0/reader.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f54c972f43b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_0/reader.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,415 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    cache::LanceCache,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    EncodingsIo,
+    decoder::{ColumnInfo, PageEncoding, PageInfo},
+    format::pb,
+};
+use prost::{Message, Name};
+
+use crate::{
+    format::pbfile,
+    reader::{
+        BufferDescriptor, CachedFileMetadata, FileMetadataIndex, FileMetadataProvider, FileReader,
+        PreparedProjection, RawFileMetadata, ReadProjection, ReaderProjection,
+        normalized_column_num_rows, verify_uniform_lengths,
+    },
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+};
+
+fn fetch_encoding<M: Default + Name + Sized>(encoding: &pbfile::Encoding) -> Result<M> {
+    match &encoding.location {
+        Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Indirect(_)) => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Indirect file encodings are not supported".into(),
+        )),
+        Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(encoding)) => {
+            let envelope = prost_types::Any::decode(Bytes::from(encoding.encoding.clone()))
+                .map_err(|error| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Invalid direct {} encoding envelope: {error}", M::NAME).into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            envelope.to_msg::<M>().map_err(|error| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Invalid direct {} encoding: {error}", M::NAME).into(),
+                )
+            })
+        }
+        Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::None(_)) => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Missing {} encoding description", M::NAME).into(),
+        )),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Missing {} encoding location", M::NAME).into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn decode_column(
+    column_index: u32,
+    metadata: &pbfile::ColumnMetadata,
+) -> Result<Arc<ColumnInfo>> {
+    let page_infos = metadata
+        .pages
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(page_index, page)| {
+            let array_encoding =
+                fetch_encoding::<pb::ArrayEncoding>(page.encoding.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Column {} page {} is missing its encoding",
+                            column_index, page_index
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?)?;
+            if page.buffer_offsets.len() != page.buffer_sizes.len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Column {} page {} has {} buffer offsets but {} buffer sizes",
+                        column_index,
+                        page_index,
+                        page.buffer_offsets.len(),
+                        page.buffer_sizes.len()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let buffer_offsets_and_sizes = Arc::from(
+                page.buffer_offsets
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(&page.buffer_sizes)
+                    .map(|(offset, size)| (*offset, *size))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+            Ok(PageInfo {
+                buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
+                encoding: PageEncoding::Legacy(array_encoding),
+                num_rows: page.length,
+                priority: page.priority,
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+    if metadata.buffer_offsets.len() != metadata.buffer_sizes.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "Column {} has {} buffer offsets but {} buffer sizes",
+                column_index,
+                metadata.buffer_offsets.len(),
+                metadata.buffer_sizes.len()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let buffer_offsets_and_sizes = Arc::from(
+        metadata
+            .buffer_offsets
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&metadata.buffer_sizes)
+            .map(|(offset, size)| (*offset, *size))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    );
+    Ok(Arc::new(ColumnInfo {
+        index: column_index,
+        page_infos: Arc::from(page_infos),
+        buffer_offsets_and_sizes,
+        encoding: fetch_encoding(metadata.encoding.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Column {} is missing its encoding", column_index).into(),
+            )
+        })?)?,
+    }))
+}
+
+pub fn decode_column_metadata(
+    column_metadatas: &[pbfile::ColumnMetadata],
+) -> Result<Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>> {
+    column_metadatas
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(column_index, metadata)| {
+            let column_index = u32::try_from(column_index).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("File has more than u32::MAX columns".into())
+            })?;
+            decode_column(column_index, metadata)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+pub async fn prepare_projection(
+    metadata_provider: &FileMetadataProvider,
+    projection: &ReaderProjection,
+    _io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+    _cache: &Arc<LanceCache>,
+) -> Result<PreparedProjection> {
+    match metadata_provider {
+        FileMetadataProvider::Full(metadata) => {
+            FileReader::validate_projection(projection, metadata)?;
+            Ok(PreparedProjection {
+                column_infos: metadata.column_infos.clone(),
+                decoder_projection: projection.clone(),
+            })
+        }
+        FileMetadataProvider::Indexed(metadata_index) => {
+            FileMetadataProvider::validate_indexed_projection_structure(
+                projection,
+                metadata_index,
+            )?;
+            Err(FileMetadataProvider::indexed_projection_error(
+                projection,
+                metadata_index,
+            ))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn field_column_shape(field: &Field) -> (bool, bool) {
+    if field.is_blob() || field.is_packed_struct() {
+        return (true, false);
+    }
+    (true, !field.children.is_empty())
+}
+
+fn append_field_ids(
+    fields: &[Field],
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+    column_indices: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) {
+    for field in fields {
+        let (contributes, recurse) = field_column_shape(field);
+        if contributes
+            && let Some(column_index) = field_id_to_column_index.get(&(field.id as u32)).copied()
+        {
+            column_indices.push(column_index);
+        }
+        if recurse {
+            append_field_ids(&field.children, field_id_to_column_index, column_indices);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_field_ids(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+) -> ReaderProjection {
+    let mut column_indices = Vec::new();
+    append_field_ids(
+        &schema.fields,
+        field_id_to_column_index,
+        &mut column_indices,
+    );
+    ReaderProjection {
+        schema: Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+        column_indices,
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_whole_schema(schema: &Schema) -> ReaderProjection {
+    projection_from_field_ids(schema, &super::field_id_to_column_index(schema))
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_column_names(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_names: &[&str],
+) -> Result<ReaderProjection> {
+    let field_id_to_column_index = super::field_id_to_column_index(schema);
+    let projected = schema.project(column_names)?;
+    Ok(projection_from_field_ids(
+        &projected,
+        &field_id_to_column_index,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn children_share_parent_length(field: &Field) -> bool {
+    field.logical_type.is_struct()
+}
+
+fn validate_field_length<F: Fn(usize) -> Result<u64>>(
+    field: &Field,
+    comparable: bool,
+    column_indices: &[u32],
+    cursor: &mut usize,
+    column_len: &F,
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    let (contributes, recurse) = field_column_shape(field);
+    let mut field_rows = None;
+    if contributes {
+        let column = *column_indices.get(*cursor).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "projection supplied fewer column indices than its fields require (ran out at field '{}')",
+                field.name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        *cursor += 1;
+        field_rows = Some(column_len(column as usize)?);
+    }
+    if recurse {
+        let enforce_children = comparable && children_share_parent_length(field);
+        for child in &field.children {
+            let child_rows =
+                validate_field_length(child, enforce_children, column_indices, cursor, column_len)?;
+            let expected = *field_rows.get_or_insert(child_rows);
+            if enforce_children && child_rows != expected {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cannot read field '{}': its children have differing lengths (child '{}' has {} rows, but the field has {}); a struct's children must all have the same length",
+                    field.name, child.name, child_rows, expected
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    field_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "projected field '{}' maps to no columns",
+            field.name
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn prepared_read_length(prepared: &PreparedProjection) -> Result<u64> {
+    let column_len = |column: usize| {
+        let info = prepared.column_infos.get(column).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "projection references column index {} but only {} columns are available",
+                column,
+                prepared.column_infos.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        normalized_column_num_rows(info)
+    };
+    let mut cursor = 0;
+    let mut field_lengths = Vec::with_capacity(prepared.decoder_projection.schema.fields.len());
+    for field in &prepared.decoder_projection.schema.fields {
+        let rows = validate_field_length(
+            field,
+            true,
+            &prepared.decoder_projection.column_indices,
+            &mut cursor,
+            &column_len,
+        )?;
+        field_lengths.push((field.name.as_str(), rows));
+    }
+    if cursor != prepared.decoder_projection.column_indices.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "projection supplied {} column indices but its fields require {}",
+            prepared.decoder_projection.column_indices.len(),
+            cursor
+        )));
+    }
+    verify_uniform_lengths(&field_lengths)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct V20ReadProjection;
+
+pub(super) fn read_projection() -> Arc<dyn ReadProjection> {
+    Arc::new(V20ReadProjection)
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ReadProjection for V20ReadProjection {
+    fn validate_indexed(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ReaderProjection,
+        metadata_index: &FileMetadataIndex,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        FileMetadataProvider::validate_indexed_projection_structure(projection, metadata_index)?;
+        Err(FileMetadataProvider::indexed_projection_error(
+            projection,
+            metadata_index,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn read_length(&self, prepared: &PreparedProjection) -> Result<u64> {
+        prepared_read_length(prepared)
+    }
+
+    async fn prepare(
+        &self,
+        metadata_provider: &FileMetadataProvider,
+        projection: &ReaderProjection,
+        io: &Arc<dyn EncodingsIo>,
+        cache: &Arc<LanceCache>,
+    ) -> Result<(PreparedProjection, u64)> {
+        let prepared = prepare_projection(metadata_provider, projection, io, cache).await?;
+        let read_len = self.read_length(&prepared)?;
+        Ok((prepared, read_len))
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn finish_metadata(raw: RawFileMetadata) -> Result<CachedFileMetadata> {
+    if !matches!(
+        (raw.footer.major_version, raw.footer.minor_version),
+        (0, 3) | (2, 0)
+    ) {
+        return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+            "Attempt to use the Lance v2.0 reader for a different file version".to_string(),
+            raw.footer.major_version,
+            raw.footer.minor_version,
+        ));
+    }
+    let column_infos = decode_column_metadata(&raw.column_metadatas)?;
+    Ok(CachedFileMetadata {
+        file_schema: raw.file_schema,
+        column_metadatas: raw.column_metadatas,
+        column_infos,
+        num_rows: raw.num_rows,
+        file_buffers: raw.file_buffers,
+        num_data_bytes: raw.num_data_bytes,
+        num_column_metadata_bytes: raw.num_column_metadata_bytes,
+        num_global_buffer_bytes: raw.num_global_buffer_bytes,
+        num_footer_bytes: raw.num_footer_bytes,
+        major_version: raw.footer.major_version,
+        minor_version: raw.footer.minor_version,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+        file_size_bytes: raw.file_size_bytes,
+        retained_global_buffers: raw.retained_global_buffers,
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn validate_global_buffers(_buffers: &[BufferDescriptor]) -> Result<()> {
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn finish_metadata_index(index: FileMetadataIndex) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+    if index.version == ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 {
+        Ok(index)
+    } else {
+        let (major, minor) = index.version.to_standard_footer_numbers();
+        Err(Error::version_conflict(
+            "Attempt to use the Lance v2.0 reader for a different metadata index".to_string(),
+            major,
+            minor,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn test_projection_length(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_indices: &[u32],
+    column_lengths: &[u64],
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    let column_len = |column: usize| {
+        column_lengths.get(column).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("missing synthetic length for column {column}"))
+        })
+    };
+    let mut cursor = 0;
+    let mut field_lengths = Vec::with_capacity(schema.fields.len());
+    for field in &schema.fields {
+        let rows = validate_field_length(field, true, column_indices, &mut cursor, &column_len)?;
+        field_lengths.push((field.name.as_str(), rows));
+    }
+    verify_uniform_lengths(&field_lengths)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_0/writer.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_0/writer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bf03177aa09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_0/writer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,952 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use core::panic;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use bytes::{Buf, BufMut, Bytes, BytesMut};
+use futures::StreamExt;
+use futures::stream::FuturesOrdered;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+use lance_core::utils::bit::pad_bytes;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_encoding::decoder::PageEncoding;
+use lance_encoding::encoder::{
+    ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy, BatchEncoder, EncodeTask, EncodedBatch, EncodedPage,
+    EncodingOptions, FieldEncoder, FieldEncodingStrategy, OutOfLineBuffers,
+};
+use lance_encoding::repdef::RepDefBuilder;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_io::traits::Writer as ObjectWriter;
+use log::{debug, warn};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use prost::Message;
+use prost_types::Any;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWrite;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+use crate::datatypes::FieldsWithMeta;
+use crate::format::MAGIC;
+use crate::format::pb;
+use crate::format::pbfile;
+use crate::format::pbfile::DirectEncoding;
+use crate::writer::{
+    ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, ExpectedTypes, FileWriteSummary, FileWriterOptions,
+    PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
+};
+
+const PAD_BUFFER: [u8; PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT] = [72; PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT];
+// In 2.1+, we split large pages on read instead of write to avoid empty pages
+// and small pages issues. However, we keep the write-time limit at 32MB to avoid
+// potential regressions in 2.0 format readers.
+//
+// This limit is not applied in the 2.1 writer
+const MAX_PAGE_BYTES: usize = 32 * 1024 * 1024;
+// Total in-memory budget for buffering serialized page metadata before flushing
+// to the spill file. Divided evenly across columns (with a floor of 64 bytes).
+const DEFAULT_SPILL_BUFFER_LIMIT: usize = 256 * 1024;
+
+/// Spills serialized page metadata to a temporary file to bound memory usage.
+///
+/// The spill file is an unstructured sequence of "chunks". Each chunk is a
+/// contiguous run of length-delimited protobuf `Page` messages belonging to a
+/// single column. Chunks from different columns are interleaved in the order
+/// they are flushed (i.e. whenever a column's in-memory buffer exceeds
+/// `per_column_limit`). The `column_chunks` index records the (offset, length)
+/// of every chunk so each column's pages can be read back and reassembled in
+/// order.
+struct PageMetadataSpill {
+    writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    path: Path,
+    /// Current write position in the spill file.
+    position: u64,
+    /// Per-column buffer of serialized (length-delimited protobuf) page metadata
+    /// that has not yet been flushed to the spill file.
+    column_buffers: Vec<Vec<u8>>,
+    /// Per-column list of chunks that have been flushed to the spill file.
+    /// Each entry is (offset, length) pointing into the spill file.
+    column_chunks: Vec<Vec<(u64, u32)>>,
+    /// Maximum bytes to buffer per column before flushing to the spill file.
+    per_column_limit: usize,
+}
+
+impl PageMetadataSpill {
+    async fn new(object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path, num_columns: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        let writer = object_store.create(&path).await?;
+        let per_column_limit = (DEFAULT_SPILL_BUFFER_LIMIT / num_columns.max(1)).max(64);
+        Ok(Self {
+            writer,
+            object_store,
+            path,
+            position: 0,
+            column_buffers: vec![Vec::new(); num_columns],
+            column_chunks: vec![Vec::new(); num_columns],
+            per_column_limit,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn append_page(
+        &mut self,
+        column_idx: usize,
+        page: &pbfile::column_metadata::Page,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        page.encode_length_delimited(&mut self.column_buffers[column_idx])
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::new(
+                    std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+                    e,
+                )))
+            })?;
+        if self.column_buffers[column_idx].len() >= self.per_column_limit {
+            self.flush_column(column_idx).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn flush_column(&mut self, column_idx: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        let buf = &self.column_buffers[column_idx];
+        if buf.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let len = buf.len();
+        self.writer.write_all(buf).await?;
+        self.column_chunks[column_idx].push((self.position, len as u32));
+        self.position += len as u64;
+        self.column_buffers[column_idx].clear();
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn shutdown_writer(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        for col_idx in 0..self.column_buffers.len() {
+            self.flush_column(col_idx).await?;
+        }
+        ObjectWriter::shutdown(self.writer.as_mut()).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+fn decode_spilled_chunk(data: &Bytes) -> Result<Vec<pbfile::column_metadata::Page>> {
+    let mut pages = Vec::new();
+    let mut cursor = data.clone();
+    while cursor.has_remaining() {
+        let page =
+            pbfile::column_metadata::Page::decode_length_delimited(&mut cursor).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::new(
+                    std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+                    e,
+                )))
+            })?;
+        pages.push(page);
+    }
+    Ok(pages)
+}
+
+enum PageSpillState {
+    Pending(Arc<ObjectStore>, Path),
+    Active(PageMetadataSpill),
+}
+
+/// A writer for the Lance v2.0 file grammar.
+pub struct Writer {
+    writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    schema: Option<LanceSchema>,
+    expected_types: Option<ExpectedTypes>,
+    column_writers: Vec<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>,
+    column_metadata: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
+    field_id_to_column_indices: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
+    num_columns: u32,
+    rows_written: u64,
+    // The number of rows written for each top-level field (i.e. each entry in
+    // `column_writers`). With `write_batch` every field advances together and
+    // these are all equal, but `write_column` advances one field at a time, so
+    // a single file may end up with columns of differing item counts.
+    field_rows_written: Vec<u64>,
+    global_buffers: Vec<(u64, u64)>,
+    schema_metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    encoding_strategy: Box<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+    page_spill: Option<PageSpillState>,
+}
+
+fn initial_column_metadata() -> pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
+    pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
+        pages: Vec::new(),
+        buffer_offsets: Vec::new(),
+        buffer_sizes: Vec::new(),
+        encoding: None,
+    }
+}
+
+impl Writer {
+    /// Create a new v2.0 writer with a desired output schema.
+    pub fn try_new(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        schema: LanceSchema,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut writer = Self::new_lazy(object_writer, options);
+        writer.initialize(schema)?;
+        Ok(writer)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new v2.0 writer without a desired output schema.
+    ///
+    /// The output schema will be set based on the first batch of data to arrive.
+    /// If no data arrives and the writer is finished then the write will fail.
+    pub fn new_lazy(object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>, options: FileWriterOptions) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            writer: object_writer,
+            schema: None,
+            expected_types: None,
+            column_writers: Vec::new(),
+            column_metadata: Vec::new(),
+            num_columns: 0,
+            rows_written: 0,
+            field_rows_written: Vec::new(),
+            field_id_to_column_indices: Vec::new(),
+            global_buffers: Vec::new(),
+            schema_metadata: HashMap::new(),
+            page_spill: None,
+            encoding_strategy: Box::new(ArrayFieldEncodingStrategy::new()),
+            options,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Spill page metadata to a sidecar file instead of accumulating in memory.
+    ///
+    /// This can dramatically reduce memory usage when many writers are open
+    /// concurrently (e.g. IVF shuffle with thousands of partition writers).
+    /// The sidecar file is created lazily on the first page write. The caller
+    /// is responsible for cleaning up `path` (e.g. by placing it in a temp
+    /// directory that is removed via RAII).
+    pub fn with_page_metadata_spill(mut self, object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path) -> Self {
+        self.page_spill = Some(PageSpillState::Pending(object_store, path));
+        self
+    }
+
+    async fn do_write_buffer(writer: &mut (impl AsyncWrite + Unpin), buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
+        writer.write_all(buf).await?;
+        let pad_bytes = pad_bytes::<PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT>(buf.len());
+        writer.write_all(&PAD_BUFFER[..pad_bytes]).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn write_page(&mut self, encoded_page: EncodedPage) -> Result<()> {
+        let buffers = encoded_page.data;
+        let mut buffer_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(buffers.len());
+        let mut buffer_sizes = Vec::with_capacity(buffers.len());
+        for buffer in buffers {
+            buffer_offsets.push(self.writer.tell().await? as u64);
+            buffer_sizes.push(buffer.len() as u64);
+            Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &buffer).await?;
+        }
+        let encoded_encoding = match encoded_page.description {
+            PageEncoding::Legacy(array_encoding) => Any::from_msg(&array_encoding)?.encode_to_vec(),
+            PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout) => Any::from_msg(&page_layout)?.encode_to_vec(),
+        };
+        let page = pbfile::column_metadata::Page {
+            buffer_offsets,
+            buffer_sizes,
+            encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
+                location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(DirectEncoding {
+                    encoding: encoded_encoding,
+                })),
+            }),
+            length: encoded_page.num_rows,
+            priority: encoded_page.row_number,
+        };
+        let col_idx = encoded_page.column_idx as usize;
+        if matches!(&self.page_spill, Some(PageSpillState::Pending(..))) {
+            let Some(PageSpillState::Pending(store, path)) = self.page_spill.take() else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            self.page_spill = Some(PageSpillState::Active(
+                PageMetadataSpill::new(store, path, self.num_columns as usize).await?,
+            ));
+        }
+        match &mut self.page_spill {
+            Some(PageSpillState::Active(spill)) => spill.append_page(col_idx, &page).await?,
+            None => self.column_metadata[col_idx].pages.push(page),
+            Some(PageSpillState::Pending(..)) => unreachable!(),
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip_all, level = "debug")]
+    async fn write_pages(&mut self, mut encoding_tasks: FuturesOrdered<EncodeTask>) -> Result<()> {
+        // As soon as an encoding task is done we write it.  There is no parallelism
+        // needed here because "writing" is really just submitting the buffer to the
+        // underlying write scheduler (either the OS or object_store's scheduler for
+        // cloud writes).  The only time we might truly await on write_page is if the
+        // scheduler's write queue is full.
+        //
+        // Also, there is no point in trying to make write_page parallel anyways
+        // because we wouldn't want buffers getting mixed up across pages.
+        while let Some(encoding_task) = encoding_tasks.next().await {
+            let encoded_page = encoding_task?;
+            self.write_page(encoded_page).await?;
+        }
+        // Flushing here reaps any upload that has already failed, so the error
+        // is attributed to this batch rather than to whichever later batch or
+        // the shutdown happens to poll the writer next. It does not wait for
+        // in-flight uploads: those are spawned tasks the runtime drives on its
+        // own, and blocking on them would stall the next batch behind them.
+        self.writer.flush().await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Schedule batches of data to be written to the file
+    pub async fn write_batches(
+        &mut self,
+        batches: impl Iterator<Item = &RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        for batch in batches {
+            self.write_batch(batch).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn prepare_field_arrays(
+        &mut self,
+        field_arrays: Vec<(usize, ArrayRef)>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(usize, ArrayRef)>> {
+        field_arrays
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(field_idx, array)| {
+                let array = self.column_writers[field_idx].prepare_array(array)?;
+                Ok((field_idx, array))
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn initialize(&mut self, mut schema: LanceSchema) -> Result<()> {
+        self.options.validate()?;
+        let cache_bytes_per_column = if let Some(data_cache_bytes) = self.options.data_cache_bytes {
+            data_cache_bytes / schema.fields.len() as u64
+        } else {
+            8 * 1024 * 1024
+        };
+
+        let max_page_bytes = self.options.max_page_bytes.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            std::env::var(ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES)
+                .map(|s| {
+                    s.parse::<u64>().unwrap_or_else(|e| {
+                        warn!(
+                            "Failed to parse {}: {}, using default",
+                            ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, e
+                        );
+                        MAX_PAGE_BYTES as u64
+                    })
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(MAX_PAGE_BYTES as u64)
+        });
+
+        schema.validate()?;
+
+        let keep_original_array = self.options.keep_original_array.unwrap_or(false);
+        let encoding_options = EncodingOptions {
+            cache_bytes_per_column,
+            max_page_bytes,
+            keep_original_array,
+            buffer_alignment: PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64,
+        };
+        let encoder =
+            BatchEncoder::try_new(&schema, self.encoding_strategy.as_ref(), &encoding_options)?;
+        self.num_columns = encoder.num_columns();
+
+        self.field_rows_written = vec![0; encoder.field_encoders.len()];
+        self.column_writers = encoder.field_encoders;
+        self.column_metadata = vec![initial_column_metadata(); self.num_columns as usize];
+        self.field_id_to_column_indices = encoder.field_id_to_column_index;
+        self.schema_metadata
+            .extend(std::mem::take(&mut schema.metadata));
+        self.schema = Some(schema);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_initialized(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<&LanceSchema> {
+        if self.schema.is_none() {
+            let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref())?;
+            self.initialize(schema)?;
+        }
+        Ok(self.schema.as_ref().unwrap())
+    }
+
+    fn field_arrays(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Vec<(usize, ArrayRef)>> {
+        self.schema
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(field_idx, field)| {
+                let array =
+                    batch
+                        .column_by_name(&field.name)
+                        .ok_or(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!(
+                                "Cannot write batch.  The batch was missing the column `{}`",
+                                field.name
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        ))?;
+                Ok((field_idx, array.clone()))
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    // Encode a set of `(field index, array)` pairs, each advancing only its own
+    // column. Each task captures its field's current row offset at encode time,
+    // so `advance_columns` must run after this call (never before); the order of
+    // the returned tasks relative to `write_pages` does not matter.
+    fn encode_columns(
+        &mut self,
+        field_arrays: &[(usize, ArrayRef)],
+        external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Vec<EncodeTask>>> {
+        // Snapshot the starting row number of each field before borrowing the
+        // column writers mutably below.
+        let row_numbers = field_arrays
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(field_idx, _)| self.field_rows_written[*field_idx])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        field_arrays
+            .iter()
+            .zip(row_numbers)
+            .map(|((field_idx, array), row_number)| {
+                let repdef = RepDefBuilder::default();
+                let num_rows = array.len() as u64;
+                self.column_writers[*field_idx].maybe_encode(
+                    array.clone(),
+                    external_buffers,
+                    repdef,
+                    row_number,
+                    num_rows,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+    }
+
+    // Advance the per-field row counters after a set of columns has been
+    // written, keeping `rows_written` (the file's logical length) in sync as the
+    // longest column. Only the written fields move, so their new totals fold into
+    // `rows_written` directly without rescanning every field. (`write_batch`
+    // advances every field uniformly and tracks this inline instead.)
+    fn advance_columns(&mut self, field_arrays: &[(usize, ArrayRef)]) {
+        for (field_idx, array) in field_arrays {
+            let new_total = self.field_rows_written[*field_idx] + array.len() as u64;
+            self.field_rows_written[*field_idx] = new_total;
+            self.rows_written = self.rows_written.max(new_total);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Schedule a batch of data to be written to the file
+    ///
+    /// Note: the future returned by this method may complete before the data has been fully
+    /// flushed to the file (some data may be in the data cache or the I/O cache)
+    pub async fn write_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        debug!(
+            "write_batch called with {} rows, {} columns, and {} bytes of data",
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            batch.num_columns(),
+            batch.get_array_memory_size()
+        );
+        self.ensure_initialized(batch)?;
+        let schema = self
+            .schema
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("ensure_initialized sets the schema");
+        self.expected_types
+            .get_or_insert_with(|| ExpectedTypes::new(schema))
+            .check_batch(batch)?;
+        let field_arrays = self.field_arrays(batch)?;
+        let field_arrays = self.prepare_field_arrays(field_arrays)?;
+        let num_rows = batch.num_rows() as u64;
+        if num_rows == 0 {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        if num_rows > u32::MAX as u64 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "cannot write Lance files with more than 2^32 rows".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        // First we push each array into its column writer.  This may or may not generate enough
+        // data to trigger an encoding task.  We collect any encoding tasks into a queue.
+        let mut external_buffers =
+            OutOfLineBuffers::new(self.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
+        let encoding_tasks = self.encode_columns(&field_arrays, &mut external_buffers)?;
+        // Next, write external buffers
+        for external_buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
+            Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &external_buffer).await?;
+        }
+
+        let encoding_tasks = encoding_tasks
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect::<FuturesOrdered<_>>();
+
+        // `write_batch` advances every field by the same amount, so the longest
+        // column simply grows by `num_rows`. Guard against overflowing the row
+        // counter.
+        if self.rows_written.checked_add(num_rows).is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!("cannot write batch with {} rows because {} rows have already been written and Lance files cannot contain more than 2^64 rows", num_rows, self.rows_written).into()));
+        }
+        for field_rows in self.field_rows_written.iter_mut() {
+            *field_rows += num_rows;
+        }
+        self.rows_written += num_rows;
+
+        self.write_pages(encoding_tasks).await?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Write a single column, advancing only that column's row counter.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`write_batch`](Self::write_batch), which advances every column
+    /// from a single shared row counter, this method advances one column
+    /// independently. Used across calls it produces a single file whose columns
+    /// may have different item counts.
+    ///
+    /// `column_index` refers to a top-level field in the writer's schema (the
+    /// same order as the schema's fields); a nested child cannot be targeted on
+    /// its own. Because each call writes the whole field from a single array, the
+    /// children of a struct field always advance together and stay equal-length;
+    /// only different top-level fields can diverge in length. A column may be
+    /// written across multiple calls; its values are appended. A field that is
+    /// never written ends up as a zero-length column. The writer must have been
+    /// created with an explicit schema (via [`try_new`](Self::try_new)); a lazy
+    /// schema cannot be inferred here because individual calls need not cover
+    /// every field.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array};
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # use lance_file::writer::FileWriter;
+    /// # async fn example(writer: &mut FileWriter) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    /// // Field 0 gets three values, field 1 gets one — a non-rectangular file.
+    /// writer.write_column(0, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))).await?;
+    /// writer.write_column(1, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10]))).await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn write_column(&mut self, column_index: usize, array: ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = self.schema.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "write_column requires the writer to be created with an explicit schema".into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if column_index >= schema.fields.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "write_column: field index {} is out of bounds (schema has {} fields)",
+                    column_index,
+                    schema.fields.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if array.len() as u64 > u32::MAX as u64 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "cannot write Lance files with more than 2^32 rows".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.expected_types
+            .get_or_insert_with(|| ExpectedTypes::new(schema))
+            .check_column(column_index, &array)?;
+        let array = self.column_writers[column_index].prepare_array(array)?;
+
+        // A never-advanced field simply remains a zero-length column, which the
+        // encoders handle at `finish` time.
+        if array.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let columns = [(column_index, array)];
+        let mut external_buffers =
+            OutOfLineBuffers::new(self.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
+        let encoding_tasks = self.encode_columns(&columns, &mut external_buffers)?;
+        for external_buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
+            Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &external_buffer).await?;
+        }
+        let encoding_tasks = encoding_tasks
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect::<FuturesOrdered<_>>();
+
+        self.advance_columns(&columns);
+        self.write_pages(encoding_tasks).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn write_column_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        metadata: pbfile::ColumnMetadata,
+    ) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        let metadata_bytes = metadata.encode_to_vec();
+        let position = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
+        let len = metadata_bytes.len() as u64;
+        self.writer.write_all(&metadata_bytes).await?;
+        Ok((position, len))
+    }
+
+    async fn write_column_metadatas(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<(u64, u64)>> {
+        let metadatas = std::mem::take(&mut self.column_metadata);
+
+        // If spilling, finalize the spill writer and reopen for reading.
+        // The spill file itself is cleaned up by the caller (it lives in a
+        // temp directory managed by the caller's RAII guard).
+        let spill_state = self.page_spill.take();
+        let (spill_chunks, spill_reader) =
+            if let Some(PageSpillState::Active(mut spill)) = spill_state {
+                spill.shutdown_writer().await?;
+                let reader = spill.object_store.open(&spill.path).await?;
+                let chunks = std::mem::take(&mut spill.column_chunks);
+                (chunks, Some(reader))
+            } else {
+                (Vec::new(), None)
+            };
+
+        let mut metadata_positions = Vec::with_capacity(metadatas.len());
+        for (col_idx, mut metadata) in metadatas.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            if let Some(reader) = &spill_reader {
+                let mut pages = Vec::new();
+                for &(offset, len) in &spill_chunks[col_idx] {
+                    let data = reader
+                        .get_range(offset as usize..(offset as usize + len as usize))
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|e| Error::io_source(Box::new(e)))?;
+                    pages.extend(decode_spilled_chunk(&data)?);
+                }
+                metadata.pages = pages;
+            }
+            metadata_positions.push(self.write_column_metadata(metadata).await?);
+        }
+
+        Ok(metadata_positions)
+    }
+
+    fn make_file_descriptor(
+        schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+        num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> Result<pb::FileDescriptor> {
+        let fields_with_meta = FieldsWithMeta::from(schema);
+        Ok(pb::FileDescriptor {
+            schema: Some(pb::Schema {
+                fields: fields_with_meta.fields.0,
+                metadata: fields_with_meta.metadata,
+            }),
+            length: num_rows,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn write_global_buffers(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<(u64, u64)>> {
+        let schema = self.schema.as_mut().ok_or(Error::invalid_input("No schema provided on writer open and no data provided.  Schema is unknown and file cannot be created"))?;
+        schema.metadata = std::mem::take(&mut self.schema_metadata);
+        // Use descriptor layout for blob v2 fields in the footer to avoid exposing logical child fields.
+        schema
+            .fields
+            .iter_mut()
+            .for_each(|f| f.unload_blobs_recursive());
+
+        let file_descriptor = Self::make_file_descriptor(schema, self.rows_written)?;
+        let file_descriptor_bytes = file_descriptor.encode_to_vec();
+        let file_descriptor_len = file_descriptor_bytes.len() as u64;
+        let file_descriptor_position = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
+        self.writer.write_all(&file_descriptor_bytes).await?;
+        let mut gbo_table = Vec::with_capacity(1 + self.global_buffers.len());
+        gbo_table.push((file_descriptor_position, file_descriptor_len));
+        gbo_table.append(&mut self.global_buffers);
+        Ok(gbo_table)
+    }
+
+    /// Add a metadata entry to the schema
+    ///
+    /// This method is useful because sometimes the metadata is not known until after the
+    /// data has been written.  This method allows you to alter the schema metadata.  It
+    /// must be called before `finish` is called.
+    pub fn add_schema_metadata(&mut self, key: impl Into<String>, value: impl Into<String>) {
+        self.schema_metadata.insert(key.into(), value.into());
+    }
+
+    /// Prepare the writer when column data and metadata were produced externally.
+    ///
+    /// This is useful for flows that copy already-encoded pages (e.g., binary copy
+    /// during compaction) where the column buffers have been written directly and we
+    /// only need to write the footer and schema metadata. The provided
+    /// `column_metadata` must describe the buffers already persisted by the
+    /// underlying `ObjectWriter`, and `rows_written` should reflect the total number
+    /// of rows in those buffers.
+    pub fn initialize_with_external_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        mut schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+        column_metadata: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
+        rows_written: u64,
+    ) {
+        self.schema_metadata
+            .extend(std::mem::take(&mut schema.metadata));
+        self.schema = Some(schema);
+        self.num_columns = column_metadata.len() as u32;
+        self.column_metadata = column_metadata;
+        self.rows_written = rows_written;
+    }
+
+    /// Adds a global buffer to the file
+    ///
+    /// The global buffer can contain any arbitrary bytes.  It will be written to the disk
+    /// immediately.  This method returns the index of the global buffer (this will always
+    /// start at 1 and increment by 1 each time this method is called)
+    pub async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, buffer: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        let position = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
+        let len = buffer.len() as u64;
+        Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &buffer).await?;
+        self.global_buffers.push((position, len));
+        Ok(self.global_buffers.len() as u32)
+    }
+
+    async fn finish_writers(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut col_idx = 0;
+        for mut writer in std::mem::take(&mut self.column_writers) {
+            let mut external_buffers =
+                OutOfLineBuffers::new(self.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
+            let columns = writer.finish(&mut external_buffers).await?;
+            for buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
+                self.writer.write_all(&buffer).await?;
+            }
+            debug_assert_eq!(
+                columns.len(),
+                writer.num_columns() as usize,
+                "Expected {} columns from column at index {} and got {}",
+                writer.num_columns(),
+                col_idx,
+                columns.len()
+            );
+            for column in columns {
+                for page in column.final_pages {
+                    self.write_page(page).await?;
+                }
+                let column_metadata = &mut self.column_metadata[col_idx];
+                let mut buffer_pos = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
+                for buffer in column.column_buffers {
+                    column_metadata.buffer_offsets.push(buffer_pos);
+                    let mut size = 0;
+                    Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &buffer).await?;
+                    size += buffer.len() as u64;
+                    buffer_pos += size;
+                    column_metadata.buffer_sizes.push(size);
+                }
+                let encoded_encoding = Any::from_msg(&column.encoding)?.encode_to_vec();
+                column_metadata.encoding = Some(pbfile::Encoding {
+                    location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(pbfile::DirectEncoding {
+                        encoding: encoded_encoding,
+                    })),
+                });
+                col_idx += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        if col_idx != self.column_metadata.len() {
+            panic!(
+                "Column writers finished with {} columns but we expected {}",
+                col_idx,
+                self.column_metadata.len()
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Finishes writing the file
+    ///
+    /// This method will wait until all data has been flushed to the file.  Then it
+    /// will write the file metadata and the footer.  It will not return until all
+    /// data has been flushed and the file has been closed.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a summary of the completed file write.
+    pub async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<FileWriteSummary> {
+        // 1. flush any remaining data and write out those pages
+        let mut external_buffers =
+            OutOfLineBuffers::new(self.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
+        let encoding_tasks = self
+            .column_writers
+            .iter_mut()
+            .map(|writer| writer.flush(&mut external_buffers))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        for external_buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
+            Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &external_buffer).await?;
+        }
+        let encoding_tasks = encoding_tasks
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect::<FuturesOrdered<_>>();
+        self.write_pages(encoding_tasks).await?;
+
+        if !self.column_writers.is_empty() {
+            self.finish_writers().await?;
+        }
+
+        // 3. write global buffers (we write the schema here)
+        let global_buffer_offsets = self.write_global_buffers().await?;
+        let num_global_buffers = global_buffer_offsets.len() as u32;
+
+        // 4. write the column metadatas
+        let column_metadata_start = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
+        let metadata_positions = self.write_column_metadatas().await?;
+
+        // 5. write the column metadata offset table
+        let cmo_table_start = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
+        for (meta_pos, meta_len) in metadata_positions {
+            self.writer.write_u64_le(meta_pos).await?;
+            self.writer.write_u64_le(meta_len).await?;
+        }
+
+        // 6. write global buffers offset table
+        let gbo_table_start = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
+        for (gbo_pos, gbo_len) in global_buffer_offsets {
+            self.writer.write_u64_le(gbo_pos).await?;
+            self.writer.write_u64_le(gbo_len).await?;
+        }
+
+        // 7. write the footer
+        self.writer.write_u64_le(column_metadata_start).await?;
+        self.writer.write_u64_le(cmo_table_start).await?;
+        self.writer.write_u64_le(gbo_table_start).await?;
+        self.writer.write_u32_le(num_global_buffers).await?;
+        self.writer.write_u32_le(self.num_columns).await?;
+        self.writer.write_u16_le(0).await?;
+        self.writer.write_u16_le(3).await?;
+        self.writer.write_all(MAGIC).await?;
+
+        // 7. close the writer
+        let write_result = ObjectWriter::shutdown(self.writer.as_mut()).await?;
+
+        Ok(FileWriteSummary {
+            num_rows: self.rows_written,
+            size_bytes: write_result.size as u64,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub async fn abort(&mut self) {
+        // For multipart uploads, ObjectWriter's Drop impl will abort
+        // the upload when the writer is dropped.
+    }
+
+    pub async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
+        Ok(self.writer.tell().await? as u64)
+    }
+
+    /// Append a buffer whose metadata is supplied by the caller.
+    pub async fn write_external_buffer(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        let start = self.tell().await?;
+        self.writer.write_all(bytes).await?;
+        Ok((start, bytes.len() as u64))
+    }
+
+    pub fn field_id_to_column_indices(&self) -> &[(u32, u32)] {
+        &self.field_id_to_column_indices
+    }
+}
+
+// Creates a lance footer and appends it to the encoded data
+//
+// The logic here is very similar to logic in the FileWriter except we
+// are using BufMut (put_xyz) instead of AsyncWrite (write_xyz).
+pub fn concat_lance_footer(batch: &EncodedBatch, write_schema: bool) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    // Estimating 1MiB for file footer
+    let mut data = BytesMut::with_capacity(batch.data.len() + 1024 * 1024);
+    data.put(batch.data.clone());
+    // write global buffers (we write the schema here)
+    let global_buffers = if write_schema {
+        let schema_start = data.len() as u64;
+        let lance_schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(batch.schema.as_ref())?;
+        let descriptor = Writer::make_file_descriptor(&lance_schema, batch.num_rows)?;
+        let descriptor_bytes = descriptor.encode_to_vec();
+        let descriptor_len = descriptor_bytes.len() as u64;
+        data.put(descriptor_bytes.as_slice());
+
+        vec![(schema_start, descriptor_len)]
+    } else {
+        vec![]
+    };
+    let col_metadata_start = data.len() as u64;
+
+    let mut col_metadata_positions = Vec::new();
+    // Write column metadata
+    for col in &batch.page_table {
+        let position = data.len() as u64;
+        let pages = col
+            .page_infos
+            .iter()
+            .map(|page_info| {
+                let encoded_encoding = match &page_info.encoding {
+                    PageEncoding::Legacy(array_encoding) => {
+                        Any::from_msg(array_encoding)?.encode_to_vec()
+                    }
+                    PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout) => {
+                        Any::from_msg(page_layout)?.encode_to_vec()
+                    }
+                };
+                let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = page_info
+                    .buffer_offsets_and_sizes
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .iter()
+                    .cloned()
+                    .unzip();
+                Ok(pbfile::column_metadata::Page {
+                    buffer_offsets,
+                    buffer_sizes,
+                    encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
+                        location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(DirectEncoding {
+                            encoding: encoded_encoding,
+                        })),
+                    }),
+                    length: page_info.num_rows,
+                    priority: page_info.priority,
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =
+            col.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().cloned().unzip();
+        let encoded_col_encoding = Any::from_msg(&col.encoding)?.encode_to_vec();
+        let column = pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
+            pages,
+            buffer_offsets,
+            buffer_sizes,
+            encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
+                location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(pbfile::DirectEncoding {
+                    encoding: encoded_col_encoding,
+                })),
+            }),
+        };
+        let column_bytes = column.encode_to_vec();
+        col_metadata_positions.push((position, column_bytes.len() as u64));
+        data.put(column_bytes.as_slice());
+    }
+    // Write column metadata offsets table
+    let cmo_table_start = data.len() as u64;
+    for (meta_pos, meta_len) in col_metadata_positions {
+        data.put_u64_le(meta_pos);
+        data.put_u64_le(meta_len);
+    }
+    // Write global buffers offsets table
+    let gbo_table_start = data.len() as u64;
+    let num_global_buffers = global_buffers.len() as u32;
+    for (gbo_pos, gbo_len) in global_buffers {
+        data.put_u64_le(gbo_pos);
+        data.put_u64_le(gbo_len);
+    }
+
+    // write the footer
+    data.put_u64_le(col_metadata_start);
+    data.put_u64_le(cmo_table_start);
+    data.put_u64_le(gbo_table_start);
+    data.put_u32_le(num_global_buffers);
+    data.put_u32_le(batch.page_table.len() as u32);
+    data.put_u16_le(2);
+    data.put_u16_le(0);
+    data.put(MAGIC.as_slice());
+
+    Ok(data.freeze())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/compression.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/compression.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2ef40ed0241
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/compression.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,129 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression::{
+        BlockCompressor, CompressionStrategy, field_metadata_params, finalize_miniblock_compressor,
+        reject_packed_struct_per_value, try_bitpacking_block, try_bitpacking_miniblock,
+        try_byte_stream_split_miniblock, try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock,
+        try_fixed_u8_rle_miniblock, try_raw_block, try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock,
+        try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock, try_raw_per_value, try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock,
+        try_variable_width_miniblock, try_variable_width_per_value,
+    },
+    compression_config::{CompressionFieldParams, CompressionParams},
+    data::DataBlock,
+    encodings::logical::primitive::{fullzip::PerValueCompressor, miniblock::MiniBlockCompressor},
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct Strategy {
+    params: CompressionParams,
+}
+
+impl Strategy {
+    pub(super) fn new(params: CompressionParams) -> Self {
+        Self { params }
+    }
+
+    fn field_params(&self, field: &Field) -> CompressionFieldParams {
+        let mut params = self
+            .params
+            .get_field_params(&field.name, &field.data_type());
+        let mut metadata = field_metadata_params(field);
+        if metadata
+            .minichunk_size
+            .is_some_and(|size| size >= 32 * 1024)
+        {
+            log::warn!(
+                "minichunk_size '{}' is too large for the selected u16 miniblock layout, using default",
+                metadata.minichunk_size.unwrap()
+            );
+            metadata.minichunk_size = None;
+        }
+        params.merge(&metadata);
+        params
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompressionStrategy for Strategy {
+    fn create_miniblock_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        let compressor =
+            if let Some(compressor) = try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_byte_stream_split_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_u8_rle_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_miniblock(field, data, &params)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock(data)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Mini-block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                        data.name()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            };
+        finalize_miniblock_compressor(data, compressor, &params)
+    }
+
+    fn create_per_value(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_per_value(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = reject_packed_struct_per_value(field, data)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_per_value(field, data, &params)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Per-value compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn create_block_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>> {
+        let _params = self.field_params(field);
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/mod.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0555f3d0264
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,180 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Lance v2.1 file composition.
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression_config::CompressionParams,
+    encoder::{
+        ColumnIndexSequence, EncodedBatch, FieldEncoder, FieldEncodingContext,
+        FieldEncodingStrategy,
+        structural::{
+            PrimitiveFieldEncoding, PrimitivePageEncoding, try_create_binary_blob, try_create_list,
+            try_create_struct,
+        },
+    },
+};
+use lance_io::traits::Writer as ObjectWriter;
+
+use crate::{
+    reader::{ReadProjection, structural},
+    writer::FileWriterOptions,
+};
+
+mod compression;
+mod reader;
+mod writer;
+
+pub use reader::{
+    projection_from_column_names, projection_from_field_ids, projection_from_whole_schema,
+};
+pub use writer::Writer;
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(crate) use reader::test_projection_length;
+pub(crate) use reader::{
+    decode_column_metadata, finish_metadata, finish_metadata_index, validate_global_buffers,
+};
+
+pub(crate) fn read_projection() -> Arc<dyn ReadProjection> {
+    structural::read_projection(reader::decode_column)
+}
+
+/// Count physical columns represented by a field in a v2.1 footer.
+pub fn physical_column_count(field: &Field) -> usize {
+    structural::physical_column_count(field)
+}
+
+/// Build persisted field-to-column entries for a v2.1 data file.
+pub fn data_file_columns(schema: &Schema) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
+    structural::data_file_columns(schema)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn field_id_to_column_index(schema: &Schema) -> BTreeMap<u32, u32> {
+    structural::field_id_to_column_index(schema)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FieldStrategy {
+    primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding,
+}
+
+impl FieldEncodingStrategy for FieldStrategy {
+    fn create_field_encoder(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+        if let Some(encoder) =
+            try_create_binary_blob(&self.primitive, field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if field.is_blob() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Blob encoding is not available for field '{}' with data type {}",
+                    field.name,
+                    field.data_type()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = self.primitive.try_create(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if matches!(
+            field.data_type(),
+            arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _)
+                if matches!(item.data_type(), arrow_schema::DataType::Struct(_))
+        ) {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "FixedSizeList<Struct> is not enabled by the selected file format".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if matches!(field.data_type(), arrow_schema::DataType::Map(_, _)) {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "Map data type is not enabled by the selected file format".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_list(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_struct(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Lance v2.1 has no field encoding for '{}' with data type {}",
+                field.name,
+                field.data_type()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compose the v2.1 field encoding mechanisms.
+pub fn encoding_strategy(params: CompressionParams) -> Arc<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy> {
+    let compression = Arc::new(compression::Strategy::new(params));
+    Arc::new(FieldStrategy {
+        primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding::new([
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::reject_sparse(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::dense_u16(compression),
+        ]),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.1 writer with an explicit schema.
+pub fn create_writer(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    schema: Schema,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Result<Writer> {
+    Writer::try_new(object_writer, schema, options)
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.1 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+pub fn create_writer_with_compression(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    schema: Schema,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+    compression: CompressionParams,
+) -> Result<Writer> {
+    Writer::try_new_with_compression(object_writer, schema, options, compression)
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.1 writer whose schema is inferred from the first batch.
+pub fn create_lazy_writer(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Writer {
+    Writer::new_lazy(object_writer, options)
+}
+
+/// Create a lazy v2.1 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+pub fn create_lazy_writer_with_compression(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+    compression: CompressionParams,
+) -> Writer {
+    Writer::new_lazy_with_compression(object_writer, options, compression)
+}
+
+/// Encode a self-described v2.1 batch.
+pub fn encode_self_described_batch(batch: &EncodedBatch) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    writer::concat_lance_footer(batch, true)
+}
+
+/// Encode a mini-lance v2.1 batch.
+pub fn encode_mini_batch(batch: &EncodedBatch) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    writer::concat_lance_footer(batch, false)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/reader.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/reader.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0c11e5f8976
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/reader.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,304 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_encoding::{decoder::ColumnInfo, format::pb21};
+
+use crate::{
+    format::pbfile,
+    reader::{
+        BufferDescriptor, CachedFileMetadata, FileMetadataIndex, RawFileMetadata, ReaderProjection,
+        structural,
+    },
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+};
+
+fn required<'a, T>(value: Option<&'a T>, label: &str) -> Result<&'a T> {
+    value.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Lance v2.1 {label} is missing its nested encoding").into(),
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+fn validate_compressive_encoding(encoding: &pb21::CompressiveEncoding) -> Result<()> {
+    use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+    match encoding.compression.as_ref() {
+        Some(Compression::Flat(_))
+        | Some(Compression::InlineBitpacking(_))
+        | Some(Compression::Constant(_)) => Ok(()),
+        Some(Compression::Variable(variable)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            variable.offsets.as_deref(),
+            "variable offsets",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(bitpacking)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                bitpacking.values.as_deref(),
+                "out-of-line bitpacking values",
+            )?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::Fsst(fsst)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(fsst.values.as_deref(), "FSST values")?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::Dictionary(dictionary)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                dictionary.indices.as_deref(),
+                "dictionary indices",
+            )?)?;
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                dictionary.items.as_deref(),
+                "dictionary items",
+            )?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::Rle(rle)) => {
+            let values = required(rle.values.as_deref(), "RLE values")?;
+            let run_lengths = required(rle.run_lengths.as_deref(), "RLE run lengths")?;
+            let fixed_values = matches!(
+                values.compression.as_ref(),
+                Some(Compression::Flat(flat))
+                    if matches!(flat.bits_per_value, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64)
+                        && flat.data.is_none()
+            );
+            let fixed_u8_lengths = matches!(
+                run_lengths.compression.as_ref(),
+                Some(Compression::Flat(flat))
+                    if flat.bits_per_value == 8 && flat.data.is_none()
+            );
+            if !fixed_values || !fixed_u8_lengths {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Lance v2.1 RLE requires flat values and flat u8 run lengths".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Some(Compression::ByteStreamSplit(split)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            split.values.as_deref(),
+            "byte-stream-split values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::General(general)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            general.values.as_deref(),
+            "general-compression values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::FixedSizeList(list)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            list.values.as_deref(),
+            "fixed-size-list values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::PackedStruct(packed)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            packed.values.as_deref(),
+            "packed-struct values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::VariablePackedStruct(_)) => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Variable packed struct compression is not part of the Lance v2.1 grammar".into(),
+        )),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Lance v2.1 compressive encoding is missing its compression variant".into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_page_layout(layout: &pb21::PageLayout) -> Result<()> {
+    use pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+
+    match layout.layout.as_ref() {
+        Some(Layout::MiniBlockLayout(miniblock)) => {
+            if miniblock.has_large_chunk {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Large miniblock chunks are not part of the Lance v2.1 grammar".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if let Some(rep) = miniblock.rep_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(rep)?;
+            }
+            if let Some(def) = miniblock.def_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(def)?;
+            }
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                miniblock.value_compression.as_ref(),
+                "miniblock values",
+            )?)?;
+            if let Some(dictionary) = miniblock.dictionary.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(dictionary)?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Some(Layout::FullZipLayout(fullzip)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            fullzip.value_compression.as_ref(),
+            "full-zip values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Layout::ConstantLayout(constant)) => {
+            if constant.inline_value.is_some() {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Lance v2.1 only accepts the all-null form of constant page layout".into(),
+                ))
+            } else if constant.rep_compression.is_some() || constant.def_compression.is_some() {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Compressed constant-page levels are not part of the Lance v2.1 grammar".into(),
+                ))
+            } else {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+        Some(Layout::BlobLayout(blob)) => {
+            let inner = blob.inner_layout.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Lance v2.1 blob page layout is missing its inner layout".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            validate_page_layout(inner)
+        }
+        Some(Layout::SparseLayout(_)) => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Sparse page layout is not part of the Lance v2.1 grammar".into(),
+        )),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Lance v2.1 page is missing its page layout".into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn decode_column(
+    column_index: u32,
+    metadata: &pbfile::ColumnMetadata,
+) -> Result<Arc<ColumnInfo>> {
+    let page_infos = metadata
+        .pages
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(page_index, page)| {
+            let page_layout = structural::decode_page_layout(column_index, page_index, page)?;
+            validate_page_layout(&page_layout)?;
+            structural::build_page_info(column_index, page_index, page, page_layout)
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    structural::build_column_info(column_index, metadata, page_infos)
+}
+
+pub fn decode_column_metadata(
+    column_metadatas: &[pbfile::ColumnMetadata],
+) -> Result<Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>> {
+    column_metadatas
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(column_index, metadata)| {
+            let column_index = u32::try_from(column_index).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("File has more than u32::MAX columns".into())
+            })?;
+            decode_column(column_index, metadata)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_field_ids(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+) -> ReaderProjection {
+    structural::projection_from_field_ids(schema, field_id_to_column_index)
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_whole_schema(schema: &Schema) -> ReaderProjection {
+    structural::projection_from_field_ids(schema, &super::field_id_to_column_index(schema))
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_column_names(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_names: &[&str],
+) -> Result<ReaderProjection> {
+    structural::projection_from_column_names(
+        schema,
+        column_names,
+        &super::field_id_to_column_index(schema),
+    )
+}
+
+pub fn finish_metadata(raw: RawFileMetadata) -> Result<CachedFileMetadata> {
+    if (raw.footer.major_version, raw.footer.minor_version) != (2, 1) {
+        return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+            "Attempt to use the Lance v2.1 reader for a different file version".to_string(),
+            raw.footer.major_version,
+            raw.footer.minor_version,
+        ));
+    }
+    validate_global_buffers(&raw.file_buffers)?;
+    let column_infos = decode_column_metadata(&raw.column_metadatas)?;
+    Ok(CachedFileMetadata {
+        file_schema: raw.file_schema,
+        column_metadatas: raw.column_metadatas,
+        column_infos,
+        num_rows: raw.num_rows,
+        file_buffers: raw.file_buffers,
+        num_data_bytes: raw.num_data_bytes,
+        num_column_metadata_bytes: raw.num_column_metadata_bytes,
+        num_global_buffer_bytes: raw.num_global_buffer_bytes,
+        num_footer_bytes: raw.num_footer_bytes,
+        major_version: raw.footer.major_version,
+        minor_version: raw.footer.minor_version,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        file_size_bytes: raw.file_size_bytes,
+        retained_global_buffers: raw.retained_global_buffers,
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn validate_global_buffers(buffers: &[BufferDescriptor]) -> Result<()> {
+    structural::validate_global_buffers(buffers)
+}
+
+pub fn finish_metadata_index(index: FileMetadataIndex) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+    if index.version != ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 {
+        let (major, minor) = index.version.to_standard_footer_numbers();
+        return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+            "Attempt to use the Lance v2.1 reader for a different metadata index".to_string(),
+            major,
+            minor,
+        ));
+    }
+    validate_global_buffers(&index.file_buffers)?;
+    Ok(index)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn test_projection_length(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_indices: &[u32],
+    column_lengths: &[u64],
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    structural::test_projection_length(schema, column_indices, column_lengths)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod grammar_tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use pb21::{
+        CompressiveEncoding, FullZipLayout, General, PageLayout, VariablePackedStruct,
+        compressive_encoding::Compression, page_layout::Layout,
+    };
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_nested_variable_packed_struct() {
+        let variable_packed = CompressiveEncoding {
+            compression: Some(Compression::VariablePackedStruct(VariablePackedStruct {
+                fields: Vec::new(),
+            })),
+        };
+        let wrapped = CompressiveEncoding {
+            compression: Some(Compression::General(Box::new(General {
+                compression: None,
+                values: Some(Box::new(variable_packed)),
+            }))),
+        };
+        let layout = PageLayout {
+            layout: Some(Layout::FullZipLayout(FullZipLayout {
+                value_compression: Some(wrapped),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })),
+        };
+
+        let error = validate_page_layout(&layout).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Variable packed struct compression is not part")
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/writer.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/writer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8e41a2f991f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_1/writer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use bytes::{BufMut, Bytes};
+use lance_core::{Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression_config::CompressionParams,
+    encoder::{BatchEncoder, EncodedBatch},
+};
+use lance_io::{object_store::ObjectStore, traits::Writer as ObjectWriter};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+use crate::{
+    format::{MAGIC, pbfile},
+    writer::{
+        FileWriteSummary, FileWriterOptions,
+        structural::{EncodedBatchBody, EncodingPipeline, StructuralFileSink, encode_batch_body},
+    },
+};
+
+use super::encoding_strategy;
+
+/// A writer for the Lance v2.1 file grammar.
+///
+/// The concrete writer owns the v2.1 encoding composition, finish ordering,
+/// and exact footer identity. Shared components only execute the structural
+/// encoding and I/O mechanisms selected here.
+pub struct Writer {
+    sink: StructuralFileSink,
+    encoding: EncodingPipeline,
+    compression: CompressionParams,
+}
+
+impl Writer {
+    /// Create a v2.1 writer with an explicit schema.
+    pub fn try_new(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        schema: Schema,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_new_with_compression(object_writer, schema, options, Default::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Create a v2.1 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+    pub fn try_new_with_compression(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        schema: Schema,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+        compression: CompressionParams,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut writer = Self::new_lazy_with_compression(object_writer, options, compression);
+        writer.initialize(schema)?;
+        Ok(writer)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a v2.1 writer whose schema is inferred from the first batch.
+    pub fn new_lazy(object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>, options: FileWriterOptions) -> Self {
+        Self::new_lazy_with_compression(object_writer, options, Default::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Create a lazy v2.1 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+    pub fn new_lazy_with_compression(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+        compression: CompressionParams,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            sink: StructuralFileSink::new(object_writer),
+            encoding: EncodingPipeline::new(options),
+            compression,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn initialize(&mut self, schema: Schema) -> Result<()> {
+        self.encoding.validate_options()?;
+        let encoding_options = self.encoding.encoding_options(&schema);
+        schema.validate()?;
+        let strategy = encoding_strategy(self.compression.clone());
+        let encoder = BatchEncoder::try_new(&schema, strategy.as_ref(), &encoding_options)?;
+        self.encoding.initialize(schema, encoder, &mut self.sink);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_initialized(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.encoding.is_initialized() {
+            self.initialize(Schema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref())?)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Spill page metadata to a sidecar file instead of retaining it in memory.
+    pub fn with_page_metadata_spill(mut self, object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path) -> Self {
+        self.sink.with_page_metadata_spill(object_store, path);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Schedule batches to be written in iteration order.
+    pub async fn write_batches(
+        &mut self,
+        batches: impl Iterator<Item = &RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        for batch in batches {
+            self.write_batch(batch).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Schedule one record batch for writing.
+    pub async fn write_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        self.ensure_initialized(batch)?;
+        self.encoding.write_batch(batch, &mut self.sink).await
+    }
+
+    /// Write one top-level field, advancing only that field's row count.
+    pub async fn write_column(&mut self, column_index: usize, array: ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        self.encoding
+            .write_column(column_index, array, &mut self.sink)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Append a buffer whose page or column metadata is supplied externally.
+    pub async fn write_external_buffer(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        self.sink.write_external_buffer(bytes).await
+    }
+
+    /// Add an entry to the schema metadata written in the file descriptor.
+    pub fn add_schema_metadata(&mut self, key: impl Into<String>, value: impl Into<String>) {
+        self.encoding.add_schema_metadata(key, value);
+    }
+
+    /// Prepare the writer for encoded column data produced externally.
+    pub fn initialize_with_external_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        schema: Schema,
+        column_metadata: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
+        rows_written: u64,
+    ) {
+        self.encoding
+            .initialize_with_external_metadata(schema, rows_written);
+        self.sink.initialize_with_external_metadata(column_metadata);
+    }
+
+    /// Add an arbitrary global buffer and return its one-based index.
+    pub async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, buffer: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        self.sink.add_global_buffer(buffer).await
+    }
+
+    /// Finish the v2.1 file and close its object writer.
+    pub async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<FileWriteSummary> {
+        // The order below is the v2.1 wire contract.
+        self.encoding.flush(&mut self.sink).await?;
+        self.encoding.finish_encoders(&mut self.sink).await?;
+
+        let descriptor = self.encoding.make_file_descriptor()?;
+        let global_buffer_offsets = self.sink.write_global_buffers(descriptor).await?;
+        let num_global_buffers = global_buffer_offsets.len() as u32;
+
+        let column_metadata_start = self.sink.tell().await?;
+        let column_metadata_offsets = self.sink.write_column_metadatas().await?;
+        let column_metadata_offsets_start = self
+            .sink
+            .write_offset_table(&column_metadata_offsets)
+            .await?;
+        let global_buffer_offsets_start =
+            self.sink.write_offset_table(&global_buffer_offsets).await?;
+        let num_columns = self.sink.num_columns();
+
+        let output = self.sink.output_mut();
+        output.write_u64_le(column_metadata_start).await?;
+        output.write_u64_le(column_metadata_offsets_start).await?;
+        output.write_u64_le(global_buffer_offsets_start).await?;
+        output.write_u32_le(num_global_buffers).await?;
+        output.write_u32_le(num_columns).await?;
+        output.write_u16_le(2).await?;
+        output.write_u16_le(1).await?;
+        output.write_all(MAGIC).await?;
+
+        Ok(FileWriteSummary {
+            num_rows: self.encoding.rows_written(),
+            size_bytes: self.sink.shutdown().await?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Abandon this write.
+    pub async fn abort(&mut self) {
+        // Dropping a multipart ObjectWriter aborts the upload.
+    }
+
+    /// Return the current object-writer position.
+    pub async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.sink.tell().await
+    }
+
+    /// Return the field-id to physical-column mapping selected by v2.1.
+    pub fn field_id_to_column_indices(&self) -> &[(u32, u32)] {
+        self.encoding.field_id_to_column_indices()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Append a self-described or mini-lance v2.1 footer to an encoded batch.
+pub fn concat_lance_footer(batch: &EncodedBatch, write_schema: bool) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    let EncodedBatchBody {
+        mut data,
+        column_metadata_start,
+        column_metadata_offsets_start,
+        global_buffer_offsets_start,
+        num_global_buffers,
+        num_columns,
+    } = encode_batch_body(batch, write_schema)?;
+
+    data.put_u64_le(column_metadata_start);
+    data.put_u64_le(column_metadata_offsets_start);
+    data.put_u64_le(global_buffer_offsets_start);
+    data.put_u32_le(num_global_buffers);
+    data.put_u32_le(num_columns);
+    data.put_u16_le(2);
+    data.put_u16_le(1);
+    data.extend_from_slice(MAGIC);
+    Ok(data.freeze())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/compression.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/compression.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..aa8e3b64958
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/compression.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,129 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression::{
+        BlockCompressor, CompressionStrategy, field_metadata_params, finalize_miniblock_compressor,
+        try_bitpacking_block, try_bitpacking_miniblock, try_byte_stream_split_miniblock,
+        try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock, try_fixed_u8_rle_block, try_fixed_u8_rle_miniblock,
+        try_general_block, try_raw_block, try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock,
+        try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock, try_raw_per_value, try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock,
+        try_variable_packed_struct_per_value, try_variable_width_miniblock,
+        try_variable_width_per_value,
+    },
+    compression_config::{CompressionFieldParams, CompressionParams},
+    data::DataBlock,
+    encodings::logical::primitive::{fullzip::PerValueCompressor, miniblock::MiniBlockCompressor},
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct Strategy {
+    params: CompressionParams,
+}
+
+impl Strategy {
+    pub(super) fn new(params: CompressionParams) -> Self {
+        Self { params }
+    }
+
+    fn field_params(&self, field: &Field) -> CompressionFieldParams {
+        let mut params = self
+            .params
+            .get_field_params(&field.name, &field.data_type());
+        params.merge(&field_metadata_params(field));
+        params
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompressionStrategy for Strategy {
+    fn create_miniblock_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        let compressor =
+            if let Some(compressor) = try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_byte_stream_split_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_u8_rle_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_miniblock(field, data, &params)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock(data)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Mini-block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                        data.name()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            };
+        finalize_miniblock_compressor(data, compressor, &params)
+    }
+
+    fn create_per_value(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_per_value(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) =
+            try_variable_packed_struct_per_value(Arc::new(self.clone()), field, data)?
+        {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_per_value(field, data, &params)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Per-value compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn create_block_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_u8_rle_block(data, &params)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_general_block(data, &params)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/mod.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b56f78a5c4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,177 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Lance v2.2 file composition.
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression_config::CompressionParams,
+    encoder::{
+        ColumnIndexSequence, EncodedBatch, FieldEncoder, FieldEncodingContext,
+        FieldEncodingStrategy,
+        structural::{
+            PrimitiveFieldEncoding, PrimitivePageEncoding, try_create_binary_blob, try_create_list,
+            try_create_map, try_create_struct, try_create_structural_blob,
+            try_create_structural_fixed_size_list,
+        },
+    },
+};
+use lance_io::traits::Writer as ObjectWriter;
+
+use crate::{
+    reader::{ReadProjection, structural},
+    writer::FileWriterOptions,
+};
+
+mod compression;
+mod reader;
+mod writer;
+
+pub(crate) use reader::{
+    decode_column_metadata, finish_metadata, finish_metadata_index, validate_global_buffers,
+};
+pub use reader::{
+    projection_from_column_names, projection_from_field_ids, projection_from_whole_schema,
+};
+
+pub(crate) fn read_projection() -> Arc<dyn ReadProjection> {
+    structural::read_projection(reader::decode_column)
+}
+pub use writer::Writer;
+
+/// Count physical columns represented by a field in a v2.2 footer.
+pub fn physical_column_count(field: &Field) -> usize {
+    structural::physical_column_count(field)
+}
+
+/// Build persisted field-to-column entries for a v2.2 data file.
+pub fn data_file_columns(schema: &Schema) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
+    structural::data_file_columns(schema)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn field_id_to_column_index(schema: &Schema) -> BTreeMap<u32, u32> {
+    structural::field_id_to_column_index(schema)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FieldStrategy {
+    primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding,
+}
+
+impl FieldEncodingStrategy for FieldStrategy {
+    fn create_field_encoder(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+        if let Some(encoder) =
+            try_create_binary_blob(&self.primitive, field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) =
+            try_create_structural_blob(&self.primitive, field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if field.is_blob() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Blob encoding is not available for field '{}' with data type {}",
+                    field.name,
+                    field.data_type()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_map(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_structural_fixed_size_list(field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = self.primitive.try_create(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_list(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_struct(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Lance v2.2 has no field encoding for '{}' with data type {}",
+                field.name,
+                field.data_type()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compose the v2.2 field encoding mechanisms.
+pub fn encoding_strategy(params: CompressionParams) -> Arc<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy> {
+    let compression = Arc::new(compression::Strategy::new(params));
+    Arc::new(FieldStrategy {
+        primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding::new([
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::reject_sparse(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::constant(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::dense_u32(compression),
+        ]),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.2 writer with an explicit schema.
+pub fn create_writer(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    schema: Schema,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Result<Writer> {
+    Writer::try_new(object_writer, schema, options)
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.2 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+pub fn create_writer_with_compression(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    schema: Schema,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+    compression: CompressionParams,
+) -> Result<Writer> {
+    Writer::try_new_with_compression(object_writer, schema, options, compression)
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.2 writer whose schema is inferred from the first batch.
+pub fn create_lazy_writer(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Writer {
+    Writer::new_lazy(object_writer, options)
+}
+
+/// Create a lazy v2.2 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+pub fn create_lazy_writer_with_compression(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+    compression: CompressionParams,
+) -> Writer {
+    Writer::new_lazy_with_compression(object_writer, options, compression)
+}
+
+/// Encode a self-described v2.2 batch.
+pub fn encode_self_described_batch(batch: &EncodedBatch) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    writer::concat_lance_footer(batch, true)
+}
+
+/// Encode a mini-lance v2.2 batch.
+pub fn encode_mini_batch(batch: &EncodedBatch) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    writer::concat_lance_footer(batch, false)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/reader.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/reader.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..81a88720c77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/reader.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,308 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_encoding::{decoder::ColumnInfo, format::pb21};
+
+use crate::{
+    format::pbfile,
+    reader::{
+        BufferDescriptor, CachedFileMetadata, FileMetadataIndex, RawFileMetadata, ReaderProjection,
+        structural,
+    },
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+};
+
+fn required<'a, T>(value: Option<&'a T>, label: &str) -> Result<&'a T> {
+    value.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Lance v2.2 {label} is missing its nested encoding").into(),
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+fn validate_compressive_encoding(encoding: &pb21::CompressiveEncoding) -> Result<()> {
+    use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+    match encoding.compression.as_ref() {
+        Some(Compression::Flat(_))
+        | Some(Compression::InlineBitpacking(_))
+        | Some(Compression::Constant(_)) => Ok(()),
+        Some(Compression::Variable(variable)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            variable.offsets.as_deref(),
+            "variable offsets",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(bitpacking)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                bitpacking.values.as_deref(),
+                "out-of-line bitpacking values",
+            )?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::Fsst(fsst)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(fsst.values.as_deref(), "FSST values")?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::Dictionary(dictionary)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                dictionary.indices.as_deref(),
+                "dictionary indices",
+            )?)?;
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                dictionary.items.as_deref(),
+                "dictionary items",
+            )?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::Rle(rle)) => {
+            let values = required(rle.values.as_deref(), "RLE values")?;
+            let run_lengths = required(rle.run_lengths.as_deref(), "RLE run lengths")?;
+            let fixed_values = matches!(
+                values.compression.as_ref(),
+                Some(Compression::Flat(flat))
+                    if matches!(flat.bits_per_value, 8 | 16 | 32 | 64)
+                        && flat.data.is_none()
+            );
+            let fixed_u8_lengths = matches!(
+                run_lengths.compression.as_ref(),
+                Some(Compression::Flat(flat))
+                    if flat.bits_per_value == 8 && flat.data.is_none()
+            );
+            if !fixed_values || !fixed_u8_lengths {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Lance v2.2 RLE requires flat values and flat u8 run lengths".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Some(Compression::ByteStreamSplit(split)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            split.values.as_deref(),
+            "byte-stream-split values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::General(general)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            general.values.as_deref(),
+            "general-compression values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::FixedSizeList(list)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            list.values.as_deref(),
+            "fixed-size-list values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::PackedStruct(packed)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            packed.values.as_deref(),
+            "packed-struct values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::VariablePackedStruct(packed)) => {
+            for field in &packed.fields {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                    field.value.as_ref(),
+                    "variable packed-struct field",
+                )?)?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Lance v2.2 compressive encoding is missing its compression variant".into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_page_layout(layout: &pb21::PageLayout) -> Result<()> {
+    use pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+
+    match layout.layout.as_ref() {
+        Some(Layout::MiniBlockLayout(miniblock)) => {
+            if !miniblock.has_large_chunk {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Lance v2.2 miniblock pages require the u32 chunk grammar".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if let Some(rep) = miniblock.rep_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(rep)?;
+            }
+            if let Some(def) = miniblock.def_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(def)?;
+            }
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                miniblock.value_compression.as_ref(),
+                "miniblock values",
+            )?)?;
+            if let Some(dictionary) = miniblock.dictionary.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(dictionary)?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Some(Layout::FullZipLayout(fullzip)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            fullzip.value_compression.as_ref(),
+            "full-zip values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Layout::ConstantLayout(constant)) => {
+            if let Some(rep) = constant.rep_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(rep)?;
+            }
+            if let Some(def) = constant.def_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(def)?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Some(Layout::BlobLayout(blob)) => {
+            let inner = blob.inner_layout.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Lance v2.2 blob page layout is missing its inner layout".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            validate_page_layout(inner)
+        }
+        Some(Layout::SparseLayout(_)) => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Sparse page layout is not part of the Lance v2.2 grammar".into(),
+        )),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Lance v2.2 page is missing its page layout".into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn decode_column(
+    column_index: u32,
+    metadata: &pbfile::ColumnMetadata,
+) -> Result<Arc<ColumnInfo>> {
+    let page_infos = metadata
+        .pages
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(page_index, page)| {
+            let page_layout = structural::decode_page_layout(column_index, page_index, page)?;
+            validate_page_layout(&page_layout)?;
+            structural::build_page_info(column_index, page_index, page, page_layout)
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    structural::build_column_info(column_index, metadata, page_infos)
+}
+
+pub fn decode_column_metadata(
+    column_metadatas: &[pbfile::ColumnMetadata],
+) -> Result<Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>> {
+    column_metadatas
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(column_index, metadata)| {
+            let column_index = u32::try_from(column_index).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("File has more than u32::MAX columns".into())
+            })?;
+            decode_column(column_index, metadata)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_field_ids(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+) -> ReaderProjection {
+    structural::projection_from_field_ids(schema, field_id_to_column_index)
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_whole_schema(schema: &Schema) -> ReaderProjection {
+    structural::projection_from_field_ids(schema, &super::field_id_to_column_index(schema))
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_column_names(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_names: &[&str],
+) -> Result<ReaderProjection> {
+    structural::projection_from_column_names(
+        schema,
+        column_names,
+        &super::field_id_to_column_index(schema),
+    )
+}
+
+pub fn finish_metadata(raw: RawFileMetadata) -> Result<CachedFileMetadata> {
+    if (raw.footer.major_version, raw.footer.minor_version) != (2, 2) {
+        return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+            "Attempt to use the Lance v2.2 reader for a different file version".to_string(),
+            raw.footer.major_version,
+            raw.footer.minor_version,
+        ));
+    }
+    validate_global_buffers(&raw.file_buffers)?;
+    let column_infos = decode_column_metadata(&raw.column_metadatas)?;
+    Ok(CachedFileMetadata {
+        file_schema: raw.file_schema,
+        column_metadatas: raw.column_metadatas,
+        column_infos,
+        num_rows: raw.num_rows,
+        file_buffers: raw.file_buffers,
+        num_data_bytes: raw.num_data_bytes,
+        num_column_metadata_bytes: raw.num_column_metadata_bytes,
+        num_global_buffer_bytes: raw.num_global_buffer_bytes,
+        num_footer_bytes: raw.num_footer_bytes,
+        major_version: raw.footer.major_version,
+        minor_version: raw.footer.minor_version,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+        file_size_bytes: raw.file_size_bytes,
+        retained_global_buffers: raw.retained_global_buffers,
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn validate_global_buffers(buffers: &[BufferDescriptor]) -> Result<()> {
+    structural::validate_global_buffers(buffers)
+}
+
+pub fn finish_metadata_index(index: FileMetadataIndex) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+    if index.version != ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 {
+        let (major, minor) = index.version.to_standard_footer_numbers();
+        return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+            "Attempt to use the Lance v2.2 reader for a different metadata index".to_string(),
+            major,
+            minor,
+        ));
+    }
+    validate_global_buffers(&index.file_buffers)?;
+    Ok(index)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod grammar_tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use pb21::{
+        CompressiveEncoding, Dictionary, Flat, FullZipLayout, PageLayout, Rle,
+        compressive_encoding::Compression, page_layout::Layout,
+    };
+
+    fn flat(bits_per_value: u64) -> CompressiveEncoding {
+        CompressiveEncoding {
+            compression: Some(Compression::Flat(Flat {
+                bits_per_value,
+                data: None,
+            })),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_nested_variable_width_rle() {
+        let rle = CompressiveEncoding {
+            compression: Some(Compression::Rle(Box::new(Rle {
+                values: Some(Box::new(flat(32))),
+                run_lengths: Some(Box::new(flat(16))),
+            }))),
+        };
+        let dictionary = CompressiveEncoding {
+            compression: Some(Compression::Dictionary(Box::new(Dictionary {
+                indices: Some(Box::new(rle)),
+                items: Some(Box::new(flat(32))),
+                num_dictionary_items: 1,
+            }))),
+        };
+        let layout = PageLayout {
+            layout: Some(Layout::FullZipLayout(FullZipLayout {
+                value_compression: Some(dictionary),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })),
+        };
+
+        let error = validate_page_layout(&layout).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("flat values and flat u8 run lengths")
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/writer.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/writer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..fbd9727e21b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_2/writer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use bytes::{BufMut, Bytes};
+use lance_core::{Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression_config::CompressionParams,
+    encoder::{BatchEncoder, EncodedBatch},
+};
+use lance_io::{object_store::ObjectStore, traits::Writer as ObjectWriter};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+use crate::{
+    format::{MAGIC, pbfile},
+    writer::{
+        FileWriteSummary, FileWriterOptions,
+        structural::{EncodedBatchBody, EncodingPipeline, StructuralFileSink, encode_batch_body},
+    },
+};
+
+use super::encoding_strategy;
+
+/// A writer for the Lance v2.2 file grammar.
+///
+/// The concrete writer owns the v2.2 encoding composition, finish ordering,
+/// and exact footer identity. Shared components only execute the structural
+/// encoding and I/O mechanisms selected here.
+pub struct Writer {
+    sink: StructuralFileSink,
+    encoding: EncodingPipeline,
+    compression: CompressionParams,
+}
+
+impl Writer {
+    /// Create a v2.2 writer with an explicit schema.
+    pub fn try_new(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        schema: Schema,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_new_with_compression(object_writer, schema, options, Default::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Create a v2.2 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+    pub fn try_new_with_compression(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        schema: Schema,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+        compression: CompressionParams,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut writer = Self::new_lazy_with_compression(object_writer, options, compression);
+        writer.initialize(schema)?;
+        Ok(writer)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a v2.2 writer whose schema is inferred from the first batch.
+    pub fn new_lazy(object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>, options: FileWriterOptions) -> Self {
+        Self::new_lazy_with_compression(object_writer, options, Default::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Create a lazy v2.2 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+    pub fn new_lazy_with_compression(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+        compression: CompressionParams,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            sink: StructuralFileSink::new(object_writer),
+            encoding: EncodingPipeline::new(options),
+            compression,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn initialize(&mut self, schema: Schema) -> Result<()> {
+        self.encoding.validate_options()?;
+        let encoding_options = self.encoding.encoding_options(&schema);
+        schema.validate()?;
+        let strategy = encoding_strategy(self.compression.clone());
+        let encoder = BatchEncoder::try_new(&schema, strategy.as_ref(), &encoding_options)?;
+        self.encoding.initialize(schema, encoder, &mut self.sink);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_initialized(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.encoding.is_initialized() {
+            self.initialize(Schema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref())?)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Spill page metadata to a sidecar file instead of retaining it in memory.
+    pub fn with_page_metadata_spill(mut self, object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path) -> Self {
+        self.sink.with_page_metadata_spill(object_store, path);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Schedule batches to be written in iteration order.
+    pub async fn write_batches(
+        &mut self,
+        batches: impl Iterator<Item = &RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        for batch in batches {
+            self.write_batch(batch).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Schedule one record batch for writing.
+    pub async fn write_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        self.ensure_initialized(batch)?;
+        self.encoding.write_batch(batch, &mut self.sink).await
+    }
+
+    /// Write one top-level field, advancing only that field's row count.
+    pub async fn write_column(&mut self, column_index: usize, array: ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        self.encoding
+            .write_column(column_index, array, &mut self.sink)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Append a buffer whose page or column metadata is supplied externally.
+    pub async fn write_external_buffer(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        self.sink.write_external_buffer(bytes).await
+    }
+
+    /// Add an entry to the schema metadata written in the file descriptor.
+    pub fn add_schema_metadata(&mut self, key: impl Into<String>, value: impl Into<String>) {
+        self.encoding.add_schema_metadata(key, value);
+    }
+
+    /// Prepare the writer for encoded column data produced externally.
+    pub fn initialize_with_external_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        schema: Schema,
+        column_metadata: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
+        rows_written: u64,
+    ) {
+        self.encoding
+            .initialize_with_external_metadata(schema, rows_written);
+        self.sink.initialize_with_external_metadata(column_metadata);
+    }
+
+    /// Add an arbitrary global buffer and return its one-based index.
+    pub async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, buffer: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        self.sink.add_global_buffer(buffer).await
+    }
+
+    /// Finish the v2.2 file and close its object writer.
+    pub async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<FileWriteSummary> {
+        // The order below is the v2.2 wire contract.
+        self.encoding.flush(&mut self.sink).await?;
+        self.encoding.finish_encoders(&mut self.sink).await?;
+
+        let descriptor = self.encoding.make_file_descriptor()?;
+        let global_buffer_offsets = self.sink.write_global_buffers(descriptor).await?;
+        let num_global_buffers = global_buffer_offsets.len() as u32;
+
+        let column_metadata_start = self.sink.tell().await?;
+        let column_metadata_offsets = self.sink.write_column_metadatas().await?;
+        let column_metadata_offsets_start = self
+            .sink
+            .write_offset_table(&column_metadata_offsets)
+            .await?;
+        let global_buffer_offsets_start =
+            self.sink.write_offset_table(&global_buffer_offsets).await?;
+        let num_columns = self.sink.num_columns();
+
+        let output = self.sink.output_mut();
+        output.write_u64_le(column_metadata_start).await?;
+        output.write_u64_le(column_metadata_offsets_start).await?;
+        output.write_u64_le(global_buffer_offsets_start).await?;
+        output.write_u32_le(num_global_buffers).await?;
+        output.write_u32_le(num_columns).await?;
+        output.write_u16_le(2).await?;
+        output.write_u16_le(2).await?;
+        output.write_all(MAGIC).await?;
+
+        Ok(FileWriteSummary {
+            num_rows: self.encoding.rows_written(),
+            size_bytes: self.sink.shutdown().await?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Abandon this write.
+    pub async fn abort(&mut self) {
+        // Dropping a multipart ObjectWriter aborts the upload.
+    }
+
+    /// Return the current object-writer position.
+    pub async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.sink.tell().await
+    }
+
+    /// Return the field-id to physical-column mapping selected by v2.2.
+    pub fn field_id_to_column_indices(&self) -> &[(u32, u32)] {
+        self.encoding.field_id_to_column_indices()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Append a self-described or mini-lance v2.2 footer to an encoded batch.
+pub fn concat_lance_footer(batch: &EncodedBatch, write_schema: bool) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    let EncodedBatchBody {
+        mut data,
+        column_metadata_start,
+        column_metadata_offsets_start,
+        global_buffer_offsets_start,
+        num_global_buffers,
+        num_columns,
+    } = encode_batch_body(batch, write_schema)?;
+
+    data.put_u64_le(column_metadata_start);
+    data.put_u64_le(column_metadata_offsets_start);
+    data.put_u64_le(global_buffer_offsets_start);
+    data.put_u32_le(num_global_buffers);
+    data.put_u32_le(num_columns);
+    data.put_u16_le(2);
+    data.put_u16_le(2);
+    data.extend_from_slice(MAGIC);
+    Ok(data.freeze())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/compression.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/compression.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..021c69ad3c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/compression.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Field};
+use lance_encoding::compression::try_packed_struct_per_value;
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression::{
+        BlockCompressor, CompressionStrategy, field_metadata_params, finalize_miniblock_compressor,
+        try_bitpacking_block, try_bitpacking_miniblock, try_byte_stream_split_miniblock,
+        try_child_rle_miniblock, try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock, try_general_block,
+        try_raw_block, try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock, try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock,
+        try_raw_per_value, try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock, try_variable_rle_block,
+        try_variable_width_miniblock, try_variable_width_per_value,
+    },
+    compression_config::{CompressionFieldParams, CompressionParams},
+    data::DataBlock,
+    encodings::logical::primitive::{fullzip::PerValueCompressor, miniblock::MiniBlockCompressor},
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct Strategy {
+    params: CompressionParams,
+}
+
+impl Strategy {
+    pub(super) fn new(params: CompressionParams) -> Self {
+        Self { params }
+    }
+
+    fn field_params(&self, field: &Field) -> CompressionFieldParams {
+        let mut params = self
+            .params
+            .get_field_params(&field.name, &field.data_type());
+        params.merge(&field_metadata_params(field));
+        params
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompressionStrategy for Strategy {
+    fn create_miniblock_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn MiniBlockCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        let compressor =
+            if let Some(compressor) = try_uncompressed_fixed_width_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_byte_stream_split_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_child_rle_miniblock(data, &params) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_width_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_miniblock(field, data, &params)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_fixed_packed_struct_miniblock(data)? {
+                compressor
+            } else if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_fixed_size_list_miniblock(data) {
+                compressor
+            } else {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Mini-block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                        data.name()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            };
+        finalize_miniblock_compressor(data, compressor, &params)
+    }
+
+    fn create_per_value(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn PerValueCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_per_value(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_packed_struct_per_value(Arc::new(self.clone()), field, data)?
+        {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_width_per_value(field, data, &params)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Per-value compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn create_block_compressor(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        data: &DataBlock,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn BlockCompressor>> {
+        let params = self.field_params(field);
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_variable_rle_block(data, &params)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_bitpacking_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_general_block(data, &params)? {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        if let Some(compressor) = try_raw_block(data) {
+            return Ok(compressor);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Block compression not yet supported for block type {}",
+                data.name()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/mod.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..efbd5008ef6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,200 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Lance v2.3 file composition.
+
+use std::{
+    collections::BTreeMap,
+    sync::{
+        Arc,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+};
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression_config::CompressionParams,
+    encoder::{
+        ColumnIndexSequence, EncodedBatch, FieldEncoder, FieldEncodingContext,
+        FieldEncodingStrategy,
+        structural::{
+            PrimitiveFieldEncoding, PrimitivePageEncoding, try_create_binary_blob, try_create_list,
+            try_create_map, try_create_struct, try_create_structural_blob,
+            try_create_structural_fixed_size_list,
+        },
+    },
+};
+use lance_io::traits::Writer as ObjectWriter;
+
+use crate::{
+    reader::{ReadProjection, structural},
+    writer::FileWriterOptions,
+};
+
+mod compression;
+mod reader;
+mod writer;
+
+pub(crate) use reader::{
+    decode_column_metadata, finish_metadata, finish_metadata_index, validate_global_buffers,
+};
+pub use reader::{
+    projection_from_column_names, projection_from_field_ids, projection_from_whole_schema,
+};
+
+pub(crate) fn read_projection() -> Arc<dyn ReadProjection> {
+    structural::read_projection(reader::decode_column)
+}
+pub use writer::Writer;
+
+static WARNED_ON_UNSTABLE_FORMAT: AtomicBool = AtomicBool::new(false);
+
+/// Count physical columns represented by a field in a v2.3 footer.
+pub fn physical_column_count(field: &Field) -> usize {
+    structural::physical_column_count(field)
+}
+
+/// Build persisted field-to-column entries for a v2.3 data file.
+pub fn data_file_columns(schema: &Schema) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
+    structural::data_file_columns(schema)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn field_id_to_column_index(schema: &Schema) -> BTreeMap<u32, u32> {
+    structural::field_id_to_column_index(schema)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FieldStrategy {
+    primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding,
+}
+
+impl FieldEncodingStrategy for FieldStrategy {
+    fn create_field_encoder(
+        &self,
+        field: &Field,
+        column_index: &mut ColumnIndexSequence,
+        context: &FieldEncodingContext<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>> {
+        if let Some(encoder) =
+            try_create_binary_blob(&self.primitive, field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) =
+            try_create_structural_blob(&self.primitive, field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if field.is_blob() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Blob encoding is not available for field '{}' with data type {}",
+                    field.name,
+                    field.data_type()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_map(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_structural_fixed_size_list(field, column_index, context)?
+        {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = self.primitive.try_create(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_list(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        if let Some(encoder) = try_create_struct(field, column_index, context)? {
+            return Ok(encoder);
+        }
+        Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "Lance v2.3 has no field encoding for '{}' with data type {}",
+                field.name,
+                field.data_type()
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compose the v2.3 field encoding mechanisms.
+pub fn encoding_strategy(params: CompressionParams) -> Arc<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy> {
+    let compression = Arc::new(compression::Strategy::new(params));
+    Arc::new(FieldStrategy {
+        primitive: PrimitiveFieldEncoding::new([
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::sparse(compression.clone()),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::constant(),
+            PrimitivePageEncoding::dense_u32(compression),
+        ]),
+    })
+}
+
+fn warn_unstable_format() {
+    if WARNED_ON_UNSTABLE_FORMAT
+        .compare_exchange(false, true, Ordering::Relaxed, Ordering::Relaxed)
+        .is_ok()
+    {
+        log::warn!(
+            "You have requested an unstable format version.  Files written with this format version may not be readable in the future!  This is a development feature and should only be used for experimentation and never for production data."
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.3 writer with an explicit schema.
+pub fn create_writer(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    schema: Schema,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Result<Writer> {
+    warn_unstable_format();
+    Writer::try_new(object_writer, schema, options)
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.3 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+pub fn create_writer_with_compression(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    schema: Schema,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+    compression: CompressionParams,
+) -> Result<Writer> {
+    warn_unstable_format();
+    Writer::try_new_with_compression(object_writer, schema, options, compression)
+}
+
+/// Create a v2.3 writer whose schema is inferred from the first batch.
+pub fn create_lazy_writer(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Writer {
+    warn_unstable_format();
+    Writer::new_lazy(object_writer, options)
+}
+
+/// Create a lazy v2.3 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+pub fn create_lazy_writer_with_compression(
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+    compression: CompressionParams,
+) -> Writer {
+    warn_unstable_format();
+    Writer::new_lazy_with_compression(object_writer, options, compression)
+}
+
+/// Encode a self-described v2.3 batch.
+pub fn encode_self_described_batch(batch: &EncodedBatch) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    writer::concat_lance_footer(batch, true)
+}
+
+/// Encode a mini-lance v2.3 batch.
+pub fn encode_mini_batch(batch: &EncodedBatch) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    writer::concat_lance_footer(batch, false)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/reader.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/reader.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cdafbd0b9db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/reader.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,341 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_encoding::{decoder::ColumnInfo, format::pb21};
+
+use crate::{
+    format::pbfile,
+    reader::{
+        BufferDescriptor, CachedFileMetadata, FileMetadataIndex, RawFileMetadata, ReaderProjection,
+        structural,
+    },
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+};
+
+fn required<'a, T>(value: Option<&'a T>, label: &str) -> Result<&'a T> {
+    value.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Lance v2.3 {label} is missing its nested encoding").into(),
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+fn validate_compressive_encoding(encoding: &pb21::CompressiveEncoding) -> Result<()> {
+    use pb21::compressive_encoding::Compression;
+
+    match encoding.compression.as_ref() {
+        Some(Compression::Flat(_))
+        | Some(Compression::InlineBitpacking(_))
+        | Some(Compression::Constant(_)) => Ok(()),
+        Some(Compression::Variable(variable)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            variable.offsets.as_deref(),
+            "variable offsets",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::OutOfLineBitpacking(bitpacking)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                bitpacking.values.as_deref(),
+                "out-of-line bitpacking values",
+            )?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::Fsst(fsst)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(fsst.values.as_deref(), "FSST values")?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::Dictionary(dictionary)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                dictionary.indices.as_deref(),
+                "dictionary indices",
+            )?)?;
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                dictionary.items.as_deref(),
+                "dictionary items",
+            )?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::Rle(rle)) => {
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(rle.values.as_deref(), "RLE values")?)?;
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(rle.run_lengths.as_deref(), "RLE run lengths")?)
+        }
+        Some(Compression::ByteStreamSplit(split)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            split.values.as_deref(),
+            "byte-stream-split values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::General(general)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            general.values.as_deref(),
+            "general-compression values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::FixedSizeList(list)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            list.values.as_deref(),
+            "fixed-size-list values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::PackedStruct(packed)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            packed.values.as_deref(),
+            "packed-struct values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Compression::VariablePackedStruct(packed)) => {
+            for field in &packed.fields {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                    field.value.as_ref(),
+                    "variable packed-struct field",
+                )?)?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Lance v2.3 compressive encoding is missing its compression variant".into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_sparse_positions(positions: Option<&pb21::SparsePositionSet>) -> Result<()> {
+    use pb21::sparse_position_set::Positions;
+
+    if let Some(Positions::Explicit(encoding)) =
+        positions.and_then(|positions| positions.positions.as_ref())
+    {
+        validate_compressive_encoding(encoding)?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_sparse_validity(validity: Option<&pb21::SparseValiditySet>) -> Result<()> {
+    if let Some(validity) = validity {
+        validate_sparse_positions(validity.positions.as_ref())?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_sparse_layout(layout: &pb21::SparseLayout) -> Result<()> {
+    use pb21::{sparse_count_set::Counts, sparse_structural_layer::Layer};
+
+    if !layout.has_large_chunk {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Lance v2.3 sparse pages require the u32 chunk grammar".into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+        layout.value_compression.as_ref(),
+        "sparse values",
+    )?)?;
+    for layer in &layout.structural_layers {
+        match layer.layer.as_ref() {
+            Some(Layer::Validity(validity)) => {
+                validate_sparse_validity(validity.validity.as_ref())?
+            }
+            Some(Layer::List(list)) => {
+                validate_sparse_positions(list.non_empty_positions.as_ref())?;
+                if let Some(Counts::Explicit(encoding)) = list
+                    .counts
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|counts| counts.counts.as_ref())
+                {
+                    validate_compressive_encoding(encoding)?;
+                }
+                validate_sparse_validity(list.validity.as_ref())?;
+            }
+            Some(Layer::FixedSizeList(list)) => validate_sparse_validity(list.validity.as_ref())?,
+            None => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Lance v2.3 sparse structural layer is missing its layer variant".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_page_layout(layout: &pb21::PageLayout) -> Result<()> {
+    use pb21::page_layout::Layout;
+
+    match layout.layout.as_ref() {
+        Some(Layout::MiniBlockLayout(miniblock)) => {
+            if !miniblock.has_large_chunk {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Lance v2.3 miniblock pages require the u32 chunk grammar".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if let Some(rep) = miniblock.rep_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(rep)?;
+            }
+            if let Some(def) = miniblock.def_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(def)?;
+            }
+            validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+                miniblock.value_compression.as_ref(),
+                "miniblock values",
+            )?)?;
+            if let Some(dictionary) = miniblock.dictionary.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(dictionary)?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Some(Layout::FullZipLayout(fullzip)) => validate_compressive_encoding(required(
+            fullzip.value_compression.as_ref(),
+            "full-zip values",
+        )?),
+        Some(Layout::ConstantLayout(constant)) => {
+            if let Some(rep) = constant.rep_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(rep)?;
+            }
+            if let Some(def) = constant.def_compression.as_ref() {
+                validate_compressive_encoding(def)?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Some(Layout::SparseLayout(sparse)) => validate_sparse_layout(sparse),
+        Some(Layout::BlobLayout(blob)) => {
+            let inner = blob.inner_layout.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Lance v2.3 blob page layout is missing its inner layout".into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            validate_page_layout(inner)
+        }
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Lance v2.3 page is missing its page layout".into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn decode_column(
+    column_index: u32,
+    metadata: &pbfile::ColumnMetadata,
+) -> Result<Arc<ColumnInfo>> {
+    let page_infos = metadata
+        .pages
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(page_index, page)| {
+            let page_layout = structural::decode_page_layout(column_index, page_index, page)?;
+            validate_page_layout(&page_layout)?;
+            structural::build_page_info(column_index, page_index, page, page_layout)
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    structural::build_column_info(column_index, metadata, page_infos)
+}
+
+pub fn decode_column_metadata(
+    column_metadatas: &[pbfile::ColumnMetadata],
+) -> Result<Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>>> {
+    column_metadatas
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(column_index, metadata)| {
+            let column_index = u32::try_from(column_index).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("File has more than u32::MAX columns".into())
+            })?;
+            decode_column(column_index, metadata)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_field_ids(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    field_id_to_column_index: &BTreeMap<u32, u32>,
+) -> ReaderProjection {
+    structural::projection_from_field_ids(schema, field_id_to_column_index)
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_whole_schema(schema: &Schema) -> ReaderProjection {
+    structural::projection_from_field_ids(schema, &super::field_id_to_column_index(schema))
+}
+
+pub fn projection_from_column_names(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    column_names: &[&str],
+) -> Result<ReaderProjection> {
+    structural::projection_from_column_names(
+        schema,
+        column_names,
+        &super::field_id_to_column_index(schema),
+    )
+}
+
+pub fn finish_metadata(raw: RawFileMetadata) -> Result<CachedFileMetadata> {
+    if (raw.footer.major_version, raw.footer.minor_version) != (2, 3) {
+        return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+            "Attempt to use the Lance v2.3 reader for a different file version".to_string(),
+            raw.footer.major_version,
+            raw.footer.minor_version,
+        ));
+    }
+    validate_global_buffers(&raw.file_buffers)?;
+    let column_infos = decode_column_metadata(&raw.column_metadatas)?;
+    Ok(CachedFileMetadata {
+        file_schema: raw.file_schema,
+        column_metadatas: raw.column_metadatas,
+        column_infos,
+        num_rows: raw.num_rows,
+        file_buffers: raw.file_buffers,
+        num_data_bytes: raw.num_data_bytes,
+        num_column_metadata_bytes: raw.num_column_metadata_bytes,
+        num_global_buffer_bytes: raw.num_global_buffer_bytes,
+        num_footer_bytes: raw.num_footer_bytes,
+        major_version: raw.footer.major_version,
+        minor_version: raw.footer.minor_version,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3,
+        file_size_bytes: raw.file_size_bytes,
+        retained_global_buffers: raw.retained_global_buffers,
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn validate_global_buffers(buffers: &[BufferDescriptor]) -> Result<()> {
+    structural::validate_global_buffers(buffers)
+}
+
+pub fn finish_metadata_index(index: FileMetadataIndex) -> Result<FileMetadataIndex> {
+    if index.version != ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 {
+        let (major, minor) = index.version.to_standard_footer_numbers();
+        return Err(Error::version_conflict(
+            "Attempt to use the Lance v2.3 reader for a different metadata index".to_string(),
+            major,
+            minor,
+        ));
+    }
+    validate_global_buffers(&index.file_buffers)?;
+    Ok(index)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod grammar_tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use pb21::{
+        CompressiveEncoding, Dictionary, Flat, FullZipLayout, PageLayout, Rle,
+        compressive_encoding::Compression, page_layout::Layout,
+    };
+
+    fn flat(bits_per_value: u64) -> CompressiveEncoding {
+        CompressiveEncoding {
+            compression: Some(Compression::Flat(Flat {
+                bits_per_value,
+                data: None,
+            })),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn accepts_nested_variable_width_rle() {
+        let rle = CompressiveEncoding {
+            compression: Some(Compression::Rle(Box::new(Rle {
+                values: Some(Box::new(flat(32))),
+                run_lengths: Some(Box::new(flat(16))),
+            }))),
+        };
+        let dictionary = CompressiveEncoding {
+            compression: Some(Compression::Dictionary(Box::new(Dictionary {
+                indices: Some(Box::new(rle)),
+                items: Some(Box::new(flat(32))),
+                num_dictionary_items: 1,
+            }))),
+        };
+        let layout = PageLayout {
+            layout: Some(Layout::FullZipLayout(FullZipLayout {
+                value_compression: Some(dictionary),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })),
+        };
+
+        validate_page_layout(&layout).unwrap();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/writer.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/writer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cfe2c789cce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/versions/v2_3/writer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use bytes::{BufMut, Bytes};
+use lance_core::{Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    compression_config::CompressionParams,
+    encoder::{BatchEncoder, EncodedBatch},
+};
+use lance_io::{object_store::ObjectStore, traits::Writer as ObjectWriter};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+use crate::{
+    format::{MAGIC, pbfile},
+    writer::{
+        FileWriteSummary, FileWriterOptions,
+        structural::{EncodedBatchBody, EncodingPipeline, StructuralFileSink, encode_batch_body},
+    },
+};
+
+use super::encoding_strategy;
+
+/// A writer for the Lance v2.3 file grammar.
+///
+/// The concrete writer owns the v2.3 encoding composition, finish ordering,
+/// and exact footer identity. Shared components only execute the structural
+/// encoding and I/O mechanisms selected here.
+pub struct Writer {
+    sink: StructuralFileSink,
+    encoding: EncodingPipeline,
+    compression: CompressionParams,
+}
+
+impl Writer {
+    /// Create a v2.3 writer with an explicit schema.
+    pub fn try_new(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        schema: Schema,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_new_with_compression(object_writer, schema, options, Default::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Create a v2.3 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+    pub fn try_new_with_compression(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        schema: Schema,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+        compression: CompressionParams,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut writer = Self::new_lazy_with_compression(object_writer, options, compression);
+        writer.initialize(schema)?;
+        Ok(writer)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a v2.3 writer whose schema is inferred from the first batch.
+    pub fn new_lazy(object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>, options: FileWriterOptions) -> Self {
+        Self::new_lazy_with_compression(object_writer, options, Default::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Create a lazy v2.3 writer with explicit compression tuning.
+    pub fn new_lazy_with_compression(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+        compression: CompressionParams,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            sink: StructuralFileSink::new(object_writer),
+            encoding: EncodingPipeline::new(options),
+            compression,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn initialize(&mut self, schema: Schema) -> Result<()> {
+        self.encoding.validate_options()?;
+        let encoding_options = self.encoding.encoding_options(&schema);
+        schema.validate()?;
+        let strategy = encoding_strategy(self.compression.clone());
+        let encoder = BatchEncoder::try_new(&schema, strategy.as_ref(), &encoding_options)?;
+        self.encoding.initialize(schema, encoder, &mut self.sink);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_initialized(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.encoding.is_initialized() {
+            self.initialize(Schema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref())?)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Spill page metadata to a sidecar file instead of retaining it in memory.
+    pub fn with_page_metadata_spill(mut self, object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path) -> Self {
+        self.sink.with_page_metadata_spill(object_store, path);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Schedule batches to be written in iteration order.
+    pub async fn write_batches(
+        &mut self,
+        batches: impl Iterator<Item = &RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        for batch in batches {
+            self.write_batch(batch).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Schedule one record batch for writing.
+    pub async fn write_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        self.ensure_initialized(batch)?;
+        self.encoding.write_batch(batch, &mut self.sink).await
+    }
+
+    /// Write one top-level field, advancing only that field's row count.
+    pub async fn write_column(&mut self, column_index: usize, array: ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        self.encoding
+            .write_column(column_index, array, &mut self.sink)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Append a buffer whose page or column metadata is supplied externally.
+    pub async fn write_external_buffer(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        self.sink.write_external_buffer(bytes).await
+    }
+
+    /// Add an entry to the schema metadata written in the file descriptor.
+    pub fn add_schema_metadata(&mut self, key: impl Into<String>, value: impl Into<String>) {
+        self.encoding.add_schema_metadata(key, value);
+    }
+
+    /// Prepare the writer for encoded column data produced externally.
+    pub fn initialize_with_external_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        schema: Schema,
+        column_metadata: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
+        rows_written: u64,
+    ) {
+        self.encoding
+            .initialize_with_external_metadata(schema, rows_written);
+        self.sink.initialize_with_external_metadata(column_metadata);
+    }
+
+    /// Add an arbitrary global buffer and return its one-based index.
+    pub async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, buffer: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        self.sink.add_global_buffer(buffer).await
+    }
+
+    /// Finish the v2.3 file and close its object writer.
+    pub async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<FileWriteSummary> {
+        // The order below is the v2.3 wire contract.
+        self.encoding.flush(&mut self.sink).await?;
+        self.encoding.finish_encoders(&mut self.sink).await?;
+
+        let descriptor = self.encoding.make_file_descriptor()?;
+        let global_buffer_offsets = self.sink.write_global_buffers(descriptor).await?;
+        let num_global_buffers = global_buffer_offsets.len() as u32;
+
+        let column_metadata_start = self.sink.tell().await?;
+        let column_metadata_offsets = self.sink.write_column_metadatas().await?;
+        let column_metadata_offsets_start = self
+            .sink
+            .write_offset_table(&column_metadata_offsets)
+            .await?;
+        let global_buffer_offsets_start =
+            self.sink.write_offset_table(&global_buffer_offsets).await?;
+        let num_columns = self.sink.num_columns();
+
+        let output = self.sink.output_mut();
+        output.write_u64_le(column_metadata_start).await?;
+        output.write_u64_le(column_metadata_offsets_start).await?;
+        output.write_u64_le(global_buffer_offsets_start).await?;
+        output.write_u32_le(num_global_buffers).await?;
+        output.write_u32_le(num_columns).await?;
+        output.write_u16_le(2).await?;
+        output.write_u16_le(3).await?;
+        output.write_all(MAGIC).await?;
+
+        Ok(FileWriteSummary {
+            num_rows: self.encoding.rows_written(),
+            size_bytes: self.sink.shutdown().await?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Abandon this write.
+    pub async fn abort(&mut self) {
+        // Dropping a multipart ObjectWriter aborts the upload.
+    }
+
+    /// Return the current object-writer position.
+    pub async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.sink.tell().await
+    }
+
+    /// Return the field-id to physical-column mapping selected by v2.3.
+    pub fn field_id_to_column_indices(&self) -> &[(u32, u32)] {
+        self.encoding.field_id_to_column_indices()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Append a self-described or mini-lance v2.3 footer to an encoded batch.
+pub fn concat_lance_footer(batch: &EncodedBatch, write_schema: bool) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    let EncodedBatchBody {
+        mut data,
+        column_metadata_start,
+        column_metadata_offsets_start,
+        global_buffer_offsets_start,
+        num_global_buffers,
+        num_columns,
+    } = encode_batch_body(batch, write_schema)?;
+
+    data.put_u64_le(column_metadata_start);
+    data.put_u64_le(column_metadata_offsets_start);
+    data.put_u64_le(global_buffer_offsets_start);
+    data.put_u32_le(num_global_buffers);
+    data.put_u32_le(num_columns);
+    data.put_u16_le(2);
+    data.put_u16_le(3);
+    data.extend_from_slice(MAGIC);
+    Ok(data.freeze())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/writer.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/writer.rs
index d4bdd996573..c7e2dca88ac 100644
--- a/rust/lance-file/src/writer.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/writer.rs
@@ -1,257 +1,163 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use core::panic;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-
-use arrow_data::ArrayData;
-use bytes::{BufMut, Bytes, BytesMut};
-use futures::stream::FuturesOrdered;
-use futures::StreamExt;
-use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema as LanceSchema};
-use lance_core::utils::bit::pad_bytes;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_encoding::decoder::PageEncoding;
-use lance_encoding::encoder::{
-    default_encoding_strategy, BatchEncoder, EncodeTask, EncodedBatch, EncodedPage,
-    EncodingOptions, FieldEncoder, FieldEncodingStrategy, OutOfLineBuffers,
-};
-use lance_encoding::repdef::RepDefBuilder;
-use lance_encoding::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_encoding::decoder::{ColumnInfo, PageEncoding};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use lance_io::object_writer::ObjectWriter;
-use lance_io::traits::Writer;
-use log::{debug, warn};
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
 use prost_types::Any;
-use snafu::location;
-use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
-use tracing::instrument;
 
-use crate::datatypes::FieldsWithMeta;
-use crate::format::pb;
-use crate::format::pbfile;
-use crate::format::pbfile::DirectEncoding;
-use crate::format::MAGIC;
+use crate::{format::pbfile, versions};
+
+mod field_types;
+pub(crate) mod structural;
 
-/// Pages buffers are aligned to 64 bytes
+pub(crate) use field_types::ExpectedTypes;
+pub use field_types::FieldTypeMismatch;
+
+/// Page buffers in current Lance files are aligned to 64 bytes.
 pub(crate) const PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT: usize = 64;
-const PAD_BUFFER: [u8; PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT] = [72; PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT];
-// In 2.1+, we split large pages on read instead of write to avoid empty pages
-// and small pages issues. However, we keep the write-time limit at 32MB to avoid
-// potential regressions in 2.0 format readers.
-//
-// This limit is not applied in the 2.1 writer
-const MAX_PAGE_BYTES: usize = 32 * 1024 * 1024;
-const ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES: &str = "LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES";
+pub(crate) const ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES: &str = "LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES";
+
+/// Summary of a completed Lance file write.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct FileWriteSummary {
+    /// The number of rows written to the file.
+    pub num_rows: u64,
+    /// The final size of the file in bytes.
+    pub size_bytes: u64,
+}
 
+/// Runtime options shared by all current-format writers.
+///
+/// These options control buffering and execution only. Select the file grammar
+/// by constructing a writer under [`crate::versions`].
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
 pub struct FileWriterOptions {
-    /// How many bytes to use for buffering column data
+    /// How many bytes to use for buffering column data.
     ///
-    /// When data comes in small batches the writer will buffer column data so that
-    /// larger pages can be created.  This value will be divided evenly across all of the
-    /// columns.  Generally you want this to be at least large enough to match your
-    /// filesystem's ideal read size per column.
-    ///
-    /// In some cases you might want this value to be even larger if you have highly
-    /// compressible data.  However, if this is too large, then the writer could require
-    /// a lot of memory and write performance may suffer if the CPU-expensive encoding
-    /// falls behind and can't be interleaved with the I/O expensive flushing.
-    ///
-    /// The default will use 8MiB per column which should be reasonable for most cases.
-    // TODO: Do we need to be able to set this on a per-column basis?
+    /// The budget is divided evenly across columns. The default is 8 MiB per
+    /// column.
     pub data_cache_bytes: Option<u64>,
-    /// A hint to indicate the max size of a page
-    ///
-    /// This hint can't always be respected.  A single value could be larger than this value
-    /// and we never slice single values.  In addition, there are some cases where it can be
-    /// difficult to know size up-front and so we might not be able to respect this value.
+    /// A best-effort maximum encoded page size.
     pub max_page_bytes: Option<u64>,
-    /// The file writer buffers columns until enough data has arrived to flush a page
-    /// to disk.
-    ///
-    /// Some columns with small data types may not flush very often.  These arrays can
-    /// stick around for a long time.  These arrays might also be keeping larger data
-    /// structures alive.  By default, the writer will make a deep copy of this array
-    /// to avoid any potential memory leaks.  However, this can be disabled for a
-    /// (probably minor) performance boost if you are sure that arrays are not keeping
-    /// any sibling structures alive (this typically means the array was allocated in
-    /// the same language / runtime as the writer)
+    /// Keep input arrays instead of copying buffered slices.
     ///
-    /// Do not enable this if your data is arriving from the C data interface.
-    /// Data typically arrives one "batch" at a time (encoded in the C data interface
-    /// as a struct array).  Each array in that batch keeps the entire batch alive.
-    /// This means a small boolean array (which we will buffer in memory for quite a
-    /// while) might keep a much larger record batch around in memory (even though most
-    /// of that batch's data has been written to disk)
+    /// Do not enable this for arrays arriving through the Arrow C data
+    /// interface because a small child array can keep an entire batch alive.
     pub keep_original_array: Option<bool>,
-    pub encoding_strategy: Option<Arc<dyn FieldEncodingStrategy>>,
-    /// The format version to use when writing the file
-    ///
-    /// This controls which encodings will be used when encoding the data.  Newer
-    /// versions may have more efficient encodings.  However, newer format versions will
-    /// require more up-to-date readers to read the data.
-    pub format_version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
-}
-
-pub struct FileWriter {
-    writer: ObjectWriter,
-    schema: Option<LanceSchema>,
-    column_writers: Vec<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>,
-    column_metadata: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
-    field_id_to_column_indices: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
-    num_columns: u32,
-    rows_written: u64,
-    global_buffers: Vec<(u64, u64)>,
-    schema_metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
-    options: FileWriterOptions,
 }
 
-fn initial_column_metadata() -> pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
-    pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
-        pages: Vec::new(),
-        buffer_offsets: Vec::new(),
-        buffer_sizes: Vec::new(),
-        encoding: None,
+impl FileWriterOptions {
+    pub(crate) fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.max_page_bytes == Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "max_page_bytes must be greater than 0, got 0",
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 }
 
-static WARNED_ON_UNSTABLE_API: AtomicBool = AtomicBool::new(false);
-
-impl FileWriter {
-    /// Create a new FileWriter with a desired output schema
-    pub fn try_new(
-        object_writer: ObjectWriter,
-        schema: LanceSchema,
-        options: FileWriterOptions,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let mut writer = Self::new_lazy(object_writer, options);
-        writer.initialize(schema)?;
-        Ok(writer)
-    }
+/// A type-erased current-format file writer.
+///
+/// This enum exists for callers that select a concrete file version at
+/// runtime. Each variant owns the complete implementation for exactly one file
+/// grammar; this type only forwards operations without adding format policy.
+pub enum FileWriter {
+    V2_0(Box<versions::v2_0::Writer>),
+    V2_1(Box<versions::v2_1::Writer>),
+    V2_2(Box<versions::v2_2::Writer>),
+    V2_3(Box<versions::v2_3::Writer>),
+}
 
-    /// Create a new FileWriter without a desired output schema
-    ///
-    /// The output schema will be set based on the first batch of data to arrive.
-    /// If no data arrives and the writer is finished then the write will fail.
-    pub fn new_lazy(object_writer: ObjectWriter, options: FileWriterOptions) -> Self {
-        if let Some(format_version) = options.format_version {
-            if format_version.is_unstable()
-                && WARNED_ON_UNSTABLE_API
-                    .compare_exchange(
-                        false,
-                        true,
-                        std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed,
-                        std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed,
-                    )
-                    .is_ok()
-            {
-                warn!("You have requested an unstable format version.  Files written with this format version may not be readable in the future!  This is a development feature and should only be used for experimentation and never for production data.");
-            }
-        }
-        Self {
-            writer: object_writer,
-            schema: None,
-            column_writers: Vec::new(),
-            column_metadata: Vec::new(),
-            num_columns: 0,
-            rows_written: 0,
-            field_id_to_column_indices: Vec::new(),
-            global_buffers: Vec::new(),
-            schema_metadata: HashMap::new(),
-            options,
-        }
-    }
+fn column_info_to_metadata(column: &ColumnInfo) -> Result<pbfile::ColumnMetadata> {
+    let pages = column
+        .page_infos
+        .iter()
+        .map(|page| {
+            let encoding = match &page.encoding {
+                PageEncoding::Legacy(encoding) => Any::from_msg(encoding)?.encode_to_vec(),
+                PageEncoding::Structural(encoding) => Any::from_msg(encoding)?.encode_to_vec(),
+            };
+            let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes) =
+                page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().copied().unzip();
+            Ok(pbfile::column_metadata::Page {
+                buffer_offsets,
+                buffer_sizes,
+                encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
+                    location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(pbfile::DirectEncoding {
+                        encoding,
+                    })),
+                }),
+                length: page.num_rows,
+                priority: page.priority,
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes) = column.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().copied().unzip();
+    let encoding = Any::from_msg(&column.encoding)?.encode_to_vec();
+    Ok(pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
+        pages,
+        buffer_offsets,
+        buffer_sizes,
+        encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
+            location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(pbfile::DirectEncoding {
+                encoding,
+            })),
+        }),
+    })
+}
 
-    /// Write a series of record batches to a new file
-    ///
-    /// Returns the number of rows written
-    pub async fn create_file_with_batches(
-        store: &ObjectStore,
-        path: &Path,
-        schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
-        batches: impl Iterator<Item = RecordBatch> + Send,
-        options: FileWriterOptions,
-    ) -> Result<usize> {
-        let writer = store.create(path).await?;
-        let mut writer = Self::try_new(writer, schema, options)?;
-        for batch in batches {
-            writer.write_batch(&batch).await?;
-        }
-        Ok(writer.finish().await? as usize)
+impl From<versions::v2_0::Writer> for FileWriter {
+    fn from(writer: versions::v2_0::Writer) -> Self {
+        Self::V2_0(Box::new(writer))
     }
+}
 
-    async fn do_write_buffer(writer: &mut ObjectWriter, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
-        writer.write_all(buf).await?;
-        let pad_bytes = pad_bytes::<PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT>(buf.len());
-        writer.write_all(&PAD_BUFFER[..pad_bytes]).await?;
-        Ok(())
+impl From<versions::v2_1::Writer> for FileWriter {
+    fn from(writer: versions::v2_1::Writer) -> Self {
+        Self::V2_1(Box::new(writer))
     }
+}
 
-    /// Returns the format version that will be used when writing the file
-    pub fn version(&self) -> LanceFileVersion {
-        self.options.format_version.unwrap_or_default()
+impl From<versions::v2_2::Writer> for FileWriter {
+    fn from(writer: versions::v2_2::Writer) -> Self {
+        Self::V2_2(Box::new(writer))
     }
+}
 
-    async fn write_page(&mut self, encoded_page: EncodedPage) -> Result<()> {
-        let buffers = encoded_page.data;
-        let mut buffer_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(buffers.len());
-        let mut buffer_sizes = Vec::with_capacity(buffers.len());
-        for buffer in buffers {
-            buffer_offsets.push(self.writer.tell().await? as u64);
-            buffer_sizes.push(buffer.len() as u64);
-            Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &buffer).await?;
-        }
-        let encoded_encoding = match encoded_page.description {
-            PageEncoding::Legacy(array_encoding) => Any::from_msg(&array_encoding)?.encode_to_vec(),
-            PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout) => Any::from_msg(&page_layout)?.encode_to_vec(),
-        };
-        let page = pbfile::column_metadata::Page {
-            buffer_offsets,
-            buffer_sizes,
-            encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
-                location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(DirectEncoding {
-                    encoding: encoded_encoding,
-                })),
-            }),
-            length: encoded_page.num_rows,
-            priority: encoded_page.row_number,
-        };
-        self.column_metadata[encoded_page.column_idx as usize]
-            .pages
-            .push(page);
-        Ok(())
+impl From<versions::v2_3::Writer> for FileWriter {
+    fn from(writer: versions::v2_3::Writer) -> Self {
+        Self::V2_3(Box::new(writer))
     }
+}
 
-    #[instrument(skip_all, level = "debug")]
-    async fn write_pages(&mut self, mut encoding_tasks: FuturesOrdered<EncodeTask>) -> Result<()> {
-        // As soon as an encoding task is done we write it.  There is no parallelism
-        // needed here because "writing" is really just submitting the buffer to the
-        // underlying write scheduler (either the OS or object_store's scheduler for
-        // cloud writes).  The only time we might truly await on write_page is if the
-        // scheduler's write queue is full.
-        //
-        // Also, there is no point in trying to make write_page parallel anyways
-        // because we wouldn't want buffers getting mixed up across pages.
-        while let Some(encoding_task) = encoding_tasks.next().await {
-            let encoded_page = encoding_task?;
-            self.write_page(encoded_page).await?;
+impl FileWriter {
+    /// Spill page metadata to a sidecar file.
+    pub fn with_page_metadata_spill(self, object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path) -> Self {
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => Self::V2_0(Box::new(
+                (*writer).with_page_metadata_spill(object_store, path),
+            )),
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => Self::V2_1(Box::new(
+                (*writer).with_page_metadata_spill(object_store, path),
+            )),
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => Self::V2_2(Box::new(
+                (*writer).with_page_metadata_spill(object_store, path),
+            )),
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => Self::V2_3(Box::new(
+                (*writer).with_page_metadata_spill(object_store, path),
+            )),
         }
-        // It's important to flush here, we don't know when the next batch will arrive
-        // and the underlying cloud store could have writes in progress that won't advance
-        // until we interact with the writer again.  These in-progress writes will time out
-        // if we don't flush.
-        self.writer.flush().await?;
-        Ok(())
     }
 
-    /// Schedule batches of data to be written to the file
+    /// Schedule batches of data to be written to the file.
     pub async fn write_batches(
         &mut self,
         batches: impl Iterator<Item = &RecordBatch>,
@@ -262,1214 +168,127 @@ impl FileWriter {
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn verify_field_nullability(arr: &ArrayData, field: &Field) -> Result<()> {
-        if !field.nullable && arr.null_count() > 0 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("The field `{}` contained null values even though the field is marked non-null in the schema", field.name), location!()));
-        }
-
-        for (child_field, child_arr) in field.children.iter().zip(arr.child_data()) {
-            Self::verify_field_nullability(child_arr, child_field)?;
+    /// Schedule a batch of data to be written to the file.
+    pub async fn write_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => writer.write_batch(batch).await,
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => writer.write_batch(batch).await,
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => writer.write_batch(batch).await,
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => writer.write_batch(batch).await,
         }
-
-        Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn verify_nullability_constraints(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
-        for (col, field) in batch
-            .columns()
-            .iter()
-            .zip(self.schema.as_ref().unwrap().fields.iter())
-        {
-            Self::verify_field_nullability(&col.to_data(), field)?;
+    /// Write one top-level column.
+    pub async fn write_column(&mut self, column_index: usize, array: ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => writer.write_column(column_index, array).await,
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => writer.write_column(column_index, array).await,
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => writer.write_column(column_index, array).await,
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => writer.write_column(column_index, array).await,
         }
-        Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn initialize(&mut self, mut schema: LanceSchema) -> Result<()> {
-        let cache_bytes_per_column = if let Some(data_cache_bytes) = self.options.data_cache_bytes {
-            data_cache_bytes / schema.fields.len() as u64
-        } else {
-            8 * 1024 * 1024
-        };
-
-        let max_page_bytes = self.options.max_page_bytes.unwrap_or_else(|| {
-            std::env::var(ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES)
-                .map(|s| {
-                    s.parse::<u64>().unwrap_or_else(|e| {
-                        warn!(
-                            "Failed to parse {}: {}, using default",
-                            ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, e
-                        );
-                        MAX_PAGE_BYTES as u64
-                    })
-                })
-                .unwrap_or(MAX_PAGE_BYTES as u64)
-        });
-
-        schema.validate()?;
-
-        let keep_original_array = self.options.keep_original_array.unwrap_or(false);
-        let encoding_strategy = self.options.encoding_strategy.clone().unwrap_or_else(|| {
-            let version = self.version();
-            default_encoding_strategy(version).into()
-        });
-
-        let encoding_options = EncodingOptions {
-            cache_bytes_per_column,
-            max_page_bytes,
-            keep_original_array,
-            buffer_alignment: PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64,
-            version: self.version(),
-        };
-        let encoder =
-            BatchEncoder::try_new(&schema, encoding_strategy.as_ref(), &encoding_options)?;
-        self.num_columns = encoder.num_columns();
-
-        self.column_writers = encoder.field_encoders;
-        self.column_metadata = vec![initial_column_metadata(); self.num_columns as usize];
-        self.field_id_to_column_indices = encoder.field_id_to_column_index;
-        self.schema_metadata
-            .extend(std::mem::take(&mut schema.metadata));
-        self.schema = Some(schema);
-        Ok(())
+    /// Append a buffer whose page or column metadata is supplied externally.
+    pub async fn write_external_buffer(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => writer.write_external_buffer(bytes).await,
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => writer.write_external_buffer(bytes).await,
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => writer.write_external_buffer(bytes).await,
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => writer.write_external_buffer(bytes).await,
+        }
     }
 
-    fn ensure_initialized(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<&LanceSchema> {
-        if self.schema.is_none() {
-            let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref())?;
-            self.initialize(schema)?;
+    /// Add a metadata entry to the schema.
+    pub fn add_schema_metadata(&mut self, key: impl Into<String>, value: impl Into<String>) {
+        let key = key.into();
+        let value = value.into();
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => writer.add_schema_metadata(key, value),
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => writer.add_schema_metadata(key, value),
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => writer.add_schema_metadata(key, value),
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => writer.add_schema_metadata(key, value),
         }
-        Ok(self.schema.as_ref().unwrap())
     }
 
-    #[instrument(skip_all, level = "debug")]
-    fn encode_batch(
+    /// Prepare a writer from encoded columns whose buffers were produced externally.
+    pub fn initialize_with_external_columns(
         &mut self,
-        batch: &RecordBatch,
-        external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<Vec<EncodeTask>>> {
-        self.schema
-            .as_ref()
-            .unwrap()
-            .fields
+        schema: Schema,
+        columns: &[Arc<ColumnInfo>],
+        rows_written: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let column_metadata = columns
             .iter()
-            .zip(self.column_writers.iter_mut())
-            .map(|(field, column_writer)| {
-                let array = batch
-                    .column_by_name(&field.name)
-                    .ok_or(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!(
-                            "Cannot write batch.  The batch was missing the column `{}`",
-                            field.name
-                        )
-                        .into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-                let repdef = RepDefBuilder::default();
-                let num_rows = array.len() as u64;
-                column_writer.maybe_encode(
-                    array.clone(),
-                    external_buffers,
-                    repdef,
-                    self.rows_written,
-                    num_rows,
-                )
-            })
-            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
-    }
-
-    /// Schedule a batch of data to be written to the file
-    ///
-    /// Note: the future returned by this method may complete before the data has been fully
-    /// flushed to the file (some data may be in the data cache or the I/O cache)
-    pub async fn write_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
-        debug!(
-            "write_batch called with {} rows, {} columns, and {} bytes of data",
-            batch.num_rows(),
-            batch.num_columns(),
-            batch.get_array_memory_size()
-        );
-        self.ensure_initialized(batch)?;
-        self.verify_nullability_constraints(batch)?;
-        let num_rows = batch.num_rows() as u64;
-        if num_rows == 0 {
-            return Ok(());
-        }
-        if num_rows > u32::MAX as u64 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "cannot write Lance files with more than 2^32 rows".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-        // First we push each array into its column writer.  This may or may not generate enough
-        // data to trigger an encoding task.  We collect any encoding tasks into a queue.
-        let mut external_buffers =
-            OutOfLineBuffers::new(self.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
-        let encoding_tasks = self.encode_batch(batch, &mut external_buffers)?;
-        // Next, write external buffers
-        for external_buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
-            Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &external_buffer).await?;
-        }
-
-        let encoding_tasks = encoding_tasks
-            .into_iter()
-            .flatten()
-            .collect::<FuturesOrdered<_>>();
-
-        self.rows_written = match self.rows_written.checked_add(batch.num_rows() as u64) {
-            Some(rows_written) => rows_written,
-            None => {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput { source: format!("cannot write batch with {} rows because {} rows have already been written and Lance files cannot contain more than 2^64 rows", num_rows, self.rows_written).into(), location: location!() });
+            .map(|column| column_info_to_metadata(column))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => {
+                writer.initialize_with_external_metadata(schema, column_metadata, rows_written)
             }
-        };
-
-        self.write_pages(encoding_tasks).await?;
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    async fn write_column_metadata(
-        &mut self,
-        metadata: pbfile::ColumnMetadata,
-    ) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
-        let metadata_bytes = metadata.encode_to_vec();
-        let position = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
-        let len = metadata_bytes.len() as u64;
-        self.writer.write_all(&metadata_bytes).await?;
-        Ok((position, len))
-    }
-
-    async fn write_column_metadatas(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<(u64, u64)>> {
-        let mut metadatas = Vec::new();
-        std::mem::swap(&mut self.column_metadata, &mut metadatas);
-        let mut metadata_positions = Vec::with_capacity(metadatas.len());
-        for metadata in metadatas {
-            metadata_positions.push(self.write_column_metadata(metadata).await?);
-        }
-        Ok(metadata_positions)
-    }
-
-    fn make_file_descriptor(
-        schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
-        num_rows: u64,
-    ) -> Result<pb::FileDescriptor> {
-        let fields_with_meta = FieldsWithMeta::from(schema);
-        Ok(pb::FileDescriptor {
-            schema: Some(pb::Schema {
-                fields: fields_with_meta.fields.0,
-                metadata: fields_with_meta.metadata,
-            }),
-            length: num_rows,
-        })
-    }
-
-    async fn write_global_buffers(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<(u64, u64)>> {
-        let schema = self.schema.as_mut().ok_or(Error::invalid_input("No schema provided on writer open and no data provided.  Schema is unknown and file cannot be created", location!()))?;
-        schema.metadata = std::mem::take(&mut self.schema_metadata);
-        // Use descriptor layout for blob v2 in the footer to avoid exposing logical child fields.
-        //
-        // TODO(xuanwo): this doesn't work on nested struct, need better solution like fields_per_order_mut?
-        schema.fields.iter_mut().for_each(|f| {
-            if f.is_blob_v2() {
-                f.unloaded_mut();
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => {
+                writer.initialize_with_external_metadata(schema, column_metadata, rows_written)
             }
-        });
-
-        let file_descriptor = Self::make_file_descriptor(schema, self.rows_written)?;
-        let file_descriptor_bytes = file_descriptor.encode_to_vec();
-        let file_descriptor_len = file_descriptor_bytes.len() as u64;
-        let file_descriptor_position = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
-        self.writer.write_all(&file_descriptor_bytes).await?;
-        let mut gbo_table = Vec::with_capacity(1 + self.global_buffers.len());
-        gbo_table.push((file_descriptor_position, file_descriptor_len));
-        gbo_table.append(&mut self.global_buffers);
-        Ok(gbo_table)
-    }
-
-    /// Add a metadata entry to the schema
-    ///
-    /// This method is useful because sometimes the metadata is not known until after the
-    /// data has been written.  This method allows you to alter the schema metadata.  It
-    /// must be called before `finish` is called.
-    pub fn add_schema_metadata(&mut self, key: impl Into<String>, value: impl Into<String>) {
-        self.schema_metadata.insert(key.into(), value.into());
-    }
-
-    /// Prepare the writer when column data and metadata were produced externally.
-    ///
-    /// This is useful for flows that copy already-encoded pages (e.g., binary copy
-    /// during compaction) where the column buffers have been written directly and we
-    /// only need to write the footer and schema metadata. The provided
-    /// `column_metadata` must describe the buffers already persisted by the
-    /// underlying `ObjectWriter`, and `rows_written` should reflect the total number
-    /// of rows in those buffers.
-    pub fn initialize_with_external_metadata(
-        &mut self,
-        schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
-        column_metadata: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
-        rows_written: u64,
-    ) {
-        self.schema = Some(schema);
-        self.num_columns = column_metadata.len() as u32;
-        self.column_metadata = column_metadata;
-        self.rows_written = rows_written;
-    }
-
-    /// Adds a global buffer to the file
-    ///
-    /// The global buffer can contain any arbitrary bytes.  It will be written to the disk
-    /// immediately.  This method returns the index of the global buffer (this will always
-    /// start at 1 and increment by 1 each time this method is called)
-    pub async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, buffer: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
-        let position = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
-        let len = buffer.len() as u64;
-        Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &buffer).await?;
-        self.global_buffers.push((position, len));
-        Ok(self.global_buffers.len() as u32)
-    }
-
-    async fn finish_writers(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut col_idx = 0;
-        for mut writer in std::mem::take(&mut self.column_writers) {
-            let mut external_buffers =
-                OutOfLineBuffers::new(self.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
-            let columns = writer.finish(&mut external_buffers).await?;
-            for buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
-                self.writer.write_all(&buffer).await?;
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => {
+                writer.initialize_with_external_metadata(schema, column_metadata, rows_written)
             }
-            debug_assert_eq!(
-                columns.len(),
-                writer.num_columns() as usize,
-                "Expected {} columns from column at index {} and got {}",
-                writer.num_columns(),
-                col_idx,
-                columns.len()
-            );
-            for column in columns {
-                for page in column.final_pages {
-                    self.write_page(page).await?;
-                }
-                let column_metadata = &mut self.column_metadata[col_idx];
-                let mut buffer_pos = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
-                for buffer in column.column_buffers {
-                    column_metadata.buffer_offsets.push(buffer_pos);
-                    let mut size = 0;
-                    Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &buffer).await?;
-                    size += buffer.len() as u64;
-                    buffer_pos += size;
-                    column_metadata.buffer_sizes.push(size);
-                }
-                let encoded_encoding = Any::from_msg(&column.encoding)?.encode_to_vec();
-                column_metadata.encoding = Some(pbfile::Encoding {
-                    location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(pbfile::DirectEncoding {
-                        encoding: encoded_encoding,
-                    })),
-                });
-                col_idx += 1;
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => {
+                writer.initialize_with_external_metadata(schema, column_metadata, rows_written)
             }
         }
-        if col_idx != self.column_metadata.len() {
-            panic!(
-                "Column writers finished with {} columns but we expected {}",
-                col_idx,
-                self.column_metadata.len()
-            );
-        }
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    /// Converts self.version (which is a mix of "software version" and
-    /// "format version" into a format version)
-    fn version_to_numbers(&self) -> (u16, u16) {
-        let version = self.options.format_version.unwrap_or_default();
-        match version.resolve() {
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_0 => (0, 3),
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1 => (2, 1),
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_2 => (2, 2),
-            _ => panic!("Unsupported version: {}", version),
+    /// Add an arbitrary global buffer and return its one-based index.
+    pub async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, buffer: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => writer.add_global_buffer(buffer).await,
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => writer.add_global_buffer(buffer).await,
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => writer.add_global_buffer(buffer).await,
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => writer.add_global_buffer(buffer).await,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Finishes writing the file
-    ///
-    /// This method will wait until all data has been flushed to the file.  Then it
-    /// will write the file metadata and the footer.  It will not return until all
-    /// data has been flushed and the file has been closed.
-    ///
-    /// Returns the total number of rows written
-    pub async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
-        // 1. flush any remaining data and write out those pages
-        let mut external_buffers =
-            OutOfLineBuffers::new(self.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
-        let encoding_tasks = self
-            .column_writers
-            .iter_mut()
-            .map(|writer| writer.flush(&mut external_buffers))
-            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-        for external_buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
-            Self::do_write_buffer(&mut self.writer, &external_buffer).await?;
-        }
-        let encoding_tasks = encoding_tasks
-            .into_iter()
-            .flatten()
-            .collect::<FuturesOrdered<_>>();
-        self.write_pages(encoding_tasks).await?;
-
-        if !self.column_writers.is_empty() {
-            self.finish_writers().await?;
-        }
-
-        // 3. write global buffers (we write the schema here)
-        let global_buffer_offsets = self.write_global_buffers().await?;
-        let num_global_buffers = global_buffer_offsets.len() as u32;
-
-        // 4. write the column metadatas
-        let column_metadata_start = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
-        let metadata_positions = self.write_column_metadatas().await?;
-
-        // 5. write the column metadata offset table
-        let cmo_table_start = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
-        for (meta_pos, meta_len) in metadata_positions {
-            self.writer.write_u64_le(meta_pos).await?;
-            self.writer.write_u64_le(meta_len).await?;
-        }
-
-        // 6. write global buffers offset table
-        let gbo_table_start = self.writer.tell().await? as u64;
-        for (gbo_pos, gbo_len) in global_buffer_offsets {
-            self.writer.write_u64_le(gbo_pos).await?;
-            self.writer.write_u64_le(gbo_len).await?;
+    /// Finish the file and close its object writer.
+    pub async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<FileWriteSummary> {
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => writer.finish().await,
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => writer.finish().await,
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => writer.finish().await,
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => writer.finish().await,
         }
-
-        let (major, minor) = self.version_to_numbers();
-        // 7. write the footer
-        self.writer.write_u64_le(column_metadata_start).await?;
-        self.writer.write_u64_le(cmo_table_start).await?;
-        self.writer.write_u64_le(gbo_table_start).await?;
-        self.writer.write_u32_le(num_global_buffers).await?;
-        self.writer.write_u32_le(self.num_columns).await?;
-        self.writer.write_u16_le(major).await?;
-        self.writer.write_u16_le(minor).await?;
-        self.writer.write_all(MAGIC).await?;
-
-        // 7. close the writer
-        self.writer.shutdown().await?;
-        Ok(self.rows_written)
     }
 
+    /// Abandon the file write.
     pub async fn abort(&mut self) {
-        self.writer.abort().await;
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => writer.abort().await,
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => writer.abort().await,
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => writer.abort().await,
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => writer.abort().await,
+        }
     }
 
+    /// Return the current object-writer position.
     pub async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
-        Ok(self.writer.tell().await? as u64)
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => writer.tell().await,
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => writer.tell().await,
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => writer.tell().await,
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => writer.tell().await,
+        }
     }
 
+    /// Return the field-id to physical-column mapping.
     pub fn field_id_to_column_indices(&self) -> &[(u32, u32)] {
-        &self.field_id_to_column_indices
-    }
-}
-
-/// Utility trait for converting EncodedBatch to Bytes using the
-/// lance file format
-pub trait EncodedBatchWriteExt {
-    /// Serializes into a lance file, including the schema
-    fn try_to_self_described_lance(&self, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Result<Bytes>;
-    /// Serializes into a lance file, without the schema.
-    ///
-    /// The schema must be provided to deserialize the buffer
-    fn try_to_mini_lance(&self, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Result<Bytes>;
-}
-
-// Creates a lance footer and appends it to the encoded data
-//
-// The logic here is very similar to logic in the FileWriter except we
-// are using BufMut (put_xyz) instead of AsyncWrite (write_xyz).
-fn concat_lance_footer(
-    batch: &EncodedBatch,
-    write_schema: bool,
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
-) -> Result<Bytes> {
-    // Estimating 1MiB for file footer
-    let mut data = BytesMut::with_capacity(batch.data.len() + 1024 * 1024);
-    data.put(batch.data.clone());
-    // write global buffers (we write the schema here)
-    let global_buffers = if write_schema {
-        let schema_start = data.len() as u64;
-        let lance_schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(batch.schema.as_ref())?;
-        let descriptor = FileWriter::make_file_descriptor(&lance_schema, batch.num_rows)?;
-        let descriptor_bytes = descriptor.encode_to_vec();
-        let descriptor_len = descriptor_bytes.len() as u64;
-        data.put(descriptor_bytes.as_slice());
-
-        vec![(schema_start, descriptor_len)]
-    } else {
-        vec![]
-    };
-    let col_metadata_start = data.len() as u64;
-
-    let mut col_metadata_positions = Vec::new();
-    // Write column metadata
-    for col in &batch.page_table {
-        let position = data.len() as u64;
-        let pages = col
-            .page_infos
-            .iter()
-            .map(|page_info| {
-                let encoded_encoding = match &page_info.encoding {
-                    PageEncoding::Legacy(array_encoding) => {
-                        Any::from_msg(array_encoding)?.encode_to_vec()
-                    }
-                    PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout) => {
-                        Any::from_msg(page_layout)?.encode_to_vec()
-                    }
-                };
-                let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = page_info
-                    .buffer_offsets_and_sizes
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .iter()
-                    .cloned()
-                    .unzip();
-                Ok(pbfile::column_metadata::Page {
-                    buffer_offsets,
-                    buffer_sizes,
-                    encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
-                        location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(DirectEncoding {
-                            encoding: encoded_encoding,
-                        })),
-                    }),
-                    length: page_info.num_rows,
-                    priority: page_info.priority,
-                })
-            })
-            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-        let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =
-            col.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().cloned().unzip();
-        let encoded_col_encoding = Any::from_msg(&col.encoding)?.encode_to_vec();
-        let column = pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
-            pages,
-            buffer_offsets,
-            buffer_sizes,
-            encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
-                location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(pbfile::DirectEncoding {
-                    encoding: encoded_col_encoding,
-                })),
-            }),
-        };
-        let column_bytes = column.encode_to_vec();
-        col_metadata_positions.push((position, column_bytes.len() as u64));
-        data.put(column_bytes.as_slice());
-    }
-    // Write column metadata offsets table
-    let cmo_table_start = data.len() as u64;
-    for (meta_pos, meta_len) in col_metadata_positions {
-        data.put_u64_le(meta_pos);
-        data.put_u64_le(meta_len);
-    }
-    // Write global buffers offsets table
-    let gbo_table_start = data.len() as u64;
-    let num_global_buffers = global_buffers.len() as u32;
-    for (gbo_pos, gbo_len) in global_buffers {
-        data.put_u64_le(gbo_pos);
-        data.put_u64_le(gbo_len);
-    }
-
-    let (major, minor) = version.to_numbers();
-
-    // write the footer
-    data.put_u64_le(col_metadata_start);
-    data.put_u64_le(cmo_table_start);
-    data.put_u64_le(gbo_table_start);
-    data.put_u32_le(num_global_buffers);
-    data.put_u32_le(batch.page_table.len() as u32);
-    data.put_u16_le(major as u16);
-    data.put_u16_le(minor as u16);
-    data.put(MAGIC.as_slice());
-
-    Ok(data.freeze())
-}
-
-impl EncodedBatchWriteExt for EncodedBatch {
-    fn try_to_self_described_lance(&self, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Result<Bytes> {
-        concat_lance_footer(self, true, version)
-    }
-
-    fn try_to_mini_lance(&self, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Result<Bytes> {
-        concat_lance_footer(self, false, version)
+        match self {
+            Self::V2_0(writer) => writer.field_id_to_column_indices(),
+            Self::V2_1(writer) => writer.field_id_to_column_indices(),
+            Self::V2_2(writer) => writer.field_id_to_column_indices(),
+            Self::V2_3(writer) => writer.field_id_to_column_indices(),
+        }
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-    use std::sync::Arc;
-
-    use crate::reader::{describe_encoding, FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
-    use crate::testing::FsFixture;
-    use crate::writer::{FileWriter, FileWriterOptions, ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES};
-    use arrow_array::builder::{Float32Builder, Int32Builder};
-    use arrow_array::{types::Float64Type, RecordBatchReader, StringArray};
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Field as ArrowField, Schema, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
-    use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjFile;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, RowCount};
-    use lance_encoding::compression_config::{CompressionFieldParams, CompressionParams};
-    use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderPlugins;
-    use lance_encoding::version::LanceFileVersion;
-    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-    use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_basic_write() {
-        let tmp_path = TempObjFile::default();
-        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
-
-        let reader = gen_batch()
-            .col("score", array::rand::<Float64Type>())
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(10));
-
-        let writer = obj_store.create(&tmp_path).await.unwrap();
-
-        let lance_schema =
-            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(reader.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
-
-        let mut file_writer =
-            FileWriter::try_new(writer, lance_schema, FileWriterOptions::default()).unwrap();
-
-        for batch in reader {
-            file_writer.write_batch(&batch.unwrap()).await.unwrap();
-        }
-        file_writer.add_schema_metadata("foo", "bar");
-        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
-        // Tests asserting the contents of the written file are in reader.rs
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_write_empty() {
-        let tmp_path = TempObjFile::default();
-        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
-
-        let reader = gen_batch()
-            .col("score", array::rand::<Float64Type>())
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(0), BatchCount::from(0));
-
-        let writer = obj_store.create(&tmp_path).await.unwrap();
-
-        let lance_schema =
-            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(reader.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
-
-        let mut file_writer =
-            FileWriter::try_new(writer, lance_schema, FileWriterOptions::default()).unwrap();
-
-        for batch in reader {
-            file_writer.write_batch(&batch.unwrap()).await.unwrap();
-        }
-        file_writer.add_schema_metadata("foo", "bar");
-        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_max_page_bytes_enforced() {
-        let arrow_field = Field::new("data", DataType::UInt64, false);
-        let arrow_schema = Schema::new(vec![arrow_field]);
-        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
-
-        // 8MiB
-        let data: Vec<u64> = (0..1_000_000).collect();
-        let array = UInt64Array::from(data);
-        let batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone().into(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
-
-        let options = FileWriterOptions {
-            max_page_bytes: Some(1024 * 1024), // 1MB
-            // This is a 2.0 only test because 2.1+ splits large pages on read instead of write
-            format_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let path = TempObjFile::default();
-        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
-        let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
-            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
-            lance_schema,
-            options,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
-        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
-
-        let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        let file_scheduler = fs
-            .scheduler
-            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-            file_scheduler,
-            None,
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            FileReaderOptions::default(),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let column_meta = file_reader.metadata();
-
-        let mut total_page_num: u32 = 0;
-        for (col_idx, col_metadata) in column_meta.column_metadatas.iter().enumerate() {
-            assert!(
-                !col_metadata.pages.is_empty(),
-                "Column {} has no pages",
-                col_idx
-            );
-
-            for (page_idx, page) in col_metadata.pages.iter().enumerate() {
-                total_page_num += 1;
-                let total_size: u64 = page.buffer_sizes.iter().sum();
-                assert!(
-                    total_size <= 1024 * 1024,
-                    "Column {} Page {} size {} exceeds 1MB limit",
-                    col_idx,
-                    page_idx,
-                    total_size
-                );
-            }
-        }
-
-        assert_eq!(total_page_num, 8)
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
-    async fn test_max_page_bytes_env_var() {
-        let arrow_field = Field::new("data", DataType::UInt64, false);
-        let arrow_schema = Schema::new(vec![arrow_field]);
-        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
-        // 4MiB
-        let data: Vec<u64> = (0..500_000).collect();
-        let array = UInt64Array::from(data);
-        let batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone().into(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
-
-        // 2MiB
-        std::env::set_var(ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, "2097152");
-
-        let options = FileWriterOptions {
-            max_page_bytes: None, // enforce env
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let path = TempObjFile::default();
-        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
-        let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
-            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
-            lance_schema.clone(),
-            options,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
-        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
-
-        let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        let file_scheduler = fs
-            .scheduler
-            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-            file_scheduler,
-            None,
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            FileReaderOptions::default(),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        for col_metadata in file_reader.metadata().column_metadatas.iter() {
-            for page in col_metadata.pages.iter() {
-                let total_size: u64 = page.buffer_sizes.iter().sum();
-                assert!(
-                    total_size <= 2 * 1024 * 1024,
-                    "Page size {} exceeds 2MB limit",
-                    total_size
-                );
-            }
-        }
-
-        std::env::set_var(ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, "");
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_compression_overrides_end_to_end() {
-        // Create test schema with different column types
-        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("customer_id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("product_id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("quantity", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("price", DataType::Float32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("description", DataType::Utf8, false),
-        ]));
-
-        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
-
-        // Create test data with patterns suitable for different compression
-        let mut customer_ids = Int32Builder::new();
-        let mut product_ids = Int32Builder::new();
-        let mut quantities = Int32Builder::new();
-        let mut prices = Float32Builder::new();
-        let mut descriptions = Vec::new();
-
-        // Generate data with specific patterns:
-        // - customer_id: highly repetitive (good for RLE)
-        // - product_id: moderately repetitive (good for RLE)
-        // - quantity: random values (not good for RLE)
-        // - price: some repetition
-        // - description: long strings (good for Zstd)
-        for i in 0..10000 {
-            // Customer ID repeats every 100 rows (100 unique customers)
-            // This creates runs of 100 identical values
-            customer_ids.append_value(i / 100);
-
-            // Product ID has only 5 unique values with long runs
-            product_ids.append_value(i / 2000);
-
-            // Quantity is mostly 1 with occasional other values
-            quantities.append_value(if i % 10 == 0 { 5 } else { 1 });
-
-            // Price has only 3 unique values
-            prices.append_value(match i % 3 {
-                0 => 9.99,
-                1 => 19.99,
-                _ => 29.99,
-            });
-
-            // Descriptions are repetitive but we'll keep them simple
-            descriptions.push(format!("Product {}", i / 2000));
-        }
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            arrow_schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(customer_ids.finish()),
-                Arc::new(product_ids.finish()),
-                Arc::new(quantities.finish()),
-                Arc::new(prices.finish()),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(descriptions)),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Configure compression parameters
-        let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
-
-        // RLE for ID columns (ends with _id)
-        params.columns.insert(
-            "*_id".to_string(),
-            CompressionFieldParams {
-                rle_threshold: Some(0.5), // Lower threshold to trigger RLE more easily
-                compression: None,        // Will use default compression if any
-                compression_level: None,
-                bss: Some(lance_encoding::compression_config::BssMode::Off), // Explicitly disable BSS to ensure RLE is used
-                minichunk_size: None,
-            },
-        );
-
-        // For now, we'll skip Zstd compression since it's not imported
-        // In a real implementation, you could add other compression types here
-
-        // Build encoding strategy with compression parameters
-        let encoding_strategy = lance_encoding::encoder::default_encoding_strategy_with_params(
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
-            params,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Configure file writer options
-        let options = FileWriterOptions {
-            encoding_strategy: Some(Arc::from(encoding_strategy)),
-            format_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
-            max_page_bytes: Some(64 * 1024), // 64KB pages
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        // Write the file
-        let path = TempObjFile::default();
-        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
-
-        let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
-            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
-            lance_schema.clone(),
-            options,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
-        writer.add_schema_metadata("compression_test", "configured_compression");
-        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
-
-        // Now write the same data without compression overrides for comparison
-        let path_no_compression = TempObjFile::default();
-        let default_options = FileWriterOptions {
-            format_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
-            max_page_bytes: Some(64 * 1024),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let mut writer_no_compression = FileWriter::try_new(
-            object_store.create(&path_no_compression).await.unwrap(),
-            lance_schema.clone(),
-            default_options,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        writer_no_compression.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
-        writer_no_compression.finish().await.unwrap();
-
-        // Note: With our current data patterns and RLE compression, the compressed file
-        // might actually be slightly larger due to compression metadata overhead.
-        // This is expected and the test is mainly to verify the system works end-to-end.
-
-        // Read back the compressed file and verify data integrity
-        let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        let file_scheduler = fs
-            .scheduler
-            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-            file_scheduler,
-            None,
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            FileReaderOptions::default(),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Verify metadata
-        let metadata = file_reader.metadata();
-        assert_eq!(metadata.major_version, 2);
-        assert_eq!(metadata.minor_version, 1);
-
-        let schema = file_reader.schema();
-        assert_eq!(
-            schema.metadata.get("compression_test"),
-            Some(&"configured_compression".to_string())
-        );
-
-        // Verify the actual encodings used
-        let column_metadatas = &metadata.column_metadatas;
-
-        // Check customer_id column (index 0) - should use RLE due to our configuration
-        assert!(!column_metadatas[0].pages.is_empty());
-        let customer_id_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[0].pages[0]);
-        assert!(
-            customer_id_encoding.contains("RLE") || customer_id_encoding.contains("Rle"),
-            "customer_id column should use RLE encoding due to '*_id' pattern match, but got: {}",
-            customer_id_encoding
-        );
-
-        // Check product_id column (index 1) - should use RLE due to our configuration
-        assert!(!column_metadatas[1].pages.is_empty());
-        let product_id_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[1].pages[0]);
-        assert!(
-            product_id_encoding.contains("RLE") || product_id_encoding.contains("Rle"),
-            "product_id column should use RLE encoding due to '*_id' pattern match, but got: {}",
-            product_id_encoding
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_field_metadata_compression() {
-        // Test that field metadata compression settings are respected
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-        metadata.insert(
-            lance_encoding::constants::COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            "zstd".to_string(),
-        );
-        metadata.insert(
-            lance_encoding::constants::COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            "6".to_string(),
-        );
-
-        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata.clone()),
-            ArrowField::new("data", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
-                lance_encoding::constants::COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
-                "none".to_string(),
-            )])),
-        ]));
-
-        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
-
-        // Create test data
-        let id_array = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..1000);
-        let text_array = StringArray::from_iter_values(
-            (0..1000).map(|i| format!("test string {} repeated text", i)),
-        );
-        let data_array = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..1000).map(|i| i * 2));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            arrow_schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(id_array),
-                Arc::new(text_array),
-                Arc::new(data_array),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let path = TempObjFile::default();
-        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
-
-        // Create encoding strategy that will read from field metadata
-        let params = CompressionParams::new();
-        let encoding_strategy = lance_encoding::encoder::default_encoding_strategy_with_params(
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
-            params,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let options = FileWriterOptions {
-            encoding_strategy: Some(Arc::from(encoding_strategy)),
-            format_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
-            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
-            lance_schema.clone(),
-            options,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
-        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
-
-        // Read back metadata
-        let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        let file_scheduler = fs
-            .scheduler
-            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-            file_scheduler,
-            None,
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            FileReaderOptions::default(),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let column_metadatas = &file_reader.metadata().column_metadatas;
-
-        // The text column (index 1) should use zstd compression based on metadata
-        let text_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[1].pages[0]);
-        // For string columns, we expect Binary encoding with zstd compression
-        assert!(
-            text_encoding.contains("Zstd"),
-            "text column should use zstd compression from field metadata, but got: {}",
-            text_encoding
-        );
-
-        // The data column (index 2) should use no compression based on metadata
-        let data_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[2].pages[0]);
-        // For Int32 columns with "none" compression, we expect Flat encoding without compression
-        assert!(
-            data_encoding.contains("Flat") && data_encoding.contains("compression: None"),
-            "data column should use no compression from field metadata, but got: {}",
-            data_encoding
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_field_metadata_rle_threshold() {
-        // Test that RLE threshold from field metadata is respected
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
-        metadata.insert(
-            lance_encoding::constants::RLE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            "0.9".to_string(),
-        );
-        // Also set compression to ensure RLE is used
-        metadata.insert(
-            lance_encoding::constants::COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            "lz4".to_string(),
-        );
-        // Explicitly disable BSS to ensure RLE is tested
-        metadata.insert(
-            lance_encoding::constants::BSS_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            "off".to_string(),
-        );
-
-        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "status",
-            DataType::Int32,
-            false,
-        )
-        .with_metadata(metadata)]));
-
-        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
-
-        // Create data with very high repetition (3 runs for 10000 values = 0.0003 ratio)
-        let status_array = Int32Array::from_iter_values(
-            std::iter::repeat_n(200, 8000)
-                .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(404, 1500))
-                .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(500, 500)),
-        );
-
-        let batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(status_array)]).unwrap();
-
-        let path = TempObjFile::default();
-        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
-
-        // Create encoding strategy that will read from field metadata
-        let params = CompressionParams::new();
-        let encoding_strategy = lance_encoding::encoder::default_encoding_strategy_with_params(
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
-            params,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let options = FileWriterOptions {
-            encoding_strategy: Some(Arc::from(encoding_strategy)),
-            format_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
-            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
-            lance_schema.clone(),
-            options,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
-        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
-
-        // Read back and check encoding
-        let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        let file_scheduler = fs
-            .scheduler
-            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-            file_scheduler,
-            None,
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            FileReaderOptions::default(),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let column_metadatas = &file_reader.metadata().column_metadatas;
-        let status_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[0].pages[0]);
-        assert!(
-            status_encoding.contains("RLE") || status_encoding.contains("Rle"),
-            "status column should use RLE encoding due to metadata threshold, but got: {}",
-            status_encoding
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_large_page_split_on_read() {
-        use arrow_array::Array;
-        use futures::TryStreamExt;
-        use lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression;
-        use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
-
-        // Test that large pages written with relaxed limits can be split during read
-
-        let arrow_field = ArrowField::new("data", DataType::Binary, false);
-        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![arrow_field]);
-        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
-
-        // Create a large binary value (40MB) to trigger large page creation
-        let large_value = vec![42u8; 40 * 1024 * 1024];
-        let array = arrow_array::BinaryArray::from(vec![
-            Some(large_value.as_slice()),
-            Some(b"small value"),
-        ]);
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(arrow_schema), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
-
-        // Write with relaxed page size limit (128MB)
-        let options = FileWriterOptions {
-            max_page_bytes: Some(128 * 1024 * 1024),
-            format_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let fs = FsFixture::default();
-        let path = fs.tmp_path;
-
-        let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
-            fs.object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
-            lance_schema.clone(),
-            options,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
-        let num_rows = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(num_rows, 2);
-
-        // Read back with split configuration
-        let file_scheduler = fs
-            .scheduler
-            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Configure reader to split pages larger than 10MB into chunks
-        let reader_options = FileReaderOptions {
-            read_chunk_size: 10 * 1024 * 1024, // 10MB chunks
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-            file_scheduler,
-            None,
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            reader_options,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Read the data back
-        let stream = file_reader
-            .read_stream(
-                ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
-                1024,
-                10, // batch_readahead
-                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-            )
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
-
-        // Verify the data is correctly read despite splitting
-        let read_array = batches[0].column(0);
-        let read_binary = read_array
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BinaryArray>()
-            .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(read_binary.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(read_binary.value(0).len(), 40 * 1024 * 1024);
-        assert_eq!(read_binary.value(1), b"small value");
-
-        // Verify first value matches what we wrote
-        assert!(read_binary.value(0).iter().all(|&b| b == 42u8));
-    }
-}
+#[path = "writer_tests.rs"]
+mod writer_tests;
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/writer/field_types.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/writer/field_types.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..53d480ec34f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/writer/field_types.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Checks that arrays handed to a file writer have the Arrow types recorded in
+//! the file schema.
+//!
+//! The file schema is what readers use to decode a column, so an array whose
+//! type or extension differs from it is written in a layout the file does not
+//! describe. Callers own any conversion from their input representation (for
+//! example Arrow JSON text to Lance JSONB); this check only rejects arrays that
+//! skipped it, before any page is encoded.
+
+use std::fmt;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, FieldRef, SchemaRef};
+use lance_arrow::BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
+
+/// An array whose Arrow type or extension differs from the field the file
+/// schema records for it.
+///
+/// Returned as the source of an [`Error::InvalidInput`] by the file writers.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct FieldTypeMismatch {
+    /// Dot-separated path of the mismatched field, starting at the top-level
+    /// column.
+    pub field_path: String,
+    /// The field the file schema records.
+    pub expected: FieldRef,
+    /// The field the input carries. A column written on its own is a bare
+    /// array, so it carries no extension.
+    pub actual: FieldRef,
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for FieldTypeMismatch {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(
+            f,
+            "field `{}` does not match the file schema: expected {}, got {}",
+            self.field_path,
+            FieldType(&self.expected),
+            FieldType(&self.actual)
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for FieldTypeMismatch {}
+
+struct FieldType<'a>(&'a ArrowField);
+
+impl fmt::Display for FieldType<'_> {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "{}", self.0.data_type())?;
+        match (
+            self.0.extension_type_name(),
+            self.0.extension_type_metadata(),
+        ) {
+            (Some(name), Some(metadata)) => write!(f, " (extension {name}, metadata {metadata})"),
+            (Some(name), None) => write!(f, " (extension {name})"),
+            _ => write!(f, " (no extension)"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The Arrow fields a file schema expects, built once per writer.
+pub struct ExpectedTypes {
+    fields: Vec<FieldRef>,
+    /// The last batch schema that passed. Batches of one stream normally share
+    /// a schema, so later batches are accepted without walking it again.
+    accepted: Option<SchemaRef>,
+}
+
+impl ExpectedTypes {
+    pub fn new(schema: &Schema) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            fields: schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| Arc::new(ArrowField::from(field)))
+                .collect(),
+            accepted: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Check every column of `batch` that the file schema writes.
+    ///
+    /// Columns are matched by name, the same way the encoders select them. A
+    /// missing column is left for the encoder to report.
+    pub fn check_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        let batch_schema = batch.schema();
+        if self.accepted.as_ref() == Some(&batch_schema) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        for (index, expected) in self.fields.iter().enumerate() {
+            // Batches usually list columns in schema order; only fall back to
+            // a name search when they do not, so wide schemas stay linear.
+            let actual = batch_schema
+                .fields()
+                .get(index)
+                .filter(|actual| actual.name() == expected.name())
+                .or_else(|| {
+                    let (index, _) = batch_schema.column_with_name(expected.name())?;
+                    batch_schema.fields().get(index)
+                });
+            if let Some(actual) = actual {
+                check_field(expected, actual, true).map_err(into_error)?;
+            }
+        }
+        self.accepted = Some(batch_schema);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Check an array written to the top-level column at `index`.
+    ///
+    /// A bare array carries no field metadata, so the column's own extension
+    /// is not compared; nested extensions live in the array's data type and
+    /// are.
+    pub fn check_column(&self, index: usize, array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        let expected = &self.fields[index];
+        let actual = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+            expected.name(),
+            array.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        ));
+        check_field(expected, &actual, false).map_err(into_error)
+    }
+}
+
+fn into_error(mismatch: FieldTypeMismatch) -> Error {
+    Error::invalid_input_source(Box::new(mismatch))
+}
+
+/// Names and nullability of nested fields are not compared: the encoders
+/// address children by position and verify nulls against the values.
+fn check_field(
+    expected: &FieldRef,
+    actual: &FieldRef,
+    compare_extension: bool,
+) -> std::result::Result<(), FieldTypeMismatch> {
+    let mismatch = || FieldTypeMismatch {
+        field_path: expected.name().clone(),
+        expected: expected.clone(),
+        actual: actual.clone(),
+    };
+    if compare_extension
+        && (expected.extension_type_name() != actual.extension_type_name()
+            || expected.extension_type_metadata() != actual.extension_type_metadata())
+    {
+        return Err(mismatch());
+    }
+    let children = match (expected.data_type(), actual.data_type()) {
+        // The file schema records the Blob v2 struct users write, but blob
+        // preprocessing hands the encoder a descriptor struct, which the blob
+        // encoder validates itself.
+        (DataType::Struct(_), DataType::Struct(_))
+            if expected.extension_type_name() == Some(BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME) =>
+        {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        (DataType::Struct(expected_children), DataType::Struct(actual_children))
+            if expected_children.len() == actual_children.len() =>
+        {
+            expected_children
+                .iter()
+                .zip(actual_children.iter())
+                .collect()
+        }
+        (DataType::List(expected_item), DataType::List(actual_item))
+        | (DataType::LargeList(expected_item), DataType::LargeList(actual_item))
+        | (DataType::Map(expected_item, _), DataType::Map(actual_item, _)) => {
+            vec![(expected_item, actual_item)]
+        }
+        (
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(expected_item, expected_size),
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(actual_item, actual_size),
+        ) if expected_size == actual_size => vec![(expected_item, actual_item)],
+        // The encoders write view arrays in the equivalent offset layout.
+        (DataType::Utf8, DataType::Utf8View) | (DataType::Binary, DataType::BinaryView) => {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        (expected_type, actual_type) if expected_type == actual_type => return Ok(()),
+        _ => return Err(mismatch()),
+    };
+    for (expected_child, actual_child) in children {
+        check_field(expected_child, actual_child, true).map_err(|mut mismatch| {
+            mismatch.field_path = format!("{}.{}", expected.name(), mismatch.field_path);
+            mismatch
+        })?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/writer/structural.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/writer/structural.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..211816fe954
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/writer/structural.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1025 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use core::panic;
+use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch, StructArray, make_array};
+use arrow_buffer::BooleanBuffer;
+use bytes::{Buf, Bytes, BytesMut};
+use futures::{StreamExt, stream::FuturesOrdered};
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+    utils::bit::pad_bytes,
+};
+use lance_encoding::{
+    decoder::PageEncoding,
+    encoder::{
+        BatchEncoder, EncodeTask, EncodedBatch, EncodedPage, EncodingOptions, FieldEncoder,
+        OutOfLineBuffers,
+    },
+    repdef::RepDefBuilder,
+};
+use lance_io::{object_store::ObjectStore, traits::Writer as ObjectWriter};
+use log::{debug, warn};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use prost::Message;
+use prost_types::Any;
+use tokio::io::{AsyncWrite, AsyncWriteExt};
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+use crate::{
+    datatypes::FieldsWithMeta,
+    format::{pb, pbfile},
+    writer::{
+        ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, ExpectedTypes, FileWriterOptions,
+        PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT,
+    },
+};
+
+const PAD_BUFFER: [u8; PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT] = [72; PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT];
+
+// V2.1+ splits large pages on read instead of write. This write-time limit is
+// retained as a best-effort memory bound and is not a grammar decision.
+const MAX_PAGE_BYTES: usize = 32 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+// Total in-memory budget for serialized page metadata before spill.
+const DEFAULT_SPILL_BUFFER_LIMIT: usize = 256 * 1024;
+
+struct PageMetadataSpill {
+    writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    path: Path,
+    position: u64,
+    column_buffers: Vec<Vec<u8>>,
+    column_chunks: Vec<Vec<(u64, u32)>>,
+    per_column_limit: usize,
+}
+
+impl PageMetadataSpill {
+    async fn new(object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path, num_columns: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        let writer = object_store.create(&path).await?;
+        let per_column_limit = (DEFAULT_SPILL_BUFFER_LIMIT / num_columns.max(1)).max(64);
+        Ok(Self {
+            writer,
+            object_store,
+            path,
+            position: 0,
+            column_buffers: vec![Vec::new(); num_columns],
+            column_chunks: vec![Vec::new(); num_columns],
+            per_column_limit,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn append_page(
+        &mut self,
+        column_index: usize,
+        page: &pbfile::column_metadata::Page,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        page.encode_length_delimited(&mut self.column_buffers[column_index])
+            .map_err(|error| {
+                Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::new(
+                    std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+                    error,
+                )))
+            })?;
+        if self.column_buffers[column_index].len() >= self.per_column_limit {
+            self.flush_column(column_index).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn flush_column(&mut self, column_index: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        let buffer = &self.column_buffers[column_index];
+        if buffer.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let len = buffer.len();
+        self.writer.write_all(buffer).await?;
+        self.column_chunks[column_index].push((self.position, len as u32));
+        self.position += len as u64;
+        self.column_buffers[column_index].clear();
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn shutdown_writer(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        for column_index in 0..self.column_buffers.len() {
+            self.flush_column(column_index).await?;
+        }
+        ObjectWriter::shutdown(self.writer.as_mut()).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+fn decode_spilled_chunk(data: &Bytes) -> Result<Vec<pbfile::column_metadata::Page>> {
+    let mut pages = Vec::new();
+    let mut cursor = data.clone();
+    while cursor.has_remaining() {
+        let page = pbfile::column_metadata::Page::decode_length_delimited(&mut cursor).map_err(
+            |error| {
+                Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::new(
+                    std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData,
+                    error,
+                )))
+            },
+        )?;
+        pages.push(page);
+    }
+    Ok(pages)
+}
+
+enum PageSpillState {
+    Pending(Arc<ObjectStore>, Path),
+    Active(PageMetadataSpill),
+}
+
+fn initial_column_metadata() -> pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
+    pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
+        pages: Vec::new(),
+        buffer_offsets: Vec::new(),
+        buffer_sizes: Vec::new(),
+        encoding: None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Writes the structural page and metadata representation used by v2.1+.
+///
+/// This component does not choose a file version, field encoding strategy, or
+/// footer identity. Exact version writers opt into this representation and own
+/// the order in which its operations are invoked.
+pub struct StructuralFileSink {
+    writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    column_metadata: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
+    num_columns: u32,
+    global_buffers: Vec<(u64, u64)>,
+    page_spill: Option<PageSpillState>,
+}
+
+impl StructuralFileSink {
+    pub fn new(writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            writer,
+            column_metadata: Vec::new(),
+            num_columns: 0,
+            global_buffers: Vec::new(),
+            page_spill: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_page_metadata_spill(&mut self, object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path) {
+        self.page_spill = Some(PageSpillState::Pending(object_store, path));
+    }
+
+    pub fn initialize_columns(&mut self, num_columns: u32) {
+        self.num_columns = num_columns;
+        self.column_metadata = vec![initial_column_metadata(); num_columns as usize];
+    }
+
+    pub fn initialize_with_external_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        column_metadata: Vec<pbfile::ColumnMetadata>,
+    ) {
+        self.num_columns = column_metadata.len() as u32;
+        self.column_metadata = column_metadata;
+    }
+
+    async fn write_aligned_buffer_to(
+        writer: &mut (impl AsyncWrite + Unpin),
+        buffer: &[u8],
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        writer.write_all(buffer).await?;
+        let padding = pad_bytes::<PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT>(buffer.len());
+        writer.write_all(&PAD_BUFFER[..padding]).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write_aligned_buffer(&mut self, buffer: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
+        Self::write_aligned_buffer_to(&mut self.writer, buffer).await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write_raw(&mut self, buffer: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
+        self.writer.write_all(buffer).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write_page(&mut self, encoded_page: EncodedPage) -> Result<()> {
+        let buffers = encoded_page.data;
+        let mut buffer_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(buffers.len());
+        let mut buffer_sizes = Vec::with_capacity(buffers.len());
+        for buffer in buffers {
+            buffer_offsets.push(self.tell().await?);
+            buffer_sizes.push(buffer.len() as u64);
+            self.write_aligned_buffer(&buffer).await?;
+        }
+        let encoded_encoding = match encoded_page.description {
+            PageEncoding::Legacy(array_encoding) => Any::from_msg(&array_encoding)?.encode_to_vec(),
+            PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout) => Any::from_msg(&page_layout)?.encode_to_vec(),
+        };
+        let page = pbfile::column_metadata::Page {
+            buffer_offsets,
+            buffer_sizes,
+            encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
+                location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(pbfile::DirectEncoding {
+                    encoding: encoded_encoding,
+                })),
+            }),
+            length: encoded_page.num_rows,
+            priority: encoded_page.row_number,
+        };
+        let column_index = encoded_page.column_idx as usize;
+        if matches!(&self.page_spill, Some(PageSpillState::Pending(..))) {
+            let Some(PageSpillState::Pending(store, path)) = self.page_spill.take() else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            self.page_spill = Some(PageSpillState::Active(
+                PageMetadataSpill::new(store, path, self.num_columns as usize).await?,
+            ));
+        }
+        match &mut self.page_spill {
+            Some(PageSpillState::Active(spill)) => spill.append_page(column_index, &page).await?,
+            None => self.column_metadata[column_index].pages.push(page),
+            Some(PageSpillState::Pending(..)) => unreachable!(),
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip_all, level = "debug")]
+    pub async fn write_pages(
+        &mut self,
+        mut encoding_tasks: FuturesOrdered<EncodeTask>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        while let Some(encoding_task) = encoding_tasks.next().await {
+            self.write_page(encoding_task?).await?;
+        }
+        // Reaps any upload that has already failed so the error is attributed to
+        // this batch. This does not wait for in-flight uploads; see
+        // `ObjectWriter::poll_flush`.
+        self.writer.flush().await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write_column_buffer_at(
+        &mut self,
+        column_index: usize,
+        position: u64,
+        buffer: &[u8],
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.write_aligned_buffer(buffer).await?;
+        let metadata = &mut self.column_metadata[column_index];
+        metadata.buffer_offsets.push(position);
+        metadata.buffer_sizes.push(buffer.len() as u64);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_column_encoding(&mut self, column_index: usize, encoding: pbfile::Encoding) {
+        self.column_metadata[column_index].encoding = Some(encoding);
+    }
+
+    pub async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, buffer: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        let position = self.tell().await?;
+        let len = buffer.len() as u64;
+        self.write_aligned_buffer(&buffer).await?;
+        self.global_buffers.push((position, len));
+        Ok(self.global_buffers.len() as u32)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write_global_buffers(
+        &mut self,
+        descriptor: pb::FileDescriptor,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(u64, u64)>> {
+        let descriptor_bytes = descriptor.encode_to_vec();
+        let descriptor_len = descriptor_bytes.len() as u64;
+        let descriptor_position = self.tell().await?;
+        self.writer.write_all(&descriptor_bytes).await?;
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(1 + self.global_buffers.len());
+        offsets.push((descriptor_position, descriptor_len));
+        offsets.append(&mut self.global_buffers);
+        Ok(offsets)
+    }
+
+    async fn write_column_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        metadata: pbfile::ColumnMetadata,
+    ) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        let metadata_bytes = metadata.encode_to_vec();
+        let position = self.tell().await?;
+        let len = metadata_bytes.len() as u64;
+        self.writer.write_all(&metadata_bytes).await?;
+        Ok((position, len))
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write_column_metadatas(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<(u64, u64)>> {
+        let metadatas = std::mem::take(&mut self.column_metadata);
+        let spill_state = self.page_spill.take();
+        let (spill_chunks, spill_reader) =
+            if let Some(PageSpillState::Active(mut spill)) = spill_state {
+                spill.shutdown_writer().await?;
+                let reader = spill.object_store.open(&spill.path).await?;
+                let chunks = std::mem::take(&mut spill.column_chunks);
+                (chunks, Some(reader))
+            } else {
+                (Vec::new(), None)
+            };
+
+        let mut metadata_positions = Vec::with_capacity(metadatas.len());
+        for (column_index, mut metadata) in metadatas.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            if let Some(reader) = &spill_reader {
+                let mut pages = Vec::new();
+                for &(offset, len) in &spill_chunks[column_index] {
+                    let data = reader
+                        .get_range(offset as usize..(offset as usize + len as usize))
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|error| Error::io_source(Box::new(error)))?;
+                    pages.extend(decode_spilled_chunk(&data)?);
+                }
+                metadata.pages = pages;
+            }
+            metadata_positions.push(self.write_column_metadata(metadata).await?);
+        }
+        Ok(metadata_positions)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write_offset_table(&mut self, offsets: &[(u64, u64)]) -> Result<u64> {
+        let start = self.tell().await?;
+        for (position, len) in offsets {
+            self.writer.write_u64_le(*position).await?;
+            self.writer.write_u64_le(*len).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(start)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write_external_buffer(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<(u64, u64)> {
+        const ZERO_PADDING: [u8; PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT] = [0; PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT];
+        let position = self.tell().await?;
+        let padding = (PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT - position as usize % PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT)
+            % PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT;
+        self.writer.write_all(&ZERO_PADDING[..padding]).await?;
+        let start = position + padding as u64;
+        self.writer.write_all(bytes).await?;
+        Ok((start, bytes.len() as u64))
+    }
+
+    pub fn output_mut(&mut self) -> &mut dyn ObjectWriter {
+        self.writer.as_mut()
+    }
+
+    pub async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
+        Ok(self.writer.tell().await? as u64)
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_columns(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.num_columns
+    }
+
+    pub async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
+        let result = ObjectWriter::shutdown(self.writer.as_mut()).await?;
+        Ok(result.size as u64)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Runs field encoders and row accounting without selecting a file grammar.
+///
+/// The exact version writer constructs a [`BatchEncoder`] and supplies it when
+/// a schema is initialized. This component only executes that decision.
+pub struct EncodingPipeline {
+    schema: Option<Schema>,
+    expected_types: Option<ExpectedTypes>,
+    field_encoders: Vec<Box<dyn FieldEncoder>>,
+    field_id_to_column_indices: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
+    rows_written: u64,
+    field_rows_written: Vec<u64>,
+    schema_metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+}
+
+impl EncodingPipeline {
+    pub fn new(options: FileWriterOptions) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            schema: None,
+            expected_types: None,
+            field_encoders: Vec::new(),
+            field_id_to_column_indices: Vec::new(),
+            rows_written: 0,
+            field_rows_written: Vec::new(),
+            schema_metadata: HashMap::new(),
+            options,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn validate_options(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.options.validate()
+    }
+
+    pub fn encoding_options(&self, schema: &Schema) -> EncodingOptions {
+        let cache_bytes_per_column = if let Some(data_cache_bytes) = self.options.data_cache_bytes {
+            data_cache_bytes / schema.fields.len() as u64
+        } else {
+            8 * 1024 * 1024
+        };
+        let max_page_bytes = self.options.max_page_bytes.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            std::env::var(ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES)
+                .map(|value| {
+                    value.parse::<u64>().unwrap_or_else(|error| {
+                        warn!(
+                            "Failed to parse {}: {}, using default",
+                            ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, error
+                        );
+                        MAX_PAGE_BYTES as u64
+                    })
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(MAX_PAGE_BYTES as u64)
+        });
+
+        EncodingOptions {
+            cache_bytes_per_column,
+            max_page_bytes,
+            keep_original_array: self.options.keep_original_array.unwrap_or(false),
+            buffer_alignment: PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn initialize(
+        &mut self,
+        mut schema: Schema,
+        encoder: BatchEncoder,
+        sink: &mut StructuralFileSink,
+    ) {
+        sink.initialize_columns(encoder.num_columns());
+        self.field_rows_written = vec![0; encoder.field_encoders.len()];
+        self.field_encoders = encoder.field_encoders;
+        self.field_id_to_column_indices = encoder.field_id_to_column_index;
+        self.schema_metadata
+            .extend(std::mem::take(&mut schema.metadata));
+        self.schema = Some(schema);
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_initialized(&self) -> bool {
+        self.schema.is_some()
+    }
+
+    fn verify_field_nullability(array: &dyn Array, field: &Field) -> Result<()> {
+        Self::verify_field_nullability_where_reachable(array, field, None)
+    }
+
+    /// `reachable` marks the slots a valid parent can actually see, or `None`
+    /// at the top level where every slot is reachable.
+    ///
+    /// A null struct slot leaves its children undefined, so a child null there
+    /// says nothing about whether the child is nullable. Arrow draws the line
+    /// the same way -- `StructArray::try_new` rejects only nulls in a
+    /// non-nullable child that the parent's null mask does not cover -- and a
+    /// reader is free to hand back nulls under a null parent for a column this
+    /// writer produced with values there. Judging those would make a column
+    /// unwritable after a round trip.
+    ///
+    /// Nulls are read through `logical_nulls`, which is what Arrow validates
+    /// against. A dictionary key pointing at a null value is a null the
+    /// physical validity buffer does not carry, and masking physical validity
+    /// alone would let one through into a file Arrow refuses on readback.
+    fn verify_field_nullability_where_reachable(
+        array: &dyn Array,
+        field: &Field,
+        reachable: Option<&BooleanBuffer>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let nulls = array.logical_nulls();
+        let offending = match (nulls.as_ref(), reachable) {
+            (None, _) => 0,
+            (Some(nulls), None) => nulls.null_count(),
+            (Some(nulls), Some(reachable)) => (&!nulls.inner() & reachable).count_set_bits(),
+        };
+        if !field.nullable && offending > 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "The field `{}` contained null values even though the field is marked non-null in the schema",
+                field.name
+            )));
+        }
+        if field.children.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        // Only a struct's children sit one slot per parent slot. List-like
+        // children are addressed through offsets, so the parent's validity
+        // does not map onto them and they are checked as before.
+        let Some(parent) = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>() else {
+            for (child_field, child_array) in
+                field.children.iter().zip(array.to_data().child_data())
+            {
+                Self::verify_field_nullability_where_reachable(
+                    make_array(child_array.clone()).as_ref(),
+                    child_field,
+                    None,
+                )?;
+            }
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let own = nulls
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|nulls| nulls.inner().clone())
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| BooleanBuffer::new_set(array.len()));
+        let child_reachable = match reachable {
+            Some(reachable) => &own & reachable,
+            None => own,
+        };
+        // `StructArray::columns` are already cut to the parent's window, so
+        // they line up with a mask built from the parent's slots.
+        for (child_field, child_array) in field.children.iter().zip(parent.columns()) {
+            Self::verify_field_nullability_where_reachable(
+                child_array.as_ref(),
+                child_field,
+                Some(&child_reachable),
+            )?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn verify_nullability_constraints(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        for (column, field) in batch
+            .columns()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(self.schema.as_ref().unwrap().fields.iter())
+        {
+            Self::verify_field_nullability(column.as_ref(), field)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn encode_columns(
+        &mut self,
+        fields: &[(usize, ArrayRef)],
+        external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Vec<EncodeTask>>> {
+        let row_numbers = fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(field_index, _)| self.field_rows_written[*field_index])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        fields
+            .iter()
+            .zip(row_numbers)
+            .map(|((field_index, array), row_number)| {
+                self.field_encoders[*field_index].maybe_encode(
+                    array.clone(),
+                    external_buffers,
+                    RepDefBuilder::default(),
+                    row_number,
+                    array.len() as u64,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn encode_batch(
+        &mut self,
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        external_buffers: &mut OutOfLineBuffers,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Vec<EncodeTask>>> {
+        let field_arrays = self
+            .schema
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(field_index, field)| {
+                let array = batch.column_by_name(&field.name).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!(
+                            "Cannot write batch.  The batch was missing the column `{}`",
+                            field.name
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Ok((field_index, array.clone()))
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        self.encode_columns(&field_arrays, external_buffers)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip_all, level = "debug")]
+    pub async fn write_batch(
+        &mut self,
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        sink: &mut StructuralFileSink,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        debug!(
+            "write_batch called with {} rows, {} columns, and {} bytes of data",
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            batch.num_columns(),
+            batch.get_array_memory_size()
+        );
+        let schema = self
+            .schema
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("the pipeline is initialized before writing");
+        self.expected_types
+            .get_or_insert_with(|| ExpectedTypes::new(schema))
+            .check_batch(batch)?;
+        self.verify_nullability_constraints(batch)?;
+        let num_rows = batch.num_rows() as u64;
+        if num_rows == 0 {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        if num_rows > u32::MAX as u64 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "cannot write Lance files with more than 2^32 rows".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut external_buffers =
+            OutOfLineBuffers::new(sink.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
+        let encoding_tasks = self.encode_batch(batch, &mut external_buffers)?;
+        for external_buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
+            sink.write_aligned_buffer(&external_buffer).await?;
+        }
+        let encoding_tasks = encoding_tasks
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect::<FuturesOrdered<_>>();
+
+        if self.rows_written.checked_add(num_rows).is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!(
+                "cannot write batch with {} rows because {} rows have already been written and Lance files cannot contain more than 2^64 rows",
+                num_rows, self.rows_written
+            ).into()));
+        }
+        for field_rows in &mut self.field_rows_written {
+            *field_rows += num_rows;
+        }
+        self.rows_written += num_rows;
+        sink.write_pages(encoding_tasks).await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write_column(
+        &mut self,
+        column_index: usize,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        sink: &mut StructuralFileSink,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = self.schema.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "write_column requires the writer to be created with an explicit schema".into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let field = schema.fields.get(column_index).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "write_column: field index {} is out of bounds (schema has {} fields)",
+                    column_index,
+                    schema.fields.len()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if array.len() as u64 > u32::MAX as u64 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "cannot write Lance files with more than 2^32 rows".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.expected_types
+            .get_or_insert_with(|| ExpectedTypes::new(schema))
+            .check_column(column_index, &array)?;
+        Self::verify_field_nullability(array.as_ref(), field)?;
+        if array.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let fields = [(column_index, array)];
+        let mut external_buffers =
+            OutOfLineBuffers::new(sink.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
+        let encoding_tasks = self.encode_columns(&fields, &mut external_buffers)?;
+        for external_buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
+            sink.write_aligned_buffer(&external_buffer).await?;
+        }
+        let encoding_tasks = encoding_tasks
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect::<FuturesOrdered<_>>();
+        for (field_index, array) in &fields {
+            let new_total = self.field_rows_written[*field_index] + array.len() as u64;
+            self.field_rows_written[*field_index] = new_total;
+            self.rows_written = self.rows_written.max(new_total);
+        }
+        sink.write_pages(encoding_tasks).await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn flush(&mut self, sink: &mut StructuralFileSink) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut external_buffers =
+            OutOfLineBuffers::new(sink.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
+        let encoding_tasks = self
+            .field_encoders
+            .iter_mut()
+            .map(|writer| writer.flush(&mut external_buffers))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        for external_buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
+            sink.write_aligned_buffer(&external_buffer).await?;
+        }
+        sink.write_pages(
+            encoding_tasks
+                .into_iter()
+                .flatten()
+                .collect::<FuturesOrdered<_>>(),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn finish_encoders(&mut self, sink: &mut StructuralFileSink) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.field_encoders.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let mut column_index = 0;
+        for mut writer in std::mem::take(&mut self.field_encoders) {
+            let mut external_buffers =
+                OutOfLineBuffers::new(sink.tell().await?, PAGE_BUFFER_ALIGNMENT as u64);
+            let columns = writer.finish(&mut external_buffers).await?;
+            for buffer in external_buffers.take_buffers() {
+                sink.write_raw(&buffer).await?;
+            }
+            debug_assert_eq!(
+                columns.len(),
+                writer.num_columns() as usize,
+                "Expected {} columns from column at index {} and got {}",
+                writer.num_columns(),
+                column_index,
+                columns.len()
+            );
+            for column in columns {
+                for page in column.final_pages {
+                    sink.write_page(page).await?;
+                }
+                let mut buffer_position = sink.tell().await?;
+                for buffer in column.column_buffers {
+                    sink.write_column_buffer_at(column_index, buffer_position, &buffer)
+                        .await?;
+                    buffer_position += buffer.len() as u64;
+                }
+                let encoded_encoding = Any::from_msg(&column.encoding)?.encode_to_vec();
+                sink.set_column_encoding(
+                    column_index,
+                    pbfile::Encoding {
+                        location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(
+                            pbfile::DirectEncoding {
+                                encoding: encoded_encoding,
+                            },
+                        )),
+                    },
+                );
+                column_index += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        if column_index != sink.num_columns() as usize {
+            panic!(
+                "Column writers finished with {} columns but we expected {}",
+                column_index,
+                sink.num_columns()
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn add_schema_metadata(&mut self, key: impl Into<String>, value: impl Into<String>) {
+        self.schema_metadata.insert(key.into(), value.into());
+    }
+
+    pub fn initialize_with_external_metadata(&mut self, mut schema: Schema, rows_written: u64) {
+        self.schema_metadata
+            .extend(std::mem::take(&mut schema.metadata));
+        self.schema = Some(schema);
+        self.rows_written = rows_written;
+    }
+
+    pub fn make_file_descriptor(&mut self) -> Result<pb::FileDescriptor> {
+        let schema = self.schema.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(
+                "No schema provided on writer open and no data provided.  Schema is unknown and file cannot be created",
+            )
+        })?;
+        schema.metadata = std::mem::take(&mut self.schema_metadata);
+        schema
+            .fields
+            .iter_mut()
+            .for_each(|field| field.unload_blobs_recursive());
+        make_file_descriptor(schema, self.rows_written)
+    }
+
+    pub fn rows_written(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.rows_written
+    }
+
+    pub fn field_id_to_column_indices(&self) -> &[(u32, u32)] {
+        &self.field_id_to_column_indices
+    }
+}
+
+fn make_file_descriptor(schema: &Schema, num_rows: u64) -> Result<pb::FileDescriptor> {
+    let fields_with_meta = FieldsWithMeta::from(schema);
+    Ok(pb::FileDescriptor {
+        schema: Some(pb::Schema {
+            fields: fields_with_meta.fields.0,
+            metadata: fields_with_meta.metadata,
+        }),
+        length: num_rows,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Structural file body produced before an exact version appends its footer.
+pub struct EncodedBatchBody {
+    pub data: BytesMut,
+    pub column_metadata_start: u64,
+    pub column_metadata_offsets_start: u64,
+    pub global_buffer_offsets_start: u64,
+    pub num_global_buffers: u32,
+    pub num_columns: u32,
+}
+
+pub fn encode_batch_body(batch: &EncodedBatch, write_schema: bool) -> Result<EncodedBatchBody> {
+    use bytes::BufMut;
+
+    let mut data = BytesMut::with_capacity(batch.data.len() + 1024 * 1024);
+    data.extend_from_slice(&batch.data);
+    let global_buffers = if write_schema {
+        let schema_start = data.len() as u64;
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(batch.schema.as_ref())?;
+        let descriptor = make_file_descriptor(&schema, batch.num_rows)?;
+        let descriptor_bytes = descriptor.encode_to_vec();
+        let descriptor_len = descriptor_bytes.len() as u64;
+        data.extend_from_slice(&descriptor_bytes);
+        vec![(schema_start, descriptor_len)]
+    } else {
+        Vec::new()
+    };
+    let column_metadata_start = data.len() as u64;
+
+    let mut column_metadata_positions = Vec::with_capacity(batch.page_table.len());
+    for column in &batch.page_table {
+        let position = data.len() as u64;
+        let pages = column
+            .page_infos
+            .iter()
+            .map(|page_info| {
+                let encoded_encoding = match &page_info.encoding {
+                    PageEncoding::Legacy(array_encoding) => {
+                        Any::from_msg(array_encoding)?.encode_to_vec()
+                    }
+                    PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout) => {
+                        Any::from_msg(page_layout)?.encode_to_vec()
+                    }
+                };
+                let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =
+                    page_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().copied().unzip();
+                Ok(pbfile::column_metadata::Page {
+                    buffer_offsets,
+                    buffer_sizes,
+                    encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
+                        location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(
+                            pbfile::DirectEncoding {
+                                encoding: encoded_encoding,
+                            },
+                        )),
+                    }),
+                    length: page_info.num_rows,
+                    priority: page_info.priority,
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =
+            column.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().copied().unzip();
+        let encoded_column_encoding = Any::from_msg(&column.encoding)?.encode_to_vec();
+        let metadata = pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
+            pages,
+            buffer_offsets,
+            buffer_sizes,
+            encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
+                location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(pbfile::DirectEncoding {
+                    encoding: encoded_column_encoding,
+                })),
+            }),
+        };
+        let metadata_bytes = metadata.encode_to_vec();
+        column_metadata_positions.push((position, metadata_bytes.len() as u64));
+        data.extend_from_slice(&metadata_bytes);
+    }
+
+    let column_metadata_offsets_start = data.len() as u64;
+    for (position, len) in column_metadata_positions {
+        data.put_u64_le(position);
+        data.put_u64_le(len);
+    }
+    let global_buffer_offsets_start = data.len() as u64;
+    let num_global_buffers = global_buffers.len() as u32;
+    for (position, len) in global_buffers {
+        data.put_u64_le(position);
+        data.put_u64_le(len);
+    }
+
+    Ok(EncodedBatchBody {
+        data,
+        column_metadata_start,
+        column_metadata_offsets_start,
+        global_buffer_offsets_start,
+        num_global_buffers,
+        num_columns: batch.page_table.len() as u32,
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, BooleanArray, StructArray};
+    use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+
+    use super::EncodingPipeline;
+
+    /// `analysis: struct<changed: bool>` where the child is declared
+    /// non-nullable, built with a nullable child so the array can carry the
+    /// nulls a reader hands back.
+    fn analysis(parent_valid: Vec<bool>, changed: Vec<Option<bool>>) -> (ArrayRef, Schema) {
+        let child = Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(changed)) as ArrayRef;
+        let array = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("changed", DataType::Boolean, true)]),
+            vec![child],
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(parent_valid)),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let declared = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "analysis",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "changed",
+                DataType::Boolean,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        (array, Schema::try_from(&declared).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn child_nulls_under_a_null_parent_are_writable() {
+        // A null struct slot leaves its child undefined, and a reader returns
+        // null there for a column this writer stored a value in. Rejecting it
+        // would make the column unwritable after a round trip.
+        let (array, schema) = analysis(
+            vec![true, false, true, false],
+            vec![Some(true), None, Some(false), None],
+        );
+        EncodingPipeline::verify_field_nullability(array.as_ref(), &schema.fields[0]).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn child_nulls_under_a_valid_parent_are_still_rejected() {
+        let (array, schema) = analysis(
+            vec![true, true, true, false],
+            vec![Some(true), None, Some(false), None],
+        );
+        let error = EncodingPipeline::verify_field_nullability(array.as_ref(), &schema.fields[0])
+            .expect_err("a null the parent does not mask violates the schema");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("`changed`"),
+            "should name the offending child: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A dictionary key can point at a null value, which the physical
+    /// validity buffer does not record. Masking physical validity alone would
+    /// admit that null and produce a file Arrow rejects on readback.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_logical_null_in_a_dictionary_child_is_rejected() {
+        use arrow_array::{DictionaryArray, Int32Array};
+
+        let values = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(10), None])) as ArrayRef;
+        let keys = Int32Array::from(vec![Some(0), Some(1), None]);
+        let child = Arc::new(DictionaryArray::new(keys, values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let child_type = child.data_type().clone();
+        // Row 2's key is physically null but the parent masks it; row 1 is a
+        // logical null the parent does not mask.
+        let array = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("code", child_type.clone(), true)]),
+            vec![child],
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, false])),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let declared = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "wrapper",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "code", child_type, false,
+            )])),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&declared).unwrap();
+
+        let error = EncodingPipeline::verify_field_nullability(array.as_ref(), &schema.fields[0])
+            .expect_err("the visible logical null at row 1 must be rejected");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("`code`"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_sliced_parent_lines_up_with_its_children() {
+        let (array, schema) = analysis(
+            vec![true, false, true, true],
+            vec![Some(true), None, Some(false), Some(true)],
+        );
+        // Dropping the first row leaves the null parent at slot 0.
+        let sliced = array.slice(1, 3);
+        EncodingPipeline::verify_field_nullability(sliced.as_ref(), &schema.fields[0]).unwrap();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/src/writer_tests.rs b/rust/lance-file/src/writer_tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..88f61e513d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/src/writer_tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1976 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use crate::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions, ReaderProjection, describe_encoding};
+    use crate::testing::FsFixture;
+    use crate::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+    use crate::versions;
+    use crate::writer::{
+        ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, FieldTypeMismatch, FileWriter, FileWriterOptions,
+    };
+    use arrow_array::builder::{Float32Builder, Int32Builder};
+    use arrow_array::types::Float64Type;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatch,
+        RecordBatchReader, StringArray, StructArray, UInt64Array,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::{NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+    use arrow_schema::{
+        DataType, Field, Field as ArrowField, Fields as ArrowFields, Schema, Schema as ArrowSchema,
+    };
+    use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+    use lance_arrow::json::{ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME, JSON_EXT_NAME, JsonArray, json_field};
+    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+    use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjFile;
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_encoding::compression_config::{CompressionFieldParams, CompressionParams};
+    use lance_encoding::constants::PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY;
+    use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderPlugins;
+    use lance_encoding::encoder::{
+        BatchEncoder, ColumnIndexSequence, EncodingOptions, FieldEncodingContext, OutOfLineBuffers,
+        encode_batch,
+    };
+    use lance_encoding::repdef::RepDefBuilder;
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use lance_io::traits::Writer;
+    use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn create_writer(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
+        schema: LanceSchema,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<FileWriter> {
+        versions::create_writer(version, object_writer, schema, options)
+    }
+
+    fn create_v2_1_writer_with_compression(
+        object_writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
+        schema: LanceSchema,
+        options: FileWriterOptions,
+        compression: CompressionParams,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<FileWriter> {
+        versions::v2_1::create_writer_with_compression(object_writer, schema, options, compression)
+            .map(Into::into)
+    }
+
+    fn reader_projection_from_column_names(
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+        schema: &LanceSchema,
+        column_names: &[&str],
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ReaderProjection> {
+        versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(version, schema, column_names)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_basic_write() {
+        let tmp_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("score", array::rand::<Float64Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(10));
+
+        let writer = obj_store.create(&tmp_path).await.unwrap();
+
+        let lance_schema =
+            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(reader.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let mut file_writer = create_writer(
+            writer,
+            lance_schema,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        for batch in reader {
+            file_writer.write_batch(&batch.unwrap()).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        file_writer.add_schema_metadata("foo", "bar");
+        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        // Tests asserting the contents of the written file are in reader.rs
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v2_1(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)]
+    #[case::v2_2(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2)]
+    #[case::v2_3(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_negative_dictionary_values_with_runt_tail(#[case] version: ConcreteFileVersion) {
+        let values: Vec<i64> = (0..9216_u64)
+            .map(|i| ((i.wrapping_mul(2_654_435_761) >> 7) % 1600) as i64 - 800)
+            .collect();
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("f0", Int64, values)).unwrap();
+        let reader = arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+
+        crate::testing::write_lance_file(reader, &fs, version, FileWriterOptions::default()).await;
+        let read = crate::testing::read_lance_file(
+            &fs,
+            Arc::new(DecoderPlugins::default()),
+            lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let read = arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&read[0].schema(), &read).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(read, batch);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_empty() {
+        let tmp_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("score", array::rand::<Float64Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(0), BatchCount::from(0));
+
+        let writer = obj_store.create(&tmp_path).await.unwrap();
+
+        let lance_schema =
+            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(reader.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let mut file_writer = create_writer(
+            writer,
+            lance_schema,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        for batch in reader {
+            file_writer.write_batch(&batch.unwrap()).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        file_writer.add_schema_metadata("foo", "bar");
+        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // Read a single column back at an explicit range/index set, returning its
+    // `Int32` values. Reading one column (or an equal-length group) at a time is
+    // how unequal-length files are consumed: a full scan across columns of
+    // differing lengths cannot form a single rectangular batch.
+    async fn read_int32_column(
+        reader: &FileReader,
+        schema: &LanceSchema,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+        name: &str,
+        params: lance_io::ReadBatchParams,
+    ) -> Vec<Option<i32>> {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression;
+
+        let projection = reader_projection_from_column_names(version, schema, &[name]).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = reader
+            .read_stream_projected(params, 1024, 16, projection, FilterExpression::no_filter())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column(0)
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// A single file may hold columns of differing item counts, written by
+    /// advancing each column's row counter independently (no shared global
+    /// counter).
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_columns_unequal_lengths(
+        #[values(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            version,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Field "a" gets 5 values across two calls (appending), field "b" gets a
+        // single value, and field "c" is never written (a zero-length column).
+        let a1: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]));
+        let b: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10]));
+        writer.write_column(0, a1).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_column(1, b).await.unwrap();
+        let a2: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5]));
+        writer.write_column(0, a2).await.unwrap();
+        // An empty array is a no-op whether or not the field already has rows:
+        // field "a" keeps its 5 rows, field "c" stays a zero-length column.
+        let empty: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(Vec::<i32>::new()));
+        writer.write_column(0, empty.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_column(2, empty).await.unwrap();
+
+        let summary = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        // The file's logical length is the longest column.
+        assert_eq!(summary.num_rows, 5);
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Per-column row counts are recorded in / derivable from file metadata.
+        assert_eq!(reader.num_rows(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(reader.column_num_rows(0).unwrap(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(reader.column_num_rows(1).unwrap(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.column_num_rows(2).unwrap(), 0);
+        assert!(reader.column_num_rows(3).is_err());
+
+        // Each column reads back independently at its own length.
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_int32_column(
+                &reader,
+                &lance_schema,
+                version,
+                "a",
+                ReadBatchParams::Range(0..5)
+            )
+            .await,
+            vec![Some(1), Some(2), Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_int32_column(
+                &reader,
+                &lance_schema,
+                version,
+                "b",
+                ReadBatchParams::Range(0..1)
+            )
+            .await,
+            vec![Some(10)],
+        );
+
+        // Random access by position within the longer column returns the right
+        // value even though other columns are shorter. (The take path requires
+        // strictly increasing indices.)
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_int32_column(
+                &reader,
+                &lance_schema,
+                version,
+                "a",
+                ReadBatchParams::Indices(arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 2, 4])),
+            )
+            .await,
+            vec![Some(1), Some(3), Some(5)],
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Reading an unequal-length file:
+    /// - a projection whose columns are equal length full-scans normally;
+    /// - a full scan across columns of differing length is rejected up front,
+    ///   before any batch is produced (even though a prefix would be rectangular);
+    /// - a bounded read is valid as long as every projected column covers it;
+    /// - a single-column `RangeFull` resolves to that column's own length, not
+    ///   the file's (maximum) length.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_unequal_length_projection(
+        #[values(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression;
+        use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            version,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        // "a" and "b" are equal length (5); "c" is shorter (1).
+        writer
+            .write_column(0, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_column(1, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![6, 7, 8, 9, 10])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_column(2, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let read = |names: &'static [&'static str], params: ReadBatchParams| {
+            let projection =
+                reader_projection_from_column_names(version, &lance_schema, names).unwrap();
+            async {
+                match reader
+                    .read_stream_projected(
+                        params,
+                        1024,
+                        16,
+                        projection,
+                        FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                {
+                    Ok(stream) => stream.try_collect::<Vec<RecordBatch>>().await,
+                    Err(e) => Err(e),
+                }
+            }
+        };
+        let col_values = |batches: &[RecordBatch], idx: usize| -> Vec<Option<i32>> {
+            batches
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|b| {
+                    b.column(idx)
+                        .as_any()
+                        .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .iter()
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                })
+                .collect()
+        };
+
+        // Equal-length projection [a, b] full-scans into rectangular batches.
+        let batches = read(&["a", "b"], ReadBatchParams::RangeFull).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            col_values(&batches, 0),
+            vec![Some(1), Some(2), Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            col_values(&batches, 1),
+            vec![Some(6), Some(7), Some(8), Some(9), Some(10)]
+        );
+
+        // A mismatched-length projection [a, c] (5 vs 1) is rejected before any
+        // batch is yielded, regardless of the read params — its columns cannot
+        // be combined into rectangular batches. The error names each column's
+        // length so the caller can see which column is the odd one out.
+        let err = read(&["a", "c"], ReadBatchParams::RangeFull)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(
+            err.contains("a=5") && err.contains("c=1"),
+            "error should name each column's length, got: {err}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            read(&["a", "c"], ReadBatchParams::Range(0..1))
+                .await
+                .is_err(),
+            "even a common-prefix read of unequal-length columns must error"
+        );
+
+        // A single-column RangeFull resolves to that column's own length.
+        let batches = read(&["c"], ReadBatchParams::RangeFull).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(col_values(&batches, 0), vec![Some(100)]);
+        let batches = read(&["a"], ReadBatchParams::RangeFull).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            col_values(&batches, 0),
+            vec![Some(1), Some(2), Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)]
+        );
+
+        // RangeFrom/RangeTo likewise resolve against the projected column's own
+        // length rather than the file's longest column.
+        let batches = read(&["a"], ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(2..)).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(col_values(&batches, 0), vec![Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)]);
+        // RangeFrom on the short column "c" resolves to length 1, not 5.
+        let batches = read(&["c"], ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(0..)).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(col_values(&batches, 0), vec![Some(100)]);
+        let batches = read(&["a"], ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(..3)).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(col_values(&batches, 0), vec![Some(1), Some(2), Some(3)]);
+        // A bound past the projected column's length errors.
+        assert!(
+            read(&["a"], ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(..6)).await.is_err(),
+            "RangeTo past the column length must error"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            read(&["c"], ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(2..)).await.is_err(),
+            "RangeFrom past the column length must error"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A struct and a list column each map to multiple physical columns, and a
+    /// list's item column is longer than its top-level row count. The
+    /// projection-length check must partition `column_indices` by top-level
+    /// field and use each field's root column, so an ordinary (rectangular) file
+    /// with nested columns still reads under the new validation path.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_nested_columns_under_validation(
+        #[values(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        use arrow_array::{ListArray, StructArray};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression;
+        use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+
+        let struct_type = DataType::Struct(
+            vec![
+                ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]
+            .into(),
+        );
+        let list_type = DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)));
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("s", struct_type, true),
+            ArrowField::new("lst", list_type, true),
+        ]));
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let a: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]));
+        let s: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![11, 21, 31])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        // 3 lists, 6 items: the item column is longer than the top-level rows.
+        let lst: ArrayRef = Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(vec![
+            Some(vec![Some(1), Some(2)]),
+            Some(vec![Some(3)]),
+            Some(vec![Some(4), Some(5), Some(6)]),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![a, s, lst]).unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            version,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // If `validate_field_length` mispartitioned the physical columns, the
+        // length check would read the wrong root column (e.g. the list's item
+        // column, length 6) and spuriously reject this rectangular file.
+        for names in [&["a", "s", "lst"][..], &["a", "lst"][..], &["a", "s"][..]] {
+            let projection =
+                reader_projection_from_column_names(version, &lance_schema, names).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = reader
+                .read_stream_projected(
+                    ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                    1024,
+                    16,
+                    projection,
+                    FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(
+                total_rows, 3,
+                "projection {names:?} should read 3 top-level rows"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `write_column` rejects invalid inputs at the API boundary with
+    /// descriptive errors: a writer without an explicit schema, an
+    /// out-of-bounds field index, and a null written into a non-nullable field.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_column_validation_errors() {
+        // A lazy-schema writer cannot infer the schema from a single column.
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut lazy_writer = versions::v2_1::create_lazy_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        );
+        let err = lazy_writer
+            .write_column(0, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(
+            err.contains("explicit schema"),
+            "expected explicit-schema error, got: {err}"
+        );
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        // An out-of-bounds field index is rejected, naming the index and count.
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let err = writer
+            .write_column(5, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(
+            err.contains('5') && err.contains('2'),
+            "expected out-of-bounds error naming index 5 and 2 fields, got: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // A null in a non-nullable field ("a") is rejected.
+        let err = writer
+            .write_column(0, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(
+            err.contains("non-null"),
+            "expected nullability error, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn field_type_mismatch(error: lance_core::Error) -> FieldTypeMismatch {
+        match error {
+            lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { source, .. } => source
+                .downcast_ref::<FieldTypeMismatch>()
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("expected a field type mismatch, got: {source}"))
+                .clone(),
+            other => panic!("expected an invalid input error, got: {other}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Arrow JSON text that skipped conversion to Lance JSONB is rejected
+    /// before anything is encoded, naming the offending field.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::top_level(false)]
+    #[case::nested_in_struct(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_writer_rejects_unconverted_arrow_json(
+        #[case] nested: bool,
+        #[values(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+        )]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let arrow_json =
+            ArrowField::new("j", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+                ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+            )]));
+        let text: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![r#"{"a":1}"#]));
+        let in_struct = |field: ArrowField| {
+            if nested {
+                ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(vec![field].into()), true)
+            } else {
+                field
+            }
+        };
+        let jsonb: ArrayRef = Arc::new(JsonArray::try_from(text.clone()).unwrap().into_inner());
+        let batch_of = |field: ArrowField, values: ArrayRef| {
+            let field = in_struct(field);
+            let values: ArrayRef = match field.data_type() {
+                DataType::Struct(fields) => {
+                    Arc::new(StructArray::new(fields.clone(), vec![values], None))
+                }
+                _ => values,
+            };
+            RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![field])), vec![values]).unwrap()
+        };
+        let converted = batch_of(json_field("j", true), jsonb);
+        let batch = batch_of(arrow_json, text);
+        let file_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(converted.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            file_schema,
+            version,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        // A batch with an accepted schema must not let a later, different
+        // schema through.
+        writer.write_batch(&converted).await.unwrap();
+        let mismatch = field_type_mismatch(writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap_err());
+        assert_eq!(mismatch.field_path, if nested { "s.j" } else { "j" });
+        assert_eq!(mismatch.expected.data_type(), &DataType::LargeBinary);
+        assert_eq!(mismatch.expected.extension_type_name(), Some(JSON_EXT_NAME));
+        assert_eq!(mismatch.actual.data_type(), &DataType::Utf8);
+        assert_eq!(
+            mismatch.actual.extension_type_name(),
+            Some(ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME)
+        );
+        // The rejected batch reached no encoder.
+        assert_eq!(writer.finish().await.unwrap().num_rows, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_column_rejects_mismatched_type(
+        #[values(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+        )]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let file_schema =
+            LanceSchema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![json_field("j", true)])).unwrap();
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            file_schema,
+            version,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let text: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![r#"{"a":1}"#]));
+        let mismatch = field_type_mismatch(writer.write_column(0, text).await.unwrap_err());
+        assert_eq!(mismatch.field_path, "j");
+        assert_eq!(mismatch.expected.data_type(), &DataType::LargeBinary);
+        // A bare array carries no extension of its own.
+        assert_eq!(mismatch.actual.data_type(), &DataType::Utf8);
+        assert_eq!(mismatch.actual.extension_type_name(), None);
+    }
+
+    fn struct_array(fields: ArrowFields, nulls: Option<NullBuffer>) -> StructArray {
+        StructArray::new(
+            fields,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 99, 30])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![11, 98, 31])),
+            ],
+            nulls,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Writer preflight uses the same name-selected arrays as encoding, so a
+    /// rejected reordered batch cannot leave earlier field encoders mutated.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_0_writer_atomically_rejects_reordered_null_structs() {
+        let struct_fields: ArrowFields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let struct_field = ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()), true);
+        let writer_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+            struct_field.clone(),
+        ]));
+        let batch_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            struct_field,
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let null_structs = struct_array(
+            struct_fields.clone(),
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, true])),
+        );
+        let invalid_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            batch_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(null_structs),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(writer_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let error = writer.write_batch(&invalid_batch).await.unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("struct validity"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("2.0"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("1 null value"), "{message}");
+
+        let valid_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            batch_schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(struct_array(struct_fields, None)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.write_batch(&valid_batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_int32_column(
+                &reader,
+                &lance_schema,
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                "id",
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            )
+            .await,
+            vec![Some(4), Some(5), Some(6)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// V2.0 null-struct validation applies only to list values that are logically
+    /// encoded, excluding unselected backing values and values under null lists.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::non_empty_slice(1, 1, false, true)]
+    #[case::empty_slice(1, 0, false, true)]
+    #[case::garbage_under_null_list(0, 2, true, true)]
+    #[case::selected_null_struct(0, 1, false, false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_0_writer_validates_logical_list_structs(
+        #[case] offset: usize,
+        #[case] len: usize,
+        #[case] has_null_list: bool,
+        #[case] should_succeed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let struct_fields: ArrowFields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let struct_values = struct_array(
+            struct_fields.clone(),
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![false, true, true])),
+        );
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(struct_fields),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let list_nulls = has_null_list.then(|| NullBuffer::from(vec![false, true, true]));
+        let list = ListArray::new(
+            item_field,
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i32, 1, 2, 3])),
+            Arc::new(struct_values),
+            list_nulls,
+        );
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "items",
+            list.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(list.slice(offset, len))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let result = writer.write_batch(&batch).await;
+        if !should_succeed {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("struct validity"));
+            return;
+        }
+        result.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Fixed-size-list child slots under null parent rows are not logically
+    /// encoded, while null structs under valid parent rows remain invalid.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::masked_child_null(true, false, true)]
+    #[case::masked_non_nullable_child_null(true, true, true)]
+    #[case::selected_child_null(false, false, false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_0_writer_validates_logical_fixed_size_list_structs(
+        #[case] mask_child_null: bool,
+        #[case] has_non_nullable_child_null: bool,
+        #[case] should_succeed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let struct_fields: ArrowFields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, !has_non_nullable_child_null),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let struct_values = if has_non_nullable_child_null {
+            StructArray::new(
+                struct_fields.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None, Some(99), Some(30)])),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![11, 98, 31])),
+                ],
+                Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![false, true, true])),
+            )
+        } else {
+            struct_array(
+                struct_fields.clone(),
+                Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![false, true, true])),
+            )
+        };
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(struct_fields),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let parent_nulls = mask_child_null.then(|| NullBuffer::from(vec![false, true, true]));
+        let list = FixedSizeListArray::new(item_field, 1, Arc::new(struct_values), parent_nulls);
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("items", list.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])), Arc::new(list)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let result = writer.write_batch(&batch).await;
+        if !should_succeed {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("struct validity"));
+            return;
+        }
+        result.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The public in-memory v2.0 encoder must enforce the invariant for both
+    /// ordinary multi-column structs and packed structs.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::ordinary(false)]
+    #[case::packed(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_0_encoding_strategy_rejects_null_structs(#[case] is_packed: bool) {
+        let struct_fields: ArrowFields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let mut struct_field = ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()), true);
+        if is_packed {
+            struct_field = struct_field.with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY.to_owned(),
+                "true".to_owned(),
+            )]));
+        }
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![struct_field]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(struct_array(
+                struct_fields,
+                Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, true])),
+            ))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let lance_schema = Arc::new(LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
+        let strategy = versions::v2_0::encoding_strategy();
+
+        let mut batch_encoder = BatchEncoder::try_new(
+            lance_schema.as_ref(),
+            strategy.as_ref(),
+            &EncodingOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut external_buffers = OutOfLineBuffers::new(0, 64);
+        let direct_result = batch_encoder.field_encoders[0].maybe_encode(
+            batch.column(0).clone(),
+            &mut external_buffers,
+            RepDefBuilder::default(),
+            0,
+            batch.num_rows() as u64,
+        );
+        let Err(direct_error) = direct_result else {
+            panic!("public BatchEncoder bypassed v2.0 validation");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(
+            direct_error,
+            lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }
+        ));
+        assert!(direct_error.to_string().contains("struct validity"));
+
+        let options = EncodingOptions::default();
+        let field = &lance_schema.fields[0];
+        let context = FieldEncodingContext {
+            strategy: strategy.as_ref(),
+            options: &options,
+            root_field_metadata: &field.metadata,
+        };
+        let mut column_index = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
+        let mut factory_encoder = strategy
+            .create_field_encoder(field, &mut column_index, &context)
+            .unwrap();
+        let factory_result = factory_encoder.maybe_encode(
+            batch.column(0).clone(),
+            &mut OutOfLineBuffers::new(0, 64),
+            RepDefBuilder::default(),
+            0,
+            batch.num_rows() as u64,
+        );
+        let Err(factory_error) = factory_result else {
+            panic!("public create_field_encoder bypassed v2.0 validation");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(
+            factory_error,
+            lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }
+        ));
+        assert!(factory_error.to_string().contains("struct validity"));
+
+        let error = encode_batch(
+            &batch,
+            lance_schema,
+            strategy.as_ref(),
+            &EncodingOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("struct validity"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("2.0"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("1 null value"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_v2_0_primitive_fsl_preparation_reuses_array() {
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::new(
+            item_field.clone(),
+            2,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 6])),
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, true])),
+        ));
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(item_field, 2),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let strategy = versions::v2_0::encoding_strategy();
+        let options = EncodingOptions::default();
+        let field = &lance_schema.fields[0];
+        let context = FieldEncodingContext {
+            strategy: strategy.as_ref(),
+            options: &options,
+            root_field_metadata: &field.metadata,
+        };
+        let mut column_index = ColumnIndexSequence::default();
+        let mut encoder = strategy
+            .create_field_encoder(field, &mut column_index, &context)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let prepared = encoder.prepare_array(array.clone()).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&prepared, &array));
+    }
+
+    /// The blocking read path applies the same projection-length validation as
+    /// the async path: a short single column resolves to its own length, and a
+    /// mismatched-length projection errors up front.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blocking_read_unequal_length(
+        #[values(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)]
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        use lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression;
+        use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            version,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_column(0, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_column(1, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100])))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = Arc::new(
+            FileReader::try_open(
+                file_scheduler,
+                None,
+                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+                FileReaderOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Single short column: RangeFull resolves to its own length (1).
+        let proj_c = reader_projection_from_column_names(version, &lance_schema, &["c"]).unwrap();
+        let reader_c = reader.clone();
+        let batches = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            reader_c
+                .read_stream_projected_blocking(
+                    ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                    1024,
+                    Some(proj_c),
+                    FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+                .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<RecordBatch>, _>>()
+                .unwrap()
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 1);
+
+        // A mismatched projection [a, c] errors on the blocking path too.
+        let proj_ac =
+            reader_projection_from_column_names(version, &lance_schema, &["a", "c"]).unwrap();
+        let reader_ac = reader.clone();
+        let is_err = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            reader_ac
+                .read_stream_projected_blocking(
+                    ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                    1024,
+                    Some(proj_ac),
+                    FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                )
+                .is_err()
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            is_err,
+            "blocking full scan across unequal-length columns must error"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Files written the ordinary (rectangular) way keep equal column lengths,
+    /// so the unequal-length support is backwards compatible.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_batch_keeps_equal_lengths() {
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        let summary = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(summary.num_rows, 3);
+
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&fs.tmp_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reader.column_num_rows(0).unwrap(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(reader.column_num_rows(1).unwrap(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_max_page_bytes_enforced() {
+        let arrow_field = Field::new("data", DataType::UInt64, false);
+        let arrow_schema = Schema::new(vec![arrow_field]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        // 8MiB
+        let data: Vec<u64> = (0..1_000_000).collect();
+        let array = UInt64Array::from(data);
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone().into(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
+
+        let options = FileWriterOptions {
+            max_page_bytes: Some(1024 * 1024), // 1MB
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let column_meta = file_reader.metadata();
+
+        let mut total_page_num: u32 = 0;
+        for (col_idx, col_metadata) in column_meta.column_metadatas.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert!(
+                !col_metadata.pages.is_empty(),
+                "Column {} has no pages",
+                col_idx
+            );
+
+            for (page_idx, page) in col_metadata.pages.iter().enumerate() {
+                total_page_num += 1;
+                let total_size: u64 = page.buffer_sizes.iter().sum();
+                assert!(
+                    total_size <= 1024 * 1024,
+                    "Column {} Page {} size {} exceeds 1MB limit",
+                    col_idx,
+                    page_idx,
+                    total_size
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(total_page_num, 8)
+    }
+
+    fn assert_zero_max_page_bytes_error(error: lance_core::Error) {
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error: {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("max_page_bytes must be greater than 0, got 0")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::schema_writer(false)]
+    #[case::lazy_writer(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zero_max_page_bytes_rejected(#[case] lazy: bool) {
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let object_writer = object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let options = FileWriterOptions {
+            max_page_bytes: Some(0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let error = if lazy {
+            let mut writer =
+                versions::create_lazy_writer(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, object_writer, options)
+                    .unwrap();
+            let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("data", UInt64, [1])).unwrap();
+            writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap_err()
+        } else {
+            let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "data",
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                false,
+            )]))
+            .unwrap();
+            versions::create_writer(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, object_writer, schema, options)
+                .err()
+                .expect("zero max_page_bytes should fail")
+        };
+
+        assert_zero_max_page_bytes_error(error);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_0_writer_rejects_zero_max_page_bytes() {
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let object_writer = object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "data",
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )]))
+        .unwrap();
+        let options = FileWriterOptions {
+            max_page_bytes: Some(0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let error = versions::v2_0::create_writer(object_writer, schema, options)
+            .err()
+            .expect("zero max_page_bytes should fail");
+        assert_zero_max_page_bytes_error(error);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_1_lazy_writer_rejects_zero_max_page_bytes() {
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let object_writer = object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let options = FileWriterOptions {
+            max_page_bytes: Some(0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("data", UInt64, [1])).unwrap();
+
+        let mut writer = versions::v2_1::create_lazy_writer(object_writer, options);
+        let error = writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert_zero_max_page_bytes_error(error);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_max_page_bytes_env_var() {
+        let arrow_field = Field::new("data", DataType::UInt64, false);
+        let arrow_schema = Schema::new(vec![arrow_field]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        // 4MiB
+        let data: Vec<u64> = (0..500_000).collect();
+        let array = UInt64Array::from(data);
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone().into(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
+
+        // 2MiB
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var(ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, "2097152");
+        }
+
+        let options = FileWriterOptions {
+            max_page_bytes: None, // enforce env
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        for col_metadata in file_reader.metadata().column_metadatas.iter() {
+            for page in col_metadata.pages.iter() {
+                let total_size: u64 = page.buffer_sizes.iter().sum();
+                assert!(
+                    total_size <= 2 * 1024 * 1024,
+                    "Page size {} exceeds 2MB limit",
+                    total_size
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var(ENV_LANCE_FILE_WRITER_MAX_PAGE_BYTES, "");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compression_overrides_end_to_end() {
+        // Create test schema with different column types
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("customer_id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("product_id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("quantity", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("price", DataType::Float32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("description", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        // Create test data with patterns suitable for different compression
+        let mut customer_ids = Int32Builder::new();
+        let mut product_ids = Int32Builder::new();
+        let mut quantities = Int32Builder::new();
+        let mut prices = Float32Builder::new();
+        let mut descriptions = Vec::new();
+
+        // Generate data with specific patterns:
+        // - customer_id: highly repetitive (good for RLE)
+        // - product_id: moderately repetitive (good for RLE)
+        // - quantity: random values (not good for RLE)
+        // - price: some repetition
+        // - description: long strings (good for Zstd)
+        for i in 0..10000 {
+            // Customer ID repeats every 100 rows (100 unique customers)
+            // This creates runs of 100 identical values
+            customer_ids.append_value(i / 100);
+
+            // Product ID has only 5 unique values with long runs
+            product_ids.append_value(i / 2000);
+
+            // Quantity is mostly 1 with occasional other values
+            quantities.append_value(if i % 10 == 0 { 5 } else { 1 });
+
+            // Price has only 3 unique values
+            prices.append_value(match i % 3 {
+                0 => 9.99,
+                1 => 19.99,
+                _ => 29.99,
+            });
+
+            // Descriptions are repetitive but we'll keep them simple
+            descriptions.push(format!("Product {}", i / 2000));
+        }
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(customer_ids.finish()),
+                Arc::new(product_ids.finish()),
+                Arc::new(quantities.finish()),
+                Arc::new(prices.finish()),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(descriptions)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Configure compression parameters
+        let mut params = CompressionParams::new();
+
+        // RLE for ID columns (ends with _id)
+        params.columns.insert(
+            "*_id".to_string(),
+            CompressionFieldParams {
+                rle_threshold: Some(0.5), // Lower threshold to trigger RLE more easily
+                compression: None,        // Will use default compression if any
+                compression_level: None,
+                bss: Some(lance_encoding::compression_config::BssMode::Off), // Explicitly disable BSS to ensure RLE is used
+                minichunk_size: None,
+            },
+        );
+
+        // For now, we'll skip Zstd compression since it's not imported
+        // In a real implementation, you could add other compression types here
+
+        // Configure file writer options
+        let options = FileWriterOptions {
+            max_page_bytes: Some(64 * 1024), // 64KB pages
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        // Write the file
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+
+        let mut writer = create_v2_1_writer_with_compression(
+            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            options,
+            params,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.add_schema_metadata("compression_test", "configured_compression");
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Now write the same data without compression overrides for comparison
+        let path_no_compression = TempObjFile::default();
+        let default_options = FileWriterOptions {
+            max_page_bytes: Some(64 * 1024),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let mut writer_no_compression = create_writer(
+            object_store.create(&path_no_compression).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            default_options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer_no_compression.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer_no_compression.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Note: With our current data patterns and RLE compression, the compressed file
+        // might actually be slightly larger due to compression metadata overhead.
+        // This is expected and the test is mainly to verify the system works end-to-end.
+
+        // Read back the compressed file and verify data integrity
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify metadata
+        let metadata = file_reader.metadata();
+        assert_eq!(metadata.version(), ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1);
+
+        let schema = file_reader.schema();
+        assert_eq!(
+            schema.metadata.get("compression_test"),
+            Some(&"configured_compression".to_string())
+        );
+
+        // Verify the actual encodings used
+        let column_metadatas = &metadata.column_metadatas;
+
+        // Check customer_id column (index 0) - should use RLE due to our configuration
+        assert!(!column_metadatas[0].pages.is_empty());
+        let customer_id_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[0].pages[0]);
+        assert!(
+            customer_id_encoding.contains("RLE") || customer_id_encoding.contains("Rle"),
+            "customer_id column should use RLE encoding due to '*_id' pattern match, but got: {}",
+            customer_id_encoding
+        );
+
+        // Check product_id column (index 1) - should use RLE due to our configuration
+        assert!(!column_metadatas[1].pages.is_empty());
+        let product_id_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[1].pages[0]);
+        assert!(
+            product_id_encoding.contains("RLE") || product_id_encoding.contains("Rle"),
+            "product_id column should use RLE encoding due to '*_id' pattern match, but got: {}",
+            product_id_encoding
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_field_metadata_compression() {
+        // Test that field metadata compression settings are respected
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            lance_encoding::constants::COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "zstd".to_string(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert(
+            lance_encoding::constants::COMPRESSION_LEVEL_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "6".to_string(),
+        );
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata.clone()),
+            ArrowField::new("data", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                lance_encoding::constants::COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                "none".to_string(),
+            )])),
+        ]));
+
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        // Create test data
+        let id_array = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..1000);
+        let text_array = StringArray::from_iter_values(
+            (0..1000).map(|i| format!("test string {} repeated text", i)),
+        );
+        let data_array = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..1000).map(|i| i * 2));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(id_array),
+                Arc::new(text_array),
+                Arc::new(data_array),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+
+        // Create encoding strategy that will read from field metadata
+        let params = CompressionParams::new();
+        let options = FileWriterOptions::default();
+        let mut writer = create_v2_1_writer_with_compression(
+            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            options,
+            params,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Read back metadata
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let column_metadatas = &file_reader.metadata().column_metadatas;
+
+        // The text column (index 1) should use zstd compression based on metadata
+        let text_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[1].pages[0]);
+        // For string columns, we expect Binary encoding with zstd compression
+        assert!(
+            text_encoding.contains("Zstd"),
+            "text column should use zstd compression from field metadata, but got: {}",
+            text_encoding
+        );
+
+        // The data column (index 2) should use no compression based on metadata
+        let data_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[2].pages[0]);
+        // For Int32 columns with "none" compression, we expect Flat encoding without compression
+        assert!(
+            data_encoding.contains("Flat") && data_encoding.contains("compression: None"),
+            "data column should use no compression from field metadata, but got: {}",
+            data_encoding
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_field_metadata_rle_threshold() {
+        // Test that RLE threshold from field metadata is respected
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            lance_encoding::constants::RLE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "0.9".to_string(),
+        );
+        // Also set compression to ensure RLE is used
+        metadata.insert(
+            lance_encoding::constants::COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "lz4".to_string(),
+        );
+        // Explicitly disable BSS to ensure RLE is tested
+        metadata.insert(
+            lance_encoding::constants::BSS_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "off".to_string(),
+        );
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("status", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(metadata),
+        ]));
+
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        // Create data with very high repetition (3 runs for 10000 values = 0.0003 ratio)
+        let status_array = Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+            std::iter::repeat_n(200, 8000)
+                .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(404, 1500))
+                .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(500, 500)),
+        );
+
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(status_array)]).unwrap();
+
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+
+        // Create encoding strategy that will read from field metadata
+        let params = CompressionParams::new();
+        let options = FileWriterOptions::default();
+        let mut writer = create_v2_1_writer_with_compression(
+            object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            options,
+            params,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Read back and check encoding
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let column_metadatas = &file_reader.metadata().column_metadatas;
+        let status_encoding = describe_encoding(&column_metadatas[0].pages[0]);
+        assert!(
+            status_encoding.contains("RLE") || status_encoding.contains("Rle"),
+            "status column should use RLE encoding due to metadata threshold, but got: {}",
+            status_encoding
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_large_page_split_on_read() {
+        use arrow_array::Array;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression;
+        use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+
+        // Test that large pages written with relaxed limits can be split during read
+
+        let arrow_field = ArrowField::new("data", DataType::Binary, false);
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![arrow_field]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        // Create a large binary value (40MB) to trigger large page creation
+        let large_value = vec![42u8; 40 * 1024 * 1024];
+        let array = arrow_array::BinaryArray::from(vec![
+            Some(large_value.as_slice()),
+            Some(b"small value"),
+        ]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(arrow_schema), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
+
+        // Write with relaxed page size limit (128MB)
+        let options = FileWriterOptions {
+            max_page_bytes: Some(128 * 1024 * 1024),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let path = fs.tmp_path;
+
+        let mut writer = create_writer(
+            fs.object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        let write_summary = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(write_summary.num_rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            write_summary.size_bytes,
+            fs.object_store.size(&path).await.unwrap()
+        );
+
+        // Read back with split configuration
+        let file_scheduler = fs
+            .scheduler
+            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Configure reader to split pages larger than 10MB into chunks
+        let reader_options = FileReaderOptions {
+            read_chunk_size: 10 * 1024 * 1024, // 10MB chunks
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            reader_options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Read the data back
+        let stream = file_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                1024,
+                10, // batch_readahead
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+
+        // Verify the data is correctly read despite splitting
+        let read_array = batches[0].column(0);
+        let read_binary = read_array
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BinaryArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(read_binary.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(read_binary.value(0).len(), 40 * 1024 * 1024);
+        assert_eq!(read_binary.value(1), b"small value");
+
+        // Verify first value matches what we wrote
+        assert!(read_binary.value(0).iter().all(|&b| b == 42u8));
+    }
+
+    fn spill_config() -> (TempObjFile, Arc<ObjectStore>) {
+        let spill_path = TempObjFile::default();
+        (spill_path, Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()))
+    }
+
+    fn make_batches(num_batches: i32, num_cols: usize, rows_per_batch: i32) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        let fields: Vec<_> = (0..num_cols)
+            .map(|c| ArrowField::new(format!("c{c}"), DataType::Int32, false))
+            .collect();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields));
+        (0..num_batches)
+            .map(|i| {
+                let cols: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> = (0..num_cols)
+                    .map(|c| {
+                        let start = (i * rows_per_batch + c as i32) * 100;
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(start..start + rows_per_batch))
+                            as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), cols).unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    async fn write_and_read_batches(
+        batches: &[RecordBatch],
+        spill: Option<(Arc<ObjectStore>, object_store::path::Path)>,
+    ) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        let fs = FsFixture::default();
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(batches[0].schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let writer = fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await.unwrap();
+        let mut file_writer = create_writer(
+            writer,
+            lance_schema,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        if let Some((store, path)) = spill {
+            file_writer = file_writer.with_page_metadata_spill(store, path);
+        }
+        for batch in batches {
+            file_writer.write_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        file_writer.add_schema_metadata("foo", "bar");
+        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        crate::testing::read_lance_file(
+            &fs,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::multi_col(20, 2, 100)]
+    #[case::many_batches(50, 2, 100)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_page_metadata_spill_roundtrip(
+        #[case] num_batches: i32,
+        #[case] num_cols: usize,
+        #[case] rows_per_batch: i32,
+    ) {
+        let batches = make_batches(num_batches, num_cols, rows_per_batch);
+        let baseline = write_and_read_batches(&batches, None).await;
+        let (spill_path, spill_store) = spill_config();
+        let spilled =
+            write_and_read_batches(&batches, Some((spill_store, spill_path.as_ref().clone())))
+                .await;
+        assert_eq!(baseline, spilled);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_page_metadata_spill_many_columns() {
+        // Many columns forces small per-column buffer limits, exercising mid-write flushing.
+        let batches = make_batches(10, 500, 100);
+        let baseline = write_and_read_batches(&batches, None).await;
+        let (spill_path, spill_store) = spill_config();
+        let spilled =
+            write_and_read_batches(&batches, Some((spill_store, spill_path.as_ref().clone())))
+                .await;
+        assert_eq!(baseline, spilled);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/README.md b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..72b8edcd86d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+# Exact File-Version Compatibility Fixtures
+
+These files were generated with the writers at baseline commit
+`3a72f8a61e14613f517dded6816d4bfc77817c93`. The deterministic input batch is
+defined by `compatibility_fixture_batch` in `src/compatibility_tests.rs` and
+covers primitive, nullable UTF-8, nullable list, nullable dictionary, blob,
+multiple input batches, and multiple pages. The V2.0 embedded fixtures use the
+primitive and nullable UTF-8 columns from the first 257 rows of the same batch.
+
+`datagen.py` copies the baseline-compatible `datagen.rs` into a clean checkout
+of that commit, runs it twice in separate processes with an isolated Cargo
+target directory, and verifies that both runs produce identical bytes:
+
+```shell
+git worktree add --detach /tmp/lance-exact-version-baseline \
+    3a72f8a61e14613f517dded6816d4bfc77817c93
+python3 rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/datagen.py \
+    --source /tmp/lance-exact-version-baseline
+git worktree remove /tmp/lance-exact-version-baseline
+```
+
+Pass `--write` only when intentionally restoring these files from the locked
+baseline.
+
+| File | SHA-256 |
+| --- | --- |
+| `v1.lance` | `fa8b3d81b9d4fd4ade5a7c3d077ebf2155664e12b9335e26fac1c0d0774e916c` |
+| `v2_0.lance` | `073c8c24eb4433b83d0dda95bf7a731a9f5d8f32d78440f2f391474e99b9c49a` |
+| `v2_1.lance` | `3af97ba176b72c7e00a248b4a270a53402a72e594631950f76eb3daab45c50ce` |
+| `v2_2.lance` | `8298cd9301e657417b0725461345c27cf46515529d2a8b35824be139e3466a14` |
+| `v2_0_self_described.lance` | `6a3a9ce8ef56f058d1d105e7f4494ce35a9026479e2f76fc6f26c04b3201a406` |
+| `v2_0_mini.lance` | `5e3fc99b01a4d2f5d16a2fb051dacb49b4a736428b1494715cd83633ad142a63` |
+
+The compatibility tests require each stable writer to reproduce its fixture
+byte-for-byte and each reader to open and read the baseline file. The V2.0
+standard fixture preserves footer `(0, 3)` while its self-described and
+mini-Lance fixtures preserve `(2, 0)`. V2.3 is unstable, so it has deterministic
+current-revision tests instead of a checked-in compatibility fixture.
+
+Regenerate these fixtures only from the baseline writer APIs. Files generated
+with the implementation under test are not independent compatibility evidence.
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/datagen.py b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5543d9fd190
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,129 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+import argparse
+import hashlib
+import os
+import shutil
+import subprocess
+import tempfile
+from pathlib import Path
+
+BASELINE_COMMIT = "3a72f8a61e14613f517dded6816d4bfc77817c93"
+FIXTURE_NAMES = (
+    "v1.lance",
+    "v2_0.lance",
+    "v2_1.lance",
+    "v2_2.lance",
+    "v2_0_self_described.lance",
+    "v2_0_mini.lance",
+)
+
+
+def git_output(source: Path, *args: str) -> str:
+    return subprocess.run(
+        ["git", "-C", source, *args],
+        check=True,
+        capture_output=True,
+        text=True,
+    ).stdout.strip()
+
+
+def generate(source: Path, generator: Path, output: Path, target: Path) -> None:
+    examples = source / "rust/lance-file/examples"
+    target_generator = examples / "exact_version_fixture_generator.rs"
+    created_examples = not examples.exists()
+    examples.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+    if target_generator.exists():
+        raise RuntimeError(f"refusing to replace existing {target_generator}")
+
+    shutil.copyfile(generator, target_generator)
+    try:
+        env = os.environ.copy()
+        env["CARGO_TARGET_DIR"] = str(target)
+        subprocess.run(
+            [
+                "cargo",
+                "run",
+                "-p",
+                "lance-file",
+                "--example",
+                "exact_version_fixture_generator",
+                "--",
+                str(output),
+            ],
+            cwd=source,
+            env=env,
+            check=True,
+        )
+    finally:
+        target_generator.unlink(missing_ok=True)
+        if created_examples:
+            examples.rmdir()
+
+
+def digest(path: Path) -> str:
+    return hashlib.sha256(path.read_bytes()).hexdigest()
+
+
+def main() -> None:
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+        description="Reproduce exact-version fixtures with the locked baseline writers."
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--source",
+        type=Path,
+        required=True,
+        help=f"clean Lance checkout at {BASELINE_COMMIT}",
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--write",
+        action="store_true",
+        help="replace the checked-in fixtures after both baseline runs agree",
+    )
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+
+    source = args.source.resolve()
+    if git_output(source, "rev-parse", "HEAD") != BASELINE_COMMIT:
+        raise RuntimeError(
+            f"{source} must be checked out at baseline commit {BASELINE_COMMIT}"
+        )
+    if git_output(source, "status", "--porcelain"):
+        raise RuntimeError(f"{source} must be clean before fixture generation")
+
+    fixture_dir = Path(__file__).resolve().parent
+    generator = fixture_dir / "datagen.rs"
+    with (
+        tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(prefix="lance-exact-fixtures-a-") as first_dir,
+        tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(prefix="lance-exact-fixtures-b-") as second_dir,
+        tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(
+            prefix="lance-exact-fixtures-target-"
+        ) as target_dir,
+    ):
+        first = Path(first_dir)
+        second = Path(second_dir)
+        target = Path(target_dir)
+        generate(source, generator, first, target)
+        generate(source, generator, second, target)
+
+        for name in FIXTURE_NAMES:
+            first_path = first / name
+            second_path = second / name
+            if first_path.read_bytes() != second_path.read_bytes():
+                raise RuntimeError(f"separate baseline runs disagree for {name}")
+
+            checked_path = fixture_dir / name
+            if args.write:
+                shutil.copyfile(first_path, checked_path)
+            elif (
+                not checked_path.exists()
+                or checked_path.read_bytes() != first_path.read_bytes()
+            ):
+                raise RuntimeError(
+                    f"{name} differs from the reproducible baseline; rerun with --write"
+                )
+            print(f"{name}: {digest(first_path)}")
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/datagen.rs b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/datagen.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ebbefdc417b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/datagen.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::path::Path;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::builder::StringDictionaryBuilder;
+use arrow_array::types::{Int8Type, Int32Type};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, LargeBinaryArray, ListArray, RecordBatch, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+use lance_encoding::encoder::{EncodingOptions, default_encoding_strategy, encode_batch};
+use lance_file::previous::writer::{
+    FileWriter as V1Writer, FileWriterOptions as V1WriterOptions, ManifestProvider,
+};
+use lance_file::testing::FsFixture;
+use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_file::writer::{EncodedBatchWriteExt, FileWriter, FileWriterOptions};
+use lance_io::traits::Writer;
+
+type DynError = Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync>;
+
+struct NoManifest;
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ManifestProvider for NoManifest {
+    async fn store_schema(
+        _: &mut dyn Writer,
+        _: &LanceSchema,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Option<usize>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+}
+
+fn compatibility_fixture_batch() -> RecordBatch {
+    let row_count = 4097;
+    let ids = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..row_count)) as ArrayRef;
+    let names = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter((0..row_count).map(|index| {
+        (index % 7 != 0).then(|| format!("value-{index:04}-deterministic-fixture"))
+    }))) as ArrayRef;
+    let items = Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(
+        (0..row_count).map(|index| {
+            (index % 11 != 0).then(|| {
+                vec![
+                    Some(index),
+                    (index % 5 != 0).then_some(index * 2),
+                    Some(index * 3),
+                ]
+            })
+        }),
+    )) as ArrayRef;
+    let mut categories = StringDictionaryBuilder::<Int8Type>::new();
+    for index in 0..row_count {
+        if index % 13 == 0 {
+            categories.append_null();
+        } else {
+            categories
+                .append(match index % 3 {
+                    0 => "red",
+                    1 => "green",
+                    _ => "blue",
+                })
+                .expect("fixture dictionary values must fit");
+        }
+    }
+    let categories = Arc::new(categories.finish()) as ArrayRef;
+    let blobs = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter_values(
+        (0..row_count).map(|index| format!("blob-{index:04}-deterministic-payload").into_bytes()),
+    )) as ArrayRef;
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            "lance-encoding:compression".to_string(),
+            "none".to_string(),
+        )])),
+        Field::new(
+            "items",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+            true,
+        ),
+        Field::new(
+            "category",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int8), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            true,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            "lance-encoding:dict-values-compression".to_string(),
+            "none".to_string(),
+        )])),
+        Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            "lance-encoding:blob".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        )])),
+    ]));
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![ids, names, items, categories, blobs])
+        .expect("fixture schema and arrays must agree")
+}
+
+async fn write_current_fixture(
+    version: LanceFileVersion,
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    schema: &LanceSchema,
+) -> Result<Vec<u8>, DynError> {
+    let fs = FsFixture::default();
+    let object_writer = fs.object_store.create(&fs.tmp_path).await?;
+    let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
+        object_writer,
+        schema.clone(),
+        FileWriterOptions {
+            data_cache_bytes: Some(1),
+            max_page_bytes: Some(1024),
+            format_version: Some(version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+    )?;
+    for offset in (0..batch.num_rows()).step_by(1024) {
+        let slice = batch.slice(offset, (batch.num_rows() - offset).min(1024));
+        writer.write_batch(&slice).await?;
+    }
+    let summary = writer.finish().await?;
+    Ok(fs
+        .object_store
+        .open(&fs.tmp_path)
+        .await?
+        .get_range(0..summary.size_bytes as usize)
+        .await?
+        .to_vec())
+}
+
+async fn write_v1_fixture(batch: &RecordBatch, schema: &LanceSchema) -> Result<Vec<u8>, DynError> {
+    let fs = FsFixture::default();
+    let mut writer = V1Writer::<NoManifest>::try_new(
+        fs.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &fs.tmp_path,
+        schema.clone(),
+        &V1WriterOptions {
+            collect_stats_for_fields: Some(Vec::new()),
+        },
+    )
+    .await?;
+    for offset in (0..batch.num_rows()).step_by(1024) {
+        let slice = batch.slice(offset, (batch.num_rows() - offset).min(1024));
+        writer.write(std::slice::from_ref(&slice)).await?;
+    }
+    let summary = writer.finish().await?;
+    Ok(fs
+        .object_store
+        .open(&fs.tmp_path)
+        .await?
+        .get_range(0..summary.size_bytes as usize)
+        .await?
+        .to_vec())
+}
+
+async fn write_v2_0_embedded_fixtures(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    schema: &LanceSchema,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u8>, Vec<u8>), DynError> {
+    let version = LanceFileVersion::V2_0;
+    let options = EncodingOptions {
+        cache_bytes_per_column: 1,
+        max_page_bytes: 1024,
+        keep_original_array: true,
+        buffer_alignment: 64,
+        version,
+    };
+    let encoding_strategy = default_encoding_strategy(version);
+    let encoded_batch = encode_batch(
+        batch,
+        Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+        encoding_strategy.as_ref(),
+        &options,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok((
+        encoded_batch.try_to_self_described_lance(version)?.to_vec(),
+        encoded_batch.try_to_mini_lance(version)?.to_vec(),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn write_fixture(output_dir: &Path, name: &str, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<(), DynError> {
+    std::fs::write(output_dir.join(name), bytes)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() -> Result<(), DynError> {
+    let output_dir = std::env::args_os()
+        .nth(1)
+        .map(std::path::PathBuf::from)
+        .ok_or("usage: exact_version_fixture_generator <output-directory>")?;
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&output_dir)?;
+
+    let batch = compatibility_fixture_batch();
+    let mut schema = LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref())?;
+    schema.set_dictionary(&batch)?;
+
+    write_fixture(
+        &output_dir,
+        "v1.lance",
+        &write_v1_fixture(&batch, &schema).await?,
+    )?;
+    for (version, name) in [
+        (LanceFileVersion::V2_0, "v2_0.lance"),
+        (LanceFileVersion::V2_1, "v2_1.lance"),
+        (LanceFileVersion::V2_2, "v2_2.lance"),
+    ] {
+        write_fixture(
+            &output_dir,
+            name,
+            &write_current_fixture(version, &batch, &schema).await?,
+        )?;
+    }
+
+    let embedded_batch = batch.project(&[0, 1])?.slice(0, 257);
+    let mut embedded_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(embedded_batch.schema().as_ref())?;
+    embedded_schema.set_dictionary(&embedded_batch)?;
+    let (self_described, mini) =
+        write_v2_0_embedded_fixtures(&embedded_batch, &embedded_schema).await?;
+    write_fixture(&output_dir, "v2_0_self_described.lance", &self_described)?;
+    write_fixture(&output_dir, "v2_0_mini.lance", &mini)?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v1.lance b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v1.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..267835ffb2f
Binary files /dev/null and b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v1.lance differ
diff --git a/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v2_0.lance b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v2_0.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5c713fc36b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v2_0.lance
@@ -0,0 +1,10040 @@
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diff --git a/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v2_0_self_described.lance b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v2_0_self_described.lance
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diff --git a/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v2_1.lance b/rust/lance-file/test_data/exact_versions/v2_1.lance
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LANC
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/rust/lance-geo/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-geo/Cargo.toml
index b8e1103027b..d8a1decfccb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-geo/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-geo/Cargo.toml
@@ -13,13 +13,16 @@ description = "Lance's geospatial extension providing geospatial UDFs."
 
 [dependencies]
 datafusion.workspace = true
-geoarrow-array.workspace = true
-geoarrow-schema.workspace = true
-geodatafusion.workspace = true
-geo-traits.workspace = true
-geo-types.workspace = true
+geoarrow-array = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+geoarrow-schema = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+geodatafusion = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+geo-traits = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+geo-types = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 lance-core.workspace = true
 serde.workspace = true
 
+[features]
+geo = ["dep:geoarrow-array", "dep:geoarrow-schema", "dep:geodatafusion", "dep:geo-traits", "dep:geo-types"]
+
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-geo/src/bbox.rs b/rust/lance-geo/src/bbox.rs
index e02bef227ff..da891335318 100644
--- a/rust/lance-geo/src/bbox.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-geo/src/bbox.rs
@@ -11,11 +11,23 @@ use geo_traits::{
 use geo_types::Coord;
 use geoarrow_array::array::RectArray;
 use geoarrow_array::builder::RectBuilder;
-use geoarrow_array::{downcast_geoarrow_array, GeoArrowArray, GeoArrowArrayAccessor};
+use geoarrow_array::{GeoArrowArray, GeoArrowArrayAccessor, downcast_geoarrow_array};
 use geoarrow_schema::{BoxType, Dimension};
 use lance_core::error::ArrowResult;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
 
+/// Returns whether a rectangle has inverted bounds and therefore no extent.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use lance_geo::bbox::{BoundingBox, is_empty_rect};
+/// assert!(is_empty_rect(&BoundingBox::new()));
+/// ```
+pub fn is_empty_rect(rect: &impl RectTrait<T = f64>) -> bool {
+    let min = rect.min();
+    let max = rect.max();
+    min.x() > max.x() || min.y() > max.y()
+}
+
 /// Inspired by <https://github.com/geoarrow/geoarrow-rs>
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 pub struct BoundingBox {
@@ -97,8 +109,15 @@ impl BoundingBox {
     }
 
     pub fn add_rect(&mut self, rect: &impl RectTrait<T = f64>) {
-        self.add_coord(&rect.min());
-        self.add_coord(&rect.max());
+        // Empty bounding boxes use inverted bounds, so they are the identity for a union.
+        if is_empty_rect(rect) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let min = rect.min();
+        let max = rect.max();
+        self.add_coord(&min);
+        self.add_coord(&max);
     }
 
     pub fn add_polygon(&mut self, polygon: &impl PolygonTrait<T = f64>) {
@@ -331,3 +350,30 @@ fn impl_total_bounds<'a>(arr: &'a impl GeoArrowArrayAccessor<'a>) -> ArrowResult
 
     Ok(bbox)
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_add_empty_rect_is_noop() {
+        let valid = BoundingBox::new_with_coords(&[
+            geo_types::coord! { x: -1.0, y: -2.0 },
+            geo_types::coord! { x: 3.0, y: 4.0 },
+        ]);
+        let empty = BoundingBox::new();
+
+        let mut valid_then_empty = valid;
+        valid_then_empty.add_rect(&empty);
+
+        let mut empty_then_valid = empty;
+        empty_then_valid.add_rect(&valid);
+
+        for bbox in [valid_then_empty, empty_then_valid] {
+            assert_eq!(bbox.minx(), -1.0);
+            assert_eq!(bbox.miny(), -2.0);
+            assert_eq!(bbox.maxx(), 3.0);
+            assert_eq!(bbox.maxy(), 4.0);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-geo/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-geo/src/lib.rs
index 8eb562333b2..238ce3ee004 100644
--- a/rust/lance-geo/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-geo/src/lib.rs
@@ -3,8 +3,12 @@
 
 use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
 
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
 pub mod bbox;
 
 pub fn register_functions(ctx: &SessionContext) {
+    #[cfg(feature = "geo")]
     geodatafusion::register(ctx);
+    #[cfg(not(feature = "geo"))]
+    let _ = ctx;
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index-core/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-index-core/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ab8330a966d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index-core/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+[package]
+name = "lance-index-core"
+version.workspace = true
+edition.workspace = true
+authors.workspace = true
+license.workspace = true
+repository.workspace = true
+readme = "README.md"
+description = "Core traits and types for Lance index plugins"
+keywords.workspace = true
+categories.workspace = true
+rust-version.workspace = true
+
+[dependencies]
+async-trait.workspace = true
+arrow-array.workspace = true
+arrow-schema.workspace = true
+arrow-select.workspace = true
+bytes.workspace = true
+datafusion-common.workspace = true
+datafusion-expr.workspace = true
+datafusion.workspace = true
+futures.workspace = true
+lance-core.workspace = true
+lance-io.workspace = true
+lance-select.workspace = true
+prost-types.workspace = true
+roaring.workspace = true
+serde.workspace = true
+serde_json.workspace = true
+tokio.workspace = true
+
+[lints]
+workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-index-core/README.md b/rust/lance-index-core/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a954522a283
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index-core/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+# lance-index-core
+
+`lance-index-core` is an internal sub-crate, containing the core traits and types used to
+implement index plugins for [Lance](https://github.com/lance-format/lance).
+
+**Important Note**: This crate is **not intended for external usage**.
diff --git a/rust/lance-index-core/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-index-core/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4e59dce39d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index-core/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,329 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{any::Any, sync::Arc};
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use std::convert::TryFrom;
+
+pub mod metrics;
+pub mod remapping;
+pub mod scalar;
+
+/// Generic methods common across all types of secondary indices
+///
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait Index: Send + Sync + DeepSizeOf {
+    /// Cast to [Any].
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any;
+
+    /// Cast to [Index]
+    fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index>;
+
+    /// Retrieve index statistics as a JSON Value
+    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value>;
+
+    /// Prewarm the index.
+    ///
+    /// This will load the index into memory and cache it.
+    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Get the type of the index
+    fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType;
+
+    /// Read through the index and determine which fragment ids are covered by the index
+    ///
+    /// This is a kind of slow operation.  It's better to use the fragment_bitmap.  This
+    /// only exists for cases where the fragment_bitmap has become corrupted or missing.
+    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap>;
+}
+
+/// Index Type
+///
+/// Do not add further entries to this enum except as a last resort.  We are attempting
+/// to move away from using hard-coded enums to represent index types and instead use
+/// index plugins.
+///
+/// For example, if you need to decide if some index needs capability X then add a
+/// has_capability_x method to one of the index plugin traits.
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Copy, Hash, Clone, DeepSizeOf, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub enum IndexType {
+    // Preserve 0-100 for simple indices.
+    Scalar = 0, // Legacy scalar index, alias to BTree
+
+    BTree = 1, // BTree
+
+    Bitmap = 2, // Bitmap
+
+    LabelList = 3, // LabelList
+
+    Inverted = 4, // Inverted
+
+    NGram = 5, // NGram
+
+    FragmentReuse = 6,
+
+    MemWal = 7,
+
+    ZoneMap = 8, // ZoneMap
+
+    BloomFilter = 9, // Bloom filter
+
+    RTree = 10, // RTree
+
+    Fm = 11, // FM-Index
+
+    MinHashLsh = 12, // MinHash LSH (near-duplicate detection)
+
+    // 100+ and up for vector index.
+    /// Flat vector index.
+    Vector = 100, // Legacy vector index, alias to IvfPq
+    IvfFlat = 101,
+    IvfSq = 102,
+    IvfPq = 103,
+    IvfHnswSq = 104,
+    IvfHnswPq = 105,
+    IvfHnswFlat = 106,
+    IvfRq = 107,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for IndexType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Scalar | Self::BTree => write!(f, "BTree"),
+            Self::Bitmap => write!(f, "Bitmap"),
+            Self::LabelList => write!(f, "LabelList"),
+            Self::Inverted => write!(f, "Inverted"),
+            Self::NGram => write!(f, "NGram"),
+            Self::FragmentReuse => write!(f, "FragmentReuse"),
+            Self::MemWal => write!(f, "MemWal"),
+            Self::ZoneMap => write!(f, "ZoneMap"),
+            Self::BloomFilter => write!(f, "BloomFilter"),
+            Self::RTree => write!(f, "RTree"),
+            Self::Fm => write!(f, "Fm"),
+            Self::MinHashLsh => write!(f, "MinHashLsh"),
+            Self::Vector | Self::IvfPq => write!(f, "IVF_PQ"),
+            Self::IvfFlat => write!(f, "IVF_FLAT"),
+            Self::IvfSq => write!(f, "IVF_SQ"),
+            Self::IvfHnswSq => write!(f, "IVF_HNSW_SQ"),
+            Self::IvfHnswPq => write!(f, "IVF_HNSW_PQ"),
+            Self::IvfHnswFlat => write!(f, "IVF_HNSW_FLAT"),
+            Self::IvfRq => write!(f, "IVF_RQ"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<i32> for IndexType {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: i32) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value {
+            v if v == Self::Scalar as i32 => Ok(Self::Scalar),
+            v if v == Self::BTree as i32 => Ok(Self::BTree),
+            v if v == Self::Bitmap as i32 => Ok(Self::Bitmap),
+            v if v == Self::LabelList as i32 => Ok(Self::LabelList),
+            v if v == Self::NGram as i32 => Ok(Self::NGram),
+            v if v == Self::Inverted as i32 => Ok(Self::Inverted),
+            v if v == Self::FragmentReuse as i32 => Ok(Self::FragmentReuse),
+            v if v == Self::MemWal as i32 => Ok(Self::MemWal),
+            v if v == Self::ZoneMap as i32 => Ok(Self::ZoneMap),
+            v if v == Self::BloomFilter as i32 => Ok(Self::BloomFilter),
+            v if v == Self::RTree as i32 => Ok(Self::RTree),
+            v if v == Self::Fm as i32 => Ok(Self::Fm),
+            v if v == Self::MinHashLsh as i32 => Ok(Self::MinHashLsh),
+            v if v == Self::Vector as i32 => Ok(Self::Vector),
+            v if v == Self::IvfFlat as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfFlat),
+            v if v == Self::IvfSq as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfSq),
+            v if v == Self::IvfPq as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfPq),
+            v if v == Self::IvfHnswSq as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfHnswSq),
+            v if v == Self::IvfHnswPq as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfHnswPq),
+            v if v == Self::IvfHnswFlat as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfHnswFlat),
+            v if v == Self::IvfRq as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfRq),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("the input value {} is not a valid IndexType", value).into(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&str> for IndexType {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value {
+            "BTree" | "BTREE" => Ok(Self::BTree),
+            "Bitmap" | "BITMAP" => Ok(Self::Bitmap),
+            "LabelList" | "LABELLIST" => Ok(Self::LabelList),
+            "Inverted" | "INVERTED" => Ok(Self::Inverted),
+            "NGram" | "NGRAM" => Ok(Self::NGram),
+            "ZoneMap" | "ZONEMAP" => Ok(Self::ZoneMap),
+            "BloomFilter" | "BLOOMFILTER" | "BLOOM_FILTER" => Ok(Self::BloomFilter),
+            "RTree" | "RTREE" | "R_TREE" => Ok(Self::RTree),
+            "Fm" | "FM" => Ok(Self::Fm),
+            "MinHashLsh" | "MINHASHLSH" | "MINHASH_LSH" => Ok(Self::MinHashLsh),
+            "Vector" | "VECTOR" => Ok(Self::Vector),
+            "IVF_FLAT" => Ok(Self::IvfFlat),
+            "IVF_SQ" => Ok(Self::IvfSq),
+            "IVF_PQ" => Ok(Self::IvfPq),
+            "IVF_RQ" => Ok(Self::IvfRq),
+            "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => Ok(Self::IvfHnswFlat),
+            "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => Ok(Self::IvfHnswSq),
+            "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => Ok(Self::IvfHnswPq),
+            "FragmentReuse" => Ok(Self::FragmentReuse),
+            "MemWal" => Ok(Self::MemWal),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid index type: {}",
+                value
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl IndexType {
+    pub fn is_scalar(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(
+            self,
+            Self::Scalar
+                | Self::BTree
+                | Self::Bitmap
+                | Self::LabelList
+                | Self::Inverted
+                | Self::NGram
+                | Self::ZoneMap
+                | Self::BloomFilter
+                | Self::RTree
+                | Self::Fm
+                | Self::MinHashLsh,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_vector(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(
+            self,
+            Self::Vector
+                | Self::IvfPq
+                | Self::IvfHnswSq
+                | Self::IvfHnswPq
+                | Self::IvfHnswFlat
+                | Self::IvfFlat
+                | Self::IvfSq
+                | Self::IvfRq
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_system(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::FragmentReuse | Self::MemWal)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the current format version of the index type,
+    /// bump this when the index format changes.
+    /// Indices which higher version than these will be ignored for compatibility,
+    /// This would happen when creating index in a newer version of Lance,
+    /// but then opening the index in older version of Lance
+    pub fn version(&self) -> i32 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Scalar => 0,
+            Self::BTree => 0,
+            Self::Bitmap => 0,
+            Self::LabelList => 0,
+            Self::Inverted => 0,
+            Self::NGram => 0,
+            Self::FragmentReuse => 0,
+            Self::MemWal => 0,
+            Self::ZoneMap => 0,
+            Self::BloomFilter => 0,
+            Self::RTree => 0,
+            Self::Fm => 0,
+            Self::MinHashLsh => 0,
+
+            // IMPORTANT: if any vector index subtype needs a format bump that is
+            // not backward compatible, its new version must be set to
+            // (current max vector index version + 1), even if only one subtype
+            // changed. Compatibility filtering currently cannot distinguish vector
+            // subtypes from details-only metadata, so vector versions effectively
+            // share one global monotonic compatibility level.
+            Self::Vector
+            | Self::IvfFlat
+            | Self::IvfSq
+            | Self::IvfPq
+            | Self::IvfHnswSq
+            | Self::IvfHnswPq
+            | Self::IvfHnswFlat => 1,
+            Self::IvfRq => 2,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the target partition size for the index type.
+    ///
+    /// This is used to compute the number of partitions for the index.
+    /// The partition size is optimized for the best performance of the index.
+    ///
+    /// This is for vector indices only.
+    pub fn target_partition_size(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Vector => 8192,
+            Self::IvfFlat => 4096,
+            Self::IvfSq => 8192,
+            Self::IvfPq => 8192,
+            Self::IvfRq => 4096,
+            Self::IvfHnswFlat => 1 << 20,
+            Self::IvfHnswSq => 1 << 20,
+            Self::IvfHnswPq => 1 << 20,
+            _ => 8192,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the highest supported vector index version in this Lance build.
+    pub fn max_vector_version() -> u32 {
+        [
+            Self::Vector,
+            Self::IvfFlat,
+            Self::IvfSq,
+            Self::IvfPq,
+            Self::IvfHnswSq,
+            Self::IvfHnswPq,
+            Self::IvfHnswFlat,
+            Self::IvfRq,
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|index_type| index_type.version() as u32)
+        .max()
+        .unwrap_or(1)
+    }
+
+    pub fn matches_details(&self, details: &prost_types::Any) -> bool {
+        let url = &details.type_url;
+        match self {
+            Self::Scalar | Self::BTree => url.ends_with("BTreeIndexDetails"),
+            Self::Bitmap => url.ends_with("BitmapIndexDetails"),
+            Self::LabelList => url.ends_with("LabelListIndexDetails"),
+            Self::Inverted => url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails"),
+            Self::NGram => url.ends_with("NGramIndexDetails"),
+            Self::ZoneMap => url.ends_with("ZoneMapIndexDetails"),
+            Self::BloomFilter => url.ends_with("BloomFilterIndexDetails"),
+            Self::RTree => url.ends_with("RTreeIndexDetails"),
+            Self::Fm => url.ends_with("FMIndexDetails"),
+            Self::MinHashLsh => url.ends_with("MinHashLshIndexDetails"),
+            Self::FragmentReuse => url.ends_with("FragmentReuseIndexDetails"),
+            Self::MemWal => url.ends_with("MemWalIndexDetails"),
+            Self::Vector
+            | Self::IvfFlat
+            | Self::IvfSq
+            | Self::IvfPq
+            | Self::IvfHnswSq
+            | Self::IvfHnswPq
+            | Self::IvfHnswFlat
+            | Self::IvfRq => url.ends_with("VectorIndexDetails"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub trait IndexParams: Send + Sync {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any;
+
+    fn index_name(&self) -> &str;
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index-core/src/metrics.rs b/rust/lance-index-core/src/metrics.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8c01f6f19e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index-core/src/metrics.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,406 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+/// Coarse ANN stage timings. Durations are cumulative wall times, including waits.
+/// Nested stages and concurrent partitions overlap; these are not additive query latency.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+#[repr(usize)]
+pub enum IndexTiming {
+    /// Cache lookup, cache-fill wait, and loading/decoding a partition on a miss.
+    PartitionLoad,
+    /// Partition loading and per-partition filter preparation, including overlapping waits.
+    PartitionPrepare,
+    /// Time waiting until the shared filter is ready; not filter construction CPU time.
+    PrefilterWait,
+    /// Delay between submitting a search task and starting its CPU closure.
+    CpuQueueWait,
+    /// CPU search of a prepared partition, including query preparation and result construction.
+    Search,
+    /// Distance calculator and lookup-table construction for a partition query.
+    QueryPrepare,
+    /// Fused candidate filtering, distance evaluation, and TopK heap updates.
+    DistanceTopK,
+    /// Conversion of a result heap into Arrow arrays and a record batch.
+    ResultMaterialize,
+    /// Opening an index handle, including cache lookup and metadata reads.
+    IndexOpen,
+}
+
+impl IndexTiming {
+    /// All stages in discriminant order, for fixed-size metric storage.
+    pub const ALL: [Self; 9] = [
+        Self::PartitionLoad,
+        Self::PartitionPrepare,
+        Self::PrefilterWait,
+        Self::CpuQueueWait,
+        Self::Search,
+        Self::QueryPrepare,
+        Self::DistanceTopK,
+        Self::ResultMaterialize,
+        Self::IndexOpen,
+    ];
+
+    /// Key used in execution summaries and language-binding statistics.
+    pub fn name(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::PartitionLoad => "index_partition_load_time",
+            Self::PartitionPrepare => "index_partition_prepare_time",
+            Self::PrefilterWait => "index_prefilter_wait_time",
+            Self::CpuQueueWait => "index_cpu_queue_wait_time",
+            Self::Search => "index_search_time",
+            Self::QueryPrepare => "index_query_prepare_time",
+            Self::DistanceTopK => "index_distance_topk_time",
+            Self::ResultMaterialize => "index_result_materialize_time",
+            Self::IndexOpen => "index_open_time",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Records one partition/batch stage, never one candidate or distance evaluation.
+pub struct IndexTimer<'a> {
+    metrics: &'a dyn MetricsCollector,
+    stage: IndexTiming,
+    start: Instant,
+}
+
+impl<'a> IndexTimer<'a> {
+    /// Start a scope timer; dropping it also records early-return and cancellation paths.
+    pub fn new(metrics: &'a dyn MetricsCollector, stage: IndexTiming) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            metrics,
+            stage,
+            start: Instant::now(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for IndexTimer<'_> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.metrics.record_timing(self.stage, self.start.elapsed());
+    }
+}
+
+/// A trait used by the index to report metrics
+///
+/// Callers can implement this trait to collect metrics. Production collectors
+/// must stay coarse-grained: do not record per-document, posting, candidate, or
+/// window events here. Benchmark-only instrumentation belongs in test- or
+/// benchmark-local hooks.
+pub trait MetricsCollector: Send + Sync {
+    /// Record a coarse stage duration; existing collectors may ignore timings.
+    fn record_timing(&self, _stage: IndexTiming, _duration: Duration) {}
+
+    /// Record partition loads
+    ///
+    /// Many indices consist of partitions that may need to be loaded
+    /// into cache.  For example, an inverted index or ngram index has a
+    /// posting list for each token.
+    ///
+    /// In the ideal case, these shards are in the cache and will not need
+    /// to be loaded from disk.  This method should not be called if the
+    /// shard is in the cache.
+    fn record_parts_loaded(&self, num_parts: usize);
+
+    /// Record a shard load
+    fn record_part_load(&self) {
+        self.record_parts_loaded(1);
+    }
+
+    /// Record an index load
+    ///
+    /// This should be called when a scalar index is loaded from storage.
+    /// It should not be called if the index is already in memory.
+    fn record_index_loads(&self, num_indexes: usize);
+
+    /// Record an index load
+    fn record_index_load(&self) {
+        self.record_index_loads(1);
+    }
+
+    /// Record the number of "comparisons" made by the index
+    ///
+    /// What exactly constitutes a comparison depends on the index type.
+    /// For example, a B-tree index may make comparisons while searching for a value.
+    /// On the other hand, a bitmap index makes comparisons when computing the intersection
+    /// of two bitmaps.
+    ///
+    /// The goal is to provide some visibility into the compute cost of the search
+    fn record_comparisons(&self, num_comparisons: usize);
+
+    /// Record index cache hits observed while serving this query.
+    ///
+    /// A "hit" is one page-level lookup (partition, posting list, BTree page, etc.)
+    /// that was served from the in-memory index cache without touching storage.
+    fn record_index_cache_hits(&self, _num_hits: usize) {}
+
+    /// Convenience for a single cache hit.
+    fn record_index_cache_hit(&self) {
+        self.record_index_cache_hits(1);
+    }
+
+    /// Record index cache misses observed while serving this query.
+    ///
+    /// A "miss" is one page-level lookup that had to be loaded from storage
+    /// because it was not present in the cache.
+    fn record_index_cache_misses(&self, _num_misses: usize) {}
+
+    /// Convenience for a single cache miss.
+    fn record_index_cache_miss(&self) {
+        self.record_index_cache_misses(1);
+    }
+
+    /// Record calls to `IndexReader::read_record_batches` made while serving
+    /// this query: one coalesced, batched request for several pages/parts at
+    /// once, as opposed to one request per page.
+    ///
+    /// This is a request count, not a page count - [`Self::record_parts_loaded`]
+    /// already tracks how many pages were materialized regardless of how many
+    /// requests it took to fetch them. A query whose predicate spans many
+    /// pages should show a `record_parts_loaded` count much larger than this
+    /// one when the reader is coalescing well. See
+    /// [`Self::record_single_page_reads`] for the unbatched counterpart -
+    /// together they account for every `IndexReader` read issued.
+    fn record_batch_reads(&self, _num_reads: usize) {}
+
+    /// Convenience for a single batched read.
+    fn record_batch_read(&self) {
+        self.record_batch_reads(1);
+    }
+
+    /// Record calls to `IndexReader::read_record_batch` (singular) made while
+    /// serving this query: one request for exactly one page/part, taken
+    /// outside of [`Self::record_batch_reads`]'s coalesced path - e.g. a
+    /// page that turned out to already be evicted by the time it was looked
+    /// up, or a caller (such as `BTreeIndex::contains_keys`) that looks pages
+    /// up individually rather than as a batch.
+    ///
+    /// A query dominated by this counter instead of `record_batch_reads` is
+    /// not benefiting from request coalescing.
+    fn record_single_page_reads(&self, _num_reads: usize) {}
+
+    /// Convenience for a single unbatched read.
+    fn record_single_page_read(&self) {
+        self.record_single_page_reads(1);
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an optional sink for recording exact I/O statistics (bytes read,
+    /// IOPS, and requests) performed on behalf of this collector.
+    ///
+    /// Index implementations that read from a
+    /// [`lance_io::scheduler::ScanScheduler`] can attach the returned handle to
+    /// their file readers so the I/O performed for a single query is measured
+    /// and attributed here.  The default returns `None`, meaning the caller does
+    /// not want I/O measured (and index implementations should then take their
+    /// normal, uninstrumented read path).
+    fn io_stats(&self) -> Option<lance_io::scheduler::IoStats> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// A no-op metrics collector that does nothing
+pub struct NoOpMetricsCollector;
+
+impl MetricsCollector for NoOpMetricsCollector {
+    fn record_parts_loaded(&self, _num_parts: usize) {}
+    fn record_index_loads(&self, _num_indexes: usize) {}
+    fn record_comparisons(&self, _num_comparisons: usize) {}
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub struct LocalMetricsCollector {
+    timings: [AtomicUsize; IndexTiming::ALL.len()],
+    pub parts_loaded: AtomicUsize,
+    pub index_loads: AtomicUsize,
+    pub comparisons: AtomicUsize,
+    // Kept `pub(crate)` so that adding new metric fields to this public struct
+    // does not break downstream callers that construct or destructure the
+    // existing three fields. Callers can still read cumulative values via
+    // [`Self::index_cache_hits`] / [`Self::index_cache_misses`] /
+    // [`Self::batch_reads`] / [`Self::single_page_reads`].
+    pub(crate) index_cache_hits: AtomicUsize,
+    pub(crate) index_cache_misses: AtomicUsize,
+    pub(crate) batch_reads: AtomicUsize,
+    pub(crate) single_page_reads: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl LocalMetricsCollector {
+    pub fn dump_into(self, other: &dyn MetricsCollector) {
+        for stage in IndexTiming::ALL {
+            other.record_timing(
+                stage,
+                Duration::from_nanos(self.timings[stage as usize].load(Ordering::Relaxed) as u64),
+            );
+        }
+        other.record_parts_loaded(self.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
+        other.record_index_loads(self.index_loads.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
+        other.record_comparisons(self.comparisons.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
+        other.record_index_cache_hits(self.index_cache_hits.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
+        other.record_index_cache_misses(self.index_cache_misses.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
+        other.record_batch_reads(self.batch_reads.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
+        other.record_single_page_reads(self.single_page_reads.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
+    }
+
+    /// Cumulative index cache hits recorded so far.
+    pub fn index_cache_hits(&self) -> usize {
+        self.index_cache_hits.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    /// Cumulative index cache misses recorded so far.
+    pub fn index_cache_misses(&self) -> usize {
+        self.index_cache_misses.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    /// Cumulative batched `read_record_batches` calls recorded so far.
+    pub fn batch_reads(&self) -> usize {
+        self.batch_reads.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    /// Cumulative unbatched `read_record_batch` calls recorded so far.
+    pub fn single_page_reads(&self) -> usize {
+        self.single_page_reads.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+}
+
+impl MetricsCollector for LocalMetricsCollector {
+    fn record_timing(&self, stage: IndexTiming, duration: Duration) {
+        self.timings[stage as usize].fetch_add(duration.as_nanos() as usize, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    fn record_parts_loaded(&self, num_parts: usize) {
+        self.parts_loaded.fetch_add(num_parts, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    fn record_index_loads(&self, num_indexes: usize) {
+        self.index_loads.fetch_add(num_indexes, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    fn record_comparisons(&self, num_comparisons: usize) {
+        self.comparisons
+            .fetch_add(num_comparisons, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    fn record_index_cache_hits(&self, num_hits: usize) {
+        self.index_cache_hits.fetch_add(num_hits, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    fn record_index_cache_misses(&self, num_misses: usize) {
+        self.index_cache_misses
+            .fetch_add(num_misses, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    fn record_batch_reads(&self, num_reads: usize) {
+        self.batch_reads.fetch_add(num_reads, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    fn record_single_page_reads(&self, num_reads: usize) {
+        self.single_page_reads
+            .fetch_add(num_reads, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    struct SumSink {
+        parts: AtomicUsize,
+        loads: AtomicUsize,
+        comparisons: AtomicUsize,
+        hits: AtomicUsize,
+        misses: AtomicUsize,
+        batch_reads: AtomicUsize,
+        single_page_reads: AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    impl MetricsCollector for SumSink {
+        fn record_parts_loaded(&self, n: usize) {
+            self.parts.fetch_add(n, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        fn record_index_loads(&self, n: usize) {
+            self.loads.fetch_add(n, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        fn record_comparisons(&self, n: usize) {
+            self.comparisons.fetch_add(n, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        fn record_index_cache_hits(&self, n: usize) {
+            self.hits.fetch_add(n, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        fn record_index_cache_misses(&self, n: usize) {
+            self.misses.fetch_add(n, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        fn record_batch_reads(&self, n: usize) {
+            self.batch_reads.fetch_add(n, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        fn record_single_page_reads(&self, n: usize) {
+            self.single_page_reads.fetch_add(n, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn local_metrics_collector_forwards_cache_counts() {
+        let local = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        local.record_index_cache_hit();
+        local.record_index_cache_hit();
+        local.record_index_cache_misses(3);
+        local.record_part_load();
+        local.record_index_load();
+        local.record_comparisons(5);
+        local.record_batch_read();
+        local.record_batch_reads(2);
+        local.record_single_page_read();
+        local.record_single_page_reads(3);
+        assert_eq!(local.batch_reads(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(local.single_page_reads(), 4);
+
+        let sink = SumSink {
+            parts: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            loads: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            comparisons: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            hits: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            misses: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            batch_reads: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            single_page_reads: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        };
+        local.dump_into(&sink);
+
+        assert_eq!(sink.parts.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(sink.loads.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(sink.comparisons.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 5);
+        assert_eq!(sink.hits.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 2);
+        assert_eq!(sink.misses.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(sink.batch_reads.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(sink.single_page_reads.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn local_metrics_collector_forwards_timings() {
+        let local = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let sink = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        for stage in IndexTiming::ALL {
+            local.record_timing(stage, Duration::from_nanos(7));
+            local.record_timing(stage, Duration::from_nanos(11));
+        }
+        local.dump_into(&sink);
+        for stage in IndexTiming::ALL {
+            assert_eq!(sink.timings[stage as usize].load(Ordering::Relaxed), 18);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_op_metrics_collector_ignores_cache_counts() {
+        // Ensures existing implementors that do not override cache-count methods
+        // remain sound (default impl is a no-op).
+        let collector = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        collector.record_index_cache_hit();
+        collector.record_index_cache_miss();
+        collector.record_index_cache_hits(10);
+        collector.record_index_cache_misses(20);
+        collector.record_batch_read();
+        collector.record_batch_reads(10);
+        collector.record_single_page_read();
+        collector.record_single_page_reads(10);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index-core/src/remapping.rs b/rust/lance-index-core/src/remapping.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..63ed8d2a0b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index-core/src/remapping.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,755 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Batch row-ID translation at asynchronous index loading boundaries.
+//!
+//! Legacy consumers keep calling [`RowIdRemapper`] directly; nothing in this
+//! module participates in that path. The free helpers here serve the additive
+//! entry points that load indices under a mapping whose payload may require
+//! asynchronous reads, awaiting translation once per batch, never once per row.
+
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type};
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
+use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
+
+/// Translates a bounded batch of row IDs, allowing encodings to read external data.
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait BatchRowIdRemapper: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
+    /// Results correspond to input positions, including duplicates. `None` removes a row.
+    async fn remap_row_ids(&self, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>>;
+
+    /// The physical row count of `fragment` in the address space this
+    /// remapper translates from, when it knows it. The in-memory fallback of
+    /// `remap_streaming` ([`materialize_remap`]) enumerates every address of
+    /// the fragments an index holds; a fragment it cannot size makes the
+    /// fallback decline. `None` (the default) means unknown.
+    fn fragment_physical_rows(&self, _fragment: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// The memory the in-memory fallback may spend, temporary buffers and
+    /// the materialized map together, before it declines with
+    /// [`RemapUnavailable::OverBudget`].
+    fn materialization_budget_bytes(&self) -> u64 {
+        DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES
+    }
+}
+
+/// The default [`BatchRowIdRemapper::materialization_budget_bytes`]: 256 MiB.
+pub const DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES: u64 = 256 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Bytes hashbrown allocates for the `HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>` that
+/// `HashMap::with_capacity(entries)` reserves.
+///
+/// hashbrown's `capacity_to_buckets` rounds the capacity up to
+/// `next_power_of_two(ceil(entries * 8 / 7))` buckets (4 below four entries, 8
+/// below eight) and lays the table out as one slot of
+/// `size_of::<(u64, Option<u64>)>()` (24) bytes plus one control byte per
+/// bucket, followed by one group width (16) of trailing control bytes. The
+/// rounding is what a flat per-entry charge misses: 7,350,000 entries adjust
+/// to 8,400,000 and round to 16,777,216 buckets, 419,430,416 bytes, where 32
+/// bytes per entry would have charged 235,200,000.
+fn hash_map_bytes(entries: u64) -> u64 {
+    const SLOT_BYTES: u64 = std::mem::size_of::<(u64, Option<u64>)>() as u64;
+    const CTRL_BYTES_PER_BUCKET: u64 = 1;
+    const GROUP_WIDTH: u64 = 16;
+    let buckets = if entries < 4 {
+        4
+    } else if entries < 8 {
+        8
+    } else {
+        entries
+            .saturating_mul(8)
+            .div_ceil(7)
+            .checked_next_power_of_two()
+            .unwrap_or(u64::MAX)
+    };
+    buckets
+        .saturating_mul(SLOT_BYTES + CTRL_BYTES_PER_BUCKET)
+        .saturating_add(GROUP_WIDTH)
+}
+
+/// Why an index could not be rewritten through a batch translator by the
+/// in-memory fallback of `remap_streaming`, as opposed to an I/O or data
+/// error: nothing is wrong with the index or the history, this build simply
+/// cannot prove a complete mapping within its means. A maintenance job
+/// leaves such a segment as it is (its files and the history it translates
+/// through stay) and moves on; the reason travels inside
+/// [`lance_core::Error::NotSupported`], see [`Self::from_error`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[non_exhaustive]
+pub enum RemapUnavailable {
+    /// The index does not report which fragments its files hold addresses
+    /// for, so a complete mapping cannot be proven.
+    StoredFragmentsUnknown,
+    /// The translator cannot size a fragment the index holds.
+    FragmentRowsUnknown { fragment: u32 },
+    /// Materializing the mapping would exceed the translator's budget.
+    OverBudget {
+        estimated_bytes: u64,
+        budget_bytes: u64,
+    },
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for RemapUnavailable {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::StoredFragmentsUnknown => write!(
+                f,
+                "the index does not report the fragments its files hold addresses for, so a \
+                 complete in-memory mapping cannot be built for its legacy remap"
+            ),
+            Self::FragmentRowsUnknown { fragment } => write!(
+                f,
+                "the translator cannot size fragment {fragment}, which the index holds addresses \
+                 for, so a complete in-memory mapping cannot be built for its legacy remap"
+            ),
+            Self::OverBudget {
+                estimated_bytes,
+                budget_bytes,
+            } => write!(
+                f,
+                "materializing the mapping for the index's legacy remap needs about \
+                 {estimated_bytes} bytes, above the {budget_bytes} byte budget"
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for RemapUnavailable {}
+
+impl RemapUnavailable {
+    /// This reason as the error `remap_streaming` returns.
+    pub fn into_error(self) -> Error {
+        Error::not_supported_source(Box::new(self))
+    }
+
+    /// The reason carried by an error `remap_streaming` returned, if it
+    /// declined for one; `None` for any other error (I/O, corrupt data, a
+    /// translation failure), which a caller must not treat as a skip.
+    pub fn from_error(error: &Error) -> Option<&Self> {
+        match error {
+            Error::NotSupported { source, .. } => source.downcast_ref::<Self>(),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The complete in-memory mapping an index whose `remap` predates batch
+/// translation needs: every address of every fragment in `stored_fragments`
+/// translated through `remapper`, with a row the translator drops mapped
+/// explicitly to `None`. The legacy `remap` treats an address missing from
+/// its map as unchanged, so the fragments listed must be every fragment the
+/// index's files may hold addresses for, retired ones included; a fragment
+/// the index no longer claims but still stores would otherwise survive with
+/// its stale addresses. An address the translator leaves as it is has the
+/// same meaning either way and is not stored.
+///
+/// The cost is bounded before anything is allocated: the fragments' row
+/// counts (from [`BatchRowIdRemapper::fragment_physical_rows`]) put an upper
+/// bound on the map, sized as the hash table really allocates it (see
+/// `hash_map_bytes`), and that plus the translation buffers must fit
+/// [`BatchRowIdRemapper::materialization_budget_bytes`]. The fallback
+/// declines with a [`RemapUnavailable`] when the fragments are unknown, a
+/// fragment cannot be sized or the estimate is over budget; translation
+/// errors propagate as they are.
+pub async fn materialize_remap(
+    remapper: &dyn BatchRowIdRemapper,
+    stored_fragments: Option<&RoaringBitmap>,
+) -> Result<RowAddrRemap> {
+    let Some(fragments) = stored_fragments else {
+        return Err(RemapUnavailable::StoredFragmentsUnknown.into_error());
+    };
+    let mut sized = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len() as usize);
+    let mut total_rows: u64 = 0;
+    for fragment in fragments.iter() {
+        let rows = remapper
+            .fragment_physical_rows(fragment)
+            .ok_or_else(|| RemapUnavailable::FragmentRowsUnknown { fragment }.into_error())?;
+        total_rows = total_rows.saturating_add(rows);
+        sized.push((fragment, rows));
+    }
+    let budget_bytes = remapper.materialization_budget_bytes();
+    let estimated_bytes = hash_map_bytes(total_rows).saturating_add((BATCH_SIZE as u64) * (8 + 16));
+    if estimated_bytes > budget_bytes {
+        return Err(RemapUnavailable::OverBudget {
+            estimated_bytes,
+            budget_bytes,
+        }
+        .into_error());
+    }
+    let mut map: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> =
+        HashMap::with_capacity(usize::try_from(total_rows).unwrap_or(usize::MAX));
+    let mut slice: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(BATCH_SIZE.min(total_rows as usize));
+    for (fragment, rows) in sized {
+        let base = u64::from(fragment) << 32;
+        let mut start = 0u64;
+        while start < rows {
+            let end = rows.min(start + BATCH_SIZE as u64);
+            slice.clear();
+            slice.extend((start..end).map(|offset| base | offset));
+            let translated = remapper.remap_row_ids(&slice).await?;
+            if translated.len() != slice.len() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "row-ID remapper returned {} results for {} inputs",
+                    translated.len(),
+                    slice.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            for (address, result) in slice.iter().zip(translated) {
+                if result != Some(*address) {
+                    map.insert(*address, result);
+                }
+            }
+            start = end;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(RowAddrRemap::direct(map))
+}
+
+// Bitmap compression can hide millions of rows. Bound temporary translation buffers.
+const BATCH_SIZE: usize = 64 * 1024;
+
+tokio::task_local! {
+    /// Armed by v0-lifecycle tests: any batch-remapping entry point reached
+    /// within this scope fails, proving legacy traffic never crosses into the
+    /// asynchronous translation code.
+    pub static LEGACY_TRAFFIC_ONLY: ();
+}
+
+/// Fail when a legacy-only scope reaches a batch-remapping entry point.
+///
+/// Only debug builds (which include every test profile) perform the check;
+/// release builds compile it away.
+pub fn check_batch_remapping_entry() -> Result<()> {
+    #[cfg(debug_assertions)]
+    if LEGACY_TRAFFIC_ONLY.try_with(|_| ()).is_ok() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "legacy-only operation entered batch row-ID remapping",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// The address translation an index rewrite applies, the argument of
+/// `remap_streaming`.
+///
+/// `Sync` is a fully materialized map (a compaction's compact remap, or a
+/// direct map): every lookup is immediate. `Batch` is a translator whose
+/// payload may need reads (a tagged history whose path holds stable-partition
+/// hops). Index rewrites translate the addresses of one unit of work at a
+/// time (a page, a partition, a spill batch) through [`Self::resolve`] or
+/// [`Self::remap_row_addrs`], so a batch translator never has a map sized to
+/// the source rows built for it. Both variants are shared handles, cheap to
+/// clone into per-page tasks; [`Self::as_ref`] is the borrowed form the
+/// legacy `remap` entry points reach without copying their map.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+#[non_exhaustive]
+pub enum RowAddrTranslator {
+    Sync(Arc<RowAddrRemap>),
+    Batch(Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>),
+}
+
+impl RowAddrTranslator {
+    /// A synchronous translator over an owned map.
+    pub fn sync(remap: RowAddrRemap) -> Self {
+        Self::Sync(Arc::new(remap))
+    }
+
+    /// A batch translator.
+    pub fn batch(remapper: Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>) -> Self {
+        Self::Batch(remapper)
+    }
+
+    /// The borrowed form.
+    pub fn as_ref(&self) -> RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Sync(remap) => RowAddrTranslatorRef::Sync(remap.as_ref()),
+            Self::Batch(remapper) => RowAddrTranslatorRef::Batch(remapper.as_ref()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the translator is known to move no address at all. A batch
+    /// translator is never known to be empty.
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.as_ref().is_empty()
+    }
+
+    /// See [`RowAddrTranslatorRef::remap_row_addrs`].
+    pub async fn remap_row_addrs(&self, addrs: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        self.as_ref().remap_row_addrs(addrs).await
+    }
+
+    /// See [`RowAddrTranslatorRef::resolve`].
+    pub async fn resolve(
+        &self,
+        addrs: impl IntoIterator<Item = u64>,
+    ) -> Result<Cow<'_, RowAddrRemap>> {
+        self.as_ref().resolve(addrs).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// A borrowed [`RowAddrTranslator`]: what an index rewrite works against.
+/// The legacy `remap(&RowAddrRemap, ..)` entry points wrap their map in
+/// [`Self::Sync`] and share one implementation with `remap_streaming`, so
+/// neither copies the map nor delegates to the other.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+#[non_exhaustive]
+pub enum RowAddrTranslatorRef<'a> {
+    Sync(&'a RowAddrRemap),
+    Batch(&'a dyn BatchRowIdRemapper),
+}
+
+impl<'a> From<&'a RowAddrRemap> for RowAddrTranslatorRef<'a> {
+    fn from(remap: &'a RowAddrRemap) -> Self {
+        Self::Sync(remap)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> RowAddrTranslatorRef<'a> {
+    /// Whether the translator is known to move no address at all. A batch
+    /// translator is never known to be empty.
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Sync(remap) => remap.is_empty(),
+            Self::Batch(_) => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Translate `addrs` in order, one result per input: `None` for a
+    /// deleted row, otherwise the current address (unchanged when the
+    /// translator does not touch it). At most `BATCH_SIZE` addresses are
+    /// handed to a batch translator at a time.
+    pub async fn remap_row_addrs(&self, addrs: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Sync(remap) => Ok(addrs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&addr| remap.get(addr).unwrap_or(Some(addr)))
+                .collect()),
+            Self::Batch(remapper) => remap_row_ids_async(*remapper, addrs).await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A synchronous map covering exactly `addrs`, so an existing synchronous
+    /// remap step runs unchanged over one unit of work. `Sync` borrows its
+    /// map; `Batch` translates `addrs` (deduplicated) and builds a map of
+    /// that size, released with the returned value: memory is O(one unit),
+    /// never O(source rows).
+    pub async fn resolve(
+        &self,
+        addrs: impl IntoIterator<Item = u64>,
+    ) -> Result<Cow<'a, RowAddrRemap>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Sync(remap) => Ok(Cow::Borrowed(remap)),
+            Self::Batch(remapper) => {
+                let mut addrs: Vec<u64> = addrs.into_iter().collect();
+                addrs.sort_unstable();
+                addrs.dedup();
+                let translated = remap_row_ids_async(*remapper, &addrs).await?;
+                let map: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> = addrs.into_iter().zip(translated).collect();
+                Ok(Cow::Owned(RowAddrRemap::direct(map)))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Translate row IDs in input order, preserving duplicates and deleted positions.
+pub async fn remap_row_ids_async(
+    remapper: &dyn BatchRowIdRemapper,
+    row_ids: &[u64],
+) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+    check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+    let mut result = Vec::with_capacity(row_ids.len());
+    for batch in row_ids.chunks(BATCH_SIZE) {
+        let mapped = remapper.remap_row_ids(batch).await?;
+        if mapped.len() != batch.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "row-ID remapper returned {} results for {} inputs",
+                mapped.len(),
+                batch.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        result.extend(mapped);
+    }
+    Ok(result)
+}
+
+/// Translate only the address column, leaving encoded columns in their original layout.
+///
+/// The returned synchronous remapper removes tombstone slots during the
+/// consumer's layout-aware decoding. No per-row lookup table is retained.
+pub async fn remap_row_ids_preserving_layout_async(
+    remapper: &dyn BatchRowIdRemapper,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    row_id_idx: usize,
+) -> Result<(RecordBatch, Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>)> {
+    check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+    let ids = batch
+        .columns()
+        .get(row_id_idx)
+        .and_then(|array| array.as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("row-ID column {row_id_idx} must have type UInt64"))
+        })?;
+    let tombstone = lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW;
+    let mut translated = Vec::with_capacity(ids.len());
+    for start in (0..ids.len()).step_by(BATCH_SIZE) {
+        let end = (start + BATCH_SIZE).min(ids.len());
+        let inputs: Vec<_> = (start..end)
+            .map(|position| {
+                if ids.is_null(position) {
+                    tombstone
+                } else {
+                    ids.value(position)
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let mapped = remap_row_ids_async(remapper, &inputs).await?;
+        translated.extend(mapped.into_iter().enumerate().map(|(offset, id)| {
+            if ids.is_null(start + offset) {
+                tombstone
+            } else {
+                id.unwrap_or(tombstone)
+            }
+        }));
+    }
+    let mut columns = batch.columns().to_vec();
+    columns[row_id_idx] = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(translated));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(batch.schema(), columns)?;
+    Ok((batch, Arc::new(TombstoneRowIdRemapper)))
+}
+
+/// Translate a row-ID column and remove deleted rows from every column.
+pub async fn remap_record_batch_async(
+    remapper: &dyn BatchRowIdRemapper,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    row_id_idx: usize,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+    let (batch, remapper) =
+        remap_row_ids_preserving_layout_async(remapper, batch, row_id_idx).await?;
+    remapper.remap_row_ids_record_batch(batch, row_id_idx)
+}
+
+/// Translate an explicit physical row selection, dropping deleted addresses.
+pub async fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(
+    remapper: &dyn BatchRowIdRemapper,
+    rows: &RowAddrTreeMap,
+) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+    let ids = rows.row_addrs().ok_or_else(|| Error::not_supported(
+        "batch row-ID remapping requires explicit row addresses, not whole-fragment selections"
+    ))?.map(u64::from);
+    remap_iter(remapper, ids).await
+}
+
+/// Translate a bitmap of row IDs, dropping deleted rows.
+pub async fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map_async(
+    remapper: &dyn BatchRowIdRemapper,
+    rows: &RoaringTreemap,
+) -> Result<RoaringTreemap> {
+    check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+    remap_iter(remapper, rows.iter()).await
+}
+
+async fn remap_iter<C: Default + Extend<u64>>(
+    remapper: &dyn BatchRowIdRemapper,
+    mut ids: impl Iterator<Item = u64>,
+) -> Result<C> {
+    let mut result = C::default();
+    loop {
+        let batch = ids.by_ref().take(BATCH_SIZE).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if batch.is_empty() {
+            break;
+        }
+        result.extend(
+            remap_row_ids_async(remapper, &batch)
+                .await?
+                .into_iter()
+                .flatten(),
+        );
+    }
+    Ok(result)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct TombstoneRowIdRemapper;
+
+impl RowIdRemapper for TombstoneRowIdRemapper {
+    fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        (row_id != lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW).then_some(row_id)
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, rows: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+        let mut result = rows.clone();
+        result.remove(lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW);
+        result
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&self, rows: &RoaringTreemap) -> RoaringTreemap {
+        rows.iter().filter_map(|id| self.remap_row_id(id)).collect()
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
+        &self,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        row_id_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let ids = batch
+            .columns()
+            .get(row_id_idx)
+            .and_then(|array| array.as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "row-ID column {row_id_idx} must exist and have type UInt64"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let (positions, ids): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = ids
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter_map(|(position, id)| {
+                id.and_then(|id| self.remap_row_id(id))
+                    .map(|id| (position as u64, id))
+            })
+            .unzip();
+        let positions = UInt64Array::from(positions);
+        let mut columns = batch
+            .columns()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|array| arrow_select::take::take(array, &positions, None))
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+        columns[row_id_idx] = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(ids));
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(batch.schema(), columns)?)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::record_batch;
+    use futures::executor::block_on;
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+    /// Fragment 1 (rows move to fragment 5, offset 1 deleted), fragment 2
+    /// (untouched) and fragment 3 (excluded: every row dropped).
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct Sizing {
+        calls: AtomicUsize,
+        budget: u64,
+        rows: HashMap<u32, u64>,
+        fail: bool,
+    }
+
+    impl Sizing {
+        fn new(rows: &[(u32, u64)], budget: u64) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                budget,
+                rows: rows.iter().copied().collect(),
+                fail: false,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl BatchRowIdRemapper for Sizing {
+        async fn remap_row_ids(&self, ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+            assert!(ids.len() <= BATCH_SIZE);
+            self.calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            if self.fail {
+                return Err(Error::io("the row map is gone"));
+            }
+            Ok(ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&address| {
+                    let fragment = (address >> 32) as u32;
+                    let offset = address & 0xffff_ffff;
+                    match fragment {
+                        1 if offset == 1 => None,
+                        1 => Some((5u64 << 32) | offset),
+                        2 => Some(address),
+                        _ => None,
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect())
+        }
+
+        fn fragment_physical_rows(&self, fragment: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.rows.get(&fragment).copied()
+        }
+
+        fn materialization_budget_bytes(&self) -> u64 {
+            self.budget
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn addr(fragment: u32, offset: u64) -> u64 {
+        (u64::from(fragment) << 32) | offset
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialize_remap_maps_every_stored_address_explicitly() {
+        let remapper = Sizing::new(&[(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2)], u64::MAX);
+        let stored = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32, 2, 3]);
+        let remap = block_on(materialize_remap(&remapper, Some(&stored))).unwrap();
+        // Moved rows, a deleted row and an excluded fragment are all explicit:
+        // the legacy `remap` would keep any address it cannot find.
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(1, 0)), Some(Some(addr(5, 0))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(1, 1)), Some(None));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(1, 3)), Some(Some(addr(5, 3))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(3, 0)), Some(None));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(3, 1)), Some(None));
+        // An address the translator leaves alone means "unchanged" either way.
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(2, 0)), None);
+        // Nothing beyond the stored fragments' rows.
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(1, 4)), None);
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(4, 0)), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialize_remap_declines_before_translating() {
+        // Unknown stored fragments.
+        let remapper = Sizing::new(&[(1, 4)], u64::MAX);
+        let error = block_on(materialize_remap(&remapper, None)).unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            RemapUnavailable::from_error(&error),
+            Some(&RemapUnavailable::StoredFragmentsUnknown)
+        );
+        // A stored fragment the translator cannot size.
+        let stored = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32, 9]);
+        let error = block_on(materialize_remap(&remapper, Some(&stored))).unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            RemapUnavailable::from_error(&error),
+            Some(&RemapUnavailable::FragmentRowsUnknown { fragment: 9 })
+        );
+        // Over budget: the estimate is made from the row counts alone.
+        let tight = Sizing::new(&[(1, 4)], 1);
+        let stored = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]);
+        let error = block_on(materialize_remap(&tight, Some(&stored))).unwrap_err();
+        match RemapUnavailable::from_error(&error) {
+            Some(RemapUnavailable::OverBudget {
+                budget_bytes: 1, ..
+            }) => {}
+            other => panic!("expected OverBudget, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        // None of these touched the translator.
+        assert_eq!(remapper.calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(tight.calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialize_remap_charges_the_rounded_hash_table() {
+        // 7,350,000 entries adjust to 8,400,000 and round to 16,777,216
+        // buckets of 25 bytes: 419,430,416 bytes, not 32 bytes per entry.
+        assert_eq!(hash_map_bytes(7_350_000), 419_430_416);
+        assert!(hash_map_bytes(7_350_000) >= 400 << 20);
+        assert_eq!(hash_map_bytes(0), 4 * 25 + 16);
+        // Under the default budget that many stored rows are declined before
+        // any translation; the flat charge (235,200,000 plus the slice
+        // buffers) would have fit.
+        let remapper = Sizing::new(&[(1, 7_350_000)], DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES);
+        let stored = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]);
+        let error = block_on(materialize_remap(&remapper, Some(&stored))).unwrap_err();
+        match RemapUnavailable::from_error(&error) {
+            Some(RemapUnavailable::OverBudget {
+                estimated_bytes,
+                budget_bytes,
+            }) => {
+                assert_eq!(*budget_bytes, DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES);
+                assert!(*estimated_bytes >= 419_430_416, "{estimated_bytes}");
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected OverBudget, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert_eq!(remapper.calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialize_remap_propagates_translation_errors() {
+        let mut remapper = Sizing::new(&[(1, 4)], u64::MAX);
+        remapper.fail = true;
+        let stored = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]);
+        let error = block_on(materialize_remap(&remapper, Some(&stored))).unwrap_err();
+        // An I/O failure is an error, never a reason to skip.
+        assert!(RemapUnavailable::from_error(&error).is_none());
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialize_remap_translates_in_bounded_slices() {
+        let rows = 2 * BATCH_SIZE as u64 + 1;
+        let remapper = Sizing::new(&[(2, rows)], u64::MAX);
+        let stored = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32]);
+        let remap = block_on(materialize_remap(&remapper, Some(&stored))).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(remapper.calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        // Every address was unchanged: nothing is stored for them.
+        assert!(remap.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct ExternalMapping(AtomicUsize);
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl BatchRowIdRemapper for ExternalMapping {
+        async fn remap_row_ids(&self, ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+            assert!(ids.len() <= 65536);
+            self.0.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            Ok(ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| match *id {
+                    1 => Some(5),
+                    3 => None,
+                    5 => Some(1),
+                    other => Some(other),
+                })
+                .collect())
+        }
+    }
+    #[test]
+    fn external_remapping_bounds_batches_and_preserves_layout() {
+        block_on(async {
+            let external = ExternalMapping(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+            let batch = record_batch!(
+                ("id", UInt64, [Some(1), Some(3), None, Some(5)]),
+                ("value", Int32, [10, 30, 40, 50])
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let translated = remap_record_batch_async(&external, batch, 0).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                translated,
+                record_batch!(
+                    ("id", UInt64, [Some(5), Some(1)]),
+                    ("value", Int32, [10, 50])
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            );
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+                "id",
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1; 65537])) as arrow_array::ArrayRef,
+            )])
+            .unwrap();
+            let (batch, remapper) = remap_row_ids_preserving_layout_async(&external, batch, 0)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 65537);
+            assert_eq!(external.0.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+            assert_eq!(remapper.remap_row_id(5), Some(5));
+            assert_eq!(
+                remapper.remap_row_id(lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW),
+                None
+            );
+        });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index-core/src/scalar.rs b/rust/lance-index-core/src/scalar.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cfa0b09681b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index-core/src/scalar.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,782 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Abstract scalar index traits and types for Lance index plugins
+
+use crate::remapping::{RowAddrTranslator, materialize_remap};
+use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema};
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion_common::scalar::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion_expr::Expr;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_io::stream::{RecordBatchStream, RecordBatchStreamAdapter};
+use lance_select::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
+use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
+use serde::Serialize;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::fmt::Debug;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::{any::Any, sync::Arc};
+
+use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+use crate::{Index, IndexParams, IndexType};
+
+/// Metadata about a single file within an index segment.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct IndexFile {
+    /// Path relative to the index directory (e.g., "index.idx", "auxiliary.idx")
+    pub path: String,
+    /// Size of the file in bytes
+    pub size_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+pub const LANCE_SCALAR_INDEX: &str = "__lance_scalar_index";
+
+/// Builtin index types supported by the Lance library
+///
+/// This is primarily for convenience to avoid a bunch of string
+/// constants and provide some auto-complete.  This type should not
+/// be used in the manifest as plugins cannot add new entries.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub enum BuiltinIndexType {
+    BTree,
+    Bitmap,
+    LabelList,
+    NGram,
+    ZoneMap,
+    BloomFilter,
+    RTree,
+    Inverted,
+    Fm,
+    MinHashLsh,
+}
+
+impl BuiltinIndexType {
+    pub fn as_str(&self) -> &str {
+        match self {
+            Self::BTree => "btree",
+            Self::Bitmap => "bitmap",
+            Self::LabelList => "labellist",
+            Self::NGram => "ngram",
+            Self::ZoneMap => "zonemap",
+            Self::Inverted => "inverted",
+            Self::BloomFilter => "bloomfilter",
+            Self::RTree => "rtree",
+            Self::Fm => "fm",
+            Self::MinHashLsh => "minhashlsh",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<IndexType> for BuiltinIndexType {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: IndexType) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value {
+            IndexType::BTree => Ok(Self::BTree),
+            IndexType::Bitmap => Ok(Self::Bitmap),
+            IndexType::LabelList => Ok(Self::LabelList),
+            IndexType::NGram => Ok(Self::NGram),
+            IndexType::ZoneMap => Ok(Self::ZoneMap),
+            IndexType::Inverted => Ok(Self::Inverted),
+            IndexType::BloomFilter => Ok(Self::BloomFilter),
+            IndexType::RTree => Ok(Self::RTree),
+            IndexType::Fm => Ok(Self::Fm),
+            IndexType::MinHashLsh => Ok(Self::MinHashLsh),
+            _ => Err(Error::index("Invalid index type".to_string())),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct ScalarIndexParams {
+    /// The type of index to create
+    ///
+    /// Plugins may add additional index types.  Index type lookup is case-insensitive.
+    pub index_type: String,
+    /// The parameters to train the index
+    ///
+    /// This should be a JSON string.  The contents of the JSON string will be specific to the
+    /// index type.  If not set, then default parameters will be used for the index type.
+    pub params: Option<String>,
+}
+
+impl Default for ScalarIndexParams {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_type: BuiltinIndexType::BTree.as_str().to_string(),
+            params: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ScalarIndexParams {
+    /// Creates a new ScalarIndexParams from one of the builtin index types
+    pub fn for_builtin(index_type: BuiltinIndexType) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_type: index_type.as_str().to_string(),
+            params: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new ScalarIndexParams with the given index type
+    pub fn new(index_type: String) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_type,
+            params: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the parameters for the index
+    pub fn with_params<ParamsType: Serialize>(mut self, params: &ParamsType) -> Self {
+        self.params = Some(serde_json::to_string(params).unwrap());
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+impl IndexParams for ScalarIndexParams {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn index_name(&self) -> &str {
+        LANCE_SCALAR_INDEX
+    }
+}
+
+/// Trait for storing an index (or parts of an index) into storage
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait IndexWriter: Send {
+    /// Writes a record batch into the file, returning the 0-based index of the batch in the file
+    ///
+    /// E.g. if this is the third time this is called this method will return 2
+    async fn write_record_batch(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<u64>;
+    /// Adds a global buffer and returns its index.
+    async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, _data: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "global buffers are not supported by this index writer",
+        ))
+    }
+    /// Finishes writing the file and closes the file
+    async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<IndexFile>;
+    /// Finishes writing the file and closes the file with additional metadata
+    async fn finish_with_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile>;
+}
+
+/// Trait for reading an index (or parts of an index) from storage
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait IndexReader: Send + Sync {
+    /// Read the n-th record batch from the file
+    async fn read_record_batch(&self, n: u64, batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch>;
+    /// Read several record batches, returning one batch per entry of
+    /// `batch_numbers`, in the order requested.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation issues one read per batch, costing a request
+    /// per batch, with in-flight requests capped at
+    /// [`get_num_compute_intensive_cpus`] rather than growing with the whole
+    /// request. Readers whose batches sit on predictable row ranges override
+    /// this to fold them into a single [`Self::read_ranges`] call, so that
+    /// neighbouring batches share a request.
+    async fn read_record_batches(
+        &self,
+        batch_numbers: &[u64],
+        batch_size: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        let futures: Vec<_> = batch_numbers
+            .iter()
+            .map(|n| self.read_record_batch(*n, batch_size))
+            .collect();
+        futures::stream::iter(futures)
+            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+    }
+    /// Reads a global buffer by index.
+    async fn read_global_buffer(&self, _index: u32) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "global buffers are not supported by this index reader",
+        ))
+    }
+    /// Read the range of rows from the file.
+    /// If projection is Some, only return the columns in the projection,
+    /// nested columns like Some(&["x.y"]) are not supported.
+    /// If projection is None, return all columns.
+    async fn read_range(
+        &self,
+        range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+        projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch>;
+    /// Read multiple ranges and concatenate into a single batch.
+    /// Default impl runs `read_range`s in parallel via `try_join_all`.
+    async fn read_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[std::ops::Range<usize>],
+        projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        if ranges.is_empty() {
+            return self.read_range(0..0, projection).await;
+        }
+        let futures = ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|r| self.read_range(r.clone(), projection));
+        let batches = futures::future::try_join_all(futures).await?;
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        Ok(arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&schema, &batches)?)
+    }
+    /// Read a range of rows as a stream of record batches.
+    ///
+    /// This allows the caller to process rows incrementally without loading the
+    /// entire range into memory at once.
+    ///
+    /// Every batch except the last holds exactly `batch_size` rows; the last one
+    /// holds the remainder. `batch_readahead` bounds how many batches may be
+    /// decoded ahead of the consumer.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation falls back to [`Self::read_range`] and slices
+    /// the result into `batch_size` chunks.
+    async fn read_range_stream(
+        &self,
+        range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+        projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+        batch_size: u64,
+        _batch_readahead: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream>>> {
+        let batch = self.read_range(range, projection).await?;
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let batch_size = (batch_size as usize).max(1);
+        let chunks = (0..batch.num_rows())
+            .step_by(batch_size)
+            .map(move |start| Ok(batch.slice(start, batch_size.min(batch.num_rows() - start))))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::iter(chunks),
+        )))
+    }
+    /// Stream every record batch of the file in order, sized like
+    /// [`Self::read_record_batch`].
+    ///
+    /// The `n`-th item of the returned stream is identical to
+    /// `read_record_batch(n, batch_size)`, so callers that need every batch
+    /// (index updates, remaps, prewarming) get one sequential pass over the file
+    /// instead of one random read per batch. `batch_readahead` bounds how many
+    /// batches may be read ahead of the consumer.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation issues one `read_record_batch` per batch,
+    /// `batch_readahead` at a time.
+    async fn read_record_batch_stream(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        batch_size: u64,
+        batch_readahead: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream>>>
+    where
+        Self: 'static,
+    {
+        let num_batches = self.num_batches(batch_size).await;
+        let schema: Arc<Schema> = Arc::new(self.schema().into());
+        let reader = self.clone();
+        let stream = futures::stream::iter(0..num_batches as u64)
+            .map(move |n| {
+                let reader = reader.clone();
+                async move { reader.read_record_batch(n, batch_size).await }
+            })
+            .buffered(batch_readahead.max(1) as usize);
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)))
+    }
+    /// Return the number of batches in the file
+    async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32;
+    /// Return the number of rows in the file
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> usize;
+    /// Return the metadata of the file
+    fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+    /// Best-effort on-disk byte size of the file when the reader already knows it
+    /// without extra I/O, else `None`. Used to size prewarm chunks.
+    fn file_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// Trait abstracting I/O away from index logic
+///
+/// Scalar indices are currently serialized as indexable arrow record batches stored in
+/// named "files".  The index store is responsible for serializing and deserializing
+/// these batches into file data (e.g. as .lance files or .parquet files, etc.)
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait IndexStore: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync + DeepSizeOf {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any;
+    fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore>;
+
+    /// Return whether this store has the same live storage binding as `other`.
+    ///
+    /// `true` means cached indices holding [`IndexReader`]s created through `other` are safe to
+    /// reuse through this store. `false` means they must be reopened through
+    /// [`IndexStore::open_index_file`]. Implementations should return `true` only when readers,
+    /// credentials, and connection handles are interchangeable between both stores. The
+    /// conservative default prevents custom stores from accidentally reusing a store-bound
+    /// index.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_index_core::scalar::IndexStore;
+    ///
+    /// fn can_reuse_cached_index(
+    ///     current_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ///     cached_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    /// ) -> bool {
+    ///     current_store.is_same_storage_binding(cached_store)
+    /// }
+    /// ```
+    fn is_same_storage_binding(&self, _other: &dyn IndexStore) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Suggested I/O parallelism for the store
+    fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize;
+
+    /// Create a new file and return a writer to store data in the file
+    async fn new_index_file(&self, name: &str, schema: Arc<Schema>)
+    -> Result<Box<dyn IndexWriter>>;
+
+    /// Open an existing file for retrieval
+    async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>>;
+
+    /// Return a store that submits its I/O at the given base priority.
+    fn with_io_priority(&self, io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore>;
+
+    /// Copy a range of batches from an index file from this store to another
+    ///
+    /// This is often useful when remapping or updating
+    async fn copy_index_file(&self, name: &str, dest_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<IndexFile>;
+
+    /// Copy an index file from this store to a new name in another store, leaving the source intact
+    async fn copy_index_file_to(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        new_name: &str,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        if name == new_name {
+            self.copy_index_file(name, dest_store).await
+        } else {
+            Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "copying index file {name} to {new_name} is not supported by this index store"
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Rename an index file
+    async fn rename_index_file(&self, name: &str, new_name: &str) -> Result<IndexFile>;
+
+    /// Delete an index file (used in the tmp spill store to keep tmp size down)
+    async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// List all files in the index directory with their sizes.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a list of (relative_path, size_bytes) tuples.
+    /// Used to capture file metadata after index creation/modification.
+    async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>>;
+}
+
+/// Different scalar indices may support different kinds of queries
+///
+/// For example, a btree index can support a wide range of queries (e.g. x > 7)
+/// while an index based on FTS only supports queries like "x LIKE 'foo'"
+///
+/// This trait is used when we need an object that can represent any kind of query
+///
+/// Note: if you are implementing this trait for a query type then you probably also
+/// need to implement the scalar query parser trait to create instances of your query at parse time.
+pub trait AnyQuery: std::fmt::Debug + Any + Send + Sync {
+    /// Cast the query as Any to allow for downcasting
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any;
+    /// Format the query as a string for display purposes
+    fn format(&self, col: &str) -> String;
+    /// Convert the query to a datafusion expression
+    fn to_expr(&self, col: String) -> Expr;
+    /// Compare this query to another query
+    fn dyn_eq(&self, other: &dyn AnyQuery) -> bool;
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for dyn AnyQuery {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.dyn_eq(other)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The result of a search operation against a scalar index
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub enum SearchResult {
+    /// The exact row ids that satisfy the query
+    Exact(NullableRowAddrSet),
+    /// Any row id satisfying the query will be in this set but not every
+    /// row id in this set will satisfy the query, a further recheck step
+    /// is needed
+    AtMost(NullableRowAddrSet),
+    /// All of the given row ids satisfy the query but there may be more
+    ///
+    /// No scalar index actually returns this today but it can arise from
+    /// boolean operations (e.g. NOT(AtMost(x)) == AtLeast(NOT(x)))
+    AtLeast(NullableRowAddrSet),
+}
+
+impl SearchResult {
+    pub fn exact(row_ids: impl Into<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Self {
+        Self::Exact(NullableRowAddrSet::new(row_ids.into(), Default::default()))
+    }
+
+    pub fn at_most(row_ids: impl Into<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Self {
+        Self::AtMost(NullableRowAddrSet::new(row_ids.into(), Default::default()))
+    }
+
+    pub fn at_least(row_ids: impl Into<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Self {
+        Self::AtLeast(NullableRowAddrSet::new(row_ids.into(), Default::default()))
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_nulls(self, nulls: impl Into<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Self {
+        match self {
+            Self::Exact(row_ids) => Self::Exact(row_ids.with_nulls(nulls.into())),
+            Self::AtMost(row_ids) => Self::AtMost(row_ids.with_nulls(nulls.into())),
+            Self::AtLeast(row_ids) => Self::AtLeast(row_ids.with_nulls(nulls.into())),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn row_addrs(&self) -> &NullableRowAddrSet {
+        match self {
+            Self::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            Self::AtMost(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            Self::AtLeast(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_exact(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::Exact(_))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Brief information about an index that was created
+pub struct CreatedIndex {
+    /// The details of the index that was created
+    ///
+    /// These should be stored somewhere as they will be needed to
+    /// load the index later.
+    pub index_details: prost_types::Any,
+    /// The version of the index that was created
+    ///
+    /// This can be used to determine if a reader is able to load the index.
+    pub index_version: u32,
+    /// List of files and their sizes for this index
+    ///
+    /// This enables skipping HEAD calls when opening indices and provides
+    /// visibility into index storage size via describe_indices().
+    pub files: Vec<IndexFile>,
+}
+
+/// The ordering that training data must satisfy
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum TrainingOrdering {
+    /// The input will arrive sorted by the value column in ascending order
+    Values,
+    /// The input will arrive sorted by the address column in ascending order
+    Addresses,
+    /// The input will arrive in an arbitrary order
+    None,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct TrainingCriteria {
+    pub ordering: TrainingOrdering,
+    pub needs_row_ids: bool,
+    pub needs_row_addrs: bool,
+}
+
+impl TrainingCriteria {
+    pub fn new(ordering: TrainingOrdering) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            ordering,
+            needs_row_ids: false,
+            needs_row_addrs: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_row_id(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.needs_row_ids = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_row_addr(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.needs_row_addrs = true;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// The criteria that specifies how to update an index
+pub struct UpdateCriteria {
+    /// If true, then we need to read the old data to update the index
+    ///
+    /// This should be avoided if possible but is left in for some legacy paths
+    pub requires_old_data: bool,
+    /// The criteria required for data (both old and new)
+    pub data_criteria: TrainingCriteria,
+}
+
+/// Filter used when merging existing scalar-index rows during update.
+///
+/// The caller must pick a filter mode that matches the row-id semantics of the
+/// dataset:
+/// - address-style row IDs: fragment filtering is valid
+/// - stable row IDs: use exact row-id membership instead
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub enum OldIndexDataFilter {
+    /// Keeps track of which fragments are still valid and which are no longer valid.
+    ///
+    /// This is valid for address-style row IDs.
+    Fragments {
+        to_keep: RoaringBitmap,
+        to_remove: RoaringBitmap,
+    },
+    /// Keep old rows whose row IDs are in this exact allow-list.
+    ///
+    /// This is required for stable row IDs, where row IDs are opaque and
+    /// should not be interpreted as encoded row addresses.
+    RowIds(RowAddrTreeMap),
+}
+
+impl OldIndexDataFilter {
+    /// Build a boolean mask that keeps only row IDs selected by this filter.
+    pub fn filter_row_ids(&self, row_ids: &UInt64Array) -> BooleanArray {
+        match self {
+            Self::Fragments { to_keep, .. } => row_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| id.map(|id| to_keep.contains((id >> 32) as u32)))
+                .collect(),
+            Self::RowIds(valid_row_ids) => row_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| id.map(|id| valid_row_ids.contains(id)))
+                .collect(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Apply this filter in place to a set of existing (old) row ids/addresses,
+    /// retaining only the rows the filter selects to keep. Used by index types
+    /// that merge old postings directly (e.g. bitmap) instead of re-scanning a
+    /// row-id array through [`Self::filter_row_ids`].
+    pub fn retain_old_rows(&self, rows: &mut RowAddrTreeMap) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Fragments { to_keep, .. } => rows.retain_fragments(to_keep.iter()),
+            Self::RowIds(valid_row_ids) => *rows &= valid_row_ids,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl UpdateCriteria {
+    pub fn requires_old_data(data_criteria: TrainingCriteria) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            requires_old_data: true,
+            data_criteria,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn only_new_data(data_criteria: TrainingCriteria) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            requires_old_data: false,
+            data_criteria,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Execution-time options for scalar index searches.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct SearchOptions {
+    /// Preserve rows where the query evaluates to NULL.
+    ///
+    /// Callers may disable this only when NULL rows cannot affect the final
+    /// result, such as a top-level filter whose NULL results will be discarded.
+    track_nulls: bool,
+}
+
+impl Default for SearchOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self { track_nulls: true }
+    }
+}
+
+impl SearchOptions {
+    /// Configure whether searches preserve rows where the query evaluates to
+    /// NULL. When disabled, implementations return only TRUE rows.
+    pub fn with_track_nulls(mut self, track_nulls: bool) -> Self {
+        self.track_nulls = track_nulls;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Whether searches preserve rows where the query evaluates to NULL.
+    pub fn track_nulls(&self) -> bool {
+        self.track_nulls
+    }
+}
+
+/// A trait for a scalar index, a structure that can determine row ids that satisfy scalar queries
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait ScalarIndex: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug + Index + DeepSizeOf {
+    /// Search the scalar index
+    ///
+    /// Returns all row ids that satisfy the query, these row ids are not necessarily ordered
+    async fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult>;
+
+    /// Search the scalar index with execution-time options.
+    ///
+    /// Index implementations that do not need the options can rely on this
+    /// default implementation. The default preserves the behavior of
+    /// [`Self::search`].
+    async fn search_with_options(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        _options: SearchOptions,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        self.search(query, metrics).await
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if this index reports matches as physical row addresses
+    /// (`fragment_id << 32 | offset`) rather than row ids
+    ///
+    /// Address-domain indices (e.g. zone map, bloom filter) are built over the
+    /// `_rowaddr` column. On a dataset with stable row ids the address and
+    /// row-id domains diverge, so these results must be translated back to row
+    /// ids (via the per-fragment row-id sequences, known only at the dataset
+    /// layer) before they are combined with row-id results or handed to the
+    /// scan. The default (row-id domain) needs no translation.
+    fn results_are_row_addresses(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if the remap operation is supported
+    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool;
+
+    /// Remap the row ids, creating a new remapped version of this index in `dest_store`
+    ///
+    /// Legacy remapping API using an in-memory mapping. Retained for existing
+    /// callers and plugins; new tagged fragment reuse maintenance goes through
+    /// [`Self::remap_streaming`], whose default implementation prepares a
+    /// complete in-memory mapping and calls this method once.
+    async fn remap(
+        &self,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex>;
+
+    /// The fragments whose row addresses this index's files may hold, or
+    /// `None` when the index cannot tell.
+    ///
+    /// Only the in-memory fallback of [`Self::remap_streaming`] reads it: an
+    /// address left out of the mapping it prepares stays unchanged through
+    /// [`Self::remap`], so the fallback maps every address of every listed
+    /// fragment explicitly, and declines when the list is unknown. An
+    /// implementation that overrides this must list every fragment its files
+    /// can hold addresses for, including fragments the index no longer claims
+    /// in its declared coverage (a retired source, or one withdrawn after an
+    /// in-place rewrite). Not needed by indices that implement
+    /// `remap_streaming` themselves.
+    fn stored_fragments(&self) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// Remap the row ids through a translator whose payload may need reads,
+    /// creating a new remapped version of this index in `dest_store`.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation keeps existing indices working: a
+    /// synchronous translator is handed to [`Self::remap`] as it is, and a
+    /// batch translator is first materialized into a complete in-memory
+    /// mapping ([`materialize_remap`], bounded by the translator's budget and
+    /// requiring [`Self::stored_fragments`]) before one call to
+    /// [`Self::remap`]. That fallback costs the mapping's memory and reads the
+    /// index once more; it declines with a
+    /// [`RemapUnavailable`](crate::remapping::RemapUnavailable) it cannot
+    /// prove a complete mapping within budget. Built-in indices override this
+    /// to translate one unit of work at a time (a page, a partition, a spill
+    /// batch) without any map sized to the source rows.
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        match translator {
+            RowAddrTranslator::Sync(mapping) => self.remap(mapping.as_ref(), dest_store).await,
+            RowAddrTranslator::Batch(remapper) => {
+                let mapping =
+                    materialize_remap(remapper.as_ref(), self.stored_fragments().as_ref()).await?;
+                self.remap(&mapping, dest_store).await
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add the new data into the index, creating an updated version of the index in `dest_store`
+    ///
+    /// If `old_data_filter` is provided, old index data will be filtered before
+    /// merge according to the chosen filter mode.
+    async fn update(
+        &self,
+        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filter: Option<OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex>;
+
+    /// Returns the criteria that will be used to update the index
+    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria;
+
+    /// Derive the index parameters from the current index
+    ///
+    /// This returns a ScalarIndexParams that can be used to recreate an index
+    /// with the same configuration on another dataset.
+    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams>;
+
+    /// Returns the value type expected by [`Self::update`], when the index has
+    /// a durable type contract for its training data.
+    ///
+    /// Wrapper indices use this to transform new data to the same type as the
+    /// loaded index instead of inferring a potentially different type from an
+    /// update batch. Index types without such a contract may return `None`.
+    fn training_data_type(&self) -> Option<DataType> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// Global `[min, max]` of the indexed column from index metadata, without a
+    /// scan, or `None` if this index type cannot supply a sound bound. When
+    /// `Some`, the range is a superset of live values (conservative under
+    /// deletes): safe to prune with, not guaranteed tight.
+    fn value_range(&self) -> Option<(ScalarValue, ScalarValue)> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// Abstraction over any type that can remap row IDs during index loading.
+///
+/// This decouples scalar index plugins from the table-level frag reuse index type.
+/// The frag reuse index implements this trait, but callers may also supply custom
+/// implementations for testing or other remapping strategies.
+pub trait RowIdRemapper: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
+    /// Remap a single row id.  Returns `None` if the row was deleted.
+    fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64>;
+    /// Remap all addresses in a [`RowAddrTreeMap`], dropping deleted rows.
+    fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, row_addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap;
+    /// Remap all row ids in a [`RoaringTreemap`], dropping deleted rows.
+    fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&self, row_ids: &RoaringTreemap) -> RoaringTreemap;
+    /// Remap the row-id column at `row_id_idx` inside `batch`, dropping deleted rows.
+    fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
+        &self,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        row_id_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch>;
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-index/Cargo.toml
index 70262b8de92..54d3094fe87 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-index/Cargo.toml
@@ -12,8 +12,10 @@ categories.workspace = true
 rust-version.workspace = true
 
 [dependencies]
+arc-swap = { workspace = true, features = ["weak"] }
 arrow.workspace = true
 arrow-array.workspace = true
+arrow-ipc.workspace = true
 arrow-ord.workspace = true
 arrow-schema.workspace = true
 arrow-select.workspace = true
@@ -24,29 +26,34 @@ bitvec.workspace = true
 datafusion-common.workspace = true
 datafusion-expr.workspace = true
 datafusion-physical-expr.workspace = true
-datafusion-sql.workspace = true
 datafusion.workspace = true
-deepsize.workspace = true
 dirs.workspace = true
 fst.workspace = true
 futures.workspace = true
-geoarrow-array = { workspace = true }
-geoarrow-schema = { workspace = true }
-geo-types = { workspace = true }
+geoarrow-array = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+geoarrow-schema = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+geo-types = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 half.workspace = true
+hashbrown = { version = "0.16", default-features = false }
+hex.workspace = true
 itertools.workspace = true
 jieba-rs = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 jsonb.workspace = true
 lance-arrow.workspace = true
+lance-arrow-stats.workspace = true
 lance-core.workspace = true
+lance-index-core.workspace = true
 lance-datafusion.workspace = true
 lance-encoding.workspace = true
 lance-file.workspace = true
-lance-geo.workspace = true
+lance-geo = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 lance-io.workspace = true
+lance-bitpacking.workspace = true
+libsais-rs = "0.2"
 lance-linalg.workspace = true
+lance-select.workspace = true
+lance-tokenizer.workspace = true
 lance-table.workspace = true
-libm.workspace = true
 log.workspace = true
 ndarray.workspace = true
 num-traits.workspace = true
@@ -54,50 +61,53 @@ object_store.workspace = true
 prost.workspace = true
 prost-types.workspace = true
 rand.workspace = true
+regex-syntax.workspace = true
 roaring.workspace = true
 rayon.workspace = true
 serde_json.workspace = true
 serde.workspace = true
-snafu.workspace = true
-smallvec = "1.15"
-tantivy.workspace = true
-lindera = { workspace = true, optional = true }
-lindera-tantivy = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+# `union` drops the inline/heap tag word, which keeps the per-token FTS
+# posting-list builder small.
+smallvec = { version = "1.15", features = ["union"] }
 tokio.workspace = true
 tracing.workspace = true
+twox-hash.workspace = true
 tempfile.workspace = true
 crossbeam-queue.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
-uuid.workspace = true
-twox-hash = "2.0"
 async-channel = "2.3.1"
-bitpacking = { version = "0.9.2", features = ["bitpacker4x"] }
 rand_distr.workspace = true
-lance-datagen.workspace = true
 rangemap.workspace = true
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 approx.workspace = true
 criterion.workspace = true
-env_logger = "0.11.6"
+env_logger.workspace = true
 geo-traits.workspace = true
 lance-datagen.workspace = true
+lance-datafusion = { workspace = true, features = ["datagen"] }
 lance-testing.workspace = true
+libc.workspace = true
 test-log.workspace = true
 rstest.workspace = true
+serial_test.workspace = true
 chrono.workspace = true
+uuid.workspace = true
 
 [features]
+geo = ["dep:lance-geo", "lance-geo/geo", "dep:geoarrow-array", "dep:geoarrow-schema", "dep:geo-types"]
 protoc = ["dep:protobuf-src"]
-tokenizer-lindera = ["dep:lindera", "dep:lindera-tantivy"]
-tokenizer-jieba = ["dep:jieba-rs"]
+jieba-rs = ["tokenizer-jieba"]
+lindera = ["tokenizer-lindera"]
+tokenizer-lindera = ["lance-tokenizer/tokenizer-lindera"]
+tokenizer-jieba = ["dep:jieba-rs", "lance-tokenizer/tokenizer-jieba"]
+# Exposes `scalar::inverted::oracle`, the brute-force scoring reference, to
+# downstream test and bench targets. Enable it as a dev-dependency feature only.
+test-oracle = []
 
 [build-dependencies]
 prost-build.workspace = true
-protobuf-src = { version = "2.1", optional = true }
-
-[target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dev-dependencies]
-pprof.workspace = true
+protobuf-src = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 
 [package.metadata.docs.rs]
 # docs.rs uses an older version of Ubuntu that does not have the necessary protoc version
@@ -115,6 +125,10 @@ harness = false
 name = "4bitpq_dist_table"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "pq4_topk"
+harness = false
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "pq_assignment"
 harness = false
@@ -123,6 +137,10 @@ harness = false
 name = "hnsw"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "hnsw_remap"
+harness = false
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "sq"
 harness = false
@@ -159,9 +177,30 @@ harness = false
 name = "bitmap"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "stable_partition_row_map"
+harness = false
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "geo"
 harness = false
+required-features = ["geo"]
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "residual_transform"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "two_file_shuffle_read"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "pairwise"
+harness = false
 
 [lints]
 workspace = true
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "inverted_request_cache"
+harness = false
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/README.md b/rust/lance-index/README.md
index 12f1f824936..fc7cf0e9517 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/README.md
+++ b/rust/lance-index/README.md
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 # lance-index
 
 `lance-index` is an internal sub-crate, containing various vector index implementations
-used in [Lance](https://github.com/lancedb/lance).
+used in [Lance](https://github.com/lance-format/lance).
 
 **Important Note**: This crate is **not intended for external usage**.
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/4bitpq_dist_table.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/4bitpq_dist_table.rs
index c6c69a9536b..fe64356061a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/4bitpq_dist_table.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/4bitpq_dist_table.rs
@@ -7,16 +7,18 @@ use std::iter::repeat_n;
 
 use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
 use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array};
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FixedSizeListArrayExt, FloatArray};
-use lance_index::vector::pq::distance::{build_distance_table_dot, build_distance_table_l2};
 use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::distance::{build_distance_table_dot, build_distance_table_l2};
 use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, L2};
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
-use rand::{prelude::StdRng, Rng, SeedableRng};
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, prelude::StdRng};
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 const PQ: usize = 96;
 const DIM: usize = 1536;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/bitmap.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/bitmap.rs
index d75cb88e2a5..e152fc404b2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/bitmap.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/bitmap.rs
@@ -18,18 +18,20 @@ use std::{
 };
 
 use common::{LOW_CARDINALITY_COUNT, TOTAL_ROWS};
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, BenchmarkId, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use lance_index::pbold;
 use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
 use lance_index::scalar::registry::ScalarIndexPlugin;
-use lance_index::scalar::{bitmap::BitmapIndexPlugin, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex};
+use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, bitmap::BitmapIndexPlugin};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use object_store::path::Path;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use object_store::path::Path;
 
 // Lazy static runtime - only created once
 static RUNTIME: OnceLock<tokio::runtime::Runtime> = OnceLock::new();
@@ -78,12 +80,17 @@ async fn create_int_unique_index(
         .unwrap();
 
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
-    let index = BitmapIndexPlugin
-        .load_index(store, &details, None, &get_cache(use_cache, "int_unique"))
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
 
-    index
+    (BitmapIndexPlugin
+        .load_index(
+            store,
+            &details,
+            0,
+            None,
+            &get_cache(use_cache, "int_unique"),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()) as _
 }
 
 /// Create and train a Bitmap index for int64 data with low cardinality
@@ -98,12 +105,17 @@ async fn create_int_low_card_index(
         .unwrap();
 
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
-    let index = BitmapIndexPlugin
-        .load_index(store, &details, None, &get_cache(use_cache, "int_low_card"))
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
 
-    index
+    (BitmapIndexPlugin
+        .load_index(
+            store,
+            &details,
+            0,
+            None,
+            &get_cache(use_cache, "int_low_card"),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()) as _
 }
 
 /// Create and train a Bitmap index for string data with unique values
@@ -118,17 +130,17 @@ async fn create_string_unique_index(
         .unwrap();
 
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
-    let index = BitmapIndexPlugin
+
+    (BitmapIndexPlugin
         .load_index(
             store,
             &details,
+            0,
             None,
             &get_cache(use_cache, "string_unique"),
         )
         .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-    index
+        .unwrap()) as _
 }
 
 /// Create and train a Bitmap index for string data with low cardinality
@@ -143,17 +155,17 @@ async fn create_string_low_card_index(
         .unwrap();
 
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
-    let index = BitmapIndexPlugin
+
+    (BitmapIndexPlugin
         .load_index(
             store,
             &details,
+            0,
             None,
             &get_cache(use_cache, "string_low_card"),
         )
         .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-    index
+        .unwrap()) as _
 }
 
 /// Set up all benchmark indices
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/btree.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/btree.rs
index a25275a8cd1..c4575baaf32 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/btree.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/btree.rs
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
 //! - Equality filters
 //! - Range filters with varying selectivity (few/many/most rows match)
 //! - IN filters with varying size (10, 20, 30 values)
+//! - Range filters over pages whose row ids span many fragments
 
 mod common;
 
@@ -20,19 +21,21 @@ use std::{
 };
 
 use common::{LOW_CARDINALITY_COUNT, TOTAL_ROWS};
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, BenchmarkId, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use lance_index::pbold;
-use lance_index::scalar::btree::{train_btree_index, BTreeIndexPlugin, DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE};
+use lance_index::scalar::btree::{BTreeIndexPlugin, DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE, train_btree_index};
 use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
 use lance_index::scalar::registry::ScalarIndexPlugin;
 use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, ScalarIndex};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use object_store::path::Path;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use object_store::path::Path;
 
 /// Selectivity level for range queries
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
@@ -77,6 +80,8 @@ static STRING_UNIQUE_INDEX_NO_CACHE: OnceLock<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> = OnceLock::
 static STRING_UNIQUE_INDEX_CACHED: OnceLock<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> = OnceLock::new();
 static STRING_LOW_CARD_INDEX_NO_CACHE: OnceLock<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> = OnceLock::new();
 static STRING_LOW_CARD_INDEX_CACHED: OnceLock<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> = OnceLock::new();
+static INT_MANY_FRAG_INDEX_NO_CACHE: OnceLock<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> = OnceLock::new();
+static INT_MANY_FRAG_INDEX_CACHED: OnceLock<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> = OnceLock::new();
 
 // Keep temp directories alive for the lifetime of the program
 static TEMP_DIRS: OnceLock<Vec<tempfile::TempDir>> = OnceLock::new();
@@ -112,12 +117,11 @@ async fn create_int_unique_index(
 
     let cache = get_cache(use_cache, "int_unique");
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
-    let index = BTreeIndexPlugin
-        .load_index(store, &details, None, &cache)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
 
-    index
+    (BTreeIndexPlugin
+        .load_index(store, &details, 0, None, &cache)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()) as _
 }
 
 /// Create and train a BTree index for int64 data with low cardinality
@@ -133,12 +137,11 @@ async fn create_int_low_card_index(
 
     let cache = get_cache(use_cache, "int_low_card");
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
-    let index = BTreeIndexPlugin
-        .load_index(store, &details, None, &cache)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
 
-    index
+    (BTreeIndexPlugin
+        .load_index(store, &details, 0, None, &cache)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()) as _
 }
 
 /// Create and train a BTree index for string data with unique values
@@ -154,12 +157,11 @@ async fn create_string_unique_index(
 
     let cache = get_cache(use_cache, "string_unique");
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
-    let index = BTreeIndexPlugin
-        .load_index(store, &details, None, &cache)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
 
-    index
+    (BTreeIndexPlugin
+        .load_index(store, &details, 0, None, &cache)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()) as _
 }
 
 /// Create and train a BTree index for string data with low cardinality
@@ -175,12 +177,60 @@ async fn create_string_low_card_index(
 
     let cache = get_cache(use_cache, "string_low_card");
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
-    let index = BTreeIndexPlugin
-        .load_index(store, &details, None, &cache)
+
+    (BTreeIndexPlugin
+        .load_index(store, &details, 0, None, &cache)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()) as _
+}
+
+/// Create and train a BTree index for int64 data whose row ids are spread
+/// across many fragments (each page spans every fragment)
+async fn create_int_many_fragment_index(
+    store: Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    use_cache: bool,
+) -> Arc<dyn ScalarIndex> {
+    let stream = common::generate_int_many_fragment_stream();
+
+    train_btree_index(stream, store.as_ref(), DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE, None, None)
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    index
+    let cache = get_cache(use_cache, "int_many_frag");
+    let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
+
+    (BTreeIndexPlugin
+        .load_index(store, &details, 0, None, &cache)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()) as _
+}
+
+/// Setup function for int many-fragment index - creates it only once per cache variant
+fn setup_int_many_fragment_index(
+    rt: &tokio::runtime::Runtime,
+    use_cache: bool,
+) -> Arc<dyn ScalarIndex> {
+    let static_ref = if use_cache {
+        &INT_MANY_FRAG_INDEX_CACHED
+    } else {
+        &INT_MANY_FRAG_INDEX_NO_CACHE
+    };
+
+    static_ref
+        .get_or_init(|| {
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+                let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+                    Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+                    Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap(),
+                    get_cache(use_cache, "int_many_frag"),
+                ));
+                let index = create_int_many_fragment_index(store, use_cache).await;
+                let _ = tempdir.keep();
+                index
+            })
+        })
+        .clone()
 }
 
 /// Setup function for int unique index - creates it only once per cache variant
@@ -682,6 +732,63 @@ fn bench_in(c: &mut Criterion) {
     }
 }
 
+/// Range queries over an index whose pages each span all `NUM_FRAGMENTS`
+/// fragments: the result has to be assembled from `pages x fragments`
+/// (page, fragment) pieces, which is where per-page result construction
+/// used to dominate.
+fn bench_range_many_fragments(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = get_runtime();
+    let total_rows = common::many_fragment_total_rows();
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("btree_range_many_fragments");
+    group
+        .sample_size(10)
+        .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(10));
+
+    for selectivity in [Selectivity::Few, Selectivity::Many, Selectivity::Most] {
+        let range_size = (total_rows as f64 * selectivity.percentage()) as u64;
+        let start = (total_rows / 2) - (range_size / 2);
+        let end = start + range_size;
+        let make_query = move || {
+            SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(start as i64))),
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(end as i64))),
+            )
+        };
+
+        for use_cache in [false, true] {
+            let cache_label = if use_cache { "cached" } else { "no_cache" };
+            let id = BenchmarkId::new(format!("int_{}", selectivity.name()), cache_label);
+            group.bench_function(id, |b| {
+                let index = setup_int_many_fragment_index(rt, use_cache);
+
+                // Sanity check: every row in [start, end] must come back,
+                // spread over all fragments.
+                let count = count_range_results(rt, &index, make_query());
+                let expected = (end - start + 1) as usize;
+                assert_eq!(
+                    count, expected,
+                    "many-fragment range count mismatch: expected {expected}, got {count}"
+                );
+
+                b.to_async(rt).iter(|| {
+                    let index = index.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        black_box(
+                            index
+                                .search(&make_query(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                                .await
+                                .unwrap(),
+                        );
+                    }
+                })
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
 fn bench_btree(c: &mut Criterion) {
     // Run equality benchmarks
     bench_equality(c);
@@ -693,6 +800,9 @@ fn bench_btree(c: &mut Criterion) {
     bench_range(c, Selectivity::Few);
     bench_range(c, Selectivity::Many);
     bench_range(c, Selectivity::Most);
+
+    // Run range benchmarks over pages that span many fragments
+    bench_range_many_fragments(c);
 }
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/common.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/common.rs
index 8cf94d7b806..8cc2cde1aad 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/common.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/common.rs
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 use lance_datafusion::datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt;
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, RowCount};
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
 
 /// Total number of rows in the dataset
 pub const TOTAL_ROWS: u64 = 1_000_000;
@@ -23,6 +23,64 @@ pub const BATCH_SIZE: u64 = 10_000;
 /// Number of batches in the dataset
 pub const NUM_BATCHES: u64 = TOTAL_ROWS / BATCH_SIZE;
 
+/// Number of fragments the many-fragment dataset is spread over
+#[allow(dead_code)] // only the btree bench uses the many-fragment dataset
+pub const NUM_FRAGMENTS: u64 = 1_000;
+
+/// Total rows of the many-fragment dataset. Defaults to [`TOTAL_ROWS`]; set
+/// `LANCE_BTREE_BENCH_MANY_FRAG_ROWS` to scale it (e.g. down for a quick run,
+/// up to make every range query touch thousands of pages).
+#[allow(dead_code)] // only the btree bench uses the many-fragment dataset
+pub fn many_fragment_total_rows() -> u64 {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_BTREE_BENCH_MANY_FRAG_ROWS")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|v| v.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(TOTAL_ROWS)
+}
+
+/// Row address of the `i`-th value of the many-fragment dataset: consecutive
+/// values round-robin across fragments, so every btree page (rows sorted by
+/// value) spans all [`NUM_FRAGMENTS`] fragments.
+#[allow(dead_code)] // only the btree bench uses the many-fragment dataset
+pub fn many_fragment_row_addr(i: u64) -> u64 {
+    ((i % NUM_FRAGMENTS) << 32) | (i / NUM_FRAGMENTS)
+}
+
+/// Generate a stream of int64 data with unique sequential values whose row
+/// ids are fragment-style addresses interleaved across [`NUM_FRAGMENTS`]
+/// fragments (see [`many_fragment_row_addr`]).
+#[allow(dead_code)] // only the btree bench uses the many-fragment dataset
+pub fn generate_int_many_fragment_stream() -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let total_rows = many_fragment_total_rows();
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("value", DataType::Int64, false),
+        Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]));
+
+    let mut batches = Vec::new();
+    let mut current_row = 0u64;
+    while current_row < total_rows {
+        let batch_end = (current_row + BATCH_SIZE).min(total_rows);
+        let values: Vec<i64> = (current_row..batch_end).map(|i| i as i64).collect();
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (current_row..batch_end)
+            .map(many_fragment_row_addr)
+            .collect();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(values)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        batches.push(Ok(batch));
+        current_row = batch_end;
+    }
+
+    let stream = futures::stream::iter(batches);
+    Box::pin(datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream))
+}
+
 /// Generate a stream of int64 data with unique values (sequential)
 pub fn generate_int_unique_stream() -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
     gen_batch()
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/compute_partition.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/compute_partition.rs
index 186ad4f6d9f..14ddd5a72b1 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/compute_partition.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/compute_partition.rs
@@ -4,12 +4,12 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
-use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{compute_partitions, KMeansAlgoFloat};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{KMeansAlgoFloat, compute_partitions};
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 fn bench_compute_partitions(c: &mut Criterion) {
     const K: usize = 1024 * 4;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/find_partitions.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/find_partitions.rs
index dd370128f09..3854cb3a747 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/find_partitions.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/find_partitions.rs
@@ -1,15 +1,13 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-mod sq;
-
 use arrow_array::Float32Array;
-use arrow_array::{types::Float32Type, FixedSizeListArray};
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, types::Float32Type};
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfTransformer;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/geo.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/geo.rs
index dea4c4d811a..078aaefc6fb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/geo.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/geo.rs
@@ -3,26 +3,28 @@
 
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
 use geo_types::coord;
-use geoarrow_array::builder::RectBuilder;
 use geoarrow_array::GeoArrowArray;
+use geoarrow_array::builder::RectBuilder;
 use geoarrow_schema::Dimension;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID};
 use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
-use lance_index::scalar::registry::ScalarIndexPlugin;
+use lance_index::scalar::registry::BasicTrainer;
 use lance_index::scalar::rtree::{BoundingBox, RTreeIndex, RTreeIndexPlugin, RTreeTrainingRequest};
 use lance_index::scalar::{GeoQuery, RelationQuery, ScalarIndex};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use object_store::path::Path;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
-use rand::rngs::StdRng;
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use object_store::path::Path;
 use rand::Rng;
 use rand::SeedableRng;
+use rand::rngs::StdRng;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::time::Duration;
 
@@ -78,6 +80,7 @@ async fn build_rtree(
             store.as_ref(),
             Box::new(RTreeTrainingRequest::default()),
             None,
+            lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
         )
         .await?;
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/hnsw.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/hnsw.rs
index 5339074eb37..5884410ad9a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/hnsw.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/hnsw.rs
@@ -7,20 +7,22 @@
 
 use std::{collections::HashSet, sync::Arc, time::Duration};
 
-use arrow_array::{types::Float32Type, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, types::Float32Type};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use rayon::ThreadPoolBuilder;
 
 use lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD;
 use lance_index::vector::{
     flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage,
-    hnsw::builder::{HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams, HNSW},
+    hnsw::builder::{HNSW, HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams},
+    pq::{PQBuildParams, ProductQuantizer},
     quantizer::Quantization,
-    sq::{builder::SQBuildParams, ScalarQuantizer},
+    sq::{ScalarQuantizer, builder::SQBuildParams},
     storage::StorageBuilder,
 };
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
@@ -51,6 +53,7 @@ fn bench_hnsw(c: &mut Criterion) {
                         lower_bound: None,
                         upper_bound: None,
                         dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                        use_acorn: false,
                     },
                     None,
                     vectors.as_ref(),
@@ -64,7 +67,10 @@ fn bench_hnsw(c: &mut Criterion) {
         })
     });
 
-    let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(vectors.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()).unwrap();
+    let search_build_pool = ThreadPoolBuilder::new().num_threads(1).build().unwrap();
+    let hnsw = search_build_pool
+        .install(|| HNSW::index_vectors(vectors.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()))
+        .unwrap();
     c.bench_function(format!("search_hnsw{TOTAL}x{DIMENSION}").as_str(), |b| {
         b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
             let uids: HashSet<u32> = hnsw
@@ -76,6 +82,7 @@ fn bench_hnsw(c: &mut Criterion) {
                         lower_bound: None,
                         upper_bound: None,
                         dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                        use_acorn: false,
                     },
                     None,
                     vectors.as_ref(),
@@ -90,6 +97,68 @@ fn bench_hnsw(c: &mut Criterion) {
     });
 }
 
+fn bench_hnsw_load(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    const DIMENSION: usize = 128;
+    const TOTAL: usize = 100_000;
+    const SEED: [u8; 32] = [42; 32];
+    const K: usize = 100;
+
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+
+    let data = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(TOTAL * DIMENSION, SEED);
+    let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, DIMENSION as i32).unwrap();
+    let vectors = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2));
+
+    let search_build_pool = ThreadPoolBuilder::new().num_threads(1).build().unwrap();
+    let hnsw = search_build_pool
+        .install(|| HNSW::index_vectors(vectors.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()))
+        .unwrap();
+    let batch = hnsw.to_batch().unwrap();
+
+    // Load cost -- the path #6746 targets. `RecordBatch::clone` is an Arrow
+    // refcount bump (what production does anyway: each partition-cache IPC
+    // read yields a fresh batch), so it does not mask the load work measured.
+    c.bench_function(format!("load_hnsw({TOTAL}x{DIMENSION})").as_str(), |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            let loaded = HNSW::load(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(loaded.len(), TOTAL);
+        })
+    });
+
+    // Search on the Arrow-backed loaded graph -- same TOTAL/DIMENSION/K/ef as
+    // the `search_hnsw` bench, so the two are directly comparable and confirm
+    // the new backend keeps search latency unchanged (issue #6746).
+    let loaded = HNSW::load(batch).unwrap();
+    let query = fsl.value(0);
+    c.bench_function(
+        format!("search_hnsw_loaded{TOTAL}x{DIMENSION}").as_str(),
+        |b| {
+            b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
+                let uids: HashSet<u32> = loaded
+                    .search_basic(
+                        query.clone(),
+                        K,
+                        &HnswQueryParams {
+                            ef: 300,
+                            lower_bound: None,
+                            upper_bound: None,
+                            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                            use_acorn: false,
+                        },
+                        None,
+                        vectors.as_ref(),
+                    )
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|node| node.id)
+                    .collect();
+
+                assert_eq!(uids.len(), K);
+            })
+        },
+    );
+}
+
 fn bench_hnsw_sq(c: &mut Criterion) {
     const DIMENSION: usize = 128;
     const TOTAL: usize = 100_000;
@@ -140,6 +209,7 @@ fn bench_hnsw_sq(c: &mut Criterion) {
                             lower_bound: None,
                             upper_bound: None,
                             dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                            use_acorn: false,
                         },
                         None,
                         vectors.as_ref(),
@@ -154,7 +224,10 @@ fn bench_hnsw_sq(c: &mut Criterion) {
         },
     );
 
-    let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(vectors.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()).unwrap();
+    let search_build_pool = ThreadPoolBuilder::new().num_threads(1).build().unwrap();
+    let hnsw = search_build_pool
+        .install(|| HNSW::index_vectors(vectors.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()))
+        .unwrap();
     c.bench_function(format!("search_hnsw_sq{TOTAL}x{DIMENSION}").as_str(), |b| {
         b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
             let uids: HashSet<u32> = hnsw
@@ -166,6 +239,105 @@ fn bench_hnsw_sq(c: &mut Criterion) {
                         lower_bound: None,
                         upper_bound: None,
                         dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                        use_acorn: false,
+                    },
+                    None,
+                    vectors.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|node| node.id)
+                .collect();
+
+            assert_eq!(uids.len(), K);
+        })
+    });
+}
+
+fn bench_hnsw_pq(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    const DIMENSION: usize = 128;
+    const TOTAL: usize = 100_000;
+    const SEED: [u8; 32] = [42; 32];
+    const K: usize = 100;
+
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+
+    let data = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(TOTAL * DIMENSION, SEED);
+    let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, DIMENSION as i32).unwrap();
+    let quantizer = <ProductQuantizer as Quantization>::build(
+        &fsl,
+        DistanceType::L2,
+        &PQBuildParams::new(16, 8),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Field::new_list_field(DataType::Float32, true).into(),
+                DIMENSION as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        ),
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+    ]));
+    let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values((0..TOTAL).map(|v| v as u64));
+    let batch =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(fsl.clone()), Arc::new(row_ids)]).unwrap();
+    let pq_storage = StorageBuilder::new("vector".to_owned(), DistanceType::L2, quantizer, None)
+        .unwrap()
+        .build(vec![batch])
+        .unwrap();
+    let vectors = Arc::new(pq_storage);
+
+    let query = fsl.value(0);
+    c.bench_function(
+        format!("create_hnsw_pq({TOTAL}x{DIMENSION})").as_str(),
+        |b| {
+            b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
+                let hnsw =
+                    HNSW::index_vectors(vectors.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()).unwrap();
+                let uids: HashSet<u32> = hnsw
+                    .search_basic(
+                        query.clone(),
+                        K,
+                        &HnswQueryParams {
+                            ef: 300,
+                            lower_bound: None,
+                            upper_bound: None,
+                            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                            use_acorn: false,
+                        },
+                        None,
+                        vectors.as_ref(),
+                    )
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|node| node.id)
+                    .collect();
+
+                assert_eq!(uids.len(), K);
+            })
+        },
+    );
+
+    let search_build_pool = ThreadPoolBuilder::new().num_threads(1).build().unwrap();
+    let hnsw = search_build_pool
+        .install(|| HNSW::index_vectors(vectors.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()))
+        .unwrap();
+    c.bench_function(format!("search_hnsw_pq{TOTAL}x{DIMENSION}").as_str(), |b| {
+        b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
+            let uids: HashSet<u32> = hnsw
+                .search_basic(
+                    query.clone(),
+                    K,
+                    &HnswQueryParams {
+                        ef: 300,
+                        lower_bound: None,
+                        upper_bound: None,
+                        dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                        use_acorn: false,
                     },
                     None,
                     vectors.as_ref(),
@@ -187,7 +359,7 @@ criterion_group!(
         .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(10))
         .sample_size(10)
         .with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
-    targets = bench_hnsw, bench_hnsw_sq);
+    targets = bench_hnsw, bench_hnsw_load, bench_hnsw_sq, bench_hnsw_pq);
 
 // Non-linux version does not support pprof.
 #[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
@@ -196,6 +368,6 @@ criterion_group!(
     config = Criterion::default()
         .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(10))
         .sample_size(10);
-    targets = bench_hnsw, bench_hnsw_sq);
+    targets = bench_hnsw, bench_hnsw_load, bench_hnsw_sq, bench_hnsw_pq);
 
 criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/hnsw_remap.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/hnsw_remap.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..159fa1204c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/hnsw_remap.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,570 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Remapping one IVF_HNSW_SQ partition after compaction: carrying the graph
+//! over ([`remap_graph_batch`]) versus rebuilding it ([`HNSW::remap`], the
+//! previous behavior).
+//!
+//! Production remap copies the graph when no row is deleted. When rows are
+//! deleted, `repair` keeps the surviving edges and reconnects each node that
+//! lost a neighbor with a construction-ef beam search and the builder's
+//! neighbor heuristic, instead of rebuilding. `reuse` is the unrepaired edge
+//! drop, kept so its recall cost stays visible.
+//!
+//! For each partition size and deleted fraction this reports wall time, CPU
+//! time and peak heap growth of both paths, recall@K of both graphs against
+//! exact search on the surviving vectors, the level-0 degree left after
+//! dropping edges, and whether search on an unchanged graph still returns the
+//! same neighbors under the remapped row ids. The quantized storage `remap` is
+//! shared by both paths and reported separately.
+//!
+//! It is not a criterion bench: a rebuild of a large partition takes minutes,
+//! and the recall and memory figures are the point. Configure with
+//! `HNSW_REMAP_SIZES` (comma separated, default `10000,100000,500000`),
+//! `HNSW_REMAP_DIM` (default 128), `HNSW_REMAP_DELETED` (percent, default
+//! `0,1,10,25,50`) and `HNSW_REMAP_REPEATS` (default 3).
+//!
+//! Vectors are uniform random by default, which has the full intrinsic
+//! dimension and is much harder for HNSW than real embeddings. Setting
+//! `HNSW_REMAP_LATENT_DIM` instead draws them from a random linear map of a
+//! uniform latent space of that dimension, plus small noise.
+
+// The results are printed for the human running the bench.
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout, System};
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow::array::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, types::Float32Type, types::UInt32Type,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_file::versions::create_writer;
+use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::prefilter::NoFilter;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::{HNSW_METADATA_KEY, HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams};
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::remap::{remap_graph_batch, remap_graph_repair};
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::{HNSW, HnswMetadata};
+use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizerStorage};
+use lance_index::vector::sq::{
+    ScalarQuantizer, builder::SQBuildParams, storage::ScalarQuantizationStorage,
+};
+use lance_index::vector::storage::{StorageBuilder, VectorStore};
+use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use rand::rngs::StdRng;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+use rayon::prelude::*;
+
+const K: usize = 10;
+const NUM_QUERIES: usize = 200;
+/// `k + k / 2` is the ef a query gets when it sets none; 64 and 256 are tuned queries.
+const EFS: [usize; 3] = [K + K / 2, 64, 256];
+/// Remapped rows move to a new fragment, as they do in compaction.
+const NEW_FRAGMENT: u64 = 1 << 32;
+
+struct PeakAlloc;
+
+static ALLOCATED: AtomicUsize = AtomicUsize::new(0);
+static PEAK: AtomicUsize = AtomicUsize::new(0);
+
+unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for PeakAlloc {
+    unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
+        let ptr = unsafe { System.alloc(layout) };
+        if !ptr.is_null() {
+            let now = ALLOCATED.fetch_add(layout.size(), Ordering::Relaxed) + layout.size();
+            PEAK.fetch_max(now, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        ptr
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout) {
+        unsafe { System.dealloc(ptr, layout) };
+        ALLOCATED.fetch_sub(layout.size(), Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+}
+
+#[global_allocator]
+static GLOBAL: PeakAlloc = PeakAlloc;
+
+fn cpu_time() -> Duration {
+    let mut usage = std::mem::MaybeUninit::<libc::rusage>::uninit();
+    // SAFETY: getrusage fills the struct it is given.
+    let usage = unsafe {
+        libc::getrusage(libc::RUSAGE_SELF, usage.as_mut_ptr());
+        usage.assume_init()
+    };
+    let tv = |t: libc::timeval| Duration::new(t.tv_sec as u64, t.tv_usec as u32 * 1000);
+    tv(usage.ru_utime) + tv(usage.ru_stime)
+}
+
+struct Measured<T> {
+    value: T,
+    wall: Duration,
+    cpu: Duration,
+    peak_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+fn measure<T>(f: impl FnOnce() -> T) -> Measured<T> {
+    let base = ALLOCATED.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+    PEAK.store(base, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    let cpu = cpu_time();
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let value = f();
+    let wall = start.elapsed();
+    let cpu = cpu_time() - cpu;
+    let peak_bytes = PEAK.load(Ordering::Relaxed).saturating_sub(base);
+    Measured {
+        value,
+        wall,
+        cpu,
+        peak_bytes,
+    }
+}
+
+fn env_list(name: &str, default: &str) -> Vec<usize> {
+    std::env::var(name)
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| default.to_string())
+        .split(',')
+        .map(|v| v.trim().parse().unwrap())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn generate_vectors(
+    num_vectors: usize,
+    dim: usize,
+    latent_dim: Option<usize>,
+    seed: u8,
+) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+    let Some(latent_dim) = latent_dim else {
+        let data = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(num_vectors * dim, [seed; 32]);
+        return FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, dim as i32).unwrap();
+    };
+    // The same map for data and queries, so both lie near one subspace.
+    let mut map_rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0);
+    let map = (0..latent_dim * dim)
+        .map(|_| map_rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed as u64);
+    let mut data = Vec::with_capacity(num_vectors * dim);
+    let mut latent = vec![0.0f32; latent_dim];
+    for _ in 0..num_vectors {
+        latent.iter_mut().for_each(|x| *x = rng.random());
+        for d in 0..dim {
+            let x: f32 = (0..latent_dim).map(|l| latent[l] * map[l * dim + d]).sum();
+            data.push(x + rng.random_range(-0.01f32..0.01));
+        }
+    }
+    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(arrow_array::Float32Array::from(data), dim as i32)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn sq_storage(vectors: &FixedSizeListArray, row_ids: UInt64Array) -> ScalarQuantizationStorage {
+    let quantizer = <ScalarQuantizer as Quantization>::build(
+        vectors,
+        DistanceType::L2,
+        &SQBuildParams::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("vector", vectors.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+    ]));
+    let batch =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(vectors.clone()), Arc::new(row_ids)]).unwrap();
+    StorageBuilder::new("vector".to_owned(), DistanceType::L2, quantizer, None)
+        .unwrap()
+        .build(vec![batch])
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Exact top-K row ids of each query among `vectors` (row id = position).
+fn ground_truth(vectors: &FixedSizeListArray, queries: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Vec<HashSet<u64>> {
+    let dim = vectors.value_length() as usize;
+    let data = vectors.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    let queries_data = queries.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    (0..queries.len())
+        .into_par_iter()
+        .map(|q| {
+            let query = &queries_data[q * dim..(q + 1) * dim];
+            let mut dists = data
+                .chunks_exact(dim)
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(i, v)| {
+                    let d: f32 = v.iter().zip(query).map(|(a, b)| (a - b) * (a - b)).sum();
+                    (d, i as u64)
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            dists.select_nth_unstable_by(K, |a, b| a.0.total_cmp(&b.0));
+            dists[..K].iter().map(|(_, i)| *i).collect()
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Search every query and return the row ids each one found.
+fn search(
+    hnsw: &HNSW,
+    storage: &ScalarQuantizationStorage,
+    queries: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    ef: usize,
+) -> Vec<Vec<u64>> {
+    (0..queries.len())
+        .map(|q| {
+            let params = HnswQueryParams {
+                ef,
+                lower_bound: None,
+                upper_bound: None,
+                dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                use_acorn: false,
+            };
+            let batch = hnsw
+                .search(
+                    queries.value(q),
+                    K,
+                    params,
+                    storage,
+                    Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            batch["_rowid"]
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Recall@K where ground truth is in position space and results are row ids.
+fn recall(results: &[Vec<u64>], truth: &[HashSet<u64>], to_position: impl Fn(u64) -> u64) -> f64 {
+    let hits: usize = results
+        .iter()
+        .zip(truth)
+        .map(|(found, truth)| {
+            found
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|row_id| truth.contains(&to_position(**row_id)))
+                .count()
+        })
+        .sum();
+    hits as f64 / (results.len() * K) as f64
+}
+
+struct GraphStats {
+    rows: usize,
+    level_members: usize,
+    edges: usize,
+    level0_mean_degree: f64,
+    level0_isolated: usize,
+    max_neighbor_id: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+fn graph_stats(batch: &RecordBatch) -> GraphStats {
+    let metadata: HnswMetadata =
+        serde_json::from_str(&batch.schema_ref().metadata()[HNSW_METADATA_KEY]).unwrap();
+    let hnsw = HNSW::load(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+    let neighbors = batch["__neighbors"].as_list::<i32>();
+    let level0 = metadata.level_offsets[1];
+    let degrees = (0..level0).map(|row| neighbors.value_length(row) as usize);
+    let values = neighbors.values().as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+    GraphStats {
+        rows: batch.num_rows(),
+        level_members: (0..hnsw.max_level() as usize)
+            .map(|level| hnsw.num_nodes(level))
+            .sum(),
+        edges: values.len(),
+        level0_mean_degree: degrees.clone().sum::<usize>() as f64 / level0.max(1) as f64,
+        level0_isolated: degrees.filter(|d| *d == 0).count(),
+        max_neighbor_id: values.values().iter().max().copied(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn print_measured<T>(case: &str, path: &str, runs: &[Measured<T>]) {
+    let mut walls = runs
+        .iter()
+        .map(|r| r.wall.as_secs_f64())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    walls.sort_by(f64::total_cmp);
+    let median = walls[walls.len() / 2];
+    let raw = runs
+        .iter()
+        .map(|r| {
+            format!(
+                "{:.4}s/cpu {:.3}s/peak {:.1}MiB",
+                r.wall.as_secs_f64(),
+                r.cpu.as_secs_f64(),
+                r.peak_bytes as f64 / (1 << 20) as f64
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .join(", ");
+    println!("time {case} path={path} median_wall_s={median:.4} runs=[{raw}]");
+}
+
+fn main() {
+    let sizes = env_list("HNSW_REMAP_SIZES", "10000,100000,500000");
+    let dim = env_list("HNSW_REMAP_DIM", "128")[0];
+    let deleted_percents = env_list("HNSW_REMAP_DELETED", "0,1,10,25,50");
+    let repeats = env_list("HNSW_REMAP_REPEATS", "3")[0];
+    let latent_dim = std::env::var("HNSW_REMAP_LATENT_DIM")
+        .ok()
+        .map(|v| v.parse::<usize>().unwrap());
+    let params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+    println!(
+        "config dim={dim} latent_dim={latent_dim:?} k={K} queries={NUM_QUERIES} efs={EFS:?} \
+         repeats={repeats} rayon_threads={} m={} ef_construction={} max_level={}",
+        rayon::current_num_threads(),
+        params.m,
+        params.ef_construction,
+        params.max_level
+    );
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+
+    for &size in &sizes {
+        let vectors = generate_vectors(size, dim, latent_dim, 42);
+        let queries = generate_vectors(NUM_QUERIES, dim, latent_dim, 7);
+        let storage = sq_storage(&vectors, UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..size as u64));
+
+        let built = measure(|| HNSW::index_vectors(&storage, params.clone()).unwrap());
+        println!(
+            "build n={size} wall_s={:.3} cpu_s={:.3}",
+            built.wall.as_secs_f64(),
+            built.cpu.as_secs_f64()
+        );
+        let original = HNSW::load(built.value.to_batch().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        // The batch the remap reads: every column, as written to the index file.
+        let graph = original.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let original_stats = graph_stats(&graph);
+        println!(
+            "graph n={size} rows={} level_members={} edges={} level0_mean_degree={:.2} \
+             max_neighbor_id={:?}",
+            original_stats.rows,
+            original_stats.level_members,
+            original_stats.edges,
+            original_stats.level0_mean_degree,
+            original_stats.max_neighbor_id
+        );
+        let truth_before = ground_truth(&vectors, &queries);
+        let before = EFS
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&ef| search(&original, &storage, &queries, ef))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        for &percent in &deleted_percents {
+            let case = format!("n={size} deleted={percent}%");
+            let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(percent as u64);
+            let mut kept = Vec::with_capacity(size);
+            let mapping = (0..size as u64)
+                .map(|row_id| {
+                    if rng.random_range(0..100) < percent {
+                        (row_id, None)
+                    } else {
+                        kept.push(row_id as u32);
+                        (row_id, Some(NEW_FRAGMENT + kept.len() as u64 - 1))
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+            let mapping = RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping);
+
+            let storage_remap = (0..repeats)
+                .map(|_| measure(|| storage.remap(&mapping).unwrap()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            print_measured(&case, "storage_remap", &storage_remap);
+            let new_storage = storage.remap(&mapping).unwrap();
+
+            let reuse = (0..repeats)
+                .map(|_| {
+                    measure(|| {
+                        let new_ids = storage
+                            .row_ids()
+                            .scan(0u32, |next, row_id| {
+                                Some(match mapping.get(*row_id) {
+                                    Some(None) => None,
+                                    _ => {
+                                        *next += 1;
+                                        Some(*next - 1)
+                                    }
+                                })
+                            })
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                        HNSW::load(remap_graph_batch(&graph, &new_ids).unwrap()).unwrap()
+                    })
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            print_measured(&case, "reuse", &reuse);
+            let repair = (0..repeats)
+                .map(|_| {
+                    measure(|| {
+                        let new_ids = storage
+                            .row_ids()
+                            .scan(0u32, |next, row_id| {
+                                Some(match mapping.get(*row_id) {
+                                    Some(None) => None,
+                                    _ => {
+                                        *next += 1;
+                                        Some(*next - 1)
+                                    }
+                                })
+                            })
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                        HNSW::load(remap_graph_repair(&graph, &new_ids, &new_storage).unwrap())
+                            .unwrap()
+                    })
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            print_measured(&case, "repair", &repair);
+            let rebuild = (0..repeats)
+                .map(|_| {
+                    measure(|| {
+                        HNSW::load(graph.clone())
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .remap(&mapping, &new_storage)
+                            .unwrap()
+                    })
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            print_measured(&case, "rebuild", &rebuild);
+
+            let reused = &reuse[0].value;
+            let repaired = &repair[0].value;
+            let rebuilt = &rebuild[0].value;
+            let reused_batch = reused.to_batch().unwrap();
+            let repaired_batch = repaired.to_batch().unwrap();
+            let stats = graph_stats(&reused_batch);
+            let repair_stats = graph_stats(&repaired_batch);
+            let rebuilt_stats = graph_stats(&rebuilt.to_batch().unwrap());
+            assert!(
+                stats
+                    .max_neighbor_id
+                    .is_none_or(|id| (id as usize) < kept.len()),
+                "{case}: an edge points past the remapped graph"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(stats.rows, stats.level_members);
+            println!(
+                "graph {case} path=reuse rows={} level_members={} edges={} \
+                 level0_mean_degree={:.2} level0_isolated={} max_neighbor_id={:?}",
+                stats.rows,
+                stats.level_members,
+                stats.edges,
+                stats.level0_mean_degree,
+                stats.level0_isolated,
+                stats.max_neighbor_id
+            );
+            println!(
+                "graph {case} path=repair rows={} level_members={} edges={} \
+                 level0_mean_degree={:.2} level0_isolated={} max_neighbor_id={:?}",
+                repair_stats.rows,
+                repair_stats.level_members,
+                repair_stats.edges,
+                repair_stats.level0_mean_degree,
+                repair_stats.level0_isolated,
+                repair_stats.max_neighbor_id
+            );
+            println!(
+                "graph {case} path=rebuild rows={} level_members={} edges={} \
+                 level0_mean_degree={:.2} level0_isolated={}",
+                rebuilt_stats.rows,
+                rebuilt_stats.level_members,
+                rebuilt_stats.edges,
+                rebuilt_stats.level0_mean_degree,
+                rebuilt_stats.level0_isolated
+            );
+
+            let kept_vectors = arrow::compute::take(
+                &vectors,
+                &arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(kept.clone()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let truth_after = ground_truth(kept_vectors.as_fixed_size_list(), &queries);
+            let to_position = |row_id: u64| row_id - NEW_FRAGMENT;
+            let new_row_ids = new_storage.row_ids().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+            for (i, &ef) in EFS.iter().enumerate() {
+                let after_reuse = search(reused, &new_storage, &queries, ef);
+                let after_repair = search(repaired, &new_storage, &queries, ef);
+                // Each rebuild is a different graph (insertion runs in parallel),
+                // so their spread is the noise to judge the reuse delta against.
+                let rebuild_recalls = rebuild
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|run| {
+                        let found = search(&run.value, &new_storage, &queries, ef);
+                        recall(&found, &truth_after, to_position)
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let rebuild_median = {
+                    let mut sorted = rebuild_recalls.clone();
+                    sorted.sort_by(f64::total_cmp);
+                    sorted[sorted.len() / 2]
+                };
+                assert!(
+                    after_reuse
+                        .iter()
+                        .flatten()
+                        .all(|row_id| new_row_ids.contains(row_id)),
+                    "{case}: search returned a row id outside the remapped storage"
+                );
+                let same_as_before = if percent == 0 {
+                    let remapped_before = before[i]
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|ids| {
+                            ids.iter()
+                                .map(|id| mapping.get(*id).flatten().unwrap())
+                                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    format!(" identical_to_pre_remap={}", remapped_before == after_reuse)
+                } else {
+                    String::new()
+                };
+                println!(
+                    "recall {case} ef={ef} pre_remap={:.4} reuse={:.4} repair={:.4} \
+                     rebuild_median={:.4} rebuild_runs={:?}{same_as_before}",
+                    recall(&before[i], &truth_before, |id| id),
+                    recall(&after_reuse, &truth_after, to_position),
+                    recall(&after_repair, &truth_after, to_position),
+                    rebuild_median,
+                    rebuild_recalls
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|r| format!("{r:.4}"))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                );
+            }
+
+            if percent == deleted_percents[deleted_percents.len() - 1] {
+                // The remapped graph goes through the same writer as the index file.
+                let written = rt.block_on(async {
+                    let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+                    let path = Path::from("hnsw_remap_graph.lance");
+                    let schema =
+                        lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(HNSW::schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+                    let mut writer = create_writer(
+                        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+                        store.create(&path).await.unwrap(),
+                        schema,
+                        FileWriterOptions::default(),
+                    )
+                    .unwrap();
+                    writer.write_batch(&reused_batch).await.unwrap();
+                    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+                    store.size(&path).await.unwrap()
+                });
+                println!(
+                    "write {case} format=2.1 rows={} bytes={written}",
+                    reused_batch.num_rows()
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/inverted.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/inverted.rs
index f08d711ce5b..afa8ad474b2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/inverted.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/inverted.rs
@@ -8,14 +8,16 @@
 use std::{sync::Arc, time::Duration};
 
 use arrow_array::{LargeStringArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use futures::stream;
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_index::prefilter::NoFilter;
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::lance_tokenizer::DocType;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::document_tokenizer::DocType;
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsSearchParams, Operator, Tokens};
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{InvertedIndex, InvertedIndexBuilder};
 use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
@@ -23,10 +25,10 @@ use lance_index::{
     metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector, scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams,
 };
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use object_store::path::Path;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
-use rand::{rngs::StdRng, Rng, SeedableRng};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::StdRng};
 use rand_distr::Zipf;
 
 fn bench_inverted(c: &mut Criterion) {
@@ -34,15 +36,22 @@ fn bench_inverted(c: &mut Criterion) {
 
     let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread().build().unwrap();
 
-    let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
-    let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
-    let store = rt.block_on(async {
-        Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            index_dir,
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ))
-    });
+    let make_store = |path: &std::path::Path| {
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(path).unwrap();
+        rt.block_on(async {
+            Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+                Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+                index_dir,
+                Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+            ))
+        })
+    };
+    let indexing_tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let indexing_store = make_store(indexing_tempdir.path());
+    let indexing_with_positions_tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let indexing_with_positions_store = make_store(indexing_with_positions_tempdir.path());
+    let phrase_search_tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let phrase_search_store = make_store(phrase_search_tempdir.path());
 
     let row_id_col = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(
         (0..TOTAL).map(|i| i as u64).collect_vec(),
@@ -90,13 +99,54 @@ fn bench_inverted(c: &mut Criterion) {
             let mut builder =
                 InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(false));
             black_box({
-                builder.update(stream, store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+                builder
+                    .update(stream, indexing_store.as_ref(), None)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
                 builder
             });
         })
     });
+
+    c.bench_function(
+        format!("invert_indexing_with_positions({TOTAL})").as_str(),
+        |b| {
+            b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
+                let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                    batch.schema(),
+                    stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch.clone())]),
+                );
+                let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+                let mut builder =
+                    InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true));
+                black_box({
+                    builder
+                        .update(stream, indexing_with_positions_store.as_ref(), None)
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap();
+                    builder
+                });
+            })
+        },
+    );
+
+    rt.block_on(async {
+        let stream =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch.clone())]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+        let mut builder =
+            InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true));
+        builder
+            .update(stream, phrase_search_store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    });
     let invert_index = rt
-        .block_on(InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()))
+        .block_on(InvertedIndex::load(
+            phrase_search_store,
+            None,
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        ))
         .unwrap();
 
     let params = FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10));
@@ -140,6 +190,46 @@ fn bench_inverted(c: &mut Criterion) {
                             Operator::Or,
                             no_filter.clone(),
                             Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+                            None,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap(),
+                );
+            }
+        })
+    });
+
+    let phrase_params = FtsSearchParams::new()
+        .with_limit(Some(10))
+        .with_phrase_slop(Some(0));
+    let phrase_pairs = sample_words
+        .windows(2)
+        .map(|pair| {
+            Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+                pair.iter().map(|s| s.to_string()).collect(),
+                DocType::Text,
+            ))
+        })
+        .collect_vec();
+    let mut phrase_query_idx = 0usize;
+
+    c.bench_function(format!("invert_phrase_search({TOTAL})").as_str(), |b| {
+        b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| {
+            let query = phrase_pairs[phrase_query_idx % phrase_pairs.len()].clone();
+            phrase_query_idx = phrase_query_idx.wrapping_add(1);
+            let invert_index = invert_index.clone();
+            let params = phrase_params.clone();
+            let no_filter = no_filter.clone();
+            async move {
+                black_box(
+                    invert_index
+                        .bm25_search(
+                            query,
+                            params.clone().into(),
+                            Operator::And,
+                            no_filter.clone(),
+                            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+                            None,
                         )
                         .await
                         .unwrap(),
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/inverted_request_cache.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/inverted_request_cache.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ef406072038
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/inverted_request_cache.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,211 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Isolate warm FTS request-open overhead from query scoring and cloud latency.
+
+use std::{
+    collections::HashMap,
+    hint::black_box,
+    sync::{Arc, Mutex},
+    time::Duration,
+};
+
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::try_join_all};
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::utils::testing::{ProxyObjectStore, ProxyObjectStorePolicy};
+use lance_index::Index;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
+    DocSet, FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY, InvertedIndex, InvertedIndexParams, InvertedIndexPlugin,
+    METADATA_FILE, POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY, PostingListBuilder, TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY, TokenSet,
+    TokenSetFormat,
+    builder::{InnerBuilder, PositionRecorder},
+};
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::{IndexStore, registry::ScalarIndexPlugin};
+use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, WrappingObjectStore};
+use object_store::{list::PaginatedListStore, path::Path};
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct RequestWrapper;
+
+impl WrappingObjectStore for RequestWrapper {
+    fn wrap(
+        &self,
+        _prefix: &str,
+        original: Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
+        Arc::new(ProxyObjectStore::new(
+            original,
+            Arc::new(Mutex::new(ProxyObjectStorePolicy::new())),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        _prefix: &str,
+        _original: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+struct Fixture {
+    object_store: ObjectStore,
+    metadata_cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+    index_cache: LanceCache,
+    file_sizes: HashMap<String, u64>,
+}
+
+impl Fixture {
+    async fn new(partitions: u64, with_file_sizes: bool) -> Self {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let metadata_cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(64 * 1024 * 1024));
+        let index_cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(64 * 1024 * 1024);
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
+            Path::from("index"),
+            metadata_cache.clone(),
+        ));
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        let format = params.resolved_format_version();
+        let mut file_sizes = HashMap::new();
+        for id in 0..partitions {
+            let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+                id,
+                false,
+                TokenSetFormat::default(),
+                format,
+                params.posting_block_size(),
+            );
+            let mut tokens = TokenSet::default();
+            tokens.add("alpha".to_owned());
+            let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+            let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                false,
+                format.posting_tail_codec(),
+                params.posting_block_size(),
+            );
+            for row in 0..32 {
+                let doc = docs.append(RowAddress::new_from_parts(id as u32, row).into(), 1);
+                posting.add(doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+            }
+            builder.set_tokens(tokens);
+            builder.set_docs(docs);
+            builder.set_posting_lists(vec![posting]);
+            for file in builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap() {
+                file_sizes.insert(file.path, file.size_bytes);
+            }
+        }
+        let mut writer = store
+            .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let file = writer
+            .finish_with_metadata(HashMap::from([
+                ("params".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(&params).unwrap()),
+                (
+                    "partitions".to_owned(),
+                    serde_json::to_string(&(0..partitions).collect::<Vec<_>>()).unwrap(),
+                ),
+                (
+                    TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+                    TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+                ),
+                (
+                    FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_owned(),
+                    format.index_version().to_string(),
+                ),
+                (
+                    POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(),
+                    params.posting_block_size().to_string(),
+                ),
+            ]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        file_sizes.insert(file.path, file.size_bytes);
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &index_cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        InvertedIndexPlugin
+            .put_in_cache(store, &index_cache, index)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if !with_file_sizes {
+            file_sizes.clear();
+        }
+        Self {
+            object_store,
+            metadata_cache,
+            index_cache,
+            file_sizes,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn open_request(&self) {
+        let mut object_store = self.object_store.clone();
+        object_store.apply_wrapper(&RequestWrapper);
+        let store = Arc::new(
+            LanceIndexStore::new(
+                Arc::new(object_store),
+                Path::from("index"),
+                self.metadata_cache.clone(),
+            )
+            .with_file_sizes(self.file_sizes.clone()),
+        );
+        let index = InvertedIndexPlugin
+            .get_or_insert_in_cache(
+                store,
+                None,
+                &self.index_cache,
+                async { panic!("prewarmed index metadata should remain cached") }.boxed(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        black_box(index);
+    }
+}
+
+fn request_cache(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+        .worker_threads(8)
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("inverted_request_open");
+    group
+        .sample_size(20)
+        .warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs(1))
+        .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(2));
+    for partitions in [1, 32, 256] {
+        for file_sizes in [false, true] {
+            let fixture = Arc::new(runtime.block_on(Fixture::new(partitions, file_sizes)));
+            for concurrency in [1, 64] {
+                group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(concurrency));
+                let scenario = format!("p{partitions}_sizes{file_sizes}");
+                group.bench_with_input(
+                    BenchmarkId::new(scenario, concurrency),
+                    &concurrency,
+                    |b, &concurrency| {
+                        b.to_async(&runtime).iter(|| async {
+                            let tasks = (0..concurrency).map(|_| {
+                                let fixture = fixture.clone();
+                                tokio::spawn(async move { fixture.open_request().await })
+                            });
+                            try_join_all(tasks).await.unwrap();
+                            // Test-util builds retain individual I/O records. Bound
+                            // their lifetime to a batch on both compared revisions.
+                            black_box(fixture.object_store.io_stats_incremental());
+                        });
+                    },
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(benches, request_cache);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/kmeans.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/kmeans.rs
index 530f6dfcb5f..ef7e4df42b2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/kmeans.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/kmeans.rs
@@ -1,20 +1,22 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::sync::OnceLock;
+
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
 use arrow::datatypes::Float32Type;
 use arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray;
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-use lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
 use lance_index::vector::utils::SimpleIndex;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{
-    compute_partitions_arrow_array, KMeans, KMeansAlgo, KMeansAlgoFloat, KMeansParams,
+    KMeans, KMeansAlgo, KMeansAlgoFloat, KMeansParams, compute_partitions_arrow_array,
 };
+use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
 
@@ -30,17 +32,17 @@ fn bench_train(c: &mut Criterion) {
     ];
     for (n, dimension) in params {
         let k = n / 256;
-
-        let values = generate_random_array(n * dimension as usize);
-        let data = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap();
-
-        let values = generate_random_array(k * dimension as usize);
-        let centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap();
+        let data: OnceLock<FixedSizeListArray> = OnceLock::new();
+        let centroids: OnceLock<FixedSizeListArray> = OnceLock::new();
 
         c.bench_function(&format!("train_{}d_{}k", dimension, k), |b| {
             let params = KMeansParams::default().with_hierarchical_k(0);
             b.iter(|| {
-                KMeans::new_with_params(&data, k, &params).ok().unwrap();
+                let data = data.get_or_init(|| {
+                    let values = generate_random_array(n * dimension as usize);
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap()
+                });
+                KMeans::new_with_params(data, k, &params).ok().unwrap();
             })
         });
 
@@ -53,7 +55,13 @@ fn bench_train(c: &mut Criterion) {
                         dimension, k, hierarchical_k
                     ),
                     |b| {
-                        b.iter(|| KMeans::new_with_params(&data, k, &params).ok().unwrap());
+                        b.iter(|| {
+                            let data = data.get_or_init(|| {
+                                let values = generate_random_array(n * dimension as usize);
+                                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap()
+                            });
+                            KMeans::new_with_params(data, k, &params).ok().unwrap()
+                        });
                     },
                 );
             }
@@ -62,15 +70,40 @@ fn bench_train(c: &mut Criterion) {
         let mut group = c.benchmark_group(format!("compute_membership_{}d_{}k", dimension, k));
 
         group.bench_function("flat", |b| {
-            b.iter(|| compute_partitions_arrow_array(&centroids, &data, DistanceType::L2))
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let data = data.get_or_init(|| {
+                    let values = generate_random_array(n * dimension as usize);
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap()
+                });
+                let centroids = centroids.get_or_init(|| {
+                    let values = generate_random_array(k * dimension as usize);
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap()
+                });
+                compute_partitions_arrow_array(centroids, data, DistanceType::L2)
+            })
         });
 
         if k * dimension as usize >= 1_000_000 {
-            let index =
-                SimpleIndex::try_new(FlatFloatStorage::new(centroids.clone(), DistanceType::L2))
-                    .unwrap();
+            let index: OnceLock<SimpleIndex> = OnceLock::new();
             group.bench_function("with_index", |b| {
                 b.iter(|| {
+                    let data = data.get_or_init(|| {
+                        let values = generate_random_array(n * dimension as usize);
+                        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap()
+                    });
+                    let centroids = centroids.get_or_init(|| {
+                        let values = generate_random_array(k * dimension as usize);
+                        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap()
+                    });
+                    let index = index.get_or_init(|| {
+                        SimpleIndex::may_train_index(
+                            centroids.values().clone(),
+                            dimension as usize,
+                            DistanceType::L2,
+                        )
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .unwrap()
+                    });
                     KMeansAlgoFloat::<Float32Type>::compute_membership_and_loss(
                         centroids.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
                         data.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
@@ -78,7 +111,7 @@ fn bench_train(c: &mut Criterion) {
                         DistanceType::L2,
                         0.0,
                         None,
-                        Some(&index),
+                        Some(index),
                     )
                 })
             });
@@ -86,17 +119,63 @@ fn bench_train(c: &mut Criterion) {
     }
 }
 
+fn bench_pq_build(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let (dimension, num_sub_vectors) = (128, 16);
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group(format!(
+        "pq_build_sampled_{}d_{}m",
+        dimension, num_sub_vectors
+    ));
+    for num_bits in [4, 8] {
+        let data = OnceLock::new();
+        let params = PQBuildParams::new(num_sub_vectors, num_bits);
+        group.bench_function(format!("{}bit", num_bits), |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let data = data.get_or_init(|| {
+                    let n = 256 * (1 << num_bits);
+                    let values = generate_random_array(n * dimension as usize);
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap()
+                });
+                params.build(data, DistanceType::L2).unwrap()
+            })
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+
+    // Callers may pass more rows than the kmeans sample cap
+    // (`sample_rate * num_centroids`). The old sub-vector division copied the
+    // whole input while training only read a prefix.
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group(format!(
+        "pq_build_oversampled_{}d_{}m",
+        dimension, num_sub_vectors
+    ));
+    for num_bits in [4, 8] {
+        let data = OnceLock::new();
+        let params = PQBuildParams::new(num_sub_vectors, num_bits);
+        group.bench_function(format!("{}bit", num_bits), |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let data = data.get_or_init(|| {
+                    let n = 4 * 1024 * 1024;
+                    let values = generate_random_array(n * dimension as usize);
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension).unwrap()
+                });
+                params.build(data, DistanceType::L2).unwrap()
+            })
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10)
     .with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
-    targets = bench_train);
+    targets = bench_train, bench_pq_build);
 
 // Non-linux version does not support pprof.
 #[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
-    targets = bench_train);
+    targets = bench_train, bench_pq_build);
 criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/ngram.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/ngram.rs
index 47c1180c427..0b6d42bc8be 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/ngram.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/ngram.rs
@@ -5,22 +5,24 @@ use std::{sync::Arc, time::Duration};
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use futures::stream;
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-use lance_datagen::{array, RowCount};
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_datagen::{RowCount, array};
 use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use lance_index::pbold;
 use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
 use lance_index::scalar::ngram::{NGramIndexBuilder, NGramIndexBuilderOptions, NGramIndexPlugin};
-use lance_index::scalar::{registry::ScalarIndexPlugin, TextQuery};
+use lance_index::scalar::{TextQuery, registry::ScalarIndexPlugin};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use object_store::path::Path;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use object_store::path::Path;
 
 fn bench_ngram(c: &mut Criterion) {
     const TOTAL: usize = 1_000_000;
@@ -91,7 +93,7 @@ fn bench_ngram(c: &mut Criterion) {
         .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(10));
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::NGramIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
     let index = rt
-        .block_on(NGramIndexPlugin.load_index(store, &details, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()))
+        .block_on(NGramIndexPlugin.load_index(store, &details, 0, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()))
         .unwrap();
     group.bench_function(format!("ngram_search({TOTAL})").as_str(), |b| {
         b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/pairwise.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/pairwise.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5917d9ac108
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/pairwise.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,214 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Throughput of native duplicate-pair tile scoring: one 32-row anchor block
+//! against a later 8192-row staged batch (an off-diagonal tile) of 1536-d
+//! codes, with a threshold that keeps almost no pair, so the time is the
+//! kernel plus the filter loop.
+
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt64Array,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use criterion::{Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::RQRotationType;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::ex_dot::blocked_ex_code_bytes;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::{RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN, RABIT_CODE_COLUMN};
+use lance_index::vector::bq::transform::{EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN, SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN};
+use lance_index::vector::flat::index::FlatQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN;
+use lance_index::vector::pairwise::PairwisePartition;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::quantizer::Quantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::sq::ScalarQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::{PQ_CODE_COLUMN, SQ_CODE_COLUMN};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+
+const DIM: usize = 1536;
+const ANCHOR_ROWS: usize = 32;
+const CANDIDATE_ROWS: usize = 8192;
+const PQ_SUB_VECTORS: usize = 96;
+/// Far below the distance of any two random rows, so almost nothing is emitted.
+const THRESHOLD: f32 = 1e-4;
+
+fn fsl(values: ArrayRef, width: usize) -> ArrayRef {
+    Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, width as i32).unwrap())
+}
+
+fn batch(rows: usize, first_id: u64, columns: Vec<(&str, ArrayRef)>) -> RecordBatch {
+    let mut fields = vec![Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false)];
+    let mut arrays: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+        first_id..first_id + rows as u64,
+    ))];
+    for (name, array) in columns {
+        fields.push(Field::new(name, array.data_type().clone(), false));
+        arrays.push(array);
+    }
+    RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(Schema::new(fields)), arrays).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn random_f32(rng: &mut SmallRng, len: usize) -> ArrayRef {
+    Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+        (0..len).map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0)),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn random_u8(rng: &mut SmallRng, len: usize) -> ArrayRef {
+    Arc::new(UInt8Array::from_iter_values((0..len).map(|_| rng.random())))
+}
+
+/// An anchor batch and a candidate batch of source index rows.
+fn sources(
+    rng: &mut SmallRng,
+    mut columns: impl FnMut(&mut SmallRng, usize) -> Vec<(&'static str, ArrayRef)>,
+) -> [RecordBatch; 2] {
+    let anchor = batch(ANCHOR_ROWS, 0, columns(rng, ANCHOR_ROWS));
+    let candidates = batch(
+        CANDIDATE_ROWS,
+        ANCHOR_ROWS as u64,
+        columns(rng, CANDIDATE_ROWS),
+    );
+    [anchor, candidates]
+}
+
+fn flat(rng: &mut SmallRng, metric: DistanceType) -> (Quantizer, [RecordBatch; 2]) {
+    let sources = sources(rng, |rng, rows| {
+        vec![(FLAT_COLUMN, fsl(random_f32(rng, rows * DIM), DIM))]
+    });
+    (Quantizer::Flat(FlatQuantizer::new(DIM, metric)), sources)
+}
+
+fn pq(rng: &mut SmallRng, num_bits: u32, metric: DistanceType) -> (Quantizer, [RecordBatch; 2]) {
+    let codebook =
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(random_f32(rng, (1 << num_bits) * DIM), DIM as i32)
+            .unwrap();
+    let pq = ProductQuantizer::new(PQ_SUB_VECTORS, num_bits, DIM, codebook, metric);
+    let code_bytes = PQ_SUB_VECTORS * num_bits as usize / 8;
+    // Random bytes are equally valid column-major and row-major codes.
+    let sources = sources(rng, |rng, rows| {
+        vec![(
+            PQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+            fsl(random_u8(rng, rows * code_bytes), code_bytes),
+        )]
+    });
+    (Quantizer::Product(pq), sources)
+}
+
+fn sq(rng: &mut SmallRng) -> (Quantizer, [RecordBatch; 2]) {
+    let sources = sources(rng, |rng, rows| {
+        vec![(SQ_CODE_COLUMN, fsl(random_u8(rng, rows * DIM), DIM))]
+    });
+    (
+        Quantizer::Scalar(ScalarQuantizer::with_bounds(8, DIM, -1.0..1.0)),
+        sources,
+    )
+}
+
+fn rq(rng: &mut SmallRng, bits: u8) -> (Quantizer, [RecordBatch; 2]) {
+    let rq =
+        RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(bits, DIM as i32, RQRotationType::Fast);
+    let sources = sources(rng, |rng, rows| {
+        // Stored l2/cosine scale factors are `-2s`.
+        let scales: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..rows).map(|_| rng.random_range(-0.2f32..-0.01)),
+        ));
+        let mut columns = vec![(
+            RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
+            fsl(random_u8(rng, rows * DIM / 8), DIM / 8),
+        )];
+        if bits == 1 {
+            columns.push((SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN, scales));
+        } else {
+            let width = blocked_ex_code_bytes(DIM, bits - 1);
+            columns.push((
+                RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN,
+                fsl(random_u8(rng, rows * width), width),
+            ));
+            columns.push((EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN, scales));
+        }
+        columns
+    });
+    (Quantizer::Rabit(rq), sources)
+}
+
+fn bench_pairwise_tile(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(42);
+    let cases = vec![
+        (
+            "flat_l2",
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            flat(&mut rng, DistanceType::L2),
+        ),
+        (
+            "flat_cosine",
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            flat(&mut rng, DistanceType::Cosine),
+        ),
+        (
+            "pq8_cosine",
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            pq(&mut rng, 8, DistanceType::Cosine),
+        ),
+        (
+            "pq4_cosine",
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            pq(&mut rng, 4, DistanceType::Cosine),
+        ),
+        ("sq_cosine", DistanceType::Cosine, sq(&mut rng)),
+        ("rq1_cosine", DistanceType::Cosine, rq(&mut rng, 1)),
+        ("rq5_cosine", DistanceType::Cosine, rq(&mut rng, 5)),
+        ("rq8_cosine", DistanceType::Cosine, rq(&mut rng, 8)),
+    ];
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("pairwise_tile");
+    group.throughput(Throughput::Elements((ANCHOR_ROWS * CANDIDATE_ROWS) as u64));
+    for (name, metric, (quantizer, sources)) in cases {
+        let centroid = random_f32(&mut rng, DIM);
+        let partition =
+            PairwisePartition::stage_in_memory(&quantizer, centroid, metric, &sources).unwrap();
+        let (anchor, candidates) = runtime.block_on(async {
+            (
+                partition.read_vectors(0).await.unwrap(),
+                partition.read_vectors(1).await.unwrap(),
+            )
+        });
+        let hits = partition
+            .score_block(&anchor, 0..ANCHOR_ROWS, &candidates, THRESHOLD)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            hits.distances.len() < ANCHOR_ROWS,
+            "{name} emits too many pairs"
+        );
+        group.bench_function(name, |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                black_box(
+                    partition
+                        .score_block(&anchor, 0..ANCHOR_ROWS, &candidates, THRESHOLD)
+                        .unwrap(),
+                )
+            })
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default()
+        .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(5))
+        .sample_size(20);
+    targets = bench_pairwise_tile);
+
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/pq4_topk.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/pq4_topk.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0b14b363cb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/pq4_topk.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmark of 4-bit PQ partition scans through the top-k accumulator, from
+//! an empty heap as the first IVF partition sees it and from a full heap as
+//! later partitions do.
+
+use std::collections::BinaryHeap;
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD;
+use lance_index::vector::graph::{OrderedFloat, OrderedNode};
+use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::ProductQuantizationStorage;
+use lance_index::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, StorageBuilder, VectorStore};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::StdRng};
+
+const NUM_QUERIES: usize = 32;
+
+/// Rows scattered around a few cluster centers, like the residuals of one IVF
+/// partition, and queries near random rows.
+fn build_case(
+    rows: usize,
+    dim: usize,
+    num_sub_vectors: usize,
+) -> (ProductQuantizationStorage, Vec<ArrayRef>) {
+    let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
+    let centers = (0..16 * dim)
+        .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let values = (0..rows)
+        .flat_map(|_| {
+            let center = rng.random_range(0..16) * dim;
+            (0..dim)
+                .map(|i| centers[center + i] + rng.random_range(-0.5f32..0.5))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let vectors =
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values.clone()), dim as i32)
+            .unwrap();
+    let mut params = PQBuildParams::new(num_sub_vectors, 4);
+    params.max_iters = 10;
+    let pq = params.build(&vectors, DistanceType::L2).unwrap();
+    let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("vec", vectors.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+    ]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.into(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(vectors),
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..rows as u64)),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let storage = StorageBuilder::new("vec".to_owned(), DistanceType::L2, pq, None)
+        .unwrap()
+        .build(vec![batch])
+        .unwrap();
+    let queries = (0..NUM_QUERIES)
+        .map(|_| {
+            let row = rng.random_range(0..rows) * dim;
+            let query = values[row..row + dim]
+                .iter()
+                .map(|v| v + rng.random_range(-0.2f32..0.2))
+                .collect::<Float32Array>();
+            Arc::new(query) as ArrayRef
+        })
+        .collect();
+    (storage, queries)
+}
+
+fn bench_pq4_topk(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("pq4_topk");
+    for (dim, num_sub_vectors) in [(128, 64), (768, 96)] {
+        for rows in [1024, 16384] {
+            let (storage, queries) = build_case(rows, dim, num_sub_vectors);
+            for k in [10, 100] {
+                // A full heap holding this partition's k-th best distance.
+                let prefills = queries
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|query| {
+                        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0);
+                        let mut dists = (0..rows as u32)
+                            .map(|id| calc.distance(id))
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                        dists.sort_by(f32::total_cmp);
+                        (0..k)
+                            .map(|i| {
+                                OrderedNode::new(u64::MAX - i as u64, OrderedFloat(dists[k - 1]))
+                            })
+                            .collect::<BinaryHeap<_>>()
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                for prefilled in [false, true] {
+                    let id = format!(
+                        "dim={dim},m={num_sub_vectors},rows={rows},k={k},prefilled={prefilled}"
+                    );
+                    let (mut dists, mut u16s, mut u8s, mut u32s) =
+                        (Vec::new(), Vec::new(), Vec::new(), Vec::new());
+                    group.bench_function(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(id), |b| {
+                        b.iter(|| {
+                            for (query, prefill) in queries.iter().zip(&prefills) {
+                                let mut heap = if prefilled {
+                                    prefill.clone()
+                                } else {
+                                    BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k)
+                                };
+                                storage
+                                    .dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0)
+                                    .accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+                                        k,
+                                        None,
+                                        None,
+                                        |id| id as u64,
+                                        &mut heap,
+                                        &mut dists,
+                                        &mut u16s,
+                                        &mut u8s,
+                                        &mut u32s,
+                                    );
+                                black_box(heap.len());
+                            }
+                        })
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
+    targets = bench_pq4_topk
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/pq_assignment.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/pq_assignment.rs
index 312358c0913..fff5c533de9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/pq_assignment.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/pq_assignment.rs
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 
 //! Benchmark of Building PQ code from Dense Vectors.
 
-use arrow_array::{types::Float32Type, FixedSizeListArray};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, types::Float32Type};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
 use lance_index::vector::quantizer::Quantization;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/pq_dist_table.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/pq_dist_table.rs
index 8c3b135f8f4..855a885e7c5 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/pq_dist_table.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/pq_dist_table.rs
@@ -7,16 +7,18 @@ use std::iter::repeat_n;
 
 use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
 use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array};
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FixedSizeListArrayExt, FloatArray};
-use lance_index::vector::pq::distance::*;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::distance::*;
 use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, L2};
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
-use rand::{prelude::StdRng, Rng, SeedableRng};
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, prelude::StdRng};
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 const DIM: usize = 128;
 const PQ: usize = DIM / 8;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/residual_transform.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/residual_transform.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..153e291b015
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/residual_transform.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, types::Float32Type};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_index::vector::residual::ResidualTransform;
+use lance_index::vector::transform::Transformer;
+use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
+
+const NUM_CENTROIDS: usize = 1024;
+const DIMENSION: usize = 256;
+const NUM_VECTORS: usize = 64 * 1024;
+const PARTITION_COL: &str = "__part_id";
+const VECTOR_COL: &str = "vector";
+
+fn bench_residual_transform(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let centroids =
+        generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(NUM_CENTROIDS * DIMENSION, [7; 32]);
+    let centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIMENSION as i32).unwrap();
+
+    let vectors = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(NUM_VECTORS * DIMENSION, [42; 32]);
+    let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, DIMENSION as i32).unwrap();
+
+    let part_ids =
+        UInt32Array::from_iter_values((0..NUM_VECTORS).map(|idx| (idx % NUM_CENTROIDS) as u32));
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(PARTITION_COL, DataType::UInt32, false),
+        Field::new(
+            VECTOR_COL,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                DIMENSION as i32,
+            ),
+            false,
+        ),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(part_ids), Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+
+    let transform = ResidualTransform::new(centroids, PARTITION_COL, VECTOR_COL);
+    c.bench_function("residual_transform_float32", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            black_box(transform.transform(black_box(&batch)).unwrap());
+        })
+    });
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default()
+        .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(8))
+        .sample_size(10);
+    targets = bench_residual_transform
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/rq.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/rq.rs
index afedc809c59..72e0c49820d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/rq.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/rq.rs
@@ -8,24 +8,32 @@ use std::time::Duration;
 use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
 use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use lance_arrow::fixed_size_list_type;
 use lance_core::ROW_ID;
 use lance_datagen::array::rand_type;
 use lance_datagen::{BatchGeneratorBuilder, RowCount};
+use lance_index::vector::bq::RQRotationType;
 use lance_index::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::ex_dot::{
+    blocked_ex_code_bytes, ex_dot_kernel, pack_blocked_row, packed_ex_code_value,
+};
 use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::*;
 use lance_index::vector::bq::transform::{ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN};
 use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizerStorage};
 use lance_index::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore};
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
 
 const DIM: usize = 128;
 const TOTAL: usize = 16 * 1000;
 
-fn mock_rq_storage(num_bits: u8) -> RabitQuantizationStorage {
+fn mock_rq_storage(num_bits: u8, rotation_type: RQRotationType) -> RabitQuantizationStorage {
     // generate random rq codes
-    let rq = RabitQuantizer::new::<Float32Type>(num_bits, DIM as i32);
+    let rq = RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(num_bits, DIM as i32, rotation_type);
     let builder = BatchGeneratorBuilder::new()
         .col(ROW_ID, lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
         .col(
@@ -49,72 +57,593 @@ fn mock_rq_storage(num_bits: u8) -> RabitQuantizationStorage {
 }
 
 fn construct_dist_table(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rotation_types = [RQRotationType::Fast, RQRotationType::Matrix];
     for num_bits in 1..=1 {
-        let rq = mock_rq_storage(num_bits);
-        let query = rand_type(&DataType::Float32)
-            .generate_default(RowCount::from(DIM as u64))
-            .unwrap();
+        for rotation_type in rotation_types {
+            let rq = mock_rq_storage(num_bits, rotation_type);
+            let query = rand_type(&DataType::Float32)
+                .generate_default(RowCount::from(DIM as u64))
+                .unwrap();
+            c.bench_function(
+                format!(
+                    "RQ{}({:?}): construct_dist_table: {},DIM={}",
+                    num_bits,
+                    rotation_type,
+                    DistanceType::L2,
+                    DIM
+                )
+                .as_str(),
+                |b| {
+                    b.iter(|| {
+                        black_box(rq.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0));
+                    })
+                },
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn compute_distances(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rotation_types = [RQRotationType::Fast, RQRotationType::Matrix];
+    for num_bits in 1..=1 {
+        for rotation_type in rotation_types {
+            let rq = mock_rq_storage(num_bits, rotation_type);
+            let query = rand_type(&DataType::Float32)
+                .generate_default(RowCount::from(DIM as u64))
+                .unwrap();
+            let dist_calc = rq.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0);
+
+            c.bench_function(
+                format!(
+                    "RQ{}({:?}): compute_distances: {},DIM={}",
+                    num_bits, rotation_type, TOTAL, DIM
+                )
+                .as_str(),
+                |b| {
+                    b.iter(|| {
+                        black_box(dist_calc.distance_all(0));
+                    })
+                },
+            );
+
+            c.bench_function(
+                format!(
+                    "RQ{}({:?}): compute_distances_single: {},DIM={}",
+                    num_bits, rotation_type, TOTAL, DIM
+                )
+                .as_str(),
+                |b| {
+                    b.iter(|| {
+                        for i in 0..TOTAL {
+                            black_box(dist_calc.distance(i as u32));
+                        }
+                    })
+                },
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The table-gather ex distance used before the dedicated ex-dot kernels,
+/// kept here as the baseline: per dim, extract the packed code and gather
+/// `query[d] * code` from a `dim * 2^ex_bits` table.
+fn gather_ex_distance(row_codes: &[u8], dim: usize, ex_bits: u8, ex_dist_table: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    let entries_per_dim = 1usize << ex_bits;
+    (0..dim)
+        .map(|dim_idx| {
+            let code = packed_ex_code_value(row_codes, dim_idx, ex_bits) as usize;
+            ex_dist_table[dim_idx * entries_per_dim + code]
+        })
+        .sum()
+}
+
+fn ex_dot_kernels(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    for ex_dim in [1536usize, 2048] {
+        ex_dot_kernels_for_dim(c, ex_dim);
+    }
+}
+
+fn ex_dot_kernels_for_dim(c: &mut Criterion, ex_dim: usize) {
+    const NUM_ROWS: usize = 1024;
+
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(42);
+    let query = (0..ex_dim)
+        .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    for ex_bits in 1..=8u8 {
+        let max_code = ((1u16 << ex_bits) - 1) as u8;
+        let values = (0..NUM_ROWS * ex_dim)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=max_code))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        // The gather baseline reads the legacy sequential layout it shipped
+        // with; the kernel reads the blocked layout.
+        let seq_code_len = (ex_dim * ex_bits as usize).div_ceil(8);
+        let mut seq_codes = vec![0u8; NUM_ROWS * seq_code_len];
+        for (row, row_values) in seq_codes
+            .chunks_exact_mut(seq_code_len)
+            .zip(values.chunks_exact(ex_dim))
+        {
+            for (dim, &value) in row_values.iter().enumerate() {
+                let bit_offset = dim * ex_bits as usize;
+                let bits = (value as u16) << (bit_offset % 8);
+                row[bit_offset / 8] |= bits as u8;
+                if bits >> 8 != 0 {
+                    row[bit_offset / 8 + 1] |= (bits >> 8) as u8;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let kernel_code_len = blocked_ex_code_bytes(ex_dim, ex_bits);
+        let mut kernel_codes = vec![0u8; NUM_ROWS * kernel_code_len];
+        for (row, row_values) in kernel_codes
+            .chunks_exact_mut(kernel_code_len)
+            .zip(values.chunks_exact(ex_dim))
+        {
+            pack_blocked_row(row_values, ex_bits, row);
+        }
+
+        // ex_dim is block-aligned here, so the kernels read the query as-is.
+        let ex_query = &query;
+        let kernel = ex_dot_kernel(ex_bits);
         c.bench_function(
-            format!(
-                "RQ{}: construct_dist_table: {},DIM={}",
-                num_bits,
-                DistanceType::L2,
-                DIM
-            )
-            .as_str(),
+            format!("RQ ex_dot kernel: ex_bits={ex_bits}, DIM={ex_dim}, rows={NUM_ROWS}").as_str(),
+            |b| {
+                b.iter(|| {
+                    let mut sum = 0.0f32;
+                    for row in kernel_codes.chunks_exact(kernel_code_len) {
+                        sum += kernel(ex_query, row);
+                    }
+                    black_box(sum)
+                })
+            },
+        );
+
+        let entries_per_dim = 1usize << ex_bits;
+        let mut ex_dist_table = vec![0.0f32; ex_dim * entries_per_dim];
+        for (dim, table) in ex_dist_table.chunks_exact_mut(entries_per_dim).enumerate() {
+            for (code, value) in table.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                *value = query[dim] * code as f32;
+            }
+        }
+        c.bench_function(
+            format!("RQ ex_dot table-gather: ex_bits={ex_bits}, DIM={ex_dim}, rows={NUM_ROWS}")
+                .as_str(),
             |b| {
                 b.iter(|| {
-                    black_box(rq.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0));
+                    let mut sum = 0.0f32;
+                    for row in seq_codes.chunks_exact(seq_code_len) {
+                        sum += gather_ex_distance(row, ex_dim, ex_bits, &ex_dist_table);
+                    }
+                    black_box(sum)
                 })
             },
         );
     }
 }
 
-fn compute_distances(c: &mut Criterion) {
-    for num_bits in 1..=1 {
-        let rq = mock_rq_storage(num_bits);
-        let query = rand_type(&DataType::Float32)
-            .generate_default(RowCount::from(DIM as u64))
-            .unwrap();
-        let dist_calc = rq.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0);
+/// Storage load cost per format: blocked-format ex codes are aliased as-is,
+/// legacy sequential ex codes are repacked row by row.
+fn ex_code_storage_load(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, UInt8Array, UInt64Array};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::ex_dot::repack_sequential_row;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::rabit_ex_code_bytes;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::transform::{EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN};
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    const LOAD_DIM: usize = 1536;
+    const LOAD_ROWS: usize = 8192;
+    const NUM_BITS: u8 = 4; // ex_bits=3, a bit-plane width
 
+    let ex_bits = NUM_BITS - 1;
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(7);
+    let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+        rotate_mat: None,
+        rotate_mat_position: None,
+        fast_rotation_signs: None,
+        rotation_type: RQRotationType::Fast,
+        code_dim: LOAD_DIM as u32,
+        num_bits: NUM_BITS,
+        packed: true,
+        query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+    };
+    let code_len = LOAD_DIM / 8;
+    let binary_codes = (0..LOAD_ROWS * code_len)
+        .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=u8::MAX))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let seq_code_len = rabit_ex_code_bytes(LOAD_DIM, ex_bits).unwrap();
+    let seq_codes = (0..LOAD_ROWS * seq_code_len)
+        .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=u8::MAX))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let blocked_code_len = blocked_ex_code_bytes(LOAD_DIM, ex_bits);
+    let mut blocked_codes = vec![0u8; LOAD_ROWS * blocked_code_len];
+    for (seq_row, blocked_row) in seq_codes
+        .chunks_exact(seq_code_len)
+        .zip(blocked_codes.chunks_exact_mut(blocked_code_len))
+    {
+        repack_sequential_row(seq_row, LOAD_DIM, ex_bits, blocked_row);
+    }
+
+    let make_batch = |ex_column: &str, ex_values: Vec<u8>, ex_code_len: usize| {
+        arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            (
+                ROW_ID,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..LOAD_ROWS as u64)) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        UInt8Array::from(binary_codes.clone()),
+                        code_len as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; LOAD_ROWS])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; LOAD_ROWS])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                ex_column,
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        UInt8Array::from(ex_values),
+                        ex_code_len as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; LOAD_ROWS])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; LOAD_ROWS])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+
+    let blocked_batch = make_batch(
+        RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN,
+        blocked_codes,
+        blocked_code_len,
+    );
+    c.bench_function(
+        format!("RQ storage load (blocked ex codes): num_bits={NUM_BITS}, DIM={LOAD_DIM}, rows={LOAD_ROWS}")
+            .as_str(),
+        |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                black_box(
+                    RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+                        blocked_batch.clone(),
+                        &metadata,
+                        DistanceType::L2,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                )
+            })
+        },
+    );
+
+    let legacy_batch = make_batch(RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN, seq_codes, seq_code_len);
+    c.bench_function(
+        format!("RQ storage load (legacy ex codes): num_bits={NUM_BITS}, DIM={LOAD_DIM}, rows={LOAD_ROWS}")
+            .as_str(),
+        |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                black_box(
+                    RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+                        legacy_batch.clone(),
+                        &metadata,
+                        DistanceType::L2,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                )
+            })
+        },
+    );
+}
+
+/// Bulk-scoring cost of the ex stage: the quantized ex-FastScan LUT path
+/// (inside `distance_all`) vs the exact per-row ex-dot kernel. The
+/// binary-only run isolates the shared binary stage so the ex cost is the
+/// difference from the full run.
+fn ex_bulk_paths(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, UInt8Array, UInt64Array};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_index::vector::ApproxMode;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::ex_dot::pad_query_into;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::transform::{EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN};
+    use lance_index::vector::storage::DistanceCalculatorOptions;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    const BULK_DIM: usize = 1536;
+    const BULK_ROWS: usize = 16384;
+
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(13);
+    for num_bits in [3u8, 5, 9] {
+        let ex_bits = num_bits - 1;
+        let max_code = ((1u16 << ex_bits) - 1) as u8;
+
+        let rq = RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(
+            num_bits,
+            BULK_DIM as i32,
+            RQRotationType::Fast,
+        );
+        let metadata = rq.metadata(None);
+
+        let code_len = BULK_DIM / 8;
+        let binary_codes = (0..BULK_ROWS * code_len)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=u8::MAX))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let ex_code_len = blocked_ex_code_bytes(BULK_DIM, ex_bits);
+        let mut ex_codes = vec![0u8; BULK_ROWS * ex_code_len];
+        let values = (0..BULK_DIM)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=max_code))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        for row in ex_codes.chunks_exact_mut(ex_code_len) {
+            pack_blocked_row(&values, ex_bits, row);
+        }
+
+        // No error factors: `distance_all` takes the FastScan ex bulk branch.
+        let batch = arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            (
+                ROW_ID,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..BULK_ROWS as u64)) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        UInt8Array::from(binary_codes),
+                        code_len as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; BULK_ROWS])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; BULK_ROWS])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        UInt8Array::from(ex_codes.clone()),
+                        ex_code_len as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; BULK_ROWS])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0f32; BULK_ROWS])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+        let storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let query: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(
+            (0..BULK_DIM)
+                .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+
+        for (label, approx_mode) in [
+            ("full distance_all (binary + ex LUT)", ApproxMode::Normal),
+            ("binary-only distance_all (fast mode)", ApproxMode::Fast),
+        ] {
+            let mut f32_scratch = Vec::new();
+            let calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+                query.clone(),
+                0.0,
+                None,
+                &mut f32_scratch,
+                DistanceCalculatorOptions { approx_mode },
+            );
+            let mut dists = Vec::new();
+            let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+            let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+            let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+            c.bench_function(
+                format!("RQ bulk {label}: num_bits={num_bits}, DIM={BULK_DIM}, rows={BULK_ROWS}")
+                    .as_str(),
+                |b| {
+                    b.iter(|| {
+                        calc.distance_all_with_scratch(
+                            0,
+                            &mut dists,
+                            &mut u16_scratch,
+                            &mut u8_scratch,
+                            &mut u32_scratch,
+                        );
+                        black_box(dists.len())
+                    })
+                },
+            );
+        }
+
+        let kernel = ex_dot_kernel(ex_bits);
+        let mut ex_query = vec![0.0f32; BULK_DIM];
+        pad_query_into(
+            query
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .values(),
+            &mut ex_query,
+        );
         c.bench_function(
-            format!("RQ{}: compute_distances: {},DIM={}", num_bits, TOTAL, DIM).as_str(),
+            format!(
+                "RQ bulk ex kernel loop: num_bits={num_bits}, DIM={BULK_DIM}, rows={BULK_ROWS}"
+            )
+            .as_str(),
             |b| {
                 b.iter(|| {
-                    black_box(dist_calc.distance_all(0));
+                    let mut sum = 0.0f32;
+                    for row in ex_codes.chunks_exact(ex_code_len) {
+                        sum += kernel(&ex_query, row);
+                    }
+                    black_box(sum)
                 })
             },
         );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Top-k accumulation through the gated raw-query multi-bit path: binary
+/// FastScan, the per-row lower-bound pruning scan, and the exact rerank of
+/// the surviving rows. Error factors are present so the gating is enabled.
+fn heap_topk(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, UInt8Array, UInt64Array};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_index::vector::ApproxMode;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::transform::{
+        ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+    };
+    use lance_index::vector::storage::DistanceCalculatorOptions;
+    use std::collections::BinaryHeap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    const TOPK_DIM: usize = 1536;
+    const TOPK_ROWS: usize = 4096;
+    const TOPK_K: usize = 10;
+    const NUM_BITS: u8 = 5;
+    let ex_bits = NUM_BITS - 1;
+
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(99);
+    let rq = RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(
+        NUM_BITS,
+        TOPK_DIM as i32,
+        RQRotationType::Fast,
+    );
+    let metadata = rq.metadata(None);
 
+    let code_len = TOPK_DIM / 8;
+    let binary_codes = (0..TOPK_ROWS * code_len)
+        .map(|_| rng.random())
+        .collect::<Vec<u8>>();
+    let ex_code_len = blocked_ex_code_bytes(TOPK_DIM, ex_bits);
+    let ex_codes = (0..TOPK_ROWS * ex_code_len)
+        .map(|_| rng.random())
+        .collect::<Vec<u8>>();
+    // Factor magnitudes chosen so the lower bounds spread mostly with the add
+    // factors; once the heap is full the threshold prunes the vast majority
+    // of rows, like a production multi-partition scan.
+    let mut rand_factors = |low: f32, high: f32| {
+        Arc::new(Float32Array::from(
+            (0..TOPK_ROWS)
+                .map(|_| rng.random_range(low..high))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        )) as ArrayRef
+    };
+    let batch = arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            ROW_ID,
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..TOPK_ROWS as u64)) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        (
+            RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
+            Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                    UInt8Array::from(binary_codes),
+                    code_len as i32,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        (ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, rand_factors(0.0, 1.0)),
+        (SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN, rand_factors(0.0005, 0.0015)),
+        (ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN, rand_factors(0.0, 0.01)),
+        (
+            RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN,
+            Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                    UInt8Array::from(ex_codes),
+                    ex_code_len as i32,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        (EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, rand_factors(0.0, 1.0)),
+        (EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN, rand_factors(0.00003, 0.0001)),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let storage =
+        RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None).unwrap();
+    let query: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(
+        (0..TOPK_DIM)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    ));
+
+    for (label, approx_mode) in [
+        ("normal", ApproxMode::Normal),
+        ("accurate", ApproxMode::Accurate),
+    ] {
+        let mut f32_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+            query.clone(),
+            1.0,
+            None,
+            &mut f32_scratch,
+            DistanceCalculatorOptions { approx_mode },
+        );
+        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(TOPK_K + 1);
+        let mut dists = Vec::new();
+        let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
         c.bench_function(
             format!(
-                "RQ{}: compute_distances_single: {},DIM={}",
-                num_bits, TOTAL, DIM
+                "RQ heap topk ({label}): num_bits={NUM_BITS}, DIM={TOPK_DIM}, rows={TOPK_ROWS}, k={TOPK_K}"
             )
             .as_str(),
             |b| {
                 b.iter(|| {
-                    for i in 0..TOTAL {
-                        black_box(dist_calc.distance(i as u32));
-                    }
+                    heap.clear();
+                    calc.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+                        TOPK_K,
+                        None,
+                        None,
+                        |id| id as u64,
+                        &mut heap,
+                        &mut dists,
+                        &mut u16_scratch,
+                        &mut u8_scratch,
+                        &mut u32_scratch,
+                    );
+                    black_box(heap.len())
                 })
             },
         );
     }
 }
 
-#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-criterion_group!(
-    name=benches;
-    config = Criterion::default().measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(10));
-    targets = construct_dist_table, compute_distances);
-
-#[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(10));
-    targets = construct_dist_table, compute_distances);
+    targets = construct_dist_table, compute_distances, ex_dot_kernels, ex_code_storage_load, ex_bulk_paths, heap_topk);
 
 criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/sq.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/sq.rs
index 64ac5cb261c..b65b419bb8e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/sq.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/sq.rs
@@ -5,19 +5,19 @@
 
 use std::{iter::repeat_with, ops::Range, sync::Arc, time::Duration};
 
-use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, UInt8Array};
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, RecordBatchExt};
 use lance_core::ROW_ID;
 use lance_index::vector::storage::DistCalculator;
 use lance_index::vector::{
-    sq::storage::ScalarQuantizationStorage, storage::VectorStore, SQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+    SQ_CODE_COLUMN, sq::storage::ScalarQuantizationStorage, storage::VectorStore,
 };
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 use rand::prelude::*;
 
 fn create_full_batch(range: Range<u64>, dim: usize) -> RecordBatch {
@@ -65,7 +65,6 @@ fn create_sq_batch(row_id_range: Range<u64>, dim: usize) -> RecordBatch {
     batch.drop_column("vector").unwrap()
 }
 
-#[allow(dead_code)]
 pub fn bench_storage(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let mut rng = rand::rng();
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/stable_partition_row_map.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/stable_partition_row_map.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d848cb2f170
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/stable_partition_row_map.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,229 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmarks of the stable-partition row map: file size (label encoding),
+//! point translation, batch translation and sweep throughput.
+//!
+//! The setup writes a 2M-row map with 1000 destinations and ~1/8 deleted
+//! rows, then prints the achieved bits per row: the label column is a
+//! low-cardinality u16 column, so the Lance page dictionary path should land
+//! well under the nominal 10 bits (ceil(log2 1000)) per row.
+
+// The size probes report to the human running the bench; log targets nothing
+// useful here.
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::utils::stable_partition::rank_label_prefix;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::row_map::{RowMapReader, RowMapWriter, SourceRows};
+use lance_index::scalar::IndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use rand::rngs::StdRng;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+const TOTAL_ROWS: u64 = 2_000_000;
+const NUM_DESTINATIONS: u32 = 1000;
+
+struct Fixture {
+    _tempdir: TempDir,
+    reader: RowMapReader,
+    runtime: tokio::runtime::Runtime,
+}
+
+static FIXTURE: OnceLock<Fixture> = OnceLock::new();
+
+fn fixture() -> &'static Fixture {
+    FIXTURE.get_or_init(|| {
+        let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+            .enable_all()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        // The store's IO scheduler spawns onto the ambient tokio runtime.
+        let _guard = runtime.enter();
+        let (object_store, path) = runtime
+            .block_on(ObjectStore::from_uri(tempdir.obj_path().as_ref()))
+            .unwrap();
+        // 2.1+ has the miniblock dictionary path; 2.0 stores the labels as
+        // plain u16 and roughly triples the file.
+        let store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::with_format_version(
+            object_store,
+            path,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(128 * 1024 * 1024)),
+            lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        ));
+
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(97);
+        let mut deleted = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for offset in 0..TOTAL_ROWS {
+            if rng.random_ratio(1, 8) {
+                deleted.insert(offset as u32);
+            }
+        }
+        let live_rows = TOTAL_ROWS - deleted.len();
+        let sources = vec![SourceRows {
+            physical_rows: TOTAL_ROWS,
+            deleted: Some(deleted),
+        }];
+
+        let reader = runtime.block_on(async {
+            let writer = store
+                .new_index_file("row_map.lance", RowMapWriter::schema())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut writer = RowMapWriter::try_new(writer, sources, NUM_DESTINATIONS).unwrap();
+            let mut pending = Vec::with_capacity(64 * 1024);
+            for _ in 0..live_rows {
+                pending.push(rng.random_range(0..NUM_DESTINATIONS) as u16);
+                if pending.len() == pending.capacity() {
+                    writer.append_labels(&pending).await.unwrap();
+                    pending.clear();
+                }
+            }
+            writer.append_labels(&pending).await.unwrap();
+            let (file, counts) = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+            let counts_bytes = counts.encode().len();
+            println!(
+                "row map: {TOTAL_ROWS} rows, {NUM_DESTINATIONS} destinations -> \
+                 {} bytes file ({:.2} bits/row, nominal 10), {counts_bytes} bytes counts",
+                file.size_bytes,
+                (file.size_bytes.saturating_sub(counts_bytes as u64)) as f64 * 8.0
+                    / TOTAL_ROWS as f64,
+            );
+            // Size probe with destination locality: each 64K block draws its
+            // labels from a small window of destinations, the realistic shape
+            // when source scan order correlates with the clustering key. The
+            // uniform-random file above is the worst case (every block sees
+            // all destinations, dictionary indices need the nominal width).
+            let local_rows = 512u64 * 1024;
+            let writer = store
+                .new_index_file("row_map_local.lance", RowMapWriter::schema())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut writer = RowMapWriter::try_new(
+                writer,
+                vec![SourceRows {
+                    physical_rows: local_rows,
+                    deleted: None,
+                }],
+                NUM_DESTINATIONS,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let mut pending = Vec::with_capacity(64 * 1024);
+            for row in 0..local_rows {
+                let window = (row / (64 * 1024)) * 16 % u64::from(NUM_DESTINATIONS);
+                pending.push(
+                    ((window + rng.random_range(0..16)) % u64::from(NUM_DESTINATIONS)) as u16,
+                );
+                if pending.len() == pending.capacity() {
+                    writer.append_labels(&pending).await.unwrap();
+                    pending.clear();
+                }
+            }
+            writer.append_labels(&pending).await.unwrap();
+            let (local_file, local_counts) = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+            let local_counts_bytes = local_counts.encode().len();
+            println!(
+                "row map (16-destination block locality): {local_rows} rows -> \
+                 {} bytes file ({:.2} bits/row), {local_counts_bytes} bytes counts",
+                local_file.size_bytes,
+                (local_file
+                    .size_bytes
+                    .saturating_sub(local_counts_bytes as u64)) as f64
+                    * 8.0
+                    / local_rows as f64,
+            );
+
+            RowMapReader::open(store.open_index_file("row_map.lance").await.unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        });
+
+        Fixture {
+            _tempdir: tempdir,
+            reader,
+            runtime,
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+fn bench_point_translate(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let fixture = fixture();
+    let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(3);
+    c.bench_function("row_map/translate_point", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            let row = rng.random_range(0..TOTAL_ROWS);
+            black_box(
+                fixture
+                    .runtime
+                    .block_on(fixture.reader.translate(row))
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+        })
+    });
+}
+
+fn bench_translate_many(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let fixture = fixture();
+    let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(5);
+    let rows: Vec<u64> = (0..1024).map(|_| rng.random_range(0..TOTAL_ROWS)).collect();
+    c.bench_function("row_map/translate_many_1k", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            black_box(
+                fixture
+                    .runtime
+                    .block_on(fixture.reader.translate_many(&rows))
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+        })
+    });
+}
+
+fn bench_sweep(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let fixture = fixture();
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("row_map");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+    group.throughput(criterion::Throughput::Elements(TOTAL_ROWS));
+    group.bench_function("sweep_full", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            let mut live = 0u64;
+            fixture
+                .runtime
+                .block_on(fixture.reader.sweep(0..TOTAL_ROWS, |_, translated| {
+                    live += u64::from(translated.is_some());
+                    Ok(())
+                }))
+                .unwrap();
+            black_box(live)
+        })
+    });
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_rank_in_block(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    // The in-memory cost of one worst-case point lookup: ranking a label over
+    // a full 64K block.
+    let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(11);
+    let values: Vec<u16> = (0..64 * 1024)
+        .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..NUM_DESTINATIONS) as u16)
+        .collect();
+    c.bench_function("row_map/rank_label_prefix_64k", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| black_box(rank_label_prefix(&values, None, values.len(), 500)))
+    });
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    benches,
+    bench_point_translate,
+    bench_translate_many,
+    bench_sweep,
+    bench_rank_in_block
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/two_file_shuffle_read.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/two_file_shuffle_read.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6cd82dee857
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/two_file_shuffle_read.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,751 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Reproducible read benchmark for the two-file IVF shuffle format.
+//!
+//! The fixture is deliberately generated once, before Criterion starts timing,
+//! and is then reopened for every end-to-end sample.  Each input `RecordBatch` is forced to
+//! become one flush group, so both scenarios contain exactly 20 physical groups.
+//! The payload has the same column topology as a 5-bit RQ build (row ID, binary
+//! and extra codes, and five floating-point factors), scaled to 256 dimensions
+//! so the benchmark remains practical on a developer laptop.
+//!
+//! Run both the benchmark-local pre-change reader and the current reader against
+//! one persistent fixture:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! LANCE_SHUFFLE_BENCH_FIXTURE_ROOT=/tmp/lance-two-file-fixture \
+//! cargo bench --profile release-with-debug -p lance-index \
+//!   --bench two_file_shuffle_read
+//! ```
+//!
+//! The optional fixture root makes later invocations reopen the exact same files
+//! and manifest. Without it, each process regenerates byte-equivalent
+//! deterministic fixtures in temporary directories.
+//! A benchmark-local copy of the pre-change on-demand offsets reader runs next
+//! to the current reader, so every invocation also provides a same-process,
+//! same-file baseline/current comparison.
+//!
+//! Criterion reports separate reopen, read-only, and reopen-plus-read timings;
+//! the latter two report rows/s.  Before each scenario it also prints one
+//! cache-hot diagnostic pass containing separate init/read/total wall time,
+//! process CPU time, peak RSS, scheduler IOPS, scheduler bytes read, and the
+//! number of logical data ranges requested.  Scheduler counters are split by
+//! phase but aggregate data and offsets files; exact per-file calls require the
+//! scheduler's per-file trace events.  For kernel syscall counts on Linux, wrap
+//! either command with `strace -f -c -e pread64`.
+//! `LANCE_SHUFFLE_BENCH_DISTRIBUTION` (`uniform` or `hotspot`) and
+//! `LANCE_SHUFFLE_BENCH_IMPLEMENTATION` (`baseline` or `current`) can isolate a
+//! scenario in a fresh process so peak RSS is comparable.
+
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::io::Write;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow::{array::AsArray, compute::concat_batches, datatypes::UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+};
+use arrow_schema::Schema;
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use criterion::{Criterion, Throughput};
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID};
+use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
+use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
+use lance_index::vector::PART_ID_COLUMN;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::ex_dot::blocked_ex_code_bytes;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::{RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN, RABIT_CODE_COLUMN};
+use lance_index::vector::bq::transform::{
+    ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+    SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+};
+use lance_index::vector::bq::{rabit_binary_code_bytes, rabit_ex_bits};
+use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffle_bench::{
+    TwoFileShuffleFixtureManifest, open_two_file_shuffle_fixture,
+};
+use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffler::{
+    DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES, ShuffleReader, Shuffler, TwoFileShuffler,
+};
+use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_io::scheduler::{bytes_read_counter, iops_counter};
+use lance_io::stream::{RecordBatchStream, RecordBatchStreamAdapter};
+use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+
+const NUM_FLUSH_GROUPS: usize = 20;
+const NUM_PARTITIONS: usize = 4_096;
+const ROWS_PER_PARTITION: usize = 64;
+const RQ_DIMENSION: usize = 256;
+const RQ_NUM_BITS: u8 = 5;
+const HOTSPOT_TARGET_CV: f64 = 3.6;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+enum Distribution {
+    Uniform,
+    Hotspot,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+enum ReaderImplementation {
+    Baseline,
+    Current,
+}
+
+impl ReaderImplementation {
+    fn name(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Baseline => "baseline_on_demand_offsets",
+            Self::Current => "current",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The pre-change two-file reader, kept local to the benchmark so baseline and
+/// current read the exact same files in the same process.
+struct BaselineTwoFileShuffleReader {
+    _scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    file_reader: FileReader,
+    offsets_reader: FileReader,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    num_flush_groups: u64,
+    partition_counts: Vec<u64>,
+    total_loss: f64,
+}
+
+impl BaselineTwoFileShuffleReader {
+    async fn try_new(
+        output_dir: Path,
+        manifest: &TwoFileShuffleFixtureManifest,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>> {
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let scheduler_config = SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store);
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, scheduler_config);
+
+        let data_path = output_dir.clone().join("shuffle_data.lance");
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            scheduler
+                .open_file(&data_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+                .await?,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let offsets_path = output_dir.join("shuffle_offsets.lance");
+        let offsets_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            scheduler
+                .open_file(&offsets_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+                .await?,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            _scheduler: scheduler,
+            file_reader,
+            offsets_reader,
+            num_partitions: manifest.num_partitions,
+            num_flush_groups: manifest.num_flush_groups,
+            partition_counts: manifest.partition_counts.clone(),
+            total_loss: manifest.total_loss,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    async fn partition_ranges(&self, partition_id: usize) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+        let mut positions = Vec::with_capacity(self.num_flush_groups as usize * 2);
+        for group in 0..self.num_flush_groups {
+            let end_position = u32::try_from(group as usize * self.num_partitions + partition_id)
+                .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input(
+                    "There are more than 2^32 partition offsets in the spill file. Need to support 64-bit take",
+                )
+            })?;
+            if end_position != 0 {
+                positions.push(end_position - 1);
+            }
+            positions.push(end_position);
+        }
+
+        let num_positions = positions.len() as u32;
+        let positions = UInt32Array::from(positions);
+        let offsets_stream = self
+            .offsets_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                ReadBatchParams::Indices(positions),
+                num_positions,
+                1,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let schema = offsets_stream.schema().clone();
+        let offsets = offsets_stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
+        let offsets = if offsets.len() == 1 {
+            offsets.into_iter().next().expect("one offsets batch")
+        } else {
+            concat_batches(&schema, &offsets)?
+        };
+        let offsets = offsets.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let mut offsets_iter = offsets.values().iter().copied();
+
+        let mut ranges = Vec::with_capacity(self.num_flush_groups as usize);
+        for group in 0..self.num_flush_groups {
+            if group == 0 && partition_id == 0 {
+                ranges.push(0..offsets_iter.next().expect("partition end offset"));
+            } else {
+                ranges.push(
+                    offsets_iter.next().expect("partition start offset")
+                        ..offsets_iter.next().expect("partition end offset"),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(ranges)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ShuffleReader for BaselineTwoFileShuffleReader {
+    async fn read_partition(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Option<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>>> {
+        if partition_id >= self.num_partitions || self.partition_counts[partition_id] == 0 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let ranges = self.partition_ranges(partition_id).await?;
+        let schema: Schema = self.file_reader.schema().as_ref().into();
+        let stream = self
+            .file_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges.into()),
+                u32::MAX,
+                16,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        Ok(Some(Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            Arc::new(schema),
+            stream,
+        ))))
+    }
+
+    fn partition_size(&self, partition_id: usize) -> lance_core::Result<usize> {
+        Ok(self
+            .partition_counts
+            .get(partition_id)
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0) as usize)
+    }
+
+    fn total_loss(&self) -> Option<f64> {
+        Some(self.total_loss)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Distribution {
+    fn name(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Uniform => "uniform",
+            Self::Hotspot => "hotspot_cv_3_6",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct Fixture {
+    _temporary_directory: Option<TempDir>,
+    output_dir: Path,
+    manifest_path: PathBuf,
+    manifest: TwoFileShuffleFixtureManifest,
+    baseline_reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
+    current_reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
+    total_rows: u64,
+    coefficient_of_variation: f64,
+}
+
+fn partition_counts(distribution: Distribution) -> Vec<usize> {
+    match distribution {
+        Distribution::Uniform => vec![ROWS_PER_PARTITION; NUM_PARTITIONS],
+        Distribution::Hotspot => {
+            let total_rows = NUM_PARTITIONS * ROWS_PER_PARTITION;
+            let hotspot_rows = (ROWS_PER_PARTITION as f64
+                * (1.0 + HOTSPOT_TARGET_CV * ((NUM_PARTITIONS - 1) as f64).sqrt()))
+            .round() as usize;
+            let other_rows = total_rows - hotspot_rows;
+            let base = other_rows / (NUM_PARTITIONS - 1);
+            let remainder = other_rows % (NUM_PARTITIONS - 1);
+
+            let hotspot_partition = NUM_PARTITIONS / 2;
+            let mut counts = Vec::with_capacity(NUM_PARTITIONS);
+            for partition_id in 0..NUM_PARTITIONS {
+                if partition_id == hotspot_partition {
+                    counts.push(hotspot_rows);
+                } else {
+                    let non_hotspot_index = if partition_id < hotspot_partition {
+                        partition_id
+                    } else {
+                        partition_id - 1
+                    };
+                    counts.push(base + usize::from(non_hotspot_index < remainder));
+                }
+            }
+            counts
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn coefficient_of_variation(counts: &[usize]) -> f64 {
+    let mean = counts.iter().sum::<usize>() as f64 / counts.len() as f64;
+    let variance = counts
+        .iter()
+        .map(|&count| {
+            let delta = count as f64 - mean;
+            delta * delta
+        })
+        .sum::<f64>()
+        / counts.len() as f64;
+    variance.sqrt() / mean
+}
+
+fn rows_in_flush_group(partition_rows: usize, partition_id: usize, group: usize) -> usize {
+    let base = partition_rows / NUM_FLUSH_GROUPS;
+    let remainder = partition_rows % NUM_FLUSH_GROUPS;
+    base + usize::from((group + partition_id * 7) % NUM_FLUSH_GROUPS < remainder)
+}
+
+fn make_rq5_like_batch(counts: &[usize], group: usize, next_row_id: &mut u64) -> RecordBatch {
+    let num_rows = counts
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(partition_id, &rows)| rows_in_flush_group(rows, partition_id, group))
+        .sum::<usize>();
+    let mut partition_ids = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+    let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+
+    // 4051 is coprime to 4096, so every group visits each partition exactly
+    // once but starts with a different deterministic, non-sorted order.
+    for slot in 0..NUM_PARTITIONS {
+        let partition_id = (slot * 4_051 + group * 997) % NUM_PARTITIONS;
+        let group_rows = rows_in_flush_group(counts[partition_id], partition_id, group);
+        for _ in 0..group_rows {
+            partition_ids.push(partition_id as u32);
+            row_ids.push(*next_row_id);
+            *next_row_id += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    let binary_code_bytes = rabit_binary_code_bytes(RQ_DIMENSION);
+    let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(RQ_NUM_BITS).expect("RQ5 must be a valid configuration");
+    let ex_code_bytes = blocked_ex_code_bytes(RQ_DIMENSION, ex_bits);
+    let make_codes = |width: usize, salt: u8| {
+        let values = (0..num_rows * width)
+            .map(|index| (index as u8).wrapping_mul(31).wrapping_add(salt))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(values), width as i32)
+                .expect("valid fixed-size RQ code array"),
+        ) as ArrayRef
+    };
+    let make_factors = |salt: f32| {
+        Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..num_rows).map(|row| salt + (row % 257) as f32 / 257.0),
+        )) as ArrayRef
+    };
+
+    RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            PART_ID_COLUMN,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(partition_ids)) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        (ROW_ID, Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)) as ArrayRef),
+        (RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, make_codes(binary_code_bytes, 11)),
+        (ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, make_factors(1.0)),
+        (SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN, make_factors(2.0)),
+        (ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN, make_factors(3.0)),
+        (RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN, make_codes(ex_code_bytes, 19)),
+        (EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, make_factors(4.0)),
+        (EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN, make_factors(5.0)),
+    ])
+    .expect("all deterministic fixture columns have equal length")
+}
+
+fn batches_to_stream(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static> {
+    let schema = batches
+        .first()
+        .expect("the fixture always has 20 flush groups")
+        .schema();
+    Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema,
+        stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)),
+    ))
+}
+
+async fn build_fixture(distribution: Distribution) -> Fixture {
+    let counts = partition_counts(distribution);
+    let coefficient_of_variation = coefficient_of_variation(&counts);
+    match distribution {
+        Distribution::Uniform => assert_eq!(coefficient_of_variation, 0.0),
+        Distribution::Hotspot => assert!(
+            (coefficient_of_variation - HOTSPOT_TARGET_CV).abs() < 0.01,
+            "hotspot fixture CV was {coefficient_of_variation}"
+        ),
+    }
+
+    let total_rows = counts.iter().sum::<usize>() as u64;
+    let manifest = TwoFileShuffleFixtureManifest {
+        num_partitions: NUM_PARTITIONS,
+        num_flush_groups: NUM_FLUSH_GROUPS as u64,
+        partition_counts: counts.iter().map(|&count| count as u64).collect(),
+        total_loss: 0.0,
+    };
+
+    let (temporary_directory, fixture_path) =
+        if let Some(root) = std::env::var_os("LANCE_SHUFFLE_BENCH_FIXTURE_ROOT") {
+            let fixture_path = PathBuf::from(root).join(distribution.name());
+            std::fs::create_dir_all(&fixture_path).expect("create persistent shuffle fixture root");
+            (None, fixture_path)
+        } else {
+            let directory = TempDir::default();
+            let fixture_path = directory.std_path().to_owned();
+            (Some(directory), fixture_path)
+        };
+    let output_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(&fixture_path)
+        .expect("shuffle fixture path must be a valid object-store path");
+    let manifest_path = fixture_path.join("shuffle_manifest.json");
+
+    if manifest_path.exists() {
+        let stored: TwoFileShuffleFixtureManifest = serde_json::from_slice(
+            &std::fs::read(&manifest_path).expect("read existing shuffle fixture manifest"),
+        )
+        .expect("parse existing shuffle fixture manifest");
+        assert_eq!(
+            stored.num_partitions, manifest.num_partitions,
+            "existing fixture has a different partition count"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stored.num_flush_groups, manifest.num_flush_groups,
+            "existing fixture has a different flush-group count"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stored.partition_counts, manifest.partition_counts,
+            "existing fixture has a different partition distribution"
+        );
+    } else {
+        let mut next_row_id = 0;
+        let batches = (0..NUM_FLUSH_GROUPS)
+            .map(|group| make_rq5_like_batch(&counts, group, &mut next_row_id))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(next_row_id, total_rows);
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir.clone(), NUM_PARTITIONS);
+        let initial_reader = shuffler
+            .shuffle(batches_to_stream(batches))
+            .await
+            .expect("write and reopen deterministic two-file shuffle fixture");
+        drop(initial_reader);
+        std::fs::write(
+            &manifest_path,
+            serde_json::to_vec_pretty(&manifest).expect("serialize deterministic shuffle manifest"),
+        )
+        .expect("write deterministic shuffle manifest");
+    }
+
+    let current_reader = open_two_file_shuffle_fixture(output_dir.clone(), &manifest)
+        .await
+        .expect("reopen frozen two-file shuffle fixture");
+    let baseline_reader = BaselineTwoFileShuffleReader::try_new(output_dir.clone(), &manifest)
+        .await
+        .expect("reopen frozen fixture with baseline reader");
+
+    Fixture {
+        _temporary_directory: temporary_directory,
+        output_dir,
+        manifest_path,
+        manifest,
+        baseline_reader,
+        current_reader: Arc::from(current_reader),
+        total_rows,
+        coefficient_of_variation,
+    }
+}
+
+async fn reopen_fixture(
+    fixture: &Fixture,
+    implementation: ReaderImplementation,
+) -> Arc<dyn ShuffleReader> {
+    let manifest_bytes =
+        std::fs::read(&fixture.manifest_path).expect("read frozen shuffle fixture manifest");
+    let manifest: TwoFileShuffleFixtureManifest =
+        serde_json::from_slice(&manifest_bytes).expect("parse frozen shuffle fixture manifest");
+    assert_eq!(manifest.num_partitions, fixture.manifest.num_partitions);
+    match implementation {
+        ReaderImplementation::Baseline => {
+            BaselineTwoFileShuffleReader::try_new(fixture.output_dir.clone(), &manifest)
+                .await
+                .expect("reopen fixture with baseline reader")
+        }
+        ReaderImplementation::Current => Arc::from(
+            open_two_file_shuffle_fixture(fixture.output_dir.clone(), &manifest)
+                .await
+                .expect("reopen fixture with current reader"),
+        ),
+    }
+}
+
+struct ReadResult {
+    rows: u64,
+    windows: usize,
+}
+
+async fn read_all_partitions_baseline(
+    reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
+    concurrency: usize,
+) -> lance_core::Result<ReadResult> {
+    let rows = stream::iter(0..NUM_PARTITIONS)
+        .map(|partition_id| {
+            let reader = reader.clone();
+            async move {
+                let Some(mut batches) = reader.read_partition(partition_id).await? else {
+                    return Ok::<_, lance_core::Error>(0u64);
+                };
+                let mut rows = 0u64;
+                while let Some(batch) = batches.try_next().await? {
+                    rows += batch.num_rows() as u64;
+                    black_box(batch);
+                }
+                Ok(rows)
+            }
+        })
+        .buffered(concurrency)
+        .try_fold(0u64, |total, rows| async move { Ok(total + rows) })
+        .await?;
+    Ok(ReadResult {
+        rows,
+        windows: NUM_PARTITIONS,
+    })
+}
+
+async fn read_all_partitions_current(
+    reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<ReadResult> {
+    let mut rows = 0u64;
+    let mut windows = 0usize;
+    let mut next_partition_id = 0usize;
+    while next_partition_id < NUM_PARTITIONS {
+        let window = reader
+            .read_partition_window(next_partition_id, DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES)
+            .await?;
+        assert_eq!(window.partition_range.start, next_partition_id);
+        assert!(window.partition_range.end > next_partition_id);
+        assert!(window.partition_range.end <= NUM_PARTITIONS);
+        assert_eq!(window.partition_range.len(), window.partitions.len());
+        next_partition_id = window.partition_range.end;
+        windows += 1;
+
+        for partition in window.partitions {
+            if let Some(mut batches) = partition.data {
+                while let Some(batch) = batches.try_next().await? {
+                    rows += batch.num_rows() as u64;
+                    black_box(batch);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(ReadResult { rows, windows })
+}
+
+async fn read_all_partitions(
+    reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
+    implementation: ReaderImplementation,
+    concurrency: usize,
+) -> lance_core::Result<ReadResult> {
+    match implementation {
+        ReaderImplementation::Baseline => read_all_partitions_baseline(reader, concurrency).await,
+        ReaderImplementation::Current => read_all_partitions_current(reader).await,
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(unix)]
+fn process_resources() -> (f64, u64) {
+    // SAFETY: getrusage initializes the provided rusage value and does not
+    // retain its pointer.  RUSAGE_SELF is valid on all Unix targets.
+    unsafe {
+        let mut usage: libc::rusage = std::mem::zeroed();
+        if libc::getrusage(libc::RUSAGE_SELF, &mut usage) != 0 {
+            return (0.0, 0);
+        }
+        let user_seconds =
+            usage.ru_utime.tv_sec as f64 + usage.ru_utime.tv_usec as f64 / 1_000_000.0;
+        let system_seconds =
+            usage.ru_stime.tv_sec as f64 + usage.ru_stime.tv_usec as f64 / 1_000_000.0;
+        #[cfg(target_os = "macos")]
+        let peak_rss_bytes = usage.ru_maxrss as u64;
+        #[cfg(not(target_os = "macos"))]
+        let peak_rss_bytes = usage.ru_maxrss as u64 * 1024;
+        (user_seconds + system_seconds, peak_rss_bytes)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(unix))]
+fn process_resources() -> (f64, u64) {
+    (0.0, 0)
+}
+
+async fn print_diagnostic(
+    distribution: Distribution,
+    implementation: ReaderImplementation,
+    fixture: &Fixture,
+    concurrency: usize,
+) {
+    let init_iops_before = iops_counter();
+    let init_bytes_before = bytes_read_counter();
+    let (cpu_before, _) = process_resources();
+    let started = Instant::now();
+    let reader = reopen_fixture(fixture, implementation).await;
+    let init_elapsed = started.elapsed();
+    let init_iops = iops_counter() - init_iops_before;
+    let init_bytes_read = bytes_read_counter() - init_bytes_before;
+
+    let read_iops_before = iops_counter();
+    let read_bytes_before = bytes_read_counter();
+    let read_started = Instant::now();
+    let read_result = read_all_partitions(reader, implementation, concurrency)
+        .await
+        .expect("read every deterministic partition");
+    let read_elapsed = read_started.elapsed();
+    let total_elapsed = started.elapsed();
+    let (cpu_after, peak_rss_bytes) = process_resources();
+    assert_eq!(read_result.rows, fixture.total_rows);
+
+    writeln!(
+        std::io::stderr().lock(),
+        "two_file_shuffle_read scenario={} implementation={} flush_groups={} partitions={} rows={} cv={:.4} concurrency={} init_ms={:.3} read_ms={:.3} total_ms={:.3} rows_per_second={:.0} cpu_seconds={:.6} peak_rss_mib={:.1} init_scheduler_iops={} init_scheduler_bytes_read={} read_scheduler_iops={} read_scheduler_bytes_read={} logical_partition_reads={} logical_data_ranges={} offset_entries={} per_file_read_calls=unavailable_use_scheduler_trace",
+        distribution.name(),
+        implementation.name(),
+        NUM_FLUSH_GROUPS,
+        NUM_PARTITIONS,
+        read_result.rows,
+        fixture.coefficient_of_variation,
+        concurrency,
+        init_elapsed.as_secs_f64() * 1_000.0,
+        read_elapsed.as_secs_f64() * 1_000.0,
+        total_elapsed.as_secs_f64() * 1_000.0,
+        read_result.rows as f64 / total_elapsed.as_secs_f64(),
+        cpu_after - cpu_before,
+        peak_rss_bytes as f64 / (1024.0 * 1024.0),
+        init_iops,
+        init_bytes_read,
+        iops_counter() - read_iops_before,
+        bytes_read_counter() - read_bytes_before,
+        read_result.windows,
+        read_result.windows * NUM_FLUSH_GROUPS,
+        NUM_PARTITIONS * NUM_FLUSH_GROUPS,
+    )
+    .expect("write shuffle benchmark diagnostic");
+}
+
+fn bench_two_file_shuffle_read(criterion: &mut Criterion) {
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .expect("create benchmark runtime");
+    let concurrency = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus();
+
+    let distributions = match std::env::var("LANCE_SHUFFLE_BENCH_DISTRIBUTION").as_deref() {
+        Ok("uniform") => vec![Distribution::Uniform],
+        Ok("hotspot") => vec![Distribution::Hotspot],
+        Ok(value) => panic!("unknown LANCE_SHUFFLE_BENCH_DISTRIBUTION={value}"),
+        Err(_) => vec![Distribution::Uniform, Distribution::Hotspot],
+    };
+    let implementations = match std::env::var("LANCE_SHUFFLE_BENCH_IMPLEMENTATION").as_deref() {
+        Ok("baseline") => vec![ReaderImplementation::Baseline],
+        Ok("current") => vec![ReaderImplementation::Current],
+        Ok(value) => panic!("unknown LANCE_SHUFFLE_BENCH_IMPLEMENTATION={value}"),
+        Err(_) => vec![
+            ReaderImplementation::Baseline,
+            ReaderImplementation::Current,
+        ],
+    };
+
+    for distribution in distributions {
+        let fixture = runtime.block_on(build_fixture(distribution));
+        for implementation in implementations.iter().copied() {
+            runtime.block_on(print_diagnostic(
+                distribution,
+                implementation,
+                &fixture,
+                concurrency,
+            ));
+            let benchmark_id = format!("{}/{}", distribution.name(), implementation.name());
+
+            let mut reopen_group = criterion.benchmark_group("two_file_shuffle_reopen");
+            reopen_group.bench_function(&benchmark_id, |bencher| {
+                bencher
+                    .to_async(&runtime)
+                    .iter(|| async { black_box(reopen_fixture(&fixture, implementation).await) });
+            });
+            reopen_group.finish();
+
+            let reader = match implementation {
+                ReaderImplementation::Baseline => fixture.baseline_reader.clone(),
+                ReaderImplementation::Current => fixture.current_reader.clone(),
+            };
+            let mut read_group = criterion.benchmark_group("two_file_shuffle_read_only");
+            read_group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(fixture.total_rows));
+            read_group.bench_function(&benchmark_id, |bencher| {
+                bencher.to_async(&runtime).iter(|| async {
+                    let result = read_all_partitions(reader.clone(), implementation, concurrency)
+                        .await
+                        .expect("read every deterministic partition");
+                    assert_eq!(result.rows, fixture.total_rows);
+                    black_box(result.rows)
+                });
+            });
+            read_group.finish();
+
+            let mut total_group = criterion.benchmark_group("two_file_shuffle_reopen_and_read");
+            total_group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(fixture.total_rows));
+            total_group.bench_function(&benchmark_id, |bencher| {
+                bencher.to_async(&runtime).iter(|| async {
+                    let reader = reopen_fixture(&fixture, implementation).await;
+                    let result = read_all_partitions(reader, implementation, concurrency)
+                        .await
+                        .expect("read every deterministic partition");
+                    assert_eq!(result.rows, fixture.total_rows);
+                    black_box(result.rows)
+                });
+            });
+            total_group.finish();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn main() {
+    // SAFETY: this is the first action in this single-purpose benchmark binary,
+    // before the Tokio runtime or any other worker threads are created.
+    unsafe {
+        std::env::set_var("LANCE_SHUFFLE_BATCH_BYTES", "1");
+    }
+
+    let mut criterion = Criterion::default()
+        .sample_size(10)
+        .warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs(2))
+        .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(8))
+        .configure_from_args();
+    bench_two_file_shuffle_read(&mut criterion);
+    criterion.final_summary();
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/benches/zonemap.rs b/rust/lance-index/benches/zonemap.rs
index fd8bd47c1f4..7dd4b63bd3e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/benches/zonemap.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/benches/zonemap.rs
@@ -3,24 +3,26 @@
 use std::{sync::Arc, time::Duration};
 
 use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
 use futures::stream;
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_core::ROW_ADDR;
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use lance_index::pbold;
 use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
 use lance_index::scalar::zonemap::{
     ZoneMapIndexBuilder, ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams, ZoneMapIndexPlugin,
 };
-use lance_index::scalar::{registry::ScalarIndexPlugin, SargableQuery};
+use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, registry::ScalarIndexPlugin};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use object_store::path::Path;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use object_store::path::Path;
 
 fn bench_zonemap(c: &mut Criterion) {
     const TOTAL: usize = 1_000_000;
@@ -88,7 +90,7 @@ fn bench_zonemap(c: &mut Criterion) {
         .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(10));
     let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
     let index = rt
-        .block_on(ZoneMapIndexPlugin.load_index(store, &details, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()))
+        .block_on(ZoneMapIndexPlugin.load_index(store, &details, 0, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()))
         .unwrap();
     group.bench_function(format!("zonemap_search({TOTAL})").as_str(), |b| {
         b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/build.rs b/rust/lance-index/build.rs
index 5585f0fd784..9840a551c53 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/build.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/build.rs
@@ -6,17 +6,28 @@ use std::io::Result;
 
 fn main() -> Result<()> {
     println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=protos");
+    // Cache-entry protos are library-internal serialization, not part of the
+    // on-disk format spec, so they live here rather than in the shared `protos/`.
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=protos-cache");
 
     #[cfg(feature = "protoc")]
     // Use vendored protobuf compiler if requested.
-    std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    unsafe {
+        std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    }
 
     let mut prost_build = prost_build::Config::new();
     prost_build.protoc_arg("--experimental_allow_proto3_optional");
     prost_build.enable_type_names();
+    prost_build.compile_protos(&["./protos/index_old.proto"], &["./protos"])?;
+    // `index.proto` references `lance.table.InvertedIndexDetails`. An extern
+    // path resolves the reference to the module that includes the generated
+    // `lance.table` code, but it also stops prost from generating that
+    // package, hence the separate pass above.
+    prost_build.extern_path(".lance.table", "crate::pbold");
     prost_build.compile_protos(
-        &["./protos/index.proto", "./protos/index_old.proto"],
-        &["./protos"],
+        &["./protos/index.proto", "./protos-cache/cache.proto"],
+        &["./protos", "./protos-cache"],
     )?;
 
     let rust_toolchain = env::var("RUSTUP_TOOLCHAIN")
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/examples/acorn_bench.rs b/rust/lance-index/examples/acorn_bench.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8a24088e89b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/examples/acorn_bench.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Compare the current mask-aware HNSW traversal (`search_basic`) against an
+//! ACORN-1 style traversal (`search_acorn`) and a flat scan over matching
+//! rows, across filter selectivities and mask shapes:
+//!
+//! - `corr-in`: mask is a cluster in embedding space, query is inside it
+//!   (e.g. "filter to courses" with a course query)
+//! - `corr-out`: mask is a cluster, query is unrelated
+//! - `random`: uniform random mask (the easy case)
+//!
+//! Run: cargo run --release -p lance-index --example acorn_bench
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, types::Float32Type};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
+use lance_index::vector::graph::VisitedGenerator;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::{HNSW, HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams};
+use lance_index::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore};
+use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
+use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+use rand::seq::{IndexedRandom, SliceRandom};
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+
+const TOTAL: usize = 100_000;
+const DIMENSION: usize = 768;
+const K: usize = 10;
+const EF: usize = 100;
+const EF_HI: usize = 400;
+const QUERIES_PER_CASE: usize = 20;
+const SEED: [u8; 32] = [42; 32];
+
+fn all_distances(storage: &FlatFloatStorage, query: Arc<dyn Array>) -> Vec<f32> {
+    let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+    (0..TOTAL as u32).map(|i| dist_calc.distance(i)).collect()
+}
+
+/// Node ids sorted ascending by distance to `query`, restricted to `mask`.
+fn ground_truth(storage: &FlatFloatStorage, query: Arc<dyn Array>, mask: &[bool]) -> Vec<u32> {
+    let dists = all_distances(storage, query);
+    let mut ids: Vec<u32> = (0..TOTAL as u32).filter(|&i| mask[i as usize]).collect();
+    ids.sort_by(|&a, &b| dists[a as usize].partial_cmp(&dists[b as usize]).unwrap());
+    ids.truncate(K);
+    ids
+}
+
+fn recall(got: &[u32], truth: &[u32]) -> f64 {
+    let hits = truth.iter().filter(|id| got.contains(id)).count();
+    hits as f64 / truth.len().max(1) as f64
+}
+
+struct CaseResult {
+    latency_us: Vec<f64>,
+    recalls: Vec<f64>,
+}
+
+impl CaseResult {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            latency_us: vec![],
+            recalls: vec![],
+        }
+    }
+    fn median_latency_ms(&mut self) -> f64 {
+        self.latency_us.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap());
+        self.latency_us[self.latency_us.len() / 2] / 1000.0
+    }
+    fn mean_recall(&self) -> f64 {
+        self.recalls.iter().sum::<f64>() / self.recalls.len() as f64
+    }
+}
+
+fn main() {
+    println!("generating {TOTAL} x {DIMENSION} vectors...");
+    let data = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(TOTAL * DIMENSION, SEED);
+    let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, DIMENSION as i32).unwrap();
+    let storage = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2));
+
+    println!("building HNSW graph...");
+    let build_start = Instant::now();
+    let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(storage.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()).unwrap();
+    println!("built in {:.1}s", build_start.elapsed().as_secs_f32());
+
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(7);
+    let params = HnswQueryParams {
+        ef: EF,
+        lower_bound: None,
+        upper_bound: None,
+        dist_q_c: 0.0,
+        use_acorn: false,
+    };
+    let params_hi = HnswQueryParams {
+        ef: EF_HI,
+        ..params
+    };
+
+    // unfiltered control: this graph's recall ceiling at ef=EF
+    {
+        let mut control = CaseResult::new();
+        let all_mask = vec![true; TOTAL];
+        for _ in 0..QUERIES_PER_CASE {
+            let query_id = rng.random_range(0..TOTAL as u32);
+            let query = fsl.value(query_id as usize);
+            let truth = ground_truth(&storage, query.clone(), &all_mask);
+            let t = Instant::now();
+            let nodes = hnsw
+                .search_basic(query.clone(), K, &params, None, storage.as_ref())
+                .unwrap();
+            control.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+            let got: Vec<u32> = nodes.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+            control.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+        }
+        println!(
+            "\nunfiltered control (ef={EF}): {:.2} ms, recall@{K} {:.3}",
+            control.median_latency_ms(),
+            control.mean_recall()
+        );
+    }
+
+    println!(
+        "\n{:<10} {:>5} | {:>9} {:>7} | {:>10} {:>7} | {:>9} {:>7} | {:>9} {:>7}",
+        "mask",
+        "sel%",
+        "basic ms",
+        "recall",
+        "basic4x ms",
+        "recall",
+        "acorn ms",
+        "recall",
+        "flat ms",
+        "recall"
+    );
+
+    for mask_kind in ["corr-in", "corr-out", "random"] {
+        for selectivity in [0.02f64, 0.05, 0.10, 0.25, 0.50] {
+            let mask_size = (TOTAL as f64 * selectivity) as usize;
+            let mut basic = CaseResult::new();
+            let mut basic_hi = CaseResult::new();
+            let mut acorn = CaseResult::new();
+            let mut flat = CaseResult::new();
+            let mut mask_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(TOTAL);
+
+            for _ in 0..QUERIES_PER_CASE {
+                let mut mask = vec![false; TOTAL];
+                let anchor_id = rng.random_range(0..TOTAL as u32);
+                let member_ids: Vec<u32> = match mask_kind {
+                    "random" => {
+                        let mut ids: Vec<u32> = (0..TOTAL as u32).collect();
+                        ids.shuffle(&mut rng);
+                        ids.truncate(mask_size);
+                        ids
+                    }
+                    _ => {
+                        // cluster: the nearest nodes to a random anchor
+                        let dists = all_distances(&storage, fsl.value(anchor_id as usize));
+                        let mut ids: Vec<u32> = (0..TOTAL as u32).collect();
+                        ids.sort_by(|&a, &b| {
+                            dists[a as usize].partial_cmp(&dists[b as usize]).unwrap()
+                        });
+                        ids.truncate(mask_size);
+                        ids
+                    }
+                };
+                for &id in &member_ids {
+                    mask[id as usize] = true;
+                }
+
+                let query_id = match mask_kind {
+                    "corr-in" => *member_ids.choose(&mut rng).unwrap(),
+                    _ => rng.random_range(0..TOTAL as u32),
+                };
+                let query = fsl.value(query_id as usize);
+                let truth = ground_truth(&storage, query.clone(), &mask);
+
+                // search_basic (current traversal)
+                {
+                    let mut bitset = mask_generator.generate(TOTAL);
+                    for &id in &member_ids {
+                        bitset.insert(id);
+                    }
+                    let t = Instant::now();
+                    let nodes = hnsw
+                        .search_basic(query.clone(), K, &params, Some(bitset), storage.as_ref())
+                        .unwrap();
+                    basic.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+                    let got: Vec<u32> = nodes.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+                    basic.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+                }
+
+                // search_basic at 4x ef (recall-equalizing baseline)
+                {
+                    let mut bitset = mask_generator.generate(TOTAL);
+                    for &id in &member_ids {
+                        bitset.insert(id);
+                    }
+                    let t = Instant::now();
+                    let nodes = hnsw
+                        .search_basic(query.clone(), K, &params_hi, Some(bitset), storage.as_ref())
+                        .unwrap();
+                    basic_hi.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+                    let got: Vec<u32> = nodes.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+                    basic_hi.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+                }
+
+                // search_acorn
+                {
+                    let mut bitset = mask_generator.generate(TOTAL);
+                    for &id in &member_ids {
+                        bitset.insert(id);
+                    }
+                    let t = Instant::now();
+                    let nodes = hnsw
+                        .search_acorn(query.clone(), K, &params, &bitset, storage.as_ref())
+                        .unwrap();
+                    acorn.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+                    let got: Vec<u32> = nodes.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+                    acorn.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+                }
+
+                // flat scan over matching rows
+                {
+                    let t = Instant::now();
+                    let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0);
+                    let mut scored: Vec<(f32, u32)> = member_ids
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|&id| (dist_calc.distance(id), id))
+                        .collect();
+                    scored.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.partial_cmp(&b.0).unwrap());
+                    scored.truncate(K);
+                    flat.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+                    let got: Vec<u32> = scored.iter().map(|&(_, id)| id).collect();
+                    flat.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+                }
+            }
+
+            println!(
+                "{:<10} {:>5.0} | {:>9.2} {:>7.3} | {:>10.2} {:>7.3} | {:>9.2} {:>7.3} | {:>9.2} {:>7.3}",
+                mask_kind,
+                selectivity * 100.0,
+                basic.median_latency_ms(),
+                basic.mean_recall(),
+                basic_hi.median_latency_ms(),
+                basic_hi.mean_recall(),
+                acorn.median_latency_ms(),
+                acorn.mean_recall(),
+                flat.median_latency_ms(),
+                flat.mean_recall(),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/examples/acorn_bench_sift.rs b/rust/lance-index/examples/acorn_bench_sift.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c781ae12577
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/examples/acorn_bench_sift.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,329 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! SIFT1M variant of `acorn_bench`: compares `search_basic`, `search_acorn`,
+//! and a flat scan on the ANN_SIFT1M dataset (1M x 128, L2) with synthetic
+//! filter masks. The unfiltered control is checked against the official
+//! ground truth.
+//!
+//! Run: SIFT_DIR=/path/to/sift cargo run --release -p lance-index --example acorn_bench_sift
+//! Works with any texmex-format dataset, e.g. SIFT_DIR=/path/to/gist for GIST1M.
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
+use lance_index::vector::graph::VisitedGenerator;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::{HNSW, HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams};
+use lance_index::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore};
+use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+use rand::seq::SliceRandom;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+
+const K: usize = 10;
+const EF: usize = 100;
+const EF_HI: usize = 400;
+const QUERIES_PER_CASE: usize = 20;
+
+/// (flat values, dim, count)
+fn read_fvecs(path: &str) -> (Vec<f32>, usize, usize) {
+    let bytes = std::fs::read(path).unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("read {path}: {e}"));
+    let dim = i32::from_le_bytes(bytes[0..4].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+    let record = 4 + dim * 4;
+    assert_eq!(bytes.len() % record, 0);
+    let count = bytes.len() / record;
+    let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(count * dim);
+    for row in 0..count {
+        let start = row * record + 4;
+        for i in 0..dim {
+            let offset = start + i * 4;
+            values.push(f32::from_le_bytes(
+                bytes[offset..offset + 4].try_into().unwrap(),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    (values, dim, count)
+}
+
+fn read_ivecs(path: &str) -> Vec<Vec<u32>> {
+    let bytes = std::fs::read(path).unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("read {path}: {e}"));
+    let dim = i32::from_le_bytes(bytes[0..4].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+    let record = 4 + dim * 4;
+    assert_eq!(bytes.len() % record, 0);
+    (0..bytes.len() / record)
+        .map(|row| {
+            let start = row * record + 4;
+            (0..dim)
+                .map(|i| {
+                    let offset = start + i * 4;
+                    u32::from_le_bytes(bytes[offset..offset + 4].try_into().unwrap())
+                })
+                .collect()
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn all_distances(storage: &FlatFloatStorage, total: usize, query: Arc<dyn Array>) -> Vec<f32> {
+    let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+    (0..total as u32).map(|i| dist_calc.distance(i)).collect()
+}
+
+fn ground_truth(
+    storage: &FlatFloatStorage,
+    total: usize,
+    query: Arc<dyn Array>,
+    mask: &[bool],
+) -> Vec<u32> {
+    let dists = all_distances(storage, total, query);
+    let mut ids: Vec<u32> = (0..total as u32).filter(|&i| mask[i as usize]).collect();
+    ids.sort_by(|&a, &b| dists[a as usize].partial_cmp(&dists[b as usize]).unwrap());
+    ids.truncate(K);
+    ids
+}
+
+fn recall(got: &[u32], truth: &[u32]) -> f64 {
+    let hits = truth.iter().filter(|id| got.contains(id)).count();
+    hits as f64 / truth.len().max(1) as f64
+}
+
+struct CaseResult {
+    latency_us: Vec<f64>,
+    recalls: Vec<f64>,
+}
+
+impl CaseResult {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            latency_us: vec![],
+            recalls: vec![],
+        }
+    }
+    fn median_latency_ms(&mut self) -> f64 {
+        self.latency_us.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap());
+        self.latency_us[self.latency_us.len() / 2] / 1000.0
+    }
+    fn mean_recall(&self) -> f64 {
+        self.recalls.iter().sum::<f64>() / self.recalls.len() as f64
+    }
+}
+
+fn main() {
+    let sift_dir = std::env::var("SIFT_DIR").expect("set SIFT_DIR to the extracted dataset dir");
+    let prefix = std::path::Path::new(&sift_dir)
+        .file_name()
+        .and_then(|name| name.to_str())
+        .expect("SIFT_DIR must end in the dataset name, e.g. sift or gist")
+        .to_string();
+    println!("loading {prefix} from {sift_dir}...");
+    let (base, dim, total) = read_fvecs(&format!("{sift_dir}/{prefix}_base.fvecs"));
+    let (queries, query_dim, num_queries) = read_fvecs(&format!("{sift_dir}/{prefix}_query.fvecs"));
+    let official_gt = read_ivecs(&format!("{sift_dir}/{prefix}_groundtruth.ivecs"));
+    assert_eq!(dim, query_dim);
+    println!("base {total} x {dim}, {num_queries} queries");
+
+    let fsl =
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(base), dim as i32).unwrap();
+    let storage = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2));
+    let query_vec = |i: usize| -> Arc<dyn Array> {
+        Arc::new(Float32Array::from(queries[i * dim..(i + 1) * dim].to_vec()))
+    };
+
+    println!("building HNSW graph...");
+    let build_start = Instant::now();
+    let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(storage.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()).unwrap();
+    println!("built in {:.1}s", build_start.elapsed().as_secs_f32());
+
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(7);
+    let params = HnswQueryParams {
+        ef: EF,
+        lower_bound: None,
+        upper_bound: None,
+        dist_q_c: 0.0,
+        use_acorn: false,
+    };
+    let params_hi = HnswQueryParams {
+        ef: EF_HI,
+        ..params
+    };
+
+    // unfiltered control against the official ground truth
+    {
+        let mut control = CaseResult::new();
+        for _ in 0..QUERIES_PER_CASE {
+            let query_id = rng.random_range(0..num_queries);
+            let query = query_vec(query_id);
+            let truth: Vec<u32> = official_gt[query_id][..K].to_vec();
+            let t = Instant::now();
+            let nodes = hnsw
+                .search_basic(query, K, &params, None, storage.as_ref())
+                .unwrap();
+            control.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+            let got: Vec<u32> = nodes.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+            control.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+        }
+        println!(
+            "\nunfiltered control (ef={EF}, official GT): {:.2} ms, recall@{K} {:.3}",
+            control.median_latency_ms(),
+            control.mean_recall()
+        );
+    }
+
+    println!(
+        "\n{:<10} {:>5} | {:>9} {:>7} | {:>10} {:>7} | {:>9} {:>7} | {:>10} {:>7} | {:>9} {:>7}",
+        "mask",
+        "sel%",
+        "basic ms",
+        "recall",
+        "basic4x ms",
+        "recall",
+        "acorn ms",
+        "recall",
+        "acorn4x ms",
+        "recall",
+        "flat ms",
+        "recall"
+    );
+
+    for mask_kind in ["corr-in", "corr-out", "random"] {
+        for selectivity in [0.02f64, 0.05, 0.10, 0.25, 0.50] {
+            let mask_size = (total as f64 * selectivity) as usize;
+            let mut basic = CaseResult::new();
+            let mut basic_hi = CaseResult::new();
+            let mut acorn = CaseResult::new();
+            let mut acorn_hi = CaseResult::new();
+            let mut flat = CaseResult::new();
+            let mut mask_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(total);
+
+            for _ in 0..QUERIES_PER_CASE {
+                let query_id = rng.random_range(0..num_queries);
+                let query = query_vec(query_id);
+
+                // corr-in: cluster around the query's own neighborhood
+                // corr-out: cluster around an unrelated base vector
+                let mut mask = vec![false; total];
+                let member_ids: Vec<u32> = match mask_kind {
+                    "random" => {
+                        let mut ids: Vec<u32> = (0..total as u32).collect();
+                        ids.shuffle(&mut rng);
+                        ids.truncate(mask_size);
+                        ids
+                    }
+                    _ => {
+                        let anchor: Arc<dyn Array> = match mask_kind {
+                            "corr-in" => query.clone(),
+                            _ => fsl.value(rng.random_range(0..total)),
+                        };
+                        let dists = all_distances(&storage, total, anchor);
+                        let mut ids: Vec<u32> = (0..total as u32).collect();
+                        ids.sort_by(|&a, &b| {
+                            dists[a as usize].partial_cmp(&dists[b as usize]).unwrap()
+                        });
+                        ids.truncate(mask_size);
+                        ids
+                    }
+                };
+                for &id in &member_ids {
+                    mask[id as usize] = true;
+                }
+                let truth = ground_truth(&storage, total, query.clone(), &mask);
+
+                // search_basic (current traversal)
+                {
+                    let mut bitset = mask_generator.generate(total);
+                    for &id in &member_ids {
+                        bitset.insert(id);
+                    }
+                    let t = Instant::now();
+                    let nodes = hnsw
+                        .search_basic(query.clone(), K, &params, Some(bitset), storage.as_ref())
+                        .unwrap();
+                    basic.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+                    let got: Vec<u32> = nodes.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+                    basic.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+                }
+
+                // search_basic at 4x ef (recall-equalizing baseline)
+                {
+                    let mut bitset = mask_generator.generate(total);
+                    for &id in &member_ids {
+                        bitset.insert(id);
+                    }
+                    let t = Instant::now();
+                    let nodes = hnsw
+                        .search_basic(query.clone(), K, &params_hi, Some(bitset), storage.as_ref())
+                        .unwrap();
+                    basic_hi.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+                    let got: Vec<u32> = nodes.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+                    basic_hi.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+                }
+
+                // search_acorn
+                {
+                    let mut bitset = mask_generator.generate(total);
+                    for &id in &member_ids {
+                        bitset.insert(id);
+                    }
+                    let t = Instant::now();
+                    let nodes = hnsw
+                        .search_acorn(query.clone(), K, &params, &bitset, storage.as_ref())
+                        .unwrap();
+                    acorn.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+                    let got: Vec<u32> = nodes.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+                    acorn.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+                }
+
+                // search_acorn at 4x ef
+                {
+                    let mut bitset = mask_generator.generate(total);
+                    for &id in &member_ids {
+                        bitset.insert(id);
+                    }
+                    let t = Instant::now();
+                    let nodes = hnsw
+                        .search_acorn(query.clone(), K, &params_hi, &bitset, storage.as_ref())
+                        .unwrap();
+                    acorn_hi.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+                    let got: Vec<u32> = nodes.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+                    acorn_hi.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+                }
+
+                // flat scan over matching rows
+                {
+                    let t = Instant::now();
+                    let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0);
+                    let mut scored: Vec<(f32, u32)> = member_ids
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|&id| (dist_calc.distance(id), id))
+                        .collect();
+                    scored.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.partial_cmp(&b.0).unwrap());
+                    scored.truncate(K);
+                    flat.latency_us.push(t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6);
+                    let got: Vec<u32> = scored.iter().map(|&(_, id)| id).collect();
+                    flat.recalls.push(recall(&got, &truth));
+                }
+            }
+
+            println!(
+                "{:<10} {:>5.0} | {:>9.2} {:>7.3} | {:>10.2} {:>7.3} | {:>9.2} {:>7.3} | {:>10.2} {:>7.3} | {:>9.2} {:>7.3}",
+                mask_kind,
+                selectivity * 100.0,
+                basic.median_latency_ms(),
+                basic.mean_recall(),
+                basic_hi.median_latency_ms(),
+                basic_hi.mean_recall(),
+                acorn.median_latency_ms(),
+                acorn.mean_recall(),
+                acorn_hi.median_latency_ms(),
+                acorn_hi.mean_recall(),
+                flat.median_latency_ms(),
+                flat.mean_recall(),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/examples/kmeans_quality.rs b/rust/lance-index/examples/kmeans_quality.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ab0ae923421
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/examples/kmeans_quality.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,520 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Measure IVF k-means training time against clustering quality on a big-ann
+//! style `.fbin` dataset (`u32` row count, `u32` dimension, then row-major
+//! `f32` vectors), such as the 10M subsets of DEEP1B or Text-to-Image1B.
+//!
+//! Trains on a seeded sample of `sample_rate * k` rows, assigns the whole base
+//! to the trained centroids with the exact flat assignment, and reports:
+//!
+//! - training and assignment wall time,
+//! - WCSS (mean squared L2 distance to the assigned centroid) on the base and
+//!   on the training sample,
+//! - partition-size balance: coefficient of variation, percentiles relative to
+//!   the mean size, empty and oversized (> 4x mean) partitions,
+//! - per-query scan cost (rows in the `nprobes` nearest partitions) and
+//!   recall@10 of the probed partitions against exact ground truth.
+//!
+//! Run:
+//!   cargo run --release -p lance-index --example kmeans_quality -- \
+//!     --base /data/T2I/base.10M.fbin --queries /data/T2I/query.public.100K.fbin \
+//!     --k 2441 --mode hierarchical --hk 16 --refine-iters 2 --seed 1 --out results.jsonl
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::fs::{File, OpenOptions};
+use std::io::{BufReader, Read, Seek, SeekFrom, Write};
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use arrow_array::Float32Array;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{
+    KMeansAlgoFloat, KMeansParams, compute_partitions_with_dists, kmeans_find_partitions,
+    train_kmeans,
+};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use lance_linalg::distance::l2::l2_distance_batch;
+use rand::SeedableRng;
+use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+use rayon::prelude::*;
+
+const TOP_K: usize = 10;
+
+struct Args {
+    base: PathBuf,
+    queries: PathBuf,
+    rows: Option<usize>,
+    k: usize,
+    sample_rate: usize,
+    seed: u64,
+    hk: usize,
+    max_iters: u32,
+    mode: String,
+    refine_iters: u32,
+    balance_factor: f32,
+    nprobes: usize,
+    num_queries: usize,
+    threads: Option<usize>,
+    label: String,
+    out: Option<PathBuf>,
+    skip_assign: bool,
+    stream: bool,
+}
+
+fn parse_args() -> Args {
+    let mut args = Args {
+        base: PathBuf::new(),
+        queries: PathBuf::new(),
+        rows: None,
+        k: 2441,
+        sample_rate: 256,
+        seed: 1,
+        hk: 16,
+        max_iters: 50,
+        mode: "hierarchical".to_string(),
+        refine_iters: 0,
+        balance_factor: 1.0,
+        nprobes: 20,
+        num_queries: 1000,
+        threads: None,
+        label: String::new(),
+        out: None,
+        skip_assign: false,
+        stream: false,
+    };
+    let argv: Vec<String> = std::env::args().skip(1).collect();
+    let mut i = 0;
+    while i + 1 < argv.len() {
+        let value = &argv[i + 1];
+        match argv[i].as_str() {
+            "--base" => args.base = PathBuf::from(value),
+            "--queries" => args.queries = PathBuf::from(value),
+            "--rows" => args.rows = Some(value.parse().unwrap()),
+            "--k" => args.k = value.parse().unwrap(),
+            "--sample-rate" => args.sample_rate = value.parse().unwrap(),
+            "--seed" => args.seed = value.parse().unwrap(),
+            "--hk" => args.hk = value.parse().unwrap(),
+            "--max-iters" => args.max_iters = value.parse().unwrap(),
+            "--mode" => args.mode = value.clone(),
+            "--refine-iters" => args.refine_iters = value.parse().unwrap(),
+            "--balance-factor" => args.balance_factor = value.parse().unwrap(),
+            "--nprobes" => args.nprobes = value.parse().unwrap(),
+            "--num-queries" => args.num_queries = value.parse().unwrap(),
+            "--threads" => args.threads = Some(value.parse().unwrap()),
+            "--label" => args.label = value.clone(),
+            "--out" => args.out = Some(PathBuf::from(value)),
+            "--skip-assign" => {
+                args.skip_assign = value == "true";
+            }
+            "--stream" => {
+                args.stream = value == "true";
+            }
+            other => panic!("unknown argument {other}"),
+        }
+        i += 2;
+    }
+    assert!(args.base.exists(), "--base {:?} does not exist", args.base);
+    assert!(
+        args.queries.exists(),
+        "--queries {:?} does not exist",
+        args.queries
+    );
+    args
+}
+
+/// Rows of the base, either held in memory or streamed from the `.fbin` file in
+/// chunks so that a base larger than memory can still be assigned and scored.
+enum Base {
+    Memory {
+        values: Vec<f32>,
+        rows: usize,
+        dim: usize,
+    },
+    File {
+        path: PathBuf,
+        rows: usize,
+        dim: usize,
+    },
+}
+
+const STREAM_CHUNK_ROWS: usize = 200_000;
+
+impl Base {
+    fn rows(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Memory { rows, .. } | Self::File { rows, .. } => *rows,
+        }
+    }
+    fn dim(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Memory { dim, .. } | Self::File { dim, .. } => *dim,
+        }
+    }
+    /// Call `f(start_row, values)` for consecutive chunks covering every row.
+    fn for_each_chunk(&self, mut f: impl FnMut(usize, &[f32])) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Memory { values, rows, dim } => {
+                let mut start = 0;
+                while start < *rows {
+                    let take = STREAM_CHUNK_ROWS.min(rows - start);
+                    f(start, &values[start * dim..(start + take) * dim]);
+                    start += take;
+                }
+            }
+            Self::File { path, rows, dim } => {
+                let mut file = BufReader::with_capacity(8 << 20, File::open(path).unwrap());
+                file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(8)).unwrap();
+                let mut bytes = vec![0u8; STREAM_CHUNK_ROWS * dim * 4];
+                let mut values = vec![0f32; STREAM_CHUNK_ROWS * dim];
+                let mut start = 0;
+                while start < *rows {
+                    let take = STREAM_CHUNK_ROWS.min(rows - start);
+                    file.read_exact(&mut bytes[..take * dim * 4]).unwrap();
+                    for (v, b) in values[..take * dim]
+                        .iter_mut()
+                        .zip(bytes.as_chunks::<4>().0)
+                    {
+                        *v = f32::from_le_bytes(*b);
+                    }
+                    f(start, &values[..take * dim]);
+                    start += take;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    /// Gather the given rows, returned in the order of `rows`.
+    fn gather(&self, rows: &[usize]) -> Vec<f32> {
+        let dim = self.dim();
+        let mut out = vec![0f32; rows.len() * dim];
+        let mut order: Vec<(usize, usize)> = rows
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(pos, row)| (row, pos))
+            .collect();
+        order.sort_unstable();
+        let mut next = 0;
+        self.for_each_chunk(|start, values| {
+            let end = start + values.len() / dim;
+            while next < order.len() && order[next].0 < end {
+                let (row, pos) = order[next];
+                out[pos * dim..(pos + 1) * dim]
+                    .copy_from_slice(&values[(row - start) * dim..(row - start + 1) * dim]);
+                next += 1;
+            }
+        });
+        out
+    }
+}
+
+fn fbin_header(path: &Path) -> (usize, usize) {
+    let mut file = File::open(path).unwrap();
+    let mut header = [0u8; 8];
+    file.read_exact(&mut header).unwrap();
+    (
+        u32::from_le_bytes(header[0..4].try_into().unwrap()) as usize,
+        u32::from_le_bytes(header[4..8].try_into().unwrap()) as usize,
+    )
+}
+
+/// Read up to `limit` rows of an `.fbin` file. Returns the flat values, the
+/// number of rows read and the dimension.
+fn read_fbin(path: &Path, limit: Option<usize>) -> (Vec<f32>, usize, usize) {
+    let mut file = BufReader::with_capacity(1 << 20, File::open(path).unwrap());
+    let mut header = [0u8; 8];
+    file.read_exact(&mut header).unwrap();
+    let n = u32::from_le_bytes(header[0..4].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+    let d = u32::from_le_bytes(header[4..8].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+    let rows = limit.map_or(n, |limit| limit.min(n));
+    let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(rows * d);
+    let mut chunk = vec![0u8; 64 << 20];
+    let mut remaining = rows * d * 4;
+    while remaining > 0 {
+        let take = remaining.min(chunk.len());
+        file.read_exact(&mut chunk[..take]).unwrap();
+        values.extend(
+            chunk[..take]
+                .as_chunks::<4>()
+                .0
+                .iter()
+                .map(|b| f32::from_le_bytes(*b)),
+        );
+        remaining -= take;
+    }
+    (values, rows, d)
+}
+
+/// Exact top-10 neighbours of every query over the base, cached next to the
+/// query file since they do not depend on the clustering.
+fn ground_truth(args: &Args, base: &Base, rows: usize, d: usize, queries: &[f32]) -> Vec<u32> {
+    let cache = args.queries.with_extension(format!(
+        "gt{}.rows{}.top{}.bin",
+        args.num_queries, rows, TOP_K
+    ));
+    if let Ok(mut file) = File::open(&cache) {
+        let mut bytes = Vec::new();
+        file.read_to_end(&mut bytes).unwrap();
+        if bytes.len() == args.num_queries * TOP_K * 4 {
+            return bytes
+                .as_chunks::<4>()
+                .0
+                .iter()
+                .map(|b| u32::from_le_bytes(*b))
+                .collect();
+        }
+    }
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let num_queries = queries.len() / d;
+    let mut best: Vec<Vec<(f32, u32)>> = vec![Vec::with_capacity(TOP_K + 1); num_queries];
+    base.for_each_chunk(|chunk_start, values| {
+        queries
+            .par_chunks(d)
+            .zip(best.par_iter_mut())
+            .for_each(|(query, best)| {
+                for (i, dist) in l2_distance_batch(query, values, d).enumerate() {
+                    if best.len() < TOP_K || dist < best[TOP_K - 1].0 {
+                        let pos = best.partition_point(|(other, _)| *other <= dist);
+                        best.insert(pos, (dist, (chunk_start + i) as u32));
+                        best.truncate(TOP_K);
+                    }
+                }
+            });
+    });
+    let gt: Vec<u32> = best
+        .into_iter()
+        .flat_map(|best| best.into_iter().map(|(_, row)| row))
+        .collect();
+    println!(
+        "ground truth for {} queries over {} rows in {:.1}s",
+        args.num_queries,
+        rows,
+        start.elapsed().as_secs_f64()
+    );
+    let bytes: Vec<u8> = gt.iter().flat_map(|row| row.to_le_bytes()).collect();
+    std::fs::write(&cache, bytes).unwrap();
+    gt
+}
+
+fn percentile(sorted: &[f64], p: f64) -> f64 {
+    if sorted.is_empty() {
+        return 0.0;
+    }
+    let rank = ((sorted.len() as f64 - 1.0) * p).round() as usize;
+    sorted[rank.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+fn main() {
+    let args = parse_args();
+    if let Some(threads) = args.threads {
+        rayon::ThreadPoolBuilder::new()
+            .num_threads(threads)
+            .build_global()
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let load_start = Instant::now();
+    let base = if args.stream {
+        let (rows, dim) = fbin_header(&args.base);
+        let rows = args.rows.map_or(rows, |limit| limit.min(rows));
+        Base::File {
+            path: args.base.clone(),
+            rows,
+            dim,
+        }
+    } else {
+        let (values, rows, dim) = read_fbin(&args.base, args.rows);
+        Base::Memory { values, rows, dim }
+    };
+    let (rows, d) = (base.rows(), base.dim());
+    let (queries, _, qd) = read_fbin(&args.queries, Some(args.num_queries));
+    assert_eq!(d, qd, "query dimension differs from base dimension");
+    println!(
+        "loaded {} x {} base and {} queries in {:.1}s",
+        rows,
+        d,
+        args.num_queries,
+        load_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64()
+    );
+
+    // Seeded training sample in random order: the trainer takes prefixes of it
+    // when it sub-samples, so the order must not carry structure.
+    let sample_size = (args.sample_rate * args.k).min(rows);
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(args.seed);
+    let sample_indices = rand::seq::index::sample(&mut rng, rows, sample_size).into_vec();
+    let sample = Float32Array::from(base.gather(&sample_indices));
+
+    let hierarchical = match args.mode.as_str() {
+        "flat" => false,
+        "hierarchical" => true,
+        other => panic!("unknown --mode {other}"),
+    };
+    let params = KMeansParams::new(None, args.max_iters, 1, DistanceType::L2)
+        .with_balance_factor(args.balance_factor)
+        .with_refine_iters(args.refine_iters)
+        .with_seed(args.seed)
+        .with_hierarchical_k(if hierarchical { args.hk } else { 1 });
+
+    let train_start = Instant::now();
+    let kmeans = train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(&sample, params, d, args.k, args.sample_rate).unwrap();
+    let train_secs = train_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let centroids = kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone();
+    let k = centroids.len() / d;
+    println!(
+        "trained {} centroids ({} {}, hk={}, refine={}) in {:.1}s",
+        k, args.mode, args.k, args.hk, args.refine_iters, train_secs
+    );
+    if args.skip_assign {
+        let result = serde_json::json!({
+            "label": args.label, "k": args.k, "mode": args.mode, "hk": args.hk,
+            "refine_iters": args.refine_iters, "seed": args.seed, "rows": rows, "dim": d,
+            "train_secs": train_secs, "train_only": true,
+        });
+        println!("{}", serde_json::to_string(&result).unwrap());
+        if let Some(out) = &args.out {
+            let mut file = OpenOptions::new()
+                .create(true)
+                .append(true)
+                .open(out)
+                .unwrap();
+            writeln!(file, "{}", serde_json::to_string(&result).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        }
+        return;
+    }
+
+    let assign_start = Instant::now();
+    let mut membership: Vec<Option<u32>> = Vec::with_capacity(rows);
+    let mut dists: Vec<Option<f32>> = Vec::with_capacity(rows);
+    base.for_each_chunk(|_, values| {
+        let chunk = Float32Array::from(values.to_vec());
+        let (chunk_membership, chunk_dists) = compute_partitions_with_dists::<
+            Float32Type,
+            KMeansAlgoFloat<Float32Type>,
+        >(&centroids, &chunk, d, DistanceType::L2);
+        membership.extend(chunk_membership);
+        dists.extend(chunk_dists);
+    });
+    let assign_secs = assign_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let centroids = centroids.values();
+
+    let mut sizes = vec![0usize; k];
+    let mut assigned = 0usize;
+    let mut wcss = 0.0f64;
+    for (cluster, dist) in membership.iter().zip(dists.iter()) {
+        if let (Some(cluster), Some(dist)) = (cluster, dist) {
+            sizes[*cluster as usize] += 1;
+            assigned += 1;
+            wcss += *dist as f64;
+        }
+    }
+    let wcss_base = wcss / assigned as f64;
+    let wcss_sample = sample_indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|&row| dists[row].map(|dist| dist as f64))
+        .sum::<f64>()
+        / sample_indices.len() as f64;
+
+    let mean_size = assigned as f64 / k as f64;
+    let mut sorted: Vec<f64> = sizes.iter().map(|&s| s as f64 / mean_size).collect();
+    sorted.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap());
+    let cv = (sorted.iter().map(|s| (s - 1.0).powi(2)).sum::<f64>() / k as f64).sqrt();
+    let empty = sizes.iter().filter(|&&s| s == 0).count();
+    let tiny = sorted.iter().filter(|&&s| s < 0.25).count();
+    let oversized: Vec<usize> = sizes
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .filter(|&s| s as f64 > 4.0 * mean_size)
+        .collect();
+    let rows_in_oversized = oversized.iter().sum::<usize>() as f64 / assigned as f64;
+
+    let gt = ground_truth(&args, &base, rows, d, queries.as_slice());
+    let max_probes = (args.nprobes * 2).min(k);
+    let probed: Vec<Vec<u32>> = queries
+        .as_slice()
+        .par_chunks(d)
+        .map(|query| {
+            let (ids, _) =
+                kmeans_find_partitions(centroids, query, max_probes, DistanceType::L2).unwrap();
+            ids.values().to_vec()
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let mut query_metrics = serde_json::Map::new();
+    for nprobes in [args.nprobes / 2, args.nprobes, args.nprobes * 2] {
+        let nprobes = nprobes.clamp(1, max_probes);
+        let mut scanned: Vec<f64> = Vec::with_capacity(probed.len());
+        let mut recall = 0.0f64;
+        for (q, ids) in probed.iter().enumerate() {
+            let ids = &ids[..nprobes];
+            scanned.push(ids.iter().map(|&id| sizes[id as usize] as f64).sum::<f64>());
+            let probed_set: HashSet<u32> = ids.iter().copied().collect();
+            let hits = gt[q * TOP_K..(q + 1) * TOP_K]
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|&&row| membership[row as usize].is_some_and(|c| probed_set.contains(&c)))
+                .count();
+            recall += hits as f64 / TOP_K as f64;
+        }
+        recall /= probed.len() as f64;
+        scanned.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap());
+        let expected = nprobes as f64 * mean_size;
+        query_metrics.insert(
+            format!("nprobes_{nprobes}"),
+            serde_json::json!({
+                "recall_at_10": recall,
+                "scan_rows_mean": scanned.iter().sum::<f64>() / scanned.len() as f64,
+                "scan_rows_p50": percentile(&scanned, 0.5),
+                "scan_rows_p90": percentile(&scanned, 0.9),
+                "scan_rows_p99": percentile(&scanned, 0.99),
+                "scan_rows_max": scanned.last().copied().unwrap_or(0.0),
+                "scan_p99_over_expected": percentile(&scanned, 0.99) / expected,
+                "scan_max_over_expected": scanned.last().copied().unwrap_or(0.0) / expected,
+            }),
+        );
+    }
+
+    let result = serde_json::json!({
+        "label": args.label,
+        "base": args.base,
+        "rows": rows,
+        "dim": d,
+        "k": args.k,
+        "k_trained": k,
+        "sample_rate": args.sample_rate,
+        "sample_size": sample_size,
+        "seed": args.seed,
+        "mode": args.mode,
+        "hk": args.hk,
+        "max_iters": args.max_iters,
+        "refine_iters": args.refine_iters,
+        "balance_factor": args.balance_factor,
+        "threads": args.threads.unwrap_or_else(rayon::current_num_threads),
+        "stream": args.stream,
+        "train_secs": train_secs,
+        "assign_secs": assign_secs,
+        "train_loss": kmeans.loss,
+        "wcss_base": wcss_base,
+        "wcss_sample": wcss_sample,
+        "size_mean": mean_size,
+        "size_cv": cv,
+        "size_p50_over_mean": percentile(&sorted, 0.5),
+        "size_p90_over_mean": percentile(&sorted, 0.9),
+        "size_p99_over_mean": percentile(&sorted, 0.99),
+        "size_max_over_mean": sorted.last().copied().unwrap_or(0.0),
+        "empty": empty,
+        "tiny_under_quarter_mean": tiny,
+        "oversized_over_4x_mean": oversized.len(),
+        "rows_in_oversized": rows_in_oversized,
+        "queries": query_metrics,
+    });
+    println!("{}", serde_json::to_string_pretty(&result).unwrap());
+    if let Some(out) = &args.out {
+        let mut file = OpenOptions::new()
+            .create(true)
+            .append(true)
+            .open(out)
+            .unwrap();
+        writeln!(file, "{}", serde_json::to_string(&result).unwrap()).unwrap();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/protos-cache/cache.proto b/rust/lance-index/protos-cache/cache.proto
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..80298e96633
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/protos-cache/cache.proto
@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+/* Protobuf headers for serialized index cache entries.
+ *
+ * These messages describe the *cache* serialization format, not the on-disk
+ * Lance format spec, so they live with the library (lance-index) rather than in
+ * the top-level `protos/` spec folder.
+ *
+ * Field numbers and enum values are append-only across all messages here: never
+ * renumber or reuse them. A change the proto cannot express transparently
+ * (adding/removing/reordering the IPC/raw sections that follow a header) must
+ * bump the relevant codec's `CURRENT_VERSION` instead.
+ */
+
+syntax = "proto3";
+
+package lance.index.cache;
+
+/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ * Full-text search (FTS) posting lists
+ * ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ */
+
+// Header for a serialized `CompressedPostingList` cache entry.
+message CompressedPostingHeader {
+  float max_score = 1;
+  uint32 length = 2;
+  PostingTailCodec posting_tail_codec = 3;
+  PositionStorage position_storage = 4;
+  // Only meaningful when position_storage == POSITION_STORAGE_SHARED.
+  PositionStreamCodec position_stream_codec = 5;
+  /* Number of documents in each compressed posting block. Older cache entries
+   * omit this field and decode as the legacy 128-doc block size.
+   */
+  uint32 block_size = 6;
+  // Whether an impact IPC section follows the posting/position sections.
+  bool has_impacts = 7;
+}
+
+/* Header for a serialized `PlainPostingList` cache entry. Followed by an Arrow
+ * IPC section of (row_ids: UInt64, frequencies: Float32), then — when
+ * position_storage == POSITION_STORAGE_LEGACY — an IPC section of the per-doc
+ * position list. Plain postings never carry a shared position stream.
+ */
+message PlainPostingHeader {
+  /* Absent when the posting has no precomputed block-max score (the in-memory
+   * `max_score` is `None`); present otherwise.
+   */
+  optional float max_score = 1;
+  // POSITION_STORAGE_NONE or POSITION_STORAGE_LEGACY only.
+  PositionStorage position_storage = 2;
+}
+
+/* Header for a serialized standalone `Positions` cache entry. Followed by the
+ * position sections framed per `position_storage`, which is never
+ * POSITION_STORAGE_NONE for a standalone entry.
+ */
+message PositionsHeader {
+  PositionStorage position_storage = 1;
+  // Only meaningful when position_storage == POSITION_STORAGE_SHARED.
+  PositionStreamCodec position_stream_codec = 2;
+}
+
+/* Header for a serialized `PostingListGroup`: a member count followed by that
+ * many `PostingList` bodies written inline. Each member body is
+ * self-delimiting, so members need no length prefixes, and writing them inline
+ * keeps their Arrow IPC sections 64-byte aligned within the group entry.
+ */
+message PostingListGroupHeader {
+  uint32 count = 1;
+}
+
+// Tail-block encoding of a compressed posting list.
+enum PostingTailCodec {
+  POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_FIXED32 = 0;
+  POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_VARINT_DELTA = 1;
+}
+
+// Encoding of a shared position stream's byte buffer.
+enum PositionStreamCodec {
+  POSITION_STREAM_CODEC_VARINT_DOC_DELTA = 0;
+  POSITION_STREAM_CODEC_PACKED_DELTA = 1;
+}
+
+/* Which (if any) positions accompany the posting list, and how they are framed
+ * in the sections after the header.
+ */
+enum PositionStorage {
+  POSITION_STORAGE_NONE = 0;
+  // Legacy per-doc positions as a single Arrow IPC section.
+  POSITION_STORAGE_LEGACY = 1;
+  /* Shared stream: an Arrow IPC section of block offsets, then a raw blob of
+   * the (codec-encoded) position bytes.
+   */
+  POSITION_STORAGE_SHARED = 2;
+}
+
+/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ * Scalar indices
+ * ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ */
+
+/* Header for a serialized `BTreeIndexState` cache entry, followed by a single
+ * Arrow IPC section holding the page-lookup batch.
+ */
+message BTreeIndexHeader {
+  uint64 batch_size = 1;
+  /* Whether an explicit page-range -> file mapping is present. Distinguishes a
+   * non-range-partitioned index (false) from a range-partitioned one whose map
+   * happens to be empty (true with no entries).
+   */
+  bool has_ranges_to_files = 2;
+  repeated RangeToFile ranges_to_files = 3;
+}
+
+/* One entry of a `BTreeIndexState` page-range -> file mapping. The range is
+ * inclusive on both ends (a `RangeInclusive<u32>`).
+ */
+message RangeToFile {
+  uint32 start = 1;
+  uint32 end = 2;
+  uint32 page_offset = 3;
+  string path = 4;
+}
+
+/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ * Vector indices (IVF partitions)
+ * ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ */
+
+/* Headers for serialized IVF partition cache entries (`PartitionEntry<S, Q>`).
+ *
+ * Each header is followed by 64-byte-aligned Arrow IPC sections in a fixed,
+ * version-keyed order (sub-index, then any quantizer-specific arrays, then the
+ * quantizer storage batches).
+ */
+
+// Distance metric a quantizer's storage was built for.
+enum DistanceType {
+  DISTANCE_TYPE_L2 = 0;
+  DISTANCE_TYPE_COSINE = 1;
+  DISTANCE_TYPE_DOT = 2;
+  DISTANCE_TYPE_HAMMING = 3;
+}
+
+// Rotation applied by a RabitQ quantizer.
+enum RotationType {
+  ROTATION_TYPE_MATRIX = 0;
+  ROTATION_TYPE_FAST = 1;
+}
+
+// Estimator a RabitQ quantizer uses at query time.
+enum RabitQueryEstimator {
+  RABIT_QUERY_ESTIMATOR_RESIDUAL_QUERY = 0;
+  RABIT_QUERY_ESTIMATOR_RAW_QUERY = 1;
+}
+
+// Product quantizer. Sections: sub-index IPC, codebook IPC, storage IPC.
+message PqPartitionHeader {
+  DistanceType distance_type = 1;
+  uint32 nbits = 2;
+  uint64 num_sub_vectors = 3;
+  uint64 dimension = 4;
+  bool transposed = 5;
+}
+
+// Flat (float) and flat-binary quantizers. Sections: sub-index IPC, storage IPC.
+message FlatPartitionHeader {
+  DistanceType distance_type = 1;
+  uint64 dim = 2;
+}
+
+// Scalar quantizer. Sections: sub-index IPC, storage IPC (possibly multi-batch).
+message SqPartitionHeader {
+  DistanceType distance_type = 1;
+  uint32 num_bits = 2;
+  uint64 dim = 3;
+  double bounds_start = 4;
+  double bounds_end = 5;
+}
+
+/* Header for a serialized IVF index state (`IvfIndexState<Q>`), followed by
+ * three raw blobs: the IVF model protobuf, the quantizer's extra-metadata
+ * buffer (may be empty), and the auxiliary IVF model protobuf.
+ */
+message IvfStateHeader {
+  reserved 8;
+  reserved "cache_key_prefix";
+
+  string index_file_path = 1;
+  string uuid = 2;
+  string distance_type = 3;
+  repeated string sub_index_metadata = 4;
+  string sub_index_type = 5;
+  string quantization_type = 6;
+  /* Per-quantizer `Q::Metadata` as JSON. Kept as a string because the metadata
+   * type is generic over the quantizer; the proto envelope still provides
+   * additive evolution for the surrounding fields.
+   */
+  string quantizer_metadata_json = 7;
+  uint64 index_file_size = 9;
+  uint64 aux_file_size = 10;
+}
+
+/* RabitQ quantizer. Sections: sub-index IPC, rotate-matrix IPC (Matrix rotation
+ * only), storage IPC.
+ */
+message RabitPartitionHeader {
+  DistanceType distance_type = 1;
+  uint32 num_bits = 2;
+  uint32 code_dim = 3;
+  RotationType rotation_type = 4;
+  /* Fast-rotation sign vector; present only when rotation_type ==
+   * ROTATION_TYPE_FAST (the Matrix case stores its rotation as an IPC section).
+   */
+  optional bytes fast_rotation_signs = 5;
+  // Estimator the RabitQ storage uses at query time (residual vs raw query).
+  RabitQueryEstimator query_estimator = 6;
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse.rs
index 643fdba2615..f9de4d95bc9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse.rs
@@ -1,356 +1,134 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::{Index, IndexType};
-use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
-use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+//! `Index`-trait adapter for the fragment-reuse system index.
+//!
+//! The data structures and table-format logic live in
+//! [`lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse`]; this module re-exports them and
+//! provides newtype wrappers that implement the [`Index`] and [`RowIdRemapper`]
+//! traits.
+
+use std::any::Any;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
-use itertools::Itertools;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::InlineContent;
-use lance_table::format::{pb, ExternalFile, Fragment};
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
 use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
-use std::{any::Any, collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
-use uuid::Uuid;
-
-pub const FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME: &str = "__lance_frag_reuse";
-pub const FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME: &str = "details.binpb";
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct FragDigest {
-    pub id: u64,
-    pub physical_rows: usize,
-    pub num_deleted_rows: usize,
-}
-
-impl From<&FragDigest> for pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::FragmentDigest {
-    fn from(digest: &FragDigest) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            id: digest.id,
-            physical_rows: digest.physical_rows as u64,
-            num_deleted_rows: digest.num_deleted_rows as u64,
-        }
-    }
-}
+use serde::Serialize;
 
-impl From<&Fragment> for FragDigest {
-    fn from(fragment: &Fragment) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            id: fragment.id,
-            physical_rows: fragment
-                .physical_rows
-                .expect("Fragment doesn't have physical rows recorded"),
-            num_deleted_rows: fragment
-                .deletion_file
-                .as_ref()
-                .and_then(|d| d.num_deleted_rows)
-                .unwrap_or(0),
-        }
-    }
-}
+pub use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::*;
 
-impl TryFrom<pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::FragmentDigest> for FragDigest {
-    type Error = Error;
+pub mod row_map;
+/// Fragment-level stable-partition mapping reader.
+pub mod stable_partition;
 
-    fn try_from(digest: pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::FragmentDigest) -> Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            id: digest.id,
-            physical_rows: digest.physical_rows as usize,
-            num_deleted_rows: digest.num_deleted_rows as usize,
-        })
-    }
-}
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
+use crate::{Index, IndexType};
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct FragReuseGroup {
-    pub changed_row_addrs: Vec<u8>,
-    pub old_frags: Vec<FragDigest>,
-    pub new_frags: Vec<FragDigest>,
-}
+/// Newtype wrapping [`FragReuseIndex`] so that `lance-index` can implement
+/// the `Index` and `RowIdRemapper` traits (orphan rules prevent implementing
+/// them directly in `lance-table`).
+pub struct FragReuseIndexHandle(pub Arc<FragReuseIndex>);
 
-impl From<&FragReuseGroup> for pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Group {
-    fn from(group: &FragReuseGroup) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            changed_row_addrs: group.changed_row_addrs.clone(),
-            old_fragments: group.old_frags.iter().map(|f| f.into()).collect(),
-            new_fragments: group.new_frags.iter().map(|f| f.into()).collect(),
-        }
-    }
-}
+/// Adapter for the compact runtime representation loaded from persisted FRI details.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub struct CompactFragReuseIndexHandle(pub Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>);
 
-impl TryFrom<pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Group> for FragReuseGroup {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(group: pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Group) -> Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            changed_row_addrs: group.changed_row_addrs,
-            old_frags: group
-                .old_fragments
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(FragDigest::try_from)
-                .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
-            new_frags: group
-                .new_fragments
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(FragDigest::try_from)
-                .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
-        })
+impl std::fmt::Debug for FragReuseIndexHandle {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_tuple("FragReuseIndexHandle")
+            .field(&self.0)
+            .finish()
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct FragReuseVersion {
-    pub dataset_version: u64,
-    pub groups: Vec<FragReuseGroup>,
-}
-
-impl From<&FragReuseVersion> for pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version {
-    fn from(version: &FragReuseVersion) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            dataset_version: version.dataset_version,
-            groups: version.groups.iter().map(|g| g.into()).collect(),
-        }
+impl DeepSizeOf for FragReuseIndexHandle {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.0.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
-impl TryFrom<pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version> for FragReuseVersion {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(version: pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version) -> Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            dataset_version: version.dataset_version,
-            groups: version
-                .groups
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(FragReuseGroup::try_from)
-                .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
-        })
-    }
+#[derive(Serialize)]
+struct FragReuseStatistics {
+    num_versions: usize,
 }
 
-impl FragReuseVersion {
-    pub fn old_frag_ids(&self) -> Vec<u64> {
-        self.groups
-            .iter()
-            .flat_map(|g| g.old_frags.iter().map(|f| f.id))
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-    }
-
-    pub fn new_frag_ids(&self) -> Vec<u64> {
-        self.groups
-            .iter()
-            .flat_map(|g| g.new_frags.iter().map(|f| f.id))
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-    }
-
-    pub fn new_frag_bitmap(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
-        RoaringBitmap::from_iter(self.new_frag_ids().iter().map(|&id| id as u32))
+#[async_trait]
+impl Index for FragReuseIndexHandle {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+        self
     }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub enum FragReuseIndexDetailsContentType {
-    Inline(FragReuseIndexDetails),
-    External(ExternalFile),
-}
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct FragReuseIndexDetails {
-    pub versions: Vec<FragReuseVersion>,
-}
-
-impl From<&FragReuseIndexDetails> for InlineContent {
-    fn from(details: &FragReuseIndexDetails) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            versions: details
-                .versions
-                .iter()
-                .map(|m| m.into())
-                // sort from oldest to latest version
-                .sorted_by_key(|v: &pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version| v.dataset_version)
-                .collect(),
-        }
+    fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index> {
+        self
     }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<InlineContent> for FragReuseIndexDetails {
-    type Error = Error;
 
-    fn try_from(content: InlineContent) -> Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            versions: content
-                .versions
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|m| m.try_into())
-                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+        let stats = FragReuseStatistics {
+            num_versions: self.0.details.versions.len(),
+        };
+        serde_json::to_value(stats).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "failed to serialize fragment reuse index statistics: {}",
+                e
+            ))
         })
     }
-}
 
-impl FragReuseIndexDetails {
-    pub fn new_frag_bitmap(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
-        RoaringBitmap::from_iter(
-            self.versions
-                .iter()
-                .flat_map(|v| v.new_frag_ids().into_iter().map(|id| id as u32)),
-        )
+    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
     }
-}
 
-/// An index that stores row ID maps.
-/// A row ID map describes the mapping from old row address to new address after compactions.
-/// Each version contains the mapping for one round of compaction.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-pub struct FragReuseIndex {
-    pub uuid: Uuid,
-    pub row_id_maps: Vec<HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>>,
-    pub details: FragReuseIndexDetails,
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for FragReuseIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, cx: &mut Context) -> usize {
-        self.row_id_maps.deep_size_of_children(cx) + self.details.deep_size_of_children(cx)
+    fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
+        IndexType::FragmentReuse
     }
-}
 
-impl FragReuseIndex {
-    pub fn new(
-        uuid: Uuid,
-        row_id_maps: Vec<HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>>,
-        details: FragReuseIndexDetails,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            uuid,
-            row_id_maps,
-            details,
-        }
+    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        unimplemented!()
     }
+}
 
-    pub fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
-        let mut mapped_value = Some(row_id);
-        for row_id_map in self.row_id_maps.iter() {
-            if mapped_value.is_some() {
-                mapped_value = row_id_map
-                    .get(&mapped_value.unwrap())
-                    .copied()
-                    .unwrap_or(mapped_value);
-            }
-        }
-
-        mapped_value
+impl RowIdRemapper for FragReuseIndexHandle {
+    fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.0.remap_row_id(row_id)
     }
 
-    pub fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, row_addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
-        RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(row_addrs.row_addrs().unwrap().filter_map(|addr| {
-            let addr_as_u64 = u64::from(addr);
-            self.remap_row_id(addr_as_u64)
-        }))
+    fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, row_addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+        self.0.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(row_addrs)
     }
 
-    pub fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&self, row_ids: &RoaringTreemap) -> RoaringTreemap {
-        RoaringTreemap::from_iter(row_ids.iter().filter_map(|addr| self.remap_row_id(addr)))
+    fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&self, row_ids: &RoaringTreemap) -> RoaringTreemap {
+        self.0.remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(row_ids)
     }
 
-    /// Remap a record batch that contains a row_id column at index `row_id_idx`
-    /// Currently this assumes there are only 2 columns in the schema,
-    /// which is the case for all indexes.
-    /// For example, for btree, the schema is (value, row_id).
-    /// For vector index storage, the schema is (row_id, vector).
-    pub fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
+    fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
         &self,
         batch: RecordBatch,
         row_id_idx: usize,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        assert_eq!(batch.schema().fields().len(), 2);
-        let other_column_idx = 1 - row_id_idx;
-        let row_ids = batch.column(row_id_idx).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-        let (val_indices, new_row_ids): (Vec<u64>, Vec<u64>) = row_ids
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .enumerate()
-            .filter_map(|(idx, old_id)| {
-                self.remap_row_id(*old_id)
-                    .map(|new_id| (idx as u64, new_id))
-            })
-            .unzip();
-        let new_val_indices = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(val_indices);
-        let new_vals =
-            arrow_select::take::take(batch.column(other_column_idx), &new_val_indices, None)?;
-
-        let mut batch_data: Vec<(usize, ArrayRef)> = vec![
-            (
-                row_id_idx,
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(new_row_ids)) as ArrayRef,
-            ),
-            (other_column_idx, Arc::new(new_vals)),
-        ];
-        batch_data.sort_by_key(|(i, _)| *i);
-        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
-            batch.schema(),
-            batch_data.into_iter().map(|(_, item)| item).collect(),
-        )?)
-    }
-
-    pub fn remap_row_ids_array(&self, array: ArrayRef) -> PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type> {
-        let primitive_array = array
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>>()
-            .expect("expected row IDs to be uint64 array");
-        (0..primitive_array.len())
-            .map(|i| {
-                if primitive_array.is_null(i) {
-                    None
-                } else {
-                    self.remap_row_id(primitive_array.value(i))
-                }
-            })
-            .collect()
+        self.0.remap_row_ids_record_batch(batch, row_id_idx)
     }
+}
 
-    pub fn remap_fragment_bitmap(&self, fragment_bitmap: &mut RoaringBitmap) -> Result<()> {
-        for version in self.details.versions.iter() {
-            for group in version.groups.iter() {
-                let mut removed = 0;
-                for old_frag in group.old_frags.iter() {
-                    if fragment_bitmap.remove(old_frag.id as u32) {
-                        removed += 1;
-                    }
-                }
-
-                if removed > 0 {
-                    if removed != group.old_frags.len() {
-                        // This should never happen because we always commit a full rewrite group
-                        // and we always reindex either the entire group or nothing.
-                        // We use invalid input to be consistent with
-                        // dataset::transaction::recalculate_fragment_bitmap
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!("The compaction plan included a rewrite group that was a split of indexed and non-indexed data: {:?}",
-                                    group.old_frags),
-                            location!()));
-                    }
-
-                    for new_frag in group.new_frags.iter() {
-                        fragment_bitmap.insert(new_frag.id as u32);
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(())
+impl std::fmt::Debug for CompactFragReuseIndexHandle {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_tuple("CompactFragReuseIndexHandle")
+            .field(&self.0)
+            .finish()
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Serialize)]
-struct FragReuseStatistics {
-    num_versions: usize,
+impl DeepSizeOf for CompactFragReuseIndexHandle {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.0.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl Index for FragReuseIndex {
+impl Index for CompactFragReuseIndexHandle {
     fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
         self
     }
@@ -359,20 +137,15 @@ impl Index for FragReuseIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn crate::vector::VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "FragReuseIndex is not a vector index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-
     fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
         let stats = FragReuseStatistics {
-            num_versions: self.details.versions.len(),
+            num_versions: self.0.details.versions.len(),
         };
-        serde_json::to_value(stats).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("failed to serialize fragment reuse index statistics: {}", e),
-            location: location!(),
+        serde_json::to_value(stats).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "failed to serialize fragment reuse index statistics: {}",
+                e
+            ))
         })
     }
 
@@ -389,133 +162,24 @@ impl Index for FragReuseIndex {
     }
 }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
-
-    use super::*;
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_serialize_deserialize_index_details() {
-        // Create sample FragReuseVersions with different dataset versions
-        let version1 = FragReuseVersion {
-            dataset_version: 2,
-            groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
-                changed_row_addrs: vec![1, 2, 3],
-                old_frags: vec![FragDigest {
-                    id: 1,
-                    physical_rows: 1,
-                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                }],
-                new_frags: vec![
-                    FragDigest {
-                        id: 2,
-                        physical_rows: 1,
-                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                    },
-                    FragDigest {
-                        id: 3,
-                        physical_rows: 1,
-                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                    },
-                ],
-            }],
-        };
+impl RowIdRemapper for CompactFragReuseIndexHandle {
+    fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.0.remap_row_id(row_id)
+    }
 
-        let version2 = FragReuseVersion {
-            dataset_version: 1,
-            groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
-                changed_row_addrs: vec![4, 5, 6],
-                old_frags: vec![FragDigest {
-                    id: 2,
-                    physical_rows: 1,
-                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                }],
-                new_frags: vec![
-                    FragDigest {
-                        id: 4,
-                        physical_rows: 1,
-                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                    },
-                    FragDigest {
-                        id: 5,
-                        physical_rows: 1,
-                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                    },
-                ],
-            }],
-        };
+    fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, row_addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+        self.0.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(row_addrs)
+    }
 
-        // Create FragReuseIndexDetails with versions in reverse order
-        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
-            versions: vec![version1, version2],
-        };
+    fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&self, row_ids: &RoaringTreemap) -> RoaringTreemap {
+        self.0.remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(row_ids)
+    }
 
-        // Convert to protobuf format
-        let inline_content: InlineContent = (&details).into();
-
-        // Convert back to FragReuseIndexDetails
-        let roundtrip_details = FragReuseIndexDetails::try_from(inline_content).unwrap();
-
-        // Verify the roundtrip
-        assert_eq!(roundtrip_details.versions.len(), 2);
-
-        // Verify versions are sorted by dataset_version (oldest to latest)
-        assert_eq!(roundtrip_details.versions[0].dataset_version, 1);
-        assert_eq!(
-            roundtrip_details.versions[0].groups[0].changed_row_addrs,
-            vec![4, 5, 6]
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            roundtrip_details.versions[0].groups[0].new_frags,
-            vec![
-                FragDigest {
-                    id: 4,
-                    physical_rows: 1,
-                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                },
-                FragDigest {
-                    id: 5,
-                    physical_rows: 1,
-                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                }
-            ]
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            roundtrip_details.versions[0].groups[0].old_frags,
-            vec![FragDigest {
-                id: 2,
-                physical_rows: 1,
-                num_deleted_rows: 0,
-            }]
-        );
-
-        assert_eq!(roundtrip_details.versions[1].dataset_version, 2);
-        assert_eq!(
-            roundtrip_details.versions[1].groups[0].changed_row_addrs,
-            vec![1, 2, 3]
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            roundtrip_details.versions[1].groups[0].new_frags,
-            vec![
-                FragDigest {
-                    id: 2,
-                    physical_rows: 1,
-                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                },
-                FragDigest {
-                    id: 3,
-                    physical_rows: 1,
-                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
-                }
-            ]
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            roundtrip_details.versions[1].groups[0].old_frags,
-            vec![FragDigest {
-                id: 1,
-                physical_rows: 1,
-                num_deleted_rows: 0,
-            }]
-        );
+    fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
+        &self,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        row_id_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        self.0.remap_row_ids_record_batch(batch, row_id_idx)
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse/row_map.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse/row_map.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..faa633f56b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse/row_map.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1252 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Row map file IO for stable-partition (reordered) rewrites.
+//!
+//! A reordered rewrite persists its per-row destination labels as one Lance
+//! file with a single nullable u16 column, one row per physical source row in
+//! concatenated scan order:
+//!
+//! * value — the index of the row's destination fragment in the rewrite's
+//!   ordered destination list,
+//! * NULL — the row was deleted at the source; the rewrite moved it nowhere.
+//!
+//! The per-block cumulative counts
+//! ([`CountsMatrix`]) are
+//! serialized into a global buffer of the same file, so opening costs one tail
+//! read plus an in-memory consistency check of the counts; no label IO. Point translations read one block of labels; sweeps
+//! stream blocks in order. The translation arithmetic itself lives in
+//! [`lance_core::utils::stable_partition`].
+//!
+//! The writer is fed labels of *live* rows only, in source scan order, and
+//! interleaves the NULL rows itself from the source deletion vectors: the
+//! rewrite job scans with deletions applied, so it never sees a deleted row.
+//!
+//! Correctness rests on the stable-partition ordering contract spelled out
+//! in [`lance_core::utils::stable_partition`]: labels arrive in source
+//! physical-row order, each destination is written in that same order and
+//! never re-sorted, and the destination list is fixed for the rewrite. A
+//! job that routes rows through parallel writers must restore that order
+//! per destination before feeding this writer.
+
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::builder::UInt16Builder;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt16Type;
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt16Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::utils::stable_partition::{
+    CountsMatrix, CountsMatrixBuilder, DEFAULT_BLOCK_ROWS, SweepTranslator, translate_in_block,
+};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+use crate::scalar::{IndexFile, IndexReader, IndexWriter};
+
+/// The single column of a row map file.
+pub const LABEL_COLUMN: &str = "label";
+
+/// Namespace prefix for cached row-map label chunks in the index cache.
+pub const ROW_MAP_CACHE_PREFIX: &str = "row-map-blocks";
+
+/// Number of logical row-map blocks per cache chunk (the cache unit).
+///
+/// A block holds [`DEFAULT_BLOCK_ROWS`] (64K) rows; one label is a u16, so a
+/// full block is ~128 KiB decoded. Grouping 32 blocks makes a ~4 MiB chunk:
+/// this keeps the number of cache entries small (~48 at 100M rows, ~477 at 1B)
+/// while turning what would be many small block reads into one big sequential
+/// range read per chunk on a cold miss. Whole-file caching (one 2 GiB blob at
+/// 1B rows) would blow the LRU; per-block caching (thousands of entries) would
+/// bloat the entry count. This is the middle ground.
+pub const ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS: usize = 32;
+
+/// Decoded size of one full chunk: the smallest index-cache capacity at which
+/// a chunk entry can be retained at all. A cache that is known to be smaller
+/// must not be used for chunks, since every block request would then read a
+/// whole chunk only to discard it.
+pub const ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BYTES: usize =
+    ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS * DEFAULT_BLOCK_ROWS as usize * std::mem::size_of::<u16>();
+
+/// Cached decoded labels for one chunk (`ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS` contiguous
+/// blocks) of a row map file. The concrete `UInt16Array` does not implement
+/// `DeepSizeOf`, so this newtype delegates to the `dyn Array` impl for weight
+/// accounting in the index cache.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct RowMapChunk {
+    labels: UInt16Array,
+}
+
+/// Labels a reader holds across the blocks of one request (see
+/// [`RowMapReader::block_labels_reusing`]): the contiguous block range they
+/// cover and the labels themselves, a cached chunk or a one-off span read.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct HeldLabels {
+    blocks: Range<usize>,
+    labels: Arc<RowMapChunk>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for RowMapChunk {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        (&self.labels as &dyn Array).deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Index-cache key for one row-map label chunk. Keyed by a stable per-map
+/// identity plus the chunk index so distinct row maps never collide and the
+/// entry survives across queries and dataset snapshots.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct RowMapChunkKey {
+    /// Stable identity of the row map (e.g. the transition fingerprint).
+    pub row_map_id: [u8; 32],
+    /// Chunk index = block / [`ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS`].
+    pub chunk: usize,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for RowMapChunkKey {
+    type ValueType = RowMapChunk;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("{:x?}:{}", self.row_map_id, self.chunk).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "RowMapChunk"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.fri-row-map-chunk", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_fixed_bytes(&self.row_map_id);
+        builder.write_u64(self.chunk as u64);
+    }
+}
+
+/// A handle that routes row-map label reads through the shared index cache.
+///
+/// Cloned cheaply; carries the stable per-map identity and the (already
+/// namespaced) cache. Absence of this handle on a [`RowMapReader`] means the
+/// reader reads labels directly, byte-identical to the pre-cache behavior.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct RowMapBlockCache {
+    cache: WeakLanceCache,
+    row_map_id: [u8; 32],
+}
+
+impl RowMapBlockCache {
+    /// Wrap a cache for row-map chunk storage. The cache is namespaced with
+    /// [`ROW_MAP_CACHE_PREFIX`] so chunk entries never collide with other
+    /// index-cache values.
+    pub fn new(cache: WeakLanceCache, row_map_id: [u8; 32]) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            cache: cache.with_key_prefix(ROW_MAP_CACHE_PREFIX),
+            row_map_id,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Schema-metadata key holding the global buffer index of the encoded counts
+/// matrix.
+const COUNTS_BUFFER_INDEX_KEY: &str = "lance:stable_partition:counts_buffer_index";
+
+fn label_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        LABEL_COLUMN,
+        DataType::UInt16,
+        true,
+    )]))
+}
+
+fn label_column(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<&UInt16Array> {
+    batch
+        .columns()
+        .first()
+        .and_then(|column| column.as_primitive_opt::<UInt16Type>())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "row_map",
+                "row map read returned a batch without a u16 label column",
+            )
+        })
+}
+
+/// The physical layout of one source fragment, in scan order.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct SourceRows {
+    /// Physical rows of the fragment, including deleted rows.
+    pub physical_rows: u64,
+    /// Deleted row offsets within the fragment at the rewrite's read version.
+    pub deleted: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+}
+
+/// Streaming writer for a row map file.
+///
+/// Feed the destination labels of live source rows in scan order via
+/// [`Self::append_labels`]; deleted rows become NULLs automatically. The
+/// caller creates the underlying [`IndexWriter`] (choosing store and file
+/// name) via `IndexStore::new_index_file` with [`RowMapWriter::schema`].
+pub struct RowMapWriter {
+    writer: Box<dyn IndexWriter>,
+    counts: CountsMatrixBuilder,
+    sources: Vec<SourceRows>,
+    src_idx: usize,
+    src_offset: u64,
+    pending: UInt16Builder,
+    pending_rows: u32,
+    block_rows: u32,
+}
+
+impl RowMapWriter {
+    /// The Arrow schema of a row map file, for `IndexStore::new_index_file`.
+    pub fn schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        label_schema()
+    }
+
+    /// Create a writer over `sources` (the rewrite's source fragments in
+    /// scan order) targeting `num_destinations` ordered destinations, with
+    /// the default 64K-row block size.
+    pub fn try_new(
+        writer: Box<dyn IndexWriter>,
+        sources: Vec<SourceRows>,
+        num_destinations: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_new_with_block_rows(writer, sources, num_destinations, DEFAULT_BLOCK_ROWS)
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::try_new`] with an explicit block size, the counts granularity
+    /// and label IO unit; tests use small blocks to exercise boundaries.
+    pub fn try_new_with_block_rows(
+        writer: Box<dyn IndexWriter>,
+        sources: Vec<SourceRows>,
+        num_destinations: u32,
+        block_rows: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        for (i, source) in sources.iter().enumerate() {
+            if source.physical_rows > u64::from(u32::MAX) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "source fragment {i} claims {} physical rows, beyond the row-address offset range",
+                    source.physical_rows
+                )));
+            }
+            if let Some(deleted) = &source.deleted
+                && deleted
+                    .max()
+                    .is_some_and(|max| u64::from(max) >= source.physical_rows)
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "source fragment {i} has a deleted row offset outside its {} physical rows",
+                    source.physical_rows
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            writer,
+            counts: CountsMatrixBuilder::try_new(num_destinations, block_rows)?,
+            sources,
+            src_idx: 0,
+            src_offset: 0,
+            pending: UInt16Builder::with_capacity(block_rows as usize),
+            pending_rows: 0,
+            block_rows,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Record one physical source row and flush a full block of labels.
+    async fn emit(&mut self, label: Option<u16>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.counts.push(label)?;
+        match label {
+            Some(label) => self.pending.append_value(label),
+            None => self.pending.append_null(),
+        }
+        self.pending_rows += 1;
+        if self.pending_rows == self.block_rows {
+            self.flush().await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.pending_rows == 0 {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let labels = self.pending.finish();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(label_schema(), vec![Arc::new(labels)])?;
+        self.writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+        self.pending_rows = 0;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Emit NULLs for deleted rows at the physical cursor, stopping at the
+    /// next live row (or the end of the sources).
+    async fn skip_deleted(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        while let Some(source) = self.sources.get(self.src_idx) {
+            if self.src_offset >= source.physical_rows {
+                self.src_idx += 1;
+                self.src_offset = 0;
+                continue;
+            }
+            let deleted = source
+                .deleted
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|deleted| deleted.contains(self.src_offset as u32));
+            if !deleted {
+                return Ok(true);
+            }
+            self.emit(None).await?;
+            self.src_offset += 1;
+        }
+        Ok(false)
+    }
+
+    /// Append the destination labels of the next live source rows, in scan
+    /// order.
+    pub async fn append_labels(&mut self, labels: &[u16]) -> Result<()> {
+        for &label in labels {
+            if !self.skip_deleted().await? {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "more labels than live rows in the source fragments",
+                ));
+            }
+            self.emit(Some(label)).await?;
+            self.src_offset += 1;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Finish the file: drain trailing deleted rows, write the counts matrix
+    /// into a global buffer, and close the writer.
+    pub async fn finish(mut self) -> Result<(IndexFile, CountsMatrix)> {
+        if self.skip_deleted().await? {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "fewer labels than live rows in the source fragments",
+            ));
+        }
+        self.flush().await?;
+        let counts = self.counts.finish();
+        let buffer_index = self
+            .writer
+            .add_global_buffer(Bytes::from(counts.encode()))
+            .await?;
+        let file = self
+            .writer
+            .finish_with_metadata(
+                [(
+                    COUNTS_BUFFER_INDEX_KEY.to_string(),
+                    buffer_index.to_string(),
+                )]
+                .into(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        Ok((file, counts))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Reader over a row map file: one tail read at open, block reads on demand.
+pub struct RowMapReader {
+    reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+    counts: CountsMatrix,
+    /// When present, block reads are served from (and populated into) the shared
+    /// index cache in ~4 MiB chunks. When absent, reads go straight to the file.
+    block_cache: Option<RowMapBlockCache>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for RowMapReader {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("RowMapReader")
+            .field("counts", &self.counts)
+            .finish_non_exhaustive()
+    }
+}
+
+impl RowMapReader {
+    /// Open a row map file: decodes and validates the counts matrix from its
+    /// global buffer without touching any label data. A corrupt counts buffer
+    /// must fail here rather than translate rows to wrong addresses.
+    pub async fn open(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::open_with_cache(reader, None).await
+    }
+
+    /// Open a row map file, optionally routing label reads through the shared
+    /// index cache. With `block_cache = None` this is identical to [`open`] and
+    /// every label read hits the file; with a cache, reads are served from and
+    /// populated into ~4 MiB chunks.
+    ///
+    /// [`open`]: Self::open
+    pub async fn open_with_cache(
+        reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        block_cache: Option<RowMapBlockCache>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let schema = reader.schema();
+        let [label_field] = schema.fields.as_slice() else {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "row_map",
+                format!(
+                    "row map file must hold exactly one column, found {}",
+                    schema.fields.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        };
+        if label_field.name != LABEL_COLUMN
+            || label_field.data_type() != arrow_schema::DataType::UInt16
+            || !label_field.nullable
+        {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "row_map",
+                format!(
+                    "row map file must hold a single nullable u16 {LABEL_COLUMN} column, found {} of type {}",
+                    label_field.name,
+                    label_field.data_type()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let buffer_index = schema
+            .metadata
+            .get(COUNTS_BUFFER_INDEX_KEY)
+            .and_then(|index| index.parse::<u32>().ok())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "row_map",
+                    format!("row map file is missing the {COUNTS_BUFFER_INDEX_KEY} metadata"),
+                )
+            })?;
+        let counts = CountsMatrix::decode(&reader.read_global_buffer(buffer_index).await?)?;
+        counts.validate()?;
+        if reader.num_rows() as u64 != counts.total_rows() {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "row_map",
+                format!(
+                    "row map file holds {} labels but its counts describe {} source rows",
+                    reader.num_rows(),
+                    counts.total_rows()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            reader,
+            counts,
+            block_cache,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// The validated counts matrix decoded at open: per-destination totals
+    /// and per-block counter bases without any label IO.
+    pub fn counts(&self) -> &CountsMatrix {
+        &self.counts
+    }
+
+    /// The decoded labels of one block.
+    ///
+    /// With a block cache attached, the block's enclosing ~4 MiB chunk is loaded
+    /// (or served from cache) with one range read, and the block's labels are
+    /// sliced out. Without a cache, exactly the block's rows are read, identical
+    /// to the pre-cache behavior.
+    pub async fn block_labels(&self, block: usize) -> Result<UInt16Array> {
+        self.block_labels_reusing(block, block, &mut None).await
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::block_labels`] for a caller that visits blocks in order and
+    /// wants the labels it just loaded to serve the next blocks. `last_block`
+    /// is the end of the run of adjacent blocks, starting at `block`, that
+    /// the caller will request next (every block in between included); `held`
+    /// carries the loaded labels between calls, and a block inside the held
+    /// span never touches the cache or the file. With a block cache the span
+    /// is the block's chunk, so a request performs one read per chunk whether
+    /// or not the cache retains it. Without a block cache the span is the
+    /// run `block..=last_block`, bounded to a chunk's worth, so a point
+    /// lookup reads exactly its block, a run of adjacent blocks is read in
+    /// one range read, and a sparse request never reads a block it does not
+    /// touch (its caller passes each run's end, not the request's last
+    /// block).
+    pub async fn block_labels_reusing(
+        &self,
+        block: usize,
+        last_block: usize,
+        held: &mut Option<HeldLabels>,
+    ) -> Result<UInt16Array> {
+        let span = match held {
+            Some(span) if span.blocks.contains(&block) => span,
+            _ => {
+                let loaded = match &self.block_cache {
+                    Some(block_cache) => {
+                        let chunk_idx = block / ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS;
+                        let first = chunk_idx * ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS;
+                        HeldLabels {
+                            blocks: first
+                                ..(first + ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS)
+                                    .min(self.counts.num_blocks()),
+                            labels: self.chunk_labels(block_cache, chunk_idx).await?,
+                        }
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        let end = last_block
+                            .max(block)
+                            .min(block + ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS - 1)
+                            .min(self.counts.num_blocks() - 1);
+                        let rows =
+                            self.counts.block_range(block).start..self.counts.block_range(end).end;
+                        HeldLabels {
+                            blocks: block..end + 1,
+                            labels: Arc::new(RowMapChunk {
+                                labels: self
+                                    .read_labels(rows.start as usize..rows.end as usize)
+                                    .await?,
+                            }),
+                        }
+                    }
+                };
+                held.insert(loaded)
+            }
+        };
+        // Slice the requested block out of the held labels.
+        let span_start = self.counts.block_range(span.blocks.start).start;
+        let block_range = self.counts.block_range(block);
+        let offset = (block_range.start - span_start) as usize;
+        let len = (block_range.end - block_range.start) as usize;
+        Ok(span.labels.labels.slice(offset, len))
+    }
+
+    /// Read a contiguous row range of labels straight from the file.
+    async fn read_labels(&self, range: Range<usize>) -> Result<UInt16Array> {
+        let batch = self.reader.read_range(range, Some(&[LABEL_COLUMN])).await?;
+        Ok(label_column(&batch)?.clone())
+    }
+
+    /// The row range covered by one chunk, clamped to the total row count (the
+    /// last chunk may hold fewer than a full complement of blocks).
+    fn chunk_row_range(&self, chunk_idx: usize) -> Range<u64> {
+        let first_block = chunk_idx * ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS;
+        let last_block =
+            ((chunk_idx + 1) * ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS - 1).min(self.counts.num_blocks() - 1);
+        self.counts.block_range(first_block).start..self.counts.block_range(last_block).end
+    }
+
+    /// Load one chunk of labels, serving from the index cache when present and
+    /// otherwise reading the chunk's full row range with one sequential read.
+    /// Concurrent loads of the same chunk are deduplicated by the cache.
+    async fn chunk_labels(
+        &self,
+        block_cache: &RowMapBlockCache,
+        chunk_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<RowMapChunk>> {
+        let key = RowMapChunkKey {
+            row_map_id: block_cache.row_map_id,
+            chunk: chunk_idx,
+        };
+        let range = self.chunk_row_range(chunk_idx);
+        let reader = self.reader.clone();
+        block_cache
+            .cache
+            .get_or_insert_with_key(key, || async move {
+                let batch = reader
+                    .read_range(
+                        range.start as usize..range.end as usize,
+                        Some(&[LABEL_COLUMN]),
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                Ok(RowMapChunk {
+                    labels: label_column(&batch)?.clone(),
+                })
+            })
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Translate one physical source row (concatenated scan order). Returns
+    /// `None` when the row was deleted at the source, otherwise
+    /// `(destination index, destination row offset)`. Reads one block.
+    pub async fn translate(&self, row: u64) -> Result<Option<(u16, u32)>> {
+        self.check_row(row)?;
+        let block = self.counts.block_of(row);
+        let labels = self.block_labels(block).await?;
+        let pos = (row - self.counts.block_range(block).start) as usize;
+        translate_in_block(&self.counts, block, labels.values(), labels.nulls(), pos)
+    }
+
+    /// Translate a batch of physical source rows with one coalesced read of
+    /// the touched blocks.
+    pub async fn translate_many(&self, rows: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<(u16, u32)>>> {
+        for &row in rows {
+            self.check_row(row)?;
+        }
+        let mut blocks: Vec<usize> = rows.iter().map(|&row| self.counts.block_of(row)).collect();
+        blocks.sort_unstable();
+        blocks.dedup();
+        if blocks.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let ranges: Vec<Range<usize>> = blocks
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&block| {
+                let range = self.counts.block_range(block);
+                range.start as usize..range.end as usize
+            })
+            .collect();
+        // One coalesced read; the result concatenates the requested block
+        // ranges in order.
+        let batch = self
+            .reader
+            .read_ranges(&ranges, Some(&[LABEL_COLUMN]))
+            .await?;
+        let labels = label_column(&batch)?;
+        let mut block_starts = Vec::with_capacity(blocks.len());
+        let mut start = 0usize;
+        for range in &ranges {
+            block_starts.push(start);
+            start += range.end - range.start;
+        }
+        rows.iter()
+            .map(|&row| {
+                let block = self.counts.block_of(row);
+                let slot = blocks.binary_search(&block).unwrap();
+                let range = &ranges[slot];
+                let block_labels = labels.slice(block_starts[slot], range.end - range.start);
+                let pos = (row - range.start as u64) as usize;
+                translate_in_block(
+                    &self.counts,
+                    block,
+                    block_labels.values(),
+                    block_labels.nulls(),
+                    pos,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Translate every physical source row in `rows` in order, block by
+    /// block, calling `f(row, translation)` for each. O(1) per row after the
+    /// per-block read.
+    pub async fn sweep(
+        &self,
+        rows: Range<u64>,
+        mut f: impl FnMut(u64, Option<(u16, u32)>) -> Result<()>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if rows.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        self.check_row(rows.start)?;
+        self.check_row(rows.end - 1)?;
+        let start_block = self.counts.block_of(rows.start);
+        let end_block = self.counts.block_of(rows.end - 1);
+        // Blocks are read one at a time on purpose: a sweep is bulk work and
+        // bounded memory matters more than per-block latency. Overlapping the
+        // next block's read with translation belongs to the read-integration
+        // follow-up.
+        // The sweep counters start at a block boundary; rows before
+        // `rows.start` in the first block are translated and discarded.
+        let mut translator = SweepTranslator::new(&self.counts, start_block)?;
+        // Consecutive blocks reuse the labels loaded for the first of them, so
+        // the sweep pays one read per chunk's worth of blocks even when the
+        // cache cannot retain anything.
+        let mut held = None;
+        for block in start_block..=end_block {
+            let labels = self
+                .block_labels_reusing(block, end_block, &mut held)
+                .await?;
+            let block_start = self.counts.block_range(block).start;
+            let validity = labels.nulls();
+            for (i, &value) in labels.values().iter().enumerate() {
+                let label = validity
+                    .is_none_or(|validity| validity.is_valid(i))
+                    .then_some(value);
+                let translated = translator.advance(label)?;
+                let row = block_start + i as u64;
+                if rows.contains(&row) {
+                    f(row, translated)?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn check_row(&self, row: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        if row >= self.counts.total_rows() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "source row {row} is outside the {} rows of this row map",
+                self.counts.total_rows()
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::scalar::{IndexStore, lance_format::LanceIndexStore};
+    use futures::FutureExt;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use rand::rngs::StdRng;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    fn test_store(tempdir: &TempDir) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+        let test_path = tempdir.obj_path();
+        let (object_store, test_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(test_path.as_ref())
+            .now_or_never()
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(
+            128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        ));
+        Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(object_store, test_path, cache))
+    }
+
+    struct TestMap {
+        sources: Vec<SourceRows>,
+        /// Live-row labels in scan order: what the rewrite job feeds.
+        live_labels: Vec<u16>,
+        /// Per physical source row: the expected translation.
+        expected: Vec<Option<(u16, u32)>>,
+    }
+
+    /// Build sources with deterministic deletions and labels, plus the
+    /// reference translation computed with per-destination counters.
+    fn make_test_map(source_rows: &[u64], num_destinations: u32, seed: u64) -> TestMap {
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
+        let mut sources = Vec::new();
+        let mut live_labels = Vec::new();
+        let mut expected = Vec::new();
+        let mut counters = HashMap::new();
+        for &physical_rows in source_rows {
+            let mut deleted = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            for offset in 0..physical_rows {
+                // ~1/5 of rows deleted.
+                if rng.random_ratio(1, 5) {
+                    deleted.insert(offset as u32);
+                }
+            }
+            for offset in 0..physical_rows {
+                if deleted.contains(offset as u32) {
+                    expected.push(None);
+                } else {
+                    let label = rng.random_range(0..num_destinations) as u16;
+                    let counter = counters.entry(label).or_insert(0u32);
+                    live_labels.push(label);
+                    expected.push(Some((label, *counter)));
+                    *counter += 1;
+                }
+            }
+            sources.push(SourceRows {
+                physical_rows,
+                deleted: (!deleted.is_empty()).then_some(deleted),
+            });
+        }
+        TestMap {
+            sources,
+            live_labels,
+            expected,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn write_map(
+        store: &Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        map: &TestMap,
+        num_destinations: u32,
+        block_rows: u32,
+        labels_per_append: usize,
+    ) -> (IndexFile, CountsMatrix) {
+        let writer = store
+            .new_index_file("row_map.lance", RowMapWriter::schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = RowMapWriter::try_new_with_block_rows(
+            writer,
+            map.sources.clone(),
+            num_destinations,
+            block_rows,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        for chunk in map.live_labels.chunks(labels_per_append) {
+            writer.append_labels(chunk).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_map_round_trip() {
+        let num_destinations = 4u32;
+        let map = make_test_map(&[10, 7, 5], num_destinations, 7);
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = test_store(&tempdir);
+        // block_rows=8 forces multiple blocks with a short final block, and
+        // appends of 3 labels cross block boundaries mid-call.
+        let (file, written_counts) = write_map(&store, &map, num_destinations, 8, 3).await;
+        assert!(file.size_bytes > 0);
+        written_counts.validate().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RowMapReader::open(store.open_index_file("row_map.lance").await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let counts = reader.counts();
+        assert_eq!(counts, &written_counts);
+        assert_eq!(counts.total_rows(), 22);
+        assert_eq!(
+            counts.total_live_rows(),
+            map.live_labels.len() as u64,
+            "every live row is labeled, every deleted row is not"
+        );
+        // Conservation: per-destination totals match the reference counters.
+        for label in 0..num_destinations as u16 {
+            let expected_total = map
+                .expected
+                .iter()
+                .flatten()
+                .filter(|(l, _)| *l == label)
+                .count() as u32;
+            assert_eq!(counts.total(label), expected_total);
+        }
+
+        // Point lookups: every physical source row.
+        for (row, &expected) in map.expected.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                reader.translate(row as u64).await.unwrap(),
+                expected,
+                "row {row}"
+            );
+        }
+        assert!(reader.translate(22).await.is_err());
+
+        // Batch lookup in arbitrary order with one coalesced read.
+        let rows: Vec<u64> = vec![21, 0, 13, 13, 7, 20];
+        let translated = reader.translate_many(&rows).await.unwrap();
+        for (&row, translated) in rows.iter().zip(&translated) {
+            assert_eq!(translated, &map.expected[row as usize], "row {row}");
+        }
+        assert!(reader.translate_many(&[3, 22]).await.is_err());
+
+        // Sweeps: the full range and one starting mid-block.
+        for start in [0u64, 11] {
+            let mut swept = Vec::new();
+            reader
+                .sweep(start..22, |row, translated| {
+                    swept.push((row, translated));
+                    Ok(())
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let expected: Vec<_> = (start..22)
+                .map(|row| (row, map.expected[row as usize]))
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(swept, expected, "sweep from {start}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_map_larger_multi_block() {
+        // 1000 rows in blocks of 64 across unevenly-sized sources.
+        let num_destinations = 5u32;
+        let map = make_test_map(&[400, 1, 599], num_destinations, 42);
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = test_store(&tempdir);
+        let (_, _) = write_map(&store, &map, num_destinations, 64, 100).await;
+        let reader = RowMapReader::open(store.open_index_file("row_map.lance").await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let rows: Vec<u64> = (0..1000).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader.translate_many(&rows).await.unwrap(),
+            map.expected,
+            "batch translation of every row"
+        );
+        let mut swept = Vec::new();
+        reader
+            .sweep(0..1000, |_, translated| {
+                swept.push(translated);
+                Ok(())
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(swept, map.expected);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_block_cache_matches_uncached() {
+        // Enough rows that a chunk (ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS blocks) is not the
+        // whole file: with block_rows=8 and 32 blocks/chunk a chunk is 256 rows,
+        // so ~5000 rows spans multiple chunks with a short final chunk.
+        let num_destinations = 6u32;
+        let map = make_test_map(&[2000, 1, 2999], num_destinations, 99);
+        let total = map.expected.len() as u64;
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = test_store(&tempdir);
+        let (_, _) = write_map(&store, &map, num_destinations, 8, 137).await;
+
+        let cache = lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(64 * 1024 * 1024);
+        let block_cache = RowMapBlockCache::new(WeakLanceCache::from(&cache), [7u8; 32]);
+        let reader = RowMapReader::open_with_cache(
+            store.open_index_file("row_map.lance").await.unwrap(),
+            Some(block_cache),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Every physical row translates identically to the reference.
+        let rows: Vec<u64> = (0..total).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader.translate_many(&rows).await.unwrap(),
+            map.expected,
+            "cached batch translation of every row"
+        );
+        // Point lookups (repeat some rows to exercise cache hits).
+        for row in [0u64, 255, 256, 257, total - 1, 256, 0] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                reader.translate(row).await.unwrap(),
+                map.expected[row as usize],
+                "cached point lookup row {row}"
+            );
+        }
+        // A full sweep goes through the same chunked block reads.
+        let mut swept = Vec::new();
+        reader
+            .sweep(0..total, |_, translated| {
+                swept.push(translated);
+                Ok(())
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(swept, map.expected, "cached sweep");
+
+        // Cache-off reader over the same file must produce identical output.
+        let uncached = RowMapReader::open(store.open_index_file("row_map.lance").await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            uncached.translate_many(&rows).await.unwrap(),
+            reader.translate_many(&rows).await.unwrap(),
+            "cache-off path is byte-identical to cache-on translations"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Counts the label reads an [`IndexReader`] serves, and how many rows
+    /// they asked for, so a test can pin the number of file reads a request
+    /// performs.
+    struct CountingReader {
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        reads: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+        rows: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    impl CountingReader {
+        fn new(inner: Arc<dyn IndexReader>) -> Arc<Self> {
+            Arc::new(Self {
+                inner,
+                reads: Default::default(),
+                rows: Default::default(),
+            })
+        }
+
+        /// `(reads, rows)` since the last call.
+        fn take(&self) -> (usize, usize) {
+            use std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed;
+            (self.reads.swap(0, Relaxed), self.rows.swap(0, Relaxed))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl IndexReader for CountingReader {
+        async fn read_record_batch(&self, n: u64, batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            self.inner.read_record_batch(n, batch_size).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_global_buffer(&self, index: u32) -> Result<Bytes> {
+            self.inner.read_global_buffer(index).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_range(
+            &self,
+            range: Range<usize>,
+            projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            use std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed;
+            self.reads.fetch_add(1, Relaxed);
+            self.rows.fetch_add(range.len(), Relaxed);
+            self.inner.read_range(range, projection).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_ranges(
+            &self,
+            ranges: &[Range<usize>],
+            projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            use std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed;
+            self.reads.fetch_add(1, Relaxed);
+            self.rows
+                .fetch_add(ranges.iter().map(Range::len).sum(), Relaxed);
+            self.inner.read_ranges(ranges, projection).await
+        }
+
+        async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32 {
+            self.inner.num_batches(batch_size).await
+        }
+
+        fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.num_rows()
+        }
+
+        fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
+            self.inner.schema()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_request_reads_each_chunk_once_without_cache_retention() {
+        // Three full chunks of 32 blocks (block_rows=8 -> 256 rows per chunk)
+        // and a short fourth chunk.
+        let num_destinations = 3u32;
+        let map = make_test_map(&[500, 300], num_destinations, 17);
+        let total = map.expected.len() as u64;
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = test_store(&tempdir);
+        let (_, _) = write_map(&store, &map, num_destinations, 8, 101).await;
+        let counting = CountingReader::new(store.open_index_file("row_map.lance").await.unwrap());
+        let num_blocks = 100usize;
+        let num_chunks = num_blocks.div_ceil(ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS);
+
+        // A zero-capacity cache runs every loader and retains nothing: the
+        // block cache is attached, but no chunk survives past its request.
+        let cache = lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(0);
+        let block_cache = RowMapBlockCache::new(WeakLanceCache::from(&cache), [3u8; 32]);
+        let reader = RowMapReader::open_with_cache(counting.clone(), Some(block_cache))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reader.counts().num_blocks(), num_blocks);
+        counting.take();
+
+        // Block by block with held labels: one whole-chunk read per chunk.
+        let mut held = None;
+        let mut labels = Vec::new();
+        for block in 0..num_blocks {
+            labels.push(
+                reader
+                    .block_labels_reusing(block, num_blocks - 1, &mut held)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        let (reads, rows) = counting.take();
+        assert_eq!(reads, num_chunks, "one read per chunk with a held chunk");
+        assert_eq!(rows as u64, total, "each row read exactly once");
+
+        // A sweep visits blocks in order and must do the same.
+        let mut swept = Vec::new();
+        reader
+            .sweep(0..total, |_, translated| {
+                swept.push(translated);
+                Ok(())
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(swept, map.expected);
+        let (reads, rows) = counting.take();
+        assert_eq!(reads, num_chunks, "a sweep reads each chunk once");
+        assert_eq!(rows as u64, total);
+
+        // Independent block requests cannot reuse anything: without retention
+        // every one of them pays a whole-chunk read. This is the amplification
+        // the held chunk avoids for a request, and the reason the reader is
+        // opened without a block cache when the cache is known to be smaller
+        // than a chunk.
+        for (block, expected) in labels.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                &reader.block_labels(block).await.unwrap(),
+                expected,
+                "block {block}"
+            );
+        }
+        let (reads, rows) = counting.take();
+        assert_eq!(reads, num_blocks);
+        assert!(rows as u64 > total * (ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BLOCKS as u64 / 2));
+
+        // Without a block cache each block request reads exactly its rows.
+        let plain = RowMapReader::open(counting.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        counting.take();
+        for (block, expected) in labels.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(&plain.block_labels(block).await.unwrap(), expected);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(counting.take(), (num_blocks, total as usize));
+
+        // Without a block cache a run of adjacent blocks is read in one
+        // read, bounded to a chunk's worth of blocks, and a sparse request
+        // reads exactly its blocks: two blocks far apart cost two block
+        // reads, not the span between them.
+        let mut held = None;
+        assert_eq!(
+            &plain.block_labels_reusing(0, 0, &mut held).await.unwrap(),
+            &labels[0]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            &plain.block_labels_reusing(99, 99, &mut held).await.unwrap(),
+            &labels[99]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            counting.take(),
+            (2, 16),
+            "two touched blocks, two block reads"
+        );
+        let mut held = None;
+        for (block, expected) in labels.iter().enumerate().take(21).skip(5) {
+            assert_eq!(
+                &plain
+                    .block_labels_reusing(block, 20, &mut held)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                expected
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(counting.take(), (1, 16 * 8), "blocks 5..=20 in one read");
+        let mut held = None;
+        for (block, expected) in labels.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                &plain
+                    .block_labels_reusing(block, num_blocks - 1, &mut held)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                expected
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            counting.take(),
+            (num_chunks, total as usize),
+            "a whole-map request reads a chunk's worth of blocks at a time"
+        );
+        let mut swept = Vec::new();
+        plain
+            .sweep(0..total, |_, translated| {
+                swept.push(translated);
+                Ok(())
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(swept, map.expected);
+        assert_eq!(counting.take(), (num_chunks, total as usize));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_writer_label_count_mismatches() {
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = test_store(&tempdir);
+        let sources = vec![SourceRows {
+            physical_rows: 4,
+            deleted: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32])),
+        }];
+
+        // Too many labels: 4 physical - 1 deleted = 3 live rows.
+        let writer = store
+            .new_index_file("too_many.lance", RowMapWriter::schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer =
+            RowMapWriter::try_new_with_block_rows(writer, sources.clone(), 2, 8).unwrap();
+        assert!(writer.append_labels(&[0, 1, 0, 1]).await.is_err());
+
+        // Too few labels are caught at finish.
+        let writer = store
+            .new_index_file("too_few.lance", RowMapWriter::schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer =
+            RowMapWriter::try_new_with_block_rows(writer, sources.clone(), 2, 8).unwrap();
+        writer.append_labels(&[0, 1]).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(writer.finish().await.is_err());
+
+        // A deleted offset outside the fragment's physical rows is rejected
+        // up front.
+        let writer = store
+            .new_index_file("bad_dv.lance", RowMapWriter::schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            RowMapWriter::try_new_with_block_rows(
+                writer,
+                vec![SourceRows {
+                    physical_rows: 4,
+                    deleted: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([4u32])),
+                }],
+                2,
+                8,
+            )
+            .is_err()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_rejects_wrong_schema() {
+        // Opening a file that is not a row map fails with an error instead of
+        // panicking on the column cast.
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = test_store(&tempdir);
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "foo",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let mut writer = store
+            .new_index_file("not_a_row_map.lance", schema)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        let reader = store.open_index_file("not_a_row_map.lance").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(RowMapReader::open(reader).await.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_null_edge_cases() {
+        // Deterministic NULL/empty shapes: a fully-deleted source, a
+        // zero-physical-row source, and a deleted tail that only finish()
+        // drains. 7 physical rows, 2 live.
+        let sources = vec![
+            SourceRows {
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                deleted: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0u32..4)),
+            },
+            SourceRows {
+                physical_rows: 0,
+                deleted: None,
+            },
+            SourceRows {
+                physical_rows: 3,
+                deleted: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32])),
+            },
+        ];
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = test_store(&tempdir);
+        let writer = store
+            .new_index_file("row_map.lance", RowMapWriter::schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = RowMapWriter::try_new_with_block_rows(writer, sources, 2, 4).unwrap();
+        writer.append_labels(&[1, 0]).await.unwrap();
+        let (_, counts) = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(counts.total_rows(), 7);
+        assert_eq!((counts.total(0), counts.total(1)), (1, 1));
+
+        let reader = RowMapReader::open(store.open_index_file("row_map.lance").await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected = [
+            None,
+            None,
+            None,
+            None,            // source 1: fully deleted
+            Some((1u16, 0)), // source 3 row 0
+            Some((0u16, 0)), // source 3 row 1
+            None,            // source 3 row 2: the deleted tail
+        ];
+        for (row, &expected) in expected.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(reader.translate(row as u64).await.unwrap(), expected);
+        }
+        // Empty inputs are empty outputs.
+        assert!(reader.translate_many(&[]).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        reader
+            .sweep(3..3, |_, _| panic!("empty sweep must visit nothing"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse/stable_partition.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse/stable_partition.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..030ed86ff09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/frag_reuse/stable_partition.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,632 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Stable-partition mapping semantics, independent of dataset lineage traversal.
+
+use super::row_map::{RowMapBlockCache, RowMapReader};
+use crate::scalar::IndexStore;
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::utils::fragment_reuse::MappingReader;
+use lance_core::utils::stable_partition::CountsMatrix;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::FragmentDigest;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use tokio::sync::OnceCell;
+
+/// Immutable file name within the mapping's independently owned directory.
+pub const MAPPING_FILE: &str = "stable_partition.lance";
+
+/// A mapping reader that opens labels only when addresses need translation.
+pub struct StablePartitionMapping {
+    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    reader: OnceCell<RowMapReader>,
+    sources: HashMap<u32, (u64, u64)>,
+    destinations: Vec<FragmentDigest>,
+    total_rows: u64,
+    /// When present, the row-map reader routes its label reads through the
+    /// shared index cache in ~4 MiB chunks. `None` reads labels directly.
+    block_cache: Option<RowMapBlockCache>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for StablePartitionMapping {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("StablePartitionMapping")
+            .field("sources", &self.sources)
+            .field("destinations", &self.destinations)
+            .finish_non_exhaustive()
+    }
+}
+
+impl StablePartitionMapping {
+    /// Bind the file store to source scan order and destination label order.
+    /// The store resolves the dataset base; this reader does not interpret manifests.
+    ///
+    /// `block_cache`, when supplied, routes the row map's label reads through the
+    /// shared index cache in ~4 MiB chunks. Pass `None` (see [`try_new`]) to read
+    /// labels directly, which is byte-identical to the pre-cache behavior.
+    ///
+    /// [`try_new`]: Self::try_new
+    pub fn try_new_with_cache(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        sources: Vec<FragmentDigest>,
+        destinations: Vec<FragmentDigest>,
+        block_cache: Option<RowMapBlockCache>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut total_rows = 0_u64;
+        let mut offsets = HashMap::with_capacity(sources.len());
+        for source in sources {
+            if source.id >= u64::from(RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_FRAG)
+                || source.num_deleted_rows > source.physical_rows
+                || source.physical_rows > u32::MAX as u64
+                || offsets
+                    .insert(source.id as u32, (total_rows, source.physical_rows))
+                    .is_some()
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "invalid or duplicate source fragment {} with {} rows",
+                    source.id, source.physical_rows
+                )));
+            }
+            total_rows = total_rows
+                .checked_add(source.physical_rows)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("source physical row count overflow"))?;
+        }
+        let destination_fragments: RoaringBitmap =
+            destinations.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+        if destinations.len() > u16::MAX as usize
+            || destination_fragments.len() != destinations.len() as u64
+            || destinations.iter().any(|f| {
+                f.id >= u64::from(RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_FRAG)
+                    || f.physical_rows > u32::MAX as u64
+                    || f.num_deleted_rows != 0
+            })
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "invalid stable-partition destination layout",
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            store,
+            reader: OnceCell::new(),
+            sources: offsets,
+            destinations,
+            total_rows,
+            block_cache,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience constructor with no block cache: reads labels directly.
+    pub fn try_new(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        sources: Vec<FragmentDigest>,
+        destinations: Vec<FragmentDigest>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_new_with_cache(store, sources, destinations, None)
+    }
+
+    /// Open (once) the row-map reader, validating its dimensions against the
+    /// transition digests. Reuses the cached reader on later calls; the reader
+    /// carries the block cache so its label reads are chunked when enabled.
+    async fn open_reader(&self) -> Result<&RowMapReader> {
+        self.reader
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                let reader = RowMapReader::open_with_cache(
+                    self.store.open_index_file(MAPPING_FILE).await?,
+                    self.block_cache.clone(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let counts = reader.counts();
+                if counts.total_rows() != self.total_rows
+                    || counts.num_destinations() as usize != self.destinations.len()
+                {
+                    return Err(corrupt("row-map dimensions differ from transition digests"));
+                }
+                for (label, destination) in self.destinations.iter().enumerate() {
+                    if u64::from(counts.total(label as u16)) != destination.physical_rows {
+                        return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                            "row-map total differs for destination {}",
+                            destination.id
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(reader)
+            })
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for StablePartitionMapping {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.sources.capacity() * (std::mem::size_of::<(u32, (u64, u64))>() + 1)
+            + self.destinations.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<FragmentDigest>()
+            + self
+                .reader
+                .get()
+                .map_or(0, |reader| reader.counts().deep_size_of())
+        // The IndexStore and file metadata belong to the session's metadata cache.
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl MappingReader for StablePartitionMapping {
+    async fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        // Reuse the block reader for a single address too.
+        let mapped = self.remap_row_ids(&[row_id]).await?;
+        mapped
+            .into_iter()
+            .next()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("stable-partition mapping omitted the requested row"))
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_row_ids(&self, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        let mut output = vec![None; row_ids.len()];
+        let mut requests = Vec::with_capacity(row_ids.len());
+        for (position, &row_id) in row_ids.iter().enumerate() {
+            let address = RowAddress::from(row_id);
+            let &(base, rows) = self.sources.get(&address.fragment_id()).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "address {address} is outside stable-partition sources"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if u64::from(address.row_offset()) >= rows {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "address {address} exceeds source length {rows}"
+                )));
+            }
+            requests.push((base + u64::from(address.row_offset()), position));
+        }
+        if requests.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(output);
+        }
+        let reader = self.open_reader().await?;
+        requests.sort_unstable_by_key(|&(row, _)| row);
+        let mut remaining = requests.as_slice();
+        // Blocks are visited in row order, so consecutive blocks reuse the
+        // labels loaded for the first of them: one read per cache chunk, or
+        // without a chunk cache one read per run of adjacent blocks the
+        // request touches (bounded to a chunk's worth). A sparse request
+        // never reads a block it does not touch.
+        let mut held = None;
+        // The last block of the run of adjacent blocks the request is
+        // currently walking. It is discovered once, when a run starts, and
+        // reused for every block of the run, so the lookahead over a run of
+        // B blocks costs B steps in total rather than B*(B-1)/2.
+        let mut run_end: Option<usize> = None;
+        while let Some(&(first, _)) = remaining.first() {
+            let counts = reader.counts();
+            let block = counts.block_of(first);
+            let range = counts.block_range(block);
+            let end = remaining.partition_point(|&(row, _)| row < range.end);
+            let (batch, rest) = remaining.split_at(end);
+            let run_last = match run_end {
+                Some(last) if block <= last => last,
+                _ => *run_end.insert(contiguous_run_end(counts, block, rest)),
+            };
+            let labels = reader
+                .block_labels_reusing(block, run_last, &mut held)
+                .await?;
+            if labels.len() as u64 != range.end - range.start {
+                return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                    "row-map block {block} has an unexpected label count"
+                )));
+            }
+            // One sweep per touched block: bounded label memory and no
+            // repeated prefix scans for dense index pages or duplicates.
+            let mut counters = counts.counters_at_block(block);
+            let mut requested = batch.iter().peekable();
+            for (offset, label) in labels.iter().enumerate() {
+                let translated = if let Some(label) = label {
+                    let counter = counters
+                        .get_mut(label as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| corrupt(format!("invalid row-map label {label}")))?;
+                    let destination_offset = *counter;
+                    *counter = counter
+                        .checked_add(1)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| corrupt("row-map count overflow"))?;
+                    Some(
+                        RowAddress::new_from_parts(
+                            self.destinations[label as usize].id as u32,
+                            destination_offset,
+                        )
+                        .into(),
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+                let row = range.start + offset as u64;
+                while let Some(&&(requested_row, position)) = requested.peek() {
+                    if requested_row != row {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    output[position] = translated;
+                    requested.next();
+                }
+            }
+            if counters != counts.counters_at_block(block + 1) {
+                return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                    "row-map labels disagree with counts in block {block}"
+                )));
+            }
+            remaining = rest;
+        }
+
+        Ok(output)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The last block of the run of adjacent blocks that starts at `block` and
+/// continues through `ahead`, the sorted requests after `block`'s own: the
+/// run ends at the first block `ahead` skips. Each step advances past one
+/// whole block of requests, so a run of B blocks costs B - 1 steps plus at
+/// most one step to find the gap after it; the caller asks once per run.
+fn contiguous_run_end(counts: &CountsMatrix, block: usize, ahead: &[(u64, usize)]) -> usize {
+    let mut run_end = block;
+    let mut cursor = 0;
+    while cursor < ahead.len() {
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        tests::LOOKAHEAD_STEPS.with(|steps| steps.set(steps.get() + 1));
+        let next = counts.block_of(ahead[cursor].0);
+        if next != run_end + 1 {
+            break;
+        }
+        run_end = next;
+        let next_range = counts.block_range(next);
+        cursor += ahead[cursor..].partition_point(|&(row, _)| row < next_range.end);
+    }
+    run_end
+}
+
+fn corrupt(message: impl Into<String>) -> Error {
+    Error::corrupt_file_named(MAPPING_FILE, message)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::frag_reuse::row_map::{RowMapWriter, SourceRows};
+    use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+    use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+    use lance_index_core::scalar::IndexReader;
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+
+    thread_local! {
+        /// Lookahead steps [`contiguous_run_end`] has taken on this thread
+        /// (the tests run on the current-thread runtime).
+        pub(super) static LOOKAHEAD_STEPS: std::cell::Cell<usize> = const { std::cell::Cell::new(0) };
+    }
+
+    /// The lookahead steps taken since the last call.
+    fn take_lookahead_steps() -> usize {
+        LOOKAHEAD_STEPS.with(|steps| steps.replace(0))
+    }
+
+    /// Counts the label reads the row-map reader performs and the rows they
+    /// asked for.
+    struct CountingReader {
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        reads: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+        rows: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    impl CountingReader {
+        fn new(inner: Arc<dyn IndexReader>) -> Arc<Self> {
+            Arc::new(Self {
+                inner,
+                reads: Default::default(),
+                rows: Default::default(),
+            })
+        }
+
+        /// `(reads, rows)` since the last call.
+        fn take(&self) -> (usize, usize) {
+            use std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed;
+            (self.reads.swap(0, Relaxed), self.rows.swap(0, Relaxed))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl IndexReader for CountingReader {
+        async fn read_record_batch(&self, n: u64, batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            self.inner.read_record_batch(n, batch_size).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_global_buffer(&self, index: u32) -> Result<bytes::Bytes> {
+            self.inner.read_global_buffer(index).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_range(
+            &self,
+            range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+            projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            use std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed;
+            self.reads.fetch_add(1, Relaxed);
+            self.rows.fetch_add(range.len(), Relaxed);
+            self.inner.read_range(range, projection).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_ranges(
+            &self,
+            ranges: &[std::ops::Range<usize>],
+            projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            use std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed;
+            self.reads.fetch_add(1, Relaxed);
+            self.rows
+                .fetch_add(ranges.iter().map(|range| range.len()).sum(), Relaxed);
+            self.inner.read_ranges(ranges, projection).await
+        }
+
+        async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32 {
+            self.inner.num_batches(batch_size).await
+        }
+
+        fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.num_rows()
+        }
+
+        fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
+            self.inner.schema()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Without a block cache a batch reads exactly the blocks it touches: a
+    /// run of adjacent blocks in one read, and nothing between two blocks
+    /// far apart (the request's last block is not a span to read up to).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn sparse_batch_reads_only_touched_blocks_without_cache() {
+        let directory = TempDir::default();
+        let (object_store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(directory.obj_path().as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store,
+            path,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        // One source of 800 rows in 100 blocks of 8, two destinations of 400.
+        let writer = store
+            .new_index_file(MAPPING_FILE, RowMapWriter::schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = RowMapWriter::try_new_with_block_rows(
+            writer,
+            vec![SourceRows {
+                physical_rows: 800,
+                deleted: None,
+            }],
+            2,
+            8,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let labels: Vec<u16> = (0..800u16).map(|i| i % 2).collect();
+        writer.append_labels(&labels).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        let counting = CountingReader::new(store.open_index_file(MAPPING_FILE).await.unwrap());
+        let digest = |id, rows| FragmentDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: rows,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let mapping = StablePartitionMapping::try_new(
+            store.clone(),
+            vec![digest(1, 800)],
+            vec![digest(2, 400), digest(3, 400)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            mapping
+                .reader
+                .set(RowMapReader::open(counting.clone()).await.unwrap())
+                .is_ok()
+        );
+        counting.take();
+        let addr = |fragment, offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment, offset));
+
+        // Blocks 0 and 99: two block reads of eight rows, not the span.
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping
+                .remap_row_ids(&[addr(1, 0), addr(1, 799)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            vec![Some(addr(2, 0)), Some(addr(3, 399))]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(counting.take(), (2, 16));
+        // An adjacent run (blocks 5, 6, 7) is read once.
+        mapping
+            .remap_row_ids(&[addr(1, 40), addr(1, 48), addr(1, 56)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(counting.take(), (1, 24));
+        // A run and then a gap: two reads, only the touched blocks.
+        mapping
+            .remap_row_ids(&[addr(1, 0), addr(1, 8), addr(1, 80)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(counting.take(), (2, 24));
+    }
+
+    /// A long run of consecutive blocks (several chunks) discovers its
+    /// boundary once: the lookahead is linear in the number of blocks, the
+    /// run is read a chunk at a time, and the batch agrees with per-row
+    /// translation (duplicates, a deleted row and request order included).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn long_consecutive_run_lookahead_is_linear() {
+        const BLOCKS: usize = 300;
+        const BLOCK_ROWS: u64 = 8;
+        const ROWS: u64 = BLOCKS as u64 * BLOCK_ROWS;
+        const DELETED: u32 = 5;
+        let directory = TempDir::default();
+        let (object_store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(directory.obj_path().as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store,
+            path,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        // One source of 2400 rows in 300 blocks of 8 (nine full chunks of 32
+        // blocks and a partial tenth), one row deleted, two destinations.
+        let writer = store
+            .new_index_file(MAPPING_FILE, RowMapWriter::schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = RowMapWriter::try_new_with_block_rows(
+            writer,
+            vec![SourceRows {
+                physical_rows: ROWS,
+                deleted: Some([DELETED].into_iter().collect()),
+            }],
+            2,
+            BLOCK_ROWS as u32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let labels: Vec<u16> = (0..ROWS as u16 - 1).map(|i| i % 2).collect();
+        writer.append_labels(&labels).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        let counting = CountingReader::new(store.open_index_file(MAPPING_FILE).await.unwrap());
+        let digest = |id, rows| FragmentDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: rows,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let mapping = StablePartitionMapping::try_new(
+            store.clone(),
+            vec![digest(1, ROWS)],
+            vec![digest(2, 1200), digest(3, 1199)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            mapping
+                .reader
+                .set(RowMapReader::open(counting.clone()).await.unwrap())
+                .is_ok()
+        );
+        counting.take();
+        take_lookahead_steps();
+        let addr = |offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, offset));
+
+        // One row per block, every block, in reverse order, plus the deleted
+        // row and a duplicate.
+        let mut request: Vec<u64> = (0..BLOCKS as u32)
+            .rev()
+            .map(|block| addr(block * BLOCK_ROWS as u32 + block % BLOCK_ROWS as u32))
+            .collect();
+        request.push(addr(DELETED));
+        request.push(addr(7 * BLOCK_ROWS as u32 + 7));
+        let batch = mapping.remap_row_ids(&request).await.unwrap();
+        // Linear lookahead: one step per block of the run (the old per-block
+        // rediscovery took B * (B - 1) / 2 = 44850 steps for B = 300).
+        let steps = take_lookahead_steps();
+        assert_eq!(steps, BLOCKS - 1);
+        assert!(steps <= 2 * BLOCKS);
+        // The run is read a chunk (32 blocks) at a time, every block once.
+        assert_eq!(counting.take(), (BLOCKS.div_ceil(32), ROWS as usize));
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.len(), request.len());
+        assert_eq!(batch[BLOCKS], None, "the deleted row stays deleted");
+        assert_eq!(batch[BLOCKS + 1], batch[BLOCKS - 1 - 7], "duplicate");
+        for (row_id, translated) in request.iter().zip(&batch) {
+            assert_eq!(mapping.remap_row_id(*row_id).await.unwrap(), *translated);
+        }
+        // Request order is kept: the first entry is block 299's row 2395,
+        // live row 2394 (label 0), the 1198th row of destination 2.
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch[0],
+            Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 1197)))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch[BLOCKS - 1],
+            Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 0)))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn mapping_single_and_batch_translation_are_lazy() {
+        let directory = TempDir::default();
+        let (object_store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(directory.obj_path().as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store,
+            path,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024)),
+        ));
+        let source = FragmentDigest {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: 5,
+            num_deleted_rows: 1,
+        };
+        let destinations = vec![
+            FragmentDigest {
+                id: 2,
+                physical_rows: 2,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+            FragmentDigest {
+                id: 3,
+                physical_rows: 2,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+        ];
+        let mapping =
+            StablePartitionMapping::try_new(store.clone(), vec![source], destinations).unwrap();
+        assert!(mapping.remap_row_ids(&[]).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(mapping.reader.get().is_none());
+        // Empty input must not open the file.
+        let writer = store
+            .new_index_file(MAPPING_FILE, RowMapWriter::schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = RowMapWriter::try_new_with_block_rows(
+            writer,
+            vec![SourceRows {
+                physical_rows: 5,
+                deleted: Some([1].into_iter().collect()),
+            }],
+            2,
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.append_labels(&[1, 0, 1, 0]).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        let addr = |fragment, offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment, offset));
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping
+                .remap_row_ids(&[addr(1, 4), addr(1, 1), addr(1, 0), addr(1, 0), addr(1, 2)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            vec![
+                Some(addr(2, 1)),
+                None,
+                Some(addr(3, 0)),
+                Some(addr(3, 0)),
+                Some(addr(2, 0))
+            ]
+        );
+        assert!(mapping.reader.get().is_some());
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping.remap_row_id(addr(1, 4)).await.unwrap(),
+            Some(addr(2, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(mapping.remap_row_id(addr(1, 1)).await.unwrap(), None);
+        for (row_id, message) in [
+            (addr(9, 0), "outside stable-partition sources"),
+            (addr(1, 5), "exceeds source length"),
+        ] {
+            for error in [
+                mapping.remap_row_id(row_id).await.unwrap_err(),
+                mapping.remap_row_ids(&[row_id]).await.unwrap_err(),
+            ] {
+                assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+                assert!(error.to_string().contains(message));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/lib.rs
index 776619e5036..7da42115f46 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+#![cfg_attr(coverage, feature(coverage_attribute))]
 
 //! Lance secondary index library
 //!
@@ -9,23 +10,16 @@
 //! API stability is not guaranteed.
 //! </section>
 
-use std::{any::Any, sync::Arc};
-
 use crate::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
 use crate::mem_wal::MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME;
-use async_trait::async_trait;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
-use std::convert::TryFrom;
 
 pub mod frag_reuse;
 pub mod mem_wal;
 pub mod metrics;
 pub mod optimize;
 pub mod prefilter;
+pub mod progress;
 pub mod registry;
 pub mod scalar;
 pub mod traits;
@@ -33,6 +27,9 @@ pub mod vector;
 
 pub use crate::traits::*;
 
+// Re-export core traits from lance-index-core
+pub use lance_index_core::{Index, IndexParams, IndexType};
+
 pub const INDEX_FILE_NAME: &str = "index.idx";
 /// The name of the auxiliary index file.
 ///
@@ -41,8 +38,13 @@ pub const INDEX_FILE_NAME: &str = "index.idx";
 pub const INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME: &str = "auxiliary.idx";
 pub const INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY: &str = "lance:index";
 
-// Currently all vector indexes are version 1
+/// Default version for vector index metadata.
+///
+/// Most vector indices should use this version unless they need to bump for a
+/// format change.
 pub const VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+/// Version for IVF_RQ indices.
+pub const IVF_RQ_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 2;
 
 /// The factor of threshold to trigger split / join for vector index.
 ///
@@ -63,248 +65,11 @@ pub mod pbold {
     include!(concat!(env!("OUT_DIR"), "/lance.table.rs"));
 }
 
-/// Generic methods common across all types of secondary indices
-///
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait Index: Send + Sync + DeepSizeOf {
-    /// Cast to [Any].
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any;
-
-    /// Cast to [Index]
-    fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index>;
-
-    /// Cast to [vector::VectorIndex]
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn vector::VectorIndex>>;
-
-    /// Retrieve index statistics as a JSON Value
-    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value>;
-
-    /// Prewarm the index.
-    ///
-    /// This will load the index into memory and cache it.
-    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()>;
-
-    /// Get the type of the index
-    fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType;
-
-    /// Read through the index and determine which fragment ids are covered by the index
-    ///
-    /// This is a kind of slow operation.  It's better to use the fragment_bitmap.  This
-    /// only exists for cases where the fragment_bitmap has become corrupted or missing.
-    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap>;
-}
-
-/// Index Type
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Copy, Hash, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub enum IndexType {
-    // Preserve 0-100 for simple indices.
-    Scalar = 0, // Legacy scalar index, alias to BTree
-
-    BTree = 1, // BTree
-
-    Bitmap = 2, // Bitmap
-
-    LabelList = 3, // LabelList
-
-    Inverted = 4, // Inverted
-
-    NGram = 5, // NGram
-
-    FragmentReuse = 6,
-
-    MemWal = 7,
-
-    ZoneMap = 8, // ZoneMap
-
-    BloomFilter = 9, // Bloom filter
-
-    RTree = 10, // RTree
-
-    // 100+ and up for vector index.
-    /// Flat vector index.
-    Vector = 100, // Legacy vector index, alias to IvfPq
-    IvfFlat = 101,
-    IvfSq = 102,
-    IvfPq = 103,
-    IvfHnswSq = 104,
-    IvfHnswPq = 105,
-    IvfHnswFlat = 106,
-    IvfRq = 107,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for IndexType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        match self {
-            Self::Scalar | Self::BTree => write!(f, "BTree"),
-            Self::Bitmap => write!(f, "Bitmap"),
-            Self::LabelList => write!(f, "LabelList"),
-            Self::Inverted => write!(f, "Inverted"),
-            Self::NGram => write!(f, "NGram"),
-            Self::FragmentReuse => write!(f, "FragmentReuse"),
-            Self::MemWal => write!(f, "MemWal"),
-            Self::ZoneMap => write!(f, "ZoneMap"),
-            Self::BloomFilter => write!(f, "BloomFilter"),
-            Self::RTree => write!(f, "RTree"),
-            Self::Vector | Self::IvfPq => write!(f, "IVF_PQ"),
-            Self::IvfFlat => write!(f, "IVF_FLAT"),
-            Self::IvfSq => write!(f, "IVF_SQ"),
-            Self::IvfHnswSq => write!(f, "IVF_HNSW_SQ"),
-            Self::IvfHnswPq => write!(f, "IVF_HNSW_PQ"),
-            Self::IvfHnswFlat => write!(f, "IVF_HNSW_FLAT"),
-            Self::IvfRq => write!(f, "IVF_RQ"),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<i32> for IndexType {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(value: i32) -> Result<Self> {
-        match value {
-            v if v == Self::Scalar as i32 => Ok(Self::Scalar),
-            v if v == Self::BTree as i32 => Ok(Self::BTree),
-            v if v == Self::Bitmap as i32 => Ok(Self::Bitmap),
-            v if v == Self::LabelList as i32 => Ok(Self::LabelList),
-            v if v == Self::NGram as i32 => Ok(Self::NGram),
-            v if v == Self::Inverted as i32 => Ok(Self::Inverted),
-            v if v == Self::FragmentReuse as i32 => Ok(Self::FragmentReuse),
-            v if v == Self::MemWal as i32 => Ok(Self::MemWal),
-            v if v == Self::ZoneMap as i32 => Ok(Self::ZoneMap),
-            v if v == Self::BloomFilter as i32 => Ok(Self::BloomFilter),
-            v if v == Self::Vector as i32 => Ok(Self::Vector),
-            v if v == Self::IvfFlat as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfFlat),
-            v if v == Self::IvfSq as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfSq),
-            v if v == Self::IvfPq as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfPq),
-            v if v == Self::IvfHnswSq as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfHnswSq),
-            v if v == Self::IvfHnswPq as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfHnswPq),
-            v if v == Self::IvfHnswFlat as i32 => Ok(Self::IvfHnswFlat),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("the input value {} is not a valid IndexType", value).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<&str> for IndexType {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
-        match value {
-            "BTree" | "BTREE" => Ok(Self::BTree),
-            "Bitmap" | "BITMAP" => Ok(Self::Bitmap),
-            "LabelList" | "LABELLIST" => Ok(Self::LabelList),
-            "Inverted" | "INVERTED" => Ok(Self::Inverted),
-            "NGram" | "NGRAM" => Ok(Self::NGram),
-            "ZoneMap" | "ZONEMAP" => Ok(Self::ZoneMap),
-            "Vector" | "VECTOR" => Ok(Self::Vector),
-            "IVF_FLAT" => Ok(Self::IvfFlat),
-            "IVF_SQ" => Ok(Self::IvfSq),
-            "IVF_PQ" => Ok(Self::IvfPq),
-            "IVF_RQ" => Ok(Self::IvfRq),
-            "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => Ok(Self::IvfHnswFlat),
-            "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => Ok(Self::IvfHnswSq),
-            "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => Ok(Self::IvfHnswPq),
-            "FragmentReuse" => Ok(Self::FragmentReuse),
-            "MemWal" => Ok(Self::MemWal),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("invalid index type: {}", value),
-                location!(),
-            )),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl IndexType {
-    pub fn is_scalar(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(
-            self,
-            Self::Scalar
-                | Self::BTree
-                | Self::Bitmap
-                | Self::LabelList
-                | Self::Inverted
-                | Self::NGram
-                | Self::ZoneMap
-                | Self::BloomFilter
-                | Self::RTree,
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_vector(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(
-            self,
-            Self::Vector
-                | Self::IvfPq
-                | Self::IvfHnswSq
-                | Self::IvfHnswPq
-                | Self::IvfHnswFlat
-                | Self::IvfFlat
-                | Self::IvfSq
-                | Self::IvfRq
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_system(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(self, Self::FragmentReuse | Self::MemWal)
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the current format version of the index type,
-    /// bump this when the index format changes.
-    /// Indices which higher version than these will be ignored for compatibility,
-    /// This would happen when creating index in a newer version of Lance,
-    /// but then opening the index in older version of Lance
-    pub fn version(&self) -> i32 {
-        match self {
-            Self::Scalar => 0,
-            Self::BTree => 0,
-            Self::Bitmap => 0,
-            Self::LabelList => 0,
-            Self::Inverted => 0,
-            Self::NGram => 0,
-            Self::FragmentReuse => 0,
-            Self::MemWal => 0,
-            Self::ZoneMap => 0,
-            Self::BloomFilter => 0,
-            Self::RTree => 0,
-
-            // for now all vector indices are built by the same builder,
-            // so they share the same version.
-            Self::Vector
-            | Self::IvfFlat
-            | Self::IvfSq
-            | Self::IvfPq
-            | Self::IvfHnswSq
-            | Self::IvfHnswPq
-            | Self::IvfHnswFlat
-            | Self::IvfRq => 1,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the target partition size for the index type.
-    ///
-    /// This is used to compute the number of partitions for the index.
-    /// The partition size is optimized for the best performance of the index.
-    ///
-    /// This is for vector indices only.
-    pub fn target_partition_size(&self) -> usize {
-        match self {
-            Self::Vector => 8192,
-            Self::IvfFlat => 4096,
-            Self::IvfSq => 8192,
-            Self::IvfPq => 8192,
-            Self::IvfHnswFlat => 1 << 20,
-            Self::IvfHnswSq => 1 << 20,
-            Self::IvfHnswPq => 1 << 20,
-            _ => 8192,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-pub trait IndexParams: Send + Sync {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any;
-
-    fn index_name(&self) -> &str;
+/// Protobuf headers for serialized index cache entries (FTS posting lists,
+/// scalar indices, and IVF vector partitions).
+pub mod cache_pb {
+    #![allow(clippy::use_self)]
+    include!(concat!(env!("OUT_DIR"), "/lance.index.cache.rs"));
 }
 
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
@@ -314,9 +79,7 @@ pub struct IndexMetadata {
     pub distance_type: String,
 }
 
-pub fn is_system_index(index_meta: &lance_table::format::IndexMetadata) -> bool {
-    index_meta.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME || index_meta.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME
-}
+pub use lance_table::system_index::is_system_index;
 
 pub fn infer_system_index_type(
     index_meta: &lance_table::format::IndexMetadata,
@@ -329,3 +92,108 @@ pub fn infer_system_index_type(
         None
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ivf_rq_has_dedicated_index_version() {
+        assert!(IndexType::IvfRq.version() > IndexType::IvfPq.version());
+        assert_eq!(IndexType::IvfRq.version() as u32, IVF_RQ_INDEX_VERSION);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_max_vector_version_tracks_highest_supported() {
+        assert_eq!(IndexType::max_vector_version(), IVF_RQ_INDEX_VERSION);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ivf_rq_target_partition_size() {
+        assert_eq!(IndexType::IvfRq.target_partition_size(), 4096);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_type_try_from_i32_covers_all_variants() {
+        let all = [
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            IndexType::Bitmap,
+            IndexType::LabelList,
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            IndexType::NGram,
+            IndexType::FragmentReuse,
+            IndexType::MemWal,
+            IndexType::ZoneMap,
+            IndexType::BloomFilter,
+            IndexType::RTree,
+            IndexType::Fm,
+            IndexType::MinHashLsh,
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            IndexType::IvfFlat,
+            IndexType::IvfSq,
+            IndexType::IvfPq,
+            IndexType::IvfHnswSq,
+            IndexType::IvfHnswPq,
+            IndexType::IvfHnswFlat,
+            IndexType::IvfRq,
+        ];
+
+        for index_type in all {
+            assert_eq!(
+                IndexType::try_from(index_type as i32).unwrap(),
+                index_type,
+                "IndexType::try_from(i32) should support {:?}",
+                index_type
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_type_try_from_str_covers_all_parseable_variants() {
+        let cases = [
+            ("BTree", IndexType::BTree),
+            ("BTREE", IndexType::BTree),
+            ("Bitmap", IndexType::Bitmap),
+            ("BITMAP", IndexType::Bitmap),
+            ("LabelList", IndexType::LabelList),
+            ("LABELLIST", IndexType::LabelList),
+            ("Inverted", IndexType::Inverted),
+            ("INVERTED", IndexType::Inverted),
+            ("NGram", IndexType::NGram),
+            ("NGRAM", IndexType::NGram),
+            ("ZoneMap", IndexType::ZoneMap),
+            ("ZONEMAP", IndexType::ZoneMap),
+            ("BloomFilter", IndexType::BloomFilter),
+            ("BLOOMFILTER", IndexType::BloomFilter),
+            ("BLOOM_FILTER", IndexType::BloomFilter),
+            ("RTree", IndexType::RTree),
+            ("RTREE", IndexType::RTree),
+            ("R_TREE", IndexType::RTree),
+            ("Fm", IndexType::Fm),
+            ("FM", IndexType::Fm),
+            ("MinHashLsh", IndexType::MinHashLsh),
+            ("MINHASHLSH", IndexType::MinHashLsh),
+            ("MINHASH_LSH", IndexType::MinHashLsh),
+            ("Vector", IndexType::Vector),
+            ("VECTOR", IndexType::Vector),
+            ("IVF_FLAT", IndexType::IvfFlat),
+            ("IVF_SQ", IndexType::IvfSq),
+            ("IVF_PQ", IndexType::IvfPq),
+            ("IVF_RQ", IndexType::IvfRq),
+            ("IVF_HNSW_FLAT", IndexType::IvfHnswFlat),
+            ("IVF_HNSW_SQ", IndexType::IvfHnswSq),
+            ("IVF_HNSW_PQ", IndexType::IvfHnswPq),
+            ("FragmentReuse", IndexType::FragmentReuse),
+            ("MemWal", IndexType::MemWal),
+        ];
+
+        for (text, expected) in cases {
+            assert_eq!(
+                IndexType::try_from(text).unwrap(),
+                expected,
+                "IndexType::try_from(&str) should support '{text}'"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/mem_wal.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/mem_wal.rs
index 19d6aac2c94..879f4757919 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/mem_wal.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/mem_wal.rs
@@ -1,383 +1,47 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+//! `Index`-trait adapter for the MemWAL system index.
+//!
+//! The data structures and table-format logic live in
+//! [`lance_table::system_index::mem_wal`]; this module re-exports them and
+//! provides a newtype wrapper that implements the [`Index`] trait.
+
 use std::any::Any;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_core::Error;
-use lance_table::format::pb;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
-use uuid::Uuid;
-
-use crate::{Index, IndexType};
-
-pub const MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME: &str = "__lance_mem_wal";
-
-/// Type alias for region identifier (UUID v4).
-pub type RegionId = Uuid;
-
-/// A flushed MemTable generation and its storage location.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct FlushedGeneration {
-    pub generation: u64,
-    pub path: String,
-}
-
-impl From<&FlushedGeneration> for pb::FlushedGeneration {
-    fn from(fg: &FlushedGeneration) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            generation: fg.generation,
-            path: fg.path.clone(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<pb::FlushedGeneration> for FlushedGeneration {
-    fn from(fg: pb::FlushedGeneration) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            generation: fg.generation,
-            path: fg.path,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// A region's merged generation, used in MemWalIndexDetails.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Hash, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-pub struct MergedGeneration {
-    pub region_id: Uuid,
-    pub generation: u64,
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for MergedGeneration {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        0 // UUID is 16 bytes fixed size, no heap allocations
-    }
-}
-
-impl MergedGeneration {
-    pub fn new(region_id: Uuid, generation: u64) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            region_id,
-            generation,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&MergedGeneration> for pb::MergedGeneration {
-    fn from(mg: &MergedGeneration) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            region_id: Some((&mg.region_id).into()),
-            generation: mg.generation,
-        }
-    }
-}
+use serde::Serialize;
 
-impl TryFrom<pb::MergedGeneration> for MergedGeneration {
-    type Error = Error;
+pub use lance_table::system_index::mem_wal::*;
 
-    fn try_from(mg: pb::MergedGeneration) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
-        let region_id = mg.region_id.as_ref().map(Uuid::try_from).ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input("Missing region_id in MergedGeneration", location!())
-        })??;
-        Ok(Self {
-            region_id,
-            generation: mg.generation,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-/// Tracks which merged generation a base table index has been rebuilt to cover.
-/// Used to determine whether to read from flushed MemTable indexes or base table.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct IndexCatchupProgress {
-    pub index_name: String,
-    pub caught_up_generations: Vec<MergedGeneration>,
-}
-
-impl IndexCatchupProgress {
-    pub fn new(index_name: String, caught_up_generations: Vec<MergedGeneration>) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            index_name,
-            caught_up_generations,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Get the caught up generation for a specific region.
-    /// Returns None if the region is not present (assumed fully caught up).
-    pub fn caught_up_generation_for_region(&self, region_id: &Uuid) -> Option<u64> {
-        self.caught_up_generations
-            .iter()
-            .find(|mg| &mg.region_id == region_id)
-            .map(|mg| mg.generation)
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&IndexCatchupProgress> for pb::IndexCatchupProgress {
-    fn from(icp: &IndexCatchupProgress) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            index_name: icp.index_name.clone(),
-            caught_up_generations: icp
-                .caught_up_generations
-                .iter()
-                .map(|mg| mg.into())
-                .collect(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<pb::IndexCatchupProgress> for IndexCatchupProgress {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(icp: pb::IndexCatchupProgress) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            index_name: icp.index_name,
-            caught_up_generations: icp
-                .caught_up_generations
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(MergedGeneration::try_from)
-                .collect::<lance_core::Result<_>>()?,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-/// Region manifest containing epoch-based fencing and WAL state.
-/// Each region has exactly one active writer at any time.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-pub struct RegionManifest {
-    pub region_id: Uuid,
-    pub version: u64,
-    pub region_spec_id: u32,
-    pub writer_epoch: u64,
-    /// The most recent WAL entry position (0-based) flushed to a MemTable.
-    /// Recovery replays from `replay_after_wal_entry_position + 1`.
-    pub replay_after_wal_entry_position: u64,
-    /// The most recent WAL entry position (0-based) when manifest was updated.
-    pub wal_entry_position_last_seen: u64,
-    pub current_generation: u64,
-    pub flushed_generations: Vec<FlushedGeneration>,
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for RegionManifest {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.flushed_generations.deep_size_of_children(context)
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&RegionManifest> for pb::RegionManifest {
-    fn from(rm: &RegionManifest) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            region_id: Some((&rm.region_id).into()),
-            version: rm.version,
-            region_spec_id: rm.region_spec_id,
-            writer_epoch: rm.writer_epoch,
-            replay_after_wal_entry_position: rm.replay_after_wal_entry_position,
-            wal_entry_position_last_seen: rm.wal_entry_position_last_seen,
-            current_generation: rm.current_generation,
-            flushed_generations: rm.flushed_generations.iter().map(|fg| fg.into()).collect(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<pb::RegionManifest> for RegionManifest {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(rm: pb::RegionManifest) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
-        let region_id = rm.region_id.as_ref().map(Uuid::try_from).ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input("Missing region_id in RegionManifest", location!())
-        })??;
-        Ok(Self {
-            region_id,
-            version: rm.version,
-            region_spec_id: rm.region_spec_id,
-            writer_epoch: rm.writer_epoch,
-            replay_after_wal_entry_position: rm.replay_after_wal_entry_position,
-            wal_entry_position_last_seen: rm.wal_entry_position_last_seen,
-            current_generation: rm.current_generation,
-            flushed_generations: rm
-                .flushed_generations
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(FlushedGeneration::from)
-                .collect(),
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-/// Region field definition.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct RegionField {
-    pub field_id: String,
-    pub source_ids: Vec<i32>,
-    pub transform: Option<String>,
-    pub expression: Option<String>,
-    pub result_type: String,
-    pub parameters: HashMap<String, String>,
-}
-
-impl From<&RegionField> for pb::RegionField {
-    fn from(rf: &RegionField) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            field_id: rf.field_id.clone(),
-            source_ids: rf.source_ids.clone(),
-            transform: rf.transform.clone(),
-            expression: rf.expression.clone(),
-            result_type: rf.result_type.clone(),
-            parameters: rf.parameters.clone(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<pb::RegionField> for RegionField {
-    fn from(rf: pb::RegionField) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            field_id: rf.field_id,
-            source_ids: rf.source_ids,
-            transform: rf.transform,
-            expression: rf.expression,
-            result_type: rf.result_type,
-            parameters: rf.parameters,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Region spec definition.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct RegionSpec {
-    pub spec_id: u32,
-    pub fields: Vec<RegionField>,
-}
-
-impl From<&RegionSpec> for pb::RegionSpec {
-    fn from(rs: &RegionSpec) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            spec_id: rs.spec_id,
-            fields: rs.fields.iter().map(|f| f.into()).collect(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<pb::RegionSpec> for RegionSpec {
-    fn from(rs: pb::RegionSpec) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            spec_id: rs.spec_id,
-            fields: rs.fields.into_iter().map(RegionField::from).collect(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Index details for MemWAL Index, stored in IndexMetadata.index_details.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct MemWalIndexDetails {
-    pub snapshot_ts_millis: i64,
-    pub num_regions: u32,
-    pub inline_snapshots: Option<Vec<u8>>,
-    pub region_specs: Vec<RegionSpec>,
-    pub maintained_indexes: Vec<String>,
-    pub merged_generations: Vec<MergedGeneration>,
-    pub index_catchup: Vec<IndexCatchupProgress>,
-}
-
-impl From<&MemWalIndexDetails> for pb::MemWalIndexDetails {
-    fn from(details: &MemWalIndexDetails) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            snapshot_ts_millis: details.snapshot_ts_millis,
-            num_regions: details.num_regions,
-            inline_snapshots: details.inline_snapshots.clone(),
-            region_specs: details.region_specs.iter().map(|rs| rs.into()).collect(),
-            maintained_indexes: details.maintained_indexes.clone(),
-            merged_generations: details
-                .merged_generations
-                .iter()
-                .map(|mg| mg.into())
-                .collect(),
-            index_catchup: details.index_catchup.iter().map(|icp| icp.into()).collect(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<pb::MemWalIndexDetails> for MemWalIndexDetails {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(details: pb::MemWalIndexDetails) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            snapshot_ts_millis: details.snapshot_ts_millis,
-            num_regions: details.num_regions,
-            inline_snapshots: details.inline_snapshots,
-            region_specs: details
-                .region_specs
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(RegionSpec::from)
-                .collect(),
-            maintained_indexes: details.maintained_indexes,
-            merged_generations: details
-                .merged_generations
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(MergedGeneration::try_from)
-                .collect::<lance_core::Result<_>>()?,
-            index_catchup: details
-                .index_catchup
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(IndexCatchupProgress::try_from)
-                .collect::<lance_core::Result<_>>()?,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-/// MemWAL Index provides access to MemWAL configuration and state.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct MemWalIndex {
-    pub details: MemWalIndexDetails,
-}
-
-impl MemWalIndex {
-    pub fn new(details: MemWalIndexDetails) -> Self {
-        Self { details }
-    }
-
-    pub fn merged_generation_for_region(&self, region_id: &Uuid) -> Option<u64> {
-        self.details
-            .merged_generations
-            .iter()
-            .find(|mg| &mg.region_id == region_id)
-            .map(|mg| mg.generation)
-    }
-
-    /// Get the caught up generation for a specific index and region.
-    /// Returns None if the index is not tracked (assumed fully caught up).
-    pub fn index_caught_up_generation(&self, index_name: &str, region_id: &Uuid) -> Option<u64> {
-        self.details
-            .index_catchup
-            .iter()
-            .find(|icp| icp.index_name == index_name)
-            .and_then(|icp| icp.caught_up_generation_for_region(region_id))
-    }
+use crate::{Index, IndexType};
 
-    /// Check if an index is fully caught up for a region.
-    /// Returns true if the index covers all merged data for the region.
-    pub fn is_index_caught_up(&self, index_name: &str, region_id: &Uuid) -> bool {
-        let merged_gen = self.merged_generation_for_region(region_id).unwrap_or(0);
-        let caught_up_gen = self.index_caught_up_generation(index_name, region_id);
+/// Newtype wrapping [`MemWalIndex`] so that `lance-index` can implement
+/// the `Index` trait (orphan rules prevent implementing it directly in
+/// `lance-table`).
+pub struct MemWalIndexHandle(pub Arc<MemWalIndex>);
 
-        // If not tracked in index_catchup, assumed fully caught up
-        caught_up_gen.is_none_or(|gen| gen >= merged_gen)
+impl DeepSizeOf for MemWalIndexHandle {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.0.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
 #[derive(Serialize)]
 struct MemWalStatistics {
-    num_regions: u32,
-    num_merged_generations: usize,
-    num_region_specs: usize,
+    num_shards: u32,
+    num_compacted_sstables: usize,
+    num_shard_specs: usize,
     num_maintained_indexes: usize,
     num_index_catchup_entries: usize,
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl Index for MemWalIndex {
+impl Index for MemWalIndexHandle {
     fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
         self
     }
@@ -386,28 +50,23 @@ impl Index for MemWalIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> lance_core::Result<Arc<dyn crate::vector::VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "MemWalIndex is not a vector index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-
-    fn statistics(&self) -> lance_core::Result<serde_json::Value> {
+    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
         let stats = MemWalStatistics {
-            num_regions: self.details.num_regions,
-            num_merged_generations: self.details.merged_generations.len(),
-            num_region_specs: self.details.region_specs.len(),
-            num_maintained_indexes: self.details.maintained_indexes.len(),
-            num_index_catchup_entries: self.details.index_catchup.len(),
+            num_shards: self.0.details.num_shards,
+            num_compacted_sstables: self.0.details.compacted_sstables.len(),
+            num_shard_specs: self.0.details.sharding_specs.len(),
+            num_maintained_indexes: self.0.details.maintained_indexes.len(),
+            num_index_catchup_entries: self.0.details.index_catchup.len(),
         };
-        serde_json::to_value(stats).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("failed to serialize MemWAL index statistics: {}", e),
-            location: location!(),
+        serde_json::to_value(stats).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "failed to serialize MemWAL index statistics: {}",
+                e
+            ))
         })
     }
 
-    async fn prewarm(&self) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
         Ok(())
     }
 
@@ -415,7 +74,7 @@ impl Index for MemWalIndex {
         IndexType::MemWal
     }
 
-    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> lance_core::Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
         Ok(RoaringBitmap::new())
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/metrics.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/metrics.rs
index 9e2161ae8f9..7d1ea2964c6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/metrics.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/metrics.rs
@@ -1,85 +1,4 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
-
-/// A trait used by the index to report metrics
-///
-/// Callers can implement this trait to collect metrics
-pub trait MetricsCollector: Send + Sync {
-    /// Record partition loads
-    ///
-    /// Many indices consist of partitions that may need to be loaded
-    /// into cache.  For example, an inverted index or ngram index has a
-    /// posting list for each token.
-    ///
-    /// In the ideal case, these shards are in the cache and will not need
-    /// to be loaded from disk.  This method should not be called if the
-    /// shard is in the cache.
-    fn record_parts_loaded(&self, num_parts: usize);
-
-    /// Record a shard load
-    fn record_part_load(&self) {
-        self.record_parts_loaded(1);
-    }
-
-    /// Record an index load
-    ///
-    /// This should be called when a scalar index is loaded from storage.
-    /// It should not be called if the index is already in memory.
-    fn record_index_loads(&self, num_indexes: usize);
-
-    /// Record an index load
-    fn record_index_load(&self) {
-        self.record_index_loads(1);
-    }
-
-    /// Record the number of "comparisons" made by the index
-    ///
-    /// What exactly constitutes a comparison depends on the index type.
-    /// For example, a B-tree index may make comparisons while searching for a value.
-    /// On the other hand, a bitmap index makes comparisons when computing the intersection
-    /// of two bitmaps.
-    ///
-    /// The goal is to provide some visibility into the compute cost of the search
-    fn record_comparisons(&self, num_comparisons: usize);
-}
-
-/// A no-op metrics collector that does nothing
-pub struct NoOpMetricsCollector;
-
-impl MetricsCollector for NoOpMetricsCollector {
-    fn record_parts_loaded(&self, _num_parts: usize) {}
-    fn record_index_loads(&self, _num_indexes: usize) {}
-    fn record_comparisons(&self, _num_comparisons: usize) {}
-}
-
-#[derive(Default)]
-pub struct LocalMetricsCollector {
-    pub parts_loaded: AtomicUsize,
-    pub index_loads: AtomicUsize,
-    pub comparisons: AtomicUsize,
-}
-
-impl LocalMetricsCollector {
-    pub fn dump_into(self, other: &dyn MetricsCollector) {
-        other.record_parts_loaded(self.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
-        other.record_index_loads(self.index_loads.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
-        other.record_comparisons(self.comparisons.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
-    }
-}
-
-impl MetricsCollector for LocalMetricsCollector {
-    fn record_parts_loaded(&self, num_parts: usize) {
-        self.parts_loaded.fetch_add(num_parts, Ordering::Relaxed);
-    }
-
-    fn record_index_loads(&self, num_indexes: usize) {
-        self.index_loads.fetch_add(num_indexes, Ordering::Relaxed);
-    }
-
-    fn record_comparisons(&self, num_comparisons: usize) {
-        self.comparisons
-            .fetch_add(num_comparisons, Ordering::Relaxed);
-    }
-}
+pub use lance_index_core::metrics::*;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/optimize.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/optimize.rs
index 68092c28ea5..4bc1d7f61db 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/optimize.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/optimize.rs
@@ -1,9 +1,14 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use crate::progress::{IndexBuildProgress, noop_progress};
+
 /// Options for optimizing all indices.
 #[non_exhaustive]
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct OptimizeOptions {
     /// Number of delta indices to merge for one column. Default: 1.
     ///
@@ -33,6 +38,28 @@ pub struct OptimizeOptions {
     ///
     /// NOTE: this option is only supported for v3 vector indices.
     pub retrain: bool,
+
+    /// Transaction properties to store with this commit.
+    ///
+    /// These key-value pairs are stored in the transaction file
+    /// and can be read later to identify the source of the commit
+    /// (e.g., job_id for tracking completed index jobs).
+    pub transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
+
+    /// Progress callback for index building during optimization.
+    pub progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+}
+
+impl Default for OptimizeOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            num_indices_to_merge: None,
+            index_names: None,
+            retrain: false,
+            transaction_properties: None,
+            progress: noop_progress(),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 impl OptimizeOptions {
@@ -61,6 +88,7 @@ impl OptimizeOptions {
             num_indices_to_merge: None,
             index_names: None,
             retrain: true,
+            ..Default::default()
         }
     }
 
@@ -73,4 +101,16 @@ impl OptimizeOptions {
         self.index_names = Some(names);
         self
     }
+
+    /// Set transaction properties to store in the commit manifest.
+    pub fn transaction_properties(mut self, properties: HashMap<String, String>) -> Self {
+        self.transaction_properties = Some(Arc::new(properties));
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set progress callback for index building during optimization.
+    pub fn progress(mut self, progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>) -> Self {
+        self.progress = progress;
+        self
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/prefilter.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/prefilter.rs
index 34fc11b1b1c..0fb131a2381 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/prefilter.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/prefilter.rs
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrMask;
 use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
 
 /// A trait to be implemented by anything supplying a prefilter row addr mask
 ///
@@ -36,6 +36,23 @@ pub trait PreFilter: Send + Sync {
     /// If the filter is empty.
     fn is_empty(&self) -> bool;
 
+    /// Whether partition-local row coverage is needed to determine if this filter
+    /// can be replaced by [`NoFilter`].
+    ///
+    /// Most filters cannot make this proof and must not make an IVF search
+    /// enumerate a partition's row addresses just to call [`Self::is_empty_for`].
+    fn needs_partition_row_ids(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this filter selects every row in a known partition.
+    ///
+    /// Callers must first call [`Self::wait_for_ready`]. Implementations that
+    /// cannot prove partition-local emptiness fall back to the global answer.
+    fn is_empty_for(&self, _rows: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> bool {
+        self.is_empty()
+    }
+
     /// Get the row addr mask for this prefilter
     ///
     /// This method must be called after `wait_for_ready`
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/progress.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/progress.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b02ec4280ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/progress.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+/// Progress callback for index building and distributed index finalization.
+///
+/// Called at stage boundaries during index construction. For a single logical stream, stages are
+/// sequential: `stage_complete` is always called before the next `stage_start`, so only one stage
+/// is active at a time. Callers that orchestrate independent sub-builds in parallel may prefix
+/// stage names (for example `segment_plan[0]/merge_partitions`) to represent separate logical
+/// streams. Stage names are index-type-specific (e.g. "train_ivf", "shuffle", "merge_partitions"
+/// for vector indices; "load_data", "build_pages" for scalar indices; merge/finalization stages
+/// for distributed index construction).
+///
+/// Methods take `&self` to allow concurrent calls from within a single stage. Implementations
+/// must be thread-safe.
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait IndexBuildProgress: std::fmt::Debug + Sync + Send {
+    /// A named stage has started.
+    ///
+    /// `total` is the number of work units if known, and `unit` describes
+    /// what is being counted (e.g. "partitions", "batches", "rows").
+    async fn stage_start(&self, stage: &str, total: Option<u64>, unit: &str) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Progress within the current stage.
+    async fn stage_progress(&self, stage: &str, completed: u64) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// A named stage has completed.
+    async fn stage_complete(&self, stage: &str) -> Result<()>;
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct NoopIndexBuildProgress;
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl IndexBuildProgress for NoopIndexBuildProgress {
+    async fn stage_start(&self, _: &str, _: Option<u64>, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+    async fn stage_progress(&self, _: &str, _: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+    async fn stage_complete(&self, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Helper to create a default noop progress instance.
+pub fn noop_progress() -> Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress> {
+    Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/registry.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/registry.rs
index 82d24649049..b5066497e42 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/registry.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/registry.rs
@@ -1,33 +1,71 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use std::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    sync::Arc,
+};
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
+use crate::scalar::rtree::RTreeIndexPlugin;
 use crate::{
     pb, pbold,
     scalar::{
         bitmap::BitmapIndexPlugin, bloomfilter::BloomFilterIndexPlugin, btree::BTreeIndexPlugin,
-        inverted::InvertedIndexPlugin, json::JsonIndexPlugin, label_list::LabelListIndexPlugin,
-        ngram::NGramIndexPlugin, registry::ScalarIndexPlugin, rtree::RTreeIndexPlugin,
-        zonemap::ZoneMapIndexPlugin,
+        fmindex::FMIndexPlugin, inverted::InvertedIndexPlugin, json::JsonIndexPlugin,
+        label_list::LabelListIndexPlugin, minhash_lsh::MinHashLshIndexPlugin,
+        ngram::NGramIndexPlugin, registry::ScalarIndexPlugin, zonemap::ZoneMapIndexPlugin,
     },
 };
 
+/// Scalar detail package emitted by Lance 0.36 before the messages moved back
+/// to `lance.table` for forward compatibility.
+const V036_SCALAR_DETAILS_PACKAGE: &str = "lance.index.pb";
+
+/// Derive the scalar index plugin name from a details type URL.
+///
+/// Takes the last `.`-separated segment, lowercases it, and strips any trailing
+/// `"indexdetails"` suffix so the result matches the plugin name used in
+/// [`IndexPluginRegistry`]. For example, `/lance.index.pb.ZoneMapIndexDetails`
+/// yields `"zonemap"`.
+pub fn plugin_name_from_details_url(type_url: &str) -> String {
+    let segment = type_url.split('.').next_back().unwrap_or(type_url);
+    let lower = segment.to_lowercase();
+    lower
+        .strip_suffix("indexdetails")
+        .map(|s| s.to_string())
+        .unwrap_or(lower)
+}
+
+/// Derive a human-readable index type name from a details type URL.
+///
+/// The display name is the final `.`-separated segment of the type URL with any
+/// trailing `IndexDetails` removed. For example, `/lance.index.pb.VectorIndexDetails`
+/// yields `Vector`. Used as a best-effort fallback when no plugin is registered
+/// for the type URL, so the index type is never reported as opaque "Unknown"
+/// while valid index details exist.
+pub fn display_type_from_url(type_url: &str) -> &str {
+    let segment = type_url.rsplit('.').next().unwrap_or(type_url);
+    segment
+        .strip_suffix("IndexDetails")
+        .filter(|stripped| !stripped.is_empty())
+        .unwrap_or(segment)
+}
+
 /// A registry of index plugins
 pub struct IndexPluginRegistry {
     plugins: HashMap<String, Box<dyn ScalarIndexPlugin>>,
+    details_type_names: HashSet<String>,
 }
 
 impl IndexPluginRegistry {
+    fn normalize_plugin_name(name: &str) -> String {
+        name.to_lowercase()
+    }
+
     fn get_plugin_name_from_details_name(&self, details_name: &str) -> String {
-        let details_name = details_name.to_lowercase();
-        if details_name.ends_with("indexdetails") {
-            details_name.replace("indexdetails", "")
-        } else {
-            details_name
-        }
+        plugin_name_from_details_url(details_name)
     }
 
     /// Adds a plugin to the registry, using the name of the details message to determine
@@ -45,14 +83,22 @@ impl IndexPluginRegistry {
         &mut self,
     ) {
         let plugin_name = self.get_plugin_name_from_details_name(DetailsType::NAME);
+        self.details_type_names
+            .insert(DetailsType::full_name().to_ascii_lowercase());
         self.plugins
             .insert(plugin_name, Box::new(PluginType::default()));
     }
 
+    fn add_details_type_alias<DetailsType: prost::Name>(&mut self, package: &str) {
+        self.details_type_names
+            .insert(format!("{}.{}", package, DetailsType::NAME).to_ascii_lowercase());
+    }
+
     /// Create a registry with the default plugins
     pub fn with_default_plugins() -> Arc<Self> {
         let mut registry = Self {
             plugins: HashMap::new(),
+            details_type_names: HashSet::new(),
         };
         registry.add_plugin::<pbold::BTreeIndexDetails, BTreeIndexPlugin>();
         registry.add_plugin::<pbold::BitmapIndexDetails, BitmapIndexPlugin>();
@@ -62,8 +108,22 @@ impl IndexPluginRegistry {
         registry.add_plugin::<pb::BloomFilterIndexDetails, BloomFilterIndexPlugin>();
         registry.add_plugin::<pbold::InvertedIndexDetails, InvertedIndexPlugin>();
         registry.add_plugin::<pb::JsonIndexDetails, JsonIndexPlugin>();
+        registry.add_plugin::<pb::FmIndexDetails, FMIndexPlugin>();
+        registry.add_plugin::<pb::MinHashLshIndexDetails, MinHashLshIndexPlugin>();
+        #[cfg(feature = "geo")]
         registry.add_plugin::<pb::RTreeIndexDetails, RTreeIndexPlugin>();
 
+        // Lance 0.36 released these scalar detail messages in the index package.
+        // Register only those historical identities, not arbitrary packages
+        // carrying the same terminal message names.
+        registry.add_details_type_alias::<pbold::BTreeIndexDetails>(V036_SCALAR_DETAILS_PACKAGE);
+        registry.add_details_type_alias::<pbold::BitmapIndexDetails>(V036_SCALAR_DETAILS_PACKAGE);
+        registry
+            .add_details_type_alias::<pbold::LabelListIndexDetails>(V036_SCALAR_DETAILS_PACKAGE);
+        registry.add_details_type_alias::<pbold::NGramIndexDetails>(V036_SCALAR_DETAILS_PACKAGE);
+        registry.add_details_type_alias::<pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails>(V036_SCALAR_DETAILS_PACKAGE);
+        registry.add_details_type_alias::<pbold::InvertedIndexDetails>(V036_SCALAR_DETAILS_PACKAGE);
+
         let registry = Arc::new(registry);
         for plugin in registry.plugins.values() {
             plugin.attach_registry(registry.clone());
@@ -72,14 +132,39 @@ impl IndexPluginRegistry {
         registry
     }
 
+    /// Returns whether the complete protobuf type name in `details` belongs to
+    /// a registered scalar index reader.
+    ///
+    /// Type URL authorities may vary, so matching uses the fully qualified
+    /// message name after the final slash. The table format requires index type
+    /// URL comparisons to be case-insensitive.
+    pub fn supports_details(&self, details: &prost_types::Any) -> bool {
+        let Some((_, details_type_name)) = details.type_url.rsplit_once('/') else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        if details_type_name.is_empty() || details_type_name.starts_with('.') {
+            return false;
+        }
+        self.details_type_names
+            .contains(&details_type_name.to_ascii_lowercase())
+    }
+
     /// Get an index plugin suitable for training an index with the given parameters
     pub fn get_plugin_by_name(&self, name: &str) -> Result<&dyn ScalarIndexPlugin> {
+        let plugin_name = Self::normalize_plugin_name(name);
         self.plugins
-            .get(name)
+            .get(&plugin_name)
             .map(|plugin| plugin.as_ref())
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("No scalar index plugin found for name {}", name).into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                let hint = if plugin_name == "rtree" {
+                    ". The 'rtree' index requires the `geo` feature. \
+                     Rebuild with `--features geo` to enable geospatial support"
+                } else {
+                    ""
+                };
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("No scalar index plugin found for name '{name}'{hint}").into(),
+                )
             })
     }
 
@@ -92,3 +177,78 @@ impl IndexPluginRegistry {
         self.get_plugin_by_name(&plugin_name)
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_display_type_from_url() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            display_type_from_url("/lance.index.pb.VectorIndexDetails"),
+            "Vector"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(display_type_from_url("BTreeIndexDetails"), "BTree");
+        // Segment without the IndexDetails suffix is returned verbatim.
+        assert_eq!(
+            display_type_from_url("/lance.pb.SomethingElse"),
+            "SomethingElse"
+        );
+        // A bare "IndexDetails" segment has nothing left after stripping, so it
+        // is returned as-is rather than an empty string.
+        assert_eq!(display_type_from_url("IndexDetails"), "IndexDetails");
+        assert_eq!(display_type_from_url(""), "");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_get_plugin_by_name_accepts_case_insensitive_builtin_names() {
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+
+        for (requested_name, expected_name) in [
+            ("BTREE", "BTree"),
+            ("Bitmap", "Bitmap"),
+            ("INVERTED", "Inverted"),
+            ("NGRAM", "NGram"),
+            ("ZONEMAP", "ZoneMap"),
+            ("BLOOMFILTER", "BloomFilter"),
+            ("FM", "Fm"),
+            ("JSON", "Json"),
+            ("MINHASHLSH", "MinHashLsh"),
+        ] {
+            let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name(requested_name).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(plugin.name(), expected_name);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_supports_details_matches_complete_type_name_case_insensitively() {
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+
+        for type_url in [
+            "/lance.table.BTreeIndexDetails",
+            "type.googleapis.com/LANCE.TABLE.BTREEINDEXDETAILS",
+            "/lance.index.pb.BTreeIndexDetails",
+            "/lance.index.pb.BitmapIndexDetails",
+            "/lance.index.pb.LabelListIndexDetails",
+            "/lance.index.pb.NGramIndexDetails",
+            "/lance.index.pb.ZoneMapIndexDetails",
+            "/lance.index.pb.InvertedIndexDetails",
+        ] {
+            assert!(registry.supports_details(&prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: type_url.to_string(),
+                value: Vec::new(),
+            }));
+        }
+
+        for type_url in [
+            "type.googleapis.com/example.BTreeIndexDetails",
+            "BTreeIndexDetails",
+            "/.lance.table.BTreeIndexDetails",
+        ] {
+            assert!(!registry.supports_details(&prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: type_url.to_string(),
+                value: Vec::new(),
+            }));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar.rs
index 6d07b5b8218..018709e22ec 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar.rs
@@ -4,158 +4,91 @@
 //! Scalar indices for metadata search & filtering
 
 use arrow::buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
-use arrow_array::{ListArray, RecordBatch};
-use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
-use async_trait::async_trait;
+use arrow_array::ListArray;
+use arrow_schema::Field;
+use datafusion::functions::regex::regexplike::RegexpLikeFunc;
 use datafusion::functions::string::contains::ContainsFunc;
 use datafusion::functions_nested::array_has;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use datafusion_common::{scalar::ScalarValue, Column};
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
-use std::fmt::Debug;
+use datafusion_common::{Column, scalar::ScalarValue};
+use std::collections::HashSet;
 use std::{any::Any, ops::Bound, sync::Arc};
 
-use datafusion_expr::expr::ScalarFunction;
-use datafusion_expr::Expr;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::{future::BoxFuture, FutureExt, Stream};
-use inverted::query::{fill_fts_query_column, FtsQuery, FtsQueryNode, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery};
-use lance_core::utils::mask::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap};
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use serde::Serialize;
-use snafu::location;
+use datafusion_expr::{
+    Expr,
+    expr::{Like, ScalarFunction},
+};
+use inverted::query::{FtsQuery, FtsQueryNode, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery, fill_fts_query_column};
+use lance_core::Result;
 
-use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
-use crate::scalar::registry::TrainingCriteria;
-use crate::{Index, IndexParams, IndexType};
+use lance_datafusion::udf::CONTAINS_TOKENS_UDF;
+
+use crate::IndexParams;
+pub use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+pub use lance_index_core::remapping::{
+    BatchRowIdRemapper, DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES, LEGACY_TRAFFIC_ONLY,
+    RemapUnavailable, RowAddrTranslator, RowAddrTranslatorRef, check_batch_remapping_entry,
+    materialize_remap,
+};
+pub use lance_index_core::scalar::{
+    AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, IndexFile, IndexReader, IndexStore, IndexWriter,
+    LANCE_SCALAR_INDEX, OldIndexDataFilter, RowIdRemapper, ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams,
+    SearchOptions, SearchResult, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, UpdateCriteria,
+};
 
 pub mod bitmap;
 pub mod bloomfilter;
 pub mod btree;
 pub mod expression;
+pub mod fmindex;
 pub mod inverted;
 pub mod json;
 pub mod label_list;
 pub mod lance_format;
+pub mod minhash_lsh;
 pub mod ngram;
 pub mod registry;
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod remap_compat_tests;
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
 pub mod rtree;
+pub mod seed;
 pub mod zoned;
 pub mod zonemap;
 
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
 pub use inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
-use lance_datafusion::udf::CONTAINS_TOKENS_UDF;
 
-pub const LANCE_SCALAR_INDEX: &str = "__lance_scalar_index";
-
-/// Builtin index types supported by the Lance library
+/// Convert a `Vec<`[`lance_index_core::scalar::IndexFile`]`>` to a
+/// `Vec<`[`lance_table::format::IndexFile`]`>`.
 ///
-/// This is primarily for convenience to avoid a bunch of string
-/// constants and provide some auto-complete.  This type should not
-/// be used in the manifest as plugins cannot add new entries.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub enum BuiltinIndexType {
-    BTree,
-    Bitmap,
-    LabelList,
-    NGram,
-    ZoneMap,
-    BloomFilter,
-    RTree,
-    Inverted,
-}
-
-impl BuiltinIndexType {
-    pub fn as_str(&self) -> &str {
-        match self {
-            Self::BTree => "btree",
-            Self::Bitmap => "bitmap",
-            Self::LabelList => "labellist",
-            Self::NGram => "ngram",
-            Self::ZoneMap => "zonemap",
-            Self::Inverted => "inverted",
-            Self::BloomFilter => "bloomfilter",
-            Self::RTree => "rtree",
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<IndexType> for BuiltinIndexType {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(value: IndexType) -> Result<Self> {
-        match value {
-            IndexType::BTree => Ok(Self::BTree),
-            IndexType::Bitmap => Ok(Self::Bitmap),
-            IndexType::LabelList => Ok(Self::LabelList),
-            IndexType::NGram => Ok(Self::NGram),
-            IndexType::ZoneMap => Ok(Self::ZoneMap),
-            IndexType::Inverted => Ok(Self::Inverted),
-            IndexType::BloomFilter => Ok(Self::BloomFilter),
-            IndexType::RTree => Ok(Self::RTree),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Invalid index type".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
-pub struct ScalarIndexParams {
-    /// The type of index to create
-    ///
-    /// Plugins may add additional index types.  Index type lookup is case-insensitive.
-    pub index_type: String,
-    /// The parameters to train the index
-    ///
-    /// This should be a JSON string.  The contents of the JSON string will be specific to the
-    /// index type.  If not set, then default parameters will be used for the index type.
-    pub params: Option<String>,
-}
-
-impl Default for ScalarIndexParams {
-    fn default() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            index_type: BuiltinIndexType::BTree.as_str().to_string(),
-            params: None,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ScalarIndexParams {
-    /// Creates a new ScalarIndexParams from one of the builtin index types
-    pub fn for_builtin(index_type: BuiltinIndexType) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            index_type: index_type.as_str().to_string(),
-            params: None,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Create a new ScalarIndexParams with the given index type
-    pub fn new(index_type: String) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            index_type,
-            params: None,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Set the parameters for the index
-    pub fn with_params<ParamsType: Serialize>(mut self, params: &ParamsType) -> Self {
-        self.params = Some(serde_json::to_string(params).unwrap());
-        self
-    }
-}
-
-impl IndexParams for ScalarIndexParams {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
-    fn index_name(&self) -> &str {
-        LANCE_SCALAR_INDEX
-    }
+/// These two structs have identical fields; this helper bridges the crate
+/// boundary without relying on orphan-rule–violating `From` impls.
+pub fn index_files_to_table(
+    files: Vec<lance_index_core::scalar::IndexFile>,
+) -> Vec<lance_table::format::IndexFile> {
+    files
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|f| lance_table::format::IndexFile {
+            path: f.path,
+            size_bytes: f.size_bytes,
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Convert a `Vec<`[`lance_table::format::IndexFile`]`>` to a
+/// `Vec<`[`lance_index_core::scalar::IndexFile`]`>`.
+///
+/// These two structs have identical fields; this helper bridges the crate
+/// boundary without relying on orphan-rule–violating `From` impls.
+pub fn table_files_to_index(
+    files: Vec<lance_table::format::IndexFile>,
+) -> Vec<lance_index_core::scalar::IndexFile> {
+    files
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|f| lance_index_core::scalar::IndexFile {
+            path: f.path,
+            size_bytes: f.size_bytes,
+        })
+        .collect()
 }
 
 impl IndexParams for InvertedIndexParams {
@@ -168,148 +101,6 @@ impl IndexParams for InvertedIndexParams {
     }
 }
 
-/// Trait for storing an index (or parts of an index) into storage
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait IndexWriter: Send {
-    /// Writes a record batch into the file, returning the 0-based index of the batch in the file
-    ///
-    /// E.g. if this is the third time this is called this method will return 2
-    async fn write_record_batch(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<u64>;
-    /// Finishes writing the file and closes the file
-    async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<()>;
-    /// Finishes writing the file and closes the file with additional metadata
-    async fn finish_with_metadata(&mut self, metadata: HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()>;
-}
-
-/// Trait for reading an index (or parts of an index) from storage
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait IndexReader: Send + Sync {
-    /// Read the n-th record batch from the file
-    async fn read_record_batch(&self, n: u64, batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch>;
-    /// Read the range of rows from the file.
-    /// If projection is Some, only return the columns in the projection,
-    /// nested columns like Some(&["x.y"]) are not supported.
-    /// If projection is None, return all columns.
-    async fn read_range(
-        &self,
-        range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
-        projection: Option<&[&str]>,
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch>;
-    /// Return the number of batches in the file
-    async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32;
-    /// Return the number of rows in the file
-    fn num_rows(&self) -> usize;
-    /// Return the metadata of the file
-    fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
-}
-
-/// A stream that reads the original training data back out of the index
-struct IndexReaderStream {
-    reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
-    batch_size: u64,
-    offset: u64,
-    limit: u64,
-}
-
-impl IndexReaderStream {
-    async fn new(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>, batch_size: u64) -> Self {
-        let limit = reader.num_rows() as u64;
-        Self::new_with_limit(reader, batch_size, limit).await
-    }
-
-    async fn new_with_limit(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>, batch_size: u64, limit: u64) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            reader,
-            batch_size,
-            offset: 0,
-            limit,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl Stream for IndexReaderStream {
-    type Item = BoxFuture<'static, Result<RecordBatch>>;
-
-    fn poll_next(
-        self: std::pin::Pin<&mut Self>,
-        _cx: &mut std::task::Context<'_>,
-    ) -> std::task::Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
-        let this = self.get_mut();
-        if this.offset >= this.limit {
-            return std::task::Poll::Ready(None);
-        }
-        let read_start = this.offset;
-        let read_end = this.limit.min(this.offset + this.batch_size);
-        this.offset = read_end;
-        let reader_copy = this.reader.clone();
-
-        let read_task = async move {
-            reader_copy
-                .read_range(read_start as usize..read_end as usize, None)
-                .await
-        }
-        .boxed();
-        std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(read_task))
-    }
-}
-
-/// Trait abstracting I/O away from index logic
-///
-/// Scalar indices are currently serialized as indexable arrow record batches stored in
-/// named "files".  The index store is responsible for serializing and deserializing
-/// these batches into file data (e.g. as .lance files or .parquet files, etc.)
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait IndexStore: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync + DeepSizeOf {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any;
-
-    /// Suggested I/O parallelism for the store
-    fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize;
-
-    /// Create a new file and return a writer to store data in the file
-    async fn new_index_file(&self, name: &str, schema: Arc<Schema>)
-        -> Result<Box<dyn IndexWriter>>;
-
-    /// Open an existing file for retrieval
-    async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>>;
-
-    /// Copy a range of batches from an index file from this store to another
-    ///
-    /// This is often useful when remapping or updating
-    async fn copy_index_file(&self, name: &str, dest_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<()>;
-
-    /// Rename an index file
-    async fn rename_index_file(&self, name: &str, new_name: &str) -> Result<()>;
-
-    /// Delete an index file (used in the tmp spill store to keep tmp size down)
-    async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()>;
-}
-
-/// Different scalar indices may support different kinds of queries
-///
-/// For example, a btree index can support a wide range of queries (e.g. x > 7)
-/// while an index based on FTS only supports queries like "x LIKE 'foo'"
-///
-/// This trait is used when we need an object that can represent any kind of query
-///
-/// Note: if you are implementing this trait for a query type then you probably also
-/// need to implement the [crate::scalar::expression::ScalarQueryParser] trait to
-/// create instances of your query at parse time.
-pub trait AnyQuery: std::fmt::Debug + Any + Send + Sync {
-    /// Cast the query as Any to allow for downcasting
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any;
-    /// Format the query as a string for display purposes
-    fn format(&self, col: &str) -> String;
-    /// Convert the query to a datafusion expression
-    fn to_expr(&self, col: String) -> Expr;
-    /// Compare this query to another query
-    fn dyn_eq(&self, other: &dyn AnyQuery) -> bool;
-}
-
-impl PartialEq for dyn AnyQuery {
-    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        self.dyn_eq(other)
-    }
-}
 /// A full text search query
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub struct FullTextSearchQuery {
@@ -413,6 +204,22 @@ pub enum SargableQuery {
     FullTextSearch(FullTextSearchQuery),
     /// Retrieve all row ids where the value is null
     IsNull(),
+    /// Retrieve all row ids where the value matches LIKE 'prefix%' pattern
+    /// This is used for both explicit LIKE expressions and starts_with() function calls
+    LikePrefix(ScalarValue),
+}
+
+/// Escape the LIKE metacharacters (`\`, `%`, `_`) in a literal string so it can be
+/// embedded in a LIKE pattern and matched literally (paired with `ESCAPE '\'`).
+fn escape_like_pattern(s: &str) -> String {
+    let mut out = String::with_capacity(s.len() + 2);
+    for c in s.chars() {
+        if matches!(c, '\\' | '%' | '_') {
+            out.push('\\');
+        }
+        out.push(c);
+    }
+    out
 }
 
 impl AnyQuery for SargableQuery {
@@ -461,6 +268,9 @@ impl AnyQuery for SargableQuery {
             Self::Equals(val) => {
                 format!("{} = {}", col, val)
             }
+            Self::LikePrefix(prefix) => {
+                format!("{} LIKE '{}%'", col, prefix)
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -513,6 +323,43 @@ impl AnyQuery for SargableQuery {
             )),
             Self::IsNull() => col_expr.is_null(),
             Self::Equals(value) => col_expr.eq(Expr::Literal(value.clone(), None)),
+            Self::LikePrefix(prefix) => match prefix {
+                ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s))
+                | ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(s))
+                | ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some(s)) => {
+                    // The prefix is a literal string. If it contains LIKE metacharacters
+                    // (`_`, `%`, `\`) they must be escaped before appending the `%` wildcard;
+                    // otherwise an inexact recheck (e.g. zone maps) would treat them as
+                    // wildcards and over-match rows that do not start with the literal prefix.
+                    // When the prefix has no metacharacters we keep the plain
+                    // `col LIKE 'prefix%'` form (no `ESCAPE`), identical to the prior behavior,
+                    // so DataFusion's optimized prefix matcher still applies.
+                    // A `Utf8View` prefix is handled here too (rather than falling through to
+                    // the catch-all arm, which would rebuild the recheck without the trailing
+                    // `%` and silently turn prefix matching into equality matching) and is
+                    // normalized to a `Utf8` pattern below, mirroring how the parser normalizes
+                    // `Utf8View` to `Utf8` (see `expression.rs`).
+                    let escaped = escape_like_pattern(s);
+                    let needs_escape = escaped.as_str() != s.as_str();
+                    let pattern = format!("{}%", escaped);
+                    let pattern_value = match prefix {
+                        ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(_) => ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(pattern)),
+                        _ => ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(pattern)),
+                    };
+                    if needs_escape {
+                        Expr::Like(Like {
+                            negated: false,
+                            expr: Box::new(col_expr),
+                            pattern: Box::new(Expr::Literal(pattern_value, None)),
+                            escape_char: Some('\\'),
+                            case_insensitive: false,
+                        })
+                    } else {
+                        col_expr.like(Expr::Literal(pattern_value, None))
+                    }
+                }
+                other => col_expr.like(Expr::Literal(other.clone(), None)),
+            },
         }
     }
 
@@ -549,7 +396,7 @@ impl AnyQuery for LabelListQuery {
                 let offsets_buffer =
                     OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(vec![0, labels_arr.len() as i32]));
                 let labels_list = ListArray::try_new(
-                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", labels_arr.data_type().clone(), false)),
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", labels_arr.data_type().clone(), true)),
                     offsets_buffer,
                     labels_arr,
                     None,
@@ -569,7 +416,7 @@ impl AnyQuery for LabelListQuery {
                 let offsets_buffer =
                     OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(vec![0, labels_arr.len() as i32]));
                 let labels_list = ListArray::try_new(
-                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", labels_arr.data_type().clone(), false)),
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", labels_arr.data_type().clone(), true)),
                     offsets_buffer,
                     labels_arr,
                     None,
@@ -600,9 +447,15 @@ impl AnyQuery for LabelListQuery {
 pub enum TextQuery {
     /// Retrieve all row ids where the text contains the given string
     StringContains(String),
-    // TODO: In the future we should be able to do string-insensitive contains
-    // as well as partial matches (e.g. LIKE 'foo%') and potentially even
-    // some regular expressions
+    /// Retrieve all row ids whose text matches the given regular expression.
+    ///
+    /// The pattern is a full regular expression (as accepted by `regexp_like`).
+    /// The index returns a candidate superset that the scan rechecks, so any
+    /// pattern is sound; patterns with no usable trigram structure simply fall
+    /// back to rechecking every row.
+    Regex(String),
+    // TODO: In the future we should be able to do case-insensitive contains
+    // as well as partial matches (e.g. LIKE 'foo%').
 }
 
 impl AnyQuery for TextQuery {
@@ -623,6 +476,17 @@ impl AnyQuery for TextQuery {
                     Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(substr.clone())), None),
                 ],
             }),
+            // `regexp_like` returns Boolean directly, so the reconstructed
+            // expression can be used as-is for the recheck filter (no IsNotNull
+            // wrapper, unlike `regexp_match`). It is the semantic equivalent of
+            // the original predicate for the "does it match" question.
+            Self::Regex(pattern) => Expr::ScalarFunction(ScalarFunction {
+                func: Arc::new(RegexpLikeFunc::new().into()),
+                args: vec![
+                    Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified(col)),
+                    Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(pattern.clone())), None),
+                ],
+            }),
         }
     }
 
@@ -735,6 +599,7 @@ impl AnyQuery for TokenQuery {
     }
 }
 
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub struct RelationQuery {
     pub value: ScalarValue,
@@ -742,12 +607,14 @@ pub struct RelationQuery {
 }
 
 /// A query that a Geo index can satisfy
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub enum GeoQuery {
     IntersectQuery(RelationQuery),
     IsNull,
 }
 
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
 impl AnyQuery for GeoQuery {
     fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
         self
@@ -776,130 +643,117 @@ impl AnyQuery for GeoQuery {
     }
 }
 
-/// The result of a search operation against a scalar index
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
-pub enum SearchResult {
-    /// The exact row ids that satisfy the query
-    Exact(NullableRowAddrSet),
-    /// Any row id satisfying the query will be in this set but not every
-    /// row id in this set will satisfy the query, a further recheck step
-    /// is needed
-    AtMost(NullableRowAddrSet),
-    /// All of the given row ids satisfy the query but there may be more
-    ///
-    /// No scalar index actually returns this today but it can arise from
-    /// boolean operations (e.g. NOT(AtMost(x)) == AtLeast(NOT(x)))
-    AtLeast(NullableRowAddrSet),
-}
-
-impl SearchResult {
-    pub fn exact(row_ids: impl Into<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Self {
-        Self::Exact(NullableRowAddrSet::new(row_ids.into(), Default::default()))
-    }
-
-    pub fn at_most(row_ids: impl Into<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Self {
-        Self::AtMost(NullableRowAddrSet::new(row_ids.into(), Default::default()))
-    }
-
-    pub fn at_least(row_ids: impl Into<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Self {
-        Self::AtLeast(NullableRowAddrSet::new(row_ids.into(), Default::default()))
-    }
-
-    pub fn with_nulls(self, nulls: impl Into<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Self {
-        match self {
-            Self::Exact(row_ids) => Self::Exact(row_ids.with_nulls(nulls.into())),
-            Self::AtMost(row_ids) => Self::AtMost(row_ids.with_nulls(nulls.into())),
-            Self::AtLeast(row_ids) => Self::AtLeast(row_ids.with_nulls(nulls.into())),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn row_addrs(&self) -> &NullableRowAddrSet {
-        match self {
-            Self::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
-            Self::AtMost(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
-            Self::AtLeast(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_exact(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(self, Self::Exact(_))
-    }
-}
-
-/// Brief information about an index that was created
-pub struct CreatedIndex {
-    /// The details of the index that was created
-    ///
-    /// These should be stored somewhere as they will be needed to
-    /// load the index later.
-    pub index_details: prost_types::Any,
-    /// The version of the index that was created
-    ///
-    /// This can be used to determine if a reader is able to load the index.
-    pub index_version: u32,
-}
-
-/// The criteria that specifies how to update an index
-pub struct UpdateCriteria {
-    /// If true, then we need to read the old data to update the index
-    ///
-    /// This should be avoided if possible but is left in for some legacy paths
-    pub requires_old_data: bool,
-    /// The criteria required for data (both old and new)
-    pub data_criteria: TrainingCriteria,
-}
-
-impl UpdateCriteria {
-    pub fn requires_old_data(data_criteria: TrainingCriteria) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            requires_old_data: true,
-            data_criteria,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn only_new_data(data_criteria: TrainingCriteria) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            requires_old_data: false,
-            data_criteria,
+/// Compute the lexicographically next prefix by incrementing the last character's code point.
+/// Returns None if no valid upper bound exists.
+///
+/// This is used for LIKE prefix queries to convert `LIKE 'foo%'` to range `[foo, fop)`.
+///
+/// # UTF-8 and Unicode Handling
+///
+/// This function operates on Unicode code points (characters), not bytes. Since UTF-8
+/// byte ordering is identical to Unicode code point ordering, incrementing a character's
+/// code point produces the correct lexicographic successor for byte-wise string comparison.
+///
+/// If incrementing the last character would overflow or land in the surrogate range
+/// (U+D800-U+DFFF), we try incrementing the previous character, and so on.
+///
+/// Examples:
+/// - `"foo"` → `Some("fop")`
+/// - `"café"` → `Some("cafê")`  (é U+00E9 → ê U+00EA)
+/// - `"abc中"` → `Some("abc丮")` (中 U+4E2D → 丮 U+4E2E)
+/// - `"cafÿ"` → `Some("cafĀ")` (ÿ U+00FF → Ā U+0100)
+pub fn compute_next_prefix(prefix: &str) -> Option<String> {
+    if prefix.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let chars: Vec<char> = prefix.chars().collect();
+
+    // Try incrementing characters from right to left
+    for i in (0..chars.len()).rev() {
+        if let Some(next_char) = next_unicode_char(chars[i]) {
+            let mut result: String = chars[..i].iter().collect();
+            result.push(next_char);
+            return Some(result);
         }
+        // This character cannot be incremented (e.g., U+10FFFF), try previous
+    }
+
+    // All characters were at maximum value
+    None
+}
+
+/// Get the next valid Unicode scalar value after the given character.
+/// Skips the surrogate range (U+D800-U+DFFF) which is not valid in UTF-8.
+fn next_unicode_char(c: char) -> Option<char> {
+    let cp = c as u32;
+    let next_cp = cp.checked_add(1)?;
+
+    // Skip surrogate range (U+D800-U+DFFF)
+    let next_cp = if (0xD800..=0xDFFF).contains(&next_cp) {
+        0xE000
+    } else {
+        next_cp
+    };
+
+    char::from_u32(next_cp)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_like_prefix_to_expr_escapes_metacharacters() {
+        // The stored prefix is a literal string, so LIKE metacharacters in it must be
+        // escaped when the recheck predicate is rebuilt; otherwise `_`/`%` would act as
+        // wildcards and over-match. The reconstructed expression uses `ESCAPE '\'`.
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("a_b%x".to_string())));
+        let Expr::Like(like) = query.to_expr("name".to_string()) else {
+            panic!("expected a LIKE expression");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(like.escape_char, Some('\\'));
+        assert!(!like.negated);
+        assert!(!like.case_insensitive);
+        let Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(pattern)), _) = like.pattern.as_ref() else {
+            panic!("expected a Utf8 literal pattern");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(pattern.as_str(), "a\\_b\\%x%");
+
+        // A prefix without metacharacters only gains the trailing wildcard and keeps the
+        // plain `LIKE 'app%'` form (no `ESCAPE`) so the optimized prefix matcher still applies.
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("app".to_string())));
+        let Expr::Like(like) = query.to_expr("name".to_string()) else {
+            panic!("expected a LIKE expression");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(like.escape_char, None);
+        let Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(pattern)), _) = like.pattern.as_ref() else {
+            panic!("expected a Utf8 literal pattern");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(pattern.as_str(), "app%");
+
+        // A `Utf8View` prefix must get the same treatment instead of falling through to the
+        // catch-all arm: it is normalized to a `Utf8` pattern that keeps the trailing `%`
+        // (and `ESCAPE '\'` when the prefix has metacharacters), so prefix pruning preserves
+        // starts-with semantics rather than degrading to equality.
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("a_b%x".to_string())));
+        let Expr::Like(like) = query.to_expr("name".to_string()) else {
+            panic!("expected a LIKE expression");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(like.escape_char, Some('\\'));
+        let Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(pattern)), _) = like.pattern.as_ref() else {
+            panic!("expected a Utf8 literal pattern");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(pattern.as_str(), "a\\_b\\%x%");
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("app".to_string())));
+        let Expr::Like(like) = query.to_expr("name".to_string()) else {
+            panic!("expected a LIKE expression");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(like.escape_char, None);
+        let Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(pattern)), _) = like.pattern.as_ref() else {
+            panic!("expected a Utf8 literal pattern");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(pattern.as_str(), "app%");
     }
 }
-
-/// A trait for a scalar index, a structure that can determine row ids that satisfy scalar queries
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait ScalarIndex: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug + Index + DeepSizeOf {
-    /// Search the scalar index
-    ///
-    /// Returns all row ids that satisfy the query, these row ids are not necessarily ordered
-    async fn search(
-        &self,
-        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<SearchResult>;
-
-    /// Returns true if the remap operation is supported
-    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool;
-
-    /// Remap the row ids, creating a new remapped version of this index in `dest_store`
-    async fn remap(
-        &self,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
-        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex>;
-
-    /// Add the new data into the index, creating an updated version of the index in `dest_store`
-    async fn update(
-        &self,
-        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex>;
-
-    /// Returns the criteria that will be used to update the index
-    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria;
-
-    /// Derive the index parameters from the current index
-    ///
-    /// This returns a ScalarIndexParams that can be used to recreate an index
-    /// with the same configuration on another dataset.
-    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams>;
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bitmap.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bitmap.rs
index 4fb9fc3334c..c28a7d96e6f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bitmap.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bitmap.rs
@@ -1,62 +1,92 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use crate::scalar::RowAddrTranslatorRef;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async};
 use std::{
     any::Any,
-    collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap},
+    borrow::Cow,
+    cmp::Reverse,
+    collections::{BTreeMap, BinaryHeap, HashMap},
     fmt::Debug,
     ops::Bound,
     sync::Arc,
 };
 
 use arrow::array::BinaryBuilder;
-use arrow_array::{new_null_array, Array, BinaryArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, BinaryArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, new_null_array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::{stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowSetOps;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{
-    cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache},
-    error::LanceOptionExt,
-    utils::{
-        mask::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap},
-        tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus,
+    Error, ROW_ID, Result,
+    cache::{
+        CacheCodec, CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter, CacheKey, CacheKeySchema,
+        KeyBuilder, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache,
     },
-    Error, Result, ROW_ID,
+    error::LanceOptionExt,
+    utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus,
 };
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_select::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
+use object_store::path::Path;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use serde::Serialize;
-use snafu::location;
-use tracing::instrument;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use tracing::{instrument, warn};
 
+use super::{AnyQuery, IndexFile, IndexStore, ScalarIndex, SearchOptions};
 use super::{
-    btree::OrderableScalarValue, BuiltinIndexType, SargableQuery, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult,
+    BuiltinIndexType, SargableQuery, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult,
+    btree::{OrderableScalarValue, filter_keeps_nothing},
 };
-use super::{AnyQuery, IndexStore, ScalarIndex};
 use crate::pbold;
+use crate::{Index, IndexType, metrics::MetricsCollector};
 use crate::{
-    frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex,
+    progress::IndexBuildProgress,
     scalar::{
+        CreatedIndex, RowIdRemapper, UpdateCriteria,
         expression::SargableQueryParser,
         registry::{
-            DefaultTrainingRequest, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering,
-            TrainingRequest, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+            BasicTrainer, ScalarIndexLoad, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering,
+            TrainingRequest, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, single_flight_open,
         },
-        CreatedIndex, UpdateCriteria,
     },
 };
-use crate::{metrics::MetricsCollector, Index, IndexType};
-use crate::{scalar::expression::ScalarQueryParser, scalar::IndexReader};
+use crate::{scalar::IndexReader, scalar::expression::ScalarQueryParser};
 
 pub const BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME: &str = "bitmap_page_lookup.lance";
 pub const INDEX_STATS_METADATA_KEY: &str = "lance:index_stats";
+const BITMAP_PART_LOOKUP_PREFIX: &str = "part_";
+const BITMAP_PART_LOOKUP_SUFFIX: &str = "_bitmap_page_lookup.lance";
+const EXPLICIT_SHARD_ID_TAG: u64 = 0;
+const IMPLICIT_FRAGMENT_ID_TAG: u64 = 1;
 
-const MAX_BITMAP_ARRAY_LENGTH: usize = i32::MAX as usize - 1024 * 1024; // leave headroom
+/// Maximum bytes a [`BitmapBatchWriter`] buffers before flushing a record
+/// batch.
+///
+/// Charged for the keys as well as the serialized bitmaps, so it limits this
+/// writer's buffered state independently of how many keys the index has. A
+/// flush temporarily makes another copy to build the Arrow arrays, and a single
+/// entry can exceed the threshold because it is checked after serialization.
+/// Memory held by the caller, input pipeline, caches, or merge state is outside
+/// this writer limit.
+///
+/// It also keeps both output columns far below the `i32` offset ceiling of
+/// Arrow's `Binary`/`Utf8` layouts.
+const MAX_BUFFERED_BYTES: usize = 32 * 1024 * 1024;
 
 const MAX_ROWS_PER_CHUNK: usize = 2 * 1024;
+// Smaller than MAX_ROWS_PER_CHUNK to bound the per-cursor in-memory batch
+// footprint during a k-way merge (N cursors × chunk), while still amortising
+// I/O over a reasonable number of rows per read.
+const MERGE_ROWS_PER_CHUNK: usize = 512;
 
 const BITMAP_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 0;
 
@@ -103,7 +133,7 @@ pub struct BitmapIndex {
     /// Maps each unique value to its bitmap location in the index file
     /// The usize value is the row offset in the bitmap_page_lookup.lance file
     /// for quickly locating the row and reading it out
-    index_map: BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>,
+    index_map: Arc<BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>>,
 
     null_map: Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>,
 
@@ -113,32 +143,261 @@ pub struct BitmapIndex {
 
     index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
 
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    /// Legacy synchronous remapper (index_version 0). Mutually exclusive with
+    /// `batch_remapper`; both `None` means no translation is needed.
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+
+    /// Asynchronous batch remapper (tagged histories).
+    batch_remapper: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
 
     lazy_reader: LazyIndexReader,
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct BitmapKey {
-    value: OrderableScalarValue,
+    row_offset: u64,
+}
+
+impl BitmapKey {
+    fn try_new(row_offset: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        let row_offset = u64::try_from(row_offset).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "bitmap row offset {row_offset} does not fit in u64"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(Self { row_offset })
+    }
 }
 
 impl CacheKey for BitmapKey {
     type ValueType = RowAddrTreeMap;
 
     fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
-        format!("{}", self.value.0).into()
+        self.row_offset.to_string().into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "Bitmap"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.bitmap-row-offset-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.row_offset);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<RowAddrTreeMap>())
+    }
+}
+
+/// The serializable state of a [`BitmapIndex`].
+///
+/// `BitmapIndex` holds non-serializable infrastructure (an `IndexStore`, a
+/// cache handle, a lazy reader, a fragment-reuse index). `BitmapIndexState`
+/// captures just the data needed to rebuild it: the value→file-offset map,
+/// the null bitmap, and the value type.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct BitmapIndexState {
+    /// Value-to-row-offset lookup, encoded as an Arrow `RecordBatch` so we can
+    /// reuse the existing IPC utilities for zero-copy round trips.
+    ///
+    /// Schema: `keys: <value_type>`, `offsets: UInt64`. Iteration order of
+    /// `index_map` is preserved on serialize and the `BTreeMap` resorts the
+    /// entries on deserialize, so the wire form does not need to be sorted.
+    lookup_batch: RecordBatch,
+    /// Already-remapped null bitmap (remapping is applied during load, so the
+    /// cached state matches the in-memory representation).
+    null_map: Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>,
+    /// Cached separately from the schema for the empty-index case where the
+    /// `lookup_batch` is empty but we still need to remember the column type.
+    value_type: DataType,
+    /// Parsed form of `lookup_batch`. Not serialized — populated eagerly in
+    /// both [`BitmapIndexState::from_index`] and [`CacheCodecImpl::deserialize`].
+    /// Stored as `Arc` so cloning into a new [`BitmapIndex`] is O(1).
+    index_map: Arc<BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for BitmapIndexState {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.lookup_batch.get_array_memory_size()
+            + self.null_map.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.index_map.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl BitmapIndexState {
+    pub(crate) fn from_index(index: &BitmapIndex) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            lookup_batch: build_lookup_batch(&index.index_map, &index.value_type)?,
+            null_map: index.null_map.clone(),
+            value_type: index.value_type.clone(),
+            index_map: index.index_map.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn from_scalar_index(index: &dyn ScalarIndex) -> Result<Self> {
+        let bitmap = index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BitmapIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(
+                    "BitmapIndexState::from_scalar_index called with a non-bitmap index",
+                )
+            })?;
+        Self::from_index(bitmap)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn to_bitmap_index(
+        &self,
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<BitmapIndex>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(BitmapIndex::new(
+            self.index_map.clone(),
+            self.null_map.clone(),
+            self.value_type.clone(),
+            store,
+            WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    /// Build a state directly from its parts, for codec tests in sibling
+    /// modules (e.g. the label-list index, which nests a bitmap state).
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn new_for_test(
+        index_map: BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>,
+        null_map: RowAddrTreeMap,
+        value_type: DataType,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            lookup_batch: build_lookup_batch(&index_map, &value_type)?,
+            null_map: Arc::new(null_map),
+            value_type,
+            index_map: Arc::new(index_map),
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn lookup_batch(&self) -> &RecordBatch {
+        &self.lookup_batch
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn null_map(&self) -> &RowAddrTreeMap {
+        &self.null_map
+    }
+}
+
+fn build_lookup_batch(
+    index_map: &BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>,
+    value_type: &DataType,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let keys = if index_map.is_empty() {
+        arrow_array::new_empty_array(value_type)
+    } else {
+        ScalarValue::iter_to_array(index_map.keys().map(|k| k.0.clone()))?
+    };
+    let offsets = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+        index_map.values().map(|v| *v as u64),
+    ));
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("keys", value_type.clone(), true),
+        Field::new("offsets", DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]));
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![keys, offsets])?)
+}
+
+fn parse_lookup_batch(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>> {
+    let keys = batch.column(0);
+    let offsets = batch
+        .column(1)
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("BitmapIndexState: expected UInt64 offsets column".to_string())
+        })?;
+    let mut index_map = BTreeMap::new();
+    for idx in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+        let value = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::try_from_array(keys, idx)?);
+        index_map.insert(value, offsets.value(idx) as usize);
+    }
+    Ok(index_map)
+}
+
+impl CacheCodecImpl for BitmapIndexState {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.scalar.BitmapIndexState";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    /// Wire format:
+    /// ```text
+    /// RAW_BLOB  : null_map (roaring tree map, portable encoding)
+    /// ARROW_IPC : (keys: <value_type>, offsets: UInt64)
+    /// ```
+    /// The value type is recovered from the IPC section schema.
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut null_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(self.null_map.serialized_size());
+        self.null_map.serialize_into(&mut null_bytes)?;
+        w.write_raw(&null_bytes)?;
+        w.write_ipc(&self.lookup_batch)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let null_bytes = r.read_raw()?;
+        let null_map = Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(null_bytes.as_ref())?);
+        let lookup_batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+        let value_type = lookup_batch.schema().field(0).data_type().clone();
+        let index_map = Arc::new(parse_lookup_batch(&lookup_batch)?);
+        Ok(Self {
+            lookup_batch,
+            null_map,
+            value_type,
+            index_map,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Cache key for a [`BitmapIndexState`]. The cache is already namespaced
+/// per-index by the caller, so a constant key suffices.
+struct BitmapIndexStateKey;
+
+impl CacheKey for BitmapIndexStateKey {
+    type ValueType = BitmapIndexState;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        "state".into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "BitmapIndexState"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.bitmap-index-state-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_variant(0);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<BitmapIndexState>())
     }
 }
 
 impl BitmapIndex {
     fn new(
-        index_map: BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>,
+        index_map: Arc<BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>>,
         null_map: Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>,
         value_type: DataType,
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Self {
         let lazy_reader = LazyIndexReader::new(store.clone());
         Self {
@@ -148,102 +407,159 @@ impl BitmapIndex {
             store,
             index_cache,
             frag_reuse_index,
+            batch_remapper: None,
             lazy_reader,
         }
     }
 
+    fn new_with_batch_remapping(
+        index_map: Arc<BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>>,
+        null_map: Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>,
+        value_type: DataType,
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
+        batch_remapper: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let mut index = Self::new(index_map, null_map, value_type, store, index_cache, None);
+        index.batch_remapper = batch_remapper;
+        debug_assert!(index.frag_reuse_index.is_none() || index.batch_remapper.is_none());
+        index
+    }
+
     pub(crate) async fn load(
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         index_cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
         let page_lookup_file = store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await?;
         let total_rows = page_lookup_file.num_rows();
+        let value_type = page_lookup_file.schema().fields[0].data_type();
 
         if total_rows == 0 {
-            let schema = page_lookup_file.schema();
-            let data_type = schema.fields[0].data_type();
             return Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
-                BTreeMap::new(),
+                Arc::new(BTreeMap::new()),
                 Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::default()),
-                data_type,
+                value_type,
                 store,
                 WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
                 frag_reuse_index,
             )));
         }
 
-        let mut index_map: BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize> = BTreeMap::new();
+        let (index_map, null_location) =
+            Self::load_key_map(page_lookup_file.as_ref(), total_rows).await?;
         let mut null_map = Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::default());
-        let mut value_type: Option<DataType> = None;
-        let mut null_location: Option<usize> = None;
-        let mut row_offset = 0;
-
-        for start_row in (0..total_rows).step_by(MAX_ROWS_PER_CHUNK) {
-            let end_row = (start_row + MAX_ROWS_PER_CHUNK).min(total_rows);
-            let chunk = page_lookup_file
-                .read_range(start_row..end_row, Some(&["keys"]))
-                .await?;
-
-            if chunk.num_rows() == 0 {
-                continue;
-            }
-
-            if value_type.is_none() {
-                value_type = Some(chunk.schema().field(0).data_type().clone());
+        if let Some(null_loc) = null_location {
+            let mut bitmap = Self::read_null_bitmap(page_lookup_file.as_ref(), null_loc).await?;
+            // Apply fragment remapping if needed
+            if let Some(fri) = &frag_reuse_index {
+                bitmap = fri.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&bitmap);
             }
+            null_map = Arc::new(bitmap);
+        }
 
-            let dict_keys = chunk.column(0);
-
-            for idx in 0..chunk.num_rows() {
-                let key = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::try_from_array(dict_keys, idx)?);
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
+            Arc::new(index_map),
+            null_map,
+            value_type,
+            store,
+            WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )))
+    }
 
-                if key.0.is_null() {
-                    null_location = Some(row_offset);
-                } else {
-                    index_map.insert(key, row_offset);
-                }
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    pub(crate) async fn load_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let page_lookup_file = store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await?;
+        let total_rows = page_lookup_file.num_rows();
+        let value_type = page_lookup_file.schema().fields[0].data_type();
 
-                row_offset += 1;
-            }
+        if total_rows == 0 {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(Self::new_with_batch_remapping(
+                Arc::new(BTreeMap::new()),
+                Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::default()),
+                value_type,
+                store,
+                WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+                remapping,
+            )));
         }
 
+        let (index_map, null_location) =
+            Self::load_key_map(page_lookup_file.as_ref(), total_rows).await?;
+        let mut null_map = Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::default());
         if let Some(null_loc) = null_location {
-            let batch = page_lookup_file
-                .read_range(null_loc..null_loc + 1, Some(&["bitmaps"]))
-                .await?;
-
-            let binary_bitmaps = batch
-                .column(0)
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>()
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                    message: "Invalid bitmap column type".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-            let bitmap_bytes = binary_bitmaps.value(0);
-            let mut bitmap = RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bitmap_bytes).unwrap();
-
+            let mut bitmap = Self::read_null_bitmap(page_lookup_file.as_ref(), null_loc).await?;
             // Apply fragment remapping if needed
-            if let Some(fri) = &frag_reuse_index {
-                bitmap = fri.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&bitmap);
+            if let Some(remapper) = &remapping {
+                bitmap = remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), &bitmap).await?;
             }
-
             null_map = Arc::new(bitmap);
         }
 
-        let final_value_type = value_type.expect_ok()?;
-
-        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
-            index_map,
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new_with_batch_remapping(
+            Arc::new(index_map),
             null_map,
-            final_value_type,
+            value_type,
             store,
             WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
-            frag_reuse_index,
+            remapping,
         )))
     }
 
+    /// Stream the page lookup file's keys column in bounded batches (never the
+    /// whole column at once) into the value -> row offset map, reporting the
+    /// row offset of the null entry when the index has one. Shared by
+    /// [`Self::load`] and [`Self::load_with_remapping`], which differ only in
+    /// how the null bitmap is remapped afterwards.
+    async fn load_key_map(
+        page_lookup_file: &dyn super::IndexReader,
+        total_rows: usize,
+    ) -> Result<(BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize>, Option<usize>)> {
+        let mut index_map: BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, usize> = BTreeMap::new();
+        let mut null_location: Option<usize> = None;
+        let mut keys_stream = page_lookup_file
+            .read_range_stream(0..total_rows, Some(&["keys"]), 4096, 2)
+            .await?;
+        let mut row_offset: usize = 0;
+        while let Some(keys_batch) = keys_stream.try_next().await? {
+            let dict_keys = keys_batch.column(0);
+            for idx in 0..keys_batch.num_rows() {
+                let key = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::try_from_array(dict_keys, idx)?);
+                if key.0.is_null() {
+                    null_location = Some(row_offset);
+                } else {
+                    index_map.insert(key, row_offset);
+                }
+                row_offset += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok((index_map, null_location))
+    }
+
+    /// Read the stored null-row bitmap at `null_loc`, before any remapping. A
+    /// bitmap that fails to deserialize is a corrupt index file, not a panic.
+    async fn read_null_bitmap(
+        page_lookup_file: &dyn super::IndexReader,
+        null_loc: usize,
+    ) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+        let batch = page_lookup_file
+            .read_range(null_loc..null_loc + 1, Some(&["bitmaps"]))
+            .await?;
+        let binary_bitmaps = batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Invalid bitmap column type".to_string()))?;
+        deserialize_bitmap(binary_bitmaps.value(0), BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME)
+    }
+
     async fn load_bitmap(
         &self,
         key: &OrderableScalarValue,
@@ -253,22 +569,43 @@ impl BitmapIndex {
             return Ok(self.null_map.clone());
         }
 
-        let cache_key = BitmapKey { value: key.clone() };
+        // A value that isn't in `index_map` never reaches the loader or the
+        // cache, so it should not touch the per-query cache counters either.
+        // Checking here (before the cached-lookup fast path) also avoids
+        // returning an unmapped-value response as a spurious cache hit if a
+        // prior insert somehow ended up under `cache_key`.
+        let row_offset = match self.index_map.get(key) {
+            Some(loc) => *loc,
+            None => return Ok(Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::default())),
+        };
+        let cache_key = BitmapKey::try_new(row_offset)?;
 
         if let Some(cached) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
+            if let Some(metrics) = metrics {
+                metrics.record_index_cache_hit();
+            }
             return Ok(cached);
         }
 
         // Record that we're loading a partition from disk
         if let Some(metrics) = metrics {
+            metrics.record_index_cache_miss();
             metrics.record_part_load();
         }
 
-        let row_offset = match self.index_map.get(key) {
-            Some(loc) => *loc,
-            None => return Ok(Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::default())),
-        };
+        let bitmap = self.read_bitmap_at(row_offset).await?;
+
+        self.index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&cache_key, Arc::new(bitmap.clone()))
+            .await;
 
+        Ok(Arc::new(bitmap))
+    }
+
+    /// Read one row set straight from the lookup file, remapped through the
+    /// fragment-reuse index but neither served from nor written to the index
+    /// cache.
+    async fn read_bitmap_at(&self, row_offset: usize) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
         let page_lookup_file = self.lazy_reader.get().await?;
         let batch = page_lookup_file
             .read_range(row_offset..row_offset + 1, Some(&["bitmaps"]))
@@ -278,33 +615,121 @@ impl BitmapIndex {
             .column(0)
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Invalid bitmap column type".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Invalid bitmap column type".to_string()))?;
         let bitmap_bytes = binary_bitmaps.value(0); // First (and only) row
         let mut bitmap = RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bitmap_bytes).unwrap();
 
         if let Some(fri) = &self.frag_reuse_index {
+            // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
             bitmap = fri.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&bitmap);
+        } else if let Some(remapper) = &self.batch_remapper {
+            // Tagged asynchronous path.
+            bitmap = remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), &bitmap).await?;
         }
 
-        self.index_cache
-            .insert_with_key(&cache_key, Arc::new(bitmap.clone()))
-            .await;
+        Ok(bitmap)
+    }
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(bitmap))
+    /// Owned row set for `key`, bypassing the index cache.
+    ///
+    /// A merge reads every key of every source segment exactly once, and the
+    /// commit that follows retires those segments, so routing the reads through
+    /// the cache would only evict entries for indices that still exist. Returning
+    /// an owned value also lets the caller filter in place, where
+    /// [`Self::load_bitmap`] hands back an `Arc` to clone.
+    ///
+    /// Nulls are not in `index_map` -- [`OldSegments::take_null_bitmap`] reads
+    /// `null_map` for those -- so unlike `load_bitmap` this does not special-case
+    /// them and would return an empty set for a null key.
+    async fn read_bitmap_uncached(&self, key: &OrderableScalarValue) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+        match self.index_map.get(key) {
+            Some(row_offset) => self.read_bitmap_at(*row_offset).await,
+            None => Ok(RowAddrTreeMap::default()),
+        }
     }
-}
 
-impl DeepSizeOf for BitmapIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        let mut total_size = 0;
+    pub(crate) fn value_type(&self) -> &DataType {
+        &self.value_type
+    }
+
+    /// Merge N source bitmap segments plus an additional `new_data` stream into a
+    /// single bitmap index under `dest_store`, without re-reading the dataset.
+    ///
+    /// `old_data_filters` carries one filter per source segment, in the same
+    /// order. A segment whose filter keeps nothing contributes no postings, so
+    /// none of its bitmaps are read.
+    pub async fn merge_segments(
+        segments: &[Arc<Self>],
+        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filters: &[Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>],
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let Some(first) = segments.first() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "cannot merge bitmap index without at least one source segment".to_string(),
+            ));
+        };
+
+        if old_data_filters.len() != segments.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Bitmap merge: expected one old-data filter per source segment \
+                 (segments={}, filters={})",
+                segments.len(),
+                old_data_filters.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        for segment in segments.iter().skip(1) {
+            if segment.value_type != first.value_type {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cannot merge bitmap segments with different value types ({:?} vs {:?})",
+                    first.value_type, segment.value_type
+                )));
+            }
+        }
 
-        total_size += self.index_map.deep_size_of_children(context);
-        total_size += self.store.deep_size_of_children(context);
+        let new_schema = new_data.schema();
+        let new_value_type = new_schema
+            .field(new_schema.index_of(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)?)
+            .data_type();
+        if new_value_type != &first.value_type {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Bitmap merge: new_data value column type {:?} does not match \
+                 segment value type {:?}",
+                new_value_type, first.value_type
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let old_segments = segments
+            .iter()
+            .zip(old_data_filters)
+            .filter(|(_, filter)| !filter_keeps_nothing(filter))
+            .map(|(segment, filter)| OldSegment {
+                index: segment.as_ref(),
+                filter: filter.as_ref(),
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let file = BitmapIndexPlugin::streaming_build_and_write(
+            new_data,
+            old_segments,
+            dest_store,
+            BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default())
+                .unwrap(),
+            index_version: BITMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
+        })
+    }
+}
 
-        total_size
+impl DeepSizeOf for BitmapIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.index_map.deep_size_of_children(context) + self.store.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
@@ -313,6 +738,37 @@ struct BitmapStatistics {
     num_bitmaps: usize,
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct BitmapParameters {
+    /// Optional shard identifier for distributed bitmap builds spanning
+    /// multiple fragments.
+    pub shard_id: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+struct BitmapTrainingRequest {
+    parameters: BitmapParameters,
+    criteria: TrainingCriteria,
+}
+
+impl BitmapTrainingRequest {
+    fn new(parameters: BitmapParameters) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            parameters,
+            criteria: TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::Values).with_row_id(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TrainingRequest for BitmapTrainingRequest {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn criteria(&self) -> &TrainingCriteria {
+        &self.criteria
+    }
+}
+
 #[async_trait]
 impl Index for BitmapIndex {
     fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
@@ -323,13 +779,6 @@ impl Index for BitmapIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn crate::vector::VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "BitmapIndex is not a vector index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
         let page_lookup_file = self.lazy_reader.get().await?;
         let total_rows = page_lookup_file.num_rows();
@@ -366,10 +815,19 @@ impl Index for BitmapIndex {
                 let mut bitmap = RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bitmap_bytes).unwrap();
 
                 if let Some(frag_reuse_index_ref) = self.frag_reuse_index.as_ref() {
+                    // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
                     bitmap = frag_reuse_index_ref.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&bitmap);
+                } else if let Some(remapper) = self.batch_remapper.as_ref() {
+                    // Tagged asynchronous path.
+                    bitmap = remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), &bitmap).await?;
                 }
 
-                let cache_key = BitmapKey { value: key };
+                let row_offset = start_row.checked_add(idx).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "bitmap row offset overflow: start_row={start_row}, idx={idx}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let cache_key = BitmapKey::try_new(row_offset)?;
                 self.index_cache
                     .insert_with_key(&cache_key, Arc::new(bitmap))
                     .await;
@@ -387,9 +845,11 @@ impl Index for BitmapIndex {
         let stats = BitmapStatistics {
             num_bitmaps: self.index_map.len() + if !self.null_map.is_empty() { 1 } else { 0 },
         };
-        serde_json::to_value(stats).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("failed to serialize bitmap index statistics: {}", e),
-            location: location!(),
+        serde_json::to_value(stats).map_err(|e| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "failed to serialize bitmap index statistics: {}",
+                e
+            ))
         })
     }
 
@@ -398,16 +858,57 @@ impl Index for BitmapIndex {
     }
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
-    #[instrument(name = "bitmap_search", level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    async fn search(
+impl BitmapIndex {
+    /// The one remap implementation: the legacy `remap` (an in-memory
+    /// mapping, borrowed as a synchronous translator) and `remap_streaming`
+    /// both come here, so neither copies a map nor delegates to the other.
+    async fn remap_with(
         &self,
-        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let mut writer =
+            new_bitmap_batch_writer(dest_store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, &self.value_type).await?;
+        remap_index_map(self, mapping, &mut writer).await?;
+        let file = writer.finish().await?;
+
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default())
+                .unwrap(),
+            index_version: BITMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
+    #[instrument(name = "bitmap_search", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    async fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        self.search_with_options(query, SearchOptions::default(), metrics)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn search_with_options(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        options: SearchOptions,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
         let query = query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
 
+        let tracked_null_rows = || {
+            if options.track_nulls() && !self.null_map.is_empty() {
+                Some((*self.null_map).clone())
+            } else {
+                None
+            }
+        };
+
         let (row_ids, null_row_ids) = match query {
             SargableQuery::Equals(val) => {
                 metrics.record_comparisons(1);
@@ -417,12 +918,7 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
                 } else {
                     let key = OrderableScalarValue(val.clone());
                     let bitmap = self.load_bitmap(&key, Some(metrics)).await?;
-                    let null_rows = if !self.null_map.is_empty() {
-                        Some((*self.null_map).clone())
-                    } else {
-                        None
-                    };
-                    ((*bitmap).clone(), null_rows)
+                    ((*bitmap).clone(), tracked_null_rows())
                 }
             }
             SargableQuery::Range(start, end) => {
@@ -463,7 +959,7 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
                 } else {
                     let bitmaps: Vec<_> = stream::iter(
                         keys.into_iter()
-                            .map(|key| async move { self.load_bitmap(&key, None).await }),
+                            .map(|key| async move { self.load_bitmap(&key, Some(metrics)).await }),
                     )
                     .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
                     .try_collect()
@@ -473,12 +969,7 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
                     RowAddrTreeMap::union_all(&bitmap_refs)
                 };
 
-                let null_rows = if !self.null_map.is_empty() {
-                    Some((*self.null_map).clone())
-                } else {
-                    None
-                };
-                (result, null_rows)
+                (result, tracked_null_rows())
             }
             SargableQuery::IsIn(values) => {
                 metrics.record_comparisons(values.len());
@@ -505,7 +996,7 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
                 // Load bitmaps in parallel
                 let mut bitmaps: Vec<_> = stream::iter(
                     keys.into_iter()
-                        .map(|key| async move { self.load_bitmap(&key, None).await }),
+                        .map(|key| async move { self.load_bitmap(&key, Some(metrics)).await }),
                 )
                 .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
                 .try_collect()
@@ -526,11 +1017,7 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
 
                 // If the query explicitly includes null, then nulls are TRUE (not NULL)
                 // Otherwise, nulls remain NULL (unknown)
-                let null_rows = if !has_null && !self.null_map.is_empty() {
-                    Some((*self.null_map).clone())
-                } else {
-                    None
-                };
+                let null_rows = if has_null { None } else { tracked_null_rows() };
                 (result, null_rows)
             }
             SargableQuery::IsNull() => {
@@ -539,10 +1026,14 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
                 ((*self.null_map).clone(), None)
             }
             SargableQuery::FullTextSearch(_) => {
-                return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                    source: "full text search is not supported for bitmap indexes".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "full text search is not supported for bitmap indexes".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            SargableQuery::LikePrefix(_) => {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "LIKE prefix queries are not supported for bitmap indexes".into(),
+                ));
             }
         };
 
@@ -557,43 +1048,18 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
     /// Remap the row ids, creating a new remapped version of this index in `dest_store`
     async fn remap(
         &self,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        let mut state = HashMap::new();
-
-        for key in self.index_map.keys() {
-            let bitmap = self.load_bitmap(key, None).await?;
-            let remapped_bitmap =
-                RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(bitmap.row_addrs().unwrap().filter_map(|addr| {
-                    let addr_as_u64 = u64::from(addr);
-                    mapping
-                        .get(&addr_as_u64)
-                        .copied()
-                        .unwrap_or(Some(addr_as_u64))
-                }));
-            state.insert(key.0.clone(), remapped_bitmap);
-        }
-
-        if !self.null_map.is_empty() {
-            let remapped_null =
-                RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(self.null_map.row_addrs().unwrap().filter_map(|addr| {
-                    let addr_as_u64 = u64::from(addr);
-                    mapping
-                        .get(&addr_as_u64)
-                        .copied()
-                        .unwrap_or(Some(addr_as_u64))
-                }));
-            state.insert(ScalarValue::try_from(&self.value_type)?, remapped_null);
-        }
-
-        BitmapIndexPlugin::write_bitmap_index(state, dest_store, &self.value_type).await?;
+        self.remap_with(mapping.into(), dest_store).await
+    }
 
-        Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
-            index_version: BITMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
-        })
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        self.remap_with(translator.as_ref(), dest_store).await
     }
 
     /// Add the new data into the index, creating an updated version of the index in `dest_store`
@@ -601,32 +1067,29 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
         &self,
         new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filter: Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        let mut state = HashMap::new();
-
-        // Initialize builder with existing data
-        for key in self.index_map.keys() {
-            let bitmap = self.load_bitmap(key, None).await?;
-            state.insert(key.0.clone(), (*bitmap).clone());
-        }
-
-        if !self.null_map.is_empty() {
-            let ex_null = new_null_array(&self.value_type, 1);
-            let ex_null = ScalarValue::try_from_array(ex_null.as_ref(), 0)?;
-            state.insert(ex_null, (*self.null_map).clone());
-        }
-
-        BitmapIndexPlugin::do_train_bitmap_index(new_data, state, dest_store).await?;
+        let file = BitmapIndexPlugin::streaming_build_and_write(
+            new_data,
+            vec![OldSegment {
+                index: self,
+                filter: old_data_filter.as_ref(),
+            }],
+            dest_store,
+            BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME,
+        )
+        .await?;
 
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default())
                 .unwrap(),
             index_version: BITMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
         })
     }
 
     fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
-        UpdateCriteria::only_new_data(TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_id())
+        UpdateCriteria::only_new_data(TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::Values).with_row_id())
     }
 
     fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
@@ -634,258 +1097,2012 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BitmapIndex {
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Default)]
-pub struct BitmapIndexPlugin;
-
-impl BitmapIndexPlugin {
-    fn get_batch_from_arrays(
-        keys: Arc<dyn Array>,
-        binary_bitmaps: Arc<dyn Array>,
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("keys", keys.data_type().clone(), true),
-            Field::new("bitmaps", binary_bitmaps.data_type().clone(), true),
-        ]));
-
-        let columns = vec![keys, binary_bitmaps];
+/// Buffers serialized (key, bitmap) pairs and flushes them as record batches
+/// to the index file once they reach [`MAX_BUFFERED_BYTES`].
+pub(crate) struct BitmapBatchWriter {
+    file: Box<dyn super::IndexWriter>,
+    keys: Vec<ScalarValue>,
+    serialized: Vec<Vec<u8>>,
+    bytes: usize,
+    num_bitmaps: usize,
+    /// Flush threshold override. Exists only so tests can drive the multi-batch
+    /// path without writing 32 MiB; release builds read the constant directly
+    /// via [`Self::max_buffered_bytes`].
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    max_buffered_bytes: usize,
+    /// Record batches handed to `file` so far, so tests can assert the writer
+    /// actually flushed rather than buffering everything.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    batches_written: usize,
+    /// Global-buffer keys and the buffer index each was written to. Recorded
+    /// as file metadata at finish so readers can find them.
+    buffer_indices: HashMap<String, String>,
+}
 
-        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?)
+impl BitmapBatchWriter {
+    fn new(file: Box<dyn super::IndexWriter>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            file,
+            keys: Vec::new(),
+            serialized: Vec::new(),
+            bytes: 0,
+            num_bitmaps: 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            max_buffered_bytes: MAX_BUFFERED_BYTES,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            batches_written: 0,
+            buffer_indices: HashMap::new(),
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn write_bitmap_index(
-        state: HashMap<ScalarValue, RowAddrTreeMap>,
-        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-        value_type: &DataType,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let num_bitmaps = state.len();
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("keys", value_type.clone(), true),
-            Field::new("bitmaps", DataType::Binary, true),
-        ]));
-
-        let mut bitmap_index_file = index_store
-            .new_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, schema)
-            .await?;
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn with_max_buffered_bytes(mut self, bytes: usize) -> Self {
+        self.max_buffered_bytes = bytes;
+        self
+    }
 
-        let mut cur_keys = Vec::new();
-        let mut cur_bitmaps = Vec::new();
-        let mut cur_bytes = 0;
+    fn max_buffered_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            self.max_buffered_bytes
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(test))]
+        {
+            MAX_BUFFERED_BYTES
+        }
+    }
 
-        for (key, bitmap) in state.into_iter() {
-            let mut bytes = Vec::new();
-            bitmap.serialize_into(&mut bytes).unwrap();
-            let bitmap_size = bytes.len();
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn batches_written(&self) -> usize {
+        self.batches_written
+    }
 
-            if cur_bytes + bitmap_size > MAX_BITMAP_ARRAY_LENGTH {
-                let keys_array = ScalarValue::iter_to_array(cur_keys.clone().into_iter()).unwrap();
-                let mut binary_builder = BinaryBuilder::new();
-                for b in &cur_bitmaps {
-                    binary_builder.append_value(b);
-                }
-                let bitmaps_array = Arc::new(binary_builder.finish()) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+    /// Attach a global buffer to the file, recording its index under `key` so
+    /// that a reader can find it from the file metadata.
+    ///
+    /// Callable at any point: the underlying writer records the current offset
+    /// and writes the buffer immediately, so its position relative to the data
+    /// pages does not matter.
+    pub(crate) async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, key: String, data: Bytes) -> Result<()> {
+        let buffer_idx = self.file.add_global_buffer(data).await?;
+        self.buffer_indices.insert(key, buffer_idx.to_string());
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-                let record_batch = Self::get_batch_from_arrays(keys_array, bitmaps_array)?;
-                bitmap_index_file.write_record_batch(record_batch).await?;
+    /// Serialize and buffer a single (key, bitmap) pair, flushing the current
+    /// batch to disk if adding it would exceed [`MAX_BUFFERED_BYTES`].
+    ///
+    /// A key whose bitmap is empty is not written at all. This is the single
+    /// choke point for every write path, so it is the one rule for all of them.
+    pub(crate) async fn emit(&mut self, key: ScalarValue, bitmap: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> Result<()> {
+        // An old-data filter or a remap can remove every row of a key. Writing
+        // that key anyway would put it back into `index_map` on load -- which is
+        // built from the keys column alone and so cannot tell it from a live key
+        // -- where nothing prunes it, and each later merge would re-read and
+        // re-emit it. Absent and present-but-empty are query-equivalent, since
+        // both match no rows. Both filter variants drop emptied fragments, so an
+        // `is_empty` set really holds no rows.
+        if bitmap.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
 
-                cur_keys.clear();
-                cur_bitmaps.clear();
-                cur_bytes = 0;
-            }
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        bitmap.serialize_into(&mut buf).unwrap();
+        // `key.size()` already covers the `Vec<ScalarValue>` slot it moves into,
+        // but the parallel `Vec<Vec<u8>>` slot is pure per-entry overhead the
+        // budget would otherwise ignore -- ~22% low for small postings.
+        let size = buf.len() + key.size() + std::mem::size_of::<Vec<u8>>();
 
-            cur_keys.push(key);
-            cur_bitmaps.push(bytes);
-            cur_bytes += bitmap_size;
+        if self.bytes + size > self.max_buffered_bytes() {
+            self.flush().await?;
         }
 
-        // Flush any remaining
-        if !cur_keys.is_empty() {
-            let keys_array = ScalarValue::iter_to_array(cur_keys).unwrap();
-            let mut binary_builder = BinaryBuilder::new();
-            for b in &cur_bitmaps {
-                binary_builder.append_value(b);
-            }
-            let bitmaps_array = Arc::new(binary_builder.finish()) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        self.keys.push(key);
+        self.serialized.push(buf);
+        self.bytes += size;
+        self.num_bitmaps += 1;
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-            let record_batch = Self::get_batch_from_arrays(keys_array, bitmaps_array)?;
-            bitmap_index_file.write_record_batch(record_batch).await?;
+    /// Write the current batch to disk.
+    async fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.keys.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let keys_array = ScalarValue::iter_to_array(std::mem::take(&mut self.keys)).unwrap();
+        let total_size: usize = self.serialized.iter().map(|b| b.len()).sum();
+        let mut binary_builder = BinaryBuilder::with_capacity(self.serialized.len(), total_size);
+        for b in self.serialized.drain(..) {
+            binary_builder.append_value(&b);
+        }
+        let bitmaps_array = Arc::new(binary_builder.finish()) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        let batch = BitmapIndexPlugin::get_batch_from_arrays(keys_array, bitmaps_array)?;
+        self.file.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+        self.bytes = 0;
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            self.batches_written += 1;
         }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-        // Finish file with metadata that allows lightweight statistics reads
-        let stats_json = serde_json::to_string(&BitmapStatistics { num_bitmaps }).map_err(|e| {
-            Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("failed to serialize bitmap statistics: {e}"),
-                location: location!(),
-            }
-        })?;
-        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+    /// Flush any remaining data, write index statistics and any global-buffer
+    /// indices, and finalize the file.
+    pub(crate) async fn finish(mut self) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        self.flush().await?;
+        let stats_json = serde_json::to_string(&BitmapStatistics {
+            num_bitmaps: self.num_bitmaps,
+        })
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("failed to serialize bitmap statistics: {e}")))?;
+        let mut metadata = std::mem::take(&mut self.buffer_indices);
         metadata.insert(INDEX_STATS_METADATA_KEY.to_string(), stats_json);
+        self.file.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await
+    }
+}
+
+fn bitmap_shard_file_name(partition_id: u64) -> String {
+    format!("{BITMAP_PART_LOOKUP_PREFIX}{partition_id}{BITMAP_PART_LOOKUP_SUFFIX}")
+}
 
-        bitmap_index_file.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await?;
+fn tagged_bitmap_partition_id(id: u32, tag: u64) -> u64 {
+    ((id as u64) << 32) | tag
+}
 
-        Ok(())
+fn bitmap_shard_partition_id(fragment_ids: &[u32], shard_id: Option<u32>) -> Result<u64> {
+    if fragment_ids.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Bitmap shard build requires at least one fragment id".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
-    async fn do_train_bitmap_index(
-        mut data_source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        mut state: HashMap<ScalarValue, RowAddrTreeMap>,
-        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let value_type = data_source.schema().field(0).data_type().clone();
-        while let Some(batch) = data_source.try_next().await? {
-            let values = batch.column_by_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME).expect_ok()?;
-            let row_ids = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).expect_ok()?;
-            debug_assert_eq!(row_ids.data_type(), &DataType::UInt64);
+    if let Some(shard_id) = shard_id {
+        return Ok(tagged_bitmap_partition_id(shard_id, EXPLICIT_SHARD_ID_TAG));
+    }
 
-            let row_id_column = row_ids.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>().unwrap();
+    let [fragment_id] = fragment_ids else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Bitmap distributed build over multiple fragments requires an explicit shard_id. \
+             Received {} fragment ids: {:?}. Please assign mutually exclusive shard_id values \
+             to disjoint fragment groups.",
+            fragment_ids.len(),
+            fragment_ids
+        )));
+    };
+
+    Ok(tagged_bitmap_partition_id(
+        *fragment_id,
+        IMPLICIT_FRAGMENT_ID_TAG,
+    ))
+}
 
-            for i in 0..values.len() {
-                let row_id = row_id_column.value(i);
-                let key = ScalarValue::try_from_array(values.as_ref(), i)?;
-                state.entry(key.clone()).or_default().insert(row_id);
-            }
-        }
+fn extract_bitmap_shard_id(filename: &str) -> Result<u64> {
+    let partition_id = filename
+        .strip_prefix(BITMAP_PART_LOOKUP_PREFIX)
+        .and_then(|name| name.strip_suffix(BITMAP_PART_LOOKUP_SUFFIX))
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!("Invalid bitmap shard file name format: {filename}"))
+        })?;
+    partition_id.parse::<u64>().map_err(|_| {
+        Error::internal(format!(
+            "Failed to parse bitmap partition id from file name: {filename}"
+        ))
+    })
+}
 
-        Self::write_bitmap_index(state, index_store, &value_type).await
-    }
+fn deserialize_bitmap(bitmap_bytes: &[u8], file_name: &str) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bitmap_bytes).map_err(|error| {
+        Error::corrupt_file(
+            Path::from(file_name),
+            format!("Failed to deserialize bitmap bytes: {error}"),
+        )
+    })
+}
 
-    pub async fn train_bitmap_index(
-        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        // mapping from item to list of the row ids where it is present
-        let dictionary: HashMap<ScalarValue, RowAddrTreeMap> = HashMap::new();
+pub(crate) async fn new_bitmap_batch_writer(
+    index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    file_name: &str,
+    value_type: &DataType,
+) -> Result<BitmapBatchWriter> {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("keys", value_type.clone(), true),
+        Field::new("bitmaps", DataType::Binary, true),
+    ]));
+    let index_file = index_store.new_index_file(file_name, schema).await?;
+    Ok(BitmapBatchWriter::new(index_file))
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+struct BitmapHeapItem {
+    key: OrderableScalarValue,
+    shard_idx: usize,
+}
 
-        Self::do_train_bitmap_index(data, dictionary, index_store).await
+impl Ord for BitmapHeapItem {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.key
+            .cmp(&other.key)
+            .then_with(|| self.shard_idx.cmp(&other.shard_idx))
     }
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BitmapIndexPlugin {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "Bitmap"
+impl PartialOrd for BitmapHeapItem {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
     }
+}
 
-    fn new_training_request(
-        &self,
-        _params: &str,
-        field: &Field,
-    ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
-        if field.data_type().is_nested() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "A bitmap index can only be created on a non-nested field.".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+struct BitmapShardCursor {
+    file_name: String,
+    reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+    total_rows: usize,
+    next_row_offset: usize,
+    batch: Option<RecordBatch>,
+    batch_row_idx: usize,
+}
+
+impl BitmapShardCursor {
+    async fn try_new(file_name: String, reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        let total_rows = reader.num_rows();
+        if total_rows == 0 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let mut cursor = Self {
+            file_name,
+            reader,
+            total_rows,
+            next_row_offset: 0,
+            batch: None,
+            batch_row_idx: 0,
+        };
+        if cursor.advance().await? {
+            Ok(Some(cursor))
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
         }
-        Ok(Box::new(DefaultTrainingRequest::new(
-            TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_id(),
-        )))
     }
 
-    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
-        true
+    fn peek_key(&self) -> Result<OrderableScalarValue> {
+        let batch = self.batch.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Bitmap shard {} has no active batch",
+                self.file_name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let key = ScalarValue::try_from_array(batch.column(0), self.batch_row_idx)?;
+        Ok(OrderableScalarValue(key))
     }
 
-    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
-        BITMAP_INDEX_VERSION
+    fn take_current(&mut self) -> Result<(ScalarValue, RowAddrTreeMap)> {
+        let batch = self.batch.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Bitmap shard {} has no active batch",
+                self.file_name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let keys = batch.column(0);
+        let binary_bitmaps = batch
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file(
+                    Path::from(self.file_name.as_str()),
+                    "Bitmap shard batch has non-binary bitmap column".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        let key = ScalarValue::try_from_array(keys, self.batch_row_idx)?;
+        let bitmap = deserialize_bitmap(binary_bitmaps.value(self.batch_row_idx), &self.file_name)?;
+        self.batch_row_idx += 1;
+        Ok((key, bitmap))
     }
 
-    fn new_query_parser(
-        &self,
-        index_name: String,
-        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
-        Some(Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(index_name, false)))
+    async fn advance(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        loop {
+            if let Some(batch) = &self.batch
+                && self.batch_row_idx < batch.num_rows()
+            {
+                return Ok(true);
+            }
+
+            if self.next_row_offset >= self.total_rows {
+                self.batch = None;
+                return Ok(false);
+            }
+
+            let end_row = (self.next_row_offset + MERGE_ROWS_PER_CHUNK).min(self.total_rows);
+            let batch = self
+                .reader
+                .read_range(self.next_row_offset..end_row, None)
+                .await?;
+            self.next_row_offset = end_row;
+            self.batch = Some(batch);
+            self.batch_row_idx = 0;
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    async fn train_index(
-        &self,
-        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-        _request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
-        fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
-    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        if fragment_ids.is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Bitmap index does not support fragment training".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+async fn advance_cursor_and_push(
+    cursors: &mut [BitmapShardCursor],
+    heap: &mut BinaryHeap<Reverse<BitmapHeapItem>>,
+    shard_idx: usize,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if cursors[shard_idx].advance().await? {
+        heap.push(Reverse(BitmapHeapItem {
+            key: cursors[shard_idx].peek_key()?,
+            shard_idx,
+        }));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn drain_same_key_bitmaps(
+    cursors: &mut [BitmapShardCursor],
+    heap: &mut BinaryHeap<Reverse<BitmapHeapItem>>,
+    item: BitmapHeapItem,
+) -> Result<(ScalarValue, RowAddrTreeMap)> {
+    let (key, mut merged_bitmap) = cursors[item.shard_idx].take_current()?;
+    let merged_key = OrderableScalarValue(key);
+    advance_cursor_and_push(cursors, heap, item.shard_idx).await?;
+
+    while let Some(Reverse(next_item)) = heap.peek() {
+        if next_item.key != merged_key {
+            break;
         }
 
-        Self::train_bitmap_index(data, index_store).await?;
-        Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
-            index_version: BITMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
-        })
+        let shard_idx = next_item.shard_idx;
+        let _ = heap.pop();
+        let (_, bitmap) = cursors[shard_idx].take_current()?;
+        merged_bitmap |= &bitmap;
+        advance_cursor_and_push(cursors, heap, shard_idx).await?;
     }
 
-    /// Load an index from storage
-    async fn load_index(
-        &self,
-        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-        cache: &LanceCache,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
-        Ok(BitmapIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await? as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+    Ok((merged_key.0, merged_bitmap))
+}
+
+async fn list_bitmap_shard_files(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    index_dir: &Path,
+    progress: &dyn IndexBuildProgress,
+) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let mut shard_files = Vec::new();
+    let mut list_stream = object_store.list(Some(index_dir.clone()));
+    while let Some(item) = list_stream.next().await {
+        match item {
+            Ok(meta) => {
+                let file_name = meta.location.filename().unwrap_or_default();
+                if file_name.starts_with(BITMAP_PART_LOOKUP_PREFIX)
+                    && file_name.ends_with(BITMAP_PART_LOOKUP_SUFFIX)
+                {
+                    shard_files.push(file_name.to_string());
+                    progress
+                        .stage_progress("scan_bitmap_shards", shard_files.len() as u64)
+                        .await?;
+                }
+            }
+            Err(err) => {
+                return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                    "Failed to list bitmap shard files in {}: {err}",
+                    index_dir
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let mut shard_files = shard_files
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|file_name| extract_bitmap_shard_id(&file_name).map(|shard_id| (shard_id, file_name)))
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    shard_files.sort_unstable_by_key(|(shard_id, _)| *shard_id);
+    let shard_files = shard_files
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|(_, file_name)| file_name)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    if shard_files.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "No bitmap shard files found in index directory: {}; \
+             call build_index for each fragment before calling merge_index_metadata",
+            index_dir
+        )));
     }
+    Ok(shard_files)
+}
 
-    async fn load_statistics(
-        &self,
-        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-    ) -> Result<Option<serde_json::Value>> {
-        let reader = index_store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await?;
-        if let Some(value) = reader.schema().metadata.get(INDEX_STATS_METADATA_KEY) {
-            let stats = serde_json::from_str(value).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("failed to parse bitmap statistics metadata: {e}"),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-            Ok(Some(stats))
-        } else {
-            Ok(None)
+async fn cleanup_bitmap_shard_files(store: &dyn IndexStore, shard_files: &[String]) {
+    for file_name in shard_files {
+        if let Err(error) = store.delete_index_file(file_name).await {
+            warn!(
+                "Failed to delete bitmap shard file '{}': {}. \
+                 This does not affect the merged bitmap index, but the shard file \
+                 may need manual cleanup.",
+                file_name, error
+            );
         }
     }
 }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-    use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
-    use arrow_array::{record_batch, RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt64Array};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-    use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-    use futures::stream;
-    use lance_core::utils::mask::RowSetOps;
-    use lance_core::utils::{address::RowAddress, tempfile::TempObjDir};
-    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct BitmapIndexPlugin;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_bitmap_lazy_loading_and_cache() {
-        // Create a temporary directory for the index
-        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
+/// Drop the rows an old posting should no longer expose -- rows whose fragment
+/// was removed, or (under stable row ids) rows rewritten by an update -- keeping
+/// only those `filter` still considers valid. A no-op when `filter` is `None`.
+fn retain_valid<'a>(
+    bitmap: Cow<'a, RowAddrTreeMap>,
+    filter: Option<&super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+) -> Cow<'a, RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    match filter {
+        Some(filter) => {
+            let mut bitmap = bitmap.into_owned();
+            filter.retain_old_rows(&mut bitmap);
+            Cow::Owned(bitmap)
+        }
+        // Passes the input through uncopied. Worth a `Cow` rather than an owned
+        // parameter because the update path walks one old posting per key and
+        // never has a filter, so an owned parameter deep-copied every posting in
+        // the index just to hand it straight back to `emit`.
+        None => bitmap,
+    }
+}
 
-        // Create test data with low cardinality column
-        let colors = vec![
-            "red", "blue", "green", "red", "yellow", "blue", "red", "green", "blue", "yellow",
-            "red", "red", "blue", "green", "yellow",
-        ];
+/// One source segment on the old side of a bitmap build, with the filter that
+/// decides which of its rows survive. `None` keeps every row.
+pub(crate) struct OldSegment<'a> {
+    pub(crate) index: &'a BitmapIndex,
+    pub(crate) filter: Option<&'a super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+}
 
-        let row_ids = (0u64..15u64).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+/// The already-indexed side of a bitmap build: K source segments presented as a
+/// single ascending-key stream of filtered postings.
+///
+/// Drives each source through its `index_map` -- a sorted `BTreeMap` rebuilt at
+/// load time -- rather than through the rows of its file. Bitmap lookup files are
+/// not reliably key-sorted on disk: LabelList files written before spill-based
+/// builds landed are unsorted, and an update appends an old-only null row last.
+/// `index_map` order can be trusted for old and new files alike, which is what
+/// makes this work without an index version bump.
+///
+/// Bitmaps are read one key at a time through
+/// [`BitmapIndex::read_bitmap_uncached`], which applies fragment-reuse remapping
+/// like the query path's `load_bitmap` but skips the index cache: every source
+/// entry is read exactly once and the sources are retired right after, so caching
+/// them would only evict live entries. Reading the lookup file's raw bytes instead
+/// would skip the remap too and emit row addresses pointing at fragments
+/// compaction has already retired, which under deferred index remapping is silent
+/// data loss.
+///
+/// Every source is sorted, so the smallest key any of them is currently
+/// positioned on is the next key overall. A min-heap holding one entry per live
+/// source finds it in `log(sources)`. Entries borrow their key from the source's
+/// `index_map` rather than cloning it: seeding the heap touches every source key,
+/// so cloning would cost an allocation per key per source for string keys.
+///
+/// The transient state is the merged bitmap for the current key plus one loaded
+/// bitmap per participating source. Each source's `index_map` and the output
+/// writer stay outside it.
+struct OldSegments<'a> {
+    segments: Vec<OldSegment<'a>>,
+    key_iters: Vec<std::collections::btree_map::Keys<'a, OrderableScalarValue, usize>>,
+    heap: BinaryHeap<Reverse<(&'a OrderableScalarValue, usize)>>,
+    /// Source entries drained so far: one per (source, key) pair, the unit
+    /// [`merge_source_entry_count`] declares up front.
+    consumed: u64,
+    null_taken: bool,
+}
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false),
-            Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
-        ]));
+impl<'a> OldSegments<'a> {
+    fn new(segments: Vec<OldSegment<'a>>) -> Self {
+        let mut key_iters: Vec<_> = segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.index.index_map.keys())
+            .collect();
+        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(segments.len());
+        for (source_idx, keys) in key_iters.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            if let Some(key) = keys.next() {
+                heap.push(Reverse((key, source_idx)));
+            }
+        }
+        Self {
+            segments,
+            key_iters,
+            heap,
+            consumed: 0,
+            null_taken: false,
+        }
+    }
 
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+    fn consumed(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.consumed
+    }
+
+    /// Union every source's filtered posting for the smallest pending key, if
+    /// that key satisfies `predicate`. `None` when no source has a pending key or
+    /// the smallest one fails the predicate; the postings stay pending then.
+    ///
+    /// Drains only the sources positioned on that key. A source's next key is
+    /// strictly greater, so re-pushing it cannot re-enter the same key.
+    async fn take_smallest_if(
+        &mut self,
+        predicate: impl FnOnce(&OrderableScalarValue) -> bool,
+    ) -> Result<Option<(ScalarValue, RowAddrTreeMap)>> {
+        let Some(Reverse((key, _))) = self.heap.peek().copied() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if !predicate(key) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let mut merged = RowAddrTreeMap::default();
+        while let Some(Reverse((next, source_idx))) = self.heap.peek().copied() {
+            if next != key {
+                break;
+            }
+            self.heap.pop();
+            self.consumed += 1;
+            let segment = &self.segments[source_idx];
+            let mut bitmap = segment.index.read_bitmap_uncached(key).await?;
+            if let Some(filter) = segment.filter {
+                filter.retain_old_rows(&mut bitmap);
+            }
+            merged |= &bitmap;
+            if let Some(next) = self.key_iters[source_idx].next() {
+                self.heap.push(Reverse((next, source_idx)));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // The one clone per emitted key, because the writer takes an owned key.
+        Ok(Some((key.0.clone(), merged)))
+    }
+
+    /// Union of every source's filtered null posting, or `None` once taken or if
+    /// no source stores any. Nulls live in `null_map`, outside `index_map`, so
+    /// they are not part of the key merge and are unioned in one step.
+    fn take_null_bitmap(&mut self) -> Option<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+        if self.null_taken {
+            return None;
+        }
+        self.null_taken = true;
+
+        let mut merged: Option<RowAddrTreeMap> = None;
+        for segment in &self.segments {
+            if segment.index.null_map.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let nulls = retain_valid(
+                Cow::Borrowed(segment.index.null_map.as_ref()),
+                segment.filter,
+            );
+            match &mut merged {
+                Some(acc) => *acc |= &*nulls,
+                None => merged = Some(nulls.into_owned()),
+            }
+        }
+        merged
+    }
+}
+
+impl BitmapIndexPlugin {
+    fn get_batch_from_arrays(
+        keys: Arc<dyn Array>,
+        binary_bitmaps: Arc<dyn Array>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("keys", keys.data_type().clone(), true),
+            Field::new("bitmaps", binary_bitmaps.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ]));
+
+        let columns = vec![keys, binary_bitmaps];
+
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn train_bitmap_index(
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        Self::streaming_build_and_write(data, Vec::new(), index_store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await
+    }
+
+    async fn train_bitmap_shard(
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        fragment_ids: &[u32],
+        shard_id: Option<u32>,
+        progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        let partition_id = bitmap_shard_partition_id(fragment_ids, shard_id)?;
+        let file_name = bitmap_shard_file_name(partition_id);
+        progress
+            .stage_start("build_bitmap_shard", None, "rows")
+            .await?;
+        let file =
+            Self::streaming_build_and_write(data, Vec::new(), index_store, &file_name).await?;
+        progress.stage_complete("build_bitmap_shard").await?;
+        Ok(file)
+    }
+
+    /// Builds and writes a bitmap index in a streaming fashion from value-sorted
+    /// input. Only one new value's aggregate bitmap is held at a time instead of
+    /// an aggregate map containing every value. The input pipeline, the existing
+    /// segments and their cache, and the output writer retain separate memory.
+    ///
+    /// `old_segments` are merged with the new data via a k-way sorted merge-join
+    /// (each segment's `index_map` is a `BTreeMap`, already sorted by value), so
+    /// the old side holds one posting per segment for the key being unioned, plus
+    /// that union, rather than all of them at once.
+    async fn streaming_build_and_write(
+        data_source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        old_segments: Vec<OldSegment<'_>>,
+        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        output_file_name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        let value_type = data_source.schema().field(0).data_type().clone();
+        let mut writer =
+            new_bitmap_batch_writer(index_store, output_file_name, &value_type).await?;
+        build_index_map(data_source, old_segments, &mut writer).await?;
+        writer.finish().await
+    }
+
+    /// Flush a completed value-run from the new data stream, emitting any
+    /// old-only entries that sort before it and merging the old postings if the
+    /// key exists on both sides.
+    async fn finish_run(
+        key: ScalarValue,
+        bitmap: &mut RowAddrTreeMap,
+        old: &mut OldSegments<'_>,
+        emitted_null: &mut bool,
+        writer: &mut BitmapBatchWriter,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if key.is_null() {
+            // Null values are stored separately in each old segment's null_map.
+            if let Some(null_bitmap) = old.take_null_bitmap() {
+                *bitmap |= &null_bitmap;
+            }
+            *emitted_null = true;
+        } else {
+            let orderable = OrderableScalarValue(key.clone());
+
+            // Emit old-only entries that sort before this key.
+            while let Some((old_key, old_bitmap)) =
+                old.take_smallest_if(|old_key| *old_key < orderable).await?
+            {
+                writer.emit(old_key, &old_bitmap).await?;
+            }
+
+            // If the old side also has this key, merge its postings.
+            if let Some((_, old_bitmap)) = old
+                .take_smallest_if(|old_key| *old_key == orderable)
+                .await?
+            {
+                *bitmap |= &old_bitmap;
+            }
+        }
+        writer.emit(key, bitmap).await
+    }
+
+    /// Merge per-shard bitmap lookup files into a single bitmap index file.
+    ///
+    /// Each shard file is already sorted by key and can contain many distinct keys.
+    /// This method does not materialize an entire shard in memory. Instead, it keeps
+    /// one cursor per shard, where each cursor tracks the shard's current row within
+    /// a small in-memory batch. A min-heap stores the current key for each shard.
+    ///
+    /// The merge then proceeds as a streaming K-way merge:
+    /// - pop the smallest current key across all shards
+    /// - union the bitmap for that key with any other shards currently positioned on
+    ///   the same key
+    /// - advance only those shards that participated in the union and push their next
+    ///   keys back into the heap
+    ///
+    /// This keeps memory usage proportional to the number of shards plus the bitmaps
+    /// currently being merged, instead of the total number of keys across all shards.
+    async fn merge_shards(
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        shard_files: &[String],
+        progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        progress
+            .stage_start("merge_bitmap_shards", None, "bitmaps")
+            .await?;
+
+        let mut cursors = Vec::with_capacity(shard_files.len());
+        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(shard_files.len());
+        let mut value_type: Option<DataType> = None;
+
+        for file_name in shard_files {
+            let reader = store.open_index_file(file_name).await?;
+            let shard_value_type = reader.schema().fields[0].data_type().clone();
+            if let Some(existing_type) = &value_type {
+                if existing_type != &shard_value_type {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Bitmap shard {} has value type {:?}, expected {:?}",
+                        file_name, shard_value_type, existing_type
+                    )));
+                }
+            } else {
+                value_type = Some(shard_value_type);
+            }
+            if let Some(cursor) = BitmapShardCursor::try_new(file_name.clone(), reader).await? {
+                let key = cursor.peek_key()?;
+                let shard_idx = cursors.len();
+                cursors.push(cursor);
+                heap.push(Reverse(BitmapHeapItem { key, shard_idx }));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let value_type = value_type.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("Bitmap shard merge requires at least one shard file".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let mut writer = new_bitmap_batch_writer(store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, &value_type).await?;
+        let mut merged_keys = 0u64;
+
+        while let Some(Reverse(item)) = heap.pop() {
+            let (key, merged_bitmap) =
+                drain_same_key_bitmaps(&mut cursors, &mut heap, item).await?;
+            writer.emit(key, &merged_bitmap).await?;
+            merged_keys += 1;
+            progress
+                .stage_progress("merge_bitmap_shards", merged_keys)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        progress.stage_complete("merge_bitmap_shards").await?;
+        progress
+            .stage_start("write_bitmap_index", Some(1), "files")
+            .await?;
+        let file = writer.finish().await?;
+        progress.stage_progress("write_bitmap_index", 1).await?;
+        progress.stage_complete("write_bitmap_index").await?;
+        Ok(file)
+    }
+}
+
+pub async fn merge_index_files(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    index_dir: &Path,
+    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    progress
+        .stage_start("scan_bitmap_shards", None, "files")
+        .await?;
+    let shard_files = list_bitmap_shard_files(object_store, index_dir, progress.as_ref()).await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("scan_bitmap_shards").await?;
+
+    BitmapIndexPlugin::merge_shards(store.as_ref(), &shard_files, progress).await?;
+    cleanup_bitmap_shard_files(store.as_ref(), &shard_files).await;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Enforce the ordering a bitmap build requires, once per value change.
+///
+/// A run is a maximal group of equal keys, so reopening a run for a key already
+/// written loses rows silently: the old-key cursor has advanced past it on an
+/// earlier, larger run, so it leaves as an old-only row and returns later
+/// carrying only new rows, and `BitmapIndex::load` keys `index_map` by value
+/// and keeps only the last of the two file offsets. The same holds for nulls,
+/// which `load` funnels into `null_map` from the last null entry it sees.
+///
+/// Only the non-null keys have to ascend. Nulls are collected separately rather
+/// than merge-joined by value, so a single null run is correct wherever it
+/// falls, which lets a caller sort nulls first or last. `null_run_closed` says
+/// whether one has already been flushed, making a second run detectable.
+/// `last_non_null` is the most recent non-null key, carried across a null run,
+/// so that a value reappearing on the far side of the nulls is still caught.
+///
+/// Both keys come from the same column, so they share a `ScalarValue` variant
+/// and `OrderableScalarValue`'s `Ord` cannot panic comparing them.
+fn check_run_order(
+    last_non_null: Option<&ScalarValue>,
+    next: &ScalarValue,
+    null_run_closed: bool,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if next.is_null() {
+        if null_run_closed {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "bitmap index: input is not sorted by value, it has more than one run of nulls"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let Some(previous) = last_non_null else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+    if OrderableScalarValue(next.clone()) <= OrderableScalarValue(previous.clone()) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "bitmap index: input must be sorted by value, but {next} follows {previous}"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Build a bitmap index map from value-sorted `(value, row_id)` input, emitting
+/// one key at a time into `writer`.
+///
+/// Takes the writer rather than creating the file so that a caller needing its
+/// own global buffers in the same file can reuse this. `LabelListIndex` does
+/// exactly that for its `list_nulls` set.
+///
+/// Input must be sorted ascending by value, with nulls in a single run that may
+/// lead or trail; see [`check_run_order`] for what is rejected. This function's
+/// transient aggregation state is one key's bitmap at a time. `old_segments`
+/// are merge-joined in through [`OldSegments`], loading each old bitmap on
+/// demand; their already-loaded `index_map`s remain resident separately,
+/// outside that state.
+pub(crate) async fn build_index_map(
+    mut data_source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    old_segments: Vec<OldSegment<'_>>,
+    writer: &mut BitmapBatchWriter,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let value_type = data_source.schema().field(0).data_type().clone();
+
+    let mut old = OldSegments::new(old_segments);
+
+    // Current value being accumulated from the new data stream.
+    let mut current_key: Option<ScalarValue> = None;
+    let mut current_bitmap = RowAddrTreeMap::default();
+    // Track whether we emitted a null bitmap (old index stores nulls
+    // separately in null_map, not in index_map).
+    let mut emitted_null = false;
+    // The most recent non-null key, kept across a null run so the ordering check
+    // still sees the whole non-null sequence.
+    let mut last_non_null_key: Option<ScalarValue> = None;
+
+    while let Some(batch) = data_source.try_next().await? {
+        let values = batch.column_by_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME).expect_ok()?;
+        let row_ids = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).expect_ok()?;
+        debug_assert_eq!(row_ids.data_type(), &DataType::UInt64);
+        let row_id_column = row_ids.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>().unwrap();
+
+        for i in 0..values.len() {
+            let row_id = row_id_column.value(i);
+            let key = ScalarValue::try_from_array(values.as_ref(), i)?;
+
+            match &current_key {
+                Some(cur) if *cur == key => {
+                    current_bitmap.insert(row_id);
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    // Value changed — flush the previous run.
+                    if let Some(prev_key) = current_key.take() {
+                        check_run_order(last_non_null_key.as_ref(), &key, emitted_null)?;
+                        let mut prev_bitmap = std::mem::take(&mut current_bitmap);
+                        BitmapIndexPlugin::finish_run(
+                            prev_key,
+                            &mut prev_bitmap,
+                            &mut old,
+                            &mut emitted_null,
+                            writer,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                    }
+                    if !key.is_null() {
+                        last_non_null_key = Some(key.clone());
+                    }
+                    current_key = Some(key);
+                    current_bitmap = RowAddrTreeMap::default();
+                    current_bitmap.insert(row_id);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Flush the last accumulated run from new data.
+    if let Some(last_key) = current_key.take() {
+        let mut last_bitmap = std::mem::take(&mut current_bitmap);
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::finish_run(
+            last_key,
+            &mut last_bitmap,
+            &mut old,
+            &mut emitted_null,
+            writer,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    }
+
+    // Emit any remaining old-only entries.
+    while let Some((key, bitmap)) = old.take_smallest_if(|_| true).await? {
+        writer.emit(key, &bitmap).await?;
+    }
+
+    // Emit old null bitmap if we didn't already merge it with new nulls.
+    if !emitted_null && let Some(null_bitmap) = old.take_null_bitmap() {
+        let null_key = new_null_array(&value_type, 1);
+        let null_key = ScalarValue::try_from_array(null_key.as_ref(), 0)?;
+        writer.emit(null_key, &null_bitmap).await?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Apply `mapping` to every row address in `index` without materializing every
+/// bitmap payload at once, writing the result through `writer`.
+///
+/// This helper's transient aggregation state is one bitmap at a time. The
+/// loaded `index_map`, index cache, mapping, and output writer remain resident
+/// separately. Nulls live outside `index_map`, in `null_map`, so they are
+/// remapped separately and emitted first -- a null sorts below every value.
+///
+/// A key whose remapped bitmap comes out empty (every one of its rows deleted)
+/// is not written, the rule [`BitmapBatchWriter::emit`] applies to every path.
+pub(crate) async fn remap_index_map(
+    index: &BitmapIndex,
+    mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+    writer: &mut BitmapBatchWriter,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if !index.null_map.is_empty() {
+        let null_key = new_null_array(index.value_type(), 1);
+        let null_key = ScalarValue::try_from_array(null_key.as_ref(), 0)?;
+        writer
+            .emit(
+                null_key,
+                &remap_row_addrs_with(&index.null_map, mapping).await?,
+            )
+            .await?;
+    }
+
+    for key in index.index_map.keys() {
+        let bitmap = index.load_bitmap(key, None).await?;
+        writer
+            .emit(
+                key.0.clone(),
+                &remap_row_addrs_with(&bitmap, mapping).await?,
+            )
+            .await?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// [`remap_row_addrs`] through a [`RowAddrTranslator`]: a synchronous map
+/// remaps directly; a batch translator translates the posting in bounded
+/// batches (`remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async`) and never resolves it into a
+/// map, so one posting list is the unit of work here.
+pub(crate) async fn remap_row_addrs_with(
+    bitmap: &RowAddrTreeMap,
+    translator: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    match translator {
+        RowAddrTranslatorRef::Sync(mapping) => remap_row_addrs(bitmap, mapping),
+        RowAddrTranslatorRef::Batch(remapper) => {
+            remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper, bitmap).await
+        }
+        #[allow(unreachable_patterns)]
+        _ => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "this build does not know how to translate through this row address translator",
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn remap_row_addrs(
+    bitmap: &RowAddrTreeMap,
+    mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
+) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    // `row_addrs` yields `None` when any fragment is a whole-fragment selection,
+    // which `RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from` produces for a zero-length
+    // per-fragment bitmap. Such a posting cannot be remapped address by address
+    // -- the individual addresses are not known -- so this is an error rather
+    // than something to paper over, and an error rather than the panic this
+    // inherited, since it crosses an FFI boundary.
+    let addrs = bitmap.row_addrs().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(
+            "Cannot remap a bitmap posting holding a whole-fragment selection; \
+             its individual row addresses are not enumerable"
+                .to_string(),
+        )
+    })?;
+    Ok(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(addrs.filter_map(|addr| {
+        let addr_as_u64 = u64::from(addr);
+        mapping.get(addr_as_u64).unwrap_or(Some(addr_as_u64))
+    })))
+}
+
+/// Total source entries a merge of `sources` will consume.
+///
+/// The exact denominator for the merge's progress: known before the merge
+/// starts, at no I/O cost since every `index_map` is already loaded, and reached
+/// exactly, because the merge drains each source's keys and advances every one
+/// of them once. Counting entries rather than emitted keys is what makes it
+/// exact -- a key held by three sources costs three loads and yields one output
+/// row, and a key whose rows are all retired by `old_data_filter` yields none.
+///
+/// Nulls are excluded, matching how the merge treats them everywhere else: they
+/// live in `null_map`, outside `index_map`, and are unioned in one step.
+pub(crate) fn merge_source_entry_count(sources: &[Arc<BitmapIndex>]) -> u64 {
+    sources.iter().map(|s| s.index_map.len() as u64).sum()
+}
+
+/// Merge loaded bitmap indexes into `writer` without materializing all source
+/// bitmap payloads at once, applying the same `old_data_filter` to every source.
+/// See [`OldSegments`] for the merge itself.
+///
+/// Null keys live outside `index_map`, in each source's `null_map`, so they are
+/// unioned separately and emitted first -- a null sorts below every value.
+///
+/// `progress` reports source entries consumed, against the total from
+/// [`merge_source_entry_count`]. Not segments: the merge is key-driven and
+/// touches every source on every key, so no source is ever "done" to report.
+/// Not emitted keys either: those have no denominator that can be known up front
+/// or reached exactly. Entries have both, and are the unit the merge's cost is
+/// actually in, since it loads one bitmap per entry.
+///
+/// A key whose merged bitmap comes out empty (every one of its rows retired by
+/// `old_data_filter`) is not written, the rule [`BitmapBatchWriter::emit`]
+/// applies to every path.
+pub(crate) async fn merge_index_maps(
+    sources: &[Arc<BitmapIndex>],
+    old_data_filter: Option<&super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    writer: &mut BitmapBatchWriter,
+    progress: Option<(&dyn IndexBuildProgress, &str)>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let Some(first) = sources.first() else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Bitmap index merge requires at least one source index".to_string(),
+        ));
+    };
+    let value_type = first.value_type().clone();
+
+    let mut old = OldSegments::new(
+        sources
+            .iter()
+            .map(|source| OldSegment {
+                index: source.as_ref(),
+                filter: old_data_filter,
+            })
+            .collect(),
+    );
+
+    if let Some(merged_nulls) = old.take_null_bitmap() {
+        let null_key = new_null_array(&value_type, 1);
+        let null_key = ScalarValue::try_from_array(null_key.as_ref(), 0)?;
+        writer.emit(null_key, &merged_nulls).await?;
+    }
+
+    // Cap reporting at roughly a hundred times across the merge. `stage_progress`
+    // is `#[async_trait]`, so every call boxes a future, and a real reporter does
+    // more: the Python one allocates and sends, the Java one makes a JNI upcall.
+    // One per key is millions of those on a high-cardinality column. Scaling the
+    // interval to the total rather than fixing it means a merge of fewer than a
+    // hundred keys still reports every key, which costs nothing at that size.
+    let report_every = (merge_source_entry_count(sources) / 100).max(1);
+    let mut last_reported = 0u64;
+
+    while let Some((key, merged)) = old.take_smallest_if(|_| true).await? {
+        writer.emit(key, &merged).await?;
+
+        // Counted whether or not `emit` wrote the key: one the filter emptied
+        // still consumed its source entries, and skipping it would stall the
+        // count.
+        let consumed = old.consumed();
+        if consumed - last_reported >= report_every
+            && let Some((progress, stage)) = progress
+        {
+            last_reported = consumed;
+            progress.stage_progress(stage, consumed).await?;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Always reported, so the declared total is reached exactly whatever the
+    // throttle above skipped -- including when there were no keys at all (every
+    // list null or empty), where the loop never runs.
+    if let Some((progress, stage)) = progress {
+        progress.stage_progress(stage, old.consumed()).await?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Merge bitmap segments with no new data and no old-data filters.
+///
+/// Forwards to [`BitmapIndex::merge_segments`], which is the replacement: it
+/// also takes a new-data stream and one filter per source segment. Kept with
+/// its original signature and progress stages; progress for the merge stage is
+/// reported once, at completion, rather than as entries are consumed.
+#[deprecated(note = "use BitmapIndex::merge_segments")]
+pub async fn merge_bitmap_indices(
+    source_indices: &[Arc<BitmapIndex>],
+    dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    let Some(first) = source_indices.first() else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Bitmap segment merge requires at least one source segment".to_string(),
+        ));
+    };
+    let entry_count = merge_source_entry_count(source_indices);
+    progress
+        .stage_start("merge_bitmap_segments", Some(entry_count), "entries")
+        .await?;
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, first.value_type().clone(), true),
+        Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]));
+    let no_new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream =
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::empty()));
+    let no_filters = vec![None; source_indices.len()];
+    let created_index =
+        BitmapIndex::merge_segments(source_indices, no_new_data, dest_store, &no_filters).await?;
+
+    progress
+        .stage_progress("merge_bitmap_segments", entry_count)
+        .await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("merge_bitmap_segments").await?;
+    progress
+        .stage_start("write_bitmap_index", Some(1), "files")
+        .await?;
+    progress.stage_progress("write_bitmap_index", 1).await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("write_bitmap_index").await?;
+
+    Ok(created_index)
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl BasicTrainer for BitmapIndexPlugin {
+    fn new_training_request(
+        &self,
+        params: &str,
+        field: &Field,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
+        if field.data_type().is_nested() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "A bitmap index can only be created on a non-nested field.".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let params = if params.is_empty() {
+            BitmapParameters::default()
+        } else {
+            serde_json::from_str::<BitmapParameters>(params)?
+        };
+        Ok(Box::new(BitmapTrainingRequest::new(params)))
+    }
+
+    async fn train_index(
+        &self,
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
+        fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let request = request
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BitmapTrainingRequest>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(
+                    "BitmapIndexPlugin::train_index received a non-bitmap training request"
+                        .to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        let file = if let Some(fragment_ids) = fragment_ids.as_ref() {
+            Self::train_bitmap_shard(
+                data,
+                index_store,
+                fragment_ids,
+                request.parameters.shard_id,
+                progress,
+            )
+            .await?
+        } else if request.parameters.shard_id.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Bitmap shard_id requires fragment_ids and is only supported for distributed shard builds"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        } else {
+            Self::train_bitmap_index(data, index_store).await?
+        };
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default())
+                .unwrap(),
+            index_version: BITMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BitmapIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "Bitmap"
+    }
+
+    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
+        BITMAP_INDEX_VERSION
+    }
+
+    fn new_query_parser(
+        &self,
+        index_name: String,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
+        // Bitmap indexes cannot answer `LikePrefix` queries (see `search`), so the parser
+        // is configured to skip them and let such predicates fall back to ordinary filtering.
+        Some(Box::new(
+            SargableQueryParser::new(index_name, self.name().to_string(), false)
+                .without_like_prefix(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Load an index from storage
+    async fn load_index(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        Ok(BitmapIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await? as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+    }
+
+    fn supports_batch_row_id_remapping(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn load_index_with_remapping(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        Ok(BitmapIndex::load_with_remapping(index_store, remapping, cache).await?)
+    }
+
+    async fn get_from_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>> {
+        let Some(state) = cache.get_with_key(&BitmapIndexStateKey).await else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let index = state.to_bitmap_index(index_store, cache, frag_reuse_index)?;
+        Ok(Some(index as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>))
+    }
+
+    async fn put_in_cache(
+        &self,
+        _index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let state = BitmapIndexState::from_scalar_index(index.as_ref())?;
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&BitmapIndexStateKey, Arc::new(state))
+            .await;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn get_or_insert_in_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        load: ScalarIndexLoad<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        single_flight_open(
+            cache,
+            BitmapIndexStateKey,
+            load,
+            BitmapIndexState::from_scalar_index,
+            move |state| {
+                Ok(state.to_bitmap_index(index_store, cache, frag_reuse_index)?
+                    as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn load_statistics(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Result<Option<serde_json::Value>> {
+        let reader = index_store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await?;
+        if let Some(value) = reader.schema().metadata.get(INDEX_STATS_METADATA_KEY) {
+            let stats = serde_json::from_str(value).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::internal(format!("failed to parse bitmap statistics metadata: {e}"))
+            })?;
+            Ok(Some(stats))
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fixtures shared by the tests of every module that writes this file format.
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(crate) mod test_util {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Array, BinaryArray};
+    use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+    use crate::scalar::IndexStore;
+    use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+
+    /// A local index store in a fresh temporary directory. The directory is
+    /// returned because dropping it deletes the store.
+    pub fn index_store() -> (TempObjDir, Arc<dyn IndexStore>) {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        (tmpdir, store)
+    }
+
+    /// Every `(key, bitmap)` row of a bitmap-shaped index file, in file order.
+    ///
+    /// File order matters to callers: a fresh build emits the null key first (its
+    /// input is nulls-first sorted) then keys ascending, while indexes written
+    /// before spill-based builds are in arbitrary order, and some tests assert on
+    /// which of the two they are looking at.
+    ///
+    /// An update is the one exception: if the existing index has a null posting
+    /// and the new data contributes none, `build_index_map` appends that null key
+    /// last, after the ascending old-only tail. `BitmapIndex::load` finds the null
+    /// row by scanning, so readers are unaffected, and no file-order consumer sees
+    /// such a file -- `merge_shards` reads only shard files, which are always
+    /// built with no existing index.
+    pub async fn read_key_bitmaps(
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        file_name: &str,
+    ) -> Vec<(Option<String>, RowAddrTreeMap)> {
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(file_name).await.unwrap();
+        let total = reader.num_rows();
+        if total == 0 {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let batch = reader.read_range(0..total, None).await.unwrap();
+        let bitmaps = batch
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        (0..batch.num_rows())
+            .map(|idx| {
+                let key = match ScalarValue::try_from_array(batch.column(0), idx).unwrap() {
+                    ScalarValue::Utf8(value) => value,
+                    other => panic!("unexpected key type {other:?}"),
+                };
+                let bitmap = RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bitmaps.value(idx)).unwrap();
+                (key, bitmap)
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// A bitmap's row addresses, ascending. Empty for a bitmap with no
+    /// enumerable addresses.
+    pub fn row_addrs(bitmap: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> Vec<u64> {
+        bitmap
+            .row_addrs()
+            .map(|iter| iter.map(u64::from).collect())
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::metrics::{LocalMetricsCollector, NoOpMetricsCollector};
+    use crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter;
+    use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+    use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt64Array, record_batch};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+
+    /// Sort a (value, row_id) RecordBatch by the value column so that unit tests
+    /// match the ordering the production scanner applies via TrainingOrdering::Values.
+    fn sort_batch_by_value(batch: &RecordBatch) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow::compute::SortOptions;
+        let values = batch.column(0);
+        let row_ids = batch.column(1);
+        let options = SortOptions {
+            descending: false,
+            nulls_first: true,
+        };
+        let indices = arrow::compute::sort_to_indices(values, Some(options), None).unwrap();
+        let sorted_values = arrow::compute::take(values.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap();
+        let sorted_row_ids = arrow::compute::take(row_ids.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(batch.schema(), vec![sorted_values, sorted_row_ids]).unwrap()
+    }
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+    use futures::stream;
+    use lance_core::utils::{address::RowAddress, tempfile::TempObjDir};
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use lance_select::RowSetOps;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::SmallRng};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn assert_state_roundtrips(state: &BitmapIndexState) {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        state
+            .serialize(&mut CacheEntryWriter::new(&mut buf))
+            .unwrap();
+        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(buf);
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, BitmapIndexState::CURRENT_VERSION);
+        let restored = BitmapIndexState::deserialize(&mut reader).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(restored.lookup_batch, state.lookup_batch);
+        assert_eq!(&*restored.null_map, &*state.null_map);
+        assert_eq!(restored.value_type, state.value_type);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_index_state_codec_roundtrip() {
+        // Non-empty state with a few keys and a populated null map.
+        let mut index_map = BTreeMap::new();
+        index_map.insert(OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))), 0);
+        index_map.insert(OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(7))), 1);
+        index_map.insert(OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(42))), 2);
+        let mut null_map = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        null_map.insert(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 3).into());
+        null_map.insert(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 5).into());
+        let state = BitmapIndexState {
+            lookup_batch: build_lookup_batch(&index_map, &DataType::Int32).unwrap(),
+            null_map: Arc::new(null_map),
+            value_type: DataType::Int32,
+            index_map: Arc::new(index_map),
+        };
+        assert_state_roundtrips(&state);
+
+        // Empty state: no keys, empty null map. Schema still carries the type.
+        let empty_state = BitmapIndexState {
+            lookup_batch: build_lookup_batch(&BTreeMap::new(), &DataType::Utf8).unwrap(),
+            null_map: Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::new()),
+            value_type: DataType::Utf8,
+            index_map: Arc::new(BTreeMap::new()),
+        };
+        assert_state_roundtrips(&empty_state);
+    }
+
+    /// The lookup batch must decode zero-copy through the full envelope-bearing
+    /// [`CacheCodec`] even though the envelope pushes the IPC section to a
+    /// non-aligned starting offset.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_index_state_lookup_is_zero_copy() {
+        const ALIGN: usize = 64;
+        let mut index_map = BTreeMap::new();
+        for k in 0..32i32 {
+            index_map.insert(
+                OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(k))),
+                k as usize,
+            );
+        }
+        let state = BitmapIndexState {
+            lookup_batch: build_lookup_batch(&index_map, &DataType::Int32).unwrap(),
+            null_map: Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::new()),
+            value_type: DataType::Int32,
+            index_map: Arc::new(index_map),
+        };
+
+        let codec = CacheCodec::from_impl::<BitmapIndexState>();
+        let any: Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync> = Arc::new(state);
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        codec.serialize(&any, &mut buf).unwrap();
+
+        // Model a backend reading into a 64-byte-aligned buffer.
+        let mut v = vec![0u8; buf.len() + ALIGN];
+        let pad = (ALIGN - (v.as_ptr() as usize % ALIGN)) % ALIGN;
+        v[pad..pad + buf.len()].copy_from_slice(&buf);
+        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(v).slice(pad..pad + buf.len());
+
+        let restored = codec.deserialize(&data).hit().unwrap();
+        let restored = restored.downcast::<BitmapIndexState>().unwrap();
+
+        let base = data.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let end = base + data.len();
+        for col in restored.lookup_batch.columns() {
+            for buffer in col.to_data().buffers() {
+                let ptr = buffer.as_ptr() as usize;
+                assert!(
+                    ptr >= base && ptr < end,
+                    "lookup batch buffer was realigned out of the input — misaligned IPC section",
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_cache_key_uses_row_offset_identity() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024);
+        let first = BitmapKey::try_new(3).unwrap();
+        let second = BitmapKey::try_new(4).unwrap();
+
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&first, Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::default()))
+            .await;
+
+        assert!(cache.get_with_key(&second).await.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_lazy_loading_and_cache() {
+        // Create a temporary directory for the index
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Create test data with low cardinality column
+        let colors = vec![
+            "red", "blue", "green", "red", "yellow", "blue", "red", "green", "blue", "yellow",
+            "red", "red", "blue", "green", "yellow",
+        ];
+
+        let row_ids = (0u64..15u64).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(colors.clone())),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids.clone())),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = sort_batch_by_value(&batch);
+        let stream = stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
+
+        // Train and write the bitmap index
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a cache with limited capacity
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024); // 1MB cache
+
+        // Load the index (should only load metadata, not bitmaps)
+        let index = BitmapIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.index_map.len(), 4); // 4 non-null unique values (red, blue, green, yellow)
+        assert!(index.null_map.is_empty()); // No nulls in test data
+
+        // Test 1: Search for "red"
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("red".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify results
+        let expected_red_rows = vec![0u64, 3, 6, 10, 11];
+        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+            let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|id| id.into())
+                .collect();
+            actual.sort();
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected_red_rows);
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected exact search result");
+        }
+
+        // Test 2: Search for "red" again - should hit cache
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+            let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|id| id.into())
+                .collect();
+            actual.sort();
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected_red_rows);
+        }
+
+        // Test 3: Range query
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("blue".to_string()))),
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("green".to_string()))),
+        );
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        let expected_range_rows = vec![1u64, 2, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13];
+        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+            let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|id| id.into())
+                .collect();
+            actual.sort();
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected_range_rows);
+        }
+
+        // Test 3b: Inverted range query should return empty result
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("green".to_string()))),
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("blue".to_string()))),
+        );
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+            assert!(row_ids.true_rows().is_empty());
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected exact search result");
+        }
+
+        // Test 4: IsIn query
+        let query = SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![
+            ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("red".to_string())),
+            ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("yellow".to_string())),
+        ]);
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        let expected_in_rows = vec![0u64, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 14];
+        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+            let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|id| id.into())
+                .collect();
+            actual.sort();
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected_in_rows);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for the review fix that gates `load_bitmap` on
+    /// `index_map.contains_key` before recording a miss: a value that is
+    /// not present in the index must short-circuit before touching the
+    /// per-query cache counters. Previously an Equals query for a missing
+    /// value would silently bump `index_cache_misses` and `parts_loaded`
+    /// on every call even though no bitmap page was actually loaded.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_absent_value_records_no_cache_activity() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let colors = vec!["red", "blue", "green", "yellow"];
+        let row_ids = (0u64..4u64).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(colors)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = sort_batch_by_value(&batch);
+        let stream = stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Keep the `LanceCache` alive in test scope so the `WeakLanceCache`
+        // inside `BitmapIndex` can upgrade during search.
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+        let index = BitmapIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Equals on a value that is not in `index_map` must not touch
+        // the cache counters and must not report a part load.
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("purple".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &metrics).await.unwrap();
+        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+            assert!(row_ids.true_rows().is_empty());
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected exact search result");
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            metrics.index_cache_hits(),
+            0,
+            "absent value must not record any cache hits",
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metrics.index_cache_misses(),
+            0,
+            "absent value must not record a cache miss (no loader ran)",
+        );
+
+        // IsIn covering only absent values also stays at 0/0.
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let query = SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![
+            ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("purple".to_string())),
+            ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("teal".to_string())),
+        ]);
+        let result = index.search(&query, &metrics).await.unwrap();
+        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+            assert!(row_ids.true_rows().is_empty());
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected exact search result");
+        }
+        assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_hits(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_misses(), 0);
+
+        // Sanity: a present value on the same cold cache still records
+        // exactly one miss, proving the counters are wired up and the
+        // absent-value path above is not silently no-op.
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("red".to_string())));
+        index.search(&query, &metrics).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_hits(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_misses(), 1);
+    }
+
+    // Regression test for the O(N log N) warm-cache rebuild introduced in
+    // commit 4de5ce67d.  BitmapIndexState now caches the parsed Arc<BTreeMap>
+    // so that get_from_cache skips parse_lookup_batch on warm hits.
+    // IS NULL is the worst case: the actual bitmap lookup is O(1) but
+    // reconstruction of the BTreeMap touched every row in the lookup batch.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_cache_fast_path() {
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // High-cardinality: 1 000 unique integers + 5 null rows.
+        const N: u64 = 1_000;
+        const NULL_COUNT: u64 = 5;
+        // nulls first (sorted batch: nulls precede values)
+        let null_values: Vec<Option<i32>> =
+            std::iter::repeat_n(None, NULL_COUNT as usize).collect();
+        let non_null_values: Vec<Option<i32>> = (0..N as i32).map(Some).collect();
+        let all_values: Vec<Option<i32>> = null_values.into_iter().chain(non_null_values).collect();
+        let all_row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..N + NULL_COUNT).collect();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(all_values)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(all_row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let stream = stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(16 * 1024 * 1024);
+        let index = BitmapIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let plugin = BitmapIndexPlugin;
+        let index_arc: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex> = index.clone() as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>;
+        plugin
+            .put_in_cache(store.clone(), &cache, index_arc)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // get_from_cache must return Some, and the BitmapIndexState's OnceLock
+        // must have been populated by put_in_cache so no parse_lookup_batch occurs.
+        let cached = plugin
+            .get_from_cache(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("get_from_cache must return Some after put_in_cache");
+
+        // IS NULL: trivial work once the index is in hand.
+        let query = SargableQuery::IsNull();
+        match cached.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap() {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_set) => {
+                let mut null_rows: Vec<u64> = row_set
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                null_rows.sort();
+                let expected: Vec<u64> = (0..NULL_COUNT).collect();
+                assert_eq!(null_rows, expected);
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact result for IS NULL"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[ignore]
+    async fn test_big_bitmap_index() {
+        // WARNING: This test allocates a huge state to force overflow over int32 on BinaryArray
+        // You must run it only on a machine with enough resources (or skip it normally).
+        use super::{BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, BitmapIndex};
+        use crate::scalar::IndexStore;
+        use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+        use arrow_schema::DataType;
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+        use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+        use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        // Adjust these numbers so that:
+        //     m * (serialized size per bitmap) > 2^31 bytes.
+        //
+        // For example, if we assume each bitmap serializes to ~1000 bytes,
+        // you need m > 2.1e6.
+        let m: u32 = 2_500_000;
+        let per_bitmap_size = 1000; // assumed bytes per bitmap
+
+        // Create a temporary store.
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        );
+
+        // This should never trigger a "byte array offset overflow" error, since
+        // the writer flushes a batch once it reaches MAX_BUFFERED_BYTES, which is
+        // far below the i32 offset ceiling of either output column.
+        let mut writer =
+            new_bitmap_batch_writer(&test_store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, &DataType::UInt32)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        for i in 0..m {
+            // Create a bitmap that contains, say, 1000 row IDs.
+            let bitmap = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(0..per_bitmap_size);
+            writer
+                .emit(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(i)), &bitmap)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let result = writer.finish().await;
+
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Failed to write bitmap index: {:?}",
+            result.err()
+        );
+
+        // Verify the index file exists
+        let index_file = test_store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await;
+        assert!(
+            index_file.is_ok(),
+            "Failed to open index file: {:?}",
+            index_file.err()
+        );
+        let index_file = index_file.unwrap();
+
+        // Print stats about the index file
+        tracing::info!(
+            "Index file contains {} rows in total",
+            index_file.num_rows()
+        );
+
+        // Load the index using BitmapIndex::load
+        tracing::info!("Loading index from disk...");
+        let loaded_index = BitmapIndex::load(Arc::new(test_store), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to load bitmap index");
+
+        // Verify the loaded index has the correct number of entries
+        assert_eq!(
+            loaded_index.index_map.len(),
+            m as usize,
+            "Loaded index has incorrect number of keys (expected {}, got {})",
+            m,
+            loaded_index.index_map.len()
+        );
+
+        // Manually verify specific keys without using search()
+        let test_keys = [0, m / 2, m - 1]; // Beginning, middle, and end
+        for &key_val in &test_keys {
+            let key = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(key_val)));
+            // Load the bitmap for this key
+            let bitmap = loaded_index
+                .load_bitmap(&key, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_or_else(|_| panic!("Key {} should exist", key_val));
+
+            // Convert RowAddrTreeMap to a vector for easier assertion
+            let row_addrs: Vec<u64> = bitmap.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
+
+            // Verify length
+            assert_eq!(
+                row_addrs.len(),
+                per_bitmap_size as usize,
+                "Bitmap for key {} has wrong size",
+                key_val
+            );
+
+            // Verify first few and last few elements
+            for i in 0..5.min(per_bitmap_size) {
+                assert!(
+                    row_addrs.contains(&i),
+                    "Bitmap for key {} should contain row_id {}",
+                    key_val,
+                    i
+                );
+            }
+
+            for i in (per_bitmap_size - 5)..per_bitmap_size {
+                assert!(
+                    row_addrs.contains(&i),
+                    "Bitmap for key {} should contain row_id {}",
+                    key_val,
+                    i
+                );
+            }
+
+            // Verify exact range
+            let expected_range: Vec<u64> = (0..per_bitmap_size).collect();
+            assert_eq!(
+                row_addrs, expected_range,
+                "Bitmap for key {} doesn't contain expected values",
+                key_val
+            );
+
+            tracing::info!(
+                "✓ Verified bitmap for key {}: {} rows as expected",
+                key_val,
+                row_addrs.len()
+            );
+        }
+
+        tracing::info!("Test successful! Index properly contains {} keys", m);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_prewarm() {
+        // Create a temporary directory for the index
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Create test data with low cardinality
+        let colors = vec![
+            "red", "blue", "green", "red", "yellow", "blue", "red", "green", "blue", "yellow",
+            "red", "red", "blue", "green", "yellow",
+        ];
+
+        let row_ids = (0u64..15u64).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
                 Arc::new(StringArray::from(colors.clone())),
@@ -894,6 +3111,7 @@ pub mod tests {
         )
         .unwrap();
 
+        let batch = sort_batch_by_value(&batch);
         let stream = stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
         let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
 
@@ -902,7 +3120,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a cache with limited capacity
+        // Create a cache with metrics tracking
         let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024); // 1MB cache
 
         // Load the index (should only load metadata, not bitmaps)
@@ -910,516 +3128,1476 @@ pub mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(index.index_map.len(), 4); // 4 non-null unique values (red, blue, green, yellow)
-        assert!(index.null_map.is_empty()); // No nulls in test data
+        // Verify no bitmaps are cached yet
+        let red = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("red".to_string())));
+        let blue = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("blue".to_string())));
+        let cache_key_red = BitmapKey::try_new(*index.index_map.get(&red).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        let cache_key_blue = BitmapKey::try_new(*index.index_map.get(&blue).unwrap()).unwrap();
 
-        // Test 1: Search for "red"
-        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("red".to_string())));
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_red)
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_blue)
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
 
-        // Verify results
-        let expected_red_rows = vec![0u64, 3, 6, 10, 11];
-        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+        // Call prewarm
+        index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify all bitmaps are now cached
+        assert!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_red)
+                .await
+                .is_some()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_blue)
+                .await
+                .is_some()
+        );
+
+        // Verify cached bitmaps have correct content
+        let cached_red = cache
+            .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_red)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let red_rows: Vec<u64> = cached_red.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
+        assert_eq!(red_rows, vec![0, 3, 6, 10, 11]);
+
+        // Call prewarm again - should be idempotent
+        index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify cache still contains the same items
+        let cached_red_2 = cache
+            .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_red)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let red_rows_2: Vec<u64> = cached_red_2.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
+        assert_eq!(red_rows_2, vec![0, 3, 6, 10, 11]);
+    }
+
+    // frags 1 and 2 (3 rows each) are compacted into frag 3: the 6 rows are
+    // rewritten in order to frag 3 offsets 0..6.
+    fn bitmap_remap_compact() -> RowAddrRemap {
+        use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::GroupInput;
+        use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+        RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter(
+                (0..3)
+                    .map(|o| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, o)))
+                    .chain((0..3).map(|o| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, o)))),
+            ),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![1, 2],
+            new_frags: vec![(3, 6)],
+        }])
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn bitmap_remap_explicit() -> RowAddrRemap {
+        // The same mapping, listed out explicitly.
+        RowAddrRemap::direct(
+            (0..6u32)
+                .map(|i| {
+                    let (f, o) = if i < 3 { (1, i) } else { (2, i - 3) };
+                    (
+                        u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(f, o)),
+                        Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, i))),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    // remap must behave identically whether the mapping is compact or explicit.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(bitmap_remap_compact())]
+    #[case(bitmap_remap_explicit())]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_bitmap_with_null(#[case] remap: RowAddrRemap) {
+        use arrow_array::UInt32Array;
+
+        // Create a temporary store.
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Create test data that simulates:
+        // frag 1 - { 0: null, 1: null, 2: 1 }
+        // frag 2 - { 0: 1, 1: 2, 2: 2 }
+        // We'll create this data with specific row addresses
+        let values = vec![
+            None,       // row 0: null (will be at address (1,0))
+            None,       // row 1: null (will be at address (1,1))
+            Some(1u32), // row 2: 1    (will be at address (1,2))
+            Some(1u32), // row 3: 1    (will be at address (2,0))
+            Some(2u32), // row 4: 2    (will be at address (2,1))
+            Some(2u32), // row 5: 2    (will be at address (2,2))
+        ];
+
+        // Create row IDs with specific fragment addresses
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = vec![
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0).into(),
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 1).into(),
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 2).into(),
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 0).into(),
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 1).into(),
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 2).into(),
+        ];
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
+            Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(values)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let stream = stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
+
+        // Create the bitmap index
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, test_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Load the index
+        let index = BitmapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to load bitmap index");
+
+        // Verify initial state
+        assert_eq!(index.index_map.len(), 2); // 2 non-null values (1 and 2)
+        assert!(!index.null_map.is_empty()); // Should have null values
+
+        // Perform remap
+        index.remap(&remap, test_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Reload and check
+        let reloaded_idx = BitmapIndex::load(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to load remapped bitmap index");
+
+        // Verify the null bitmap was remapped correctly
+        let expected_null_addrs: Vec<u64> = vec![
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 0).into(),
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 1).into(),
+        ];
+        let actual_null_addrs: Vec<u64> = reloaded_idx
+            .null_map
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(u64::from)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual_null_addrs, expected_null_addrs,
+            "Null bitmap not remapped correctly"
+        );
+
+        // Search for value 1 and verify remapped addresses
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(1)));
+        let result = reloaded_idx
+            .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if let crate::scalar::SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
             let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
                 .true_rows()
                 .row_addrs()
                 .unwrap()
-                .map(|id| id.into())
+                .map(u64::from)
                 .collect();
             actual.sort();
-            assert_eq!(actual, expected_red_rows);
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected exact search result");
+            let expected: Vec<u64> = vec![
+                RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 2).into(),
+                RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 3).into(),
+            ];
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "Value 1 bitmap not remapped correctly");
         }
 
-        // Test 2: Search for "red" again - should hit cache
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+        // Search for value 2 and verify remapped addresses
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(2)));
+        let result = reloaded_idx
+            .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if let crate::scalar::SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
             let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
                 .true_rows()
                 .row_addrs()
                 .unwrap()
-                .map(|id| id.into())
+                .map(u64::from)
                 .collect();
             actual.sort();
-            assert_eq!(actual, expected_red_rows);
+            let expected: Vec<u64> = vec![
+                RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 4).into(),
+                RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 5).into(),
+            ];
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "Value 2 bitmap not remapped correctly");
         }
 
-        // Test 3: Range query
-        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("blue".to_string()))),
-            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("green".to_string()))),
-        );
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-
-        let expected_range_rows = vec![1u64, 2, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13];
-        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
+        // Search for null values
+        let query = SargableQuery::IsNull();
+        let result = reloaded_idx
+            .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if let crate::scalar::SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
             let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
                 .true_rows()
                 .row_addrs()
                 .unwrap()
-                .map(|id| id.into())
+                .map(u64::from)
                 .collect();
             actual.sort();
-            assert_eq!(actual, expected_range_rows);
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual, expected_null_addrs,
+                "Null search results not correct"
+            );
         }
+    }
 
-        // Test 3b: Inverted range query should return empty result
-        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("green".to_string()))),
-            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("blue".to_string()))),
-        );
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
-            assert!(row_ids.true_rows().is_empty());
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected exact search result");
-        }
+    /// Remap must put every address of every source key, nulls included, through
+    /// the same mapping, and drop a key whose rows were all deleted rather than
+    /// write it with an empty bitmap -- the one rule `BitmapBatchWriter::emit`
+    /// applies to every path.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_remap_matches_materialized_path() {
+        // frag 1 - { 0: null, 1: "a", 2: "b" }
+        // frag 2 - { 0: "a",  1: "c", 2: null }
+        let addrs: Vec<u64> = [(1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2)]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into())
+            .collect();
+        let values = [None, Some("a"), Some("b"), Some("a"), Some("c"), None];
 
-        // Test 4: IsIn query
-        let query = SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![
-            ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("red".to_string())),
-            ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("yellow".to_string())),
-        ]);
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let (_src_dir, src_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        let stream = utf8_value_stream(values, addrs.clone());
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, src_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let index = BitmapIndex::load(src_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let expected_in_rows = vec![0u64, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 14];
-        if let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
-            let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
-                .true_rows()
-                .row_addrs()
-                .unwrap()
-                .map(|id| id.into())
+        // One key per arm of the mapping's tri-state: "a" keeps a remapped row
+        // and loses a deleted one, "b" loses its only row, "c" is absent from the
+        // mapping and passes through unchanged, and the null bitmap -- which lives
+        // outside `index_map` -- sees both a remap and a delete.
+        let mapping = RowAddrRemap::direct(HashMap::from([
+            (addrs[0], Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 0).into())),
+            (addrs[1], None),
+            (addrs[2], None),
+            (addrs[3], Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 1).into())),
+            (addrs[5], None),
+        ]));
+
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        index.remap(&mapping, dest_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Read in file order, so this pins the emitted order as well as the
+        // contents: the null key first, then keys ascending.
+        let frag_3 =
+            |offset: u32| -> Vec<u64> { vec![RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, offset).into()] };
+        let written: Vec<(Option<String>, Vec<u64>)> =
+            test_util::read_key_bitmaps(dest_store.as_ref(), BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME)
+                .await
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(key, bitmap)| (key, test_util::row_addrs(&bitmap)))
                 .collect();
-            actual.sort();
-            assert_eq!(actual, expected_in_rows);
-        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            written,
+            vec![
+                (None, frag_3(0)),
+                (Some("a".to_string()), frag_3(1)),
+                // Every row of "b" was deleted, so "b" is not written at all.
+                (Some("c".to_string()), vec![addrs[4]]),
+            ]
+        );
+
+        // The emptied key does not come back as a directory entry either.
+        let reloaded = BitmapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reloaded.index_map.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            !reloaded
+                .index_map
+                .contains_key(&OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
+                    "b".to_string()
+                )))),
+            "an emptied key must not survive the remap"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// A built-in index streams through a batch translator itself: it never
+    /// asks the translator for fragment sizes or a budget (the in-memory
+    /// fallback of `remap_streaming` is for indices that only implement the
+    /// legacy `remap`), and it writes what the legacy `remap` writes for the
+    /// same translation.
     #[tokio::test]
-    #[ignore]
-    async fn test_big_bitmap_index() {
-        // WARNING: This test allocates a huge state to force overflow over int32 on BinaryArray
-        // You must run it only on a machine with enough resources (or skip it normally).
-        use super::{BitmapIndex, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME};
-        use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
-        use crate::scalar::IndexStore;
-        use arrow_schema::DataType;
-        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
-        use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
-        use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap;
-        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-        use std::collections::HashMap;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
+    async fn test_bitmap_remap_streaming_never_enters_the_fallback() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+        /// Fragment 1 rows move to fragment 3 (offset 1 deleted); fragment 2
+        /// is dropped whole.
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct Hops {
+            translations: AtomicUsize,
+            sizings: AtomicUsize,
+        }
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl BatchRowIdRemapper for Hops {
+            async fn remap_row_ids(&self, ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+                self.translations.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                Ok(ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|&address| {
+                        let address = RowAddress::from(address);
+                        match (address.fragment_id(), address.row_offset()) {
+                            (1, 1) => None,
+                            (1, offset) => Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, offset).into()),
+                            _ => None,
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect())
+            }
+            fn fragment_physical_rows(&self, _: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+                self.sizings.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                None
+            }
+            fn materialization_budget_bytes(&self) -> u64 {
+                0
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Adjust these numbers so that:
-        //     m * (serialized size per bitmap) > 2^31 bytes.
-        //
-        // For example, if we assume each bitmap serializes to ~1000 bytes,
-        // you need m > 2.1e6.
-        let m: u32 = 2_500_000;
-        let per_bitmap_size = 1000; // assumed bytes per bitmap
+        let addrs: Vec<u64> = [(1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 1)]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into())
+            .collect();
+        let values = [Some("a"), Some("a"), None, Some("b"), Some("a")];
+        let (_src_dir, src_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(
+            utf8_value_stream(values, addrs.clone()),
+            src_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = BitmapIndex::load(src_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let mut state = HashMap::new();
-        for i in 0..m {
-            // Create a bitmap that contains, say, 1000 row IDs.
-            let bitmap = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(0..per_bitmap_size);
+        let hops = Arc::new(Hops {
+            translations: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            sizings: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let (_streamed_dir, streamed_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        index
+            .remap_streaming(
+                &RowAddrTranslator::Batch(hops.clone()),
+                streamed_store.as_ref(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(hops.sizings.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0, "no fallback");
+        assert!(hops.translations.load(Ordering::Relaxed) > 0);
+
+        let legacy = RowAddrRemap::direct(HashMap::from([
+            (addrs[0], Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 0).into())),
+            (addrs[1], None),
+            (addrs[2], Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 2).into())),
+            (addrs[3], None),
+            (addrs[4], None),
+        ]));
+        let (_legacy_dir, legacy_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        index.remap(&legacy, legacy_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
 
-            let key = ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(i));
-            state.insert(key, bitmap);
+        async fn written(store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Vec<(Option<String>, Vec<u64>)> {
+            test_util::read_key_bitmaps(store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME)
+                .await
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(key, bitmap)| (key, test_util::row_addrs(&bitmap)))
+                .collect()
         }
+        let streamed = written(streamed_store.as_ref()).await;
+        assert_eq!(streamed, written(legacy_store.as_ref()).await);
+        let frag_3 =
+            |offset: u32| -> Vec<u64> { vec![RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, offset).into()] };
+        // A key whose bitmap comes out empty is not written, on every path.
+        assert_eq!(
+            streamed,
+            vec![(None, frag_3(2)), (Some("a".to_string()), frag_3(0)),]
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Create a temporary store.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_null_handling_in_queries() {
+        // Test that bitmap index correctly returns null_list for queries
         let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let test_store = LanceIndexStore::new(
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
             tmpdir.clone(),
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        );
-
-        // This call should never trigger a "byte array offset overflow" error since now the code supports
-        // read by chunks
-        let result =
-            BitmapIndexPlugin::write_bitmap_index(state, &test_store, &DataType::UInt32).await;
+        ));
 
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Failed to write bitmap index: {:?}",
-            result.err()
-        );
+        // Row id -> value: 0 -> 0, 1 -> 5, 2 -> null. Listed value-sorted,
+        // nulls first, as `build_index_map` requires; row id order need not
+        // match value order.
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            ("value", Int64, [None, Some(0), Some(5)]),
+            ("_rowid", UInt64, [2, 0, 1])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let stream = stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
 
-        // Verify the index file exists
-        let index_file = test_store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await;
-        assert!(
-            index_file.is_ok(),
-            "Failed to open index file: {:?}",
-            index_file.err()
-        );
-        let index_file = index_file.unwrap();
+        // Train and write the bitmap index
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Print stats about the index file
-        tracing::info!(
-            "Index file contains {} rows in total",
-            index_file.num_rows()
-        );
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+        let index = BitmapIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Load the index using BitmapIndex::load
-        tracing::info!("Loading index from disk...");
-        let loaded_index = BitmapIndex::load(Arc::new(test_store), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        // Test 1: A caller that does not need NULL bookkeeping should receive
+        // the same true rows without cloning the null bitmap.
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5)));
+        let result = index
+            .search_with_options(
+                &query,
+                SearchOptions::default().with_track_nulls(false),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
             .await
-            .expect("Failed to load bitmap index");
+            .unwrap();
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![1]);
+                assert!(row_ids.null_rows().is_empty());
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
+        }
 
-        // Verify the loaded index has the correct number of entries
-        assert_eq!(
-            loaded_index.index_map.len(),
-            m as usize,
-            "Loaded index has incorrect number of keys (expected {}, got {})",
-            m,
-            loaded_index.index_map.len()
-        );
+        // The existing API keeps NULL rows for three-valued logic.
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Manually verify specific keys without using search()
-        let test_keys = [0, m / 2, m - 1]; // Beginning, middle, and end
-        for &key_val in &test_keys {
-            let key = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(key_val)));
-            // Load the bitmap for this key
-            let bitmap = loaded_index
-                .load_bitmap(&key, None)
-                .await
-                .unwrap_or_else(|_| panic!("Key {} should exist", key_val));
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![1], "Should find row 1 where value == 5");
 
-            // Convert RowAddrTreeMap to a vector for easier assertion
-            let row_addrs: Vec<u64> = bitmap.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
+                let null_row_ids = row_ids.null_rows();
+                // Check that null_row_ids contains row 2
+                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be Some");
+                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
+                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
+                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![2], "Should report row 2 as null");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
+        }
+        let entries_after_value_lookup = cache.size().await;
 
-            // Verify length
-            assert_eq!(
-                row_addrs.len(),
-                per_bitmap_size as usize,
-                "Bitmap for key {} has wrong size",
-                key_val
-            );
+        // Test 2: Search for null values - should return allow=[2], null=None
+        let query = SargableQuery::IsNull();
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
 
-            // Verify first few and last few elements
-            for i in 0..5.min(per_bitmap_size) {
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => {
+                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_addrs
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    actual_rows,
+                    vec![2],
+                    "IsNull should find row 2 where value is null"
+                );
+
+                let null_row_ids = row_addrs.null_rows();
+                // When querying FOR nulls, null_row_ids should be None (nulls are the TRUE result)
                 assert!(
-                    row_addrs.contains(&i),
-                    "Bitmap for key {} should contain row_id {}",
-                    key_val,
-                    i
+                    null_row_ids.is_empty(),
+                    "null_row_ids should be None for IsNull query"
                 );
             }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            cache.size().await,
+            entries_after_value_lookup,
+            "null bitmap lookup should bypass the per-value cache"
+        );
+
+        // Test 3: Range query - should return matching rows and null_list
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(0))),
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(3))),
+        );
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
 
-            for i in (per_bitmap_size - 5)..per_bitmap_size {
-                assert!(
-                    row_addrs.contains(&i),
-                    "Bitmap for key {} should contain row_id {}",
-                    key_val,
-                    i
-                );
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => {
+                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_addrs
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![0], "Should find row 0 where value == 0");
+
+                // Should report row 2 as null
+                let null_row_ids = row_addrs.null_rows();
+                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be Some");
+                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
+                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
+                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![2], "Should report row 2 as null");
             }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
+        }
+    }
 
-            // Verify exact range
-            let expected_range: Vec<u64> = (0..per_bitmap_size).collect();
-            assert_eq!(
-                row_addrs, expected_range,
-                "Bitmap for key {} doesn't contain expected values",
-                key_val
-            );
+    /// Merging bitmap segments must equal a single build over the same rows,
+    /// including the null bitmap, which lives outside `index_map`. The
+    /// deprecated `merge_bitmap_indices` must produce the same file.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    async fn test_bitmap_segment_merge_matches_single_build() {
+        let values: Vec<Option<String>> = (0..600)
+            .map(|i| {
+                if i % 13 == 0 {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(format!("v-{:03}", i % 50))
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
 
-            tracing::info!(
-                "✓ Verified bitmap for key {}: {} rows as expected",
-                key_val,
-                row_addrs.len()
+        async fn build(
+            values: &[Option<String>],
+            offset: u64,
+        ) -> (TempObjDir, Arc<dyn IndexStore>) {
+            let (tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+            let stream = utf8_value_stream(
+                values.iter().cloned(),
+                (0..values.len() as u64).map(|i| i + offset),
             );
+            BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, store.as_ref())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            (tmpdir, store)
         }
 
-        tracing::info!("Test successful! Index properly contains {} keys", m);
-    }
+        let (_all_dir, all_store) = build(&values, 0).await;
+        let expected = read_bitmap_contents(all_store.as_ref()).await;
+        assert!(
+            expected.iter().any(|(key, _)| key.is_none()),
+            "fixture must exercise the null bitmap"
+        );
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_bitmap_prewarm() {
-        // Create a temporary directory for the index
-        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
+        let (_left_dir, left_store) = build(&values[..300], 0).await;
+        let (_right_dir, right_store) = build(&values[300..], 300).await;
+        let left = BitmapIndex::load(left_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let right = BitmapIndex::load(right_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create test data with low cardinality
-        let colors = vec![
-            "red", "blue", "green", "red", "yellow", "blue", "red", "green", "blue", "yellow",
-            "red", "red", "blue", "green", "yellow",
-        ];
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndex::merge_segments(
+            &[left.clone(), right.clone()],
+            value_row_id_stream(&[]),
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &[None, None],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(expected, read_bitmap_contents(dest_store.as_ref()).await);
 
-        let row_ids = (0u64..15u64).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let (_shim_dir, shim_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        merge_bitmap_indices(
+            &[left, right],
+            shim_store.as_ref(),
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(expected, read_bitmap_contents(shim_store.as_ref()).await);
+    }
+
+    fn addr(fragment: u32, offset: u32) -> u64 {
+        RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment, offset).into()
+    }
+
+    /// `utf8_value_stream` over `(value, row_addr)` pairs.
+    fn value_row_id_stream(rows: &[(Option<&str>, u64)]) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        utf8_value_stream(
+            rows.iter().map(|(value, _)| *value),
+            rows.iter().map(|(_, row_addr)| *row_addr),
+        )
+    }
 
+    /// The Boolean counterpart of [`utf8_value_stream`], likewise sorted.
+    fn bool_value_row_id_stream(rows: &[(Option<bool>, u64)]) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false),
-            Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Boolean, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
         ]));
-
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(colors.clone())),
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids.clone())),
+                Arc::new(BooleanArray::from_iter(
+                    rows.iter().map(|(value, _)| *value),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    rows.iter().map(|(_, row_addr)| *row_addr),
+                )),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let batch = sort_batch_by_value(&batch);
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) }),
+        ))
+    }
 
-        let stream = stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
-        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
-
-        // Train and write the bitmap index
-        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, store.as_ref())
+    /// Train a standalone bitmap segment over `data`, keeping its temp dir alive.
+    async fn train_bitmap_segment_from(
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    ) -> (TempObjDir, Arc<BitmapIndex>) {
+        let (tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(data, store.as_ref())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Create a cache with metrics tracking
-        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024); // 1MB cache
-
-        // Load the index (should only load metadata, not bitmaps)
-        let index = BitmapIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+        let index = BitmapIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        (tmpdir, index)
+    }
 
-        // Verify no bitmaps are cached yet
-        let cache_key_red = BitmapKey {
-            value: OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("red".to_string()))),
+    async fn train_bitmap_segment(rows: &[(Option<&str>, u64)]) -> (TempObjDir, Arc<BitmapIndex>) {
+        train_bitmap_segment_from(value_row_id_stream(rows)).await
+    }
+
+    async fn search_addrs_for(index: &BitmapIndex, query: SargableQuery) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let SearchResult::Exact(selection) =
+            index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected an exact bitmap search result");
         };
-        let cache_key_blue = BitmapKey {
-            value: OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("blue".to_string()))),
+        let mut addrs = selection
+            .true_rows()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(u64::from)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        addrs.sort_unstable();
+        addrs
+    }
+
+    async fn search_addrs(index: &BitmapIndex, value: Option<&str>) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let query = match value {
+            Some(value) => SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(value.to_string()))),
+            None => SargableQuery::IsNull(),
         };
+        search_addrs_for(index, query).await
+    }
 
-        assert!(cache
-            .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_red)
-            .await
-            .is_none());
-        assert!(cache
-            .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_blue)
+    async fn search_bool_addrs(index: &BitmapIndex, value: Option<bool>) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let query = match value {
+            Some(value) => SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(value))),
+            None => SargableQuery::IsNull(),
+        };
+        search_addrs_for(index, query).await
+    }
+
+    /// A 4-way segment merge: three contributing segments plus one whose filter
+    /// keeps nothing, one deleted row masked by a row-id allow-list, nulls on
+    /// two segments, and a new-data stream on top.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_merge_k_segments() {
+        let (_dir0, seg0) = train_bitmap_segment(&[
+            (Some("red"), addr(0, 0)),
+            (Some("red"), addr(0, 1)),
+            (Some("blue"), addr(0, 2)),
+            (None, addr(0, 3)),
+        ])
+        .await;
+        let (_dir1, seg1) = train_bitmap_segment(&[
+            (Some("blue"), addr(1, 0)),
+            (Some("green"), addr(1, 1)),
+            (Some("red"), addr(1, 2)),
+        ])
+        .await;
+        let (_dir2, seg2) = train_bitmap_segment(&[
+            (Some("yellow"), addr(2, 0)),
+            (Some("red"), addr(2, 1)),
+            (None, addr(2, 2)),
+        ])
+        .await;
+        let (_dir3, seg3) = train_bitmap_segment(&[(Some("purple"), addr(4, 0))]).await;
+
+        // seg1's row (1,2) is deleted: the allow-list omits it.
+        let mut still_valid = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        still_valid.insert(addr(1, 0));
+        still_valid.insert(addr(1, 1));
+        // seg3 covers a compacted-away fragment, so it keeps nothing at all.
+        let filters = vec![
+            None,
+            Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(still_valid)),
+            None,
+            Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                to_keep: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                to_remove: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([4u32]),
+            }),
+        ];
+
+        let new_rows = [(Some("green"), addr(3, 0)), (Some("blue"), addr(3, 1))];
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndex::merge_segments(
+            &[seg0.clone(), seg1.clone(), seg2.clone(), seg3.clone()],
+            value_row_id_stream(&new_rows),
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &filters,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let merged = BitmapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
-            .is_none());
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Call prewarm
-        index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        // Every value the sources knew about, minus the two filtered-out sources'
+        // contributions, plus the new data.
+        for value in [
+            Some("red"),
+            Some("blue"),
+            Some("green"),
+            Some("yellow"),
+            None,
+        ] {
+            let mut expected = Vec::new();
+            for segment in [&seg0, &seg1, &seg2] {
+                expected.extend(search_addrs(segment, value).await);
+            }
+            expected.retain(|a| *a != addr(1, 2));
+            for (new_value, new_addr) in new_rows {
+                if new_value == value {
+                    expected.push(new_addr);
+                }
+            }
+            expected.sort_unstable();
+            expected.dedup();
+            assert_eq!(
+                search_addrs(&merged, value).await,
+                expected,
+                "merged postings differ for {value:?}"
+            );
+        }
 
-        // Verify all bitmaps are now cached
-        assert!(cache
-            .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_red)
+        // The deleted row and the kept-nothing segment leave no trace.
+        assert!(
+            !search_addrs(&merged, Some("red"))
+                .await
+                .contains(&addr(1, 2))
+        );
+        assert!(search_addrs(&merged, Some("purple")).await.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(merged.index_map.len(), 4);
+    }
+
+    /// A K-way merge with no new data at all: pure consolidation.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_merge_k_segments_without_new_data() {
+        let (_dir0, seg0) = train_bitmap_segment(&[(Some("a"), addr(0, 0))]).await;
+        let (_dir1, seg1) = train_bitmap_segment(&[(Some("b"), addr(1, 0))]).await;
+        let (_dir2, seg2) =
+            train_bitmap_segment(&[(Some("a"), addr(2, 0)), (None, addr(2, 1))]).await;
+
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndex::merge_segments(
+            &[seg0, seg1, seg2],
+            value_row_id_stream(&[]),
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &[None, None, None],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let merged = BitmapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
-            .is_some());
-        assert!(cache
-            .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_blue)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            search_addrs(&merged, Some("a")).await,
+            vec![addr(0, 0), addr(2, 0)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(search_addrs(&merged, Some("b")).await, vec![addr(1, 0)]);
+        assert_eq!(search_addrs(&merged, None).await, vec![addr(2, 1)]);
+    }
+
+    /// A K-way merge where the NEW data stream also contains nulls: the null run
+    /// (sorted first) must pull in every old segment's null_map exactly once,
+    /// respecting per-segment filters, and not emit a second null entry.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_merge_k_segments_with_new_nulls() {
+        let (_dir0, seg0) = train_bitmap_segment(&[
+            (Some("red"), addr(0, 0)),
+            (None, addr(0, 1)),
+            (None, addr(0, 2)),
+        ])
+        .await;
+        let (_dir1, seg1) =
+            train_bitmap_segment(&[(Some("blue"), addr(1, 0)), (None, addr(1, 1))]).await;
+        // seg2's null survives, so two old segments contribute nulls and the fold
+        // cannot pass by reading only the first.
+        let (_dir2, seg2) =
+            train_bitmap_segment(&[(Some("green"), addr(2, 0)), (None, addr(2, 1))]).await;
+
+        // seg1's null row (1,1) is deleted: the allow-list omits it.
+        let mut still_valid = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        still_valid.insert(addr(1, 0));
+        let filters = vec![None, Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(still_valid)), None];
+
+        let new_rows = [
+            (None, addr(3, 0)),
+            (Some("red"), addr(3, 1)),
+            (None, addr(3, 2)),
+        ];
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndex::merge_segments(
+            &[seg0, seg1, seg2],
+            value_row_id_stream(&new_rows),
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &filters,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let merged = BitmapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
-            .is_some());
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify cached bitmaps have correct content
-        let cached_red = cache
-            .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_red)
+        assert_eq!(
+            search_addrs(&merged, None).await,
+            vec![addr(0, 1), addr(0, 2), addr(2, 1), addr(3, 0), addr(3, 2)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            search_addrs(&merged, Some("red")).await,
+            vec![addr(0, 0), addr(3, 1)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(search_addrs(&merged, Some("blue")).await, vec![addr(1, 0)]);
+        assert_eq!(search_addrs(&merged, Some("green")).await, vec![addr(2, 0)]);
+        assert_eq!(merged.index_map.len(), 3, "nulls must not enter index_map");
+    }
+
+    /// A K-way merge over a Boolean key column, the shape of a flag column whose
+    /// full rescan is the most expensive relative to the index it produces.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_merge_k_segments_boolean_keys() {
+        let (_dir0, seg0) = train_bitmap_segment_from(bool_value_row_id_stream(&[
+            (Some(true), addr(0, 0)),
+            (Some(false), addr(0, 1)),
+            (None, addr(0, 2)),
+        ]))
+        .await;
+        let (_dir1, seg1) = train_bitmap_segment_from(bool_value_row_id_stream(&[
+            (Some(false), addr(1, 0)),
+            (Some(true), addr(1, 1)),
+        ]))
+        .await;
+        let (_dir2, seg2) =
+            train_bitmap_segment_from(bool_value_row_id_stream(&[(Some(true), addr(2, 0))])).await;
+
+        let new_rows = [(Some(false), addr(3, 0)), (None, addr(3, 1))];
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndex::merge_segments(
+            &[seg0, seg1, seg2],
+            bool_value_row_id_stream(&new_rows),
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &[None, None, None],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let merged = BitmapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let red_rows: Vec<u64> = cached_red.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
-        assert_eq!(red_rows, vec![0, 3, 6, 10, 11]);
 
-        // Call prewarm again - should be idempotent
-        index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            search_bool_addrs(&merged, Some(true)).await,
+            vec![addr(0, 0), addr(1, 1), addr(2, 0)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            search_bool_addrs(&merged, Some(false)).await,
+            vec![addr(0, 1), addr(1, 0), addr(3, 0)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            search_bool_addrs(&merged, None).await,
+            vec![addr(0, 2), addr(3, 1)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(merged.value_type, DataType::Boolean);
+    }
 
-        // Verify cache still contains the same items
-        let cached_red_2 = cache
-            .get_with_key::<BitmapKey>(&cache_key_red)
+    /// Does `filter` keep `row_addr`? Mirrors
+    /// [`OldIndexDataFilter::retain_old_rows`], deliberately reimplemented so
+    /// the oracle below is independent of the merge.
+    fn oracle_keeps(filter: &Option<OldIndexDataFilter>, row_addr: u64) -> bool {
+        match filter {
+            Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments { to_keep, .. }) => {
+                to_keep.contains(RowAddress::from(row_addr).fragment_id())
+            }
+            Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid)) => valid.contains(row_addr),
+            None => true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The merge's contract is that its output is the union of its filtered inputs.
+    /// Check exactly that against a brute-force union over many pseudo-random
+    /// shapes: 1-4 segments over a small vocabulary and address space so keys and
+    /// row addresses collide across segments, every filter variant including ones
+    /// that keep nothing, and nulls on either side.
+    ///
+    /// Assertions read `index_map`/`null_map` rather than `search`, to compare what
+    /// the merge wrote and not how a query later resolves a row that is both null
+    /// and non-null.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_merge_matches_brute_force_union() {
+        const VOCAB: [&str; 5] = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"];
+        const FRAGMENTS: u32 = 4;
+
+        for seed in 0..200u64 {
+            let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
+            let rand_row = |rng: &mut SmallRng| {
+                let value = rng
+                    .random_bool(0.8)
+                    .then(|| VOCAB[rng.random_range(0..VOCAB.len())]);
+                let row_addr = addr(rng.random_range(0..FRAGMENTS), rng.random_range(0..8u32));
+                (value, row_addr)
+            };
+
+            let num_segments = rng.random_range(1..=4usize);
+            let mut segment_rows = Vec::with_capacity(num_segments);
+            let mut filters = Vec::with_capacity(num_segments);
+            for _ in 0..num_segments {
+                let rows = (0..rng.random_range(1..=8))
+                    .map(|_| rand_row(&mut rng))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                filters.push(match rng.random_range(0..4) {
+                    0 => None,
+                    1 => Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                        // The bitmap merge reads only `to_keep`.
+                        to_keep: (0..FRAGMENTS).filter(|_| rng.random_bool(0.6)).collect(),
+                        to_remove: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                    }),
+                    2 => Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(
+                        rows.iter()
+                            .filter(|_| rng.random_bool(0.6))
+                            .map(|(_, row_addr)| *row_addr)
+                            .collect(),
+                    )),
+                    _ => Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                        to_keep: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                        to_remove: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                    }),
+                });
+                segment_rows.push(rows);
+            }
+            let new_rows = (0..rng.random_range(0..=6))
+                .map(|_| rand_row(&mut rng))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            // Brute-force union: surviving old rows plus every new row.
+            let mut expected: HashMap<Option<&str>, RowAddrTreeMap> = HashMap::new();
+            for (rows, filter) in segment_rows.iter().zip(&filters) {
+                for (value, row_addr) in rows {
+                    if oracle_keeps(filter, *row_addr) {
+                        expected.entry(*value).or_default().insert(*row_addr);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            for (value, row_addr) in &new_rows {
+                expected.entry(*value).or_default().insert(*row_addr);
+            }
+
+            let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(num_segments);
+            let mut _dirs = Vec::with_capacity(num_segments);
+            for rows in &segment_rows {
+                let (dir, segment) = train_bitmap_segment(rows).await;
+                _dirs.push(dir);
+                segments.push(segment);
+            }
+
+            let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+            BitmapIndex::merge_segments(
+                &segments,
+                value_row_id_stream(&new_rows),
+                dest_store.as_ref(),
+                &filters,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let red_rows_2: Vec<u64> = cached_red_2.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
-        assert_eq!(red_rows_2, vec![0, 3, 6, 10, 11]);
+            let merged = BitmapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Exactly the keys with at least one surviving row are materialised:
+            // a key whose rows were all filtered out is not written.
+            for value in VOCAB {
+                let key = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(value.to_string())));
+                let want = expected.get(&Some(value)).cloned().unwrap_or_default();
+                let got = merged.load_bitmap(&key, None).await.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(*got, want, "seed {seed}: row sets differ for {value:?}");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    merged.index_map.contains_key(&key),
+                    !want.is_empty(),
+                    "seed {seed}: key {value:?} materialised iff it has rows"
+                );
+            }
+            assert_eq!(
+                *merged.null_map,
+                expected.get(&None).cloned().unwrap_or_default(),
+                "seed {seed}: null row sets differ"
+            );
+        }
     }
 
+    /// A key whose every row the filter removes must not be materialised: `load`
+    /// builds `index_map` from the keys column alone, so it would come back as a
+    /// live directory entry that nothing prunes.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_remap_bitmap_with_null() {
-        use arrow_array::UInt32Array;
+    async fn test_bitmap_merge_drops_emptied_keys() {
+        let (_dir, segment) = train_bitmap_segment(&[
+            (Some("kept"), addr(0, 0)),
+            (Some("gone"), addr(5, 0)),
+            (None, addr(5, 1)),
+        ])
+        .await;
+
+        // Fragment 5 is retired, so "gone" and the null row lose every row.
+        let filters = vec![Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+            to_keep: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+            to_remove: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([5u32]),
+        })];
+
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndex::merge_segments(
+            &[segment],
+            value_row_id_stream(&[]),
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &filters,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let merged = BitmapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a temporary store.
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged
+                .index_map
+                .keys()
+                .map(|key| key.0.to_string())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec!["kept"],
+            "an emptied key must not be materialised"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(search_addrs(&merged, Some("kept")).await, vec![addr(0, 0)]);
+        assert!(
+            merged.null_map.is_empty(),
+            "an emptied null row must not be materialised"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A merge must not populate the index cache with the source segments' row
+    /// sets: it reads each one once, and the commit that follows retires those
+    /// segments, so the entries would only evict live ones.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_merge_does_not_cache_source_bitmaps() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(64 * 1024 * 1024);
         let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
             tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+            Arc::new(cache.clone()),
         ));
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(
+            value_row_id_stream(&[(Some("red"), addr(0, 0)), (Some("blue"), addr(0, 1))]),
+            store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let segment = BitmapIndex::load(store, None, &cache).await.unwrap();
+        // Whatever `load` itself caches is the baseline; the merge must add
+        // nothing on top of it.
+        let after_load = cache.size().await;
+
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndex::merge_segments(
+            std::slice::from_ref(&segment),
+            value_row_id_stream(&[(Some("green"), addr(1, 0))]),
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &[None],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            cache.size().await,
+            after_load,
+            "the merge cached the source segment's row sets"
+        );
 
-        // Create test data that simulates:
-        // frag 1 - { 0: null, 1: null, 2: 1 }
-        // frag 2 - { 0: 1, 1: 2, 2: 2 }
-        // We'll create this data with specific row addresses
-        let values = vec![
-            None,       // row 0: null (will be at address (1,0))
-            None,       // row 1: null (will be at address (1,1))
-            Some(1u32), // row 2: 1    (will be at address (1,2))
-            Some(1u32), // row 3: 1    (will be at address (2,0))
-            Some(2u32), // row 4: 2    (will be at address (2,1))
-            Some(2u32), // row 5: 2    (will be at address (2,2))
-        ];
+        // A query on the same segment still caches, so the bypass is scoped to
+        // the merge rather than disabling caching for the index.
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("red".to_string())));
+        segment.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            cache.size().await > after_load,
+            "queries must still cache row sets"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Create row IDs with specific fragment addresses
-        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = vec![
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0).into(),
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 1).into(),
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 2).into(),
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 0).into(),
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 1).into(),
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 2).into(),
-        ];
+    /// Unsorted input must be rejected. It would reopen a run for a key already
+    /// written, and `load` keeps only the last file offset per key, so the earlier
+    /// row set would vanish silently. Nulls may lead or trail, but only once.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::value_reappears(vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), Some("a")], "a follows b")]
+    #[case::two_null_runs(vec![None, Some("a"), None], "more than one run of nulls")]
+    // The null run must not reset the ordering: the non-null sequence on either
+    // side of it is one sequence.
+    #[case::value_reappears_across_null(vec![Some("a"), None, Some("a")], "a follows a")]
+    #[case::value_descends_across_null(vec![Some("b"), None, Some("a")], "a follows b")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_build_rejects_unsorted_input(
+        #[case] values: Vec<Option<&str>>,
+        #[case] expected: &str,
+    ) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let row_addrs = (0..values.len() as u32)
+            .map(|i| addr(0, i))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(values)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_addrs)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        // Deliberately not sorted, unlike `utf8_value_stream`.
+        let unsorted: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) }),
+        ));
+
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        let Err(err) = BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(unsorted, store.as_ref()).await else {
+            panic!("expected unsorted input to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+        );
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("sorted by value"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains(expected), "{message}");
+    }
 
+    /// The other side of the ordering check: valid input must still be accepted.
+    /// The check runs in release builds, so a false rejection would fail
+    /// `optimize_indices` outright. Nulls are collected separately from the value
+    /// runs, so a single null run is correct whether it leads or trails, and the
+    /// stream is hand-built rather than sorted here so the trailing run survives.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::nulls_first(
+        vec![None, Some("a"), Some("a"), Some("b")],
+        vec![(None, vec![0]), (Some("a"), vec![1, 2]), (Some("b"), vec![3])],
+    )]
+    #[case::nulls_last(
+        vec![Some("a"), Some("a"), Some("b"), None],
+        vec![(None, vec![3]), (Some("a"), vec![0, 1]), (Some("b"), vec![2])],
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_build_accepts_sorted_input(
+        #[case] values: Vec<Option<&str>>,
+        #[case] expected: Vec<(Option<&str>, Vec<u32>)>,
+    ) {
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
-            Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
         ]));
-
+        let row_addrs = (0..values.len() as u32)
+            .map(|i| addr(0, i))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(values)),
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(values)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_addrs)),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let sorted: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) }),
+        ));
 
-        let stream = stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
-        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
-
-        // Create the bitmap index
-        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, test_store.as_ref())
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(sorted, store.as_ref())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Load the index
-        let index = BitmapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
-            .await
-            .expect("Failed to load bitmap index");
-
-        // Verify initial state
-        assert_eq!(index.index_map.len(), 2); // 2 non-null values (1 and 2)
-        assert!(!index.null_map.is_empty()); // Should have null values
+        let expected = expected
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(key, offsets)| {
+                (
+                    key.map(str::to_string),
+                    offsets.into_iter().map(|i| addr(0, i)).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(read_bitmap_contents(store.as_ref()).await, expected);
+    }
 
-        // Create a remap that simulates compaction of frags 1 and 2 into frag 3
-        let mut row_addr_map = HashMap::<u64, Option<u64>>::new();
-        row_addr_map.insert(
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0).into(),
-            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 0).into()),
-        );
-        row_addr_map.insert(
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 1).into(),
-            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 1).into()),
-        );
-        row_addr_map.insert(
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 2).into(),
-            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 2).into()),
-        );
-        row_addr_map.insert(
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 0).into(),
-            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 3).into()),
-        );
-        row_addr_map.insert(
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 1).into(),
-            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 4).into()),
-        );
-        row_addr_map.insert(
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 2).into(),
-            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 5).into()),
+    /// The keys column counts toward the flush threshold, not just the bitmaps.
+    /// A column with a very large number of tiny bitmaps used to buffer without
+    /// limit: the old threshold charged the bitmap column only, so the keys could
+    /// grow until the writer held gigabytes and their Arrow i32 offsets overflowed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_writer_charges_keys_against_flush_threshold() {
+        // Small enough to cross with a handful of keys; the production threshold
+        // is MAX_BUFFERED_BYTES, which no test wants to write out.
+        const THRESHOLD: usize = 4 * 1024;
+        const NUM_KEYS: u64 = 64;
+
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        let mut writer =
+            new_bitmap_batch_writer(store.as_ref(), BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, &DataType::Utf8)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_max_buffered_bytes(THRESHOLD);
+
+        // Every bitmap holds one row, so all the bitmaps together stay under the
+        // threshold; only the keys can push the writer past it.
+        for i in 0..NUM_KEYS {
+            let key = format!("{i:08}{}", "k".repeat(512));
+            writer
+                .emit(
+                    ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(key)),
+                    &RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([i]),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        assert!(
+            writer.batches_written() > 1,
+            "keys must be charged against the flush threshold, but the writer \
+             buffered all {NUM_KEYS} keys in {} batch(es)",
+            writer.batches_written()
         );
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Flushing part-way through must not disturb the file's contents.
+        let contents = read_bitmap_contents(store.as_ref()).await;
+        assert_eq!(contents.len() as u64, NUM_KEYS);
+        for (idx, (key, addrs)) in contents.iter().enumerate() {
+            let key = key.as_deref().expect("keys are non-null");
+            assert_eq!(&key[..8], format!("{idx:08}"), "keys must stay ascending");
+            assert_eq!(addrs, &vec![idx as u64]);
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Perform remap
-        index
-            .remap(&row_addr_map, test_store.as_ref())
+    /// `build_index_map` writes into a caller-owned writer, so a caller that needs
+    /// its own global buffer in the same file can reuse the algorithm rather than
+    /// reimplementing it. LabelList's `list_nulls` buffer is the reason this split
+    /// exists.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_index_map_writes_into_a_caller_owned_file() {
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        let stream = utf8_value_stream([None, Some("a"), Some("b")], [0u64, 1, 2]);
+
+        let mut writer =
+            new_bitmap_batch_writer(store.as_ref(), BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, &DataType::Utf8)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        build_index_map(stream, Vec::new(), &mut writer)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Reload and check
-        let reloaded_idx = BitmapIndex::load(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        writer
+            .add_global_buffer("test:buffer".to_string(), Bytes::from_static(b"payload"))
             .await
-            .expect("Failed to load remapped bitmap index");
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the null bitmap was remapped correctly
-        let expected_null_addrs: Vec<u64> = vec![
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 0).into(),
-            RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 1).into(),
-        ];
-        let actual_null_addrs: Vec<u64> = reloaded_idx
-            .null_map
-            .row_addrs()
-            .unwrap()
-            .map(u64::from)
-            .collect();
         assert_eq!(
-            actual_null_addrs, expected_null_addrs,
-            "Null bitmap not remapped correctly"
+            read_bitmap_contents(store.as_ref()).await,
+            vec![
+                (None, vec![0]),
+                (Some("a".to_string()), vec![1]),
+                (Some("b".to_string()), vec![2]),
+            ]
         );
 
-        // Search for value 1 and verify remapped addresses
-        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(1)));
-        let result = reloaded_idx
-            .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
+        // The buffer is attached after the data pages, so this also pins that a
+        // buffer added last is still discoverable from the file metadata.
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let idx: u32 = reader
+            .schema()
+            .metadata
+            .get("test:buffer")
+            .expect("buffer index must be recorded in metadata")
+            .parse()
             .unwrap();
-        if let crate::scalar::SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
-            let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
-                .true_rows()
-                .row_addrs()
-                .unwrap()
-                .map(u64::from)
-                .collect();
-            actual.sort();
-            let expected: Vec<u64> = vec![
-                RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 2).into(),
-                RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 3).into(),
-            ];
-            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "Value 1 bitmap not remapped correctly");
-        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            &reader.read_global_buffer(idx).await.unwrap()[..],
+            b"payload"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Search for value 2 and verify remapped addresses
-        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(2)));
-        let result = reloaded_idx
-            .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+    /// Every branch of the merge-join against an existing index, in one fixture,
+    /// so their interaction is covered and not just each in isolation.
+    ///
+    /// Old index: null -> 50, "a" -> 100, "b" -> {10, 11}, "f" -> 99.
+    /// New data: "b" -> 20, "d" -> 30, and no nulls at all.
+    ///
+    /// That drives, in order: the before-key drain ("a" precedes the first new
+    /// key), the equal-key merge ("b" is in both, so its row sets must union
+    /// rather than replace), the non-empty tail drain ("f" outlives the last new
+    /// key), and the trailing-null branch (`emitted_null` stays false, so the old
+    /// null posting is emitted from the tail). Deleting any one of the four
+    /// changes the expectation below.
+    ///
+    /// Read in file order, which also pins the one shape where the null key lands
+    /// last rather than first -- see `read_key_bitmaps`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_index_map_merges_an_existing_index() {
+        let (_old_dir, old_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(
+            utf8_value_stream(
+                [None, Some("a"), Some("b"), Some("b"), Some("f")],
+                [50u64, 100, 10, 11, 99],
+            ),
+            old_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let old_index = BitmapIndex::load(old_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        if let crate::scalar::SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
-            let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
-                .true_rows()
-                .row_addrs()
-                .unwrap()
-                .map(u64::from)
+        assert!(
+            !old_index.null_map.is_empty(),
+            "fixture must give the old index a null posting"
+        );
+
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        let mut writer =
+            new_bitmap_batch_writer(dest_store.as_ref(), BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, &DataType::Utf8)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        build_index_map(
+            utf8_value_stream([Some("b"), Some("d")], [20u64, 30]),
+            vec![OldSegment {
+                index: old_index.as_ref(),
+                filter: None,
+            }],
+            &mut writer,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let contents: Vec<(Option<String>, Vec<u64>)> =
+            test_util::read_key_bitmaps(dest_store.as_ref(), BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME)
+                .await
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(key, bitmap)| (key, test_util::row_addrs(&bitmap)))
                 .collect();
-            actual.sort();
-            let expected: Vec<u64> = vec![
-                RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 4).into(),
-                RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 5).into(),
-            ];
-            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "Value 2 bitmap not remapped correctly");
-        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            contents,
+            vec![
+                (Some("a".to_string()), vec![100]),
+                (Some("b".to_string()), vec![10, 11, 20]),
+                (Some("d".to_string()), vec![30]),
+                (Some("f".to_string()), vec![99]),
+                (None, vec![50]),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Search for null values
-        let query = SargableQuery::IsNull();
-        let result = reloaded_idx
-            .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        if let crate::scalar::SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result {
-            let mut actual: Vec<u64> = row_ids
-                .true_rows()
-                .row_addrs()
-                .unwrap()
-                .map(u64::from)
+    /// A single-batch `(value, row_addr)` stream over nullable Utf8 keys -- the
+    /// input shape `train_bitmap_index` and `build_index_map` both consume.
+    ///
+    /// Sorts, because both consumers require value-sorted input; a helper that
+    /// did not would just be a footgun with fewer lines.
+    fn utf8_value_stream<S: AsRef<str>>(
+        values: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<S>>,
+        addrs: impl IntoIterator<Item = u64>,
+    ) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter(values)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(addrs)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = sort_batch_by_value(&batch);
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) }),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Key to sorted row addresses, read from the file and sorted so the
+    /// comparison does not depend on the order keys happen to be written in.
+    async fn read_bitmap_contents(store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Vec<(Option<String>, Vec<u64>)> {
+        let mut out: Vec<(Option<String>, Vec<u64>)> =
+            test_util::read_key_bitmaps(store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME)
+                .await
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(key, bitmap)| (key, test_util::row_addrs(&bitmap)))
                 .collect();
-            actual.sort();
-            assert_eq!(
-                actual, expected_null_addrs,
-                "Null search results not correct"
-            );
-        }
+        out.sort();
+        out
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_bitmap_null_handling_in_queries() {
-        // Test that bitmap index correctly returns null_list for queries
+    async fn test_load_with_remapping_rejects_corrupt_null_bitmap() {
         let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
         let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
@@ -1427,103 +4605,32 @@ pub mod tests {
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        // Create test data: [0, 5, null]
-        let batch = record_batch!(
-            ("value", Int64, [Some(0), Some(5), None]),
-            ("_rowid", UInt64, [0, 1, 2])
+        // A single null key whose serialized bitmap is garbage.
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("keys", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("bitmaps", DataType::Binary, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![None::<i32>])),
+                Arc::new(BinaryArray::from_vec(vec![b"not a bitmap"])),
+            ],
         )
         .unwrap();
-        let schema = batch.schema();
-        let stream = stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
-        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
-
-        // Train and write the bitmap index
-        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(stream, store.as_ref())
+        let mut writer = store
+            .new_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, schema)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
 
-        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
-        let index = BitmapIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+        let error = BitmapIndex::load_with_remapping(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Test 1: Search for value 5 - should return allow=[1], null=[2]
-        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5)));
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-
-        match result {
-            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
-                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
-                    .true_rows()
-                    .row_addrs()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .map(u64::from)
-                    .collect();
-                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![1], "Should find row 1 where value == 5");
-
-                let null_row_ids = row_ids.null_rows();
-                // Check that null_row_ids contains row 2
-                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be Some");
-                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
-                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
-                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![2], "Should report row 2 as null");
-            }
-            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
-        }
-
-        // Test 2: Search for null values - should return allow=[2], null=None
-        let query = SargableQuery::IsNull();
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-
-        match result {
-            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => {
-                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_addrs
-                    .true_rows()
-                    .row_addrs()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .map(u64::from)
-                    .collect();
-                assert_eq!(
-                    actual_rows,
-                    vec![2],
-                    "IsNull should find row 2 where value is null"
-                );
-
-                let null_row_ids = row_addrs.null_rows();
-                // When querying FOR nulls, null_row_ids should be None (nulls are the TRUE result)
-                assert!(
-                    null_row_ids.is_empty(),
-                    "null_row_ids should be None for IsNull query"
-                );
-            }
-            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
-        }
-
-        // Test 3: Range query - should return matching rows and null_list
-        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(0))),
-            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(3))),
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("Failed to deserialize bitmap"),
+            "{error}"
         );
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-
-        match result {
-            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => {
-                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_addrs
-                    .true_rows()
-                    .row_addrs()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .map(u64::from)
-                    .collect();
-                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![0], "Should find row 0 where value == 0");
-
-                // Should report row 2 as null
-                let null_row_ids = row_addrs.null_rows();
-                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be Some");
-                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
-                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
-                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![2], "Should report row 2 as null");
-            }
-            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
-        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter.rs
index 3057323b5da..4133ae9d630 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/bloomfilter.rs
@@ -7,44 +7,56 @@
 //! It is a space-efficient data structure that can be used to test whether an element is a member of a set.
 //! It's an inexact filter - they may include false positives that require rechecking.
 
-use crate::scalar::bloomfilter::sbbf::{Sbbf, SbbfBuilder};
+use crate::pb;
 use crate::scalar::expression::{BloomFilterQueryParser, ScalarQueryParser};
 use crate::scalar::registry::{
-    ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
+    BasicTrainer, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
 };
 use crate::scalar::{
-    BloomFilterQuery, BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, ScalarIndexParams, UpdateCriteria,
+    BloomFilterQuery, BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, IndexFile, ScalarIndexParams, UpdateCriteria,
 };
-use crate::{pb, Any};
 use arrow_array::{Array, UInt64Array};
-mod as_bytes;
-pub mod sbbf;
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_arrow_stats::StatisticsAccumulator;
+use lance_core::utils::bloomfilter::as_bytes;
+use lance_core::utils::bloomfilter::sbbf::{Sbbf, SbbfBuilder};
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async};
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use std::any::Any;
 
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use crate::scalar::FragReuseIndex;
-use crate::scalar::{AnyQuery, IndexStore, MetricsCollector, ScalarIndex, SearchResult};
-use crate::vector::VectorIndex;
+use crate::scalar::{
+    AnyQuery, IndexStore, MetricsCollector, RowIdRemapper, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
+};
 use crate::{Index, IndexType};
 use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_core::Error;
 use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
 
-use super::zoned::{rebuild_zones, search_zones, ZoneBound, ZoneProcessor, ZoneTrainer};
+use super::zoned::{ZoneBound, ZoneProcessor, ZoneTrainer, rebuild_zones, search_zones};
 
 const BLOOMFILTER_FILENAME: &str = "bloomfilter.lance";
 const BLOOMFILTER_ITEM_META_KEY: &str = "bloomfilter_item";
+const NULL_BITMAP_META_KEY: &str = "null_bitmap";
 const BLOOMFILTER_PROBABILITY_META_KEY: &str = "bloomfilter_probability";
+/// Upper bound on the total serialized bytes packed into a single bloom filter
+/// `BinaryArray`. Its offsets are `i32`, so the concatenated payload cannot exceed
+/// `i32::MAX`. We reserve a 1 MiB margin below that hard limit so per-row Arrow
+/// bookkeeping (offset and validity buffers) cannot push a batch over the edge.
+const MAX_BLOOMFILTER_ARRAY_LENGTH: usize = i32::MAX as usize - 1024 * 1024;
 const BLOOMFILTER_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 0;
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -59,7 +71,7 @@ struct BloomFilterStatistics {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for BloomFilterStatistics {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         // Estimate the size of the bloom filter
         // We could try to get the actual size from the Sbbf if it has a method for that,
         // but for now we'll estimate based on the number of bytes it serializes to
@@ -80,24 +92,52 @@ pub struct BloomFilterIndex {
     number_of_items: u64,
     // Probability of false positives, fraction between 0 and 1
     probability: f64,
+    // Exact set of null row addresses; None for older indices without this bitmap.
+    null_rows: Option<RowAddrTreeMap>,
+    /// Legacy synchronous remapper (index_version 0). Mutually exclusive with
+    /// `batch_remapper`; both `None` means no translation is needed.
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    /// Asynchronous batch remapper (tagged histories).
+    batch_remapper: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for BloomFilterIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.zones.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.zones.deep_size_of_children(context) + self.null_rows.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
 impl BloomFilterIndex {
     async fn load(
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        _fri: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        fri: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        Self::load_with_max_array_length(store, fri, index_cache, MAX_BLOOMFILTER_ARRAY_LENGTH)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    async fn load_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let mut index = Self::load(store, None, index_cache).await?.as_ref().clone();
+        index.batch_remapper = remapping;
+        debug_assert!(index.frag_reuse_index.is_none() || index.batch_remapper.is_none());
+        Ok(Arc::new(index))
+    }
+
+    async fn load_with_max_array_length(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        fri: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         _index_cache: &LanceCache,
+        max_array_length: usize,
     ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
         let index_file = store.open_index_file(BLOOMFILTER_FILENAME).await?;
-        let bloom_data = index_file
-            .read_range(0..index_file.num_rows(), None)
-            .await?;
         let file_schema = index_file.schema();
 
         let number_of_items: u64 = file_schema
@@ -112,104 +152,127 @@ impl BloomFilterIndex {
             .and_then(|bs| bs.parse().ok())
             .unwrap_or(*DEFAULT_PROBABILITY);
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(Self::try_from_serialized(
-            bloom_data,
+        let null_rows = if let Some(idx_str) = file_schema.metadata.get(NULL_BITMAP_META_KEY) {
+            let idx = idx_str.parse::<u32>().map_err(|e| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid null bitmap buffer index: {e}"))
+            })?;
+            let bytes = index_file.read_global_buffer(idx).await?;
+            Some(RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bytes.as_ref())?)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        let read_batch_size =
+            Self::read_batch_size(number_of_items, probability, max_array_length)?;
+
+        let mut zones = Vec::with_capacity(index_file.num_rows());
+        for start in (0..index_file.num_rows()).step_by(read_batch_size) {
+            let end = (start + read_batch_size).min(index_file.num_rows());
+            let mut bloom_data = index_file
+                .read_range_stream(start..end, None, 4096, 2)
+                .await?;
+            while let Some(batch) = bloom_data.try_next().await? {
+                zones.extend(Self::try_from_serialized(batch, max_array_length)?);
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            zones,
             number_of_items,
             probability,
-        )?))
+            null_rows,
+            frag_reuse_index: fri,
+            batch_remapper: None,
+        }))
     }
 
-    fn try_from_serialized(
-        data: RecordBatch,
+    fn read_batch_size(
         number_of_items: u64,
         probability: f64,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        max_array_length: usize,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        // Bloom filters are stored in an Arrow BinaryArray, whose offsets are i32.
+        // The serialized filter size is fixed by the index parameters, so bound
+        // reads by total serialized bytes instead of row count alone.
+        let params = BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams {
+            number_of_items,
+            probability,
+        };
+        let filter_size = BloomFilterProcessor::build_filter(&params)?.size_bytes();
+        if filter_size > max_array_length {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Serialized bloom filter size {} exceeds max supported batch bytes {}",
+                filter_size, max_array_length
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok((max_array_length / filter_size).max(1))
+    }
+
+    fn try_from_serialized(
+        data: RecordBatch,
+        max_array_length: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<BloomFilterStatistics>> {
         if data.num_rows() == 0 {
-            // Return empty index for empty data
-            return Ok(Self {
-                zones: Vec::new(),
-                number_of_items,
-                probability,
-            });
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
         }
 
         let fragment_id_col = data
             .column_by_name("fragment_id")
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "BloomFilterIndex: missing 'fragment_id' column",
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: missing 'fragment_id' column"))?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "BloomFilterIndex: 'fragment_id' column is not UInt64",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: 'fragment_id' column is not UInt64")
             })?;
 
         let zone_start_col = data
             .column_by_name("zone_start")
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: missing 'zone_start' column", location!())
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: missing 'zone_start' column"))?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "BloomFilterIndex: 'zone_start' column is not UInt64",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: 'zone_start' column is not UInt64")
             })?;
 
         let zone_length_col = data
             .column_by_name("zone_length")
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "BloomFilterIndex: missing 'zone_length' column",
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: missing 'zone_length' column"))?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "BloomFilterIndex: 'zone_length' column is not UInt64",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: 'zone_length' column is not UInt64")
             })?;
 
         let bloom_filter_data_col = data
             .column_by_name("bloom_filter_data")
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "BloomFilterIndex: missing 'bloom_filter_data' column",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: missing 'bloom_filter_data' column")
             })?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BinaryArray>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "BloomFilterIndex: 'bloom_filter_data' column is not Binary",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: 'bloom_filter_data' column is not Binary")
             })?;
 
+        // Enforce the i32-offset cap on read, symmetric to the write side. A batch this
+        // large means the read chunking was bypassed; reject it before it overflows the
+        // BinaryArray offsets instead of panicking deep inside Arrow.
+        let offsets = bloom_filter_data_col.value_offsets();
+        let batch_bytes = (offsets[offsets.len() - 1] - offsets[0]) as usize;
+        if batch_bytes > max_array_length {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Serialized bloom filter batch size {} exceeds max supported batch bytes {}",
+                batch_bytes, max_array_length
+            )));
+        }
+
         let has_null_col = data
             .column_by_name("has_null")
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: missing 'has_null' column", location!())
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: missing 'has_null' column"))?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BooleanArray>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "BloomFilterIndex: 'has_null' column is not Boolean",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterIndex: 'has_null' column is not Boolean")
             })?;
 
         let num_blocks = data.num_rows();
@@ -222,12 +285,8 @@ impl BloomFilterIndex {
                 Vec::new()
             };
 
-            // Convert bytes back to Sbbf
             let bloom_filter = Sbbf::new(&bloom_filter_bytes).map_err(|e| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Failed to deserialize bloom filter: {:?}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to deserialize bloom filter: {:?}", e))
             })?;
 
             blocks.push(BloomFilterStatistics {
@@ -241,11 +300,7 @@ impl BloomFilterIndex {
             });
         }
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            zones: blocks,
-            number_of_items,
-            probability,
-        })
+        Ok(blocks)
     }
 
     fn evaluate_block_against_query(
@@ -318,14 +373,9 @@ impl BloomFilterIndex {
                     datafusion_common::ScalarValue::TimestampNanosecond(Some(val), _) => {
                         Ok(sbbf.check(val))
                     }
-                    _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!(
-                            "Unsupported data type in bloom filter query: {:?}",
-                            target
-                        )
-                        .into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    }),
+                    _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Unsupported data type in bloom filter query: {:?}", target).into(),
+                    )),
                 }
             }
             BloomFilterQuery::IsIn(values) => {
@@ -391,14 +441,10 @@ impl BloomFilterIndex {
                             sbbf.check(val)
                         }
                         _ => {
-                            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                                source: format!(
-                                    "Unsupported data type in bloom filter query: {:?}",
-                                    value
-                                )
-                                .into(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!("Unsupported data type in bloom filter query: {:?}", value)
+                                    .into(),
+                            ));
                         }
                     };
 
@@ -422,13 +468,6 @@ impl Index for BloomFilterIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "BloomFilter is not a vector index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -466,30 +505,78 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BloomFilterIndex {
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
         let query = query.as_any().downcast_ref::<BloomFilterQuery>().unwrap();
-        search_zones(&self.zones, metrics, |block| {
-            self.evaluate_block_against_query(block, query)
+        let result = if let BloomFilterQuery::IsNull() = query
+            && let Some(null_rows) = &self.null_rows
+        {
+            SearchResult::exact(null_rows.clone())
+        } else {
+            search_zones(&self.zones, metrics, |block| {
+                self.evaluate_block_against_query(block, query)
+            })?
+        };
+
+        let (selected, nulls) = if let Some(remapper) = &self.frag_reuse_index {
+            // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+            (
+                remapper.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(result.row_addrs().selected_rows()),
+                remapper.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(result.row_addrs().null_rows()),
+            )
+        } else if let Some(remapper) = &self.batch_remapper {
+            // Tagged asynchronous path.
+            (
+                remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(
+                    remapper.as_ref(),
+                    result.row_addrs().selected_rows(),
+                )
+                .await?,
+                remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), result.row_addrs().null_rows())
+                    .await?,
+            )
+        } else {
+            return Ok(result);
+        };
+
+        Ok(match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(_) => SearchResult::exact(selected).with_nulls(nulls),
+            SearchResult::AtMost(_) => SearchResult::at_most(selected).with_nulls(nulls),
+            SearchResult::AtLeast(_) => SearchResult::at_least(selected).with_nulls(nulls),
         })
     }
 
+    fn results_are_row_addresses(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
     fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
         false
     }
 
     async fn remap(
         &self,
-        _mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        _mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
         _dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "BloomFilter does not support remap".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "BloomFilter does not support remap".into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        _translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        _dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        // No mapping to materialize for an index that cannot be remapped.
+        Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "BloomFilter does not support remap".into(),
+        ))
     }
 
     async fn update(
         &self,
         new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        _old_data_filter: Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         // Re-train bloom filters for the appended data using the shared trainer
         let params = BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams {
@@ -499,17 +586,28 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BloomFilterIndex {
 
         let processor = BloomFilterProcessor::new(params.clone())?;
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, params.number_of_items)?;
-        let updated_blocks = rebuild_zones(&self.zones, trainer, new_data).await?;
+        let (updated_blocks, new_null_rows) = rebuild_zones(&self.zones, trainer, new_data).await?;
+
+        // Merge existing and new null rows.  If the existing index had no null bitmap
+        // (legacy format — null positions unknown), preserve that None: updating cannot
+        // recover the missing information, and claiming the result has zero nulls would
+        // be a false negative.  Only a full retrain produces a fresh, complete bitmap.
+        let merged_null_rows = self.null_rows.as_ref().map(|existing| {
+            let mut merged = existing.clone();
+            merged |= &new_null_rows;
+            merged
+        });
 
         // Write the combined zones back to storage
         let mut builder = BloomFilterIndexBuilder::try_new(params)?;
         builder.blocks = updated_blocks;
-        builder.write_index(dest_store).await?;
+        builder.null_rows = merged_null_rows;
+        let files = builder.write_index(dest_store).await?;
 
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pb::BloomFilterIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pb::BloomFilterIndexDetails::default())?,
             index_version: BLOOMFILTER_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
         })
     }
 
@@ -528,6 +626,131 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BloomFilterIndex {
     }
 }
 
+fn remap_zone(
+    zone: &BloomFilterStatistics,
+    remapper: &dyn RowIdRemapper,
+) -> Vec<BloomFilterStatistics> {
+    let zone_start = (zone.bound.fragment_id << 32).saturating_add(zone.bound.start);
+    let mut remapped = (0..zone.bound.length as u64)
+        .filter_map(|offset| remapper.remap_row_id(zone_start.saturating_add(offset)))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    remapped.sort_unstable();
+    remapped.dedup();
+
+    let mut zones = Vec::new();
+    let mut run_start = None;
+    let mut previous = 0u64;
+    for row_id in remapped {
+        if run_start.is_none() {
+            run_start = Some(row_id);
+        } else if row_id != previous.saturating_add(1) || row_id >> 32 != previous >> 32 {
+            let start = run_start.take().unwrap();
+            zones.push(BloomFilterStatistics {
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: start >> 32,
+                    start: start & u64::from(u32::MAX),
+                    length: (previous - start + 1) as usize,
+                },
+                has_null: zone.has_null,
+                bloom_filter: zone.bloom_filter.clone(),
+            });
+            run_start = Some(row_id);
+        }
+        previous = row_id;
+    }
+    if let Some(start) = run_start {
+        zones.push(BloomFilterStatistics {
+            bound: ZoneBound {
+                fragment_id: start >> 32,
+                start: start & u64::from(u32::MAX),
+                length: (previous - start + 1) as usize,
+            },
+            has_null: zone.has_null,
+            bloom_filter: zone.bloom_filter.clone(),
+        });
+    }
+    zones
+}
+
+/// Merge caller-selected BloomFilter segments into one self-contained segment.
+pub async fn merge_bloomfilter_indices(
+    source_indices: &[(&BloomFilterIndex, &RoaringBitmap)],
+    dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    let first = source_indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|(_, fragment_filter)| !fragment_filter.is_empty())
+        .or_else(|| source_indices.first())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("merge_bloomfilter_indices requires at least one source index")
+        })?;
+    let params = BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams {
+        number_of_items: first.0.number_of_items,
+        probability: first.0.probability,
+    };
+
+    let mut blocks = Vec::new();
+    let mut merged_null_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+    let mut has_missing_null_bitmap = false;
+    for (source, fragment_filter) in source_indices {
+        if source.batch_remapper.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "this index maintenance operation does not support asynchronous row-ID remapping",
+            ));
+        }
+        if fragment_filter.is_empty() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if source.number_of_items != params.number_of_items
+            || source.probability != params.probability
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cannot merge BloomFilter segments with different parameters: \
+                 number_of_items={}, probability={} and number_of_items={}, probability={}",
+                params.number_of_items,
+                params.probability,
+                source.number_of_items,
+                source.probability
+            )));
+        }
+        let source_zones = source.zones.iter().flat_map(|block| {
+            source.frag_reuse_index.as_deref().map_or_else(
+                || vec![block.clone()],
+                |remapper| remap_zone(block, remapper),
+            )
+        });
+        blocks.extend(source_zones.filter(|block| {
+            u32::try_from(block.bound.fragment_id)
+                .is_ok_and(|fragment_id| fragment_filter.contains(fragment_id))
+        }));
+        match &source.null_rows {
+            Some(null_rows) => {
+                let mut filtered = source.frag_reuse_index.as_deref().map_or_else(
+                    || null_rows.clone(),
+                    |remapper| remapper.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(null_rows),
+                );
+                filtered.retain_fragments(fragment_filter.iter());
+                merged_null_rows |= &filtered;
+            }
+            None => has_missing_null_bitmap = true,
+        }
+    }
+    blocks.sort_by_key(|block| (block.bound.fragment_id, block.bound.start));
+
+    let mut builder = BloomFilterIndexBuilder::try_new(params)?;
+    builder.blocks = blocks;
+    if !has_missing_null_bitmap {
+        builder.null_rows = Some(merged_null_rows);
+    }
+    let files = builder.write_index(dest_store).await?;
+
+    Ok(CreatedIndex {
+        index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pb::BloomFilterIndexDetails::default())?,
+        index_version: BLOOMFILTER_INDEX_VERSION,
+        files,
+    })
+}
+
 fn default_number_of_items() -> u64 {
     *DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS
 }
@@ -536,6 +759,17 @@ fn default_probability() -> f64 {
     *DEFAULT_PROBABILITY
 }
 
+/// Schema of the per-zone bloom filter statistics batch.
+static BLOOMFILTER_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("fragment_id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new("zone_start", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new("zone_length", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new("has_null", DataType::Boolean, false),
+        Field::new("bloom_filter_data", DataType::Binary, false),
+    ]))
+});
+
 // NumberOfItems: 8192 + Probability: 0.00057(1 in 1754) -> NumberOfBytes: 16384(16KiB) + 8 SALT values
 // reference: https://hur.st/bloomfilter/?n=8192&p=&m=16KiB&k=8
 static DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS: LazyLock<u64> = LazyLock::new(|| {
@@ -592,6 +826,10 @@ impl BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams {
 pub struct BloomFilterIndexBuilder {
     params: BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams,
     blocks: Vec<BloomFilterStatistics>,
+    // None means "legacy index — null positions unknown"; Some means a complete bitmap.
+    // write_index omits the null-bitmap global buffer when this is None, preserving the
+    // legacy format so that downstream searches remain conservative.
+    null_rows: Option<RowAddrTreeMap>,
 }
 
 impl BloomFilterIndexBuilder {
@@ -599,6 +837,7 @@ impl BloomFilterIndexBuilder {
         Ok(Self {
             params,
             blocks: Vec::new(),
+            null_rows: None,
         })
     }
 
@@ -608,37 +847,26 @@ impl BloomFilterIndexBuilder {
     pub async fn train(&mut self, batches_source: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Result<()> {
         let processor = BloomFilterProcessor::new(self.params.clone())?;
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, self.params.number_of_items)?;
-        self.blocks = trainer.train(batches_source).await?;
+        let (blocks, null_rows) = trainer.train(batches_source).await?;
+        self.blocks = blocks;
+        self.null_rows = Some(null_rows);
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn bloomfilter_stats_as_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let fragment_ids =
-            UInt64Array::from_iter_values(self.blocks.iter().map(|block| block.bound.fragment_id));
-
-        let zone_starts =
-            UInt64Array::from_iter_values(self.blocks.iter().map(|block| block.bound.start));
-
-        let zone_lengths = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
-            self.blocks.iter().map(|block| block.bound.length as u64),
-        );
-
-        let has_nulls = arrow_array::BooleanArray::from(
-            self.blocks
-                .iter()
-                .map(|block| block.has_null)
-                .collect::<Vec<bool>>(),
-        );
-
-        // Convert bloom filters to binary data for serialization
-        let bloom_filter_data = if self.blocks.is_empty() {
+    fn bloomfilter_stats_as_batch(
+        fragment_ids: Vec<u64>,
+        zone_starts: Vec<u64>,
+        zone_lengths: Vec<u64>,
+        has_nulls: Vec<bool>,
+        binary_data: Vec<Vec<u8>>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let fragment_ids = UInt64Array::from(fragment_ids);
+        let zone_starts = UInt64Array::from(zone_starts);
+        let zone_lengths = UInt64Array::from(zone_lengths);
+        let has_nulls = arrow_array::BooleanArray::from(has_nulls);
+        let bloom_filter_data = if binary_data.is_empty() {
             Arc::new(arrow_array::BinaryArray::new_null(0)) as ArrayRef
         } else {
-            let binary_data: Vec<Vec<u8>> = self
-                .blocks
-                .iter()
-                .map(|block| block.bloom_filter.to_bytes())
-                .collect();
             let binary_refs: Vec<Option<&[u8]>> = binary_data
                 .iter()
                 .map(|bytes| Some(bytes.as_slice()))
@@ -646,14 +874,6 @@ impl BloomFilterIndexBuilder {
             Arc::new(arrow_array::BinaryArray::from_opt_vec(binary_refs)) as ArrayRef
         };
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("fragment_id", DataType::UInt64, false),
-            Field::new("zone_start", DataType::UInt64, false),
-            Field::new("zone_length", DataType::UInt64, false),
-            Field::new("has_null", DataType::Boolean, false),
-            Field::new("bloom_filter_data", DataType::Binary, false),
-        ]));
-
         let columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![
             Arc::new(fragment_ids) as ArrayRef,
             Arc::new(zone_starts) as ArrayRef,
@@ -662,37 +882,168 @@ impl BloomFilterIndexBuilder {
             bloom_filter_data,
         ];
 
-        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?)
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(BLOOMFILTER_SCHEMA.clone(), columns)?)
     }
 
-    pub async fn write_index(self, index_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<()> {
-        let record_batch = self.bloomfilter_stats_as_batch()?;
+    /// Serialize the trained bloom filter zone statistics into an index file in
+    /// `index_store`, returning the resulting [`IndexFile`]s.
+    ///
+    /// Zones are flushed as one or more record batches, each bounded by
+    /// `MAX_BLOOMFILTER_ARRAY_LENGTH` serialized bytes so the underlying Arrow
+    /// `BinaryArray` never overflows its `i32` offsets. Any optional null-row bitmap
+    /// is persisted as a global buffer on the same [`IndexFile`] via [`IndexStore`].
+    pub async fn write_index(self, index_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        self.write_index_with_max_array_length(index_store, MAX_BLOOMFILTER_ARRAY_LENGTH)
+            .await
+    }
 
-        let mut file_schema = record_batch.schema().as_ref().clone();
+    async fn write_index_with_max_array_length(
+        self,
+        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        max_array_length: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let mut file_schema = BLOOMFILTER_SCHEMA.as_ref().clone();
         file_schema.metadata.insert(
             BLOOMFILTER_ITEM_META_KEY.to_string(),
             self.params.number_of_items.to_string(),
         );
-
         file_schema.metadata.insert(
             BLOOMFILTER_PROBABILITY_META_KEY.to_string(),
             self.params.probability.to_string(),
         );
 
-        let mut index_file = index_store
+        let index_file = index_store
             .new_index_file(BLOOMFILTER_FILENAME, Arc::new(file_schema))
             .await?;
-        index_file.write_record_batch(record_batch).await?;
-        index_file.finish().await?;
+
+        let mut writer = BloomFilterBatchWriter::new(index_file, max_array_length);
+        for block in self.blocks {
+            writer.emit(block).await?;
+        }
+        let bloomfilter_file = writer.finish(self.null_rows).await?;
+        Ok(vec![bloomfilter_file])
+    }
+}
+
+/// Buffers serialized bloom filter zone statistics and flushes them as record batches
+/// to the index file, respecting the `max_array_length` limit.
+struct BloomFilterBatchWriter {
+    file: Box<dyn super::IndexWriter>,
+    max_array_length: usize,
+    fragment_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    zone_starts: Vec<u64>,
+    zone_lengths: Vec<u64>,
+    has_nulls: Vec<bool>,
+    bloom_filter_data: Vec<Vec<u8>>,
+    current_bytes: usize,
+    has_written: bool,
+}
+
+impl BloomFilterBatchWriter {
+    fn new(file: Box<dyn super::IndexWriter>, max_array_length: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            file,
+            max_array_length,
+            fragment_ids: Vec::new(),
+            zone_starts: Vec::new(),
+            zone_lengths: Vec::new(),
+            has_nulls: Vec::new(),
+            bloom_filter_data: Vec::new(),
+            current_bytes: 0,
+            has_written: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn emit(&mut self, block: BloomFilterStatistics) -> Result<()> {
+        let serialized_filter = block.bloom_filter.to_bytes();
+        let serialized_len = serialized_filter.len();
+
+        if serialized_len > self.max_array_length {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Serialized bloom filter size {} exceeds max supported batch bytes {}",
+                serialized_len, self.max_array_length
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let next_bytes = self
+            .current_bytes
+            .checked_add(serialized_len)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Bloom filter batch size overflow when adding {} bytes to {} bytes",
+                    serialized_len, self.current_bytes
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+        if !self.bloom_filter_data.is_empty() && next_bytes > self.max_array_length {
+            self.flush().await?;
+        }
+
+        self.fragment_ids.push(block.bound.fragment_id);
+        self.zone_starts.push(block.bound.start);
+        self.zone_lengths.push(block.bound.length as u64);
+        self.has_nulls.push(block.has_null);
+        self.bloom_filter_data.push(serialized_filter);
+        self.current_bytes += serialized_len;
         Ok(())
     }
+
+    async fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.bloom_filter_data.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let batch = BloomFilterIndexBuilder::bloomfilter_stats_as_batch(
+            std::mem::take(&mut self.fragment_ids),
+            std::mem::take(&mut self.zone_starts),
+            std::mem::take(&mut self.zone_lengths),
+            std::mem::take(&mut self.has_nulls),
+            std::mem::take(&mut self.bloom_filter_data),
+        )?;
+        self.file.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+        self.current_bytes = 0;
+        self.has_written = true;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn finish(mut self, null_rows: Option<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        self.flush().await?;
+        if !self.has_written {
+            self.file
+                .write_record_batch(BloomFilterIndexBuilder::bloomfilter_stats_as_batch(
+                    Vec::new(),
+                    Vec::new(),
+                    Vec::new(),
+                    Vec::new(),
+                    Vec::new(),
+                )?)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        if let Some(null_rows) = null_rows {
+            let mut null_bitmap_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(null_rows.serialized_size());
+            null_rows.serialize_into(&mut null_bitmap_bytes)?;
+            let null_bitmap_idx = self
+                .file
+                .add_global_buffer(bytes::Bytes::from(null_bitmap_bytes))
+                .await?;
+            self.file
+                .finish_with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                    NULL_BITMAP_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                    null_bitmap_idx.to_string(),
+                )]))
+                .await
+        } else {
+            self.file.finish_with_metadata(HashMap::new()).await
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 /// Index-specific processor that inserts values into the split block Bloom filter.
 struct BloomFilterProcessor {
     params: BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams,
     sbbf: Option<Sbbf>,
-    cur_zone_has_null: bool,
+    statistics: Option<StatisticsAccumulator>,
 }
 
 impl BloomFilterProcessor {
@@ -700,7 +1051,7 @@ impl BloomFilterProcessor {
         let mut processor = Self {
             params,
             sbbf: None,
-            cur_zone_has_null: false,
+            statistics: None,
         };
         processor.reset()?;
         Ok(processor)
@@ -711,9 +1062,8 @@ impl BloomFilterProcessor {
             .expected_items(params.number_of_items)
             .false_positive_probability(params.probability)
             .build()
-            .map_err(|e| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Failed to build SBBF: {:?}", e).into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(format!("Failed to build SBBF: {:?}", e).into())
             })
     }
 
@@ -787,12 +1137,14 @@ impl ZoneProcessor for BloomFilterProcessor {
 
     fn process_chunk(&mut self, array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
         let sbbf = self.sbbf.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                "BloomFilterProcessor did not initialize bloom filter",
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterProcessor did not initialize bloom filter")
         })?;
 
+        let statistics = self
+            .statistics
+            .get_or_insert_with(|| StatisticsAccumulator::new(array.data_type()));
+        statistics.update(array)?;
+
         let has_null = match array.data_type() {
             // Signed integers
             DataType::Int8 => {
@@ -891,10 +1243,9 @@ impl ZoneProcessor for BloomFilterProcessor {
                     Self::process_primitive_array(sbbf, typed_array)
                 }
                 _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("Unsupported Time32 unit: {:?}", time_unit).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Unsupported Time32 unit: {:?}", time_unit).into(),
+                    ));
                 }
             },
             // Date and time types (stored as i64 internally)
@@ -921,10 +1272,9 @@ impl ZoneProcessor for BloomFilterProcessor {
                     Self::process_primitive_array(sbbf, typed_array)
                 }
                 _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("Unsupported Time64 unit: {:?}", time_unit).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Unsupported Time64 unit: {:?}", time_unit).into(),
+                    ));
                 }
             },
             DataType::Timestamp(time_unit, _) => match time_unit {
@@ -986,39 +1336,40 @@ impl ZoneProcessor for BloomFilterProcessor {
                 Self::process_large_binary_array(sbbf, typed_array)
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: format!(
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
                         "Bloom filter does not support data type: {:?}",
                         array.data_type()
                     )
                     .into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                ));
             }
         };
 
         // Update the current zone's null tracking
-        self.cur_zone_has_null = self.cur_zone_has_null || has_null;
+        debug_assert_eq!(has_null, array.null_count() > 0);
         Ok(())
     }
 
     fn finish_zone(&mut self, bound: ZoneBound) -> Result<Self::ZoneStatistics> {
         let bloom_filter = self.sbbf.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                "BloomFilterProcessor did not initialize bloom filter",
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input("BloomFilterProcessor did not initialize bloom filter")
         })?;
+        let has_null = self
+            .statistics
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|statistics| statistics.statistics().null_count > 0)
+            .unwrap_or(false);
         Ok(BloomFilterStatistics {
             bound,
-            has_null: self.cur_zone_has_null,
+            has_null,
             bloom_filter: bloom_filter.clone(),
         })
     }
 
     fn reset(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
         self.sbbf = Some(Self::build_filter(&self.params)?);
-        self.cur_zone_has_null = false;
+        self.statistics = None;
         Ok(())
     }
 }
@@ -1031,32 +1382,26 @@ impl BloomFilterIndexPlugin {
         batches_source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         options: Option<BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams>,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
         let mut builder = BloomFilterIndexBuilder::try_new(options.unwrap_or_default())?;
 
         builder.train(batches_source).await?;
 
-        builder.write_index(index_store).await?;
-        Ok(())
+        builder.write_index(index_store).await
     }
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BloomFilterIndexPlugin {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "BloomFilter"
-    }
-
+impl BasicTrainer for BloomFilterIndexPlugin {
     fn new_training_request(
         &self,
         params: &str,
         field: &Field,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
         if field.data_type().is_nested() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "A bloom filter index can only be created on a non-nested field.".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "A bloom filter index can only be created on a non-nested field.".into(),
+            ));
         }
 
         // Check if the data type is supported by bloom filter
@@ -1089,13 +1434,10 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BloomFilterIndexPlugin {
                 // Type is supported, continue
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: format!(
-                        "Bloom filter index does not support data type: {:?}. Supported types: Int8, Int16, Int32, Int64, UInt8, UInt16, UInt32, UInt64, Float32, Float64, Utf8, LargeUtf8, Binary, LargeBinary, Date32, Date64, Time32, Time64, Timestamp",
-                        field.data_type()
-                    ).into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!(
+                    "Bloom filter index does not support data type: {:?}. Supported types: Int8, Int16, Int32, Int64, UInt8, UInt16, UInt32, UInt64, Float32, Float64, Utf8, LargeUtf8, Binary, LargeBinary, Date32, Date64, Time32, Time64, Timestamp",
+                    field.data_type()
+                ).into()));
             }
         }
 
@@ -1109,28 +1451,31 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BloomFilterIndexPlugin {
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
-        fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        if fragment_ids.is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "BloomFilter index does not support fragment training".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
         let request = (request as Box<dyn std::any::Any>)
             .downcast::<BloomFilterIndexTrainingRequest>()
-            .map_err(|_| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "must provide training request created by new_training_request".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "must provide training request created by new_training_request".into(),
+                )
             })?;
-        Self::train_bloomfilter_index(data, index_store, Some(request.params)).await?;
+        let files = Self::train_bloomfilter_index(data, index_store, Some(request.params)).await?;
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pb::BloomFilterIndexDetails::default())
                 .unwrap(),
             index_version: BLOOMFILTER_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
         })
     }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BloomFilterIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
 
     fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
         false
@@ -1140,19 +1485,28 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BloomFilterIndexPlugin {
         BLOOMFILTER_INDEX_VERSION
     }
 
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "BloomFilter"
+    }
+
     fn new_query_parser(
         &self,
         index_name: String,
         _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
     ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
-        Some(Box::new(BloomFilterQueryParser::new(index_name, true)))
+        Some(Box::new(BloomFilterQueryParser::new(
+            index_name,
+            self.name().to_string(),
+            true,
+        )))
     }
 
     async fn load_index(
         &self,
         index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
         Ok(
@@ -1161,6 +1515,24 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BloomFilterIndexPlugin {
         )
     }
 
+    fn supports_batch_row_id_remapping(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn load_index_with_remapping(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        Ok(
+            BloomFilterIndex::load_with_remapping(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await?
+                as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+        )
+    }
+
     async fn load_statistics(
         &self,
         _index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
@@ -1197,31 +1569,34 @@ impl TrainingRequest for BloomFilterIndexTrainingRequest {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseIndexHandle};
     use crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     use crate::scalar::bloomfilter::BloomFilterIndexPlugin;
-    use arrow_array::{record_batch, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+    use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array, record_batch};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
     use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
     use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
     use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
-    use futures::{stream, StreamExt};
-    use lance_core::{
-        cache::LanceCache,
-        utils::{mask::RowAddrTreeMap, tempfile::TempObjDir},
-        ROW_ADDR,
-    };
+    use futures::{StreamExt, stream};
+    use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ADDR, cache::LanceCache, utils::tempfile::TempObjDir};
     use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
 
     use crate::scalar::{
-        bloomfilter::{BloomFilterIndex, BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams},
+        BloomFilterQuery, IndexStore, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
+        bloomfilter::{
+            BloomFilterIndex, BloomFilterIndexBuilder, BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams,
+            merge_bloomfilter_indices,
+        },
         lance_format::LanceIndexStore,
-        BloomFilterQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
     };
+    use lance_core::utils::bloomfilter::sbbf::Sbbf;
 
-    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
     use crate::Index; // Import Index trait to access calculate_included_frags
+    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
     use roaring::RoaringBitmap; // Import RoaringBitmap for the test
 
     // Adds a _rowaddr column emulating each batch as a new fragment
@@ -2083,10 +2458,10 @@ mod tests {
         expected.insert_range(500..750); // Should match the zone containing 500
         assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(expected));
 
-        // Test IsNull query
+        // Test IsNull query (no nulls in data, should return exact empty set)
         let query = BloomFilterQuery::IsNull();
         let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::new())); // No nulls in the data
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
 
         // Test IsIn query
         let query = BloomFilterQuery::IsIn(vec![
@@ -2179,4 +2554,523 @@ mod tests {
             _ => panic!("Expected AtMost search result from bloomfilter"),
         }
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bloomfilter_read_batch_size_is_byte_bounded() {
+        let number_of_items = 1;
+        let probability = 0.25;
+        let max_test_batch_bytes = 48;
+        let filter_bytes = Sbbf::with_ndv_fpp(number_of_items, probability)
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_bytes();
+
+        assert!(filter_bytes.len() <= max_test_batch_bytes);
+        assert!(filter_bytes.len() * 2 > max_test_batch_bytes);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            BloomFilterIndex::read_batch_size(number_of_items, probability, max_test_batch_bytes,)
+                .unwrap(),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bloomfilter_read_batch_size_rejects_oversized_filter() {
+        let number_of_items = 1;
+        let probability = 0.25;
+        let filter_bytes = Sbbf::with_ndv_fpp(number_of_items, probability)
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_bytes();
+
+        let error =
+            BloomFilterIndex::read_batch_size(number_of_items, probability, filter_bytes.len() - 1)
+                .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error variant: {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("exceeds max supported batch bytes"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bloomfilter_chunked_write_and_load() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let row_count = 5_000;
+        // Sprinkle nulls at known positions (none of which are asserted individually
+        // below) so the chunked write must carry a non-empty null-row bitmap through
+        // multiple flushes and reload it correctly via add_global_buffer.
+        let expected_null_count = (0..row_count).filter(|&i| i % 100 == 50).count();
+        let values = (0..row_count)
+            .map(|i| (i % 100 != 50).then_some(i))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let data = record_batch!((VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, Int32, values)).unwrap();
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let data_stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(data))),
+        ));
+        let data_stream = add_row_addr(data_stream);
+
+        let mut builder =
+            BloomFilterIndexBuilder::try_new(BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams::new(1, 0.25)).unwrap();
+        builder.train(data_stream).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(builder.blocks.len(), row_count as usize);
+
+        // Small byte limit forces the writer to emit many on-disk batches and the
+        // reader to chunk its reads. The total payload is far larger than the limit,
+        // so a load that concatenated everything into one BinaryArray would trip the
+        // read-side cap; a correctly chunked load must still succeed.
+        let max_array_length = 64;
+        let filter_bytes = Sbbf::with_ndv_fpp(1, 0.25).unwrap().size_bytes();
+        assert!(filter_bytes * row_count as usize > max_array_length);
+
+        builder
+            .write_index_with_max_array_length(test_store.as_ref(), max_array_length)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index = BloomFilterIndex::load_with_max_array_length(
+            test_store.clone(),
+            None,
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            max_array_length,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("Failed to load chunked BloomFilterIndex");
+
+        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), row_count as usize);
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[0].bound.start, 0);
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[4096].bound.start, 4096);
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[4999].bound.start, 4999);
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[4999].bound.length, 1);
+        assert!(!index.zones[4096].bloom_filter.to_bytes().is_empty());
+
+        // The null-row bitmap is stored as a global buffer, independent of the chunked
+        // zone batches. Verify it survives the multi-flush write and reloads intact.
+        let null_rows = index
+            .null_rows
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("chunked write must preserve the null-row bitmap");
+        let loaded_null_count = null_rows
+            .row_addrs()
+            .map(|addrs| addrs.count())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        assert_eq!(loaded_null_count, expected_null_count);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bloomfilter_load_rejects_unchunked_oversized_read() {
+        // Guards the read-side invariant directly: a batch whose concatenated filter
+        // payload exceeds the cap must be rejected rather than building an oversized
+        // BinaryArray. This is what protects `load` if its chunking ever regresses.
+        let filter_bytes = Sbbf::with_ndv_fpp(1, 0.25).unwrap().to_bytes();
+        let batch = BloomFilterIndexBuilder::bloomfilter_stats_as_batch(
+            vec![0, 0],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![1, 1],
+            vec![false, false],
+            vec![filter_bytes.clone(), filter_bytes.clone()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // One filter fits, two together do not.
+        let max_array_length = filter_bytes.len();
+        let error = BloomFilterIndex::try_from_serialized(batch, max_array_length).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error variant: {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("exceeds max supported batch bytes"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bloomfilter_chunked_write_rejects_oversized_filter() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let data = record_batch!((VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, Int32, [0])).unwrap();
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let data_stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(data))),
+        ));
+        let data_stream = add_row_addr(data_stream);
+
+        let mut builder =
+            BloomFilterIndexBuilder::try_new(BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams::new(1, 0.25)).unwrap();
+        builder.train(data_stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        let error = builder
+            .write_index_with_max_array_length(test_store.as_ref(), 16)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error variant: {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("exceeds max supported batch bytes 16"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Writes a bloomfilter file in the legacy format (no null bitmap global buffer),
+    // simulating an index created before the null bitmap feature was added.
+    async fn write_legacy_bloomfilter(store: &dyn IndexStore, has_null: bool) {
+        use crate::scalar::bloomfilter::{
+            BLOOMFILTER_FILENAME, BLOOMFILTER_ITEM_META_KEY, BLOOMFILTER_PROBABILITY_META_KEY,
+        };
+        use arrow_array::BooleanArray;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("fragment_id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_start", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_length", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("has_null", DataType::Boolean, false),
+            Field::new("bloom_filter_data", DataType::Binary, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![3u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![has_null])) as _,
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::BinaryArray::from_vec(vec![b"".as_ref()])) as _,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut file_schema = schema.as_ref().clone();
+        file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .insert(BLOOMFILTER_ITEM_META_KEY.to_string(), "1000".to_string());
+        file_schema.metadata.insert(
+            BLOOMFILTER_PROBABILITY_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "0.01".to_string(),
+        );
+        let mut writer = store
+            .new_index_file(BLOOMFILTER_FILENAME, Arc::new(file_schema))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // Updating a legacy (null_rows = None) index must not silently treat None as
+    // "no nulls".  The bug: `self.null_rows.clone().unwrap_or_default()` collapses
+    // None into an empty RowAddrTreeMap; after the merge the updated index has
+    // `null_rows = Some(empty)`, so an IsNull search returns `exact(empty)` — a
+    // false negative even though the legacy zone recorded has_null = true.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_legacy_none_null_rows_not_treated_as_no_nulls() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Write a legacy-format index (no null bitmap) with has_null=true in its zone.
+        write_legacy_bloomfilter(store.as_ref(), true).await;
+
+        let index = BloomFilterIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            index.null_rows.is_none(),
+            "precondition: legacy null_rows is None"
+        );
+
+        // Update with new data from fragment 1 (no nulls).  The destination is the
+        // same store so we can reload from it afterwards.
+        let new_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            new_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![
+                    Some(10i32),
+                    Some(20),
+                    Some(30),
+                ])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0u64..3).map(|i| (1u64 << 32) | i),
+                )) as _,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let new_stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            new_schema,
+            stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(new_batch))),
+        ));
+
+        index
+            .update(new_stream, store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let updated_index = BloomFilterIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The legacy zone had has_null=true, so there ARE nulls at unknown positions.
+        // An IsNull search on the updated index must NOT claim "no nulls" (exact empty).
+        // It must be conservative and return AtMost, falling back to the has_null scan.
+        let result = updated_index
+            .search(&BloomFilterQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // With the bug: null_rows = Some(empty) → returns exact(empty) ← FALSE NEGATIVE
+        // With the fix: null_rows = None        → falls through to has_null scan → AtMost
+        assert!(
+            !result.is_exact(),
+            "IsNull on an updated legacy index must not return exact(empty); \
+             the legacy zone had has_null=true so nulls exist at unknown positions"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_legacy_bloomfilter_no_null_bitmap() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        write_legacy_bloomfilter(store.as_ref(), true).await;
+
+        let index = BloomFilterIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .expect("failed to load legacy bloomfilter");
+
+        assert!(
+            index.null_rows.is_none(),
+            "legacy index should have no null bitmap"
+        );
+
+        // IS NULL should fall back to the has_null zone scan and return AtMost, not Exact.
+        let result = index
+            .search(&BloomFilterQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !result.is_exact(),
+            "IS NULL on a legacy index should not be exact"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_bloomfilter_indices_preserves_exact_and_legacy_nulls() {
+        fn create_store() -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceIndexStore>) {
+            let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+            let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+                Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+                tmpdir.clone(),
+                Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+            ));
+            (tmpdir, store)
+        }
+
+        let (_first_tmpdir, first_store) = create_store();
+        let (_second_tmpdir, second_store) = create_store();
+        let (_merged_tmpdir, merged_store) = create_store();
+        let params = BloomFilterIndexBuilderParams::new(1000, 0.01);
+        for (fragment_id, store) in [(0_u64, &first_store), (1_u64, &second_store)] {
+            let row_base = fragment_id << 32;
+            let batch = record_batch!(
+                (VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, Int64, [Some(10), None, Some(30)]),
+                (ROW_ADDR, UInt64, [row_base, row_base + 1, row_base + 2])
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let schema = batch.schema();
+            let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema,
+                stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) }),
+            ));
+            BloomFilterIndexPlugin::train_bloomfilter_index(
+                stream,
+                store.as_ref(),
+                Some(params.clone()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let first = BloomFilterIndex::load(first_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let second = BloomFilterIndex::load(second_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        merge_bloomfilter_indices(
+            &[
+                (first.as_ref(), &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0])),
+                (second.as_ref(), &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+            ],
+            merged_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let merged = BloomFilterIndex::load(merged_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut expected_nulls = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected_nulls.insert(1);
+        expected_nulls.insert((1_u64 << 32) + 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged
+                .search(&BloomFilterQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            SearchResult::exact(expected_nulls)
+        );
+
+        let remapped_base = 2_u64 << 32;
+        let remapper = FragReuseIndexHandle(Arc::new(FragReuseIndex::new(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            vec![HashMap::from([
+                (0, Some(remapped_base)),
+                (1, Some(remapped_base + 1)),
+                (2, Some(remapped_base + 2)),
+            ])],
+            FragReuseIndexDetails { versions: vec![] },
+        )));
+        let remapped_first = BloomFilterIndex::load(
+            first_store,
+            Some(Arc::new(remapper)),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let (_remapped_tmpdir, remapped_store) = create_store();
+        merge_bloomfilter_indices(
+            &[(remapped_first.as_ref(), &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2]))],
+            remapped_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let remapped = BloomFilterIndex::load(remapped_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut expected_remapped_nulls = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected_remapped_nulls.insert(remapped_base + 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            remapped
+                .search(&BloomFilterQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            SearchResult::exact(expected_remapped_nulls)
+        );
+        let candidates = remapped
+            .search(
+                &BloomFilterQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            candidates
+                .row_addrs()
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(u64::from)
+                .any(|row_id| row_id == remapped_base)
+        );
+
+        let (_legacy_tmpdir, legacy_store) = create_store();
+        let (_legacy_merged_tmpdir, legacy_merged_store) = create_store();
+        write_legacy_bloomfilter(legacy_store.as_ref(), true).await;
+        let legacy = BloomFilterIndex::load(legacy_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        merge_bloomfilter_indices(
+            &[
+                (legacy.as_ref(), &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0])),
+                (second.as_ref(), &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+            ],
+            legacy_merged_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let legacy_merged =
+            BloomFilterIndex::load(legacy_merged_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !legacy_merged
+                .search(&BloomFilterQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_exact()
+        );
+
+        let (_trimmed_tmpdir, trimmed_store) = create_store();
+        let mut ignored_legacy = legacy.as_ref().clone();
+        ignored_legacy.probability = 0.5;
+        merge_bloomfilter_indices(
+            &[
+                (&ignored_legacy, &RoaringBitmap::new()),
+                (second.as_ref(), &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+            ],
+            trimmed_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let trimmed = BloomFilterIndex::load(trimmed_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut expected_nulls = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected_nulls.insert((1_u64 << 32) + 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            trimmed
+                .search(&BloomFilterQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            SearchResult::exact(expected_nulls)
+        );
+
+        let (_empty_tmpdir, empty_store) = create_store();
+        merge_bloomfilter_indices(
+            &[(&ignored_legacy, &RoaringBitmap::new())],
+            empty_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let empty = BloomFilterIndex::load(empty_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            empty
+                .search(&BloomFilterQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::new())
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/btree.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/btree.rs
index 469092f962a..c993fa9cc1d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/btree.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/btree.rs
@@ -1,72 +1,95 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_record_batch_async};
 use std::{
     any::Any,
     cmp::Ordering,
-    collections::{BTreeMap, BinaryHeap, HashMap},
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
     fmt::{Debug, Display},
     ops::Bound,
+    pin::Pin,
     sync::Arc,
 };
 
 use super::{
-    AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, IndexReader, IndexStore, IndexWriter, MetricsCollector,
-    SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult,
+    AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, IndexFile, IndexReader, IndexStore, IndexWriter, MetricsCollector,
+    OldIndexDataFilter, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, SearchOptions, SearchResult,
+    compute_next_prefix,
+};
+use crate::cache_pb::{BTreeIndexHeader, RangeToFile};
+use crate::scalar::registry::TrainingCriteria;
+use crate::{Index, IndexType};
+use crate::{
+    pbold,
+    scalar::btree::flat::{FlatIndex, PageMatches},
 };
 use crate::{
-    frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex,
+    progress::{IndexBuildProgress, noop_progress},
     scalar::{
+        CreatedIndex, RowIdRemapper, UpdateCriteria,
         expression::{SargableQueryParser, ScalarQueryParser},
-        registry::{ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME},
-        CreatedIndex, UpdateCriteria,
+        registry::{
+            BasicTrainer, ScalarIndexLoad, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
+            VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, single_flight_open,
+        },
     },
 };
-use crate::{metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector, scalar::registry::TrainingCriteria};
-use crate::{pbold, scalar::btree::flat::FlatIndex};
-use crate::{Index, IndexType};
 use arrow_arith::numeric::add;
-use arrow_array::{new_empty_array, Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SortOptions};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayAccessor, ArrowNativeTypeOp, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array,
+    cast::AsArray,
+    new_empty_array,
+    types::{
+        ArrowPrimitiveType, Decimal128Type, Decimal256Type, Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type,
+        Int8Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, UInt8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type,
+    },
+};
+use arrow_ord::ord::make_comparator;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, IntervalUnit, Schema, SortOptions};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream,
     sorts::sort_preserving_merge::SortPreservingMergeExec, stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
-    union::UnionExec, ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    union::UnionExec,
 };
-use datafusion_common::{DataFusionError, ScalarValue};
-use datafusion_physical_expr::{expressions::Column, PhysicalSortExpr};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::{
-    future::BoxFuture,
-    stream::{self},
-    FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt,
+use datafusion_common::{DFSchema, DataFusionError, ScalarValue};
+use datafusion_expr::execution_props::ExecutionProps;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{
+    PhysicalExpr, PhysicalSortExpr, create_physical_expr, expressions::Column,
 };
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{
-    cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache},
+    Error, ROW_ID, Result,
+    cache::{
+        CacheCodec, CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter, CacheKey, CacheKeySchema,
+        KeyBuilder, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache,
+    },
     error::LanceOptionExt,
     utils::{
-        mask::NullableRowAddrSet,
-        tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus,
+        tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu},
         tracing::{IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, TRACE_IO_EVENTS},
     },
-    Error, Result, ROW_ID,
 };
 use lance_datafusion::{
     chunker::chunk_concat_stream,
-    exec::{execute_plan, LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec},
+    exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, execute_plan},
 };
-use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream;
+use lance_select::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 use log::{debug, warn};
-use object_store::path::Path;
+use object_store::Error as ObjectStoreError;
 use rangemap::RangeInclusiveMap;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize, Serializer};
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::{info, instrument};
 
 mod flat;
 
-const BTREE_LOOKUP_NAME: &str = "page_lookup.lance";
+pub const BTREE_LOOKUP_NAME: &str = "page_lookup.lance";
 const BTREE_PAGES_NAME: &str = "page_data.lance";
 pub const DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE: u64 = 4096;
 const BATCH_SIZE_META_KEY: &str = "batch_size";
@@ -82,7 +105,7 @@ pub(crate) const BTREE_IDS_COLUMN: &str = "ids";
 pub struct OrderableScalarValue(pub ScalarValue);
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for OrderableScalarValue {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         // deepsize and size both factor in the size of the ScalarValue
         self.0.size() - std::mem::size_of::<ScalarValue>()
     }
@@ -271,7 +294,7 @@ impl Ord for OrderableScalarValue {
                     Ordering::Greater
                 }
             }
-            (Int64(_), _) => panic!("Attempt to compare Int16 with non-Int64"),
+            (Int64(_), _) => panic!("Attempt to compare Int64 with non-Int64"),
             (UInt8(v1), UInt8(v2)) => v1.cmp(v2),
             (UInt8(v1), Null) => {
                 if v1.is_none() {
@@ -307,7 +330,7 @@ impl Ord for OrderableScalarValue {
                     Ordering::Greater
                 }
             }
-            (UInt64(_), _) => panic!("Attempt to compare Int16 with non-UInt64"),
+            (UInt64(_), _) => panic!("Attempt to compare UInt64 with non-UInt64"),
             (Utf8(v1) | Utf8View(v1) | LargeUtf8(v1), Utf8(v2) | Utf8View(v2) | LargeUtf8(v2)) => {
                 v1.cmp(v2)
             }
@@ -377,6 +400,8 @@ impl Ord for OrderableScalarValue {
                 panic!("Attempt to compare List with non-List")
             }
             (LargeList(_), _) => todo!(),
+            (ListView(_), _) => todo!(),
+            (LargeListView(_), _) => todo!(),
             (Map(_), Map(_)) => todo!(),
             (Map(left), Null) => {
                 if left.is_null(0) {
@@ -578,55 +603,128 @@ impl Ord for OrderableScalarValue {
                 }
             }
             (Struct(_arr), _) => panic!("Attempt to compare Struct with non-Struct"),
-            (Dictionary(_k1, _v1), Dictionary(_k2, _v2)) => todo!(),
+            (Dictionary(_k1, v1), Dictionary(_k2, v2)) => Self(*v1.clone()).cmp(&Self(*v2.clone())),
             (Dictionary(_, v1), Null) => Self(*v1.clone()).cmp(&Self(ScalarValue::Null)),
             (Dictionary(_, _), _) => panic!("Attempt to compare Dictionary with non-Dictionary"),
             // What would a btree of unions even look like?  May not be possible.
             (Union(_, _, _), _) => todo!("Support for union scalars"),
+            (RunEndEncoded(_, _, _), _) => {
+                todo!("Support for run-end encoded scalars")
+            }
             (Null, Null) => Ordering::Equal,
             (Null, _) => todo!(),
         }
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq, Eq)]
-struct PageRecord {
-    max: OrderableScalarValue,
-    page_number: u32,
+/// Returns the first index `i` in `[lo, hi)` for which `pred(i)` is `false`.
+///
+/// `pred` must be `true` for a (possibly empty) prefix of the range and `false`
+/// for the rest, i.e. the range is partitioned by `pred`.
+fn partition_point(lo: usize, hi: usize, mut pred: impl FnMut(usize) -> bool) -> usize {
+    let mut lo = lo;
+    let mut hi = hi;
+    while lo < hi {
+        let mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
+        if pred(mid) {
+            lo = mid + 1;
+        } else {
+            hi = mid;
+        }
+    }
+    lo
+}
+
+/// Builds a comparator over two array accessors of the same `Ord` item type,
+/// matching arrow's NULLs-first ascending order (`null < non-null`, `null == null`).
+///
+/// Unlike [`make_comparator`], the returned closure is generic (not boxed), so the
+/// element comparison inlines into the scan instead of dispatching through a vtable
+/// on every call.
+fn accessor_cmp<'a, T, L, R>(left: L, right: R) -> impl Fn(usize, usize) -> Ordering + 'a
+where
+    T: Ord,
+    L: ArrayAccessor<Item = T> + 'a,
+    R: ArrayAccessor<Item = T> + 'a,
+{
+    move |i, j| match (left.is_null(i), right.is_null(j)) {
+        (true, true) => Ordering::Equal,
+        (true, false) => Ordering::Less,
+        (false, true) => Ordering::Greater,
+        (false, false) => left.value(i).cmp(&right.value(j)),
+    }
 }
 
-trait BTreeMapExt<K, V> {
-    fn largest_node_less(&self, key: &K) -> Option<(&K, &V)>;
+/// Views `arr` as `PrimitiveArray<K>` for comparison. Zero-copy (shared buffers)
+/// when `arr` already has type `K`; otherwise — a logical type whose physical
+/// storage is `K::Native`, e.g. `Date32`/`Time32` over `i32` or `Timestamp`/
+/// `Duration` over `i64` — the array data is relabeled to `K` without copying the
+/// values, so all such logical types share one comparison path.
+fn reinterpret_primitive<K: ArrowPrimitiveType>(arr: &dyn Array) -> Result<PrimitiveArray<K>> {
+    if let Some(arr) = arr.as_primitive_opt::<K>() {
+        return Ok(arr.clone());
+    }
+    let data = arr
+        .to_data()
+        .into_builder()
+        .data_type(K::DATA_TYPE)
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "failed to reinterpret {} as {}: {e}",
+                arr.data_type(),
+                K::DATA_TYPE
+            ))
+        })?;
+    Ok(PrimitiveArray::<K>::from(data))
 }
 
-impl<K: Ord, V> BTreeMapExt<K, V> for BTreeMap<K, V> {
-    fn largest_node_less(&self, key: &K) -> Option<(&K, &V)> {
-        self.range((Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Excluded(key)))
-            .next_back()
+/// Like [`accessor_cmp`] but for primitive columns, comparing native values with
+/// [`ArrowNativeTypeOp::compare`] (total order, so floats match arrow's NaN-last
+/// `make_comparator` ordering).
+fn primitive_cmp<'a, T>(
+    left: &'a PrimitiveArray<T>,
+    right: &'a PrimitiveArray<T>,
+) -> impl Fn(usize, usize) -> Ordering + 'a
+where
+    T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
+{
+    move |i, j| match (left.is_null(i), right.is_null(j)) {
+        (true, true) => Ordering::Equal,
+        (true, false) => Ordering::Less,
+        (false, true) => Ordering::Greater,
+        (false, false) => left.value(i).compare(right.value(j)),
     }
 }
 
-/// An in-memory structure that can quickly satisfy scalar queries using a btree of ScalarValue
-#[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq, Eq)]
+/// Satisfies scalar queries by searching the `page_lookup.lance` batch directly.
+///
+/// The batch holds one row per page with columns `min | max | null_count | page_idx`,
+/// sorted ascending by `min` with NULLs first (the order the index is trained in).
+/// Both query paths binary-search the sorted `min` column for a starting row and
+/// scan forward filtering by `max`:
+///
+/// - Equality / `IN` (`candidate_pages_for_values`) dispatch on the query's
+///   *physical storage type* to a monomorphized, inlined comparator: numerics go
+///   through `scan_native` (logical types sharing a native — e.g. `Date32` and
+///   `Int32` — fold to one path), byte-likes through `scan_accessor`. Only types
+///   without a native fast path (struct-backed intervals, booleans) fall back to the
+///   boxed [`make_comparator`] via `scan_fallback`.
+/// - Range searches (`pages_between`) currently use [`make_comparator`] directly.
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct BTreeLookup {
-    tree: BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, Vec<PageRecord>>,
-    /// Pages where the value may be null (does not include all_null_pages)
+    /// One row per page (`min | max | null_count | page_idx`), sorted by `min`.
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    /// Pages with at least one null value (does not include `all_null_pages`).
     null_pages: Vec<u32>,
-    /// Pages that are entirely null
+    /// Pages that are entirely null.
     all_null_pages: Vec<u32>,
+    /// Index of the first row whose `max` is non-null. Entirely-null pages sort to
+    /// the front (NULLs first) and are skipped when searching value ranges.
+    search_start: usize,
 }
 
-impl BTreeLookup {
-    fn empty() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            tree: BTreeMap::new(),
-            null_pages: Vec::new(),
-            all_null_pages: Vec::new(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
 enum Matches {
     Some(u32),
     All(u32),
@@ -642,189 +740,482 @@ impl Matches {
 }
 
 impl BTreeLookup {
-    fn new(
-        tree: BTreeMap<OrderableScalarValue, Vec<PageRecord>>,
-        null_pages: Vec<u32>,
-        all_null_pages: Vec<u32>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            tree,
+    /// Build a lookup over the `page_lookup.lance` batch. The batch is retained as
+    /// the source of truth; only the small null-page index lists are precomputed.
+    fn try_new(batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut null_pages = Vec::new();
+        let mut all_null_pages = Vec::new();
+        let mut search_start = batch.num_rows();
+
+        if batch.num_rows() > 0 {
+            let maxs = batch.column(1);
+            let null_counts = batch
+                .column(2)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("BTree lookup null_count column must be UInt32"))?;
+            let page_numbers = batch
+                .column(3)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("BTree lookup page_idx column must be UInt32"))?;
+
+            for idx in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let page_number = page_numbers.values()[idx];
+                // An entirely-null page has a null `max`; it is never searched by value.
+                if maxs.is_null(idx) {
+                    all_null_pages.push(page_number);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if search_start == batch.num_rows() {
+                    search_start = idx;
+                }
+                if null_counts.values()[idx] > 0 {
+                    null_pages.push(page_number);
+                }
+            }
+        } else {
+            search_start = 0;
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            batch,
             null_pages,
             all_null_pages,
-        }
+            search_start,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn page_numbers(&self) -> Result<&UInt32Array> {
+        self.batch
+            .column(3)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("BTree lookup page_idx column must be UInt32"))
     }
 
     // All pages that could have a value equal to val
-    fn pages_eq(&self, query: &OrderableScalarValue) -> Vec<Matches> {
+    fn pages_eq(&self, query: &OrderableScalarValue) -> Result<Vec<Matches>> {
         if query.0.is_null() {
-            self.pages_null()
+            Ok(self.pages_null())
         } else {
-            self.pages_between((Bound::Included(query), Bound::Excluded(query)))
+            let query_arr = query.0.to_array_of_size(1)?;
+            let pages = self.candidate_pages_for_values(query_arr.as_ref())?;
+            Ok(pages.into_iter().map(Matches::Some).collect())
         }
     }
 
     // All pages that could have a value equal to one of the values
-    fn pages_in(&self, values: impl IntoIterator<Item = OrderableScalarValue>) -> Vec<Matches> {
-        // TODO: Right now we convert all Matches::All into Matches::Some.  We could refine this.
-        // It would improve performance on low cardinality data.
-        let page_lists = values
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|val| {
-                self.pages_eq(&val)
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|matches| matches.page_id())
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let total_size = page_lists.iter().map(|set| set.len()).sum();
-        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(total_size);
-        for page_list in page_lists {
-            heap.extend(page_list);
+    fn pages_in(
+        &self,
+        values: impl IntoIterator<Item = OrderableScalarValue>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Matches>> {
+        // Equality lookups never produce a full-page (`Matches::All`) match because a
+        // single value cannot cover an entire page's range, so every candidate is
+        // `Matches::Some`. Refining this for low-cardinality data is the TODO in
+        // `pages_between`.
+        let values = values.into_iter();
+        let mut has_null = false;
+        let mut non_null = Vec::with_capacity(values.size_hint().0);
+        for val in values {
+            if val.0.is_null() {
+                has_null = true;
+            } else {
+                non_null.push(val.0);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Build a single array holding every queried value so the comparators are
+        // constructed once and reused across all of them, rather than per value.
+        let mut all_pages = if non_null.is_empty() {
+            Vec::new()
+        } else {
+            let query_arr = ScalarValue::iter_to_array(non_null)?;
+            self.candidate_pages_for_values(query_arr.as_ref())?
+        };
+        if has_null {
+            all_pages.extend(self.pages_null().into_iter().map(|m| m.page_id()));
         }
-        let mut all_pages = heap.into_sorted_vec();
+        all_pages.sort_unstable();
         all_pages.dedup();
-        all_pages.into_iter().map(Matches::Some).collect()
+        Ok(all_pages.into_iter().map(Matches::Some).collect())
+    }
+
+    /// Candidate page numbers (deduped, ascending) for an equality search against
+    /// every value in `query`. A page is a candidate when its `[min, max]` range
+    /// could contain the value, i.e. `min <= value <= max`.
+    ///
+    /// The comparators are built once over the whole `query` array and reused for
+    /// each value, so an N-value `IN` costs three comparator constructions instead
+    /// of three per value.
+    fn candidate_pages_for_values(&self, query: &dyn Array) -> Result<Vec<u32>> {
+        let num_rows = self.batch.num_rows();
+        if self.search_start >= num_rows || query.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
+        }
+
+        let mins = self.batch.column(0).as_ref();
+        let maxs = self.batch.column(1).as_ref();
+        let page_ids = self.page_numbers()?.values();
+
+        // Compare against the page columns with a native, monomorphized comparator
+        // that inlines, rather than the boxed `DynComparator` from `make_comparator`
+        // (one vtable call per comparison). Logical types that share a physical
+        // storage type route to one path via a zero-copy reinterpret, so e.g. every
+        // date/time/timestamp/duration type reuses the `i32`/`i64` path instead of
+        // generating its own. Types with no native path (intervals with struct
+        // natives, booleans, ...) take the `make_comparator` fallback. The query
+        // array always matches the column type, so its type selects the branch.
+        use DataType::*;
+        match query.data_type() {
+            Int8 => self.scan_native::<Int8Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            Int16 => self.scan_native::<Int16Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            // i32-backed: Int32, Date32, Time32, Decimal32, year-month intervals.
+            Int32 | Date32 | Time32(_) | Decimal32(_, _) | Interval(IntervalUnit::YearMonth) => {
+                self.scan_native::<Int32Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids)
+            }
+            // i64-backed: Int64, Date64, Time64, Timestamp, Duration, Decimal64.
+            Int64 | Date64 | Time64(_) | Timestamp(_, _) | Duration(_) | Decimal64(_, _) => {
+                self.scan_native::<Int64Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids)
+            }
+            UInt8 => self.scan_native::<UInt8Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            UInt16 => self.scan_native::<UInt16Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            UInt32 => self.scan_native::<UInt32Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            UInt64 => self.scan_native::<UInt64Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            Float16 => self.scan_native::<Float16Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            Float32 => self.scan_native::<Float32Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            Float64 => self.scan_native::<Float64Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            Decimal128(_, _) => self.scan_native::<Decimal128Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            Decimal256(_, _) => self.scan_native::<Decimal256Type>(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+            Utf8 => Ok(self.scan_accessor(
+                mins.as_string::<i32>(),
+                maxs.as_string::<i32>(),
+                query.as_string::<i32>(),
+                page_ids,
+            )),
+            LargeUtf8 => Ok(self.scan_accessor(
+                mins.as_string::<i64>(),
+                maxs.as_string::<i64>(),
+                query.as_string::<i64>(),
+                page_ids,
+            )),
+            Binary => Ok(self.scan_accessor(
+                mins.as_binary::<i32>(),
+                maxs.as_binary::<i32>(),
+                query.as_binary::<i32>(),
+                page_ids,
+            )),
+            LargeBinary => Ok(self.scan_accessor(
+                mins.as_binary::<i64>(),
+                maxs.as_binary::<i64>(),
+                query.as_binary::<i64>(),
+                page_ids,
+            )),
+            FixedSizeBinary(_) => Ok(self.scan_accessor(
+                mins.as_fixed_size_binary(),
+                maxs.as_fixed_size_binary(),
+                query.as_fixed_size_binary(),
+                page_ids,
+            )),
+            _ => self.scan_fallback(mins, maxs, query, page_ids),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Native-comparator equality scan for a primitive physical type `K`. The page
+    /// columns and `query` are reinterpreted to `PrimitiveArray<K>` (zero-copy when
+    /// already that type) and compared with [`primitive_cmp`].
+    fn scan_native<K: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        &self,
+        mins: &dyn Array,
+        maxs: &dyn Array,
+        query: &dyn Array,
+        page_ids: &[u32],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<u32>> {
+        let mins = reinterpret_primitive::<K>(mins)?;
+        let maxs = reinterpret_primitive::<K>(maxs)?;
+        let query = reinterpret_primitive::<K>(query)?;
+        Ok(self.scan_equality_pages(
+            query.len(),
+            page_ids,
+            |idx| maxs.is_null(idx),
+            primitive_cmp(&mins, &query),
+            primitive_cmp(&maxs, &query),
+            primitive_cmp(&mins, &mins),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Native-comparator equality scan for byte-like columns (`Utf8`/`Binary`/
+    /// `FixedSizeBinary` and their large variants), compared lexicographically via
+    /// [`accessor_cmp`].
+    fn scan_accessor<T, A>(&self, mins: A, maxs: A, query: A, page_ids: &[u32]) -> Vec<u32>
+    where
+        T: Ord,
+        A: ArrayAccessor<Item = T> + Copy,
+    {
+        self.scan_equality_pages(
+            query.len(),
+            page_ids,
+            |idx| maxs.is_null(idx),
+            accessor_cmp(mins, query),
+            accessor_cmp(maxs, query),
+            accessor_cmp(mins, mins),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Fallback equality scan for types without a native path (intervals with struct
+    /// natives, booleans, ...), using arrow's boxed `make_comparator`.
+    fn scan_fallback(
+        &self,
+        mins: &dyn Array,
+        maxs: &dyn Array,
+        query: &dyn Array,
+        page_ids: &[u32],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<u32>> {
+        // The batch is sorted ascending by `min` with NULLs first; compare the query
+        // values the same way so the binary searches stay consistent.
+        let opts = SortOptions {
+            descending: false,
+            nulls_first: true,
+        };
+        let cmp_min = make_comparator(mins, query, opts)?;
+        let cmp_max = make_comparator(maxs, query, opts)?;
+        let cmp_min_min = make_comparator(mins, mins, opts)?;
+        Ok(self.scan_equality_pages(
+            query.len(),
+            page_ids,
+            |idx| maxs.is_null(idx),
+            cmp_min,
+            cmp_max,
+            cmp_min_min,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Binary-search + forward-scan the page batch for equality candidates.
+    ///
+    /// Monomorphized over the comparator closures so a typed-native comparator
+    /// inlines (no per-call vtable dispatch). The closures encode NULLs-first,
+    /// ascending order:
+    ///   * `max_is_null(i)` — whether page `i`'s `max` is null (an all-null page)
+    ///   * `cmp_min(i, j)` — page `i`'s `min` vs query value `j`
+    ///   * `cmp_max(i, j)` — page `i`'s `max` vs query value `j`
+    ///   * `cmp_min_min(i, anchor)` — two page `min`s, to expand left onto a straddle
+    fn scan_equality_pages(
+        &self,
+        num_query: usize,
+        page_ids: &[u32],
+        max_is_null: impl Fn(usize) -> bool,
+        cmp_min: impl Fn(usize, usize) -> Ordering,
+        cmp_max: impl Fn(usize, usize) -> Ordering,
+        cmp_min_min: impl Fn(usize, usize) -> Ordering,
+    ) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let num_rows = self.batch.num_rows();
+        // High-cardinality lookups hit ~one page per value; presize to avoid the
+        // element-by-element `RawVec` growth that profiling flagged.
+        let mut pages = Vec::with_capacity(num_query);
+        for j in 0..num_query {
+            // Start row: peek a little to the left of the value. A query for 7 must
+            // still reach a page like [5, 10], so we include every page whose `min`
+            // equals the largest `min` strictly less than the value.
+            let p = partition_point(0, num_rows, |i| cmp_min(i, j) == Ordering::Less);
+            let start = if p == 0 {
+                self.search_start
+            } else {
+                let anchor = p - 1;
+                partition_point(0, p, |i| cmp_min_min(i, anchor) == Ordering::Less)
+            }
+            .max(self.search_start);
+
+            // End row: pages whose `min` exceeds the value cannot match.
+            let end = partition_point(start, num_rows, |i| cmp_min(i, j) != Ordering::Greater);
+
+            // The window splits at `p` (first row with `min >= value`):
+            //   * `[start, p)` — the peek-left/straddle region (`min < value`). A page
+            //     here matches only if its `max` reaches the value, so it needs the
+            //     filter, and it may include a null-`min`/null-`max` straddle page.
+            //   * `[p, end)` — rows with `min == value`. These always match (`max >=
+            //     min == value`) and can't have a null `max` (all-null pages sort to
+            //     the front, before `search_start <= start`), so we copy them in one
+            //     slice instead of pushing per row.
+            let bulk_start = p.max(start);
+            for (offset, &page_id) in page_ids[start..bulk_start].iter().enumerate() {
+                let idx = start + offset;
+                // All-null pages are only matched by IS NULL queries.
+                if max_is_null(idx) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                // Candidate when the page's `max` reaches the value (`max >= value`).
+                if cmp_max(idx, j) != Ordering::Less {
+                    pages.push(page_id);
+                }
+            }
+            pages.extend_from_slice(&page_ids[bulk_start..end]);
+        }
+
+        pages.sort_unstable();
+        pages.dedup();
+        pages
     }
 
     // All pages that could have a value in the range
     fn pages_between(
         &self,
         range: (Bound<&OrderableScalarValue>, Bound<&OrderableScalarValue>),
-    ) -> Vec<Matches> {
-        // We need to grab a little bit left of the given range because the query might be 7
-        // and the first page might be something like 5-10.
-        let lower_bound = match range.0 {
-            Bound::Unbounded => Bound::Unbounded,
-            // It doesn't matter if the bound is exclusive or inclusive.  We are going to grab
-            // the first node whose min is strictly less than the given bound.  Then we grab
-            // all nodes greater than or equal to that
-            //
-            // We have to peek a bit to the left because we might have something like a lower
-            // bound of 7 and there is a page [5-10] we want to search for.
-            Bound::Included(lower) => self
-                .tree
-                .largest_node_less(lower)
-                .map(|val| Bound::Included(val.0))
-                .unwrap_or(Bound::Unbounded),
-            Bound::Excluded(lower) => self
-                .tree
-                .largest_node_less(lower)
-                .map(|val| Bound::Included(val.0))
-                .unwrap_or(Bound::Unbounded),
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Matches>> {
+        let num_rows = self.batch.num_rows();
+        // No searchable (non-all-null) pages.
+        if self.search_start >= num_rows {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
+        }
+
+        let mins = self.batch.column(0).as_ref();
+        let maxs = self.batch.column(1).as_ref();
+        let page_numbers = self.page_numbers()?;
+
+        // The batch is sorted ascending by `min` with NULLs first; compare bounds
+        // the same way so the binary searches and the null `min` of a straddling
+        // page are handled consistently.
+        let opts = SortOptions {
+            descending: false,
+            nulls_first: true,
         };
-        let upper_bound = match range.1 {
-            Bound::Unbounded => Bound::Unbounded,
-            Bound::Included(upper) => Bound::Included(upper),
-            // Even if the upper bound is excluded we need to include it on an [x, x) query.  This is because the
-            // query might be [x, x).  Our lower bound might find some [a-x] bucket and we still
-            // want to include any [x, z] bucket.
-            //
-            // We could be slightly more accurate here and only include the upper bound if the lower bound
-            // is defined, inclusive, and equal to the upper bound.  However, let's keep it simple for now.  This
-            // should only affect the probably rare case that our query is a true range query and the value
-            // matches an upper bound.  This will all be moot if/when we merge pages.
-            Bound::Excluded(upper) => Bound::Included(upper),
+        // Bounds become 1-row arrays of the column type so arrow's type-dispatched
+        // comparator can compare them against the `min`/`max` columns.
+        let lower_arr = match range.0 {
+            Bound::Unbounded => None,
+            Bound::Included(v) | Bound::Excluded(v) => Some(v.0.to_array_of_size(1)?),
+        };
+        let upper_arr = match range.1 {
+            Bound::Unbounded => None,
+            Bound::Included(v) | Bound::Excluded(v) => Some(v.0.to_array_of_size(1)?),
         };
 
-        match (lower_bound, upper_bound) {
-            (Bound::Excluded(lower), Bound::Excluded(upper))
-            | (Bound::Excluded(lower), Bound::Included(upper))
-            | (Bound::Included(lower), Bound::Excluded(upper)) => {
-                // It's not really clear what (Included(5), Excluded(5)) would mean so we
-                // interpret it as an empty range which matches rust's BTreeMap behavior
-                if lower >= upper {
-                    return vec![];
+        // Start row: peek a little to the left of the lower bound. A query for 7
+        // must still reach a page like [5, 10], so we include every page whose
+        // `min` equals the largest `min` strictly less than the lower bound.
+        let start = match &lower_arr {
+            None => self.search_start,
+            Some(lower) => {
+                let cmp = make_comparator(mins, lower.as_ref(), opts)?;
+                // first row with min >= lower
+                let p = partition_point(0, num_rows, |i| cmp(i, 0) == Ordering::Less);
+                if p == 0 {
+                    self.search_start
+                } else {
+                    // first row sharing the straddling page's `min`
+                    let straddle = mins.slice(p - 1, 1);
+                    let cmp = make_comparator(mins, straddle.as_ref(), opts)?;
+                    partition_point(0, p, |i| cmp(i, 0) == Ordering::Less)
                 }
             }
-            (Bound::Included(lower), Bound::Included(upper)) => {
-                if lower > upper {
-                    return vec![];
-                }
+        }
+        .max(self.search_start);
+
+        // End row: pages whose `min` exceeds the upper bound cannot match. The
+        // upper bound is treated as inclusive even when the query bound is
+        // exclusive, so an [x, x) query still reaches a page whose `min` == x.
+        let end = match &upper_arr {
+            None => num_rows,
+            Some(upper) => {
+                let cmp = make_comparator(mins, upper.as_ref(), opts)?;
+                partition_point(start, num_rows, |i| cmp(i, 0) != Ordering::Greater)
             }
-            _ => {}
+        };
+
+        if start >= end {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
         }
 
+        // Comparators reused across the candidate rows.
+        let cmp_max_lower = lower_arr
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|l| make_comparator(maxs, l.as_ref(), opts))
+            .transpose()?;
+        let cmp_min_lower = lower_arr
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|l| make_comparator(mins, l.as_ref(), opts))
+            .transpose()?;
+        let cmp_max_upper = upper_arr
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|u| make_comparator(maxs, u.as_ref(), opts))
+            .transpose()?;
+
         let mut matches = Vec::new();
+        for idx in start..end {
+            // All-null pages are only matched by IS NULL queries.
+            if maxs.is_null(idx) {
+                continue;
+            }
 
-        for (min, page_records) in self.tree.range((lower_bound, upper_bound)) {
-            for page_record in page_records {
-                match lower_bound {
-                    Bound::Unbounded => {}
-                    Bound::Included(lower) => {
-                        if page_record.max.cmp(lower) == Ordering::Less {
-                            continue;
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Bound::Excluded(lower) => {
-                        if page_record.max.cmp(lower) != Ordering::Greater {
-                            continue;
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-                // At this point we know the page record matches at least some values.
-                // We should test to see if ALL values are a match.
+            // Candidate filter: the page's `max` reaches the lower bound.
+            let lower_ok = match (range.0, &cmp_max_lower) {
+                (Bound::Unbounded, _) => true,
+                (Bound::Included(_), Some(cmp)) => cmp(idx, 0) != Ordering::Less, // max >= lower
+                (Bound::Excluded(_), Some(cmp)) => cmp(idx, 0) == Ordering::Greater, // max > lower
+                _ => unreachable!("lower bound and its comparator are constructed together"),
+            };
+            if !lower_ok {
+                continue;
+            }
 
-                if min.0.is_null() || page_record.max.0.is_null() {
-                    // If there are nulls then we just use Matches::Some
-                    matches.push(Matches::Some(page_record.page_number));
-                    continue;
-                }
+            let page_number = page_numbers.values()[idx];
 
-                match range.0 {
-                    // range.0 < X therefore if the smallest value is not strictly greater than
-                    // the lower bound we only have partial match
-                    Bound::Excluded(lower) => {
-                        if min.cmp(lower) != Ordering::Greater {
-                            matches.push(Matches::Some(page_record.page_number));
-                            continue;
-                        }
-                    }
-                    // range.0 <= X therefore if the smallest value is not greater than or equal
-                    // to the lower bound we only have partial match
-                    Bound::Included(lower) => {
-                        if min.cmp(lower) == Ordering::Less {
-                            matches.push(Matches::Some(page_record.page_number));
-                            continue;
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Bound::Unbounded => {}
-                }
-                match range.1 {
-                    // X < range.1 therefore if the largest value is not strictly less than
-                    // the upper bound we only have partial match
-                    Bound::Excluded(upper) => {
-                        if page_record.max.cmp(upper) != Ordering::Less {
-                            matches.push(Matches::Some(page_record.page_number));
-                            continue;
-                        }
-                    }
-                    // X <= range.1 therefore if the largest value is not less than or equal to
-                    // the upper bound we only have partial match
-                    Bound::Included(upper) => {
-                        if page_record.max.cmp(upper) == Ordering::Greater {
-                            matches.push(Matches::Some(page_record.page_number));
-                            continue;
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Bound::Unbounded => {}
-                }
-                // The min is greater than the lower bound and the max is less than the upper bound
-                // so we have a full match
-                matches.push(Matches::All(page_record.page_number));
+            // A page with a null `min` straddles the NULL/non-NULL boundary, so it
+            // is only ever a partial match.
+            if mins.is_null(idx) {
+                matches.push(Matches::Some(page_number));
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Full match requires the page to sit entirely within the query range.
+            let lower_full = match (range.0, &cmp_min_lower) {
+                (Bound::Unbounded, _) => true,
+                (Bound::Included(_), Some(cmp)) => cmp(idx, 0) != Ordering::Less, // min >= lower
+                (Bound::Excluded(_), Some(cmp)) => cmp(idx, 0) == Ordering::Greater, // min > lower
+                _ => unreachable!("lower bound and its comparator are constructed together"),
+            };
+            let upper_full = match (range.1, &cmp_max_upper) {
+                (Bound::Unbounded, _) => true,
+                (Bound::Included(_), Some(cmp)) => cmp(idx, 0) != Ordering::Greater, // max <= upper
+                (Bound::Excluded(_), Some(cmp)) => cmp(idx, 0) == Ordering::Less,    // max < upper
+                _ => unreachable!("upper bound and its comparator are constructed together"),
+            };
+            if lower_full && upper_full {
+                matches.push(Matches::All(page_number));
+            } else {
+                matches.push(Matches::Some(page_number));
             }
         }
 
-        matches
+        Ok(matches)
     }
 
     fn pages_null(&self) -> Vec<Matches> {
         self.null_pages
             .iter()
-            .map(|page_id| Matches::Some(*page_id))
+            .copied()
+            .map(Matches::Some)
             .chain(self.all_null_pages.iter().copied().map(Matches::All))
             .collect()
     }
 }
 
+/// Pages read and materialized together per chunk of [`BTreeIndex::search_missing_pages`].
+///
+/// Loading pages one at a time costs a request per page, which dominates any
+/// query whose predicate spans many pages: a range covering most of a column
+/// touches one page per `batch_size` values.  Handing a chunk of the missing
+/// set to [`IndexReader::read_record_batches`] at once lets the reader merge
+/// neighbouring pages into shared requests.
+///
+/// Reading (and retaining) the *whole* missing set in one call would let peak
+/// memory and in-flight I/O scale with the entire predicate, which is
+/// unbounded for the billion-row scale `BTreeIndex` targets. Chunking keeps
+/// the coalescing benefit within a chunk while capping the working set to a
+/// fixed budget - each chunk's serialized pages are turned into cached
+/// [`FlatIndex`]es and dropped before the next chunk is read, at the cost of
+/// a few more requests than reading everything at once.
+const PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE: usize = 128;
+
 // We only need to open a file reader for pages if we need to load a page.  If all
 // pages are cached we don't open it.  If we do open it we should only open it once.
 #[derive(Clone)]
@@ -902,13 +1293,12 @@ impl LazyRangedIndexReader {
         &self,
         page_idx: u32,
     ) -> Result<(Arc<dyn IndexReader>, u32)> {
-        let (page_file_name, offset) =
-            self.ranges_to_files
-                .get(&page_idx)
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Unexpected page index, index {} is out of range.", page_idx),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+        let (page_file_name, offset) = self.ranges_to_files.get(&page_idx).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Unexpected page index, index {} is out of range.",
+                page_idx
+            ))
+        })?;
         let reader = self.get_reader(page_file_name).await?;
         Ok((reader.clone(), page_idx - *offset))
     }
@@ -923,6 +1313,51 @@ impl IndexReader for LazyRangedIndexReader {
             .await
     }
 
+    /// Group the requested pages by the file that holds them, so each file
+    /// coalesces its own pages into one read rather than one read per page.
+    async fn read_record_batches(
+        &self,
+        batch_numbers: &[u64],
+        batch_size: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        // Keep each page's position in the request so the grouped reads can be
+        // scattered back into the order the caller asked for.
+        let mut by_file: HashMap<String, (Vec<u64>, Vec<usize>)> = HashMap::new();
+        for (position, page) in batch_numbers.iter().enumerate() {
+            let page_idx = *page as u32;
+            let (file_name, offset) = self.ranges_to_files.get(&page_idx).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Unexpected page index, index {} is out of range.",
+                    page_idx
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let entry = by_file.entry(file_name.clone()).or_default();
+            entry.0.push((page_idx - *offset) as u64);
+            entry.1.push(position);
+        }
+
+        let groups = by_file
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(file_name, (local_pages, positions))| async move {
+                let reader = self.get_reader(&file_name).await?;
+                let batches = reader.read_record_batches(&local_pages, batch_size).await?;
+                Result::Ok(positions.into_iter().zip(batches))
+            });
+        let groups = futures::future::try_join_all(groups).await?;
+
+        let mut results: Vec<Option<RecordBatch>> = vec![None; batch_numbers.len()];
+        for (position, batch) in groups.into_iter().flatten() {
+            results[position] = Some(batch);
+        }
+        results
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Missing page in ranged index read".to_string()))
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
     async fn read_range(
         &self,
         _range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
@@ -931,6 +1366,42 @@ impl IndexReader for LazyRangedIndexReader {
         unimplemented!("Read range is not implemented for lazy page file reader.");
     }
 
+    /// Streams the partition page files one after another in global page order.
+    ///
+    /// Each partition file is streamed on its own so a short final page in one
+    /// partition stays a page of its own (exactly as `read_record_batch` would
+    /// return it) instead of being merged with the next partition's first page.
+    async fn read_record_batch_stream(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        batch_size: u64,
+        batch_readahead: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream>>> {
+        // `RangeInclusiveMap` iterates in ascending key order, i.e. global page order.
+        let file_names = self
+            .ranges_to_files
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, (file_name, _))| file_name.clone())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let schema: Arc<Schema> = match file_names.first() {
+            Some(first) => Arc::new(self.get_reader(first).await?.schema().into()),
+            None => Arc::new(Schema::empty()),
+        };
+        let stream = stream::iter(file_names)
+            .then(move |file_name| {
+                let this = self.clone();
+                async move {
+                    this.get_reader(&file_name)
+                        .await?
+                        .read_record_batch_stream(batch_size, batch_readahead)
+                        .await
+                }
+            })
+            .try_flatten();
+        Ok(Box::pin(lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema, stream,
+        )))
+    }
+
     async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32 {
         let mut total_batches = 0;
         for (_, (file_name, _)) in self.ranges_to_files.iter() {
@@ -990,6 +1461,156 @@ impl CacheKey for BTreePageKey {
     fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
         format!("page-{}", self.page_number).into()
     }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "BTreePage"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.btree-page-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.page_number);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        // Pages are cached as `FlatIndex` values (see `ValueType` above).
+        Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<FlatIndex>())
+    }
+}
+
+/// The serializable state of a [`BTreeIndex`].
+///
+/// A `BTreeIndex` holds non-serializable infrastructure (an `IndexStore`, a
+/// cache handle, a fragment-reuse index). `BTreeIndexState` captures just the
+/// data needed to rebuild it: the `page_lookup.lance` batch (from which
+/// `BTreeIndex::try_from_serialized` reconstructs the in-memory lookup with
+/// no IO) plus the page batch size and range-partition map.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct BTreeIndexState {
+    lookup_batch: RecordBatch,
+    batch_size: u64,
+    ranges_to_files: Option<Arc<RangeInclusiveMap<u32, (String, u32)>>>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for BTreeIndexState {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // `ranges_to_files` is tiny and `RangeInclusiveMap` is not `DeepSizeOf`;
+        // the lookup batch dominates, matching how `BTreeIndex` accounts for itself.
+        self.lookup_batch.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl BTreeIndexState {
+    fn from_index(index: &dyn ScalarIndex) -> Result<Self> {
+        let btree = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<BTreeIndex>().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("BTreeIndexState::from_index called with a non-BTree index")
+        })?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            lookup_batch: btree.page_lookup.batch.clone(),
+            batch_size: btree.batch_size,
+            ranges_to_files: btree.ranges_to_files.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn reconstruct(
+        &self,
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        let index = BTreeIndex::try_from_serialized(
+            self.lookup_batch.clone(),
+            store,
+            index_cache,
+            self.batch_size,
+            self.ranges_to_files.clone(),
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(index) as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+    }
+}
+
+impl CacheCodecImpl for BTreeIndexState {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.scalar.BTreeIndexState";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    /// Wire format:
+    /// ```text
+    /// HEADER    : BTreeIndexHeader proto (batch_size + page-range mapping)
+    /// ARROW_IPC : page-lookup batch
+    /// ```
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let ranges_to_files = match &self.ranges_to_files {
+            None => Vec::new(),
+            Some(ranges) => ranges
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(range, (path, page_offset))| RangeToFile {
+                    start: *range.start(),
+                    end: *range.end(),
+                    page_offset: *page_offset,
+                    path: path.clone(),
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        };
+        let header = BTreeIndexHeader {
+            batch_size: self.batch_size,
+            has_ranges_to_files: self.ranges_to_files.is_some(),
+            ranges_to_files,
+        };
+        w.write_header(&header)?;
+        w.write_ipc(&self.lookup_batch)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let header: BTreeIndexHeader = r.read_header()?;
+        let ranges_to_files = if header.has_ranges_to_files {
+            let map: RangeInclusiveMap<u32, (String, u32)> = header
+                .ranges_to_files
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|entry| (entry.start..=entry.end, (entry.path, entry.page_offset)))
+                .collect();
+            Some(Arc::new(map))
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let lookup_batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            lookup_batch,
+            batch_size: header.batch_size,
+            ranges_to_files,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Cache key for a [`BTreeIndexState`]. The cache it is used with is already
+/// namespaced per-index, so the key string is a constant.
+struct BTreeIndexStateKey;
+
+impl CacheKey for BTreeIndexStateKey {
+    type ValueType = BTreeIndexState;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        "state".into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "BTreeIndexState"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.btree-index-state-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_variant(0);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<BTreeIndexState>())
+    }
 }
 
 /// Note: this is very similar to the IVF index except we store the IVF part in a btree
@@ -1031,13 +1652,18 @@ pub struct BTreeIndex {
     /// - The local page_idx is calculated: `142 - 100 = 42`.
     /// - The system now knows to read page `42` from the file `part_2_page_file.lance`.
     ranges_to_files: Option<Arc<RangeInclusiveMap<u32, (String, u32)>>>,
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    /// Legacy synchronous remapper (index_version 0). Mutually exclusive with
+    /// `batch_remapper`; both `None` means no translation is needed.
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    /// Asynchronous batch remapper (tagged histories).
+    batch_remapper: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for BTreeIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         // We don't include the index cache, or anything stored in it. For example:
-        // sub_index and fri.
+        // sub_index and fri. `page_lookup` owns the lookup batch (the single source
+        // of truth), so accounting for it covers the lookup data.
         self.page_lookup.deep_size_of_children(context) + self.store.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
@@ -1051,7 +1677,7 @@ impl BTreeIndex {
         index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
         batch_size: u64,
         ranges_to_files: Option<Arc<RangeInclusiveMap<u32, (String, u32)>>>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             page_lookup,
@@ -1061,66 +1687,359 @@ impl BTreeIndex {
             batch_size,
             ranges_to_files,
             frag_reuse_index,
+            batch_remapper: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// For each key in `keys`, whether this index contains it — a batched
+    /// existence check returning a mask aligned to `keys`.
+    ///
+    /// The per-key sibling of `search(Equals(..))`, but one call replaces N
+    /// probes: keys are grouped by page using the same page resolution as
+    /// [`ScalarIndex::search`] (`pages_eq`), each touched page is loaded once
+    /// (session-cached), and membership is tested against the page's values via
+    /// `FlatIndex::contains_values`. Avoids the per-key `SearchResult` /
+    /// `RowAddrTreeMap` allocation when the caller only wants a yes/no.
+    ///
+    /// Intended for primary-key dedup, where keys are non-null; a null key maps
+    /// to `false`.
+    pub async fn contains_keys(
+        &self,
+        keys: &[ScalarValue],
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<bool>> {
+        // Group each key (by input position) under every page whose value range
+        // could hold it. Mirrors `search`'s page selection so the two agree.
+        let mut by_page: HashMap<u32, Vec<(usize, OrderableScalarValue)>> = HashMap::new();
+        for (idx, key) in keys.iter().enumerate() {
+            if key.is_null() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let ov = OrderableScalarValue(key.clone());
+            for matches in self.page_lookup.pages_eq(&ov)? {
+                by_page
+                    .entry(matches.page_id())
+                    .or_default()
+                    .push((idx, ov.clone()));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let index_reader = LazyIndexReader::new(self.store.clone(), self.ranges_to_files.clone());
+        let page_tasks = by_page.into_iter().map(|(page_number, entries)| {
+            let index_reader = index_reader.clone();
+            async move {
+                let page = self.lookup_page(page_number, index_reader, metrics).await?;
+                let needles: Vec<OrderableScalarValue> =
+                    entries.iter().map(|(_, ov)| ov.clone()).collect();
+                let present = page.contains_values(&needles)?;
+                Result::Ok((entries, present))
+            }
+        });
+
+        let mut result = vec![false; keys.len()];
+        let page_results: Vec<_> = stream::iter(page_tasks)
+            .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .try_collect()
+            .await?;
+        for (entries, present) in page_results {
+            for (idx, ov) in entries {
+                if present.contains(&ov) {
+                    result[idx] = true;
+                }
+            }
         }
+        Ok(result)
     }
 
+    /// Look up a page, reading and caching it on its own if it is not already
+    /// cached.
     async fn lookup_page(
         &self,
         page_number: u32,
         index_reader: LazyIndexReader,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<Arc<FlatIndex>> {
-        self.index_cache
-            .get_or_insert_with_key(BTreePageKey { page_number }, move || async move {
+        let result = self
+            .index_cache
+            .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(BTreePageKey { page_number }, move || async move {
                 self.read_page(page_number, index_reader, metrics).await
             })
-            .await
+            .await;
+        match &result {
+            Ok((_, true)) => metrics.record_index_cache_hit(),
+            _ => metrics.record_index_cache_miss(),
+        }
+        result.map(|(page, _)| page)
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    async fn read_page(
+    /// Split `pages` into those already cached (looked up individually by the
+    /// caller) and those missing, the missing ones sorted by page id.
+    ///
+    /// Probing the cache for the whole page set before loading any of it is
+    /// what lets the misses be read together: within
+    /// [`Self::search_missing_pages`], sorting means each chunk's ranges are
+    /// ascending and disjoint, which is what lets the reader merge neighbours
+    /// into shared requests. The answer is a snapshot and may be stale by the
+    /// time a page is actually read (evicted by then, or already loaded by a
+    /// concurrent query); both call paths handle that through the cache's own
+    /// loader rather than assuming the snapshot still holds.
+    async fn partition_cached_pages(&self, pages: Vec<Matches>) -> (Vec<Matches>, Vec<Matches>) {
+        let mut cached = Vec::new();
+        let mut missing = Vec::new();
+        for matches in pages {
+            let is_cached = self
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&BTreePageKey {
+                    page_number: matches.page_id(),
+                })
+                .await
+                .is_some();
+            if is_cached {
+                cached.push(matches);
+            } else {
+                missing.push(matches);
+            }
+        }
+        missing.sort_unstable_by_key(Matches::page_id);
+        (cached, missing)
+    }
+
+    /// Read, cache, and search every page in `missing`,
+    /// [`PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE`] pages at a time.
+    ///
+    /// `missing` must be sorted by page id (as returned by
+    /// [`Self::partition_cached_pages`]) so each chunk's ranges are ascending
+    /// and disjoint, which is what lets [`IndexReader::read_record_batches`]
+    /// merge neighbours into shared requests.
+    ///
+    /// A page is searched with the [`FlatIndex`] this call itself just built,
+    /// not with a follow-up cache lookup: without a warm, big-enough index
+    /// cache (no cache configured, or a chunk larger than the cache's
+    /// capacity) the page could already be evicted by the time a later step
+    /// looked it up, forcing an extra single-page read per page and making a
+    /// wide search cost *more* I/O than reading pages one at a time. The page
+    /// is still offered to the cache (so a concurrent or later query can
+    /// reuse it), but this call never depends on that succeeding. Each
+    /// chunk's materialized pages are searched and dropped before the next
+    /// chunk is read, which is what bounds peak memory to the chunk size
+    /// rather than the whole query.
+    ///
+    /// Each chunk records one [`MetricsCollector::record_batch_read`], so the
+    /// number of chunks a query actually took (as opposed to the number of
+    /// pages it materialized, via `record_parts_loaded`) is visible to
+    /// callers without needing `MetricsCollector::io_stats`.
+    async fn search_missing_pages(
+        &self,
+        missing: &[Matches],
+        index_reader: &LazyIndexReader,
+        query: &SargableQuery,
+        prebuilt: Option<&Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>>,
+        track_nulls: bool,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PageMatches>> {
+        let mut results = Vec::with_capacity(missing.len());
+        for chunk in missing.chunks(PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE) {
+            let reader = index_reader.get().await?;
+            let batch_numbers = chunk
+                .iter()
+                .map(|matches| matches.page_id() as u64)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let batches = reader
+                .read_record_batches(&batch_numbers, self.batch_size)
+                .await?;
+            metrics.record_batch_read();
+            if batches.len() != chunk.len() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "index reader returned {} batches for {} requested pages",
+                    batches.len(),
+                    chunk.len()
+                )));
+            }
+
+            let page_tasks =
+                chunk
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .zip(batches)
+                    .map(|(matches, serialized_page)| async move {
+                        let page_number = matches.page_id();
+                        let (subindex, was_cached) = self
+                            .index_cache
+                            .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(BTreePageKey { page_number }, move || {
+                                self.build_page(page_number, serialized_page, metrics)
+                            })
+                            .await?;
+                        if was_cached {
+                            metrics.record_index_cache_hit();
+                        } else {
+                            metrics.record_index_cache_miss();
+                        }
+                        Self::evaluate_page_matches(
+                            &subindex,
+                            matches,
+                            query,
+                            prebuilt,
+                            track_nulls,
+                            metrics,
+                        )
+                    });
+            // Bounded the same way the cached-page pipeline is, but only
+            // within a chunk - chunks themselves run one at a time (the `for`
+            // loop above), which is what keeps peak memory capped at one
+            // chunk's pages instead of the whole missing set.
+            let chunk_results: Vec<PageMatches> = stream::iter(page_tasks)
+                .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+                .try_collect()
+                .await?;
+            results.extend(chunk_results);
+        }
+        Ok(results)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    async fn read_page(
         &self,
         page_number: u32,
         index_reader: LazyIndexReader,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<FlatIndex> {
-        metrics.record_part_load();
-        info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, index_type="btree", part_id=page_number);
         let index_reader = index_reader.get().await?;
-        let mut serialized_page = index_reader
+        let serialized_page = index_reader
             .read_record_batch(page_number as u64, self.batch_size)
             .await?;
-        if let Some(frag_reuse_index_ref) = self.frag_reuse_index.as_ref() {
-            serialized_page =
-                frag_reuse_index_ref.remap_row_ids_record_batch(serialized_page, 1)?;
+        metrics.record_single_page_read();
+        self.build_page(page_number, serialized_page, metrics).await
+    }
+
+    /// Turn a page's serialized batch into a searchable page, applying
+    /// whichever row id remap is configured.
+    ///
+    /// Tagged async remap must run in this async context; the legacy
+    /// synchronous remap is handled by `decode_page` (also used off the CPU
+    /// pool in `prewarm`).
+    async fn build_page(
+        &self,
+        page_number: u32,
+        serialized_page: RecordBatch,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<FlatIndex> {
+        metrics.record_part_load();
+        info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, index_type="btree", part_id=page_number);
+        if let Some(remapper) = self.batch_remapper.as_ref() {
+            let serialized_page =
+                remap_record_batch_async(remapper.as_ref(), serialized_page, 1).await?;
+            return FlatIndex::try_new(serialized_page);
+        }
+        Self::decode_page(serialized_page, self.frag_reuse_index.as_deref())
+    }
+
+    /// Turn a serialized page into a searchable [`FlatIndex`], applying the
+    /// legacy synchronous fragment-reuse row id remap first when there is one.
+    /// The tagged asynchronous remapper is applied by the caller before this,
+    /// since it cannot run on the synchronous CPU pool.
+    fn decode_page(
+        mut serialized_page: RecordBatch,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<&dyn RowIdRemapper>,
+    ) -> Result<FlatIndex> {
+        if let Some(frag_reuse_index) = frag_reuse_index {
+            serialized_page = frag_reuse_index.remap_row_ids_record_batch(serialized_page, 1)?;
         }
         FlatIndex::try_new(serialized_page)
     }
 
+    /// Stream every serialized page of `reader` in page order as
+    /// `(page_idx, page)`.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`Self::read_page`], which is the right tool for a single page
+    /// lookup, this issues one sequential read per page file (via
+    /// [`IndexReader::read_record_batch_stream`]) so that whole-index passes
+    /// (update / merge, remap, prewarm, `calculate_included_frags`) cost
+    /// O(files) IO scheduling passes instead of O(pages) random reads. Page
+    /// `i` of the stream is the same batch `read_record_batch(i, batch_size)`
+    /// would return.
+    async fn page_stream(
+        reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        batch_size: u64,
+        batch_readahead: usize,
+    ) -> Result<impl Stream<Item = Result<(u32, RecordBatch)>> + Send + 'static> {
+        let batch_readahead = u32::try_from(batch_readahead.max(1)).unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+        let batches = reader
+            .read_record_batch_stream(batch_size, batch_readahead)
+            .await?;
+        Ok(batches.enumerate().map(move |(page_idx, batch)| {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            if batch.num_rows() == 0 || batch.num_rows() as u64 > batch_size {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "btree page stream yielded a batch of {} rows for page {} (page size {})",
+                    batch.num_rows(),
+                    page_idx,
+                    batch_size
+                )));
+            }
+            Ok((page_idx as u32, batch))
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Compile a sargable predicate into a physical expr against the per-page
+    /// schema ([values, ids]). Built once in `search` and shared across pages so
+    /// a large IN-list is not re-materialized for every page.
+    fn compile_predicate(&self, query: &SargableQuery) -> Result<Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(BTREE_VALUES_COLUMN, self.data_type.clone(), true),
+            Field::new(BTREE_IDS_COLUMN, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema)?;
+        Ok(create_physical_expr(
+            &query.to_expr(BTREE_VALUES_COLUMN.to_string()),
+            &df_schema,
+            &ExecutionProps::default(),
+        )?)
+    }
+
     async fn search_page(
         &self,
         query: &SargableQuery,
         matches: Matches,
         index_reader: LazyIndexReader,
+        prebuilt: Option<&Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>>,
+        track_nulls: bool,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
+    ) -> Result<PageMatches> {
         let subindex = self
             .lookup_page(matches.page_id(), index_reader, metrics)
             .await?;
+        Self::evaluate_page_matches(&subindex, matches, query, prebuilt, track_nulls, metrics)
+    }
 
+    /// Evaluate `matches` against an already-loaded page.
+    ///
+    /// Shared by [`Self::search_page`] (page already resident, from cache or
+    /// a single-page read) and [`Self::search_missing_pages`] (page just
+    /// built from a prefetch chunk), so both paths score a page the same way.
+    ///
+    /// Each page hands back plain id arrays; the caller assembles the final
+    /// `RowAddrTreeMap` once across all pages (see `search_with_options`).
+    fn evaluate_page_matches(
+        subindex: &FlatIndex,
+        matches: Matches,
+        query: &SargableQuery,
+        prebuilt: Option<&Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>>,
+        track_nulls: bool,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<PageMatches> {
         match matches {
-            Matches::Some(_) => {
-                // TODO: If this is an IN query we can perhaps simplify the subindex query by restricting it to the
-                // values that might be in the page.  E.g. if we are searching for X IN [5, 3, 7] and five is in pages
-                // 1 and 2 and three is in page 2 and seven is in pages 8 and 9, then when searching page 2 we only need
-                // to search for X IN [5, 3]
-                subindex.search(query, metrics)
-            }
-            Matches::All(_) => Ok(match query {
+            // For a large IsIn the predicate is compiled once (see `search`) and
+            // reused here, instead of rebuilding the whole IN-list per page.
+            Matches::Some(_) => match prebuilt {
+                Some(expr) => subindex.search_prebuilt_matches(expr, track_nulls, metrics),
+                None => subindex.search_matches(query, track_nulls, metrics),
+            },
+            Matches::All(_) => match query {
                 // This means we hit an all-null page so just grab all row ids as true
-                SargableQuery::IsNull() => subindex.all_ignore_nulls(),
-                _ => subindex.all(),
-            }),
+                SargableQuery::IsNull() => Ok(subindex.all_ignore_nulls_matches()),
+                _ if track_nulls => subindex.all_matches(),
+                _ => subindex.all_non_null_matches(),
+            },
         }
     }
 
@@ -1131,74 +2050,15 @@ impl BTreeIndex {
         index_cache: &LanceCache,
         batch_size: u64,
         ranges_to_files: Option<Arc<RangeInclusiveMap<u32, (String, u32)>>>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let mut map = BTreeMap::<OrderableScalarValue, Vec<PageRecord>>::new();
-        // Pages that have at least one null value
-        let mut null_pages = Vec::<u32>::new();
-        // Pages that are entirely null
-        let mut all_null_pages = Vec::<u32>::new();
-
-        if data.num_rows() == 0 {
-            let data_type = data.column(0).data_type().clone();
-            let page_lookup = Arc::new(BTreeLookup::empty());
-            return Ok(Self::new(
-                page_lookup,
-                store,
-                data_type,
-                WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
-                batch_size,
-                ranges_to_files,
-                frag_reuse_index,
-            ));
-        }
-
-        let mins = data.column(0);
-        let maxs = data.column(1);
-        let null_counts = data
-            .column(2)
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
-            .unwrap();
-        let page_numbers = data
-            .column(3)
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
-            .unwrap();
-
-        for idx in 0..data.num_rows() {
-            let min = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::try_from_array(&mins, idx)?);
-            let max = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::try_from_array(&maxs, idx)?);
-            let null_count = null_counts.values()[idx];
-            let page_number = page_numbers.values()[idx];
-
-            // If the page is entirely null don't even bother putting it in the tree
-            if max.0.is_null() {
-                all_null_pages.push(page_number);
-                // continue so we don't add it to the null_pages
-                continue;
-            } else {
-                map.entry(min)
-                    .or_default()
-                    .push(PageRecord { max, page_number });
-            }
-
-            if null_count > 0 {
-                null_pages.push(page_number);
-            }
-        }
-
-        let last_max = ScalarValue::try_from_array(&maxs, data.num_rows() - 1)?;
-        map.entry(OrderableScalarValue(last_max)).or_default();
-
-        let data_type = mins.data_type();
-
-        let page_lookup = Arc::new(BTreeLookup::new(map, null_pages, all_null_pages));
+        let data_type = data.column(0).data_type().clone();
+        let page_lookup = Arc::new(BTreeLookup::try_new(data)?);
 
         Ok(Self::new(
             page_lookup,
             store,
-            data_type.clone(),
+            data_type,
             WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
             batch_size,
             ranges_to_files,
@@ -1206,12 +2066,41 @@ impl BTreeIndex {
         ))
     }
 
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    async fn load_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let mut index = Self::load(store, None, index_cache).await?.as_ref().clone();
+        index.batch_remapper = remapping;
+        debug_assert!(index.frag_reuse_index.is_none() || index.batch_remapper.is_none());
+        Ok(Arc::new(index))
+    }
+
     async fn load(
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         index_cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
-        let page_lookup_file = store.open_index_file(BTREE_LOOKUP_NAME).await?;
+        let (page_lookup_file, standalone_partition_page_file) =
+            match store.open_index_file(BTREE_LOOKUP_NAME).await {
+                Ok(page_lookup_file) => (page_lookup_file, None),
+                Err(original_err) if is_missing_lookup_error(&original_err) => {
+                    let files = store.list_files_with_sizes().await?;
+                    let Some((lookup_file, page_file)) = find_single_partition_files(&files)?
+                    else {
+                        return Err(original_err);
+                    };
+                    (
+                        store.open_index_file(lookup_file).await?,
+                        Some(page_file.to_string()),
+                    )
+                }
+                Err(other_err) => return Err(other_err),
+            };
         let num_rows_in_lookup = page_lookup_file.num_rows();
         let serialized_lookup = page_lookup_file
             .read_range(0..num_rows_in_lookup, None)
@@ -1231,7 +2120,17 @@ impl BTreeIndex {
         // For range-partitioned indices, construct the `ranges_to_files` map.
         // This converts the list of (partition ID, page count) from metadata into a map
         // from a global page range to its corresponding file and starting offset.
-        let ranges_to_files = if range_partitioned {
+        let ranges_to_files = if let Some(page_file_name) = standalone_partition_page_file {
+            let page_numbers = serialized_lookup
+                .column(3)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let max_page_number = page_numbers.values().iter().copied().max().unwrap_or(0);
+            let mut range_map = RangeInclusiveMap::new();
+            range_map.insert(0..=max_page_number, (page_file_name, 0));
+            Some(Arc::new(range_map))
+        } else if range_partitioned {
             let part_sizes_str = file_schema
             .metadata
             .get(PAGE_NUM_PER_RANGE_PARTITION_META_KEY)
@@ -1272,15 +2171,15 @@ impl BTreeIndex {
     }
 
     /// Create a stream of all the data in the index, in the same format used to train the index
-    async fn into_data_stream(self) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    async fn data_stream(&self) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         let lazy_reader = LazyIndexReader::new(self.store.clone(), self.ranges_to_files.clone());
         let reader = lazy_reader.get().await?;
         let new_schema = Arc::new(self.train_schema());
         let new_schema_clone = new_schema.clone();
-        let reader_stream = IndexReaderStream::new(reader, self.batch_size).await;
-        let batches = reader_stream
-            .map(|fut| fut.map_err(DataFusionError::from))
-            .buffered(self.store.io_parallelism())
+        let batches = Self::page_stream(reader, self.batch_size, self.store.io_parallelism())
+            .await?
+            .map_ok(|(_, batch)| batch)
+            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
             .map_ok(move |batch| {
                 RecordBatch::try_new(
                     new_schema.clone(),
@@ -1295,24 +2194,71 @@ impl BTreeIndex {
         )))
     }
 
-    async fn into_old_data(self) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let stream = self.into_data_stream().await?;
-        Ok(Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream)))
-    }
-
-    async fn combine_old_new(
-        self,
+    /// Merge N source BTree segments plus an additional `new_data` stream into
+    /// a single BTree under `dest_store`, without re-reading the dataset.
+    pub async fn merge_segments(
+        segments: &[Arc<Self>],
         new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        chunk_size: u64,
-    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let value_column_index = new_data.schema().index_of(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)?;
-
-        let new_input = Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(new_data));
-        let old_input = self.into_old_data().await?;
-        debug_assert_eq!(
-            old_input.schema().flattened_fields().len(),
-            new_input.schema().flattened_fields().len()
-        );
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filters: &[Option<OldIndexDataFilter>],
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let Some(first) = segments.first() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "cannot merge BTree index without at least one source segment".to_string(),
+            ));
+        };
+
+        if old_data_filters.len() != segments.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "BTree merge: expected one old-data filter per source segment \
+                 (segments={}, filters={})",
+                segments.len(),
+                old_data_filters.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        for segment in segments.iter().skip(1) {
+            if segment.data_type != first.data_type {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "cannot merge BTree segments with different value types ({:?} vs {:?})",
+                    first.data_type, segment.data_type
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let new_schema = new_data.schema();
+        let value_column_index = new_schema.index_of(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)?;
+        let new_value_type = new_schema.field(value_column_index).data_type();
+        if new_value_type != &first.data_type {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "BTree merge: new_data value column type {:?} does not match \
+                 segment value type {:?}",
+                new_value_type, first.data_type
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len() + 1);
+        for (segment, old_data_filter) in segments.iter().zip(old_data_filters) {
+            if filter_keeps_nothing(old_data_filter) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let stream = segment.data_stream().await?;
+            let stream = if let Some(frag_reuse_index) = segment.frag_reuse_index.clone() {
+                // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+                remap_row_ids(stream, frag_reuse_index)
+            } else if let Some(remapper) = segment.batch_remapper.clone() {
+                // Tagged asynchronous path.
+                remap_row_ids_batch(stream, remapper)
+            } else {
+                stream
+            };
+            let stream = match old_data_filter.clone() {
+                Some(filter) => filter_row_ids(stream, filter),
+                None => stream,
+            };
+            inputs.push(Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream)));
+        }
+        inputs.push(Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(new_data)));
 
         let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
             expr: Arc::new(Column::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, value_column_index)),
@@ -1321,11 +2267,10 @@ impl BTreeIndex {
                 nulls_first: true,
             },
         };
-        // The UnionExec creates multiple partitions but the SortPreservingMergeExec merges
-        // them back into a single partition.
-        let all_data = UnionExec::try_new(vec![old_input, new_input])?;
-        let ordered = Arc::new(SortPreservingMergeExec::new([sort_expr].into(), all_data));
-
+        // UnionExec yields multiple partitions; SortPreservingMergeExec merges
+        // them back into a single partition while preserving value-ordering.
+        let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(inputs)?;
+        let ordered = Arc::new(SortPreservingMergeExec::new([sort_expr].into(), unioned));
         let unchunked = execute_plan(
             ordered,
             LanceExecutionOptions {
@@ -1333,10 +2278,73 @@ impl BTreeIndex {
                 ..Default::default()
             },
         )?;
-        Ok(chunk_concat_stream(unchunked, chunk_size as usize))
+        let merged_stream = chunk_concat_stream(unchunked, first.batch_size as usize);
+
+        let files =
+            train_btree_index(merged_stream, dest_store, first.batch_size, None, None).await?;
+
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default())
+                .unwrap(),
+            index_version: BTREE_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Filter a stream of record batches using the selection semantics encapsulated
+/// by `old_data_filter`.
+fn filter_row_ids(
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    old_data_filter: OldIndexDataFilter,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let schema = stream.schema();
+    let filtered = stream.map(move |batch_result| {
+        let batch = batch_result?;
+        let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("expected UInt64Array for row_id column"))?;
+        let mask = old_data_filter.filter_row_ids(row_ids);
+        Ok(arrow_select::filter::filter_record_batch(&batch, &mask)?)
+    });
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, filtered))
+}
+
+/// True if `filter` would keep no rows at all (its keep-set is empty), letting
+/// the merge skip reading the segment entirely.
+pub(super) fn filter_keeps_nothing(filter: &Option<OldIndexDataFilter>) -> bool {
+    match filter {
+        Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments { to_keep, .. }) => to_keep.is_empty(),
+        Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid)) => valid.is_empty(),
+        None => false,
     }
 }
 
+fn remap_row_ids(
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    frag_reuse_index: Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let schema = stream.schema();
+    let remapped = stream.map(move |batch_result| {
+        let batch = batch_result?;
+        Ok(frag_reuse_index.remap_row_ids_record_batch(batch, 1)?)
+    });
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, remapped))
+}
+
+fn remap_row_ids_batch(
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    remapper: Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let schema = stream.schema();
+    let remapped = stream.and_then(move |batch| {
+        let remapper = remapper.clone();
+        async move { Ok(remap_record_batch_async(remapper.as_ref(), batch, 1).await?) }
+    });
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, remapped))
+}
+
 fn wrap_bound(bound: &Bound<ScalarValue>) -> Bound<OrderableScalarValue> {
     match bound {
         Bound::Unbounded => Bound::Unbounded,
@@ -1375,28 +2383,33 @@ impl Index for BTreeIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn crate::vector::VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "BTreeIndex is not vector index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
         let index_reader = LazyIndexReader::new(self.store.clone(), self.ranges_to_files.clone());
         let reader = index_reader.get().await?;
-        let num_pages = reader.num_batches(self.batch_size).await;
-        let mut pages = stream::iter(0..num_pages)
-            .map(|page_idx| {
-                let index_reader = index_reader.clone();
+        // One sequential pass over the page file(s); pages are decoded
+        // concurrently on the compute pool as they arrive.
+        let mut pages = Self::page_stream(reader, self.batch_size, self.store.io_parallelism())
+            .await?
+            .map(|page| {
+                let frag_reuse_index = self.frag_reuse_index.clone();
+                let batch_remapper = self.batch_remapper.clone();
                 async move {
-                    let page = self
-                        .read_page(page_idx, index_reader, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-                        .await?;
+                    let (page_idx, mut serialized_page) = page?;
+                    info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, index_type="btree", part_id=page_idx);
+                    // Tagged async remap runs here in the async context; the
+                    // legacy synchronous remap stays on the CPU pool below.
+                    if let Some(remapper) = batch_remapper.as_ref() {
+                        serialized_page =
+                            remap_record_batch_async(remapper.as_ref(), serialized_page, 1).await?;
+                    }
+                    let page = spawn_cpu(move || {
+                        Self::decode_page(serialized_page, frag_reuse_index.as_deref())
+                    })
+                    .await?;
                     Result::Ok((page_idx, page))
                 }
             })
-            .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus());
+            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus());
 
         while let Some((page_idx, page)) = pages.try_next().await? {
             let inserted = self
@@ -1410,10 +2423,9 @@ impl Index for BTreeIndex {
                 .await;
 
             if !inserted {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "Failed to prewarm index: cache is no longer available".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "Failed to prewarm index: cache is no longer available".to_string(),
+                ));
             }
         }
 
@@ -1425,18 +2437,25 @@ impl Index for BTreeIndex {
     }
 
     fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
-        let min = self
-            .page_lookup
-            .tree
-            .first_key_value()
-            .map(|(k, _)| k.clone());
-        let max = self
-            .page_lookup
-            .tree
-            .last_key_value()
-            .map(|(k, _)| k.clone());
+        let lookup = &self.page_lookup;
+        let batch = &lookup.batch;
+        let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+        // The batch is sorted by `min`, so the smallest searchable value is the
+        // `min` of the first non-all-null page and the largest is the `max` of the
+        // last page.
+        let (min, max) = if lookup.search_start >= num_rows {
+            (None, None)
+        } else {
+            let min = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::try_from_array(
+                batch.column(0),
+                lookup.search_start,
+            )?);
+            let max =
+                OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::try_from_array(batch.column(1), num_rows - 1)?);
+            (Some(min), Some(max))
+        };
         serde_json::to_value(&BTreeStatistics {
-            num_pages: self.page_lookup.tree.len() as u32,
+            num_pages: num_rows as u32,
             min,
             max,
         })
@@ -1448,10 +2467,13 @@ impl Index for BTreeIndex {
 
         let lazy_reader = LazyIndexReader::new(self.store.clone(), self.ranges_to_files.clone());
         let sub_index_reader = lazy_reader.get().await?;
-        let mut reader_stream = IndexReaderStream::new(sub_index_reader, self.batch_size)
-            .await
-            .buffered(self.store.io_parallelism());
-        while let Some(serialized) = reader_stream.try_next().await? {
+        let mut pages = Self::page_stream(
+            sub_index_reader,
+            self.batch_size,
+            self.store.io_parallelism(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        while let Some((_, serialized)) = pages.try_next().await? {
             let page = FlatIndex::try_new(serialized)?;
             frag_ids |= page.calculate_included_frags()?;
         }
@@ -1460,63 +2482,13 @@ impl Index for BTreeIndex {
     }
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndex for BTreeIndex {
-    async fn search(
-        &self,
-        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
-        let query = query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
-        let pages = match query {
-            SargableQuery::Equals(val) => self
-                .page_lookup
-                .pages_eq(&OrderableScalarValue(val.clone())),
-            SargableQuery::Range(start, end) => self
-                .page_lookup
-                .pages_between((wrap_bound(start).as_ref(), wrap_bound(end).as_ref())),
-            SargableQuery::IsIn(values) => self
-                .page_lookup
-                .pages_in(values.iter().map(|val| OrderableScalarValue(val.clone()))),
-            SargableQuery::FullTextSearch(_) => return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "full text search is not supported for BTree index, build a inverted index for it",
-                location!(),
-            )),
-            SargableQuery::IsNull() => self.page_lookup.pages_null(),
-        };
-
-        let lazy_index_reader =
-            LazyIndexReader::new(self.store.clone(), self.ranges_to_files.clone());
-        let page_tasks = pages
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|page_index| {
-                self.search_page(query, page_index, lazy_index_reader.clone(), metrics)
-                    .boxed()
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        debug!("Searching {} btree pages", page_tasks.len());
-
-        // Collect both matching row IDs and null row IDs from all pages
-        let results: Vec<NullableRowAddrSet> = stream::iter(page_tasks)
-            // I/O and compute mixed here but important case is index in cache so
-            // use compute intensive thread count
-            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
-            .try_collect()
-            .await?;
-
-        // Merge matching row IDs
-        let selection = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&results);
-
-        Ok(SearchResult::Exact(selection))
-    }
-
-    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
-        true
-    }
-
-    async fn remap(
+impl BTreeIndex {
+    /// The one remap implementation behind the legacy `remap` and
+    /// `remap_streaming`: retrains each part from its pages, translating one
+    /// page's addresses at a time.
+    async fn remap_with(
         &self,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: RowAddrTranslator,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         // (part_id, path)
@@ -1536,8 +2508,9 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BTreeIndex {
                 vec![(None, BTREE_PAGES_NAME)]
             };
 
-        let mapping = Arc::new(mapping.clone());
+        let mapping = mapping.clone();
         let train_schema = Arc::new(self.train_schema());
+        let mut remapped_files = Vec::new();
 
         // TODO: Could potentially parallelize this across parts, unclear it would be worth it
         for (part_id, page_file) in part_page_files {
@@ -1548,27 +2521,37 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BTreeIndex {
             let train_schema_clone = train_schema.clone();
             let train_schema = train_schema.clone();
 
-            let remapped_stream = IndexReaderStream::new(sub_index_reader, self.batch_size)
-                .await
-                .buffered(self.store.io_parallelism())
-                .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
-                .and_then(move |batch| {
-                    // Remap the batch and then convert from the serialized schema to the training input schema
-                    let remapped =
-                        FlatIndex::remap_batch(batch, &mapping).map_err(DataFusionError::from);
-                    let with_train_schema = remapped.and_then(|batch| {
-                        RecordBatch::try_new(train_schema.clone(), batch.columns().to_vec())
-                            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
-                    });
-                    std::future::ready(with_train_schema)
-                });
+            let remapped_stream = Self::page_stream(
+                sub_index_reader,
+                self.batch_size,
+                self.store.io_parallelism(),
+            )
+            .await?
+            .map_ok(|(_, batch)| batch)
+            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+            .and_then(move |batch| {
+                let mapping = mapping.clone();
+                let train_schema = train_schema.clone();
+                async move {
+                    // Translate one page's addresses, then convert from the
+                    // serialized schema to the training input schema.
+                    let remapped = FlatIndex::remap_batch_with(batch, &mapping)
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(DataFusionError::from)?;
+                    RecordBatch::try_new(train_schema, remapped.columns().to_vec())
+                        .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+                }
+            });
 
             let remapped_stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
                 train_schema_clone,
                 remapped_stream,
             ));
 
-            train_btree_index(remapped_stream, dest_store, self.batch_size, None, part_id).await?;
+            let mut files =
+                train_btree_index(remapped_stream, dest_store, self.batch_size, None, part_id)
+                    .await?;
+            remapped_files.append(&mut files);
         }
 
         if let Some(ranges_to_files) = &self.ranges_to_files {
@@ -1580,71 +2563,277 @@ impl ScalarIndex for BTreeIndex {
             let lookup_files = (0..num_parts)
                 .map(|part_id| part_lookup_file_path((part_id as u64) << 32))
                 .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            merge_metadata_files(dest_store, &page_files, &lookup_files, None).await?;
+            let merged_files = merge_metadata_files(
+                dest_store,
+                &page_files,
+                &lookup_files,
+                None,
+                noop_progress(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            remapped_files.retain(|file| file.path.ends_with("_page_data.lance"));
+            remapped_files.extend(merged_files);
         }
 
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default())
                 .unwrap(),
             index_version: BTREE_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: remapped_files,
         })
     }
+}
 
-    async fn update(
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndex for BTreeIndex {
+    async fn search(
         &self,
-        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        // Merge the existing index data with the new data and then retrain the index on the merged stream
-        let merged_data_source = self
-            .clone()
-            .combine_old_new(new_data, self.batch_size)
-            .await?;
-        train_btree_index(merged_data_source, dest_store, self.batch_size, None, None).await?;
-
-        Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
-            index_version: BTREE_INDEX_VERSION,
-        })
-    }
-
-    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
-        UpdateCriteria::only_new_data(TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::Values).with_row_id())
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        self.search_with_options(query, SearchOptions::default(), metrics)
+            .await
     }
 
-    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
-        let params = serde_json::to_value(BTreeParameters {
-            zone_size: Some(self.batch_size),
-            range_id: None,
-        })?;
-        Ok(ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree).with_params(&params))
-    }
-}
+    async fn search_with_options(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        options: SearchOptions,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        let query = query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+        let mut pages = match query {
+            SargableQuery::Equals(val) => self
+                .page_lookup
+                .pages_eq(&OrderableScalarValue(val.clone())),
+            SargableQuery::Range(start, end) => self
+                .page_lookup
+                .pages_between((wrap_bound(start).as_ref(), wrap_bound(end).as_ref())),
+            SargableQuery::IsIn(values) => self
+                .page_lookup
+                .pages_in(values.iter().map(|val| OrderableScalarValue(val.clone()))),
+            SargableQuery::FullTextSearch(_) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "full text search is not supported for BTree index, build a inverted index for it",
+                ));
+            }
+            SargableQuery::IsNull() => Ok(self.page_lookup.pages_null()),
+            SargableQuery::LikePrefix(prefix) => {
+                // Convert LikePrefix to a range query: [prefix, next_prefix)
+                match prefix {
+                    ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s)) => {
+                        let start = Bound::Included(OrderableScalarValue(prefix.clone()));
+                        let end = match compute_next_prefix(s) {
+                            Some(next) => {
+                                Bound::Excluded(OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(next))))
+                            }
+                            None => Bound::Unbounded,
+                        };
+                        self.page_lookup
+                            .pages_between((start.as_ref(), end.as_ref()))
+                    }
+                    ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(s)) => {
+                        let start = Bound::Included(OrderableScalarValue(prefix.clone()));
+                        let end = match compute_next_prefix(s) {
+                            Some(next) => Bound::Excluded(OrderableScalarValue(
+                                ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(next)),
+                            )),
+                            None => Bound::Unbounded,
+                        };
+                        self.page_lookup
+                            .pages_between((start.as_ref(), end.as_ref()))
+                    }
+                    _ => {
+                        // Conservative: return all pages for non-string types
+                        // This is consistent with ZoneMap behavior
+                        self.page_lookup
+                            .pages_between((Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Unbounded))
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }?;
+
+        // For non-IsNull queries, also include null pages so that null row IDs
+        // are tracked in the result. Any comparison with NULL yields NULL, and
+        // we need this information for correct three-valued logic (e.g. NOT,
+        // OR). Without this, a query like `NOT(x = 0)` on data where 0 doesn't
+        // exist would incorrectly include NULL rows.
+        //
+        // We add them as Matches::Some (not Matches::All) so that
+        // FlatIndex::search() evaluates the predicate and correctly marks
+        // the rows as NULL rather than TRUE.
+        //
+        // TODO: the lookup batch retains a per-page `null_count`. A fully-covered
+        // page with zero nulls is a true Matches::All, while one with nulls needs
+        // Matches::Some only to track the null rows; surfacing `null_count` here
+        // could refine that classification (see #6802).
+        if options.track_nulls() && !matches!(query, SargableQuery::IsNull()) {
+            let existing: HashSet<u32> = pages.iter().map(|m| m.page_id()).collect();
+            for &page_id in self
+                .page_lookup
+                .null_pages
+                .iter()
+                .chain(self.page_lookup.all_null_pages.iter())
+            {
+                if !existing.contains(&page_id) {
+                    pages.push(Matches::Some(page_id));
+                }
+            }
+        }
 
-struct BatchStats {
-    min: ScalarValue,
-    max: ScalarValue,
-    null_count: u32,
-}
+        // Compile a large IsIn predicate once and reuse it across every page;
+        // rebuilding the full IN-list per page is O(pages * values) and dominates
+        // the lookup for sets with many values.
+        let prebuilt = match query {
+            SargableQuery::IsIn(_) => Some(self.compile_predicate(query)?),
+            _ => None,
+        };
 
-fn analyze_batch(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<BatchStats> {
+        let lazy_index_reader =
+            LazyIndexReader::new(self.store.clone(), self.ranges_to_files.clone());
+        // Decide the whole page set before loading any of it, so the pages
+        // that are not cached can be fetched together rather than one
+        // request each - in fixed-size chunks (PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE), so
+        // peak memory and in-flight I/O stay bounded instead of growing with
+        // the query. A missing page is searched as soon as its chunk is
+        // read, not via a follow-up cache lookup, so a small or absent index
+        // cache still gets the coalesced I/O (see `search_missing_pages`).
+        let (cached_pages, missing_pages) = self.partition_cached_pages(pages).await;
+        let missing_results = self
+            .search_missing_pages(
+                &missing_pages,
+                &lazy_index_reader,
+                query,
+                prebuilt.as_ref(),
+                options.track_nulls(),
+                metrics,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let page_tasks = cached_pages
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|page_index| {
+                self.search_page(
+                    query,
+                    page_index,
+                    lazy_index_reader.clone(),
+                    prebuilt.as_ref(),
+                    options.track_nulls(),
+                    metrics,
+                )
+                .boxed()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        debug!(
+            "Searching {} btree pages ({} prefetched)",
+            page_tasks.len() + missing_results.len(),
+            missing_results.len()
+        );
+
+        // Collect both matching row IDs and null row IDs from all pages
+        let mut results: Vec<PageMatches> = stream::iter(page_tasks)
+            // I/O and compute mixed here but important case is index in cache so
+            // use compute intensive thread count
+            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .try_collect()
+            .await?;
+        results.extend(missing_results);
+
+        // Assemble the result once. A page holds rows sorted by value, so its
+        // ids are scattered across fragments; a per-page `RowAddrTreeMap`
+        // would be `pages x fragments` tiny bitmaps to allocate and then
+        // union. Instead each page's sorted id array is bucketed by fragment
+        // and one bitmap is built per fragment.
+        //
+        // Every row lives on exactly one page, so a row that is TRUE on its
+        // page is never NULL on another; the union of the per-page null sets
+        // is therefore already the final null set and needs no subtraction
+        // (which is what `NullableRowAddrSet::union_all` would otherwise do).
+        let selected = RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_runs(results.iter().map(PageMatches::selected));
+        let nulls = if options.track_nulls() {
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_runs(results.iter().map(PageMatches::nulls))
+        } else {
+            RowAddrTreeMap::new()
+        };
+
+        Ok(SearchResult::Exact(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
+            selected, nulls,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn remap(
+        &self,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        // The page streams are `'static`, so the map is shared through an
+        // owned translator (the same clone this method always made).
+        self.remap_with(RowAddrTranslator::sync(mapping.clone()), dest_store)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        self.remap_with(translator.clone(), dest_store).await
+    }
+
+    async fn update(
+        &self,
+        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filter: Option<OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        // Updating is the single-segment case of a segment merge: union this
+        // index's data with `new_data`, re-sort on value, and retrain.
+        Self::merge_segments(
+            &[Arc::new(self.clone())],
+            new_data,
+            dest_store,
+            &[old_data_filter],
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
+        UpdateCriteria::only_new_data(TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::Values).with_row_id())
+    }
+
+    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
+        let params = serde_json::to_value(BTreeParameters {
+            zone_size: Some(self.batch_size),
+            range_id: None,
+        })?;
+        Ok(ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree).with_params(&params))
+    }
+
+    fn training_data_type(&self) -> Option<DataType> {
+        Some(self.data_type.clone())
+    }
+}
+
+struct BatchStats {
+    min: ScalarValue,
+    max: ScalarValue,
+    null_count: u32,
+}
+
+fn analyze_batch(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<BatchStats> {
     let values = batch.column_by_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME).expect_ok()?;
     if values.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: "received an empty batch in btree training".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "received an empty batch in btree training".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
-    let min = ScalarValue::try_from_array(&values, 0).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-        message: format!("failed to get min value from batch: {}", e),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
-    let max =
-        ScalarValue::try_from_array(&values, values.len() - 1).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("failed to get max value from batch: {}", e),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+    let min = ScalarValue::try_from_array(&values, 0)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("failed to get min value from batch: {}", e)))?;
+    let max = ScalarValue::try_from_array(&values, values.len() - 1)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("failed to get max value from batch: {}", e)))?;
 
     Ok(BatchStats {
         min,
@@ -1677,7 +2866,7 @@ pub trait BTreeSubIndex: Debug + Send + Sync + DeepSizeOf {
     async fn remap_subindex(
         &self,
         serialized: RecordBatch,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch>;
 }
 
@@ -1749,7 +2938,7 @@ pub async fn train_btree_index(
     batch_size: u64,
     fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
     range_id: Option<u32>,
-) -> Result<()> {
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
     // Create `partition_id` for distributed index building.
     // This ID serves as a high-level mask (first 32 bits of a u64) to ensure
     // that index partitions generated by different workers do not conflict.
@@ -1814,7 +3003,7 @@ pub async fn train_btree_index(
         );
         batch_idx += 1;
     }
-    sub_index_file.finish().await?;
+    let pages_file = sub_index_file.finish().await?;
     let record_batch = btree_stats_as_batch(encoded_batches, &value_type)?;
     let mut file_schema = record_batch.schema().as_ref().clone();
     file_schema
@@ -1840,67 +3029,49 @@ pub async fn train_btree_index(
         }
     };
     btree_index_file.write_record_batch(record_batch).await?;
-    btree_index_file.finish().await?;
-    Ok(())
+    let lookup_file = btree_index_file.finish().await?;
+    Ok(vec![pages_file, lookup_file])
 }
 
-pub async fn merge_index_files(
-    object_store: &ObjectStore,
-    index_dir: &Path,
-    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-    batch_readhead: Option<usize>,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    // List all partition page / lookup files in the index directory
-    let (part_page_files, part_lookup_files) =
-        list_page_lookup_files(object_store, index_dir).await?;
-    merge_metadata_files(
-        store.as_ref(),
-        &part_page_files,
-        &part_lookup_files,
-        batch_readhead,
-    )
-    .await
-}
+fn find_single_partition_files(files: &[super::IndexFile]) -> Result<Option<(&str, &str)>> {
+    let lookup_files = files
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|file| {
+            (file.path.starts_with("part_") && file.path.ends_with("_page_lookup.lance"))
+                .then_some(file.path.as_str())
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let page_files = files
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|file| {
+            (file.path.starts_with("part_") && file.path.ends_with("_page_data.lance"))
+                .then_some(file.path.as_str())
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-/// List and filter files from the index directory
-/// Returns (page_files, lookup_files)
-async fn list_page_lookup_files(
-    object_store: &ObjectStore,
-    index_dir: &Path,
-) -> Result<(Vec<String>, Vec<String>)> {
-    let mut part_page_files = Vec::new();
-    let mut part_lookup_files = Vec::new();
-
-    let mut list_stream = object_store.list(Some(index_dir.clone()));
-
-    while let Some(item) = list_stream.next().await {
-        match item {
-            Ok(meta) => {
-                let file_name = meta.location.filename().unwrap_or_default();
-                // Filter files matching the pattern part_*_page_data.lance
-                if file_name.starts_with("part_") && file_name.ends_with("_page_data.lance") {
-                    part_page_files.push(file_name.to_string());
-                }
-                // Filter files matching the pattern part_*_page_lookup.lance
-                if file_name.starts_with("part_") && file_name.ends_with("_page_lookup.lance") {
-                    part_lookup_files.push(file_name.to_string());
-                }
-            }
-            Err(_) => continue,
-        }
+    if lookup_files.len() != 1 || page_files.len() != 1 {
+        return Ok(None);
     }
 
-    if part_page_files.is_empty() || part_lookup_files.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!(
-                "No partition metadata files found in index directory: {} (page_files: {}, lookup_files: {})",
-                index_dir, part_page_files.len(), part_lookup_files.len()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+    let lookup_partition_id = extract_partition_id(lookup_files[0])?;
+    let page_partition_id = extract_partition_id(page_files[0])?;
+    if lookup_partition_id != page_partition_id {
+        return Ok(None);
     }
 
-    Ok((part_page_files, part_lookup_files))
+    Ok(Some((lookup_files[0], page_files[0])))
+}
+
+fn is_missing_lookup_error(err: &Error) -> bool {
+    matches!(err, Error::NotFound { .. })
+        || matches!(
+            err,
+            Error::IO { source, .. }
+                if source
+                    .downcast_ref::<ObjectStoreError>()
+                    .map(|os_err| matches!(os_err, ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }))
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+        )
 }
 
 /// Merge multiple partition page / lookup files into a complete metadata file
@@ -1914,24 +3085,21 @@ async fn merge_metadata_files(
     part_page_files: &[String],
     part_lookup_files: &[String],
     batch_readhead: Option<usize>,
-) -> Result<()> {
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
     if part_lookup_files.is_empty() || part_page_files.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: "No partition files provided for merging".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "No partition files provided for merging".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     // Step 1: Create lookup map for page files by partition ID
     if part_lookup_files.len() != part_page_files.len() {
-        return Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!(
-                "Number of partition lookup files ({}) does not match number of partition page files ({})",
-                part_lookup_files.len(),
-                part_page_files.len()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Number of partition lookup files ({}) does not match number of partition page files ({})",
+            part_lookup_files.len(),
+            part_page_files.len()
+        )));
     }
     let mut page_files_map = HashMap::new();
     for page_file in part_page_files {
@@ -1943,13 +3111,10 @@ async fn merge_metadata_files(
     for lookup_file in part_lookup_files {
         let partition_id = extract_partition_id(lookup_file)?;
         if !page_files_map.contains_key(&partition_id) {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "No corresponding page file found for lookup file: {} (partition_id: {})",
-                    lookup_file, partition_id
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "No corresponding page file found for lookup file: {} (partition_id: {})",
+                lookup_file, partition_id
+            )));
         }
     }
 
@@ -1994,8 +3159,10 @@ async fn merge_metadata_files(
             metadata,
             batch_size,
             batch_readhead,
+            progress,
         )
         .await
+        .map(|file| vec![file])
     } else {
         merge_pages_and_lookups(
             store,
@@ -2006,6 +3173,7 @@ async fn merge_metadata_files(
             metadata,
             batch_size,
             batch_readhead,
+            progress,
         )
         .await
     }
@@ -2047,7 +3215,8 @@ async fn merge_range_partitioned_lookups(
     mut metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
     batch_size: u64,
     batch_readhead: Option<usize>,
-) -> Result<()> {
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<IndexFile> {
     let sorted_part_lookup_files = sort_files_by_partition_id(part_lookup_files)?;
     let mut lookup_file = store
         .new_index_file(BTREE_LOOKUP_NAME, lookup_schema)
@@ -2057,17 +3226,32 @@ async fn merge_range_partitioned_lookups(
     let mut pages_per_file: Vec<(u64, u32)> = Vec::with_capacity(sorted_part_lookup_files.len());
     let mut num_pages_written = 0u32;
 
-    for (part_id, part_lookup_file) in sorted_part_lookup_files {
+    progress
+        .stage_start(
+            "merge_lookups",
+            Some(sorted_part_lookup_files.len() as u64),
+            "files",
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+    for (idx, (part_id, part_lookup_file)) in sorted_part_lookup_files.into_iter().enumerate() {
         let lookup_reader = store.open_index_file(&part_lookup_file).await?;
-        let reader_stream = IndexReaderStream::new(lookup_reader.clone(), batch_size).await;
-        let mut stream = reader_stream.buffered(batch_readhead.unwrap_or(1)).boxed();
-        while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
-            let original_batch = batch?;
+        let mut stream = lookup_reader
+            .clone()
+            .read_record_batch_stream(
+                batch_size,
+                u32::try_from(batch_readhead.unwrap_or(1)).unwrap_or(u32::MAX),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        while let Some(original_batch) = stream.try_next().await? {
             let modified_batch = add_offset_to_page_idx(&original_batch, num_pages_written)?;
             lookup_file.write_record_batch(modified_batch).await?;
         }
         pages_per_file.push((part_id, lookup_reader.num_rows() as u32));
         num_pages_written += lookup_reader.num_rows() as u32;
+        progress
+            .stage_progress("merge_lookups", idx as u64 + 1)
+            .await?;
     }
 
     metadata.insert(RANGE_PARTITIONED_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
@@ -2076,11 +3260,12 @@ async fn merge_range_partitioned_lookups(
         serde_json::to_string(&pages_per_file)?,
     );
 
-    lookup_file.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await?;
+    let lookup_file = lookup_file.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("merge_lookups").await?;
 
     // In this mode, we only clean up lookup files, and page files are untouched.
     cleanup_partition_files(store, part_lookup_files, &[]).await;
-    Ok(())
+    Ok(lookup_file)
 }
 
 /// Merges partition files using a K-way sort-merge algorithm.
@@ -2098,7 +3283,8 @@ async fn merge_pages_and_lookups(
     metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
     batch_size: u64,
     batch_readhead: Option<usize>,
-) -> Result<()> {
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
     // Create a new global page file
     let partition_id = extract_partition_id(part_lookup_files[0].as_str())?;
     let page_file = page_files_map.get(&partition_id).unwrap();
@@ -2109,7 +3295,7 @@ async fn merge_pages_and_lookups(
     let mut page_file = store
         .new_index_file(BTREE_PAGES_NAME, arrow_schema.clone())
         .await?;
-
+    progress.stage_start("merge_pages", None, "pages").await?;
     let lookup_entries = merge_pages(
         part_lookup_files,
         page_files_map,
@@ -2118,9 +3304,11 @@ async fn merge_pages_and_lookups(
         &mut page_file,
         arrow_schema.clone(),
         batch_readhead,
+        progress.clone(),
     )
     .await?;
-    page_file.finish().await?;
+    let page_file = page_file.finish().await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("merge_pages").await?;
 
     let lookup_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
         lookup_schema.clone(),
@@ -2140,33 +3328,32 @@ async fn merge_pages_and_lookups(
     let mut lookup_file = store
         .new_index_file(BTREE_LOOKUP_NAME, lookup_schema)
         .await?;
+    progress
+        .stage_start("write_lookup_file", Some(1), "files")
+        .await?;
     lookup_file.write_record_batch(lookup_batch).await?;
-    lookup_file.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await?;
+    let lookup_file = lookup_file.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await?;
+    progress.stage_progress("write_lookup_file", 1).await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("write_lookup_file").await?;
 
     // After successfully writing the merged files, delete all partition files
     // Only perform deletion after files are successfully written, ensuring debug information is not lost in case of failure
     cleanup_partition_files(store, part_lookup_files, part_page_files).await;
 
-    Ok(())
+    Ok(vec![page_file, lookup_file])
 }
 
 // Adjust local_page_idx_ in each look-up file to create a contiguous global_page_idx
 fn add_offset_to_page_idx(batch: &RecordBatch, offset: u32) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-    let (page_idx_pos, _) =
-        batch
-            .schema()
-            .column_with_name("page_idx")
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Column 'page_idx' not found in RecordBatch schema".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+    let (page_idx_pos, _) = batch.schema().column_with_name("page_idx").ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal("Column 'page_idx' not found in RecordBatch schema".to_string())
+    })?;
     let page_idx_array = batch
         .column(page_idx_pos)
         .as_any()
         .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-            message: "Failed to downcast 'page_idx' column to UInt32Array".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Failed to downcast 'page_idx' column to UInt32Array".to_string())
         })?;
     let offset_array = UInt32Array::from(vec![offset; page_idx_array.len()]);
     let new_page_idx_array_ref = add(page_idx_array, &offset_array)?;
@@ -2178,6 +3365,7 @@ fn add_offset_to_page_idx(batch: &RecordBatch, offset: u32) -> Result<RecordBatc
 
 /// Merge pages using Datafusion's SortPreservingMergeExec
 /// which implements a K-way merge algorithm with fixed-size output batches
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 async fn merge_pages(
     part_lookup_files: &[String],
     page_files_map: &HashMap<u64, &String>,
@@ -2186,6 +3374,7 @@ async fn merge_pages(
     page_file: &mut Box<dyn IndexWriter>,
     arrow_schema: Arc<Schema>,
     batch_readhead: Option<usize>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
 ) -> Result<Vec<(ScalarValue, ScalarValue, u32, u32)>> {
     let mut lookup_entries = Vec::new();
     let mut page_idx = 0u32;
@@ -2203,22 +3392,23 @@ async fn merge_pages(
     let mut inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = Vec::new();
     for lookup_file in part_lookup_files {
         let partition_id = extract_partition_id(lookup_file)?;
-        let page_file_name =
-            (*page_files_map
-                .get(&partition_id)
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Page file not found for partition ID: {}", partition_id),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?)
-            .clone();
+        let page_file_name = (*page_files_map.get(&partition_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Page file not found for partition ID: {}",
+                partition_id
+            ))
+        })?)
+        .clone();
 
         let reader = store.open_index_file(&page_file_name).await?;
 
-        let reader_stream = IndexReaderStream::new(reader, batch_size).await;
-
-        let stream = reader_stream
-            .map(|fut| fut.map_err(DataFusionError::from))
-            .buffered(batch_readhead.unwrap_or(1))
+        let stream = reader
+            .read_record_batch_stream(
+                batch_size,
+                u32::try_from(batch_readhead.unwrap_or(1)).unwrap_or(u32::MAX),
+            )
+            .await?
+            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
             .boxed();
 
         let sendable_stream =
@@ -2270,6 +3460,9 @@ async fn merge_pages(
 
         lookup_entries.push((min_val, max_val, null_count, page_idx));
         page_idx += 1;
+        progress
+            .stage_progress("merge_pages", page_idx as u64)
+            .await?;
     }
 
     Ok(lookup_entries)
@@ -2296,23 +3489,25 @@ fn sort_files_by_partition_id(part_files: &[String]) -> Result<Vec<(u64, String)
 /// Expected format: "part_{partition_id}_{suffix}.lance"
 fn extract_partition_id(filename: &str) -> Result<u64> {
     if !filename.starts_with("part_") {
-        return Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("Invalid partition file name format: {}", filename),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Invalid partition file name format: {}",
+            filename
+        )));
     }
 
     let parts: Vec<&str> = filename.split('_').collect();
     if parts.len() < 3 {
-        return Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("Invalid partition file name format: {}", filename),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Invalid partition file name format: {}",
+            filename
+        )));
     }
 
-    parts[1].parse::<u64>().map_err(|_| Error::Internal {
-        message: format!("Failed to parse partition ID from filename: {}", filename),
-        location: location!(),
+    parts[1].parse::<u64>().map_err(|_| {
+        Error::internal(format!(
+            "Failed to parse partition ID from filename: {}",
+            filename
+        ))
     })
 }
 
@@ -2392,82 +3587,25 @@ pub(crate) fn part_lookup_file_path(partition_id: u64) -> String {
     format!("part_{}_{}", partition_id, BTREE_LOOKUP_NAME)
 }
 
-/// A stream that reads the original training data back out of the index
-///
-/// This is used for updating the index
-struct IndexReaderStream {
-    reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
-    batch_size: u64,
-    num_batches: u32,
-    batch_idx: u32,
-}
-
-impl IndexReaderStream {
-    async fn new(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>, batch_size: u64) -> Self {
-        let num_batches = reader.num_batches(batch_size).await;
-        Self {
-            reader,
-            batch_size,
-            num_batches,
-            batch_idx: 0,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl Stream for IndexReaderStream {
-    type Item = BoxFuture<'static, Result<RecordBatch>>;
-
-    fn poll_next(
-        self: std::pin::Pin<&mut Self>,
-        _cx: &mut std::task::Context<'_>,
-    ) -> std::task::Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
-        let this = self.get_mut();
-        if this.batch_idx >= this.num_batches {
-            return std::task::Poll::Ready(None);
-        }
-        let batch_num = this.batch_idx;
-        this.batch_idx += 1;
-        let reader_copy = this.reader.clone();
-        let batch_size = this.batch_size;
-        let read_task = async move {
-            reader_copy
-                .read_record_batch(batch_num as u64, batch_size)
-                .await
-        }
-        .boxed();
-        std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(read_task))
-    }
-}
-
 /// Parameters for a btree index
 #[derive(Debug, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 pub struct BTreeParameters {
     /// The number of rows to include in each zone
     pub zone_size: Option<u64>,
 
-    /// The ordinal ID of a data partition for building a large, distributed BTree index.
-    ///
-    /// When building an index from multiple, pre-partitioned data chunks (for example,
-    /// in a distributed environment), this ID specifies which partition this particular
-    /// build operation corresponds to.
-    ///
-    /// # Data Distribution Requirements
-    ///
-    /// If this parameter is `Some(id)`, the caller **must** guarantee that the input data
-    /// is strictly global sorted. The input data, when considered as a whole across all
-    /// partitions ordered by `range_id`, must be sorted.
-    ///
-    /// Concretely, this means:
-    ///
-    /// All values in the data provided for `range_id: N` must be **less than or equal to**
-    /// all values in the data for `range_id: N+1`.
-    ///
-    /// Lance relies on this precondition to ensure the final, merged index is valid and
-    /// correctly ordered.
-    ///
-    /// # `None` Case
+    /// DEPRECATED: range-based distributed BTree building has been retired.
+    /// Setting this to `Some(..)` now emits a warning and is ignored at build time
+    /// (see `BTreeIndexPlugin::train_index`). Build one segment per worker and
+    /// commit them with `commit_existing_index_segments(...)`, optionally
+    /// consolidating with `merge_existing_index_segments(...)`. The field is
+    /// retained (rather than removed) so the plugin can detect stale `range_id`
+    /// inputs and warn loudly instead of serde silently dropping an unknown field.
     ///
-    /// If `range_id` is `None`, a single, monolithic index is built over the provided dataset.
+    /// Historically, this was the ordinal ID of a globally sorted range
+    /// partition. Lance used it to write `part_*` BTree files that were later
+    /// merged by `merge_index_metadata`. That flow has been retired. A
+    /// pre-sorted training stream is still accepted, but this field no longer
+    /// affects file names, commit behavior, or query semantics.
     pub range_id: Option<u32>,
 }
 
@@ -2500,121 +3638,241 @@ impl TrainingRequest for BTreeTrainingRequest {
 pub struct BTreeIndexPlugin;
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BTreeIndexPlugin {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "BTree"
-    }
-
+impl BasicTrainer for BTreeIndexPlugin {
     fn new_training_request(
         &self,
         params: &str,
         field: &Field,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
         if field.data_type().is_nested() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "A btree index can only be created on a non-nested field.".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "A btree index can only be created on a non-nested field.".into(),
+            ));
         }
 
         let params = serde_json::from_str::<BTreeParameters>(params)?;
         Ok(Box::new(BTreeTrainingRequest::new(params)))
     }
 
-    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
-        true
-    }
-
-    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
-        BTREE_INDEX_VERSION
-    }
-
-    fn new_query_parser(
-        &self,
-        index_name: String,
-        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
-        Some(Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(index_name, false)))
-    }
-
     async fn train_index(
         &self,
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
-        fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         let request = request
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<BTreeTrainingRequest>()
             .unwrap();
-        train_btree_index(
+        if request.parameters.range_id.is_some() {
+            // `range_id` is deprecated and now ignored. A pre-sorted data stream is
+            // still supported (pass it as the training data), but `range_id` no longer
+            // needs to be set: each build now produces one canonical segment, and
+            // distribution is handled by the segmented-index APIs. The field will be
+            // removed in a future release.
+            warn!(
+                "BTree `range_id` is deprecated and now ignored; a pre-sorted data \
+                 stream is still supported, but `range_id` no longer needs to be passed. \
+                 Use the segmented-index APIs instead (build per-fragment segments, then \
+                 commit_existing_index_segments(...) / merge_existing_index_segments(...)). \
+                 The `range_id` field will be removed in a future release."
+            );
+        }
+        let files = train_btree_index(
             data,
             index_store,
             request
                 .parameters
                 .zone_size
                 .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE),
-            fragment_ids,
-            request.parameters.range_id,
+            None,
+            None,
         )
         .await?;
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default())
                 .unwrap(),
             index_version: BTREE_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
         })
     }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for BTreeIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "BTree"
+    }
+
+    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
+        BTREE_INDEX_VERSION
+    }
+
+    fn new_query_parser(
+        &self,
+        index_name: String,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
+        Some(Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+            index_name,
+            self.name().to_string(),
+            false,
+        )))
+    }
 
     async fn load_index(
         &self,
         index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
         Ok(BTreeIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await? as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
     }
+
+    fn supports_batch_row_id_remapping(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn load_index_with_remapping(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        Ok(BTreeIndex::load_with_remapping(index_store, remapping, cache).await?)
+    }
+
+    async fn get_from_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>> {
+        let Some(state) = cache.get_with_key(&BTreeIndexStateKey).await else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        Ok(Some(state.reconstruct(
+            index_store,
+            cache,
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )?))
+    }
+
+    async fn put_in_cache(
+        &self,
+        _index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let state = BTreeIndexState::from_index(index.as_ref())?;
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&BTreeIndexStateKey, Arc::new(state))
+            .await;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn get_or_insert_in_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        load: ScalarIndexLoad<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        single_flight_open(
+            cache,
+            BTreeIndexStateKey,
+            load,
+            BTreeIndexState::from_index,
+            move |state| state.reconstruct(index_store, cache, frag_reuse_index),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
     use std::sync::atomic::Ordering;
-    use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+    use std::{collections::HashMap, ops::Bound, sync::Arc};
 
     use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, Float64Type, Int32Type, UInt64Type};
-    use arrow_array::{record_batch, FixedSizeListArray};
+    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, record_batch};
     use datafusion::{
         execution::{SendableRecordBatchStream, TaskContext},
-        physical_plan::{sorts::sort::SortExec, stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter, ExecutionPlan},
+        physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, sorts::sort::SortExec, stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter},
     };
     use datafusion_common::{DataFusionError, ScalarValue};
-    use datafusion_physical_expr::{expressions::col, PhysicalSortExpr};
-    use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-    use futures::stream;
+    use datafusion_physical_expr::{PhysicalSortExpr, expressions::col};
     use futures::TryStreamExt;
-    use lance_core::utils::mask::RowSetOps;
+    use futures::stream;
+    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+    use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+    use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
-    use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap};
     use lance_datafusion::{chunker::break_stream, datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
     use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
     use object_store::path::Path;
 
+    use crate::Index;
     use crate::metrics::LocalMetricsCollector;
+    use crate::progress::{IndexBuildProgress, noop_progress};
     use crate::{
         metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
         scalar::{
-            btree::{BTreeIndex, BTREE_PAGES_NAME},
+            IndexStore, OldIndexDataFilter, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchOptions,
+            SearchResult,
+            btree::{BTREE_PAGES_NAME, BTreeIndex},
             lance_format::LanceIndexStore,
-            IndexStore, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
         },
     };
 
     use super::{
-        part_lookup_file_path, part_page_data_file_path, train_btree_index, OrderableScalarValue,
-        DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+        BTreeIndexPlugin, BTreeIndexState, BTreeLookup, BTreePageKey, DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+        Matches, OrderableScalarValue, PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE, part_lookup_file_path,
+        part_page_data_file_path, train_btree_index,
     };
+    use crate::scalar::registry::ScalarIndexPlugin;
+    use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+    use lance_core::cache::{CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter, CacheKey};
+
+    /// Serialize a `BTreeIndexState` body (no envelope) for tests.
+    fn serialize_state(state: &BTreeIndexState) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        state
+            .serialize(&mut CacheEntryWriter::new(&mut buf))
+            .unwrap();
+        buf
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize a `BTreeIndexState` body (no envelope) for tests.
+    fn deserialize_state(buf: Vec<u8>) -> lance_core::Result<BTreeIndexState> {
+        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(buf);
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, BTreeIndexState::CURRENT_VERSION);
+        BTreeIndexState::deserialize(&mut reader)
+    }
+    use rangemap::RangeInclusiveMap;
+
+    lance_testing::define_stage_event_progress!(
+        RecordingProgress,
+        IndexBuildProgress,
+        lance_core::Result<()>
+    );
     #[test]
     fn test_scalar_value_size() {
         let size_of_i32 = OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))).deep_size_of();
@@ -2631,6 +3889,37 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(size_of_many_i32 > 128 * 4);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_orderable_dictionary_cmp() {
+        use arrow_schema::DataType;
+        use std::cmp::Ordering;
+
+        let dict = |s: &str, key: DataType| {
+            OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Dictionary(
+                Box::new(key),
+                Box::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s.to_string()))),
+            ))
+        };
+
+        // Dictionary scalars are ordered by their underlying value, regardless
+        // of the key type. This is exercised when loading a scalar index built
+        // on a dictionary-encoded column into a BTreeMap.
+        assert_eq!(
+            dict("a", DataType::Int16).cmp(&dict("b", DataType::Int16)),
+            Ordering::Less
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dict("b", DataType::Int32).cmp(&dict("b", DataType::Int16)),
+            Ordering::Equal
+        );
+
+        // A non-null dictionary value sorts after null.
+        assert_eq!(
+            dict("a", DataType::Int16).cmp(&OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Null)),
+            Ordering::Greater
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_null_ids() {
         let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
@@ -2668,7 +3957,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Remap with a no-op mapping.  The remapped index should be identical to the original
         index
-            .remap(&HashMap::default(), remap_store.as_ref())
+            .remap(&RowAddrRemap::empty(), remap_store.as_ref())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -2749,7 +4038,7 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_page_cache() {
+    async fn test_contains_keys_matches_search() {
         let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
         let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
@@ -2757,10 +4046,12 @@ mod tests {
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
+        // 1000 distinct Int32 values [0, 1000), spread across many small pages
+        // (batch_size 64) so the keys below exercise multi-page grouping.
         let data = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::step::<Float32Type>())
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
             .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(10));
+            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(10));
         let schema = data.schema();
         let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col("value", schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
         let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), data));
@@ -2773,392 +4064,1087 @@ mod tests {
         train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 64, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(100 * 1024 * 1024));
-        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, cache.as_ref())
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(0.0)));
-        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
-        let query1 = index.search(&query, &metrics);
-        let query2 = index.search(&query, &metrics);
-        tokio::join!(query1, query2).0.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        // Present (range ends, mid, and adjacent values that straddle page
+        // boundaries), interleaved with absent (below/above range, and a gap).
+        let keys: Vec<i32> = vec![0, 999, 500, 1, 998, -1, 1000, 1500, 250, 251, 7, 64, 63, 65];
+        let scalar_keys: Vec<ScalarValue> =
+            keys.iter().map(|k| ScalarValue::Int32(Some(*k))).collect();
+
+        let batched = index
+            .contains_keys(&scalar_keys, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Oracle: the per-key Equals search the batched path replaces.
+        let mut oracle = Vec::with_capacity(keys.len());
+        for k in &scalar_keys {
+            let result = index
+                .search(&SargableQuery::Equals(k.clone()), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            oracle.push(!result.row_addrs().is_empty());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            batched, oracle,
+            "contains_keys must agree with per-key Equals search; keys={keys:?}"
+        );
+
+        // And both must match ground truth: [0, 1000) present, others absent.
+        let expected: Vec<bool> = keys.iter().map(|k| (0..1000).contains(k)).collect();
+        assert_eq!(batched, expected);
+
+        // Empty input → empty mask.
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .contains_keys(&[], &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        // A null key maps to false (and must not panic).
+        let with_null = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5)), ScalarValue::Int32(None)];
+        assert_eq!(
+            index
+                .contains_keys(&with_null, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            vec![true, false]
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_fragment_btree_index_consistency() {
-        // Setup stores for both indexes
-        let full_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let full_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            full_tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-
-        let fragment_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let fragment_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+    async fn test_contains_keys_records_single_page_reads() {
+        // `contains_keys` looks each touched page up on its own - it never
+        // goes through the chunked `read_record_batches` path search() uses -
+        // so every distinct cold-cache page it touches should show up as a
+        // single-page read, not a batched one.
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            fragment_tmpdir.clone(),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        // Method 1: Build complete index directly using the same data
-        // Create deterministic data for comparison - use 2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE for testing
-        let total_count = 2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
-        let full_data_gen = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(total_count / 2), BatchCount::from(2));
-        let full_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            full_data_gen.schema(),
-            full_data_gen,
-        ));
-
-        train_btree_index(
-            full_data_source,
-            full_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            None,
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Method 2: Build fragment-based index using the same data split into fragments
-        // Create fragment 1 index - first half of the data (0 to DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1)
-        let half_count = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
-        let fragment1_gen = gen_batch()
+        // 1000 distinct Int32 values at 64 per page is ~16 pages.
+        let data = gen_batch()
             .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
             .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(half_count), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let fragment1_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            fragment1_gen.schema(),
-            fragment1_gen,
-        ));
-
-        train_btree_index(
-            fragment1_data_source,
-            fragment_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            Some(vec![1]), // fragment_id = 1
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Create fragment 2 index - second half of the data (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE to 2*DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1)
-        let start_val = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE as i32;
-        let end_val = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
-        let values_second_half: Vec<i32> = (start_val..end_val).collect();
-        let row_ids_second_half: Vec<u64> = (start_val as u64..end_val as u64).collect();
-        let fragment2_gen = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values_second_half))
-            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids_second_half))
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(half_count), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let fragment2_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            fragment2_gen.schema(),
-            fragment2_gen,
-        ));
-
-        train_btree_index(
-            fragment2_data_source,
-            fragment_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            Some(vec![2]), // fragment_id = 2
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Merge the fragment files
-        let part_page_files = vec![
-            part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
-            part_page_data_file_path(2 << 32),
-        ];
-
-        let part_lookup_files = vec![
-            part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32),
-            part_lookup_file_path(2 << 32),
-        ];
-
-        super::merge_metadata_files(
-            fragment_store.as_ref(),
-            &part_page_files,
-            &part_lookup_files,
-            Option::from(1usize),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(10));
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col("value", schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
+        let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), data));
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let stream = break_stream(stream, 64);
+        let stream = stream.map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+        let stream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
 
-        // Load both indexes
-        let full_index = BTreeIndex::load(full_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 64, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        let merged_index = BTreeIndex::load(fragment_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Test queries one by one to identify the exact problem
+        // Five keys, each landing on a different page (64 values apart).
+        let keys: Vec<ScalarValue> = [0, 64, 128, 192, 256]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|k| ScalarValue::Int32(Some(*k)))
+            .collect();
 
-        // Test 1: Query for value 0 (should be in first page)
-        let query_0 = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
-        let full_result_0 = full_index
-            .search(&query_0, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_0 = merged_index
-            .search(&query_0, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(full_result_0, merged_result_0, "Query for value 0 failed");
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        index.contains_keys(&keys, &metrics).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Test 2: Query for value in middle of first batch (should be in first page)
-        let mid_first_batch = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
-        let query_mid_first = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(mid_first_batch)));
-        let full_result_mid_first = full_index
-            .search(&query_mid_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_mid_first = merged_index
-            .search(&query_mid_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_mid_first, merged_result_mid_first,
-            "Query for value {} failed",
-            mid_first_batch
+            metrics.single_page_reads(),
+            5,
+            "expected one single-page read per distinct page contains_keys touched"
         );
-
-        // Test 3: Query for first value in second batch (should be in second page)
-        let first_second_batch = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE as i32;
-        let query_first_second =
-            SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(first_second_batch)));
-        let full_result_first_second = full_index
-            .search(&query_first_second, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_first_second = merged_index
-            .search(&query_first_second, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_first_second, merged_result_first_second,
-            "Query for value {} failed",
-            first_second_batch
+            metrics.batch_reads(),
+            0,
+            "contains_keys should never use the batched read_record_batches path"
         );
+    }
 
-        // Test 4: Query for value in middle of second batch (should be in second page)
-        let mid_second_batch = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE + DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
-        let query_mid_second = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(mid_second_batch)));
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_page_cache() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
 
-        let full_result_mid_second = full_index
-            .search(&query_mid_second, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Float32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(10));
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col("value", schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
+        let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), data));
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let stream = break_stream(stream, 64);
+        let stream = stream.map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+        let stream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 64, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_mid_second = merged_index
-            .search(&query_mid_second, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+
+        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(100 * 1024 * 1024));
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, cache.as_ref())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_mid_second, merged_result_mid_second,
-            "Query for value {} failed",
-            mid_second_batch
-        );
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(0.0)));
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let query1 = index.search(&query, &metrics);
+        let query2 = index.search(&query, &metrics);
+        tokio::join!(query1, query2).0.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_fragment_btree_index_boundary_queries() {
-        // Setup stores for both indexes
-        let full_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let full_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            full_tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-
-        let fragment_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let fragment_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+    async fn test_page_cache_hit_miss_counts() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            fragment_tmpdir.clone(),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        // Use 3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE for more comprehensive boundary testing
-        let total_count = 3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
-
-        // Method 1: Build complete index directly
-        let full_data_gen = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Float32Type>())
             .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(total_count / 3), BatchCount::from(3));
-        let full_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            full_data_gen.schema(),
-            full_data_gen,
-        ));
+            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(10));
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col("value", schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
+        let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), data));
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let stream = break_stream(stream, 64);
+        let stream = stream.map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+        let stream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
 
-        train_btree_index(
-            full_data_source,
-            full_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            None,
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 64, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Method 2: Build fragment-based index using 3 fragments
-        // Fragment 1: 0 to DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1
-        let fragment_size = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
-        let fragment1_gen = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(fragment_size), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let fragment1_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            fragment1_gen.schema(),
-            fragment1_gen,
-        ));
+        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(100 * 1024 * 1024));
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, cache.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        train_btree_index(
-            fragment1_data_source,
-            fragment_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            Some(vec![1]),
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        // First search: cold cache — the page fetch must miss.
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(0.0)));
+        let cold = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        index.search(&query, &cold).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cold.index_cache_hits(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(cold.index_cache_misses(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(cold.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+
+        // Second search: same key, page must now be served from cache.
+        let warm = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        index.search(&query, &warm).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(warm.index_cache_hits(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(warm.index_cache_misses(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(warm.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    }
 
-        // Fragment 2: DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE to 2*DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1
-        let start_val2 = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE as i32;
-        let end_val2 = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
-        let values_fragment2: Vec<i32> = (start_val2..end_val2).collect();
-        let row_ids_fragment2: Vec<u64> = (start_val2 as u64..end_val2 as u64).collect();
-        let fragment2_gen = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values_fragment2))
-            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids_fragment2))
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(fragment_size), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let fragment2_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            fragment2_gen.schema(),
-            fragment2_gen,
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_range_query_coalesces_page_reads() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        train_btree_index(
-            fragment2_data_source,
-            fragment_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            Some(vec![2]),
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        // 10k values at 64 per page is ~157 pages, enough that reading one page
+        // per request would be plainly visible in the IOPS count.
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Float32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(10));
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col("value", schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
+        let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), data));
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let stream = break_stream(stream, 64);
+        let stream = stream.map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+        let stream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
 
-        // Fragment 3: 2*DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE to 3*DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1
-        let start_val3 = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
-        let end_val3 = (3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
-        let values_fragment3: Vec<i32> = (start_val3..end_val3).collect();
-        let row_ids_fragment3: Vec<u64> = (start_val3 as u64..end_val3 as u64).collect();
-        let fragment3_gen = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values_fragment3))
-            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids_fragment3))
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(fragment_size), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let fragment3_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            fragment3_gen.schema(),
-            fragment3_gen,
-        ));
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 64, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        train_btree_index(
-            fragment3_data_source,
-            fragment_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            Some(vec![3]),
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(100 * 1024 * 1024));
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, cache.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Merge all fragment files
-        let part_page_files = vec![
-            part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
-            part_page_data_file_path(2 << 32),
-            part_page_data_file_path(3 << 32),
-        ];
+        // Ignore the I/O that loading the index itself did.
+        object_store.io_stats_incremental();
 
-        let part_lookup_files = vec![
-            part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32),
-            part_lookup_file_path(2 << 32),
-            part_lookup_file_path(3 << 32),
-        ];
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(0.0))),
+            std::ops::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(9000.0))),
+        );
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let result = index.search(&query, &metrics).await.unwrap();
+        let SearchResult::Exact(selection) = result else {
+            panic!("expected an exact search result");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(selection.selected_rows().len(), Some(9000));
 
-        super::merge_metadata_files(
-            fragment_store.as_ref(),
-            &part_page_files,
-            &part_lookup_files,
-            Option::from(1usize),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let parts_loaded = metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as u64;
+        assert!(
+            parts_loaded > 100,
+            "expected the range to span many pages, loaded {parts_loaded}"
+        );
+        // The pages are consecutive, so they should coalesce into a handful of
+        // requests rather than one per page.
+        let read_iops = object_store.io_stats_snapshot().read_iops;
+        assert!(
+            read_iops < parts_loaded / 4,
+            "expected {parts_loaded} pages to coalesce, but took {read_iops} reads"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Load both indexes
-        let full_index = BTreeIndex::load(full_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wide_range_query_prefetches_in_bounded_chunks() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // 40k values at 64 per page is ~625 pages, several times
+        // PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE, so a query spanning all of them must be
+        // split across multiple prefetch chunks rather than handed to the
+        // reader in one call.
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Float32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(4000), BatchCount::from(10));
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col("value", schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
+        let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), data));
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let stream = break_stream(stream, 64);
+        let stream = stream.map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+        let stream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 64, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let merged_index = BTreeIndex::load(fragment_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(100 * 1024 * 1024));
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, cache.as_ref())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // === Boundary Value Tests ===
+        // Ignore the I/O that loading the index itself did.
+        object_store.io_stats_incremental();
 
-        // Test 1: Query minimum value (boundary: data start)
-        let query_min = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
-        let full_result_min = full_index
-            .search(&query_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_min = merged_index
-            .search(&query_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(0.0))),
+            std::ops::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(40000.0))),
+        );
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let result = index.search(&query, &metrics).await.unwrap();
+        let SearchResult::Exact(selection) = result else {
+            panic!("expected an exact search result");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(selection.selected_rows().len(), Some(40000));
+
+        let parts_loaded = metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as u64;
+        let expected_chunks = parts_loaded.div_ceil(PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE as u64);
+        assert!(
+            expected_chunks >= 3,
+            "expected the query to span several prefetch chunks, got {parts_loaded} pages / \
+             {PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE} per chunk = {expected_chunks} chunks"
+        );
+
+        // Every page here is a cold-cache miss, so this counts
+        // `read_record_batches` calls exactly: one per prefetch chunk.
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_min, merged_result_min,
-            "Query for minimum value 0 failed"
+            metrics.batch_reads() as u64,
+            expected_chunks,
+            "expected one batched read per prefetch chunk"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metrics.single_page_reads(),
+            0,
+            "a wide range query should never fall back to single-page reads"
         );
 
-        // Test 2: Query maximum value (boundary: data end)
-        let max_val = (3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
-        let query_max = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_val)));
-        let full_result_max = full_index
-            .search(&query_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Each chunk still coalesces its own pages into a handful of requests,
+        // but a query spanning several chunks must take at least one request
+        // per chunk: a single request for the whole range would mean the
+        // missing set was handed to the reader all at once, unbounded,
+        // instead of PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE pages at a time.
+        let read_iops = object_store.io_stats_snapshot().read_iops;
+        assert!(
+            read_iops >= expected_chunks,
+            "expected at least one request per prefetch chunk ({expected_chunks} chunks), but \
+             took only {read_iops} reads for {parts_loaded} pages"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            read_iops < parts_loaded / 4,
+            "expected {parts_loaded} pages to still coalesce within each chunk, but took \
+             {read_iops} reads"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wide_range_query_coalesces_without_index_cache() {
+        // With no index cache, a page built while prefetching one chunk is
+        // never findable through a later cache lookup - the search for that
+        // page must use the page this call itself just built, not go back to
+        // the cache, or every prefetched page gets read a second time on its
+        // own and a wide search costs *more* I/O than reading pages one at a
+        // time would.
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Float32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(4000), BatchCount::from(10));
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col("value", schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
+        let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), data));
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let stream = break_stream(stream, 64);
+        let stream = stream.map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+        let stream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 64, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_max = merged_index
-            .search(&query_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+
+        // No index cache: a page inserted by one call is not guaranteed to
+        // still be there for a later lookup.
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
+
+        // Ignore the I/O that loading the index itself did.
+        object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(0.0))),
+            std::ops::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(40000.0))),
+        );
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let result = index.search(&query, &metrics).await.unwrap();
+        let SearchResult::Exact(selection) = result else {
+            panic!("expected an exact search result");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(selection.selected_rows().len(), Some(40000));
+
+        let parts_loaded = metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as u64;
+        let expected_chunks = parts_loaded.div_ceil(PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE as u64);
+        assert!(
+            expected_chunks >= 3,
+            "expected the query to span several prefetch chunks, got {parts_loaded} pages / \
+             {PAGE_PREFETCH_CHUNK_SIZE} per chunk = {expected_chunks} chunks"
+        );
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_max, merged_result_max,
-            "Query for maximum value {} failed",
-            max_val
+            metrics.batch_reads() as u64,
+            expected_chunks,
+            "expected one batched read per prefetch chunk even with no index cache"
         );
 
-        // Test 3: Query fragment boundary value (last value of first fragment)
-        let fragment1_last = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
-        let query_frag1_last = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(fragment1_last)));
-        let full_result_frag1_last = full_index
-            .search(&query_frag1_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_frag1_last = merged_index
-            .search(&query_frag1_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Bug being guarded against: a follow-up cache lookup after
+        // prefetching would always miss with no cache, falling back to one
+        // single-page read per page - single_page_reads and read_iops would
+        // then both track parts_loaded almost 1:1 instead of staying bounded.
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_frag1_last, merged_result_frag1_last,
-            "Query for fragment 1 last value {} failed",
-            fragment1_last
+            metrics.single_page_reads(),
+            0,
+            "prefetched pages must be searched directly, not re-read one at a time \
+             because the cache couldn't retain them"
+        );
+        let read_iops = object_store.io_stats_snapshot().read_iops;
+        assert!(
+            read_iops < parts_loaded / 4,
+            "expected {parts_loaded} pages to still coalesce per chunk even with no index \
+             cache, but took {read_iops} reads (a read-per-page fallback would mean the \
+             prefetched page wasn't reused for the search)"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batched_page_read_matches_individual_reads() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // 1000 rows at 64 per page leaves a short final page, so the batched
+        // read has to clamp the last range the same way a single read does.
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Float32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col("value", schema.as_ref()).unwrap());
+        let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), data));
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let stream = break_stream(stream, 64);
+        let stream = stream.map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+        let stream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 64, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = test_store.open_index_file(BTREE_PAGES_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let num_pages = reader.num_batches(64).await as u64;
+        assert!(num_pages > 2, "expected several pages, got {num_pages}");
+
+        // Out of order and with a gap, to check the batched read puts the
+        // batches back in the order they were asked for.
+        let requested = [num_pages - 1, 0, 2];
+        let batched = reader.read_record_batches(&requested, 64).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batched.len(), requested.len());
+        for (page_number, batched_page) in requested.iter().zip(batched) {
+            let individual = reader.read_record_batch(*page_number, 64).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                batched_page, individual,
+                "page {page_number} differed between a batched and an individual read"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_search() {
+        use arrow::datatypes::DataType;
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Create string data with various prefixes
+        let values = vec![
+            "apple",
+            "app",
+            "application",
+            "banana",
+            "band",
+            "test_ns$table1",
+            "test_ns$table2",
+            "test_ns2$table1",
+            "test",
+            "testing",
+        ];
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..values.len() as u64).collect();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow::datatypes::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow::datatypes::Field::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            arrow::datatypes::Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(values.clone())),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(async { Ok(batch) }),
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 100, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test LikePrefix for "app" - should match "apple", "app", "application" (row ids 0, 1, 2)
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("app".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        match &result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                let ids: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert!(ids.contains(&0), "Should contain row 0 (apple)");
+                assert!(ids.contains(&1), "Should contain row 1 (app)");
+                assert!(ids.contains(&2), "Should contain row 2 (application)");
+                assert!(!ids.contains(&3), "Should not contain row 3 (banana)");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact result"),
+        }
+
+        // Test LikePrefix for "test_ns$" - should match "test_ns$table1", "test_ns$table2" (row ids 5, 6)
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("test_ns$".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        match &result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                let ids: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert!(ids.contains(&5), "Should contain row 5 (test_ns$table1)");
+                assert!(ids.contains(&6), "Should contain row 6 (test_ns$table2)");
+                assert!(
+                    !ids.contains(&7),
+                    "Should not contain row 7 (test_ns2$table1)"
+                );
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact result"),
+        }
+
+        // Test LikePrefix for "test" - should match "test", "testing", "test_ns$table1", "test_ns$table2", "test_ns2$table1"
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("test".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        match &result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                let ids: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert!(
+                    ids.contains(&5),
+                    "Should contain row 5 (test_ns$table1): {:?}",
+                    ids
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    ids.contains(&6),
+                    "Should contain row 6 (test_ns$table2): {:?}",
+                    ids
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    ids.contains(&7),
+                    "Should contain row 7 (test_ns2$table1): {:?}",
+                    ids
+                );
+                assert!(ids.contains(&8), "Should contain row 8 (test): {:?}", ids);
+                assert!(
+                    ids.contains(&9),
+                    "Should contain row 9 (testing): {:?}",
+                    ids
+                );
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact result"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_search_large_utf8() {
+        use arrow::datatypes::DataType;
+        use arrow_array::LargeStringArray;
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let values = vec!["apple", "app", "application", "banana"];
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..values.len() as u64).collect();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow::datatypes::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow::datatypes::Field::new("value", DataType::LargeUtf8, false),
+            arrow::datatypes::Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(values)),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(async { Ok(batch) }),
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 100, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test LikePrefix with LargeUtf8
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("app".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        match &result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                let ids: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert!(ids.contains(&0), "Should contain row 0 (apple)");
+                assert!(ids.contains(&1), "Should contain row 1 (app)");
+                assert!(ids.contains(&2), "Should contain row 2 (application)");
+                assert!(!ids.contains(&3), "Should not contain row 3 (banana)");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact result"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fragment_btree_index_consistency() {
+        // Setup stores for both indexes
+        let full_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let full_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            full_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let fragment_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let fragment_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            fragment_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Method 1: Build complete index directly using the same data
+        // Create deterministic data for comparison - use 2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE for testing
+        let total_count = 2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
+        let full_data_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(total_count / 2), BatchCount::from(2));
+        let full_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            full_data_gen.schema(),
+            full_data_gen,
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(
+            full_data_source,
+            full_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Method 2: Build fragment-based index using the same data split into fragments
+        // Create fragment 1 index - first half of the data (0 to DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1)
+        let half_count = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
+        let fragment1_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(half_count), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let fragment1_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            fragment1_gen.schema(),
+            fragment1_gen,
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(
+            fragment1_data_source,
+            fragment_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            Some(vec![1]), // fragment_id = 1
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Create fragment 2 index - second half of the data (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE to 2*DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1)
+        let start_val = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE as i32;
+        let end_val = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
+        let values_second_half: Vec<i32> = (start_val..end_val).collect();
+        let row_ids_second_half: Vec<u64> = (start_val as u64..end_val as u64).collect();
+        let fragment2_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values_second_half))
+            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids_second_half))
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(half_count), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let fragment2_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            fragment2_gen.schema(),
+            fragment2_gen,
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(
+            fragment2_data_source,
+            fragment_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            Some(vec![2]), // fragment_id = 2
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Merge the fragment files
+        let part_page_files = vec![
+            part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
+            part_page_data_file_path(2 << 32),
+        ];
+
+        let part_lookup_files = vec![
+            part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32),
+            part_lookup_file_path(2 << 32),
+        ];
+
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        super::merge_metadata_files(
+            fragment_store.as_ref(),
+            &part_page_files,
+            &part_lookup_files,
+            Option::from(1usize),
+            progress.clone(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let tags = progress
+            .recorded_events()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(kind, stage, _)| format!("{kind}:{stage}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let merge_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:merge_pages")
+            .expect("missing merge_pages start");
+        let merge_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:merge_pages")
+            .expect("missing merge_pages complete");
+        let lookup_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:write_lookup_file")
+            .expect("missing write_lookup_file start");
+        let lookup_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:write_lookup_file")
+            .expect("missing write_lookup_file complete");
+        assert!(merge_start < merge_complete);
+        assert!(merge_complete < lookup_start);
+        assert!(lookup_start < lookup_complete);
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:merge_pages"),
+            "expected merge_pages progress callbacks"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:write_lookup_file"),
+            "expected write_lookup_file progress callbacks"
+        );
+
+        // Load both indexes
+        let full_index = BTreeIndex::load(full_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let merged_index = BTreeIndex::load(fragment_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test queries one by one to identify the exact problem
+
+        // Test 1: Query for value 0 (should be in first page)
+        let query_0 = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
+        let full_result_0 = full_index
+            .search(&query_0, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_0 = merged_index
+            .search(&query_0, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(full_result_0, merged_result_0, "Query for value 0 failed");
+
+        // Test 2: Query for value in middle of first batch (should be in first page)
+        let mid_first_batch = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
+        let query_mid_first = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(mid_first_batch)));
+        let full_result_mid_first = full_index
+            .search(&query_mid_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_mid_first = merged_index
+            .search(&query_mid_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_mid_first, merged_result_mid_first,
+            "Query for value {} failed",
+            mid_first_batch
+        );
+
+        // Test 3: Query for first value in second batch (should be in second page)
+        let first_second_batch = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE as i32;
+        let query_first_second =
+            SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(first_second_batch)));
+        let full_result_first_second = full_index
+            .search(&query_first_second, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_first_second = merged_index
+            .search(&query_first_second, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_first_second, merged_result_first_second,
+            "Query for value {} failed",
+            first_second_batch
+        );
+
+        // Test 4: Query for value in middle of second batch (should be in second page)
+        let mid_second_batch = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE + DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
+        let query_mid_second = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(mid_second_batch)));
+
+        let full_result_mid_second = full_index
+            .search(&query_mid_second, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_mid_second = merged_index
+            .search(&query_mid_second, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_mid_second, merged_result_mid_second,
+            "Query for value {} failed",
+            mid_second_batch
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fragment_btree_index_boundary_queries() {
+        // Setup stores for both indexes
+        let full_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let full_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            full_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let fragment_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let fragment_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            fragment_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Use 3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE for more comprehensive boundary testing
+        let total_count = 3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
+
+        // Method 1: Build complete index directly
+        let full_data_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(total_count / 3), BatchCount::from(3));
+        let full_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            full_data_gen.schema(),
+            full_data_gen,
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(
+            full_data_source,
+            full_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Method 2: Build fragment-based index using 3 fragments
+        // Fragment 1: 0 to DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1
+        let fragment_size = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
+        let fragment1_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(fragment_size), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let fragment1_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            fragment1_gen.schema(),
+            fragment1_gen,
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(
+            fragment1_data_source,
+            fragment_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            Some(vec![1]),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Fragment 2: DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE to 2*DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1
+        let start_val2 = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE as i32;
+        let end_val2 = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
+        let values_fragment2: Vec<i32> = (start_val2..end_val2).collect();
+        let row_ids_fragment2: Vec<u64> = (start_val2 as u64..end_val2 as u64).collect();
+        let fragment2_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values_fragment2))
+            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids_fragment2))
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(fragment_size), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let fragment2_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            fragment2_gen.schema(),
+            fragment2_gen,
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(
+            fragment2_data_source,
+            fragment_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            Some(vec![2]),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Fragment 3: 2*DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE to 3*DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE-1
+        let start_val3 = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
+        let end_val3 = (3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
+        let values_fragment3: Vec<i32> = (start_val3..end_val3).collect();
+        let row_ids_fragment3: Vec<u64> = (start_val3 as u64..end_val3 as u64).collect();
+        let fragment3_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values_fragment3))
+            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids_fragment3))
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(fragment_size), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let fragment3_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            fragment3_gen.schema(),
+            fragment3_gen,
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(
+            fragment3_data_source,
+            fragment_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            Some(vec![3]),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Merge all fragment files
+        let part_page_files = vec![
+            part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
+            part_page_data_file_path(2 << 32),
+            part_page_data_file_path(3 << 32),
+        ];
+
+        let part_lookup_files = vec![
+            part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32),
+            part_lookup_file_path(2 << 32),
+            part_lookup_file_path(3 << 32),
+        ];
+
+        super::merge_metadata_files(
+            fragment_store.as_ref(),
+            &part_page_files,
+            &part_lookup_files,
+            Option::from(1usize),
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Load both indexes
+        let full_index = BTreeIndex::load(full_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let merged_index = BTreeIndex::load(fragment_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // === Boundary Value Tests ===
+
+        // Test 1: Query minimum value (boundary: data start)
+        let query_min = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
+        let full_result_min = full_index
+            .search(&query_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_min = merged_index
+            .search(&query_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_min, merged_result_min,
+            "Query for minimum value 0 failed"
+        );
+
+        // Test 2: Query maximum value (boundary: data end)
+        let max_val = (3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
+        let query_max = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_val)));
+        let full_result_max = full_index
+            .search(&query_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_max = merged_index
+            .search(&query_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_max, merged_result_max,
+            "Query for maximum value {} failed",
+            max_val
+        );
+
+        // Test 3: Query fragment boundary value (last value of first fragment)
+        let fragment1_last = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
+        let query_frag1_last = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(fragment1_last)));
+        let full_result_frag1_last = full_index
+            .search(&query_frag1_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_frag1_last = merged_index
+            .search(&query_frag1_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_frag1_last, merged_result_frag1_last,
+            "Query for fragment 1 last value {} failed",
+            fragment1_last
         );
 
         // Test 4: Query fragment boundary value (first value of second fragment)
@@ -3168,436 +5154,757 @@ mod tests {
             .search(&query_frag2_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_frag2_first = merged_index
-            .search(&query_frag2_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let merged_result_frag2_first = merged_index
+            .search(&query_frag2_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_frag2_first, merged_result_frag2_first,
+            "Query for fragment 2 first value {} failed",
+            fragment2_first
+        );
+
+        // Test 5: Query fragment boundary value (last value of second fragment)
+        let fragment2_last = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
+        let query_frag2_last = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(fragment2_last)));
+        let full_result_frag2_last = full_index
+            .search(&query_frag2_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_frag2_last = merged_index
+            .search(&query_frag2_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_frag2_last, merged_result_frag2_last,
+            "Query for fragment 2 last value {} failed",
+            fragment2_last
+        );
+
+        // Test 6: Query fragment boundary value (first value of third fragment)
+        let fragment3_first = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
+        let query_frag3_first = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(fragment3_first)));
+        let full_result_frag3_first = full_index
+            .search(&query_frag3_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_frag3_first = merged_index
+            .search(&query_frag3_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_frag3_first, merged_result_frag3_first,
+            "Query for fragment 3 first value {} failed",
+            fragment3_first
+        );
+
+        // === Non-existent Value Tests ===
+
+        // Test 7: Query value below minimum
+        let query_below_min = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(-1)));
+        let full_result_below = full_index
+            .search(&query_below_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_below = merged_index
+            .search(&query_below_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_below, merged_result_below,
+            "Query for value below minimum (-1) failed"
+        );
+
+        // Test 8: Query value above maximum
+        let query_above_max = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_val + 1)));
+        let full_result_above = full_index
+            .search(&query_above_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_above = merged_index
+            .search(&query_above_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_above,
+            merged_result_above,
+            "Query for value above maximum ({}) failed",
+            max_val + 1
+        );
+
+        // === Range Query Tests ===
+
+        // Test 9: Cross-fragment range query (from first fragment to second fragment)
+        let range_start = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 100) as i32;
+        let range_end = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE + 100) as i32;
+        let query_cross_frag = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(range_start))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(range_end))),
+        );
+        let full_result_cross = full_index
+            .search(&query_cross_frag, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_cross = merged_index
+            .search(&query_cross_frag, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_cross, merged_result_cross,
+            "Cross-fragment range query [{}, {}] failed",
+            range_start, range_end
+        );
+
+        // Test 10: Range query within single fragment
+        let single_frag_start = 100i32;
+        let single_frag_end = 200i32;
+        let query_single_frag = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(single_frag_start))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(single_frag_end))),
+        );
+        let full_result_single = full_index
+            .search(&query_single_frag, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_single = merged_index
+            .search(&query_single_frag, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_single, merged_result_single,
+            "Single fragment range query [{}, {}] failed",
+            single_frag_start, single_frag_end
+        );
+
+        // Test 11: Large range query spanning all fragments
+        let large_range_start = 100i32;
+        let large_range_end = (3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 100) as i32;
+        let query_large_range = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(large_range_start))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(large_range_end))),
+        );
+        let full_result_large = full_index
+            .search(&query_large_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_large = merged_index
+            .search(&query_large_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_large, merged_result_large,
+            "Large range query [{}, {}] failed",
+            large_range_start, large_range_end
+        );
+
+        // === Range Boundary Query Tests ===
+
+        // Test 12: Less than query (implemented using range query, from minimum to specified value)
+        let lt_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
+        let query_lt = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(lt_val))),
+        );
+        let full_result_lt = full_index
+            .search(&query_lt, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_lt = merged_index
+            .search(&query_lt, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_lt, merged_result_lt,
+            "Less than query (<{}) failed",
+            lt_val
+        );
+
+        // Test 13: Greater than query (implemented using range query, from specified value to maximum)
+        let gt_val = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
+        let max_range_val = (3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
+        let query_gt = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(gt_val))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_range_val))),
+        );
+        let full_result_gt = full_index
+            .search(&query_gt, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_gt = merged_index
+            .search(&query_gt, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_gt, merged_result_gt,
+            "Greater than query (>{}) failed",
+            gt_val
+        );
+
+        // Test 14: Less than or equal query (implemented using range query, including boundary value)
+        let lte_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
+        let query_lte = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(lte_val))),
+        );
+        let full_result_lte = full_index
+            .search(&query_lte, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_lte = merged_index
+            .search(&query_lte, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_frag2_first, merged_result_frag2_first,
-            "Query for fragment 2 first value {} failed",
-            fragment2_first
+            full_result_lte, merged_result_lte,
+            "Less than or equal query (<={}) failed",
+            lte_val
+        );
+
+        // Test 15: Greater than or equal query (implemented using range query, including boundary value)
+        let gte_val = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
+        let query_gte = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(gte_val))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_range_val))),
+        );
+        let full_result_gte = full_index
+            .search(&query_gte, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_result_gte = merged_index
+            .search(&query_gte, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            full_result_gte, merged_result_gte,
+            "Greater than or equal query (>={}) failed",
+            gte_val
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_partition_id() {
+        // Test valid partition file names
+        assert_eq!(
+            super::extract_partition_id("part_123_page_data.lance").unwrap(),
+            123
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            super::extract_partition_id("part_456_page_lookup.lance").unwrap(),
+            456
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            super::extract_partition_id("part_4294967296_page_data.lance").unwrap(),
+            4294967296
+        );
+
+        // Test invalid file names
+        assert!(super::extract_partition_id("invalid_filename.lance").is_err());
+        assert!(super::extract_partition_id("part_abc_page_data.lance").is_err());
+        assert!(super::extract_partition_id("part_123").is_err());
+        assert!(super::extract_partition_id("part_").is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cleanup_partition_files() {
+        // Create a test store
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store: Arc<dyn crate::scalar::IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Test files with different patterns
+        let lookup_files = vec![
+            "part_123_page_lookup.lance".to_string(),
+            "invalid_lookup_file.lance".to_string(),
+            "part_456_page_lookup.lance".to_string(),
+        ];
+
+        let page_files = vec![
+            "part_123_page_data.lance".to_string(),
+            "invalid_page_file.lance".to_string(),
+            "part_456_page_data.lance".to_string(),
+        ];
+
+        // The cleanup function should handle both valid and invalid file patterns gracefully
+        // This test mainly verifies that the function doesn't panic and handles edge cases
+        super::cleanup_partition_files(test_store.as_ref(), &lookup_files, &page_files).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_btree_null_handling_in_queries() {
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory()),
+            Path::default(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Create test data: [null, 0, 5] at row IDs [0, 1, 2]
+        // BTree expects sorted data with nulls first (or filtered out)
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            ("value", Int32, [None, Some(0), Some(5)]),
+            ("_rowid", UInt64, [0, 1, 2])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let stream = stream::once(futures::future::ok(batch.clone()));
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream));
+
+        // Train the btree index with FlatIndexMetadata as sub-index
+        super::train_btree_index(stream, store.as_ref(), 256, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+        let index = super::BTreeIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test 1: Search for value 5 - should return allow=[2], null=[0]
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5)));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![2], "Should find row 2 where value == 5");
+
+                // Check that null_row_ids contains row 0
+                let null_row_ids = row_ids.null_rows();
+                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be non-empty");
+                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
+                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
+                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![0], "Should report row 0 as null");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
+        }
+
+        // Test 2: Range query [0, 3] - should return allow=[1], null=[0]
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3))),
         );
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![1], "Should find row 1 where value == 0");
+
+                // Should report row 0 as null
+                let null_row_ids = row_ids.null_rows();
+                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be non-empty");
+                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
+                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
+                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![0], "Should report row 0 as null");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
+        }
+
+        // Test 3: IsIn query [0, 5] - should return allow=[1, 2], null=[0]
+        let query = SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)),
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5)),
+        ]);
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                let mut actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                actual_rows.sort();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    actual_rows,
+                    vec![1, 2],
+                    "Should find rows 1 and 2 where value in [0, 5]"
+                );
+
+                // Should report row 0 as null
+                let null_row_ids = row_ids.null_rows();
+                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be non-empty");
+                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
+                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
+                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![0], "Should report row 0 as null");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_range_btree_index_consistency() {
+        // Setup stores for both indexes
+        let full_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let full_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            full_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let range_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let range_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            range_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Method 1: Build complete index directly using the same data
+        // Create deterministic data for comparison - use 4 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE for testing
+        let total_count = 4 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
+        let full_data_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(total_count / 4), BatchCount::from(4));
+        let full_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            full_data_gen.schema(),
+            full_data_gen,
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(
+            full_data_source,
+            full_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Method 2: Build range-based index using the same data split into ranges
+        // Create range 1 index, intentionally make it not divisible by DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE
+        let range1_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(
+                RowCount::from(DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2),
+                BatchCount::from(5),
+            );
+        let range1_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            range1_gen.schema(),
+            range1_gen,
+        ));
 
-        // Test 5: Query fragment boundary value (last value of second fragment)
-        let fragment2_last = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
-        let query_frag2_last = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(fragment2_last)));
-        let full_result_frag2_last = full_index
-            .search(&query_frag2_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        train_btree_index(
+            range1_data_source,
+            range_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            None,
+            Option::from(0u32),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Create range 2 index, also intentionally make it not divisible by DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE
+        let start_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2 + DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
+        let end_val = (4 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
+        let values_second_half: Vec<i32> = (start_val..end_val).collect();
+        let row_ids_second_half: Vec<u64> = (start_val as u64..end_val as u64).collect();
+        let range2_gen = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values_second_half))
+            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids_second_half))
+            .into_df_stream(
+                RowCount::from(DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2),
+                BatchCount::from(3),
+            );
+        let range2_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            range2_gen.schema(),
+            range2_gen,
+        ));
+
+        train_btree_index(
+            range2_data_source,
+            range_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            None,
+            Option::from(1u32),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Merge the fragment files
+        let part_page_files = vec![
+            part_page_data_file_path(0 << 32),
+            part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
+        ];
+
+        let part_lookup_files = vec![
+            part_lookup_file_path(0 << 32),
+            part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32),
+        ];
+
+        super::merge_metadata_files(
+            range_store.as_ref(),
+            &part_page_files,
+            &part_lookup_files,
+            Option::from(1usize),
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let full_index = BTreeIndex::load(full_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_frag2_last = merged_index
-            .search(&query_frag2_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+
+        let ranged_index = BTreeIndex::load(range_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_frag2_last, merged_result_frag2_last,
-            "Query for fragment 2 last value {} failed",
-            fragment2_last
-        );
 
-        // Test 6: Query fragment boundary value (first value of third fragment)
-        let fragment3_first = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
-        let query_frag3_first = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(fragment3_first)));
-        let full_result_frag3_first = full_index
-            .search(&query_frag3_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Equality Tests
+
+        // Test 1: Query for value 0
+        let query_0 = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
+        let full_result_0 = full_index
+            .search(&query_0, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_frag3_first = merged_index
-            .search(&query_frag3_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_0 = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_0, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_frag3_first, merged_result_frag3_first,
-            "Query for fragment 3 first value {} failed",
-            fragment3_first
-        );
-
-        // === Non-existent Value Tests ===
+        assert_eq!(full_result_0, ranged_result_0, "Query for value 0 failed");
 
-        // Test 7: Query value below minimum
-        let query_below_min = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(-1)));
-        let full_result_below = full_index
-            .search(&query_below_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Test 2: Query for value in middle of first batch (should be in first page)
+        let mid_first_batch = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
+        let query_mid_first = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(mid_first_batch)));
+        let full_result_mid_first = full_index
+            .search(&query_mid_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_below = merged_index
-            .search(&query_below_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_mid_first = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_mid_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_below, merged_result_below,
-            "Query for value below minimum (-1) failed"
+            full_result_mid_first, ranged_result_mid_first,
+            "Query for value {} failed",
+            mid_first_batch
         );
 
-        // Test 8: Query value above maximum
-        let query_above_max = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_val + 1)));
-        let full_result_above = full_index
-            .search(&query_above_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Test 3: Query for value in the last batch (should be in the second range file)
+        let mid_last_batch = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 3 + (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2)) as i32;
+        let query_mid_last = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(mid_last_batch)));
+        let full_result_mid_last = full_index
+            .search(&query_mid_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_above = merged_index
-            .search(&query_above_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_mid_last = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_mid_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_above,
-            merged_result_above,
-            "Query for value above maximum ({}) failed",
-            max_val + 1
+            full_result_mid_last, ranged_result_mid_last,
+            "Query for value {} failed",
+            mid_last_batch
         );
 
-        // === Range Query Tests ===
-
-        // Test 9: Cross-fragment range query (from first fragment to second fragment)
-        let range_start = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 100) as i32;
-        let range_end = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE + 100) as i32;
-        let query_cross_frag = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(range_start))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(range_end))),
-        );
-        let full_result_cross = full_index
-            .search(&query_cross_frag, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Test 4: Query upper bound.
+        let max_val = (4 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
+        let query_max = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_val)));
+        let full_result_max = full_index
+            .search(&query_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_cross = merged_index
-            .search(&query_cross_frag, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_max = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_cross, merged_result_cross,
-            "Cross-fragment range query [{}, {}] failed",
-            range_start, range_end
+            full_result_max, ranged_result_max,
+            "Query for maximum value {} failed",
+            max_val
         );
 
-        // Test 10: Range query within single fragment
-        let single_frag_start = 100i32;
-        let single_frag_end = 200i32;
-        let query_single_frag = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(single_frag_start))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(single_frag_end))),
-        );
-        let full_result_single = full_index
-            .search(&query_single_frag, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Test 5: Query first value of the second page file.
+        let second_first_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2 + DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
+        let query_second_first = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(second_first_val)));
+        let full_result_second_first = full_index
+            .search(&query_second_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_single = merged_index
-            .search(&query_single_frag, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_second_first = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_second_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_single, merged_result_single,
-            "Single fragment range query [{}, {}] failed",
-            single_frag_start, single_frag_end
+            full_result_second_first, ranged_result_second_first,
+            "Query for first value of the second page file {} failed",
+            second_first_val
         );
 
-        // Test 11: Large range query spanning all fragments
-        let large_range_start = 100i32;
-        let large_range_end = (3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 100) as i32;
-        let query_large_range = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(large_range_start))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(large_range_end))),
-        );
-        let full_result_large = full_index
-            .search(&query_large_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Test 6: Query value below the minimum
+        let query_below_min = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(-1)));
+        let full_result_below = full_index
+            .search(&query_below_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_large = merged_index
-            .search(&query_large_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_below = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_below_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_large, merged_result_large,
-            "Large range query [{}, {}] failed",
-            large_range_start, large_range_end
+            full_result_below, ranged_result_below,
+            "Query for value below minimum (-1) failed"
         );
 
-        // === Range Boundary Query Tests ===
-
-        // Test 12: Less than query (implemented using range query, from minimum to specified value)
-        let lt_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
-        let query_lt = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(lt_val))),
-        );
-        let full_result_lt = full_index
-            .search(&query_lt, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Test 7: Query value above the maximum
+        let query_above_max = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_val + 1)));
+        let full_result_above = full_index
+            .search(&query_above_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_lt = merged_index
-            .search(&query_lt, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_above = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_above_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_lt, merged_result_lt,
-            "Less than query (<{}) failed",
-            lt_val
+            full_result_above,
+            ranged_result_above,
+            "Query for value above maximum ({}) failed",
+            max_val + 1
         );
 
-        // Test 13: Greater than query (implemented using range query, from specified value to maximum)
-        let gt_val = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
-        let max_range_val = (3 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
-        let query_gt = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(gt_val))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_range_val))),
+        // Range Tests
+
+        // Test 8: Cross-range query: One range including different values from adjacent range files.
+        let range_start =
+            (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2 + DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2 - 100) as i32;
+        let range_end = range_start + 200;
+        let query_cross_range = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(range_start))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(range_end))),
         );
-        let full_result_gt = full_index
-            .search(&query_gt, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let full_result_cross = full_index
+            .search(&query_cross_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_gt = merged_index
-            .search(&query_gt, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_cross = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_cross_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_gt, merged_result_gt,
-            "Greater than query (>{}) failed",
-            gt_val
+            full_result_cross, ranged_result_cross,
+            "Cross-range range query [{}, {}] failed",
+            range_start, range_end
         );
 
-        // Test 14: Less than or equal query (implemented using range query, including boundary value)
-        let lte_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
-        let query_lte = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(lte_val))),
+        // Test 9 Test simple range within a single page file
+        let single_range_start = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 4 - 300) as i32;
+        let single_range_end = single_range_start + 200;
+        let query_single_range = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(single_range_start))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(single_range_end))),
         );
-        let full_result_lte = full_index
-            .search(&query_lte, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let full_result_single = full_index
+            .search(&query_single_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_lte = merged_index
-            .search(&query_lte, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_single = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_single_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_lte, merged_result_lte,
-            "Less than or equal query (<={}) failed",
-            lte_val
+            full_result_single, ranged_result_single,
+            "Single range query [{}, {}] failed",
+            single_range_start, single_range_end
         );
 
-        // Test 15: Greater than or equal query (implemented using range query, including boundary value)
-        let gte_val = (2 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
-        let query_gte = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(gte_val))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_range_val))),
+        // Test 10: Large range query spanning almost all values
+        let large_range_start = 100_i32;
+        let large_range_end = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 4 - 100) as i32;
+        let query_large_range = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(large_range_start))),
+            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(large_range_end))),
         );
-        let full_result_gte = full_index
-            .search(&query_gte, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let full_result_single = full_index
+            .search(&query_large_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let merged_result_gte = merged_index
-            .search(&query_gte, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let ranged_result_single = ranged_index
+            .search(&query_large_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_gte, merged_result_gte,
-            "Greater than or equal query (>={}) failed",
-            gte_val
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_extract_partition_id() {
-        // Test valid partition file names
-        assert_eq!(
-            super::extract_partition_id("part_123_page_data.lance").unwrap(),
-            123
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            super::extract_partition_id("part_456_page_lookup.lance").unwrap(),
-            456
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            super::extract_partition_id("part_4294967296_page_data.lance").unwrap(),
-            4294967296
+            full_result_single, ranged_result_single,
+            "Single fragment range query [{}, {}] failed",
+            large_range_start, large_range_end
         );
 
-        // Test invalid file names
-        assert!(super::extract_partition_id("invalid_filename.lance").is_err());
-        assert!(super::extract_partition_id("part_abc_page_data.lance").is_err());
-        assert!(super::extract_partition_id("part_123").is_err());
-        assert!(super::extract_partition_id("part_").is_err());
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cleanup_partition_files() {
-        // Create a test store
-        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let test_store: Arc<dyn crate::scalar::IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        let remap_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let remap_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-
-        // Test files with different patterns
-        let lookup_files = vec![
-            "part_123_page_lookup.lance".to_string(),
-            "invalid_lookup_file.lance".to_string(),
-            "part_456_page_lookup.lance".to_string(),
-        ];
-
-        let page_files = vec![
-            "part_123_page_data.lance".to_string(),
-            "invalid_page_file.lance".to_string(),
-            "part_456_page_data.lance".to_string(),
-        ];
-
-        // The cleanup function should handle both valid and invalid file patterns gracefully
-        // This test mainly verifies that the function doesn't panic and handles edge cases
-        super::cleanup_partition_files(test_store.as_ref(), &lookup_files, &page_files).await;
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_btree_null_handling_in_queries() {
-        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory()),
-            Path::default(),
+            remap_dir.clone(),
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        // Create test data: [null, 0, 5] at row IDs [0, 1, 2]
-        // BTree expects sorted data with nulls first (or filtered out)
-        let batch = record_batch!(
-            ("value", Int32, [None, Some(0), Some(5)]),
-            ("_rowid", UInt64, [0, 1, 2])
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-        let stream = stream::once(futures::future::ok(batch.clone()));
-        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream));
-
-        // Train the btree index with FlatIndexMetadata as sub-index
-        super::train_btree_index(stream, store.as_ref(), 256, None, None)
+        // Remap with a no-op mapping.  The remapped index should be identical to the original
+        ranged_index
+            .remap(&RowAddrRemap::empty(), remap_store.as_ref())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
-        let index = super::BTreeIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+        let remap_index = BTreeIndex::load(remap_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Test 1: Search for value 5 - should return allow=[2], null=[0]
-        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5)));
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-
-        match result {
-            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
-                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
-                    .true_rows()
-                    .row_addrs()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .map(u64::from)
-                    .collect();
-                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![2], "Should find row 2 where value == 5");
-
-                // Check that null_row_ids contains row 0
-                let null_row_ids = row_ids.null_rows();
-                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be non-empty");
-                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
-                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
-                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![0], "Should report row 0 as null");
-            }
-            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
-        }
-
-        // Test 2: Range query [0, 3] - should return allow=[1], null=[0]
-        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
-            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3))),
-        );
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-
-        match result {
-            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
-                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
-                    .true_rows()
-                    .row_addrs()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .map(u64::from)
-                    .collect();
-                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![1], "Should find row 1 where value == 0");
+        assert_eq!(remap_index.page_lookup, ranged_index.page_lookup);
 
-                // Should report row 0 as null
-                let null_row_ids = row_ids.null_rows();
-                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be non-empty");
-                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
-                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
-                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![0], "Should report row 0 as null");
-            }
-            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
-        }
+        let ranged_pages = range_store
+            .open_index_file(part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32).as_str())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let remapped_pages = remap_store
+            .open_index_file(part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32).as_str())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Test 3: IsIn query [0, 5] - should return allow=[1, 2], null=[0]
-        let query = SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![
-            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)),
-            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5)),
-        ]);
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ranged_pages.num_rows(), remapped_pages.num_rows());
 
-        match result {
-            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
-                let mut actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
-                    .true_rows()
-                    .row_addrs()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .map(u64::from)
-                    .collect();
-                actual_rows.sort();
-                assert_eq!(
-                    actual_rows,
-                    vec![1, 2],
-                    "Should find rows 1 and 2 where value in [0, 5]"
-                );
+        let original_data = ranged_pages
+            .read_record_batch(0, ranged_pages.num_rows() as u64)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let remapped_data = remapped_pages
+            .read_record_batch(0, remapped_pages.num_rows() as u64)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-                // Should report row 0 as null
-                let null_row_ids = row_ids.null_rows();
-                assert!(!null_row_ids.is_empty(), "null_row_ids should be non-empty");
-                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
-                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
-                assert_eq!(null_rows, vec![0], "Should report row 0 as null");
-            }
-            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
-        }
+        assert_eq!(original_data, remapped_data);
     }
 
+    // Spill-enabled index builds share the cached DataFusion memory pool within the
+    // test process, so keep them in one resource group.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_range_btree_index_consistency() {
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_update_ranged_index() {
         // Setup stores for both indexes
-        let full_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let full_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        let old_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let old_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            full_tmpdir.clone(),
+            old_tmpdir.clone(),
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        let range_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let range_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        let new_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let new_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            range_tmpdir.clone(),
+            new_tmpdir.clone(),
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        // Method 1: Build complete index directly using the same data
-        // Create deterministic data for comparison - use 4 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE for testing
-        let total_count = 4 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
-        let full_data_gen = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(total_count / 4), BatchCount::from(4));
-        let full_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            full_data_gen.schema(),
-            full_data_gen,
-        ));
-
-        train_btree_index(
-            full_data_source,
-            full_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            None,
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Method 2: Build range-based index using the same data split into ranges
         // Create range 1 index, intentionally make it not divisible by DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE
         let range1_gen = gen_batch()
             .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
@@ -3613,10 +5920,10 @@ mod tests {
 
         train_btree_index(
             range1_data_source,
-            range_store.as_ref(),
+            old_store.as_ref(),
             DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
             None,
-            Option::from(0u32),
+            Option::from(1u32),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
@@ -3640,424 +5947,1420 @@ mod tests {
 
         train_btree_index(
             range2_data_source,
-            range_store.as_ref(),
+            old_store.as_ref(),
             DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
             None,
-            Option::from(1u32),
+            Option::from(2u32),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Merge the fragment files
+        let part_page_files = vec![
+            part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
+            part_page_data_file_path(2 << 32),
+        ];
+
+        let part_lookup_files = vec![
+            part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32),
+            part_lookup_file_path(2 << 32),
+        ];
+
+        super::merge_metadata_files(
+            old_store.as_ref(),
+            &part_page_files,
+            &part_lookup_files,
+            Option::from(1usize),
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // create some update data
+        let start_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2) as i32;
+        let end_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 3) as i32;
+        let row_id_delta = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 3) as i32;
+        let values: Vec<i32> = (start_val..end_val).collect();
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> =
+            ((start_val + row_id_delta) as u64..(end_val + row_id_delta) as u64).collect();
+        let update_data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values))
+            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids))
+            .into_df_stream(
+                RowCount::from(DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2),
+                BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let update_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            update_data.schema(),
+            update_data,
+        ));
+
+        let ranged_index = BTreeIndex::load(old_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // update the ranged index
+        ranged_index
+            .update(update_data_source, new_store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .expect("Error in updating ranged index");
+
+        let updated_index = BTreeIndex::load(new_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            updated_index.ranges_to_files.is_none(),
+            "Updated ranged-btree-index should fall back to non-ranged"
+        );
+
+        let updated_value = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2 + (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2)) as i32;
+        let updated_query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(updated_value)));
+
+        let query_result = updated_index
+            .search(&updated_query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match query_result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_id_map) => {
+                assert!(
+                    row_id_map.selected(updated_value as u64),
+                    "Updated index should contain original rowids."
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    row_id_map.selected((updated_value + row_id_delta) as u64),
+                    "Updated index should contain new rowids"
+                );
+            }
+            _ => {
+                panic!("Btree search result should always be Exact.");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_update_with_exact_row_id_filter() {
+        let old_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let old_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            old_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let new_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let new_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            new_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let old_data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(512), BatchCount::from(2));
+        let old_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(old_data.schema(), old_data));
+        train_btree_index(
+            old_data_source,
+            old_store.as_ref(),
+            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            None,
+            None,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Merge the fragment files
-        let part_page_files = vec![
-            part_page_data_file_path(0 << 32),
-            part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
-        ];
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(old_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let new_data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(2000, 1))
+            .col("_rowid", array::step_custom::<UInt64Type>(2000, 1))
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let new_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(new_data.schema(), new_data));
+
+        let mut retained_old_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        retained_old_rows.insert_range(0..64);
+        retained_old_rows.insert_range(300..364);
+
+        index
+            .update(
+                new_data_source,
+                new_store.as_ref(),
+                Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(retained_old_rows)),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let updated_index = BTreeIndex::load(new_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let present = |value: i32| {
+            let updated_index = updated_index.clone();
+            async move {
+                let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(value)));
+                match updated_index
+                    .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                {
+                    SearchResult::Exact(row_id_map) => row_id_map.selected(value as u64),
+                    _ => unreachable!("Btree search result should always be Exact"),
+                }
+            }
+        };
+
+        assert!(present(12).await);
+        assert!(present(320).await);
+        assert!(!present(120).await);
+        assert!(!present(420).await);
+        assert!(present(2005).await);
+    }
+
+    /// Rust equivalent of Python test `test_btree_remap_big_deletions`
+    ///
+    /// This test verifies that btree index remapping works correctly when a large
+    /// portion of the data is deleted. The Python test:
+    /// 1. Writes 15K rows in 3 fragments (values 0-14999)
+    /// 2. Creates a btree index (will have multiple pages)
+    /// 3. Deletes rows where a > 1000 AND a < 10000 (deletes values 1001-9999)
+    /// 4. Runs compaction (materializes deletions via remap)
+    /// 5. Verifies the index still works for remaining values
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_btree_remap_big_deletions() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Generate 15000 rows with values 0-14999 and row_ids 0-14999
+        // Using a smaller batch size to ensure we get multiple pages
+        let batch_size = 4096;
+        let total_rows = 15000;
+
+        let stream = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(total_rows), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), batch_size, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a mapping that simulates deleting rows where value > 1000 AND value < 10000
+        // Since values match row_ids in our test data:
+        // - Rows 0-1000 (values 0-1000) are kept with same row_ids
+        // - Rows 1001-9999 (values 1001-9999) are deleted (mapped to None)
+        // - Rows 10000-14999 (values 10000-14999) are remapped to new row_ids 1001-5999
+        let mut mapping: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> = HashMap::new();
+
+        // Mark deleted rows (values 1001-9999)
+        for old_id in 1001..10000 {
+            mapping.insert(old_id, None);
+        }
+
+        // Remap all other rows
+        for (new_id, old_id) in (100_000..).zip((0..1000).chain(10000..15000)) {
+            mapping.insert(old_id, Some(new_id));
+        }
+
+        let remap_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let remap_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            remap_dir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Remap the index with our deletion mapping
+        index
+            .remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping), remap_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let remapped_index = BTreeIndex::load(remap_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify values that should exist (values 0-1000 and 10000-14999)
+        // These correspond to: original values 0-1000 at row_ids 0-1000
+        // and original values 10000-14999 at new row_ids 1001-5999
+        let should_exist = vec![0, 500, 1000, 10000, 13000, 14000, 14999];
+        for value in should_exist {
+            let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(value)));
+            let result = remapped_index
+                .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            match result {
+                SearchResult::Exact(row_id_map) => {
+                    assert!(
+                        !row_id_map.is_empty(),
+                        "Value {} should exist in remapped index but was not found",
+                        value
+                    );
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    panic!("Btree search result should always be Exact.");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Verify values that should NOT exist (values 1001-9999 were deleted)
+        let should_not_exist = vec![1001, 5000, 8000, 9999];
+        for value in should_not_exist {
+            let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(value)));
+            let result = remapped_index
+                .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            match result {
+                SearchResult::Exact(row_id_map) => {
+                    assert!(
+                        row_id_map.is_empty(),
+                        "Value {} should NOT exist in remapped index but was found",
+                        value
+                    );
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    panic!("Btree search result should always be Exact.");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test: BTree search skips null pages only when the caller
+    /// explicitly opts out of NULL tracking.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_search_null_tracking_options_for_absent_value() {
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, UInt64Array};
 
-        let part_lookup_files = vec![
-            part_lookup_file_path(0 << 32),
-            part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32),
-        ];
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
 
-        super::merge_metadata_files(
-            range_store.as_ref(),
-            &part_page_files,
-            &part_lookup_files,
-            Option::from(1usize),
-        )
-        .await
+        // Create data with 80% nulls so that training produces separate
+        // all-null pages (which are not in the BTree map). Non-null values
+        // are all in [100, 5099], so value 0 never appears.
+        let num_rows = 5000u64;
+        let values: Int32Array = (0..num_rows)
+            .map(|i| {
+                if i % 5 != 0 {
+                    None // 80% null
+                } else {
+                    Some(100 + i as i32) // non-null values in [100, 5099]
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
+        let data = arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("value", Arc::new(values) as arrow_array::ArrayRef),
+            ("_rowid", Arc::new(row_ids) as arrow_array::ArrayRef),
+        ])
         .unwrap();
 
-        let full_index = BTreeIndex::load(full_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::iter(vec![Ok(data)]),
+        ));
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), num_rows, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let ranged_index = BTreeIndex::load(range_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Equality Tests
+        // Verify we have all-null pages (the bug depends on this)
+        assert!(
+            !index.page_lookup.all_null_pages.is_empty(),
+            "Test setup requires all-null pages; got null_pages={}, all_null_pages={}",
+            index.page_lookup.null_pages.len(),
+            index.page_lookup.all_null_pages.len(),
+        );
 
-        // Test 1: Query for value 0
-        let query_0 = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
-        let full_result_0 = full_index
-            .search(&query_0, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_0 = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_0, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(full_result_0, ranged_result_0, "Query for value 0 failed");
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
 
-        // Test 2: Query for value in middle of first batch (should be in first page)
-        let mid_first_batch = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
-        let query_mid_first = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(mid_first_batch)));
-        let full_result_mid_first = full_index
-            .search(&query_mid_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_mid_first = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_mid_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // A top-level positive filter can discard NULL results. No BTree page
+        // should be read when the searched value is absent.
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let result = index
+            .search_with_options(
+                &query,
+                SearchOptions::default().with_track_nulls(false),
+                &metrics,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_mid_first, ranged_result_mid_first,
-            "Query for value {} failed",
-            mid_first_batch
-        );
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::default()));
+        assert_eq!(metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.comparisons.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
 
-        // Test 3: Query for value in the last batch (should be in the second range file)
-        let mid_last_batch = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 3 + (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2)) as i32;
-        let query_mid_last = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(mid_last_batch)));
-        let full_result_mid_last = full_index
-            .search(&query_mid_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_mid_last = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_mid_last, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_mid_last, ranged_result_mid_last,
-            "Query for value {} failed",
-            mid_last_batch
-        );
+        // The existing search API keeps its NULL-preserving behavior for
+        // callers that need three-valued logic.
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Test 4: Query upper bound.
-        let max_val = (4 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE - 1) as i32;
-        let query_max = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_val)));
-        let full_result_max = full_index
-            .search(&query_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_max = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_max, ranged_result_max,
-            "Query for maximum value {} failed",
-            max_val
-        );
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                // No rows should be TRUE (value 0 doesn't exist)
+                assert!(set.true_rows().is_empty(), "No rows should match Equals(0)");
+                // NULL rows MUST be tracked as null
+                assert!(
+                    !set.null_rows().is_empty(),
+                    "Null rows must be tracked even when no pages match the value"
+                );
+            }
+            _ => panic!("BTree search should return Exact"),
+        }
 
-        // Test 5: Query first value of the second page file.
-        let second_first_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2 + DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
-        let query_second_first = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(second_first_val)));
-        let full_result_second_first = full_index
-            .search(&query_second_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_second_first = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_second_first, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Also verify Range query tracks nulls when no values match
+        let result = index
+            .search(
+                &SargableQuery::Range(
+                    std::ops::Bound::Unbounded,
+                    std::ops::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(50))),
+                ),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_second_first, ranged_result_second_first,
-            "Query for first value of the second page file {} failed",
-            second_first_val
-        );
 
-        // Test 6: Query value below the minimum
-        let query_below_min = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(-1)));
-        let full_result_below = full_index
-            .search(&query_below_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_below = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_below_min, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert!(set.true_rows().is_empty(), "No rows should be < 50");
+                assert!(
+                    !set.null_rows().is_empty(),
+                    "Null rows must be tracked for range queries too"
+                );
+            }
+            _ => panic!("BTree search should return Exact"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test: disabling NULL tracking also omits NULL rows from a
+    /// candidate page that contains both matching and NULL values.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_search_without_null_tracking_on_mixed_page() {
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory()),
+            Path::default(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let data = record_batch!(
+            ("value", Int32, [None, Some(5), Some(7)]),
+            ("_rowid", UInt64, [0, 1, 2])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(async { Ok(data) }),
+        ));
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 3, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_below, ranged_result_below,
-            "Query for value below minimum (-1) failed"
-        );
 
-        // Test 7: Query value above the maximum
-        let query_above_max = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(max_val + 1)));
-        let full_result_above = full_index
-            .search(&query_above_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_above = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_above_max, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        assert_eq!(index.page_lookup.null_pages, vec![0]);
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5)));
+        let result = index
+            .search_with_options(
+                &query,
+                SearchOptions::default().with_track_nulls(false),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_above,
-            ranged_result_above,
-            "Query for value above maximum ({}) failed",
-            max_val + 1
-        );
+        let SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) = result else {
+            panic!("BTree search should be exact");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.true_rows(), RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1]));
+        assert!(row_ids.null_rows().is_empty());
 
-        // Range Tests
+        let tracked = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let SearchResult::Exact(tracked) = tracked else {
+            panic!("BTree search should be exact");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(tracked.true_rows(), RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1]));
+        assert_eq!(tracked.null_rows(), &RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0]));
+    }
 
-        // Test 8: Cross-range query: One range including different values from adjacent range files.
-        let range_start =
-            (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2 + DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2 - 100) as i32;
-        let range_end = range_start + 200;
-        let query_cross_range = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(range_start))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(range_end))),
-        );
-        let full_result_cross = full_index
-            .search(&query_cross_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+    /// Row ids that span many fragments, interleaved so that every page holds
+    /// rows from (almost) every fragment. The search result is assembled once
+    /// from all pages' id arrays rather than per page, so this checks that the
+    /// bucketing by fragment reproduces exactly the expected TRUE and NULL
+    /// sets for range, IN, equality and IS NULL queries, with and without null
+    /// tracking.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_search_assembles_rows_across_many_fragments() {
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, UInt64Array};
+
+        const NUM_FRAGMENTS: u64 = 200;
+        const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: u64 = 64;
+        const NUM_ROWS: u64 = NUM_FRAGMENTS * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT;
+        // Larger than NUM_FRAGMENTS so each page spans every fragment.
+        const PAGE_SIZE: u64 = 256;
+        const NULL_EVERY: u64 = 50;
+
+        // Row `i` has value `i` (or NULL every 50th row) and lives at offset
+        // `i / NUM_FRAGMENTS` of fragment `i % NUM_FRAGMENTS`, so consecutive
+        // values sit in different fragments.
+        let addr_of = |i: u64| {
+            u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(
+                (i % NUM_FRAGMENTS) as u32,
+                (i / NUM_FRAGMENTS) as u32,
+            ))
+        };
+        let is_null = |i: u64| i.is_multiple_of(NULL_EVERY);
+
+        let values: Int32Array = (0..NUM_ROWS)
+            .map(|i| if is_null(i) { None } else { Some(i as i32) })
+            .collect();
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values((0..NUM_ROWS).map(addr_of));
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("value", Arc::new(values) as arrow_array::ArrayRef),
+            ("_rowid", Arc::new(row_ids) as arrow_array::ArrayRef),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+        // Training expects value-sorted, page-sized batches (nulls last, as
+        // DataFusion's default sort would produce them).
+        let data = lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt::sort_by_column(
+            &data,
+            0,
+            Some(arrow_schema::SortOptions {
+                descending: false,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            }),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            stream::once(async { Ok(data) }),
+        )) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+        let stream = break_stream(stream, PAGE_SIZE as usize).map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+        let stream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory()),
+            Path::default(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), PAGE_SIZE, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_cross = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_cross_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            full_result_cross, ranged_result_cross,
-            "Cross-range range query [{}, {}] failed",
-            range_start, range_end
-        );
+        let num_pages = index.page_lookup.batch.num_rows();
+        assert!(num_pages > 40, "expected many pages, got {num_pages}");
+
+        let expected_rows = |pred: &dyn Fn(u64) -> bool| -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+            (0..NUM_ROWS)
+                .filter(|&i| !is_null(i) && pred(i))
+                .map(addr_of)
+                .collect()
+        };
+        let all_nulls: RowAddrTreeMap =
+            (0..NUM_ROWS).filter(|&i| is_null(i)).map(addr_of).collect();
+        assert_eq!(all_nulls.len(), Some(NUM_ROWS / NULL_EVERY));
 
-        // Test 9 Test simple range within a single page file
-        let single_range_start = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 4 - 300) as i32;
-        let single_range_end = single_range_start + 200;
-        let query_single_range = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(single_range_start))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(single_range_end))),
-        );
-        let full_result_single = full_index
-            .search(&query_single_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_single = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_single_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // (query, expected TRUE rows, expected NULL rows when tracked)
+        let int = |i: u64| ScalarValue::Int32(Some(i as i32));
+        let cases: Vec<(SargableQuery, RowAddrTreeMap, RowAddrTreeMap)> = vec![
+            (
+                SargableQuery::Range(Bound::Included(int(3000)), Bound::Excluded(int(9000))),
+                expected_rows(&|i| (3000..9000).contains(&i)),
+                all_nulls.clone(),
+            ),
+            (
+                SargableQuery::Range(Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Included(int(1234))),
+                expected_rows(&|i| i <= 1234),
+                all_nulls.clone(),
+            ),
+            (
+                // 50 is a NULL slot and 99_999 is absent; both must be ignored.
+                SargableQuery::IsIn(
+                    [7_u64, 100, 4999, 12_000, 50, 99_999]
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(int)
+                        .collect(),
+                ),
+                expected_rows(&|i| [7, 100, 4999, 12_000].contains(&i)),
+                all_nulls.clone(),
+            ),
+            (
+                SargableQuery::Equals(int(4242)),
+                expected_rows(&|i| i == 4242),
+                all_nulls.clone(),
+            ),
+            (
+                // A value that only ever appears as NULL.
+                SargableQuery::Equals(int(50)),
+                RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
+                all_nulls.clone(),
+            ),
+            (
+                SargableQuery::IsNull(),
+                all_nulls.clone(),
+                RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        for (query, expected_true, expected_nulls) in cases {
+            for track_nulls in [true, false] {
+                let result = index
+                    .search_with_options(
+                        &query,
+                        SearchOptions::default().with_track_nulls(track_nulls),
+                        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let SearchResult::Exact(rows) = result else {
+                    panic!("BTree search should be exact");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(
+                    rows.true_rows(),
+                    expected_true,
+                    "TRUE rows for {query:?} (track_nulls={track_nulls})"
+                );
+                let expected_nulls = if track_nulls {
+                    expected_nulls.clone()
+                } else {
+                    RowAddrTreeMap::new()
+                };
+                assert_eq!(
+                    rows.null_rows(),
+                    &expected_nulls,
+                    "NULL rows for {query:?} (track_nulls={track_nulls})"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Sanity: the range result really did have to be stitched together
+        // across fragments and pages. Fragments whose id is a multiple of
+        // NULL_EVERY hold only NULL rows, so they carry no TRUE rows.
+        let fragments_with_true_rows = (NUM_FRAGMENTS - NUM_FRAGMENTS / NULL_EVERY) as usize;
+        let SearchResult::Exact(rows) = index
+            .search(
+                &SargableQuery::Range(Bound::Included(int(3000)), Bound::Excluded(int(9000))),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("BTree search should be exact");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(rows.true_rows().iter().count(), fragments_with_true_rows);
+    }
+
+    fn sample_lookup_batch() -> RecordBatch {
+        record_batch!(
+            ("min", Int32, [Some(0), Some(10), Some(20)]),
+            ("max", Int32, [Some(9), Some(19), Some(29)]),
+            ("null_count", UInt32, [0, 2, 0]),
+            ("page_idx", UInt32, [0, 1, 2])
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn osv(v: i32) -> OrderableScalarValue {
+        OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(v)))
+    }
+
+    /// The rewritten [`BTreeLookup`] searches the lookup batch directly, so this
+    /// exercises the binary-search bounds, duplicate `min` values, a partial-null
+    /// (null `min`) straddling page, and the `Matches::Some`/`All` classification.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_lookup_pages_between() {
+        // Pages sorted by `min`, NULLs first. Page 0 straddles the NULL/non-NULL
+        // boundary; pages 2 and 3 share a `min` of 20.
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            ("min", Int32, [None, Some(10), Some(20), Some(20), Some(40)]),
+            (
+                "max",
+                Int32,
+                [Some(5), Some(20), Some(20), Some(30), Some(50)]
+            ),
+            ("null_count", UInt32, [2, 0, 0, 0, 0]),
+            ("page_idx", UInt32, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let lookup = BTreeLookup::try_new(batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(lookup.null_pages, vec![0]);
+        assert!(lookup.all_null_pages.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(lookup.search_start, 0);
+
+        let between = |lo: i32, hi: i32| {
+            let mut m = lookup
+                .pages_between((
+                    std::ops::Bound::Included(&osv(lo)),
+                    std::ops::Bound::Included(&osv(hi)),
+                ))
+                .unwrap();
+            m.sort_by_key(|m| m.page_id());
+            m
+        };
+
+        // Equality only ever yields partial (Some) matches.
+        assert_eq!(lookup.pages_eq(&osv(15)).unwrap(), vec![Matches::Some(1)]);
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_single, ranged_result_single,
-            "Single range query [{}, {}] failed",
-            single_range_start, single_range_end
+            lookup.pages_eq(&osv(20)).unwrap(),
+            vec![Matches::Some(1), Matches::Some(2), Matches::Some(3)]
         );
+        assert!(lookup.pages_eq(&osv(35)).unwrap().is_empty());
 
-        // Test 10: Large range query spanning almost all values
-        let large_range_start = 100_i32;
-        let large_range_end = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 4 - 100) as i32;
-        let query_large_range = SargableQuery::Range(
-            std::collections::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(large_range_start))),
-            std::collections::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(large_range_end))),
+        // [20, 25]: page 2 ([20, 20]) sits entirely inside -> All; pages 1 and 3
+        // only partially overlap -> Some. The null-min page 0 (max 5) is excluded.
+        assert_eq!(
+            between(20, 25),
+            vec![Matches::Some(1), Matches::All(2), Matches::Some(3)]
         );
-        let full_result_single = full_index
-            .search(&query_large_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let ranged_result_single = ranged_index
-            .search(&query_large_range, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+
+        // A query below all non-null data still reaches the straddling page 0,
+        // which is only ever a partial match because its `min` is NULL.
+        assert_eq!(between(0, 5), vec![Matches::Some(0)]);
+
+        // Unbounded above: page 4 ([40, 50]) is fully covered from 40 onward.
         assert_eq!(
-            full_result_single, ranged_result_single,
-            "Single fragment range query [{}, {}] failed",
-            large_range_start, large_range_end
+            lookup
+                .pages_between((
+                    std::ops::Bound::Included(&osv(40)),
+                    std::ops::Bound::Unbounded
+                ))
+                .unwrap(),
+            vec![Matches::All(4)]
         );
 
-        let remap_dir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let remap_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            remap_dir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
+        // Empty / inverted ranges select nothing.
+        assert!(between(31, 39).is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            lookup
+                .pages_between((
+                    std::ops::Bound::Included(&osv(25)),
+                    std::ops::Bound::Included(&osv(15))
+                ))
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Remap with a no-op mapping.  The remapped index should be identical to the original
-        ranged_index
-            .remap(&HashMap::default(), remap_store.as_ref())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    /// Exercises the native byte comparator path (`accessor_cmp`) for
+    /// variable-length `Binary` and fixed-width `FixedSizeBinary` (e.g. UUID)
+    /// columns, including the null-min straddle page and duplicate `min`s.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_lookup_pages_eq_bytes() {
+        use arrow_array::{
+            ArrayRef, BinaryArray, FixedSizeBinaryArray, LargeBinaryArray, LargeStringArray,
+            UInt32Array,
+        };
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 
-        let remap_index = BTreeIndex::load(remap_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // 2-byte big-endian keys, so lexicographic byte order matches numeric
+        // order. Same layout as the int test: page 0 is a null-min straddle,
+        // pages 2 and 3 share `min` 20, and 35 falls in a gap.
+        fn be(v: u16) -> [u8; 2] {
+            v.to_be_bytes()
+        }
+        let mins = [None, Some(10u16), Some(20), Some(20), Some(40)];
+        let maxs = [Some(5u16), Some(20), Some(20), Some(30), Some(50)];
+        let null_count = UInt32Array::from(vec![2u32, 0, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let page_idx = UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+
+        let assert_byte_lookup =
+            |min_arr: ArrayRef, max_arr: ArrayRef, sv: &dyn Fn(u16) -> ScalarValue| {
+                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                        Field::new("min", min_arr.data_type().clone(), true),
+                        Field::new("max", max_arr.data_type().clone(), true),
+                        Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                        Field::new("page_idx", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                    ])),
+                    vec![
+                        min_arr,
+                        max_arr,
+                        Arc::new(null_count.clone()),
+                        Arc::new(page_idx.clone()),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+                let lookup = BTreeLookup::try_new(batch).unwrap();
+
+                let eq = |v: u16| {
+                    let mut p: Vec<u32> = lookup
+                        .pages_eq(&OrderableScalarValue(sv(v)))
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|m| m.page_id())
+                        .collect();
+                    p.sort_unstable();
+                    p
+                };
+                assert_eq!(eq(15), vec![1]); // only page 1 ([10, 20])
+                assert_eq!(eq(20), vec![1, 2, 3]); // shared min of 2 & 3, max of 1
+                assert!(eq(35).is_empty()); // gap between pages 3 and 4
+                assert_eq!(eq(5), vec![0]); // reaches the null-min straddle via its max
+
+                // IN merges and dedups across values.
+                let mut in_pages: Vec<u32> = lookup
+                    .pages_in([5u16, 15].into_iter().map(|v| OrderableScalarValue(sv(v))))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|m| m.page_id())
+                    .collect();
+                in_pages.sort_unstable();
+                assert_eq!(in_pages, vec![0, 1]);
+            };
 
-        assert_eq!(remap_index.page_lookup, ranged_index.page_lookup);
+        let fsb = |arr: &[Option<u16>]| -> ArrayRef {
+            Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_sparse_iter_with_size(
+                    arr.iter().copied().map(|o| o.map(be)),
+                    2,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            )
+        };
+        assert_byte_lookup(fsb(&mins), fsb(&maxs), &|v| {
+            ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(2, Some(be(v).to_vec()))
+        });
 
-        let ranged_pages = range_store
-            .open_index_file(part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32).as_str())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let remapped_pages = remap_store
-            .open_index_file(part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32).as_str())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let bin = |arr: &[Option<u16>]| -> ArrayRef {
+            Arc::new(BinaryArray::from_iter(
+                arr.iter().copied().map(|o| o.map(|v| be(v).to_vec())),
+            ))
+        };
+        assert_byte_lookup(bin(&mins), bin(&maxs), &|v| {
+            ScalarValue::Binary(Some(be(v).to_vec()))
+        });
 
-        assert_eq!(ranged_pages.num_rows(), remapped_pages.num_rows());
+        let lbin = |arr: &[Option<u16>]| -> ArrayRef {
+            Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(
+                arr.iter().copied().map(|o| o.map(|v| be(v).to_vec())),
+            ))
+        };
+        assert_byte_lookup(lbin(&mins), lbin(&maxs), &|v| {
+            ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(be(v).to_vec()))
+        });
 
-        let original_data = ranged_pages
-            .read_record_batch(0, ranged_pages.num_rows() as u64)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let remapped_data = remapped_pages
-            .read_record_batch(0, remapped_pages.num_rows() as u64)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // `LargeUtf8` over zero-padded decimal strings, whose lexicographic order
+        // matches the numeric order of the keys.
+        let lstr = |arr: &[Option<u16>]| -> ArrayRef {
+            Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from_iter(
+                arr.iter().copied().map(|o| o.map(|v| format!("{v:02}"))),
+            ))
+        };
+        assert_byte_lookup(lstr(&mins), lstr(&maxs), &|v| {
+            ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(format!("{v:02}")))
+        });
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(original_data, remapped_data);
+    /// Exercises the physical-type reinterpret path: temporal columns (`Date32`
+    /// over `i32`, `Timestamp` over `i64`) are compared through the integer native
+    /// path without a dedicated per-type branch.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_lookup_pages_eq_temporal() {
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Date32Array, TimestampMicrosecondArray, UInt32Array};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+
+        let null_count = UInt32Array::from(vec![2u32, 0, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let page_idx = UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+
+        let assert_lookup =
+            |min_arr: ArrayRef, max_arr: ArrayRef, sv: &dyn Fn(i64) -> ScalarValue| {
+                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                        Field::new("min", min_arr.data_type().clone(), true),
+                        Field::new("max", max_arr.data_type().clone(), true),
+                        Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                        Field::new("page_idx", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                    ])),
+                    vec![
+                        min_arr,
+                        max_arr,
+                        Arc::new(null_count.clone()),
+                        Arc::new(page_idx.clone()),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+                let lookup = BTreeLookup::try_new(batch).unwrap();
+                let eq = |v: i64| {
+                    let mut p: Vec<u32> = lookup
+                        .pages_eq(&OrderableScalarValue(sv(v)))
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|m| m.page_id())
+                        .collect();
+                    p.sort_unstable();
+                    p
+                };
+                assert_eq!(eq(15), vec![1]); // only page 1 ([10, 20])
+                assert_eq!(eq(20), vec![1, 2, 3]); // shared min of 2 & 3, max of 1
+                assert!(eq(35).is_empty()); // gap between pages 3 and 4
+                assert_eq!(eq(5), vec![0]); // reaches the null-min straddle via its max
+            };
+
+        // Timestamp (i64-backed) → Int64 native path.
+        assert_lookup(
+            Arc::new(TimestampMicrosecondArray::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(10),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(40),
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(TimestampMicrosecondArray::from(vec![
+                Some(5),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(30),
+                Some(50),
+            ])),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::TimestampMicrosecond(Some(v), None),
+        );
+
+        // Date32 (i32-backed) → Int32 native path.
+        assert_lookup(
+            Arc::new(Date32Array::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(10),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(40),
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(Date32Array::from(vec![
+                Some(5),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(30),
+                Some(50),
+            ])),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::Date32(Some(v as i32)),
+        );
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_update_ranged_index() {
-        // Setup stores for both indexes
-        let old_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let old_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            old_tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
+    /// Exercises the remaining physical-type dispatch arms that the temporal and
+    /// byte tests don't reach: every integer width and signedness, `Float16`, and
+    /// the 128-/256-bit decimal paths. All share the temporal test's numeric layout
+    /// (mins `[_, 10, 20, 20, 40]`, maxs `[5, 20, 20, 30, 50]`) so the assertions are
+    /// identical; only the array/scalar type varies.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_lookup_pages_eq_numeric_widths() {
+        use arrow::datatypes::i256;
+        use arrow_array::{
+            ArrayRef, Decimal128Array, Decimal256Array, Float16Array, Int8Array, Int16Array,
+            UInt8Array, UInt16Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+        };
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+        use half::f16;
+
+        let null_count = UInt32Array::from(vec![2u32, 0, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let page_idx = UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        let assert_lookup =
+            |min_arr: ArrayRef, max_arr: ArrayRef, sv: &dyn Fn(i64) -> ScalarValue| {
+                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                        Field::new("min", min_arr.data_type().clone(), true),
+                        Field::new("max", max_arr.data_type().clone(), true),
+                        Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                        Field::new("page_idx", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                    ])),
+                    vec![
+                        min_arr,
+                        max_arr,
+                        Arc::new(null_count.clone()),
+                        Arc::new(page_idx.clone()),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+                let lookup = BTreeLookup::try_new(batch).unwrap();
+                let eq = |v: i64| {
+                    let mut p: Vec<u32> = lookup
+                        .pages_eq(&OrderableScalarValue(sv(v)))
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|m| m.page_id())
+                        .collect();
+                    p.sort_unstable();
+                    p
+                };
+                assert_eq!(eq(15), vec![1]); // only page 1 ([10, 20])
+                assert_eq!(eq(20), vec![1, 2, 3]); // shared min of 2 & 3, max of 1
+                assert!(eq(35).is_empty()); // gap between pages 3 and 4
+                assert_eq!(eq(5), vec![0]); // reaches the null-min straddle via its max
+            };
 
-        let new_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let new_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            new_tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
+        assert_lookup(
+            Arc::new(Int8Array::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(10),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(40),
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(Int8Array::from(vec![
+                Some(5),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(30),
+                Some(50),
+            ])),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::Int8(Some(v as i8)),
+        );
+        assert_lookup(
+            Arc::new(Int16Array::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(10),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(40),
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(Int16Array::from(vec![
+                Some(5),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(30),
+                Some(50),
+            ])),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::Int16(Some(v as i16)),
+        );
+        assert_lookup(
+            Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(10),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(40),
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![
+                Some(5),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(30),
+                Some(50),
+            ])),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::UInt8(Some(v as u8)),
+        );
+        assert_lookup(
+            Arc::new(UInt16Array::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(10),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(40),
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(UInt16Array::from(vec![
+                Some(5),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(30),
+                Some(50),
+            ])),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::UInt16(Some(v as u16)),
+        );
+        assert_lookup(
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(10),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(40),
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![
+                Some(5),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(30),
+                Some(50),
+            ])),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(v as u32)),
+        );
+        assert_lookup(
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(10),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(40),
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![
+                Some(5),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(20),
+                Some(30),
+                Some(50),
+            ])),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(v as u64)),
+        );
 
-        // Create range 1 index, intentionally make it not divisible by DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE
-        let range1_gen = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(
-                RowCount::from(DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2),
-                BatchCount::from(5),
-            );
-        let range1_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            range1_gen.schema(),
-            range1_gen,
-        ));
+        let f = |v: f64| f16::from_f64(v);
+        assert_lookup(
+            Arc::new(Float16Array::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(f(10.0)),
+                Some(f(20.0)),
+                Some(f(20.0)),
+                Some(f(40.0)),
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(Float16Array::from(vec![
+                Some(f(5.0)),
+                Some(f(20.0)),
+                Some(f(20.0)),
+                Some(f(30.0)),
+                Some(f(50.0)),
+            ])),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f(v as f64))),
+        );
 
-        train_btree_index(
-            range1_data_source,
-            old_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            None,
-            Option::from(1u32),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        // Decimal128 (i128 native path). Comparison is on the raw integer, so a
+        // scale of 0 lets the values double as plain integers.
+        let dec128 = |vals: Vec<Option<i128>>| -> ArrayRef {
+            Arc::new(
+                Decimal128Array::from(vals)
+                    .with_precision_and_scale(18, 0)
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+        };
+        assert_lookup(
+            dec128(vec![None, Some(10), Some(20), Some(20), Some(40)]),
+            dec128(vec![Some(5), Some(20), Some(20), Some(30), Some(50)]),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::Decimal128(Some(v as i128), 18, 0),
+        );
 
-        // Create range 2 index, also intentionally make it not divisible by DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE
-        let start_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2 + DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2) as i32;
-        let end_val = (4 * DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE) as i32;
-        let values_second_half: Vec<i32> = (start_val..end_val).collect();
-        let row_ids_second_half: Vec<u64> = (start_val as u64..end_val as u64).collect();
-        let range2_gen = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values_second_half))
-            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids_second_half))
-            .into_df_stream(
-                RowCount::from(DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2),
-                BatchCount::from(3),
-            );
-        let range2_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            range2_gen.schema(),
-            range2_gen,
-        ));
+        // Decimal256 (i256 native path).
+        let dec256 = |vals: Vec<Option<i128>>| -> ArrayRef {
+            Arc::new(
+                Decimal256Array::from(
+                    vals.into_iter()
+                        .map(|o| o.map(i256::from_i128))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                )
+                .with_precision_and_scale(40, 0)
+                .unwrap(),
+            )
+        };
+        assert_lookup(
+            dec256(vec![None, Some(10), Some(20), Some(20), Some(40)]),
+            dec256(vec![Some(5), Some(20), Some(20), Some(30), Some(50)]),
+            &|v| ScalarValue::Decimal256(Some(i256::from_i128(v as i128)), 40, 0),
+        );
+    }
 
-        train_btree_index(
-            range2_data_source,
-            old_store.as_ref(),
-            DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
-            None,
-            Option::from(2u32),
+    /// Exercises the NULL paths of the lookup directly: `pages_eq(NULL)` and
+    /// `pages_in` with a NULL in the value list (and a NULL-only list), including
+    /// the partial-null (`Some`) vs entirely-null (`All`) page classification.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_lookup_pages_null() {
+        // Page 0 is entirely null (null max -> All); page 1 is a partial-null
+        // straddle (max 5, null_count > 0 -> Some); page 2 also carries a null.
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            ("min", Int32, [None, None, Some(10), Some(20), Some(40)]),
+            ("max", Int32, [None, Some(5), Some(20), Some(30), Some(50)]),
+            ("null_count", UInt32, [3, 2, 1, 0, 0]),
+            ("page_idx", UInt32, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
         )
-        .await
         .unwrap();
+        let lookup = BTreeLookup::try_new(batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(lookup.all_null_pages, vec![0]);
+        assert_eq!(lookup.null_pages, vec![1, 2]);
 
-        // Merge the fragment files
-        let part_page_files = vec![
-            part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
-            part_page_data_file_path(2 << 32),
-        ];
+        // pages_eq(NULL) short-circuits to the null pages: partial-null pages are
+        // `Some`, the entirely-null page is `All`.
+        assert_eq!(
+            lookup
+                .pages_eq(&OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Int32(None)))
+                .unwrap(),
+            vec![Matches::Some(1), Matches::Some(2), Matches::All(0)]
+        );
 
-        let part_lookup_files = vec![
-            part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32),
-            part_lookup_file_path(2 << 32),
-        ];
+        let in_ids = |vals: Vec<Option<i32>>| {
+            let mut p: Vec<u32> = lookup
+                .pages_in(
+                    vals.into_iter()
+                        .map(|v| OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Int32(v))),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|m| m.page_id())
+                .collect();
+            p.sort_unstable();
+            p
+        };
+        // Baseline: a non-null value only -> just its value page.
+        assert_eq!(in_ids(vec![Some(45)]), vec![4]);
+        // A NULL in the list unions in every null page (0, 1, 2).
+        assert_eq!(in_ids(vec![Some(45), None]), vec![0, 1, 2, 4]);
+        // A NULL-only list (empty non-null set) returns exactly the null pages.
+        assert_eq!(in_ids(vec![None]), vec![0, 1, 2]);
+    }
 
-        super::merge_metadata_files(
-            old_store.as_ref(),
-            &part_page_files,
-            &part_lookup_files,
-            Option::from(1usize),
+    /// A 0-row page_lookup batch (an index over an empty dataset) must yield no
+    /// candidates for any query rather than panicking on the binary-search bounds.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_lookup_empty_batch() {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("min", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("max", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("page_idx", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let lookup = BTreeLookup::try_new(RecordBatch::new_empty(schema)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(lookup.search_start, 0);
+        assert!(lookup.null_pages.is_empty());
+        assert!(lookup.all_null_pages.is_empty());
+
+        assert!(lookup.pages_eq(&osv(5)).unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(lookup.pages_in([osv(5)]).unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            lookup
+                .pages_between((
+                    std::ops::Bound::Included(&osv(0)),
+                    std::ops::Bound::Included(&osv(100)),
+                ))
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        assert!(lookup.pages_null().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// A straddle page (null `min`, non-null `max`) can sort ahead of an entirely-
+    /// null page within the leading NULL-`min` group. When it does, `search_start`
+    /// points at the straddle and the all-null page falls inside the forward-scan
+    /// window, so both the equality and range scans must skip it (it matches only
+    /// IS NULL).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_lookup_skips_all_null_page_in_scan_window() {
+        // Page 0: straddle (null min, max 5). Page 1: entirely null (null min/max).
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            ("min", Int32, [None, None, Some(10), Some(20), Some(40)]),
+            ("max", Int32, [Some(5), None, Some(20), Some(30), Some(50)]),
+            ("null_count", UInt32, [2, 3, 0, 0, 0]),
+            ("page_idx", UInt32, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
         )
-        .await
         .unwrap();
+        let lookup = BTreeLookup::try_new(batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(lookup.search_start, 0); // straddle page 0 has a non-null max
+        assert_eq!(lookup.all_null_pages, vec![1]);
+        assert_eq!(lookup.null_pages, vec![0]);
 
-        // create some update data
-        let start_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2) as i32;
-        let end_val = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 3) as i32;
-        let row_id_delta = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 3) as i32;
-        let values: Vec<i32> = (start_val..end_val).collect();
-        let row_ids: Vec<u64> =
-            ((start_val + row_id_delta) as u64..(end_val + row_id_delta) as u64).collect();
-        let update_data = gen_batch()
-            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values))
-            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids))
-            .into_df_stream(
-                RowCount::from(DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2),
-                BatchCount::from(2),
-            );
-        let update_data_source = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            update_data.schema(),
-            update_data,
+        // Equality for 5 peeks left across the all-null page 1 (index 1, inside the
+        // scan window) and must skip it, reaching only the straddle page 0.
+        assert_eq!(
+            lookup
+                .pages_eq(&osv(5))
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|m| m.page_id())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0]
+        );
+
+        // The same all-null page sits inside the range scan window and is skipped:
+        // page 0 (straddle) is a partial match, pages 2-4 are fully covered.
+        let mut between = lookup
+            .pages_between((
+                std::ops::Bound::Included(&osv(0)),
+                std::ops::Bound::Included(&osv(100)),
+            ))
+            .unwrap();
+        between.sort_by_key(|m| m.page_id());
+        assert_eq!(
+            between,
+            vec![
+                Matches::Some(0),
+                Matches::All(2),
+                Matches::All(3),
+                Matches::All(4),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn assert_state_roundtrips(state: &BTreeIndexState) {
+        let restored = deserialize_state(serialize_state(state)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(restored.lookup_batch, state.lookup_batch);
+        assert_eq!(restored.batch_size, state.batch_size);
+        assert_eq!(restored.ranges_to_files, state.ranges_to_files);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_page_key_codec() {
+        // FlatIndex pages can be serialized by a persistent cache backend.
+        assert!(BTreePageKey::codec().is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_index_state_roundtrip() {
+        // Not range-partitioned.
+        assert_state_roundtrips(&BTreeIndexState {
+            lookup_batch: sample_lookup_batch(),
+            batch_size: DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            ranges_to_files: None,
+        });
+
+        // Range-partitioned across multiple files.
+        let ranges: RangeInclusiveMap<u32, (String, u32)> = [
+            (0..=99, ("part_0_page_file.lance".to_string(), 0)),
+            (100..=199, ("part_1_page_file.lance".to_string(), 100)),
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+        assert_state_roundtrips(&BTreeIndexState {
+            lookup_batch: sample_lookup_batch(),
+            batch_size: 8192,
+            ranges_to_files: Some(Arc::new(ranges)),
+        });
+
+        // Empty index.
+        assert_state_roundtrips(&BTreeIndexState {
+            lookup_batch: RecordBatch::new_empty(sample_lookup_batch().schema()),
+            batch_size: DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE,
+            ranges_to_files: None,
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_btree_index_state_reconstruct_and_plugin_cache() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        let ranged_index = BTreeIndex::load(old_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        let stream = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(5));
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 1000, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // update the ranged index
-        ranged_index
-            .update(update_data_source, new_store.as_ref())
-            .await
-            .expect("Error in updating ranged index");
-
-        let updated_index = BTreeIndex::load(new_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert!(
-            updated_index.ranges_to_files.is_none(),
-            "Updated ranged-btree-index should fall back to non-ranged"
+        // Round-trip the state through the codec and reconstruct an index from it.
+        let state = BTreeIndexState {
+            lookup_batch: index.page_lookup.batch.clone(),
+            batch_size: index.batch_size,
+            ranges_to_files: index.ranges_to_files.clone(),
+        };
+        let restored = deserialize_state(serialize_state(&state)).unwrap();
+        let reconstructed = restored
+            .reconstruct(test_store.clone(), &LanceCache::no_cache(), None)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            reconstructed
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<BTreeIndex>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .page_lookup,
+            index.page_lookup
         );
 
-        let updated_value = (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE * 2 + (DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE / 2)) as i32;
-        let updated_query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(updated_value)));
+        // The plugin's put/get hooks round-trip through a real cache + the codec.
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(64 * 1024 * 1024);
+        let plugin = BTreeIndexPlugin;
+        plugin
+            .put_in_cache(test_store.clone(), &cache, index.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let from_cache = plugin
+            .get_from_cache(test_store.clone(), None, &cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("index should be served from the cache");
 
-        let query_result = updated_index
-            .search(&updated_query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Searches against the cached index match the original.
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            std::ops::Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(100))),
+            std::ops::Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(200))),
+        );
+        let expected = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let actual = from_cache
+            .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        match query_result {
-            SearchResult::Exact(row_id_map) => {
-                assert!(
-                    row_id_map.selected(updated_value as u64),
-                    "Updated index should contain original rowids."
-                );
+        assert_eq!(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    /// The lookup batch must decode zero-copy through the full envelope even
+    /// though the proto header pushes the IPC section to a non-aligned offset.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_index_state_lookup_is_zero_copy() {
+        use lance_core::cache::CacheCodec;
+        const ALIGN: usize = 64;
+
+        let ranges: RangeInclusiveMap<u32, (String, u32)> =
+            [(0..=99, ("part_0_page_file.lance".to_string(), 0))]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect();
+        let state = BTreeIndexState {
+            lookup_batch: sample_lookup_batch(),
+            batch_size: 8192,
+            ranges_to_files: Some(Arc::new(ranges)),
+        };
+
+        let codec = CacheCodec::from_impl::<BTreeIndexState>();
+        let any: Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync> = Arc::new(state);
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        codec.serialize(&any, &mut buf).unwrap();
+
+        let mut v = vec![0u8; buf.len() + ALIGN];
+        let pad = (ALIGN - (v.as_ptr() as usize % ALIGN)) % ALIGN;
+        v[pad..pad + buf.len()].copy_from_slice(&buf);
+        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(v).slice(pad..pad + buf.len());
+
+        let restored = codec.deserialize(&data).hit().unwrap();
+        let restored = restored.downcast::<BTreeIndexState>().unwrap();
+
+        let base = data.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let end = base + data.len();
+        for col in restored.lookup_batch.columns() {
+            for buffer in col.to_data().buffers() {
+                let ptr = buffer.as_ptr() as usize;
                 assert!(
-                    row_id_map.selected((updated_value + row_id_delta) as u64),
-                    "Updated index should contain new rowids"
+                    ptr >= base && ptr < end,
+                    "lookup batch buffer was realigned out of the input — misaligned IPC section",
                 );
             }
-            _ => {
-                panic!("Btree search result should always be Exact.");
-            }
         }
     }
 
-    /// Rust equivalent of Python test `test_btree_remap_big_deletions`
-    ///
-    /// This test verifies that btree index remapping works correctly when a large
-    /// portion of the data is deleted. The Python test:
-    /// 1. Writes 15K rows in 3 fragments (values 0-14999)
-    /// 2. Creates a btree index (will have multiple pages)
-    /// 3. Deletes rows where a > 1000 AND a < 10000 (deletes values 1001-9999)
-    /// 4. Runs compaction (materializes deletions via remap)
-    /// 5. Verifies the index still works for remaining values
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_index_state_rejects_truncated_header() {
+        // A header length prefix that overruns the buffer must error rather
+        // than panic or silently misread it.
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&100u32.to_le_bytes()); // claims a 100-byte header
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&[0u8; 4]); // but only 4 bytes follow
+        assert!(deserialize_state(buf).is_err());
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_btree_remap_big_deletions() {
+    async fn test_btree_index_state_reconstruct_applies_frag_reuse_index() {
+        use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseIndexHandle};
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+        use uuid::Uuid;
+
         let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
         let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
@@ -4065,103 +7368,373 @@ mod tests {
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        // Generate 15000 rows with values 0-14999 and row_ids 0-14999
-        // Using a smaller batch size to ensure we get multiple pages
-        let batch_size = 4096;
-        let total_rows = 15000;
-
+        // value == _rowid for all rows in [0, 1000).
         let stream = gen_batch()
             .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
             .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(total_rows), BatchCount::from(1));
-
-        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), batch_size, None, None)
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(1));
+        train_btree_index(stream, test_store.as_ref(), 1000, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
         let index = BTreeIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let state = BTreeIndexState {
+            lookup_batch: index.page_lookup.batch.clone(),
+            batch_size: index.batch_size,
+            ranges_to_files: index.ranges_to_files.clone(),
+        };
 
-        // Create a mapping that simulates deleting rows where value > 1000 AND value < 10000
-        // Since values match row_ids in our test data:
-        // - Rows 0-1000 (values 0-1000) are kept with same row_ids
-        // - Rows 1001-9999 (values 1001-9999) are deleted (mapped to None)
-        // - Rows 10000-14999 (values 10000-14999) are remapped to new row_ids 1001-5999
-        let mut mapping: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> = HashMap::new();
-
-        // Mark deleted rows (values 1001-9999)
-        for old_id in 1001..10000 {
-            mapping.insert(old_id, None);
-        }
-
-        let mut new_id_counter = 100_000;
+        // Remap row 0 -> row 5000 (outside the original [0, 1000) range so no collision).
+        // Querying for value == 0 should now return row 5000, confirming reconstruct threaded
+        // the FragReuseIndex through to the rebuilt BTreeIndex.
+        let frag_reuse_index: Arc<dyn crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper> =
+            Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(Arc::new(FragReuseIndex::new(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                vec![HashMap::from([(0u64, Some(5000u64))])],
+                FragReuseIndexDetails { versions: vec![] },
+            ))));
+        let reconstructed = state
+            .reconstruct(
+                test_store.clone(),
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+                Some(frag_reuse_index),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Remap all other rows
-        for old_id in (0..1000).chain(10000..15000) {
-            let new_id = new_id_counter;
-            new_id_counter += 1;
-            mapping.insert(old_id, Some(new_id));
-        }
+        let result = reconstructed
+            .search(
+                &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = match &result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => set
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(u64::from)
+                .collect(),
+            other => panic!("expected Exact, got {other:?}"),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids,
+            vec![5000],
+            "frag_reuse_index remap was not applied"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let remap_dir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let remap_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_btree_index_state_range_partitioned_plugin_cache_roundtrip() {
+        // Build a range-partitioned BTree (two range partitions merged into one index) and
+        // round-trip it through the plugin's cache hooks. This exercises the
+        // `ranges_to_files = Some` path end-to-end through serialize/deserialize/reconstruct.
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            remap_dir.clone(),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        // Remap the index with our deletion mapping
-        index.remap(&mapping, remap_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+        let half = DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE;
+        let total = (2 * half) as i32;
 
-        let remapped_index = BTreeIndex::load(remap_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        // Partition 0: values/rowids [0, half).
+        let part0 = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(half), BatchCount::from(1));
+        train_btree_index(part0, store.as_ref(), half, None, Some(0u32))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify values that should exist (values 0-1000 and 10000-14999)
-        // These correspond to: original values 0-1000 at row_ids 0-1000
-        // and original values 10000-14999 at new row_ids 1001-5999
-        let should_exist = vec![0, 500, 1000, 10000, 13000, 14000, 14999];
-        for value in should_exist {
+        // Partition 1: values/rowids [half, 2*half).
+        let values: Vec<i32> = (half as i32..total).collect();
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (half..total as u64).collect();
+        let part1 = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(values))
+            .col("_rowid", array::cycle::<UInt64Type>(row_ids))
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(half), BatchCount::from(1));
+        train_btree_index(part1, store.as_ref(), half, None, Some(1u32))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        super::merge_metadata_files(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            &[
+                part_page_data_file_path(0 << 32),
+                part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
+            ],
+            &[
+                part_lookup_file_path(0 << 32),
+                part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32),
+            ],
+            Some(1usize),
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            index.ranges_to_files.is_some(),
+            "test setup should produce a range-partitioned index",
+        );
+
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(64 * 1024 * 1024);
+        let plugin = BTreeIndexPlugin;
+        plugin
+            .put_in_cache(store.clone(), &cache, index.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let from_cache = plugin
+            .get_from_cache(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("index should be served from the cache");
+
+        // Search a value from each range partition and confirm both paths agree.
+        for value in [0i32, total - 1] {
             let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(value)));
-            let result = remapped_index
+            let expected = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+            let actual = from_cache
                 .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
-            match result {
-                SearchResult::Exact(row_id_map) => {
-                    assert!(
-                        !row_id_map.is_empty(),
-                        "Value {} should exist in remapped index but was not found",
-                        value
-                    );
-                }
-                _ => {
-                    panic!("Btree search result should always be Exact.");
-                }
-            }
+            assert_eq!(expected, actual, "value {value}");
         }
+    }
 
-        // Verify values that should NOT exist (values 1001-9999 were deleted)
-        let should_not_exist = vec![1001, 5000, 8000, 9999];
-        for value in should_not_exist {
-            let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(value)));
-            let result = remapped_index
-                .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+    /// Train a two-partition (legacy range-partitioned) btree with `page_size` rows
+    /// per page. Partition 0 holds 2.5 pages and partition 1 holds 1.5 pages so
+    /// both partition files end in a short page, exercising the per-file page
+    /// boundaries of `LazyRangedIndexReader`.
+    async fn build_two_partition_btree(store: &LanceIndexStore, page_size: u64) {
+        let part0_rows = page_size * 5 / 2;
+        let part1_rows = page_size * 3 / 2;
+        for (part_id, start, rows) in [(0u32, 0u64, part0_rows), (1u32, part0_rows, part1_rows)] {
+            let data = gen_batch()
+                .col("value", array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(start as i32, 1))
+                .col("_rowid", array::step_custom::<UInt64Type>(start, 1))
+                .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(rows / 2), BatchCount::from(2));
+            let data = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(data.schema(), data));
+            train_btree_index(data, store, page_size, None, Some(part_id))
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
-            match result {
-                SearchResult::Exact(row_id_map) => {
-                    assert!(
-                        row_id_map.is_empty(),
-                        "Value {} should NOT exist in remapped index but was found",
-                        value
-                    );
-                }
-                _ => {
-                    panic!("Btree search result should always be Exact.");
-                }
-            }
         }
+        super::merge_metadata_files(
+            store,
+            &[
+                part_page_data_file_path(0),
+                part_page_data_file_path(1 << 32),
+            ],
+            &[part_lookup_file_path(0), part_lookup_file_path(1 << 32)],
+            Some(1),
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Train a plain (single page file) btree with `num_pages` pages of
+    /// `page_size` rows; the last page is short by half.
+    async fn build_plain_btree(store: &LanceIndexStore, page_size: u64, num_pages: u64) {
+        let rows = page_size * num_pages - page_size / 2;
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("_rowid", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(rows), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let data = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(data.schema(), data));
+        train_btree_index(data, store, page_size, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Every page from the sequential page stream must be the exact batch the
+    /// per-page `read_record_batch` path returns, so page numbering is unchanged.
+    async fn assert_page_stream_matches_pages(
+        reader: Arc<dyn crate::scalar::IndexReader>,
+        page_size: u64,
+        expected_pages: u32,
+    ) {
+        let num_pages = reader.num_batches(page_size).await;
+        assert_eq!(num_pages, expected_pages);
+        let streamed: Vec<(u32, RecordBatch)> =
+            BTreeIndex::page_stream(reader.clone(), page_size, 3)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(streamed.len() as u32, num_pages);
+        for (page_idx, (streamed_idx, streamed_page)) in streamed.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(*streamed_idx, page_idx as u32);
+            let expected = reader
+                .read_record_batch(page_idx as u64, page_size)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                streamed_page, &expected,
+                "page {} from the stream differs from read_record_batch",
+                page_idx
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_page_stream_matches_read_record_batch() {
+        let page_size = 64u64;
+
+        // Plain index: 8 pages, last one short.
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        build_plain_btree(&store, page_size, 8).await;
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(BTREE_PAGES_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_page_stream_matches_pages(reader, page_size, 8).await;
+
+        // Range-partitioned index over two page files: 3 + 2 global pages, with
+        // the short pages in the middle (page 2) and at the end (page 4).
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        build_two_partition_btree(&store, page_size).await;
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ranges_to_files = index.ranges_to_files.clone();
+        assert!(ranges_to_files.is_some());
+        let reader = super::LazyIndexReader::new(store.clone(), ranges_to_files)
+            .get()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_page_stream_matches_pages(reader.clone(), page_size, 5).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader
+                .read_record_batch(2, page_size)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .num_rows() as u64,
+            page_size / 2
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader
+                .read_record_batch(4, page_size)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .num_rows() as u64,
+            page_size / 2
+        );
+
+        // The whole-index passes built on the stream still see every page.
+        let frags = index.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frags.len(), 1);
+        let rows: usize = index
+            .data_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|b| b.num_rows())
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(rows as u64, page_size * 4);
+    }
+
+    /// Whole-index passes (prewarm, calculate_included_frags, data_stream) must
+    /// read the page file sequentially: a handful of object store requests
+    /// regardless of the page count, instead of at least one request per page.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_whole_index_reads_are_sequential() {
+        let page_size = 64u64;
+        let num_pages = 50u64;
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        build_plain_btree(&store, page_size, num_pages).await;
+
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(64 * 1024 * 1024);
+        let index = BTreeIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Baseline: the per-page path costs at least one request per page.
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(BTREE_PAGES_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        for page_idx in 0..num_pages {
+            reader.read_record_batch(page_idx, page_size).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let per_page_iops = object_store.io_stats_incremental().read_iops;
+        assert!(
+            per_page_iops >= num_pages,
+            "expected >= {} requests for per-page reads, got {}",
+            num_pages,
+            per_page_iops
+        );
+
+        let budget = num_pages / 4;
+
+        object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        let prewarm_iops = object_store.io_stats_incremental().read_iops;
+        assert!(
+            prewarm_iops < budget,
+            "prewarm issued {} requests for {} pages (per-page path: {})",
+            prewarm_iops,
+            num_pages,
+            per_page_iops
+        );
+        // Every page landed in the cache under its page number.
+        for page_idx in 0..num_pages as u32 {
+            let key = BTreePageKey {
+                page_number: page_idx,
+            };
+            assert!(
+                cache.get_with_key::<BTreePageKey>(&key).await.is_some(),
+                "page {} was not prewarmed",
+                page_idx
+            );
+        }
+
+        object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let frags = index.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frags.len(), 1);
+        let frags_iops = object_store.io_stats_incremental().read_iops;
+        assert!(
+            frags_iops < budget,
+            "calculate_included_frags issued {} requests for {} pages",
+            frags_iops,
+            num_pages
+        );
+
+        object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = index
+            .data_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let data_stream_iops = object_store.io_stats_incremental().read_iops;
+        assert_eq!(batches.len() as u64, num_pages);
+        assert!(
+            data_stream_iops < budget,
+            "data_stream issued {} requests for {} pages",
+            data_stream_iops,
+            num_pages
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/btree/flat.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/btree/flat.rs
index 37eb84c8216..da585e59bff 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/btree/flat.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/btree/flat.rs
@@ -1,31 +1,92 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::collections::HashMap;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+use std::collections::BTreeSet;
 use std::{ops::Bound, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_array::Array;
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array,
+    ArrayRef, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type,
 };
 
 use datafusion_common::DFSchema;
 use datafusion_expr::execution_props::ExecutionProps;
-use datafusion_physical_expr::create_physical_expr;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{PhysicalExpr, create_physical_expr};
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
-use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_select::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
+use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+
 use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
-use crate::scalar::btree::BTREE_VALUES_COLUMN;
+use crate::scalar::btree::{BTREE_VALUES_COLUMN, OrderableScalarValue};
 use crate::scalar::{AnyQuery, SargableQuery};
 
 const VALUES_COL_IDX: usize = 0;
 const IDS_COL_IDX: usize = 1;
+
+/// The rows of one page that matched a query, before they are assembled into
+/// a [`NullableRowAddrSet`].
+///
+/// A btree search touches many pages, and each page's rows are scattered
+/// across many fragments (a page holds rows sorted by *value*). Building a
+/// `RowAddrTreeMap` per page and unioning them is O(pages x fragments) tiny
+/// bitmaps; instead every page hands back its matched ids as plain arrays and
+/// the caller assembles the final set once, e.g. with
+/// [`RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_runs`].
+///
+/// Both arrays are sorted ascending because the page itself is sorted by row
+/// id (see [`FlatIndex::try_new`]) and every array here is a filtered view of
+/// the page's id column. `nulls` is empty unless the caller asked to track
+/// nulls. A row id may appear in both (e.g. [`FlatIndex::all_matches`]), in
+/// which case it is NULL — the same "null trumps true" rule as
+/// [`NullableRowAddrSet::new`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PageMatches {
+    selected: UInt64Array,
+    nulls: UInt64Array,
+}
+
+impl PageMatches {
+    fn new(selected: UInt64Array, nulls: UInt64Array) -> Self {
+        Self { selected, nulls }
+    }
+
+    pub fn empty() -> Self {
+        Self::new(empty_ids(), empty_ids())
+    }
+
+    /// Row ids for which the predicate was TRUE, sorted ascending.
+    pub fn selected(&self) -> &[u64] {
+        self.selected.values()
+    }
+
+    /// Row ids for which the predicate was NULL, sorted ascending.
+    pub fn nulls(&self) -> &[u64] {
+        self.nulls.values()
+    }
+
+    /// Build the set for this page alone. For many pages, assemble once from
+    /// [`Self::selected`] / [`Self::nulls`] across all of them instead.
+    pub fn into_row_addr_set(self) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
+        Ok(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_iter(self.selected().iter().copied())?,
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_iter(self.nulls().iter().copied())?,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+fn empty_ids() -> UInt64Array {
+    UInt64Array::from(Vec::<u64>::new())
+}
+
 /// A flat index is just a batch of value/row-id pairs
 ///
 /// The batch always has two columns.  The first column "values" contains
@@ -34,14 +95,17 @@ const IDS_COL_IDX: usize = 1;
 /// Evaluating a query requires O(N) time where N is the # of rows
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct FlatIndex {
+    /// Sorted by row id. Nothing else is materialized at load time: every
+    /// answer is a filtered view of the id column computed on demand, so a
+    /// cached page costs exactly its Arrow buffers.
     data: Arc<RecordBatch>,
-    all_addrs_map: RowAddrTreeMap,
-    null_addrs_map: RowAddrTreeMap,
     df_schema: DFSchema,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for FlatIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // `df_schema` is a two-field schema derived from `data`; its footprint
+        // is a few hundred bytes and not worth a separate accounting.
         self.data.get_array_memory_size()
     }
 }
@@ -49,51 +113,133 @@ impl DeepSizeOf for FlatIndex {
 impl FlatIndex {
     #[instrument(name = "FlatIndex::try_new", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     pub fn try_new(data: RecordBatch) -> Result<Self> {
-        // Sort by row id to make bitmap construction more efficient
+        // Sort by row id so every filtered view of the id column is itself
+        // sorted, which is what makes bitmap construction cheap downstream.
         let data = data.sort_by_column(IDS_COL_IDX, None)?;
-
-        let has_nulls = data.column(VALUES_COL_IDX).null_count() > 0;
-        let all_addrs_map = RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_iter(
-            data.column(IDS_COL_IDX)
-                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
-                .values()
-                .iter()
-                .copied(),
-        )?;
-
-        let null_addrs_map = if has_nulls {
-            Self::get_null_addrs(&data)?
-        } else {
-            RowAddrTreeMap::default()
-        };
-
         let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(data.schema())?;
 
         Ok(Self {
             data: Arc::new(data),
-            all_addrs_map,
-            null_addrs_map,
             df_schema,
         })
     }
 
-    fn ids(&self) -> &ArrayRef {
-        self.data.column(IDS_COL_IDX)
+    fn ids(&self) -> &UInt64Array {
+        self.data.column(IDS_COL_IDX).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+    }
+
+    fn values(&self) -> &ArrayRef {
+        self.data.column(VALUES_COL_IDX)
+    }
+
+    fn has_nulls(&self) -> bool {
+        self.values().null_count() > 0
+    }
+
+    /// The id column restricted to the rows where `mask` is true.
+    fn filter_ids(&self, mask: &BooleanArray) -> Result<UInt64Array> {
+        let filtered = arrow_select::filter::filter(self.ids(), mask)?;
+        Ok(filtered
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .expect("Result of arrow_select::filter::filter did not match input type")
+            .clone())
+    }
+
+    /// Row ids whose value is NULL.
+    fn null_ids(&self) -> Result<UInt64Array> {
+        if !self.has_nulls() {
+            return Ok(empty_ids());
+        }
+        self.filter_ids(&arrow::compute::is_null(self.values())?)
+    }
+
+    /// Row ids whose value is not NULL.
+    fn non_null_ids(&self) -> Result<UInt64Array> {
+        if !self.has_nulls() {
+            return Ok(self.ids().clone());
+        }
+        self.filter_ids(&arrow::compute::is_not_null(self.values())?)
+    }
+
+    /// Which of `needles` are present in this page.
+    ///
+    /// Batched existence sibling of [`Self::search`]: it runs the same `IsIn`
+    /// predicate over the page's `values` column, but returns the matched
+    /// *values* rather than row addresses — so the caller can map each result
+    /// back to the input key it asked about. The page scan stays vectorized;
+    /// only the (small) matched subset is lifted into `ScalarValue`.
+    ///
+    /// Nulls: a null `values` entry never matches a (non-null) primary-key
+    /// needle, so it is simply absent from the result.
+    pub(crate) fn contains_values(
+        &self,
+        needles: &[OrderableScalarValue],
+    ) -> Result<BTreeSet<OrderableScalarValue>> {
+        if needles.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(BTreeSet::new());
+        }
+        let query = SargableQuery::IsIn(needles.iter().map(|v| v.0.clone()).collect());
+        let expr = query.to_expr(BTREE_VALUES_COLUMN.to_string());
+        let expr = create_physical_expr(&expr, &self.df_schema, &ExecutionProps::default())?;
+        let predicate = expr.evaluate(&self.data)?;
+        let predicate = predicate.into_array(self.data.num_rows())?;
+        let predicate = predicate
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
+            .expect("Predicate should return boolean array");
+        let matched = arrow_select::filter::filter(self.values(), predicate)?;
+        (0..matched.len())
+            .map(|i| {
+                Ok(OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::try_from_array(
+                    &matched, i,
+                )?))
+            })
+            .collect()
     }
 
-    pub fn all(&self) -> NullableRowAddrSet {
+    /// Every row as TRUE, with the NULL rows also reported as NULL.
+    pub fn all_matches(&self) -> Result<PageMatches> {
         // Some rows will be in both sets but that is ok, null trumps true
-        NullableRowAddrSet::new(self.all_addrs_map.clone(), self.null_addrs_map.clone())
+        Ok(PageMatches::new(self.ids().clone(), self.null_ids()?))
+    }
+
+    /// Every row as TRUE, NULL rows included, without reporting any NULLs.
+    pub fn all_ignore_nulls_matches(&self) -> PageMatches {
+        PageMatches::new(self.ids().clone(), empty_ids())
+    }
+
+    /// Every non-null row as TRUE without preserving NULL rows.
+    pub fn all_non_null_matches(&self) -> Result<PageMatches> {
+        Ok(PageMatches::new(self.non_null_ids()?, empty_ids()))
     }
 
-    pub fn all_ignore_nulls(&self) -> NullableRowAddrSet {
-        NullableRowAddrSet::new(self.all_addrs_map.clone(), Default::default())
+    pub fn all(&self) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
+        self.all_matches()?.into_row_addr_set()
     }
 
-    pub fn remap_batch(
+    pub fn all_ignore_nulls(&self) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
+        self.all_ignore_nulls_matches().into_row_addr_set()
+    }
+
+    /// Return every non-null row as TRUE without preserving NULL rows.
+    pub fn all_non_null(&self) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
+        self.all_non_null_matches()?.into_row_addr_set()
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::remap_batch`] through a [`RowAddrTranslator`]: the page's
+    /// addresses are translated first, so a batch translator performs one
+    /// bounded translation per page.
+    pub async fn remap_batch_with(
         batch: RecordBatch,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let row_ids = batch.column(IDS_COL_IDX).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let resolved = translator.resolve(row_ids.values().iter().copied()).await?;
+        Self::remap_batch(batch, &resolved)
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_batch(batch: RecordBatch, mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         let row_ids = batch.column(IDS_COL_IDX).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
         let val_idx_and_new_id = row_ids
             .values()
@@ -101,8 +247,7 @@ impl FlatIndex {
             .enumerate()
             .filter_map(|(idx, old_id)| {
                 mapping
-                    .get(old_id)
-                    .copied()
+                    .get(*old_id)
                     .unwrap_or(Some(*old_id))
                     .map(|new_id| (idx, new_id))
             })
@@ -123,68 +268,58 @@ impl FlatIndex {
         )?)
     }
 
-    fn get_null_addrs(sorted_batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
-        let null_mask = arrow::compute::is_null(sorted_batch.column(VALUES_COL_IDX))?;
-        let null_ids = arrow_select::filter::filter(sorted_batch.column(IDS_COL_IDX), &null_mask)?;
-        let null_ids = null_ids
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
-            .expect("Result of arrow_select::filter::filter did not match input type");
-        RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_iter(null_ids.values().iter().copied())
-    }
-
-    pub fn search(
+    /// Evaluate `query` against this page, returning the matched row ids.
+    ///
+    /// This is the per-page primitive; [`Self::search`] wraps it into a
+    /// [`NullableRowAddrSet`] for callers that only look at one page.
+    pub fn search_matches(
         &self,
         query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        track_nulls: bool,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
+    ) -> Result<PageMatches> {
         metrics.record_comparisons(self.data.num_rows());
         let query = query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
         // Since we have all the values in memory we can use basic arrow-rs compute
         // functions to satisfy scalar queries.
 
+        // Comparing anything with NULL yields NULL, so a NULL operand turns
+        // every row of the page into NULL (or nothing, if nulls are not tracked).
+        let everything_is_null = |this: &Self| {
+            if track_nulls {
+                PageMatches::new(empty_ids(), this.ids().clone())
+            } else {
+                PageMatches::empty()
+            }
+        };
+
         // Shortcuts for simple cases where we can re-use computed values
         match query {
             // x = NULL means all rows are NULL
             SargableQuery::Equals(value) => {
                 if value.is_null() {
                     // if we have x = NULL then the correct SQL behavior is to return all NULLs
-                    return Ok(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
-                        Default::default(),
-                        self.all_addrs_map.clone(),
-                    ));
+                    return Ok(everything_is_null(self));
                 }
             }
-            // x IS NULL we can use pre-computed nulls
+            // x IS NULL is a filter on the values' validity, no predicate needed
             SargableQuery::IsNull() => {
-                return Ok(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
-                    self.null_addrs_map.clone(),
-                    Default::default(),
-                ));
+                return Ok(PageMatches::new(self.null_ids()?, empty_ids()));
             }
             // x < NULL or x > NULL means all rows are NULL
             SargableQuery::Range(lower_bound, upper_bound) => match (lower_bound, upper_bound) {
                 (Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Unbounded) => {
-                    return Ok(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
-                        self.all_addrs_map.clone(),
-                        Default::default(),
-                    ));
+                    return Ok(self.all_ignore_nulls_matches());
                 }
                 (Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Included(upper) | Bound::Excluded(upper)) => {
                     if upper.is_null() {
-                        return Ok(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
-                            Default::default(),
-                            self.all_addrs_map.clone(),
-                        ));
+                        return Ok(everything_is_null(self));
                     }
                 }
-                (Bound::Included(lower) | Bound::Excluded(lower), Bound::Unbounded) => {
-                    if lower.is_null() {
-                        return Ok(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
-                            Default::default(),
-                            self.all_addrs_map.clone(),
-                        ));
-                    }
+                (Bound::Included(lower) | Bound::Excluded(lower), Bound::Unbounded)
+                    if lower.is_null() =>
+                {
+                    return Ok(everything_is_null(self));
                 }
                 _ => {}
             },
@@ -194,38 +329,72 @@ impl FlatIndex {
         // No shortcut possible, need to actually evaluate the query
         let expr = query.to_expr(BTREE_VALUES_COLUMN.to_string());
         let expr = create_physical_expr(&expr, &self.df_schema, &ExecutionProps::default())?;
+        self.eval_expr(&expr, track_nulls)
+    }
+
+    pub fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        track_nulls: bool,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
+        self.search_matches(query, track_nulls, metrics)?
+            .into_row_addr_set()
+    }
+
+    /// Evaluate a predicate compiled once by the caller. Lets a large IsIn that
+    /// spans many pages build the physical expr a single time instead of
+    /// rebuilding the whole IN-list per page (the dominant cost of a big lookup).
+    pub fn search_prebuilt_matches(
+        &self,
+        expr: &Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+        track_nulls: bool,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<PageMatches> {
+        metrics.record_comparisons(self.data.num_rows());
+        self.eval_expr(expr, track_nulls)
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::search_prebuilt_matches`] wrapped into a [`NullableRowAddrSet`].
+    pub fn search_prebuilt(
+        &self,
+        expr: &Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+        track_nulls: bool,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
+        self.search_prebuilt_matches(expr, track_nulls, metrics)?
+            .into_row_addr_set()
+    }
 
+    fn eval_expr(&self, expr: &Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>, track_nulls: bool) -> Result<PageMatches> {
         let predicate = expr.evaluate(&self.data)?;
         let predicate = predicate.into_array(self.data.num_rows())?;
         let predicate = predicate
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
             .expect("Predicate should return boolean array");
-        let nulls = arrow::compute::is_null(&predicate)?;
 
-        let matching_ids = arrow_select::filter::filter(self.ids(), predicate)?;
-        let matching_ids = matching_ids
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
-            .expect("Result of arrow_select::filter::filter did not match input type");
-        let selected = RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_iter(matching_ids.values().iter().copied())?;
+        let selected = self.filter_ids(predicate)?;
 
-        let null_row_ids = arrow_select::filter::filter(self.ids(), &nulls)?;
-        let null_row_ids = null_row_ids
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
-            .expect("Result of arrow_select::filter::filter did not match input type");
-        let null_row_ids = RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_iter(null_row_ids.values().iter().copied())?;
+        if !track_nulls {
+            return Ok(PageMatches::new(selected, empty_ids()));
+        }
+
+        let nulls = if predicate.null_count() == 0 {
+            empty_ids()
+        } else {
+            self.filter_ids(&arrow::compute::is_null(&predicate)?)?
+        };
 
-        Ok(NullableRowAddrSet::new(selected, null_row_ids))
+        Ok(PageMatches::new(selected, nulls))
     }
 
     pub fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
         let mut frag_ids = self
             .ids()
-            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
             .iter()
-            .map(|row_id| RowAddress::from(row_id.unwrap()).fragment_id())
+            .map(|row_id| RowAddress::from(*row_id).fragment_id())
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         frag_ids.sort();
         frag_ids.dedup();
@@ -233,6 +402,35 @@ impl FlatIndex {
     }
 }
 
+impl CacheCodecImpl for FlatIndex {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.scalar.FlatIndex";
+    /// v2 is the data batch alone. Entries written with the earlier layout
+    /// (two roaring blobs ahead of the batch) fail to decode and are treated as
+    /// cache misses, so the page is simply re-read from the index file.
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 2;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        // Format (v2):
+        // ARROW_IPC : data batch
+        w.write_ipc(self.data.as_ref())?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self>
+    where
+        Self: Sized,
+    {
+        let batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+
+        let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(batch.schema())?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            data: Arc::new(batch),
+            df_schema,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use crate::{
@@ -243,7 +441,11 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use arrow_array::{record_batch, types::Int32Type};
     use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, RowCount};
+    use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::GroupInput;
+    use lance_datagen::{RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+    use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
 
     fn example_index() -> FlatIndex {
         let batch = gen_batch()
@@ -260,12 +462,143 @@ mod tests {
 
     async fn check_index(query: &SargableQuery, expected: &[u64]) {
         let index = example_index();
-        let actual = index.search(query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).unwrap();
+        let actual = index.search(query, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector).unwrap();
         let expected =
             NullableRowAddrSet::new(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(expected), Default::default());
         assert_eq!(actual, expected);
     }
 
+    fn assert_roundtrips(index: &FlatIndex) {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        index
+            .serialize(&mut CacheEntryWriter::new(&mut buf))
+            .unwrap();
+        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(buf);
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, FlatIndex::CURRENT_VERSION);
+        let restored = FlatIndex::deserialize(&mut reader).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(restored.data, index.data);
+        assert_eq!(restored.all().unwrap(), index.all().unwrap());
+    }
+
+    /// The per-page primitives hand back sorted, filtered views of the id
+    /// column; `all_matches` keeps NULL rows in `selected` (null trumps true),
+    /// the other two drop or keep them as their names say.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_page_matches_views() {
+        // ids are deliberately unsorted on input; try_new sorts by id.
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            (
+                BTREE_VALUES_COLUMN,
+                Int32,
+                [Some(3), None, Some(1), None, Some(2)]
+            ),
+            (BTREE_IDS_COLUMN, UInt64, [40, 10, 30, 50, 20])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = FlatIndex::try_new(batch).unwrap();
+
+        let all = index.all_matches().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(all.selected(), &[10, 20, 30, 40, 50]);
+        assert_eq!(all.nulls(), &[10, 50]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            all.into_row_addr_set().unwrap(),
+            NullableRowAddrSet::new(
+                RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([10, 20, 30, 40, 50]),
+                RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([10, 50])
+            )
+        );
+
+        let ignore = index.all_ignore_nulls_matches();
+        assert_eq!(ignore.selected(), &[10, 20, 30, 40, 50]);
+        assert!(ignore.nulls().is_empty());
+
+        let non_null = index.all_non_null_matches().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(non_null.selected(), &[20, 30, 40]);
+        assert!(non_null.nulls().is_empty());
+
+        // Predicate path, with and without null tracking.
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(Bound::Included(ScalarValue::from(2)), Bound::Unbounded);
+        let tracked = index
+            .search_matches(&query, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(tracked.selected(), &[20, 40]);
+        assert_eq!(tracked.nulls(), &[10, 50]);
+        let untracked = index
+            .search_matches(&query, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(untracked.selected(), &[20, 40]);
+        assert!(untracked.nulls().is_empty());
+
+        // A page without nulls answers the null shortcuts without scanning.
+        let no_nulls = example_index();
+        assert!(no_nulls.all_matches().unwrap().nulls().is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(
+            no_nulls.all_non_null_matches().unwrap().selected(),
+            no_nulls.all_ignore_nulls_matches().selected()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            no_nulls
+                .search_matches(&SargableQuery::IsNull(), true, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .unwrap()
+                .selected()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cache_codec_roundtrip() {
+        // No nulls
+        assert_roundtrips(&example_index());
+
+        // With nulls in the values column
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            (BTREE_VALUES_COLUMN, Int32, [None, Some(0), Some(5)]),
+            (BTREE_IDS_COLUMN, UInt64, [0, 1, 2])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_roundtrips(&FlatIndex::try_new(batch).unwrap());
+
+        // Empty index
+        let empty = RecordBatch::new_empty(example_index().data.schema());
+        assert_roundtrips(&FlatIndex::try_new(empty).unwrap());
+    }
+
+    /// The data batch must decode zero-copy through the full envelope-bearing
+    /// [`CacheCodec`], even though the envelope pushes the IPC section to a
+    /// non-aligned starting offset.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_index_data_is_zero_copy() {
+        use lance_core::cache::CacheCodec;
+        const ALIGN: usize = 64;
+
+        let index = example_index();
+        let codec = CacheCodec::from_impl::<FlatIndex>();
+        let any: Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync> = Arc::new(index);
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        codec.serialize(&any, &mut buf).unwrap();
+
+        let mut v = vec![0u8; buf.len() + ALIGN];
+        let pad = (ALIGN - (v.as_ptr() as usize % ALIGN)) % ALIGN;
+        v[pad..pad + buf.len()].copy_from_slice(&buf);
+        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(v).slice(pad..pad + buf.len());
+
+        let restored = codec.deserialize(&data).hit().unwrap();
+        let restored = restored.downcast::<FlatIndex>().unwrap();
+
+        let base = data.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let end = base + data.len();
+        for col in restored.data.columns() {
+            for buffer in col.to_data().buffers() {
+                let ptr = buffer.as_ptr() as usize;
+                assert!(
+                    ptr >= base && ptr < end,
+                    "data batch buffer was realigned out of the input — misaligned IPC section",
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_equality() {
         check_index(&SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::from(100)), &[0]).await;
@@ -320,9 +653,10 @@ mod tests {
         // 3 -> delete
         // Keep remaining as is
         let mapping = HashMap::<u64, Option<u64>>::from_iter(vec![(0, Some(2000)), (3, None)]);
-        let remapped =
-            FlatIndex::try_new(FlatIndex::remap_batch((*index.data).clone(), &mapping).unwrap())
-                .unwrap();
+        let remapped = FlatIndex::try_new(
+            FlatIndex::remap_batch((*index.data).clone(), &RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping)).unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
         let expected = FlatIndex::try_new(
             gen_batch()
@@ -335,18 +669,22 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(remapped.data, expected.data);
     }
 
-    // It's possible, during compaction, that an entire page of values is deleted.  We just serialize
-    // it as an empty record batch.
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_remap_to_nothing() {
+    // An entire page (frag 0) is deleted during compaction. remap_batch must
+    // drop every row regardless of which RowAddrRemap mode expresses it.
+    // example_index holds row ids 5, 0, 3, 100, all in frag 0.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::compact(RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+        rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::new(),
+        old_frag_ids: vec![0],
+        new_frags: vec![],
+    }])
+    .unwrap())]
+    #[case::explicit(RowAddrRemap::direct(
+        [5u64, 0, 3, 100].into_iter().map(|id| (id, None)).collect(),
+    ))]
+    fn test_remap_to_nothing(#[case] remap: RowAddrRemap) {
         let index = example_index();
-        let mapping = HashMap::<u64, Option<u64>>::from_iter(vec![
-            (5, None),
-            (0, None),
-            (3, None),
-            (100, None),
-        ]);
-        let remapped = FlatIndex::remap_batch((*index.data).clone(), &mapping).unwrap();
+        let remapped = FlatIndex::remap_batch((*index.data).clone(), &remap).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(remapped.num_rows(), 0);
     }
 
@@ -361,7 +699,7 @@ mod tests {
         let index = FlatIndex::try_new(batch).unwrap();
 
         let check = |query: SargableQuery, true_ids: &[u64], null_ids: &[u64]| {
-            let actual = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).unwrap();
+            let actual = index.search(&query, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector).unwrap();
             let expected = NullableRowAddrSet::new(
                 RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(true_ids),
                 RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(null_ids),
@@ -422,4 +760,80 @@ mod tests {
             &[0, 1, 2],
         );
     }
+
+    /// Row addresses pack `(fragment_id << 32) | offset`, so a page spanning
+    /// several fragments must report exactly those fragments, deduped and
+    /// sorted. Every other test in this module uses offsets inside fragment 0,
+    /// which never exercises the shift.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_calculate_included_frags_spans_fragments() {
+        let addr = |frag: u32, offset: u32| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset));
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            (
+                BTREE_VALUES_COLUMN,
+                Int32,
+                [Some(1), Some(2), Some(3), Some(4)]
+            ),
+            (
+                BTREE_IDS_COLUMN,
+                UInt64,
+                [addr(0, 0), addr(2, 7), addr(0, 1), addr(5, 3)]
+            )
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = FlatIndex::try_new(batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.calculate_included_frags().unwrap(),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 2, 5])
+        );
+
+        // A hit still carries the full 64-bit address, not a bare offset.
+        let hit = index
+            .search(
+                &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::from(2)),
+                true,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            hit,
+            NullableRowAddrSet::new(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[addr(2, 7)]), Default::default())
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A zero-row page has to answer queries with empty sets rather than
+    /// panicking inside the Arrow predicate evaluation. The roundtrip test
+    /// builds an empty index but never queries one. Both `track_nulls` modes
+    /// take different shortcuts, and neither has any row to return here.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_empty_index_answers_queries_with_empty_sets() {
+        let empty = RecordBatch::new_empty(example_index().data.schema());
+        let index = FlatIndex::try_new(empty).unwrap();
+        let nothing = NullableRowAddrSet::new(RowAddrTreeMap::new(), RowAddrTreeMap::new());
+
+        for query in [
+            SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::from(10)),
+            SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(None)),
+            SargableQuery::IsNull(),
+            SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![ScalarValue::from(10), ScalarValue::from(20)]),
+            SargableQuery::Range(Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Unbounded),
+        ] {
+            for track_nulls in [true, false] {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    index
+                        .search(&query, track_nulls, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    nothing,
+                    "query: {query:?}, track_nulls: {track_nulls}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert!(index.all().unwrap().true_rows().is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.calculate_included_frags().unwrap(),
+            RoaringBitmap::new()
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/expression.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/expression.rs
index 6aacfc565d0..55c3747c70e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/expression.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/expression.rs
@@ -2,33 +2,32 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use std::{
+    cmp::Ordering,
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet, hash_map::Entry},
     ops::Bound,
-    sync::{Arc, LazyLock},
+    sync::Arc,
 };
 
-use arrow::array::BinaryBuilder;
-use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 use async_recursion::async_recursion;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
 use datafusion_expr::{
-    expr::{InList, ScalarFunction},
     Between, BinaryExpr, Expr, Operator, ReturnFieldArgs, ScalarUDF,
+    expr::{InList, Like, ScalarFunction},
 };
 use tokio::try_join;
 
 use super::{
-    AnyQuery, BloomFilterQuery, GeoQuery, LabelListQuery, MetricsCollector, RelationQuery,
-    SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchResult, TextQuery, TokenQuery,
-};
-use lance_core::{
-    utils::mask::{NullableRowAddrMask, RowAddrMask},
-    Error, Result,
+    AnyQuery, BloomFilterQuery, LabelListQuery, MetricsCollector, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex,
+    SearchOptions, SearchResult, TextQuery, TokenQuery, label_list::validate_label_list_data_type,
 };
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
+use super::{GeoQuery, RelationQuery};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_datafusion::{expr::safe_coerce_scalar, planner::Planner};
+use lance_select::{IndexExprResult, NullableIndexExprResult, NullableRowAddrMask};
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 const MAX_DEPTH: usize = 500;
@@ -111,6 +110,29 @@ pub trait ScalarQueryParser: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
         args: &[Expr],
     ) -> Option<IndexedExpression>;
 
+    /// Visit a LIKE expression
+    ///
+    /// Returns an IndexedExpression if the index can accelerate LIKE expressions.
+    /// For prefix patterns (e.g., "foo%"):
+    /// - ZoneMaps prune zones based on min/max statistics
+    /// - BTrees use range query conversion `[prefix, next_prefix)`
+    ///
+    /// For patterns with wildcards in the middle (e.g., "foo%bar%"), the leading prefix
+    /// can still be used for pruning, with the full pattern as a refine expression.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    /// * `column` - The column name
+    /// * `like` - The full LIKE expression (for constructing refine_expr if needed)
+    /// * `pattern` - The LIKE pattern as ScalarValue (e.g., "foo%")
+    fn visit_like(
+        &self,
+        _column: &str,
+        _like: &Like,
+        _pattern: &ScalarValue,
+    ) -> Option<IndexedExpression> {
+        None
+    }
+
     /// Visits a potential reference to a column
     ///
     /// This function is a little different from the other visitors.  It is used to test if a potential
@@ -120,7 +142,7 @@ pub trait ScalarQueryParser: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
     /// is "x = 7" and we have a scalar index on "x" then we apply the index to the "x" column reference.
     ///
     /// However, some indexes are designed to run on projections of the indexed column.  For example,
-    /// if a query is "json_extract(json, '$.name') = 'books'" and we have a JSON index on the "json" column
+    /// if a query is "json_get_string(json, '$.name') = 'books'" and we have a JSON index on the "json" column
     /// then we apply the index to the projection of the "json" column.
     ///
     /// This function is used to test if a potential column reference is a reference the index handles.
@@ -162,6 +184,18 @@ impl MultiQueryParser {
     pub fn add(&mut self, other: Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>) {
         self.parsers.push(other);
     }
+
+    /// Pick the first underlying parser whose `is_valid_reference` accepts `expr`.
+    pub fn select(
+        &self,
+        expr: &Expr,
+        data_type: &DataType,
+    ) -> Option<(&dyn ScalarQueryParser, DataType)> {
+        self.parsers.iter().find_map(|p| {
+            p.is_valid_reference(expr, data_type)
+                .map(|dt| (p.as_ref(), dt))
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 impl ScalarQueryParser for MultiQueryParser {
@@ -211,6 +245,16 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for MultiQueryParser {
             .iter()
             .find_map(|parser| parser.visit_scalar_function(column, data_type, func, args))
     }
+    fn visit_like(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        like: &Like,
+        pattern: &ScalarValue,
+    ) -> Option<IndexedExpression> {
+        self.parsers
+            .iter()
+            .find_map(|parser| parser.visit_like(column, like, pattern))
+    }
     /// TODO(low-priority): This is maybe not quite right.  We should filter down the list of parsers based
     /// on those that consider the reference valid.  Instead what we are doing is checking all parsers if any one
     /// parser considers the reference valid.
@@ -228,16 +272,41 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for MultiQueryParser {
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct SargableQueryParser {
     index_name: String,
+    index_type: String,
     needs_recheck: bool,
+    /// Whether IS NULL queries need post-filter rechecking. May be false even
+    /// when `needs_recheck` is true for indexes that track exact null positions
+    /// (e.g. zone maps with a null bitmap).
+    is_null_needs_recheck: bool,
+    supports_like_prefix: bool,
 }
 
 impl SargableQueryParser {
-    pub fn new(index_name: String, needs_recheck: bool) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(index_name: String, index_type: String, needs_recheck: bool) -> Self {
         Self {
             index_name,
+            index_type,
             needs_recheck,
+            is_null_needs_recheck: needs_recheck,
+            supports_like_prefix: true,
         }
     }
+
+    /// Bitmap (and similar) indexes cannot answer prefix queries; disabling
+    /// `LikePrefix` emission makes `LIKE`/`starts_with` predicates fall back to
+    /// ordinary filtering instead of failing at search time.
+    pub fn without_like_prefix(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.supports_like_prefix = false;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Mark IS NULL as exact so that IS NOT NULL can be served by the index
+    /// without a post-filter. Use this when the index tracks null row addresses
+    /// precisely (e.g. a zone map with a null bitmap).
+    pub fn with_exact_null_tracking(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.is_null_needs_recheck = false;
+        self
+    }
 }
 
 impl ScalarQueryParser for SargableQueryParser {
@@ -256,20 +325,21 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for SargableQueryParser {
         low: &Bound<ScalarValue>,
         high: &Bound<ScalarValue>,
     ) -> Option<IndexedExpression> {
-        if let Bound::Included(val) | Bound::Excluded(val) = low {
-            if val.is_null() {
-                return None;
-            }
+        if let Bound::Included(val) | Bound::Excluded(val) = low
+            && val.is_null()
+        {
+            return None;
         }
-        if let Bound::Included(val) | Bound::Excluded(val) = high {
-            if val.is_null() {
-                return None;
-            }
+        if let Bound::Included(val) | Bound::Excluded(val) = high
+            && val.is_null()
+        {
+            return None;
         }
         let query = SargableQuery::Range(low.clone(), high.clone());
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(query),
             self.needs_recheck,
         ))
@@ -283,6 +353,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for SargableQueryParser {
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(query),
             self.needs_recheck,
         ))
@@ -292,6 +363,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for SargableQueryParser {
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(value)))),
             self.needs_recheck,
         ))
@@ -301,8 +373,9 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for SargableQueryParser {
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(SargableQuery::IsNull()),
-            self.needs_recheck,
+            self.is_null_needs_recheck,
         ))
     }
 
@@ -332,6 +405,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for SargableQueryParser {
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(query),
             self.needs_recheck,
         ))
@@ -339,26 +413,241 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for SargableQueryParser {
 
     fn visit_scalar_function(
         &self,
-        _: &str,
-        _: &DataType,
-        _: &ScalarUDF,
-        _: &[Expr],
+        column: &str,
+        _data_type: &DataType,
+        func: &ScalarUDF,
+        args: &[Expr],
     ) -> Option<IndexedExpression> {
+        // Handle starts_with(col, 'prefix') -> convert to LikePrefix query
+        if func.name() == "starts_with" && args.len() == 2 {
+            // Indexes that cannot answer prefix queries (e.g. bitmap) fall back to
+            // ordinary filtering rather than emitting a query they would reject.
+            if !self.supports_like_prefix {
+                return None;
+            }
+            // Extract the prefix from the second argument
+            let prefix = match &args[1] {
+                Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s)), _) => ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s.clone())),
+                Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(s)), _) => {
+                    ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(s.clone()))
+                }
+                // Lance stores `Utf8View` columns as `Utf8` (normalized at write time), so a
+                // `Utf8View` literal is normalized to `Utf8` to match the indexed data: the
+                // BTree compares the query bound against `Utf8` page statistics at the Arrow
+                // level, which rejects a `Utf8View` bound.
+                Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some(s)), _) => {
+                    ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s.clone()))
+                }
+                _ => return None,
+            };
+
+            let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(prefix);
+            return Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
+                column.to_string(),
+                self.index_name.clone(),
+                self.index_type.clone(),
+                Arc::new(query),
+                self.needs_recheck,
+            ));
+        }
+
         None
     }
+
+    fn visit_like(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        like: &Like,
+        pattern: &ScalarValue,
+    ) -> Option<IndexedExpression> {
+        // Case-insensitive LIKE (ILIKE) cannot be efficiently pruned with zone maps
+        if like.case_insensitive {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        // Indexes that cannot answer prefix queries (e.g. bitmap) fall back to
+        // ordinary filtering rather than emitting a query they would reject.
+        if !self.supports_like_prefix {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        // Extract the pattern string
+        let pattern_str = match pattern {
+            ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s))
+            | ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(s))
+            | ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some(s)) => s.as_str(),
+            _ => return None,
+        };
+
+        // Try to extract a prefix from the LIKE pattern
+        let (prefix, needs_refine) = extract_like_leading_prefix(pattern_str, like.escape_char)?;
+
+        // Create the prefix ScalarValue with the same type as the pattern. `Utf8View` is
+        // normalized to `Utf8` because Lance stores `Utf8View` columns as `Utf8`, and the
+        // downstream BTree compares the query bound against `Utf8` page statistics at the
+        // Arrow level (a `Utf8View` bound would fail that comparison).
+        let prefix_value = match pattern {
+            ScalarValue::Utf8(_) | ScalarValue::Utf8View(_) => ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(prefix)),
+            ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(_) => ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(prefix)),
+            _ => return None,
+        };
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(prefix_value);
+        let scalar_query = Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: column.to_string(),
+            index_name: self.index_name.clone(),
+            index_type: self.index_type.clone(),
+            query: Arc::new(query),
+            needs_recheck: self.needs_recheck,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        }));
+
+        // If the pattern has wildcards beyond simple prefix, add refine expression
+        let refine_expr = if needs_refine {
+            Some(Expr::Like(like.clone()))
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        Some(IndexedExpression {
+            scalar_query,
+            refine_expr,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extract the leading literal prefix from a LIKE pattern.
+///
+/// Returns `Some((prefix, needs_refine))` where:
+/// - `prefix` is the leading literal portion before any wildcards
+/// - `needs_refine` is true if the pattern has wildcards beyond a simple trailing `%`
+///
+/// Returns `None` if the pattern starts with a wildcard (no leading literal).
+///
+/// Examples:
+/// - "foo%" -> Some(("foo", false)) - pure prefix, no recheck needed
+/// - "foo%bar%" -> Some(("foo", true)) - can use prefix for pruning, needs recheck
+/// - "foo_bar%" -> Some(("foo", true)) - _ is a wildcard, needs recheck
+/// - "foo\%bar%" with escape '\' -> Some(("foo%bar", false)) - escaped %, pure prefix
+/// - "%foo" -> None - starts with wildcard, cannot prune
+/// - "foo" -> None - no wildcard at all, use equality instead
+fn extract_like_leading_prefix(pattern: &str, escape_char: Option<char>) -> Option<(String, bool)> {
+    let chars: Vec<char> = pattern.chars().collect();
+    let len = chars.len();
+
+    if len == 0 {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    // DataFusion's starts_with simplification escapes special characters with backslash
+    // but doesn't set escape_char. Use backslash as default escape character.
+    // Pattern: starts_with(col, 'test_ns$') -> col LIKE 'test\_ns$%' (escape_char: None)
+    // See: https://github.com/apache/datafusion/issues/XXXX
+    let effective_escape_char = escape_char.or(Some('\\'));
+
+    // Helper to check if a character at position i is escaped
+    let is_escaped = |i: usize| -> bool {
+        if let Some(esc) = effective_escape_char {
+            if i > 0 && chars[i - 1] == esc {
+                // Check if the escape char itself is escaped
+                if i >= 2 && chars[i - 2] == esc {
+                    false // Escape was escaped, so this char is NOT escaped
+                } else {
+                    true // This char is escaped
+                }
+            } else {
+                false
+            }
+        } else {
+            // No escape character defined - nothing can be escaped
+            false
+        }
+    };
+
+    // Pattern must contain at least one unescaped wildcard
+    let has_wildcard = chars.iter().enumerate().any(|(i, &c)| {
+        if c != '%' && c != '_' {
+            return false;
+        }
+        !is_escaped(i)
+    });
+
+    if !has_wildcard {
+        return None; // No wildcards, should use equality
+    }
+
+    // Check if pattern starts with an unescaped wildcard
+    if chars[0] == '%' || chars[0] == '_' {
+        return None; // Starts with wildcard, cannot prune
+    }
+
+    // Extract the leading literal prefix (everything before first unescaped wildcard)
+    let mut prefix = String::new();
+    let mut i = 0;
+    let mut found_wildcard = false;
+
+    while i < len {
+        let c = chars[i];
+
+        // Check for escape character (using effective escape char which may be inferred)
+        if let Some(esc) = effective_escape_char
+            && c == esc
+            && i + 1 < len
+        {
+            let next = chars[i + 1];
+            if next == '%' || next == '_' || next == esc {
+                // Escaped character - add the literal character
+                prefix.push(next);
+                i += 2;
+                continue;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Check for unescaped wildcard
+        if c == '%' || c == '_' {
+            found_wildcard = true;
+            break;
+        }
+
+        prefix.push(c);
+        i += 1;
+    }
+
+    if prefix.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    // Check if pattern is just a simple prefix (ends with single % and nothing after)
+    let needs_refine = if found_wildcard && i < len {
+        // Check if we're at a % wildcard
+        if chars[i] == '%' && i + 1 == len {
+            // Pattern is "prefix%" - pure prefix match, no refine needed
+            false
+        } else {
+            // Pattern has more after first wildcard, or has _ wildcard
+            true
+        }
+    } else {
+        // No wildcard found (shouldn't happen due to earlier check)
+        false
+    };
+
+    Some((prefix, needs_refine))
 }
 
 /// A parser for bloom filter indices that only support equals, is_null, and is_in operations
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct BloomFilterQueryParser {
     index_name: String,
+    index_type: String,
     needs_recheck: bool,
 }
 
 impl BloomFilterQueryParser {
-    pub fn new(index_name: String, needs_recheck: bool) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(index_name: String, index_type: String, needs_recheck: bool) -> Self {
         Self {
             index_name,
+            index_type,
             needs_recheck,
         }
     }
@@ -380,6 +669,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for BloomFilterQueryParser {
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(query),
             self.needs_recheck,
         ))
@@ -389,6 +679,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for BloomFilterQueryParser {
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(BloomFilterQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(value)))),
             self.needs_recheck,
         ))
@@ -398,6 +689,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for BloomFilterQueryParser {
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(BloomFilterQuery::IsNull()),
             self.needs_recheck,
         ))
@@ -420,6 +712,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for BloomFilterQueryParser {
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(query),
             self.needs_recheck,
         ))
@@ -441,11 +734,15 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for BloomFilterQueryParser {
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct LabelListQueryParser {
     index_name: String,
+    index_type: String,
 }
 
 impl LabelListQueryParser {
-    pub fn new(index_name: String) -> Self {
-        Self { index_name }
+    pub fn new(index_name: String, index_type: String) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_name,
+            index_type,
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -490,6 +787,11 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for LabelListQueryParser {
         if args.len() != 2 {
             return None;
         }
+        // LABEL_LIST stores unnested items as bitmap keys. Nested items cannot be
+        // ordered by the bitmap lookup, so legacy indexes must fall back to a scan.
+        if validate_label_list_data_type(data_type).is_err() {
+            return None;
+        }
         // DataFusion normalizes array_contains to array_has
         if func.name() == "array_has" {
             let inner_type = match data_type {
@@ -506,52 +808,74 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for LabelListQueryParser {
             return Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
                 column.to_string(),
                 self.index_name.clone(),
+                self.index_type.clone(),
                 Arc::new(query),
             ));
         }
 
         let label_list = maybe_scalar(&args[1], data_type)?;
-        if let ScalarValue::List(list_arr) = label_list {
-            let list_values = list_arr.values();
-            let mut scalars = Vec::with_capacity(list_values.len());
-            for idx in 0..list_values.len() {
-                scalars.push(ScalarValue::try_from_array(list_values.as_ref(), idx).ok()?);
-            }
-            if func.name() == "array_has_all" {
-                let query = LabelListQuery::HasAllLabels(scalars);
-                Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
-                    column.to_string(),
-                    self.index_name.clone(),
-                    Arc::new(query),
-                ))
-            } else if func.name() == "array_has_any" {
-                let query = LabelListQuery::HasAnyLabel(scalars);
-                Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
-                    column.to_string(),
-                    self.index_name.clone(),
-                    Arc::new(query),
-                ))
-            } else {
-                None
-            }
+        let list_values = match label_list {
+            ScalarValue::List(list_arr) => list_arr.values().clone(),
+            ScalarValue::LargeList(list_arr) => list_arr.values().clone(),
+            _ => return None,
+        };
+        if list_values.is_empty() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let mut scalars = Vec::with_capacity(list_values.len());
+        for idx in 0..list_values.len() {
+            scalars.push(ScalarValue::try_from_array(list_values.as_ref(), idx).ok()?);
+        }
+        if func.name() == "array_has_all" {
+            let query = LabelListQuery::HasAllLabels(scalars);
+            Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
+                column.to_string(),
+                self.index_name.clone(),
+                self.index_type.clone(),
+                Arc::new(query),
+            ))
+        } else if func.name() == "array_has_any" {
+            let query = LabelListQuery::HasAnyLabel(scalars);
+            Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
+                column.to_string(),
+                self.index_name.clone(),
+                self.index_type.clone(),
+                Arc::new(query),
+            ))
         } else {
             None
         }
     }
 }
 
-/// A parser for indices that handle string contains queries
+/// A parser for indices that handle string `contains` queries, and -- when
+/// `supports_regex` is set -- `regexp_like` / `regexp_match` queries.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct TextQueryParser {
     index_name: String,
+    index_type: String,
     needs_recheck: bool,
+    supports_regex: bool,
+    /// The shortest `contains` pattern (in characters, not bytes) the index can
+    /// say anything useful about.  Shorter patterns bypass the index entirely so
+    /// they are answered by a full scan.  Use 0 for indices with no such limit.
+    min_contains_chars: usize,
 }
 
 impl TextQueryParser {
-    pub fn new(index_name: String, needs_recheck: bool) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(
+        index_name: String,
+        index_type: String,
+        needs_recheck: bool,
+        supports_regex: bool,
+        min_contains_chars: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
         Self {
             index_name,
+            index_type,
             needs_recheck,
+            supports_regex,
+            min_contains_chars,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -594,41 +918,180 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for TextQueryParser {
         func: &ScalarUDF,
         args: &[Expr],
     ) -> Option<IndexedExpression> {
-        if args.len() != 2 {
+        // The first argument is the indexed column; the second is the substring
+        // / pattern. `contains` takes exactly two arguments; the regex functions
+        // optionally take a third flags argument.
+        if args.len() < 2 {
             return None;
         }
-        let scalar = maybe_scalar(&args[1], data_type)?;
-        match scalar {
-            ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(scalar_str)) | ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(scalar_str)) => {
-                if func.name() == "contains" {
-                    let query = TextQuery::StringContains(scalar_str);
-                    Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
-                        column.to_string(),
-                        self.index_name.clone(),
-                        Arc::new(query),
-                        self.needs_recheck,
-                    ))
-                } else {
+        // A non-string pattern cannot be handled.
+        let (ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(pattern)) | ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(pattern))) =
+            maybe_scalar(&args[1], data_type)?
+        else {
+            return None;
+        };
+
+        let query = match func.name() {
+            "contains" if args.len() == 2 => {
+                // A pattern shorter than the index's token width produces no
+                // tokens, so the index can only answer "recheck everything".
+                // Leave it to a full scan instead.  The count is in characters
+                // because tokenizers split on characters, not bytes.
+                if pattern.chars().count() < self.min_contains_chars {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                TextQuery::StringContains(pattern)
+            }
+            "regexp_like" | "regexp_match" if self.supports_regex => {
+                let pattern = match args.get(2) {
+                    Some(flags_expr) => apply_regex_flags(&pattern, flags_expr)?,
+                    None => pattern,
+                };
+                // If the pattern yields no usable trigram (e.g. `a.b`), leave it
+                // to a full scan instead of routing it to the index, which could
+                // only answer with an unsupported "recheck everything" result.
+                if !crate::scalar::ngram::regex_can_use_index(&pattern) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                TextQuery::Regex(pattern)
+            }
+            _ => return None,
+        };
+
+        Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
+            column.to_string(),
+            self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
+            Arc::new(query),
+            self.needs_recheck,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn visit_like(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        like: &Like,
+        pattern: &ScalarValue,
+    ) -> Option<IndexedExpression> {
+        // Infix LIKE is accelerated only by the ngram index (via its regex
+        // machinery). A plain-literal `regexp_like(col, 'foo')` is rewritten to
+        // `col LIKE '%foo%'` before it reaches the index, so this is the path
+        // that accelerates those. ILIKE is skipped because its case folding does
+        // not match the index's normalization.
+        if !self.supports_regex || like.case_insensitive {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let pattern_str = match pattern {
+            ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s)) | ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(s)) => s.as_str(),
+            _ => return None,
+        };
+        // Translate the LIKE pattern into a loose regex used only for candidate
+        // generation; the original LIKE stays as the recheck filter, so the
+        // regex only needs to be a sound superset.
+        let regex = like_to_regex(pattern_str, like.escape_char)?;
+        if !crate::scalar::ngram::regex_can_use_index(&regex) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(IndexedExpression {
+            scalar_query: Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+                column: column.to_string(),
+                index_name: self.index_name.clone(),
+                index_type: self.index_type.clone(),
+                query: Arc::new(TextQuery::Regex(regex)),
+                needs_recheck: self.needs_recheck,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+            })),
+            refine_expr: Some(Expr::Like(like.clone())),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Translate a LIKE pattern into a regular expression used purely for ngram
+/// candidate generation: `%` becomes `.*`, `_` becomes `.`, and literal
+/// characters are regex-escaped. Returns `None` when no literal run is long
+/// enough to yield a trigram (the index could not help, so a full scan is left
+/// to handle it).
+fn like_to_regex(pattern: &str, escape: Option<char>) -> Option<String> {
+    let mut regex = String::new();
+    let mut run = 0usize;
+    let mut longest_run = 0usize;
+    let mut chars = pattern.chars();
+    while let Some(c) = chars.next() {
+        let literal = if Some(c) == escape {
+            // The next character is escaped, i.e. a literal.
+            chars.next()
+        } else {
+            match c {
+                '%' => {
+                    regex.push_str(".*");
+                    run = 0;
+                    None
+                }
+                '_' => {
+                    regex.push('.');
+                    run = 0;
                     None
                 }
+                other => Some(other),
             }
-            _ => {
-                // If the scalar is not a string, we cannot handle it
-                None
+        };
+        if let Some(lit) = literal {
+            if regex_syntax::is_meta_character(lit) {
+                regex.push('\\');
+            }
+            regex.push(lit);
+            // Only runs of alphanumeric characters can produce a trigram.
+            if lit.is_alphanumeric() {
+                run += 1;
+                longest_run = longest_run.max(run);
+            } else {
+                run = 0;
             }
         }
     }
+    (longest_run >= 3).then_some(regex)
+}
+
+/// Fold the supported `regexp_like` / `regexp_match` flags into an inline prefix
+/// on the pattern (e.g. flags `"i"` -> `"(?i)pattern"`). Returns `None` for a
+/// non-literal flags argument or an unrecognized flag, so the caller leaves the
+/// predicate to a full recheck rather than risk changing its semantics.
+fn apply_regex_flags(pattern: &str, flags_expr: &Expr) -> Option<String> {
+    let (Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(flags)), _)
+    | Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(flags)), _)) = flags_expr
+    else {
+        return None;
+    };
+    let mut inline = String::new();
+    for flag in flags.chars() {
+        // Only flags expressible as an inline `(?...)` group in the regex crate
+        // (which the recheck uses) are safe to fold.
+        if ['i', 's', 'm', 'x'].contains(&flag) {
+            inline.push(flag);
+        } else {
+            return None;
+        }
+    }
+    if inline.is_empty() {
+        Some(pattern.to_string())
+    } else {
+        Some(format!("(?{inline}){pattern}"))
+    }
 }
 
 /// A parser for indices that handle queries with the contains_tokens function
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct FtsQueryParser {
     index_name: String,
+    index_type: String,
 }
 
 impl FtsQueryParser {
-    pub fn new(name: String) -> Self {
-        Self { index_name: name }
+    pub fn new(name: String, index_type: String) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_name: name,
+            index_type,
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -674,32 +1137,40 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for FtsQueryParser {
             return None;
         }
         let scalar = maybe_scalar(&args[1], data_type)?;
-        if let ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(scalar_str)) = scalar {
-            if func.name() == "contains_tokens" {
-                let query = TokenQuery::TokensContains(scalar_str);
-                return Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
-                    column.to_string(),
-                    self.index_name.clone(),
-                    Arc::new(query),
-                ));
-            }
+        if let ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(scalar_str)) = scalar
+            && func.name() == "contains_tokens"
+        {
+            let query = TokenQuery::TokensContains(scalar_str);
+            return Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
+                column.to_string(),
+                self.index_name.clone(),
+                self.index_type.clone(),
+                Arc::new(query),
+            ));
         }
         None
     }
 }
 
 /// A parser for geo indices that handles spatial queries
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct GeoQueryParser {
     index_name: String,
+    index_type: String,
 }
 
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
 impl GeoQueryParser {
-    pub fn new(index_name: String) -> Self {
-        Self { index_name }
+    pub fn new(index_name: String, index_type: String) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_name,
+            index_type,
+        }
     }
 }
 
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
 impl ScalarQueryParser for GeoQueryParser {
     fn visit_between(
         &self,
@@ -722,6 +1193,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for GeoQueryParser {
         Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
             column.to_string(),
             self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
             Arc::new(GeoQuery::IsNull),
             true,
         ))
@@ -768,6 +1240,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for GeoQueryParser {
                     Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
                         column.to_string(),
                         self.index_name.clone(),
+                        self.index_type.clone(),
                         Arc::new(query),
                         true,
                     ))
@@ -784,6 +1257,7 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for GeoQueryParser {
                     Some(IndexedExpression::index_query_with_recheck(
                         column.to_string(),
                         self.index_name.clone(),
+                        self.index_type.clone(),
                         Arc::new(query),
                         true,
                     ))
@@ -805,13 +1279,20 @@ impl IndexedExpression {
     }
 
     /// Create an expression that is only an index query
-    fn index_query(column: String, index_name: String, query: Arc<dyn AnyQuery>) -> Self {
+    fn index_query(
+        column: String,
+        index_name: String,
+        index_type: String,
+        query: Arc<dyn AnyQuery>,
+    ) -> Self {
         Self {
             scalar_query: Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
                 column,
                 index_name,
+                index_type,
                 query,
-                needs_recheck: false, // Default to false, will be set by parser
+                needs_recheck: false,  // Default to false, will be set by parser
+                fragment_bitmap: None, // Filled in by `apply_scalar_indices`
             })),
             refine_expr: None,
         }
@@ -821,6 +1302,7 @@ impl IndexedExpression {
     fn index_query_with_recheck(
         column: String,
         index_name: String,
+        index_type: String,
         query: Arc<dyn AnyQuery>,
         needs_recheck: bool,
     ) -> Self {
@@ -828,8 +1310,10 @@ impl IndexedExpression {
             scalar_query: Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
                 column,
                 index_name,
+                index_type,
                 query,
                 needs_recheck,
+                fragment_bitmap: None, // Filled in by `apply_scalar_indices`
             })),
             refine_expr: None,
         }
@@ -956,6 +1440,20 @@ pub trait ScalarIndexLoader: Send + Sync {
         index_name: &str,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>;
+
+    /// Translate an address-domain index result into the row-id domain
+    ///
+    /// Address-domain indices (see [`ScalarIndex::results_are_row_addresses`])
+    /// report matches as physical row addresses. The default returns `result`
+    /// unchanged, which is correct when addresses and row ids coincide (no
+    /// stable row ids). A dataset with stable row ids overrides this to remap
+    /// addresses to stable row ids via its per-fragment row-id sequences.
+    async fn row_addr_result_to_row_ids(
+        &self,
+        result: NullableIndexExprResult,
+    ) -> Result<NullableIndexExprResult> {
+        Ok(result)
+    }
 }
 
 /// This represents a search into a scalar index
@@ -965,14 +1463,27 @@ pub struct ScalarIndexSearch {
     pub column: String,
     /// The name of the index to search
     pub index_name: String,
+    /// The type of the index being searched (e.g. "BTree", "Bitmap"), used for display purposes
+    pub index_type: String,
     /// The query to search for
     pub query: Arc<dyn AnyQuery>,
     /// If true, the query results are inexact and will need a recheck
     pub needs_recheck: bool,
+    /// The fragments the underlying index has entries for.
+    ///
+    /// `None` means coverage is unknown (e.g. constructed outside of scanner
+    /// planning, or from a legacy code path). Optimizer rules that need to
+    /// decide whether the index covers the dataset must treat `None` as
+    /// "refuse to use" — the bitmap is the only way to safely answer that
+    /// question synchronously without an async metadata load.
+    pub fragment_bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
 }
 
 impl PartialEq for ScalarIndexSearch {
     fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        // `fragment_bitmap` is metadata derived from the dataset state, not
+        // part of the query identity, so it intentionally does not participate
+        // in equality.
         self.column == other.column
             && self.index_name == other.index_name
             && self.query.as_ref().eq(other.query.as_ref())
@@ -1003,178 +1514,416 @@ impl PartialEq for ScalarIndexExpr {
     }
 }
 
-impl std::fmt::Display for ScalarIndexExpr {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        match self {
-            Self::Not(inner) => write!(f, "NOT({})", inner),
-            Self::And(lhs, rhs) => write!(f, "AND({},{})", lhs, rhs),
-            Self::Or(lhs, rhs) => write!(f, "OR({},{})", lhs, rhs),
-            Self::Query(search) => write!(
-                f,
-                "[{}]@{}",
-                search.query.format(&search.column),
-                search.index_name
-            ),
-        }
+/// Conservative grouping key for rewrites targeting the same parsed scalar index.
+/// `index_type` is display metadata, but including it prevents rewrites across
+/// index implementations that may not share query semantics.
+type ScalarIndexQueryKey = (String, String, String);
+
+/// Returns the tighter (more restrictive) lower bound.
+///
+/// Returns `None` if the bound values cannot be compared. In that case callers
+/// keep the original predicates rather than inventing ordering semantics.
+fn tighter_lower_bound(
+    a: &Bound<ScalarValue>,
+    b: &Bound<ScalarValue>,
+) -> Option<Bound<ScalarValue>> {
+    match (a, b) {
+        (Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Unbounded) => Some(Bound::Unbounded),
+        (Bound::Unbounded, other) | (other, Bound::Unbounded) => Some(other.clone()),
+        (
+            Bound::Included(a_value) | Bound::Excluded(a_value),
+            Bound::Included(b_value) | Bound::Excluded(b_value),
+        ) => match a_value.partial_cmp(b_value)? {
+            Ordering::Less => Some(b.clone()),
+            Ordering::Equal => Some(stricter_bound_for_equal_value(a_value, a, b)),
+            Ordering::Greater => Some(a.clone()),
+        },
     }
 }
 
-/// When we evaluate a scalar index query we return a batch with three columns and two rows
+/// Returns the tighter (more restrictive) upper bound.
 ///
-/// The first column has the block list and allow list
-/// The second column tells if the result is least/exact/more (we repeat the discriminant twice)
-/// The third column has the fragments covered bitmap in the first row and null in the second row
-pub static INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-        Field::new("result".to_string(), DataType::Binary, true),
-        Field::new("discriminant".to_string(), DataType::UInt32, true),
-        Field::new("fragments_covered".to_string(), DataType::Binary, true),
-    ]))
-});
+/// Returns `None` if the bound values cannot be compared. In that case callers
+/// keep the original predicates rather than inventing ordering semantics.
+fn tighter_upper_bound(
+    a: &Bound<ScalarValue>,
+    b: &Bound<ScalarValue>,
+) -> Option<Bound<ScalarValue>> {
+    match (a, b) {
+        (Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Unbounded) => Some(Bound::Unbounded),
+        (Bound::Unbounded, other) | (other, Bound::Unbounded) => Some(other.clone()),
+        (
+            Bound::Included(a_value) | Bound::Excluded(a_value),
+            Bound::Included(b_value) | Bound::Excluded(b_value),
+        ) => match a_value.partial_cmp(b_value)? {
+            Ordering::Less => Some(a.clone()),
+            Ordering::Equal => Some(stricter_bound_for_equal_value(a_value, a, b)),
+            Ordering::Greater => Some(b.clone()),
+        },
+    }
+}
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-enum NullableIndexExprResult {
-    Exact(NullableRowAddrMask),
-    AtMost(NullableRowAddrMask),
-    AtLeast(NullableRowAddrMask),
+fn is_excluded_bound(bound: &Bound<ScalarValue>) -> bool {
+    matches!(bound, Bound::Excluded(_))
 }
 
-impl From<SearchResult> for NullableIndexExprResult {
-    fn from(result: SearchResult) -> Self {
-        match result {
-            SearchResult::Exact(mask) => Self::Exact(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(mask)),
-            SearchResult::AtMost(mask) => Self::AtMost(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(mask)),
-            SearchResult::AtLeast(mask) => Self::AtLeast(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(mask)),
-        }
+/// For an equal scalar value, an excluded bound is stricter than an included
+/// bound. This handles cases like `x >= 5 AND x > 5`.
+fn stricter_bound_for_equal_value(
+    value: &ScalarValue,
+    lhs: &Bound<ScalarValue>,
+    rhs: &Bound<ScalarValue>,
+) -> Bound<ScalarValue> {
+    if is_excluded_bound(lhs) || is_excluded_bound(rhs) {
+        Bound::Excluded(value.clone())
+    } else {
+        Bound::Included(value.clone())
     }
 }
 
-impl std::ops::BitAnd<Self> for NullableIndexExprResult {
-    type Output = Self;
-
-    fn bitand(self, rhs: Self) -> Self {
-        match (self, rhs) {
-            (Self::Exact(lhs), Self::Exact(rhs)) => Self::Exact(lhs & rhs),
-            (Self::Exact(lhs), Self::AtMost(rhs)) | (Self::AtMost(lhs), Self::Exact(rhs)) => {
-                Self::AtMost(lhs & rhs)
-            }
-            (Self::Exact(exact), Self::AtLeast(_)) | (Self::AtLeast(_), Self::Exact(exact)) => {
-                // We could do better here, elements in both lhs and rhs are known
-                // to be true and don't require a recheck.  We only need to recheck
-                // elements in lhs that are not in rhs
-                Self::AtMost(exact)
+fn range_has_non_null_bound(lower: &Bound<ScalarValue>, upper: &Bound<ScalarValue>) -> bool {
+    let mut has_bound = false;
+    for bound in [lower, upper] {
+        match bound {
+            Bound::Included(value) | Bound::Excluded(value) => {
+                if value.is_null() {
+                    return false;
+                }
+                has_bound = true;
             }
-            (Self::AtMost(lhs), Self::AtMost(rhs)) => Self::AtMost(lhs & rhs),
-            (Self::AtLeast(lhs), Self::AtLeast(rhs)) => Self::AtLeast(lhs & rhs),
-            (Self::AtMost(most), Self::AtLeast(_)) | (Self::AtLeast(_), Self::AtMost(most)) => {
-                Self::AtMost(most)
+            Bound::Unbounded => {}
+        }
+    }
+    has_bound
+}
+
+/// Null bounds are skipped by range optimization. Comparisons with NULL should
+/// already be rejected by normal parsing, but this keeps manually constructed
+/// ScalarIndexExpr values from being rewritten into misleading ranges.
+fn range_has_null_bound(lower: &Bound<ScalarValue>, upper: &Bound<ScalarValue>) -> bool {
+    [lower, upper].iter().any(|bound| match bound {
+        Bound::Included(value) | Bound::Excluded(value) => value.is_null(),
+        Bound::Unbounded => false,
+    })
+}
+
+impl ScalarIndexSearch {
+    /// Only SargableQuery participates in these expression-level rewrites.
+    /// Other AnyQuery implementations may have different null/range semantics.
+    fn sargable_query(&self) -> Option<&SargableQuery> {
+        self.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>()
+    }
+
+    /// Require a concrete SargableQuery before producing a key so callers do not
+    /// accidentally group unrelated AnyQuery implementations by metadata alone.
+    fn sargable_query_key(&self) -> Option<ScalarIndexQueryKey> {
+        self.sargable_query()?;
+        Some((
+            self.column.clone(),
+            self.index_name.clone(),
+            self.index_type.clone(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Only exact SargableQuery values may drive NULL-elimination rewrites.
+    /// Range merging also accepts inexact queries and preserves their recheck.
+    fn exact_sargable_query(&self) -> Option<&SargableQuery> {
+        if self.needs_recheck {
+            return None;
+        }
+        self.sargable_query()
+    }
+
+    /// Return a scalar-index key only when the query is an exact SargableQuery.
+    fn exact_sargable_query_key(&self) -> Option<ScalarIndexQueryKey> {
+        self.exact_sargable_query()?;
+        self.sargable_query_key()
+    }
+
+    /// A query is null-intolerant if the original predicate cannot match NULL.
+    /// Only exact queries can make `IS NOT NULL` redundant in the index expression.
+    fn is_null_intolerant_sargable_query(&self) -> bool {
+        match self.exact_sargable_query() {
+            Some(SargableQuery::Range(lower, upper)) => range_has_non_null_bound(lower, upper),
+            Some(SargableQuery::Equals(value)) => !value.is_null(),
+            Some(SargableQuery::IsIn(values)) => {
+                !values.is_empty() && values.iter().all(|value| !value.is_null())
             }
+            _ => false,
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl std::ops::BitOr<Self> for NullableIndexExprResult {
-    type Output = Self;
+impl ScalarIndexExpr {
+    /// Apply scalar-index optimizer rules within each contiguous AND region.
+    ///
+    /// Range queries for the same parsed scalar index are intersected and retain
+    /// `needs_recheck` if any input range requires it. An exact `IS NOT NULL`
+    /// query is removed when another exact same-index query is null-intolerant.
+    /// OR branches are optimized independently. Range queries are still merged
+    /// under NOT, but `IS NOT NULL` elimination is disabled there to preserve
+    /// SQL NULL semantics.
+    ///
+    /// Compatible [`SargableQuery::Range`] values carried by
+    /// [`ScalarIndexSearch`] are merged into one query.
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use std::{ops::Bound, sync::Arc};
+    /// # use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, expression::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch}};
+    /// # let range = |lower, upper| ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+    /// #     column: "x".into(),
+    /// #     index_name: "x_idx".into(),
+    /// #     index_type: "BTree".into(),
+    /// #     query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(lower, upper)),
+    /// #     needs_recheck: false,
+    /// #     fragment_bitmap: None,
+    /// # });
+    /// let optimized = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+    ///     Box::new(range(Bound::Included(10_i64.into()), Bound::Unbounded)),
+    ///     Box::new(range(Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Included(20_i64.into()))),
+    /// )
+    /// .optimize();
+    ///
+    /// assert!(matches!(optimized, ScalarIndexExpr::Query(_)));
+    /// ```
+    pub fn optimize(self) -> Self {
+        self.optimize_with_context(true)
+    }
+
+    fn optimize_with_context(self, is_not_null_elidable: bool) -> Self {
+        match self {
+            Self::And(_, _) => self.optimize_and_tree(is_not_null_elidable),
+            Self::Or(lhs, rhs) => Self::Or(
+                Box::new(lhs.optimize_with_context(is_not_null_elidable)),
+                Box::new(rhs.optimize_with_context(is_not_null_elidable)),
+            ),
+            Self::Not(inner) => Self::Not(Box::new(inner.optimize_with_context(false))),
+            other => other,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Flatten one contiguous AND region, apply local optimizer rules, and
+    /// rebuild a balanced AND tree.
+    fn optimize_and_tree(self, is_not_null_elidable: bool) -> Self {
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        self.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, is_not_null_elidable);
+        let leaves = Self::optimize_and_leaves(leaves, is_not_null_elidable);
+
+        Self::rebuild_and_tree(leaves).expect("AND tree optimization should keep at least one leaf")
+    }
 
-    fn bitor(self, rhs: Self) -> Self {
-        match (self, rhs) {
-            (Self::Exact(lhs), Self::Exact(rhs)) => Self::Exact(lhs | rhs),
-            (Self::Exact(lhs), Self::AtMost(rhs)) | (Self::AtMost(rhs), Self::Exact(lhs)) => {
-                // We could do better here, elements in lhs are known to be true
-                // and don't require a recheck.  We only need to recheck elements
-                // in rhs that are not in lhs
-                Self::AtMost(lhs | rhs)
+    /// Apply optimizer rules within one AND region only. OR branches have already
+    /// been kept as opaque leaves, so range and null-intolerance rewrites cannot
+    /// cross boolean boundaries.
+    fn optimize_and_leaves(leaves: Vec<Self>, is_not_null_elidable: bool) -> Vec<Self> {
+        let null_intolerant_keys = if !is_not_null_elidable {
+            HashSet::new()
+        } else {
+            let is_not_null_keys = leaves
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(Self::is_not_null_query_key)
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+            if is_not_null_keys.is_empty() {
+                HashSet::new()
+            } else {
+                leaves
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter_map(Self::null_intolerant_query_key)
+                    .filter(|key| is_not_null_keys.contains(key))
+                    .collect()
             }
-            (Self::Exact(lhs), Self::AtLeast(rhs)) | (Self::AtLeast(rhs), Self::Exact(lhs)) => {
-                Self::AtLeast(lhs | rhs)
+        };
+
+        let mut optimized = Vec::with_capacity(leaves.len());
+        let mut range_positions = HashMap::new();
+
+        for leaf in leaves {
+            if let Some(key) = leaf.is_not_null_query_key()
+                && null_intolerant_keys.contains(&key)
+            {
+                continue;
             }
-            (Self::AtMost(lhs), Self::AtMost(rhs)) => Self::AtMost(lhs | rhs),
-            (Self::AtLeast(lhs), Self::AtLeast(rhs)) => Self::AtLeast(lhs | rhs),
-            (Self::AtMost(_), Self::AtLeast(least)) | (Self::AtLeast(least), Self::AtMost(_)) => {
-                Self::AtLeast(least)
+
+            if let Some(key) = leaf.range_query_key() {
+                match range_positions.entry(key) {
+                    Entry::Vacant(entry) => {
+                        entry.insert(optimized.len());
+                        optimized.push(leaf);
+                    }
+                    Entry::Occupied(entry) => {
+                        if !optimized[*entry.get()].try_merge_range(&leaf) {
+                            optimized.push(leaf);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                optimized.push(leaf);
             }
         }
+
+        optimized
     }
-}
 
-impl NullableIndexExprResult {
-    pub fn drop_nulls(self) -> IndexExprResult {
+    /// Recursively collect all leaf nodes from an AND tree. OR branches are
+    /// optimized independently with the current null-elision context. NOT
+    /// branches remain leaves while their children are optimized with null
+    /// elimination disabled.
+    fn collect_and_leaves(self, leaves: &mut Vec<Self>, is_not_null_elidable: bool) {
         match self {
-            Self::Exact(mask) => IndexExprResult::Exact(mask.drop_nulls()),
-            Self::AtMost(mask) => IndexExprResult::AtMost(mask.drop_nulls()),
-            Self::AtLeast(mask) => IndexExprResult::AtLeast(mask.drop_nulls()),
+            Self::And(lhs, rhs) => {
+                lhs.collect_and_leaves(leaves, is_not_null_elidable);
+                rhs.collect_and_leaves(leaves, is_not_null_elidable);
+            }
+            Self::Or(lhs, rhs) => {
+                leaves.push(Self::Or(
+                    Box::new(lhs.optimize_with_context(is_not_null_elidable)),
+                    Box::new(rhs.optimize_with_context(is_not_null_elidable)),
+                ));
+            }
+            Self::Not(inner) => {
+                leaves.push(Self::Not(Box::new(inner.optimize_with_context(false))))
+            }
+            other => leaves.push(other),
         }
     }
-}
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub enum IndexExprResult {
-    // The answer is exactly the rows in the allow list minus the rows in the block list
-    Exact(RowAddrMask),
-    // The answer is at most the rows in the allow list minus the rows in the block list
-    // Some of the rows in the allow list may not be in the result and will need to be filtered
-    // by a recheck.  Every row in the block list is definitely not in the result.
-    AtMost(RowAddrMask),
-    // The answer is at least the rows in the allow list minus the rows in the block list
-    // Some of the rows in the block list might be in the result.  Every row in the allow list is
-    // definitely in the result.
-    AtLeast(RowAddrMask),
-}
-
-impl IndexExprResult {
-    pub fn row_addr_mask(&self) -> &RowAddrMask {
+    /// Rebuild as a balanced tree so large planner-generated conjunctions do not
+    /// become deep left-leaning trees after optimization.
+    fn rebuild_and_tree(leaves: Vec<Self>) -> Option<Self> {
+        let mut leaves = leaves;
+        if leaves.is_empty() {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        while leaves.len() > 1 {
+            let mut next = Vec::with_capacity(leaves.len().div_ceil(2));
+            let mut iter = leaves.into_iter();
+            while let Some(lhs) = iter.next() {
+                if let Some(rhs) = iter.next() {
+                    next.push(Self::And(Box::new(lhs), Box::new(rhs)));
+                } else {
+                    next.push(lhs);
+                }
+            }
+            leaves = next;
+        }
+
+        leaves.pop()
+    }
+
+    /// Detect the scalar-index representation of `col IS NOT NULL`, which is
+    /// stored as `NOT(col IS NULL)`.
+    fn is_not_null_query_key(&self) -> Option<ScalarIndexQueryKey> {
         match self {
-            Self::Exact(mask) => mask,
-            Self::AtMost(mask) => mask,
-            Self::AtLeast(mask) => mask,
+            Self::Not(inner) => match inner.as_ref() {
+                Self::Query(search)
+                    if matches!(search.sargable_query(), Some(SargableQuery::IsNull())) =>
+                {
+                    search.exact_sargable_query_key()
+                }
+                _ => None,
+            },
+            _ => None,
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn discriminant(&self) -> u32 {
+    /// Return the key of a same-column predicate that makes `IS NOT NULL`
+    /// redundant in the same AND region.
+    fn null_intolerant_query_key(&self) -> Option<ScalarIndexQueryKey> {
         match self {
-            Self::Exact(_) => 0,
-            Self::AtMost(_) => 1,
-            Self::AtLeast(_) => 2,
+            Self::Query(search) if search.is_null_intolerant_sargable_query() => {
+                search.exact_sargable_query_key()
+            }
+            Self::Not(inner) => match inner.as_ref() {
+                // `NOT (predicate)` is NULL wherever the predicate is, so it
+                // cannot match a NULL row either, and `IS NOT NULL` adds nothing.
+                Self::Query(search) if search.is_null_intolerant_sargable_query() => {
+                    search.exact_sargable_query_key()
+                }
+                _ => None,
+            },
+            _ => None,
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn from_parts(mask: RowAddrMask, discriminant: u32) -> Result<Self> {
-        match discriminant {
-            0 => Ok(Self::Exact(mask)),
-            1 => Ok(Self::AtMost(mask)),
-            2 => Ok(Self::AtLeast(mask)),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Invalid IndexExprResult discriminant: {}", discriminant).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+    /// Return the grouping key for an optimizable range query. Ranges with NULL
+    /// bounds are left unchanged.
+    fn range_query_key(&self) -> Option<ScalarIndexQueryKey> {
+        let Self::Query(search) = self else {
+            return None;
+        };
+        let SargableQuery::Range(lower, upper) = search.sargable_query()? else {
+            return None;
+        };
+        if range_has_null_bound(lower, upper) {
+            return None;
         }
+        search.sargable_query_key()
     }
 
-    #[instrument(skip_all)]
-    pub fn serialize_to_arrow(
-        &self,
-        fragments_covered_by_result: &RoaringBitmap,
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let row_addr_mask = self.row_addr_mask();
-        let row_addr_mask_arr = row_addr_mask.into_arrow()?;
-        let discriminant = self.discriminant();
-        let discriminant_arr =
-            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![discriminant, discriminant])) as Arc<dyn Array>;
-        let mut fragments_covered_builder = BinaryBuilder::new();
-        let fragments_covered_bytes_len = fragments_covered_by_result.serialized_size();
-        let mut fragments_covered_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(fragments_covered_bytes_len);
-        fragments_covered_by_result.serialize_into(&mut fragments_covered_bytes)?;
-        fragments_covered_builder.append_value(fragments_covered_bytes);
-        fragments_covered_builder.append_null();
-        let fragments_covered_arr = Arc::new(fragments_covered_builder.finish()) as Arc<dyn Array>;
-        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
-            INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(row_addr_mask_arr),
-                Arc::new(discriminant_arr),
-                Arc::new(fragments_covered_arr),
-            ],
-        )?)
+    /// Merge another compatible range into this expression.
+    ///
+    /// The caller must first group both expressions by [`ScalarIndexQueryKey`].
+    /// Different fragment coverage or incomparable bounds leave both predicates
+    /// unchanged. Empty intersections are retained as ranges.
+    fn try_merge_range(&mut self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        let (Self::Query(search), Self::Query(other_search)) = (self, other) else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        if search.fragment_bitmap != other_search.fragment_bitmap {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        let (
+            Some(SargableQuery::Range(lower, upper)),
+            Some(SargableQuery::Range(other_lower, other_upper)),
+        ) = (search.sargable_query(), other_search.sargable_query())
+        else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        let Some(lower) = tighter_lower_bound(lower, other_lower) else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        let Some(upper) = tighter_upper_bound(upper, other_upper) else {
+            return false;
+        };
+
+        search.query = Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(lower, upper));
+        search.needs_recheck |= other_search.needs_recheck;
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for ScalarIndexExpr {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Not(inner) => write!(f, "NOT({})", inner),
+            Self::And(lhs, rhs) => write!(f, "AND({},{})", lhs, rhs),
+            Self::Or(lhs, rhs) => write!(f, "OR({},{})", lhs, rhs),
+            Self::Query(search) => write!(
+                f,
+                "[{}]@{}({})",
+                search.query.format(&search.column),
+                search.index_name,
+                search.index_type
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn search_result_to_nullable(result: SearchResult) -> NullableIndexExprResult {
+    match result {
+        SearchResult::Exact(mask) => {
+            NullableIndexExprResult::exact(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(mask))
+        }
+        SearchResult::AtMost(mask) => {
+            NullableIndexExprResult::at_most(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(mask))
+        }
+        SearchResult::AtLeast(mask) => {
+            NullableIndexExprResult::at_least(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(mask))
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -1185,35 +1934,40 @@ impl ScalarIndexExpr {
     ///
     /// TODO: We could potentially try and be smarter about reusing loaded indices for
     /// any situations where the session cache has been disabled.
+    pub async fn evaluate_nullable(
+        &self,
+        index_loader: &dyn ScalarIndexLoader,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<NullableIndexExprResult> {
+        self.evaluate_with_options(index_loader, metrics, true)
+            .await
+    }
+
     #[async_recursion]
-    async fn evaluate_impl(
+    async fn evaluate_with_options(
         &self,
         index_loader: &dyn ScalarIndexLoader,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        track_nulls: bool,
     ) -> Result<NullableIndexExprResult> {
         match self {
             Self::Not(inner) => {
-                let result = inner.evaluate_impl(index_loader, metrics).await?;
-                // Flip certainty: NOT(AtMost) → AtLeast, NOT(AtLeast) → AtMost
-                Ok(match result {
-                    NullableIndexExprResult::Exact(mask) => NullableIndexExprResult::Exact(!mask),
-                    NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(mask) => {
-                        NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(!mask)
-                    }
-                    NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(mask) => {
-                        NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(!mask)
-                    }
-                })
+                // NOT needs the child's NULL rows to preserve SQL three-valued
+                // logic. Once enabled, keep tracking through the whole subtree.
+                let result = inner
+                    .evaluate_with_options(index_loader, metrics, true)
+                    .await?;
+                Ok(!result)
             }
             Self::And(lhs, rhs) => {
-                let lhs_result = lhs.evaluate_impl(index_loader, metrics);
-                let rhs_result = rhs.evaluate_impl(index_loader, metrics);
+                let lhs_result = lhs.evaluate_with_options(index_loader, metrics, track_nulls);
+                let rhs_result = rhs.evaluate_with_options(index_loader, metrics, track_nulls);
                 let (lhs_result, rhs_result) = try_join!(lhs_result, rhs_result)?;
                 Ok(lhs_result & rhs_result)
             }
             Self::Or(lhs, rhs) => {
-                let lhs_result = lhs.evaluate_impl(index_loader, metrics);
-                let rhs_result = rhs.evaluate_impl(index_loader, metrics);
+                let lhs_result = lhs.evaluate_with_options(index_loader, metrics, track_nulls);
+                let rhs_result = rhs.evaluate_with_options(index_loader, metrics, track_nulls);
                 let (lhs_result, rhs_result) = try_join!(lhs_result, rhs_result)?;
                 Ok(lhs_result | rhs_result)
             }
@@ -1221,8 +1975,22 @@ impl ScalarIndexExpr {
                 let index = index_loader
                     .load_index(&search.column, &search.index_name, metrics)
                     .await?;
-                let search_result = index.search(search.query.as_ref(), metrics).await?;
-                Ok(search_result.into())
+                let search_result = index
+                    .search_with_options(
+                        search.query.as_ref(),
+                        SearchOptions::default().with_track_nulls(track_nulls),
+                        metrics,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                let result = search_result_to_nullable(search_result);
+                if index.results_are_row_addresses() {
+                    // Translate address-domain results to the row-id domain
+                    // before combining or scanning; otherwise stable-row-id
+                    // datasets silently drop matches (issue #7434).
+                    index_loader.row_addr_result_to_row_ids(result).await
+                } else {
+                    Ok(result)
+                }
             }
         }
     }
@@ -1234,7 +2002,7 @@ impl ScalarIndexExpr {
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<IndexExprResult> {
         Ok(self
-            .evaluate_impl(index_loader, metrics)
+            .evaluate_with_options(index_loader, metrics, false)
             .await?
             .drop_nulls())
     }
@@ -1273,27 +2041,30 @@ fn maybe_column(expr: &Expr) -> Option<&str> {
     }
 }
 
-// Extract the full nested column path from a get_field expression chain
-// For example: get_field(get_field(metadata, "status"), "code") -> "metadata.status.code"
+// Extract the full nested column path from chained or variadic get_field expressions.
+// For example, both get_field(get_field(metadata, "status"), "code") and
+// get_field(metadata, "status", "code") produce "metadata.status.code".
 fn extract_nested_column_path(expr: &Expr) -> Option<String> {
     let mut current_expr = expr;
     let mut parts = Vec::new();
 
-    // Walk up the get_field chain
+    // Walk up the get_field chain. Add variadic arguments in reverse because all
+    // parts are reversed after reaching the base column.
     loop {
         match current_expr {
             Expr::ScalarFunction(udf) if udf.name() == "get_field" => {
-                if udf.args.len() != 2 {
+                if udf.args.len() < 2 {
                     return None;
                 }
-                // Extract the field name from the second argument
-                // The Literal now has two fields: ScalarValue and Option<FieldMetadata>
-                if let Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(field_name)), _) = &udf.args[1] {
-                    parts.push(field_name.clone());
-                } else {
-                    return None;
+
+                for field_expr in udf.args[1..].iter().rev() {
+                    if let Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(field_name)), _) = field_expr {
+                        parts.push(field_name.clone());
+                    } else {
+                        return None;
+                    }
                 }
-                // Move up to the parent expression
+
                 current_expr = &udf.args[0];
             }
             Expr::Column(col) => {
@@ -1319,30 +2090,26 @@ fn extract_nested_column_path(expr: &Expr) -> Option<String> {
 //
 // There's two ways to get a column.  First, the obvious way, is a
 // simple column reference (e.g. x = 7).  Second, a more complex way,
-// is some kind of projection into a column (e.g. json_extract(json, '$.name')).
+// is some kind of projection into a column (e.g. json_get_string(json, '$.name')).
 // Third way is nested field access (e.g. get_field(metadata, "status.code"))
 fn maybe_indexed_column<'b>(
     expr: &Expr,
     index_info: &'b dyn IndexInformationProvider,
 ) -> Option<(String, DataType, &'b dyn ScalarQueryParser)> {
     // First try to extract the full nested column path for get_field expressions
-    if let Some(nested_path) = extract_nested_column_path(expr) {
-        if let Some((data_type, parser)) = index_info.get_index(&nested_path) {
-            if let Some(data_type) = parser.is_valid_reference(expr, data_type) {
-                return Some((nested_path, data_type, parser));
-            }
-        }
+    if let Some(nested_path) = extract_nested_column_path(expr)
+        && let Some((data_type, multi)) = index_info.get_index(&nested_path)
+        && let Some((parser, data_type)) = multi.select(expr, data_type)
+    {
+        return Some((nested_path, data_type, parser));
     }
 
     match expr {
         Expr::Column(col) => {
             let col = col.name.as_str();
-            let (data_type, parser) = index_info.get_index(col)?;
-            if let Some(data_type) = parser.is_valid_reference(expr, data_type) {
-                Some((col.to_string(), data_type, parser))
-            } else {
-                None
-            }
+            let (data_type, multi) = index_info.get_index(col)?;
+            let (parser, data_type) = multi.select(expr, data_type)?;
+            Some((col.to_string(), data_type, parser))
         }
         Expr::ScalarFunction(udf) => {
             if udf.args.is_empty() {
@@ -1350,12 +2117,9 @@ fn maybe_indexed_column<'b>(
             }
             // For non-get_field functions, fall back to old behavior
             let col = maybe_column(&udf.args[0])?;
-            let (data_type, parser) = index_info.get_index(col)?;
-            if let Some(data_type) = parser.is_valid_reference(expr, data_type) {
-                Some((col.to_string(), data_type, parser))
-            } else {
-                None
-            }
+            let (data_type, multi) = index_info.get_index(col)?;
+            let (parser, data_type) = multi.select(expr, data_type)?;
+            Some((col.to_string(), data_type, parser))
         }
         _ => None,
     }
@@ -1374,7 +2138,7 @@ fn maybe_scalar(expr: &Expr, expected_type: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarValue> {
         // In this case we need to extract the value, apply the cast, and then test the casted value
         Expr::Cast(cast) => match cast.expr.as_ref() {
             Expr::Literal(value, _) => {
-                let casted = value.cast_to(&cast.data_type).ok()?;
+                let casted = value.cast_to(cast.field.data_type()).ok()?;
                 safe_coerce_scalar(&casted, expected_type)
             }
             _ => None,
@@ -1567,11 +2331,11 @@ fn maybe_range(
         }
         // x <= a && x > b
         (Operator::LtEq, Operator::Gt) => {
-            (Bound::Included(right_value), Bound::Excluded(left_value))
+            (Bound::Excluded(right_value), Bound::Included(left_value))
         }
         // x < a && x >= b
         (Operator::Lt, Operator::GtEq) => {
-            (Bound::Excluded(right_value), Bound::Included(left_value))
+            (Bound::Included(right_value), Bound::Excluded(left_value))
         }
         // x < a && x > b
         (Operator::Lt, Operator::Gt) => (Bound::Excluded(right_value), Bound::Excluded(left_value)),
@@ -1655,19 +2419,31 @@ fn visit_scalar_fn(
     query_parser.visit_scalar_function(&col, &data_type, &scalar_fn.func, &scalar_fn.args)
 }
 
+fn visit_like_expr(
+    like: &Like,
+    index_info: &dyn IndexInformationProvider,
+) -> Option<IndexedExpression> {
+    let (column, _, query_parser) = maybe_indexed_column(&like.expr, index_info)?;
+
+    // Extract the pattern as a ScalarValue
+    let pattern = match like.pattern.as_ref() {
+        Expr::Literal(scalar, _) => scalar.clone(),
+        _ => return None,
+    };
+
+    query_parser.visit_like(&column, like, &pattern)
+}
+
 fn visit_node(
     expr: &Expr,
     index_info: &dyn IndexInformationProvider,
     depth: usize,
 ) -> Result<Option<IndexedExpression>> {
     if depth >= MAX_DEPTH {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "the filter expression is too long, lance limit the max number of conditions to {}",
-                MAX_DEPTH
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ));
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "the filter expression is too long, lance limit the max number of conditions to {}",
+            MAX_DEPTH
+        )));
     }
     match expr {
         Expr::Between(between) => Ok(visit_between(between, index_info)),
@@ -1677,10 +2453,29 @@ fn visit_node(
         Expr::IsFalse(expr) => Ok(visit_is_bool(expr.as_ref(), index_info, false)),
         Expr::IsTrue(expr) => Ok(visit_is_bool(expr.as_ref(), index_info, true)),
         Expr::IsNull(expr) => Ok(visit_is_null(expr.as_ref(), index_info, false)),
-        Expr::IsNotNull(expr) => Ok(visit_is_null(expr.as_ref(), index_info, true)),
+        Expr::IsNotNull(expr) => {
+            // `regexp_match(col, pat)` returns a list and is coerced to
+            // `IsNotNull(regexp_match(...))` before it reaches here. Unwrap that
+            // so the regex acceleration applies; everything else is a genuine
+            // IS NOT NULL check.
+            if let Expr::ScalarFunction(scalar_fn) = expr.as_ref()
+                && scalar_fn.func.name() == "regexp_match"
+            {
+                return Ok(visit_scalar_fn(scalar_fn, index_info));
+            }
+            Ok(visit_is_null(expr.as_ref(), index_info, true))
+        }
         Expr::Not(expr) => visit_not(expr.as_ref(), index_info, depth),
         Expr::BinaryExpr(binary_expr) => visit_binary_expr(binary_expr, index_info, depth),
         Expr::ScalarFunction(scalar_fn) => Ok(visit_scalar_fn(scalar_fn, index_info)),
+        Expr::Like(like) => {
+            if like.negated {
+                // NOT LIKE cannot be efficiently pruned with zone maps
+                Ok(None)
+            } else {
+                Ok(visit_like_expr(like, index_info))
+            }
+        }
         _ => Ok(None),
     }
 }
@@ -1689,7 +2484,17 @@ fn visit_node(
 pub trait IndexInformationProvider {
     /// Check if an index exists for `col` and, if so, return the data type of col
     /// as well as a query parser that can parse queries for that column
-    fn get_index(&self, col: &str) -> Option<(&DataType, &dyn ScalarQueryParser)>;
+    fn get_index(&self, col: &str) -> Option<(&DataType, &MultiQueryParser)>;
+
+    /// The set of fragments covered by `(column, index_name)`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` when the provider doesn't know — callers must treat
+    /// that as "coverage unknown" rather than "covers everything". The
+    /// default implementation always returns `None`, so providers that
+    /// haven't been updated cannot accidentally claim full coverage.
+    fn fragment_bitmap(&self, _column: &str, _index_name: &str) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        None
+    }
 }
 
 /// Attempt to split a filter expression into a search of scalar indexes and an
@@ -1698,7 +2503,31 @@ pub fn apply_scalar_indices(
     expr: Expr,
     index_info: &dyn IndexInformationProvider,
 ) -> Result<IndexedExpression> {
-    Ok(visit_node(&expr, index_info, 0)?.unwrap_or(IndexedExpression::refine_only(expr)))
+    let mut result =
+        visit_node(&expr, index_info, 0)?.unwrap_or(IndexedExpression::refine_only(expr));
+    if let Some(query) = result.scalar_query.as_mut() {
+        populate_fragment_bitmaps(query, index_info);
+    }
+    Ok(result)
+}
+
+/// Walk a [`ScalarIndexExpr`] and fill in `fragment_bitmap` on each leaf from
+/// the `index_info` provider. Leaves the bitmap as `None` if the provider
+/// can't answer.
+fn populate_fragment_bitmaps(
+    expr: &mut ScalarIndexExpr,
+    index_info: &dyn IndexInformationProvider,
+) {
+    match expr {
+        ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner) => populate_fragment_bitmaps(inner, index_info),
+        ScalarIndexExpr::And(lhs, rhs) | ScalarIndexExpr::Or(lhs, rhs) => {
+            populate_fragment_bitmaps(lhs, index_info);
+            populate_fragment_bitmaps(rhs, index_info);
+        }
+        ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search) => {
+            search.fragment_bitmap = index_info.fragment_bitmap(&search.column, &search.index_name);
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Clone, Default, Debug)]
@@ -1822,12 +2651,15 @@ impl PlannerIndexExt for Planner {
 mod tests {
     use std::collections::HashMap;
 
-    use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+    use arrow_array::Array;
+    use arrow_schema::{Field, Fields, Schema};
     use chrono::Utc;
     use datafusion_common::{Column, DFSchema};
-    use datafusion_expr::execution_props::ExecutionProps;
     use datafusion_expr::simplify::SimplifyContext;
-    use lance_datafusion::exec::{get_session_context, LanceExecutionOptions};
+    use lance_datafusion::exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, get_session_context};
+    use lance_select::result::IndexExprResultWireFormat;
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     use crate::scalar::json::{JsonQuery, JsonQueryParser};
 
@@ -1835,11 +2667,22 @@ mod tests {
 
     struct ColInfo {
         data_type: DataType,
-        parser: Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>,
+        parser: Box<MultiQueryParser>,
+    }
+
+    fn f16_scalar(value: f32) -> ScalarValue {
+        ScalarValue::Float16(Some(half::f16::from_f32(value)))
     }
 
     impl ColInfo {
         fn new(data_type: DataType, parser: Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                data_type,
+                parser: Box::new(MultiQueryParser::single(parser)),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn with_multi(data_type: DataType, parser: Box<MultiQueryParser>) -> Self {
             Self { data_type, parser }
         }
     }
@@ -1861,7 +2704,7 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     impl IndexInformationProvider for MockIndexInfoProvider {
-        fn get_index(&self, col: &str) -> Option<(&DataType, &dyn ScalarQueryParser)> {
+        fn get_index(&self, col: &str) -> Option<(&DataType, &MultiQueryParser)> {
             self.indexed_columns
                 .get(col)
                 .map(|col_info| (&col_info.data_type, col_info.parser.as_ref()))
@@ -1882,14 +2725,26 @@ mod tests {
             Field::new("price", DataType::Float32, false),
             Field::new("json", DataType::LargeBinary, false),
         ]);
+        check_with_schema(index_info, expr, expected, optimize, schema);
+    }
+
+    fn check_with_schema(
+        index_info: &dyn IndexInformationProvider,
+        expr: &str,
+        expected: Option<IndexedExpression>,
+        optimize: bool,
+        schema: Schema,
+    ) {
         let df_schema: DFSchema = schema.try_into().unwrap();
 
         let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
         let state = ctx.state();
         let mut expr = state.create_logical_expr(expr, &df_schema).unwrap();
         if optimize {
-            let props = ExecutionProps::new().with_query_execution_start_time(Utc::now());
-            let simplify_context = SimplifyContext::new(&props).with_schema(Arc::new(df_schema));
+            let simplify_context = SimplifyContext::builder()
+                .with_schema(Arc::new(df_schema))
+                .with_query_execution_start_time(Some(Utc::now()))
+                .build();
             let simplifier =
                 datafusion::optimizer::simplify_expressions::ExprSimplifier::new(simplify_context);
             expr = simplifier.simplify(expr).unwrap();
@@ -1920,6 +2775,7 @@ mod tests {
             Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
                 col.to_string(),
                 format!("{}_idx", col),
+                "BTree".to_string(),
                 Arc::new(query),
             )),
             false,
@@ -1938,6 +2794,7 @@ mod tests {
             Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
                 col.to_string(),
                 format!("{}_idx", col),
+                "BTree".to_string(),
                 Arc::new(query),
             )),
             true,
@@ -1957,6 +2814,7 @@ mod tests {
                 IndexedExpression::index_query(
                     col.to_string(),
                     format!("{}_idx", col),
+                    "BTree".to_string(),
                     Arc::new(query),
                 )
                 .maybe_not()
@@ -1966,6 +2824,179 @@ mod tests {
         )
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::list(DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))))]
+    #[case::large_list(DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))))]
+    fn test_label_list_query_parser(#[case] label_type: DataType) {
+        let index_info = MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![(
+            "labels",
+            ColInfo::new(
+                label_type.clone(),
+                Box::new(LabelListQueryParser::new(
+                    "labels_idx".to_string(),
+                    "LabelList".to_string(),
+                )),
+            ),
+        )]);
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("labels", label_type, true)]);
+
+        check_with_schema(
+            &index_info,
+            "array_has_any(labels, ['distributed'])",
+            Some(IndexedExpression::index_query(
+                "labels".to_string(),
+                "labels_idx".to_string(),
+                "LabelList".to_string(),
+                Arc::new(LabelListQuery::HasAnyLabel(vec![ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
+                    "distributed".to_string(),
+                ))])),
+            )),
+            true,
+            schema,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::list(DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
+        "item",
+        DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int64, true))),
+        true,
+    ))))]
+    #[case::large_list(DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(Field::new(
+        "item",
+        DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int64, true))),
+        true,
+    ))))]
+    fn test_label_list_nested_item(#[case] label_type: DataType) {
+        let index_info = MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![(
+            "labels",
+            ColInfo::new(
+                label_type.clone(),
+                Box::new(LabelListQueryParser::new(
+                    "labels_idx".to_string(),
+                    "LabelList".to_string(),
+                )),
+            ),
+        )]);
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("labels", label_type, true)]);
+
+        // Nested item types must not produce a scalar index query.
+        check_with_schema(
+            &index_info,
+            "array_has_any(labels, [[1]])",
+            None,
+            true,
+            schema,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_nested_column_index() {
+        let column = "user_profile.basic.age";
+        let index_info = MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![(
+            column,
+            ColInfo::new(
+                DataType::Int32,
+                Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                    format!("{column}_idx"),
+                    "BTree".to_string(),
+                    false,
+                )),
+            ),
+        )]);
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "user_profile",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![Field::new(
+                "basic",
+                DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![Field::new("age", DataType::Int32, true)])),
+                true,
+            )])),
+            true,
+        )]);
+
+        let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(schema));
+        let filter = planner
+            .parse_filter("user_profile.basic.age > 900")
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan = planner
+            .create_filter_plan(filter, &index_info, true)
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected = IndexedExpression::index_query(
+            column.to_string(),
+            format!("{column}_idx"),
+            "BTree".to_string(),
+            Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(900))),
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+            )),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(plan.index_query, expected.scalar_query);
+        assert!(plan.refine_expr.is_none());
+    }
+
+    /// A `Float16` column must reach its scalar index like any other numeric
+    /// column. This is the second, quieter face of the coercion gap: `maybe_scalar`
+    /// runs `safe_coerce_scalar` on a literal the planner has *already* coerced,
+    /// so without a `ScalarValue::Float16` source arm the whole predicate silently
+    /// becomes a refine filter. The rows stay correct, which is why only the plan
+    /// catches it.
+    ///
+    /// This drives `Planner::parse_filter` rather than `check_with_schema` on
+    /// purpose. `check_with_schema` builds the expression with
+    /// `create_logical_expr`, which does no type coercion, so the literal would
+    /// still be `Float64` here and would exercise the `Float64` to `Float16`
+    /// target arm instead. Production coerces first, in `resolve_value`, and only
+    /// this order needs the source arm.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case("temp = 1.0", SargableQuery::Equals(f16_scalar(1.0)))]
+    #[case("temp = 1", SargableQuery::Equals(f16_scalar(1.0)))]
+    #[case(
+        "temp < 1.0",
+        SargableQuery::Range(Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Excluded(f16_scalar(1.0)))
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        // Four elements so DataFusion's `ShortenInListSimplifier` leaves the list
+        // alone; at three or fewer over a bare column it becomes an `OR` chain and
+        // stops exercising `maybe_scalar_list`.
+        "temp IN (1.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0)",
+        SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![
+            f16_scalar(1.0),
+            f16_scalar(2.5),
+            f16_scalar(3.0),
+            f16_scalar(4.0),
+        ])
+    )]
+    fn test_float16_column_reaches_its_index(#[case] expr: &str, #[case] expected: SargableQuery) {
+        let index_info = MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![(
+            "temp",
+            ColInfo::new(
+                DataType::Float16,
+                Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                    "temp_idx".to_string(),
+                    "BTree".to_string(),
+                    false,
+                )),
+            ),
+        )]);
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("temp", DataType::Float16, true)]);
+
+        let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(schema));
+        let filter = planner.parse_filter(expr).unwrap();
+        let plan = planner
+            .create_filter_plan(filter, &index_info, true)
+            .unwrap();
+        let wanted = IndexedExpression::index_query(
+            "temp".to_string(),
+            "temp_idx".to_string(),
+            "BTree".to_string(),
+            Arc::new(expected),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(plan.index_query, wanted.scalar_query, "predicate: {expr}");
+        assert!(plan.refine_expr.is_none(), "predicate: {expr}");
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_expressions() {
         let index_info = MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![
@@ -1973,28 +3004,44 @@ mod tests {
                 "color",
                 ColInfo::new(
                     DataType::Utf8,
-                    Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new("color_idx".to_string(), false)),
+                    Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                        "color_idx".to_string(),
+                        "BTree".to_string(),
+                        false,
+                    )),
                 ),
             ),
             (
                 "aisle",
                 ColInfo::new(
                     DataType::UInt32,
-                    Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new("aisle_idx".to_string(), false)),
+                    Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                        "aisle_idx".to_string(),
+                        "BTree".to_string(),
+                        false,
+                    )),
                 ),
             ),
             (
                 "on_sale",
                 ColInfo::new(
                     DataType::Boolean,
-                    Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new("on_sale_idx".to_string(), false)),
+                    Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                        "on_sale_idx".to_string(),
+                        "BTree".to_string(),
+                        false,
+                    )),
                 ),
             ),
             (
                 "price",
                 ColInfo::new(
                     DataType::Float32,
-                    Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new("price_idx".to_string(), false)),
+                    Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                        "price_idx".to_string(),
+                        "BTree".to_string(),
+                        false,
+                    )),
                 ),
             ),
             (
@@ -2003,15 +3050,21 @@ mod tests {
                     DataType::LargeBinary,
                     Box::new(JsonQueryParser::new(
                         "$.name".to_string(),
-                        Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new("json_idx".to_string(), false)),
+                        Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                            "json_idx".to_string(),
+                            "BTree".to_string(),
+                            false,
+                        )),
                     )),
                 ),
             ),
         ]);
 
+        // The typed accessors decode the path value, matching the representation
+        // the index was trained on, so they route.
         check_simple(
             &index_info,
-            "json_extract(json, '$.name') = 'foo'",
+            "json_get_string(json, '$.name') = 'foo'",
             "json",
             JsonQuery::new(
                 Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
@@ -2020,6 +3073,14 @@ mod tests {
                 "$.name".to_string(),
             ),
         );
+        // `json_extract` evaluates to serialized JSON text, which does not match the
+        // decoded keys in the index, so it must not route.
+        // https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8806
+        check_no_index(&index_info, "json_extract(json, '$.name') = 'foo'");
+        check_no_index(&index_info, "json_extract(json, '$.name') = '\"foo\"'");
+        check_no_index(&index_info, "json_extract(json, '$.name') < 'foo'");
+        // A typed accessor on a path the index was not built for still declines.
+        check_no_index(&index_info, "json_get_string(json, '$.other') = 'foo'");
 
         check_no_index(&index_info, "size BETWEEN 5 AND 10");
         // Cast case.  We will cast 5 (an int64) to Int16 and then coerce to UInt32
@@ -2078,6 +3139,24 @@ mod tests {
                 Bound::Included(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(10))),
             ),
         );
+        check_range(
+            &index_info,
+            "aisle <= 10 AND aisle > 5",
+            "aisle",
+            SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(5))),
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(10))),
+            ),
+        );
+        check_range(
+            &index_info,
+            "aisle < 10 AND aisle >= 5",
+            "aisle",
+            SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(5))),
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(10))),
+            ),
+        );
         check_simple(
             &index_info,
             "on_sale IS TRUE",
@@ -2246,16 +3325,20 @@ mod tests {
         let left = Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
             column: "aisle".to_string(),
             index_name: "aisle_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "BTree".to_string(),
             query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(10)))),
             needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
         }));
         let right = Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
             column: "color".to_string(),
             index_name: "color_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "BTree".to_string(),
             query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
                 "blue".to_string(),
             )))),
             needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
         }));
         check(
             &index_info,
@@ -2326,57 +3409,44 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_not_flips_certainty() {
-        use lance_core::utils::mask::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap};
-
-        // Test that NOT flips certainty for inexact index results
-        // This tests the implementation in evaluate_impl for Self::Not
+        use lance_select::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap};
 
-        // Helper function that mimics the NOT logic we just fixed
-        fn apply_not(result: NullableIndexExprResult) -> NullableIndexExprResult {
-            match result {
-                NullableIndexExprResult::Exact(mask) => NullableIndexExprResult::Exact(!mask),
-                NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(mask) => NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(!mask),
-                NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(mask) => NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(!mask),
-            }
-        }
+        // Test that NOT flips certainty for inexact index results.
+        // Under the {lower, upper} form, `!{l, u} = {!u, !l}`, which
+        // preserves the AtMost ↔ AtLeast swap and leaves Exact as Exact.
 
         // AtMost: superset of matches (e.g., bloom filter says "might be in [1,2]")
-        let at_most = NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
+        let at_most = NullableIndexExprResult::at_most(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
             NullableRowAddrSet::new(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[1, 2]), RowAddrTreeMap::new()),
         ));
         // NOT(AtMost) should be AtLeast (definitely NOT in [1,2], might be elsewhere)
-        assert!(matches!(
-            apply_not(at_most),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(_)
-        ));
+        assert!((!at_most).is_at_least());
 
         // AtLeast: subset of matches (e.g., definitely in [1,2], might be more)
-        let at_least = NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
+        let at_least = NullableIndexExprResult::at_least(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
             NullableRowAddrSet::new(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[1, 2]), RowAddrTreeMap::new()),
         ));
         // NOT(AtLeast) should be AtMost (might NOT be in [1,2], definitely elsewhere)
-        assert!(matches!(
-            apply_not(at_least),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(_)
-        ));
+        assert!((!at_least).is_at_most());
 
         // Exact should stay Exact
-        let exact = NullableIndexExprResult::Exact(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
+        let exact = NullableIndexExprResult::exact(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
             NullableRowAddrSet::new(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[1, 2]), RowAddrTreeMap::new()),
         ));
-        assert!(matches!(
-            apply_not(exact),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::Exact(_)
-        ));
+        assert!((!exact).is_exact());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_and_or_preserve_certainty() {
-        use lance_core::utils::mask::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap};
+        use lance_select::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap};
 
-        // Test that AND/OR correctly propagate certainty
+        // Test that AND/OR correctly propagate certainty under the
+        // {lower, upper} algebra. Each binary op is elementwise on the
+        // endpoints, so degenerate shapes (Exact / AtMost / AtLeast)
+        // combine into a result that lands in one of those same shapes
+        // in every case exercised below.
         let make_at_most = || {
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
+            NullableIndexExprResult::at_most(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
                 NullableRowAddrSet::new(
                     RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[1, 2, 3]),
                     RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
@@ -2385,7 +3455,7 @@ mod tests {
         };
 
         let make_at_least = || {
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
+            NullableIndexExprResult::at_least(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
                 NullableRowAddrSet::new(
                     RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[2, 3, 4]),
                     RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
@@ -2394,58 +3464,2308 @@ mod tests {
         };
 
         let make_exact = || {
-            NullableIndexExprResult::Exact(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
+            NullableIndexExprResult::exact(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
                 RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[1, 2]),
                 RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
             )))
         };
 
         // AtMost & AtMost → AtMost
-        assert!(matches!(
-            make_at_most() & make_at_most(),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(_)
-        ));
+        assert!((make_at_most() & make_at_most()).is_at_most());
 
         // AtLeast & AtLeast → AtLeast
-        assert!(matches!(
-            make_at_least() & make_at_least(),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(_)
-        ));
+        assert!((make_at_least() & make_at_least()).is_at_least());
 
-        // AtMost & AtLeast → AtMost (superset remains superset)
-        assert!(matches!(
-            make_at_most() & make_at_least(),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(_)
-        ));
+        // AtMost & AtLeast → AtMost (the lower side stays empty)
+        assert!((make_at_most() & make_at_least()).is_at_most());
 
         // AtMost | AtMost → AtMost
-        assert!(matches!(
-            make_at_most() | make_at_most(),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(_)
-        ));
+        assert!((make_at_most() | make_at_most()).is_at_most());
 
         // AtLeast | AtLeast → AtLeast
-        assert!(matches!(
-            make_at_least() | make_at_least(),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(_)
-        ));
+        assert!((make_at_least() | make_at_least()).is_at_least());
 
-        // AtMost | AtLeast → AtLeast (subset coverage guaranteed)
-        assert!(matches!(
-            make_at_most() | make_at_least(),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(_)
-        ));
+        // AtMost | AtLeast → AtLeast (upper stays universe)
+        assert!((make_at_most() | make_at_least()).is_at_least());
 
         // Exact & AtMost → AtMost
-        assert!(matches!(
-            make_exact() & make_at_most(),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtMost(_)
-        ));
+        assert!((make_exact() & make_at_most()).is_at_most());
 
         // Exact | AtLeast → AtLeast
+        assert!((make_exact() | make_at_least()).is_at_least());
+    }
+
+    /// The whole point of the `{lower, upper}` representation is that it
+    /// can express a Refined result — a non-empty `lower` strictly inside
+    /// a non-universe `upper` — which the old enum couldn't. This test
+    /// constructs one through the algebra and verifies the endpoints.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_refined_result_constructed_through_algebra() {
+        use lance_select::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+        let allow_set = |rows: &[u64]| {
+            NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
+                RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(rows),
+                RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
+            ))
+        };
+
+        // AtLeast({1,2}) & Exact({1,2,3}) is Refined, because:
+        //   lower = {1,2} ∩ {1,2,3} = {1,2}        (non-empty)
+        //   upper = universe ∩ {1,2,3} = {1,2,3}   (not universe)
+        //   lower ≠ upper                          (not Exact)
+        let at_least_12 = NullableIndexExprResult::at_least(allow_set(&[1, 2]));
+        let exact_123 = NullableIndexExprResult::exact(allow_set(&[1, 2, 3]));
+        let refined = at_least_12 & exact_123;
+
+        // None of the shape predicates should fire — that's what makes
+        // this a Refined result.
+        assert!(
+            !refined.is_exact(),
+            "Refined must not be classified as Exact"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !refined.is_at_most(),
+            "Refined must not be classified as AtMost"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !refined.is_at_least(),
+            "Refined must not be classified as AtLeast"
+        );
+
+        // Check the actual endpoints.
+        assert_eq!(refined.lower, allow_set(&[1, 2]));
+        assert_eq!(refined.upper, allow_set(&[1, 2, 3]));
+
+        // NOT swaps the endpoints, preserving the Refined shape.
+        let negated = !refined;
+        assert!(!negated.is_exact());
+        assert!(!negated.is_at_most());
+        assert!(!negated.is_at_least());
+        // !{l, u} = {!u, !l}. AllowList → BlockList.
+        assert!(matches!(negated.lower, NullableRowAddrMask::BlockList(_)));
+        assert!(matches!(negated.upper, NullableRowAddrMask::BlockList(_)));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_like_to_regex() {
+        // `%` -> `.*`, `_` -> `.`, with a literal run of at least three chars.
+        assert_eq!(like_to_regex("%foo%", None).as_deref(), Some(".*foo.*"));
+        assert_eq!(like_to_regex("foo%bar", None).as_deref(), Some("foo.*bar"));
+        assert_eq!(like_to_regex("foo_bar", None).as_deref(), Some("foo.bar"));
+        assert_eq!(like_to_regex("foobar", None).as_deref(), Some("foobar"));
+
+        // Regex metacharacters in the literal portion are escaped.
+        assert_eq!(
+            like_to_regex("%a.bcd%", None).as_deref(),
+            Some(".*a\\.bcd.*")
+        );
+
+        // No literal run of three alphanumeric characters -> no index help.
+        assert_eq!(like_to_regex("%ab%", None), None);
+        assert_eq!(like_to_regex("%a%b%c%", None), None);
+        assert_eq!(like_to_regex("%", None), None);
+
+        // The escape character makes the following character a literal.
+        assert_eq!(
+            like_to_regex(r"%foo\%bar%", Some('\\')).as_deref(),
+            Some(".*foo%bar.*")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_regex_flags() {
+        fn flags(s: &str) -> Expr {
+            Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s.to_string())), None)
+        }
+
+        // Empty flags leave the pattern untouched (no inline group emitted).
+        assert_eq!(apply_regex_flags("foo", &flags("")).as_deref(), Some("foo"));
+        // Supported flags are folded into an inline `(?...)` prefix.
+        assert_eq!(
+            apply_regex_flags("foo", &flags("i")).as_deref(),
+            Some("(?i)foo")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            apply_regex_flags("foo", &flags("is")).as_deref(),
+            Some("(?is)foo")
+        );
+        // An unrecognized flag bails out so the caller leaves the predicate to a
+        // full recheck rather than risk changing its semantics.
+        assert_eq!(apply_regex_flags("foo", &flags("g")), None);
+        // A non-string (hence non-literal-flags) argument cannot be folded.
+        assert_eq!(
+            apply_regex_flags("foo", &Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)), None)),
+            None
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_like_leading_prefix() {
+        // Simple prefix patterns (no recheck needed)
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix("foo%", None),
+            Some(("foo".to_string(), false))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix("abc%", None),
+            Some(("abc".to_string(), false))
+        );
+
+        // Patterns with wildcards in the middle (need recheck)
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix("foo%bar%", None),
+            Some(("foo".to_string(), true))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix("foo_bar%", None),
+            Some(("foo".to_string(), true))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix("foo%bar", None),
+            Some(("foo".to_string(), true))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix("foo_", None),
+            Some(("foo".to_string(), true))
+        );
+
+        // Not prefix patterns (starts with wildcard)
+        assert_eq!(extract_like_leading_prefix("%foo", None), None);
+        assert_eq!(extract_like_leading_prefix("_foo%", None), None);
+        assert_eq!(extract_like_leading_prefix("%", None), None);
+
+        // No wildcard at all (should use equality)
+        assert_eq!(extract_like_leading_prefix("foo", None), None);
+
+        // With escape character
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix(r"foo\%bar%", Some('\\')),
+            Some(("foo%bar".to_string(), false))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix(r"foo\_bar%", Some('\\')),
+            Some(("foo_bar".to_string(), false))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix(r"foo\\bar%", Some('\\')),
+            Some(("foo\\bar".to_string(), false))
+        );
+
+        // Escaped trailing % is not a wildcard (no wildcards)
+        assert_eq!(extract_like_leading_prefix(r"foo\%", Some('\\')), None);
+
+        // With backslash as default escape (for DataFusion starts_with compatibility):
+        // "foo\%" means escaped %, no wildcard -> None (should use equality)
+        assert_eq!(extract_like_leading_prefix(r"foo\%", None), None);
+        // "foo\bar%" - \b is not a valid escape sequence, so \ and b are literals, % is wildcard
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix(r"foo\bar%", None),
+            Some(("foo\\bar".to_string(), false))
+        );
+
+        // Empty pattern
+        assert_eq!(extract_like_leading_prefix("", None), None);
+
+        // Mixed escaped and unescaped
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_like_leading_prefix(r"foo\%bar%baz%", Some('\\')),
+            Some(("foo%bar".to_string(), true))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_like_expression_parsing() {
+        // Test that LIKE expressions are parsed correctly with refine_expr for complex patterns
+
+        let index_info = MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![(
+            "color",
+            ColInfo::new(
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                    "color_idx".to_string(),
+                    "BTree".to_string(),
+                    false,
+                )),
+            ),
+        )]);
+
+        // Simple prefix pattern: LIKE 'foo%' -> LikePrefix("foo"), no refine_expr
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("color", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let df_schema: DFSchema = schema.try_into().unwrap();
+        let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
+        let state = ctx.state();
+
+        let expr = state
+            .create_logical_expr("color LIKE 'foo%'", &df_schema)
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = apply_scalar_indices(expr, &index_info).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(result.scalar_query.is_some(), "Should have scalar_query");
+        assert!(
+            result.refine_expr.is_none(),
+            "Simple prefix should not need refine_expr"
+        );
+
+        // Extract the query and verify it's LikePrefix
+        if let Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)) = &result.scalar_query {
+            let query = search.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>();
+            assert!(query.is_some(), "Query should be SargableQuery");
+            match query.unwrap() {
+                SargableQuery::LikePrefix(prefix) => {
+                    assert_eq!(prefix, &ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())));
+                }
+                _ => panic!("Expected LikePrefix query"),
+            }
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected Query variant");
+        }
+
+        // Complex pattern: LIKE 'foo%bar%' -> LikePrefix("foo"), with refine_expr
+        let expr = state
+            .create_logical_expr("color LIKE 'foo%bar%'", &df_schema)
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = apply_scalar_indices(expr, &index_info).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(result.scalar_query.is_some(), "Should have scalar_query");
+        assert!(
+            result.refine_expr.is_some(),
+            "Complex pattern should have refine_expr"
+        );
+
+        // Verify the query is still LikePrefix("foo")
+        if let Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)) = &result.scalar_query {
+            let query = search.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>();
+            assert!(query.is_some(), "Query should be SargableQuery");
+            match query.unwrap() {
+                SargableQuery::LikePrefix(prefix) => {
+                    assert_eq!(prefix, &ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())));
+                }
+                _ => panic!("Expected LikePrefix query"),
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Verify the refine_expr is the original LIKE expression
+        let refine = result.refine_expr.unwrap();
+        match refine {
+            Expr::Like(like) => {
+                assert!(!like.negated);
+                assert!(!like.case_insensitive);
+                if let Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(pattern)), _) = like.pattern.as_ref() {
+                    assert_eq!(pattern, "foo%bar%");
+                } else {
+                    panic!("Expected Utf8 literal pattern");
+                }
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Like expression in refine_expr"),
+        }
+
+        // Pattern starting with wildcard: LIKE '%foo' -> no index, only refine
+        let expr = state
+            .create_logical_expr("color LIKE '%foo'", &df_schema)
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = apply_scalar_indices(expr, &index_info).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            result.scalar_query.is_none(),
+            "Pattern starting with wildcard should not use index"
+        );
+        assert!(result.refine_expr.is_some(), "Should fall back to refine");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_starts_with_with_underscore_after_optimization() {
+        // Test that starts_with with underscore in prefix works correctly after DataFusion optimization
+        // DataFusion simplifies starts_with(col, 'test_ns$') to col LIKE 'test_ns$%'
+        // The underscore in the prefix should NOT be treated as a wildcard!
+        let index_info = MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![(
+            "object_id",
+            ColInfo::new(
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                    "object_id_idx".to_string(),
+                    "BTree".to_string(),
+                    false,
+                )),
+            ),
+        )]);
+
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("object_id", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let df_schema: DFSchema = schema.try_into().unwrap();
+        let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
+        let state = ctx.state();
+
+        // Create the expression with starts_with containing underscore
+        let expr = state
+            .create_logical_expr("starts_with(object_id, 'test_ns$')", &df_schema)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Apply DataFusion simplification (this may convert starts_with to LIKE)
+        let simplify_context = SimplifyContext::builder()
+            .with_schema(Arc::new(df_schema))
+            .with_query_execution_start_time(Some(Utc::now()))
+            .build();
+        let simplifier =
+            datafusion::optimizer::simplify_expressions::ExprSimplifier::new(simplify_context);
+        let simplified_expr = simplifier.simplify(expr).unwrap();
+
+        // Apply scalar indices
+        let result = apply_scalar_indices(simplified_expr, &index_info).unwrap();
+
+        // The prefix should be "test_ns$", NOT "test"
+        // This test documents the current (potentially broken) behavior
+        if let Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)) = &result.scalar_query {
+            let query = search
+                .query
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>()
+                .unwrap();
+            match query {
+                SargableQuery::LikePrefix(prefix) => {
+                    let prefix_str = match prefix {
+                        ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s)) => s.clone(),
+                        _ => panic!("Expected Utf8 prefix"),
+                    };
+                    // Verify the prefix is correctly extracted with underscore as literal
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        prefix_str, "test_ns$",
+                        "Prefix should be 'test_ns$', not 'test' (underscore should not be a wildcard)"
+                    );
+                }
+                _ => panic!("Expected LikePrefix query"),
+            }
+        } else {
+            // If no scalar query, it means the pattern was not recognized
+            panic!("Expected scalar_query to be present");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_starts_with_to_like_conversion() {
+        // Test that starts_with(col, 'prefix') is converted to LikePrefix query
+        let index_info = MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![(
+            "color",
+            ColInfo::new(
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                    "color_idx".to_string(),
+                    "BTree".to_string(),
+                    false,
+                )),
+            ),
+        )]);
+
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("color", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let df_schema: DFSchema = schema.try_into().unwrap();
+        let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
+        let state = ctx.state();
+
+        // starts_with(color, 'foo') should be converted to LikePrefix("foo")
+        let expr = state
+            .create_logical_expr("starts_with(color, 'foo')", &df_schema)
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = apply_scalar_indices(expr, &index_info).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            result.scalar_query.is_some(),
+            "starts_with should use index"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            result.refine_expr.is_none(),
+            "Pure prefix starts_with should not need refine_expr"
+        );
+
+        // Extract the query and verify it's LikePrefix
+        if let Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)) = &result.scalar_query {
+            let query = search.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>();
+            assert!(query.is_some(), "Query should be SargableQuery");
+            match query.unwrap() {
+                SargableQuery::LikePrefix(prefix) => {
+                    assert_eq!(prefix, &ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())));
+                }
+                _ => panic!("Expected LikePrefix query"),
+            }
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected Query variant");
+        }
+
+        // Both starts_with and LIKE 'prefix%' should produce the same LikePrefix query
+        let like_expr = state
+            .create_logical_expr("color LIKE 'foo%'", &df_schema)
+            .unwrap();
+        let like_result = apply_scalar_indices(like_expr, &index_info).unwrap();
+
+        // Compare the queries - both should be LikePrefix("foo")
+        if let (
+            Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(starts_with_search)),
+            Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(like_search)),
+        ) = (&result.scalar_query, &like_result.scalar_query)
+        {
+            let sw_query = starts_with_search
+                .query
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let like_query = like_search
+                .query
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                sw_query, like_query,
+                "starts_with and LIKE 'prefix%' should produce identical queries"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sargable_query_parser_utf8view() {
+        // Follow-up to PR #7310 / #7139: the BTree `SargableQueryParser` must accept
+        // `Utf8View` prefixes for `starts_with` and infix-free LIKE, not only `Utf8` /
+        // `LargeUtf8`. DataFusion can coerce the predicate literal to `ScalarValue::Utf8View`;
+        // dropping that variant silently skips the index. The `Utf8View` prefix is normalized
+        // to `Utf8` (Lance stores `Utf8View` columns as `Utf8`), so the emitted query is a
+        // `LikePrefix(Utf8(..))`. `visit_scalar_function` / `visit_like` are exercised directly
+        // so the test does not depend on the planner's coercion choices, and the `Utf8` case
+        // is a parity control: the pre-existing path must keep behaving identically.
+        let parser = SargableQueryParser::new("color_idx".to_string(), "BTree".to_string(), false);
+
+        let assert_like_prefix =
+            |indexed: &IndexedExpression, expected: &ScalarValue, needs_refine: bool| {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    indexed.refine_expr.is_some(),
+                    needs_refine,
+                    "unexpected refine_expr presence"
+                );
+                let Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)) = &indexed.scalar_query else {
+                    panic!("expected a scalar index query");
+                };
+                match search
+                    .query
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>()
+                    .expect("query should be a SargableQuery")
+                {
+                    SargableQuery::LikePrefix(prefix) => assert_eq!(prefix, expected),
+                    _ => panic!("expected a LikePrefix query"),
+                }
+            };
+
+        // starts_with(col, <Utf8View prefix>) -> LikePrefix(Utf8). Reuse a real
+        // `starts_with` UDF parsed from SQL, then swap in a `Utf8View` literal argument.
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("color", DataType::Utf8View, false)]);
+        let df_schema: DFSchema = schema.try_into().unwrap();
+        let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
+        let state = ctx.state();
+        let Expr::ScalarFunction(starts_with) = state
+            .create_logical_expr("starts_with(color, 'foo')", &df_schema)
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected starts_with to parse as a scalar function");
+        };
+        let args = vec![
+            starts_with.args[0].clone(),
+            Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("foo".to_string())), None),
+        ];
+        let indexed = parser
+            .visit_scalar_function(
+                "color",
+                &DataType::Utf8View,
+                starts_with.func.as_ref(),
+                &args,
+            )
+            .expect("starts_with should use the BTree index");
+        assert_like_prefix(&indexed, &ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())), false);
+
+        // col LIKE <Utf8View pattern>. `visit_like` is called directly so the test does not
+        // depend on DataFusion's LIKE type coercion choosing `Utf8View` for the pattern.
+        let like = |pattern: ScalarValue| {
+            Like::new(
+                false,
+                Box::new(Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified("color"))),
+                Box::new(Expr::Literal(pattern, None)),
+                None,
+                false,
+            )
+        };
+
+        // Pure prefix: routed to the index with no recheck needed.
+        let pattern = ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("foo%".to_string()));
+        let indexed = parser
+            .visit_like("color", &like(pattern.clone()), &pattern)
+            .expect("LIKE prefix should use the BTree index");
+        assert_like_prefix(&indexed, &ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())), false);
+
+        // Wildcards beyond the leading prefix keep the original LIKE as a recheck.
+        let pattern = ScalarValue::Utf8View(Some("foo%bar%".to_string()));
+        let indexed = parser
+            .visit_like("color", &like(pattern.clone()), &pattern)
+            .expect("LIKE prefix should use the BTree index");
+        assert_like_prefix(&indexed, &ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())), true);
+
+        // Parity control: the pre-existing `Utf8` path is unchanged.
+        let pattern = ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo%".to_string()));
+        let indexed = parser
+            .visit_like("color", &like(pattern.clone()), &pattern)
+            .expect("LIKE prefix should use the BTree index");
+        assert_like_prefix(&indexed, &ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())), false);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sargable_query_parser_without_like_prefix() {
+        // Bitmap indexes configure the parser with `without_like_prefix`: a bitmap index
+        // cannot answer `LikePrefix` queries (its `search` rejects them), so `starts_with` /
+        // `LIKE 'prefix%'` must not be turned into an index query. Returning `None` lets the
+        // predicate fall back to ordinary filtering instead of failing at search time.
+        let bitmap_parser =
+            SargableQueryParser::new("color_idx".to_string(), "BITMAP".to_string(), false)
+                .without_like_prefix();
+        let btree_parser =
+            SargableQueryParser::new("color_idx".to_string(), "BTree".to_string(), false);
+
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new("color", DataType::Utf8, false)]);
+        let df_schema: DFSchema = schema.try_into().unwrap();
+        let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
+        let state = ctx.state();
+        let Expr::ScalarFunction(starts_with) = state
+            .create_logical_expr("starts_with(color, 'foo')", &df_schema)
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected starts_with to parse as a scalar function");
+        };
+
+        let pattern = ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo%".to_string()));
+        let like = Like::new(
+            false,
+            Box::new(Expr::Column(Column::new_unqualified("color"))),
+            Box::new(Expr::Literal(pattern.clone(), None)),
+            None,
+            false,
+        );
+
+        // Bitmap parser: both prefix paths fall back (return `None`).
+        assert!(
+            bitmap_parser
+                .visit_scalar_function(
+                    "color",
+                    &DataType::Utf8,
+                    starts_with.func.as_ref(),
+                    &starts_with.args,
+                )
+                .is_none(),
+            "bitmap parser must not emit a LikePrefix for starts_with"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            bitmap_parser.visit_like("color", &like, &pattern).is_none(),
+            "bitmap parser must not emit a LikePrefix for LIKE"
+        );
+
+        // A prefix-capable parser (e.g. BTree) still emits the index query.
+        assert!(
+            btree_parser
+                .visit_scalar_function(
+                    "color",
+                    &DataType::Utf8,
+                    starts_with.func.as_ref(),
+                    &starts_with.args,
+                )
+                .is_some(),
+            "BTree parser should still emit a LikePrefix for starts_with"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            btree_parser.visit_like("color", &like, &pattern).is_some(),
+            "BTree parser should still emit a LikePrefix for LIKE"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_serialize_index_expr_result_round_trip() {
+        use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+        for format in [
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask,
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::ThreeVariant,
+        ] {
+            let mut addrs = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+            addrs.insert_range(0..5);
+            addrs.insert_range(100..103);
+
+            let mut fragments_covered = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            fragments_covered.insert(0);
+            fragments_covered.insert(7);
+
+            let cases = [
+                (
+                    "exact",
+                    IndexExprResult::exact(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(addrs.clone())),
+                ),
+                (
+                    "at_most",
+                    IndexExprResult::at_most(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(addrs.clone())),
+                ),
+                (
+                    "at_least",
+                    IndexExprResult::at_least(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(addrs)),
+                ),
+            ];
+
+            for (label, original) in cases {
+                let batch = original.serialize(&fragments_covered, format).unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    batch.schema(),
+                    *format.schema(),
+                    "format {format:?}, case {label}"
+                );
+                assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2, "format {format:?}, case {label}");
+
+                let (round_tripped, round_tripped_frags) =
+                    IndexExprResult::deserialize(&batch).unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    round_tripped.lower, original.lower,
+                    "format {format:?}, case {label}: lower"
+                );
+                assert_eq!(
+                    round_tripped.upper, original.upper,
+                    "format {format:?}, case {label}: upper"
+                );
+                assert_eq!(
+                    round_tripped_frags, fragments_covered,
+                    "format {format:?}, case {label}: frags"
+                );
+                assert_eq!(
+                    round_tripped.is_exact(),
+                    original.is_exact(),
+                    "format {format:?}, case {label}"
+                );
+                assert_eq!(
+                    round_tripped.is_at_most(),
+                    original.is_at_most(),
+                    "format {format:?}, case {label}"
+                );
+                assert_eq!(
+                    round_tripped.is_at_least(),
+                    original.is_at_least(),
+                    "format {format:?}, case {label}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Exact results encode `upper` as a fully-null column on the wire — the
+    /// payload only needs to ship once. `RowAddrMask::into_arrow` never
+    /// produces a fully-null array (it always sets exactly one of the two
+    /// rows), so the sentinel can't collide with a real mask. This pins
+    /// both halves: exact ⇒ upper fully null, non-exact ⇒ upper carries the
+    /// real mask.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_serialize_omits_upper_when_exact() {
+        use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(0u64..5));
+        let fragments_covered = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]);
+
+        use arrow::array::AsArray;
+
+        // Exact: upper column must be fully null on the wire.
+        let exact_batch = IndexExprResult::exact(mask.clone())
+            .serialize(&fragments_covered, IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask)
+            .unwrap();
+        let exact_upper = exact_batch.column(1).as_binary::<i32>();
+        assert!(exact_upper.is_null(0) && exact_upper.is_null(1));
+
+        // Non-exact (at_most): upper column must carry the upper mask, so at
+        // least one row is non-null (`AllowList(mask)` puts the payload at
+        // row 1).
+        let at_most_batch = IndexExprResult::at_most(mask.clone())
+            .serialize(&fragments_covered, IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask)
+            .unwrap();
+        let at_most_upper = at_most_batch.column(1).as_binary::<i32>();
+        assert!(!(at_most_upper.is_null(0) && at_most_upper.is_null(1)));
+
+        // Non-exact (at_least): upper = all_rows, which `into_arrow`
+        // encodes as `BlockList(empty)` — row 0 holds the empty-tree bytes,
+        // row 1 is null. Round-trip must preserve `is_at_least`.
+        let at_least_batch = IndexExprResult::at_least(mask)
+            .serialize(&fragments_covered, IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask)
+            .unwrap();
+        let at_least_upper = at_least_batch.column(1).as_binary::<i32>();
+        assert!(!at_least_upper.is_null(0));
+        let (round_tripped, _) = IndexExprResult::deserialize(&at_least_batch).unwrap();
+        assert!(round_tripped.is_at_least());
+        assert!(!round_tripped.is_exact());
+    }
+
+    /// A refined `IndexExprResult` (`lower` strictly inside a non-universe
+    /// `upper`) has no legacy three-shape encoding. The serializer
+    /// must not error in that case — it must degrade to `AtMost(upper)` so
+    /// older read planners still see a valid superset and recheck.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_three_variant_serialize_refined_degrades_to_at_most() {
+        use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+        let lower_addrs = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(0u64..3);
+        let upper_addrs = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(0u64..10);
+        let refined = IndexExprResult::new(
+            RowAddrMask::from_allowed(lower_addrs),
+            RowAddrMask::from_allowed(upper_addrs.clone()),
+        );
+        assert!(!refined.is_exact() && !refined.is_at_most() && !refined.is_at_least());
+
+        let fragments_covered = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]);
+
+        let batch = refined
+            .serialize(&fragments_covered, IndexExprResultWireFormat::ThreeVariant)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.schema(),
+            *IndexExprResultWireFormat::ThreeVariant.schema()
+        );
+
+        // Discriminant 1 == AtMost; the round-tripped result carries the
+        // original `upper` as the AtMost mask (empty lower, upper = upper).
+        let (round_tripped, round_tripped_frags) = IndexExprResult::deserialize(&batch).unwrap();
+        assert!(round_tripped.is_at_most());
+        assert_eq!(round_tripped.upper, RowAddrMask::from_allowed(upper_addrs));
+        assert_eq!(round_tripped_frags, fragments_covered);
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test: when two JSON indices target different paths on the same
+    /// column, a query against one path must be routed to its own index instead
+    /// of being intercepted by whichever parser was registered first.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multi_json_indices_route_by_path() {
+        // Build a MultiQueryParser containing two JSON sub-parsers: one for
+        // path "$.a" and one for path "$.b".
+        let mut multi = MultiQueryParser::single(Box::new(JsonQueryParser::new(
+            "$.a".to_string(),
+            Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                "json_a_idx".to_string(),
+                "Json".to_string(),
+                false,
+            )),
+        )));
+        multi.add(Box::new(JsonQueryParser::new(
+            "$.b".to_string(),
+            Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                "json_b_idx".to_string(),
+                "Json".to_string(),
+                false,
+            )),
+        )));
+
+        let index_info = MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![(
+            "json",
+            ColInfo::with_multi(DataType::LargeBinary, Box::new(multi)),
+        )]);
+
+        // Query against path "$.b" must hit the "$.b" index.
+        let expected_b = IndexedExpression::index_query(
+            "json".to_string(),
+            "json_b_idx".to_string(),
+            "Json".to_string(),
+            Arc::new(JsonQuery::new(
+                Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
+                    "foo".to_string(),
+                )))),
+                "$.b".to_string(),
+            )),
+        );
+        check(
+            &index_info,
+            "json_get_string(json, '$.b') = 'foo'",
+            Some(expected_b),
+            false,
+        );
+
+        // Query against path "$.a" must hit the "$.a" index.
+        let expected_a = IndexedExpression::index_query(
+            "json".to_string(),
+            "json_a_idx".to_string(),
+            "Json".to_string(),
+            Arc::new(JsonQuery::new(
+                Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
+                    "foo".to_string(),
+                )))),
+                "$.a".to_string(),
+            )),
+        );
+        check(
+            &index_info,
+            "json_get_string(json, '$.a') = 'foo'",
+            Some(expected_a),
+            false,
+        );
+
+        // Query against an unindexed path must not bind to either index.
+        check_no_index(&index_info, "json_get_string(json, '$.c') = 'foo'");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_nested_and_tree() {
+        use super::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch};
+        use crate::scalar::SargableQuery;
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+        use std::ops::Bound;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        // Simulate: AND(AND(fqdn@idx_fqdn, log_time >= X @idx_time), AND(log_time <= Y @idx_time, channel@idx_ch))
+        let fqdn_query = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "fqdn".to_string(),
+            index_name: "fqdn_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
+                "eng.bhd.0068".to_string(),
+            )))),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+        let time_gte = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "log_time".to_string(),
+            index_name: "log_time_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+        let time_lte = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "log_time".to_string(),
+            index_name: "log_time_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+        let channel_query = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "channel".to_string(),
+            index_name: "channel_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
+                "/ados/node/monitor".to_string(),
+            )))),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+
+        // Build nested AND: AND(AND(fqdn, time_gte), AND(time_lte, channel))
+        let nested = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+            Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(fqdn_query),
+                Box::new(time_gte),
+            )),
+            Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(time_lte),
+                Box::new(channel_query),
+            )),
+        );
+
+        // Optimize should merge time_gte + time_lte into a single Range
+        let optimized = nested.optimize();
+
+        // The optimized tree should contain a merged Range(Included(100), Included(200))
+        // and the other queries as separate leaves
+        // Let's verify by collecting leaves
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+
+        // Should have 3 leaves: fqdn, merged_time, channel
+        assert_eq!(
+            leaves.len(),
+            3,
+            "Expected 3 leaves after merge, got: {:?}",
+            leaves
+        );
+
+        // Find the merged time query
+        let time_query = leaves
+            .iter()
+            .find(|l| {
+                if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = l {
+                    s.index_name == "log_time_idx"
+                } else {
+                    false
+                }
+            })
+            .expect("Should have a log_time query");
+
+        if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = time_query {
+            let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                *range,
+                SargableQuery::Range(
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                ),
+                "Range should be merged into closed interval"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_no_merge_different_indexes() {
+        use super::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch};
+        use crate::scalar::SargableQuery;
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+        use std::ops::Bound;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        // Two range queries on DIFFERENT indexes should NOT be merged
+        let range_a = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "a".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_a".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+        let range_b = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "b".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_b".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+
+        let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(range_a), Box::new(range_b));
+        let optimized = expr.optimize();
+
+        // Should remain as two separate leaves (not merged)
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_no_merge_non_range() {
+        use super::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch};
+        use crate::scalar::SargableQuery;
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+        use std::ops::Bound;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        // Equals + Range on same index should NOT merge
+        let eq_query = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "x".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_x".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(42)))),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+        let range_query = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "x".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_x".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+
+        let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(eq_query), Box::new(range_query));
+        let optimized = expr.optimize();
+
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2, "Equals + Range should not merge");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_exclusive_bounds() {
+        use super::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch};
+        use crate::scalar::SargableQuery;
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+        use std::ops::Bound;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        // x > 10 AND x < 20 → Range(Excluded(10), Excluded(20))
+        let gt = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "x".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_x".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+        let lt = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "x".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_x".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+
+        let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(gt), Box::new(lt));
+        let optimized = expr.optimize();
+
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+
+        if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = &leaves[0] {
+            let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                *range,
+                SargableQuery::Range(
+                    Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                    Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+                )
+            );
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected a Query leaf");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_preserves_or_and_not() {
+        use super::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch};
+        use crate::scalar::SargableQuery;
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+        use std::ops::Bound;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        // AND(OR(a, b), Range_gte, Range_lte)
+        // OR node should be preserved, ranges should merge
+        let or_node = ScalarIndexExpr::Or(
+            Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+                column: "c".to_string(),
+                index_name: "idx_c".to_string(),
+                index_type: "".to_string(),
+                query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
+                    "a".to_string(),
+                )))),
+                needs_recheck: false,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+            })),
+            Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+                column: "c".to_string(),
+                index_name: "idx_c".to_string(),
+                index_type: "".to_string(),
+                query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(
+                    "b".to_string(),
+                )))),
+                needs_recheck: false,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+            })),
+        );
+        let range_gte = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "t".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_t".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5))),
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+        let range_lte = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "t".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_t".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(50))),
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+
+        let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+            Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(or_node), Box::new(range_gte))),
+            Box::new(range_lte),
+        );
+        let optimized = expr.optimize();
+
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+        // Should have 2 leaves: OR node (preserved) + merged range
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+
+        // One leaf should be the merged range
+        let merged = leaves
+            .iter()
+            .find(|l| matches!(l, ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) if s.index_name == "idx_t"))
+            .expect("Should have merged range");
+
+        if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = merged {
+            let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                *range,
+                SargableQuery::Range(
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5))),
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(50))),
+                )
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Other leaf should be the OR node
+        assert!(
+            leaves
+                .iter()
+                .any(|l| matches!(l, ScalarIndexExpr::Or(_, _)))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_respects_fragment_coverage_when_merging_ranges() {
+        let fragments = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 3, 5]);
+        let lower = test_scalar_range_with_metadata(
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))),
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+            true,
+            Some(fragments.clone()),
+        );
+        let upper = test_scalar_range_with_metadata(
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(99))),
+            false,
+            Some(fragments.clone()),
+        );
+
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(test_and_terms(vec![lower.clone(), upper]).optimize());
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            &leaves[0],
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                if search.needs_recheck
+                    && search.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() == Some(&fragments)
+                    && matches!(
+                        search.sargable_query(),
+                        Some(SargableQuery::Range(
+                            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))),
+                            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(99))),
+                        ))
+                    )
+        ));
+
+        let upper_without_coverage = test_scalar_range_with_metadata(
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(99))),
+            false,
+            None,
+        );
+        for (lhs, rhs) in [
+            (lower.clone(), upper_without_coverage.clone()),
+            (upper_without_coverage, lower),
+        ] {
+            let optimized = ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(lhs), Box::new(rhs)).optimize();
+            let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(optimized);
+            assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+            assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+                matches!(leaf, ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                    if search.needs_recheck
+                        && search.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() == Some(&fragments))
+            }));
+            assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+                matches!(leaf, ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                    if !search.needs_recheck && search.fragment_bitmap.is_none())
+            }));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_merges_recheck_ranges_into_empty_range() {
+        let lower = test_scalar_query_with_recheck(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+            ),
+        );
+        let upper = test_scalar_query_with_recheck(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+            ),
+        );
+
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(test_and_terms(vec![lower, upper]).optimize());
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            &leaves[0],
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                if search.needs_recheck
+                    && matches!(
+                        search.sargable_query(),
+                        Some(SargableQuery::Range(
+                            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                        ))
+                    )
+        ));
+    }
+
+    fn test_scalar_query(column: &str, index_name: &str, query: SargableQuery) -> ScalarIndexExpr {
+        ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: column.to_string(),
+            index_name: index_name.to_string(),
+            index_type: "BTree".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(query),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn test_scalar_query_with_recheck(
+        column: &str,
+        index_name: &str,
+        query: SargableQuery,
+    ) -> ScalarIndexExpr {
+        ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: column.to_string(),
+            index_name: index_name.to_string(),
+            index_type: "ZoneMap".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(query),
+            needs_recheck: true,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn test_scalar_range(
+        column: &str,
+        index_name: &str,
+        lower: Bound<ScalarValue>,
+        upper: Bound<ScalarValue>,
+    ) -> ScalarIndexExpr {
+        test_scalar_query(column, index_name, SargableQuery::Range(lower, upper))
+    }
+
+    fn test_scalar_range_with_metadata(
+        lower: Bound<ScalarValue>,
+        upper: Bound<ScalarValue>,
+        needs_recheck: bool,
+        fragment_bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+    ) -> ScalarIndexExpr {
+        ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "x".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_x".to_string(),
+            index_type: "ZoneMap".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(lower, upper)),
+            needs_recheck,
+            fragment_bitmap,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn test_and_terms(mut terms: Vec<ScalarIndexExpr>) -> ScalarIndexExpr {
+        assert!(!terms.is_empty());
+        while terms.len() > 1 {
+            let mut next = Vec::with_capacity(terms.len().div_ceil(2));
+            let mut iter = terms.into_iter();
+            while let Some(lhs) = iter.next() {
+                if let Some(rhs) = iter.next() {
+                    next.push(ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(lhs), Box::new(rhs)));
+                } else {
+                    next.push(lhs);
+                }
+            }
+            terms = next;
+        }
+        terms.pop().unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn collect_test_and_leaves(expr: ScalarIndexExpr) -> Vec<ScalarIndexExpr> {
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        expr.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+        leaves
+    }
+
+    fn test_and_depth(expr: &ScalarIndexExpr) -> usize {
+        match expr {
+            ScalarIndexExpr::And(lhs, rhs) => 1 + test_and_depth(lhs).max(test_and_depth(rhs)),
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Or(lhs, rhs) => test_and_depth(lhs).max(test_and_depth(rhs)),
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner) => test_and_depth(inner),
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(_) => 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn balanced_depth_bound(mut term_count: usize) -> usize {
+        let mut depth = 0;
+        while term_count > 1 {
+            term_count = term_count.div_ceil(2);
+            depth += 1;
+        }
+        depth
+    }
+
+    fn int64_index_info(index_type: &str, needs_recheck: bool) -> MockIndexInfoProvider {
+        let parser = |column: &str| {
+            ColInfo::new(
+                DataType::Int64,
+                Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(
+                    format!("{}_idx", column),
+                    index_type.to_string(),
+                    needs_recheck,
+                )),
+            )
+        };
+        MockIndexInfoProvider::new(vec![("x", parser("x")), ("y", parser("y"))])
+    }
+
+    fn parse_int64_filter(
+        expr: &str,
+        index_info: &dyn IndexInformationProvider,
+    ) -> IndexedExpression {
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("x", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("y", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]);
+        let df_schema: DFSchema = schema.try_into().unwrap();
+        let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
+        let state = ctx.state();
+        let expr = state.create_logical_expr(expr, &df_schema).unwrap();
+        apply_scalar_indices(expr, index_info).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn optimize_parsed_scalar_filter(
+        expr: &str,
+        index_info: &dyn IndexInformationProvider,
+    ) -> Vec<ScalarIndexExpr> {
+        let indexed = parse_int64_filter(expr, index_info);
+        collect_test_and_leaves(indexed.scalar_query.unwrap().optimize())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_does_not_remove_is_not_null_for_recheck_range() {
+        let is_not_null = ScalarIndexExpr::Not(Box::new(test_scalar_query(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            SargableQuery::IsNull(),
+        )));
+        let mut range = test_scalar_range(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+        );
+        let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search) = &mut range else {
+            panic!("expected a range query");
+        };
+        search.needs_recheck = true;
+
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(test_and_terms(vec![is_not_null, range]).optimize());
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+        assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+            matches!(
+                leaf,
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner)
+                    if matches!(inner.as_ref(), ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                        if matches!(search.sargable_query(), Some(SargableQuery::IsNull()))
+                            && !search.needs_recheck)
+            )
+        }));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_does_not_remove_is_not_null_across_or() {
+        let is_not_null = ScalarIndexExpr::Not(Box::new(test_scalar_query(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            SargableQuery::IsNull(),
+        )));
+        let range = test_scalar_range(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+        );
+        let other = test_scalar_query(
+            "y",
+            "idx_y",
+            SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))),
+        );
+        let disjunction = ScalarIndexExpr::Or(Box::new(range), Box::new(other));
+
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(
+            ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(is_not_null), Box::new(disjunction)).optimize(),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            leaves
+                .iter()
+                .any(|leaf| matches!(leaf, ScalarIndexExpr::Not(_)))
+        );
+        assert!(
+            leaves
+                .iter()
+                .any(|leaf| matches!(leaf, ScalarIndexExpr::Or(_, _)))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_does_not_remove_is_not_null_for_different_index() {
+        let is_not_null = ScalarIndexExpr::Not(Box::new(test_scalar_query(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            SargableQuery::IsNull(),
+        )));
+        let range = test_scalar_range(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x_other",
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+        );
+
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(
+            ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(is_not_null), Box::new(range)).optimize(),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            leaves
+                .iter()
+                .any(|leaf| matches!(leaf, ScalarIndexExpr::Not(_)))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_does_not_merge_different_index_types() {
+        let range = |index_type: &str, lower, upper| {
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+                column: "x".to_string(),
+                index_name: "idx_x".to_string(),
+                index_type: index_type.to_string(),
+                query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(lower, upper)),
+                needs_recheck: false,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+            })
+        };
+        let btree = range(
+            "BTree",
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+        );
+        let zone_map = range(
+            "ZoneMap",
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+        );
+
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(test_and_terms(vec![btree, zone_map]).optimize());
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_parser_exact_removes_is_not_null_and_merges_ranges() {
+        let index_info = int64_index_info("BTree", false);
+
+        let leaves = optimize_parsed_scalar_filter(
+            "x IS NOT NULL AND y = 1 AND x >= 10 AND x <= 20",
+            &index_info,
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+        assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+            matches!(
+                leaf,
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                    if search.column == "x"
+                        && matches!(
+                            search.sargable_query(),
+                            Some(SargableQuery::Range(
+                                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+                            ))
+                        )
+            )
+        }));
+        assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+            matches!(
+                leaf,
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                    if search.column == "y"
+                        && matches!(
+                            search.sargable_query(),
+                            Some(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))))
+                        )
+            )
+        }));
+        assert!(
+            !leaves
+                .iter()
+                .any(|leaf| matches!(leaf, ScalarIndexExpr::Not(_)))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_parser_merges_ranges_for_multiple_columns() {
+        let index_info = int64_index_info("BTree", false);
+
+        let leaves =
+            optimize_parsed_scalar_filter("x > 10 AND x < 20 AND y > 30 AND y < 40", &index_info);
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+        assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+            matches!(
+                leaf,
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                    if search.column == "x"
+                        && matches!(
+                            search.sargable_query(),
+                            Some(SargableQuery::Range(
+                                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+                            ))
+                        )
+            )
+        }));
+        assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+            matches!(
+                leaf,
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                    if search.column == "y"
+                        && matches!(
+                            search.sargable_query(),
+                            Some(SargableQuery::Range(
+                                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(30))),
+                                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(40))),
+                            ))
+                        )
+            )
+        }));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_parser_preserves_standalone_null_checks() {
+        let index_info = int64_index_info("BTree", false);
+
+        let is_not_null = optimize_parsed_scalar_filter("x IS NOT NULL", &index_info);
+        assert_eq!(is_not_null.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(&is_not_null[0], ScalarIndexExpr::Not(_)));
+
+        let is_null = optimize_parsed_scalar_filter("x IS NULL", &index_info);
+        assert_eq!(is_null.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            &is_null[0],
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                if matches!(search.sargable_query(), Some(SargableQuery::IsNull()))
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_parser_does_not_remove_is_not_null_for_different_column() {
+        let index_info = int64_index_info("BTree", false);
+
+        let leaves = optimize_parsed_scalar_filter("x IS NOT NULL AND y >= 10", &index_info);
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+        assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+            matches!(
+                leaf,
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner)
+                    if matches!(inner.as_ref(), ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                        if search.column == "x"
+                            && matches!(search.sargable_query(), Some(SargableQuery::IsNull())))
+            )
+        }));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_parser_handles_in_list_null_semantics() {
+        let index_info = int64_index_info("BTree", false);
+
+        let leaves = optimize_parsed_scalar_filter("x IS NOT NULL AND x IN (1, 2)", &index_info);
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            &leaves[0],
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                if matches!(search.sargable_query(), Some(SargableQuery::IsIn(values)) if values.len() == 2)
+        ));
+
+        let indexed = parse_int64_filter("x IS NOT NULL AND x IN (1, NULL)", &index_info);
+        assert!(indexed.refine_expr.is_some());
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(indexed.scalar_query.unwrap().optimize());
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(&leaves[0], ScalarIndexExpr::Not(_)));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_parser_removes_is_not_null_from_not_equal() {
+        let index_info = int64_index_info("BTree", false);
+
+        let leaves = optimize_parsed_scalar_filter("x IS NOT NULL AND x != 5", &index_info);
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            &leaves[0],
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner)
+                if matches!(inner.as_ref(), ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                    if matches!(search.sargable_query(), Some(SargableQuery::Equals(value))
+                        if *value == ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5))))
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_parser_removes_is_not_null_from_not_in_list() {
+        let index_info = int64_index_info("BTree", false);
+
+        // The signed-zero rewrite turns `x != 0.0` into this shape, and it is just
+        // as null-intolerant as `x != 5`.
+        let leaves =
+            optimize_parsed_scalar_filter("x IS NOT NULL AND x NOT IN (1, 2)", &index_info);
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            &leaves[0],
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner)
+                if matches!(inner.as_ref(), ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                    if matches!(search.sargable_query(), Some(SargableQuery::IsIn(values))
+                        if values.len() == 2))
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_parser_merges_recheck_ranges() {
+        let index_info = int64_index_info("ZoneMap", true);
+
+        let leaves = optimize_parsed_scalar_filter("x >= 10 AND y = 1 AND x <= 20", &index_info);
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+        assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+            matches!(
+                leaf,
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                    if search.column == "x"
+                        && search.needs_recheck
+                        && matches!(
+                            search.sargable_query(),
+                            Some(SargableQuery::Range(
+                                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+                            ))
+                        )
+            )
+        }));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_parser_keeps_recheck_is_not_null_as_refine() {
+        let index_info = int64_index_info("ZoneMap", true);
+
+        let indexed = parse_int64_filter("x IS NOT NULL AND x >= 10", &index_info);
+
+        assert!(indexed.scalar_query.is_some());
+        assert!(matches!(
+            indexed.refine_expr.as_ref(),
+            Some(Expr::IsNotNull(expr))
+                if matches!(expr.as_ref(), Expr::Column(column) if column.name == "x")
+        ));
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(indexed.scalar_query.unwrap().optimize());
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            &leaves[0],
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                if search.needs_recheck
+                    && matches!(search.sargable_query(), Some(SargableQuery::Range(_, _)))
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_preserves_balanced_depth_for_unmerged_terms() {
+        let term_count = 2048;
+        let terms = (0..term_count)
+            .map(|value| {
+                test_scalar_query(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(value))),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let optimized = test_and_terms(terms).optimize();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            collect_test_and_leaves(optimized.clone()).len(),
+            term_count as usize
+        );
+        assert!(
+            test_and_depth(&optimized) <= balanced_depth_bound(term_count as usize),
+            "optimized AND depth should stay balanced, got {} for {} terms",
+            test_and_depth(&optimized),
+            term_count
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_merges_ranges_inside_not() {
+        let lower = test_scalar_range(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+        );
+        let upper = test_scalar_range(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+        );
+        let sibling = test_scalar_query(
+            "y",
+            "idx_y",
+            SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))),
+        );
+
+        let nested_not = ScalarIndexExpr::Not(Box::new(test_and_terms(vec![lower, upper])));
+        let optimized = ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(nested_not), Box::new(sibling)).optimize();
+
+        let ScalarIndexExpr::And(nested_not, _) = optimized else {
+            panic!("expected outer AND expression");
+        };
+        let ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner) = *nested_not else {
+            panic!("expected NOT expression");
+        };
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(*inner);
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
         assert!(matches!(
-            make_exact() | make_at_least(),
-            NullableIndexExprResult::AtLeast(_)
+            &leaves[0],
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                if matches!(
+                    search.sargable_query(),
+                    Some(SargableQuery::Range(
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+                    ))
+                )
         ));
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_does_not_remove_is_not_null_inside_not() {
+        let is_not_null = ScalarIndexExpr::Not(Box::new(test_scalar_query(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            SargableQuery::IsNull(),
+        )));
+        let range = test_scalar_range(
+            "x",
+            "idx_x",
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+            Bound::Unbounded,
+        );
+        let guarded_range = test_and_terms(vec![is_not_null, range]);
+        let alternative = test_scalar_query(
+            "y",
+            "idx_y",
+            SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))),
+        );
+        let or = ScalarIndexExpr::Or(Box::new(guarded_range), Box::new(alternative));
+        let sibling = test_scalar_query(
+            "z",
+            "idx_z",
+            SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(2))),
+        );
+        let outer_sibling = test_scalar_query(
+            "w",
+            "idx_w",
+            SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(3))),
+        );
+
+        let nested_not = ScalarIndexExpr::Not(Box::new(test_and_terms(vec![or, sibling])));
+        let optimized =
+            ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(nested_not), Box::new(outer_sibling)).optimize();
+
+        let ScalarIndexExpr::And(nested_not, _) = optimized else {
+            panic!("expected outer AND expression");
+        };
+        let ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner) = *nested_not else {
+            panic!("expected NOT expression");
+        };
+        let ScalarIndexExpr::And(or, _) = *inner else {
+            panic!("expected AND expression");
+        };
+        let ScalarIndexExpr::Or(lhs, _) = *or else {
+            panic!("expected OR expression");
+        };
+        let leaves = collect_test_and_leaves(*lhs);
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 2);
+        assert!(leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+            matches!(
+                leaf,
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner)
+                    if matches!(inner.as_ref(), ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)
+                        if matches!(search.sargable_query(), Some(SargableQuery::IsNull())))
+            )
+        }));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_single_query_passthrough() {
+        use super::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch};
+        use crate::scalar::SargableQuery;
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+        use std::ops::Bound;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        // A single query (not in AND) should pass through unchanged
+        let single = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "x".to_string(),
+            index_name: "idx_x".to_string(),
+            index_type: "".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))),
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+
+        let optimized = single.clone().optimize();
+        assert_eq!(optimized, single);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optimize_complex_nested_cases() {
+        use super::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch};
+        use crate::scalar::SargableQuery;
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+        use std::ops::Bound;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        let make_range =
+            |col: &str, idx: &str, low: Bound<ScalarValue>, high: Bound<ScalarValue>| {
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+                    column: col.to_string(),
+                    index_name: idx.to_string(),
+                    index_type: "".to_string(),
+                    query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(low, high)),
+                    needs_recheck: false,
+                    fragment_bitmap: None,
+                })
+            };
+        let make_eq = |col: &str, idx: &str, val: ScalarValue| {
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+                column: col.to_string(),
+                index_name: idx.to_string(),
+                index_type: "".to_string(),
+                query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(val)),
+                needs_recheck: false,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+            })
+        };
+
+        // Case 1: Multiple ranges on same index should all merge
+        // x >= 10 AND x <= 200 AND x >= 50 AND x <= 100 → Range(50, 100)
+        {
+            let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "x",
+                        "idx_x",
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                    )),
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "x",
+                        "idx_x",
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                    )),
+                )),
+                Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "x",
+                        "idx_x",
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(50))),
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                    )),
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "x",
+                        "idx_x",
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                    )),
+                )),
+            );
+
+            let optimized = expr.optimize();
+            let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+            optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+            assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1, "All 4 ranges should merge into 1");
+
+            if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = &leaves[0] {
+                let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    *range,
+                    SargableQuery::Range(
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(50))),
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                    )
+                );
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected merged Query");
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Case 2: NOT(range) should NOT be merged with sibling range
+        // AND(NOT(x >= 10), x <= 20) → stays as 2 leaves
+        {
+            let not_node = ScalarIndexExpr::Not(Box::new(make_range(
+                "x",
+                "idx_x",
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+            )));
+            let range_lte = make_range(
+                "x",
+                "idx_x",
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+            );
+
+            let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(Box::new(not_node), Box::new(range_lte));
+            let optimized = expr.optimize();
+
+            let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+            optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+            assert_eq!(
+                leaves.len(),
+                2,
+                "NOT(range) should not merge with sibling range"
+            );
+            assert!(leaves.iter().any(|l| matches!(l, ScalarIndexExpr::Not(_))));
+        }
+
+        // Case 3: Ranges inside OR branches get optimized independently
+        // OR(AND(x >= 10, x <= 20), AND(x >= 30, x <= 40))
+        {
+            let branch1 = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                    Bound::Unbounded,
+                )),
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Unbounded,
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+                )),
+            );
+            let branch2 = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(30))),
+                    Bound::Unbounded,
+                )),
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Unbounded,
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(40))),
+                )),
+            );
+
+            let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::Or(Box::new(branch1), Box::new(branch2));
+            let optimized = expr.optimize();
+
+            // Top level should still be OR
+            if let ScalarIndexExpr::Or(lhs, rhs) = &optimized {
+                // Each branch should be a single merged range
+                let mut left_leaves = Vec::new();
+                lhs.clone().collect_and_leaves(&mut left_leaves, true);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    left_leaves.len(),
+                    1,
+                    "Left OR branch should have merged range"
+                );
+                if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = &left_leaves[0] {
+                    let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        *range,
+                        SargableQuery::Range(
+                            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))),
+                        )
+                    );
+                }
+
+                let mut right_leaves = Vec::new();
+                rhs.clone().collect_and_leaves(&mut right_leaves, true);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    right_leaves.len(),
+                    1,
+                    "Right OR branch should have merged range"
+                );
+                if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = &right_leaves[0] {
+                    let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        *range,
+                        SargableQuery::Range(
+                            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(30))),
+                            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(40))),
+                        )
+                    );
+                }
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected OR at top level");
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Case 4: Multiple indexes, each with its own range pair
+        // AND(a >= 1, a <= 10, b >= 100, b <= 200)
+        // → merged into: AND(a in [1,10], b in [100,200])
+        {
+            let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "a",
+                        "idx_a",
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))),
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                    )),
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "a",
+                        "idx_a",
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                    )),
+                )),
+                Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "b",
+                        "idx_b",
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                    )),
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "b",
+                        "idx_b",
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                    )),
+                )),
+            );
+
+            let optimized = expr.optimize();
+            let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+            optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+            assert_eq!(
+                leaves.len(),
+                2,
+                "Two indexes should each merge independently"
+            );
+
+            let a_leaf = leaves
+                .iter()
+                .find(|l| matches!(l, ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) if s.index_name == "idx_a"))
+                .expect("Should have idx_a");
+            if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = a_leaf {
+                let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    *range,
+                    SargableQuery::Range(
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))),
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                    )
+                );
+            }
+
+            let b_leaf = leaves
+                .iter()
+                .find(|l| matches!(l, ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) if s.index_name == "idx_b"))
+                .expect("Should have idx_b");
+            if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = b_leaf {
+                let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    *range,
+                    SargableQuery::Range(
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                    )
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Case 5: Mix of Equals and Range on different indexes
+        // AND(fqdn = 'x', time >= 100, time <= 200, channel = 'y')
+        // → AND(fqdn = 'x', time in [100,200], channel = 'y')
+        {
+            let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                    Box::new(make_eq(
+                        "fqdn",
+                        "fqdn_idx",
+                        ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("x".to_string())),
+                    )),
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "time",
+                        "time_idx",
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                    )),
+                )),
+                Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                    Box::new(make_range(
+                        "time",
+                        "time_idx",
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                    )),
+                    Box::new(make_eq(
+                        "channel",
+                        "ch_idx",
+                        ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("y".to_string())),
+                    )),
+                )),
+            );
+
+            let optimized = expr.optimize();
+            let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+            optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+            assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 3, "fqdn + merged_time + channel = 3 leaves");
+
+            let time_leaf = leaves
+                .iter()
+                .find(|l| matches!(l, ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) if s.index_name == "time_idx"))
+                .expect("Should have time query");
+            if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = time_leaf {
+                let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    *range,
+                    SargableQuery::Range(
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                    )
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Case 6: Overlapping closed ranges → takes intersection
+        // Range(10, 50) AND Range(30, 80) → Range(30, 50)
+        {
+            let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10))),
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(50))),
+                )),
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(30))),
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(80))),
+                )),
+            );
+
+            let optimized = expr.optimize();
+            let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+            optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+            assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+            if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = &leaves[0] {
+                let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    *range,
+                    SargableQuery::Range(
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(30))),
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(50))),
+                    )
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Case 7: Mixed Included/Excluded on same value
+        // x >= 5 AND x > 5 → Excluded(5) (stricter)
+        {
+            let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5))),
+                    Bound::Unbounded,
+                )),
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5))),
+                    Bound::Unbounded,
+                )),
+            );
+
+            let optimized = expr.optimize();
+            let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+            optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+            assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+            if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = &leaves[0] {
+                let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    *range,
+                    SargableQuery::Range(
+                        Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5))),
+                        Bound::Unbounded,
+                    )
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Case 8: Empty range (lower > upper) — still valid, just produces empty results
+        // x >= 200 AND x <= 100 → Range(Included(200), Included(100))
+        // BTree search will find 0 pages matching this, which is correct.
+        {
+            let expr = ScalarIndexExpr::And(
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                    Bound::Unbounded,
+                )),
+                Box::new(make_range(
+                    "x",
+                    "idx_x",
+                    Bound::Unbounded,
+                    Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                )),
+            );
+
+            let optimized = expr.optimize();
+            let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+            optimized.collect_and_leaves(&mut leaves, true);
+            assert_eq!(leaves.len(), 1);
+            if let ScalarIndexExpr::Query(s) = &leaves[0] {
+                let range = s.query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
+                // Merged: lower=Included(200), upper=Included(100) — empty range, but valid
+                assert_eq!(
+                    *range,
+                    SargableQuery::Range(
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(200))),
+                        Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(100))),
+                    )
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/fmindex.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/fmindex.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..12084f7ccd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/fmindex.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,3390 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! FM-Index for exact substring search (following the Infini-gram Mini paper)
+//!
+//! The FM-Index is a compressed full-text index based on the Burrows-Wheeler Transform (BWT).
+//! It supports exact substring matching via backward search and returns exact row ids.
+//!
+//! Architecture (matching the paper):
+//!   - Huffman-shaped Wavelet Tree over BWT for entropy-compressed rank queries (~0.26N)
+//!   - Sampled Suffix Array every D-th position for locate (~N/D × 8 bytes)
+//!   - doc_start_positions for mapping text positions to documents (tiny)
+//!   - No doc_array — documents are resolved via SA sampling + LF-mapping + binary search
+//!
+//! Total index size: ~0.44N (matching paper's claim)
+//!
+//! Storage layout (v10 - blocked, partitioned):
+//!   - BWT wavelet tree bitvectors in blocks of BLOCK_WORDS (32KB each)
+//!   - SA samples stored as packed binary blocks after wavelet blocks
+//!   - Row IDs and doc_start_positions in metadata
+//!   - File metadata: c_table, huffman_codes, tree topology
+
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use std::cmp::Reverse;
+use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap};
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock, OnceLock};
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ADDR, Result};
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+use crate::pb;
+use crate::scalar::expression::{ScalarQueryParser, TextQueryParser};
+use crate::scalar::registry::{
+    BasicTrainer, DefaultTrainingRequest, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering,
+    TrainingRequest, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+};
+use crate::scalar::{
+    AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, IndexFile, IndexStore, OldIndexDataFilter,
+    RowIdRemapper, ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult, TextQuery, UpdateCriteria,
+};
+use crate::{Index, IndexType};
+
+/// Schema of one FM-index block batch.
+static BLOCK_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("node_id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        Field::new("block_id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        Field::new("words", DataType::LargeBinary, false),
+        Field::new("prefix_rank", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new("bit_len", DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]))
+});
+
+const FMINDEX_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 10;
+const BLOCK_WORDS: usize = 4096;
+const PARTITION_SIZE: usize = 10_000;
+const DEFAULT_PARTITION_SIZE_BYTES: usize = 16 * 1024 * 1024;
+const DEFAULT_DEMAND_PAGE_TARGET_BYTES: usize = 512 * 1024;
+const DEFAULT_PREWARM_CHUNK_TARGET_BYTES: usize = 8 * 1024 * 1024;
+const FMINDEX_PARTITION_FINGERPRINT_KEY: &str = "partition_fingerprint";
+const SENTINEL_BYTE: u8 = 0xFF;
+
+/// SA sampling rate. Store every D-th SA entry. Locate walks at most D LF steps.
+const SA_SAMPLE_RATE: usize = 32;
+
+static LANCE_FMINDEX_NUM_WORKERS: std::sync::LazyLock<usize> = std::sync::LazyLock::new(|| {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_FMINDEX_NUM_WORKERS")
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().to_string())
+        .parse()
+        .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FMINDEX_NUM_WORKERS")
+});
+static LANCE_FMINDEX_PARTITION_ROWS: std::sync::LazyLock<usize> = std::sync::LazyLock::new(|| {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_FMINDEX_PARTITION_ROWS")
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| PARTITION_SIZE.to_string())
+        .parse()
+        .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FMINDEX_PARTITION_ROWS")
+});
+static LANCE_FMINDEX_PARTITION_BYTES: std::sync::LazyLock<usize> = std::sync::LazyLock::new(|| {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_FMINDEX_PARTITION_BYTES")
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| DEFAULT_PARTITION_SIZE_BYTES.to_string())
+        .parse()
+        .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FMINDEX_PARTITION_BYTES")
+});
+static LANCE_FMINDEX_WRITE_QUEUE_SIZE: std::sync::LazyLock<usize> =
+    std::sync::LazyLock::new(|| {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_FMINDEX_WRITE_QUEUE_SIZE")
+            .unwrap_or_else(|_| "1".to_string())
+            .parse()
+            .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FMINDEX_WRITE_QUEUE_SIZE")
+    });
+static LANCE_FMINDEX_RESUME_EXISTING_PARTITIONS: std::sync::LazyLock<bool> =
+    std::sync::LazyLock::new(|| {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_FMINDEX_RESUME_EXISTING_PARTITIONS")
+            .map(|value| str_is_truthy(&value))
+            .unwrap_or(false)
+    });
+static LANCE_FMINDEX_PREWARM_CHUNK_BYTES: std::sync::LazyLock<usize> =
+    std::sync::LazyLock::new(|| {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_FMINDEX_PREWARM_CHUNK_BYTES")
+            .unwrap_or_else(|_| DEFAULT_PREWARM_CHUNK_TARGET_BYTES.to_string())
+            .parse()
+            .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FMINDEX_PREWARM_CHUNK_BYTES")
+    });
+static LANCE_FMINDEX_DEMAND_PAGE_BYTES: std::sync::LazyLock<usize> =
+    std::sync::LazyLock::new(|| {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_FMINDEX_DEMAND_PAGE_BYTES")
+            .unwrap_or_else(|_| DEFAULT_DEMAND_PAGE_TARGET_BYTES.to_string())
+            .parse()
+            .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FMINDEX_DEMAND_PAGE_BYTES")
+    });
+static LANCE_FMINDEX_PREWARM_CHUNK_CONCURRENCY: std::sync::LazyLock<usize> =
+    std::sync::LazyLock::new(|| {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_FMINDEX_PREWARM_CHUNK_CONCURRENCY")
+            .unwrap_or_else(|_| "1".to_string())
+            .parse()
+            .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FMINDEX_PREWARM_CHUNK_CONCURRENCY")
+    });
+
+fn fmindex_partition_path(partition_id: u64) -> String {
+    format!("part_{partition_id}_fm.lance")
+}
+
+fn fmindex_partition_id_from_path(path: &str) -> Option<u64> {
+    path.strip_prefix("part_")
+        .and_then(|r| r.strip_suffix("_fm.lance"))
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse::<u64>().ok())
+}
+
+fn fmindex_num_workers() -> usize {
+    (*LANCE_FMINDEX_NUM_WORKERS).max(1)
+}
+
+fn fmindex_partition_rows() -> usize {
+    (*LANCE_FMINDEX_PARTITION_ROWS).max(1)
+}
+
+fn fmindex_partition_bytes() -> usize {
+    (*LANCE_FMINDEX_PARTITION_BYTES).max(1)
+}
+
+fn fmindex_write_queue_size() -> usize {
+    (*LANCE_FMINDEX_WRITE_QUEUE_SIZE).max(1)
+}
+
+fn fmindex_resume_existing_partitions() -> bool {
+    *LANCE_FMINDEX_RESUME_EXISTING_PARTITIONS
+}
+
+fn fmindex_prewarm_chunk_bytes() -> usize {
+    (*LANCE_FMINDEX_PREWARM_CHUNK_BYTES).max(BLOCK_WORDS * 8)
+}
+
+fn fmindex_demand_page_bytes() -> usize {
+    (*LANCE_FMINDEX_DEMAND_PAGE_BYTES).max(BLOCK_WORDS * 8)
+}
+
+fn fmindex_demand_page_rows() -> usize {
+    (fmindex_demand_page_bytes() / (BLOCK_WORDS * 8)).max(1)
+}
+
+fn fmindex_prewarm_chunk_concurrency() -> usize {
+    (*LANCE_FMINDEX_PREWARM_CHUNK_CONCURRENCY).max(1)
+}
+
+// ── Bitvector with O(1) rank ─────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+const SUPERBLOCK_BITS: usize = 512;
+const WORDS_PER_SUPERBLOCK: usize = SUPERBLOCK_BITS / 64;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct RankBitVec {
+    words: Vec<u64>,
+    superblocks: Vec<u32>,
+    len: usize,
+}
+
+impl RankBitVec {
+    fn new(len: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            words: vec![0u64; len.div_ceil(64)],
+            superblocks: Vec::new(),
+            len,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn set(&mut self, pos: usize) {
+        self.words[pos / 64] |= 1u64 << (pos % 64);
+    }
+
+    fn build_rank_index(&mut self) {
+        let num_sb = self.words.len().div_ceil(WORDS_PER_SUPERBLOCK) + 1;
+        self.superblocks = Vec::with_capacity(num_sb);
+        let mut cum = 0u32;
+        for (i, chunk) in self.words.chunks(WORDS_PER_SUPERBLOCK).enumerate() {
+            self.superblocks.push(if i == 0 { 0 } else { cum });
+            for &w in chunk {
+                cum += w.count_ones();
+            }
+        }
+        self.superblocks.push(cum);
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.words.len() * 8 + self.superblocks.len() * 4
+    }
+}
+
+// ── Huffman-shaped Wavelet Tree ──────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+struct HuffmanCode {
+    bits: u32,
+    length: u8,
+    node_path: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum WaveletChild {
+    Node(usize),
+    Leaf(u8),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct HuffmanWaveletTree {
+    nodes: Vec<RankBitVec>,
+    codes: [HuffmanCode; 256],
+    children: Vec<(WaveletChild, WaveletChild)>,
+    len: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum HuffNode {
+    Leaf(u8),
+    Internal { left: Box<Self>, right: Box<Self> },
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for HuffNode {
+    fn eq(&self, _: &Self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+impl Eq for HuffNode {}
+impl PartialOrd for HuffNode {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, o: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(o))
+    }
+}
+impl Ord for HuffNode {
+    fn cmp(&self, _: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        std::cmp::Ordering::Equal
+    }
+}
+
+impl HuffmanWaveletTree {
+    fn build(data: &[u8]) -> Self {
+        let n = data.len();
+        if n == 0 {
+            return Self {
+                nodes: Vec::new(),
+                codes: std::array::from_fn(|_| HuffmanCode::default()),
+                children: Vec::new(),
+                len: 0,
+            };
+        }
+
+        let mut freq = [0u64; 256];
+        for &b in data {
+            freq[b as usize] += 1;
+        }
+
+        let mut heap: BinaryHeap<(Reverse<u64>, Reverse<usize>, Box<HuffNode>)> = BinaryHeap::new();
+        let mut tie = 0;
+        for (v, &f) in freq.iter().enumerate() {
+            if f > 0 {
+                heap.push((Reverse(f), Reverse(tie), Box::new(HuffNode::Leaf(v as u8))));
+                tie += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        if heap.len() == 1 {
+            let (f, _, node) = heap.pop().unwrap();
+            heap.push((Reverse(0), Reverse(tie), Box::new(HuffNode::Leaf(255))));
+            tie += 1;
+            heap.push((f, Reverse(tie), node));
+            tie += 1;
+        }
+        while heap.len() > 1 {
+            let (Reverse(f1), _, l) = heap.pop().unwrap();
+            let (Reverse(f2), _, r) = heap.pop().unwrap();
+            heap.push((
+                Reverse(f1 + f2),
+                Reverse(tie),
+                Box::new(HuffNode::Internal { left: l, right: r }),
+            ));
+            tie += 1;
+        }
+        let root = heap.pop().unwrap().2;
+
+        let mut codes: [HuffmanCode; 256] = std::array::from_fn(|_| HuffmanCode::default());
+        let mut node_count = 0;
+        let mut children_map: Vec<(WaveletChild, WaveletChild)> = Vec::new();
+
+        fn assign(
+            node: &HuffNode,
+            bits: u32,
+            len: u8,
+            path: &mut Vec<usize>,
+            nid: &mut usize,
+            codes: &mut [HuffmanCode; 256],
+            cm: &mut Vec<(WaveletChild, WaveletChild)>,
+        ) -> WaveletChild {
+            match node {
+                HuffNode::Leaf(b) => {
+                    codes[*b as usize] = HuffmanCode {
+                        bits,
+                        length: len,
+                        node_path: path.clone(),
+                    };
+                    WaveletChild::Leaf(*b)
+                }
+                HuffNode::Internal { left, right } => {
+                    let my = *nid;
+                    *nid += 1;
+                    path.push(my);
+                    cm.push((WaveletChild::Leaf(0), WaveletChild::Leaf(0)));
+                    let lc = assign(left, bits << 1, len + 1, path, nid, codes, cm);
+                    let rc = assign(right, (bits << 1) | 1, len + 1, path, nid, codes, cm);
+                    cm[my] = (lc, rc);
+                    path.pop();
+                    WaveletChild::Node(my)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        assign(
+            &root,
+            0,
+            0,
+            &mut Vec::new(),
+            &mut node_count,
+            &mut codes,
+            &mut children_map,
+        );
+
+        let mut node_sizes = vec![0usize; node_count];
+        for &b in data {
+            for &nid in &codes[b as usize].node_path {
+                node_sizes[nid] += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        let mut nodes: Vec<RankBitVec> = node_sizes.iter().map(|&sz| RankBitVec::new(sz)).collect();
+        let mut cursors = vec![0usize; node_count];
+        for &b in data {
+            let code = &codes[b as usize];
+            for (level, &nid) in code.node_path.iter().enumerate() {
+                if (code.bits >> (code.length - 1 - level as u8)) & 1 == 1 {
+                    nodes[nid].set(cursors[nid]);
+                }
+                cursors[nid] += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        for n in &mut nodes {
+            n.build_rank_index();
+        }
+        Self {
+            nodes,
+            codes,
+            children: children_map,
+            len: n,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.nodes.iter().map(|n| n.deep_size()).sum::<usize>()
+            + self
+                .codes
+                .iter()
+                .map(|c| c.node_path.len() * 8)
+                .sum::<usize>()
+            + self.children.len() * 24
+    }
+}
+
+// ── Suffix Array ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+fn build_suffix_array(text: &[u8]) -> Vec<usize> {
+    let n = text.len();
+    if n == 0 {
+        return Vec::new();
+    }
+    if n > i32::MAX as usize {
+        let mut sa = vec![0i64; n];
+        assert_eq!(libsais_rs::libsais64(text, &mut sa, 0, None), 0);
+        sa.iter().map(|&x| x as usize).collect()
+    } else {
+        let mut sa = vec![0i32; n];
+        assert_eq!(libsais_rs::libsais(text, &mut sa, 0, None), 0);
+        sa.iter().map(|&x| x as usize).collect()
+    }
+}
+
+// ── Lazy Block Loading ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+const BLOCK_BITS: usize = BLOCK_WORDS * 64;
+
+struct LazyRankBitVec {
+    prefix_ranks: Vec<u64>,
+    blocks: Vec<OnceLock<Vec<u64>>>,
+    reader: Arc<dyn crate::scalar::IndexReader>,
+    block_row_offset: usize,
+    len: usize,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for LazyRankBitVec {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("LazyRankBitVec")
+            .field("len", &self.len)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl LazyRankBitVec {
+    fn new(
+        prefix_ranks: Vec<u64>,
+        num_blocks: usize,
+        reader: Arc<dyn crate::scalar::IndexReader>,
+        offset: usize,
+        len: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            prefix_ranks,
+            blocks: (0..num_blocks).map(|_| OnceLock::new()).collect(),
+            reader,
+            block_row_offset: offset,
+            len,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn load_block_if_needed(&self, idx: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        if idx >= self.blocks.len() {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "FM-Index block {idx} is out of range for {} blocks",
+                self.blocks.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.blocks[idx].get().is_none() {
+            self.load_page_containing(idx).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn load_page_containing(&self, idx: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        let page_rows = fmindex_demand_page_rows();
+        let start = (idx / page_rows) * page_rows;
+        let end = (start + page_rows).min(self.blocks.len());
+        if self.blocks[start..end]
+            .iter()
+            .all(|block| block.get().is_some())
+        {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let batch = self
+            .reader
+            .read_range(
+                self.block_row_offset + start..self.block_row_offset + end,
+                Some(&["words"]),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        if batch.num_rows() != end - start {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "expected {} FM-Index block rows, got {}",
+                end - start,
+                batch.num_rows()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let col = Self::words_column(&batch)?;
+        for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            let block_idx = start + row;
+            if self.blocks[block_idx].get().is_none() {
+                let words = Self::decode_words(col.value(row));
+                let _ = self.blocks[block_idx].set(words);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn load_block_for_rank(&self, pos: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        if pos > self.len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FM-Index rank position {pos} exceeds bitvector length {}",
+                self.len
+            )));
+        }
+        if pos == 0 {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        if pos == self.len && pos.is_multiple_of(BLOCK_BITS) {
+            if let Some(last_idx) = self.blocks.len().checked_sub(1) {
+                return self.load_block_if_needed(last_idx).await;
+            }
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        if pos.is_multiple_of(BLOCK_BITS) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        self.load_block_if_needed(pos / BLOCK_BITS).await
+    }
+
+    async fn load_block_for_access(&self, pos: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        self.load_block_if_needed(pos / BLOCK_BITS).await
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn ensure_block(&self, idx: usize) -> &[u64] {
+        self.blocks[idx].get_or_init(|| {
+            tokio::task::block_in_place(|| {
+                tokio::runtime::Handle::current().block_on(self.load_block(idx))
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("FM-Index block load failed: {e}"))
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn load_block(&self, idx: usize) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        let row = self.block_row_offset + idx;
+        let batch = self
+            .reader
+            .read_range(row..row + 1, Some(&["words"]))
+            .await?;
+        let col = Self::words_column(&batch)?;
+        Ok(Self::decode_words(col.value(0)))
+    }
+
+    fn words_column(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<&arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray> {
+        batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("expected LargeBinary words column"))
+    }
+
+    fn decode_words(raw: &[u8]) -> Vec<u64> {
+        raw.as_chunks::<8>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .map(|c| u64::from_le_bytes(*c))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn terminal_rank1(&self) -> usize {
+        if self.len == 0 {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        let Some(last_idx) = self.blocks.len().checked_sub(1) else {
+            return 0;
+        };
+        let mut count = self.prefix_ranks.get(last_idx).copied().unwrap_or(0) as usize;
+        let block = self.ensure_block(last_idx);
+        let local = self.len - last_idx * BLOCK_BITS;
+        let full_words = local / 64;
+        let trailing_bits = local % 64;
+        for w in &block[..full_words] {
+            count += w.count_ones() as usize;
+        }
+        if trailing_bits > 0 {
+            count += (block[full_words] & ((1u64 << trailing_bits) - 1)).count_ones() as usize;
+        }
+        count
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn rank1(&self, pos: usize) -> usize {
+        debug_assert!(pos <= self.len);
+        if pos == 0 {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        let bi = pos / BLOCK_BITS;
+        let local = pos % BLOCK_BITS;
+        if local == 0 {
+            if let Some(prefix_rank) = self.prefix_ranks.get(bi) {
+                return *prefix_rank as usize;
+            }
+            if pos == self.len {
+                return self.terminal_rank1();
+            }
+        }
+        let mut count = self.prefix_ranks[bi] as usize;
+        let block = self.ensure_block(bi);
+        let wi = local / 64;
+        let bit = local % 64;
+        for w in &block[..wi] {
+            count += w.count_ones() as usize;
+        }
+        if bit > 0 {
+            count += (block[wi] & ((1u64 << bit) - 1)).count_ones() as usize;
+        }
+        count
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn rank0(&self, pos: usize) -> usize {
+        pos - self.rank1(pos)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn get(&self, pos: usize) -> bool {
+        debug_assert!(pos < self.len);
+        let bi = pos / BLOCK_BITS;
+        let local = pos % BLOCK_BITS;
+        let block = self.ensure_block(bi);
+        (block[local / 64] >> (local % 64)) & 1 != 0
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        let loaded: usize = self
+            .blocks
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|b| b.get())
+            .map(|w| w.len() * 8)
+            .sum();
+        self.prefix_ranks.len() * 8 + loaded
+    }
+}
+
+struct LazyHuffmanWaveletTree {
+    nodes: Vec<LazyRankBitVec>,
+    codes: [HuffmanCode; 256],
+    children: Vec<(WaveletChild, WaveletChild)>,
+    len: usize,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for LazyHuffmanWaveletTree {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("LazyHuffmanWaveletTree")
+            .field("len", &self.len)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl LazyHuffmanWaveletTree {
+    /// Pre-load all wavelet tree blocks into memory.
+    async fn load_all(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.nodes.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+        struct RowRange {
+            start: usize,
+            end: usize,
+            node_idx: usize,
+        }
+
+        let mut ranges = self
+            .nodes
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(_, node)| !node.blocks.is_empty())
+            .map(|(node_idx, node)| RowRange {
+                start: node.block_row_offset,
+                end: node.block_row_offset + node.blocks.len(),
+                node_idx,
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        ranges.sort_by_key(|range| range.start);
+        let Some(total_rows) = ranges.iter().map(|range| range.end).max() else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let ranges = Arc::new(ranges);
+
+        let chunk_loaded = |start: usize, end: usize| {
+            ranges.iter().all(|range| {
+                let overlap_start = start.max(range.start);
+                let overlap_end = end.min(range.end);
+                if overlap_start >= overlap_end {
+                    return true;
+                }
+                let node = &self.nodes[range.node_idx];
+                node.blocks[overlap_start - range.start..overlap_end - range.start]
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|block| block.get().is_some())
+            })
+        };
+
+        let chunk_rows = (fmindex_prewarm_chunk_bytes() / (BLOCK_WORDS * 8)).max(1);
+        let reader = Arc::clone(&self.nodes[0].reader);
+        let chunks = (0..total_rows)
+            .step_by(chunk_rows)
+            .map(|start| {
+                let end = (start + chunk_rows).min(total_rows);
+                (start, end)
+            })
+            .filter(|(start, end)| !chunk_loaded(*start, *end))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        futures::stream::iter(chunks)
+            .map(|(start, end)| {
+                let reader = Arc::clone(&reader);
+                async move {
+                    let batch = reader.read_range(start..end, Some(&["words"])).await?;
+                    Result::<_>::Ok((start, end, batch))
+                }
+            })
+            .buffer_unordered(fmindex_prewarm_chunk_concurrency())
+            .try_for_each(|(start, end, batch)| {
+                let ranges = Arc::clone(&ranges);
+                let nodes = &self.nodes;
+                async move {
+                    if batch.num_rows() != end - start {
+                        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                            "expected {} FM-Index block rows, got {}",
+                            end - start,
+                            batch.num_rows()
+                        )));
+                    }
+
+                    let col = LazyRankBitVec::words_column(&batch)?;
+                    let mut range_idx = ranges.partition_point(|range| range.end <= start);
+                    for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                        let absolute_row = start + row;
+                        while range_idx < ranges.len() && absolute_row >= ranges[range_idx].end {
+                            range_idx += 1;
+                        }
+                        if range_idx == ranges.len() || absolute_row < ranges[range_idx].start {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+
+                        let range = ranges[range_idx];
+                        let block_idx = absolute_row - range.start;
+                        let node = &nodes[range.node_idx];
+                        if node.blocks[block_idx].get().is_none() {
+                            let words = LazyRankBitVec::decode_words(col.value(row));
+                            let _ = node.blocks[block_idx].set(words);
+                        }
+                    }
+
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+            })
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn access(&self, mut pos: usize) -> u8 {
+        if self.nodes.is_empty() {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        let mut node_idx = 0;
+        loop {
+            let bit = self.nodes[node_idx].get(pos);
+            let (ref left, ref right) = self.children[node_idx];
+            if bit {
+                pos = self.nodes[node_idx].rank1(pos);
+                match right {
+                    WaveletChild::Leaf(b) => return *b,
+                    WaveletChild::Node(next) => node_idx = *next,
+                }
+            } else {
+                pos = self.nodes[node_idx].rank0(pos);
+                match left {
+                    WaveletChild::Leaf(b) => return *b,
+                    WaveletChild::Node(next) => node_idx = *next,
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn access_async(&self, mut pos: usize) -> Result<u8> {
+        if self.nodes.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(0);
+        }
+        let mut node_idx = 0;
+        loop {
+            self.nodes[node_idx].load_block_for_access(pos).await?;
+            let bit = self.nodes[node_idx].get(pos);
+            let (ref left, ref right) = self.children[node_idx];
+            if bit {
+                pos = self.nodes[node_idx].rank1(pos);
+                match right {
+                    WaveletChild::Leaf(b) => return Ok(*b),
+                    WaveletChild::Node(next) => node_idx = *next,
+                }
+            } else {
+                pos = self.nodes[node_idx].rank0(pos);
+                match left {
+                    WaveletChild::Leaf(b) => return Ok(*b),
+                    WaveletChild::Node(next) => node_idx = *next,
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn rank(&self, c: u8, pos: usize) -> usize {
+        let code = &self.codes[c as usize];
+        if code.length == 0 {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        let (mut lo, mut hi) = (0, pos);
+        for (level, &nid) in code.node_path.iter().enumerate() {
+            if (code.bits >> (code.length - 1 - level as u8)) & 1 == 0 {
+                lo = self.nodes[nid].rank0(lo);
+                hi = self.nodes[nid].rank0(hi);
+            } else {
+                lo = self.nodes[nid].rank1(lo);
+                hi = self.nodes[nid].rank1(hi);
+            }
+        }
+        hi - lo
+    }
+
+    async fn rank_async(&self, c: u8, pos: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+        let code = &self.codes[c as usize];
+        if code.length == 0 {
+            return Ok(0);
+        }
+        let (mut lo, mut hi) = (0, pos);
+        for (level, &nid) in code.node_path.iter().enumerate() {
+            self.nodes[nid].load_block_for_rank(lo).await?;
+            self.nodes[nid].load_block_for_rank(hi).await?;
+            if (code.bits >> (code.length - 1 - level as u8)) & 1 == 0 {
+                lo = self.nodes[nid].rank0(lo);
+                hi = self.nodes[nid].rank0(hi);
+            } else {
+                lo = self.nodes[nid].rank1(lo);
+                hi = self.nodes[nid].rank1(hi);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(hi - lo)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn rank_pair(&self, c: u8, lo: usize, hi: usize) -> (usize, usize) {
+        let code = &self.codes[c as usize];
+        if code.length == 0 {
+            return (0, 0);
+        }
+        let (mut s, mut l, mut h) = (0, lo, hi);
+        for (level, &nid) in code.node_path.iter().enumerate() {
+            if (code.bits >> (code.length - 1 - level as u8)) & 1 == 0 {
+                s = self.nodes[nid].rank0(s);
+                l = self.nodes[nid].rank0(l);
+                h = self.nodes[nid].rank0(h);
+            } else {
+                s = self.nodes[nid].rank1(s);
+                l = self.nodes[nid].rank1(l);
+                h = self.nodes[nid].rank1(h);
+            }
+        }
+        (l - s, h - s)
+    }
+
+    async fn rank_pair_async(&self, c: u8, lo: usize, hi: usize) -> Result<(usize, usize)> {
+        let code = &self.codes[c as usize];
+        if code.length == 0 {
+            return Ok((0, 0));
+        }
+        let (mut s, mut l, mut h) = (0, lo, hi);
+        for (level, &nid) in code.node_path.iter().enumerate() {
+            self.nodes[nid].load_block_for_rank(s).await?;
+            self.nodes[nid].load_block_for_rank(l).await?;
+            self.nodes[nid].load_block_for_rank(h).await?;
+            if (code.bits >> (code.length - 1 - level as u8)) & 1 == 0 {
+                s = self.nodes[nid].rank0(s);
+                l = self.nodes[nid].rank0(l);
+                h = self.nodes[nid].rank0(h);
+            } else {
+                s = self.nodes[nid].rank1(s);
+                l = self.nodes[nid].rank1(l);
+                h = self.nodes[nid].rank1(h);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok((l - s, h - s))
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.nodes.iter().map(|n| n.deep_size()).sum::<usize>()
+            + self
+                .codes
+                .iter()
+                .map(|c| c.node_path.len() * 8)
+                .sum::<usize>()
+    }
+}
+
+// ── FM-Index (in-memory, build-time) ─────────────────────────────────────────
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct FMIndex {
+    wavelet: HuffmanWaveletTree,
+    row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    /// Sampled SA: sa_samples[i] = SA[i * SA_SAMPLE_RATE]. Size: N/D × 8 bytes.
+    sa_samples: Vec<u64>,
+    /// Starting byte offset of each document in the concatenated text.
+    doc_start_positions: Vec<u64>,
+    c_table: Vec<usize>,
+    alphabet_size: usize,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for FMIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.wavelet.deep_size()
+            + self.row_ids.len() * 8
+            + self.sa_samples.len() * 8
+            + self.doc_start_positions.len() * 8
+            + self.c_table.len() * std::mem::size_of::<usize>()
+    }
+}
+
+impl FMIndex {
+    fn build(texts: &[(u64, &[u8])]) -> Result<Self> {
+        if texts.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Self {
+                wavelet: HuffmanWaveletTree {
+                    nodes: Vec::new(),
+                    codes: std::array::from_fn(|_| HuffmanCode::default()),
+                    children: Vec::new(),
+                    len: 0,
+                },
+                row_ids: Vec::new(),
+                sa_samples: Vec::new(),
+                doc_start_positions: Vec::new(),
+                c_table: vec![0; 257],
+                alphabet_size: 256,
+            });
+        }
+
+        let mut concat = Vec::new();
+        let mut doc_row_ids = Vec::new();
+        let mut doc_starts: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+        for (row_id, text) in texts {
+            doc_starts.push(concat.len() as u64);
+            doc_row_ids.push(*row_id);
+            concat.extend_from_slice(text);
+            concat.push(SENTINEL_BYTE); // \xFF separator between documents
+        }
+        // Append unique terminator \x00 so SA-IS produces a proper suffix array
+        // with a single-cycle LF-mapping permutation.
+        concat.push(0x00);
+        let n = concat.len();
+        let sa = build_suffix_array(&concat);
+
+        let bwt: Vec<u8> = sa
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&pos| {
+                if pos == 0 {
+                    concat[n - 1]
+                } else {
+                    concat[pos - 1]
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let mut counts = vec![0usize; 257];
+        for &b in &concat {
+            counts[b as usize + 1] += 1;
+        }
+        for i in 1..257 {
+            counts[i] += counts[i - 1];
+        }
+
+        // Sampled SA: store every D-th entry
+        let sa_samples: Vec<u64> = sa
+            .iter()
+            .step_by(SA_SAMPLE_RATE)
+            .map(|&pos| pos as u64)
+            .collect();
+
+        let wavelet = HuffmanWaveletTree::build(&bwt);
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            wavelet,
+            row_ids: doc_row_ids,
+            sa_samples,
+            doc_start_positions: doc_starts,
+            c_table: counts,
+            alphabet_size: 256,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn serialize_huffman_codes(&self) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        for code in &self.wavelet.codes {
+            buf.extend_from_slice(&code.bits.to_le_bytes());
+            buf.push(code.length);
+            buf.extend_from_slice(&(code.node_path.len() as u16).to_le_bytes());
+            for &nid in &code.node_path {
+                buf.extend_from_slice(&(nid as u32).to_le_bytes());
+            }
+        }
+        buf
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize_huffman_codes(data: &[u8]) -> [HuffmanCode; 256] {
+        let mut codes: [HuffmanCode; 256] = std::array::from_fn(|_| HuffmanCode::default());
+        let mut cur = 0;
+        for code in &mut codes {
+            let bits = u32::from_le_bytes(data[cur..cur + 4].try_into().unwrap());
+            cur += 4;
+            let length = data[cur];
+            cur += 1;
+            let plen = u16::from_le_bytes(data[cur..cur + 2].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+            cur += 2;
+            let mut node_path = Vec::with_capacity(plen);
+            for _ in 0..plen {
+                node_path.push(u32::from_le_bytes(data[cur..cur + 4].try_into().unwrap()) as usize);
+                cur += 4;
+            }
+            *code = HuffmanCode {
+                bits,
+                length,
+                node_path,
+            };
+        }
+        codes
+    }
+
+    fn serialize_tree_topology(&self) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&(self.wavelet.children.len() as u32).to_le_bytes());
+        for (left, right) in &self.wavelet.children {
+            for child in [left, right] {
+                match child {
+                    WaveletChild::Node(id) => {
+                        buf.push(0);
+                        buf.extend_from_slice(&(*id as u32).to_le_bytes());
+                    }
+                    WaveletChild::Leaf(b) => {
+                        buf.push(1);
+                        buf.extend_from_slice(&(*b as u32).to_le_bytes());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        buf
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize_tree_topology(data: &[u8]) -> Vec<(WaveletChild, WaveletChild)> {
+        let mut cur = 0;
+        let count = u32::from_le_bytes(data[cur..cur + 4].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+        cur += 4;
+        let mut children = Vec::with_capacity(count);
+        for _ in 0..count {
+            let mut read_child = || {
+                let t = data[cur];
+                cur += 1;
+                let v = u32::from_le_bytes(data[cur..cur + 4].try_into().unwrap());
+                cur += 4;
+                if t == 0 {
+                    WaveletChild::Node(v as usize)
+                } else {
+                    WaveletChild::Leaf(v as u8)
+                }
+            };
+            let l = read_child();
+            let r = read_child();
+            children.push((l, r));
+        }
+        children
+    }
+
+    fn serialize_c_table(&self) -> Vec<u8> {
+        self.c_table
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|&v| (v as u64).to_le_bytes())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize_c_table(data: &[u8]) -> Vec<usize> {
+        data.as_chunks::<8>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .map(|c| u64::from_le_bytes(*c) as usize)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn u64_to_bytes(data: &[u64]) -> Vec<u8> {
+        data.iter().flat_map(|v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect()
+    }
+
+    fn build_wavelet_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        use arrow_array::{LargeBinaryArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
+        let mut nid_b = Vec::new();
+        let mut bid_b = Vec::new();
+        let mut words_b: Vec<Vec<u8>> = Vec::new();
+        let mut pr_b = Vec::new();
+        let mut bl_b = Vec::new();
+
+        for (i, node) in self.wavelet.nodes.iter().enumerate() {
+            let mut pr: u64 = 0;
+            if node.words.is_empty() {
+                nid_b.push(i as u32);
+                bid_b.push(0u32);
+                words_b.push(Vec::new());
+                pr_b.push(0u64);
+                bl_b.push(node.len as u64);
+            } else {
+                for (bi, chunk) in node.words.chunks(BLOCK_WORDS).enumerate() {
+                    nid_b.push(i as u32);
+                    bid_b.push(bi as u32);
+                    words_b.push(Self::u64_to_bytes(chunk));
+                    pr_b.push(pr);
+                    bl_b.push(node.len as u64);
+                    pr += chunk.iter().map(|w| w.count_ones() as u64).sum::<u64>();
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let refs: Vec<&[u8]> = words_b.iter().map(|v| v.as_slice()).collect();
+        let schema = BLOCK_SCHEMA.clone();
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(nid_b)),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(bid_b)),
+                Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(refs)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(pr_b)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(bl_b)),
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
+// ── Lazy FM-Index ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct LazyFMIndex {
+    wavelet: LazyHuffmanWaveletTree,
+    row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    sa_samples: Vec<u64>,
+    doc_start_positions: Vec<u64>,
+    c_table: Vec<usize>,
+    fully_prewarmed: AtomicBool,
+}
+
+impl LazyFMIndex {
+    /// Pre-load all wavelet tree blocks before sync search operations.
+    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.fully_prewarmed.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        self.wavelet.load_all().await.inspect(|_| {
+            self.fully_prewarmed.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn backward_search(&self, pattern: &[u8]) -> (usize, usize) {
+        if pattern.is_empty() || self.wavelet.len == 0 {
+            return (0, 0);
+        }
+        let (mut lo, mut hi) = (0, self.wavelet.len);
+        for &b in pattern.iter().rev() {
+            let c = self.c_table[b as usize];
+            let (occ_lo, occ_hi) = self.wavelet.rank_pair(b, lo, hi);
+            lo = c + occ_lo;
+            hi = c + occ_hi;
+            if lo >= hi {
+                return (0, 0);
+            }
+        }
+        (lo, hi)
+    }
+
+    async fn backward_search_async(&self, pattern: &[u8]) -> Result<(usize, usize)> {
+        if pattern.is_empty() || self.wavelet.len == 0 {
+            return Ok((0, 0));
+        }
+        let (mut lo, mut hi) = (0, self.wavelet.len);
+        for &b in pattern.iter().rev() {
+            let c = self.c_table[b as usize];
+            let (occ_lo, occ_hi) = self.wavelet.rank_pair_async(b, lo, hi).await?;
+            lo = c + occ_lo;
+            hi = c + occ_hi;
+            if lo >= hi {
+                return Ok((0, 0));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok((lo, hi))
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn locate(&self, mut pos: usize) -> usize {
+        let mut steps = 0;
+        let n = self.wavelet.len;
+        loop {
+            if pos.is_multiple_of(SA_SAMPLE_RATE) && (pos / SA_SAMPLE_RATE) < self.sa_samples.len()
+            {
+                return (self.sa_samples[pos / SA_SAMPLE_RATE] as usize + steps) % n;
+            }
+            let c = self.wavelet.access(pos);
+            pos = self.c_table[c as usize] + self.wavelet.rank(c, pos);
+            steps += 1;
+            if steps >= n {
+                log::warn!("FM-Index SA locate exceeded {n} steps, possible index corruption");
+                return 0;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn locate_async(&self, mut pos: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+        let mut steps = 0;
+        let n = self.wavelet.len;
+        loop {
+            if pos.is_multiple_of(SA_SAMPLE_RATE) && (pos / SA_SAMPLE_RATE) < self.sa_samples.len()
+            {
+                return Ok((self.sa_samples[pos / SA_SAMPLE_RATE] as usize + steps) % n);
+            }
+            let c = self.wavelet.access_async(pos).await?;
+            pos = self.c_table[c as usize] + self.wavelet.rank_async(c, pos).await?;
+            steps += 1;
+            if steps >= n {
+                log::warn!("FM-Index SA locate exceeded {n} steps, possible index corruption");
+                return Ok(0);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn doc_for_position(&self, text_pos: usize) -> usize {
+        let tp = text_pos as u64;
+        match self.doc_start_positions.binary_search(&tp) {
+            Ok(idx) => idx,
+            Err(idx) => idx - 1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn search(&self, pattern: &[u8]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        let (lo, hi) = self.backward_search(pattern);
+        if lo >= hi {
+            return RoaringBitmap::new();
+        }
+        let mut result = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for i in lo..hi {
+            let text_pos = self.locate(i);
+            let doc_idx = self.doc_for_position(text_pos);
+            result.insert(self.row_ids[doc_idx] as u32);
+        }
+        result
+    }
+
+    /// Search returning full u64 row addresses (preserving fragment ID in upper bits).
+    fn search_row_addrs(&self, pattern: &[u8]) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let (lo, hi) = self.backward_search(pattern);
+        if lo >= hi {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let mut seen = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+        let mut result = Vec::new();
+        for i in lo..hi {
+            let text_pos = self.locate(i);
+            let doc_idx = self.doc_for_position(text_pos);
+            let row_addr = self.row_ids[doc_idx];
+            if seen.insert(row_addr) {
+                result.push(row_addr);
+            }
+        }
+        result
+    }
+
+    async fn search_row_addrs_async(&self, pattern: &[u8]) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        let (lo, hi) = self.backward_search_async(pattern).await?;
+        if lo >= hi {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let mut seen = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+        let mut result = Vec::new();
+        for i in lo..hi {
+            let text_pos = self.locate_async(i).await?;
+            let doc_idx = self.doc_for_position(text_pos);
+            let row_addr = self.row_ids[doc_idx];
+            if seen.insert(row_addr) {
+                result.push(row_addr);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn from_reader(
+        reader: Arc<dyn crate::scalar::IndexReader>,
+        num_bwt_nodes: usize,
+        huffman_codes: [HuffmanCode; 256],
+        children: Vec<(WaveletChild, WaveletChild)>,
+        c_table: Vec<usize>,
+        bwt_len: usize,
+        total_wavelet_rows: usize,
+        num_sa_blocks: usize,
+        sa_samples_len: usize,
+        row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+        doc_start_positions: Vec<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        use arrow_array::UInt64Array;
+
+        let meta = reader
+            .read_range(
+                0..total_wavelet_rows,
+                Some(&["node_id", "prefix_rank", "bit_len"]),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let nid_col = meta
+            .column_by_name("node_id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let pr_col = meta
+            .column_by_name("prefix_rank")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let bl_col = meta
+            .column_by_name("bit_len")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        struct NM {
+            prs: Vec<u64>,
+            offset: usize,
+            blen: usize,
+        }
+        let mut nms: Vec<NM> = (0..num_bwt_nodes)
+            .map(|_| NM {
+                prs: Vec::new(),
+                offset: 0,
+                blen: 0,
+            })
+            .collect();
+        for row in 0..meta.num_rows() {
+            let nid = nid_col.value(row) as usize;
+            if nid >= num_bwt_nodes {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let nm = &mut nms[nid];
+            if nm.prs.is_empty() {
+                nm.offset = row;
+            }
+            nm.prs.push(pr_col.value(row));
+            nm.blen = bl_col.value(row) as usize;
+        }
+
+        let mut bwt_nodes = Vec::with_capacity(num_bwt_nodes);
+        for nm in &nms {
+            bwt_nodes.push(LazyRankBitVec::new(
+                nm.prs.clone(),
+                nm.prs.len(),
+                reader.clone(),
+                nm.offset,
+                nm.blen,
+            ));
+        }
+        let wavelet = LazyHuffmanWaveletTree {
+            nodes: bwt_nodes,
+            codes: huffman_codes,
+            children,
+            len: bwt_len,
+        };
+
+        // Read SA samples from packed binary blocks
+        let mut sa_samples = Vec::with_capacity(sa_samples_len);
+        let sa_batch = reader
+            .read_range(
+                total_wavelet_rows..total_wavelet_rows + num_sa_blocks,
+                Some(&["words"]),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let words_col = sa_batch
+            .column_by_name("words")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        for i in 0..sa_batch.num_rows() {
+            let raw = words_col.value(i);
+            for chunk in raw.as_chunks::<8>().0 {
+                sa_samples.push(u64::from_le_bytes(*chunk));
+            }
+        }
+        sa_samples.truncate(sa_samples_len);
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            wavelet,
+            row_ids,
+            sa_samples,
+            doc_start_positions,
+            c_table,
+            fully_prewarmed: AtomicBool::new(false),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.wavelet.deep_size()
+            + self.row_ids.len() * 8
+            + self.sa_samples.len() * 8
+            + self.doc_start_positions.len() * 8
+            + self.c_table.len() * std::mem::size_of::<usize>()
+    }
+}
+
+// ── FMIndexScalarIndex ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FMIndexPartition {
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    id: u64,
+    fm: LazyFMIndex,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FMIndexScalarIndex {
+    partitions: Vec<Arc<FMIndexPartition>>,
+    io_parallelism: usize,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for FMIndexScalarIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _ctx: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.partitions.iter().map(|p| p.fm.deep_size()).sum()
+    }
+}
+
+impl FMIndexScalarIndex {
+    async fn load_partition(
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        filename: &str,
+        pid: u64,
+    ) -> Result<FMIndexPartition> {
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(filename).await?;
+        let md = &reader.schema().metadata;
+
+        let parse = |key: &str| -> Result<usize> {
+            md.get(key)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("missing {key}")))?
+                .parse()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid {key}: {e}")))
+        };
+
+        let num_bwt_nodes = parse("num_bwt_nodes")?;
+        let bwt_len = parse("bwt_len")?;
+        let num_sa_blocks = parse("num_sa_blocks")?;
+        let sa_samples_len = parse("sa_samples_len")?;
+        let total_wavelet_rows = parse("total_wavelet_rows")?;
+
+        let c_table = FMIndex::deserialize_c_table(&hex_decode(
+            md.get("c_table")
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing c_table"))?,
+        )?);
+        let huffman_codes = FMIndex::deserialize_huffman_codes(&hex_decode(
+            md.get("huffman_codes")
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing huffman_codes"))?,
+        )?);
+        let children = FMIndex::deserialize_tree_topology(&hex_decode(
+            md.get("tree_topology")
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing tree_topology"))?,
+        )?);
+
+        // row_ids and doc_start_positions stored in metadata (small)
+        let row_ids_hex = md
+            .get("row_ids")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing row_ids"))?;
+        let row_ids_bytes = hex_decode(row_ids_hex)?;
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = row_ids_bytes
+            .as_chunks::<8>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .map(|c| u64::from_le_bytes(*c))
+            .collect();
+
+        let doc_starts_hex = md
+            .get("doc_start_positions")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing doc_start_positions"))?;
+        let doc_starts_bytes = hex_decode(doc_starts_hex)?;
+        let doc_start_positions: Vec<u64> = doc_starts_bytes
+            .as_chunks::<8>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .map(|c| u64::from_le_bytes(*c))
+            .collect();
+
+        let fm = Box::pin(LazyFMIndex::from_reader(
+            reader,
+            num_bwt_nodes,
+            huffman_codes,
+            children,
+            c_table,
+            bwt_len,
+            total_wavelet_rows,
+            num_sa_blocks,
+            sa_samples_len,
+            row_ids,
+            doc_start_positions,
+        ))
+        .await?;
+        Ok(FMIndexPartition { id: pid, fm })
+    }
+
+    async fn load(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _fri: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        _cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        let files = store.list_files_with_sizes().await?;
+        let mut pfiles: Vec<(u64, String)> = Vec::new();
+        for f in &files {
+            if let Some(id) = fmindex_partition_id_from_path(&f.path) {
+                pfiles.push((id, f.path.clone()));
+            }
+        }
+        if pfiles.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("no FM-Index partition files found"));
+        }
+        pfiles.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        let io_parallelism = store.io_parallelism().max(1);
+        let mut parts = futures::stream::iter(pfiles)
+            .map(|(id, name)| {
+                let store = Arc::clone(&store);
+                async move {
+                    let partition = Self::load_partition(store.as_ref(), &name, id).await?;
+                    Result::<_>::Ok((id, Arc::new(partition)))
+                }
+            })
+            .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        parts.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        let parts = parts
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(_, partition)| partition)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            partitions: parts,
+            io_parallelism,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn partition_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+        self.io_parallelism.max(1).min(self.partitions.len().max(1))
+    }
+
+    async fn prewarm_partitions(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        futures::stream::iter(self.partitions.iter().cloned())
+            .map(|partition| async move { partition.fm.prewarm().await })
+            .buffer_unordered(self.partition_parallelism())
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn search_string_contains(&self, pattern: &[u8]) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+        let pattern: Arc<[u8]> = Arc::from(pattern);
+        let tree = futures::stream::iter(self.partitions.iter().cloned())
+            .map(|partition| {
+                let pattern = Arc::clone(&pattern);
+                async move {
+                    if partition.fm.fully_prewarmed.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                        spawn_cpu(move || {
+                            Result::<Vec<u64>>::Ok(partition.fm.search_row_addrs(pattern.as_ref()))
+                        })
+                        .await
+                    } else {
+                        partition.fm.search_row_addrs_async(pattern.as_ref()).await
+                    }
+                }
+            })
+            .buffer_unordered(self.partition_parallelism())
+            .try_fold(RowAddrTreeMap::new(), |mut tree, row_addrs| async move {
+                for row_addr in row_addrs {
+                    tree.insert(row_addr);
+                }
+                Result::Ok(tree)
+            })
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(SearchResult::Exact(lance_select::NullableRowAddrSet::new(
+            tree,
+            Default::default(),
+        )))
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl Index for FMIndexScalarIndex {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+        self
+    }
+    fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index> {
+        self
+    }
+    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.prewarm_partitions().await
+    }
+    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+        Ok(serde_json::json!({
+            "type": "Fm",
+            "num_partitions": self.partitions.len(),
+            "total_bwt_len": self.partitions.iter().map(|p| p.fm.wavelet.len).sum::<usize>(),
+            "total_docs": self.partitions.iter().map(|p| p.fm.row_ids.len()).sum::<usize>(),
+        }))
+    }
+    fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
+        IndexType::Fm
+    }
+    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        let mut frags = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for p in &self.partitions {
+            for &rid in &p.fm.row_ids {
+                frags.insert((rid >> 32) as u32);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(frags)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndex for FMIndexScalarIndex {
+    async fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        let tq = query
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<TextQuery>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Fm only supports TextQuery"))?;
+        match tq {
+            TextQuery::StringContains(pattern) => {
+                self.search_string_contains(pattern.as_bytes()).await
+            }
+            // Regex queries are routed only to the ngram index (the FM-index's
+            // query parser advertises `supports_regex = false`), so this is
+            // unreachable in practice; reject it explicitly rather than silently.
+            TextQuery::Regex(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "FMIndex does not support regular expression queries",
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn results_are_row_addresses(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+    async fn remap(&self, _: &RowAddrRemap, _: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported("Fm does not support remap"))
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        _: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        _: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported("Fm does not support remap"))
+    }
+    async fn update(
+        &self,
+        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        dest: &dyn IndexStore,
+        _old_data_filter: Option<OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let files = write_partitioned_fmindex_stream(new_data, dest).await?;
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pb::FmIndexDetails {}).unwrap(),
+            index_version: FMINDEX_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
+        })
+    }
+    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
+        UpdateCriteria::requires_old_data(
+            TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_addr(),
+        )
+    }
+    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
+        Ok(ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm))
+    }
+}
+
+// ── Helpers ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FMIndexPartitionJob {
+    partition_id: u64,
+    texts: Vec<(u64, Vec<u8>)>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct FMIndexPartitionConfig {
+    num_workers: usize,
+    max_rows: usize,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+    queue_size: usize,
+    resume_existing: bool,
+}
+
+impl FMIndexPartitionConfig {
+    fn from_env() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            num_workers: fmindex_num_workers(),
+            max_rows: fmindex_partition_rows(),
+            max_bytes: fmindex_partition_bytes(),
+            queue_size: fmindex_write_queue_size(),
+            resume_existing: fmindex_resume_existing_partitions(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn normalized(self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            num_workers: self.num_workers.max(1),
+            max_rows: self.max_rows.max(1),
+            max_bytes: self.max_bytes.max(1),
+            queue_size: self.queue_size.max(1),
+            resume_existing: self.resume_existing,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+async fn write_partitioned_fmindex_stream(
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    store: &dyn IndexStore,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    write_partitioned_fmindex_stream_with_config(stream, store, FMIndexPartitionConfig::from_env())
+        .await
+}
+
+async fn write_partitioned_fmindex_stream_with_config(
+    mut stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    config: FMIndexPartitionConfig,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    let config = config.normalized();
+    log::info!(
+        "building FMIndex with {} workers, partition rows {}, partition bytes {}",
+        config.num_workers,
+        config.max_rows,
+        config.max_bytes
+    );
+
+    let (sender, receiver): (
+        async_channel::Sender<FMIndexPartitionJob>,
+        async_channel::Receiver<FMIndexPartitionJob>,
+    ) = async_channel::bounded(config.queue_size);
+    let store = store.clone_arc();
+    let mut completed_files = if config.resume_existing {
+        store
+            .list_files_with_sizes()
+            .await?
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter_map(|file| fmindex_partition_id_from_path(&file.path).map(|id| (id, file)))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>()
+    } else {
+        HashMap::new()
+    };
+    if !completed_files.is_empty() {
+        log::info!(
+            "resuming FMIndex build with {} existing partition files",
+            completed_files.len()
+        );
+    }
+    let mut files = Vec::new();
+    let mut worker_tasks = Vec::with_capacity(config.num_workers);
+    for _ in 0..config.num_workers {
+        let receiver = receiver.clone();
+        let store = store.clone();
+        worker_tasks.push(tokio::task::spawn(async move {
+            let mut files = Vec::new();
+            while let Ok(job) = receiver.recv().await {
+                files.push(
+                    write_fmindex_partition_owned(job.texts, store.clone(), job.partition_id)
+                        .await?,
+                );
+            }
+            Result::Ok(files)
+        }));
+    }
+    drop(receiver);
+
+    let producer_result = async {
+        let mut partition = Vec::with_capacity(config.max_rows.min(PARTITION_SIZE));
+        let mut partition_bytes = 0usize;
+        let mut partition_id = 0;
+
+        while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            // Prefer _rowaddr (global row address) over _rowid to ensure stable,
+            // globally unique identifiers across segments.
+            let row_addrs: &arrow_array::UInt64Array = batch
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ADDR)
+                .or_else(|| batch.column_by_name("_rowid"))
+                .and_then(|c| c.as_any().downcast_ref())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input("Fm training data must include _rowaddr or _rowid column")
+                })?;
+            // Use the named value column; fall back to column(0) for legacy streams
+            let value_col = batch
+                .column_by_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| batch.column(0));
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let rid = row_addrs.value(i);
+                if let Some(bytes) = extract_sanitized_text_bytes(value_col.as_ref(), i)? {
+                    partition_bytes = partition_bytes.saturating_add(bytes.len().saturating_add(1));
+                    partition.push((rid, bytes));
+                    if fmindex_partition_limit_reached(
+                        partition.len(),
+                        partition_bytes,
+                        config.max_rows,
+                        config.max_bytes,
+                    ) {
+                        finish_fmindex_partition(
+                            &sender,
+                            store.as_ref(),
+                            &mut partition,
+                            &mut partition_bytes,
+                            partition_id,
+                            config.max_rows,
+                            &mut FMIndexPartitionResumeState {
+                                completed_files: &mut completed_files,
+                                output_files: &mut files,
+                            },
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        partition_id += 1;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if !partition.is_empty() {
+            finish_fmindex_partition(
+                &sender,
+                store.as_ref(),
+                &mut partition,
+                &mut partition_bytes,
+                partition_id,
+                config.max_rows,
+                &mut FMIndexPartitionResumeState {
+                    completed_files: &mut completed_files,
+                    output_files: &mut files,
+                },
+            )
+            .await?;
+        }
+
+        Result::Ok(())
+    }
+    .await;
+    drop(sender);
+
+    let mut worker_error = None;
+    for worker_task in worker_tasks {
+        match worker_task.await {
+            Ok(Ok(worker_files)) => files.extend(worker_files),
+            Ok(Err(err)) => {
+                if worker_error.is_none() {
+                    worker_error = Some(err);
+                }
+            }
+            Err(err) => {
+                if worker_error.is_none() {
+                    worker_error = Some(Error::execution(format!(
+                        "FMIndex partition worker failed: {err}"
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if let Some(err) = worker_error {
+        return Err(err);
+    }
+    producer_result?;
+
+    for (partition_id, file) in completed_files.drain() {
+        log::info!(
+            "deleting stale FMIndex partition {partition_id} from previous build: {}",
+            file.path
+        );
+        store.delete_index_file(&file.path).await?;
+    }
+    if files.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(vec![write_empty_fmindex_partition(store.as_ref()).await?]);
+    }
+
+    files.sort_unstable_by_key(|(partition_id, _)| *partition_id);
+    let files = files.into_iter().map(|(_, file)| file).collect();
+
+    Ok(files)
+}
+
+fn fmindex_partition_limit_reached(
+    rows: usize,
+    bytes: usize,
+    max_rows: usize,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+) -> bool {
+    // Byte limits are soft for a single oversized document because FMIndex
+    // partitions cannot split a document without changing search semantics.
+    rows >= max_rows || bytes >= max_bytes
+}
+
+struct FMIndexPartitionResumeState<'a> {
+    completed_files: &'a mut HashMap<u64, IndexFile>,
+    output_files: &'a mut Vec<(u64, IndexFile)>,
+}
+
+async fn finish_fmindex_partition(
+    sender: &async_channel::Sender<FMIndexPartitionJob>,
+    store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    partition: &mut Vec<(u64, Vec<u8>)>,
+    partition_bytes: &mut usize,
+    partition_id: u64,
+    max_rows: usize,
+    resume_state: &mut FMIndexPartitionResumeState<'_>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let texts = std::mem::replace(partition, Vec::with_capacity(max_rows.min(PARTITION_SIZE)));
+    *partition_bytes = 0;
+    if let Some(file) = resume_state.completed_files.remove(&partition_id) {
+        let fingerprint = fmindex_partition_fingerprint(&texts);
+        if fmindex_partition_matches(store, &file, &fingerprint).await? {
+            resume_state.output_files.push((partition_id, file));
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        log::info!(
+            "rebuilding stale FMIndex partition {partition_id}: {}",
+            file.path
+        );
+        store.delete_index_file(&file.path).await?;
+    }
+    sender
+        .send(FMIndexPartitionJob {
+            partition_id,
+            texts,
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|err| {
+            Error::execution(format!(
+                "failed to schedule FMIndex partition {partition_id}: {err}"
+            ))
+        })
+}
+
+fn fmindex_partition_fingerprint(texts: &[(u64, Vec<u8>)]) -> String {
+    const FNV_OFFSET: u64 = 0xcbf2_9ce4_8422_2325;
+    const FNV_PRIME: u64 = 0x0000_0100_0000_01b3;
+
+    fn update(hash: &mut u64, bytes: &[u8]) {
+        for byte in bytes {
+            *hash ^= *byte as u64;
+            *hash = hash.wrapping_mul(FNV_PRIME);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut hash = FNV_OFFSET;
+    update(&mut hash, b"lance-fmindex-partition-v1");
+    update(&mut hash, &(texts.len() as u64).to_le_bytes());
+    for (row_id, bytes) in texts {
+        update(&mut hash, &row_id.to_le_bytes());
+        update(&mut hash, &(bytes.len() as u64).to_le_bytes());
+        update(&mut hash, bytes);
+    }
+    format!("{hash:016x}")
+}
+
+async fn fmindex_partition_matches(
+    store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    file: &IndexFile,
+    expected_fingerprint: &str,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(&file.path).await?;
+    Ok(reader
+        .schema()
+        .metadata
+        .get(FMINDEX_PARTITION_FINGERPRINT_KEY)
+        .is_some_and(|fingerprint| fingerprint == expected_fingerprint))
+}
+
+fn sanitize_text_bytes(bytes: &[u8]) -> Vec<u8> {
+    bytes
+        .iter()
+        .map(|&b| {
+            if b == SENTINEL_BYTE || b == 0x00 {
+                b' '
+            } else {
+                b
+            }
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn extract_sanitized_text_bytes(
+    array: &dyn arrow_array::Array,
+    index: usize,
+) -> Result<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+    if array.is_null(index) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Utf8 => Ok(Some(sanitize_text_bytes(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StringArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(index)
+                .as_bytes(),
+        ))),
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => Ok(Some(sanitize_text_bytes(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::LargeStringArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(index)
+                .as_bytes(),
+        ))),
+        DataType::Binary => Ok(Some(sanitize_text_bytes(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BinaryArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(index),
+        ))),
+        DataType::LargeBinary => Ok(Some(sanitize_text_bytes(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(index),
+        ))),
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Fm does not support data type: {:?}",
+            array.data_type()
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn extract_text_bytes(array: &dyn arrow_array::Array, index: usize) -> Result<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+    if array.is_null(index) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Utf8 => Ok(Some(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StringArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(index)
+                .as_bytes()
+                .to_vec(),
+        )),
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => Ok(Some(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::LargeStringArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(index)
+                .as_bytes()
+                .to_vec(),
+        )),
+        DataType::Binary => Ok(Some(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BinaryArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(index)
+                .to_vec(),
+        )),
+        DataType::LargeBinary => Ok(Some(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(index)
+                .to_vec(),
+        )),
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Fm does not support data type: {:?}",
+            array.data_type()
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn hex_encode(data: &[u8]) -> String {
+    data.iter().map(|b| format!("{b:02x}")).collect()
+}
+fn hex_decode(s: &str) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    if !s.len().is_multiple_of(2) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input("invalid hex length"));
+    }
+    (0..s.len())
+        .step_by(2)
+        .map(|i| {
+            u8::from_str_radix(&s[i..i + 2], 16)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid hex: {e}")))
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Write an FM-Index partition to storage.
+///
+/// Layout:
+///   - Wavelet block rows (BWT nodes)
+///   - SA sample blocks (packed u64 in LargeBinary)
+///   - Metadata: c_table, huffman_codes, tree_topology, row_ids, doc_start_positions
+async fn write_fmindex(
+    fm: &FMIndex,
+    store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    filename: &str,
+    partition_fingerprint: Option<&str>,
+) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+    let schema = BLOCK_SCHEMA.clone();
+
+    let mut writer = store.new_index_file(filename, schema.clone()).await?;
+
+    // 1. Wavelet blocks
+    let wb = fm.build_wavelet_batch()?;
+    let nw = wb.num_rows();
+    writer.write_record_batch(wb).await?;
+
+    // 2. SA samples packed as binary blocks
+    let u64s_per_block = BLOCK_WORDS; // 4096 u64s per block = 32KB
+    let mut sa_nid = Vec::new();
+    let mut sa_bid = Vec::new();
+    let mut sa_words: Vec<Vec<u8>> = Vec::new();
+    let mut sa_pr = Vec::new();
+    let mut sa_bl = Vec::new();
+    for (bi, chunk) in fm.sa_samples.chunks(u64s_per_block).enumerate() {
+        sa_nid.push(u32::MAX);
+        sa_bid.push(bi as u32);
+        sa_words.push(FMIndex::u64_to_bytes(chunk));
+        sa_pr.push(0u64);
+        sa_bl.push(fm.sa_samples.len() as u64);
+    }
+    let num_sa_blocks = sa_nid.len();
+    if num_sa_blocks > 0 {
+        let refs: Vec<&[u8]> = sa_words.iter().map(|v| v.as_slice()).collect();
+        writer
+            .write_record_batch(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(sa_nid)),
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(sa_bid)),
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray::from(refs)),
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(sa_pr)),
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(sa_bl)),
+                ],
+            )?)
+            .await?;
+    }
+
+    // Metadata
+    let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+    metadata.insert("num_bwt_nodes".into(), fm.wavelet.nodes.len().to_string());
+    metadata.insert("bwt_len".into(), fm.wavelet.len.to_string());
+    metadata.insert("num_sa_blocks".into(), num_sa_blocks.to_string());
+    metadata.insert("sa_samples_len".into(), fm.sa_samples.len().to_string());
+    metadata.insert("total_wavelet_rows".into(), nw.to_string());
+    metadata.insert("sa_sample_rate".into(), SA_SAMPLE_RATE.to_string());
+    metadata.insert("alphabet_size".into(), fm.alphabet_size.to_string());
+    if let Some(fingerprint) = partition_fingerprint {
+        metadata.insert(
+            FMINDEX_PARTITION_FINGERPRINT_KEY.into(),
+            fingerprint.to_string(),
+        );
+    }
+    metadata.insert("c_table".into(), hex_encode(&fm.serialize_c_table()));
+    metadata.insert(
+        "huffman_codes".into(),
+        hex_encode(&fm.serialize_huffman_codes()),
+    );
+    metadata.insert(
+        "tree_topology".into(),
+        hex_encode(&fm.serialize_tree_topology()),
+    );
+    // row_ids in metadata (10K × 8 = 80KB per partition — small)
+    let row_ids_bytes: Vec<u8> = fm.row_ids.iter().flat_map(|&v| v.to_le_bytes()).collect();
+    metadata.insert("row_ids".into(), hex_encode(&row_ids_bytes));
+    // doc_start_positions in metadata (10K × 8 = 80KB per partition — small)
+    let doc_starts_bytes: Vec<u8> = fm
+        .doc_start_positions
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|&v| v.to_le_bytes())
+        .collect();
+    metadata.insert("doc_start_positions".into(), hex_encode(&doc_starts_bytes));
+
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+async fn write_partitioned_fmindex(
+    texts: &[(u64, Vec<u8>)],
+    store: &dyn IndexStore,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    if texts.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(vec![write_empty_fmindex_partition(store).await?]);
+    }
+    let mut files = Vec::new();
+    for (pid, chunk) in texts.chunks(PARTITION_SIZE).enumerate() {
+        files.push(write_fmindex_partition(chunk, store, pid as u64).await?);
+    }
+    Ok(files)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+async fn write_fmindex_partition(
+    texts: &[(u64, Vec<u8>)],
+    store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    partition_id: u64,
+) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+    let fingerprint = fmindex_partition_fingerprint(texts);
+    let refs: Vec<(u64, &[u8])> = texts.iter().map(|(id, t)| (*id, t.as_slice())).collect();
+    let fm = FMIndex::build(&refs)?;
+    write_fmindex(
+        &fm,
+        store,
+        &fmindex_partition_path(partition_id),
+        Some(&fingerprint),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+async fn write_fmindex_partition_owned(
+    texts: Vec<(u64, Vec<u8>)>,
+    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    partition_id: u64,
+) -> Result<(u64, IndexFile)> {
+    let fingerprint = fmindex_partition_fingerprint(&texts);
+    let fm = spawn_cpu(move || {
+        let refs: Vec<(u64, &[u8])> = texts.iter().map(|(id, t)| (*id, t.as_slice())).collect();
+        FMIndex::build(&refs)
+    })
+    .await?;
+    let file = write_fmindex(
+        &fm,
+        store.as_ref(),
+        &fmindex_partition_path(partition_id),
+        Some(&fingerprint),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    Ok((partition_id, file))
+}
+
+async fn write_empty_fmindex_partition(store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+    let fm = FMIndex::build(&[])?;
+    let fingerprint = fmindex_partition_fingerprint(&[]);
+    write_fmindex(&fm, store, &fmindex_partition_path(0), Some(&fingerprint)).await
+}
+
+// ── Plugin ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct FMIndexPlugin;
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl BasicTrainer for FMIndexPlugin {
+    fn new_training_request(
+        &self,
+        _params: &str,
+        field: &Field,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
+        match field.data_type() {
+            DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeBinary => {}
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "FM-Index does not support {:?}",
+                    field.data_type()
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Box::new(DefaultTrainingRequest::new(
+            TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_addr(),
+        )))
+    }
+    async fn train_index(
+        &self,
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        _req: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
+        _fids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let files = write_partitioned_fmindex_stream(data, store).await?;
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pb::FmIndexDetails {}).unwrap(),
+            index_version: FMINDEX_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for FMIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "Fm"
+    }
+    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
+        FMINDEX_INDEX_VERSION
+    }
+    fn new_query_parser(
+        &self,
+        index_name: String,
+        _details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
+        Some(Box::new(TextQueryParser::new(
+            index_name,
+            self.name().to_string(),
+            // needs_recheck: the FM-index returns exact substring matches.
+            false,
+            // supports_regex: regex acceleration is only implemented for ngram.
+            false,
+            // min_contains_chars: the FM-index can match a needle of any length.
+            0,
+        )))
+    }
+    async fn load_index(
+        &self,
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        fri: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        let _ = details.to_msg::<pb::FmIndexDetails>().unwrap_or_default();
+        Ok(FMIndexScalarIndex::load(store, fri, cache).await? as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+    }
+    async fn load_statistics(
+        &self,
+        _: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Result<Option<serde_json::Value>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{BinaryArray, LargeBinaryArray, LargeStringArray, StringArray, UInt64Array};
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+    use futures::stream;
+    use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, cache::LanceCache};
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use object_store::path::Path;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+    use crate::scalar::registry::BasicTrainer;
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+    struct FailNewFileStore {
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    }
+
+    impl DeepSizeOf for FailNewFileStore {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl IndexStore for FailNewFileStore {
+        fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+            self
+        }
+
+        fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            Arc::new(self.clone())
+        }
+
+        fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.io_parallelism()
+        }
+
+        fn with_io_priority(&self, io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            Arc::new(Self {
+                inner: self.inner.with_io_priority(io_priority),
+            })
+        }
+
+        async fn new_index_file(
+            &self,
+            _name: &str,
+            _schema: Arc<arrow_schema::Schema>,
+        ) -> Result<Box<dyn crate::scalar::IndexWriter>> {
+            Err(Error::execution(
+                "injected FMIndex write failure".to_string(),
+            ))
+        }
+
+        async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn crate::scalar::IndexReader>> {
+            self.inner.open_index_file(name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_index_file(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner.copy_index_file(name, dest_store).await
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_index_file(&self, name: &str, new_name: &str) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner.rename_index_file(name, new_name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            self.inner.delete_index_file(name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+            self.inner.list_files_with_sizes().await
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn loaded_wavelet_blocks(index: &FMIndexScalarIndex) -> usize {
+        index
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|partition| partition.fm.wavelet.nodes.iter())
+            .map(|node| {
+                node.blocks
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|block| block.get().is_some())
+                    .count()
+            })
+            .sum()
+    }
+
+    fn total_wavelet_blocks(index: &FMIndexScalarIndex) -> usize {
+        index
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|partition| partition.fm.wavelet.nodes.iter())
+            .map(|node| node.blocks.len())
+            .sum()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_size_ratio() {
+        let docs: Vec<Vec<u8>> = (0..200)
+            .map(|i| {
+                format!(
+                    "document {} with enough text to test size ratio properly end",
+                    i
+                )
+                .into_bytes()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let texts: Vec<(u64, &[u8])> = docs
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(i, d)| (i as u64, d.as_slice()))
+            .collect();
+        let fm = FMIndex::build(&texts).unwrap();
+
+        let text_size: usize = docs.iter().map(|d| d.len()).sum();
+        let wavelet_size = fm.wavelet.deep_size();
+        let sa_size = fm.sa_samples.len() * 8;
+        let total = wavelet_size + sa_size;
+
+        let ratio = total as f64 / text_size as f64;
+        assert!(
+            ratio < 1.5,
+            "index should be much smaller than text, got ratio={ratio:.2}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_serialization_roundtrip() {
+        let texts: Vec<(u64, &[u8])> = vec![
+            (10, b"alpha beta gamma"),
+            (20, b"beta gamma delta"),
+            (30, b"gamma delta epsilon"),
+        ];
+        let fm = FMIndex::build(&texts).unwrap();
+
+        // Test huffman codes roundtrip
+        let hc_bytes = fm.serialize_huffman_codes();
+        let hc = FMIndex::deserialize_huffman_codes(&hc_bytes);
+        for (i, (loaded, original)) in hc.iter().zip(fm.wavelet.codes.iter()).enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(loaded.bits, original.bits, "bits mismatch at {i}");
+            assert_eq!(loaded.length, original.length, "length mismatch at {i}");
+            assert_eq!(loaded.node_path, original.node_path, "path mismatch at {i}");
+        }
+
+        // Test tree topology roundtrip
+        let topo_bytes = fm.serialize_tree_topology();
+        let topo = FMIndex::deserialize_tree_topology(&topo_bytes);
+        assert_eq!(topo.len(), fm.wavelet.children.len());
+
+        // Test c_table roundtrip
+        let ct_bytes = fm.serialize_c_table();
+        let ct = FMIndex::deserialize_c_table(&ct_bytes);
+        assert_eq!(ct, fm.c_table);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hex_roundtrip() {
+        let data = vec![0u8, 1, 127, 255, 42];
+        let encoded = hex_encode(&data);
+        let decoded = hex_decode(&encoded).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(data, decoded);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_partition_limit_reached_by_rows_or_bytes() {
+        assert!(fmindex_partition_limit_reached(10, 5, 10, 100));
+        assert!(fmindex_partition_limit_reached(3, 100, 10, 100));
+        assert!(!fmindex_partition_limit_reached(3, 99, 10, 100));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_large_sa_sampling() {
+        // Test with enough documents to have multiple SA sample points
+        let docs: Vec<Vec<u8>> = (0..50)
+            .map(|i| {
+                format!(
+                    "document number {} with lots of text to ensure we have enough bytes for multiple SA samples across the suffix array positions",
+                    i
+                )
+                .into_bytes()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let texts: Vec<(u64, &[u8])> = docs
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(i, d)| (i as u64, d.as_slice()))
+            .collect();
+        let fm = FMIndex::build(&texts).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(fm.sa_samples.len() > 1, "should have multiple SA samples");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_write_and_load_roundtrip() {
+        let texts: Vec<(u64, &[u8])> = vec![
+            (0, b"hello world foo bar"),
+            (1, b"hello rust baz qux"),
+            (2, b"goodbye world quux"),
+        ];
+        let fm = FMIndex::build(&texts).unwrap();
+
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Write
+        write_fmindex(&fm, store.as_ref(), &fmindex_partition_path(0), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Load
+        let part =
+            FMIndexScalarIndex::load_partition(store.as_ref(), &fmindex_partition_path(0), 0)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify search results match
+        let r = part.fm.search(b"hello");
+        assert!(r.contains(0));
+        assert!(r.contains(1));
+        assert!(!r.contains(2));
+
+        let r = part.fm.search(b"world");
+        assert!(r.contains(0));
+        assert!(!r.contains(1));
+        assert!(r.contains(2));
+
+        assert!(part.fm.search(b"xyz").is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_partitioned_write_and_load() {
+        let docs: Vec<Vec<u8>> = (0..30)
+            .map(|i| format!("document {i} hello world test data").into_bytes())
+            .collect();
+        let texts: Vec<(u64, Vec<u8>)> = docs
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(i, d)| (i as u64, d))
+            .collect();
+
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        write_partitioned_fmindex(&texts, store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index = FMIndexScalarIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Search across partitions
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("hello world".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(30));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("document 15".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(1));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("nonexistent".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(0));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_public_prewarm_loads_lazy_blocks() {
+        let docs: Vec<Vec<u8>> = (0..30)
+            .map(|i| format!("document {i} hello world test data").into_bytes())
+            .collect();
+        let texts: Vec<(u64, Vec<u8>)> = docs
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(i, d)| (i as u64, d))
+            .collect();
+
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        write_partitioned_fmindex(&texts, store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index = FMIndexScalarIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let total_blocks = total_wavelet_blocks(index.as_ref());
+        assert!(total_blocks > 0);
+        assert_eq!(loaded_wavelet_blocks(index.as_ref()), 0);
+
+        index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(loaded_wavelet_blocks(index.as_ref()), total_blocks);
+
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("hello world".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(30));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+        assert_eq!(loaded_wavelet_blocks(index.as_ref()), total_blocks);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_lazy_rank_terminal_block_boundary() {
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "words",
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let words = vec![u64::MAX; BLOCK_WORDS];
+        let bytes = FMIndex::u64_to_bytes(&words);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![bytes.as_slice()]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = store.new_index_file("rank.lance", schema).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = store.open_index_file("rank.lance").await.unwrap();
+        let bitvec = LazyRankBitVec::new(vec![0], 1, reader, 0, BLOCK_BITS);
+        bitvec.load_block_for_rank(BLOCK_BITS).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(bitvec.rank1(BLOCK_BITS), BLOCK_BITS);
+        assert_eq!(bitvec.rank0(BLOCK_BITS), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_contains_search_does_not_full_prewarm_partitions() {
+        let docs: Vec<Vec<u8>> = (0..30)
+            .map(|i| format!("document {i} hello world test data").into_bytes())
+            .collect();
+        let texts: Vec<(u64, Vec<u8>)> = docs
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(i, d)| (i as u64, d))
+            .collect();
+
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        write_partitioned_fmindex(&texts, store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index = FMIndexScalarIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(loaded_wavelet_blocks(index.as_ref()), 0);
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .partitions
+                .iter()
+                .all(|partition| !partition.fm.fully_prewarmed.load(Ordering::Acquire))
+        );
+
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("document 15".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(1));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .partitions
+                .iter()
+                .all(|partition| !partition.fm.fully_prewarmed.load(Ordering::Acquire))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_plugin_train_and_load() {
+        let docs = vec!["hello world", "hello rust", "goodbye world"];
+        let row_addrs: Vec<u64> = vec![0, 1, 2];
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                false,
+            ),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(docs)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_addrs)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let req = FMIndexPlugin
+            .new_training_request("", &arrow_schema::Field::new("val", DataType::Utf8, false))
+            .unwrap();
+        let created = FMIndexPlugin
+            .train_index(
+                Box::pin(stream),
+                store.as_ref(),
+                req,
+                None,
+                Arc::new(crate::progress::NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index = FMIndexPlugin
+            .load_index(
+                store,
+                &created.index_details,
+                0,
+                None,
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("hello".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(2));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_stream_train_splits_partition_by_bytes() {
+        let docs = vec!["abcd", "efgh", "ijkl"];
+        let row_addrs: Vec<u64> = vec![0, 1, 2];
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                false,
+            ),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(docs)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_addrs)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let files = write_partitioned_fmindex_stream_with_config(
+            Box::pin(stream),
+            store.as_ref(),
+            FMIndexPartitionConfig {
+                num_workers: 2,
+                max_rows: 100,
+                max_bytes: 5,
+                queue_size: 1,
+                resume_existing: false,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(files.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(files[0].path, fmindex_partition_path(0));
+        assert_eq!(files[1].path, fmindex_partition_path(1));
+        assert_eq!(files[2].path, fmindex_partition_path(2));
+
+        let index = FMIndexScalarIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("efgh".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(1));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_stream_train_resumes_existing_partitions() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                false,
+            ),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let first_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["first partition"])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let first_stream =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema.clone(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(first_batch)]));
+        let first_files = write_partitioned_fmindex_stream_with_config(
+            Box::pin(first_stream),
+            store.as_ref(),
+            FMIndexPartitionConfig {
+                num_workers: 1,
+                max_rows: 1,
+                max_bytes: 1024,
+                queue_size: 1,
+                resume_existing: false,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first_files.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(first_files[0].path, fmindex_partition_path(0));
+
+        let resumed_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "first partition",
+                    "second partition",
+                ])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let resumed_stream =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema.clone(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(resumed_batch)]));
+        let resumed_files = write_partitioned_fmindex_stream_with_config(
+            Box::pin(resumed_stream),
+            store.as_ref(),
+            FMIndexPartitionConfig {
+                num_workers: 1,
+                max_rows: 1,
+                max_bytes: 1024,
+                queue_size: 1,
+                resume_existing: true,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let resumed_paths = resumed_files
+            .iter()
+            .map(|file| file.path.clone())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resumed_paths,
+            vec![fmindex_partition_path(0), fmindex_partition_path(1)]
+        );
+
+        let index = FMIndexScalarIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("partition".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(2));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_stream_train_rebuilds_stale_resume_partitions() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                false,
+            ),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let stale_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["stale zero", "stale one"])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let stale_stream =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema.clone(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(stale_batch)]));
+        write_partitioned_fmindex_stream_with_config(
+            Box::pin(stale_stream),
+            store.as_ref(),
+            FMIndexPartitionConfig {
+                num_workers: 1,
+                max_rows: 1,
+                max_bytes: 1024,
+                queue_size: 1,
+                resume_existing: false,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fresh_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["fresh zero"])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let fresh_stream =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema.clone(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(fresh_batch)]));
+        let fresh_files = write_partitioned_fmindex_stream_with_config(
+            Box::pin(fresh_stream),
+            store.as_ref(),
+            FMIndexPartitionConfig {
+                num_workers: 1,
+                max_rows: 10,
+                max_bytes: 1024,
+                queue_size: 1,
+                resume_existing: true,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(fresh_files.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(fresh_files[0].path, fmindex_partition_path(0));
+        let remaining_paths = store
+            .list_files_with_sizes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|file| file.path.clone())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(remaining_paths, vec![fmindex_partition_path(0)]);
+
+        let index = FMIndexScalarIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("fresh zero".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(1)),
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("stale one".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(0)),
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_stream_train_propagates_worker_write_error() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                false,
+            ),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["hello"])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let inner = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        )) as Arc<dyn IndexStore>;
+        let store = FailNewFileStore { inner };
+
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let err = write_partitioned_fmindex_stream_with_config(
+            Box::pin(stream),
+            &store,
+            FMIndexPartitionConfig {
+                num_workers: 1,
+                max_rows: 1,
+                max_bytes: 1024,
+                queue_size: 1,
+                resume_existing: false,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(format!("{err}").contains("injected FMIndex write failure"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fail_new_file_store_with_io_priority_preserves_failure() {
+        // `with_io_priority` re-wraps in `FailNewFileStore`, so the reprioritized
+        // store must keep injecting the `new_index_file` failure.
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let inner = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        )) as Arc<dyn IndexStore>;
+        let store = FailNewFileStore { inner };
+
+        let reprioritized = store.with_io_priority(7);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "x",
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let err = reprioritized
+            .new_index_file("test", schema)
+            .await
+            .err()
+            .expect("new_index_file should fail");
+        assert!(format!("{err}").contains("injected FMIndex write failure"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_plugin_train_streams_multiple_partitions() {
+        fn training_batch(
+            schema: Arc<arrow_schema::Schema>,
+            start: usize,
+            len: usize,
+        ) -> RecordBatch {
+            let docs = vec!["x"; len];
+            let row_addrs: Vec<u64> = (start..start + len).map(|i| i as u64).collect();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(docs)),
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_addrs)),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        let total_rows = PARTITION_SIZE + 5;
+        let first_batch_rows = PARTITION_SIZE - 3;
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                false,
+            ),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batches = vec![
+            Ok(training_batch(schema.clone(), 0, first_batch_rows)),
+            Ok(training_batch(
+                schema.clone(),
+                first_batch_rows,
+                total_rows - first_batch_rows,
+            )),
+        ];
+
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            index_dir,
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::iter(batches));
+        let req = FMIndexPlugin
+            .new_training_request("", &arrow_schema::Field::new("val", DataType::Utf8, false))
+            .unwrap();
+        let created = FMIndexPlugin
+            .train_index(
+                Box::pin(stream),
+                store.as_ref(),
+                req,
+                None,
+                Arc::new(crate::progress::NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(created.files.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(created.files[0].path, fmindex_partition_path(0));
+        assert_eq!(created.files[1].path, fmindex_partition_path(1));
+
+        let index = FMIndexPlugin
+            .load_index(
+                store,
+                &created.index_details,
+                0,
+                None,
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let r = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("x".to_string()),
+                &crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        match r {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => {
+                assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(total_rows as u64));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected exact result"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_wavelet_batch() {
+        let texts: Vec<(u64, &[u8])> = vec![(0, b"hello world"), (1, b"test data")];
+        let fm = FMIndex::build(&texts).unwrap();
+        let batch = fm.build_wavelet_batch().unwrap();
+        assert!(batch.num_rows() > 0);
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 5);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_text_bytes_types() {
+        let utf8 = StringArray::from(vec!["hello"]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_text_bytes(&utf8, 0).unwrap(),
+            Some(b"hello".to_vec())
+        );
+
+        let large_utf8 = LargeStringArray::from(vec!["world"]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_text_bytes(&large_utf8, 0).unwrap(),
+            Some(b"world".to_vec())
+        );
+
+        let binary = BinaryArray::from(vec![b"bytes" as &[u8]]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_text_bytes(&binary, 0).unwrap(),
+            Some(b"bytes".to_vec())
+        );
+        let binary_with_sentinels = BinaryArray::from(vec![b"a\xFFb\0c" as &[u8]]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_sanitized_text_bytes(&binary_with_sentinels, 0).unwrap(),
+            Some(b"a b c".to_vec())
+        );
+
+        let large_binary = LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![b"large" as &[u8]]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            extract_text_bytes(&large_binary, 0).unwrap(),
+            Some(b"large".to_vec())
+        );
+
+        // Null handling
+        let nullable = StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>]);
+        assert_eq!(extract_text_bytes(&nullable, 0).unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fmindex_statistics() {
+        let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        rt.block_on(async {
+            let docs: Vec<Vec<u8>> = (0..10).map(|i| format!("doc {i}").into_bytes()).collect();
+            let texts: Vec<(u64, Vec<u8>)> = docs
+                .into_iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(i, d)| (i as u64, d))
+                .collect();
+
+            let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let index_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(tempdir.path()).unwrap();
+            let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+                Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+                index_dir,
+                Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+            ));
+
+            write_partitioned_fmindex(&texts, store.as_ref())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let index = FMIndexScalarIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let stats = index.statistics().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stats["type"], "Fm");
+            assert_eq!(stats["total_docs"], 10);
+            assert!(stats["total_bwt_len"].as_u64().unwrap() > 0);
+        });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted.rs
index e8644600513..364b8df3251 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted.rs
@@ -2,38 +2,439 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 pub mod builder;
+mod cache_codec;
+mod combined;
+mod compound;
+mod cross_column;
+mod documents;
 mod encoding;
+mod impact;
 mod index;
 mod iter;
 pub mod json;
-mod merger;
+/// Brute-force scoring reference for tests and benches. Never built normally; see
+/// the module docs for the gating.
+#[cfg(any(test, feature = "test-oracle"))]
+pub mod oracle;
 pub mod parser;
 pub mod query;
 mod scorer;
 pub mod tokenizer;
 mod wand;
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::BatchRowIdRemapper;
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet, HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
 
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 pub use builder::InvertedIndexBuilder;
+pub use combined::{
+    CombinedCorpusStats, CombinedFieldColumn, FlatFieldStats, build_combined_bm25_scorer,
+    combined_fields_search, flat_combined_fields_search_stream, validate_combined_tokenizers,
+};
+pub use compound::{
+    compound_search, compound_search_prepared_match,
+    compound_search_prepared_match_with_score_floor, compound_search_with_base_scorer,
+    compound_search_with_base_scorer_and_score_floor, exclusive_scaled_score_floor,
+    materialized_compound_top_k,
+};
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub use cross_column::cross_column_compound_search;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 pub use index::*;
-use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, Result};
-use tantivy::tokenizer::Language;
+use lance_core::{Result, cache::LanceCache};
+pub use lance_tokenizer::Language;
+pub use scorer::{CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer, MemBM25Scorer, Scorer};
 pub use tokenizer::*;
 
+use crate::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsSearchParams, Tokens, uses_fuzzy_expansion};
+
+/// Canonical token vocabulary and BM25 statistics for one indexed query leaf.
+///
+/// Keeping these values together prevents a search path from expanding one
+/// vocabulary while scoring another. Positions on `tokens` identify fuzzy
+/// alternatives belonging to the same original query position.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct PreparedBm25Query {
+    tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+    scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    has_all_query_positions: bool,
+    can_reuse_scorer: bool,
+    term_ids: Option<Arc<PreparedTermIds>>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for PreparedBm25Query {
+    fn fmt(&self, formatter: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        formatter
+            .debug_struct("PreparedBm25Query")
+            .field("token_count", &self.tokens.len())
+            .field("has_all_query_positions", &self.has_all_query_positions)
+            .field("can_reuse_scorer", &self.can_reuse_scorer)
+            .field("scorer", &self.scorer)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl PreparedBm25Query {
+    pub(crate) fn from_parts(
+        tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+        scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+        has_all_query_positions: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            tokens,
+            scorer,
+            has_all_query_positions,
+            can_reuse_scorer: false,
+            term_ids: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn tokens(&self) -> &Arc<Tokens> {
+        &self.tokens
+    }
+
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn scorer(&self) -> &Arc<MemBM25Scorer> {
+        &self.scorer
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn reusable_scorer(&self) -> Option<&Arc<MemBM25Scorer>> {
+        self.can_reuse_scorer.then_some(&self.scorer)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn has_all_query_positions(&self) -> bool {
+        self.has_all_query_positions
+    }
+
+    pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) fn term_ids(&self) -> Option<&PreparedTermIds> {
+        self.term_ids.as_deref()
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn final_query_tokens(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query_tokens: &Tokens,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+) -> Result<Tokens> {
+    if !uses_fuzzy_expansion(params.fuzziness) {
+        return Ok(query_tokens.clone());
+    }
+
+    let initial_capacity = query_tokens.len().min(params.max_expansions);
+    let mut expanded_tokens = Vec::with_capacity(initial_capacity);
+    let mut expanded_positions = Vec::with_capacity(initial_capacity);
+    let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+    let mut source_terms_by_position = BTreeMap::<u32, Vec<&str>>::new();
+    for token_idx in 0..query_tokens.len() {
+        source_terms_by_position
+            .entry(query_tokens.position(token_idx))
+            .or_default()
+            .push(query_tokens.get_token(token_idx));
+    }
+    for (position, source_terms) in source_terms_by_position {
+        let remaining = params.max_expansions.saturating_sub(expanded_tokens.len());
+        if remaining == 0 {
+            break;
+        }
+        let mut candidates = BTreeSet::new();
+        let mut seen_source_terms = HashSet::new();
+        for source_term in source_terms {
+            if !seen_source_terms.insert(source_term) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            // One source token has one canonical automaton across every
+            // selected segment. Drop it after this source term so peak DFA
+            // memory is independent of the number of query terms.
+            let automaton = FuzzyAutomaton::new(source_term, query_tokens.token_type(), params)?;
+            for index in indices {
+                index.collect_fuzzy_candidates_with_automaton(
+                    &automaton,
+                    remaining,
+                    &mut candidates,
+                )?;
+            }
+        }
+        for candidate in candidates {
+            if expanded_tokens.len() >= params.max_expansions {
+                break;
+            }
+            if seen.insert((candidate.clone(), position)) {
+                expanded_tokens.push(candidate);
+                expanded_positions.push(position);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(Tokens::with_positions(
+        expanded_tokens,
+        expanded_positions,
+        query_tokens.token_type().clone(),
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Deduplicated terms in first-occurrence order, plus each token's term
+/// ordinal.
+fn unique_terms(tokens: &Tokens) -> (Vec<String>, Box<[usize]>) {
+    let mut terms = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+    let mut term_ordinals = HashMap::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+    let term_by_token = tokens
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|token| {
+            *term_ordinals.entry(token.as_str()).or_insert_with(|| {
+                terms.push(token.clone());
+                terms.len() - 1
+            })
+        })
+        .collect();
+    (terms, term_by_token)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn has_all_query_positions(query_tokens: &Tokens, final_tokens: &Tokens) -> bool {
+    let surviving_positions = (0..final_tokens.len())
+        .map(|index| final_tokens.position(index))
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    (0..query_tokens.len()).all(|index| surviving_positions.contains(&query_tokens.position(index)))
+}
+
+const LANCE_FTS_SYNC_DF_ENV: &str = "LANCE_FTS_SYNC_DF";
+
+fn sync_df_enabled_from_value(value: Option<&str>) -> bool {
+    !value.is_some_and(|value| {
+        let value = value.trim();
+        value == "0" || value.eq_ignore_ascii_case("off")
+    })
+}
+
+static LANCE_FTS_SYNC_DF_ENABLED: LazyLock<bool> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    sync_df_enabled_from_value(std::env::var(LANCE_FTS_SYNC_DF_ENV).ok().as_deref())
+});
+
+/// A global scorer plus each segment's partition-major token ids for the
+/// scored terms, which the statistics had to resolve anyway.
+type LoadedScorer = (Arc<MemBM25Scorer>, Vec<Box<[Option<u32>]>>);
+
+/// Build the global scorer without futures when a completed full prewarm made
+/// every segment statistic and posting-length table synchronously available.
+/// Returning `None` leaves the existing asynchronous path entirely in charge.
+fn bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    terms: &[String],
+) -> Result<Option<LoadedScorer>> {
+    bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats_with_enabled(indices, terms, *LANCE_FTS_SYNC_DF_ENABLED)
+}
+
+fn bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats_with_enabled(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    terms: &[String],
+    is_enabled: bool,
+) -> Result<Option<LoadedScorer>> {
+    // Keep the kill switch first so an ablation does not even probe prewarm
+    // state or resident metadata.
+    if !is_enabled {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let mut loaded_stats = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+    let mut token_ids = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+    for index in indices {
+        let Some(loaded) = index.bm25_stats_for_terms_if_loaded(terms)? else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        loaded_stats.push(loaded.stats);
+        token_ids.push(loaded.token_ids);
+    }
+
+    Ok(merge_loaded_bm25_stats(terms, loaded_stats)?.map(|scorer| (scorer, token_ids)))
+}
+
+fn merge_loaded_bm25_stats(
+    terms: &[String],
+    loaded_stats: Vec<(u64, usize, Vec<usize>)>,
+) -> Result<Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>> {
+    let mut loaded_stats = loaded_stats.into_iter();
+    let Some((mut total_tokens, mut num_docs, first_token_docs)) = loaded_stats.next() else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if first_token_docs.len() != terms.len() {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+            "loaded FTS document-frequency count is {}, expected {}",
+            first_token_docs.len(),
+            terms.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    let mut token_docs = HashMap::with_capacity(terms.len());
+    for (term, count) in terms.iter().cloned().zip(first_token_docs) {
+        token_docs.insert(term, count);
+    }
+    for (segment_total_tokens, segment_num_docs, segment_token_docs) in loaded_stats {
+        if segment_token_docs.len() != terms.len() {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                "loaded FTS document-frequency count is {}, expected {}",
+                segment_token_docs.len(),
+                terms.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        total_tokens = total_tokens
+            .checked_add(segment_total_tokens)
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::index("FTS corpus token count overflows u64"))?;
+        num_docs = num_docs
+            .checked_add(segment_num_docs)
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::index("FTS corpus document count overflows usize"))?;
+        for (term, count) in terms.iter().zip(segment_token_docs) {
+            let total = token_docs.get_mut(term).ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                    "global scorer term '{term}' was not initialized"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            *total = total.checked_add(count).ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::index(format!(
+                    "FTS document frequency for term '{term}' overflows usize"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(Some(Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(
+        total_tokens,
+        num_docs,
+        token_docs,
+    ))))
+}
+
+/// Expand and score one indexed query leaf exactly once across all segments.
+///
+/// Expansion consumes one deterministic `max_expansions` budget in query
+/// position order, with terms ordered lexicographically across every physical
+/// segment and partition and deduplicated by `(term, position)`. The scorer's
+/// document frequencies are then merged for exactly those final terms.
+///
+/// `base_scorer` is an API-compatibility hook for distributed/mixed callers
+/// that already own corpus-wide statistics. It is validated against the final
+/// vocabulary before being paired with the tokens.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub async fn prepare_bm25_query(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query_tokens: Tokens,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    metrics: Option<&dyn crate::scalar::MetricsCollector>,
+    base_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+) -> Result<PreparedBm25Query> {
+    let first_index = indices.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        lance_core::Error::invalid_input("FTS index requires at least one segment")
+    })?;
+    let (tokens, has_all_query_positions) = if uses_fuzzy_expansion(params.fuzziness) {
+        let tokens = Arc::new(final_query_tokens(indices, &query_tokens, params)?);
+        let has_all_query_positions = has_all_query_positions(&query_tokens, tokens.as_ref());
+        (tokens, has_all_query_positions)
+    } else {
+        (Arc::new(query_tokens), true)
+    };
+    let (terms, term_by_token) = unique_terms(tokens.as_ref());
+    let mut term_ids = None;
+    let (scorer, can_reuse_scorer) = if let Some(scorer) = base_scorer {
+        if let Some(missing) = terms
+            .iter()
+            .find(|term| !scorer.token_docs.contains_key(term.as_str()))
+        {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "injected BM25 scorer is missing compound FTS token '{missing}'"
+            )));
+        }
+        (scorer, false)
+    } else if let Some((scorer, segment_token_ids)) =
+        bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats(indices, &terms)?
+    {
+        let mut prepared_term_ids = PreparedTermIds::new(term_by_token, terms.len());
+        for (index, token_ids) in indices.iter().zip(segment_token_ids) {
+            prepared_term_ids.push_segment(index, token_ids)?;
+        }
+        term_ids = Some(Arc::new(prepared_term_ids));
+        (scorer, true)
+    } else {
+        let (mut total_tokens, mut num_docs, first_token_docs) =
+            first_index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, metrics).await?;
+        let mut token_docs = HashMap::with_capacity(terms.len());
+        for (term, count) in terms.iter().cloned().zip(first_token_docs) {
+            token_docs.insert(term, count);
+        }
+
+        for index in indices.iter().skip(1) {
+            let (segment_total_tokens, segment_num_docs, segment_token_docs) =
+                index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, metrics).await?;
+            total_tokens = total_tokens
+                .checked_add(segment_total_tokens)
+                .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::index("FTS corpus token count overflows u64"))?;
+            num_docs = num_docs.checked_add(segment_num_docs).ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::index("FTS corpus document count overflows usize")
+            })?;
+            for (term, count) in terms.iter().zip(segment_token_docs) {
+                let total = token_docs.get_mut(term).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                        "global scorer term '{term}' was not initialized"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                *total = total.checked_add(count).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    lance_core::Error::index(format!(
+                        "FTS document frequency for term '{term}' overflows usize"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            }
+        }
+        (
+            Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(total_tokens, num_docs, token_docs)),
+            true,
+        )
+    };
+
+    Ok(PreparedBm25Query {
+        tokens,
+        scorer,
+        has_all_query_positions,
+        can_reuse_scorer,
+        term_ids,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Build a shared [`MemBM25Scorer`] across a set of FTS index segments.
+///
+/// Compatibility wrapper for callers that only need statistics. Indexed
+/// execution should retain the [`PreparedBm25Query`] returned by
+/// [`prepare_bm25_query`] so the same final vocabulary reaches search.
+///
+/// Aggregates each segment's `(total_tokens, num_docs, per_term_doc_freq)`
+/// statistics into a single corpus-wide scorer.
+///
+/// `metrics`, when provided, is forwarded to the per-token metadata cache
+/// boundary on each segment so callers running under an `ExecutionPlan`
+/// (e.g. `MatchQueryExec`) see the reads triggered here in their per-query
+/// `index_cache_hits`/`index_cache_misses` counters.
+///
+/// For exact queries this remains the compatibility producer paired with the
+/// `with_base_scorer` consumer on FTS exec types. Fuzzy distributed execution
+/// must retain the full [`PreparedBm25Query`] from [`prepare_bm25_query`]; a
+/// scorer alone cannot preserve the canonical expansion vocabulary.
+pub async fn build_global_bm25_scorer(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query_tokens: &Tokens,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    metrics: Option<&dyn crate::scalar::MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<MemBM25Scorer> {
+    let prepared = prepare_bm25_query(indices, query_tokens.clone(), params, metrics, None).await?;
+    Ok(prepared.scorer.as_ref().clone())
+}
+
 use lance_core::Error;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::pbold;
-use crate::{
-    frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex,
-    scalar::{
-        expression::{FtsQueryParser, ScalarQueryParser},
-        registry::{ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest},
-        CreatedIndex, ScalarIndex,
+use crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
+use crate::scalar::{
+    CreatedIndex, RowIdRemapper, ScalarIndex,
+    expression::{FtsQueryParser, ScalarQueryParser},
+    registry::{
+        BasicTrainer, ScalarIndexLoad, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering,
+        TrainingRequest, single_flight_store_bound_open,
     },
 };
 
@@ -48,6 +449,7 @@ impl InvertedIndexPlugin {
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         params: InvertedIndexParams,
         fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         let fragment_mask = fragment_ids.as_ref().and_then(|frag_ids| {
             if !frag_ids.is_empty() {
@@ -60,13 +462,22 @@ impl InvertedIndexPlugin {
             }
         });
 
+        params.validate_format_version()?;
+        let format_version = params.resolved_format_version();
+        let is_element_document = params.get_document_granularity().is_list_element();
         let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&params)?;
         let mut inverted_index =
-            InvertedIndexBuilder::new_with_fragment_mask(params, fragment_mask);
-        inverted_index.update(data, index_store).await?;
+            InvertedIndexBuilder::new_with_fragment_mask(params, fragment_mask)
+                .with_progress(progress);
+        let files = inverted_index.update(data, index_store, None).await?;
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap(),
-            index_version: INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION,
+            index_version: if is_element_document {
+                INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3
+            } else {
+                format_version.index_version()
+            },
+            files,
         })
     }
 
@@ -104,11 +515,7 @@ impl TrainingRequest for InvertedIndexTrainingRequest {
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndexPlugin for InvertedIndexPlugin {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "Inverted"
-    }
-
+impl BasicTrainer for InvertedIndexPlugin {
     fn new_training_request(
         &self,
         params: &str,
@@ -119,44 +526,17 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for InvertedIndexPlugin {
             DataType::List(f) if matches!(f.data_type(), DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8) => (),
             DataType::LargeList(f) if matches!(f.data_type(), DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8) => (),
 
-            _ => return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
-                    "A inverted index can only be created on a Utf8 or LargeUtf8 field/list or LargeBinary field. Column has type {:?}",
-                    field.data_type()
-                )
-                    .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            _ => return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!(
+                "A inverted index can only be created on a Utf8 or LargeUtf8 field/list or LargeBinary field. Column has type {:?}",
+                field.data_type()
+            )
+                .into()))
         }
 
-        let params = serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(params)?;
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::from_training_json(params)?;
         Ok(Box::new(InvertedIndexTrainingRequest::new(params)))
     }
 
-    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
-        false
-    }
-
-    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
-        INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION
-    }
-
-    fn new_query_parser(
-        &self,
-        index_name: String,
-        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
-        let Ok(index_details) = _index_details.to_msg::<pbold::InvertedIndexDetails>() else {
-            return None;
-        };
-
-        if Self::can_accelerate_queries(&index_details) {
-            Some(Box::new(FtsQueryParser::new(index_name)))
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
-    }
-
     /// Train a new index
     ///
     /// The provided data must fulfill all the criteria returned by `training_criteria`.
@@ -173,15 +553,61 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for InvertedIndexPlugin {
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
         fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         let request = (request as Box<dyn std::any::Any>)
             .downcast::<InvertedIndexTrainingRequest>()
-            .map_err(|_| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "must provide training request created by new_training_request".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "must provide training request created by new_training_request".into(),
+                )
             })?;
-        Self::train_inverted_index(data, index_store, request.parameters.clone(), fragment_ids)
-            .await
+        Self::train_inverted_index(
+            data,
+            index_store,
+            request.parameters.clone(),
+            fragment_ids,
+            progress,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for InvertedIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "Inverted"
+    }
+
+    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
+        INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3
+    }
+
+    fn new_query_parser(
+        &self,
+        index_name: String,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
+        let Ok(index_details) = _index_details.to_msg::<pbold::InvertedIndexDetails>() else {
+            return None;
+        };
+
+        if Self::can_accelerate_queries(&index_details) {
+            Some(Box::new(FtsQueryParser::new(
+                index_name,
+                self.name().to_string(),
+            )))
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
     }
 
     /// Load an index from storage
@@ -191,19 +617,193 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for InvertedIndexPlugin {
     async fn load_index(
         &self,
         index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
-        Ok(
-            InvertedIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await?
-                as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
-        )
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await?;
+        let details = index_details.to_msg::<pbold::InvertedIndexDetails>()?;
+        let expected_granularity = DocumentGranularity::try_from(details.document_granularity)?;
+        let physical_granularity = index.params().get_document_granularity();
+        if physical_granularity != expected_granularity {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "FTS document granularity in index details is {expected_granularity:?}, but the physical document schema implies {physical_granularity:?}"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(index as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+    }
+
+    fn supports_batch_row_id_remapping(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn load_index_with_remapping(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        let index =
+            InvertedIndex::load_with_remapping(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await?;
+        let details = index_details.to_msg::<pbold::InvertedIndexDetails>()?;
+        let expected_granularity = DocumentGranularity::try_from(details.document_granularity)?;
+        let physical_granularity = index.params().get_document_granularity();
+        if physical_granularity != expected_granularity {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "FTS document granularity in index details is {expected_granularity:?}, but the physical document schema implies {physical_granularity:?}"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(index as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+    }
+
+    async fn get_or_insert_in_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        load: ScalarIndexLoad<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        let rebind_store = index_store.clone();
+        single_flight_store_bound_open(index_store, cache, load, move |index| async move {
+            let index = index
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("cached FTS index has an unexpected type"))?;
+            index
+                .with_store(rebind_store, frag_reuse_index)
+                .map(|index| index.map(|index| Arc::new(index) as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>))
+        })
+        .await
     }
 
     fn details_as_json(&self, details: &prost_types::Any) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
         let index_details = details.to_msg::<pbold::InvertedIndexDetails>()?;
         let index_params = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&index_details)?;
-        Ok(serde_json::json!(&index_params))
+        Ok(index_params.to_details_json()?)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sync_df_kill_switch_parser() {
+        for value in [None, Some(""), Some("1"), Some("on"), Some("false")] {
+            assert!(
+                sync_df_enabled_from_value(value),
+                "unexpected disable: {value:?}"
+            );
+        }
+        for value in [Some("0"), Some("off"), Some("OFF"), Some(" off ")] {
+            assert!(
+                !sync_df_enabled_from_value(value),
+                "unexpected enable: {value:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prepared_query_from_parts_keeps_scorer_ineligible_for_reuse() {
+        let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+            vec!["term".to_owned()],
+            crate::scalar::inverted::document_tokenizer::DocType::Text,
+        ));
+        let scorer = Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, HashMap::new()));
+        let prepared = PreparedBm25Query::from_parts(tokens, scorer.clone(), true);
+
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(prepared.scorer(), &scorer));
+        assert!(prepared.reusable_scorer().is_none());
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&scorer), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sync_df_merge_reports_checked_overflow_and_invalid_shape() {
+        let terms = vec!["term".to_string()];
+        for (stats, expected) in [
+            (
+                vec![(u64::MAX, 1, vec![1]), (1, 1, vec![1])],
+                "corpus token count overflows u64",
+            ),
+            (
+                vec![(1, usize::MAX, vec![1]), (1, 1, vec![1])],
+                "corpus document count overflows usize",
+            ),
+            (
+                vec![(1, 1, vec![usize::MAX]), (1, 1, vec![1])],
+                "document frequency for term 'term' overflows usize",
+            ),
+        ] {
+            let error = merge_loaded_bm25_stats(&terms, stats).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains(expected),
+                "unexpected error: {error}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let error = merge_loaded_bm25_stats(&terms, vec![(1, 1, Vec::new())]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::Internal { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("document-frequency count is 0, expected 1"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plugin_version_tracks_v3_capability_gate() {
+        let plugin = InvertedIndexPlugin;
+        assert_eq!(plugin.version(), INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_details_json_includes_document_granularity() {
+        let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails {
+            document_granularity: pbold::inverted_index_details::DocumentGranularity::ListElement
+                as i32,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap();
+
+        let json = InvertedIndexPlugin.details_as_json(&details).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(json["document_granularity"], "list_element");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_new_training_request_defaults_missing_block_size_to_128() {
+        let plugin = InvertedIndexPlugin;
+        let field = Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true);
+
+        let cases = [
+            (
+                ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Inverted),
+                false,
+            ),
+            (ScalarIndexParams::new("inverted".to_string()), false),
+            (
+                ScalarIndexParams::new("inverted".to_string())
+                    .with_params(&serde_json::json!({ "with_position": true })),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        for (params, expected_with_position) in cases {
+            let request = plugin
+                .new_training_request(params.params.as_deref().unwrap_or("{}"), &field)
+                .unwrap();
+            let request = request
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndexTrainingRequest>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(request.parameters.posting_block_size(), DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE);
+            assert_eq!(request.parameters.has_positions(), expected_with_position);
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/builder.rs
index 07f16391a0a..a5eb9271c3c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/builder.rs
@@ -1,74 +1,197 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use super::{
-    index::*,
-    merger::{Merger, PartitionSource, SizeBasedMerger},
-    InvertedIndexParams,
-};
+use super::{InvertedIndexParams, index::*};
+use crate::scalar::RowAddrTranslatorRef;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::document_tokenizer::DocType;
 use crate::scalar::inverted::json::JsonTextStream;
-use crate::scalar::inverted::lance_tokenizer::DocType;
-use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::lance_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer;
+#[cfg(test)]
 use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
-use crate::scalar::IndexStore;
+use crate::scalar::{IndexFile, IndexStore, OldIndexDataFilter};
 use crate::vector::graph::OrderedFloat;
+use crate::{progress::IndexBuildProgress, progress::noop_progress};
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
 use arrow::datatypes;
-use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, BinaryArray, RecordBatch};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
-use bitpacking::{BitPacker, BitPacker4x};
-use datafusion::execution::{RecordBatchStream, SendableRecordBatchStream};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_arrow::json::JSON_EXT_NAME;
-use lance_arrow::{iter_str_array, ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY};
-use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
-use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, utils::tokio::spawn_cpu};
-use lance_core::{error::LanceOptionExt, utils::tempfile::TempDir};
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD};
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_arrow::iter_str_array;
+use lance_arrow::json::JsonEncoding;
+use lance_bitpacking::{BitPacker, BitPacker4x};
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{IO_CORE_RESERVATION, get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_select::RowSetOps;
 use object_store::path::Path;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use smallvec::SmallVec;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::str::FromStr;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
-use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 use std::{fmt::Debug, sync::atomic::AtomicU64};
+use tokio::task::JoinSet;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
-// the number of elements in each block
-// each block contains 128 row ids and 128 frequencies
-// WARNING: changing this value will break the compatibility with existing indexes
+// The legacy bitpacking block size. Position streams still use this block size;
+// FTS posting blocks choose their physical bitpacker from the configured
+// InvertedIndexParams::block_size.
 pub const BLOCK_SIZE: usize = BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN;
 
-// the number of shards to split the indexing work,
-// the indexing process would spawn `LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS` workers to build FTS,
-// higher for faster indexing performance, but more memory usage,
-// it's `the number of compute intensive CPUs` by default
+// The default number of workers to use for FTS builds.
+// By default this is roughly `num_cpus / 2`, but it can be overridden
+// with `LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS`.
 pub static LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     std::env::var("LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS")
-        .unwrap_or_else(|_| get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().to_string())
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| default_num_workers().to_string())
         .parse()
         .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS")
 });
-// the partition size limit in MiB (uncompressed format)
-// higher for better indexing & query performance, but more memory usage,
+// The default per-worker memory limit in MiB for FTS builds.
 pub static LANCE_FTS_PARTITION_SIZE: LazyLock<u64> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     std::env::var("LANCE_FTS_PARTITION_SIZE")
-        .unwrap_or_else(|_| "256".to_string())
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| "2048".to_string())
         .parse()
         .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FTS_PARTITION_SIZE")
 });
-// the target size of partition after merging in MiB (uncompressed format)
-pub static LANCE_FTS_TARGET_SIZE: LazyLock<u64> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    std::env::var("LANCE_FTS_TARGET_SIZE")
-        .unwrap_or_else(|_| "4096".to_string())
+static LANCE_FTS_WRITE_QUEUE_SIZE: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_FTS_WRITE_QUEUE_SIZE")
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| "1".to_string())
+        .parse()
+        .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FTS_WRITE_QUEUE_SIZE")
+});
+static LANCE_FTS_POSTING_BATCH_ROWS: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_FTS_POSTING_BATCH_ROWS")
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| "256".to_string())
         .parse()
-        .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FTS_TARGET_SIZE")
+        .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FTS_POSTING_BATCH_ROWS")
 });
+const MAX_RETAINED_TOKEN_IDS: usize = 8 * 1024;
+
+fn default_num_workers() -> usize {
+    let total_cpus = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus() + *IO_CORE_RESERVATION;
+    std::cmp::max(1, total_cpus / 2)
+}
+
+fn resolve_num_workers(params: &InvertedIndexParams) -> usize {
+    let max_workers = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1);
+    params
+        .num_workers
+        .unwrap_or(*LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS)
+        .clamp(1, max_workers)
+}
+
+fn resolve_worker_memory_limit_bytes(params: &InvertedIndexParams, num_workers: usize) -> u64 {
+    let default_worker_memory_limit_bytes = *LANCE_FTS_PARTITION_SIZE << 20;
+    params
+        .memory_limit_mb
+        .map(|memory_limit_mb| (memory_limit_mb << 20) / num_workers as u64)
+        .unwrap_or(default_worker_memory_limit_bytes)
+}
+
+/// Merge the workers' leftover tail builders into as few partitions as the
+/// memory budget allows. Folding unconditionally would collapse every build
+/// whose workers never hit the flush threshold into a single partition, which
+/// destroys intra-query parallelism, so a partition only takes builders while
+/// it stays under the same per-partition budget as the flush path.
+///
+/// Merging runs in rounds whose groups are merged concurrently. A round plans
+/// its groups from the sum of the builders' memory sizes, which overestimates
+/// the merged size: every worker keeps its own dictionary entry and posting
+/// list builder for each token it saw, and merging deduplicates them. The next
+/// round plans again from the merged sizes, until no two adjacent builders fit
+/// together. Every two adjacent partitions then reach the budget, so the
+/// partition count stays below 2 * merged_memory / memory_limit_bytes + 1
+/// however many workers produced tails.
+async fn merge_tail_partitions(
+    tails: Vec<TailPartition>,
+    memory_limit_bytes: u64,
+) -> Result<Vec<InnerBuilder>> {
+    let mut builders = tails
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|tail| tail.builder)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    loop {
+        let groups =
+            spawn_cpu(move || Result::Ok(group_tail_builders(builders, memory_limit_bytes)))
+                .await?;
+        let merges_any = groups.iter().any(|group| group.len() > 1);
+        builders = futures::stream::iter(
+            groups
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|group| spawn_cpu(move || merge_tail_group(group))),
+        )
+        .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1))
+        .try_collect()
+        .await?;
+        if !merges_any {
+            return Ok(builders);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Split `builders` into consecutive groups whose summed memory sizes stay
+/// under `memory_limit_bytes`.
+fn group_tail_builders(
+    builders: Vec<InnerBuilder>,
+    memory_limit_bytes: u64,
+) -> Vec<Vec<InnerBuilder>> {
+    let mut groups: Vec<Vec<InnerBuilder>> = Vec::new();
+    let mut group_memory_size = 0u64;
+    let mut group_num_docs = 0usize;
+    let mut empty_coordinate_builder: Option<InnerBuilder> = None;
+    for builder in builders {
+        if builder.is_empty() {
+            if builder.docs.coordinate_rank() > 0 && empty_coordinate_builder.is_none() {
+                empty_coordinate_builder = Some(builder);
+            }
+            continue;
+        }
+        let memory_size = builder.memory_size();
+        let num_docs = builder.docs.len();
+        match groups.last_mut() {
+            Some(group)
+                if group_memory_size.saturating_add(memory_size) < memory_limit_bytes
+                    && group_num_docs.saturating_add(num_docs) <= u32::MAX as usize =>
+            {
+                group.push(builder);
+                group_memory_size += memory_size;
+                group_num_docs += num_docs;
+            }
+            _ => {
+                groups.push(vec![builder]);
+                group_memory_size = memory_size;
+                group_num_docs = num_docs;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if groups.is_empty()
+        && let Some(builder) = empty_coordinate_builder
+    {
+        groups.push(vec![builder]);
+    }
+    groups
+}
+
+fn merge_tail_group(group: Vec<InnerBuilder>) -> Result<InnerBuilder> {
+    let mut builders = group.into_iter();
+    let mut merged = builders
+        .next()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("tail partition group is empty".to_owned()))?;
+    for builder in builders {
+        merged.merge_from(builder)?;
+    }
+    Ok(merged)
+}
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct InvertedIndexBuilder {
@@ -77,9 +200,11 @@ pub struct InvertedIndexBuilder {
     new_partitions: Vec<u64>,
     fragment_mask: Option<u64>,
     token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
-    _tmpdir: TempDir,
-    local_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-    src_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    src_store: Option<Arc<dyn IndexStore>>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+    deleted_fragments: RoaringBitmap,
 }
 
 impl InvertedIndexBuilder {
@@ -94,6 +219,7 @@ impl InvertedIndexBuilder {
             Vec::new(),
             TokenSetFormat::default(),
             fragment_mask,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
         )
     }
 
@@ -109,31 +235,56 @@ impl InvertedIndexBuilder {
         partitions: Vec<u64>,
         token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
         fragment_mask: Option<u64>,
+        deleted_fragments: RoaringBitmap,
     ) -> Self {
-        let tmpdir = TempDir::default();
-        let local_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            ObjectStore::local().into(),
-            tmpdir.obj_path(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-        let src_store = store.unwrap_or_else(|| local_store.clone());
+        let format_version = params.resolved_format_version();
         Self {
             params,
             partitions,
             new_partitions: Vec::new(),
-            _tmpdir: tmpdir,
-            local_store,
-            src_store,
+            src_store: store,
             token_set_format,
             fragment_mask,
+            format_version,
+            posting_tail_codec: format_version.posting_tail_codec(),
+            progress: noop_progress(),
+            deleted_fragments,
         }
     }
 
+    pub fn with_posting_tail_codec(mut self, posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec) -> Self {
+        self.format_version = InvertedListFormatVersion::from_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            self.params.block_size,
+        )
+        .expect("invalid posting tail codec for posting block size");
+        self.posting_tail_codec = posting_tail_codec;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_format_version(mut self, format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion) -> Self {
+        self.format_version = format_version;
+        self.posting_tail_codec = format_version.posting_tail_codec();
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_token_set_format(mut self, token_set_format: TokenSetFormat) -> Self {
+        self.token_set_format = token_set_format;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_progress(mut self, progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>) -> Self {
+        self.progress = progress;
+        self
+    }
+
     pub async fn update(
         &mut self,
         new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+        old_data_filter: Option<crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        validate_format_version_block_size(self.format_version, self.params.block_size)?;
         let schema = new_data.schema();
         let doc_col = schema.field(0).name();
 
@@ -147,98 +298,326 @@ impl InvertedIndexBuilder {
 
         let new_data = document_input(new_data, doc_col)?;
 
-        self.update_index(new_data).await?;
-        self.write(dest_store).await?;
-        Ok(())
+        self.progress
+            .stage_start("tokenize_docs", None, "rows")
+            .await?;
+        let mut files = self.update_index(new_data, dest_store).await?;
+
+        if let Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments { to_remove, .. }) = old_data_filter {
+            self.deleted_fragments.extend(to_remove);
+        }
+
+        self.progress.stage_complete("tokenize_docs").await?;
+        files.extend(self.write(dest_store).await?);
+        Ok(files)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn update_from_segments(
+        &mut self,
+        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_segments: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+        old_data_filter: Option<crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        validate_format_version_block_size(self.format_version, self.params.block_size)?;
+        let schema = new_data.schema();
+        let doc_col = schema.field(0).name();
+
+        if self.params.lance_tokenizer.is_none() {
+            let field = schema.column_with_name(doc_col).expect_ok()?.1;
+            let doc_type = DocType::try_from(field)?;
+            self.params.lance_tokenizer = Some(doc_type.as_ref().to_string());
+        }
+
+        let mut files = self
+            .merge_existing_segments(dest_store, old_segments, old_data_filter.as_ref())
+            .await?;
+
+        let new_data = document_input(new_data, doc_col)?;
+
+        self.progress
+            .stage_start("tokenize_docs", None, "rows")
+            .await?;
+        files.extend(self.update_index(new_data, dest_store).await?);
+        self.progress.stage_complete("tokenize_docs").await?;
+
+        files.extend(self.write(dest_store).await?);
+        Ok(files)
+    }
+
+    async fn merge_existing_segments(
+        &mut self,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_segments: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+        old_data_filter: Option<&crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let num_workers = resolve_num_workers(&self.params);
+        let memory_limit_bytes = resolve_worker_memory_limit_bytes(&self.params, num_workers);
+        let mut merged: Option<InnerBuilder> = None;
+        let mut files = Vec::new();
+        for index in old_segments {
+            if old_data_filter.is_none() {
+                self.deleted_fragments
+                    .extend(index.deleted_fragments().iter());
+            }
+            for partition in &index.partitions {
+                let mut partition_builder = partition.as_ref().clone().into_builder().await?;
+                if let Some(filter) = old_data_filter {
+                    partition_builder.filter_old_data(filter).await?;
+                }
+                if partition_builder.is_empty() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                match merged.take() {
+                    Some(mut accumulated) => {
+                        let would_exceed_memory = accumulated
+                            .memory_size()
+                            .saturating_add(partition_builder.memory_size())
+                            >= memory_limit_bytes;
+                        let would_exceed_doc_ids = accumulated
+                            .docs
+                            .len()
+                            .saturating_add(partition_builder.docs.len())
+                            > u32::MAX as usize;
+                        if would_exceed_memory || would_exceed_doc_ids {
+                            merged = Some(partition_builder);
+                            files.extend(self.write_new_partition(dest_store, accumulated).await?);
+                        } else {
+                            // `merge_from` remaps token ids into a unified
+                            // dictionary and concatenates posting lists across
+                            // builders holding up to LANCE_FTS_PARTITION_SIZE of
+                            // state, so it runs for seconds at a time. Inline it
+                            // would occupy a runtime worker for that whole span,
+                            // starving the tasks driving in-flight uploads; the
+                            // upload's whole-request timeout keeps running while
+                            // its task waits to be polled. The builder is moved
+                            // in and handed back so ownership survives the hop.
+                            accumulated = spawn_cpu(move || {
+                                accumulated.merge_from(partition_builder)?;
+                                Result::Ok(accumulated)
+                            })
+                            .await?;
+                            merged = Some(accumulated);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    None => merged = Some(partition_builder),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let Some(builder) = merged {
+            files.extend(self.write_new_partition(dest_store, builder).await?);
+        }
+        Ok(files)
+    }
+
+    async fn write_new_partition(
+        &mut self,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        mut builder: InnerBuilder,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let partition_id = self.next_partition_id() | self.fragment_mask.unwrap_or(0);
+        builder.set_id(partition_id);
+        let files = builder
+            .write_to(dest_store, self.partition_write_target())
+            .await?;
+        self.new_partitions.push(partition_id);
+        Ok(files)
+    }
+
+    fn partition_write_target(&self) -> PartitionWriteTarget {
+        if self.fragment_mask.is_some() {
+            PartitionWriteTarget::Staged
+        } else {
+            PartitionWriteTarget::Final
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn next_partition_id(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.partitions
+            .iter()
+            .chain(self.new_partitions.iter())
+            .map(|id| id + 1)
+            .max()
+            .unwrap_or(0)
     }
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    async fn update_index(&mut self, stream: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Result<()> {
-        let num_workers = *LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS;
+    async fn update_index(
+        &mut self,
+        stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let num_workers = resolve_num_workers(&self.params);
         let tokenizer = self.params.build()?;
         let with_position = self.params.with_position;
-        let next_id = self.partitions.iter().map(|id| id + 1).max().unwrap_or(0);
+        let worker_memory_limit_bytes =
+            resolve_worker_memory_limit_bytes(&self.params, num_workers);
+        let worker_config = IndexWorkerConfig {
+            with_position,
+            format_version: self.format_version,
+            fragment_mask: self.fragment_mask,
+            token_set_format: self.token_set_format,
+            worker_memory_limit_bytes,
+            block_size: self.params.block_size,
+            coordinate_rank: document_coordinate_rank(&stream.schema()),
+        };
+        let next_id = self.next_partition_id();
         let id_alloc = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(next_id));
+        let tokenized_count = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
         let (sender, receiver) = async_channel::bounded(num_workers);
-        let mut index_tasks = Vec::with_capacity(num_workers);
+        let dest_store = dest_store.clone_arc();
+        let mut index_tasks = JoinSet::new();
         for _ in 0..num_workers {
-            let store = self.local_store.clone();
             let tokenizer = tokenizer.clone();
-            let receiver = receiver.clone();
+            let receiver: async_channel::Receiver<RecordBatch> = receiver.clone();
+            let dest_store = dest_store.clone();
             let id_alloc = id_alloc.clone();
-            let fragment_mask = self.fragment_mask;
-            let token_set_format = self.token_set_format;
-            let task = tokio::task::spawn(async move {
-                let mut worker = IndexWorker::new(
-                    store,
-                    tokenizer,
-                    with_position,
-                    id_alloc,
-                    fragment_mask,
-                    token_set_format,
-                )
-                .await?;
+            let progress = self.progress.clone();
+            let tokenized_count = tokenized_count.clone();
+            index_tasks.spawn(async move {
+                let mut worker =
+                    IndexWorker::new(tokenizer, dest_store, id_alloc, worker_config).await?;
                 while let Ok(batch) = receiver.recv().await {
+                    let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
                     worker.process_batch(batch).await?;
+                    let tokenized_count = tokenized_count
+                        .fetch_add(num_rows as u64, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
+                        + num_rows as u64;
+                    progress
+                        .stage_progress("tokenize_docs", tokenized_count)
+                        .await?;
                 }
-                let partitions = worker.finish().await?;
-                Result::Ok(partitions)
+                worker.finish().await
             });
-            index_tasks.push(task);
         }
 
-        let sender = Arc::new(sender);
+        let index_build = async {
+            // Keep the channel lifetime tied to the worker tasks so senders observe
+            // worker exits instead of blocking on an orphaned receiver handle.
+            drop(receiver);
 
-        let mut stream = Box::pin(stream.then({
-            |batch_result| {
-                let sender = sender.clone();
-                async move {
-                    let sender = sender.clone();
-                    let batch = batch_result?;
-                    let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
-                    sender.send(batch).await.expect("failed to send batch");
-                    Result::Ok(num_rows)
+            let mut stream = Box::pin(stream);
+            log::info!("indexing FTS with {} workers", num_workers);
+
+            let mut last_num_rows = 0;
+            let mut total_num_rows = 0;
+            let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+            loop {
+                let batch = match stream.try_next().await {
+                    Ok(Some(batch)) => batch,
+                    Ok(None) => break,
+                    Err(err) => {
+                        drop(stream);
+                        drop(sender);
+                        index_tasks.shutdown().await;
+                        return Err(err.into());
+                    }
+                };
+                let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+
+                if sender.send(batch).await.is_err() {
+                    // this only happens if all workers have exited,
+                    // so we don't return the send error here,
+                    // avoiding hiding the real error from workers.
+                    break;
+                }
+
+                total_num_rows += num_rows;
+                if total_num_rows >= last_num_rows + 1_000_000 {
+                    log::debug!(
+                        "indexed {} documents, elapsed: {:?}, speed: {}rows/s",
+                        total_num_rows,
+                        start.elapsed(),
+                        total_num_rows as f32 / start.elapsed().as_secs_f32()
+                    );
+                    last_num_rows = total_num_rows;
                 }
             }
-        }));
-        log::info!("indexing FTS with {} workers", num_workers);
-
-        let mut last_num_rows = 0;
-        let mut total_num_rows = 0;
-        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
-        while let Some(num_rows) = stream.try_next().await? {
-            total_num_rows += num_rows;
-            if total_num_rows >= last_num_rows + 1_000_000 {
-                log::debug!(
-                    "indexed {} documents, elapsed: {:?}, speed: {}rows/s",
-                    total_num_rows,
-                    start.elapsed(),
-                    total_num_rows as f32 / start.elapsed().as_secs_f32()
-                );
-                last_num_rows = total_num_rows;
+            // drop the sender to stop receivers
+            drop(stream);
+            drop(sender);
+            log::info!("dispatching elapsed: {:?}", start.elapsed());
+
+            // wait for the workers to finish
+            let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+            let mut tail_partitions = Vec::new();
+            let mut files = Vec::new();
+            while let Some(index_task) = index_tasks.join_next().await {
+                let output = match index_task {
+                    Ok(Ok(output)) => output,
+                    Ok(Err(err)) => {
+                        index_tasks.shutdown().await;
+                        return Err(err);
+                    }
+                    Err(err) => {
+                        index_tasks.shutdown().await;
+                        return Err(err.into());
+                    }
+                };
+                self.new_partitions.extend(output.partitions);
+                files.extend(output.files);
+                if let Some(tail_partition) = output.tail_partition {
+                    tail_partitions.push(tail_partition);
+                }
             }
-        }
-        // drop the sender to stop receivers
-        drop(stream);
-        debug_assert_eq!(sender.sender_count(), 1);
-        drop(sender);
-        log::info!("dispatching elapsed: {:?}", start.elapsed());
+            let merged_tail_partitions =
+                merge_tail_partitions(tail_partitions, worker_memory_limit_bytes).await?;
+            // Tail partitions hold most of the data when workers rarely hit the
+            // flush threshold; writing them one at a time serializes the
+            // posting-list compression of nearly the whole index behind a
+            // single producer thread. Compress and write them concurrently.
+            let write_target = self.partition_write_target();
+            let mut tail_writes =
+                futures::stream::iter(merged_tail_partitions.into_iter().map(|mut builder| {
+                    let dest_store = dest_store.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        let partition_id = builder.id();
+                        let files = builder.write_to(dest_store.as_ref(), write_target).await?;
+                        Result::Ok((partition_id, files))
+                    }
+                }))
+                .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().clamp(1, 16));
+            while let Some((partition_id, partition_files)) = tail_writes.try_next().await? {
+                self.new_partitions.push(partition_id);
+                files.extend(partition_files);
+            }
+            log::info!("wait workers indexing elapsed: {:?}", start.elapsed());
+            Result::Ok(files)
+        };
 
-        // wait for the workers to finish
-        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
-        for index_task in index_tasks {
-            self.new_partitions.extend(index_task.await??);
-        }
-        log::info!("wait workers indexing elapsed: {:?}", start.elapsed());
-        Ok(())
+        index_build.await
     }
 
+    /// Remap through an in-memory mapping (the legacy entry point).
     pub async fn remap(
         &mut self,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
         src_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        self.remap_with(mapping.into(), src_store, dest_store).await
+    }
+
+    /// Remap through a translator whose payload may need reads, one
+    /// partition's documents at a time.
+    pub async fn remap_streaming(
+        &mut self,
+        mapping: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        src_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        self.remap_with(mapping.as_ref(), src_store, dest_store)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn remap_with(
+        &mut self,
+        mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+        src_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let mut files = Vec::new();
         for part in self.partitions.iter() {
             let part = InvertedPartition::load(
                 src_store.clone(),
@@ -249,34 +628,87 @@ impl InvertedIndexBuilder {
             )
             .await?;
             let mut builder = part.into_builder().await?;
-            builder.remap(mapping).await?;
-            builder.write(dest_store).await?;
+            builder.remap_with(mapping).await?;
+            files.extend(
+                builder
+                    .write_to(dest_store, self.partition_write_target())
+                    .await?,
+            );
         }
         if self.fragment_mask.is_none() {
-            self.write_metadata(dest_store, &self.partitions).await?;
+            files.push(self.write_metadata(dest_store, &self.partitions).await?);
         } else {
-            // in distributed mode, the part_temp_metadata is written by the worker
+            // in distributed mode, the staged partition metadata is written by the worker
             for &partition_id in &self.partitions {
-                self.write_part_metadata(dest_store, partition_id).await?;
+                files.push(self.write_part_metadata(dest_store, partition_id).await?);
             }
         }
-        Ok(())
+        Ok(files)
     }
 
-    async fn write_metadata(&self, dest_store: &dyn IndexStore, partitions: &[u64]) -> Result<()> {
-        let metadata = HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+    async fn write_metadata(
+        &self,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        partitions: &[u64],
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        validate_format_version_block_size(self.format_version, self.params.block_size)?;
+        let mut serialized_deleted_fragments =
+            Vec::with_capacity(self.deleted_fragments.serialized_size());
+        self.deleted_fragments
+            .serialize_into(&mut serialized_deleted_fragments)?;
+
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::from_iter(vec![
             ("partitions".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(&partitions)?),
             ("params".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(&self.params)?),
             (
                 TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
                 self.token_set_format.to_string(),
             ),
+            (
+                POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+                self.posting_tail_codec.as_str().to_owned(),
+            ),
+            (
+                FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_owned(),
+                self.format_version.index_version().to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(),
+                self.params.block_size.to_string(),
+            ),
         ]);
+
+        if self.params.with_position && self.format_version.uses_shared_position_stream() {
+            metadata.insert(
+                POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY.to_owned(),
+                POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2.to_owned(),
+            );
+            metadata.insert(
+                POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+                self.format_version
+                    .position_codec()
+                    .expect("shared positions require a codec")
+                    .as_str()
+                    .to_owned(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let metadata_file_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            DELETED_FRAGMENTS_COL,
+            DataType::Binary,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let deleted_fragments_col = Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(vec![
+            serialized_deleted_fragments.as_slice(),
+        ])) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        let record_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(metadata_file_schema.clone(), vec![deleted_fragments_col])?;
+
         let mut writer = dest_store
-            .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(Schema::empty()))
+            .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, metadata_file_schema)
             .await?;
-        writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await?;
-        Ok(())
+        writer.write_record_batch(record_batch).await?;
+        writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await
     }
 
     /// Write partition metadata file for a single partition
@@ -286,93 +718,167 @@ impl InvertedIndexBuilder {
     pub(crate) async fn write_part_metadata(
         &self,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-        partition: u64, // Modify parameter type
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let partitions = vec![partition];
-        let metadata = HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        partition: u64,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        self.write_staged_metadata(dest_store, part_metadata_file_path(partition), &[partition])
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn write_staged_metadata(
+        &self,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        file_name: String,
+        partitions: &[u64],
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        validate_format_version_block_size(self.format_version, self.params.block_size)?;
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::from_iter(vec![
             ("partitions".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(&partitions)?),
             ("params".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(&self.params)?),
             (
                 TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
                 self.token_set_format.to_string(),
             ),
+            (
+                POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+                self.posting_tail_codec.as_str().to_owned(),
+            ),
+            (
+                FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_owned(),
+                self.format_version.index_version().to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(),
+                self.params.block_size.to_string(),
+            ),
         ]);
-        // Use partition ID to generate a unique temporary filename
-        let file_name = part_metadata_file_path(partition);
+        if self.params.with_position && self.format_version.uses_shared_position_stream() {
+            metadata.insert(
+                POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY.to_owned(),
+                POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2.to_owned(),
+            );
+            metadata.insert(
+                POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+                self.format_version
+                    .position_codec()
+                    .expect("shared positions require a codec")
+                    .as_str()
+                    .to_owned(),
+            );
+        }
         let mut writer = dest_store
             .new_index_file(&file_name, Arc::new(Schema::empty()))
             .await?;
-        writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await?;
-        Ok(())
+        writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await
     }
 
-    async fn write(&self, dest_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<()> {
-        if self.params.skip_merge {
-            let mut partitions =
-                Vec::with_capacity(self.partitions.len() + self.new_partitions.len());
-            partitions.extend_from_slice(&self.partitions);
-            partitions.extend_from_slice(&self.new_partitions);
-            partitions.sort_unstable();
-
-            for part in self.partitions.iter() {
-                self.src_store
-                    .copy_index_file(&token_file_path(*part), dest_store)
-                    .await?;
-                self.src_store
-                    .copy_index_file(&posting_file_path(*part), dest_store)
-                    .await?;
-                self.src_store
-                    .copy_index_file(&doc_file_path(*part), dest_store)
-                    .await?;
+    async fn write_metadata_with_progress(
+        &self,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        partitions: &[u64],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let total = Some(partitions.len().max(1) as u64);
+        let mut files = Vec::new();
+        self.progress
+            .stage_start("write_metadata", total, "files")
+            .await?;
+        match self.fragment_mask {
+            None => {
+                files.push(self.write_metadata(dest_store, partitions).await?);
+                self.progress.stage_progress("write_metadata", 1).await?;
             }
-            for part in self.new_partitions.iter() {
-                self.local_store
-                    .copy_index_file(&token_file_path(*part), dest_store)
-                    .await?;
-                self.local_store
-                    .copy_index_file(&posting_file_path(*part), dest_store)
-                    .await?;
-                self.local_store
-                    .copy_index_file(&doc_file_path(*part), dest_store)
-                    .await?;
+            Some(fragment_mask) if partitions.is_empty() => {
+                // Root metadata is the finalization marker for the shared index directory. An
+                // empty shard must publish only staged metadata so sibling partitions are still
+                // finalized.
+                files.push(
+                    self.write_staged_metadata(
+                        dest_store,
+                        empty_part_metadata_file_path(fragment_mask),
+                        partitions,
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+                );
+                self.progress.stage_progress("write_metadata", 1).await?;
             }
-
-            if self.fragment_mask.is_none() {
-                self.write_metadata(dest_store, &partitions).await?;
-            } else {
-                for &partition_id in &partitions {
-                    self.write_part_metadata(dest_store, partition_id).await?;
+            Some(_) => {
+                let mut completed = 0;
+                for &partition_id in partitions {
+                    files.push(self.write_part_metadata(dest_store, partition_id).await?);
+                    completed += 1;
+                    self.progress
+                        .stage_progress("write_metadata", completed)
+                        .await?;
                 }
             }
-            return Ok(());
         }
+        self.progress.stage_complete("write_metadata").await?;
+        Ok(files)
+    }
 
-        let partitions = self
-            .partitions
-            .iter()
-            .map(|part| PartitionSource::new(self.src_store.clone(), *part))
-            .chain(
-                self.new_partitions
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|part| PartitionSource::new(self.local_store.clone(), *part)),
-            )
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let mut merger = SizeBasedMerger::new(
-            dest_store,
-            partitions,
-            *LANCE_FTS_TARGET_SIZE << 20,
-            self.token_set_format,
-        );
-        let partitions = merger.merge().await?;
+    async fn write(&self, dest_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let mut partitions = Vec::with_capacity(self.partitions.len() + self.new_partitions.len());
+        partitions.extend_from_slice(&self.partitions);
+        partitions.extend_from_slice(&self.new_partitions);
+        partitions.sort_unstable();
 
-        if self.fragment_mask.is_none() {
-            self.write_metadata(dest_store, &partitions).await?;
-        } else {
-            for &partition_id in &partitions {
-                self.write_part_metadata(dest_store, partition_id).await?;
-            }
+        self.progress
+            .stage_start(
+                "copy_partitions",
+                Some(partitions.len() as u64),
+                "partitions",
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let mut copied = 0;
+        let mut files = Vec::new();
+        let target = self.partition_write_target();
+        for part in self.partitions.iter() {
+            files.push(
+                self.src_store
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("existing partitions require a source store")
+                    .copy_index_file_to(
+                        &token_file_path(*part),
+                        &target.token_path(*part),
+                        dest_store,
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+            );
+            files.push(
+                self.src_store
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("existing partitions require a source store")
+                    .copy_index_file_to(
+                        &posting_file_path(*part),
+                        &target.posting_path(*part),
+                        dest_store,
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+            );
+            files.push(
+                self.src_store
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("existing partitions require a source store")
+                    .copy_index_file_to(&doc_file_path(*part), &target.doc_path(*part), dest_store)
+                    .await?,
+            );
+            copied += 1;
+            self.progress
+                .stage_progress("copy_partitions", copied)
+                .await?;
         }
-        Ok(())
+        for _part in self.new_partitions.iter() {
+            copied += 1;
+            self.progress
+                .stage_progress("copy_partitions", copied)
+                .await?;
+        }
+        self.progress.stage_complete("copy_partitions").await?;
+
+        files.extend(
+            self.write_metadata_with_progress(dest_store, &partitions)
+                .await?,
+        );
+        Ok(files)
     }
 }
 
@@ -389,35 +895,169 @@ pub struct InnerBuilder {
     id: u64,
     with_position: bool,
     token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
-    pub(crate) tokens: TokenSet,
+    format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    block_size: usize,
+    pub(super) tokens: TokenDictionary,
     pub(crate) posting_lists: Vec<PostingListBuilder>,
     pub(crate) docs: DocSet,
 }
 
 impl InnerBuilder {
     pub fn new(id: u64, with_position: bool, token_set_format: TokenSetFormat) -> Self {
+        Self::new_with_format_version(
+            id,
+            with_position,
+            token_set_format,
+            current_fts_format_version(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_format_version(
+        id: u64,
+        with_position: bool,
+        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+        format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+            id,
+            with_position,
+            token_set_format,
+            format_version,
+            LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_block_size(
+        id: u64,
+        with_position: bool,
+        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let format_version = default_fts_format_version_for_block_size(block_size)
+            .expect("invalid posting list block size");
+        Self::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+            id,
+            with_position,
+            token_set_format,
+            format_version,
+            block_size,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        id: u64,
+        with_position: bool,
+        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+        format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        validate_format_version_block_size(format_version, block_size)
+            .expect("invalid FTS format version for posting block size");
         Self {
             id,
             with_position,
             token_set_format,
-            tokens: TokenSet::default(),
+            format_version,
+            posting_tail_codec: format_version.posting_tail_codec(),
+            block_size,
+            tokens: TokenDictionary::default(),
             posting_lists: Vec::new(),
             docs: DocSet::default(),
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn id(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.id
+    pub fn new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+        id: u64,
+        with_position: bool,
+        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            id,
+            with_position,
+            token_set_format,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        )
     }
 
-    pub async fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<()> {
-        // for the docs, we need to remove the rows that are removed from the doc set,
-        // and update the row ids of the rows that are updated
-        let removed = self.docs.remap(mapping);
-
-        // for the posting lists, we need to remap the doc ids:
-        // - if the a row is removed, we need to shift the doc ids of the following rows
-        // - if a row is updated (assigned a new row id), we don't need to do anything with the posting lists
+    pub fn new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        id: u64,
+        with_position: bool,
+        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let format_version = InvertedListFormatVersion::from_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+        )
+        .expect("invalid posting tail codec for posting block size");
+        let mut builder = Self::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+            id,
+            with_position,
+            token_set_format,
+            format_version,
+            block_size,
+        );
+        builder.posting_tail_codec = posting_tail_codec;
+        builder
+    }
+
+    pub fn id(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.id
+    }
+
+    fn set_id(&mut self, id: u64) {
+        self.id = id;
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.docs.is_empty()
+    }
+
+    /// Set the token set for this builder.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `tokens` does not map its tokens to distinct ids in
+    /// `0..tokens.len()`, the ids the posting lists are indexed by.
+    pub fn set_tokens(&mut self, tokens: TokenSet) {
+        self.tokens = TokenDictionary::try_from_token_set(tokens)
+            .expect("token set must map its tokens to dense ids");
+    }
+
+    /// Set the document set for this builder.
+    pub fn set_docs(&mut self, docs: DocSet) {
+        self.docs = docs;
+    }
+
+    /// Set the posting lists for this builder.
+    pub fn set_posting_lists(&mut self, posting_lists: Vec<PostingListBuilder>) {
+        self.posting_lists = posting_lists;
+    }
+
+    /// Remap through an in-memory mapping (the legacy entry point).
+    pub async fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()> {
+        self.remap_with(mapping.into()).await
+    }
+
+    /// Remap through a translator whose payload may need reads.
+    pub async fn remap_streaming(&mut self, mapping: &RowAddrTranslator) -> Result<()> {
+        self.remap_with(mapping.as_ref()).await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn remap_with(&mut self, mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        // One partition's documents are the unit of translation.
+        let mapping = mapping.resolve(self.docs.row_ids().iter().copied()).await?;
+        // for the docs, we need to remove the rows that are removed from the doc set,
+        // and update the row ids of the rows that are updated
+        let removed = self.docs.remap(&mapping);
+
+        // for the posting lists, we need to remap the doc ids:
+        // - if the a row is removed, we need to shift the doc ids of the following rows
+        // - if a row is updated (assigned a new row id), we don't need to do anything with the posting lists
         let mut token_id = 0;
         let mut removed_token_ids = Vec::new();
         self.posting_lists.retain_mut(|posting_list| {
@@ -436,25 +1076,160 @@ impl InnerBuilder {
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    pub async fn write(&mut self, store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<()> {
-        let docs = Arc::new(std::mem::take(&mut self.docs));
-        self.write_posting_lists(store, docs.clone()).await?;
-        self.write_tokens(store).await?;
-        self.write_docs(store, docs).await?;
+    async fn filter_old_data(&mut self, filter: &OldIndexDataFilter) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut mapping = HashMap::new();
+        for (row_id, _) in self.docs.iter() {
+            let keep = match filter {
+                OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments { to_keep, .. } => {
+                    to_keep.contains((*row_id >> 32) as u32)
+                }
+                OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid_row_ids) => valid_row_ids.contains(*row_id),
+            };
+            if !keep {
+                mapping.insert(*row_id, None);
+            }
+        }
+        self.remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping)).await
+    }
+
+    pub fn merge_from(&mut self, other: Self) -> Result<()> {
+        let Self {
+            id: _,
+            with_position,
+            token_set_format,
+            format_version,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            tokens,
+            posting_lists,
+            docs,
+        } = other;
+
+        if self.with_position != with_position {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "cannot merge partitions with mismatched positions settings: {} vs {}",
+                self.with_position, with_position
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.token_set_format != token_set_format {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "cannot merge partitions with mismatched token set formats: {:?} vs {:?}",
+                self.token_set_format, token_set_format
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.format_version != format_version {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "cannot merge partitions with mismatched FTS format versions: {:?} vs {:?}",
+                self.format_version, format_version
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.posting_tail_codec != posting_tail_codec {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "cannot merge partitions with mismatched posting tail codecs: {:?} vs {:?}",
+                self.posting_tail_codec, posting_tail_codec
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.block_size != block_size {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "cannot merge partitions with mismatched FTS block sizes: {} vs {}",
+                self.block_size, block_size
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut token_id_map = vec![u32::MAX; posting_lists.len()];
+        for (token_id, token) in tokens.iter() {
+            token_id_map[token_id as usize] = self.tokens.get_or_add(token);
+        }
+
+        let doc_id_offset = self.docs.len() as u32;
+        for doc_id in 0..docs.len() as u32 {
+            let row_id = docs.row_id(doc_id);
+            let num_tokens = docs.num_tokens(doc_id);
+            let doc_index = docs.doc_index(doc_id);
+            if doc_index.is_empty() {
+                self.docs.append(row_id, num_tokens);
+            } else {
+                self.docs
+                    .append_with_doc_index(row_id, num_tokens, &doc_index)?;
+            }
+        }
+        self.posting_lists.resize_with(self.tokens.len(), || {
+            PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                with_position,
+                self.posting_tail_codec,
+                self.block_size,
+            )
+        });
+
+        for (token_id, posting_list) in posting_lists.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            if posting_list.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let new_token_id = token_id_map[token_id];
+            debug_assert_ne!(new_token_id, u32::MAX);
+            let merged_posting = &mut self.posting_lists[new_token_id as usize];
+            posting_list.for_each_entry(|doc_id, freq, positions| {
+                let positions = match positions {
+                    Some(positions) => PositionRecorder::Position(positions.into()),
+                    None => PositionRecorder::Count(freq),
+                };
+                merged_posting.add(doc_id_offset + doc_id, positions);
+                Ok::<(), Error>(())
+            })?;
+        }
+
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    fn memory_size(&self) -> u64 {
+        let posting_lists_overhead =
+            self.posting_lists.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<PostingListBuilder>();
+        let posting_lists_size: u64 = self
+            .posting_lists
+            .iter()
+            .map(|posting| posting.size())
+            .sum();
+        (self.tokens.memory_size() + self.docs.memory_size() + posting_lists_overhead) as u64
+            + posting_lists_size
+    }
+
+    pub async fn write(&mut self, store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        self.write_to(store, PartitionWriteTarget::Final).await
+    }
+
+    async fn write_to(
+        &mut self,
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        target: PartitionWriteTarget,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let docs = Arc::new(std::mem::take(&mut self.docs));
+        let files = vec![
+            self.write_posting_lists(store, docs.clone(), &target.posting_path(self.id))
+                .await?,
+            self.write_tokens(store, &target.token_path(self.id))
+                .await?,
+            self.write_docs(store, docs, &target.doc_path(self.id))
+                .await?,
+        ];
+        Ok(files)
+    }
+
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
     async fn write_posting_lists(
         &mut self,
         store: &dyn IndexStore,
         docs: Arc<DocSet>,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+        path: &str,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
         let id = self.id;
         let mut writer = store
             .new_index_file(
-                &posting_file_path(self.id),
-                inverted_list_schema(self.with_position),
+                path,
+                inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size(
+                    self.with_position,
+                    self.format_version,
+                    self.block_size,
+                ),
             )
             .await?;
         let posting_lists = std::mem::take(&mut self.posting_lists);
@@ -465,230 +1240,633 @@ impl InnerBuilder {
             id,
             self.with_position
         );
-        let schema = inverted_list_schema(self.with_position);
+        let with_position = self.with_position;
+        let format_version = self.format_version;
+        let schema = inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size(
+            self.with_position,
+            self.format_version,
+            self.block_size,
+        );
         let docs_for_batches = docs.clone();
         let schema_for_batches = schema.clone();
+        let batch_rows = *LANCE_FTS_POSTING_BATCH_ROWS;
+        let (tx, rx) = async_channel::bounded(*LANCE_FTS_WRITE_QUEUE_SIZE);
+        // The producer builds posting-list batches on the CPU pool and hands them
+        // to the writer through a bounded channel. Each batch is built inside its
+        // own `spawn_cpu` call and dispatched with an async `send().await` instead
+        // of a blocking send: when the channel is full the producer *yields* its
+        // task rather than parking the pool thread it is running on. Parking would
+        // deadlock on hosts whose CPU pool has a single thread: once the consumer
+        // accumulates enough data to flush an encoded column, the flush also needs
+        // that pool. The parked producer and the starved consumer would then wait
+        // on each other forever.
+        let producer = tokio::spawn(async move {
+            let mut batch_builder = PostingListBatchBuilder::new(
+                schema_for_batches,
+                with_position,
+                format_version,
+                batch_rows,
+            );
+            let mut posting_lists = posting_lists.into_iter();
+            let mut encode_elapsed = Duration::ZERO;
+            loop {
+                let docs_for_batches = docs_for_batches.clone();
+                let encode_started = Instant::now();
+                // Build the next batch on the CPU pool. The builder and the
+                // remaining posting lists are moved in and handed back so state
+                // persists across batches.
+                let (next_builder, next_posting_lists, batch) = spawn_cpu(move || {
+                    let mut batch_builder = batch_builder;
+                    let mut posting_lists = posting_lists;
+                    let mut batch = None;
+                    for posting_list in posting_lists.by_ref() {
+                        posting_list.append_to_batch_with_docs(
+                            &docs_for_batches,
+                            &mut batch_builder,
+                            format_version,
+                        )?;
+                        if batch_builder.len() >= batch_rows {
+                            batch = Some(batch_builder.finish()?);
+                            break;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if batch.is_none() && !batch_builder.is_empty() {
+                        batch = Some(batch_builder.finish()?);
+                    }
+                    Result::Ok((batch_builder, posting_lists, batch))
+                })
+                .await?;
+                encode_elapsed += encode_started.elapsed();
+                batch_builder = next_builder;
+                posting_lists = next_posting_lists;
 
-        let (tx, mut rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<Result<RecordBatch>>(2);
-        let producer = spawn_cpu(move || {
-            for posting_list in posting_lists {
-                let batch =
-                    posting_list.to_batch_with_docs(&docs_for_batches, schema_for_batches.clone());
-                let is_err = batch.is_err();
-                if tx.blocking_send(batch).is_err() {
+                let Some(batch) = batch else {
+                    // No more batches: the posting lists are exhausted.
                     break;
-                }
-                if is_err {
+                };
+                if tx.send(batch).await.is_err() {
+                    // The receiver is gone, which only happens when the writer
+                    // failed; stop producing and let that error surface there.
                     break;
                 }
             }
-            Ok(())
+
+            Result::Ok(encode_elapsed)
         });
 
-        let mut write_duration = std::time::Duration::ZERO;
-        let mut num_posting_lists = 0;
-        while let Some(batch) = rx.recv().await {
-            let batch = batch?;
-            num_posting_lists += 1;
-            let start = std::time::Instant::now();
-            writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
-            write_duration += start.elapsed();
-
-            if num_posting_lists % 500_000 == 0 {
-                log::info!(
-                    "wrote {} posting lists of partition {}, writing elapsed: {:?}",
-                    num_posting_lists,
-                    id,
-                    write_duration,
-                );
+        let mut write_elapsed = Duration::ZERO;
+        while let Ok(batch) = rx.recv().await {
+            let write_started = Instant::now();
+            let result = writer.write_record_batch(batch).await;
+            write_elapsed += write_started.elapsed();
+            if let Err(err) = result {
+                drop(rx);
+                // Wait for producer to stop; preserve the write error as the primary failure.
+                let _ = producer.await;
+                return Err(err);
             }
         }
-
-        // Errors from batch generation are sent through the channel and surfaced via `batch?`.
-        // Awaiting the producer here is just to propagate panics/cancellation.
-        producer.await?;
-        writer.finish().await?;
-        Ok(())
+        drop(rx);
+        let encode_elapsed = producer.await??;
+        let finish_started = Instant::now();
+        let file = writer.finish().await?;
+        write_elapsed += finish_started.elapsed();
+
+        // Splits the cost of a partition write into the two halves that are
+        // otherwise indistinguishable from the outside, so a build that fails on
+        // an upload timeout shows whether encoding or the upload dominated.
+        log::info!(
+            "wrote posting lists of partition {}: {:.1?} encoding, {:.1?} writing",
+            id,
+            encode_elapsed,
+            write_elapsed
+        );
+        Ok(file)
     }
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    async fn write_tokens(&mut self, store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<()> {
+    async fn write_tokens(&mut self, store: &dyn IndexStore, path: &str) -> Result<IndexFile> {
         log::info!("writing tokens of partition {}", self.id);
         let tokens = std::mem::take(&mut self.tokens);
-        let batch = tokens.to_batch(self.token_set_format)?;
-        let mut writer = store
-            .new_index_file(&token_file_path(self.id), batch.schema())
-            .await?;
+        let token_set_format = self.token_set_format;
+        // Sorting the tokens and building the FST takes seconds for a partition
+        // with millions of tokens. Tail partitions are written concurrently from
+        // one task, so doing it inline would serialize all of them.
+        let batch = spawn_cpu(move || tokens.to_batch(token_set_format)).await?;
+        let mut writer = store.new_index_file(path, batch.schema()).await?;
         writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
-        writer.finish().await?;
-        Ok(())
+        writer.finish().await
     }
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    async fn write_docs(&mut self, store: &dyn IndexStore, docs: Arc<DocSet>) -> Result<()> {
+    async fn write_docs(
+        &mut self,
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        docs: Arc<DocSet>,
+        path: &str,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
         log::info!("writing docs of partition {}", self.id);
         let batch = docs.to_batch()?;
-        let mut writer = store
-            .new_index_file(&doc_file_path(self.id), batch.schema())
-            .await?;
+        let mut writer = store.new_index_file(path, batch.schema()).await?;
         writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
-        writer.finish().await?;
-        Ok(())
+        writer
+            .finish_with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                super::documents::TOTAL_TOKENS_KEY.to_owned(),
+                docs.total_tokens_num().to_string(),
+            )]))
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum PartitionWriteTarget {
+    Final,
+    Staged,
+}
+
+impl PartitionWriteTarget {
+    fn file_path(self, partition_id: u64, suffix: &str) -> String {
+        match self {
+            Self::Final => partition_file_path(partition_id, suffix),
+            Self::Staged => staged_partition_file_path(partition_id, suffix),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn token_path(self, partition_id: u64) -> String {
+        self.file_path(partition_id, TOKENS_FILE)
+    }
+
+    fn posting_path(self, partition_id: u64) -> String {
+        self.file_path(partition_id, INVERT_LIST_FILE)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_path(self, partition_id: u64) -> String {
+        self.file_path(partition_id, DOCS_FILE)
     }
 }
 
 struct IndexWorker {
-    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
     tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    dest_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
     id_alloc: Arc<AtomicU64>,
     builder: InnerBuilder,
     partitions: Vec<u64>,
+    files: Vec<IndexFile>,
     schema: SchemaRef,
-    estimated_size: u64,
+    memory_size: u64,
+    worker_memory_limit_bytes: u64,
     total_doc_length: usize,
     fragment_mask: Option<u64>,
     token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
-    token_occurrences: HashMap<u32, PositionRecorder>,
     token_ids: Vec<u32>,
     last_token_count: usize,
-    last_unique_token_count: usize,
+    coordinate_rank: usize,
+}
+
+struct TailPartition {
+    builder: InnerBuilder,
+}
+
+struct WorkerOutput {
+    partitions: Vec<u64>,
+    files: Vec<IndexFile>,
+    tail_partition: Option<TailPartition>,
+}
+
+enum DocumentSource<'a> {
+    Text(&'a str),
+    StringList(&'a dyn Array),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct IndexWorkerConfig {
+    with_position: bool,
+    format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    fragment_mask: Option<u64>,
+    token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+    worker_memory_limit_bytes: u64,
+    block_size: usize,
+    coordinate_rank: usize,
 }
 
 impl IndexWorker {
+    fn posting_lists_overhead_size(&self) -> u64 {
+        (self.builder.posting_lists.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<PostingListBuilder>()) as u64
+    }
+
+    fn adjust_tracked_value(tracked: &mut u64, old: u64, new: u64) {
+        if new >= old {
+            *tracked += new - old;
+        } else {
+            *tracked -= old - new;
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn adjust_tracked_memory_size(&mut self, old_memory_size: u64, new_memory_size: u64) {
+        Self::adjust_tracked_value(&mut self.memory_size, old_memory_size, new_memory_size);
+    }
+
+    fn apply_delta(total: &mut u64, delta: i64) {
+        if delta >= 0 {
+            *total += delta as u64;
+        } else {
+            *total -= (-delta) as u64;
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn temporary_memory_size(&self) -> u64 {
+        (self.token_ids.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>()) as u64
+    }
+
+    fn trim_temporary_buffers(&mut self) {
+        if self.token_ids.capacity() > MAX_RETAINED_TOKEN_IDS {
+            self.token_ids = Vec::with_capacity(self.last_token_count.min(MAX_RETAINED_TOKEN_IDS));
+        }
+    }
+
     async fn new(
-        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
-        with_position: bool,
+        dest_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         id_alloc: Arc<AtomicU64>,
-        fragment_mask: Option<u64>,
-        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+        config: IndexWorkerConfig,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let schema = inverted_list_schema(with_position);
+        let schema = inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size(
+            config.with_position,
+            config.format_version,
+            config.block_size,
+        );
+
+        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+            id_alloc.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
+                | config.fragment_mask.unwrap_or(0),
+            config.with_position,
+            config.token_set_format,
+            config.format_version,
+            config.block_size,
+        );
+        builder.docs = DocSet::with_coordinate_rank(config.coordinate_rank);
 
         Ok(Self {
-            store,
             tokenizer,
-            builder: InnerBuilder::new(
-                id_alloc.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
-                    | fragment_mask.unwrap_or(0),
-                with_position,
-                token_set_format,
-            ),
+            dest_store,
+            builder,
             partitions: Vec::new(),
+            files: Vec::new(),
             id_alloc,
             schema,
-            estimated_size: 0,
+            memory_size: 0,
+            worker_memory_limit_bytes: config.worker_memory_limit_bytes,
             total_doc_length: 0,
-            fragment_mask,
-            token_set_format,
-            token_occurrences: HashMap::new(),
+            fragment_mask: config.fragment_mask,
+            token_set_format: config.token_set_format,
             token_ids: Vec::new(),
             last_token_count: 0,
-            last_unique_token_count: 0,
+            coordinate_rank: config.coordinate_rank,
         })
     }
 
     fn has_position(&self) -> bool {
-        self.schema.column_with_name(POSITION_COL).is_some()
+        self.schema
+            .column_with_name(COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL)
+            .is_some()
+            || self.schema.column_with_name(POSITION_COL).is_some()
     }
 
     async fn process_batch(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
         let doc_col = batch.column(0);
-        let doc_iter = iter_str_array(doc_col);
         let row_id_col = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt64Type>();
-        let docs = doc_iter
-            .zip(row_id_col.values().iter())
-            .filter_map(|(doc, row_id)| doc.map(|doc| (doc, *row_id)));
+        let doc_index_columns = (0..self.coordinate_rank)
+            .map(|rank| {
+                let column_name = doc_index_storage_column(rank);
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name(&column_name)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index(format!(
+                            "FTS document input is missing coordinate column {column_name}"
+                        ))
+                    })
+                    .map(|column| column.as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt32Type>())
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        match doc_col.data_type() {
+            DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Utf8View => {
+                for (row_index, (doc, row_id)) in iter_str_array(doc_col.as_ref())
+                    .zip(row_id_col.values().iter())
+                    .enumerate()
+                {
+                    let doc = match doc {
+                        Some(doc) => doc,
+                        None if self.coordinate_rank > 0 => "",
+                        None => continue,
+                    };
+                    let doc_index = doc_index_columns
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|column| column.value(row_index))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    self.process_document(*row_id, DocumentSource::Text(doc), &doc_index)
+                        .await?;
+                }
+            }
+            DataType::List(_) => {
+                if self.coordinate_rank > 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "ListElement FTS input must be expanded to string documents before indexing"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                self.process_string_list_batch::<i32>(doc_col, row_id_col)
+                    .await?;
+            }
+            DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                if self.coordinate_rank > 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "ListElement FTS input must be expanded to string documents before indexing"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                self.process_string_list_batch::<i64>(doc_col, row_id_col)
+                    .await?;
+            }
+            data_type => {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "expect data type String, LargeString, List(String), or LargeList(String) but got {}",
+                    data_type
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn process_string_list_batch<Offset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait>(
+        &mut self,
+        doc_col: &Arc<dyn Array>,
+        row_id_col: &arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<datatypes::UInt64Type>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let docs = doc_col.as_list::<Offset>();
+        match docs.value_type() {
+            datatypes::DataType::Utf8 | datatypes::DataType::LargeUtf8 => {}
+            data_type => {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "expect list item data type String or LargeString but got {}",
+                    data_type
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        for (doc, row_id) in docs.iter().zip(row_id_col.values().iter()) {
+            let Some(doc) = doc else {
+                continue;
+            };
+
+            self.process_document(*row_id, DocumentSource::StringList(doc.as_ref()), &[])
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn checked_token_position(row_id: u64, token_position: usize) -> Result<u32> {
+        u32::try_from(token_position).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "token position overflow for row_id={row_id}: token_position={token_position}"
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn materialize_string_list(elements: &dyn Array) -> String {
+        let mut doc = String::new();
+        for element in iter_str_array(elements).flatten() {
+            if !doc.is_empty() {
+                doc.push(' ');
+            }
+            doc.push_str(element);
+        }
+        doc
+    }
 
+    async fn process_document(
+        &mut self,
+        row_id: u64,
+        document: DocumentSource<'_>,
+        doc_index: &[u32],
+    ) -> Result<()> {
         let with_position = self.has_position();
-        for (doc, row_id) in docs {
-            let mut token_num: u32 = 0;
-            if with_position {
-                if self.token_occurrences.capacity() < self.last_unique_token_count {
-                    self.token_occurrences
-                        .reserve(self.last_unique_token_count - self.token_occurrences.capacity());
+        let builder_was_empty = self.builder.docs.is_empty();
+        let old_temporary_memory_size = self.temporary_memory_size();
+        let old_token_memory_size = self.builder.tokens.memory_size() as u64;
+        let doc_id = self.builder.docs.len() as u32;
+        let mut token_num: u32 = 0;
+        let mut doc_length_bytes = 0usize;
+        let mut posting_memory_delta = 0i64;
+        if with_position {
+            {
+                if self.token_ids.capacity() < self.last_token_count {
+                    self.token_ids
+                        .reserve(self.last_token_count - self.token_ids.capacity());
                 }
-                self.token_occurrences.clear();
-
-                let mut token_stream = self.tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(doc);
-                while token_stream.advance() {
-                    let token = token_stream.token_mut();
-                    let token_text = std::mem::take(&mut token.text);
-                    let token_id = self.builder.tokens.add(token_text);
-                    self.token_occurrences
-                        .entry(token_id)
-                        .or_insert_with(|| PositionRecorder::new(true))
-                        .push(token.position as u32);
-                    token_num += 1;
+                self.token_ids.clear();
+                let tokenizer = &mut self.tokenizer;
+                let builder = &mut self.builder;
+                let token_ids = &mut self.token_ids;
+                let memory_size = &mut self.memory_size;
+                let posting_tail_codec = builder.posting_tail_codec;
+
+                let block_size = builder.block_size;
+                let mut process_text = |text: &str| -> Result<()> {
+                    doc_length_bytes += text.len();
+                    let mut token_stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(text);
+                    while token_stream.advance() {
+                        let token = token_stream.token();
+                        let position = Self::checked_token_position(row_id, token.position)?;
+                        let token_id = builder.tokens.get_or_add(&token.text);
+                        if token_id as usize == builder.posting_lists.len() {
+                            let old_posting_lists_overhead_size = (builder.posting_lists.capacity()
+                                * std::mem::size_of::<PostingListBuilder>())
+                                as u64;
+                            builder.posting_lists.push(
+                                PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                                    true,
+                                    posting_tail_codec,
+                                    block_size,
+                                ),
+                            );
+                            let new_posting_lists_overhead_size = (builder.posting_lists.capacity()
+                                * std::mem::size_of::<PostingListBuilder>())
+                                as u64;
+                            Self::adjust_tracked_value(
+                                memory_size,
+                                old_posting_lists_overhead_size,
+                                new_posting_lists_overhead_size,
+                            );
+                        }
+                        let posting_list = &mut builder.posting_lists[token_id as usize];
+                        let old_posting_memory_size = posting_list.size();
+                        if posting_list.add_occurrence(doc_id, position)? {
+                            token_ids.push(token_id);
+                        }
+                        let new_posting_memory_size = posting_list.size();
+                        posting_memory_delta +=
+                            new_posting_memory_size as i64 - old_posting_memory_size as i64;
+                        token_num += 1;
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                };
+
+                match document {
+                    DocumentSource::Text(doc) => {
+                        process_text(doc)?;
+                    }
+                    DocumentSource::StringList(elements) => {
+                        let doc = Self::materialize_string_list(elements);
+                        process_text(&doc)?;
+                    }
                 }
-            } else {
+            }
+        } else {
+            {
                 if self.token_ids.capacity() < self.last_token_count {
                     self.token_ids
                         .reserve(self.last_token_count - self.token_ids.capacity());
                 }
                 self.token_ids.clear();
 
-                let mut token_stream = self.tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(doc);
-                while token_stream.advance() {
-                    let token = token_stream.token_mut();
-                    let token_text = std::mem::take(&mut token.text);
-                    let token_id = self.builder.tokens.add(token_text);
-                    self.token_ids.push(token_id);
-                    token_num += 1;
+                let tokenizer = &mut self.tokenizer;
+                let builder = &mut self.builder;
+                let token_ids = &mut self.token_ids;
+                let mut process_text = |text: &str| {
+                    doc_length_bytes += text.len();
+                    let mut token_stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(text);
+                    while token_stream.advance() {
+                        let token_id = builder.tokens.get_or_add(&token_stream.token().text);
+                        token_ids.push(token_id);
+                        token_num += 1;
+                    }
+                };
+
+                match document {
+                    DocumentSource::Text(doc) => process_text(doc),
+                    DocumentSource::StringList(elements) => {
+                        let doc = Self::materialize_string_list(elements);
+                        process_text(&doc);
+                    }
                 }
             }
+        }
+        self.adjust_tracked_memory_size(
+            old_token_memory_size,
+            self.builder.tokens.memory_size() as u64,
+        );
+
+        // Row indexes omit zero-token documents from corpus statistics.
+        // ListElement indexes retain them so their physical coordinates remain
+        // part of the document corpus even when they cannot match a term.
+        if token_num == 0 && self.coordinate_rank == 0 {
+            self.last_token_count = 0;
+            self.trim_temporary_buffers();
+            self.adjust_tracked_memory_size(
+                old_temporary_memory_size,
+                self.temporary_memory_size(),
+            );
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        if !with_position {
+            let old_posting_lists_overhead_size = self.posting_lists_overhead_size();
             self.builder
                 .posting_lists
                 .resize_with(self.builder.tokens.len(), || {
-                    PostingListBuilder::new(with_position)
+                    PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                        false,
+                        self.builder.posting_tail_codec,
+                        self.builder.block_size,
+                    )
                 });
-            let doc_id = self.builder.docs.append(row_id, token_num);
-            self.total_doc_length += doc.len();
+            let new_posting_lists_overhead_size = self.posting_lists_overhead_size();
+            Self::adjust_tracked_value(
+                &mut self.memory_size,
+                old_posting_lists_overhead_size,
+                new_posting_lists_overhead_size,
+            );
+        }
 
-            if with_position {
-                let unique_tokens = self.token_occurrences.len();
-                for (token_id, term_positions) in self.token_occurrences.drain() {
-                    let posting_list = &mut self.builder.posting_lists[token_id as usize];
+        let old_doc_memory_size = self.builder.docs.memory_size() as u64;
+        let appended_doc_id = if doc_index.is_empty() {
+            self.builder.docs.append(row_id, token_num)
+        } else {
+            self.builder
+                .docs
+                .append_with_doc_index(row_id, token_num, doc_index)?
+        };
+        debug_assert_eq!(appended_doc_id, doc_id);
+        self.adjust_tracked_memory_size(
+            old_doc_memory_size,
+            self.builder.docs.memory_size() as u64,
+        );
+        self.total_doc_length += doc_length_bytes;
 
-                    let old_size = posting_list.size();
-                    posting_list.add(doc_id, term_positions);
-                    let new_size = posting_list.size();
-                    self.estimated_size += new_size - old_size;
+        if with_position {
+            for &token_id in &self.token_ids {
+                let (old_posting_memory_size, new_posting_memory_size) = {
+                    let posting_list = &mut self.builder.posting_lists[token_id as usize];
+                    let old_posting_memory_size = posting_list.size();
+                    posting_list.finish_open_doc(doc_id)?;
+                    let new_posting_memory_size = posting_list.size();
+                    (old_posting_memory_size, new_posting_memory_size)
+                };
+                posting_memory_delta +=
+                    new_posting_memory_size as i64 - old_posting_memory_size as i64;
+            }
+            Self::apply_delta(&mut self.memory_size, posting_memory_delta);
+        } else if token_num > 0 {
+            self.token_ids.sort_unstable();
+            let mut iter = self.token_ids.iter();
+            let mut current = *iter.next().unwrap();
+            let mut count = 1u32;
+            for &token_id in iter {
+                if token_id == current {
+                    count += 1;
+                    continue;
                 }
-                self.last_unique_token_count = unique_tokens;
-            } else if token_num > 0 {
-                self.token_ids.sort_unstable();
-                let mut iter = self.token_ids.iter();
-                let mut current = *iter.next().unwrap();
-                let mut count = 1u32;
-                for &token_id in iter {
-                    if token_id == current {
-                        count += 1;
-                        continue;
-                    }
 
+                let (old_posting_memory_size, new_posting_memory_size) = {
                     let posting_list = &mut self.builder.posting_lists[current as usize];
-                    let old_size = posting_list.size();
+                    let old_posting_memory_size = posting_list.size();
                     posting_list.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(count));
-                    let new_size = posting_list.size();
-                    self.estimated_size += new_size - old_size;
+                    let new_posting_memory_size = posting_list.size();
+                    (old_posting_memory_size, new_posting_memory_size)
+                };
+                posting_memory_delta +=
+                    new_posting_memory_size as i64 - old_posting_memory_size as i64;
 
-                    current = token_id;
-                    count = 1;
-                }
+                current = token_id;
+                count = 1;
+            }
+            let (old_posting_memory_size, new_posting_memory_size) = {
                 let posting_list = &mut self.builder.posting_lists[current as usize];
-                let old_size = posting_list.size();
+                let old_posting_memory_size = posting_list.size();
                 posting_list.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(count));
-                let new_size = posting_list.size();
-                self.estimated_size += new_size - old_size;
-            }
-            self.last_token_count = token_num as usize;
+                let new_posting_memory_size = posting_list.size();
+                (old_posting_memory_size, new_posting_memory_size)
+            };
+            posting_memory_delta += new_posting_memory_size as i64 - old_posting_memory_size as i64;
+            Self::apply_delta(&mut self.memory_size, posting_memory_delta);
+        }
+        self.last_token_count = self.token_ids.len();
+        self.trim_temporary_buffers();
+        self.adjust_tracked_memory_size(old_temporary_memory_size, self.temporary_memory_size());
+
+        if self.builder.docs.len() == 1 && self.memory_size > self.worker_memory_limit_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "single document row_id={} exceeds worker memory limit: {} > {} bytes",
+                row_id, self.memory_size, self.worker_memory_limit_bytes
+            )));
+        }
 
-            if self.builder.docs.len() as u32 == u32::MAX
-                || self.estimated_size >= *LANCE_FTS_PARTITION_SIZE << 20
-            {
-                self.flush().await?;
-            }
+        if self.builder.docs.len() as u32 == u32::MAX
+            || (!builder_was_empty && self.memory_size >= self.worker_memory_limit_bytes)
+        {
+            self.flush().await?;
         }
 
         Ok(())
@@ -696,61 +1874,73 @@ impl IndexWorker {
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
     async fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        if self.builder.tokens.is_empty() {
+        if self.builder.docs.is_empty() {
             return Ok(());
         }
 
         log::info!(
-            "flushing posting lists, estimated size: {} MiB",
-            self.estimated_size / (1024 * 1024)
+            "flushing posting lists, memory size: {} MiB",
+            self.memory_size / (1024 * 1024)
         );
-        self.estimated_size = 0;
+        self.memory_size = self.temporary_memory_size();
         let with_position = self.has_position();
-        let mut builder = std::mem::replace(
-            &mut self.builder,
-            InnerBuilder::new(
-                self.id_alloc
-                    .fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
-                    | self.fragment_mask.unwrap_or(0),
-                with_position,
-                self.token_set_format,
-            ),
+        let format_version = self.builder.format_version;
+        let block_size = self.builder.block_size;
+        let mut replacement = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+            self.id_alloc
+                .fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
+                | self.fragment_mask.unwrap_or(0),
+            with_position,
+            self.token_set_format,
+            format_version,
+            block_size,
         );
-        builder.write(self.store.as_ref()).await?;
-        self.partitions.push(builder.id());
+        replacement.docs = DocSet::with_coordinate_rank(self.coordinate_rank);
+        let builder = std::mem::replace(&mut self.builder, replacement);
+        let written_partition_id = builder.id();
+        let mut builder = builder;
+        let target = if self.fragment_mask.is_some() {
+            PartitionWriteTarget::Staged
+        } else {
+            PartitionWriteTarget::Final
+        };
+        let files = builder
+            .write_to(self.dest_store.as_ref(), target)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                Error::execution(format!(
+                    "failed to write finalized partition {}: {err}",
+                    written_partition_id
+                ))
+            })?;
+        self.files.extend(files);
+        self.partitions.push(written_partition_id);
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    async fn finish(mut self) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
-        if !self.builder.tokens.is_empty() {
-            self.flush().await?;
-        }
-        Ok(self.partitions)
+    async fn finish(self) -> Result<WorkerOutput> {
+        let tail_partition = if self.builder.docs.is_empty() && self.coordinate_rank == 0 {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(TailPartition {
+                builder: self.builder,
+            })
+        };
+        Ok(WorkerOutput {
+            partitions: self.partitions,
+            files: self.files,
+            tail_partition,
+        })
     }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub enum PositionRecorder {
-    Position(SmallVec<[u32; 4]>),
+    Position(SmallVec<[u32; 2]>),
     Count(u32),
 }
 
 impl PositionRecorder {
-    fn new(with_position: bool) -> Self {
-        if with_position {
-            Self::Position(SmallVec::new())
-        } else {
-            Self::Count(0)
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn push(&mut self, position: u32) {
-        match self {
-            Self::Position(positions) => positions.push(position),
-            Self::Count(count) => *count += 1,
-        }
-    }
-
     pub fn len(&self) -> u32 {
         match self {
             Self::Position(positions) => positions.len() as u32,
@@ -773,6 +1963,7 @@ impl PositionRecorder {
 #[derive(Debug, Eq, PartialEq, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct ScoredDoc {
     pub row_id: u64,
+    pub doc_index: Vec<u32>,
     pub score: OrderedFloat,
 }
 
@@ -780,6 +1971,15 @@ impl ScoredDoc {
     pub fn new(row_id: u64, score: f32) -> Self {
         Self {
             row_id,
+            doc_index: Vec::new(),
+            score: OrderedFloat(score),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_doc_index(row_id: u64, doc_index: Vec<u32>, score: f32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            row_id,
+            doc_index,
             score: OrderedFloat(score),
         }
     }
@@ -817,9 +2017,64 @@ pub fn legacy_inverted_list_schema(with_position: bool) -> SchemaRef {
 }
 
 pub fn inverted_list_schema(with_position: bool) -> SchemaRef {
+    inverted_list_schema_for_version(with_position, current_fts_format_version())
+}
+
+pub fn inverted_list_schema_for_version(
+    with_position: bool,
+    format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+) -> SchemaRef {
+    inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size(
+        with_position,
+        format_version,
+        LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+    )
+}
+
+pub fn inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size(
+    with_position: bool,
+    format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    block_size: usize,
+) -> SchemaRef {
+    inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size_and_impacts(
+        with_position,
+        format_version,
+        block_size,
+        true,
+    )
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size_and_impacts(
+    with_position: bool,
+    format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    block_size: usize,
+    with_impacts: bool,
+) -> SchemaRef {
+    validate_format_version_block_size(format_version, block_size)
+        .expect("invalid FTS format version for posting block size");
+    match format_version {
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1 => {
+            inverted_list_schema_v1(with_position, block_size, with_impacts)
+        }
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V2 | InvertedListFormatVersion::V3 => {
+            inverted_list_schema_with_tail_codec_and_position_codec(
+                with_position,
+                format_version,
+                PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                Some(PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta),
+                block_size,
+                with_impacts,
+            )
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn inverted_list_schema_v1(
+    with_position: bool,
+    block_size: usize,
+    with_impacts: bool,
+) -> SchemaRef {
     let mut fields = vec![
-        // we compress the posting lists (including row ids and frequencies),
-        // and store the compressed posting lists, so it's a large binary array
         arrow_schema::Field::new(
             POSTING_COL,
             datatypes::DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
@@ -832,6 +2087,17 @@ pub fn inverted_list_schema(with_position: bool) -> SchemaRef {
         arrow_schema::Field::new(MAX_SCORE_COL, datatypes::DataType::Float32, false),
         arrow_schema::Field::new(LENGTH_COL, datatypes::DataType::UInt32, false),
     ];
+    if with_impacts {
+        fields.push(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            IMPACT_COL,
+            datatypes::DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                datatypes::DataType::LargeBinary,
+                true,
+            ))),
+            false,
+        ));
+    }
     if with_position {
         fields.push(arrow_schema::Field::new(
             POSITION_COL,
@@ -847,133 +2113,107 @@ pub fn inverted_list_schema(with_position: bool) -> SchemaRef {
             false,
         ));
     }
-    Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(fields))
-}
-
-/// Flatten the string list stream into a string stream
-pub struct FlattenStream {
-    /// Inner record batch stream with 2 columns:
-    /// 1. doc_col: List(Utf8) or List(LargeUtf8)
-    /// 2. row_id_col: UInt64
-    inner: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    field_type: DataType,
-    data_type: DataType,
-}
-
-impl FlattenStream {
-    pub fn new(input: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Self {
-        let schema = input.schema();
-        let field = schema.field(0);
-        let data_type = match field.data_type() {
-            DataType::List(f) if matches!(f.data_type(), DataType::Utf8) => DataType::Utf8,
-            DataType::List(f) if matches!(f.data_type(), DataType::LargeUtf8) => {
-                DataType::LargeUtf8
-            }
-            DataType::LargeList(f) if matches!(f.data_type(), DataType::Utf8) => DataType::Utf8,
-            DataType::LargeList(f) if matches!(f.data_type(), DataType::LargeUtf8) => {
-                DataType::LargeUtf8
-            }
-            _ => panic!(
-                "expect data type List(Utf8) or List(LargeUtf8) but got {:?}",
-                field.data_type()
+    Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new_with_metadata(
+        fields,
+        HashMap::from([
+            (POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), block_size.to_string()),
+            (
+                FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_owned(),
+                InvertedListFormatVersion::V1.index_version().to_string(),
             ),
-        };
-        Self {
-            inner: input,
-            field_type: field.data_type().clone(),
-            data_type,
-        }
-    }
+        ]),
+    ))
 }
 
-impl Stream for FlattenStream {
-    type Item = datafusion_common::Result<RecordBatch>;
-
-    fn poll_next(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
-        match Pin::new(&mut self.inner).poll_next(cx) {
-            Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => {
-                let doc_col = batch.column(0);
-                let batch = match self.field_type {
-                    DataType::List(_) => flatten_string_list::<i32>(&batch, doc_col).map_err(|e| {
-                        datafusion_common::error::DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-                            "flatten string list error: {}",
-                            e
-                        ))
-                    }),
-                    DataType::LargeList(_) => {
-                        flatten_string_list::<i64>(&batch, doc_col).map_err(|e| {
-                            datafusion_common::error::DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-                                "flatten string list error: {}",
-                                e
-                            ))
-                        })
-                    }
-                    _ => unreachable!(
-                        "expect data type List or LargeList but got {:?}",
-                        self.field_type
-                    ),
-                };
-                Poll::Ready(Some(batch))
-            }
-            Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))) => Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))),
-            Poll::Ready(None) => Poll::Ready(None),
-            Poll::Pending => Poll::Pending,
-        }
-    }
+pub fn inverted_list_schema_with_tail_codec(
+    with_position: bool,
+    posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+) -> SchemaRef {
+    let format_version = InvertedListFormatVersion::from_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        posting_tail_codec,
+        LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+    )
+    .expect("invalid posting tail codec for posting block size");
+    inverted_list_schema_with_tail_codec_and_position_codec(
+        with_position,
+        format_version,
+        posting_tail_codec,
+        Some(PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta),
+        LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        false,
+    )
 }
 
-impl RecordBatchStream for FlattenStream {
-    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
-        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new(
-                self.inner.schema().field(0).name(),
-                self.data_type.clone(),
+fn inverted_list_schema_with_tail_codec_and_position_codec(
+    with_position: bool,
+    format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    position_codec: Option<PositionStreamCodec>,
+    block_size: usize,
+    with_impacts: bool,
+) -> SchemaRef {
+    let mut fields = vec![
+        // we compress the posting lists (including row ids and frequencies),
+        // and store the compressed posting lists, so it's a large binary array
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            POSTING_COL,
+            datatypes::DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                datatypes::DataType::LargeBinary,
                 true,
-            ),
-            ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
-        ]);
-
-        Arc::new(schema)
-    }
-}
-
-fn flatten_string_list<Offset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait>(
-    batch: &RecordBatch,
-    doc_col: &Arc<dyn Array>,
-) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-    let docs = doc_col.as_list::<Offset>();
-    let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt64Type>();
-
-    let row_ids = row_ids
-        .values()
-        .iter()
-        .zip(docs.iter())
-        .flat_map(|(row_id, doc)| std::iter::repeat_n(*row_id, doc.map(|d| d.len()).unwrap_or(0)));
-
-    let row_ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(row_ids));
-    let docs = match docs.value_type() {
-        datatypes::DataType::Utf8 | datatypes::DataType::LargeUtf8 => docs.values().clone(),
-        _ => {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "expect data type String or LargeString but got {}",
-                    docs.value_type()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-    };
-
-    let schema = Schema::new(vec![
-        Field::new(
-            batch.schema().field(0).name(),
-            docs.data_type().clone(),
-            true,
+            ))),
+            false,
         ),
-        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
-    ]);
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(schema), vec![docs, row_ids])?;
-    Ok(batch)
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(MAX_SCORE_COL, datatypes::DataType::Float32, false),
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(LENGTH_COL, datatypes::DataType::UInt32, false),
+    ];
+    if with_impacts {
+        fields.push(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            IMPACT_COL,
+            datatypes::DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                datatypes::DataType::LargeBinary,
+                true,
+            ))),
+            false,
+        ));
+    }
+    if with_position {
+        fields.push(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL,
+            arrow_schema::DataType::LargeBinary,
+            false,
+        ));
+        fields.push(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            POSITION_BLOCK_OFFSET_COL,
+            arrow_schema::DataType::List(Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                "item",
+                arrow_schema::DataType::UInt32,
+                true,
+            ))),
+            false,
+        ));
+    }
+    let mut metadata = HashMap::from([(
+        POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+        posting_tail_codec.as_str().to_owned(),
+    )]);
+    metadata.insert(
+        FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_owned(),
+        format_version.index_version().to_string(),
+    );
+    metadata.insert(POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), block_size.to_string());
+    if let Some(position_codec) = position_codec.filter(|_| with_position) {
+        metadata.insert(
+            POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2.to_owned(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert(
+            POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            position_codec.as_str().to_owned(),
+        );
+    }
+    Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new_with_metadata(fields, metadata))
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn token_file_path(partition_id: u64) -> String {
@@ -989,50 +2229,101 @@ pub(crate) fn doc_file_path(partition_id: u64) -> String {
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn part_metadata_file_path(partition_id: u64) -> String {
-    format!("part_{}_{}", partition_id, METADATA_FILE)
+    staged_partition_file_path(partition_id, METADATA_FILE)
+}
+
+fn empty_part_metadata_file_path(fragment_mask: u64) -> String {
+    format!("{STAGED_PARTITION_DIR}/part_empty_{fragment_mask}_{METADATA_FILE}")
+}
+
+const PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES: [&str; 3] = [TOKENS_FILE, INVERT_LIST_FILE, DOCS_FILE];
+const STAGED_PARTITION_DIR: &str = "staging";
+
+fn partition_file_path(partition_id: u64, suffix: &str) -> String {
+    format!("part_{}_{}", partition_id, suffix)
+}
+
+fn staged_partition_file_path(partition_id: u64, suffix: &str) -> String {
+    format!(
+        "{}/{}",
+        STAGED_PARTITION_DIR,
+        partition_file_path(partition_id, suffix)
+    )
 }
 
 pub async fn merge_index_files(
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
     index_dir: &Path,
     store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    // List all partition metadata files in the index directory
-    let part_metadata_files = list_metadata_files(object_store, index_dir).await?;
+    let metadata_path = index_dir.clone().join(METADATA_FILE);
+    if object_store.exists(&metadata_path).await? {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    // List all staged partition metadata files in the index directory
+    let index_files = list_index_files(object_store, index_dir).await?;
+    let part_metadata_files = metadata_files(&index_files);
+    if part_metadata_files.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "No partition metadata files found in index directory: {}",
+                index_dir
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
 
     // Call merge_metadata_files function for inverted index
-    merge_metadata_files(store, &part_metadata_files).await
+    merge_metadata_files(store, &part_metadata_files, progress).await
 }
 
-/// List and filter metadata files from the index directory
-/// Returns partition metadata files
-async fn list_metadata_files(object_store: &ObjectStore, index_dir: &Path) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
-    // List all partition metadata files in the index directory
-    let mut part_metadata_files = Vec::new();
-    let mut list_stream = object_store.list(Some(index_dir.clone()));
+async fn list_index_files(object_store: &ObjectStore, index_dir: &Path) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let mut index_files = Vec::new();
+    let mut list_stream = object_store.read_dir_all(index_dir, None);
 
     while let Some(item) = list_stream.next().await {
         match item {
             Ok(meta) => {
-                let file_name = meta.location.filename().unwrap_or_default();
-                // Filter files matching the pattern part_*_metadata.lance
-                if file_name.starts_with("part_") && file_name.ends_with("_metadata.lance") {
-                    part_metadata_files.push(file_name.to_string());
-                }
+                let location = meta.location.as_ref().trim_start_matches('/');
+                let index_dir = index_dir.as_ref().trim_start_matches('/');
+                let relative_path = location
+                    .strip_prefix(index_dir)
+                    .map(|s| s.trim_start_matches('/').to_string())
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| meta.location.filename().unwrap_or("").to_string());
+                index_files.push(relative_path);
             }
-            Err(_) => continue,
+            Err(err) => return Err(err),
         }
     }
 
+    Ok(index_files)
+}
+
+fn metadata_files(index_files: &[String]) -> Vec<String> {
+    index_files
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|file_name| {
+            file_name.starts_with(&format!("{}/part_", STAGED_PARTITION_DIR))
+                && file_name.ends_with("_metadata.lance")
+        })
+        .cloned()
+        .collect()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+async fn list_metadata_files(object_store: &ObjectStore, index_dir: &Path) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let index_files = list_index_files(object_store, index_dir).await?;
+    let part_metadata_files = metadata_files(&index_files);
     if part_metadata_files.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!(
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
                 "No partition metadata files found in index directory: {}",
                 index_dir
             )
             .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        ));
     }
 
     Ok(part_metadata_files)
@@ -1042,119 +2333,106 @@ async fn list_metadata_files(object_store: &ObjectStore, index_dir: &Path) -> Re
 async fn merge_metadata_files(
     store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
     part_metadata_files: &[String],
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
     // Collect all partition IDs and params
     let mut all_partitions = Vec::new();
     let mut params = None;
     let mut token_set_format = None;
+    let mut format_version = None;
+    let mut deleted_fragments = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    progress
+        .stage_start(
+            "read_partition_metadata",
+            Some(part_metadata_files.len() as u64),
+            "files",
+        )
+        .await?;
 
-    for file_name in part_metadata_files {
+    for (idx, file_name) in part_metadata_files.iter().enumerate() {
         let reader = store.open_index_file(file_name).await?;
         let metadata = &reader.schema().metadata;
 
-        let partitions_str = metadata.get("partitions").ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("partitions not found in {}", file_name),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let partitions_str = metadata.get("partitions").ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+            "partitions not found in {}",
+            file_name
+        )))?;
 
-        let partition_ids: Vec<u64> =
-            serde_json::from_str(partitions_str).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Failed to parse partitions: {}", e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let partition_ids: Vec<u64> = serde_json::from_str(partitions_str)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Failed to parse partitions: {}", e)))?;
 
         all_partitions.extend(partition_ids);
 
         if params.is_none() {
-            let params_str = metadata.get("params").ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("params not found in {}", file_name),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            let params_str = metadata
+                .get("params")
+                .ok_or(Error::index(format!("params not found in {}", file_name)))?;
             params = Some(
-                serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(params_str).map_err(|e| {
-                    Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("Failed to parse params: {}", e),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    }
-                })?,
+                serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(params_str)
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Failed to parse params: {}", e)))?,
             );
         }
 
-        if token_set_format.is_none() {
-            if let Some(name) = metadata.get(TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY) {
-                token_set_format = Some(TokenSetFormat::from_str(name)?);
-            }
+        if token_set_format.is_none()
+            && let Some(name) = metadata.get(TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY)
+        {
+            token_set_format = Some(TokenSetFormat::from_str(name)?);
         }
+        if format_version.is_none() {
+            format_version = Some(parse_format_version_from_metadata(metadata)?);
+        }
+
+        if reader.num_rows() > 0 {
+            let metadata_batch = reader.read_range(0..1, None).await?;
+            let deleted_fragments_col = metadata_batch
+                .column_by_name(DELETED_FRAGMENTS_COL)
+                .expect_ok()?;
+            let deleted_fragments_arr = deleted_fragments_col
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>()
+                .expect_ok()?;
+            let part_deleted_fragments =
+                RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(deleted_fragments_arr.value(0))?;
+            deleted_fragments.extend(part_deleted_fragments);
+        }
+        progress
+            .stage_progress("read_partition_metadata", idx as u64 + 1)
+            .await?;
     }
+    progress.stage_complete("read_partition_metadata").await?;
 
     // Create ID mapping: sorted original IDs -> 0,1,2...
-    let mut sorted_ids = all_partitions.clone();
+    let mut sorted_ids = all_partitions;
     sorted_ids.sort();
     sorted_ids.dedup();
 
-    let id_mapping: HashMap<u64, u64> = sorted_ids
+    let id_mapping: Vec<(u64, u64)> = sorted_ids
         .iter()
         .enumerate()
         .map(|(new_id, &old_id)| (old_id, new_id as u64))
         .collect();
 
-    // Safe rename partition files using temporary files to avoid overwrite
-    let timestamp = std::time::SystemTime::now()
-        .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
-        .unwrap()
-        .as_secs();
-
-    // Phase 1: Move files to temporary locations
-    let mut temp_files: Vec<(String, String, String)> = Vec::new(); // (temp_path, old_path, final_path)
-
-    for (&old_id, &new_id) in &id_mapping {
-        if old_id != new_id {
-            for suffix in [TOKENS_FILE, INVERT_LIST_FILE, DOCS_FILE] {
-                let old_path = format!("part_{}_{}", old_id, suffix);
-                let new_path = format!("part_{}_{}", new_id, suffix);
-                let temp_path = format!("temp_{}_{}", timestamp, old_path);
-
-                // Move to temporary location first to avoid overwrite
-                if let Err(e) = store.rename_index_file(&old_path, &temp_path).await {
-                    // Rollback phase 1: restore files from temp locations
-                    for (temp_name, old_name, _) in temp_files.iter().rev() {
-                        let _ = store.rename_index_file(temp_name, old_name).await;
-                    }
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Failed to move {} to temp {}: {}",
-                            old_path, temp_path, e
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-                temp_files.push((temp_path, old_path, new_path));
-            }
-        }
-    }
+    let total_copies = id_mapping.len() as u64 * PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES.len() as u64;
+    progress
+        .stage_start("remap_partition_files", Some(total_copies), "files")
+        .await?;
 
-    // Phase 2: Move from temporary to final locations
-    let mut completed_renames: Vec<(String, String)> = Vec::new(); // (final_path, temp_path)
+    let mut copied_files = 0u64;
 
-    for (temp_path, _old_path, final_path) in &temp_files {
-        if let Err(e) = store.rename_index_file(temp_path, final_path).await {
-            // Rollback phase 2: restore completed renames and remaining temps
-            for (final_name, temp_name) in completed_renames.iter().rev() {
-                let _ = store.rename_index_file(final_name, temp_name).await;
-            }
-            // Restore remaining temp files to original locations
-            for (temp_name, orig_name, _) in temp_files.iter() {
-                if !completed_renames.iter().any(|(_, t)| t == temp_name) {
-                    let _ = store.rename_index_file(temp_name, orig_name).await;
-                }
-            }
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Failed to rename {} to {}: {}", temp_path, final_path, e),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+    for &(old_id, new_id) in &id_mapping {
+        for suffix in PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES {
+            let staged_path = staged_partition_file_path(old_id, suffix);
+            let final_path = partition_file_path(new_id, suffix);
+            store
+                .copy_index_file_to(&staged_path, &final_path, store.as_ref())
+                .await?;
+            copied_files += 1;
+            progress
+                .stage_progress("remap_partition_files", copied_files)
+                .await?;
         }
-        completed_renames.push((final_path.clone(), temp_path.clone()));
     }
+    progress.stage_complete("remap_partition_files").await?;
 
     // Write merged metadata with remapped IDs
     let remapped_partitions: Vec<u64> = (0..id_mapping.len() as u64).collect();
@@ -1166,15 +2444,27 @@ async fn merge_metadata_files(
         remapped_partitions.clone(),
         token_set_format,
         None,
-    );
+        deleted_fragments,
+    )
+    .with_format_version(format_version.unwrap_or(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1));
+    progress
+        .stage_start("write_merged_metadata", Some(1), "files")
+        .await?;
     builder
         .write_metadata(&*store, &remapped_partitions)
         .await?;
+    progress.stage_progress("write_merged_metadata", 1).await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("write_merged_metadata").await?;
 
-    // Cleanup partition metadata files
+    // Cleanup staged partition metadata files
     for file_name in part_metadata_files {
-        if file_name.starts_with("part_") && file_name.ends_with("_metadata.lance") {
-            let _ = store.delete_index_file(file_name).await;
+        let _ = store.delete_index_file(file_name).await;
+    }
+    for &(old_id, _) in &id_mapping {
+        for suffix in PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES {
+            let _ = store
+                .delete_index_file(&staged_partition_file_path(old_id, suffix))
+                .await;
         }
     }
 
@@ -1186,57 +2476,66 @@ async fn merge_metadata_files(
 /// The input stream must be one of:
 /// 1. Document in Utf8 or LargeUtf8 format.
 /// 2. Document in List(Utf8) or List(LargeUtf8) format.
-/// 3. Json document in LargeBinary format.
+/// 3. Json document, as Lance JSONB or Arrow JSON text.
 pub fn document_input(
     input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
     column: &str,
 ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
     let schema = input.schema();
     let field = schema.column_with_name(column).expect_ok()?.1;
+    if JsonEncoding::of_field(field).is_some() {
+        return Ok(Box::pin(JsonTextStream::try_new(
+            input,
+            column.to_string(),
+        )?));
+    }
     match field.data_type() {
-        DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 => Ok(input),
+        DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Utf8View => Ok(input),
         DataType::List(field) | DataType::LargeList(field)
             if matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8) =>
         {
-            Ok(Box::pin(FlattenStream::new(input)))
+            Ok(input)
         }
-        DataType::LargeBinary => match field.metadata().get(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY) {
-            Some(name) if name.as_str() == JSON_EXT_NAME => {
-                Ok(Box::pin(JsonTextStream::new(input, column.to_string())))
-            }
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("column {} is not json", column).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
-        },
-        _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!(
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
                 "column {} has type {}, is not utf8, large utf8 type/list, or large binary",
                 column,
                 field.data_type()
             )
             .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        )),
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use crate::Index;
     use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-    use crate::scalar::{IndexReader, IndexWriter};
-    use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt64Array};
+    use crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::{MemBM25Scorer, Scorer};
+    use crate::scalar::{IndexFile, IndexReader, IndexWriter, ScalarIndex};
+    use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
     use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use bytes::Bytes;
     use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-    use futures::stream;
+    use futures::stream::{self, BoxStream};
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
     use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
-    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-    use snafu::location;
+    use object_store::memory::InMemory;
+    use object_store::{
+        CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+        ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult,
+        Result as OSResult,
+    };
     use std::any::Any;
-    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+    use std::fmt::{Display, Formatter};
+    use std::ops::Range;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicU64, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+    use std::time::Duration;
+    use tokio::sync::Notify;
 
     fn make_doc_batch(doc: &str, row_id: u64) -> RecordBatch {
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
@@ -1248,121 +2547,2611 @@ mod tests {
         RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![docs, row_ids]).unwrap()
     }
 
-    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
-    struct CountingStore {
-        write_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    fn make_doc_batch_from_docs(docs: Vec<Option<&str>>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let num_rows = docs.len();
+        let docs = Arc::new(StringArray::from(docs));
+        let row_ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![docs, row_ids]).unwrap()
     }
 
-    impl CountingStore {
-        fn new() -> Self {
+    struct FailingListObjectStore {
+        inner: InMemory,
+    }
+
+    impl Default for FailingListObjectStore {
+        fn default() -> Self {
             Self {
-                write_count: Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0)),
+                inner: InMemory::new(),
             }
         }
-
-        fn write_count(&self) -> usize {
-            self.write_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
-        }
     }
 
-    impl DeepSizeOf for CountingStore {
-        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-            0
+    impl Display for FailingListObjectStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "FailingListObjectStore")
         }
     }
 
-    #[derive(Debug)]
-    struct CountingWriter {
-        write_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    impl Debug for FailingListObjectStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            f.debug_struct("FailingListObjectStore").finish()
+        }
     }
 
     #[async_trait]
-    impl IndexWriter for CountingWriter {
-        async fn write_record_batch(&mut self, _batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<u64> {
-            Ok(self.write_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst) as u64)
+    impl OSObjectStore for FailingListObjectStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
         }
 
-        async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-            Ok(())
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
         }
 
-        async fn finish_with_metadata(&mut self, _metadata: HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()> {
-            Ok(())
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
         }
-    }
 
-    #[async_trait]
-    impl IndexStore for CountingStore {
-        fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-            self
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
         }
 
-        fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
-            1
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
         }
 
-        async fn new_index_file(
-            &self,
-            _name: &str,
-            _schema: Arc<Schema>,
-        ) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexWriter>> {
-            Ok(Box::new(CountingWriter {
-                write_count: self.write_count.clone(),
-            }))
+        fn list(&self, _prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            stream::iter(vec![Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                store: "failing-list",
+                source: "boom listing metadata".into(),
+            })])
+            .boxed()
         }
 
-        async fn open_index_file(&self, _name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
-            Err(Error::not_supported(
-                "CountingStore does not support reading",
-                location!(),
-            ))
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
         }
 
-        async fn copy_index_file(&self, _name: &str, _dest_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<()> {
-            Err(Error::not_supported(
-                "CountingStore does not support copying",
-                location!(),
-            ))
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
         }
 
-        async fn rename_index_file(&self, _name: &str, _new_name: &str) -> Result<()> {
-            Err(Error::not_supported(
-                "CountingStore does not support renaming",
-                location!(),
-            ))
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
         }
+    }
 
-        async fn delete_index_file(&self, _name: &str) -> Result<()> {
-            Err(Error::not_supported(
-                "CountingStore does not support deleting",
-                location!(),
-            ))
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct CopyFailingObjectStore {
+        inner: InMemory,
+        copy_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    impl Display for CopyFailingObjectStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "CopyFailingObjectStore")
         }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_write_posting_lists_writes_each_batch() -> Result<()> {
-        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
-        for doc_id in 0..3u64 {
-            builder.docs.append(doc_id, 1);
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl OSObjectStore for CopyFailingObjectStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
         }
 
-        for doc_id in 0..3u32 {
-            let mut posting_list = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
-            posting_list.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-            builder.posting_lists.push(posting_list);
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list(prefix)
+        }
+
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, _from: &Path, _to: &Path, _opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.copy_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                store: "CopyFailingObjectStore",
+                source: "native copy disabled in test".into(),
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_metadata_files_propagates_list_error() -> Result<()> {
+        let mut object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        object_store.inner = Arc::new(FailingListObjectStore::default());
+
+        let err = list_metadata_files(&object_store, &Path::from("index"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("boom listing metadata"),
+            "expected original list error, got: {err}"
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_metadata_files_empty_directory_returns_no_files_error() -> Result<()> {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+
+        let err = list_metadata_files(&object_store, &Path::from("empty-index"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("No partition metadata files found"),
+            "expected empty-directory error, got: {err}"
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Default, Clone)]
+    struct CountingStore {
+        write_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    impl CountingStore {
+        fn new() -> Self {
+            Self {
+                write_count: Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0)),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn write_count(&self) -> usize {
+            self.write_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl DeepSizeOf for CountingStore {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+    struct NoRenameStore {
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        final_delete_count: Option<Arc<AtomicUsize>>,
+    }
+
+    impl NoRenameStore {
+        fn new(inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                inner,
+                final_delete_count: None,
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn with_final_delete_tracking(inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                inner,
+                final_delete_count: Some(Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0))),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn final_delete_count(&self) -> usize {
+            self.final_delete_count
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|count| count.load(Ordering::SeqCst))
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+        }
+
+        fn unwrap_dest_store(dest_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> &dyn IndexStore {
+            dest_store
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Self>()
+                .map(|store| store.inner.as_ref())
+                .unwrap_or(dest_store)
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl DeepSizeOf for NoRenameStore {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+            self.inner.deep_size_of_children(context)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexStore for NoRenameStore {
+        fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+            self
+        }
+
+        fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            Arc::new(self.clone())
+        }
+
+        fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.io_parallelism()
+        }
+
+        fn with_io_priority(&self, io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            self.inner.with_io_priority(io_priority)
+        }
+
+        async fn new_index_file(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        ) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexWriter>> {
+            self.inner.new_index_file(name, schema).await
+        }
+
+        async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
+            self.inner.open_index_file(name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_index_file(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner
+                .copy_index_file(name, Self::unwrap_dest_store(dest_store))
+                .await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_index_file_to(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            new_name: &str,
+            dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner
+                .copy_index_file_to(name, new_name, Self::unwrap_dest_store(dest_store))
+                .await
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_index_file(&self, name: &str, new_name: &str) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "merge_index_files should not rename partition file {name} to {new_name}"
+            )))
+        }
+
+        async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            if name.starts_with("part_")
+                && let Some(count) = &self.final_delete_count
+            {
+                count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            }
+            self.inner.delete_index_file(name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+            self.inner.list_files_with_sizes().await
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailMetadataStore {
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    }
+
+    impl FailMetadataStore {
+        fn new(inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>) -> Self {
+            Self { inner }
+        }
+
+        fn unwrap_dest_store(dest_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> &dyn IndexStore {
+            dest_store
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Self>()
+                .map(|store| store.inner.as_ref())
+                .unwrap_or(dest_store)
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl DeepSizeOf for FailMetadataStore {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+            self.inner.deep_size_of_children(context)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexStore for FailMetadataStore {
+        fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+            self
+        }
+
+        fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            Arc::new(Self {
+                inner: self.inner.clone(),
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.io_parallelism()
+        }
+
+        fn with_io_priority(&self, io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            self.inner.with_io_priority(io_priority)
+        }
+
+        async fn new_index_file(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        ) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexWriter>> {
+            let writer = self.inner.new_index_file(name, schema).await?;
+            if name == METADATA_FILE {
+                Ok(Box::new(FailFinishWriter { inner: writer }))
+            } else {
+                Ok(writer)
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
+            self.inner.open_index_file(name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_index_file(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner
+                .copy_index_file(name, Self::unwrap_dest_store(dest_store))
+                .await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_index_file_to(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            new_name: &str,
+            dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner
+                .copy_index_file_to(name, new_name, Self::unwrap_dest_store(dest_store))
+                .await
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_index_file(&self, name: &str, new_name: &str) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner.rename_index_file(name, new_name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            self.inner.delete_index_file(name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+            self.inner.list_files_with_sizes().await
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct FailFinishWriter {
+        inner: Box<dyn IndexWriter>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexWriter for FailFinishWriter {
+        async fn write_record_batch(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<u64> {
+            self.inner.write_record_batch(batch).await
+        }
+
+        async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, data: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+            self.inner.add_global_buffer(data).await
+        }
+
+        async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            Err(Error::internal("injected metadata write failure"))
+        }
+
+        async fn finish_with_metadata(
+            &mut self,
+            _metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            Err(Error::internal("injected metadata write failure"))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct CountingWriter {
+        path: String,
+        write_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexWriter for CountingWriter {
+        async fn write_record_batch(&mut self, _batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<u64> {
+            Ok(self.write_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst) as u64)
+        }
+
+        async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, _data: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+            // Mirror the real writer's 1-indexed return value.
+            Ok(1)
+        }
+
+        async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            Ok(IndexFile {
+                path: self.path.clone(),
+                size_bytes: 0,
+            })
+        }
+
+        async fn finish_with_metadata(
+            &mut self,
+            _metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            Ok(IndexFile {
+                path: self.path.clone(),
+                size_bytes: 0,
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexStore for CountingStore {
+        fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+            self
+        }
+
+        fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            Arc::new(self.clone())
+        }
+
+        fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+            1
+        }
+
+        fn with_io_priority(&self, _io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            // No backing scheduler, so priority is meaningless here.
+            self.clone_arc()
+        }
+
+        async fn new_index_file(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            _schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        ) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexWriter>> {
+            Ok(Box::new(CountingWriter {
+                path: name.to_string(),
+                write_count: self.write_count.clone(),
+            }))
+        }
+
+        async fn open_index_file(&self, _name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
+            Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "CountingStore does not support reading",
+            ))
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_index_file(
+            &self,
+            _name: &str,
+            _dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "CountingStore does not support copying",
+            ))
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_index_file(&self, _name: &str, _new_name: &str) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "CountingStore does not support renaming",
+            ))
+        }
+
+        async fn delete_index_file(&self, _name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "CountingStore does not support deleting",
+            ))
+        }
+
+        async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+            Ok(vec![])
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_posting_lists_batches_multiple_rows() -> Result<()> {
+        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+        for doc_id in 0..3u64 {
+            builder.docs.append(doc_id, 1);
+        }
+
+        for doc_id in 0..3u32 {
+            let mut posting_list = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+            posting_list.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+            builder.posting_lists.push(posting_list);
         }
 
         let store = CountingStore::new();
         let docs = Arc::new(std::mem::take(&mut builder.docs));
-        builder.write_posting_lists(&store, docs).await?;
+        builder
+            .write_posting_lists(&store, docs, &posting_file_path(0))
+            .await?;
+
+        assert_eq!(store.write_count(), 1);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn write_partition_file_marker(
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        path: &str,
+        partition_id: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "partition_id",
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![partition_id]))],
+        )?;
+        let mut writer = store.new_index_file(path, schema).await?;
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+        writer.finish().await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn write_partition_files(
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        partition_id: u64,
+        target: PartitionWriteTarget,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        write_partition_file_marker(store, &target.token_path(partition_id), partition_id).await?;
+        write_partition_file_marker(store, &target.posting_path(partition_id), partition_id)
+            .await?;
+        write_partition_file_marker(store, &target.doc_path(partition_id), partition_id).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn read_partition_file_marker(store: &dyn IndexStore, path: &str) -> Result<u64> {
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(path).await?;
+        let batch = reader.read_range(0..1, None).await?;
+        let partition_ids = batch.column(0).as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt64Type>();
+        Ok(partition_ids.value(0))
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_partition_file_markers(
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        partition_id: u64,
+        expected_marker: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_partition_file_marker(store, &token_file_path(partition_id)).await?,
+            expected_marker
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_partition_file_marker(store, &posting_file_path(partition_id)).await?,
+            expected_marker
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_partition_file_marker(store, &doc_file_path(partition_id)).await?,
+            expected_marker
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_index_files_remaps_staged_partitions_without_rename() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let base_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let store = Arc::new(NoRenameStore::new(base_store.clone()));
+        let partitions = vec![5_u64, 1_u64, (17_u64 << 32) | 2];
+        let metadata_builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            None,
+            Vec::new(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            None,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        );
+
+        for partition_id in &partitions {
+            write_partition_files(
+                base_store.as_ref(),
+                *partition_id,
+                PartitionWriteTarget::Staged,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            metadata_builder
+                .write_part_metadata(base_store.as_ref(), *partition_id)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        merge_index_files(
+            object_store.as_ref(),
+            &index_dir.obj_path(),
+            store,
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let metadata_reader = base_store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await?;
+        let metadata = &metadata_reader.schema().metadata;
+        let written_partitions: Vec<u64> = serde_json::from_str(
+            metadata
+                .get("partitions")
+                .expect("partitions missing from metadata"),
+        )?;
+        let mut expected_partitions = partitions.clone();
+        expected_partitions.sort_unstable();
+        expected_partitions.dedup();
+        let remapped_partitions = (0..expected_partitions.len() as u64).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(written_partitions, remapped_partitions);
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_format_version_from_metadata(metadata)?,
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V2
+        );
+
+        for (new_id, old_id) in expected_partitions.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_partition_file_markers(base_store.as_ref(), new_id as u64, *old_id).await?;
+            assert!(
+                base_store
+                    .open_index_file(&part_metadata_file_path(*old_id))
+                    .await
+                    .is_err(),
+                "partition metadata should be cleaned up after final metadata is written"
+            );
+            for suffix in PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES {
+                assert!(
+                    base_store
+                        .open_index_file(&staged_partition_file_path(*old_id, suffix))
+                        .await
+                        .is_err(),
+                    "staged partition files should be cleaned up after final metadata is written"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fts_remap_streams_files_when_native_copy_fails() -> Result<()> {
+        let copy_count = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let mut object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        object_store.inner = Arc::new(CopyFailingObjectStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            copy_count: copy_count.clone(),
+        });
+        let object_store = Arc::new(object_store);
+        let index_path = Path::from("index");
+        let base_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            index_path.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let store = Arc::new(NoRenameStore::new(base_store.clone()));
+        let partitions = vec![5_u64, 1_u64];
+        let metadata_builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            None,
+            Vec::new(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            None,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        );
+
+        for partition_id in &partitions {
+            write_partition_files(
+                base_store.as_ref(),
+                *partition_id,
+                PartitionWriteTarget::Staged,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            metadata_builder
+                .write_part_metadata(base_store.as_ref(), *partition_id)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        let probe_source = staged_partition_file_path(partitions[0], TOKENS_FILE);
+        let probe_source_size = base_store
+            .open_index_file(&probe_source)
+            .await?
+            .file_size_bytes()
+            .expect("written index file should report its size");
+        let copied = base_store
+            .copy_index_file_to(&probe_source, "probe.lance", base_store.as_ref())
+            .await?;
+        assert_eq!(copied.path, "probe.lance");
+        assert_eq!(copied.size_bytes, probe_source_size);
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_partition_file_marker(base_store.as_ref(), "probe.lance").await?,
+            partitions[0]
+        );
+
+        let renamed = base_store
+            .rename_index_file("probe.lance", "renamed-probe.lance")
+            .await?;
+        assert_eq!(renamed.path, "renamed-probe.lance");
+        assert_eq!(renamed.size_bytes, probe_source_size);
+        assert!(base_store.open_index_file("probe.lance").await.is_err());
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_partition_file_marker(base_store.as_ref(), "renamed-probe.lance").await?,
+            partitions[0]
+        );
+
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        merge_index_files(object_store.as_ref(), &index_path, store, progress.clone()).await?;
+
+        let mut expected_partitions = partitions;
+        expected_partitions.sort_unstable();
+        for (new_id, old_id) in expected_partitions.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_partition_file_markers(base_store.as_ref(), new_id as u64, *old_id).await?;
+        }
+        let remap_progress = progress
+            .recorded_events()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter_map(|(kind, stage, completed)| {
+                (kind == "progress" && stage == "remap_partition_files").then_some(completed)
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            remap_progress.last().copied(),
+            Some((expected_partitions.len() * PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES.len()) as u64)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            copy_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            0,
+            "bulk index movement must not invoke native object-store copy"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_index_files_rewrites_partial_final_files_from_staging() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let base_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let store = Arc::new(NoRenameStore::with_final_delete_tracking(
+            base_store.clone(),
+        ));
+        let partitions = vec![1_u64, 5_u64];
+        let metadata_builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            None,
+            Vec::new(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            None,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        );
+
+        for partition_id in &partitions {
+            write_partition_files(
+                base_store.as_ref(),
+                *partition_id,
+                PartitionWriteTarget::Staged,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            metadata_builder
+                .write_part_metadata(base_store.as_ref(), *partition_id)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        for suffix in PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES {
+            write_partition_file_marker(base_store.as_ref(), &partition_file_path(1, suffix), 999)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        merge_index_files(
+            object_store.as_ref(),
+            &index_dir.obj_path(),
+            store.clone(),
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        assert_partition_file_markers(base_store.as_ref(), 0, 1).await?;
+        assert_partition_file_markers(base_store.as_ref(), 1, 5).await?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            store.final_delete_count(),
+            0,
+            "merge should overwrite final partition files without deleting them first"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_from_existing_copies_existing_partitions_to_staging_and_finalizes()
+    -> Result<()> {
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let source_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let dest_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let source_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            source_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let dest_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            dest_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let merge_store = Arc::new(NoRenameStore::new(dest_store.clone()));
+        let fragment_mask = 7_u64 << 32;
+        let partitions = vec![fragment_mask | 5, fragment_mask | 1];
+
+        for partition_id in &partitions {
+            write_partition_files(
+                source_store.as_ref(),
+                *partition_id,
+                PartitionWriteTarget::Final,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        }
+
+        let builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            Some(source_store.clone()),
+            partitions.clone(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            Some(fragment_mask),
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        );
+        builder.write(dest_store.as_ref()).await?;
+
+        for partition_id in &partitions {
+            assert_partition_file_markers(source_store.as_ref(), *partition_id, *partition_id)
+                .await?;
+            for suffix in PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES {
+                let staged_path = staged_partition_file_path(*partition_id, suffix);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    read_partition_file_marker(dest_store.as_ref(), &staged_path).await?,
+                    *partition_id
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    dest_store
+                        .open_index_file(&partition_file_path(*partition_id, suffix))
+                        .await
+                        .is_err(),
+                    "distributed existing partition should be staged instead of copied to root"
+                );
+            }
+            dest_store
+                .open_index_file(&part_metadata_file_path(*partition_id))
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        merge_index_files(
+            object_store.as_ref(),
+            &dest_dir.obj_path(),
+            merge_store,
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let mut expected_partitions = partitions.clone();
+        expected_partitions.sort_unstable();
+        for (new_id, old_id) in expected_partitions.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_partition_file_markers(dest_store.as_ref(), new_id as u64, *old_id).await?;
+            for suffix in PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES {
+                assert!(
+                    dest_store
+                        .open_index_file(&staged_partition_file_path(*old_id, suffix))
+                        .await
+                        .is_err(),
+                    "staged partition files should be cleaned after final metadata is written"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_index_files_keeps_staging_when_final_metadata_write_fails() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let base_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let failing_store = Arc::new(FailMetadataStore::new(base_store.clone()));
+        let partitions = vec![1_u64, 5_u64];
+        let metadata_builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            None,
+            Vec::new(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            None,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        );
+
+        for partition_id in &partitions {
+            write_partition_files(
+                base_store.as_ref(),
+                *partition_id,
+                PartitionWriteTarget::Staged,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            metadata_builder
+                .write_part_metadata(base_store.as_ref(), *partition_id)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        let err = merge_index_files(
+            object_store.as_ref(),
+            &index_dir.obj_path(),
+            failing_store,
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("metadata write failure"),
+            "expected injected metadata failure, got: {err}"
+        );
+
+        for partition_id in &partitions {
+            base_store
+                .open_index_file(&part_metadata_file_path(*partition_id))
+                .await?;
+            for suffix in PARTITION_FILE_SUFFIXES {
+                let staged_path = staged_partition_file_path(*partition_id, suffix);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    read_partition_file_marker(base_store.as_ref(), &staged_path).await?,
+                    *partition_id
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_build_writes_partition_data_to_staging() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let fragment_mask = 7_u64 << 32;
+        let batch = make_doc_batch("hello world", fragment_mask);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new_with_fragment_mask(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            Some(fragment_mask),
+        );
+        builder.update(stream, store.as_ref(), None).await?;
+
+        let part_metadata_files =
+            list_metadata_files(&ObjectStore::local(), &index_dir.obj_path()).await?;
+        assert_eq!(part_metadata_files.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            part_metadata_files[0].starts_with("staging/part_"),
+            "partition metadata should be written to staging"
+        );
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(&part_metadata_files[0]).await?;
+        let partition_ids: Vec<u64> = serde_json::from_str(
+            reader
+                .schema()
+                .metadata
+                .get("partitions")
+                .expect("partitions missing from metadata"),
+        )?;
+        assert_eq!(partition_ids.len(), 1);
+        let partition_id = partition_ids[0];
+
+        store
+            .open_index_file(&staged_partition_file_path(partition_id, TOKENS_FILE))
+            .await?;
+        assert!(
+            store
+                .open_index_file(&partition_file_path(partition_id, METADATA_FILE))
+                .await
+                .is_err(),
+            "distributed build-only metadata should not be written to root partition metadata paths"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            store
+                .open_index_file(&token_file_path(partition_id))
+                .await
+                .is_err(),
+            "distributed build-only data should not be written to final partition paths"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_empty_build_does_not_finalize_shared_directory() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let empty_fragment_mask = 7_u64 << 32;
+        let batch = make_doc_batch_from_docs(vec![None, None]);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams {
+            lance_tokenizer: Some("text".to_string()),
+            with_position: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut builder =
+            InvertedIndexBuilder::new_with_fragment_mask(params.clone(), Some(empty_fragment_mask));
+
+        let files = builder
+            .update(Box::pin(stream), store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await?;
+
+        assert_eq!(files.len(), 1);
+        let empty_metadata_path = empty_part_metadata_file_path(empty_fragment_mask);
+        assert_eq!(files[0].path, empty_metadata_path);
+        assert!(
+            store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await.is_err(),
+            "an empty shard must not finalize the shared directory"
+        );
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(&empty_metadata_path).await?;
+        let metadata = &reader.schema().metadata;
+        let partitions: Vec<u64> = serde_json::from_str(
+            metadata
+                .get("partitions")
+                .expect("partitions missing from metadata"),
+        )?;
+        assert!(partitions.is_empty());
+        let written_params: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_str(
+            metadata
+                .get("params")
+                .expect("params missing from metadata"),
+        )?;
+        assert_eq!(written_params, params);
+
+        let non_empty_fragment_mask = 8_u64 << 32;
+        let batch = make_doc_batch("searchable text", non_empty_fragment_mask);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let mut builder =
+            InvertedIndexBuilder::new_with_fragment_mask(params, Some(non_empty_fragment_mask));
+        builder
+            .update(Box::pin(stream), store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await?;
+
+        let staged_metadata =
+            list_metadata_files(object_store.as_ref(), &index_dir.obj_path()).await?;
+        assert_eq!(staged_metadata.len(), 2);
+
+        merge_index_files(
+            object_store.as_ref(),
+            &index_dir.obj_path(),
+            store.clone(),
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+        assert_eq!(index.partition_count(), 1);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_index_files_is_noop_when_metadata_exists() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let metadata_builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            None,
+            vec![42],
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            None,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        );
+        metadata_builder
+            .write_metadata(store.as_ref(), &[42])
+            .await?;
+
+        merge_index_files(
+            object_store.as_ref(),
+            &index_dir.obj_path(),
+            store,
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_only_path_writes_partitions_as_is() -> Result<()> {
+        let src_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let dest_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let src_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            src_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            dest_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        let tokenizer = params.build()?;
+        let token_set_format = TokenSetFormat::default();
+        let id_alloc = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+
+        let mut worker1 = IndexWorker::new(
+            tokenizer.clone(),
+            src_store.clone(),
+            id_alloc.clone(),
+            IndexWorkerConfig {
+                with_position: params.with_position,
+                format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+                fragment_mask: None,
+                token_set_format,
+                worker_memory_limit_bytes: u64::MAX,
+                block_size: params.block_size,
+                coordinate_rank: 0,
+            },
+        )
+        .await?;
+        worker1
+            .process_batch(make_doc_batch("hello world", 0))
+            .await?;
+        let output1 = worker1.finish().await?;
+        let mut partitions = output1.partitions;
+        if let Some(mut tail_partition) = output1.tail_partition {
+            partitions.push(tail_partition.builder.id());
+            tail_partition.builder.write(src_store.as_ref()).await?;
+        }
+
+        let mut worker2 = IndexWorker::new(
+            tokenizer.clone(),
+            src_store.clone(),
+            id_alloc.clone(),
+            IndexWorkerConfig {
+                with_position: params.with_position,
+                format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+                fragment_mask: None,
+                token_set_format,
+                worker_memory_limit_bytes: u64::MAX,
+                block_size: params.block_size,
+                coordinate_rank: 0,
+            },
+        )
+        .await?;
+        worker2
+            .process_batch(make_doc_batch("goodbye world", 1))
+            .await?;
+        let output2 = worker2.finish().await?;
+        partitions.extend(output2.partitions);
+        if let Some(mut tail_partition) = output2.tail_partition {
+            partitions.push(tail_partition.builder.id());
+            tail_partition.builder.write(src_store.as_ref()).await?;
+        }
+        partitions.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(partitions.len(), 2);
+        assert_ne!(partitions[0], partitions[1]);
+
+        let builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            Some(src_store.clone()),
+            partitions.clone(),
+            token_set_format,
+            None,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        )
+        .with_format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1);
+        builder.write(dest_store.as_ref()).await?;
+
+        let metadata_reader = dest_store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await?;
+        let metadata = &metadata_reader.schema().metadata;
+        let partitions_str = metadata
+            .get("partitions")
+            .expect("partitions missing from metadata");
+        let written_partitions: Vec<u64> = serde_json::from_str(partitions_str).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(written_partitions, partitions);
+
+        for id in &partitions {
+            dest_store.open_index_file(&token_file_path(*id)).await?;
+            dest_store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(*id)).await?;
+            dest_store.open_index_file(&doc_file_path(*id)).await?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_preserves_existing_posting_tail_codec() -> Result<()> {
+        let src_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let dest_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let src_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            src_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            dest_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let posting_tail_codec = PostingTailCodec::Fixed32;
+        let mut partition = InnerBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+            0,
+            false,
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            posting_tail_codec,
+        );
+        partition.tokens.get_or_add("hello");
+        let mut posting_list =
+            PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(false, posting_tail_codec);
+        posting_list.add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        partition.posting_lists.push(posting_list);
+        partition.docs.append(100, 1);
+        partition.write(src_store.as_ref()).await?;
+
+        let metadata_writer = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            Some(src_store.clone()),
+            vec![0],
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            None,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        )
+        .with_posting_tail_codec(posting_tail_codec);
+        metadata_writer
+            .write_metadata(src_store.as_ref(), &[0])
+            .await?;
+
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(src_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+        let derived_params = index.derive_index_params()?;
+        let derived_params: InvertedIndexParams =
+            serde_json::from_str(derived_params.params.as_deref().unwrap())?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            derived_params.format_version,
+            Some(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1)
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let docs = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("hello again")]));
+        let row_ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![101u64]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![docs, row_ids])?;
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        index
+            .update(Box::pin(stream), dest_store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await?;
+
+        let updated =
+            InvertedIndex::load(dest_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+        assert_eq!(updated.partitions.len(), 2);
+        for partition in &updated.partitions {
+            assert_eq!(
+                partition.inverted_list.posting_tail_codec(),
+                posting_tail_codec
+            );
+        }
+
+        let metadata = dest_store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata.schema().metadata.get(POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY),
+            Some(&posting_tail_codec.as_str().to_owned())
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_with_posting_tail_codec_syncs_format_version() {
+        let builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            None,
+            Vec::new(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            None,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        )
+        .with_format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)
+        .with_posting_tail_codec(PostingTailCodec::Fixed32);
+        assert_eq!(builder.format_version, InvertedListFormatVersion::V1);
+        assert_eq!(builder.posting_tail_codec, PostingTailCodec::Fixed32);
+
+        let builder = builder.with_posting_tail_codec(PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta);
+        assert_eq!(builder.format_version, InvertedListFormatVersion::V2);
+        assert_eq!(builder.posting_tail_codec, PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_v3_128_reuses_v2_physical_layout() {
+        for with_position in [false, true] {
+            for with_impacts in [false, true] {
+                let v2 = inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size_and_impacts(
+                    with_position,
+                    InvertedListFormatVersion::V2,
+                    LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    with_impacts,
+                );
+                let v3 = inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size_and_impacts(
+                    with_position,
+                    InvertedListFormatVersion::V3,
+                    LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    with_impacts,
+                );
+
+                assert_eq!(v2.fields(), v3.fields());
+                let mut v2_metadata = v2.metadata.clone();
+                let mut v3_metadata = v3.metadata.clone();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    v2_metadata.remove(FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY).as_deref(),
+                    Some("2")
+                );
+                assert_eq!(
+                    v3_metadata.remove(FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY).as_deref(),
+                    Some("3")
+                );
+                assert_eq!(v2_metadata, v3_metadata);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_inverted_index_without_positions_tracks_frequency() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let docs = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("hello hello world")]));
+        let row_ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![docs, row_ids])?;
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+
+        let params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::new("whitespace".to_string(), lance_tokenizer::Language::English)
+                .with_position(false)
+                .remove_stop_words(false)
+                .stem(false)
+                .max_token_length(None);
+
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(params);
+        builder.update(stream, store.as_ref(), None).await?;
+
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+        assert_eq!(index.partitions.len(), 1);
+        let partition = &index.partitions[0];
+        let token_id = partition.tokens.get("hello").unwrap();
+        let posting = partition
+            .inverted_list
+            .posting_list(token_id, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await?;
+
+        let mut iter = posting.iter();
+        let (doc_id, freq, positions) = iter.next().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(doc_id, 0);
+        assert_eq!(freq, 2);
+        assert!(positions.is_none());
+        assert!(iter.next().is_none());
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zero_token_string_documents_are_skipped_in_corpus_stats() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch = make_doc_batch_from_docs(vec![
+            Some(""),
+            Some("   "),
+            Some("the"),
+            Some("overlength"),
+            None,
+            Some("hello"),
+        ]);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::new("whitespace".to_string(), lance_tokenizer::Language::English)
+                .with_position(false)
+                .remove_stop_words(true)
+                .stem(false)
+                .max_token_length(Some(6))
+                .num_workers(1);
+
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(params);
+        builder
+            .update(Box::pin(stream), store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await?;
+
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+        let (total_tokens, num_docs, token_docs) = index
+            .bm25_stats_for_terms(&["hello".to_string()], None)
+            .await?;
+        assert_eq!(total_tokens, 1);
+        assert_eq!(num_docs, 1);
+        assert_eq!(token_docs, vec![1]);
+
+        let actual_scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(
+            total_tokens,
+            num_docs,
+            HashMap::from([("hello".to_string(), token_docs[0])]),
+        );
+        let expected_scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, HashMap::from([("hello".to_string(), 1)]));
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual_scorer.avg_doc_length(),
+            expected_scorer.avg_doc_length()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual_scorer.query_weight("hello"),
+            expected_scorer.query_weight("hello")
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_all_empty_string_documents_build_empty_index() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch = make_doc_batch_from_docs(vec![Some(""), Some("   "), None]);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::new("whitespace".to_string(), lance_tokenizer::Language::English)
+                .with_position(false)
+                .remove_stop_words(false)
+                .stem(false)
+                .max_token_length(None)
+                .num_workers(1);
+
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(params);
+        builder
+            .update(Box::pin(stream), store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await?;
+
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+        assert!(index.partitions.is_empty());
+        let statistics = index.statistics()?;
+        assert_eq!(statistics["num_tokens"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(statistics["num_docs"], 0);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zero_token_coordinate_documents_are_preserved_in_corpus_stats() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(doc_index_storage_column(0), DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    None,
+                    Some(""),
+                    Some("   "),
+                    Some("the"),
+                    Some("overlength"),
+                ])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![7, 7, 7, 7, 7])),
+            ],
+        )?;
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::new("whitespace".to_string(), lance_tokenizer::Language::English)
+                .with_position(false)
+                .remove_stop_words(true)
+                .stem(false)
+                .max_token_length(Some(6))
+                .num_workers(1);
+
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(params);
+        builder
+            .update(Box::pin(stream), store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await?;
+
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+        let statistics = index.statistics()?;
+        assert_eq!(statistics["num_tokens"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(statistics["num_docs"], 5);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_all_empty_string_documents_do_not_create_tail_partition() -> Result<()> {
+        let tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default().build()?;
+        let store = Arc::new(CountingStore::new());
+        let id_alloc = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+        let mut worker = IndexWorker::new(
+            tokenizer,
+            store,
+            id_alloc,
+            IndexWorkerConfig {
+                with_position: false,
+                format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+                fragment_mask: None,
+                token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::default(),
+                worker_memory_limit_bytes: u64::MAX,
+                block_size: InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size,
+                coordinate_rank: 0,
+            },
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        worker
+            .process_batch(make_doc_batch_from_docs(vec![Some(""), Some("   "), None]))
+            .await?;
+        let output = worker.finish().await?;
+
+        assert!(output.partitions.is_empty());
+        assert!(output.tail_partition.is_none());
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    lance_testing::define_stage_event_progress!(RecordingProgress, IndexBuildProgress, Result<()>);
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct FailingProgress;
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexBuildProgress for FailingProgress {
+        async fn stage_start(&self, _stage: &str, _total: Option<u64>, _unit: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn stage_progress(&self, _stage: &str, _completed: u64) -> Result<()> {
+            Err(Error::io("injected progress failure"))
+        }
+
+        async fn stage_complete(&self, _stage: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct LateCallbackDetectingProgress {
+        calls: AtomicUsize,
+        first_callback_started: Arc<Notify>,
+        release_first_callback: Arc<Notify>,
+        update_returned: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+        callback_after_return: Arc<Notify>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexBuildProgress for LateCallbackDetectingProgress {
+        async fn stage_start(&self, _stage: &str, _total: Option<u64>, _unit: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn stage_progress(&self, _stage: &str, _completed: u64) -> Result<()> {
+            let call = self.calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            if self.update_returned.load(Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                self.callback_after_return.notify_one();
+            }
+            if call == 0 {
+                self.first_callback_started.notify_one();
+                self.release_first_callback.notified().await;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn stage_complete(&self, _stage: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_builder_reports_progress_stages() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch1 = make_doc_batch("hello world", 0);
+        let batch2 = make_doc_batch("goodbye world", 1);
+        let total_rows = 2u64;
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            batch1.schema(),
+            stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1), Ok(batch2)]),
+        );
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default())
+            .with_progress(progress.clone());
+        builder.update(stream, store.as_ref(), None).await?;
+
+        let events = progress.recorded_events();
+        let tags = events
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(kind, stage, _)| format!("{kind}:{stage}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let tokenize_progress = events
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|(kind, stage, completed)| {
+                if kind == "progress" && stage == "tokenize_docs" {
+                    Some(*completed)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let tokenize_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:tokenize_docs")
+            .expect("missing tokenize_docs start");
+        let tokenize_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:tokenize_docs")
+            .expect("missing tokenize_docs complete");
+        let copy_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:copy_partitions")
+            .expect("missing copy_partitions start");
+        let copy_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:copy_partitions")
+            .expect("missing copy_partitions complete");
+        let metadata_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:write_metadata")
+            .expect("missing write_metadata start");
+        let metadata_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:write_metadata")
+            .expect("missing write_metadata complete");
+
+        assert!(tokenize_start < tokenize_complete);
+        assert!(tokenize_complete < copy_start);
+        assert!(copy_start < copy_complete);
+        assert!(copy_complete < metadata_start);
+        assert!(metadata_start < metadata_complete);
+
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:tokenize_docs"),
+            "expected progress callback for tokenize_docs"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tokenize_progress.len() >= 2,
+            "expected at least two progress callbacks for tokenize_docs, got {tokenize_progress:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokenize_progress.iter().copied().max().unwrap_or_default(),
+            total_rows,
+            "expected tokenize_docs progress to reach all rows"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:copy_partitions"),
+            "expected progress callback for copy_partitions"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:write_metadata"),
+            "expected progress callback for write_metadata"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !tags.iter().any(|e| e == "start:merge_partitions"),
+            "merge_partitions should not run in the build-only path"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_builder_default_path_skips_merge_stage() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch = make_doc_batch("hello world", 0);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default())
+            .with_progress(progress.clone());
+        builder.update(stream, store.as_ref(), None).await?;
+
+        let tags = progress
+            .recorded_events()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(kind, stage, _)| format!("{kind}:{stage}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "start:copy_partitions"),
+            "default path should copy finalized partitions"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !tags.iter().any(|e| e == "start:merge_partitions"),
+            "default path should not run merge_partitions"
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_index_files_reports_progress_stages() -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let index_path = index_dir.obj_path();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store.clone().into(),
+            index_path.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        for (fragment_id, row_id, doc) in [
+            (1_u64 << 32, 0_u64, "hello world"),
+            (2_u64 << 32, 1_u64, "goodbye world"),
+        ] {
+            let batch = make_doc_batch(doc, row_id);
+            let stream =
+                RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+            let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+            let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new_with_fragment_mask(
+                InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                Some(fragment_id),
+            )
+            .with_progress(noop_progress());
+            builder.update(stream, store.as_ref(), None).await?;
+        }
+
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        merge_index_files(&object_store, &index_path, store.clone(), progress.clone()).await?;
+
+        let events = progress.recorded_events();
+        let tags = events
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(kind, stage, _)| format!("{kind}:{stage}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let remap_progress = events
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|(kind, stage, completed)| {
+                if kind == "progress" && stage == "remap_partition_files" {
+                    Some(*completed)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let read_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:read_partition_metadata")
+            .expect("missing read_partition_metadata start");
+        let read_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:read_partition_metadata")
+            .expect("missing read_partition_metadata complete");
+        let remap_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:remap_partition_files")
+            .expect("missing remap_partition_files start");
+        let remap_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:remap_partition_files")
+            .expect("missing remap_partition_files complete");
+        let metadata_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:write_merged_metadata")
+            .expect("missing write_merged_metadata start");
+        let metadata_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:write_merged_metadata")
+            .expect("missing write_merged_metadata complete");
+
+        assert!(read_start < read_complete);
+        assert!(read_complete < remap_start);
+        assert!(remap_start < remap_complete);
+        assert!(remap_complete < metadata_start);
+        assert!(metadata_start < metadata_complete);
+
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:read_partition_metadata"),
+            "expected progress callback for read_partition_metadata"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            remap_progress.last().copied().unwrap_or_default(),
+            6,
+            "expected remap_partition_files progress to cover staged-to-final copies"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:write_merged_metadata"),
+            "expected progress callback for write_merged_metadata"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_worker_memory_limit_rejects_single_large_doc() {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch = make_doc_batch("hello world", 42);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+
+        let mut builder =
+            InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default().memory_limit_mb(0));
+        let err = builder
+            .update(stream, store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("single doc should exceed zero worker memory limit");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("row_id=42"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_worker_trims_position_temp_buffers() -> Result<()> {
+        let tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true).build()?;
+        let store = Arc::new(CountingStore::new());
+        let id_alloc = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+        let mut worker = IndexWorker::new(
+            tokenizer,
+            store,
+            id_alloc,
+            IndexWorkerConfig {
+                with_position: true,
+                format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+                fragment_mask: None,
+                token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::default(),
+                worker_memory_limit_bytes: u64::MAX,
+                block_size: InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size,
+                coordinate_rank: 0,
+            },
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let doc = (0..(MAX_RETAINED_TOKEN_IDS * 2))
+            .map(|i| format!("tok{i}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(" ");
+        worker.process_batch(make_doc_batch(&doc, 0)).await?;
+
+        assert!(worker.token_ids.is_empty());
+        assert!(worker.token_ids.capacity() <= MAX_RETAINED_TOKEN_IDS);
+        assert!(worker.memory_size >= worker.temporary_memory_size());
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_worker_flush_keeps_position_temp_memory_bounded() -> Result<()> {
+        let tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true).build()?;
+        let store = Arc::new(CountingStore::new());
+        let id_alloc = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+        let mut worker = IndexWorker::new(
+            tokenizer,
+            store,
+            id_alloc,
+            IndexWorkerConfig {
+                with_position: true,
+                format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+                fragment_mask: None,
+                token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::default(),
+                worker_memory_limit_bytes: u64::MAX,
+                block_size: InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size,
+                coordinate_rank: 0,
+            },
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let doc = std::iter::repeat_n("common", 32_768)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(" ");
+        let mut observed_post_flush_memory = Vec::new();
+        for row_id in 0..8 {
+            worker.process_batch(make_doc_batch(&doc, row_id)).await?;
+            worker.flush().await?;
+            observed_post_flush_memory.push(worker.memory_size);
+        }
+
+        let max_memory = *observed_post_flush_memory.iter().max().unwrap();
+        let min_memory = *observed_post_flush_memory.iter().min().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            max_memory <= min_memory.saturating_add(256 * 1024),
+            "post-flush worker memory drifted upward: {observed_post_flush_memory:?}"
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_worker_flush_writes_partition_directly() -> Result<()> {
+        let tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true).build()?;
+        let store = Arc::new(CountingStore::new());
+        let id_alloc = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+        let mut worker = IndexWorker::new(
+            tokenizer,
+            store.clone(),
+            id_alloc,
+            IndexWorkerConfig {
+                with_position: true,
+                format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+                fragment_mask: None,
+                token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::default(),
+                worker_memory_limit_bytes: u64::MAX,
+                block_size: InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size,
+                coordinate_rank: 0,
+            },
+        )
+        .await?;
+        worker
+            .process_batch(make_doc_batch("alpha beta gamma", 0))
+            .await?;
+        worker.flush().await?;
+        assert!(store.write_count() > 0);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_worker_memory_limit_uses_default_when_unset() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolve_worker_memory_limit_bytes(&params, 8),
+            *LANCE_FTS_PARTITION_SIZE << 20
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_num_workers_uses_default_when_unset() {
+        let expected = default_num_workers().clamp(1, get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1));
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolve_num_workers(&InvertedIndexParams::default()),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_num_workers_clamps_requested_value() {
+        let max_workers = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolve_num_workers(&InvertedIndexParams::default().num_workers(0)),
+            1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolve_num_workers(&InvertedIndexParams::default().num_workers(max_workers + 10)),
+            max_workers
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_worker_memory_limit_splits_total_memory_limit() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().memory_limit_mb(4096);
+        assert_eq!(resolve_worker_memory_limit_bytes(&params, 16), 256 << 20);
+    }
+
+    fn tail_with_docs(id: u64, num_docs: u64) -> TailPartition {
+        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(id, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+        let token = builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("token{}", id));
+        builder
+            .posting_lists
+            .resize_with(builder.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+        for row in 0..num_docs {
+            let doc = builder.docs.append(row, 1);
+            builder.posting_lists[token as usize].add(doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        }
+        TailPartition { builder }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_all_tail_partitions_combines_under_budget() -> Result<()> {
+        let merged = merge_tail_partitions(
+            vec![
+                tail_with_docs(0, 4),
+                tail_with_docs(1, 4),
+                tail_with_docs(2, 4),
+            ],
+            u64::MAX,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        assert_eq!(merged.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(merged[0].id(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(merged[0].docs.len(), 12);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_all_tail_partitions_splits_on_memory_budget() -> Result<()> {
+        let tails = vec![
+            tail_with_docs(0, 64),
+            tail_with_docs(1, 64),
+            tail_with_docs(2, 64),
+            tail_with_docs(3, 64),
+        ];
+        let single = tails[0].builder.memory_size();
+        // A budget below two builders' footprint must keep them separate.
+        let merged = merge_tail_partitions(tails, single + 1).await?;
+        assert_eq!(merged.len(), 4);
+        assert!(merged.iter().all(|builder| builder.docs.len() == 64));
+
+        // A budget that fits two builders pairs them up, and a merged pair
+        // stays within it.
+        let tails = (0..4).map(|id| tail_with_docs(id, 64)).collect();
+        let merged = merge_tail_partitions(tails, 2 * single + 1).await?;
+        assert_eq!(merged.len(), 2);
+        assert!(merged.iter().all(|builder| builder.docs.len() == 128));
+        assert!(
+            merged
+                .iter()
+                .all(|builder| builder.memory_size() <= 2 * single)
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_all_tail_partitions_returns_none_for_empty_input() -> Result<()> {
+        assert!(
+            merge_tail_partitions(Vec::new(), u64::MAX)
+                .await?
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_all_tail_partitions_plans_from_merged_sizes() -> Result<()> {
+        // Workers that saw the same tokens each hold their own per-token
+        // state, which merging deduplicates, so the tails' summed sizes
+        // overestimate the merged partition.
+        let tail_with_shared_tokens = |id: u64| {
+            let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(id, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+            for token in 0..1000 {
+                builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("shared{token}"));
+            }
+            builder
+                .posting_lists
+                .resize_with(builder.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+            let doc = builder.docs.append(id, 1000);
+            for posting_list in &mut builder.posting_lists {
+                posting_list.add(doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+            }
+            TailPartition { builder }
+        };
+        let tails = (0..4).map(tail_with_shared_tokens).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let single = tails[0].builder.memory_size();
+        let memory_limit_bytes = single * 5 / 2;
+
+        // Summed sizes only admit pairs, but a merged pair is barely larger
+        // than one tail, so the pairs fit together.
+        let merged = merge_tail_partitions(tails, memory_limit_bytes).await?;
+        assert_eq!(merged.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(merged[0].docs.len(), 4);
+        assert!(merged[0].memory_size() < memory_limit_bytes);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Build an inverted index over `batches` with an explicit worker/memory
+    /// layout and return it loaded, so tests can compare query behavior
+    /// across partition shapes of the same corpus.
+    async fn build_fuzzy_corpus_index(
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+        num_workers: usize,
+        memory_limit_mb: u64,
+    ) -> Result<(TempDir, Arc<InvertedIndex>)> {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let stream =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)));
+        let params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::new("whitespace".to_string(), lance_tokenizer::Language::English)
+                .with_position(false)
+                .remove_stop_words(false)
+                .stem(false)
+                .max_token_length(None)
+                .num_workers(num_workers)
+                .memory_limit_mb(memory_limit_mb);
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(params);
+        builder
+            .update(Box::pin(stream), store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await?;
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+        // The caller keeps the TempDir alive for as long as it queries the
+        // loaded index.
+        Ok((index_dir, index))
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for tail-partition splitting vs fuzzy queries
+    /// (https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/7601#pullrequestreview):
+    /// splitting the leftover tails into budget-sized partitions must not
+    /// change fuzzy results while `max_expansions` is not the binding
+    /// constraint. Every doc carries one member of two dense fuzzy families
+    /// plus unique filler tokens, so a small worker memory budget forces
+    /// flushes and a tail split, while a fuzzy query matches every doc.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_tail_partition_split_preserves_fuzzy_results() -> Result<()> {
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        use crate::prefilter::NoFilter;
+        use crate::scalar::inverted::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+        use crate::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsSearchParams, Operator, Tokens};
+
+        const NUM_DOCS: usize = 4000;
+        const DOCS_PER_BATCH: usize = 20;
+        let alpha_variants = ["alpha", "alphb", "alphc", "alphd", "alphe"];
+        let beta_variants = ["beta", "betb", "betc", "betd", "bete"];
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batches = (0..NUM_DOCS / DOCS_PER_BATCH)
+            .map(|batch_idx| {
+                let mut docs = Vec::with_capacity(DOCS_PER_BATCH);
+                let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(DOCS_PER_BATCH);
+                for row in 0..DOCS_PER_BATCH {
+                    let i = batch_idx * DOCS_PER_BATCH + row;
+                    // 8 unique filler tokens per doc grow the vocabulary so
+                    // the corpus comfortably exceeds the small worker budget.
+                    docs.push(format!(
+                        "{} {} f{i}a f{i}b f{i}c f{i}d f{i}e f{i}f f{i}g f{i}h",
+                        alpha_variants[i % alpha_variants.len()],
+                        beta_variants[i % beta_variants.len()],
+                    ));
+                    row_ids.push(i as u64);
+                }
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(docs)),
+                        Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        // Reference shape: everything in one partition.
+        let (_ref_dir, ref_index) = build_fuzzy_corpus_index(batches.clone(), 1, 1024).await?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            ref_index.partitions.len(),
+            1,
+            "reference build should stay in a single partition"
+        );
+
+        // Tail-heavy shape: a 1MB budget across 2 workers forces flushes and
+        // splits the leftover tails by the same budget.
+        let (_split_dir, split_index) = build_fuzzy_corpus_index(batches, 2, 1).await?;
+        assert!(
+            split_index.partitions.len() > 1,
+            "small worker budget should produce multiple partitions, got {}",
+            split_index.partitions.len()
+        );
+
+        async fn fuzzy_search(
+            index: &InvertedIndex,
+            tokens: &[&str],
+            operator: Operator,
+        ) -> HashMap<u64, f32> {
+            let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+                tokens.iter().map(|t| t.to_string()).collect(),
+                DocType::Text,
+            ));
+            // max_expansions=50 is far above the 10 family variants, so the
+            // per-partition vs global cap distinction cannot bind here.
+            let params = Arc::new(
+                FtsSearchParams::new()
+                    .with_limit(Some(NUM_DOCS))
+                    .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+                    .with_max_expansions(50),
+            );
+            let (row_ids, scores) = index
+                .bm25_search(
+                    tokens,
+                    params,
+                    operator,
+                    Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                    Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            row_ids.into_iter().zip(scores).collect()
+        }
+
+        for (tokens, operator) in [
+            (vec!["alphx"], Operator::Or),
+            (vec!["alphx", "betx"], Operator::Or),
+            (vec!["alphx", "betx"], Operator::And),
+        ] {
+            let reference = fuzzy_search(&ref_index, &tokens, operator).await;
+            let split = fuzzy_search(&split_index, &tokens, operator).await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                reference.len(),
+                NUM_DOCS,
+                "every doc carries a family variant, {tokens:?} {operator:?} should match all"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                reference, split,
+                "fuzzy {operator:?} results must not depend on the tail partition shape for {tokens:?}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(store.write_count(), 3);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_tail_partition_group_combines_tail_builders() -> Result<()> {
+        let mut first = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+        let hello = first.tokens.get_or_add("hello");
+        first
+            .posting_lists
+            .resize_with(first.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+        let first_doc = first.docs.append(10, 1);
+        first.posting_lists[hello as usize].add(first_doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+
+        let mut second = InnerBuilder::new(1, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+        let world = second.tokens.get_or_add("world");
+        second
+            .posting_lists
+            .resize_with(second.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+        let second_doc = second.docs.append(20, 2);
+        second.posting_lists[world as usize].add(second_doc, PositionRecorder::Count(2));
+
+        let merged = merge_tail_partitions(
+            vec![
+                TailPartition { builder: first },
+                TailPartition { builder: second },
+            ],
+            u64::MAX,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        assert_eq!(merged.len(), 1);
+        let merged = &merged[0];
+
+        assert_eq!(merged.id(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(merged.docs.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(merged.tokens.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(merged.posting_lists.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.posting_lists[merged.tokens.get("hello").unwrap() as usize].len(),
+            1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.posting_lists[merged.tokens.get("world").unwrap() as usize].len(),
+            1
+        );
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_from_after_remap_does_not_panic() {
+        // `first` is the merge accumulator. Give it three tokens, then remap away the
+        // middle one, mirroring filter_old_data dropping a token whose postings emptied.
+        let mut first = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+        for token in ["a", "b", "c"] {
+            first.tokens.get_or_add(token);
+        }
+        first
+            .posting_lists
+            .resize_with(first.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+        let first_doc = first.docs.append(10, 1);
+        first.posting_lists[0].add(first_doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1)); // "a"
+        first.posting_lists[2].add(first_doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1)); // "c"
+
+        // Remove token "b" (id 1) and compact its (empty) posting list to match.
+        first.tokens.remap(&[1]);
+        first.posting_lists.remove(1);
+        assert_eq!(first.tokens.len(), first.posting_lists.len());
+        assert_eq!(first.tokens.get("c"), Some(1));
+
+        // `second` contributes a brand-new token absent from `first`; its id must
+        // follow the compacted ids rather than index past posting_lists.
+        let mut second = InnerBuilder::new(1, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+        let zeta = second.tokens.get_or_add("zeta");
+        second
+            .posting_lists
+            .resize_with(second.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+        let second_doc = second.docs.append(20, 1);
+        second.posting_lists[zeta as usize].add(second_doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+
+        first.merge_from(second).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(first.tokens.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(first.posting_lists.len(), 3);
+        let zeta_id = first.tokens.get("zeta").expect("zeta should be merged in");
+        assert!((zeta_id as usize) < first.posting_lists.len());
+    }
+
+    // FST token file with a stale next_id (above the token count), as a pre-#7115 writer left.
+    async fn write_stale_next_id_token_file(store: &dyn IndexStore, partition_id: u64) {
+        let mut tokens = TokenSet::default();
+        tokens.add("alpha".to_owned());
+        tokens.add("gamma".to_owned());
+        assert_eq!(tokens.len(), 2);
+        tokens.next_id = 9;
+        let batch = tokens.to_batch(TokenSetFormat::Fst).unwrap();
+        let mut writer = store
+            .new_index_file(&token_file_path(partition_id), batch.schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // load_fst recomputes next_id from the token count rather than trusting the persisted value.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_load_fst_recomputes_stale_next_id() {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        write_stale_next_id_token_file(store.as_ref(), 0).await;
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(&token_file_path(0)).await.unwrap();
+        let tokens = TokenSet::load(reader, TokenSetFormat::Fst).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(tokens.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(tokens.next_id(), 2);
+    }
+
+    // A stale next_id loaded from disk must not leak an out-of-range token id into a merge.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_with_stale_next_id_token_file_does_not_panic() {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        write_stale_next_id_token_file(store.as_ref(), 0).await;
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(&token_file_path(0)).await.unwrap();
+        let tokens = TokenSet::load(reader, TokenSetFormat::Fst).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut first = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::Fst);
+        first.set_tokens(tokens);
+        first
+            .posting_lists
+            .resize_with(first.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+        let doc = first.docs.append(10, 1);
+        first.posting_lists[0].add(doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        first.posting_lists[1].add(doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+
+        let mut second = InnerBuilder::new(1, false, TokenSetFormat::Fst);
+        let zeta = second.tokens.get_or_add("zeta");
+        second
+            .posting_lists
+            .resize_with(second.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+        let second_doc = second.docs.append(20, 1);
+        second.posting_lists[zeta as usize].add(second_doc, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+
+        first.merge_from(second).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.tokens.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(first.posting_lists.len(), 3);
+        let zeta_id = first.tokens.get("zeta").expect("zeta should be merged in");
+        assert!((zeta_id as usize) < first.posting_lists.len());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_index_returns_worker_error_when_workers_exit_during_dispatch() {
+        let num_batches = (*LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS * 2 + 1) as u64;
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let schema = make_doc_batch("hello world", 0).schema();
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::iter((0..num_batches).map(|row_id| Ok(make_doc_batch("hello world", row_id)))),
+        );
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default())
+            .with_progress(Arc::new(FailingProgress));
+
+        let result = tokio::time::timeout(
+            Duration::from_secs(5),
+            builder.update_index(stream, store.as_ref()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("update_index should not hang")
+        .expect_err("worker failure should be returned");
+
+        assert!(
+            result.to_string().contains("injected progress failure"),
+            "unexpected error: {result}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_index_joins_workers_before_returning_stream_error() {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let first_callback_started = Arc::new(Notify::new());
+        let release_first_callback = Arc::new(Notify::new());
+        let update_returned = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let callback_after_return = Arc::new(Notify::new());
+        let progress = Arc::new(LateCallbackDetectingProgress {
+            calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            first_callback_started: first_callback_started.clone(),
+            release_first_callback: release_first_callback.clone(),
+            update_returned: update_returned.clone(),
+            callback_after_return: callback_after_return.clone(),
+        });
+
+        let first_batch = make_doc_batch("hello world", 0);
+        let second_batch = make_doc_batch("goodbye world", 1);
+        let schema = first_batch.schema();
+        let source = stream::iter(vec![Ok(first_batch), Ok(second_batch)]).chain(stream::once({
+            let first_callback_started = first_callback_started.clone();
+            async move {
+                first_callback_started.notified().await;
+                Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "injected stream failure".to_owned(),
+                ))
+            }
+        }));
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, source));
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().num_workers(1);
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(params).with_progress(progress);
+
+        let result = tokio::time::timeout(
+            Duration::from_secs(5),
+            builder.update_index(stream, store.as_ref()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("update_index should not hang")
+        .expect_err("stream failure should be returned");
+        assert!(
+            result.to_string().contains("injected stream failure"),
+            "unexpected error: {result}"
+        );
+
+        update_returned.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        release_first_callback.notify_one();
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(100), callback_after_return.notified())
+                .await
+                .is_err(),
+            "detached worker invoked progress after update_index returned"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_new_index_has_empty_deleted_fragments() {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch = make_doc_batch("hello world", 0);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default());
+        builder.update(stream, store.as_ref(), None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            index.deleted_fragments().is_empty(),
+            "new index should have empty deleted fragments, got {:?}",
+            index.deleted_fragments()
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_skip_merge_writes_partitions_as_is() -> Result<()> {
+    async fn test_remap_preserves_deleted_fragments() {
         let src_dir = TempDir::default();
         let dest_dir = TempDir::default();
         let src_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
@@ -1376,70 +5165,200 @@ mod tests {
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
-        let tokenizer = params.build()?;
-        let token_set_format = TokenSetFormat::default();
-        let id_alloc = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+        // Build an initial index with some deleted fragments
+        let batch = make_doc_batch("hello world", 0);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
 
-        let mut worker1 = IndexWorker::new(
-            src_store.clone(),
-            tokenizer.clone(),
-            params.with_position,
-            id_alloc.clone(),
+        let initial_deleted = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([5, 10, 42]);
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
             None,
-            token_set_format,
-        )
-        .await?;
-        worker1
-            .process_batch(make_doc_batch("hello world", 0))
-            .await?;
-        let mut partitions = worker1.finish().await?;
-
-        let mut worker2 = IndexWorker::new(
-            src_store.clone(),
-            tokenizer.clone(),
-            params.with_position,
-            id_alloc.clone(),
+            Vec::new(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
             None,
-            token_set_format,
-        )
-        .await?;
-        worker2
-            .process_batch(make_doc_batch("goodbye world", 1))
-            .await?;
-        partitions.extend(worker2.finish().await?);
-        partitions.sort_unstable();
-        assert_eq!(partitions.len(), 2);
-        assert_ne!(partitions[0], partitions[1]);
+            initial_deleted.clone(),
+        );
+        builder
+            .update(stream, src_store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Load it back and confirm the invalidated fragments are set
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(src_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.deleted_fragments(), &initial_deleted);
+
+        // Remap the index via the ScalarIndex trait method
+        use crate::scalar::ScalarIndex;
+        let mapping = HashMap::from([(0u64, Some(50 << 32))]);
+        index
+            .remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping), dest_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reload from dest and verify deleted fragments are preserved
+        let remapped_index = InvertedIndex::load(dest_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            remapped_index.deleted_fragments(),
+            &initial_deleted,
+            "remap should preserve deleted fragments"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
-            InvertedIndexParams::default().skip_merge(true),
-            Some(src_store.clone()),
-            partitions.clone(),
-            token_set_format,
-            None,
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_grows_deleted_fragments_from_old_data_filter() {
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            index_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Build an initial index with no deleted fragments
+        let batch = make_doc_batch("hello world", 0);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
+
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default());
+        builder.update(stream, store.as_ref(), None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Load the index and update it with an old_data_filter that invalidates fragments
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(index.deleted_fragments().is_empty());
+
+        let update_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let update_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            update_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch2 = make_doc_batch("new document", 1 << 32 | 1);
+        let stream2 =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch2.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch2)]));
+        let stream2 = Box::pin(stream2);
+
+        let old_data_filter = Some(crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+            to_keep: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0]),
+            to_remove: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3, 7]),
+        });
+
+        // Use ScalarIndex::update trait method
+        use crate::scalar::ScalarIndex;
+        index
+            .update(stream2, update_store.as_ref(), old_data_filter)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let updated_index =
+            InvertedIndex::load(update_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_index.deleted_fragments(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3, 7]),
+            "update should add deleted fragments from old_data_filter"
         );
-        builder.write(dest_store.as_ref()).await?;
+    }
 
-        let metadata_reader = dest_store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await?;
-        let metadata = &metadata_reader.schema().metadata;
-        let partitions_str = metadata
-            .get("partitions")
-            .expect("partitions missing from metadata");
-        let written_partitions: Vec<u64> = serde_json::from_str(partitions_str).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(written_partitions, partitions);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_accumulates_deleted_fragments() {
+        let dir1 = TempDir::default();
+        let store1 = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            dir1.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
 
-        for id in &partitions {
-            dest_store.open_index_file(&token_file_path(*id)).await?;
-            dest_store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(*id)).await?;
-            dest_store.open_index_file(&doc_file_path(*id)).await?;
-        }
+        // Build initial index
+        let batch = make_doc_batch("hello world", 0);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(stream);
 
-        Ok(())
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default());
+        builder.update(stream, store1.as_ref(), None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // First update: delete fragments 3 and 7
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store1.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dir2 = TempDir::default();
+        let store2 = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            dir2.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch2 = make_doc_batch("second doc", 1 << 32 | 1);
+        let stream2 =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch2.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch2)]));
+        let stream2 = Box::pin(stream2);
+
+        use crate::scalar::ScalarIndex;
+        index
+            .update(
+                stream2,
+                store2.as_ref(),
+                Some(crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                    to_keep: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0]),
+                    to_remove: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3, 7]),
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Second update: invalidate additional fragments 12 and 15
+        let index2 = InvertedIndex::load(store2.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            index2.deleted_fragments(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3, 7])
+        );
+
+        let dir3 = TempDir::default();
+        let store3 = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            dir3.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch3 = make_doc_batch("third doc", 2 << 32 | 2);
+        let stream3 =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch3.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch3)]));
+        let stream3 = Box::pin(stream3);
+
+        index2
+            .update(
+                stream3,
+                store3.as_ref(),
+                Some(crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                    to_keep: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1]),
+                    to_remove: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([12, 15]),
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index3 = InvertedIndex::load(store3.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            index3.deleted_fragments(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3, 7, 12, 15]),
+            "deleted fragments should accumulate across updates"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inverted_index_without_positions_tracks_frequency() -> Result<()> {
+    async fn test_update_with_rowid_filter_does_not_grow_deleted_fragments() {
         let index_dir = TempDir::default();
         let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             ObjectStore::local().into(),
@@ -1447,44 +5366,47 @@ mod tests {
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
-            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
-        ]));
-        let docs = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("hello hello world")]));
-        let row_ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64]));
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![docs, row_ids])?;
-        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+        let batch = make_doc_batch("hello world", 0);
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
         let stream = Box::pin(stream);
 
-        let params = InvertedIndexParams::new(
-            "whitespace".to_string(),
-            tantivy::tokenizer::Language::English,
-        )
-        .with_position(false)
-        .remove_stop_words(false)
-        .stem(false)
-        .max_token_length(None);
-
-        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(params);
-        builder.update(stream, store.as_ref()).await?;
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default());
+        builder.update(stream, store.as_ref(), None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
-        assert_eq!(index.partitions.len(), 1);
-        let partition = &index.partitions[0];
-        let token_id = partition.tokens.get("hello").unwrap();
-        let posting = partition
-            .inverted_list
-            .posting_list(token_id, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await?;
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let mut iter = posting.iter();
-        let (doc_id, freq, positions) = iter.next().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(doc_id, 0);
-        assert_eq!(freq, 2);
-        assert!(positions.is_none());
-        assert!(iter.next().is_none());
+        let update_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let update_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            update_dir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
 
-        Ok(())
+        let batch2 = make_doc_batch("new doc", 1);
+        let stream2 =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(batch2.schema(), stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch2)]));
+        let stream2 = Box::pin(stream2);
+
+        // Use RowIds filter instead of Fragments — should not affect deleted_fragments
+        let mut valid_ids = lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        valid_ids.insert(0);
+        let old_data_filter = Some(crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid_ids));
+
+        use crate::scalar::ScalarIndex;
+        index
+            .update(stream2, update_store.as_ref(), old_data_filter)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let updated_index =
+            InvertedIndex::load(update_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            updated_index.deleted_fragments().is_empty(),
+            "RowIds filter should not add to deleted fragments"
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/cache_codec.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/cache_codec.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3ea4557cb1a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/cache_codec.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1677 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Cache codec impls for FTS index entries.
+//!
+//! Serializes [`PostingList`] and [`Positions`] cache values for persistent
+//! cache backends, behind the stabilized envelope written by
+//! [`CacheCodec`](lance_core::cache::CacheCodec).
+//!
+//! Every variant uses a protobuf header (see `protos-cache/cache.proto`, with the
+//! tail/position codecs and position-storage kind as proto enums) followed by
+//! 64-byte-aligned Arrow IPC sections and, where applicable, raw blobs:
+//!
+//! - the compressed posting list: an IPC section for `blocks`, then the
+//!   position sections (legacy IPC, or shared block-offsets IPC + a raw blob of
+//!   the [`SharedPositionStream`] byte buffer, which has its own portable
+//!   encoding), then an optional impact IPC section;
+//! - the plain posting list: an IPC section of `(row_ids, frequencies)`, then
+//!   an optional legacy position IPC section;
+//! - a packed posting-list group: one IPC section containing the original
+//!   `List<LargeBinary>` posting rows and optional impact rows; prewarmed groups
+//!   omit score/length metadata and inject it from the posting reader into
+//!   query-local views;
+//! - the standalone [`Positions`] codec: the position sections alone.
+//!
+//! All sections read back zero-copy via [`lance_arrow::ipc`]. This is the FTS
+//! counterpart of `partition_serde.rs` for vector indices.
+
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, Float32Array, LargeBinaryArray, ListArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+use crate::cache_pb::{
+    CompressedPostingHeader, PlainPostingHeader, PositionStorage as PbPositionStorage,
+    PositionStreamCodec as PbPositionStreamCodec, PositionsHeader, PostingListGroupHeader,
+    PostingTailCodec as PbPostingTailCodec,
+};
+
+use super::impact::ImpactSkipData;
+use super::index::{
+    CompressedPositionStorage, CompressedPostingList, PlainPostingList, PositionStreamCodec,
+    Positions, PostingList, PostingListGroup, PostingListGroupStorage, PostingTailCodec,
+    SharedPositionStream,
+};
+use super::tokenizer::{LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, validate_block_size};
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Tags
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+const POSTING_VARIANT_PLAIN: u8 = 0;
+const POSTING_VARIANT_COMPRESSED: u8 = 1;
+const GROUP_VARIANT_MATERIALIZED: u8 = 0;
+const GROUP_VARIANT_PACKED: u8 = 1;
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Section schemas
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+// One posting list is written per token, so these are built once rather than
+// per section.
+
+static BLOCK_OFFSETS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        BLOCK_OFFSETS_COLUMN,
+        DataType::UInt32,
+        false,
+    )]))
+});
+
+static PLAIN_POSTING_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(ROW_IDS_COLUMN, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new(FREQUENCIES_COLUMN, DataType::Float32, false),
+    ]))
+});
+
+static BLOCKS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        BLOCKS_COLUMN,
+        DataType::LargeBinary,
+        false,
+    )]))
+});
+
+static IMPACTS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        IMPACTS_COLUMN,
+        DataType::LargeBinary,
+        false,
+    )]))
+});
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Codec enum mappings
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+// Posting lists carry their discriminants as protobuf enums in the header;
+// these map to/from the in-memory Rust enums.
+
+fn posting_tail_codec_to_proto(c: PostingTailCodec) -> PbPostingTailCodec {
+    match c {
+        PostingTailCodec::Fixed32 => PbPostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+        PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta => PbPostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+    }
+}
+
+fn proto_to_posting_tail_codec(c: PbPostingTailCodec) -> PostingTailCodec {
+    match c {
+        PbPostingTailCodec::Fixed32 => PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+        PbPostingTailCodec::VarintDelta => PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+    }
+}
+
+fn posting_tail_codec_to_tag(c: PostingTailCodec) -> u8 {
+    match c {
+        PostingTailCodec::Fixed32 => 0,
+        PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta => 1,
+    }
+}
+
+fn posting_tail_codec_from_tag(tag: u8) -> Result<PostingTailCodec> {
+    match tag {
+        0 => Ok(PostingTailCodec::Fixed32),
+        1 => Ok(PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta),
+        other => Err(Error::io(format!(
+            "unknown packed posting tail codec: {other}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn position_stream_codec_to_proto(c: PositionStreamCodec) -> PbPositionStreamCodec {
+    match c {
+        PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta => PbPositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta,
+        PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta => PbPositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+    }
+}
+
+fn proto_to_position_stream_codec(c: PbPositionStreamCodec) -> PositionStreamCodec {
+    match c {
+        PbPositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta => PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta,
+        PbPositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta => PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Position storage sections (shared by PostingList variants and Positions)
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+const POSITION_LIST_COLUMN: &str = "position_list";
+const BLOCK_OFFSETS_COLUMN: &str = "block_offsets";
+const ROW_IDS_COLUMN: &str = "row_ids";
+const FREQUENCIES_COLUMN: &str = "frequencies";
+const BLOCKS_COLUMN: &str = "blocks";
+const IMPACTS_COLUMN: &str = "impacts";
+
+fn legacy_positions_batch(list: &ListArray) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        POSITION_LIST_COLUMN,
+        list.data_type().clone(),
+        list.is_nullable(),
+    )]));
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list.clone())])?)
+}
+
+fn read_legacy_positions(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<ListArray> {
+    let batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+    Ok(batch
+        .column_by_name(POSITION_LIST_COLUMN)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("legacy position column is missing".to_string()))?
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<ListArray>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("legacy position column is not a ListArray".to_string()))?
+        .clone())
+}
+
+/// Write the position sections (the bytes after the header) for `storage`. The
+/// caller's header proto carries the storage kind and shared-stream codec.
+fn write_position_sections(
+    w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>,
+    storage: &CompressedPositionStorage,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match storage {
+        CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(list) => {
+            w.write_ipc(&legacy_positions_batch(list)?)?;
+        }
+        CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream) => {
+            let offsets = UInt32Array::from(stream.block_offsets().to_vec());
+            let batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(BLOCK_OFFSETS_SCHEMA.clone(), vec![Arc::new(offsets)])?;
+            w.write_ipc(&batch)?;
+            w.write_raw(stream.bytes())?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Read the position sections for the given `storage` kind and (for shared
+/// streams) `stream_codec`. Returns `None` only when `storage` is
+/// [`PbPositionStorage::None`].
+fn read_position_sections(
+    r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>,
+    storage: PbPositionStorage,
+    stream_codec: PositionStreamCodec,
+) -> Result<Option<CompressedPositionStorage>> {
+    match storage {
+        PbPositionStorage::None => Ok(None),
+        PbPositionStorage::Legacy => Ok(Some(CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(
+            read_legacy_positions(r)?,
+        ))),
+        PbPositionStorage::Shared => {
+            let batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+            let block_offsets = batch
+                .column_by_name(BLOCK_OFFSETS_COLUMN)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("block_offsets column is missing".to_string()))?
+                .as_primitive_opt::<UInt32Type>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("block_offsets column is not UInt32".to_string()))?
+                .values()
+                .to_vec();
+            // Zero copy: read_raw returns a Bytes slice backed by the same
+            // allocation as the input, and SharedPositionStream stores its byte
+            // buffer as Bytes -- no copy on read.
+            let bytes = r.read_raw()?;
+            Ok(Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(
+                SharedPositionStream::new(stream_codec, block_offsets, bytes),
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// PostingList codec
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+impl CacheCodecImpl for PostingList {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.fts.PostingList";
+    // Version 3 adds the optional impact IPC section. Main already used v2 for
+    // configurable posting block sizes, so impact data needs a distinct
+    // version to keep older readers from accepting a body with an extra
+    // section they cannot consume.
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 3;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Plain(plain) => {
+                w.write_u8(POSTING_VARIANT_PLAIN)?;
+                serialize_plain(w, plain)
+            }
+            Self::Compressed(compressed) => {
+                w.write_u8(POSTING_VARIANT_COMPRESSED)?;
+                serialize_compressed(w, compressed)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        match r.version() {
+            1 | 2 | Self::CURRENT_VERSION => deserialize_posting_list_body(r),
+            other => Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "unsupported PostingList cache version: {other}"
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn deserialize_posting_list_body(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<PostingList> {
+    let variant = r.read_u8()?;
+    match variant {
+        POSTING_VARIANT_PLAIN => Ok(PostingList::Plain(deserialize_plain(r)?)),
+        POSTING_VARIANT_COMPRESSED => Ok(PostingList::Compressed(deserialize_compressed(r)?)),
+        other => Err(Error::io(format!("unknown PostingList variant: {other}"))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn serialize_plain(w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>, plain: &PlainPostingList) -> Result<()> {
+    // Plain postings carry only per-doc legacy positions (or none).
+    let position_storage = if plain.positions.is_some() {
+        PbPositionStorage::Legacy
+    } else {
+        PbPositionStorage::None
+    };
+    let header = PlainPostingHeader {
+        max_score: plain.max_score,
+        position_storage: position_storage as i32,
+    };
+    w.write_header(&header)?;
+
+    let row_ids = UInt64Array::new(plain.row_ids.clone(), None);
+    let frequencies = Float32Array::new(plain.frequencies.clone(), None);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        PLAIN_POSTING_SCHEMA.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(frequencies)],
+    )?;
+    w.write_ipc(&batch)?;
+
+    if let Some(list) = &plain.positions {
+        w.write_ipc(&legacy_positions_batch(list)?)?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn deserialize_plain(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<PlainPostingList> {
+    let header: PlainPostingHeader = r.read_header()?;
+
+    let batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+    let row_ids = batch
+        .column_by_name(ROW_IDS_COLUMN)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("row_ids column is missing".to_string()))?
+        .as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("row_ids column is not UInt64".to_string()))?
+        .values()
+        .clone();
+    let frequencies = batch
+        .column_by_name(FREQUENCIES_COLUMN)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("frequencies column is missing".to_string()))?
+        .as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("frequencies column is not Float32".to_string()))?
+        .values()
+        .clone();
+
+    let positions = match header.position_storage() {
+        PbPositionStorage::None => None,
+        PbPositionStorage::Legacy => Some(read_legacy_positions(r)?),
+        PbPositionStorage::Shared => {
+            return Err(Error::io(
+                "Plain posting list cannot have a shared position stream".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+    };
+
+    Ok(PlainPostingList::new(
+        row_ids,
+        frequencies,
+        header.max_score,
+        positions,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// The compressed posting list is serialized with a protobuf header followed
+/// by 64-byte-aligned Arrow IPC sections (for the `blocks`, and for shared
+/// position block-offsets) and a raw blob (for the shared position byte
+/// stream, which already has its own portable encoding).
+fn serialize_compressed(
+    w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>,
+    posting: &CompressedPostingList,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let (position_storage, position_stream_codec) = match &posting.positions {
+        None => (PbPositionStorage::None, PbPositionStreamCodec::default()),
+        Some(CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(_)) => {
+            (PbPositionStorage::Legacy, PbPositionStreamCodec::default())
+        }
+        Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream)) => (
+            PbPositionStorage::Shared,
+            position_stream_codec_to_proto(stream.codec()),
+        ),
+    };
+
+    let header = CompressedPostingHeader {
+        max_score: posting.max_score,
+        length: posting.length,
+        posting_tail_codec: posting_tail_codec_to_proto(posting.posting_tail_codec) as i32,
+        position_storage: position_storage as i32,
+        position_stream_codec: position_stream_codec as i32,
+        block_size: posting.block_size as u32,
+        has_impacts: posting.impacts.is_some(),
+    };
+    w.write_header(&header)?;
+
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        BLOCKS_SCHEMA.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(posting.blocks.clone())],
+    )?;
+    w.write_ipc(&batch)?;
+
+    if let Some(storage) = &posting.positions {
+        write_position_sections(w, storage)?;
+    }
+    if let Some(impacts) = &posting.impacts {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            IMPACTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(impacts.entries().clone())],
+        )?;
+        w.write_ipc(&batch)?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn deserialize_compressed(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<CompressedPostingList> {
+    let header: CompressedPostingHeader = r.read_header()?;
+    let posting_tail_codec = proto_to_posting_tail_codec(header.posting_tail_codec());
+
+    let batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+    let blocks = batch
+        .column_by_name(BLOCKS_COLUMN)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("blocks column is missing".to_string()))?
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("blocks column is not a LargeBinaryArray".to_string()))?
+        .clone();
+
+    let stream_codec = proto_to_position_stream_codec(header.position_stream_codec());
+    let positions = read_position_sections(r, header.position_storage(), stream_codec)?;
+    let block_size = if header.block_size == 0 {
+        LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE
+    } else {
+        validate_block_size(header.block_size as usize)?
+    };
+    let impacts = if r.version() >= 3 && header.has_impacts {
+        let batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+        let entries = batch
+            .column_by_name(IMPACTS_COLUMN)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("impacts column is missing".to_string()))?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("impacts column is not a LargeBinaryArray".to_string()))?
+            .clone();
+        Some(ImpactSkipData::new(entries, blocks.len())?)
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    Ok(CompressedPostingList::new(
+        blocks,
+        header.max_score,
+        header.length,
+        posting_tail_codec,
+        block_size,
+        positions,
+        impacts,
+    ))
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// PostingListGroup codec
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Version 2 distinguishes packed groups from the materialized fallback. A
+/// packed group writes one IPC batch; materialized groups retain the v1 inline
+/// member framing used by legacy and position-bearing prewarm paths. Version 3
+/// marks packed groups whose IPC schema can carry configurable posting block
+/// sizes while retaining the version-2 body framing. Version 4 adds optional
+/// impact data, either as an inline section for materialized members or as a
+/// column in the packed IPC batch.
+impl CacheCodecImpl for PostingListGroup {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.fts.PostingListGroup";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 4;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let count = u32::try_from(self.len())
+            .map_err(|_| Error::io("posting list group too large to serialize".to_string()))?;
+        match &self.storage {
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Materialized(posting_lists) => {
+                w.write_u8(GROUP_VARIANT_MATERIALIZED)?;
+                w.write_header(&PostingListGroupHeader { count })?;
+                for posting in posting_lists {
+                    posting.serialize(w)?;
+                }
+            }
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Packed(group) => {
+                w.write_u8(GROUP_VARIANT_PACKED)?;
+                w.write_header(&PostingListGroupHeader { count })?;
+                w.write_u8(posting_tail_codec_to_tag(group.posting_tail_codec))?;
+                w.write_ipc(&group.batch)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        match r.version() {
+            1 => return deserialize_materialized_group(r),
+            2 | 3 | Self::CURRENT_VERSION => {}
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                    "unsupported PostingListGroup cache version: {other}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let variant = r.read_u8()?;
+        match variant {
+            GROUP_VARIANT_MATERIALIZED => deserialize_materialized_group(r),
+            GROUP_VARIANT_PACKED => {
+                let header: PostingListGroupHeader = r.read_header()?;
+                let posting_tail_codec = posting_tail_codec_from_tag(r.read_u8()?)?;
+                let batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+                if batch.num_rows() != header.count as usize {
+                    return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                        "packed posting group row count {} does not match header count {}",
+                        batch.num_rows(),
+                        header.count
+                    )));
+                }
+                Self::new_packed(batch, posting_tail_codec)
+            }
+            other => Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "unknown PostingListGroup variant: {other}"
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn deserialize_materialized_group(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<PostingListGroup> {
+    let header: PostingListGroupHeader = r.read_header()?;
+    let mut posting_lists = Vec::with_capacity(header.count as usize);
+    for _ in 0..header.count {
+        posting_lists.push(deserialize_posting_list_body(r)?);
+    }
+    Ok(PostingListGroup::new(posting_lists))
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Positions codec
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+impl CacheCodecImpl for Positions {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.fts.Positions";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let (position_storage, position_stream_codec) = match &self.0 {
+            CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(_) => {
+                (PbPositionStorage::Legacy, PbPositionStreamCodec::default())
+            }
+            CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream) => (
+                PbPositionStorage::Shared,
+                position_stream_codec_to_proto(stream.codec()),
+            ),
+        };
+        let header = PositionsHeader {
+            position_storage: position_storage as i32,
+            position_stream_codec: position_stream_codec as i32,
+        };
+        w.write_header(&header)?;
+        write_position_sections(w, &self.0)
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let header: PositionsHeader = r.read_header()?;
+        let stream_codec = proto_to_position_stream_codec(header.position_stream_codec());
+        read_position_sections(r, header.position_storage(), stream_codec)?
+            .map(Self)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::io("Positions cache entry cannot encode the None variant".to_string())
+            })
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Tests
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow::buffer::ScalarBuffer;
+    use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, LargeBinaryBuilder, ListBuilder};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, LargeBinaryArray, RecordBatch};
+    use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use lance_core::Result;
+    use lance_core::cache::{CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter};
+
+    use crate::cache_pb::{CompressedPostingHeader, PostingTailCodec as PbPostingTailCodec};
+
+    use super::super::impact::{ImpactSkipData, ImpactSkipDataBuilder};
+    use super::super::index::{
+        CompressedPositionStorage, CompressedPostingList, IMPACT_COL, POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY,
+        POSTING_COL, PlainPostingList, PositionStreamCodec, Positions, PostingList,
+        PostingListGroup, PostingTailCodec, SharedPositionStream,
+    };
+    use super::super::tokenizer::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE;
+
+    fn legacy_positions(rows: &[&[i32]]) -> arrow_array::ListArray {
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new());
+        for row in rows {
+            for v in *row {
+                builder.values().append_value(*v);
+            }
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        builder.finish()
+    }
+
+    fn packed_batch(postings: &[Vec<Vec<u8>>], block_size: Option<usize>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(LargeBinaryBuilder::new());
+        for posting in postings {
+            for block in posting {
+                builder.values().append_value(block);
+            }
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        let postings = builder.finish();
+        let fields = vec![Field::new(POSTING_COL, postings.data_type().clone(), false)];
+        let schema = Arc::new(match block_size {
+            Some(block_size) => Schema::new_with_metadata(
+                fields,
+                HashMap::from([(POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), block_size.to_string())]),
+            ),
+            None => Schema::new(fields),
+        });
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(postings)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn packed_group(
+        postings: &[Vec<Vec<u8>>],
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> PostingListGroup {
+        PostingListGroup::new_packed(packed_batch(postings, block_size), posting_tail_codec)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn packed_group_with_impacts(
+        postings: &[Vec<Vec<u8>>],
+        impacts: &[ImpactSkipData],
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> PostingListGroup {
+        assert_eq!(postings.len(), impacts.len());
+        let posting_batch = packed_batch(postings, Some(block_size));
+        let mut impacts_builder = ListBuilder::new(LargeBinaryBuilder::new());
+        for impacts in impacts {
+            for entry_idx in 0..impacts.entries().len() {
+                impacts_builder
+                    .values()
+                    .append_value(impacts.entries().value(entry_idx));
+            }
+            impacts_builder.append(true);
+        }
+        let impacts = impacts_builder.finish();
+        let fields = vec![
+            Field::new(
+                POSTING_COL,
+                posting_batch.column(0).data_type().clone(),
+                false,
+            ),
+            Field::new(IMPACT_COL, impacts.data_type().clone(), false),
+        ];
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new_with_metadata(
+            fields,
+            posting_batch.schema_ref().metadata().clone(),
+        ));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![posting_batch.column(0).clone(), Arc::new(impacts)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        PostingListGroup::new_packed(batch, posting_tail_codec).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn assert_plain_eq(a: &PlainPostingList, b: &PlainPostingList) {
+        assert_eq!(a.row_ids.as_ref(), b.row_ids.as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(a.frequencies.as_ref(), b.frequencies.as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(a.max_score, b.max_score);
+        match (&a.positions, &b.positions) {
+            (None, None) => {}
+            (Some(x), Some(y)) => assert_eq!(x, y),
+            _ => panic!("positions mismatch"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn assert_position_storage_eq(a: &CompressedPositionStorage, b: &CompressedPositionStorage) {
+        match (a, b) {
+            (
+                CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(x),
+                CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(y),
+            ) => assert_eq!(x, y),
+            (
+                CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(x),
+                CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(y),
+            ) => {
+                assert_eq!(x.codec(), y.codec());
+                assert_eq!(x.block_offsets(), y.block_offsets());
+                assert_eq!(x.bytes(), y.bytes());
+            }
+            _ => panic!("position storage variant mismatch"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn impact_skip_data(level0_len: usize, block_size: usize) -> ImpactSkipData {
+        let mut builder = ImpactSkipDataBuilder::with_capacity(level0_len, block_size);
+        for block_idx in 0..level0_len {
+            let doc_base = block_idx as u32 * 10;
+            builder
+                .append_block(&[
+                    (doc_base + 1, block_idx as u32 + 1, 10),
+                    (doc_base + 9, block_idx as u32 + 2, 8),
+                ])
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        builder.finish().unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize a codec body (no envelope) into a standalone buffer.
+    fn body_bytes<T: CacheCodecImpl>(entry: &T) -> Bytes {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        let mut w = CacheEntryWriter::new(&mut buf);
+        entry.serialize(&mut w).unwrap();
+        Bytes::from(buf)
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize a codec body (no envelope) at the current build's version.
+    fn from_body<T: CacheCodecImpl>(data: &Bytes) -> Result<T> {
+        let mut r = CacheEntryReader::new(data, 0, T::CURRENT_VERSION);
+        T::deserialize(&mut r)
+    }
+
+    fn from_body_version<T: CacheCodecImpl>(data: &Bytes, version: u32) -> Result<T> {
+        let mut r = CacheEntryReader::new(data, 0, version);
+        T::deserialize(&mut r)
+    }
+
+    fn compressed_body_with_ipc_sections(
+        blocks: &RecordBatch,
+        impacts: Option<&RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Bytes {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        let mut w = CacheEntryWriter::new(&mut buf);
+        w.write_u8(super::POSTING_VARIANT_COMPRESSED).unwrap();
+        w.write_header(&CompressedPostingHeader {
+            max_score: 1.0,
+            length: 1,
+            posting_tail_codec: PbPostingTailCodec::VarintDelta as i32,
+            block_size: 256,
+            has_impacts: impacts.is_some(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+        w.write_ipc(blocks).unwrap();
+        if let Some(impacts) = impacts {
+            w.write_ipc(impacts).unwrap();
+        }
+        Bytes::from(buf)
+    }
+
+    fn roundtrip_posting_list(entry: &PostingList) -> PostingList {
+        from_body::<PostingList>(&body_bytes(entry)).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn roundtrip_positions(entry: &Positions) -> Positions {
+        from_body::<Positions>(&body_bytes(entry)).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn assert_slice_points_into_bytes(slice: &[u8], bytes: &Bytes) {
+        let slice_start = slice.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let slice_end = slice_start + slice.len();
+        let bytes_start = bytes.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let bytes_end = bytes_start + bytes.len();
+        assert!(
+            slice_start >= bytes_start && slice_end <= bytes_end,
+            "slice [{slice_start:#x}, {slice_end:#x}) should point into bytes \
+             [{bytes_start:#x}, {bytes_end:#x})",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn plain_posting_list_no_positions_roundtrip() {
+        let plain = PlainPostingList::new(
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![10u64, 20, 30]),
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0.5f32, 1.0, 1.5]),
+            Some(2.0),
+            None,
+        );
+        let entry = PostingList::Plain(plain.clone());
+        match roundtrip_posting_list(&entry) {
+            PostingList::Plain(restored) => assert_plain_eq(&plain, &restored),
+            PostingList::Compressed(_) => panic!("expected Plain variant"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn plain_posting_list_with_positions_roundtrip() {
+        let plain = PlainPostingList::new(
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1u64, 2]),
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1.0f32, 1.0]),
+            None,
+            Some(legacy_positions(&[&[3, 7], &[1, 4, 9]])),
+        );
+        let entry = PostingList::Plain(plain.clone());
+        match roundtrip_posting_list(&entry) {
+            PostingList::Plain(restored) => assert_plain_eq(&plain, &restored),
+            PostingList::Compressed(_) => panic!("expected Plain variant"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compressed_posting_list_no_positions_roundtrip() {
+        // Two synthetic block payloads -- content is opaque to the codec.
+        let blocks = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![
+            Some(&[1u8, 2, 3, 4, 5][..]),
+            Some(&[6, 7, 8, 9, 10][..]),
+        ]);
+        let posting = CompressedPostingList::new(
+            blocks,
+            3.5,
+            42,
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            256,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let entry = PostingList::Compressed(posting.clone());
+        match roundtrip_posting_list(&entry) {
+            PostingList::Compressed(restored) => {
+                assert_eq!(restored.max_score, posting.max_score);
+                assert_eq!(restored.length, posting.length);
+                assert_eq!(restored.posting_tail_codec, posting.posting_tail_codec);
+                assert_eq!(restored.block_size, posting.block_size);
+                assert_eq!(restored.blocks, posting.blocks);
+                assert!(restored.positions.is_none());
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => panic!("expected Compressed variant"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compressed_posting_list_impacts_roundtrip() {
+        let blocks = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![
+            Some(&[1u8, 2, 3, 4, 5][..]),
+            Some(&[6, 7, 8, 9, 10][..]),
+        ]);
+        let impacts = impact_skip_data(blocks.len(), 256);
+        let posting = CompressedPostingList::new(
+            blocks,
+            3.5,
+            42,
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            256,
+            None,
+            Some(impacts.clone()),
+        );
+        let entry = PostingList::Compressed(posting);
+        match roundtrip_posting_list(&entry) {
+            PostingList::Compressed(restored) => {
+                let restored = restored.impacts.expect("impacts should roundtrip");
+                assert_eq!(restored.level0_len(), impacts.level0_len());
+                assert_eq!(restored.level1_len(), impacts.level1_len());
+                assert_eq!(restored.entries(), impacts.entries());
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => panic!("expected Compressed variant"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compressed_posting_list_missing_ipc_columns_returns_error() {
+        let empty = RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(Schema::empty()));
+        assert!(
+            from_body::<PostingList>(&compressed_body_with_ipc_sections(&empty, None)).is_err()
+        );
+
+        let blocks = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[1_u8, 2, 3][..])]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            super::BLOCKS_COLUMN,
+            blocks.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let blocks = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(blocks)]).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            from_body::<PostingList>(&compressed_body_with_ipc_sections(&blocks, Some(&empty)))
+                .is_err()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compressed_posting_list_v1_cache_without_impacts_decodes() {
+        let posting = CompressedPostingList::new(
+            LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[1u8, 2, 3][..])]),
+            1.25,
+            5,
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+            crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let data = body_bytes(&PostingList::Compressed(posting));
+        let restored = from_body_version::<PostingList>(&data, 1).unwrap();
+        let PostingList::Compressed(restored) = restored else {
+            panic!("expected Compressed variant");
+        };
+        assert!(restored.impacts.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compressed_posting_list_legacy_positions_roundtrip() {
+        let blocks = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[1u8, 2, 3][..])]);
+        let posting = CompressedPostingList::new(
+            blocks,
+            1.25,
+            5,
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+            crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            Some(CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(legacy_positions(
+                &[&[0, 4, 8]],
+            ))),
+            None,
+        );
+        let entry = PostingList::Compressed(posting.clone());
+        match roundtrip_posting_list(&entry) {
+            PostingList::Compressed(restored) => {
+                assert_eq!(restored.posting_tail_codec, posting.posting_tail_codec);
+                assert_position_storage_eq(
+                    restored.positions.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                    posting.positions.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                );
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => panic!("expected Compressed variant"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compressed_posting_list_shared_stream_roundtrip() {
+        for codec in [
+            PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta,
+            PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+        ] {
+            let blocks = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[9u8; 16][..])]);
+            let stream = SharedPositionStream::new(
+                codec,
+                vec![0u32, 4, 11],
+                Bytes::from((0u8..32).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            );
+            let posting = CompressedPostingList::new(
+                blocks,
+                7.0,
+                3,
+                PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                256,
+                Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream)),
+                None,
+            );
+            let entry = PostingList::Compressed(posting.clone());
+            match roundtrip_posting_list(&entry) {
+                PostingList::Compressed(restored) => {
+                    assert_position_storage_eq(
+                        restored.positions.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                        posting.positions.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                    );
+                }
+                PostingList::Plain(_) => panic!("expected Compressed variant"),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn shared_stream_deserialize_borrows_from_input_bytes() {
+        let blocks = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[9u8; 16][..])]);
+        let expected_stream = SharedPositionStream::new(
+            PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+            vec![0u32, 4, 11],
+            Bytes::from((0u8..32).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+        );
+        let posting = CompressedPostingList::new(
+            blocks,
+            7.0,
+            3,
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            256,
+            Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(
+                expected_stream.clone(),
+            )),
+            None,
+        );
+        let serialized = body_bytes(&PostingList::Compressed(posting));
+
+        let restored = from_body::<PostingList>(&serialized).unwrap();
+        let PostingList::Compressed(restored) = restored else {
+            panic!("expected Compressed variant");
+        };
+        let Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream)) = restored.positions else {
+            panic!("expected shared-stream positions");
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(stream.codec(), expected_stream.codec());
+        assert_eq!(stream.block_offsets(), expected_stream.block_offsets());
+        assert_eq!(stream.bytes(), expected_stream.bytes());
+        assert_slice_points_into_bytes(stream.bytes(), &serialized);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn posting_list_group_roundtrip() {
+        // Mix of plain and compressed members, including an empty group.
+        let plain = PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1u64, 2, 3]),
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1.0f32, 2.0, 3.0]),
+            Some(4.0),
+            None,
+        ));
+        let compressed = PostingList::Compressed(CompressedPostingList::new(
+            LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[1u8, 2, 3][..])]),
+            2.5,
+            7,
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            256,
+            None,
+            None,
+        ));
+
+        for members in [
+            Vec::new(),
+            vec![plain.clone()],
+            vec![plain.clone(), compressed, plain],
+        ] {
+            let group = PostingListGroup::new(members.clone());
+            let restored = from_body::<PostingListGroup>(&body_bytes(&group)).unwrap();
+            assert!(!restored.is_packed());
+            assert_eq!(restored.len(), members.len());
+            for (index, a) in members.iter().enumerate() {
+                let b = restored.posting_list(index, None, None).unwrap().unwrap();
+                match (a, &b) {
+                    (PostingList::Plain(x), PostingList::Plain(y)) => assert_plain_eq(x, y),
+                    (PostingList::Compressed(x), PostingList::Compressed(y)) => {
+                        assert_eq!(x.blocks, y.blocks);
+                        assert_eq!(x.length, y.length);
+                        assert_eq!(x.max_score, y.max_score);
+                    }
+                    _ => panic!("variant mismatch in group roundtrip"),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn packed_posting_list_group_roundtrip_and_v1_fallback() {
+        let group = packed_group(
+            &[vec![vec![1, 2, 3], vec![4, 5]], vec![vec![7; 16 * 1024]]],
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            Some(256),
+        );
+        let restored = from_body::<PostingListGroup>(&body_bytes(&group)).unwrap();
+        assert!(restored.is_packed());
+        assert_eq!(restored.len(), 2);
+        for slot in 0..2 {
+            let max_score = [1.5, 3.25][slot];
+            let length = [3, 4096][slot];
+            let expected = group
+                .posting_list(slot, Some(max_score), Some(length))
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+            let actual = restored
+                .posting_list(slot, Some(max_score), Some(length))
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+            let (PostingList::Compressed(expected), PostingList::Compressed(actual)) =
+                (expected, actual)
+            else {
+                panic!("expected compressed packed posting views");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(actual.blocks, expected.blocks);
+            assert_eq!(actual.max_score, expected.max_score);
+            assert_eq!(actual.length, expected.length);
+            assert_eq!(actual.posting_tail_codec, expected.posting_tail_codec);
+            assert_eq!(actual.block_size, 256);
+        }
+
+        let legacy_packed =
+            packed_group(&[vec![vec![9, 8, 7]]], PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta, None);
+        let restored = from_body::<PostingListGroup>(&body_bytes(&legacy_packed)).unwrap();
+        let PostingList::Compressed(posting) = restored
+            .posting_list(0, Some(2.0), Some(3))
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected compressed legacy packed posting");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(posting.block_size, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE);
+
+        let legacy_member = PostingList::Compressed(CompressedPostingList::new(
+            LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[9u8, 8, 7][..])]),
+            2.0,
+            3,
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            None,
+            None,
+        ));
+        let mut legacy_body = Vec::new();
+        let mut writer = CacheEntryWriter::new(&mut legacy_body);
+        writer
+            .write_header(&crate::cache_pb::PostingListGroupHeader { count: 1 })
+            .unwrap();
+        legacy_member.serialize(&mut writer).unwrap();
+        let legacy_body = Bytes::from(legacy_body);
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&legacy_body, 0, 1);
+        let restored = PostingListGroup::deserialize(&mut reader).unwrap();
+        assert!(!restored.is_packed());
+        assert_eq!(restored.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn posting_list_group_impacted_compressed_members_roundtrip() {
+        let first = CompressedPostingList::new(
+            LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[1u8, 2, 3][..]), Some(&[4u8, 5, 6][..])]),
+            3.0,
+            256,
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            None,
+            Some(impact_skip_data(2, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)),
+        );
+        let second = CompressedPostingList::new(
+            LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[7u8, 8, 9][..])]),
+            5.0,
+            128,
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+            256,
+            Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(
+                SharedPositionStream::new(
+                    PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+                    vec![0u32, 12],
+                    Bytes::from(vec![0xABu8; 32]),
+                ),
+            )),
+            Some(impact_skip_data(1, 256)),
+        );
+        let members = vec![
+            PostingList::Compressed(first.clone()),
+            PostingList::Compressed(second.clone()),
+        ];
+        let group = PostingListGroup::new(members);
+        let restored = from_body::<PostingListGroup>(&body_bytes(&group)).unwrap();
+        assert!(!restored.is_packed());
+        assert_eq!(restored.len(), 2);
+
+        let expected = [&first, &second];
+        for (slot, expected) in expected.iter().enumerate() {
+            let restored = restored.posting_list(slot, None, None).unwrap().unwrap();
+            let PostingList::Compressed(restored) = restored else {
+                panic!("expected compressed member");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(restored.blocks, expected.blocks);
+            assert_eq!(restored.length, expected.length);
+            assert_eq!(restored.max_score, expected.max_score);
+            assert_eq!(restored.posting_tail_codec, expected.posting_tail_codec);
+            assert_eq!(restored.block_size, expected.block_size);
+            assert_eq!(
+                restored.impacts.as_ref().unwrap().entries(),
+                expected.impacts.as_ref().unwrap().entries()
+            );
+            match (&expected.positions, &restored.positions) {
+                (Some(expected), Some(restored)) => {
+                    assert_position_storage_eq(expected, restored);
+                }
+                (None, None) => {}
+                _ => panic!("position storage mismatch"),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn packed_posting_list_group_impacts_roundtrip() {
+        let postings = vec![vec![vec![1, 2, 3], vec![4, 5, 6]], vec![vec![7, 8, 9]]];
+        let expected_impacts = vec![impact_skip_data(2, 256), impact_skip_data(1, 256)];
+        let group = packed_group_with_impacts(
+            &postings,
+            &expected_impacts,
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            256,
+        );
+
+        let restored = from_body::<PostingListGroup>(&body_bytes(&group)).unwrap();
+        assert!(restored.is_packed());
+        assert_eq!(restored.len(), expected_impacts.len());
+        for (slot, expected) in expected_impacts.iter().enumerate() {
+            let posting = restored
+                .posting_list(slot, Some(3.0), Some(256))
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+            let PostingList::Compressed(posting) = posting else {
+                panic!("expected compressed packed posting");
+            };
+            let actual = posting.impacts.as_ref().expect("impacts should roundtrip");
+            assert_eq!(actual.entries(), expected.entries());
+            assert_eq!(actual.level0_len(), expected.level0_len());
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual.level1_doc_up_to(0),
+                expected.level1_doc_up_to(0),
+                "impact entries should remain decodable with the packed block size",
+            );
+            assert!(actual.level1_doc_up_to(0).is_some());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn positions_legacy_roundtrip() {
+        let positions = Positions(CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(legacy_positions(
+            &[&[1, 2, 3], &[], &[10]],
+        )));
+        let restored = roundtrip_positions(&positions);
+        assert_position_storage_eq(&positions.0, &restored.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn positions_shared_stream_roundtrip() {
+        let stream = SharedPositionStream::new(
+            PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+            vec![0u32, 8],
+            Bytes::from(vec![0xAAu8; 24]),
+        );
+        let positions = Positions(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream));
+        let restored = roundtrip_positions(&positions);
+        assert_position_storage_eq(&positions.0, &restored.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn truncated_data_errors() {
+        let plain = PlainPostingList::new(
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1u64]),
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1.0f32]),
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let entry = PostingList::Plain(plain);
+        let mut buf = body_bytes(&entry).to_vec();
+        buf.truncate(buf.len() / 2);
+        assert!(from_body::<PostingList>(&Bytes::from(buf)).is_err());
+    }
+
+    /// Tests covering the stabilized envelope + compressed proto format,
+    /// exercised through the full type-erased [`CacheCodec`] (envelope + body).
+    mod stable_format {
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        use arrow_array::Array;
+        use arrow_schema::DataType;
+        use lance_core::cache::{
+            CacheCodec, CacheCodecImpl, CacheDecode, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter,
+            CacheMissReason,
+        };
+        use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+        use prost::Message;
+
+        use super::super::{
+            BLOCKS_COLUMN, GROUP_VARIANT_PACKED, POSTING_VARIANT_COMPRESSED,
+            posting_tail_codec_to_tag,
+        };
+        use super::*;
+        use crate::cache_pb::{
+            CompressedPostingHeader, PostingListGroupHeader, PostingTailCodec as PbPostingTailCodec,
+        };
+
+        type ArcAny = Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync>;
+
+        struct PostingListV2Codec(PostingList);
+
+        impl CacheCodecImpl for PostingListV2Codec {
+            const TYPE_ID: &'static str = <PostingList as CacheCodecImpl>::TYPE_ID;
+            const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 2;
+
+            fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+                self.0.serialize(w)
+            }
+
+            fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+                PostingList::deserialize(r).map(Self)
+            }
+        }
+
+        struct PostingListGroupV3Codec(PostingListGroup);
+
+        impl CacheCodecImpl for PostingListGroupV3Codec {
+            const TYPE_ID: &'static str = <PostingListGroup as CacheCodecImpl>::TYPE_ID;
+            const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 3;
+
+            fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+                self.0.serialize(w)
+            }
+
+            fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+                PostingListGroup::deserialize(r).map(Self)
+            }
+        }
+
+        struct LegacyCompressedPostingV1 {
+            blocks: LargeBinaryArray,
+        }
+
+        impl CacheCodecImpl for LegacyCompressedPostingV1 {
+            const TYPE_ID: &'static str = <PostingList as CacheCodecImpl>::TYPE_ID;
+            const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+            fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+                w.write_u8(POSTING_VARIANT_COMPRESSED)?;
+                w.write_header(&CompressedPostingHeader {
+                    max_score: 2.0,
+                    length: 3,
+                    posting_tail_codec: PbPostingTailCodec::VarintDelta as i32,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })?;
+                let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                    BLOCKS_COLUMN,
+                    DataType::LargeBinary,
+                    false,
+                )]));
+                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(self.blocks.clone())])?;
+                w.write_ipc(&batch)
+            }
+
+            fn deserialize(_r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+                Err(Error::io(
+                    "LegacyCompressedPostingV1 is a writer-only test codec".to_string(),
+                ))
+            }
+        }
+
+        struct LegacyPackedGroupV2 {
+            batch: RecordBatch,
+            posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        }
+
+        impl CacheCodecImpl for LegacyPackedGroupV2 {
+            const TYPE_ID: &'static str = <PostingListGroup as CacheCodecImpl>::TYPE_ID;
+            const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 2;
+
+            fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+                w.write_u8(GROUP_VARIANT_PACKED)?;
+                let count = u32::try_from(self.batch.num_rows())
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::io("legacy packed group is too large".to_string()))?;
+                w.write_header(&PostingListGroupHeader { count })?;
+                w.write_u8(posting_tail_codec_to_tag(self.posting_tail_codec))?;
+                w.write_ipc(&self.batch)
+            }
+
+            fn deserialize(_r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+                Err(Error::io(
+                    "LegacyPackedGroupV2 is a writer-only test codec".to_string(),
+                ))
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn codec() -> CacheCodec {
+            CacheCodec::from_impl::<PostingList>()
+        }
+
+        fn serialize_typed_entry<T: CacheCodecImpl + 'static>(entry: T) -> Vec<u8> {
+            let any: ArcAny = Arc::new(entry);
+            let mut buf = Vec::new();
+            CacheCodec::from_impl::<T>()
+                .serialize(&any, &mut buf)
+                .unwrap();
+            buf
+        }
+
+        /// Serialize an entry through the full codec (envelope + body).
+        fn serialize_entry(entry: PostingList) -> Vec<u8> {
+            serialize_typed_entry(entry)
+        }
+
+        /// A `Bytes` whose base address is 64-byte aligned, modelling a backend
+        /// that reads cache entries into an aligned buffer.
+        fn aligned_bytes(payload: &[u8]) -> Bytes {
+            const ALIGN: usize = 64;
+            let mut v = vec![0u8; payload.len() + ALIGN];
+            let pad = (ALIGN - (v.as_ptr() as usize % ALIGN)) % ALIGN;
+            v[pad..pad + payload.len()].copy_from_slice(payload);
+            Bytes::from(v).slice(pad..pad + payload.len())
+        }
+
+        fn compressed_with_shared_positions() -> PostingList {
+            let blocks =
+                LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[9u8; 48][..]), Some(&[1u8; 48])]);
+            let stream = SharedPositionStream::new(
+                PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+                vec![0u32, 4, 11],
+                Bytes::from((0u8..64).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            );
+            PostingList::Compressed(CompressedPostingList::new(
+                blocks,
+                7.0,
+                3,
+                PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                256,
+                Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream)),
+                None,
+            ))
+        }
+
+        /// The compressed `blocks` (an aligned IPC section) and the shared
+        /// position blob (a raw section) must both be borrowed zero-copy from
+        /// the input even though the envelope pushes them to a non-zero,
+        /// non-aligned starting offset.
+        #[test]
+        fn compressed_sections_are_zero_copy_through_envelope() {
+            let serialized = aligned_bytes(&serialize_entry(compressed_with_shared_positions()));
+            let restored = codec().deserialize(&serialized).hit().unwrap();
+            let restored = restored.downcast::<PostingList>().unwrap();
+            let PostingList::Compressed(restored) = restored.as_ref() else {
+                panic!("expected Compressed");
+            };
+
+            let base = serialized.as_ptr() as usize;
+            let end = base + serialized.len();
+            let points_in = |ptr: usize| ptr >= base && ptr < end;
+
+            // blocks IPC section decoded in place (no realigning memcpy).
+            for buf in restored.blocks.to_data().buffers() {
+                assert!(
+                    points_in(buf.as_ptr() as usize),
+                    "blocks buffer was realigned out of the input — misaligned IPC section",
+                );
+            }
+            // shared position raw blob borrowed in place.
+            let Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream)) = &restored.positions else {
+                panic!("expected shared stream");
+            };
+            assert!(points_in(stream.bytes().as_ptr() as usize));
+        }
+
+        /// A packed group's single IPC batch and all posting views decoded from
+        /// it must borrow the cache entry's aligned input buffer.
+        #[test]
+        fn packed_group_sections_are_zero_copy_through_envelope() {
+            let postings = vec![
+                vec![vec![9; 48], vec![9; 48]],
+                vec![vec![1; 48], vec![1; 48]],
+            ];
+            let impacts = vec![impact_skip_data(2, 256), impact_skip_data(2, 256)];
+            let group =
+                packed_group_with_impacts(&postings, &impacts, PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta, 256);
+
+            let group_codec = CacheCodec::from_impl::<PostingListGroup>();
+            let any: ArcAny = Arc::new(group);
+            let mut buf = Vec::new();
+            group_codec.serialize(&any, &mut buf).unwrap();
+            let serialized = aligned_bytes(&buf);
+
+            let restored = group_codec.deserialize(&serialized).hit().unwrap();
+            let restored = restored.downcast::<PostingListGroup>().unwrap();
+
+            let base = serialized.as_ptr() as usize;
+            let end = base + serialized.len();
+            let points_in = |ptr: usize| ptr >= base && ptr < end;
+
+            assert!(restored.is_packed());
+            assert_eq!(restored.len(), 2);
+            for slot in 0..restored.len() {
+                let member = restored
+                    .posting_list(slot, Some(7.0), Some(3))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .unwrap();
+                let PostingList::Compressed(member) = member else {
+                    panic!("expected Compressed member");
+                };
+                for buf in member.blocks.to_data().buffers() {
+                    assert!(
+                        points_in(buf.as_ptr() as usize),
+                        "group member blocks buffer was realigned out of the input — \
+                        misaligned IPC section",
+                    );
+                }
+                let impacts = member
+                    .impacts
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("packed impacts should decode");
+                for buf in impacts.entries().to_data().buffers() {
+                    assert!(
+                        points_in(buf.as_ptr() as usize),
+                        "group member impact buffer was realigned out of the input",
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// The plain posting's row-id/frequency IPC section must also decode
+        /// zero-copy through the envelope + proto header.
+        #[test]
+        fn plain_sections_are_zero_copy_through_envelope() {
+            let plain = PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                ScalarBuffer::from((0u64..64).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+                ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1.0f32; 64]),
+                Some(2.0),
+                None,
+            ));
+            let serialized = aligned_bytes(&serialize_entry(plain));
+            let restored = codec().deserialize(&serialized).hit().unwrap();
+            let restored = restored.downcast::<PostingList>().unwrap();
+            let PostingList::Plain(restored) = restored.as_ref() else {
+                panic!("expected Plain");
+            };
+
+            let base = serialized.as_ptr() as usize;
+            let end = base + serialized.len();
+            // The row_ids ScalarBuffer must borrow from the input allocation.
+            let ptr = restored.row_ids.as_ptr() as usize;
+            assert!(
+                ptr >= base && ptr < end,
+                "row_ids buffer was realigned out of the input — misaligned IPC section",
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Additive proto fields (lever #1) must not break decoding: an unknown
+        /// field number appended to the header is ignored.
+        #[test]
+        fn header_proto_ignores_unknown_fields() {
+            let header = CompressedPostingHeader {
+                max_score: 1.5,
+                length: 9,
+                posting_tail_codec: PbPostingTailCodec::VarintDelta as i32,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let mut bytes = header.encode_to_vec();
+            // Append an unknown field #15, varint wire type (0), value 7.
+            bytes.push(15 << 3);
+            bytes.push(7);
+            let decoded = CompressedPostingHeader::decode(bytes.as_slice()).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(decoded.length, 9);
+            assert_eq!(decoded.max_score, 1.5);
+        }
+
+        /// An entry written by a different codec (foreign TYPE_ID) misses.
+        #[test]
+        fn foreign_type_id_is_miss() {
+            // A PostingListGroup entry carries a different TYPE_ID in its
+            // envelope; reading it as a PostingList must miss, not misread it.
+            let group = PostingListGroup::new(vec![]);
+            let any: ArcAny = Arc::new(group);
+            let mut buf = Vec::new();
+            CacheCodec::from_impl::<PostingListGroup>()
+                .serialize(&any, &mut buf)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(codec().deserialize(&Bytes::from(buf)).hit().is_none());
+        }
+
+        /// An entry written by a newer build (higher type_version) misses.
+        #[test]
+        fn future_type_version_is_miss() {
+            let mut buf = serialize_entry(compressed_with_shared_positions());
+            // Patch the envelope's type_version (magic[4] + ver[1] + len[2] +
+            // type_id[N]) to a value beyond what this build understands.
+            let type_id_len = u16::from_le_bytes([buf[5], buf[6]]) as usize;
+            let version_off = 4 + 1 + 2 + type_id_len;
+            buf[version_off..version_off + 4].copy_from_slice(&u32::MAX.to_le_bytes());
+            assert!(codec().deserialize(&Bytes::from(buf)).hit().is_none());
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn old_codecs_reject_new_impact_envelopes_as_version_too_new() {
+            let posting = Bytes::from(serialize_entry(compressed_with_shared_positions()));
+            match CacheCodec::from_impl::<PostingListV2Codec>().deserialize(&posting) {
+                CacheDecode::Miss(reason) => {
+                    assert_eq!(reason, CacheMissReason::VersionTooNew)
+                }
+                CacheDecode::Hit(_) => panic!("v2 PostingList codec accepted a v3 envelope"),
+            }
+
+            let group = packed_group(
+                &[vec![vec![1, 2, 3]], vec![vec![4, 5, 6]]],
+                PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                Some(256),
+            );
+            let group = Bytes::from(serialize_typed_entry(group));
+            match CacheCodec::from_impl::<PostingListGroupV3Codec>().deserialize(&group) {
+                CacheDecode::Miss(reason) => {
+                    assert_eq!(reason, CacheMissReason::VersionTooNew)
+                }
+                CacheDecode::Hit(_) => {
+                    panic!("v3 PostingListGroup codec accepted a v4 envelope")
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn current_codecs_read_previous_main_versions() {
+            let previous_posting = PostingListV2Codec(compressed_with_shared_positions());
+            let previous_posting = Bytes::from(serialize_typed_entry(previous_posting));
+            let restored = codec().deserialize(&previous_posting).hit().unwrap();
+            let restored = restored.downcast::<PostingList>().unwrap();
+            let PostingList::Compressed(restored) = restored.as_ref() else {
+                panic!("expected compressed posting");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(restored.block_size, 256);
+            assert!(restored.impacts.is_none());
+
+            let previous_group = PostingListGroupV3Codec(packed_group(
+                &[vec![vec![1, 2, 3]], vec![vec![4, 5, 6]]],
+                PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                Some(256),
+            ));
+            let previous_group = Bytes::from(serialize_typed_entry(previous_group));
+            let restored = CacheCodec::from_impl::<PostingListGroup>()
+                .deserialize(&previous_group)
+                .hit()
+                .unwrap()
+                .downcast::<PostingListGroup>()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(restored.is_packed());
+            assert_eq!(restored.len(), 2);
+            let PostingList::Compressed(restored) = restored
+                .posting_list(0, Some(2.0), Some(3))
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+            else {
+                panic!("expected compressed packed posting");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(restored.block_size, 256);
+            assert!(restored.impacts.is_none());
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn current_codecs_read_legacy_payloads_without_block_size() {
+            let legacy_posting = LegacyCompressedPostingV1 {
+                blocks: LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![Some(&[9u8, 8, 7][..])]),
+            };
+            let legacy_posting = Bytes::from(serialize_typed_entry(legacy_posting));
+            let restored = codec().deserialize(&legacy_posting).hit().unwrap();
+            let restored = restored.downcast::<PostingList>().unwrap();
+            let PostingList::Compressed(restored) = restored.as_ref() else {
+                panic!("expected a compressed legacy posting");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(restored.block_size, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE);
+
+            let legacy_batch = packed_batch(&[vec![vec![1, 2, 3]], vec![vec![4, 5, 6]]], None);
+            assert!(
+                !legacy_batch
+                    .schema_ref()
+                    .metadata()
+                    .contains_key(POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY)
+            );
+            let legacy_group = LegacyPackedGroupV2 {
+                batch: legacy_batch,
+                posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            };
+            let legacy_group = Bytes::from(serialize_typed_entry(legacy_group));
+            let restored = CacheCodec::from_impl::<PostingListGroup>()
+                .deserialize(&legacy_group)
+                .hit()
+                .unwrap()
+                .downcast::<PostingListGroup>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let PostingList::Compressed(restored) = restored
+                .posting_list(0, Some(2.0), Some(3))
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+            else {
+                panic!("expected a compressed legacy packed posting");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(restored.block_size, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        }
+
+        /// A pre-stabilization blob (no magic) self-heals to a miss.
+        #[test]
+        fn pre_stabilization_blob_is_miss() {
+            // Old format led with a u64 LE length prefix, never our magic.
+            let mut blob = (30u64).to_le_bytes().to_vec();
+            blob.extend_from_slice(&[0u8; 30]);
+            assert!(codec().deserialize(&Bytes::from(blob)).hit().is_none());
+        }
+
+        /// A structurally-valid envelope whose body leads with an out-of-range
+        /// variant tag self-heals to a `BodyError` miss rather than panicking or
+        /// misreading the remaining bytes.
+        #[test]
+        fn unknown_posting_variant_is_miss() {
+            use lance_core::cache::{CacheDecode, CacheMissReason};
+
+            let mut buf = serialize_entry(compressed_with_shared_positions());
+            // The variant tag is the first body byte, right after the envelope
+            // (magic[4] + ver[1] + type_id_len[2] + type_id[N] + type_version[4]).
+            let type_id_len = u16::from_le_bytes([buf[5], buf[6]]) as usize;
+            let variant_off = 4 + 1 + 2 + type_id_len + 4;
+            buf[variant_off] = 2; // neither PLAIN (0) nor COMPRESSED (1)
+            match codec().deserialize(&Bytes::from(buf)) {
+                CacheDecode::Miss(reason) => assert_eq!(reason, CacheMissReason::BodyError),
+                CacheDecode::Hit(_) => panic!("expected a BodyError miss, got a hit"),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e48f245b8a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Cross-field BM25F scoring (`combined_fields`).
+//!
+//! The target columns are treated as one virtual field so that term statistics
+//! are blended across fields instead of scored independently (contrast the
+//! field-centric `best_fields` fusion of a `MultiMatch` query). The blend rules
+//! are Lucene's `CombinedFieldQuery`:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! tf'(t, d)      = Σ_f w_f · tf_f(t, d)              (weighted sum)
+//! dl'(d)         = Σ_f w_f · dl_f(d)                 (weighted sum)
+//! docFreq'(t)    = max_f docFreq_f(t)                (max)
+//! docCount'      = max_f docCount_f                  (max)
+//! sumTotalTermFreq' = Σ_f w_f · sumTotalTermFreq_f   (weighted sum)
+//! avgdl'         = sumTotalTermFreq' / docCount'
+//! score(t, d)    = idf'(t) · (k1 + 1) · tf' / (tf' + k1·(1 - b + b·dl'/avgdl'))
+//! ```
+//!
+//! Scoring uses exact (non-quantized) document lengths and a shared tokenizer
+//! across columns. Every candidate in the union of the query terms' postings is
+//! scored; see [`combined_fields_search`].
+
+mod cursor;
+mod flat;
+mod search;
+mod stats;
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod testing;
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+pub use flat::flat_combined_fields_search_stream;
+pub use search::combined_fields_search;
+pub use stats::{CombinedCorpusStats, FlatFieldStats, build_combined_bm25_scorer};
+
+use super::index::InvertedIndex;
+use super::query::Tokens;
+
+/// One target column of a `combined_fields` query: its per-column weight and
+/// the opened FTS segments (one per committed segment; usually a single one).
+pub struct CombinedFieldColumn {
+    /// Column name, used only for error messages.
+    pub column: String,
+    /// Per-column BM25F weight `w_f` (`>= 1`, validated at query construction).
+    pub weight: f32,
+    /// Opened inverted-index segments for this column.
+    pub indices: Vec<Arc<InvertedIndex>>,
+    /// Rows an overlay made stale, in the row-id domain index results use.
+    ///
+    /// The flat scan folds their current values into the corpus, so their old
+    /// values are subtracted from `indices` to avoid counting them twice.
+    /// `None` when no overlay touched this column.
+    pub stale_rows: Option<Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>>,
+}
+
+/// Deduplicate the query tokens into the unique terms of the virtual field,
+/// preserving first-seen order. Duplicate terms collapse to one (mirrors the
+/// per-column `load_posting_lists` dedup), so each term is scored once.
+fn unique_terms(tokens: &Tokens) -> Vec<String> {
+    let mut terms = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+    let mut seen = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+    for token in tokens {
+        if seen.insert(token.as_str()) {
+            terms.push(token.clone());
+        }
+    }
+    terms
+}
+
+/// Reject a `combined_fields` query whose target columns do not share an
+/// identical index/tokenizer configuration. BM25F is only well-defined when the
+/// fields tokenize the same way, so mixing configurations is an error rather
+/// than a silently wrong score. The error lists the offending columns.
+pub fn validate_combined_tokenizers(columns: &[CombinedFieldColumn]) -> Result<()> {
+    // A column with no index has no tokenizer to disagree with, so it is skipped.
+    let mut indexed = columns
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|column| Some((column, column.indices.first()?)));
+    let Some((reference, reference_index)) = indexed.next() else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+    // Compare only the tokenization-affecting params: two columns may differ in
+    // storage/layout knobs (e.g. `with_position`) yet still tokenize identically,
+    // which is all BM25F requires.
+    let offending: Vec<&str> = indexed
+        .filter(|(_, index)| !reference_index.params().same_tokenization(index.params()))
+        .map(|(column, _)| column.column.as_str())
+        .collect();
+    if !offending.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "combined_fields requires every target column to share the same tokenizer/index \
+             configuration; column(s) {:?} differ from column '{}'",
+            offending, reference.column
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/cursor.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/cursor.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..33f538364f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/cursor.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Per-term cross-column postings for `combined_fields`: one term's postings
+//! merged across every target column into the shared row-id space, and the
+//! loaded posting sources they are built from.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+
+use super::super::documents::AddressKeyedDocuments;
+use super::super::index::{PostingList, live_posting_rows};
+use super::super::scorer::CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer;
+
+/// One query term's postings, merged across every target column/partition into
+/// the shared row-id space.
+///
+/// Entries are unique row ids sorted ascending, each carrying the blended term
+/// frequency `tf'(t, d) = Σ_f w_f · freq_f(t, d)`.
+pub(super) struct CombinedTermPostings {
+    pub(super) idf: f32,
+    pub(super) postings: Vec<(u64, f32)>,
+}
+
+impl CombinedTermPostings {
+    /// `tf'` for `row_id`, or 0 when the term does not occur in the document.
+    #[inline]
+    pub(super) fn tf_prime(&self, row_id: u64) -> f32 {
+        match self.postings.binary_search_by_key(&row_id, |(id, _)| *id) {
+            Ok(idx) => self.postings[idx].1,
+            Err(_) => 0.0,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A `(column, index, partition)` posting source loaded for one term.
+pub(super) struct LoadedSource {
+    pub(super) weight: f32,
+    pub(super) docs: AddressKeyedDocuments,
+    pub(super) is_legacy: bool,
+    pub(super) posting: PostingList,
+}
+
+/// Merge every source's postings for `term` into the shared row-id space,
+/// accumulating `tf'` in the canonical order.
+pub(super) fn build_term_postings(
+    term: &str,
+    sources: Vec<LoadedSource>,
+    mask: &Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    scorer: &CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer,
+) -> CombinedTermPostings {
+    let mut acc: HashMap<u64, f32> = HashMap::new();
+    for source in &sources {
+        for (row_id, freq) in live_posting_rows(&source.posting, &source.docs, source.is_legacy) {
+            if !mask.selected(row_id) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            *acc.entry(row_id).or_insert(0.0) += source.weight * freq as f32;
+        }
+    }
+    let idf = scorer.query_weight(term);
+    let mut postings: Vec<(u64, f32)> = acc.into_iter().collect();
+    postings.sort_unstable_by_key(|(row_id, _)| *row_id);
+    CombinedTermPostings { idf, postings }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::super::testing::{compressed_list, modern_identity_docs};
+    use super::*;
+    use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_term_postings_merges_legacy_and_compressed() {
+        // A legacy (Plain, row-id-keyed, list-multiplicity)
+        // source and a compressed source merge into one ordered `tf'` stream,
+        // masked rows dropped and contributions summed in column order.
+        use super::super::super::index::PlainPostingList;
+        use arrow::buffer::ScalarBuffer;
+
+        let scorer = CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer::new(1000, 12.0, HashMap::new());
+        // Legacy column (weight 2): the posting keys directly on row ids; row 20
+        // appears twice (list multiplicity), so its contributions sum.
+        let legacy = PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![10u64, 20, 20, 30]),
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1.0f32, 2.0, 3.0, 1.0]),
+            Some(0.0),
+            None,
+        ));
+        // Compressed column (weight 1): doc id 20 maps through the modern
+        // projection (the only representation a compressed posting is loaded
+        // alongside) to row 20; row 42 is blocked by the mask below.
+        let compressed = PostingList::Compressed(compressed_list(&[(20, 5), (42, 7)]));
+        let docs = modern_identity_docs(&vec![1u32; 64], &[]).await;
+        let sources = vec![
+            LoadedSource {
+                weight: 2.0,
+                docs: docs.clone(),
+                is_legacy: true,
+                posting: legacy,
+            },
+            LoadedSource {
+                weight: 1.0,
+                docs,
+                is_legacy: false,
+                posting: compressed,
+            },
+        ];
+        let mask = Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows().also_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([42u64])));
+        let term = build_term_postings("t", sources, &mask, &scorer);
+
+        // row 10: 2*1 = 2; row 20: 2*2 + 2*3 + 1*5 = 15; row 30: 2*1 = 2.
+        // Row 42 is masked out entirely.
+        assert_eq!(term.postings, vec![(10, 2.0), (20, 15.0), (30, 2.0)]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_term_postings_skips_tombstoned_addresses() {
+        // A remapped partition keeps a deleted document's DocId slot so the
+        // posting lists stay aligned and answers `TOMBSTONE_ROW` for its address.
+        // Nothing else stops that address: a default mask is an empty block list,
+        // which selects it, and `doc_length_at(TOMBSTONE_ROW) == 0` would give it
+        // the largest `doc_weight` there is, so it must be dropped at the source.
+        const DEAD_ROW: u64 = 20;
+        let scorer = CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer::new(1000, 12.0, HashMap::new());
+        let docs = modern_identity_docs(&[4u32; 40], &[DEAD_ROW]).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            docs.row_address(DEAD_ROW as u32),
+            RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW,
+            "the deleted document must keep its slot as a tombstone"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(docs.doc_length_at(RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW), 0);
+        let sources = vec![LoadedSource {
+            weight: 2.0,
+            docs,
+            is_legacy: false,
+            posting: PostingList::Compressed(compressed_list(&[
+                (10, 1),
+                (DEAD_ROW as u32, 7),
+                (30, 3),
+            ])),
+        }];
+        let term = build_term_postings("t", sources, &Arc::new(RowAddrMask::default()), &scorer);
+        assert_eq!(
+            term.postings,
+            vec![(10, 2.0), (30, 6.0)],
+            "the tombstoned address must never be accumulated, and the live rows \
+             must keep their exact contributions"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/flat.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/flat.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..40f639cf28d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/flat.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,434 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! The unindexed `combined_fields` plan: blend the scanned column values into
+//! `dl'`/`tf'` and score the rows no target column's index covers.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::array::{Float32Builder, UInt64Builder};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::Time;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use futures::{FutureExt, stream};
+use lance_core::error::DataFusionResult;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::spawn_cpu;
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+
+use super::super::index::{BlendedRows, FTS_SCHEMA, slice_into_batches, tokenize_and_blend_multi};
+use super::super::query::{Operator, Tokens};
+use super::super::scorer::CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer;
+use super::super::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer;
+use super::stats::{CombinedCorpusStats, FlatFieldStats, build_combined_bm25_scorer};
+use super::{CombinedFieldColumn, unique_terms};
+use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+
+/// Exact cross-field BM25F search over rows that no index fully covers, scored
+/// straight from their column values. Together with the indexed
+/// [`combined_fields_search`](super::combined_fields_search) this covers the
+/// whole dataset, with the same term deduplication and `operator` semantics.
+///
+/// - `input` carries `_rowid` plus every target column; `doc_col_indices` locates
+///   them, in `columns` order.
+/// - `stats_masks[column]` selects the rows folded into that column's corpus
+///   statistics, so a row indexed for some columns is not counted twice.
+/// - `emit_mask`, when set, selects the rows to emit from an unfiltered `input`.
+/// - `flat_covers_whole_corpus` selects [`CombinedCorpusStats::FlatOnly`].
+/// - `metrics` receives only the scorer build's index reads.
+///
+/// Returns the scorer alongside the stream. The whole input is consumed before
+/// the first output batch, so an indexed sibling can score against the same
+/// statistics.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub async fn flat_combined_fields_search_stream(
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    columns: &[CombinedFieldColumn],
+    doc_col_indices: Vec<usize>,
+    stats_masks: &[Arc<RowAddrMask>],
+    emit_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    flat_covers_whole_corpus: bool,
+    tokens: &Tokens,
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    operator: Operator,
+    target_batch_size: usize,
+    elapsed_compute: Option<Time>,
+    metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> DataFusionResult<(SendableRecordBatchStream, Arc<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer>)> {
+    let terms = unique_terms(tokens);
+    debug_assert_eq!(doc_col_indices.len(), columns.len());
+    debug_assert_eq!(stats_masks.len(), columns.len());
+    // A query that tokenizes to nothing matches nothing, as on the indexed path.
+    // The scorer is still returned, because an indexed sibling waits for it.
+    if terms.is_empty() || columns.is_empty() {
+        let empty = FlatFieldStats::zeros(columns.len(), 0);
+        let scorer = Arc::new(
+            build_combined_bm25_scorer(
+                columns,
+                tokens,
+                CombinedCorpusStats::for_flat_scan(&empty, flat_covers_whole_corpus),
+                metrics,
+            )
+            .boxed()
+            .await?,
+        );
+        return Ok((
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                stream::empty::<DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>(),
+            )),
+            scorer,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let input_schema = input.schema();
+    // `tf'` is one value per deduplicated term, so the counter must see the same
+    // deduplicated list the indexed scan scores.
+    let unique_tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(terms.clone(), tokens.token_type().clone()));
+    // Same thresholds as the single-column flat path: tokenization is CPU-bound,
+    // so batches are accumulated before a task is dispatched.
+    const ACCUMULATE_BYTES: usize = 256 * 1024;
+    const SLICE_BYTES: usize = 512 * 1024;
+    let chunked = lance_arrow::stream::rechunk_stream_by_size(
+        input,
+        input_schema,
+        ACCUMULATE_BYTES,
+        SLICE_BYTES,
+    );
+
+    let weights: Vec<f32> = columns.iter().map(|column| column.weight).collect();
+    let (blended, flat_stats) = tokenize_and_blend_multi(
+        chunked,
+        tokenizer,
+        unique_tokens,
+        Arc::new(doc_col_indices),
+        Arc::new(weights),
+        Arc::new(stats_masks.to_vec()),
+        emit_mask,
+        operator == Operator::And,
+        elapsed_compute.clone(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    // Time the scorer build and the scoring loop together.
+    let post_await_start = std::time::Instant::now();
+    let scorer = Arc::new(
+        build_combined_bm25_scorer(
+            columns,
+            tokens,
+            CombinedCorpusStats::for_flat_scan(&flat_stats, flat_covers_whole_corpus),
+            metrics,
+        )
+        .boxed()
+        .await?,
+    );
+    // `rows x terms` synchronous work, offloaded like the indexed scoring loop so a
+    // large flat scan cannot hold a DataFusion worker.
+    let scores = {
+        let terms_for_scoring = terms.clone();
+        let scorer_for_scoring = scorer.clone();
+        spawn_cpu(move || {
+            flat_combined_score(&terms_for_scoring, blended, scorer_for_scoring.as_ref())
+        })
+        .await?
+    };
+
+    let batches = slice_into_batches(scores, target_batch_size);
+    if let Some(t) = &elapsed_compute {
+        t.add_duration(post_await_start.elapsed());
+    }
+    Ok((
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            stream::iter(batches),
+        )),
+        scorer,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Score every retained flat row from its blended `dl'`/`tf'`, emitting
+/// `(ROW_ID, SCORE)` in [`FTS_SCHEMA`]. Rows the emit mask rejects or that miss
+/// the query terms were already dropped by [`tokenize_and_blend_multi`].
+///
+/// Takes the chunks by value and drops each one as it is scored, so the blend and
+/// the output arrays are never both fully resident.
+fn flat_combined_score(
+    terms: &[String],
+    blended: Vec<BlendedRows>,
+    scorer: &CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer,
+) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+    let num_terms = terms.len();
+    let num_rows = blended.iter().map(|chunk| chunk.row_ids.len()).sum();
+    let mut row_ids = UInt64Builder::with_capacity(num_rows);
+    let mut scores = Float32Builder::with_capacity(num_rows);
+    for chunk in blended {
+        for (row, (input_row_id, dl_prime)) in
+            chunk.row_ids.iter().zip(&chunk.doc_lengths).enumerate()
+        {
+            let tf_prime = &chunk.term_freqs[row * num_terms..(row + 1) * num_terms];
+            let score: f32 = terms
+                .iter()
+                .zip(tf_prime)
+                .map(|(term, tf)| scorer.query_weight(term) * scorer.doc_weight(*tf, *dl_prime))
+                .sum();
+            if score > 0.0 {
+                row_ids.append_value(*input_row_id);
+                scores.append_value(score);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+        FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(row_ids.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(scores.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::super::super::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+    use super::super::super::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+    use super::super::testing::{flat_columns, flat_input, flat_scores};
+    use super::*;
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+    /// Golden `(row_id, score)` for the flat BM25F scan, compared bit-for-bit.
+    ///
+    /// The blend `dl' = Σ_f w_f·dl_f` and `tf'_t = Σ_f w_f·tf_f,t` accumulates in
+    /// f32, which is not associative, and the corpus statistics it feeds are
+    /// derived from the same rows. Any change to how or where the per-column
+    /// contributions are summed has to leave these exact bits alone, so they are
+    /// pinned here rather than compared with a tolerance.
+    ///
+    /// The fixture exercises the parts that a plausible rewrite gets wrong:
+    /// non-unit and unequal weights, a row empty in one column but not the other,
+    /// a null, a row empty everywhere (dropped), and a `stats_masks` entry that
+    /// keeps one row out of one column's corpus totals.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flat_combined_fields_golden_scores() {
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..7).collect();
+        let docs = vec![
+            vec![
+                Some("cat"),
+                Some("dog cat"),
+                None,
+                Some("bird"),
+                Some("cat cat dog"),
+                Some(""),
+                Some("cat dog bird"),
+            ],
+            vec![
+                Some("dog"),
+                None,
+                Some("cat dog dog"),
+                Some("fish"),
+                Some("cat"),
+                Some(""),
+                Some("bird bird"),
+            ],
+        ];
+        let weights = [1.0f32, 2.5];
+        let columns = flat_columns(&weights);
+        let tokens = Tokens::new(vec!["cat".to_string(), "dog".to_string()], DocType::Text);
+        let tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default().build().unwrap();
+        // Column 1 must not fold row 4 into its corpus totals (its index already
+        // holds that row); column 0 folds everything.
+        let stats_masks = vec![
+            Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()),
+            Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows().also_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([4u64]))),
+        ];
+
+        let stream = flat_combined_fields_search_stream(
+            flat_input(&row_ids, &docs, 1),
+            &columns,
+            vec![1, 2],
+            &stats_masks,
+            /*emit_mask=*/ None,
+            /*flat_covers_whole_corpus=*/ false,
+            &tokens,
+            tokenizer,
+            Operator::Or,
+            3,
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .0;
+        let (batch_sizes, scored) = flat_scores(stream).await;
+
+        // Row 5 is empty in both columns, so it never reaches the scorer, and row 3
+        // ("bird" / "fish") carries no query term, so it scores 0 and is dropped.
+        // `target_batch_size` of 3 splits the 5 survivors into 3 + 2.
+        assert_eq!(batch_sizes, vec![3, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            scored,
+            vec![
+                (0, 0x3f9b_c3cf),
+                (1, 0x3f8f_0e96),
+                (2, 0x3fa6_8e68),
+                (4, 0x3f84_f2a6),
+                (6, 0x3f32_7287),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The retained per-row payload must not grow with the number of target
+    /// columns. That independence is the whole point of blending during
+    /// tokenization: a `combined_fields` query over a wide column list routes the
+    /// entire dataset down this path as soon as one column's index is stale, and
+    /// the accumulation lives until the corpus statistics are complete.
+    ///
+    /// The input arrives as several batches, so this also covers the per-batch
+    /// statistics fold and that the retained rows stay in scan order across chunks.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flat_combined_fields_retention_is_independent_of_column_count() {
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..64).collect();
+        let column = vec![Some("cat dog bird"); 64];
+        let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+            vec!["cat".to_string(), "dog".to_string(), "bird".to_string()],
+            DocType::Text,
+        ));
+        let num_terms = tokens.len();
+
+        let mut footprints = Vec::new();
+        for num_columns in 1..=4usize {
+            let docs = vec![column.clone(); num_columns];
+            let (chunks, stats) = tokenize_and_blend_multi(
+                flat_input(&row_ids, &docs, 5),
+                InvertedIndexParams::default().build().unwrap(),
+                tokens.clone(),
+                Arc::new((1..=num_columns).collect()),
+                Arc::new(vec![1.0; num_columns]),
+                Arc::new(
+                    (0..num_columns)
+                        .map(|_| Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()))
+                        .collect(),
+                ),
+                /*emit_mask=*/ None,
+                /*require_all_terms=*/ false,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let retained: usize = chunks
+                .iter()
+                .map(|chunk| {
+                    chunk.row_ids.len() * size_of::<u64>()
+                        + (chunk.doc_lengths.len() + chunk.term_freqs.len()) * size_of::<f32>()
+                })
+                .sum();
+            let retained_row_ids: Vec<u64> = chunks
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|chunk| &chunk.row_ids)
+                .copied()
+                .collect();
+            assert!(chunks.len() > 1, "expected several chunks to fold");
+            assert_eq!(retained_row_ids, row_ids);
+            let rows = retained_row_ids.len();
+            // 8 bytes of row id plus `dl'` and one `tf'` per term, all f32.
+            assert_eq!(retained, rows * (8 + 4 * (1 + num_terms)));
+            footprints.push(retained);
+
+            // Every column sees the same three-token doc, so the statistics scale
+            // with the column count while the retained payload does not.
+            assert_eq!(stats.doc_counts, vec![rows; num_columns]);
+            assert_eq!(stats.total_tokens, vec![3 * rows as u64; num_columns]);
+            assert_eq!(stats.doc_freqs, vec![vec![rows; num_terms]; num_columns]);
+        }
+        assert!(footprints.windows(2).all(|pair| pair[0] == pair[1]));
+    }
+
+    /// Only the rows that can score are retained, but every non-empty row still
+    /// counts toward the corpus statistics, whether or not it is retained.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::or_keeps_any_match(None, false, vec![0, 1, 2])]
+    #[case::and_keeps_full_matches(None, true, vec![2])]
+    #[case::emit_mask_drops_rejected_rows(Some(1), false, vec![0, 2])]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flat_combined_fields_retains_only_scorable_rows(
+        #[case] blocked_row: Option<u64>,
+        #[case] require_all_terms: bool,
+        #[case] expected_row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..4).collect();
+        let docs = vec![
+            vec![Some("cat"), Some("bird"), Some("cat"), Some("bird")],
+            vec![Some("fish"), Some("dog"), Some("dog"), Some("fish")],
+        ];
+        let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+            vec!["cat".to_string(), "dog".to_string()],
+            DocType::Text,
+        ));
+        let emit_mask = blocked_row.map(|row| {
+            Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows().also_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([row])))
+        });
+        let (chunks, stats) = tokenize_and_blend_multi(
+            flat_input(&row_ids, &docs, 2),
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().build().unwrap(),
+            tokens,
+            Arc::new(vec![1, 2]),
+            Arc::new(vec![1.0, 1.0]),
+            Arc::new(vec![
+                Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()),
+                Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()),
+            ]),
+            emit_mask,
+            require_all_terms,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let retained: Vec<u64> = chunks
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|chunk| &chunk.row_ids)
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(retained, expected_row_ids);
+        let num_terms = 2;
+        for chunk in &chunks {
+            assert_eq!(chunk.doc_lengths.len(), chunk.row_ids.len());
+            assert_eq!(chunk.term_freqs.len(), chunk.row_ids.len() * num_terms);
+        }
+        // Row 3 matches nothing and is never retained, but still counts.
+        assert_eq!(stats.doc_counts, vec![4, 4]);
+        assert_eq!(stats.doc_freqs, vec![vec![2, 0], vec![0, 2]]);
+    }
+
+    /// A flat scan can legitimately see no batches at all (every scanned fragment
+    /// empty, or a prefilter that keeps nothing). The statistics fold still owes the
+    /// caller a scorer, so it reports all-zero totals rather than nothing.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flat_combined_fields_empty_scan_still_builds_a_scorer() {
+        let docs = vec![Vec::<Option<&str>>::new(), Vec::new()];
+        let stream = flat_combined_fields_search_stream(
+            flat_input(&[], &docs, 1),
+            &flat_columns(&[1.0, 2.5]),
+            vec![1, 2],
+            &[
+                Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()),
+                Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()),
+            ],
+            /*emit_mask=*/ None,
+            /*flat_covers_whole_corpus=*/ false,
+            &Tokens::new(vec!["cat".to_string()], DocType::Text),
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().build().unwrap(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            16,
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .0;
+
+        let (batch_sizes, scored) = flat_scores(stream).await;
+        assert!(batch_sizes.is_empty());
+        assert!(scored.is_empty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/search.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/search.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..65e66f2c4c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/search.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,444 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! The indexed `combined_fields` entry point: load every term's postings across
+//! the target columns, merge them into the shared row-id space, and score every
+//! candidate.
+
+use std::cmp::Reverse;
+use std::collections::{BTreeSet, BinaryHeap};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::spawn_cpu;
+
+use super::super::documents::AddressKeyedDocuments;
+use super::super::query::{FtsSearchParams, Operator, Tokens};
+use super::super::scorer::CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer;
+use super::cursor::{CombinedTermPostings, LoadedSource, build_term_postings};
+use super::{CombinedFieldColumn, unique_terms};
+use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+use crate::prefilter::PreFilter;
+use crate::vector::graph::OrderedFloat;
+
+/// A scored candidate ordered the way callers read results: `score DESC, row_id
+/// ASC`, the same order the single-column path imposes in
+/// `classify_wand_exactness_certificate`.
+///
+/// [`ScoredDoc`](super::super::builder::ScoredDoc) compares on score alone, which
+/// is not enough for a bounded heap: among equal scores it evicts whichever row
+/// the heap happens to hold at the bottom, so rows that belong in the top-k are
+/// dropped and no later sort can bring them back. A fully covered plan returns
+/// this search's output directly, with no `SortExec` above it, so the order and
+/// the membership both have to be settled here.
+///
+/// `row_id` is stored reversed so that the derived lexicographic ordering ranks a
+/// higher row id lower. The heap's smallest element is then the lowest score with
+/// the highest row id, which is exactly the candidate a full heap should evict.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+struct RankedDoc {
+    score: OrderedFloat,
+    row_id: Reverse<u64>,
+}
+
+impl RankedDoc {
+    fn new(row_id: u64, score: f32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            score: OrderedFloat(score),
+            row_id: Reverse(row_id),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Exact cross-field BM25F search over the target columns.
+///
+/// Loads each query term's postings across every column and partition, then
+/// scores the union of those postings and keeps a bounded top-k. Every candidate
+/// is scored; there is no pruning, so the result is exact by construction.
+/// Results come back ordered by `score DESC, row_id ASC`, which is a total order,
+/// so the same data always yields the same top-k even when scores tie.
+///
+/// `operator` applies across the virtual field: `And` keeps only docs where
+/// every query term appears in at least one column; `Or` keeps docs matching
+/// any term. Per-column `boost` is folded into `tf'`.
+pub async fn combined_fields_search(
+    columns: &[CombinedFieldColumn],
+    tokens: &Tokens,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    operator: Operator,
+    scorer: &CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer,
+    prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    let terms = unique_terms(tokens);
+    let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+    if terms.is_empty() || limit == 0 {
+        return Ok((Vec::new(), Vec::new()));
+    }
+
+    let mask = prefilter.mask();
+    let require_all_terms = operator == Operator::And;
+
+    // Load every term's postings across all columns, in the canonical
+    // column → index → partition order. The length sources are collected in that
+    // same order so `dl'` sums in the exact scan's order too (float addition is
+    // order-sensitive; matching the order keeps every score bit-identical).
+    let mut loaded: Vec<Vec<LoadedSource>> = (0..terms.len()).map(|_| Vec::new()).collect();
+    let mut length_sources: Vec<(f32, AddressKeyedDocuments)> = Vec::new();
+    for column in columns {
+        let weight = column.weight;
+        for index in &column.indices {
+            for partition in &index.partitions {
+                let docs = partition.docs.address_keyed().await?;
+                let is_legacy = partition.is_legacy();
+                for (term_index, term) in terms.iter().enumerate() {
+                    let Some(token_id) = partition.tokens.get(term) else {
+                        continue;
+                    };
+                    let posting = partition
+                        .inverted_list
+                        .posting_list(token_id, false, metrics)
+                        .await?;
+                    loaded[term_index].push(LoadedSource {
+                        weight,
+                        docs: docs.clone(),
+                        is_legacy,
+                        posting,
+                    });
+                }
+                length_sources.push((weight, docs));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    // Everything past the loads is uninterruptible CPU work: building and sorting
+    // a per-term `HashMap`, then the whole scoring loop with no await. Offload it
+    // so a large query cannot hold a DataFusion
+    // worker past a stream drop or task cancellation, matching how the
+    // single-column `InvertedIndex::bm25_search` dispatches its per-partition
+    // scoring and how `flat_combined_fields_search_stream` dispatches its own
+    // scoring loop. The `'static` closure clones the borrowed `scorer` (a handful
+    // of per-term statistics) and moves everything else in.
+    let scorer = Arc::new(scorer.clone());
+    let top = spawn_cpu(move || {
+        let dl_prime = |row_id: u64| -> f32 {
+            length_sources
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(weight, docs)| weight * docs.doc_length_at(row_id) as f32)
+                .sum()
+        };
+        let terms: Vec<CombinedTermPostings> = terms
+            .iter()
+            .zip(loaded)
+            .map(|(term, sources)| build_term_postings(term, sources, &mask, scorer.as_ref()))
+            .collect();
+
+        // Score every candidate: the union of the terms' postings for `Or`, and the
+        // same union filtered to the documents holding every term for `And`. A row
+        // absent from a term contributes no `tf'`, so it is skipped rather than
+        // scored as zero.
+        //
+        // Ties are settled by [`RankedDoc`], not left to the heap: it orders on
+        // `(score, row_id)` as a whole, so both which rows survive the k-th score and
+        // the order they come back in are fixed by the data alone.
+        let candidates: BTreeSet<u64> = terms
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|term| term.postings.iter().map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id))
+            .collect();
+        let mut top: BinaryHeap<Reverse<RankedDoc>> = BinaryHeap::new();
+        for row_id in candidates {
+            let dl = dl_prime(row_id);
+            let mut score = 0.0f32;
+            let mut missing_term = false;
+            for term in &terms {
+                let tf = term.tf_prime(row_id);
+                if tf <= 0.0 {
+                    missing_term = true;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                score += term.idf * scorer.doc_weight(tf, dl);
+            }
+            if require_all_terms && missing_term {
+                continue;
+            }
+            top.push(Reverse(RankedDoc::new(row_id, score)));
+            if top.len() > limit {
+                top.pop();
+            }
+        }
+        Result::Ok(top)
+    })
+    .await?;
+
+    // Ascending in `Reverse<RankedDoc>` is descending in `RankedDoc`, i.e. best
+    // first: highest score, and within a score the lowest row id.
+    Ok(top
+        .into_sorted_vec()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|Reverse(doc)| (doc.row_id.0, doc.score.0))
+        .unzip())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::super::super::index::InvertedListFormatVersion;
+    use super::super::super::scorer::idf;
+    use super::super::super::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+    use super::super::stats::{CombinedCorpusStats, build_combined_bm25_scorer};
+    use super::super::testing::{
+        ElementRows, as_row_documents, combined_columns, combined_top_k, element_document_index,
+    };
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use crate::prefilter::NoFilter;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    /// `title` is a `List<String>` where row 0 holds ten `"alpha"` elements, row 1
+    /// one `"beta"`, and rows 2..10 one `"gamma"`; `body` holds one `"zzz"` per
+    /// row. Row 0 matches `"alpha"` ten times over, so it must win
+    /// `"alpha beta"` at `limit = 1`.
+    ///
+    /// With document-granularity statistics it does not: `docCount'` counts the
+    /// 19 title elements instead of the 10 rows and `docFreq'("alpha")` counts 10
+    /// element postings instead of 1 row, which collapses `alpha`'s `idf'` and
+    /// inflates `beta`'s enough to invert the ranking (row 1 at ~2.2984569). Row
+    /// granularity restores row 0 at ~3.1963050, bit-identical to the same data
+    /// indexed one document per row.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v1(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1)]
+    #[case::v2(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_combined_fields_scores_legacy_list_elements_by_row(
+        #[case] format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    ) {
+        let vocab = ["alpha", "beta", "gamma", "zzz"];
+        let mut title: ElementRows = vec![vec![vec!["alpha"]; 10], vec![vec!["beta"]]];
+        title.extend((2..10).map(|_| vec![vec!["gamma"]]));
+        let body: ElementRows = (0..10).map(|_| vec![vec!["zzz"]]).collect();
+
+        let (title_index, _title_dir) =
+            element_document_index(format_version, &vocab, &title).await;
+        let (body_index, _body_dir) = element_document_index(format_version, &vocab, &body).await;
+
+        // Precondition: the fixture really is element-per-document, or the test
+        // covers nothing.
+        let title_docs = title_index.partitions[0]
+            .docs
+            .address_keyed()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(title_docs.len(), 19, "one document per title list element");
+        assert_eq!(title_docs.num_distinct_rows(), 10);
+
+        // The single-column path reads document granularity; only the cross-field
+        // path reads row granularity.
+        let terms = ["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()];
+        assert_eq!(
+            title_index
+                .bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            (19, 19, vec![10, 1]),
+            "document-granularity statistics must keep counting elements",
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            title_index
+                .bm25_row_stats_for_terms(&terms, None, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            (19, 10, vec![1, 1]),
+            "row-granularity statistics must count distinct row ids",
+        );
+
+        let legacy = combined_top_k(
+            &combined_columns(vec![title_index, body_index]),
+            &["alpha", "beta"],
+            1,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(legacy.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(legacy[0].0, 0, "row 0 matches `alpha` ten times over");
+        assert!(
+            (legacy[0].1 - 3.196_305).abs() < 1e-5,
+            "unexpected score {}",
+            legacy[0].1
+        );
+
+        // Reindexing the same data one document per row must agree bit for bit.
+        let (row_title, _row_title_dir) = element_document_index(
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V3,
+            &vocab,
+            &as_row_documents(&title),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (row_body, _row_body_dir) = element_document_index(
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V3,
+            &vocab,
+            &as_row_documents(&body),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let rebuilt = combined_top_k(
+            &combined_columns(vec![row_title, row_body]),
+            &["alpha", "beta"],
+            1,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            legacy
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(row_id, score)| (*row_id, score.to_bits()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            rebuilt
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(row_id, score)| (*row_id, score.to_bits()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            "legacy index must score like the same data reindexed per row",
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The single-column path stays at document granularity. It reads
+    /// [`InvertedIndex::bm25_stats_for_terms`] via `build_global_bm25_scorer` and
+    /// wand scores one posting per document, so a legacy list index is
+    /// self-consistent there: `docCount` and `docFreq` count elements, `tf` is one
+    /// element's frequency and `dl` one element's length. V1/V2 are released
+    /// stable formats, so these `(row_id, score)` bits pin that behavior; moving
+    /// it is a separate compatibility decision.
+    ///
+    /// The element domain also shows through in the results: row 0's ten `"alpha"`
+    /// documents surface as ten separate hits at the same row id.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v1(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1)]
+    #[case::v2(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_single_column_search_keeps_element_granularity(
+        #[case] format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    ) {
+        let vocab = ["alpha", "beta", "gamma"];
+        let mut title: ElementRows = vec![vec![vec!["alpha"]; 10], vec![vec!["beta"]]];
+        title.extend((2..10).map(|_| vec![vec!["gamma"]]));
+        let (index, _dir) = element_document_index(format_version, &vocab, &title).await;
+
+        let terms = ["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()];
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap(),
+            (19, 19, vec![10, 1]),
+            "the single-column path's statistics stay at document granularity",
+        );
+
+        let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(terms.to_vec(), DocType::Text));
+        let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(4)));
+        let scorer = crate::scalar::inverted::build_global_bm25_scorer(
+            std::slice::from_ref(&index),
+            &tokens,
+            &params,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let (row_ids, scores) = index
+            .bm25_search(
+                tokens,
+                params,
+                Operator::Or,
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+                Some(&scorer),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // `beta` (row 1) leads on its inflated element-level idf, and row 0
+        // repeats once per matching element: the element domain showing through
+        // in the hits themselves.
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![1, 0, 0, 0]);
+        // Every element is one token long and `avgdl` is the element average
+        // (19 tokens / 19 documents), so `doc_weight` is exactly 1 and each score
+        // is the bare element-granularity `idf`: `ln(1 + (19 - df + 0.5)/(df + 0.5))`
+        // with df = 1 for `beta` and df = 10 for `alpha`.
+        assert_eq!(
+            scores.iter().map(|s| s.to_bits()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0x4025_c6f0, 0x3f24_f495, 0x3f24_f495, 0x3f24_f495],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(scores[0].to_bits(), idf(1, 19).to_bits());
+        assert_eq!(scores[1].to_bits(), idf(10, 19).to_bits());
+    }
+
+    /// One legacy element-per-document column and one modern row-per-document
+    /// column in the same query. `docCount'` and `docFreq'` are a `max_f` across
+    /// columns, so a column left at element granularity poisons the blend even
+    /// when the other column is fine. The whole query must score as if the legacy
+    /// column had been reindexed per row.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_combined_fields_mixes_legacy_and_modern_columns() {
+        let vocab = ["alpha", "beta"];
+        let legacy_rows: ElementRows = vec![
+            vec![vec!["alpha"]; 6],
+            vec![vec!["beta"]],
+            vec![vec!["beta"]],
+            vec![vec!["beta"]],
+        ];
+        let modern_rows: ElementRows = (0..4).map(|_| vec![vec!["alpha", "beta"]]).collect();
+
+        let (legacy, _legacy_dir) =
+            element_document_index(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2, &vocab, &legacy_rows).await;
+        let (modern, _modern_dir) =
+            element_document_index(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3, &vocab, &modern_rows).await;
+
+        let terms = ["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()];
+        assert_eq!(
+            legacy.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap(),
+            (9, 9, vec![6, 3]),
+            "the fixture must still be element-per-document",
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            legacy
+                .bm25_row_stats_for_terms(&terms, None, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            (9, 4, vec![1, 3]),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            modern
+                .bm25_row_stats_for_terms(&terms, None, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            modern.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap(),
+            "a row-per-document index must be untouched",
+        );
+
+        let columns = combined_columns(vec![legacy, modern.clone()]);
+        let mixed = combined_top_k(&columns, &["alpha", "beta"], 4).await;
+        // `docCount'` is the 4 rows, not the legacy column's 9 elements.
+        let scorer = build_combined_bm25_scorer(
+            &columns,
+            &Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()], DocType::Text),
+            CombinedCorpusStats::IndexOnly,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scorer.doc_count(), 4);
+
+        let (rebuilt_legacy, _rebuilt_dir) = element_document_index(
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V3,
+            &vocab,
+            &as_row_documents(&legacy_rows),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let rebuilt = combined_top_k(
+            &combined_columns(vec![rebuilt_legacy, modern]),
+            &["alpha", "beta"],
+            4,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(mixed.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            mixed
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(row_id, score)| (*row_id, score.to_bits()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            rebuilt
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(row_id, score)| (*row_id, score.to_bits()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/stats.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/stats.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0f21dc861ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/stats.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,440 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Corpus statistics for `combined_fields`: the flat-scan contribution
+//! ([`FlatFieldStats`]) and the cross-column BM25F scorer build.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+
+use super::super::query::Tokens;
+use super::super::scorer::CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer;
+use super::{CombinedFieldColumn, unique_terms};
+use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+
+/// Per-column corpus contributions of the rows a `combined_fields` flat scan
+/// covers, i.e. rows in fragments that at least one target column's index is
+/// missing.
+///
+/// Folded into each column's own totals ahead of the BM25F cross-column blend so
+/// that `docCount'`, `docFreq'`, and `avgdl'` describe the whole scanned corpus
+/// rather than only its indexed part. Folding after the blend would be wrong:
+/// `docCount'`/`docFreq'` are a `max_f`, and `max_f(a_f) + max_f(b_f)` is not
+/// `max_f(a_f + b_f)`.
+///
+/// Every vector is indexed by the position of the column in the
+/// [`CombinedFieldColumn`] slice, and `doc_freqs[column]` is indexed by the
+/// deduplicated query term position (the order
+/// [`combined_fields_search`](super::combined_fields_search) uses).
+#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone)]
+pub struct FlatFieldStats {
+    /// Per column: flat docs with at least one token in that column.
+    pub doc_counts: Vec<usize>,
+    /// Per column: total tokens over all flat docs.
+    pub total_tokens: Vec<u64>,
+    /// `[column][term]`: flat docs containing that term in that column.
+    pub doc_freqs: Vec<Vec<usize>>,
+}
+
+impl FlatFieldStats {
+    /// An empty accumulator sized for `num_columns` columns and `num_terms`
+    /// deduplicated query terms.
+    pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) fn zeros(num_columns: usize, num_terms: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            doc_counts: vec![0; num_columns],
+            total_tokens: vec![0; num_columns],
+            doc_freqs: vec![vec![0; num_terms]; num_columns],
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Fold one flat row's per-column contribution in.
+    ///
+    /// `doc_lengths` is `dl_f` per column and `term_counts` is `[column][term]`,
+    /// both for a single row. A row absent from a field (`dl_f == 0`) counts
+    /// toward neither `docCount_f` nor `docFreq_f`, matching the indexed side
+    /// where it owns no document in that field's index.
+    ///
+    /// `stats_masks[column]` selects the rows that column's index does not
+    /// already count, so a row indexed for some target columns is not counted
+    /// twice for them. It may admit an overlay-stale row, whose old value the
+    /// index statistics then subtract (see [`CombinedFieldColumn::stale_rows`]).
+    pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) fn fold_row(
+        &mut self,
+        row_id: u64,
+        stats_masks: &[Arc<RowAddrMask>],
+        doc_lengths: &[u64],
+        term_counts: &[u64],
+    ) {
+        let num_terms = self.doc_freqs.first().map_or(0, |freqs| freqs.len());
+        for (column, doc_count) in self.doc_counts.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            if doc_lengths[column] == 0 || !stats_masks[column].selected(row_id) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            *doc_count += 1;
+            self.total_tokens[column] += doc_lengths[column];
+            let base = column * num_terms;
+            for (term, doc_freq) in self.doc_freqs[column].iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                if term_counts[base + term] > 0 {
+                    *doc_freq += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add another accumulator's totals. Every field is an integer count, so
+    /// merging per-batch folds is exact and order-independent.
+    pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) fn merge(&mut self, other: Self) {
+        for (total, part) in self.doc_counts.iter_mut().zip(other.doc_counts) {
+            *total += part;
+        }
+        for (total, part) in self.total_tokens.iter_mut().zip(other.total_tokens) {
+            *total += part;
+        }
+        for (total, part) in self.doc_freqs.iter_mut().zip(other.doc_freqs) {
+            for (total, part) in total.iter_mut().zip(part) {
+                *total += part;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Which statistics [`build_combined_bm25_scorer`] folds into the BM25F blend.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub enum CombinedCorpusStats<'a> {
+    /// Index statistics alone: every target column's index covers every scanned
+    /// fragment, so no row was flat-scanned.
+    IndexOnly,
+    /// Index statistics plus a flat scan's contribution for the rows no index
+    /// covers. The masks the fold applied decide which rows those are, and so
+    /// whether a row lands on one side or, deliberately, on both.
+    Blended(&'a FlatFieldStats),
+    /// A flat scan's statistics alone, covering the whole target corpus.
+    ///
+    /// For a legacy segment, which cannot name the rows an overlay made stale, so
+    /// their pre-overlay values cannot be subtracted from its statistics.
+    FlatOnly(&'a FlatFieldStats),
+}
+
+impl<'a> CombinedCorpusStats<'a> {
+    /// The variant for a flat scan's statistics, by whether the scan read every
+    /// target fragment or only the rows no index covers.
+    pub fn for_flat_scan(flat: &'a FlatFieldStats, covers_whole_corpus: bool) -> Self {
+        if covers_whole_corpus {
+            Self::FlatOnly(flat)
+        } else {
+            Self::Blended(flat)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn flat(&self) -> Option<&'a FlatFieldStats> {
+        match self {
+            Self::IndexOnly => None,
+            Self::Blended(flat) | Self::FlatOnly(flat) => Some(flat),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn folds_index_stats(&self) -> bool {
+        !matches!(self, Self::FlatOnly(_))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fold the target columns' segment statistics into a single [`CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer`].
+///
+/// Generalizes [`build_global_bm25_scorer`](super::super::build_global_bm25_scorer)
+/// (which folds segments of one column) to fold across columns too, with
+/// per-column weights and the BM25F blend:
+/// `docCount'`/`docFreq'` take the max across columns while `sumTotalTermFreq'`
+/// is the weighted sum. The query terms are deduplicated the same way the scan
+/// deduplicates them, so the resulting per-term `docFreq'` covers exactly the
+/// terms [`combined_fields_search`](super::combined_fields_search) scores.
+///
+/// `corpus` selects which statistics the blend is built from; see
+/// [`CombinedCorpusStats`].
+///
+/// `metrics`, when provided, receives the per-token posting-metadata cache
+/// lookups this fold triggers, exactly as
+/// [`build_global_bm25_scorer`](super::super::build_global_bm25_scorer)
+/// reports them on the single-column path. Without it a cold cross-field query
+/// undercounts `index_cache_misses` by one lookup per (term, partition, column).
+/// [`CombinedCorpusStats::FlatOnly`] reads none, so it reports none.
+pub async fn build_combined_bm25_scorer(
+    columns: &[CombinedFieldColumn],
+    tokens: &Tokens,
+    corpus: CombinedCorpusStats<'_>,
+    metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer> {
+    let terms = unique_terms(tokens);
+    if let Some(flat) = corpus.flat() {
+        debug_assert_eq!(flat.doc_counts.len(), columns.len());
+        debug_assert!(flat.doc_freqs.iter().all(|df| df.len() == terms.len()));
+    }
+    let mut doc_count = 0usize;
+    let mut sum_total_term_freq = 0f64;
+    let mut doc_freq: HashMap<String, usize> = terms.iter().map(|t| (t.clone(), 0)).collect();
+
+    for (column_slot, column) in columns.iter().enumerate() {
+        let mut column_num_docs = 0usize;
+        let mut column_total_tokens = 0u64;
+        let mut column_doc_freq = vec![0usize; terms.len()];
+        if corpus.folds_index_stats() {
+            for index in &column.indices {
+                // Row granularity, not document granularity: `combined_fields_search`
+                // blends every posting a row owns into one `tf'` and every document
+                // length it owns into one `dl'`, and released V1/V2 indexes may hold
+                // one document per list element. See
+                // [`InvertedIndex::bm25_row_stats_for_terms`].
+                let (total_tokens, num_docs, token_docs) = index
+                    .bm25_row_stats_for_terms(&terms, column.stale_rows.as_deref(), metrics)
+                    .await?;
+                column_total_tokens += total_tokens;
+                column_num_docs += num_docs;
+                for (slot, df) in token_docs.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                    column_doc_freq[slot] += df;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(flat) = corpus.flat() {
+            column_num_docs += flat.doc_counts[column_slot];
+            column_total_tokens += flat.total_tokens[column_slot];
+            for (slot, df) in flat.doc_freqs[column_slot].iter().enumerate() {
+                column_doc_freq[slot] += df;
+            }
+        }
+
+        doc_count = doc_count.max(column_num_docs);
+        sum_total_term_freq += column.weight as f64 * column_total_tokens as f64;
+        for (term, df) in terms.iter().zip(column_doc_freq) {
+            let entry = doc_freq
+                .get_mut(term)
+                .expect("doc_freq initialized for every term");
+            *entry = (*entry).max(df);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let avg_doc_length = if doc_count > 0 {
+        (sum_total_term_freq / doc_count as f64) as f32
+    } else {
+        0.0
+    };
+    Ok(CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer::new(
+        doc_count,
+        avg_doc_length,
+        doc_freq,
+    ))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::super::super::index::InvertedListFormatVersion;
+    use super::super::super::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+    use super::super::super::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+    use super::super::flat::flat_combined_fields_search_stream;
+    use super::super::testing::{
+        ElementRows, combined_columns, element_document_index, flat_input, flat_scores,
+    };
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::metrics::LocalMetricsCollector;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::query::Operator;
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    /// The statistics fold runs per batch and the partial results are merged, so
+    /// it must not matter how the scan is chunked.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_field_stats_fold_is_split_invariant() {
+        // Two columns, two terms. Row 7 is empty in column 1 and row 9 is masked
+        // out of column 1, so neither contributes there.
+        let rows: [(u64, [u64; 2], [u64; 4]); 3] = [
+            (7, [4, 0], [1, 0, 0, 0]),
+            (8, [3, 5], [1, 1, 2, 0]),
+            (9, [2, 6], [0, 1, 1, 1]),
+        ];
+        let masks = vec![
+            Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()),
+            Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows().also_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([9u64]))),
+        ];
+        let fold = |rows: &[(u64, [u64; 2], [u64; 4])]| {
+            let mut stats = FlatFieldStats::zeros(2, 2);
+            for (row_id, lengths, counts) in rows {
+                stats.fold_row(*row_id, &masks, lengths, counts);
+            }
+            stats
+        };
+
+        let whole = fold(&rows);
+        assert_eq!(whole.doc_counts, vec![3, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(whole.total_tokens, vec![9, 5]);
+        // Column 0: "cat" in rows 7 and 8, "dog" in rows 8 and 9.
+        // Column 1: only row 8 counts, with "cat" present and "dog" absent.
+        assert_eq!(whole.doc_freqs, vec![vec![2, 2], vec![1, 0]]);
+
+        for split in 0..=rows.len() {
+            let mut merged = fold(&rows[..split]);
+            merged.merge(fold(&rows[split..]));
+            assert_eq!(merged.doc_counts, whole.doc_counts, "split at {split}");
+            assert_eq!(merged.total_tokens, whole.total_tokens, "split at {split}");
+            assert_eq!(merged.doc_freqs, whole.doc_freqs, "split at {split}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Both scorer builds must report their index cache lookups to the query's
+    /// collector, the way the single-column `build_global_bm25_scorer` does; see
+    /// [`build_combined_bm25_scorer`] for what goes wrong otherwise.
+    ///
+    /// The two format versions cover both statistics arms:
+    /// `bm25_row_stats_for_terms` delegates to the document-granularity path on
+    /// V3, and takes `InvertedPartition::row_stats_for_terms` on V1/V2, where this
+    /// element-per-document fixture makes it read the posting lists themselves.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::modern(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3)]
+    #[case::legacy_elements(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_combined_scorer_build_reports_index_cache_lookups(
+        #[case] format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    ) {
+        let vocab = ["alpha", "beta"];
+        // Row 0 owns two elements, so the legacy fixture is element-per-document
+        // and its row-granularity statistics take the deduplicating branch.
+        let rows: ElementRows = vec![vec![vec!["alpha"], vec!["beta"]], vec![vec!["alpha"]]];
+        let (first, _first_dir) = element_document_index(format_version, &vocab, &rows).await;
+        let (second, _second_dir) = element_document_index(format_version, &vocab, &rows).await;
+        let columns = combined_columns(vec![first, second]);
+        let tokens = Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()], DocType::Text);
+        // One lookup per (term, column, partition), over 2 terms and the single
+        // partition each fixture index holds.
+        let expected_lookups = 2 * columns.len();
+
+        let indexed = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        build_combined_bm25_scorer(
+            &columns,
+            &tokens,
+            CombinedCorpusStats::IndexOnly,
+            Some(&indexed),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed.index_cache_hits() + indexed.index_cache_misses(),
+            expected_lookups,
+            "indexed scorer build must report every cache lookup it makes",
+        );
+
+        // The flat sibling folds the same per-column index statistics in, so its
+        // build reports the same lookups. An empty input isolates them: the
+        // scanned rows contribute no index reads at all.
+        let flat = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let stream = flat_combined_fields_search_stream(
+            flat_input(&[], &[Vec::new(), Vec::new()], 1),
+            &columns,
+            vec![1, 2],
+            &[
+                Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()),
+                Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()),
+            ],
+            /*emit_mask=*/ None,
+            /*flat_covers_whole_corpus=*/ false,
+            &tokens,
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().build().unwrap(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            16,
+            None,
+            Some(&flat),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .0;
+        assert!(flat_scores(stream).await.1.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(
+            flat.index_cache_hits() + flat.index_cache_misses(),
+            expected_lookups,
+            "flat scorer build must report every cache lookup it makes",
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A legacy index whose documents already map one-to-one onto rows (a plain
+    /// `Utf8` column, or a list column with a single element per row) must be
+    /// completely unaffected: the row-granularity statistics equal the
+    /// document-granularity ones, so no score can move.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v1(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1)]
+    #[case::v2(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)]
+    #[case::v3(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_stats_match_document_stats_without_list_multiplicity(
+        #[case] format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    ) {
+        let vocab = ["alpha", "beta"];
+        // Row 0: a multi-token `Utf8` document. Row 1: a single-element list.
+        // Row 2: an empty list, so the row owns no document at all.
+        let rows: ElementRows = vec![
+            vec![vec!["alpha", "beta", "alpha"]],
+            vec![vec!["beta"]],
+            vec![Vec::new()],
+            vec![vec!["alpha"]],
+        ];
+        let (index, _dir) = element_document_index(format_version, &vocab, &rows).await;
+
+        let docs = index.partitions[0].docs.address_keyed().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(docs.len(), 3, "the empty list must not become a document");
+        assert_eq!(docs.num_distinct_rows(), docs.len());
+        let terms = ["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned(), "absent".to_owned()];
+        let documents = index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(documents, (5, 3, vec![2, 2, 0]));
+        assert_eq!(
+            index
+                .bm25_row_stats_for_terms(&terms, None, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            documents
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Rows a legacy list index never indexed (a null or empty list, a list of
+    /// empty strings) own no document, so they must not count toward
+    /// `docCount_f` or `docFreq_f`. This is the same rule the indexed and flat
+    /// sides already follow (`AddressKeyedDocuments::doc_length_at` reports 0 for them and
+    /// `FlatFieldStats::fold_row` skips a column with `dl_f == 0`), applied to
+    /// distinct-row counting.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v1(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1)]
+    #[case::v2(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_stats_skip_rows_a_legacy_list_index_never_indexed(
+        #[case] format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    ) {
+        let vocab = ["alpha", "beta"];
+        let rows: ElementRows = vec![
+            // Several elements, one of them empty.
+            vec![vec!["alpha"], Vec::new(), vec!["alpha"], vec!["beta"]],
+            // A null or empty list.
+            Vec::new(),
+            vec![vec!["beta"]],
+            // A list of nothing but empty strings.
+            vec![Vec::new(), Vec::new()],
+        ];
+        let (index, _dir) = element_document_index(format_version, &vocab, &rows).await;
+
+        let docs = index.partitions[0].docs.address_keyed().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(docs.len(), 4, "only rows 0 and 2 own documents");
+        assert_eq!(docs.num_distinct_rows(), 2);
+        for unindexed in [1u64, 3] {
+            assert_eq!(docs.doc_length_at(unindexed), 0);
+        }
+
+        let terms = ["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()];
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap(),
+            (4, 4, vec![2, 2]),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index
+                .bm25_row_stats_for_terms(&terms, None, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            (4, 2, vec![1, 2]),
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/testing.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/testing.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c882836ec9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/combined/testing.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,377 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Shared test fixtures for the `combined_fields` submodules: term cursors,
+//! document views, index and flat-scan corpora, and the exact reference scans
+//! the tests compare against.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::array::AsArray;
+use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use futures::stream;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::cache::{LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::error::DataFusionResult;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+
+use super::super::builder::{BLOCK_SIZE, InnerBuilder, PositionRecorder};
+use super::super::documents::{AddressKeyedDocuments, PartitionDocuments};
+use super::super::encoding::{
+    MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE, compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size,
+};
+use super::super::index::{
+    CompressedPostingList, FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY, InvertedIndex, InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    METADATA_FILE, NUM_TOKEN_COL, POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY, POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY,
+    PostingListBuilder, PostingTailCodec, TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY, TokenSetFormat,
+};
+use super::super::query::{FtsSearchParams, Operator, Tokens};
+use super::super::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+use super::super::tokenizer::{InvertedIndexParams, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE};
+use super::{
+    CombinedCorpusStats, CombinedFieldColumn, build_combined_bm25_scorer, combined_fields_search,
+};
+use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use crate::prefilter::NoFilter;
+use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use crate::scalar::{IndexStore, RowIdRemapper};
+
+pub(super) fn compressed_list(postings: &[(u32, u32)]) -> CompressedPostingList {
+    let doc_ids: Vec<u32> = postings.iter().map(|(d, _)| *d).collect();
+    let freqs: Vec<u32> = postings.iter().map(|(_, f)| *f).collect();
+    let blocks = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        doc_ids.len(),
+        doc_ids.iter(),
+        freqs.iter(),
+        std::iter::repeat(0.0f32),
+        PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+        BLOCK_SIZE,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    CompressedPostingList::new(
+        blocks,
+        1.0,
+        doc_ids.len() as u32,
+        PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+        BLOCK_SIZE,
+        None,
+        None,
+    )
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct DeletedRows(Vec<u64>);
+
+impl RowIdRemapper for DeletedRows {
+    fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        (!self.0.contains(&row_id)).then_some(row_id)
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, _: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+        unreachable!("document fixtures only remap single row ids")
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&self, _: &RoaringTreemap) -> RoaringTreemap {
+        unreachable!("document fixtures only remap single row ids")
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(&self, _: RecordBatch, _: usize) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        unreachable!("document fixtures only remap single row ids")
+    }
+}
+
+/// Modern identity documents, written to a real store and loaded through
+/// [`PartitionDocuments::address_keyed`] so the fixture is the representation
+/// production scores against rather than a stand-in.
+///
+/// `dead_rows` are addresses a fragment-reuse remapper has deleted: the slot
+/// survives (posting lists key on its DocId positionally) but
+/// `row_address` answers [`RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW`] for it. Every part of
+/// the returned view is resident, so the temporary store is dropped here.
+pub(super) async fn modern_identity_docs(
+    num_tokens: &[u32],
+    dead_rows: &[u64],
+) -> AddressKeyedDocuments {
+    const DOCS_PATH: &str = "combined_fixture_docs.lance";
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache());
+    let store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        cache.clone(),
+    ));
+    let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(lance_core::ROW_ID, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, false),
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(NUM_TOKEN_COL, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt32, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(
+                (0..num_tokens.len() as u64).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(num_tokens.to_vec())) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut writer = store.new_index_file(DOCS_PATH, schema).await.unwrap();
+    writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(DOCS_PATH).await.unwrap();
+    let remapper: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>> = (!dead_rows.is_empty())
+        .then(|| Arc::new(DeletedRows(dead_rows.to_vec())) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+    PartitionDocuments::try_new(
+        store.clone(),
+        DOCS_PATH.to_owned(),
+        0,
+        WeakLanceCache::from(cache.as_ref()),
+        reader.as_ref(),
+        remapper,
+        false,
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .address_keyed()
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// `_rowid` plus one `Utf8` document column per entry of `docs`
+/// (`docs[column][row]`), delivered as `num_batches` equal batches.
+pub(super) fn flat_input(
+    row_ids: &[u64],
+    docs: &[Vec<Option<&str>>],
+    num_batches: usize,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    use arrow_array::StringArray;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+
+    let mut fields = vec![lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()];
+    let mut arrays: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids.to_vec()))];
+    for (slot, column) in docs.iter().enumerate() {
+        fields.push(Field::new(format!("doc{slot}"), DataType::Utf8, true));
+        arrays.push(Arc::new(StringArray::from(column.clone())));
+    }
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(fields));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), arrays).unwrap();
+    // No rows means no batches at all, the way an empty scan arrives.
+    let rows_per_batch = row_ids.len().div_ceil(num_batches.max(1));
+    let batches = (0..row_ids.len().div_ceil(rows_per_batch.max(1)))
+        .map(|i| {
+            let start = i * rows_per_batch;
+            let len = (row_ids.len() - start).min(rows_per_batch);
+            DataFusionResult::Ok(batch.slice(start, len))
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::iter(batches)))
+}
+
+pub(super) fn flat_columns(weights: &[f32]) -> Vec<CombinedFieldColumn> {
+    weights
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(slot, weight)| CombinedFieldColumn {
+            column: format!("doc{slot}"),
+            weight: *weight,
+            indices: Vec::new(),
+            stale_rows: None,
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Every `(row_id, score)` the flat scan emits, in emission order, with the
+/// score as raw bits so the comparison is exact.
+pub(super) async fn flat_scores(
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+) -> (Vec<usize>, Vec<(u64, u32)>) {
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    let sizes = batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).collect();
+    let scored = batches
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|batch| {
+            let row_ids = batch.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+            let scores = batch.column(1).as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+            (0..batch.num_rows())
+                .map(|i| (row_ids.value(i), scores.value(i).to_bits()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        })
+        .collect();
+    (sizes, scored)
+}
+
+// Legacy element-per-document corpus statistics.
+//
+// Released V1/V2 indexes indexed every `List<String>` element as its own document,
+// so one row there owns a run of documents. `combined_fields` scores at row level,
+// so `docCount'` / `docFreq'` must be row level too or `idf'` and `avgdl'` describe
+// a different corpus than the frequencies they divide. The current builder writes
+// one document per row, so these fixtures write the legacy partition files
+// directly, and assert that they really are element-per-document so the coverage
+// cannot lapse.
+
+/// A fixture corpus: `rows[row][element]` is one indexed element's tokens.
+pub(super) type ElementRows<'a> = Vec<Vec<Vec<&'a str>>>;
+
+/// Build a one-partition FTS index whose documents are the individual
+/// elements of `rows`, each carrying its row's id (row `r` has row id `r`).
+/// `vocab` fixes the token order; tokens absent from `rows` are left out of
+/// the token set, as the builder leaves them out. Elements that tokenize to
+/// nothing are skipped, also as the builder does.
+pub(super) async fn element_document_index(
+    format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    vocab: &[&str],
+    rows: &ElementRows<'_>,
+) -> (Arc<InvertedIndex>, TempObjDir) {
+    let vocab: Vec<&str> = vocab
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .filter(|token| rows.iter().flatten().any(|element| element.contains(token)))
+        .collect();
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let block_size = match format_version {
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V3 => MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1 | InvertedListFormatVersion::V2 => LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+    };
+    let posting_tail_codec = format_version.posting_tail_codec();
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        0,
+        false,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        format_version,
+        block_size,
+    );
+    let mut postings: Vec<PostingListBuilder> = vocab
+        .iter()
+        .map(|token| {
+            builder.tokens.get_or_add(token);
+            PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                false,
+                posting_tail_codec,
+                block_size,
+            )
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let mut doc_id = 0u32;
+    for (row, elements) in rows.iter().enumerate() {
+        for element in elements {
+            if element.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            for (token_id, token) in vocab.iter().enumerate() {
+                let freq = element.iter().filter(|t| *t == token).count() as u32;
+                if freq > 0 {
+                    postings[token_id].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(freq));
+                }
+            }
+            builder.docs.append(row as u64, element.len() as u32);
+            doc_id += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    builder.set_posting_lists(postings);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .block_size(block_size)
+        .unwrap();
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        ("params".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(&params).unwrap()),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            posting_tail_codec.as_str().to_owned(),
+        ),
+        (
+            FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_owned(),
+            format_version.index_version().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), block_size.to_string()),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (index, tmpdir)
+}
+
+/// The same corpus as one document per row: a row's elements joined into a
+/// single document, which is what the current builder writes for a
+/// `List<String>` column.
+pub(super) fn as_row_documents<'a>(rows: &ElementRows<'a>) -> ElementRows<'a> {
+    rows.iter()
+        .map(|elements| {
+            let joined: Vec<&str> = elements.iter().flatten().copied().collect();
+            if joined.is_empty() {
+                Vec::new()
+            } else {
+                vec![joined]
+            }
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+pub(super) fn combined_columns(indices: Vec<Arc<InvertedIndex>>) -> Vec<CombinedFieldColumn> {
+    indices
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(slot, index)| CombinedFieldColumn {
+            column: format!("col{slot}"),
+            weight: 1.0,
+            indices: vec![index],
+            stale_rows: None,
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Run a `combined_fields` top-k over `columns`, returning `(row_id, score)`.
+pub(super) async fn combined_top_k(
+    columns: &[CombinedFieldColumn],
+    terms: &[&str],
+    limit: usize,
+) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
+    let tokens = Tokens::new(
+        terms.iter().map(|t| (*t).to_owned()).collect(),
+        DocType::Text,
+    );
+    let scorer = build_combined_bm25_scorer(columns, &tokens, CombinedCorpusStats::IndexOnly, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let params = FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(limit));
+    let (row_ids, scores) = combined_fields_search(
+        columns,
+        &tokens,
+        &params,
+        Operator::Or,
+        &scorer,
+        Arc::new(NoFilter),
+        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    row_ids.into_iter().zip(scores).collect()
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/compound.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/compound.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..91443868d1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/compound.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,7040 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+mod should_maxscore;
+
+use std::cell::RefCell;
+use std::cmp::{Ordering, Reverse};
+use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU32, Ordering as AtomicOrdering};
+
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+use lance_tokenizer::{SimpleTokenizer, TextAnalyzer};
+
+use super::{
+    InvertedIndex, PreparedBm25Query,
+    document_tokenizer::{DocType, JsonTokenizer, LanceTokenizer},
+    documents::{
+        CachedRowAddressOrder, DocId, DocLengths, DocVisibility, OrderedRowAddressProjection,
+        PartitionDocuments, ResidentAddressProjection, RowAddressProjectionOrderError,
+    },
+    index::{DocSet, InvertedPartition},
+    prepare_bm25_query,
+    query::{
+        FtsQuery, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery, Operator, PhraseQuery, Tokens,
+        try_collect_query_tokens,
+    },
+    scorer::MemBM25Scorer,
+    tokenizer::document_tokenizer::TextTokenizer,
+    wand::{
+        FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD, LegacyWandDocuments, ModernWandDocuments, PostingIterator,
+        WandCursor, WandDocuments, score_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+    },
+};
+use crate::{metrics::MetricsCollector, prefilter::PreFilter};
+
+use self::should_maxscore::ShouldMaxScoreScorer;
+
+const DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE: usize = 128;
+const SCORE_FLOOR_RESOLUTION_BATCH_SIZE: usize = DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE;
+
+/// One exact FTS result in a compound collector's candidate domain.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+pub(super) struct ScoredRow<K = u64> {
+    pub row_id: K,
+    pub score: f32,
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+impl ScoredRow<u64> {
+    pub(super) fn new(row_id: u64, score: f32) -> Result<Self> {
+        if !score.is_finite() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS score for row_id={row_id} must be finite, got {score}"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self { row_id, score })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Conservative score bounds for a document range.
+///
+/// The lower bound is needed by signed compositions such as [`BoostScorer`].
+/// Arithmetic widens both sides by one representable `f32` so nested
+/// operations cannot round an upper bound below an exact score.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+pub(super) struct ScoreBounds {
+    lower: f32,
+    upper: f32,
+}
+
+impl ScoreBounds {
+    pub(super) const ZERO: Self = Self {
+        lower: 0.0,
+        upper: 0.0,
+    };
+    pub(super) const UNBOUNDED: Self = Self {
+        lower: f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+        upper: f32::INFINITY,
+    };
+
+    pub(super) fn try_new(lower: f32, upper: f32) -> Result<Self> {
+        let bounds = Self { lower, upper };
+        if !bounds.is_valid_for_finite_scores() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS score bounds require an ordered interval that can contain finite scores, got [{lower}, {upper}]"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(bounds)
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn lower(self) -> f32 {
+        self.lower
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn upper(self) -> f32 {
+        self.upper
+    }
+
+    fn is_valid_for_finite_scores(self) -> bool {
+        !self.lower.is_nan()
+            && !self.upper.is_nan()
+            && self.lower <= self.upper
+            && self.lower != f32::INFINITY
+            && self.upper != f32::NEG_INFINITY
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn contains(self, score: f32) -> bool {
+        score.is_finite() && self.lower <= score && score <= self.upper
+    }
+
+    fn point(score: f32) -> Result<Self> {
+        if !score.is_finite() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS score bounds require a finite score, got {score}"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            lower: score,
+            upper: score,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn scale_non_negative(self, factor: f32) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(factor.is_finite() && factor >= 0.0);
+        if factor == 0.0 {
+            return Self::ZERO;
+        }
+        if !self.lower.is_finite() || !self.upper.is_finite() {
+            return Self::UNBOUNDED;
+        }
+        Self {
+            lower: next_down(self.lower * factor),
+            upper: next_up(self.upper * factor),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn include_zero(self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: self.lower.min(0.0),
+            upper: self.upper.max(0.0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn add(self, other: Self) -> Self {
+        if !self.lower.is_finite()
+            || !self.upper.is_finite()
+            || !other.lower.is_finite()
+            || !other.upper.is_finite()
+        {
+            return Self::UNBOUNDED;
+        }
+        Self {
+            lower: next_down(self.lower + other.lower),
+            upper: next_up(self.upper + other.upper),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn subtract_scaled(self, other: Self, factor: f32) -> Self {
+        let penalty = other.scale_non_negative(factor);
+        if !self.lower.is_finite()
+            || !self.upper.is_finite()
+            || !penalty.lower.is_finite()
+            || !penalty.upper.is_finite()
+        {
+            return Self::UNBOUNDED;
+        }
+        Self {
+            lower: next_down(self.lower - penalty.upper),
+            upper: next_up(self.upper - penalty.lower),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn next_up(value: f32) -> f32 {
+    if !value.is_finite() {
+        return value;
+    }
+    if value == 0.0 {
+        return f32::from_bits(1);
+    }
+    let bits = value.to_bits();
+    if value > 0.0 {
+        f32::from_bits(bits + 1)
+    } else {
+        f32::from_bits(bits - 1)
+    }
+}
+
+fn next_down(value: f32) -> f32 {
+    if !value.is_finite() {
+        return value;
+    }
+    if value == 0.0 {
+        return f32::from_bits((1_u32 << 31) | 1);
+    }
+    let bits = value.to_bits();
+    if value > 0.0 {
+        f32::from_bits(bits - 1)
+    } else {
+        f32::from_bits(bits + 1)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Find the greatest finite non-negative raw score whose actual `f32`
+/// multiplication remains strictly below an inclusive scaled score floor.
+///
+/// Non-negative finite `f32` values have the same order as their bit patterns,
+/// and multiplication by a finite positive factor is monotonic. Binary search
+/// therefore proves the returned exclusive child floor cannot discard a raw
+/// score whose scaled value is equal to `scaled_score_floor`.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub fn exclusive_scaled_score_floor(scaled_score_floor: f32, factor: f32) -> Option<f32> {
+    if !scaled_score_floor.is_finite()
+        || scaled_score_floor <= 0.0
+        || !factor.is_finite()
+        || factor <= 0.0
+    {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let mut lower_bits = 0_u32;
+    let mut upper_bits = f32::MAX.to_bits();
+    while lower_bits < upper_bits {
+        let midpoint = lower_bits + (upper_bits - lower_bits).div_ceil(2);
+        let raw_score = f32::from_bits(midpoint);
+        if raw_score * factor < scaled_score_floor {
+            lower_bits = midpoint;
+        } else {
+            upper_bits = midpoint - 1;
+        }
+    }
+    Some(f32::from_bits(lower_bits))
+}
+
+fn checked_score(score: f32, context: &str) -> Result<f32> {
+    if score.is_finite() {
+        Ok(score)
+    } else {
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "{context} produced a non-finite FTS score: {score}"
+        )))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Internal document-at-a-time scorer protocol for compound FTS.
+///
+/// Implementations iterate matching partition-local document ids in ascending
+/// order and expose the corresponding candidate key separately. A collector
+/// may shallow-advance independently of the exact iterator, inspect a
+/// conservative range bound, and monotonically raise the competitive score.
+/// `matches` is the optional two-phase confirmation hook: cheap approximations
+/// return a candidate from `next` / `advance` and defer expensive checks such
+/// as phrase positions until confirmation.
+pub(super) trait ComposableScorer: Send {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64>;
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.doc()
+    }
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>>;
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>>;
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize;
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32>;
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64>;
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds>;
+    /// Conservative list-wide score upper bound, independent of iterator
+    /// position. `None` keeps the scorer on exact eager composition paths.
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        None
+    }
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Conservative score upper bound for the current approximation without
+    /// running two-phase confirmation. `None` disables doc-local pruning.
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        Ok(true)
+    }
+
+    /// Estimated relative cost of [`Self::matches`], stable for this scorer's
+    /// lifetime. `None` means no ordering hint, not that confirmation may be skipped.
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) type BoxScorer<'a> = Box<dyn ComposableScorer + 'a>;
+
+fn sum_global_score_upper_bounds(children: &[BoxScorer<'_>]) -> Option<f32> {
+    children.iter().try_fold(0.0, |upper, child| {
+        let child_upper = child.global_score_upper_bound()?;
+        if !child_upper.is_finite() || child_upper < 0.0 {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let combined = ScoreBounds { lower: 0.0, upper }
+            .add(ScoreBounds {
+                lower: 0.0,
+                upper: child_upper,
+            })
+            .upper;
+        combined.is_finite().then_some(combined)
+    })
+}
+
+/// Posting-payload-independent metadata for one semantic leaf in a staged
+/// search task.
+///
+/// Bounds describe the unboosted leaf score. [`CompoundScorerPlan`] applies
+/// the `MatchQuery` boost recorded in its leaf node while composing the root
+/// interval. An impossible leaf contributes neither candidates nor score.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+pub(super) struct CompoundLeafPlanInput {
+    pub(super) possible: bool,
+    pub(super) cost: usize,
+    pub(super) bounds: ScoreBounds,
+}
+
+impl CompoundLeafPlanInput {
+    pub(super) fn new(possible: bool, cost: usize, bounds: ScoreBounds) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            possible,
+            cost,
+            bounds,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Pure metadata analysis used before staged source I/O begins.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub(super) struct CompoundPlanAnalysis {
+    pub(super) possible: bool,
+    pub(super) bounds: ScoreBounds,
+    pub(super) generator_cost: usize,
+    pub(super) generator_leaves: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct NodePlanAnalysis {
+    possible: bool,
+    bounds: ScoreBounds,
+    generator_cost: usize,
+    generator_leaves: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+impl NodePlanAnalysis {
+    fn impossible() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            possible: false,
+            bounds: ScoreBounds::ZERO,
+            generator_cost: 0,
+            generator_leaves: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) enum CompoundScorerPlan {
+    Leaf {
+        index: usize,
+        boost: f32,
+    },
+    Boost {
+        positive: Box<Self>,
+        negative: Box<Self>,
+        negative_boost: f32,
+    },
+    MultiMatch(Vec<Self>),
+    Boolean {
+        should: Vec<Self>,
+        must: Vec<Self>,
+        must_not: Vec<Self>,
+    },
+}
+
+impl CompoundScorerPlan {
+    pub(super) fn leaf_count(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Leaf { .. } => 1,
+            Self::Boost {
+                positive, negative, ..
+            } => positive.leaf_count().saturating_add(negative.leaf_count()),
+            Self::MultiMatch(children) => children
+                .iter()
+                .fold(0, |count, child| count.saturating_add(child.leaf_count())),
+            Self::Boolean {
+                should,
+                must,
+                must_not,
+            } => should
+                .iter()
+                .chain(must)
+                .chain(must_not)
+                .fold(0, |count, child| count.saturating_add(child.leaf_count())),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Select a complete positive generator cover and compose conservative
+    /// root score bounds without constructing or loading any scorer.
+    pub(super) fn analyze_leaves(
+        &self,
+        leaves: &[CompoundLeafPlanInput],
+    ) -> Result<CompoundPlanAnalysis> {
+        let leaf_count = self.leaf_count();
+        if leaves.len() != leaf_count {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "compound FTS plan has {leaf_count} leaves but received {} staged leaf inputs",
+                leaves.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        for (index, leaf) in leaves.iter().enumerate() {
+            if !leaf.bounds.is_valid_for_finite_scores() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "compound FTS staged leaf {index} reported invalid score bounds [{}, {}]",
+                    leaf.bounds.lower, leaf.bounds.upper
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut seen = vec![false; leaf_count];
+        self.validate_leaf_indices(&mut seen)?;
+        if let Some(missing) = seen.iter().position(|seen| !*seen) {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "compound FTS plan does not reference staged leaf {missing}"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut node = self.analyze_node(leaves)?;
+        node.generator_leaves.sort_unstable();
+        node.generator_leaves.dedup();
+        Ok(CompoundPlanAnalysis {
+            possible: node.possible,
+            bounds: node.bounds,
+            generator_cost: node.generator_cost,
+            generator_leaves: node.generator_leaves,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn validate_leaf_indices(&self, seen: &mut [bool]) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Leaf { index, .. } => {
+                let slot_count = seen.len();
+                let slot = seen.get_mut(*index).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "compound FTS plan references staged leaf {index}, but only {} slots exist",
+                        slot_count
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                if *slot {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "compound FTS plan references staged leaf {index} more than once"
+                    )));
+                }
+                *slot = true;
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            Self::Boost {
+                positive, negative, ..
+            } => {
+                positive.validate_leaf_indices(seen)?;
+                negative.validate_leaf_indices(seen)
+            }
+            Self::MultiMatch(children) => {
+                for child in children {
+                    child.validate_leaf_indices(seen)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            Self::Boolean {
+                should,
+                must,
+                must_not,
+            } => {
+                for child in should.iter().chain(must).chain(must_not) {
+                    child.validate_leaf_indices(seen)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn analyze_node(&self, leaves: &[CompoundLeafPlanInput]) -> Result<NodePlanAnalysis> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Leaf { index, boost } => {
+                if !boost.is_finite() || *boost < 0.0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "MatchQuery boost must be finite and non-negative, got {boost}"
+                    )));
+                }
+                let leaf = leaves.get(*index).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "compound FTS plan references missing staged leaf {index}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                if !leaf.possible {
+                    return Ok(NodePlanAnalysis::impossible());
+                }
+                Ok(NodePlanAnalysis {
+                    possible: true,
+                    bounds: leaf.bounds.scale_non_negative(*boost),
+                    generator_cost: leaf.cost,
+                    generator_leaves: vec![*index],
+                })
+            }
+            Self::Boost {
+                positive,
+                negative,
+                negative_boost,
+            } => {
+                if !negative_boost.is_finite() || *negative_boost < 0.0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "BoostQuery negative_boost must be finite and non-negative, got {negative_boost}"
+                    )));
+                }
+                let positive = positive.analyze_node(leaves)?;
+                let negative = negative.analyze_node(leaves)?;
+                if !positive.possible {
+                    return Ok(NodePlanAnalysis::impossible());
+                }
+                let bounds = if negative.possible {
+                    positive
+                        .bounds
+                        .subtract_scaled(negative.bounds.include_zero(), *negative_boost)
+                } else {
+                    positive.bounds
+                };
+                Ok(NodePlanAnalysis {
+                    possible: true,
+                    bounds,
+                    generator_cost: positive.generator_cost,
+                    generator_leaves: positive.generator_leaves,
+                })
+            }
+            Self::MultiMatch(children) => {
+                let children = children
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|child| child.analyze_node(leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                let mut possible = children.iter().filter(|child| child.possible);
+                let Some(first) = possible.next() else {
+                    return Ok(NodePlanAnalysis::impossible());
+                };
+                let mut bounds = first.bounds;
+                for child in possible {
+                    bounds.lower = bounds.lower.min(child.bounds.lower);
+                    bounds.upper = bounds.upper.max(child.bounds.upper);
+                }
+                let mut generator_cost = 0_usize;
+                let mut generator_leaves = Vec::new();
+                for child in children.into_iter().filter(|child| child.possible) {
+                    generator_cost = generator_cost.saturating_add(child.generator_cost);
+                    generator_leaves.extend(child.generator_leaves);
+                }
+                Ok(NodePlanAnalysis {
+                    possible: true,
+                    bounds,
+                    generator_cost,
+                    generator_leaves,
+                })
+            }
+            Self::Boolean {
+                should,
+                must,
+                must_not,
+            } => {
+                let should = should
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|child| child.analyze_node(leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                let must = must
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|child| child.analyze_node(leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                for child in must_not {
+                    child.analyze_node(leaves)?;
+                }
+
+                if !must.is_empty() {
+                    if must.iter().any(|child| !child.possible) {
+                        return Ok(NodePlanAnalysis::impossible());
+                    }
+                    let mut bounds = ScoreBounds::ZERO;
+                    for child in &must {
+                        bounds = bounds.add(child.bounds);
+                    }
+                    for child in should.iter().filter(|child| child.possible) {
+                        bounds = bounds.add(child.bounds.include_zero());
+                    }
+                    let mut must = must.into_iter();
+                    let mut generator = must.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal("compound FTS Boolean MUST analysis lost its generator")
+                    })?;
+                    for child in must {
+                        if child.generator_cost < generator.generator_cost {
+                            generator = child;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    return Ok(NodePlanAnalysis {
+                        possible: true,
+                        bounds,
+                        generator_cost: generator.generator_cost,
+                        generator_leaves: generator.generator_leaves,
+                    });
+                }
+
+                let possible_should = should
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .filter(|child| child.possible)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                if possible_should.is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(NodePlanAnalysis::impossible());
+                }
+                let mut bounds = ScoreBounds::ZERO;
+                let mut generator_cost = 0_usize;
+                let mut generator_leaves = Vec::new();
+                for child in possible_should {
+                    bounds = bounds.add(child.bounds.include_zero());
+                    generator_cost = generator_cost.saturating_add(child.generator_cost);
+                    generator_leaves.extend(child.generator_leaves);
+                }
+                Ok(NodePlanAnalysis {
+                    possible: true,
+                    bounds,
+                    generator_cost,
+                    generator_leaves,
+                })
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn from_query(query: &FtsQuery, num_leaves: &mut usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+                let index = *num_leaves;
+                *num_leaves += 1;
+                Ok(Self::Leaf {
+                    index,
+                    boost: query.boost,
+                })
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(_) => {
+                let index = *num_leaves;
+                *num_leaves += 1;
+                Ok(Self::Leaf { index, boost: 1.0 })
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => Ok(Self::Boost {
+                positive: Box::new(Self::from_query(&query.positive, num_leaves)?),
+                negative: Box::new(Self::from_query(&query.negative, num_leaves)?),
+                negative_boost: query.negative_boost,
+            }),
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => Ok(Self::MultiMatch(
+                query
+                    .match_queries
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|query| Self::from_query(&FtsQuery::Match(query.clone()), num_leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+            )),
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => Ok(Self::Boolean {
+                should: query
+                    .should
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|query| Self::from_query(query, num_leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                must: query
+                    .must
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|query| Self::from_query(query, num_leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                must_not: query
+                    .must_not
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|query| Self::from_query(query, num_leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+            }),
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => Err(combined_fields_unsupported()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn build<'a>(&self, leaves: &mut [Option<BoxScorer<'a>>]) -> Result<BoxScorer<'a>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Leaf { index, boost } => {
+                let leaf = leaves
+                    .get_mut(*index)
+                    .and_then(Option::take)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "compound FTS scorer references missing leaf index {index}"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                Ok(Box::new(ScaleScorer::try_new(leaf, *boost)?))
+            }
+            Self::Boost {
+                positive,
+                negative,
+                negative_boost,
+            } => Ok(Box::new(BoostScorer::try_new(
+                positive.build(leaves)?,
+                negative.build(leaves)?,
+                *negative_boost,
+            )?)),
+            Self::MultiMatch(children) => Ok(Box::new(DisjunctionScorer::try_new(
+                children
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|child| child.build(leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                DisjunctionScore::Max,
+            )?)),
+            Self::Boolean {
+                should,
+                must,
+                must_not,
+            } => Ok(Box::new(BooleanScorer::try_new(
+                should
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|child| child.build(leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                must.iter()
+                    .map(|child| child.build(leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                must_not
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|child| child.build(leaves))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+            )?)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<D: WandDocuments + Sync> ComposableScorer for WandCursor<'_, D> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.doc()
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.document_key()
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.next()
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.advance(target)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cost()
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        self.current_score()
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.advance_shallow(target)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        Ok(ScoreBounds {
+            lower: 0.0,
+            upper: self.score_upper_bound(up_to)?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        WandCursor::global_score_upper_bound(self)
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        self.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        self.current_score().map(Some)
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.match_cost().is_some()
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.matches()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.match_cost()
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct ShallowRange {
+    target: u64,
+    up_to: u64,
+    block_index: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+/// Exact in-memory scorer used for unordered-address fallbacks and unit tests.
+pub(super) struct MaterializedScorer {
+    rows: Vec<ScoredRow>,
+    block_size: usize,
+    block_bounds: Box<[ScoreBounds]>,
+    global_score_upper_bound: f32,
+    index: Option<usize>,
+    shallow: Option<ShallowRange>,
+    min_competitive_score: f32,
+    scores_non_negative: bool,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    bound_score_visits: usize,
+}
+
+impl MaterializedScorer {
+    pub(super) fn try_new(mut rows: Vec<ScoredRow>) -> Result<Self> {
+        rows.sort_unstable_by_key(|row| row.row_id);
+        for row in &rows {
+            ScoreBounds::point(row.score)?;
+        }
+        for pair in rows.windows(2) {
+            if pair[0].row_id == pair[1].row_id {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "FTS leaf scorer produced duplicate row_id={}",
+                    pair[0].row_id
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        let block_size = DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE;
+        let block_bounds = Self::build_block_bounds(&rows, block_size);
+        let global_score_upper_bound = Self::global_upper_bound(&block_bounds);
+        let scores_non_negative = rows.iter().all(|row| row.score >= 0.0);
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        let bound_score_visits = rows.len();
+        Ok(Self {
+            rows,
+            block_size,
+            block_bounds,
+            global_score_upper_bound,
+            index: None,
+            shallow: None,
+            min_competitive_score: f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+            scores_non_negative,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            bound_score_visits,
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn with_block_size(mut self, block_size: usize) -> Self {
+        assert!(block_size > 0);
+        self.block_size = block_size;
+        self.block_bounds = Self::build_block_bounds(&self.rows, block_size);
+        self.global_score_upper_bound = Self::global_upper_bound(&self.block_bounds);
+        self.bound_score_visits = self.rows.len();
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn build_block_bounds(rows: &[ScoredRow], block_size: usize) -> Box<[ScoreBounds]> {
+        debug_assert!(block_size > 0);
+        rows.chunks(block_size)
+            .map(|block| {
+                let first = block[0].score;
+                let mut bounds = ScoreBounds {
+                    lower: first,
+                    upper: first,
+                };
+                for row in &block[1..] {
+                    bounds.lower = bounds.lower.min(row.score);
+                    bounds.upper = bounds.upper.max(row.score);
+                }
+                bounds
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn global_upper_bound(block_bounds: &[ScoreBounds]) -> f32 {
+        block_bounds
+            .iter()
+            .map(|bounds| bounds.upper)
+            .max_by(f32::total_cmp)
+            .unwrap_or(0.0)
+    }
+
+    fn block_bounds_at(&self, block_index: usize) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        self.block_bounds.get(block_index).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "materialized FTS scorer has no score bounds for block {block_index}"
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn bound_score_visits(&self) -> usize {
+        self.bound_score_visits
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn num_bound_blocks(&self) -> usize {
+        self.block_bounds.len()
+    }
+
+    fn block_end(&self, block_index: usize) -> usize {
+        (block_index + 1)
+            .saturating_mul(self.block_size)
+            .min(self.rows.len())
+    }
+
+    fn block_index(&self, row_index: usize) -> usize {
+        row_index / self.block_size
+    }
+
+    fn skip_non_competitive_block(&self, row_index: usize) -> Result<Option<usize>> {
+        let block_index = self.block_index(row_index);
+        if self.block_bounds_at(block_index)?.upper < self.min_competitive_score {
+            Ok(Some(self.block_end(block_index)))
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn position_at(&mut self, mut index: usize) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        while index < self.rows.len() {
+            if let Some(next_index) = self.skip_non_competitive_block(index)? {
+                index = next_index;
+                continue;
+            }
+            self.index = Some(index);
+            self.shallow = None;
+            return Ok(Some(self.rows[index].row_id));
+        }
+        self.index = None;
+        self.shallow = None;
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for MaterializedScorer {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.index.map(|index| self.rows[index].row_id)
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.position_at(self.index.map_or(0, |index| index + 1))
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc >= target) {
+            return Ok(self.doc());
+        }
+        let start = self.index.map_or(0, |index| index + 1);
+        let offset = self.rows[start..].partition_point(|row| row.row_id < target);
+        self.position_at(start + offset)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.rows.len()
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        self.index
+            .map(|index| self.rows[index].score)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("FTS scorer is not positioned on a document"))
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let start = self.rows.partition_point(|row| row.row_id < target);
+        if start == self.rows.len() {
+            self.shallow = Some(ShallowRange {
+                target,
+                up_to: u64::MAX,
+                block_index: None,
+            });
+            return Ok(u64::MAX);
+        }
+        let block_index = self.block_index(start);
+        let end = self.block_end(block_index);
+        let up_to = self
+            .rows
+            .get(end)
+            .map(|next| next.row_id.saturating_sub(1))
+            .unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+        self.shallow = Some(ShallowRange {
+            target,
+            up_to,
+            block_index: Some(block_index),
+        });
+        Ok(up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        let shallow = self.shallow.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("score_bounds requires advance_shallow on the FTS scorer")
+        })?;
+        if up_to < shallow.target || up_to > shallow.up_to {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS score bound up_to={up_to} is outside shallow range [{}, {}]",
+                shallow.target, shallow.up_to
+            )));
+        }
+        shallow
+            .block_index
+            .map_or(Ok(ScoreBounds::ZERO), |block_index| {
+                self.block_bounds_at(block_index)
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        Some(self.global_score_upper_bound)
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        if min_score.is_nan() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "minimum competitive FTS score cannot be NaN",
+            ));
+        }
+        if min_score > self.min_competitive_score {
+            self.min_competitive_score = min_score;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        self.score().map(Some)
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        self.scores_non_negative
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct MappedShallowRange {
+    target: u64,
+    up_to: u64,
+    source_target: u64,
+    source_up_to: u64,
+    has_source_docs: bool,
+}
+
+/// Project a strictly ordered partition-local scorer into the shared physical
+/// row-address domain.
+struct RowAddressScorer<'a> {
+    source: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    projection: OrderedRowAddressProjection,
+    current: Option<u64>,
+    exhausted: bool,
+    shallow: Option<MappedShallowRange>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> RowAddressScorer<'a> {
+    fn new(source: BoxScorer<'a>, projection: OrderedRowAddressProjection) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            source,
+            projection,
+            current: None,
+            exhausted: false,
+            shallow: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn set_source_position(&mut self, source_doc: Option<u64>) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.shallow = None;
+        let Some(source_doc) = source_doc else {
+            self.current = None;
+            self.exhausted = true;
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if self.source.doc() != Some(source_doc) {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS source returned local document {source_doc} but reported position {:?}",
+                self.source.doc()
+            )));
+        }
+        let row_address = self.projection.address(source_doc).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS source returned non-live or out-of-range local document {source_doc} for a projection with {} slots",
+                self.projection.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if self.current.is_some_and(|current| row_address <= current) {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS row-address projection moved from {:?} to non-increasing address {row_address}",
+                self.current
+            )));
+        }
+        self.current = Some(row_address);
+        Ok(self.current)
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_positioned(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.current.is_none() {
+            Err(Error::internal(
+                "row-address FTS scorer is not positioned on a document",
+            ))
+        } else {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn local_upper_bound(&self, global_up_to: u64, shallow: MappedShallowRange) -> Option<u64> {
+        if global_up_to >= shallow.up_to {
+            return Some(shallow.source_up_to);
+        }
+        let next_global = global_up_to.checked_add(1)?;
+        match self.projection.lower_bound(next_global) {
+            Some(next_local) => next_local
+                .checked_sub(1)
+                .map(|local| local.min(shallow.source_up_to)),
+            None => Some(shallow.source_up_to),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for RowAddressScorer<'_> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.exhausted {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let source_doc = self.source.next()?;
+        self.set_source_position(source_doc)
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.current.is_some_and(|current| current >= target) {
+            return Ok(self.current);
+        }
+        if self.exhausted {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let Some(source_target) = self.projection.lower_bound(target) else {
+            self.current = None;
+            self.exhausted = true;
+            self.shallow = None;
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let source_doc = self.source.advance(source_target)?;
+        if source_doc.is_some_and(|doc| doc < source_target) {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS source advanced to local document {:?} before target {source_target}",
+                source_doc
+            )));
+        }
+        let row_address = self.set_source_position(source_doc)?;
+        if row_address.is_some_and(|address| address < target) {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS projection advanced to row address {:?} before target {target}",
+                row_address
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(row_address)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.source.cost().min(self.projection.live_len())
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        self.ensure_positioned()?;
+        self.source.score()
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        if self.exhausted {
+            self.shallow = Some(MappedShallowRange {
+                target,
+                up_to: u64::MAX,
+                source_target: 0,
+                source_up_to: 0,
+                has_source_docs: false,
+            });
+            return Ok(u64::MAX);
+        }
+        let Some(source_target) = self.projection.lower_bound(target) else {
+            self.shallow = Some(MappedShallowRange {
+                target,
+                up_to: u64::MAX,
+                source_target: 0,
+                source_up_to: 0,
+                has_source_docs: false,
+            });
+            return Ok(u64::MAX);
+        };
+        let source_target = self
+            .source
+            .doc()
+            .map_or(source_target, |doc| source_target.max(doc));
+        let source_up_to = self.source.advance_shallow(source_target)?;
+        if source_up_to < source_target {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS source returned shallow range ending at local document {source_up_to} before target {source_target}"
+            )));
+        }
+        let up_to = self
+            .projection
+            .next_address(source_up_to)
+            .map(|next| next.saturating_sub(1))
+            .unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+        if up_to < target {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS projection mapped local shallow end {source_up_to} to row address {up_to} before target {target}"
+            )));
+        }
+        self.shallow = Some(MappedShallowRange {
+            target,
+            up_to,
+            source_target,
+            source_up_to,
+            has_source_docs: true,
+        });
+        Ok(up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        let shallow = self.shallow.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("score_bounds requires advance_shallow on the row-address FTS scorer")
+        })?;
+        if up_to < shallow.target || up_to > shallow.up_to {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS row-address score bound up_to={up_to} is outside shallow range [{}, {}]",
+                shallow.target, shallow.up_to
+            )));
+        }
+        if !shallow.has_source_docs {
+            return Ok(ScoreBounds::ZERO);
+        }
+        let Some(source_up_to) = self.local_upper_bound(up_to, shallow) else {
+            return Ok(ScoreBounds::ZERO);
+        };
+        if source_up_to < shallow.source_target {
+            return Ok(ScoreBounds::ZERO);
+        }
+        self.source.score_bounds(source_up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.source.global_score_upper_bound()
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        self.source.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        self.ensure_positioned()?;
+        self.source.current_score_upper_bound()
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.source.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning()
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.ensure_positioned()?;
+        self.source.matches()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.source.match_cost()
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        self.source.scores_non_negative()
+    }
+}
+
+fn projected_address(projection: &ResidentAddressProjection, source_doc: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+    let source_doc = u32::try_from(source_doc).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "FTS local document {source_doc} exceeds the modern u32 domain"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    projection.address(DocId::new(source_doc)).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal(format!(
+            "FTS source returned non-live local document {source_doc} while materializing row addresses"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn materialize_row_address_scorer<'a>(
+    source: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+    collisions: &MaterializedProjectionCollisions,
+) -> Result<Option<RowAddressSource<'a>>> {
+    let mut mapped_documents = Vec::with_capacity(source.cost().min(DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE));
+    let scorer = materialize_mapped_scorer(source, |local_doc| {
+        let row_address = projected_address(projection, local_doc)?;
+        mapped_documents.push((row_address, local_doc));
+        Ok(row_address)
+    })?;
+
+    // Constructing the materialized scorer first preserves its more local
+    // duplicate diagnostic when one leaf produces both colliding documents.
+    // Only a valid leaf is then published to the source-wide tracker.
+    collisions.register(&mapped_documents)?;
+    Ok(scorer)
+}
+
+fn materialize_mapped_scorer<'a>(
+    mut source: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    mut map_document: impl FnMut(u64) -> Result<u64>,
+) -> Result<Option<RowAddressSource<'a>>> {
+    let mut rows = Vec::with_capacity(source.cost().min(DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE));
+    let mut source_doc = source.next()?;
+    while let Some(doc) = source_doc {
+        if source.matches()? {
+            rows.push(ScoredRow {
+                row_id: map_document(doc)?,
+                score: checked_score(source.score()?, "materialized row-address FTS scorer")?,
+            });
+        }
+        source_doc = source.next()?;
+    }
+    let scorer = MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows)?;
+    let min_possible_row_address = scorer.rows.first().map(|row| row.row_id);
+    Ok(
+        min_possible_row_address.map(|min_possible_row_address| RowAddressSource {
+            min_possible_row_address,
+            scorer: Box::new(scorer),
+        }),
+    )
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct MaterializedProjectionCollisions {
+    local_doc_by_address: RefCell<std::collections::HashMap<u64, u64>>,
+}
+
+impl MaterializedProjectionCollisions {
+    fn register(&self, mapped_documents: &[(u64, u64)]) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut local_doc_by_address =
+            self.local_doc_by_address.try_borrow_mut().map_err(|_| {
+                Error::internal(
+                    "materialized FTS row-address collision tracker is already borrowed",
+                )
+            })?;
+
+        for &(row_address, local_doc) in mapped_documents {
+            if let Some(&existing_local_doc) = local_doc_by_address.get(&row_address)
+                && existing_local_doc != local_doc
+            {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "FTS row address {row_address} maps to distinct local documents {existing_local_doc} and {local_doc} in one physical source"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        for &(row_address, local_doc) in mapped_documents {
+            local_doc_by_address.insert(row_address, local_doc);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Query-scoped projection state shared by every leaf from one physical
+/// source. Preparation is O(1); ordered validation is triggered lazily only
+/// when a dense source makes streaming cheaper than candidate materialization.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct PreparedRowAddressProjection {
+    projection: ResidentAddressProjection,
+    collisions: MaterializedProjectionCollisions,
+}
+
+pub(super) fn prepare_row_address_projection(
+    projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+) -> PreparedRowAddressProjection {
+    PreparedRowAddressProjection {
+        projection: projection.clone(),
+        collisions: MaterializedProjectionCollisions::default(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn invalid_row_address_projection(error: RowAddressProjectionOrderError) -> Error {
+    Error::index(format!("invalid FTS row-address projection: {error}"))
+}
+
+fn map_validated_scorer_to_row_addresses<'a>(
+    source: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    projection: &PreparedRowAddressProjection,
+    validation: std::result::Result<OrderedRowAddressProjection, RowAddressProjectionOrderError>,
+    local_document_lower_bound: u64,
+) -> Result<Option<RowAddressSource<'a>>> {
+    match validation {
+        Ok(ordered) => {
+            let Some(first_row_address) = ordered
+                .address(local_document_lower_bound)
+                .or_else(|| ordered.next_address(local_document_lower_bound))
+            else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            Ok(Some(RowAddressSource::new(
+                first_row_address,
+                Box::new(RowAddressScorer::new(source, ordered)),
+            )))
+        }
+        Err(error @ RowAddressProjectionOrderError::Duplicate { .. }) => {
+            Err(invalid_row_address_projection(error))
+        }
+        Err(RowAddressProjectionOrderError::OutOfOrder { .. }) => {
+            materialize_row_address_scorer(source, &projection.projection, &projection.collisions)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A lazily initialized scorer source and a conservative lower bound on its
+/// first possible row address.
+pub(super) struct RowAddressSource<'a> {
+    min_possible_row_address: u64,
+    scorer: BoxScorer<'a>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> RowAddressSource<'a> {
+    pub(super) fn new(min_possible_row_address: u64, scorer: BoxScorer<'a>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            min_possible_row_address,
+            scorer,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn into_scorer(self) -> BoxScorer<'a> {
+        self.scorer
+    }
+}
+
+/// Map a partition-local scorer into the shared row-address domain.
+///
+/// Strictly ordered projections stay streaming. Descending or sufficiently
+/// sparse unknown projections use an exact materialized fallback. Duplicate
+/// projections are rejected because two local documents cannot share one row.
+pub(super) fn map_scorer_to_row_addresses<'a>(
+    source: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    projection: &PreparedRowAddressProjection,
+    local_document_lower_bound: u64,
+) -> Result<Option<RowAddressSource<'a>>> {
+    map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+        source,
+        projection,
+        local_document_lower_bound,
+        *FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD,
+    )
+}
+
+fn map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold<'a>(
+    source: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    projection: &PreparedRowAddressProjection,
+    local_document_lower_bound: u64,
+    flat_search_percent_threshold: u64,
+) -> Result<Option<RowAddressSource<'a>>> {
+    match projection.projection.cached_row_address_order() {
+        CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered => map_validated_scorer_to_row_addresses(
+            source,
+            projection,
+            projection.projection.try_ordered_row_addresses(),
+            local_document_lower_bound,
+        ),
+        CachedRowAddressOrder::Duplicate => map_validated_scorer_to_row_addresses(
+            source,
+            projection,
+            projection.projection.try_ordered_row_addresses(),
+            local_document_lower_bound,
+        ),
+        CachedRowAddressOrder::OutOfOrder => {
+            materialize_row_address_scorer(source, &projection.projection, &projection.collisions)
+        }
+        CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown
+            if projection.projection.should_materialize_unknown_projection(
+                source.cost(),
+                flat_search_percent_threshold,
+            ) =>
+        {
+            materialize_row_address_scorer(source, &projection.projection, &projection.collisions)
+        }
+        CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown => map_validated_scorer_to_row_addresses(
+            source,
+            projection,
+            projection.projection.try_ordered_row_addresses(),
+            local_document_lower_bound,
+        ),
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+enum MergeShallowBounds {
+    Current { source_index: usize },
+    Global(ScoreBounds),
+    Empty,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct MergeShallowRange {
+    target: u64,
+    up_to: u64,
+    bounds: MergeShallowBounds,
+}
+
+/// Merge disjoint sources for one semantic leaf in their shared row-address
+/// domain.
+///
+/// Exactly one source must own each row address. Keeping the current source
+/// outside the heap makes both `next` and one-source `advance` O(log P), where
+/// P is the number of sources, instead of scanning every source per hit.
+pub(super) struct RowAddressMergeScorer<'a> {
+    sources: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>,
+    source_minimums: Vec<u64>,
+    pending: BinaryHeap<Reverse<(u64, usize)>>,
+    heads: BinaryHeap<Reverse<(u64, usize)>>,
+    active_sources: HashSet<usize>,
+    current: Option<(u64, usize)>,
+    shallow: Option<MergeShallowRange>,
+    min_competitive_score: f32,
+}
+
+impl<'a> RowAddressMergeScorer<'a> {
+    pub(super) fn try_new(sources: Vec<RowAddressSource<'a>>) -> Result<Self> {
+        if sources.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "row-address merge scorer requires at least one source",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut pending = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(sources.len());
+        let mut source_minimums = Vec::with_capacity(sources.len());
+        let mut scorers = Vec::with_capacity(sources.len());
+        for (source_index, source) in sources.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            pending.push(Reverse((source.min_possible_row_address, source_index)));
+            source_minimums.push(source.min_possible_row_address);
+            scorers.push(source.scorer);
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            heads: BinaryHeap::with_capacity(scorers.len()),
+            active_sources: HashSet::with_capacity(scorers.len()),
+            sources: scorers,
+            source_minimums,
+            pending,
+            current: None,
+            shallow: None,
+            min_competitive_score: f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn push_positioned_source(&mut self, source_index: usize, doc: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.sources[source_index].doc() != Some(doc) {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS source {source_index} returned row address {doc} but reported position {:?}",
+                self.sources[source_index].doc()
+            )));
+        }
+        self.heads.push(Reverse((doc, source_index)));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn initialize_source(&mut self, source_index: usize, target: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.min_competitive_score > f32::NEG_INFINITY {
+            self.sources[source_index].set_min_competitive_score(self.min_competitive_score)?;
+        }
+        let source_target = target.max(self.source_minimums[source_index]);
+        if let Some(doc) = self.sources[source_index].advance(source_target)? {
+            if doc < source_target {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "FTS source {source_index} initialized at row address {doc} before target {source_target}"
+                )));
+            }
+            self.active_sources.insert(source_index);
+            self.push_positioned_source(source_index, doc)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_candidate_head(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        loop {
+            let actual_head = self.heads.peek().map(|Reverse((doc, _))| *doc);
+            let pending_head = self.pending.peek().map(|Reverse((minimum, _))| *minimum);
+            let should_initialize = match (actual_head, pending_head) {
+                (_, None) => false,
+                (None, Some(_)) => true,
+                (Some(actual), Some(pending)) => pending <= actual,
+            };
+            if !should_initialize {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let Reverse((_, source_index)) = self.pending.pop().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("FTS pending source heap unexpectedly became empty")
+            })?;
+            self.initialize_source(source_index, target)?;
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn select_current(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.shallow = None;
+        self.ensure_candidate_head(target)?;
+        let Some(Reverse((doc, source_index))) = self.heads.pop() else {
+            self.current = None;
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if let Some(Reverse((duplicate, duplicate_source))) = self.heads.peek()
+            && *duplicate == doc
+        {
+            self.current = None;
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS sources {source_index} and {duplicate_source} produced duplicate row address {doc}"
+            )));
+        }
+        self.current = Some((doc, source_index));
+        Ok(Some(doc))
+    }
+
+    fn advance_source(&mut self, source_index: usize, target: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(doc) = self.sources[source_index].advance(target)? {
+            if doc < target {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "FTS source {source_index} advanced to row address {doc} before target {target}"
+                )));
+            }
+            self.push_positioned_source(source_index, doc)?;
+        } else {
+            self.active_sources.remove(&source_index);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn next_source(&mut self, source_index: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(doc) = self.sources[source_index].next()? {
+            self.push_positioned_source(source_index, doc)?;
+        } else {
+            self.active_sources.remove(&source_index);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_source_mut(&mut self) -> Result<&mut BoxScorer<'a>> {
+        let (_, source_index) = self.current.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("row-address merge scorer is not positioned on a document")
+        })?;
+        Ok(&mut self.sources[source_index])
+    }
+
+    fn next_source_boundary(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.heads
+            .peek()
+            .map(|Reverse((doc, _))| *doc)
+            .into_iter()
+            .chain(self.pending.peek().map(|Reverse((minimum, _))| *minimum))
+            .min()
+    }
+
+    fn global_range_bounds(&self) -> ScoreBounds {
+        ScoreBounds {
+            lower: if self.scores_non_negative() {
+                0.0
+            } else {
+                f32::NEG_INFINITY
+            },
+            upper: self.global_score_upper_bound().unwrap_or(f32::INFINITY),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for RowAddressMergeScorer<'_> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current.map(|(doc, _)| doc)
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.doc()
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        let target = match self.current.take() {
+            Some((u64::MAX, source_index)) => {
+                self.active_sources.remove(&source_index);
+                self.shallow = None;
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            Some((doc, source_index)) => {
+                self.next_source(source_index)?;
+                doc + 1
+            }
+            None if self.heads.is_empty() && self.pending.is_empty() => return Ok(None),
+            None => 0,
+        };
+        self.select_current(target)
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc >= target) {
+            return Ok(self.doc());
+        }
+        if let Some((_, source_index)) = self.current.take() {
+            self.advance_source(source_index, target)?;
+        }
+        while let Some(Reverse((doc, _))) = self.heads.peek() {
+            if *doc >= target {
+                break;
+            }
+            let Reverse((_, source_index)) = self
+                .heads
+                .pop()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("FTS source heap unexpectedly became empty"))?;
+            self.advance_source(source_index, target)?;
+        }
+        self.select_current(target)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.sources
+            .iter()
+            .map(|source| source.cost())
+            .fold(0, usize::saturating_add)
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        self.current_source_mut()?.score()
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let Some((current, source_index)) = self.current else {
+            self.shallow = Some(MergeShallowRange {
+                target,
+                up_to: u64::MAX,
+                bounds: MergeShallowBounds::Empty,
+            });
+            return Ok(u64::MAX);
+        };
+        let next_source = self.next_source_boundary();
+        if next_source.is_some_and(|boundary| boundary <= target) {
+            let bounds = self.global_range_bounds();
+            self.shallow = Some(MergeShallowRange {
+                target,
+                up_to: target,
+                bounds: MergeShallowBounds::Global(bounds),
+            });
+            return Ok(target);
+        }
+
+        let source_target = target.max(current);
+        let source_up_to = self.sources[source_index].advance_shallow(source_target)?;
+        if source_up_to < source_target {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS source {source_index} returned shallow range ending at {source_up_to} before target {source_target}"
+            )));
+        }
+        let up_to = next_source
+            .map(|boundary| source_up_to.min(boundary.saturating_sub(1)))
+            .unwrap_or(source_up_to);
+        self.shallow = Some(MergeShallowRange {
+            target,
+            up_to,
+            bounds: MergeShallowBounds::Current { source_index },
+        });
+        Ok(up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        let shallow = self.shallow.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("score_bounds requires advance_shallow on the row-address merge scorer")
+        })?;
+        if up_to < shallow.target || up_to > shallow.up_to {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS row-address merge bound up_to={up_to} is outside shallow range [{}, {}]",
+                shallow.target, shallow.up_to
+            )));
+        }
+        match shallow.bounds {
+            MergeShallowBounds::Current { source_index } => {
+                self.sources[source_index].score_bounds(up_to)
+            }
+            MergeShallowBounds::Global(bounds) => Ok(bounds),
+            MergeShallowBounds::Empty => Ok(ScoreBounds::ZERO),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.sources
+            .iter()
+            .map(|source| source.global_score_upper_bound())
+            .try_fold(f32::NEG_INFINITY, |upper, source_upper| {
+                let source_upper = source_upper?;
+                source_upper.is_finite().then_some(upper.max(source_upper))
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        if min_score.is_nan() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "minimum competitive FTS score cannot be NaN",
+            ));
+        }
+        if min_score <= self.min_competitive_score {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        for source_index in self.active_sources.iter().copied() {
+            self.sources[source_index].set_min_competitive_score(min_score)?;
+        }
+        self.min_competitive_score = min_score;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        self.current_source_mut()?.current_score_upper_bound()
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.sources
+            .iter()
+            .any(|source| source.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning())
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.current_source_mut()?.matches()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.sources
+            .iter()
+            .map(|source| source.match_cost())
+            .try_fold(0.0_f32, |cost, source_cost| {
+                source_cost.map(|source_cost| cost.max(source_cost))
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        self.sources
+            .iter()
+            .all(|source| source.scores_non_negative())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Monotonic score-only floor shared by partition-local top-k collectors.
+///
+/// Equal-score candidates are never pruned because final ordering also uses
+/// row id. The score-only floor is therefore a safe lower bound even when
+/// partitions encounter ties in different orders.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct CompetitiveScore {
+    bits: AtomicU32,
+}
+
+impl Default for CompetitiveScore {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bits: AtomicU32::new(f32::NEG_INFINITY.to_bits()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompetitiveScore {
+    fn get(&self) -> f32 {
+        f32::from_bits(self.bits.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed))
+    }
+
+    fn raise(&self, score: f32) {
+        debug_assert!(!score.is_nan());
+        let mut current = self.bits.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+        while score > f32::from_bits(current) {
+            match self.bits.compare_exchange_weak(
+                current,
+                score.to_bits(),
+                AtomicOrdering::Relaxed,
+                AtomicOrdering::Relaxed,
+            ) {
+                Ok(_) => break,
+                Err(actual) => current = actual,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct HeapRow<K>(ScoredRow<K>);
+
+impl<K: PartialEq> PartialEq for HeapRow<K> {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.0.row_id == other.0.row_id && self.0.score.to_bits() == other.0.score.to_bits()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<K: Eq> Eq for HeapRow<K> {}
+
+impl<K: Ord> PartialOrd for HeapRow<K> {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<K: Ord> Ord for HeapRow<K> {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering {
+        // The worst result is the heap maximum: lower score, then higher row id.
+        other
+            .0
+            .score
+            .total_cmp(&self.0.score)
+            .then_with(|| self.0.row_id.cmp(&other.0.row_id))
+    }
+}
+
+fn compare_scored_rows<K: Ord>(left: &ScoredRow<K>, right: &ScoredRow<K>) -> Ordering {
+    right
+        .score
+        .total_cmp(&left.score)
+        .then_with(|| left.row_id.cmp(&right.row_id))
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) enum CollectionStatus {
+    Complete,
+    ScoreFloorOverflow,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+enum TieHandling {
+    ResolveByKey,
+    RetainScoreFloor { max_buffered: usize },
+}
+
+/// The sole owner of top-k state for a compound scorer tree.
+///
+/// Resolved document keys use the normal `(score DESC, row_id ASC)` ordering
+/// and keep exactly `limit` rows. An unresolved partition temporarily retains
+/// its kth-score floor, but stops once the bounded resolution buffer fills.
+pub(super) struct TopKCollector<K = u64> {
+    limit: usize,
+    heap: BinaryHeap<HeapRow<K>>,
+    competitive_score: Arc<CompetitiveScore>,
+    tie_handling: TieHandling,
+}
+
+impl<K: Copy + Ord> TopKCollector<K> {
+    pub(super) fn new(limit: usize) -> Self {
+        Self::with_competitive_score(limit, Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default()))
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn with_competitive_score(
+        limit: usize,
+        competitive_score: Arc<CompetitiveScore>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::with_tie_handling(limit, competitive_score, TieHandling::ResolveByKey)
+    }
+
+    fn retaining_score_floor(
+        limit: usize,
+        competitive_score: Arc<CompetitiveScore>,
+        max_buffered: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(max_buffered >= limit);
+        Self::with_tie_handling(
+            limit,
+            competitive_score,
+            TieHandling::RetainScoreFloor { max_buffered },
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn with_tie_handling(
+        limit: usize,
+        competitive_score: Arc<CompetitiveScore>,
+        tie_handling: TieHandling,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            limit,
+            heap: BinaryHeap::with_capacity(limit.min(DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE)),
+            competitive_score,
+            tie_handling,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn insert(&mut self, row: ScoredRow<K>) -> CollectionStatus {
+        if self.limit == 0 {
+            return CollectionStatus::Complete;
+        }
+        if self.heap.len() < self.limit {
+            self.heap.push(HeapRow(row));
+        } else {
+            let worst = self.heap.peek().expect("a full top-k heap is non-empty").0;
+            match row.score.total_cmp(&worst.score) {
+                Ordering::Less => {}
+                Ordering::Equal => match self.tie_handling {
+                    TieHandling::ResolveByKey => {
+                        if row.row_id < worst.row_id {
+                            self.heap.pop();
+                            self.heap.push(HeapRow(row));
+                        }
+                    }
+                    TieHandling::RetainScoreFloor { max_buffered } => {
+                        if self.heap.len() >= max_buffered {
+                            self.raise_competitive_score();
+                            return CollectionStatus::ScoreFloorOverflow;
+                        }
+                        self.heap.push(HeapRow(row));
+                    }
+                },
+                Ordering::Greater => {
+                    match self.tie_handling {
+                        TieHandling::ResolveByKey => {
+                            self.heap.pop();
+                            self.heap.push(HeapRow(row));
+                        }
+                        TieHandling::RetainScoreFloor { max_buffered } => {
+                            self.heap.push(HeapRow(row));
+                            self.prune_obsolete_score_floors();
+                            if self.heap.len() > max_buffered {
+                                // This collector is discarded and the partition is
+                                // retried with resolved keys. Keep its observable
+                                // working set within the advertised bound meanwhile.
+                                self.heap.pop();
+                                self.raise_competitive_score();
+                                return CollectionStatus::ScoreFloorOverflow;
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        self.raise_competitive_score();
+        CollectionStatus::Complete
+    }
+
+    fn raise_competitive_score(&self) {
+        if self.heap.len() >= self.limit
+            && let Some(worst) = self.heap.peek()
+        {
+            self.competitive_score.raise(worst.0.score);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn prune_obsolete_score_floors(&mut self) {
+        while self.heap.len() > self.limit {
+            let floor = self
+                .heap
+                .peek()
+                .expect("a non-empty top-k heap has a score floor")
+                .0
+                .score;
+            let floor_count = self
+                .heap
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|row| row.0.score.total_cmp(&floor) == Ordering::Equal)
+                .count();
+            if self.heap.len() - floor_count < self.limit {
+                break;
+            }
+            self.heap
+                .retain(|row| row.0.score.total_cmp(&floor) != Ordering::Equal);
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn collect_mapped(
+        &mut self,
+        scorer: &mut dyn ComposableScorer,
+        mut map_document: impl FnMut(u64) -> Result<K>,
+    ) -> Result<CollectionStatus> {
+        if self.limit == 0 {
+            return Ok(CollectionStatus::Complete);
+        }
+        let capacity_limit = match self.tie_handling {
+            TieHandling::ResolveByKey => self.limit,
+            TieHandling::RetainScoreFloor { max_buffered } => max_buffered,
+        };
+        let expected = scorer.cost().min(capacity_limit);
+        self.heap
+            .reserve(expected.saturating_sub(self.heap.capacity()));
+
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(self.competitive_score.get())?;
+        let mut doc = scorer.next()?;
+        while let Some(doc_id) = doc {
+            let min_score = self.competitive_score.get();
+            scorer.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)?;
+            let up_to = scorer.advance_shallow(doc_id)?;
+            let bounds = scorer.score_bounds(up_to)?;
+            if bounds.upper < min_score {
+                doc = if up_to == u64::MAX {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    scorer.advance(up_to + 1)?
+                };
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Phrase leaves expose their score from posting frequencies before
+            // positions are decoded. Composite scorers combine those doc-local
+            // uppers with sibling residuals, so a strict miss can bypass every
+            // pending position confirmation. Equality remains live because row
+            // id is the final top-k tie breaker.
+            if min_score.is_finite()
+                && scorer.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning()
+                && scorer
+                    .current_score_upper_bound()?
+                    .is_some_and(|upper| upper < min_score)
+            {
+                doc = scorer.next()?;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            if let Some(match_cost) = scorer.match_cost()
+                && (!match_cost.is_finite() || match_cost < 0.0)
+            {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "FTS scorer reported invalid two-phase match cost: {match_cost}"
+                )));
+            }
+            if scorer.matches()? {
+                let score = checked_score(scorer.score()?, "compound scorer")?;
+                // A shared partition floor is already known to be globally
+                // competitive. Scores strictly below it cannot enter final top-k.
+                if score >= self.competitive_score.get() {
+                    let document_key = scorer.document_key().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(
+                            "compound FTS scorer did not expose its current document key",
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    let status = self.insert(ScoredRow {
+                        row_id: map_document(document_key)?,
+                        score,
+                    });
+                    if status == CollectionStatus::ScoreFloorOverflow {
+                        return Ok(status);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            doc = scorer.next()?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(CollectionStatus::Complete)
+    }
+
+    fn into_candidates(self) -> Vec<ScoredRow<K>> {
+        let mut rows = self.heap.into_iter().map(|row| row.0).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        rows.sort_unstable_by(compare_scored_rows);
+        rows
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn into_rows(self) -> Vec<ScoredRow<K>> {
+        let limit = self.limit;
+        let mut rows = self.into_candidates();
+        rows.truncate(limit);
+        rows
+    }
+}
+
+impl TopKCollector<u64> {
+    pub(super) fn collect(mut self, scorer: &mut dyn ComposableScorer) -> Result<Vec<ScoredRow>> {
+        self.collect_mapped(scorer, Ok)?;
+        Ok(self.into_rows())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Evaluate a compound query over exact, materialized leaf result sets.
+///
+/// This is the bridge used by query-local residual postings: it keeps Boolean,
+/// Boost, and MultiMatch semantics in the same scorer tree as the on-disk
+/// compound path while allowing a different posting source.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub fn materialized_compound_top_k(
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    leaves: Vec<Vec<(u64, f32)>>,
+    limit: usize,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    let mut leaf_count = 0;
+    let plan = CompoundScorerPlan::from_query(query, &mut leaf_count)?;
+    if leaf_count != leaves.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "compound FTS planned {leaf_count} leaves but received {} materialized leaves",
+            leaves.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    let mut scorers = leaves
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|rows| {
+            let rows = rows
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(row_id, score)| ScoredRow { row_id, score })
+                .collect();
+            MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows).map(|scorer| Some(Box::new(scorer) as BoxScorer<'_>))
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    let mut scorer = plan.build(&mut scorers)?;
+    let rows = TopKCollector::new(limit).collect(scorer.as_mut())?;
+    Ok(rows.into_iter().map(|row| (row.row_id, row.score)).unzip())
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub(super) enum DisjunctionScore {
+    Sum,
+    Max,
+}
+
+pub(super) struct EmptyScorer;
+
+impl ComposableScorer for EmptyScorer {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, _target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        Err(Error::internal(
+            "score requested from an empty compound FTS scorer",
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, _target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        Ok(u64::MAX)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, _up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        Ok(ScoreBounds::ZERO)
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        Some(0.0)
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, _min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        Ok(Some(0.0))
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+struct ScaleScorer<'a> {
+    child: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    factor: f32,
+    last_parent_score_floor: f32,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    score_floor_translations: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a> ScaleScorer<'a> {
+    fn try_new(child: BoxScorer<'a>, factor: f32) -> Result<Self> {
+        if !factor.is_finite() || factor < 0.0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MatchQuery boost must be finite and non-negative, got {factor}"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            child,
+            factor,
+            last_parent_score_floor: f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            score_floor_translations: 0,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for ScaleScorer<'_> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.child.doc()
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.child.document_key()
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.child.next()
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.child.advance(target)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.child.cost()
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        checked_score(self.child.score()? * self.factor, "MatchQuery boost")
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.child.advance_shallow(target)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        Ok(self
+            .child
+            .score_bounds(up_to)?
+            .scale_non_negative(self.factor))
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.child
+            .global_score_upper_bound()
+            .map(|upper| {
+                ScoreBounds { lower: 0.0, upper }
+                    .scale_non_negative(self.factor)
+                    .upper
+            })
+            .filter(|upper| upper.is_finite() && *upper >= 0.0)
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        if min_score.is_nan() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "minimum competitive MatchQuery score cannot be NaN",
+            ));
+        }
+        if min_score <= self.last_parent_score_floor {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            self.score_floor_translations += 1;
+        }
+        if let Some(child_floor) = exclusive_scaled_score_floor(min_score, self.factor) {
+            self.child.set_min_competitive_score(child_floor)?;
+        }
+        self.last_parent_score_floor = min_score;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        Ok(self.child.current_score_upper_bound()?.map(|upper| {
+            ScoreBounds { lower: 0.0, upper }
+                .scale_non_negative(self.factor)
+                .upper
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.child.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning()
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.child.matches()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.child.match_cost()
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        self.child.scores_non_negative()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Union scorer used for Boolean SHOULD sums and MultiMatch DisMax.
+pub(super) struct DisjunctionScorer<'a> {
+    children: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>,
+    mode: DisjunctionScore,
+    current: Option<u64>,
+    confirmed_doc: Option<u64>,
+    confirmed: Vec<bool>,
+    min_competitive_score: f32,
+}
+
+impl<'a> DisjunctionScorer<'a> {
+    pub(super) fn try_new(children: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>, mode: DisjunctionScore) -> Result<Self> {
+        if children.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "FTS disjunction scorer requires at least one child",
+            ));
+        }
+        let confirmed = vec![false; children.len()];
+        Ok(Self {
+            children,
+            mode,
+            current: None,
+            confirmed_doc: None,
+            confirmed,
+            min_competitive_score: f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn set_current_from_children(&mut self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current = self.children.iter().filter_map(|child| child.doc()).min();
+        self.confirmed_doc = None;
+        self.confirmed.fill(false);
+        self.current
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_confirmed(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        if self.confirmed_doc == Some(current) {
+            return Ok(self.confirmed.iter().any(|matched| *matched));
+        }
+        self.confirmed.fill(false);
+        for (matched, child) in self.confirmed.iter_mut().zip(&mut self.children) {
+            if child.doc() == Some(current) {
+                *matched = child.matches()?;
+            }
+        }
+        self.confirmed_doc = Some(current);
+        Ok(self.confirmed.iter().any(|matched| *matched))
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for DisjunctionScorer<'_> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        let current = self.current?;
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .find(|child| child.doc() == Some(current))
+            .and_then(|child| child.document_key())
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        match self.current {
+            None => {
+                for child in &mut self.children {
+                    child.next()?;
+                }
+            }
+            Some(current) => {
+                for child in &mut self.children {
+                    if child.doc() == Some(current) {
+                        child.next()?;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(self.set_current_from_children())
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.current.is_some_and(|current| current >= target) {
+            return Ok(self.current);
+        }
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            if child.doc().is_none_or(|doc| doc < target) {
+                child.advance(target)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(self.set_current_from_children())
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .map(|child| child.cost())
+            .fold(0, usize::saturating_add)
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        if !self.ensure_confirmed()? {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "FTS disjunction score requested for an unconfirmed document",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut score = match self.mode {
+            DisjunctionScore::Sum => 0.0_f32,
+            DisjunctionScore::Max => f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+        };
+        for (matched, child) in self.confirmed.iter().zip(&mut self.children) {
+            if !matched {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let child_score = child.score()?;
+            score = match self.mode {
+                DisjunctionScore::Sum => score + child_score,
+                DisjunctionScore::Max => score.max(child_score),
+            };
+        }
+        checked_score(score, "FTS disjunction")
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let mut up_to = u64::MAX;
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            if let Some(doc) = child.doc() {
+                up_to = up_to.min(child.advance_shallow(target.max(doc))?);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        let mut bounds = match self.mode {
+            DisjunctionScore::Sum => ScoreBounds::ZERO,
+            DisjunctionScore::Max => ScoreBounds {
+                lower: f32::INFINITY,
+                upper: f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+            },
+        };
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            let child_bounds = if child.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc <= up_to) {
+                child.score_bounds(up_to)?
+            } else {
+                ScoreBounds::ZERO
+            };
+            bounds = match self.mode {
+                DisjunctionScore::Sum => bounds.add(child_bounds.include_zero()),
+                DisjunctionScore::Max => ScoreBounds {
+                    lower: bounds.lower.min(child_bounds.lower),
+                    upper: bounds.upper.max(child_bounds.upper),
+                },
+            };
+        }
+        if bounds.lower == f32::INFINITY {
+            Ok(ScoreBounds::ZERO)
+        } else {
+            Ok(bounds)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        match self.mode {
+            DisjunctionScore::Sum => sum_global_score_upper_bounds(&self.children),
+            DisjunctionScore::Max => self.children.iter().try_fold(0.0_f32, |upper, child| {
+                let child_upper = child.global_score_upper_bound()?;
+                child_upper.is_finite().then_some(upper.max(child_upper))
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        if min_score.is_nan() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "minimum competitive FTS score cannot be NaN",
+            ));
+        }
+        if min_score <= self.min_competitive_score {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        self.min_competitive_score = min_score;
+        // A child below a DisMax threshold cannot affect a competitive max.
+        // Sum scorers need sibling-global bounds before translating the floor,
+        // so they keep it at this node and prune from their combined block bound.
+        if matches!(self.mode, DisjunctionScore::Max) {
+            for child in &mut self.children {
+                child.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let mut upper = 0.0_f32;
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            if child.doc() != Some(current) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(child_upper) = child.current_score_upper_bound()? else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            if !child_upper.is_finite() {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            upper = match self.mode {
+                DisjunctionScore::Sum => {
+                    ScoreBounds { lower: 0.0, upper }
+                        .add(ScoreBounds {
+                            lower: 0.0,
+                            upper: child_upper.max(0.0),
+                        })
+                        .upper
+                }
+                DisjunctionScore::Max => upper.max(child_upper),
+            };
+        }
+        Ok(upper.is_finite().then_some(upper))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .any(|child| child.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning())
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.ensure_confirmed()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|child| child.match_cost())
+            .reduce(|left, right| left + right)
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .all(|child| child.scores_non_negative())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Intersection scorer that requires and scores every Boolean MUST child.
+pub(super) struct RequiredConjunctionScorer<'a> {
+    children: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>,
+    /// Child indices sorted by approximation cost, omitted when query order is
+    /// already cheapest-first. `children` remains in query order so scoring and
+    /// score-bound arithmetic stay bit-for-bit stable.
+    approximation_order: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+    /// Child indices sorted by two-phase confirmation cost. Children without a
+    /// cost hint remain in query order after costed confirmations.
+    confirmation_order: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+    current: Option<u64>,
+    confirmed_doc: Option<u64>,
+    confirmed: bool,
+}
+
+fn align_conjunction_children(
+    children: &mut [BoxScorer<'_>],
+    mut target: u64,
+    child_index: impl Fn(usize) -> usize,
+) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+    loop {
+        for position in 0..children.len() {
+            let child = &mut children[child_index(position)];
+            if child.doc().is_none_or(|doc| doc < target) {
+                let Some(doc) = child.advance(target)? else {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                };
+                target = target.max(doc);
+            }
+        }
+        let min_doc = children.iter().filter_map(|child| child.doc()).min();
+        let max_doc = children.iter().filter_map(|child| child.doc()).max();
+        if min_doc == max_doc {
+            return Ok(min_doc);
+        }
+        target = max_doc.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("FTS conjunction lost a child while aligning scorers")
+        })?;
+    }
+}
+
+fn compare_confirmation_cost(
+    left: &dyn ComposableScorer,
+    right: &dyn ComposableScorer,
+) -> Ordering {
+    match (left.match_cost(), right.match_cost()) {
+        (Some(left), Some(right)) => left.total_cmp(&right),
+        (Some(_), None) => Ordering::Less,
+        (None, Some(_)) => Ordering::Greater,
+        (None, None) => Ordering::Equal,
+    }
+}
+
+fn confirm_conjunction_children(
+    children: &mut [BoxScorer<'_>],
+    child_index: impl Fn(usize) -> usize,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    for position in 0..children.len() {
+        if !children[child_index(position)].matches()? {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(true)
+}
+
+impl<'a> RequiredConjunctionScorer<'a> {
+    pub(super) fn try_new(children: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>) -> Result<Self> {
+        if children.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "FTS conjunction scorer requires at least one child",
+            ));
+        }
+        let approximation_order = if children
+            .windows(2)
+            .all(|pair| pair[0].cost() <= pair[1].cost())
+        {
+            None
+        } else {
+            let mut order = (0..children.len()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            order.sort_by_key(|&index| (children[index].cost(), index));
+            Some(order)
+        };
+        for (index, child) in children.iter().enumerate() {
+            if let Some(match_cost) = child.match_cost()
+                && (!match_cost.is_finite() || match_cost < 0.0)
+            {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "FTS conjunction child {index} reported invalid two-phase match cost: {match_cost}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        let confirmation_order = if children.windows(2).all(|pair| {
+            compare_confirmation_cost(pair[0].as_ref(), pair[1].as_ref()) != Ordering::Greater
+        }) {
+            None
+        } else {
+            let mut order = (0..children.len()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            order.sort_by(|&left, &right| {
+                compare_confirmation_cost(children[left].as_ref(), children[right].as_ref())
+                    .then_with(|| left.cmp(&right))
+            });
+            Some(order)
+        };
+        Ok(Self {
+            children,
+            approximation_order,
+            confirmation_order,
+            current: None,
+            confirmed_doc: None,
+            confirmed: false,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn align(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.current = if let Some(order) = &self.approximation_order {
+            align_conjunction_children(&mut self.children, target, |position| order[position])?
+        } else {
+            align_conjunction_children(&mut self.children, target, |position| position)?
+        };
+        if self.current.is_some() {
+            self.confirmed_doc = None;
+            self.confirmed = false;
+        }
+        Ok(self.current)
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_confirmed(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        if self.confirmed_doc == Some(current) {
+            return Ok(self.confirmed);
+        }
+        self.confirmed = if let Some(order) = &self.confirmation_order {
+            confirm_conjunction_children(&mut self.children, |position| order[position])?
+        } else {
+            confirm_conjunction_children(&mut self.children, |position| position)?
+        };
+        self.confirmed_doc = Some(current);
+        Ok(self.confirmed)
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for RequiredConjunctionScorer<'_> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.children.first().and_then(|child| child.document_key())
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        let target = match self.current {
+            None => 0,
+            Some(u64::MAX) => return Ok(None),
+            Some(current) => current + 1,
+        };
+        self.align(target)
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.current.is_some_and(|current| current >= target) {
+            return Ok(self.current);
+        }
+        self.align(target)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .map(|child| child.cost())
+            .min()
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        if !self.ensure_confirmed()? {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "FTS conjunction score requested for an unconfirmed document",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut score = 0.0_f32;
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            score += child.score()?;
+        }
+        checked_score(score, "FTS conjunction")
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let mut up_to = u64::MAX;
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            let child_target = child.doc().map_or(target, |doc| target.max(doc));
+            up_to = up_to.min(child.advance_shallow(child_target)?);
+        }
+        Ok(up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        let mut bounds = ScoreBounds::ZERO;
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            bounds = bounds.add(child.score_bounds(up_to)?);
+        }
+        Ok(bounds)
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.scores_non_negative()
+            .then(|| sum_global_score_upper_bounds(&self.children))
+            .flatten()
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        if min_score.is_nan() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "minimum competitive FTS score cannot be NaN",
+            ));
+        }
+        // Propagating the full conjunction floor to one child is unsafe because
+        // individually sub-threshold MUST scores may sum to a competitive hit.
+        if self.children.len() == 1 {
+            self.children[0].set_min_competitive_score(min_score)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let mut bounds = ScoreBounds::ZERO;
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            if child.doc() != Some(current) {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let Some(upper) = child.current_score_upper_bound()? else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            if !upper.is_finite() {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            bounds = bounds.add(ScoreBounds {
+                lower: 0.0,
+                upper: upper.max(0.0),
+            });
+        }
+        Ok(bounds.upper.is_finite().then_some(bounds.upper))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .any(|child| child.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning())
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.ensure_confirmed()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|child| child.match_cost())
+            .reduce(|left, right| left + right)
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .all(|child| child.scores_non_negative())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Positive-driven Boost scorer with signed conservative bounds.
+pub(super) struct BoostScorer<'a> {
+    positive: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    negative: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    negative_boost: f32,
+    negative_matches_doc: Option<u64>,
+    negative_matches: bool,
+}
+
+impl<'a> BoostScorer<'a> {
+    pub(super) fn try_new(
+        positive: BoxScorer<'a>,
+        negative: BoxScorer<'a>,
+        negative_boost: f32,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if !negative_boost.is_finite() || negative_boost < 0.0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "BoostQuery negative_boost must be finite and non-negative, got {negative_boost}"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            positive,
+            negative,
+            negative_boost,
+            negative_matches_doc: None,
+            negative_matches: false,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn reset_confirmation(&mut self) {
+        self.negative_matches_doc = None;
+        self.negative_matches = false;
+    }
+
+    fn confirm_negative(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let Some(current) = self.positive.doc() else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        if self.negative_matches_doc == Some(current) {
+            return Ok(self.negative_matches);
+        }
+        self.negative_matches =
+            self.negative.advance(current)? == Some(current) && self.negative.matches()?;
+        self.negative_matches_doc = Some(current);
+        Ok(self.negative_matches)
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for BoostScorer<'_> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.positive.doc()
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.positive.document_key()
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.reset_confirmation();
+        self.positive.next()
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.reset_confirmation();
+        self.positive.advance(target)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.positive.cost()
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        let positive = self.positive.score()?;
+        let score = if self.confirm_negative()? {
+            positive - self.negative_boost * self.negative.score()?
+        } else {
+            positive
+        };
+        checked_score(score, "BoostQuery scorer")
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let mut up_to = self.positive.advance_shallow(target)?;
+        if self.negative.doc().is_none_or(|doc| doc < target) {
+            self.negative.advance(target)?;
+        }
+        if let Some(doc) = self.negative.doc() {
+            up_to = up_to.min(self.negative.advance_shallow(target.max(doc))?);
+        }
+        Ok(up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        let positive = self.positive.score_bounds(up_to)?;
+        let negative = if self.negative.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc <= up_to) {
+            self.negative.score_bounds(up_to)?.include_zero()
+        } else {
+            ScoreBounds::ZERO
+        };
+        Ok(positive.subtract_scaled(negative, self.negative_boost))
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        // With a non-negative negative scorer, Boost can only demote the
+        // positive score, so the parent's floor is safe for the positive side.
+        if self.negative.scores_non_negative() {
+            self.positive.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        if self.negative.scores_non_negative() {
+            self.positive.current_score_upper_bound()
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.positive.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning()
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.positive.matches()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.positive.match_cost()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Required-plus-optional scorer that only touches the optional side when it
+/// can change competitiveness or an exact score is requested.
+///
+/// The required scorer drives iteration. Once a score floor is available,
+/// block bounds may either skip the whole range or temporarily turn the
+/// optional approximation into a required iterator when the required score
+/// cannot reach the floor on its own.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct ReqOptBounds {
+    up_to: u64,
+    required: ScoreBounds,
+    combined: ScoreBounds,
+}
+
+struct ReqOptScorer<'a> {
+    required: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    optional: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    current: Option<u64>,
+    exhausted: bool,
+    optional_initialized: bool,
+    optional_is_required: bool,
+    optional_checked_doc: Option<u64>,
+    optional_matches: bool,
+    confirmed_doc: Option<u64>,
+    confirmed: bool,
+    min_competitive_score: f32,
+    shallow_bounds: Option<ReqOptBounds>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> ReqOptScorer<'a> {
+    fn new(required: BoxScorer<'a>, optional: BoxScorer<'a>) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(required.scores_non_negative());
+        debug_assert!(optional.scores_non_negative());
+        Self {
+            required,
+            optional,
+            current: None,
+            exhausted: false,
+            optional_initialized: false,
+            optional_is_required: false,
+            optional_checked_doc: None,
+            optional_matches: false,
+            confirmed_doc: None,
+            confirmed: false,
+            min_competitive_score: f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+            shallow_bounds: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn set_current(&mut self, current: Option<u64>) {
+        if self.current != current {
+            self.optional_checked_doc = None;
+            self.optional_matches = false;
+            self.confirmed_doc = None;
+            self.confirmed = false;
+        }
+        self.current = current;
+        self.optional_is_required = false;
+    }
+
+    fn set_optional_required(&mut self, required: bool) {
+        if self.optional_is_required != required {
+            self.confirmed_doc = None;
+            self.confirmed = false;
+        }
+        self.optional_is_required = required;
+    }
+
+    fn exhaust(&mut self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.exhausted = true;
+        self.set_current(None);
+        None
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_optional_at_or_after(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if !self.optional_initialized || self.optional.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc < target) {
+            self.optional.advance(target)?;
+            self.optional_initialized = true;
+        }
+        Ok(self.optional.doc())
+    }
+
+    fn optional_matches_current(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        if self.optional_checked_doc == Some(current) {
+            return Ok(self.optional_matches);
+        }
+        self.optional_matches = self.ensure_optional_at_or_after(current)? == Some(current)
+            && self.optional.matches()?;
+        self.optional_checked_doc = Some(current);
+        Ok(self.optional_matches)
+    }
+
+    fn usable_bounds(bounds: ScoreBounds) -> bool {
+        bounds.lower.is_finite() && bounds.upper.is_finite() && bounds.lower <= bounds.upper
+    }
+
+    fn bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ReqOptBounds> {
+        if let Some(bounds) = self.shallow_bounds
+            && bounds.up_to == up_to
+        {
+            return Ok(bounds);
+        }
+
+        let required = self.required.score_bounds(up_to)?;
+        let optional = if self.optional.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc <= up_to) {
+            let bounds = self.optional.score_bounds(up_to)?;
+            if Self::usable_bounds(bounds) {
+                bounds.include_zero()
+            } else {
+                ScoreBounds::UNBOUNDED
+            }
+        } else {
+            ScoreBounds::ZERO
+        };
+        let combined = required.add(optional);
+        let bounds = ReqOptBounds {
+            up_to,
+            required,
+            combined,
+        };
+        self.shallow_bounds = Some(bounds);
+        Ok(bounds)
+    }
+
+    fn position(&mut self, mut target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.exhausted {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        'search: loop {
+            let bounds = self.shallow_bounds.filter(|bounds| target <= bounds.up_to);
+
+            if self.min_competitive_score.is_finite()
+                && self.min_competitive_score > 0.0
+                && let Some(bounds) = bounds
+                && Self::usable_bounds(bounds.required)
+                && Self::usable_bounds(bounds.combined)
+            {
+                if bounds.combined.upper < self.min_competitive_score {
+                    if bounds.up_to == u64::MAX {
+                        return Ok(self.exhaust());
+                    }
+                    target = bounds.up_to + 1;
+                    self.shallow_bounds = None;
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                if bounds.required.upper < self.min_competitive_score {
+                    // The optional contribution is necessary throughout this
+                    // cached shallow range. Intersect approximations until
+                    // both sides agree or the range is exhausted.
+                    let Some(mut required_doc) = self.required.advance(target)? else {
+                        return Ok(self.exhaust());
+                    };
+                    if required_doc > bounds.up_to {
+                        target = required_doc;
+                        self.shallow_bounds = None;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    self.set_current(Some(required_doc));
+                    self.set_optional_required(true);
+                    loop {
+                        self.set_current(Some(required_doc));
+                        self.set_optional_required(true);
+                        let Some(optional_doc) = self.ensure_optional_at_or_after(required_doc)?
+                        else {
+                            if bounds.up_to == u64::MAX {
+                                return Ok(self.exhaust());
+                            }
+                            target = bounds.up_to + 1;
+                            self.shallow_bounds = None;
+                            continue 'search;
+                        };
+                        if optional_doc > bounds.up_to {
+                            if bounds.up_to == u64::MAX {
+                                return Ok(self.exhaust());
+                            }
+                            target = bounds.up_to + 1;
+                            self.shallow_bounds = None;
+                            continue 'search;
+                        }
+                        if optional_doc == required_doc {
+                            return Ok(self.current);
+                        }
+                        let Some(next_required) = self.required.advance(optional_doc)? else {
+                            return Ok(self.exhaust());
+                        };
+                        if next_required > bounds.up_to {
+                            target = next_required;
+                            self.shallow_bounds = None;
+                            continue 'search;
+                        }
+                        required_doc = next_required;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            let Some(required_doc) = self.required.advance(target)? else {
+                return Ok(self.exhaust());
+            };
+            self.set_current(Some(required_doc));
+            self.set_optional_required(false);
+            return Ok(self.current);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_confirmed(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        if self.confirmed_doc == Some(current) {
+            return Ok(self.confirmed);
+        }
+        self.confirmed = self.required.matches()?
+            && (!self.optional_is_required || self.optional_matches_current()?);
+        self.confirmed_doc = Some(current);
+        Ok(self.confirmed)
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for ReqOptScorer<'_> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.required.document_key()
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        let target = match self.current {
+            None => 0,
+            Some(u64::MAX) => return Ok(self.exhaust()),
+            Some(current) => current + 1,
+        };
+        self.position(target)
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.current.is_some_and(|current| current >= target) {
+            return Ok(self.current);
+        }
+        self.position(target)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.required.cost()
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        if !self.ensure_confirmed()? {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "required-plus-optional FTS score requested for an unconfirmed document",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut score = self.required.score()?;
+        if self.optional_matches_current()? {
+            score += self.optional.score()?;
+        }
+        checked_score(score, "required-plus-optional FTS scorer")
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let target = self.current.map_or(target, |current| target.max(current));
+        if let Some(bounds) = self.shallow_bounds
+            && target <= bounds.up_to
+        {
+            return Ok(bounds.up_to);
+        }
+        self.shallow_bounds = None;
+        let mut up_to = self.required.advance_shallow(target)?;
+        match self.ensure_optional_at_or_after(target)? {
+            Some(optional_doc) if optional_doc <= target => {
+                up_to = up_to.min(self.optional.advance_shallow(target)?);
+            }
+            Some(optional_doc) => {
+                up_to = up_to.min(optional_doc.saturating_sub(1));
+            }
+            None => {}
+        }
+        Ok(up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        Ok(self.bounds(up_to)?.combined)
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        let required = self.required.global_score_upper_bound()?;
+        let optional = self.optional.global_score_upper_bound()?;
+        let combined = ScoreBounds {
+            lower: 0.0,
+            upper: required,
+        }
+        .add(ScoreBounds {
+            lower: 0.0,
+            upper: optional,
+        })
+        .upper;
+        combined.is_finite().then_some(combined)
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        if min_score.is_nan() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "minimum competitive FTS score cannot be NaN",
+            ));
+        }
+        if min_score > self.min_competitive_score {
+            self.min_competitive_score = min_score;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let Some(required_upper) = self.required.current_score_upper_bound()? else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if !required_upper.is_finite() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if required_upper >= self.min_competitive_score {
+            // The required side alone keeps this document competitive. Keep
+            // the optional iterator lazy; scoring will align it only for a
+            // surviving candidate.
+            return Ok(Some(f32::INFINITY));
+        }
+        let optional_upper = if self.ensure_optional_at_or_after(current)? == Some(current) {
+            let Some(optional_upper) = self.optional.current_score_upper_bound()? else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            if !optional_upper.is_finite() {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            optional_upper.max(0.0)
+        } else {
+            0.0
+        };
+        let upper = ScoreBounds {
+            lower: 0.0,
+            upper: required_upper.max(0.0),
+        }
+        .add(ScoreBounds {
+            lower: 0.0,
+            upper: optional_upper,
+        })
+        .upper;
+        Ok(upper.is_finite().then_some(upper))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.required.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning()
+            || self.optional.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning()
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.ensure_confirmed()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.required
+            .match_cost()
+            .into_iter()
+            .chain(self.optional.match_cost())
+            .reduce(|left, right| left + right)
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+/// Boolean scorer preserving the current membership and score semantics.
+pub(super) struct BooleanScorer<'a> {
+    driver: BoxScorer<'a>,
+    optional: Option<BoxScorer<'a>>,
+    prohibited: Option<BoxScorer<'a>>,
+    current: Option<u64>,
+    confirmed_doc: Option<u64>,
+    confirmed: bool,
+    optional_matches: bool,
+    defer_confirmation: bool,
+}
+
+impl<'a> BooleanScorer<'a> {
+    pub(super) fn try_new(
+        should: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>,
+        must: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>,
+        must_not: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let (driver, optional) = if must.is_empty() {
+            if should.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "boolean query must have at least one should/must query",
+                ));
+            }
+            let driver = if let Some(global_bounds) = ShouldMaxScoreScorer::global_bounds(&should) {
+                Box::new(ShouldMaxScoreScorer::new(should, global_bounds)) as BoxScorer<'a>
+            } else {
+                Box::new(DisjunctionScorer::try_new(should, DisjunctionScore::Sum)?)
+                    as BoxScorer<'a>
+            };
+            (driver, None)
+        } else {
+            let mut optional = if should.is_empty() {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(
+                    Box::new(DisjunctionScorer::try_new(should, DisjunctionScore::Sum)?)
+                        as BoxScorer<'a>,
+                )
+            };
+            let required = Box::new(RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(must)?) as BoxScorer<'a>;
+            let driver = if required.scores_non_negative()
+                && optional
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|optional| optional.scores_non_negative())
+            {
+                Box::new(ReqOptScorer::new(
+                    required,
+                    optional
+                        .take()
+                        .expect("checked that the optional scorer is present"),
+                )) as BoxScorer<'a>
+            } else {
+                required
+            };
+            (driver, optional)
+        };
+        let prohibited = if must_not.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(
+                Box::new(DisjunctionScorer::try_new(must_not, DisjunctionScore::Max)?)
+                    as BoxScorer<'a>,
+            )
+        };
+        let scores_non_negative = driver.scores_non_negative()
+            && optional
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_none_or(|optional| optional.scores_non_negative());
+        let has_doc_local_confirmation = driver.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning()
+            || optional
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|optional| optional.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning())
+            || prohibited
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|prohibited| prohibited.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning());
+        Ok(Self {
+            driver,
+            optional,
+            prohibited,
+            current: None,
+            confirmed_doc: None,
+            confirmed: false,
+            optional_matches: false,
+            defer_confirmation: scores_non_negative && has_doc_local_confirmation,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn set_current(&mut self, current: Option<u64>) -> Option<u64> {
+        if self.current != current {
+            self.confirmed_doc = None;
+            self.confirmed = false;
+            self.optional_matches = false;
+        }
+        self.current = current;
+        current
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_confirmed(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        if self.confirmed_doc == Some(current) {
+            return Ok(self.confirmed);
+        }
+        if !self.driver.matches()? {
+            self.confirmed_doc = Some(current);
+            self.confirmed = false;
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        if let Some(prohibited) = &mut self.prohibited
+            && prohibited.advance(current)? == Some(current)
+            && prohibited.matches()?
+        {
+            self.confirmed_doc = Some(current);
+            self.confirmed = false;
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        self.optional_matches = if let Some(optional) = &mut self.optional {
+            optional.advance(current)? == Some(current) && optional.matches()?
+        } else {
+            false
+        };
+        self.confirmed_doc = Some(current);
+        self.confirmed = true;
+        Ok(true)
+    }
+
+    fn next_candidate(&mut self, target: Option<u64>) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        let mut candidate = match target {
+            Some(target) => self.driver.advance(target)?,
+            None => self.driver.next()?,
+        };
+        loop {
+            self.set_current(candidate);
+            if self.defer_confirmation || candidate.is_none() || self.ensure_confirmed()? {
+                return Ok(self.current);
+            }
+            candidate = self.driver.next()?;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for BooleanScorer<'_> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.driver.document_key()
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        self.next_candidate(None)
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.current.is_some_and(|current| current >= target) {
+            return Ok(self.current);
+        }
+        self.next_candidate(Some(target))
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.driver.cost()
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        if !self.ensure_confirmed()? {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "Boolean FTS score requested for an unconfirmed document",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut score = self.driver.score()?;
+        if self.optional_matches
+            && let Some(optional) = &mut self.optional
+        {
+            score += optional.score()?;
+        }
+        checked_score(score, "BooleanQuery scorer")
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let mut up_to = self.driver.advance_shallow(target)?;
+        if let Some(optional) = &mut self.optional
+            && let Some(doc) = optional.doc()
+        {
+            up_to = up_to.min(optional.advance_shallow(target.max(doc))?);
+        }
+        Ok(up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        let mut bounds = self.driver.score_bounds(up_to)?;
+        if let Some(optional) = &mut self.optional
+            && optional.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc <= up_to)
+        {
+            bounds = bounds.add(optional.score_bounds(up_to)?.include_zero());
+        }
+        Ok(bounds)
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        if !self.scores_non_negative() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let driver = self.driver.global_score_upper_bound()?;
+        let combined = if let Some(optional) = &self.optional {
+            let optional = optional.global_score_upper_bound()?;
+            ScoreBounds {
+                lower: 0.0,
+                upper: driver,
+            }
+            .add(ScoreBounds {
+                lower: 0.0,
+                upper: optional,
+            })
+            .upper
+        } else {
+            driver
+        };
+        (combined.is_finite() && combined >= 0.0).then_some(combined)
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        // When SHOULD is also present, a global sibling bound is required to
+        // translate the parent threshold safely. The combined block bound still
+        // prunes at this node. Without SHOULD, driver score is the full score.
+        if self.optional.is_none() {
+            self.driver.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if !self.scores_non_negative() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let Some(driver_upper) = self.driver.current_score_upper_bound()? else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if !driver_upper.is_finite() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let optional_upper = if let Some(optional) = &mut self.optional {
+            if optional.advance(current)? == Some(current) {
+                let Some(optional_upper) = optional.current_score_upper_bound()? else {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                };
+                if !optional_upper.is_finite() {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                optional_upper.max(0.0)
+            } else {
+                0.0
+            }
+        } else {
+            0.0
+        };
+        let upper = ScoreBounds {
+            lower: 0.0,
+            upper: driver_upper,
+        }
+        .add(ScoreBounds {
+            lower: 0.0,
+            upper: optional_upper,
+        })
+        .upper;
+        Ok(upper.is_finite().then_some(upper))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.defer_confirmation
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.ensure_confirmed()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.driver
+            .match_cost()
+            .into_iter()
+            .chain(
+                self.optional
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|optional| optional.match_cost()),
+            )
+            .chain(
+                self.prohibited
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|prohibited| prohibited.match_cost()),
+            )
+            .reduce(|left, right| left + right)
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        self.driver.scores_non_negative()
+            && self
+                .optional
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_none_or(|optional| optional.scores_non_negative())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub(super) enum LeafQuery {
+    Match(MatchQuery),
+    Phrase(PhraseQuery),
+}
+
+impl LeafQuery {
+    pub(super) fn terms(&self) -> &str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Match(query) => &query.terms,
+            Self::Phrase(query) => &query.terms,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn operator(&self) -> Operator {
+        match self {
+            Self::Match(query) => query.operator,
+            Self::Phrase(_) => Operator::And,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn effective_params(&self, params: &FtsSearchParams) -> FtsSearchParams {
+        match self {
+            Self::Match(query) => params
+                .clone()
+                .with_limit(None)
+                .with_phrase_slop(None)
+                .with_fuzziness(query.fuzziness)
+                .with_max_expansions(query.max_expansions)
+                .with_prefix_length(query.prefix_length),
+            Self::Phrase(query) => params
+                .clone()
+                .with_limit(None)
+                .with_phrase_slop(Some(query.slop)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn collect_leaf_queries(query: &FtsQuery, leaves: &mut Vec<LeafQuery>) -> Result<()> {
+    match query {
+        FtsQuery::Match(query) => leaves.push(LeafQuery::Match(query.clone())),
+        FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => leaves.push(LeafQuery::Phrase(query.clone())),
+        FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+            collect_leaf_queries(&query.positive, leaves)?;
+            collect_leaf_queries(&query.negative, leaves)?;
+        }
+        FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+            leaves.extend(query.match_queries.iter().cloned().map(LeafQuery::Match));
+        }
+        FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+            for child in query
+                .should
+                .iter()
+                .chain(&query.must)
+                .chain(&query.must_not)
+            {
+                collect_leaf_queries(child, leaves)?;
+            }
+        }
+        FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => return Err(combined_fields_unsupported()),
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// A `combined_fields` node reaching the compound scorer is a planner bug.
+///
+/// Every leaf here draws its postings from one column's index and scores them
+/// with a `MemBM25Scorer`, whereas BM25F blends `tf'`/`dl'`/`docFreq'` across
+/// several columns before scoring. The planner keeps such trees out via
+/// `supports_compound_scorer`, so this is an explicit error.
+fn combined_fields_unsupported() -> Error {
+    Error::not_supported(
+        "the compound FTS scorer cannot score a combined_fields (BM25F) node: its statistics \
+         are blended across columns and do not fit the single-index leaf protocol",
+    )
+}
+
+struct PreparedLeaf {
+    query: Arc<PreparedBm25Query>,
+    params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+    operator: Operator,
+}
+
+pub(super) fn tokenize_leaf(
+    index: &InvertedIndex,
+    leaf: &LeafQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+) -> Result<Tokens> {
+    // Keep the legacy explicit-fuzzy rewrite independent of index analysis.
+    // AUTO fuzziness still expands later, but its source terms must first use
+    // the same normalization and filtering as the indexed vocabulary.
+    let is_explicit_fuzzy_match = matches!(leaf, LeafQuery::Match(_))
+        && matches!(params.fuzziness, Some(distance) if distance > 0);
+    let mut tokenizer = if is_explicit_fuzzy_match {
+        let analyzer = TextAnalyzer::from(SimpleTokenizer::default());
+        match index.tokenizer().doc_type() {
+            DocType::Text => Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(analyzer)) as Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+            DocType::Json => Box::new(JsonTokenizer::new(analyzer)) as Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+        }
+    } else {
+        index.tokenizer()
+    };
+    try_collect_query_tokens(leaf.terms(), &mut tokenizer)
+}
+
+async fn prepare_compound_query(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    base_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+    prepared_match: Option<Arc<PreparedBm25Query>>,
+) -> Result<(CompoundScorerPlan, Vec<PreparedLeaf>)> {
+    let first_index = indices
+        .first()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("compound FTS requires at least one index segment"))?;
+    let mut leaf_queries = Vec::new();
+    collect_leaf_queries(query, &mut leaf_queries)?;
+    let mut num_plan_leaves = 0;
+    let plan = CompoundScorerPlan::from_query(query, &mut num_plan_leaves)?;
+    if num_plan_leaves != leaf_queries.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "compound FTS planned {num_plan_leaves} leaves but prepared {}",
+            leaf_queries.len()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let mut leaves = Vec::with_capacity(leaf_queries.len());
+    if prepared_match.is_some() && leaf_queries.len() != 1 {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "prepared Match replay requires exactly one compound FTS leaf",
+        ));
+    }
+    for leaf in leaf_queries {
+        let effective_params = leaf.effective_params(params);
+        let tokens = tokenize_leaf(first_index, &leaf, &effective_params)?;
+        let prepared = match &prepared_match {
+            Some(prepared) => prepared.clone(),
+            None => Arc::new(
+                prepare_bm25_query(
+                    indices,
+                    tokens,
+                    &effective_params,
+                    Some(metrics),
+                    base_scorer.clone(),
+                )
+                .await?,
+            ),
+        };
+        leaves.push(PreparedLeaf {
+            query: prepared,
+            params: Arc::new(effective_params),
+            operator: leaf.operator(),
+        });
+    }
+    Ok((plan, leaves))
+}
+
+struct LoadedLeaf {
+    postings: Vec<PostingIterator>,
+    params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+    operator: Operator,
+    scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+}
+
+enum LoadedDocuments {
+    Legacy(Arc<DocSet>),
+    Modern {
+        documents: Arc<PartitionDocuments>,
+        lengths: Arc<DocLengths>,
+        visibility: DocVisibility,
+        projection: Option<ResidentAddressProjection>,
+    },
+}
+
+struct LoadedPartition {
+    segment_ordinal: usize,
+    partition_ordinal: usize,
+    partition: Arc<InvertedPartition>,
+    documents: LoadedDocuments,
+    leaves: Vec<LoadedLeaf>,
+}
+
+async fn load_compound_partition(
+    segment_ordinal: usize,
+    partition_ordinal: usize,
+    partition: Arc<InvertedPartition>,
+    leaves: &[PreparedLeaf],
+    mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Option<LoadedPartition>> {
+    let leaf_loads = leaves.iter().map(|leaf| {
+        let partition = partition.clone();
+        let tokens = leaf.query.tokens().clone();
+        let params = leaf.params.clone();
+        let scorer = leaf.query.scorer().clone();
+        let metrics = metrics.clone();
+        let operator = leaf.operator;
+        let has_all_query_positions = leaf.query.has_all_query_positions();
+        async move {
+            let postings = if tokens.is_empty()
+                || ((operator == Operator::And || params.phrase_slop.is_some())
+                    && !has_all_query_positions)
+            {
+                Vec::new()
+            } else {
+                partition
+                    .load_posting_lists(
+                        tokens.as_ref(),
+                        params.as_ref(),
+                        operator,
+                        scorer.as_ref(),
+                        metrics.as_ref(),
+                        true,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                    .postings
+            };
+            Result::Ok(LoadedLeaf {
+                postings,
+                params,
+                operator,
+                scorer,
+            })
+        }
+    });
+    let leaves = futures::future::try_join_all(leaf_loads).await?;
+
+    let documents = if let Some(docs) = partition.docs.legacy() {
+        LoadedDocuments::Legacy(docs.clone())
+    } else {
+        let documents = partition.docs.modern().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("FTS partition contains neither legacy nor modern documents")
+        })?;
+        let materialize_selected = mask.max_len().is_some_and(|selected| {
+            u128::from(selected).saturating_mul(100)
+                <= u128::from(*FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD)
+                    .saturating_mul(documents.len() as u128)
+        });
+        let visibility = match documents.immediate_visibility(mask.clone(), materialize_selected) {
+            Some(visibility) => visibility,
+            None => {
+                documents
+                    .visibility(mask.clone(), materialize_selected)
+                    .await?
+            }
+        };
+        if visibility.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let lengths = match documents.cached_lengths() {
+            Some(lengths) => lengths,
+            None => documents.lengths().await?,
+        };
+        let projection = documents.resident_address_projection();
+        LoadedDocuments::Modern {
+            documents,
+            lengths,
+            visibility,
+            projection,
+        }
+    };
+
+    Ok(Some(LoadedPartition {
+        segment_ordinal,
+        partition_ordinal,
+        partition,
+        documents,
+        leaves,
+    }))
+}
+
+struct DeferredCompoundRows {
+    documents: Arc<PartitionDocuments>,
+    rows: Vec<ScoredRow<DocId>>,
+}
+
+struct OverflowedCompoundPartition {
+    segment_ordinal: usize,
+    partition_ordinal: usize,
+    partition: Arc<InvertedPartition>,
+    documents: Arc<PartitionDocuments>,
+}
+
+enum PartitionCollectionBoundary {
+    Deferred(DeferredCompoundRows),
+    Overflow(OverflowedCompoundPartition),
+}
+
+struct CollectedPartitions {
+    collector: TopKCollector<u64>,
+    remaining: Vec<LoadedPartition>,
+    boundary: Option<PartitionCollectionBoundary>,
+}
+
+fn collect_partition_with_documents<D, K>(
+    documents: &D,
+    leaves: Vec<LoadedLeaf>,
+    plan: &CompoundScorerPlan,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    collector: &mut TopKCollector<K>,
+    mut map_document: impl FnMut(u64) -> Result<K>,
+) -> Result<CollectionStatus>
+where
+    D: WandDocuments + Sync,
+    K: Copy + Ord,
+{
+    let mut leaf_scorers = leaves
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|leaf| {
+            let scorer: BoxScorer<'_> = if leaf.postings.is_empty() {
+                Box::new(EmptyScorer)
+            } else {
+                Box::new(WandCursor::new(
+                    leaf.operator,
+                    leaf.postings,
+                    documents,
+                    leaf.scorer,
+                    leaf.params.as_ref(),
+                    metrics,
+                ))
+            };
+            Some(scorer)
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut scorer = plan.build(&mut leaf_scorers)?;
+    if leaf_scorers.iter().any(Option::is_some) {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "compound FTS scorer did not consume every prepared leaf",
+        ));
+    }
+    collector.collect_mapped(scorer.as_mut(), &mut map_document)
+}
+
+fn collect_loaded_partitions(
+    partitions: Vec<LoadedPartition>,
+    plan: &CompoundScorerPlan,
+    mask: &RowAddrMask,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    mut collector: TopKCollector<u64>,
+) -> Result<CollectedPartitions> {
+    let mut partitions = partitions.into_iter();
+    while let Some(partition) = partitions.next() {
+        let LoadedPartition {
+            segment_ordinal,
+            partition_ordinal,
+            partition: source,
+            documents,
+            leaves,
+        } = partition;
+        match documents {
+            LoadedDocuments::Legacy(docs) => {
+                let documents = LegacyWandDocuments::new(docs.as_ref(), mask);
+                let status = collect_partition_with_documents(
+                    &documents,
+                    leaves,
+                    plan,
+                    metrics,
+                    &mut collector,
+                    Ok,
+                )?;
+                debug_assert_eq!(status, CollectionStatus::Complete);
+            }
+            LoadedDocuments::Modern {
+                documents: partition_documents,
+                lengths,
+                visibility,
+                projection,
+            } => {
+                let documents = ModernWandDocuments::filtered(lengths.as_ref(), &visibility);
+                if let Some(projection) = projection {
+                    let status = collect_partition_with_documents(
+                        &documents,
+                        leaves,
+                        plan,
+                        metrics,
+                        &mut collector,
+                        |doc_id| {
+                            let doc_id = DocId::new(u32::try_from(doc_id).map_err(|_| {
+                                Error::index(format!(
+                                    "FTS DocId {doc_id} exceeds the modern u32 domain"
+                                ))
+                            })?);
+                            let row_id = projection.address(doc_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::internal(format!(
+                                    "compound FTS scorer returned non-visible DocId {} in segment {segment_ordinal}, partition {partition_ordinal}",
+                                    doc_id.get()
+                                ))
+                            })?;
+                            Ok(row_id)
+                        },
+                    )?;
+                    debug_assert_eq!(status, CollectionStatus::Complete);
+                } else {
+                    let max_buffered = collector
+                        .limit
+                        .saturating_add(SCORE_FLOOR_RESOLUTION_BATCH_SIZE);
+                    let mut local_collector = TopKCollector::retaining_score_floor(
+                        collector.limit,
+                        collector.competitive_score.clone(),
+                        max_buffered,
+                    );
+                    let status = collect_partition_with_documents(
+                        &documents,
+                        leaves,
+                        plan,
+                        metrics,
+                        &mut local_collector,
+                        |doc_id| {
+                            Ok(DocId::new(u32::try_from(doc_id).map_err(|_| {
+                                Error::index(format!(
+                                    "FTS DocId {doc_id} exceeds the modern u32 domain"
+                                ))
+                            })?))
+                        },
+                    )?;
+                    let boundary = match status {
+                        CollectionStatus::Complete => {
+                            PartitionCollectionBoundary::Deferred(DeferredCompoundRows {
+                                documents: partition_documents,
+                                rows: local_collector.into_candidates(),
+                            })
+                        }
+                        CollectionStatus::ScoreFloorOverflow => {
+                            PartitionCollectionBoundary::Overflow(OverflowedCompoundPartition {
+                                segment_ordinal,
+                                partition_ordinal,
+                                partition: source,
+                                documents: partition_documents,
+                            })
+                        }
+                    };
+                    return Ok(CollectedPartitions {
+                        collector,
+                        remaining: partitions.collect(),
+                        boundary: Some(boundary),
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(CollectedPartitions {
+        collector,
+        remaining: Vec::new(),
+        boundary: None,
+    })
+}
+
+async fn merge_resolved_compound_rows(
+    collector: &mut TopKCollector<u64>,
+    deferred: DeferredCompoundRows,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    for rows in deferred.rows.chunks(SCORE_FLOOR_RESOLUTION_BATCH_SIZE) {
+        let doc_ids = rows.iter().map(|row| row.row_id).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let addresses = deferred.documents.resolve_addresses(&doc_ids).await?;
+        if addresses.len() != rows.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "compound FTS resolved {} addresses for {} DocIds",
+                addresses.len(),
+                rows.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        for (row, row_id) in rows.iter().zip(addresses) {
+            let status = collector.insert(ScoredRow {
+                row_id,
+                score: row.score,
+            });
+            debug_assert_eq!(status, CollectionStatus::Complete);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn reload_compound_partition_with_projection(
+    overflow: OverflowedCompoundPartition,
+    leaves: &[PreparedLeaf],
+    mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<LoadedPartition> {
+    let projection = overflow.documents.address_projection().await?;
+    let mut loaded = load_compound_partition(
+        overflow.segment_ordinal,
+        overflow.partition_ordinal,
+        overflow.partition,
+        leaves,
+        mask,
+        metrics,
+    )
+    .await?
+    .ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal(format!(
+            "compound FTS retry lost visible documents in segment {}, partition {}",
+            overflow.segment_ordinal, overflow.partition_ordinal
+        ))
+    })?;
+    match &mut loaded.documents {
+        LoadedDocuments::Modern {
+            projection: loaded_projection,
+            ..
+        } => *loaded_projection = Some(projection),
+        LoadedDocuments::Legacy(_) => {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "compound FTS retry changed segment {}, partition {} from modern to legacy documents",
+                overflow.segment_ordinal, overflow.partition_ordinal
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(loaded)
+}
+
+/// Search one-column compound FTS directly over posting-backed scorers.
+///
+/// The caller must provide all committed index segments for the column and a
+/// ready prefilter. One collector owns the global top-k heap and propagates its
+/// score floor through every partition-local scorer tree. Modern partitions
+/// resolve candidates in bounded batches; an oversized kth-score tie is retried
+/// against a resident row-address projection so final row-id ordering stays exact.
+pub async fn compound_search(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    compound_search_impl(indices, query, params, prefilter, metrics, None, None, None).await
+}
+
+/// Search one-column compound FTS with caller-supplied corpus-wide BM25 statistics.
+///
+/// The scorer must contain an entry for every token used by every query leaf,
+/// including terms produced by fuzzy expansion. An incomplete scorer is rejected
+/// instead of treating missing token statistics as zero.
+pub async fn compound_search_with_base_scorer(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    base_scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    compound_search_impl(
+        indices,
+        query,
+        params,
+        prefilter,
+        metrics,
+        Some(base_scorer),
+        None,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Search one-column compound FTS with corpus-wide BM25 statistics and an
+/// inclusive initial score floor.
+///
+/// The floor may only remove scores strictly below it. Equal-score rows must
+/// still be visited because final ordering uses row id as its secondary key.
+pub async fn compound_search_with_base_scorer_and_score_floor(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    base_scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    score_floor: f32,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    compound_search_impl(
+        indices,
+        query,
+        params,
+        prefilter,
+        metrics,
+        Some(base_scorer),
+        Some(score_floor),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Replay one root Match query with the exact vocabulary/scorer pair used by
+/// an earlier bounded WAND probe.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub async fn compound_search_prepared_match(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    prepared_match: Arc<PreparedBm25Query>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    if !matches!(query, FtsQuery::Match(_)) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "prepared Match replay requires a root Match query",
+        ));
+    }
+    compound_search_impl(
+        indices,
+        query,
+        params,
+        prefilter,
+        metrics,
+        None,
+        None,
+        Some(prepared_match),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Replay one root Match query with a prepared vocabulary/scorer pair and an
+/// inclusive initial score floor.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub async fn compound_search_prepared_match_with_score_floor(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    prepared_match: Arc<PreparedBm25Query>,
+    score_floor: f32,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    if !matches!(query, FtsQuery::Match(_)) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "prepared Match replay requires a root Match query",
+        ));
+    }
+    compound_search_impl(
+        indices,
+        query,
+        params,
+        prefilter,
+        metrics,
+        None,
+        Some(score_floor),
+        Some(prepared_match),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+// These arguments keep the public entry points explicit while centralizing the
+// shared search loop; bundling them would only move the same independent inputs
+// into an internal forwarding struct.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn compound_search_impl(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    base_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+    initial_score_floor: Option<f32>,
+    prepared_match: Option<Arc<PreparedBm25Query>>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+    if limit == 0 {
+        return Ok((Vec::new(), Vec::new()));
+    }
+    let (plan, leaves) = prepare_compound_query(
+        indices,
+        query,
+        params,
+        metrics.as_ref(),
+        base_scorer,
+        prepared_match,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    prefilter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+    let mask = prefilter.mask();
+    let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+    if let Some(score_floor) = initial_score_floor {
+        competitive_score.raise(checked_score(score_floor, "initial compound score floor")?);
+    }
+    let mut collector = TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(limit, competitive_score);
+
+    for (segment_ordinal, index) in indices.iter().enumerate() {
+        let loads =
+            index
+                .partitions
+                .iter()
+                .cloned()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(partition_ordinal, partition)| {
+                    load_compound_partition(
+                        segment_ordinal,
+                        partition_ordinal,
+                        partition,
+                        &leaves,
+                        mask.clone(),
+                        metrics.clone(),
+                    )
+                });
+        let mut partitions = stream::iter(loads)
+            .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().clamp(1, 32))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        while !partitions.is_empty() {
+            let cpu_plan = plan.clone();
+            let cpu_mask = mask.clone();
+            let cpu_metrics = metrics.clone();
+            let collected = spawn_cpu(move || {
+                collect_loaded_partitions(
+                    partitions,
+                    &cpu_plan,
+                    cpu_mask.as_ref(),
+                    cpu_metrics.as_ref(),
+                    collector,
+                )
+            })
+            .await?;
+            collector = collected.collector;
+            partitions = collected.remaining;
+            match collected.boundary {
+                Some(PartitionCollectionBoundary::Deferred(deferred)) => {
+                    merge_resolved_compound_rows(&mut collector, deferred).await?;
+                }
+                Some(PartitionCollectionBoundary::Overflow(overflow)) => {
+                    let retry = reload_compound_partition_with_projection(
+                        overflow,
+                        &leaves,
+                        mask.clone(),
+                        metrics.clone(),
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                    partitions.insert(0, retry);
+                }
+                None => debug_assert!(partitions.is_empty()),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let rows = collector.into_rows();
+    Ok(rows.into_iter().map(|row| (row.row_id, row.score)).unzip())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;
+
+    use arrow::buffer::ScalarBuffer;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::SmallRng};
+
+    use super::super::documents::{
+        ordered_row_address_projection_for_test, resident_row_address_projection_for_test,
+    };
+    use super::super::index::{PlainPostingList, PostingList};
+    use super::super::scorer::Scorer;
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::query::MultiMatchQuery;
+
+    fn rows(values: &[(u64, f32)]) -> Vec<ScoredRow> {
+        values
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(row_id, score)| ScoredRow::new(*row_id, *score).unwrap())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn materialized(values: &[(u64, f32)]) -> Box<dyn ComposableScorer> {
+        Box::new(MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(values)).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialized_compound_top_k_preserves_multimatch_and_tie_order() {
+        let query = FtsQuery::MultiMatch(MultiMatchQuery {
+            match_queries: vec![
+                MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+                MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+            ],
+        });
+        let (row_ids, scores) = materialized_compound_top_k(
+            &query,
+            vec![vec![(7, 1.0), (3, 2.0)], vec![(7, 3.0), (5, 3.0)]],
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![5, 7]);
+        assert_eq!(scores, vec![3.0, 3.0]);
+    }
+
+    fn zero_weight_wand<'a>(
+        documents: &'a DocSet,
+        scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+        params: &'a FtsSearchParams,
+        metrics: &'a dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> BoxScorer<'a> {
+        let query_weight = scorer.query_weight("common");
+        assert_eq!(query_weight, 0.0);
+        let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            "common".to_owned(),
+            0,
+            0,
+            query_weight,
+            PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_u64]),
+                ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1.0_f32]),
+                Some(0.0),
+                None,
+            )),
+            1,
+        );
+        Box::new(WandCursor::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            vec![posting],
+            documents,
+            scorer,
+            params,
+            metrics,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn mapping_error(result: Result<Option<RowAddressSource<'_>>>) -> Error {
+        match result {
+            Err(error) => error,
+            Ok(_) => panic!("row-address mapping unexpectedly succeeded"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn should_maxscore<'a>(children: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>) -> ShouldMaxScoreScorer<'a> {
+        let global_bounds = ShouldMaxScoreScorer::global_bounds(&children).unwrap();
+        ShouldMaxScoreScorer::new(children, global_bounds)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_bounds_are_conservative_under_nested_sum_and_boost() {
+        let should = DisjunctionScorer::try_new(
+            vec![
+                materialized(&[(0, 0.1), (2, 2.0)]),
+                materialized(&[(0, 0.2)]),
+            ],
+            DisjunctionScore::Sum,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let negative = materialized(&[(0, 0.3), (2, 5.0)]);
+        let mut scorer = BoostScorer::try_new(Box::new(should), negative, 0.5).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+        let up_to = scorer.advance_shallow(0).unwrap();
+        let bounds = scorer.score_bounds(up_to).unwrap();
+        let first_score = scorer.score().unwrap();
+        assert!(bounds.lower <= first_score);
+        assert!(bounds.upper >= first_score);
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(2));
+        let second_score = scorer.score().unwrap();
+        assert!(second_score.is_sign_negative());
+        let up_to = scorer.advance_shallow(2).unwrap();
+        let bounds = scorer.score_bounds(up_to).unwrap();
+        assert!(bounds.lower <= second_score);
+        assert!(bounds.upper >= second_score);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scaled_score_floor_is_maximal_and_preserves_equalities() {
+        let cases = [
+            (3.75_f32, 2.5_f32),
+            (f32::from_bits(1.0_f32.to_bits() + 1), 1.000_000_2_f32),
+            (2.0_f32, f32::MIN_POSITIVE),
+            (1.0_f32, f32::from_bits(1)),
+        ];
+        for (raw_score, factor) in cases {
+            let scaled_score = raw_score * factor;
+            assert!(scaled_score.is_finite() && scaled_score > 0.0);
+            let child_floor = exclusive_scaled_score_floor(scaled_score, factor).unwrap();
+            assert!(child_floor * factor < scaled_score);
+            assert!(child_floor < raw_score);
+            let next_raw = f32::from_bits(child_floor.to_bits() + 1);
+            assert!(next_raw * factor >= scaled_score);
+
+            let mut scorer = ScaleScorer::try_new(materialized(&[(0, raw_score)]), factor).unwrap();
+            scorer.set_min_competitive_score(scaled_score).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+            assert_eq!(scorer.score().unwrap(), scaled_score);
+        }
+
+        let subnormal_factor = f32::from_bits(1);
+        let raw_score = 0.25_f32;
+        let scaled_score = raw_score * subnormal_factor;
+        assert_eq!(scaled_score, 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            exclusive_scaled_score_floor(scaled_score, subnormal_factor),
+            None
+        );
+        let mut scorer =
+            ScaleScorer::try_new(materialized(&[(0, raw_score)]), subnormal_factor).unwrap();
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(scaled_score).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score().unwrap(), 0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scale_scorer_only_translates_strictly_higher_floors() {
+        let (child, work) = instrumented(materialized(&[(0, 10.0)]));
+        let mut scorer = ScaleScorer::try_new(child, 2.0).unwrap();
+
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(4.0).unwrap();
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(4.0).unwrap();
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(3.0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score_floor_translations, 1);
+        assert_eq!(work.floors.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(5.0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score_floor_translations, 2);
+        assert_eq!(work.floors.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 2);
+
+        let error = scorer.set_min_competitive_score(f32::NAN).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("cannot be NaN"));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score_floor_translations, 2);
+
+        let subnormal_factor = f32::from_bits(1);
+        let (child, work) = instrumented(materialized(&[(0, 1.0)]));
+        let mut scorer = ScaleScorer::try_new(child, subnormal_factor).unwrap();
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(0.0).unwrap();
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(0.0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score_floor_translations, 1);
+        assert_eq!(work.floors.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 0);
+
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(f32::from_bits(1)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score_floor_translations, 2);
+        assert_eq!(work.floors.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialized_scorer_precomputes_multi_block_bounds() {
+        assert_eq!(std::mem::size_of::<ScoreBounds>(), 8);
+        let values = [
+            (0, 5.0),
+            (1, 1.0),
+            (2, 3.0),
+            (3, -2.0),
+            (4, 7.0),
+            (5, 4.0),
+            (6, 8.0),
+            (7, 6.0),
+            (8, 9.0),
+            (9, 0.0),
+        ];
+        let mut scorer = MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&values))
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_block_size(3);
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.num_bound_blocks(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(scorer.bound_score_visits(), values.len());
+        assert_eq!(scorer.global_score_upper_bound(), Some(9.0));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.advance_shallow(4).unwrap(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(
+            scorer.score_bounds(4).unwrap(),
+            ScoreBounds {
+                lower: -2.0,
+                upper: 7.0,
+            }
+        );
+        for _ in 0..100 {
+            assert_eq!(scorer.score_bounds(5).unwrap().upper, 7.0);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(scorer.bound_score_visits(), values.len());
+
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(8.0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(6));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.bound_score_visits(), values.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn collector_propagates_threshold_across_partitions_and_keeps_ties() {
+        let mut collector = TopKCollector::new(2);
+        let mut first = MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(8, 9.0), (4, 10.0), (3, 9.0)]))
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_block_size(1);
+        collector.collect_mapped(&mut first, Ok).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collector.competitive_score.get(), 9.0);
+
+        let mut second = MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(1, 1.0), (2, 9.0)]))
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_block_size(1);
+        collector.collect_mapped(&mut second, Ok).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            collector.into_rows(),
+            vec![
+                ScoredRow {
+                    row_id: 4,
+                    score: 10.0
+                },
+                ScoredRow {
+                    row_id: 2,
+                    score: 9.0
+                }
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn seeded_collector_keeps_floor_equalities_for_row_id_ordering() {
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(5.0);
+        let mut collector = TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(2, competitive_score);
+
+        let mut later_segment = MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(2, 4.0), (99, 5.0)])).unwrap();
+        collector.collect_mapped(&mut later_segment, Ok).unwrap();
+        let mut earlier_segment =
+            MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(1, 5.0), (50, 6.0)])).unwrap();
+        collector.collect_mapped(&mut earlier_segment, Ok).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(collector.into_rows(), rows(&[(50, 6.0), (1, 5.0)]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn collector_bounds_equal_score_candidates() {
+        let limit = 1;
+        let num_candidates = DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE * 4;
+        let values = (0..num_candidates)
+            .map(|row_id| (row_id as u64, 1.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut scorer = MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&values)).unwrap();
+        let max_buffered = limit + SCORE_FLOOR_RESOLUTION_BATCH_SIZE;
+        let mut collector = TopKCollector::retaining_score_floor(
+            limit,
+            Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default()),
+            max_buffered,
+        );
+
+        let status = collector.collect_mapped(&mut scorer, Ok).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(status, CollectionStatus::ScoreFloorOverflow);
+        assert_eq!(collector.heap.len(), max_buffered);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn collector_reclaims_obsolete_score_floor_before_overflowing() {
+        let limit = 2;
+        let max_buffered = 4;
+        let values = [
+            (0, 1.0),
+            (1, 1.0),
+            (2, 1.0),
+            (3, 2.0),
+            (4, 2.0),
+            (5, 2.0),
+            (6, 2.0),
+            (7, 2.0),
+        ];
+        let mut scorer = MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&values)).unwrap();
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        let mut collector =
+            TopKCollector::retaining_score_floor(limit, competitive_score.clone(), max_buffered);
+
+        let status = collector.collect_mapped(&mut scorer, Ok).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(status, CollectionStatus::ScoreFloorOverflow);
+        assert_eq!(collector.heap.len(), max_buffered);
+        assert!(collector.heap.iter().all(|row| row.0.score == 2.0));
+        assert_eq!(competitive_score.get(), 2.0);
+    }
+
+    struct TwoPhaseScorer {
+        inner: MaterializedScorer,
+        accepted: Vec<u64>,
+        match_cost: Option<f32>,
+        has_doc_upper: bool,
+        approximations: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        confirmations: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    impl ComposableScorer for TwoPhaseScorer {
+        fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.inner.doc()
+        }
+
+        fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+            let doc = self.inner.next()?;
+            if doc.is_some() {
+                self.approximations.fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            }
+            Ok(doc)
+        }
+
+        fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+            let doc = self.inner.advance(target)?;
+            if doc.is_some() {
+                self.approximations.fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            }
+            Ok(doc)
+        }
+
+        fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.cost()
+        }
+
+        fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+            self.inner.score()
+        }
+
+        fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+            self.inner.advance_shallow(target)
+        }
+
+        fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+            self.inner.score_bounds(up_to)
+        }
+
+        fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+            self.inner.global_score_upper_bound()
+        }
+
+        fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+            self.inner.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)
+        }
+
+        fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+            if self.has_doc_upper {
+                self.inner.score().map(Some)
+            } else {
+                Ok(None)
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+
+        fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+            self.confirmations.fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            Ok(self
+                .doc()
+                .is_some_and(|doc| self.accepted.binary_search(&doc).is_ok()))
+        }
+
+        fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+            self.match_cost
+        }
+
+        fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn two_phase(
+        values: &[(u64, f32)],
+        accepted: Vec<u64>,
+        match_cost: Option<f32>,
+    ) -> (
+        Box<dyn ComposableScorer>,
+        Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    ) {
+        let approximations = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let confirmations = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let scorer = TwoPhaseScorer {
+            inner: MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(values)).unwrap(),
+            accepted,
+            match_cost,
+            has_doc_upper: true,
+            approximations: approximations.clone(),
+            confirmations: confirmations.clone(),
+        };
+        (Box::new(scorer), approximations, confirmations)
+    }
+
+    fn two_phase_without_doc_upper(
+        values: &[(u64, f32)],
+        accepted: Vec<u64>,
+    ) -> (
+        Box<dyn ComposableScorer>,
+        Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    ) {
+        let approximations = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let confirmations = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let scorer = TwoPhaseScorer {
+            inner: MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(values)).unwrap(),
+            accepted,
+            match_cost: Some(1.0),
+            has_doc_upper: false,
+            approximations: approximations.clone(),
+            confirmations: confirmations.clone(),
+        };
+        (Box::new(scorer), approximations, confirmations)
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Default)]
+    struct ScorerWork {
+        advances: AtomicUsize,
+        confirmations: AtomicUsize,
+        shallow_advances: AtomicUsize,
+        bounds: AtomicUsize,
+        floors: AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    struct InstrumentedScorer<'a> {
+        inner: BoxScorer<'a>,
+        work: Arc<ScorerWork>,
+    }
+
+    impl ComposableScorer for InstrumentedScorer<'_> {
+        fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.inner.doc()
+        }
+
+        fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.inner.document_key()
+        }
+
+        fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+            let doc = self.inner.next()?;
+            if doc.is_some() {
+                self.work.advances.fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            }
+            Ok(doc)
+        }
+
+        fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+            let doc = self.inner.advance(target)?;
+            if doc.is_some() {
+                self.work.advances.fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            }
+            Ok(doc)
+        }
+
+        fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.cost()
+        }
+
+        fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+            self.inner.score()
+        }
+
+        fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+            self.work
+                .shallow_advances
+                .fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            self.inner.advance_shallow(target)
+        }
+
+        fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+            self.work.bounds.fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            self.inner.score_bounds(up_to)
+        }
+
+        fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+            self.inner.global_score_upper_bound()
+        }
+
+        fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+            self.work.floors.fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            self.inner.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)
+        }
+
+        fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+            self.inner.current_score_upper_bound()
+        }
+
+        fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+            self.inner.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning()
+        }
+
+        fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+            self.work
+                .confirmations
+                .fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            self.inner.matches()
+        }
+
+        fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+            self.inner.match_cost()
+        }
+
+        fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+            self.inner.scores_non_negative()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn instrumented<'a>(inner: BoxScorer<'a>) -> (BoxScorer<'a>, Arc<ScorerWork>) {
+        let work = Arc::new(ScorerWork::default());
+        (
+            Box::new(InstrumentedScorer {
+                inner,
+                work: work.clone(),
+            }),
+            work,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn row_address_source(values: &[(u64, f32)]) -> RowAddressSource<'static> {
+        let min_possible_row_address = values
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(row_address, _)| *row_address)
+            .min()
+            .unwrap();
+        RowAddressSource::new(min_possible_row_address, materialized(values))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn row_address_scorer_maps_gaps_advance_and_shallow_bounds() {
+        let projection = ordered_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 20, 50, 100, 200]);
+        let source = Box::new(
+            MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(0, 1.0), (2, 5.0), (4, 9.0)]))
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_block_size(2),
+        );
+        let mut scorer = RowAddressScorer::new(source, projection);
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(10));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.document_key(), Some(10));
+        let up_to = scorer.advance_shallow(10).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(up_to, 199);
+        assert_eq!(
+            scorer.score_bounds(150).unwrap(),
+            ScoreBounds {
+                lower: 1.0,
+                upper: 5.0,
+            }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(scorer.global_score_upper_bound(), Some(9.0));
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.advance(21).unwrap(), Some(50));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score().unwrap(), 5.0);
+        assert_eq!(scorer.advance(51).unwrap(), Some(200));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score().unwrap(), 9.0);
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn prepared_row_address_projection_is_reusable_across_leaf_scorers() {
+        let ordered_projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 20, 50]);
+        let ordered = prepare_row_address_projection(&ordered_projection);
+        assert_eq!(
+            ordered_projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown
+        );
+        assert_eq!(ordered_projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 0);
+
+        let first = map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (2, 3.0)]),
+            &ordered,
+            0,
+            10,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ordered_projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered
+        );
+        assert_eq!(ordered_projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 3);
+        let second = map_scorer_to_row_addresses(materialized(&[(1, 2.0)]), &ordered, 0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ordered_projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 3);
+        let first = TopKCollector::new(10)
+            .collect(first.into_scorer().as_mut())
+            .unwrap();
+        let second = TopKCollector::new(10)
+            .collect(second.into_scorer().as_mut())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first, rows(&[(50, 3.0), (10, 1.0)]));
+        assert_eq!(second, rows(&[(20, 2.0)]));
+
+        let delayed = map_scorer_to_row_addresses(materialized(&[(2, 3.0)]), &ordered, 2)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(delayed.min_possible_row_address, 50);
+
+        let unordered_projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![30, 10, 20]);
+        let unordered = prepare_row_address_projection(&unordered_projection);
+        let first = map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 2.0)]),
+            &unordered,
+            0,
+            10,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            unordered_projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::OutOfOrder
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(unordered_projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 2);
+        let second = map_scorer_to_row_addresses(materialized(&[(2, 4.0)]), &unordered, 0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(unordered_projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 2);
+        let first = TopKCollector::new(10)
+            .collect(first.into_scorer().as_mut())
+            .unwrap();
+        let second = TopKCollector::new(10)
+            .collect(second.into_scorer().as_mut())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first, rows(&[(10, 2.0), (30, 1.0)]));
+        assert_eq!(second, rows(&[(20, 4.0)]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn adaptive_projection_materializes_sparse_unknown_without_validation() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(
+            (0..100).map(|local_doc| local_doc * 10).collect(),
+        );
+        let prepared = prepare_row_address_projection(&projection);
+
+        let source = map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(73, 4.0)]),
+            &prepared,
+            73,
+            10,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown
+        );
+        let result = TopKCollector::new(1)
+            .collect(source.into_scorer().as_mut())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result, rows(&[(730, 4.0)]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn adaptive_projection_amortizes_repeated_sparse_materialization() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(
+            (0..100).map(|local_doc| local_doc * 10).collect(),
+        );
+        let prepared = prepare_row_address_projection(&projection);
+
+        for _ in 0..10 {
+            map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+                materialized(&[(73, 4.0)]),
+                &prepared,
+                73,
+                10,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown
+        );
+
+        map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(materialized(&[(73, 4.0)]), &prepared, 73, 10)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 100);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered
+        );
+
+        map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(materialized(&[(73, 4.0)]), &prepared, 73, 10)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 100);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn adaptive_projection_validates_dense_unknown_once() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 20, 30, 40]);
+        let prepared = prepare_row_address_projection(&projection);
+
+        map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 1.0), (2, 1.0), (3, 1.0)]),
+            &prepared,
+            0,
+            10,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered
+        );
+
+        map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(0, 2.0), (1, 2.0), (2, 2.0), (3, 2.0)]),
+            &prepared,
+            0,
+            10,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn adaptive_projection_tracks_unknown_duplicates_across_leaves() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 10]);
+        let prepared = prepare_row_address_projection(&projection);
+
+        map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(materialized(&[(0, 1.0)]), &prepared, 0, 1000)
+            .unwrap();
+        // The same physical local document can match more than one leaf.
+        map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(materialized(&[(0, 2.0)]), &prepared, 0, 1000)
+            .unwrap();
+        let error = mapping_error(map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(1, 3.0)]),
+            &prepared,
+            1,
+            1000,
+        ));
+
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("distinct local documents 0 and 1")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn adaptive_projection_tracks_out_of_order_duplicates_across_leaves() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 30, 10]);
+        let prepared = prepare_row_address_projection(&projection);
+
+        map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(materialized(&[(0, 1.0)]), &prepared, 0, 0)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::OutOfOrder
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 3);
+
+        let error = mapping_error(map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(2, 2.0)]),
+            &prepared,
+            2,
+            100,
+        ));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("distinct local documents 0 and 2")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn adaptive_projection_rejects_cached_duplicates_without_materializing() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 10]);
+        let prepared = prepare_row_address_projection(&projection);
+
+        let first_error = mapping_error(map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(0, 1.0)]),
+            &prepared,
+            0,
+            0,
+        ));
+        assert!(
+            first_error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("shared by local documents 0 and 1")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 2);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Duplicate
+        ));
+
+        let second_error = mapping_error(map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(1, 2.0)]),
+            &prepared,
+            1,
+            100,
+        ));
+        assert!(
+            second_error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("shared by local documents 0 and 1")
+        );
+        // The atomic cache stores only the invalid category. Reconstructing
+        // exact duplicate diagnostics is a rare error-path rescan.
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialized_projection_reports_single_leaf_duplicates_locally() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 10]);
+        let prepared = prepare_row_address_projection(&projection);
+        let error = mapping_error(map_scorer_to_row_addresses_with_threshold(
+            materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 2.0)]),
+            &prepared,
+            0,
+            100,
+        ));
+
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("duplicate row_id=10"));
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn row_address_merge_orders_gapped_sources_and_keeps_score_ties() {
+        let mut scorer = RowAddressMergeScorer::try_new(vec![
+            row_address_source(&[(10, 5.0), (100, 2.0)]),
+            row_address_source(&[(20, 5.0), (70, 8.0)]),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let results = TopKCollector::new(10).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            results,
+            rows(&[(70, 8.0), (10, 5.0), (20, 5.0), (100, 2.0)])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn row_address_merge_advance_skips_sources_with_a_heap() {
+        let mut scorer = RowAddressMergeScorer::try_new(vec![
+            row_address_source(&[(10, 1.0), (100, 2.0)]),
+            row_address_source(&[(20, 3.0), (70, 4.0)]),
+            row_address_source(&[(30, 5.0), (90, 6.0)]),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.advance(65).unwrap(), Some(70));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(90));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(100));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn row_address_merge_delays_pending_sources_and_shallow_work() {
+        let first = Box::new(
+            MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(10, 1.0), (20, 4.0), (2_000, 8.0)]))
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_block_size(3),
+        );
+        let second = Box::new(
+            MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(1_000, 10.0)]))
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_block_size(1),
+        );
+        let (first, first_work) = instrumented(first);
+        let (second, second_work) = instrumented(second);
+        let mut scorer = RowAddressMergeScorer::try_new(vec![
+            RowAddressSource::new(10, first),
+            RowAddressSource::new(1_000, second),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(10));
+        assert_eq!(first_work.advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(second_work.advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 0);
+
+        let up_to = scorer.advance_shallow(10).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(up_to, 999);
+        // Materialized bounds conservatively cover the whole source block,
+        // including its row at 2_000, while the merge window still stops
+        // before the pending source at 1_000.
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score_bounds(up_to).unwrap().upper, 8.0);
+        assert_eq!(first_work.shallow_advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(first_work.bounds.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            second_work.shallow_advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed),
+            0
+        );
+        assert_eq!(second_work.bounds.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(scorer.global_score_upper_bound(), Some(10.0));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn row_address_merge_pushes_new_floors_only_to_active_sources() {
+        let (first, first_work) = instrumented(materialized(&[(10, 1.0), (20, 2.0)]));
+        let (second, second_work) = instrumented(materialized(&[(1_000, 10.0)]));
+        let mut scorer = RowAddressMergeScorer::try_new(vec![
+            RowAddressSource::new(10, first),
+            RowAddressSource::new(1_000, second),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(10));
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(5.0).unwrap();
+        scorer.set_min_competitive_score(5.0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first_work.floors.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(second_work.floors.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 0);
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.advance(1_000).unwrap(), Some(1_000));
+        assert_eq!(second_work.floors.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn row_address_merge_rejects_duplicate_source_addresses() {
+        let mut scorer = RowAddressMergeScorer::try_new(vec![
+            row_address_source(&[(20, 1.0)]),
+            row_address_source(&[(20, 2.0)]),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let error = scorer.next().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("duplicate row address 20"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialized_address_fallback_sorts_nonmonotonic_projection() {
+        let addresses = [30, 10, 20];
+        let source = materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 2.0), (2, 3.0)]);
+        let source = materialize_mapped_scorer(source, |doc| {
+            addresses
+                .get(doc as usize)
+                .copied()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal(format!("missing test address for document {doc}")))
+        })
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut scorer = source.into_scorer();
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(10));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score().unwrap(), 2.0);
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(20));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score().unwrap(), 3.0);
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(30));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score().unwrap(), 1.0);
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn materialized_address_fallback_rejects_duplicate_matches() {
+        let source = materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 2.0)]);
+        let Err(error) = materialize_mapped_scorer(source, |_| Ok(10)) else {
+            panic!("duplicate projected addresses must fail");
+        };
+
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("duplicate row_id=10"));
+    }
+
+    struct UnboundedScorer {
+        inner: MaterializedScorer,
+    }
+
+    impl ComposableScorer for UnboundedScorer {
+        fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.inner.doc()
+        }
+
+        fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+            self.inner.next()
+        }
+
+        fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+            self.inner.advance(target)
+        }
+
+        fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.cost()
+        }
+
+        fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+            self.inner.score()
+        }
+
+        fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+            self.inner.advance_shallow(target)
+        }
+
+        fn score_bounds(&mut self, _up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+            Ok(ScoreBounds::UNBOUNDED)
+        }
+
+        fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+            self.inner.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)
+        }
+
+        fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct CountingScorer {
+        inner: MaterializedScorer,
+        cost: usize,
+        advance_calls: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    impl ComposableScorer for CountingScorer {
+        fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.inner.doc()
+        }
+
+        fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+            self.inner.next()
+        }
+
+        fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+            self.advance_calls.fetch_add(1, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+            self.inner.advance(target)
+        }
+
+        fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+            self.cost
+        }
+
+        fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+            self.inner.score()
+        }
+
+        fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+            self.inner.advance_shallow(target)
+        }
+
+        fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+            self.inner.score_bounds(up_to)
+        }
+
+        fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+            self.inner.global_score_upper_bound()
+        }
+
+        fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+            self.inner.set_min_competitive_score(min_score)
+        }
+
+        fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+            self.inner.matches()
+        }
+
+        fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+            self.inner.scores_non_negative()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn counting(
+        values: &[(u64, f32)],
+        cost: usize,
+    ) -> (Box<dyn ComposableScorer>, Arc<AtomicUsize>) {
+        let advance_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let scorer = CountingScorer {
+            inner: MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(values)).unwrap(),
+            cost,
+            advance_calls: advance_calls.clone(),
+        };
+        (Box::new(scorer), advance_calls)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn collector_confirms_two_phase_matches_without_a_cost_hint() {
+        let (mut scorer, approximations, confirmations) =
+            two_phase(&[(1, 100.0), (2, 2.0), (3, 1.0)], vec![2, 3], None);
+        let results = TopKCollector::new(2).collect(scorer.as_mut()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(2, 2.0), (3, 1.0)]));
+        assert_eq!(approximations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(scorer.match_cost(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn required_conjunction_confirms_cheapest_first_and_short_circuits() {
+        let values = (0..100).map(|doc| (doc, 1.0)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let accepted_by_cheap = (0..100).step_by(5).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let (expensive, expensive_approximations, expensive_confirmations) =
+            two_phase(&values, (0..100).collect(), Some(10.0));
+        let (cheap, cheap_approximations, cheap_confirmations) =
+            two_phase(&values, accepted_by_cheap.clone(), Some(1.0));
+        let mut scorer = RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![expensive, cheap]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scorer.confirmation_order.as_deref(), Some(&[1, 0][..]));
+
+        let results = TopKCollector::new(100).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap();
+        let expected = accepted_by_cheap
+            .iter()
+            .map(|doc| (*doc, 2.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&expected));
+        assert_eq!(cheap_confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 100);
+        assert_eq!(expensive_confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 20);
+        let approximations = cheap_approximations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed)
+            + expensive_approximations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+        let confirmations = cheap_confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed)
+            + expensive_confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+        assert_eq!(approximations, 200);
+        assert_eq!(confirmations, 120);
+        assert!(
+            confirmations * 5 <= approximations * 4,
+            "confirmation ordering should reduce work by at least 20%: {confirmations}/{approximations}"
+        );
+
+        let (cheap, _, _) = two_phase(&values, accepted_by_cheap, Some(1.0));
+        let (expensive, _, _) = two_phase(&values, (0..100).collect(), Some(10.0));
+        let scorer = RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![cheap, expensive]).unwrap();
+        assert!(scorer.confirmation_order.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn required_conjunction_confirms_children_without_cost_hints() {
+        let (unknown, _, unknown_confirmations) = two_phase(&[(0, 1.0)], Vec::new(), None);
+        let (costed, _, costed_confirmations) = two_phase(&[(0, 1.0)], vec![0], Some(1.0));
+        let mut scorer = RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![unknown, costed]).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.confirmation_order.as_deref(), Some(&[1, 0][..]));
+        assert!(
+            TopKCollector::new(1)
+                .collect(&mut scorer)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(costed_confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(unknown_confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn required_conjunction_rejects_invalid_match_cost() {
+        let (invalid, _, _) = two_phase(&[(0, 1.0)], vec![0], Some(f32::NAN));
+
+        let error = RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![invalid])
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("child 0 reported invalid two-phase match cost: NaN")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn required_conjunction_uses_all_must_scores_for_competitive_bounds() {
+        let left = Box::new(
+            MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(1, 3.0), (3, 1.0)]))
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_block_size(1),
+        );
+        let right = Box::new(
+            MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(1, 30.0), (3, 10.0)]))
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_block_size(1),
+        );
+        let mut scorer = RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![left, right]).unwrap();
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(10.0);
+
+        let results = TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(10, competitive_score)
+            .collect(&mut scorer)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(1, 33.0), (3, 11.0)]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn required_conjunction_aligns_cheapest_clause_first() {
+        let dense_rows = (0..=100).map(|row_id| (row_id, 1.0)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let (dense, dense_advance_calls) = counting(&dense_rows, 101);
+        let (rare, rare_advance_calls) = counting(&[(50, 1.0)], 1);
+        let mut scorer = RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![dense, rare]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scorer.approximation_order.as_deref(), Some(&[1, 0][..]));
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(50));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), None);
+        assert_eq!(dense_advance_calls.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(rare_advance_calls.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 2);
+
+        let (rare, _) = counting(&[(50, 1.0)], 1);
+        let (dense, _) = counting(&dense_rows, 101);
+        let scorer = RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![rare, dense]).unwrap();
+        assert!(scorer.approximation_order.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn required_conjunction_preserves_query_score_order() {
+        let (large, _) = counting(&[(0, 16_777_216.0)], 3);
+        let (first_small, _) = counting(&[(0, 1.0)], 1);
+        let (second_small, _) = counting(&[(0, 1.0)], 2);
+        let mut scorer =
+            RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![large, first_small, second_small]).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(scorer.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.score().unwrap(), 16_777_216.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn boolean_sums_all_matching_clause_scores() {
+        let must = vec![
+            materialized(&[(1, 3.0), (2, 2.0), (3, 1.0)]),
+            materialized(&[(1, 30.0), (3, 10.0)]),
+        ];
+        let should = vec![
+            materialized(&[(1, 0.5), (3, 4.0)]),
+            materialized(&[(3, 2.0)]),
+        ];
+        let must_not = vec![materialized(&[(1, 9.0)])];
+        let mut boolean = BooleanScorer::try_new(should, must, must_not).unwrap();
+        let results = TopKCollector::new(10).collect(&mut boolean).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            results,
+            vec![ScoredRow {
+                row_id: 3,
+                score: 17.0
+            }]
+        );
+
+        let mut dismax = DisjunctionScorer::try_new(
+            vec![
+                materialized(&[(1, 2.0), (3, 3.0)]),
+                materialized(&[(1, 4.0), (2, 4.0)]),
+            ],
+            DisjunctionScore::Max,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let results = TopKCollector::new(2).collect(&mut dismax).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(1, 4.0), (2, 4.0)]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn boolean_preserves_zero_weight_required_and_prohibited_membership() {
+        let mut token_docs = HashMap::new();
+        token_docs.insert("common".to_owned(), 10_000_000);
+        let scorer = Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(10_000_000, 10_000_000, token_docs));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.query_weight("common"), 0.0);
+
+        let mut documents = DocSet::default();
+        documents.append(0, 1);
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default();
+        let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+
+        let mut required = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+            Vec::new(),
+            vec![zero_weight_wand(
+                &documents,
+                scorer.clone(),
+                &params,
+                &metrics,
+            )],
+            Vec::new(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(required.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+        assert!(required.matches().unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(required.score().unwrap(), 0.0);
+        drop(required);
+
+        let mut excluded = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+            Vec::new(),
+            vec![materialized(&[(0, 1.0)])],
+            vec![zero_weight_wand(&documents, scorer, &params, &metrics)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(excluded.next().unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn phrase_doc_bound_records_exact_and_sloppy_confirmation_avoidance() {
+        let mut token_docs = HashMap::new();
+        token_docs.insert("common".to_owned(), 10_000_000);
+        let scorer = Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(10_000_000, 10_000_000, token_docs));
+        let mut documents = DocSet::default();
+        documents.append(0, 1);
+
+        for slop in [0, 2] {
+            let params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_phrase_slop(Some(slop));
+            let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+            let phrase = zero_weight_wand(&documents, scorer.clone(), &params, &metrics);
+            // The high-scoring sibling keeps the shared block competitive, while
+            // doc 0 still has a combined doc-local upper below the score floor.
+            let mut phrase = DisjunctionScorer::try_new(
+                vec![phrase, materialized(&[(0, 0.0), (1, 2.0)])],
+                DisjunctionScore::Sum,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+            competitive_score.raise(1.0);
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+                    .collect(&mut phrase)
+                    .unwrap(),
+                rows(&[(1, 2.0)])
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn phrase_positive_boost_uses_positive_upper_before_confirmation() {
+        let (phrase, _, confirmations) = two_phase(&[(0, 2.0), (1, 10.0)], vec![1], Some(1.0));
+        let mut scorer = BoostScorer::try_new(phrase, materialized(&[(1, 1.0)]), 0.5).unwrap();
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(9.5);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+                .collect(&mut scorer)
+                .unwrap(),
+            rows(&[(1, 9.5)])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn phrase_must_not_never_contributes_to_score_upper_bound() {
+        let (prohibited, approximations, confirmations) =
+            two_phase(&[(0, 100.0)], Vec::new(), Some(1.0));
+        let mut scorer = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+            Vec::new(),
+            vec![materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 10.0)])],
+            vec![prohibited],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(10.0);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+                .collect(&mut scorer)
+                .unwrap(),
+            rows(&[(1, 10.0)])
+        );
+        // Doc 0 is rejected from the positive score alone. The prohibited
+        // phrase is never advanced, so it cannot inflate that upper bound.
+        assert_eq!(approximations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn signed_and_unknown_doc_bounds_use_exact_confirmation_fallback() {
+        let (signed_phrase, _, signed_confirmations) = two_phase(&[(0, 2.0)], vec![0], Some(1.0));
+        let signed_optional =
+            Box::new(BoostScorer::try_new(signed_phrase, materialized(&[(0, 2.0)]), 2.0).unwrap());
+        let mut signed = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+            vec![signed_optional],
+            vec![materialized(&[(0, 1.0)])],
+            Vec::new(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(10.0);
+
+        assert!(
+            TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+                .collect(&mut signed)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(signed_confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        let (unknown_phrase, approximations, confirmations) =
+            two_phase_without_doc_upper(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 100.0)], vec![1]);
+        let mut unknown = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+            vec![unknown_phrase, materialized(&[(0, 0.0), (1, 0.0)])],
+            Vec::new(),
+            Vec::new(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(50.0);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+                .collect(&mut unknown)
+                .unwrap(),
+            rows(&[(1, 100.0)])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(approximations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 2);
+        assert_eq!(confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn row_address_merge_forwards_phrase_doc_bound_and_avoidance() {
+        // Cross-column eager execution maps each leaf into row-address space
+        // and merges disjoint sources through this same wrapper stack.
+        let (phrase, approximations, confirmations) =
+            two_phase(&[(0, 2.0), (1, 10.0)], vec![1], Some(1.0));
+        let mapped_phrase = Box::new(RowAddressScorer::new(
+            phrase,
+            ordered_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![100, 200]),
+        ));
+        let mut scorer = RowAddressMergeScorer::try_new(vec![
+            RowAddressSource::new(100, mapped_phrase),
+            row_address_source(&[(300, 100.0)]),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(10.0);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(2, competitive_score)
+                .collect(&mut scorer)
+                .unwrap(),
+            rows(&[(300, 100.0), (200, 10.0)])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(approximations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 2);
+        assert_eq!(confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn phrase_outward_upper_equal_to_ulp_floor_still_confirms() {
+        let exact_score = next_down(1.0);
+        let floor = 1.0;
+        assert_eq!(
+            ScoreBounds::ZERO
+                .add(ScoreBounds::point(exact_score).unwrap())
+                .upper(),
+            floor
+        );
+        let (phrase, _, confirmations) = two_phase(&[(7, exact_score)], vec![7], Some(1.0));
+        let mut phrase = DisjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![phrase], DisjunctionScore::Sum).unwrap();
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(floor);
+
+        assert!(
+            TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+                .collect(&mut phrase)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn surviving_nested_phrase_is_confirmed_exactly_once() {
+        let (phrase, _, confirmations) = two_phase(&[(3, 5.0)], vec![3], Some(1.0));
+        let nested = Box::new(
+            DisjunctionScorer::try_new(
+                vec![phrase, materialized(&[(3, 0.0)])],
+                DisjunctionScore::Sum,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let mut scorer = BooleanScorer::try_new(vec![nested], Vec::new(), Vec::new()).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            TopKCollector::new(1).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap(),
+            rows(&[(3, 5.0)])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn reqopt_delays_sparse_optional_probes() {
+        let values = (0..100).map(|doc| (doc, 1.0)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let build = || {
+            let required =
+                Box::new(RequiredConjunctionScorer::try_new(vec![materialized(&values)]).unwrap());
+            let optional = Box::new(
+                DisjunctionScorer::try_new(
+                    vec![materialized(&[(99, 100.0)])],
+                    DisjunctionScore::Sum,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let (required, required_work) = instrumented(required);
+            let (optional, optional_work) = instrumented(optional);
+            (required, required_work, optional, optional_work)
+        };
+
+        let (required, _, optional, eager_optional_work) = build();
+        let mut eager = BooleanScorer {
+            driver: required,
+            optional: Some(optional),
+            prohibited: None,
+            current: None,
+            confirmed_doc: None,
+            confirmed: false,
+            optional_matches: false,
+            defer_confirmation: false,
+        };
+        let eager_results = TopKCollector::new(1).collect(&mut eager).unwrap();
+
+        let (required, required_work, optional, optional_work) = build();
+        let mut scorer = ReqOptScorer::new(required, optional);
+        let results = TopKCollector::new(1).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(eager_results, rows(&[(99, 101.0)]));
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(99, 101.0)]));
+        let required_advances = required_work.advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+        let eager_optional_probes = eager_optional_work.advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+        let optional_probes = optional_work.advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+        assert_eq!(required_advances, 100);
+        assert_eq!(eager_optional_probes, 100);
+        assert_eq!(optional_probes, 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            required_work.shallow_advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed),
+            2
+        );
+        assert_eq!(required_work.bounds.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            required_work.confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed),
+            100
+        );
+        assert_eq!(optional_work.confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert!(
+            optional_probes * 5 <= eager_optional_probes * 4,
+            "lazy required-plus-optional scoring should reduce optional probes by at least 20%: \
+             {optional_probes}/{eager_optional_probes}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn reqopt_temporarily_requires_optional_contribution() {
+        let values = (0..100).map(|doc| (doc, 1.0)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let (required, required_work) = instrumented(materialized(&values));
+        let (optional, optional_work) = instrumented(materialized(&[(50, 10.0)]));
+        let mut scorer = ReqOptScorer::new(required, optional);
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(10.0);
+
+        let results = TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+            .collect(&mut scorer)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(50, 11.0)]));
+        assert!(required_work.advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed) < 10);
+        assert_eq!(required_work.confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(optional_work.advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(optional_work.confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn boolean_reqopt_keeps_current_confirmation_stable_after_bounds() {
+        let mut scorer = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+            vec![materialized(&[(1, 10.0)])],
+            vec![materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 1.0)])],
+            Vec::new(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(5.0);
+
+        let results = TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+            .collect(&mut scorer)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(1, 11.0)]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn boolean_gates_reqopt_and_signed_boost_uses_exact_fallback() {
+        let supported = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+            vec![materialized(&[(1, 4.0)])],
+            vec![materialized(&[(1, 2.0)])],
+            Vec::new(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(supported.optional.is_none());
+
+        let signed_optional = Box::new(
+            BoostScorer::try_new(
+                materialized(&[(1, 4.0), (2, 1.0)]),
+                materialized(&[(1, 1.0), (2, 4.0)]),
+                0.5,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let mut fallback = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+            vec![signed_optional],
+            vec![materialized(&[(1, 2.0), (2, 2.0)])],
+            Vec::new(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(fallback.optional.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(
+            TopKCollector::new(2).collect(&mut fallback).unwrap(),
+            rows(&[(1, 5.5), (2, 1.0)])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn reqopt_uses_exact_iteration_for_unbounded_scorers() {
+        let required = Box::new(UnboundedScorer {
+            inner: MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(1, 1.0), (2, 1.0)])).unwrap(),
+        });
+        let optional = materialized(&[(2, 10.0)]);
+        let mut scorer = ReqOptScorer::new(required, optional);
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(5.0);
+
+        let results = TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+            .collect(&mut scorer)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(2, 11.0)]));
+    }
+
+    fn pure_should_canary_children() -> (Vec<BoxScorer<'static>>, Vec<Arc<ScorerWork>>) {
+        let mut children = Vec::new();
+        let mut work = Vec::new();
+        let mut push = |child: BoxScorer<'static>| {
+            let (child, child_work) = instrumented(child);
+            children.push(child);
+            work.push(child_work);
+        };
+
+        push(materialized(&[(0, 2.0)]));
+        let dense = (1..=1024).map(|doc| (doc, 0.125)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        for _ in 0..8 {
+            push(materialized(&dense));
+        }
+        let sparse = (127..=1023)
+            .step_by(128)
+            .map(|doc| (doc, 1.5))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        push(materialized(&sparse));
+        (children, work)
+    }
+
+    fn scorer_advances(work: &[Arc<ScorerWork>]) -> usize {
+        work.iter()
+            .map(|work| work.advances.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed))
+            .sum()
+    }
+
+    fn exhaustive_should_top_k(children: &[Vec<(u64, f32)>], limit: usize) -> Vec<ScoredRow> {
+        let mut scores = HashMap::<u64, f32>::new();
+        for child in children {
+            for (doc, score) in child {
+                *scores.entry(*doc).or_default() += *score;
+            }
+        }
+        let mut rows = scores
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(doc, score)| ScoredRow::new(doc, score).unwrap())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        rows.sort_unstable_by(compare_scored_rows);
+        rows.truncate(limit);
+        rows
+    }
+
+    fn exhaustive_compound_scores(
+        plan: &CompoundScorerPlan,
+        leaves: &[HashMap<u64, f32>],
+    ) -> HashMap<u64, f32> {
+        match plan {
+            CompoundScorerPlan::Leaf { index, boost } => leaves[*index]
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(row_address, score)| (*row_address, *score * *boost))
+                .collect(),
+            CompoundScorerPlan::Boost {
+                positive,
+                negative,
+                negative_boost,
+            } => {
+                let mut positive = exhaustive_compound_scores(positive, leaves);
+                let negative = exhaustive_compound_scores(negative, leaves);
+                for (row_address, score) in &mut positive {
+                    if let Some(negative_score) = negative.get(row_address) {
+                        *score -= *negative_boost * *negative_score;
+                    }
+                }
+                positive
+            }
+            CompoundScorerPlan::MultiMatch(children) => {
+                let mut scores = HashMap::<u64, f32>::new();
+                for child in children {
+                    for (row_address, score) in exhaustive_compound_scores(child, leaves) {
+                        scores
+                            .entry(row_address)
+                            .and_modify(|current| *current = current.max(score))
+                            .or_insert(score);
+                    }
+                }
+                scores
+            }
+            CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+                should,
+                must,
+                must_not,
+            } => {
+                let mut scores = if let Some((first, remaining)) = must.split_first() {
+                    let mut scores = exhaustive_compound_scores(first, leaves);
+                    for child in remaining {
+                        let required = exhaustive_compound_scores(child, leaves);
+                        scores.retain(|row_address, score| {
+                            if let Some(required_score) = required.get(row_address) {
+                                *score += required_score;
+                                true
+                            } else {
+                                false
+                            }
+                        });
+                    }
+                    for child in should {
+                        for (row_address, optional_score) in
+                            exhaustive_compound_scores(child, leaves)
+                        {
+                            if let Some(score) = scores.get_mut(&row_address) {
+                                *score += optional_score;
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    scores
+                } else {
+                    let mut scores = HashMap::<u64, f32>::new();
+                    for child in should {
+                        for (row_address, score) in exhaustive_compound_scores(child, leaves) {
+                            *scores.entry(row_address).or_default() += score;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    scores
+                };
+
+                for child in must_not {
+                    for row_address in exhaustive_compound_scores(child, leaves).into_keys() {
+                        scores.remove(&row_address);
+                    }
+                }
+                scores
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn exhaustive_compound_top_k(
+        plan: &CompoundScorerPlan,
+        leaves: &[HashMap<u64, f32>],
+        limit: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<ScoredRow> {
+        let mut scores = exhaustive_compound_scores(plan, leaves)
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        scores.sort_unstable_by(|(left_row, left_score), (right_row, right_score)| {
+            right_score
+                .total_cmp(left_score)
+                .then_with(|| left_row.cmp(right_row))
+        });
+        scores.truncate(limit);
+        scores
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(row_address, score)| ScoredRow::new(row_address, score).unwrap())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn randomized_mapped_leaf(
+        scores: &HashMap<u64, f32>,
+        canonical_row_addresses: &[u64],
+        rng: &mut SmallRng,
+    ) -> BoxScorer<'static> {
+        let source_count = rng.random_range(2..=3);
+        let source_by_row = (0..256)
+            .find_map(|_| {
+                let source_by_row = (0..canonical_row_addresses.len())
+                    .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..source_count))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let mut projection_lengths = vec![0_u64; source_count];
+                let mut local_matches = vec![Vec::<u64>::new(); source_count];
+                for (row_index, row_address) in canonical_row_addresses.iter().enumerate() {
+                    let source_index = source_by_row[row_index];
+                    let local_doc = projection_lengths[source_index];
+                    projection_lengths[source_index] += 1;
+                    if scores.contains_key(row_address) {
+                        local_matches[source_index].push(local_doc);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                let local_gap_patterns = local_matches
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|matches| {
+                        matches
+                            .windows(2)
+                            .map(|pair| pair[1] - pair[0])
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let has_distinct_gapped_sources =
+                    local_matches
+                        .iter()
+                        .enumerate()
+                        .all(|(source_index, matches)| {
+                            matches.len() >= 2
+                                && matches.windows(2).any(|pair| pair[1] > pair[0] + 1)
+                                && matches.len() * 4 > projection_lengths[source_index] as usize
+                        })
+                        && local_gap_patterns
+                            .iter()
+                            .enumerate()
+                            .all(|(source_index, gaps)| {
+                                local_gap_patterns[..source_index]
+                                    .iter()
+                                    .all(|previous| previous != gaps)
+                            });
+                has_distinct_gapped_sources.then_some(source_by_row)
+            })
+            .expect("randomized physical sources should have distinct local-document gaps");
+
+        let mut sources = Vec::with_capacity(source_count);
+        for source_index in 0..source_count {
+            let projection_addresses = canonical_row_addresses
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .filter_map(|(row_index, row_address)| {
+                    (source_by_row[row_index] == source_index).then_some(*row_address)
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let local_rows = projection_addresses
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .filter_map(|(local_doc, row_address)| {
+                    scores
+                        .get(row_address)
+                        .map(|score| (local_doc as u64, *score))
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let first_match = local_rows
+                .first()
+                .expect("every randomized physical source should have postings")
+                .0;
+            let local_document_lower_bound = rng.random_range(0..=first_match);
+            let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(projection_addresses.clone());
+            let prepared = prepare_row_address_projection(&projection);
+            let source = map_scorer_to_row_addresses(
+                materialized(&local_rows),
+                &prepared,
+                local_document_lower_bound,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("a randomized physical source with postings should map");
+            assert_eq!(
+                projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+                CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(),
+                projection_addresses.len()
+            );
+            sources.push(source);
+        }
+
+        Box::new(RowAddressMergeScorer::try_new(sources).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    fn plan_leaf(index: usize) -> CompoundScorerPlan {
+        CompoundScorerPlan::Leaf { index, boost: 1.0 }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn phrase_doc_bounds_match_exhaustive_oracle_across_boolean_shapes() {
+        // Leaf 0 models an exact phrase and leaf 1 a sloppy phrase. Their
+        // approximation scores include false position candidates, including a
+        // high-scoring false candidate at doc 4. Docs 1 and 3 deliberately tie.
+        let exact_approximations = [(0, 2.0), (1, 4.0), (2, 3.0), (3, 4.0), (4, 100.0)];
+        let sloppy_approximations = [(0, 1.0), (1, 2.0), (2, 3.0), (3, 2.0), (4, 1.0)];
+        let exact_matches = HashMap::from([(1, 4.0), (3, 4.0)]);
+        let sloppy_matches = HashMap::from([(1, 2.0), (2, 3.0), (3, 2.0)]);
+        let optional = HashMap::from([(0, 1.0), (1, 4.0), (2, 2.0), (3, 4.0), (4, 1.0)]);
+        let required = HashMap::from([(0, 1.0), (1, 1.0), (2, 1.0), (3, 1.0), (4, 1.0)]);
+        let oracle_leaves = vec![exact_matches, sloppy_matches, optional.clone(), required];
+
+        let pure_should = CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+            should: vec![plan_leaf(0), plan_leaf(1), plan_leaf(2)],
+            must: Vec::new(),
+            must_not: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        let must_should = CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+            should: vec![plan_leaf(0), plan_leaf(1), plan_leaf(2)],
+            must: vec![plan_leaf(3)],
+            must_not: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        let nested = CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+            should: vec![pure_should.clone()],
+            must: vec![plan_leaf(3)],
+            must_not: Vec::new(),
+        };
+
+        for (shape, plan, floor) in [
+            ("should", pure_should, 10.0),
+            ("must_should", must_should, 11.0),
+            ("nested", nested, 11.0),
+        ] {
+            let (exact, _, exact_confirmations) =
+                two_phase(&exact_approximations, vec![1, 3], Some(1.0));
+            let (sloppy, _, sloppy_confirmations) =
+                two_phase(&sloppy_approximations, vec![1, 2, 3], Some(2.0));
+            let mut leaves = vec![
+                Some(exact),
+                Some(sloppy),
+                Some(materialized(
+                    &optional
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|(doc, score)| (*doc, *score))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                )),
+                Some(materialized(&[
+                    (0, 1.0),
+                    (1, 1.0),
+                    (2, 1.0),
+                    (3, 1.0),
+                    (4, 1.0),
+                ])),
+            ];
+            let mut scorer = plan.build(&mut leaves).unwrap();
+            let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+            competitive_score.raise(floor);
+            let actual = TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(2, competitive_score)
+                .collect(scorer.as_mut())
+                .unwrap();
+            let expected = exhaustive_compound_top_k(&plan, &oracle_leaves, 2);
+
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "shape={shape}");
+            assert_eq!(actual, rows(&[(1, floor), (3, floor)]), "shape={shape}");
+            assert!(
+                exact_confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed) > 0
+                    && sloppy_confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed) > 0,
+                "shape={shape} must confirm surviving equal-floor phrase candidates"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn plan_input(possible: bool, cost: usize, lower: f32, upper: f32) -> CompoundLeafPlanInput {
+        CompoundLeafPlanInput::new(possible, cost, ScoreBounds::try_new(lower, upper).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn staged_plan_analysis_selects_stable_must_generator() {
+        let plan = CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+            should: vec![plan_leaf(0)],
+            must: vec![
+                CompoundScorerPlan::MultiMatch(vec![plan_leaf(1), plan_leaf(2)]),
+                CompoundScorerPlan::Boost {
+                    positive: Box::new(plan_leaf(3)),
+                    negative: Box::new(plan_leaf(4)),
+                    negative_boost: 0.5,
+                },
+            ],
+            must_not: vec![plan_leaf(5)],
+        };
+        let analysis = plan
+            .analyze_leaves(&[
+                plan_input(true, 9, 1.0, 2.0),
+                plan_input(true, 2, 2.0, 4.0),
+                plan_input(true, 2, -1.0, 3.0),
+                plan_input(true, 4, 5.0, 6.0),
+                plan_input(true, 1, 1.0, 2.0),
+                plan_input(true, 1, 0.0, 10.0),
+            ])
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(plan.leaf_count(), 6);
+        assert!(analysis.possible);
+        assert_eq!(analysis.generator_cost, 4);
+        // Equal-cost MUST covers retain query order, then expose a canonical
+        // sorted/deduplicated leaf list to the I/O scheduler.
+        assert_eq!(analysis.generator_leaves, vec![1, 2]);
+        assert!(analysis.bounds.lower() <= 3.0);
+        assert!(analysis.bounds.upper() >= 12.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn staged_plan_analysis_handles_optional_missing_and_impossible_required() {
+        let pure_should = CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+            // Deliberately use non-canonical traversal order so the public
+            // generator list must sort independently of query-tree layout.
+            should: vec![plan_leaf(2), plan_leaf(0), plan_leaf(1)],
+            must: Vec::new(),
+            must_not: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        let analysis = pure_should
+            .analyze_leaves(&[
+                plan_input(true, 7, 1.0, 2.0),
+                plan_input(false, 1, 100.0, 200.0),
+                plan_input(true, 3, -4.0, -1.0),
+            ])
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(analysis.possible);
+        assert_eq!(analysis.generator_cost, 10);
+        assert_eq!(analysis.generator_leaves, vec![0, 2]);
+        assert!(analysis.bounds.lower() <= -4.0);
+        assert!(analysis.bounds.upper() >= 2.0);
+
+        let missing_must = CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+            should: vec![plan_leaf(0)],
+            must: vec![plan_leaf(1)],
+            must_not: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        let analysis = missing_must
+            .analyze_leaves(&[
+                plan_input(true, 1, 0.0, 10.0),
+                plan_input(false, 1, 0.0, 10.0),
+            ])
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(!analysis.possible);
+        assert_eq!(analysis.bounds, ScoreBounds::ZERO);
+        assert!(analysis.generator_leaves.is_empty());
+
+        let only_must_not = CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+            should: Vec::new(),
+            must: Vec::new(),
+            must_not: vec![plan_leaf(0)],
+        };
+        let analysis = only_must_not
+            .analyze_leaves(&[plan_input(true, 1, 0.0, 10.0)])
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(!analysis.possible);
+        assert!(analysis.generator_leaves.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn staged_plan_analysis_composes_signed_nested_boost_and_unbounded_inputs() {
+        let plan = CompoundScorerPlan::Boost {
+            positive: Box::new(plan_leaf(0)),
+            negative: Box::new(CompoundScorerPlan::Boost {
+                positive: Box::new(plan_leaf(1)),
+                negative: Box::new(plan_leaf(2)),
+                negative_boost: 1.0,
+            }),
+            negative_boost: 0.5,
+        };
+        let analysis = plan
+            .analyze_leaves(&[
+                plan_input(true, 3, 2.0, 3.0),
+                plan_input(true, 1, 1.0, 2.0),
+                plan_input(true, 1, 4.0, 5.0),
+            ])
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(analysis.generator_leaves, vec![0]);
+        // The nested negative can itself be negative, so subtracting it may
+        // increase the outer Boost score.
+        assert!(analysis.bounds.lower() <= 1.0);
+        assert!(analysis.bounds.upper() >= 5.0);
+
+        let unbounded = CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+            should: vec![plan_leaf(0), plan_leaf(1)],
+            must: Vec::new(),
+            must_not: Vec::new(),
+        }
+        .analyze_leaves(&[
+            CompoundLeafPlanInput::new(true, 1, ScoreBounds::UNBOUNDED),
+            plan_input(true, 1, 0.0, 1.0),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(unbounded.bounds, ScoreBounds::UNBOUNDED);
+
+        assert!(ScoreBounds::try_new(f32::NAN, 1.0).is_err());
+        let invalid = [CompoundLeafPlanInput {
+            possible: true,
+            cost: 1,
+            bounds: ScoreBounds {
+                lower: 2.0,
+                upper: 1.0,
+            },
+        }];
+        assert!(plan_leaf(0).analyze_leaves(&invalid).is_err());
+    }
+
+    fn random_staged_plan(
+        rng: &mut SmallRng,
+        depth: usize,
+        next_leaf: &mut usize,
+    ) -> CompoundScorerPlan {
+        if depth == 0 || rng.random_bool(0.35) {
+            let index = *next_leaf;
+            *next_leaf += 1;
+            return CompoundScorerPlan::Leaf {
+                index,
+                boost: [0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0][rng.random_range(0..4)],
+            };
+        }
+        match rng.random_range(0..3) {
+            0 => CompoundScorerPlan::Boost {
+                positive: Box::new(random_staged_plan(rng, depth - 1, next_leaf)),
+                negative: Box::new(random_staged_plan(rng, depth - 1, next_leaf)),
+                negative_boost: [0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5][rng.random_range(0..4)],
+            },
+            1 => CompoundScorerPlan::MultiMatch(
+                (0..rng.random_range(1..=3))
+                    .map(|_| random_staged_plan(rng, depth - 1, next_leaf))
+                    .collect(),
+            ),
+            _ => {
+                let must_count = rng.random_range(0..=2);
+                let should_count = if must_count == 0 {
+                    rng.random_range(1..=3)
+                } else {
+                    rng.random_range(0..=2)
+                };
+                let should = (0..should_count)
+                    .map(|_| random_staged_plan(rng, depth - 1, next_leaf))
+                    .collect();
+                let must = (0..must_count)
+                    .map(|_| random_staged_plan(rng, depth - 1, next_leaf))
+                    .collect();
+                let must_not = (0..rng.random_range(0..=2))
+                    .map(|_| random_staged_plan(rng, depth - 1, next_leaf))
+                    .collect();
+                CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+                    should,
+                    must,
+                    must_not,
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn randomized_staged_plan_bounds_and_generator_cover_exact_matches() {
+        for seed in 0..64 {
+            let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
+            let mut leaf_count = 0;
+            let plan = random_staged_plan(&mut rng, 3, &mut leaf_count);
+            assert_eq!(plan.leaf_count(), leaf_count, "seed={seed}");
+            let inputs = (0..leaf_count)
+                .map(|_| {
+                    let possible = rng.random_bool(0.8);
+                    let lower = rng.random_range(-4..=2) as f32;
+                    let upper = rng.random_range(lower as i32..=5) as f32;
+                    plan_input(possible, rng.random_range(1..=32), lower, upper)
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let analysis = plan.analyze_leaves(&inputs).unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                analysis
+                    .generator_leaves
+                    .windows(2)
+                    .all(|pair| pair[0] < pair[1])
+            );
+
+            for document in 0..128_u64 {
+                let mut leaves = vec![HashMap::new(); leaf_count];
+                for (leaf_index, input) in inputs.iter().enumerate() {
+                    if input.possible && rng.random_bool(0.5) {
+                        let score = rng.random_range(input.bounds.lower()..=input.bounds.upper());
+                        leaves[leaf_index].insert(document, score);
+                    }
+                }
+                if let Some(score) = exhaustive_compound_scores(&plan, &leaves).get(&document) {
+                    assert!(analysis.possible, "seed={seed}, document={document}");
+                    assert!(
+                        analysis.bounds.lower() <= *score && *score <= analysis.bounds.upper(),
+                        "seed={seed}, document={document}, score={score}, bounds={:?}",
+                        analysis.bounds
+                    );
+                    assert!(
+                        analysis
+                            .generator_leaves
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|leaf| leaves[*leaf].contains_key(&document)),
+                        "seed={seed}, document={document}, generators={:?}",
+                        analysis.generator_leaves
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn randomized_mapped_sources_match_recursive_exhaustive_oracle() {
+        let plans = [
+            (
+                "should_sum",
+                CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+                    should: (0..4).map(plan_leaf).collect(),
+                    must: Vec::new(),
+                    must_not: Vec::new(),
+                },
+            ),
+            (
+                "multimatch_max",
+                CompoundScorerPlan::MultiMatch((0..4).map(plan_leaf).collect()),
+            ),
+            (
+                "must_sum",
+                CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+                    should: Vec::new(),
+                    must: (0..4).map(plan_leaf).collect(),
+                    must_not: Vec::new(),
+                },
+            ),
+            (
+                "required_optional",
+                CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+                    should: vec![plan_leaf(1), plan_leaf(2), plan_leaf(3)],
+                    must: vec![plan_leaf(0)],
+                    must_not: Vec::new(),
+                },
+            ),
+            (
+                "signed_boost",
+                CompoundScorerPlan::Boost {
+                    positive: Box::new(CompoundScorerPlan::MultiMatch(vec![
+                        plan_leaf(0),
+                        CompoundScorerPlan::Leaf {
+                            index: 1,
+                            boost: 0.5,
+                        },
+                    ])),
+                    negative: Box::new(CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+                        should: vec![plan_leaf(2), plan_leaf(3)],
+                        must: Vec::new(),
+                        must_not: Vec::new(),
+                    }),
+                    negative_boost: 1.5,
+                },
+            ),
+            (
+                "must_not",
+                CompoundScorerPlan::Boolean {
+                    should: vec![plan_leaf(1)],
+                    must: vec![plan_leaf(0)],
+                    must_not: vec![CompoundScorerPlan::MultiMatch(vec![
+                        plan_leaf(2),
+                        plan_leaf(3),
+                    ])],
+                },
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        for seed in 0..12 {
+            let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
+            let num_rows = rng.random_range(32..=64);
+            let mut next_row_address = (seed + 1) << 32;
+            let canonical_row_addresses = (0..num_rows)
+                .map(|_| {
+                    next_row_address += rng.random_range(1..=16);
+                    next_row_address
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let mut leaves = vec![HashMap::<u64, f32>::new(); 4];
+            for (row_index, row_address) in canonical_row_addresses.iter().enumerate() {
+                let mut matched = false;
+                for (leaf_index, leaf) in leaves.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                    let is_required_only_canary = row_index < 16 && leaf_index < 2;
+                    let is_random_match = row_index >= 16 && rng.random_bool(0.5);
+                    if row_index < 8 || is_required_only_canary || is_random_match {
+                        let score = if row_index < 8 {
+                            2.0
+                        } else {
+                            rng.random_range(1..=4) as f32 * 0.5
+                        };
+                        leaf.insert(*row_address, score);
+                        matched = true;
+                    }
+                }
+                if !matched {
+                    let leaf_index = rng.random_range(0..leaves.len());
+                    let score = rng.random_range(1..=4) as f32 * 0.5;
+                    leaves[leaf_index].insert(*row_address, score);
+                }
+            }
+
+            let max_scores = exhaustive_compound_scores(&plans[1].1, &leaves);
+            let max_score = max_scores.values().copied().max_by(f32::total_cmp).unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                max_scores
+                    .values()
+                    .filter(|score| **score == max_score)
+                    .count()
+                    >= 8,
+                "seed={seed} should retain enough top-score ties to cross every tested limit"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                exhaustive_compound_scores(&plans[4].1, &leaves)
+                    .values()
+                    .any(|score| *score < 0.0),
+                "seed={seed} should exercise signed Boost scores"
+            );
+            let must_not_scores = exhaustive_compound_scores(&plans[5].1, &leaves);
+            assert!(
+                canonical_row_addresses[..8]
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|row_address| !must_not_scores.contains_key(row_address))
+                    && canonical_row_addresses[8..16]
+                        .iter()
+                        .all(|row_address| must_not_scores.contains_key(row_address)),
+                "seed={seed} should exercise both prohibited and retained candidates"
+            );
+
+            for (shape, plan) in &plans {
+                for limit in [1, 3, 7] {
+                    let expected = exhaustive_compound_top_k(plan, &leaves, limit);
+                    let mut mapped_leaves = leaves
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|leaf| {
+                            Some(randomized_mapped_leaf(
+                                leaf,
+                                &canonical_row_addresses,
+                                &mut rng,
+                            ))
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let mut scorer = plan.build(&mut mapped_leaves).unwrap();
+                    assert!(mapped_leaves.iter().all(Option::is_none));
+                    let actual = TopKCollector::new(limit).collect(scorer.as_mut()).unwrap();
+                    assert_eq!(actual, expected, "seed={seed} shape={shape} limit={limit}");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pure_should_maxscore_reduces_posting_comparisons() {
+        let (children, eager_work) = pure_should_canary_children();
+        let mut eager = DisjunctionScorer::try_new(children, DisjunctionScore::Sum).unwrap();
+        let eager_results = TopKCollector::new(1).collect(&mut eager).unwrap();
+        let eager_comparisons = scorer_advances(&eager_work);
+
+        let (children, optimized_work) = pure_should_canary_children();
+        let optimized_results = {
+            let mut optimized = should_maxscore(children);
+            TopKCollector::new(1).collect(&mut optimized).unwrap()
+        };
+        let optimized_comparisons = scorer_advances(&optimized_work);
+
+        assert_eq!(eager_results, rows(&[(127, 2.5)]));
+        assert_eq!(optimized_results, eager_results);
+        assert!(eager_comparisons > 0);
+        assert!(
+            optimized_comparisons * 5 <= eager_comparisons * 4,
+            "pure-SHOULD MAXSCORE should reduce posting candidate probes by at least 20%: \
+             optimized={optimized_comparisons} eager={eager_comparisons}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pure_should_maxscore_matches_randomized_exhaustive_top_k() {
+        for seed in 0..8 {
+            let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
+            let children = (0..6)
+                .map(|_| {
+                    (0..256)
+                        .filter_map(|doc| {
+                            if rng.random_bool(0.35) {
+                                let score = rng.random_range(1..=16) as f32 * 0.25;
+                                Some((doc, score))
+                            } else {
+                                None
+                            }
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            for limit in [1, 7, 31, 512] {
+                let expected = exhaustive_should_top_k(&children, limit);
+
+                let mut optimized =
+                    should_maxscore(children.iter().map(|values| materialized(values)).collect());
+                let actual = TopKCollector::new(limit).collect(&mut optimized).unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(actual, expected, "seed={seed} limit={limit}");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pure_should_maxscore_confirms_two_phase_children_before_scoring() {
+        let (phrase, _, confirmations) = two_phase(&[(1, 100.0)], Vec::new(), Some(10.0));
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(10.0);
+        let results = {
+            let mut scorer = should_maxscore(vec![
+                materialized(&[(0, 10.0)]),
+                phrase,
+                materialized(&[(1, 6.0)]),
+                materialized(&[(1, 5.0)]),
+            ]);
+            TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+                .collect(&mut scorer)
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(1, 11.0)]));
+        assert_eq!(confirmations.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pure_should_maxscore_preserves_query_score_order_and_terminal_doc() {
+        let mut scorer = should_maxscore(vec![
+            materialized(&[(u64::MAX, 16_777_216.0)]),
+            materialized(&[(u64::MAX, 1.0)]),
+            materialized(&[(u64::MAX, 1.0)]),
+            materialized(&[]),
+        ]);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            TopKCollector::new(1).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap(),
+            rows(&[(u64::MAX, 16_777_216.0)])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pure_should_maxscore_keeps_equal_floor_across_bound_ordering() {
+        let scores = [
+            f32::from_bits(0x4783_798b),
+            f32::from_bits(0x4dd3_8b75),
+            f32::from_bits(0x48e7_7236),
+            f32::from_bits(0x418e_5b26),
+            f32::from_bits(0x4241_b1eb),
+        ];
+        let exact_score = scores
+            .into_iter()
+            .fold(0.0_f32, |total, score| total + score);
+        assert_eq!(exact_score.to_bits(), 0x4dd3_cd8d);
+
+        let mut scorer = should_maxscore(
+            scores
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|score| materialized(&[(7, score)]))
+                .collect(),
+        );
+        let competitive_score = Arc::new(CompetitiveScore::default());
+        competitive_score.raise(exact_score);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            TopKCollector::with_competitive_score(1, competitive_score)
+                .collect(&mut scorer)
+                .unwrap(),
+            rows(&[(7, exact_score)])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pure_should_maxscore_supports_nested_non_negative_children() {
+        let nested_dismax = Box::new(
+            DisjunctionScorer::try_new(
+                vec![
+                    materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 5.0)]),
+                    materialized(&[(0, 3.0), (2, 4.0)]),
+                ],
+                DisjunctionScore::Max,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let nested_boolean = Box::new(
+            BooleanScorer::try_new(
+                Vec::new(),
+                vec![materialized(&[(0, 2.0), (1, 2.0), (2, 2.0)])],
+                vec![materialized(&[(1, 0.0)])],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let results = {
+            let mut scorer = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+                vec![
+                    nested_dismax,
+                    nested_boolean,
+                    materialized(&[(0, 0.5), (1, 0.5), (2, 0.5)]),
+                ],
+                Vec::new(),
+                Vec::new(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            TopKCollector::new(1).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(2, 6.5)]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pure_should_maxscore_applies_must_not_before_raising_the_floor() {
+        let results = {
+            let mut scorer = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+                vec![
+                    materialized(&[(0, 10.0), (1, 5.0)]),
+                    materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 1.0)]),
+                    materialized(&[(2, 8.0)]),
+                ],
+                Vec::new(),
+                vec![materialized(&[(0, 1.0)])],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            TopKCollector::new(1).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(results, rows(&[(2, 8.0)]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pure_should_uses_exact_fallback_for_unsupported_shapes() {
+        let signed_results = {
+            let signed = Box::new(
+                BoostScorer::try_new(
+                    materialized(&[(0, 5.0), (1, 1.0)]),
+                    materialized(&[(0, 2.0), (1, 4.0)]),
+                    1.0,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let mut scorer = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+                vec![
+                    signed,
+                    materialized(&[(0, 1.0), (1, 1.0)]),
+                    materialized(&[(1, 5.0)]),
+                ],
+                Vec::new(),
+                Vec::new(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            TopKCollector::new(2).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(signed_results, rows(&[(0, 4.0), (1, 3.0)]));
+
+        let unbounded_results = {
+            let unbounded = Box::new(UnboundedScorer {
+                inner: MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows(&[(0, 1.0), (2, 3.0)])).unwrap(),
+            });
+            let mut scorer = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+                vec![
+                    unbounded,
+                    materialized(&[(0, 2.0), (1, 2.0)]),
+                    materialized(&[(1, 4.0)]),
+                ],
+                Vec::new(),
+                Vec::new(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            TopKCollector::new(3).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(unbounded_results, rows(&[(1, 6.0), (0, 3.0), (2, 3.0)]));
+
+        {
+            let mut scorer = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+                vec![materialized(&[(0, 1.0)]), materialized(&[(1, 2.0)])],
+                Vec::new(),
+                Vec::new(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                TopKCollector::new(2).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap(),
+                rows(&[(1, 2.0), (0, 1.0)])
+            );
+        }
+
+        let large_score = f32::MAX / 2.0;
+        {
+            let mut scorer = BooleanScorer::try_new(
+                vec![
+                    materialized(&[(0, large_score)]),
+                    materialized(&[(1, large_score)]),
+                    materialized(&[(2, large_score)]),
+                ],
+                Vec::new(),
+                Vec::new(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                TopKCollector::new(3).collect(&mut scorer).unwrap(),
+                rows(&[(0, large_score), (1, large_score), (2, large_score)])
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/compound/should_maxscore.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/compound/should_maxscore.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1b71f66779f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/compound/should_maxscore.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,596 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+/// Below three clauses, maintaining MAXSCORE windows costs more than the
+/// generic document-at-a-time union is likely to save.
+const MIN_SHOULD_MAXSCORE_CLAUSES: usize = 3;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct WindowBounds {
+    start: u64,
+    up_to: u64,
+    floor: f32,
+    combined_upper: f32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct ReportedBounds {
+    target: u64,
+    up_to: u64,
+    bounds: ScoreBounds,
+}
+
+/// Exact windowed MAXSCORE scorer for same-column Boolean SHOULD sums.
+///
+/// List-wide maxima split clauses into a non-essential prefix whose total
+/// score cannot reach the current floor and an essential suffix that drives
+/// candidate iteration and shallow-window boundaries. Non-essential clauses
+/// are only probed when they can still make an essential candidate competitive.
+pub(super) struct ShouldMaxScoreScorer<'a> {
+    children: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>,
+    initialized: bool,
+    exhausted: bool,
+    current: Option<u64>,
+    confirmed_doc: Option<u64>,
+    confirmed: bool,
+    current_score: Option<f32>,
+    min_competitive_score: f32,
+    window: Option<WindowBounds>,
+    reported_bounds: Option<ReportedBounds>,
+    global_upper_bounds: Vec<f32>,
+    global_score_upper_bound: f32,
+    child_upper_bounds: Vec<f32>,
+    essential: Vec<bool>,
+    bound_order: Vec<usize>,
+    child_scores: Vec<Option<f32>>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> ShouldMaxScoreScorer<'a> {
+    pub(super) fn global_bounds(children: &[BoxScorer<'a>]) -> Option<Vec<f32>> {
+        if children.len() < MIN_SHOULD_MAXSCORE_CLAUSES {
+            return None;
+        }
+        if !children.iter().all(|child| child.scores_non_negative()) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let bounds = children
+            .iter()
+            .map(|child| {
+                child
+                    .global_score_upper_bound()
+                    .filter(|upper| upper.is_finite() && *upper >= 0.0)
+            })
+            .collect::<Option<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        Self::sum_uppers(bounds.iter())
+            .is_finite()
+            .then_some(bounds)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn new(children: Vec<BoxScorer<'a>>, global_upper_bounds: Vec<f32>) -> Self {
+        debug_assert_eq!(children.len(), global_upper_bounds.len());
+        let num_children = children.len();
+        let global_score_upper_bound = Self::sum_uppers(global_upper_bounds.iter());
+        let mut bound_order = (0..num_children).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        bound_order.sort_by(|left, right| {
+            global_upper_bounds[*left]
+                .total_cmp(&global_upper_bounds[*right])
+                .then_with(|| left.cmp(right))
+        });
+        Self {
+            children,
+            initialized: false,
+            exhausted: false,
+            current: None,
+            confirmed_doc: None,
+            confirmed: false,
+            current_score: None,
+            min_competitive_score: f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+            window: None,
+            reported_bounds: None,
+            global_upper_bounds,
+            global_score_upper_bound,
+            child_upper_bounds: vec![0.0; num_children],
+            essential: vec![true; num_children],
+            bound_order,
+            child_scores: vec![None; num_children],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn reset_current(&mut self) {
+        self.current = None;
+        self.confirmed_doc = None;
+        self.confirmed = false;
+        self.current_score = None;
+        self.child_scores.fill(None);
+        self.reported_bounds = None;
+    }
+
+    fn set_current(&mut self, current: u64) {
+        self.reset_current();
+        self.current = Some(current);
+    }
+
+    fn exhaust(&mut self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.exhausted = true;
+        self.reset_current();
+        self.window = None;
+        None
+    }
+
+    fn initialize_next(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.initialized {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            child.next()?;
+        }
+        self.initialized = true;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn initialize_advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.initialized {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            child.advance(target)?;
+        }
+        self.initialized = true;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn align_all_children(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            if child.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc < target) {
+                child.advance(target)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn select_essential_children(&mut self) {
+        self.essential.fill(false);
+        let floor = self.min_competitive_score;
+        if floor <= 0.0 || floor.is_nan() {
+            for (is_essential, child) in self.essential.iter_mut().zip(&self.children) {
+                *is_essential = child.doc().is_some();
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let mut non_essential = 0.0_f64;
+        let mut num_non_essential = 0;
+        let mut found_essential = false;
+        for index in &self.bound_order {
+            if self.children[*index].doc().is_none() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if found_essential {
+                self.essential[*index] = true;
+                continue;
+            }
+            let next = non_essential + f64::from(self.global_upper_bounds[*index]);
+            let widened_exact = next * score_sum_upper_bound_factor(num_non_essential + 1);
+            let rounded = widened_exact as f32;
+            let widened = if f64::from(rounded) < widened_exact {
+                next_up(rounded)
+            } else {
+                rounded
+            };
+            if widened < floor {
+                non_essential = next;
+                num_non_essential += 1;
+            } else {
+                self.essential[*index] = true;
+                found_essential = true;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn usable_bounds(bounds: ScoreBounds) -> bool {
+        bounds.lower.is_finite()
+            && bounds.upper.is_finite()
+            && bounds.lower <= bounds.upper
+            && bounds.upper >= 0.0
+    }
+
+    fn add_upper(bounds: ScoreBounds, upper: f32) -> ScoreBounds {
+        bounds.add(ScoreBounds { lower: 0.0, upper })
+    }
+
+    fn sum_uppers<'b>(uppers: impl Iterator<Item = &'b f32>) -> f32 {
+        uppers
+            .fold(ScoreBounds::ZERO, |sum, upper| Self::add_upper(sum, *upper))
+            .upper
+    }
+
+    fn prepare_window(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.child_upper_bounds.fill(0.0);
+        self.reported_bounds = None;
+
+        self.select_essential_children();
+        if !self.essential.iter().any(|is_essential| *is_essential) {
+            self.exhaust();
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let mut up_to = u64::MAX;
+        let mut has_active_child = false;
+        for (child, is_essential) in self.children.iter_mut().zip(&mut self.essential) {
+            if !*is_essential {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if child.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc < target) {
+                child.advance(target)?;
+            }
+            if let Some(doc) = child.doc() {
+                has_active_child = true;
+                let child_target = target.max(doc);
+                let child_up_to = child.advance_shallow(child_target)?;
+                if child_up_to < child_target {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "FTS SHOULD child returned shallow range ending at {child_up_to} before target {child_target}"
+                    )));
+                }
+                up_to = up_to.min(child_up_to);
+            } else {
+                *is_essential = false;
+            }
+        }
+        if !has_active_child {
+            self.exhaust();
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        for (index, child) in self.children.iter().enumerate() {
+            if !self.essential[index] && child.doc().is_some() {
+                self.child_upper_bounds[index] = self.global_upper_bounds[index];
+            }
+        }
+        for (index, child) in self.children.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            if self.essential[index] && child.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc <= up_to) {
+                let bounds = child.score_bounds(up_to)?;
+                if Self::usable_bounds(bounds) {
+                    self.child_upper_bounds[index] =
+                        bounds.upper.max(0.0).min(self.global_upper_bounds[index]);
+                } else {
+                    self.child_upper_bounds[index] = self.global_upper_bounds[index];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let combined_upper = Self::sum_uppers(self.child_upper_bounds.iter());
+        let floor = self.min_competitive_score;
+        self.window = Some(WindowBounds {
+            start: target,
+            up_to,
+            floor,
+            combined_upper,
+        });
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn position(&mut self, mut target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.exhausted {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        loop {
+            let needs_window = self.window.is_none_or(|window| {
+                target < window.start
+                    || target > window.up_to
+                    || self.min_competitive_score > window.floor
+            });
+            if needs_window {
+                self.window = None;
+                self.prepare_window(target)?;
+                if self.exhausted {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+            }
+            let window = self
+                .window
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("FTS SHOULD scorer did not prepare a window"))?;
+
+            if window.combined_upper < self.min_competitive_score {
+                if window.up_to == u64::MAX {
+                    return Ok(self.exhaust());
+                }
+                target = window.up_to + 1;
+                self.window = None;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let next = self
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .zip(&self.essential)
+                .filter_map(|(child, is_essential)| {
+                    (*is_essential)
+                        .then(|| child.doc())
+                        .flatten()
+                        .filter(|doc| *doc >= target && *doc <= window.up_to)
+                })
+                .min();
+            if let Some(next) = next {
+                self.set_current(next);
+                return Ok(self.current);
+            }
+
+            if window.up_to == u64::MAX {
+                return Ok(self.exhaust());
+            }
+            target = window.up_to + 1;
+            self.window = None;
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn partial_score_upper(&self) -> f32 {
+        let mut bounds = ScoreBounds::ZERO;
+        for (index, score) in self.child_scores.iter().enumerate() {
+            if let Some(score) = score {
+                bounds = bounds.add(ScoreBounds {
+                    lower: *score,
+                    upper: *score,
+                });
+            } else if !self.essential[index] {
+                bounds = Self::add_upper(bounds, self.child_upper_bounds[index]);
+            }
+        }
+        bounds.upper
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_confirmed(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        if self.confirmed_doc == Some(current) {
+            return Ok(self.confirmed);
+        }
+
+        self.child_scores.fill(None);
+        for index in 0..self.children.len() {
+            if !self.essential[index] || self.children[index].doc() != Some(current) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if self.children[index].matches()? {
+                self.child_scores[index] = Some(self.children[index].score()?);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if self.partial_score_upper() >= self.min_competitive_score {
+            for index in 0..self.children.len() {
+                if self.essential[index] || self.child_upper_bounds[index] == 0.0 {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if self.children[index].doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc < current) {
+                    self.children[index].advance(current)?;
+                }
+                if self.children[index].doc() == Some(current) && self.children[index].matches()? {
+                    self.child_scores[index] = Some(self.children[index].score()?);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut has_match = false;
+        let mut score = 0.0_f32;
+        for child_score in self.child_scores.iter().flatten() {
+            has_match = true;
+            score += *child_score;
+        }
+        score = checked_score(score, "FTS SHOULD MAXSCORE")?;
+        self.confirmed = has_match && score >= self.min_competitive_score;
+        self.current_score = self.confirmed.then_some(score);
+        self.confirmed_doc = Some(current);
+        Ok(self.confirmed)
+    }
+
+    fn combined_shallow_bounds(&self, target: u64) -> ReportedBounds {
+        ReportedBounds {
+            target,
+            up_to: u64::MAX,
+            bounds: ScoreBounds {
+                lower: 0.0,
+                upper: self.global_score_upper_bound,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ComposableScorer for ShouldMaxScoreScorer<'_> {
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        let current = self.current?;
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .find(|child| child.doc() == Some(current))
+            .and_then(|child| child.document_key())
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.exhausted {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if !self.initialized {
+            self.initialize_next()?;
+            return self.position(0);
+        }
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(self.exhaust());
+        };
+        if current == u64::MAX {
+            return Ok(self.exhaust());
+        }
+        for child in &mut self.children {
+            if child.doc() == Some(current) {
+                child.next()?;
+            }
+        }
+        self.reset_current();
+        self.position(current + 1)
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.current.is_some_and(|current| current >= target) {
+            return Ok(self.current);
+        }
+        if self.exhausted {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        self.initialize_advance(target)?;
+        self.align_all_children(target)?;
+        self.reset_current();
+        self.window = None;
+        self.position(target)
+    }
+
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .map(|child| child.cost())
+            .fold(0, usize::saturating_add)
+    }
+
+    fn score(&mut self) -> Result<f32> {
+        if !self.ensure_confirmed()? {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "score requested from an unconfirmed FTS SHOULD MAXSCORE document",
+            ));
+        }
+        self.current_score.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("confirmed FTS SHOULD MAXSCORE document has no exact score")
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let target = self.current.map_or(target, |current| target.max(current));
+        let reported = if let Some(window) = self.window
+            && target >= window.start
+            && target <= window.up_to
+        {
+            ReportedBounds {
+                target,
+                up_to: window.up_to,
+                bounds: ScoreBounds {
+                    lower: 0.0,
+                    upper: window.combined_upper,
+                },
+            }
+        } else {
+            self.combined_shallow_bounds(target)
+        };
+        self.reported_bounds = Some(reported);
+        Ok(reported.up_to)
+    }
+
+    fn score_bounds(&mut self, up_to: u64) -> Result<ScoreBounds> {
+        let reported = self.reported_bounds.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("score_bounds requires advance_shallow on the FTS SHOULD scorer")
+        })?;
+        if up_to < reported.target || up_to > reported.up_to {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS SHOULD score bound up_to={up_to} is outside shallow range [{}, {}]",
+                reported.target, reported.up_to
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(reported.bounds)
+    }
+
+    fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        Some(self.global_score_upper_bound)
+    }
+
+    fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        if min_score.is_nan() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "minimum competitive FTS score cannot be NaN",
+            ));
+        }
+        if min_score > self.min_competitive_score {
+            self.min_competitive_score = min_score;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_score_upper_bound(&mut self) -> Result<Option<f32>> {
+        let Some(current) = self.current else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        self.child_scores.fill(None);
+        for (index, child) in self.children.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            if self.essential[index] {
+                if child.doc() != Some(current) {
+                    self.child_scores[index] = Some(0.0);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let Some(upper) = child.current_score_upper_bound()? else {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                };
+                if !upper.is_finite() {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                self.child_scores[index] = Some(upper.max(0.0));
+            }
+        }
+        let mut upper = self.partial_score_upper();
+        if upper < self.min_competitive_score {
+            return Ok(Some(upper));
+        }
+
+        // The residual range bound was inconclusive. Tighten it with each
+        // non-essential posting approximation for this document, largest
+        // global bound first. Stop as soon as the unresolved residual can no
+        // longer reach the floor, still without touching phrase positions.
+        for index in self.bound_order.iter().rev().copied() {
+            if self.essential[index] {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let child = &mut self.children[index];
+            if child.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc < current) {
+                child.advance(current)?;
+            }
+            self.child_scores[index] = if child.doc() == Some(current) {
+                let Some(upper) = child.current_score_upper_bound()? else {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                };
+                if !upper.is_finite() {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                Some(upper.max(0.0))
+            } else {
+                Some(0.0)
+            };
+            upper = self.partial_score_upper();
+            if upper < self.min_competitive_score {
+                return Ok(Some(upper));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(upper.is_finite().then_some(upper))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning(&self) -> bool {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .any(|child| child.supports_doc_local_confirmation_pruning())
+    }
+
+    fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.ensure_confirmed()
+    }
+
+    fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.children
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|child| child.match_cost())
+            .reduce(|left, right| left + right)
+    }
+
+    fn scores_non_negative(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/cross_column.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/cross_column.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7e6b1136118
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/cross_column.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2147 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Posting-backed compound FTS over more than one indexed column.
+//!
+//! A partition-local FTS scorer iterates `DocId`s, but `DocId` is only stable
+//! within one partition of one column.  This module maps every leaf source to
+//! the dataset row-address domain before composing the query.  Consequently,
+//! columns may have different segment and partition boundaries without an
+//! intermediate hash join or a materialized result set per query node.
+
+use std::cmp::Ordering;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
+
+use super::compound::{
+    BoxScorer, ComposableScorer, CompoundLeafPlanInput, CompoundPlanAnalysis, CompoundScorerPlan,
+    EmptyScorer, LeafQuery, MaterializedScorer, RowAddressMergeScorer, RowAddressSource,
+    ScoreBounds, ScoredRow, TopKCollector, collect_leaf_queries, map_scorer_to_row_addresses,
+    prepare_row_address_projection, tokenize_leaf,
+};
+use super::documents::{
+    DocId, DocLengths, DocVisibility, PartitionDocuments, ResidentAddressProjection,
+};
+use super::index::{InvertedPartition, PostingLoadOptions};
+use super::query::{FtsQuery, FtsSearchParams, Operator};
+use super::scorer::MemBM25Scorer;
+use super::wand::{
+    FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD, FlatDocuments, PostingIterator, WandCursor, WandDocuments,
+};
+use super::{
+    DocInfo, DocumentGranularity, InvertedIndex, PreparedBm25Query, final_query_tokens,
+    has_all_query_positions,
+};
+use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+use crate::prefilter::PreFilter;
+
+const MAX_CONCURRENT_SOURCE_LOADS: usize = 32;
+
+/// Stage optional/prohibited source I/O only when the positive generator is
+/// expected to match at most this percentage of its column corpus.
+const MAX_STAGED_GENERATOR_PERCENT: usize = 1;
+
+/// Very small candidate sets are cheap enough to stage regardless of corpus
+/// size and keep the path useful for small shards.
+const MIN_STAGED_GENERATOR_CANDIDATES: usize = 128;
+
+/// Bound the row-address candidate buffer even for very large corpora.
+const MAX_STAGED_GENERATOR_CANDIDATES: usize = 1_000_000;
+
+struct PreparedCrossColumnLeaf {
+    column_ordinal: usize,
+    query: Arc<PreparedBm25Query>,
+    params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+    operator: Operator,
+}
+
+struct LoadedCrossColumnLeaf {
+    leaf_ordinal: usize,
+    postings: Vec<PostingIterator>,
+    params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+    operator: Operator,
+    scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+}
+
+fn local_candidate_lower_bound(operator: Operator, postings: &[PostingIterator]) -> Option<u64> {
+    match operator {
+        Operator::Or => postings
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(PostingIterator::current_doc_id)
+            .min(),
+        Operator::And => postings
+            .iter()
+            .map(PostingIterator::current_doc_id)
+            .try_fold(0, |lower_bound, doc| doc.map(|doc| lower_bound.max(doc))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn compare_leaf_mapping_priority(
+    left_leaf_ordinal: usize,
+    left_cost: usize,
+    right_leaf_ordinal: usize,
+    right_cost: usize,
+) -> Ordering {
+    right_cost
+        .cmp(&left_cost)
+        .then_with(|| left_leaf_ordinal.cmp(&right_leaf_ordinal))
+}
+
+struct LoadedCrossColumnSource {
+    num_docs: usize,
+    lengths: LoadedScoringLengths,
+    visibility: DocVisibility,
+    projection: ResidentAddressProjection,
+    leaves: Vec<LoadedCrossColumnLeaf>,
+}
+
+enum LoadedScoringLengths {
+    Dense(Arc<DocLengths>),
+    Sparse(Vec<ResolvedCandidateDocument>),
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct ResolvedCandidateDocument {
+    doc_id: u32,
+    row_address: u64,
+    scoring_length: u32,
+}
+
+struct LoadedGeneratorSource {
+    documents: Arc<PartitionDocuments>,
+    visibility: DocVisibility,
+    leaves: Vec<LoadedCrossColumnLeaf>,
+}
+
+/// Document view used by the two CPU phases of staged generation.
+///
+/// The membership pass supplies no lengths and runs with a negative WAND
+/// floor, so every exact match remains visible. The scoring pass supplies
+/// lengths only for selected generator candidates; non-selected posting docs
+/// use zero solely while they are advanced past and can never escape through
+/// `document_key`.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+enum ScoringLengths<'a> {
+    Missing,
+    Dense(&'a DocLengths),
+    Sparse(&'a [ResolvedCandidateDocument]),
+}
+
+struct StagedWandDocuments<'a> {
+    num_docs: usize,
+    visibility: &'a DocVisibility,
+    scoring_lengths: ScoringLengths<'a>,
+}
+
+impl StagedWandDocuments<'_> {
+    fn scoring_length(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+        match self.scoring_lengths {
+            ScoringLengths::Missing => 0,
+            ScoringLengths::Dense(lengths) => lengths.scoring(DocId::new(doc_id)),
+            ScoringLengths::Sparse(documents) => documents
+                .binary_search_by_key(&doc_id, |document| document.doc_id)
+                .ok()
+                .map(|index| documents[index].scoring_length)
+                .unwrap_or_default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn row_address(&self, doc_id: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        let ScoringLengths::Sparse(documents) = self.scoring_lengths else {
+            return None;
+        };
+        documents
+            .binary_search_by_key(&doc_id, |document| document.doc_id)
+            .ok()
+            .map(|index| documents[index].row_address)
+    }
+}
+
+impl WandDocuments for StagedWandDocuments<'_> {
+    type Candidate = DocId;
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.num_docs
+    }
+
+    fn visible_cost_upper_bound(&self) -> usize {
+        self.visibility.len(self.num_docs)
+    }
+
+    fn scoring_norms(&self) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+        match self.scoring_lengths {
+            ScoringLengths::Dense(lengths) => lengths.scoring_norms(),
+            ScoringLengths::Missing | ScoringLengths::Sparse(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn scoring_num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+        self.scoring_length(doc_id)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_length(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> u32 {
+        match doc {
+            DocInfo::Raw(doc) => self.scoring_length(doc.doc_id),
+            DocInfo::Located(_) => unreachable!("modern posting lists contain dense DocIds"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn document_key(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> Option<u64> {
+        match doc {
+            DocInfo::Raw(doc) if self.visibility.selected(DocId::new(doc.doc_id)) => {
+                Some(u64::from(doc.doc_id))
+            }
+            DocInfo::Raw(_) => None,
+            DocInfo::Located(_) => unreachable!("modern posting lists contain dense DocIds"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn document_key_for_doc_id(&self, doc_id: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.visibility
+            .selected(DocId::new(doc_id))
+            .then_some(u64::from(doc_id))
+    }
+
+    fn candidate_from_key(&self, key: u64) -> Self::Candidate {
+        DocId::new(key as u32)
+    }
+
+    fn flat_documents(&self) -> Option<FlatDocuments<'_>> {
+        if matches!(self.scoring_lengths, ScoringLengths::Missing) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        self.visibility.iter().map(|doc_ids| {
+            let len = self.visibility.len(self.num_docs);
+            let docs = doc_ids.map(|doc_id| {
+                let value = u64::from(doc_id.get());
+                (value, value)
+            });
+            (len, Box::new(docs) as Box<dyn Iterator<Item = (u64, u64)>>)
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn flat_doc_length(&self, doc_id: u64, _document_key: u64, _compressed: bool) -> u32 {
+        u32::try_from(doc_id)
+            .ok()
+            .map(|doc_id| self.scoring_length(doc_id))
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct SourceDescriptor {
+    column_ordinal: usize,
+    segment_ordinal: usize,
+    partition: Arc<InvertedPartition>,
+}
+
+fn staged_candidate_budget(num_docs: usize, limit: usize) -> usize {
+    let percentage_budget = num_docs
+        .saturating_mul(MAX_STAGED_GENERATOR_PERCENT)
+        .div_ceil(100);
+    percentage_budget.max(limit).clamp(
+        MIN_STAGED_GENERATOR_CANDIDATES,
+        MAX_STAGED_GENERATOR_CANDIDATES,
+    )
+}
+
+fn leaf_plan_input(leaf: &PreparedCrossColumnLeaf) -> Result<CompoundLeafPlanInput> {
+    let mut seen_terms = HashSet::<(u32, String)>::new();
+    let mut costs_by_position = HashMap::<u32, usize>::new();
+    let tokens = leaf.query.tokens();
+    for token_index in 0..tokens.len() {
+        let position = tokens.position(token_index);
+        let token = tokens.get_token(token_index);
+        if seen_terms.insert((position, token.to_owned())) {
+            let frequency = leaf.query.scorer().num_docs_containing_token(token);
+            let position_cost = costs_by_position.entry(position).or_default();
+            *position_cost = position_cost.saturating_add(frequency);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let requires_every_position =
+        leaf.operator == Operator::And || leaf.params.phrase_slop.is_some();
+    let possible = (!requires_every_position || leaf.query.has_all_query_positions())
+        && !costs_by_position.is_empty()
+        && if requires_every_position {
+            costs_by_position.values().all(|cost| *cost > 0)
+        } else {
+            costs_by_position.values().any(|cost| *cost > 0)
+        };
+    if !possible {
+        return Ok(CompoundLeafPlanInput::new(false, 0, ScoreBounds::ZERO));
+    }
+
+    // Position alternatives can overlap, so this is deliberately an upper
+    // estimate. Overestimating only disables staging; the actual candidate
+    // count is guarded independently before any probe source is skipped.
+    let cost = if requires_every_position {
+        costs_by_position.values().copied().min().unwrap_or(0)
+    } else {
+        costs_by_position
+            .values()
+            .copied()
+            .fold(0, usize::saturating_add)
+    }
+    .min(leaf.query.scorer().num_docs());
+    Ok(CompoundLeafPlanInput::new(
+        true,
+        cost,
+        ScoreBounds::try_new(0.0, f32::INFINITY)?,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn staged_generator(
+    analysis: &CompoundPlanAnalysis,
+    inputs: &[CompoundLeafPlanInput],
+    leaves: &[PreparedCrossColumnLeaf],
+    limit: usize,
+) -> Option<(Vec<usize>, usize)> {
+    if analysis.generator_leaves.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let generator_leaves = analysis
+        .generator_leaves
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    if !inputs
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .any(|(leaf_ordinal, input)| input.possible && !generator_leaves.contains(&leaf_ordinal))
+    {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let num_docs = analysis
+        .generator_leaves
+        .iter()
+        .map(|&leaf_ordinal| {
+            leaves
+                .get(leaf_ordinal)
+                .map(|leaf| leaf.query.scorer().num_docs())
+        })
+        .collect::<Option<Vec<_>>>()?
+        .into_iter()
+        .max()
+        .unwrap_or(0);
+    let candidate_budget = staged_candidate_budget(num_docs, limit);
+    (analysis.generator_cost <= candidate_budget)
+        .then_some((analysis.generator_leaves.clone(), candidate_budget))
+}
+
+fn query_state_is_prewarmed(
+    columns: &[(String, Vec<Arc<InvertedIndex>>)],
+    leaves: &[PreparedCrossColumnLeaf],
+) -> bool {
+    columns
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .all(|(column_ordinal, (_, indices))| {
+            let with_position = leaves.iter().any(|leaf| {
+                leaf.column_ordinal == column_ordinal && leaf.params.phrase_slop.is_some()
+            });
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .all(|index| index.prewarmed_query_state_ready(with_position))
+        })
+}
+
+fn leaf_column(leaf: &LeafQuery) -> Option<&str> {
+    match leaf {
+        LeafQuery::Match(query) => query.column.as_deref(),
+        LeafQuery::Phrase(query) => query.column.as_deref(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_row_leaf_granularities(leaves: &[LeafQuery]) -> Result<()> {
+    for (leaf_ordinal, leaf) in leaves.iter().enumerate() {
+        let (leaf_kind, column, document_granularity) = match leaf {
+            LeafQuery::Match(query) => {
+                ("Match", query.column.as_deref(), query.document_granularity)
+            }
+            LeafQuery::Phrase(query) => (
+                "Phrase",
+                query.column.as_deref(),
+                query.document_granularity,
+            ),
+        };
+        if document_granularity == Some(DocumentGranularity::ListElement) {
+            let column = column.unwrap_or("<unspecified>");
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column compound FTS {leaf_kind} leaf {leaf_ordinal} for column '{column}' requested ListElement document granularity, but only Row is supported"
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Validate the query-local column domain and return the input column ordinal
+/// for every query leaf.  Keeping this separate from index validation makes it
+/// possible to test plan/leaf alignment without constructing index fixtures.
+fn resolve_leaf_columns(column_names: &[String], leaves: &[LeafQuery]) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
+    if column_names.len() < 2 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "cross-column compound FTS requires at least two columns",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let mut columns_by_name = HashMap::with_capacity(column_names.len());
+    for (column_ordinal, column) in column_names.iter().enumerate() {
+        if column.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "cross-column compound FTS column names cannot be empty",
+            ));
+        }
+        if columns_by_name
+            .insert(column.as_str(), column_ordinal)
+            .is_some()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column compound FTS received duplicate column '{column}'"
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut referenced_columns = HashSet::with_capacity(column_names.len());
+    let mut leaf_columns = Vec::with_capacity(leaves.len());
+    for (leaf_ordinal, leaf) in leaves.iter().enumerate() {
+        let column = leaf_column(leaf).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column compound FTS leaf {leaf_ordinal} is missing a column"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let column_ordinal = columns_by_name.get(column).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column compound FTS leaf {leaf_ordinal} references column '{column}', which has no supplied index"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        referenced_columns.insert(column_ordinal);
+        leaf_columns.push(column_ordinal);
+    }
+
+    if referenced_columns.len() != column_names.len() {
+        let unused = column_names
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(ordinal, _)| !referenced_columns.contains(ordinal))
+            .map(|(_, column)| column.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "cross-column compound FTS received indices for unreferenced columns: {}",
+            unused.join(", ")
+        )));
+    }
+
+    Ok(leaf_columns)
+}
+
+fn validate_modern_row_indices(columns: &[(String, Vec<Arc<InvertedIndex>>)]) -> Result<()> {
+    for (column, indices) in columns {
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column compound FTS column '{column}' has no index segments"
+            )));
+        }
+        for (segment_ordinal, index) in indices.iter().enumerate() {
+            if index.is_legacy() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cross-column compound FTS requires modern indices, but column '{column}' segment {segment_ordinal} is legacy"
+                )));
+            }
+            for (partition_ordinal, partition) in index.partitions.iter().enumerate() {
+                if partition.docs.modern().is_none() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "cross-column compound FTS requires modern documents, but column '{column}' segment {segment_ordinal} partition {partition_ordinal} is legacy"
+                    )));
+                }
+                if partition.docs.coordinate_rank() != 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "cross-column compound FTS only supports row documents, but column '{column}' segment {segment_ordinal} partition {partition_ordinal} has coordinate rank {}",
+                        partition.docs.coordinate_rank()
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn build_column_scorer(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    terms: Vec<String>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>> {
+    let terms = Arc::new(terms);
+    let parallelism = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus()
+        .clamp(1, MAX_CONCURRENT_SOURCE_LOADS)
+        .min(indices.len().max(1));
+    let stats = stream::iter(indices.iter().cloned().map(|index| {
+        let terms = terms.clone();
+        let metrics = metrics.clone();
+        async move {
+            index
+                .bm25_stats_for_terms(terms.as_ref(), Some(metrics.as_ref()))
+                .await
+        }
+    }))
+    .buffer_unordered(parallelism)
+    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    .await?;
+
+    let mut total_tokens = 0_u64;
+    let mut num_docs = 0_usize;
+    let mut term_doc_freqs = vec![0_usize; terms.len()];
+    for (segment_total_tokens, segment_num_docs, segment_term_doc_freqs) in stats {
+        if segment_term_doc_freqs.len() != terms.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS segment returned {} document frequencies for {} requested terms",
+                segment_term_doc_freqs.len(),
+                terms.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        total_tokens = total_tokens
+            .checked_add(segment_total_tokens)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("cross-column FTS corpus token count overflows u64"))?;
+        num_docs = num_docs.checked_add(segment_num_docs).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index("cross-column FTS corpus document count overflows usize")
+        })?;
+        for (total, segment) in term_doc_freqs.iter_mut().zip(segment_term_doc_freqs) {
+            *total = total.checked_add(segment).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index("cross-column FTS term document frequency overflows usize")
+            })?;
+        }
+    }
+
+    let token_docs = terms
+        .iter()
+        .cloned()
+        .zip(term_doc_freqs)
+        .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+    Ok(Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(
+        total_tokens,
+        num_docs,
+        token_docs,
+    )))
+}
+
+async fn prepare_column_leaves(
+    column_ordinal: usize,
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    leaf_queries: &[(usize, LeafQuery)],
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Vec<(usize, PreparedCrossColumnLeaf)>> {
+    let first_index = indices.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input("cross-column compound FTS requires at least one index segment")
+    })?;
+    let mut leaf_metadata = Vec::with_capacity(leaf_queries.len());
+    let mut union_terms = Vec::new();
+    let mut seen_terms = HashSet::new();
+
+    for (leaf_ordinal, leaf) in leaf_queries {
+        let effective_params = leaf.effective_params(params);
+        let tokens = tokenize_leaf(first_index, leaf, &effective_params)?;
+        let final_tokens = Arc::new(final_query_tokens(indices, &tokens, &effective_params)?);
+        for token in final_tokens.as_ref() {
+            if seen_terms.insert(token.clone()) {
+                union_terms.push(token.clone());
+            }
+        }
+        let has_all_positions = has_all_query_positions(&tokens, final_tokens.as_ref());
+        leaf_metadata.push((
+            *leaf_ordinal,
+            final_tokens,
+            has_all_positions,
+            Arc::new(effective_params),
+            leaf.operator(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // One union-term scorer per column preserves the existing metadata-I/O
+    // boundary while every leaf keeps its own canonical vocabulary budget.
+    let scorer = build_column_scorer(indices, union_terms, metrics).await?;
+    Ok(leaf_metadata
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(
+            |(leaf_ordinal, tokens, has_all_positions, params, operator)| {
+                (
+                    leaf_ordinal,
+                    PreparedCrossColumnLeaf {
+                        column_ordinal,
+                        query: Arc::new(PreparedBm25Query::from_parts(
+                            tokens,
+                            scorer.clone(),
+                            has_all_positions,
+                        )),
+                        params,
+                        operator,
+                    },
+                )
+            },
+        )
+        .collect())
+}
+
+fn viable_leaf_ordinals(
+    column_ordinal: usize,
+    _segment_ordinal: usize,
+    partition: &InvertedPartition,
+    prepared_leaves: &[PreparedCrossColumnLeaf],
+    leaf_ordinals: &[usize],
+) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
+    let mut viable_leaf_ordinals = Vec::with_capacity(leaf_ordinals.len());
+    for &leaf_ordinal in leaf_ordinals {
+        let leaf = prepared_leaves.get(leaf_ordinal).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "cross-column FTS source references missing leaf {leaf_ordinal}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if leaf.column_ordinal != column_ordinal {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "cross-column FTS leaf {leaf_ordinal} belongs to column {}, not {column_ordinal}",
+                leaf.column_ordinal
+            )));
+        }
+        let tokens = leaf.query.tokens();
+        if partition.may_match_tokens(
+            tokens.as_ref(),
+            leaf.operator,
+            leaf.params.phrase_slop.is_some(),
+        ) {
+            viable_leaf_ordinals.push(leaf_ordinal);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(viable_leaf_ordinals)
+}
+
+async fn load_source_leaves(
+    partition: Arc<InvertedPartition>,
+    _segment_ordinal: usize,
+    viable_leaf_ordinals: Vec<usize>,
+    prepared_leaves: Arc<Vec<PreparedCrossColumnLeaf>>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Vec<LoadedCrossColumnLeaf>> {
+    let leaf_parallelism = partition
+        .store()
+        .io_parallelism()
+        .max(1)
+        .min(viable_leaf_ordinals.len());
+    let leaves = stream::iter(viable_leaf_ordinals.into_iter().map(|leaf_ordinal| {
+        let partition = partition.clone();
+        let prepared_leaves = prepared_leaves.clone();
+        let metrics = metrics.clone();
+        async move {
+            let leaf = prepared_leaves.get(leaf_ordinal).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "cross-column FTS source references missing leaf {leaf_ordinal}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let tokens = leaf.query.tokens();
+            let postings = if tokens.is_empty()
+                || ((leaf.operator == Operator::And || leaf.params.phrase_slop.is_some())
+                    && !leaf.query.has_all_query_positions())
+            {
+                Vec::new()
+            } else {
+                partition
+                    .load_posting_lists_with_policy(
+                        tokens.as_ref(),
+                        leaf.params.as_ref(),
+                        leaf.operator,
+                        leaf.query.scorer().as_ref(),
+                        metrics.as_ref(),
+                        PostingLoadOptions::cache_aware_exact(true),
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                    .postings
+            };
+            Result::Ok(LoadedCrossColumnLeaf {
+                leaf_ordinal,
+                postings,
+                params: leaf.params.clone(),
+                operator: leaf.operator,
+                scorer: leaf.query.scorer().clone(),
+            })
+        }
+    }))
+    .buffer_unordered(leaf_parallelism)
+    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    .await?
+    .into_iter()
+    .filter(|leaf| !leaf.postings.is_empty())
+    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    Ok(leaves)
+}
+
+async fn source_visibility(
+    documents: &Arc<PartitionDocuments>,
+    mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+) -> Result<DocVisibility> {
+    let materialize_selected = mask.max_len().is_some_and(|selected| {
+        u128::from(selected).saturating_mul(100)
+            <= u128::from(*FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD).saturating_mul(documents.len() as u128)
+    });
+    match documents.immediate_visibility(mask.clone(), materialize_selected) {
+        Some(visibility) => Ok(visibility),
+        None => documents.visibility(mask, materialize_selected).await,
+    }
+}
+
+async fn load_masked_cross_column_source_for_leaves(
+    descriptor: SourceDescriptor,
+    prepared_leaves: Arc<Vec<PreparedCrossColumnLeaf>>,
+    leaf_ordinals: Vec<usize>,
+    mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Option<LoadedCrossColumnSource>> {
+    let SourceDescriptor {
+        column_ordinal,
+        segment_ordinal,
+        partition,
+    } = descriptor;
+    let viable_leaf_ordinals = viable_leaf_ordinals(
+        column_ordinal,
+        segment_ordinal,
+        partition.as_ref(),
+        prepared_leaves.as_ref(),
+        &leaf_ordinals,
+    )?;
+    if viable_leaf_ordinals.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let documents = partition.docs.modern().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal("cross-column FTS source changed from modern to legacy documents")
+    })?;
+    let visibility = source_visibility(&documents, mask).await?;
+    if visibility.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    // Visibility is resolved before posting reads so a filtered-out source
+    // never touches its posting payloads.
+    let leaves = load_source_leaves(
+        partition,
+        segment_ordinal,
+        viable_leaf_ordinals,
+        prepared_leaves,
+        metrics,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    if leaves.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    // Only sources with at least one matching posting need scoring lengths or
+    // row-address projection. These independent document columns load once and
+    // in parallel.
+    let lengths = async {
+        match documents.cached_lengths() {
+            Some(lengths) => Ok(lengths),
+            None => documents.lengths().await,
+        }
+    };
+    let projection = documents.address_projection();
+    let (lengths, projection) = futures::try_join!(lengths, projection)?;
+
+    Ok(Some(LoadedCrossColumnSource {
+        num_docs: documents.len(),
+        lengths: LoadedScoringLengths::Dense(lengths),
+        visibility,
+        projection,
+        leaves,
+    }))
+}
+
+async fn load_masked_generator_source(
+    descriptor: SourceDescriptor,
+    prepared_leaves: Arc<Vec<PreparedCrossColumnLeaf>>,
+    leaf_ordinals: Vec<usize>,
+    mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Option<LoadedGeneratorSource>> {
+    let SourceDescriptor {
+        column_ordinal,
+        segment_ordinal,
+        partition,
+    } = descriptor;
+    let viable_leaf_ordinals = viable_leaf_ordinals(
+        column_ordinal,
+        segment_ordinal,
+        partition.as_ref(),
+        prepared_leaves.as_ref(),
+        &leaf_ordinals,
+    )?;
+    if viable_leaf_ordinals.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let documents = partition.docs.modern().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal("cross-column FTS source changed from modern to legacy documents")
+    })?;
+    let visibility = source_visibility(&documents, mask).await?;
+    if visibility.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let leaves = load_source_leaves(
+        partition,
+        segment_ordinal,
+        viable_leaf_ordinals,
+        prepared_leaves,
+        metrics,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    if leaves.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    Ok(Some(LoadedGeneratorSource {
+        documents,
+        visibility,
+        leaves,
+    }))
+}
+
+async fn load_masked_cross_column_source(
+    descriptor: SourceDescriptor,
+    prepared_leaves: Arc<Vec<PreparedCrossColumnLeaf>>,
+    leaves_by_column: Arc<Vec<Vec<usize>>>,
+    mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Option<LoadedCrossColumnSource>> {
+    let leaf_ordinals = leaves_by_column
+        .get(descriptor.column_ordinal)
+        .cloned()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("cross-column FTS source references a missing column"))?;
+    load_masked_cross_column_source_for_leaves(
+        descriptor,
+        prepared_leaves,
+        leaf_ordinals,
+        mask,
+        metrics,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+async fn load_candidate_cross_column_source(
+    descriptor: SourceDescriptor,
+    prepared_leaves: Arc<Vec<PreparedCrossColumnLeaf>>,
+    leaves_by_column: Arc<Vec<Vec<usize>>>,
+    candidates: Arc<Vec<u64>>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Option<LoadedCrossColumnSource>> {
+    let SourceDescriptor {
+        column_ordinal,
+        segment_ordinal,
+        partition,
+    } = descriptor;
+    let leaf_ordinals = leaves_by_column
+        .get(column_ordinal)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("cross-column FTS source references a missing column"))?;
+    let viable_leaf_ordinals = viable_leaf_ordinals(
+        column_ordinal,
+        segment_ordinal,
+        partition.as_ref(),
+        prepared_leaves.as_ref(),
+        leaf_ordinals,
+    )?;
+    if viable_leaf_ordinals.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let documents = partition.docs.modern().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal("cross-column FTS source changed from modern to legacy documents")
+    })?;
+    let projection = documents.address_projection().await?;
+    let selected = projection
+        .select_sorted_addresses(candidates.as_slice())
+        .await?;
+    let candidate_doc_ids = selected.iter().map(DocId::new).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let visibility = DocVisibility::Selected(selected);
+    if visibility.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    // Candidate projection is exact in this source's local DocId domain. Only
+    // a non-empty intersection is allowed to trigger posting or length I/O.
+    let leaves = load_source_leaves(
+        partition,
+        segment_ordinal,
+        viable_leaf_ordinals,
+        prepared_leaves,
+        metrics,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    if leaves.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let lengths = match documents.cached_lengths() {
+        Some(lengths) => LoadedScoringLengths::Dense(lengths),
+        None if documents.prefer_sparse_document_read(candidate_doc_ids.len()) => {
+            let resolved = documents
+                .resolve_scoring_documents(&candidate_doc_ids)
+                .await?
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(
+                    |(doc_id, row_address, scoring_length)| ResolvedCandidateDocument {
+                        doc_id,
+                        row_address,
+                        scoring_length,
+                    },
+                )
+                .collect();
+            LoadedScoringLengths::Sparse(resolved)
+        }
+        None => LoadedScoringLengths::Dense(documents.lengths().await?),
+    };
+
+    Ok(Some(LoadedCrossColumnSource {
+        num_docs: documents.len(),
+        lengths,
+        visibility,
+        projection,
+        leaves,
+    }))
+}
+
+struct StagedGeneratorCandidates {
+    addresses: Vec<u64>,
+    materialized_leaves: Vec<(usize, Vec<ScoredRow>)>,
+}
+
+struct LocalGeneratorLeaf {
+    leaf_ordinal: usize,
+    postings: Vec<PostingIterator>,
+    params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+    operator: Operator,
+    scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    candidate_docs: RoaringBitmap,
+}
+
+struct LocalGeneratorCandidates {
+    documents: Arc<PartitionDocuments>,
+    leaves: Vec<LocalGeneratorLeaf>,
+    candidate_docs: Vec<DocId>,
+}
+
+struct ResolvedGeneratorCandidates {
+    num_docs: usize,
+    leaves: Vec<LocalGeneratorLeaf>,
+    /// Sorted by local DocId.
+    documents: Vec<ResolvedCandidateDocument>,
+}
+
+fn collect_local_generator_candidates(
+    sources: Vec<LoadedGeneratorSource>,
+    generator_leaf_ordinals: Vec<usize>,
+    max_candidates: usize,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Option<Vec<LocalGeneratorCandidates>>> {
+    let mut materialized_row_count = 0_usize;
+    let generator_leaf_set = generator_leaf_ordinals
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    let mut collected = Vec::with_capacity(sources.len());
+    for source in sources {
+        let documents = StagedWandDocuments {
+            num_docs: source.documents.len(),
+            visibility: &source.visibility,
+            scoring_lengths: ScoringLengths::Missing,
+        };
+        let mut candidate_docs = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        let mut collected_leaves = Vec::with_capacity(source.leaves.len());
+        for leaf in source.leaves {
+            if !generator_leaf_set.contains(&leaf.leaf_ordinal) {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "staged cross-column FTS loaded non-generator leaf {}",
+                    leaf.leaf_ordinal
+                )));
+            }
+            let Some(local_document_lower_bound) =
+                local_candidate_lower_bound(leaf.operator, &leaf.postings)
+            else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let score_postings = leaf
+                .postings
+                .iter()
+                .map(PostingIterator::fork_from_start)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let mut local_scorer = WandCursor::new(
+                leaf.operator,
+                leaf.postings,
+                &documents,
+                leaf.scorer.clone(),
+                leaf.params.as_ref(),
+                metrics.as_ref(),
+            );
+            let mut leaf_candidate_docs = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            let mut candidate = local_scorer.advance(local_document_lower_bound)?;
+            while let Some(local_doc) = candidate {
+                if local_scorer.matches()? {
+                    let local_doc = u32::try_from(local_doc).map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::index(format!(
+                            "staged cross-column FTS local document {local_doc} exceeds the modern u32 domain"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    if leaf_candidate_docs.insert(local_doc) {
+                        materialized_row_count = materialized_row_count.saturating_add(1);
+                    }
+                    candidate_docs.insert(local_doc);
+                    if materialized_row_count > max_candidates {
+                        // A partial candidate set is never used. Returning
+                        // None makes the async caller run the complete eager
+                        // execution path.
+                        return Ok(None);
+                    }
+                }
+                candidate = local_scorer.next()?;
+            }
+            if !leaf_candidate_docs.is_empty() {
+                collected_leaves.push(LocalGeneratorLeaf {
+                    leaf_ordinal: leaf.leaf_ordinal,
+                    postings: score_postings,
+                    params: leaf.params,
+                    operator: leaf.operator,
+                    scorer: leaf.scorer,
+                    candidate_docs: leaf_candidate_docs,
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        if !candidate_docs.is_empty() {
+            collected.push(LocalGeneratorCandidates {
+                documents: source.documents,
+                leaves: collected_leaves,
+                candidate_docs: candidate_docs.iter().map(DocId::new).collect(),
+            });
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(Some(collected))
+}
+
+async fn resolve_generator_candidates(
+    source: LocalGeneratorCandidates,
+) -> Result<ResolvedGeneratorCandidates> {
+    let documents = source
+        .documents
+        .resolve_scoring_documents(&source.candidate_docs)
+        .await?
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(
+            |(doc_id, row_address, scoring_length)| ResolvedCandidateDocument {
+                doc_id,
+                row_address,
+                scoring_length,
+            },
+        )
+        .collect();
+    Ok(ResolvedGeneratorCandidates {
+        num_docs: source.documents.len(),
+        leaves: source.leaves,
+        documents,
+    })
+}
+
+fn score_generator_candidates(
+    sources: Vec<ResolvedGeneratorCandidates>,
+    generator_leaf_ordinals: Vec<usize>,
+    max_candidates: usize,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<Option<StagedGeneratorCandidates>> {
+    let mut addresses = RoaringTreemap::new();
+    let mut materialized_row_count = 0_usize;
+    let mut scored_rows_by_leaf = generator_leaf_ordinals
+        .iter()
+        .map(|&leaf_ordinal| {
+            (
+                leaf_ordinal,
+                (
+                    RoaringTreemap::new(),
+                    Vec::with_capacity(max_candidates.min(MIN_STAGED_GENERATOR_CANDIDATES)),
+                ),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+
+    for source in sources {
+        let mut source_address_owners = HashMap::<u64, u32>::new();
+        for leaf in source.leaves {
+            let visibility = DocVisibility::Selected(leaf.candidate_docs.clone());
+            let documents = StagedWandDocuments {
+                num_docs: source.num_docs,
+                visibility: &visibility,
+                scoring_lengths: ScoringLengths::Sparse(&source.documents),
+            };
+            let expected_matches = leaf.candidate_docs.len();
+            let mut actual_matches = 0_u64;
+            let mut local_scorer = WandCursor::new(
+                leaf.operator,
+                leaf.postings,
+                &documents,
+                leaf.scorer,
+                leaf.params.as_ref(),
+                metrics.as_ref(),
+            );
+            for local_doc in leaf.candidate_docs.iter() {
+                let positioned = local_scorer.advance(u64::from(local_doc))?;
+                if positioned != Some(u64::from(local_doc)) || !local_scorer.matches()? {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "staged cross-column FTS could not reproduce generator leaf {} candidate {local_doc}",
+                        leaf.leaf_ordinal
+                    )));
+                }
+                let row_address = documents.row_address(local_doc).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "staged cross-column FTS did not resolve generator local document {local_doc}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                if let Some(existing_doc) = source_address_owners.insert(row_address, local_doc)
+                    && existing_doc != local_doc
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "invalid FTS row-address projection: row address {row_address} is shared by local documents {existing_doc} and {local_doc}"
+                    )));
+                }
+                let (leaf_addresses, scored_rows) = scored_rows_by_leaf
+                    .get_mut(&leaf.leaf_ordinal)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "staged cross-column FTS lost generator leaf {}",
+                            leaf.leaf_ordinal
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                if !leaf_addresses.insert(row_address) {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "cross-column FTS generator leaf {} produced duplicate row address {row_address}",
+                        leaf.leaf_ordinal
+                    )));
+                }
+                scored_rows.push(ScoredRow {
+                    row_id: row_address,
+                    score: local_scorer.score()?,
+                });
+                materialized_row_count = materialized_row_count.saturating_add(1);
+                addresses.insert(row_address);
+                actual_matches += 1;
+                if addresses.len() > max_candidates as u64
+                    || materialized_row_count > max_candidates
+                {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+            }
+            if actual_matches != expected_matches {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "staged cross-column FTS rescored {actual_matches} of {expected_matches} candidates for generator leaf {}",
+                    leaf.leaf_ordinal
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let mut materialized_leaves = scored_rows_by_leaf
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|(leaf_ordinal, (_, mut rows))| {
+            rows.sort_unstable_by_key(|row| row.row_id);
+            (leaf_ordinal, rows)
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    materialized_leaves.sort_unstable_by_key(|(leaf_ordinal, _)| *leaf_ordinal);
+    Ok(Some(StagedGeneratorCandidates {
+        addresses: addresses.into_iter().collect(),
+        materialized_leaves,
+    }))
+}
+
+struct SourceDocuments {
+    num_docs: usize,
+    lengths: LoadedScoringLengths,
+    visibility: DocVisibility,
+    projection: ResidentAddressProjection,
+}
+
+fn score_cross_column_sources(
+    sources: Vec<LoadedCrossColumnSource>,
+    plan: CompoundScorerPlan,
+    plan_bounds: ScoreBounds,
+    num_leaves: usize,
+    materialized_leaves: Vec<(usize, Vec<ScoredRow>)>,
+    limit: usize,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    let mut source_documents = Vec::with_capacity(sources.len());
+    let mut source_leaves = Vec::with_capacity(sources.len());
+    for source in sources {
+        source_documents.push(SourceDocuments {
+            num_docs: source.num_docs,
+            lengths: source.lengths,
+            visibility: source.visibility,
+            projection: source.projection,
+        });
+        source_leaves.push(source.leaves);
+    }
+    let wand_documents = source_documents
+        .iter()
+        .map(|source| StagedWandDocuments {
+            num_docs: source.num_docs,
+            visibility: &source.visibility,
+            scoring_lengths: match &source.lengths {
+                LoadedScoringLengths::Dense(lengths) => ScoringLengths::Dense(lengths.as_ref()),
+                LoadedScoringLengths::Sparse(documents) => {
+                    ScoringLengths::Sparse(documents.as_slice())
+                }
+            },
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let address_projections = source_documents
+        .iter()
+        .map(|source| prepare_row_address_projection(&source.projection))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let mut sources_by_leaf = (0..num_leaves)
+        .map(|_| Vec::<RowAddressSource<'_>>::new())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    for (source_ordinal, leaves) in source_leaves.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        let mut local_scorers = Vec::with_capacity(leaves.len());
+        for leaf in leaves {
+            if leaf.postings.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(local_document_lower_bound) =
+                local_candidate_lower_bound(leaf.operator, &leaf.postings)
+            else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let local_scorer: BoxScorer<'_> = Box::new(WandCursor::new(
+                leaf.operator,
+                leaf.postings,
+                &wand_documents[source_ordinal],
+                leaf.scorer,
+                leaf.params.as_ref(),
+                metrics.as_ref(),
+            ));
+            let cost = local_scorer.cost();
+            local_scorers.push((
+                leaf.leaf_ordinal,
+                cost,
+                local_document_lower_bound,
+                local_scorer,
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // A dense leaf validates an unknown projection once and caches the
+        // ordered result for sparse siblings. Mapping high-cost leaves first
+        // therefore avoids materializing sparse leaves before that validation.
+        local_scorers.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| {
+            compare_leaf_mapping_priority(left.0, left.1, right.0, right.1)
+        });
+        for (leaf_ordinal, _, local_document_lower_bound, local_scorer) in local_scorers {
+            let Some(address_source) = map_scorer_to_row_addresses(
+                local_scorer,
+                &address_projections[source_ordinal],
+                local_document_lower_bound,
+            )?
+            else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            sources_by_leaf
+                .get_mut(leaf_ordinal)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "cross-column FTS loaded unexpected leaf {}",
+                        leaf_ordinal
+                    ))
+                })?
+                .push(address_source);
+        }
+    }
+    // Materialized fallbacks retain a source-wide collision map only while
+    // sibling leaves are being mapped. Scorers no longer borrow this state.
+    drop(address_projections);
+
+    let mut materialized_leaf_ordinals = vec![false; num_leaves];
+    for (leaf_ordinal, _) in &materialized_leaves {
+        let materialized = materialized_leaf_ordinals
+            .get_mut(*leaf_ordinal)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "staged cross-column FTS materialized unexpected leaf {leaf_ordinal}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        if std::mem::replace(materialized, true) {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "staged cross-column FTS materialized leaf {leaf_ordinal} more than once"
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    let mut leaf_scorers = sources_by_leaf
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(leaf_ordinal, mut sources)| {
+            if materialized_leaf_ordinals[leaf_ordinal] {
+                if !sources.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "staged cross-column FTS loaded materialized generator leaf {leaf_ordinal} twice"
+                    )));
+                }
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let scorer: BoxScorer<'_> = match sources.len() {
+                0 => Box::new(EmptyScorer),
+                1 => sources
+                    .pop()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("cross-column FTS lost its only leaf source"))?
+                    .into_scorer(),
+                _ => Box::new(RowAddressMergeScorer::try_new(sources)?),
+            };
+            Ok(Some(scorer))
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    for (leaf_ordinal, rows) in materialized_leaves {
+        let slot = leaf_scorers.get_mut(leaf_ordinal).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "staged cross-column FTS materialized unexpected leaf {leaf_ordinal}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        debug_assert!(slot.is_none());
+        *slot = Some(Box::new(MaterializedScorer::try_new(rows)?));
+    }
+    let mut scorer = plan.build(&mut leaf_scorers)?;
+    if leaf_scorers.iter().any(Option::is_some) {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "cross-column compound FTS scorer did not consume every prepared leaf",
+        ));
+    }
+    let rows = TopKCollector::new(limit).collect(scorer.as_mut())?;
+    if let Some(row) = rows.iter().find(|row| !plan_bounds.contains(row.score)) {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "cross-column compound FTS score {} for row address {} escaped plan bounds {plan_bounds:?}",
+            row.score, row.row_id
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(rows.into_iter().map(|row| (row.row_id, row.score)).unzip())
+}
+
+/// Internal cross-crate hook for a bounded compound FTS query over multiple
+/// indexed columns.
+///
+/// Each leaf is scored with corpus statistics from its own column.  Partition
+/// scorers are mapped to current row addresses and heap-merged before the
+/// Boolean/Boost/MultiMatch tree is composed, so one exact global collector
+/// owns both the competitive score and final row-address tie breaking.
+///
+/// Every Match and Phrase leaf must omit document granularity or request
+/// [`DocumentGranularity::Row`]. `columns` must contain at least two modern,
+/// row-document indices and every supplied column must be referenced. `params`
+/// must specify a bounded result limit. Invalid query or index shapes return
+/// [`Error::InvalidInput`]; list-element requests are rejected before any
+/// prefilter or index work begins.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub async fn cross_column_compound_search(
+    columns: &[(String, Vec<Arc<InvertedIndex>>)],
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    let mut leaf_queries = Vec::new();
+    collect_leaf_queries(query, &mut leaf_queries)?;
+    validate_row_leaf_granularities(&leaf_queries)?;
+
+    let limit = params.limit.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input("cross-column compound FTS requires a bounded result limit")
+    })?;
+    if limit == 0 {
+        return Ok((Vec::new(), Vec::new()));
+    }
+
+    let column_names = columns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(column, _)| column.clone())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let leaf_columns = resolve_leaf_columns(&column_names, &leaf_queries)?;
+    validate_modern_row_indices(columns)?;
+
+    let mut num_plan_leaves = 0;
+    let plan = CompoundScorerPlan::from_query(query, &mut num_plan_leaves)?;
+    if num_plan_leaves != leaf_queries.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "cross-column compound FTS planned {num_plan_leaves} leaves but prepared {}",
+            leaf_queries.len()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    // The prefilter owns potentially asynchronous deletion/filter work. It is
+    // shared by every column but reaches readiness exactly once here. An empty
+    // filter avoids all token-statistics and posting I/O.
+    prefilter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+    let mask = prefilter.mask();
+    if mask.max_len() == Some(0) {
+        return Ok((Vec::new(), Vec::new()));
+    }
+
+    let mut queries_by_column = (0..columns.len())
+        .map(|_| Vec::<(usize, LeafQuery)>::new())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    for (leaf_ordinal, (leaf, column_ordinal)) in
+        leaf_queries.into_iter().zip(leaf_columns).enumerate()
+    {
+        queries_by_column[column_ordinal].push((leaf_ordinal, leaf));
+    }
+
+    // Own the work items before building the stream. Besides keeping this
+    // future `Send`, it prevents borrowed iterator closure types from leaking
+    // into callers that box their execution stream.
+    let preparation_work = columns
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(column_ordinal, (_, indices))| {
+            (
+                column_ordinal,
+                indices.clone(),
+                queries_by_column[column_ordinal].clone(),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let preparation_parallelism = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus()
+        .clamp(1, MAX_CONCURRENT_SOURCE_LOADS)
+        .min(preparation_work.len());
+    let prepared_by_column = stream::iter(preparation_work.into_iter().map(
+        |(column_ordinal, indices, leaf_queries)| {
+            let params = params.clone();
+            let metrics = metrics.clone();
+            async move {
+                prepare_column_leaves(column_ordinal, &indices, &leaf_queries, &params, metrics)
+                    .await
+            }
+        },
+    ))
+    .buffer_unordered(preparation_parallelism)
+    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    .await?;
+    let mut prepared_leaves = (0..num_plan_leaves)
+        .map(|_| None)
+        .collect::<Vec<Option<PreparedCrossColumnLeaf>>>();
+    for column_leaves in prepared_by_column {
+        for (leaf_ordinal, leaf) in column_leaves {
+            let slot = prepared_leaves.get_mut(leaf_ordinal).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "cross-column FTS prepared unexpected leaf {leaf_ordinal}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if slot.replace(leaf).is_some() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "cross-column FTS prepared leaf {leaf_ordinal} more than once"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let prepared_leaves = prepared_leaves
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(leaf_ordinal, leaf)| {
+            leaf.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "cross-column FTS did not prepare leaf {leaf_ordinal}"
+                ))
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    let plan_inputs = prepared_leaves
+        .iter()
+        .map(leaf_plan_input)
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    let plan_analysis = plan.analyze_leaves(&plan_inputs)?;
+    if !plan_analysis.possible {
+        return Ok((Vec::new(), Vec::new()));
+    }
+    // Staging trades a second bounded CPU pass for deferred cold I/O. Once an
+    // explicit prewarm has made every selected index query-ready, that trade is
+    // strictly worse: the original bounded coordinator can consume resident
+    // postings and document columns directly. The hint is checked without I/O;
+    // any mixed or uncertain state conservatively keeps the staged cold path.
+    let staged_generator = (!query_state_is_prewarmed(columns, &prepared_leaves))
+        .then(|| staged_generator(&plan_analysis, &plan_inputs, &prepared_leaves, limit))
+        .flatten();
+    let leaves_by_column = prepared_leaves.iter().enumerate().fold(
+        (0..columns.len()).map(|_| Vec::new()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        |mut by_column, (leaf_ordinal, leaf)| {
+            by_column[leaf.column_ordinal].push(leaf_ordinal);
+            by_column
+        },
+    );
+
+    let prepared_leaves = Arc::new(prepared_leaves);
+    let leaves_by_column = Arc::new(leaves_by_column);
+    let descriptors = columns
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .flat_map(|(column_ordinal, (_, indices))| {
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .flat_map(move |(segment_ordinal, index)| {
+                    index
+                        .partitions
+                        .iter()
+                        .cloned()
+                        .map(move |partition| SourceDescriptor {
+                            column_ordinal,
+                            segment_ordinal,
+                            partition,
+                        })
+                })
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let parallelism = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().clamp(1, MAX_CONCURRENT_SOURCE_LOADS);
+    let staged_candidates = if let Some((generator_leaf_ordinals, candidate_budget)) =
+        staged_generator
+    {
+        let generator_leaf_set = generator_leaf_ordinals
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let generator_leaves_by_column = Arc::new(
+            leaves_by_column
+                .iter()
+                .map(|leaves| {
+                    leaves
+                        .iter()
+                        .copied()
+                        .filter(|leaf| generator_leaf_set.contains(leaf))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        let generator_descriptors = descriptors
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|descriptor| {
+                generator_leaves_by_column
+                    .get(descriptor.column_ordinal)
+                    .is_some_and(|leaves| !leaves.is_empty())
+            })
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let generator_sources = stream::iter(generator_descriptors.into_iter().map(|descriptor| {
+            let leaf_ordinals = generator_leaves_by_column
+                .get(descriptor.column_ordinal)
+                .cloned()
+                .unwrap_or_default();
+            load_masked_generator_source(
+                descriptor,
+                prepared_leaves.clone(),
+                leaf_ordinals,
+                mask.clone(),
+                metrics.clone(),
+            )
+        }))
+        .buffer_unordered(parallelism)
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await?
+        .into_iter()
+        .flatten()
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let candidate_metrics = metrics.clone();
+        let collection_leaf_ordinals = generator_leaf_ordinals.clone();
+        let local_candidates = spawn_cpu(move || {
+            collect_local_generator_candidates(
+                generator_sources,
+                collection_leaf_ordinals,
+                candidate_budget,
+                candidate_metrics,
+            )
+        })
+        .await?;
+        if let Some(local_candidates) = local_candidates {
+            let resolved = stream::iter(
+                local_candidates
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(resolve_generator_candidates),
+            )
+            .buffer_unordered(parallelism)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+            let candidate_metrics = metrics.clone();
+            spawn_cpu(move || {
+                score_generator_candidates(
+                    resolved,
+                    generator_leaf_ordinals,
+                    candidate_budget,
+                    candidate_metrics,
+                )
+            })
+            .await?
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    let (sources, materialized_leaves) = if let Some(candidates) = staged_candidates {
+        if candidates.addresses.is_empty() {
+            return Ok((Vec::new(), Vec::new()));
+        }
+        let StagedGeneratorCandidates {
+            addresses,
+            materialized_leaves,
+        } = candidates;
+        let generator_leaf_set = materialized_leaves
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(leaf_ordinal, _)| *leaf_ordinal)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let candidates = Arc::new(addresses);
+        let deferred_leaves_by_column = Arc::new(
+            leaves_by_column
+                .iter()
+                .map(|leaves| {
+                    leaves
+                        .iter()
+                        .copied()
+                        .filter(|leaf| !generator_leaf_set.contains(leaf))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        let sources = stream::iter(descriptors.into_iter().map(|descriptor| {
+            load_candidate_cross_column_source(
+                descriptor,
+                prepared_leaves.clone(),
+                deferred_leaves_by_column.clone(),
+                candidates.clone(),
+                metrics.clone(),
+            )
+        }))
+        .buffer_unordered(parallelism)
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await?
+        .into_iter()
+        .flatten()
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        (sources, materialized_leaves)
+    } else {
+        let sources = stream::iter(descriptors.into_iter().map(|descriptor| {
+            load_masked_cross_column_source(
+                descriptor,
+                prepared_leaves.clone(),
+                leaves_by_column.clone(),
+                mask.clone(),
+                metrics.clone(),
+            )
+        }))
+        .buffer_unordered(parallelism)
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await?
+        .into_iter()
+        .flatten()
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        (sources, Vec::new())
+    };
+
+    spawn_cpu(move || {
+        score_cross_column_sources(
+            sources,
+            plan,
+            plan_analysis.bounds,
+            num_plan_leaves,
+            materialized_leaves,
+            limit,
+            metrics,
+        )
+    })
+    .await
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use arrow::buffer::ScalarBuffer;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use crate::prefilter::NoFilter;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::encoding::compress_posting_list;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::query::{
+        BooleanQuery, MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Occur, PhraseQuery, Tokens,
+    };
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::{
+        CompressedPostingList, DocumentGranularity, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, PlainPostingList,
+        PostingList, PostingTailCodec,
+    };
+
+    fn match_query(column: Option<&str>, terms: &str) -> FtsQuery {
+        FtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new(terms.to_owned()).with_column(column.map(ToOwned::to_owned)),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn posting(doc_ids: &[u64]) -> PostingIterator {
+        if doc_ids.is_empty() {
+            return PostingIterator::new(
+                "term".to_owned(),
+                0,
+                0,
+                PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                    ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<u64>::new()),
+                    ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<f32>::new()),
+                    Some(0.0),
+                    None,
+                )),
+                100,
+            );
+        }
+        let doc_ids = doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&doc_id| u32::try_from(doc_id).unwrap())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let frequencies = vec![1_u32; doc_ids.len()];
+        let blocks = compress_posting_list(
+            doc_ids.len(),
+            doc_ids.iter(),
+            frequencies.iter(),
+            vec![1.0; doc_ids.len()].into_iter(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        PostingIterator::new(
+            "term".to_owned(),
+            0,
+            0,
+            PostingList::Compressed(CompressedPostingList::new(
+                blocks,
+                1.0,
+                doc_ids.len() as u32,
+                PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                None,
+                None,
+            )),
+            100,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn prepared_leaf(
+        tokens_by_segment: Vec<Tokens>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+        num_docs: usize,
+        token_docs: impl IntoIterator<Item = (&'static str, usize)>,
+    ) -> PreparedCrossColumnLeaf {
+        let mut segment_tokens = tokens_by_segment.into_iter();
+        let tokens = Arc::new(segment_tokens.next().unwrap());
+        for segment_tokens in segment_tokens {
+            assert_eq!(segment_tokens.len(), tokens.len());
+            for index in 0..segment_tokens.len() {
+                assert_eq!(segment_tokens.get_token(index), tokens.get_token(index));
+                assert_eq!(segment_tokens.position(index), tokens.position(index));
+            }
+        }
+        let scorer = Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(
+            num_docs as u64,
+            num_docs,
+            token_docs
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(token, count)| (token.to_owned(), count))
+                .collect(),
+        ));
+        PreparedCrossColumnLeaf {
+            column_ordinal: 0,
+            query: Arc::new(PreparedBm25Query::from_parts(tokens, scorer, true)),
+            params: Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_phrase_slop(phrase_slop)),
+            operator,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn loaded_generator_source(
+        leaf_ordinal: usize,
+        addresses: Vec<u64>,
+        matching_docs: &[u64],
+    ) -> ResolvedGeneratorCandidates {
+        let num_docs = addresses.len();
+        let candidate_docs = matching_docs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&doc_id| u32::try_from(doc_id).unwrap())
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+        ResolvedGeneratorCandidates {
+            num_docs,
+            documents: candidate_docs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|doc_id| ResolvedCandidateDocument {
+                    doc_id,
+                    row_address: addresses[doc_id as usize],
+                    scoring_length: 1,
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            leaves: vec![LoadedCrossColumnLeaf {
+                leaf_ordinal,
+                postings: vec![posting(matching_docs)],
+                params: Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new()),
+                operator: Operator::Or,
+                scorer: Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(
+                    num_docs as u64,
+                    num_docs,
+                    HashMap::from([("term".to_owned(), matching_docs.len())]),
+                )),
+            }]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|leaf| LocalGeneratorLeaf {
+                leaf_ordinal: leaf.leaf_ordinal,
+                postings: leaf.postings,
+                params: leaf.params,
+                operator: leaf.operator,
+                scorer: leaf.scorer,
+                candidate_docs: candidate_docs.clone(),
+            })
+            .collect(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_list_element_leaves_before_column_or_index_validation() {
+        let mut multi_match = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            "term".to_owned(),
+            vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        multi_match.match_queries[1].document_granularity = Some(DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+        let cases = [
+            (
+                "Match leaf 0 for column 'title'",
+                FtsQuery::Match(
+                    MatchQuery::new("term".to_owned())
+                        .with_column(Some("title".to_owned()))
+                        .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+                ),
+            ),
+            (
+                "Phrase leaf 0 for column 'body'",
+                FtsQuery::Phrase(
+                    PhraseQuery::new("two terms".to_owned())
+                        .with_column(Some("body".to_owned()))
+                        .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+                ),
+            ),
+            (
+                "Match leaf 1 for column 'body'",
+                FtsQuery::MultiMatch(multi_match),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        for (leaf_context, query) in cases {
+            let error = cross_column_compound_search(
+                &[],
+                &query,
+                &FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+            assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            let message = error.to_string();
+            assert!(
+                message.contains(leaf_context),
+                "unexpected error: {message}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                message.contains(
+                    "requested ListElement document granularity, but only Row is supported"
+                ),
+                "unexpected error: {message}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn permits_unspecified_and_row_leaf_granularity() {
+        for document_granularity in [None, Some(DocumentGranularity::Row)] {
+            let mut match_query =
+                MatchQuery::new("term".to_owned()).with_column(Some("title".to_owned()));
+            match_query.document_granularity = document_granularity;
+            let error = cross_column_compound_search(
+                &[],
+                &FtsQuery::Match(match_query),
+                &FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+            assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("requires at least two columns"));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn derives_conservative_local_candidate_lower_bound() {
+        let postings = vec![posting(&[10, 20]), posting(&[5, 30])];
+        assert_eq!(
+            local_candidate_lower_bound(Operator::Or, &postings),
+            Some(5)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            local_candidate_lower_bound(Operator::And, &postings),
+            Some(10)
+        );
+
+        let postings_with_empty = vec![posting(&[10]), posting(&[])];
+        assert_eq!(
+            local_candidate_lower_bound(Operator::Or, &postings_with_empty),
+            Some(10)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            local_candidate_lower_bound(Operator::And, &postings_with_empty),
+            None
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maps_dense_leaves_before_sparse_siblings() {
+        let mut leaves = vec![(3, 10), (2, 100), (1, 10), (0, 100)];
+        leaves.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| {
+            compare_leaf_mapping_priority(left.0, left.1, right.0, right.1)
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(leaves, vec![(0, 100), (2, 100), (1, 10), (3, 10)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn estimates_generator_cost_by_unique_query_positions() {
+        let tokens = Tokens::with_positions(
+            vec![
+                "rare".to_owned(),
+                "rare_alt".to_owned(),
+                "common".to_owned(),
+            ],
+            vec![0, 0, 1],
+            DocType::Text,
+        );
+        let leaf = prepared_leaf(
+            vec![tokens.clone(), tokens],
+            Operator::And,
+            None,
+            10_000,
+            [("rare", 7), ("rare_alt", 3), ("common", 1_000)],
+        );
+        let input = leaf_plan_input(&leaf).unwrap();
+        assert!(input.possible);
+        assert_eq!(input.cost, 10);
+        assert_eq!(input.bounds.lower(), 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(input.bounds.upper(), f32::INFINITY);
+
+        let missing = prepared_leaf(
+            vec![Tokens::with_positions(
+                vec!["rare".to_owned(), "missing".to_owned()],
+                vec![0, 1],
+                DocType::Text,
+            )],
+            Operator::And,
+            None,
+            10_000,
+            [("rare", 7), ("missing", 0)],
+        );
+        assert!(!leaf_plan_input(&missing).unwrap().possible);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn stages_only_selective_single_leaf_generators_with_probe_work() {
+        let leaves = vec![
+            prepared_leaf(
+                vec![Tokens::new(vec!["rare".to_owned()], DocType::Text)],
+                Operator::Or,
+                None,
+                10_000,
+                [("rare", 100)],
+            ),
+            prepared_leaf(
+                vec![Tokens::new(vec!["optional".to_owned()], DocType::Text)],
+                Operator::Or,
+                None,
+                10_000,
+                [("optional", 2_000)],
+            ),
+            prepared_leaf(
+                vec![Tokens::new(vec!["probe".to_owned()], DocType::Text)],
+                Operator::Or,
+                None,
+                10_000,
+                [("probe", 500)],
+            ),
+        ];
+        let inputs = leaves
+            .iter()
+            .map(leaf_plan_input)
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let analysis = CompoundPlanAnalysis {
+            possible: true,
+            bounds: ScoreBounds::UNBOUNDED,
+            generator_cost: 100,
+            generator_leaves: vec![0],
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            staged_generator(&analysis, &inputs, &leaves, 10),
+            Some((vec![0], 128))
+        );
+        let no_probe_inputs = vec![inputs[0]];
+        assert_eq!(
+            staged_generator(&analysis, &no_probe_inputs, &leaves[..1], 10),
+            None
+        );
+
+        let multi_generator = CompoundPlanAnalysis {
+            generator_cost: 100,
+            generator_leaves: vec![0, 1],
+            ..analysis
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            staged_generator(&multi_generator, &inputs, &leaves, 10),
+            Some((vec![0, 1], 128))
+        );
+
+        let too_dense = CompoundPlanAnalysis {
+            generator_cost: 129,
+            ..multi_generator
+        };
+        assert_eq!(staged_generator(&too_dense, &inputs, &leaves, 10), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn generator_collection_is_complete_and_overflow_falls_back() {
+        let make_sources = || {
+            vec![
+                loaded_generator_source(1, vec![10, 20, 30], &[0, 2]),
+                loaded_generator_source(1, vec![40, 50], &[1]),
+            ]
+        };
+        let metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector> = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+        let candidates = score_generator_candidates(make_sources(), vec![1], 3, metrics.clone())
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(candidates.addresses, vec![10, 30, 50]);
+        assert_eq!(candidates.materialized_leaves.len(), 1);
+        let (leaf_ordinal, scored_rows) = &candidates.materialized_leaves[0];
+        assert_eq!(*leaf_ordinal, 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            scored_rows.iter().map(|row| row.row_id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![10, 30, 50]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            scored_rows
+                .iter()
+                .all(|row| row.score.is_finite() && row.score > 0.0)
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            score_generator_candidates(make_sources(), vec![1], 2, metrics)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "overflow must abandon the entire staged candidate set"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn generator_collection_materializes_every_leaf_in_a_union_cover() {
+        let sources = vec![
+            loaded_generator_source(0, vec![10, 20], &[0]),
+            loaded_generator_source(1, vec![10, 20], &[0, 1]),
+        ];
+        let metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector> = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+        let candidates = score_generator_candidates(sources, vec![0, 1], 3, metrics)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(candidates.addresses, vec![10, 20]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            candidates
+                .materialized_leaves
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(leaf, rows)| {
+                    (*leaf, rows.iter().map(|row| row.row_id).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![(0, vec![10]), (1, vec![10, 20])]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn generator_collection_rejects_same_leaf_duplicates_across_sources() {
+        let sources = vec![
+            loaded_generator_source(0, vec![10], &[0]),
+            loaded_generator_source(0, vec![10], &[0]),
+        ];
+        let metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector> = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+
+        let Err(error) = score_generator_candidates(sources, vec![0], 2, metrics) else {
+            panic!("duplicate row addresses should be rejected");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("generator leaf 0 produced duplicate row address 10")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn resolves_leaf_columns_in_compound_plan_order() {
+        let query = FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new([
+            (Occur::Should, match_query(Some("body"), "optional")),
+            (
+                Occur::Must,
+                FtsQuery::Phrase(
+                    PhraseQuery::new("required phrase".to_owned())
+                        .with_column(Some("title".to_owned())),
+                ),
+            ),
+            (Occur::MustNot, match_query(Some("body"), "blocked")),
+        ]));
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        collect_leaf_queries(&query, &mut leaves).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolve_leaf_columns(&["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()], &leaves).unwrap(),
+            vec![1, 0, 1]
+        );
+        let mut num_plan_leaves = 0;
+        CompoundScorerPlan::from_query(&query, &mut num_plan_leaves).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_plan_leaves, leaves.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_missing_duplicate_and_unreferenced_columns() {
+        let leaves = vec![LeafQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("term".to_owned()).with_column(Some("title".to_owned())),
+        )];
+
+        let error = resolve_leaf_columns(&["title".to_owned()], &leaves).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("at least two columns"));
+
+        let error =
+            resolve_leaf_columns(&["title".to_owned(), "title".to_owned()], &leaves).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("duplicate column 'title'"));
+
+        let error =
+            resolve_leaf_columns(&["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()], &leaves).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("unreferenced columns: body"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_leaf_without_a_supplied_column_index() {
+        let leaves = vec![LeafQuery::Match(MatchQuery::new("term".to_owned()))];
+        let error =
+            resolve_leaf_columns(&["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()], &leaves).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("leaf 0 is missing a column"));
+
+        let leaves = vec![LeafQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("term".to_owned()).with_column(Some("summary".to_owned())),
+        )];
+        let error =
+            resolve_leaf_columns(&["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()], &leaves).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("no supplied index"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/documents.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/documents.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..25b2c24d223
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/documents.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,3822 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Typed document-side state for partitioned FTS indices.
+//!
+//! Posting lists use dense, partition-local document identifiers.  This module
+//! keeps that identity separate from dataset-version row addresses so scoring
+//! never has to infer which value a numeric slot represents.
+
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_row_ids_async};
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU8, AtomicUsize, Ordering as AtomicOrdering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock, Weak};
+
+use arc_swap::ArcSwapWeak;
+use arrow::buffer::ScalarBuffer;
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::spawn_cpu;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrSelection, RowAddrTreeMap};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use tokio::sync::OnceCell;
+
+use crate::FtsPrewarmDocumentStatus;
+use crate::scalar::{IndexReader, IndexStore, RowIdRemapper};
+
+use super::index::{
+    DocSet, NUM_TOKEN_COL, count_row_id_runs, dequantize_doc_length, doc_index_storage_column,
+    document_coordinate_rank, quantize_doc_length,
+};
+
+/// Schema metadata key persisted in every modern `docs.lance` partition.
+pub(super) const TOTAL_TOKENS_KEY: &str = "total_tokens";
+
+/// Candidate-side document reads stay sparse below this share of a partition.
+/// Larger selections amortize one dense column read and populate the reusable
+/// document cache for subsequent queries.
+const SPARSE_DOCUMENT_READ_PERCENT: usize = 10;
+
+/// Dense, immutable document identity inside one FTS partition.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Hash)]
+pub(super) struct DocId(u32);
+
+impl DocId {
+    pub(crate) fn new(value: u32) -> Self {
+        Self(value)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn get(self) -> u32 {
+        self.0
+    }
+
+    fn as_usize(self) -> usize {
+        self.0 as usize
+    }
+}
+
+/// Immutable corpus statistics for one partition.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) struct PartitionStats {
+    pub(crate) num_docs: usize,
+    pub(crate) total_tokens: u64,
+}
+
+/// One partition's immutable `DocId -> row address` column.
+///
+/// The independently weighed cache entry is the only long-lived owner. The
+/// address projection keeps a weak handle and query-local guards upgrade it,
+/// so cache eviction releases the column once in-flight queries finish.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct CachedDocRowIds {
+    pub(crate) row_ids: Arc<UInt64Array>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CachedDocRowIds {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.row_ids.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Cache key for one partition's [`CachedDocRowIds`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct DocRowIdsKey {
+    pub(crate) partition_id: u64,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for DocRowIdsKey {
+    type ValueType = CachedDocRowIds;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("doc-row-ids-{}", self.partition_id).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "DocRowIds"
+    }
+}
+
+/// Exact document lengths plus the optional quantized scoring representation.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct DocLengths {
+    values: ScalarBuffer<u32>,
+    total_tokens: u64,
+    quantized_scoring: bool,
+    norms: OnceLock<Box<[u8]>>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for DocLengths {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.values.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .norms
+                .get()
+                .map(|norms| std::mem::size_of_val(norms.as_ref()))
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+}
+
+impl DocLengths {
+    fn try_new(
+        values: ScalarBuffer<u32>,
+        expected_num_docs: usize,
+        persisted_total_tokens: Option<u64>,
+        quantized_scoring: bool,
+        path: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if values.len() != expected_num_docs {
+            return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                path,
+                format!(
+                    "{NUM_TOKEN_COL} has {} rows but the file footer reports {expected_num_docs}",
+                    values.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let total_tokens = values.iter().try_fold(0_u64, |total, &value| {
+            total
+                .checked_add(u64::from(value))
+                .ok_or_else(|| corrupt_docs(path, format!("{NUM_TOKEN_COL} sum overflows u64")))
+        })?;
+        if let Some(expected) = persisted_total_tokens
+            && expected != total_tokens
+        {
+            return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                path,
+                format!(
+                    "{TOTAL_TOKENS_KEY} metadata is {expected}, but {NUM_TOKEN_COL} sums to {total_tokens}"
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            values,
+            total_tokens,
+            quantized_scoring,
+            norms: OnceLock::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.values.len()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn total_tokens(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.total_tokens
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn exact(&self, doc_id: DocId) -> u32 {
+        self.values[doc_id.as_usize()]
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn scoring_norms(&self) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+        if !self.quantized_scoring {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(
+            self.norms
+                .get_or_init(|| {
+                    self.values
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|&length| quantize_doc_length(length))
+                        .collect()
+                })
+                .as_ref(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn scoring_ready(&self) -> bool {
+        !self.quantized_scoring || self.norms.get().is_some()
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn scoring(&self, doc_id: DocId) -> u32 {
+        match self.scoring_norms() {
+            Some(norms) => dequantize_doc_length(norms[doc_id.as_usize()]),
+            None => self.exact(doc_id),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum AddressValues {
+    Shared { len: usize },
+    Owned(Arc<Vec<u64>>),
+}
+
+impl AddressValues {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Shared { len } => *len,
+            Self::Owned(values) => values.len(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for AddressValues {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Shared { .. } => 0,
+            Self::Owned(values) => values.deep_size_of_children(context),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A compact address-sorted view of the live DocIds in a projection.
+///
+/// Most newly built partitions already store addresses in DocId order, so the
+/// identity variant adds no per-document memory. Remapped or otherwise
+/// unsorted projections keep only a u32 permutation instead of duplicating
+/// the u64 address column.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum AddressDocIdLookup {
+    Identity,
+    Sorted(Box<[u32]>),
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for AddressDocIdLookup {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Identity => 0,
+            Self::Sorted(doc_ids) => std::mem::size_of_val(doc_ids.as_ref()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AddressDocIdLookup {
+    fn build(projection: &ResidentAddressProjection) -> Self {
+        if projection.projection.live_docs.is_none()
+            && (1..projection.len()).all(|index| {
+                projection.stored_address(index - 1) <= projection.stored_address(index)
+            })
+        {
+            return Self::Identity;
+        }
+
+        let mut doc_ids = match projection.projection.live_docs.as_ref() {
+            Some(live_docs) => live_docs.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            None => (0..projection.len() as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        };
+        doc_ids
+            .sort_unstable_by_key(|&doc_id| (projection.stored_address(doc_id as usize), doc_id));
+        Self::Sorted(doc_ids.into_boxed_slice())
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self, projection: &ResidentAddressProjection) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Identity => projection.len(),
+            Self::Sorted(doc_ids) => doc_ids.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn doc_id_at(&self, position: usize) -> u32 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Identity => position as u32,
+            Self::Sorted(doc_ids) => doc_ids[position],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn address_at(&self, projection: &ResidentAddressProjection, position: usize) -> u64 {
+        projection.stored_address(self.doc_id_at(position) as usize)
+    }
+
+    fn partition_point(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+        mut predicate: impl FnMut(u64) -> bool,
+    ) -> usize {
+        let mut left = 0;
+        let mut right = self.len(projection);
+        while left < right {
+            let middle = left + (right - left) / 2;
+            if predicate(self.address_at(projection, middle)) {
+                left = middle + 1;
+            } else {
+                right = middle;
+            }
+        }
+        left
+    }
+
+    /// The positions of every live DocId whose address falls in `start..=end`.
+    fn positions_in_address_range(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+        start: u64,
+        end: u64,
+    ) -> Range<usize> {
+        let first = self.partition_point(projection, |address| address < start);
+        let after_last = self.partition_point(projection, |address| address <= end);
+        first..after_last
+    }
+
+    fn insert_address_range(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+        start: u64,
+        end: u64,
+        selected: &mut RoaringBitmap,
+    ) {
+        for position in self.positions_in_address_range(projection, start, end) {
+            selected.insert(self.doc_id_at(position));
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn matching_doc_ids(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+        addresses: &RowAddrTreeMap,
+    ) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        let mut selected = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for (&fragment_id, selection) in addresses.iter() {
+            match selection {
+                RowAddrSelection::Full => {
+                    let start = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, 0));
+                    let end = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, u32::MAX));
+                    self.insert_address_range(projection, start, end, &mut selected);
+                }
+                RowAddrSelection::Partial(offsets) => {
+                    let mut offsets = offsets.iter();
+                    while let Some(range) = offsets.next_range() {
+                        let start =
+                            u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, *range.start()));
+                        let end = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, *range.end()));
+                        self.insert_address_range(projection, start, end, &mut selected);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        selected
+    }
+
+    fn matching_sorted_addresses(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+        addresses: &[u64],
+    ) -> std::result::Result<RoaringBitmap, RowAddressProjectionOrderError> {
+        let mut selected = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for &address in addresses {
+            let first = self.partition_point(projection, |candidate| candidate < address);
+            let after_last = self.partition_point(projection, |candidate| candidate <= address);
+            if after_last.saturating_sub(first) > 1 {
+                return Err(RowAddressProjectionOrderError::Duplicate {
+                    first_doc_id: DocId::new(self.doc_id_at(first)),
+                    duplicate_doc_id: DocId::new(self.doc_id_at(first + 1)),
+                    address: RowAddress::new_from_u64(address),
+                });
+            }
+            if first < after_last {
+                selected.insert(self.doc_id_at(first));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(selected)
+    }
+
+    fn visibility(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+        mask: &RowAddrMask,
+    ) -> DocVisibility {
+        match mask {
+            RowAddrMask::AllowList(allowed) => {
+                DocVisibility::Selected(self.matching_doc_ids(projection, allowed))
+            }
+            RowAddrMask::BlockList(blocked) => {
+                let blocked = self.matching_doc_ids(projection, blocked);
+                let mut selected = projection.live_doc_ids();
+                selected -= &blocked;
+                DocVisibility::Selected(selected)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Addresses projected into the dataset version that opened the index.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct VersionAddressProjection {
+    addresses: AddressValues,
+    /// `None` means every slot is live.  Deleted documents retain their DocId
+    /// slot but are absent from this bitmap.
+    live_docs: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+    doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell<Arc<AddressDocIdLookup>>,
+    ordered_validation: AtomicU8,
+    /// Upper-bound candidate work materialized while order is still unknown.
+    /// Once this exceeds the normal one-query flat-search budget, the next
+    /// mapper pays for one reusable ordered validation instead.
+    materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+/// A query-scoped projection guard. Shared addresses remain alive only while
+/// this guard or their independently weighed cache entry owns the Arrow column.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct ResidentAddressProjection {
+    projection: Arc<VersionAddressProjection>,
+    addresses: ResidentAddressValues,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum ResidentAddressValues {
+    Shared(Arc<UInt64Array>),
+    Owned(Arc<Vec<u64>>),
+}
+
+/// A row-granularity projection whose live row addresses are strictly ordered
+/// by partition-local document id.
+///
+/// Cross-column scorers can use this view to translate their local document
+/// domain into the shared row-address domain without materializing all hits.
+/// Construction deliberately rejects duplicate or descending live addresses;
+/// callers can distinguish those cases and select a materialized fallback.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct OrderedRowAddressProjection {
+    projection: ResidentAddressProjection,
+}
+
+/// Why a resident address projection cannot be streamed in local DocId order.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) enum RowAddressProjectionOrderError {
+    Duplicate {
+        first_doc_id: DocId,
+        duplicate_doc_id: DocId,
+        address: RowAddress,
+    },
+    OutOfOrder {
+        previous_doc_id: DocId,
+        previous_address: RowAddress,
+        doc_id: DocId,
+        address: RowAddress,
+    },
+}
+
+/// Non-triggering view of the immutable ordered-validation cache.
+#[repr(u8)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) enum CachedRowAddressOrder {
+    Unknown = 0,
+    Ordered = 1,
+    Duplicate = 2,
+    OutOfOrder = 3,
+}
+
+impl CachedRowAddressOrder {
+    fn from_raw(value: u8) -> Self {
+        match value {
+            value if value == Self::Ordered as u8 => Self::Ordered,
+            value if value == Self::Duplicate as u8 => Self::Duplicate,
+            value if value == Self::OutOfOrder as u8 => Self::OutOfOrder,
+            value => {
+                debug_assert_eq!(
+                    value,
+                    Self::Unknown as u8,
+                    "ordered row-address validation cache contains invalid state {value}"
+                );
+                // Treat impossible/corrupt state as cold in release builds so
+                // callers safely recompute the immutable projection order.
+                Self::Unknown
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn from_validation(
+        validation: &std::result::Result<(), RowAddressProjectionOrderError>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        match validation {
+            Ok(()) => Self::Ordered,
+            Err(RowAddressProjectionOrderError::Duplicate { .. }) => Self::Duplicate,
+            Err(RowAddressProjectionOrderError::OutOfOrder { .. }) => Self::OutOfOrder,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for RowAddressProjectionOrderError {
+    fn fmt(&self, formatter: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Duplicate {
+                first_doc_id,
+                duplicate_doc_id,
+                address,
+            } => write!(
+                formatter,
+                "row address {} is shared by local documents {} and {}",
+                u64::from(*address),
+                first_doc_id.get(),
+                duplicate_doc_id.get()
+            ),
+            Self::OutOfOrder {
+                previous_doc_id,
+                previous_address,
+                doc_id,
+                address,
+            } => write!(
+                formatter,
+                "row address {} for local document {} follows larger address {} for local document {}",
+                u64::from(*address),
+                doc_id.get(),
+                u64::from(*previous_address),
+                previous_doc_id.get()
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for RowAddressProjectionOrderError {}
+
+impl OrderedRowAddressProjection {
+    fn validate_doc_ids(
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+        doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = u32>,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<(), RowAddressProjectionOrderError> {
+        let mut previous = None;
+        for doc_id in doc_ids {
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            projection
+                .projection
+                .ordered_validation_visited_docs
+                .fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+            let doc_id = DocId::new(doc_id);
+            let address = projection.stored_address(doc_id.as_usize());
+            if let Some((previous_doc_id, previous_address)) = previous {
+                if address == previous_address {
+                    return Err(RowAddressProjectionOrderError::Duplicate {
+                        first_doc_id: previous_doc_id,
+                        duplicate_doc_id: doc_id,
+                        address: RowAddress::new_from_u64(address),
+                    });
+                }
+                if address < previous_address {
+                    return Err(RowAddressProjectionOrderError::OutOfOrder {
+                        previous_doc_id,
+                        previous_address: RowAddress::new_from_u64(previous_address),
+                        doc_id,
+                        address: RowAddress::new_from_u64(address),
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+            previous = Some((doc_id, address));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn validate(
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<(), RowAddressProjectionOrderError> {
+        match projection.projection.live_docs.as_ref() {
+            Some(live_docs) => Self::validate_doc_ids(projection, live_docs.iter()),
+            None => Self::validate_doc_ids(projection, 0..projection.len() as u32),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn try_new(
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<Self, RowAddressProjectionOrderError> {
+        match projection.cached_row_address_order() {
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered => {}
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown => {
+                // Validation intentionally runs before the atomic publish. A
+                // racing query may repeat this work, but never waits for a
+                // query holding a lock while occupying a CPU worker.
+                let validation = projection.compute_ordered_validation();
+                projection.publish_ordered_validation(&validation);
+                validation?;
+            }
+            cached @ (CachedRowAddressOrder::Duplicate | CachedRowAddressOrder::OutOfOrder) => {
+                // The compact cache intentionally stores only the category.
+                // Reconstruct the exact diagnostics only for callers that ask
+                // for an ordered view after learning the projection is invalid.
+                let validation = projection.compute_ordered_validation();
+                debug_assert_eq!(CachedRowAddressOrder::from_validation(&validation), cached);
+                validation?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            projection: projection.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn has_sparse_live_docs(&self) -> bool {
+        self.projection
+            .projection
+            .live_docs
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|live_docs| live_docs.len() as usize != self.len())
+    }
+
+    fn doc_id_at(&self, position: usize) -> Option<u32> {
+        if self.has_sparse_live_docs() {
+            self.projection
+                .projection
+                .live_docs
+                .as_ref()?
+                .select(u32::try_from(position).ok()?)
+        } else {
+            let doc_id = u32::try_from(position).ok()?;
+            (position < self.len()).then_some(doc_id)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn first_after(&self, local_doc: u64) -> Option<u32> {
+        let next_doc = u32::try_from(local_doc.checked_add(1)?).ok()?;
+        if self.has_sparse_live_docs() {
+            self.projection
+                .projection
+                .live_docs
+                .as_ref()?
+                .range(next_doc..)
+                .next()
+        } else {
+            ((next_doc as usize) < self.len()).then_some(next_doc)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Number of slots in the partition-local DocId domain, including deleted
+    /// slots. This is the terminal boundary used by shallow-advance mapping.
+    pub(super) fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.projection.len()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn live_len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.projection.live_len()
+    }
+
+    /// Inclusive minimum and maximum row addresses among live documents.
+    ///
+    /// Strict ordering makes this an O(1) lookup apart from sparse-bitmap
+    /// selection. Deleted DocId slots never contribute to the hull.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn live_address_hull(&self) -> Option<(u64, u64)> {
+        let first_doc_id = self.doc_id_at(0)?;
+        let last_position = self.live_len().checked_sub(1)?;
+        let last_doc_id = self.doc_id_at(last_position)?;
+        Some((
+            self.projection.stored_address(first_doc_id as usize),
+            self.projection.stored_address(last_doc_id as usize),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Map sorted, deduplicated row-address candidates into live local DocIds.
+    ///
+    /// Each candidate uses binary search over live documents. Independent
+    /// lookups also keep the result exact if an internal caller accidentally
+    /// supplies duplicate or out-of-order candidates.
+    pub(super) fn select_sorted_addresses(&self, addresses: &[u64]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        addresses
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|&address| {
+                let local_doc = self.lower_bound(address)?;
+                (self.address(local_doc) == Some(address)).then_some(local_doc as u32)
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Translate a live partition-local document into its row address.
+    pub(super) fn address(&self, local_doc: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        let local_doc = u32::try_from(local_doc).ok()?;
+        if local_doc as usize >= self.len() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        self.projection.address(DocId::new(local_doc))
+    }
+
+    /// Return the first live local document whose row address is at least the
+    /// requested global row address.
+    pub(super) fn lower_bound(&self, global_row_address: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        let mut left = 0;
+        let mut right = self.live_len();
+        while left < right {
+            let middle = left + (right - left) / 2;
+            let doc_id = self.doc_id_at(middle)?;
+            if self.projection.stored_address(doc_id as usize) < global_row_address {
+                left = middle + 1;
+            } else {
+                right = middle;
+            }
+        }
+        self.doc_id_at(left).map(u64::from)
+    }
+
+    /// Return the address of the first live document after `local_doc`.
+    ///
+    /// Deleted slots are skipped, so this can turn an inclusive local shallow
+    /// endpoint into an exclusive boundary in the shared row-address domain.
+    pub(super) fn next_address(&self, local_doc: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        let next_doc = self.first_after(local_doc)?;
+        Some(self.projection.stored_address(next_doc as usize))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(super) fn resident_row_address_projection_for_test(
+    addresses: Vec<u64>,
+) -> ResidentAddressProjection {
+    let projection = Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection {
+        addresses: AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(addresses)),
+        live_docs: None,
+        doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+        ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+        materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+    });
+    projection
+        .resident(None)
+        .expect("owned test row addresses must be resident")
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(super) fn ordered_row_address_projection_for_test(
+    addresses: Vec<u64>,
+) -> OrderedRowAddressProjection {
+    resident_row_address_projection_for_test(addresses)
+        .try_ordered_row_addresses()
+        .expect("test row addresses must be strictly increasing and unique")
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for VersionAddressProjection {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.addresses.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .live_docs
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|live| live.serialized_size())
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+            + self
+                .doc_ids_by_address
+                .get()
+                .map(|lookup| lookup.deep_size_of_children(context))
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+}
+
+impl VersionAddressProjection {
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::try_new`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    async fn try_new_with_remapping(
+        raw: &UInt64Array,
+        num_docs: usize,
+        remapping: &dyn BatchRowIdRemapper,
+        path: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        let mut projection = Self::try_new(raw, num_docs, None, path)?;
+        let mut addresses = Vec::with_capacity(raw.len());
+        let mut live_docs = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for ids in raw.values().chunks(64 * 1024) {
+            for address in remap_row_ids_async(remapping, ids).await? {
+                let doc_id = addresses.len() as u32;
+                if let Some(address) = address {
+                    live_docs.insert(doc_id);
+                    addresses.push(address);
+                } else {
+                    addresses.push(0);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        projection.addresses = AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(addresses));
+        projection.live_docs = Some(live_docs);
+        Ok(Arc::new(projection))
+    }
+
+    fn try_new(
+        raw: &UInt64Array,
+        expected_num_docs: usize,
+        remapper: Option<&dyn RowIdRemapper>,
+        path: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if raw.len() != expected_num_docs {
+            return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                path,
+                format!(
+                    "{ROW_ID} has {} rows but the file footer reports {expected_num_docs}",
+                    raw.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if raw.null_count() != 0 {
+            return Err(corrupt_docs(path, format!("{ROW_ID} contains null values")));
+        }
+
+        let Some(remapper) = remapper else {
+            return Ok(Self {
+                addresses: AddressValues::Shared { len: raw.len() },
+                live_docs: None,
+                doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+                ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+                materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            });
+        };
+
+        let mut addresses = Vec::with_capacity(raw.len());
+        let mut live_docs = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for (doc_id, &address) in raw.values().iter().enumerate() {
+            match remapper.remap_row_id(address) {
+                Some(current) => {
+                    addresses.push(current);
+                    live_docs.insert(doc_id as u32);
+                }
+                None => {
+                    // The value in a dead slot is intentionally meaningless;
+                    // callers must consult `live_docs` before reading it.
+                    addresses.push(0);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            addresses: AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(addresses)),
+            live_docs: Some(live_docs),
+            doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+            ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+            materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn resident(
+        self: &Arc<Self>,
+        shared_addresses: Option<Arc<UInt64Array>>,
+    ) -> Option<ResidentAddressProjection> {
+        match &self.addresses {
+            AddressValues::Shared { len } => {
+                let shared_addresses = shared_addresses?;
+                debug_assert_eq!(shared_addresses.len(), *len);
+                Some(ResidentAddressProjection {
+                    projection: self.clone(),
+                    addresses: ResidentAddressValues::Shared(shared_addresses),
+                })
+            }
+            AddressValues::Owned(values) => Some(ResidentAddressProjection {
+                projection: self.clone(),
+                addresses: ResidentAddressValues::Owned(values.clone()),
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ResidentAddressProjection {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.projection.addresses.len()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn live_len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.projection
+            .live_docs
+            .as_ref()
+            .map_or(self.len(), |live_docs| live_docs.len() as usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Inclusive minimum and maximum row addresses among live documents.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`OrderedRowAddressProjection::live_address_hull`], this scans
+    /// the live projection because remapping may reorder addresses. Deleted
+    /// DocId slots never contribute to the hull.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn live_address_hull(&self) -> Option<(u64, u64)> {
+        let mut hull: Option<(u64, u64)> = None;
+        let mut include_doc = |doc_id: u32| {
+            let address = self.stored_address(doc_id as usize);
+            hull = Some(match hull {
+                Some((minimum, maximum)) => (minimum.min(address), maximum.max(address)),
+                None => (address, address),
+            });
+        };
+        match self.projection.live_docs.as_ref() {
+            Some(live_docs) => live_docs.iter().for_each(&mut include_doc),
+            None => (0..self.len() as u32).for_each(include_doc),
+        }
+        hull
+    }
+
+    /// Decide whether another unknown-order source should be materialized.
+    ///
+    /// A single sparse query avoids an O(all documents) validation. Repeated
+    /// queries share this lock-free budget through the immutable version
+    /// projection, so materialization cannot remain the permanent execution
+    /// mode once its cumulative upper-bound cost exceeds one validation
+    /// threshold.
+    pub(super) fn should_materialize_unknown_projection(
+        &self,
+        source_cost: usize,
+        flat_search_percent_threshold: u64,
+    ) -> bool {
+        let mut current = self
+            .projection
+            .materialized_candidate_cost
+            .load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+        let cumulative_cost = loop {
+            let next = current.saturating_add(source_cost);
+            match self
+                .projection
+                .materialized_candidate_cost
+                .compare_exchange_weak(
+                    current,
+                    next,
+                    AtomicOrdering::Relaxed,
+                    AtomicOrdering::Relaxed,
+                ) {
+                Ok(_) => break next,
+                Err(observed) => current = observed,
+            }
+        };
+
+        (cumulative_cost as u128).saturating_mul(100)
+            <= u128::from(flat_search_percent_threshold).saturating_mul(self.live_len() as u128)
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn ordered_validation_visited_docs(&self) -> usize {
+        self.projection
+            .ordered_validation_visited_docs
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    /// Inspect ordered-validation state without starting validation or waiting
+    /// for another query's validation.
+    pub(super) fn cached_row_address_order(&self) -> CachedRowAddressOrder {
+        CachedRowAddressOrder::from_raw(
+            self.projection
+                .ordered_validation
+                .load(AtomicOrdering::Acquire),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn compute_ordered_validation(
+        &self,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<(), RowAddressProjectionOrderError> {
+        OrderedRowAddressProjection::validate(self)
+    }
+
+    fn publish_ordered_validation(
+        &self,
+        validation: &std::result::Result<(), RowAddressProjectionOrderError>,
+    ) {
+        let status = CachedRowAddressOrder::from_validation(validation);
+        // All validation work happened before this non-blocking publication.
+        // Immutable projections make racing results deterministic, so losing
+        // the compare-exchange requires no reconciliation or wait.
+        if let Err(observed) = self.projection.ordered_validation.compare_exchange(
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8,
+            status as u8,
+            AtomicOrdering::Release,
+            AtomicOrdering::Relaxed,
+        ) {
+            debug_assert_eq!(
+                observed, status as u8,
+                "immutable row-address projection published conflicting validation states"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Validate that this row-granularity projection can be streamed in the
+    /// shared row-address domain.
+    pub(super) fn try_ordered_row_addresses(
+        &self,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<OrderedRowAddressProjection, RowAddressProjectionOrderError> {
+        OrderedRowAddressProjection::try_new(self)
+    }
+
+    fn stored_address(&self, index: usize) -> u64 {
+        match &self.addresses {
+            ResidentAddressValues::Shared(values) => values.value(index),
+            ResidentAddressValues::Owned(values) => values[index],
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn address(&self, doc_id: DocId) -> Option<u64> {
+        if self
+            .projection
+            .live_docs
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|live| !live.contains(doc_id.get()))
+        {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(self.stored_address(doc_id.as_usize()))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn live_doc_ids(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        self.projection
+            .live_docs
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| (0..self.len() as u32).collect())
+    }
+
+    /// True iff every slot is live and addresses ascend strictly with DocId.
+    ///
+    /// DocId order then equals address order and no two documents share a row,
+    /// so a contiguous DocId range spans a contiguous address interval. Row
+    /// granularity relies on the second half: cross-field statistics count
+    /// distinct rows, so an ascending partition can answer
+    /// [`AddressKeyedDocuments::num_distinct_rows`] without walking it.
+    ///
+    /// The ordering half is [`OrderedRowAddressProjection`], whose verdict this
+    /// projection already caches for the cross-column scorer. Density is the
+    /// extra condition: an ordered projection may still hold dead slots, and
+    /// those report [`RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW`], which the block-skip cursor
+    /// cannot tell from an exhausted cursor. A remapper is attached whenever the
+    /// dataset carries a fragment reuse index, even when it retains every
+    /// document, so liveness has to be decided on cardinality.
+    fn dense_and_strictly_ascending(&self) -> bool {
+        match self.try_ordered_row_addresses() {
+            Ok(ordered) => !ordered.has_sparse_live_docs(),
+            Err(_) => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn doc_ids_by_address(&self) -> Result<Arc<AddressDocIdLookup>> {
+        self.projection
+            .doc_ids_by_address
+            .get_or_try_init(|| {
+                let projection = self.clone();
+                async move {
+                    spawn_cpu(move || Result::Ok(Arc::new(AddressDocIdLookup::build(&projection))))
+                        .await
+                }
+            })
+            .await
+            .cloned()
+    }
+
+    /// Map sorted, deduplicated row-address candidates into live local DocIds.
+    ///
+    /// The reusable reverse lookup handles unordered remapped projections. A
+    /// candidate that resolves to multiple live DocIds is rejected as an
+    /// invalid FTS row-address projection instead of silently merging them.
+    /// The lookup is exact for any candidate order; sorting only avoids
+    /// redundant caller work.
+    pub(super) async fn select_sorted_addresses(&self, addresses: &[u64]) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        if addresses.is_empty() || self.live_len() == 0 {
+            return Ok(RoaringBitmap::new());
+        }
+
+        let ordered = match self.cached_row_address_order() {
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered => {
+                Some(self.try_ordered_row_addresses().map_err(|error| {
+                    Error::index(format!("invalid FTS row-address projection: {error}"))
+                })?)
+            }
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::OutOfOrder => None,
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown | CachedRowAddressOrder::Duplicate => {
+                let projection = self.clone();
+                match spawn_cpu(move || Result::Ok(projection.try_ordered_row_addresses())).await? {
+                    Ok(ordered) => Some(ordered),
+                    Err(error @ RowAddressProjectionOrderError::Duplicate { .. }) => {
+                        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                            "invalid FTS row-address projection: {error}"
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    Err(RowAddressProjectionOrderError::OutOfOrder { .. }) => None,
+                }
+            }
+        };
+        if let Some(ordered) = ordered {
+            return Ok(ordered.select_sorted_addresses(addresses));
+        }
+
+        let lookup = self.doc_ids_by_address().await?;
+        lookup
+            .matching_sorted_addresses(self, addresses)
+            .map_err(|error| Error::index(format!("invalid FTS row-address projection: {error}")))
+    }
+
+    async fn materialize_visibility(self, mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>) -> Result<DocVisibility> {
+        let lookup = self.doc_ids_by_address().await?;
+        let projection = self;
+        spawn_cpu(move || Result::Ok(lookup.visibility(&projection, &mask))).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Query-local selection in the partition-local DocId domain.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) enum DocVisibility {
+    All,
+    Selected(RoaringBitmap),
+    Filtered {
+        projection: ResidentAddressProjection,
+        mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    },
+}
+
+impl DocVisibility {
+    pub(crate) fn is_all(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::All)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn selected(&self, doc_id: DocId) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::All => true,
+            Self::Selected(selected) => selected.contains(doc_id.get()),
+            Self::Filtered { projection, mask } => projection
+                .address(doc_id)
+                .is_some_and(|address| mask.selected(address)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn len(&self, total_docs: usize) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::All => total_docs,
+            Self::Selected(selected) => selected.len() as usize,
+            Self::Filtered { .. } => total_docs,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::Selected(selected) if selected.is_empty())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn iter(&self) -> Option<impl Iterator<Item = DocId> + '_> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Selected(selected) => Some(selected.iter().map(DocId::new)),
+            Self::All | Self::Filtered { .. } => None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Modern query-side document state for one partition.
+pub(super) struct PartitionDocuments {
+    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    path: String,
+    partition_id: u64,
+    index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
+    num_docs: usize,
+    coordinate_rank: usize,
+    persisted_total_tokens: Option<u64>,
+    quantized_scoring: bool,
+    /// Legacy synchronous remapper (index_version 0). Mutually exclusive with
+    /// `batch_remapper`; both `None` means no translation is needed.
+    remapper: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    /// Asynchronous batch remapper (tagged histories).
+    batch_remapper: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+    lengths: Arc<OnceCell<Arc<DocLengths>>>,
+    projection: Arc<OnceCell<Arc<VersionAddressProjection>>>,
+    shared_addresses: Arc<ArcSwapWeak<UInt64Array>>,
+    prewarm_complete: Arc<OnceCell<()>>,
+}
+
+/// Load-boundary discriminator between the read-only legacy representation and
+/// the typed partitioned representation.  Query code dispatches on this enum
+/// once; modern scoring never receives a partial legacy [`DocSet`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) enum PartitionDocumentStore {
+    Legacy(Arc<DocSet>),
+    Modern(Arc<PartitionDocuments>),
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for PartitionDocumentStore {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => docs.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.deep_size_of_children(context),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartitionDocumentStore {
+    pub(crate) fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => docs.len(),
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn coordinate_rank(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => docs.coordinate_rank(),
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.coordinate_rank(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn legacy(&self) -> Option<&Arc<DocSet>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => Some(docs),
+            Self::Modern(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn modern(&self) -> Option<&Arc<PartitionDocuments>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(_) => None,
+            Self::Modern(docs) => Some(docs),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn stats(&self) -> Result<PartitionStats> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => Ok(PartitionStats {
+                num_docs: docs.len(),
+                total_tokens: docs.total_tokens_num(),
+            }),
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.stats().await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn cached_stats(&self) -> Option<PartitionStats> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => Some(PartitionStats {
+                num_docs: docs.len(),
+                total_tokens: docs.total_tokens_num(),
+            }),
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.cached_stats(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(_) => Ok(()),
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.prewarm().await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn query_ready(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(_) => true,
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.query_ready(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn prewarm_status(&self) -> FtsPrewarmDocumentStatus {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(_) => FtsPrewarmDocumentStatus {
+                prewarm_complete: true,
+                scoring_ready: true,
+                reverse_lookup_ready: true,
+                ascending_addresses_ready: true,
+                projection_resident: true,
+            },
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.prewarm_status(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn load_build_docset(&self) -> Result<DocSet> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => Ok((**docs).clone()),
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.load_build_docset().await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// This partition's documents keyed by row address; see
+    /// [`AddressKeyedDocuments`].
+    pub(crate) async fn address_keyed(&self) -> Result<AddressKeyedDocuments> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => Ok(AddressKeyedDocuments::from_docset(docs.clone())),
+            Self::Modern(docs) => docs.address_keyed().await,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// One partition's documents keyed by row address instead of [`DocId`].
+///
+/// A scan that spans several columns can only join them on the row address:
+/// each column has its own index, its own partitioning and its own DocId space.
+/// Such a scan needs both directions: `DocId -> address` to place a posting,
+/// and `address -> length` to read a candidate row's contribution from a column
+/// it may hold no posting for at all, which rules out carrying a DocId through
+/// the merge instead.
+///
+/// The modern variant materializes nothing per query: it clones the partition's
+/// cached lengths, its resident address projection and the address-sorted DocId
+/// lookup, all of which are per-partition state that [`PartitionDocuments::prewarm`]
+/// fills and that outlives the query. It does keep the whole address column
+/// resident, unlike the single-column path which resolves addresses only for the
+/// final top-k, because every candidate row needs a length from every column.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct AddressKeyedDocuments(AddressKeyedSource);
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum AddressKeyedSource {
+    /// Legacy partitions already own a complete row-address-keyed [`DocSet`].
+    Legacy(Arc<DocSet>),
+    Modern {
+        projection: ResidentAddressProjection,
+        doc_ids_by_address: Arc<AddressDocIdLookup>,
+        lengths: Arc<DocLengths>,
+        /// Memoized per partition; see
+        /// [`ResidentAddressProjection::dense_and_strictly_ascending`].
+        strictly_ascending: bool,
+    },
+}
+
+impl AddressKeyedDocuments {
+    /// View a legacy partition's complete [`DocSet`], which is already keyed by
+    /// row address.
+    pub(crate) fn from_docset(docs: Arc<DocSet>) -> Self {
+        Self(AddressKeyedSource::Legacy(docs))
+    }
+
+    /// Number of documents, counting the dead slots a remapped partition keeps
+    /// so its DocIds stay aligned with the posting lists.
+    pub(crate) fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.0 {
+            AddressKeyedSource::Legacy(docs) => docs.len(),
+            AddressKeyedSource::Modern { lengths, .. } => lengths.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Row address of `doc_id`, or [`RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW`] when the slot is
+    /// not live.
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn row_address(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u64 {
+        match &self.0 {
+            AddressKeyedSource::Legacy(docs) => docs.row_id(doc_id),
+            AddressKeyedSource::Modern { projection, .. } => projection
+                .address(DocId::new(doc_id))
+                .unwrap_or(RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Total length of the row at `address`: the sum over every document the row
+    /// owns in this partition, or 0 when the partition holds none (an empty or
+    /// null field, a row outside the partition, or a dead slot).
+    ///
+    /// Released V1/V2 list indexes indexed each `List<String>` element as its own
+    /// document, so one row can own a whole run of documents and every one of
+    /// them contributes.
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn doc_length_at(&self, address: u64) -> u64 {
+        match &self.0 {
+            AddressKeyedSource::Legacy(docs) => docs.doc_length_by_row_id(address),
+            AddressKeyedSource::Modern {
+                projection,
+                doc_ids_by_address,
+                lengths,
+                ..
+            } => doc_ids_by_address
+                .positions_in_address_range(projection, address, address)
+                .map(|position| {
+                    u64::from(lengths.exact(DocId::new(doc_ids_by_address.doc_id_at(position))))
+                })
+                .sum(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Every live DocId the row at `address` owns in this partition.
+    ///
+    /// `None` for a legacy partition: its [`DocSet`] does not key documents by the
+    /// DocIds a compressed posting list holds, so callers keep walking postings
+    /// through [`Self::row_address`] there.
+    pub(crate) fn doc_ids_at(&self, address: u64) -> Option<impl Iterator<Item = u32> + '_> {
+        match &self.0 {
+            AddressKeyedSource::Legacy(_) => None,
+            AddressKeyedSource::Modern {
+                projection,
+                doc_ids_by_address,
+                ..
+            } => Some(
+                doc_ids_by_address
+                    .positions_in_address_range(projection, address, address)
+                    .map(|position| doc_ids_by_address.doc_id_at(position)),
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Number of distinct row addresses the live documents cover.
+    ///
+    /// Equal to [`Self::len`] whenever each row owns a single live document.
+    /// Row-granularity corpus statistics need this count; see
+    /// [`Self::doc_length_at`] for why the two can differ.
+    pub(crate) fn num_distinct_rows(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.0 {
+            AddressKeyedSource::Legacy(docs) => docs.num_distinct_rows(),
+            AddressKeyedSource::Modern {
+                projection,
+                doc_ids_by_address,
+                strictly_ascending,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                if *strictly_ascending {
+                    return self.len();
+                }
+                // The lookup lists the live DocIds in address order, so the
+                // documents of one row form a contiguous run.
+                count_row_id_runs(
+                    (0..doc_ids_by_address.len(projection))
+                        .map(|position| doc_ids_by_address.address_at(projection, position)),
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for PartitionDocuments {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("PartitionDocuments")
+            .field("path", &self.path)
+            .field("num_docs", &self.num_docs)
+            .field("coordinate_rank", &self.coordinate_rank)
+            .field("persisted_total_tokens", &self.persisted_total_tokens)
+            .field("lengths_loaded", &self.lengths.initialized())
+            .field("projection_loaded", &self.projection.initialized())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for PartitionDocuments {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.lengths
+            .get()
+            .map(|lengths| lengths.deep_size_of_children(context))
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+            + self
+                .projection
+                .get()
+                .map(|projection| projection.deep_size_of_children(context))
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartitionDocuments {
+    pub(crate) fn try_new(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        path: String,
+        partition_id: u64,
+        index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
+        reader: &dyn IndexReader,
+        remapper: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        quantized_scoring: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let num_docs = reader.num_rows();
+        if num_docs > u32::MAX as usize {
+            return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                &path,
+                format!("document count {num_docs} exceeds dense DocId capacity"),
+            ));
+        }
+        let persisted_total_tokens = reader
+            .schema()
+            .metadata
+            .get(TOTAL_TOKENS_KEY)
+            .map(|value| {
+                value.parse::<u64>().map_err(|error| {
+                    corrupt_docs(
+                        &path,
+                        format!("invalid {TOTAL_TOKENS_KEY} metadata value {value:?}: {error}"),
+                    )
+                })
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+        let coordinate_rank =
+            document_coordinate_rank(&arrow_schema::Schema::from(reader.schema()));
+        Ok(Self {
+            store,
+            path,
+            partition_id,
+            index_cache,
+            num_docs,
+            coordinate_rank,
+            persisted_total_tokens,
+            quantized_scoring,
+            remapper,
+            batch_remapper: None,
+            lengths: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
+            projection: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
+            shared_addresses: Arc::new(ArcSwapWeak::from(Weak::new())),
+            prewarm_complete: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::try_new`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    pub(crate) fn try_new_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        path: String,
+        partition_id: u64,
+        index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
+        reader: &dyn IndexReader,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        quantized_scoring: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let mut docs = Self::try_new(
+            store,
+            path,
+            partition_id,
+            index_cache,
+            reader,
+            None,
+            quantized_scoring,
+        )?;
+        docs.batch_remapper = remapping;
+        debug_assert!(docs.remapper.is_none() || docs.batch_remapper.is_none());
+        Ok(docs)
+    }
+
+    /// Share reader-free state within the same index and fragment-reuse namespace.
+    /// Cache misses use the current store and remapper; no previous request's
+    /// readers or storage credentials are retained by the shared cells.
+    pub(crate) fn with_store(
+        &self,
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapper: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            store,
+            path: self.path.clone(),
+            partition_id: self.partition_id,
+            index_cache: self.index_cache.clone(),
+            num_docs: self.num_docs,
+            coordinate_rank: self.coordinate_rank,
+            persisted_total_tokens: self.persisted_total_tokens,
+            quantized_scoring: self.quantized_scoring,
+            remapper,
+            batch_remapper: None,
+            lengths: self.lengths.clone(),
+            projection: self.projection.clone(),
+            shared_addresses: self.shared_addresses.clone(),
+            prewarm_complete: self.prewarm_complete.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.num_docs
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn coordinate_rank(&self) -> usize {
+        self.coordinate_rank
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn lengths_loaded(&self) -> bool {
+        self.lengths.initialized()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn projection_loaded(&self) -> bool {
+        self.projection.initialized()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn address_buffer_handle(&self) -> Weak<UInt64Array> {
+        self.shared_addresses.load_full()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn projection_resident(&self) -> bool {
+        self.resident_address_projection().is_some()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn query_ready(&self) -> bool {
+        self.prewarm_status().query_ready()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn prewarm_status(&self) -> FtsPrewarmDocumentStatus {
+        FtsPrewarmDocumentStatus {
+            prewarm_complete: self.prewarm_complete.initialized(),
+            scoring_ready: self
+                .lengths
+                .get()
+                .is_some_and(|lengths| lengths.scoring_ready()),
+            reverse_lookup_ready: self
+                .projection
+                .get()
+                .is_some_and(|projection| projection.doc_ids_by_address.initialized()),
+            ascending_addresses_ready: self.projection.get().is_some_and(|projection| {
+                CachedRowAddressOrder::from_raw(
+                    projection.ordered_validation.load(AtomicOrdering::Acquire),
+                ) != CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown
+            }),
+            projection_resident: self.projection_resident(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn reader(&self) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
+        self.store.open_index_file(&self.path).await
+    }
+
+    async fn row_ids_column(&self) -> Result<Arc<UInt64Array>> {
+        let store = self.store.clone();
+        let path = self.path.clone();
+        let num_docs = self.num_docs;
+        let cached = self
+            .index_cache
+            .get_or_insert_with_key(
+                DocRowIdsKey {
+                    partition_id: self.partition_id,
+                },
+                || async move {
+                    let reader = store.open_index_file(&path).await?;
+                    let batch = reader.read_range(0..num_docs, Some(&[ROW_ID])).await?;
+                    let row_ids = required_u64_column(&batch, ROW_ID, &path)?;
+                    if row_ids.null_count() != 0 {
+                        return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                            &path,
+                            format!("{ROW_ID} contains null values"),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    if row_ids.len() != num_docs {
+                        return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                            &path,
+                            format!(
+                                "{ROW_ID} has {} rows but the file footer reports {num_docs}",
+                                row_ids.len()
+                            ),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    Ok(CachedDocRowIds {
+                        row_ids: Arc::new(row_ids.clone()),
+                    })
+                },
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let row_ids = cached.row_ids.clone();
+        self.shared_addresses.store(Arc::downgrade(&row_ids));
+        Ok(row_ids)
+    }
+
+    fn lengths_from_batch(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Arc<DocLengths>> {
+        let column = required_u32_column(batch, NUM_TOKEN_COL, &self.path)?;
+        if column.null_count() != 0 {
+            return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                &self.path,
+                format!("{NUM_TOKEN_COL} contains null values"),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(DocLengths::try_new(
+            column.values().clone(),
+            self.num_docs,
+            self.persisted_total_tokens,
+            self.quantized_scoring,
+            &self.path,
+        )?))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn stats(&self) -> Result<PartitionStats> {
+        let total_tokens = match self.persisted_total_tokens {
+            Some(total_tokens) => total_tokens,
+            None => self.lengths().await?.total_tokens(),
+        };
+        Ok(PartitionStats {
+            num_docs: self.num_docs,
+            total_tokens,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn cached_stats(&self) -> Option<PartitionStats> {
+        self.persisted_total_tokens
+            .or_else(|| self.lengths.get().map(|lengths| lengths.total_tokens()))
+            .map(|total_tokens| PartitionStats {
+                num_docs: self.num_docs,
+                total_tokens,
+            })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn lengths(&self) -> Result<Arc<DocLengths>> {
+        self.lengths
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                let reader = self.reader().await?;
+                let batch = reader
+                    .read_range(0..self.num_docs, Some(&[NUM_TOKEN_COL]))
+                    .await?;
+                self.lengths_from_batch(&batch)
+            })
+            .await
+            .cloned()
+    }
+
+    /// Return resident lengths without entering the asynchronous singleflight path.
+    pub(crate) fn cached_lengths(&self) -> Option<Arc<DocLengths>> {
+        self.lengths.get().cloned()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn resident_address_projection(&self) -> Option<ResidentAddressProjection> {
+        let projection = self.projection.get()?.clone();
+        let shared_addresses = match &projection.addresses {
+            AddressValues::Shared { .. } => self.shared_addresses.load().upgrade(),
+            AddressValues::Owned(_) => None,
+        };
+        projection.resident(shared_addresses)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn address_projection(&self) -> Result<ResidentAddressProjection> {
+        if let Some(projection) = self.resident_address_projection() {
+            return Ok(projection);
+        }
+
+        let row_ids = self.row_ids_column().await?;
+        let projection = self
+            .projection
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                if let Some(remapping) = &self.batch_remapper {
+                    // Tagged asynchronous path.
+                    VersionAddressProjection::try_new_with_remapping(
+                        row_ids.as_ref(),
+                        self.num_docs,
+                        remapping.as_ref(),
+                        &self.path,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                } else {
+                    // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+                    Result::Ok(Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection::try_new(
+                        row_ids.as_ref(),
+                        self.num_docs,
+                        self.remapper.as_deref(),
+                        &self.path,
+                    )?))
+                }
+            })
+            .await
+            .cloned()?;
+        projection.resident(Some(row_ids)).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "address projection for {} could not bind its cache-managed ROW_ID column",
+                self.path
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn visibility(
+        &self,
+        mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+        materialize_selected: bool,
+    ) -> Result<DocVisibility> {
+        if let Some(visibility) = self.immediate_visibility(mask.clone(), materialize_selected) {
+            return Ok(visibility);
+        }
+
+        let projection = self.address_projection().await?;
+        if mask.is_select_all() {
+            return Ok(DocVisibility::Selected(projection.live_doc_ids()));
+        }
+        if materialize_selected {
+            projection.materialize_visibility(mask).await
+        } else {
+            Ok(DocVisibility::Filtered { projection, mask })
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve visibility without I/O or CPU-pool work when all required state is resident.
+    pub(crate) fn immediate_visibility(
+        &self,
+        mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+        materialize_selected: bool,
+    ) -> Option<DocVisibility> {
+        if mask.max_len() == Some(0) {
+            return Some(DocVisibility::Selected(RoaringBitmap::new()));
+        }
+        if mask.is_select_all() && self.remapper.is_none() && self.batch_remapper.is_none() {
+            return Some(DocVisibility::All);
+        }
+
+        let projection = self.resident_address_projection()?;
+        if mask.is_select_all() {
+            return Some(DocVisibility::Selected(projection.live_doc_ids()));
+        }
+        if materialize_selected {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(DocVisibility::Filtered { projection, mask })
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve final global top-k DocIds to current row addresses.
+    pub(crate) async fn resolve_addresses(&self, doc_ids: &[DocId]) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        if doc_ids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        self.validate_doc_ids(doc_ids)?;
+        if let Some(projection) = self.resident_address_projection() {
+            return self.resolve_projected_addresses(&projection, doc_ids);
+        }
+        if self.remapper.is_some() || self.batch_remapper.is_some() {
+            let projection = self.address_projection().await?;
+            return self.resolve_projected_addresses(&projection, doc_ids);
+        }
+
+        let row_ids = self.row_ids_column().await?;
+        Ok(doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|doc_id| row_ids.value(doc_id.as_usize()))
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    /// Load scoring document lengths for a bounded candidate set.
+    ///
+    /// The current format stores lengths in an independent dense column. Cold
+    /// selective staged queries read only candidate rows; resident or dense
+    /// queries reuse/populate the normal full-column cache. Returned values
+    /// exactly match [`DocLengths::scoring`], including the quantized V3 path.
+    pub(crate) async fn resolve_scoring_lengths(&self, doc_ids: &[DocId]) -> Result<Vec<u32>> {
+        if doc_ids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        self.validate_doc_ids(doc_ids)?;
+        if let Some(lengths) = self.cached_lengths() {
+            return Ok(doc_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&doc_id| lengths.scoring(doc_id))
+                .collect());
+        }
+        if !self.prefer_sparse_document_read(doc_ids.len()) {
+            let lengths = self.lengths().await?;
+            return Ok(doc_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&doc_id| lengths.scoring(doc_id))
+                .collect());
+        }
+
+        let ranges = doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|doc_id| {
+                let index = doc_id.as_usize();
+                index..index + 1
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let batch = self
+            .reader()
+            .await?
+            .read_ranges(&ranges, Some(&[NUM_TOKEN_COL]))
+            .await?;
+        let lengths = required_u32_column(&batch, NUM_TOKEN_COL, &self.path)?;
+        if lengths.null_count() != 0 || lengths.len() != doc_ids.len() {
+            return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                &self.path,
+                format!(
+                    "sparse {NUM_TOKEN_COL} projection returned {} rows with {} nulls for {} candidates",
+                    lengths.len(),
+                    lengths.null_count(),
+                    doc_ids.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(lengths
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&length| {
+                if self.quantized_scoring {
+                    dequantize_doc_length(quantize_doc_length(length))
+                } else {
+                    length
+                }
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve the row address and scoring length for a bounded candidate set.
+    ///
+    /// When neither document column is resident and the selection is sparse,
+    /// both columns are projected by one `read_ranges` call. This avoids
+    /// opening and scheduling the same document file twice during staged
+    /// cross-column execution. Asymmetric cache states continue to reuse the
+    /// resident side through the existing typed resolvers.
+    pub(crate) async fn resolve_scoring_documents(
+        &self,
+        doc_ids: &[DocId],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(u32, u64, u32)>> {
+        if doc_ids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        self.validate_doc_ids(doc_ids)?;
+
+        let addresses_need_sparse_read = self.resident_address_projection().is_none()
+            && self.remapper.is_none()
+            && self.batch_remapper.is_none()
+            && self.shared_addresses.load().upgrade().is_none()
+            && self.prefer_sparse_document_read(doc_ids.len());
+        let lengths_need_sparse_read =
+            self.cached_lengths().is_none() && self.prefer_sparse_document_read(doc_ids.len());
+        if addresses_need_sparse_read && lengths_need_sparse_read {
+            let ranges = doc_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|doc_id| {
+                    let index = doc_id.as_usize();
+                    index..index + 1
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let batch = self
+                .reader()
+                .await?
+                .read_ranges(&ranges, Some(&[ROW_ID, NUM_TOKEN_COL]))
+                .await?;
+            let row_ids = required_u64_column(&batch, ROW_ID, &self.path)?;
+            let lengths = required_u32_column(&batch, NUM_TOKEN_COL, &self.path)?;
+            if row_ids.null_count() != 0
+                || lengths.null_count() != 0
+                || row_ids.len() != doc_ids.len()
+                || lengths.len() != doc_ids.len()
+            {
+                return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                    &self.path,
+                    format!(
+                        "sparse document projection returned {} row addresses ({} nulls) and {} lengths ({} nulls) for {} candidates",
+                        row_ids.len(),
+                        row_ids.null_count(),
+                        lengths.len(),
+                        lengths.null_count(),
+                        doc_ids.len()
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+            return Ok(doc_ids
+                .iter()
+                .zip(row_ids.values())
+                .zip(lengths.values())
+                .map(|((&doc_id, &row_address), &length)| {
+                    let scoring_length = if self.quantized_scoring {
+                        dequantize_doc_length(quantize_doc_length(length))
+                    } else {
+                        length
+                    };
+                    (doc_id.get(), row_address, scoring_length)
+                })
+                .collect());
+        }
+
+        let (row_addresses, scoring_lengths) = futures::try_join!(
+            self.resolve_addresses(doc_ids),
+            self.resolve_scoring_lengths(doc_ids)
+        )?;
+        if row_addresses.len() != doc_ids.len() || scoring_lengths.len() != doc_ids.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "resolved {} row addresses and {} lengths for {} FTS candidates",
+                row_addresses.len(),
+                scoring_lengths.len(),
+                doc_ids.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .zip(row_addresses)
+            .zip(scoring_lengths)
+            .map(|((&doc_id, row_address), scoring_length)| {
+                (doc_id.get(), row_address, scoring_length)
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn prefer_sparse_document_read(&self, selected: usize) -> bool {
+        (selected as u128).saturating_mul(100)
+            <= (SPARSE_DOCUMENT_READ_PERCENT as u128).saturating_mul(self.num_docs as u128)
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve final global top-k DocIds to their logical FTS document keys.
+    pub(crate) async fn resolve_document_keys(
+        &self,
+        doc_ids: &[DocId],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(u64, Vec<u32>)>> {
+        let row_ids = self.resolve_addresses(doc_ids).await?;
+        if self.coordinate_rank == 0 {
+            return Ok(row_ids
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|row_id| (row_id, Vec::new()))
+                .collect());
+        }
+
+        let ranges = doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|doc_id| {
+                let index = doc_id.as_usize();
+                index..index + 1
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let coordinate_names = (0..self.coordinate_rank)
+            .map(doc_index_storage_column)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let projection = coordinate_names
+            .iter()
+            .map(String::as_str)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let batch = self
+            .reader()
+            .await?
+            .read_ranges(&ranges, Some(&projection))
+            .await?;
+        if batch.num_rows() != row_ids.len() {
+            return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                &self.path,
+                format!(
+                    "document coordinate projection returned {} rows for {} candidates",
+                    batch.num_rows(),
+                    row_ids.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let coordinate_columns = coordinate_names
+            .iter()
+            .map(|name| {
+                let column = required_u32_column(&batch, name, &self.path)?;
+                if column.null_count() != 0 {
+                    return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                        &self.path,
+                        format!("document coordinate column {name} contains null values"),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(column)
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        Ok(row_ids
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(index, row_id)| {
+                (
+                    row_id,
+                    coordinate_columns
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|column| column.value(index))
+                        .collect(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    fn validate_doc_ids(&self, doc_ids: &[DocId]) -> Result<()> {
+        for doc_id in doc_ids {
+            if doc_id.as_usize() >= self.num_docs {
+                return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                    &self.path,
+                    format!(
+                        "candidate DocId {} is outside [0, {})",
+                        doc_id.get(),
+                        self.num_docs
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn resolve_projected_addresses(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+        doc_ids: &[DocId],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&doc_id| {
+                projection.address(doc_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    corrupt_docs(
+                        &self.path,
+                        format!("candidate DocId {} is not live", doc_id.get()),
+                    )
+                })
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve addresses synchronously when the cache-managed projection buffer
+    /// is resident. The returned `None` asks the caller to use the async reload path.
+    pub(crate) fn cached_row_addresses(&self, doc_ids: &[DocId]) -> Result<Option<Vec<u64>>> {
+        self.validate_doc_ids(doc_ids)?;
+        let Some(projection) = self.resident_address_projection() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        self.resolve_projected_addresses(&projection, doc_ids)
+            .map(Some)
+    }
+
+    /// Estimated Arrow payload retained while loading this partition's cached
+    /// row-address column.
+    /// The estimate is used to cap cross-partition read concurrency; a single
+    /// oversized partition is still allowed to make progress.
+    pub(crate) fn estimated_address_read_bytes(&self, doc_ids: &[DocId]) -> usize {
+        if doc_ids.is_empty() || self.projection_resident() {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        self.num_docs.saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<u64>())
+    }
+
+    /// This partition's documents keyed by row address; see
+    /// [`AddressKeyedDocuments`].
+    ///
+    /// Every part is a per-partition cache, so a warm partition answers with
+    /// four `Arc` clones and no IO, CPU-pool work or per-query allocation. A cold
+    /// partition reads the two columns concurrently, since it needs both whatever
+    /// the outcome.
+    pub(crate) async fn address_keyed(&self) -> Result<AddressKeyedDocuments> {
+        let (lengths, projection) = futures::try_join!(self.lengths(), self.address_projection())?;
+        let doc_ids_by_address = projection.doc_ids_by_address().await?;
+        let strictly_ascending = self.strictly_ascending_addresses(&projection).await?;
+        Ok(AddressKeyedDocuments(AddressKeyedSource::Modern {
+            projection,
+            doc_ids_by_address,
+            lengths,
+            strictly_ascending,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Answer to [`ResidentAddressProjection::dense_and_strictly_ascending`],
+    /// memoized by the projection's own ordering cache. The validation scan is
+    /// O(num_docs), so it belongs to prewarmed partition state.
+    async fn strictly_ascending_addresses(
+        &self,
+        projection: &ResidentAddressProjection,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        if projection.cached_row_address_order() != CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown {
+            return Ok(projection.dense_and_strictly_ascending());
+        }
+        let projection = projection.clone();
+        spawn_cpu(move || Result::Ok(projection.dense_and_strictly_ascending())).await
+    }
+
+    /// Materialize the build-side table for rewrite/update operations.
+    pub(crate) async fn load_build_docset(&self) -> Result<DocSet> {
+        if let Some(remapping) = &self.batch_remapper {
+            // Tagged asynchronous path.
+            DocSet::load_with_remapping(self.reader().await?, false, Some(remapping.clone())).await
+        } else {
+            // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+            DocSet::load(self.reader().await?, false, self.remapper.clone()).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.prewarm_complete
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                if self.lengths.get().is_none() && self.projection.get().is_none() {
+                    let reader = self.reader().await?;
+                    let batch = reader
+                        .read_range(0..self.num_docs, Some(&[ROW_ID, NUM_TOKEN_COL]))
+                        .await?;
+                    let lengths = self.lengths_from_batch(&batch)?;
+                    let row_ids =
+                        Arc::new(required_u64_column(&batch, ROW_ID, &self.path)?.clone());
+                    if row_ids.null_count() != 0 {
+                        return Err(corrupt_docs(
+                            &self.path,
+                            format!("{ROW_ID} contains null values"),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    let projection = if let Some(remapping) = &self.batch_remapper {
+                        // Tagged asynchronous path.
+                        VersionAddressProjection::try_new_with_remapping(
+                            row_ids.as_ref(),
+                            self.num_docs,
+                            remapping.as_ref(),
+                            &self.path,
+                        )
+                        .await?
+                    } else {
+                        // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+                        Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection::try_new(
+                            row_ids.as_ref(),
+                            self.num_docs,
+                            self.remapper.as_deref(),
+                            &self.path,
+                        )?)
+                    };
+                    let cached_row_ids = Arc::new(CachedDocRowIds {
+                        row_ids: row_ids.clone(),
+                    });
+                    self.index_cache
+                        .insert_with_key(
+                            &DocRowIdsKey {
+                                partition_id: self.partition_id,
+                            },
+                            cached_row_ids,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                    self.shared_addresses.store(Arc::downgrade(&row_ids));
+
+                    // A concurrent single-column request may win either OnceCell.
+                    // Awaiting the accessors below joins that initialization without
+                    // replacing the already-published value.
+                    let _ = self.lengths.set(lengths);
+                    let _ = self.projection.set(projection);
+                }
+
+                let lengths = self.lengths().await?;
+                spawn_cpu(move || {
+                    let _ = lengths.scoring_norms();
+                    Result::Ok(())
+                })
+                .await?;
+                let projection = self.address_projection().await?;
+                projection.doc_ids_by_address().await?;
+                self.strictly_ascending_addresses(&projection).await?;
+                Result::Ok(())
+            })
+            .await?;
+        if !self.projection_resident() {
+            self.address_projection().await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+fn required_u32_column<'a>(
+    batch: &'a RecordBatch,
+    name: &str,
+    path: &str,
+) -> Result<&'a UInt32Array> {
+    let column = batch
+        .column_by_name(name)
+        .ok_or_else(|| corrupt_docs(path, format!("required column {name} is missing")))?;
+    column
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            corrupt_docs(
+                path,
+                format!(
+                    "column {name} has type {}, expected UInt32",
+                    column.data_type()
+                ),
+            )
+        })
+}
+
+fn required_u64_column<'a>(
+    batch: &'a RecordBatch,
+    name: &str,
+    path: &str,
+) -> Result<&'a UInt64Array> {
+    let column = batch
+        .column_by_name(name)
+        .ok_or_else(|| corrupt_docs(path, format!("required column {name} is missing")))?;
+    column
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            corrupt_docs(
+                path,
+                format!(
+                    "column {name} has type {}, expected UInt64",
+                    column.data_type()
+                ),
+            )
+        })
+}
+
+fn corrupt_docs(path: &str, message: impl Into<String>) -> Error {
+    Error::corrupt_file(Path::from(path), message)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::ops::Range;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+    use std::time::Duration;
+
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use lance_core::cache::{LanceCache, QuickCacheBackend};
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+    use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+    use tokio::sync::Notify;
+
+    use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+    use crate::scalar::{IndexFile, IndexWriter};
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct DocumentReadCounts {
+        open_calls: AtomicUsize,
+        range_calls: AtomicUsize,
+        ranges_calls: AtomicUsize,
+        rows: AtomicUsize,
+        length_rows: AtomicUsize,
+        address_rows: AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    impl DocumentReadCounts {
+        fn record(&self, rows: usize, projection: Option<&[&str]>) {
+            self.rows.fetch_add(rows, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            if projection.is_none_or(|columns| columns.contains(&NUM_TOKEN_COL)) {
+                self.length_rows.fetch_add(rows, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            }
+            if projection.is_none_or(|columns| columns.contains(&ROW_ID)) {
+                self.address_rows.fetch_add(rows, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    const PAUSE_ONCE: usize = 1;
+    const FAIL_ONCE: usize = 2;
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct ReadFault {
+        action: AtomicUsize,
+        started: Notify,
+    }
+
+    impl ReadFault {
+        async fn apply(&self) -> Result<()> {
+            match self.action.swap(0, Ordering::AcqRel) {
+                PAUSE_ONCE => {
+                    self.started.notify_one();
+                    std::future::pending::<Result<()>>().await
+                }
+                FAIL_ONCE => Err(Error::io("injected document read failure")),
+                _ => Ok(()),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct CountingReader {
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        counts: Arc<DocumentReadCounts>,
+        fault: Option<Arc<ReadFault>>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexReader for CountingReader {
+        async fn read_record_batch(&self, n: u64, batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            self.inner.read_record_batch(n, batch_size).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_global_buffer(&self, index: u32) -> Result<bytes::Bytes> {
+            self.inner.read_global_buffer(index).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_range(
+            &self,
+            range: Range<usize>,
+            projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            self.counts.range_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            self.counts.record(range.len(), projection);
+            if let Some(fault) = &self.fault {
+                fault.apply().await?;
+            }
+            self.inner.read_range(range, projection).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_ranges(
+            &self,
+            ranges: &[Range<usize>],
+            projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            self.counts.ranges_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            self.counts
+                .record(ranges.iter().map(Range::len).sum(), projection);
+            if let Some(fault) = &self.fault {
+                fault.apply().await?;
+            }
+            self.inner.read_ranges(ranges, projection).await
+        }
+
+        async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32 {
+            self.inner.num_batches(batch_size).await
+        }
+
+        fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.num_rows()
+        }
+
+        fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
+            self.inner.schema()
+        }
+
+        fn file_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.inner.file_size_bytes()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct CountingStore {
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        target: String,
+        counts: Arc<DocumentReadCounts>,
+        fault: Option<Arc<ReadFault>>,
+    }
+
+    impl DeepSizeOf for CountingStore {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+            self.inner.deep_size_of_children(context)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexStore for CountingStore {
+        fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+            self
+        }
+
+        fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            Arc::new(Self {
+                inner: self.inner.clone(),
+                target: self.target.clone(),
+                counts: self.counts.clone(),
+                fault: self.fault.clone(),
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.io_parallelism()
+        }
+
+        async fn new_index_file(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        ) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexWriter>> {
+            self.inner.new_index_file(name, schema).await
+        }
+
+        async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
+            let reader = self.inner.open_index_file(name).await?;
+            if name == self.target {
+                self.counts.open_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                Ok(Arc::new(CountingReader {
+                    inner: reader,
+                    counts: self.counts.clone(),
+                    fault: self.fault.clone(),
+                }))
+            } else {
+                Ok(reader)
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn with_io_priority(&self, io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+            Arc::new(Self {
+                inner: self.inner.with_io_priority(io_priority),
+                target: self.target.clone(),
+                counts: self.counts.clone(),
+                fault: self.fault.clone(),
+            })
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_index_file(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner.copy_index_file(name, dest_store).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_index_file_to(
+            &self,
+            name: &str,
+            new_name: &str,
+            dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner
+                .copy_index_file_to(name, new_name, dest_store)
+                .await
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_index_file(&self, name: &str, new_name: &str) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+            self.inner.rename_index_file(name, new_name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            self.inner.delete_index_file(name).await
+        }
+
+        async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+            self.inner.list_files_with_sizes().await
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn test_store() -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceIndexStore>, Arc<LanceCache>) {
+        let directory = TempObjDir::default();
+        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024));
+        test_store_with_cache(directory, cache)
+    }
+
+    fn eviction_test_store() -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceIndexStore>, Arc<LanceCache>) {
+        let directory = TempObjDir::default();
+        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(
+            QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(1024 * 1024),
+        )));
+        test_store_with_cache(directory, cache)
+    }
+
+    fn test_store_with_cache(
+        directory: TempObjDir,
+        cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+    ) -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceIndexStore>, Arc<LanceCache>) {
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            directory.clone(),
+            cache.clone(),
+        ));
+        (directory, store, cache)
+    }
+
+    async fn write_documents(
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        path: &str,
+        addresses: UInt64Array,
+        lengths: UInt32Array,
+        total_tokens: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, addresses.null_count() != 0),
+            Field::new(NUM_TOKEN_COL, DataType::UInt32, lengths.null_count() != 0),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(addresses) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(lengths) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = store.new_index_file(path, schema).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        if let Some(total_tokens) = total_tokens {
+            writer
+                .finish_with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                    TOTAL_TOKENS_KEY.to_owned(),
+                    total_tokens.to_owned(),
+                )]))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        } else {
+            writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn open_documents(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        path: &str,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+        remapper: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<PartitionDocuments> {
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(path).await?;
+        PartitionDocuments::try_new(
+            store,
+            path.to_owned(),
+            0,
+            WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+            reader.as_ref(),
+            remapper,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn counted_store(
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        target: &str,
+    ) -> (Arc<dyn IndexStore>, Arc<DocumentReadCounts>) {
+        let counts = Arc::new(DocumentReadCounts::default());
+        (
+            Arc::new(CountingStore {
+                inner,
+                target: target.to_owned(),
+                counts: counts.clone(),
+                fault: None,
+            }),
+            counts,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn faulting_store(
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        target: &str,
+        action: usize,
+    ) -> (Arc<dyn IndexStore>, Arc<ReadFault>) {
+        let fault = Arc::new(ReadFault {
+            action: AtomicUsize::new(action),
+            started: Notify::new(),
+        });
+        (
+            Arc::new(CountingStore {
+                inner,
+                target: target.to_owned(),
+                counts: Arc::new(DocumentReadCounts::default()),
+                fault: Some(fault.clone()),
+            }),
+            fault,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct TestRemapper {
+        mapping: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+    }
+
+    impl RowIdRemapper for TestRemapper {
+        fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.mapping.get(&row_id).copied().unwrap_or(Some(row_id))
+        }
+
+        fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, _: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+            unreachable!("not used by document projection tests")
+        }
+
+        fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&self, _: &RoaringTreemap) -> RoaringTreemap {
+            unreachable!("not used by document projection tests")
+        }
+
+        fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(&self, _: RecordBatch, _: usize) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            unreachable!("not used by document projection tests")
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn required_document_columns_validate_name_and_type() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            NUM_TOKEN_COL,
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1])) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let missing = required_u64_column(&batch, ROW_ID, "docs.lance").unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            missing
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("required column _rowid is missing")
+        );
+        let wrong_type = required_u32_column(&batch, NUM_TOKEN_COL, "docs.lance").unwrap_err();
+        assert!(wrong_type.to_string().contains("expected UInt32"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn live_documents_use_doc_ids() {
+        let projection = Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection {
+            addresses: AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+            live_docs: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 2])),
+            doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+            ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+            materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let projection = projection.resident(None).unwrap();
+        let selected = projection.live_doc_ids();
+        assert_eq!(selected.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(projection.live_address_hull(), Some((10, 30)));
+
+        let empty = Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection {
+            addresses: AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+            live_docs: Some(RoaringBitmap::new()),
+            doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+            ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+            materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        assert_eq!(empty.resident(None).unwrap().live_address_hull(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ordered_row_address_projection_maps_identity_domain() {
+        let addresses = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]));
+        let projection = Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection {
+            addresses: AddressValues::Shared {
+                len: addresses.len(),
+            },
+            live_docs: None,
+            doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+            ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+            materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let projection = projection.resident(Some(addresses)).unwrap();
+        let ordered = projection.try_ordered_row_addresses().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(ordered.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(ordered.live_len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(ordered.live_address_hull(), Some((10, 30)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            ordered
+                .select_sorted_addresses(&[5, 10, 25, 30, 50])
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 2]
+        );
+        assert!(ordered.select_sorted_addresses(&[]).is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(ordered.address(0), Some(10));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.address(2), Some(30));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.address(3), None);
+        assert_eq!(ordered.lower_bound(0), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.lower_bound(10), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.lower_bound(11), Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.lower_bound(30), Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.lower_bound(31), None);
+        assert_eq!(ordered.next_address(0), Some(20));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.next_address(1), Some(30));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.next_address(2), None);
+        assert_eq!(ordered.next_address(u64::MAX), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ordered_row_address_projection_caches_successful_validation() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 20, 30, 40]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 0);
+
+        let first = projection.try_ordered_row_addresses().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(first.lower_bound(25), Some(2));
+
+        let second_query = projection.projection.resident(None).unwrap();
+        let second = second_query.try_ordered_row_addresses().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second_query.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(second.lower_bound(25), Some(2));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ordered_validation_computes_before_short_cache_publication() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 20, 30, 40]);
+
+        let validation = projection.compute_ordered_validation();
+        assert_eq!(validation, Ok(()));
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown
+        );
+
+        projection.publish_ordered_validation(&validation);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ordered_validation_concurrent_race_publishes_one_stable_state() {
+        let projection = resident_row_address_projection_for_test(vec![10, 20, 30, 40]);
+        let barrier = Arc::new(std::sync::Barrier::new(3));
+        let handles = (0..2)
+            .map(|_| {
+                let projection = projection.clone();
+                let barrier = barrier.clone();
+                std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                    barrier.wait();
+                    projection.try_ordered_row_addresses().map(drop)
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        barrier.wait();
+        for handle in handles {
+            handle.join().unwrap().unwrap();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(
+            projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(),
+            4 | 8
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ordered_row_address_projection_skips_deleted_slots() {
+        let projection = Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection {
+            addresses: AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(vec![10, 0, 30, 0, 50])),
+            live_docs: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 2, 4])),
+            doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+            ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+            materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let projection = projection.resident(None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 0);
+        let ordered = projection.try_ordered_row_addresses().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 3);
+        projection.try_ordered_row_addresses().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 3);
+
+        assert_eq!(ordered.len(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(ordered.live_len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(ordered.live_address_hull(), Some((10, 50)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            ordered
+                .select_sorted_addresses(&[0, 10, 30, 40, 50, 60])
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 2, 4]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(ordered.address(0), Some(10));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.address(1), None);
+        assert_eq!(ordered.address(2), Some(30));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.lower_bound(11), Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.lower_bound(30), Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.lower_bound(31), Some(4));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.lower_bound(51), None);
+        assert_eq!(ordered.next_address(0), Some(30));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.next_address(1), Some(30));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.next_address(2), Some(50));
+        assert_eq!(ordered.next_address(4), None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            ordered.address(1).or_else(|| ordered.next_address(1)),
+            Some(30)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ordered_row_address_projection_rejects_nonmonotonic_remap() {
+        let raw = UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30, 40]);
+        let remapper = TestRemapper {
+            mapping: HashMap::from([(10, Some(100)), (20, None), (30, Some(300))]),
+        };
+        let projection = Arc::new(
+            VersionAddressProjection::try_new(&raw, 4, Some(&remapper), "docs")
+                .expect("valid projection"),
+        );
+        let projection = projection.resident(None).unwrap();
+
+        let expected = RowAddressProjectionOrderError::OutOfOrder {
+            previous_doc_id: DocId::new(2),
+            previous_address: RowAddress::new_from_u64(300),
+            doc_id: DocId::new(3),
+            address: RowAddress::new_from_u64(40),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.try_ordered_row_addresses().unwrap_err(),
+            expected
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::OutOfOrder
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.try_ordered_row_addresses().unwrap_err(),
+            expected
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::OutOfOrder
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 6);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ordered_row_address_projection_rejects_duplicate_address() {
+        let projection = Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection {
+            addresses: AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(vec![10, 20, 20, 30])),
+            live_docs: None,
+            doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+            ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+            materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let projection = projection.resident(None).unwrap();
+
+        let expected = RowAddressProjectionOrderError::Duplicate {
+            first_doc_id: DocId::new(1),
+            duplicate_doc_id: DocId::new(2),
+            address: RowAddress::new_from_u64(20),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.try_ordered_row_addresses().unwrap_err(),
+            expected
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.cached_row_address_order(),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Duplicate
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.try_ordered_row_addresses().unwrap_err(),
+            expected
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.ordered_validation_visited_docs(), 6);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn remap_preserves_doc_id_slots_and_filters_in_current_address_domain() {
+        let raw = UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30, 40]);
+        let remapper = TestRemapper {
+            mapping: HashMap::from([(10, Some(100)), (20, None), (30, Some(300))]),
+        };
+        let projection = Arc::new(
+            VersionAddressProjection::try_new(&raw, 4, Some(&remapper), "docs")
+                .expect("valid projection"),
+        );
+        let projection = projection.resident(None).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(projection.address(DocId::new(0)), Some(100));
+        assert_eq!(projection.address(DocId::new(1)), None);
+        assert_eq!(projection.address(DocId::new(2)), Some(300));
+        assert_eq!(projection.address(DocId::new(3)), Some(40));
+
+        let all_live = projection.live_doc_ids();
+        assert_eq!(all_live.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 2, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(projection.live_address_hull(), Some((40, 300)));
+
+        let allowed = Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([
+            100, 40,
+        ])));
+        let DocVisibility::Selected(selected) = projection
+            .clone()
+            .materialize_visibility(allowed)
+            .await
+            .expect("valid allow-list")
+        else {
+            panic!("allow-list must compile to DocIds")
+        };
+        assert_eq!(selected.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 3]);
+        let candidate_selected = projection
+            .select_sorted_addresses(&[10, 40, 100])
+            .await
+            .expect("valid candidate projection");
+        assert_eq!(candidate_selected, selected);
+
+        let first_lookup = projection
+            .doc_ids_by_address()
+            .await
+            .expect("cached address lookup");
+        let blocked = Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([300])));
+        let DocVisibility::Selected(selected) = projection
+            .clone()
+            .materialize_visibility(blocked)
+            .await
+            .expect("valid block-list")
+        else {
+            panic!("block-list must compile to DocIds")
+        };
+        assert_eq!(selected.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 3]);
+        let second_lookup = projection
+            .doc_ids_by_address()
+            .await
+            .expect("cached address lookup");
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first_lookup, &second_lookup));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn materialized_visibility_handles_unsorted_duplicate_addresses_and_full_fragments() {
+        let row_address = |fragment_id, row_offset| {
+            u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, row_offset))
+        };
+        let projection = Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection {
+            addresses: AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(vec![
+                row_address(2, 5),
+                row_address(1, 2),
+                row_address(1, 2),
+                row_address(1, 4),
+            ])),
+            live_docs: None,
+            doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+            ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+            materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let projection = projection.resident(None).unwrap();
+
+        let duplicate = projection
+            .select_sorted_addresses(&[row_address(1, 2)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(duplicate, Error::Index { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            duplicate
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("row address 4294967298 is shared by local documents 1 and 2")
+        );
+
+        let allowed = Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([
+            row_address(1, 2),
+            row_address(1, 3),
+            row_address(1, 4),
+        ])));
+        let DocVisibility::Selected(selected) = projection
+            .clone()
+            .materialize_visibility(allowed)
+            .await
+            .expect("valid allow-list")
+        else {
+            panic!("allow-list must compile to DocIds")
+        };
+        assert_eq!(selected.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+        let mut full_fragment = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        full_fragment.insert_fragment(2);
+        let DocVisibility::Selected(selected) = projection
+            .materialize_visibility(Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(full_fragment)))
+            .await
+            .expect("valid full-fragment allow-list")
+        else {
+            panic!("allow-list must compile to DocIds")
+        };
+        assert_eq!(selected.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn candidate_projection_ignores_deleted_duplicate_addresses() {
+        let projection = Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection {
+            addresses: AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(vec![30, 10, 10, 20])),
+            live_docs: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, 3])),
+            doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+            ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+            materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let projection = projection.resident(None).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(projection.live_address_hull(), Some((10, 30)));
+        let selected = projection
+            .select_sorted_addresses(&[10, 20, 25, 30])
+            .await
+            .expect("deleted duplicate does not collide");
+        assert_eq!(selected.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 1, 3]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn lazy_visibility_projects_only_candidate_doc_ids() {
+        let projection = Arc::new(VersionAddressProjection {
+            addresses: AddressValues::Owned(Arc::new(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+            live_docs: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 2])),
+            doc_ids_by_address: OnceCell::new(),
+            ordered_validation: AtomicU8::new(CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown as u8),
+            materialized_candidate_cost: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            ordered_validation_visited_docs: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let resident = projection.resident(None).unwrap();
+        let visibility = DocVisibility::Filtered {
+            projection: resident,
+            mask: Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([
+                20, 30,
+            ]))),
+        };
+
+        assert!(!visibility.selected(DocId::new(0)));
+        assert!(!visibility.selected(DocId::new(1)));
+        assert!(visibility.selected(DocId::new(2)));
+        assert!(!projection.doc_ids_by_address.initialized());
+    }
+
+    /// A remapped partition that kept every document must still pass the gate.
+    /// That is the common case: a fragment reuse index attaches a remapper on
+    /// every index load, whether or not it removes anything.
+    ///
+    /// A dead slot stores address 0, so `dead_first_slot` keeps the stored
+    /// addresses ascending and is rejected by the liveness half alone.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::no_remapper_ascending(vec![10, 20, 30], None, true)]
+    #[case::no_remapper_ties(vec![10, 20, 20], None, false)]
+    #[case::remapper_retains_every_document(vec![10, 20, 30], Some(vec![]), true)]
+    #[case::remapper_rewrites_in_order(vec![10, 20, 30], Some(vec![(20, Some(25))]), true)]
+    #[case::remapper_ties_addresses(vec![10, 20, 30], Some(vec![(20, Some(10))]), false)]
+    #[case::remapper_reverses_addresses(vec![10, 20, 30], Some(vec![(30, Some(5))]), false)]
+    #[case::dead_first_slot(vec![10, 20, 30], Some(vec![(10, None)]), false)]
+    #[case::dead_middle_slot(vec![10, 20, 30], Some(vec![(20, None)]), false)]
+    fn ascending_address_gate_requires_live_slots_and_strict_order(
+        #[case] raw: Vec<u64>,
+        #[case] remapping: Option<Vec<(u64, Option<u64>)>>,
+        #[case] expected: bool,
+    ) {
+        let raw = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(raw));
+        let remapper = remapping.map(|entries| TestRemapper {
+            mapping: entries.into_iter().collect(),
+        });
+        let projection = Arc::new(
+            VersionAddressProjection::try_new(
+                raw.as_ref(),
+                raw.len(),
+                remapper
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|remapper| remapper as &dyn RowIdRemapper),
+                "docs",
+            )
+            .expect("valid projection"),
+        );
+        let projection = projection.resident(Some(raw)).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(projection.dense_and_strictly_ascending(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn doc_lengths_validate_shape_total_and_memory() {
+        let mismatch = DocLengths::try_new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![2, 3]), 3, None, false, "docs")
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(mismatch.to_string().contains("2 rows"));
+
+        let mismatch = DocLengths::try_new(
+            ScalarBuffer::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            3,
+            Some(11),
+            false,
+            "docs",
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(mismatch.to_string().contains("sums to 10"));
+
+        let lengths =
+            DocLengths::try_new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![2, 3, 5]), 3, Some(10), true, "docs")
+                .unwrap();
+        let before_norms = lengths.deep_size_of();
+        assert_eq!(lengths.total_tokens(), 10);
+        assert_eq!(lengths.scoring_norms().unwrap().len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(lengths.deep_size_of() - before_norms, 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn persisted_stats_are_footer_only_and_compatible_with_full_docset_reader() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            Some("10"),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(path).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader.schema().metadata.get(TOTAL_TOKENS_KEY),
+            Some(&"10".to_owned())
+        );
+        let complete = DocSet::load(reader, false, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(complete.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(complete.row_id(1), 20);
+        assert_eq!(complete.total_tokens_num(), 10);
+
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            documents.stats().await.unwrap(),
+            PartitionStats {
+                num_docs: 3,
+                total_tokens: 10,
+            }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(counts.rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+        assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn missing_stats_fall_back_once_to_lengths() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(documents.stats().await.unwrap().total_tokens, 10);
+        assert_eq!(documents.stats().await.unwrap().total_tokens, 10);
+        assert_eq!(counts.range_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counts.length_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert!(documents.lengths_loaded());
+        assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prewarm_loads_document_columns_and_address_lookup_once() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            Some("10"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        futures::future::join_all((0..8).map(|_| documents.prewarm()))
+            .await
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let projection = documents.address_projection().await.unwrap();
+        let first_lookup = projection.doc_ids_by_address().await.unwrap();
+        documents.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        let second_lookup = documents
+            .address_projection()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .doc_ids_by_address()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(documents.lengths_loaded());
+        assert!(documents.projection_loaded());
+        assert!(documents.query_ready());
+        assert_eq!(documents.cached_lengths().unwrap().total_tokens(), 10);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            documents.immediate_visibility(Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()), false),
+            Some(DocVisibility::All)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            first_lookup.as_ref(),
+            AddressDocIdLookup::Identity
+        ));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first_lookup, &second_lookup));
+        assert_eq!(
+            documents.cached_row_addresses(&[DocId::new(1)]).unwrap(),
+            Some(vec![20])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(counts.open_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 2);
+        assert_eq!(counts.range_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counts.length_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key(&DocRowIdsKey { partition_id: 0 })
+                .await
+                .is_some()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::from_raw(
+                documents
+                    .projection
+                    .get()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .ordered_validation
+                    .load(AtomicOrdering::Acquire)
+            ),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Ordered
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Prewarm owns the O(num_docs) address scan, so the first cross-field query
+    /// against a prewarmed partition spends no CPU deciding the fast path.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::retains_every_document(vec![], true)]
+    #[case::deletes_a_document(vec![(20, None)], false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prewarm_answers_the_ascending_gate_for_a_remapped_partition(
+        #[case] remapping: Vec<(u64, Option<u64>)>,
+        #[case] strictly_ascending: bool,
+    ) {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            Some("10"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let remapper: Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper> = Arc::new(TestRemapper {
+            mapping: remapping.into_iter().collect(),
+        });
+        let documents = open_documents(store, path, cache.as_ref(), Some(remapper))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        documents.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(documents.query_ready());
+        assert_ne!(
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::from_raw(
+                documents
+                    .projection
+                    .get()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .ordered_validation
+                    .load(AtomicOrdering::Acquire)
+            ),
+            CachedRowAddressOrder::Unknown,
+            "prewarm must leave the projection's ordering verdict cached"
+        );
+        let keyed = documents.address_keyed().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(keyed.row_address(0), 10);
+        assert_eq!(keyed.doc_length_at(30), 5);
+        if strictly_ascending {
+            assert_eq!(keyed.num_distinct_rows(), 3);
+            assert_eq!(keyed.row_address(1), 20);
+            assert_eq!(keyed.doc_length_at(20), 3);
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(keyed.num_distinct_rows(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(keyed.row_address(1), RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW);
+            assert_eq!(keyed.doc_length_at(20), 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A partition holding no documents satisfies the cross-field fast-path gate
+    /// vacuously, and both document representations must say so: the gate is a
+    /// per-partition decision, so disagreeing here would make an empty legacy
+    /// partition alone force a whole query onto the full-read fallback.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn the_ascending_gate_agrees_on_an_empty_partition() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(Vec::<u64>::new()),
+            UInt32Array::from(Vec::<u32>::new()),
+            Some("0"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let modern = open_documents(store, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .address_keyed()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let legacy = AddressKeyedDocuments::from_docset(Arc::new(DocSet::default()));
+
+        for (label, keyed) in [("modern", &modern), ("legacy", &legacy)] {
+            assert_eq!(keyed.len(), 0, "{label}");
+            assert_eq!(keyed.num_distinct_rows(), 0, "{label}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn filtered_visibility_releases_addresses_after_cache_eviction() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = eviction_test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            Some("10"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mask = Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([20])));
+
+        let visibility = documents.visibility(mask.clone(), false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!visibility.selected(DocId::new(0)));
+        assert!(visibility.selected(DocId::new(1)));
+        assert!(!visibility.selected(DocId::new(2)));
+
+        let weak_addresses = documents.address_buffer_handle();
+
+        cache.clear().await;
+        assert!(weak_addresses.upgrade().is_some());
+        assert!(documents.projection_resident());
+
+        drop(visibility);
+        assert!(weak_addresses.upgrade().is_none());
+        assert!(!documents.projection_resident());
+
+        let reloaded = documents.visibility(mask, false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(reloaded.selected(DocId::new(1)));
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 6);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prewarm_reloads_addresses_after_cache_eviction() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = eviction_test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            Some("10"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        documents.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(documents.query_ready());
+        let weak_addresses = documents.address_buffer_handle();
+
+        cache.clear().await;
+        assert!(weak_addresses.upgrade().is_none());
+        assert!(documents.projection_loaded());
+        assert!(!documents.projection_resident());
+        assert!(!documents.query_ready());
+
+        documents.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(documents.query_ready());
+        assert_eq!(
+            documents
+                .cached_row_addresses(&[DocId::new(2), DocId::new(0)])
+                .unwrap(),
+            Some(vec![30, 10])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(counts.length_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 6);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prewarm_materializes_quantized_norms_before_becoming_query_ready() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 300, 5]),
+            Some("307"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(path).await.unwrap();
+        let documents = PartitionDocuments::try_new(
+            store,
+            path.to_owned(),
+            0,
+            WeakLanceCache::from(cache.as_ref()),
+            reader.as_ref(),
+            None,
+            true,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!documents.query_ready());
+        documents.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        let lengths = documents.lengths().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(lengths.scoring_ready());
+        assert_eq!(lengths.scoring_norms().unwrap().len(), 3);
+        assert!(documents.query_ready());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cancelled_or_failed_prewarm_can_retry_without_partial_publication() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            Some("10"),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let (pausing, pause) = faulting_store(store.clone(), path, PAUSE_ONCE);
+        let documents = Arc::new(
+            open_documents(pausing, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let task = tokio::spawn({
+            let documents = documents.clone();
+            async move { documents.prewarm().await }
+        });
+        tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), pause.started.notified())
+            .await
+            .expect("prewarm should reach the injected pending read");
+        task.abort();
+        assert!(task.await.unwrap_err().is_cancelled());
+        assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+        assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+        assert!(!documents.query_ready());
+        documents.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(documents.query_ready());
+
+        let (failing, _fault) = faulting_store(store, path, FAIL_ONCE);
+        let documents = open_documents(failing, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let error = documents.prewarm().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("injected document read failure"));
+        assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+        assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+        assert!(!documents.query_ready());
+        documents.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(documents.query_ready());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prewarm_reuses_an_already_loaded_document_column() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            Some("10"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        documents.lengths().await.unwrap();
+        documents.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        documents.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(counts.open_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(counts.range_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 2);
+        assert_eq!(counts.length_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn invalid_or_mismatched_stats_are_corruption_not_fallback() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            "invalid.lance",
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2]),
+            Some("not-a-u64"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let error = open_documents(store.clone(), "invalid.lance", cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("invalid total_tokens"));
+
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            "mismatch.lance",
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            Some("11"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, "mismatch.lance");
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, "mismatch.lance", cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(documents.stats().await.unwrap().total_tokens, 11);
+        let error = documents.lengths().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("sums to 10"));
+        assert_eq!(counts.length_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn final_address_resolution_reuses_the_cached_row_id_column() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        let num_docs = 600_u64;
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from_iter_values((0..num_docs).map(|id| id + 1_000)),
+            UInt32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_docs).map(|_| 1)),
+            Some("600"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(documents.resolve_addresses(&[]).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(counts.rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+
+        let point_ids = [DocId::new(5), DocId::new(6), DocId::new(10), DocId::new(5)];
+        assert_eq!(
+            documents.estimated_address_read_bytes(&point_ids),
+            num_docs as usize * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            documents.resolve_addresses(&point_ids).await.unwrap(),
+            vec![1005, 1006, 1010, 1005]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(counts.ranges_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(counts.range_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 600);
+        assert!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key(&DocRowIdsKey { partition_id: 0 })
+                .await
+                .is_some()
+        );
+
+        let bulk_ids = (0..=512).step_by(2).map(DocId::new).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            documents.estimated_address_read_bytes(&bulk_ids),
+            num_docs as usize * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+        );
+        let resolved = documents.resolve_addresses(&bulk_ids).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resolved.first(), Some(&1000));
+        assert_eq!(resolved.last(), Some(&1512));
+        assert_eq!(counts.ranges_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(counts.range_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 600);
+        assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn selective_scoring_lengths_read_only_candidate_rows() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        let num_docs = 600_u32;
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from_iter_values((0..num_docs).map(u64::from)),
+            UInt32Array::from_iter_values(1..=num_docs),
+            Some(
+                &u64::from(num_docs)
+                    .saturating_mul(u64::from(num_docs + 1))
+                    .div_ceil(2)
+                    .to_string(),
+            ),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let doc_ids = [DocId::new(2), DocId::new(10), DocId::new(2)];
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            documents.resolve_scoring_lengths(&doc_ids).await.unwrap(),
+            vec![3, 11, 3]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(counts.ranges_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counts.range_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(counts.length_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), doc_ids.len());
+        assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn selective_scoring_documents_share_one_candidate_read() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        let num_docs = 600_u32;
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from_iter_values((0..num_docs).map(|doc_id| 10_000 + u64::from(doc_id))),
+            UInt32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_docs).map(|doc_id| doc_id + 1)),
+            Some("180300"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let doc_ids = [DocId::new(2), DocId::new(10), DocId::new(2)];
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            documents.resolve_scoring_documents(&doc_ids).await.unwrap(),
+            vec![(2, 10_002, 3), (10, 10_010, 11), (2, 10_002, 3)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(counts.ranges_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counts.range_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), doc_ids.len());
+        assert_eq!(counts.length_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), doc_ids.len());
+        assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+        assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn selective_scoring_documents_preserve_quantized_lengths() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        let num_docs = 600_u32;
+        let lengths = (0..num_docs)
+            .map(|doc_id| if doc_id == 10 { 300 } else { doc_id + 1 })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let total_tokens = lengths
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&length| u64::from(length))
+            .sum::<u64>()
+            .to_string();
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from_iter_values((0..num_docs).map(|doc_id| 20_000 + u64::from(doc_id))),
+            UInt32Array::from(lengths.clone()),
+            Some(&total_tokens),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let reader = counting.open_index_file(path).await.unwrap();
+        let documents = PartitionDocuments::try_new(
+            counting,
+            path.to_owned(),
+            0,
+            WeakLanceCache::from(cache.as_ref()),
+            reader.as_ref(),
+            None,
+            true,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let doc_ids = [DocId::new(10), DocId::new(500)];
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            documents.resolve_scoring_documents(&doc_ids).await.unwrap(),
+            vec![
+                (
+                    10,
+                    20_010,
+                    dequantize_doc_length(quantize_doc_length(lengths[10])),
+                ),
+                (
+                    500,
+                    20_500,
+                    dequantize_doc_length(quantize_doc_length(lengths[500])),
+                ),
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(counts.ranges_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), doc_ids.len());
+        assert_eq!(counts.length_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), doc_ids.len());
+        assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn final_address_resolution_reloads_after_cache_eviction() {
+        let (_directory, store, _cache) = test_store();
+        let path = "docs.lance";
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            path,
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 5]),
+            Some("10"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (counting, counts) = counted_store(store, path);
+        let no_retention_cache = LanceCache::no_cache();
+        let documents = open_documents(counting, path, &no_retention_cache, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            assert_eq!(
+                documents
+                    .resolve_addresses(&[DocId::new(2), DocId::new(0)])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                vec![30, 10]
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(counts.ranges_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(counts.range_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 2);
+        assert_eq!(counts.address_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 6);
+        assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn document_column_nulls_are_reported_as_corruption() {
+        let (_directory, store, cache) = test_store();
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            "null-length.lance",
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![Some(10), Some(20)]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![Some(2), None]),
+            Some("2"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let documents = open_documents(store.clone(), "null-length.lance", cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            documents
+                .lengths()
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("_num_tokens contains null")
+        );
+
+        write_documents(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            "null-address.lance",
+            UInt64Array::from(vec![Some(10), None]),
+            UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 3]),
+            Some("5"),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let documents = open_documents(store, "null-address.lance", cache.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            documents
+                .resolve_addresses(&[DocId::new(1)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("_rowid contains null")
+        );
+        assert!(
+            documents
+                .prewarm()
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("_rowid contains null")
+        );
+        assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+        assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/encoding.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/encoding.rs
index 57bc80cda66..ee6639247f5 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/encoding.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/encoding.rs
@@ -4,11 +4,15 @@
 use std::io::Write;
 
 use super::builder::BLOCK_SIZE;
-use arrow::array::{AsArray, LargeBinaryBuilder};
-use arrow::array::{ListBuilder, UInt32Builder};
-use arrow_array::{Array, ListArray};
-use bitpacking::{BitPacker, BitPacker4x};
-use lance_core::Result;
+use super::index::{PositionStreamCodec, PostingTailCodec};
+#[cfg(test)]
+use super::tokenizer::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE;
+use super::tokenizer::validate_block_size;
+use arrow::array::LargeBinaryBuilder;
+use lance_bitpacking::{BitPacker, BitPacker4x, BitPacker8x};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+pub const MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE: usize = BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN;
 
 // we compress the posting list to multiple blocks of fixed number of elements (BLOCK_SIZE),
 // returns a LargeBinaryArray, where each binary is a compressed block (128 row ids + 128 frequencies)
@@ -19,60 +23,92 @@ use lance_core::Result;
 // - n bytes for the packed doc ids
 // - 1 byte for the number of bits used to pack the frequencies
 // - n bytes for the packed frequencies
-// if the block is not full (the last block), we don't compress it
-// we directly write the remainder to the buffer with the format:
-// - 4 bytes for the max block score
-// - 4*n bytes for the doc ids
-// - 4*n bytes for the frequencies
-// where n is the number of elements in the block
+// if the block is not full (the last block), we encode the remainder separately
+// using the configured remainder codec.
 
 // compress the posting list to multiple blocks of fixed number of elements (BLOCK_SIZE),
 // returns a LargeBinaryArray, where each binary is a compressed block (128 row ids + 128 frequencies)
+#[cfg(test)]
 pub fn compress_posting_list<'a>(
+    length: usize,
+    doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
+    frequencies: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
+    block_max_scores: impl Iterator<Item = f32>,
+) -> Result<arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray> {
+    compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec(
+        length,
+        doc_ids,
+        frequencies,
+        block_max_scores,
+        PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+    )
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec<'a>(
+    length: usize,
+    doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
+    frequencies: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
+    block_max_scores: impl Iterator<Item = f32>,
+    tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+) -> Result<arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray> {
+    compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        length,
+        doc_ids,
+        frequencies,
+        block_max_scores,
+        tail_codec,
+        LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+    )
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size<'a>(
     length: usize,
     doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
     frequencies: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
     mut block_max_scores: impl Iterator<Item = f32>,
+    tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    block_size: usize,
 ) -> Result<arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray> {
-    if length < BLOCK_SIZE {
+    let block_size = validate_block_size(block_size)?;
+    if length < block_size {
         // directly do remainder compression to avoid overhead of creating buffer
         let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(1, length * 4 * 2 + 1);
-        // write the max score of the block
-        let max_score = block_max_scores.next().unwrap();
-        let _ = builder.write(max_score.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
-        compress_remainder(
+        // write the max score of the block (128-doc blocks only)
+        if posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size) > 0 {
+            let max_score = block_max_scores.next().unwrap();
+            let _ = builder.write(max_score.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
+        }
+        compress_posting_remainder(
             doc_ids.copied().collect::<Vec<_>>().as_slice(),
-            &mut builder,
-        )?;
-        compress_remainder(
             frequencies.copied().collect::<Vec<_>>().as_slice(),
+            tail_codec,
             &mut builder,
         )?;
         builder.append_value("");
         return Ok(builder.finish());
     }
 
-    let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(length.div_ceil(BLOCK_SIZE), length * 3);
-    let mut buffer = [0u8; BLOCK_SIZE * 4 + 5];
-    let mut doc_id_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(BLOCK_SIZE);
-    let mut freq_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(BLOCK_SIZE);
+    let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(length.div_ceil(block_size), length * 3);
+    let mut doc_id_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(block_size);
+    let mut freq_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(block_size);
     for (doc_id, freq) in std::iter::zip(doc_ids, frequencies) {
         doc_id_buffer.push(*doc_id);
         freq_buffer.push(*freq);
 
-        if doc_id_buffer.len() < BLOCK_SIZE {
+        if doc_id_buffer.len() < block_size {
             continue;
         }
 
-        assert_eq!(doc_id_buffer.len(), BLOCK_SIZE);
+        assert_eq!(doc_id_buffer.len(), block_size);
 
-        // write the max score of the block
-        let max_score = block_max_scores.next().unwrap();
-        let _ = builder.write(max_score.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
-        // delta encoding + bitpacking for doc ids
-        compress_sorted_block(&doc_id_buffer, &mut buffer, &mut builder)?;
-        // bitpacking for frequencies
-        compress_block(&freq_buffer, &mut buffer, &mut builder)?;
+        // write the max score of the block (128-doc blocks only)
+        if posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size) > 0 {
+            let max_score = block_max_scores.next().unwrap();
+            let _ = builder.write(max_score.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
+        }
+        encode_posting_block_payload(&doc_id_buffer, &freq_buffer, &mut builder)?;
         builder.append_value("");
         doc_id_buffer.clear();
         freq_buffer.clear();
@@ -80,106 +116,187 @@ pub fn compress_posting_list<'a>(
 
     // we don't compress the last block if it is not full
     if !doc_id_buffer.is_empty() {
-        // write the max score of the block
-        let max_score = block_max_scores.next().unwrap();
-        let _ = builder.write(max_score.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
-        compress_remainder(&doc_id_buffer, &mut builder)?;
-        compress_remainder(&freq_buffer, &mut builder)?;
+        // write the max score of the block (128-doc blocks only)
+        if posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size) > 0 {
+            let max_score = block_max_scores.next().unwrap();
+            let _ = builder.write(max_score.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
+        }
+        compress_posting_remainder(&doc_id_buffer, &freq_buffer, tail_codec, &mut builder)?;
         builder.append_value("");
     }
     Ok(builder.finish())
 }
 
-pub fn compress_posting_list_with_scores<'a, F>(
-    length: usize,
-    doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
-    frequencies: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
-    mut score_for: F,
-    idf_scale: f32,
-) -> Result<(arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray, f32)>
-where
-    F: FnMut(u32, u32) -> f32,
-{
-    // `length` comes from posting list size; zero would produce an invalid block
-    // (a max-score header with no doc/frequency data) and readers assume > 0 docs.
-    debug_assert!(length > 0);
-    if length < BLOCK_SIZE {
-        let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(1, length * 4 * 2 + 1);
-        let mut max_score = f32::MIN;
-        let mut doc_id_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(length);
-        let mut freq_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(length);
-        for (doc_id, freq) in std::iter::zip(doc_ids, frequencies) {
-            let doc_id = *doc_id;
-            let freq = *freq;
-            doc_id_buffer.push(doc_id);
-            freq_buffer.push(freq);
-            let score = score_for(doc_id, freq);
-            if score > max_score {
-                max_score = score;
-            }
-        }
-        let max_score = max_score * idf_scale;
-        let _ = builder.write(max_score.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
-        compress_remainder(&doc_id_buffer, &mut builder)?;
-        compress_remainder(&freq_buffer, &mut builder)?;
-        builder.append_value("");
-        return Ok((builder.finish(), max_score));
+/// Byte length of the block-max-score prefix on posting blocks. 128-doc
+/// blocks store a per-block max score, patched in at build time; 256-document
+/// blocks always carry impact skip data, which supersedes it, so they
+/// store none.
+#[inline]
+pub fn posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size: usize) -> usize {
+    if block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE {
+        0
+    } else {
+        4
     }
+}
 
-    let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(length.div_ceil(BLOCK_SIZE), length * 3);
-    let mut buffer = [0u8; BLOCK_SIZE * 4 + 5];
-    let mut doc_id_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(BLOCK_SIZE);
-    let mut freq_buffer = Vec::with_capacity(BLOCK_SIZE);
-    let mut max_score = f32::MIN;
-    let mut block_max_score = f32::MIN;
-    for (doc_id, freq) in std::iter::zip(doc_ids, frequencies) {
-        let doc_id = *doc_id;
-        let freq = *freq;
-        doc_id_buffer.push(doc_id);
-        freq_buffer.push(freq);
+pub fn encode_full_posting_block_into(
+    doc_ids: &[u32],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    block: &mut Vec<u8>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    validate_block_size(doc_ids.len())?;
+    debug_assert_eq!(doc_ids.len(), frequencies.len());
+    if posting_block_score_prefix_len(doc_ids.len()) > 0 {
+        block.extend_from_slice(&0f32.to_le_bytes());
+    }
+    encode_posting_block_payload(doc_ids, frequencies, block)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
 
-        let score = score_for(doc_id, freq);
-        if score > block_max_score {
-            block_max_score = score;
+fn encode_posting_block_payload(
+    doc_ids: &[u32],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    block: &mut impl Write,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    debug_assert_eq!(doc_ids.len(), frequencies.len());
+    validate_block_size(doc_ids.len())?;
+    let mut buffer = [0u8; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE * 4 + 5];
+    match doc_ids.len() {
+        BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN => {
+            compress_sorted_block_with::<BitPacker4x>(doc_ids, &mut buffer, block)?;
+            compress_block_with::<BitPacker4x>(frequencies, &mut buffer, block)?;
         }
-
-        if doc_id_buffer.len() < BLOCK_SIZE {
-            continue;
+        // 256-document blocks store frequencies with patched FOR:
+        // outliers no longer widen the whole block, which matters because one
+        // large tf per block otherwise doubles the frequency payload.
+        BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN => {
+            compress_sorted_block_with::<BitPacker8x>(doc_ids, &mut buffer, block)?;
+            compress_pfor_block_with::<BitPacker8x>(frequencies, &mut buffer, block)?;
         }
+        _ => unreachable!("validated posting block size should be supported"),
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Patched FOR (Lucene PForUtil style): pick the body bit width that
+/// minimizes total bytes, pack all values masked to that width, and append
+/// up to [`PFOR_MAX_EXCEPTIONS`] exceptions as (index u8, high-bits varint).
+const PFOR_MAX_EXCEPTIONS: usize = 31;
 
-        let block_score = block_max_score * idf_scale;
-        if block_score > max_score {
-            max_score = block_score;
+#[inline]
+fn u32_bits(value: u32) -> usize {
+    (32 - value.leading_zeros()) as usize
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn varint_u32_len(value: u32) -> usize {
+    u32_bits(value).max(1).div_ceil(7)
+}
+
+fn compress_pfor_block_with<P: BitPacker>(
+    data: &[u32],
+    buffer: &mut [u8],
+    builder: &mut impl Write,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    debug_assert_eq!(data.len(), P::BLOCK_LEN);
+    let max_bits = data.iter().map(|&v| u32_bits(v)).max().unwrap_or(0);
+    let mut best_width = max_bits;
+    let mut best_cost = P::BLOCK_LEN * max_bits / 8;
+    for width in (0..max_bits).rev() {
+        let mut exceptions = 0usize;
+        let mut exception_bytes = 0usize;
+        for &value in data {
+            if u32_bits(value) > width {
+                exceptions += 1;
+                exception_bytes += 1 + varint_u32_len(value >> width);
+            }
+        }
+        if exceptions > PFOR_MAX_EXCEPTIONS {
+            break;
+        }
+        let cost = P::BLOCK_LEN * width / 8 + exception_bytes;
+        if cost < best_cost {
+            best_cost = cost;
+            best_width = width;
         }
-        let _ = builder.write(block_score.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
-        compress_sorted_block(&doc_id_buffer, &mut buffer, &mut builder)?;
-        compress_block(&freq_buffer, &mut buffer, &mut builder)?;
-        builder.append_value("");
-        doc_id_buffer.clear();
-        freq_buffer.clear();
-        block_max_score = f32::MIN;
     }
 
-    if !doc_id_buffer.is_empty() {
-        let block_score = block_max_score * idf_scale;
-        if block_score > max_score {
-            max_score = block_score;
+    let mask = if best_width >= 32 {
+        u32::MAX
+    } else {
+        (1u32 << best_width) - 1
+    };
+    let mut body = [0u32; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE];
+    let mut exception_buf = Vec::new();
+    let mut exception_count = 0u8;
+    for (index, &value) in data.iter().enumerate() {
+        body[index] = value & mask;
+        if u32_bits(value) > best_width {
+            exception_buf.push(index as u8);
+            encode_varint_u32(&mut exception_buf, value >> best_width);
+            exception_count += 1;
         }
-        let _ = builder.write(block_score.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
-        compress_remainder(&doc_id_buffer, &mut builder)?;
-        compress_remainder(&freq_buffer, &mut builder)?;
-        builder.append_value("");
     }
-    Ok((builder.finish(), max_score))
+    let compressor = P::new();
+    let num_bytes = compressor.compress(&body[..P::BLOCK_LEN], buffer, best_width as u8);
+    let _ = builder.write(&[best_width as u8, exception_count])?;
+    let _ = builder.write(&buffer[..num_bytes])?;
+    let _ = builder.write(&exception_buf)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn decompress_pfor_block_with<P: BitPacker>(
+    block: &[u8],
+    buffer: &mut [u32],
+    res: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) -> usize {
+    debug_assert!(buffer.len() >= P::BLOCK_LEN);
+    let buffer = &mut buffer[..P::BLOCK_LEN];
+    let width = block[0];
+    let exception_count = block[1] as usize;
+    let compressor = P::new();
+    let num_bytes = compressor.decompress(&block[2..], buffer, width);
+    let mut offset = 2 + num_bytes;
+    for _ in 0..exception_count {
+        let index = block[offset] as usize;
+        offset += 1;
+        let high = decode_varint_u32(block, &mut offset)
+            .expect("pfor exception high bits should be a valid varint");
+        buffer[index] |= high << width;
+    }
+    res.extend_from_slice(buffer);
+    offset
+}
+
+pub fn encode_remainder_posting_block_into(
+    doc_ids: &[u32],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    block_size: usize,
+    block: &mut Vec<u8>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    debug_assert_eq!(doc_ids.len(), frequencies.len());
+    if posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size) > 0 {
+        block.extend_from_slice(&0f32.to_le_bytes());
+    }
+    compress_posting_remainder(doc_ids, frequencies, codec, block)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn compress_sorted_block(data: &[u32], buffer: &mut [u8], builder: &mut impl Write) -> Result<()> {
+    compress_sorted_block_with::<BitPacker4x>(data, buffer, builder)
 }
 
 #[inline]
-fn compress_sorted_block(
+fn compress_sorted_block_with<P: BitPacker>(
     data: &[u32],
     buffer: &mut [u8],
-    builder: &mut LargeBinaryBuilder,
+    builder: &mut impl Write,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let compressor = BitPacker4x::new();
+    debug_assert_eq!(data.len(), P::BLOCK_LEN);
+    let compressor = P::new();
     let num_bits = compressor.num_bits_sorted(data[0], data);
     let num_bytes = compressor.compress_sorted(data[0], data, buffer, num_bits);
     let _ = builder.write(data[0].to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
@@ -189,8 +306,18 @@ fn compress_sorted_block(
 }
 
 #[inline]
-fn compress_block(data: &[u32], buffer: &mut [u8], builder: &mut LargeBinaryBuilder) -> Result<()> {
-    let compressor = BitPacker4x::new();
+fn compress_block(data: &[u32], buffer: &mut [u8], builder: &mut impl Write) -> Result<()> {
+    compress_block_with::<BitPacker4x>(data, buffer, builder)
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn compress_block_with<P: BitPacker>(
+    data: &[u32],
+    buffer: &mut [u8],
+    builder: &mut impl Write,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    debug_assert_eq!(data.len(), P::BLOCK_LEN);
+    let compressor = P::new();
     let num_bits = compressor.num_bits(data);
     let num_bytes = compressor.compress(data, buffer, num_bits);
     let _ = builder.write(&[num_bits])?;
@@ -199,13 +326,65 @@ fn compress_block(data: &[u32], buffer: &mut [u8], builder: &mut LargeBinaryBuil
 }
 
 #[inline]
-fn compress_remainder(data: &[u32], builder: &mut LargeBinaryBuilder) -> Result<()> {
+fn compress_raw_remainder(data: &[u32], builder: &mut impl Write) -> Result<()> {
     for value in data.iter() {
         let _ = builder.write(value.to_le_bytes().as_ref())?;
     }
     Ok(())
 }
 
+#[inline]
+fn write_varint_u32(builder: &mut impl Write, mut value: u32) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut bytes = [0u8; 5];
+    let mut len = 0usize;
+    while value >= 0x80 {
+        bytes[len] = (value as u8) | 0x80;
+        value >>= 7;
+        len += 1;
+    }
+    bytes[len] = value as u8;
+    len += 1;
+    let _ = builder.write(&bytes[..len])?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn compress_posting_remainder(
+    doc_ids: &[u32],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    builder: &mut impl Write,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    debug_assert_eq!(doc_ids.len(), frequencies.len());
+    match codec {
+        PostingTailCodec::Fixed32 => {
+            compress_raw_remainder(doc_ids, builder)?;
+            compress_raw_remainder(frequencies, builder)?;
+        }
+        PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta => {
+            let mut previous = 0u32;
+            for (index, &doc_id) in doc_ids.iter().enumerate() {
+                let delta = if index == 0 {
+                    doc_id
+                } else {
+                    doc_id.checked_sub(previous).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index(format!(
+                            "doc ids must be sorted within a posting tail block, got {} after {}",
+                            doc_id, previous
+                        ))
+                    })?
+                };
+                write_varint_u32(builder, delta)?;
+                previous = doc_id;
+            }
+            for &frequency in frequencies {
+                write_varint_u32(builder, frequency)?;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 pub fn compress_positions(positions: &[u32]) -> Result<arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray> {
     let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(
         positions.len().div_ceil(BLOCK_SIZE),
@@ -215,7 +394,7 @@ pub fn compress_positions(positions: &[u32]) -> Result<arrow::array::LargeBinary
     let num_positions = positions.len() as u32;
     builder.append_value(num_positions.to_le_bytes().as_ref());
 
-    let position_chunks = positions.chunks_exact(BLOCK_SIZE);
+    let (position_chunks, _) = positions.as_chunks::<BLOCK_SIZE>();
     let mut buffer = [0u8; BLOCK_SIZE * 4 + 5];
     for position_chunk in position_chunks {
         // delta encoding + bitpacking for positions
@@ -227,34 +406,583 @@ pub fn compress_positions(positions: &[u32]) -> Result<arrow::array::LargeBinary
     let length = positions.len();
     let remainder = length % BLOCK_SIZE;
     if remainder > 0 {
-        compress_remainder(&positions[length - remainder..], &mut builder)?;
+        compress_raw_remainder(&positions[length - remainder..], &mut builder)?;
         builder.append_value("");
     }
 
     Ok(builder.finish())
 }
 
+#[inline]
+pub fn encode_varint_u32(dst: &mut Vec<u8>, mut value: u32) {
+    while value >= 0x80 {
+        dst.push((value as u8) | 0x80);
+        value >>= 7;
+    }
+    dst.push(value as u8);
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) struct PositionBlockBuilder {
+    codec: PositionStreamCodec,
+    encoded_bytes: Vec<u8>,
+    pending_deltas: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl Default for PositionBlockBuilder {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new(PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta)
+    }
+}
+
+impl PositionBlockBuilder {
+    pub(super) fn new(codec: PositionStreamCodec) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            codec,
+            encoded_bytes: Vec::new(),
+            pending_deltas: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.encoded_bytes.capacity() + self.pending_deltas.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn append_doc_positions(&mut self, positions: &[u32]) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut previous = 0u32;
+        for (index, &position) in positions.iter().enumerate() {
+            let delta = if index == 0 {
+                position
+            } else {
+                position.checked_sub(previous).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "positions must be sorted within a document, got {} after {}",
+                        position, previous
+                    ))
+                })?
+            };
+            self.push_delta(delta)?;
+            previous = position;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn append_position(
+        &mut self,
+        position: u32,
+        previous_in_doc: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let delta = match previous_in_doc {
+            Some(previous) => position.checked_sub(previous).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "positions must be sorted within a document, got {} after {}",
+                    position, previous
+                ))
+            })?,
+            None => position,
+        };
+        self.push_delta(delta)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn finish(self) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let mut bytes = self.encoded_bytes;
+        match self.codec {
+            PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta | PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta => {
+                for delta in self.pending_deltas {
+                    encode_varint_u32(&mut bytes, delta);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        bytes
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn decode_into(&self, frequencies: &[u32], dst: &mut Vec<u32>) -> Result<()> {
+        let bytes = self.clone().finish();
+        decode_position_stream_block(bytes.as_slice(), frequencies, self.codec, dst)
+    }
+
+    fn push_delta(&mut self, delta: u32) -> Result<()> {
+        match self.codec {
+            PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta => {
+                encode_varint_u32(&mut self.encoded_bytes, delta);
+            }
+            PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta => {
+                self.pending_deltas.push(delta);
+                if self.pending_deltas.len() == BLOCK_SIZE {
+                    let mut packed_buffer = [0u8; BLOCK_SIZE * 4 + 1];
+                    compress_block(
+                        self.pending_deltas.as_slice(),
+                        &mut packed_buffer,
+                        &mut self.encoded_bytes,
+                    )?;
+                    self.pending_deltas.clear();
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+pub fn decode_varint_u32(src: &[u8], offset: &mut usize) -> Result<u32> {
+    let mut value = 0u32;
+    let mut shift = 0u32;
+    while *offset < src.len() {
+        let byte = src[*offset];
+        *offset += 1;
+        value |= u32::from(byte & 0x7F) << shift;
+        if byte & 0x80 == 0 {
+            return Ok(value);
+        }
+        shift += 7;
+        if shift >= 35 {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "invalid u32 varint in position stream".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    Err(Error::index(
+        "unexpected EOF while decoding position stream".to_owned(),
+    ))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn encode_position_stream_varint_block_into(
+    positions: &[u32],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    dst: &mut Vec<u8>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut offset = 0usize;
+    for &frequency in frequencies {
+        let frequency = frequency as usize;
+        let end = offset
+            .checked_add(frequency)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("position block length overflow".to_owned()))?;
+        if end > positions.len() {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "position block has {} positions but frequencies require at least {}",
+                positions.len(),
+                end
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut previous = 0u32;
+        for (index, &position) in positions[offset..end].iter().enumerate() {
+            let delta = if index == 0 {
+                position
+            } else {
+                position.checked_sub(previous).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "positions must be sorted within a document, got {} after {}",
+                        position, previous
+                    ))
+                })?
+            };
+            encode_varint_u32(dst, delta);
+            previous = position;
+        }
+        offset = end;
+    }
+    if offset != positions.len() {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "position block has {} trailing positions after consuming {} frequencies",
+            positions.len() - offset,
+            frequencies.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn decode_position_stream_varint_block(
+    src: &[u8],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    dst: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut offset = 0usize;
+    for &frequency in frequencies {
+        let mut previous = 0u32;
+        for index in 0..frequency as usize {
+            let delta = decode_varint_u32(src, &mut offset)?;
+            let position = if index == 0 {
+                delta
+            } else {
+                previous.checked_add(delta).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index("position stream overflow while decoding".to_owned())
+                })?
+            };
+            dst.push(position);
+            previous = position;
+        }
+    }
+    if offset != src.len() {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "position stream has {} trailing bytes after decoding block",
+            src.len() - offset
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn encode_position_stream_packed_block_into(
+    positions: &[u32],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    dst: &mut Vec<u8>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut delta_buffer = [0u32; BLOCK_SIZE];
+    let mut delta_count = 0usize;
+    let mut packed_buffer = [0u8; BLOCK_SIZE * 4 + 1];
+    let mut offset = 0usize;
+
+    for &frequency in frequencies {
+        let frequency = frequency as usize;
+        let end = offset
+            .checked_add(frequency)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("position block length overflow".to_owned()))?;
+        if end > positions.len() {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "position block has {} positions but frequencies require at least {}",
+                positions.len(),
+                end
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut previous = 0u32;
+        for (index, &position) in positions[offset..end].iter().enumerate() {
+            let delta = if index == 0 {
+                position
+            } else {
+                position.checked_sub(previous).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "positions must be sorted within a document, got {} after {}",
+                        position, previous
+                    ))
+                })?
+            };
+            delta_buffer[delta_count] = delta;
+            delta_count += 1;
+            if delta_count == BLOCK_SIZE {
+                compress_block(&delta_buffer, &mut packed_buffer, dst)?;
+                delta_count = 0;
+            }
+            previous = position;
+        }
+        offset = end;
+    }
+
+    if offset != positions.len() {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "position block has {} trailing positions after consuming {} frequencies",
+            positions.len() - offset,
+            frequencies.len()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    for delta in &delta_buffer[..delta_count] {
+        encode_varint_u32(dst, *delta);
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn decode_position_stream_packed_block(
+    src: &[u8],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    dst: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let total_positions = frequencies.iter().try_fold(0usize, |total, &frequency| {
+        total.checked_add(frequency as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index("position stream length overflow while decoding".to_owned())
+        })
+    })?;
+
+    let full_delta_blocks = total_positions / BLOCK_SIZE;
+    let tail_len = total_positions % BLOCK_SIZE;
+
+    let compressor = BitPacker4x::new();
+    let mut packed_offset = 0usize;
+    let mut packed_values = [0u32; BLOCK_SIZE];
+    let mut deltas = Vec::with_capacity(total_positions);
+
+    for _ in 0..full_delta_blocks {
+        let (num_bits, payload, next_offset) = packed_position_group(src, packed_offset)?;
+        let consumed = compressor.decompress(payload, &mut packed_values, num_bits);
+        debug_assert_eq!(consumed, payload.len());
+        packed_offset = next_offset;
+        deltas.extend_from_slice(&packed_values);
+    }
+
+    for _ in 0..tail_len {
+        deltas.push(decode_varint_u32(src, &mut packed_offset)?);
+    }
+
+    if packed_offset != src.len() {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "position stream has {} trailing bytes after decoding block",
+            src.len() - packed_offset
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let mut delta_offset = 0usize;
+    for &frequency in frequencies {
+        let mut previous = 0u32;
+        for index in 0..frequency as usize {
+            let delta = deltas[delta_offset];
+            delta_offset += 1;
+            let position = if index == 0 {
+                delta
+            } else {
+                previous.checked_add(delta).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index("position stream overflow while decoding".to_owned())
+                })?
+            };
+            dst.push(position);
+            previous = position;
+        }
+    }
+    debug_assert_eq!(delta_offset, deltas.len());
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn packed_position_group(src: &[u8], offset: usize) -> Result<(u8, &[u8], usize)> {
+    let num_bits = *src.get(offset).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "unexpected EOF reading packed position group header at byte offset {offset}; \
+             stream length is {}",
+            src.len()
+        ))
+    })?;
+    if num_bits > u32::BITS as u8 {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "invalid packed position group bit width {num_bits} at byte offset {offset}; \
+             expected at most {}",
+            u32::BITS
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let payload_start = offset
+        .checked_add(1)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("packed position group offset overflow".to_owned()))?;
+    let payload_len = usize::from(num_bits) * BLOCK_SIZE / 8;
+    let payload_end = payload_start
+        .checked_add(payload_len)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("packed position group length overflow".to_owned()))?;
+    let payload = src.get(payload_start..payload_end).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "unexpected EOF reading packed position group payload at byte offset {offset}; \
+             need {payload_len} bytes after the header but stream length is {}",
+            src.len()
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok((num_bits, payload, payload_end))
+}
+
+/// Decode one document's positions out of a PackedDelta position block
+/// without decoding the rest of the block. Full 128-delta groups are
+/// self-describing (`[num_bits u8][16 * num_bits packed bytes]`), so group
+/// byte offsets are recovered by hopping headers — no format change is
+/// involved. `delta_range` is the doc's range in the block-wide delta stream
+/// (from the frequency prefix sums); per-doc deltas reset at document
+/// boundaries, so decoding starts cleanly at `delta_range.start`.
+///
+/// The caller passes per-block scratch state that this function maintains:
+/// `group_offsets` (lazily extended header index, seeded with `[0]`),
+/// `unpacked_group`/`unpacked_group_idx` (the last unpacked group), and
+/// `tail_cache` (the varint tail, decoded in full on first touch). All are
+/// reset by the caller when the block cursor moves.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub(super) fn seek_packed_doc_positions(
+    src: &[u8],
+    total_deltas: usize,
+    delta_range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+    group_offsets: &mut Vec<usize>,
+    unpacked_group: &mut [u32; BLOCK_SIZE],
+    unpacked_group_idx: &mut Option<usize>,
+    tail_cache: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    dst: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    dst.clear();
+    if delta_range.start > delta_range.end || delta_range.end > total_deltas {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "invalid packed position delta range {}..{} for {total_deltas} total deltas",
+            delta_range.start, delta_range.end
+        )));
+    }
+    if delta_range.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let num_full_groups = total_deltas / BLOCK_SIZE;
+    let packed_deltas_end = num_full_groups * BLOCK_SIZE;
+
+    // Extend the header index far enough for this range (tail needs the
+    // offset one past the last full group).
+    let last_needed_group = if delta_range.end > packed_deltas_end {
+        num_full_groups
+    } else {
+        (delta_range.end - 1) / BLOCK_SIZE
+    };
+    while group_offsets.len() <= last_needed_group {
+        let last = *group_offsets
+            .last()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("packed position group offsets are empty".to_owned()))?;
+        let (_, _, next_offset) = packed_position_group(src, last)?;
+        group_offsets.push(next_offset);
+    }
+
+    let mut previous = 0u32;
+    let mut first = true;
+    let mut push_delta = |delta: u32, dst: &mut Vec<u32>| -> Result<()> {
+        let position = if first {
+            first = false;
+            delta
+        } else {
+            previous
+                .checked_add(delta)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("position stream overflow while decoding".to_owned()))?
+        };
+        dst.push(position);
+        previous = position;
+        Ok(())
+    };
+
+    // Group-outer / position-inner: the group only changes once every
+    // BLOCK_SIZE positions, so hoisting the group check out of the inner loop
+    // removes a load-compare and a division from every single position. The
+    // per-position inner loop then only decodes and accumulates.
+    let full_end = delta_range.end.min(packed_deltas_end);
+    let mut index = delta_range.start;
+    while index < full_end {
+        let group = index / BLOCK_SIZE;
+        if *unpacked_group_idx != Some(group) {
+            let offset = *group_offsets.get(group).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "missing packed position group offset for group {group}; have {} offsets",
+                    group_offsets.len()
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let (num_bits, payload, _) = packed_position_group(src, offset)?;
+            BitPacker4x::new().decompress(payload, unpacked_group, num_bits);
+            *unpacked_group_idx = Some(group);
+        }
+        let group_end = ((group + 1) * BLOCK_SIZE).min(full_end);
+        let first_in_group = index % BLOCK_SIZE;
+        let run = &unpacked_group[first_in_group..first_in_group + (group_end - index)];
+        for delta in run {
+            push_delta(*delta, dst)?;
+        }
+        index = group_end;
+    }
+
+    if delta_range.end > packed_deltas_end {
+        let tail_len = total_deltas - packed_deltas_end;
+        if tail_cache.len() != tail_len {
+            tail_cache.clear();
+            tail_cache.reserve(tail_len);
+            let mut offset = *group_offsets.get(num_full_groups).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "missing packed position tail offset after {num_full_groups} full groups"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            for _ in 0..tail_len {
+                tail_cache.push(decode_varint_u32(src, &mut offset)?);
+            }
+        }
+        for index in delta_range.start.max(packed_deltas_end)..delta_range.end {
+            push_delta(tail_cache[index - packed_deltas_end], dst)?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn encode_position_stream_block_into(
+    positions: &[u32],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    codec: PositionStreamCodec,
+    dst: &mut Vec<u8>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match codec {
+        PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta => {
+            encode_position_stream_varint_block_into(positions, frequencies, dst)
+        }
+        PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta => {
+            encode_position_stream_packed_block_into(positions, frequencies, dst)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn decode_position_stream_block(
+    src: &[u8],
+    frequencies: &[u32],
+    codec: PositionStreamCodec,
+    dst: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match codec {
+        PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta => {
+            decode_position_stream_varint_block(src, frequencies, dst)
+        }
+        PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta => {
+            decode_position_stream_packed_block(src, frequencies, dst)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// decompress the posting list from a LargeBinaryArray
 /// returns a vector of (row_id, frequency) tuples
-#[allow(dead_code)]
+#[cfg(test)]
 pub fn decompress_posting_list(
     num_docs: u32,
     posting_list: &arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray,
 ) -> Result<(Vec<u32>, Vec<u32>)> {
+    decompress_posting_list_with_tail_codec(num_docs, posting_list, PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn decompress_posting_list_with_tail_codec(
+    num_docs: u32,
+    posting_list: &arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray,
+    tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u32>, Vec<u32>)> {
+    decompress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        num_docs,
+        posting_list,
+        tail_codec,
+        LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+    )
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn decompress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+    num_docs: u32,
+    posting_list: &arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray,
+    tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    block_size: usize,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u32>, Vec<u32>)> {
+    let block_size = validate_block_size(block_size)?;
     let mut doc_ids: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(num_docs as usize);
     let mut frequencies: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(num_docs as usize);
 
-    let mut buffer = [0u32; BLOCK_SIZE];
-    let bitpacking_blocks = num_docs as usize / BLOCK_SIZE;
+    let mut buffer = [0u32; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE];
+    let bitpacking_blocks = num_docs as usize / block_size;
     for compressed in posting_list.iter().take(bitpacking_blocks) {
         let compressed = compressed.unwrap();
-        decompress_posting_block(compressed, &mut buffer, &mut doc_ids, &mut frequencies);
+        decompress_posting_block(
+            compressed,
+            &mut buffer,
+            &mut doc_ids,
+            &mut frequencies,
+            block_size,
+        );
     }
 
-    let remainder = num_docs as usize % BLOCK_SIZE;
+    let remainder = num_docs as usize % block_size;
     if remainder > 0 {
         let compressed = posting_list.value(bitpacking_blocks);
-        decompress_posting_remainder(compressed, remainder, &mut doc_ids, &mut frequencies);
+        decompress_posting_remainder(
+            compressed,
+            remainder,
+            tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            &mut doc_ids,
+            &mut frequencies,
+        );
     }
 
     Ok((doc_ids, frequencies))
@@ -274,52 +1002,169 @@ pub fn decompress_positions(compressed: &arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray) -> Vec<
     let remainder = num_positions as usize % BLOCK_SIZE;
     if remainder > 0 {
         let compressed_block = compressed.value(num_blocks + 1);
-        decompress_remainder(compressed_block, remainder, &mut positions);
+        decompress_raw_remainder(compressed_block, remainder, &mut positions);
     }
 
     positions
 }
 
-// decompress the positions list from a ListArray of binary
-// to a ListArray of u32
-#[allow(dead_code)]
-pub fn decompress_positions_list(compressed: &ListArray) -> Result<ListArray> {
-    let mut builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(UInt32Builder::new(), compressed.len());
-    for i in 0..compressed.len() {
-        let compressed = compressed.value(i);
-        let compressed = compressed.as_binary::<i64>();
-        let positions = decompress_positions(compressed);
-        builder.values().append_slice(&positions);
-        builder.append(true);
-    }
-    Ok(builder.finish())
-}
-
 pub fn read_num_positions(compressed: &arrow::array::LargeBinaryArray) -> u32 {
     u32::from_le_bytes(compressed.value(0).try_into().unwrap())
 }
 
 pub fn decompress_posting_block(
     block: &[u8],
-    buffer: &mut [u32; BLOCK_SIZE],
+    buffer: &mut [u32],
     doc_ids: &mut Vec<u32>,
     frequencies: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    block_size: usize,
 ) {
-    // skip the first 4 bytes for the max block score
-    let block = &block[4..];
-    let num_bytes = decompress_sorted_block(block, buffer, doc_ids);
-    decompress_block(&block[num_bytes..], buffer, frequencies);
+    let frequency_offset = decompress_posting_block_doc_ids(block, buffer, doc_ids, block_size);
+    decompress_posting_block_frequencies(block, frequency_offset, buffer, frequencies, block_size);
+}
+
+/// Decode only the document-id stream of a full posting block and return the
+/// byte offset at which the frequency stream starts.
+pub(super) fn decompress_posting_block_doc_ids(
+    block: &[u8],
+    buffer: &mut [u32],
+    doc_ids: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    block_size: usize,
+) -> usize {
+    debug_assert!(validate_block_size(block_size).is_ok());
+    debug_assert!(buffer.len() >= block_size);
+    let prefix_len = posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size);
+    let payload = &block[prefix_len..];
+    prefix_len
+        + match block_size {
+            BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN => {
+                decompress_sorted_block_with::<BitPacker4x>(payload, buffer, doc_ids)
+            }
+            BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN => {
+                decompress_sorted_block_with::<BitPacker8x>(payload, buffer, doc_ids)
+            }
+            _ => unreachable!("validated posting block size should be supported"),
+        }
+}
+
+/// Decode the frequency stream of a full posting block from the offset
+/// returned by [`decompress_posting_block_doc_ids`].
+pub(super) fn decompress_posting_block_frequencies(
+    block: &[u8],
+    frequency_offset: usize,
+    buffer: &mut [u32],
+    frequencies: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    block_size: usize,
+) {
+    debug_assert!(validate_block_size(block_size).is_ok());
+    debug_assert!(buffer.len() >= block_size);
+    let frequency_block = &block[frequency_offset..];
+    let num_bytes = match block_size {
+        BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN => {
+            decompress_block_with::<BitPacker4x>(frequency_block, buffer, frequencies)
+        }
+        BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN => {
+            decompress_pfor_block_with::<BitPacker8x>(frequency_block, buffer, frequencies)
+        }
+        _ => unreachable!("validated posting block size should be supported"),
+    };
+    debug_assert!(
+        frequency_offset + num_bytes == block.len(),
+        "posting block has {} trailing bytes after decoding",
+        block.len().saturating_sub(frequency_offset + num_bytes)
+    );
 }
 
 pub fn decompress_posting_remainder(
     block: &[u8],
     n: usize,
+    codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    block_size: usize,
+    doc_ids: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    frequencies: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) {
+    let frequency_offset =
+        decompress_posting_remainder_doc_ids(block, n, codec, block_size, doc_ids);
+    decompress_posting_remainder_frequencies(block, frequency_offset, n, codec, frequencies);
+}
+
+/// Decode only the document-id stream of a posting tail and return the byte
+/// offset at which its frequency stream starts.
+pub(super) fn decompress_posting_remainder_doc_ids(
+    block: &[u8],
+    n: usize,
+    codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    block_size: usize,
+    doc_ids: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) -> usize {
+    let prefix_len = posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size);
+    let payload = &block[prefix_len..];
+    match codec {
+        PostingTailCodec::Fixed32 => {
+            decompress_raw_remainder(payload, n, doc_ids);
+            prefix_len + n * 4
+        }
+        PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta => {
+            let mut offset = 0usize;
+            let mut previous = 0u32;
+            for index in 0..n {
+                let delta = decode_varint_u32(payload, &mut offset)
+                    .expect("posting tail doc ids should contain valid varints");
+                let doc_id = if index == 0 {
+                    delta
+                } else {
+                    previous
+                        .checked_add(delta)
+                        .expect("posting tail doc id delta should not overflow")
+                };
+                doc_ids.push(doc_id);
+                previous = doc_id;
+            }
+            prefix_len + offset
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Decode the frequency stream of a posting tail from the offset returned by
+/// [`decompress_posting_remainder_doc_ids`].
+pub(super) fn decompress_posting_remainder_frequencies(
+    block: &[u8],
+    frequency_offset: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    frequencies: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) {
+    let frequency_block = &block[frequency_offset..];
+    match codec {
+        PostingTailCodec::Fixed32 => {
+            decompress_raw_remainder(frequency_block, n, frequencies);
+            debug_assert_eq!(frequency_offset + n * 4, block.len());
+        }
+        PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta => {
+            let mut offset = 0usize;
+            for _ in 0..n {
+                let frequency = decode_varint_u32(frequency_block, &mut offset)
+                    .expect("posting tail frequencies should contain valid varints");
+                frequencies.push(frequency);
+            }
+            assert_eq!(
+                frequency_offset + offset,
+                block.len(),
+                "posting tail block has {} trailing bytes after decoding",
+                block.len() - frequency_offset - offset
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn decode_full_posting_block(
+    block: &[u8],
     doc_ids: &mut Vec<u32>,
     frequencies: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    block_size: usize,
 ) {
-    let block = &block[4..];
-    decompress_remainder(block, n, doc_ids);
-    decompress_remainder(&block[n * 4..], n, frequencies);
+    let mut buffer = [0u32; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE];
+    decompress_posting_block(block, &mut buffer, doc_ids, frequencies, block_size);
 }
 
 pub fn decompress_sorted_block(
@@ -327,7 +1172,17 @@ pub fn decompress_sorted_block(
     buffer: &mut [u32; BLOCK_SIZE],
     res: &mut Vec<u32>,
 ) -> usize {
-    let compressor = BitPacker4x::new();
+    decompress_sorted_block_with::<BitPacker4x>(block, buffer, res)
+}
+
+fn decompress_sorted_block_with<P: BitPacker>(
+    block: &[u8],
+    buffer: &mut [u32],
+    res: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) -> usize {
+    debug_assert!(buffer.len() >= P::BLOCK_LEN);
+    let buffer = &mut buffer[..P::BLOCK_LEN];
+    let compressor = P::new();
     let initial = u32::from_le_bytes(block[0..4].try_into().unwrap());
     let num_bits = block[4];
     let num_bytes = compressor.decompress_sorted(initial, &block[5..], buffer, num_bits);
@@ -335,20 +1190,45 @@ pub fn decompress_sorted_block(
     5 + num_bytes
 }
 
-fn decompress_block(block: &[u8], buffer: &mut [u32; BLOCK_SIZE], res: &mut Vec<u32>) {
-    let compressor = BitPacker4x::new();
+fn decompress_block_with<P: BitPacker>(
+    block: &[u8],
+    buffer: &mut [u32],
+    res: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) -> usize {
+    debug_assert!(buffer.len() >= P::BLOCK_LEN);
+    let buffer = &mut buffer[..P::BLOCK_LEN];
+    let compressor = P::new();
     let num_bits = block[0];
-    compressor.decompress(&block[1..], buffer, num_bits);
+    let num_bytes = compressor.decompress(&block[1..], buffer, num_bits);
     res.extend_from_slice(&buffer[..]);
+    1 + num_bytes
 }
 
-pub fn decompress_remainder(compressed: &[u8], n: usize, dest: &mut Vec<u32>) {
-    for bytes in compressed.chunks_exact(4).take(n) {
-        let data = u32::from_le_bytes(bytes.try_into().unwrap());
+pub fn decompress_raw_remainder(compressed: &[u8], n: usize, dest: &mut Vec<u32>) {
+    for bytes in compressed.as_chunks::<4>().0.iter().take(n) {
+        let data = u32::from_le_bytes(*bytes);
         dest.push(data);
     }
 }
 
+pub fn read_posting_tail_first_doc(
+    block: &[u8],
+    codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    block_size: usize,
+) -> u32 {
+    let prefix = posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size);
+    match codec {
+        PostingTailCodec::Fixed32 => {
+            u32::from_le_bytes(block[prefix..prefix + 4].try_into().unwrap())
+        }
+        PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta => {
+            let mut offset = prefix;
+            decode_varint_u32(block, &mut offset)
+                .expect("posting tail block should contain a valid first doc id")
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
@@ -393,6 +1273,176 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compress_posting_list_supported_block_sizes() -> Result<()> {
+        for block_size in [128, 256] {
+            let num_rows: usize = block_size * 2 + 7;
+            let doc_ids = (0..num_rows as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let frequencies = (0..num_rows as u32)
+                .map(|value| value % 7 + 1)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let block_max_scores =
+                (0..num_rows.div_ceil(block_size)).map(|value| value as f32 + 1.0);
+
+            let posting_list = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                doc_ids.len(),
+                doc_ids.iter(),
+                frequencies.iter(),
+                block_max_scores,
+                PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                block_size,
+            )?;
+            assert_eq!(posting_list.len(), num_rows.div_ceil(block_size));
+
+            let (decoded_doc_ids, decoded_frequencies) =
+                decompress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                    num_rows as u32,
+                    &posting_list,
+                    PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                    block_size,
+                )?;
+            assert_eq!(decoded_doc_ids, doc_ids);
+            assert_eq!(decoded_frequencies, frequencies);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_posting_doc_ids_and_frequencies_decode_independently() -> Result<()> {
+        for block_size in [BitPacker4x::BLOCK_LEN, BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN] {
+            let doc_ids = (0..block_size as u32)
+                .map(|doc| doc * 3)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let frequencies = (0..block_size as u32)
+                .map(|value| value % 17 + 1)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let posting_list = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                doc_ids.len(),
+                doc_ids.iter(),
+                frequencies.iter(),
+                std::iter::once(1.0),
+                PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                block_size,
+            )?;
+            let block = posting_list.value(0);
+            let mut buffer = [0; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE];
+            let mut decoded_doc_ids = Vec::new();
+            let frequency_offset = decompress_posting_block_doc_ids(
+                block,
+                &mut buffer,
+                &mut decoded_doc_ids,
+                block_size,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(decoded_doc_ids, doc_ids);
+            let mut decoded_frequencies = Vec::new();
+            decompress_posting_block_frequencies(
+                block,
+                frequency_offset,
+                &mut buffer,
+                &mut decoded_frequencies,
+                block_size,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(decoded_frequencies, frequencies);
+
+            for codec in [PostingTailCodec::Fixed32, PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta] {
+                let tail_doc_ids = vec![2, 9, 27, 81, 82, 120, 511];
+                let tail_frequencies = vec![1, 3, 1, 8, 2, 21, 5];
+                let mut tail = Vec::new();
+                encode_remainder_posting_block_into(
+                    &tail_doc_ids,
+                    &tail_frequencies,
+                    codec,
+                    block_size,
+                    &mut tail,
+                )?;
+                let mut decoded_tail_doc_ids = Vec::new();
+                let frequency_offset = decompress_posting_remainder_doc_ids(
+                    &tail,
+                    tail_doc_ids.len(),
+                    codec,
+                    block_size,
+                    &mut decoded_tail_doc_ids,
+                );
+                assert_eq!(decoded_tail_doc_ids, tail_doc_ids);
+                let mut decoded_tail_frequencies = Vec::new();
+                decompress_posting_remainder_frequencies(
+                    &tail,
+                    frequency_offset,
+                    tail_doc_ids.len(),
+                    codec,
+                    &mut decoded_tail_frequencies,
+                );
+                assert_eq!(decoded_tail_frequencies, tail_frequencies);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_256_posting_block_uses_single_physical_bitpack_chunk() -> Result<()> {
+        let block_size = BitPacker8x::BLOCK_LEN;
+        let doc_ids = (0..block_size as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let frequencies = (0..block_size as u32)
+            .map(|value| value % 13 + 1)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let posting_list = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            doc_ids.len(),
+            doc_ids.iter(),
+            frequencies.iter(),
+            std::iter::once(1.0),
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            block_size,
+        )?;
+        assert_eq!(posting_list.len(), 1);
+
+        let block = posting_list.value(0);
+        // 256-doc blocks carry no block-max-score prefix (impacts supply the
+        // per-block bound): [first_doc u32][doc num_bits u8][doc payload]...
+        let doc_num_bits = block[4];
+        let doc_bytes = BitPacker8x::compressed_block_size(doc_num_bits);
+        let freq_header_offset = 5 + doc_bytes;
+        // 256-doc blocks use patched FOR for frequencies:
+        // [width u8][exception_count u8][body][exceptions...]
+        let freq_num_bits = block[freq_header_offset];
+        let exception_count = block[freq_header_offset + 1] as usize;
+        assert_eq!(exception_count, 0, "uniform freqs need no exceptions");
+        let freq_bytes = BitPacker8x::compressed_block_size(freq_num_bits);
+        assert_eq!(block.len(), freq_header_offset + 2 + freq_bytes);
+
+        let (decoded_doc_ids, decoded_frequencies) =
+            decompress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                doc_ids.len() as u32,
+                &posting_list,
+                PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                block_size,
+            )?;
+        assert_eq!(decoded_doc_ids, doc_ids);
+        assert_eq!(decoded_frequencies, frequencies);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compress_posting_list_fixed32_tail_still_roundtrips() -> Result<()> {
+        let doc_ids = vec![3_u32, 10_u32, 24_u32];
+        let frequencies = vec![1_u32, 7_u32, 2_u32];
+        let posting_list = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec(
+            doc_ids.len(),
+            doc_ids.iter(),
+            frequencies.iter(),
+            std::iter::once(1.0_f32),
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+        )?;
+        let (decoded_doc_ids, decoded_frequencies) = decompress_posting_list_with_tail_codec(
+            doc_ids.len() as u32,
+            &posting_list,
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+        )?;
+        assert_eq!(decoded_doc_ids, doc_ids);
+        assert_eq!(decoded_frequencies, frequencies);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_compress_positions() -> Result<()> {
         let num_positions: usize = BLOCK_SIZE * 2 - 7;
@@ -417,4 +1467,157 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(positions.len(), num_positions);
         Ok(())
     }
+
+    /// Per-doc seek decoding of a PackedDelta position block must return
+    /// exactly the same positions as decoding the whole block, for every doc,
+    /// across group-boundary-straddling docs and varint tails.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_packed_position_doc_seek_matches_block_decode() -> Result<()> {
+        let mut rng = rand::rng();
+        // Frequency shapes: tiny blocks (tail only), exactly one group, a doc
+        // straddling group boundaries, and a large multi-group block.
+        let freq_shapes: Vec<Vec<u32>> = vec![
+            vec![1],
+            vec![3, 1, 5],
+            vec![64, 64],
+            vec![100, 60, 40],
+            (0..256u32).map(|i| (i % 7) + 1).collect(),
+            vec![300, 2, 129, 1, 77],
+        ];
+        for frequencies in freq_shapes {
+            let total: usize = frequencies.iter().map(|&f| f as usize).sum();
+            // Positions ascend within each doc; docs are independent.
+            let mut positions = Vec::with_capacity(total);
+            for &freq in &frequencies {
+                let mut current = rng.random_range(0..1000u32);
+                for _ in 0..freq {
+                    positions.push(current);
+                    current += rng.random_range(1..50u32);
+                }
+            }
+
+            let mut encoded = Vec::new();
+            encode_position_stream_block_into(
+                &positions,
+                &frequencies,
+                PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+                &mut encoded,
+            )?;
+
+            let mut whole = Vec::new();
+            decode_position_stream_block(
+                &encoded,
+                &frequencies,
+                PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+                &mut whole,
+            )?;
+            assert_eq!(whole, positions);
+
+            let mut group_offsets = vec![0usize];
+            let mut unpacked_group = Box::new([0u32; BLOCK_SIZE]);
+            let mut unpacked_group_idx = None;
+            let mut tail_cache = Vec::new();
+            let mut scratch = Vec::new();
+            let mut delta_start = 0usize;
+            for &freq in &frequencies {
+                let delta_end = delta_start + freq as usize;
+                seek_packed_doc_positions(
+                    &encoded,
+                    total,
+                    delta_start..delta_end,
+                    &mut group_offsets,
+                    &mut unpacked_group,
+                    &mut unpacked_group_idx,
+                    &mut tail_cache,
+                    &mut scratch,
+                )?;
+                assert_eq!(
+                    scratch,
+                    whole[delta_start..delta_end],
+                    "doc positions mismatch for range {delta_start}..{delta_end} freqs={frequencies:?}"
+                );
+                delta_start = delta_end;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_packed_position_decoders_reject_malformed_groups() {
+        let frequencies = [BLOCK_SIZE as u32];
+        for encoded in [&[1_u8][..], &[33_u8][..]] {
+            let mut decoded = Vec::new();
+            assert!(
+                decode_position_stream_block(
+                    encoded,
+                    &frequencies,
+                    PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+                    &mut decoded,
+                )
+                .is_err()
+            );
+
+            let mut group_offsets = vec![0usize];
+            let mut unpacked_group = Box::new([0u32; BLOCK_SIZE]);
+            let mut unpacked_group_idx = None;
+            let mut tail_cache = Vec::new();
+            let mut scratch = Vec::new();
+            assert!(
+                seek_packed_doc_positions(
+                    encoded,
+                    BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    0..BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    &mut group_offsets,
+                    &mut unpacked_group,
+                    &mut unpacked_group_idx,
+                    &mut tail_cache,
+                    &mut scratch,
+                )
+                .is_err()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_encode_position_stream_block_roundtrip() -> Result<()> {
+        let frequencies = vec![1, 3, 2, 4];
+        let positions = vec![7, 1, 3, 8, 2, 100, 0, 4, 9, 25];
+        for codec in [
+            PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta,
+            PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+        ] {
+            let mut encoded = Vec::new();
+            encode_position_stream_block_into(&positions, &frequencies, codec, &mut encoded)?;
+            let mut decoded = Vec::new();
+            decode_position_stream_block(&encoded, &frequencies, codec, &mut decoded)?;
+            assert_eq!(decoded, positions);
+            assert!(encoded.len() < positions.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>());
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_incremental_position_block_builder_matches_batch_encoder() -> Result<()> {
+        let frequencies = vec![1, 3, 2, 4, 1, 5];
+        let positions = vec![7, 1, 3, 8, 2, 100, 0, 4, 9, 25, 11, 2, 6, 7, 10, 15];
+
+        let mut builder = PositionBlockBuilder::new(PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta);
+        let mut offset = 0usize;
+        for &frequency in &frequencies {
+            let end = offset + frequency as usize;
+            builder.append_doc_positions(&positions[offset..end])?;
+            offset = end;
+        }
+
+        let incremental = builder.finish();
+        let mut batch = Vec::new();
+        encode_position_stream_block_into(
+            &positions,
+            &frequencies,
+            PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+            &mut batch,
+        )?;
+        assert_eq!(incremental, batch);
+        Ok(())
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/impact.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/impact.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..10ab0a914a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/impact.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1064 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::mem::size_of;
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex, MutexGuard};
+
+use arrow_array::builder::LargeBinaryBuilder;
+use arrow_array::{Array, LargeBinaryArray};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+use super::scorer::Scorer;
+
+pub const IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS: usize = 32;
+const SMALL_FRONTIER_FREQ_LIMIT: usize = 256;
+
+/// On-disk encoding of one impact entry, shared by every posting block size.
+///
+/// Entries contain `[doc_up_to varint][pair_count varint][pairs...]`. Each
+/// pair stores a varint whose high bits are `freq_delta - 1` and whose low bit
+/// reports whether a one-byte norm delta follows. The norm itself is the
+/// quantized `u8` document-length code; the common `norm_delta == 1` case needs
+/// no norm byte.
+///
+/// Clones share one immutable allocation: every query takes its own view of
+/// each posting list it reads, so a clone must not copy the Arrow array or the
+/// derived state.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ImpactSkipData(Arc<ImpactSkipDataInner>);
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ImpactSkipDataInner {
+    entries: LargeBinaryArray,
+    level0_len: usize,
+    // Last doc id covered by each entry (level0 entries then level1 entries),
+    // decoded once at construction. Level1 markers are fully validated because
+    // WAND may use them to skip a group; u32::MAX marks malformed entries.
+    entry_doc_up_tos: Box<[u32]>,
+    // The most recently baked bounds with a stable scorer key. Each query holds
+    // its own Arc in ImpactScoreCache, so replacing this slot for another scorer
+    // cannot change bounds already in use. Scorers without a key never enter the
+    // shared slot. Malformed entries bake to INFINITY so pruning stays safe.
+    last_keyed_bounds: Mutex<LastKeyedImpactBounds>,
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for ImpactSkipData {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.0.entries == other.0.entries && self.0.level0_len == other.0.level0_len
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct ImpactScore {
+    pub score: f32,
+    pub entries_scanned: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ImpactBounds {
+    per_entry: Box<[f32]>,
+    global: f32,
+}
+
+type LastKeyedImpactBounds = Option<(u64, Arc<ImpactBounds>)>;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum ImpactBoundsCacheKey {
+    Keyed(u64),
+    QueryLocal,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone)]
+pub struct ImpactScoreCache {
+    key: Option<ImpactBoundsCacheKey>,
+    bounds: Option<Arc<ImpactBounds>>,
+}
+
+impl ImpactScoreCache {
+    fn bounds<'a, S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        impacts: &ImpactSkipData,
+        scorer: &S,
+    ) -> &'a ImpactBounds {
+        let scorer_key = scorer.doc_weight_cache_key();
+        let cache_key = scorer_key
+            .map(ImpactBoundsCacheKey::Keyed)
+            .unwrap_or(ImpactBoundsCacheKey::QueryLocal);
+        if self.key != Some(cache_key) {
+            self.key = Some(cache_key);
+            self.bounds = None;
+        }
+
+        self.bounds
+            .get_or_insert_with(|| impacts.bounds_for_scorer(scorer, scorer_key))
+    }
+
+    fn entry_score<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &mut self,
+        impacts: &ImpactSkipData,
+        entry_idx: usize,
+        query_weight: f32,
+        scorer: &S,
+    ) -> f32 {
+        if query_weight <= 0.0 {
+            return 0.0;
+        }
+        query_weight * self.bounds(impacts, scorer).per_entry[entry_idx]
+    }
+}
+
+impl ImpactSkipData {
+    pub fn new(entries: LargeBinaryArray, level0_len: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        let expected_len = level0_len + level1_len(level0_len);
+        if entries.len() != expected_len {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "impact entry count mismatch: got {}, expected {} for {} level0 blocks",
+                entries.len(),
+                expected_len,
+                level0_len
+            )));
+        }
+        let entry_doc_up_tos = (0..entries.len())
+            .map(|entry_idx| {
+                if entries.is_null(entry_idx) {
+                    return u32::MAX;
+                }
+                let bytes = entries.value(entry_idx);
+                let doc_up_to = if entry_idx < level0_len {
+                    decode_level0_entry_doc_up_to(bytes)
+                } else {
+                    decode_entry_doc_up_to(bytes)
+                };
+                doc_up_to.unwrap_or(u32::MAX)
+            })
+            .collect::<Box<[u32]>>();
+        Ok(Self(Arc::new(ImpactSkipDataInner {
+            entries,
+            level0_len,
+            entry_doc_up_tos,
+            last_keyed_bounds: Mutex::new(None),
+        })))
+    }
+
+    fn keyed_bounds_guard(&self) -> MutexGuard<'_, LastKeyedImpactBounds> {
+        match self.0.last_keyed_bounds.lock() {
+            Ok(guard) => guard,
+            Err(poisoned) => poisoned.into_inner(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn bounds_for_scorer<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        scorer: &S,
+        scorer_key: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Arc<ImpactBounds> {
+        let Some(scorer_key) = scorer_key else {
+            return Arc::new(self.compute_bounds(scorer));
+        };
+
+        {
+            let cached = self.keyed_bounds_guard();
+            if let Some((cached_key, bounds)) = cached.as_ref()
+                && *cached_key == scorer_key
+            {
+                return bounds.clone();
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Compute outside the mutex. Concurrent misses may duplicate this work,
+        // but only the short publication/check below holds the shared lock.
+        let computed = Arc::new(self.compute_bounds(scorer));
+        let mut cached = self.keyed_bounds_guard();
+        if let Some((cached_key, bounds)) = cached.as_ref()
+            && *cached_key == scorer_key
+        {
+            return bounds.clone();
+        }
+        *cached = Some((scorer_key, computed.clone()));
+        computed
+    }
+
+    fn compute_bounds<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(&self, scorer: &S) -> ImpactBounds {
+        let per_entry = (0..self.0.entries.len())
+            .map(|entry_idx| {
+                if self.0.entries.is_null(entry_idx) {
+                    return f32::INFINITY;
+                }
+                let bytes = self.0.entries.value(entry_idx);
+                let mut max_doc_weight = 0.0_f32;
+                match for_each_entry_pair(bytes, |freq, doc_len| {
+                    max_doc_weight = max_doc_weight.max(scorer.doc_weight(freq, doc_len));
+                }) {
+                    Ok(()) => max_doc_weight,
+                    Err(_) => f32::INFINITY,
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Box<[f32]>>();
+        // The level1 entries cover every block, so their max is the list-wide
+        // max doc weight; zero-entry lists fall back to the empty level0 slab.
+        let global = if per_entry.len() > self.0.level0_len {
+            per_entry[self.0.level0_len..]
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .fold(0.0_f32, f32::max)
+        } else {
+            per_entry.iter().copied().fold(0.0_f32, f32::max)
+        };
+        ImpactBounds { per_entry, global }
+    }
+
+    /// List-wide max doc weight, from the scorer-specific cached bounds. The
+    /// tightest valid global score bound is `query_weight * this`, matching what
+    /// the non-impact format stores as `max_score` at build time.
+    pub fn global_max_doc_weight_cached<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        scorer: &S,
+        cache: &mut ImpactScoreCache,
+    ) -> f32 {
+        cache.bounds(self, scorer).global
+    }
+
+    /// Cached per-block max doc weights (level0 entries only), for bulk skip
+    /// scans over dead ranges without per-block window bookkeeping.
+    pub(crate) fn level0_doc_weight_bounds_cached<'a, S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        scorer: &S,
+        cache: &'a mut ImpactScoreCache,
+    ) -> &'a [f32] {
+        &cache.bounds(self, scorer).per_entry[..self.0.level0_len]
+    }
+
+    pub fn entries(&self) -> &LargeBinaryArray {
+        &self.0.entries
+    }
+
+    /// Conservative heap charge for the shared allocation, its query-independent
+    /// derived state, and one shared keyed-bound slab, whether or not that slab
+    /// has been initialized yet. The Arrow impact entries' buffers are owned by
+    /// the enclosing batch and are deliberately excluded so packed-group cache
+    /// accounting counts them once.
+    pub(crate) fn derived_cache_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        Self::derived_cache_bytes_for_entries(self.0.entries.len())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn derived_cache_bytes_for_entries(entry_count: usize) -> usize {
+        // The Arc header holds the strong and weak counts.
+        2 * size_of::<usize>()
+            + size_of::<ImpactSkipDataInner>()
+            + entry_count * size_of::<u32>()
+            + size_of::<ImpactBounds>()
+            + entry_count * size_of::<f32>()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn shares_derived_state_with(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        Arc::ptr_eq(&self.0, &other.0)
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub fn level0_len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.0.level0_len
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub fn level1_len(&self) -> usize {
+        level1_len(self.0.level0_len)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn level1_doc_up_to(&self, group_idx: usize) -> Option<u32> {
+        if group_idx >= level1_len(self.0.level0_len) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        match self.0.entry_doc_up_tos[self.0.level0_len + group_idx] {
+            u32::MAX => None,
+            doc_up_to => Some(doc_up_to),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Last doc id covered by the level0 entry of `block_idx`, or `None` when
+    /// the entry is missing or malformed.
+    pub(crate) fn level0_doc_up_to(&self, block_idx: usize) -> Option<u32> {
+        if block_idx >= self.0.level0_len {
+            return None;
+        }
+        match self.0.entry_doc_up_tos[block_idx] {
+            u32::MAX => None,
+            doc_up_to => Some(doc_up_to),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn level0_score_cached<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        block_idx: usize,
+        query_weight: f32,
+        scorer: &S,
+        cache: &mut ImpactScoreCache,
+    ) -> f32 {
+        if block_idx >= self.0.level0_len {
+            return 0.0;
+        }
+        cache.entry_score(self, block_idx, query_weight, scorer)
+    }
+
+    /// Max score of the docs covered by the level1 entry of `group_idx`,
+    /// answered from the scorer-specific cached bounds slab.
+    pub(crate) fn level1_score_cached<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        group_idx: usize,
+        query_weight: f32,
+        scorer: &S,
+        cache: &mut ImpactScoreCache,
+    ) -> f32 {
+        if group_idx >= level1_len(self.0.level0_len) {
+            return 0.0;
+        }
+        cache.entry_score(self, self.0.level0_len + group_idx, query_weight, scorer)
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub fn max_score_up_to_cached<S>(
+        &self,
+        start_block_idx: usize,
+        up_to: u64,
+        query_weight: f32,
+        scorer: &S,
+        cache: &mut ImpactScoreCache,
+    ) -> ImpactScore
+    where
+        S: Scorer + ?Sized,
+    {
+        let mut block_idx = start_block_idx;
+        let mut max_score = 0.0_f32;
+        let mut entries_scanned = 0usize;
+
+        while block_idx < self.0.level0_len {
+            let group_idx = block_idx / IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS;
+            let group_start = group_idx * IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS;
+            let group_end = ((group_idx + 1) * IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS).min(self.0.level0_len);
+            if block_idx == group_start {
+                let level1_entry_idx = self.0.level0_len + group_idx;
+                match self.0.entry_doc_up_tos[level1_entry_idx] {
+                    u32::MAX => {
+                        return ImpactScore {
+                            score: f32::INFINITY,
+                            entries_scanned: entries_scanned + 1,
+                        };
+                    }
+                    doc_up_to if u64::from(doc_up_to) <= up_to => {
+                        max_score = max_score.max(cache.entry_score(
+                            self,
+                            level1_entry_idx,
+                            query_weight,
+                            scorer,
+                        ));
+                        entries_scanned += 1;
+                        block_idx = group_end;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    _ => {}
+                }
+            }
+
+            max_score = max_score.max(cache.entry_score(self, block_idx, query_weight, scorer));
+            entries_scanned += 1;
+            match self.0.entry_doc_up_tos[block_idx] {
+                u32::MAX => {
+                    return ImpactScore {
+                        score: f32::INFINITY,
+                        entries_scanned,
+                    };
+                }
+                doc_up_to if u64::from(doc_up_to) >= up_to => break,
+                _ => {}
+            }
+            block_idx += 1;
+        }
+
+        ImpactScore {
+            score: max_score,
+            entries_scanned,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct ImpactSkipDataBuilder {
+    entries: LargeBinaryBuilder,
+    level0_len: usize,
+    level1_entries: Vec<Vec<u8>>,
+    level1_docs: Vec<(u32, u32, u32)>,
+}
+
+impl ImpactSkipDataBuilder {
+    pub fn with_capacity(level0_blocks: usize, block_size: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            entries: LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(
+                level0_blocks + level1_len(level0_blocks),
+                0,
+            ),
+            level0_len: 0,
+            level1_entries: Vec::with_capacity(level1_len(level0_blocks)),
+            level1_docs: Vec::with_capacity(IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS * block_size),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn append_block(&mut self, docs: &[(u32, u32, u32)]) -> Result<()> {
+        let bytes = encode_impact_entry(docs)?;
+        self.entries.append_value(bytes.as_slice());
+        self.level0_len += 1;
+        self.level1_docs.extend_from_slice(docs);
+        if self.level0_len.is_multiple_of(IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS) {
+            self.flush_level1()?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn finish(mut self) -> Result<ImpactSkipData> {
+        if !self.level1_docs.is_empty() {
+            self.flush_level1()?;
+        }
+        for entry in self.level1_entries {
+            self.entries.append_value(entry.as_slice());
+        }
+        ImpactSkipData::new(self.entries.finish(), self.level0_len)
+    }
+
+    fn flush_level1(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        let bytes = encode_impact_entry(self.level1_docs.as_slice())?;
+        self.level1_entries.push(bytes);
+        self.level1_docs.clear();
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn build_impact_skip_data(blocks: &[Vec<(u32, u32, u32)>]) -> Result<ImpactSkipData> {
+    let block_size = blocks.iter().map(Vec::len).max().unwrap_or(0).max(1);
+    let mut builder = ImpactSkipDataBuilder::with_capacity(blocks.len(), block_size);
+    for block in blocks {
+        builder.append_block(block)?;
+    }
+    builder.finish()
+}
+
+fn encode_impact_entry(docs: &[(u32, u32, u32)]) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    if docs.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "cannot encode an empty impact entry".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let doc_up_to = docs
+        .last()
+        .map(|(doc_id, _, _)| *doc_id)
+        .expect("non-empty impact entry was validated above");
+    let frontier = quantized_impact_frontier(docs);
+    let pair_count = u32::try_from(frontier.len()).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::index("impact frontier too large to encode as u32 pair count".to_string())
+    })?;
+    let mut bytes = Vec::with_capacity(5 + frontier.len() * 2);
+    super::encoding::encode_varint_u32(&mut bytes, doc_up_to);
+    super::encoding::encode_varint_u32(&mut bytes, pair_count);
+    let mut previous_freq = 0u32;
+    let mut previous_norm = 0u8;
+    for (pair_idx, (freq, norm)) in frontier.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        let freq_delta_minus_one = freq
+            .checked_sub(previous_freq)
+            .and_then(|delta| delta.checked_sub(1))
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "impact frequencies must be positive and strictly increasing: previous={previous_freq}, current={freq}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let norm_delta = norm.checked_sub(previous_norm).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "impact norms must be non-decreasing: previous={previous_norm}, current={norm}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if pair_idx > 0 && norm_delta == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "impact norms must be strictly increasing after quantization: norm={norm}"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let has_explicit_norm_delta = norm_delta != 1;
+        let packed_freq_delta =
+            (u64::from(freq_delta_minus_one) << 1) | u64::from(has_explicit_norm_delta);
+        encode_varint_u64(&mut bytes, packed_freq_delta);
+        if has_explicit_norm_delta {
+            bytes.push(norm_delta);
+        }
+        previous_freq = freq;
+        previous_norm = norm;
+    }
+    Ok(bytes)
+}
+
+fn decode_entry_doc_up_to(bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<u32> {
+    let mut offset = 0usize;
+    let doc_up_to = super::encoding::decode_varint_u32(bytes, &mut offset)?;
+    // Level-1 doc ids drive whole-group skips, so only publish a doc id after
+    // validating the complete entry. A truncated entry may still have a valid
+    // first varint.
+    for_each_entry_pair(bytes, |_, _| {})?;
+    Ok(doc_up_to)
+}
+
+fn decode_level0_entry_doc_up_to(bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<u32> {
+    // A malformed level0 frontier bakes an INFINITY score before this marker
+    // can terminate a range scan, so avoid parsing every frontier twice on the
+    // query-load path. Level1 entries are fully validated.
+    let mut offset = 0usize;
+    super::encoding::decode_varint_u32(bytes, &mut offset)
+}
+
+/// Walk an entry's (freq, doc_len) frontier pairs, validating the layout.
+fn for_each_entry_pair(bytes: &[u8], mut visit: impl FnMut(u32, u32)) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut offset = 0usize;
+    let _doc_up_to = super::encoding::decode_varint_u32(bytes, &mut offset)?;
+    let pair_count = super::encoding::decode_varint_u32(bytes, &mut offset)?;
+    if pair_count == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "impact entry must contain at least one frontier pair".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let mut previous_freq = 0u32;
+    let mut previous_norm = 0u16;
+    for pair_idx in 0..pair_count {
+        let packed_freq_delta = decode_varint_u64(bytes, &mut offset)?;
+        let freq_delta_minus_one = u32::try_from(packed_freq_delta >> 1)
+            .map_err(|_| Error::index("impact freq delta exceeds u32".to_owned()))?;
+        let freq_delta = freq_delta_minus_one
+            .checked_add(1)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("impact freq delta overflow".to_owned()))?;
+        let freq = previous_freq
+            .checked_add(freq_delta)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("impact frequency overflow".to_owned()))?;
+
+        let has_explicit_norm_delta = packed_freq_delta & 1 != 0;
+        let norm_delta = if has_explicit_norm_delta {
+            let norm_delta = bytes.get(offset).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index("unexpected EOF while decoding impact norm delta".to_owned())
+            })?;
+            offset += 1;
+            norm_delta
+        } else {
+            1
+        };
+        if pair_idx > 0 && norm_delta == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "impact norms must be strictly increasing".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let norm = previous_norm
+            .checked_add(u16::from(norm_delta))
+            .filter(|norm| *norm <= u16::from(u8::MAX))
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("impact norm delta overflow".to_owned()))?;
+        let norm = norm as u8;
+        visit(freq, super::index::dequantize_doc_length(norm));
+        previous_freq = freq;
+        previous_norm = u16::from(norm);
+    }
+    if offset != bytes.len() {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "impact entry has {} trailing bytes",
+            bytes.len() - offset
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn encode_varint_u64(dst: &mut Vec<u8>, mut value: u64) {
+    while value >= 0x80 {
+        dst.push((value as u8) | 0x80);
+        value >>= 7;
+    }
+    dst.push(value as u8);
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn decode_varint_u64(src: &[u8], offset: &mut usize) -> Result<u64> {
+    let mut value = 0u64;
+    let mut shift = 0u32;
+    while *offset < src.len() {
+        let byte = src[*offset];
+        *offset += 1;
+        if shift == 63 && byte & 0xFE != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "invalid u64 varint in impact entry".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+        value |= u64::from(byte & 0x7F) << shift;
+        if byte & 0x80 == 0 {
+            return Ok(value);
+        }
+        shift += 7;
+        if shift > 63 {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "invalid u64 varint in impact entry".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    Err(Error::index(
+        "unexpected EOF while decoding impact entry".to_owned(),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn quantized_impact_frontier(docs: &[(u32, u32, u32)]) -> Vec<(u32, u8)> {
+    let raw_frontier = impact_frontier(docs);
+    let mut frontier: Vec<(u32, u8)> = Vec::with_capacity(raw_frontier.len());
+    for (freq, doc_len) in raw_frontier {
+        let norm = super::index::quantize_doc_length(doc_len);
+        match frontier.last_mut() {
+            Some((last_freq, last_norm)) if *last_norm == norm => {
+                // At the same quantized norm, the larger frequency dominates.
+                *last_freq = freq;
+            }
+            Some((_, last_norm)) => {
+                debug_assert!(
+                    *last_norm < norm,
+                    "raw impact frontier document lengths must be increasing"
+                );
+                frontier.push((freq, norm));
+            }
+            None => frontier.push((freq, norm)),
+        }
+    }
+    frontier
+}
+
+fn impact_frontier(docs: &[(u32, u32, u32)]) -> Vec<(u32, u32)> {
+    let max_freq = docs.iter().map(|(_, freq, _)| *freq).max().unwrap_or(0) as usize;
+    if max_freq <= SMALL_FRONTIER_FREQ_LIMIT {
+        return impact_frontier_small_freq(docs, max_freq);
+    }
+
+    impact_frontier_sparse_freq(docs)
+}
+
+fn impact_frontier_small_freq(docs: &[(u32, u32, u32)], max_freq: usize) -> Vec<(u32, u32)> {
+    let mut min_doc_len_by_freq = [u32::MAX; SMALL_FRONTIER_FREQ_LIMIT + 1];
+    for (_, freq, doc_len) in docs {
+        min_doc_len_by_freq[*freq as usize] = min_doc_len_by_freq[*freq as usize].min(*doc_len);
+    }
+
+    let min_doc_lens = min_doc_len_by_freq[..=max_freq]
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter_map(|(freq, doc_len)| (*doc_len != u32::MAX).then_some((freq as u32, *doc_len)))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    frontier_from_min_doc_lens(min_doc_lens)
+}
+
+fn impact_frontier_sparse_freq(docs: &[(u32, u32, u32)]) -> Vec<(u32, u32)> {
+    let mut pairs = docs
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(_, freq, doc_len)| (*freq, *doc_len))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    pairs.sort_unstable_by_key(|(freq, _)| *freq);
+
+    let mut min_doc_lens: Vec<(u32, u32)> = Vec::with_capacity(pairs.len());
+    for (freq, doc_len) in pairs {
+        match min_doc_lens.last_mut() {
+            Some((last_freq, last_doc_len)) if *last_freq == freq => {
+                *last_doc_len = (*last_doc_len).min(doc_len);
+            }
+            _ => min_doc_lens.push((freq, doc_len)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    frontier_from_min_doc_lens(min_doc_lens)
+}
+
+fn frontier_from_min_doc_lens(min_doc_lens: Vec<(u32, u32)>) -> Vec<(u32, u32)> {
+    let mut best_doc_len = u32::MAX;
+    let mut frontier = Vec::with_capacity(min_doc_lens.len());
+    for (freq, doc_len) in min_doc_lens.into_iter().rev() {
+        if doc_len < best_doc_len {
+            frontier.push((freq, doc_len));
+            best_doc_len = doc_len;
+        }
+    }
+    frontier.reverse();
+    frontier
+}
+
+fn level1_len(level0_len: usize) -> usize {
+    level0_len.div_ceil(IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+    use arrow::buffer::{Buffer, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::scorer::{MemBM25Scorer, Scorer};
+
+    struct KeyedCountingScorer {
+        key: u64,
+        calls: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    impl Scorer for KeyedCountingScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            self.calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            freq as f32 / doc_tokens as f32
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight_cache_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+            Some(self.key)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_entry_frontier_drops_dominated_pairs() {
+        let docs = vec![(0, 1, 10), (1, 1, 8), (2, 2, 9), (3, 3, 20)];
+        assert_eq!(impact_frontier(&docs), vec![(1, 8), (2, 9), (3, 20)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_entry_frontier_handles_sparse_large_frequencies() {
+        let docs = vec![
+            (0, 1, 100),
+            (1, 1, 80),
+            (2, 512, 90),
+            (3, 1_000, 120),
+            (4, 1_000, 110),
+        ];
+        assert_eq!(
+            impact_frontier(&docs),
+            vec![(1, 80), (512, 90), (1_000, 110)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn quantized_impact_frontier_drops_equal_norms() {
+        let docs = vec![(0, 1, 16), (1, 2, 17), (2, 3, 24)];
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantized_impact_frontier(&docs),
+            vec![
+                (2, super::super::index::quantize_doc_length(17)),
+                (3, super::super::index::quantize_doc_length(24)),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_max_score_can_use_level1_entry() {
+        let blocks = (0..40)
+            .map(|block| vec![(block as u32, 1 + block as u32 % 3, 10)])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let impacts = build_impact_skip_data(&blocks).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level0_len(), 40);
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level1_len(), 2);
+        let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(400, 40, HashMap::from([(String::from("token"), 40usize)]));
+        let mut cache = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+        let score = impacts.max_score_up_to_cached(0, 31, 1.0, &scorer, &mut cache);
+        assert!(score.entries_scanned < IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS);
+        assert!(score.score > 0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_level1_doc_up_to_reports_full_and_partial_groups() {
+        let blocks = (0..40)
+            .map(|block| vec![(block as u32, 1, 10)])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let impacts = build_impact_skip_data(&blocks).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            impacts.level1_doc_up_to(0),
+            Some((IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS - 1) as u32)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level1_doc_up_to(1), Some(39));
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level1_doc_up_to(2), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_level1_doc_up_to_returns_none_for_malformed_entry() {
+        let level0 = encode_impact_entry(&[(0, 1, 10)]).unwrap();
+        let malformed_level1 = vec![1, 2, 3];
+        let entries = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![
+            Some(level0.as_slice()),
+            Some(malformed_level1.as_slice()),
+        ]);
+        let impacts = ImpactSkipData::new(entries, 1).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level1_doc_up_to(0), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_level1_doc_up_to_validates_complete_entry() {
+        let level0 = encode_impact_entry(&[(0, 1, 10)]).unwrap();
+        // A complete first varint is not enough: the pair count and frontier
+        // are required before this doc id can safely drive a group skip.
+        let truncated_level1 = [31_u8];
+        let entries = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![
+            Some(level0.as_slice()),
+            Some(truncated_level1.as_slice()),
+        ]);
+        let impacts = ImpactSkipData::new(entries, 1).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level1_doc_up_to(0), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn empty_impact_frontiers_are_malformed_bounds() {
+        let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(10, 1, HashMap::new());
+        let level0 = encode_impact_entry(&[(0, 1, 10)]).unwrap();
+        let empty_level1 = [0, 0];
+        let entries = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![
+            Some(level0.as_slice()),
+            Some(empty_level1.as_slice()),
+        ]);
+        let impacts = ImpactSkipData::new(entries, 1).unwrap();
+        let mut cache = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level1_doc_up_to(0), None);
+        assert!(
+            impacts
+                .global_max_doc_weight_cached(&scorer, &mut cache)
+                .is_infinite()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            ImpactSkipDataBuilder::with_capacity(1, 128)
+                .append_block(&[])
+                .is_err()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn null_impact_entry_is_an_infinite_bound_even_with_hidden_bytes() {
+        let level0 = encode_impact_entry(&[(0, 1, 10)]).unwrap();
+        let level1 = encode_impact_entry(&[(0, 2, 8)]).unwrap();
+        let mut values = level0.clone();
+        values.extend_from_slice(&level1);
+        let entries = LargeBinaryArray::new(
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![
+                0_i64,
+                level0.len() as i64,
+                values.len() as i64,
+            ])),
+            Buffer::from_vec(values),
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false])),
+        );
+        let impacts = ImpactSkipData::new(entries, 1).unwrap();
+        let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(10, 1, HashMap::new());
+        let mut cache = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level1_doc_up_to(0), None);
+        assert!(
+            impacts
+                .global_max_doc_weight_cached(&scorer, &mut cache)
+                .is_infinite()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_bounds_follow_changed_bm25_average_doc_length() {
+        let impacts = build_impact_skip_data(&[vec![(0, 1, 100)]]).unwrap();
+        let low_avgdl = MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, HashMap::new());
+        let high_avgdl = MemBM25Scorer::new(100, 1, HashMap::new());
+        let mut low_cache = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+        let mut high_cache = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+
+        let low_bound = impacts.global_max_doc_weight_cached(&low_avgdl, &mut low_cache);
+        let high_bound = impacts.global_max_doc_weight_cached(&high_avgdl, &mut high_cache);
+        let quantized_doc_length = super::super::index::dequantize_doc_length(
+            super::super::index::quantize_doc_length(100),
+        );
+
+        assert!((low_bound - low_avgdl.doc_weight(1, quantized_doc_length)).abs() < 1e-6);
+        assert!((high_bound - high_avgdl.doc_weight(1, quantized_doc_length)).abs() < 1e-6);
+        assert!(low_bound >= low_avgdl.doc_weight(1, 100));
+        assert!(high_bound >= high_avgdl.doc_weight(1, 100));
+        assert!(
+            high_bound > low_bound,
+            "larger avgdl must recompute a larger bound: low={low_bound}, high={high_bound}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_bounds_reuse_same_scorer_key_across_queries() {
+        let impacts = build_impact_skip_data(&[vec![(0, 2, 10)]]).unwrap();
+        let cloned = impacts.clone();
+        assert!(impacts.shares_derived_state_with(&cloned));
+        let calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let scorer = KeyedCountingScorer {
+            key: 7,
+            calls: calls.clone(),
+        };
+        let mut first_query = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+        let mut second_query = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+
+        let first = impacts.global_max_doc_weight_cached(&scorer, &mut first_query);
+        let baked_calls = calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        assert!(baked_calls > 0);
+        let second = cloned.global_max_doc_weight_cached(&scorer, &mut second_query);
+
+        assert_eq!(second, first);
+        assert_eq!(
+            calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            baked_calls,
+            "the same keyed bounds should be shared across query caches"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn malformed_unscanned_entry_does_not_poison_range_score() {
+        let level0_0 = encode_impact_entry(&[(0, 1, 10)]).unwrap();
+        let malformed_level0_1 = vec![1, 2, 3];
+        let level1 = encode_impact_entry(&[(0, 1, 10), (1, 1, 10)]).unwrap();
+        let entries = LargeBinaryArray::from_opt_vec(vec![
+            Some(level0_0.as_slice()),
+            Some(malformed_level0_1.as_slice()),
+            Some(level1.as_slice()),
+        ]);
+        let impacts = ImpactSkipData::new(entries, 2).unwrap();
+        let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(10, 10, HashMap::from([(String::from("token"), 2usize)]));
+        let mut cache = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+
+        let score = impacts.max_score_up_to_cached(0, 0, 1.0, &scorer, &mut cache);
+        assert!(score.score.is_finite());
+        assert_eq!(score.entries_scanned, 1);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            impacts.level0_score_cached(1, 1.0, &scorer, &mut cache),
+            f32::INFINITY
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_entries_store_quantized_norm_deltas() {
+        let docs = vec![(7, 1, 1), (9, 2, 2), (12, 3, 5)];
+        let encoded = encode_impact_entry(&docs).unwrap();
+
+        // doc_up_to=12, pair_count=3, two implicit +1 norm deltas, then an
+        // explicit +3 norm delta folded behind the frequency varint's low bit.
+        assert_eq!(encoded, vec![12, 3, 0, 0, 1, 3]);
+
+        let mut pairs = Vec::new();
+        for_each_entry_pair(&encoded, |freq, doc_len| pairs.push((freq, doc_len))).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(pairs, vec![(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 5)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn malformed_norm_deltas_are_rejected() {
+        // doc_up_to=0, pair_count=1, and the pair flag promises a norm byte
+        // that is not present.
+        let truncated = [0, 1, 1];
+        let error = for_each_entry_pair(&truncated, |_, _| {}).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::Index { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("impact norm delta"));
+
+        // The first pair reaches norm 255, so an implicit +1 on the second
+        // pair must fail instead of wrapping back to zero.
+        let overflowing = [0, 2, 1, 255, 0];
+        let error = for_each_entry_pair(&overflowing, |_, _| {}).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::Index { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("impact norm delta overflow"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_entries_roundtrip_quantized_frontier() {
+        let docs = vec![(3, 1, 100), (9, 2, 40), (200, 7, 80), (4095, 130, 900)];
+        let encoded = encode_impact_entry(&docs).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decode_entry_doc_up_to(&encoded).unwrap(), 4095);
+        let mut decoded_pairs = Vec::new();
+        for_each_entry_pair(&encoded, |freq, doc_len| {
+            decoded_pairs.push((freq, doc_len))
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+        let expected_pairs = quantized_impact_frontier(&docs)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(freq, norm)| (freq, super::super::index::dequantize_doc_length(norm)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(decoded_pairs, expected_pairs);
+        assert!(!decoded_pairs.is_empty());
+
+        // A 256-doc-block skip data goes through the shared codec end to end.
+        let blocks: Vec<Vec<(u32, u32, u32)>> = (0..3)
+            .map(|b| (0..256).map(|i| (b * 256 + i, 1 + i % 5, 10)).collect())
+            .collect();
+        let impacts = build_impact_skip_data(&blocks).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level1_doc_up_to(0), Some(767));
+        let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(400, 768, HashMap::from([(String::from("t"), 768usize)]));
+        let mut cache = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+        assert!(
+            impacts
+                .level0_score_cached(0, 1.0, &scorer, &mut cache)
+                .is_finite()
+        );
+        let level1 = impacts.max_score_up_to_cached(0, 767, 1.0, &scorer, &mut cache);
+        assert!(level1.score.is_finite() && level1.score > 0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn posting_block_sizes_use_identical_impact_encoding() {
+        let docs = vec![(3, 1, 100), (9, 2, 40), (200, 7, 80)];
+        let mut v2_builder = ImpactSkipDataBuilder::with_capacity(1, 128);
+        v2_builder.append_block(&docs).unwrap();
+        let v2 = v2_builder.finish().unwrap();
+        let mut v3_builder = ImpactSkipDataBuilder::with_capacity(1, 256);
+        v3_builder.append_block(&docs).unwrap();
+        let v3 = v3_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(v2.entries(), v3.entries());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn impact_upper_bound_covers_real_scores() {
+        let blocks = vec![
+            vec![(0, 1, 100), (3, 2, 40), (7, 4, 80)],
+            vec![(9, 3, 15), (10, 1, 5), (12, 5, 30)],
+            vec![(16, 2, 10), (18, 6, 70), (21, 3, 12)],
+            vec![(24, 1, 4), (28, 7, 100), (30, 2, 8)],
+        ];
+        let impacts = build_impact_skip_data(&blocks).unwrap();
+        let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(474, 31, HashMap::from([(String::from("token"), 4usize)]));
+        let query_weight = scorer.query_weight("token");
+        let mut cache = ImpactScoreCache::default();
+
+        for start_block_idx in 0..blocks.len() {
+            let up_to = blocks
+                .iter()
+                .skip(start_block_idx)
+                .take(2)
+                .flatten()
+                .map(|(doc_id, _, _)| *doc_id)
+                .max()
+                .unwrap();
+            let upper_bound = impacts.max_score_up_to_cached(
+                start_block_idx,
+                u64::from(up_to),
+                query_weight,
+                &scorer,
+                &mut cache,
+            );
+            let exact_max = blocks
+                .iter()
+                .skip(start_block_idx)
+                .flatten()
+                .take_while(|(doc_id, _, _)| *doc_id <= up_to)
+                .map(|(_, freq, doc_len)| query_weight * scorer.doc_weight(*freq, *doc_len))
+                .fold(0.0_f32, f32::max);
+            assert!(
+                upper_bound.score + 1e-6 >= exact_max,
+                "upper bound {} should cover exact max {} from block {} up to doc {}",
+                upper_bound.score,
+                exact_max,
+                start_block_idx,
+                up_to
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index.rs
index 78ca78b50f7..9946bc3cb20 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index.rs
@@ -1,23 +1,32 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_row_ids_preserving_layout_async};
 use std::fmt::{Debug, Display};
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicU32, AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
 use std::{
-    cmp::{min, Reverse},
+    cmp::{Reverse, min},
     collections::BinaryHeap,
 };
-use std::{collections::HashMap, ops::Range};
+use std::{
+    collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet, HashMap, HashSet},
+    ops::Range,
+    time::Instant,
+};
 
 use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use crate::prefilter::NoFilter;
 use crate::scalar::registry::{TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering};
+use crate::vector::graph::OrderedFloat;
+use arrow::array::{BooleanBuilder, FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder, Int32Builder};
 use arrow::datatypes::{self, Float32Type, Int32Type, UInt64Type};
 use arrow::{
     array::{
         AsArray, LargeBinaryBuilder, ListBuilder, StringBuilder, UInt32Builder, UInt64Builder,
     },
-    buffer::OffsetBuffer,
+    buffer::{Buffer, OffsetBuffer},
 };
 use arrow::{buffer::ScalarBuffer, datatypes::UInt32Type};
 use arrow_array::{
@@ -27,2937 +36,125 @@ use arrow_array::{
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::Time;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-use datafusion_common::DataFusionError;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use fst::{Automaton, IntoStreamer, Streamer};
-use futures::{stream, FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use itertools::Itertools;
-use lance_arrow::{iter_str_array, RecordBatchExt};
-use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
-use lance_core::utils::mask::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
-use lance_core::utils::tracing::{IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, TRACE_IO_EVENTS};
-use lance_core::{
-    container::list::ExpLinkedList,
-    utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu},
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use itertools::{Either, Itertools};
+use lance_arrow::{RecordBatchExt, iter_str_array};
+use lance_core::cache::{
+    CacheCodec, CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache,
 };
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD};
-use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::error::{DataFusionResult, LanceOptionExt};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
+use lance_core::utils::tracing::{IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, TRACE_IO_EVENTS};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result};
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
+use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
-use tokio::task::spawn_blocking;
-use tracing::{info, instrument};
+use tokio::{
+    sync::{Mutex, OnceCell},
+    task::spawn_blocking,
+};
+use tracing::{debug, info, instrument, warn};
 
+use super::documents::{
+    AddressKeyedDocuments, DocId, DocLengths, DocVisibility, PartitionDocumentStore,
+    PartitionDocuments,
+};
+use super::encoding::{MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE, PositionBlockBuilder};
+use super::impact::{IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS, ImpactSkipData, ImpactSkipDataBuilder};
+use super::iter::PostingListIterator;
+use super::tokenizer::{LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, validate_block_size};
 use super::{
-    builder::{
-        doc_file_path, inverted_list_schema, posting_file_path, token_file_path, ScoredDoc,
-        BLOCK_SIZE,
-    },
-    iter::PlainPostingListIterator,
-    query::*,
-    scorer::{idf, IndexBM25Scorer, Scorer, B, K1},
+    DocumentGranularity, FlatFieldStats, InvertedIndexBuilder, InvertedIndexParams, wand::*,
 };
 use super::{
     builder::{InnerBuilder, PositionRecorder},
-    encoding::{compress_posting_list, compress_posting_list_with_scores},
     iter::CompressedPostingListIterator,
 };
-use super::{encoding::compress_positions, iter::PostingListIterator};
-use super::{wand::*, InvertedIndexBuilder, InvertedIndexParams};
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use super::{
+    builder::{
+        ScoredDoc, doc_file_path, inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size_and_impacts,
+        posting_file_path, token_file_path,
+    },
+    iter::PlainPostingListIterator,
+    query::*,
+    scorer::{B, IndexBM25Scorer, K1, Scorer, idf},
+};
 use crate::pbold;
-use crate::scalar::inverted::lance_tokenizer::TextTokenizer;
+use crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
 use crate::scalar::inverted::scorer::MemBM25Scorer;
-use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::lance_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer;
 use crate::scalar::{
     AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, IndexReader, IndexStore, MetricsCollector,
-    ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult, TokenQuery, UpdateCriteria,
+    OldIndexDataFilter, RowIdRemapper, ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult, TokenQuery,
+    UpdateCriteria,
+};
+use crate::{
+    FtsPrewarmDiagnostics, FtsPrewarmOptions, FtsPrewarmPartitionStatus, FtsPrewarmResult, Index,
 };
-use crate::Index;
 use crate::{prefilter::PreFilter, scalar::inverted::iter::take_fst_keys};
 use std::str::FromStr;
 
-// Version 0: Arrow TokenSetFormat (legacy)
-// Version 1: Fst TokenSetFormat (new default, incompatible clients < 0.38)
-pub const INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 1;
-pub const TOKENS_FILE: &str = "tokens.lance";
-pub const INVERT_LIST_FILE: &str = "invert.lance";
-pub const DOCS_FILE: &str = "docs.lance";
-pub const METADATA_FILE: &str = "metadata.lance";
-
-pub const TOKEN_COL: &str = "_token";
-pub const TOKEN_ID_COL: &str = "_token_id";
-pub const TOKEN_FST_BYTES_COL: &str = "_token_fst_bytes";
-pub const TOKEN_NEXT_ID_COL: &str = "_token_next_id";
-pub const TOKEN_TOTAL_LENGTH_COL: &str = "_token_total_length";
-pub const FREQUENCY_COL: &str = "_frequency";
-pub const POSITION_COL: &str = "_position";
-pub const COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL: &str = "_compressed_position";
-pub const POSTING_COL: &str = "_posting";
-pub const MAX_SCORE_COL: &str = "_max_score";
-pub const LENGTH_COL: &str = "_length";
-pub const BLOCK_MAX_SCORE_COL: &str = "_block_max_score";
-pub const NUM_TOKEN_COL: &str = "_num_tokens";
-pub const SCORE_COL: &str = "_score";
-pub const TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY: &str = "token_set_format";
-
-pub static SCORE_FIELD: LazyLock<Field> =
-    LazyLock::new(|| Field::new(SCORE_COL, DataType::Float32, true));
-pub static FTS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> =
-    LazyLock::new(|| Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(), SCORE_FIELD.clone()])));
-static ROW_ID_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> =
-    LazyLock::new(|| Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()])));
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct PartitionCandidates {
-    tokens_by_position: Vec<String>,
-    candidates: Vec<DocCandidate>,
-}
-
-impl PartitionCandidates {
-    fn empty() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            tokens_by_position: Vec::new(),
-            candidates: Vec::new(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq, Hash, Default)]
-pub enum TokenSetFormat {
-    Arrow,
-    #[default]
-    Fst,
-}
-
-impl Display for TokenSetFormat {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        match self {
-            Self::Arrow => f.write_str("arrow"),
-            Self::Fst => f.write_str("fst"),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl FromStr for TokenSetFormat {
-    type Err = Error;
-
-    fn from_str(s: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, Self::Err> {
-        match s.trim() {
-            "" => Ok(Self::Arrow),
-            "arrow" => Ok(Self::Arrow),
-            "fst" => Ok(Self::Fst),
-            other => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("unsupported token set format {}", other),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for TokenSetFormat {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        0
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone)]
-pub struct InvertedIndex {
-    params: InvertedIndexParams,
-    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
-    token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
-    pub(crate) partitions: Vec<Arc<InvertedPartition>>,
-}
-
-impl Debug for InvertedIndex {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        f.debug_struct("InvertedIndex")
-            .field("params", &self.params)
-            .field("token_set_format", &self.token_set_format)
-            .field("partitions", &self.partitions)
-            .finish()
-    }
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for InvertedIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.partitions.deep_size_of_children(context)
-    }
-}
-
-impl InvertedIndex {
-    fn to_builder(&self) -> InvertedIndexBuilder {
-        self.to_builder_with_offset(None)
-    }
-
-    fn to_builder_with_offset(&self, fragment_mask: Option<u64>) -> InvertedIndexBuilder {
-        if self.is_legacy() {
-            // for legacy format, we re-create the index in the new format
-            InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
-                self.params.clone(),
-                None,
-                Vec::new(),
-                self.token_set_format,
-                fragment_mask,
-            )
-        } else {
-            let partitions = match fragment_mask {
-                Some(fragment_mask) => self
-                    .partitions
-                    .iter()
-                    // Filter partitions that belong to the specified fragment
-                    // The mask contains fragment_id in high 32 bits, we check if partition's
-                    // fragment_id matches by comparing the masked result with the original mask
-                    .filter(|part| part.belongs_to_fragment(fragment_mask))
-                    .map(|part| part.id())
-                    .collect(),
-                None => self.partitions.iter().map(|part| part.id()).collect(),
-            };
-
-            InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
-                self.params.clone(),
-                Some(self.store.clone()),
-                partitions,
-                self.token_set_format,
-                fragment_mask,
-            )
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn tokenizer(&self) -> Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> {
-        self.tokenizer.clone()
-    }
-
-    pub fn params(&self) -> &InvertedIndexParams {
-        &self.params
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the number of partitions in this inverted index.
-    pub fn partition_count(&self) -> usize {
-        self.partitions.len()
-    }
-
-    // search the documents that contain the query
-    // return the row ids of the documents sorted by bm25 score
-    // ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okapi_BM25
-    // we first calculate in-partition BM25 scores,
-    // then re-calculate the scores for the top k documents across all partitions
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    pub async fn bm25_search(
-        &self,
-        tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
-        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
-        operator: Operator,
-        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
-        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
-    ) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
-        let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
-        if limit == 0 {
-            return Ok((Vec::new(), Vec::new()));
-        }
-        let mask = prefilter.mask();
-
-        let mut candidates = BinaryHeap::new();
-        let parts = self
-            .partitions
-            .iter()
-            .map(|part| {
-                let part = part.clone();
-                let tokens = tokens.clone();
-                let params = params.clone();
-                let mask = mask.clone();
-                let metrics = metrics.clone();
-                async move {
-                    let postings = part
-                        .load_posting_lists(tokens.as_ref(), params.as_ref(), metrics.as_ref())
-                        .await?;
-                    if postings.is_empty() {
-                        return Ok(PartitionCandidates::empty());
-                    }
-                    let mut tokens_by_position = vec![String::new(); postings.len()];
-                    for posting in &postings {
-                        let idx = posting.term_index() as usize;
-                        tokens_by_position[idx] = posting.token().to_owned();
-                    }
-                    let params = params.clone();
-                    let mask = mask.clone();
-                    let metrics = metrics.clone();
-                    spawn_cpu(move || {
-                        let candidates = part.bm25_search(
-                            params.as_ref(),
-                            operator,
-                            mask,
-                            postings,
-                            metrics.as_ref(),
-                        )?;
-                        Ok(PartitionCandidates {
-                            tokens_by_position,
-                            candidates,
-                        })
-                    })
-                    .await
-                }
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let mut parts = stream::iter(parts).buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus());
-        let scorer = IndexBM25Scorer::new(self.partitions.iter().map(|part| part.as_ref()));
-        let mut idf_cache: HashMap<String, f32> = HashMap::new();
-        while let Some(res) = parts.try_next().await? {
-            if res.candidates.is_empty() {
-                continue;
-            }
-            let mut idf_by_position = Vec::with_capacity(res.tokens_by_position.len());
-            for token in &res.tokens_by_position {
-                let idf_weight = match idf_cache.get(token) {
-                    Some(weight) => *weight,
-                    None => {
-                        let weight = scorer.query_weight(token);
-                        idf_cache.insert(token.clone(), weight);
-                        weight
-                    }
-                };
-                idf_by_position.push(idf_weight);
-            }
-            for DocCandidate {
-                row_id,
-                freqs,
-                doc_length,
-            } in res.candidates
-            {
-                let mut score = 0.0;
-                for (term_index, freq) in freqs.into_iter() {
-                    debug_assert!((term_index as usize) < idf_by_position.len());
-                    score +=
-                        idf_by_position[term_index as usize] * scorer.doc_weight(freq, doc_length);
-                }
-                if candidates.len() < limit {
-                    candidates.push(Reverse(ScoredDoc::new(row_id, score)));
-                } else if candidates.peek().unwrap().0.score.0 < score {
-                    candidates.pop();
-                    candidates.push(Reverse(ScoredDoc::new(row_id, score)));
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        Ok(candidates
-            .into_sorted_vec()
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|Reverse(doc)| (doc.row_id, doc.score.0))
-            .unzip())
-    }
-
-    async fn load_legacy_index(
-        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-        index_cache: &LanceCache,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
-        log::warn!("loading legacy FTS index");
-        let tokens_fut = tokio::spawn({
-            let store = store.clone();
-            async move {
-                let token_reader = store.open_index_file(TOKENS_FILE).await?;
-                let tokenizer = token_reader
-                    .schema()
-                    .metadata
-                    .get("tokenizer")
-                    .map(|s| serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(s))
-                    .transpose()?
-                    .unwrap_or_default();
-                let tokens = TokenSet::load(token_reader, TokenSetFormat::Arrow).await?;
-                Result::Ok((tokenizer, tokens))
-            }
-        });
-        let invert_list_fut = tokio::spawn({
-            let store = store.clone();
-            let index_cache_clone = index_cache.clone();
-            async move {
-                let invert_list_reader = store.open_index_file(INVERT_LIST_FILE).await?;
-                let invert_list =
-                    PostingListReader::try_new(invert_list_reader, &index_cache_clone).await?;
-                Result::Ok(Arc::new(invert_list))
-            }
-        });
-        let docs_fut = tokio::spawn({
-            let store = store.clone();
-            async move {
-                let docs_reader = store.open_index_file(DOCS_FILE).await?;
-                let docs = DocSet::load(docs_reader, true, frag_reuse_index).await?;
-                Result::Ok(docs)
-            }
-        });
-
-        let (tokenizer_config, tokens) = tokens_fut.await??;
-        let inverted_list = invert_list_fut.await??;
-        let docs = docs_fut.await??;
-
-        let tokenizer = tokenizer_config.build()?;
-
-        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
-            params: tokenizer_config,
-            store: store.clone(),
-            tokenizer,
-            token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::Arrow,
-            partitions: vec![Arc::new(InvertedPartition {
-                id: 0,
-                store,
-                tokens,
-                inverted_list,
-                docs,
-                token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::Arrow,
-            })],
-        }))
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_legacy(&self) -> bool {
-        self.partitions.len() == 1 && self.partitions[0].is_legacy()
-    }
-
-    pub async fn load(
-        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-        index_cache: &LanceCache,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>>
-    where
-        Self: Sized,
-    {
-        // for new index format, there is a metadata file and multiple partitions,
-        // each partition is a separate index containing tokens, inverted list and docs.
-        // for old index format, there is no metadata file, and it's just like a single partition
-
-        match store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await {
-            Ok(reader) => {
-                let params = reader.schema().metadata.get("params").ok_or(Error::Index {
-                    message: "params not found in metadata".to_owned(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-                let params = serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(params)?;
-                let partitions =
-                    reader
-                        .schema()
-                        .metadata
-                        .get("partitions")
-                        .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                            message: "partitions not found in metadata".to_owned(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-                let partitions: Vec<u64> = serde_json::from_str(partitions)?;
-                let token_set_format = reader
-                    .schema()
-                    .metadata
-                    .get(TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY)
-                    .map(|name| TokenSetFormat::from_str(name))
-                    .transpose()?
-                    .unwrap_or(TokenSetFormat::Arrow);
-
-                let format = token_set_format;
-                let partitions = partitions.into_iter().map(|id| {
-                    let store = store.clone();
-                    let frag_reuse_index_clone = frag_reuse_index.clone();
-                    let index_cache_for_part =
-                        index_cache.with_key_prefix(format!("part-{}", id).as_str());
-                    let token_set_format = format;
-                    async move {
-                        Result::Ok(Arc::new(
-                            InvertedPartition::load(
-                                store,
-                                id,
-                                frag_reuse_index_clone,
-                                &index_cache_for_part,
-                                token_set_format,
-                            )
-                            .await?,
-                        ))
-                    }
-                });
-                let partitions = stream::iter(partitions)
-                    .buffer_unordered(store.io_parallelism())
-                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                    .await?;
-
-                let tokenizer = params.build()?;
-                Ok(Arc::new(Self {
-                    params,
-                    store,
-                    tokenizer,
-                    token_set_format,
-                    partitions,
-                }))
-            }
-            Err(_) => {
-                // old index format
-                Self::load_legacy_index(store, frag_reuse_index, index_cache).await
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl Index for InvertedIndex {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
-    fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index> {
-        self
-    }
-
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn crate::vector::VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            "inverted index cannot be cast to vector index",
-            location!(),
-        ))
-    }
-
-    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
-        let num_tokens = self
-            .partitions
-            .iter()
-            .map(|part| part.tokens.len())
-            .sum::<usize>();
-        let num_docs = self
-            .partitions
-            .iter()
-            .map(|part| part.docs.len())
-            .sum::<usize>();
-        Ok(serde_json::json!({
-            "params": self.params,
-            "num_tokens": num_tokens,
-            "num_docs": num_docs,
-        }))
-    }
-
-    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
-        for part in &self.partitions {
-            part.inverted_list.prewarm().await?;
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    fn index_type(&self) -> crate::IndexType {
-        crate::IndexType::Inverted
-    }
-
-    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
-        unimplemented!()
-    }
-}
-
-impl InvertedIndex {
-    /// Search docs match the input text.
-    async fn do_search(&self, text: &str) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let params = FtsSearchParams::new();
-        let mut tokenizer = self.tokenizer.clone();
-        let tokens = collect_query_tokens(text, &mut tokenizer, None);
-
-        let (doc_ids, _) = self
-            .bm25_search(
-                Arc::new(tokens),
-                params.into(),
-                Operator::And,
-                Arc::new(NoFilter),
-                Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
-            )
-            .boxed()
-            .await?;
-
-        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
-            ROW_ID_SCHEMA.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(doc_ids))],
-        )?)
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndex for InvertedIndex {
-    // return the row ids of the documents that contain the query
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    async fn search(
-        &self,
-        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
-        _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
-        let query = query.as_any().downcast_ref::<TokenQuery>().unwrap();
-
-        match query {
-            TokenQuery::TokensContains(text) => {
-                let records = self.do_search(text).await?;
-                let row_ids = records
-                    .column(0)
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                let row_ids = row_ids.iter().flatten().collect_vec();
-                Ok(SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(row_ids)))
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
-        true
-    }
-
-    async fn remap(
-        &self,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
-        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        self.to_builder()
-            .remap(mapping, self.store.clone(), dest_store)
-            .await?;
-
-        let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&self.params)?;
-
-        // Use version 0 for Arrow format (legacy), version 1 for Fst format (new)
-        let index_version = match self.token_set_format {
-            TokenSetFormat::Arrow => 0,
-            TokenSetFormat::Fst => INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION,
-        };
-
-        Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap(),
-            index_version,
-        })
-    }
-
-    async fn update(
-        &self,
-        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        self.to_builder().update(new_data, dest_store).await?;
-
-        let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&self.params)?;
-
-        // Use version 0 for Arrow format (legacy), version 1 for Fst format (new)
-        let index_version = match self.token_set_format {
-            TokenSetFormat::Arrow => 0,
-            TokenSetFormat::Fst => INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION,
-        };
-
-        Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap(),
-            index_version,
-        })
-    }
-
-    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
-        let criteria = TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_id();
-        if self.is_legacy() {
-            UpdateCriteria::requires_old_data(criteria)
-        } else {
-            UpdateCriteria::only_new_data(criteria)
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
-        let mut params = self.params.clone();
-        if params.base_tokenizer.is_empty() {
-            params.base_tokenizer = "simple".to_string();
-        }
-
-        let params_json = serde_json::to_string(&params)?;
-
-        Ok(ScalarIndexParams {
-            index_type: BuiltinIndexType::Inverted.as_str().to_string(),
-            params: Some(params_json),
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct InvertedPartition {
-    // 0 for legacy format
-    id: u64,
-    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-    pub(crate) tokens: TokenSet,
-    pub(crate) inverted_list: Arc<PostingListReader>,
-    pub(crate) docs: DocSet,
-    token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
-}
-
-impl InvertedPartition {
-    /// Check if this partition belongs to the specified fragment.
-    ///
-    /// This method encapsulates the bit manipulation logic for fragment filtering
-    /// in distributed indexing scenarios.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    /// * `fragment_mask` - A mask with fragment_id in high 32 bits
-    ///
-    /// # Returns
-    /// * `true` if the partition belongs to the fragment, `false` otherwise
-    pub fn belongs_to_fragment(&self, fragment_mask: u64) -> bool {
-        (self.id() & fragment_mask) == fragment_mask
-    }
-
-    pub fn id(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.id
-    }
-
-    pub fn store(&self) -> &dyn IndexStore {
-        self.store.as_ref()
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_legacy(&self) -> bool {
-        self.inverted_list.lengths.is_none()
-    }
-
-    pub async fn load(
-        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        id: u64,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-        index_cache: &LanceCache,
-        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let token_file = store.open_index_file(&token_file_path(id)).await?;
-        let tokens = TokenSet::load(token_file, token_set_format).await?;
-        let invert_list_file = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(id)).await?;
-        let inverted_list = PostingListReader::try_new(invert_list_file, index_cache).await?;
-        let docs_file = store.open_index_file(&doc_file_path(id)).await?;
-        let docs = DocSet::load(docs_file, false, frag_reuse_index).await?;
-
-        Ok(Self {
-            id,
-            store,
-            tokens,
-            inverted_list: Arc::new(inverted_list),
-            docs,
-            token_set_format,
-        })
-    }
-
-    fn map(&self, token: &str) -> Option<u32> {
-        self.tokens.get(token)
-    }
-
-    pub fn expand_fuzzy(&self, tokens: &Tokens, params: &FtsSearchParams) -> Result<Tokens> {
-        let mut new_tokens = Vec::with_capacity(min(tokens.len(), params.max_expansions));
-        for token in tokens {
-            let fuzziness = match params.fuzziness {
-                Some(fuzziness) => fuzziness,
-                None => MatchQuery::auto_fuzziness(token),
-            };
-            let lev =
-                fst::automaton::Levenshtein::new(token, fuzziness).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("failed to construct the fuzzy query: {}", e),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-
-            let base_len = tokens.token_type().prefix_len(token) as u32;
-            if let TokenMap::Fst(ref map) = self.tokens.tokens {
-                match base_len + params.prefix_length {
-                    0 => take_fst_keys(map.search(lev), &mut new_tokens, params.max_expansions),
-                    prefix_length => {
-                        let prefix = &token[..min(prefix_length as usize, token.len())];
-                        let prefix = fst::automaton::Str::new(prefix).starts_with();
-                        take_fst_keys(
-                            map.search(lev.intersection(prefix)),
-                            &mut new_tokens,
-                            params.max_expansions,
-                        )
-                    }
-                }
-            } else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: "tokens is not fst, which is not expected".to_owned(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(Tokens::new(new_tokens, tokens.token_type().clone()))
-    }
-
-    // search the documents that contain the query
-    // return the doc info and the doc length
-    // ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okapi_BM25
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    pub async fn load_posting_lists(
-        &self,
-        tokens: &Tokens,
-        params: &FtsSearchParams,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<PostingIterator>> {
-        let is_fuzzy = matches!(params.fuzziness, Some(n) if n != 0);
-        let is_phrase_query = params.phrase_slop.is_some();
-        let tokens = match is_fuzzy {
-            true => self.expand_fuzzy(tokens, params)?,
-            false => tokens.clone(),
-        };
-        let mut token_ids = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
-        for token in tokens {
-            let token_id = self.map(&token);
-            if let Some(token_id) = token_id {
-                token_ids.push((token_id, token));
-            } else if is_phrase_query {
-                // if the token is not found, we can't do phrase query
-                return Ok(Vec::new());
-            }
-        }
-        if token_ids.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(Vec::new());
-        }
-        if !is_phrase_query {
-            // remove duplicates
-            token_ids.sort_unstable_by_key(|(token_id, _)| *token_id);
-            token_ids.dedup_by_key(|(token_id, _)| *token_id);
-        }
-
-        let num_docs = self.docs.len();
-        stream::iter(token_ids)
-            .enumerate()
-            .map(|(position, (token_id, token))| async move {
-                let posting = self
-                    .inverted_list
-                    .posting_list(token_id, is_phrase_query, metrics)
-                    .await?;
-
-                Result::Ok(PostingIterator::new(
-                    token,
-                    token_id,
-                    position as u32,
-                    posting,
-                    num_docs,
-                ))
-            })
-            .buffered(self.store.io_parallelism())
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    pub fn bm25_search(
-        &self,
-        params: &FtsSearchParams,
-        operator: Operator,
-        mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
-        postings: Vec<PostingIterator>,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate>> {
-        if postings.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(Vec::new());
-        }
-
-        // let local_metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
-        let scorer = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::once(self));
-        let mut wand = Wand::new(operator, postings.into_iter(), &self.docs, scorer);
-        let hits = wand.search(params, mask, metrics)?;
-        // local_metrics.dump_into(metrics);
-        Ok(hits)
-    }
-
-    pub async fn into_builder(self) -> Result<InnerBuilder> {
-        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(
-            self.id,
-            self.inverted_list.has_positions(),
-            self.token_set_format,
-        );
-        builder.tokens = self.tokens;
-        builder.docs = self.docs;
-
-        builder
-            .posting_lists
-            .reserve_exact(self.inverted_list.len());
-        for posting_list in self
-            .inverted_list
-            .read_all(self.inverted_list.has_positions())
-            .await?
-        {
-            let posting_list = posting_list?;
-            builder
-                .posting_lists
-                .push(posting_list.into_builder(&builder.docs));
-        }
-        Ok(builder)
-    }
-}
-
-// at indexing, we use HashMap because we need it to be mutable,
-// at searching, we use fst::Map because it's more efficient
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub enum TokenMap {
-    HashMap(HashMap<String, u32>),
-    Fst(fst::Map<Vec<u8>>),
-}
-
-impl Default for TokenMap {
-    fn default() -> Self {
-        Self::HashMap(HashMap::new())
-    }
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for TokenMap {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, ctx: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        match self {
-            Self::HashMap(map) => map.deep_size_of_children(ctx),
-            Self::Fst(map) => map.as_fst().size(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl TokenMap {
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        match self {
-            Self::HashMap(map) => map.len(),
-            Self::Fst(map) => map.len(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.len() == 0
-    }
-}
-
-// TokenSet is a mapping from tokens to token ids
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct TokenSet {
-    // token -> token_id
-    pub(crate) tokens: TokenMap,
-    pub(crate) next_id: u32,
-    total_length: usize,
-}
-
-impl TokenSet {
-    pub fn into_mut(self) -> Self {
-        let tokens = match self.tokens {
-            TokenMap::HashMap(map) => map,
-            TokenMap::Fst(map) => {
-                let mut new_map = HashMap::with_capacity(map.len());
-                let mut stream = map.into_stream();
-                while let Some((token, token_id)) = stream.next() {
-                    new_map.insert(String::from_utf8_lossy(token).into_owned(), token_id as u32);
-                }
-
-                new_map
-            }
-        };
-
-        Self {
-            tokens: TokenMap::HashMap(tokens),
-            next_id: self.next_id,
-            total_length: self.total_length,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.tokens.len()
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.len() == 0
-    }
-
-    pub fn to_batch(self, format: TokenSetFormat) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        match format {
-            TokenSetFormat::Arrow => self.into_arrow_batch(),
-            TokenSetFormat::Fst => self.into_fst_batch(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn into_arrow_batch(self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let mut token_builder = StringBuilder::with_capacity(self.tokens.len(), self.total_length);
-        let mut token_id_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(self.tokens.len());
-
-        match self.tokens {
-            TokenMap::Fst(map) => {
-                let mut stream = map.stream();
-                while let Some((token, token_id)) = stream.next() {
-                    token_builder.append_value(String::from_utf8_lossy(token));
-                    token_id_builder.append_value(token_id as u32);
-                }
-            }
-            TokenMap::HashMap(map) => {
-                for (token, token_id) in map.into_iter().sorted_unstable() {
-                    token_builder.append_value(token);
-                    token_id_builder.append_value(token_id);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        let token_col = token_builder.finish();
-        let token_id_col = token_id_builder.finish();
-
-        let schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_COL, DataType::Utf8, false),
-            arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_ID_COL, DataType::UInt32, false),
-        ]);
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(schema),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(token_col) as ArrayRef,
-                Arc::new(token_id_col) as ArrayRef,
-            ],
-        )?;
-        Ok(batch)
-    }
-
-    fn into_fst_batch(mut self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let fst_map = match std::mem::take(&mut self.tokens) {
-            TokenMap::Fst(map) => map,
-            TokenMap::HashMap(map) => Self::build_fst_from_map(map)?,
-        };
-        let bytes = fst_map.into_fst().into_inner();
-
-        let mut fst_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(1, bytes.len());
-        fst_builder.append_value(bytes);
-        let fst_col = fst_builder.finish();
-
-        let mut next_id_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(1);
-        next_id_builder.append_value(self.next_id);
-        let next_id_col = next_id_builder.finish();
-
-        let mut total_length_builder = UInt64Builder::with_capacity(1);
-        total_length_builder.append_value(self.total_length as u64);
-        let total_length_col = total_length_builder.finish();
-
-        let schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_FST_BYTES_COL, DataType::LargeBinary, false),
-            arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_NEXT_ID_COL, DataType::UInt32, false),
-            arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_TOTAL_LENGTH_COL, DataType::UInt64, false),
-        ]);
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(schema),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(fst_col) as ArrayRef,
-                Arc::new(next_id_col) as ArrayRef,
-                Arc::new(total_length_col) as ArrayRef,
-            ],
-        )?;
-        Ok(batch)
-    }
-
-    fn build_fst_from_map(map: HashMap<String, u32>) -> Result<fst::Map<Vec<u8>>> {
-        let mut entries: Vec<_> = map.into_iter().collect();
-        entries.sort_unstable_by(|(lhs, _), (rhs, _)| lhs.cmp(rhs));
-        let mut builder = fst::MapBuilder::memory();
-        for (token, token_id) in entries {
-            builder
-                .insert(&token, token_id as u64)
-                .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("failed to insert token {}: {}", token, e),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-        }
-        Ok(builder.into_map())
-    }
-
-    pub async fn load(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>, format: TokenSetFormat) -> Result<Self> {
-        match format {
-            TokenSetFormat::Arrow => Self::load_arrow(reader).await,
-            TokenSetFormat::Fst => Self::load_fst(reader).await,
-        }
-    }
-
-    async fn load_arrow(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>) -> Result<Self> {
-        let batch = reader.read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), None).await?;
-
-        let (tokens, next_id, total_length) = spawn_blocking(move || {
-            let mut next_id = 0;
-            let mut total_length = 0;
-            let mut tokens = fst::MapBuilder::memory();
-
-            let token_col = batch[TOKEN_COL].as_string::<i32>();
-            let token_id_col = batch[TOKEN_ID_COL].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt32Type>();
-
-            for (token, &token_id) in token_col.iter().zip(token_id_col.values().iter()) {
-                let token = token.ok_or(Error::Index {
-                    message: "found null token in token set".to_owned(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-                next_id = next_id.max(token_id + 1);
-                total_length += token.len();
-                tokens
-                    .insert(token, token_id as u64)
-                    .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("failed to insert token {}: {}", token, e),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-            }
-
-            Ok::<_, Error>((tokens.into_map(), next_id, total_length))
-        })
-        .await
-        .map_err(|err| Error::Execution {
-            message: format!("failed to spawn blocking task: {}", err),
-            location: location!(),
-        })??;
-
-        Ok(Self {
-            tokens: TokenMap::Fst(tokens),
-            next_id,
-            total_length,
-        })
-    }
-
-    async fn load_fst(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>) -> Result<Self> {
-        let batch = reader.read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), None).await?;
-        if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "token set batch is empty".to_owned(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
-        let fst_col = batch[TOKEN_FST_BYTES_COL].as_binary::<i64>();
-        let bytes = fst_col.value(0);
-        let map = fst::Map::new(bytes.to_vec()).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("failed to load fst tokens: {}", e),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-
-        let next_id_col = batch[TOKEN_NEXT_ID_COL].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt32Type>();
-        let total_length_col =
-            batch[TOKEN_TOTAL_LENGTH_COL].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt64Type>();
-
-        let next_id = next_id_col.values().first().copied().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "token next id column is empty".to_owned(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-
-        let total_length = total_length_col
-            .values()
-            .first()
-            .copied()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "token total length column is empty".to_owned(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-
-        Ok(Self {
-            tokens: TokenMap::Fst(map),
-            next_id,
-            total_length: usize::try_from(total_length).map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("token total length {} overflows usize", total_length),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?,
-        })
-    }
-
-    pub fn add(&mut self, token: String) -> u32 {
-        let next_id = self.next_id();
-        let len = token.len();
-        let token_id = match self.tokens {
-            TokenMap::HashMap(ref mut map) => *map.entry(token).or_insert(next_id),
-            _ => unreachable!("tokens must be HashMap while indexing"),
-        };
-
-        // add token if it doesn't exist
-        if token_id == next_id {
-            self.next_id += 1;
-            self.total_length += len;
-        }
-
-        token_id
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) fn get_or_add(&mut self, token: &str) -> u32 {
-        let next_id = self.next_id;
-        match self.tokens {
-            TokenMap::HashMap(ref mut map) => {
-                if let Some(&token_id) = map.get(token) {
-                    return token_id;
-                }
-
-                map.insert(token.to_owned(), next_id);
-            }
-            _ => unreachable!("tokens must be HashMap while indexing"),
-        }
-
-        self.next_id += 1;
-        self.total_length += token.len();
-        next_id
-    }
-
-    pub fn get(&self, token: &str) -> Option<u32> {
-        match self.tokens {
-            TokenMap::HashMap(ref map) => map.get(token).copied(),
-            TokenMap::Fst(ref map) => map.get(token).map(|id| id as u32),
-        }
-    }
-
-    // the `removed_token_ids` must be sorted
-    pub fn remap(&mut self, removed_token_ids: &[u32]) {
-        if removed_token_ids.is_empty() {
-            return;
-        }
-
-        let mut map = match std::mem::take(&mut self.tokens) {
-            TokenMap::HashMap(map) => map,
-            TokenMap::Fst(map) => {
-                let mut new_map = HashMap::with_capacity(map.len());
-                let mut stream = map.into_stream();
-                while let Some((token, token_id)) = stream.next() {
-                    new_map.insert(String::from_utf8_lossy(token).into_owned(), token_id as u32);
-                }
-
-                new_map
-            }
-        };
-
-        map.retain(
-            |_, token_id| match removed_token_ids.binary_search(token_id) {
-                Ok(_) => false,
-                Err(index) => {
-                    *token_id -= index as u32;
-                    true
-                }
-            },
-        );
-
-        self.tokens = TokenMap::HashMap(map);
-    }
-
-    pub fn next_id(&self) -> u32 {
-        self.next_id
-    }
-}
-
-pub struct PostingListReader {
-    reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
-
-    // legacy format only
-    offsets: Option<Vec<usize>>,
-
-    // from metadata for legacy format
-    // from column for new format
-    max_scores: Option<Vec<f32>>,
-
-    // new format only
-    lengths: Option<Vec<u32>>,
-
-    has_position: bool,
-
-    index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Debug for PostingListReader {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        f.debug_struct("InvertedListReader")
-            .field("offsets", &self.offsets)
-            .field("max_scores", &self.max_scores)
-            .finish()
-    }
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for PostingListReader {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.offsets.deep_size_of_children(context)
-            + self.max_scores.deep_size_of_children(context)
-            + self.lengths.deep_size_of_children(context)
-    }
-}
-
-impl PostingListReader {
-    pub(crate) async fn try_new(
-        reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
-        index_cache: &LanceCache,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let has_position = reader.schema().field(POSITION_COL).is_some();
-        let (offsets, max_scores, lengths) = if reader.schema().field(POSTING_COL).is_none() {
-            let (offsets, max_scores) = Self::load_metadata(reader.schema())?;
-            (Some(offsets), max_scores, None)
-        } else {
-            let metadata = reader
-                .read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), Some(&[MAX_SCORE_COL, LENGTH_COL]))
-                .await?;
-            let max_scores = metadata[MAX_SCORE_COL]
-                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-                .values()
-                .to_vec();
-            let lengths = metadata[LENGTH_COL]
-                .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
-                .values()
-                .to_vec();
-            (None, Some(max_scores), Some(lengths))
-        };
-
-        Ok(Self {
-            reader,
-            offsets,
-            max_scores,
-            lengths,
-            has_position,
-            index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
-        })
-    }
-
-    // for legacy format
-    // returns the offsets and max scores
-    fn load_metadata(
-        schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
-    ) -> Result<(Vec<usize>, Option<Vec<f32>>)> {
-        let offsets = schema.metadata.get("offsets").ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "offsets not found in metadata".to_owned(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-        let offsets = serde_json::from_str(offsets)?;
-
-        let max_scores = schema
-            .metadata
-            .get("max_scores")
-            .map(|max_scores| serde_json::from_str(max_scores))
-            .transpose()?;
-        Ok((offsets, max_scores))
-    }
-
-    // the number of posting lists
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        match self.offsets {
-            Some(ref offsets) => offsets.len(),
-            None => self.reader.num_rows(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.len() == 0
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) fn has_positions(&self) -> bool {
-        self.has_position
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) fn posting_len(&self, token_id: u32) -> usize {
-        let token_id = token_id as usize;
-
-        match self.offsets {
-            Some(ref offsets) => {
-                let next_offset = offsets
-                    .get(token_id + 1)
-                    .copied()
-                    .unwrap_or(self.reader.num_rows());
-                next_offset - offsets[token_id]
-            }
-            None => {
-                if let Some(lengths) = &self.lengths {
-                    lengths[token_id] as usize
-                } else {
-                    panic!("posting list reader is not initialized")
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) async fn posting_batch(
-        &self,
-        token_id: u32,
-        with_position: bool,
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        if self.offsets.is_some() {
-            self.posting_batch_legacy(token_id, with_position).await
+mod cache;
+mod doc_set;
+mod flat_search;
+mod format;
+mod inverted_index;
+mod partition;
+mod posting_batch_builder;
+mod posting_builder;
+mod posting_list;
+mod posting_prewarm;
+mod posting_reader;
+mod prewarm;
+mod search;
+mod search_candidates;
+mod token_set;
+
+pub use cache::*;
+pub use doc_set::*;
+pub use flat_search::*;
+pub use format::*;
+pub use inverted_index::*;
+pub use partition::*;
+pub(super) use posting_batch_builder::*;
+pub use posting_builder::*;
+pub use posting_list::*;
+pub use posting_reader::*;
+use prewarm::*;
+pub(super) use search_candidates::*;
+pub use token_set::*;
+
+/// Walk `posting` as `(row_id, frequency)` over the rows that still exist,
+/// translating each posting's key into a row id.
+///
+/// Compressed postings key on a partition-local doc id, so they go through
+/// `docs`; legacy plain postings key on the row id directly.
+///
+/// A remapped partition keeps a deleted document's slot so the posting lists stay
+/// aligned with its DocIds, and `row_address` answers `TOMBSTONE_ROW` for it.
+/// Those postings are dropped here: a default prefilter mask is an empty block
+/// list, which selects them, and `doc_length_at` reports 0 for them, which would
+/// hand them the largest `doc_weight` there is. The single-column `wand` cursor
+/// guards the same way.
+pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) fn live_posting_rows<'a>(
+    posting: &'a PostingList,
+    docs: &'a AddressKeyedDocuments,
+    is_legacy: bool,
+) -> impl Iterator<Item = (u64, u32)> + 'a {
+    posting.iter().filter_map(move |(posting_doc_id, freq, _)| {
+        let row_id = if is_legacy {
+            posting_doc_id
         } else {
-            let token_id = token_id as usize;
-            let columns = if with_position {
-                vec![POSTING_COL, POSITION_COL]
-            } else {
-                vec![POSTING_COL]
-            };
-            let batch = self
-                .reader
-                .read_range(token_id..token_id + 1, Some(&columns))
-                .await?;
-            Ok(batch)
-        }
-    }
-
-    async fn posting_batch_legacy(
-        &self,
-        token_id: u32,
-        with_position: bool,
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let mut columns = vec![ROW_ID, FREQUENCY_COL];
-        if with_position {
-            columns.push(POSITION_COL);
-        }
-
-        let length = self.posting_len(token_id);
-        let token_id = token_id as usize;
-        let offset = self.offsets.as_ref().unwrap()[token_id];
-        let batch = self
-            .reader
-            .read_range(offset..offset + length, Some(&columns))
-            .await?;
-        Ok(batch)
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, metrics))]
-    pub(crate) async fn posting_list(
-        &self,
-        token_id: u32,
-        is_phrase_query: bool,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
-        let cache_key = PostingListKey { token_id };
-        let mut posting = self
-            .index_cache
-            .get_or_insert_with_key(cache_key, || async move {
-                metrics.record_part_load();
-                info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, index_type="inverted", part_id=token_id);
-                let batch = self.posting_batch(token_id, false).await?;
-                self.posting_list_from_batch(&batch, token_id)
-            })
-            .await?
-            .as_ref()
-            .clone();
-
-        if is_phrase_query {
-            // hit the cache and when the cache was populated, the positions column was not loaded
-            let positions = self.read_positions(token_id).await?;
-            posting.set_positions(positions);
-        }
-
-        Ok(posting)
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) fn posting_list_from_batch(
-        &self,
-        batch: &RecordBatch,
-        token_id: u32,
-    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
-        let posting_list = PostingList::from_batch(
-            batch,
-            self.max_scores
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(|max_scores| max_scores[token_id as usize]),
-            self.lengths
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(|lengths| lengths[token_id as usize]),
-        )?;
-        Ok(posting_list)
-    }
-
-    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
-        let batch = self.read_batch(false).await?;
-        for token_id in 0..self.len() {
-            let posting_range = self.posting_list_range(token_id as u32);
-            let batch = batch.slice(posting_range.start, posting_range.end - posting_range.start);
-            // Apply shrink_to_fit to create a deep copy with compacted buffers
-            // This ensures each cached entry has its own memory, not shared references
-            let batch = batch.shrink_to_fit()?;
-            let posting_list = self.posting_list_from_batch(&batch, token_id as u32)?;
-            let inserted = self
-                .index_cache
-                .insert_with_key(
-                    &PostingListKey {
-                        token_id: token_id as u32,
-                    },
-                    Arc::new(posting_list),
-                )
-                .await;
-
-            if !inserted {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "Failed to prewarm index: cache is no longer available".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-        }
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) async fn read_batch(&self, with_position: bool) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let columns = self.posting_columns(with_position);
-        let batch = self
-            .reader
-            .read_range(0..self.reader.num_rows(), Some(&columns))
-            .await?;
-        Ok(batch)
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) async fn read_all(
-        &self,
-        with_position: bool,
-    ) -> Result<impl Iterator<Item = Result<PostingList>> + '_> {
-        let batch = self.read_batch(with_position).await?;
-        Ok((0..self.len()).map(move |i| {
-            let token_id = i as u32;
-            let range = self.posting_list_range(token_id);
-            let batch = batch.slice(i, range.end - range.start);
-            self.posting_list_from_batch(&batch, token_id)
-        }))
-    }
-
-    async fn read_positions(&self, token_id: u32) -> Result<ListArray> {
-        let positions = self.index_cache.get_or_insert_with_key(PositionKey { token_id }, || async move {
-            let batch = self
-                .reader
-                .read_range(self.posting_list_range(token_id), Some(&[POSITION_COL]))
-                .await.map_err(|e| {
-                    match e {
-                        Error::Schema { .. } => Error::invalid_input(
-                            "position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position".to_owned(),
-                            location!(),
-                        ),
-                        e => e
-                    }
-                })?;
-            Result::Ok(Positions(batch[POSITION_COL]
-                .as_list::<i32>()
-                .clone()))
-        }).await?;
-        Ok(positions.0.clone())
-    }
-
-    fn posting_list_range(&self, token_id: u32) -> Range<usize> {
-        match self.offsets {
-            Some(ref offsets) => {
-                let offset = offsets[token_id as usize];
-                let posting_len = self.posting_len(token_id);
-                offset..offset + posting_len
-            }
-            None => {
-                let token_id = token_id as usize;
-                token_id..token_id + 1
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn posting_columns(&self, with_position: bool) -> Vec<&'static str> {
-        let mut base_columns = match self.offsets {
-            Some(_) => vec![ROW_ID, FREQUENCY_COL],
-            None => vec![POSTING_COL],
+            docs.row_address(posting_doc_id as u32)
         };
-        if with_position {
-            base_columns.push(POSITION_COL);
-        }
-        base_columns
-    }
-}
-
-/// New type just to allow Positions implement DeepSizeOf so it can be put
-/// in the cache.
-#[derive(Clone)]
-pub struct Positions(ListArray);
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for Positions {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.0.get_buffer_memory_size()
-    }
-}
-
-// Cache key implementations for type-safe cache access
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct PostingListKey {
-    pub token_id: u32,
-}
-
-impl CacheKey for PostingListKey {
-    type ValueType = PostingList;
-
-    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
-        format!("postings-{}", self.token_id).into()
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct PositionKey {
-    pub token_id: u32,
-}
-
-impl CacheKey for PositionKey {
-    type ValueType = Positions;
-
-    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
-        format!("positions-{}", self.token_id).into()
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub enum PostingList {
-    Plain(PlainPostingList),
-    Compressed(CompressedPostingList),
-}
-
-impl PostingList {
-    pub fn from_batch(
-        batch: &RecordBatch,
-        max_score: Option<f32>,
-        length: Option<u32>,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        match batch.column_by_name(POSTING_COL) {
-            Some(_) => {
-                debug_assert!(max_score.is_some() && length.is_some());
-                let posting =
-                    CompressedPostingList::from_batch(batch, max_score.unwrap(), length.unwrap());
-                Ok(Self::Compressed(posting))
-            }
-            None => {
-                let posting = PlainPostingList::from_batch(batch, max_score);
-                Ok(Self::Plain(posting))
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn iter(&self) -> PostingListIterator<'_> {
-        PostingListIterator::new(self)
-    }
-
-    pub fn has_position(&self) -> bool {
-        match self {
-            Self::Plain(posting) => posting.positions.is_some(),
-            Self::Compressed(posting) => posting.positions.is_some(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn set_positions(&mut self, positions: ListArray) {
-        match self {
-            Self::Plain(posting) => posting.positions = Some(positions),
-            Self::Compressed(posting) => {
-                posting.positions = Some(positions.value(0).as_list::<i32>().clone());
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn max_score(&self) -> Option<f32> {
-        match self {
-            Self::Plain(posting) => posting.max_score,
-            Self::Compressed(posting) => Some(posting.max_score),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        match self {
-            Self::Plain(posting) => posting.len(),
-            Self::Compressed(posting) => posting.length as usize,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.len() == 0
-    }
-
-    pub fn into_builder(self, docs: &DocSet) -> PostingListBuilder {
-        let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new(self.has_position());
-        match self {
-            // legacy format
-            Self::Plain(posting) => {
-                // convert the posting list to the new format:
-                // 1. map row ids to doc ids
-                // 2. sort the posting list by doc ids
-                struct Item {
-                    doc_id: u32,
-                    positions: PositionRecorder,
-                }
-                let doc_ids = docs
-                    .row_ids
-                    .iter()
-                    .enumerate()
-                    .map(|(doc_id, row_id)| (*row_id, doc_id as u32))
-                    .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
-                let mut items = Vec::with_capacity(posting.len());
-                for (row_id, freq, positions) in posting.iter() {
-                    let freq = freq as u32;
-                    let positions = match positions {
-                        Some(positions) => {
-                            PositionRecorder::Position(positions.collect::<Vec<_>>().into())
-                        }
-                        None => PositionRecorder::Count(freq),
-                    };
-                    items.push(Item {
-                        doc_id: doc_ids[&row_id],
-                        positions,
-                    });
-                }
-                items.sort_unstable_by_key(|item| item.doc_id);
-                for item in items {
-                    builder.add(item.doc_id, item.positions);
-                }
-            }
-            Self::Compressed(posting) => {
-                posting.iter().for_each(|(doc_id, freq, positions)| {
-                    let positions = match positions {
-                        Some(positions) => {
-                            PositionRecorder::Position(positions.collect::<Vec<_>>().into())
-                        }
-                        None => PositionRecorder::Count(freq),
-                    };
-                    builder.add(doc_id, positions);
-                });
-            }
-        }
-        builder
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Clone)]
-pub struct PlainPostingList {
-    pub row_ids: ScalarBuffer<u64>,
-    pub frequencies: ScalarBuffer<f32>,
-    pub max_score: Option<f32>,
-    pub positions: Option<ListArray>, // List of Int32
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for PlainPostingList {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.row_ids.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
-            + self.frequencies.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>()
-            + self
-                .positions
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(|positions| positions.get_buffer_memory_size())
-                .unwrap_or(0)
-    }
-}
-
-impl PlainPostingList {
-    pub fn new(
-        row_ids: ScalarBuffer<u64>,
-        frequencies: ScalarBuffer<f32>,
-        max_score: Option<f32>,
-        positions: Option<ListArray>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            row_ids,
-            frequencies,
-            max_score,
-            positions,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, max_score: Option<f32>) -> Self {
-        let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values().clone();
-        let frequencies = batch[FREQUENCY_COL]
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .clone();
-        let positions = batch
-            .column_by_name(POSITION_COL)
-            .map(|col| col.as_list::<i32>().clone());
-
-        Self::new(row_ids, frequencies, max_score, positions)
-    }
-
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.row_ids.len()
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.len() == 0
-    }
-
-    pub fn iter(&self) -> PlainPostingListIterator<'_> {
-        Box::new(
-            self.row_ids
-                .iter()
-                .zip(self.frequencies.iter())
-                .enumerate()
-                .map(|(idx, (doc_id, freq))| {
-                    (
-                        *doc_id,
-                        *freq,
-                        self.positions.as_ref().map(|p| {
-                            let start = p.value_offsets()[idx] as usize;
-                            let end = p.value_offsets()[idx + 1] as usize;
-                            Box::new(
-                                p.values().as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values()[start..end]
-                                    .iter()
-                                    .map(|pos| *pos as u32),
-                            ) as _
-                        }),
-                    )
-                }),
-        )
-    }
-
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn doc(&self, i: usize) -> LocatedDocInfo {
-        LocatedDocInfo::new(self.row_ids[i], self.frequencies[i])
-    }
-
-    pub fn positions(&self, index: usize) -> Option<Arc<dyn Array>> {
-        self.positions
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|positions| positions.value(index))
-    }
-
-    pub fn max_score(&self) -> Option<f32> {
-        self.max_score
-    }
-
-    pub fn row_id(&self, i: usize) -> u64 {
-        self.row_ids[i]
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Clone)]
-pub struct CompressedPostingList {
-    pub max_score: f32,
-    pub length: u32,
-    // each binary is a block of compressed data
-    // that contains `BLOCK_SIZE` doc ids and then `BLOCK_SIZE` frequencies
-    pub blocks: LargeBinaryArray,
-    pub positions: Option<ListArray>,
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for CompressedPostingList {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.blocks.get_buffer_memory_size()
-            + self
-                .positions
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(|positions| positions.get_buffer_memory_size())
-                .unwrap_or(0)
-    }
-}
-
-impl CompressedPostingList {
-    pub fn new(
-        blocks: LargeBinaryArray,
-        max_score: f32,
-        length: u32,
-        positions: Option<ListArray>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            max_score,
-            length,
-            blocks,
-            positions,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, max_score: f32, length: u32) -> Self {
-        debug_assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
-        let blocks = batch[POSTING_COL]
-            .as_list::<i32>()
-            .value(0)
-            .as_binary::<i64>()
-            .clone();
-        let positions = batch
-            .column_by_name(POSITION_COL)
-            .map(|col| col.as_list::<i32>().value(0).as_list::<i32>().clone());
-
-        Self {
-            max_score,
-            length,
-            blocks,
-            positions,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn iter(&self) -> CompressedPostingListIterator {
-        CompressedPostingListIterator::new(
-            self.length as usize,
-            self.blocks.clone(),
-            self.positions.clone(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn block_max_score(&self, block_idx: usize) -> f32 {
-        let block = self.blocks.value(block_idx);
-        block[0..4].try_into().map(f32::from_le_bytes).unwrap()
-    }
-
-    pub fn block_least_doc_id(&self, block_idx: usize) -> u32 {
-        let block = self.blocks.value(block_idx);
-        block[4..8].try_into().map(u32::from_le_bytes).unwrap()
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct PostingListBuilder {
-    pub doc_ids: ExpLinkedList<u32>,
-    pub frequencies: ExpLinkedList<u32>,
-    pub positions: Option<PositionBuilder>,
-}
-
-impl PostingListBuilder {
-    pub fn size(&self) -> u64 {
-        (std::mem::size_of::<u32>() * self.doc_ids.len()
-            + std::mem::size_of::<u32>() * self.frequencies.len()
-            + self
-                .positions
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(|positions| positions.size())
-                .unwrap_or(0)) as u64
-    }
-
-    pub fn has_positions(&self) -> bool {
-        self.positions.is_some()
-    }
-
-    pub fn new(with_position: bool) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            doc_ids: ExpLinkedList::new().with_capacity_limit(128),
-            frequencies: ExpLinkedList::new().with_capacity_limit(128),
-            positions: with_position.then(PositionBuilder::new),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.doc_ids.len()
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.len() == 0
-    }
-
-    pub fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (&u32, &u32, Option<&[u32]>)> {
-        self.doc_ids
-            .iter()
-            .zip(self.frequencies.iter())
-            .enumerate()
-            .map(|(idx, (doc_id, freq))| {
-                let positions = self.positions.as_ref().map(|positions| positions.get(idx));
-                (doc_id, freq, positions)
-            })
-    }
-
-    pub fn add(&mut self, doc_id: u32, term_positions: PositionRecorder) {
-        self.doc_ids.push(doc_id);
-        self.frequencies.push(term_positions.len());
-        if let Some(positions) = self.positions.as_mut() {
-            positions.push(term_positions.into_vec());
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn build_batch(
-        self,
-        compressed: LargeBinaryArray,
-        max_score: f32,
-        schema: SchemaRef,
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let length = self.len();
-        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0, compressed.len() as i32]));
-        let mut columns = vec![
-            Arc::new(ListArray::try_new(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", datatypes::DataType::LargeBinary, true)),
-                offsets,
-                Arc::new(compressed),
-                None,
-            )?) as ArrayRef,
-            Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::once(max_score))) as ArrayRef,
-            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::once(
-                length as u32,
-            ))) as ArrayRef,
-        ];
-
-        if let Some(positions) = self.positions.as_ref() {
-            let mut position_builder = ListBuilder::new(ListBuilder::with_capacity(
-                LargeBinaryBuilder::new(),
-                length,
-            ));
-            for index in 0..length {
-                let positions_in_doc = positions.get(index);
-                let compressed = compress_positions(positions_in_doc)?;
-                let inner_builder = position_builder.values();
-                inner_builder.append_value(compressed.into_iter());
-            }
-            position_builder.append(true);
-            let position_col = position_builder.finish();
-            columns.push(Arc::new(position_col));
-        }
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?;
-        Ok(batch)
-    }
-
-    // assume the posting list is sorted by doc id
-    pub fn to_batch(self, block_max_scores: Vec<f32>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let max_score = block_max_scores.iter().copied().fold(f32::MIN, f32::max);
-        let schema = inverted_list_schema(self.has_positions());
-        let compressed = compress_posting_list(
-            self.doc_ids.len(),
-            self.doc_ids.iter(),
-            self.frequencies.iter(),
-            block_max_scores.into_iter(),
-        )?;
-        self.build_batch(compressed, max_score, schema)
-    }
-
-    pub fn to_batch_with_docs(self, docs: &DocSet, schema: SchemaRef) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let length = self.len();
-        let avgdl = docs.average_length();
-        let idf_scale = idf(length, docs.len()) * (K1 + 1.0);
-        let (compressed, max_score) = compress_posting_list_with_scores(
-            length,
-            self.doc_ids.iter(),
-            self.frequencies.iter(),
-            |doc_id, freq| {
-                let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * docs.num_tokens(doc_id) as f32 / avgdl);
-                let freq = freq as f32;
-                freq / (freq + doc_norm)
-            },
-            idf_scale,
-        )?;
-        self.build_batch(compressed, max_score, schema)
-    }
-
-    pub fn remap(&mut self, removed: &[u32]) {
-        let mut cursor = 0;
-        let mut new_doc_ids = ExpLinkedList::with_capacity(self.len());
-        let mut new_frequencies = ExpLinkedList::with_capacity(self.len());
-        let mut new_positions = self.positions.as_mut().map(|_| PositionBuilder::new());
-        for (&doc_id, &freq, positions) in self.iter() {
-            while cursor < removed.len() && removed[cursor] < doc_id {
-                cursor += 1;
-            }
-            if cursor < removed.len() && removed[cursor] == doc_id {
-                // this doc is removed
-                continue;
-            }
-            // there are cursor removed docs before this doc
-            // so we need to shift the doc id
-            new_doc_ids.push(doc_id - cursor as u32);
-            new_frequencies.push(freq);
-            if let Some(new_positions) = new_positions.as_mut() {
-                new_positions.push(positions.unwrap().to_vec());
-            }
-        }
-
-        self.doc_ids = new_doc_ids;
-        self.frequencies = new_frequencies;
-        self.positions = new_positions;
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct PositionBuilder {
-    positions: Vec<u32>,
-    offsets: Vec<i32>,
-}
-
-impl Default for PositionBuilder {
-    fn default() -> Self {
-        Self::new()
-    }
-}
-
-impl PositionBuilder {
-    pub fn new() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            positions: Vec::new(),
-            offsets: vec![0],
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn size(&self) -> usize {
-        std::mem::size_of::<u32>() * self.positions.len()
-            + std::mem::size_of::<i32>() * self.offsets.len()
-    }
-
-    pub fn total_len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.positions.len()
-    }
-
-    pub fn push(&mut self, positions: Vec<u32>) {
-        self.positions.extend(positions);
-        self.offsets.push(self.positions.len() as i32);
-    }
-
-    pub fn get(&self, i: usize) -> &[u32] {
-        let start = self.offsets[i] as usize;
-        let end = self.offsets[i + 1] as usize;
-        &self.positions[start..end]
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<Vec<Vec<u32>>> for PositionBuilder {
-    fn from(positions: Vec<Vec<u32>>) -> Self {
-        let mut builder = Self::new();
-        builder.offsets.reserve(positions.len());
-        for pos in positions {
-            builder.push(pos);
-        }
-        builder
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, Copy)]
-pub enum DocInfo {
-    Located(LocatedDocInfo),
-    Raw(RawDocInfo),
-}
-
-impl DocInfo {
-    pub fn doc_id(&self) -> u64 {
-        match self {
-            Self::Raw(info) => info.doc_id as u64,
-            Self::Located(info) => info.row_id,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn frequency(&self) -> u32 {
-        match self {
-            Self::Raw(info) => info.frequency,
-            Self::Located(info) => info.frequency as u32,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl Eq for DocInfo {}
-
-impl PartialEq for DocInfo {
-    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        self.doc_id() == other.doc_id()
-    }
-}
-
-impl PartialOrd for DocInfo {
-    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
-        Some(self.cmp(other))
-    }
-}
-
-impl Ord for DocInfo {
-    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
-        self.doc_id().cmp(&other.doc_id())
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, DeepSizeOf, Copy)]
-pub struct LocatedDocInfo {
-    pub row_id: u64,
-    pub frequency: f32,
-}
-
-impl LocatedDocInfo {
-    pub fn new(row_id: u64, frequency: f32) -> Self {
-        Self { row_id, frequency }
-    }
-}
-
-impl Eq for LocatedDocInfo {}
-
-impl PartialEq for LocatedDocInfo {
-    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        self.row_id == other.row_id
-    }
-}
-
-impl PartialOrd for LocatedDocInfo {
-    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
-        Some(self.cmp(other))
-    }
-}
-
-impl Ord for LocatedDocInfo {
-    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
-        self.row_id.cmp(&other.row_id)
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, DeepSizeOf, Copy)]
-pub struct RawDocInfo {
-    pub doc_id: u32,
-    pub frequency: u32,
-}
-
-impl RawDocInfo {
-    pub fn new(doc_id: u32, frequency: u32) -> Self {
-        Self { doc_id, frequency }
-    }
-}
-
-impl Eq for RawDocInfo {}
-
-impl PartialEq for RawDocInfo {
-    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        self.doc_id == other.doc_id
-    }
-}
-
-impl PartialOrd for RawDocInfo {
-    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
-        Some(self.cmp(other))
-    }
-}
-
-impl Ord for RawDocInfo {
-    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
-        self.doc_id.cmp(&other.doc_id)
-    }
-}
-
-// DocSet is a mapping from row ids to the number of tokens in the document
-// It's used to sort the documents by the bm25 score
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct DocSet {
-    row_ids: Vec<u64>,
-    num_tokens: Vec<u32>,
-    // (row_id, doc_id) pairs sorted by row_id
-    inv: Vec<(u64, u32)>,
-
-    total_tokens: u64,
-}
-
-impl DocSet {
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.row_ids.len()
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.len() == 0
-    }
-
-    pub fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (&u64, &u32)> {
-        self.row_ids.iter().zip(self.num_tokens.iter())
-    }
-
-    pub fn row_id(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u64 {
-        self.row_ids[doc_id as usize]
-    }
-
-    pub fn doc_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
-        if self.inv.is_empty() {
-            // in legacy format, the row id is doc id
-            match self.row_ids.binary_search(&row_id) {
-                Ok(_) => Some(row_id),
-                Err(_) => None,
-            }
-        } else {
-            match self.inv.binary_search_by_key(&row_id, |x| x.0) {
-                Ok(idx) => Some(self.inv[idx].1 as u64),
-                Err(_) => None,
-            }
-        }
-    }
-    pub fn total_tokens_num(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.total_tokens
-    }
-
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn average_length(&self) -> f32 {
-        self.total_tokens as f32 / self.len() as f32
-    }
-
-    pub fn calculate_block_max_scores<'a>(
-        &self,
-        doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
-        freqs: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
-    ) -> Vec<f32> {
-        let avgdl = self.average_length();
-        let length = doc_ids.size_hint().0;
-        let num_blocks = length.div_ceil(BLOCK_SIZE);
-        let mut block_max_scores = Vec::with_capacity(num_blocks);
-        let idf_scale = idf(length, self.len()) * (K1 + 1.0);
-        let mut max_score = f32::MIN;
-        for (i, (doc_id, freq)) in doc_ids.zip(freqs).enumerate() {
-            let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * self.num_tokens(*doc_id) as f32 / avgdl);
-            let freq = *freq as f32;
-            let score = freq / (freq + doc_norm);
-            if score > max_score {
-                max_score = score;
-            }
-            if (i + 1) % BLOCK_SIZE == 0 {
-                max_score *= idf_scale;
-                block_max_scores.push(max_score);
-                max_score = f32::MIN;
-            }
-        }
-        if !length.is_multiple_of(BLOCK_SIZE) {
-            max_score *= idf_scale;
-            block_max_scores.push(max_score);
-        }
-        block_max_scores
-    }
-
-    pub fn to_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let row_id_col = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(self.row_ids.iter().cloned());
-        let num_tokens_col = UInt32Array::from_iter_values(self.num_tokens.iter().cloned());
-
-        let schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
-            arrow_schema::Field::new(NUM_TOKEN_COL, DataType::UInt32, false),
-        ]);
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(schema),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(row_id_col) as ArrayRef,
-                Arc::new(num_tokens_col) as ArrayRef,
-            ],
-        )?;
-        Ok(batch)
-    }
-
-    pub async fn load(
-        reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
-        is_legacy: bool,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let batch = reader.read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), None).await?;
-        let row_id_col = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt64Type>();
-        let num_tokens_col = batch[NUM_TOKEN_COL].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt32Type>();
-
-        // for legacy format, the row id is doc id; sorting keeps binary search viable
-        if is_legacy {
-            let (row_ids, num_tokens): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = row_id_col
-                .values()
-                .iter()
-                .filter_map(|id| {
-                    if let Some(frag_reuse_index_ref) = frag_reuse_index.as_ref() {
-                        frag_reuse_index_ref.remap_row_id(*id)
-                    } else {
-                        Some(*id)
-                    }
-                })
-                .zip(num_tokens_col.values().iter())
-                .sorted_unstable_by_key(|x| x.0)
-                .unzip();
-
-            let total_tokens = num_tokens.iter().map(|&x| x as u64).sum();
-            return Ok(Self {
-                row_ids,
-                num_tokens,
-                inv: Vec::new(),
-                total_tokens,
-            });
-        }
-
-        // if frag reuse happened, we'll need to remap the row_ids. And after row_ids been
-        // remapped, we'll need resort to make sure binary_search works.
-        if let Some(frag_reuse_index_ref) = frag_reuse_index.as_ref() {
-            let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(row_id_col.len());
-            let mut num_tokens = Vec::with_capacity(num_tokens_col.len());
-            for (row_id, num_token) in row_id_col.values().iter().zip(num_tokens_col.values()) {
-                if let Some(new_row_id) = frag_reuse_index_ref.remap_row_id(*row_id) {
-                    row_ids.push(new_row_id);
-                    num_tokens.push(*num_token);
-                }
-            }
-
-            let mut inv: Vec<(u64, u32)> = row_ids
-                .iter()
-                .enumerate()
-                .map(|(doc_id, row_id)| (*row_id, doc_id as u32))
-                .collect();
-            inv.sort_unstable_by_key(|entry| entry.0);
-
-            let total_tokens = num_tokens.iter().map(|&x| x as u64).sum();
-            return Ok(Self {
-                row_ids,
-                num_tokens,
-                inv,
-                total_tokens,
-            });
-        }
-
-        let row_ids = row_id_col.values().to_vec();
-        let num_tokens = num_tokens_col.values().to_vec();
-        let mut inv: Vec<(u64, u32)> = row_ids
-            .iter()
-            .enumerate()
-            .map(|(doc_id, row_id)| (*row_id, doc_id as u32))
-            .collect();
-        if !row_ids.is_sorted() {
-            inv.sort_unstable_by_key(|entry| entry.0);
-        }
-        let total_tokens = num_tokens.iter().map(|&x| x as u64).sum();
-        Ok(Self {
-            row_ids,
-            num_tokens,
-            inv,
-            total_tokens,
-        })
-    }
-
-    // remap the row ids to the new row ids
-    // returns the removed doc ids
-    pub fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Vec<u32> {
-        let mut removed = Vec::new();
-        let len = self.len();
-        let row_ids = std::mem::replace(&mut self.row_ids, Vec::with_capacity(len));
-        let num_tokens = std::mem::replace(&mut self.num_tokens, Vec::with_capacity(len));
-        for (doc_id, (row_id, num_token)) in std::iter::zip(row_ids, num_tokens).enumerate() {
-            match mapping.get(&row_id) {
-                Some(Some(new_row_id)) => {
-                    self.row_ids.push(*new_row_id);
-                    self.num_tokens.push(num_token);
-                }
-                Some(None) => {
-                    removed.push(doc_id as u32);
-                }
-                None => {
-                    self.row_ids.push(row_id);
-                    self.num_tokens.push(num_token);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        removed
-    }
-
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
-        self.num_tokens[doc_id as usize]
-    }
-
-    // this can be used only if it's a legacy format,
-    // which store the sorted row ids so that we can use binary search
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn num_tokens_by_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> u32 {
-        self.row_ids
-            .binary_search(&row_id)
-            .map(|idx| self.num_tokens[idx])
-            .unwrap_or(0)
-    }
-
-    // append a document to the doc set
-    // returns the doc_id (the number of documents before appending)
-    pub fn append(&mut self, row_id: u64, num_tokens: u32) -> u32 {
-        self.row_ids.push(row_id);
-        self.num_tokens.push(num_tokens);
-        self.total_tokens += num_tokens as u64;
-        self.row_ids.len() as u32 - 1
-    }
-}
-
-pub fn flat_full_text_search(
-    batches: &[&RecordBatch],
-    doc_col: &str,
-    query: &str,
-    tokenizer: Option<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>>,
-) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
-    if batches.is_empty() {
-        return Ok(vec![]);
-    }
-
-    if is_phrase_query(query) {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            "phrase query is not supported for flat full text search, try using FTS index",
-            location!(),
-        ));
-    }
-
-    match batches[0][doc_col].data_type() {
-        DataType::Utf8 => do_flat_full_text_search::<i32>(batches, doc_col, query, tokenizer),
-        DataType::LargeUtf8 => do_flat_full_text_search::<i64>(batches, doc_col, query, tokenizer),
-        data_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!("unsupported data type {} for inverted index", data_type),
-            location!(),
-        )),
-    }
-}
-
-fn do_flat_full_text_search<Offset: OffsetSizeTrait>(
-    batches: &[&RecordBatch],
-    doc_col: &str,
-    query: &str,
-    tokenizer: Option<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>>,
-) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
-    let mut results = Vec::new();
-    let mut tokenizer =
-        tokenizer.unwrap_or_else(|| InvertedIndexParams::default().build().unwrap());
-    let query_tokens = collect_query_tokens(query, &mut tokenizer, None);
-
-    for batch in batches {
-        let row_id_array = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-        let doc_array = batch[doc_col].as_string::<Offset>();
-        for i in 0..row_id_array.len() {
-            let doc = doc_array.value(i);
-            let doc_tokens = collect_doc_tokens(doc, &mut tokenizer, Some(&query_tokens));
-            if !doc_tokens.is_empty() {
-                results.push(row_id_array.value(i));
-                assert!(doc.contains(query));
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    Ok(results)
-}
-
-#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-pub fn flat_bm25_search(
-    batch: RecordBatch,
-    doc_col: &str,
-    query_tokens: &Tokens,
-    tokenizer: &mut Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
-    scorer: &mut MemBM25Scorer,
-    schema: SchemaRef,
-) -> std::result::Result<RecordBatch, DataFusionError> {
-    let doc_iter = iter_str_array(&batch[doc_col]);
-    let mut scores = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
-    for doc in doc_iter {
-        let Some(doc) = doc else {
-            scores.push(0.0);
-            continue;
-        };
-
-        let doc_tokens = collect_doc_tokens(doc, tokenizer, None);
-        scorer.update(&doc_tokens);
-        let doc_tokens = doc_tokens
-            .into_iter()
-            .filter(|t| query_tokens.contains(t))
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * doc_tokens.len() as f32 / scorer.avg_doc_length());
-        let mut doc_token_count = HashMap::new();
-        for token in doc_tokens {
-            doc_token_count
-                .entry(token)
-                .and_modify(|count| *count += 1)
-                .or_insert(1);
-        }
-        let mut score = 0.0;
-        for token in query_tokens {
-            let freq = doc_token_count.get(token).copied().unwrap_or_default() as f32;
-
-            let idf = idf(scorer.num_docs_containing_token(token), scorer.num_docs());
-            score += idf * (freq * (K1 + 1.0) / (freq + doc_norm));
-        }
-        scores.push(score);
-    }
-
-    let score_col = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(scores)) as ArrayRef;
-    let batch = batch
-        .try_with_column(SCORE_FIELD.clone(), score_col)?
-        .project_by_schema(&schema)?;
-    Ok(batch)
-}
-
-pub fn flat_bm25_search_stream(
-    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    doc_col: String,
-    query: String,
-    index: &Option<InvertedIndex>,
-    schema: SchemaRef,
-) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
-    let mut tokenizer = match index {
-        Some(index) => index.tokenizer(),
-        None => Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(
-            tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(
-                tantivy::tokenizer::SimpleTokenizer::default(),
-            )
-            .build(),
-        )),
-    };
-    let tokens = collect_query_tokens(&query, &mut tokenizer, None);
-
-    let mut bm25_scorer = match index {
-        Some(index) => {
-            let index_bm25_scorer =
-                IndexBM25Scorer::new(index.partitions.iter().map(|p| p.as_ref()));
-            if index_bm25_scorer.num_docs() == 0 {
-                MemBM25Scorer::new(0, 0, HashMap::new())
-            } else {
-                let mut token_docs = HashMap::with_capacity(tokens.len());
-                for token in &tokens {
-                    let token_nq = index_bm25_scorer.num_docs_containing_token(token).max(1);
-                    token_docs.insert(token.clone(), token_nq);
-                }
-                MemBM25Scorer::new(
-                    index_bm25_scorer.total_tokens(),
-                    index_bm25_scorer.num_docs(),
-                    token_docs,
-                )
-            }
-        }
-        None => MemBM25Scorer::new(0, 0, HashMap::new()),
-    };
-
-    let batch_schema = schema.clone();
-    let stream = input.map(move |batch| {
-        let batch = batch?;
-
-        let batch = flat_bm25_search(
-            batch,
-            &doc_col,
-            &tokens,
-            &mut tokenizer,
-            &mut bm25_scorer,
-            batch_schema.clone(),
-        )?;
-
-        // filter out rows with score 0
-        let score_col = batch[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
-        let mask = score_col
-            .iter()
-            .map(|score| score.is_some_and(|score| score > 0.0))
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let mask = BooleanArray::from(mask);
-        let batch = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &mask)?;
-        debug_assert!(batch[ROW_ID].null_count() == 0, "flat FTS produces nulls");
-        Ok(batch)
-    });
-
-    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)) as SendableRecordBatchStream
-}
-
-pub fn is_phrase_query(query: &str) -> bool {
-    query.starts_with('\"') && query.ends_with('\"')
+        (row_id != RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW).then_some((row_id, freq))
+    })
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use crate::scalar::inverted::lance_tokenizer::DocType;
-    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
-    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-
-    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-    use crate::prefilter::NoFilter;
-    use crate::scalar::inverted::builder::{inverted_list_schema, InnerBuilder, PositionRecorder};
-    use crate::scalar::inverted::encoding::decompress_posting_list;
-    use crate::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsSearchParams, Operator};
-    use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
-    use arrow::array::AsArray;
-    use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt32Type};
-
-    use super::*;
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_posting_builder_remap() {
-        let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
-        let n = BLOCK_SIZE + 3;
-        for i in 0..n {
-            builder.add(i as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        }
-        let removed = vec![5, 7];
-        builder.remap(&removed);
-
-        let mut expected = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
-        for i in 0..n - removed.len() {
-            expected.add(i as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        }
-        assert_eq!(builder.doc_ids, expected.doc_ids);
-        assert_eq!(builder.frequencies, expected.frequencies);
-
-        // BLOCK_SIZE + 3 elements should be reduced to BLOCK_SIZE + 1,
-        // there are still 2 blocks.
-        let batch = builder.to_batch(vec![1.0, 2.0]).unwrap();
-        let (doc_ids, freqs) = decompress_posting_list(
-            (n - removed.len()) as u32,
-            batch[POSTING_COL]
-                .as_list::<i32>()
-                .value(0)
-                .as_binary::<i64>(),
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-        assert!(doc_ids
-            .iter()
-            .zip(expected.doc_ids.iter())
-            .all(|(a, b)| a == b));
-        assert!(freqs
-            .iter()
-            .zip(expected.frequencies.iter())
-            .all(|(a, b)| a == b));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_posting_list_batch_matches_docset_scoring() {
-        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
-        let num_docs = BLOCK_SIZE + 3;
-        for doc_id in 0..num_docs as u32 {
-            docs.append(doc_id as u64, doc_id % 7 + 1);
-        }
-
-        let doc_ids = (0..num_docs as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let freqs = doc_ids
-            .iter()
-            .map(|doc_id| doc_id % 5 + 1)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        let mut builder_scores = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
-        let mut builder_docs = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
-        for (&doc_id, &freq) in doc_ids.iter().zip(freqs.iter()) {
-            builder_scores.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(freq));
-            builder_docs.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(freq));
-        }
-
-        let block_max_scores = docs.calculate_block_max_scores(doc_ids.iter(), freqs.iter());
-        let batch_scores = builder_scores.to_batch(block_max_scores).unwrap();
-        let batch_docs = builder_docs
-            .to_batch_with_docs(&docs, inverted_list_schema(false))
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let scores_posting = batch_scores[POSTING_COL].as_list::<i32>().value(0);
-        let scores_posting = scores_posting.as_binary::<i64>();
-        let docs_posting = batch_docs[POSTING_COL].as_list::<i32>().value(0);
-        let docs_posting = docs_posting.as_binary::<i64>();
-        assert_eq!(scores_posting, docs_posting);
-
-        let score_left = batch_scores[MAX_SCORE_COL]
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .value(0);
-        let score_right = batch_docs[MAX_SCORE_COL]
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .value(0);
-        assert!((score_left - score_right).abs() < 1e-6);
-
-        let len_left = batch_scores[LENGTH_COL]
-            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
-            .value(0);
-        let len_right = batch_docs[LENGTH_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0);
-        assert_eq!(len_left, len_right);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_remap_to_empty_posting_list() {
-        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            ObjectStore::local().into(),
-            tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-
-        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
-
-        // index of docs:
-        // 0: lance
-        // 1: lake lake
-        // 2: lake lake lake
-        builder.tokens.add("lance".to_owned());
-        builder.tokens.add("lake".to_owned());
-        builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-        builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-        builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(2));
-        builder.posting_lists[1].add(2, PositionRecorder::Count(3));
-        builder.docs.append(0, 1);
-        builder.docs.append(1, 1);
-        builder.docs.append(2, 1);
-        builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
-
-        let index = InvertedPartition::load(
-            store.clone(),
-            0,
-            None,
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            TokenSetFormat::default(),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-        let mut builder = index.into_builder().await.unwrap();
-
-        let mapping = HashMap::from([(0, None), (2, Some(3))]);
-        builder.remap(&mapping).await.unwrap();
-
-        // after remap, the doc 0 is removed, and the doc 2 is updated to 3
-        assert_eq!(builder.tokens.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(builder.tokens.get("lake"), Some(0));
-        assert_eq!(builder.posting_lists.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(builder.posting_lists[0].len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(builder.docs.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(builder.docs.row_id(0), 1);
-        assert_eq!(builder.docs.row_id(1), 3);
-
-        builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
-
-        // remap to delete all docs
-        let mapping = HashMap::from([(1, None), (3, None)]);
-        builder.remap(&mapping).await.unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(builder.tokens.len(), 0);
-        assert_eq!(builder.posting_lists.len(), 0);
-        assert_eq!(builder.docs.len(), 0);
-
-        builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_posting_cache_conflict_across_partitions() {
-        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            ObjectStore::local().into(),
-            tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-
-        // Create first partition with one token and posting list length 1
-        let mut builder1 = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
-        builder1.tokens.add("test".to_owned());
-        builder1.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-        builder1.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder1.docs.append(100, 1); // row_id=100, num_tokens=1
-        builder1.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Create second partition with one token and posting list length 4
-        let mut builder2 = InnerBuilder::new(1, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
-        builder2.tokens.add("test".to_owned()); // Use same token to test cache prefix fix
-        builder2.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-        builder2.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(2));
-        builder2.posting_lists[0].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder2.posting_lists[0].add(2, PositionRecorder::Count(3));
-        builder2.posting_lists[0].add(3, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder2.docs.append(200, 2); // row_id=200, num_tokens=2
-        builder2.docs.append(201, 1); // row_id=201, num_tokens=1
-        builder2.docs.append(202, 3); // row_id=202, num_tokens=3
-        builder2.docs.append(203, 1); // row_id=203, num_tokens=1
-        builder2.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Create metadata file with both partitions
-        let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
-            (
-                "partitions".to_owned(),
-                serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64, 1u64]).unwrap(),
-            ),
-            (
-                "params".to_owned(),
-                serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
-            ),
-            (
-                TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
-                TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
-            ),
-        ]);
-        let mut writer = store
-            .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Load the inverted index
-        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
-        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Verify the index structure
-        assert_eq!(index.partitions.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(index.partitions[0].tokens.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(index.partitions[1].tokens.len(), 1);
-
-        // Verify the partitions were loaded correctly
-
-        // Verify posting list lengths (note: partition order may differ from creation order)
-        // Verify based on actual loading order
-        if index.partitions[0].id() == 0 {
-            // If partition[0] is ID=0, then it should have 1 document
-            assert_eq!(index.partitions[0].inverted_list.posting_len(0), 1);
-            assert_eq!(index.partitions[1].inverted_list.posting_len(0), 4);
-            assert_eq!(index.partitions[0].docs.len(), 1);
-            assert_eq!(index.partitions[1].docs.len(), 4);
-        } else {
-            // If partition[0] is ID=1, then it should have 4 documents
-            assert_eq!(index.partitions[0].inverted_list.posting_len(0), 4);
-            assert_eq!(index.partitions[1].inverted_list.posting_len(0), 1);
-            assert_eq!(index.partitions[0].docs.len(), 4);
-            assert_eq!(index.partitions[1].docs.len(), 1);
-        }
-
-        // Prewarm the inverted index (this loads posting lists into cache)
-        index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
-
-        let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["test".to_string()], DocType::Text));
-        let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
-        let prefilter = Arc::new(NoFilter);
-        let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
-
-        let (row_ids, scores) = index
-            .bm25_search(tokens, params, Operator::Or, prefilter, metrics)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Verify that we got search results
-        // Expected to find 5 documents: 1 from first partition, 4 from second partition
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), 5, "row_ids: {:?}", row_ids);
-        assert!(!row_ids.is_empty(), "Should find at least some documents");
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), scores.len());
-
-        // All scores should be positive since all documents contain the search token
-        for &score in &scores {
-            assert!(score > 0.0, "All scores should be positive");
-        }
-
-        // Check that we got results from both partitions
-        assert!(
-            row_ids.contains(&100),
-            "Should contain row_id from partition 0"
-        );
-        assert!(
-            row_ids.iter().any(|&id| id >= 200),
-            "Should contain row_id from partition 1"
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_block_max_scores_capacity_matches_block_count() {
-        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
-        let num_docs = BLOCK_SIZE * 3 + 7;
-        let doc_ids = (0..num_docs as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        for doc_id in &doc_ids {
-            docs.append(*doc_id as u64, 1);
-        }
-
-        let freqs = vec![1_u32; doc_ids.len()];
-        let block_max_scores = docs.calculate_block_max_scores(doc_ids.iter(), freqs.iter());
-        let expected_blocks = doc_ids.len().div_ceil(BLOCK_SIZE);
-
-        assert_eq!(block_max_scores.len(), expected_blocks);
-        assert_eq!(block_max_scores.capacity(), expected_blocks);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_bm25_search_uses_global_idf() {
-        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            ObjectStore::local().into(),
-            tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-
-        // Partition 0: 3 docs, only one contains "alpha".
-        let mut builder0 = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
-        builder0.tokens.add("alpha".to_owned());
-        builder0.tokens.add("beta".to_owned());
-        builder0.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-        builder0.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-        builder0.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder0.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder0.posting_lists[1].add(2, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder0.docs.append(100, 1);
-        builder0.docs.append(101, 1);
-        builder0.docs.append(102, 1);
-        builder0.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Partition 1: 1 doc, contains "alpha".
-        let mut builder1 = InnerBuilder::new(1, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
-        builder1.tokens.add("alpha".to_owned());
-        builder1.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-        builder1.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder1.docs.append(200, 1);
-        builder1.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
-
-        let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
-            (
-                "partitions".to_owned(),
-                serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64, 1u64]).unwrap(),
-            ),
-            (
-                "params".to_owned(),
-                serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
-            ),
-            (
-                TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
-                TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
-            ),
-        ]);
-        let mut writer = store
-            .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
-
-        let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
-        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_string()], DocType::Text));
-        let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
-        let prefilter = Arc::new(NoFilter);
-        let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
-
-        let (row_ids, scores) = index
-            .bm25_search(tokens, params, Operator::Or, prefilter, metrics)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), 2);
-        assert!(row_ids.contains(&100));
-        assert!(row_ids.contains(&200));
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), scores.len());
-
-        let expected_idf = idf(2, 4);
-        for score in scores {
-            assert!(
-                (score - expected_idf).abs() < 1e-6,
-                "score: {}, expected: {}",
-                score,
-                expected_idf
-            );
-        }
-    }
-}
+mod tests;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/cache.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/cache.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..40d4ef884fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/cache.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,646 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+/// New type just to allow Positions implement DeepSizeOf so it can be put
+/// in the cache.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct Positions(pub(in super::super) CompressedPositionStorage);
+
+/// Slice-aware cache-size charge for the Arrow array shapes stored in posting
+/// caches. [`Array::get_buffer_memory_size`] reports the full capacity of shared
+/// backing buffers; cached posting lists often reference only a small slice of a
+/// group read. Count the referenced span for the known posting-list types and
+/// fall back to Arrow's full-buffer size for anything else.
+pub(super) fn sliced_cache_bytes(array: &dyn Array) -> usize {
+    let validity_bytes = array
+        .nulls()
+        .map(|nulls| nulls.len().div_ceil(8))
+        .unwrap_or(0);
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::LargeBinary => {
+            let array = array.as_binary::<i64>();
+            let data_bytes = if array.is_empty() {
+                0
+            } else {
+                let offsets = array.value_offsets();
+                (offsets[array.len()] - offsets[0]) as usize
+            };
+            data_bytes + (array.len() + 1) * std::mem::size_of::<i64>() + validity_bytes
+        }
+        DataType::List(_) => {
+            let array = array.as_list::<i32>();
+            let (child_start, child_end) = if array.is_empty() {
+                (0, 0)
+            } else {
+                let offsets = array.value_offsets();
+                (offsets[0] as usize, offsets[array.len()] as usize)
+            };
+            let offset_bytes = (array.len() + 1) * std::mem::size_of::<i32>();
+            let child = array.values().slice(child_start, child_end - child_start);
+            offset_bytes + validity_bytes + sliced_cache_bytes(child.as_ref())
+        }
+        // Fixed-width primitives hold exactly `len * width` bytes regardless of
+        // buffer capacity, so this is already slice-aware. Any other type falls
+        // back to the full-buffer size.
+        other => match other.primitive_width() {
+            Some(width) => array.len() * width + validity_bytes,
+            None => array.get_buffer_memory_size(),
+        },
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for Positions {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.0.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+// Cache key implementations for type-safe cache access
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PostingListKey {
+    pub token_id: u32,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for PostingListKey {
+    type ValueType = PostingList;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("postings-{}", self.token_id).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "PostingList"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.inverted.posting-list-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.token_id);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<PostingList>())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Cache key for a group of consecutive posting lists stored as a single
+/// entry, covering rows `[start, end)` (issue #7040). The range, not a token
+/// id, is the key so a runtime group-size change simply misses old entries
+/// instead of serving a differently-shaped group.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PostingListGroupKey {
+    pub start: u32,
+    pub end: u32,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for PostingListGroupKey {
+    type ValueType = PostingListGroup;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("postings-{}-{}", self.start, self.end).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "PostingListGroup"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.inverted.posting-list-group-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.start);
+        builder.write_u32(self.end);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<PostingListGroup>())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Internal cache-key decorator that isolates impact-bearing posting values
+/// without changing the source-compatible public posting key structs.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct ImpactAwareCacheKey<K> {
+    inner: K,
+    has_impacts: bool,
+}
+
+impl<K: CacheKey> CacheKey for ImpactAwareCacheKey<K> {
+    type ValueType = K::ValueType;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        if self.has_impacts {
+            format!("{}-impacts", self.inner.key()).into()
+        } else {
+            self.inner.key()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        K::type_name()
+    }
+
+    fn stable_type_id() -> &'static str {
+        K::stable_type_id()
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.inverted.impact-aware-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        let inner_schema = K::schema();
+        builder.write_str(K::stable_type_id());
+        builder.write_str(inner_schema.id());
+        builder.write_u32(inner_schema.version());
+        builder.write_variant(if self.has_impacts { 1 } else { 0 });
+        self.inner.write_key(builder);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        K::codec()
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn posting_list_cache_key(
+    token_id: u32,
+    has_impacts: bool,
+) -> ImpactAwareCacheKey<PostingListKey> {
+    ImpactAwareCacheKey {
+        inner: PostingListKey { token_id },
+        has_impacts,
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn posting_list_group_cache_key(
+    start: u32,
+    end: u32,
+    has_impacts: bool,
+) -> ImpactAwareCacheKey<PostingListGroupKey> {
+    ImpactAwareCacheKey {
+        inner: PostingListGroupKey { start, end },
+        has_impacts,
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub(super) struct PostingMetadataValue {
+    pub(super) max_score: f32,
+    pub(super) length: u32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct PostingMetadataKey {
+    pub(super) token_id: u32,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for PostingMetadataKey {
+    type ValueType = PostingMetadataValue;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("posting-metadata-{}", self.token_id).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "PostingMetadata"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.inverted.posting-metadata-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.token_id);
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PositionKey {
+    pub token_id: u32,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for PositionKey {
+    type ValueType = Positions;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("positions-{}", self.token_id).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "Position"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.inverted.position-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.token_id);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<Positions>())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub enum CompressedPositionStorage {
+    LegacyPerDoc(ListArray),
+    SharedStream(SharedPositionStream),
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CompressedPositionStorage {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::LegacyPerDoc(positions) => sliced_cache_bytes(positions),
+            Self::SharedStream(stream) => stream.size(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]
+pub struct SharedPositionStream {
+    codec: PositionStreamCodec,
+    block_offsets: Arc<[u32]>,
+    // Stored with shared ownership so cache hits can clone position streams
+    // without copying either offsets or bytes.
+    bytes: bytes::Bytes,
+}
+
+impl SharedPositionStream {
+    pub fn new(codec: PositionStreamCodec, block_offsets: Vec<u32>, bytes: bytes::Bytes) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            codec,
+            block_offsets: Arc::from(block_offsets.into_boxed_slice()),
+            bytes,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn codec(&self) -> PositionStreamCodec {
+        self.codec
+    }
+
+    pub fn block_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.block_offsets.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn block_range(&self, index: usize) -> Range<usize> {
+        let start = self.block_offsets[index] as usize;
+        let end = self
+            .block_offsets
+            .get(index + 1)
+            .map(|offset| *offset as usize)
+            .unwrap_or(self.bytes.len());
+        start..end
+    }
+
+    pub fn block(&self, index: usize) -> &[u8] {
+        let range = self.block_range(index);
+        &self.bytes[range]
+    }
+
+    pub fn bytes(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        &self.bytes
+    }
+
+    pub fn block_offsets(&self) -> &[u32] {
+        self.block_offsets.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    pub fn size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.block_offsets.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>() + self.bytes.len()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A group of consecutive posting lists held in a single cache entry, in row
+/// order (issue #7040). Prewarmed modern groups without positions retain only
+/// the compact Arrow posting rows read from `invert.lance`; max-score/length
+/// metadata stays in the reader and is injected when a query creates a
+/// posting-list view. Cold-loaded groups may keep inline metadata to preserve
+/// one-read query loading. Legacy and position-bearing prewarm paths use the
+/// materialized fallback.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PostingListGroup {
+    pub(in super::super) storage: PostingListGroupStorage,
+}
+
+// A materialized group owns up to a group's worth of posting lists, next to
+// which the packed variant's extra inline bytes are small, while boxing the
+// packed variant would add a cold pointer chase to every posting view.
+#[allow(clippy::large_enum_variant)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(in super::super) enum PostingListGroupStorage {
+    Packed(PackedPostingListGroup),
+    Materialized(Vec<PostingList>),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(in super::super) struct PackedPostingListGroup {
+    pub(in super::super) batch: RecordBatch,
+    pub(in super::super) posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    pub(in super::super) block_size: usize,
+    // Every query builds one posting view per (partition, term), so what a
+    // view reads is resolved from `batch` once: views neither search the
+    // schema nor chase `ArrayRef`s into cold array objects. Only those buffers
+    // are kept, since each group holds them inline and prewarm caches one
+    // group per 128 dictionary rows of every partition.
+    posting_offsets: OffsetBuffer<i32>,
+    posting_blocks: LargeBinaryArray,
+    // Inline (max_score, length) values; absent when the reader supplies them.
+    metadata: Option<(ScalarBuffer<f32>, ScalarBuffer<u32>)>,
+    // The impact column position, read only when a slot first decodes its
+    // skip data, and those per-slot states.
+    impacts: Option<(usize, Arc<[OnceLock<ImpactSkipData>]>)>,
+    pub(super) first_docs_states: Arc<[OnceLock<Box<[u32]>>]>,
+    pub(super) first_docs_state_capacity_bytes: usize,
+    pub(super) impact_state_capacity_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+/// Position of the named column after checking that it is a non-null
+/// `List<LargeBinary>`, so slot lookups can downcast it infallibly.
+fn packed_list_column(batch: &RecordBatch, column_name: &str) -> Result<Option<usize>> {
+    let Some((position, _)) = batch.schema_ref().column_with_name(column_name) else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    let lists = batch.column(position).as_list_opt::<i32>().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "packed posting group column {column_name} must be List<LargeBinary>"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    if lists.values().as_binary_opt::<i64>().is_none() {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "packed posting group column {column_name} must contain LargeBinary values, got {}",
+            lists.values().data_type()
+        )));
+    }
+    if lists.null_count() != 0 {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "packed posting group column {column_name} must not contain nulls"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(Some(position))
+}
+
+/// Same values as `ListArray::value(slot)` for a list with `offsets` into
+/// `values`, sliced without boxing an `ArrayRef`.
+fn list_slot(
+    offsets: &OffsetBuffer<i32>,
+    values: &LargeBinaryArray,
+    slot: usize,
+) -> LargeBinaryArray {
+    let start = offsets[slot] as usize;
+    let end = offsets[slot + 1] as usize;
+    values.slice(start, end - start)
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for PostingListGroup {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        match &self.storage {
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Packed(group) => group
+                .batch
+                .columns()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|column| sliced_cache_bytes(column.as_ref()))
+                .sum::<usize>()
+                .saturating_add(group.first_docs_state_capacity_bytes)
+                .saturating_add(group.impact_state_capacity_bytes),
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Materialized(posting_lists) => {
+                posting_lists.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PostingListGroup {
+    pub(in super::super) fn new(posting_lists: Vec<PostingList>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            storage: PostingListGroupStorage::Materialized(posting_lists),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(in super::super) fn new_packed(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let block_size = parse_posting_block_size(batch.schema_ref().metadata())?;
+        Self::new_packed_with_block_size(batch, posting_tail_codec, block_size)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn new_packed_with_block_size(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        validate_block_size(block_size)?;
+        if let Some(encoded_block_size) = batch.schema_ref().metadata().get(POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY)
+        {
+            let encoded_block_size = encoded_block_size.parse::<usize>().map_err(|err| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "invalid {POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY} metadata value {encoded_block_size:?}: {err}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if encoded_block_size != block_size {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "packed posting group {POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY}={encoded_block_size} does not match block_size={block_size}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Projected reads may drop schema metadata. Restore the reader's
+        // validated block size before the batch enters the packed cache so IPC
+        // roundtrips remain self-describing. Older packed cache entries omit
+        // the key and enter through new_packed with the legacy 128-doc default.
+        let mut schema = batch.schema().as_ref().clone();
+        schema
+            .metadata
+            .insert(POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), block_size.to_string());
+        let batch = batch.with_schema(Arc::new(schema))?;
+        let posting_column = packed_list_column(&batch, POSTING_COL)?.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "packed posting group column {POSTING_COL} must be List<LargeBinary>"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let postings = batch.column(posting_column).as_list::<i32>();
+        let posting_offsets = postings.offsets().clone();
+        let posting_blocks = postings.values().as_binary::<i64>().clone();
+        let total_posting_blocks = (0..batch.num_rows())
+            .map(|slot| postings.value_length(slot) as usize)
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        let first_docs_states: Arc<[OnceLock<Box<[u32]>>]> = (0..batch.num_rows())
+            .map(|_| OnceLock::new())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .into();
+        // Reserve the compact per-slot state slab and the block-head arrays it
+        // can lazily retain, so warming these derived values cannot grow the
+        // cache beyond its admission charge.
+        let first_docs_state_capacity_bytes = first_docs_states
+            .len()
+            .saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<OnceLock<Box<[u32]>>>())
+            .saturating_add(total_posting_blocks.saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<u32>()));
+        let (impacts, impact_state_capacity_bytes) = if let Some(impact_column) =
+            packed_list_column(&batch, IMPACT_COL)?
+        {
+            let impacts = batch.column(impact_column).as_list::<i32>();
+            let mut derived_cache_bytes = 0usize;
+            for slot in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let posting_blocks = postings.value_length(slot) as usize;
+                let impact_entries = impacts.value_length(slot) as usize;
+                let expected_impact_entries =
+                    posting_blocks.saturating_add(posting_blocks.div_ceil(IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS));
+                if impact_entries != expected_impact_entries {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "packed posting group impact slot {slot} has {impact_entries} entries, expected {expected_impact_entries} for {posting_blocks} posting blocks"
+                    )));
+                }
+                derived_cache_bytes = derived_cache_bytes.saturating_add(
+                    ImpactSkipData::derived_cache_bytes_for_entries(impact_entries),
+                );
+            }
+
+            let states: Arc<[OnceLock<ImpactSkipData>]> = (0..batch.num_rows())
+                .map(|_| OnceLock::new())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .into();
+            // Account up front for every allocation that the lazy states can
+            // eventually retain. The impact entry bytes themselves remain in
+            // `batch` and are already charged exactly once above.
+            let capacity_bytes = states
+                .len()
+                .saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<OnceLock<ImpactSkipData>>())
+                .saturating_add(derived_cache_bytes);
+            (Some((impact_column, states)), capacity_bytes)
+        } else {
+            (None, 0)
+        };
+        let metadata = match (
+            batch.column_by_name(MAX_SCORE_COL),
+            batch.column_by_name(LENGTH_COL),
+        ) {
+            (None, None) => None,
+            (Some(max_scores), Some(lengths)) => {
+                let max_scores = max_scores
+                    .as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index(format!(
+                            "packed posting group column {MAX_SCORE_COL} must be Float32"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                let lengths = lengths.as_primitive_opt::<UInt32Type>().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "packed posting group column {LENGTH_COL} must be UInt32"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                if max_scores.null_count() != 0 || lengths.null_count() != 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "packed posting group metadata columns must not contain nulls".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Some((max_scores.values().clone(), lengths.values().clone()))
+            }
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "packed posting group must contain both {MAX_SCORE_COL} and {LENGTH_COL}, or neither"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            storage: PostingListGroupStorage::Packed(PackedPostingListGroup {
+                batch,
+                posting_tail_codec,
+                block_size,
+                posting_offsets,
+                posting_blocks,
+                metadata,
+                impacts,
+                first_docs_states,
+                first_docs_state_capacity_bytes,
+                impact_state_capacity_bytes,
+            }),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(in super::super) fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.storage {
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Packed(group) => group.batch.num_rows(),
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Materialized(posting_lists) => posting_lists.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(in super::super) fn is_packed(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(&self.storage, PostingListGroupStorage::Packed(_))
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn needs_external_metadata(&self) -> bool {
+        match &self.storage {
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Packed(group) => group.metadata.is_none(),
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Materialized(_) => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build an owned posting-list view for `slot`. Packed groups clone only
+    /// Arrow array metadata; the compressed posting bytes remain shared with
+    /// the group's `List<LargeBinary>` child buffers.
+    pub(in super::super) fn posting_list(
+        &self,
+        slot: usize,
+        max_score: Option<f32>,
+        length: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<PostingList>> {
+        match &self.storage {
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Materialized(posting_lists) => {
+                Ok(posting_lists.get(slot).cloned())
+            }
+            PostingListGroupStorage::Packed(group) => {
+                if slot >= group.batch.num_rows() {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                let blocks = list_slot(&group.posting_offsets, &group.posting_blocks, slot);
+                let (max_score, length) = match &group.metadata {
+                    Some((max_scores, lengths)) => (max_scores[slot], lengths[slot]),
+                    None => (
+                        max_score.ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::index(
+                                "packed posting group requires max-score metadata".to_string(),
+                            )
+                        })?,
+                        length.ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::index(
+                                "packed posting group requires length metadata".to_string(),
+                            )
+                        })?,
+                    ),
+                };
+                let impacts = group.impacts.as_ref().map(|(impact_column, states)| {
+                    states[slot]
+                        .get_or_init(|| {
+                            let impacts = group.batch.column(*impact_column).as_list::<i32>();
+                            let entries =
+                                list_slot(impacts.offsets(), impacts.values().as_binary(), slot);
+                            ImpactSkipData::new(entries, blocks.len())
+                                .expect("packed impact entry count was validated at construction")
+                        })
+                        .clone()
+                });
+                Ok(Some(PostingList::Compressed(
+                    CompressedPostingList::new_packed_slot(
+                        blocks,
+                        max_score,
+                        length,
+                        group.posting_tail_codec,
+                        group.block_size,
+                        impacts,
+                        group.first_docs_states.clone(),
+                        slot,
+                    ),
+                )))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/doc_set.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/doc_set.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a278c3c7276
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/doc_set.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,902 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, Copy)]
+pub enum DocInfo {
+    Located(LocatedDocInfo),
+    Raw(RawDocInfo),
+}
+
+impl DocInfo {
+    pub fn doc_id(&self) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Raw(info) => info.doc_id as u64,
+            Self::Located(info) => info.row_id,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn frequency(&self) -> u32 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Raw(info) => info.frequency,
+            Self::Located(info) => info.frequency as u32,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for DocInfo {}
+
+impl PartialEq for DocInfo {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.doc_id() == other.doc_id()
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialOrd for DocInfo {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for DocInfo {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.doc_id().cmp(&other.doc_id())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, DeepSizeOf, Copy)]
+pub struct LocatedDocInfo {
+    pub row_id: u64,
+    pub frequency: f32,
+}
+
+impl LocatedDocInfo {
+    pub fn new(row_id: u64, frequency: f32) -> Self {
+        Self { row_id, frequency }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for LocatedDocInfo {}
+
+impl PartialEq for LocatedDocInfo {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.row_id == other.row_id
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialOrd for LocatedDocInfo {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for LocatedDocInfo {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.row_id.cmp(&other.row_id)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, DeepSizeOf, Copy)]
+pub struct RawDocInfo {
+    pub doc_id: u32,
+    pub frequency: u32,
+}
+
+impl RawDocInfo {
+    pub fn new(doc_id: u32, frequency: u32) -> Self {
+        Self { doc_id, frequency }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for RawDocInfo {}
+
+impl PartialEq for RawDocInfo {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.doc_id == other.doc_id
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialOrd for RawDocInfo {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for RawDocInfo {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.doc_id.cmp(&other.doc_id)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Lucene SmallFloat-style document-length quantization for 256-document-block scoring and impact
+/// norms: a 4-mantissa-bit float-like byte code. Values 0-7 are exact; larger
+/// values keep their top four significand bits (relative error <= 6.25%) and
+/// decode to their bucket floor. The floor only ever shortens a doc, so impact
+/// bounds remain conservative for exact scoring as well as quantized scoring.
+pub(in super::super) fn quantize_doc_length(value: u32) -> u8 {
+    let num_bits = 32 - value.leading_zeros();
+    if num_bits < 4 {
+        value as u8
+    } else {
+        let shift = num_bits - 4;
+        (((value >> shift) as u8) & 0x07) | (((shift + 1) as u8) << 3)
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+pub(in super::super) fn dequantize_doc_length(code: u8) -> u32 {
+    DEQUANTIZED_DOC_LENGTHS[code as usize]
+}
+
+pub(in super::super) static DEQUANTIZED_DOC_LENGTHS: [u32; 256] = build_dequantized_doc_lengths();
+
+pub(super) const fn build_dequantized_doc_lengths() -> [u32; 256] {
+    let mut table = [0u32; 256];
+    let mut code = 0usize;
+    while code < 256 {
+        let bits = (code & 0x07) as u64;
+        let shift = (code >> 3) as i64 - 1;
+        let decoded = if shift < 0 {
+            bits
+        } else {
+            (bits | 0x08) << shift
+        };
+        // Codes past the largest u32 encoding are never produced; saturate so
+        // the table stays total.
+        table[code] = if decoded > u32::MAX as u64 {
+            u32::MAX
+        } else {
+            decoded as u32
+        };
+        code += 1;
+    }
+    table
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) enum NumTokens {
+    Owned(Vec<u32>),
+    Shared(ScalarBuffer<u32>),
+}
+
+impl Default for NumTokens {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::Owned(Vec::new())
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::ops::Deref for NumTokens {
+    type Target = [u32];
+
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        match self {
+            Self::Owned(values) => values,
+            Self::Shared(values) => values,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for NumTokens {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Owned(values) => values.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            Self::Shared(values) => values.deep_size_of_children(context),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl NumTokens {
+    fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self::Owned(Vec::with_capacity(capacity))
+    }
+
+    fn into_owned(self) -> Vec<u32> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Owned(values) => values,
+            Self::Shared(values) => values.to_vec(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn push(&mut self, value: u32) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Owned(values) => values.push(value),
+            Self::Shared(values) => {
+                let mut owned = values.to_vec();
+                owned.push(value);
+                *self = Self::Owned(owned);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn memory_size(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Owned(values) => values.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>(),
+            Self::Shared(values) => values.inner().capacity(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// DocSet is a mapping from row ids to the number of tokens in the document
+// It's used to sort the documents by the bm25 score
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct DocSet {
+    pub(super) row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    pub(super) num_tokens: NumTokens,
+    // One flat u32 column per list boundary. This avoids a Vec allocation per
+    // document while preserving the full logical document coordinate.
+    pub(super) doc_indices: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+    // (row_id, doc_id) pairs sorted by row_id
+    pub(super) inv: Vec<(u64, u32)>,
+
+    pub(super) total_tokens: u64,
+
+    // 256-document-block partitions score with quantized document lengths: the
+    // flag is set at partition load and the byte-norm slab bakes lazily on
+    // first scoring use (shared by clones of the loaded set). 128-block
+    // partitions never set the flag and keep exact scoring.
+    pub(super) scoring_quantized: bool,
+    pub(super) norms: Arc<std::sync::OnceLock<Box<[u8]>>>,
+    // Memoized answer to `row_ids_strictly_ascending`. Filled on first query use;
+    // build-time appends happen before any query touches it.
+    row_ids_ascending: Arc<std::sync::OnceLock<bool>>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for DocSet {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.row_ids.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.num_tokens.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.doc_indices.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.inv.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .norms
+                .get()
+                .map(|slab| std::mem::size_of_val(slab.as_ref()))
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Count the runs of equal values in a sequence sorted by row id, i.e. the
+/// number of distinct row ids it contains. Row addresses sort the same way, so
+/// the address-keyed document view shares it.
+pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) fn count_row_id_runs(row_ids: impl Iterator<Item = u64>) -> usize {
+    let mut distinct = 0;
+    let mut previous = None;
+    for row_id in row_ids {
+        if previous != Some(row_id) {
+            distinct += 1;
+            previous = Some(row_id);
+        }
+    }
+    distinct
+}
+
+impl DocSet {
+    pub(crate) fn with_coordinate_rank(coordinate_rank: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            doc_indices: (0..coordinate_rank).map(|_| Vec::new()).collect(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        // Use num_tokens instead of row_ids so the deferred-row_ids
+        // scoring path (which constructs a DocSet via
+        // [`Self::from_num_tokens_only`]) still reports the right doc
+        // count.
+        self.num_tokens.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    /// True iff the per-doc `row_id` array is populated. The
+    /// deferred-row_id scoring path constructs DocSets with the array
+    /// left empty so wand can skip the load; callers that need to do
+    /// row_id lookups in the inner loop must check this and fall back
+    /// to async resolution otherwise.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn has_row_ids(&self) -> bool {
+        !self.row_ids.is_empty()
+    }
+
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (&u64, &u32)> {
+        self.row_ids.iter().zip(self.num_tokens.iter())
+    }
+
+    pub fn row_id(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u64 {
+        self.row_ids[doc_id as usize]
+    }
+
+    pub fn doc_index(&self, doc_id: u32) -> Vec<u32> {
+        self.doc_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|coordinates| coordinates[doc_id as usize])
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    pub fn coordinate(&self, doc_id: u32, rank: usize) -> u32 {
+        self.doc_indices[rank][doc_id as usize]
+    }
+
+    pub fn coordinate_rank(&self) -> usize {
+        self.doc_indices.len()
+    }
+
+    /// True iff `row_id(doc_id)` is strictly increasing in `doc_id`, i.e. the
+    /// per-doc `row_ids` array is sorted with no duplicates. This is the exact
+    /// condition the combined_fields read-pruning fast path requires: doc-id
+    /// order equals row-id order (so a posting block's row-id span is an
+    /// interval, letting a row-id seek skip whole blocks) and every row owns a
+    /// single doc (no list-element or legacy list multiplicity, so a term
+    /// contributes at most one posting per partition per row).
+    ///
+    /// This checks ascension only, not liveness. A tombstoned slot holds
+    /// [`RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW`] (`u64::MAX`), which breaks ascension wherever
+    /// another slot follows it but not when it is the last one, so a set whose
+    /// final document is tombstoned still reports `true`. Only the build-side sets
+    /// (`PartitionDocuments::load_build_docset`) tombstone in place, and
+    /// `combined_fields_search` forces the full-read fallback for legacy
+    /// partitions regardless of this answer.
+    ///
+    /// Computed once per loaded set and memoized (shared across clones). An empty
+    /// set is vacuously ascending, matching the modern side's
+    /// `ResidentAddressProjection::dense_and_strictly_ascending`.
+    pub fn row_ids_strictly_ascending(&self) -> bool {
+        *self
+            .row_ids_ascending
+            .get_or_init(|| self.row_ids.windows(2).all(|w| w[0] < w[1]))
+    }
+
+    /// Number of distinct row ids this set covers, which row-granularity BM25F
+    /// statistics need.
+    ///
+    /// Equal to [`Self::len`] whenever each row owns a single document, and
+    /// strictly smaller on an `inv`-keyed set where a row owns a run of documents
+    /// (see [`Self::doc_ids`]).
+    ///
+    /// Linear in the number of documents, over an already-loaded set: both `inv`
+    /// and the legacy `row_ids` array are sorted by row id, so the documents of
+    /// one row form a contiguous run. Tombstoned (frag-reuse deleted) documents
+    /// are absent from `inv` and therefore uncounted, matching
+    /// [`Self::doc_length_by_row_id`], which reports 0 for them.
+    pub fn num_distinct_rows(&self) -> usize {
+        // Memoized and shared with the combined_fields fast-path check, so the
+        // one-document-per-row case answers without a scan after the first query.
+        if self.row_ids_strictly_ascending() {
+            return self.len();
+        }
+        if !self.inv.is_empty() {
+            return count_row_id_runs(self.inv.iter().map(|entry| entry.0));
+        }
+        count_row_id_runs(self.row_ids.iter().copied())
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve a `row_id` to every `doc_id` it owns.
+    ///
+    /// Row-document indexes map each row to a single document. Element-document
+    /// indexes (and older list indexes) can map one row to several documents,
+    /// so a single `row_id` may own multiple `doc_id`s sharing that key in `inv`.
+    /// The prefilter path (`flat_search`) walks an allow-list of row_ids and
+    /// must evaluate all of those documents for that row.
+    ///
+    /// Only the `inv` branch answers with several. A no-metadata legacy set
+    /// holds one document per row, so the branch below resolves it with a single
+    /// binary search.
+    pub fn doc_ids(&self, row_id: u64) -> impl Iterator<Item = u64> + '_ {
+        if self.inv.is_empty() {
+            // in legacy format, the row id is doc id (one document per row)
+            let found = self.row_ids.binary_search(&row_id).is_ok();
+            Either::Left(found.then_some(row_id).into_iter())
+        } else {
+            // `inv` is sorted by row_id, so the entries sharing this key form a
+            // contiguous run; yield the doc_id of each.
+            let lo = self.inv.partition_point(|entry| entry.0 < row_id);
+            let hi = self.inv.partition_point(|entry| entry.0 <= row_id);
+            Either::Right(self.inv[lo..hi].iter().map(|entry| entry.1 as u64))
+        }
+    }
+    pub fn total_tokens_num(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.total_tokens
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn average_length(&self) -> f32 {
+        self.total_tokens as f32 / self.len() as f32
+    }
+
+    pub fn calculate_block_max_scores<'a>(
+        &self,
+        doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
+        freqs: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
+    ) -> Vec<f32> {
+        self.calculate_block_max_scores_with_block_size(doc_ids, freqs, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)
+    }
+
+    pub fn calculate_block_max_scores_with_block_size<'a>(
+        &self,
+        doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
+        freqs: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u32>,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<f32> {
+        validate_block_size(block_size).expect("invalid posting list block size");
+        let avgdl = self.average_length();
+        let length = doc_ids.size_hint().0;
+        let num_blocks = length.div_ceil(block_size);
+        let mut block_max_scores = Vec::with_capacity(num_blocks);
+        let idf_scale = idf(length, self.len()) * (K1 + 1.0);
+        let mut max_score = f32::MIN;
+        for (i, (doc_id, freq)) in doc_ids.zip(freqs).enumerate() {
+            let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * self.num_tokens(*doc_id) as f32 / avgdl);
+            let freq = *freq as f32;
+            let score = freq / (freq + doc_norm);
+            if score > max_score {
+                max_score = score;
+            }
+            if (i + 1) % block_size == 0 {
+                max_score *= idf_scale;
+                block_max_scores.push(max_score);
+                max_score = f32::MIN;
+            }
+        }
+        if !length.is_multiple_of(block_size) {
+            max_score *= idf_scale;
+            block_max_scores.push(max_score);
+        }
+        block_max_scores
+    }
+
+    pub fn to_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let row_id_col = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(self.row_ids.iter().cloned());
+        let num_tokens_col = UInt32Array::from_iter_values(self.num_tokens.iter().cloned());
+
+        let mut fields = vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(NUM_TOKEN_COL, DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ];
+        let mut columns = vec![
+            Arc::new(row_id_col) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(num_tokens_col) as ArrayRef,
+        ];
+        for (rank, coordinates) in self.doc_indices.iter().enumerate() {
+            fields.push(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                doc_index_storage_column(rank),
+                DataType::UInt32,
+                false,
+            ));
+            columns.push(
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(coordinates.iter().copied())) as ArrayRef,
+            );
+        }
+        let schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(fields);
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(schema), columns)?;
+        Ok(batch)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn load(
+        reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        is_legacy: bool,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let batch = reader.read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), None).await?;
+        let row_id_col = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt64Type>();
+        let num_tokens_col = batch[NUM_TOKEN_COL].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt32Type>();
+        let mut doc_indices = Vec::new();
+        for rank in 0.. {
+            let column_name = doc_index_storage_column(rank);
+            let Some(column) = batch.column_by_name(&column_name) else {
+                break;
+            };
+            doc_indices.push(column.as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt32Type>());
+        }
+        Self::from_columns_with_doc_indices(
+            row_id_col,
+            num_tokens_col,
+            &doc_indices,
+            is_legacy,
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    pub(crate) async fn load_with_remapping(
+        reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        is_legacy: bool,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let batch = reader.read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), None).await?;
+        let (batch, frag_reuse_index) = match remapping {
+            Some(remapping) => {
+                let row_id_idx = batch.schema().index_of(ROW_ID)?;
+                let (batch, remapper) =
+                    remap_row_ids_preserving_layout_async(remapping.as_ref(), batch, row_id_idx)
+                        .await?;
+                (batch, Some(remapper))
+            }
+            None => (batch, None),
+        };
+        let row_id_col = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt64Type>();
+        let num_tokens_col = batch[NUM_TOKEN_COL].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt32Type>();
+        let mut doc_indices = Vec::new();
+        for rank in 0.. {
+            let column_name = doc_index_storage_column(rank);
+            let Some(column) = batch.column_by_name(&column_name) else {
+                break;
+            };
+            doc_indices.push(column.as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt32Type>());
+        }
+        Self::from_columns_with_doc_indices(
+            row_id_col,
+            num_tokens_col,
+            &doc_indices,
+            is_legacy,
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Build a `DocSet` carrying only the per-doc `num_tokens` array;
+    /// `row_ids` and `inv` are left empty. Used by the deferred-row_id
+    /// scoring path: wand checks `has_row_ids()` to skip `row_id` /
+    /// `num_tokens_by_row_id` calls, and the per-partition caller
+    /// resolves doc_id → row_id for the surviving top-K post-wand.
+    pub fn from_num_tokens_only(num_tokens_col: &arrow_array::UInt32Array) -> Self {
+        let total_tokens = num_tokens_col.values().iter().map(|&n| n as u64).sum();
+        Self::from_cached_num_tokens(num_tokens_col, total_tokens)
+    }
+
+    /// Build a zero-copy num-tokens-only view from an Arrow column and its
+    /// already-computed total. The caller must guarantee that `total_tokens`
+    /// is the sum of `num_tokens_col`.
+    pub(crate) fn from_cached_num_tokens(
+        num_tokens_col: &arrow_array::UInt32Array,
+        total_tokens: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            row_ids: Vec::new(),
+            num_tokens: NumTokens::Shared(num_tokens_col.values().clone()),
+            doc_indices: Vec::new(),
+            inv: Vec::new(),
+            total_tokens,
+            scoring_quantized: false,
+            norms: Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new()),
+            row_ids_ascending: Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build a `DocSet` from already-loaded `row_id` and `num_tokens`
+    /// Arrow columns without re-reading either column.
+    pub fn from_columns(
+        row_id_col: &UInt64Array,
+        num_tokens_col: &arrow_array::UInt32Array,
+        is_legacy: bool,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::from_columns_with_doc_indices(
+            row_id_col,
+            num_tokens_col,
+            &[],
+            is_legacy,
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_columns_with_doc_indices(
+        row_id_col: &UInt64Array,
+        num_tokens_col: &arrow_array::UInt32Array,
+        doc_index_cols: &[&arrow_array::UInt32Array],
+        is_legacy: bool,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if doc_index_cols
+            .iter()
+            .any(|column| column.len() != row_id_col.len())
+        {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "FTS document coordinate columns must have the same length as row ids".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let doc_indices = doc_index_cols
+            .iter()
+            .map(|column| column.values().to_vec())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        // for legacy format, the row id is doc id; sorting keeps binary search viable
+        if is_legacy {
+            let (row_ids, num_tokens): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = row_id_col
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|id| {
+                    if let Some(frag_reuse_index_ref) = frag_reuse_index.as_ref() {
+                        frag_reuse_index_ref.remap_row_id(*id)
+                    } else {
+                        Some(*id)
+                    }
+                })
+                .zip(num_tokens_col.values().iter())
+                .sorted_unstable_by_key(|x| x.0)
+                .unzip();
+
+            let total_tokens = num_tokens.iter().map(|&x| x as u64).sum();
+            return Ok(Self {
+                row_ids,
+                num_tokens: NumTokens::Owned(num_tokens),
+                doc_indices,
+                inv: Vec::new(),
+                total_tokens,
+                scoring_quantized: false,
+                norms: Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new()),
+                row_ids_ascending: Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new()),
+            });
+        }
+
+        // If frag reuse happened, remap the row_ids through it. Crucially we
+        // must NOT drop the rows the reuse index deleted, because the posting
+        // lists reference doc_ids *positionally* (a doc_id is an index into
+        // these arrays, fixed at build time). Dropping deleted rows would
+        // renumber every later doc_id and desync the posting lists, so wand
+        // would index `num_tokens`/`row_ids` out of bounds or score the wrong
+        // doc. Instead we tombstone deleted rows in place: their slot survives
+        // (so doc_ids stay aligned with the posting lists) carrying
+        // `RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW`, which wand skips, and they are left out
+        // of `inv` so a row_id lookup never resolves to a deleted doc. The
+        // heavyweight physical remap (`DocSet::remap`) is what actually
+        // renumbers and compacts; this load-time path only has to stay
+        // consistent until then.
+        if let Some(frag_reuse_index_ref) = frag_reuse_index.as_ref() {
+            let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(row_id_col.len());
+            let num_tokens = num_tokens_col.values().to_vec();
+            let mut inv = Vec::with_capacity(row_id_col.len());
+            for (doc_id, row_id) in row_id_col.values().iter().enumerate() {
+                match frag_reuse_index_ref.remap_row_id(*row_id) {
+                    Some(new_row_id) => {
+                        row_ids.push(new_row_id);
+                        inv.push((new_row_id, doc_id as u32));
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        // Deleted: keep the slot (doc_ids must not shift) but
+                        // tombstone it and leave it out of `inv`.
+                        row_ids.push(RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            inv.sort_unstable_by_key(|entry| entry.0);
+
+            let total_tokens = num_tokens.iter().map(|&x| x as u64).sum();
+            return Ok(Self {
+                row_ids,
+                num_tokens: NumTokens::Owned(num_tokens),
+                doc_indices,
+                inv,
+                total_tokens,
+                scoring_quantized: false,
+                norms: Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new()),
+                row_ids_ascending: Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new()),
+            });
+        }
+
+        let row_ids = row_id_col.values().to_vec();
+        let num_tokens = num_tokens_col.values().to_vec();
+        let mut inv: Vec<(u64, u32)> = row_ids
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(doc_id, row_id)| (*row_id, doc_id as u32))
+            .collect();
+        if !row_ids.is_sorted() {
+            inv.sort_unstable_by_key(|entry| entry.0);
+        }
+        let total_tokens = num_tokens.iter().map(|&x| x as u64).sum();
+        Ok(Self {
+            row_ids,
+            num_tokens: NumTokens::Owned(num_tokens),
+            doc_indices,
+            inv,
+            total_tokens,
+            scoring_quantized: false,
+            norms: Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new()),
+            row_ids_ascending: Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new()),
+        })
+    }
+
+    // remap the row ids to the new row ids
+    // returns the removed doc ids
+    /// The row id of every document, in doc id order.
+    pub fn row_ids(&self) -> &[u64] {
+        &self.row_ids
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let mut removed = Vec::new();
+        let len = self.len();
+        let row_ids = std::mem::replace(&mut self.row_ids, Vec::with_capacity(len));
+        let num_tokens =
+            std::mem::replace(&mut self.num_tokens, NumTokens::with_capacity(len)).into_owned();
+        let doc_indices = std::mem::take(&mut self.doc_indices);
+        self.doc_indices = doc_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Vec::with_capacity(len))
+            .collect();
+        self.invalidate_norms();
+        self.invalidate_row_ids_ascending();
+        self.total_tokens = 0;
+        for (doc_id, (row_id, num_token)) in std::iter::zip(row_ids, num_tokens).enumerate() {
+            match mapping.get(row_id) {
+                Some(Some(new_row_id)) => {
+                    self.row_ids.push(new_row_id);
+                    self.num_tokens.push(num_token);
+                    for (new_coordinates, old_coordinates) in
+                        self.doc_indices.iter_mut().zip(&doc_indices)
+                    {
+                        new_coordinates.push(old_coordinates[doc_id]);
+                    }
+                    self.total_tokens += num_token as u64;
+                }
+                Some(None) => {
+                    removed.push(doc_id as u32);
+                }
+                None => {
+                    self.row_ids.push(row_id);
+                    self.num_tokens.push(num_token);
+                    for (new_coordinates, old_coordinates) in
+                        self.doc_indices.iter_mut().zip(&doc_indices)
+                    {
+                        new_coordinates.push(old_coordinates[doc_id]);
+                    }
+                    self.total_tokens += num_token as u64;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        removed
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+        self.num_tokens[doc_id as usize]
+    }
+
+    /// Enable quantized document-length scoring for 256-document-block partitions.
+    pub fn set_quantized_scoring(&mut self, quantized: bool) {
+        self.scoring_quantized = quantized;
+    }
+
+    /// The quantized document-length slab when this set scores quantized,
+    /// baked on first use; `None` for exact-scoring sets.
+    pub fn scoring_norms(&self) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+        if !self.scoring_quantized {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(
+            self.norms
+                .get_or_init(|| {
+                    self.num_tokens
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|&n| quantize_doc_length(n))
+                        .collect()
+                })
+                .as_ref(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Document length as scoring sees it: the quantized bucket floor for
+    /// 256-document-block partitions, the exact value otherwise.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn scoring_num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+        match self.scoring_norms() {
+            Some(norms) => dequantize_doc_length(norms[doc_id as usize]),
+            None => self.num_tokens[doc_id as usize],
+        }
+    }
+
+    // this can be used only if it's a legacy format,
+    // which store the sorted row ids so that we can use binary search
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn num_tokens_by_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> u32 {
+        self.row_ids
+            .binary_search(&row_id)
+            .map(|idx| self.num_tokens[idx])
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    /// Total document length of `row_id`: the sum of `num_tokens` over every
+    /// document the row owns, or `0` when the row is absent (e.g. an empty or
+    /// null field that was never indexed).
+    ///
+    /// Lets cross-field BM25F read a candidate's per-column length with a
+    /// targeted lookup instead of scanning the whole `DocSet`. The result is
+    /// exact against a full `iter()` scan filtered to the row: every document
+    /// the row owns contributes, whether the row is resolved through the sorted
+    /// `inv` index or, on a legacy set, through the run of equal `row_ids`.
+    ///
+    /// A row owns several documents only on the `inv` path (see [`Self::doc_ids`]).
+    /// A no-metadata legacy set cannot reach that state, because the writer of that
+    /// era keyed its documents by row id in a map, so the elements of one row
+    /// collapsed before they were written. The legacy branch below sums a run
+    /// anyway, so the two paths answer alike whatever they are handed.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn doc_length_by_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> u64 {
+        if self.inv.is_empty() {
+            // Legacy: row id == doc id, `row_ids` is sorted; duplicate row ids
+            // (one per indexed list element) form a contiguous run.
+            let lo = self.row_ids.partition_point(|&id| id < row_id);
+            let hi = self.row_ids.partition_point(|&id| id <= row_id);
+            (lo..hi).map(|doc_id| self.num_tokens[doc_id] as u64).sum()
+        } else {
+            // Compressed: `inv` is sorted by row id and holds one entry per
+            // document owned by the row.
+            let lo = self.inv.partition_point(|entry| entry.0 < row_id);
+            let hi = self.inv.partition_point(|entry| entry.0 <= row_id);
+            self.inv[lo..hi]
+                .iter()
+                .map(|entry| self.num_tokens[entry.1 as usize] as u64)
+                .sum()
+        }
+    }
+
+    // append a document to the doc set
+    // returns the doc_id (the number of documents before appending)
+    pub fn append(&mut self, row_id: u64, num_tokens: u32) -> u32 {
+        self.row_ids.push(row_id);
+        self.num_tokens.push(num_tokens);
+        self.total_tokens += num_tokens as u64;
+        self.invalidate_norms();
+        self.invalidate_row_ids_ascending();
+        self.row_ids.len() as u32 - 1
+    }
+
+    pub fn append_with_doc_index(
+        &mut self,
+        row_id: u64,
+        num_tokens: u32,
+        doc_index: &[u32],
+    ) -> Result<u32> {
+        if self.row_ids.is_empty() && self.doc_indices.is_empty() {
+            self.doc_indices = (0..doc_index.len()).map(|_| Vec::new()).collect();
+        }
+        if self.doc_indices.len() != doc_index.len() {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "all documents in an FTS partition must have the same coordinate rank: expected {}, got {}",
+                self.doc_indices.len(),
+                doc_index.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        self.row_ids.push(row_id);
+        self.num_tokens.push(num_tokens);
+        for (coordinates, value) in self.doc_indices.iter_mut().zip(doc_index) {
+            coordinates.push(*value);
+        }
+        self.total_tokens += num_tokens as u64;
+        self.invalidate_norms();
+        self.invalidate_row_ids_ascending();
+        Ok(self.row_ids.len() as u32 - 1)
+    }
+
+    // Drop the baked norm slab after a mutation; it re-bakes on the next
+    // scoring use.
+    fn invalidate_norms(&mut self) {
+        if self.norms.get().is_some() {
+            self.norms = Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new());
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Drop the memoized ascending-row_ids answer after a mutation; it
+    // recomputes on the next query use.
+    fn invalidate_row_ids_ascending(&mut self) {
+        if self.row_ids_ascending.get().is_some() {
+            self.row_ids_ascending = Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new());
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn memory_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.row_ids.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+            + self.num_tokens.memory_size()
+            + self
+                .doc_indices
+                .iter()
+                .map(|coordinates| coordinates.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>())
+                .sum::<usize>()
+            + self.inv.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<(u64, u32)>()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/flat_search.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/flat_search.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..de38fc75b42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/flat_search.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1204 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+pub fn doc_index_storage_column(rank: usize) -> String {
+    format!("{DOC_INDEX_STORAGE_PREFIX}{rank}")
+}
+
+pub fn document_coordinate_rank(schema: &arrow_schema::Schema) -> usize {
+    (0..)
+        .take_while(|rank| {
+            schema
+                .column_with_name(&doc_index_storage_column(*rank))
+                .is_some()
+        })
+        .count()
+}
+
+pub fn flat_full_text_search(
+    batches: &[&RecordBatch],
+    doc_col: &str,
+    query: &str,
+    tokenizer: Option<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>>,
+) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    if batches.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(vec![]);
+    }
+
+    let (query, phrase_slop) = match phrase_query_text(query) {
+        Some(query) => (query, Some(0)),
+        None => (query, None),
+    };
+
+    match batches[0][doc_col].data_type() {
+        DataType::Utf8 => {
+            do_flat_full_text_search::<i32>(batches, doc_col, query, tokenizer, phrase_slop)
+        }
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
+            do_flat_full_text_search::<i64>(batches, doc_col, query, tokenizer, phrase_slop)
+        }
+        DataType::List(_) => {
+            do_flat_full_text_search_list::<i32>(batches, doc_col, query, tokenizer, phrase_slop)
+        }
+        DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+            do_flat_full_text_search_list::<i64>(batches, doc_col, query, tokenizer, phrase_slop)
+        }
+        data_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "unsupported data type {} for inverted index",
+            data_type
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn do_flat_full_text_search<Offset: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+    batches: &[&RecordBatch],
+    doc_col: &str,
+    query: &str,
+    tokenizer: Option<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>>,
+    phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    let mut results = Vec::new();
+    let mut tokenizer =
+        tokenizer.unwrap_or_else(|| InvertedIndexParams::default().build().unwrap());
+    let query_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(query, &mut tokenizer)?;
+
+    for batch in batches {
+        let row_id_array = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let doc_array = batch[doc_col].as_string::<Offset>();
+        for i in 0..row_id_array.len() {
+            let doc = doc_array.value(i);
+            if document_matches_flat_query(doc, &mut tokenizer, &query_tokens, phrase_slop)? {
+                results.push(row_id_array.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(results)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn do_flat_full_text_search_list<ListOffset: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+    batches: &[&RecordBatch],
+    doc_col: &str,
+    query: &str,
+    tokenizer: Option<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>>,
+    phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    let mut results = Vec::new();
+    let mut tokenizer =
+        tokenizer.unwrap_or_else(|| InvertedIndexParams::default().build().unwrap());
+    let query_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(query, &mut tokenizer)?;
+
+    for batch in batches {
+        let row_id_array = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let doc_array = batch[doc_col].as_list::<ListOffset>();
+        match doc_array.value_type() {
+            DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 => {}
+            data_type => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "unsupported list item data type {} for inverted index",
+                    data_type
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        for i in 0..row_id_array.len() {
+            if doc_array.is_null(i) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let elements = doc_array.value(i);
+            let matches = if phrase_slop.is_some() {
+                let document = iter_str_array(elements.as_ref())
+                    .flatten()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .join(" ");
+                document_matches_flat_query(&document, &mut tokenizer, &query_tokens, phrase_slop)?
+            } else {
+                iter_str_array(elements.as_ref())
+                    .flatten()
+                    .any(|element| has_query_token(element, &mut tokenizer, &query_tokens))
+            };
+            if matches {
+                results.push(row_id_array.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(results)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn document_matches_flat_query(
+    document: &str,
+    tokenizer: &mut Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    query_tokens: &Tokens,
+    phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    let Some(slop) = phrase_slop else {
+        return Ok(has_query_token(document, tokenizer, query_tokens));
+    };
+
+    let mut document_positions = (0..query_tokens.len())
+        .map(|_| Vec::new())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(document);
+    while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
+        let position = u32::try_from(token.position).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "flat FTS token position exceeds u32: {}",
+                token.position
+            ))
+        })?;
+        for (query_index, positions) in document_positions.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            if query_tokens.get_token(query_index) == token.text {
+                positions.push(position);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(phrase_matches_positions(
+        query_tokens,
+        &document_positions,
+        slop,
+    ))
+}
+
+pub(super) const FLAT_ALL_TOKENS_COL: &str = "all_tokens";
+pub(super) const FLAT_QUERY_TOKEN_COUNTS_COL: &str = "query_token_counts";
+pub(super) const FLAT_PHRASE_MATCH_COL: &str = "phrase_match";
+
+pub(super) fn phrase_matches_positions(
+    query_tokens: &Tokens,
+    document_positions: &[Vec<u32>],
+    slop: u32,
+) -> bool {
+    let Some(first_positions) = document_positions.first() else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    if first_positions.is_empty() {
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    let mut candidates = first_positions.clone();
+    debug_assert_eq!(query_tokens.len(), document_positions.len());
+    for (query_index, positions) in document_positions.iter().enumerate().skip(1) {
+        let Some(query_delta) = query_tokens
+            .position(query_index)
+            .checked_sub(query_tokens.position(query_index - 1))
+        else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        let mut next_candidates = Vec::new();
+        for &position in positions {
+            let position = u64::from(position);
+            if candidates.iter().any(|candidate| {
+                let least = u64::from(*candidate) + u64::from(query_delta);
+                least <= position && position <= least + u64::from(slop)
+            }) {
+                next_candidates.push(position as u32);
+            }
+        }
+        if next_candidates.is_empty() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        candidates = next_candidates;
+    }
+    true
+}
+
+/// If we accumulate this many bytes we warn the user they probably want to use an FTS index instead.
+pub(super) const BYTES_ACCUMULATED_WARNING_THRESHOLD: u64 = 1024 * 1024 * 1024; // 1GB
+
+/// Consumes a stream of record batches and produces token counts
+///
+/// The resulting batch will have three columns:
+/// - row_id: the row id of the document
+/// - all_tokens: the total number of tokens in the document
+/// - query_token_counts: a fixed size list of the count of each query token in the document
+///
+/// This is an unbounded accumulation, however, for most queries, the per-row
+/// growth will be fairly small.  As a result we can process millions of tokens
+/// with fairly modest memory usage.
+///
+/// However, it is unwise to do a flat search across billions of rows.  An FTS
+/// index should be created instead.
+pub(super) async fn tokenize_and_count(
+    input: impl Stream<Item = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> + Send,
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    query_tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+    doc_col_idx: usize,
+    elapsed_compute: Option<Time>,
+    coordinate_rank: usize,
+    phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut output_fields = vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()];
+    output_fields.extend(
+        (0..coordinate_rank)
+            .map(|rank| Field::new(doc_index_storage_column(rank), DataType::UInt32, false)),
+    );
+    output_fields.extend([
+        Field::new(FLAT_ALL_TOKENS_COL, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new(
+            FLAT_QUERY_TOKEN_COUNTS_COL,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt64, true)),
+                query_tokens.len() as i32,
+            ),
+            false,
+        ),
+    ]);
+    if phrase_slop.is_some() {
+        output_fields.push(Field::new(FLAT_PHRASE_MATCH_COL, DataType::Boolean, false));
+    }
+    let output_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(output_fields));
+    let output_schema_clone = output_schema.clone();
+    let query_token_indices = Arc::new(query_token_indices(query_tokens.as_ref()));
+    let bytes_accumulated = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+    let bytes_warning_emitted = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+
+    let batches = input
+        .map(move |batch| {
+            let mut tokenizer = tokenizer.box_clone();
+            let output_schema = output_schema.clone();
+            let query_tokens = query_tokens.clone();
+            let query_token_indices = query_token_indices.clone();
+            let bytes_accumulated = bytes_accumulated.clone();
+            let bytes_warning_emitted = bytes_warning_emitted.clone();
+            let elapsed_compute = elapsed_compute.clone();
+            spawn_cpu(move || {
+                // Time the per-batch CPU work so callers can attribute it to
+                // `elapsed_compute` on a metric handle (the spawn_cpu worker
+                // thread is invisible to the caller's poll timer otherwise).
+                let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+                let batch = batch?;
+                let row_id_array = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+                let input_doc_indices = (0..coordinate_rank)
+                    .map(|rank| {
+                        let column_name = doc_index_storage_column(rank);
+                        batch
+                            .column_by_name(&column_name)
+                            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                                    "flat ListElement FTS is missing {column_name}"
+                                ))
+                            })
+                            .map(|column| column.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>())
+                    })
+                    .collect::<DataFusionResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                let mut row_ids = UInt64Builder::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
+                let mut doc_indices = (0..coordinate_rank)
+                    .map(|_| UInt32Builder::with_capacity(batch.num_rows()))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let mut all_token_counts = UInt64Builder::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
+                let mut query_token_counts = FixedSizeListBuilder::with_capacity(
+                    UInt64Builder::with_capacity(batch.num_rows() * query_tokens.len()),
+                    query_tokens.len() as i32,
+                    batch.num_rows(),
+                );
+                let mut temp_query_token_counts = Vec::with_capacity(query_tokens.len());
+                let mut temp_query_positions = (0..query_tokens.len())
+                    .map(|_| Vec::new())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let mut phrase_matches = phrase_slop
+                    .map(|_| BooleanBuilder::with_capacity(batch.num_rows()));
+                let mut count_text = |doc: &str,
+                                      temp_query_token_counts: &mut Vec<u64>|
+                 -> DataFusionResult<(u64, bool)> {
+                    for positions in &mut temp_query_positions {
+                        positions.clear();
+                    }
+                    let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(doc);
+                    let mut all_tokens = 0;
+                    while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
+                        all_tokens += 1;
+                        if let Some(token_indices) = query_token_indices.get(&token.text) {
+                            for token_index in token_indices {
+                                temp_query_token_counts[*token_index] += 1;
+                                if phrase_slop.is_some() {
+                                    temp_query_positions[*token_index].push(
+                                        u32::try_from(token.position).map_err(|_| {
+                                            datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                                                "flat FTS token position exceeds u32: {}",
+                                                token.position
+                                            ))
+                                        })?,
+                                    );
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    let matches = phrase_slop.is_none_or(|slop| {
+                        phrase_matches_positions(
+                            query_tokens.as_ref(),
+                            &temp_query_positions,
+                            slop,
+                        )
+                    });
+                    Ok((all_tokens, matches))
+                };
+                let mut append_counts = |row_index: usize,
+                                         row_id: u64,
+                                         all_tokens: u64,
+                                         temp_query_token_counts: &[u64],
+                                         phrase_match: bool|
+                 -> DataFusionResult<()> {
+                        row_ids.append_value(row_id);
+                        for (builder, input) in
+                            doc_indices.iter_mut().zip(input_doc_indices.iter())
+                        {
+                            builder.append_value(input.value(row_index));
+                        }
+                        all_token_counts.append_value(all_tokens);
+                        for count in temp_query_token_counts.iter().copied() {
+                            query_token_counts.values().append_value(count);
+                        }
+                        query_token_counts.append(true);
+                        if let Some(builder) = phrase_matches.as_mut() {
+                            builder.append_value(phrase_match);
+                        }
+                        Ok(())
+                    };
+                match batch.column(doc_col_idx).data_type() {
+                    DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Utf8View => {
+                        let doc_iter = iter_str_array(batch.column(doc_col_idx));
+                        for (row_index, (doc, row_id)) in
+                            doc_iter.zip(row_id_array.values().iter()).enumerate()
+                        {
+                            temp_query_token_counts.clear();
+                            temp_query_token_counts
+                                .extend(std::iter::repeat_n(0, query_tokens.len()));
+
+                            let (all_tokens, phrase_match) = match doc {
+                                Some(doc) => count_text(doc, &mut temp_query_token_counts)?,
+                                None => (0, false),
+                            };
+                            if coordinate_rank > 0 || all_tokens > 0 {
+                                append_counts(
+                                    row_index,
+                                    *row_id,
+                                    all_tokens,
+                                    &temp_query_token_counts,
+                                    phrase_match,
+                                )?;
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    DataType::List(_) => {
+                        if coordinate_rank != 0 {
+                            return DataFusionResult::Err(
+                                datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                                    "ListElement flat FTS input must be expanded to string documents"
+                                        .to_string(),
+                                ),
+                            );
+                        }
+                        tokenize_and_count_list::<i32>(
+                            batch.column(doc_col_idx),
+                            row_id_array,
+                            &mut count_text,
+                            &mut append_counts,
+                            &mut temp_query_token_counts,
+                            query_tokens.len(),
+                            phrase_slop.is_some(),
+                        )?;
+                    }
+                    DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                        if coordinate_rank != 0 {
+                            return DataFusionResult::Err(
+                                datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                                    "ListElement flat FTS input must be expanded to string documents"
+                                        .to_string(),
+                                ),
+                            );
+                        }
+                        tokenize_and_count_list::<i64>(
+                            batch.column(doc_col_idx),
+                            row_id_array,
+                            &mut count_text,
+                            &mut append_counts,
+                            &mut temp_query_token_counts,
+                            query_tokens.len(),
+                            phrase_slop.is_some(),
+                        )?;
+                    }
+                    data_type => {
+                        return DataFusionResult::Err(datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Execution(
+                            format!("unsupported data type {} for flat full text search", data_type),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+                let row_ids = row_ids.finish();
+                let doc_indices = doc_indices
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|mut builder| builder.finish())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let all_token_counts = all_token_counts.finish();
+                let query_token_counts = query_token_counts.finish();
+                let mut columns = vec![Arc::new(row_ids) as ArrayRef];
+                for doc_indices in doc_indices {
+                    columns.push(Arc::new(doc_indices) as ArrayRef);
+                }
+                columns.extend([
+                    Arc::new(all_token_counts) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(query_token_counts) as ArrayRef,
+                ]);
+                if let Some(mut builder) = phrase_matches {
+                    columns.push(Arc::new(builder.finish()) as ArrayRef);
+                }
+                let result_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(output_schema, columns)?;
+                let bytes_accumulated = bytes_accumulated.fetch_add(result_batch.get_array_memory_size() as u64, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                if bytes_accumulated > BYTES_ACCUMULATED_WARNING_THRESHOLD && !bytes_warning_emitted.swap(true, Ordering::Relaxed) {
+                    tracing::warn!("Flat full text search is accumulating a large number of bytes.  Consider using an FTS index instead.");
+                }
+
+                if let Some(t) = &elapsed_compute {
+                    t.add_duration(start.elapsed());
+                }
+                DataFusionResult::Ok(result_batch)
+            })
+        })
+        .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await?;
+
+    Ok(arrow::compute::concat_batches(
+        &output_schema_clone,
+        &batches,
+    )?)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn tokenize_and_count_list<ListOffset: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+    doc_col: &ArrayRef,
+    row_id_array: &arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
+    count_text: &mut impl FnMut(&str, &mut Vec<u64>) -> DataFusionResult<(u64, bool)>,
+    append_counts: &mut impl FnMut(usize, u64, u64, &[u64], bool) -> DataFusionResult<()>,
+    temp_query_token_counts: &mut Vec<u64>,
+    query_tokens_len: usize,
+    match_phrase: bool,
+) -> DataFusionResult<()> {
+    let doc_array = doc_col.as_list::<ListOffset>();
+    match doc_array.value_type() {
+        DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 => {}
+        data_type => {
+            return Err(datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                "unsupported list item data type {} for flat full text search",
+                data_type
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    for i in 0..row_id_array.len() {
+        temp_query_token_counts.clear();
+        temp_query_token_counts.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(0, query_tokens_len));
+        let mut all_tokens = 0;
+        let mut phrase_match = false;
+        if !doc_array.is_null(i) {
+            let elements = doc_array.value(i);
+            if match_phrase {
+                let mut document = String::new();
+                for element in iter_str_array(elements.as_ref()).flatten() {
+                    if !document.is_empty() {
+                        document.push(' ');
+                    }
+                    document.push_str(element);
+                }
+                (all_tokens, phrase_match) = count_text(&document, temp_query_token_counts)?;
+            } else {
+                for element in iter_str_array(elements.as_ref()).flatten() {
+                    all_tokens += count_text(element, temp_query_token_counts)?.0;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if all_tokens > 0 {
+            append_counts(
+                i,
+                row_id_array.value(i),
+                all_tokens,
+                temp_query_token_counts,
+                phrase_match,
+            )?;
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// One chunk's worth of blended per-row BM25F scoring inputs: everything a flat
+/// `combined_fields` scan retains until the corpus statistics are complete.
+/// `8 + 4·(1 + t)` bytes per row for `t` terms, independent of the column count.
+pub(in super::super) struct BlendedRows {
+    /// `_rowid` of every retained row.
+    pub(in super::super) row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    /// `dl'(d) = Σ_f w_f · dl_f(d)`, one per retained row.
+    pub(in super::super) doc_lengths: Vec<f32>,
+    /// `tf'(t, d) = Σ_f w_f · tf_f(t, d)`, `num_terms`-strided by row.
+    pub(in super::super) term_freqs: Vec<f32>,
+}
+
+/// Count the query tokens in every target column of a flat batch stream and blend
+/// them into per-row BM25F scoring inputs.
+///
+/// Unlike [`tokenize_and_count`], this walks all target columns in one pass,
+/// since a row may be empty in one field and populated in another. The
+/// per-column counts are dropped with each batch once blended; only the
+/// fixed-size [`FlatFieldStats`] needs them, so it is folded here, gated by
+/// `stats_masks`.
+///
+/// Every non-empty row is folded into the statistics, but only a row that can
+/// score is retained: one `emit_mask` selects and that holds a query term (every
+/// query term when `require_all_terms`). So the retained memory tracks the
+/// matches, not the scanned rows.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub(in super::super) async fn tokenize_and_blend_multi(
+    input: impl Stream<Item = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> + Send,
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    query_tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+    doc_col_indices: Arc<Vec<usize>>,
+    weights: Arc<Vec<f32>>,
+    stats_masks: Arc<Vec<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>,
+    emit_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    require_all_terms: bool,
+    elapsed_compute: Option<Time>,
+) -> DataFusionResult<(Vec<BlendedRows>, FlatFieldStats)> {
+    let num_columns = doc_col_indices.len();
+    let num_terms = query_tokens.len();
+    let retained_bytes_per_row = (size_of::<u64>() + (1 + num_terms) * size_of::<f32>()) as u64;
+    let query_token_indices = Arc::new(query_token_indices(query_tokens.as_ref()));
+    let bytes_accumulated = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+    let bytes_warning_emitted = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+
+    let tasks = input
+        .map(move |batch| {
+            let mut tokenizer = tokenizer.box_clone();
+            let query_token_indices = query_token_indices.clone();
+            let doc_col_indices = doc_col_indices.clone();
+            let weights = weights.clone();
+            let stats_masks = stats_masks.clone();
+            let emit_mask = emit_mask.clone();
+            let bytes_accumulated = bytes_accumulated.clone();
+            let bytes_warning_emitted = bytes_warning_emitted.clone();
+            let elapsed_compute = elapsed_compute.clone();
+            spawn_cpu(move || {
+                let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+                let batch = batch?;
+                let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+                let row_id_array = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+
+                // Dense `(row, column)`-strided scratch, freed with the batch:
+                // whether a row is retained depends on all of its columns, so every
+                // column is counted before any row is filtered.
+                let mut all_tokens = vec![0u64; num_rows * num_columns];
+                let mut counts = vec![0u64; num_rows * num_columns * num_terms];
+                for (column_slot, doc_col_idx) in doc_col_indices.iter().enumerate() {
+                    count_column_into(
+                        batch.column(*doc_col_idx),
+                        num_columns,
+                        num_terms,
+                        column_slot,
+                        &mut tokenizer,
+                        &query_token_indices,
+                        &mut all_tokens,
+                        &mut counts,
+                    )?;
+                }
+
+                let mut blended = BlendedRows {
+                    row_ids: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows),
+                    doc_lengths: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows),
+                    term_freqs: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * num_terms),
+                };
+                let mut stats = FlatFieldStats::zeros(num_columns, num_terms);
+                let counts_stride = num_columns * num_terms;
+                for row in 0..num_rows {
+                    let lengths = &all_tokens[row * num_columns..(row + 1) * num_columns];
+                    // Empty in every target column: `dl' == 0` and `tf' == 0`, so the
+                    // row cannot score. Dropping it here also keeps it out of the
+                    // corpus statistics, matching the indexed side (a row absent from
+                    // every field's DocSet contributes to no `docCount_f`).
+                    if lengths.iter().all(|length| *length == 0) {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let row_id = row_id_array.value(row);
+                    let row_counts = &counts[row * counts_stride..(row + 1) * counts_stride];
+                    stats.fold_row(row_id, &stats_masks, lengths, row_counts);
+                    if emit_mask.as_ref().is_some_and(|mask| !mask.selected(row_id)) {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+
+                    // Accumulate in column-slot order. f32 addition is not
+                    // associative, so this order is part of the contract: it keeps
+                    // the scores identical to summing the same contributions
+                    // downstream from a materialized breakdown.
+                    let terms_start = blended.term_freqs.len();
+                    blended.term_freqs.resize(terms_start + num_terms, 0.0);
+                    let term_freqs = &mut blended.term_freqs[terms_start..];
+                    let mut doc_length = 0f32;
+                    for (column, weight) in weights.iter().enumerate() {
+                        doc_length += weight * lengths[column] as f32;
+                        let base = column * num_terms;
+                        for (term, tf) in term_freqs.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                            *tf += weight * row_counts[base + term] as f32;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    // `And` spans the virtual field, so it checks the blended `tf'`.
+                    let matches = if require_all_terms {
+                        term_freqs.iter().all(|tf| *tf > 0.0)
+                    } else {
+                        term_freqs.iter().any(|tf| *tf > 0.0)
+                    };
+                    if !matches {
+                        blended.term_freqs.truncate(terms_start);
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    blended.row_ids.push(row_id);
+                    blended.doc_lengths.push(doc_length);
+                }
+
+                let bytes_accumulated = bytes_accumulated.fetch_add(
+                    blended.row_ids.len() as u64 * retained_bytes_per_row,
+                    Ordering::Relaxed,
+                );
+                if bytes_accumulated > BYTES_ACCUMULATED_WARNING_THRESHOLD
+                    && !bytes_warning_emitted.swap(true, Ordering::Relaxed)
+                {
+                    tracing::warn!(
+                        "Flat combined_fields search is accumulating a large number of bytes.  Consider indexing every target column instead."
+                    );
+                }
+                if let Some(t) = &elapsed_compute {
+                    t.add_duration(start.elapsed());
+                }
+                DataFusionResult::Ok((blended, stats))
+            })
+        })
+        .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus());
+
+    // Folded incrementally rather than collected and concatenated: the retained
+    // rows are already the whole accumulation, so a second contiguous copy would
+    // double the peak for nothing.
+    let mut tasks = std::pin::pin!(tasks);
+    let mut chunks = Vec::new();
+    // Seeded rather than taken from the first batch so that a scan with no batches
+    // at all still reports statistics, as all-zero totals.
+    let mut totals = FlatFieldStats::zeros(num_columns, num_terms);
+    while let Some(counted) = tasks.next().await {
+        let (blended, stats) = counted?;
+        totals.merge(stats);
+        chunks.push(blended);
+    }
+    Ok((chunks, totals))
+}
+
+/// Tokenize one column into the `(row, column_slot)`-strided slots of
+/// `all_tokens` / `counts`. Mirrors [`tokenize_and_count`]'s per-type handling: a
+/// list column sums over its elements and a null leaves the slots at zero.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn count_column_into(
+    doc_col: &ArrayRef,
+    num_columns: usize,
+    num_terms: usize,
+    column_slot: usize,
+    tokenizer: &mut Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    query_token_indices: &HashMap<String, Vec<usize>>,
+    all_tokens: &mut [u64],
+    counts: &mut [u64],
+) -> DataFusionResult<()> {
+    let mut record = |row: usize, doc: &str| {
+        let slot = row * num_columns + column_slot;
+        let base = slot * num_terms;
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(doc);
+        while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
+            all_tokens[slot] += 1;
+            if let Some(token_indices) = query_token_indices.get(&token.text) {
+                for token_index in token_indices {
+                    counts[base + *token_index] += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    };
+    match doc_col.data_type() {
+        DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
+            for (row, doc) in iter_str_array(doc_col.as_ref()).enumerate() {
+                if let Some(doc) = doc {
+                    record(row, doc);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        // One string per row is the whole contract: a caller whose field path
+        // crosses a `List` owes a column already reduced to a row's document text
+        // (the planner uses `flatten_fts_document_column`), because reducing it
+        // here would count the elements separately and diverge from the single row
+        // document the index builder wrote.
+        data_type => {
+            return Err(datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                "flat combined_fields search needs one string per row per column, got {}; \
+                 reduce a list-bearing field path to its row document first",
+                data_type
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub(super) fn query_token_indices(query_tokens: &Tokens) -> HashMap<String, Vec<usize>> {
+    let mut indices = HashMap::new();
+    for idx in 0..query_tokens.len() {
+        indices
+            .entry(query_tokens.get_token(idx).to_string())
+            .or_insert_with(Vec::new)
+            .push(idx);
+    }
+    indices
+}
+
+/// Initialize the BM25 scorer
+///
+/// In order to calculate BM25 scores we need to know token counts for the entire corpus.  We extract these from the
+/// counted input of the flat search combined with any counts recorded for the indexed portion.
+pub(super) fn initialize_scorer(
+    base_scorer: Option<&MemBM25Scorer>,
+    query_tokens: &Tokens,
+    counted_input: &RecordBatch,
+) -> MemBM25Scorer {
+    let mut total_tokens = 0;
+    let mut num_docs = 0;
+    let mut all_token_counts = vec![0; query_tokens.len()];
+
+    if let Some(base_scorer) = base_scorer {
+        total_tokens += base_scorer.total_tokens;
+        num_docs += base_scorer.num_docs;
+        for (token_index, token) in query_tokens.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            all_token_counts[token_index] = base_scorer.num_docs_containing_token(token) as u64;
+        }
+    }
+
+    num_docs += counted_input.num_rows();
+    total_tokens +=
+        arrow::compute::sum(counted_input[FLAT_ALL_TOKENS_COL].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+    let mut input_token_counters = counted_input[FLAT_QUERY_TOKEN_COUNTS_COL]
+        .as_fixed_size_list()
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied();
+
+    for _ in 0..counted_input.num_rows() {
+        for token_count in all_token_counts.iter_mut() {
+            if input_token_counters.next().unwrap_or_default() > 0 {
+                *token_count += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let token_counts_map = all_token_counts
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(token_index, count)| {
+            (
+                query_tokens.get_token(token_index).to_string(),
+                count as usize,
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<HashMap<String, usize>>();
+    MemBM25Scorer::new(total_tokens, num_docs, token_counts_map)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn flat_bm25_score(
+    query_tokens: &Tokens,
+    counted_input: &RecordBatch,
+    scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    operator: Operator,
+    boost: f32,
+    phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut row_ids_builder = UInt64Builder::with_capacity(counted_input.num_rows());
+    let mut scores_builder = Float32Builder::with_capacity(counted_input.num_rows());
+    let coordinate_rank = document_coordinate_rank(counted_input.schema().as_ref());
+    let input_doc_indices = (0..coordinate_rank)
+        .map(|rank| {
+            let coordinate_column = doc_index_storage_column(rank);
+            counted_input
+                .column_by_name(&coordinate_column)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "flat ListElement FTS is missing {coordinate_column}"
+                    ))
+                })
+                .map(|column| column.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>())
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    if document_granularity.is_list_element() != (coordinate_rank > 0) {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "flat FTS document granularity does not match its coordinate columns".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let mut doc_indices_builder = document_granularity.is_list_element().then(|| {
+        ListBuilder::new(UInt32Builder::new()).with_field(Field::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::UInt32,
+            false,
+        ))
+    });
+    let query_groups = query_position_groups(query_tokens);
+
+    let mut row_ids_iter = counted_input[ROW_ID]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied();
+    let mut all_token_counts_iter = counted_input[FLAT_ALL_TOKENS_COL]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied();
+    let mut query_token_counts_iter = counted_input[FLAT_QUERY_TOKEN_COUNTS_COL]
+        .as_fixed_size_list()
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied();
+    let phrase_matches = phrase_slop
+        .map(|_| {
+            counted_input
+                .column_by_name(FLAT_PHRASE_MATCH_COL)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("flat phrase FTS is missing phrase matches"))
+                .and_then(|column| {
+                    column
+                        .as_any()
+                        .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal("flat phrase matches must be a Boolean column")
+                        })
+                })
+        })
+        .transpose()?;
+    for input_index in 0..counted_input.num_rows() {
+        let num_tokens_in_doc = all_token_counts_iter.next().expect_ok()?;
+        let row_id = row_ids_iter.next().expect_ok()?;
+        let mut query_token_counts = Vec::with_capacity(query_tokens.len());
+        for _ in query_tokens {
+            query_token_counts.push(query_token_counts_iter.next().expect_ok()?);
+        }
+        if num_tokens_in_doc == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if operator == Operator::And
+            && !query_groups
+                .iter()
+                .all(|group| group.iter().any(|idx| query_token_counts[*idx] > 0))
+        {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if phrase_matches.is_some_and(|matches| !matches.value(input_index)) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * num_tokens_in_doc as f32 / scorer.avg_doc_length());
+        let mut score = 0.0;
+        for (token, freq) in query_tokens.into_iter().zip(query_token_counts) {
+            let freq = freq as f32;
+            let idf = idf(scorer.num_docs_containing_token(token), scorer.num_docs());
+            score += idf * (freq * (K1 + 1.0) / (freq + doc_norm));
+        }
+        if score > 0.0 {
+            row_ids_builder.append_value(row_id);
+            if let Some(builder) = doc_indices_builder.as_mut() {
+                for input_doc_index in &input_doc_indices {
+                    builder
+                        .values()
+                        .append_value(input_doc_index.value(input_index));
+                }
+                builder.append(true);
+            }
+            scores_builder.append_value(score * boost);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let row_ids = row_ids_builder.finish();
+    let scores = scores_builder.finish();
+    let mut columns = vec![Arc::new(row_ids) as ArrayRef];
+    if let Some(mut builder) = doc_indices_builder {
+        columns.push(Arc::new(builder.finish()) as ArrayRef);
+    }
+    columns.push(Arc::new(scores) as ArrayRef);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(fts_schema(document_granularity), columns)?;
+    Ok(batch)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn query_position_groups(query_tokens: &Tokens) -> Vec<Vec<usize>> {
+    let mut groups = Vec::new();
+    let mut current_position = None;
+    for idx in 0..query_tokens.len() {
+        let position = query_tokens.position(idx);
+        if current_position != Some(position) {
+            current_position = Some(position);
+            groups.push(Vec::new());
+        }
+        groups
+            .last_mut()
+            .expect("a group should exist after pushing for position")
+            .push(idx);
+    }
+    groups
+}
+
+#[deprecated(
+    note = "use `flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics` to record CPU compute \
+            time on a metric handle; pass `None` for the old behavior"
+)]
+pub async fn flat_bm25_search_stream(
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    doc_col: String,
+    query: String,
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    base_scorer: Option<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    target_batch_size: usize,
+) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics(
+        input,
+        doc_col,
+        query,
+        tokenizer,
+        base_scorer,
+        target_batch_size,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Same as [`flat_bm25_search_stream`] but accepts an optional `Time` handle
+/// that, if provided, will receive the CPU time spent in (a) per-batch
+/// tokenization on the `spawn_cpu` worker threads and (b) the synchronous
+/// scoring phase. This lets a calling `ExecutionPlan` report accurate
+/// `elapsed_compute` without double-counting upstream poll time.
+pub async fn flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics(
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    doc_col: String,
+    query: String,
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    base_scorer: Option<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    target_batch_size: usize,
+    elapsed_compute: Option<Time>,
+) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics_and_operator(
+        input,
+        doc_col,
+        query,
+        tokenizer,
+        base_scorer,
+        target_batch_size,
+        Operator::Or,
+        elapsed_compute,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Same as [`flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics`] but applies the provided
+/// match operator when deciding whether a flat-scanned row is a hit.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```no_run
+/// # async fn example(
+/// #     input: datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream,
+/// # ) -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+/// use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
+///     flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics_and_operator, query::Operator, InvertedIndexParams,
+/// };
+///
+/// let tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::code().build()?;
+/// let _stream = flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics_and_operator(
+///     input,
+///     "code".to_string(),
+///     "Result".to_string(),
+///     tokenizer,
+///     None,
+///     1024,
+///     Operator::And,
+///     None,
+/// )
+/// .await?;
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub async fn flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics_and_operator(
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    doc_col: String,
+    query: String,
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    base_scorer: Option<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    target_batch_size: usize,
+    operator: Operator,
+    elapsed_compute: Option<Time>,
+) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    Ok(flat_bm25_search_stream_with_options_and_scorer(
+        input,
+        doc_col,
+        query,
+        tokenizer,
+        base_scorer,
+        FlatBm25SearchOptions {
+            target_batch_size,
+            elapsed_compute,
+            document_granularity: DocumentGranularity::Row,
+            operator,
+            boost: 1.0,
+            phrase_slop: None,
+        },
+    )
+    .await?
+    .0)
+}
+
+/// Options for flat BM25 search execution.
+pub struct FlatBm25SearchOptions {
+    /// Maximum output record batch size.
+    pub target_batch_size: usize,
+    /// Optional DataFusion metric tracking compute time.
+    pub elapsed_compute: Option<Time>,
+    /// Logical FTS document boundary.
+    pub document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    /// Match operator applied within each logical document.
+    pub operator: Operator,
+    /// Score multiplier for the match query.
+    pub boost: f32,
+    /// Phrase slop. When set, documents must contain the query tokens in order.
+    pub phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+/// Run a flat BM25 search and return the scorer initialized from both the
+/// optional indexed corpus and the flat input corpus.
+pub async fn flat_bm25_search_stream_with_options_and_scorer(
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    doc_col: String,
+    query: String,
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    base_scorer: Option<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    options: FlatBm25SearchOptions,
+) -> DataFusionResult<(SendableRecordBatchStream, MemBM25Scorer)> {
+    let FlatBm25SearchOptions {
+        target_batch_size,
+        elapsed_compute,
+        document_granularity,
+        operator,
+        boost,
+        phrase_slop,
+    } = options;
+    let mut tokenizer = tokenizer;
+    let output_schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+
+    // Pre-await synchronous work: query tokenization + chunk-stream setup.
+    let pre_await_start = std::time::Instant::now();
+    let query_tokens = Arc::new(try_collect_query_tokens(&query, &mut tokenizer)?);
+
+    // A query that tokenizes to no terms (e.g. only stop words) has no
+    // searchable content and matches nothing. Return early rather than
+    // proceeding. This mirrors the indexed search path, which already
+    // short-circuits on empty query tokens.
+    if query_tokens.is_empty() {
+        let scorer = base_scorer.unwrap_or_else(|| MemBM25Scorer::new(0, 0, HashMap::new()));
+        return Ok((
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                output_schema,
+                stream::empty::<DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>(),
+            )),
+            scorer,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let input_schema = input.schema();
+    let doc_col_idx = input_schema.index_of(&doc_col)?;
+    let coordinate_rank = document_coordinate_rank(input_schema.as_ref());
+    if document_granularity.is_list_element() != (coordinate_rank > 0) {
+        return Err(datafusion_common::DataFusionError::Execution(
+            "flat FTS document granularity does not match its input coordinate columns".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // Accumulate small batches until this threshold before dispatching a task.
+    const ACCUMULATE_BYTES: usize = 256 * 1024;
+    // Slice oversized batches down to roughly this size.
+    const SLICE_BYTES: usize = 512 * 1024;
+
+    // Phase 1 - rechunk the input stream into appropriately sized chunks.  Tokenization is
+    // fairly CPU-intensive, and we don't need too much data to justify a new thread task.
+    let chunked = lance_arrow::stream::rechunk_stream_by_size(
+        input,
+        input_schema,
+        ACCUMULATE_BYTES,
+        SLICE_BYTES,
+    );
+    if let Some(t) = &elapsed_compute {
+        t.add_duration(pre_await_start.elapsed());
+    }
+
+    // Phase 2 - For each row we need to know the total number of tokens and the count of each
+    // of the query tokens.  For example, if the query is "book" and the row is "the book shop"
+    // and we are tokenizing with a whitespace tokenizer, we need to know that there are 3 tokens
+    // and the token book appears once.
+    let counted_input = tokenize_and_count(
+        chunked,
+        tokenizer,
+        query_tokens.clone(),
+        doc_col_idx,
+        elapsed_compute.clone(),
+        coordinate_rank,
+        phrase_slop,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    // Phase 3 - Calculate final scores (this is fairly cheap, probably don't need to parallelize).
+    // All post-await work is synchronous; time the scorer + score + slicing loop together.
+    let post_await_start = std::time::Instant::now();
+    let scorer = initialize_scorer(base_scorer.as_ref(), query_tokens.as_ref(), &counted_input);
+    let scores = flat_bm25_score(
+        query_tokens.as_ref(),
+        &counted_input,
+        &scorer,
+        document_granularity,
+        operator,
+        boost,
+        phrase_slop,
+    )?;
+
+    // Finally we emit batches according to the target batch size
+    let batches = slice_into_batches(scores, target_batch_size);
+    if let Some(t) = &elapsed_compute {
+        t.add_duration(post_await_start.elapsed());
+    }
+    Ok((
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            output_schema,
+            stream::iter(batches),
+        )),
+        scorer,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Cut one scored batch into the `target_batch_size` chunks a flat FTS scan
+/// emits. Slicing is zero-copy, so the whole scan's scores stay in one
+/// allocation.
+pub(in super::super) fn slice_into_batches(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    target_batch_size: usize,
+) -> Vec<DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> {
+    let num_out_batches = batch.num_rows().div_ceil(target_batch_size);
+    let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(num_out_batches);
+    for i in 0..num_out_batches {
+        let start = i * target_batch_size;
+        let len = (batch.num_rows() - start).min(target_batch_size);
+        batches.push(Ok(batch.slice(start, len)));
+    }
+    batches
+}
+
+pub fn is_phrase_query(query: &str) -> bool {
+    phrase_query_text(query).is_some()
+}
+
+pub(super) fn phrase_query_text(query: &str) -> Option<&str> {
+    query.strip_prefix('\"')?.strip_suffix('\"')
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/format.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/format.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2e5e7928e32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/format.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,391 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+// Version 0: Arrow TokenSetFormat (legacy)
+// Version 1: Fst TokenSetFormat with per-doc compressed positions
+// Version 2: Fst TokenSetFormat with shared posting-list position streams.
+// Version 3: Reader capability for configurable posting blocks, analyzer
+// metadata, and element-document coordinates.
+pub const INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V1: u32 = 1;
+pub const INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2: u32 = 2;
+pub const INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3: u32 = 3;
+pub const TOKENS_FILE: &str = "tokens.lance";
+pub const INVERT_LIST_FILE: &str = "invert.lance";
+pub const DOCS_FILE: &str = "docs.lance";
+pub const METADATA_FILE: &str = "metadata.lance";
+
+/// Partitions searched per CPU-pool task. Each chunk loads concurrently and
+/// then scores sequentially so query concurrency does not flood the pool with
+/// one small task per partition. `LANCE_FTS_SEARCH_CHUNK=1` restores the
+/// per-partition task shape.
+pub(super) fn fts_search_chunk() -> usize {
+    static CHUNK: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_FTS_SEARCH_CHUNK")
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|value| value.parse().ok())
+            .filter(|&value| value >= 1)
+            .unwrap_or(16)
+    });
+    *CHUNK
+}
+
+pub const TOKEN_COL: &str = "_token";
+pub const TOKEN_ID_COL: &str = "_token_id";
+pub const TOKEN_FST_BYTES_COL: &str = "_token_fst_bytes";
+pub const TOKEN_NEXT_ID_COL: &str = "_token_next_id";
+pub const TOKEN_TOTAL_LENGTH_COL: &str = "_token_total_length";
+pub const FREQUENCY_COL: &str = "_frequency";
+pub const POSITION_COL: &str = "_position";
+pub const COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL: &str = "_compressed_position";
+pub const POSITION_BLOCK_OFFSET_COL: &str = "_position_block_offset";
+pub const POSTING_COL: &str = "_posting";
+pub const IMPACT_COL: &str = "_impacts";
+pub const MAX_SCORE_COL: &str = "_max_score";
+pub const LENGTH_COL: &str = "_length";
+pub const BLOCK_MAX_SCORE_COL: &str = "_block_max_score";
+pub const NUM_TOKEN_COL: &str = "_num_tokens";
+pub const DOC_INDEX_COL: &str = "_doc_index";
+pub const DOC_INDEX_STORAGE_PREFIX: &str = "_doc_index_";
+pub const SCORE_COL: &str = "_score";
+pub const TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY: &str = "token_set_format";
+pub const POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY: &str = "posting_tail_codec";
+pub const FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY: &str = "format_version";
+pub const POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY: &str = "positions_layout";
+pub const POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY: &str = "positions_codec";
+pub const POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY: &str = "posting_block_size";
+pub const POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_FIXED32_V1: &str = "fixed32_v1";
+pub const POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_VARINT_DELTA_V1: &str = "varint_delta_v1";
+pub const POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2: &str = "shared_stream_v2";
+pub const POSITIONS_CODEC_VARINT_DOC_DELTA_V2: &str = "varint_doc_delta_v2";
+pub const POSITIONS_CODEC_PACKED_DELTA_V1: &str = "packed_delta_v1";
+pub const DELETED_FRAGMENTS_COL: &str = "deleted_fragments";
+
+// Just a heuristic when we need to pre-allocate memory for tokens
+pub const ESTIMATED_MAX_TOKENS_PER_ROW: usize = 4 * 1024;
+
+pub static SCORE_FIELD: LazyLock<Field> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| Field::new(SCORE_COL, DataType::Float32, true));
+pub static DOC_INDEX_FIELD: LazyLock<Field> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Field::new(
+        DOC_INDEX_COL,
+        DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt32, false))),
+        false,
+    )
+});
+pub static FTS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(), SCORE_FIELD.clone()])));
+pub static ELEMENT_FTS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        DOC_INDEX_FIELD.clone(),
+        SCORE_FIELD.clone(),
+    ]))
+});
+
+pub fn fts_schema(document_granularity: DocumentGranularity) -> SchemaRef {
+    if document_granularity.is_list_element() {
+        ELEMENT_FTS_SCHEMA.clone()
+    } else {
+        FTS_SCHEMA.clone()
+    }
+}
+pub(super) static ROW_ID_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()])));
+
+pub fn resolve_fts_format_version(
+    value: Option<&str>,
+) -> std::result::Result<InvertedListFormatVersion, Error> {
+    match value {
+        Some(value) => value.parse(),
+        None => Ok(default_fts_format_version()),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn default_fts_format_version() -> InvertedListFormatVersion {
+    InvertedListFormatVersion::V2
+}
+
+pub fn current_fts_format_version() -> InvertedListFormatVersion {
+    default_fts_format_version()
+}
+
+pub fn max_supported_fts_format_version() -> InvertedListFormatVersion {
+    InvertedListFormatVersion::V3
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Default)]
+pub enum InvertedListFormatVersion {
+    V1,
+    #[default]
+    V2,
+    V3,
+}
+
+impl InvertedListFormatVersion {
+    pub fn from_posting_tail_codec(codec: PostingTailCodec) -> Self {
+        match codec {
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32 => Self::V1,
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta => Self::V2,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        validate_block_size(block_size)?;
+        let format_version = match (codec, block_size) {
+            (PostingTailCodec::Fixed32, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE) => Self::V1,
+            (PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE) => Self::V2,
+            (PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta, 256) => Self::V3,
+            (PostingTailCodec::Fixed32, 256) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "FTS format_version=3 requires the varint-delta posting tail codec".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            _ => unreachable!("validate_block_size limits supported block sizes"),
+        };
+        validate_format_version_block_size(format_version, block_size)?;
+        Ok(format_version)
+    }
+
+    pub fn index_version(self) -> u32 {
+        match self {
+            Self::V1 => INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V1,
+            Self::V2 => INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2,
+            Self::V3 => INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn posting_tail_codec(self) -> PostingTailCodec {
+        match self {
+            Self::V1 => PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+            Self::V2 | Self::V3 => PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn position_codec(self) -> Option<PositionStreamCodec> {
+        match self {
+            Self::V1 => None,
+            Self::V2 | Self::V3 => Some(PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn uses_shared_position_stream(self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::V2 | Self::V3)
+    }
+}
+
+impl FromStr for InvertedListFormatVersion {
+    type Err = Error;
+
+    fn from_str(s: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, Self::Err> {
+        match s.trim() {
+            "1" | "v1" | "V1" => Ok(Self::V1),
+            "2" | "v2" | "V2" => Ok(Self::V2),
+            "3" | "v3" | "V3" => Ok(Self::V3),
+            other => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "unsupported FTS format version {}, expected 1, 2, or 3",
+                other
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn default_fts_format_version_for_block_size(
+    block_size: usize,
+) -> Result<InvertedListFormatVersion> {
+    validate_block_size(block_size)?;
+    match block_size {
+        LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE => Ok(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2),
+        256 => Ok(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3),
+        _ => unreachable!("validate_block_size limits supported block sizes"),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn validate_format_version_block_size(
+    format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    block_size: usize,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    validate_block_size(block_size)?;
+    match (format_version, block_size) {
+        (InvertedListFormatVersion::V1 | InvertedListFormatVersion::V2, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)
+        | (InvertedListFormatVersion::V3, _) => Ok(()),
+        (InvertedListFormatVersion::V1 | InvertedListFormatVersion::V2, 256) => {
+            Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS format_version={} is incompatible with block_size=256; use format_version=3",
+                format_version.index_version()
+            )))
+        }
+        _ => unreachable!("validate_block_size limits supported block sizes"),
+    }
+}
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq, Hash, Default)]
+pub enum TokenSetFormat {
+    Arrow,
+    #[default]
+    Fst,
+}
+
+impl Display for TokenSetFormat {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Arrow => f.write_str("arrow"),
+            Self::Fst => f.write_str("fst"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl FromStr for TokenSetFormat {
+    type Err = Error;
+
+    fn from_str(s: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, Self::Err> {
+        match s.trim() {
+            "" => Ok(Self::Arrow),
+            "arrow" => Ok(Self::Arrow),
+            "fst" => Ok(Self::Fst),
+            other => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "unsupported token set format {}",
+                other
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for TokenSetFormat {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        0
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Default)]
+pub enum PositionStreamCodec {
+    VarintDocDelta,
+    #[default]
+    PackedDelta,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Default)]
+pub enum PostingTailCodec {
+    Fixed32,
+    #[default]
+    VarintDelta,
+}
+
+impl PostingTailCodec {
+    pub fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Fixed32 => POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_FIXED32_V1,
+            Self::VarintDelta => POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_VARINT_DELTA_V1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn from_metadata_value(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value.trim() {
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_FIXED32_V1 => Ok(Self::Fixed32),
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_VARINT_DELTA_V1 => Ok(Self::VarintDelta),
+            other => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "unsupported posting tail codec {}",
+                other
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(in super::super) fn parse_posting_tail_codec(
+    metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> Result<PostingTailCodec> {
+    Ok(metadata
+        .get(POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY)
+        .map(|codec| PostingTailCodec::from_metadata_value(codec))
+        .transpose()?
+        .unwrap_or(PostingTailCodec::Fixed32))
+}
+
+pub(in super::super) fn parse_posting_block_size(
+    metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    metadata
+        .get(POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY)
+        .map(|value| {
+            let block_size = value.parse::<usize>().map_err(|err| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "invalid {POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY} metadata value {value:?}: {err}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            validate_block_size(block_size)
+        })
+        .transpose()
+        .map(|block_size| block_size.unwrap_or(LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE))
+}
+
+impl PositionStreamCodec {
+    pub fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::VarintDocDelta => POSITIONS_CODEC_VARINT_DOC_DELTA_V2,
+            Self::PackedDelta => POSITIONS_CODEC_PACKED_DELTA_V1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn from_metadata_value(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value.trim() {
+            POSITIONS_CODEC_VARINT_DOC_DELTA_V2 => Ok(Self::VarintDocDelta),
+            POSITIONS_CODEC_PACKED_DELTA_V1 => Ok(Self::PackedDelta),
+            other => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "unsupported positions codec {}",
+                other
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn parse_shared_position_codec(
+    metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> Result<PositionStreamCodec> {
+    if let Some(codec) = metadata.get(POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY) {
+        return PositionStreamCodec::from_metadata_value(codec);
+    }
+
+    match metadata
+        .get(POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY)
+        .map(|layout| layout.as_str())
+    {
+        Some(POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2) => Ok(PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta),
+        _ => Ok(PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta),
+    }
+}
+
+pub(in super::super) fn parse_format_version_from_metadata(
+    metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> Result<InvertedListFormatVersion> {
+    if let Some(value) = metadata.get(FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY) {
+        let format_version = InvertedListFormatVersion::from_str(value)?;
+        let block_size = parse_posting_block_size(metadata)?;
+        validate_format_version_block_size(format_version, block_size)?;
+        return Ok(format_version);
+    }
+    let block_size = parse_posting_block_size(metadata)?;
+    if block_size == 256 {
+        if metadata
+            .get(POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY)
+            .map(|_| parse_posting_tail_codec(metadata))
+            .transpose()?
+            .is_some_and(|posting_tail_codec| posting_tail_codec != PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "FTS block_size=256 requires the varint-delta posting tail codec".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        return Ok(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3);
+    }
+    if metadata.contains_key(POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY) || metadata.contains_key(POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY) {
+        return Ok(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2);
+    }
+    if parse_posting_tail_codec(metadata)? == PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta {
+        Ok(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)
+    } else {
+        Ok(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/inverted_index.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/inverted_index.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f21ffe3d4a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/inverted_index.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1034 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::scalar::RowAddrTranslatorRef;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub(in super::super) struct InvertedPrewarmState {
+    query_ready: bool,
+    positions_ready: bool,
+}
+
+impl InvertedPrewarmState {
+    pub(super) fn satisfies(&self, with_position: bool) -> bool {
+        self.query_ready && (!with_position || self.positions_ready)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct InvertedIndex {
+    pub(super) params: InvertedIndexParams,
+    pub(super) store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    pub(super) tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    pub(super) token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+    pub(super) format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    pub(crate) partitions: Vec<Arc<InvertedPartition>>,
+    pub(super) corpus_stats: Arc<OnceCell<(u64, usize)>>,
+    pub(super) prewarm_state: Arc<Mutex<InvertedPrewarmState>>,
+    /// Optimistic fast-path hint. Cache eviction can make it stale; the
+    /// resident resolver clears it when a weak projection upgrade misses.
+    pub(super) document_projections_resident: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    // Fragments which are contained in the index, but no longer in the dataset.
+    // These should be pruned at search time since we don't prune them at update time.
+    pub(super) deleted_fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+}
+
+impl Debug for InvertedIndex {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("InvertedIndex")
+            .field("params", &self.params)
+            .field("token_set_format", &self.token_set_format)
+            .field("format_version", &self.format_version)
+            .field("partitions", &self.partitions)
+            .field("deleted_fragments", &self.deleted_fragments)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for InvertedIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.partitions.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl InvertedIndex {
+    pub(super) fn format_version(&self) -> InvertedListFormatVersion {
+        self.format_version
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn index_version(&self) -> u32 {
+        if self.params.get_document_granularity().is_list_element() {
+            return INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3;
+        }
+        match (self.token_set_format, self.format_version()) {
+            (
+                TokenSetFormat::Arrow,
+                InvertedListFormatVersion::V1 | InvertedListFormatVersion::V2,
+            ) => 0,
+            (_, format_version) => format_version.index_version(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn posting_tail_codec(&self) -> PostingTailCodec {
+        self.partitions
+            .first()
+            .map(|partition| partition.inverted_list.posting_tail_codec())
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                // Empty segments have no partition-level codec metadata, so
+                // derive the codec from the segment's declared format.
+                self.format_version().posting_tail_codec()
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn to_builder(&self) -> InvertedIndexBuilder {
+        self.to_builder_with_offset(None)
+    }
+
+    fn to_builder_with_offset(&self, fragment_mask: Option<u64>) -> InvertedIndexBuilder {
+        if self.is_legacy() {
+            // for legacy format, we re-create the index in the new format
+            InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+                self.params.clone(),
+                None,
+                Vec::new(),
+                self.token_set_format,
+                fragment_mask,
+                self.deleted_fragments.clone(),
+            )
+            .with_posting_tail_codec(self.posting_tail_codec())
+        } else {
+            let partitions = match fragment_mask {
+                Some(fragment_mask) => self
+                    .partitions
+                    .iter()
+                    // Filter partitions that belong to the specified fragment
+                    // The mask contains fragment_id in high 32 bits, we check if partition's
+                    // fragment_id matches by comparing the masked result with the original mask
+                    .filter(|part| part.belongs_to_fragment(fragment_mask))
+                    .map(|part| part.id())
+                    .collect(),
+                None => self.partitions.iter().map(|part| part.id()).collect(),
+            };
+
+            InvertedIndexBuilder::from_existing_index(
+                self.params.clone(),
+                Some(self.store.clone()),
+                partitions,
+                self.token_set_format,
+                fragment_mask,
+                self.deleted_fragments.clone(),
+            )
+            .with_format_version(self.format_version())
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn tokenizer(&self) -> Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> {
+        self.tokenizer.clone()
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &InvertedIndexParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the number of partitions in this inverted index.
+    pub fn partition_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.partitions.len()
+    }
+    /// Returns the set of fragments which are contained in the index, but no longer in the dataset.
+    ///
+    /// Most other indices remove data from deleted fragments when the index updates (copy-on-write).
+    /// However, this would require an expensive copy of the FTS index.  Instead, we track the deleted
+    /// fragments and prune them at search time (merge-on-read).
+    pub fn deleted_fragments(&self) -> &RoaringBitmap {
+        &self.deleted_fragments
+    }
+
+    pub async fn merge_segments(
+        segments: &[Arc<Self>],
+        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filter: Option<OldIndexDataFilter>,
+        progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let Some(first) = segments.first() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "cannot merge inverted index without at least one source segment".to_string(),
+            ));
+        };
+
+        for segment in segments.iter().skip(1) {
+            if segment.params != first.params {
+                return Err(Error::index(
+                    "cannot merge inverted index segments with different parameters".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if segment.token_set_format != first.token_set_format {
+                return Err(Error::index(
+                    "cannot merge inverted index segments with different token set formats"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if segment.format_version() != first.format_version() {
+                return Err(Error::index(
+                    "cannot merge inverted index segments with different format versions"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if segment.posting_tail_codec() != first.posting_tail_codec() {
+                return Err(Error::index(
+                    "cannot merge inverted index segments with different posting tail codecs"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(first.params.clone()).with_progress(progress);
+        builder = builder
+            .with_token_set_format(first.token_set_format)
+            .with_format_version(first.format_version());
+        let files = builder
+            .update_from_segments(new_data, dest_store, segments, old_data_filter)
+            .await?;
+
+        let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&first.params)?;
+
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap(),
+            index_version: first.index_version(),
+            files,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl InvertedIndex {
+    /// Rebind a modern index within its immutable index/fragment-reuse cache
+    /// namespace. Only reader-free state crosses the request boundary; all
+    /// future posting and document I/O uses the supplied store and remapper.
+    pub(in super::super) fn with_store(
+        &self,
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        if self.is_legacy() || self.partitions.iter().any(|part| part.is_legacy()) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let mut partitions = Vec::with_capacity(self.partitions.len());
+        for (priority, part) in self.partitions.iter().enumerate() {
+            let store = store.with_io_priority(priority as u64);
+            let Some(docs) = part.docs.modern() else {
+                return Err(Error::internal("modern FTS partition has legacy documents"));
+            };
+            partitions.push(Arc::new(InvertedPartition {
+                id: part.id,
+                store: store.clone(),
+                tokens: part.tokens.clone(),
+                inverted_list: Arc::new(
+                    part.inverted_list
+                        .with_store(store.clone(), posting_file_path(part.id))?,
+                ),
+                docs: PartitionDocumentStore::Modern(Arc::new(
+                    docs.with_store(store, frag_reuse_index.clone()),
+                )),
+                token_set_format: part.token_set_format,
+            }));
+        }
+        Ok(Some(Self {
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            store,
+            tokenizer: self.tokenizer.clone(),
+            token_set_format: self.token_set_format,
+            format_version: self.format_version,
+            partitions,
+            corpus_stats: self.corpus_stats.clone(),
+            prewarm_state: self.prewarm_state.clone(),
+            document_projections_resident: self.document_projections_resident.clone(),
+            deleted_fragments: self.deleted_fragments.clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    async fn load_legacy_index(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        log::warn!("loading legacy FTS index");
+        let tokens_fut = tokio::spawn({
+            let store = store.clone();
+            async move {
+                let token_reader = store.open_index_file(TOKENS_FILE).await?;
+                let tokenizer = token_reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get("tokenizer")
+                    .map(|s| serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(s))
+                    .transpose()?
+                    .unwrap_or_default();
+                let tokens = TokenSet::load(token_reader, TokenSetFormat::Arrow).await?;
+                Result::Ok((tokenizer, tokens))
+            }
+        });
+        let invert_list_fut = tokio::spawn({
+            let store = store.clone();
+            let index_cache_clone = index_cache.clone();
+            async move {
+                let invert_list_reader = store.open_index_file(INVERT_LIST_FILE).await?;
+                let invert_list =
+                    PostingListReader::try_new(invert_list_reader, &index_cache_clone).await?;
+                Result::Ok(Arc::new(invert_list))
+            }
+        });
+        let docs_fut = tokio::spawn({
+            let store = store.clone();
+            async move {
+                let docs_reader = store.open_index_file(DOCS_FILE).await?;
+                let docs = DocSet::load(docs_reader, true, frag_reuse_index).await?;
+                Result::Ok(docs)
+            }
+        });
+
+        let (tokenizer_config, tokens) = tokens_fut.await??;
+        let inverted_list = invert_list_fut.await??;
+        let docs = docs_fut.await??;
+
+        let tokenizer = tokenizer_config.build()?;
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            params: tokenizer_config,
+            store: store.clone(),
+            tokenizer,
+            token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::Arrow,
+            format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+            partitions: vec![Arc::new(InvertedPartition {
+                id: 0,
+                store,
+                tokens: Arc::new(tokens),
+                inverted_list,
+                docs: PartitionDocumentStore::Legacy(Arc::new(docs)),
+                token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::Arrow,
+            })],
+            corpus_stats: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
+            prewarm_state: Arc::new(Mutex::new(InvertedPrewarmState::default())),
+            document_projections_resident: Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false)),
+            deleted_fragments: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load_legacy_index`] for mappings that
+    /// require asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    async fn load_legacy_index_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        log::warn!("loading legacy FTS index");
+        let tokens_fut = tokio::spawn({
+            let store = store.clone();
+            async move {
+                let token_reader = store.open_index_file(TOKENS_FILE).await?;
+                let tokenizer = token_reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get("tokenizer")
+                    .map(|s| serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(s))
+                    .transpose()?
+                    .unwrap_or_default();
+                let tokens = TokenSet::load(token_reader, TokenSetFormat::Arrow).await?;
+                Result::Ok((tokenizer, tokens))
+            }
+        });
+        let invert_list_fut = tokio::spawn({
+            let store = store.clone();
+            let index_cache_clone = index_cache.clone();
+            async move {
+                let invert_list_reader = store.open_index_file(INVERT_LIST_FILE).await?;
+                let invert_list =
+                    PostingListReader::try_new(invert_list_reader, &index_cache_clone).await?;
+                Result::Ok(Arc::new(invert_list))
+            }
+        });
+        let docs_fut = tokio::spawn({
+            let store = store.clone();
+            async move {
+                let docs_reader = store.open_index_file(DOCS_FILE).await?;
+                let docs = DocSet::load_with_remapping(docs_reader, true, remapping).await?;
+                Result::Ok(docs)
+            }
+        });
+
+        let (tokenizer_config, tokens) = tokens_fut.await??;
+        let inverted_list = invert_list_fut.await??;
+        let docs = docs_fut.await??;
+
+        let tokenizer = tokenizer_config.build()?;
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            params: tokenizer_config,
+            store: store.clone(),
+            tokenizer,
+            token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::Arrow,
+            format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+            partitions: vec![Arc::new(InvertedPartition {
+                id: 0,
+                store,
+                tokens: tokens.into(),
+                inverted_list,
+                docs: PartitionDocumentStore::Legacy(Arc::new(docs)),
+                token_set_format: TokenSetFormat::Arrow,
+            })],
+            corpus_stats: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
+            prewarm_state: Arc::new(Mutex::new(InvertedPrewarmState::default())),
+            document_projections_resident: Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false)),
+            deleted_fragments: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_legacy(&self) -> bool {
+        self.partitions.len() == 1 && self.partitions[0].docs.legacy().is_some()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns whether bounded WAND results can certify exact global top-k membership.
+    ///
+    /// The certificate requires a modern index whose every physical partition
+    /// contains impact metadata. Modern postings without impacts can prune with
+    /// partition-local scores before applying a corpus-wide scorer, so their
+    /// bounded candidate set cannot establish global exactness.
+    pub fn supports_wand_exactness_certificate(&self) -> bool {
+        !self.is_legacy()
+            && self
+                .partitions
+                .iter()
+                .all(|partition| partition.inverted_list.has_impacts)
+    }
+
+    /// Read only the index's [`InvertedIndexParams`],
+    /// Contains more complete info than manifest's lossy `InvertedIndexDetails`.
+    pub async fn load_params(store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<InvertedIndexParams> {
+        match store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await {
+            Ok(reader) => {
+                let params = reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get("params")
+                    .ok_or(Error::index("params not found in metadata".to_owned()))?;
+                Ok(serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(params)?)
+            }
+            Err(metadata_error) => {
+                // Legacy format: params live in the tokens file (see
+                // `load_legacy_index`). Some S3 configurations return 403 for
+                // a missing object, so the readable legacy file is the
+                // authoritative format probe.
+                let Ok(reader) = store.open_index_file(TOKENS_FILE).await else {
+                    return Err(metadata_error);
+                };
+                Ok(reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get("tokenizer")
+                    .map(|s| serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(s))
+                    .transpose()?
+                    .unwrap_or_default())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub async fn load(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>>
+    where
+        Self: Sized,
+    {
+        // for new index format, there is a metadata file and multiple partitions,
+        // each partition is a separate index containing tokens, inverted list and docs.
+        // for old index format, there is no metadata file, and it's just like a single partition
+
+        match store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await {
+            Ok(reader) => {
+                let params = reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get("params")
+                    .ok_or(Error::index("params not found in metadata".to_owned()))?;
+                let mut params = serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(params)?;
+                let partitions = reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get("partitions")
+                    .ok_or(Error::index("partitions not found in metadata".to_owned()))?;
+                let partitions: Vec<u64> = serde_json::from_str(partitions)?;
+                let token_set_format = reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get(TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY)
+                    .map(|name| TokenSetFormat::from_str(name))
+                    .transpose()?
+                    .unwrap_or(TokenSetFormat::Arrow);
+                let format_version = parse_format_version_from_metadata(&reader.schema().metadata)?;
+
+                // Load deleted_fragments if present (optional for backward compatibility)
+                let deleted_fragments = if reader.num_rows() > 0 {
+                    let metadata_batch = reader.read_range(0..1, None).await?;
+                    if let Some(col) = metadata_batch.column_by_name(DELETED_FRAGMENTS_COL) {
+                        let arr = col.as_binary_opt::<i32>().expect_ok()?;
+                        RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(arr.value(0))?
+                    } else {
+                        RoaringBitmap::new()
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    RoaringBitmap::new()
+                };
+
+                let format = token_set_format;
+                let partitions = partitions.into_iter().enumerate().map(|(priority, id)| {
+                    let store = store.with_io_priority(priority as u64);
+                    let frag_reuse_index_clone = frag_reuse_index.clone();
+                    let index_cache_for_part =
+                        index_cache.with_key_prefix(format!("part-{}", id).as_str());
+                    let token_set_format = format;
+                    async move {
+                        Result::Ok(Arc::new(
+                            InvertedPartition::load(
+                                store,
+                                id,
+                                frag_reuse_index_clone,
+                                &index_cache_for_part,
+                                token_set_format,
+                            )
+                            .await?,
+                        ))
+                    }
+                });
+                let partitions = stream::iter(partitions)
+                    .buffer_unordered(store.io_parallelism())
+                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .await?;
+
+                let coordinate_rank = partitions
+                    .first()
+                    .map(|partition| partition.docs.coordinate_rank())
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                if partitions
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|partition| partition.docs.coordinate_rank() != coordinate_rank)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "FTS partitions have inconsistent document coordinate ranks".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                params.document_granularity = if coordinate_rank == 0 {
+                    DocumentGranularity::Row
+                } else {
+                    DocumentGranularity::ListElement
+                };
+
+                let tokenizer = params.build()?;
+                Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+                    params,
+                    store,
+                    tokenizer,
+                    token_set_format,
+                    format_version,
+                    partitions,
+                    corpus_stats: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
+                    prewarm_state: Arc::new(Mutex::new(InvertedPrewarmState::default())),
+                    document_projections_resident: Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false)),
+                    deleted_fragments,
+                }))
+            }
+            Err(_) => {
+                // old index format
+                Self::load_legacy_index(store, frag_reuse_index, index_cache).await
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    pub(crate) async fn load_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        // for new index format, there is a metadata file and multiple partitions,
+        // each partition is a separate index containing tokens, inverted list and docs.
+        // for old index format, there is no metadata file, and it's just like a single partition
+
+        match store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await {
+            Ok(reader) => {
+                let params = reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get("params")
+                    .ok_or(Error::index("params not found in metadata".to_owned()))?;
+                let mut params = serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(params)?;
+                let partitions = reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get("partitions")
+                    .ok_or(Error::index("partitions not found in metadata".to_owned()))?;
+                let partitions: Vec<u64> = serde_json::from_str(partitions)?;
+                let token_set_format = reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get(TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY)
+                    .map(|name| TokenSetFormat::from_str(name))
+                    .transpose()?
+                    .unwrap_or(TokenSetFormat::Arrow);
+                let format_version = parse_format_version_from_metadata(&reader.schema().metadata)?;
+
+                // Load deleted_fragments if present (optional for backward compatibility)
+                let deleted_fragments = if reader.num_rows() > 0 {
+                    let metadata_batch = reader.read_range(0..1, None).await?;
+                    if let Some(col) = metadata_batch.column_by_name(DELETED_FRAGMENTS_COL) {
+                        let arr = col.as_binary_opt::<i32>().expect_ok()?;
+                        RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(arr.value(0))?
+                    } else {
+                        RoaringBitmap::new()
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    RoaringBitmap::new()
+                };
+
+                let format = token_set_format;
+                let partitions = partitions.into_iter().enumerate().map(|(priority, id)| {
+                    let store = store.with_io_priority(priority as u64);
+                    let remapping_clone = remapping.clone();
+                    let index_cache_for_part =
+                        index_cache.with_key_prefix(format!("part-{}", id).as_str());
+                    let token_set_format = format;
+                    async move {
+                        Result::Ok(Arc::new(
+                            InvertedPartition::load_with_remapping(
+                                store,
+                                id,
+                                remapping_clone,
+                                &index_cache_for_part,
+                                token_set_format,
+                            )
+                            .await?,
+                        ))
+                    }
+                });
+                let partitions = stream::iter(partitions)
+                    .buffer_unordered(store.io_parallelism())
+                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .await?;
+
+                let coordinate_rank = partitions
+                    .first()
+                    .map(|partition| partition.docs.coordinate_rank())
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                if partitions
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|partition| partition.docs.coordinate_rank() != coordinate_rank)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "FTS partitions have inconsistent document coordinate ranks".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                params.document_granularity = if coordinate_rank == 0 {
+                    DocumentGranularity::Row
+                } else {
+                    DocumentGranularity::ListElement
+                };
+
+                let tokenizer = params.build()?;
+                Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+                    params,
+                    store,
+                    tokenizer,
+                    token_set_format,
+                    format_version,
+                    partitions,
+                    corpus_stats: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
+                    prewarm_state: Arc::new(Mutex::new(InvertedPrewarmState::default())),
+                    document_projections_resident: Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false)),
+                    deleted_fragments,
+                }))
+            }
+            Err(_) => {
+                // Old index format. Its document store keeps per-document
+                // lengths positionally aligned with the row ids it was built
+                // with; translating the row ids under a mapping that drops
+                // rows would misalign them and change scoring, so a legacy
+                // layout is only loadable without translation. The tagged
+                // reader excludes such a segment from coverage and the
+                // planner scans its fragments instead.
+                if remapping.is_some() {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                        "a legacy-layout full-text index cannot be translated under a tagged \
+                         fragment reuse history; rebuild the index to use it there",
+                    ));
+                }
+                Self::load_legacy_index_with_remapping(store, None, index_cache).await
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl Index for InvertedIndex {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index> {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+        let num_tokens = self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|part| part.tokens.len())
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        let num_docs = self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|part| part.docs.len())
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        Ok(serde_json::json!({
+            "params": self.params,
+            "num_tokens": num_tokens,
+            "num_docs": num_docs,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::default())
+            .await
+    }
+
+    fn index_type(&self) -> crate::IndexType {
+        crate::IndexType::Inverted
+    }
+
+    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        unimplemented!()
+    }
+}
+
+impl InvertedIndex {
+    /// Return whether both handles share the same runtime prewarm state.
+    ///
+    /// Cloning or rebinding readers preserves this identity; independently
+    /// loading the same index does not. This checks neither cache residency nor
+    /// whether the handles' storage bindings are interchangeable.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndex;
+    ///
+    /// fn cloned_handle_shares_state(index: &InvertedIndex) -> bool {
+    ///     index.shares_prewarm_state(&index.clone())
+    /// }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn shares_prewarm_state(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        Arc::ptr_eq(&self.prewarm_state, &other.prewarm_state)
+    }
+
+    /// Return whether an explicit prewarm prepared everything this query needs.
+    ///
+    /// This is an O(1) routing hint for query planning. It never starts I/O or
+    /// waits for a concurrent prewarm. The projection check also clears a stale
+    /// optimistic hint after cache eviction; an unexpected posting eviction is
+    /// still handled exactly by the normal eager loader.
+    pub(in super::super) fn prewarmed_query_state_ready(&self, with_position: bool) -> bool {
+        let Ok(state) = self.prewarm_state.try_lock() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        state.satisfies(with_position) && self.has_resident_document_projections()
+    }
+
+    pub async fn prewarm_with_options(&self, options: &FtsPrewarmOptions) -> Result<()> {
+        self.prewarm_with_options_result(options).await.map(|_| ())
+    }
+
+    pub async fn prewarm_with_options_result(
+        &self,
+        options: &FtsPrewarmOptions,
+    ) -> Result<FtsPrewarmResult> {
+        let mut state = self.prewarm_state.lock().await;
+        if state.satisfies(options.with_position)
+            && self
+                .prewarm_diagnostics(options.with_position)
+                .await
+                .fully_resident()
+        {
+            return Ok(FtsPrewarmResult::fully_resident());
+        }
+        let with_position = options.with_position || state.positions_ready;
+        state.query_ready = false;
+        state.positions_ready = false;
+        self.document_projections_resident
+            .store(false, Ordering::Release);
+        let result = self
+            .prewarm_query_state(with_position, options.mode.is_best_effort())
+            .await?;
+        if result.fully_resident {
+            state.query_ready = true;
+            state.positions_ready = with_position;
+        }
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+
+    async fn prewarm_query_state(
+        &self,
+        with_position: bool,
+        best_effort: bool,
+    ) -> Result<FtsPrewarmResult> {
+        let chunk_concurrency = self.store.io_parallelism().max(1);
+        let prewarm_started = Instant::now();
+        info!(
+            partition_count = self.partitions.len(),
+            with_position, best_effort, chunk_concurrency, "fts index prewarm started"
+        );
+        for part in &self.partitions {
+            let partition_started = Instant::now();
+            info!(
+                partition_id = part.id(),
+                token_count = part.tokens.len(),
+                with_position,
+                chunk_concurrency,
+                "fts partition prewarm started"
+            );
+            if let Err(err) = part
+                .inverted_list
+                .prewarm_posting_lists(with_position, chunk_concurrency)
+                .await
+            {
+                warn!(
+                    partition_id = part.id(),
+                    error = %err,
+                    elapsed_ms = partition_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                    "fts partition posting list prewarm failed"
+                );
+                return Err(err);
+            }
+            info!(
+                partition_id = part.id(),
+                elapsed_ms = partition_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                "fts partition posting lists prewarmed"
+            );
+            let docs_started = Instant::now();
+            if let Err(err) = part.docs.prewarm().await {
+                warn!(
+                    partition_id = part.id(),
+                    error = %err,
+                    elapsed_ms = docs_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                    total_elapsed_ms = partition_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                    "fts partition docset prewarm failed"
+                );
+                return Err(err);
+            }
+            info!(
+                partition_id = part.id(),
+                docset_elapsed_ms = docs_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                elapsed_ms = partition_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                "fts partition prewarm finished"
+            );
+        }
+        self.aggregate_corpus_stats().await?;
+        let diagnostics = self.prewarm_diagnostics(with_position).await;
+        if !diagnostics.fully_resident() {
+            if best_effort {
+                warn!(
+                    partition_count = diagnostics.partition_count,
+                    failing_partition_count = diagnostics.failing_partitions.len(),
+                    diagnostics = %diagnostics,
+                    elapsed_ms = prewarm_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                    "fts index prewarm finished with partial residency"
+                );
+                return Ok(FtsPrewarmResult::partial(diagnostics));
+            }
+            return Err(Error::internal(diagnostics.to_string()));
+        }
+        self.document_projections_resident
+            .store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        info!(
+            partition_count = self.partitions.len(),
+            query_ready = true,
+            elapsed_ms = prewarm_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+            "fts index prewarm finished"
+        );
+        Ok(FtsPrewarmResult::fully_resident())
+    }
+
+    pub async fn prewarm_residency_result(&self, with_position: bool) -> FtsPrewarmResult {
+        let diagnostics = self.prewarm_diagnostics(with_position).await;
+        if diagnostics.fully_resident() {
+            FtsPrewarmResult::fully_resident()
+        } else {
+            FtsPrewarmResult::partial(diagnostics)
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn prewarm_diagnostics(&self, with_position: bool) -> FtsPrewarmDiagnostics {
+        let statuses = futures::future::join_all(self.partitions.iter().map(|partition| async {
+            let (posting_resident, position_resident) = partition
+                .inverted_list
+                .prewarm_residency_status(with_position)
+                .await;
+            FtsPrewarmPartitionStatus {
+                segment_id: None,
+                partition_id: partition.id(),
+                documents: partition.docs.prewarm_status(),
+                posting_validation_ready: partition.inverted_list.modern_posting_validation_ready(),
+                posting_resident,
+                position_resident,
+            }
+        }))
+        .await;
+        let failing_partitions = statuses
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|status| !status.query_ready())
+            .collect();
+        FtsPrewarmDiagnostics {
+            partition_count: self.partitions.len(),
+            failing_segments: Vec::new(),
+            failing_partitions,
+        }
+    }
+    /// Search docs match the input text.
+    async fn do_search(&self, text: &str) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::new();
+        let mut tokenizer = self.tokenizer.clone();
+        let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(text, &mut tokenizer)?;
+
+        let (doc_ids, _) = self
+            .bm25_search(
+                Arc::new(tokens),
+                params.into(),
+                Operator::And,
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+                None,
+            )
+            .boxed()
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            ROW_ID_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(doc_ids))],
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
+impl InvertedIndex {
+    /// The one remap implementation: the legacy `remap` (an in-memory
+    /// mapping, borrowed as a synchronous translator) and `remap_streaming`
+    /// both come here, so neither copies a map nor delegates to the other.
+    async fn remap_with(
+        &self,
+        mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let files = self
+            .to_builder()
+            .remap_with(mapping, self.store.clone(), dest_store)
+            .await?;
+
+        let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&self.params)?;
+
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap(),
+            index_version: self.index_version(),
+            files,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndex for InvertedIndex {
+    // return the row ids of the documents that contain the query
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    async fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        let query = query.as_any().downcast_ref::<TokenQuery>().unwrap();
+
+        match query {
+            TokenQuery::TokensContains(text) => {
+                let records = self.do_search(text).await?;
+                let row_ids = records
+                    .column(0)
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                let row_ids = row_ids.iter().flatten().collect_vec();
+                Ok(SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(row_ids)))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn remap(
+        &self,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        self.remap_with(mapping.into(), dest_store).await
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        self.remap_with(translator.as_ref(), dest_store).await
+    }
+
+    async fn update(
+        &self,
+        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filter: Option<crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let files = self
+            .to_builder()
+            .update(new_data, dest_store, old_data_filter)
+            .await?;
+
+        let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&self.params)?;
+
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap(),
+            index_version: self.index_version(),
+            files,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
+        let criteria = TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_id();
+        if self.is_legacy() {
+            UpdateCriteria::requires_old_data(criteria)
+        } else {
+            UpdateCriteria::only_new_data(criteria)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
+        let mut params = self.params.clone();
+        if params.base_tokenizer.is_empty() {
+            // Empty tokenizer metadata only appears in legacy simple-tokenizer indexes.
+            params.base_tokenizer = "simple".to_string();
+        }
+        params = params.format_version(self.format_version());
+
+        let params_json = params.to_training_json()?.to_string();
+
+        Ok(ScalarIndexParams {
+            index_type: BuiltinIndexType::Inverted.as_str().to_string(),
+            params: Some(params_json),
+        })
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/partition.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/partition.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3d5f483527c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/partition.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2194 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+use smallvec::SmallVec;
+use std::collections::VecDeque;
+
+const UNICODE_LEVENSHTEIN_STATE_LIMIT: usize = 10_000;
+
+type ByteTransitions = Box<[Option<usize>; 256]>;
+
+struct UnicodeDfaState {
+    transitions: ByteTransitions,
+    is_match: bool,
+}
+
+/// A Unicode-scalar Levenshtein automaton for FST dictionaries.
+///
+/// `fst` 0.4's built-in automaton can lose exact transitions when multiple
+/// non-ASCII query scalars share a UTF-8 lead byte. This implementation fixes
+/// that overlap while retaining the same execution model: query construction
+/// interns bounded Levenshtein rows and compiles a byte DFA, then FST traversal
+/// performs one table lookup per byte without allocating.
+pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) struct UnicodeLevenshtein {
+    states: Vec<UnicodeDfaState>,
+    start_state: usize,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    exact_override_counts: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct UnicodeLevenshteinError {
+    state_limit: usize,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for UnicodeLevenshteinError {
+    fn fmt(&self, formatter: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(
+            formatter,
+            "Unicode Levenshtein automaton exceeds state limit of {}",
+            self.state_limit
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct ExactUtf8Trie {
+    target: Option<usize>,
+    children: BTreeMap<u8, Self>,
+}
+
+impl ExactUtf8Trie {
+    fn insert(&mut self, bytes: &[u8], target: usize) {
+        let mut node = self;
+        for byte in bytes {
+            node = node.children.entry(*byte).or_default();
+        }
+        node.target = Some(target);
+    }
+}
+
+struct UnicodeLevenshteinBuilder {
+    query: Vec<char>,
+    exact_prefix: Vec<u8>,
+    max_distance: usize,
+    state_limit: usize,
+    states: Vec<UnicodeDfaState>,
+    rows: HashMap<Vec<usize>, usize>,
+    pending_rows: VecDeque<Vec<usize>>,
+    default_utf8_transitions: HashMap<usize, ByteTransitions>,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    exact_override_counts: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+impl UnicodeLevenshtein {
+    fn new(
+        fuzzy_suffix: &str,
+        exact_prefix: &str,
+        max_distance: u32,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<Self, UnicodeLevenshteinError> {
+        Self::new_with_limit(
+            fuzzy_suffix,
+            exact_prefix,
+            max_distance,
+            UNICODE_LEVENSHTEIN_STATE_LIMIT,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn new_with_limit(
+        fuzzy_suffix: &str,
+        exact_prefix: &str,
+        max_distance: u32,
+        state_limit: usize,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<Self, UnicodeLevenshteinError> {
+        UnicodeLevenshteinBuilder {
+            query: fuzzy_suffix.chars().collect(),
+            exact_prefix: exact_prefix.as_bytes().to_vec(),
+            max_distance: max_distance as usize,
+            state_limit,
+            states: Vec::new(),
+            rows: HashMap::new(),
+            pending_rows: VecDeque::new(),
+            default_utf8_transitions: HashMap::new(),
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            exact_override_counts: Vec::new(),
+        }
+        .build()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Automaton for UnicodeLevenshtein {
+    type State = Option<usize>;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn start(&self) -> Self::State {
+        Some(self.start_state)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn is_match(&self, state: &Self::State) -> bool {
+        state.is_some_and(|state| self.states[state].is_match)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn can_match(&self, state: &Self::State) -> bool {
+        state.is_some()
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn accept(&self, state: &Self::State, byte: u8) -> Self::State {
+        state.and_then(|state| self.states[state].transitions[byte as usize])
+    }
+}
+
+pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) struct AsciiFuzzyAutomaton {
+    levenshtein: fst::automaton::Levenshtein,
+    exact_prefix: Vec<u8>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) struct AsciiFuzzyState {
+    levenshtein: Option<usize>,
+    exact_prefix_bytes_matched: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl Automaton for AsciiFuzzyAutomaton {
+    type State = AsciiFuzzyState;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn start(&self) -> Self::State {
+        AsciiFuzzyState {
+            levenshtein: self.levenshtein.start(),
+            exact_prefix_bytes_matched: Some(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn is_match(&self, state: &Self::State) -> bool {
+        self.levenshtein.is_match(&state.levenshtein)
+            && state.exact_prefix_bytes_matched == Some(self.exact_prefix.len())
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn can_match(&self, state: &Self::State) -> bool {
+        self.levenshtein.can_match(&state.levenshtein) && state.exact_prefix_bytes_matched.is_some()
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn accept(&self, state: &Self::State, byte: u8) -> Self::State {
+        let exact_prefix_bytes_matched = state.exact_prefix_bytes_matched.and_then(|position| {
+            if position == self.exact_prefix.len() {
+                Some(position)
+            } else if self.exact_prefix[position] == byte {
+                Some(position + 1)
+            } else {
+                None
+            }
+        });
+        AsciiFuzzyState {
+            levenshtein: self.levenshtein.accept(&state.levenshtein, byte),
+            exact_prefix_bytes_matched,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) enum FuzzyAutomaton {
+    Ascii(AsciiFuzzyAutomaton),
+    Unicode(UnicodeLevenshtein),
+}
+
+pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) enum FuzzyAutomatonState {
+    Ascii(AsciiFuzzyState),
+    Unicode(Option<usize>),
+}
+
+impl FuzzyAutomaton {
+    pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) fn new(
+        token: &str,
+        token_type: &DocType,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let fuzzy = fuzzy_term_options(token, token_type, params.fuzziness, params.prefix_length);
+        if token.is_ascii() {
+            let levenshtein = fst::automaton::Levenshtein::new(token, fuzzy.edit_distance)
+                .map_err(|error| {
+                    Error::index(format!("failed to construct the fuzzy query: {error}"))
+                })?;
+            Ok(Self::Ascii(AsciiFuzzyAutomaton {
+                levenshtein,
+                exact_prefix: fuzzy.exact_prefix.as_bytes().to_vec(),
+            }))
+        } else {
+            let levenshtein = UnicodeLevenshtein::new(
+                fuzzy.fuzzy_suffix,
+                fuzzy.exact_prefix,
+                fuzzy.edit_distance,
+            )
+            .map_err(|error| {
+                Error::index(format!("failed to construct the fuzzy query: {error}"))
+            })?;
+            Ok(Self::Unicode(levenshtein))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Automaton for FuzzyAutomaton {
+    type State = FuzzyAutomatonState;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn start(&self) -> Self::State {
+        match self {
+            Self::Ascii(automaton) => FuzzyAutomatonState::Ascii(automaton.start()),
+            Self::Unicode(automaton) => FuzzyAutomatonState::Unicode(automaton.start()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn is_match(&self, state: &Self::State) -> bool {
+        match (self, state) {
+            (Self::Ascii(automaton), FuzzyAutomatonState::Ascii(state)) => {
+                automaton.is_match(state)
+            }
+            (Self::Unicode(automaton), FuzzyAutomatonState::Unicode(state)) => {
+                automaton.is_match(state)
+            }
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn can_match(&self, state: &Self::State) -> bool {
+        match (self, state) {
+            (Self::Ascii(automaton), FuzzyAutomatonState::Ascii(state)) => {
+                automaton.can_match(state)
+            }
+            (Self::Unicode(automaton), FuzzyAutomatonState::Unicode(state)) => {
+                automaton.can_match(state)
+            }
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn accept(&self, state: &Self::State, byte: u8) -> Self::State {
+        match (self, state) {
+            (Self::Ascii(automaton), FuzzyAutomatonState::Ascii(state)) => {
+                FuzzyAutomatonState::Ascii(automaton.accept(state, byte))
+            }
+            (Self::Unicode(automaton), FuzzyAutomatonState::Unicode(state)) => {
+                FuzzyAutomatonState::Unicode(automaton.accept(state, byte))
+            }
+            (Self::Ascii(_), _) => FuzzyAutomatonState::Ascii(AsciiFuzzyState {
+                levenshtein: None,
+                exact_prefix_bytes_matched: None,
+            }),
+            (Self::Unicode(_), _) => FuzzyAutomatonState::Unicode(None),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl UnicodeLevenshteinBuilder {
+    fn empty_transitions() -> ByteTransitions {
+        Box::new([None; 256])
+    }
+
+    fn add_state(
+        &mut self,
+        transitions: ByteTransitions,
+        is_match: bool,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<usize, UnicodeLevenshteinError> {
+        if self.states.len() >= self.state_limit {
+            return Err(UnicodeLevenshteinError {
+                state_limit: self.state_limit,
+            });
+        }
+        let state = self.states.len();
+        self.states.push(UnicodeDfaState {
+            transitions,
+            is_match,
+        });
+        Ok(state)
+    }
+
+    fn advance_row(&self, distances: &[usize], candidate: Option<char>) -> Vec<usize> {
+        let cutoff = self.max_distance.saturating_add(1);
+        let mut next = Vec::with_capacity(self.query.len() + 1);
+        next.push(distances[0].saturating_add(1).min(cutoff));
+        for (query_index, query) in self.query.iter().enumerate() {
+            let substitution_cost = usize::from(Some(*query) != candidate);
+            let insertion = distances[query_index + 1].saturating_add(1);
+            let deletion = next[query_index].saturating_add(1);
+            let substitution = distances[query_index].saturating_add(substitution_cost);
+            next.push(insertion.min(deletion).min(substitution).min(cutoff));
+        }
+        next
+    }
+
+    fn intern_row(
+        &mut self,
+        distances: Vec<usize>,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<Option<usize>, UnicodeLevenshteinError> {
+        if distances
+            .iter()
+            .all(|distance| *distance > self.max_distance)
+        {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if let Some(state) = self.rows.get(&distances) {
+            return Ok(Some(*state));
+        }
+        let is_match = distances
+            .last()
+            .is_some_and(|distance| *distance <= self.max_distance);
+        let state = self.add_state(Self::empty_transitions(), is_match)?;
+        self.rows.insert(distances.clone(), state);
+        self.pending_rows.push_back(distances);
+        Ok(Some(state))
+    }
+
+    fn state_with_range(
+        &mut self,
+        start: u8,
+        end: u8,
+        target: usize,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<usize, UnicodeLevenshteinError> {
+        let mut transitions = Self::empty_transitions();
+        transitions[start as usize..=end as usize].fill(Some(target));
+        self.add_state(transitions, false)
+    }
+
+    fn build_default_utf8_transitions(
+        &mut self,
+        target: usize,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<ByteTransitions, UnicodeLevenshteinError> {
+        if let Some(transitions) = self.default_utf8_transitions.get(&target) {
+            return Ok(transitions.clone());
+        }
+
+        let one_continuation = self.state_with_range(0x80, 0xbf, target)?;
+        let two_continuations = self.state_with_range(0x80, 0xbf, one_continuation)?;
+        let three_continuations = self.state_with_range(0x80, 0xbf, two_continuations)?;
+        let e0_second = self.state_with_range(0xa0, 0xbf, one_continuation)?;
+        let ed_second = self.state_with_range(0x80, 0x9f, one_continuation)?;
+        let f0_second = self.state_with_range(0x90, 0xbf, two_continuations)?;
+        let f4_second = self.state_with_range(0x80, 0x8f, two_continuations)?;
+
+        let mut transitions = Self::empty_transitions();
+        transitions[0x00..=0x7f].fill(Some(target));
+        transitions[0xc2..=0xdf].fill(Some(one_continuation));
+        transitions[0xe0] = Some(e0_second);
+        transitions[0xe1..=0xec].fill(Some(two_continuations));
+        transitions[0xed] = Some(ed_second);
+        transitions[0xee..=0xef].fill(Some(two_continuations));
+        transitions[0xf0] = Some(f0_second);
+        transitions[0xf1..=0xf3].fill(Some(three_continuations));
+        transitions[0xf4] = Some(f4_second);
+        self.default_utf8_transitions
+            .insert(target, transitions.clone());
+        Ok(transitions)
+    }
+
+    fn overlay_exact_trie(
+        &mut self,
+        transitions: &mut ByteTransitions,
+        trie: &ExactUtf8Trie,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<(), UnicodeLevenshteinError> {
+        for (byte, child) in &trie.children {
+            if let Some(target) = child.target {
+                debug_assert!(child.children.is_empty());
+                transitions[*byte as usize] = Some(target);
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let mut child_transitions = transitions[*byte as usize]
+                .map(|state| self.states[state].transitions.clone())
+                .unwrap_or_else(Self::empty_transitions);
+            self.overlay_exact_trie(&mut child_transitions, child)?;
+            transitions[*byte as usize] = Some(self.add_state(child_transitions, false)?);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn build_boundary_state(
+        &mut self,
+        distances: &[usize],
+    ) -> std::result::Result<(), UnicodeLevenshteinError> {
+        let boundary_state = self.rows[distances];
+        let mismatch = self.advance_row(distances, None);
+        let mismatch_state = self.intern_row(mismatch)?;
+        let mut transitions = match mismatch_state {
+            Some(target) => self.build_default_utf8_transitions(target)?,
+            None => Self::empty_transitions(),
+        };
+
+        let mut exact_trie = ExactUtf8Trie::default();
+        let mut exact_scalars = SmallVec::<[char; 8]>::new();
+        for (query_index, query_scalar) in self.query.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+            if distances[query_index] <= self.max_distance && !exact_scalars.contains(&query_scalar)
+            {
+                exact_scalars.push(query_scalar);
+            }
+        }
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        self.exact_override_counts.push(exact_scalars.len());
+        for query_scalar in exact_scalars {
+            let exact = self.advance_row(distances, Some(query_scalar));
+            if let Some(target) = self.intern_row(exact)? {
+                let mut encoded = [0; 4];
+                exact_trie.insert(query_scalar.encode_utf8(&mut encoded).as_bytes(), target);
+            }
+        }
+        self.overlay_exact_trie(&mut transitions, &exact_trie)?;
+        self.states[boundary_state].transitions = transitions;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn build(mut self) -> std::result::Result<UnicodeLevenshtein, UnicodeLevenshteinError> {
+        let cutoff = self.max_distance.saturating_add(1);
+        let initial_distances = (0..=self.query.len())
+            .map(|distance| distance.min(cutoff))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let initial_is_match = initial_distances
+            .last()
+            .is_some_and(|distance| *distance <= self.max_distance);
+        let suffix_start = self.add_state(Self::empty_transitions(), initial_is_match)?;
+        self.rows.insert(initial_distances.clone(), suffix_start);
+        self.pending_rows.push_back(initial_distances);
+        while let Some(distances) = self.pending_rows.pop_front() {
+            self.build_boundary_state(&distances)?;
+        }
+
+        let mut start_state = suffix_start;
+        for byte in std::mem::take(&mut self.exact_prefix).into_iter().rev() {
+            let mut transitions = Self::empty_transitions();
+            transitions[byte as usize] = Some(start_state);
+            start_state = self.add_state(transitions, false)?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(UnicodeLevenshtein {
+            states: self.states,
+            start_state,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            exact_override_counts: self.exact_override_counts,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct PositionMatchSummary {
+    exact_scoring_required: bool,
+    every_position_matched: bool,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub(in super::super) struct PostingLoadOptions {
+    force_global_scorer: bool,
+    read_policy: PostingReadPolicy,
+}
+
+impl PostingLoadOptions {
+    pub(super) const fn read_ahead(force_global_scorer: bool) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            force_global_scorer,
+            read_policy: PostingReadPolicy::ReadAhead,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(in super::super) const fn cache_aware_exact(force_global_scorer: bool) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            force_global_scorer,
+            read_policy: PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn summarize_position_matches(mut positions: SmallVec<[(u32, bool); 8]>) -> PositionMatchSummary {
+    positions.sort_unstable_by_key(|(position, _)| *position);
+
+    let mut exact_scoring_required = false;
+    let mut every_position_matched = true;
+    let mut group_start = 0;
+    while group_start < positions.len() {
+        let position = positions[group_start].0;
+        let mut group_end = group_start + 1;
+        let mut group_matched = positions[group_start].1;
+        while group_end < positions.len() && positions[group_end].0 == position {
+            exact_scoring_required = true;
+            group_matched |= positions[group_end].1;
+            group_end += 1;
+        }
+        every_position_matched &= group_matched;
+        group_start = group_end;
+    }
+
+    PositionMatchSummary {
+        exact_scoring_required,
+        every_position_matched,
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn validate_no_impact_scorer_upper_bound(
+    token: &str,
+    scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let query_weight = scorer.query_weight(token);
+    if !query_weight.is_finite() || query_weight < 0.0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "global BM25 query weight for token {token:?} must be finite and non-negative, got {query_weight}"
+        )));
+    }
+    let has_finite_bound = scorer.doc_weight_upper_bound().is_some_and(|bound| {
+        bound.is_finite() && bound >= 0.0 && (query_weight * bound).is_finite()
+    });
+    if !has_finite_bound {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "global BM25 scorer cannot provide a finite no-impact upper bound for token {token:?}"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn token_dictionary_may_match(
+    dictionary: &TokenSet,
+    tokens: &Tokens,
+    operator: Operator,
+    is_phrase_query: bool,
+) -> bool {
+    tokens_may_match(tokens, operator, is_phrase_query, |index| {
+        dictionary.get(tokens.get_token(index)).is_some()
+    })
+}
+
+/// [`InvertedPartition::may_match_tokens`] for token ids already resolved
+/// against the partition's dictionary.
+pub(super) fn token_ids_may_match(
+    tokens: &Tokens,
+    term_ids: PartitionTermIds<'_>,
+    operator: Operator,
+    is_phrase_query: bool,
+) -> bool {
+    tokens_may_match(tokens, operator, is_phrase_query, |index| {
+        term_ids.token_id(index).is_some()
+    })
+}
+
+fn tokens_may_match(
+    tokens: &Tokens,
+    operator: Operator,
+    is_phrase_query: bool,
+    mut in_dictionary: impl FnMut(usize) -> bool,
+) -> bool {
+    if tokens.is_empty() {
+        return false;
+    }
+    if operator != Operator::And && !is_phrase_query {
+        return (0..tokens.len()).any(in_dictionary);
+    }
+
+    // Query positions are normally adjacent, but `Tokens::with_positions` is
+    // public and does not require that ordering. Keep the exact behavior
+    // without allocating two hash tables for every leaf in every partition.
+    let mut positions = SmallVec::<[(u32, bool); 8]>::new();
+    for index in 0..tokens.len() {
+        positions.push((tokens.position(index), in_dictionary(index)));
+    }
+    summarize_position_matches(positions).every_position_matched
+}
+
+fn posting_group_demand_counts(
+    inverted_list: &PostingListReader,
+    token_ids: &[(u32, usize, u32)],
+) -> HashMap<(u32, u32), usize> {
+    let mut demanded_token_ids = token_ids
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(token_id, _, _)| *token_id)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    demanded_token_ids.sort_unstable();
+    demanded_token_ids.dedup();
+
+    let mut counts = HashMap::new();
+    for token_id in demanded_token_ids {
+        if let Some(group) = inverted_list.group_range_for_token(token_id) {
+            *counts.entry(group).or_default() += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    counts
+}
+
+fn effective_posting_read_policy(
+    inverted_list: &PostingListReader,
+    requested_policy: PostingReadPolicy,
+    group_demand_counts: &HashMap<(u32, u32), usize>,
+    token_id: u32,
+) -> PostingReadPolicy {
+    if requested_policy == PostingReadPolicy::ReadAhead {
+        return PostingReadPolicy::ReadAhead;
+    }
+    let Some(group) = inverted_list.group_range_for_token(token_id) else {
+        return PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact;
+    };
+    let demand_count = group_demand_counts.get(&group).copied();
+    debug_assert!(
+        demand_count.is_some(),
+        "posting group {group:?} must have a demand count for token {token_id}"
+    );
+    if demand_count == Some(1) {
+        PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact
+    } else {
+        PostingReadPolicy::ReadAhead
+    }
+}
+
+/// Query-level inputs for a grouped-term score upper bound.
+///
+/// The exact grouped score multiplies and then sums every expansion term in a
+/// stable order. Computing the bound from the `f32` sum of query weights can
+/// round below that score, so retain the `f64` sum and widen once for the term
+/// multiplications plus the final `f32` additions.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct GroupedScoreUpperBound {
+    query_weight: f32,
+    exact_query_weight_sum: f64,
+    rounding_factor: f64,
+}
+
+impl GroupedScoreUpperBound {
+    fn new(query_weights: impl Iterator<Item = f32>) -> Self {
+        let mut query_weight = 0.0_f32;
+        let mut exact_query_weight_sum = 0.0_f64;
+        let mut num_terms = 0usize;
+        for weight in query_weights {
+            query_weight += weight;
+            exact_query_weight_sum += f64::from(weight);
+            num_terms += 1;
+        }
+        Self {
+            query_weight,
+            exact_query_weight_sum,
+            // Two extra stages cover each term's rounded BM25 evaluation and
+            // multiplication before the grouped f32 sum.
+            rounding_factor: score_sum_upper_bound_factor(num_terms.saturating_add(2)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn score(self, union_freq: u32, doc_length: u32, scorer: &MemBM25Scorer) -> f32 {
+        outward_f32_upper_bound(
+            self.exact_query_weight_sum
+                * f64::from(scorer.doc_weight(union_freq, doc_length))
+                * self.rounding_factor,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct InvertedPartition {
+    // 0 for legacy format
+    pub(super) id: u64,
+    pub(super) store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    pub(crate) tokens: Arc<TokenSet>,
+    pub(crate) inverted_list: Arc<PostingListReader>,
+    /// Legacy documents stay in their original complete `DocSet`; modern
+    /// documents use typed, independently-loaded lengths and addresses.
+    pub(in super::super) docs: PartitionDocumentStore,
+    pub(super) token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+}
+
+impl InvertedPartition {
+    /// Check if this partition belongs to the specified fragment.
+    ///
+    /// This method encapsulates the bit manipulation logic for fragment filtering
+    /// in distributed indexing scenarios.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    /// * `fragment_mask` - A mask with fragment_id in high 32 bits
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    /// * `true` if the partition belongs to the fragment, `false` otherwise
+    pub fn belongs_to_fragment(&self, fragment_mask: u64) -> bool {
+        (self.id() & fragment_mask) == fragment_mask
+    }
+
+    pub fn id(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.id
+    }
+
+    pub fn store(&self) -> &dyn IndexStore {
+        self.store.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_legacy(&self) -> bool {
+        self.inverted_list.is_legacy_layout()
+    }
+
+    /// This partition's `(num_rows, per_term_row_freq)` counted over distinct
+    /// row ids rather than documents. See
+    /// [`InvertedIndex::bm25_row_stats_for_terms`] for why the distinction
+    /// exists and when this runs.
+    ///
+    /// A partition whose documents map one-to-one onto rows takes the same
+    /// single-metadata-row `posting_len_for_token` lookup the document-granularity
+    /// statistics use, so only a partition that really indexed one document per
+    /// list element pays for reading posting lists.
+    pub(super) async fn row_stats_for_terms(
+        &self,
+        terms: &[String],
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<(usize, Vec<usize>)> {
+        let docs = self.docs.address_keyed().await?;
+        let num_rows = docs.num_distinct_rows();
+        let one_document_per_row = num_rows == docs.len();
+        let is_legacy = self.is_legacy();
+        let mut row_freqs = Vec::with_capacity(terms.len());
+        for term in terms {
+            let Some(token_id) = self.tokens.get(term) else {
+                row_freqs.push(0);
+                continue;
+            };
+            if one_document_per_row {
+                row_freqs.push(
+                    self.inverted_list
+                        .posting_len_for_token(token_id, metrics)
+                        .await?,
+                );
+                continue;
+            }
+            // Deduplicating needs the postings themselves; `posting_len_for_token`
+            // only knows how many documents there are. The read is cached, and a
+            // partition that reaches this branch forces the full-read fallback in
+            // `combined_fields_search` anyway (legacy layout or non-ascending
+            // row_ids), so nothing that would otherwise have been pruned is read.
+            let posting = self
+                .inverted_list
+                .posting_list(token_id, false, metrics.unwrap_or(&NoOpMetricsCollector))
+                .await?;
+            let mut rows = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            for (row_id, _) in live_posting_rows(&posting, &docs, is_legacy) {
+                rows.insert(row_id);
+            }
+            row_freqs.push(rows.len() as usize);
+        }
+        Ok((num_rows, row_freqs))
+    }
+
+    /// This partition's share of `stale_rows`, counted the same way
+    /// [`Self::row_stats_for_terms`] counts the whole partition, so the caller can
+    /// subtract one from the other.
+    ///
+    /// Rows this partition holds no document for are skipped, so it is fine to pass
+    /// rows that live elsewhere.
+    pub(super) async fn stale_row_stats_for_terms(
+        &self,
+        terms: &[String],
+        stale_rows: &RowAddrTreeMap,
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<(u64, usize, Vec<usize>)> {
+        let mut row_freqs = vec![0usize; terms.len()];
+        let Some(addresses) = stale_rows.row_addrs() else {
+            // A whole-fragment marker names no row to look up in a posting list.
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "FTS corpus statistics cannot subtract overlay-stale rows named by whole fragments"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        };
+        let docs = self.docs.address_keyed().await?;
+        let mut total_tokens = 0u64;
+        let mut stale = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        for address in addresses {
+            let address = u64::from(address);
+            let doc_length = docs.doc_length_at(address);
+            if doc_length == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+            total_tokens += doc_length;
+            stale.insert(address);
+        }
+        if stale.is_empty() {
+            return Ok((0, 0, row_freqs));
+        }
+        let is_legacy = self.is_legacy();
+        // The stale rows' DocIds, ascending, with the row address each belongs to.
+        // Resolved once so a compressed posting list can be probed for just these
+        // documents instead of being decoded and mapped back to addresses in full.
+        let resolve_stale_docs = || -> Option<(Vec<u32>, Vec<u64>)> {
+            let mut pairs = Vec::with_capacity(stale.len() as usize);
+            for address in stale.iter() {
+                pairs.extend(docs.doc_ids_at(address)?.map(|doc_id| (doc_id, address)));
+            }
+            pairs.sort_unstable();
+            Some(pairs.into_iter().unzip())
+        };
+        let stale_docs = if is_legacy {
+            None
+        } else {
+            resolve_stale_docs()
+        };
+        for (slot, term) in terms.iter().enumerate() {
+            let Some(token_id) = self.tokens.get(term) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            // Whether a row held the term before the overlay is only visible in the
+            // posting list itself, so this reads it rather than taking the
+            // `posting_len_for_token` count the unrestricted path uses.
+            let posting = self
+                .inverted_list
+                .posting_list(token_id, false, metrics.unwrap_or(&NoOpMetricsCollector))
+                .await?;
+            let mut rows = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            match (&posting, &stale_docs) {
+                (PostingList::Compressed(posting), Some((doc_ids, addresses))) => {
+                    for (address, contained) in addresses.iter().zip(posting.contains_each(doc_ids))
+                    {
+                        if contained {
+                            rows.insert(*address);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    for (row_id, _) in live_posting_rows(&posting, &docs, is_legacy) {
+                        if stale.contains(row_id) {
+                            rows.insert(row_id);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            row_freqs[slot] = rows.len() as usize;
+        }
+        Ok((total_tokens, stale.len() as usize, row_freqs))
+    }
+
+    pub async fn load(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        id: u64,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let token_file = store.open_index_file(&token_file_path(id)).await?;
+        let tokens = TokenSet::load(token_file, token_set_format).await?;
+        let invert_list_file = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(id)).await?;
+        let mut inverted_list = PostingListReader::try_new(invert_list_file, index_cache).await?;
+        let docs_path = doc_file_path(id);
+        let docs_reader = store.open_index_file(&docs_path).await?;
+        let docs = PartitionDocuments::try_new(
+            store.clone(),
+            docs_path,
+            id,
+            WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+            docs_reader.as_ref(),
+            frag_reuse_index,
+            // 256-document blocks score with quantized document lengths.
+            inverted_list.block_size() == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        )?;
+        inverted_list.modern_num_docs = Some(docs.len());
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            id,
+            store,
+            tokens: Arc::new(tokens),
+            inverted_list: Arc::new(inverted_list),
+            docs: PartitionDocumentStore::Modern(Arc::new(docs)),
+            token_set_format,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    pub(crate) async fn load_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        id: u64,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let token_file = store.open_index_file(&token_file_path(id)).await?;
+        let tokens = TokenSet::load(token_file, token_set_format).await?;
+        let invert_list_file = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(id)).await?;
+        let mut inverted_list = PostingListReader::try_new(invert_list_file, index_cache).await?;
+        let docs_path = doc_file_path(id);
+        let docs_reader = store.open_index_file(&docs_path).await?;
+        let docs = PartitionDocuments::try_new_with_remapping(
+            store.clone(),
+            docs_path,
+            id,
+            WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+            docs_reader.as_ref(),
+            remapping,
+            // 256-document blocks score with quantized document lengths.
+            inverted_list.block_size() == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        )?;
+        inverted_list.modern_num_docs = Some(docs.len());
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            id,
+            store,
+            tokens: tokens.into(),
+            inverted_list: Arc::new(inverted_list),
+            docs: PartitionDocumentStore::Modern(Arc::new(docs)),
+            token_set_format,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn map(&self, token: &str) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.tokens.get(token)
+    }
+
+    /// Return whether this partition's token dictionary can satisfy a query
+    /// leaf without reading any posting data.
+    ///
+    /// Fuzzy expansions and identifier subwords that belong to the same
+    /// original query position are alternatives. AND and phrase leaves need
+    /// at least one dictionary term for every original position; OR leaves
+    /// need any term. A `false` result is therefore an exact empty-source
+    /// proof, while `true` remains conservative until postings are loaded.
+    pub(in super::super) fn may_match_tokens(
+        &self,
+        tokens: &Tokens,
+        operator: Operator,
+        is_phrase_query: bool,
+    ) -> bool {
+        token_dictionary_may_match(&self.tokens, tokens, operator, is_phrase_query)
+    }
+
+    pub fn expand_fuzzy(&self, tokens: &Tokens, params: &FtsSearchParams) -> Result<Tokens> {
+        let mut new_tokens = Vec::with_capacity(min(tokens.len(), params.max_expansions));
+        let mut new_positions = Vec::with_capacity(new_tokens.capacity());
+        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+        let mut seen_source_terms = HashSet::new();
+        for token_idx in 0..tokens.len() {
+            let remaining = params.max_expansions.saturating_sub(new_tokens.len());
+            if remaining == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
+            let token = tokens.get_token(token_idx);
+            let position = tokens.position(token_idx);
+            if !seen_source_terms.insert((position, token)) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let mut candidates = BTreeSet::new();
+            let automaton = FuzzyAutomaton::new(token, tokens.token_type(), params)?;
+            self.collect_fuzzy_candidates_with_automaton(&automaton, remaining, &mut candidates)?;
+            for candidate in candidates {
+                if new_tokens.len() >= params.max_expansions {
+                    break;
+                }
+                if seen.insert((candidate.clone(), position)) {
+                    new_tokens.push(candidate);
+                    new_positions.push(position);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Tokens::with_positions(
+            new_tokens,
+            new_positions,
+            tokens.token_type().clone(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Collect up to `limit` fuzzy candidates for one query token from this
+    /// partition's token FST, in key (lexicographic) order. Callers merge
+    /// candidates across partitions and apply the query-wide
+    /// `max_expansions` budget; truncating each partition at `limit` is
+    /// lossless for that selection because any term among the merged
+    /// lexicographically-smallest `limit` is also among its own partition's
+    /// smallest `limit`.
+    pub(super) fn collect_fuzzy_candidates_with_automaton<A: Automaton>(
+        &self,
+        automaton: &A,
+        limit: usize,
+        candidates: &mut BTreeSet<String>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if let TokenMap::Fst(ref map) = self.tokens.tokens {
+            let mut expanded = Vec::new();
+            take_fst_keys(map.search(automaton), &mut expanded, limit);
+            candidates.extend(expanded);
+            Ok(())
+        } else {
+            Err(Error::index(
+                "tokens is not fst, which is not expected".to_owned(),
+            ))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn grouped_score_upper_bound(
+        score_upper_bound: GroupedScoreUpperBound,
+        union_freq: u32,
+        doc_length: u32,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> f32 {
+        // BM25's document weight is monotonic in frequency and every IDF is
+        // non-negative. Scoring the summed frequency with the summed IDF is
+        // therefore an upper bound on the sum of the individual term scores.
+        score_upper_bound.score(union_freq, doc_length, scorer)
+    }
+
+    fn grouped_block_max_scores(
+        doc_ids: &[u32],
+        frequencies: &[u32],
+        block_size: usize,
+        docs: &LoadedDocLengths,
+        score_upper_bound: GroupedScoreUpperBound,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Vec<f32> {
+        doc_ids
+            .chunks(block_size)
+            .zip(frequencies.chunks(block_size))
+            .map(|(doc_ids, frequencies)| {
+                doc_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(frequencies)
+                    .map(|(doc_id, freq)| {
+                        Self::grouped_score_upper_bound(
+                            score_upper_bound,
+                            *freq,
+                            docs.scoring_num_tokens(*doc_id),
+                            scorer,
+                        )
+                    })
+                    .fold(0.0, f32::max)
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn union_plain_posting_lists(
+        postings: Vec<PostingList>,
+        docs: &LoadedDocLengths,
+        score_upper_bound: GroupedScoreUpperBound,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        let mut freqs_by_row_id = BTreeMap::new();
+        for posting in postings {
+            for (row_id, freq, _) in posting.iter() {
+                let entry = freqs_by_row_id.entry(row_id).or_insert(0u32);
+                *entry = entry.checked_add(freq).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!("posting frequency overflow for row id {}", row_id))
+                })?;
+            }
+        }
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(freqs_by_row_id.len());
+        let mut frequencies = Vec::with_capacity(freqs_by_row_id.len());
+        let mut max_score = 0.0_f32;
+        for (row_id, freq) in freqs_by_row_id {
+            max_score = max_score.max(Self::grouped_score_upper_bound(
+                score_upper_bound,
+                freq,
+                docs.num_tokens_by_row_id(row_id),
+                scorer,
+            ));
+            row_ids.push(row_id);
+            frequencies.push(freq as f32);
+        }
+        Ok(PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+            ScalarBuffer::from(row_ids),
+            ScalarBuffer::from(frequencies),
+            Some(max_score),
+            None,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn union_plain_posting_lists_with_positions(
+        postings: Vec<PostingList>,
+        docs: &LoadedDocLengths,
+        score_upper_bound: GroupedScoreUpperBound,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        let mut positions_by_row_id = BTreeMap::<u64, Vec<u32>>::new();
+        for posting in postings {
+            for (row_id, _, positions) in posting.iter() {
+                let positions = positions.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index("cannot union grouped phrase terms without positions".to_string())
+                })?;
+                positions_by_row_id
+                    .entry(row_id)
+                    .or_default()
+                    .extend(positions);
+            }
+        }
+        if positions_by_row_id.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<u64>::new()),
+                ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<f32>::new()),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(positions_by_row_id.len());
+        let mut frequencies = Vec::with_capacity(positions_by_row_id.len());
+        let mut positions_builder = ListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new());
+        let mut max_score = 0.0_f32;
+        for (row_id, mut positions) in positions_by_row_id {
+            positions.sort_unstable();
+            let frequency = positions.len() as u32;
+            max_score = max_score.max(Self::grouped_score_upper_bound(
+                score_upper_bound,
+                frequency,
+                docs.num_tokens_by_row_id(row_id),
+                scorer,
+            ));
+            row_ids.push(row_id);
+            frequencies.push(frequency as f32);
+            for position in positions {
+                positions_builder.values().append_value(position as i32);
+            }
+            positions_builder.append(true);
+        }
+
+        Ok(PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+            ScalarBuffer::from(row_ids),
+            ScalarBuffer::from(frequencies),
+            Some(max_score),
+            Some(positions_builder.finish()),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn union_compressed_posting_lists(
+        postings: Vec<PostingList>,
+        docs: &LoadedDocLengths,
+        score_upper_bound: GroupedScoreUpperBound,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        let block_size = postings
+            .iter()
+            .find_map(|posting| match posting {
+                PostingList::Compressed(posting) => Some(posting.block_size),
+                PostingList::Plain(_) => None,
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let mut freqs_by_doc_id = BTreeMap::new();
+        for posting in postings {
+            for (doc_id, freq, _) in posting.iter() {
+                let doc_id = u32::try_from(doc_id).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "compressed posting doc id {} exceeds u32::MAX",
+                        doc_id
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let entry = freqs_by_doc_id.entry(doc_id).or_insert(0u32);
+                *entry = entry.checked_add(freq).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!("posting frequency overflow for doc id {}", doc_id))
+                })?;
+            }
+        }
+        if freqs_by_doc_id.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<u64>::new()),
+                ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<f32>::new()),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new_with_block_size(false, block_size);
+        let mut doc_ids = Vec::with_capacity(freqs_by_doc_id.len());
+        let mut frequencies = Vec::with_capacity(freqs_by_doc_id.len());
+        for (doc_id, freq) in freqs_by_doc_id {
+            builder.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(freq));
+            doc_ids.push(doc_id);
+            frequencies.push(freq);
+        }
+        let block_max_scores = Self::grouped_block_max_scores(
+            &doc_ids,
+            &frequencies,
+            block_size,
+            docs,
+            score_upper_bound,
+            scorer,
+        );
+        let batch = builder.to_batch(block_max_scores)?;
+        let max_score = batch[MAX_SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().value(0);
+        let length = batch[LENGTH_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0);
+        PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(max_score), Some(length))
+    }
+
+    fn union_compressed_posting_lists_with_positions(
+        postings: Vec<PostingList>,
+        docs: &LoadedDocLengths,
+        score_upper_bound: GroupedScoreUpperBound,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        let block_size = postings
+            .iter()
+            .find_map(|posting| match posting {
+                PostingList::Compressed(posting) => Some(posting.block_size),
+                PostingList::Plain(_) => None,
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let mut positions_by_doc_id = BTreeMap::<u32, Vec<u32>>::new();
+        for posting in postings {
+            for (doc_id, _, positions) in posting.iter() {
+                let doc_id = u32::try_from(doc_id).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "compressed posting doc id {} exceeds u32::MAX",
+                        doc_id
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let positions = positions.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index("cannot union grouped phrase terms without positions".to_string())
+                })?;
+                positions_by_doc_id
+                    .entry(doc_id)
+                    .or_default()
+                    .extend(positions);
+            }
+        }
+        if positions_by_doc_id.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<u64>::new()),
+                ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<f32>::new()),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new_with_block_size(true, block_size);
+        let mut doc_ids = Vec::with_capacity(positions_by_doc_id.len());
+        let mut frequencies = Vec::with_capacity(positions_by_doc_id.len());
+        for (doc_id, mut positions) in positions_by_doc_id {
+            positions.sort_unstable();
+            let frequency = positions.len() as u32;
+            builder.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Position(positions.into()));
+            doc_ids.push(doc_id);
+            frequencies.push(frequency);
+        }
+        let block_max_scores = Self::grouped_block_max_scores(
+            &doc_ids,
+            &frequencies,
+            block_size,
+            docs,
+            score_upper_bound,
+            scorer,
+        );
+        let batch = builder.to_batch(block_max_scores)?;
+        let max_score = batch[MAX_SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().value(0);
+        let length = batch[LENGTH_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0);
+        PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(max_score), Some(length))
+    }
+
+    fn union_posting_lists(
+        postings: Vec<PostingList>,
+        docs: &LoadedDocLengths,
+        with_positions: bool,
+        score_upper_bound: GroupedScoreUpperBound,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        let has_plain = postings
+            .iter()
+            .any(|posting| matches!(posting, PostingList::Plain(_)));
+        let has_compressed = postings
+            .iter()
+            .any(|posting| matches!(posting, PostingList::Compressed(_)));
+        match (has_plain, has_compressed) {
+            (true, true) => Err(Error::index(
+                "cannot union mixed plain and compressed posting lists".to_owned(),
+            )),
+            (true, false) if with_positions => Self::union_plain_posting_lists_with_positions(
+                postings,
+                docs,
+                score_upper_bound,
+                scorer,
+            ),
+            (true, false) => {
+                Self::union_plain_posting_lists(postings, docs, score_upper_bound, scorer)
+            }
+            (false, true) if with_positions => Self::union_compressed_posting_lists_with_positions(
+                postings,
+                docs,
+                score_upper_bound,
+                scorer,
+            ),
+            (false, true) => {
+                Self::union_compressed_posting_lists(postings, docs, score_upper_bound, scorer)
+            }
+            (false, false) => Ok(PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<u64>::new()),
+                ScalarBuffer::from(Vec::<f32>::new()),
+                None,
+                None,
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    // search the documents that contain the query
+    // return the doc info and the doc length
+    // ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okapi_BM25
+    //
+    // `force_global_scorer` is used by compound search, where leaf scores and
+    // bounds must share corpus-level statistics before the global collector
+    // can safely propagate its threshold. Standard leaf search also routes
+    // no-impact postings through scorer-derived corpus-global upper bounds.
+    pub(in super::super) async fn load_posting_lists(
+        &self,
+        tokens: &Tokens,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        operator: Operator,
+        impact_scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        force_global_scorer: bool,
+    ) -> Result<LoadedPostings> {
+        self.load_posting_lists_with_policy(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            operator,
+            impact_scorer,
+            metrics,
+            PostingLoadOptions::read_ahead(force_global_scorer),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    pub(in super::super) async fn load_posting_lists_with_policy(
+        &self,
+        tokens: &Tokens,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        operator: Operator,
+        impact_scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        options: PostingLoadOptions,
+    ) -> Result<LoadedPostings> {
+        match self
+            .fetch_posting_lists(tokens, params, operator, metrics, options, None)
+            .await?
+        {
+            Some(fetched) => fetched.into_loaded(tokens, impact_scorer),
+            None => Ok(LoadedPostings::empty()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Read the postings a query leaf needs from this partition without
+    /// building iterators. Returns `None` when the partition cannot contribute.
+    ///
+    /// `term_ids`, when present, replaces the dictionary lookup of every final
+    /// token with ids resolved earlier against this partition's dictionary.
+    #[instrument(name = "load_posting_lists", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    pub(super) async fn fetch_posting_lists(
+        &self,
+        tokens: &Tokens,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        operator: Operator,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        options: PostingLoadOptions,
+        term_ids: Option<PartitionTermIds<'_>>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<FetchedPostings>> {
+        let PostingLoadOptions {
+            force_global_scorer,
+            read_policy: requested_read_policy,
+        } = options;
+        let is_phrase_query = params.phrase_slop.is_some();
+        let is_and_query = operator == Operator::And;
+        // The caller passes final tokens after any fuzzy expansion. Positions
+        // identify alternatives that must share one posting iterator,
+        // including code identifier subwords and fuzzy expansions.
+        let mut token_ids = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+        let mut position_matches = SmallVec::<[(u32, bool); 8]>::new();
+        for index in 0..tokens.len() {
+            let position = tokens.position(index);
+            let token_id = match &term_ids {
+                Some(term_ids) => term_ids.token_id(index),
+                None => self.map(tokens.get_token(index)),
+            };
+            position_matches.push((position, token_id.is_some()));
+            if let Some(token_id) = token_id {
+                token_ids.push((token_id, index, position));
+            }
+        }
+        let position_summary = summarize_position_matches(position_matches);
+        let exact_scoring_required = position_summary.exact_scoring_required;
+        if token_ids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if (is_and_query || is_phrase_query) && !position_summary.every_position_matched {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        token_ids.sort_unstable_by_key(|(token_id, _, position)| (*position, *token_id));
+        token_ids.dedup_by(|lhs, rhs| lhs.0 == rhs.0 && lhs.2 == rhs.2);
+
+        let group_demand_counts = if requested_read_policy == PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact {
+            posting_group_demand_counts(self.inverted_list.as_ref(), &token_ids)
+        } else {
+            HashMap::new()
+        };
+
+        let io_parallelism = self.store.io_parallelism();
+        let token_count = token_ids.len();
+        let reads = token_ids
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(token_id, token_index, position)| {
+                let read_policy = effective_posting_read_policy(
+                    self.inverted_list.as_ref(),
+                    requested_read_policy,
+                    &group_demand_counts,
+                    token_id,
+                );
+                async move {
+                    let posting = match read_policy {
+                        PostingReadPolicy::ReadAhead => {
+                            self.inverted_list
+                                .posting_list(token_id, is_phrase_query, metrics)
+                                .await?
+                        }
+                        PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact => {
+                            self.inverted_list
+                                .posting_list_with_policy(
+                                    token_id,
+                                    is_phrase_query,
+                                    metrics,
+                                    read_policy,
+                                )
+                                .await?
+                        }
+                    };
+
+                    Result::Ok((token_id, token_index, position, posting))
+                }
+            });
+        // A leaf usually reads a handful of postings; joining them directly
+        // avoids a stream task allocation per read. Larger expansions keep the
+        // store's read concurrency bound.
+        let loaded_postings = if token_count <= io_parallelism {
+            futures::future::try_join_all(reads).await?
+        } else {
+            stream::iter(reads)
+                .buffered(io_parallelism)
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await?
+        };
+
+        let needs_union = loaded_postings
+            .windows(2)
+            .any(|window| window[0].2 == window[1].2);
+        if (is_and_query || is_phrase_query)
+            && !needs_union
+            && loaded_postings
+                .iter()
+                .any(|(_, _, _, posting)| posting.is_empty())
+        {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let docs_for_union = if needs_union {
+            Some(match &self.docs {
+                PartitionDocumentStore::Legacy(docs) => LoadedDocLengths::Legacy(docs.clone()),
+                PartitionDocumentStore::Modern(documents) => {
+                    LoadedDocLengths::Modern(documents.lengths().await?)
+                }
+            })
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        Ok(Some(FetchedPostings {
+            postings: loaded_postings,
+            num_docs: self.docs.len(),
+            is_and_query,
+            is_phrase_query,
+            exact_scoring_required,
+            force_global_scorer,
+            docs_for_union,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(super) fn bm25_search_legacy(
+        &self,
+        docs: &DocSet,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        operator: Operator,
+        mask: &RowAddrMask,
+        postings: Vec<PostingIterator>,
+        impact_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        shared_threshold: Arc<AtomicU32>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate<u64>>> {
+        let documents = LegacyWandDocuments::new(docs, mask);
+        self.bm25_search_with_documents(
+            &documents,
+            params,
+            operator,
+            postings,
+            impact_scorer,
+            None,
+            metrics,
+            shared_threshold,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// `shared_norm_addends` is used only with `impact_scorer`, and must be
+    /// shared only by searches that pass the same impact scorer.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(super) fn bm25_search_modern(
+        &self,
+        lengths: &DocLengths,
+        visibility: &DocVisibility,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        operator: Operator,
+        postings: Vec<PostingIterator>,
+        impact_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+        shared_norm_addends: SharedNormAddends,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        shared_threshold: Arc<AtomicU32>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate<DocId>>> {
+        if visibility.is_all() {
+            let documents = ModernWandDocuments::all(lengths);
+            self.bm25_search_with_documents(
+                &documents,
+                params,
+                operator,
+                postings,
+                impact_scorer,
+                Some(shared_norm_addends),
+                metrics,
+                shared_threshold,
+            )
+        } else {
+            let documents = ModernWandDocuments::filtered(lengths, visibility);
+            self.bm25_search_with_documents(
+                &documents,
+                params,
+                operator,
+                postings,
+                impact_scorer,
+                Some(shared_norm_addends),
+                metrics,
+                shared_threshold,
+            )
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn bm25_search_with_documents<D: WandDocuments>(
+        &self,
+        documents: &D,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        operator: Operator,
+        postings: Vec<PostingIterator>,
+        impact_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+        shared_norm_addends: Option<SharedNormAddends>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        shared_threshold: Arc<AtomicU32>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate<D::Candidate>>> {
+        if postings.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+
+        let hits = if let Some(scorer) = impact_scorer {
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(operator, postings.into_iter(), documents, scorer)
+                .with_shared_threshold(shared_threshold);
+            if let Some(shared_norm_addends) = shared_norm_addends {
+                wand = wand.with_shared_norm_addends(shared_norm_addends);
+            }
+            wand.search(params, metrics)?
+        } else {
+            let scorer = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::once(self));
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(operator, postings.into_iter(), documents, scorer)
+                .with_shared_threshold(shared_threshold);
+            wand.search(params, metrics)?
+        };
+        Ok(hits)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn into_builder(self) -> Result<InnerBuilder> {
+        Ok(self.into_builder_chunked(None, None).await?.0)
+    }
+
+    async fn into_builder_chunked(
+        self,
+        chunk_tokens_override: Option<usize>,
+        max_list_children_override: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<(InnerBuilder, usize)> {
+        // Legacy per-document positions require singleton reads to protect Arrow's
+        // List<i32> offsets. Cap overlap so remote latency is hidden without
+        // multiplying retained decoded posting buffers by the store's full limit.
+        const MAX_LEGACY_POSITION_MERGE_CONCURRENCY: usize = 8;
+
+        let legacy_position_concurrency = self
+            .store
+            .io_parallelism()
+            .clamp(1, MAX_LEGACY_POSITION_MERGE_CONCURRENCY);
+        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            self.id,
+            self.inverted_list.has_positions(),
+            self.token_set_format,
+            self.inverted_list.posting_tail_codec(),
+            self.inverted_list.block_size(),
+        );
+        builder.tokens = TokenDictionary::try_from_token_set(Arc::unwrap_or_clone(self.tokens))?;
+        builder.docs = self.docs.load_build_docset().await?;
+
+        builder
+            .posting_lists
+            .reserve_exact(self.inverted_list.len());
+        let chunk_count = self
+            .inverted_list
+            .for_each_posting_list_chunked(
+                self.inverted_list.has_positions(),
+                chunk_tokens_override,
+                max_list_children_override,
+                legacy_position_concurrency,
+                |posting_list| {
+                    builder
+                        .posting_lists
+                        .push(posting_list.into_builder(&builder.docs));
+                    Ok(())
+                },
+            )
+            .await?;
+        Ok((builder, chunk_count))
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) async fn into_builder_with_chunk_limits(
+        self,
+        chunk_tokens: usize,
+        max_list_children: u64,
+    ) -> Result<(InnerBuilder, usize)> {
+        self.into_builder_chunked(Some(chunk_tokens), Some(max_list_children))
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Postings one partition read for a query leaf, before any iterator exists.
+///
+/// Building iterators allocates per-cursor decode state, so the modern search
+/// path defers [`Self::into_loaded`] to the CPU task that runs WAND and later
+/// frees that state on the same thread.
+pub(super) struct FetchedPostings {
+    /// `(token_id, token_index, position, posting)` sorted by
+    /// `(position, token_id)`; `token_index` indexes the fetched `Tokens`.
+    postings: Vec<(u32, usize, u32, PostingList)>,
+    num_docs: usize,
+    is_and_query: bool,
+    is_phrase_query: bool,
+    exact_scoring_required: bool,
+    force_global_scorer: bool,
+    /// Scoring lengths for unioning same-position postings, when any exist.
+    docs_for_union: Option<LoadedDocLengths>,
+}
+
+impl FetchedPostings {
+    /// Build the iterators; `tokens` must be the tokens these postings were
+    /// fetched for.
+    pub(super) fn into_loaded(
+        self,
+        tokens: &Tokens,
+        impact_scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Result<LoadedPostings> {
+        let Self {
+            postings: loaded_postings,
+            num_docs,
+            is_and_query,
+            is_phrase_query,
+            exact_scoring_required,
+            force_global_scorer,
+            docs_for_union,
+        } = self;
+        if docs_for_union.is_none() {
+            let impact_safe = loaded_postings
+                .iter()
+                .all(|(_, _, _, posting)| posting.has_impacts());
+            let no_impact_fallback = !impact_safe;
+            if no_impact_fallback {
+                for (_, token_index, _, posting) in &loaded_postings {
+                    if !posting.has_impacts() {
+                        validate_no_impact_scorer_upper_bound(
+                            tokens.get_token(*token_index),
+                            impact_scorer,
+                        )?;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            let exact_scoring_required = exact_scoring_required || no_impact_fallback;
+            return Ok(LoadedPostings {
+                postings: loaded_postings
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|(token_id, token_index, position, posting)| {
+                        let token = tokens.get_token(token_index);
+                        let needs_scorer_upper_bound = !posting.has_impacts();
+                        let query_weight =
+                            if impact_safe || exact_scoring_required || force_global_scorer {
+                                impact_scorer.query_weight(token)
+                            } else {
+                                idf(posting.len(), num_docs)
+                            };
+                        let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                            token.to_owned(),
+                            token_id,
+                            position,
+                            query_weight,
+                            posting,
+                            num_docs,
+                        );
+                        if needs_scorer_upper_bound {
+                            posting.with_scorer_upper_bound()
+                        } else {
+                            posting
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect(),
+                grouped_expansions: Vec::new(),
+                impact_safe,
+                exact_scoring_required,
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                no_impact_fallback,
+            });
+        }
+
+        let no_impact_fallback = loaded_postings
+            .iter()
+            .any(|(_, _, _, posting)| !posting.has_impacts());
+        if no_impact_fallback {
+            for (_, token_index, _, posting) in &loaded_postings {
+                if !posting.has_impacts() {
+                    validate_no_impact_scorer_upper_bound(
+                        tokens.get_token(*token_index),
+                        impact_scorer,
+                    )?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // WAND's AND mode treats every iterator as required, so expansions from
+        // one original query position must be merged before scoring.
+        let mut grouped_postings = Vec::new();
+        let mut grouped_expansions = Vec::new();
+        let mut iter = loaded_postings.into_iter().peekable();
+        while let Some((token_id, token_index, position, posting)) = iter.next() {
+            let mut group = vec![(token_id, token_index, posting)];
+            while matches!(iter.peek(), Some((_, _, next_position, _)) if *next_position == position)
+            {
+                let (token_id, token_index, _, posting) =
+                    iter.next().expect("peeked item must exist");
+                group.push((token_id, token_index, posting));
+            }
+
+            let (token_id, token_index, posting) = if group.len() == 1 {
+                group.pop().expect("single-item group must exist")
+            } else {
+                let token_id = group[0].0;
+                let token = tokens.get_token(group[0].1).to_owned();
+                let terms = group
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(_, token_index, posting)| {
+                        GroupedTermScorer::new(
+                            impact_scorer.query_weight(tokens.get_token(*token_index)),
+                            posting,
+                        )
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let terms = Arc::<[GroupedTermScorer]>::from(terms);
+                let score_upper_bound =
+                    GroupedScoreUpperBound::new(terms.iter().map(GroupedTermScorer::query_weight));
+                let query_weight = score_upper_bound.query_weight;
+                grouped_expansions.push(GroupedExpansionTerms {
+                    position,
+                    terms: terms.clone(),
+                });
+                let postings = group
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|(_, _, posting)| posting)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let docs = docs_for_union.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index("union docs were not loaded for grouped query terms".to_string())
+                })?;
+                let posting = InvertedPartition::union_posting_lists(
+                    postings,
+                    docs,
+                    is_phrase_query,
+                    score_upper_bound,
+                    impact_scorer,
+                )?;
+                if posting.is_empty() && (is_and_query || is_phrase_query) {
+                    return Ok(LoadedPostings::empty());
+                }
+                grouped_postings.push(
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        token,
+                        token_id,
+                        position,
+                        query_weight,
+                        posting,
+                        num_docs,
+                    )
+                    .with_grouped_terms(terms),
+                );
+                continue;
+            };
+            if posting.is_empty() {
+                if is_and_query || is_phrase_query {
+                    return Ok(LoadedPostings::empty());
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let token = tokens.get_token(token_index);
+            let query_weight = impact_scorer.query_weight(token);
+            let needs_scorer_upper_bound = !posting.has_impacts();
+            let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                token.to_owned(),
+                token_id,
+                position,
+                query_weight,
+                posting,
+                num_docs,
+            );
+            grouped_postings.push(if needs_scorer_upper_bound {
+                posting.with_scorer_upper_bound()
+            } else {
+                posting
+            });
+        }
+
+        Ok(LoadedPostings {
+            postings: grouped_postings,
+            grouped_expansions,
+            impact_safe: false,
+            exact_scoring_required: true,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            no_impact_fallback,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+
+    fn dictionary(terms: &[&str]) -> TokenSet {
+        let mut dictionary = TokenSet::default();
+        for term in terms {
+            dictionary.add((*term).to_owned());
+        }
+        dictionary
+    }
+
+    fn position_summary(entries: &[(u32, bool)]) -> PositionMatchSummary {
+        summarize_position_matches(entries.iter().copied().collect())
+    }
+
+    fn automaton_accepts<A: Automaton>(automaton: &A, candidate: &[u8]) -> bool {
+        let mut state = automaton.start();
+        for byte in candidate {
+            state = automaton.accept(&state, *byte);
+            if !automaton.can_match(&state) {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        automaton.is_match(&state)
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::empty("", "", 0, "", true)]
+    #[case::empty_with_one_insertion("", "", 1, "é", true)]
+    #[case::unicode_deletion("بسرع", "", 1, "بسر", true)]
+    #[case::unicode_distance_two("猫咪", "", 2, "小猫咪呀", true)]
+    #[case::unicode_over_distance("猫咪", "", 1, "小猫咪呀", false)]
+    #[case::exact_unicode_prefix("clair", "é", 1, "éclait", true)]
+    #[case::wrong_unicode_prefix("clair", "é", 1, "àclait", false)]
+    fn unicode_levenshtein_table_matches_scalar_distance(
+        #[case] fuzzy_suffix: &str,
+        #[case] exact_prefix: &str,
+        #[case] max_distance: u32,
+        #[case] candidate: &str,
+        #[case] expected: bool,
+    ) {
+        let automaton = UnicodeLevenshtein::new(fuzzy_suffix, exact_prefix, max_distance).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            automaton_accepts(&automaton, candidate.as_bytes()),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unicode_levenshtein_rejects_invalid_utf8_and_dead_states() {
+        let automaton = UnicodeLevenshtein::new("بسرع", "", 1).unwrap();
+        let start = automaton.start();
+        assert!(automaton.can_match(&start));
+
+        let partial = automaton.accept(&start, 0xd8);
+        assert!(automaton.can_match(&partial));
+        assert!(!automaton.is_match(&partial));
+
+        let invalid = automaton.accept(&partial, b'a');
+        assert!(!automaton.can_match(&invalid));
+        assert!(!automaton.is_match(&invalid));
+
+        let empty = UnicodeLevenshtein::new("", "", 0).unwrap();
+        let dead = empty.accept(&empty.start(), b'a');
+        assert!(!empty.can_match(&dead));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unicode_levenshtein_enforces_construction_state_limit() {
+        let Err(error) = UnicodeLevenshtein::new_with_limit("بسرع", "", 1, 1) else {
+            panic!("a one-state limit must reject the Unicode fuzzy DFA");
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(error.state_limit, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unicode_levenshtein_only_overrides_row_active_scalars() {
+        let query = "ابتثجحخدذرزسشصضطظعغفقكلمن";
+        let scalar_count = query.chars().count();
+        let automaton = UnicodeLevenshtein::new(query, "", 1).unwrap();
+        let row_count = automaton.exact_override_counts.len();
+        let override_count = automaton.exact_override_counts.iter().sum::<usize>();
+
+        assert!(row_count > 0);
+        assert!(
+            automaton
+                .exact_override_counts
+                .iter()
+                .all(|count| *count <= 3),
+            "distance=1 has at most a three-position active DP band"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            override_count <= row_count * 3 && override_count < row_count * scalar_count,
+            "row-active overrides must stay well below all-scalars-per-row construction"
+        );
+
+        let repeated = UnicodeLevenshtein::new("بببببببببببببببب", "", 1).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            repeated
+                .exact_override_counts
+                .iter()
+                .all(|count| *count <= 1),
+            "the same active scalar must install only one exact override per row"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ascii_fuzzy_automaton_keeps_exact_prefix_semantics() {
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+            .with_prefix_length(1);
+        let automaton = FuzzyAutomaton::new("cafe", &DocType::Text, &params).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(automaton_accepts(&automaton, "café".as_bytes()));
+        assert!(!automaton_accepts(&automaton, "dafé".as_bytes()));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unicode_levenshtein_handles_shared_utf8_lead_bytes() {
+        let mut builder = fst::MapBuilder::memory();
+        for (token_id, token) in ["assemblees", "café", "بسرعة"].into_iter().enumerate() {
+            builder.insert(token, token_id as u64).unwrap();
+        }
+        let map = builder.into_map();
+        let mut matches = Vec::new();
+
+        take_fst_keys(
+            map.search(UnicodeLevenshtein::new("بسرع", "", 1).unwrap()),
+            &mut matches,
+            10,
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(matches, vec!["بسرعة"]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn position_summary_marks_or_duplicates_for_exact_scoring() {
+        let summary = position_summary(&[(0, true), (0, false), (1, false)]);
+
+        assert!(summary.exact_scoring_required);
+        assert!(!summary.every_position_matched);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn position_summary_requires_a_match_in_every_and_group() {
+        let complete = position_summary(&[(0, false), (0, true), (1, true)]);
+        let incomplete = position_summary(&[(0, true), (1, false), (1, false)]);
+
+        assert!(complete.exact_scoring_required);
+        assert!(complete.every_position_matched);
+        assert!(incomplete.exact_scoring_required);
+        assert!(!incomplete.every_position_matched);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn position_summary_groups_nonadjacent_positions() {
+        let summary = position_summary(&[(9, false), (1, true), (4, true), (9, true)]);
+
+        assert!(summary.exact_scoring_required);
+        assert!(summary.every_position_matched);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn position_summary_spills_past_eight_tokens_without_losing_exactness() {
+        let mut positions = SmallVec::<[(u32, bool); 8]>::new();
+        positions.extend((0..10).map(|position| (position, true)));
+        positions.push((3, false));
+        assert!(positions.spilled());
+
+        let summary = summarize_position_matches(positions);
+        assert!(summary.exact_scoring_required);
+        assert!(summary.every_position_matched);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn token_dictionary_or_needs_any_expansion() {
+        let tokens = Tokens::with_positions(
+            vec!["missing".to_owned(), "alpha".to_owned()],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            DocType::Text,
+        );
+
+        assert!(token_dictionary_may_match(
+            &dictionary(&["alpha"]),
+            &tokens,
+            Operator::Or,
+            false,
+        ));
+        assert!(!token_dictionary_may_match(
+            &dictionary(&["other"]),
+            &tokens,
+            Operator::Or,
+            false,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn token_dictionary_and_and_phrase_need_every_original_position() {
+        let expanded = Tokens::with_positions(
+            vec!["alpha".to_owned(), "alphi".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()],
+            vec![0, 0, 1],
+            DocType::Text,
+        );
+        let complete = dictionary(&["alphi", "beta"]);
+        let missing_position = dictionary(&["alpha", "alphi"]);
+
+        assert!(token_dictionary_may_match(
+            &complete,
+            &expanded,
+            Operator::And,
+            false,
+        ));
+        assert!(!token_dictionary_may_match(
+            &missing_position,
+            &expanded,
+            Operator::And,
+            false,
+        ));
+        assert!(!token_dictionary_may_match(
+            &missing_position,
+            &expanded,
+            Operator::Or,
+            true,
+        ));
+
+        let non_adjacent_positions = Tokens::with_positions(
+            vec!["beta".to_owned(), "alpha".to_owned(), "alphi".to_owned()],
+            vec![1, 0, 1],
+            DocType::Text,
+        );
+        assert!(token_dictionary_may_match(
+            &dictionary(&["alpha", "alphi"]),
+            &non_adjacent_positions,
+            Operator::And,
+            false,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::plain(false)]
+    #[case::v3_compressed(true)]
+    fn grouped_union_bound_covers_exact_grouped_score(#[case] compressed: bool) {
+        let num_docs = 1_975_725usize;
+        let total_tokens = num_docs as u64 * u64::from(u32::MAX);
+        let token_names = ["t0", "t1"];
+        let token_docs = [1_970_713usize, 334_819];
+        let frequencies = [138_872u32, 794_767];
+        let doc_length = frequencies.into_iter().sum::<u32>();
+        let scorer = Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(
+            total_tokens,
+            num_docs,
+            token_names
+                .into_iter()
+                .zip(token_docs)
+                .map(|(token, docs)| (token.to_owned(), docs))
+                .collect(),
+        ));
+        let query_weights = token_names.map(|token| scorer.query_weight(token));
+        let exact_score = query_weights.into_iter().zip(frequencies).fold(
+            0.0_f32,
+            |score, (query_weight, frequency)| {
+                score + query_weight * scorer.doc_weight(frequency, doc_length)
+            },
+        );
+        let query_weight = query_weights.into_iter().sum::<f32>();
+        let score_upper_bound = GroupedScoreUpperBound::new(query_weights.into_iter());
+        let union_frequency = frequencies.into_iter().sum::<u32>();
+        let naive_proxy_bound = query_weight * scorer.doc_weight(union_frequency, doc_length);
+        let term_postings = query_weights
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(frequencies)
+            .map(|(query_weight, frequency)| {
+                let max_score = query_weight * scorer.doc_weight(frequency, doc_length);
+                if compressed {
+                    let mut builder =
+                        PostingListBuilder::new_with_block_size(false, MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE);
+                    builder.add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(frequency));
+                    let batch = builder.to_batch(vec![max_score]).unwrap();
+                    let max_score = batch[MAX_SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().value(0);
+                    let length = batch[LENGTH_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0);
+                    PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(max_score), Some(length)).unwrap()
+                } else {
+                    PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                        ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0u64]),
+                        ScalarBuffer::from(vec![frequency as f32]),
+                        Some(max_score),
+                        None,
+                    ))
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let grouped_terms = term_postings
+            .iter()
+            .zip(query_weights)
+            .map(|(posting, query_weight)| GroupedTermScorer::new(query_weight, posting))
+            .collect::<Arc<[GroupedTermScorer]>>();
+        let mut documents = DocSet::default();
+        documents.append(0, doc_length);
+        let loaded_documents = LoadedDocLengths::Legacy(Arc::new(documents.clone()));
+        let union_posting = InvertedPartition::union_posting_lists(
+            term_postings,
+            &loaded_documents,
+            false,
+            score_upper_bound,
+            &scorer,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let grouped_bound = union_posting.max_score().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(exact_score.to_bits(), 0x407a_4aa8);
+        assert_eq!(naive_proxy_bound.to_bits(), 0x407a_4aa7);
+        assert!(grouped_bound >= exact_score);
+
+        let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            "group".to_owned(),
+            0,
+            0,
+            query_weight,
+            union_posting,
+            1,
+        )
+        .with_grouped_terms(grouped_terms);
+        let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default();
+        let mut cursor = WandCursor::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            vec![posting],
+            &documents,
+            scorer,
+            &params,
+            &metrics,
+        );
+        cursor.set_min_competitive_score(exact_score).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(cursor.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(
+            cursor.current_score().unwrap().to_bits(),
+            exact_score.to_bits()
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_batch_builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_batch_builder.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d59a7effdab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_batch_builder.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,191 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+pub(in super::super) struct PostingListBatchBuilder {
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    postings: ListBuilder<LargeBinaryBuilder>,
+    impacts: Option<ListBuilder<LargeBinaryBuilder>>,
+    max_scores: Float32Builder,
+    lengths: UInt32Builder,
+    positions: BatchPositionsBuilder,
+    len: usize,
+}
+
+pub(super) enum BatchPositionsBuilder {
+    None,
+    Legacy(ListBuilder<ListBuilder<LargeBinaryBuilder>>),
+    Shared {
+        bytes: LargeBinaryBuilder,
+        block_offsets: ListBuilder<UInt32Builder>,
+    },
+}
+
+pub(super) struct PostingListParts {
+    pub(super) with_positions: bool,
+    pub(super) posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    pub(super) block_size: usize,
+    pub(super) length: usize,
+    pub(super) encoded_blocks: EncodedBlocks,
+    pub(super) encoded_position_blocks: EncodedPositionBlocks,
+    pub(super) tail_doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+    pub(super) tail_frequencies: Vec<u32>,
+    pub(super) tail_position_block: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+}
+
+impl PostingListBatchBuilder {
+    pub fn new(
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        with_positions: bool,
+        format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+        capacity: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let positions = if !with_positions {
+            BatchPositionsBuilder::None
+        } else if format_version.uses_shared_position_stream() {
+            BatchPositionsBuilder::Shared {
+                bytes: LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(capacity, 0),
+                block_offsets: ListBuilder::with_capacity(UInt32Builder::new(), capacity),
+            }
+        } else {
+            BatchPositionsBuilder::Legacy(ListBuilder::with_capacity(
+                ListBuilder::new(LargeBinaryBuilder::new()),
+                capacity,
+            ))
+        };
+        let impacts = schema
+            .field_with_name(IMPACT_COL)
+            .ok()
+            .map(|_| ListBuilder::with_capacity(LargeBinaryBuilder::new(), capacity));
+        Self {
+            schema,
+            postings: ListBuilder::with_capacity(LargeBinaryBuilder::new(), capacity),
+            impacts,
+            max_scores: Float32Builder::with_capacity(capacity),
+            lengths: UInt32Builder::with_capacity(capacity),
+            positions,
+            len: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.len
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len == 0
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn append(
+        &mut self,
+        compressed: LargeBinaryArray,
+        impacts: Option<&ImpactSkipData>,
+        max_score: f32,
+        length: u32,
+        positions: Option<&CompressedPositionStorage>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        {
+            let values = self.postings.values();
+            for index in 0..compressed.len() {
+                values.append_value(compressed.value(index));
+            }
+        }
+        self.postings.append(true);
+        if let Some(impacts_builder) = &mut self.impacts {
+            let impacts = impacts.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "impacts builder missing impact data for posting length {}",
+                    length
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let values = impacts_builder.values();
+            for index in 0..impacts.entries().len() {
+                values.append_value(impacts.entries().value(index));
+            }
+            impacts_builder.append(true);
+        }
+        self.max_scores.append_value(max_score);
+        self.lengths.append_value(length);
+
+        match &mut self.positions {
+            BatchPositionsBuilder::None => {}
+            BatchPositionsBuilder::Shared {
+                bytes,
+                block_offsets,
+            } => {
+                let positions = positions.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "positions builder missing position data for posting length {}",
+                        length
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(positions) = positions else {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "shared positions builder received legacy positions".to_owned(),
+                    ));
+                };
+                bytes.append_value(positions.bytes());
+                let offsets_builder = block_offsets.values();
+                for &offset in positions.block_offsets() {
+                    offsets_builder.append_value(offset);
+                }
+                block_offsets.append(true);
+            }
+            BatchPositionsBuilder::Legacy(position_lists) => {
+                let positions = positions.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "positions builder missing position data for posting length {}",
+                        length
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(positions) = positions else {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "legacy positions builder received shared position stream".to_owned(),
+                    ));
+                };
+                let docs_builder = position_lists.values();
+                for doc_idx in 0..positions.len() {
+                    let doc_positions = positions.value(doc_idx);
+                    let compressed_positions = doc_positions.as_binary::<i64>();
+                    for block_idx in 0..compressed_positions.len() {
+                        docs_builder
+                            .values()
+                            .append_value(compressed_positions.value(block_idx));
+                    }
+                    docs_builder.append(true);
+                }
+                position_lists.append(true);
+            }
+        }
+
+        self.len += 1;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let mut columns = vec![
+            Arc::new(self.postings.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(self.max_scores.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(self.lengths.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+        ];
+        if let Some(impacts) = &mut self.impacts {
+            columns.push(Arc::new(impacts.finish()) as ArrayRef);
+        }
+        match &mut self.positions {
+            BatchPositionsBuilder::None => {}
+            BatchPositionsBuilder::Legacy(position_lists) => {
+                columns.push(Arc::new(position_lists.finish()) as ArrayRef);
+            }
+            BatchPositionsBuilder::Shared {
+                bytes,
+                block_offsets,
+            } => {
+                columns.push(Arc::new(bytes.finish()) as ArrayRef);
+                columns.push(Arc::new(block_offsets.finish()) as ArrayRef);
+            }
+        }
+        self.len = 0;
+        RecordBatch::try_new(self.schema.clone(), columns).map_err(Error::from)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_builder.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..63e7f0cd456
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_builder.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,823 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use smallvec::SmallVec;
+
+use super::super::encoding::{decode_full_posting_block, decode_varint_u32};
+use super::*;
+
+/// Inline capacity, in encoded bytes, of a posting list's unflushed tail.
+///
+/// Most distinct tokens of a real corpus occur in only a few documents, and
+/// 16 bytes hold their first three or four varint-encoded postings, so those
+/// tokens never allocate a tail buffer.
+const INLINE_TAIL_BYTES: usize = 16;
+
+/// Builds the posting list of one token during indexing.
+///
+/// A partition holds one builder per distinct token and real corpora reach
+/// tens of millions of distinct tokens, so the size of this struct and the
+/// allocations every token pays dominate index-build memory. Postings that
+/// have not filled a block yet are kept as a varint byte stream that starts
+/// inline, and the state that only lists with full blocks or positions need
+/// lives behind one lazily allocated box.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct PostingListBuilder {
+    // Varint pairs of (doc id delta, frequency) for the postings that have not
+    // filled a block yet. Deltas wrap, so any doc id order round-trips.
+    pub(super) tail: SmallVec<[u8; INLINE_TAIL_BYTES]>,
+    pub(super) overflow: Option<Box<PostingListOverflow>>,
+    // Base of the next doc id delta: the last doc id in `tail`, or 0 while
+    // `tail` is empty.
+    pub(super) last_tail_doc_id: u32,
+    // A tail that reaches `block_size` postings is flushed right away, so the
+    // count stays below 256.
+    pub(super) tail_len: u8,
+    pub(super) with_positions: bool,
+    pub(super) posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    pub(super) block_size_log2: u8,
+}
+
+// There is one builder per distinct token of a partition; keep it small.
+const _: () = assert!(std::mem::size_of::<PostingListBuilder>() <= 40);
+
+/// Builder state that only posting lists with full blocks or positions need.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub(super) struct PostingListOverflow {
+    // Positions of the postings in `tail` and of the open document; only
+    // lists with positions use them.
+    pub(super) tail_positions: PositionBlockBuilder,
+    pub(super) open_doc: Option<OpenDoc>,
+    // Every token of a positional build allocates this box on its first
+    // posting, but most tokens never fill a block, so block storage is boxed
+    // separately.
+    pub(super) full_blocks: Option<Box<FullBlocks>>,
+}
+
+// Every distinct token of a positional build allocates one; keep it small.
+const _: () = assert!(std::mem::size_of::<PostingListOverflow>() <= 80);
+
+/// The encoded full blocks of a posting list that reached `block_size`
+/// postings.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub(super) struct FullBlocks {
+    pub(super) encoded_blocks: EncodedBlocks,
+    pub(super) encoded_position_blocks: EncodedPositionBlocks,
+}
+
+/// A document whose positions are still streaming in through
+/// [`PostingListBuilder::add_occurrence`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub(super) struct OpenDoc {
+    doc_id: u32,
+    frequency: u32,
+    last_position: u32,
+}
+
+/// Decodes `remaining` (doc id, frequency) pairs from a builder tail.
+struct TailEntries<'a> {
+    bytes: &'a [u8],
+    offset: usize,
+    doc_id: u32,
+    remaining: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a> TailEntries<'a> {
+    fn new(bytes: &'a [u8], len: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bytes,
+            offset: 0,
+            doc_id: 0,
+            remaining: len,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Iterator for TailEntries<'_> {
+    type Item = (u32, u32);
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        if self.remaining == 0 {
+            return None;
+        }
+        self.remaining -= 1;
+        let delta = decode_varint_u32(self.bytes, &mut self.offset)
+            .expect("posting list tail is encoded by the builder");
+        let frequency = decode_varint_u32(self.bytes, &mut self.offset)
+            .expect("posting list tail is encoded by the builder");
+        self.doc_id = self.doc_id.wrapping_add(delta);
+        Some((self.doc_id, frequency))
+    }
+}
+
+fn push_varint(dst: &mut SmallVec<[u8; INLINE_TAIL_BYTES]>, mut value: u32) {
+    while value >= 0x80 {
+        dst.push((value as u8) | 0x80);
+        value >>= 7;
+    }
+    dst.push(value as u8);
+}
+
+impl PostingListBuilder {
+    /// Heap bytes owned by this builder, excluding the builder struct itself.
+    pub fn size(&self) -> u64 {
+        let tail_size = if self.tail.spilled() {
+            self.tail.capacity()
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        let overflow_size = self.overflow.as_deref().map_or(0, |overflow| {
+            let full_blocks_size = overflow.full_blocks.as_deref().map_or(0, |full_blocks| {
+                std::mem::size_of::<FullBlocks>()
+                    + full_blocks.encoded_blocks.size()
+                    + full_blocks.encoded_position_blocks.size()
+            });
+            std::mem::size_of::<PostingListOverflow>()
+                + overflow.tail_positions.size()
+                + full_blocks_size
+        });
+        (tail_size + overflow_size) as u64
+    }
+
+    pub fn has_positions(&self) -> bool {
+        self.with_positions
+    }
+
+    pub fn new(with_position: bool) -> Self {
+        Self::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            with_position,
+            current_fts_format_version().posting_tail_codec(),
+            LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+        with_position: bool,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            with_position,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_block_size(with_position: bool, block_size: usize) -> Self {
+        Self::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            with_position,
+            current_fts_format_version().posting_tail_codec(),
+            block_size,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        with_position: bool,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        validate_block_size(block_size).expect("invalid posting list block size");
+        Self {
+            tail: SmallVec::new(),
+            overflow: None,
+            last_tail_doc_id: 0,
+            tail_len: 0,
+            with_positions: with_position,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size_log2: block_size.trailing_zeros() as u8,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn block_size(&self) -> usize {
+        1 << self.block_size_log2
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        let tail_len = usize::from(self.tail_len);
+        match self.overflow.as_deref() {
+            Some(overflow) => {
+                let num_full_blocks = overflow
+                    .full_blocks
+                    .as_deref()
+                    .map_or(0, |full_blocks| full_blocks.encoded_blocks.len());
+                num_full_blocks * self.block_size()
+                    + tail_len
+                    + usize::from(overflow.open_doc.is_some())
+            }
+            None => tail_len,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> std::vec::IntoIter<(u32, u32, Option<Vec<u32>>)> {
+        self.collect_entries().into_iter()
+    }
+
+    fn tail_entries(&self) -> TailEntries<'_> {
+        TailEntries::new(&self.tail, usize::from(self.tail_len))
+    }
+
+    fn open_doc(&self) -> Option<OpenDoc> {
+        self.overflow
+            .as_deref()
+            .and_then(|overflow| overflow.open_doc)
+    }
+
+    fn overflow_mut(&mut self) -> &mut PostingListOverflow {
+        self.overflow.get_or_insert_with(Box::default)
+    }
+
+    pub fn for_each_entry<E>(
+        &self,
+        mut visit: impl FnMut(u32, u32, Option<Vec<u32>>) -> std::result::Result<(), E>,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<(), E> {
+        let block_size = self.block_size();
+        let mut decoded_positions = Vec::new();
+
+        if let Some(full_blocks) = self
+            .overflow
+            .as_deref()
+            .and_then(|overflow| overflow.full_blocks.as_deref())
+        {
+            let mut doc_ids = Vec::with_capacity(block_size);
+            let mut frequencies = Vec::with_capacity(block_size);
+            for (block_index, block) in full_blocks.encoded_blocks.iter().enumerate() {
+                doc_ids.clear();
+                frequencies.clear();
+                decode_full_posting_block(block, &mut doc_ids, &mut frequencies, block_size);
+                decoded_positions.clear();
+                if self.with_positions {
+                    super::super::encoding::decode_position_stream_block(
+                        full_blocks.encoded_position_blocks.block(block_index),
+                        &frequencies,
+                        PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+                        &mut decoded_positions,
+                    )
+                    .expect("position stream decoding should succeed");
+                }
+                let mut offset = 0usize;
+                for (doc_id, frequency) in doc_ids.iter().copied().zip(frequencies.iter().copied())
+                {
+                    let positions = self.with_positions.then(|| {
+                        let end = offset + frequency as usize;
+                        let doc_positions = decoded_positions[offset..end].to_vec();
+                        offset = end;
+                        doc_positions
+                    });
+                    visit(doc_id, frequency, positions)?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        decoded_positions.clear();
+        if self.with_positions && self.tail_len > 0 {
+            let tail_frequencies = self
+                .tail_entries()
+                .map(|(_, frequency)| frequency)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            self.overflow
+                .as_deref()
+                .expect("positions must exist for posting list")
+                .tail_positions
+                .decode_into(tail_frequencies.as_slice(), &mut decoded_positions)
+                .expect("tail position stream decoding should succeed");
+        }
+        let mut tail_offset = 0usize;
+        for (doc_id, frequency) in self.tail_entries() {
+            let positions = self.with_positions.then(|| {
+                let end = tail_offset + frequency as usize;
+                let doc_positions = decoded_positions[tail_offset..end].to_vec();
+                tail_offset = end;
+                doc_positions
+            });
+            visit(doc_id, frequency, positions)?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn add(&mut self, doc_id: u32, term_positions: PositionRecorder) {
+        debug_assert!(
+            self.open_doc().is_none(),
+            "cannot add closed doc while a positions doc is still open"
+        );
+        let frequency = term_positions.len();
+        if let PositionRecorder::Position(positions_in_doc) = term_positions {
+            debug_assert!(self.with_positions);
+            self.overflow_mut()
+                .tail_positions
+                .append_doc_positions(positions_in_doc.as_slice())
+                .expect("position stream encoding should succeed");
+        }
+        self.push_tail_entry(doc_id, frequency)
+            .expect("posting list block compression should succeed");
+    }
+
+    pub fn add_occurrence(&mut self, doc_id: u32, position: u32) -> Result<bool> {
+        if !self.with_positions {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "cannot append streamed positions to a posting list without positions".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let overflow = self.overflow_mut();
+        match overflow.open_doc.as_mut() {
+            Some(open_doc) if open_doc.doc_id == doc_id => {
+                overflow
+                    .tail_positions
+                    .append_position(position, Some(open_doc.last_position))?;
+                open_doc.frequency += 1;
+                open_doc.last_position = position;
+                Ok(false)
+            }
+            Some(open_doc) => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "posting list received doc {} before finishing open doc {}",
+                doc_id, open_doc.doc_id
+            ))),
+            None => {
+                overflow.tail_positions.append_position(position, None)?;
+                overflow.open_doc = Some(OpenDoc {
+                    doc_id,
+                    frequency: 1,
+                    last_position: position,
+                });
+                Ok(true)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn finish_open_doc(&mut self, doc_id: u32) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.with_positions {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let Some(overflow) = self.overflow.as_deref_mut() else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        match overflow.open_doc {
+            Some(open_doc) if open_doc.doc_id == doc_id => {
+                overflow.open_doc = None;
+                self.push_tail_entry(doc_id, open_doc.frequency)
+            }
+            Some(open_doc) => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "attempted to finish doc {} while doc {} is still open",
+                doc_id, open_doc.doc_id
+            ))),
+            None => Ok(()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn push_tail_entry(&mut self, doc_id: u32, frequency: u32) -> Result<()> {
+        push_varint(&mut self.tail, doc_id.wrapping_sub(self.last_tail_doc_id));
+        push_varint(&mut self.tail, frequency);
+        self.last_tail_doc_id = doc_id;
+        let tail_len = usize::from(self.tail_len) + 1;
+        if tail_len == self.block_size() {
+            self.flush_tail_block()
+        } else {
+            self.tail_len = tail_len as u8;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Encodes the full tail, which holds exactly `block_size` postings, as a
+    /// block.
+    fn flush_tail_block(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        let block_size = self.block_size();
+        let mut doc_ids = Vec::with_capacity(block_size);
+        let mut frequencies = Vec::with_capacity(block_size);
+        for (doc_id, frequency) in TailEntries::new(&self.tail, block_size) {
+            doc_ids.push(doc_id);
+            frequencies.push(frequency);
+        }
+        let with_positions = self.with_positions;
+        let overflow = self.overflow_mut();
+        debug_assert!(
+            overflow.open_doc.is_none(),
+            "cannot flush a posting block while a document is still open"
+        );
+        let full_blocks = overflow.full_blocks.get_or_insert_with(Box::default);
+        full_blocks
+            .encoded_blocks
+            .push_full_block(&doc_ids, &frequencies)?;
+        if with_positions {
+            let tail_position_block = std::mem::take(&mut overflow.tail_positions).finish();
+            full_blocks
+                .encoded_position_blocks
+                .push_encoded_block(tail_position_block.as_slice());
+        }
+        self.tail.clear();
+        self.tail_len = 0;
+        self.last_tail_doc_id = 0;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn collect_entries(&self) -> Vec<(u32, u32, Option<Vec<u32>>)> {
+        let mut entries = Vec::with_capacity(self.len());
+        self.for_each_entry(|doc_id, frequency, positions| {
+            entries.push((doc_id, frequency, positions));
+            Ok::<(), ()>(())
+        })
+        .expect("collecting posting list entries should not fail");
+        entries
+    }
+
+    fn into_parts(self) -> PostingListParts {
+        debug_assert!(self.open_doc().is_none());
+        let length = self.len();
+        let block_size = self.block_size();
+        let (tail_doc_ids, tail_frequencies) = self.tail_entries().unzip();
+        let overflow = self.overflow.map(|overflow| *overflow).unwrap_or_default();
+        let full_blocks = overflow
+            .full_blocks
+            .map(|full_blocks| *full_blocks)
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        PostingListParts {
+            with_positions: self.with_positions,
+            posting_tail_codec: self.posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            length,
+            encoded_blocks: full_blocks.encoded_blocks,
+            encoded_position_blocks: full_blocks.encoded_position_blocks,
+            tail_doc_ids,
+            tail_frequencies,
+            tail_position_block: self
+                .with_positions
+                .then(|| overflow.tail_positions.finish()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn build_position_columns(
+        positions: Option<CompressedPositionStorage>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ArrayRef>> {
+        let Some(positions) = positions else {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        };
+        match positions {
+            CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(positions) => {
+                Ok(vec![Arc::new(ListArray::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", positions.data_type().clone(), true)),
+                    OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i32, positions.len() as i32])),
+                    Arc::new(positions) as ArrayRef,
+                    None,
+                )?) as ArrayRef])
+            }
+            CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(positions) => {
+                let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(2);
+                columns.push(
+                    Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(positions.bytes())])) as ArrayRef,
+                );
+
+                let mut offsets_builder = ListBuilder::new(UInt32Builder::new());
+                for &offset in positions.block_offsets() {
+                    offsets_builder.values().append_value(offset);
+                }
+                offsets_builder.append(true);
+                columns.push(Arc::new(offsets_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef);
+                Ok(columns)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn build_batch(
+        length: usize,
+        compressed: LargeBinaryArray,
+        impacts: Option<ImpactSkipData>,
+        max_score: f32,
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        positions: Option<CompressedPositionStorage>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0, compressed.len() as i32]));
+        let mut columns = vec![
+            Arc::new(ListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", datatypes::DataType::LargeBinary, true)),
+                offsets,
+                Arc::new(compressed),
+                None,
+            )?) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::once(max_score))) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::once(
+                length as u32,
+            ))) as ArrayRef,
+        ];
+        if schema.field_with_name(IMPACT_COL).is_ok() {
+            let impacts = impacts.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "impact column requested without impact data for posting length {}",
+                    length
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let impact_offsets =
+                OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0, impacts.entries().len() as i32]));
+            columns.push(Arc::new(ListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", datatypes::DataType::LargeBinary, true)),
+                impact_offsets,
+                Arc::new(impacts.entries().clone()),
+                None,
+            )?) as ArrayRef);
+        }
+        columns.extend(Self::build_position_columns(positions)?);
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?;
+        Ok(batch)
+    }
+
+    fn build_legacy_positions(&self) -> Result<ListArray> {
+        let mut positions_builder = ListBuilder::new(LargeBinaryBuilder::new());
+        self.for_each_entry(|_doc_id, frequency, positions| {
+            let positions = positions.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "legacy position writer missing positions for frequency {}",
+                    frequency
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let compressed = super::super::encoding::compress_positions(positions.as_slice())?;
+            for block_idx in 0..compressed.len() {
+                positions_builder
+                    .values()
+                    .append_value(compressed.value(block_idx));
+            }
+            positions_builder.append(true);
+            Ok::<(), Error>(())
+        })?;
+        Ok(positions_builder.finish())
+    }
+
+    pub(in super::super) fn append_to_batch_with_docs(
+        self,
+        docs: &DocSet,
+        batch_builder: &mut PostingListBatchBuilder,
+        format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let legacy_positions =
+            if self.with_positions && !format_version.uses_shared_position_stream() {
+                Some(self.build_legacy_positions()?)
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+        let parts = self.into_parts();
+        let length = parts.length as u32;
+        let (compressed, shared_positions, max_score, impacts) =
+            Self::build_compressed_with_scores_from_parts(parts, docs)?;
+        let positions = match legacy_positions {
+            Some(positions) => Some(CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(positions)),
+            None => shared_positions.map(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream),
+        };
+        batch_builder.append(
+            compressed,
+            Some(&impacts),
+            max_score,
+            length,
+            positions.as_ref(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn build_compressed_with_scores_from_parts(
+        parts: PostingListParts,
+        docs: &DocSet,
+    ) -> Result<(
+        LargeBinaryArray,
+        Option<SharedPositionStream>,
+        f32,
+        ImpactSkipData,
+    )> {
+        let PostingListParts {
+            with_positions,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            length,
+            block_size,
+            mut encoded_blocks,
+            mut encoded_position_blocks,
+            tail_doc_ids,
+            tail_frequencies,
+            tail_position_block,
+        } = parts;
+        let avgdl = docs.average_length();
+        let idf_scale = idf(length, docs.len()) * (K1 + 1.0);
+        let mut max_score = f32::MIN;
+        let mut doc_ids = Vec::with_capacity(block_size);
+        let mut frequencies = Vec::with_capacity(block_size);
+        let mut impact_block = Vec::with_capacity(block_size);
+        let mut impact_builder =
+            ImpactSkipDataBuilder::with_capacity(length.div_ceil(block_size), block_size);
+
+        for index in 0..encoded_blocks.len() {
+            let block = encoded_blocks.block(index);
+            doc_ids.clear();
+            frequencies.clear();
+            decode_full_posting_block(block, &mut doc_ids, &mut frequencies, block_size);
+            let block_score = compute_block_score_and_impact_block(
+                docs,
+                avgdl,
+                idf_scale,
+                doc_ids.iter().copied(),
+                frequencies.iter().copied(),
+                &mut impact_block,
+            );
+            impact_builder.append_block(impact_block.as_slice())?;
+            max_score = max_score.max(block_score);
+            if super::super::encoding::posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size) > 0 {
+                encoded_blocks.set_block_score(index, block_score);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if !tail_doc_ids.is_empty() {
+            let block_score = compute_block_score_and_impact_block(
+                docs,
+                avgdl,
+                idf_scale,
+                tail_doc_ids.iter().copied(),
+                tail_frequencies.iter().copied(),
+                &mut impact_block,
+            );
+            impact_builder.append_block(impact_block.as_slice())?;
+            max_score = max_score.max(block_score);
+            encoded_blocks.append_remainder_block_with_codec(
+                tail_doc_ids.as_slice(),
+                tail_frequencies.as_slice(),
+                posting_tail_codec,
+                block_size,
+            )?;
+            if super::super::encoding::posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size) > 0 {
+                encoded_blocks.set_block_score(encoded_blocks.len() - 1, block_score);
+            }
+            if with_positions {
+                encoded_position_blocks.push_encoded_block(
+                    tail_position_block
+                        .as_deref()
+                        .expect("tail position block must exist for postings with positions"),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        let impacts = impact_builder.finish()?;
+        Ok((
+            encoded_blocks.into_array(),
+            with_positions.then(|| encoded_position_blocks.into_stream()),
+            max_score,
+            impacts,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn build_compressed_with_block_scores_from_parts(
+        parts: PostingListParts,
+        mut block_max_scores: impl Iterator<Item = f32>,
+    ) -> Result<(LargeBinaryArray, Option<SharedPositionStream>, f32)> {
+        let PostingListParts {
+            with_positions,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            mut encoded_blocks,
+            mut encoded_position_blocks,
+            tail_doc_ids,
+            tail_frequencies,
+            tail_position_block,
+            ..
+        } = parts;
+        let has_score_prefix =
+            super::super::encoding::posting_block_score_prefix_len(block_size) > 0;
+        let mut max_score = f32::MIN;
+
+        for index in 0..encoded_blocks.len() {
+            let block_score = block_max_scores
+                .next()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("missing block max score".to_owned()))?;
+            max_score = max_score.max(block_score);
+            if has_score_prefix {
+                encoded_blocks.set_block_score(index, block_score);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if !tail_doc_ids.is_empty() {
+            let block_score = block_max_scores
+                .next()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("missing tail block max score".to_owned()))?;
+            max_score = max_score.max(block_score);
+            encoded_blocks.append_remainder_block_with_codec(
+                tail_doc_ids.as_slice(),
+                tail_frequencies.as_slice(),
+                posting_tail_codec,
+                block_size,
+            )?;
+            if has_score_prefix {
+                encoded_blocks.set_block_score(encoded_blocks.len() - 1, block_score);
+            }
+            if with_positions {
+                encoded_position_blocks.push_encoded_block(
+                    tail_position_block
+                        .as_deref()
+                        .expect("tail position block must exist for postings with positions"),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok((
+            encoded_blocks.into_array(),
+            with_positions.then(|| encoded_position_blocks.into_stream()),
+            max_score,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub fn to_batch(self, block_max_scores: Vec<f32>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let format_version = InvertedListFormatVersion::from_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            self.posting_tail_codec,
+            self.block_size(),
+        )?;
+        let schema = inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size_and_impacts(
+            self.has_positions(),
+            format_version,
+            self.block_size(),
+            false,
+        );
+        let legacy_positions =
+            if self.with_positions && !format_version.uses_shared_position_stream() {
+                Some(self.build_legacy_positions()?)
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+        let parts = self.into_parts();
+        let length = parts.length;
+        let (compressed, shared_positions, max_score) =
+            Self::build_compressed_with_block_scores_from_parts(
+                parts,
+                block_max_scores.into_iter(),
+            )?;
+        let positions = match legacy_positions {
+            Some(positions) => Some(CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(positions)),
+            None => shared_positions.map(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream),
+        };
+        Self::build_batch(length, compressed, None, max_score, schema, positions)
+    }
+
+    pub fn to_batch_with_docs(self, docs: &DocSet, schema: SchemaRef) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let format_version = parse_format_version_from_metadata(schema.metadata())?;
+        let legacy_positions =
+            if self.with_positions && !format_version.uses_shared_position_stream() {
+                Some(self.build_legacy_positions()?)
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+        let parts = self.into_parts();
+        let length = parts.length;
+        let (compressed, shared_positions, max_score, impacts) =
+            Self::build_compressed_with_scores_from_parts(parts, docs)?;
+        let positions = match legacy_positions {
+            Some(positions) => Some(CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(positions)),
+            None => shared_positions.map(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream),
+        };
+        Self::build_batch(
+            length,
+            compressed,
+            Some(impacts),
+            max_score,
+            schema,
+            positions,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap(&mut self, removed: &[u32]) {
+        let mut cursor = 0;
+        let mut new_builder = Self::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            self.has_positions(),
+            self.posting_tail_codec,
+            self.block_size(),
+        );
+        for (doc_id, freq, positions) in self.iter() {
+            while cursor < removed.len() && removed[cursor] < doc_id {
+                cursor += 1;
+            }
+            if cursor < removed.len() && removed[cursor] == doc_id {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let positions = match positions {
+                Some(positions) => PositionRecorder::Position(positions.into()),
+                None => PositionRecorder::Count(freq),
+            };
+            new_builder.add(doc_id - cursor as u32, positions);
+        }
+
+        *self = new_builder;
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn compute_block_score_and_impact_block(
+    docs: &DocSet,
+    avgdl: f32,
+    idf_scale: f32,
+    doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = u32>,
+    frequencies: impl Iterator<Item = u32>,
+    impact_block: &mut Vec<(u32, u32, u32)>,
+) -> f32 {
+    impact_block.clear();
+    let mut block_max_score = f32::MIN;
+    for (doc_id, freq) in doc_ids.zip(frequencies) {
+        let doc_len = docs.num_tokens(doc_id);
+        let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * doc_len as f32 / avgdl);
+        let freq_f32 = freq as f32;
+        let score = freq_f32 / (freq_f32 + doc_norm);
+        block_max_score = block_max_score.max(score);
+        impact_block.push((doc_id, freq, doc_len));
+    }
+    block_max_score * idf_scale
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_list.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_list.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c126756d578
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_list.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,754 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
+#[allow(clippy::large_enum_variant)]
+pub enum PostingList {
+    Plain(PlainPostingList),
+    Compressed(CompressedPostingList),
+}
+
+impl PostingList {
+    pub fn from_batch(
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        max_score: Option<f32>,
+        length: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let posting_tail_codec = parse_posting_tail_codec(batch.schema_ref().metadata())?;
+        let block_size = parse_posting_block_size(batch.schema_ref().metadata())?;
+        Self::from_batch_with_tail_codec(batch, max_score, length, posting_tail_codec, block_size)
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_batch_with_tail_codec(
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        max_score: Option<f32>,
+        length: Option<u32>,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let positions_layout = if batch.column_by_name(COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL).is_some() {
+            PositionsLayout::SharedStream(parse_shared_position_codec(
+                batch.schema_ref().metadata(),
+            )?)
+        } else if batch.column_by_name(POSITION_COL).is_some() {
+            PositionsLayout::LegacyPerDoc
+        } else {
+            PositionsLayout::None
+        };
+        Self::from_batch_with_tail_codec_and_positions_layout(
+            batch,
+            max_score,
+            length,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            positions_layout,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn from_batch_with_tail_codec_and_positions_layout(
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        max_score: Option<f32>,
+        length: Option<u32>,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+        positions_layout: PositionsLayout,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        match batch.column_by_name(POSTING_COL) {
+            Some(_) => {
+                debug_assert!(max_score.is_some() && length.is_some());
+                let shared_position_codec = match positions_layout {
+                    PositionsLayout::SharedStream(codec) => Some(codec),
+                    _ => None,
+                };
+                let posting = CompressedPostingList::from_batch(
+                    batch,
+                    max_score.unwrap(),
+                    length.unwrap(),
+                    posting_tail_codec,
+                    block_size,
+                    shared_position_codec,
+                )?;
+                Ok(Self::Compressed(posting))
+            }
+            None => {
+                let posting = PlainPostingList::from_batch(batch, max_score);
+                Ok(Self::Plain(posting))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> PostingListIterator<'_> {
+        PostingListIterator::new(self)
+    }
+
+    pub fn has_position(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Plain(posting) => posting.positions.is_some(),
+            Self::Compressed(posting) => posting.positions.is_some(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn has_impacts(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Plain(_) => false,
+            Self::Compressed(posting) => posting.impacts.is_some(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_positions(&mut self, positions: CompressedPositionStorage) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Plain(posting) => match positions {
+                CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(positions) => {
+                    posting.positions = Some(positions)
+                }
+                CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(_) => {
+                    unreachable!("shared position stream is not supported for plain postings")
+                }
+            },
+            Self::Compressed(posting) => {
+                posting.positions = Some(positions);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn take_positions(&mut self) -> Option<CompressedPositionStorage> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Plain(posting) => posting
+                .positions
+                .take()
+                .map(CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc),
+            Self::Compressed(posting) => posting.positions.take(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn max_score(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Plain(posting) => posting.max_score,
+            Self::Compressed(posting) => Some(posting.max_score),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Plain(posting) => posting.len(),
+            Self::Compressed(posting) => posting.length as usize,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    pub fn into_builder(self, docs: &DocSet) -> PostingListBuilder {
+        let posting_tail_codec = match &self {
+            Self::Plain(_) => PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+            Self::Compressed(posting) => posting.posting_tail_codec,
+        };
+        let block_size = match &self {
+            Self::Plain(_) => LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            Self::Compressed(posting) => posting.block_size,
+        };
+        let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            self.has_position(),
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+        );
+        match self {
+            // legacy format
+            Self::Plain(posting) => {
+                // convert the posting list to the new format:
+                // 1. map row ids to doc ids
+                // 2. sort the posting list by doc ids
+                struct Item {
+                    doc_id: u32,
+                    positions: PositionRecorder,
+                }
+                let doc_ids = docs
+                    .row_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(|(doc_id, row_id)| (*row_id, doc_id as u32))
+                    .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+                let mut items = Vec::with_capacity(posting.len());
+                for (row_id, freq, positions) in posting.iter() {
+                    let freq = freq as u32;
+                    let positions = match positions {
+                        Some(positions) => {
+                            PositionRecorder::Position(positions.collect::<Vec<_>>().into())
+                        }
+                        None => PositionRecorder::Count(freq),
+                    };
+                    items.push(Item {
+                        doc_id: doc_ids[&row_id],
+                        positions,
+                    });
+                }
+                items.sort_unstable_by_key(|item| item.doc_id);
+                for item in items {
+                    builder.add(item.doc_id, item.positions);
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Compressed(posting) => {
+                posting.iter().for_each(|(doc_id, freq, positions)| {
+                    let positions = match positions {
+                        Some(positions) => {
+                            PositionRecorder::Position(positions.collect::<Vec<_>>().into())
+                        }
+                        None => PositionRecorder::Count(freq),
+                    };
+                    builder.add(doc_id, positions);
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        builder
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Clone)]
+pub struct PlainPostingList {
+    pub row_ids: ScalarBuffer<u64>,
+    pub frequencies: ScalarBuffer<f32>,
+    pub max_score: Option<f32>,
+    pub positions: Option<ListArray>, // List of Int32
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for PlainPostingList {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.row_ids.len() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+            + self.frequencies.len() * std::mem::size_of::<f32>()
+            + self
+                .positions
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|positions| sliced_cache_bytes(positions))
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+}
+
+impl PlainPostingList {
+    pub fn new(
+        row_ids: ScalarBuffer<u64>,
+        frequencies: ScalarBuffer<f32>,
+        max_score: Option<f32>,
+        positions: Option<ListArray>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            row_ids,
+            frequencies,
+            max_score,
+            positions,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, max_score: Option<f32>) -> Self {
+        let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values().clone();
+        let frequencies = batch[FREQUENCY_COL]
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .clone();
+        let positions = batch
+            .column_by_name(POSITION_COL)
+            .map(|col| col.as_list::<i32>().clone());
+
+        Self::new(row_ids, frequencies, max_score, positions)
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.row_ids.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> PlainPostingListIterator<'_> {
+        Box::new(
+            self.row_ids
+                .iter()
+                .zip(self.frequencies.iter())
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(idx, (doc_id, freq))| {
+                    (
+                        *doc_id,
+                        *freq,
+                        self.positions.as_ref().map(|p| {
+                            let start = p.value_offsets()[idx] as usize;
+                            let end = p.value_offsets()[idx + 1] as usize;
+                            Box::new(
+                                p.values().as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values()[start..end]
+                                    .iter()
+                                    .map(|pos| *pos as u32),
+                            ) as _
+                        }),
+                    )
+                }),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn doc(&self, i: usize) -> LocatedDocInfo {
+        LocatedDocInfo::new(self.row_ids[i], self.frequencies[i])
+    }
+
+    pub fn positions(&self, index: usize) -> Option<Arc<dyn Array>> {
+        self.positions
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|positions| positions.value(index))
+    }
+
+    pub fn max_score(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.max_score
+    }
+
+    pub fn row_id(&self, i: usize) -> u64 {
+        self.row_ids[i]
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) enum FirstDocsState {
+    Standalone(Arc<OnceLock<Box<[u32]>>>),
+    Packed {
+        states: Arc<[OnceLock<Box<[u32]>>]>,
+        slot: usize,
+    },
+}
+
+impl FirstDocsState {
+    fn standalone() -> Self {
+        Self::Standalone(Arc::new(OnceLock::new()))
+    }
+
+    fn state(&self) -> &OnceLock<Box<[u32]>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Standalone(state) => state,
+            Self::Packed { states, slot } => &states[*slot],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn get_or_init(&self, initialize: impl FnOnce() -> Box<[u32]>) -> &[u32] {
+        self.state().get_or_init(initialize)
+    }
+
+    fn capacity_bytes(
+        &self,
+        block_count: usize,
+        context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context,
+    ) -> usize {
+        if context.mark_seen(self.state() as *const _ as usize) {
+            std::mem::size_of::<OnceLock<Box<[u32]>>>()
+                .saturating_add(block_count.saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<u32>()))
+        } else {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn shares_state_with(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        std::ptr::eq(self.state(), other.state())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct CompressedPostingList {
+    pub max_score: f32,
+    pub length: u32,
+    // each binary is a block of compressed data
+    // that contains `block_size` doc ids and then `block_size` frequencies,
+    // packed by the physical bitpacker matching that block size.
+    pub blocks: LargeBinaryArray,
+    pub posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    pub block_size: usize,
+    pub positions: Option<CompressedPositionStorage>,
+    pub(crate) impacts: Option<ImpactSkipData>,
+    // First doc id per block, baked lazily and shared across per-query clones
+    // of the cached list. See `block_first_docs`.
+    first_docs: FirstDocsState,
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for CompressedPostingList {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.max_score == other.max_score
+            && self.length == other.length
+            && self.blocks == other.blocks
+            && self.posting_tail_codec == other.posting_tail_codec
+            && self.block_size == other.block_size
+            && self.positions == other.positions
+            && self.impacts == other.impacts
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CompressedPostingList {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        sliced_cache_bytes(&self.blocks)
+            + self
+                .positions
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|positions| positions.deep_size_of_children(context))
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+            + self
+                .impacts
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|impacts| {
+                    sliced_cache_bytes(impacts.entries())
+                        .saturating_add(impacts.derived_cache_bytes())
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+            + self.first_docs.capacity_bytes(self.blocks.len(), context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompressedPostingList {
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        blocks: LargeBinaryArray,
+        max_score: f32,
+        length: u32,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+        positions: Option<CompressedPositionStorage>,
+        impacts: Option<ImpactSkipData>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(block_size.is_power_of_two());
+        Self {
+            max_score,
+            length,
+            blocks,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            positions,
+            impacts,
+            first_docs: FirstDocsState::standalone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A view of one slot of a packed posting group, sharing the group's
+    /// lazily decoded block heads.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(super) fn new_packed_slot(
+        blocks: LargeBinaryArray,
+        max_score: f32,
+        length: u32,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+        impacts: Option<ImpactSkipData>,
+        first_docs_states: Arc<[OnceLock<Box<[u32]>>]>,
+        slot: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(block_size.is_power_of_two());
+        debug_assert!(slot < first_docs_states.len());
+        Self {
+            max_score,
+            length,
+            blocks,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            positions: None,
+            impacts,
+            first_docs: FirstDocsState::Packed {
+                states: first_docs_states,
+                slot,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Block sizes are validated powers of two, so per-doc hot loops derive
+    /// block indices with shift/mask instead of runtime division, which is
+    /// measurably slower in the iterator advance path.
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn block_shift(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.block_size.trailing_zeros()
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn block_mask(&self) -> usize {
+        self.block_size - 1
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_batch(
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        max_score: f32,
+        length: u32,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+        shared_position_codec: Option<PositionStreamCodec>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        debug_assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+        let blocks = batch[POSTING_COL]
+            .as_list::<i32>()
+            .value(0)
+            .as_binary::<i64>()
+            .clone();
+        let positions = if let Some(col) = batch.column_by_name(COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL) {
+            let bytes = bytes::Bytes::from(col.as_binary::<i64>().value(0).to_vec());
+            let block_offsets = batch[POSITION_BLOCK_OFFSET_COL]
+                .as_list::<i32>()
+                .value(0)
+                .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec();
+            let codec = shared_position_codec.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                parse_shared_position_codec(batch.schema_ref().metadata())
+                    .expect("shared position stream codec metadata should be valid")
+            });
+            Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(
+                SharedPositionStream::new(codec, block_offsets, bytes),
+            ))
+        } else {
+            batch.column_by_name(POSITION_COL).map(|col| {
+                CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(
+                    col.as_list::<i32>().value(0).as_list::<i32>().clone(),
+                )
+            })
+        };
+        let impacts = batch
+            .column_by_name(IMPACT_COL)
+            .map(|col| {
+                let entries = col.as_list::<i32>().value(0).as_binary::<i64>().clone();
+                ImpactSkipData::new(entries, blocks.len())
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            max_score,
+            length,
+            blocks,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            positions,
+            impacts,
+            first_docs: FirstDocsState::standalone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> CompressedPostingListIterator {
+        CompressedPostingListIterator::new(
+            self.length as usize,
+            self.blocks.clone(),
+            self.posting_tail_codec,
+            self.positions.clone(),
+            self.block_size,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn block_max_score(&self, block_idx: usize) -> f32 {
+        // 256-document blocks store no per-block max score: their impact
+        // skip data supplies the tight per-block bound, so callers on that
+        // path never reach here. Fall back to the list-level max, which is
+        // still a valid (looser) bound for any block.
+        if super::super::encoding::posting_block_score_prefix_len(self.block_size) == 0 {
+            return self.max_score;
+        }
+        let block = self.blocks.value(block_idx);
+        block[0..4].try_into().map(f32::from_le_bytes).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn block_least_doc_id(&self, block_idx: usize) -> u32 {
+        self.block_first_docs()[block_idx]
+    }
+
+    /// Whether each of `doc_ids`, which must be ascending, is in this list.
+    ///
+    /// Only the blocks that could hold one of them are decoded, and only their doc
+    /// id stream, so probing a few documents costs a few blocks rather than the
+    /// whole list.
+    pub(crate) fn contains_each(&self, doc_ids: &[u32]) -> Vec<bool> {
+        debug_assert!(doc_ids.is_sorted());
+        let first_docs = self.block_first_docs();
+        let num_blocks = self.blocks.len();
+        let remainder = self.length as usize % self.block_size;
+        let mut buffer = vec![0u32; self.block_size];
+        let mut block_doc_ids = Vec::with_capacity(self.block_size);
+        let mut decoded_block = None;
+        doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&doc_id| {
+                // The last block starting at or before `doc_id` is the only one that
+                // can hold it.
+                let Some(block_idx) = first_docs
+                    .partition_point(|&first| first <= doc_id)
+                    .checked_sub(1)
+                else {
+                    return false;
+                };
+                if decoded_block != Some(block_idx) {
+                    block_doc_ids.clear();
+                    let block = self.blocks.value(block_idx);
+                    if block_idx + 1 == num_blocks && remainder != 0 {
+                        super::super::encoding::decompress_posting_remainder_doc_ids(
+                            block,
+                            remainder,
+                            self.posting_tail_codec,
+                            self.block_size,
+                            &mut block_doc_ids,
+                        );
+                    } else {
+                        super::super::encoding::decompress_posting_block_doc_ids(
+                            block,
+                            &mut buffer,
+                            &mut block_doc_ids,
+                            self.block_size,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    decoded_block = Some(block_idx);
+                }
+                block_doc_ids.binary_search(&doc_id).is_ok()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// First doc id of every block, decoded once per cached list and shared by
+    /// the per-query clones. Block boundary lookups (window bounds, block
+    /// binary searches) are hot enough that re-reading the block headers —
+    /// and re-decoding the tail block — shows up in profiles.
+    pub(crate) fn block_first_docs(&self) -> &[u32] {
+        self.first_docs.get_or_init(|| {
+            (0..self.blocks.len())
+                .map(|block_idx| {
+                    let block = self.blocks.value(block_idx);
+                    let remainder = self.length as usize % self.block_size;
+                    if block_idx + 1 == self.blocks.len() && remainder > 0 {
+                        return super::super::encoding::read_posting_tail_first_doc(
+                            block,
+                            self.posting_tail_codec,
+                            self.block_size,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    let prefix =
+                        super::super::encoding::posting_block_score_prefix_len(self.block_size);
+                    block[prefix..prefix + 4]
+                        .try_into()
+                        .map(u32::from_le_bytes)
+                        .unwrap()
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .into_boxed_slice()
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn shares_first_docs_with(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.first_docs.shares_state_with(&other.first_docs)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]
+pub(super) struct EncodedBlocks {
+    offsets: Vec<u32>,
+    bytes: Vec<u8>,
+}
+
+impl EncodedBlocks {
+    pub(super) fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.offsets.len()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.offsets.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>() + self.bytes.capacity()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn push_full_block(
+        &mut self,
+        doc_ids: &[u32],
+        frequencies: &[u32],
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let start = self.bytes.len();
+        self.offsets.push(start as u32);
+        super::super::encoding::encode_full_posting_block_into(
+            doc_ids,
+            frequencies,
+            &mut self.bytes,
+        )?;
+        Ok(self.bytes.len() - start)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn block(&self, index: usize) -> &[u8] {
+        let (start, end) = self.block_range(index);
+        &self.bytes[start..end]
+    }
+
+    fn block_range(&self, index: usize) -> (usize, usize) {
+        let start = self.offsets[index] as usize;
+        let end = self
+            .offsets
+            .get(index + 1)
+            .map(|offset| *offset as usize)
+            .unwrap_or(self.bytes.len());
+        (start, end)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn set_block_score(&mut self, index: usize, score: f32) {
+        let (start, _) = self.block_range(index);
+        self.bytes[start..start + 4].copy_from_slice(&score.to_le_bytes());
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn append_remainder_block_with_codec(
+        &mut self,
+        doc_ids: &[u32],
+        frequencies: &[u32],
+        codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.offsets.push(self.bytes.len() as u32);
+        super::super::encoding::encode_remainder_posting_block_into(
+            doc_ids,
+            frequencies,
+            codec,
+            block_size,
+            &mut self.bytes,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn into_array(mut self) -> LargeBinaryArray {
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(self.offsets.len() + 1);
+        offsets.extend(self.offsets.into_iter().map(i64::from));
+        offsets.push(self.bytes.len() as i64);
+        LargeBinaryArray::new(
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+            Buffer::from_vec(std::mem::take(&mut self.bytes)),
+            None,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &[u8]> {
+        (0..self.len()).map(|index| self.block(index))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]
+pub(super) struct EncodedPositionBlocks {
+    offsets: Vec<u32>,
+    bytes: Vec<u8>,
+}
+
+impl EncodedPositionBlocks {
+    pub(super) fn size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.offsets.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>() + self.bytes.capacity()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn block(&self, index: usize) -> &[u8] {
+        let start = self.offsets[index] as usize;
+        let end = self
+            .offsets
+            .get(index + 1)
+            .map(|offset| *offset as usize)
+            .unwrap_or(self.bytes.len());
+        &self.bytes[start..end]
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn push_encoded_block(&mut self, block: &[u8]) -> usize {
+        let start = self.bytes.len();
+        self.offsets.push(start as u32);
+        self.bytes.extend_from_slice(block);
+        self.bytes.len() - start
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn into_stream(self) -> SharedPositionStream {
+        SharedPositionStream::new(
+            PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+            self.offsets,
+            bytes::Bytes::from(self.bytes),
+        )
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_prewarm.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_prewarm.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..900fce06c6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_prewarm.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,875 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+impl PostingListReader {
+    pub(super) async fn prewarm_residency_status(
+        &self,
+        with_position: bool,
+    ) -> (bool, Option<bool>) {
+        let postings_resident = self.postings_resident_now().await;
+        let positions_resident = if with_position {
+            Some(self.positions_resident_now().await)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        (postings_resident, positions_resident)
+    }
+
+    async fn postings_resident_now(&self) -> bool {
+        if self.is_empty() {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        let mut seen_groups = BTreeSet::new();
+        for token_id in 0..self.len() as u32 {
+            if let Some((start, end)) = self.group_range_for_token(token_id) {
+                if seen_groups.insert((start, end))
+                    && self
+                        .index_cache
+                        .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(start, end, self.has_impacts))
+                        .await
+                        .is_none()
+                {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            } else if self
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&posting_list_cache_key(token_id, self.has_impacts))
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+            {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn positions_resident_now(&self) -> bool {
+        for token_id in 0..self.len() as u32 {
+            if self
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&PositionKey { token_id })
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+            {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    /// Build posting lists for one chunk's token range from `chunk_batch`, rebasing
+    /// global offsets to chunk-local rows. Returns `(global token_id, PostingList)`
+    /// pairs identical to the whole-file path, only bounded to one chunk.
+    fn build_posting_lists_chunk(
+        chunk_batch: RecordBatch,
+        chunk: PostingChunk<'_>,
+        ctx: &PostingBuildCtx<'_>,
+        mode: ChunkPostingMode,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(u32, PostingList)>> {
+        let mut posting_lists = Vec::with_capacity(chunk.token_count);
+        for local in 0..chunk.token_count {
+            let global = chunk.tok_start + local;
+            let row_batch = if let Some(chunk_offsets) = chunk.offsets {
+                // Legacy v1: rebase global offsets to chunk row 0; the last token
+                // ends at `chunk.end_row` (no trailing sentinel in chunk_offsets).
+                let base = chunk_offsets[0];
+                let start = chunk_offsets[local] - base;
+                let end = if local + 1 < chunk_offsets.len() {
+                    chunk_offsets[local + 1] - base
+                } else {
+                    chunk.end_row - base
+                };
+                chunk_batch.slice(start, end - start)
+            } else {
+                // V2: one posting row per token; row `local` within the chunk.
+                chunk_batch.slice(local, 1)
+            };
+            let row_batch = match mode {
+                // Cached posting lists outlive the read chunk and should not
+                // retain unrelated token rows through shared Arrow buffers.
+                ChunkPostingMode::Prewarm => row_batch.shrink_to_fit()?,
+                // Merge consumes chunks in order, so retaining each chunk until
+                // its turn avoids a deep copy. Legacy-position reads hold only
+                // the caller's bounded concurrent window.
+                ChunkPostingMode::Merge => row_batch,
+            };
+            let posting_list = Self::posting_list_from_batch_parts(
+                &row_batch,
+                ctx.max_scores.map(|scores| scores[global]),
+                ctx.lengths.map(|lengths| lengths[global]),
+                ctx.posting_tail_codec,
+                ctx.block_size,
+                ctx.positions_layout,
+            )?;
+            posting_lists.push((global as u32, posting_list));
+        }
+
+        Ok(posting_lists)
+    }
+
+    /// Read the posting rows for token ids `[tok_start, tok_end)` into one RecordBatch.
+    /// For v2 the token range is the row range; for v1 it's derived from the offsets.
+    async fn read_chunk_batch(
+        &self,
+        tok_start: usize,
+        tok_end: usize,
+        with_position: bool,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let columns = self.posting_columns(with_position);
+        let row_range = match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { offsets, .. } => {
+                let start = offsets[tok_start];
+                let end = offsets
+                    .get(tok_end)
+                    .copied()
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| self.reader.num_rows());
+                start..end
+            }
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { .. } => tok_start..tok_end,
+        };
+        let batch = self
+            .reader
+            .get()
+            .await?
+            .read_range(row_range, Some(&columns))
+            .await?;
+        Ok(batch)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) async fn prewarm_posting_lists(
+        &self,
+        with_position: bool,
+        chunk_concurrency: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.prewarm_posting_lists_chunked(with_position, None, chunk_concurrency)
+            .await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Stream the partition's posting lists into the cache in bounded token-row chunks
+    /// (read -> build -> insert -> drop), so peak resident set is ~one chunk. Returns
+    /// the chunk count (tests assert it split). `chunk_tokens_override` is test-only.
+    pub(super) async fn prewarm_posting_lists_chunked(
+        &self,
+        with_position: bool,
+        chunk_tokens_override: Option<usize>,
+        chunk_concurrency: usize,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        if with_position && !self.has_positions() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "cannot prewarm positions for an inverted index that was built without positions; recreate the index with with_position=true".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // Make max_scores/lengths available for query-local packed views. The
+        // materialized fallback also clones them into its blocking build task.
+        self.ensure_metadata_loaded().await?;
+
+        // With grouping the cache stores one entry per group, so a group's
+        // posting lists must all be resident at once: align chunk boundaries to
+        // whole groups. Without grouping, chunks are plain token ranges.
+        let grouping = self.grouping.clone();
+        let use_packed_groups = grouping.is_grouped() && !with_position;
+        // Packed groups reuse the reader's bulk metadata at query time, so they
+        // do not need the temporary full-partition metadata clones used by the
+        // materialized fallback.
+        let state = (!use_packed_groups).then(|| self.chunk_build_state());
+        let token_count = self.len();
+        let posting_data_size_bytes = self.posting_data_size_bytes();
+        let chunk_tokens = chunk_tokens_override
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| posting_read_chunk_tokens(token_count, posting_data_size_bytes))
+            .max(1);
+        let chunk_ranges = prewarm_chunk_ranges(&grouping, token_count, chunk_tokens);
+        let chunk_count = chunk_ranges.len();
+        let chunk_concurrency = chunk_concurrency.max(1);
+
+        let read_build_start = Instant::now();
+        stream::iter(chunk_ranges)
+            .map(|(tok_start, tok_end)| {
+                let state = state.as_ref();
+                let grouping = &grouping;
+                async move {
+                    if use_packed_groups {
+                        let groups = self
+                            .build_packed_chunk_groups(tok_start, tok_end, token_count, grouping)
+                            .await?;
+                        for (start, end, group) in groups {
+                            self.index_cache
+                                .insert_with_key(
+                                    &posting_list_group_cache_key(start, end, self.has_impacts),
+                                    Arc::new(group),
+                                )
+                                .await;
+                        }
+                    } else {
+                        let state = state.expect(
+                            "materialized prewarm must initialize posting-list build state",
+                        );
+                        let posting_lists = self
+                            .build_chunk_postings(
+                                tok_start,
+                                tok_end,
+                                with_position,
+                                state,
+                                ChunkPostingMode::Prewarm,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                        self.publish_chunk_postings(
+                            posting_lists,
+                            grouping,
+                            tok_start,
+                            tok_end,
+                            token_count,
+                            with_position,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                    }
+                    Result::Ok(())
+                }
+            })
+            .buffer_unordered(chunk_concurrency)
+            .try_collect::<()>()
+            .await?;
+        let read_build_elapsed = read_build_start.elapsed();
+
+        info!(
+            legacy_layout = self.is_legacy_layout(),
+            with_position,
+            token_count,
+            chunk_count,
+            chunk_tokens,
+            chunk_concurrency,
+            posting_data_size_bytes,
+            read_build_ms = read_build_elapsed.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0,
+            "posting list prewarm timing"
+        );
+
+        Ok(chunk_count)
+    }
+
+    /// Loop-invariant inputs shared by every chunk build: the metadata vecs
+    /// (`Arc`d so chunks share them without re-cloning) plus codec/layout.
+    fn chunk_build_state(&self) -> ChunkBuildState {
+        let (offsets, max_scores, lengths) = match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 {
+                offsets,
+                max_scores,
+            } => (Some(offsets.clone()), max_scores.clone(), None),
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => (
+                None,
+                metadata.get().map(|loaded| loaded.max_scores.clone()),
+                metadata.get().map(|loaded| loaded.lengths.clone()),
+            ),
+        };
+        ChunkBuildState {
+            offsets: offsets.map(Arc::new),
+            max_scores: max_scores.map(Arc::new),
+            lengths: lengths.map(Arc::new),
+            posting_tail_codec: self.posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size: self.block_size,
+            positions_layout: self.positions_layout,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Read one token-row chunk and build its posting lists off the runtime thread.
+    /// Shared buffers are retained only by that chunk's returned posting lists;
+    /// callers bound the number of concurrently retained chunks.
+    async fn build_chunk_postings(
+        &self,
+        tok_start: usize,
+        tok_end: usize,
+        with_position: bool,
+        state: &ChunkBuildState,
+        mode: ChunkPostingMode,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(u32, PostingList)>> {
+        let chunk_token_count = tok_end - tok_start;
+        let chunk_batch = self
+            .read_chunk_batch(tok_start, tok_end, with_position)
+            .await?;
+
+        let (chunk_offsets, chunk_end_row) = match state.offsets.as_ref() {
+            Some(offsets) => {
+                let end_row = offsets
+                    .get(tok_end)
+                    .copied()
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| self.reader.num_rows());
+                (Some(offsets[tok_start..tok_end].to_vec()), end_row)
+            }
+            // V2 doesn't use chunk_end_row (one row per token); pass tok_end.
+            None => (None, tok_end),
+        };
+        let max_scores = state.max_scores.clone();
+        let lengths = state.lengths.clone();
+        let posting_tail_codec = state.posting_tail_codec;
+        let block_size = state.block_size;
+        let positions_layout = state.positions_layout;
+        let num_docs = self.modern_num_docs;
+        let posting_lists = spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let ctx = PostingBuildCtx {
+                max_scores: max_scores.as_deref().map(|v| v.as_slice()),
+                lengths: lengths.as_deref().map(|v| v.as_slice()),
+                posting_tail_codec,
+                block_size,
+                positions_layout,
+            };
+            let chunk = PostingChunk {
+                tok_start,
+                token_count: chunk_token_count,
+                offsets: chunk_offsets.as_deref(),
+                end_row: chunk_end_row,
+            };
+            let posting_lists = Self::build_posting_lists_chunk(chunk_batch, chunk, &ctx, mode)?;
+            if let Some(num_docs) = num_docs {
+                for (token_id, posting) in &posting_lists {
+                    Self::validate_modern_posting(*token_id, posting, num_docs)?;
+                }
+            }
+            Result::Ok(posting_lists)
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|err| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Failed to build chunk posting lists in blocking task: {err}"
+            ))
+        })??;
+        for (token_id, _) in &posting_lists {
+            self.publish_modern_posting_validated(*token_id).await?;
+        }
+        // The chunk yields its token range as contiguous ascending ids from
+        // `tok_start`; the group publish path relies on this to index the lists.
+        debug_assert_eq!(posting_lists.len(), chunk_token_count);
+        debug_assert!(
+            posting_lists
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .all(|(i, (token_id, _))| *token_id as usize == tok_start + i)
+        );
+        Ok(posting_lists)
+    }
+
+    /// Build compact v2 groups directly from one posting-row chunk. Each group
+    /// slice is deep-copied once, so it owns only its Arrow buffers without
+    /// materializing a `Vec<PostingList>` or retaining the full chunk.
+    async fn build_packed_chunk_groups(
+        &self,
+        tok_start: usize,
+        tok_end: usize,
+        token_count: usize,
+        grouping: &PostingGrouping,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(u32, u32, PostingListGroup)>> {
+        debug_assert!(grouping.is_grouped());
+        debug_assert!(!self.is_legacy_layout());
+
+        let chunk_batch = self.read_chunk_batch(tok_start, tok_end, false).await?;
+        let ranges = grouping.ranges_for_chunk(tok_start, tok_end, token_count);
+        let posting_tail_codec = self.posting_tail_codec;
+        let block_size = self.block_size;
+        let num_docs = self.modern_num_docs;
+        let (chunk_max_scores, chunk_lengths) = match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => {
+                let loaded = metadata.get().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("packed prewarm requires loaded posting metadata".to_owned())
+                })?;
+                (
+                    loaded.max_scores[tok_start..tok_end].to_vec(),
+                    loaded.lengths[tok_start..tok_end].to_vec(),
+                )
+            }
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { .. } => {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "packed prewarm is not supported for legacy posting metadata".to_owned(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+
+        let groups = spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let mut groups = Vec::with_capacity(ranges.len());
+            for (start, end) in ranges {
+                let start_usize = start as usize;
+                let end_usize = end as usize;
+                let local_start = start_usize - tok_start;
+                let group_len = end_usize - start_usize;
+                let group_batch = chunk_batch.slice(local_start, group_len).shrink_to_fit()?;
+                let group = PostingListGroup::new_packed_with_block_size(
+                    group_batch,
+                    posting_tail_codec,
+                    block_size,
+                )?;
+                if let Some(num_docs) = num_docs {
+                    for token_id in start..end {
+                        let chunk_slot = token_id as usize - tok_start;
+                        let posting = group
+                            .posting_list(
+                                (token_id - start) as usize,
+                                Some(chunk_max_scores[chunk_slot]),
+                                Some(chunk_lengths[chunk_slot]),
+                            )?
+                            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::index(format!(
+                                    "token {token_id} is missing from prewarm posting group [{start}, {end})"
+                                ))
+                            })?;
+                        Self::validate_modern_posting(token_id, &posting, num_docs)?;
+                    }
+                }
+                groups.push((start, end, group));
+            }
+            Result::Ok(groups)
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|err| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Failed to build packed prewarm posting groups in blocking task: {err}"
+            ))
+        })??;
+        for (start, end, _) in &groups {
+            for token_id in *start..*end {
+                self.publish_modern_posting_validated(token_id).await?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(groups)
+    }
+
+    /// Strip positions into their own per-token cache entries (the posting cache
+    /// holds positions-free lists), then populate the same cache keys the read
+    /// path uses: grouped entries when grouping is active, per-token entries
+    /// otherwise. Called once per chunk; the chunk's lists drop on return.
+    async fn publish_chunk_postings(
+        &self,
+        posting_lists: Vec<(u32, PostingList)>,
+        grouping: &PostingGrouping,
+        tok_start: usize,
+        tok_end: usize,
+        token_count: usize,
+        with_position: bool,
+    ) {
+        match grouping {
+            PostingGrouping::None => {
+                for (token_id, mut posting_list) in posting_lists {
+                    self.cache_positions(&mut posting_list, token_id, with_position)
+                        .await;
+                    self.index_cache
+                        .insert_with_key(
+                            &posting_list_cache_key(token_id, self.has_impacts),
+                            Arc::new(posting_list),
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                }
+            }
+            PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { .. } => {
+                let mut chunk_postings = Vec::with_capacity(posting_lists.len());
+                for (token_id, mut posting_list) in posting_lists {
+                    self.cache_positions(&mut posting_list, token_id, with_position)
+                        .await;
+                    chunk_postings.push(posting_list);
+                }
+                // Chunk is group-aligned, so every group starting in it also ends
+                // in it; `chunk_postings[i]` is token `tok_start + i`. The last
+                // group's `end` derives from `token_count`, matching the read path
+                // so both produce identical `PostingListGroupKey`s.
+                for (start, end) in grouping.ranges_for_chunk(tok_start, tok_end, token_count) {
+                    let start_usize = start as usize;
+                    let lo = start_usize - tok_start;
+                    let hi = end as usize - tok_start;
+                    let group = PostingListGroup::new(chunk_postings[lo..hi].to_vec());
+                    self.index_cache
+                        .insert_with_key(
+                            &posting_list_group_cache_key(start, end, self.has_impacts),
+                            Arc::new(group),
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Move a posting list's positions (when present and requested) into the
+    /// dedicated per-token position cache, leaving the posting list positions-free.
+    async fn cache_positions(
+        &self,
+        posting_list: &mut PostingList,
+        token_id: u32,
+        with_position: bool,
+    ) {
+        if with_position && let Some(positions) = posting_list.take_positions() {
+            self.index_cache
+                .insert_with_key(&PositionKey { token_id }, Arc::new(Positions(positions)))
+                .await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Cheap `invert.lance` size estimate (file length from object metadata, no
+    /// data read), used to size bounded posting-list reads. Falls back to a
+    /// row-count proxy when the reader can't surface the length (legacy v1).
+    pub(crate) fn posting_data_size_bytes(&self) -> u64 {
+        if let Some(size) = self.reader.file_size_bytes() {
+            return size;
+        }
+        // Fallback proxy for readers that don't cache their file length: just needs
+        // to be monotonic in partition size.
+        const ESTIMATED_BYTES_PER_ROW: u64 = 16;
+        (self.reader.num_rows() as u64).saturating_mul(ESTIMATED_BYTES_PER_ROW)
+    }
+
+    /// Visit every posting list in ascending token-id order while reading the
+    /// partition in bounded chunks. This is used by index merge/finalization:
+    /// a whole-partition Arrow batch can overflow 32-bit list offsets even
+    /// though every individual posting row is valid.
+    pub(super) async fn for_each_posting_list_chunked<F>(
+        &self,
+        with_position: bool,
+        chunk_tokens_override: Option<usize>,
+        max_list_children_override: Option<u64>,
+        legacy_position_concurrency: usize,
+        mut visit: F,
+    ) -> Result<usize>
+    where
+        F: FnMut(PostingList) -> Result<()>,
+    {
+        self.ensure_metadata_loaded().await?;
+        let token_count = self.len();
+        let chunk_tokens = chunk_tokens_override
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                posting_read_chunk_tokens(token_count, self.posting_data_size_bytes())
+            })
+            .max(1);
+        let max_list_children = max_list_children_override
+            .unwrap_or(POSTING_READ_MAX_LIST_CHILDREN)
+            .max(1);
+        let chunk_ranges =
+            self.posting_read_chunk_ranges(chunk_tokens, max_list_children, with_position)?;
+        let chunk_count = chunk_ranges.len();
+        let state = self.chunk_build_state();
+
+        if with_position
+            && matches!(&self.metadata, PostingMetadata::V2 { .. })
+            && matches!(self.positions_layout, PositionsLayout::LegacyPerDoc)
+        {
+            let legacy_position_concurrency = legacy_position_concurrency.max(1);
+            let read_build_start = Instant::now();
+            debug!(
+                token_count,
+                chunk_count,
+                legacy_position_concurrency,
+                "legacy per-document posting merge reads started"
+            );
+            let mut posting_chunks = stream::iter(chunk_ranges)
+                .map(|(tok_start, tok_end)| {
+                    self.build_chunk_postings(
+                        tok_start,
+                        tok_end,
+                        with_position,
+                        &state,
+                        ChunkPostingMode::Merge,
+                    )
+                })
+                // Keep token order while allowing singleton remote reads to overlap.
+                .buffered(legacy_position_concurrency);
+            while let Some(posting_lists) = posting_chunks.try_next().await? {
+                for (_, posting_list) in posting_lists {
+                    visit(posting_list)?;
+                }
+            }
+            debug!(
+                token_count,
+                chunk_count,
+                legacy_position_concurrency,
+                read_build_ms = read_build_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0,
+                "legacy per-document posting merge reads finished"
+            );
+            return Ok(chunk_count);
+        }
+
+        for (tok_start, tok_end) in chunk_ranges {
+            let posting_lists = self
+                .build_chunk_postings(
+                    tok_start,
+                    tok_end,
+                    with_position,
+                    &state,
+                    ChunkPostingMode::Merge,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            for (_, posting_list) in posting_lists {
+                visit(posting_list)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(chunk_count)
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) async fn build_chunk_postings_for_test(
+        &self,
+        tok_start: usize,
+        tok_end: usize,
+        with_position: bool,
+        mode: ChunkPostingMode,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<PostingList>> {
+        self.ensure_metadata_loaded().await?;
+        let state = self.chunk_build_state();
+        self.build_chunk_postings(tok_start, tok_end, with_position, &state, mode)
+            .await
+            .map(|postings| postings.into_iter().map(|(_, posting)| posting).collect())
+    }
+
+    /// Plan merge reads by both token count and the child-value count of the
+    /// widest projected `List<i32>` column. V2/V3 posting lengths determine
+    /// posting blocks, position-block offsets, and impact entries exactly.
+    /// Compressed V1 positions use nested per-document lists whose child count
+    /// is not available in metadata, so those reads stay at one token per batch.
+    /// For row-based legacy indexes, persisted posting row offsets provide the
+    /// best available bound.
+    fn posting_read_chunk_ranges(
+        &self,
+        max_tokens: usize,
+        max_list_children: u64,
+        with_position: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(usize, usize)>> {
+        if with_position
+            && matches!(&self.metadata, PostingMetadata::V2 { .. })
+            && matches!(self.positions_layout, PositionsLayout::LegacyPerDoc)
+        {
+            return Ok((0..self.len())
+                .map(|token_id| (token_id, token_id + 1))
+                .collect());
+        }
+
+        let mut ranges = Vec::new();
+        let mut tok_start = 0usize;
+        while tok_start < self.len() {
+            let mut tok_end = tok_start;
+            let mut list_children = 0u64;
+            while tok_end < self.len() && tok_end - tok_start < max_tokens {
+                let next_children = self.max_list_children_for_token(tok_end, with_position);
+                if next_children > max_list_children {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "posting token {tok_end} requires {next_children} List child values, exceeding the per-batch limit {max_list_children}"
+                    )));
+                }
+                if tok_end > tok_start
+                    && list_children.saturating_add(next_children) > max_list_children
+                {
+                    break;
+                }
+                list_children = list_children.saturating_add(next_children);
+                tok_end += 1;
+                if list_children >= max_list_children {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            ranges.push((tok_start, tok_end));
+            tok_start = tok_end;
+        }
+        Ok(ranges)
+    }
+
+    fn max_list_children_for_token(&self, token_id: usize, with_position: bool) -> u64 {
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { offsets, .. } => {
+                let start = offsets[token_id];
+                let end = offsets
+                    .get(token_id + 1)
+                    .copied()
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| self.reader.num_rows());
+                (end - start) as u64
+            }
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => {
+                let loaded = metadata
+                    .get()
+                    .expect("v2 metadata must be loaded before planning chunked posting reads");
+                let posting_length = u64::from(loaded.lengths[token_id]);
+                let posting_blocks = posting_length.div_ceil(self.block_size as u64);
+                let impact_entries = self.has_impacts.then(|| {
+                    posting_blocks
+                        .saturating_add(posting_blocks.div_ceil(IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS as u64))
+                });
+                let position_offsets = (with_position
+                    && matches!(self.positions_layout, PositionsLayout::SharedStream(_)))
+                .then_some(posting_blocks);
+                let legacy_position_docs = (with_position
+                    && matches!(self.positions_layout, PositionsLayout::LegacyPerDoc))
+                .then_some(posting_length);
+                impact_entries
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .chain(position_offsets)
+                    .chain(legacy_position_docs)
+                    .chain(std::iter::once(posting_blocks))
+                    .max()
+                    .unwrap_or(0)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Sync lookup of `(max_score, length)` from the bulk-loaded metadata.
+    /// Only safe after [`Self::ensure_metadata_loaded`]; callers that hold
+    /// the OnceCell-loaded reference (e.g. chunked bulk reads and prewarm) use
+    /// this to avoid the per-token IO path.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn bulk_metadata_for_token(&self, token_id: u32) -> (Option<f32>, Option<u32>) {
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { max_scores, .. } => {
+                (max_scores.as_ref().map(|m| m[token_id as usize]), None)
+            }
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => {
+                let loaded = metadata.get().expect(
+                    "v2 metadata must be bulk-loaded before bulk_metadata_for_token; call ensure_metadata_loaded first",
+                );
+                (
+                    Some(loaded.max_scores[token_id as usize]),
+                    Some(loaded.lengths[token_id as usize]),
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) async fn read_positions(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<CompressedPositionStorage> {
+        let result = self.index_cache.get_or_insert_with_key_hit(PositionKey { token_id }, || async move {
+            let positions = match self.positions_layout {
+                PositionsLayout::None => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position".to_owned(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                PositionsLayout::LegacyPerDoc => {
+                    let batch = self
+                        .reader
+                        .get().await?
+                        .read_range(self.posting_list_range(token_id), Some(&[POSITION_COL]))
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|e| match e {
+                            Error::Schema { .. } => Error::invalid_input("position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position".to_owned()),
+                            e => e,
+                        })?;
+                    CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(
+                        batch[POSITION_COL].as_list::<i32>().value(0).as_list::<i32>().clone(),
+                    )
+                }
+                PositionsLayout::SharedStream(codec) => {
+                    let batch = self
+                        .reader
+                        .get().await?
+                        .read_range(
+                            self.posting_list_range(token_id),
+                            Some(&[COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL, POSITION_BLOCK_OFFSET_COL]),
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|e| match e {
+                            Error::Schema { .. } => Error::invalid_input("position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position".to_owned()),
+                            e => e,
+                        })?;
+                    let bytes = bytes::Bytes::from(
+                        batch[COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL]
+                            .as_binary::<i64>()
+                            .value(0)
+                            .to_vec(),
+                    );
+                    let block_offsets = batch[POSITION_BLOCK_OFFSET_COL]
+                        .as_list::<i32>()
+                        .value(0)
+                        .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+                        .values()
+                        .to_vec();
+                    CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(SharedPositionStream::new(
+                        codec,
+                        block_offsets,
+                        bytes,
+                    ))
+                }
+            };
+            Result::Ok(Positions(positions))
+        }).await;
+        match &result {
+            Ok((_, true)) => metrics.record_index_cache_hit(),
+            _ => metrics.record_index_cache_miss(),
+        }
+        let (positions, _) = result?;
+        Ok(positions.0.clone())
+    }
+
+    fn posting_list_range(&self, token_id: u32) -> Range<usize> {
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { offsets, .. } => {
+                let offset = offsets[token_id as usize];
+                let posting_len = self.posting_len(token_id);
+                offset..offset + posting_len
+            }
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { .. } => {
+                let token_id = token_id as usize;
+                token_id..token_id + 1
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn posting_columns(&self, with_position: bool) -> Vec<&'static str> {
+        let mut base_columns = if self.is_legacy_layout() {
+            vec![ROW_ID, FREQUENCY_COL]
+        } else {
+            vec![POSTING_COL]
+        };
+        if with_position {
+            match self.positions_layout {
+                PositionsLayout::None => {}
+                PositionsLayout::LegacyPerDoc => base_columns.push(POSITION_COL),
+                PositionsLayout::SharedStream(_) => {
+                    base_columns.push(COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL);
+                    base_columns.push(POSITION_BLOCK_OFFSET_COL);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if self.has_impacts {
+            base_columns.push(IMPACT_COL);
+        }
+        base_columns
+    }
+}
+
+/// Controls whether posting lists retain their read chunk's Arrow buffers.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub(super) enum ChunkPostingMode {
+    /// Build independently-owned posting lists for the index cache.
+    Prewarm,
+    /// Share each read chunk until ordered merge consumption; compressed legacy
+    /// positions may retain a bounded concurrent window of singleton chunks.
+    Merge,
+}
+
+/// Loop-invariant state for [`PostingListReader::build_chunk_postings`]. The
+/// metadata vecs are `Arc`d so each chunk's blocking build shares them cheaply.
+pub(super) struct ChunkBuildState {
+    offsets: Option<Arc<Vec<usize>>>,
+    max_scores: Option<Arc<Vec<f32>>>,
+    lengths: Option<Arc<Vec<u32>>>,
+    posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    block_size: usize,
+    positions_layout: PositionsLayout,
+}
+
+/// Chunk-invariant inputs to [`PostingListReader::build_posting_lists_chunk`]:
+/// the per-partition codec/layout and the (shared, whole-partition) metadata
+/// slices indexed by global token id. These don't change across chunks.
+pub(super) struct PostingBuildCtx<'a> {
+    max_scores: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+    lengths: Option<&'a [u32]>,
+    posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    block_size: usize,
+    positions_layout: PositionsLayout,
+}
+
+/// Per-chunk inputs to [`PostingListReader::build_posting_lists_chunk`]:
+/// the token sub-range `[tok_start, tok_start + token_count)` and, for legacy
+/// v1, the rebased offset slice plus the chunk's end row.
+pub(super) struct PostingChunk<'a> {
+    tok_start: usize,
+    token_count: usize,
+    /// Legacy v1 only: `offsets[tok_start..tok_start+token_count]` (no sentinel).
+    offsets: Option<&'a [usize]>,
+    /// Legacy v1 only: global row at which this chunk's posting rows end.
+    end_row: usize,
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_reader.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_reader.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8f9801554a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/posting_reader.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,862 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+pub(super) struct PostingFileMetadata {
+    schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    file_size: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+/// A request's reader is opened only when decoded posting data is missing.
+/// Shared metadata never retains the reader or store that supplied it.
+pub(super) enum PostingReader {
+    Opened {
+        reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        metadata: OnceLock<Arc<PostingFileMetadata>>,
+    },
+    Deferred {
+        metadata: Arc<PostingFileMetadata>,
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        path: String,
+        reader: OnceCell<Arc<dyn IndexReader>>,
+    },
+}
+
+impl PostingReader {
+    fn with_store(&self, store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>, path: String) -> Self {
+        let metadata = match self {
+            Self::Opened { reader, metadata } => metadata
+                .get_or_init(|| {
+                    Arc::new(PostingFileMetadata {
+                        schema: reader.schema().clone(),
+                        num_rows: reader.num_rows(),
+                        file_size: reader.file_size_bytes(),
+                    })
+                })
+                .clone(),
+            Self::Deferred { metadata, .. } => metadata.clone(),
+        };
+        Self::Deferred {
+            metadata,
+            store,
+            path,
+            reader: OnceCell::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) async fn get(&self) -> Result<&Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Opened { reader, .. } => Ok(reader),
+            Self::Deferred { metadata, store, path, reader } => reader.get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                let opened = store.open_index_file(path).await?;
+                if opened.num_rows() != metadata.num_rows
+                    || opened.schema() != &metadata.schema
+                    || opened.schema().metadata != metadata.schema.metadata
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "FTS posting file {path} changed while reopening an immutable index: expected {} rows, got {}",
+                        metadata.num_rows, opened.num_rows()
+                    )));
+                }
+                Ok(opened)
+            }).await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Opened { reader, .. } => reader.num_rows(),
+            Self::Deferred { metadata, .. } => metadata.num_rows,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn file_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Opened { reader, .. } => reader.file_size_bytes(),
+            Self::Deferred { metadata, .. } => metadata.file_size,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct PostingListReader {
+    pub(super) reader: PostingReader,
+    /// Row count of the posting file. Kept here because every query term
+    /// needs it to find its cache group, and asking `reader` costs a dynamic
+    /// call into file metadata that is usually cold.
+    num_rows: usize,
+
+    /// Layout-specific metadata. V2 keeps its per-token max-score and
+    /// length columns lazy so opening a partition doesn't drag O(num_tokens)
+    /// bytes off cold storage when the caller only needs `df` for a few terms.
+    pub(super) metadata: PostingMetadata,
+
+    pub(super) has_position: bool,
+    pub(super) has_impacts: bool,
+    pub(super) posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    pub(super) block_size: usize,
+    pub(super) positions_layout: PositionsLayout,
+
+    /// Runtime posting-list cache grouping. Non-empty v2 indexes use synthetic
+    /// fixed groups so prewarm can improve cache density without rebuilding the
+    /// index or relying on persisted grouping metadata.
+    pub(super) grouping: PostingGrouping,
+
+    /// Modern postings contain dense DocIds into the partition document table.
+    /// Cache successful boundary validation per immutable token so repeated
+    /// queries do not decode the final posting block again.
+    /// One byte per token: a synchronizing cell here costs 56 bytes per token,
+    /// which dominates memory when every partition is opened at once (segment
+    /// merge). Validation is a pure check, so a racing duplicate is harmless.
+    pub(super) modern_doc_id_validations: Option<Arc<[AtomicBool]>>,
+    /// Skips per-token readiness checks once the whole immutable table is validated.
+    pub(super) modern_postings_validated: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    pub(super) modern_num_docs: Option<usize>,
+
+    pub(super) index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
+}
+
+/// Per-token metadata (max_score, length) needed by the BM25 query and stats
+/// paths. The legacy and v2 formats store this metadata in different
+/// places, with very different cost profiles for cold-load: the variants
+/// surface that asymmetry so callers can choose a per-token or bulk access
+/// pattern.
+pub(super) enum PostingMetadata {
+    /// Legacy v1: offsets and max_scores are encoded in the file's schema
+    /// metadata, so they are already in memory by the time `try_new` returns.
+    LegacyV1 {
+        offsets: Vec<usize>,
+        max_scores: Option<Vec<f32>>,
+    },
+    /// V2: per-token `max_score` and `length` live as columns in the
+    /// posting file. The bulk vectors are filled lazily by
+    /// `ensure_metadata_loaded`, and the stats path can also fetch a single
+    /// token via `posting_len_for_token` without forcing the bulk load.
+    V2 {
+        metadata: Arc<OnceCell<LoadedPostingMetadata>>,
+    },
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct LoadedPostingMetadata {
+    pub(super) max_scores: Vec<f32>,
+    pub(super) lengths: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) enum PositionsLayout {
+    None,
+    LegacyPerDoc,
+    SharedStream(PositionStreamCodec),
+}
+
+/// Selects whether a posting lookup may read neighboring token rows on a
+/// cache miss. Exact reads still reuse an already-resident read-ahead group.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(in super::super) enum PostingReadPolicy {
+    ReadAhead,
+    CacheAwareExact,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for PostingListReader {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let mut s = f.debug_struct("InvertedListReader");
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 {
+                offsets,
+                max_scores,
+            } => {
+                s.field("layout", &"legacy_v1")
+                    .field("offsets", offsets)
+                    .field("max_scores", max_scores);
+            }
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => {
+                s.field("layout", &"v2")
+                    .field("metadata_loaded", &metadata.initialized());
+            }
+        }
+        s.finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for PostingListReader {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        let metadata_size = match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 {
+                offsets,
+                max_scores,
+            } => offsets.deep_size_of_children(context) + max_scores.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => metadata
+                .get()
+                .map(|loaded| {
+                    loaded.max_scores.deep_size_of_children(context)
+                        + loaded.lengths.deep_size_of_children(context)
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(0),
+        };
+        let validation_size = self
+            .modern_doc_id_validations
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|validations| {
+                validations
+                    .len()
+                    .saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<AtomicBool>())
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        metadata_size + self.grouping.deep_size_of_children(context) + validation_size
+    }
+}
+
+impl PostingListReader {
+    pub(crate) async fn try_new(
+        reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let positions_layout = if reader.schema().field(COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL).is_some() {
+            PositionsLayout::SharedStream(parse_shared_position_codec(&reader.schema().metadata)?)
+        } else if reader.schema().field(POSITION_COL).is_some() {
+            PositionsLayout::LegacyPerDoc
+        } else {
+            PositionsLayout::None
+        };
+        let posting_tail_codec = parse_posting_tail_codec(&reader.schema().metadata)?;
+        let block_size = parse_posting_block_size(&reader.schema().metadata)?;
+        let has_position = positions_layout != PositionsLayout::None;
+        let has_impacts = reader.schema().field(IMPACT_COL).is_some();
+        let metadata = if reader.schema().field(POSTING_COL).is_none() {
+            let (offsets, max_scores) = Self::load_metadata(reader.schema())?;
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 {
+                offsets,
+                max_scores,
+            }
+        } else {
+            PostingMetadata::V2 {
+                metadata: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
+            }
+        };
+
+        let is_legacy_layout = matches!(&metadata, PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { .. });
+        let grouping = PostingGrouping::for_reader(is_legacy_layout, reader.num_rows());
+        let modern_doc_id_validations = (!is_legacy_layout).then(|| {
+            (0..reader.num_rows())
+                .map(|_| AtomicBool::new(false))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .into()
+        });
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            num_rows: reader.num_rows(),
+            reader: PostingReader::Opened {
+                reader,
+                metadata: OnceLock::new(),
+            },
+            metadata,
+            has_position,
+            has_impacts,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            positions_layout,
+            grouping,
+            modern_doc_id_validations,
+            modern_postings_validated: Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false)),
+            modern_num_docs: None,
+            index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Reuse immutable posting state with deferred I/O through the current store.
+    /// The caller must preserve the index cache namespace: these cells describe
+    /// one immutable posting file, not an arbitrary reader with the same schema.
+    pub(super) fn with_store(&self, store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>, path: String) -> Result<Self> {
+        let PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } = &self.metadata else {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "rebinding legacy FTS posting readers requires a full index load",
+            ));
+        };
+        Ok(Self {
+            reader: self.reader.with_store(store, path),
+            num_rows: self.num_rows,
+            metadata: PostingMetadata::V2 {
+                metadata: metadata.clone(),
+            },
+            has_position: self.has_position,
+            has_impacts: self.has_impacts,
+            posting_tail_codec: self.posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size: self.block_size,
+            positions_layout: self.positions_layout,
+            grouping: self.grouping.clone(),
+            modern_doc_id_validations: self.modern_doc_id_validations.clone(),
+            modern_postings_validated: self.modern_postings_validated.clone(),
+            modern_num_docs: self.modern_num_docs,
+            index_cache: self.index_cache.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    // for legacy format
+    // returns the offsets and max scores
+    fn load_metadata(
+        schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+    ) -> Result<(Vec<usize>, Option<Vec<f32>>)> {
+        let offsets = schema
+            .metadata
+            .get("offsets")
+            .ok_or(Error::index("offsets not found in metadata".to_owned()))?;
+        let offsets = serde_json::from_str(offsets)?;
+
+        let max_scores = schema
+            .metadata
+            .get("max_scores")
+            .map(|max_scores| serde_json::from_str(max_scores))
+            .transpose()?;
+        Ok((offsets, max_scores))
+    }
+
+    // the number of posting lists
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { offsets, .. } => offsets.len(),
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { .. } => self.num_rows,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn has_positions(&self) -> bool {
+        self.has_position
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn posting_tail_codec(&self) -> PostingTailCodec {
+        self.posting_tail_codec
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn block_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.block_size
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn is_legacy_layout(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self.metadata, PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { .. })
+    }
+
+    /// Sync access to `posting_len`. Requires v2 metadata to already be
+    /// loaded via [`ensure_metadata_loaded`]; the bm25 scoring path enforces
+    /// that contract before kicking off wand. The stats path uses
+    /// [`Self::posting_len_for_token`] instead, which avoids the bulk load.
+    pub(crate) fn posting_len(&self, token_id: u32) -> usize {
+        let token_id = token_id as usize;
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { offsets, .. } => {
+                let next_offset = offsets
+                    .get(token_id + 1)
+                    .copied()
+                    .unwrap_or(self.reader.num_rows());
+                next_offset - offsets[token_id]
+            }
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => {
+                let metadata = metadata
+                    .get()
+                    .expect("v2 posting metadata must be bulk-loaded before sync posting_len; call ensure_metadata_loaded first");
+                metadata.lengths[token_id] as usize
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Return a posting-list length only when its metadata is already resident.
+    ///
+    /// Legacy offsets are loaded with the schema. Modern lengths remain absent
+    /// until an explicit bulk metadata load, so this probe never starts I/O or
+    /// relies on the scoring path's stronger [`Self::posting_len`] contract.
+    pub(crate) fn loaded_posting_len(&self, token_id: u32) -> Option<usize> {
+        let token_id = token_id as usize;
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { offsets, .. } => {
+                let offset = offsets.get(token_id).copied()?;
+                let next_offset = offsets
+                    .get(token_id.checked_add(1)?)
+                    .copied()
+                    .unwrap_or(self.reader.num_rows());
+                next_offset.checked_sub(offset)
+            }
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => metadata
+                .get()?
+                .lengths
+                .get(token_id)
+                .copied()
+                .map(|length| length as usize),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether every posting length can be read synchronously without I/O.
+    pub(crate) fn posting_lengths_loaded(&self) -> bool {
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { .. } => true,
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => self.is_empty() || metadata.get().is_some(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Async access to a single token's posting list length. For v2
+    /// indexes this reads one row of posting metadata if the bulk metadata has
+    /// not been loaded yet, and never triggers the bulk load itself. The stats
+    /// path uses this so a single-term `df` lookup costs O(1) bytes rather
+    /// than O(num_unique_tokens).
+    pub(crate) async fn posting_len_for_token(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { .. } => Ok(self.posting_len(token_id)),
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => {
+                if let Some(metadata) = metadata.get() {
+                    return Ok(metadata.lengths[token_id as usize] as usize);
+                }
+                let (_, length) = self.posting_metadata_for_token(token_id, metrics).await?;
+                length
+                    .map(|len| len as usize)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("posting length metadata missing".to_string()))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Async access to a single token's `(max_score, length)` pair. Mirrors
+    /// [`Self::posting_len_for_token`] but covers both columns the scoring
+    /// path needs, in one read. For v2 indexes that have not been
+    /// bulk-loaded this issues one `read_range(token..token+1, [MAX_SCORE,
+    /// LENGTH])`; for legacy v1 the values come from in-memory schema
+    /// metadata.
+    pub(crate) async fn posting_metadata_for_token(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<(Option<f32>, Option<u32>)> {
+        match &self.metadata {
+            PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { max_scores, .. } => {
+                Ok((max_scores.as_ref().map(|m| m[token_id as usize]), None))
+            }
+            PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } => {
+                if let Some(loaded) = metadata.get() {
+                    return Ok((
+                        Some(loaded.max_scores[token_id as usize]),
+                        Some(loaded.lengths[token_id as usize]),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let result = self
+                    .index_cache
+                    .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(PostingMetadataKey { token_id }, || async move {
+                        let token_id = token_id as usize;
+                        let batch = self
+                            .reader
+                            .get()
+                            .await?
+                            .read_range(token_id..token_id + 1, Some(&[MAX_SCORE_COL, LENGTH_COL]))
+                            .await?;
+                        let max_score = batch[MAX_SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().value(0);
+                        let length = batch[LENGTH_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0);
+                        Ok(PostingMetadataValue { max_score, length })
+                    })
+                    .await;
+                if let Some(metrics) = metrics {
+                    match &result {
+                        Ok((_, true)) => metrics.record_index_cache_hit(),
+                        _ => metrics.record_index_cache_miss(),
+                    }
+                }
+                let metadata = result.map(|(value, _)| value)?;
+                Ok((Some(metadata.max_score), Some(metadata.length)))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Force the v2 bulk metadata (`max_scores`, `lengths`) into
+    /// memory. Cheap to call repeatedly; no-op for legacy v1 indexes whose
+    /// metadata is already populated from schema metadata at `try_new` time.
+    pub(crate) async fn ensure_metadata_loaded(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } = &self.metadata else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        metadata
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                let batch = self
+                    .reader
+                    .get()
+                    .await?
+                    .read_range(
+                        0..self.reader.num_rows(),
+                        Some(&[MAX_SCORE_COL, LENGTH_COL]),
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                let max_scores = batch[MAX_SCORE_COL]
+                    .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec();
+                let lengths = batch[LENGTH_COL]
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec();
+                Ok::<LoadedPostingMetadata, Error>(LoadedPostingMetadata {
+                    max_scores,
+                    lengths,
+                })
+            })
+            .await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn posting_batch(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        with_position: bool,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        if self.is_legacy_layout() {
+            self.posting_batch_legacy(token_id, with_position).await
+        } else {
+            let token_id = token_id as usize;
+            let mut columns = if with_position {
+                match self.positions_layout {
+                    PositionsLayout::SharedStream(_) => {
+                        vec![
+                            POSTING_COL,
+                            COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL,
+                            POSITION_BLOCK_OFFSET_COL,
+                        ]
+                    }
+                    PositionsLayout::LegacyPerDoc => vec![POSTING_COL, POSITION_COL],
+                    PositionsLayout::None => vec![POSTING_COL],
+                }
+            } else {
+                vec![POSTING_COL]
+            };
+            if self.has_impacts {
+                columns.push(IMPACT_COL);
+            }
+            let batch = self
+                .reader
+                .get()
+                .await?
+                .read_range(token_id..token_id + 1, Some(&columns))
+                .await?;
+            Ok(batch)
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn posting_batch_legacy(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        with_position: bool,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let mut columns = vec![ROW_ID, FREQUENCY_COL];
+        if with_position {
+            columns.push(POSITION_COL);
+        }
+
+        let length = self.posting_len(token_id);
+        let PostingMetadata::LegacyV1 { offsets, .. } = &self.metadata else {
+            unreachable!("posting_batch_legacy is only reachable on legacy v1 layout");
+        };
+        let token_id = token_id as usize;
+        let offset = offsets[token_id];
+        let batch = self
+            .reader
+            .get()
+            .await?
+            .read_range(offset..offset + length, Some(&columns))
+            .await?;
+        Ok(batch)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn posting_list(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        is_phrase_query: bool,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        self.posting_list_with_policy(
+            token_id,
+            is_phrase_query,
+            metrics,
+            PostingReadPolicy::ReadAhead,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "posting_list", level = "debug", skip(self, metrics))]
+    pub(in super::super) async fn posting_list_with_policy(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        is_phrase_query: bool,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        read_policy: PostingReadPolicy,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        let mut posting = match self.group_range_for_token(token_id) {
+            // Grouped path (issue #7040): one cache entry covers rows
+            // [start, end), so neighbouring rare terms share a single read.
+            Some((start, end)) => {
+                let exact_end = token_id.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "posting token id {token_id} cannot form an exclusive singleton range"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                if read_policy == PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact
+                    && (start != token_id || end != exact_end)
+                    && let Some(group) = self
+                        .index_cache
+                        .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(start, end, self.has_impacts))
+                        .await
+                {
+                    // This cache-only probe never invokes the posting loader.
+                    // Report the group hit because it is the path that serves
+                    // the posting; a probe miss is not a query-cache miss.
+                    metrics.record_index_cache_hit();
+                    self.posting_from_group(token_id, start, end, group.as_ref(), metrics)
+                        .await?
+                } else {
+                    let (selected_start, selected_end) = match read_policy {
+                        PostingReadPolicy::ReadAhead => (start, end),
+                        PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact => (token_id, exact_end),
+                    };
+                    self.load_cached_posting_group(token_id, selected_start, selected_end, metrics)
+                        .await?
+                }
+            }
+            // Fallback for layouts that cannot use row-based groups: one cache
+            // entry per token.
+            None => {
+                let result = self
+                    .index_cache
+                    .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(
+                        posting_list_cache_key(token_id, self.has_impacts),
+                        || async move {
+                            metrics.record_part_load();
+                            info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, index_type="inverted", part_id=token_id);
+                            // Fetch the posting batch and this token's (max_score,
+                            // length) in parallel; for cold v2 partitions this is one
+                            // single-row metadata read plus one posting-row read,
+                            // instead of pulling the full per-token metadata table.
+                            let (batch, (max_score, length)) = futures::try_join!(
+                                self.posting_batch(token_id, false),
+                                self.posting_metadata_for_token(token_id, Some(metrics)),
+                            )?;
+                            self.posting_list_from_batch(&batch, max_score, length)
+                        },
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                match &result {
+                    Ok((_, true)) => metrics.record_index_cache_hit(),
+                    _ => metrics.record_index_cache_miss(),
+                }
+                result?.0.as_ref().clone()
+            }
+        };
+
+        if !self.modern_posting_is_validated(token_id)? {
+            self.ensure_modern_posting_validated(token_id, &posting)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        if is_phrase_query && !posting.has_position() {
+            // hit the cache and when the cache was populated, the positions column was not loaded
+            let positions = self.read_positions(token_id, metrics).await?;
+            posting.set_positions(positions);
+        }
+
+        Ok(posting)
+    }
+
+    async fn load_cached_posting_group(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        start: u32,
+        end: u32,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        let result = self
+            .index_cache
+            .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(
+                posting_list_group_cache_key(start, end, self.has_impacts),
+                || async move {
+                    metrics.record_part_load();
+                    info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, index_type="inverted", part_id=start);
+                    self.load_posting_list_group(start, end).await
+                },
+            )
+            .await;
+        match &result {
+            Ok((_, true)) => metrics.record_index_cache_hit(),
+            _ => metrics.record_index_cache_miss(),
+        }
+        let (group, _) = result?;
+        self.posting_from_group(token_id, start, end, group.as_ref(), metrics)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn posting_from_group(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        start: u32,
+        end: u32,
+        group: &PostingListGroup,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        let (max_score, length) = if group.needs_external_metadata() {
+            self.posting_metadata_for_token(token_id, Some(metrics))
+                .await?
+        } else {
+            (None, None)
+        };
+        let slot = (token_id - start) as usize;
+        group.posting_list(slot, max_score, length)?.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "token {token_id} maps to slot {slot} outside posting group [{start}, {end})"
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(super) async fn ensure_modern_posting_validated(
+        &self,
+        token_id: u32,
+        posting: &PostingList,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let (Some(validations), Some(num_docs)) =
+            (&self.modern_doc_id_validations, self.modern_num_docs)
+        else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let validation = validations.get(token_id as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "modern FTS token id {token_id} is outside validation state [0, {})",
+                validations.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if validation.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        Self::validate_modern_posting(token_id, posting, num_docs)?;
+        validation.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(super) fn modern_posting_is_validated(&self, token_id: u32) -> Result<bool> {
+        if self.modern_postings_validated.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            return Ok(true);
+        }
+        let (Some(validations), Some(_)) = (&self.modern_doc_id_validations, self.modern_num_docs)
+        else {
+            return Ok(true);
+        };
+        let validation = validations.get(token_id as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "modern FTS token id {token_id} is outside validation state [0, {})",
+                validations.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(validation.load(Ordering::Acquire))
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn validate_modern_posting(
+        token_id: u32,
+        posting: &PostingList,
+        num_docs: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        validate_modern_posting_doc_ids(posting, &format!("token id {token_id}"), num_docs)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) async fn publish_modern_posting_validated(&self, token_id: u32) -> Result<()> {
+        let Some(validations) = &self.modern_doc_id_validations else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let validation = validations.get(token_id as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "modern FTS token id {token_id} is outside validation state [0, {})",
+                validations.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        validation.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn modern_posting_validation_ready(&self) -> bool {
+        if self.modern_postings_validated.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        let ready = self
+            .modern_doc_id_validations
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_none_or(|validations| {
+                validations
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|state| state.load(Ordering::Acquire))
+            });
+        if ready {
+            self.modern_postings_validated
+                .store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        }
+        ready
+    }
+
+    /// Map a token id to its cache group's row range `[start, end)`, or `None`
+    /// when grouping is not available so the caller falls back to the per-token
+    /// path. In v2 the token id is the row offset, so the group range is also
+    /// the physical row range.
+    pub(super) fn group_range_for_token(&self, token_id: u32) -> Option<(u32, u32)> {
+        self.grouping.range_for_token(token_id, self.len())
+    }
+
+    /// Read rows `[start, end)` into one compact Arrow-backed cache value.
+    /// Positions are excluded; phrase queries load them on demand via
+    /// [`Self::read_positions`].
+    async fn load_posting_list_group(&self, start: u32, end: u32) -> Result<PostingListGroup> {
+        let mut columns = vec![POSTING_COL, MAX_SCORE_COL, LENGTH_COL];
+        if self.has_impacts {
+            columns.push(IMPACT_COL);
+        }
+        let batch = self
+            .reader
+            .get()
+            .await?
+            .read_range(start as usize..end as usize, Some(&columns))
+            .await?;
+        PostingListGroup::new_packed_with_block_size(
+            batch.shrink_to_fit()?,
+            self.posting_tail_codec,
+            self.block_size,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn posting_list_from_batch_parts(
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        max_score: Option<f32>,
+        length: Option<u32>,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+        positions_layout: PositionsLayout,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        let posting_list = PostingList::from_batch_with_tail_codec_and_positions_layout(
+            batch,
+            max_score,
+            length,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+            positions_layout,
+        )?;
+        Ok(posting_list)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn posting_list_from_batch(
+        &self,
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        max_score: Option<f32>,
+        length: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<PostingList> {
+        Self::posting_list_from_batch_parts(
+            batch,
+            max_score,
+            length,
+            self.posting_tail_codec,
+            self.block_size,
+            self.positions_layout,
+        )
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/prewarm.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/prewarm.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..157875116d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/prewarm.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+/// Target on-disk size of one posting-list read chunk. Keep this large enough
+/// that cloud stores do not spend bulk reads on thousands of tiny ranges, but
+/// still bounded so one large partition is not materialized all at once.
+pub(super) const POSTING_READ_CHUNK_TARGET_BYTES: u64 = 128 << 20;
+
+/// Cap on token rows per chunk, bounding the built `Vec` when posting lists are tiny.
+pub(super) const POSTING_READ_MAX_CHUNK_TOKENS: usize = 256 * 1024;
+
+/// Floor on token rows per chunk, so a partition always makes progress.
+pub(super) const POSTING_READ_MIN_CHUNK_TOKENS: usize = 1;
+
+/// Maximum number of child values materialized in any 32-bit-offset posting
+/// column. The planner accounts for the widest selected column (impacts when
+/// present), keeping Arrow's `List<i32>` offsets representable.
+pub(super) const POSTING_READ_MAX_LIST_CHILDREN: u64 = i32::MAX as u64;
+
+/// Maximum number of posting lists in a runtime synthetic cache group. This is
+/// deliberately token-count based so grouping works for old v2 indexes without
+/// scanning posting lengths or requiring index rebuilds.
+pub(super) static LANCE_FTS_POSTING_GROUP_MAX_TOKENS: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_FTS_POSTING_GROUP_MAX_TOKENS")
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| "128".to_string())
+        .parse()
+        .expect("failed to parse LANCE_FTS_POSTING_GROUP_MAX_TOKENS")
+});
+
+pub(super) fn runtime_posting_group_tokens() -> usize {
+    (*LANCE_FTS_POSTING_GROUP_MAX_TOKENS).max(1)
+}
+
+/// Runtime posting-list cache grouping. Non-empty v2 indexes synthesize fixed
+/// groups at read time so prewarm and queries share group cache entries without
+/// persisted grouping metadata or index rebuilds.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub(super) enum PostingGrouping {
+    /// Leaves legacy or empty partitions ungrouped.
+    None,
+    /// Uses a fixed runtime cache group size measured in token rows, not posting bytes.
+    SyntheticFixed { group_size: u32 },
+}
+
+impl PostingGrouping {
+    pub(super) fn for_reader(is_legacy_layout: bool, token_count: usize) -> Self {
+        if is_legacy_layout || token_count == 0 {
+            return Self::None;
+        }
+
+        let group_size = u32::try_from(runtime_posting_group_tokens())
+            .unwrap_or(u32::MAX)
+            .max(1);
+        Self::SyntheticFixed { group_size }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn is_grouped(&self) -> bool {
+        !matches!(self, Self::None)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn range_for_token(&self, token_id: u32, token_count: usize) -> Option<(u32, u32)> {
+        match self {
+            Self::None => None,
+            Self::SyntheticFixed { group_size } => {
+                let token_count = u32::try_from(token_count).unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+                let start = (token_id / *group_size) * *group_size;
+                let end = start.saturating_add(*group_size).min(token_count);
+                Some((start, end))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn aligned_chunk_end(&self, token_count: usize, tok_start: usize, desired_end: usize) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::None => desired_end,
+            Self::SyntheticFixed { group_size } => synthetic_group_aligned_chunk_end(
+                usize::try_from(*group_size).unwrap_or(usize::MAX).max(1),
+                token_count,
+                tok_start,
+                desired_end,
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn ranges_for_chunk(
+        &self,
+        tok_start: usize,
+        tok_end: usize,
+        token_count: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<(u32, u32)> {
+        match self {
+            Self::None => Vec::new(),
+            Self::SyntheticFixed { group_size } => synthetic_group_ranges_for_chunk(
+                usize::try_from(*group_size).unwrap_or(usize::MAX).max(1),
+                tok_start,
+                tok_end,
+                token_count,
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Token rows per chunk: byte target / average bytes-per-token, clamped to `[MIN, MAX]`.
+pub(super) fn posting_read_chunk_tokens(token_count: usize, file_size_bytes: u64) -> usize {
+    if token_count == 0 {
+        return POSTING_READ_MIN_CHUNK_TOKENS;
+    }
+    let bytes_per_token = (file_size_bytes / token_count as u64).max(1); // >= 1: no div-by-zero
+    let by_bytes = (POSTING_READ_CHUNK_TARGET_BYTES / bytes_per_token) as usize;
+    by_bytes.clamp(POSTING_READ_MIN_CHUNK_TOKENS, POSTING_READ_MAX_CHUNK_TOKENS)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn synthetic_group_aligned_chunk_end(
+    group_size: usize,
+    token_count: usize,
+    tok_start: usize,
+    desired_end: usize,
+) -> usize {
+    if desired_end >= token_count {
+        return token_count;
+    }
+
+    let boundary = desired_end - (desired_end % group_size);
+    if boundary > tok_start {
+        boundary
+    } else {
+        tok_start.saturating_add(group_size).min(token_count)
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn synthetic_group_ranges_for_chunk(
+    group_size: usize,
+    tok_start: usize,
+    tok_end: usize,
+    token_count: usize,
+) -> Vec<(u32, u32)> {
+    let mut ranges = Vec::new();
+    let mut start = tok_start - (tok_start % group_size);
+    if start < tok_start {
+        start = start.saturating_add(group_size).min(token_count);
+    }
+    while start < tok_end {
+        let end = start.saturating_add(group_size).min(token_count);
+        ranges.push((
+            u32::try_from(start).unwrap_or(u32::MAX),
+            u32::try_from(end).unwrap_or(u32::MAX),
+        ));
+        start = end;
+    }
+    ranges
+}
+
+pub(super) fn prewarm_chunk_ranges(
+    grouping: &PostingGrouping,
+    token_count: usize,
+    chunk_tokens: usize,
+) -> Vec<(usize, usize)> {
+    let mut ranges = Vec::new();
+    let mut tok_start = 0usize;
+    while tok_start < token_count {
+        let mut tok_end = (tok_start + chunk_tokens).min(token_count);
+        // `tok_start` is always a group boundary; snap `tok_end` back to one too.
+        if grouping.is_grouped() {
+            tok_end = grouping.aligned_chunk_end(token_count, tok_start, tok_end);
+        }
+        ranges.push((tok_start, tok_end));
+        tok_start = tok_end;
+    }
+    ranges
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/search.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/search.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..07139ae018d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/search.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1405 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::partition::FuzzyAutomaton;
+use super::*;
+
+const LANCE_FTS_REUSE_PREPARED_SCORER_ENV: &str = "LANCE_FTS_REUSE_PREPARED_SCORER";
+
+/// Segment BM25 statistics read without I/O, with the dictionary lookups they
+/// were derived from.
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) struct LoadedTermStats {
+    /// `(total_tokens, num_docs, per_term_doc_freq)`
+    pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) stats: (u64, usize, Vec<usize>),
+    /// Partition-major token ids: `token_ids[partition * terms.len() + term]`.
+    pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) token_ids: Box<[Option<u32>]>,
+}
+
+fn reuse_prepared_scorer_enabled_from_value(value: Option<&str>) -> bool {
+    !value.is_some_and(|value| {
+        let value = value.trim();
+        value == "0" || value.eq_ignore_ascii_case("off")
+    })
+}
+
+static LANCE_FTS_REUSE_PREPARED_SCORER_ENABLED: LazyLock<bool> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    reuse_prepared_scorer_enabled_from_value(
+        std::env::var(LANCE_FTS_REUSE_PREPARED_SCORER_ENV)
+            .ok()
+            .as_deref(),
+    )
+});
+
+fn select_impact_scorer(
+    scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    prepared_scorer: Option<&Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+    is_legacy: impl FnOnce() -> bool,
+    reuse_prepared_scorer_enabled: impl FnOnce() -> bool,
+) -> Arc<MemBM25Scorer> {
+    let Some(prepared_scorer) = prepared_scorer else {
+        return Arc::new(scorer.clone());
+    };
+    if is_legacy() || !reuse_prepared_scorer_enabled() {
+        return Arc::new(scorer.clone());
+    }
+    debug_assert!(
+        std::ptr::eq(scorer, prepared_scorer.as_ref()),
+        "prepared BM25 scorer must be the canonical final scorer"
+    );
+    Arc::clone(prepared_scorer)
+}
+
+impl InvertedIndex {
+    /// Add this segment's lexicographically smallest fuzzy candidates for one
+    /// compiled query-token automaton to a caller-owned cross-segment merge
+    /// set.
+    ///
+    /// The set is trimmed after every partition merge, so it always contains
+    /// at most `limit` terms. Dropping the current largest term is lossless:
+    /// no later merge can make it one of the globally smallest `limit` terms.
+    pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) fn collect_fuzzy_candidates_with_automaton(
+        &self,
+        automaton: &FuzzyAutomaton,
+        limit: usize,
+        candidates: &mut BTreeSet<String>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // The caller owns one compiled automaton for this source token. Reuse
+        // it across every physical partition instead of rebuilding a DFA per
+        // dictionary.
+        while candidates.len() > limit {
+            candidates.pop_last();
+        }
+        for partition in &self.partitions {
+            partition.collect_fuzzy_candidates_with_automaton(automaton, limit, candidates)?;
+            while candidates.len() > limit {
+                candidates.pop_last();
+            }
+            debug_assert!(candidates.len() <= limit);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Build a single-segment [`MemBM25Scorer`] whose per-term IDF table
+    /// covers every token that the per-partition scoring loop will look
+    /// up. For fuzzy queries that means the union of Levenshtein
+    /// expansions, not just the raw query tokens — otherwise
+    /// `query_weight(expanded_token)` returns 0 and the BM25 contribution
+    /// of every expanded match is discarded.
+    pub async fn bm25_base_scorer(
+        &self,
+        query_tokens: &Tokens,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<MemBM25Scorer> {
+        if uses_fuzzy_expansion(params.fuzziness) {
+            let expanded = self.expand_fuzzy_tokens(query_tokens, params)?;
+            self.bm25_scorer_for_final_tokens(&expanded, metrics).await
+        } else {
+            self.bm25_scorer_for_final_tokens(query_tokens, metrics)
+                .await
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Scorer for a token list that needs no further fuzzy expansion: dedup
+    /// the terms and pull their document frequencies. `bm25_search` calls
+    /// this with the tokens it already expanded, so the expansion runs once
+    /// per query rather than once for the scorer and once per partition.
+    async fn bm25_scorer_for_final_tokens(
+        &self,
+        tokens: &Tokens,
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<MemBM25Scorer> {
+        let (total_tokens, num_docs) = self.aggregate_corpus_stats().await?;
+        let mut terms: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
+        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+        for token in tokens {
+            if seen.insert(token.to_string()) {
+                terms.push(token.to_string());
+            }
+        }
+        let mut token_docs = HashMap::with_capacity(terms.len());
+        for term in &terms {
+            let df = self.df_for_term(term, metrics).await?;
+            token_docs.insert(term.clone(), df);
+        }
+        Ok(MemBM25Scorer::new(total_tokens, num_docs, token_docs))
+    }
+
+    /// Corpus statistics at document granularity: `(total_tokens, docCount,
+    /// per_term_docFreq)`, where a document is one entry of a partition's
+    /// [`DocSet`]. This is what the single-column scoring path pairs with, since
+    /// wand scores one posting per document.
+    pub async fn bm25_stats_for_terms(
+        &self,
+        terms: &[String],
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<(u64, usize, Vec<usize>)> {
+        let (total_tokens, num_docs) = self.aggregate_corpus_stats().await?;
+        let token_docs =
+            futures::future::try_join_all(terms.iter().map(|term| self.df_for_term(term, metrics)))
+                .await?;
+        Ok((total_tokens, num_docs, token_docs))
+    }
+
+    /// Return BM25 statistics synchronously when every required value is loaded.
+    ///
+    /// This is an all-or-nothing probe for the full-prewarm query path. It never
+    /// starts I/O: an absent segment corpus statistic or one absent modern
+    /// posting-length table returns `None` for the entire segment.
+    pub(in crate::scalar::inverted) fn bm25_stats_for_terms_if_loaded(
+        &self,
+        terms: &[String],
+    ) -> Result<Option<LoadedTermStats>> {
+        // Keep the legacy reader on its frozen asynchronous compatibility
+        // path; this optimization targets current partitioned formats.
+        if self.is_legacy() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let Some(&(total_tokens, num_docs)) = self.corpus_stats.get() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .any(|partition| !partition.inverted_list.posting_lengths_loaded())
+        {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let lookups = self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|partition| {
+                terms
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|term| (partition.tokens.as_ref(), term.as_str()))
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let token_ids = TokenSet::get_many(&lookups);
+        let mut token_docs = vec![0_usize; terms.len()];
+        for (partition, partition_token_ids) in self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .zip(token_ids.chunks(terms.len().max(1)))
+        {
+            for ((term, term_docs), &token_id) in terms
+                .iter()
+                .zip(token_docs.iter_mut())
+                .zip(partition_token_ids)
+            {
+                let Some(token_id) = token_id else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                let posting_len = partition
+                    .inverted_list
+                    .loaded_posting_len(token_id)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index(format!(
+                            "FTS token '{term}' maps to invalid posting token id {token_id} in partition {}",
+                            partition.id()
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                *term_docs = term_docs.checked_add(posting_len).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "FTS document frequency for term '{term}' overflows usize"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Some(LoadedTermStats {
+            stats: (total_tokens, num_docs, token_docs),
+            token_ids: token_ids.into_boxed_slice(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Corpus statistics at row granularity: `(total_tokens, docCount,
+    /// per_term_docFreq)` counted over distinct row ids.
+    ///
+    /// Cross-field BM25F scores rows, not documents: `combined_fields_search`
+    /// sums all of a row's postings into one `tf'` and all of its document
+    /// lengths into one `dl'`. Released V1/V2 indexes indexed each
+    /// `List<String>` element as its own document, so pairing that row-granular
+    /// `tf'`/`dl'` with [`Self::bm25_stats_for_terms`] would measure it against a
+    /// corpus of a different size: `idf'` and `avgdl'` would describe elements
+    /// while the frequencies describe rows, shifting an old index's top-k relative
+    /// to the same data reindexed on a current build.
+    ///
+    /// V3 indexes always map one row to one document, so they delegate to
+    /// [`Self::bm25_stats_for_terms`] and keep its IO profile: no `DocSet` load,
+    /// one posting-metadata row per term and partition. `total_tokens` is
+    /// granularity-independent, so it comes from the shared
+    /// `aggregate_corpus_stats` cache either way.
+    ///
+    /// `metrics`, when provided, receives the posting-metadata cache lookups these
+    /// statistics trigger, so both granularities report comparable
+    /// `index_cache_hits`/`index_cache_misses`.
+    pub async fn bm25_row_stats_for_terms(
+        &self,
+        terms: &[String],
+        stale_rows: Option<&RowAddrTreeMap>,
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<(u64, usize, Vec<usize>)> {
+        let base = self.bm25_row_stats_for_terms_unrestricted(terms, metrics);
+        let Some(stale_rows) = stale_rows.filter(|rows| !rows.is_empty()) else {
+            return base.await;
+        };
+        let (total_tokens, num_rows, mut row_freqs) = base.await?;
+        let (stale_tokens, stale_num_rows, stale_freqs) = self
+            .stale_row_stats_for_terms(terms, stale_rows, metrics)
+            .await?;
+        for (total, stale) in row_freqs.iter_mut().zip(stale_freqs) {
+            *total = total.saturating_sub(stale);
+        }
+        Ok((
+            total_tokens.saturating_sub(stale_tokens),
+            num_rows.saturating_sub(stale_num_rows),
+            row_freqs,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// What the rows an overlay made stale still contribute to this index's
+    /// statistics, for the caller to subtract.
+    ///
+    /// The index holds their pre-overlay values until it is optimized, and the flat
+    /// scan folds in their current ones. Counting both inflates `docCount` and
+    /// `docFreq`, which is enough to reorder results after an overlay that changed
+    /// no searchable value.
+    async fn stale_row_stats_for_terms(
+        &self,
+        terms: &[String],
+        stale_rows: &RowAddrTreeMap,
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<(u64, usize, Vec<usize>)> {
+        let io_parallelism = self.store.io_parallelism();
+        let futures = self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|partition| {
+                let partition = partition.clone();
+                async move {
+                    partition
+                        .stale_row_stats_for_terms(terms, stale_rows, metrics)
+                        .await
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let per_partition: Vec<(u64, usize, Vec<usize>)> = stream::iter(futures)
+            .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await?;
+
+        let mut total_tokens = 0u64;
+        let mut num_rows = 0usize;
+        let mut row_freqs = vec![0usize; terms.len()];
+        // Partitions hold disjoint row sets, so a row lands in at most one of these.
+        for (partition_tokens, partition_rows, partition_freqs) in per_partition {
+            total_tokens += partition_tokens;
+            num_rows += partition_rows;
+            for (total, partition_freq) in row_freqs.iter_mut().zip(partition_freqs) {
+                *total += partition_freq;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok((total_tokens, num_rows, row_freqs))
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::bm25_row_stats_for_terms`] with nothing subtracted.
+    async fn bm25_row_stats_for_terms_unrestricted(
+        &self,
+        terms: &[String],
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<(u64, usize, Vec<usize>)> {
+        if !matches!(
+            self.format_version,
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1 | InvertedListFormatVersion::V2
+        ) {
+            return self.bm25_stats_for_terms(terms, metrics).await;
+        }
+
+        let (total_tokens, _) = self.aggregate_corpus_stats().await?;
+        let io_parallelism = self.store.io_parallelism();
+        let futures = self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|partition| {
+                let partition = partition.clone();
+                async move { partition.row_stats_for_terms(terms, metrics).await }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let per_partition: Vec<(usize, Vec<usize>)> = stream::iter(futures)
+            .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await?;
+
+        let mut num_rows = 0usize;
+        let mut row_freqs = vec![0usize; terms.len()];
+        for (partition_rows, partition_freqs) in per_partition {
+            // Partitions hold disjoint row sets, so per-partition distinct counts
+            // add up to the index's distinct count.
+            num_rows += partition_rows;
+            for (total, partition_freq) in row_freqs.iter_mut().zip(partition_freqs) {
+                *total += partition_freq;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok((total_tokens, num_rows, row_freqs))
+    }
+
+    /// Aggregate immutable per-partition corpus statistics.  New modern files
+    /// read both values from the already-opened docs footer; older partitioned
+    /// files scan `_num_tokens` once as a compatibility fallback.
+    pub(super) async fn aggregate_corpus_stats(&self) -> Result<(u64, usize)> {
+        self.corpus_stats
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                let io_parallelism = self.store.io_parallelism();
+                let futures = self
+                    .partitions
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|p| {
+                        let part = p.clone();
+                        async move { part.docs.stats().await }
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let stats = stream::iter(futures)
+                    .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism)
+                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .await?;
+                let mut total_tokens = 0_u64;
+                let mut num_docs = 0_usize;
+                for stat in stats {
+                    total_tokens = total_tokens
+                        .checked_add(stat.total_tokens)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("FTS corpus token count overflows u64"))?;
+                    num_docs = num_docs
+                        .checked_add(stat.num_docs)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("FTS corpus document count overflows usize"))?;
+                }
+                Ok((total_tokens, num_docs))
+            })
+            .await
+            .copied()
+    }
+
+    /// Sum the posting-list length for `term` across this index's partitions
+    /// via single-row reads, with partition lookups bounded by the store's
+    /// `io_parallelism()`.
+    async fn df_for_term(
+        &self,
+        term: &str,
+        metrics: Option<&dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let io_parallelism = self.store.io_parallelism();
+        let futures = self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|part| {
+                let part = part.clone();
+                async move {
+                    match part.tokens.get(term) {
+                        Some(token_id) => {
+                            part.inverted_list
+                                .posting_len_for_token(token_id, metrics)
+                                .await
+                        }
+                        None => Ok(0),
+                    }
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let dfs: Vec<usize> = stream::iter(futures)
+            .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await?;
+        Ok(dfs.into_iter().sum())
+    }
+
+    /// Expand fuzzy query tokens against all partitions in this segment.
+    ///
+    /// `params.max_expansions` caps the whole query's expansion, not any
+    /// single partition's: source terms at the same query position and their
+    /// per-partition candidates merge into one lexicographically ordered set,
+    /// and the remaining budget takes a prefix of it. The selected terms are
+    /// a pure function of the segment's vocabulary, so changing source-token
+    /// order or splitting the same corpus into more partitions cannot change
+    /// which terms a fuzzy query matches.
+    pub fn expand_fuzzy_tokens(&self, tokens: &Tokens, params: &FtsSearchParams) -> Result<Tokens> {
+        let initial_capacity = tokens.len().min(params.max_expansions);
+        let mut expanded_tokens = Vec::with_capacity(initial_capacity);
+        let mut expanded_positions = Vec::with_capacity(initial_capacity);
+        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+        let mut source_terms_by_position = BTreeMap::<u32, Vec<&str>>::new();
+        for token_idx in 0..tokens.len() {
+            source_terms_by_position
+                .entry(tokens.position(token_idx))
+                .or_default()
+                .push(tokens.get_token(token_idx));
+        }
+        for (position, source_terms) in source_terms_by_position {
+            let remaining = params.max_expansions.saturating_sub(expanded_tokens.len());
+            if remaining == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
+            // Each partition contributes at most its `remaining`
+            // lexicographically smallest candidates, so the global
+            // lex-smallest `remaining` selection below is unaffected by the
+            // per-partition truncation.
+            let mut candidates = BTreeSet::new();
+            let mut seen_source_terms = HashSet::new();
+            for source_term in source_terms {
+                if !seen_source_terms.insert(source_term) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let automaton = FuzzyAutomaton::new(source_term, tokens.token_type(), params)?;
+                self.collect_fuzzy_candidates_with_automaton(
+                    &automaton,
+                    remaining,
+                    &mut candidates,
+                )?;
+            }
+            for candidate in candidates {
+                if expanded_tokens.len() >= params.max_expansions {
+                    break;
+                }
+                if seen.insert((candidate.clone(), position)) {
+                    expanded_tokens.push(candidate);
+                    expanded_positions.push(position);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Tokens::with_positions(
+            expanded_tokens,
+            expanded_positions,
+            tokens.token_type().clone(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Search documents that match the query and return row ids sorted by BM25 score.
+    ///
+    /// When `base_scorer` is provided for an exact query, search uses those
+    /// corpus-level BM25 statistics instead of deriving them from this segment
+    /// alone. Fuzzy queries must use [`Self::bm25_search_prepared`], because a
+    /// scorer alone does not identify the canonical capped vocabulary.
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    pub async fn bm25_search(
+        &self,
+        tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+        base_scorer: Option<&MemBM25Scorer>,
+    ) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+        let documents = self
+            .bm25_search_documents(tokens, params, operator, prefilter, metrics, base_scorer)
+            .await?;
+        Ok(documents
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|document| (document.row_id, document.score.0))
+            .unzip())
+    }
+
+    /// Search logical FTS documents, retaining element coordinates when present.
+    ///
+    /// A scorer-only override is valid for exact queries. Fuzzy callers must
+    /// use [`Self::bm25_search_prepared_documents`] so the canonical vocabulary
+    /// and its statistics cannot diverge.
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    pub async fn bm25_search_documents(
+        &self,
+        tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+        base_scorer: Option<&MemBM25Scorer>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        self.bm25_search_documents_impl(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            operator,
+            prefilter,
+            metrics,
+            base_scorer,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Search logical FTS documents with an exclusive initial raw-score floor.
+    ///
+    /// This is an internal optimization hook for a repeated bounded WAND pass.
+    /// Callers must round the floor down far enough to retain every candidate
+    /// equal to their inclusive logical threshold.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub async fn bm25_search_documents_with_score_floor(
+        &self,
+        tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+        base_scorer: Option<&MemBM25Scorer>,
+        initial_score_floor: f32,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        if self.is_legacy() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "an initial Match WAND score floor requires a modern FTS index",
+            ));
+        }
+        if !initial_score_floor.is_finite() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "initial Match WAND score floor must be finite, got {initial_score_floor}"
+            )));
+        }
+        self.bm25_search_documents_impl(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            operator,
+            prefilter,
+            metrics,
+            base_scorer,
+            Some(initial_score_floor),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn bm25_search_documents_impl(
+        &self,
+        tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+        base_scorer: Option<&MemBM25Scorer>,
+        initial_score_floor: Option<f32>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        if base_scorer.is_some() && uses_fuzzy_expansion(params.fuzziness) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "fuzzy BM25 search cannot use an injected scorer without its prepared vocabulary; use bm25_search_prepared or bm25_search_prepared_documents",
+            ));
+        }
+        // Fuzzy expansion runs once here, with the global `max_expansions`
+        // budget, instead of once per partition: partitions receive the
+        // final token list, so the matched terms cannot depend on how the
+        // corpus happens to be partitioned.
+        let tokens = if uses_fuzzy_expansion(params.fuzziness) {
+            let expanded = Arc::new(self.expand_fuzzy_tokens(tokens.as_ref(), params.as_ref())?);
+            if operator == Operator::And || params.phrase_slop.is_some() {
+                // AND/phrase semantics require every original token position
+                // to keep at least one expansion; a position that expands to
+                // nothing anywhere in the segment can never be matched.
+                let surviving = (0..expanded.len())
+                    .map(|idx| expanded.position(idx))
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                if (0..tokens.len()).any(|idx| !surviving.contains(&tokens.position(idx))) {
+                    return Ok(Vec::new());
+                }
+            }
+            expanded
+        } else {
+            tokens
+        };
+
+        let local_scorer;
+        let scorer: &MemBM25Scorer = if let Some(base_scorer) = base_scorer {
+            base_scorer
+        } else {
+            local_scorer = self
+                .bm25_scorer_for_final_tokens(tokens.as_ref(), Some(metrics.as_ref()))
+                .await?;
+            &local_scorer
+        };
+        self.bm25_search_final_documents(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            operator,
+            prefilter,
+            metrics,
+            scorer,
+            None,
+            initial_score_floor,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Search with a vocabulary/scorer pair prepared once across every
+    /// physical segment. No fuzzy expansion or local scorer construction is
+    /// permitted below this boundary.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub async fn bm25_search_prepared(
+        &self,
+        prepared: Arc<crate::scalar::inverted::PreparedBm25Query>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+        let documents = self
+            .bm25_search_prepared_documents(prepared, params, operator, prefilter, metrics)
+            .await?;
+        Ok(documents
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|document| (document.row_id, document.score.0))
+            .unzip())
+    }
+
+    /// Search logical FTS documents with a vocabulary/scorer pair prepared
+    /// once across every physical segment.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub async fn bm25_search_prepared_documents(
+        &self,
+        prepared: Arc<crate::scalar::inverted::PreparedBm25Query>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        self.bm25_search_prepared_documents_impl(
+            prepared, params, operator, prefilter, metrics, None,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Search logical FTS documents with a prepared vocabulary/scorer pair and
+    /// an exclusive initial raw-score floor.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub async fn bm25_search_prepared_documents_with_score_floor(
+        &self,
+        prepared: Arc<crate::scalar::inverted::PreparedBm25Query>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+        initial_score_floor: f32,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        if self.is_legacy() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "an initial Match WAND score floor requires a modern FTS index",
+            ));
+        }
+        if !initial_score_floor.is_finite() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "initial Match WAND score floor must be finite, got {initial_score_floor}"
+            )));
+        }
+        self.bm25_search_prepared_documents_impl(
+            prepared,
+            params,
+            operator,
+            prefilter,
+            metrics,
+            Some(initial_score_floor),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn bm25_search_prepared_documents_impl(
+        &self,
+        prepared: Arc<crate::scalar::inverted::PreparedBm25Query>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+        initial_score_floor: Option<f32>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        if (operator == Operator::And || params.phrase_slop.is_some())
+            && !prepared.has_all_query_positions()
+        {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let scorer = prepared.scorer();
+        let reusable_scorer = prepared.reusable_scorer();
+        let term_ids = prepared
+            .term_ids()
+            .and_then(|term_ids| term_ids.for_segment(self, prepared.tokens().len()));
+        self.bm25_search_final_documents(
+            prepared.tokens().clone(),
+            params,
+            operator,
+            prefilter,
+            metrics,
+            scorer.as_ref(),
+            reusable_scorer,
+            initial_score_floor,
+            term_ids,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    // This is the boundary between query preparation and final document search;
+    // each argument is an independent prepared input consumed by both legacy and
+    // modern implementations.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn bm25_search_final_documents(
+        &self,
+        tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+        prepared_scorer: Option<&Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+        initial_score_floor: Option<f32>,
+        term_ids: Option<SegmentTermIds<'_>>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        // The wand only consults `scorer.doc_weight`, which is metadata-free.
+        // Candidate rescoring also consults `query_weight`. The impact scorer
+        // is the final scorer or a clone of it, so either may rescore; pairing
+        // final tokens with its precomputed per-term IDFs avoids the v2 bulk
+        // metadata pull and keeps scoring aligned with the rewrite.
+        let impact_scorer = select_impact_scorer(
+            scorer,
+            prepared_scorer,
+            || self.is_legacy(),
+            || *LANCE_FTS_REUSE_PREPARED_SCORER_ENABLED,
+        );
+
+        let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        if limit == 0 {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let mask = prefilter.mask();
+        if self.is_legacy() {
+            let (row_ids, scores) = self
+                .bm25_search_legacy(
+                    tokens,
+                    params,
+                    operator,
+                    mask,
+                    metrics,
+                    scorer,
+                    impact_scorer,
+                    limit,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            Ok(row_ids
+                .into_iter()
+                .zip(scores)
+                .map(|(row_id, score)| ScoredDoc::new(row_id, score))
+                .collect())
+        } else {
+            self.bm25_search_modern(ModernSearchRequest {
+                tokens,
+                params,
+                operator,
+                mask,
+                metrics,
+                impact_scorer,
+                limit,
+                initial_score_floor,
+                term_ids,
+            })
+            .await
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(super) async fn bm25_search_legacy(
+        &self,
+        tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+        params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+        operator: Operator,
+        mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+        impact_scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+        limit: usize,
+    ) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+        let impact_shared_threshold = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(f32::NEG_INFINITY.to_bits()));
+        let io_parallelism = self.store.io_parallelism();
+        let parts = self
+            .partitions
+            .chunks(fts_search_chunk())
+            .map(|chunk| {
+                let chunk = chunk.to_vec();
+                let tokens = tokens.clone();
+                let params = params.clone();
+                let mask = mask.clone();
+                let metrics = metrics.clone();
+                let impact_scorer = impact_scorer.clone();
+                let impact_shared_threshold = impact_shared_threshold.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let loads = chunk.into_iter().map(|part| {
+                        let tokens = tokens.clone();
+                        let params = params.clone();
+                        let metrics = metrics.clone();
+                        let impact_scorer = impact_scorer.clone();
+                        let impact_shared_threshold = impact_shared_threshold.clone();
+                        async move {
+                            let LoadedPostings {
+                                postings,
+                                grouped_expansions,
+                                impact_safe,
+                                exact_scoring_required,
+                                ..
+                            } = part
+                                .load_posting_lists(
+                                    tokens.as_ref(),
+                                    params.as_ref(),
+                                    operator,
+                                    impact_scorer.as_ref(),
+                                    metrics.as_ref(),
+                                    false,
+                                )
+                                .await?;
+                            if postings.is_empty() {
+                                return Result::Ok(None);
+                            }
+                            let docs = part.docs.legacy().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::internal("legacy index contains modern partition documents")
+                            })?;
+                            let use_global_scorer = impact_safe || exact_scoring_required;
+                            let threshold = if use_global_scorer {
+                                impact_shared_threshold
+                            } else {
+                                Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(f32::NEG_INFINITY.to_bits()))
+                            };
+                            let wand_scorer = use_global_scorer.then(|| impact_scorer.clone());
+                            Result::Ok(Some((
+                                part,
+                                docs,
+                                postings,
+                                wand_scorer,
+                                threshold,
+                                grouped_expansions,
+                            )))
+                        }
+                    });
+                    let loaded = stream::iter(loads)
+                        .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism)
+                        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        .await?
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .flatten()
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    if loaded.is_empty() {
+                        return Result::Ok(Vec::new());
+                    }
+
+                    let results = spawn_cpu(move || {
+                        let mut results = Vec::with_capacity(loaded.len());
+                        for (part, docs, postings, wand_scorer, threshold, grouped_expansions) in
+                            loaded
+                        {
+                            let idf_by_position =
+                                idf_by_position(&postings, impact_scorer.as_ref());
+                            let candidates = part.bm25_search_legacy(
+                                docs.as_ref(),
+                                params.as_ref(),
+                                operator,
+                                mask.as_ref(),
+                                postings,
+                                wand_scorer,
+                                metrics.as_ref(),
+                                threshold,
+                            )?;
+                            results.push(PartitionCandidates {
+                                idf_by_position,
+                                grouped_expansions,
+                                candidates,
+                            });
+                        }
+                        Result::Ok(results)
+                    })
+                    .await?;
+                    Result::Ok(results)
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let mut ranked = BinaryHeap::new();
+        let mut parts = stream::iter(parts)
+            .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().min(32))
+            .map_ok(|results| stream::iter(results.into_iter().map(Result::Ok)))
+            .try_flatten();
+        while let Some(partition) = parts.try_next().await? {
+            for (row_id, score) in rescore_partition_candidates(partition, scorer) {
+                push_scored_key(&mut ranked, limit, row_id, score);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(ranked
+            .into_sorted_vec()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|Reverse(doc)| (doc.row_id, doc.score.0))
+            .unzip())
+    }
+
+    pub(super) async fn bm25_search_modern(
+        &self,
+        request: ModernSearchRequest<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        // Select a concrete completion path before candidate search.  The
+        // fully resident future never builds deferred address-read state, while
+        // a cold query keeps DocIds until its final bounded I/O phase.
+        if self.has_resident_document_projections() {
+            self.bm25_search_modern_resident(request).await
+        } else {
+            self.bm25_search_modern_deferred(request).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn has_resident_document_projections(&self) -> bool {
+        if self.document_projections_resident.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        let resident = self.document_projections_resident_now();
+        if resident {
+            self.document_projections_resident
+                .store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        }
+        resident
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn document_projections_resident_now(&self) -> bool {
+        self.partitions.iter().all(|partition| {
+            partition
+                .docs
+                .modern()
+                .is_some_and(|documents| documents.projection_resident())
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn bm25_search_modern_resident(
+        &self,
+        request: ModernSearchRequest<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        let ranked = self.bm25_search_modern_candidates(request).await?;
+        if let Some(result) = self.resolve_resident_modern_candidates(&ranked)? {
+            return Ok(result);
+        }
+        self.document_projections_resident
+            .store(false, Ordering::Release);
+        self.resolve_deferred_modern_candidates(ranked).await
+    }
+
+    async fn bm25_search_modern_deferred(
+        &self,
+        request: ModernSearchRequest<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        // Old partitioned files without persisted stats populate their
+        // fallback stats before deferred candidate orchestration.  A resident
+        // search can skip this full-index synchronization: standard prewarm
+        // has already initialized it, while any independently resident
+        // partition loads its lengths before constructing a local scorer.
+        if self.corpus_stats.get().is_none() {
+            self.aggregate_corpus_stats().await?;
+        }
+        // For new-format indexes, aggregate_corpus_stats reads corpus stats from
+        // persisted schema metadata (O(1)) without loading doc lengths as a side
+        // effect. Pre-load lengths in parallel now only for partitions whose
+        // dictionaries can satisfy the query leaf, so required-token misses avoid
+        // reading the full length column. The scoring phase then gets cache hits
+        // instead of issuing sequential per-partition IO.
+        let io_parallelism = self.store.io_parallelism();
+        let uncached_lengths = self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|part| {
+                let docs = part.docs.modern()?.clone();
+                if docs.cached_lengths().is_some() {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                part.may_match_tokens(
+                    request.tokens.as_ref(),
+                    request.operator,
+                    request.params.phrase_slop.is_some(),
+                )
+                .then_some(async move { docs.lengths().await.map(|_| ()) })
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if !uncached_lengths.is_empty() {
+            stream::iter(uncached_lengths)
+                .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism)
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await?;
+        }
+        let ranked = self.bm25_search_modern_candidates(request).await?;
+        self.resolve_deferred_modern_candidates(ranked).await
+    }
+
+    async fn bm25_search_modern_candidates(
+        &self,
+        request: ModernSearchRequest<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Reverse<ScoredPartitionDoc>>> {
+        let ModernSearchRequest {
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            operator,
+            mask,
+            metrics,
+            impact_scorer,
+            limit,
+            initial_score_floor,
+            term_ids,
+        } = request;
+        if self.partitions.len() > u32::MAX as usize {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "FTS partition count {} exceeds candidate identity capacity",
+                self.partitions.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let impact_shared_threshold = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(
+            initial_score_floor.unwrap_or(f32::NEG_INFINITY).to_bits(),
+        ));
+        let shared_norm_addends = SharedNormAddends::default();
+        let io_parallelism = self.store.io_parallelism();
+        let is_phrase_query = params.phrase_slop.is_some();
+        // With dictionary lookups already resolved, drop partitions that
+        // cannot satisfy the leaf before building any per-partition state.
+        let searched_partitions = self
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(partition_ordinal, _)| {
+                term_ids.is_none_or(|term_ids| {
+                    token_ids_may_match(
+                        tokens.as_ref(),
+                        term_ids.partition(*partition_ordinal),
+                        operator,
+                        is_phrase_query,
+                    )
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let parts = searched_partitions
+            .chunks(fts_search_chunk())
+            .map(|chunk| {
+                let chunk = chunk
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|&(partition_ordinal, part)| (partition_ordinal, Arc::clone(part)))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let tokens = tokens.clone();
+                let params = params.clone();
+                let mask = mask.clone();
+                let metrics = metrics.clone();
+                let impact_scorer = impact_scorer.clone();
+                let impact_shared_threshold = impact_shared_threshold.clone();
+                let shared_norm_addends = shared_norm_addends.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let loads = chunk.into_iter().map(|(partition_ordinal, part)| {
+                        let tokens = tokens.clone();
+                        let params = params.clone();
+                        let mask = mask.clone();
+                        let metrics = metrics.clone();
+                        let partition_term_ids =
+                            term_ids.map(|term_ids| term_ids.partition(partition_ordinal));
+                        async move {
+                            let Some(postings) = part
+                                .fetch_posting_lists(
+                                    tokens.as_ref(),
+                                    params.as_ref(),
+                                    operator,
+                                    metrics.as_ref(),
+                                    PostingLoadOptions::read_ahead(false),
+                                    partition_term_ids,
+                                )
+                                .await?
+                            else {
+                                return Result::Ok(None);
+                            };
+                            let documents = part.docs.modern().ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::internal("modern index contains legacy partition documents")
+                            })?;
+                            let materialize_selected = operator == Operator::Or
+                                && mask.max_len().is_some_and(|selected| {
+                                    u128::from(selected).saturating_mul(100)
+                                        <= u128::from(*FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD)
+                                            .saturating_mul(documents.len() as u128)
+                                });
+                            let visibility = match documents
+                                .immediate_visibility(mask.clone(), materialize_selected)
+                            {
+                                Some(visibility) => visibility,
+                                None => {
+                                    documents
+                                        .visibility(mask.clone(), materialize_selected)
+                                        .await?
+                                }
+                            };
+                            if visibility.is_empty() {
+                                return Result::Ok(None);
+                            }
+                            let lengths = match documents.cached_lengths() {
+                                Some(lengths) => lengths,
+                                None => documents.lengths().await?,
+                            };
+                            Result::Ok(Some((
+                                partition_ordinal,
+                                part,
+                                lengths,
+                                visibility,
+                                postings,
+                            )))
+                        }
+                    });
+                    let loaded = stream::iter(loads)
+                        .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism)
+                        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        .await?
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .flatten()
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    if loaded.is_empty() {
+                        return Result::Ok(Vec::new());
+                    }
+
+                    // Iterators are built here rather than during the load so
+                    // their decode buffers are allocated and freed by the same
+                    // thread that runs WAND.
+                    let results = spawn_cpu(move || {
+                        let mut results = Vec::with_capacity(loaded.len());
+                        for (partition_ordinal, part, lengths, visibility, postings) in loaded {
+                            let LoadedPostings {
+                                postings,
+                                grouped_expansions,
+                                impact_safe,
+                                exact_scoring_required,
+                                ..
+                            } = postings.into_loaded(tokens.as_ref(), impact_scorer.as_ref())?;
+                            if postings.is_empty() {
+                                continue;
+                            }
+                            let use_global_scorer = impact_safe || exact_scoring_required;
+                            let threshold = if use_global_scorer {
+                                impact_shared_threshold.clone()
+                            } else {
+                                Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(f32::NEG_INFINITY.to_bits()))
+                            };
+                            let wand_scorer = use_global_scorer.then(|| impact_scorer.clone());
+                            let idf_by_position =
+                                idf_by_position(&postings, impact_scorer.as_ref());
+                            let candidates = part.bm25_search_modern(
+                                lengths.as_ref(),
+                                &visibility,
+                                params.as_ref(),
+                                operator,
+                                postings,
+                                wand_scorer,
+                                shared_norm_addends.clone(),
+                                metrics.as_ref(),
+                                threshold,
+                            )?;
+                            // Rescore here too, so each candidate's frequency
+                            // list is freed by the thread that allocated it.
+                            let scored = rescore_partition_candidates(
+                                PartitionCandidates {
+                                    idf_by_position,
+                                    grouped_expansions,
+                                    candidates,
+                                },
+                                impact_scorer.as_ref(),
+                            );
+                            if !scored.is_empty() {
+                                results.push((partition_ordinal, scored));
+                            }
+                        }
+                        Result::Ok(results)
+                    })
+                    .await?;
+                    Result::Ok(results)
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let mut ranked = BinaryHeap::new();
+        let mut parts = stream::iter(parts)
+            .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().min(32))
+            .map_ok(|results| stream::iter(results.into_iter().map(Result::Ok)))
+            .try_flatten();
+        while let Some((partition_ordinal, scored)) = parts.try_next().await? {
+            for (doc_id, score) in scored {
+                push_scored_partition_doc(
+                    &mut ranked,
+                    limit,
+                    PartitionDocId::try_new(partition_ordinal, doc_id)?,
+                    score,
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(ranked.into_sorted_vec())
+    }
+
+    fn resolve_resident_modern_candidates(
+        &self,
+        ranked: &[Reverse<ScoredPartitionDoc>],
+    ) -> Result<Option<Vec<ScoredDoc>>> {
+        if self.partitions.iter().any(|partition| {
+            partition
+                .docs
+                .modern()
+                .is_some_and(|documents| documents.coordinate_rank() > 0)
+        }) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let mut resolved_documents = ranked
+            .iter()
+            .map(|Reverse(candidate)| ScoredDoc::new(0, candidate.score.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut by_partition = BTreeMap::<usize, Vec<(usize, DocId)>>::new();
+        for (rank, Reverse(candidate)) in ranked.iter().enumerate() {
+            let partition_ordinal = candidate.document.partition_ordinal();
+            let doc_id = candidate.document.doc_id;
+            by_partition
+                .entry(partition_ordinal)
+                .or_default()
+                .push((rank, doc_id));
+        }
+        for (partition_ordinal, entries) in by_partition {
+            let documents = self
+                .partitions
+                .get(partition_ordinal)
+                .and_then(|partition| partition.docs.modern())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "resident FTS candidates reference missing modern partition ordinal {partition_ordinal}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            let doc_ids = entries
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(_, doc_id)| *doc_id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let Some(resolved) = documents.cached_row_addresses(&doc_ids)? else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            for ((rank, _), address) in entries.into_iter().zip(resolved) {
+                resolved_documents[rank].row_id = address;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Some(resolved_documents))
+    }
+
+    async fn resolve_deferred_modern_candidates(
+        &self,
+        ranked: Vec<Reverse<ScoredPartitionDoc>>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+        let mut resolved_documents = ranked
+            .iter()
+            .map(|Reverse(candidate)| ScoredDoc::new(0, candidate.score.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut by_partition = BTreeMap::<usize, Vec<(usize, DocId)>>::new();
+        for (rank, Reverse(candidate)) in ranked.iter().enumerate() {
+            let partition_ordinal = candidate.document.partition_ordinal();
+            let doc_id = candidate.document.doc_id;
+            by_partition
+                .entry(partition_ordinal)
+                .or_default()
+                .push((rank, doc_id));
+        }
+        let mut address_reads = Vec::with_capacity(by_partition.len());
+        let mut largest_read_bytes = 0;
+        for (partition_ordinal, entries) in by_partition {
+            let documents = self
+                .partitions
+                .get(partition_ordinal)
+                .and_then(|partition| partition.docs.modern())
+                .cloned()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "deferred FTS candidates reference missing modern partition ordinal {partition_ordinal}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            let doc_ids = entries
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(_, doc_id)| *doc_id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            largest_read_bytes =
+                largest_read_bytes.max(documents.estimated_address_read_bytes(&doc_ids));
+            address_reads.push(async move {
+                let resolved = documents.resolve_document_keys(&doc_ids).await?;
+                Result::Ok((entries, resolved))
+            });
+        }
+        let concurrency = address_read_concurrency(self.store.io_parallelism(), largest_read_bytes);
+        let mut address_reads = stream::iter(address_reads).buffer_unordered(concurrency);
+        while let Some((entries, resolved)) = address_reads.try_next().await? {
+            for ((rank, _), (row_id, doc_index)) in entries.into_iter().zip(resolved) {
+                resolved_documents[rank].row_id = row_id;
+                resolved_documents[rank].doc_index = doc_index;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(resolved_documents)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn scorer() -> Arc<MemBM25Scorer> {
+        Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(10, 2, HashMap::new()))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reuse_prepared_scorer_kill_switch_parser() {
+        for value in [None, Some(""), Some("1"), Some("on"), Some("false")] {
+            assert!(
+                reuse_prepared_scorer_enabled_from_value(value),
+                "unexpected disable: {value:?}"
+            );
+        }
+        for value in [Some("0"), Some("off"), Some("OFF"), Some(" off ")] {
+            assert!(
+                !reuse_prepared_scorer_enabled_from_value(value),
+                "unexpected enable: {value:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_select_impact_scorer_reuses_enabled_prepared_arc() {
+        let prepared = scorer();
+        let impact = select_impact_scorer(prepared.as_ref(), Some(&prepared), || false, || true);
+
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&impact, &prepared));
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&prepared), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_select_impact_scorer_clones_when_disabled() {
+        let prepared = scorer();
+        let unrelated = scorer();
+        let impact = select_impact_scorer(unrelated.as_ref(), Some(&prepared), || false, || false);
+
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&impact, &unrelated));
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&prepared), 1);
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&unrelated), 1);
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&impact), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_select_impact_scorer_clones_legacy_without_reading_switch() {
+        let prepared = scorer();
+        let unrelated = scorer();
+        let impact = select_impact_scorer(
+            unrelated.as_ref(),
+            Some(&prepared),
+            || true,
+            || panic!("legacy search must not read the reuse switch"),
+        );
+
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&impact, &unrelated));
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&prepared), 1);
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&unrelated), 1);
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&impact), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_select_impact_scorer_clones_nonprepared_without_reading_switch() {
+        let scorer = scorer();
+        let impact = select_impact_scorer(
+            scorer.as_ref(),
+            None,
+            || panic!("nonprepared search must not inspect the index format"),
+            || panic!("nonprepared search must not read the reuse switch"),
+        );
+
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&impact, &scorer));
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&scorer), 1);
+        assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&impact), 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/search_candidates.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/search_candidates.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..49b4a8ae570
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/search_candidates.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,361 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+use std::sync::Weak;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(in super::super) struct PartitionCandidates<C> {
+    /// Final-scorer IDF of each query position; see [`idf_by_position`].
+    pub(super) idf_by_position: Vec<f32>,
+    pub(super) grouped_expansions: Vec<GroupedExpansionTerms>,
+    pub(super) candidates: Vec<DocCandidate<C>>,
+}
+
+/// IDF of the term each posting matches, indexed by query position.
+///
+/// `scorer` must carry the query's final corpus statistics. Positions without
+/// a posting keep 0.0; no candidate reports a frequency for them.
+pub(super) fn idf_by_position(postings: &[PostingIterator], scorer: &MemBM25Scorer) -> Vec<f32> {
+    let num_positions = postings
+        .iter()
+        .map(|posting| posting.term_index() as usize + 1)
+        .max()
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+    let mut idf_by_position = vec![0.0_f32; num_positions];
+    for posting in postings {
+        idf_by_position[posting.term_index() as usize] = scorer.query_weight(posting.token());
+    }
+    idf_by_position
+}
+
+pub(super) struct ModernSearchRequest<'a> {
+    pub(super) tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+    pub(super) params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+    pub(super) operator: Operator,
+    pub(super) mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    pub(super) metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    /// The query's final scorer, or a clone of it; it both drives WAND and
+    /// rescores candidates.
+    pub(super) impact_scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    pub(super) limit: usize,
+    /// Exclusive raw-score floor used to seed standalone Match WAND.
+    pub(super) initial_score_floor: Option<f32>,
+    /// Dictionary lookups already done for `tokens` while preparing the
+    /// query's statistics, when they were resolved against this segment.
+    pub(super) term_ids: Option<SegmentTermIds<'a>>,
+}
+
+/// Per-partition token ids of a prepared query's unique terms, recorded while
+/// summing document frequencies so search does not look every term up in
+/// every partition dictionary a second time.
+pub(in super::super) struct PreparedTermIds {
+    /// Unique-term ordinal of each final query token.
+    term_by_token: Box<[usize]>,
+    term_count: usize,
+    segments: Vec<PreparedSegmentTermIds>,
+}
+
+struct PreparedSegmentTermIds {
+    // The weak reference pins the segment's allocation without keeping its
+    // dictionaries alive, so no other segment can later occupy that address:
+    // a pointer-equal segment at search time is the one these ids came from.
+    segment: Weak<InvertedIndex>,
+    // Partition-major: `ids[partition_ordinal * term_count + term]`.
+    ids: Box<[Option<u32>]>,
+}
+
+impl PreparedTermIds {
+    pub(in super::super) fn new(term_by_token: Box<[usize]>, term_count: usize) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(term_by_token.iter().all(|&term| term < term_count));
+        Self {
+            term_by_token,
+            term_count,
+            segments: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(in super::super) fn push_segment(
+        &mut self,
+        segment: &Arc<InvertedIndex>,
+        ids: Box<[Option<u32>]>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let expected = segment.partitions.len().saturating_mul(self.term_count);
+        if ids.len() != expected {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "resolved FTS token id count is {}, expected {expected} for {} partitions and {} terms",
+                ids.len(),
+                segment.partitions.len(),
+                self.term_count
+            )));
+        }
+        self.segments.push(PreparedSegmentTermIds {
+            segment: Arc::downgrade(segment),
+            ids,
+        });
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Token ids resolved against exactly this segment object for a query
+    /// with `token_count` final tokens, if any.
+    pub(super) fn for_segment(
+        &self,
+        segment: &InvertedIndex,
+        token_count: usize,
+    ) -> Option<SegmentTermIds<'_>> {
+        if token_count != self.term_by_token.len() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        self.segments
+            .iter()
+            .find(|prepared| std::ptr::eq(prepared.segment.as_ptr(), segment))
+            .map(|prepared| SegmentTermIds {
+                term_by_token: &self.term_by_token,
+                term_count: self.term_count,
+                ids: &prepared.ids,
+            })
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub(super) struct SegmentTermIds<'a> {
+    term_by_token: &'a [usize],
+    term_count: usize,
+    ids: &'a [Option<u32>],
+}
+
+impl<'a> SegmentTermIds<'a> {
+    pub(super) fn partition(&self, partition_ordinal: usize) -> PartitionTermIds<'a> {
+        let start = partition_ordinal * self.term_count;
+        PartitionTermIds {
+            term_by_token: self.term_by_token,
+            ids: &self.ids[start..start + self.term_count],
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// One partition's view of [`PreparedTermIds`], indexed by final token.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub(super) struct PartitionTermIds<'a> {
+    term_by_token: &'a [usize],
+    ids: &'a [Option<u32>],
+}
+
+impl PartitionTermIds<'_> {
+    pub(super) fn token_id(&self, token_index: usize) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.ids[self.term_by_token[token_index]]
+    }
+}
+
+/// Typed identity for one modern candidate after partition-local scoring.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) struct PartitionDocId {
+    pub(super) partition_ordinal: u32,
+    pub(super) doc_id: DocId,
+}
+
+impl PartitionDocId {
+    pub(super) fn try_new(partition_ordinal: usize, doc_id: DocId) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            partition_ordinal: u32::try_from(partition_ordinal).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "FTS partition ordinal {partition_ordinal} exceeds candidate identity capacity"
+                ))
+            })?,
+            doc_id,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn partition_ordinal(self) -> usize {
+        self.partition_ordinal as usize
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct ScoredPartitionDoc {
+    pub(super) document: PartitionDocId,
+    pub(super) score: OrderedFloat,
+}
+
+impl ScoredPartitionDoc {
+    fn new(document: PartitionDocId, score: f32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            document,
+            score: OrderedFloat(score),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for ScoredPartitionDoc {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.score == other.score
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for ScoredPartitionDoc {}
+
+impl PartialOrd for ScoredPartitionDoc {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for ScoredPartitionDoc {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.score.cmp(&other.score)
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) const MAX_CONCURRENT_ADDRESS_READ_BYTES: usize = 64 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+pub(super) fn address_read_concurrency(io_parallelism: usize, largest_read_bytes: usize) -> usize {
+    let io_parallelism = io_parallelism.max(1);
+    if largest_read_bytes == 0 {
+        return io_parallelism;
+    }
+    io_parallelism.min(
+        MAX_CONCURRENT_ADDRESS_READ_BYTES
+            .checked_div(largest_read_bytes)
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+            .max(1),
+    )
+}
+
+pub(super) fn push_scored_key(
+    candidates: &mut BinaryHeap<Reverse<ScoredDoc>>,
+    limit: usize,
+    key: u64,
+    score: f32,
+) {
+    if candidates.len() < limit {
+        candidates.push(Reverse(ScoredDoc::new(key, score)));
+    } else if candidates
+        .peek()
+        .is_some_and(|candidate| candidate.0.score.0 < score)
+    {
+        candidates.pop();
+        candidates.push(Reverse(ScoredDoc::new(key, score)));
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn push_scored_partition_doc(
+    candidates: &mut BinaryHeap<Reverse<ScoredPartitionDoc>>,
+    limit: usize,
+    document: PartitionDocId,
+    score: f32,
+) {
+    if candidates.len() < limit {
+        candidates.push(Reverse(ScoredPartitionDoc::new(document, score)));
+    } else if candidates
+        .peek()
+        .is_some_and(|candidate| candidate.0.score.0 < score)
+    {
+        candidates.pop();
+        candidates.push(Reverse(ScoredPartitionDoc::new(document, score)));
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn rescore_partition_candidates<C>(
+    partition: PartitionCandidates<C>,
+    scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+) -> Vec<(C, f32)> {
+    let PartitionCandidates {
+        idf_by_position,
+        grouped_expansions,
+        candidates,
+    } = partition;
+    let grouped_positions = grouped_expansions
+        .iter()
+        .map(|group| group.position)
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    let mut position_scores = vec![0.0_f32; idf_by_position.len()];
+
+    candidates
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(
+            |DocCandidate {
+                 document,
+                 posting_doc_id,
+                 freqs,
+                 doc_length,
+             }| {
+                position_scores.fill(0.0);
+                for (term_index, freq) in freqs {
+                    if grouped_positions.contains(&term_index) {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    debug_assert!((term_index as usize) < idf_by_position.len());
+                    position_scores[term_index as usize] +=
+                        idf_by_position[term_index as usize] * scorer.doc_weight(freq, doc_length);
+                }
+                for group in &grouped_expansions {
+                    debug_assert!((group.position as usize) < position_scores.len());
+                    let grouped_score = group
+                        .terms
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter_map(|term| {
+                            term.frequency(posting_doc_id).map(|freq| {
+                                term.query_weight() * scorer.doc_weight(freq, doc_length)
+                            })
+                        })
+                        .fold(0.0_f32, |sum, score| sum + score);
+                    position_scores[group.position as usize] += grouped_score;
+                }
+                let score = position_scores
+                    .iter()
+                    .fold(0.0_f32, |sum, score| sum + *score);
+                (document, score)
+            },
+        )
+        .collect()
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(in super::super) struct LoadedPostings {
+    pub(in super::super) postings: Vec<PostingIterator>,
+    pub(super) grouped_expansions: Vec<GroupedExpansionTerms>,
+    pub(super) impact_safe: bool,
+    pub(super) exact_scoring_required: bool,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) no_impact_fallback: bool,
+}
+
+pub(super) enum LoadedDocLengths {
+    Legacy(Arc<DocSet>),
+    Modern(Arc<DocLengths>),
+}
+
+impl LoadedDocLengths {
+    pub(super) fn scoring_num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => docs.scoring_num_tokens(doc_id),
+            Self::Modern(lengths) => lengths.scoring(DocId::new(doc_id)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn num_tokens_by_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> u32 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Legacy(docs) => docs.num_tokens_by_row_id(row_id),
+            Self::Modern(_) => unreachable!("modern posting lists use dense DocIds"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl LoadedPostings {
+    pub(super) fn empty() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            postings: Vec::new(),
+            grouped_expansions: Vec::new(),
+            impact_safe: false,
+            exact_scoring_required: false,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            no_impact_fallback: false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct GroupedExpansionTerms {
+    pub(super) position: u32,
+    pub(super) terms: Arc<[GroupedTermScorer]>,
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..35087487a36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,153 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use crate::scalar::inverted::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use futures::stream;
+use lance_core::cache::{LanceCache, QuickCacheBackend};
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+
+use crate::metrics::{LocalMetricsCollector, NoOpMetricsCollector};
+use crate::prefilter::NoFilter;
+use crate::scalar::ScalarIndex;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::builder::{
+    BLOCK_SIZE, InnerBuilder, InvertedIndexBuilder, PositionRecorder, doc_file_path,
+    inverted_list_schema, inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size,
+    inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size_and_impacts, posting_file_path,
+    token_file_path,
+};
+use crate::scalar::inverted::encoding::{
+    compress_positions, compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec,
+    compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size, decompress_posting_list_with_tail_codec,
+    encode_position_stream_block_into,
+};
+use crate::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsSearchParams, Operator};
+use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use arrow::array::{
+    AsArray, GenericListBuilder, GenericStringBuilder, Int32Builder, LargeBinaryBuilder,
+    ListBuilder, UInt32Builder,
+};
+use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt32Type};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU32, Ordering};
+
+use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::TextTokenizer;
+use lance_tokenizer::{Language, SimpleTokenizer, StopWordFilter, TextAnalyzer};
+
+use super::*;
+
+async fn write_single_partition_index(
+    store: Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    params: InvertedIndexParams,
+    token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+    token: &str,
+    row_id: u64,
+) -> Result<Arc<InvertedIndex>> {
+    let block_size = params.posting_block_size();
+    let format_version = params.resolved_format_version();
+    let mut partition = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        0,
+        false,
+        token_set_format,
+        format_version,
+        block_size,
+    );
+    partition.tokens.get_or_add(token);
+    let mut posting_list = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        false,
+        format_version.posting_tail_codec(),
+        block_size,
+    );
+    posting_list.add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    partition.posting_lists.push(posting_list);
+    partition.docs.append(row_id, 1);
+    partition.write(store.as_ref()).await?;
+
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0_u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        ("params".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(&params).unwrap()),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            token_set_format.to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            format_version.posting_tail_codec().as_str().to_owned(),
+        ),
+        (
+            FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_owned(),
+            format_version.index_version().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), block_size.to_string()),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await?;
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await?;
+
+    InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await
+}
+
+fn empty_doc_stream() -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]));
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema,
+        stream::iter(Vec::<datafusion::error::Result<RecordBatch>>::new()),
+    ))
+}
+
+async fn write_test_metadata(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    partition_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    params: InvertedIndexParams,
+) {
+    let format_version = params.resolved_format_version();
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&partition_ids).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        ("params".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(&params).unwrap()),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            format_version.posting_tail_codec().as_str().to_owned(),
+        ),
+        (
+            FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_owned(),
+            format_version.index_version().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(),
+            params.posting_block_size().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+mod flat_search;
+mod format_and_builder;
+mod grouping;
+mod lifecycle;
+mod position_cache;
+mod prewarm_cache;
+mod query;
+mod scoring;
+mod stats;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/flat_search.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/flat_search.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..910678adb72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/flat_search.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,466 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics_records_elapsed_compute() {
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::TextTokenizer;
+    use arrow_array::{StringArray, UInt64Array};
+    use lance_tokenizer::{SimpleTokenizer, TextAnalyzer};
+
+    // Tiny stream of one batch containing the query term in two rows.
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1, 2, 3])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "the quick brown fox",
+                "lazy dog sleeps",
+                "the brown fox jumps over",
+                "completely unrelated text",
+            ])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let input: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+    ));
+
+    let tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> = Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build(),
+    ));
+
+    let elapsed_compute = Time::default();
+    let result_stream = flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics(
+        input,
+        "text".to_string(),
+        "fox".to_string(),
+        tokenizer,
+        None,
+        100,
+        Some(elapsed_compute.clone()),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let batches: Vec<_> = result_stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!batches.is_empty(), "expected at least one scored batch");
+
+    // Both phase 1 (tokenize_and_count's spawn_cpu) and phase 2 (sync
+    // scoring) call `add_duration` on the metric; verify the handle
+    // was actually populated.
+    assert!(
+        elapsed_compute.value() > 0,
+        "elapsed_compute should have been populated; got 0"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn flat_bm25_phrase_honors_positions_slop_and_repeated_terms() {
+    async fn search(query: &str, slop: u32) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..5)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "alpha beta",
+                    "alpha gap beta",
+                    "alpha gap gap beta",
+                    "alpha alpha beta",
+                    "beta alpha",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let input: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+        ));
+        let tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> = Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(
+            TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build(),
+        ));
+        let (stream, _) = flat_bm25_search_stream_with_options_and_scorer(
+            input,
+            "text".to_string(),
+            query.to_string(),
+            tokenizer,
+            None,
+            FlatBm25SearchOptions {
+                target_batch_size: 100,
+                elapsed_compute: None,
+                document_granularity: DocumentGranularity::Row,
+                operator: Operator::And,
+                boost: 1.0,
+                phrase_slop: Some(slop),
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        stream
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values())
+            .copied()
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(search("alpha beta", 0).await, vec![0, 3]);
+    assert_eq!(search("alpha beta", 1).await, vec![0, 1, 3]);
+    assert_eq!(search("alpha alpha", 0).await, vec![3]);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn flat_full_text_search_supports_phrase_queries() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..4)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "alpha beta",
+                "alpha gap beta",
+                "alpha alpha beta",
+                "beta alpha",
+            ])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        flat_full_text_search(&[&batch], "text", "\"alpha beta\"", None).unwrap(),
+        vec![0, 2]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        flat_full_text_search(&[&batch], "text", "\"alpha alpha\"", None).unwrap(),
+        vec![2]
+    );
+    assert!(!is_phrase_query("\""));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn flat_bm25_skips_zero_token_documents_from_corpus_stats() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0_u64, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                Some(""),
+                Some("   "),
+                Some("the"),
+                Some("overlength"),
+                None,
+                Some("hello"),
+            ])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::new("whitespace".to_string(), Language::English)
+        .remove_stop_words(true)
+        .stem(false)
+        .max_token_length(Some(6));
+    let query_tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["hello".to_string()], DocType::Text));
+
+    let counted_input = tokenize_and_count(
+        stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+        params.build().unwrap(),
+        query_tokens.clone(),
+        1,
+        None,
+        0,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(counted_input.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        counted_input[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values(),
+        &[5]
+    );
+    let scorer = initialize_scorer(None, query_tokens.as_ref(), &counted_input);
+    let expected_scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, HashMap::from([("hello".to_string(), 1)]));
+    assert_eq!(scorer.total_tokens, 1);
+    assert_eq!(scorer.num_docs(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(scorer.num_docs_containing_token("hello"), 1);
+    assert_eq!(scorer.avg_doc_length(), expected_scorer.avg_doc_length());
+    assert_eq!(
+        scorer.query_weight("hello"),
+        expected_scorer.query_weight("hello")
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn flat_bm25_preserves_zero_token_list_element_documents() {
+    let coordinate_column = doc_index_storage_column(0);
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        Field::new(&coordinate_column, DataType::UInt32, false),
+        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![7_u64; 6])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                None,
+                Some(""),
+                Some("   "),
+                Some("the"),
+                Some("overlength"),
+                Some("hello"),
+            ])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::new("whitespace".to_string(), Language::English)
+        .remove_stop_words(true)
+        .stem(false)
+        .max_token_length(Some(6));
+    let query_tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["hello".to_string()], DocType::Text));
+
+    let counted_input = tokenize_and_count(
+        stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+        params.build().unwrap(),
+        query_tokens.clone(),
+        2,
+        None,
+        1,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(counted_input.num_rows(), 6);
+    assert_eq!(
+        counted_input[&coordinate_column]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+    );
+    let scorer = initialize_scorer(None, query_tokens.as_ref(), &counted_input);
+    assert_eq!(scorer.total_tokens, 1);
+    assert_eq!(scorer.num_docs(), 6);
+    assert_eq!(scorer.num_docs_containing_token("hello"), 1);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn flat_bm25_search_uses_full_document_length_for_normalization() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "alpha",
+                "alpha filler filler filler filler filler filler filler filler filler",
+            ])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let input: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+    ));
+    let tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> = Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build(),
+    ));
+
+    let result_stream = flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics(
+        input,
+        "text".to_string(),
+        "alpha".to_string(),
+        tokenizer,
+        None,
+        100,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<_> = result_stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    let scored = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&FTS_SCHEMA, &batches).unwrap();
+    let row_ids = scored[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let scores = scored[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+
+    assert_eq!(row_ids.values(), &[0, 1]);
+    assert!(
+        scores.value(0) > scores.value(1),
+        "same term frequency should score shorter document higher; short={}, long={}",
+        scores.value(0),
+        scores.value(1)
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn flat_bm25_search_treats_string_lists_as_row_documents() {
+    let mut docs_builder = GenericListBuilder::<i32, _>::new(GenericStringBuilder::<i32>::new());
+    docs_builder.values().append_value("alpha");
+    docs_builder.values().append_value("alpha beta");
+    docs_builder.append(true);
+    docs_builder.values().append_value("beta");
+    docs_builder.append(true);
+    docs_builder.append(true);
+    docs_builder.values().append_null();
+    docs_builder.append(true);
+    docs_builder.append(false);
+
+    let docs = Arc::new(docs_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef;
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        Field::new("text", docs.data_type().clone(), true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1, 2, 3, 4])) as ArrayRef,
+            docs,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let input: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+    ));
+    let tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> = Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build(),
+    ));
+
+    let result_stream = flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics(
+        input,
+        "text".to_string(),
+        "alpha".to_string(),
+        tokenizer,
+        None,
+        100,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<_> = result_stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    let scored = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&FTS_SCHEMA, &batches).unwrap();
+    let row_ids = scored[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+
+    assert_eq!(row_ids.values(), &[0]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn flat_bm25_search_code_and_uses_position_groups() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        Field::new("code", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1, 2, 3])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "get user name",
+                "getUserName",
+                "get user",
+                "username",
+            ])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let input: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+    ));
+    let tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::code()
+        .split_identifiers(true)
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let result_stream = flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics_and_operator(
+        input,
+        "code".to_string(),
+        "getUserName".to_string(),
+        tokenizer,
+        None,
+        100,
+        Operator::And,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let batches: Vec<_> = result_stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    let scored = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&FTS_SCHEMA, &batches).unwrap();
+    let mut row_ids = scored[ROW_ID]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    row_ids.sort_unstable();
+
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![0, 1]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn flat_bm25_search_code_and_counts_repeated_subwords() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        Field::new("code", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "pub fn edge_flat_generic_return<T>() -> Result<T, EdgeFlatError> where T: TryFrom<String> { todo!() }",
+                    "pub fn edge_flat_generic_return<T>() -> Result<T> { todo!() }",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let input: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+    ));
+    let tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::code().build().unwrap();
+
+    let result_stream = flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics_and_operator(
+        input,
+        "code".to_string(),
+        "edge_flat_generic_return TryFrom EdgeFlatError Result".to_string(),
+        tokenizer,
+        None,
+        100,
+        Operator::And,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let batches: Vec<_> = result_stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    let scored = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&FTS_SCHEMA, &batches).unwrap();
+    let row_ids = scored[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, &[0]);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/format_and_builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/format_and_builder.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..42826bc7617
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/format_and_builder.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1793 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::super::posting_prewarm::ChunkPostingMode;
+use super::*;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ControlledPostingReads {
+    started: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+    active: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+    max_active: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+    gates: Vec<tokio::sync::Semaphore>,
+    completed: std::sync::Mutex<Vec<usize>>,
+    changed: tokio::sync::Notify,
+}
+
+impl ControlledPostingReads {
+    fn new(token_count: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            started: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            active: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            max_active: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            gates: (0..token_count)
+                .map(|_| tokio::sync::Semaphore::new(0))
+                .collect(),
+            completed: std::sync::Mutex::new(Vec::with_capacity(token_count)),
+            changed: tokio::sync::Notify::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn wait_for_started(&self, expected: usize) {
+        tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), async {
+            loop {
+                let changed = self.changed.notified();
+                if self.started.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst) >= expected {
+                    return;
+                }
+                changed.await;
+            }
+        })
+        .await
+        .expect("timed out waiting for controlled posting reads to start");
+    }
+
+    async fn release_and_wait(&self, token_id: usize, expected_completed: usize) {
+        self.gates[token_id].add_permits(1);
+        tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), async {
+            loop {
+                let changed = self.changed.notified();
+                if self
+                    .completed
+                    .lock()
+                    .expect("controlled posting completion lock poisoned")
+                    .len()
+                    >= expected_completed
+                {
+                    return;
+                }
+                changed.await;
+            }
+        })
+        .await
+        .expect("timed out waiting for controlled posting read to complete");
+    }
+}
+
+struct ControlledPostingReader {
+    inner: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+    control: Arc<ControlledPostingReads>,
+    fail_token: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl IndexReader for ControlledPostingReader {
+    async fn read_record_batch(&self, n: u64, batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        self.inner.read_record_batch(n, batch_size).await
+    }
+
+    async fn read_global_buffer(&self, index: u32) -> Result<bytes::Bytes> {
+        self.inner.read_global_buffer(index).await
+    }
+
+    async fn read_range(
+        &self,
+        range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+        projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let is_singleton_position_read = range.end == range.start + 1
+            && projection.is_some_and(|columns| {
+                columns.contains(&POSTING_COL) && columns.contains(&POSITION_COL)
+            });
+        if !is_singleton_position_read {
+            return self.inner.read_range(range, projection).await;
+        }
+
+        let token_id = range.start;
+        self.control
+            .started
+            .fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+        let active = self
+            .control
+            .active
+            .fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst)
+            + 1;
+        self.control
+            .max_active
+            .fetch_max(active, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+        self.control.changed.notify_waiters();
+
+        let permit = self.control.gates[token_id]
+            .acquire()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("controlled posting gate closed: {err}")))?;
+        permit.forget();
+        let result = if self.fail_token == Some(token_id) {
+            Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "injected singleton posting read failure for token {token_id}"
+            )))
+        } else {
+            self.inner.read_range(range, projection).await
+        };
+
+        self.control
+            .active
+            .fetch_sub(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+        self.control
+            .completed
+            .lock()
+            .expect("controlled posting completion lock poisoned")
+            .push(token_id);
+        self.control.changed.notify_waiters();
+        result
+    }
+
+    async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32 {
+        self.inner.num_batches(batch_size).await
+    }
+
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.num_rows()
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
+        self.inner.schema()
+    }
+
+    fn file_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.inner.file_size_bytes()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ControlledMergeStore {
+    inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    posting_file: String,
+    io_parallelism: usize,
+    control: Arc<ControlledPostingReads>,
+    fail_token: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for ControlledMergeStore {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.inner.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl IndexStore for ControlledMergeStore {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            inner: self.inner.clone(),
+            posting_file: self.posting_file.clone(),
+            io_parallelism: self.io_parallelism,
+            control: self.control.clone(),
+            fail_token: self.fail_token,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+        self.io_parallelism
+    }
+
+    async fn new_index_file(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn crate::scalar::IndexWriter>> {
+        self.inner.new_index_file(name, schema).await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
+        let reader = self.inner.open_index_file(name).await?;
+        if name == self.posting_file {
+            Ok(Arc::new(ControlledPostingReader {
+                inner: reader,
+                control: self.control.clone(),
+                fail_token: self.fail_token,
+            }))
+        } else {
+            Ok(reader)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn with_io_priority(&self, io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            inner: self.inner.with_io_priority(io_priority),
+            posting_file: self.posting_file.clone(),
+            io_parallelism: self.io_parallelism,
+            control: self.control.clone(),
+            fail_token: self.fail_token,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn copy_index_file(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<crate::scalar::IndexFile> {
+        self.inner.copy_index_file(name, dest_store).await
+    }
+
+    async fn rename_index_file(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        new_name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<crate::scalar::IndexFile> {
+        self.inner.rename_index_file(name, new_name).await
+    }
+
+    async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        self.inner.delete_index_file(name).await
+    }
+
+    async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<crate::scalar::IndexFile>> {
+        self.inner.list_files_with_sizes().await
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn address_read_concurrency_respects_payload_budget() {
+    assert_eq!(address_read_concurrency(64, 0), 64);
+    assert_eq!(address_read_concurrency(64, 8 * 1024 * 1024), 8);
+    assert_eq!(address_read_concurrency(64, 16 * 1024 * 1024), 4);
+    assert_eq!(
+        address_read_concurrency(64, 2 * MAX_CONCURRENT_ADDRESS_READ_BYTES),
+        1
+    );
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct MetadataAccessDeniedStore {
+    inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for MetadataAccessDeniedStore {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.inner.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl IndexStore for MetadataAccessDeniedStore {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            inner: self.inner.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.io_parallelism()
+    }
+
+    async fn new_index_file(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn crate::scalar::IndexWriter>> {
+        self.inner.new_index_file(name, schema).await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
+        if name == METADATA_FILE {
+            Err(Error::io("metadata access denied"))
+        } else {
+            self.inner.open_index_file(name).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn with_io_priority(&self, io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            inner: self.inner.with_io_priority(io_priority),
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn copy_index_file(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<crate::scalar::IndexFile> {
+        self.inner.copy_index_file(name, dest_store).await
+    }
+
+    async fn rename_index_file(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        new_name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<crate::scalar::IndexFile> {
+        self.inner.rename_index_file(name, new_name).await
+    }
+
+    async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        self.inner.delete_index_file(name).await
+    }
+
+    async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<crate::scalar::IndexFile>> {
+        self.inner.list_files_with_sizes().await
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn params_legacy_fallback_probes_tokens_after_metadata_access_denied() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let expected = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([(
+        "tokenizer".to_owned(),
+        serde_json::to_string(&expected).unwrap(),
+    )]);
+    let mut writer = inner
+        .new_index_file(TOKENS_FILE, Arc::new(Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+    let store = MetadataAccessDeniedStore { inner };
+
+    let actual = InvertedIndex::load_params(&store).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        serde_json::to_value(actual).unwrap(),
+        serde_json::to_value(expected).unwrap()
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn params_legacy_probe_preserves_metadata_error_when_tokens_are_missing() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let store = MetadataAccessDeniedStore { inner };
+
+    let error = InvertedIndex::load_params(&store).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }));
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("metadata access denied"));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn params_metadata_ignores_unknown_fields() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let expected = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    let mut params = serde_json::to_value(&expected).unwrap();
+    let params = params.as_object_mut().unwrap();
+    params.insert("skip_merge".to_owned(), true.into());
+    params.insert(
+        "future_parameter".to_owned(),
+        serde_json::json!({ "enabled": true }),
+    );
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([("params".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(params).unwrap())]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let actual = InvertedIndex::load_params(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        serde_json::to_value(actual).unwrap(),
+        serde_json::to_value(expected).unwrap()
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_posting_block_size_schema_metadata() {
+    assert_eq!(parse_posting_block_size(&HashMap::new()).unwrap(), 128);
+
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([(POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), "512".to_owned())]);
+    let err = parse_posting_block_size(&metadata).unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("block_size"));
+
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([(POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), "129".to_owned())]);
+    let err = parse_posting_block_size(&metadata).unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("block_size"));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_num_tokens_only_reuses_sliced_arrow_storage() {
+    let docs = {
+        let source = UInt32Array::from(vec![999, 7, 16, 1024, 888]);
+        let sliced = source.slice(1, 3);
+        let mut docs = DocSet::from_num_tokens_only(&sliced);
+
+        let NumTokens::Shared(values) = &docs.num_tokens else {
+            panic!("num-tokens-only DocSet must retain shared Arrow storage");
+        };
+        assert!(values.ptr_eq(sliced.values()));
+        assert_eq!(values.as_ref(), &[7, 16, 1024]);
+        assert_eq!(docs.total_tokens_num(), 1047);
+        docs.set_quantized_scoring(true);
+        assert_eq!(docs.scoring_norms().unwrap().len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            docs.scoring_num_tokens(0),
+            dequantize_doc_length(quantize_doc_length(7))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            docs.scoring_num_tokens(2),
+            dequantize_doc_length(quantize_doc_length(1024))
+        );
+        docs
+    };
+
+    assert_eq!(docs.len(), 3);
+    assert_eq!(docs.num_tokens(0), 7);
+    assert_eq!(docs.num_tokens(2), 1024);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_cached_num_tokens_uses_supplied_total_and_full_stays_owned() {
+    const CACHED_TOTAL_MARKER: u64 = 123_456;
+
+    let num_tokens = UInt32Array::from(vec![3, 5, 8]);
+    let docs = DocSet::from_cached_num_tokens(&num_tokens, CACHED_TOTAL_MARKER);
+    assert_eq!(docs.total_tokens_num(), CACHED_TOTAL_MARKER);
+    assert!(matches!(&docs.num_tokens, NumTokens::Shared(_)));
+
+    let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]);
+    let full = DocSet::from_columns(&row_ids, &num_tokens, false, None).unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(&full.num_tokens, NumTokens::Owned(_)));
+    assert_eq!(full.total_tokens_num(), 16);
+    assert_eq!(full.row_id(1), 20);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_combined_fields_append_invalidates_row_ids_ascending_cache() {
+    let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]);
+    let num_tokens = UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 1, 1]);
+    let mut docs = DocSet::from_columns(&row_ids, &num_tokens, false, None).unwrap();
+
+    // Memoize the ascending answer for the current (sorted) row_ids.
+    assert!(docs.row_ids_strictly_ascending());
+
+    // Appending a smaller row_id breaks the invariant; the cached answer
+    // must be dropped so the recomputed value reflects the mutation.
+    docs.append(5, 1);
+    assert!(!docs.row_ids_strictly_ascending());
+
+    // The element-document append is the same mutation and owes the same
+    // invalidation. A set built by `with_coordinate_rank` is shared by its
+    // clones, so a stale answer would outlive the builder that produced it.
+    let mut docs = DocSet::with_coordinate_rank(1);
+    for (doc_id, row_id) in [10u64, 20, 30].into_iter().enumerate() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            docs.append_with_doc_index(row_id, 1, &[doc_id as u32])
+                .unwrap(),
+            doc_id as u32
+        );
+    }
+    assert!(docs.row_ids_strictly_ascending());
+
+    docs.append_with_doc_index(5, 1, &[0]).unwrap();
+    assert!(!docs.row_ids_strictly_ascending());
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_doc_length_by_row_id_matches_scan() {
+    // Compressed layout: row ids are stored in doc-id order and resolved
+    // through `inv`. The targeted lookup must equal an `iter()` scan that
+    // sums the matching row's lengths, and return 0 for an absent row.
+    let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![30, 10, 20]);
+    let num_tokens = UInt32Array::from(vec![8, 3, 5]);
+    let docs = DocSet::from_columns(&row_ids, &num_tokens, false, None).unwrap();
+    for target in [10u64, 20, 30, 99] {
+        let expected: u64 = docs
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|(id, _)| **id == target)
+            .map(|(_, nt)| *nt as u64)
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(docs.doc_length_by_row_id(target), expected, "row {target}");
+    }
+    assert_eq!(docs.doc_length_by_row_id(10), 3);
+    assert_eq!(docs.doc_length_by_row_id(99), 0);
+
+    // Legacy layout: row id == doc id, row ids are sorted, and a row indexed
+    // as several list documents forms a contiguous run whose lengths sum.
+    let legacy_row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 10, 20]);
+    let legacy_num_tokens = UInt32Array::from(vec![3, 4, 5]);
+    let legacy = DocSet::from_columns(&legacy_row_ids, &legacy_num_tokens, true, None).unwrap();
+    assert!(legacy.inv.is_empty());
+    assert_eq!(legacy.doc_length_by_row_id(10), 7);
+    assert_eq!(legacy.doc_length_by_row_id(20), 5);
+    assert_eq!(legacy.doc_length_by_row_id(99), 0);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_posting_builder_writes_impacts_for_supported_block_sizes() {
+    for block_size in [128, 256] {
+        let format_version = default_fts_format_version_for_block_size(block_size).unwrap();
+        let num_docs = block_size * 33 + 1;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            false,
+            format_version.posting_tail_codec(),
+            block_size,
+        );
+        for doc_id in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(doc_id as u64, (doc_id % 5 + 1) as u32);
+            posting.add(
+                doc_id as u32,
+                PositionRecorder::Count((doc_id % 3 + 1) as u32),
+            );
+        }
+        let schema =
+            inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size(false, format_version, block_size);
+        let batch = posting.to_batch_with_docs(&docs, schema).unwrap();
+        assert!(batch.column_by_name(IMPACT_COL).is_some());
+        let max_score = batch[MAX_SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().value(0);
+        let length = batch[LENGTH_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0);
+        let posting = PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(max_score), Some(length)).unwrap();
+        let PostingList::Compressed(posting) = posting else {
+            panic!("expected compressed posting list");
+        };
+        let impacts = posting.impacts.expect("posting should include impacts");
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level0_len(), posting.blocks.len());
+        assert_eq!(impacts.level1_len(), posting.blocks.len().div_ceil(32));
+        assert_eq!(
+            impacts.entries().len(),
+            impacts.level0_len() + impacts.level1_len()
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_posting_builder_without_impact_column_roundtrips_without_impacts() {
+    let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+    for doc_id in 0..BLOCK_SIZE + 3 {
+        posting.add(doc_id as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    }
+    let batch = posting.to_batch(vec![1.0, 1.0]).unwrap();
+    assert!(batch.column_by_name(IMPACT_COL).is_none());
+    let posting =
+        PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(1.0), Some((BLOCK_SIZE + 3) as u32)).unwrap();
+    assert!(!posting.has_impacts());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_build_search_uses_configured_posting_block_size() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size(256).unwrap();
+    let format_version = params.resolved_format_version();
+    let block_size = params.posting_block_size();
+    let num_docs = block_size + 7;
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        0,
+        false,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        format_version,
+        block_size,
+    );
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("needle");
+    let mut posting_list = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        false,
+        format_version.posting_tail_codec(),
+        block_size,
+    );
+    for doc_id in 0..num_docs {
+        posting_list.add(doc_id as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.docs.append(1_000 + doc_id as u64, 1);
+    }
+    builder.posting_lists.push(posting_list);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], params).await;
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(index.partitions[0].inverted_list.block_size(), block_size);
+
+    let posting = index.partitions[0]
+        .inverted_list
+        .posting_list(0, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let PostingList::Compressed(posting) = posting else {
+        panic!("expected compressed posting list");
+    };
+    assert_eq!(posting.block_size, block_size);
+    assert_eq!(posting.blocks.len(), num_docs.div_ceil(block_size));
+    let impacts = posting
+        .impacts
+        .as_ref()
+        .expect("newly written posting list should include impacts");
+    assert_eq!(impacts.level0_len(), posting.blocks.len());
+    assert_eq!(impacts.level1_len(), posting.blocks.len().div_ceil(32));
+    assert_eq!(
+        impacts.entries().len(),
+        impacts.level0_len() + impacts.level1_len()
+    );
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["needle".to_owned()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let prefilter = Arc::new(NoFilter);
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+    let (row_ids, scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(tokens, params, Operator::Or, prefilter, metrics, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), 10);
+    assert_eq!(scores.len(), 10);
+    assert!(row_ids.iter().all(|row_id| *row_id >= 1_000));
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::v1(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, 514, 7)]
+#[case::v2(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, 8, 4)]
+#[case::v3(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3, 256, 6, 4)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_into_builder_chunks_postings_by_list_children(
+    #[case] format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    #[case] block_size: usize,
+    #[case] max_list_children: u64,
+    #[case] expected_chunk_count: usize,
+) {
+    const NUM_TOKENS: usize = 7;
+    const NUM_DOCS: usize = 257;
+    // V1's nested per-document position block count is not stored in metadata,
+    // so each token gets its own read. V3's exact metadata-derived bound admits
+    // two token rows per read.
+
+    let source_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let source_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        source_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let mut source = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        0,
+        true,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        format_version,
+        block_size,
+    );
+    for token_id in 0..NUM_TOKENS {
+        source.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("token_{token_id}"));
+        let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            true,
+            format_version.posting_tail_codec(),
+            block_size,
+        );
+        for doc_id in 0..NUM_DOCS {
+            posting.add(
+                doc_id as u32,
+                PositionRecorder::Position(vec![token_id as u32, token_id as u32 + 10].into()),
+            );
+        }
+        source.posting_lists.push(posting);
+    }
+    for doc_id in 0..NUM_DOCS {
+        source
+            .docs
+            .append(1_000 + doc_id as u64, (NUM_TOKENS * 2) as u32);
+    }
+    source.write(source_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let source_partition = InvertedPartition::load(
+        source_store,
+        0,
+        None,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let (mut merged, chunk_count) = source_partition
+        .into_builder_with_chunk_limits(NUM_TOKENS, max_list_children)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        chunk_count, expected_chunk_count,
+        "list-child limit must split merge reads"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(merged.posting_lists.len(), NUM_TOKENS);
+    assert!(
+        merged
+            .posting_lists
+            .iter()
+            .all(|posting| posting.len() == NUM_DOCS && posting.has_positions())
+    );
+
+    // Rewriting the chunk-built builder verifies that positions survived
+    // conversion and that impact data can be regenerated from every posting.
+    let dest_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        dest_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    merged.write(dest_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+    let merged_cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20);
+    let merged_partition = InvertedPartition::load(
+        dest_store,
+        0,
+        None,
+        &merged_cache,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let posting = merged_partition
+        .inverted_list
+        .posting_list(0, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let PostingList::Compressed(posting) = posting else {
+        panic!("expected compressed posting list");
+    };
+    assert_eq!(posting.block_size, block_size);
+    assert!(posting.impacts.is_some());
+    let actual = PostingList::Compressed(posting)
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(doc_id, frequency, positions)| {
+            (doc_id, frequency, positions.unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(actual.len(), NUM_DOCS);
+    assert_eq!(actual[0], (0, 2, vec![0, 10]));
+    assert_eq!(actual[NUM_DOCS - 1], (256, 2, vec![0, 10]));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_v1_position_merge_reads_are_bounded_and_ordered() {
+    const NUM_TOKENS: usize = 10;
+    const NUM_DOCS: usize = 3;
+    const EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY: usize = 8;
+
+    let source_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let source_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        source_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let mut source = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        0,
+        true,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+        LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+    );
+    for token_id in 0..NUM_TOKENS {
+        source.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("token_{token_id}"));
+        let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            true,
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1.posting_tail_codec(),
+            LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        );
+        for doc_id in 0..NUM_DOCS {
+            posting.add(
+                doc_id as u32,
+                PositionRecorder::Position(vec![token_id as u32, token_id as u32 + 100].into()),
+            );
+        }
+        source.posting_lists.push(posting);
+    }
+    for doc_id in 0..NUM_DOCS {
+        source
+            .docs
+            .append(1_000 + doc_id as u64, (NUM_TOKENS * 2) as u32);
+    }
+    source.write(source_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let control = Arc::new(ControlledPostingReads::new(NUM_TOKENS));
+    let controlled_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(ControlledMergeStore {
+        inner: source_store.clone(),
+        posting_file: posting_file_path(0),
+        io_parallelism: 64,
+        control: control.clone(),
+        fail_token: None,
+    });
+    let source_partition = InvertedPartition::load(
+        controlled_store,
+        0,
+        None,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let merge_task = tokio::spawn(async move {
+        source_partition
+            .into_builder_with_chunk_limits(NUM_TOKENS, u64::MAX)
+            .await
+    });
+    control.wait_for_started(EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        control.active.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst),
+        EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        control.max_active.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst),
+        EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY,
+        "store I/O parallelism must be capped"
+    );
+
+    let mut completed_count = 0;
+    for token_id in (1..EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY).rev() {
+        completed_count += 1;
+        control.release_and_wait(token_id, completed_count).await;
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        control.started.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst),
+        EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY,
+        "completed chunks behind token 0 must remain inside the bounded ordered window"
+    );
+    completed_count += 1;
+    control.release_and_wait(0, completed_count).await;
+    control.wait_for_started(NUM_TOKENS).await;
+    for token_id in (EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY..NUM_TOKENS).rev() {
+        completed_count += 1;
+        control.release_and_wait(token_id, completed_count).await;
+    }
+
+    let (merged, chunk_count) = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), merge_task)
+        .await
+        .expect("timed out waiting for controlled V1 position merge")
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(chunk_count, NUM_TOKENS);
+    assert!(
+        control.max_active.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst) <= EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY,
+        "singleton posting reads exceeded the bounded concurrency cap"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        *control
+            .completed
+            .lock()
+            .expect("controlled posting completion lock poisoned"),
+        vec![7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 9, 8],
+        "test reads must complete out of token order"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(merged.posting_lists.len(), NUM_TOKENS);
+    for (token_id, posting) in merged.posting_lists.iter().enumerate() {
+        let entries = posting.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), NUM_DOCS);
+        for (expected_doc_id, (doc_id, frequency, positions)) in entries.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(frequency, 2);
+            assert_eq!(doc_id as usize, expected_doc_id);
+            assert_eq!(
+                positions.unwrap(),
+                vec![token_id as u32, token_id as u32 + 100],
+                "posting positions must remain aligned with token order"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    let error_control = Arc::new(ControlledPostingReads::new(NUM_TOKENS));
+    let error_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(ControlledMergeStore {
+        inner: source_store,
+        posting_file: posting_file_path(0),
+        io_parallelism: 64,
+        control: error_control.clone(),
+        fail_token: Some(1),
+    });
+    let error_partition = InvertedPartition::load(
+        error_store,
+        0,
+        None,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let error_task = tokio::spawn(async move {
+        error_partition
+            .into_builder_with_chunk_limits(NUM_TOKENS, u64::MAX)
+            .await
+    });
+    error_control.wait_for_started(EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY).await;
+    for (completed_count, token_id) in (0..EXPECTED_CONCURRENCY).rev().enumerate() {
+        error_control
+            .release_and_wait(token_id, completed_count + 1)
+            .await;
+    }
+    let error = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), error_task)
+        .await
+        .expect("timed out waiting for injected V1 position merge failure")
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        error
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("injected singleton posting read failure for token 1")
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_chunk_posting_mode_controls_buffer_sharing() {
+    const NUM_TOKENS: usize = 2;
+    const NUM_DOCS: usize = 257;
+
+    let source_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let source_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        source_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let mut source = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        0,
+        false,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V3,
+        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+    );
+    for token_id in 0..NUM_TOKENS {
+        source.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("token_{token_id}"));
+        let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            false,
+            PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        );
+        for doc_id in 0..NUM_DOCS {
+            posting.add(doc_id as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        }
+        source.posting_lists.push(posting);
+    }
+    for doc_id in 0..NUM_DOCS {
+        source.docs.append(1_000 + doc_id as u64, NUM_TOKENS as u32);
+    }
+    source.write(source_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let source_partition = InvertedPartition::load(
+        source_store,
+        0,
+        None,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let merge_postings = source_partition
+        .inverted_list
+        .build_chunk_postings_for_test(0, NUM_TOKENS, false, ChunkPostingMode::Merge)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let prewarm_postings = source_partition
+        .inverted_list
+        .build_chunk_postings_for_test(0, NUM_TOKENS, false, ChunkPostingMode::Prewarm)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let [
+        PostingList::Compressed(merge_first),
+        PostingList::Compressed(merge_second),
+    ] = merge_postings.as_slice()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected two compressed merge posting lists");
+    };
+    assert!(
+        merge_first
+            .blocks
+            .values()
+            .ptr_eq(merge_second.blocks.values()),
+        "merge posting lists from one chunk should share backing storage"
+    );
+
+    let [
+        PostingList::Compressed(prewarm_first),
+        PostingList::Compressed(prewarm_second),
+    ] = prewarm_postings.as_slice()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected two compressed prewarm posting lists");
+    };
+    assert!(
+        !prewarm_first
+            .blocks
+            .values()
+            .ptr_eq(prewarm_second.blocks.values()),
+        "prewarm posting lists should own compact backing storage"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_posting_builder_remap() {
+    let posting_tail_codec = PostingTailCodec::Fixed32;
+    let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(false, posting_tail_codec);
+    let n = BLOCK_SIZE + 3;
+    for i in 0..n {
+        builder.add(i as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    }
+    let removed = vec![5, 7];
+    builder.remap(&removed);
+
+    let mut expected = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(false, posting_tail_codec);
+    for i in 0..n - removed.len() {
+        expected.add(i as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    }
+    let expected_entries = expected.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let actual_entries = builder.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(actual_entries, expected_entries);
+
+    // BLOCK_SIZE + 3 elements should be reduced to BLOCK_SIZE + 1,
+    // there are still 2 blocks.
+    let batch = builder.to_batch(vec![1.0, 2.0]).unwrap();
+    let (doc_ids, freqs) = decompress_posting_list_with_tail_codec(
+        (n - removed.len()) as u32,
+        batch[POSTING_COL]
+            .as_list::<i32>()
+            .value(0)
+            .as_binary::<i64>(),
+        posting_tail_codec,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .zip(expected_entries.iter().map(|(doc_id, _, _)| doc_id))
+            .all(|(a, b)| a == b)
+    );
+    assert!(
+        freqs
+            .iter()
+            .zip(expected_entries.iter().map(|(_, freq, _)| freq))
+            .all(|(a, b)| a == b)
+    );
+}
+
+/// Doc id gaps and frequencies that exercise one- to five-byte varints in the
+/// builder's tail encoding.
+fn varied_postings(len: usize) -> (Vec<u32>, Vec<u32>) {
+    let gaps = [1_u32, 7, 130, 20_000, 3_000_000];
+    let frequencies = [1_u32, 2, 127, 128, 70_000];
+    let mut doc_id = 5u32;
+    let mut doc_ids = Vec::with_capacity(len);
+    for index in 0..len {
+        doc_ids.push(doc_id);
+        doc_id += if index == 1 {
+            300_000_000
+        } else {
+            gaps[index % gaps.len()]
+        };
+    }
+    let freqs = (0..len)
+        .map(|index| frequencies[index % frequencies.len()])
+        .collect();
+    (doc_ids, freqs)
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::legacy_fixed32_tail(PostingTailCodec::Fixed32, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)]
+#[case::varint_tail_128(PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)]
+#[case::varint_tail_256(PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta, 256)]
+fn test_posting_builder_matches_reference_encoding(
+    #[case] posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    #[case] block_size: usize,
+) {
+    for len in [
+        1,
+        3,
+        block_size - 1,
+        block_size,
+        block_size + 1,
+        3 * block_size + 5,
+    ] {
+        let (doc_ids, frequencies) = varied_postings(len);
+        let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            false,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+        );
+        for (&doc_id, &frequency) in doc_ids.iter().zip(&frequencies) {
+            builder.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(frequency));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(builder.len(), doc_ids.len(), "len {len}");
+        let expected_entries = doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&frequencies)
+            .map(|(&doc_id, &frequency)| (doc_id, frequency, None))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(builder.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), expected_entries);
+
+        let block_max_scores = (0..doc_ids.len().div_ceil(block_size))
+            .map(|block| block as f32 + 0.5)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            doc_ids.len(),
+            doc_ids.iter(),
+            frequencies.iter(),
+            block_max_scores.iter().copied(),
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = builder.to_batch(block_max_scores).unwrap();
+        let actual = batch[POSTING_COL].as_list::<i32>().value(0);
+        assert_eq!(actual.as_binary::<i64>(), &expected, "len {len}");
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_posting_builder_short_lists_stay_inline() {
+    let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new_with_block_size(false, 256);
+    // Most tokens of a corpus occur in only a few documents; they must not
+    // pay for a heap allocation.
+    for doc_id in [9_000, 90_000, 900_000] {
+        builder.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    }
+    assert_eq!(builder.size(), 0);
+
+    for doc_id in 900_001..900_100 {
+        builder.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(3));
+    }
+    assert!(builder.size() as usize >= builder.tail.len());
+    assert_eq!(builder.len(), 102);
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::added(false)]
+#[case::streamed(true)]
+fn test_posting_builder_short_positional_lists_skip_block_storage(#[case] streamed: bool) {
+    let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new_with_block_size(true, 256);
+    if streamed {
+        builder.add_occurrence(9_000, 4).unwrap();
+        builder.finish_open_doc(9_000).unwrap();
+    } else {
+        builder.add(9_000, PositionRecorder::Position(smallvec::smallvec![4]));
+    }
+    // Every token of a positional build needs position state from its first
+    // posting, but only lists that fill a block need block storage. One
+    // posting costs the position state box plus its first position buffer.
+    assert!(builder.size() <= 96, "{}", builder.size());
+    assert_eq!(
+        builder.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![(9_000_u32, 1_u32, Some(vec![4_u32]))]
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_posting_builder_flush_releases_tail_position_capacity() {
+    let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new(true);
+    let positions = smallvec::SmallVec::<[u32; 2]>::from_vec((0..1024).collect());
+    for doc_id in 0..BLOCK_SIZE as u32 {
+        builder.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Position(positions.clone()));
+    }
+
+    let overflow = builder.overflow.as_deref().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(overflow.tail_positions.size(), 0);
+    assert!(builder.tail.is_empty());
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_posting_builder_streamed_positions_roundtrip() {
+    let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new(true);
+    assert!(builder.add_occurrence(0, 1).unwrap());
+    assert!(!builder.add_occurrence(0, 4).unwrap());
+    assert!(!builder.add_occurrence(0, 9).unwrap());
+    builder.finish_open_doc(0).unwrap();
+
+    assert!(builder.add_occurrence(2, 3).unwrap());
+    builder.finish_open_doc(2).unwrap();
+
+    let entries = builder.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(
+        entries,
+        vec![
+            (0_u32, 3_u32, Some(vec![1_u32, 4_u32, 9_u32])),
+            (2_u32, 1_u32, Some(vec![3_u32])),
+        ]
+    );
+
+    // Streaming across block boundaries must build the same posting list as
+    // adding whole documents.
+    let mut streamed = PostingListBuilder::new(true);
+    let mut added = PostingListBuilder::new(true);
+    let mut expected = Vec::new();
+    for doc_id in (0..(2 * BLOCK_SIZE + 3) as u32).map(|doc| doc * 3 + 1) {
+        let positions = (0..doc_id % 4 + 1)
+            .map(|index| index * 5 + doc_id % 7)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        for &position in &positions {
+            streamed.add_occurrence(doc_id, position).unwrap();
+        }
+        streamed.finish_open_doc(doc_id).unwrap();
+        added.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Position(positions.clone().into()));
+        expected.push((doc_id, positions.len() as u32, Some(positions)));
+    }
+    assert_eq!(streamed.len(), expected.len());
+    assert_eq!(streamed.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), expected);
+    let block_max_scores = vec![1.0; expected.len().div_ceil(BLOCK_SIZE)];
+    assert_eq!(
+        streamed.to_batch(block_max_scores.clone()).unwrap(),
+        added.to_batch(block_max_scores).unwrap()
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_shared_position_stream_clone_shares_block_offsets() {
+    let stream = SharedPositionStream::new(
+        PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+        vec![0_u32, 4, 11],
+        bytes::Bytes::from_static(b"shared position bytes"),
+    );
+    let original_offsets = stream.block_offsets().as_ptr();
+
+    let cloned = stream.clone();
+
+    assert_eq!(cloned.block_offsets(), stream.block_offsets());
+    assert_eq!(cloned.block_offsets().as_ptr(), original_offsets);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_posting_builder_roundtrip_shared_positions() {
+    let entries = vec![
+        (0_u32, vec![1_u32, 5]),
+        (2, vec![0, 4, 9]),
+        (4, vec![7]),
+        (8, vec![3, 10]),
+        (13, vec![2, 11, 30]),
+    ];
+    let mut builder =
+        PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(true, PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta);
+    for (doc_id, positions) in &entries {
+        builder.add(
+            *doc_id,
+            PositionRecorder::Position(positions.clone().into()),
+        );
+    }
+
+    let batch = builder.to_batch(vec![1.0]).unwrap();
+    assert!(batch.column_by_name(COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL).is_some());
+    assert!(batch.column_by_name(POSITION_COL).is_none());
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch.schema_ref().metadata().get(POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY),
+        Some(&PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta.as_str().to_owned())
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch.schema_ref().metadata().get(POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY),
+        Some(&POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2.to_owned())
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch.schema_ref().metadata().get(POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY),
+        Some(&PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta.as_str().to_owned())
+    );
+
+    let posting = PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(1.0), Some(entries.len() as u32)).unwrap();
+    let actual = posting
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(doc_id, freq, positions)| {
+            (doc_id as u32, freq, positions.unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let expected = entries
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(doc_id, positions)| (*doc_id, positions.len() as u32, positions.clone()))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_posting_builder_roundtrip_legacy_positions() {
+    let entries = vec![(0_u32, vec![1_u32, 5]), (2, vec![0, 4, 9]), (4, vec![7])];
+    let mut builder =
+        PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(true, PostingTailCodec::Fixed32);
+    for (doc_id, positions) in &entries {
+        builder.add(
+            *doc_id,
+            PositionRecorder::Position(positions.clone().into()),
+        );
+    }
+
+    let batch = builder.to_batch(vec![1.0]).unwrap();
+    assert!(batch.column_by_name(POSITION_COL).is_some());
+    assert!(batch.column_by_name(COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL).is_none());
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch.schema_ref().metadata().get(POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY),
+        None
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch.schema_ref().metadata().get(POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY),
+        None
+    );
+    assert_eq!(batch.schema_ref().metadata().get(POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY), None);
+
+    let posting = PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(1.0), Some(entries.len() as u32)).unwrap();
+    let actual = posting
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(doc_id, freq, positions)| {
+            (doc_id as u32, freq, positions.unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let expected = entries
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(doc_id, positions)| (*doc_id, positions.len() as u32, positions.clone()))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_resolve_fts_format_version_defaults_to_v2() {
+    assert_eq!(
+        resolve_fts_format_version(None).unwrap(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V2
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        resolve_fts_format_version(Some("2")).unwrap(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V2
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        resolve_fts_format_version(Some("3")).unwrap(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V3
+    );
+    assert!(resolve_fts_format_version(Some("4")).is_err());
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_block_size_256_metadata_resolves_to_v3() {
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([(POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), "256".to_owned())]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        parse_format_version_from_metadata(&metadata).unwrap(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V3
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_legacy_compressed_positions_still_readable() {
+    let doc_ids = [1_u32, 3_u32];
+    let frequencies = [2_u32, 3_u32];
+    let posting = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec(
+        doc_ids.len(),
+        doc_ids.iter(),
+        frequencies.iter(),
+        std::iter::once(1.0_f32),
+        PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut posting_builder = ListBuilder::new(LargeBinaryBuilder::new());
+    for idx in 0..posting.len() {
+        posting_builder.values().append_value(posting.value(idx));
+    }
+    posting_builder.append(true);
+
+    let mut positions_builder = ListBuilder::new(ListBuilder::new(LargeBinaryBuilder::new()));
+    for positions in [vec![1_u32, 5_u32], vec![0_u32, 4_u32, 9_u32]] {
+        let compressed = compress_positions(&positions).unwrap();
+        let doc_builder = positions_builder.values();
+        for idx in 0..compressed.len() {
+            doc_builder.values().append_value(compressed.value(idx));
+        }
+        doc_builder.append(true);
+    }
+    positions_builder.append(true);
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(
+            POSTING_COL,
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::LargeBinary, true))),
+            false,
+        ),
+        Field::new(MAX_SCORE_COL, DataType::Float32, false),
+        Field::new(LENGTH_COL, DataType::UInt32, false),
+        Field::new(
+            POSITION_COL,
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::LargeBinary, true))),
+                true,
+            ))),
+            false,
+        ),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(posting_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![doc_ids.len() as u32])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(positions_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let posting = PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(1.0), Some(doc_ids.len() as u32)).unwrap();
+    let actual = posting
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(doc_id, freq, positions)| {
+            (doc_id as u32, freq, positions.unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(actual, vec![(1, 2, vec![1, 5]), (3, 3, vec![0, 4, 9]),]);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_shared_stream_v2_without_codec_still_readable() {
+    let doc_ids = [1_u32, 3_u32];
+    let frequencies = [2_u32, 3_u32];
+    let posting = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec(
+        doc_ids.len(),
+        doc_ids.iter(),
+        frequencies.iter(),
+        std::iter::once(1.0_f32),
+        PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut posting_builder = ListBuilder::new(LargeBinaryBuilder::new());
+    for idx in 0..posting.len() {
+        posting_builder.values().append_value(posting.value(idx));
+    }
+    posting_builder.append(true);
+
+    let positions = vec![1_u32, 5_u32, 0_u32, 4_u32, 9_u32];
+    let mut encoded_positions = Vec::new();
+    encode_position_stream_block_into(
+        &positions,
+        &frequencies,
+        PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta,
+        &mut encoded_positions,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut position_offsets = ListBuilder::new(UInt32Builder::new());
+    position_offsets.values().append_value(0);
+    position_offsets.append(true);
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new_with_metadata(
+        vec![
+            Field::new(
+                POSTING_COL,
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::LargeBinary, true))),
+                false,
+            ),
+            Field::new(MAX_SCORE_COL, DataType::Float32, false),
+            Field::new(LENGTH_COL, DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new(COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL, DataType::LargeBinary, false),
+            Field::new(
+                POSITION_BLOCK_OFFSET_COL,
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt32, true))),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ],
+        HashMap::from([(
+            POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2.to_owned(),
+        )]),
+    ));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(posting_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![doc_ids.len() as u32])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(
+                encoded_positions.as_slice(),
+            )])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(position_offsets.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let posting = PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(1.0), Some(doc_ids.len() as u32)).unwrap();
+    let actual = posting
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(doc_id, freq, positions)| {
+            (doc_id as u32, freq, positions.unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(actual, vec![(1, 2, vec![1, 5]), (3, 3, vec![0, 4, 9]),]);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_shared_position_stream_is_smaller_for_sparse_positions() {
+    let mut builder =
+        PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(true, PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta);
+    let mut legacy_positions = Vec::with_capacity(BLOCK_SIZE * 4);
+    for doc_id in 0..(BLOCK_SIZE * 4) as u32 {
+        let mut positions = vec![doc_id * 3 + 1];
+        if doc_id % 8 == 0 {
+            positions.push(doc_id * 3 + 2);
+        }
+        builder.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Position(positions.clone().into()));
+        legacy_positions.push(positions);
+    }
+
+    let batch = builder.to_batch(vec![1.0; 4]).unwrap();
+    let shared_positions_size = batch[COMPRESSED_POSITION_COL].get_buffer_memory_size()
+        + batch[POSITION_BLOCK_OFFSET_COL].get_buffer_memory_size();
+
+    let mut positions_builder = ListBuilder::new(ListBuilder::new(LargeBinaryBuilder::new()));
+    for positions in legacy_positions {
+        let compressed = compress_positions(&positions).unwrap();
+        let doc_builder = positions_builder.values();
+        for idx in 0..compressed.len() {
+            doc_builder.values().append_value(compressed.value(idx));
+        }
+        doc_builder.append(true);
+    }
+    positions_builder.append(true);
+    let legacy_positions_size = positions_builder.finish().get_buffer_memory_size();
+
+    assert!(
+        shared_positions_size < legacy_positions_size,
+        "expected shared position stream to be smaller than legacy per-doc storage, shared={shared_positions_size}, legacy={legacy_positions_size}",
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_posting_list_batch_matches_docset_scoring() {
+    let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+    let num_docs = BLOCK_SIZE + 3;
+    for doc_id in 0..num_docs as u32 {
+        docs.append(doc_id as u64, doc_id % 7 + 1);
+    }
+
+    let doc_ids = (0..num_docs as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let freqs = doc_ids
+        .iter()
+        .map(|doc_id| doc_id % 5 + 1)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let mut builder_scores = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+    let mut builder_docs = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+    for (&doc_id, &freq) in doc_ids.iter().zip(freqs.iter()) {
+        builder_scores.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(freq));
+        builder_docs.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(freq));
+    }
+
+    let block_max_scores = docs.calculate_block_max_scores(doc_ids.iter(), freqs.iter());
+    let batch_scores = builder_scores.to_batch(block_max_scores).unwrap();
+    let batch_docs = builder_docs
+        .to_batch_with_docs(&docs, inverted_list_schema(false))
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let scores_posting = batch_scores[POSTING_COL].as_list::<i32>().value(0);
+    let scores_posting = scores_posting.as_binary::<i64>();
+    let docs_posting = batch_docs[POSTING_COL].as_list::<i32>().value(0);
+    let docs_posting = docs_posting.as_binary::<i64>();
+    assert_eq!(scores_posting, docs_posting);
+
+    let score_left = batch_scores[MAX_SCORE_COL]
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        .value(0);
+    let score_right = batch_docs[MAX_SCORE_COL]
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        .value(0);
+    assert!((score_left - score_right).abs() < 1e-6);
+
+    let len_left = batch_scores[LENGTH_COL]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+        .value(0);
+    let len_right = batch_docs[LENGTH_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0);
+    assert_eq!(len_left, len_right);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_remap_to_empty_posting_list() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+
+    // index of docs:
+    // 0: lance
+    // 1: lake lake
+    // 2: lake lake lake
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("lance");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("lake");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(2));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(2, PositionRecorder::Count(3));
+    builder.docs.append(0, 1);
+    builder.docs.append(1, 1);
+    builder.docs.append(2, 1);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let index = InvertedPartition::load(
+        store.clone(),
+        0,
+        None,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut builder = index.into_builder().await.unwrap();
+
+    let mapping = HashMap::from([(0, None), (2, Some(3))]);
+    builder.remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping)).await.unwrap();
+
+    // after remap, the doc 0 is removed, and the doc 2 is updated to 3
+    assert_eq!(builder.tokens.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(builder.tokens.get("lake"), Some(0));
+    assert_eq!(builder.posting_lists.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(builder.posting_lists[0].len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(builder.docs.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(builder.docs.row_id(0), 1);
+    assert_eq!(builder.docs.row_id(1), 3);
+
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    // remap to delete all docs
+    let mapping = HashMap::from([(1, None), (3, None)]);
+    builder.remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping)).await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(builder.tokens.len(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(builder.posting_lists.len(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(builder.docs.len(), 0);
+
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_docset_remap_preserves_element_coordinates() {
+    let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+    docs.append_with_doc_index(10, 2, &[0]).unwrap();
+    docs.append_with_doc_index(10, 3, &[3]).unwrap();
+    docs.append_with_doc_index(11, 1, &[1]).unwrap();
+
+    let removed = docs.remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(HashMap::from([
+        (10, Some(20)),
+        (11, None),
+    ])));
+
+    assert_eq!(removed, vec![2]);
+    assert_eq!(docs.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(docs.row_id(0), 20);
+    assert_eq!(docs.row_id(1), 20);
+    assert_eq!(docs.doc_index(0), vec![0]);
+    assert_eq!(docs.doc_index(1), vec![3]);
+}
+
+/// `contains_each` has to agree with a full decode for probes in every block,
+/// before the first doc and past the last, for both tail codecs and both block
+/// sizes, and for a list that is only a tail or has no tail at all.
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::fixed32_128(PostingTailCodec::Fixed32, 128, 2 * 128 + 128 / 3)]
+#[case::varint_256(PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta, 256, 2 * 256 + 256 / 3)]
+#[case::tail_only(PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta, 128, 128 / 3)]
+#[case::no_tail(PostingTailCodec::Fixed32, 128, 2 * 128)]
+fn test_compressed_posting_contains_each_matches_full_decode(
+    #[case] tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    #[case] block_size: usize,
+    #[case] length: usize,
+) {
+    // Every third doc id from 5 on.
+    let doc_ids: Vec<u32> = (0..length as u32).map(|i| 5 + 3 * i).collect();
+    let freqs = vec![1u32; length];
+    let blocks =
+        crate::scalar::inverted::encoding::compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            length,
+            doc_ids.iter(),
+            freqs.iter(),
+            std::iter::repeat(0.0f32),
+            tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+    let posting = CompressedPostingList::new(
+        blocks,
+        1.0,
+        length as u32,
+        tail_codec,
+        block_size,
+        None,
+        None,
+    );
+
+    let last = *doc_ids.last().unwrap();
+    let mut probes: Vec<u32> = vec![0, 4, 5, 6, 8, last, last + 1, last + 3];
+    for block_start in (0..length).step_by(block_size) {
+        let first = doc_ids[block_start];
+        probes.extend([first - 1, first, first + 3]);
+    }
+    probes.sort_unstable();
+    probes.dedup();
+    let expected: Vec<bool> = probes
+        .iter()
+        .map(|probe| doc_ids.binary_search(probe).is_ok())
+        .collect();
+    assert!(expected.iter().any(|found| *found) && expected.iter().any(|found| !*found));
+    assert_eq!(posting.contains_each(&probes), expected);
+    assert!(posting.contains_each(&[]).is_empty());
+}
+
+fn dictionary_test_tokens() -> Vec<String> {
+    let mut tokens = ["b", "a", "ab", "abc", "a b", "z", "é", "日本語"]
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(str::to_owned)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    tokens.extend((0..1000).map(|index| format!("tok{index:04}")));
+    tokens
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::arrow(TokenSetFormat::Arrow)]
+#[case::fst(TokenSetFormat::Fst)]
+fn test_token_dictionary_writes_same_batch_as_token_set(#[case] format: TokenSetFormat) {
+    let mut expected = TokenSet::default();
+    let mut dictionary = TokenDictionary::default();
+    for token in dictionary_test_tokens() {
+        let token_id = dictionary.get_or_add(&token);
+        assert_eq!(dictionary.get_or_add(&token), token_id);
+        assert_eq!(expected.add(token), token_id);
+    }
+    assert_eq!(dictionary.len(), expected.len());
+    assert_eq!(
+        dictionary.to_batch(format).unwrap(),
+        expected.to_batch(format).unwrap()
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::arrow(TokenSetFormat::Arrow)]
+#[case::fst(TokenSetFormat::Fst)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_token_dictionary_keeps_loaded_token_ids(#[case] format: TokenSetFormat) {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    );
+    let mut written = TokenSet::default();
+    for token in dictionary_test_tokens() {
+        written.add(token);
+    }
+    let batch = written.clone().to_batch(format).unwrap();
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file("tokens.lance", batch.schema())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    let reader = store.open_index_file("tokens.lance").await.unwrap();
+    let loaded = TokenSet::load(reader, format).await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut dictionary = TokenDictionary::try_from_token_set(loaded).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dictionary.len(), written.len());
+    for token in dictionary_test_tokens() {
+        assert_eq!(dictionary.get(&token), written.get(&token), "{token}");
+    }
+    assert_eq!(dictionary.get_or_add("new token"), written.len() as u32);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_token_dictionary_rejects_sparse_token_ids() {
+    let mut tokens = TokenSet::default();
+    tokens.tokens = TokenMap::HashMap(HashMap::from([("a".to_owned(), 0), ("b".to_owned(), 5)]));
+    let err = TokenDictionary::try_from_token_set(tokens).unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("distinct ids below 2"), "{err}");
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/grouping.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/grouping.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..931470b0400
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/grouping.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,485 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+fn posting_entries(posting: &PostingList) -> Vec<(u64, u32)> {
+    posting.iter().map(|(doc, freq, _)| (doc, freq)).collect()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_modern_posting_validation_is_cached_per_token() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("term");
+    let mut valid_builder = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+    valid_builder.add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(valid_builder);
+    builder.docs.append(1000, 1);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(0)).await.unwrap();
+    let mut posting_reader = PostingListReader::try_new(reader, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    posting_reader.modern_num_docs = Some(1);
+    let validation = &posting_reader
+        .modern_doc_id_validations
+        .as_ref()
+        .expect("modern readers have per-token validation state")[0];
+    assert!(!validation.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+    assert!(!posting_reader.modern_posting_is_validated(0).unwrap());
+
+    let mut corrupt_builder = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+    corrupt_builder.add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    let corrupt_batch = corrupt_builder.to_batch(vec![1.0]).unwrap();
+    let corrupt_posting = PostingList::from_batch(&corrupt_batch, Some(1.0), Some(1)).unwrap();
+    let error = posting_reader
+        .ensure_modern_posting_validated(0, &corrupt_posting)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::Index { .. }));
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("DocId 1"));
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("[0, 1)"));
+    assert!(!validation.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+    assert!(!posting_reader.modern_posting_is_validated(0).unwrap());
+
+    let first = posting_reader
+        .posting_list(0, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(posting_entries(&first), vec![(0, 1)]);
+    assert!(validation.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+    assert!(posting_reader.modern_posting_is_validated(0).unwrap());
+
+    let second = posting_reader
+        .posting_list(0, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(posting_entries(&second), vec![(0, 1)]);
+    assert!(validation.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+}
+
+/// Runtime synthetic grouping must return correct posting lists for every
+/// token, including across synthetic group boundaries.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_posting_list_synthetic_grouping_reads_group_boundaries() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let num_tokens = runtime_posting_group_tokens() as u32 + 4;
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for t in 0..num_tokens {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("t{t}"));
+        let mut pl = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+        pl.add(t, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.posting_lists.push(pl);
+        builder.docs.append(1000 + t as u64, 1);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(0)).await.unwrap();
+    let cache = LanceCache::no_cache();
+    let mut posting_reader = PostingListReader::try_new(reader, &cache).await.unwrap();
+    posting_reader.modern_num_docs = Some(num_tokens as usize);
+    assert!(
+        matches!(
+            &posting_reader.grouping,
+            PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { .. }
+        ),
+        "v2 reader must synthesize runtime posting groups",
+    );
+
+    let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    for token in 0..num_tokens {
+        let posting = posting_reader
+            .posting_list(token, false, &metrics)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            posting_entries(&posting),
+            vec![(token as u64, 1)],
+            "synthetic grouping mismatch for token {token}",
+        );
+        assert_eq!(posting.len(), 1, "length mismatch for token {token}");
+    }
+}
+
+/// Prewarm must populate exactly the `PostingListGroupKey`s the read path
+/// looks up — in particular the final group, whose `end` both paths derive
+/// from `self.len()`. If those derivations drifted (e.g. one used
+/// `num_rows()` and the other the loaded posting count), the last group's
+/// warm entry would be missing and prewarm silently wasted (issue #7040).
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prewarm_group_keys_match_read_path() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let num_tokens = runtime_posting_group_tokens() as u32 + 4;
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for t in 0..num_tokens {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("t{t}"));
+        let mut pl = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+        pl.add(t, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.posting_lists.push(pl);
+        builder.docs.append(1000 + t as u64, 1);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(0)).await.unwrap();
+    // A real (strong) cache must outlive the reader's weak handle so the
+    // prewarmed entries are still resolvable below.
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20);
+    let mut posting_reader = PostingListReader::try_new(reader, &cache).await.unwrap();
+    posting_reader.modern_num_docs = Some(num_tokens as usize);
+    assert!(
+        matches!(
+            &posting_reader.grouping,
+            PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { .. }
+        ),
+        "v2 reader should use runtime synthetic groups",
+    );
+
+    posting_reader
+        .prewarm_posting_lists(false, 2)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(posting_reader.modern_posting_validation_ready());
+    assert!(
+        posting_reader
+            .modern_postings_validated
+            .load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    );
+
+    for token in 0..num_tokens {
+        let (start, end) = posting_reader.group_range_for_token(token).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            posting_reader
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(
+                    start,
+                    end,
+                    posting_reader.has_impacts,
+                ))
+                .await
+                .is_some(),
+            "prewarm did not populate group [{start}, {end}) that the read \
+                 path requests for token {token}",
+        );
+    }
+
+    let (_, last_end) = posting_reader
+        .group_range_for_token(num_tokens - 1)
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        last_end, num_tokens,
+        "the last group must end at the posting count ({num_tokens})",
+    );
+}
+
+/// An empty partition has no synthetic groups because there are no token
+/// rows to cache.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_empty_partition_has_no_synthetic_groups() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(0)).await.unwrap();
+    let posting_reader = PostingListReader::try_new(reader, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(&posting_reader.grouping, PostingGrouping::None),
+        "reader for an empty partition must not create cache groups",
+    );
+    assert!(posting_reader.is_empty());
+}
+
+/// A large posting list can share a runtime synthetic group with neighbors;
+/// grouping is token-count based and should still read every member intact.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_large_posting_reads_inside_synthetic_group() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    let big_docs = (BLOCK_SIZE * 3 + 5) as u32;
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("big");
+    let mut big = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+    for d in 0..big_docs {
+        big.add(d, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    }
+    builder.posting_lists.push(big);
+    for t in 1..5u32 {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("t{t}"));
+        let mut pl = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+        pl.add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.posting_lists.push(pl);
+    }
+    for d in 0..big_docs as u64 {
+        builder.docs.append(1000 + d, 1);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(0)).await.unwrap();
+    let posting_reader = PostingListReader::try_new(reader, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let expected_end = runtime_posting_group_tokens().min(5) as u32;
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        posting_reader.group_range_for_token(0),
+        Some((0, expected_end)),
+        "runtime synthetic grouping should group by token count, not posting bytes",
+    );
+    let big = posting_reader
+        .posting_list(0, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(big.len(), big_docs as usize);
+    // A trailing tiny term (in the next, multi-token group) still reads back.
+    let tiny = posting_reader
+        .posting_list(2, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(tiny.len(), 1);
+}
+
+/// Non-empty v2 indexes should prewarm synthetic `PostingListGroupKey`
+/// entries, matching what the read path then looks up without persisted
+/// grouping metadata.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prewarm_synthetic_grouping_populates_group_entries() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let num_tokens = 3u32;
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for t in 0..num_tokens {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("t{t}"));
+        let mut pl = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+        pl.add(t, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.posting_lists.push(pl);
+        builder.docs.append(1000 + t as u64, 1);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(0)).await.unwrap();
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20);
+    let posting_reader = PostingListReader::try_new(reader, &cache).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(
+        &posting_reader.grouping,
+        PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { .. }
+    ));
+
+    posting_reader
+        .prewarm_posting_lists(false, 2)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    for token_id in 0..num_tokens {
+        let (start, end) = posting_reader.group_range_for_token(token_id).unwrap();
+        let group = posting_reader
+            .index_cache
+            .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(
+                start,
+                end,
+                posting_reader.has_impacts,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                panic!(
+                    "synthetic prewarm should populate group [{start}, {end}) for token {token_id}"
+                )
+            });
+        assert!(
+            group.is_packed(),
+            "no-position synthetic prewarm should insert a packed group"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            posting_reader
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&posting_list_cache_key(
+                    token_id,
+                    posting_reader.has_impacts,
+                ))
+                .await
+                .is_none(),
+            "synthetic prewarm should not populate per-token entry {token_id}",
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// End-to-end BM25 search over a grouped multi-group index must return the
+/// correct documents, and a warm-cache query must match the cold-cache
+/// result exactly (issue #7040).
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_grouped_bm25_search_correct_and_cache_stable() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    // Rare tokens (one doc each) plus one common token in every doc. The
+    // token count exceeds the runtime group size so scoring must index
+    // into the right synthetic group slot.
+    let num_rare = runtime_posting_group_tokens() as u32 + 2;
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for t in 0..num_rare {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("t{t}"));
+        builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    }
+    let common_id = builder.tokens.get_or_add("common");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    for d in 0..num_rare {
+        builder.posting_lists[d as usize].add(d, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.posting_lists[common_id as usize].add(d, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.docs.append(1000 + d as u64, 2);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // A rare token in the middle of a group must resolve to its one doc.
+    let query = |term: &str| {
+        let index = index.clone();
+        let term = term.to_string();
+        async move {
+            index
+                .bm25_search(
+                    Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec![term], DocType::Text)),
+                    Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(num_rare as usize))),
+                    Operator::Or,
+                    Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                    Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    };
+
+    let rare_query_id = num_rare / 2;
+    let (rare_rows, _) = query(&format!("t{rare_query_id}")).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        rare_rows,
+        vec![1000 + rare_query_id as u64],
+        "rare token must map to its single doc",
+    );
+
+    // Cold vs warm cache must agree for the common (large) token.
+    let (cold_rows, cold_scores) = query("common").await;
+    let (warm_rows, warm_scores) = query("common").await;
+    assert_eq!(cold_rows.len(), num_rare as usize);
+    assert_eq!(cold_rows, warm_rows, "warm-cache rows must match cold");
+    assert_eq!(
+        cold_scores, warm_scores,
+        "warm-cache scores must match cold"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn flat_bm25_search_stop_word_query_over_unindexed_rows_returns_empty() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1, 2])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "the quick brown fox",
+                "a lazy dog",
+                "for the win",
+            ])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let input: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+    ));
+
+    // Analyzer with an English stop-word filter, so the query "the"
+    // tokenizes to zero terms -- exactly the production trigger.
+    let tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> = Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default())
+            .filter(StopWordFilter::new(Language::English).unwrap())
+            .build(),
+    ));
+
+    let result_stream = flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics(
+        input,
+        "text".to_string(),
+        "the".to_string(),
+        tokenizer,
+        None,
+        100,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let batches: Vec<_> = result_stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+    assert_eq!(
+        total_rows, 0,
+        "a stop-word-only query has no searchable terms and must match nothing"
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/lifecycle.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/lifecycle.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..fa860632ad4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/lifecycle.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,539 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+/// Build a multi-partition inverted index in `store` with `num_partitions`
+/// partitions, each carrying a handful of tokens/docs.
+async fn build_multi_partition_index(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    num_partitions: u64,
+) -> (Arc<InvertedIndex>, Arc<LanceCache>) {
+    for id in 0..num_partitions {
+        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+            id,
+            false,
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+        );
+        // A few distinct tokens per partition so each posting file has real
+        // content to read and materialize during prewarm.
+        for t in 0..4u32 {
+            builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("tok_{id}_{t}"));
+            let mut posting =
+                PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(false, PostingTailCodec::Fixed32);
+            let base = id * 1000 + t as u64 * 10;
+            for d in 0..5u32 {
+                posting.add(d, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+                builder.docs.append(base + d as u64, 4);
+            }
+            builder.posting_lists.push(posting);
+        }
+        builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let partition_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..num_partitions).collect();
+    let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&partition_ids).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Keep the cache alive and return it: the partition readers hold only a
+    // WeakLanceCache, so the prewarmed entries vanish if this Arc is dropped.
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (index, cache)
+}
+
+/// The prewarm cost estimate must come from cheap object metadata (the
+/// posting file length) without reading the posting data, and must be
+/// monotonic in the partition's content.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_posting_data_size_bytes_uses_file_length() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let (index, _cache) = build_multi_partition_index(&store, 3).await;
+    for part in &index.partitions {
+        // File length is reported by object metadata at open time; it must be
+        // non-trivial for a partition that actually holds postings.
+        let est = part.inverted_list.posting_data_size_bytes();
+        assert!(
+            est > 0,
+            "expected a non-zero posting-data size estimate, got {est}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Each partition must read through the shared scheduler at a distinct base
+/// priority. Tied priorities (every partition at 0) break the scheduler's
+/// backpressure deadlock-break — which admits the lowest-priority in-flight
+/// request — because there is no unique lowest request to advance, so a
+/// concurrent multi-partition read (e.g. prewarm) can wedge. Distinct
+/// per-partition priorities keep the in-flight set totally ordered.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_partitions_load_with_distinct_priorities() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let (index, _cache) = build_multi_partition_index(&store, 5).await;
+
+    let mut priorities: Vec<u64> = index
+        .partitions
+        .iter()
+        .map(|part| {
+            part.store
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<LanceIndexStore>()
+                .expect("partition store should be a LanceIndexStore")
+                .io_priority()
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    // Distinct and dense (0..N): every partition reads at its own priority,
+    // so the shared scheduler sees a total order across all partitions. The
+    // partitions may finish loading in any order, so sort before comparing —
+    // what matters is that the priorities form a contiguous, collision-free
+    // set, not which partition ended up at which slot.
+    priorities.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(
+        priorities,
+        (0..index.partitions.len() as u64).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_update_preserves_v2_format_version() -> Result<()> {
+    let src_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let dest_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let src_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        src_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        dest_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let format_version = InvertedListFormatVersion::V2;
+    let posting_tail_codec = format_version.posting_tail_codec();
+    let mut partition =
+        InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default(), format_version);
+    partition.tokens.get_or_add("hello");
+    let mut posting_list =
+        PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(false, posting_tail_codec);
+    posting_list.add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    partition.posting_lists.push(posting_list);
+    partition.docs.append(100, 1);
+    partition.write(src_store.as_ref()).await?;
+
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0_u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            posting_tail_codec.as_str().to_owned(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = src_store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(src_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+    assert_eq!(index.format_version(), format_version);
+    assert_eq!(index.index_version(), INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2);
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]));
+    let docs = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("hello again")]));
+    let row_ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![101u64]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![docs, row_ids])?;
+    let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]));
+    let created = index
+        .update(Box::pin(stream), dest_store.as_ref(), None)
+        .await?;
+
+    assert_eq!(created.index_version, INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2);
+
+    let updated = InvertedIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+    assert_eq!(updated.format_version(), format_version);
+    assert_eq!(updated.index_version(), INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2);
+    assert_eq!(updated.partitions.len(), 2);
+    for partition in &updated.partitions {
+        assert_eq!(
+            partition.inverted_list.posting_tail_codec(),
+            posting_tail_codec
+        );
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_block_size_256_writes_v3_metadata_and_index_version() -> Result<()> {
+    let src_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let dest_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let src_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        src_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        dest_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size(256)?;
+    let format_version = params.resolved_format_version();
+    assert_eq!(format_version, InvertedListFormatVersion::V3);
+
+    let mut partition = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        0,
+        false,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        format_version,
+        params.posting_block_size(),
+    );
+    partition.tokens.get_or_add("hello");
+    let mut posting_list = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+        false,
+        format_version.posting_tail_codec(),
+        params.posting_block_size(),
+    );
+    posting_list.add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    partition.posting_lists.push(posting_list);
+    partition.docs.append(100, 1);
+    partition.write(src_store.as_ref()).await?;
+
+    write_test_metadata(&src_store, vec![0], params).await;
+
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(src_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+    assert_eq!(index.format_version(), InvertedListFormatVersion::V3);
+    assert_eq!(index.index_version(), INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3);
+
+    let created = index
+        .update(empty_doc_stream(), dest_store.as_ref(), None)
+        .await?;
+    assert_eq!(created.index_version, INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3);
+
+    let updated = InvertedIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+    assert_eq!(updated.format_version(), InvertedListFormatVersion::V3);
+    assert_eq!(updated.index_version(), INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_segments_preserves_arrow_token_set_format() -> Result<()> {
+    let src_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let dest_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let src_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        src_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        dest_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let index = write_single_partition_index(
+        src_store,
+        InvertedIndexParams::default().format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2),
+        TokenSetFormat::Arrow,
+        "hello",
+        100,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    assert_eq!(index.index_version(), 0);
+    let created = InvertedIndex::merge_segments(
+        &[index],
+        empty_doc_stream(),
+        dest_store.as_ref(),
+        None,
+        crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    assert_eq!(created.index_version, 0);
+    let merged = InvertedIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+    assert_eq!(merged.index_version(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(merged.token_set_format, TokenSetFormat::Arrow);
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["hello".to_string()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let prefilter = Arc::new(NoFilter);
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+    let (row_ids, _) = merged
+        .bm25_search(tokens, params, Operator::Or, prefilter, metrics, None)
+        .await?;
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100]);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::v1(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)]
+#[case::v2(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)]
+#[case::v3_128(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)]
+#[case::v3_256(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3, 256)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_segments_preserves_format_version(
+    #[case] format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    #[case] block_size: usize,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let src_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let dest_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let src_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        src_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        dest_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .block_size(block_size)?
+        .format_version(format_version);
+
+    let index =
+        write_single_partition_index(src_store, params, TokenSetFormat::Fst, "hello", 100).await?;
+    assert_eq!(index.format_version(), format_version);
+
+    let created = InvertedIndex::merge_segments(
+        &[index],
+        empty_doc_stream(),
+        dest_store.as_ref(),
+        None,
+        crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    assert_eq!(created.index_version, format_version.index_version());
+
+    let merged = InvertedIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+    assert_eq!(merged.format_version(), format_version);
+    assert_eq!(merged.index_version(), format_version.index_version());
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::empty_first(true)]
+#[case::empty_last(false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_v1_segments_with_empty_segment(#[case] is_empty_first: bool) -> Result<()> {
+    let empty_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let populated_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let dest_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let empty_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        empty_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let populated_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        populated_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        dest_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1);
+
+    write_test_metadata(&empty_store, Vec::new(), params.clone()).await;
+    let empty = InvertedIndex::load(empty_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+    assert_eq!(empty.partition_count(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(empty.format_version(), InvertedListFormatVersion::V1);
+
+    let populated = write_single_partition_index(
+        populated_store,
+        params,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        "hello",
+        100,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let segments = if is_empty_first {
+        vec![empty, populated]
+    } else {
+        vec![populated, empty]
+    };
+
+    let created = InvertedIndex::merge_segments(
+        &segments,
+        empty_doc_stream(),
+        dest_store.as_ref(),
+        None,
+        crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    assert_eq!(created.index_version, INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V1);
+
+    let merged = InvertedIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+    assert_eq!(merged.format_version(), InvertedListFormatVersion::V1);
+    assert_eq!(merged.index_version(), INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V1);
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["hello".to_string()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let prefilter = Arc::new(NoFilter);
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+    let (row_ids, _) = merged
+        .bm25_search(tokens, params, Operator::Or, prefilter, metrics, None)
+        .await?;
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100]);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_segments_uses_memory_limit_for_old_partitions() -> Result<()> {
+    let src_dir_1 = TempObjDir::default();
+    let src_dir_2 = TempObjDir::default();
+    let dest_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let src_store_1 = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        src_dir_1.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let src_store_2 = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        src_dir_2.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        dest_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().memory_limit_mb(0);
+    let first = write_single_partition_index(
+        src_store_1,
+        params.clone(),
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        "alpha",
+        100,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let second =
+        write_single_partition_index(src_store_2, params, TokenSetFormat::default(), "beta", 200)
+            .await?;
+
+    let mut builder = InvertedIndexBuilder::new(InvertedIndexParams::default().memory_limit_mb(0))
+        .with_token_set_format(TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder
+        .update_from_segments(
+            empty_doc_stream(),
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &[first, second],
+            None,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+    let merged = InvertedIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await?;
+    assert_eq!(merged.partitions.len(), 2);
+    let mut partition_ids = merged
+        .partitions
+        .iter()
+        .map(|partition| partition.id())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    partition_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(partition_ids, vec![0, 1]);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_modern_index_without_deleted_col_has_empty_bitmap() {
+    // An index created before the deleted_fragments feature was added
+    // will have a metadata file with num_rows=0 (no record batch data).
+    // The load path should gracefully handle this with an empty bitmap.
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("test");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.docs.append(100, 1);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Write a metadata file WITHOUT the deleted_fragments column
+    // (simulates an older index version)
+    let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        index.deleted_fragments().is_empty(),
+        "index without deleted_fragments column should have empty bitmap"
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/position_cache.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/position_cache.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c4929b35408
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/position_cache.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,382 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheBackend, CacheCodec, CacheEntry, InternalCacheKey};
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct RejectPositionsCacheBackend {
+    inner: QuickCacheBackend,
+}
+
+impl RejectPositionsCacheBackend {
+    fn new(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(capacity),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn rejects(codec: Option<&CacheCodec>) -> bool {
+        codec.is_some_and(|codec| codec.type_id() == "lance.fts.Positions")
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl CacheBackend for RejectPositionsCacheBackend {
+    async fn get(&self, key: &InternalCacheKey, codec: Option<CacheCodec>) -> Option<CacheEntry> {
+        self.inner.get(key, codec).await
+    }
+
+    async fn insert(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        entry: CacheEntry,
+        size_bytes: usize,
+        codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) {
+        if Self::rejects(codec.as_ref()) {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.inner.insert(key, entry, size_bytes, codec).await;
+    }
+
+    async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+        codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) -> Result<(CacheEntry, bool)> {
+        if Self::rejects(codec.as_ref()) {
+            return loader.await.map(|(entry, _)| (entry, false));
+        }
+        self.inner.get_or_insert(key, loader, codec).await
+    }
+
+    async fn clear(&self) {
+        self.inner.clear().await;
+    }
+
+    async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.num_entries().await
+    }
+
+    async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.size_bytes().await
+    }
+
+    fn approx_num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.approx_num_entries()
+    }
+
+    fn approx_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.approx_size_bytes()
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prewarm_with_positions_populates_separate_position_cache() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+        0,
+        true,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+    );
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("hello");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("world");
+    builder
+        .posting_lists
+        .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+            true,
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+        ));
+    builder
+        .posting_lists
+        .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+            true,
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+        ));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![0].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![1].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(1, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![0].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![2].into()));
+    builder.docs.append(100, 2);
+    builder.docs.append(101, 2);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0_u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true)).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(
+        QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(4096),
+    )));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    index
+        .prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::new().with_position(true))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let rebound_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let index = index.with_store(rebound_store, None).unwrap().unwrap();
+    assert!(index.prewarmed_query_state_ready(true));
+
+    let inverted_list = &index.partitions[0].inverted_list;
+    // The posting cache entry is grouped (issue #7040); the group holds
+    // positions-free lists while positions live in their own per-token
+    // entries.
+    let (start, end) = inverted_list.group_range_for_token(0).unwrap();
+    let group = inverted_list
+        .index_cache
+        .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(
+            start,
+            end,
+            inverted_list.has_impacts,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !group.is_packed(),
+        "with-position prewarm should retain the materialized fallback"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !group
+            .posting_list(0, None, None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .has_position(),
+        "posting cache should remain positions-free after prewarm"
+    );
+
+    let positions = inverted_list
+        .index_cache
+        .get_with_key(&PositionKey { token_id: 0 })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(
+            positions.as_ref().0,
+            CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(_)
+        ),
+        "positions should be stored in the dedicated position cache"
+    );
+
+    drop(positions);
+    drop(group);
+    cache.clear().await;
+    assert!(
+        inverted_list
+            .index_cache
+            .get_with_key(&PositionKey { token_id: 0 })
+            .await
+            .is_none()
+    );
+
+    index
+        .prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(index.prewarm_state.lock().await.satisfies(true));
+    assert!(
+        inverted_list
+            .index_cache
+            .get_with_key(&PositionKey { token_id: 0 })
+            .await
+            .is_some(),
+        "re-prewarm after eviction must preserve the strongest requested mode"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_best_effort_prewarm_reports_missing_requested_positions() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .with_position(true)
+        .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2);
+    let format_version = params.resolved_format_version();
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        0,
+        true,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        format_version,
+        params.posting_block_size(),
+    );
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("beta");
+    for token_id in 0..2 {
+        let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            true,
+            format_version.posting_tail_codec(),
+            params.posting_block_size(),
+        );
+        posting.add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![token_id].into()));
+        builder.posting_lists.push(posting);
+    }
+    builder.docs.append(100, 2);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], params).await;
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(
+        RejectPositionsCacheBackend::new(1 << 20),
+    )));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let result = index
+        .prewarm_with_options_result(&FtsPrewarmOptions::new().with_position(true).best_effort())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !result.fully_resident,
+        "prewarm must not report full residency when requested positions were rejected"
+    );
+    let diagnostics = result
+        .diagnostics
+        .expect("missing requested positions should produce diagnostics");
+    assert_eq!(diagnostics.partition_count, 1);
+    assert_eq!(diagnostics.failing_partitions.len(), 1);
+    let partition = &diagnostics.failing_partitions[0];
+    assert!(partition.documents.query_ready());
+    assert!(partition.posting_validation_ready);
+    assert!(partition.posting_resident);
+    assert_eq!(partition.position_resident, Some(false));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prewarm_with_v2_positions_preserves_shared_stream_codec() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let format_version = InvertedListFormatVersion::V2;
+    let posting_tail_codec = format_version.posting_tail_codec();
+    let mut builder =
+        InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(0, true, TokenSetFormat::default(), format_version);
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("body");
+
+    let mut posting_list =
+        PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(true, posting_tail_codec);
+    let expected = (0..(BLOCK_SIZE + 5) as u32)
+        .map(|doc_id| {
+            let positions = vec![doc_id % 3, doc_id % 3 + 2, doc_id % 3 + 5];
+            posting_list.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Position(positions.clone().into()));
+            builder.docs.append(30_000 + doc_id as u64, 20 + doc_id % 7);
+            (doc_id, positions.len() as u32, positions)
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    builder.posting_lists.push(posting_list);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0_u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true)).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            posting_tail_codec.as_str().to_owned(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2.to_owned(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta.as_str().to_owned(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    index
+        .prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::new().with_position(true))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let actual = index.partitions[0]
+        .inverted_list
+        .posting_list(0, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(doc_id, freq, positions)| {
+            (doc_id as u32, freq, positions.unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_block_max_scores_capacity_matches_block_count() {
+    let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+    let num_docs = BLOCK_SIZE * 3 + 7;
+    let doc_ids = (0..num_docs as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    for doc_id in &doc_ids {
+        docs.append(*doc_id as u64, 1);
+    }
+
+    let freqs = vec![1_u32; doc_ids.len()];
+    let block_max_scores = docs.calculate_block_max_scores(doc_ids.iter(), freqs.iter());
+    let expected_blocks = doc_ids.len().div_ceil(BLOCK_SIZE);
+
+    assert_eq!(block_max_scores.len(), expected_blocks);
+    assert_eq!(block_max_scores.capacity(), expected_blocks);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/prewarm_cache.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/prewarm_cache.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..57b9e2e2e5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/prewarm_cache.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,766 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_posting_cache_conflict_across_partitions() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    // Create first partition with one token and posting list length 1
+    let mut builder1 = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder1.tokens.get_or_add("test");
+    builder1.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder1.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder1.docs.append(100, 1); // row_id=100, num_tokens=1
+    builder1.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Create second partition with one token and posting list length 4
+    let mut builder2 = InnerBuilder::new(1, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder2.tokens.get_or_add("test"); // Use same token to test cache prefix fix
+    builder2.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder2.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(2));
+    builder2.posting_lists[0].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder2.posting_lists[0].add(2, PositionRecorder::Count(3));
+    builder2.posting_lists[0].add(3, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder2.docs.append(200, 2); // row_id=200, num_tokens=2
+    builder2.docs.append(201, 1); // row_id=201, num_tokens=1
+    builder2.docs.append(202, 3); // row_id=202, num_tokens=3
+    builder2.docs.append(203, 1); // row_id=203, num_tokens=1
+    builder2.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Create metadata file with both partitions
+    let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64, 1u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Load the inverted index
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Verify the index structure
+    assert_eq!(index.partitions.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(index.partitions[0].tokens.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(index.partitions[1].tokens.len(), 1);
+
+    // Verify the partitions were loaded correctly
+
+    // Verify posting list lengths (note: partition order may differ from creation order).
+    // `posting_len_for_token` works for both legacy and v2 layouts without
+    // forcing the V2-only bulk metadata load.
+    let pl_0_0 = index.partitions[0]
+        .inverted_list
+        .posting_len_for_token(0, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let pl_1_0 = index.partitions[1]
+        .inverted_list
+        .posting_len_for_token(0, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    if index.partitions[0].id() == 0 {
+        assert_eq!(pl_0_0, 1);
+        assert_eq!(pl_1_0, 4);
+        assert_eq!(index.partitions[0].docs.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(index.partitions[1].docs.len(), 4);
+    } else {
+        assert_eq!(pl_0_0, 4);
+        assert_eq!(pl_1_0, 1);
+        assert_eq!(index.partitions[0].docs.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(index.partitions[1].docs.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    // Prewarm the inverted index (this loads posting lists into cache)
+    index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["test".to_string()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let prefilter = Arc::new(NoFilter);
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+
+    let (row_ids, scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(tokens, params, Operator::Or, prefilter, metrics, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Verify that we got search results
+    // Expected to find 5 documents: 1 from first partition, 4 from second partition
+    assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), 5, "row_ids: {:?}", row_ids);
+    assert!(!row_ids.is_empty(), "Should find at least some documents");
+    assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), scores.len());
+
+    // All scores should be positive since all documents contain the search token
+    for &score in &scores {
+        assert!(score > 0.0, "All scores should be positive");
+    }
+
+    // Check that we got results from both partitions
+    assert!(
+        row_ids.contains(&100),
+        "Should contain row_id from partition 0"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        row_ids.iter().any(|&id| id >= 200),
+        "Should contain row_id from partition 1"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_modern_prewarm_packs_group_with_shared_posting_buffer() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("beta");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(2));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(2, PositionRecorder::Count(3));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(3, PositionRecorder::Count(4));
+    builder.docs.append(100, 1);
+    builder.docs.append(101, 2);
+    builder.docs.append(102, 3);
+    builder.docs.append(103, 4);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let inverted_list = &index.partitions[0].inverted_list;
+    assert!(
+        !inverted_list.is_legacy_layout(),
+        "test should use modern posting layout"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        inverted_list.has_impacts,
+        "modern posting fixture should include impact skip data"
+    );
+
+    inverted_list.prewarm_posting_lists(false, 2).await.unwrap();
+
+    // The two tiny tokens land in a single cache group [0, 2) (issue
+    // #7040); both postings are read out of that group entry.
+    let (start, end) = inverted_list.group_range_for_token(0).unwrap();
+    let group = inverted_list
+        .index_cache
+        .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(
+            start,
+            end,
+            inverted_list.has_impacts,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert!(
+        group.is_packed(),
+        "no-position prewarm should pack v2 groups"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        group.needs_external_metadata(),
+        "prewarmed packed groups must not duplicate reader score/length metadata"
+    );
+    let (alpha_score, alpha_len) = inverted_list.bulk_metadata_for_token(0);
+    let PostingList::Compressed(alpha) = group
+        .posting_list(0, alpha_score, alpha_len)
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected compressed posting list for token 0");
+    };
+    let PostingList::Compressed(alpha_again) = group
+        .posting_list(0, alpha_score, alpha_len)
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected compressed posting list for repeated token 0 access");
+    };
+    let (beta_score, beta_len) = inverted_list.bulk_metadata_for_token(1);
+    let PostingList::Compressed(beta) = group
+        .posting_list(1, beta_score, beta_len)
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected compressed posting list for token 1");
+    };
+
+    assert!(
+        alpha.impacts.is_some() && beta.impacts.is_some(),
+        "packed prewarm must preserve impact skip data"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        alpha
+            .impacts
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .shares_derived_state_with(alpha_again.impacts.as_ref().unwrap()),
+        "repeated packed slot access must share decoded impact state"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        alpha.shares_first_docs_with(&alpha_again),
+        "repeated packed slot access must share decoded block heads"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        alpha.block_first_docs().as_ptr(),
+        alpha_again.block_first_docs().as_ptr(),
+        "packed block heads should be decoded only once per slot"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        alpha.blocks.values().as_ptr(),
+        beta.blocks.values().as_ptr(),
+        "packed posting views should share the group's values buffer"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_packed_prewarm_groups_do_not_retain_the_full_chunk() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for token_id in 0..4u32 {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("t{token_id}"));
+        let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+        posting.add(token_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.posting_lists.push(posting);
+        builder.docs.append(1000 + token_id as u64, 1);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(&posting_file_path(0)).await.unwrap();
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20);
+    let mut posting_reader = PostingListReader::try_new(reader, &cache).await.unwrap();
+    posting_reader.grouping = PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { group_size: 2 };
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        posting_reader
+            .prewarm_posting_lists_chunked(false, Some(4), 1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        1,
+        "the test must read both groups in one prewarm chunk"
+    );
+
+    let first_group = posting_reader
+        .index_cache
+        .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(
+            0,
+            2,
+            posting_reader.has_impacts,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let second_group = posting_reader
+        .index_cache
+        .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(
+            2,
+            4,
+            posting_reader.has_impacts,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (first_score, first_len) = posting_reader.bulk_metadata_for_token(0);
+    let PostingList::Compressed(first) = first_group
+        .posting_list(0, first_score, first_len)
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected compressed posting list in first group");
+    };
+    let (neighbor_score, neighbor_len) = posting_reader.bulk_metadata_for_token(1);
+    let PostingList::Compressed(first_neighbor) = first_group
+        .posting_list(1, neighbor_score, neighbor_len)
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected compressed posting list in first group");
+    };
+    let (second_score, second_len) = posting_reader.bulk_metadata_for_token(2);
+    let PostingList::Compressed(second) = second_group
+        .posting_list(0, second_score, second_len)
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected compressed posting list in second group");
+    };
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        first.blocks.values().as_ptr(),
+        first_neighbor.blocks.values().as_ptr(),
+        "postings in one group should share the group's values buffer"
+    );
+    assert_ne!(
+        first.blocks.values().as_ptr(),
+        second.blocks.values().as_ptr(),
+        "each group must own a compact buffer instead of retaining the full chunk"
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_prewarm_chunk_ranges_preserve_group_boundaries() {
+    let grouping = PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { group_size: 4 };
+    assert_eq!(
+        prewarm_chunk_ranges(&grouping, 13, 5),
+        vec![(0, 4), (4, 8), (8, 13)],
+        "grouped chunks may contain multiple groups but must never split one"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        prewarm_chunk_ranges(&PostingGrouping::None, 13, 5),
+        vec![(0, 5), (5, 10), (10, 13)],
+        "ungrouped chunk ranges should use plain token ranges"
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_synthetic_grouping_preserves_fixed_boundaries() {
+    let grouping = PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { group_size: 4 };
+    assert_eq!(
+        grouping.range_for_token(5, 10),
+        Some((4, 8)),
+        "synthetic token groups should be fixed-size ranges"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        grouping.range_for_token(9, 10),
+        Some((8, 10)),
+        "the final synthetic group should end at token_count"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        prewarm_chunk_ranges(&grouping, 10, 6),
+        vec![(0, 4), (4, 10)],
+        "prewarm chunks may contain multiple synthetic groups but must not split one"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        grouping.ranges_for_chunk(4, 10, 10),
+        vec![(4, 8), (8, 10)],
+        "publish selection should enumerate synthetic groups in a chunk"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Prewarming a large partition in multiple chunks must end up holding exactly the
+/// same per-token posting lists (doc ids and frequencies) as the whole-file path.
+/// Parametrized over layout: the legacy-v1 chunk path rebases global offsets to
+/// chunk-local rows, while the modern one-row-per-token path covers both
+/// legacy-sized v2 and 256-doc v3 posting blocks.
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::v1(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)]
+#[case::v2(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2, LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE)]
+#[case::v3(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3, 256)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prewarm_streams_in_chunks_preserves_content(
+    #[case] format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+    #[case] block_size: usize,
+) {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    // One partition with enough tokens to span multiple runtime synthetic
+    // groups and several docs per token.
+    let num_tokens = runtime_posting_group_tokens() as u32 + 4;
+    const DOCS_PER_TOKEN: u32 = 3;
+    let posting_tail_codec = format_version.posting_tail_codec();
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+        0,
+        false,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        format_version,
+        block_size,
+    );
+    // expected[token] = [(doc_id, frequency)] in stored (doc-id) order.
+    let mut expected: Vec<Vec<(u32, u32)>> = Vec::new();
+    let mut doc_id = 0u64;
+    for t in 0..num_tokens {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("tok_{t:03}"));
+        let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            false,
+            posting_tail_codec,
+            block_size,
+        );
+        let mut docs = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..DOCS_PER_TOKEN {
+            posting.add(doc_id as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+            builder.docs.append(doc_id, 1);
+            docs.push((doc_id as u32, 1));
+            doc_id += 1;
+        }
+        expected.push(docs);
+        builder.posting_lists.push(posting);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .block_size(block_size)
+        .unwrap();
+    let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        ("params".to_owned(), serde_json::to_string(&params).unwrap()),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            posting_tail_codec.as_str().to_owned(),
+        ),
+        (
+            FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_owned(),
+            format_version.index_version().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_owned(), block_size.to_string()),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let inverted_list = &index.partitions[0].inverted_list;
+    assert_eq!(inverted_list.len(), num_tokens as usize);
+    assert_eq!(inverted_list.block_size(), block_size);
+
+    // Force a small target chunk. Since CHUNK_TOKENS is below the runtime
+    // group size, synthetic group alignment should still split only at
+    // group boundaries.
+    const CHUNK_TOKENS: usize = 6;
+    let chunk_count = inverted_list
+        .prewarm_posting_lists_chunked(false, Some(CHUNK_TOKENS), 2)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // (1) The partition was streamed in multiple chunks. The exact count is
+    // group-alignment-dependent (chunks snap to whole groups), so just
+    // require more than one.
+    assert!(
+        chunk_count > 1,
+        "single partition must be streamed in more than one chunk, got {chunk_count}"
+    );
+
+    if block_size == 256 {
+        let (start, end) = inverted_list.group_range_for_token(0).unwrap();
+        let group = inverted_list
+            .index_cache
+            .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(
+                start,
+                end,
+                inverted_list.has_impacts,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .expect("256-document blocks should populate the packed group cache");
+        assert!(group.is_packed());
+        let (max_score, length) = inverted_list.bulk_metadata_for_token(0);
+        let PostingList::Compressed(posting) =
+            group.posting_list(0, max_score, length).unwrap().unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected compressed posting list");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(posting.block_size, 256);
+        assert!(
+            posting.impacts.is_some(),
+            "packed prewarm must preserve impact skip data"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // (2) Correctness: every token's posting list round-trips with exactly
+    // the doc ids and frequencies of the whole-file path.
+    for token_id in 0..num_tokens {
+        let actual = inverted_list
+            .posting_list(token_id, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(doc_id, freq, _positions)| (doc_id as u32, freq))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual, expected[token_id as usize],
+            "token {token_id} posting list mismatch after chunked prewarm"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// With positions, the chunked prewarm must strip positions into their own
+/// per-token cache entries (leaving the posting cache positions-free) and still
+/// round-trip exact doc ids, frequencies, and positions across chunk boundaries.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prewarm_streams_in_chunks_with_positions() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let format_version = InvertedListFormatVersion::V2;
+    let posting_tail_codec = format_version.posting_tail_codec();
+    let num_tokens = runtime_posting_group_tokens() as u32 + 4;
+    const DOCS_PER_TOKEN: u32 = 3;
+    let mut builder =
+        InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(0, true, TokenSetFormat::default(), format_version);
+    // expected[token] = [(doc_id, frequency, positions)].
+    let mut expected: Vec<Vec<(u32, u32, Vec<u32>)>> = Vec::new();
+    let mut doc_id = 0u64;
+    for t in 0..num_tokens {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("tok_{t:03}"));
+        let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(true, posting_tail_codec);
+        let mut docs = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..DOCS_PER_TOKEN {
+            let positions = vec![t % 3, t % 3 + 2, t % 3 + 5];
+            posting.add(
+                doc_id as u32,
+                PositionRecorder::Position(positions.clone().into()),
+            );
+            builder.docs.append(doc_id, positions.len() as u32);
+            docs.push((doc_id as u32, positions.len() as u32, positions));
+            doc_id += 1;
+        }
+        expected.push(docs);
+        builder.posting_lists.push(posting);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true)).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            posting_tail_codec.as_str().to_owned(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2.to_owned(),
+        ),
+        (
+            POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY.to_owned(),
+            PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta.as_str().to_owned(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let inverted_list = &index.partitions[0].inverted_list;
+
+    const CHUNK_TOKENS: usize = 5;
+    let chunk_count = inverted_list
+        .prewarm_posting_lists_chunked(true, Some(CHUNK_TOKENS), 2)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        chunk_count > 1,
+        "partition must be streamed in more than one chunk, got {chunk_count}"
+    );
+
+    for token_id in 0..num_tokens {
+        // The prewarmed posting cache entry is positions-free.
+        let (start, end) = inverted_list.group_range_for_token(token_id).unwrap();
+        let group = inverted_list
+            .index_cache
+            .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(
+                start,
+                end,
+                inverted_list.has_impacts,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let slot = (token_id - start) as usize;
+        assert!(
+            !group.is_packed(),
+            "with-position prewarm should retain the materialized fallback"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !group
+                .posting_list(slot, None, None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+                .has_position(),
+            "token {token_id} posting cache entry must be positions-free after prewarm"
+        );
+
+        // Full content (doc ids, frequencies, positions) round-trips; the
+        // positions come from the dedicated per-token cache prewarm populated.
+        let actual = inverted_list
+            .posting_list(token_id, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(doc_id, freq, positions)| {
+                (doc_id as u32, freq, positions.unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual, expected[token_id as usize],
+            "token {token_id} posting list / positions mismatch after chunked prewarm"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_strict_modern_prewarm_fails_when_index_cache_cannot_hold_all_partitions() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2);
+    let format_version = params.resolved_format_version();
+    let partition_count = 6_u64;
+    let docs_per_partition = 512_u32;
+
+    for partition_id in 0..partition_count {
+        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+            partition_id,
+            false,
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            format_version,
+            params.posting_block_size(),
+        );
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("token_{partition_id}"));
+        let mut posting = PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            false,
+            format_version.posting_tail_codec(),
+            params.posting_block_size(),
+        );
+        for doc_id in 0..docs_per_partition {
+            posting.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+            builder
+                .docs
+                .append(partition_id * 1_000_000 + doc_id as u64, 1);
+        }
+        builder.posting_lists.push(posting);
+        builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+    }
+    write_test_metadata(&store, (0..partition_count).collect(), params).await;
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(
+        QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(8 * 1024),
+    )));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let err = index
+        .prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    let err = err.to_string();
+    assert!(err.contains("partition(s) are not fully resident"));
+    assert!(err.contains("resident row-address projection"));
+    assert!(
+        index
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .any(|partition| !partition.docs.query_ready()),
+        "strict prewarm should fail because at least one partition lost query-ready state"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        index
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .all(|partition| partition.inverted_list.modern_posting_validation_ready()),
+        "posting validation should complete; the strict failure should be the final residency postcondition"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        index.partitions.iter().any(|partition| {
+            let docs = partition.docs.modern().unwrap();
+            !docs.projection_resident()
+        }),
+        "at least one modern document projection should be non-resident"
+    );
+
+    let result = index
+        .prewarm_with_options_result(&FtsPrewarmOptions::default().best_effort())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(!result.fully_resident);
+    let diagnostics = result
+        .diagnostics
+        .expect("best-effort partial prewarm should report diagnostics");
+    assert_eq!(diagnostics.partition_count, partition_count as usize);
+    assert!(!diagnostics.failing_partitions.is_empty());
+    assert!(
+        diagnostics
+            .failing_partitions
+            .iter()
+            .all(|partition| partition.posting_validation_ready),
+        "best-effort should not suppress posting validation failures"
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/query.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/query.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f8ab93218d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/query.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1752 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexPlugin;
+use crate::scalar::registry::ScalarIndexPlugin;
+use lance_core::utils::testing::{ProxyObjectStore, ProxyObjectStorePolicy};
+use lance_io::object_store::WrappingObjectStore;
+use object_store::list::PaginatedListStore;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct RequestWrapper {
+    policy: Arc<std::sync::Mutex<ProxyObjectStorePolicy>>,
+}
+
+impl WrappingObjectStore for RequestWrapper {
+    fn wrap(
+        &self,
+        _store_prefix: &str,
+        original: Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
+        Arc::new(ProxyObjectStore::new(original, self.policy.clone()))
+    }
+
+    fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        _store_prefix: &str,
+        _original: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_request_wrappers_preserve_prewarmed_index_state() {
+    let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+    let directory = object_store::path::Path::from("index");
+    let metadata_cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024));
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
+        directory.clone(),
+        metadata_cache.clone(),
+    ));
+    write_pair_partition(&store, 0, &[("alpha", "beta", 0)]).await;
+    write_pair_partition(&store, 1 << 32, &[("alpha", "gamma", 1 << 32)]).await;
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0, 1 << 32], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let terms = vec!["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()];
+    let mut first = None;
+    for request in 0..3 {
+        let mut wrapped = object_store.clone();
+        let wrapper = RequestWrapper::default();
+        let requests = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(0));
+        let counted_requests = requests.clone();
+        wrapper.policy.lock().unwrap().set_before_policy(
+            "count_request_io",
+            Arc::new(move |_, _| {
+                counted_requests.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                Ok(())
+            }),
+        );
+        wrapped.apply_wrapper(&wrapper);
+        let request_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(wrapped),
+            directory.clone(),
+            metadata_cache.clone(),
+        ));
+        let load_store = request_store.clone();
+        let load_cache = cache.clone();
+        let index = InvertedIndexPlugin
+            .get_or_insert_in_cache(
+                request_store.clone(),
+                None,
+                &cache,
+                async move {
+                    Ok(InvertedIndex::load(load_store, None, &load_cache).await?
+                        as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+                }
+                .boxed(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let inverted = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>().unwrap();
+        assert!(request_store.is_same_storage_binding(inverted.store.as_ref()));
+        if request == 0 {
+            inverted.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+            first = Some(index.clone());
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(
+                requests.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+                0,
+                "a prewarmed request must not reopen partition files, even without file sizes"
+            );
+            assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(first.as_ref().unwrap(), &index));
+            assert!(
+                first
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .shares_prewarm_state(inverted)
+            );
+            assert!(
+                inverted.corpus_stats.initialized(),
+                "request {request} discarded immutable prewarmed corpus statistics"
+            );
+        }
+        assert!(inverted.prewarmed_query_state_ready(false));
+        assert_eq!(
+            inverted
+                .bm25_stats_for_terms_if_loaded(&terms)
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|loaded| loaded.stats),
+            Some((4, 2, vec![2, 1]))
+        );
+    }
+    let independently_loaded = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &cache).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !first
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .shares_prewarm_state(&independently_loaded),
+        "loading the same index into a new container must not claim shared prewarm state"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_deferred_posting_reader_retries_current_credentials_and_validates_metadata() {
+    let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+    let metadata_cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024));
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
+        "index".into(),
+        metadata_cache.clone(),
+    ));
+    write_pair_partition(&store, 0, &[("alpha", "beta", 0)]).await;
+    let index = load_test_index(store, vec![0]).await;
+    let wrapper = RequestWrapper::default();
+    let revoked = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(true));
+    let requests = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(0));
+    let policy_revoked = revoked.clone();
+    let policy_requests = requests.clone();
+    wrapper.policy.lock().unwrap().set_before_policy(
+        "credentials",
+        Arc::new(move |_, _| {
+            policy_requests.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            if policy_revoked.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+                Err(Error::io("request credentials revoked"))
+            } else {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }),
+    );
+    let mut wrapped = object_store;
+    wrapped.apply_wrapper(&wrapper);
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        Arc::new(wrapped),
+        "index".into(),
+        metadata_cache,
+    ));
+    let rebound = index.with_store(store, None).unwrap().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(requests.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    let reader = &rebound.partitions[0].inverted_list.reader;
+    let Err(error) = reader.get().await else {
+        panic!("revoked credentials must fail when the request needs a reader");
+    };
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }), "{error:?}");
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("request credentials revoked"));
+    revoked.store(false, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    let readers = futures::future::try_join_all((0..8).map(|_| reader.get()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(readers.iter().all(|reader| Arc::ptr_eq(reader, readers[0])));
+    assert!(requests.load(Ordering::Relaxed) > 0);
+
+    let changed_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::memory().into(),
+        "index".into(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let mut writer = changed_store
+        .new_index_file(&posting_file_path(0), Arc::new(Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    let changed = rebound.with_store(changed_store, None).unwrap().unwrap();
+    let Err(error) = changed.partitions[0].inverted_list.reader.get().await else {
+        panic!("changed posting metadata must be rejected before reading data");
+    };
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::Index { .. }), "{error:?}");
+    assert!(
+        error
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("changed while reopening an immutable index")
+    );
+}
+
+// Enough distinct tokens that `write_posting_lists` emits several posting-list
+// batches (the default batch size is 256 rows), exercising the restructured
+// producer and async send path.
+const MANY_BATCH_TOKENS: u64 = 1000;
+const MANY_BATCH_ROW_ID_BASE: u64 = 1000;
+
+// Writes a single partition whose posting lists span many output batches. Each
+// token `tok{i:05}` maps to row id `MANY_BATCH_ROW_ID_BASE + i`.
+async fn write_partition_spanning_many_batches(store: &dyn IndexStore) {
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for i in 0..MANY_BATCH_TOKENS {
+        // Zero-padded so tokens are inserted in sorted order, as the set expects.
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("tok{i:05}"));
+        let doc_id = builder.docs.append(MANY_BATCH_ROW_ID_BASE + i, 1);
+        let mut posting_list = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+        posting_list.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.posting_lists.push(posting_list);
+    }
+    builder
+        .write(store)
+        .await
+        .expect("writing posting lists should succeed");
+}
+
+// Correctness guard for the restructured posting-list writer. The producer now
+// builds each batch in its own `spawn_cpu` call, handing the builder and the
+// remaining posting lists back out so state (the cross-batch cache-group
+// accumulator) is preserved, and dispatches with an async `send().await`. This
+// verifies that path over many batches by checking representative tokens after
+// they cross the producer/consumer boundary.
+//
+// Note: this does not reproduce the single-thread-pool deadlock the async send
+// fixes -- that requires a 1-thread CPU pool (a process-global singleton) plus
+// ~8MB of buffered posting data to trigger a consumer-side encoder flush, which
+// is impractical as a lightweight unit test.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_write_many_posting_list_batches_preserves_all_batches() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    write_partition_spanning_many_batches(store.as_ref()).await;
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Probe tokens from the first, a middle, and the last batch to confirm they
+    // remain queryable after crossing the producer/consumer boundary.
+    for token_idx in [0u64, MANY_BATCH_TOKENS / 2, MANY_BATCH_TOKENS - 1] {
+        let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+            vec![format!("tok{token_idx:05}")],
+            DocType::Text,
+        ));
+        let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+        let (row_ids, _) = index
+            .bm25_search(
+                tokens,
+                params,
+                Operator::Or,
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids,
+            vec![MANY_BATCH_ROW_ID_BASE + token_idx],
+            "token tok{token_idx:05} should map to its single document"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_and_query_skips_partition_missing_required_term() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder0 = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder0.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder0.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder0.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder0.docs.append(100, 1);
+    builder0.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut builder1 = InnerBuilder::new(1, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder1.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder1.tokens.get_or_add("beta");
+    builder1.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder1.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder1.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder1.posting_lists[1].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder1.docs.append(200, 2);
+    builder1.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0, 1], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let (mut row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::And,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    row_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_ids,
+        vec![200],
+        "partition missing beta must not contribute alpha-only hits"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_and_groups_expansions_by_original_position() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alphi");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("beta");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[2].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[2].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.docs.append(100, 2);
+    builder.docs.append(101, 2);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(10))
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1)),
+    );
+
+    let missing_position_tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["betx".to_owned(), "zzzzz".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let (missing_and_row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            missing_position_tokens.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::And,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        missing_and_row_ids.is_empty(),
+        "fuzzy AND must require at least one expansion for every original position"
+    );
+
+    let (mut or_row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            missing_position_tokens,
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    or_row_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(
+        or_row_ids,
+        vec![100, 101],
+        "OR should still match present fuzzy expansions"
+    );
+
+    let grouped_tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["alphx".to_owned(), "betx".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let (mut grouped_row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            grouped_tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::And,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    grouped_row_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(
+        grouped_row_ids,
+        vec![100, 101],
+        "each original fuzzy position should match any one of its expansions"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_expansion_cap_applies_to_whole_query() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for token in ["alpha", "alphi", "beta", "beti"] {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(token);
+        builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    }
+    for token_id in 0..4 {
+        builder.posting_lists[token_id].add(token_id as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.docs.append(100 + token_id as u64, 1);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let partition = index.partitions[0].clone();
+    let params = FtsSearchParams::new()
+        .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+        .with_max_expansions(3);
+    let tokens = Tokens::new(vec!["alphx".to_owned(), "betx".to_owned()], DocType::Text);
+
+    let expanded = partition.expand_fuzzy(&tokens, &params).unwrap();
+    let expanded_terms = (0..expanded.len())
+        .map(|idx| (expanded.get_token(idx).to_owned(), expanded.position(idx)))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        expanded_terms,
+        vec![
+            ("alpha".to_owned(), 0),
+            ("alphi".to_owned(), 0),
+            ("beta".to_owned(), 1),
+        ],
+        "max_expansions should cap the whole fuzzy query, not each token"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Write one partition holding `variants` in order, with one
+/// single-token doc per variant taken from `row_ids`.
+async fn write_variant_partition(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    partition_id: u64,
+    variants: &[&str],
+    row_ids: &[u64],
+) {
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(partition_id, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for token in variants {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(token);
+        builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    }
+    for (local_idx, row_id) in row_ids.iter().enumerate() {
+        builder.posting_lists[local_idx].add(local_idx as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.docs.append(*row_id, 1);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+async fn write_pair_partition(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    partition_id: u64,
+    documents: &[(&str, &str, u64)],
+) {
+    write_pair_partition_with_position(store, partition_id, documents, false).await;
+}
+
+/// [`write_pair_partition`] that, with `with_position`, records each
+/// document's left token at position 0 and its right token at position 1.
+async fn write_pair_partition_with_position(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    partition_id: u64,
+    documents: &[(&str, &str, u64)],
+    with_position: bool,
+) {
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(partition_id, with_position, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    let mut postings = BTreeMap::<String, PostingListBuilder>::new();
+    for (left, right, row_id) in documents {
+        let doc_id = builder.docs.append(*row_id, 2);
+        for (position, token) in [left, right].into_iter().enumerate() {
+            let recorder = if with_position {
+                PositionRecorder::Position(vec![position as u32].into())
+            } else {
+                PositionRecorder::Count(1)
+            };
+            postings
+                .entry((*token).to_owned())
+                .or_insert_with(|| PostingListBuilder::new(with_position))
+                .add(doc_id, recorder);
+        }
+    }
+    for (token, posting) in postings {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&token);
+        builder.posting_lists.push(posting);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+async fn load_test_index(
+    store: Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    partition_ids: Vec<u64>,
+) -> Arc<InvertedIndex> {
+    write_test_metadata(&store, partition_ids, InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::with_capacity(4096))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn token_positions(tokens: &Tokens) -> Vec<(String, u32)> {
+    (0..tokens.len())
+        .map(|index| (tokens.get_token(index).to_owned(), tokens.position(index)))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+async fn prepared_results(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    prepared: Arc<crate::scalar::inverted::PreparedBm25Query>,
+    params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+) -> Vec<(u64, u32)> {
+    let mut results = Vec::new();
+    for index in indices {
+        let documents = index
+            .bm25_search_prepared_documents(
+                prepared.clone(),
+                params.clone(),
+                Operator::And,
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        results.extend(
+            documents
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|document| (document.row_id, document.score.0.to_bits())),
+        );
+    }
+    results.sort_unstable();
+    results
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_sync_df_requires_all_segments_and_preserves_scorer_bits() {
+    let first_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let first_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        first_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_pair_partition(
+        &first_store,
+        0,
+        &[("alpha", "beta", 100), ("alpha", "gamma", 101)],
+    )
+    .await;
+    write_test_metadata(&first_store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let first_cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let first = InvertedIndex::load(first_store, None, first_cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let second_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let second_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        second_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_pair_partition(&second_store, 0, &[("alpha", "beta", 200)]).await;
+    write_test_metadata(&second_store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let second_cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let second = InvertedIndex::load(second_store, None, second_cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let indices = vec![first.clone(), second.clone()];
+    let terms = vec!["alpha".to_string(), "beta".to_string()];
+    assert!(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats_with_enabled(
+            &indices, &terms, false
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .is_none(),
+        "the kill switch must return before any readiness-dependent work"
+    );
+    assert!(first.corpus_stats.get().is_none());
+    assert!(second.corpus_stats.get().is_none());
+    assert!(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats_with_enabled(&indices, &terms, true)
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_none(),
+        "non-prewarmed segments must use the asynchronous path"
+    );
+
+    first
+        .prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats_with_enabled(&indices, &terms, true)
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_none(),
+        "one ready and one cold segment must fall back as one query"
+    );
+
+    second.aggregate_corpus_stats().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(second.corpus_stats.get().is_some());
+    assert!(!second.partitions[0].inverted_list.posting_lengths_loaded());
+    assert!(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats_with_enabled(&indices, &terms, true)
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_none(),
+        "loaded corpus stats with stale posting metadata must still fall back atomically"
+    );
+
+    second
+        .prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (fast, token_ids) =
+        crate::scalar::inverted::bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats_with_enabled(&indices, &terms, true)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+    for (index, token_ids) in indices.iter().zip(&token_ids) {
+        let expected = index
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|partition| terms.iter().map(|term| partition.tokens.get(term)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(token_ids.as_ref(), expected, "ids must be partition-major");
+    }
+    let mut async_stats = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+    for index in &indices {
+        async_stats.push(index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap());
+    }
+    let slow = crate::scalar::inverted::merge_loaded_bm25_stats(&terms, async_stats)
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(fast.total_tokens, slow.total_tokens);
+    assert_eq!(fast.num_docs, slow.num_docs);
+    assert_eq!(fast.token_docs, slow.token_docs);
+    assert_eq!(fast.total_tokens, 6);
+    assert_eq!(fast.num_docs, 3);
+    assert_eq!(
+        fast.token_docs,
+        HashMap::from([("alpha".to_string(), 3), ("beta".to_string(), 2)])
+    );
+    for term in &terms {
+        assert_eq!(
+            fast.query_weight(term).to_bits(),
+            slow.query_weight(term).to_bits(),
+            "query weight changed for {term}"
+        );
+    }
+    for (frequency, doc_tokens) in [(1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 7)] {
+        assert_eq!(
+            fast.doc_weight(frequency, doc_tokens).to_bits(),
+            slow.doc_weight(frequency, doc_tokens).to_bits()
+        );
+    }
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["alpha".to_string(), "beta".to_string()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let fast_prepared = Arc::new(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::prepare_bm25_query(
+            &indices,
+            tokens.as_ref().clone(),
+            params.as_ref(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    assert_eq!(fast_prepared.scorer().token_docs, fast.token_docs);
+    assert!(fast_prepared.term_ids().is_some());
+    let slow_prepared = Arc::new(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::prepare_bm25_query(
+            &indices,
+            tokens.as_ref().clone(),
+            params.as_ref(),
+            None,
+            Some(slow),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    assert!(
+        slow_prepared.term_ids().is_none(),
+        "an injected scorer resolves no dictionary ids"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        prepared_results(&indices, fast_prepared, params.clone()).await,
+        prepared_results(&indices, slow_prepared, params).await,
+        "the synchronous scorer must preserve final score bits"
+    );
+}
+
+async fn prepared_documents(
+    index: &InvertedIndex,
+    prepared: Arc<crate::scalar::inverted::PreparedBm25Query>,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    operator: Operator,
+) -> Vec<(u64, u32)> {
+    let mut results = index
+        .bm25_search_prepared_documents(
+            prepared,
+            Arc::new(params),
+            operator,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|document| (document.row_id, document.score.0.to_bits()))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    results.sort_unstable();
+    results
+}
+
+/// Load and fully prewarm an index. The index only holds a weak cache
+/// reference, so the caller keeps the returned cache alive.
+async fn load_prewarmed_index(
+    store: Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    partition_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    params: InvertedIndexParams,
+) -> (Arc<InvertedIndex>, LanceCache) {
+    write_test_metadata(&store, partition_ids, params).await;
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20);
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &cache).await.unwrap();
+    index
+        .prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (index, cache)
+}
+
+/// The same prepared statistics without recorded dictionary ids, so every
+/// partition looks its tokens up again.
+fn without_term_ids(
+    prepared: &crate::scalar::inverted::PreparedBm25Query,
+) -> Arc<crate::scalar::inverted::PreparedBm25Query> {
+    Arc::new(crate::scalar::inverted::PreparedBm25Query::from_parts(
+        prepared.tokens().clone(),
+        prepared.scorer().clone(),
+        true,
+    ))
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+// The repeated "alpha" maps two query positions to one unique term.
+#[case::and(&["alpha", "beta", "alpha"], Operator::And, 0, None, vec![0, 8])]
+#[case::or(&["alpha", "beta", "alpha"], Operator::Or, 0, None, vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8])]
+#[case::phrase(&["alpha", "beta"], Operator::And, 0, Some(0), vec![0])]
+// "alphx" expands to "alpha" and "alphb" at one query position.
+#[case::fuzzy_and(&["alphx", "beta"], Operator::And, 1, None, vec![0, 2, 6, 8])]
+#[case::fuzzy_or(&["alphx", "beta"], Operator::Or, 1, None, vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])]
+#[case::fuzzy_phrase(&["alphx", "beta"], Operator::And, 1, Some(0), vec![0, 2, 6])]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prepared_term_ids_search_like_dictionary_lookups(
+    #[case] query: &[&str],
+    #[case] operator: Operator,
+    #[case] edit_distance: u32,
+    #[case] phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+    #[case] expected_rows: Vec<u64>,
+) {
+    let dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    // Partition 0 holds both expansions of "alphx", so fuzzy leaves union two
+    // postings at one position; row 8 has both terms but not as a phrase.
+    // AND and phrase leaves must skip partition 1 (no "beta") and partition 2
+    // (neither expansion). Partition 3 holds only "alphb": exact leaves skip
+    // it, fuzzy leaves must not.
+    let partitions: [&[(&str, &str, u64)]; 4] = [
+        &[
+            ("alpha", "beta", 0),
+            ("alpha", "gamma", 1),
+            ("alphb", "beta", 2),
+            ("beta", "alpha", 8),
+        ],
+        &[("alpha", "gamma", 3)],
+        &[("beta", "delta", 4), ("beta", "gamma", 5)],
+        &[("alphb", "beta", 6), ("alphb", "gamma", 7)],
+    ];
+    for (partition_id, documents) in partitions.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        write_pair_partition_with_position(&store, partition_id as u64, documents, true).await;
+    }
+    let (index, _cache) = load_prewarmed_index(
+        store,
+        vec![0, 1, 2, 3],
+        InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let params = FtsSearchParams::new()
+        .with_limit(Some(10))
+        .with_fuzziness(Some(edit_distance))
+        .with_phrase_slop(phrase_slop);
+    let tokens = Tokens::new(
+        query.iter().map(|token| (*token).to_owned()).collect(),
+        DocType::Text,
+    );
+    let prepared = crate::scalar::inverted::prepare_bm25_query(
+        std::slice::from_ref(&index),
+        tokens,
+        &params,
+        None,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert!(prepared.term_ids().is_some());
+
+    let resolved =
+        prepared_documents(&index, Arc::new(prepared.clone()), params.clone(), operator).await;
+    let looked_up = prepared_documents(&index, without_term_ids(&prepared), params, operator).await;
+    assert_eq!(resolved, looked_up);
+    assert_eq!(
+        resolved
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        expected_rows
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prepared_term_ids_apply_only_to_their_segment() {
+    let prepared_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let prepared_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        prepared_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_pair_partition(&prepared_store, 0, &[("alpha", "beta", 0)]).await;
+    let (prepared_index, _prepared_cache) =
+        load_prewarmed_index(prepared_store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+
+    // "aaa" shifts every id, so reusing the prepared segment's id for "alpha"
+    // here would match the "aaa beta" document instead.
+    let other_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let other_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        other_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_pair_partition(
+        &other_store,
+        0,
+        &[("aaa", "beta", 10), ("alpha", "beta", 11)],
+    )
+    .await;
+    let other_index = load_test_index(other_store, vec![0]).await;
+
+    let prepared = crate::scalar::inverted::prepare_bm25_query(
+        std::slice::from_ref(&prepared_index),
+        Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()], DocType::Text),
+        &FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)),
+        None,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert!(prepared.term_ids().is_some());
+
+    let params = FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10));
+    let resolved = prepared_documents(
+        &other_index,
+        Arc::new(prepared.clone()),
+        params.clone(),
+        Operator::And,
+    )
+    .await;
+    let looked_up = prepared_documents(
+        &other_index,
+        without_term_ids(&prepared),
+        params,
+        Operator::And,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(resolved, looked_up);
+    assert_eq!(
+        resolved
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![11]
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_canonical_fuzzy_rewrite_is_independent_of_segment_and_partition_shape() {
+    let documents = [
+        ("alpha", "beta", 100),
+        ("alpha", "betb", 101),
+        ("alphb", "beta", 102),
+        ("alphb", "betb", 103),
+        ("alphc", "beta", 104),
+        ("alphc", "betb", 105),
+        ("alphd", "beta", 106),
+        ("alphd", "betb", 107),
+    ];
+
+    let single_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let single_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        single_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_pair_partition(&single_store, 0, &documents).await;
+    let single = vec![load_test_index(single_store, vec![0]).await];
+
+    let partitioned_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let partitioned_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        partitioned_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    for (partition_id, document) in documents.iter().enumerate() {
+        write_pair_partition(
+            &partitioned_store,
+            partition_id as u64,
+            std::slice::from_ref(document),
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+    let partitioned =
+        vec![load_test_index(partitioned_store, (0_u64..documents.len() as u64).collect()).await];
+
+    let mut segmented = Vec::with_capacity(documents.len());
+    let mut segmented_dirs = Vec::with_capacity(documents.len());
+    for document in &documents {
+        let segment_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            ObjectStore::local().into(),
+            segment_dir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        write_pair_partition(&store, 0, std::slice::from_ref(document)).await;
+        segmented.push(load_test_index(store, vec![0]).await);
+        segmented_dirs.push(segment_dir);
+    }
+
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(10))
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+            .with_max_expansions(5),
+    );
+    let query_tokens = Tokens::new(vec!["alphx".to_owned(), "betx".to_owned()], DocType::Text);
+    let expected_tokens = vec![
+        ("alpha".to_owned(), 0),
+        ("alphb".to_owned(), 0),
+        ("alphc".to_owned(), 0),
+        ("alphd".to_owned(), 0),
+        ("beta".to_owned(), 1),
+    ];
+
+    let mut layouts = vec![single, partitioned, segmented.clone()];
+    let mut reversed_segments = segmented;
+    reversed_segments.reverse();
+    layouts.push(reversed_segments);
+
+    let mut all_results = Vec::new();
+    for indices in layouts {
+        let prepared = Arc::new(
+            crate::scalar::inverted::prepare_bm25_query(
+                &indices,
+                query_tokens.clone(),
+                params.as_ref(),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(token_positions(prepared.tokens()), expected_tokens);
+        assert_eq!(prepared.scorer().total_tokens, 16);
+        assert_eq!(prepared.scorer().num_docs, 8);
+        assert_eq!(
+            prepared.scorer().token_docs,
+            HashMap::from([
+                ("alpha".to_owned(), 2),
+                ("alphb".to_owned(), 2),
+                ("alphc".to_owned(), 2),
+                ("alphd".to_owned(), 2),
+                ("beta".to_owned(), 4),
+            ])
+        );
+        all_results.push(prepared_results(&indices, prepared, params.clone()).await);
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        all_results[0]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![100, 102, 104, 106]
+    );
+    assert!(all_results.windows(2).all(|pair| pair[0] == pair[1]));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_injected_scorer_requires_prepared_vocabulary() {
+    let subset_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let subset_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        subset_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_variant_partition(&subset_store, 0, &["lance"], &[100]).await;
+    let subset = load_test_index(subset_store, vec![0]).await;
+
+    let other_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let other_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        other_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_variant_partition(&other_store, 0, &["lancd"], &[200]).await;
+    let other = load_test_index(other_store, vec![0]).await;
+
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(10))
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+            .with_max_expansions(1),
+    );
+    let query_tokens = Tokens::new(vec!["lancx".to_owned()], DocType::Text);
+    let prepared = Arc::new(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::prepare_bm25_query(
+            &[subset.clone(), other],
+            query_tokens.clone(),
+            params.as_ref(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        token_positions(prepared.tokens()),
+        vec![("lancd".to_owned(), 0)]
+    );
+
+    let error = subset
+        .bm25_search(
+            Arc::new(query_tokens),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            Some(prepared.scorer().as_ref()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        error.to_string().contains(
+            "fuzzy BM25 search cannot use an injected scorer without its prepared vocabulary"
+        ),
+        "unexpected scorer-only fuzzy error: {error}"
+    );
+
+    let (row_ids, _) = subset
+        .bm25_search_prepared(
+            prepared,
+            params,
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(row_ids.is_empty());
+
+    let exact_tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["lance".to_owned()], DocType::Text));
+    let exact_params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let exact_scorer = subset
+        .bm25_base_scorer(exact_tokens.as_ref(), exact_params.as_ref(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (row_ids, _) = subset
+        .bm25_search(
+            exact_tokens,
+            exact_params,
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            Some(&exact_scorer),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_unicode_fuzzy_prefix_uses_character_boundaries() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_variant_partition(&store, 0, &["éclair"], &[100]).await;
+    let index = load_test_index(store, vec![0]).await;
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(10))
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+            .with_prefix_length(1),
+    );
+
+    let (row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["éclait".to_owned()], DocType::Text)),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100]);
+
+    let (row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["àclait".to_owned()], DocType::Text)),
+            params,
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(row_ids.is_empty());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_expansion_uses_unicode_scalar_edit_distance() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_variant_partition(
+        &store,
+        0,
+        &["بسرعة", "café", "éclair", "êclair"],
+        &[100, 101, 102, 103],
+    )
+    .await;
+    let index = load_test_index(store, vec![0]).await;
+    let params = FtsSearchParams::new()
+        .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+        .with_max_expansions(10);
+
+    for (query, expected) in [
+        // The inserted Arabic letter is two UTF-8 bytes but one scalar value.
+        ("بسرع", vec!["بسرعة"]),
+        // An ASCII query must still match a non-ASCII scalar substitution.
+        ("cafe", vec!["café"]),
+        // Replacing one accented scalar must cost one edit, not two bytes.
+        ("èclair", vec!["éclair", "êclair"]),
+    ] {
+        let tokens = Tokens::new(vec![query.to_owned()], DocType::Text);
+        let expanded = index.expand_fuzzy_tokens(&tokens, &params).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            token_positions(&expanded)
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(token, _)| token)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected,
+            "fuzzy expansion must count Unicode scalar edits for {query:?}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_unicode_fuzzy_cap_order_is_independent_of_partition_shape() {
+    let single_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let single_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        single_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_variant_partition(
+        &single_store,
+        0,
+        &["cafe", "cafè", "café", "cafê"],
+        &[100, 101, 102, 103],
+    )
+    .await;
+    let single = load_test_index(single_store, vec![0]).await;
+
+    let split_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let split_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        split_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_variant_partition(&split_store, 0, &["cafè", "cafê"], &[101, 103]).await;
+    write_variant_partition(&split_store, 1, &["cafe", "café"], &[100, 102]).await;
+    let split = load_test_index(split_store, vec![0, 1]).await;
+
+    let params = FtsSearchParams::new()
+        .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+        .with_max_expansions(3);
+    let query = Tokens::new(vec!["café".to_owned()], DocType::Text);
+    let expected = vec![
+        ("cafe".to_owned(), 0),
+        ("cafè".to_owned(), 0),
+        ("café".to_owned(), 0),
+    ];
+
+    for index in [single, split] {
+        let expanded = index.expand_fuzzy_tokens(&query, &params).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            token_positions(&expanded),
+            expected,
+            "the Unicode fuzzy cap must select the same lexicographic prefix across layouts"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_json_fuzzy_prefix_keeps_path_and_type_exact() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_variant_partition(
+        &store,
+        0,
+        &["other,str,éclair", "payload,str,éclair"],
+        &[101, 100],
+    )
+    .await;
+    let index = load_test_index(store, vec![0]).await;
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(10))
+            .with_fuzziness(None)
+            .with_prefix_length(1),
+    );
+    let (row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+                vec!["payload,str,éclait".to_owned()],
+                DocType::Json,
+            )),
+            params,
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_expansion_cap_is_global_across_partitions() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    write_variant_partition(&store, 0, &["alpha", "alphb"], &[100, 101]).await;
+    write_variant_partition(&store, 1, &["alphc", "alphd"], &[102, 103]).await;
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0, 1], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let params = FtsSearchParams::new()
+        .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+        .with_max_expansions(3);
+    let tokens = Tokens::new(vec!["alphx".to_owned()], DocType::Text);
+
+    let expanded = index.expand_fuzzy_tokens(&tokens, &params).unwrap();
+    let expanded_terms = (0..expanded.len())
+        .map(|idx| expanded.get_token(idx).to_owned())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(
+        expanded_terms,
+        vec!["alpha".to_owned(), "alphb".to_owned(), "alphc".to_owned()],
+        "max_expansions must cap the whole query across partitions, \
+             in lexicographic order"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_candidate_merge_stays_bounded_across_partitions() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    write_variant_partition(&store, 0, &["alphd", "alphe"], &[100, 101]).await;
+    write_variant_partition(&store, 1, &["alpha", "alphf"], &[102, 103]).await;
+    write_variant_partition(&store, 2, &["alphb", "alphc"], &[104, 105]).await;
+    let index = load_test_index(store, vec![0, 1, 2]).await;
+    let params = FtsSearchParams::new().with_fuzziness(Some(1));
+    let limit = 2;
+    let mut candidates = BTreeSet::new();
+    let automaton = FuzzyAutomaton::new("alphx", &DocType::Text, &params).unwrap();
+
+    index
+        .collect_fuzzy_candidates_with_automaton(&automaton, limit, &mut candidates)
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert!(candidates.len() <= limit);
+    assert_eq!(
+        candidates,
+        BTreeSet::from(["alpha".to_owned(), "alphb".to_owned()])
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_expansion_merges_same_position_alternatives_canonically() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    write_variant_partition(&store, 0, &["alpha", "betaa"], &[100, 101]).await;
+    let index = load_test_index(store, vec![0]).await;
+    let params = FtsSearchParams::new()
+        .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+        .with_max_expansions(1);
+
+    let forward = Tokens::with_positions(
+        vec!["alphx".to_owned(), "betax".to_owned()],
+        vec![0, 0],
+        DocType::Text,
+    );
+    let reversed = Tokens::with_positions(
+        vec!["betax".to_owned(), "alphx".to_owned()],
+        vec![0, 0],
+        DocType::Text,
+    );
+
+    let forward = index.expand_fuzzy_tokens(&forward, &params).unwrap();
+    let reversed = index.expand_fuzzy_tokens(&reversed, &params).unwrap();
+    let expected = vec![("alpha".to_owned(), 0)];
+    assert_eq!(token_positions(&forward), expected);
+    assert_eq!(token_positions(&reversed), expected);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_results_independent_of_partition_shape() {
+    // The same four single-variant docs, laid out as one partition and
+    // as two. With a binding max_expansions the two shapes must still
+    // match the same documents with the same scores.
+    let single_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let single_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        single_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_variant_partition(
+        &single_store,
+        0,
+        &["alpha", "alphb", "alphc", "alphd"],
+        &[100, 101, 102, 103],
+    )
+    .await;
+    write_test_metadata(&single_store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+
+    let split_dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let split_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        split_dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    write_variant_partition(&split_store, 0, &["alpha", "alphb"], &[100, 101]).await;
+    write_variant_partition(&split_store, 1, &["alphc", "alphd"], &[102, 103]).await;
+    write_test_metadata(&split_store, vec![0, 1], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(10))
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+            .with_max_expansions(3),
+    );
+
+    let mut results = Vec::new();
+    for store in [single_store, split_store] {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, &cache).await.unwrap();
+        let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alphx".to_owned()], DocType::Text));
+        let (row_ids, scores) = index
+            .bm25_search(
+                tokens,
+                params.clone(),
+                Operator::Or,
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut scored = row_ids.into_iter().zip(scores).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        scored.sort_unstable_by_key(|(row_id, _)| *row_id);
+        results.push(scored);
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        results[0]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![100, 101, 102],
+        "a binding cap keeps the three lexicographically smallest variants"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        results[0], results[1],
+        "fuzzy results must not depend on the partition shape"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_and_scores_grouped_expansions_by_matched_token() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alphi");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("beta");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(2, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(3, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(4, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(5, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[2].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[2].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.docs.append(100, 2);
+    builder.docs.append(101, 2);
+    builder.docs.append(102, 1);
+    builder.docs.append(103, 1);
+    builder.docs.append(104, 1);
+    builder.docs.append(105, 1);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["alphx".to_owned(), "betx".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(1))
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1)),
+    );
+    let (row_ids, _scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::And,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_ids,
+        vec![101],
+        "the rare matched expansion should outrank the common expansion"
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::and(Operator::And)]
+#[case::or(Operator::Or)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_grouped_scoring_keeps_exact_winner_outside_proxy_window(#[case] operator: Operator) {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("common");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("rare");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    for doc_id in 0..3 {
+        builder.posting_lists[0].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.docs.append(100 + doc_id as u64, 1);
+    }
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(3, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.docs.append(103, 2);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::with_positions(
+        vec!["common".to_owned(), "rare".to_owned()],
+        vec![0, 0],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1)));
+    let (row_ids, _scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            operator,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_ids,
+        vec![103],
+        "the rare term's exact IDF must win even when proxy scoring ranks it outside the old candidate cushion"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fuzzy_and_grouped_rescore_keeps_wand_limit_bounded() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let num_docs = BLOCK_SIZE * 2 + 4;
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alphi");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("beta");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    for doc_id in 0..num_docs {
+        builder.posting_lists[2].add(doc_id as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        if doc_id >= 2 {
+            builder.posting_lists[0].add(doc_id as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        }
+        let num_tokens = if doc_id < 2 { 2 } else { 100 };
+        builder.docs.append(100 + doc_id as u64, num_tokens);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["alphx".to_owned(), "betx".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(1))
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1)),
+    );
+    let metrics = Arc::new(LocalMetricsCollector::default());
+    let (row_ids, _scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::And,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            metrics.clone(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_ids,
+        vec![101],
+        "final rescoring should still rank by the matched expansion"
+    );
+    let comparisons = metrics.comparisons.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+    assert!(
+        comparisons < num_docs,
+        "grouped fuzzy AND should not clear the WAND top-k bound and scan every candidate; comparisons={comparisons}, num_docs={num_docs}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_phrase_query_reads_legacy_per_doc_positions() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+        0,
+        true,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+    );
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("hello");
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("world");
+    builder
+        .posting_lists
+        .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+            true,
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+        ));
+    builder
+        .posting_lists
+        .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+            true,
+            PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+        ));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![0].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![1].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(1, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![0].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![2].into()));
+    builder.docs.append(100, 2);
+    builder.docs.append(101, 2);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0_u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true)).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["hello".to_owned(), "world".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(10))
+            .with_phrase_slop(Some(0)),
+    );
+    let prefilter = Arc::new(NoFilter);
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+
+    let (row_ids, _scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(tokens, params, Operator::And, prefilter, metrics, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100]);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/scoring.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/scoring.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..904e211a0f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/scoring.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1367 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::super::partition::validate_no_impact_scorer_upper_bound;
+use super::*;
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_bm25_search_uses_global_idf() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    // Partition 0: 3 docs, only one contains "alpha".
+    let mut builder0 = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder0.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder0.tokens.get_or_add("beta");
+    builder0.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder0.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder0.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder0.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder0.posting_lists[1].add(2, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder0.docs.append(100, 1);
+    builder0.docs.append(101, 1);
+    builder0.docs.append(102, 1);
+    builder0.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Partition 1: 1 doc, contains "alpha".
+    let mut builder1 = InnerBuilder::new(1, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder1.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder1.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder1.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder1.docs.append(200, 1);
+    builder1.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let metadata = std::collections::HashMap::from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64, 1u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_string()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let prefilter = Arc::new(NoFilter);
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+
+    let (row_ids, scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(tokens, params, Operator::Or, prefilter, metrics, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), 2);
+    assert!(row_ids.contains(&100));
+    assert!(row_ids.contains(&200));
+    assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), scores.len());
+
+    let expected_idf = idf(2, 4);
+    for score in scores {
+        assert!(
+            (score - expected_idf).abs() < 1e-6,
+            "score: {}, expected: {}",
+            score,
+            expected_idf
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+async fn write_test_partition_with_optional_impacts(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    partition_id: u64,
+    builder: InnerBuilder,
+    token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+    with_impacts: bool,
+) {
+    write_test_partition_with_optional_impacts_and_positions(
+        store,
+        partition_id,
+        builder,
+        token_set_format,
+        with_impacts,
+        false,
+    )
+    .await;
+}
+
+async fn write_test_partition_with_optional_impacts_and_positions(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    partition_id: u64,
+    mut builder: InnerBuilder,
+    token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
+    with_impacts: bool,
+    with_positions: bool,
+) {
+    let format_version = InvertedListFormatVersion::V1;
+    let block_size = LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE;
+    let docs = std::mem::take(&mut builder.docs);
+    let schema = inverted_list_schema_for_version_with_block_size_and_impacts(
+        with_positions,
+        format_version,
+        block_size,
+        with_impacts,
+    );
+
+    let mut posting_writer = store
+        .new_index_file(&posting_file_path(partition_id), schema.clone())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    for posting_list in std::mem::take(&mut builder.posting_lists) {
+        let batch = posting_list
+            .to_batch_with_docs(&docs, schema.clone())
+            .unwrap();
+        posting_writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+    }
+    posting_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    let token_batch = std::mem::take(&mut builder.tokens)
+        .to_batch(token_set_format)
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut token_writer = store
+        .new_index_file(&token_file_path(partition_id), token_batch.schema())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    token_writer.write_record_batch(token_batch).await.unwrap();
+    token_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    let doc_batch = docs.to_batch().unwrap();
+    let mut doc_writer = store
+        .new_index_file(&doc_file_path(partition_id), doc_batch.schema())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    doc_writer.write_record_batch(doc_batch).await.unwrap();
+    doc_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+async fn load_single_partition_test_index(
+    builder: InnerBuilder,
+    with_impacts: bool,
+) -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceCache>, Arc<InvertedIndex>) {
+    load_test_index(vec![(0, builder, with_impacts)]).await
+}
+
+async fn load_test_index(
+    partitions: Vec<(u64, InnerBuilder, bool)>,
+) -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceCache>, Arc<InvertedIndex>) {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let mut partition_ids = Vec::with_capacity(partitions.len());
+    for (partition_id, builder, with_impacts) in partitions {
+        write_test_partition_with_optional_impacts(
+            &store,
+            partition_id,
+            builder,
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            with_impacts,
+        )
+        .await;
+        partition_ids.push(partition_id);
+    }
+    write_test_metadata(&store, partition_ids, InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (tmpdir, cache, index)
+}
+
+async fn load_global_scoring_test_index(
+    first_partition_has_impacts: bool,
+    second_partition_has_impacts: bool,
+) -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceCache>, Arc<InvertedIndex>) {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let partition_specs = [
+        (0, 100, 5_000, 101..111, 5_000, first_partition_has_impacts),
+        (1, 200, 1_000, 201..301, 1, second_partition_has_impacts),
+    ];
+    for (
+        partition_id,
+        matching_row_id,
+        matching_doc_length,
+        other_row_ids,
+        other_doc_length,
+        with_impacts,
+    ) in partition_specs
+    {
+        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+            partition_id,
+            false,
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+        );
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+        builder
+            .posting_lists
+            .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+                false,
+                InvertedListFormatVersion::V1.posting_tail_codec(),
+            ));
+        builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.docs.append(matching_row_id, matching_doc_length);
+        for row_id in other_row_ids {
+            builder.docs.append(row_id, other_doc_length);
+        }
+        write_test_partition_with_optional_impacts(
+            &store,
+            partition_id,
+            builder,
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            with_impacts,
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0, 1], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(
+        QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(4096),
+    )));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (tmpdir, cache, index)
+}
+
+fn scored_document_bits(documents: Vec<ScoredDoc>) -> Vec<(u64, u32)> {
+    let mut results = documents
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|document| (document.row_id, document.score.0.to_bits()))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    results.sort_unstable();
+    results
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prepared_scorer_reuse_preserves_deferred_and_resident_results() {
+    let (_tmpdir, _cache, index) = load_global_scoring_test_index(true, true).await;
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_owned()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(2)));
+    let prepared = Arc::new(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::prepare_bm25_query(
+            std::slice::from_ref(&index),
+            tokens.as_ref().clone(),
+            params.as_ref(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(
+        prepared.reusable_scorer().unwrap(),
+        prepared.scorer()
+    ));
+    let injected_scorer = Arc::new(prepared.scorer().as_ref().clone());
+    let injected_prepared = Arc::new(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::prepare_bm25_query(
+            std::slice::from_ref(&index),
+            tokens.as_ref().clone(),
+            params.as_ref(),
+            None,
+            Some(injected_scorer.clone()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(injected_prepared.scorer(), &injected_scorer));
+    assert!(injected_prepared.reusable_scorer().is_none());
+    assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&injected_scorer), 2);
+
+    let mut expected = None;
+    for is_resident in [false, true] {
+        if is_resident {
+            index
+                .prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::default())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(index.has_resident_document_projections(), is_resident);
+        for query in [&prepared, &injected_prepared] {
+            let actual = scored_document_bits(
+                index
+                    .bm25_search_prepared_documents(
+                        query.clone(),
+                        params.clone(),
+                        Operator::Or,
+                        Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                        Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            if let Some(expected) = &expected {
+                assert_eq!(&actual, expected, "resident={is_resident}");
+            } else {
+                expected = Some(actual);
+            }
+            assert_eq!(Arc::strong_count(&injected_scorer), 2);
+            assert_eq!(index.has_resident_document_projections(), is_resident);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_wand_exactness_certificate_support_requires_all_impact_postings() {
+    let (_tmpdir, _cache, mixed_impact_index) = load_global_scoring_test_index(true, false).await;
+    assert!(!mixed_impact_index.is_legacy());
+    assert!(!mixed_impact_index.supports_wand_exactness_certificate());
+
+    let (_tmpdir, _cache, all_impact_index) = load_global_scoring_test_index(true, true).await;
+    assert!(!all_impact_index.is_legacy());
+    assert!(all_impact_index.supports_wand_exactness_certificate());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_no_impact_segments_preserve_global_bm25_top_k() {
+    // Segment-local BM25 strongly favors beta in the first segment, while
+    // corpus-wide IDF makes every alpha row the true global winner.
+    let mut alpha_partition = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+        0,
+        false,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+    );
+    alpha_partition.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    alpha_partition
+        .posting_lists
+        .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+            false,
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1.posting_tail_codec(),
+        ));
+    for doc_id in 0_u32..98 {
+        alpha_partition.posting_lists[0].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        alpha_partition.docs.append(u64::from(doc_id), 1);
+    }
+
+    let mut beta_partition = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+        1,
+        false,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+    );
+    beta_partition.tokens.get_or_add("beta");
+    beta_partition
+        .posting_lists
+        .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+            false,
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1.posting_tail_codec(),
+        ));
+    beta_partition.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(10));
+    beta_partition.docs.append(98, 10);
+    beta_partition.posting_lists[0].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(5));
+    beta_partition.docs.append(99, 10);
+
+    let mut second_segment = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+        0,
+        false,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+    );
+    second_segment.tokens.get_or_add("beta");
+    second_segment
+        .posting_lists
+        .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+            false,
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1.posting_tail_codec(),
+        ));
+    for doc_id in 0_u32..10_000 {
+        second_segment.posting_lists[0].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        second_segment.docs.append(1_001 + u64::from(doc_id), 1);
+    }
+
+    // One segment itself mixes a no-impact partition with an impact-backed
+    // partition. The second segment is no-impact, matching a rolling upgrade.
+    let (_first_tmpdir, _first_cache, first_index) =
+        load_test_index(vec![(0, alpha_partition, false), (1, beta_partition, true)]).await;
+    let (_second_tmpdir, _second_cache, second_index) =
+        load_single_partition_test_index(second_segment, false).await;
+    for index in [&first_index, &second_index] {
+        assert!(!index.is_legacy());
+        assert!(!index.supports_wand_exactness_certificate());
+    }
+
+    let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(
+        10_118,
+        10_100,
+        HashMap::from([("alpha".to_owned(), 98), ("beta".to_owned(), 10_002)]),
+    );
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["alpha".to_owned(), "beta".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(2)));
+    let mut candidates = Vec::new();
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+    // Reverse segment visitation so neither the result nor its row-id tie break
+    // can accidentally depend on the physical search order.
+    for index in [second_index, first_index] {
+        let (row_ids, scores) = index
+            .bm25_search(
+                tokens.clone(),
+                params.clone(),
+                Operator::Or,
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                metrics.clone(),
+                Some(&scorer),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        candidates.extend(row_ids.into_iter().zip(scores));
+    }
+    candidates.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| {
+        right
+            .1
+            .total_cmp(&left.1)
+            .then_with(|| left.0.cmp(&right.0))
+    });
+    candidates.truncate(2);
+
+    // Before the no-impact fallback used the corpus scorer, the bounded
+    // partition-local candidate set was [98, 1001]. It omitted the alpha tie
+    // group even though row 0 is the true global winner.
+    assert_eq!(
+        candidates
+            .iter()
+            .map(|candidate| candidate.0)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![0, 1]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(candidates[0].1, candidates[1].1);
+
+    let exact_winner_score = scorer.query_weight("alpha") * scorer.doc_weight(1, 1);
+    assert!((exact_winner_score - 4.633_705).abs() < 1e-5);
+    assert!((exact_winner_score - candidates[0].1).abs() < 1e-5);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_global_query_weight_validation_rejects_invalid_values() {
+    let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, HashMap::from([("alpha".to_owned(), 10)]));
+    let error = validate_no_impact_scorer_upper_bound("alpha", &scorer).unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    let message = error.to_string();
+    assert!(message.contains("token \"alpha\""), "{message}");
+    assert!(message.contains("got -"), "{message}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_no_impact_search_rejects_injected_negative_query_weight() {
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+        0,
+        false,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+    );
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder
+        .posting_lists
+        .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+            false,
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1.posting_tail_codec(),
+        ));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.docs.append(0, 1);
+    let (_tmpdir, _cache, index) = load_single_partition_test_index(builder, false).await;
+    let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, HashMap::from([("alpha".to_owned(), 10)]));
+    let error = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_owned()], DocType::Text)),
+            Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1))),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            Some(&scorer),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        error.to_string().contains(
+            "global BM25 query weight for token \"alpha\" must be finite and non-negative"
+        )
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_chunked_modern_search_preserves_cold_and_prewarmed_results() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let matching_partitions = 17_u64;
+    for partition_id in 0..matching_partitions {
+        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(partition_id, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add("pipeline");
+        builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+        builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.docs.append(partition_id * 1_000 + 7, 1);
+        builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+    }
+    let unmatched_partition = matching_partitions;
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(unmatched_partition, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("unrelated");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.docs.append(999_999, 1);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(
+        &store,
+        (0..=unmatched_partition).collect(),
+        InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(64 * 1024 * 1024));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["pipeline".to_owned()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(matching_partitions as usize)));
+
+    let search = || {
+        index.bm25_search(
+            tokens.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+    };
+    let (mut cold_row_ids, cold_scores) = search().await.unwrap();
+    cold_row_ids.sort_unstable();
+    let expected = (0..matching_partitions)
+        .map(|partition_id| partition_id * 1_000 + 7)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(cold_row_ids, expected);
+    assert_eq!(cold_scores.len(), expected.len());
+
+    index
+        .prewarm_with_options(&FtsPrewarmOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (mut prewarmed_row_ids, prewarmed_scores) = search().await.unwrap();
+    prewarmed_row_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(prewarmed_row_ids, expected);
+    assert_eq!(prewarmed_scores, cold_scores);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_prewarmed_modern_search_uses_resident_address_projection() {
+    let (_tmpdir, cache, index) = load_global_scoring_test_index(true, true).await;
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_owned()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(2)));
+
+    assert!(!index.has_resident_document_projections());
+    let deferred = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(!index.has_resident_document_projections());
+
+    index.partitions[0]
+        .docs
+        .modern()
+        .unwrap()
+        .prewarm()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(index.partitions[0].docs.query_ready());
+    assert!(!index.has_resident_document_projections());
+    let partially_resident = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(partially_resident, deferred);
+
+    let prewarm_options = FtsPrewarmOptions::default();
+    futures::future::join_all((0..8).map(|_| index.prewarm_with_options(&prewarm_options)))
+        .await
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(index.document_projections_resident.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+    assert!(index.has_resident_document_projections());
+    assert!(index.corpus_stats.initialized());
+    assert!(index.partitions.iter().all(|partition| {
+        partition.docs.query_ready() && partition.inverted_list.modern_posting_validation_ready()
+    }));
+    assert!(index.prewarm_state.lock().await.satisfies(false));
+
+    let resident = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(resident, deferred);
+    assert_eq!(resident.0.len(), 2);
+    assert!(resident.0.contains(&100));
+    assert!(resident.0.contains(&200));
+
+    cache.clear().await;
+    assert!(index.document_projections_resident.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+    assert_eq!(cache.size().await, 0);
+    let resident_address_owners = index
+        .partitions
+        .iter()
+        .map(|partition| {
+            partition
+                .docs
+                .modern()
+                .unwrap()
+                .address_buffer_handle()
+                .strong_count()
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(resident_address_owners, vec![0, 0]);
+    assert!(
+        index
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .all(|partition| { !partition.docs.modern().unwrap().projection_resident() })
+    );
+
+    let after_eviction = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(after_eviction, deferred);
+    assert!(!index.document_projections_resident.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+
+    cache.clear().await;
+    index.prewarm_with_options(&prewarm_options).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(index.document_projections_resident_now());
+    assert!(index.document_projections_resident.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+
+    let re_prewarms_after_eviction = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(re_prewarms_after_eviction, deferred);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_resident_modern_search_loads_partition_stats_without_global_stats() {
+    let (_tmpdir, _cache, index) = load_global_scoring_test_index(true, false).await;
+    assert!(index.corpus_stats.get().is_none());
+    assert!(
+        index
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .all(|partition| partition.docs.cached_stats().is_none())
+    );
+
+    for partition in &index.partitions {
+        partition
+            .docs
+            .modern()
+            .unwrap()
+            .address_projection()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+    assert!(index.has_resident_document_projections());
+
+    let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(56_100, 112, HashMap::from([("alpha".to_owned(), 2)]));
+    let result = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_owned()], DocType::Text)),
+            Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(2))),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            Some(&scorer),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(result.0.len(), 2);
+    assert!(result.0.contains(&100));
+    assert!(result.0.contains(&200));
+    assert!(index.corpus_stats.get().is_none());
+    assert!(
+        index
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .all(|partition| partition.docs.cached_stats().is_some())
+    );
+}
+
+async fn search_test_impact_partition(
+    partition: &InvertedPartition,
+    tokens: &Tokens,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    shared_threshold: Arc<AtomicU32>,
+) -> Vec<DocCandidate<DocId>> {
+    let LoadedPostings {
+        postings,
+        grouped_expansions,
+        impact_safe,
+        exact_scoring_required,
+        no_impact_fallback,
+    } = partition
+        .load_posting_lists(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::Or,
+            scorer.as_ref(),
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(impact_safe);
+    assert!(!exact_scoring_required);
+    assert!(!no_impact_fallback);
+    assert!(grouped_expansions.is_empty());
+
+    let documents = partition.docs.modern().unwrap();
+    let lengths = documents.lengths().await.unwrap();
+    let visibility = documents.visibility(NoFilter.mask(), false).await.unwrap();
+    partition
+        .bm25_search_modern(
+            lengths.as_ref(),
+            &visibility,
+            params,
+            Operator::Or,
+            postings,
+            Some(scorer),
+            SharedNormAddends::default(),
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            shared_threshold,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn load_no_impact_bulk_conjunction_test_index(
+    with_positions: bool,
+) -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceCache>, Arc<InvertedIndex>) {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut floor_partition = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+        0,
+        with_positions,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+    );
+    let mut winner_partition = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version(
+        1,
+        with_positions,
+        TokenSetFormat::default(),
+        InvertedListFormatVersion::V1,
+    );
+    for builder in [&mut floor_partition, &mut winner_partition] {
+        for token in ["lead", "follow"] {
+            builder.tokens.get_or_add(token);
+            builder
+                .posting_lists
+                .push(PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec(
+                    with_positions,
+                    InvertedListFormatVersion::V1.posting_tail_codec(),
+                ));
+        }
+    }
+
+    if with_positions {
+        floor_partition.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![0].into()));
+        floor_partition.posting_lists[1].add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![1].into()));
+    } else {
+        floor_partition.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        floor_partition.posting_lists[1].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    }
+    floor_partition.docs.append(100, 2);
+    for row_id in 101..10_100 {
+        floor_partition.docs.append(row_id, 100);
+    }
+
+    let lead_positions = (0..63).map(|position| position * 2).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let follow_positions = (0..63).map(|position| position * 2 + 1).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    for doc_id in 0_u32..100 {
+        if with_positions {
+            winner_partition.posting_lists[0].add(
+                doc_id,
+                PositionRecorder::Position(lead_positions.clone().into()),
+            );
+            winner_partition.posting_lists[1].add(
+                doc_id,
+                PositionRecorder::Position(follow_positions.clone().into()),
+            );
+        } else {
+            winner_partition.posting_lists[0].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(63));
+            winner_partition.posting_lists[1].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(63));
+        }
+        winner_partition
+            .docs
+            .append(20_000 + u64::from(doc_id), 126);
+    }
+
+    for (partition_id, builder) in [(0, floor_partition), (1, winner_partition)] {
+        write_test_partition_with_optional_impacts_and_positions(
+            &store,
+            partition_id,
+            builder,
+            TokenSetFormat::default(),
+            false,
+            with_positions,
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(with_positions);
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0, 1], params).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (tmpdir, cache, index)
+}
+
+async fn assert_no_impact_bulk_conjunction_preserves_winner(with_phrase: bool) {
+    let (_tmpdir, _cache, index) = load_no_impact_bulk_conjunction_test_index(with_phrase).await;
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["lead".to_owned(), "follow".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(1))
+            .with_phrase_slop(with_phrase.then_some(0)),
+    );
+    let scorer = Arc::new(
+        index
+            .bm25_base_scorer(tokens.as_ref(), params.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+    );
+    let shared_threshold = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(f32::NEG_INFINITY.to_bits()));
+    let shared_norm_addends = SharedNormAddends::default();
+    let mut results = Vec::new();
+    let mut published_floors = Vec::new();
+    for partition_id in [0, 1] {
+        let partition = index
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .find(|partition| partition.id() == partition_id)
+            .unwrap();
+        let LoadedPostings {
+            postings,
+            grouped_expansions,
+            impact_safe,
+            exact_scoring_required,
+            no_impact_fallback,
+        } = partition
+            .load_posting_lists(
+                tokens.as_ref(),
+                params.as_ref(),
+                Operator::And,
+                scorer.as_ref(),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(!impact_safe);
+        assert!(exact_scoring_required);
+        assert!(no_impact_fallback);
+        assert!(grouped_expansions.is_empty());
+
+        let documents = partition.docs.modern().unwrap();
+        let lengths = documents.lengths().await.unwrap();
+        let visibility = documents.visibility(NoFilter.mask(), false).await.unwrap();
+        results.push(
+            partition
+                .bm25_search_modern(
+                    lengths.as_ref(),
+                    &visibility,
+                    params.as_ref(),
+                    Operator::And,
+                    postings,
+                    Some(scorer.clone()),
+                    shared_norm_addends.clone(),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                    shared_threshold.clone(),
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        published_floors.push(f32::from_bits(shared_threshold.load(Ordering::Relaxed)));
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(results[0].len(), 1);
+    assert!(published_floors[0] > 0.0);
+    let winner_score = 2.0 * scorer.query_weight("lead") * scorer.doc_weight(63, 126);
+    assert!(winner_score > published_floors[0]);
+    assert_eq!(results[1].len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(results[1][0].document, DocId::new(0));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_no_impact_bulk_and_uses_global_frequency_clamp_bound() {
+    assert_no_impact_bulk_conjunction_preserves_winner(false).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_no_impact_bulk_phrase_uses_global_frequency_clamp_bound() {
+    assert_no_impact_bulk_conjunction_preserves_winner(true).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_impact_partitions_share_global_threshold_without_pruning_winner() {
+    // Partition 0 wins under its local corpus statistics but loses under
+    // the global statistics. If its local score escapes into the shared
+    // floor, partition 1 will incorrectly prune the real global winner.
+    let (_tmpdir, _cache, index) = load_global_scoring_test_index(true, true).await;
+    let first_partition = index
+        .partitions
+        .iter()
+        .find(|partition| partition.id() == 0)
+        .unwrap();
+    let second_partition = index
+        .partitions
+        .iter()
+        .find(|partition| partition.id() == 1)
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_owned()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1)));
+    let scorer = Arc::new(
+        index
+            .bm25_base_scorer(tokens.as_ref(), params.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+    );
+    first_partition
+        .inverted_list
+        .ensure_metadata_loaded()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    second_partition
+        .inverted_list
+        .ensure_metadata_loaded()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let first_local_scorer = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::once(first_partition.as_ref()));
+    let second_local_scorer = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::once(second_partition.as_ref()));
+    let first_local_score =
+        first_local_scorer.query_weight("alpha") * first_local_scorer.doc_weight(1, 5_000);
+    let second_local_score =
+        second_local_scorer.query_weight("alpha") * second_local_scorer.doc_weight(1, 1_000);
+    assert!(first_local_score > second_local_score);
+    let shared_threshold = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(f32::NEG_INFINITY.to_bits()));
+
+    // Search sequentially so partition 0 deterministically publishes its
+    // score before partition 1 evaluates its impact upper bound.
+    let first_candidates = search_test_impact_partition(
+        first_partition,
+        tokens.as_ref(),
+        params.as_ref(),
+        scorer.clone(),
+        shared_threshold.clone(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(first_candidates.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(first_candidates[0].document, DocId::new(0));
+    let first_score =
+        scorer.query_weight("alpha") * scorer.doc_weight(1, first_candidates[0].doc_length);
+    let published_threshold = f32::from_bits(shared_threshold.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
+    assert!(
+        (published_threshold - first_score).abs() < 1e-6,
+        "published threshold: {published_threshold}, expected global score: {first_score}"
+    );
+
+    let second_candidates = search_test_impact_partition(
+        second_partition,
+        tokens.as_ref(),
+        params.as_ref(),
+        scorer.clone(),
+        shared_threshold.clone(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(second_candidates.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(second_candidates[0].document, DocId::new(0));
+    let second_score =
+        scorer.query_weight("alpha") * scorer.doc_weight(1, second_candidates[0].doc_length);
+    assert!(
+        second_score > first_score,
+        "second score: {second_score}, first score: {first_score}"
+    );
+    assert!((f32::from_bits(shared_threshold.load(Ordering::Relaxed)) - second_score).abs() < 1e-6);
+
+    let (row_ids, scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![200]);
+    assert_eq!(scores.len(), 1);
+    assert!((scores[0] - second_score).abs() < 1e-6);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_mixed_impact_and_legacy_partitions_use_global_final_scores() {
+    let (_tmpdir, _cache, index) = load_global_scoring_test_index(true, false).await;
+
+    let impact_partition = index
+        .partitions
+        .iter()
+        .find(|partition| partition.id() == 0)
+        .unwrap();
+    let legacy_partition = index
+        .partitions
+        .iter()
+        .find(|partition| partition.id() == 1)
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let impact_posting = impact_partition
+        .inverted_list
+        .posting_list(0, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(impact_posting.has_impacts());
+
+    let legacy_posting = legacy_partition
+        .inverted_list
+        .posting_list(0, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(!legacy_posting.has_impacts());
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_string()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1)));
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+    let (row_ids, scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            metrics.clone(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![200]);
+    assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), scores.len());
+
+    let scorer = index
+        .bm25_base_scorer(tokens.as_ref(), params.as_ref(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let expected_score = scorer.query_weight("alpha") * scorer.doc_weight(1, 1_000);
+    assert!(
+        (scores[0] - expected_score).abs() < 1e-6,
+        "score: {}, expected: {}",
+        scores[0],
+        expected_score
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_two_no_impact_partitions_share_global_scorer_and_threshold() {
+    // Both no-impact partitions must score and prune in the same corpus-global
+    // space before publishing a shared threshold.
+    let (_tmpdir, _cache, index) = load_global_scoring_test_index(false, false).await;
+    for partition in index.partitions.iter() {
+        let posting = partition
+            .inverted_list
+            .posting_list(0, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(!posting.has_impacts());
+    }
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["alpha".to_string()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1)));
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+    let (row_ids, scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            metrics.clone(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![200]);
+    assert_eq!(scores.len(), 1);
+    let scorer = index
+        .bm25_base_scorer(tokens.as_ref(), params.as_ref(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let expected_score = scorer.query_weight("alpha") * scorer.doc_weight(1, 1_000);
+    assert!(
+        (scores[0] - expected_score).abs() < 1e-6,
+        "score: {}, expected global score: {}",
+        scores[0],
+        expected_score
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_and_query_returns_empty_when_exact_term_missing() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    builder.tokens.get_or_add("alpha");
+    builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.docs.append(100, 1);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(4096));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["alpha".to_owned(), "missing".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let prefilter = Arc::new(NoFilter);
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+
+    let (and_row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Operator::And,
+            prefilter.clone(),
+            metrics.clone(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        and_row_ids.is_empty(),
+        "AND must not match when any required term is missing"
+    );
+
+    let (or_row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(tokens, params, Operator::Or, prefilter, metrics, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        or_row_ids,
+        vec![100],
+        "OR should still match the present term"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_and_query_accepts_same_position_alternatives() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for token in ["getusername", "get", "user", "name"] {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(token);
+        builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(false));
+    }
+    // Doc 0 only has the split words. Doc 1 has both the complete
+    // identifier and split words. A grouped AND query should accept either
+    // `getusername` or `get` at position 0.
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[2].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[3].add(0, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.docs.append(100, 3);
+
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[2].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.posting_lists[3].add(1, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+    builder.docs.append(101, 4);
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(&store, vec![0], InvertedIndexParams::code()).await;
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::with_positions(
+        vec![
+            "getusername".to_string(),
+            "get".to_string(),
+            "user".to_string(),
+            "name".to_string(),
+        ],
+        vec![0, 0, 1, 2],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let (mut row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::And,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    row_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100, 101]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_phrase_query_accepts_same_position_alternatives() {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, true, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for token in ["getusername", "get", "user", "name"] {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(token);
+        builder.posting_lists.push(PostingListBuilder::new(true));
+    }
+    // Doc 0 only has split words. Doc 1 has both the complete identifier
+    // and split words at the same position. Doc 2 has the terms but not as
+    // an exact phrase.
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![0].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[2].add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![1].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[3].add(0, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![2].into()));
+    builder.docs.append(100, 3);
+
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(1, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![0].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[1].add(1, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![0].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[2].add(1, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![1].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[3].add(1, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![2].into()));
+    builder.docs.append(101, 3);
+
+    builder.posting_lists[0].add(2, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![0].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[2].add(2, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![2].into()));
+    builder.posting_lists[3].add(2, PositionRecorder::Position(vec![3].into()));
+    builder.docs.append(102, 3);
+
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    write_test_metadata(
+        &store,
+        vec![0],
+        InvertedIndexParams::code().with_position(true),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::with_positions(
+        vec![
+            "getusername".to_string(),
+            "get".to_string(),
+            "user".to_string(),
+            "name".to_string(),
+        ],
+        vec![0, 0, 1, 2],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let params = Arc::new(
+        FtsSearchParams::new()
+            .with_limit(Some(10))
+            .with_phrase_slop(Some(0)),
+    );
+    let (mut row_ids, _) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::And,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    row_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100, 101]);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/stats.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/stats.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..37cf16c3f15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/tests/stats.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1216 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::*;
+
+/// IO accounting for the IO-counting stats test below: tracks bytes
+/// pulled from the posting file so we can assert that the stats path is
+/// O(1) in num_unique_tokens.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct PostingMetadataCounter {
+    rows_read: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+    metadata_rows_read: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+    posting_rows_read: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+    impact_rows_read: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+    read_range_calls: std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl PostingMetadataCounter {
+    fn rows_read(&self) -> usize {
+        self.rows_read.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+    fn metadata_rows_read(&self) -> usize {
+        self.metadata_rows_read
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+    fn posting_rows_read(&self) -> usize {
+        self.posting_rows_read
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+    fn impact_rows_read(&self) -> usize {
+        self.impact_rows_read
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+    fn read_range_calls(&self) -> usize {
+        self.read_range_calls
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+}
+
+struct CountingPostingReader {
+    inner: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+    counter: Arc<PostingMetadataCounter>,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl IndexReader for CountingPostingReader {
+    async fn read_record_batch(&self, n: u64, batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        self.inner.read_record_batch(n, batch_size).await
+    }
+    async fn read_global_buffer(&self, index: u32) -> Result<bytes::Bytes> {
+        self.inner.read_global_buffer(index).await
+    }
+    async fn read_range(
+        &self,
+        range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+        projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let n = range.end - range.start;
+        self.counter
+            .read_range_calls
+            .fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.counter
+            .rows_read
+            .fetch_add(n, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+        let touches_metadata = projection
+            .map(|cols| cols.contains(&MAX_SCORE_COL) || cols.contains(&LENGTH_COL))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+        if touches_metadata {
+            self.counter
+                .metadata_rows_read
+                .fetch_add(n, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        let touches_posting = projection
+            .map(|columns| columns.contains(&POSTING_COL))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+        if touches_posting {
+            self.counter
+                .posting_rows_read
+                .fetch_add(n, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        let touches_impacts = projection
+            .map(|columns| columns.contains(&IMPACT_COL))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+        if touches_impacts {
+            self.counter
+                .impact_rows_read
+                .fetch_add(n, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        self.inner.read_range(range, projection).await
+    }
+    async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32 {
+        self.inner.num_batches(batch_size).await
+    }
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.num_rows()
+    }
+    fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
+        self.inner.schema()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct CountingStore {
+    inner: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    posting_file: String,
+    counter: Arc<PostingMetadataCounter>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CountingStore {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.inner.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl IndexStore for CountingStore {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+        self
+    }
+    fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            inner: self.inner.clone(),
+            posting_file: self.posting_file.clone(),
+            counter: self.counter.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+    fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.io_parallelism()
+    }
+    fn with_io_priority(&self, io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            inner: self.inner.with_io_priority(io_priority),
+            posting_file: self.posting_file.clone(),
+            counter: self.counter.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+    async fn new_index_file(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        schema: Arc<arrow_schema::Schema>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn crate::scalar::IndexWriter>> {
+        self.inner.new_index_file(name, schema).await
+    }
+    async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
+        let reader = self.inner.open_index_file(name).await?;
+        if name == self.posting_file {
+            Ok(Arc::new(CountingPostingReader {
+                inner: reader,
+                counter: self.counter.clone(),
+            }))
+        } else {
+            Ok(reader)
+        }
+    }
+    async fn copy_index_file(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<crate::scalar::IndexFile> {
+        self.inner.copy_index_file(name, dest_store).await
+    }
+    async fn copy_index_file_to(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        new_name: &str,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<crate::scalar::IndexFile> {
+        self.inner
+            .copy_index_file_to(name, new_name, dest_store)
+            .await
+    }
+    async fn rename_index_file(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        new_name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<crate::scalar::IndexFile> {
+        self.inner.rename_index_file(name, new_name).await
+    }
+    async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        self.inner.delete_index_file(name).await
+    }
+    async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<crate::scalar::IndexFile>> {
+        self.inner.list_files_with_sizes().await
+    }
+}
+
+// Returns the `TempObjDir` guard so callers keep the backing store alive
+// for the index's lifetime: the deferred DocSet re-opens the docs file on
+// demand (it does not pin an open handle), so the files must still exist
+// when the test exercises a scoring path.
+async fn load_counted_v2_index(
+    num_tokens: usize,
+    cache: LanceCache,
+) -> (Arc<InvertedIndex>, Arc<PostingMetadataCounter>, TempObjDir) {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let inner_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for i in 0..num_tokens {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("t{}", i));
+        let mut pl = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+        pl.add(i as u32, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        builder.posting_lists.push(pl);
+        builder.docs.append(i as u64, 1);
+    }
+    builder.write(inner_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = inner_store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    let counter = Arc::new(PostingMetadataCounter::default());
+    let counting_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(CountingStore {
+        inner: inner_store,
+        posting_file: posting_file_path(0),
+        counter: counter.clone(),
+    });
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(counting_store, None, &cache)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (index, counter, tmpdir)
+}
+
+fn set_test_posting_group_size(index: &mut Arc<InvertedIndex>, group_size: u32) {
+    let index = Arc::get_mut(index).expect("test index should have one owner");
+    let partition =
+        Arc::get_mut(&mut index.partitions[0]).expect("test partition should have one owner");
+    let inverted_list = Arc::get_mut(&mut partition.inverted_list)
+        .expect("test posting reader should have one owner");
+    inverted_list.grouping = PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { group_size };
+}
+
+/// IO regression test for the lazy posting-metadata refactor. Builds a
+/// v2 InvertedIndex with `num_tokens` tokens in a single partition,
+/// wraps the IndexStore so reads against the posting file are counted,
+/// then asserts:
+///
+/// * `InvertedIndex::load` does not touch the posting file at all
+///   (`InvertedPartition::load` only needs the token file and docs file).
+/// * `bm25_stats_for_terms(["t0"])` reads exactly one metadata row from
+///   the posting file for token 0 regardless of how many unique tokens the
+///   partition has.
+///
+/// Before this refactor, `PostingListReader::try_new` did
+/// `read_range(0..num_rows, [MAX_SCORE_COL, LENGTH_COL])`, so the
+/// `metadata_rows_read` figure scaled linearly with `num_tokens` even
+/// when nobody asked for those stats. The cases below exercise that
+/// scaling explicitly.
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::tokens_10(10)]
+#[case::tokens_100(100)]
+#[case::tokens_1000(1000)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_bm25_stats_for_terms_is_lazy(#[case] num_tokens: usize) {
+    let (index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(num_tokens, LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    assert!(
+        !index.partitions[0].inverted_list.is_legacy_layout(),
+        "this test only proves the lazy path for v2 indexes",
+    );
+
+    // Opening the partition must not pull anything from the posting file.
+    // Pre-fix, `PostingListReader::try_new` issued one read_range here for
+    // [MAX_SCORE_COL, LENGTH_COL] covering every unique token.
+    assert_eq!(
+        counter.read_range_calls(),
+        0,
+        "InvertedIndex::load must not read the posting file (was {} calls)",
+        counter.read_range_calls(),
+    );
+    assert_eq!(counter.rows_read(), 0);
+
+    let (total_tokens, num_docs, dfs) = index
+        .bm25_stats_for_terms(&["t0".to_string()], None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(total_tokens, num_tokens as u64);
+    assert_eq!(num_docs, num_tokens);
+    assert_eq!(dfs, vec![1]);
+
+    // Stats must pull a constant number of metadata rows from the posting
+    // file regardless of how many tokens the partition has. One term, one
+    // partition, one row.
+    assert_eq!(
+        counter.metadata_rows_read(),
+        1,
+        "stats path should read exactly 1 metadata row per (term, partition); \
+             got {} (read_range_calls={}, rows_read={}, num_tokens={})",
+        counter.metadata_rows_read(),
+        counter.read_range_calls(),
+        counter.rows_read(),
+        num_tokens,
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_bm25_stats_for_terms_reuses_posting_metadata_cache() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(100, cache.clone()).await;
+
+    let terms = ["t0".to_string()];
+    let first = index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(first, (100, 100, vec![1]));
+    assert_eq!(counter.metadata_rows_read(), 1);
+
+    let second = index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(second, first);
+    assert_eq!(
+        counter.metadata_rows_read(),
+        1,
+        "repeated stats for the same token should reuse cached posting metadata",
+    );
+}
+
+/// Row-granularity statistics must not cost the posting file any extra IO
+/// when a partition's documents already map one-to-one onto rows, which is
+/// every V3 index and every V1/V2 index that is not a legacy list index. The
+/// deduplicating branch reads posting lists, so it has to stay behind the
+/// duplicate-row-id check rather than run for every legacy-format index.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_bm25_row_stats_for_terms_keeps_the_lazy_posting_metadata_path() {
+    let (index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(100, LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    // A V3 index would take the delegating early return, which proves nothing
+    // about the legacy branch this test exists for.
+    assert!(
+        matches!(
+            index.format_version(),
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1 | InvertedListFormatVersion::V2
+        ),
+        "expected a legacy format version, got {:?}",
+        index.format_version(),
+    );
+
+    let terms = ["t0".to_string()];
+    let documents = index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(documents, (100, 100, vec![1]));
+    let metadata_rows = counter.metadata_rows_read();
+    let rows = counter.rows_read();
+    assert_eq!(metadata_rows, 1);
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        index
+            .bm25_row_stats_for_terms(&terms, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        documents,
+        "one document per row leaves the two granularities identical",
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        counter.metadata_rows_read() - metadata_rows,
+        1,
+        "row statistics should read one metadata row per (term, partition)",
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        counter.rows_read() - rows,
+        1,
+        "row statistics must not read the posting list itself (got {} extra rows)",
+        counter.rows_read() - rows,
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_bm25_stats_for_terms_records_metadata_cache_stats() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (index, _counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(100, cache.clone()).await;
+    assert!(
+        !index.partitions[0].inverted_list.is_legacy_layout(),
+        "this test only proves the v2 metadata boundary",
+    );
+
+    let terms = ["t0".to_string(), "t1".to_string(), "t2".to_string()];
+    let cold = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    let cold_stats = index
+        .bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, Some(&cold))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(cold_stats.2, vec![1, 1, 1]);
+    assert_eq!(cold.index_cache_misses(), terms.len());
+    assert_eq!(cold.index_cache_hits(), 0);
+
+    let warm = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    let warm_stats = index
+        .bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, Some(&warm))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(warm_stats, cold_stats);
+    assert_eq!(warm.index_cache_misses(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(warm.index_cache_hits(), terms.len());
+}
+
+/// Row-granularity statistics go through `InvertedPartition::row_stats_for_terms`
+/// on a V1/V2 index, and its posting-metadata lookups must reach the caller's
+/// collector too: the cross-field scorer build is the only consumer, and it
+/// runs under an `ExecutionPlan` whose cache counters would otherwise miss
+/// them entirely.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_bm25_row_stats_for_terms_records_metadata_cache_stats() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (index, _counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(100, cache.clone()).await;
+    // A V3 index would delegate to the document-granularity path, which
+    // already has its own coverage.
+    assert!(
+        matches!(
+            index.format_version(),
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V1 | InvertedListFormatVersion::V2
+        ),
+        "expected a legacy format version, got {:?}",
+        index.format_version(),
+    );
+
+    let terms = ["t0".to_string(), "t1".to_string(), "t2".to_string()];
+    let cold = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    let cold_stats = index
+        .bm25_row_stats_for_terms(&terms, None, Some(&cold))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(cold_stats, (100, 100, vec![1, 1, 1]));
+    assert_eq!(cold.index_cache_misses(), terms.len());
+    assert_eq!(cold.index_cache_hits(), 0);
+
+    let warm = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    assert_eq!(
+        index
+            .bm25_row_stats_for_terms(&terms, None, Some(&warm))
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        cold_stats,
+    );
+    assert_eq!(warm.index_cache_misses(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(warm.index_cache_hits(), terms.len());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_aggregate_corpus_stats_reuses_cached_value() {
+    let (index, _counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(100, LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    assert!(index.corpus_stats.get().is_none());
+
+    let first = index.aggregate_corpus_stats().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(first, (100, 100));
+    assert_eq!(index.corpus_stats.get().copied(), Some(first));
+
+    let second = index.aggregate_corpus_stats().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(second, first);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_loaded_bm25_stats_are_all_or_nothing_and_preserve_oov() {
+    let (index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(10, LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    let posting_reader = &index.partitions[0].inverted_list;
+    let terms = ["t0".to_string(), "missing".to_string(), "t9".to_string()];
+
+    assert!(!posting_reader.posting_lengths_loaded());
+    assert_eq!(posting_reader.loaded_posting_len(0), None);
+    assert_eq!(
+        index.bm25_stats_for_terms_if_loaded(&terms).unwrap(),
+        None,
+        "absent corpus statistics must reject the synchronous path"
+    );
+
+    assert_eq!(index.aggregate_corpus_stats().await.unwrap(), (10, 10));
+    assert_eq!(
+        index.bm25_stats_for_terms_if_loaded(&terms).unwrap(),
+        None,
+        "an OOV term must not hide an unloaded modern length table"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(counter.metadata_rows_read(), 0);
+
+    posting_reader.ensure_metadata_loaded().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(posting_reader.posting_lengths_loaded());
+    assert_eq!(posting_reader.loaded_posting_len(0), Some(1));
+    assert_eq!(posting_reader.loaded_posting_len(9), Some(1));
+    assert_eq!(posting_reader.loaded_posting_len(10), None);
+
+    let loaded = index
+        .bm25_stats_for_terms_if_loaded(&terms)
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+    let asynchronous = index.bm25_stats_for_terms(&terms, None).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(loaded.stats, (10, 10, vec![1, 0, 1]));
+    assert_eq!(loaded.stats, asynchronous);
+    let dictionary = &index.partitions[0].tokens;
+    assert_eq!(
+        loaded.token_ids.as_ref(),
+        terms
+            .iter()
+            .map(|term| dictionary.get(term))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        "recorded ids must be the partition dictionary's ids, with None for OOV terms"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_loaded_bm25_stats_reports_invalid_loaded_token_id() {
+    let (mut index, _counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(1, LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    index.aggregate_corpus_stats().await.unwrap();
+    index.partitions[0]
+        .inverted_list
+        .ensure_metadata_loaded()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    {
+        let index = Arc::get_mut(&mut index).expect("test index should have one owner");
+        let partition =
+            Arc::get_mut(&mut index.partitions[0]).expect("test partition should have one owner");
+        let posting_reader = Arc::get_mut(&mut partition.inverted_list)
+            .expect("test posting reader should have one owner");
+        let PostingMetadata::V2 { metadata } = &mut posting_reader.metadata else {
+            panic!("test requires modern posting metadata");
+        };
+        Arc::get_mut(metadata)
+            .expect("test metadata should have one owner")
+            .get_mut()
+            .expect("metadata was loaded above")
+            .lengths
+            .clear();
+    }
+
+    let terms = ["t0".to_string()];
+    assert!(
+        crate::scalar::inverted::bm25_scorer_from_loaded_stats_with_enabled(
+            std::slice::from_ref(&index),
+            &terms,
+            false,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .is_none(),
+        "the kill switch must short-circuit before loaded-metadata validation"
+    );
+
+    let error = index.bm25_stats_for_terms_if_loaded(&terms).unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::Index { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        error
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("token 't0' maps to invalid posting token id 0 in partition 0"),
+        "unexpected error: {error}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_persisted_stats_do_not_load_document_columns() {
+    let (index, _counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(100, LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    assert!(!index.is_legacy());
+    let partition = index.partitions[0].clone();
+    let documents = partition.docs.modern().unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(index.aggregate_corpus_stats().await.unwrap(), (100, 100));
+    assert_eq!(documents.cached_stats().unwrap().total_tokens, 100);
+    assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+    assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+
+    let views = futures::future::join_all((0..8).map(|_| documents.lengths()))
+        .await
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+        .unwrap();
+    let first = &views[0];
+    assert!(views.iter().all(|view| Arc::ptr_eq(first, view)));
+    assert_eq!(first.total_tokens(), 100);
+
+    let all_rows = RowAddrMask::all_rows();
+    assert!(matches!(
+        documents
+            .visibility(Arc::new(all_rows), false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        DocVisibility::All
+    ));
+    assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+
+    let filtered = RowAddrMask::allow_nothing();
+    let visibility = documents
+        .visibility(Arc::new(filtered), true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(visibility.is_empty());
+    assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+    assert_eq!(
+        documents
+            .resolve_addresses(&[DocId::new(0), DocId::new(99)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        [0, 99]
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_no_hit_partition_does_not_load_document_columns() {
+    let (index, _counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(100, LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    let documents = index.partitions[0].docs.modern().unwrap();
+    assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+    assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(vec!["missing-token".to_owned()], DocType::Text));
+    let params = Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)));
+    let (row_ids, scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            params,
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert!(row_ids.is_empty());
+    assert!(scores.is_empty());
+    assert!(!documents.lengths_loaded());
+    assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+
+    let tokens = Arc::new(Tokens::new(
+        vec!["t0".to_owned(), "missing-token".to_owned()],
+        DocType::Text,
+    ));
+    let (row_ids, scores) = index
+        .bm25_search(
+            tokens,
+            Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10))),
+            Operator::And,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert!(row_ids.is_empty());
+    assert!(scores.is_empty());
+    assert!(
+        !documents.lengths_loaded(),
+        "a missing required token must gate the full document-length read"
+    );
+    assert!(!documents.projection_loaded());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_concurrent_stats_and_lengths_initialization() {
+    let (index, _counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(100, LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    let docs = index.partitions[0].docs.modern().unwrap().clone();
+
+    let stats = futures::future::join_all((0..8).map(|_| docs.stats()));
+    let views = futures::future::join_all((0..8).map(|_| docs.lengths()));
+    let (stats, views) = tokio::join!(stats, views);
+
+    let stats = stats.into_iter().collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>().unwrap();
+    assert!(stats.iter().all(|stats| stats.total_tokens == 100));
+    let views = views.into_iter().collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>().unwrap();
+    let first = &views[0];
+    assert!(views.iter().all(|view| Arc::ptr_eq(first, view)));
+    assert_eq!(docs.cached_stats().unwrap().total_tokens, 100);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_grouped_posting_lists_read_one_group_per_neighborhood() {
+    // Cold-start scoring must not bulk-read the full `0..num_tokens`
+    // metadata table. With small-posting grouping (issue #7040), scoring
+    // K adjacent cold tokens shares a single group cache entry: one
+    // read_range bounded by the group size, independent of the partition's
+    // total token count.
+    let runtime_group_size = runtime_posting_group_tokens().max(1);
+    let queried_token_count = runtime_group_size.min(4);
+    let queried_tokens = (0..queried_token_count as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let num_tokens = runtime_group_size
+        .saturating_mul(2)
+        .max(queried_token_count + 1)
+        .min(1024);
+    let (index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(num_tokens, LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    let inverted_list = index.partitions[0].inverted_list.clone();
+    assert!(
+        !inverted_list.is_legacy_layout(),
+        "this test only proves the lazy path for v2 indexes",
+    );
+    assert!(
+        matches!(
+            &inverted_list.grouping,
+            PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { .. }
+        ),
+        "freshly written v2 index should use runtime synthetic groups",
+    );
+
+    // This fixture uses a no-op cache, so each call re-reads; that isolates
+    // the per-query read shape. Each posting_list call reads exactly its
+    // own group — bounded by the group size, never the full token table.
+    let metrics = Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector);
+    for &token_id in &queried_tokens {
+        inverted_list
+            .posting_list(token_id, false, metrics.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let (start, end) = inverted_list.group_range_for_token(0).unwrap();
+    let group_len = (end - start) as usize;
+    assert!(
+        (queried_tokens.len()..=num_tokens).contains(&group_len),
+        "group [{start}, {end}) should cover the queried neighborhood and \
+             stay bounded by the {num_tokens}-token table",
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        counter.read_range_calls(),
+        queried_tokens.len(),
+        "each cold token should read exactly its own group, no bulk read",
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        counter.metadata_rows_read(),
+        queried_tokens.len() * group_len,
+        "each query reads one group's metadata rows ({group_len}), not the \
+             full {num_tokens}-row table",
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cache_aware_exact_cold_read_uses_one_singleton_group() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (mut index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(8, cache.clone()).await;
+    set_test_posting_group_size(&mut index, 4);
+    let inverted_list = index.partitions[0].inverted_list.clone();
+    let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+
+    let posting = inverted_list
+        .posting_list_with_policy(0, false, &metrics, PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(posting.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.read_range_calls(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.rows_read(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.metadata_rows_read(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.posting_rows_read(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.impact_rows_read(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_hits(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_misses(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cache_aware_exact_singleton_is_singleflight_and_cached() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (mut index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(8, cache.clone()).await;
+    set_test_posting_group_size(&mut index, 4);
+    let inverted_list = index.partitions[0].inverted_list.clone();
+    let metrics = Arc::new(LocalMetricsCollector::default());
+
+    let postings = futures::future::join_all((0..8).map(|_| {
+        let inverted_list = inverted_list.clone();
+        let metrics = metrics.clone();
+        async move {
+            inverted_list
+                .posting_list_with_policy(
+                    0,
+                    false,
+                    metrics.as_ref(),
+                    PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact,
+                )
+                .await
+        }
+    }))
+    .await
+    .into_iter()
+    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert!(postings.iter().all(|posting| posting.len() == 1));
+    assert_eq!(counter.read_range_calls(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.rows_read(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_misses(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_hits(), 7);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+
+    let warm_metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    inverted_list
+        .posting_list_with_policy(0, false, &warm_metrics, PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(counter.read_range_calls(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(warm_metrics.index_cache_hits(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(warm_metrics.index_cache_misses(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(warm_metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cache_aware_exact_reuses_prewarmed_read_ahead_group() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (mut index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(8, cache.clone()).await;
+    set_test_posting_group_size(&mut index, 4);
+    let inverted_list = index.partitions[0].inverted_list.clone();
+    inverted_list.prewarm_posting_lists(false, 1).await.unwrap();
+    let calls_after_prewarm = counter.read_range_calls();
+    let rows_after_prewarm = counter.rows_read();
+    let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+
+    let posting = inverted_list
+        .posting_list_with_policy(0, false, &metrics, PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(posting.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.read_range_calls(), calls_after_prewarm);
+    assert_eq!(counter.rows_read(), rows_after_prewarm);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_hits(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_misses(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cache_aware_exact_prefers_group_after_singleton_then_prewarm() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (mut index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(8, cache.clone()).await;
+    set_test_posting_group_size(&mut index, 4);
+    let inverted_list = index.partitions[0].inverted_list.clone();
+
+    inverted_list
+        .posting_list_with_policy(
+            0,
+            false,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(counter.read_range_calls(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.rows_read(), 1);
+
+    inverted_list.prewarm_posting_lists(false, 1).await.unwrap();
+    let calls_after_prewarm = counter.read_range_calls();
+    let rows_after_prewarm = counter.rows_read();
+    assert!(calls_after_prewarm > 1);
+    assert!(rows_after_prewarm > 1);
+
+    let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    inverted_list
+        .posting_list_with_policy(0, false, &metrics, PostingReadPolicy::CacheAwareExact)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(counter.read_range_calls(), calls_after_prewarm);
+    assert_eq!(counter.rows_read(), rows_after_prewarm);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_hits(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_misses(), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_default_posting_read_keeps_read_ahead_group() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (mut index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(8, cache.clone()).await;
+    set_test_posting_group_size(&mut index, 4);
+    let inverted_list = index.partitions[0].inverted_list.clone();
+
+    let posting = inverted_list
+        .posting_list(0, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(posting.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.read_range_calls(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.rows_read(), 4);
+    assert_eq!(counter.metadata_rows_read(), 4);
+    assert_eq!(counter.posting_rows_read(), 4);
+    assert_eq!(counter.impact_rows_read(), 4);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cache_aware_same_group_expansions_share_one_read_ahead_group() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (mut index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(8, cache.clone()).await;
+    set_test_posting_group_size(&mut index, 4);
+    let partition = index.partitions[0].clone();
+    let tokens = Tokens::with_positions(
+        vec!["t0".to_owned(), "t1".to_owned()],
+        vec![0, 0],
+        DocType::Text,
+    );
+    let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(
+        8,
+        8,
+        HashMap::from([("t0".to_owned(), 1), ("t1".to_owned(), 1)]),
+    );
+    let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+
+    let loaded = partition
+        .load_posting_lists_with_policy(
+            &tokens,
+            &FtsSearchParams::new(),
+            Operator::Or,
+            &scorer,
+            &metrics,
+            PostingLoadOptions::cache_aware_exact(true),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(loaded.postings.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.read_range_calls(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.rows_read(), 4);
+    assert_eq!(counter.metadata_rows_read(), 4);
+    assert_eq!(counter.posting_rows_read(), 4);
+    assert_eq!(counter.impact_rows_read(), 4);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_misses(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_hits(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cache_aware_repeated_token_positions_share_one_singleton() {
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+    let (mut index, counter, _tmpdir) = load_counted_v2_index(8, cache.clone()).await;
+    set_test_posting_group_size(&mut index, 4);
+    let partition = index.partitions[0].clone();
+    let tokens = Tokens::with_positions(
+        vec!["t0".to_owned(), "t0".to_owned()],
+        vec![0, 1],
+        DocType::Text,
+    );
+    let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(8, 8, HashMap::from([("t0".to_owned(), 1)]));
+    let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+
+    let loaded = partition
+        .load_posting_lists_with_policy(
+            &tokens,
+            &FtsSearchParams::new(),
+            Operator::And,
+            &scorer,
+            &metrics,
+            PostingLoadOptions::cache_aware_exact(true),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(loaded.postings.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(counter.read_range_calls(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(counter.rows_read(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_misses(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.index_cache_hits(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(metrics.parts_loaded.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+}
+
+/// Build a single-partition v2 index where every token's posting list spans
+/// `docs_per_token` docs. Runtime grouping packs consecutive token rows
+/// into shared cache groups.
+async fn load_v2_index_with_grouped_postings(
+    num_tokens: usize,
+    docs_per_token: usize,
+) -> (Arc<InvertedIndex>, Arc<LanceCache>) {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        ObjectStore::local().into(),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+
+    let num_docs = num_tokens * docs_per_token;
+    let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, TokenSetFormat::default());
+    for token_id in 0..num_tokens {
+        builder.tokens.get_or_add(&format!("t{token_id}"));
+        let mut pl = PostingListBuilder::new(false);
+        for d in 0..docs_per_token {
+            let doc_id = (token_id * docs_per_token + d) as u32;
+            pl.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
+        }
+        builder.posting_lists.push(pl);
+    }
+    for doc in 0..num_docs {
+        builder.docs.append(doc as u64, 1);
+    }
+    builder.write(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let metadata = HashMap::from([
+        (
+            "partitions".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![0u64]).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "params".to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+            TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+    // The inverted list keeps only a `WeakLanceCache`, so the caller must
+    // hold this `Arc<LanceCache>` alive for the cache to stay usable.
+    let cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 30));
+    let index = InvertedIndex::load(store, None, cache.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (index, cache)
+}
+
+/// Packed groups charge their Arrow buffers and contiguous metadata once,
+/// avoiding the per-member enum/array object graph of a materialized group.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_packed_group_deep_size_is_smaller_than_materialized_graph() {
+    let (index, _cache) = load_v2_index_with_grouped_postings(512, 1).await;
+    let inverted_list = index.partitions[0].inverted_list.clone();
+    assert!(!inverted_list.is_legacy_layout(), "expected v2 layout");
+    assert!(
+        matches!(
+            &inverted_list.grouping,
+            PostingGrouping::SyntheticFixed { .. }
+        ),
+        "expected grouped posting lists"
+    );
+
+    // Populate the group cache via the same path a query uses.
+    inverted_list
+        .posting_list(0, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (start, end) = inverted_list.group_range_for_token(0).unwrap();
+    let group = inverted_list
+        .index_cache
+        .get_with_key(&posting_list_group_cache_key(
+            start,
+            end,
+            inverted_list.has_impacts,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(group.is_packed(), "cold v2 group should use packed storage");
+    inverted_list.ensure_metadata_loaded().await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut distinct_buffers = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+    let mut materialized = Vec::with_capacity(group.len());
+    for slot in 0..group.len() {
+        let (max_score, length) = inverted_list.bulk_metadata_for_token(start + slot as u32);
+        let posting = group
+            .posting_list(slot, max_score, length)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let PostingList::Compressed(compressed) = posting else {
+            panic!("expected compressed posting lists");
+        };
+        distinct_buffers.insert(compressed.blocks.values().as_ptr());
+        materialized.push(PostingList::Compressed(compressed));
+    }
+    let posting_count = materialized.len();
+
+    assert!(
+        posting_count > 1,
+        "default grouping should pack multiple tiny postings into one group"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        distinct_buffers.len(),
+        1,
+        "read-path postings in a group should share one backing buffer"
+    );
+    let packed_size = group.deep_size_of();
+    let materialized_size = PostingListGroup::new(materialized).deep_size_of();
+    assert!(
+        packed_size * 4 < materialized_size * 3,
+        "packed group deep_size_of {packed_size}B should be at least 25% smaller than the \
+             {materialized_size}B materialized graph for {posting_count} postings"
+    );
+    // Prewarm caches a group per 128 dictionary rows of every partition, and
+    // each is resident and charged at its inline size on top of its buffers,
+    // so a group keeps only the buffers every posting view reads, not an
+    // Arrow array (100+ bytes) per column.
+    let inline_size = std::mem::size_of_val(group.as_ref());
+    assert!(
+        inline_size <= 320,
+        "packed group holds {inline_size}B inline"
+    );
+}
+
+// ===========================================================================
+// Regression tests for index-cache size accounting of cached posting lists.
+//
+// A cached posting list is a *slice* of a buffer read for a whole posting-list
+// group, so its `DeepSizeOf` impl must charge only the bytes the slice
+// references, not the full shared backing buffer. These lock that in: each
+// builds an array that references a small slice of a much larger buffer and
+// asserts `deep_size_of()` tracks the slice, not the buffer.
+// ===========================================================================
+
+/// Build a `List<Int32>` of `num_sublists` x `ints_per_sublist`, then return
+/// the slice `[off, off + len)`. The returned array shares the full backing
+/// buffers, so `values().get_buffer_memory_size()` still reports the whole
+/// thing — the slicing-unaware over-count the fix targets.
+fn sliced_int32_list(
+    num_sublists: usize,
+    ints_per_sublist: usize,
+    off: usize,
+    len: usize,
+) -> ListArray {
+    let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(Int32Builder::new());
+    for s in 0..num_sublists {
+        for i in 0..ints_per_sublist {
+            builder
+                .values()
+                .append_value((s * ints_per_sublist + i) as i32);
+        }
+        builder.append(true);
+    }
+    builder.finish().slice(off, len)
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_compressed_posting_deep_size_counts_only_referenced_blocks_slice() {
+    const ELEM_BYTES: usize = 256;
+    const TOTAL_ELEMS: usize = 64;
+    const SLICE_OFF: usize = 10;
+    const SLICE_LEN: usize = 2;
+
+    let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::new();
+    for _ in 0..TOTAL_ELEMS {
+        builder.append_value(vec![7u8; ELEM_BYTES]);
+    }
+    let full = builder.finish();
+    let blocks = full.slice(SLICE_OFF, SLICE_LEN);
+
+    let posting = CompressedPostingList::new(
+        blocks,
+        1.0,
+        SLICE_LEN as u32,
+        PostingTailCodec::Fixed32,
+        LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        None,
+        None,
+    );
+
+    let full_backing = full.get_buffer_memory_size();
+    let slice_bytes = SLICE_LEN * ELEM_BYTES;
+    let reported = posting.deep_size_of();
+
+    assert!(
+        reported < full_backing / 4,
+        "deep_size_of {reported}B must not count the {full_backing}B shared buffer"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        reported <= slice_bytes * 2,
+        "deep_size_of {reported}B should track the ~{slice_bytes}B referenced slice"
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_plain_posting_deep_size_counts_only_referenced_positions_slice() {
+    const SUBLISTS: usize = 64;
+    const INTS: usize = 64;
+    const SLICE_LEN: usize = 2;
+
+    let positions = sliced_int32_list(SUBLISTS, INTS, 10, SLICE_LEN);
+    let row_ids = ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0u64, 1]);
+    let frequencies = ScalarBuffer::from(vec![1.0f32, 1.0]);
+    let posting = PlainPostingList::new(row_ids, frequencies, Some(1.0), Some(positions.clone()));
+
+    let full_backing = positions.values().get_buffer_memory_size();
+    let slice_bytes = SLICE_LEN * INTS * std::mem::size_of::<i32>();
+    let reported = posting.deep_size_of();
+
+    assert!(
+        reported < full_backing / 4,
+        "deep_size_of {reported}B must not count the {full_backing}B shared positions buffer"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        reported <= slice_bytes * 2 + 64,
+        "deep_size_of {reported}B should track the ~{slice_bytes}B referenced slice"
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_legacy_per_doc_positions_deep_size_counts_only_referenced_slice() {
+    const SUBLISTS: usize = 64;
+    const INTS: usize = 64;
+    const SLICE_LEN: usize = 2;
+
+    let positions = sliced_int32_list(SUBLISTS, INTS, 10, SLICE_LEN);
+    let full_backing = positions.values().get_buffer_memory_size();
+    let slice_bytes = SLICE_LEN * INTS * std::mem::size_of::<i32>();
+
+    let storage = CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(positions);
+    let reported = storage.deep_size_of();
+    assert!(
+        reported < full_backing / 4,
+        "CompressedPositionStorage deep_size_of {reported}B must not count the \
+             {full_backing}B shared buffer"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        reported <= slice_bytes * 2 + 64,
+        "deep_size_of {reported}B should track the ~{slice_bytes}B referenced slice"
+    );
+
+    // The `Positions` cache wrapper must report the same slice-aware size.
+    let wrapped = Positions(storage).deep_size_of();
+    assert!(
+        wrapped < full_backing / 4,
+        "Positions deep_size_of {wrapped}B must not count the {full_backing}B shared buffer"
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/token_set.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/token_set.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5b1e66c3030
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/index/token_set.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,689 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::hash::{BuildHasher, RandomState};
+
+use hashbrown::{HashTable, hash_table::Entry};
+
+use super::*;
+
+// at indexing, we use HashMap because we need it to be mutable,
+// at searching, we use fst::Map because it's more efficient
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub enum TokenMap {
+    HashMap(HashMap<String, u32>),
+    Fst(fst::Map<Vec<u8>>),
+}
+
+impl Default for TokenMap {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::HashMap(HashMap::new())
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for TokenMap {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, ctx: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::HashMap(map) => map.deep_size_of_children(ctx),
+            Self::Fst(map) => map.as_fst().size(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenMap {
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::HashMap(map) => map.len(),
+            Self::Fst(map) => map.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    fn for_each_token(&self, mut visit: impl FnMut(&[u8], u32) -> Result<()>) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::HashMap(map) => {
+                for (token, &token_id) in map {
+                    visit(token.as_bytes(), token_id)?;
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Fst(map) => {
+                let mut stream = map.stream();
+                while let Some((token, token_id)) = stream.next() {
+                    visit(token, token_id as u32)?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+// TokenSet is a mapping from tokens to token ids
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct TokenSet {
+    // token -> token_id
+    pub(crate) tokens: TokenMap,
+    pub(crate) next_id: u32,
+    total_length: usize,
+}
+
+impl TokenSet {
+    pub fn into_mut(self) -> Self {
+        let tokens = match self.tokens {
+            TokenMap::HashMap(map) => map,
+            TokenMap::Fst(map) => {
+                let mut new_map = HashMap::with_capacity(map.len());
+                let mut stream = map.into_stream();
+                while let Some((token, token_id)) = stream.next() {
+                    new_map.insert(String::from_utf8_lossy(token).into_owned(), token_id as u32);
+                }
+
+                new_map
+            }
+        };
+
+        Self {
+            tokens: TokenMap::HashMap(tokens),
+            next_id: self.next_id,
+            total_length: self.total_length,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.tokens.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    pub fn to_batch(self, format: TokenSetFormat) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        match format {
+            TokenSetFormat::Arrow => self.into_arrow_batch(),
+            TokenSetFormat::Fst => self.into_fst_batch(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn into_arrow_batch(self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let mut token_builder = StringBuilder::with_capacity(self.tokens.len(), self.total_length);
+        let mut token_id_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(self.tokens.len());
+
+        match self.tokens {
+            TokenMap::Fst(map) => {
+                let mut stream = map.stream();
+                while let Some((token, token_id)) = stream.next() {
+                    token_builder.append_value(String::from_utf8_lossy(token));
+                    token_id_builder.append_value(token_id as u32);
+                }
+            }
+            TokenMap::HashMap(map) => {
+                for (token, token_id) in map.into_iter().sorted_unstable() {
+                    token_builder.append_value(token);
+                    token_id_builder.append_value(token_id);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        arrow_token_batch(token_builder, token_id_builder)
+    }
+
+    fn into_fst_batch(mut self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let fst_map = match std::mem::take(&mut self.tokens) {
+            TokenMap::Fst(map) => map,
+            TokenMap::HashMap(map) => Self::build_fst_from_map(map)?,
+        };
+        fst_token_batch(fst_map, self.next_id, self.total_length)
+    }
+
+    fn build_fst_from_map(map: HashMap<String, u32>) -> Result<fst::Map<Vec<u8>>> {
+        let mut entries: Vec<_> = map.into_iter().collect();
+        entries.sort_unstable_by(|(lhs, _), (rhs, _)| lhs.cmp(rhs));
+        let mut builder = fst::MapBuilder::memory();
+        for (token, token_id) in entries {
+            builder
+                .insert(&token, token_id as u64)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("failed to insert token {}: {}", token, e)))?;
+        }
+        Ok(builder.into_map())
+    }
+
+    pub async fn load(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>, format: TokenSetFormat) -> Result<Self> {
+        match format {
+            TokenSetFormat::Arrow => Self::load_arrow(reader).await,
+            TokenSetFormat::Fst => Self::load_fst(reader).await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn load_arrow(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let batch = reader.read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), None).await?;
+
+        let (tokens, next_id, total_length) = spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let mut next_id = 0;
+            let mut total_length = 0;
+            let mut tokens = fst::MapBuilder::memory();
+
+            let token_col = batch[TOKEN_COL].as_string::<i32>();
+            let token_id_col = batch[TOKEN_ID_COL].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt32Type>();
+
+            for (token, &token_id) in token_col.iter().zip(token_id_col.values().iter()) {
+                let token =
+                    token.ok_or(Error::index("found null token in token set".to_owned()))?;
+                next_id = next_id.max(token_id + 1);
+                total_length += token.len();
+                tokens.insert(token, token_id as u64).map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::index(format!("failed to insert token {}: {}", token, e))
+                })?;
+            }
+
+            Ok::<_, Error>((tokens.into_map(), next_id, total_length))
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|err| Error::execution(format!("failed to spawn blocking task: {}", err)))??;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            tokens: TokenMap::Fst(tokens),
+            next_id,
+            total_length,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn load_fst(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let batch = reader.read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), None).await?;
+        if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::index("token set batch is empty".to_owned()));
+        }
+
+        let fst_col = batch[TOKEN_FST_BYTES_COL].as_binary::<i64>();
+        let bytes = fst_col.value(0);
+        let map = fst::Map::new(bytes.to_vec())
+            .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("failed to load fst tokens: {}", e)))?;
+
+        let total_length_col =
+            batch[TOKEN_TOTAL_LENGTH_COL].as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt64Type>();
+
+        // Token ids are dense `[0, len)`, so `next_id` must equal the token count. Recompute
+        // it instead of trusting the persisted value, which writers before #7115 could leave
+        // stale. Mirrors `load_arrow`.
+        let next_id = map.len() as u32;
+
+        let total_length = total_length_col
+            .values()
+            .first()
+            .copied()
+            .ok_or(Error::index(
+                "token total length column is empty".to_owned(),
+            ))?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            tokens: TokenMap::Fst(map),
+            next_id,
+            total_length: usize::try_from(total_length).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "token total length {} overflows usize",
+                    total_length
+                ))
+            })?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn add(&mut self, token: String) -> u32 {
+        let next_id = self.next_id();
+        let len = token.len();
+        let token_id = match self.tokens {
+            TokenMap::HashMap(ref mut map) => *map.entry(token).or_insert(next_id),
+            _ => unreachable!("tokens must be HashMap while indexing"),
+        };
+
+        // add token if it doesn't exist
+        if token_id == next_id {
+            self.next_id += 1;
+            self.total_length += len;
+        }
+
+        token_id
+    }
+
+    pub fn get(&self, token: &str) -> Option<u32> {
+        match self.tokens {
+            TokenMap::HashMap(ref map) => map.get(token).copied(),
+            TokenMap::Fst(ref map) => map.get(token).map(|id| id as u32),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::get`] for many `(dictionary, token)` pairs, returning results
+    /// in input order.
+    ///
+    /// An FST walk is a chain of dependent reads, and the dictionaries of a
+    /// many-partition index far exceed the CPU caches, so resolving one pair
+    /// at a time waits on one cache miss at a time. Advancing several
+    /// independent walks in rotation, and prefetching each walk's next node,
+    /// overlaps those misses.
+    pub(super) fn get_many(lookups: &[(&Self, &str)]) -> Vec<Option<u32>> {
+        const MAX_WALKS: usize = 16;
+
+        struct Walk<'a> {
+            lookup: usize,
+            fst: &'a fst::raw::Fst<Vec<u8>>,
+            key: &'a [u8],
+            depth: usize,
+            addr: fst::raw::CompiledAddr,
+            output: fst::raw::Output,
+        }
+
+        let mut results = vec![None; lookups.len()];
+        let mut walks = Vec::with_capacity(MAX_WALKS.min(lookups.len()));
+        let mut next_lookup = 0;
+        loop {
+            while walks.len() < MAX_WALKS && next_lookup < lookups.len() {
+                let (dictionary, token) = lookups[next_lookup];
+                match &dictionary.tokens {
+                    TokenMap::HashMap(map) => results[next_lookup] = map.get(token).copied(),
+                    TokenMap::Fst(map) => {
+                        let fst = map.as_fst();
+                        walks.push(Walk {
+                            lookup: next_lookup,
+                            fst,
+                            key: token.as_bytes(),
+                            depth: 0,
+                            addr: fst.root().addr(),
+                            output: fst::raw::Output::zero(),
+                        });
+                    }
+                }
+                next_lookup += 1;
+            }
+            if walks.is_empty() {
+                return results;
+            }
+
+            // Mirrors `fst::raw::Fst::get`, one node per walk per round.
+            let mut walk_index = 0;
+            while walk_index < walks.len() {
+                let walk = &mut walks[walk_index];
+                let node = walk.fst.node(walk.addr);
+                let finished = match walk.key.get(walk.depth) {
+                    None => Some(
+                        node.is_final()
+                            .then(|| walk.output.cat(node.final_output()).value() as u32),
+                    ),
+                    Some(&byte) => match node.find_input(byte) {
+                        None => Some(None),
+                        Some(transition_index) => {
+                            let transition = node.transition(transition_index);
+                            walk.output = walk.output.cat(transition.out);
+                            walk.addr = transition.addr;
+                            walk.depth += 1;
+                            prefetch_fst_node(walk.fst.as_bytes(), transition.addr);
+                            None
+                        }
+                    },
+                };
+                if let Some(token_id) = finished {
+                    results[walk.lookup] = token_id;
+                    walks.swap_remove(walk_index);
+                } else {
+                    walk_index += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // the `removed_token_ids` must be sorted
+    pub fn remap(&mut self, removed_token_ids: &[u32]) {
+        if removed_token_ids.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let mut map = match std::mem::take(&mut self.tokens) {
+            TokenMap::HashMap(map) => map,
+            TokenMap::Fst(map) => {
+                let mut new_map = HashMap::with_capacity(map.len());
+                let mut stream = map.into_stream();
+                while let Some((token, token_id)) = stream.next() {
+                    new_map.insert(String::from_utf8_lossy(token).into_owned(), token_id as u32);
+                }
+
+                new_map
+            }
+        };
+
+        let mut retained_length = 0;
+        map.retain(
+            |token, token_id| match removed_token_ids.binary_search(token_id) {
+                Ok(_) => false,
+                Err(index) => {
+                    *token_id -= index as u32;
+                    retained_length += token.len();
+                    true
+                }
+            },
+        );
+
+        self.tokens = TokenMap::HashMap(map);
+
+        // The retain above compacts the surviving token ids into a dense `[0, len)`
+        // range, so `next_id` (handed to the next new token) must follow them down.
+        // `total_length` likewise must drop the removed tokens' bytes; it is persisted
+        // and feeds memory accounting, so a stale value drifts across remap/merge cycles.
+        self.next_id = self.tokens.len() as u32;
+        self.total_length = retained_length;
+    }
+
+    pub fn next_id(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.next_id
+    }
+}
+
+fn arrow_token_batch(
+    mut token_builder: StringBuilder,
+    mut token_id_builder: UInt32Builder,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_COL, DataType::Utf8, false),
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_ID_COL, DataType::UInt32, false),
+    ]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(schema),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(token_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(token_id_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )?;
+    Ok(batch)
+}
+
+fn fst_token_batch(
+    fst_map: fst::Map<Vec<u8>>,
+    next_id: u32,
+    total_length: usize,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let bytes = fst_map.into_fst().into_inner();
+
+    let mut fst_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(1, bytes.len());
+    fst_builder.append_value(bytes);
+    let fst_col = fst_builder.finish();
+
+    let mut next_id_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(1);
+    next_id_builder.append_value(next_id);
+    let next_id_col = next_id_builder.finish();
+
+    let mut total_length_builder = UInt64Builder::with_capacity(1);
+    total_length_builder.append_value(total_length as u64);
+    let total_length_col = total_length_builder.finish();
+
+    let schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_FST_BYTES_COL, DataType::LargeBinary, false),
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_NEXT_ID_COL, DataType::UInt32, false),
+        arrow_schema::Field::new(TOKEN_TOTAL_LENGTH_COL, DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]);
+
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(schema),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(fst_col) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(next_id_col) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(total_length_col) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )?;
+    Ok(batch)
+}
+
+/// Token dictionary of a partition that is being built.
+///
+/// A distinct token costs its bytes in one shared buffer, an end offset and a
+/// 4-byte hash-table slot. Keying a `HashMap` by owned `String`s instead costs
+/// a separate heap allocation plus a 32-byte slot per token, which dominates
+/// build memory for corpora with tens of millions of distinct tokens.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub(in super::super) struct TokenDictionary {
+    // Token bytes, concatenated in token id order.
+    bytes: Vec<u8>,
+    // End offset in `bytes` of each token, indexed by token id.
+    ends: Vec<u64>,
+    // Token ids, hashed by their token bytes.
+    ids: HashTable<u32>,
+    hasher: RandomState,
+}
+
+fn token_bytes<'a>(bytes: &'a [u8], ends: &[u64], token_id: u32) -> &'a [u8] {
+    let token_id = token_id as usize;
+    let start = match token_id {
+        0 => 0,
+        _ => ends[token_id - 1] as usize,
+    };
+    &bytes[start..ends[token_id] as usize]
+}
+
+impl TokenDictionary {
+    /// Rebuilds a dictionary from a token set, keeping its token ids.
+    pub(in super::super) fn try_from_token_set(tokens: TokenSet) -> Result<Self> {
+        let num_tokens = tokens.len();
+        let mut lengths = vec![None::<usize>; num_tokens];
+        tokens.tokens.for_each_token(|token, token_id| {
+            std::str::from_utf8(token).map_err(|err| {
+                Error::index(format!("token {token:?} is not valid UTF-8: {err}"))
+            })?;
+            match lengths.get_mut(token_id as usize) {
+                Some(length @ None) => {
+                    *length = Some(token.len());
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+                _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "token set with {num_tokens} tokens must map them to distinct ids below \
+                     {num_tokens}, but token {:?} has id {token_id}",
+                    String::from_utf8_lossy(token)
+                ))),
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        let mut ends = Vec::with_capacity(num_tokens);
+        let mut end = 0u64;
+        for length in lengths {
+            end += length.expect("every token id was assigned once") as u64;
+            ends.push(end);
+        }
+        let mut bytes = vec![0u8; end as usize];
+        tokens.tokens.for_each_token(|token, token_id| {
+            let token_id = token_id as usize;
+            let start = match token_id {
+                0 => 0,
+                _ => ends[token_id - 1] as usize,
+            };
+            bytes[start..ends[token_id] as usize].copy_from_slice(token);
+            Ok(())
+        })?;
+
+        let hasher = RandomState::new();
+        let mut ids = HashTable::with_capacity(num_tokens);
+        for token_id in 0..num_tokens as u32 {
+            ids.insert_unique(
+                hasher.hash_one(token_bytes(&bytes, &ends, token_id)),
+                token_id,
+                |&token_id| hasher.hash_one(token_bytes(&bytes, &ends, token_id)),
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            bytes,
+            ends,
+            ids,
+            hasher,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(in super::super) fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.ends.len()
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self, token_id: u32) -> &str {
+        std::str::from_utf8(token_bytes(&self.bytes, &self.ends, token_id))
+            .expect("dictionary tokens are copied from valid UTF-8")
+    }
+
+    /// Iterates `(token_id, token)` in token id order.
+    pub(in super::super) fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (u32, &str)> + '_ {
+        (0..self.len() as u32).map(|token_id| (token_id, self.token(token_id)))
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(in super::super) fn get(&self, token: &str) -> Option<u32> {
+        let hash = self.hasher.hash_one(token.as_bytes());
+        self.ids
+            .find(hash, |&token_id| {
+                token_bytes(&self.bytes, &self.ends, token_id) == token.as_bytes()
+            })
+            .copied()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the id of `token`, assigning the next id if the token is new.
+    pub(in super::super) fn get_or_add(&mut self, token: &str) -> u32 {
+        let Self {
+            bytes,
+            ends,
+            ids,
+            hasher,
+        } = self;
+        let entry = ids.entry(
+            hasher.hash_one(token.as_bytes()),
+            |&token_id| token_bytes(bytes, ends, token_id) == token.as_bytes(),
+            |&token_id| hasher.hash_one(token_bytes(bytes, ends, token_id)),
+        );
+        match entry {
+            Entry::Occupied(entry) => *entry.get(),
+            Entry::Vacant(entry) => {
+                let token_id = ends.len() as u32;
+                entry.insert(token_id);
+                bytes.extend_from_slice(token.as_bytes());
+                ends.push(bytes.len() as u64);
+                token_id
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Drops the tokens with the given sorted ids and compacts the ids of the
+    /// remaining tokens.
+    pub(in super::super) fn remap(&mut self, removed_token_ids: &[u32]) {
+        if removed_token_ids.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut remapped = Self::default();
+        for (token_id, token) in self.iter() {
+            if removed_token_ids.binary_search(&token_id).is_err() {
+                remapped.get_or_add(token);
+            }
+        }
+        *self = remapped;
+    }
+
+    pub(in super::super) fn memory_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.bytes.capacity()
+            + self.ends.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+            + self.ids.allocation_size()
+    }
+
+    /// Writes the dictionary in the same layout as [`TokenSet::to_batch`].
+    pub(in super::super) fn to_batch(&self, format: TokenSetFormat) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let mut sorted_ids = (0..self.len() as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        sorted_ids.sort_unstable_by(|&lhs, &rhs| {
+            token_bytes(&self.bytes, &self.ends, lhs).cmp(token_bytes(&self.bytes, &self.ends, rhs))
+        });
+        match format {
+            TokenSetFormat::Arrow => {
+                let mut token_builder = StringBuilder::with_capacity(self.len(), self.bytes.len());
+                let mut token_id_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(self.len());
+                for token_id in sorted_ids {
+                    token_builder.append_value(self.token(token_id));
+                    token_id_builder.append_value(token_id);
+                }
+                arrow_token_batch(token_builder, token_id_builder)
+            }
+            TokenSetFormat::Fst => {
+                let mut builder = fst::MapBuilder::memory();
+                for token_id in sorted_ids {
+                    let token = self.token(token_id);
+                    builder.insert(token, token_id as u64).map_err(|e| {
+                        Error::index(format!("failed to insert token {}: {}", token, e))
+                    })?;
+                }
+                fst_token_batch(builder.into_map(), self.len() as u32, self.bytes.len())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Hint the cache lines holding the FST node at `addr`. A node is decoded
+/// from its state byte at `addr` backwards, so fetch the preceding line too.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[inline(always)]
+fn prefetch_fst_node(fst_bytes: &[u8], addr: fst::raw::CompiledAddr) {
+    for byte in [fst_bytes.get(addr), fst_bytes.get(addr.saturating_sub(63))]
+        .into_iter()
+        .flatten()
+    {
+        // SAFETY: prefetching only hints the cache and cannot fault; the
+        // pointer is in bounds of `fst_bytes` regardless.
+        unsafe {
+            std::arch::x86_64::_mm_prefetch::<{ std::arch::x86_64::_MM_HINT_T0 }>(
+                (byte as *const u8).cast(),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+#[inline(always)]
+fn prefetch_fst_node(_fst_bytes: &[u8], _addr: fst::raw::CompiledAddr) {}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn fst_dictionary(terms: &[&str]) -> TokenSet {
+        let mut terms = terms.to_vec();
+        terms.sort_unstable();
+        let map = fst::Map::from_iter(
+            terms
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(token_id, term)| (*term, token_id as u64)),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        TokenSet {
+            tokens: TokenMap::Fst(map),
+            next_id: terms.len() as u32,
+            total_length: terms.iter().map(|term| term.len()).sum(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_get_many_matches_get() {
+        let mut in_memory = TokenSet::default();
+        in_memory.add("a".to_owned());
+        in_memory.add("abc".to_owned());
+        let dictionaries = [
+            fst_dictionary(&["", "a", "ab", "abc", "abd", "b", "banana", "zeta"]),
+            fst_dictionary(&["ab", "abcd", "alpha", "b", "bandana"]),
+            fst_dictionary(&[]),
+            in_memory,
+        ];
+        // Keys that are prefixes of other keys, extend past a leaf, stop
+        // mid-edge, or are empty; more lookups than walks kept in flight.
+        let tokens = [
+            "", "a", "ab", "abc", "abcd", "abd", "abe", "alpha", "b", "ban", "banana", "bandana",
+            "zeta", "zz",
+        ];
+        let lookups = dictionaries
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|dictionary| tokens.iter().map(move |token| (dictionary, *token)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected = lookups
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(dictionary, token)| dictionary.get(token))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        assert_eq!(TokenSet::get_many(&lookups), expected);
+        assert!(expected.iter().any(Option::is_some));
+        assert!(expected.iter().any(Option::is_none));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/iter.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/iter.rs
index 9c52b7a4873..3755fa41d80 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/iter.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/iter.rs
@@ -2,12 +2,14 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
-use arrow_array::{Array, LargeBinaryArray, ListArray};
+use arrow_array::{Array, LargeBinaryArray};
 
 use super::{
-    builder::BLOCK_SIZE,
-    encoding::{decompress_positions, decompress_posting_block, decompress_posting_remainder},
-    PostingList,
+    CompressedPositionStorage, PostingList, PostingTailCodec,
+    encoding::{
+        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE, decode_position_stream_block, decompress_positions,
+        decompress_posting_block, decompress_posting_remainder,
+    },
 };
 
 pub enum PostingListIterator<'a> {
@@ -23,7 +25,9 @@ impl<'a> PostingListIterator<'a> {
                 Self::Compressed(Box::new(CompressedPostingListIterator::new(
                     posting.length as usize,
                     posting.blocks.clone(),
+                    posting.posting_tail_codec,
                     posting.positions.clone(),
+                    posting.block_size,
                 )))
             }
         }
@@ -48,23 +52,57 @@ impl<'a> Iterator for PostingListIterator<'a> {
 pub type PlainPostingListIterator<'a> =
     Box<dyn Iterator<Item = (u64, f32, Option<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32> + 'a>>)> + 'a>;
 
+struct OwnedPositionsIter {
+    positions: Box<[u32]>,
+    index: usize,
+}
+
+impl OwnedPositionsIter {
+    fn new(positions: &[u32]) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            positions: Box::<[u32]>::from(positions),
+            index: 0,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Iterator for OwnedPositionsIter {
+    type Item = u32;
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        let position = self.positions.get(self.index).copied()?;
+        self.index += 1;
+        Some(position)
+    }
+}
+
 pub struct CompressedPostingListIterator {
     remainder: usize,
     blocks: LargeBinaryArray,
     next_block_idx: usize,
-    positions: Option<ListArray>,
-    idx: u32,
-    iter: InnerIterator,
-    buffer: [u32; BLOCK_SIZE],
+    posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+    positions: Option<CompressedPositionStorage>,
+    block_size: usize,
+    idx: usize,
+    doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+    frequencies: Vec<u32>,
+    doc_idx_in_block: usize,
+    decoded_positions: Vec<u32>,
+    position_offsets: Vec<usize>,
+    buffer: [u32; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE],
 }
 
-type InnerIterator = std::iter::Zip<std::vec::IntoIter<u32>, std::vec::IntoIter<u32>>;
-
 impl CompressedPostingListIterator {
-    pub fn new(length: usize, blocks: LargeBinaryArray, positions: Option<ListArray>) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(
+        length: usize,
+        blocks: LargeBinaryArray,
+        posting_tail_codec: PostingTailCodec,
+        positions: Option<CompressedPositionStorage>,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
         debug_assert!(length > 0, "length: {}", length);
         debug_assert_eq!(
-            length.div_ceil(BLOCK_SIZE),
+            length.div_ceil(block_size),
             blocks.len(),
             "length: {}, num_blocks: {}",
             length,
@@ -72,13 +110,19 @@ impl CompressedPostingListIterator {
         );
 
         Self {
-            remainder: length % BLOCK_SIZE,
+            remainder: length % block_size,
             blocks,
             next_block_idx: 0,
+            posting_tail_codec,
             positions,
+            block_size,
             idx: 0,
-            iter: std::iter::zip(Vec::new(), Vec::new()),
-            buffer: [0; BLOCK_SIZE],
+            doc_ids: Vec::new(),
+            frequencies: Vec::new(),
+            doc_idx_in_block: 0,
+            decoded_positions: Vec::new(),
+            position_offsets: Vec::new(),
+            buffer: [0; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE],
         }
     }
 }
@@ -87,13 +131,24 @@ impl Iterator for CompressedPostingListIterator {
     type Item = (u32, u32, Option<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32>>>);
 
     fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
-        if let Some((doc_id, freq)) = self.iter.next() {
-            let positions = self.positions.as_ref().map(|p| {
-                let compressed = p.value(self.idx as usize);
-                let positions = decompress_positions(compressed.as_binary());
-                Box::new(positions.into_iter()) as _
+        if self.doc_idx_in_block < self.doc_ids.len() {
+            let doc_id = self.doc_ids[self.doc_idx_in_block];
+            let freq = self.frequencies[self.doc_idx_in_block];
+            let positions = self.positions.as_ref().map(|storage| match storage {
+                CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(list) => {
+                    let compressed = list.value(self.idx);
+                    let positions = decompress_positions(compressed.as_binary());
+                    Box::new(positions.into_iter()) as Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32>>
+                }
+                CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(_) => {
+                    let start = self.position_offsets[self.doc_idx_in_block];
+                    let end = self.position_offsets[self.doc_idx_in_block + 1];
+                    Box::new(OwnedPositionsIter::new(&self.decoded_positions[start..end]))
+                        as Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32>>
+                }
             });
             self.idx += 1;
+            self.doc_idx_in_block += 1;
             return Some((doc_id, freq, positions));
         }
 
@@ -104,19 +159,45 @@ impl Iterator for CompressedPostingListIterator {
         let compressed = self.blocks.value(self.next_block_idx);
         self.next_block_idx += 1;
 
-        let mut doc_ids = Vec::with_capacity(BLOCK_SIZE);
-        let mut frequencies = Vec::with_capacity(BLOCK_SIZE);
+        self.doc_ids.clear();
+        self.frequencies.clear();
         if self.next_block_idx == self.blocks.len() && self.remainder > 0 {
             decompress_posting_remainder(
                 compressed,
                 self.remainder,
-                &mut doc_ids,
-                &mut frequencies,
+                self.posting_tail_codec,
+                self.block_size,
+                &mut self.doc_ids,
+                &mut self.frequencies,
             );
         } else {
-            decompress_posting_block(compressed, &mut self.buffer, &mut doc_ids, &mut frequencies);
+            decompress_posting_block(
+                compressed,
+                &mut self.buffer,
+                &mut self.doc_ids,
+                &mut self.frequencies,
+                self.block_size,
+            );
+        }
+        self.doc_idx_in_block = 0;
+        self.decoded_positions.clear();
+        self.position_offsets.clear();
+        if let Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream)) = self.positions.as_ref() {
+            decode_position_stream_block(
+                stream.block(self.next_block_idx - 1),
+                self.frequencies.as_slice(),
+                stream.codec(),
+                &mut self.decoded_positions,
+            )
+            .expect("shared position stream decoding should succeed");
+            self.position_offsets.reserve(self.frequencies.len() + 1);
+            self.position_offsets.push(0);
+            let mut offset = 0usize;
+            for &frequency in &self.frequencies {
+                offset += frequency as usize;
+                self.position_offsets.push(offset);
+            }
         }
-        self.iter = std::iter::zip(doc_ids, frequencies);
         self.next()
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/json.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/json.rs
index c5bb7bd6f10..1ae9b7ddb73 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/json.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/json.rs
@@ -1,23 +1,70 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, LargeBinaryArray, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
 use datafusion::execution::{RecordBatchStream, SendableRecordBatchStream};
 use futures::Stream;
+use lance_arrow::json::{JsonEncoding, JsonValues};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::task::{Context, Poll};
 
-/// Transform jsonb stream into json text stream
+/// Presents a JSON column as JSON text documents, whichever encoding the
+/// column arrives in.
 pub struct JsonTextStream {
     inner: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    jsonb_col: String,
+    json_col: String,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
 }
 
 impl JsonTextStream {
-    pub fn new(inner: SendableRecordBatchStream, jsonb_col: String) -> Self {
-        Self { inner, jsonb_col }
+    /// Fails when `json_col` is missing or does not hold JSON.
+    pub fn try_new(inner: SendableRecordBatchStream, json_col: String) -> Result<Self> {
+        let input_schema = inner.schema();
+        let fields = input_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| {
+                if field.name() != &json_col {
+                    return Ok(field.as_ref().clone());
+                }
+                match JsonEncoding::of_field(field) {
+                    Some(JsonEncoding::Jsonb) => Ok(Field::new(
+                        &json_col,
+                        DataType::LargeUtf8,
+                        field.is_nullable(),
+                    )),
+                    Some(JsonEncoding::Text) => Ok(field.as_ref().clone()),
+                    None => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "column {json_col} is not json"
+                    ))),
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner,
+            json_col,
+            schema: Arc::new(Schema::new_with_metadata(
+                fields,
+                input_schema.metadata().clone(),
+            )),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn to_text(&self, batch: RecordBatch) -> datafusion_common::Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let columns = batch
+            .schema()
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(batch.columns())
+            .map(|(field, column)| match JsonValues::try_new(field, column) {
+                Some(values) if field.name() == &self.json_col => values.to_text(),
+                _ => column.clone(),
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(self.schema.clone(), columns)?)
     }
 }
 
@@ -26,115 +73,72 @@ impl Stream for JsonTextStream {
 
     fn poll_next(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
         match Pin::new(&mut self.inner).poll_next(cx) {
-            Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => {
-                let cols: Vec<ArrayRef> = batch
-                    .schema()
-                    .fields()
-                    .iter()
-                    .enumerate()
-                    .map(|(idx, col)| {
-                        if col.name().as_str() == self.jsonb_col {
-                            Ok(jsonb_to_json(batch.column(idx), &self.jsonb_col)?)
-                        } else {
-                            Ok(batch.column(idx).clone())
-                        }
-                    })
-                    .collect::<lance_core::Result<Vec<ArrayRef>>>()?;
-
-                let new_schema = batch
-                    .schema()
-                    .fields()
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|col| {
-                        if col.name().as_str() == self.jsonb_col {
-                            Field::new(&self.jsonb_col, DataType::LargeUtf8, true)
-                        } else {
-                            col.as_ref().clone()
-                        }
-                    })
-                    .collect::<Vec<Field>>();
-                let new_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(new_schema));
-                let mapped = RecordBatch::try_new(new_schema, cols).unwrap();
-                Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(mapped)))
-            }
-            Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))) => Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))),
-            Poll::Ready(None) => Poll::Ready(None),
-            Poll::Pending => Poll::Pending,
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => Poll::Ready(Some(self.to_text(batch))),
+            other => other,
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl RecordBatchStream for JsonTextStream {
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
-        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            &self.jsonb_col,
-            DataType::Utf8,
-            true,
-        )]))
-    }
-}
-
-pub fn jsonb_to_json(col: &ArrayRef, col_name: &str) -> lance_core::Result<ArrayRef> {
-    let binary_array = col
-        .as_any()
-        .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
-        .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("column {} is not a large binary array", col_name));
-    let mut builder =
-        arrow_array::builder::LargeStringBuilder::with_capacity(binary_array.len(), 1024);
-    for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
-        if binary_array.is_null(i) {
-            builder.append_null();
-        } else if let Some(bytes) = binary_array.value(i).into() {
-            let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(bytes);
-            let json_text = raw_jsonb.to_string();
-            builder.append_value(json_text);
-        } else {
-            unreachable!("jsonb value is not valid");
-        }
+        self.schema.clone()
     }
-    Ok(Arc::new(builder.finish()))
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use crate::scalar::inverted::json::JsonTextStream;
-    use arrow_array::builder::{LargeBinaryBuilder, UInt64Builder};
+    use arrow_array::builder::UInt64Builder;
     use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch, StringArray};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::execution::RecordBatchStream;
     use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-    use futures::{stream, TryStreamExt};
+    use futures::{TryStreamExt, stream};
+    use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+    use lance_arrow::json::{ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME, JsonArray, json_field};
+    use rstest::rstest;
     use serde_json::Value;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
+    /// JSON documents read as the same text whether they arrive as stored
+    /// JSONB or as Arrow JSON text.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::jsonb(true)]
+    #[case::arrow_json_text(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_json_text_stream() {
+    async fn test_json_text_stream(#[case] is_jsonb: bool) {
         let json_strings = [
             r#"{"a": 1, "b": "hello"}"#,
             r#"{"c": [1, 2, 3], "d": {"e": true}}"#,
             r#"{"f": null}"#,
         ];
-
-        let mut jsonb_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::new();
+        let text = StringArray::from(json_strings.to_vec());
+        let (json_field, json_values): (Field, ArrayRef) = if is_jsonb {
+            (
+                json_field("json_col", true),
+                Arc::new(JsonArray::try_from(&text).unwrap().into_inner()),
+            )
+        } else {
+            (
+                Field::new("json_col", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                    ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+                    ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+                )])),
+                Arc::new(text),
+            )
+        };
         let mut rowid_builder = UInt64Builder::new();
-
-        for (i, json_str) in json_strings.iter().enumerate() {
-            let jsonb_bytes = jsonb::parse_value(json_str.as_bytes()).unwrap().to_vec();
-            jsonb_builder.append_value(jsonb_bytes);
-            rowid_builder.append_value(i as u64);
-        }
+        rowid_builder.append_slice(&[0, 1, 2]);
 
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("json_col", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+            json_field,
             Field::new("rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
         ]));
-
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(jsonb_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
-                Arc::new(rowid_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
-            ],
+            vec![json_values, Arc::new(rowid_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
@@ -143,28 +147,40 @@ mod tests {
             stream::once(async { Ok(batch) }),
         ));
 
-        let json_text_stream = JsonTextStream::new(stream, "json_col".to_string());
-
+        let json_text_stream = JsonTextStream::try_new(stream, "json_col".to_string()).unwrap();
+        let stream_schema = json_text_stream.schema();
         let result_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = json_text_stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(result_batches.len(), 1);
         let result_batch = &result_batches[0];
+        assert_eq!(result_batch.schema(), stream_schema);
 
-        let expected_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("json_col", DataType::LargeUtf8, true),
-            Field::new("rowid", DataType::UInt64, false),
-        ]));
-        assert_eq!(result_batch.schema(), expected_schema);
-
-        let json_text_col = result_batch
-            .column_by_name("json_col")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_string::<i64>();
-
-        for (i, original_json_str) in json_strings.iter().enumerate() {
-            let converted_json_str = json_text_col.value(i);
+        let json_text_col = result_batch.column_by_name("json_col").unwrap();
+        let json_texts: Vec<&str> = if is_jsonb {
+            json_text_col.as_string::<i64>().iter().flatten().collect()
+        } else {
+            json_text_col.as_string::<i32>().iter().flatten().collect()
+        };
+        for (original_json_str, converted_json_str) in json_strings.iter().zip(json_texts) {
             let original_value: Value = serde_json::from_str(original_json_str).unwrap();
             let converted_value: Value = serde_json::from_str(converted_json_str).unwrap();
             assert_eq!(original_value, converted_value);
         }
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_text_stream_rejects_non_json_column() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "json_col",
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::empty()));
+        let error = JsonTextStream::try_new(stream, "json_col".to_string())
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("json_col is not json"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/merger.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/merger.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index d1e98ac84ae..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/merger.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,408 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-use fst::Streamer;
-use futures::{stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
-
-use crate::scalar::IndexStore;
-
-use super::{
-    builder::{doc_file_path, posting_file_path, token_file_path, InnerBuilder, PositionRecorder},
-    InvertedPartition, PostingListBuilder, TokenMap, TokenSetFormat,
-};
-
-pub trait Merger {
-    // Merge the partitions and write new partitions,
-    // the new partitions are returned.
-    // This method streams partitions with bounded buffering to avoid
-    // loading all partitions into memory at once.
-    async fn merge(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<u64>>;
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub(super) struct PartitionSource {
-    store: std::sync::Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-    id: u64,
-}
-
-impl PartitionSource {
-    pub(super) fn new(store: std::sync::Arc<dyn IndexStore>, id: u64) -> Self {
-        Self { store, id }
-    }
-
-    async fn load(
-        &self,
-        cache: &LanceCache,
-        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
-    ) -> Result<InvertedPartition> {
-        InvertedPartition::load(self.store.clone(), self.id, None, cache, token_set_format).await
-    }
-}
-
-// A merger that merges partitions based on their size,
-// it would read the posting lists for each token from
-// the partitions and write them to a new partition,
-// until the size of the new partition reaches the target size.
-pub struct SizeBasedMerger<'a> {
-    dest_store: &'a dyn IndexStore,
-    input: Vec<PartitionSource>,
-    with_position: Option<bool>,
-    target_size: u64,
-    token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
-    builder: Option<InnerBuilder>,
-    next_id: u64,
-    partitions: Vec<u64>,
-}
-
-impl<'a> SizeBasedMerger<'a> {
-    // Create a new SizeBasedMerger with the target size,
-    // the size is compressed size in byte.
-    // Typically, just set the size to the memory limit,
-    // because less partitions means faster query.
-    pub fn new(
-        dest_store: &'a dyn IndexStore,
-        input: Vec<PartitionSource>,
-        target_size: u64,
-        token_set_format: TokenSetFormat,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let max_id = input.iter().map(|p| p.id).max().unwrap_or(0);
-
-        Self {
-            dest_store,
-            input,
-            with_position: None,
-            target_size,
-            token_set_format,
-            builder: None,
-            next_id: max_id + 1,
-            partitions: Vec::new(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    async fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        let Some(builder) = self.builder.as_mut() else {
-            return Ok(());
-        };
-
-        if !builder.tokens.is_empty() {
-            log::info!("flushing partition {}", builder.id());
-            let start = std::time::Instant::now();
-            builder.write(self.dest_store).await?;
-            log::info!(
-                "flushed partition {} in {:?}",
-                builder.id(),
-                start.elapsed()
-            );
-            self.partitions.push(builder.id());
-            let with_position = self.with_position.expect("with_position must be set");
-            let next_id = self.next_id;
-            self.builder = Some(InnerBuilder::new(
-                next_id,
-                with_position,
-                self.token_set_format,
-            ));
-            self.next_id += 1;
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    fn ensure_builder(&mut self, part: &InvertedPartition) -> Result<()> {
-        let with_position = part.inverted_list.has_positions();
-        match self.with_position {
-            Some(existing) => {
-                if existing != with_position {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: "partition position settings do not match".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-            }
-            None => {
-                self.with_position = Some(with_position);
-            }
-        }
-
-        if self.builder.is_none() {
-            let with_position = self.with_position.expect("with_position must be set");
-            self.builder = Some(InnerBuilder::new(
-                self.next_id,
-                with_position,
-                self.token_set_format,
-            ));
-            self.next_id += 1;
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    async fn merge_partition(
-        &mut self,
-        part: InvertedPartition,
-        estimated_size: &mut u64,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        self.ensure_builder(&part)?;
-
-        {
-            let builder = self.builder.as_ref().expect("builder must exist");
-            if builder.docs.len() + part.docs.len() > u32::MAX as usize
-                || *estimated_size >= self.target_size
-            {
-                self.flush().await?;
-                *estimated_size = 0;
-                self.ensure_builder(&part)?;
-            }
-        }
-
-        let builder = self.builder.as_mut().expect("builder must exist");
-        let mut token_id_map = vec![u32::MAX; part.tokens.len()];
-        match &part.tokens.tokens {
-            TokenMap::HashMap(map) => {
-                for (token, token_id) in map.iter() {
-                    let new_token_id = builder.tokens.get_or_add(token.as_str());
-                    let index = *token_id as usize;
-                    debug_assert!(index < token_id_map.len());
-                    token_id_map[index] = new_token_id;
-                }
-            }
-            TokenMap::Fst(map) => {
-                let mut stream = map.stream();
-                while let Some((token, token_id)) = stream.next() {
-                    let token_id = token_id as u32;
-                    let token = String::from_utf8_lossy(token);
-                    let new_token_id = builder.tokens.get_or_add(token.as_ref());
-                    let index = token_id as usize;
-                    debug_assert!(index < token_id_map.len());
-                    token_id_map[index] = new_token_id;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        let doc_id_offset = builder.docs.len() as u32;
-        for (row_id, num_tokens) in part.docs.iter() {
-            builder.docs.append(*row_id, *num_tokens);
-        }
-        builder.posting_lists.resize_with(builder.tokens.len(), || {
-            PostingListBuilder::new(part.inverted_list.has_positions())
-        });
-
-        let postings = part
-            .inverted_list
-            .read_batch(part.inverted_list.has_positions())
-            .await?;
-        for token_id in 0..part.tokens.len() as u32 {
-            let posting_list = part
-                .inverted_list
-                .posting_list_from_batch(&postings.slice(token_id as usize, 1), token_id)?;
-            let new_token_id = token_id_map[token_id as usize];
-            debug_assert_ne!(new_token_id, u32::MAX);
-            let builder = &mut builder.posting_lists[new_token_id as usize];
-            let old_size = builder.size();
-            for (doc_id, freq, positions) in posting_list.iter() {
-                let new_doc_id = doc_id_offset + doc_id as u32;
-                let positions = match positions {
-                    Some(positions) => PositionRecorder::Position(positions.collect()),
-                    None => PositionRecorder::Count(freq),
-                };
-                builder.add(new_doc_id, positions);
-            }
-            let new_size = builder.size();
-            *estimated_size += new_size - old_size;
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-}
-
-impl Merger for SizeBasedMerger<'_> {
-    async fn merge(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
-        if self.input.len() <= 1 {
-            for part in self.input.iter() {
-                part.store
-                    .copy_index_file(&token_file_path(part.id), self.dest_store)
-                    .await?;
-                part.store
-                    .copy_index_file(&posting_file_path(part.id), self.dest_store)
-                    .await?;
-                part.store
-                    .copy_index_file(&doc_file_path(part.id), self.dest_store)
-                    .await?;
-            }
-
-            return Ok(self.input.iter().map(|p| p.id).collect());
-        }
-
-        // for token set, union the tokens,
-        // for doc set, concatenate the row ids, assign the doc id to offset + doc_id
-        // for posting list, concatenate the posting lists
-        log::info!(
-            "merging {} partitions with target size {} MiB",
-            self.input.len(),
-            self.target_size / 1024 / 1024
-        );
-        let mut estimated_size = 0;
-        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
-        let parts = std::mem::take(&mut self.input);
-        let num_parts = parts.len();
-        let buffer_size = std::cmp::max(
-            1,
-            std::cmp::min(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus(), num_parts),
-        );
-        let cache = LanceCache::no_cache();
-        let token_set_format = self.token_set_format;
-        let mut stream = stream::iter(parts.into_iter().map(|part| {
-            let cache = cache.clone();
-            async move { part.load(&cache, token_set_format).await }
-        }))
-        .buffered(buffer_size);
-
-        let mut idx = 0;
-        while let Some(part) = stream.try_next().await? {
-            idx += 1;
-            self.merge_partition(part, &mut estimated_size).await?;
-            log::info!(
-                "merged {}/{} partitions in {:?}",
-                idx,
-                num_parts,
-                start.elapsed()
-            );
-        }
-
-        self.flush().await?;
-        Ok(self.partitions.clone())
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-    use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
-    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
-    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-    use std::sync::Arc;
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_reuses_token_ids_for_shared_tokens() -> Result<()> {
-        let src_dir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let dest_dir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let src_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            ObjectStore::local().into(),
-            src_dir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-        let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            ObjectStore::local().into(),
-            dest_dir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-
-        let token_set_format = TokenSetFormat::default();
-
-        let mut builder0 = InnerBuilder::new(0, false, token_set_format);
-        let apple_id = builder0.tokens.add("apple".to_owned());
-        let banana_id = builder0.tokens.add("banana".to_owned());
-        builder0
-            .posting_lists
-            .resize_with(builder0.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-        let doc_id = builder0.docs.append(10, 2);
-        builder0.posting_lists[apple_id as usize].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder0.posting_lists[banana_id as usize].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder0.write(src_store.as_ref()).await?;
-
-        let mut builder1 = InnerBuilder::new(1, false, token_set_format);
-        let banana_id = builder1.tokens.add("banana".to_owned());
-        let carrot_id = builder1.tokens.add("carrot".to_owned());
-        builder1
-            .posting_lists
-            .resize_with(builder1.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-        let doc_id = builder1.docs.append(20, 2);
-        builder1.posting_lists[banana_id as usize].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder1.posting_lists[carrot_id as usize].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-        builder1.write(src_store.as_ref()).await?;
-
-        let mut merger = SizeBasedMerger::new(
-            dest_store.as_ref(),
-            vec![
-                PartitionSource::new(src_store.clone(), 0),
-                PartitionSource::new(src_store.clone(), 1),
-            ],
-            u64::MAX,
-            token_set_format,
-        );
-        let merged_partitions = merger.merge().await?;
-        assert_eq!(merged_partitions, vec![2]);
-
-        let merged = InvertedPartition::load(
-            dest_store.clone(),
-            merged_partitions[0],
-            None,
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            token_set_format,
-        )
-        .await?;
-
-        assert_eq!(merged.tokens.len(), 3);
-        assert_eq!(merged.docs.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(merged.docs.row_id(0), 10);
-        assert_eq!(merged.docs.row_id(1), 20);
-
-        let banana_token_id = merged.tokens.get("banana").unwrap();
-        let posting = merged
-            .inverted_list
-            .posting_list(banana_token_id, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await?;
-        let doc_ids: Vec<u64> = posting.iter().map(|(doc_id, _, _)| doc_id).collect();
-        assert_eq!(doc_ids, vec![0, 1]);
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_streams_partitions_in_batches() -> Result<()> {
-        let src_dir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let dest_dir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let src_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            ObjectStore::local().into(),
-            src_dir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-        let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            ObjectStore::local().into(),
-            dest_dir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
-        ));
-
-        let token_set_format = TokenSetFormat::default();
-        let num_parts = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().saturating_add(2);
-        let mut sources = Vec::with_capacity(num_parts);
-        for id in 0..num_parts as u64 {
-            let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new(id, false, token_set_format);
-            let token_id = builder.tokens.add(format!("token_{}", id));
-            builder
-                .posting_lists
-                .resize_with(builder.tokens.len(), || PostingListBuilder::new(false));
-            let doc_id = builder.docs.append(id * 10, 1);
-            builder.posting_lists[token_id as usize].add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Count(1));
-            builder.write(src_store.as_ref()).await?;
-            sources.push(PartitionSource::new(src_store.clone(), id));
-        }
-
-        let mut merger =
-            SizeBasedMerger::new(dest_store.as_ref(), sources, u64::MAX, token_set_format);
-        let merged_partitions = merger.merge().await?;
-        assert_eq!(merged_partitions, vec![num_parts as u64]);
-
-        let merged = InvertedPartition::load(
-            dest_store.clone(),
-            merged_partitions[0],
-            None,
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            token_set_format,
-        )
-        .await?;
-        assert_eq!(merged.tokens.len(), num_parts);
-        assert_eq!(merged.docs.len(), num_parts);
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/oracle.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/oracle.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3977d71bba0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/oracle.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Brute-force BM25F reference for the `combined_fields` tests and bench.
+//!
+//! Re-derives every statistic from the raw text on each call, so it shares no code with
+//! the scan it checks. `cfg(test)` here and the `test-oracle` feature downstream keep it
+//! out of normal builds.
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+const K1: f32 = 1.2;
+const B: f32 = 0.75;
+
+/// Splits on whitespace only, while the `simple` tokenizer splits on every
+/// non-alphanumeric character. Keep test corpora alphanumeric or scores diverge.
+fn tokenize(text: &str) -> Vec<String> {
+    text.split_whitespace()
+        .map(|word| word.to_lowercase())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Exact BM25F: `docFreq'`/`docCount'` are the max across fields, `tf'`/`dl'`/
+/// `sumTotalTermFreq'` weighted sums, and the `(k1 + 1)` numerator is Lance's. `None`
+/// for a document that does not match. `columns` pairs each field's weight with its
+/// text, one entry per document.
+///
+/// A `""` value stands for anything that tokenizes to nothing (NULL, empty string,
+/// empty list): absent from that column's statistics, so it must not raise
+/// `docCount_f`/`docFreq_f`. List columns are their elements joined by a space.
+#[cfg_attr(coverage, coverage(off))]
+pub fn brute_force_bm25f(
+    columns: &[(f32, Vec<&str>)],
+    query: &str,
+    require_all_terms: bool,
+) -> Vec<Option<f32>> {
+    let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+    let terms: Vec<String> = tokenize(query)
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|term| seen.insert(term.clone()))
+        .collect();
+    let num_docs = columns[0].1.len();
+    let tokenized: Vec<Vec<Vec<String>>> = columns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(_, texts)| texts.iter().map(|text| tokenize(text)).collect())
+        .collect();
+
+    // Zero-token documents are absent from a column's `DocSet`, and the flat scan's
+    // fold skips a column whose `dl_f == 0`, so they cannot raise `docCount_f` either.
+    let doc_count = tokenized
+        .iter()
+        .map(|column| column.iter().filter(|doc| !doc.is_empty()).count())
+        .max()
+        .unwrap_or(0);
+    let mut sum_total_term_freq = 0f64;
+    let mut doc_freq = vec![0usize; terms.len()];
+    for (column_index, (weight, _)) in columns.iter().enumerate() {
+        let total_tokens: usize = tokenized[column_index].iter().map(|doc| doc.len()).sum();
+        sum_total_term_freq += *weight as f64 * total_tokens as f64;
+        for (term_index, term) in terms.iter().enumerate() {
+            let df = tokenized[column_index]
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|doc| doc.contains(term))
+                .count();
+            doc_freq[term_index] = doc_freq[term_index].max(df);
+        }
+    }
+    let avgdl = if doc_count == 0 {
+        0.0
+    } else {
+        (sum_total_term_freq / doc_count as f64) as f32
+    };
+    let idf: Vec<f32> = doc_freq
+        .iter()
+        .map(|&df| {
+            if df == 0 {
+                0.0
+            } else {
+                ((doc_count as f32 - df as f32 + 0.5) / (df as f32 + 0.5) + 1.0).ln()
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    (0..num_docs)
+        .map(|doc| {
+            let mut tf = vec![0f32; terms.len()];
+            let mut dl = 0f32;
+            for (column_index, (weight, _)) in columns.iter().enumerate() {
+                dl += weight * tokenized[column_index][doc].len() as f32;
+                for (term_index, term) in terms.iter().enumerate() {
+                    let count = tokenized[column_index][doc]
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter(|token| *token == term)
+                        .count();
+                    tf[term_index] += weight * count as f32;
+                }
+            }
+            let matched = if require_all_terms {
+                tf.iter().all(|&freq| freq > 0.0)
+            } else {
+                tf.iter().any(|&freq| freq > 0.0)
+            };
+            if !matched {
+                return None;
+            }
+            let mut score = 0.0;
+            for term_index in 0..terms.len() {
+                if tf[term_index] <= 0.0 {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * dl / avgdl);
+                score +=
+                    idf[term_index] * (K1 + 1.0) * tf[term_index] / (tf[term_index] + doc_norm);
+            }
+            Some(score)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// The ids [`brute_force_bm25f`] matched.
+#[cfg_attr(coverage, coverage(off))]
+pub fn brute_force_ids(scores: &[Option<f32>]) -> HashSet<i32> {
+    (0..scores.len())
+        .filter(|&doc| scores[doc].is_some())
+        .map(|doc| doc as i32)
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// The `k` highest-scoring ids, descending, id as tiebreak.
+#[cfg_attr(coverage, coverage(off))]
+pub fn brute_force_top_k(scores: &[Option<f32>], k: usize) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let mut ranked: Vec<(i32, f32)> = scores
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter_map(|(doc, score)| score.map(|score| (doc as i32, score)))
+        .collect();
+    ranked.sort_by(|a, b| {
+        b.1.partial_cmp(&a.1)
+            .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
+            .then(a.0.cmp(&b.0))
+    });
+    ranked.into_iter().take(k).map(|(doc, _)| doc).collect()
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/parser.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/parser.rs
index 74e50157093..8993522b517 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/parser.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/parser.rs
@@ -1,12 +1,13 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use super::DocumentGranularity;
 use super::query::{
-    BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, FtsQuery, MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Occur, Operator, PhraseQuery,
+    BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, CombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery, MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Occur,
+    Operator, PhraseQuery,
 };
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use serde_json::Value;
-use snafu::location;
 
 pub trait JsonParser {
     fn from_json(value: &Value) -> Result<Self>
@@ -19,7 +20,7 @@ impl JsonParser for MatchQuery {
         let column = value["column"].as_str().map(String::from);
         let terms = value["terms"]
             .as_str()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing terms in match query", location!()))?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing terms in match query"))?
             .to_string();
         let boost = value["boost"]
             .as_f64()
@@ -43,6 +44,7 @@ impl JsonParser for MatchQuery {
             .as_u64()
             .map(|v| v as u32)
             .unwrap_or(0);
+        let document_granularity = parse_document_granularity(value)?;
 
         Ok(Self {
             column,
@@ -52,6 +54,7 @@ impl JsonParser for MatchQuery {
             max_expansions,
             operator,
             prefix_length,
+            document_granularity,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -61,28 +64,43 @@ impl JsonParser for PhraseQuery {
         let column = value["column"].as_str().map(String::from);
         let terms = value["terms"]
             .as_str()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing terms in phrase query", location!()))?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing terms in phrase query"))?
             .to_string();
         let slop = value["slop"].as_u64().map(|v| v as u32).unwrap_or(0);
+        let document_granularity = parse_document_granularity(value)?;
 
         Ok(Self {
             column,
             terms,
             slop,
+            document_granularity,
         })
     }
 }
 
+fn parse_document_granularity(value: &Value) -> Result<Option<DocumentGranularity>> {
+    match value.get("document_granularity") {
+        None | Some(Value::Null) => Ok(None),
+        Some(granularity) => serde_json::from_value(granularity.clone())
+            .map(Some)
+            .map_err(|error| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "invalid document_granularity in FTS query: {error}"
+                ))
+            }),
+    }
+}
+
 impl JsonParser for BoostQuery {
     fn from_json(value: &Value) -> Result<Self> {
         let positive = value["positive"]
             .as_object()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing positive in boost query", location!()))?;
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing positive in boost query"))?;
         let positive_query = from_json_value(&Value::Object(positive.clone()))?;
 
         let negative = value["negative"]
             .as_object()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing negative in boost query", location!()))?;
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing negative in boost query"))?;
         let negative_query = from_json_value(&Value::Object(negative.clone()))?;
 
         let negative_boost = value["negative_boost"].as_f64().map(|v| v as f32);
@@ -93,16 +111,16 @@ impl JsonParser for BoostQuery {
 
 impl JsonParser for MultiMatchQuery {
     fn from_json(value: &Value) -> Result<Self> {
-        let query = value["match_queries"].as_array().ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input("missing match_queries in multi_match query", location!())
-        })?;
+        let query = value["match_queries"]
+            .as_array()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing match_queries in multi_match query"))?;
         let query = query
             .iter()
             .map(MatchQuery::from_json)
             .collect::<Result<Vec<MatchQuery>>>()?;
 
         if query.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input("empty multi_match query", location!()));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("empty multi_match query"));
         }
 
         Ok(Self {
@@ -111,6 +129,54 @@ impl JsonParser for MultiMatchQuery {
     }
 }
 
+impl JsonParser for CombinedFieldsQuery {
+    fn from_json(value: &Value) -> Result<Self> {
+        let terms = value["query"]
+            .as_str()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing query in combined_fields query"))?
+            .to_string();
+        let columns = value["columns"]
+            .as_array()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing columns in combined_fields query"))?
+            .iter()
+            .map(|v| {
+                v.as_str().map(String::from).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(
+                        "columns must be an array of strings in combined_fields query",
+                    )
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<String>>>()?;
+
+        let query = Self::try_new(terms, columns)?;
+
+        let query = match value.get("boost") {
+            Some(Value::Array(boosts)) => {
+                let boosts = boosts
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|v| {
+                        v.as_f64().map(|f| f as f32).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input(
+                                "boost must be an array of numbers in combined_fields query",
+                            )
+                        })
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<f32>>>()?;
+                query.try_with_boosts(boosts)?
+            }
+            _ => query,
+        };
+
+        let operator = value["operator"]
+            .as_str()
+            .map(Operator::try_from)
+            .transpose()?
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        Ok(query.with_operator(operator))
+    }
+}
+
 impl JsonParser for BooleanQuery {
     fn from_json(value: &Value) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut clauses = Vec::new();
@@ -143,12 +209,9 @@ impl JsonParser for BooleanQuery {
 fn from_json_value(value: &Value) -> Result<FtsQuery> {
     let value = value
         .as_object()
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("value must be a JSON object", location!()))?;
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("value must be a JSON object"))?;
     if value.len() != 1 {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            "value must be a single JSON object",
-            location!(),
-        ));
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input("value must be a single JSON object"));
     }
 
     let (query_type, query_val) = value.into_iter().next().unwrap();
@@ -157,17 +220,20 @@ fn from_json_value(value: &Value) -> Result<FtsQuery> {
         "phrase" => Ok(FtsQuery::Phrase(PhraseQuery::from_json(query_val)?)),
         "boost" => Ok(FtsQuery::Boost(BoostQuery::from_json(query_val)?)),
         "multi_match" => Ok(FtsQuery::MultiMatch(MultiMatchQuery::from_json(query_val)?)),
+        "combined_fields" => Ok(FtsQuery::CombinedFields(CombinedFieldsQuery::from_json(
+            query_val,
+        )?)),
         "boolean" => Ok(FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::from_json(query_val)?)),
-        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!("unknown fts query type: {}", query_type),
-            location!(),
-        )),
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "unknown fts query type: {}",
+            query_type
+        ))),
     }
 }
 
 pub fn from_json(json: &str) -> Result<FtsQuery> {
     let value: Value = serde_json::from_str(json)
-        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid json: {}", e), location!()))?;
+        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid json: {}", e)))?;
     from_json_value(&value)
 }
 
@@ -199,6 +265,7 @@ mod tests {
             max_expansions: 10,
             operator: Operator::And,
             prefix_length: 2,
+            document_granularity: None,
         });
         assert_eq!(fts_query, expected_query);
     }
@@ -218,6 +285,7 @@ mod tests {
             column: Some("text".to_string()),
             terms: "hello world".to_string(),
             slop: 1,
+            document_granularity: None,
         });
         assert_eq!(fts_query, expected_query);
     }
@@ -328,4 +396,54 @@ mod tests {
         ]));
         assert_eq!(fts_query, expected_query);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_json_combined_fields() {
+        let json = r#"
+        {
+            "combined_fields": {
+                "query": "hello world",
+                "columns": ["title", "body"],
+                "boost": [2.0, 1.0],
+                "operator": "and"
+            }
+        }"#;
+        let fts_query = from_json(json).unwrap();
+        let expected = CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+            "hello world".to_string(),
+            vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_with_boosts(vec![2.0, 1.0])
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_operator(Operator::And);
+        assert_eq!(fts_query, FtsQuery::CombinedFields(expected));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_json_combined_fields_defaults_and_validation() {
+        // boost + operator omitted: weights default to 1.0, operator to Or.
+        let json = r#"{ "combined_fields": { "query": "hi", "columns": ["a", "b"] } }"#;
+        let FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query) = from_json(json).unwrap() else {
+            panic!("expected combined_fields query");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.weighted_columns().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![("a", 1.0), ("b", 1.0)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(query.operator(), Operator::Or);
+
+        // A weight below 1 is rejected.
+        let json = r#"{ "combined_fields": { "query": "hi", "columns": ["a", "b"], "boost": [0.5, 1.0] } }"#;
+        assert!(from_json(json).is_err());
+
+        // So is a weight above the upper bound that keeps the blended length
+        // finite.
+        let json = r#"{ "combined_fields": { "query": "hi", "columns": ["a", "b"], "boost": [1.0, 1e30] } }"#;
+        assert!(from_json(json).is_err());
+
+        // Empty columns are rejected.
+        let json = r#"{ "combined_fields": { "query": "hi", "columns": [] } }"#;
+        assert!(from_json(json).is_err());
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/query.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/query.rs
index 0f1f2a47eac..d6c813c697c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/query.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/query.rs
@@ -1,19 +1,71 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::scalar::inverted::lance_tokenizer::DocType;
-use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::lance_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::document_tokenizer::DocType;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use serde::ser::SerializeMap;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
-use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+
+/// Return whether a Match query requires vocabulary expansion.
+///
+/// `None` selects automatic fuzziness, while `Some(0)` is the only exact
+/// Match mode. Keeping this predicate here prevents tokenization, scorer
+/// preparation, and posting search from assigning different meanings to the
+/// same wire value.
+pub fn uses_fuzzy_expansion(fuzziness: Option<u32>) -> bool {
+    fuzziness != Some(0)
+}
+
+/// Fully resolved fuzzy options for one token.
+pub(crate) struct FuzzyTermOptions<'a> {
+    pub(crate) edit_distance: u32,
+    pub(crate) exact_prefix: &'a str,
+    pub(crate) fuzzy_suffix: &'a str,
+}
+
+/// Resolve automatic edit distance and the exact prefix for one token.
+///
+/// JSON tokens have the form `path,type,value`. The path and type are always
+/// exact; automatic fuzziness and the caller's prefix length apply only to the
+/// value. Prefix lengths count Unicode scalar values, even though the returned
+/// prefix remains a byte slice for the FST automaton.
+pub(crate) fn fuzzy_term_options<'a>(
+    token: &'a str,
+    token_type: &DocType,
+    fuzziness: Option<u32>,
+    prefix_length: u32,
+) -> FuzzyTermOptions<'a> {
+    let value_start = token_type.prefix_len(token);
+    let value = &token[value_start..];
+    let edit_distance = fuzziness.unwrap_or_else(|| MatchQuery::auto_fuzziness(value));
+    let value_prefix_end = value
+        .char_indices()
+        .nth(prefix_length as usize)
+        .map_or(value.len(), |(offset, _)| offset);
+    FuzzyTermOptions {
+        edit_distance,
+        exact_prefix: &token[..value_start + value_prefix_end],
+        fuzzy_suffix: &value[value_prefix_end..],
+    }
+}
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 pub struct FtsSearchParams {
+    /// Controls result completeness for each recursively planned FTS node.
+    ///
+    /// `Some(k)` permits bounded top-k execution. Posting-backed compound
+    /// queries apply it only at their root collector and propagate the
+    /// resulting competitive score through child scorers. The exact
+    /// DataFusion fallback passes `None` recursively so intermediate children
+    /// remain complete.
     pub limit: Option<usize>,
     pub wand_factor: f32,
     pub fuzziness: Option<u32>,
+    /// Final fuzzy vocabulary budget for one Match leaf across all selected
+    /// segments and partitions.
     pub max_expansions: usize,
     // None means not a phrase query
     // Some(n) means a phrase query with slop n
@@ -84,10 +136,7 @@ impl TryFrom<&str> for Operator {
         match value.to_ascii_uppercase().as_str() {
             "AND" => Ok(Self::And),
             "OR" => Ok(Self::Or),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Invalid operator: {}", value),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("Invalid operator: {}", value))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -115,6 +164,7 @@ pub enum FtsQuery {
     // compound queries
     Boost(BoostQuery),
     MultiMatch(MultiMatchQuery),
+    CombinedFields(CombinedFieldsQuery),
     Boolean(BooleanQuery),
 }
 
@@ -129,11 +179,12 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for FtsQuery {
                 query.positive, query.negative, query.negative_boost
             ),
             Self::MultiMatch(query) => write!(f, "MultiMatch({:?})", query),
+            Self::CombinedFields(query) => write!(f, "CombinedFields({:?})", query),
             Self::Boolean(query) => {
                 write!(
                     f,
-                    "Boolean(must={:?}, should={:?})",
-                    query.must, query.should
+                    "Boolean(must={:?}, should={:?}, must_not={:?})",
+                    query.must, query.should, query.must_not
                 )
             }
         }
@@ -157,16 +208,8 @@ impl FtsQueryNode for FtsQuery {
                 }
                 columns
             }
-            Self::Boolean(query) => {
-                let mut columns = HashSet::new();
-                for query in &query.must {
-                    columns.extend(query.columns());
-                }
-                for query in &query.should {
-                    columns.extend(query.columns());
-                }
-                columns
-            }
+            Self::CombinedFields(query) => query.columns(),
+            Self::Boolean(query) => query.columns(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -178,6 +221,7 @@ impl FtsQuery {
             Self::Phrase(query) => format!("\"{}\"", query.terms), // Phrase queries are quoted
             Self::Boost(query) => query.positive.query(),
             Self::MultiMatch(query) => query.match_queries[0].terms.clone(),
+            Self::CombinedFields(query) => query.terms().to_string(),
             Self::Boolean(_) => {
                 // Bool queries don't have a single query string, they are composed of multiple queries
                 String::new()
@@ -193,9 +237,13 @@ impl FtsQuery {
                 query.positive.is_missing_column() || query.negative.is_missing_column()
             }
             Self::MultiMatch(query) => query.match_queries.iter().any(|q| q.column.is_none()),
+            // `try_new` rejects an empty column list, so the target columns of a
+            // combined_fields query are always known.
+            Self::CombinedFields(_) => false,
             Self::Boolean(query) => {
                 query.must.iter().any(|q| q.is_missing_column())
                     || query.should.iter().any(|q| q.is_missing_column())
+                    || query.must_not.iter().any(|q| q.is_missing_column())
             }
         }
     }
@@ -221,6 +269,11 @@ impl FtsQuery {
                     .collect();
                 Self::MultiMatch(MultiMatchQuery { match_queries })
             }
+            Self::CombinedFields(query) => {
+                // combined_fields carries all target columns (and their per-column
+                // boosts) at construction, so a single-column override is a no-op.
+                Self::CombinedFields(query)
+            }
             Self::Boolean(query) => {
                 let must = query
                     .must
@@ -271,6 +324,12 @@ impl From<MultiMatchQuery> for FtsQuery {
     }
 }
 
+impl From<CombinedFieldsQuery> for FtsQuery {
+    fn from(query: CombinedFieldsQuery) -> Self {
+        Self::CombinedFields(query)
+    }
+}
+
 impl From<BooleanQuery> for FtsQuery {
     fn from(query: BooleanQuery) -> Self {
         Self::Boolean(query)
@@ -284,7 +343,9 @@ pub struct MatchQuery {
     pub column: Option<String>,
     pub terms: String,
 
-    // literal default is not supported so we set it by function
+    /// Finite, non-negative score multiplier. Validation occurs at the FTS
+    /// query boundary so direct struct deserialization follows the same
+    /// contract as builder-created queries.
     #[serde(default = "MatchQuery::default_boost")]
     pub boost: f32,
 
@@ -296,8 +357,11 @@ pub struct MatchQuery {
     // - 2 for terms with length > 5
     pub fuzziness: Option<u32>,
 
-    /// The maximum number of terms to expand for fuzzy matching.
-    /// Default to 50.
+    /// The maximum final vocabulary size for this Match leaf.
+    ///
+    /// One budget is shared across all query positions and every selected
+    /// physical segment and partition. Sibling Match leaves, including fields
+    /// of a MultiMatch query, have independent budgets. Defaults to 50.
     #[serde(default = "MatchQuery::default_max_expansions")]
     pub max_expansions: usize,
 
@@ -312,6 +376,15 @@ pub struct MatchQuery {
     /// Default to 0.
     #[serde(default)]
     pub prefix_length: u32,
+
+    /// The requested logical document unit.
+    ///
+    /// When absent, query planning uses the granularity stored by the unique
+    /// FTS index on `column`. If no index exists, planning defaults to row
+    /// documents. Callers must set this when both row and list-element indexes
+    /// exist on the same field.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub document_granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
 }
 
 impl MatchQuery {
@@ -324,6 +397,7 @@ impl MatchQuery {
             max_expansions: 50,
             operator: Operator::Or,
             prefix_length: 0,
+            document_granularity: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -365,8 +439,13 @@ impl MatchQuery {
         self
     }
 
+    pub fn with_document_granularity(mut self, document_granularity: DocumentGranularity) -> Self {
+        self.document_granularity = Some(document_granularity);
+        self
+    }
+
     pub fn auto_fuzziness(token: &str) -> u32 {
-        match token.len() {
+        match token.chars().count() {
             0..=2 => 0,
             3..=5 => 1,
             _ => 2,
@@ -392,6 +471,14 @@ pub struct PhraseQuery {
     pub terms: String,
     #[serde(default = "u32::default")]
     pub slop: u32,
+    /// The requested logical document unit.
+    ///
+    /// When absent, query planning uses the granularity stored by the unique
+    /// FTS index on `column`. If no index exists, planning defaults to row
+    /// documents. Callers must set this when both row and list-element indexes
+    /// exist on the same field.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub document_granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
 }
 
 impl PhraseQuery {
@@ -400,6 +487,7 @@ impl PhraseQuery {
             column: None,
             terms,
             slop: 0,
+            document_granularity: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -412,6 +500,11 @@ impl PhraseQuery {
         self.slop = slop;
         self
     }
+
+    pub fn with_document_granularity(mut self, document_granularity: DocumentGranularity) -> Self {
+        self.document_granularity = Some(document_granularity);
+        self
+    }
 }
 
 impl FtsQueryNode for PhraseQuery {
@@ -428,6 +521,7 @@ impl FtsQueryNode for PhraseQuery {
 pub struct BoostQuery {
     pub positive: Box<FtsQuery>,
     pub negative: Box<FtsQuery>,
+    /// Finite, non-negative multiplier subtracted from the positive score.
     #[serde(default = "BoostQuery::default_negative_boost")]
     pub negative_boost: f32,
 }
@@ -460,33 +554,43 @@ pub struct MultiMatchQuery {
     pub match_queries: Vec<MatchQuery>,
 }
 
+/// Serializes every leaf under `match_queries`. The legacy `query`, `columns`
+/// and `boost` keys are also written when every leaf names a column, so a reader
+/// that predates `match_queries` degrades as before: it rebuilds default leaves
+/// from the first leaf's terms.
 impl Serialize for MultiMatchQuery {
     fn serialize<S>(&self, serializer: S) -> std::result::Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
     where
         S: serde::Serializer,
     {
-        let mut map = serializer.serialize_map(Some(3))?;
-
-        let query = self.match_queries.first().ok_or(serde::ser::Error::custom(
+        let first = self.match_queries.first().ok_or(serde::ser::Error::custom(
             "MultiMatchQuery must have at least one MatchQuery".to_string(),
         ))?;
-        map.serialize_entry("query", &query.terms)?;
-        let columns = self
-            .match_queries
-            .iter()
-            .map(|q| q.column.as_ref().unwrap().clone())
-            .collect::<Vec<String>>();
-        map.serialize_entry("columns", &columns)?;
-        let boosts = self
+        let legacy_columns = self
             .match_queries
             .iter()
-            .map(|q| q.boost)
-            .collect::<Vec<f32>>();
-        map.serialize_entry("boost", &boosts)?;
+            .map(|q| q.column.as_deref())
+            .collect::<Option<Vec<&str>>>();
+
+        let mut map =
+            serializer.serialize_map(Some(if legacy_columns.is_some() { 4 } else { 1 }))?;
+        if let Some(columns) = legacy_columns {
+            map.serialize_entry("query", &first.terms)?;
+            map.serialize_entry("columns", &columns)?;
+            let boosts = self
+                .match_queries
+                .iter()
+                .map(|q| q.boost)
+                .collect::<Vec<f32>>();
+            map.serialize_entry("boost", &boosts)?;
+        }
+        map.serialize_entry("match_queries", &self.match_queries)?;
         map.end()
     }
 }
 
+/// Reads `match_queries` when present. Otherwise falls back to the legacy
+/// `{query, columns, boost}` shape, which carries no per-leaf settings.
 impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for MultiMatchQuery {
     fn deserialize<D>(deserializer: D) -> std::result::Result<Self, D::Error>
     where
@@ -494,15 +598,30 @@ impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for MultiMatchQuery {
     {
         #[derive(Deserialize)]
         struct MultiMatchQueryData {
-            query: String,
-            columns: Vec<String>,
+            match_queries: Option<Vec<MatchQuery>>,
+            query: Option<String>,
+            columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
             boost: Option<Vec<f32>>,
         }
 
         let data = MultiMatchQueryData::deserialize(deserializer)?;
-        let boosts = data.boost.unwrap_or(vec![1.0; data.columns.len()]);
+        if let Some(match_queries) = data.match_queries {
+            if match_queries.is_empty() {
+                return Err(serde::de::Error::custom(
+                    "Cannot create MultiMatchQuery with no match queries",
+                ));
+            }
+            return Ok(Self { match_queries });
+        }
 
-        Self::try_new(data.query, data.columns)
+        let query = data
+            .query
+            .ok_or_else(|| serde::de::Error::missing_field("query"))?;
+        let columns = data
+            .columns
+            .ok_or_else(|| serde::de::Error::missing_field("columns"))?;
+        let boosts = data.boost.unwrap_or(vec![1.0; columns.len()]);
+        Self::try_new(query, columns)
             .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)?
             .try_with_boosts(boosts)
             .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)
@@ -514,7 +633,6 @@ impl MultiMatchQuery {
         if columns.is_empty() {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Cannot create MultiMatchQuery with no columns".to_string(),
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
@@ -529,7 +647,6 @@ impl MultiMatchQuery {
         if boosts.len() != self.match_queries.len() {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "The number of boosts must match the number of queries".to_string(),
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
@@ -557,9 +674,208 @@ impl FtsQueryNode for MultiMatchQuery {
     }
 }
 
+/// A cross-field (BM25F) full-text query, exposing Elasticsearch's
+/// `combined_fields` semantics: the target columns are treated as one virtual
+/// field so term statistics (document frequency, term frequency, and document
+/// length) are blended across fields rather than scored independently.
+///
+/// This contrasts with [`MultiMatchQuery`], which fans out into one
+/// [`MatchQuery`] per column and fuses the per-field scores by taking the
+/// maximum (Elasticsearch `best_fields`). A `CombinedFieldsQuery` stays a single
+/// node and is scored once over the blended statistics.
+///
+/// Per-column weights follow Lucene's `CombinedFieldQuery`; see
+/// [`Self::try_with_boosts`] for the accepted range.
+///
+/// Each column is stored together with its weight and every field is private, so
+/// the pairing cannot go out of sync: [`Self::try_new`] and
+/// [`Self::try_with_boosts`] are the only constructors and no accessor hands out a
+/// `&mut`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct CombinedFieldsQuery {
+    /// The columns combined into the virtual field, each paired with its BM25F
+    /// weight `w_f`. Non-empty, column names unique, weights in
+    /// `[MIN_BOOST, MAX_BOOST]`.
+    weighted_columns: Vec<(String, f32)>,
+    /// The query string, tokenized once and matched against every target column.
+    terms: String,
+    /// How to combine terms: `And` (all terms must match) or `Or` (default).
+    operator: Operator,
+}
+
+impl CombinedFieldsQuery {
+    /// Minimum allowed per-column weight (Lucene `CombinedFieldQuery` constraint).
+    const MIN_BOOST: f32 = 1.0;
+
+    /// Maximum allowed per-column weight.
+    ///
+    /// The blended length `dl'(d) = Σ_f w_f · dl_f(d)` and the identically shaped
+    /// `tf'` are accumulated in `f32`, and a per-column document length is a `u32`
+    /// token count. One term of that sum is therefore at most
+    /// `2^20 · (2^32 - 1) < 2^52`, so with `f32::MAX ≈ 2^128` it would take more
+    /// than `2^76` maximally long columns to reach infinity. The column count is
+    /// bounded by the schema, many orders of magnitude below that, so an accepted
+    /// weight cannot turn a score into `Inf`/`NaN`.
+    const MAX_BOOST: f32 = 1_048_576.0; // 2^20
+
+    /// Create a combined-fields query over `columns`, with every weight
+    /// defaulting to `1.0` and the `Or` operator.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if `columns` is empty or contains duplicates.
+    pub fn try_new(terms: String, columns: Vec<String>) -> Result<Self> {
+        if columns.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Cannot create CombinedFieldsQuery with no columns".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        // A duplicate column would double-count its postings and inflate
+        // sum_total_term_freq, skewing the blended BM25F statistics.
+        let mut seen = HashSet::with_capacity(columns.len());
+        for column in &columns {
+            if !seen.insert(column.as_str()) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "CombinedFieldsQuery columns must be unique, but '{}' is duplicated",
+                    column
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            weighted_columns: columns
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|column| (column, Self::MIN_BOOST))
+                .collect(),
+            terms,
+            operator: Operator::Or,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Set per-column weights, positionally aligned with the columns passed to
+    /// [`Self::try_new`].
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if the number of boosts does not match the number of
+    /// columns, or if any weight falls outside `[1, 2^20]`. The lower bound
+    /// mirrors Lucene's `CombinedFieldQuery`, which requires `weight >= 1` so the
+    /// combined length norm stays additive; the upper bound keeps the blended
+    /// length finite in `f32`. `NaN` and infinities are outside the range and so
+    /// rejected too.
+    pub fn try_with_boosts(mut self, boosts: Vec<f32>) -> Result<Self> {
+        if boosts.len() != self.weighted_columns.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "The number of boosts ({}) must match the number of columns ({})",
+                boosts.len(),
+                self.weighted_columns.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        for ((column, _), &boost) in self.weighted_columns.iter().zip(&boosts) {
+            if !(Self::MIN_BOOST..=Self::MAX_BOOST).contains(&boost) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "combined_fields boost for column '{}' must be a finite value in [{}, {}], got {}",
+                    column,
+                    Self::MIN_BOOST,
+                    Self::MAX_BOOST,
+                    boost
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        for ((_, weight), boost) in self.weighted_columns.iter_mut().zip(boosts) {
+            *weight = boost;
+        }
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Set the operator used to combine terms.
+    pub fn with_operator(mut self, operator: Operator) -> Self {
+        self.operator = operator;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// The query string, tokenized once and matched against every target column.
+    pub fn terms(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.terms
+    }
+
+    /// How the query terms are combined.
+    pub fn operator(&self) -> Operator {
+        self.operator
+    }
+
+    /// The target columns in query order.
+    pub fn column_names(&self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = &str> {
+        self.weighted_columns
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(column, _)| column.as_str())
+    }
+
+    /// Each target column paired with its BM25F weight, in query order.
+    ///
+    /// Iterating the pairs is the only way to read the weights, so an execution
+    /// path cannot pair a column with the wrong weight or silently drop a column
+    /// that has no weight.
+    pub fn weighted_columns(&self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = (&str, f32)> {
+        self.weighted_columns
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(column, weight)| (column.as_str(), *weight))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Serialize for CombinedFieldsQuery {
+    fn serialize<S>(&self, serializer: S) -> std::result::Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
+    where
+        S: serde::Serializer,
+    {
+        let mut map = serializer.serialize_map(Some(4))?;
+        map.serialize_entry("query", &self.terms)?;
+        map.serialize_entry("columns", &self.column_names().collect::<Vec<_>>())?;
+        map.serialize_entry(
+            "boost",
+            &self
+                .weighted_columns()
+                .map(|(_, weight)| weight)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        )?;
+        map.serialize_entry("operator", &self.operator)?;
+        map.end()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for CombinedFieldsQuery {
+    fn deserialize<D>(deserializer: D) -> std::result::Result<Self, D::Error>
+    where
+        D: serde::Deserializer<'de>,
+    {
+        #[derive(Deserialize)]
+        struct CombinedFieldsQueryData {
+            query: String,
+            columns: Vec<String>,
+            boost: Option<Vec<f32>>,
+            #[serde(default)]
+            operator: Operator,
+        }
+
+        let data = CombinedFieldsQueryData::deserialize(deserializer)?;
+        let query = Self::try_new(data.query, data.columns).map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)?;
+        let query = match data.boost {
+            Some(boosts) => query
+                .try_with_boosts(boosts)
+                .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)?,
+            None => query,
+        };
+        Ok(query.with_operator(data.operator))
+    }
+}
+
+impl FtsQueryNode for CombinedFieldsQuery {
+    fn columns(&self) -> HashSet<String> {
+        self.column_names().map(String::from).collect()
+    }
+}
+
 pub enum Occur {
+    /// The clause may match and contributes its score when it does.
     Should,
+    /// The clause must match and contributes its score.
     Must,
+    /// The clause must not match and never contributes to the score.
     MustNot,
 }
 
@@ -570,10 +886,10 @@ impl TryFrom<&str> for Occur {
             "SHOULD" => Ok(Self::Should),
             "MUST" => Ok(Self::Must),
             "MUST_NOT" => Ok(Self::MustNot),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Invalid occur value: {}", value),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid occur value: {}",
+                value
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -590,8 +906,11 @@ impl From<Occur> for &'static str {
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 pub struct BooleanQuery {
+    /// Optional scoring clauses, at least one of which must match when there are no MUST clauses.
     pub should: Vec<FtsQuery>,
+    /// Required scoring clauses whose scores are summed.
     pub must: Vec<FtsQuery>,
+    /// Prohibited non-scoring clauses.
     pub must_not: Vec<FtsQuery>,
 }
 
@@ -631,7 +950,7 @@ impl BooleanQuery {
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
-#[allow(dead_code)]
+#[cfg(test)]
 pub(crate) struct BooleanMatchPlan {
     pub column: String,
     pub should: Vec<MatchQuery>,
@@ -639,7 +958,7 @@ pub(crate) struct BooleanMatchPlan {
     pub must_not: Vec<MatchQuery>,
 }
 
-#[allow(dead_code)]
+#[cfg(test)]
 impl BooleanMatchPlan {
     pub(crate) fn try_build(query: &FtsQuery) -> Option<Self> {
         match query {
@@ -725,22 +1044,30 @@ impl FtsQueryNode for BooleanQuery {
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct Tokens {
     tokens: Vec<String>,
-    tokens_set: HashSet<String>,
+    positions: Vec<u32>,
+    tokens_map: HashMap<String, usize>,
     token_type: DocType,
 }
 
 impl Tokens {
     pub fn new(tokens: Vec<String>, token_type: DocType) -> Self {
+        let positions = (0..tokens.len() as u32).collect();
+        Self::with_positions(tokens, positions, token_type)
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_positions(tokens: Vec<String>, positions: Vec<u32>, token_type: DocType) -> Self {
+        debug_assert_eq!(tokens.len(), positions.len());
         let mut tokens_vec = vec![];
-        let mut tokens_set = HashSet::new();
-        for token in tokens.into_iter() {
+        let mut tokens_map = HashMap::new();
+        for (idx, token) in tokens.into_iter().enumerate() {
             tokens_vec.push(token.clone());
-            tokens_set.insert(token);
+            tokens_map.insert(token, idx);
         }
 
         Self {
             tokens: tokens_vec,
-            tokens_set,
+            positions,
+            tokens_map,
             token_type,
         }
     }
@@ -758,7 +1085,19 @@ impl Tokens {
     }
 
     pub fn contains(&self, token: &str) -> bool {
-        self.tokens_set.contains(token)
+        self.tokens_map.contains_key(token)
+    }
+
+    pub fn token_index(&self, token: &str) -> Option<usize> {
+        self.tokens_map.get(token).copied()
+    }
+
+    pub fn get_token(&self, index: usize) -> &str {
+        &self.tokens[index]
+    }
+
+    pub fn position(&self, index: usize) -> u32 {
+        self.positions[index]
     }
 }
 
@@ -780,42 +1119,90 @@ impl<'a> IntoIterator for &'a Tokens {
     }
 }
 
-pub fn collect_query_tokens(
+pub fn collect_query_tokens(text: &str, tokenizer: &mut Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>) -> Tokens {
+    let token_type = tokenizer.doc_type();
+    let stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search(text);
+    collect_tokens(stream, token_type)
+}
+
+/// Tokenize search text, returning tokenizer-specific query syntax errors.
+pub fn try_collect_query_tokens(
     text: &str,
     tokenizer: &mut Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
-    inclusive: Option<&HashSet<String>>,
-) -> Tokens {
+) -> Result<Tokens> {
     let token_type = tokenizer.doc_type();
-    let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search(text);
+    let stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search(text);
+    try_collect_tokens(stream, token_type)
+}
+
+fn collect_tokens(mut stream: lance_tokenizer::BoxTokenStream<'_>, token_type: DocType) -> Tokens {
     let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+    let mut positions = Vec::new();
     while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
-        if let Some(inclusive) = inclusive {
-            if !inclusive.contains(&token.text) {
-                continue;
-            }
-        }
         tokens.push(token.text.clone());
+        positions.push(token.position as u32);
+    }
+    finish_tokens(tokens, positions, token_type)
+}
+
+fn try_collect_tokens(
+    mut stream: lance_tokenizer::BoxTokenStream<'_>,
+    token_type: DocType,
+) -> Result<Tokens> {
+    let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+    let mut positions = Vec::new();
+    while let Some(token) = stream
+        .try_next()
+        .map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?
+    {
+        tokens.push(token.text.clone());
+        positions.push(token.position as u32);
     }
-    Tokens::new(tokens, token_type)
+    Ok(finish_tokens(tokens, positions, token_type))
 }
 
-pub fn collect_doc_tokens(
+fn finish_tokens(tokens: Vec<String>, mut positions: Vec<u32>, token_type: DocType) -> Tokens {
+    if let Some(min_position) = positions.iter().copied().min() {
+        // Token streams such as Jieba's search mode may emit overlapping terms out of position
+        // order. Rebase from the minimum so every position remains valid while preserving gaps.
+        for position in &mut positions {
+            *position -= min_position;
+        }
+    }
+    Tokens::with_positions(tokens, positions, token_type)
+}
+
+pub fn has_query_token(
     text: &str,
     tokenizer: &mut Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
-    inclusive: Option<&Tokens>,
-) -> Tokens {
-    let token_type = tokenizer.doc_type();
+    query_tokens: &Tokens,
+) -> bool {
     let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(text);
-    let mut tokens = Vec::new();
     while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
-        if let Some(inclusive) = inclusive {
-            if !inclusive.contains(&token.text) {
-                continue;
-            }
+        if query_tokens.contains(&token.text) {
+            return true;
         }
-        tokens.push(token.text.clone());
     }
-    Tokens::new(tokens, token_type)
+    false
+}
+
+fn fill_match_query_columns(
+    query: &MatchQuery,
+    columns: &[String],
+    replace: bool,
+) -> Result<Vec<MatchQuery>> {
+    if query.column.is_some() && !replace {
+        return Ok(vec![query.clone()]);
+    }
+    if columns.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Cannot perform full text search unless an INVERTED index has been created on at least one column".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(columns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|column| query.clone().with_column(Some(column.clone())))
+        .collect())
 }
 
 pub fn fill_fts_query_column(
@@ -828,33 +1215,17 @@ pub fn fill_fts_query_column(
     }
     match query {
         FtsQuery::Match(match_query) => {
-            match columns.len() {
-                0 => {
-                    Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "Cannot perform full text search unless an INVERTED index has been created on at least one column".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
-                }
-                1 => {
-                    let column = columns[0].clone();
-                    let query = match_query.clone().with_column(Some(column));
-                    Ok(FtsQuery::Match(query))
-                }
-                _ => {
-                    // if there are multiple columns, we need to create a MultiMatch query
-                    let multi_match_query =
-                        MultiMatchQuery::try_new(match_query.terms.clone(), columns.to_vec())?;
-                    Ok(FtsQuery::MultiMatch(multi_match_query))
-                }
+            let match_queries = fill_match_query_columns(match_query, columns, replace)?;
+            if let [match_query] = match_queries.as_slice() {
+                Ok(FtsQuery::Match(match_query.clone()))
+            } else {
+                Ok(FtsQuery::MultiMatch(MultiMatchQuery { match_queries }))
             }
         }
         FtsQuery::Phrase(phrase_query) => {
             match columns.len() {
                 0 => {
-                    Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "Cannot perform full text search unless an INVERTED index has been created on at least one column".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input("Cannot perform full text search unless an INVERTED index has been created on at least one column".to_string()))
                 }
                 1 => {
                     let column = columns[0].clone();
@@ -862,10 +1233,7 @@ pub fn fill_fts_query_column(
                     Ok(FtsQuery::Phrase(query))
                 }
                 _ => {
-                    Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input("the column must be specified in the query".to_string()))
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -882,19 +1250,18 @@ pub fn fill_fts_query_column(
             let match_queries = multi_match_query
                 .match_queries
                 .iter()
-                .map(|query| fill_fts_query_column(&FtsQuery::Match(query.clone()), columns, replace))
-                .map(|result| {
-                    result.map(|query| {
-                        if let FtsQuery::Match(match_query) = query {
-                            match_query
-                        } else {
-                            unreachable!("Expected MatchQuery")
-                        }
-                    })
-                })
-                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                .map(|query| fill_match_query_columns(query, columns, replace))
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+                .into_iter()
+                .flatten()
+                .collect();
             Ok(FtsQuery::MultiMatch(MultiMatchQuery { match_queries }))
        }
+        FtsQuery::CombinedFields(combined_query) => {
+            // combined_fields carries its target columns (and per-column boosts)
+            // at construction, so there is nothing to fill or replace.
+            Ok(FtsQuery::CombinedFields(combined_query.clone()))
+        }
         FtsQuery::Boolean(bool_query) => {
             let must = bool_query
                 .must
@@ -918,6 +1285,152 @@ pub fn fill_fts_query_column(
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "tokenizer-jieba")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_query_tokens_normalizes_unordered_jieba_positions() {
+        let mut jieba = jieba_rs::Jieba::empty();
+        jieba.add_word("NGP渗透率", Some(1_000_000), None);
+        jieba.add_word("渗透", Some(10_000), None);
+        jieba.add_word("透率", Some(10_000), None);
+        let analyzer = lance_tokenizer::JiebaTokenizer::new(jieba).analyzer();
+        let mut tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> = Box::new(
+            crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::TextTokenizer::new(analyzer),
+        );
+
+        let query = "NGP渗透率";
+        let tokens = collect_query_tokens(query, &mut tokenizer);
+        let positions = (0..tokens.len())
+            .map(|index| tokens.position(index))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        assert_eq!(positions, vec![3, 4, 0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fuzzy_expansion_mode_and_unicode_auto_boundaries() {
+        assert!(!uses_fuzzy_expansion(Some(0)));
+        assert!(uses_fuzzy_expansion(Some(1)));
+        assert!(uses_fuzzy_expansion(None));
+
+        for (token, expected) in [
+            ("ab", 0),
+            ("abc", 1),
+            ("abcde", 1),
+            ("abcdef", 2),
+            ("你好", 0),
+            ("你好啊", 1),
+            ("你好啊世界", 1),
+            ("你好啊世界呀", 2),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                MatchQuery::auto_fuzziness(token),
+                expected,
+                "unexpected automatic fuzziness for {token:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_fuzzy_options_keep_path_and_type_exact() {
+        let automatic = fuzzy_term_options("payload,str,éclair", &DocType::Json, None, 1);
+        assert_eq!(automatic.edit_distance, 2);
+        assert_eq!(automatic.exact_prefix, "payload,str,é");
+        assert_eq!(automatic.fuzzy_suffix, "clair");
+
+        let explicit = fuzzy_term_options("payload,str,éclair", &DocType::Json, Some(1), 0);
+        assert_eq!(explicit.edit_distance, 1);
+        assert_eq!(explicit.exact_prefix, "payload,str,");
+        assert_eq!(explicit.fuzzy_suffix, "éclair");
+
+        let text = fuzzy_term_options("éclair", &DocType::Text, None, 1);
+        assert_eq!(text.edit_distance, 2);
+        assert_eq!(text.exact_prefix, "é");
+        assert_eq!(text.fuzzy_suffix, "clair");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_boolean_query_introspection_includes_must_not() {
+        let implicit = MatchQuery::new("exclude".to_string())
+            .with_boost(3.0)
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+            .with_max_expansions(10)
+            .with_operator(Operator::And)
+            .with_prefix_length(2)
+            .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row);
+        let query = FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new([
+            (
+                Occur::Must,
+                MatchQuery::new("include".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("positive_text".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+            (Occur::MustNot, implicit.clone().into()),
+        ]));
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.columns(),
+            HashSet::from(["positive_text".to_string()])
+        );
+        assert!(query.is_missing_column());
+
+        let filled = fill_fts_query_column(
+            &query,
+            &["positive_text".to_string(), "negative_text".to_string()],
+            false,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            filled.columns(),
+            HashSet::from(["positive_text".to_string(), "negative_text".to_string()])
+        );
+        let FtsQuery::Boolean(filled) = filled else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        let FtsQuery::MultiMatch(expanded) = &filled.must_not[0] else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            expanded.match_queries,
+            ["positive_text", "negative_text"]
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|column| implicit.clone().with_column(Some(column.to_string())))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fill_partial_multi_match_columns() {
+        use super::*;
+
+        let implicit = MatchQuery::new("include".to_string()).with_boost(2.0);
+        let query = FtsQuery::MultiMatch(MultiMatchQuery {
+            match_queries: vec![
+                MatchQuery::new("include".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("a".to_string()))
+                    .with_boost(3.0),
+                implicit.clone(),
+            ],
+        });
+
+        let filled =
+            fill_fts_query_column(&query, &["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()], false).unwrap();
+        let FtsQuery::MultiMatch(filled) = filled else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            filled.match_queries,
+            vec![
+                MatchQuery::new("include".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("a".to_string()))
+                    .with_boost(3.0),
+                implicit.clone().with_column(Some("a".to_string())),
+                implicit.with_column(Some("b".to_string())),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_match_query_serde() {
         use super::*;
@@ -955,6 +1468,19 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(query.max_expansions, 50);
         assert_eq!(query.operator, Operator::Or);
         assert_eq!(query.prefix_length, 0);
+        assert_eq!(query.document_granularity, None);
+
+        let query = query.with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.document_granularity,
+            Some(DocumentGranularity::ListElement)
+        );
+        let serialized = serde_json::to_value(&query).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(serialized["document_granularity"], "list_element");
+        assert_eq!(
+            serde_json::from_value::<MatchQuery>(serialized).unwrap(),
+            query
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -979,6 +1505,14 @@ mod tests {
             .with_slop(2);
         let query: PhraseQuery = serde_json::from_value(query).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(query, expected);
+
+        let query = query.with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+        let serialized = serde_json::to_value(&query).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(serialized["document_granularity"], "list_element");
+        assert_eq!(
+            serde_json::from_value::<PhraseQuery>(serialized).unwrap(),
+            query
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1012,6 +1546,38 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(plan.must_not, vec![must_not]);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_boolean_query_columns_include_must_not() {
+        use super::*;
+
+        let must = MatchQuery::new("required".to_string()).with_column(Some("title".to_string()));
+        let must_not = MatchQuery::new("blocked".to_string()).with_column(Some("body".to_string()));
+        let query = FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new([
+            (Occur::Must, must.into()),
+            (Occur::MustNot, must_not.into()),
+        ]));
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.columns(),
+            HashSet::from(["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()])
+        );
+        assert!(!query.is_missing_column());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_boolean_query_missing_must_not_column_is_detected() {
+        use super::*;
+
+        let must = MatchQuery::new("required".to_string()).with_column(Some("title".to_string()));
+        let must_not = MatchQuery::new("blocked".to_string());
+        let query = FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new([
+            (Occur::Must, must.into()),
+            (Occur::MustNot, must_not.into()),
+        ]));
+
+        assert!(query.is_missing_column());
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_boolean_match_plan_rejects_mixed_columns() {
         use super::*;
@@ -1051,4 +1617,293 @@ mod tests {
         let query = MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string());
         assert!(BooleanMatchPlan::try_build(&FtsQuery::Match(query)).is_none());
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_combined_fields_query_serde() {
+        use super::*;
+        use serde_json::json;
+
+        let query = CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+            "hello world".to_string(),
+            vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_with_boosts(vec![2.0, 1.0])
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_operator(Operator::And);
+
+        // Serializes with multi_match-style keys, plus a round-tripped operator.
+        let serialized = serde_json::to_value(&query).unwrap();
+        let expected = json!({
+            "query": "hello world",
+            "columns": ["title", "body"],
+            "boost": [2.0, 1.0],
+            "operator": "And",
+        });
+        assert_eq!(serialized, expected);
+
+        // The wire format is a contract, so pin the exact bytes (key order
+        // included), not just the equivalent `Value`.
+        assert_eq!(
+            serde_json::to_string(&query).unwrap(),
+            r#"{"query":"hello world","columns":["title","body"],"boost":[2.0,1.0],"operator":"And"}"#
+        );
+
+        let deserialized: CombinedFieldsQuery = serde_json::from_value(serialized).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(deserialized, query);
+
+        // Round-trips as a wrapped FtsQuery variant under the "combined_fields" tag.
+        let wrapped = FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query);
+        let value = serde_json::to_value(&wrapped).unwrap();
+        assert!(value.get("combined_fields").is_some());
+        let round_trip: FtsQuery = serde_json::from_value(value).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(round_trip, wrapped);
+    }
+
+    fn per_leaf_multi_match() -> MultiMatchQuery {
+        MultiMatchQuery {
+            match_queries: vec![
+                MatchQuery::new("alpha beta".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("title".to_string()))
+                    .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                    .with_boost(2.0)
+                    .with_fuzziness(None)
+                    .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+                MatchQuery::new("gamma delta".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("body".to_string()))
+                    .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                    .with_fuzziness(Some(2))
+                    .with_max_expansions(7)
+                    .with_prefix_length(3),
+            ],
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multi_match_query_serde_round_trip() {
+        let query = FtsQuery::MultiMatch(per_leaf_multi_match());
+        let json = serde_json::to_string(&query).unwrap();
+        let round_trip: FtsQuery = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(round_trip, query);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multi_match_query_serde_nested_round_trip() {
+        let query = FtsQuery::Boost(BoostQuery::new(
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new([
+                (Occur::Must, FtsQuery::MultiMatch(per_leaf_multi_match())),
+                (
+                    Occur::MustNot,
+                    FtsQuery::Match(
+                        MatchQuery::new("epsilon".to_string())
+                            .with_column(Some("body".to_string())),
+                    ),
+                ),
+            ])),
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(per_leaf_multi_match()),
+            Some(0.3),
+        ));
+        let json = serde_json::to_string(&query).unwrap();
+        let round_trip: FtsQuery = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(round_trip, query);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multi_match_query_legacy_serde() {
+        use serde_json::json;
+
+        // Writers predating `match_queries` send only these keys; every leaf is
+        // a default `MatchQuery` over the shared terms.
+        let legacy = json!({
+            "query": "alpha beta",
+            "columns": ["title", "body"],
+            "boost": [2.0, 1.0],
+        });
+        let query: MultiMatchQuery = serde_json::from_value(legacy).unwrap();
+        let expected = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            "alpha beta".to_string(),
+            vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_with_boosts(vec![2.0, 1.0])
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query, expected);
+
+        let without_boost: MultiMatchQuery =
+            serde_json::from_value(json!({"query": "alpha", "columns": ["title"]})).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(without_boost.match_queries[0].boost, 1.0);
+
+        let error = serde_json::from_value::<MultiMatchQuery>(json!({"columns": ["title"]}))
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(error.contains("missing field `query`"), "{error}");
+        let error = serde_json::from_value::<MultiMatchQuery>(json!({"match_queries": []}))
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(error.contains("no match queries"), "{error}");
+
+        // A reader predating `match_queries` still finds the legacy keys and
+        // degrades as before: the first leaf's terms over every column.
+        let serialized = serde_json::to_value(per_leaf_multi_match()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(serialized["query"], "alpha beta");
+        assert_eq!(serialized["columns"], json!(["title", "body"]));
+        assert_eq!(serialized["boost"], json!([2.0, 1.0]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_combined_fields_query_defaults() {
+        use super::*;
+        use serde_json::json;
+
+        // Omitting boost + operator defaults weights to 1.0 and the operator to Or.
+        let value = json!({
+            "query": "hello",
+            "columns": ["title", "body"],
+        });
+        let query: CombinedFieldsQuery = serde_json::from_value(value).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query.terms(), "hello");
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.weighted_columns().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![("title", 1.0), ("body", 1.0)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(query.operator(), Operator::Or);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_combined_fields_query_validation() {
+        use super::*;
+
+        // Assert the result is an invalid-input error whose message names the
+        // rejected cause, not just that it failed.
+        let assert_invalid_input = |result: Result<CombinedFieldsQuery>, needle: &str| {
+            let err = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(&err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+                "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string().contains(needle),
+                "error {err:?} should mention {needle:?}"
+            );
+        };
+
+        // Empty columns are rejected.
+        assert_invalid_input(
+            CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new("hello".to_string(), vec![]),
+            "no columns",
+        );
+
+        // Duplicate columns are rejected (they would double-count postings).
+        assert_invalid_input(
+            CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+                "hello".to_string(),
+                vec!["title".to_string(), "title".to_string()],
+            ),
+            "duplicated",
+        );
+
+        let query = CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+            "hello".to_string(),
+            vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // A boost count that does not match the column count is rejected in both
+        // directions, and the message names both lengths.
+        assert_invalid_input(
+            query.clone().try_with_boosts(vec![1.0]),
+            "number of boosts (1) must match the number of columns (2)",
+        );
+        assert_invalid_input(
+            query.clone().try_with_boosts(vec![1.0, 1.0, 1.0]),
+            "number of boosts (3) must match the number of columns (2)",
+        );
+
+        // Weights outside [1, 2^20] are rejected: below 1 breaks Lucene's
+        // additive length norm, above 2^20 could overflow the blended length.
+        // NaN and the infinities fall outside the range as well.
+        let out_of_range = "must be a finite value in [1, 1048576]";
+        for boosts in [
+            vec![1.0, 0.5],
+            vec![0.0, 1.0],
+            vec![f32::NAN, 1.0],
+            vec![f32::INFINITY, 1.0],
+            vec![f32::NEG_INFINITY, 1.0],
+            vec![1.0, f32::MAX],
+            vec![1.0, 1_048_577.0],
+        ] {
+            assert_invalid_input(query.clone().try_with_boosts(boosts), out_of_range);
+        }
+        // The message names the offending column and its value.
+        assert_invalid_input(query.clone().try_with_boosts(vec![1.0, 0.5]), "'body'");
+        assert_invalid_input(query.clone().try_with_boosts(vec![1.0, 0.5]), "got 0.5");
+
+        // Fractional weights >= 1 are accepted, and so is the upper bound itself.
+        assert!(query.clone().try_with_boosts(vec![1.5, 2.0]).is_ok());
+        assert!(query.try_with_boosts(vec![1.0, 1_048_576.0]).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    /// The columns and their weights cannot be desynced by any operation the type
+    /// permits, which is what the execution boundary relies on when it iterates
+    /// [`CombinedFieldsQuery::weighted_columns`].
+    ///
+    /// Field privacy carries the structural half and the compiler enforces it, so
+    /// the only thing left to check at runtime is that `try_new` and
+    /// `try_with_boosts`, the sole mutation paths, keep the pairs aligned.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_combined_fields_query_pairing_is_stable() {
+        use super::*;
+
+        let query = CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+            "hello".to_string(),
+            vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string(), "tags".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        // Defaults: one weight per column, in query order.
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.weighted_columns().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![("title", 1.0), ("body", 1.0), ("tags", 1.0)]
+        );
+
+        let query = query.try_with_boosts(vec![3.0, 1.0, 2.5]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.weighted_columns().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![("title", 3.0), ("body", 1.0), ("tags", 2.5)]
+        );
+        // The name-only view and the pair view agree on order and length, so a
+        // consumer that reads either sees the same columns.
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.column_names().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            query
+                .weighted_columns()
+                .map(|(column, _)| column)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(query.column_names().len(), 3);
+        // The `FtsQueryNode` set view still reports the target columns, and is not
+        // shadowed by the inherent accessors.
+        assert_eq!(
+            FtsQueryNode::columns(&query),
+            HashSet::from(["title".to_string(), "body".to_string(), "tags".to_string()])
+        );
+
+        // A rejected boost list leaves no partially updated query behind: the
+        // builder consumes `self`, so the caller keeps the validated value.
+        let rejected = query.clone().try_with_boosts(vec![1.0, f32::MAX, 1.0]);
+        assert!(rejected.is_err());
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.weighted_columns().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![("title", 3.0), ("body", 1.0), ("tags", 2.5)]
+        );
+
+        // Clone/PartialEq compare the pairs, so a differing weight is a differing
+        // query even when the column lists match.
+        assert_eq!(query.clone(), query);
+        let reweighted = query.clone().try_with_boosts(vec![3.0, 1.0, 2.0]).unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(reweighted, query);
+        // Debug renders the columns with their weights.
+        let debug = format!("{:?}", query);
+        assert!(debug.contains("title"), "unexpected Debug output: {debug}");
+        assert!(debug.contains("2.5"), "unexpected Debug output: {debug}");
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/scorer.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/scorer.rs
index 33359ff003f..7db1ea36ca6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/scorer.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/scorer.rs
@@ -2,8 +2,8 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use super::InvertedPartition;
-use crate::scalar::inverted::query::Tokens;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
 
 // the Scorer trait is used to calculate the score of a token in a document
 // in general, the score is calculated as:
@@ -11,19 +11,80 @@ use std::collections::HashMap;
 pub trait Scorer: Send + Sync {
     fn query_weight(&self, token: &str) -> f32;
     fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, doc_tokens: u32) -> f32;
-    // calculate the contribution of the token in the document
-    // token: the token to score
-    // freq: the frequency of the token in the document
-    // doc_tokens: the number of tokens in the document
-    fn score(&self, token: &str, freq: u32, doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
-        self.query_weight(token) * self.doc_weight(freq, doc_tokens)
+
+    /// Finite upper bound for every non-negative value returned by
+    /// [`Self::doc_weight`]. Returning `None` disables score-independent
+    /// pruning where the posting format has no stored impact bounds.
+    fn doc_weight_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// Stable identity for the corpus-level inputs used by [`Self::doc_weight`].
+    ///
+    /// Implementations should return `Some` only when equal keys guarantee the
+    /// same document weight for every `(freq, doc_tokens)` pair. Scorers without
+    /// such an identity keep impact bounds in the query-local cache only.
+    fn doc_weight_cache_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// The doc-length-dependent BM25 denominator addend, when `doc_weight`
+    /// factors as `(K1 + 1) * freq / (freq + addend)`; `None` for scorers
+    /// without that shape. Scoring hot loops use this to bake a per-norm-code
+    /// addend cache (Lucene's norm cache), which is bit-identical to calling
+    /// `doc_weight` because both paths evaluate the same expressions.
+    fn doc_norm(&self, doc_tokens: u32) -> Option<f32> {
+        let _ = doc_tokens;
+        None
     }
 }
 
+impl<T: Scorer + ?Sized> Scorer for Arc<T> {
+    fn query_weight(&self, token: &str) -> f32 {
+        self.as_ref().query_weight(token)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+        self.as_ref().doc_weight(freq, doc_tokens)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_weight_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.as_ref().doc_weight_upper_bound()
+    }
+
+    fn doc_weight_cache_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.as_ref().doc_weight_cache_key()
+    }
+
+    fn doc_norm(&self, doc_tokens: u32) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.as_ref().doc_norm(doc_tokens)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The frequency-dependent half of the BM25 doc weight; `doc_norm` is the
+/// doc-length addend (from [`Scorer::doc_norm`] or a per-norm-code cache).
+#[inline]
+pub(super) fn bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq: u32, doc_norm: f32) -> f32 {
+    let freq = freq as f32;
+    (K1 + 1.0) * freq / (freq + doc_norm)
+}
+
 // BM25 parameters
 pub const K1: f32 = 1.2;
 pub const B: f32 = 0.75;
 
+// The f32 multiply/add/divide sequence in `bm25_doc_weight_with_norm` can
+// round one ULP above the mathematical K1 + 1 limit.  Keep two ULPs of room so
+// every scorer-independent pruning bound remains conservative after its final
+// multiplication by the query weight.
+pub(super) const BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND: f32 = f32::from_bits((K1 + 1.0).to_bits() + 2);
+
+#[inline]
+fn bm25_doc_norm(doc_tokens: u32, avg_doc_length: f32) -> f32 {
+    let doc_tokens = doc_tokens as f32;
+    K1 * (1.0 - B + B * doc_tokens / avg_doc_length)
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct MemBM25Scorer {
     pub total_tokens: u64,
@@ -43,12 +104,19 @@ impl MemBM25Scorer {
     /// Incremental update bm25 scorer with one new document.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
-    /// * `tokens` - The tokens of the new document.
-    pub fn update(&mut self, tokens: &Tokens) {
-        self.total_tokens += tokens.len() as u64;
+    /// * `tokens` - The tokens of the new document that are also in the query
+    /// * `num_tokens` - The total number of tokens in the document
+    pub fn update(&mut self, doc_token_count: &HashMap<String, usize>, num_tokens: u64) {
+        self.total_tokens += num_tokens;
         self.num_docs += 1;
-        for token in tokens {
-            *self.token_docs.entry(token.clone()).or_insert(0) += 1;
+        for (token, count) in doc_token_count {
+            if let Some(old_count) = self.token_docs.get_mut(token) {
+                *old_count += *count;
+            } else {
+                // This shouldn't happen because `tokens` should only contain tokens that are in the query
+                // and we should have already initialized this with query tokens.  Still, log a warning just in case.
+                log::warn!("Token {} not found in token_docs", token);
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -68,38 +136,62 @@ impl MemBM25Scorer {
     }
 }
 
+impl Scorer for MemBM25Scorer {
+    fn query_weight(&self, token: &str) -> f32 {
+        let token_docs = self.num_docs_containing_token(token);
+        if token_docs == 0 {
+            return 0.0;
+        }
+        idf(token_docs, self.num_docs)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+        let doc_norm = bm25_doc_norm(doc_tokens, self.avg_doc_length());
+        bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, doc_norm)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_norm(&self, doc_tokens: u32) -> Option<f32> {
+        Some(bm25_doc_norm(doc_tokens, self.avg_doc_length()))
+    }
+
+    fn doc_weight_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        Some(BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_weight_cache_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        Some(u64::from(self.avg_doc_length().to_bits()))
+    }
+}
+
 pub struct IndexBM25Scorer<'a> {
     partitions: Vec<&'a InvertedPartition>,
     num_docs: usize,
-    total_tokens: u64,
     avg_doc_length: f32,
 }
 
 impl<'a> IndexBM25Scorer<'a> {
+    /// Sync constructor.  Query setup populates immutable partition stats
+    /// before entering the CPU-only WAND executor.
     pub fn new(partitions: impl Iterator<Item = &'a InvertedPartition>) -> Self {
         let partitions = partitions.collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let num_docs = partitions.iter().map(|p| p.docs.len()).sum();
-        let total_tokens = partitions
+        let stats = partitions
             .iter()
-            .map(|part| part.docs.total_tokens_num())
-            .sum::<u64>();
+            .map(|partition| {
+                partition.docs.cached_stats().expect(
+                    "IndexBM25Scorer::new requires partition stats to be loaded before WAND",
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let num_docs = stats.iter().map(|stats| stats.num_docs).sum();
+        let total_tokens: u64 = stats.iter().map(|stats| stats.total_tokens).sum();
         let avgdl = total_tokens as f32 / num_docs as f32;
         Self {
             partitions,
             num_docs,
-            total_tokens,
             avg_doc_length: avgdl,
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn num_docs(&self) -> usize {
-        self.num_docs
-    }
-
-    pub fn total_tokens(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.total_tokens
-    }
-
     pub fn num_docs_containing_token(&self, token: &str) -> usize {
         self.partitions
             .iter()
@@ -124,10 +216,20 @@ impl Scorer for IndexBM25Scorer<'_> {
     }
 
     fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
-        let freq = freq as f32;
-        let doc_tokens = doc_tokens as f32;
-        let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * doc_tokens / self.avg_doc_length);
-        (K1 + 1.0) * freq / (freq + doc_norm)
+        let doc_norm = bm25_doc_norm(doc_tokens, self.avg_doc_length);
+        bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, doc_norm)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_norm(&self, doc_tokens: u32) -> Option<f32> {
+        Some(bm25_doc_norm(doc_tokens, self.avg_doc_length))
+    }
+
+    fn doc_weight_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        Some(BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_weight_cache_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        Some(u64::from(self.avg_doc_length.to_bits()))
     }
 }
 
@@ -136,3 +238,187 @@ pub fn idf(token_docs: usize, num_docs: usize) -> f32 {
     let num_docs = num_docs as f32;
     ((num_docs - token_docs as f32 + 0.5) / (token_docs as f32 + 0.5) + 1.0).ln()
 }
+
+/// BM25F scorer over a virtual field formed by combining several columns
+/// (Lucene `CombinedFieldQuery` / Elasticsearch `combined_fields`).
+///
+/// Where [`MemBM25Scorer`] / `IndexBM25Scorer` score one column against that
+/// column's own statistics, this scorer holds statistics blended across the
+/// target columns per the BM25F rules:
+/// - `doc_count` = `max_f docCount_f`
+/// - `avg_doc_length` = `sumTotalTermFreq' / doc_count`, where
+///   `sumTotalTermFreq' = Σ_f w_f · sumTotalTermFreq_f`
+/// - `doc_freq(t)` = `max_f docFreq_f(t)`
+///
+/// The caller supplies the blended term frequency `tf' = Σ_f w_f · tf_f(t, d)`
+/// and blended document length `dl' = Σ_f w_f · dl_f(d)` per candidate document;
+/// this type turns those into an IDF weight and a BM25 document weight. Lance's
+/// `(k1 + 1)` numerator is kept (a constant factor vs. Lucene that preserves
+/// ranking).
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer {
+    doc_count: usize,
+    avg_doc_length: f32,
+    doc_freq: HashMap<String, usize>,
+}
+
+impl CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer {
+    pub fn new(doc_count: usize, avg_doc_length: f32, doc_freq: HashMap<String, usize>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            doc_count,
+            avg_doc_length,
+            doc_freq,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn doc_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.doc_count
+    }
+
+    pub fn avg_doc_length(&self) -> f32 {
+        self.avg_doc_length
+    }
+
+    /// Blended IDF for `term` over the virtual field. Returns `0.0` for a term
+    /// absent from every target column (`docFreq' == 0`), and for the inconsistent
+    /// statistics (`docFreq' > docCount'`) that drive `idf` negative or, once
+    /// `docFreq'` is large enough for the ratio to round to `-1`, to `-inf`. A
+    /// `-inf` weight times a zero document weight is `NaN`; see [`Self::doc_weight`]
+    /// for why no score may be non-finite.
+    pub fn query_weight(&self, term: &str) -> f32 {
+        match self.doc_freq.get(term).copied() {
+            Some(token_docs) if token_docs > 0 => {
+                let idf = idf(token_docs, self.doc_count);
+                if idf.is_finite() && idf > 0.0 {
+                    idf
+                } else {
+                    0.0
+                }
+            }
+            _ => 0.0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// BM25 term contribution for a document, given the blended term frequency
+    /// `tf'` and blended document length `dl'`.
+    ///
+    /// The result is always finite and within `[0, BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND]`,
+    /// whatever reaches it. BM25 saturates the `tf'` factor at `K1 + 1` in exact
+    /// arithmetic, but the f32 evaluation can land above it: once `doc_norm` is
+    /// small relative to `ulp(tf')` the rounded `tf' + doc_norm` collapses back to
+    /// `tf'`, and `fl(fl((K1 + 1) · tf') / tf')` then rounds up. Large per-column
+    /// boosts can also push `tf'`, `dl'`, or `avgdl'` to infinity, and `Inf / Inf`
+    /// is `NaN`; one `NaN` contribution would poison a whole query's scores. The
+    /// clamp makes the ceiling hold by construction rather than by trusting the
+    /// query-level validation of the boosts.
+    pub fn doc_weight(&self, tf_prime: f32, dl_prime: f32) -> f32 {
+        if self.avg_doc_length <= 0.0 {
+            return 0.0;
+        }
+        let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * dl_prime / self.avg_doc_length);
+        let weight = (K1 + 1.0) * tf_prime / (tf_prime + doc_norm);
+        if weight.is_nan() {
+            // `Inf / Inf`, or a `NaN` that came in through `tf'` / `dl'` /
+            // `avgdl'`. There is no meaningful weight to report, and `clamp`
+            // would propagate the `NaN`.
+            return 0.0;
+        }
+        weight.clamp(0.0, BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn bm25_doc_weight_upper_bound_covers_f32_rounding() {
+        let scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(6_242_289_027, 2, HashMap::new());
+        let doc_weight = scorer.doc_weight(3_926_982_873, 4_078_552_115);
+
+        assert_eq!(doc_weight.to_bits(), 0x400c_ccce);
+        assert!(doc_weight > K1 + 1.0);
+        assert!(scorer.doc_weight_upper_bound().unwrap() >= doc_weight);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_combined_scorer_query_weight_matches_blended_idf() {
+        let doc_freq = HashMap::from([("rare".to_string(), 2), ("common".to_string(), 800)]);
+        let scorer = CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer::new(1000, 12.0, doc_freq);
+
+        // IDF uses the blended docFreq' over the blended docCount'.
+        assert_eq!(scorer.query_weight("rare"), idf(2, 1000));
+        assert_eq!(scorer.query_weight("common"), idf(800, 1000));
+        // A rarer term outweighs a common one.
+        assert!(scorer.query_weight("rare") > scorer.query_weight("common"));
+        // A term absent from every field contributes nothing.
+        assert_eq!(scorer.query_weight("missing"), 0.0);
+    }
+
+    /// No corpus statistics and no blended `(tf', dl')` may produce a non-finite
+    /// term score. A `NaN` would order arbitrarily in the top-k heap, and a weight
+    /// above [`BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND`] would break any pruning bound derived
+    /// from that ceiling.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_combined_scorer_stays_finite_for_extreme_statistics() {
+        // `docFreq' > docCount'` drives `idf` negative and then to `-inf`.
+        let doc_freq = HashMap::from([
+            ("ok".to_string(), 1),
+            ("over".to_string(), 2_000),
+            ("way_over".to_string(), usize::MAX),
+        ]);
+        let blends = [
+            (1.0f32, 8.0f32),
+            (0.0, 0.0),
+            (f32::MAX, f32::MAX),
+            (f32::INFINITY, f32::INFINITY),
+            (f32::INFINITY, 8.0),
+            (8.0, f32::INFINITY),
+            (f32::NAN, f32::NAN),
+            (-1.0, -1.0),
+        ];
+        for avg_doc_length in [10.0f32, 0.0, f32::MAX, f32::INFINITY, f32::NAN, -1.0] {
+            let scorer = CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer::new(1000, avg_doc_length, doc_freq.clone());
+            for term in ["ok", "over", "way_over", "missing"] {
+                let query_weight = scorer.query_weight(term);
+                assert!(
+                    query_weight.is_finite() && query_weight >= 0.0,
+                    "query_weight({term}) = {query_weight:e}"
+                );
+                for (tf_prime, dl_prime) in blends {
+                    let score = query_weight * scorer.doc_weight(tf_prime, dl_prime);
+                    assert!(
+                        score.is_finite() && score >= 0.0,
+                        "score for {term} at tf'={tf_prime:e} dl'={dl_prime:e} \
+                         avgdl'={avg_doc_length:e} was {score:e}"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        // The unclamped reference: `idf` really does leave the usable range for
+        // these statistics, so the clamp in `query_weight` is important. In the
+        // `-inf` case multiplied by a zero `doc_weight` it would yield `NaN`.
+        assert!(idf(2_000, 1000) < 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(idf(usize::MAX, 1000), f32::NEG_INFINITY);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_combined_scorer_doc_weight_saturates_and_penalizes_length() {
+        let scorer = CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer::new(1000, 10.0, HashMap::new());
+
+        // Matches the BM25 formula (with Lance's (k1 + 1) numerator).
+        let expected = {
+            let doc_norm = K1 * (1.0 - B + B * 20.0 / 10.0);
+            (K1 + 1.0) * 3.0 / (3.0 + doc_norm)
+        };
+        assert!((scorer.doc_weight(3.0, 20.0) - expected).abs() < 1e-6);
+        // More term frequency scores higher, saturating below (k1 + 1).
+        assert!(scorer.doc_weight(5.0, 20.0) > scorer.doc_weight(1.0, 20.0));
+        assert!(scorer.doc_weight(1000.0, 20.0) < K1 + 1.0);
+        // A longer document is penalized for the same term frequency.
+        assert!(scorer.doc_weight(3.0, 40.0) < scorer.doc_weight(3.0, 5.0));
+        // A degenerate (empty) corpus scores zero rather than dividing by zero.
+        let empty = CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer::new(0, 0.0, HashMap::new());
+        assert_eq!(empty.doc_weight(3.0, 20.0), 0.0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer.rs
index 344ad5e95f8..0234f3f5605 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer.rs
@@ -2,14 +2,13 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Deserializer, Serialize};
 use std::{env, path::PathBuf};
 
 #[cfg(feature = "tokenizer-jieba")]
 mod jieba;
 
-pub mod lance_tokenizer;
+pub mod document_tokenizer;
 #[cfg(feature = "tokenizer-lindera")]
 mod lindera;
 
@@ -20,22 +19,117 @@ use jieba::JiebaTokenizerBuilder;
 use lindera::LinderaTokenizerBuilder;
 
 use crate::pbold;
-use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::lance_tokenizer::{
+use crate::pbold::inverted_index_details::DocumentGranularity as PbDocumentGranularity;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::{
     JsonTokenizer, LanceTokenizer, TextTokenizer,
 };
+use crate::scalar::inverted::{
+    InvertedListFormatVersion, default_fts_format_version_for_block_size,
+    resolve_fts_format_version, validate_format_version_block_size,
+};
+pub use lance_tokenizer::Language;
+use lance_tokenizer::{
+    AsciiFoldingFilter, CodeLexTokenizer, IcuTokenizer, LowerCaser, NgramTokenizer, RawTokenizer,
+    RemoveLongFilter, SimpleTokenizer, Stemmer, StopWordFilter, TextAnalyzer, TextAnalyzerBuilder,
+    WhitespaceTokenizer, WordDelimiterFilter,
+};
+
+/// Posting block size for indexes whose metadata predates configurable block sizes.
+///
+/// This must remain 128 so that legacy on-disk data is decoded correctly.
+pub const LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE: usize = 128;
+/// Default posting block size for newly created indexes when none is configured.
+///
+/// This intentionally matches [`LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE`] today but may evolve independently.
+pub const DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE: usize = 128;
+pub const VALID_BLOCK_SIZES: [usize; 2] = [128, 256];
+const LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_ENV_KEY: &str = "LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION";
+
+/// The unit treated as one logical full-text-search document.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Default)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "snake_case")]
+pub enum DocumentGranularity {
+    /// All text selected from one dataset row belongs to one document.
+    #[default]
+    Row,
+    /// Each element of the deepest list on the field path is one document.
+    ListElement,
+}
+
+impl DocumentGranularity {
+    /// Whether results identify a list element within the dataset row.
+    pub fn is_list_element(self) -> bool {
+        self == Self::ListElement
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&str> for DocumentGranularity {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str() {
+            "row" => Ok(Self::Row),
+            "list_element" => Ok(Self::ListElement),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "unknown FTS document granularity '{value}'; expected 'row' or 'list_element'"
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<i32> for DocumentGranularity {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: i32) -> Result<Self> {
+        match PbDocumentGranularity::try_from(value) {
+            Ok(PbDocumentGranularity::Row) => Ok(Self::Row),
+            Ok(PbDocumentGranularity::ListElement) => Ok(Self::ListElement),
+            Err(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "unknown FTS document granularity value {value}"
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<DocumentGranularity> for PbDocumentGranularity {
+    fn from(value: DocumentGranularity) -> Self {
+        match value {
+            DocumentGranularity::Row => Self::Row,
+            DocumentGranularity::ListElement => Self::ListElement,
+        }
+    }
+}
 
 /// Tokenizer configs
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, PartialEq)]
 pub struct InvertedIndexParams {
-    /// lance tokenizer takes care of different data types, such as text, json, etc.
-    /// - 'text': parsing input documents into tokens
-    /// - 'json': parsing input json string into tokens
-    /// - none: auto type inference
+    /// The logical document boundary used while creating an index.
+    ///
+    /// This is persisted in `InvertedIndexDetails`, not in the tokenizer
+    /// params stored inside the physical index. Creation JSON adds it back
+    /// explicitly in [`Self::to_training_json`].
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing)]
+    pub(crate) document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    /// Document-level tokenizer.
+    ///
+    /// This decides how Lance extracts searchable text from the stored value:
+    /// - `text`: plain string documents
+    /// - `json`: JSON string documents
+    /// - `None`: infer from the Arrow field type during index build
+    ///
+    /// The extracted text is then passed to `base_tokenizer`.
     pub(crate) lance_tokenizer: Option<String>,
-    /// base tokenizer:
+
+    /// Lexical tokenizer used after document-level text extraction.
+    ///
+    /// Client-facing analyzer profiles are resolved into this field and the
+    /// concrete filter options before params are persisted.
     /// - `simple`: splits tokens on whitespace and punctuation
     /// - `whitespace`: splits tokens on whitespace
     /// - `raw`: no tokenization
+    /// - `code`: code-aware lexical tokenization
+    /// - `icu`: ICU dictionary-based word segmentation
+    /// - `icu/split`: ICU segmentation with simple-style delimiter splitting
     /// - `lindera/*`: Lindera tokenizer
     /// - `jieba/*`: Jieba tokenizer
     ///
@@ -44,13 +138,12 @@ pub struct InvertedIndexParams {
 
     /// language for stemming and stop words
     /// this is only used when `stem` or `remove_stop_words` is true
-    pub(crate) language: tantivy::tokenizer::Language,
+    pub(crate) language: Language,
 
     /// If true, store the position of the term in the document
     /// This can significantly increase the size of the index
     /// If false, only store the frequency of the term in the document
     /// Default is false
-    #[serde(default)]
     pub(crate) with_position: bool,
 
     /// maximum token length
@@ -59,15 +152,12 @@ pub struct InvertedIndexParams {
     pub(crate) max_token_length: Option<usize>,
 
     /// whether lower case tokens
-    #[serde(default = "bool_true")]
     pub(crate) lower_case: bool,
 
     /// whether apply stemming
-    #[serde(default = "bool_true")]
     pub(crate) stem: bool,
 
     /// whether remove stop words
-    #[serde(default = "bool_true")]
     pub(crate) remove_stop_words: bool,
 
     /// use customized stop words.
@@ -76,25 +166,238 @@ pub struct InvertedIndexParams {
     pub(crate) custom_stop_words: Option<Vec<String>>,
 
     /// ascii folding
-    #[serde(default = "bool_true")]
     pub(crate) ascii_folding: bool,
 
     /// min ngram length
-    #[serde(default = "default_min_ngram_length")]
     pub(crate) min_ngram_length: u32,
 
     /// max ngram length
-    #[serde(default = "default_max_ngram_length")]
     pub(crate) max_ngram_length: u32,
 
     /// whether prefix only
-    #[serde(default)]
     pub(crate) prefix_only: bool,
 
-    /// If true, skip the partition merge stage after indexing.
-    /// This can be useful for distributed indexing where merge is handled separately.
-    #[serde(default)]
-    pub(crate) skip_merge: bool,
+    /// Number of documents in each compressed posting block.
+    ///
+    /// Missing serialized values come from indexes written before this
+    /// parameter existed and must read as 128 for backwards compatibility. New
+    /// indexes currently default to 128.
+    pub(crate) block_size: usize,
+
+    /// Split code identifiers into subwords.
+    pub(crate) split_identifiers: bool,
+
+    /// Split identifier subwords at letter/number boundaries.
+    pub(crate) split_on_numerics: bool,
+
+    /// Index a complete identifier in addition to subwords.
+    pub(crate) preserve_original: bool,
+
+    /// Index code operators such as `::`, `->`, and `!=`.
+    pub(crate) index_operators: bool,
+
+    /// Total memory limit in MiB for the build stage.
+    ///
+    /// This is split evenly across FTS workers at build time. By default Lance
+    /// uses roughly `num_cpus / 2` workers, unless `LANCE_FTS_NUM_SHARDS` is set.
+    /// If unset, each worker defaults to a 2 GiB build-time memory limit.
+    ///
+    /// This is a build-time only parameter and is not persisted with the index.
+    #[serde(
+        rename = "memory_limit",
+        skip_serializing,
+        default,
+        alias = "worker_memory_limit_mb"
+    )]
+    pub(crate) memory_limit_mb: Option<u64>,
+
+    /// Number of workers to use for FTS build.
+    ///
+    /// This is a build-time only parameter and is not persisted with the index.
+    /// By default Lance uses roughly `num_cpus / 2` workers.
+    /// The effective worker count is clamped to `[1, num_cpus - 2]`.
+    #[serde(rename = "num_workers", skip_serializing, default)]
+    pub(crate) num_workers: Option<usize>,
+
+    /// On-disk FTS format version to write when creating a new index.
+    ///
+    /// This is a build-time only parameter and is not persisted with the index.
+    /// If unset, new index creation falls back to
+    /// `LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION`. Without either override, text analysis with
+    /// 128-document blocks writes v2, while code analysis or 256-document blocks
+    /// write v3.
+    #[serde(
+        rename = "format_version",
+        skip_serializing,
+        default,
+        deserialize_with = "deserialize_format_version"
+    )]
+    pub(crate) format_version: Option<InvertedListFormatVersion>,
+}
+
+// Unknown fields must remain ignored because these params are persisted across Lance versions.
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct RawInvertedIndexParams {
+    // Input-only preset expanded before constructing normalized params.
+    analyzer: Option<String>,
+    document_granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+    lance_tokenizer: Option<String>,
+    base_tokenizer: Option<String>,
+    language: Option<Language>,
+    with_position: Option<bool>,
+    #[serde(default, deserialize_with = "deserialize_explicit_option")]
+    max_token_length: Option<Option<usize>>,
+    lower_case: Option<bool>,
+    stem: Option<bool>,
+    remove_stop_words: Option<bool>,
+    custom_stop_words: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ascii_folding: Option<bool>,
+    min_ngram_length: Option<u32>,
+    max_ngram_length: Option<u32>,
+    prefix_only: Option<bool>,
+    #[serde(default, deserialize_with = "deserialize_optional_block_size")]
+    block_size: Option<usize>,
+    split_identifiers: Option<bool>,
+    split_on_numerics: Option<bool>,
+    preserve_original: Option<bool>,
+    index_operators: Option<bool>,
+    #[serde(rename = "memory_limit", alias = "worker_memory_limit_mb")]
+    memory_limit_mb: Option<u64>,
+    #[serde(rename = "num_workers")]
+    num_workers: Option<usize>,
+    #[serde(
+        rename = "format_version",
+        default,
+        deserialize_with = "deserialize_format_version"
+    )]
+    format_version: Option<InvertedListFormatVersion>,
+}
+
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for InvertedIndexParams {
+    fn deserialize<D>(deserializer: D) -> std::result::Result<Self, D::Error>
+    where
+        D: serde::Deserializer<'de>,
+    {
+        RawInvertedIndexParams::deserialize(deserializer)?
+            .resolve()
+            .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)
+    }
+}
+
+impl RawInvertedIndexParams {
+    fn resolve(self) -> Result<InvertedIndexParams> {
+        let analyzer = match (
+            self.analyzer.as_deref().map(normalize_analyzer),
+            self.base_tokenizer.as_deref(),
+        ) {
+            (Some(Ok(analyzer)), _) => analyzer,
+            (Some(Err(err)), _) => return Err(err),
+            (None, Some("code")) => "code",
+            (None, _) => "text",
+        };
+
+        if analyzer == "text" && self.base_tokenizer.as_deref() == Some("code") {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "base_tokenizer='code' requires analyzer='code'".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if analyzer == "code"
+            && let Some(base_tokenizer) = self.base_tokenizer.as_deref()
+            && base_tokenizer != "code"
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "analyzer='code' requires base_tokenizer='code', got '{}'",
+                base_tokenizer
+            )));
+        }
+        if analyzer == "text"
+            && matches!(
+                (
+                    self.split_identifiers,
+                    self.split_on_numerics,
+                    self.preserve_original,
+                    self.index_operators,
+                ),
+                (Some(true), _, _, _)
+                    | (_, Some(true), _, _)
+                    | (_, _, Some(true), _)
+                    | (_, _, _, Some(true))
+            )
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "code analyzer flags require analyzer='code'".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut params = match analyzer {
+            "code" => InvertedIndexParams::code(),
+            "text" => InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            _ => unreachable!("analyzer is normalized above"),
+        };
+
+        if let Some(document_granularity) = self.document_granularity {
+            params.document_granularity = document_granularity;
+        }
+        if let Some(lance_tokenizer) = self.lance_tokenizer {
+            params.lance_tokenizer = Some(lance_tokenizer);
+        }
+        if let Some(base_tokenizer) = self.base_tokenizer {
+            params = params.base_tokenizer(base_tokenizer);
+        }
+        if let Some(language) = self.language {
+            params.language = language;
+        }
+        if let Some(with_position) = self.with_position {
+            params.with_position = with_position;
+        }
+        if let Some(max_token_length) = self.max_token_length {
+            params.max_token_length = max_token_length;
+        }
+        if let Some(lower_case) = self.lower_case {
+            params.lower_case = lower_case;
+        }
+        if let Some(stem) = self.stem {
+            params.stem = stem;
+        }
+        if let Some(remove_stop_words) = self.remove_stop_words {
+            params.remove_stop_words = remove_stop_words;
+        }
+        if let Some(custom_stop_words) = self.custom_stop_words {
+            params.custom_stop_words = Some(custom_stop_words);
+        }
+        if let Some(ascii_folding) = self.ascii_folding {
+            params.ascii_folding = ascii_folding;
+        }
+        if let Some(min_ngram_length) = self.min_ngram_length {
+            params.min_ngram_length = min_ngram_length;
+        }
+        if let Some(max_ngram_length) = self.max_ngram_length {
+            params.max_ngram_length = max_ngram_length;
+        }
+        if let Some(prefix_only) = self.prefix_only {
+            params.prefix_only = prefix_only;
+        }
+        if let Some(block_size) = self.block_size {
+            params.block_size = validate_block_size(block_size)?;
+        }
+        if let Some(split_identifiers) = self.split_identifiers {
+            params.split_identifiers = split_identifiers;
+        }
+        if let Some(split_on_numerics) = self.split_on_numerics {
+            params.split_on_numerics = split_on_numerics;
+        }
+        if let Some(preserve_original) = self.preserve_original {
+            params.preserve_original = preserve_original;
+        }
+        if let Some(index_operators) = self.index_operators {
+            params.index_operators = index_operators;
+        }
+        params.memory_limit_mb = self.memory_limit_mb;
+        params.num_workers = self.num_workers;
+        params.format_version = self.format_version;
+        params.validate()?;
+        Ok(params)
+    }
 }
 
 impl TryFrom<&InvertedIndexParams> for pbold::InvertedIndexDetails {
@@ -113,6 +416,17 @@ impl TryFrom<&InvertedIndexParams> for pbold::InvertedIndexDetails {
             min_ngram_length: params.min_ngram_length,
             max_ngram_length: params.max_ngram_length,
             prefix_only: params.prefix_only,
+            block_size: Some(params.block_size as u32),
+            code_config: (params.base_tokenizer == "code").then_some(
+                pbold::inverted_index_details::CodeTokenizerConfig {
+                    split_identifiers: params.split_identifiers,
+                    split_on_numerics: Some(params.split_on_numerics),
+                    preserve_original: Some(params.preserve_original),
+                    index_operators: params.index_operators,
+                },
+            ),
+            document_granularity: PbDocumentGranularity::from(params.document_granularity) as i32,
+            posting_format_version: Some(params.resolved_format_version().index_version()),
         })
     }
 }
@@ -121,32 +435,83 @@ impl TryFrom<&pbold::InvertedIndexDetails> for InvertedIndexParams {
     type Error = Error;
 
     fn try_from(details: &pbold::InvertedIndexDetails) -> Result<Self> {
-        let defaults = Self::default();
-        Ok(Self {
-            lance_tokenizer: defaults.lance_tokenizer,
-            base_tokenizer: details
-                .base_tokenizer
-                .as_ref()
-                .cloned()
-                .unwrap_or(defaults.base_tokenizer),
-            language: serde_json::from_str(details.language.as_str())?,
-            with_position: details.with_position,
-            max_token_length: details.max_token_length.map(|l| l as usize),
-            lower_case: details.lower_case,
-            stem: details.stem,
-            remove_stop_words: details.remove_stop_words,
-            custom_stop_words: defaults.custom_stop_words,
-            ascii_folding: details.ascii_folding,
-            min_ngram_length: details.min_ngram_length,
-            max_ngram_length: details.max_ngram_length,
-            prefix_only: details.prefix_only,
-            skip_merge: defaults.skip_merge,
-        })
+        if details.code_config.is_some() && details.base_tokenizer.as_deref() != Some("code") {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "code_config requires base_tokenizer='code'".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if details.base_tokenizer.is_none() && details.language.is_empty() {
+            let mut params = Self {
+                block_size: match details.block_size {
+                    Some(block_size) => validate_block_size(block_size as usize)?,
+                    None => LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                },
+                ..Self::default()
+            };
+            params.document_granularity = details.document_granularity.try_into()?;
+            params.format_version = details
+                .posting_format_version
+                .map(|version| resolve_fts_format_version(Some(&version.to_string())))
+                .transpose()?;
+            return Ok(params);
+        }
+
+        let mut params = match details.base_tokenizer.as_deref() {
+            Some("code") => Self::code(),
+            _ => Self::default(),
+        };
+        params.base_tokenizer = details
+            .base_tokenizer
+            .as_ref()
+            .cloned()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| params.base_tokenizer.clone());
+        params.language = if details.language.is_empty() {
+            params.language
+        } else {
+            serde_json::from_str(details.language.as_str())?
+        };
+        params.with_position = details.with_position;
+        params.max_token_length = details.max_token_length.map(|l| l as usize);
+        params.lower_case = details.lower_case;
+        params.stem = details.stem;
+        params.remove_stop_words = details.remove_stop_words;
+        params.ascii_folding = details.ascii_folding;
+        params.min_ngram_length = details.min_ngram_length;
+        params.max_ngram_length = details.max_ngram_length;
+        params.prefix_only = details.prefix_only;
+        params.block_size = match details.block_size {
+            Some(block_size) => validate_block_size(block_size as usize)?,
+            None => LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        };
+        if let Some(code_config) = &details.code_config {
+            params.split_identifiers = code_config.split_identifiers;
+            if let Some(split_on_numerics) = code_config.split_on_numerics {
+                params.split_on_numerics = split_on_numerics;
+            }
+            if let Some(preserve_original) = code_config.preserve_original {
+                params.preserve_original = preserve_original;
+            }
+            params.index_operators = code_config.index_operators;
+        }
+        params.document_granularity = details.document_granularity.try_into()?;
+        params.format_version = details
+            .posting_format_version
+            .map(|version| resolve_fts_format_version(Some(&version.to_string())))
+            .transpose()?;
+        params.validate()?;
+        Ok(params)
     }
 }
 
-fn bool_true() -> bool {
-    true
+fn normalize_analyzer(analyzer: &str) -> Result<&'static str> {
+    match analyzer {
+        "text" => Ok("text"),
+        "code" => Ok("code"),
+        other => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "unknown analyzer '{}', expected 'text' or 'code'",
+            other
+        ))),
+    }
 }
 
 fn default_min_ngram_length() -> u32 {
@@ -157,9 +522,95 @@ fn default_max_ngram_length() -> u32 {
     3
 }
 
+fn invalid_block_size_message(block_size: usize) -> String {
+    format!("FTS inverted index block_size must be one of 128 or 256, got {block_size}")
+}
+
+pub fn validate_block_size(block_size: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+    if VALID_BLOCK_SIZES.contains(&block_size) {
+        Ok(block_size)
+    } else {
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(invalid_block_size_message(block_size)))
+    }
+}
+
+fn deserialize_optional_block_size<'de, D>(
+    deserializer: D,
+) -> std::result::Result<Option<usize>, D::Error>
+where
+    D: Deserializer<'de>,
+{
+    Option::<usize>::deserialize(deserializer)?
+        .map(validate_block_size)
+        .transpose()
+        .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)
+}
+
+fn deserialize_format_version<'de, D>(
+    deserializer: D,
+) -> std::result::Result<Option<InvertedListFormatVersion>, D::Error>
+where
+    D: serde::Deserializer<'de>,
+{
+    let value = Option::<serde_json::Value>::deserialize(deserializer)?;
+    let Some(value) = value else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    match value {
+        serde_json::Value::Null => Ok(None),
+        serde_json::Value::String(value) => resolve_fts_format_version(Some(&value))
+            .map(Some)
+            .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom),
+        serde_json::Value::Number(value) => {
+            let Some(format_version) = value.as_u64() else {
+                return Err(serde::de::Error::custom(format!(
+                    "FTS format_version must be 1, 2, or 3, got {value}"
+                )));
+            };
+            resolve_fts_format_version(Some(&format_version.to_string()))
+                .map(Some)
+                .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)
+        }
+        other => Err(serde::de::Error::custom(format!(
+            "FTS format_version must be 1, 2, or 3, got {other}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn resolve_creation_format_version(
+    explicit: Option<InvertedListFormatVersion>,
+    default: InvertedListFormatVersion,
+) -> Result<InvertedListFormatVersion> {
+    if let Some(format_version) = explicit {
+        return Ok(format_version);
+    }
+
+    match env::var(LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_ENV_KEY) {
+        Ok(value) => resolve_fts_format_version(Some(&value)).map_err(|err| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid {LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_ENV_KEY} value {value:?}: {err}"
+            ))
+        }),
+        Err(env::VarError::NotPresent) => Ok(default),
+        Err(env::VarError::NotUnicode(value)) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "invalid {LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_ENV_KEY} value {value:?}: expected UTF-8 value 1, 2, or 3"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn deserialize_explicit_option<'de, D, T>(
+    deserializer: D,
+) -> std::result::Result<Option<Option<T>>, D::Error>
+where
+    D: serde::Deserializer<'de>,
+    T: Deserialize<'de>,
+{
+    Option::<T>::deserialize(deserializer).map(Some)
+}
+
 impl Default for InvertedIndexParams {
     fn default() -> Self {
-        Self::new("simple".to_owned(), tantivy::tokenizer::Language::English)
+        Self::new("simple".to_owned(), Language::English)
     }
 }
 
@@ -170,15 +621,19 @@ impl InvertedIndexParams {
     /// - `simple`: splits tokens on whitespace and punctuation, default
     /// - `whitespace`: splits tokens on whitespace
     /// - `raw`: no tokenization
+    /// - `code`: code identifier tokenization
     /// - `ngram`: N-Gram tokenizer
+    /// - `icu`: ICU dictionary-based word segmentation
+    /// - `icu/split`: ICU segmentation with simple-style delimiter splitting
     /// - `lindera/*`: Lindera tokenizer
     /// - `jieba/*`: Jieba tokenizer
     ///
     /// The `language` is used for stemming and removing stop words,
     /// this is not used for `lindera/*` and `jieba/*` tokenizers.
     /// Default to `English`.
-    pub fn new(base_tokenizer: String, language: tantivy::tokenizer::Language) -> Self {
-        Self {
+    pub fn new(base_tokenizer: String, language: Language) -> Self {
+        let mut params = Self {
+            document_granularity: DocumentGranularity::Row,
             lance_tokenizer: None,
             base_tokenizer,
             language,
@@ -192,8 +647,149 @@ impl InvertedIndexParams {
             min_ngram_length: default_min_ngram_length(),
             max_ngram_length: default_max_ngram_length(),
             prefix_only: false,
-            skip_merge: false,
+            block_size: DEFAULT_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            split_identifiers: false,
+            split_on_numerics: false,
+            preserve_original: false,
+            index_operators: false,
+            memory_limit_mb: None,
+            num_workers: None,
+            format_version: None,
+        };
+        match params.base_tokenizer.as_str() {
+            "code" => params.apply_code_defaults(),
+            "ngram" => params.apply_ngram_defaults(),
+            _ => {}
+        }
+        params
+    }
+
+    fn apply_text_defaults(&mut self) {
+        self.base_tokenizer = "simple".to_string();
+        self.split_identifiers = false;
+        self.split_on_numerics = false;
+        self.preserve_original = false;
+        self.lower_case = true;
+        self.ascii_folding = true;
+        self.stem = true;
+        self.remove_stop_words = true;
+        self.index_operators = false;
+    }
+
+    fn apply_code_defaults(&mut self) {
+        self.base_tokenizer = "code".to_string();
+        self.split_identifiers = false;
+        self.split_on_numerics = true;
+        self.preserve_original = true;
+        self.lower_case = true;
+        self.ascii_folding = true;
+        self.stem = false;
+        self.remove_stop_words = false;
+        self.index_operators = false;
+    }
+
+    fn apply_ngram_defaults(&mut self) {
+        self.base_tokenizer = "ngram".to_string();
+        self.stem = false;
+        self.remove_stop_words = false;
+    }
+
+    /// Create parameters for the code analyzer profile.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
+    ///
+    /// let tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::code().build();
+    /// assert!(tokenizer.is_ok());
+    /// ```
+    pub fn code() -> Self {
+        Self::new("code".to_string(), Language::English)
+    }
+
+    /// Apply an analyzer profile to the concrete tokenizer parameters.
+    ///
+    /// The profile name is an input-time preset and is not persisted. Explicit
+    /// options applied after this method override the profile defaults.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
+    ///
+    /// let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+    ///     .analyzer("code")?
+    ///     .split_identifiers(true);
+    /// assert!(params.build().is_ok());
+    /// # Ok::<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>>(())
+    /// ```
+    pub fn analyzer(mut self, analyzer: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        match normalize_analyzer(analyzer)? {
+            "text" => self.apply_text_defaults(),
+            "code" => self.apply_code_defaults(),
+            _ => unreachable!("analyzer is normalized above"),
         }
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Whether `self` and `other` tokenize text identically.
+    ///
+    /// Compares only the fields that affect how documents are turned into tokens
+    /// (tokenizer, language, casing, stemming, stop words, n-gram bounds,
+    /// code-analyzer splitting, ...). Storage/layout and build-time fields
+    /// (`with_position`, `block_size`, worker/memory/format settings) are ignored:
+    /// two columns can differ there yet still be safe to combine in a
+    /// `combined_fields` (BM25F) query. Used by cross-field FTS validation.
+    pub(crate) fn same_tokenization(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        // Destructure exhaustively so that adding a new field forces an explicit
+        // decision here about whether it affects tokenization.
+        let Self {
+            lance_tokenizer,
+            base_tokenizer,
+            language,
+            max_token_length,
+            lower_case,
+            stem,
+            remove_stop_words,
+            custom_stop_words,
+            ascii_folding,
+            min_ngram_length,
+            max_ngram_length,
+            prefix_only,
+            // Code-analyzer tokenization options: change the emitted token stream.
+            split_identifiers,
+            split_on_numerics,
+            preserve_original,
+            index_operators,
+            // Not tokenization-affecting (storage/layout/build-time only):
+            with_position: _,
+            block_size: _,
+            memory_limit_mb: _,
+            num_workers: _,
+            format_version: _,
+            // Decides what a document is, not how its text is tokenized. Cross-field
+            // FTS checks it separately because it needs a different answer: the
+            // blend is per row, so a list-element index is rejected outright rather
+            // than merely required to match its siblings.
+            document_granularity: _,
+        } = self;
+        lance_tokenizer == &other.lance_tokenizer
+            && base_tokenizer == &other.base_tokenizer
+            && language == &other.language
+            && max_token_length == &other.max_token_length
+            && lower_case == &other.lower_case
+            && stem == &other.stem
+            && remove_stop_words == &other.remove_stop_words
+            && custom_stop_words == &other.custom_stop_words
+            && ascii_folding == &other.ascii_folding
+            && min_ngram_length == &other.min_ngram_length
+            && max_ngram_length == &other.max_ngram_length
+            && prefix_only == &other.prefix_only
+            && split_identifiers == &other.split_identifiers
+            && split_on_numerics == &other.split_on_numerics
+            && preserve_original == &other.preserve_original
+            && index_operators == &other.index_operators
     }
 
     pub fn lance_tokenizer(mut self, lance_tokenizer: String) -> Self {
@@ -201,8 +797,40 @@ impl InvertedIndexParams {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set the logical FTS document boundary.
+    pub fn document_granularity(mut self, document_granularity: DocumentGranularity) -> Self {
+        self.document_granularity = document_granularity;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Return the logical FTS document boundary.
+    pub fn get_document_granularity(&self) -> DocumentGranularity {
+        self.document_granularity
+    }
+
+    /// Set the lexical tokenizer implementation.
+    ///
+    /// Setting this to `"code"` selects the code analyzer defaults. Setting
+    /// this to `"ngram"` disables stemming and stop-word removal by default so
+    /// all substring tokens remain searchable.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
+    ///
+    /// let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+    ///     .base_tokenizer("code".to_string())
+    ///     .split_identifiers(true);
+    /// assert!(params.build().is_ok());
+    /// ```
     pub fn base_tokenizer(mut self, base_tokenizer: String) -> Self {
         self.base_tokenizer = base_tokenizer;
+        match self.base_tokenizer.as_str() {
+            "code" => self.apply_code_defaults(),
+            "ngram" => self.apply_ngram_defaults(),
+            _ => {}
+        }
         self
     }
 
@@ -223,6 +851,11 @@ impl InvertedIndexParams {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Get whether positions are stored in this index.
+    pub fn has_positions(&self) -> bool {
+        self.with_position
+    }
+
     pub fn max_token_length(mut self, max_token_length: Option<usize>) -> Self {
         self.max_token_length = max_token_length;
         self
@@ -253,6 +886,43 @@ impl InvertedIndexParams {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set whether code identifiers are split into subwords.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
+    ///
+    /// let params = InvertedIndexParams::code()
+    ///     .split_identifiers(true)
+    ///     .split_on_numerics(false)
+    ///     .preserve_original(false)
+    ///     .index_operators(true);
+    /// assert!(params.build().is_ok());
+    /// ```
+    pub fn split_identifiers(mut self, split_identifiers: bool) -> Self {
+        self.split_identifiers = split_identifiers;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set whether identifier subwords are split at letter/number boundaries.
+    pub fn split_on_numerics(mut self, split_on_numerics: bool) -> Self {
+        self.split_on_numerics = split_on_numerics;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set whether the complete identifier is indexed alongside subwords.
+    pub fn preserve_original(mut self, preserve_original: bool) -> Self {
+        self.preserve_original = preserve_original;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set whether operator tokens such as `::`, `->`, and `!=` are indexed.
+    pub fn index_operators(mut self, index_operators: bool) -> Self {
+        self.index_operators = index_operators;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set the minimum N-Gram length, only works when `base_tokenizer` is `ngram`.
     /// Must be greater than 0 and not greater than `max_ngram_length`.
     /// Default to 3.
@@ -276,44 +946,153 @@ impl InvertedIndexParams {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Skip merging partitions after indexing.
-    pub fn skip_merge(mut self, skip_merge: bool) -> Self {
-        self.skip_merge = skip_merge;
+    /// Set the compressed posting block size.
+    ///
+    /// Supported values are 128 and 256. Larger values reduce block-max metadata
+    /// and WAND skip granularity; smaller values preserve the legacy layout.
+    ///
+    /// `block_size = 256` is experimental and may introduce breaking changes.
+    /// Use `128` when stable compatibility with the legacy posting layout is required.
+    pub fn block_size(mut self, block_size: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        self.block_size = validate_block_size(block_size)?;
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the compressed posting block size.
+    ///
+    /// `256` is experimental and may introduce breaking changes.
+    pub fn posting_block_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.block_size
+    }
+
+    pub fn memory_limit_mb(mut self, memory_limit_mb: u64) -> Self {
+        self.memory_limit_mb = Some(memory_limit_mb);
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set the number of workers to use for this build.
+    ///
+    /// By default Lance uses roughly `num_cpus / 2` workers.
+    /// The effective worker count is clamped to `[1, num_cpus - 2]`.
+    pub fn num_workers(mut self, num_workers: usize) -> Self {
+        self.num_workers = Some(num_workers);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the on-disk FTS format version to use when creating a new index.
+    ///
+    /// If unset, new index creation falls back to
+    /// `LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION`. Without either override, text analysis with
+    /// 128-document blocks writes v2, while code analysis or 256-document blocks
+    /// write v3. Existing indexes keep their own format during update and
+    /// optimize operations.
+    pub fn format_version(mut self, format_version: InvertedListFormatVersion) -> Self {
+        self.format_version = Some(format_version);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve the requested FTS format version, falling back to the default for
+    /// the configured analyzer and block size.
+    pub fn resolved_format_version(&self) -> InvertedListFormatVersion {
+        self.format_version.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            if self.base_tokenizer == "code" {
+                InvertedListFormatVersion::V3
+            } else {
+                default_fts_format_version_for_block_size(self.block_size)
+                    .expect("InvertedIndexParams block_size must be validated before use")
+            }
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Validate that the requested FTS format version can safely encode the
+    /// configured posting block size.
+    pub fn validate_format_version(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let format_version = self.resolved_format_version();
+        validate_format_version_block_size(format_version, self.block_size)?;
+        if self.base_tokenizer == "code" && format_version != InvertedListFormatVersion::V3 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "base_tokenizer='code' requires FTS format_version=3, got {}",
+                format_version.index_version()
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize user-visible params, including logical index identity fields.
+    pub(crate) fn to_details_json(&self) -> serde_json::Result<serde_json::Value> {
+        let mut value = serde_json::to_value(self)?;
+        let object = value
+            .as_object_mut()
+            .expect("inverted index params should serialize to a JSON object");
+        object.insert(
+            "document_granularity".to_string(),
+            serde_json::to_value(self.document_granularity)?,
+        );
+        Ok(value)
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize params for the build/training path, including build-only fields.
+    pub fn to_training_json(&self) -> serde_json::Result<serde_json::Value> {
+        let mut value = self.to_details_json()?;
+        let object = value
+            .as_object_mut()
+            .expect("inverted index params should serialize to a JSON object");
+        if let Some(memory_limit_mb) = self.memory_limit_mb {
+            object.insert(
+                "memory_limit".to_string(),
+                serde_json::Value::from(memory_limit_mb),
+            );
+        }
+        if let Some(num_workers) = self.num_workers {
+            object.insert(
+                "num_workers".to_string(),
+                serde_json::Value::from(num_workers),
+            );
+        }
+        if let Some(format_version) = self.format_version {
+            object.insert(
+                "format_version".to_string(),
+                serde_json::Value::from(format_version.index_version()),
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(value)
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize params for new index training, using the environment
+    /// override and current creation defaults for omitted fields.
+    pub(crate) fn from_training_json(params: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        let supplied = serde_json::from_str::<serde_json::Value>(params)?;
+        supplied.as_object().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("FTS inverted index params must be a JSON object".to_string())
+        })?;
+
+        let mut params: Self = serde_json::from_value(supplied)?;
+        let default_format_version = params.resolved_format_version();
+        params.format_version = Some(resolve_creation_format_version(
+            params.format_version,
+            default_format_version,
+        )?);
+        params.validate_format_version()?;
+        Ok(params)
+    }
+
     pub fn build(&self) -> Result<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>> {
+        self.validate()?;
         let mut builder = self.build_base_tokenizer()?;
         if let Some(max_token_length) = self.max_token_length {
-            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(tantivy::tokenizer::RemoveLongFilter::limit(
-                max_token_length,
-            ));
+            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(RemoveLongFilter::limit(max_token_length));
         }
         if self.lower_case {
-            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(tantivy::tokenizer::LowerCaser);
+            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(LowerCaser);
         }
         if self.stem {
-            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(tantivy::tokenizer::Stemmer::new(self.language));
+            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(Stemmer::new(self.language));
         }
         if self.remove_stop_words {
-            let stop_word_filter = match &self.custom_stop_words {
-                Some(words) => tantivy::tokenizer::StopWordFilter::remove(words.iter().cloned()),
-                None => {
-                    tantivy::tokenizer::StopWordFilter::new(self.language).ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!(
-                                "removing stop words for language {:?} is not supported yet",
-                                self.language
-                            ),
-                            location!(),
-                        )
-                    })?
-                }
-            };
-            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(stop_word_filter);
+            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(self.stop_word_filter()?);
         }
         if self.ascii_folding {
-            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(tantivy::tokenizer::AsciiFoldingFilter);
+            builder = builder.filter_dynamic(AsciiFoldingFilter);
         }
         let tokenizer = builder.build();
 
@@ -321,46 +1100,79 @@ impl InvertedIndexParams {
             Some(ref t) if t == "text" => Ok(Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(tokenizer))),
             Some(ref t) if t == "json" => Ok(Box::new(JsonTokenizer::new(tokenizer))),
             None => Ok(Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(tokenizer))),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "unknown lance tokenizer {}",
-                    self.lance_tokenizer.as_ref().unwrap()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "unknown lance tokenizer {}",
+                self.lance_tokenizer.as_ref().unwrap()
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn stop_word_filter(&self) -> Result<StopWordFilter> {
+        match &self.custom_stop_words {
+            Some(words) => Ok(StopWordFilter::remove(words.iter().cloned())),
+            None if self.base_tokenizer == "icu" || self.base_tokenizer == "icu/split" => {
+                Ok(StopWordFilter::all())
+            }
+            None => StopWordFilter::new(self.language).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "removing stop words for language {:?} is not supported yet",
+                    self.language
+                ))
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        validate_block_size(self.block_size)?;
+        if self.base_tokenizer != "code"
+            && (self.split_identifiers
+                || self.split_on_numerics
+                || self.preserve_original
+                || self.index_operators)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "code analyzer flags require base_tokenizer='code'".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn build_base_tokenizer(&self) -> Result<tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzerBuilder> {
+    fn build_base_tokenizer(&self) -> Result<TextAnalyzerBuilder> {
         match self.base_tokenizer.as_str() {
-            "simple" => Ok(tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(
-                tantivy::tokenizer::SimpleTokenizer::default(),
-            )
-            .dynamic()),
-            "whitespace" => Ok(tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(
-                tantivy::tokenizer::WhitespaceTokenizer::default(),
-            )
-            .dynamic()),
-            "raw" => Ok(tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(
-                tantivy::tokenizer::RawTokenizer::default(),
-            )
-            .dynamic()),
-            "ngram" => Ok(tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(
-                tantivy::tokenizer::NgramTokenizer::new(
+            "simple" => Ok(TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).dynamic()),
+            "whitespace" => Ok(TextAnalyzer::builder(WhitespaceTokenizer::default()).dynamic()),
+            "raw" => Ok(TextAnalyzer::builder(RawTokenizer::default()).dynamic()),
+            "code" => {
+                let mut builder =
+                    TextAnalyzer::builder(CodeLexTokenizer::new(self.index_operators)).dynamic();
+                if self.split_identifiers {
+                    builder = builder.filter_dynamic(WordDelimiterFilter::new(
+                        self.preserve_original,
+                        self.split_on_numerics,
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(builder)
+            }
+            "icu" => Ok(TextAnalyzer::builder(IcuTokenizer::default()).dynamic()),
+            "icu/split" => {
+                Ok(TextAnalyzer::builder(IcuTokenizer::default().with_simple_split()).dynamic())
+            }
+            "ngram" => {
+                let tokenizer = NgramTokenizer::new(
                     self.min_ngram_length as usize,
                     self.max_ngram_length as usize,
                     self.prefix_only,
                 )
-                .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string(), location!()))?,
-            )
-            .dynamic()),
+                .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+                Ok(TextAnalyzer::builder(tokenizer).dynamic())
+            }
             #[cfg(feature = "tokenizer-lindera")]
             s if s.starts_with("lindera/") => {
                 let Some(home) = language_model_home() else {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("unknown base tokenizer {}", self.base_tokenizer),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "unknown base tokenizer {}",
+                        self.base_tokenizer
+                    )));
                 };
                 lindera::LinderaBuilder::load(&home.join(s))?.build()
             }
@@ -368,17 +1180,17 @@ impl InvertedIndexParams {
             s if s.starts_with("jieba/") || s == "jieba" => {
                 let s = if s == "jieba" { "jieba/default" } else { s };
                 let Some(home) = language_model_home() else {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("unknown base tokenizer {}", self.base_tokenizer),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "unknown base tokenizer {}",
+                        self.base_tokenizer
+                    )));
                 };
                 jieba::JiebaBuilder::load(&home.join(s))?.build()
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("unknown base tokenizer {}", self.base_tokenizer),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "unknown base tokenizer {}",
+                self.base_tokenizer
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -393,3 +1205,665 @@ pub fn language_model_home() -> Option<PathBuf> {
         Err(_) => dirs::data_local_dir().map(|p| p.join(LANCE_LANGUAGE_MODEL_DEFAULT_DIRECTORY)),
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use crate::pbold;
+    use crate::pbold::inverted_index_details::DocumentGranularity as PbDocumentGranularity;
+
+    use super::{DocumentGranularity, InvertedIndexParams, InvertedListFormatVersion};
+    use lance_core::Error;
+    use lance_tokenizer::{Language, TokenStream};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use serde_json::json;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_physical_params_omit_creation_only_fields() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement)
+            .memory_limit_mb(4096)
+            .num_workers(7)
+            .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1);
+        let json = serde_json::to_value(&params).unwrap();
+        assert!(json.get("document_granularity").is_none());
+        assert!(json.get("memory_limit").is_none());
+        assert!(json.get("num_workers").is_none());
+        assert!(json.get("format_version").is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_same_tokenization_ignores_storage_only_fields() {
+        let base = InvertedIndexParams::new("simple".to_string(), Language::English);
+
+        // Storage/layout-only differences keep the same tokenization.
+        assert!(base.same_tokenization(&base.clone().with_position(true)));
+
+        // Tokenizer-affecting differences are detected.
+        assert!(!base.same_tokenization(&base.clone().stem(!base.stem)));
+        assert!(!base.same_tokenization(&base.clone().lower_case(!base.lower_case)));
+        assert!(!base.same_tokenization(&InvertedIndexParams::new(
+            "whitespace".to_string(),
+            Language::English,
+        )));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_memory_limit_serde_accepts_legacy_worker_field_name() {
+        let mut json = serde_json::to_value(InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap();
+        let obj = json.as_object_mut().unwrap();
+        obj.remove("memory_limit");
+        obj.insert(
+            "worker_memory_limit_mb".to_string(),
+            serde_json::Value::from(2048),
+        );
+        let params: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_value(json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(params.memory_limit_mb, Some(2048));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_only_fields_deserialize_from_public_names() {
+        let mut json = serde_json::to_value(InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap();
+        let obj = json.as_object_mut().unwrap();
+        obj.insert("memory_limit".to_string(), serde_json::Value::from(4096));
+        obj.insert("num_workers".to_string(), serde_json::Value::from(3));
+        obj.insert("format_version".to_string(), serde_json::Value::from("v1"));
+
+        let params: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_value(json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(params.memory_limit_mb, Some(4096));
+        assert_eq!(params.num_workers, Some(3));
+        assert_eq!(params.format_version, Some(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_json_serializes_creation_fields() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement)
+            .memory_limit_mb(4096)
+            .num_workers(3)
+            .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1);
+        let json = params.to_training_json().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            json.get("document_granularity"),
+            Some(&serde_json::Value::from("list_element"))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            json.get("memory_limit"),
+            Some(&serde_json::Value::from(4096))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(json.get("num_workers"), Some(&serde_json::Value::from(3)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            json.get("format_version"),
+            Some(&serde_json::Value::from(1))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_json_preserves_disabled_max_token_length() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().max_token_length(None);
+        let json = params.to_training_json().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(json.get("max_token_length"), Some(&serde_json::Value::Null));
+
+        let params: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_value(json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(params.max_token_length, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_default_format_version_resolves_to_v2() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().resolved_format_version(),
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V2
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_code_analyzer_resolves_defaults() {
+        let params: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_value(json!({
+            "analyzer": "code"
+        }))
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(params.base_tokenizer, "code");
+        assert!(!params.split_identifiers);
+        assert!(params.split_on_numerics);
+        assert!(params.preserve_original);
+        assert!(params.lower_case);
+        assert!(params.ascii_folding);
+        assert!(!params.stem);
+        assert!(!params.remove_stop_words);
+        assert!(!params.index_operators);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ngram_tokenizer_resolves_substring_safe_defaults() {
+        let params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::from_training_json(r#"{"base_tokenizer":"ngram"}"#).unwrap();
+        assert!(!params.stem);
+        assert!(!params.remove_stop_words);
+
+        let mut tokenizer = params.build().unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search("the");
+        assert_eq!(stream.next().unwrap().text, "the");
+        assert!(stream.next().is_none());
+
+        let explicit_filters: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_value(json!({
+            "base_tokenizer": "ngram",
+            "stem": true,
+            "remove_stop_words": true
+        }))
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(explicit_filters.stem);
+        assert!(explicit_filters.remove_stop_words);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_analyzer_profile_resolves_to_persisted_params() {
+        let from_profile: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_value(json!({
+            "analyzer": "code",
+            "split_identifiers": true,
+            "preserve_original": false
+        }))
+        .unwrap();
+        let from_base_tokenizer: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_value(json!({
+            "base_tokenizer": "code",
+            "split_identifiers": true,
+            "preserve_original": false
+        }))
+        .unwrap();
+        let from_constructor = InvertedIndexParams::new("code".to_string(), Language::English)
+            .split_identifiers(true)
+            .preserve_original(false);
+
+        assert_eq!(from_profile, from_base_tokenizer);
+        assert_eq!(from_profile, from_constructor);
+
+        let persisted = serde_json::to_value(&from_profile).unwrap();
+        assert!(persisted.get("analyzer").is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            serde_json::from_value::<InvertedIndexParams>(persisted).unwrap(),
+            from_profile
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_size_256_defaults_to_v3() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                .block_size(256)
+                .unwrap()
+                .resolved_format_version(),
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V3
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_code_analyzer_defaults_to_v3_for_supported_block_sizes() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            InvertedIndexParams::code().resolved_format_version(),
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V3
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            InvertedIndexParams::code()
+                .block_size(256)
+                .unwrap()
+                .resolved_format_version(),
+            InvertedListFormatVersion::V3
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_json_uses_v3_for_code_analyzer_and_supported_block_sizes() {
+        for block_size in [128, 256] {
+            let params = InvertedIndexParams::from_training_json(
+                &serde_json::json!({
+                    "base_tokenizer": "code",
+                    "block_size": block_size,
+                })
+                .to_string(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(params.format_version, Some(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_text_analyzer_replaces_code_defaults() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::code().analyzer("text").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(params, InvertedIndexParams::default());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_code_analyzer_rejects_conflicting_base_tokenizer() {
+        let err = serde_json::from_value::<InvertedIndexParams>(json!({
+            "analyzer": "code",
+            "base_tokenizer": "simple"
+        }))
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("requires base_tokenizer='code'"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_code_tokenizer_does_not_split_identifiers_by_default() {
+        let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::code().build().unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(
+            "getUserName XMLHttpRequest parseHTML2JSON utf8_reader SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE",
+        );
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        stream.process(&mut |token| {
+            tokens.push((token.text.clone(), token.position, token.position_length))
+        });
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens,
+            vec![
+                ("getusername".to_string(), 0, 1),
+                ("xmlhttprequest".to_string(), 1, 1),
+                ("parsehtml2json".to_string(), 2, 1),
+                ("utf8_reader".to_string(), 3, 1),
+                ("screaming_snake_case".to_string(), 4, 1),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_code_tokenizer_with_identifier_splitting() {
+        let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::code()
+            .split_identifiers(true)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(
+            "getUserName XMLHttpRequest parseHTML2JSON utf8_reader SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE",
+        );
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        stream.process(&mut |token| {
+            tokens.push((token.text.clone(), token.position, token.position_length))
+        });
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens,
+            vec![
+                ("getusername".to_string(), 0, 3),
+                ("get".to_string(), 0, 1),
+                ("user".to_string(), 1, 1),
+                ("name".to_string(), 2, 1),
+                ("xmlhttprequest".to_string(), 3, 3),
+                ("xml".to_string(), 3, 1),
+                ("http".to_string(), 4, 1),
+                ("request".to_string(), 5, 1),
+                ("parsehtml2json".to_string(), 6, 4),
+                ("parse".to_string(), 6, 1),
+                ("html".to_string(), 7, 1),
+                ("2".to_string(), 8, 1),
+                ("json".to_string(), 9, 1),
+                ("utf8_reader".to_string(), 10, 3),
+                ("utf".to_string(), 10, 1),
+                ("8".to_string(), 11, 1),
+                ("reader".to_string(), 12, 1),
+                ("screaming_snake_case".to_string(), 13, 3),
+                ("screaming".to_string(), 13, 1),
+                ("snake".to_string(), 14, 1),
+                ("case".to_string(), 15, 1),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_inverted_details_round_trip_code_params() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::code()
+            .with_position(true)
+            .index_operators(true)
+            .preserve_original(false)
+            .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3);
+        let details = crate::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&params).unwrap();
+        let code_config = details.code_config.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(code_config.split_on_numerics, Some(true));
+        assert_eq!(code_config.preserve_original, Some(false));
+        let round_tripped = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&details).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(round_tripped, params);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_inverted_details_uses_code_defaults_for_absent_flags() {
+        let mut details =
+            crate::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&InvertedIndexParams::code()).unwrap();
+        let code_config = details.code_config.as_mut().unwrap();
+        code_config.split_on_numerics = None;
+        code_config.preserve_original = None;
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&details).unwrap();
+        assert!(params.split_on_numerics);
+        assert!(params.preserve_original);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_inverted_details_rejects_code_config_for_text_tokenizer() {
+        let mut details =
+            crate::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&InvertedIndexParams::code()).unwrap();
+        details.base_tokenizer = Some("simple".to_string());
+
+        let err = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&details).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("code_config requires base_tokenizer='code'")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_inverted_details_does_not_persist_document_tokenizer() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().lance_tokenizer("json".to_string());
+        let details = crate::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&params).unwrap();
+        let round_tripped = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&details).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(round_tripped.lance_tokenizer, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_format_version_must_match_block_size() {
+        InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)
+            .validate_format_version()
+            .unwrap();
+        InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .block_size(256)
+            .unwrap()
+            .validate_format_version()
+            .unwrap();
+        InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3)
+            .validate_format_version()
+            .unwrap();
+        InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .block_size(256)
+            .unwrap()
+            .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3)
+            .validate_format_version()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let err = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .block_size(256)
+            .unwrap()
+            .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)
+            .validate_format_version()
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("block_size=256"));
+
+        let err = InvertedIndexParams::code()
+            .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V2)
+            .validate_format_version()
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("requires FTS format_version=3"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_json_rejects_incompatible_format_version_and_block_size() {
+        let err =
+            InvertedIndexParams::from_training_json(r#"{"block_size": 256, "format_version": 2}"#)
+                .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("block_size=256"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_json_invalid_numeric_format_version_includes_value() {
+        let err = InvertedIndexParams::from_training_json(r#"{"format_version": -1}"#).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&err, lance_core::Error::Arrow { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("got -1"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_json_ignores_unknown_fields() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::from_training_json(
+            r#"{
+                "lower_case": false,
+                "skip_merge": true,
+                "future_parameter": {"enabled": true}
+            }"#,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!params.lower_case);
+        let normalized = params.to_training_json().unwrap();
+        assert!(normalized.get("skip_merge").is_none());
+        assert!(normalized.get("future_parameter").is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_size_default_serializes() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        assert_eq!(params.block_size, 128);
+        let json = serde_json::to_value(&params).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(json.get("block_size"), Some(&serde_json::Value::from(128)));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_size_missing_metadata_falls_back_to_128() {
+        let mut json = serde_json::to_value(InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap();
+        json.as_object_mut().unwrap().remove("block_size");
+
+        let params: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_value(json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(params.block_size, 128);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_size_details_conversion() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size(256).unwrap();
+        let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&params).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(details.block_size, Some(256));
+
+        let old_details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails {
+            base_tokenizer: Some("simple".to_string()),
+            language: serde_json::to_string(&Language::English).unwrap(),
+            with_position: false,
+            max_token_length: Some(40),
+            lower_case: true,
+            stem: true,
+            remove_stop_words: true,
+            ascii_folding: true,
+            min_ngram_length: 3,
+            max_ngram_length: 3,
+            prefix_only: false,
+            block_size: None,
+            code_config: None,
+            document_granularity: PbDocumentGranularity::Row as i32,
+            posting_format_version: None,
+        };
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&old_details).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(params.block_size, 128);
+        assert_eq!(params.get_document_granularity(), DocumentGranularity::Row);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_document_granularity_details_conversion() {
+        let params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+        let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&params).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(details.posting_format_version, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.document_granularity,
+            PbDocumentGranularity::ListElement as i32
+        );
+        let roundtrip = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&details).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            roundtrip.get_document_granularity(),
+            DocumentGranularity::ListElement
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::block_size_128(128)]
+    #[case::block_size_256(256)]
+    fn test_block_size_accepts_supported_values(#[case] block_size: usize) {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .block_size(block_size)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(params.block_size, block_size);
+
+        let roundtrip: InvertedIndexParams =
+            serde_json::from_value(serde_json::to_value(&params).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(roundtrip.block_size, block_size);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_size_rejects_invalid_values() {
+        let err = InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size(129).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("block_size"));
+
+        let err = InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size(512).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("128 or 256"));
+
+        let mut json = serde_json::to_value(InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap();
+        json.as_object_mut()
+            .unwrap()
+            .insert("block_size".to_string(), serde_json::Value::from(1024));
+        let err = serde_json::from_value::<InvertedIndexParams>(json).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("128 or 256"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_icu_tokenizer() {
+        let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .base_tokenizer("icu".to_string())
+            .stem(false)
+            .remove_stop_words(false)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc("Hello, こんにちは世界!");
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        stream.process(&mut |token| tokens.push(token.text.clone()));
+        assert_eq!(tokens, vec!["hello", "こんにちは", "世界"]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_icu_tokenizer_with_split_on_non_alphanumeric() {
+        let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .base_tokenizer("icu/split".to_string())
+            .stem(false)
+            .remove_stop_words(false)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc("hello_world こんにちは世界 alpha.beta");
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        stream.process(&mut |token| tokens.push(token.text.clone()));
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens,
+            vec!["hello", "world", "こんにちは", "世界", "alpha", "beta"]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remove_stop_words_respects_language_for_non_icu_tokenizer() {
+        let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .stem(false)
+            .base_tokenizer("simple".to_string())
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search("the 的 lance data");
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
+            tokens.push(token.text.clone());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens,
+            vec!["的".to_string(), "lance".to_string(), "data".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_custom_stop_words_replace_language_builtins() {
+        let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .stem(false)
+            .custom_stop_words(Some(vec!["lance".to_string()]))
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search("the lance data");
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
+            tokens.push(token.text.clone());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(tokens, vec!["the".to_string(), "data".to_string()]);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::icu("icu")]
+    #[case::icu_split("icu/split")]
+    fn test_icu_stop_words_use_all_builtin_lists(#[case] base_tokenizer: &str) {
+        let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .stem(false)
+            .base_tokenizer(base_tokenizer.to_string())
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search("the 的 lance data");
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
+            tokens.push(token.text.clone());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(tokens, vec!["lance".to_string(), "data".to_string()]);
+    }
+
+    // Common English pronouns/function words such as `you`/`my`/`your`/`we`
+    // must be removed by the ICU `all()` stop-word path. These are among the
+    // highest-frequency tokens, so leaking them builds pathologically large
+    // single-term posting lists (and previously overflowed the u32 posting-list
+    // size counter, panicking the whole index build). The leak is independent
+    // of stemming, so we assert it for both stem=false and stem=true.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::icu_no_stem("icu", false)]
+    #[case::icu_stem("icu", true)]
+    #[case::icu_split_no_stem("icu/split", false)]
+    #[case::icu_split_stem("icu/split", true)]
+    // `simple` is the recommended tokenizer for monolingual English corpora and
+    // uses StopWordFilter::new(English) rather than the ICU all() path, so it
+    // must be covered too.
+    #[case::simple_no_stem("simple", false)]
+    #[case::simple_stem("simple", true)]
+    fn test_icu_common_english_stop_words_do_not_leak(
+        #[case] base_tokenizer: &str,
+        #[case] stem: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .base_tokenizer(base_tokenizer.to_string())
+            .stem(stem)
+            .remove_stop_words(true)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search("you my your we lance data");
+        let tokens: Vec<String> = std::iter::from_fn(|| stream.next().map(|t| t.text.clone()))
+            .filter(|t| matches!(t.as_str(), "you" | "my" | "your" | "we"))
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            tokens.is_empty(),
+            "common English stop words leaked through the icu pipeline (stem={stem}): {tokens:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Common Chinese function words/particles (了 是 在 的 和 有 我) are the
+    // highest-frequency Chinese tokens; like the English pronouns they must be
+    // removed by the ICU `all()` stop-word path so they don't build huge
+    // posting lists. Real content words (英语 = "English", 数据 = "data") must
+    // survive. ICU dictionary segmentation splits the input into words, so this
+    // exercises the CJK stop-word path end to end.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::icu("icu")]
+    #[case::icu_split("icu/split")]
+    fn test_icu_common_chinese_stop_words_do_not_leak(#[case] base_tokenizer: &str) {
+        let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .base_tokenizer(base_tokenizer.to_string())
+            .stem(true)
+            .remove_stop_words(true)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search("我 在 有 了 是 的 和 英语 数据");
+        let tokens: Vec<String> =
+            std::iter::from_fn(|| stream.next().map(|t| t.text.clone())).collect();
+        let stop = ["我", "在", "有", "了", "是", "的", "和"];
+        let leaked: Vec<&String> = tokens
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|t| stop.contains(&t.as_str()))
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            leaked.is_empty(),
+            "common Chinese stop words leaked through the icu pipeline: {leaked:?} (all tokens: {tokens:?})"
+        );
+        // The real content words must still be indexed.
+        assert!(
+            tokens.iter().any(|t| t == "英语"),
+            "content word 英语 was dropped: {tokens:?}"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/lance_tokenizer.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/document_tokenizer.rs
similarity index 71%
rename from rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/lance_tokenizer.rs
rename to rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/document_tokenizer.rs
index 7bd3816f147..b37d93bca4d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/lance_tokenizer.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/document_tokenizer.rs
@@ -2,11 +2,9 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-use lance_arrow::json::JSON_EXT_NAME;
-use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+use lance_arrow::json::JsonEncoding;
+use lance_tokenizer::{BoxTokenStream, TextAnalyzer, Token, TokenStream};
 use serde_json::Value;
-use snafu::location;
-use tantivy::tokenizer::{BoxTokenStream, Token, TokenStream};
 
 /// Document type for full text search.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -28,6 +26,10 @@ impl TryFrom<&Field> for DocType {
     type Error = lance_core::Error;
 
     fn try_from(field: &Field) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        // JSON text is also `Utf8`, so it must be recognized before plain text.
+        if JsonEncoding::of_field(field).is_some() {
+            return Ok(Self::Json);
+        }
         match field.data_type() {
             DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 => Ok(Self::Text),
             DataType::List(field) | DataType::LargeList(field)
@@ -35,17 +37,9 @@ impl TryFrom<&Field> for DocType {
             {
                 Ok(Self::Text)
             }
-            DataType::LargeBinary => match field.metadata().get(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY) {
-                Some(name) if name.as_str() == JSON_EXT_NAME => Ok(Self::Json),
-                _ => Err(lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: format!("field {} is not json", field.name()).into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }),
-            },
-            _ => Err(lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("field {} is not json", field.name()).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("field {} is not json", field.name()).into(),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -57,10 +51,10 @@ impl DocType {
     pub fn prefix_len(&self, token: &str) -> usize {
         match self {
             Self::Json => {
-                if let Some(pos) = token.find(',') {
-                    if let Some(second_pos) = token[pos + 1..].find(',') {
-                        return pos + second_pos + 2;
-                    }
+                if let Some(pos) = token.find(',')
+                    && let Some(second_pos) = token[pos + 1..].find(',')
+                {
+                    return pos + second_pos + 2;
                 }
                 panic!("json token must be in format of <path>,<type>,<value>")
             }
@@ -76,7 +70,7 @@ impl DocType {
 /// 1. Query text is a triplet <path,type,value>, something like `a.b,str,123`. We shouldn't use
 ///    json in search, because it would be too complicated.
 /// 2. Document text is a json string.
-pub trait LanceTokenizer: Send + Sync {
+pub trait LanceTokenizer: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
     /// Tokenize query text for search.
     fn token_stream_for_search<'a>(&'a mut self, query_text: &'a str) -> BoxTokenStream<'a>;
     /// Tokenize document text for index.
@@ -95,11 +89,17 @@ impl Clone for Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> {
 
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct TextTokenizer {
-    tokenizer: tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer,
+    tokenizer: TextAnalyzer,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for TextTokenizer {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "TextTokenizer")
+    }
 }
 
 impl TextTokenizer {
-    pub fn new(tokenizer: tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(tokenizer: TextAnalyzer) -> Self {
         Self { tokenizer }
     }
 }
@@ -124,19 +124,31 @@ impl LanceTokenizer for TextTokenizer {
 
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct JsonTokenizer {
-    tokenizer: tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer,
+    tokenizer: TextAnalyzer,
 }
 
 impl JsonTokenizer {
-    pub fn new(tokenizer: tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(tokenizer: TextAnalyzer) -> Self {
         Self { tokenizer }
     }
 }
 
+impl std::fmt::Debug for JsonTokenizer {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "JsonTokenizer")
+    }
+}
+
 impl LanceTokenizer for JsonTokenizer {
     fn token_stream_for_search<'a>(&'a mut self, query_text: &'a str) -> BoxTokenStream<'a> {
-        let tokens = flatten_triplet(query_text, &mut self.tokenizer).unwrap();
-        BoxTokenStream::new(TTStream { tokens, index: 0 })
+        match flatten_triplet(query_text, &mut self.tokenizer) {
+            Ok(tokens) => BoxTokenStream::new(TTStream { tokens, index: 0 }),
+            Err(error) => BoxTokenStream::new(TTStream {
+                tokens: Vec::new(),
+                index: 0,
+            })
+            .with_error(error),
+        }
     }
 
     fn token_stream_for_doc<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> BoxTokenStream<'a> {
@@ -161,20 +173,14 @@ impl LanceTokenizer for JsonTokenizer {
     }
 }
 
-fn flatten_triplet(
-    text: &str,
-    tokenizer: &mut tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer,
-) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<Token>> {
+fn flatten_triplet(text: &str, tokenizer: &mut TextAnalyzer) -> Result<Vec<Token>, String> {
     let mut token_vec = Vec::new();
     let mut idx = 0;
 
     for triple in text.split(';') {
         let parts: Vec<&str> = triple.splitn(3, ',').collect();
         if parts.len() != 3 {
-            return Err(lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Invalid triple format: {}", triple).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(format!("Invalid triple format: {}", triple));
         }
         let field = parts[0];
         let v_type = parts[1];
@@ -206,10 +212,7 @@ fn flatten_triplet(
                 }
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: format!("Invalid triple type: {}", v_type).into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(format!("Invalid triple type: {}", v_type));
             }
         }
     }
@@ -221,7 +224,7 @@ fn flatten_json(
     prefix: &str,
     out: &mut Vec<Token>,
     position: &mut usize,
-    tokenizer: &mut tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer,
+    tokenizer: &mut TextAnalyzer,
 ) {
     match value {
         Value::Object(map) => {
@@ -299,11 +302,34 @@ impl TokenStream for TTStream {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::lance_tokenizer::{
-        flatten_json, flatten_triplet, JsonTokenizer, LanceTokenizer,
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::query::try_collect_query_tokens;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::{
+        DocType, JsonTokenizer, LanceTokenizer, flatten_json, flatten_triplet,
     };
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+    use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+    use lance_arrow::json::{ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME, json_field};
+    use lance_core::Error;
+    use lance_tokenizer::{SimpleTokenizer, TextAnalyzer, Token};
+    use rstest::rstest;
     use serde_json::Value;
-    use tantivy::tokenizer::{SimpleTokenizer, Token};
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    /// A JSON column is tokenized as JSON whether it holds stored JSONB or
+    /// Arrow JSON text; plain strings stay text.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::jsonb(json_field("doc", true), "json")]
+    #[case::arrow_json_text(
+        Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        )])),
+        "json"
+    )]
+    #[case::plain_text(Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true), "text")]
+    fn test_doc_type_of_field(#[case] field: Field, #[case] expected: &str) {
+        assert_eq!(DocType::try_from(&field).unwrap().as_ref(), expected);
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_json_tokenizer() {
@@ -314,9 +340,8 @@ mod tests {
             {"c": "e"}
           ]
         }"#;
-        let mut tokenizer = JsonTokenizer::new(
-            tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build(),
-        );
+        let mut tokenizer =
+            JsonTokenizer::new(TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build());
         let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(text);
 
         let mut tokens: Vec<Token> = vec![];
@@ -347,8 +372,7 @@ mod tests {
         let value: Value = serde_json::from_str(json).unwrap();
 
         let mut tokens = vec![];
-        let mut tokenizer =
-            tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build();
+        let mut tokenizer = TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build();
         let mut position = 0;
         flatten_json(&value, "", &mut tokens, &mut position, &mut tokenizer);
 
@@ -365,8 +389,7 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_flatten_triplet() {
         let text = r#"a,number,1;b.c,str,d;b.c,str,e;d,str,hello world;e,number,1.0"#;
-        let mut tokenizer =
-            tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build();
+        let mut tokenizer = TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build();
         let tokens = flatten_triplet(text, &mut tokenizer).unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(tokens.len(), 6);
@@ -378,6 +401,21 @@ mod tests {
         assert_token(&tokens[5], 5, "e,number,1.0");
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::missing_type("brown", "Invalid triple format: brown")]
+    #[case::invalid_type("title,string,brown", "Invalid triple type: string")]
+    fn test_invalid_json_search_query(#[case] query: &str, #[case] expected_message: &str) {
+        let mut tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> = Box::new(JsonTokenizer::new(
+            TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build(),
+        ));
+        let error = try_collect_query_tokens(query, &mut tokenizer)
+            .err()
+            .expect("invalid JSON search query should fail");
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(expected_message), "{error}");
+    }
+
     fn assert_token(token: &Token, position: usize, text: &str) {
         assert_eq!(
             token.position, position,
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/jieba.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/jieba.rs
index d450658ee02..2bfd61ec7fc 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/jieba.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/jieba.rs
@@ -4,7 +4,8 @@
 use std::{fs::File, io::BufReader, path::Path, path::PathBuf};
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use serde::{de::DeserializeOwned, Deserialize, Serialize};
+use lance_tokenizer::{JiebaTokenizer, TextAnalyzerBuilder};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize, de::DeserializeOwned};
 
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Default)]
 pub struct JiebaConfig {
@@ -19,10 +20,10 @@ pub trait JiebaTokenizerBuilder: Sized {
 
     fn load(p: &Path) -> Result<Self> {
         if !p.is_dir() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Invalid directory path: {}", p.display()),
-                snafu::location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid directory path: {}",
+                p.display()
+            )));
         }
         let config_path = p.join(JIEBA_LANGUAGE_MODEL_CONFIG_FILE);
         let config = if config_path.exists() {
@@ -37,7 +38,7 @@ pub trait JiebaTokenizerBuilder: Sized {
 
     fn new(config: Self::Config, root: &Path) -> Result<Self>;
 
-    fn build(&self) -> Result<tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzerBuilder>;
+    fn build(&self) -> Result<TextAnalyzerBuilder>;
 }
 
 pub struct JiebaBuilder {
@@ -71,88 +72,28 @@ impl JiebaTokenizerBuilder for JiebaBuilder {
         })
     }
 
-    fn build(&self) -> Result<tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzerBuilder> {
+    fn build(&self) -> Result<TextAnalyzerBuilder> {
         let main_dict_path = &self.main_dict_path();
         let file = std::fs::File::open(main_dict_path)?;
         let mut f = std::io::BufReader::new(file);
         let mut jieba = jieba_rs::Jieba::with_dict(&mut f).map_err(|e| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Failed to load Jieba dictionary from {}: {}",
-                    main_dict_path.display(),
-                    e
-                ),
-                snafu::location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Failed to load Jieba dictionary from {}: {}",
+                main_dict_path.display(),
+                e
+            ))
         })?;
         for user_dict_path in &self.user_dict_paths() {
             let file = std::fs::File::open(user_dict_path)?;
             let mut f = std::io::BufReader::new(file);
             jieba.load_dict(&mut f).map_err(|e| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Failed to load Jieba user dictionary from {}: {}",
-                        user_dict_path.display(),
-                        e
-                    ),
-                    snafu::location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Failed to load Jieba user dictionary from {}: {}",
+                    user_dict_path.display(),
+                    e
+                ))
             })?
         }
-        let tokenizer = JiebaTokenizer { jieba };
-        Ok(tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(tokenizer).dynamic())
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone)]
-struct JiebaTokenizer {
-    jieba: jieba_rs::Jieba,
-}
-
-struct JiebaTokenStream {
-    tokens: Vec<tantivy::tokenizer::Token>,
-    index: usize,
-}
-
-impl tantivy::tokenizer::TokenStream for JiebaTokenStream {
-    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
-        if self.index < self.tokens.len() {
-            self.index += 1;
-            true
-        } else {
-            false
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn token(&self) -> &tantivy::tokenizer::Token {
-        &self.tokens[self.index - 1]
-    }
-
-    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut tantivy::tokenizer::Token {
-        &mut self.tokens[self.index - 1]
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(feature = "tokenizer-jieba")]
-impl tantivy::tokenizer::Tokenizer for JiebaTokenizer {
-    type TokenStream<'a> = JiebaTokenStream;
-
-    fn token_stream(&mut self, text: &str) -> JiebaTokenStream {
-        let mut indices = text.char_indices().collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        indices.push((text.len(), '\0'));
-        let orig_tokens = self
-            .jieba
-            .tokenize(text, jieba_rs::TokenizeMode::Search, true);
-        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
-        for token in orig_tokens {
-            tokens.push(tantivy::tokenizer::Token {
-                offset_from: indices[token.start].0,
-                offset_to: indices[token.end].0,
-                position: token.start,
-                text: String::from(&text[(indices[token.start].0)..(indices[token.end].0)]),
-                position_length: token.end - token.start,
-            });
-        }
-        JiebaTokenStream { tokens, index: 0 }
+        Ok(JiebaTokenizer::new(jieba).analyzer_builder())
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/lindera.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/lindera.rs
index ec492a43513..e294819dca3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/lindera.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/tokenizer/lindera.rs
@@ -4,18 +4,17 @@
 use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lindera_tantivy::tokenizer::LinderaTokenizer;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_tokenizer::{LinderaTokenizer, TextAnalyzerBuilder};
 
 pub const LINDERA_LANGUAGE_MODEL_CONFIG_FILE: &str = "config.yml";
 
 pub trait LinderaTokenizerBuilder: Sized {
     fn load(p: &Path) -> Result<Self> {
         if !p.is_dir() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Invalid directory path: {}", p.display()),
-                snafu::location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid directory path: {}",
+                p.display()
+            )));
         }
         let config_path = p.join(LINDERA_LANGUAGE_MODEL_CONFIG_FILE);
         Self::new(config_path.as_path())
@@ -23,7 +22,7 @@ pub trait LinderaTokenizerBuilder: Sized {
 
     fn new(config_path: &Path) -> Result<Self>;
 
-    fn build(&self) -> Result<tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzerBuilder>;
+    fn build(&self) -> Result<TextAnalyzerBuilder>;
 }
 
 pub struct LinderaBuilder {
@@ -37,19 +36,16 @@ impl LinderaTokenizerBuilder for LinderaBuilder {
         })
     }
 
-    fn build(&self) -> Result<tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzerBuilder> {
+    fn build(&self) -> Result<TextAnalyzerBuilder> {
         let tokenizer = if self.config_path.exists() {
             match LinderaTokenizer::from_file(&self.config_path) {
                 Ok(tok) => tok,
                 Err(e) => {
-                    return Err(Error::io(
-                        format!(
-                            "Failed to load tokenizer config at {}: {}",
-                            self.config_path.display(),
-                            e
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                        "Failed to load tokenizer config at {}: {}",
+                        self.config_path.display(),
+                        e
+                    )));
                 }
             }
         } else {
@@ -57,13 +53,9 @@ impl LinderaTokenizerBuilder for LinderaBuilder {
                 "Config file not found at '{}'. Falling back to `LINDERA_CONFIG_PATH`.",
                 self.config_path.display(),
             );
-            LinderaTokenizer::new().map_err(|e| {
-                Error::io(
-                    format!("Failed to initialize default tokenizer: {}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?
+            LinderaTokenizer::new()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to initialize default tokenizer: {}", e)))?
         };
-        Ok(tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::builder(tokenizer).dynamic())
+        Ok(tokenizer.analyzer_builder())
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand.rs
index 0d3e57fb743..dfde9507a64 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand.rs
@@ -1,54 +1,488 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::ops::Deref;
-use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
-use std::{cell::UnsafeCell, collections::BinaryHeap};
+#[cfg(test)]
+use std::cell::Cell;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU32, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock, OnceLock};
+use std::{
+    cell::{OnceCell, RefCell, UnsafeCell},
+    collections::{BinaryHeap, VecDeque},
+};
 use std::{cmp::Reverse, fmt::Debug};
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
-use arrow::datatypes::{Int32Type, UInt32Type};
-use arrow_array::{Array, UInt32Array};
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use arrow::datatypes::Int32Type;
+use arrow_array::Array;
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrMask;
-use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+use smallvec::SmallVec;
 
 use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
 
+#[path = "wand_intersection.rs"]
+mod intersection;
+#[path = "wand_maxscore.rs"]
+mod maxscore;
+
+use super::{
+    CompressedPositionStorage,
+    documents::{DocId, DocLengths, DocVisibility},
+    impact::{IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS, ImpactScoreCache, ImpactSkipData},
+    index::{PositionStreamCodec, dequantize_doc_length},
+    query::Operator,
+    scorer::{BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND, MemBM25Scorer, bm25_doc_weight_with_norm, idf},
+};
 use super::{
+    CompressedPostingList, DocSet, PostingList, RawDocInfo,
     builder::ScoredDoc,
-    encoding::{decompress_positions, decompress_posting_block, decompress_posting_remainder},
+    encoding::{
+        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE, decode_position_stream_block, decompress_positions,
+        decompress_posting_block_doc_ids, decompress_posting_block_frequencies,
+        decompress_posting_remainder_doc_ids, decompress_posting_remainder_frequencies,
+        seek_packed_doc_positions,
+    },
     query::FtsSearchParams,
     scorer::Scorer,
-    CompressedPostingList, DocSet, PostingList, RawDocInfo,
-};
-use super::{builder::BLOCK_SIZE, DocInfo};
-use super::{
-    query::Operator,
-    scorer::{idf, K1},
 };
+use super::{DocInfo, builder::BLOCK_SIZE};
 
 const TERMINATED_DOC_ID: u64 = u64::MAX;
 
+/// Top-k heap entry: (scored doc, doc length, posting doc id, frequency slot).
+/// The (term, freq) pairs live outside the heap so heap churn moves a compact
+/// tuple instead of a `Vec`.
+type TopKHeap = BinaryHeap<Reverse<(ScoredDoc, u32, u64, u32)>>;
+
+type NormKCache<'a> = (&'a [u8], Arc<[f32; 256]>);
+
+/// Norm-code BM25 denominator addends (Lucene's norm cache) computed once for
+/// every partition a query searches with the same scorer. Each partition
+/// otherwise rebuilds the same 256 entries for its first scored window.
+///
+/// Every [`Wand`] given one instance must use a scorer with identical
+/// [`Scorer::doc_norm`] results; the first search to need the table fills it.
+#[derive(Clone, Default)]
+pub struct SharedNormAddends(Arc<OnceLock<Option<Arc<[f32; 256]>>>>);
+
+fn norm_addends<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(scorer: &S) -> Option<Arc<[f32; 256]>> {
+    let mut addends = [0f32; 256];
+    for (code, slot) in addends.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+        *slot = scorer.doc_norm(dequantize_doc_length(code as u8))?;
+    }
+    Some(Arc::new(addends))
+}
+
+/// Reusable (term, freq) storage for live heap candidates. Replacing the k-th
+/// result reuses its slot and retained `Vec` capacity, so memory stays bounded
+/// by the live top-k rather than every historical heap admission.
+struct FrequencySlots {
+    slots: Vec<Vec<(u32, u32)>>,
+}
+
+impl FrequencySlots {
+    fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            slots: Vec::with_capacity(capacity),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn push(&mut self, pairs: impl Iterator<Item = (u32, u32)>) -> Result<u32> {
+        let slot = u32::try_from(self.slots.len()).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS top-k frequency slot count {} exceeds u32::MAX",
+                self.slots.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        self.slots.push(pairs.collect());
+        Ok(slot)
+    }
+
+    fn replace(&mut self, slot: u32, pairs: impl Iterator<Item = (u32, u32)>) -> Result<()> {
+        let num_slots = self.slots.len();
+        let slot = self.slots.get_mut(slot as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS top-k frequency slot {slot} is out of bounds for {num_slots} slots"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        slot.clear();
+        slot.extend(pairs);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn take(&mut self, slot: u32) -> Result<Vec<(u32, u32)>> {
+        let num_slots = self.slots.len();
+        self.slots
+            .get_mut(slot as usize)
+            .map(std::mem::take)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "FTS top-k frequency slot {slot} is out of bounds for {num_slots} slots"
+                ))
+            })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Owns the top-k heap and the frequency slots referenced by its entries.
+struct TopKCollector {
+    limit: usize,
+    heap: TopKHeap,
+    frequency_slots: FrequencySlots,
+}
+
+impl TopKCollector {
+    fn new(limit: usize, initial_capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        let initial_capacity = initial_capacity.min(limit);
+        Self {
+            limit,
+            heap: BinaryHeap::with_capacity(initial_capacity),
+            frequency_slots: FrequencySlots::with_capacity(initial_capacity),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Insert a competitive result. When the heap is full, its evicted entry's
+    /// frequency slot is cleared and reused before the replacement is pushed.
+    fn insert(
+        &mut self,
+        doc: ScoredDoc,
+        doc_length: u32,
+        posting_doc_id: u64,
+        pairs: impl Iterator<Item = (u32, u32)>,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        if self.limit == 0 {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        if self.heap.len() > self.limit {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "FTS top-k heap length {} exceeds limit {}",
+                self.heap.len(),
+                self.limit
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let frequency_slot = if self.heap.len() == self.limit {
+            let Some(kth_score) = self.heap.peek().map(|entry| entry.0.0.score.0) else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "FTS top-k heap is empty while its nonzero limit is reached",
+                ));
+            };
+            // Preserve the existing collector semantics for non-finite custom
+            // scorer output: only a strictly greater raw f32 replaces k-th.
+            if doc.score.0.partial_cmp(&kth_score) != Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Greater) {
+                return Ok(false);
+            }
+            let Some(Reverse((_, _, _, frequency_slot))) = self.heap.pop() else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "FTS top-k heap entry disappeared during replacement",
+                ));
+            };
+            self.frequency_slots.replace(frequency_slot, pairs)?;
+            frequency_slot
+        } else {
+            self.frequency_slots.push(pairs)?
+        };
+
+        self.heap
+            .push(Reverse((doc, doc_length, posting_doc_id, frequency_slot)));
+        Ok(true)
+    }
+
+    fn rejects_score(&self, score: f32) -> bool {
+        if self.heap.len() < self.limit {
+            return false;
+        }
+        let Some(kth_score) = self.heap.peek().map(|entry| entry.0.0.score.0) else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        score.partial_cmp(&kth_score) != Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Greater)
+    }
+
+    fn kth_score_if_full(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        if self.heap.len() == self.limit {
+            self.heap.peek().map(|entry| entry.0.0.score.0)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn into_candidates<C>(
+        self,
+        mut to_candidate: impl FnMut(u64) -> C,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate<C>>> {
+        let Self {
+            heap,
+            mut frequency_slots,
+            ..
+        } = self;
+        heap.into_iter()
+            .map(
+                |Reverse((doc, doc_length, posting_doc_id, frequency_slot))| {
+                    Ok(DocCandidate {
+                        document: to_candidate(doc.row_id),
+                        posting_doc_id,
+                        freqs: frequency_slots.take(frequency_slot)?,
+                        doc_length,
+                    })
+                },
+            )
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn num_frequency_slots(&self) -> usize {
+        self.frequency_slots.slots.len()
+    }
+}
+const LINEAR_BLOCK_SKIP_LIMIT: usize = 8;
 pub static FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD: LazyLock<u64> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     std::env::var("LANCE_FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD")
         .unwrap_or_else(|_| "10".to_string())
         .parse::<u64>()
         .unwrap_or(10)
 });
+// Bulk MAXSCORE path for top-k disjunctions (Lucene MaxScoreBulkScorer
+// style). Default on: with right-sized partitions it wins by a wide margin
+// (Lucene-parity latency) and its results are score-identical to the classic
+// WAND loop. LANCE_FTS_MAXSCORE=0 opts back into the classic loop.
+static USE_MAXSCORE_SEARCH: LazyLock<bool> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| std::env::var("LANCE_FTS_MAXSCORE").as_deref() != Ok("0"));
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum CompetitiveFloorMode {
+    #[default]
+    Exclusive,
+    Inclusive,
+}
+
+impl CompetitiveFloorMode {
+    #[inline]
+    fn rejects_upper_bound(self, upper_bound: f64, floor: f32) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Exclusive => upper_bound <= f64::from(floor),
+            Self::Inclusive => upper_bound < f64::from(floor),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn accepts_score(self, score: f32, floor: f32) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Exclusive => score > floor,
+            Self::Inclusive => score >= floor,
+        }
+    }
+}
+// Bulk conjunction path for top-k AND / phrase queries: block-max window
+// skipping plus a slice-level merge over decompressed blocks, replacing the
+// per-doc `next()` leapfrog. Results are identical to the classic AND loop.
+// LANCE_FTS_BULK_AND accepts auto (default), on/1, or off/0. Auto enables the
+// bulk path for two and three clauses and for wider current-format conjunctions.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum BulkAndMode {
+    #[default]
+    Auto,
+    On,
+    Off,
+}
+
+impl BulkAndMode {
+    fn parse(value: &str) -> Option<Self> {
+        let value = value.trim();
+        if value.eq_ignore_ascii_case("auto") {
+            Some(Self::Auto)
+        } else if value.eq_ignore_ascii_case("on") || value == "1" {
+            Some(Self::On)
+        } else if value.eq_ignore_ascii_case("off") || value == "0" {
+            Some(Self::Off)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    const fn enabled_for(self, num_clauses: usize) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Auto => matches!(num_clauses, 2 | 3),
+            Self::On => true,
+            Self::Off => false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn bulk_and_mode_from_env() -> BulkAndMode {
+    match std::env::var("LANCE_FTS_BULK_AND") {
+        Ok(value) => BulkAndMode::parse(&value).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Invalid LANCE_FTS_BULK_AND value {value:?}; expected auto, on/1, or off/0; \
+                 falling back to auto"
+            );
+            BulkAndMode::Auto
+        }),
+        Err(std::env::VarError::NotPresent) => BulkAndMode::Auto,
+        Err(std::env::VarError::NotUnicode(value)) => {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Invalid non-Unicode LANCE_FTS_BULK_AND value {value:?}; expected auto, on/1, \
+                 or off/0; falling back to auto"
+            );
+            BulkAndMode::Auto
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+static BULK_AND_MODE: LazyLock<BulkAndMode> = LazyLock::new(bulk_and_mode_from_env);
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+static HAS_AVX2: LazyLock<bool> = LazyLock::new(|| std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2"));
+
+/// First index in `[pos, end)` where `docs[index] >= target` (scalar).
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn find_next_geq_scalar(docs: *const u32, mut pos: usize, end: usize, target: u32) -> usize {
+    unsafe {
+        while pos < end && *docs.add(pos) < target {
+            pos += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    pos
+}
+
+/// AVX2 `find_next_geq` (the analogue of Lucene's VectorUtil.findNextGEQ):
+/// scalar lookahead skips windows wholly before the target, then an 8-wide
+/// compare locates the first matching lane.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+unsafe fn find_next_geq_avx2(docs: *const u32, mut pos: usize, end: usize, target: u32) -> usize {
+    use core::arch::x86_64::*;
+    unsafe {
+        // Bias unsigned values around the sign bit so the signed AVX2 compare
+        // preserves the ordering of the full u32 domain.
+        let sign_bit = _mm256_set1_epi32(i32::MIN);
+        let target_lanes = _mm256_xor_si256(_mm256_set1_epi32(target as i32), sign_bit);
+        while pos + 8 < end {
+            // Skip nine-document groups that end before the target. Only the
+            // group containing the lower bound needs a vector load/compare.
+            if *docs.add(pos + 8) < target {
+                pos += 9;
+                continue;
+            }
+            let docs_lanes = _mm256_xor_si256(
+                _mm256_loadu_si256(docs.add(pos) as *const __m256i),
+                sign_bit,
+            );
+            // Lane mask of docs[i] < target.
+            let below = _mm256_cmpgt_epi32(target_lanes, docs_lanes);
+            let mask = _mm256_movemask_ps(_mm256_castsi256_ps(below)) as u32;
+            if mask != 0xFF {
+                return pos + mask.trailing_ones() as usize;
+            }
+            return pos + 8;
+        }
+        find_next_geq_scalar(docs, pos, end, target)
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn find_next_geq(docs: *const u32, pos: usize, end: usize, target: u32) -> usize {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    if *HAS_AVX2 {
+        return unsafe { find_next_geq_avx2(docs, pos, end, target) };
+    }
+    unsafe { find_next_geq_scalar(docs, pos, end, target) }
+}
+
+/// Search a sorted posting block using AVX2 when available. Keep the binary
+/// search fallback because linear catch-up is slower on targets without AVX2.
+#[inline]
+fn find_next_geq_in_block(docs: &[u32], pos: usize, target: u32) -> usize {
+    debug_assert!(pos <= docs.len());
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    if *HAS_AVX2 {
+        return unsafe { find_next_geq_avx2(docs.as_ptr(), pos, docs.len(), target) };
+    }
+    pos + docs[pos..].partition_point(|&doc_id| doc_id < target)
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn conservative_bm25_upper_bound(query_weight: f32) -> f32 {
+    if query_weight <= 0.0 {
+        0.0
+    } else {
+        query_weight * BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn scorer_upper_bound<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(query_weight: f32, scorer: &S) -> f32 {
+    if query_weight.is_nan() {
+        return f32::INFINITY;
+    }
+    if query_weight <= 0.0 {
+        return 0.0;
+    }
+    match scorer.doc_weight_upper_bound() {
+        Some(bound) if bound.is_finite() && bound >= 0.0 => query_weight * bound,
+        _ => f32::INFINITY,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-term data retained after same-position postings are unioned.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct GroupedTermScorer {
+    query_weight: f32,
+    freqs_by_posting_doc_id: Vec<(u64, u32)>,
+}
+
+impl GroupedTermScorer {
+    pub(super) fn new(query_weight: f32, posting: &PostingList) -> Self {
+        let freqs_by_posting_doc_id = posting
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(posting_doc_id, freq, _)| (posting_doc_id, freq))
+            .collect();
+        Self {
+            query_weight,
+            freqs_by_posting_doc_id,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn query_weight(&self) -> f32 {
+        self.query_weight
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn frequency(&self, posting_doc_id: u64) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.freqs_by_posting_doc_id
+            .binary_search_by_key(&posting_doc_id, |(doc_id, _)| *doc_id)
+            .ok()
+            .map(|index| self.freqs_by_posting_doc_id[index].1)
+    }
+
+    fn score<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(&self, posting_doc_id: u64, doc_length: u32, scorer: &S) -> f32 {
+        self.frequency(posting_doc_id)
+            .map(|freq| self.query_weight * scorer.doc_weight(freq, doc_length))
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+}
 
 pub struct PostingIterator {
     token: String,
     token_id: u32,
     position: u32,
+    query_weight: f32,
     list: PostingList,
     // the index of current doc, this can be changed only by `next()`
     index: usize,
     // the index of current block, this can be changed by `next() and shallow_next()`
     block_idx: usize,
+    current_doc: Option<DocInfo>,
     approximate_upper_bound: f32,
+    // Stored block maxima may use partition-local statistics. Queries scored
+    // with corpus-wide statistics must use a scorer-provided bound instead.
+    use_scorer_upper_bound: bool,
+    // The union posting drives iteration and pruning; these terms produce the
+    // exact score for each candidate document.
+    grouped_terms: Option<Arc<[GroupedTermScorer]>>,
+    // Position cursors temporarily own this buffer and return it on drop. This
+    // keeps repeated cursor creation allocation-free without lending a slice
+    // out of the interior-mutable compressed state.
+    position_scratch: RefCell<Option<Vec<u32>>>,
 
     // for compressed posting list
     compressed: Option<UnsafeCell<CompressedState>>,
@@ -59,31 +493,262 @@ struct CompressedState {
     block_idx: usize,
     doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
     freqs: Vec<u32>,
-    buffer: Box<[u32; BLOCK_SIZE]>,
+    frequency_offset: usize,
+    frequency_block_idx: Option<usize>,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    frequency_blocks_decoded: usize,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    impact_bound_computations: usize,
+    // Scratch for full bitpacked blocks and packed position groups. Most
+    // cursors of short posting lists only ever decode a varint tail block or
+    // never read positions, so both are allocated on first use.
+    buffer: Option<Box<[u32; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE]>>,
+    position_block_idx: Option<usize>,
+    position_values: Vec<u32>,
+    position_offsets: Vec<usize>,
+    // Seek state for PackedDelta position blocks: the lazily-built group
+    // header index, the last unpacked group (memoized), the decoded varint
+    // tail, and the block's total delta count. Together these let a phrase
+    // check decode just the candidate doc's positions instead of the whole
+    // 256-doc position block.
+    position_group_offsets: Vec<usize>,
+    position_unpacked_group: Option<Box<[u32; BLOCK_SIZE]>>,
+    position_unpacked_group_idx: Option<usize>,
+    position_tail: Vec<u32>,
+    position_total_deltas: usize,
+    block_max_window: BlockMaxWindow,
+    // Lucene-style anchored impact score caches: one slot per level, keyed by
+    // the entry the block cursor currently sits in. Each holds
+    // (entry_idx, doc_up_to, max_score). See `impact_level0`/`impact_level1`.
+    level0_cache: Option<(usize, u32, f32)>,
+    level1_cache: Option<(usize, u32, f32)>,
 }
 
 impl CompressedState {
-    fn new() -> Self {
+    fn new(block_size: usize) -> Self {
         Self {
             block_idx: 0,
-            doc_ids: Vec::with_capacity(BLOCK_SIZE),
-            freqs: Vec::with_capacity(BLOCK_SIZE),
-            buffer: Box::new([0; BLOCK_SIZE]),
+            doc_ids: Vec::with_capacity(block_size),
+            freqs: Vec::with_capacity(block_size),
+            frequency_offset: 0,
+            frequency_block_idx: None,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            frequency_blocks_decoded: 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            impact_bound_computations: 0,
+            buffer: None,
+            position_block_idx: None,
+            position_values: Vec::new(),
+            position_offsets: Vec::new(),
+            position_group_offsets: Vec::new(),
+            position_unpacked_group: None,
+            position_unpacked_group_idx: None,
+            position_tail: Vec::new(),
+            position_total_deltas: 0,
+            block_max_window: BlockMaxWindow::new(),
+            level0_cache: None,
+            level1_cache: None,
         }
     }
 
     #[inline]
-    fn decompress(&mut self, block: &[u8], block_idx: usize, num_blocks: usize, length: u32) {
+    fn decompress_doc_ids(
+        &mut self,
+        block: &[u8],
+        block_idx: usize,
+        num_blocks: usize,
+        length: u32,
+        tail_codec: super::PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) {
         self.doc_ids.clear();
         self.freqs.clear();
+        self.frequency_block_idx = None;
+
+        let remainder = length as usize % block_size;
+        self.frequency_offset = if block_idx + 1 == num_blocks && remainder != 0 {
+            decompress_posting_remainder_doc_ids(
+                block,
+                remainder,
+                tail_codec,
+                block_size,
+                &mut self.doc_ids,
+            )
+        } else {
+            decompress_posting_block_doc_ids(
+                block,
+                &mut self
+                    .buffer
+                    .get_or_insert_with(|| Box::new([0; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE]))[..],
+                &mut self.doc_ids,
+                block_size,
+            )
+        };
+        self.block_idx = block_idx;
+        self.position_block_idx = None;
+        self.position_values.clear();
+        self.position_offsets.clear();
+    }
 
-        let remainder = length as usize % BLOCK_SIZE;
+    #[inline]
+    fn decompress_frequencies(
+        &mut self,
+        block: &[u8],
+        block_idx: usize,
+        num_blocks: usize,
+        length: u32,
+        tail_codec: super::PostingTailCodec,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(self.block_idx, block_idx);
+        if self.frequency_block_idx == Some(block_idx) {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.freqs.clear();
+        let remainder = length as usize % block_size;
         if block_idx + 1 == num_blocks && remainder != 0 {
-            decompress_posting_remainder(block, remainder, &mut self.doc_ids, &mut self.freqs);
+            decompress_posting_remainder_frequencies(
+                block,
+                self.frequency_offset,
+                remainder,
+                tail_codec,
+                &mut self.freqs,
+            );
         } else {
-            decompress_posting_block(block, &mut self.buffer, &mut self.doc_ids, &mut self.freqs);
+            decompress_posting_block_frequencies(
+                block,
+                self.frequency_offset,
+                &mut self
+                    .buffer
+                    .get_or_insert_with(|| Box::new([0; MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE]))[..],
+                &mut self.freqs,
+                block_size,
+            );
+        }
+        self.frequency_block_idx = Some(block_idx);
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            self.frequency_blocks_decoded += 1;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct BlockMaxWindow {
+    // Sliding block range used for Lucene-style getMaxScore(upTo). The deque is
+    // monotonic by score and covers blocks in [start_block_idx, next_block_idx).
+    // Only used for compressed lists without impact skip data; impact lists
+    // answer window max scores from the anchored level caches instead.
+    start_block_idx: usize,
+    next_block_idx: usize,
+    max_scores: VecDeque<(usize, f32)>,
+    impact_score_cache: ImpactScoreCache,
+}
+
+struct BlockMaxScore {
+    score: f32,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    blocks_scanned: usize,
+}
+
+impl BlockMaxWindow {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            start_block_idx: 0,
+            next_block_idx: 0,
+            max_scores: VecDeque::new(),
+            impact_score_cache: ImpactScoreCache::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn reset(&mut self, start_block_idx: usize) {
+        self.start_block_idx = start_block_idx;
+        self.next_block_idx = start_block_idx;
+        self.max_scores.clear();
+    }
+
+    fn max_score_up_to<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &mut self,
+        list: &CompressedPostingList,
+        start_block_idx: usize,
+        up_to: u64,
+        query_weight: f32,
+        scorer: &S,
+    ) -> BlockMaxScore {
+        if start_block_idx >= list.blocks.len() {
+            self.reset(start_block_idx);
+            return BlockMaxScore {
+                score: 0.0,
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                blocks_scanned: 0,
+            };
+        }
+        if start_block_idx < self.start_block_idx || start_block_idx > self.next_block_idx {
+            self.reset(start_block_idx);
+        }
+        self.start_block_idx = start_block_idx;
+        while matches!(self.max_scores.front(), Some((block_idx, _)) if *block_idx < start_block_idx)
+        {
+            self.max_scores.pop_front();
+        }
+
+        if list.block_least_doc_id(start_block_idx) as u64 > up_to {
+            self.reset(start_block_idx);
+            return BlockMaxScore {
+                score: 0.0,
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                blocks_scanned: 0,
+            };
+        }
+
+        // 256-document-block postings score quantized document lengths, which can be shorter than
+        // the exact lengths used to bake a legacy max score. Without impacts,
+        // use the score-independent BM25 ceiling instead of that stale bound.
+        if list.block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE {
+            self.reset(start_block_idx);
+            return BlockMaxScore {
+                score: scorer_upper_bound(query_weight, scorer),
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                blocks_scanned: 0,
+            };
+        }
+
+        self.next_block_idx = self.next_block_idx.max(start_block_idx);
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        let mut blocks_scanned = 0;
+        while self.next_block_idx < list.blocks.len()
+            && list.block_least_doc_id(self.next_block_idx) as u64 <= up_to
+        {
+            let score = match list.impacts.as_ref() {
+                Some(impacts) => impacts.level0_score_cached(
+                    self.next_block_idx,
+                    query_weight,
+                    scorer,
+                    &mut self.impact_score_cache,
+                ),
+                None => list.block_max_score(self.next_block_idx),
+            };
+            while matches!(self.max_scores.back(), Some((_, old_score)) if *old_score <= score) {
+                self.max_scores.pop_back();
+            }
+            self.max_scores.push_back((self.next_block_idx, score));
+            self.next_block_idx += 1;
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            {
+                blocks_scanned += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let score = self
+            .max_scores
+            .front()
+            .map(|(_, score)| *score)
+            .unwrap_or(0.0);
+        BlockMaxScore {
+            score,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            blocks_scanned,
         }
-        self.block_idx = block_idx;
     }
 }
 
@@ -140,6 +805,104 @@ impl Ord for PostingIterator {
 }
 
 impl PostingIterator {
+    fn block_idx_for_doc(
+        &self,
+        list: &CompressedPostingList,
+        mut block_idx: usize,
+        least_id: u32,
+    ) -> usize {
+        let mut linear_skips = 0;
+        while block_idx + 1 < list.blocks.len() && linear_skips < LINEAR_BLOCK_SKIP_LIMIT {
+            if list.block_least_doc_id(block_idx + 1) > least_id {
+                return block_idx;
+            }
+            block_idx += 1;
+            linear_skips += 1;
+        }
+
+        if block_idx + 1 >= list.blocks.len() {
+            return block_idx;
+        }
+
+        if let Some(impacts) = list.impacts.as_ref()
+            && let Some(block_idx) =
+                self.block_idx_for_doc_with_impacts(list, impacts, block_idx, least_id)
+        {
+            return block_idx;
+        }
+
+        self.block_idx_for_doc_by_least_doc_id(list, block_idx, least_id, list.blocks.len())
+    }
+
+    fn block_idx_for_doc_with_impacts(
+        &self,
+        list: &CompressedPostingList,
+        impacts: &ImpactSkipData,
+        mut block_idx: usize,
+        least_id: u32,
+    ) -> Option<usize> {
+        while block_idx + 1 < list.blocks.len() {
+            let group_idx = (block_idx + 1) / IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS;
+            let group_end = ((group_idx + 1) * IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS).min(list.blocks.len());
+            let group_doc_up_to = impacts.level1_doc_up_to(group_idx)?;
+            if group_doc_up_to < least_id {
+                block_idx = group_end - 1;
+                continue;
+            }
+            if group_doc_up_to == least_id {
+                return Some(group_end - 1);
+            }
+            return Some(
+                self.block_idx_for_doc_by_least_doc_id(list, block_idx, least_id, group_end),
+            );
+        }
+        Some(block_idx)
+    }
+
+    fn block_idx_for_doc_by_least_doc_id(
+        &self,
+        list: &CompressedPostingList,
+        block_idx: usize,
+        least_id: u32,
+        right: usize,
+    ) -> usize {
+        let mut left = block_idx + 1;
+        let mut right = right;
+        while left < right {
+            let mid = left + (right - left) / 2;
+            if list.block_least_doc_id(mid) <= least_id {
+                left = mid + 1;
+            } else {
+                right = mid;
+            }
+        }
+        left - 1
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn block_end_doc(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.next_block_first_doc()
+            .map(|doc| doc.saturating_sub(1))
+            .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID)
+    }
+
+    /// Level1 bound of the group holding the current block, for group-wide
+    /// skipping: (group doc_up_to, group max score). `None` when the list has
+    /// no impact skip data or the group entry is missing/malformed.
+    fn impact_group_bound<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(&self, scorer: &S) -> Option<(u64, f32)> {
+        match self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
+                let impacts = list.impacts.as_ref()?;
+                let (doc_up_to, score) = self.impact_level1(impacts, scorer);
+                if doc_up_to == u32::MAX {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                Some((u64::from(doc_up_to), score))
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
     #[inline]
     fn compressed_state_ptr(&self) -> *mut CompressedState {
         debug_assert!(self.compressed.is_some());
@@ -153,15 +916,44 @@ impl PostingIterator {
         &self,
         list: &CompressedPostingList,
         block_idx: usize,
+    ) -> *mut CompressedState {
+        let compressed = unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_doc_ids_ptr(list, block_idx) };
+        if compressed.frequency_block_idx != Some(block_idx) {
+            let block = list.blocks.value(block_idx);
+            compressed.decompress_frequencies(
+                block,
+                block_idx,
+                list.blocks.len(),
+                list.length,
+                list.posting_tail_codec,
+                list.block_size,
+            );
+        }
+        compressed as *mut CompressedState
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn ensure_compressed_doc_ids_ptr(
+        &self,
+        list: &CompressedPostingList,
+        block_idx: usize,
     ) -> *mut CompressedState {
         let compressed = unsafe { &mut *self.compressed_state_ptr() };
         if compressed.block_idx != block_idx || compressed.doc_ids.is_empty() {
             let block = list.blocks.value(block_idx);
-            compressed.decompress(block, block_idx, list.blocks.len(), list.length);
+            compressed.decompress_doc_ids(
+                block,
+                block_idx,
+                list.blocks.len(),
+                list.length,
+                list.posting_tail_codec,
+                list.block_size,
+            );
         }
         compressed as *mut CompressedState
     }
 
+    #[cfg(test)]
     pub(crate) fn new(
         token: String,
         token_id: u32,
@@ -169,28 +961,107 @@ impl PostingIterator {
         list: PostingList,
         num_doc: usize,
     ) -> Self {
-        let approximate_upper_bound = match list.max_score() {
-            Some(max_score) => max_score,
-            None => idf(list.len(), num_doc) * (K1 + 1.0),
-        };
+        Self::with_query_weight(token, token_id, position, 1.0, list, num_doc)
+    }
 
-        let is_compressed = matches!(list, PostingList::Compressed(_));
+    pub(crate) fn with_query_weight(
+        token: String,
+        token_id: u32,
+        position: u32,
+        query_weight: f32,
+        list: PostingList,
+        num_doc: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // Keep a finite scorer-independent BM25 ceiling even when index stats
+        // drift after appends.  The ceiling includes f32 evaluation error; an
+        // INFINITY bound can never park the iterator in the WAND tail.
+        let approximate_upper_bound = match &list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(posting) if posting.impacts.is_some() => f32::INFINITY,
+            PostingList::Compressed(posting) if posting.block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE => {
+                conservative_bm25_upper_bound(query_weight)
+            }
+            _ => match list.max_score() {
+                Some(max_score) => max_score,
+                None => conservative_bm25_upper_bound(idf(list.len(), num_doc)),
+            },
+        };
+        let compressed = match &list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(list) => {
+                Some(UnsafeCell::new(CompressedState::new(list.block_size)))
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => None,
+        };
 
-        Self {
+        let mut posting = Self {
             token,
             token_id,
             position,
+            query_weight,
             list,
             index: 0,
             block_idx: 0,
+            current_doc: None,
             approximate_upper_bound,
-            compressed: is_compressed.then(|| UnsafeCell::new(CompressedState::new())),
-        }
+            use_scorer_upper_bound: false,
+            grouped_terms: None,
+            position_scratch: RefCell::new(Some(Vec::new())),
+            compressed,
+        };
+        posting.refresh_current_doc();
+        posting
     }
 
-    #[inline]
-    pub(crate) fn term_index(&self) -> u32 {
-        self.position
+    pub(super) fn with_scorer_upper_bound(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.use_scorer_upper_bound = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn with_grouped_terms(mut self, terms: Arc<[GroupedTermScorer]>) -> Self {
+        // Grouped postings are built at query time with the same scoring
+        // lengths and scorer as this cursor.  Their baked list maximum is the
+        // authoritative bound, including on 256-document blocks where normal
+        // persisted postings must fall back to a scorer-wide ceiling.
+        self.approximate_upper_bound = self.list.max_score().unwrap_or(f32::INFINITY);
+        self.grouped_terms = Some(terms);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Create an independent cursor over the same immutable posting payload.
+    ///
+    /// Staged cross-column execution uses one cursor to enumerate exact
+    /// membership before asynchronous candidate-side document reads, then a
+    /// fresh cursor to compute the canonical score. Arrow buffers and grouped
+    /// term tables remain shared; only mutable decode and position state is
+    /// recreated.
+    pub(super) fn fork_from_start(&self) -> Self {
+        let compressed = match &self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(list) => {
+                Some(UnsafeCell::new(CompressedState::new(list.block_size)))
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => None,
+        };
+        let mut posting = Self {
+            token: self.token.clone(),
+            token_id: self.token_id,
+            position: self.position,
+            query_weight: self.query_weight,
+            list: self.list.clone(),
+            index: 0,
+            block_idx: 0,
+            current_doc: None,
+            approximate_upper_bound: self.approximate_upper_bound,
+            use_scorer_upper_bound: self.use_scorer_upper_bound,
+            grouped_terms: self.grouped_terms.clone(),
+            position_scratch: RefCell::new(Some(Vec::new())),
+            compressed,
+        };
+        posting.refresh_current_doc();
+        posting
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn term_index(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.position
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -203,6 +1074,74 @@ impl PostingIterator {
         self.approximate_upper_bound
     }
 
+    /// Upper bound for the frequency clamp used by bulk conjunction search.
+    /// No-impact postings scored in a corpus-global scorer space cannot reuse
+    /// their persisted partition-local maximum. Impact-backed postings retain
+    /// their existing fast path.
+    #[inline]
+    fn frequency_clamp_upper_bound<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(&self, scorer: &S) -> f32 {
+        if self.use_scorer_upper_bound {
+            scorer_upper_bound(self.query_weight, scorer)
+        } else {
+            self.approximate_upper_bound
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Tightest known list-wide score bound. Impact lists answer from the
+    /// baked doc-weight slab (the data-driven equivalent of the max_score the
+    /// non-impact format bakes at build time); everything else falls back to
+    /// `approximate_upper_bound`. A finite, tight global bound lets lagging
+    /// iterators park in the WAND tail instead of being force-advanced.
+    #[inline]
+    fn global_upper_bound<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(&self, scorer: &S) -> f32 {
+        if self.has_grouped_terms() {
+            return self.approximate_upper_bound;
+        }
+        if self.query_weight <= 0.0 {
+            return 0.0;
+        }
+        if let PostingList::Compressed(ref list) = self.list
+            && let Some(impacts) = list.impacts.as_ref()
+        {
+            let compressed = unsafe { &mut *self.compressed_state_ptr() };
+            return self.query_weight
+                * impacts.global_max_doc_weight_cached(
+                    scorer,
+                    &mut compressed.block_max_window.impact_score_cache,
+                );
+        }
+        if self.use_scorer_upper_bound {
+            return scorer_upper_bound(self.query_weight, scorer);
+        }
+        if let PostingList::Compressed(ref list) = self.list
+            && list.block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE
+        {
+            return scorer_upper_bound(self.query_weight, scorer);
+        }
+        self.approximate_upper_bound
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn score<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(&self, scorer: &S, freq: u32, doc_length: u32) -> f32 {
+        if let (Some(grouped_terms), Some(doc)) = (&self.grouped_terms, self.current_doc) {
+            return grouped_terms
+                .iter()
+                .map(|term| term.score(doc.doc_id(), doc_length, scorer))
+                .sum();
+        }
+        self.query_weight * scorer.doc_weight(freq, doc_length)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn has_grouped_terms(&self) -> bool {
+        self.grouped_terms.is_some()
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.list.len()
+    }
+
     #[inline]
     fn empty(&self) -> bool {
         self.index >= self.list.len()
@@ -210,34 +1149,227 @@ impl PostingIterator {
 
     #[inline]
     fn doc(&self) -> Option<DocInfo> {
+        let current_doc = self.current_doc?;
+        match self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
+                if current_doc.frequency() != 0 {
+                    return Some(current_doc);
+                }
+                let block_idx = self.index >> list.block_shift();
+                let block_offset = self.index & list.block_mask();
+                let compressed = unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx) };
+                Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                    doc_id: current_doc.doc_id() as u32,
+                    frequency: compressed.freqs[block_offset],
+                }))
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => Some(current_doc),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn frequency_blocks_decoded(&self) -> usize {
+        self.compressed
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|compressed| unsafe { &*compressed.get() }.frequency_blocks_decoded)
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn impact_bound_computations(&self) -> usize {
+        self.compressed
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|compressed| unsafe { &*compressed.get() }.impact_bound_computations)
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
+    /// The posting's current local document before it is moved into a scorer.
+    ///
+    /// Cross-partition row-address merging uses this only to derive a
+    /// conservative lower bound for lazy source activation. It is not an
+    /// exact match decision: visibility and phrase confirmation still happen
+    /// in [`WandCursor`].
+    pub(super) fn current_doc_id(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current_doc.map(|doc| doc.doc_id())
+    }
+
+    fn refresh_current_doc(&mut self) {
         if self.empty() {
-            return None;
+            self.current_doc = None;
+            return;
         }
 
-        match self.list {
+        let current_doc = match self.list {
             PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
-                let block_idx = self.index / BLOCK_SIZE;
-                let block_offset = self.index % BLOCK_SIZE;
-                let compressed = unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx) };
+                let block_idx = self.index >> list.block_shift();
+                let block_offset = self.index & list.block_mask();
+                let compressed =
+                    unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_doc_ids_ptr(list, block_idx) };
 
-                // Read from the decompressed block
+                // Frequency decoding is deferred until a scoring or position
+                // consumer calls `doc()` / `ensure_compressed_block_ptr`.
                 let doc_id = compressed.doc_ids[block_offset];
-                let frequency = compressed.freqs[block_offset];
-                let doc = DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo { doc_id, frequency });
+                let doc = DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                    doc_id,
+                    frequency: 0,
+                });
                 Some(doc)
             }
             PostingList::Plain(ref list) => Some(DocInfo::Located(list.doc(self.index))),
-        }
+        };
+        self.current_doc = current_doc;
     }
 
-    fn positions(&self) -> Option<Arc<dyn Array>> {
+    fn position_cursor(&self) -> Result<PositionCursor<'_>> {
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            POSITION_CURSOR_CALLS.with(|calls| calls.set(calls.get() + 1));
+        }
         match self.list {
-            PostingList::Plain(ref list) => list.positions(self.index),
-            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => list.positions.as_ref().map(|p| {
-                let positions = p.value(self.index);
-                let positions = decompress_positions(positions.as_binary());
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(positions)) as Arc<dyn Array>
-            }),
+            PostingList::Plain(ref list) => {
+                let positions = list.positions.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "positions are missing for token {:?} (token id {}, query position {})",
+                        self.token, self.token_id, self.position
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let start = positions.value_offsets()[self.index] as usize;
+                let end = positions.value_offsets()[self.index + 1] as usize;
+                Ok(PositionCursor::new(
+                    PositionValues::Owned(
+                        positions.values().as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values()[start..end]
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|value| *value as u32)
+                            .collect(),
+                    ),
+                    self.position as i32,
+                ))
+            }
+            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => match list.positions.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "positions are missing for token {:?} (token id {}, query position {})",
+                    self.token, self.token_id, self.position
+                ))
+            })? {
+                CompressedPositionStorage::LegacyPerDoc(positions) => {
+                    let positions = positions.value(self.index);
+                    let positions = decompress_positions(positions.as_binary());
+                    Ok(PositionCursor::new(
+                        PositionValues::Owned(positions),
+                        self.position as i32,
+                    ))
+                }
+                CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(stream) => {
+                    let block_idx = self.index >> list.block_shift();
+                    let block_offset = self.index & list.block_mask();
+                    let compressed =
+                        unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx) };
+                    match stream.codec() {
+                        PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta => {
+                            // Seekable layout: decode only the candidate doc's
+                            // positions. Per-block seek state resets when the
+                            // block cursor moves; the group header index and
+                            // varint tail fill in lazily as candidates touch
+                            // them.
+                            if compressed.position_block_idx != Some(block_idx) {
+                                compressed.position_group_offsets.clear();
+                                compressed.position_group_offsets.push(0);
+                                compressed.position_tail.clear();
+                                compressed.position_unpacked_group_idx = None;
+                                compressed.position_offsets.clear();
+                                compressed
+                                    .position_offsets
+                                    .reserve(compressed.freqs.len() + 1);
+                                compressed.position_offsets.push(0);
+                                let mut offset = 0usize;
+                                for &freq in &compressed.freqs {
+                                    offset += freq as usize;
+                                    compressed.position_offsets.push(offset);
+                                }
+                                compressed.position_total_deltas = offset;
+                                compressed.position_block_idx = Some(block_idx);
+                            }
+                            let delta_start = compressed.position_offsets[block_offset];
+                            let delta_end = compressed.position_offsets[block_offset + 1];
+                            let mut position_values = self
+                                .position_scratch
+                                .borrow_mut()
+                                .take()
+                                .unwrap_or_default();
+                            if let Err(error) = seek_packed_doc_positions(
+                                stream.block(block_idx),
+                                compressed.position_total_deltas,
+                                delta_start..delta_end,
+                                &mut compressed.position_group_offsets,
+                                compressed
+                                    .position_unpacked_group
+                                    .get_or_insert_with(|| Box::new([0; BLOCK_SIZE])),
+                                &mut compressed.position_unpacked_group_idx,
+                                &mut compressed.position_tail,
+                                &mut position_values,
+                            ) {
+                                *self.position_scratch.borrow_mut() = Some(position_values);
+                                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                                    "failed to decode positions for token {:?} (token id {}, query position {}) at posting index {}: {error}",
+                                    self.token, self.token_id, self.position, self.index
+                                )));
+                            }
+                            Ok(PositionCursor::new(
+                                PositionValues::Recycled(RecycledPositionValues::new(
+                                    position_values,
+                                    &self.position_scratch,
+                                )),
+                                self.position as i32,
+                            ))
+                        }
+                        PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta => {
+                            if compressed.position_block_idx != Some(block_idx) {
+                                compressed.position_values.clear();
+                                decode_position_stream_block(
+                                    stream.block(block_idx),
+                                    compressed.freqs.as_slice(),
+                                    stream.codec(),
+                                    &mut compressed.position_values,
+                                )
+                                .map_err(|error| {
+                                    Error::index(format!(
+                                        "failed to decode positions for token {:?} (token id {}, query position {}) in block {block_idx}: {error}",
+                                        self.token, self.token_id, self.position
+                                    ))
+                                })?;
+                                compressed.position_offsets.clear();
+                                compressed
+                                    .position_offsets
+                                    .reserve(compressed.freqs.len() + 1);
+                                compressed.position_offsets.push(0);
+                                let mut offset = 0usize;
+                                for &freq in &compressed.freqs {
+                                    offset += freq as usize;
+                                    compressed.position_offsets.push(offset);
+                                }
+                                compressed.position_block_idx = Some(block_idx);
+                            }
+                            let start = compressed.position_offsets[block_offset];
+                            let end = compressed.position_offsets[block_offset + 1];
+                            let mut position_values = self
+                                .position_scratch
+                                .borrow_mut()
+                                .take()
+                                .unwrap_or_default();
+                            position_values.clear();
+                            position_values
+                                .extend_from_slice(&compressed.position_values[start..end]);
+                            Ok(PositionCursor::new(
+                                PositionValues::Recycled(RecycledPositionValues::new(
+                                    position_values,
+                                    &self.position_scratch,
+                                )),
+                                self.position as i32,
+                            ))
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            },
         }
     }
 
@@ -247,36 +1379,99 @@ impl PostingIterator {
             PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
                 debug_assert!(least_id <= u32::MAX as u64);
                 let least_id = least_id as u32;
-                let mut block_idx = self.index / BLOCK_SIZE;
-                while block_idx + 1 < list.blocks.len()
-                    && list.block_least_doc_id(block_idx + 1) <= least_id
-                {
-                    block_idx += 1;
-                }
-                self.index = self.index.max(block_idx * BLOCK_SIZE);
+                let shift = list.block_shift();
+                let block_idx = self.block_idx_for_doc(list, self.index >> shift, least_id);
+                self.index = self.index.max(block_idx << shift);
                 let length = list.length as usize;
                 while self.index < length {
-                    let block_idx = self.index / BLOCK_SIZE;
-                    let block_offset = self.index % BLOCK_SIZE;
+                    let block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                    let block_offset = self.index & list.block_mask();
                     let compressed =
                         unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx) };
                     let in_block = &compressed.doc_ids[block_offset..];
                     let offset_in_block = in_block.partition_point(|&doc_id| doc_id < least_id);
                     let new_offset = block_offset + offset_in_block;
                     if new_offset < compressed.doc_ids.len() {
-                        self.index = block_idx * BLOCK_SIZE + new_offset;
+                        self.index = (block_idx << shift) + new_offset;
+                        self.block_idx = block_idx;
+                        self.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                            doc_id: compressed.doc_ids[new_offset],
+                            frequency: compressed.freqs[new_offset],
+                        }));
+                        return;
+                    }
+                    if block_idx + 1 >= list.blocks.len() {
+                        self.index = length;
+                        self.block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                        self.current_doc = None;
                         break;
                     }
+                    self.index = (block_idx + 1) << shift;
+                }
+                self.block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                self.current_doc = None;
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(ref list) => {
+                self.index += list.row_ids[self.index..].partition_point(|&id| id < least_id);
+                self.current_doc = (!self.empty()).then(|| DocInfo::Located(list.doc(self.index)));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Move to the next document without materializing its frequency. AND
+    /// intersection uses this until a document survives every required list.
+    fn next_doc_id(&mut self, least_id: u64, is_vectorized_search_enabled: bool) {
+        match self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
+                debug_assert!(least_id <= u32::MAX as u64);
+                let least_id = least_id as u32;
+                let shift = list.block_shift();
+                let block_idx = self.block_idx_for_doc(list, self.index >> shift, least_id);
+                self.index = self.index.max(block_idx << shift);
+                let length = list.length as usize;
+                while self.index < length {
+                    let block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                    let block_offset = self.index & list.block_mask();
+                    let compressed =
+                        unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_doc_ids_ptr(list, block_idx) };
+                    let new_offset = if is_vectorized_search_enabled {
+                        find_next_geq_in_block(&compressed.doc_ids, block_offset, least_id)
+                    } else {
+                        block_offset
+                            + compressed.doc_ids[block_offset..]
+                                .partition_point(|&doc_id| doc_id < least_id)
+                    };
+                    if new_offset < compressed.doc_ids.len() {
+                        self.index = (block_idx << shift) + new_offset;
+                        self.block_idx = block_idx;
+                        // Frequencies stay lazy, but once this block's stream is
+                        // decoded every later candidate in it can carry its
+                        // frequency for free instead of re-materializing in `doc`.
+                        let frequency = if compressed.frequency_block_idx == Some(block_idx) {
+                            compressed.freqs[new_offset]
+                        } else {
+                            0
+                        };
+                        self.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                            doc_id: compressed.doc_ids[new_offset],
+                            frequency,
+                        }));
+                        return;
+                    }
                     if block_idx + 1 >= list.blocks.len() {
                         self.index = length;
+                        self.block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                        self.current_doc = None;
                         break;
                     }
-                    self.index = (block_idx + 1) * BLOCK_SIZE;
+                    self.index = (block_idx + 1) << shift;
                 }
-                self.block_idx = self.index / BLOCK_SIZE;
+                self.block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                self.current_doc = None;
             }
             PostingList::Plain(ref list) => {
                 self.index += list.row_ids[self.index..].partition_point(|&id| id < least_id);
+                self.current_doc = (!self.empty()).then(|| DocInfo::Located(list.doc(self.index)));
             }
         }
     }
@@ -286,11 +1481,7 @@ impl PostingIterator {
             PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
                 debug_assert!(least_id <= u32::MAX as u64);
                 let least_id = least_id as u32;
-                while self.block_idx + 1 < list.blocks.len()
-                    && list.block_least_doc_id(self.block_idx + 1) <= least_id
-                {
-                    self.block_idx += 1;
-                }
+                self.block_idx = self.block_idx_for_doc(list, self.block_idx, least_id);
             }
             PostingList::Plain(_) => {
                 // we don't have block max score for legacy index,
@@ -299,14 +1490,172 @@ impl PostingIterator {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Anchored level0 impact bound of the current block: (doc_up_to, max_score),
+    /// memoized until the block cursor moves. Malformed entries degrade to
+    /// (u32::MAX, INFINITY), which keeps pruning safe by making the block look
+    /// unskippable.
+    #[inline]
+    fn impact_level0<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        impacts: &ImpactSkipData,
+        scorer: &S,
+    ) -> (u32, f32) {
+        let compressed = unsafe { &mut *self.compressed_state_ptr() };
+        if let Some((block_idx, doc_up_to, score)) = compressed.level0_cache
+            && block_idx == self.block_idx
+        {
+            return (doc_up_to, score);
+        }
+        let doc_up_to = impacts.level0_doc_up_to(self.block_idx).unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+        let score = impacts.level0_score_cached(
+            self.block_idx,
+            self.query_weight,
+            scorer,
+            &mut compressed.block_max_window.impact_score_cache,
+        );
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            compressed.impact_bound_computations += 1;
+        }
+        compressed.level0_cache = Some((self.block_idx, doc_up_to, score));
+        (doc_up_to, score)
+    }
+
+    /// Anchored level1 impact bound of the group holding the current block,
+    /// memoized until the cursor crosses a group boundary.
+    #[inline]
+    fn impact_level1<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        impacts: &ImpactSkipData,
+        scorer: &S,
+    ) -> (u32, f32) {
+        let group_idx = self.block_idx / IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS;
+        let compressed = unsafe { &mut *self.compressed_state_ptr() };
+        if let Some((cached_group_idx, doc_up_to, score)) = compressed.level1_cache
+            && cached_group_idx == group_idx
+        {
+            return (doc_up_to, score);
+        }
+        let doc_up_to = impacts.level1_doc_up_to(group_idx).unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+        let score = impacts.level1_score_cached(
+            group_idx,
+            self.query_weight,
+            scorer,
+            &mut compressed.block_max_window.impact_score_cache,
+        );
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            compressed.impact_bound_computations += 1;
+        }
+        compressed.level1_cache = Some((group_idx, doc_up_to, score));
+        (doc_up_to, score)
+    }
+
     #[inline]
-    fn block_max_score(&self) -> f32 {
+    fn block_max_score<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(&self, scorer: &S) -> f32 {
         match self.list {
-            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => list.block_max_score(self.block_idx),
+            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
+                if self.has_grouped_terms() && list.block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE {
+                    return self.approximate_upper_bound;
+                }
+                if let Some(impacts) = list.impacts.as_ref() {
+                    return self.impact_level0(impacts, scorer).1;
+                }
+                if self.use_scorer_upper_bound {
+                    return scorer_upper_bound(self.query_weight, scorer);
+                }
+                if list.block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE {
+                    return scorer_upper_bound(self.query_weight, scorer);
+                }
+                list.block_max_score(self.block_idx)
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) if self.use_scorer_upper_bound => {
+                scorer_upper_bound(self.query_weight, scorer)
+            }
             PostingList::Plain(_) => self.approximate_upper_bound,
         }
     }
 
+    /// Tight max-score bound over `[current block, up_to]`. The common case —
+    /// a window ending inside the current block — answers from the anchored
+    /// level0 memo; wider windows fall back to the sliding block-max deque,
+    /// which scores each block once as it slides forward.
+    #[inline]
+    fn block_max_score_up_to_with_stats<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        up_to: u64,
+        scorer: &S,
+    ) -> BlockMaxScore {
+        match self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
+                if self.has_grouped_terms() && list.block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE {
+                    return BlockMaxScore {
+                        score: self.approximate_upper_bound,
+                        #[cfg(test)]
+                        blocks_scanned: 0,
+                    };
+                }
+                if let Some(impacts) = list.impacts.as_ref() {
+                    let (level0_up_to, level0_score) = self.impact_level0(impacts, scorer);
+                    if up_to <= u64::from(level0_up_to) {
+                        return BlockMaxScore {
+                            score: level0_score,
+                            #[cfg(test)]
+                            blocks_scanned: 0,
+                        };
+                    }
+                }
+                if self.use_scorer_upper_bound {
+                    return BlockMaxScore {
+                        score: scorer_upper_bound(self.query_weight, scorer),
+                        #[cfg(test)]
+                        blocks_scanned: 0,
+                    };
+                }
+                let compressed = unsafe { &mut *self.compressed_state_ptr() };
+                compressed.block_max_window.max_score_up_to(
+                    list,
+                    self.block_idx,
+                    up_to,
+                    self.query_weight,
+                    scorer,
+                )
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => BlockMaxScore {
+                score: if self.use_scorer_upper_bound {
+                    scorer_upper_bound(self.query_weight, scorer)
+                } else {
+                    self.approximate_upper_bound
+                },
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                blocks_scanned: 0,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn window_max_score<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(&self, up_to: Option<u64>, scorer: &S) -> f32 {
+        if let Some(up_to) = up_to
+            && let PostingList::Compressed(ref list) = self.list
+            && list.impacts.is_some()
+        {
+            return self.block_max_score_up_to_with_stats(up_to, scorer).score;
+        }
+        self.block_max_score(scorer)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn is_compressed(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self.list, PostingList::Compressed(_))
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn has_next_compressed_block(&self) -> bool {
+        match self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => self.block_idx + 1 < list.blocks.len(),
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => false,
+        }
+    }
+
     fn block_first_doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
         match self.list {
             PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
@@ -316,6 +1665,98 @@ impl PostingIterator {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Bulk-score every posting in `[current doc, up_to]` into the window
+    /// accumulator (slot = doc - window_min) and leave the iterator on the
+    /// first doc beyond `up_to`. This is the Lucene `nextDocsAndScores`
+    /// equivalent: it walks the decompressed block arrays directly, with no
+    /// per-doc heap traffic.
+    // The norm cache arg tips this hot-path fn over the limit; bundling the
+    // scoring inputs isn't worth the churn here.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn collect_window_scores<S: Scorer + ?Sized, D: WandDocuments>(
+        &mut self,
+        window_min: u64,
+        up_to: u64,
+        clause_idx: usize,
+        docs: &D,
+        scorer: &S,
+        norm_k: Option<(&[u8], &[f32; 256])>,
+        acc: &mut WindowAccumulator,
+    ) {
+        if self.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc.doc_id() < window_min) {
+            self.next(window_min);
+        }
+        match self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
+                let shift = list.block_shift();
+                let mask = list.block_mask();
+                'blocks: while let Some(doc) = self.current_doc {
+                    if doc.doc_id() > up_to {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    let block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                    let block_offset = self.index & mask;
+                    let compressed =
+                        unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx) };
+                    for offset in block_offset..compressed.doc_ids.len() {
+                        let doc_id = compressed.doc_ids[offset];
+                        if u64::from(doc_id) > up_to {
+                            self.index = (block_idx << shift) + offset;
+                            self.block_idx = block_idx;
+                            self.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                                doc_id,
+                                frequency: compressed.freqs[offset],
+                            }));
+                            break 'blocks;
+                        }
+                        let freq = compressed.freqs[offset];
+                        // One byte-norm load plus a cached addend replaces
+                        // recomputing the BM25 denominator per doc.
+                        let doc_weight = match norm_k {
+                            Some((norms, cache)) => bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(
+                                freq,
+                                cache[norms[doc_id as usize] as usize],
+                            ),
+                            None => scorer.doc_weight(freq, docs.scoring_num_tokens(doc_id)),
+                        };
+                        let score = self.query_weight * doc_weight;
+                        let slot = (u64::from(doc_id) - window_min) as usize;
+                        acc.add(clause_idx, slot, score, freq);
+                    }
+                    // Block exhausted: step into the next block (or finish).
+                    let next_start = (block_idx + 1) << shift;
+                    if next_start >= list.length as usize {
+                        self.index = list.length as usize;
+                        self.block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                        self.current_doc = None;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    self.index = next_start;
+                    self.block_idx = block_idx + 1;
+                    let compressed =
+                        unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx + 1) };
+                    self.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                        doc_id: compressed.doc_ids[0],
+                        frequency: compressed.freqs[0],
+                    }));
+                }
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => {
+                while let Some(doc) = self.doc() {
+                    let doc_id = doc.doc_id();
+                    if doc_id > up_to {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    let doc_length = docs.doc_length(&doc);
+                    let score = self.score(scorer, doc.frequency(), doc_length);
+                    let slot = (doc_id - window_min) as usize;
+                    acc.add(clause_idx, slot, score, doc.frequency());
+                    self.next(doc_id + 1);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     #[inline]
     fn next_block_first_doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
         match self.list {
@@ -328,738 +1769,11050 @@ impl PostingIterator {
             PostingList::Plain(ref plain) => plain.row_ids.get(self.index + 1).cloned(),
         }
     }
-}
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct DocCandidate {
-    pub row_id: u64,
-    /// (term_index, freq)
-    pub freqs: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
-    pub doc_length: u32,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn validate_modern_doc_ids(&self, num_docs: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        validate_modern_posting_doc_ids(&self.list, &self.token, num_docs)
+    }
 }
 
-pub struct Wand<'a, S: Scorer> {
-    threshold: f32, // multiple of factor and the minimum score of the top-k documents
-    operator: Operator,
-    num_terms: usize,
-    // we need to sort the posting iterators frequently,
-    // so wrap them in `Box` to avoid the cost of copying
-    #[allow(clippy::vec_box)]
-    postings: Vec<Box<PostingIterator>>,
-    docs: &'a DocSet,
-    scorer: S,
-    cur_doc: Option<DocInfo>,
+/// Validate the dense-DocId boundary before any document-length lookup.
+/// Modern postings are sorted, so decoding only the final physical block is
+/// sufficient to validate their maximum DocId.
+pub(super) fn validate_modern_posting_doc_ids(
+    posting: &PostingList,
+    token: &str,
+    num_docs: usize,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let PostingList::Compressed(list) = posting else {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "modern FTS posting for token {token:?} uses a legacy row-address layout"
+        )));
+    };
+    if list.length == 0 {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let last_block_idx = list.blocks.len().checked_sub(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "modern FTS posting for token {token:?} has length {} but no blocks",
+            list.length
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let mut state = CompressedState::new(list.block_size);
+    state.decompress_doc_ids(
+        list.blocks.value(last_block_idx),
+        last_block_idx,
+        list.blocks.len(),
+        list.length,
+        list.posting_tail_codec,
+        list.block_size,
+    );
+    let max_doc_id = state.doc_ids.last().copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "modern FTS posting for token {token:?} has an empty final block"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    if max_doc_id as usize >= num_docs {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "modern FTS posting for token {token:?} contains DocId {max_doc_id}, outside [0, {num_docs})"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
 }
 
-// we were using row id as doc id in the past, which is u64,
-// but now we are using the index as doc id, which is u32.
-// so here WAND is a generic struct that can be used for both u32 and u64 doc ids.
-impl<'a, S: Scorer> Wand<'a, S> {
-    pub(crate) fn new(
-        operator: Operator,
-        postings: impl Iterator<Item = PostingIterator>,
-        docs: &'a DocSet,
-        scorer: S,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let mut posting_lists = postings.collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        posting_lists.sort_unstable();
+/// Inner window span (in doc ids) of the bulk MAXSCORE path. Same as Lucene's
+/// `MaxScoreBulkScorer.INNER_WINDOW_SIZE`.
+const MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW: usize = 1 << 12;
 
-        Self {
-            threshold: 0.0,
-            operator,
-            num_terms: posting_lists.len(),
-            postings: posting_lists.into_iter().map(Box::new).collect(),
-            docs,
-            scorer,
-            cur_doc: None,
-        }
+/// Lucene's `MathUtil.sumUpperBound` factor, adapted to Lance's `f32` score
+/// accumulation. Prefix bounds are summed in `f64`, then widened enough to
+/// cover any recursive `f32` summation order of the same non-negative values.
+#[inline]
+pub(super) fn score_sum_upper_bound_factor(num_values: usize) -> f64 {
+    if num_values <= 2 {
+        1.0
+    } else {
+        let relative_error_bound = (num_values - 1) as f64 * f64::from(f32::EPSILON);
+        1.0 + 2.0 * relative_error_bound
     }
+}
 
-    // search the top-k documents that contain the query
-    // returns the row_id, frequency and doc length
-    pub(crate) fn search(
-        &mut self,
-        params: &FtsSearchParams,
-        mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate>> {
-        let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
-        if limit == 0 {
-            return Ok(vec![]);
-        }
+#[inline]
+fn score_sum_cannot_compete(
+    partial_score: f32,
+    remaining_upper_bound: f64,
+    floor: f32,
+    upper_bound_factor: f64,
+    floor_mode: CompetitiveFloorMode,
+) -> bool {
+    let upper_bound = (f64::from(partial_score) + remaining_upper_bound) * upper_bound_factor;
+    floor_mode.rejects_upper_bound(f64::from(outward_f32_upper_bound(upper_bound)), floor)
+}
 
-        match (mask.max_len(), mask.iter_addrs()) {
-            (Some(num_rows_matched), Some(row_ids))
-                if num_rows_matched * 100
-                    <= FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD.deref() * self.docs.len() as u64 =>
-            {
-                return self.flat_search(params, row_ids, metrics);
+type ScoreContribution = ((u32, u32), f32);
+
+/// Largest `f32` partial score that `score_sum_cannot_compete` still rejects
+/// under the exclusive floor, given the other clauses' upper bound. The
+/// rejection predicate is monotone in the partial score, so every score at or
+/// below the returned limit is rejected and every score above it competes.
+/// Returns `None` when no finite score is rejected.
+fn exclusive_partial_score_limit(
+    remaining_upper_bound: f64,
+    floor: f32,
+    upper_bound_factor: f64,
+) -> Option<f32> {
+    let rejects = |score: f32| {
+        score_sum_cannot_compete(
+            score,
+            remaining_upper_bound,
+            floor,
+            upper_bound_factor,
+            CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive,
+        )
+    };
+    if !remaining_upper_bound.is_finite() || !floor.is_finite() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    // Start from the real-valued boundary and walk at most a few ULPs to the
+    // exact f32 boundary of the (monotone) predicate.
+    let mut limit = ((f64::from(floor) / upper_bound_factor) - remaining_upper_bound) as f32;
+    if !limit.is_finite() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    if rejects(limit) {
+        for _ in 0..8 {
+            let up = next_up_f32(limit);
+            if up == limit || !rejects(up) {
+                return Some(limit);
             }
-            _ => {}
+            limit = up;
         }
-
-        let mut candidates = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(std::cmp::min(limit, BLOCK_SIZE * 10));
-        let mut num_comparisons = 0;
-        while let Some((pivot, doc)) = self.next()? {
-            if let Some(cur_doc) = self.cur_doc {
-                if cur_doc.doc_id() >= doc.doc_id() {
-                    continue;
-                }
+    } else {
+        for _ in 0..8 {
+            let down = next_down_f32(limit);
+            if down == limit {
+                return None;
             }
-            self.cur_doc = Some(doc);
-            num_comparisons += 1;
-
-            let row_id = match &doc {
-                DocInfo::Raw(doc) => {
-                    // if the doc is not located, we need to find the row id
-                    self.docs.row_id(doc.doc_id)
-                }
-                DocInfo::Located(doc) => doc.row_id,
-            };
-            if !mask.selected(row_id) {
-                self.move_preceding(pivot, doc.doc_id() + 1);
-                continue;
+            if rejects(down) {
+                return Some(down);
             }
+            limit = down;
+        }
+    }
+    // The walk did not converge (pathological inputs); fall back to an exact
+    // binary search over the ordered f32 bit patterns.
+    let mut lo = f32::MIN;
+    let mut hi = f32::MAX;
+    if !rejects(lo) {
+        return None;
+    }
+    if rejects(hi) {
+        return Some(hi);
+    }
+    for _ in 0..64 {
+        let mid = f32::from_bits(((lo.to_bits() as i64 + hi.to_bits() as i64) / 2) as u32);
+        if mid == lo || mid == hi {
+            break;
+        }
+        if rejects(mid) {
+            lo = mid;
+        } else {
+            hi = mid;
+        }
+    }
+    Some(lo)
+}
 
-            if params.phrase_slop.is_some()
-                && !self.check_positions(params.phrase_slop.unwrap() as i32)
-            {
-                self.move_preceding(pivot, doc.doc_id() + 1);
-                continue;
-            }
+fn next_down_f32(value: f32) -> f32 {
+    -next_up_f32(-value)
+}
 
-            let doc_length = match &doc {
-                DocInfo::Raw(doc) => self.docs.num_tokens(doc.doc_id),
-                DocInfo::Located(doc) => self.docs.num_tokens_by_row_id(doc.row_id),
-            };
-            let score = self.score(pivot, doc_length);
-            let freqs = self.iter_term_freqs(pivot).collect();
-            if candidates.len() < limit {
-                candidates.push(Reverse((ScoredDoc::new(row_id, score), freqs, doc_length)));
-                if candidates.len() == limit {
-                    self.threshold = candidates.peek().unwrap().0 .0.score.0 * params.wand_factor;
-                }
-            } else if score > candidates.peek().unwrap().0 .0.score.0 {
-                candidates.pop();
-                candidates.push(Reverse((ScoredDoc::new(row_id, score), freqs, doc_length)));
-                self.threshold = candidates.peek().unwrap().0 .0.score.0 * params.wand_factor;
-            }
-            self.move_preceding(pivot, doc.doc_id() + 1);
-        }
-        metrics.record_comparisons(num_comparisons);
+#[inline]
+fn score_contributions_in_query_order(mut contributions: SmallVec<[ScoreContribution; 8]>) -> f32 {
+    if !contributions
+        .windows(2)
+        .all(|window| window[0].0 <= window[1].0)
+    {
+        contributions.sort_unstable_by_key(|contribution| contribution.0);
+    }
+    contributions
+        .into_iter()
+        .fold(0.0_f32, |score, (_, contribution)| score + contribution)
+}
 
-        Ok(candidates
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|Reverse((doc, freqs, doc_length))| DocCandidate {
-                row_id: doc.row_id,
-                freqs,
-                doc_length,
-            })
-            .collect())
+/// One MAXSCORE clause: posting plus the current window bound / prefix used
+/// to pick essential vs optional and to complete scores in query order.
+struct MaxScoreClause {
+    posting: Box<PostingIterator>,
+    query_rank: usize,
+    bound: f32,
+    prefix_bound: f64,
+}
+
+/// Per-window score/frequency accumulator for the bulk MAXSCORE path. Slot i
+/// covers doc id `window_min + i`; `freqs` is laid out clause-major so accept
+/// paths can recover (term, freq) pairs of the essential clauses.
+struct WindowAccumulator {
+    scores: Vec<f32>,
+    freqs: Vec<u32>,
+    words: Vec<u64>,
+    num_clauses: usize,
+}
+
+impl WindowAccumulator {
+    fn new(num_clauses: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            scores: vec![0.0; MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW],
+            freqs: vec![0; num_clauses * MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW],
+            words: vec![0; MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW / 64],
+            num_clauses,
+        }
     }
 
-    fn flat_search(
-        &mut self,
-        params: &FtsSearchParams,
-        row_ids: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = RowAddress> + '_>,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate>> {
-        let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
-        if limit == 0 {
-            return Ok(vec![]);
-        }
+    #[inline]
+    fn add(&mut self, clause_idx: usize, slot: usize, score: f32, freq: u32) {
+        self.scores[slot] += score;
+        // Doc-major layout: one slot's clause frequencies share a cache line.
+        self.freqs[slot * self.num_clauses + clause_idx] = freq;
+        self.words[slot >> 6] |= 1u64 << (slot & 63);
+    }
 
-        // we need to map the row ids to doc ids, and sort them,
-        // because WAND PostingIterator can't go back to the previous doc id
-        let doc_ids = row_ids
-            .filter_map(|row_addr| {
-                let row_id: u64 = row_addr.into();
-                self.docs.doc_id(row_id).map(|doc_id| (doc_id, row_id))
-            })
-            .sorted_unstable()
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let is_compressed = matches!(self.postings[0].list, PostingList::Compressed(_));
+    #[inline]
+    fn clause_freq(&self, clause_idx: usize, slot: usize) -> u32 {
+        self.freqs[slot * self.num_clauses + clause_idx]
+    }
 
-        let mut num_comparisons = 0;
-        let mut candidates = BinaryHeap::new();
-        let mut current_doc = 0;
-        for (doc_id, row_id) in doc_ids {
-            num_comparisons += 1;
+    #[inline]
+    fn clear_slot(&mut self, slot: usize) {
+        self.scores[slot] = 0.0;
+        self.freqs[slot * self.num_clauses..(slot + 1) * self.num_clauses].fill(0);
+    }
+}
 
-            if doc_id < current_doc {
-                continue;
-            }
-            current_doc = doc_id;
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct DocCandidate<C> {
+    pub document: C,
+    /// The document key used by the posting lists: doc_id for compressed
+    /// postings, row_id for legacy plain postings.
+    pub posting_doc_id: u64,
+    /// (term_index, freq)
+    pub freqs: Vec<(u32, u32)>,
+    pub doc_length: u32,
+}
 
-            // even we already know the candidate doc id, we still need to know how many terms are required to hit the threshold
-            let mut pivot = 0;
-            let mut approximate_upper_bound = self.postings[0].approximate_upper_bound();
-            while pivot + 1 < self.postings.len() && approximate_upper_bound < self.threshold {
-                approximate_upper_bound += self.postings[pivot + 1].approximate_upper_bound();
-                pivot += 1;
-            }
+/// Document-side contract consumed by WAND.  Implementations fix candidate
+/// identity and visibility before the CPU executor starts.
+pub(super) type FlatDocuments<'a> = (usize, Box<dyn Iterator<Item = (u64, u64)> + 'a>);
 
-            if let Some(least_id) = self.postings[0].block_first_doc() {
-                if least_id > doc_id {
-                    current_doc = least_id;
-                    continue;
-                }
-            }
-            let mut max_pivot = 0;
-            while max_pivot + 1 < self.postings.len() {
-                self.postings[max_pivot + 1].shallow_next(doc_id);
-                match self.postings[max_pivot + 1].block_first_doc() {
-                    Some(block_doc_id) if block_doc_id <= doc_id => {
-                        max_pivot += 1;
-                    }
-                    _ => break,
-                }
-            }
+pub(super) trait WandDocuments {
+    type Candidate: Copy + Debug;
 
-            if !self.check_block_max(max_pivot, doc_id) {
-                // the current block max score is less than the threshold,
-                // which means we have to skip at least the current block
-                let (_, least_id) = self.get_new_candidate(max_pivot);
-                if least_id == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
-                    break;
-                }
-                current_doc = std::cmp::max(doc_id, least_id);
-                self.move_preceding(max_pivot, least_id);
-                continue;
-            }
+    fn len(&self) -> usize;
+    /// Conservative upper bound on documents that can survive visibility.
+    /// Used only to estimate scorer cost; iteration remains authoritative.
+    fn visible_cost_upper_bound(&self) -> usize {
+        self.len()
+    }
+    /// Whether this partition can hold a document that is not visible --
+    /// deleted, or outside a selection. When it cannot, asking about
+    /// visibility per document can only ever answer "visible", so callers may
+    /// skip the question. Conservative default: assume it can.
+    fn any_invisible(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+    fn scoring_norms(&self) -> Option<&[u8]>;
+    fn scoring_num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32;
+    fn doc_length(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> u32;
+    fn document_key(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> Option<u64>;
+    fn document_key_for_doc_id(&self, doc_id: u32) -> Option<u64>;
+    fn candidate_from_key(&self, key: u64) -> Self::Candidate;
+    fn flat_documents(&self) -> Option<FlatDocuments<'_>>;
+    fn flat_doc_length(&self, doc_id: u64, document_key: u64, compressed: bool) -> u32;
+}
 
-            // move all postings to this doc id
-            if !self.check_pivot_aligned(pivot, doc_id) {
-                if self.postings.is_empty() {
-                    break;
-                } else {
-                    continue;
-                }
-            }
+pub(super) trait ModernVisibility {
+    fn selected(&self, doc_id: DocId) -> bool;
+    fn len(&self, total_docs: usize) -> usize;
+    /// Whether some document of the partition can be invisible. `len` cannot
+    /// answer this: `DocVisibility::Filtered` -- a deletion vector too large
+    /// to materialize -- reports the full document count even though it hides
+    /// rows, because counting the survivors is not worth the work up front.
+    fn any_invisible(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+    fn iter(&self) -> Option<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = DocId> + '_>>;
+}
 
-            max_pivot = 0;
-            while max_pivot + 1 < self.postings.len()
-                && self.postings[max_pivot + 1].doc().map(|d| d.doc_id()) == Some(doc_id)
-            {
-                max_pivot += 1;
-            }
+pub(super) struct AllModernDocuments;
 
-            // check positions
-            if params.phrase_slop.is_some()
-                && !self.check_positions(params.phrase_slop.unwrap() as i32)
-            {
-                continue;
-            }
+impl ModernVisibility for AllModernDocuments {
+    #[inline]
+    fn selected(&self, _doc_id: DocId) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
 
-            // score the doc
-            let doc_length = match is_compressed {
-                true => self.docs.num_tokens(doc_id as u32),
-                false => self.docs.num_tokens_by_row_id(row_id),
-            };
+    fn len(&self, total_docs: usize) -> usize {
+        total_docs
+    }
 
-            let score = self.score(max_pivot, doc_length);
-            let freqs = self.iter_term_freqs(max_pivot).collect();
+    fn any_invisible(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
 
-            if candidates.len() < limit {
-                candidates.push(Reverse((ScoredDoc::new(row_id, score), freqs, doc_length)));
-                if candidates.len() == limit {
-                    self.threshold = candidates.peek().unwrap().0 .0.score.0 * params.wand_factor;
-                }
-            } else if score > candidates.peek().unwrap().0 .0.score.0 {
-                candidates.pop();
-                candidates.push(Reverse((ScoredDoc::new(row_id, score), freqs, doc_length)));
-                self.threshold = candidates.peek().unwrap().0 .0.score.0 * params.wand_factor;
-            }
-        }
-        metrics.record_comparisons(num_comparisons);
+    fn iter(&self) -> Option<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = DocId> + '_>> {
+        None
+    }
+}
 
-        Ok(candidates
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|Reverse((doc, freqs, doc_length))| DocCandidate {
-                row_id: doc.row_id,
-                freqs,
-                doc_length,
-            })
-            .collect())
+impl ModernVisibility for &DocVisibility {
+    #[inline]
+    fn selected(&self, doc_id: DocId) -> bool {
+        DocVisibility::selected(self, doc_id)
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self, total_docs: usize) -> usize {
+        DocVisibility::len(self, total_docs)
+    }
+
+    fn any_invisible(&self) -> bool {
+        !DocVisibility::is_all(self)
+    }
+
+    fn iter(&self) -> Option<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = DocId> + '_>> {
+        DocVisibility::iter(self)
+            .map(|doc_ids| Box::new(doc_ids) as Box<dyn Iterator<Item = DocId>>)
     }
+}
 
-    // calculate the score of the current document
-    fn score(&self, pivot: usize, doc_length: u32) -> f32 {
-        let mut score = 0.0;
-        for (token, freq) in self.iter_token_freqs(pivot) {
-            score += self.scorer.score(token, freq, doc_length);
+pub(super) struct ModernWandDocuments<'a, V> {
+    lengths: &'a DocLengths,
+    visibility: V,
+}
+
+impl<'a> ModernWandDocuments<'a, AllModernDocuments> {
+    pub(crate) fn all(lengths: &'a DocLengths) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lengths,
+            visibility: AllModernDocuments,
         }
-        score
     }
+}
 
-    // iterate over all the preceding terms and collect the token and frequency
-    fn iter_token_freqs(&self, pivot: usize) -> impl Iterator<Item = (&str, u32)> + '_ {
-        self.postings[..=pivot].iter().filter_map(|posting| {
-            posting
-                .doc()
-                .map(|doc| (posting.token.as_str(), doc.frequency()))
-        })
+impl<'a> ModernWandDocuments<'a, &'a DocVisibility> {
+    pub(crate) fn filtered(lengths: &'a DocLengths, visibility: &'a DocVisibility) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lengths,
+            visibility,
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    // iterate over all the preceding terms and collect the term index and frequency
-    fn iter_term_freqs(&self, pivot: usize) -> impl Iterator<Item = (u32, u32)> + '_ {
-        self.postings[..=pivot].iter().filter_map(|posting| {
-            posting
-                .doc()
-                .map(|doc| (posting.term_index(), doc.frequency()))
-        })
+impl<V: ModernVisibility> WandDocuments for ModernWandDocuments<'_, V> {
+    type Candidate = DocId;
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.lengths.len()
     }
 
-    // find the next doc candidate
-    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<(usize, DocInfo)>> {
-        while let Some((pivot, max_pivot)) = self.find_pivot_term() {
-            let posting = &self.postings[pivot];
-            let doc = posting.doc().unwrap();
-            let doc_id = doc.doc_id();
+    fn visible_cost_upper_bound(&self) -> usize {
+        self.visibility.len(self.lengths.len())
+    }
 
-            if !self.check_block_max(max_pivot, doc_id) {
-                // the current block max score is less than the threshold,
-                // which means we have to skip at least the current block
-                let (picked_term, least_id) = self.get_new_candidate(max_pivot);
-                if least_id == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
-                    return Ok(None);
-                }
-                self.move_term(picked_term, least_id);
-                continue;
-            }
+    fn any_invisible(&self) -> bool {
+        self.visibility.any_invisible()
+    }
 
-            if !self.check_pivot_aligned(pivot, doc_id) {
-                continue;
-            }
+    fn scoring_norms(&self) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+        self.lengths.scoring_norms()
+    }
 
-            // all the posting iterators preceding pivot have reached this doc id,
-            // this means the sum of upper bound of all terms is not less than the threshold,
-            // this document is a candidate, but we still need to check filters, positions, etc.
-            return Ok(Some((max_pivot, doc)));
-        }
-        Ok(None)
+    fn scoring_num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+        self.lengths.scoring(DocId::new(doc_id))
     }
 
-    fn check_block_max(&mut self, pivot: usize, pivot_doc: u64) -> bool {
-        let mut sum = 0.0;
-        for posting in self.postings[..=pivot].iter_mut() {
-            posting.shallow_next(pivot_doc);
-            sum += posting.block_max_score();
+    fn doc_length(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> u32 {
+        match doc {
+            DocInfo::Raw(doc) => self.scoring_num_tokens(doc.doc_id),
+            DocInfo::Located(_) => unreachable!("modern posting lists contain dense DocIds"),
         }
-        sum > self.threshold
     }
 
-    // find the term and new doc_id to move / move to,
-    // the term should be the one with the maximum score,
-    // the new doc_id should be the one is the minimum among:
-    // 1. for the terms preceding the pivot, the next block first doc id
-    // 2. for the terms after the pivot, the doc id of the term
-    fn get_new_candidate(&self, pivot: usize) -> (usize, u64) {
-        let mut picked_term = pivot;
-        let mut max_score = self.postings[pivot].approximate_upper_bound();
-        let mut least_id = self.postings[pivot]
-            .next_block_first_doc()
-            .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
-        for (i, posting) in self.postings[..pivot].iter().enumerate().rev() {
-            let next_block_first_doc = posting.next_block_first_doc().unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
-            if next_block_first_doc < least_id {
-                least_id = next_block_first_doc;
-            }
-            if posting.approximate_upper_bound() > max_score {
-                max_score = posting.approximate_upper_bound();
-                picked_term = i;
+    fn document_key(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> Option<u64> {
+        match doc {
+            DocInfo::Raw(doc) if self.visibility.selected(DocId::new(doc.doc_id)) => {
+                Some(u64::from(doc.doc_id))
             }
+            DocInfo::Raw(_) => None,
+            DocInfo::Located(_) => unreachable!("modern posting lists contain dense DocIds"),
         }
+    }
 
-        for posting in self.postings[pivot + 1..].iter() {
-            let doc = posting
-                .doc()
-                .map(|d| d.doc_id())
-                .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
-            if doc < least_id {
-                least_id = doc;
-            }
-        }
+    fn document_key_for_doc_id(&self, doc_id: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.visibility
+            .selected(DocId::new(doc_id))
+            .then_some(u64::from(doc_id))
+    }
 
-        (picked_term, least_id)
+    fn candidate_from_key(&self, key: u64) -> Self::Candidate {
+        DocId::new(key as u32)
     }
 
-    // find the first term that the sum of upper bound of all preceding terms and itself,
-    // are greater than or equal to the threshold.
-    // returns the least pivot and the max index of the terms that have the same doc id.
-    fn find_pivot_term(&self) -> Option<(usize, usize)> {
-        if self.operator == Operator::And {
-            // for AND query, we always require all terms to be present in the document,
-            // so the pivot is always the last term as long as no posting list is exhausted
-            if self.postings.len() == self.num_terms {
-                return Some((self.num_terms - 1, self.num_terms - 1));
-            }
-            return None;
-        }
+    fn flat_documents(&self) -> Option<(usize, Box<dyn Iterator<Item = (u64, u64)> + '_>)> {
+        self.visibility.iter().map(|doc_ids| {
+            let len = self.visibility.len(self.lengths.len());
+            let docs = doc_ids.map(|doc_id| {
+                let value = u64::from(doc_id.get());
+                (value, value)
+            });
+            (len, Box::new(docs) as Box<dyn Iterator<Item = (u64, u64)>>)
+        })
+    }
 
-        let mut acc = 0.0;
-        let mut pivot = None;
-        for (idx, posting) in self.postings.iter().enumerate() {
-            acc += posting.approximate_upper_bound();
-            if acc >= self.threshold {
-                pivot = Some(idx);
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-        let pivot = pivot?;
-        let mut max_pivot = pivot;
-        let doc_id = self.postings[pivot].doc().unwrap().doc_id();
-        while max_pivot + 1 < self.postings.len()
-            && self.postings[max_pivot + 1].doc().unwrap().doc_id() == doc_id
-        {
-            max_pivot += 1;
-        }
+    fn flat_doc_length(&self, doc_id: u64, _document_key: u64, _compressed: bool) -> u32 {
+        self.scoring_num_tokens(doc_id as u32)
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) struct LegacyWandDocuments<'a> {
+    docs: &'a DocSet,
+    mask: &'a RowAddrMask,
+}
 
-        Some((pivot, max_pivot))
+impl<'a> LegacyWandDocuments<'a> {
+    pub(crate) fn new(docs: &'a DocSet, mask: &'a RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        Self { docs, mask }
     }
+}
 
-    // pick the term that has the maximum upper bound and the current doc id is less than the given doc id
-    // so that we can move the posting iterator to the next doc id that is possible to be candidate
-    fn move_term(&mut self, picked_term: usize, least_id: u64) {
-        self.postings[picked_term].next(least_id);
-        let doc_id = self.postings[picked_term]
-            .doc()
-            .map(|d| d.doc_id())
-            .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
-        if doc_id == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
-            self.postings.swap_remove(picked_term);
-        }
-        self.bubble_up(picked_term);
+impl WandDocuments for LegacyWandDocuments<'_> {
+    type Candidate = u64;
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.docs.len()
     }
 
-    fn check_pivot_aligned(&mut self, pivot: usize, pivot_doc: u64) -> bool {
-        for i in (0..=pivot).rev() {
-            self.postings[i].next(pivot_doc);
-            let doc_id = self.postings[i]
-                .doc()
-                .map(|d| d.doc_id())
-                .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
-            if doc_id != pivot_doc {
-                if doc_id == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
-                    self.postings.swap_remove(i);
-                }
-                self.bubble_up(i);
-                return false;
-            } else {
-                self.bubble_up(i);
-            }
-        }
-        true
+    fn scoring_norms(&self) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+        self.docs.scoring_norms()
     }
 
-    fn move_preceding(&mut self, pivot: usize, least_id: u64) {
-        for i in 0..=pivot {
-            self.postings[i].next(least_id);
-        }
+    fn scoring_num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+        self.docs.scoring_num_tokens(doc_id)
+    }
 
-        let mut i = 0;
-        while i < self.postings.len() {
-            if self.postings[i].doc().is_none() {
-                self.postings.swap_remove(i);
-            } else {
-                i += 1;
-            }
+    fn doc_length(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> u32 {
+        match doc {
+            DocInfo::Raw(doc) => self.docs.scoring_num_tokens(doc.doc_id),
+            DocInfo::Located(doc) => self.docs.num_tokens_by_row_id(doc.row_id),
         }
-        self.postings.sort_unstable();
     }
 
-    fn bubble_up(&mut self, index: usize) {
-        if index >= self.postings.len() {
-            return;
+    fn document_key(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> Option<u64> {
+        let row_id = match doc {
+            DocInfo::Raw(doc) => self.docs.row_id(doc.doc_id),
+            DocInfo::Located(doc) => doc.row_id,
+        };
+        (row_id != RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW && self.mask.selected(row_id)).then_some(row_id)
+    }
+
+    fn document_key_for_doc_id(&self, doc_id: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        let row_id = self.docs.row_id(doc_id);
+        (row_id != RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW && self.mask.selected(row_id)).then_some(row_id)
+    }
+
+    fn candidate_from_key(&self, key: u64) -> Self::Candidate {
+        key
+    }
+
+    fn flat_documents(&self) -> Option<(usize, Box<dyn Iterator<Item = (u64, u64)> + '_>)> {
+        let count = self.mask.max_len()? as usize;
+        let row_ids = self.mask.iter_addrs()?;
+        let docs = row_ids.flat_map(|row_addr| {
+            let row_id: u64 = row_addr.into();
+            self.docs
+                .doc_ids(row_id)
+                .map(move |doc_id| (doc_id, row_id))
+        });
+        Some((count, Box::new(docs)))
+    }
+
+    fn flat_doc_length(&self, doc_id: u64, document_key: u64, compressed: bool) -> u32 {
+        if compressed {
+            self.docs.scoring_num_tokens(doc_id as u32)
+        } else {
+            self.docs.num_tokens_by_row_id(document_key)
         }
+    }
+}
 
-        for i in index + 1..self.postings.len() {
-            if self.postings[i].cmp(&self.postings[i - 1]) >= std::cmp::Ordering::Equal {
-                break;
-            }
-            self.postings.swap(i - 1, i);
+// Most unit tests exercise WAND in isolation with an in-memory complete
+// DocSet.  Production code must select one of the explicit modern/legacy
+// adapters above, so this convenience implementation is test-only.
+#[cfg(test)]
+impl WandDocuments for DocSet {
+    type Candidate = u64;
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.len()
+    }
+
+    fn scoring_norms(&self) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+        self.scoring_norms()
+    }
+
+    fn scoring_num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+        self.scoring_num_tokens(doc_id)
+    }
+
+    fn doc_length(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> u32 {
+        match doc {
+            DocInfo::Raw(doc) => self.scoring_num_tokens(doc.doc_id),
+            DocInfo::Located(doc) => self.num_tokens_by_row_id(doc.row_id),
         }
     }
 
-    fn check_positions(&self, slop: i32) -> bool {
-        let mut position_iters = self
-            .postings
-            .iter()
-            .map(|posting| {
-                PositionIterator::new(
-                    posting.positions().expect("positions must exist"),
-                    posting.position as i32,
-                )
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        position_iters.sort_unstable_by_key(|iter| iter.position_in_query);
+    fn document_key(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> Option<u64> {
+        Some(match doc {
+            DocInfo::Raw(doc) if self.has_row_ids() => self.row_id(doc.doc_id),
+            DocInfo::Raw(doc) => u64::from(doc.doc_id),
+            DocInfo::Located(doc) => doc.row_id,
+        })
+    }
 
-        loop {
-            let mut max_relative_pos = None;
-            let mut all_same = true;
-            for window in position_iters.windows(2) {
-                let last = window[0].relative_position();
-                let next = window[1].relative_position();
-                let (Some(last), Some(next)) = (last, next) else {
-                    return false;
-                };
+    fn document_key_for_doc_id(&self, doc_id: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        Some(if self.has_row_ids() {
+            self.row_id(doc_id)
+        } else {
+            u64::from(doc_id)
+        })
+    }
 
-                let move_to = if last > next {
-                    last
-                } else {
-                    std::cmp::max(last + 1, next - slop)
-                };
-                max_relative_pos = max_relative_pos.max(Some(move_to));
-                if !(last <= next && next <= last + slop) {
-                    all_same = false;
-                    break;
-                }
-            }
+    fn candidate_from_key(&self, key: u64) -> Self::Candidate {
+        key
+    }
 
-            if all_same {
-                return true;
-            }
+    fn flat_documents(&self) -> Option<(usize, Box<dyn Iterator<Item = (u64, u64)> + '_>)> {
+        None
+    }
 
-            position_iters.iter_mut().for_each(|iter| {
-                iter.next(max_relative_pos.unwrap());
-            });
+    fn flat_doc_length(&self, doc_id: u64, document_key: u64, compressed: bool) -> u32 {
+        if compressed {
+            self.scoring_num_tokens(doc_id as u32)
+        } else {
+            self.num_tokens_by_row_id(document_key)
         }
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct PositionIterator {
-    // It's Int32Array for legacy index,
-    // UInt32Array for new index
-    positions: Arc<dyn Array>,
-    pub position_in_query: i32,
-    index: usize,
+struct HeadPosting {
+    // Iterators that are already positioned on or after the next candidate doc.
+    // The heap is ordered by smallest doc id so the top element determines
+    // the next target doc to consider.
+    doc_id: u64,
+    posting: Box<PostingIterator>,
 }
 
-impl PositionIterator {
-    fn new(positions: Arc<dyn Array>, position_in_query: i32) -> Self {
-        let mut iter = Self {
-            positions,
-            position_in_query,
-            index: 0,
-        };
-        iter.next(0);
-        iter
+impl HeadPosting {
+    fn new(posting: Box<PostingIterator>) -> Self {
+        let doc_id = posting
+            .doc()
+            .map(|doc| doc.doc_id())
+            .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
+        Self { doc_id, posting }
     }
 
-    // get the current relative position
-    fn relative_position(&self) -> Option<i32> {
-        if self.index < self.positions.len() {
-            match self.positions.data_type() {
-                DataType::Int32 => Some(
-                    self.positions.as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(self.index)
-                        - self.position_in_query,
-                ),
-                DataType::UInt32 => Some(
-                    self.positions
-                        .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
-                        .value(self.index) as i32
-                        - self.position_in_query,
-                ),
-                _ => {
-                    unreachable!("position iterator only supports Int32 and UInt32");
-                }
-            }
-        } else {
-            None
+    fn doc_id(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.doc_id
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for HeadPosting {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.doc_id == other.doc_id
+            && self.posting.approximate_upper_bound().to_bits()
+                == other.posting.approximate_upper_bound().to_bits()
+            && self.posting.token_id == other.posting.token_id
+            && self.posting.position == other.posting.position
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for HeadPosting {}
+
+impl PartialOrd for HeadPosting {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for HeadPosting {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        other
+            .doc_id
+            .cmp(&self.doc_id)
+            .then_with(|| {
+                self.posting
+                    .approximate_upper_bound()
+                    .total_cmp(&other.posting.approximate_upper_bound())
+            })
+            .then_with(|| self.posting.token_id.cmp(&other.posting.token_id))
+            .then_with(|| self.posting.position.cmp(&other.posting.position))
+    }
+}
+
+struct TailPosting {
+    // Iterators that lag behind the current target doc but may still help the
+    // target beat the threshold if advanced to that doc.
+    upper_bound: f32,
+    // Used as a tie-breaker when upper bounds are equal. Lower-cost iterators
+    // are cheaper to advance, so they are preferred.
+    cost: usize,
+    posting: Box<PostingIterator>,
+}
+
+impl TailPosting {
+    fn new(upper_bound: f32, cost: usize, posting: Box<PostingIterator>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            upper_bound,
+            cost,
+            posting,
         }
     }
+}
 
-    // move to the next position that the relative position is greater than or equal to least_pos
-    fn next(&mut self, least_relative_pos: i32) {
-        let least_pos = least_relative_pos + self.position_in_query;
-        self.index = match self.positions.data_type() {
-            DataType::Int32 => self
-                .positions
-                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
-                .values()
-                .partition_point(|&pos| pos < least_pos),
-            DataType::UInt32 => self
-                .positions
-                .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
-                .values()
-                .partition_point(|&pos| (pos as i32) < least_pos),
-            _ => unreachable!("position iterator only supports Int32 and UInt32"),
-        };
+impl PartialEq for TailPosting {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.upper_bound.to_bits() == other.upper_bound.to_bits()
+            && self.cost == other.cost
+            && self.posting.token_id == other.posting.token_id
+            && self.posting.position == other.posting.position
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use arrow::buffer::ScalarBuffer;
-    use rstest::rstest;
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct AndWindowStats {
+    windows_wide: usize,
+    windows_narrow: usize,
+    windows_skipped: usize,
+    range_blocks_scanned: usize,
+    candidates_returned: usize,
+    score_first_rejections: usize,
+    pairwise_intersections: usize,
+    windows_sliced: usize,
+    windows_frequency_pruned: usize,
+}
 
-    use super::*;
-    use crate::scalar::inverted::scorer::IndexBM25Scorer;
-    use crate::{
-        metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
-        scalar::inverted::{
-            encoding::compress_posting_list, CompressedPostingList, PlainPostingList,
-        },
-    };
+impl Eq for TailPosting {}
 
-    fn generate_posting_list(
-        doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
-        max_score: f32,
-        block_max_scores: Option<Vec<f32>>,
-        is_compressed: bool,
-    ) -> PostingList {
-        let freqs = vec![1; doc_ids.len()];
-        let block_max_scores = block_max_scores.unwrap_or_else(|| vec![max_score; doc_ids.len()]);
-        if is_compressed {
-            let blocks = compress_posting_list(
-                doc_ids.len(),
-                doc_ids.iter(),
-                freqs.iter(),
-                block_max_scores.into_iter(),
-            )
-            .unwrap();
-            PostingList::Compressed(CompressedPostingList::new(
-                blocks,
-                max_score,
-                doc_ids.len() as u32,
-                None,
-            ))
-        } else {
-            PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
-                ScalarBuffer::from_iter(doc_ids.iter().map(|id| *id as u64)),
-                ScalarBuffer::from_iter(freqs.iter().map(|freq| *freq as f32)),
-                Some(max_score),
-                None,
-            ))
+impl PartialOrd for TailPosting {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for TailPosting {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.upper_bound
+            .total_cmp(&other.upper_bound)
+            .then_with(|| other.cost.cmp(&self.cost))
+            .then_with(|| other.posting.token_id.cmp(&self.posting.token_id))
+            .then_with(|| other.posting.position.cmp(&self.posting.position))
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct Wand<'a, S: Scorer, D: WandDocuments> {
+    threshold: f32, // multiple of factor and the minimum score of the top-k documents
+    floor_mode: CompetitiveFloorMode,
+    operator: Operator,
+    num_terms: usize,
+    // Posting iterators whose current doc id is >= the next target doc.
+    // The heap top gives the smallest current doc id.
+    head: BinaryHeap<HeadPosting>,
+    #[allow(clippy::vec_box)]
+    // Posting iterators that already match the current target doc.
+    // Only these iterators participate in scoring / phrase checks for the
+    // current candidate.
+    lead: Vec<Box<PostingIterator>>,
+    // Posting iterators that are behind the current target doc but still kept
+    // in play because their score upper bound could affect the decision for the
+    // current candidate.
+    tail: BinaryHeap<TailPosting>,
+    // Conservatively rounded sum of upper bounds for all iterators in `tail`.
+    // It is maintained in f64 so candidate checks stay O(1) without allowing
+    // repeated f32 add/subtract rounding to underestimate the remaining score.
+    tail_max_score: f64,
+    // Block-max scores are valid for all candidate docs up to this doc id.
+    // `None` means the window has not been initialized yet and the next
+    // candidate must refresh block-max state before making pruning decisions.
+    up_to: Option<u64>,
+    // For conjunctions, this is the maximum attainable score for the current
+    // block-max window `[target, up_to]`.
+    and_max_score: f32,
+    // Last conjunction doc returned to the caller. The next conjunction search
+    // resumes strictly after this doc, like Lucene's `nextDoc()/advance()`.
+    and_last_doc: Option<u64>,
+    // Exact query-order score computed while progressively confirming a
+    // conjunction candidate. This is valid only for `and_last_doc`.
+    and_candidate_score: Option<f32>,
+    // Score-first conjunction pruning is restricted to the current impact
+    // format and scorers that expose the BM25 denominator contract.
+    score_first_and_enabled: bool,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    disable_score_first_and: bool,
+    // Suffix sums of clause bounds for the current conjunction window. Entry
+    // `i` bounds clauses `[i, num_terms)`, without subtracting prior bounds.
+    score_first_and_suffix_bounds: SmallVec<[f64; 8]>,
+    score_first_and_bounds_up_to: Option<u64>,
+    // Inclusive candidate range where every current posting block is dense.
+    // This selects score-first scheduling only; membership is still checked.
+    score_first_and_dense_range: Option<(u64, u64)>,
+    // Initialized only by a certified score-first candidate; cached `None`
+    // avoids retrying unsupported norm tables on later candidates.
+    score_first_and_norm_k: OnceCell<Option<NormKCache<'a>>>,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    and_window_stats: AndWindowStats,
+    // Test-only override for comparing bulk and classic conjunctions without
+    // mutating the process-wide environment.
+    bulk_and_mode_override: Option<BulkAndMode>,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    bulk_and_searches: usize,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    maxscore_single_essential_windows: usize,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    maxscore_general_windows: usize,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    maxscore_essential_blocks_skipped: usize,
+    // How many windows took the top2-gap shortcut (wand.rs top2 branch),
+    // as opposed to the plain single-essential path. Test-only: like the
+    // counters beside it, nothing in a release build reads it.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    maxscore_top2_gap_windows: usize,
+    // How many times the top2-gap shortcut was declined because its span was
+    // empty or sat below the window floor (GUARD 2). Test-only.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    maxscore_top2_gap_empty_span: usize,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    phrase_position_checks: Cell<usize>,
+    documents: &'a D,
+    scorer: S,
+    // Shared cross-partition top-k floor. Each partition publishes its local
+    // k-th score (`atomic_store_max_f32`) and prunes against the running value
+    // -- a lower bound on the global k-th, so it never drops a real top-k doc.
+    shared_threshold: Option<Arc<AtomicU32>>,
+    shared_norm_addends: Option<SharedNormAddends>,
+}
+
+/// Monotonically raise an f32 stored in an `AtomicU32` to `val`. CAS loop (not a
+/// bit-max) so it stays correct for negative scores -- BM25 idf can go negative.
+fn atomic_store_max_f32(slot: &AtomicU32, val: f32) {
+    let mut cur = slot.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+    while val > f32::from_bits(cur) {
+        match slot.compare_exchange_weak(cur, val.to_bits(), Ordering::Relaxed, Ordering::Relaxed) {
+            Ok(_) => break,
+            Err(actual) => cur = actual,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// we were using row id as doc id in the past, which is u64,
+// but now we are using the index as doc id, which is u32.
+// so here WAND is a generic struct that can be used for both u32 and u64 doc ids.
+impl<'a, S: Scorer, D: WandDocuments> Wand<'a, S, D> {
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        operator: Operator,
+        postings: impl Iterator<Item = PostingIterator>,
+        documents: &'a D,
+        scorer: S,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let mut head = BinaryHeap::new();
+        let mut lead = Vec::new();
+        for posting in postings {
+            if posting.current_doc_id().is_none() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let posting = Box::new(posting);
+            if operator == Operator::And {
+                lead.push(posting);
+            } else {
+                head.push(HeadPosting::new(posting));
+            }
+        }
+        if operator == Operator::And {
+            lead.sort_unstable_by_key(|posting| posting.cost());
+        }
+
+        let score_first_and_enabled = operator == Operator::And
+            && matches!(lead.len(), 4 | 5)
+            && lead.iter().enumerate().all(|(index, posting)| {
+                lead[..index]
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|prior| prior.token_id != posting.token_id)
+            })
+            && lead.iter().all(|posting| {
+                !posting.has_grouped_terms()
+                    && !posting.use_scorer_upper_bound
+                    && posting.query_weight.is_finite()
+                    && posting.query_weight >= 0.0
+                    && matches!(
+                        &posting.list,
+                        PostingList::Compressed(list)
+                            if list.block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE
+                                && list.impacts.is_some()
+                    )
+            })
+            && scorer
+                .doc_norm(1)
+                .is_some_and(|norm| norm.is_finite() && norm >= 0.0);
+
+        Self {
+            // Standalone leaf top-k keeps its established exclusive floor.
+            // Composable cursors switch to an inclusive floor because their
+            // downstream collector applies the final document-key tie-breaker.
+            threshold: 0.0,
+            floor_mode: CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive,
+            operator,
+            num_terms: if operator == Operator::And {
+                lead.len()
+            } else {
+                head.len()
+            },
+            head,
+            lead,
+            tail: BinaryHeap::new(),
+            tail_max_score: 0.0,
+            up_to: None,
+            and_max_score: f32::INFINITY,
+            and_last_doc: None,
+            and_candidate_score: None,
+            score_first_and_enabled,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            disable_score_first_and: false,
+            score_first_and_suffix_bounds: SmallVec::new(),
+            score_first_and_bounds_up_to: None,
+            score_first_and_dense_range: None,
+            score_first_and_norm_k: OnceCell::new(),
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            and_window_stats: AndWindowStats::default(),
+            bulk_and_mode_override: None,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            bulk_and_searches: 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            maxscore_single_essential_windows: 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            maxscore_general_windows: 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            maxscore_essential_blocks_skipped: 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            maxscore_top2_gap_windows: 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            maxscore_top2_gap_empty_span: 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            phrase_position_checks: Cell::new(0),
+            documents,
+            scorer,
+            shared_threshold: None,
+            shared_norm_addends: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Test hook: force one conjunction mode so parity tests can compare bulk
+    /// and classic search within one process.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn with_bulk_and_mode(mut self, mode: BulkAndMode) -> Self {
+        self.bulk_and_mode_override = Some(mode);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Test hook for old/new score-first parity in one process.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn with_score_first_and(mut self, enabled: bool) -> Self {
+        self.disable_score_first_and = !enabled;
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn with_floor_mode(mut self, mode: CompetitiveFloorMode) -> Self {
+        self.floor_mode = mode;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Share one cross-partition top-k floor across a query's partitions.
+    pub(crate) fn with_shared_threshold(mut self, shared: Arc<AtomicU32>) -> Self {
+        self.shared_threshold = Some(shared);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Share one norm addend table across a query's partitions. The caller
+    /// must pass the same table only to searches whose scorers agree on
+    /// [`Scorer::doc_norm`].
+    pub(crate) fn with_shared_norm_addends(mut self, shared: SharedNormAddends) -> Self {
+        self.shared_norm_addends = Some(shared);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Per-search norm→BM25-denominator cache (Lucene's norm cache): the doc
+    /// byte-norm slab plus the 256 possible denominator addends. Available
+    /// when the DocSet scores quantized (256-document-block partitions) and the scorer
+    /// factors `doc_weight` as `(K1+1)*freq/(freq + addend)`. Scoring through
+    /// the cache is bit-identical to `scorer.doc_weight`, because both
+    /// evaluate the same expressions on the same quantized lengths.
+    fn norm_k_cache(&self) -> Option<NormKCache<'a>> {
+        let norms = self.documents.scoring_norms()?;
+        let addends = match &self.shared_norm_addends {
+            Some(shared) => shared
+                .0
+                .get_or_init(|| norm_addends(&self.scorer))
+                .clone()?,
+            None => norm_addends(&self.scorer)?,
+        };
+        Some((norms, addends))
+    }
+
+    /// Set the pruning threshold from this partition's k-th best, raised to the
+    /// shared cross-partition floor when one is attached.
+    fn update_threshold(&mut self, local_kth: f32, wand_factor: f32) {
+        let mut t = local_kth * wand_factor;
+        if let Some(shared) = self.shared_threshold.as_ref() {
+            atomic_store_max_f32(shared, local_kth);
+            let g = f32::from_bits(shared.load(Ordering::Relaxed)) * wand_factor;
+            if g > t {
+                t = g;
+            }
+        }
+        if self.score_first_and_enabled && self.threshold <= 0.0 && t > 0.0 {
+            // A zero-floor window did not prepare block bounds. Force the next
+            // conjunction candidate to establish a score-first window.
+            self.up_to = None;
+            self.invalidate_score_first_and_window();
+        }
+        self.threshold = t;
+    }
+
+    /// Raise the local threshold to the shared cross-partition floor, picking up
+    /// updates published by sibling partitions.
+    fn raise_to_shared_floor(&mut self, wand_factor: f32) {
+        if let Some(shared) = self.shared_threshold.as_ref() {
+            let g = f32::from_bits(shared.load(Ordering::Relaxed)) * wand_factor;
+            if g > self.threshold {
+                if self.score_first_and_enabled && self.threshold <= 0.0 && g > 0.0 {
+                    self.up_to = None;
+                    self.invalidate_score_first_and_window();
+                }
+                self.threshold = g;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // search the top-k documents that contain the query
+    // returns the row_id, frequency and doc length
+    pub(crate) fn search(
+        &mut self,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate<D::Candidate>>> {
+        let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        if limit == 0 {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
+        }
+
+        if params.phrase_slop.is_some() {
+            self.invalidate_score_first_and_window();
+            self.score_first_and_enabled = false;
+        }
+
+        if self.operator == Operator::Or
+            && let Some((num_docs_selected, documents)) = self.documents.flat_documents()
+            && num_docs_selected.saturating_mul(100)
+                <= (*FLAT_SEARCH_PERCENT_THRESHOLD as usize).saturating_mul(self.documents.len())
+        {
+            return self.flat_search(params, documents, metrics);
+        }
+
+        // Top-k disjunctions over compressed lists can opt into the bulk
+        // MAXSCORE path (Lucene MaxScoreBulkScorer style): it streams whole
+        // blocks of the essential clauses into a window accumulator instead of
+        // advancing doc-at-a-time through a heap.
+        if *USE_MAXSCORE_SEARCH
+            && self.operator == Operator::Or
+            && params.phrase_slop.is_none()
+            && !self.head.is_empty()
+            && self.head.iter().all(|posting| {
+                posting.posting.is_compressed() && !posting.posting.has_grouped_terms()
+            })
+        {
+            return self.maxscore_search(params, metrics);
+        }
+
+        // Top-k conjunctions (AND and phrase) over compressed lists use the
+        // bulk path: the same block-max window pruning, but candidates come
+        // from a slice-level merge over decompressed blocks instead of per-doc
+        // `next()` leapfrogging through boxed iterators.
+        if self.operator == Operator::And
+            && !self.lead.is_empty()
+            && self
+                .lead
+                .iter()
+                .all(|posting| posting.is_compressed() && !posting.has_grouped_terms())
+            && {
+                let mode = self
+                    .bulk_and_mode_override
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| *BULK_AND_MODE);
+                mode.enabled_for(self.lead.len())
+                    || (mode == BulkAndMode::Auto
+                        && self.lead.len() >= 4
+                        && self.lead.iter().all(|posting| {
+                            matches!(&posting.list, PostingList::Compressed(list)
+                                if list.block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE && list.impacts.is_some())
+                        }))
+            }
+        {
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            {
+                self.bulk_and_searches += 1;
+            }
+            return self.and_bulk_search(params, metrics);
+        }
+
+        let mut candidates = TopKCollector::new(limit, std::cmp::min(limit, BLOCK_SIZE * 10));
+        let mut num_comparisons = 0;
+        loop {
+            self.raise_to_shared_floor(params.wand_factor);
+            let Some((doc, and_score)) = self.next()? else {
+                break;
+            };
+            num_comparisons += 1;
+
+            let posting_doc_id = doc.doc_id();
+            let Some(document_key) = self.documents.document_key(&doc) else {
+                if self.operator == Operator::Or {
+                    self.push_back_leads(doc.doc_id() + 1);
+                }
+                continue;
+            };
+
+            let doc_length = self.documents.doc_length(&doc);
+
+            let score = if self.operator == Operator::Or {
+                self.advance_all_tail(doc.doc_id(), None, None);
+                if let Some(slop) = params.phrase_slop {
+                    // Only front-load the BM25 total when a floor exists: with
+                    // no floor the skip cannot fire, and scoring before
+                    // position confirmation would make every position-failing
+                    // candidate pay for a score it never uses.
+                    let early_score =
+                        (self.threshold > 0.0).then(|| self.score_in_query_order(doc_length));
+                    if early_score
+                        .is_some_and(|score| self.exclusive_score_cannot_beat_floor(score))
+                    {
+                        self.push_back_leads(doc.doc_id() + 1);
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    if !self.check_positions(slop as i32)? {
+                        self.push_back_leads(doc.doc_id() + 1);
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    early_score.unwrap_or_else(|| self.score_in_query_order(doc_length))
+                } else {
+                    self.score_in_query_order(doc_length)
+                }
+            } else {
+                self.advance_all_tail(doc.doc_id(), None, None);
+                if let Some(slop) = params.phrase_slop {
+                    // Only front-load the BM25 total when a floor exists: with
+                    // no floor the skip cannot fire, and scoring before
+                    // position confirmation would make every position-failing
+                    // candidate pay for a score it never uses.
+                    let early_score = (self.threshold > 0.0).then(|| {
+                        if self.and_candidate_score.is_some() {
+                            and_score
+                        } else {
+                            self.score_in_query_order(doc_length)
+                        }
+                    });
+                    if early_score
+                        .is_some_and(|score| self.exclusive_score_cannot_beat_floor(score))
+                    {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    if !self.check_positions(slop as i32)? {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    early_score.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                        if self.and_candidate_score.is_some() {
+                            and_score
+                        } else {
+                            self.score_in_query_order(doc_length)
+                        }
+                    })
+                } else if self.and_candidate_score.is_some() {
+                    and_score
+                } else {
+                    self.score_in_query_order(doc_length)
+                }
+            };
+
+            if candidates.insert(
+                ScoredDoc::new(document_key, score),
+                doc_length,
+                posting_doc_id,
+                self.iter_term_freqs(),
+            )? && let Some(kth) = candidates.kth_score_if_full()
+            {
+                self.update_threshold(kth, params.wand_factor);
+            }
+            if self.operator == Operator::Or {
+                self.push_back_leads(doc.doc_id() + 1);
+            }
+        }
+        metrics.record_comparisons(num_comparisons);
+
+        candidates.into_candidates(|key| self.documents.candidate_from_key(key))
+    }
+
+    fn flat_search(
+        &mut self,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        documents: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = (u64, u64)> + '_>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate<D::Candidate>>> {
+        let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        if limit == 0 {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
+        }
+
+        // Posting iterators are forward-only, so selected DocIds are sorted
+        // before driving the sparse executor.
+        let documents = documents.sorted_unstable().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let is_compressed = self
+            .head
+            .peek()
+            .map(|posting| matches!(posting.posting.list, PostingList::Compressed(_)))
+            .or_else(|| {
+                self.lead
+                    .first()
+                    .map(|posting| matches!(posting.list, PostingList::Compressed(_)))
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+
+        let mut num_comparisons = 0;
+        let mut candidates = TopKCollector::new(limit, 0);
+        for (doc_id, document_key) in documents {
+            num_comparisons += 1;
+            self.move_head_before_target_to_tail(doc_id);
+            self.move_head_doc_to_lead(doc_id);
+
+            if self.lead.is_empty() && self.tail.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            if !self.can_target_beat_threshold(doc_id) {
+                self.advance_tail_and_lead_to_head(doc_id + 1);
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            self.collect_tail_matches(doc_id);
+
+            if self.operator == Operator::And && self.lead.len() < self.num_terms {
+                self.advance_lead_to_head(doc_id + 1);
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // score the doc
+            let doc_length = self
+                .documents
+                .flat_doc_length(doc_id, document_key, is_compressed);
+            if self.operator == Operator::Or && !self.refine_or_candidate(doc_id, doc_length) {
+                // `flat_search` evaluates an explicit allow-list of doc ids. Unlike the
+                // regular WAND path, skipping to the next block boundary is unsafe here
+                // because later doc ids from the same block may still be present in the
+                // allow-list and need to be evaluated individually.
+                self.advance_tail_and_lead_to_head(doc_id + 1);
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            self.collect_tail_matches(doc_id);
+            // Only front-load the BM25 total when a floor exists: with no floor
+            // the skip cannot fire, and scoring before position confirmation
+            // would make every position-failing candidate pay for a score it
+            // never uses.
+            let early_score = (self.threshold > 0.0).then(|| self.score_in_query_order(doc_length));
+            if let Some(slop) = params.phrase_slop {
+                if early_score.is_some_and(|score| self.exclusive_score_cannot_beat_floor(score)) {
+                    self.advance_lead_to_head(doc_id + 1);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if !self.check_positions(slop as i32)? {
+                    self.advance_lead_to_head(doc_id + 1);
+                    continue;
+                }
+            }
+            let score = early_score.unwrap_or_else(|| self.score_in_query_order(doc_length));
+
+            if candidates.insert(
+                ScoredDoc::new(document_key, score),
+                doc_length,
+                doc_id,
+                self.iter_term_freqs(),
+            )? && let Some(kth) = candidates.kth_score_if_full()
+            {
+                self.update_threshold(kth, params.wand_factor);
+            }
+
+            self.advance_lead_to_head(doc_id + 1);
+        }
+        metrics.record_comparisons(num_comparisons);
+
+        candidates.into_candidates(|key| self.documents.candidate_from_key(key))
+    }
+
+    /// Bulk MAXSCORE top-k disjunction, mirroring Lucene's MaxScoreBulkScorer.
+    ///
+    /// Per outer window (bounded by the essential clauses' block boundaries):
+    /// clauses are partitioned into a non-essential prefix — sorted by window
+    /// max score, as many as fit under the threshold — and the essential rest.
+    /// Essential clauses stream their postings into a window accumulator in
+    /// bulk; only accumulated candidates that could still beat the threshold
+    /// probe the non-essential clauses. No per-doc heap maintenance happens
+    /// anywhere on this path.
+    fn maxscore_search(
+        &mut self,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate<D::Candidate>>> {
+        let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        let mut clauses = std::mem::take(&mut self.head)
+            .into_vec()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|head| MaxScoreClause {
+                posting: head.posting,
+                query_rank: 0,
+                bound: 0.0,
+                prefix_bound: 0.0,
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        // Before a competitive floor exists every clause is essential. Keep
+        // that exhaustive accumulator in canonical query order so its score
+        // can be emitted directly instead of recomputing every contribution.
+        clauses.sort_unstable_by_key(|clause| (clause.posting.position, clause.posting.token_id));
+        for (query_rank, clause) in clauses.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            clause.query_rank = query_rank;
         }
+        let num_query_terms = clauses.len();
+        let total_sum_upper_bound_factor = score_sum_upper_bound_factor(num_query_terms);
+
+        let mut acc = WindowAccumulator::new(clauses.len());
+        let mut essential_chunk = Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let mut soa_scratch = maxscore::MaxScoreSoaScratch::new();
+        let mut candidates = TopKCollector::new(limit, std::cmp::min(limit, BLOCK_SIZE * 10));
+        let norm_k = self.norm_k_cache();
+        let norm_k_ref = norm_k
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|(norms, cache)| (*norms, cache.as_ref()));
+        let mut num_comparisons = 0usize;
+        // Adaptive minimum window size (Lucene): grow windows when they yield
+        // too few candidates to amortize the per-window bound computations.
+        let mut min_window_size = 1u64;
+        let mut num_windows = 0u64;
+        let mut prev_first_essential = 0usize;
+
+        let mut window_min = clauses
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|clause| clause.posting.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id()))
+            .min()
+            .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
+
+        while window_min < TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+            clauses.retain(|clause| clause.posting.doc().is_some());
+            if clauses.is_empty() {
+                break;
+            }
+            self.raise_to_shared_floor(params.wand_factor);
+
+            // Window boundary from the previous window's essential clauses
+            // only: dense non-essential clauses must not fragment the window.
+            let first_window_lead = prev_first_essential.min(clauses.len() - 1);
+            let mut window_max = TERMINATED_DOC_ID;
+            for clause in &mut clauses {
+                let doc = clause
+                    .posting
+                    .doc()
+                    .map(|doc| doc.doc_id())
+                    .expect("exhausted clauses were retained out");
+                clause.posting.shallow_next(doc.max(window_min));
+            }
+            for clause in &clauses[first_window_lead..] {
+                window_max = window_max.min(clause.posting.block_end_doc());
+            }
+            if clauses.len() > 1 {
+                // Target at least 32 candidates per clause per window on
+                // average before shrinking windows back to block granularity.
+                if (num_comparisons as u64) < num_windows * 32 * clauses.len() as u64 {
+                    min_window_size = (min_window_size * 2).min(MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW as u64);
+                } else {
+                    min_window_size = 1;
+                }
+                window_max = window_max.max(window_min.saturating_add(min_window_size - 1));
+            }
+
+            for clause in &mut clauses {
+                let doc = clause
+                    .posting
+                    .doc()
+                    .map(|doc| doc.doc_id())
+                    .expect("exhausted clauses were retained out");
+                clause.bound = if doc > window_max {
+                    0.0
+                } else {
+                    clause
+                        .posting
+                        .block_max_score_up_to_with_stats(window_max, &self.scorer)
+                        .score
+                };
+            }
+            let mut clauses_in_query_order = true;
+            let mut first_essential = 0;
+            let mut prefix = 0.0_f64;
+            if self.threshold > 0.0 {
+                clauses.sort_unstable_by(|a, b| a.bound.total_cmp(&b.bound));
+                clauses_in_query_order = clauses
+                    .windows(2)
+                    .all(|window| window[0].query_rank <= window[1].query_rank);
+                for (i, clause) in clauses.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                    let next_prefix = prefix + f64::from(clause.bound);
+                    let widened = next_prefix * score_sum_upper_bound_factor(i + 1);
+                    if widened > f64::from(self.threshold) {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    prefix = next_prefix;
+                    clause.prefix_bound = prefix;
+                    first_essential = i + 1;
+                }
+            }
+            prev_first_essential = first_essential;
+            num_windows += 1;
+
+            if first_essential == clauses.len() {
+                // No clause combination inside this window can beat the
+                // threshold: skip it wholesale.
+                window_min = match window_max {
+                    TERMINATED_DOC_ID => TERMINATED_DOC_ID,
+                    max => max + 1,
+                };
+                // Single live clause: instead of re-running the window
+                // machinery once per block, scan the baked per-block bounds
+                // for the next block that can beat the threshold. This is the
+                // slab form of Lucene's getSkipUpTo and turns dead stretches
+                // of a dominant term into a tight load-mul-compare loop.
+                if clauses.len() == 1 && window_min != TERMINATED_DOC_ID && self.threshold > 0.0 {
+                    let posting = &clauses[0].posting;
+                    if let PostingList::Compressed(ref list) = posting.list
+                        && let Some(impacts) = list.impacts.as_ref()
+                    {
+                        let compressed = unsafe { &mut *posting.compressed_state_ptr() };
+                        let bounds = impacts.level0_doc_weight_bounds_cached(
+                            &self.scorer,
+                            &mut compressed.block_max_window.impact_score_cache,
+                        );
+                        let query_weight = posting.query_weight;
+                        // Position by binary search on the first-doc slab: the
+                        // deep cursor lags arbitrarily far behind during long
+                        // skip runs, and walking from it re-scans the same
+                        // blocks on every dead window.
+                        let first_docs = list.block_first_docs();
+                        let mut block_idx = first_docs
+                            .partition_point(|&first| u64::from(first) <= window_min)
+                            .saturating_sub(1);
+                        while block_idx < bounds.len()
+                            && query_weight * bounds[block_idx] <= self.threshold
+                        {
+                            block_idx += 1;
+                        }
+                        window_min = if block_idx < bounds.len() {
+                            window_min.max(u64::from(list.block_least_doc_id(block_idx)))
+                        } else {
+                            TERMINATED_DOC_ID
+                        };
+                    }
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let total_non_essential_bound = if first_essential > 0 {
+                clauses[first_essential - 1].prefix_bound
+            } else {
+                0.0
+            };
+
+            // Single essential clause (the common case once the threshold is
+            // competitive): skip dead blocks, take one posting block at a
+            // time, and complete ≤2 optionals in SoA buffers. More optionals
+            // keep the per-doc LiveHit completion below.
+            if first_essential + 1 == clauses.len() {
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                {
+                    self.maxscore_single_essential_windows += 1;
+                }
+                if first_essential <= 2 {
+                    let essential_query_rank = clauses[first_essential].query_rank;
+                    let essential_term = clauses[first_essential].posting.term_index();
+                    let essential_weight = clauses[first_essential].posting.query_weight;
+                    let essential_window_bound = clauses[first_essential].bound;
+                    if clauses[first_essential]
+                        .posting
+                        .doc()
+                        .is_some_and(|doc| doc.doc_id() < window_min)
+                    {
+                        clauses[first_essential].posting.next(window_min);
+                    }
+                    self.score_single_essential_upto(
+                        &mut clauses,
+                        first_essential,
+                        first_essential,
+                        window_max,
+                        essential_query_rank,
+                        essential_term,
+                        essential_weight,
+                        essential_window_bound,
+                        num_query_terms,
+                        total_non_essential_bound,
+                        total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                        norm_k_ref,
+                        &mut essential_chunk,
+                        &mut soa_scratch,
+                        &mut candidates,
+                        &mut num_comparisons,
+                        params.wand_factor,
+                    )?;
+                    window_min = match window_max {
+                        TERMINATED_DOC_ID => TERMINATED_DOC_ID,
+                        max => max + 1,
+                    };
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let (non_essential, essential) = clauses.split_at_mut(first_essential);
+                let essential_query_rank = essential[0].query_rank;
+                let posting = &mut essential[0].posting;
+                if posting.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc.doc_id() < window_min) {
+                    posting.next(window_min);
+                }
+                let essential_term = posting.term_index();
+                let essential_weight = posting.query_weight;
+                let sole_query_clause = non_essential.is_empty();
+
+                macro_rules! consider_candidate {
+                    ($doc:expr, $freq:expr) => {{
+                        let doc = $doc;
+                        let freq = $freq;
+                        num_comparisons += 1;
+                        // One byte-norm load + cached addend when available;
+                        // the exact doc length is only needed at insert time.
+                        let norm_addend =
+                            norm_k_ref.map(|(norms, cache)| cache[norms[doc as usize] as usize]);
+                        let score = match norm_addend {
+                            Some(addend) => {
+                                essential_weight * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, addend)
+                            }
+                            None => {
+                                essential_weight
+                                    * self.scorer.doc_weight(
+                                        freq,
+                                        self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(doc as u32),
+                                    )
+                            }
+                        };
+                        if !(self.threshold > 0.0
+                            && score_sum_cannot_compete(
+                                score,
+                                total_non_essential_bound,
+                                self.threshold,
+                                total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                                CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive,
+                            ))
+                        {
+                            if let Some(document_key) =
+                                self.documents.document_key_for_doc_id(doc as u32)
+                            {
+                                let mut total = score;
+                                let mut scores_by_query_rank = SmallVec::<[f32; 8]>::new();
+                                if !sole_query_clause {
+                                    scores_by_query_rank.resize(num_query_terms, 0.0);
+                                    scores_by_query_rank[essential_query_rank] = score;
+                                }
+                                let mut rejected = false;
+                                for i in (0..non_essential.len()).rev() {
+                                    if self.threshold > 0.0
+                                        && score_sum_cannot_compete(
+                                            total,
+                                            non_essential[i].prefix_bound,
+                                            self.threshold,
+                                            total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                                            CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive,
+                                        )
+                                    {
+                                        rejected = true;
+                                        break;
+                                    }
+                                    let query_rank = non_essential[i].query_rank;
+                                    let probe = &mut non_essential[i].posting;
+                                    if probe.doc().is_some_and(|d| d.doc_id() < doc) {
+                                        probe.next(doc);
+                                    }
+                                    if let Some(d) = probe.doc()
+                                        && d.doc_id() == doc
+                                    {
+                                        let contribution = match norm_addend {
+                                            Some(addend) => {
+                                                probe.query_weight
+                                                    * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(
+                                                        d.frequency(),
+                                                        addend,
+                                                    )
+                                            }
+                                            None => probe.score(
+                                                &self.scorer,
+                                                d.frequency(),
+                                                self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(doc as u32),
+                                            ),
+                                        };
+                                        total += contribution;
+                                        scores_by_query_rank[query_rank] = contribution;
+                                    }
+                                }
+
+                                // Apply the caller's floor mode only after the
+                                // canonical query-order score is available.
+                                if !rejected {
+                                    let canonical_score = if sole_query_clause {
+                                        score
+                                    } else {
+                                        scores_by_query_rank
+                                            .into_iter()
+                                            .fold(0.0_f32, |sum, contribution| sum + contribution)
+                                    };
+                                    if canonical_score > self.threshold {
+                                        let doc_length =
+                                            self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(doc as u32);
+                                        if candidates.insert(
+                                            ScoredDoc::new(document_key, canonical_score),
+                                            doc_length,
+                                            doc,
+                                            std::iter::once((essential_term, freq)).chain(
+                                                non_essential.iter().filter_map(|clause| {
+                                                    clause.posting.doc().and_then(|d| {
+                                                        (d.doc_id() == doc).then(|| {
+                                                            (
+                                                                clause.posting.term_index(),
+                                                                d.frequency(),
+                                                            )
+                                                        })
+                                                    })
+                                                }),
+                                            ),
+                                        )? && let Some(kth) = candidates.kth_score_if_full()
+                                        {
+                                            self.update_threshold(kth, params.wand_factor);
+                                        }
+                                    }
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }};
+                }
+
+                match posting.list {
+                    PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
+                        let shift = list.block_shift();
+                        let mask = list.block_mask();
+                        'stream: while let Some(cur) = posting.current_doc {
+                            if cur.doc_id() > window_max {
+                                break;
+                            }
+                            let block_idx = posting.index >> shift;
+                            let block_offset = posting.index & mask;
+                            let compressed = unsafe {
+                                &mut *posting.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx)
+                            };
+                            for offset in block_offset..compressed.doc_ids.len() {
+                                let doc_id = compressed.doc_ids[offset];
+                                if u64::from(doc_id) > window_max {
+                                    posting.index = (block_idx << shift) + offset;
+                                    posting.block_idx = block_idx;
+                                    posting.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                                        doc_id,
+                                        frequency: compressed.freqs[offset],
+                                    }));
+                                    break 'stream;
+                                }
+                                consider_candidate!(u64::from(doc_id), compressed.freqs[offset]);
+                            }
+                            let next_start = (block_idx + 1) << shift;
+                            if next_start >= list.length as usize {
+                                posting.index = list.length as usize;
+                                posting.block_idx = posting.index >> shift;
+                                posting.current_doc = None;
+                                break;
+                            }
+                            posting.index = next_start;
+                            posting.block_idx = block_idx + 1;
+                            let compressed = unsafe {
+                                &mut *posting.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx + 1)
+                            };
+                            posting.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                                doc_id: compressed.doc_ids[0],
+                                frequency: compressed.freqs[0],
+                            }));
+                        }
+                    }
+                    PostingList::Plain(_) => {
+                        while let Some(cur) = posting.doc() {
+                            let doc = cur.doc_id();
+                            if doc > window_max {
+                                break;
+                            }
+                            consider_candidate!(doc, cur.frequency());
+                            posting.next(doc + 1);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                window_min = match window_max {
+                    TERMINATED_DOC_ID => TERMINATED_DOC_ID,
+                    max => max + 1,
+                };
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Stream the essential clauses through inner windows.
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            {
+                self.maxscore_general_windows += 1;
+            }
+            let mut inner_min = window_min;
+            loop {
+                // Lucene `scoreInnerWindow`: when the second essential is at
+                // least INNER_WINDOW/2 ahead of the first, the prefix matches
+                // a single clause. Complete it with the SoA path instead of
+                // scattering two sparse lists into a 4096-slot accumulator.
+                //
+                // One pass serves both purposes: `top_doc` is also the closest
+                // essential cursor, which is what raises `inner_min` to the
+                // window floor.
+                let mut top_idx = None;
+                let mut top_doc = TERMINATED_DOC_ID;
+                let mut top2_doc = TERMINATED_DOC_ID;
+                for (idx, clause) in clauses.iter().enumerate().skip(first_essential) {
+                    let Some(doc) = clause.posting.doc() else {
+                        continue;
+                    };
+                    let id = doc.doc_id();
+                    if id < top_doc {
+                        top2_doc = top_doc;
+                        top_doc = id;
+                        top_idx = Some(idx);
+                    } else if id < top2_doc {
+                        top2_doc = id;
+                    }
+                }
+                inner_min = inner_min.max(top_doc);
+                if inner_min == TERMINATED_DOC_ID || inner_min > window_max {
+                    break;
+                }
+                if let Some(ess_idx) = top_idx
+                    && top2_doc.saturating_sub(top_doc) >= (MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW / 2) as u64
+                    && first_essential <= 2
+                    // Reachable, not merely defensive. `shallow_next` only moves
+                    // `block_idx` and leaves `current_doc` where it was, so a
+                    // window that ends early -- wholesale skip, `inner_min >
+                    // window_max`, or the single-essential stream -- can advance
+                    // `window_min` past cursors that were never consumed. The
+                    // next window then starts with `inner_min` above the smallest
+                    // essential doc. Since `upto` is `top2_doc - 1`, the span is
+                    // empty when `top2_doc == inner_min` (the call would return
+                    // without advancing, leaving `inner_min` stuck) and ends
+                    // below `inner_min` when `top2_doc < inner_min` (it would
+                    // move `inner_min` backwards onto a span this window has
+                    // already passed). Both fall through to the general path.
+                    && {
+                        let non_empty_span = top2_doc > inner_min;
+                        #[cfg(test)]
+                        if !non_empty_span {
+                            self.maxscore_top2_gap_empty_span += 1;
+                        }
+                        non_empty_span
+                    }
+                {
+                    let upto = window_max.min(top2_doc.saturating_sub(1));
+                    if clauses[ess_idx]
+                        .posting
+                        .doc()
+                        .is_some_and(|doc| doc.doc_id() < inner_min)
+                    {
+                        clauses[ess_idx].posting.next(inner_min);
+                    }
+                    let essential_query_rank = clauses[ess_idx].query_rank;
+                    let essential_term = clauses[ess_idx].posting.term_index();
+                    let essential_weight = clauses[ess_idx].posting.query_weight;
+                    let essential_window_bound = clauses[ess_idx].bound;
+                    #[cfg(test)]
+                    {
+                        self.maxscore_single_essential_windows += 1;
+                        self.maxscore_top2_gap_windows += 1;
+                    }
+                    self.score_single_essential_upto(
+                        &mut clauses,
+                        first_essential,
+                        ess_idx,
+                        upto,
+                        essential_query_rank,
+                        essential_term,
+                        essential_weight,
+                        essential_window_bound,
+                        num_query_terms,
+                        total_non_essential_bound,
+                        total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                        norm_k_ref,
+                        &mut essential_chunk,
+                        &mut soa_scratch,
+                        &mut candidates,
+                        &mut num_comparisons,
+                        params.wand_factor,
+                    )?;
+                    inner_min = match upto {
+                        TERMINATED_DOC_ID => TERMINATED_DOC_ID,
+                        max => max + 1,
+                    };
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let inner_max =
+                    window_max.min(inner_min.saturating_add(MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW as u64 - 1));
+
+                for (clause_idx, clause) in clauses.iter_mut().enumerate().skip(first_essential) {
+                    clause.posting.collect_window_scores(
+                        inner_min,
+                        inner_max,
+                        clause_idx,
+                        self.documents,
+                        &self.scorer,
+                        norm_k_ref,
+                        &mut acc,
+                    );
+                }
+
+                // Drain candidates in doc order, completing them with the
+                // non-essential clauses ordered by descending bound.
+                for word_idx in 0..acc.words.len() {
+                    let mut word = acc.words[word_idx];
+                    if word == 0 {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    acc.words[word_idx] = 0;
+                    while word != 0 {
+                        let bit = word.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+                        word &= word - 1;
+                        let slot = (word_idx << 6) | bit;
+                        let doc = inner_min + slot as u64;
+                        let mut score = acc.scores[slot];
+                        num_comparisons += 1;
+
+                        if self.threshold > 0.0
+                            && score_sum_cannot_compete(
+                                score,
+                                total_non_essential_bound,
+                                self.threshold,
+                                total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                                CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive,
+                            )
+                        {
+                            acc.clear_slot(slot);
+                            continue;
+                        }
+
+                        let Some(document_key) = self.documents.document_key_for_doc_id(doc as u32)
+                        else {
+                            acc.clear_slot(slot);
+                            continue;
+                        };
+
+                        // Doc length is only needed at heap-insert time; the
+                        // non-essential completion scores go through the norm
+                        // cache when available.
+                        let norm_addend =
+                            norm_k_ref.map(|(norms, cache)| cache[norms[doc as usize] as usize]);
+                        let mut doc_length_cell: Option<u32> = None;
+                        let needs_canonical_rescore =
+                            first_essential != 0 || !clauses_in_query_order;
+                        let mut scores_by_query_rank = SmallVec::<[f32; 8]>::new();
+                        if needs_canonical_rescore {
+                            scores_by_query_rank.resize(num_query_terms, 0.0);
+                        }
+                        let mut rejected = false;
+                        for i in (0..first_essential).rev() {
+                            if self.threshold > 0.0
+                                && score_sum_cannot_compete(
+                                    score,
+                                    clauses[i].prefix_bound,
+                                    self.threshold,
+                                    total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                                    CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive,
+                                )
+                            {
+                                rejected = true;
+                                break;
+                            }
+                            let query_rank = clauses[i].query_rank;
+                            let posting = &mut clauses[i].posting;
+                            if posting.doc().is_some_and(|d| d.doc_id() < doc) {
+                                posting.next(doc);
+                            }
+                            if let Some(d) = posting.doc()
+                                && d.doc_id() == doc
+                            {
+                                let contribution = match norm_addend {
+                                    Some(addend) => {
+                                        posting.query_weight
+                                            * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(d.frequency(), addend)
+                                    }
+                                    None => {
+                                        let doc_length =
+                                            *doc_length_cell.get_or_insert_with(|| {
+                                                self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(doc as u32)
+                                            });
+                                        posting.score(&self.scorer, d.frequency(), doc_length)
+                                    }
+                                };
+                                score += contribution;
+                                if needs_canonical_rescore {
+                                    scores_by_query_rank[query_rank] = contribution;
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+
+                        if !rejected {
+                            let doc_length = doc_length_cell
+                                .unwrap_or_else(|| self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(doc as u32));
+                            let score = if !needs_canonical_rescore {
+                                // `collect_window_scores` visited every
+                                // essential clause in query order, so the
+                                // accumulator already contains the canonical
+                                // f32 fold. Avoid rescoring exhaustive hits.
+                                score
+                            } else {
+                                for (i, clause) in clauses.iter().enumerate().skip(first_essential)
+                                {
+                                    let freq = acc.clause_freq(i, slot);
+                                    if freq == 0 {
+                                        continue;
+                                    }
+                                    let contribution = match norm_addend {
+                                        Some(addend) => {
+                                            clause.posting.query_weight
+                                                * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, addend)
+                                        }
+                                        None => {
+                                            clause.posting.score(&self.scorer, freq, doc_length)
+                                        }
+                                    };
+                                    scores_by_query_rank[clause.query_rank] = contribution;
+                                }
+                                scores_by_query_rank
+                                    .iter()
+                                    .fold(0.0_f32, |sum, contribution| sum + contribution)
+                            };
+                            if score <= self.threshold {
+                                acc.clear_slot(slot);
+                                continue;
+                            }
+                            if candidates.insert(
+                                ScoredDoc::new(document_key, score),
+                                doc_length,
+                                doc,
+                                clauses.iter().enumerate().filter_map(|(i, clause)| {
+                                    if i >= first_essential {
+                                        let freq = acc.clause_freq(i, slot);
+                                        (freq > 0).then(|| (clause.posting.term_index(), freq))
+                                    } else {
+                                        clause.posting.doc().and_then(|d| {
+                                            (d.doc_id() == doc).then(|| {
+                                                (clause.posting.term_index(), d.frequency())
+                                            })
+                                        })
+                                    }
+                                }),
+                            )? && let Some(kth) = candidates.kth_score_if_full()
+                            {
+                                self.update_threshold(kth, params.wand_factor);
+                            }
+                        }
+                        acc.clear_slot(slot);
+                    }
+                }
+                if inner_max >= window_max {
+                    break;
+                }
+                inner_min = inner_max + 1;
+            }
+
+            window_min = match window_max {
+                TERMINATED_DOC_ID => TERMINATED_DOC_ID,
+                max => max + 1,
+            };
+        }
+
+        metrics.record_comparisons(num_comparisons);
+
+        candidates.into_candidates(|key| self.documents.candidate_from_key(key))
+    }
+
+    /// Exclusive top-k floor: a finite complete score at or below `threshold`
+    /// cannot enter the heap, so phrase confirmation is wasted work.
+    ///
+    /// The score is the same query-order f32 the heap compares, so this uses
+    /// `accepts_score` rather than the inflated partial-sum bound. Fail-closed:
+    /// `threshold == 0` (heap not full) never skips.
+    #[inline]
+    fn exclusive_score_cannot_beat_floor(&self, score: f32) -> bool {
+        self.threshold > 0.0
+            && score.is_finite()
+            && !self.floor_mode.accepts_score(score, self.threshold)
+    }
+
+    /// Calculate the current document's score in query order.
+    ///
+    /// WAND deliberately reorders postings by doc id, cost, and score bound.
+    /// Floating-point addition is not associative, so that execution order
+    /// must not leak into the public score or top-k tie boundary.
+    fn score_in_query_order(&self, doc_length: u32) -> f32 {
+        if self.lead.windows(2).all(|window| {
+            (window[0].position, window[0].token_id) <= (window[1].position, window[1].token_id)
+        }) {
+            return self.lead.iter().fold(0.0_f32, |score, posting| {
+                score
+                    + posting.doc().map_or(0.0, |doc| {
+                        posting.score(&self.scorer, doc.frequency(), doc_length)
+                    })
+            });
+        }
+        let contributions = self
+            .lead
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|posting| {
+                posting.doc().map(|doc| {
+                    (
+                        (posting.position, posting.token_id),
+                        posting.score(&self.scorer, doc.frequency(), doc_length),
+                    )
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<SmallVec<[ScoreContribution; 8]>>();
+        score_contributions_in_query_order(contributions)
+    }
+
+    // iterate over all the preceding terms and collect the term index and frequency
+    fn iter_term_freqs(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (u32, u32)> + '_ {
+        self.lead.iter().filter_map(|posting| {
+            posting
+                .doc()
+                .map(|doc| (posting.term_index(), doc.frequency()))
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn and_candidate_cannot_beat_threshold(&self, doc_length: u32) -> bool {
+        if self.operator != Operator::And
+            || self.threshold <= 0.0
+            || self.num_terms < 2
+            || self.lead.len() != self.num_terms
+        {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        let Some((first, remaining)) = self.lead.split_first() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        let Some(doc) = first.doc() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+
+        let remaining_upper_bound = remaining
+            .iter()
+            .map(|posting| f64::from(posting.block_max_score(&self.scorer)))
+            .sum::<f64>();
+        score_sum_cannot_compete(
+            first.score(&self.scorer, doc.frequency(), doc_length),
+            remaining_upper_bound,
+            self.threshold,
+            score_sum_upper_bound_factor(self.num_terms),
+            self.floor_mode,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn invalidate_score_first_and_window(&mut self) {
+        if self.score_first_and_enabled {
+            self.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.clear();
+            self.score_first_and_bounds_up_to = None;
+            self.score_first_and_dense_range = None;
+        }
+        self.and_candidate_score = None;
+    }
+
+    fn prepare_score_first_and_window(&mut self) {
+        if !self.score_first_and_enabled {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.clear();
+        self.score_first_and_bounds_up_to = None;
+        self.score_first_and_dense_range = None;
+        if self.threshold <= 0.0 {
+            return;
+        }
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        if self.disable_score_first_and {
+            return;
+        }
+        let Some(up_to) = self.up_to else {
+            return;
+        };
+
+        if self.and_max_score < self.threshold {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let mut dense_from = 0;
+        let mut dense_to = up_to;
+        for posting in &self.lead {
+            let Some(current_doc) = posting.current_doc_id() else {
+                return;
+            };
+            let PostingList::Compressed(list) = &posting.list else {
+                return;
+            };
+            if list.block_size == 0 {
+                return;
+            }
+            let expected_blocks = (list.length as usize).div_ceil(list.block_size);
+            if list.blocks.len() != expected_blocks || posting.block_idx >= list.blocks.len() {
+                return;
+            }
+            let Some(block_start) = posting.block_idx.checked_mul(list.block_size) else {
+                return;
+            };
+            let Some(remaining) = (list.length as usize).checked_sub(block_start) else {
+                return;
+            };
+            let block_count = remaining.min(list.block_size);
+            if block_count == 0 {
+                return;
+            }
+            let block_first = list.block_least_doc_id(posting.block_idx);
+            let Some(block_last) = list
+                .impacts
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|impacts| impacts.level0_doc_up_to(posting.block_idx))
+            else {
+                return;
+            };
+            if block_last < block_first
+                || u64::from(block_last) - u64::from(block_first) + 1 != block_count as u64
+            {
+                return;
+            }
+            dense_from = dense_from.max(current_doc).max(u64::from(block_first));
+            dense_to = dense_to.min(u64::from(block_last));
+        }
+        if dense_from > dense_to {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        self.score_first_and_suffix_bounds
+            .resize(self.lead.len() + 1, 0.0);
+        for index in (0..self.lead.len()).rev() {
+            let bound = self.lead[index].block_max_score(&self.scorer);
+            if !bound.is_finite() || bound < 0.0 {
+                self.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.clear();
+                return;
+            }
+            self.score_first_and_suffix_bounds[index] =
+                next_up_f64(f64::from(bound) + self.score_first_and_suffix_bounds[index + 1]);
+        }
+        self.score_first_and_bounds_up_to = Some(up_to);
+        self.score_first_and_dense_range = Some((dense_from, dense_to));
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn score_first_and_cannot_compete(&self, partial_score: f32, next_clause: usize) -> bool {
+        self.score_first_and_bounds_up_to == self.up_to
+            && self
+                .score_first_and_suffix_bounds
+                .get(next_clause)
+                .is_some_and(|remaining_upper_bound| {
+                    score_sum_cannot_compete(
+                        partial_score,
+                        *remaining_upper_bound,
+                        self.threshold,
+                        score_sum_upper_bound_factor(self.num_terms),
+                        self.floor_mode,
+                    )
+                })
+    }
+
+    fn and_next_target_after(&self, doc: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        if self
+            .lead
+            .first()
+            .is_some_and(|posting| posting.is_compressed())
+            && doc >= u64::from(u32::MAX)
+        {
+            None
+        } else {
+            doc.checked_add(1)
+        }
+    }
+
+    // find the next doc candidate
+    // Find the next term-level candidate doc. The returned score is the exact
+    // contribution from the current `lead` set; additional score can still come
+    // from `tail` iterators that are advanced to the same doc later.
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<(DocInfo, f32)>> {
+        if self.operator == Operator::And {
+            let candidate = self.next_and_candidate();
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            {
+                if candidate.is_some() {
+                    self.and_window_stats.candidates_returned += 1;
+                }
+            }
+            return Ok(candidate.map(|doc| (doc, self.and_candidate_score.unwrap_or(0.0))));
+        }
+
+        loop {
+            let Some(target) = self.head_doc() else {
+                if self.advance_tail_to_next_or_window() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+
+            if self.up_to.is_none_or(|up_to| target > up_to) {
+                self.update_max_scores(target);
+            }
+            self.move_head_doc_to_lead(target);
+            if self.lead.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Block-Max WAND pruning: skip the whole window when its score upper
+            // bound cannot reach the top-k threshold.
+            if self.threshold > 0.0
+                && self
+                    .floor_mode
+                    .rejects_upper_bound(f64::from(self.or_block_window_max()), self.threshold)
+            {
+                // On the final block `up_to` is the `u64::MAX` sentinel; step once
+                // there to avoid seeking past the valid doc id range.
+                let mut skip_to = match self.up_to {
+                    Some(up_to) if up_to < u32::MAX as u64 => up_to + 1,
+                    _ => target + 1,
+                };
+                // The narrow window is dead; if the whole level1 group is dead
+                // too, hop over it in one advance.
+                let group_skip = self.or_group_skip_to();
+                if let Some(group_skip_to) = group_skip {
+                    skip_to = skip_to.max(group_skip_to);
+                }
+                self.push_back_leads(skip_to);
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let Some(first_doc) = self.lead.first().and_then(|posting| posting.doc()) else {
+                self.push_back_leads(target + 1);
+                continue;
+            };
+            let doc_length = self.documents.doc_length(&first_doc);
+            let mut lead_score = 0.0;
+            if let Some(first_posting) = self.lead.first() {
+                lead_score += first_posting.score(&self.scorer, first_doc.frequency(), doc_length);
+            }
+            for posting in self.lead.iter().skip(1) {
+                if let Some(lead_doc) = posting.doc() {
+                    lead_score += posting.score(&self.scorer, lead_doc.frequency(), doc_length);
+                }
+            }
+
+            while !self.floor_mode.accepts_score(lead_score, self.threshold) {
+                if score_sum_cannot_compete(
+                    lead_score,
+                    self.tail_upper_bound_sum(),
+                    self.threshold,
+                    score_sum_upper_bound_factor(self.num_terms),
+                    self.floor_mode,
+                ) {
+                    self.push_back_leads(first_doc.doc_id() + 1);
+                    break;
+                }
+                if !self.advance_tail_top(target, doc_length, &mut lead_score) {
+                    // Dynamic heap-order accumulation may be below the query-
+                    // order score. Let the final canonical scorer decide.
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+
+            if !self.lead.is_empty() {
+                return Ok(Some((first_doc, lead_score)));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    fn next_and_candidate(&mut self) -> Option<DocInfo> {
+        self.and_candidate_score = None;
+        if self.lead.len() < self.num_terms {
+            return None;
+        }
+        // Two- and three-clause conjunctions use the bulk SIMD kernels by
+        // default. Restrict this classic-path optimization to four and five
+        // clauses, keeping one clause as the benchmark's drift control.
+        let is_vectorized_search_enabled = matches!(self.lead.len(), 4 | 5);
+        if let Some(last_doc) = self.and_last_doc
+            && self
+                .lead
+                .first()
+                .and_then(|posting| posting.current_doc_id())
+                == Some(last_doc)
+        {
+            let next_target = self.and_advance_target(self.and_next_target_after(last_doc)?);
+            if next_target == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+                return None;
+            }
+            self.lead[0].next_doc_id(next_target, is_vectorized_search_enabled);
+        }
+
+        'advance_head: loop {
+            let doc = self
+                .lead
+                .first()
+                .and_then(|posting| posting.current_doc_id())?;
+            if self.up_to.is_none_or(|up_to| doc > up_to) {
+                let next_target = self.and_advance_target(doc);
+                if next_target == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                if next_target != doc {
+                    self.lead[0].next_doc_id(next_target, is_vectorized_search_enabled);
+                    continue;
+                }
+            }
+
+            let mut is_score_first = self.score_first_and_bounds_up_to == self.up_to
+                && self.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.len() == self.lead.len() + 1
+                && self
+                    .score_first_and_dense_range
+                    .is_some_and(|(from, to)| doc >= from && doc <= to);
+            let mut partial_score = 0.0_f32;
+            let mut score_contributions = SmallVec::<[ScoreContribution; 8]>::new();
+            let mut score_first_doc_norm = 0.0;
+            if is_score_first {
+                let lead_doc = self.lead.first().and_then(|posting| posting.doc())?;
+                let cached_doc_norm = self
+                    .score_first_and_norm_k
+                    .get_or_init(|| {
+                        self.norm_k_cache().filter(|(_, cache)| {
+                            cache
+                                .iter()
+                                .all(|addend| addend.is_finite() && *addend >= 0.0)
+                        })
+                    })
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|(norms, cache)| {
+                        norms.get(doc as usize).map(|&code| cache[code as usize])
+                    });
+                let doc_norm = cached_doc_norm
+                    .or_else(|| self.scorer.doc_norm(self.documents.doc_length(&lead_doc)));
+                if let Some(doc_norm) = doc_norm
+                    && doc_norm.is_finite()
+                    && doc_norm >= 0.0
+                {
+                    score_first_doc_norm = doc_norm;
+                    let contribution = self.lead[0].query_weight
+                        * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(lead_doc.frequency(), doc_norm);
+                    partial_score = contribution;
+                    score_contributions
+                        .push(((self.lead[0].position, self.lead[0].token_id), contribution));
+                    if self.score_first_and_cannot_compete(partial_score, 1) {
+                        #[cfg(test)]
+                        {
+                            self.and_window_stats.score_first_rejections += 1;
+                        }
+                        let next_target = self.and_advance_target(self.and_next_target_after(doc)?);
+                        if next_target == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+                            return None;
+                        }
+                        self.lead[0].next_doc_id(next_target, is_vectorized_search_enabled);
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    is_score_first = false;
+                }
+            }
+
+            for index in 1..self.lead.len() {
+                let posting = &mut self.lead[index];
+                if posting.current_doc_id()? < doc {
+                    posting.next_doc_id(doc, is_vectorized_search_enabled);
+                }
+                let next = posting.current_doc_id()?;
+                if next > doc {
+                    let next_target = self.and_advance_target(next);
+                    if next_target == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+                        return None;
+                    }
+                    self.lead[0].next_doc_id(next_target, is_vectorized_search_enabled);
+                    continue 'advance_head;
+                }
+
+                if is_score_first {
+                    let posting_doc = posting.doc()?;
+                    let contribution = posting.query_weight
+                        * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(posting_doc.frequency(), score_first_doc_norm);
+                    partial_score += contribution;
+                    score_contributions.push(((posting.position, posting.token_id), contribution));
+                    if self.score_first_and_cannot_compete(partial_score, index + 1) {
+                        #[cfg(test)]
+                        {
+                            self.and_window_stats.score_first_rejections += 1;
+                        }
+                        let next_target = self.and_advance_target(self.and_next_target_after(doc)?);
+                        if next_target == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+                            return None;
+                        }
+                        self.lead[0].next_doc_id(next_target, is_vectorized_search_enabled);
+                        continue 'advance_head;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            let lead_doc = self.lead.first().and_then(|posting| posting.doc())?;
+            let doc_length = self.documents.doc_length(&lead_doc);
+            if !is_score_first && self.and_candidate_cannot_beat_threshold(doc_length) {
+                let next_target = self.and_advance_target(self.and_next_target_after(doc)?);
+                if next_target == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                self.lead[0].next_doc_id(next_target, is_vectorized_search_enabled);
+                continue;
+            }
+            if is_score_first {
+                self.and_candidate_score =
+                    Some(score_contributions_in_query_order(score_contributions));
+            }
+            self.and_last_doc = Some(doc);
+            return Some(lead_doc);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn posting_block_up_to(posting: &PostingIterator, target: u64) -> u64 {
+        posting
+            .next_block_first_doc()
+            .map(|doc| doc.saturating_sub(1))
+            .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID)
+            .max(target)
+    }
+
+    /// Bulk conjunction search. The window ends at the nearest next-block
+    /// boundary across the clauses, so within a window every clause
+    /// contributes exactly one decompressed block and the intersection is a
+    /// plain merge over `u32` slices — the per-candidate cost drops from a
+    /// full `PostingIterator::next` call per clause to a couple of loads.
+    /// Window skipping, per-candidate pruning, scoring, and heap semantics
+    /// mirror the classic loop exactly, so results are identical.
+    fn and_bulk_search(
+        &mut self,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<DocCandidate<D::Candidate>>> {
+        let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        if limit == 0 {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
+        }
+        let num_lists = self.lead.len();
+        let use_pairwise_intersection = num_lists >= 4
+            && self.lead.iter().all(|posting| {
+                matches!(&posting.list, PostingList::Compressed(list)
+                    if list.block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE && list.impacts.is_some())
+            });
+        let phrase_slop = params.phrase_slop;
+        // The bulk path never evaluates score-first windows, so keep the block
+        // advance from preparing suffix bounds it would not use.
+        self.invalidate_score_first_and_window();
+        self.score_first_and_enabled = false;
+        let mut score_order = (0..num_lists).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        score_order.sort_unstable_by_key(|&index| {
+            let posting = &self.lead[index];
+            (posting.position, posting.token_id)
+        });
+
+        // Per-window view of one clause's current block. Raw pointers into the
+        // clause's `CompressedState`; valid for the whole window because the
+        // block cursor does not move within a window (position decoding writes
+        // to separate fields of the same state).
+        struct WindowList {
+            docs: *const u32,
+            freqs: *const u32,
+            // Cursor and exclusive end, as offsets within the block.
+            pos: usize,
+            end: usize,
+            // Absolute posting index of the block's first entry.
+            block_start: usize,
+        }
+
+        /// Sum one bulk-AND candidate's per-clause BM25 contributions in score
+        /// order. Nested so it can name the block-local `WindowList`; the
+        /// caller may run it before or after position confirmation.
+        #[inline]
+        fn window_bm25_score<S: Scorer + ?Sized>(
+            lead: &[Box<PostingIterator>],
+            wins: &[WindowList],
+            offs: &[u8],
+            score_order: &[usize],
+            scorer: &S,
+            norm_addend: Option<f32>,
+            doc_length: u32,
+        ) -> f32 {
+            let mut score = 0.0_f32;
+            for &clause_index in score_order {
+                let win = &wins[clause_index];
+                let posting = &lead[clause_index];
+                let off = offs[clause_index];
+                let freq = unsafe { *win.freqs.add(off as usize) };
+                score += match norm_addend {
+                    Some(addend) => posting.query_weight * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, addend),
+                    None => posting.score(scorer, freq, doc_length),
+                };
+            }
+            score
+        }
+
+        // Merge kernels: intersect the window's per-clause slices and record
+        // each match as (doc, per-clause block offsets). Hand-specialized for
+        // two and three clauses so cursors and bounds stay in registers; the
+        // generic kernel covers other widths. Offsets fit u8 because a block
+        // holds at most `MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE` (256) entries. The macro
+        // stamps a scalar and an AVX2 variant — `#[target_feature]` must
+        // cover the whole kernel for the vector catch-up scans to inline.
+        // Kernels prune a lead doc before any follower advance when its
+        // frequency-bucketed score bound (plus the other clauses' block
+        // maxes) cannot beat the threshold — the score-first ordering
+        // Lucene's conjunction scorer uses, with doc length dropped from the
+        // bound so no doc-length load is involved. The bound is monotone
+        // (doc length only shrinks a BM25 weight, and the last bucket holds
+        // the clause sup), so every skipped doc would also fail the exact
+        // per-candidate prune: results are unchanged, the work never happens.
+        macro_rules! merge_kernels {
+            ($name2:ident, $name3:ident, $name_n:ident, $docs_name2:ident, $docs_name3:ident, $geq:ident $(, #[$feat:meta])?) => {
+                $(#[$feat])?
+                unsafe fn $name2(
+                    wins: &[WindowList],
+                    freq_cannot_beat: &[bool; FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS],
+                    docs_out: &mut Vec<u32>,
+                    offs_out: &mut Vec<u8>,
+                ) {
+                    let (d0, mut p0, e0) = (wins[0].docs, wins[0].pos, wins[0].end);
+                    let (d1, mut p1, e1) = (wins[1].docs, wins[1].pos, wins[1].end);
+                    let f0 = wins[0].freqs;
+                    unsafe {
+                        while p0 < e0 {
+                            let doc = *d0.add(p0);
+                            let freq = (*f0.add(p0) as usize).min(FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS - 1);
+                            if freq_cannot_beat[freq] {
+                                p0 += 1;
+                                continue;
+                            }
+                            p1 = $geq(d1, p1, e1, doc);
+                            if p1 >= e1 {
+                                return;
+                            }
+                            let second = *d1.add(p1);
+                            if second > doc {
+                                p0 = $geq(d0, p0 + 1, e0, second);
+                                continue;
+                            }
+                            docs_out.push(doc);
+                            offs_out.push(p0 as u8);
+                            offs_out.push(p1 as u8);
+                            p0 += 1;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                $(#[$feat])?
+                unsafe fn $name3(
+                    wins: &[WindowList],
+                    freq_cannot_beat: &[bool; FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS],
+                    docs_out: &mut Vec<u32>,
+                    offs_out: &mut Vec<u8>,
+                ) {
+                    let (d0, mut p0, e0) = (wins[0].docs, wins[0].pos, wins[0].end);
+                    let (d1, mut p1, e1) = (wins[1].docs, wins[1].pos, wins[1].end);
+                    let (d2, mut p2, e2) = (wins[2].docs, wins[2].pos, wins[2].end);
+                    let f0 = wins[0].freqs;
+                    unsafe {
+                        'outer: while p0 < e0 {
+                            let doc = *d0.add(p0);
+                            let freq = (*f0.add(p0) as usize).min(FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS - 1);
+                            if freq_cannot_beat[freq] {
+                                p0 += 1;
+                                continue 'outer;
+                            }
+                            p1 = $geq(d1, p1, e1, doc);
+                            if p1 >= e1 {
+                                return;
+                            }
+                            let second = *d1.add(p1);
+                            if second > doc {
+                                p0 = $geq(d0, p0 + 1, e0, second);
+                                continue 'outer;
+                            }
+                            p2 = $geq(d2, p2, e2, doc);
+                            if p2 >= e2 {
+                                return;
+                            }
+                            let third = *d2.add(p2);
+                            if third > doc {
+                                p0 = $geq(d0, p0 + 1, e0, third);
+                                continue 'outer;
+                            }
+                            docs_out.push(doc);
+                            offs_out.push(p0 as u8);
+                            offs_out.push(p1 as u8);
+                            offs_out.push(p2 as u8);
+                            p0 += 1;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                $(#[$feat])?
+                #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+                unsafe fn $name_n(
+                    wins: &[WindowList],
+                    freq_cannot_beat: &[bool; FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS],
+                    cursors: &mut Vec<usize>,
+                    docs_out: &mut Vec<u32>,
+                    offs_out: &mut Vec<u8>,
+                ) {
+                    cursors.clear();
+                    cursors.extend(wins.iter().map(|win| win.pos));
+                    let (d0, mut p0, e0) = (wins[0].docs, wins[0].pos, wins[0].end);
+                    let f0 = wins[0].freqs;
+                    unsafe {
+                        'outer: while p0 < e0 {
+                            let doc = *d0.add(p0);
+                            let freq = (*f0.add(p0) as usize).min(FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS - 1);
+                            if freq_cannot_beat[freq] {
+                                p0 += 1;
+                                continue 'outer;
+                            }
+                            for j in 1..wins.len() {
+                                let win = wins.get_unchecked(j);
+                                let pos = $geq(win.docs, *cursors.get_unchecked(j), win.end, doc);
+                                *cursors.get_unchecked_mut(j) = pos;
+                                if pos >= win.end {
+                                    return;
+                                }
+                                let clause_doc = *win.docs.add(pos);
+                                if clause_doc > doc {
+                                    p0 = $geq(d0, p0 + 1, e0, clause_doc);
+                                    continue 'outer;
+                                }
+                            }
+                            docs_out.push(doc);
+                            offs_out.push(p0 as u8);
+                            for j in 1..wins.len() {
+                                offs_out.push(*cursors.get_unchecked(j) as u8);
+                            }
+                            p0 += 1;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                $(#[$feat])?
+                unsafe fn $docs_name2(
+                    wins: &[WindowList],
+                    docs_out: &mut Vec<u32>,
+                    offs_out: &mut Vec<u8>,
+                ) {
+                    let (d0, mut p0, e0) = (wins[0].docs, wins[0].pos, wins[0].end);
+                    let (d1, mut p1, e1) = (wins[1].docs, wins[1].pos, wins[1].end);
+                    unsafe {
+                        while p0 < e0 {
+                            let doc = *d0.add(p0);
+                            p1 = $geq(d1, p1, e1, doc);
+                            if p1 >= e1 {
+                                return;
+                            }
+                            let second = *d1.add(p1);
+                            if second > doc {
+                                p0 = $geq(d0, p0 + 1, e0, second);
+                                continue;
+                            }
+                            docs_out.push(doc);
+                            offs_out.push(p0 as u8);
+                            offs_out.push(p1 as u8);
+                            p0 += 1;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                $(#[$feat])?
+                unsafe fn $docs_name3(
+                    wins: &[WindowList],
+                    docs_out: &mut Vec<u32>,
+                    offs_out: &mut Vec<u8>,
+                ) {
+                    let (d0, mut p0, e0) = (wins[0].docs, wins[0].pos, wins[0].end);
+                    let (d1, mut p1, e1) = (wins[1].docs, wins[1].pos, wins[1].end);
+                    let (d2, mut p2, e2) = (wins[2].docs, wins[2].pos, wins[2].end);
+                    unsafe {
+                        'outer: while p0 < e0 {
+                            let doc = *d0.add(p0);
+                            p1 = $geq(d1, p1, e1, doc);
+                            if p1 >= e1 {
+                                return;
+                            }
+                            let second = *d1.add(p1);
+                            if second > doc {
+                                p0 = $geq(d0, p0 + 1, e0, second);
+                                continue 'outer;
+                            }
+                            p2 = $geq(d2, p2, e2, doc);
+                            if p2 >= e2 {
+                                return;
+                            }
+                            let third = *d2.add(p2);
+                            if third > doc {
+                                p0 = $geq(d0, p0 + 1, e0, third);
+                                continue 'outer;
+                            }
+                            docs_out.push(doc);
+                            offs_out.push(p0 as u8);
+                            offs_out.push(p1 as u8);
+                            offs_out.push(p2 as u8);
+                            p0 += 1;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            };
+        }
+        merge_kernels!(
+            merge_window_2,
+            merge_window_3,
+            merge_window_n,
+            merge_window_docs_2,
+            merge_window_docs_3,
+            find_next_geq_scalar
+        );
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        merge_kernels!(
+            merge_window_2_avx2,
+            merge_window_3_avx2,
+            merge_window_n_avx2,
+            merge_window_docs_2_avx2,
+            merge_window_docs_3_avx2,
+            find_next_geq_avx2,
+            #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+        );
+
+        #[inline]
+        fn merge_window_1(wins: &[WindowList], docs_out: &mut Vec<u32>, offs_out: &mut Vec<u8>) {
+            let win = &wins[0];
+            for pos in win.pos..win.end {
+                docs_out.push(unsafe { *win.docs.add(pos) });
+                offs_out.push(pos as u8);
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[inline]
+        fn merge_window_docs_n(
+            wins: &[WindowList],
+            cursors: &mut Vec<usize>,
+            docs_out: &mut Vec<u32>,
+            offs_out: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        ) {
+            cursors.clear();
+            cursors.extend(wins.iter().map(|win| win.pos));
+            'outer: while cursors[0] < wins[0].end {
+                let doc = unsafe { *wins[0].docs.add(cursors[0]) };
+                for j in 1..wins.len() {
+                    let win = &wins[j];
+                    let pos = unsafe { find_next_geq(win.docs, cursors[j], win.end, doc) };
+                    cursors[j] = pos;
+                    if pos >= win.end {
+                        return;
+                    }
+                    let clause_doc = unsafe { *win.docs.add(pos) };
+                    if clause_doc > doc {
+                        cursors[0] = unsafe {
+                            find_next_geq(wins[0].docs, cursors[0] + 1, wins[0].end, clause_doc)
+                        };
+                        continue 'outer;
+                    }
+                }
+                docs_out.push(doc);
+                for &pos in cursors.iter() {
+                    offs_out.push(pos as u8);
+                }
+                cursors[0] += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[inline]
+        fn merge_window_docs_pairwise(
+            wins: &[WindowList],
+            scratch: &mut Vec<u32>,
+            docs_out: &mut Vec<u32>,
+            offs_out: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        ) {
+            // Every slice belongs to one decoded block and has at most 256
+            // entries. Shrink candidates clause by clause, so later clauses
+            // only intersect documents that survived the earlier clauses.
+            let first = &wins[0];
+            // SAFETY: window construction keeps these decoded blocks alive
+            // and unchanged until both intersection and scoring complete.
+            docs_out.extend_from_slice(unsafe {
+                std::slice::from_raw_parts(first.docs.add(first.pos), first.end - first.pos)
+            });
+            for win in &wins[1..] {
+                let slice =
+                    unsafe { std::slice::from_raw_parts(win.docs.add(win.pos), win.end - win.pos) };
+                let first_doc = slice[0];
+                let last_doc = slice[slice.len() - 1];
+                // Sorted distinct IDs with this span contain every integer
+                // in the interval. This exact certificate also handles a
+                // dense follower covering a sparse set of candidates.
+                if u64::from(last_doc) - u64::from(first_doc) + 1 == slice.len() as u64 {
+                    if docs_out[0] >= first_doc && docs_out[docs_out.len() - 1] <= last_doc {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let lo = docs_out.partition_point(|&doc| doc < first_doc);
+                    let hi = docs_out.partition_point(|&doc| doc <= last_doc);
+                    if lo != 0 {
+                        docs_out.copy_within(lo..hi, 0);
+                    }
+                    docs_out.truncate(hi - lo);
+                } else {
+                    intersection::intersect(docs_out, slice, scratch);
+                    std::mem::swap(docs_out, scratch);
+                }
+                if docs_out.is_empty() {
+                    return;
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Recover posting offsets only for the final intersection. No
+            // frequencies or intermediate per-clause offset tables are needed.
+            offs_out.resize(docs_out.len() * wins.len(), 0);
+            for (clause, win) in wins.iter().enumerate() {
+                let first_doc = unsafe { *win.docs.add(win.pos) };
+                let last_doc = unsafe { *win.docs.add(win.end - 1) };
+                let is_dense =
+                    u64::from(last_doc) - u64::from(first_doc) + 1 == (win.end - win.pos) as u64;
+                let mut pos = win.pos;
+                for (candidate, &doc) in docs_out.iter().enumerate() {
+                    pos = if is_dense {
+                        win.pos + (doc - first_doc) as usize
+                    } else {
+                        unsafe { find_next_geq(win.docs, pos, win.end, doc) }
+                    };
+                    debug_assert!(
+                        pos < win.end,
+                        "intersection must be present in every clause"
+                    );
+                    offs_out[candidate * wins.len() + clause] = pos as u8;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut candidates = TopKCollector::new(limit, std::cmp::min(limit, BLOCK_SIZE * 10));
+        let mut num_comparisons: usize = 0;
+        let mut wins: Vec<WindowList> = Vec::with_capacity(num_lists);
+        // Per-window candidate batch. The merge kernel only records matches;
+        // scoring then runs in two passes so the doc-length gather issues
+        // independent loads (their cache misses overlap) instead of
+        // serializing behind per-candidate branching. A window spans at most
+        // one block per clause, so a batch holds at most one block's worth.
+        let mut batch_docs: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let mut batch_offs: Vec<u8> = Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE * num_lists);
+        let mut batch_lens: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let mut batch_norms: Vec<u8> = Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let mut cursor_scratch: Vec<usize> = Vec::with_capacity(num_lists);
+        let mut intersection_scratch: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
+        // The frequency-bucket prune decisions only depend on the floor and
+        // the followers' block maxes, which rarely change between windows.
+        let mut freq_cannot_beat = [false; FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS];
+        // Keyed separately from the score limit: the per-candidate prune can
+        // refresh the limit in the middle of a window without touching the
+        // table, so an unchanged limit key does not mean the table is current.
+        let mut freq_cannot_beat_key: Option<(u32, u64)> = None;
+        // Per clause: the block that was sliced last and the end of that
+        // slice. Windows are contiguous, so the next slice of the same block
+        // starts where the previous one ended instead of at a binary search.
+        let mut slice_prev: SmallVec<[(usize, usize); 8]> =
+            std::iter::repeat_n((usize::MAX, 0), num_lists).collect();
+        // Norm cache: one byte-norm load plus a cached addend replaces the
+        // per-clause BM25 denominator recompute in pass B.
+        let mut norm_k = None;
+        let mut norm_k_initialized = false;
+
+        // Per-window prune LUT for the merge kernels: an upper bound of the
+        // first (rarest) clause's score by clamped frequency. Lead docs whose
+        // bound plus the remaining clauses' block maxes cannot beat the
+        // threshold are skipped before any follower advances — the same
+        // score-first ordering Lucene's conjunction scorer uses, with the
+        // doc-length dropped from the bound so no doc-length load is needed.
+        // The last bucket holds the frequency-independent sup, so clamping
+        // stays a valid upper bound. Skips only avoid work; every emitted
+        // candidate still goes through the exact per-candidate prune below.
+        const FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS: usize = 64;
+        let mut freq_bound_lut: Option<[f32; FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS]> = None;
+        // Exclusive limit on the first clause's partial score for the current
+        // window: scores at or below it cannot beat the floor. Recomputed only
+        // when the floor or the followers' block maxes change.
+        let mut first_score_limit: Option<f32> = None;
+        let mut first_score_limit_key: Option<(u32, u64)> = None;
+
+        // The conjunction can only start at the max of the clauses' first docs.
+        let mut target: u64 = 0;
+        for posting in &self.lead {
+            match posting.current_doc_id() {
+                Some(doc) => target = target.max(doc),
+                None => return Ok(vec![]),
+            }
+        }
+
+        'window: loop {
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            {
+                self.and_window_stats.windows_sliced += 1;
+            }
+            self.raise_to_shared_floor(params.wand_factor);
+            let window_started_with_floor = self.threshold > 0.0;
+            if window_started_with_floor {
+                if num_lists >= 2 && freq_bound_lut.is_none() {
+                    let mut lut = [f32::INFINITY; FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS];
+                    for (freq, slot) in lut.iter_mut().enumerate().take(FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS - 1) {
+                        *slot = self.lead[0].score(&self.scorer, freq as u32, 0);
+                    }
+                    lut[FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS - 1] =
+                        self.lead[0].frequency_clamp_upper_bound(&self.scorer);
+                    freq_bound_lut = Some(lut);
+                }
+                let advanced = self.and_advance_target(target);
+                if advanced == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+                    break;
+                }
+                target = advanced;
+            }
+            debug_assert!(target <= u32::MAX as u64);
+            let target32 = target as u32;
+
+            // Position every clause's block cursor at the block that can hold
+            // `target`, and end the window at the nearest next-block boundary.
+            let mut win_end = TERMINATED_DOC_ID;
+            for j in 0..num_lists {
+                let (block_idx, block_up_to) = {
+                    let posting = &self.lead[j];
+                    let PostingList::Compressed(ref list) = posting.list else {
+                        unreachable!("bulk AND requires compressed postings");
+                    };
+                    let block_idx = posting.block_idx_for_doc(list, posting.block_idx, target32);
+                    let block_up_to = if block_idx + 1 < list.blocks.len() {
+                        u64::from(list.block_least_doc_id(block_idx + 1)).saturating_sub(1)
+                    } else {
+                        TERMINATED_DOC_ID
+                    };
+                    (block_idx, block_up_to.max(target))
+                };
+                self.lead[j].block_idx = block_idx;
+                win_end = win_end.min(block_up_to);
+            }
+            let win_end32 = u32::try_from(win_end).unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+
+            // Decompress each clause's block and slice it to [target, win_end].
+            wins.clear();
+            let mut skip_window = false;
+            let mut exhausted = false;
+            // When a clause has no document in the window, the conjunction
+            // cannot match before that clause's next document, so the next
+            // window starts there instead of at the next block boundary. A
+            // sparse lead then drives the traversal and dense followers skip
+            // whole blocks by metadata instead of being sliced block by block.
+            let mut jump_to: u64 = 0;
+            for (j, posting) in self.lead.iter().enumerate() {
+                let PostingList::Compressed(ref list) = posting.list else {
+                    unreachable!("bulk AND requires compressed postings");
+                };
+                let block_idx = posting.block_idx;
+                let state = unsafe { &mut *posting.ensure_compressed_doc_ids_ptr(list, block_idx) };
+                let doc_ids = state.doc_ids.as_slice();
+                let len = doc_ids.len();
+                // Everything before the previous slice's end of this block is
+                // below the current target, so resume from there.
+                let (prev_block, prev_hi) = slice_prev[j];
+                let start = if prev_block == block_idx {
+                    prev_hi.min(len)
+                } else {
+                    0
+                };
+                let lo = if start < len && doc_ids[start] >= target32 {
+                    start
+                } else {
+                    start + doc_ids[start..].partition_point(|&doc| doc < target32)
+                };
+                let hi = if win_end32 == u32::MAX || len == 0 || doc_ids[len - 1] <= win_end32 {
+                    len
+                } else {
+                    lo + doc_ids[lo..].partition_point(|&doc| doc <= win_end32)
+                };
+                slice_prev[j] = (block_idx, hi);
+                if lo == hi {
+                    // No docs of this clause in the window: the whole window
+                    // has no conjunction match. If this was the clause's last
+                    // block and it is fully behind the target, the clause is
+                    // exhausted and the conjunction is done.
+                    if lo < state.doc_ids.len() {
+                        jump_to = u64::from(state.doc_ids[lo]);
+                    } else if block_idx + 1 < list.blocks.len() {
+                        jump_to = u64::from(list.block_least_doc_id(block_idx + 1));
+                    } else {
+                        exhausted = true;
+                    }
+                    skip_window = true;
+                    break;
+                }
+                wins.push(WindowList {
+                    docs: state.doc_ids.as_ptr(),
+                    freqs: std::ptr::null(),
+                    pos: lo,
+                    end: hi,
+                    block_start: block_idx << list.block_shift(),
+                });
+            }
+            if exhausted {
+                break 'window;
+            }
+            if !skip_window {
+                // Constant within the window (block-anchored); mirrors
+                // `and_candidate_cannot_beat_threshold`'s remaining-clause
+                // bound of first-clause-exact + rest-block-max.
+                let mut others_block_max = if window_started_with_floor {
+                    Some(
+                        self.lead[1..]
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|posting| f64::from(posting.block_max_score(&self.scorer)))
+                            .sum::<f64>(),
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+
+                batch_docs.clear();
+                batch_offs.clear();
+                // Precompute the conservative decision once per frequency
+                // bucket so the scalar and SIMD merge kernels stay
+                // floating-point-free.
+                if window_started_with_floor && num_lists >= 2 {
+                    let posting = &self.lead[0];
+                    let PostingList::Compressed(ref list) = posting.list else {
+                        unreachable!("bulk AND requires compressed postings");
+                    };
+                    let state = unsafe {
+                        &mut *posting.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, posting.block_idx)
+                    };
+                    wins[0].freqs = state.freqs.as_ptr();
+                    let others_block_max =
+                        others_block_max.expect("positive floor should initialize bounds");
+                    let key = (self.threshold.to_bits(), others_block_max.to_bits());
+                    if first_score_limit_key != Some(key) {
+                        first_score_limit = exclusive_partial_score_limit(
+                            others_block_max,
+                            self.threshold,
+                            score_sum_upper_bound_factor(num_lists),
+                        );
+                        first_score_limit_key = Some(key);
+                    }
+                    if freq_cannot_beat_key != Some(key) {
+                        let freq_bound_lut = freq_bound_lut
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .expect("positive threshold should initialize the frequency bound LUT");
+                        freq_cannot_beat = match first_score_limit {
+                            Some(limit) => {
+                                std::array::from_fn(|frequency| freq_bound_lut[frequency] <= limit)
+                            }
+                            None => [false; FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS],
+                        };
+                        freq_cannot_beat_key = Some(key);
+                    }
+                } else if freq_cannot_beat_key.is_some() {
+                    freq_cannot_beat = [false; FREQ_LUT_BUCKETS];
+                    freq_cannot_beat_key = None;
+                }
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                if freq_cannot_beat.iter().any(|&pruned| pruned) {
+                    self.and_window_stats.windows_frequency_pruned += 1;
+                }
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                let use_avx2 = *HAS_AVX2;
+                #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+                let use_avx2 = false;
+                match (num_lists, use_avx2, window_started_with_floor) {
+                    (1, _, _) => merge_window_1(&wins, &mut batch_docs, &mut batch_offs),
+                    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                    (2, true, false) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_docs_2_avx2(&wins, &mut batch_docs, &mut batch_offs)
+                    },
+                    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                    (3, true, false) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_docs_3_avx2(&wins, &mut batch_docs, &mut batch_offs)
+                    },
+                    (2, _, false) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_docs_2(&wins, &mut batch_docs, &mut batch_offs)
+                    },
+                    (3, _, false) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_docs_3(&wins, &mut batch_docs, &mut batch_offs)
+                    },
+                    (_, _, false) if use_pairwise_intersection => {
+                        #[cfg(test)]
+                        {
+                            self.and_window_stats.pairwise_intersections += 1;
+                        }
+                        merge_window_docs_pairwise(
+                            &wins,
+                            &mut intersection_scratch,
+                            &mut batch_docs,
+                            &mut batch_offs,
+                        )
+                    }
+                    (_, _, false) => merge_window_docs_n(
+                        &wins,
+                        &mut cursor_scratch,
+                        &mut batch_docs,
+                        &mut batch_offs,
+                    ),
+                    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                    (2, true, true) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_2_avx2(
+                            &wins,
+                            &freq_cannot_beat,
+                            &mut batch_docs,
+                            &mut batch_offs,
+                        )
+                    },
+                    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                    (3, true, true) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_3_avx2(
+                            &wins,
+                            &freq_cannot_beat,
+                            &mut batch_docs,
+                            &mut batch_offs,
+                        )
+                    },
+                    (2, _, true) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_2(&wins, &freq_cannot_beat, &mut batch_docs, &mut batch_offs)
+                    },
+                    (3, _, true) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_3(&wins, &freq_cannot_beat, &mut batch_docs, &mut batch_offs)
+                    },
+                    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                    (_, true, true) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_n_avx2(
+                            &wins,
+                            &freq_cannot_beat,
+                            &mut cursor_scratch,
+                            &mut batch_docs,
+                            &mut batch_offs,
+                        )
+                    },
+                    (_, _, true) => unsafe {
+                        merge_window_n(
+                            &wins,
+                            &freq_cannot_beat,
+                            &mut cursor_scratch,
+                            &mut batch_docs,
+                            &mut batch_offs,
+                        )
+                    },
+                }
+
+                if !batch_docs.is_empty() {
+                    for (win, posting) in wins.iter_mut().zip(self.lead.iter()) {
+                        let PostingList::Compressed(ref list) = posting.list else {
+                            unreachable!("bulk AND requires compressed postings");
+                        };
+                        let state = unsafe {
+                            &mut *posting.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, posting.block_idx)
+                        };
+                        win.freqs = state.freqs.as_ptr();
+                    }
+                    if !norm_k_initialized {
+                        norm_k = self.norm_k_cache();
+                        norm_k_initialized = true;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // Pass A: gather doc norms/lengths for the whole batch up
+                // front so the loads issue back-to-back and their cache
+                // misses overlap. With the norm cache, only the byte code is
+                // gathered; the exact length decodes from a tiny LUT.
+                batch_lens.clear();
+                batch_norms.clear();
+                let norm_k_ref = norm_k
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|(norms, cache)| (*norms, cache.as_ref()));
+                match norm_k_ref {
+                    Some((norms, _)) => {
+                        for &doc in batch_docs.iter() {
+                            batch_norms.push(norms[doc as usize]);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    None => match self.documents.scoring_norms() {
+                        Some(norms) => {
+                            for &doc in batch_docs.iter() {
+                                batch_lens.push(dequantize_doc_length(norms[doc as usize]));
+                            }
+                        }
+                        None => {
+                            for &doc in batch_docs.iter() {
+                                batch_lens.push(self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(doc));
+                            }
+                        }
+                    },
+                }
+
+                // Pass B: prune / verify / score / insert, in doc order, with
+                // exactly the classic loop's semantics.
+                for (index, &doc) in batch_docs.iter().enumerate() {
+                    let (norm_addend, doc_length) = match norm_k_ref {
+                        Some((_, cache)) => {
+                            let code = batch_norms[index];
+                            (Some(cache[code as usize]), dequantize_doc_length(code))
+                        }
+                        None => (None, batch_lens[index]),
+                    };
+                    let offs = &batch_offs[index * num_lists..(index + 1) * num_lists];
+                    if self.threshold > 0.0 && num_lists >= 2 && others_block_max.is_none() {
+                        others_block_max = Some(
+                            self.lead[1..]
+                                .iter()
+                                .map(|posting| f64::from(posting.block_max_score(&self.scorer)))
+                                .sum::<f64>(),
+                        );
+                    }
+                    if self.threshold > 0.0
+                        && num_lists >= 2
+                        && let Some(others_block_max) = others_block_max
+                    {
+                        let first_freq = unsafe { *wins[0].freqs.add(offs[0] as usize) };
+                        let first_score = match norm_addend {
+                            Some(addend) => {
+                                self.lead[0].query_weight
+                                    * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(first_freq, addend)
+                            }
+                            None => self.lead[0].score(&self.scorer, first_freq, doc_length),
+                        };
+                        let key = (self.threshold.to_bits(), others_block_max.to_bits());
+                        if first_score_limit_key != Some(key) {
+                            first_score_limit = exclusive_partial_score_limit(
+                                others_block_max,
+                                self.threshold,
+                                score_sum_upper_bound_factor(num_lists),
+                            );
+                            first_score_limit_key = Some(key);
+                        }
+                        if first_score_limit.is_some_and(|limit| first_score <= limit) {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    #[cfg(test)]
+                    {
+                        self.and_window_stats.candidates_returned += 1;
+                    }
+                    num_comparisons += 1;
+
+                    let Some(document_key) = self.documents.document_key_for_doc_id(doc) else {
+                        continue;
+                    };
+
+                    // Only front-load the BM25 total when a floor exists: the
+                    // skip below can only fire then, and scoring before
+                    // position confirmation would otherwise make every
+                    // position-failing candidate pay for a score it never uses.
+                    let early_score = (self.threshold > 0.0).then(|| {
+                        window_bm25_score(
+                            &self.lead,
+                            &wins,
+                            offs,
+                            &score_order,
+                            &self.scorer,
+                            norm_addend,
+                            doc_length,
+                        )
+                    });
+                    if let Some(slop) = phrase_slop {
+                        // Lance phrase score is term-frequency BM25, so this
+                        // total is exact. Skip position decode when it cannot
+                        // enter the exclusive top-k heap.
+                        if early_score
+                            .is_some_and(|score| self.exclusive_score_cannot_beat_floor(score))
+                        {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        // Park every clause's iterator on this doc so
+                        // `position_cursor` reads the right posting entry. The
+                        // window block is already decompressed; position blocks
+                        // decode lazily and are cached per block.
+                        for ((win, posting), &off) in
+                            wins.iter().zip(self.lead.iter_mut()).zip(offs.iter())
+                        {
+                            posting.index = win.block_start + off as usize;
+                            posting.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                                doc_id: doc,
+                                frequency: unsafe { *win.freqs.add(off as usize) },
+                            }));
+                        }
+                        let matched = if slop == 0 {
+                            self.check_exact_positions_bulk()?
+                        } else {
+                            self.check_positions(slop as i32)?
+                        };
+                        if !matched {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    let score = early_score.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                        window_bm25_score(
+                            &self.lead,
+                            &wins,
+                            offs,
+                            &score_order,
+                            &self.scorer,
+                            norm_addend,
+                            doc_length,
+                        )
+                    });
+
+                    if candidates.insert(
+                        ScoredDoc::new(document_key, score),
+                        doc_length,
+                        u64::from(doc),
+                        wins.iter().zip(self.lead.iter()).zip(offs.iter()).map(
+                            |((win, posting), &off)| {
+                                (posting.term_index(), unsafe {
+                                    *win.freqs.add(off as usize)
+                                })
+                            },
+                        ),
+                    )? && let Some(kth) = candidates.kth_score_if_full()
+                    {
+                        self.update_threshold(kth, params.wand_factor);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            if win_end == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+                break;
+            }
+            target = (win_end + 1).max(jump_to);
+        }
+
+        metrics.record_comparisons(num_comparisons);
+
+        candidates.into_candidates(|key| self.documents.candidate_from_key(key))
+    }
+
+    fn and_move_to_next_block(&mut self, target: u64) {
+        self.invalidate_score_first_and_window();
+        if self.threshold <= 0.0 {
+            // Eligible conjunctions need no bounds until a positive floor.
+            // Their posting cursors advance blocks independently, and every
+            // zero-to-positive floor transition invalidates this window.
+            self.up_to = Some(if self.score_first_and_enabled {
+                TERMINATED_DOC_ID
+            } else {
+                target
+            });
+            self.and_max_score = f32::INFINITY;
+            return;
+        }
+
+        if self.lead.is_empty() {
+            self.up_to = Some(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
+            self.and_max_score = 0.0;
+            return;
+        }
+
+        for posting in &mut self.lead {
+            posting.shallow_next(target);
+        }
+
+        let narrow_up_to = self
+            .lead
+            .iter()
+            .map(|posting| Self::posting_block_up_to(posting, target))
+            .min()
+            .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
+        let narrow_max_score = conservative_score_sum(
+            self.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.block_max_score(&self.scorer)),
+        );
+
+        if narrow_max_score >= self.threshold {
+            self.up_to = Some(narrow_up_to);
+            self.and_max_score = narrow_max_score;
+            self.prepare_score_first_and_window();
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            {
+                self.and_window_stats.windows_narrow += 1;
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let lead_up_to = self
+            .lead
+            .first()
+            .map(|posting| Self::posting_block_up_to(posting, target))
+            .unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID);
+        let can_try_wide = lead_up_to > narrow_up_to
+            && lead_up_to != TERMINATED_DOC_ID
+            && self.lead.iter().all(|posting| posting.is_compressed());
+
+        if can_try_wide {
+            let mut wide_bounds = SmallVec::<[f32; 8]>::new();
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            let mut range_blocks_scanned = 0;
+            for posting in &mut self.lead {
+                let block_max = posting.block_max_score_up_to_with_stats(lead_up_to, &self.scorer);
+                wide_bounds.push(block_max.score);
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                {
+                    range_blocks_scanned += block_max.blocks_scanned;
+                }
+            }
+            let wide_max_score = conservative_score_sum(wide_bounds.into_iter());
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            {
+                self.and_window_stats.range_blocks_scanned += range_blocks_scanned;
+            }
+
+            if wide_max_score < self.threshold {
+                self.up_to = Some(lead_up_to);
+                self.and_max_score = wide_max_score;
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                {
+                    self.and_window_stats.windows_wide += 1;
+                }
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+
+        self.up_to = Some(narrow_up_to);
+        self.and_max_score = narrow_max_score;
+        self.prepare_score_first_and_window();
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            self.and_window_stats.windows_narrow += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn and_advance_target(&mut self, mut target: u64) -> u64 {
+        if self.up_to.is_none_or(|up_to| target > up_to) {
+            self.and_move_to_next_block(target);
+        }
+
+        loop {
+            let Some(up_to) = self.up_to else {
+                return TERMINATED_DOC_ID;
+            };
+            if self.and_max_score >= self.threshold {
+                return target;
+            }
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            {
+                self.and_window_stats.windows_skipped += 1;
+            }
+            if up_to == TERMINATED_DOC_ID {
+                return TERMINATED_DOC_ID;
+            }
+            target = up_to + 1;
+            self.and_move_to_next_block(target);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::vec_box)]
+    fn head_doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.head.peek().map(HeadPosting::doc_id)
+    }
+
+    fn push_head(&mut self, posting: Box<PostingIterator>) {
+        if posting.doc().is_some() {
+            self.head.push(HeadPosting::new(posting));
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn move_head_doc_to_lead(&mut self, target: u64) {
+        while self.head_doc() == Some(target) {
+            if let Some(posting) = self.head.pop() {
+                self.lead.push(posting.posting);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Move all head iterators that are already known to be behind `target`
+    // into `tail`, possibly overflowing low-value entries back into `head`.
+    fn move_head_before_target_to_tail(&mut self, target: u64) {
+        if self.threshold <= 0.0 {
+            while matches!(self.head_doc(), Some(doc_id) if doc_id < target) {
+                if let Some(mut posting) = self.head.pop().map(|posting| posting.posting) {
+                    posting.next(target);
+                    self.push_head(posting);
+                }
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+
+        while matches!(self.head_doc(), Some(doc_id) if doc_id < target) {
+            if let Some(posting) = self.head.pop() {
+                let upper_bound = posting.posting.global_upper_bound(&self.scorer);
+                if let Some(mut evicted) =
+                    self.insert_tail_with_overflow(posting.posting, upper_bound)
+                {
+                    evicted.next(target);
+                    self.push_head(evicted);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Upper bound on the score of any document in the window `[target, up_to]`
+    /// for a disjunction. Sums the block-max of every overlapping iterator:
+    /// `lead`, `head` (later docs still in the window, which
+    /// `can_target_beat_threshold` omits), and the individual tail bounds.
+    fn or_block_window_max(&self) -> f32 {
+        conservative_score_sum(
+            self.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.window_max_score(self.up_to, &self.scorer))
+                .chain(
+                    self.head
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|posting| posting.posting.window_max_score(self.up_to, &self.scorer)),
+                )
+                .chain(self.tail.iter().map(|posting| posting.upper_bound)),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn can_target_beat_threshold(&mut self, target: u64) -> bool {
+        if self.up_to.is_none_or(|up_to| target > up_to) {
+            self.update_max_scores(target);
+        }
+
+        let mut possible_matches = self.lead.len();
+        for posting in &self.tail {
+            if matches!(posting.posting.block_first_doc(), Some(block_doc) if block_doc <= target) {
+                possible_matches += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        let sum = conservative_score_sum(
+            self.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.window_max_score(self.up_to, &self.scorer))
+                .chain(
+                    self.tail
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter(|posting| {
+                            matches!(
+                                posting.posting.block_first_doc(),
+                                Some(block_doc) if block_doc <= target
+                            )
+                        })
+                        .map(|posting| posting.posting.window_max_score(self.up_to, &self.scorer)),
+                ),
+        );
+
+        match self.operator {
+            Operator::And => {
+                possible_matches >= self.num_terms
+                    && !self
+                        .floor_mode
+                        .rejects_upper_bound(f64::from(sum), self.threshold)
+            }
+            Operator::Or => !self
+                .floor_mode
+                .rejects_upper_bound(f64::from(sum), self.threshold),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn update_max_scores(&mut self, target: u64) {
+        // Refresh the block-max window for the current target. The resulting
+        // `up_to` is the furthest doc id for which this block-max view remains
+        // valid. Like Lucene's WANDScorer, the boundary comes from the cheap
+        // clauses only, and the refresh avoids allocating: heaps are recycled
+        // through their backing vectors (shallow_next never changes the doc a
+        // head entry is ordered by, so heapify restores the same shape).
+        let lead_cost = self
+            .lead
+            .iter()
+            .map(|posting| posting.cost())
+            .min()
+            .unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        let mut narrow_up_to = TERMINATED_DOC_ID;
+        for posting in &mut self.lead {
+            posting.shallow_next(target);
+            narrow_up_to = narrow_up_to.min(posting.block_end_doc());
+        }
+
+        let mut head_postings = std::mem::take(&mut self.head).into_vec();
+        for posting in &mut head_postings {
+            // Unlike Lucene, every head clause participates in the boundary:
+            // the refresh is allocation-free and answers from the anchored
+            // level caches, so frequent refreshes are cheap, while keeping the
+            // window inside every clause's current block keeps all the bounds
+            // at tight level0 values.
+            let doc_id = posting.doc_id();
+            posting.posting.shallow_next(doc_id);
+            narrow_up_to = narrow_up_to.min(posting.posting.block_end_doc());
+        }
+
+        let mut tail_postings = std::mem::take(&mut self.tail).into_vec();
+        for tail_posting in &mut tail_postings {
+            tail_posting.posting.shallow_next(target);
+        }
+
+        if narrow_up_to == TERMINATED_DOC_ID
+            && let Some(top) = tail_postings
+                .iter()
+                .min_by_key(|posting| posting.posting.cost())
+            && top.posting.cost() <= lead_cost
+        {
+            narrow_up_to = narrow_up_to.min(top.posting.block_end_doc().max(target));
+        }
+
+        self.up_to = Some(narrow_up_to);
+        self.head = BinaryHeap::from(head_postings);
+
+        self.tail_max_score = 0.0;
+        for tail_posting in tail_postings {
+            let posting = tail_posting.posting;
+            let upper_bound = match posting.block_first_doc() {
+                Some(block_doc) if block_doc <= target => {
+                    posting.window_max_score(self.up_to, &self.scorer)
+                }
+                _ => 0.0,
+            };
+            if let Some(mut evicted) = self.insert_tail_with_overflow(posting, upper_bound) {
+                evicted.next(target);
+                self.push_head(evicted);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// After the narrow window proved skippable, try widening the skip to the
+    /// level1 group boundary, in the spirit of Lucene's `getSkipUpTo`. All
+    /// bounds come from the anchored level caches, so a failed attempt costs a
+    /// few loads and float adds — unlike an eager wide-window probe.
+    ///
+    /// The group boundary is the minimum current-group end over every live
+    /// iterator, so each iterator's level1 score is a valid bound over
+    /// `[target, group_up_to]`.
+    fn or_group_skip_to(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        let mut group_up_to = TERMINATED_DOC_ID;
+        for posting in &self.lead {
+            let (doc_up_to, _) = posting.impact_group_bound(&self.scorer)?;
+            group_up_to = group_up_to.min(doc_up_to);
+        }
+        for posting in self.head.iter() {
+            let (doc_up_to, _) = posting.posting.impact_group_bound(&self.scorer)?;
+            group_up_to = group_up_to.min(doc_up_to);
+        }
+        for tail_posting in self.tail.iter() {
+            let (doc_up_to, _) = tail_posting.posting.impact_group_bound(&self.scorer)?;
+            group_up_to = group_up_to.min(doc_up_to);
+        }
+        if self.up_to.is_some_and(|up_to| group_up_to <= up_to) {
+            // No gain over the narrow window skip.
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        // Second pass over the memoized bounds: sum only the iterators that
+        // can produce a doc inside the skipped range.
+        let mut bounds = SmallVec::<[f32; 8]>::new();
+        for posting in &self.lead {
+            bounds.push(posting.impact_group_bound(&self.scorer)?.1);
+        }
+        for posting in self
+            .head
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|posting| posting.doc_id() <= group_up_to)
+        {
+            bounds.push(posting.posting.impact_group_bound(&self.scorer)?.1);
+        }
+        for tail_posting in self.tail.iter().filter(|tail_posting| {
+            matches!(
+                tail_posting.posting.block_first_doc(),
+                Some(block_doc) if block_doc <= group_up_to
+            )
+        }) {
+            bounds.push(tail_posting.posting.impact_group_bound(&self.scorer)?.1);
+        }
+        let bounds_sum = conservative_score_sum(bounds.into_iter());
+        self.floor_mode
+            .rejects_upper_bound(f64::from(bounds_sum), self.threshold)
+            .then_some(group_up_to.saturating_add(1))
+    }
+
+    fn refine_or_candidate(&mut self, target: u64, doc_length: u32) -> bool {
+        if self.threshold <= 0.0 {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        let mut lead_score = self
+            .lead
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|posting| {
+                posting
+                    .doc()
+                    .map(|doc| posting.score(&self.scorer, doc.frequency(), doc_length))
+            })
+            .sum::<f32>();
+
+        while !self.floor_mode.accepts_score(lead_score, self.threshold) {
+            if score_sum_cannot_compete(
+                lead_score,
+                self.tail_upper_bound_sum(),
+                self.threshold,
+                score_sum_upper_bound_factor(self.num_terms),
+                self.floor_mode,
+            ) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            if !self.advance_tail_top(target, doc_length, &mut lead_score) {
+                // No remaining posting can be advanced, but f32 execution-
+                // order rounding may still leave the canonical score at or
+                // above the inclusive floor.
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn collect_tail_matches(&mut self, target: u64) {
+        let mut remaining = Vec::with_capacity(self.tail.len());
+        let tail = std::mem::take(&mut self.tail);
+        self.tail_max_score = 0.0;
+        for tail_posting in tail.into_vec() {
+            let mut posting = tail_posting.posting;
+            posting.next(target);
+            match posting.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id()) {
+                Some(doc_id) if doc_id == target => self.lead.push(posting),
+                Some(_) => remaining.push(posting),
+                None => {}
+            }
+        }
+
+        for posting in remaining {
+            self.push_head(posting);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn advance_tail_and_lead_to_head(&mut self, least_id: u64) {
+        let mut postings = Vec::with_capacity(self.tail.len() + self.lead.len());
+        while let Some(tail) = self.tail.pop() {
+            postings.push(tail.posting);
+        }
+        self.tail_max_score = 0.0;
+        postings.append(&mut self.lead);
+        for mut posting in postings {
+            posting.next(least_id);
+            self.push_head(posting);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn advance_lead_to_head(&mut self, least_id: u64) {
+        let lead = std::mem::take(&mut self.lead);
+        for mut posting in lead {
+            posting.next(least_id);
+            self.push_head(posting);
+        }
+        // In the flat-search path this is only called after `collect_tail_matches`,
+        // which drains the current tail into either `lead` or `head`. At this
+        // point `tail` is expected to be empty, so clearing it is a no-op that
+        // just resets the cached `tail_max_score`.
+        debug_assert!(self.tail.is_empty());
+        self.clear_tail();
+    }
+
+    fn clear_tail(&mut self) {
+        self.tail.clear();
+        self.tail_max_score = 0.0;
+    }
+
+    fn insert_tail(&mut self, posting: Box<PostingIterator>, upper_bound: f32) {
+        self.tail_max_score = next_up_f64(self.tail_max_score + f64::from(upper_bound));
+        self.tail
+            .push(TailPosting::new(upper_bound, posting.cost(), posting));
+    }
+
+    fn insert_tail_with_overflow(
+        &mut self,
+        posting: Box<PostingIterator>,
+        upper_bound: f32,
+    ) -> Option<Box<PostingIterator>> {
+        // Keep only the lagging iterators that are most useful for deciding the
+        // current candidate. If a stronger tail entry arrives, evict the weakest
+        // one back to the caller so it can be advanced into `head`.
+        if self.threshold <= 0.0 || upper_bound <= 0.0 {
+            return Some(posting);
+        }
+
+        let parked_upper_bound = self.tail_upper_bound_sum() + f64::from(upper_bound);
+        if score_sum_cannot_compete(
+            0.0,
+            parked_upper_bound,
+            self.threshold,
+            score_sum_upper_bound_factor(self.num_terms),
+            self.floor_mode,
+        ) {
+            self.insert_tail(posting, upper_bound);
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        if self.tail.is_empty() {
+            return Some(posting);
+        }
+
+        let candidate = TailPosting::new(upper_bound, posting.cost(), posting);
+        if let Some(top) = self.tail.peek()
+            && top > &candidate
+        {
+            let evicted = self.tail.pop().expect("peeked tail posting should exist");
+            self.remove_tail_upper_bound(evicted.upper_bound);
+            self.tail_max_score = next_up_f64(self.tail_max_score + f64::from(upper_bound));
+            self.tail.push(candidate);
+            return Some(evicted.posting);
+        }
+
+        Some(candidate.posting)
+    }
+
+    fn lead_to_tail_upper_bound(&self, posting: &PostingIterator, target: u64) -> f32 {
+        if self.operator == Operator::Or
+            && posting.is_compressed()
+            && self.up_to.is_some_and(|up_to| target <= up_to)
+        {
+            posting.window_max_score(self.up_to, &self.scorer)
+        } else {
+            posting.global_upper_bound(&self.scorer)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn advance_tail_to_next_or_window(&mut self) -> bool {
+        if self.operator != Operator::Or || self.tail.is_empty() {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        let Some(up_to) = self.up_to else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        if up_to >= u32::MAX as u64 {
+            return false;
+        }
+        if !self
+            .tail
+            .iter()
+            .any(|tail| tail.posting.has_next_compressed_block())
+        {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // A low-scoring tail can be the only iterator left in the current
+        // window. Move to the next window so a later high-scoring block is still
+        // reachable instead of ending the disjunction early.
+        self.update_max_scores(up_to + 1);
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn push_back_leads(&mut self, target: u64) {
+        // After finishing a candidate doc, convert the aligned iterators back
+        // into lagging iterators. Entries that do not stay in `tail` are
+        // advanced to `target` and returned to `head`.
+        // pop() drains in place, keeping self.lead's capacity for reuse.
+        if self.threshold <= 0.0 {
+            while let Some(mut posting) = self.lead.pop() {
+                posting.next(target);
+                self.push_head(posting);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+
+        while let Some(posting) = self.lead.pop() {
+            let upper_bound = self.lead_to_tail_upper_bound(&posting, target);
+            if let Some(mut evicted) = self.insert_tail_with_overflow(posting, upper_bound) {
+                evicted.next(target);
+                self.push_head(evicted);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn advance_tail_top(&mut self, target: u64, doc_length: u32, lead_score: &mut f32) -> bool {
+        // Advance the most promising lagging iterator to the current target.
+        // If it lands on the target, fold its exact contribution into
+        // `lead_score`; otherwise put it back into `head`.
+        let Some(TailPosting {
+            upper_bound,
+            cost: _,
+            mut posting,
+        }) = self.tail.pop()
+        else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        self.remove_tail_upper_bound(upper_bound);
+        posting.next(target);
+        match posting.doc() {
+            Some(doc) if doc.doc_id() == target => {
+                *lead_score += posting.score(&self.scorer, doc.frequency(), doc_length);
+                self.lead.push(posting);
+            }
+            Some(_) => self.push_head(posting),
+            None => {}
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn tail_upper_bound_sum(&self) -> f64 {
+        self.tail_max_score
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn remove_tail_upper_bound(&mut self, upper_bound: f32) {
+        if self.tail.is_empty() {
+            self.tail_max_score = 0.0;
+            return;
+        }
+        self.tail_max_score = next_up_f64((self.tail_max_score - f64::from(upper_bound)).max(0.0));
+    }
+
+    fn advance_all_tail(
+        &mut self,
+        target: u64,
+        doc_length: Option<u32>,
+        mut score: Option<&mut f32>,
+    ) {
+        // Materialize all remaining lagging iterators for `target`. This is
+        // only done once we have already decided to fully score / validate the
+        // candidate.
+        let tail = std::mem::take(&mut self.tail);
+        self.tail_max_score = 0.0;
+        for tail_posting in tail.into_vec() {
+            let mut posting = tail_posting.posting;
+            posting.next(target);
+            match posting.doc() {
+                Some(doc) if doc.doc_id() == target => {
+                    if let (Some(doc_length), Some(score)) = (doc_length, score.as_deref_mut()) {
+                        *score += posting.score(&self.scorer, doc.frequency(), doc_length);
+                    }
+                    self.lead.push(posting)
+                }
+                Some(_) => self.push_head(posting),
+                None => {}
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn current_doc_postings(&self) -> Vec<&PostingIterator> {
+        if !self.lead.is_empty() {
+            return self.lead.iter().map(|posting| posting.as_ref()).collect();
+        }
+
+        let Some(target) = self.head_doc() else {
+            return Vec::new();
+        };
+        self.head
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|posting| posting.doc_id() == target)
+            .map(|posting| posting.posting.as_ref())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn check_positions(&self, slop: i32) -> Result<bool> {
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            self.phrase_position_checks
+                .set(self.phrase_position_checks.get() + 1);
+        }
+        if slop == 0 {
+            return self.check_exact_positions();
+        }
+
+        let mut position_iters = self
+            .current_doc_postings()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(PostingIterator::position_cursor)
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        position_iters.sort_unstable_by_key(|iter| iter.position_in_query);
+
+        loop {
+            let mut max_relative_pos = None;
+            let mut all_same = true;
+            for window in position_iters.windows(2) {
+                let last = window[0].relative_position();
+                let next = window[1].relative_position();
+                let (Some(last), Some(next)) = (last, next) else {
+                    return Ok(false);
+                };
+
+                let move_to = if last > next {
+                    last
+                } else {
+                    std::cmp::max(last + 1, next - slop)
+                };
+                max_relative_pos = max_relative_pos.max(Some(move_to));
+                if !(last <= next && next <= last + slop) {
+                    all_same = false;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+
+            if all_same {
+                return Ok(true);
+            }
+
+            position_iters.iter_mut().for_each(|iter| {
+                iter.advance_to_relative(max_relative_pos.unwrap());
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Exact-phrase check for the bulk conjunction path, where every clause
+    /// is a parked `lead` iterator. Semantically identical to
+    /// [`Self::check_exact_positions`].
+    fn check_exact_positions_bulk(&self) -> Result<bool> {
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            self.phrase_position_checks
+                .set(self.phrase_position_checks.get() + 1);
+        }
+        exact_phrase_positions_match(
+            self.lead.len(),
+            |index| {
+                self.lead[index]
+                    .doc()
+                    .map(|doc| doc.frequency())
+                    .unwrap_or(u32::MAX)
+            },
+            |index| self.lead[index].position_cursor(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn check_exact_positions(&self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let postings = self.current_doc_postings();
+        exact_phrase_positions_match(
+            postings.len(),
+            |index| {
+                postings[index]
+                    .doc()
+                    .map(|doc| doc.frequency())
+                    .unwrap_or(u32::MAX)
+            },
+            |index| postings[index].position_cursor(),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+/// Decode exact-phrase position lists in current-doc frequency order.
+///
+/// Term frequency equals the position count, so a stopword on this document
+/// is decoded last. If the two rarest lists share no phrase base, the rest
+/// (typically `"the"` / `"of"`) are never unpacked.
+fn exact_phrase_positions_match<'a>(
+    num_clauses: usize,
+    frequency: impl Fn(usize) -> u32,
+    decode: impl FnMut(usize) -> Result<PositionCursor<'a>>,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    const MAX_INLINE_CLAUSES: usize = 16;
+    if num_clauses == 0 {
+        return Ok(false);
+    }
+    if num_clauses > MAX_INLINE_CLAUSES {
+        let mut order: Vec<usize> = (0..num_clauses).collect();
+        order.sort_unstable_by_key(|&index| frequency(index));
+        let mut cursors: Vec<Option<PositionCursor<'a>>> = (0..num_clauses).map(|_| None).collect();
+        return exact_phrase_scan(&order, &mut cursors, decode);
+    }
+    let mut order = [0usize; MAX_INLINE_CLAUSES];
+    for (index, slot) in order.iter_mut().enumerate().take(num_clauses) {
+        *slot = index;
+    }
+    order[..num_clauses].sort_unstable_by_key(|&index| frequency(index));
+    let mut cursors: [Option<PositionCursor<'a>>; MAX_INLINE_CLAUSES] =
+        std::array::from_fn(|_| None);
+    exact_phrase_scan(&order[..num_clauses], &mut cursors, decode)
+}
+
+fn exact_phrase_scan<'a>(
+    order: &[usize],
+    cursors: &mut [Option<PositionCursor<'a>>],
+    mut decode: impl FnMut(usize) -> Result<PositionCursor<'a>>,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    let num_clauses = order.len();
+    if num_clauses == 0 {
+        return Ok(false);
+    }
+    let rarest = order[0];
+    cursors[rarest] = Some(decode(rarest)?);
+    let (n_pos, anchor_offset) = {
+        let cursor = cursors[rarest]
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("rarest clause cursor was just populated");
+        (cursor.len(), cursor.position_in_query as u32)
+    };
+    if num_clauses == 1 {
+        return Ok(n_pos > 0);
+    }
+
+    // Every clause's target is `anchor_position - anchor_offset + query_offset`,
+    // which is strictly increasing in the anchor. Two consequences the loop
+    // below exploits:
+    //
+    //   * a follower is never searched from the start. Each cursor keeps its own
+    //     index and only moves forward, so a failed probe leaves it sitting on
+    //     the first position above the target - which is also the smallest
+    //     position any *later* anchor can align with.
+    //   * the anchor can therefore be jumped straight to that position instead
+    //     of stepping over every candidate in between. None of them can match:
+    //     their targets all land in the gap the follower was just shown to have.
+    //
+    // Both moves start from the current index and only move forward, so the
+    // per-document cost is bounded by the decoded position counts rather than
+    // by their product. The jump is taken only when it skips at least one
+    // anchor position, which needs no counter, budget or mode switch: the two
+    // regimes (far-apart lists vs interleaved lists) separate themselves.
+    let mut anchor_idx = 0usize;
+    'anchor: while anchor_idx < n_pos {
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            count_anchor_steps();
+        }
+        let anchor_position = cursors[rarest]
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("rarest clause cursor was just populated")
+            .positions
+            .as_slice()[anchor_idx];
+        let Some(base) = anchor_position.checked_sub(anchor_offset) else {
+            anchor_idx += 1;
+            continue 'anchor;
+        };
+        for &index in &order[1..num_clauses] {
+            if cursors[index].is_none() {
+                cursors[index] = Some(decode(index)?);
+            }
+            let query_offset = cursors[index]
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("phrase clause cursor was just populated")
+                .position_in_query as u32;
+            let Some(target) = base.checked_add(query_offset) else {
+                return Ok(false);
+            };
+            let Some(position) = cursors[index]
+                .as_mut()
+                .expect("phrase clause cursor was just populated")
+                .advance_to_at_least(target)
+            else {
+                // No follower position reaches `target`, and every later anchor
+                // only raises it, so no remaining base can align either.
+                return Ok(false);
+            };
+            if position == target {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let next_anchor = position
+                .saturating_sub(query_offset)
+                .saturating_add(anchor_offset);
+            anchor_idx = {
+                let anchor_positions = cursors[rarest]
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("rarest clause cursor was just populated")
+                    .positions
+                    .as_slice();
+                // Only pay for the jump when it actually skips something. If the
+                // very next anchor position is already below the bound, the jump
+                // would land one step ahead anyway, and a plain step gets there
+                // without the extra binary search. This is what separates the
+                // two regimes: on disjoint lists the first jump crosses the whole
+                // anchor, while on interleaved lists every bound lands one
+                // position ahead and the scan degrades to stepping.
+                match anchor_positions.get(anchor_idx + 1) {
+                    Some(&next_position) if next_position < next_anchor => {
+                        anchor_idx
+                            + anchor_positions[anchor_idx..].partition_point(|&p| p < next_anchor)
+                    }
+                    _ => anchor_idx + 1,
+                }
+            };
+            continue 'anchor;
+        }
+        return Ok(true);
+    }
+    Ok(false)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+thread_local! {
+    static POSITION_CURSOR_CALLS: Cell<usize> = const { Cell::new(0) };
+    static PHRASE_ANCHOR_STEPS: Cell<usize> = const { Cell::new(0) };
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+thread_local! {
+    // Test-only: counting anchor steps is off unless a test arms it, because the
+    // scan loop runs it once per anchor position. Rustdoc does not document
+    // macro invocations, so this is a plain comment.
+    static COUNT_ANCHOR_STEPS: Cell<bool> = const { Cell::new(false) };
+}
+
+/// Armed per test thread: a process-wide flag would let one parallel test that
+/// finishes early switch counting off for another still running.
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn count_anchor_steps() {
+    if COUNT_ANCHOR_STEPS.with(|armed| armed.get()) {
+        PHRASE_ANCHOR_STEPS.with(|steps| steps.set(steps.get() + 1));
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn take_position_cursor_calls() -> usize {
+    POSITION_CURSOR_CALLS.with(|calls| calls.replace(0))
+}
+
+/// Anchor positions visited by the last `exact_phrase_scan`. Test-only: it is
+/// the only way to assert that the scan skips without a timing threshold.
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn take_anchor_steps() -> usize {
+    PHRASE_ANCHOR_STEPS.with(|steps| steps.replace(0))
+}
+
+/// Run an exact-phrase check with anchor-step counting armed.
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn counted_anchor_steps<F: FnOnce() -> bool>(check: F) -> (bool, usize) {
+    COUNT_ANCHOR_STEPS.with(|armed| armed.set(true));
+    let _ = take_anchor_steps();
+    let matched = check();
+    let steps = take_anchor_steps();
+    COUNT_ANCHOR_STEPS.with(|armed| armed.set(false));
+    (matched, steps)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct RecycledPositionValues<'a> {
+    values: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+    pool: &'a RefCell<Option<Vec<u32>>>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> RecycledPositionValues<'a> {
+    fn new(values: Vec<u32>, pool: &'a RefCell<Option<Vec<u32>>>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            values: Some(values),
+            pool,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn as_slice(&self) -> &[u32] {
+        self.values
+            .as_deref()
+            .expect("position values are present until drop")
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for RecycledPositionValues<'_> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        let values = self
+            .values
+            .take()
+            .expect("position values are present until drop");
+        let mut pool = self.pool.borrow_mut();
+        if pool.is_none() {
+            *pool = Some(values);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum PositionValues<'a> {
+    Recycled(RecycledPositionValues<'a>),
+    Owned(Vec<u32>),
+}
+
+impl<'a> PositionValues<'a> {
+    fn as_slice(&self) -> &[u32] {
+        match self {
+            Self::Recycled(values) => values.as_slice(),
+            Self::Owned(values) => values.as_slice(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.as_slice().len()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PositionCursor<'a> {
+    positions: PositionValues<'a>,
+    pub position_in_query: i32,
+    index: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a> PositionCursor<'a> {
+    fn new(positions: PositionValues<'a>, position_in_query: i32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            positions,
+            position_in_query,
+            index: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.positions.len()
+    }
+
+    fn relative_position(&self) -> Option<i32> {
+        self.positions
+            .as_slice()
+            .get(self.index)
+            .map(|position| *position as i32 - self.position_in_query)
+    }
+
+    /// Advance to the first position at or above `target` and return it, or
+    /// `None` once the cursor is exhausted.
+    ///
+    /// `target` must be non-decreasing across calls: the search is confined to
+    /// the not-yet-consumed suffix, so the cursor never rewinds and a returned
+    /// position is never below `target`. When the cursor already sits past
+    /// `target` the search is skipped entirely.
+    fn advance_to_at_least(&mut self, target: u32) -> Option<u32> {
+        if self.index >= self.len() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let values = self.positions.as_slice();
+        // The cursor has reached `target`, or is already past it. Every earlier
+        // position is below the previous target and hence below this one, so the
+        // insertion point has not moved: no search is needed, and the current
+        // position is either the match or the bound the caller wants.
+        if values[self.index] >= target {
+            return Some(values[self.index]);
+        }
+        // Targets only grow, so the next position is a frequent answer. Check it
+        // before paying for a search: a suffix binary search costs a dependent
+        // load per level and its landmarks move as `index` advances, which is
+        // what makes interleaved lists slow. On a mismatch here the cursor ends
+        // up one position short of the target on every step.
+        if let Some(next) = values
+            .get(self.index + 1)
+            .copied()
+            .filter(|&next| next >= target)
+        {
+            self.index += 1;
+            return Some(next);
+        }
+        self.index += values[self.index..].partition_point(|&pos| pos < target);
+        values.get(self.index).copied()
+    }
+
+    fn advance_to_relative(&mut self, least_relative_pos: i32) {
+        if self.index >= self.len() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let least_pos = least_relative_pos + self.position_in_query;
+        let least_pos = least_pos.max(0) as u32;
+        let values = self.positions.as_slice();
+        self.index += values[self.index..].partition_point(|&pos| pos < least_pos);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Incremental posting-backed scorer used by compound FTS.
+///
+/// Unlike [`Wand::search`], this cursor does not own a top-k heap. It exposes
+/// exact candidates and conservative block bounds to the compound collector,
+/// which owns the only competitive score for the whole scorer tree.
+pub(super) struct WandCursor<'a, D: WandDocuments> {
+    wand: Wand<'a, Arc<MemBM25Scorer>, D>,
+    phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+    wand_factor: f32,
+    cost: usize,
+    global_score_upper_bound: OnceCell<Option<f32>>,
+    current_doc: Option<DocInfo>,
+    current_document_key: Option<u64>,
+    current_score: f32,
+    confirmation: Option<bool>,
+    shallow: Option<(u64, u64, f32)>,
+    comparisons: usize,
+    metrics_recorded: bool,
+    metrics: &'a dyn MetricsCollector,
+}
+
+impl<'a, D: WandDocuments> WandCursor<'a, D> {
+    pub(super) fn new(
+        operator: Operator,
+        postings: Vec<PostingIterator>,
+        documents: &'a D,
+        scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        metrics: &'a dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let cost = match operator {
+            Operator::And => postings.iter().map(PostingIterator::cost).min(),
+            Operator::Or => Some(
+                postings
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(PostingIterator::cost)
+                    .fold(0, usize::saturating_add),
+            ),
+        }
+        .unwrap_or_default()
+        .min(documents.visible_cost_upper_bound());
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(operator, postings.into_iter(), documents, scorer)
+            .with_floor_mode(CompetitiveFloorMode::Inclusive);
+        if params.phrase_slop.is_some() {
+            wand.score_first_and_enabled = false;
+        }
+        Self {
+            wand,
+            phrase_slop: params.phrase_slop,
+            wand_factor: params.wand_factor,
+            cost,
+            global_score_upper_bound: OnceCell::new(),
+            current_doc: None,
+            current_document_key: None,
+            current_score: 0.0,
+            confirmation: None,
+            shallow: None,
+            comparisons: 0,
+            metrics_recorded: false,
+            metrics,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn doc(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current_doc.map(|doc| doc.doc_id())
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn document_key(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.current_document_key
+    }
+
+    fn clear_current(&mut self) {
+        self.current_doc = None;
+        self.current_document_key = None;
+        self.current_score = 0.0;
+        self.confirmation = None;
+        self.shallow = None;
+    }
+
+    fn record_metrics(&mut self) {
+        if !self.metrics_recorded {
+            self.metrics.record_comparisons(self.comparisons);
+            self.metrics_recorded = true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn position_next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        loop {
+            let Some((doc, and_score)) = self.wand.next()? else {
+                self.clear_current();
+                self.record_metrics();
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            self.comparisons += 1;
+            let doc_id = doc.doc_id();
+            let Some(document_key) = self.wand.documents.document_key(&doc) else {
+                if self.wand.operator == Operator::Or {
+                    self.wand.push_back_leads(doc_id.saturating_add(1));
+                }
+                continue;
+            };
+            let doc_length = self.wand.documents.doc_length(&doc);
+            self.wand.advance_all_tail(doc_id, None, None);
+            let score = if self.wand.and_candidate_score.is_some() {
+                and_score
+            } else {
+                self.wand.score_in_query_order(doc_length)
+            };
+            self.current_doc = Some(doc);
+            self.current_document_key = Some(document_key);
+            self.current_score = score;
+            self.confirmation = self.phrase_slop.is_none().then_some(true);
+            self.shallow = None;
+            return Ok(Some(doc_id));
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if let Some(doc) = self.current_doc
+            && self.wand.operator == Operator::Or
+        {
+            self.wand.push_back_leads(doc.doc_id().saturating_add(1));
+        }
+        self.clear_current();
+        self.position_next()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn advance(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        if self.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc >= target) {
+            return Ok(self.doc());
+        }
+        self.clear_current();
+        self.wand.seek(target);
+        self.position_next()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn cost(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cost
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        *self
+            .global_score_upper_bound
+            .get_or_init(|| self.wand.compound_global_score_upper_bound())
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn current_score(&self) -> Result<f32> {
+        self.current_doc
+            .map(|_| self.current_score)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("posting FTS scorer is not positioned on a document"))
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn matches(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let Some(_) = self.current_doc else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        if let Some(confirmed) = self.confirmation {
+            return Ok(confirmed);
+        }
+        let phrase_slop = self.phrase_slop.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("posting FTS scorer requires phrase slop for position confirmation")
+        })?;
+        let confirmed = self.wand.check_positions(phrase_slop as i32)?;
+        self.confirmation = Some(confirmed);
+        Ok(confirmed)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn match_cost(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.phrase_slop.map(|_| self.wand.num_terms.max(1) as f32)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn advance_shallow(&mut self, target: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let (up_to, upper) = self.wand.compound_shallow_bound(target);
+        self.shallow = Some((target, up_to, upper));
+        Ok(up_to)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn score_upper_bound(&self, up_to: u64) -> Result<f32> {
+        let (target, shallow_up_to, upper) = self.shallow.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("score bound requires advance_shallow on the posting FTS scorer")
+        })?;
+        if up_to < target || up_to > shallow_up_to {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "posting FTS score bound up_to={up_to} is outside shallow range [{target}, {shallow_up_to}]"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(upper)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn set_min_competitive_score(&mut self, min_score: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        if min_score.is_nan() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "minimum competitive FTS score cannot be NaN",
+            ));
+        }
+        let floor = min_score * self.wand_factor;
+        if floor > self.wand.threshold {
+            if self.wand.score_first_and_enabled && self.wand.threshold <= 0.0 && floor > 0.0 {
+                self.wand.up_to = None;
+                self.wand.invalidate_score_first_and_window();
+            }
+            self.wand.threshold = floor;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<D: WandDocuments> Drop for WandCursor<'_, D> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.record_metrics();
+    }
+}
+
+impl<S: Scorer, D: WandDocuments> Wand<'_, S, D> {
+    fn compound_global_score_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        if self.lead.len() + self.head.len() + self.tail.len() != self.num_terms {
+            return None;
+        }
+        // Grouped expansions score their terms separately, while their union
+        // posting stores one aggregate bound whose f32 rounding is not proven
+        // conservative for that exact sum.
+        if self.lead.iter().any(|posting| posting.has_grouped_terms())
+            || self
+                .head
+                .iter()
+                .any(|posting| posting.posting.has_grouped_terms())
+            || self
+                .tail
+                .iter()
+                .any(|posting| posting.posting.has_grouped_terms())
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let upper = conservative_score_sum(
+            self.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.global_upper_bound(&self.scorer))
+                .chain(
+                    self.head
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|posting| posting.posting.global_upper_bound(&self.scorer)),
+                )
+                .chain(
+                    self.tail
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|posting| posting.posting.global_upper_bound(&self.scorer)),
+                ),
+        );
+        (upper.is_finite() && upper >= 0.0).then_some(upper)
+    }
+
+    fn seek(&mut self, target: u64) {
+        self.up_to = None;
+        self.and_max_score = f32::INFINITY;
+        self.and_last_doc = None;
+        self.invalidate_score_first_and_window();
+        if self.operator == Operator::And {
+            for posting in &mut self.lead {
+                if posting.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc.doc_id() < target) {
+                    posting.next(target);
+                }
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let mut postings = std::mem::take(&mut self.head)
+            .into_vec()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|posting| posting.posting)
+            .chain(self.lead.drain(..))
+            .chain(
+                std::mem::take(&mut self.tail)
+                    .into_vec()
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|posting| posting.posting),
+            )
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        self.tail_max_score = 0.0;
+        for posting in &mut postings {
+            if posting.doc().is_some_and(|doc| doc.doc_id() < target) {
+                posting.next(target);
+            }
+        }
+        self.head = postings
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|posting| posting.doc().is_some())
+            .map(HeadPosting::new)
+            .collect();
+    }
+
+    fn compound_shallow_bound(&mut self, target: u64) -> (u64, f32) {
+        if self.operator == Operator::Or {
+            self.update_max_scores(target);
+            return (
+                self.up_to.unwrap_or(TERMINATED_DOC_ID),
+                conservative_score_sum(
+                    self.lead
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|posting| posting.window_max_score(self.up_to, &self.scorer))
+                        .chain(self.head.iter().map(|posting| {
+                            posting.posting.window_max_score(self.up_to, &self.scorer)
+                        }))
+                        .chain(self.tail.iter().map(|posting| posting.upper_bound)),
+                ),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let saved_block_indices = self.score_first_and_enabled.then(|| {
+            self.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.block_idx)
+                .collect::<SmallVec<[usize; 8]>>()
+        });
+        let mut up_to = TERMINATED_DOC_ID;
+        for posting in &mut self.lead {
+            posting.shallow_next(target);
+            up_to = up_to.min(Self::posting_block_up_to(posting, target));
+        }
+        let upper = conservative_score_sum(
+            self.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.block_max_score(&self.scorer)),
+        );
+        if let Some(saved_block_indices) = saved_block_indices {
+            // The returned bound is immutable. Restore the internal shallow
+            // anchors so an external probe cannot steer exact iteration or
+            // discard a still-valid score-first window.
+            for (posting, block_idx) in self.lead.iter_mut().zip(saved_block_indices) {
+                posting.block_idx = block_idx;
+            }
+        }
+        (up_to, upper)
+    }
+}
+
+fn conservative_score_sum(scores: impl Iterator<Item = f32>) -> f32 {
+    let (num_scores, exact) = scores.fold((0, 0.0_f64), |(count, sum), score| {
+        (count + 1, sum + f64::from(score))
+    });
+    let widened = exact * score_sum_upper_bound_factor(num_scores);
+    outward_f32_upper_bound(widened)
+}
+
+/// Round a wide score bound to the least `f32` that still covers it.
+#[inline]
+pub(super) fn outward_f32_upper_bound(value: f64) -> f32 {
+    let rounded = value as f32;
+    if f64::from(rounded) < value {
+        next_up_f32(rounded)
+    } else {
+        rounded
+    }
+}
+
+fn next_up_f32(value: f32) -> f32 {
+    if !value.is_finite() {
+        return value;
+    }
+    if value == 0.0 {
+        return f32::from_bits(1);
+    }
+    let bits = value.to_bits();
+    if value > 0.0 {
+        f32::from_bits(bits + 1)
+    } else {
+        f32::from_bits(bits - 1)
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn next_up_f64(value: f64) -> f64 {
+    if !value.is_finite() {
+        return value;
+    }
+    if value == 0.0 {
+        return f64::from_bits(1);
+    }
+    let bits = value.to_bits();
+    if value > 0.0 {
+        f64::from_bits(bits + 1)
+    } else {
+        f64::from_bits(bits - 1)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+
+    /// `exclusive_partial_score_limit` must agree with `score_sum_cannot_compete`
+    /// for every f32 partial score: scores at or below the limit are rejected,
+    /// scores above it compete. Sweeps ULP neighbourhoods of the boundary plus
+    /// coarse samples, over floors, remaining bounds and clause counts.
+    #[test]
+    fn exclusive_partial_score_limit_matches_predicate() {
+        let mut seed = 0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15_u64;
+        let mut next = || {
+            seed ^= seed << 13;
+            seed ^= seed >> 7;
+            seed ^= seed << 17;
+            seed
+        };
+        let mut checked = 0usize;
+        for case in 0..2_000 {
+            let floor = if case % 7 == 0 {
+                f32::from_bits((next() as u32) & 0x7F7F_FFFF)
+            } else {
+                (next() % 10_000) as f32 / 37.0 + 1e-6
+            };
+            let remaining = if case % 5 == 0 {
+                f64::from(f32::from_bits((next() as u32) & 0x7F7F_FFFF))
+            } else {
+                (next() % 10_000) as f64 / 41.0
+            };
+            let num_lists = 2 + (next() % 6) as usize;
+            let factor = score_sum_upper_bound_factor(num_lists);
+            let rejects = |score: f32| {
+                score_sum_cannot_compete(
+                    score,
+                    remaining,
+                    floor,
+                    factor,
+                    CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive,
+                )
+            };
+            let limit = exclusive_partial_score_limit(remaining, floor, factor);
+            let mut probes = vec![
+                0.0_f32,
+                f32::MIN_POSITIVE,
+                floor,
+                f32::MAX,
+                f32::MIN,
+                ((f64::from(floor) / factor) - remaining) as f32,
+            ];
+            if let Some(limit) = limit {
+                let mut up = limit;
+                let mut down = limit;
+                for _ in 0..4 {
+                    probes.push(up);
+                    probes.push(down);
+                    up = next_up_f32(up);
+                    down = next_down_f32(down);
+                }
+            }
+            for _ in 0..16 {
+                probes.push(f32::from_bits((next() as u32) & 0x7F7F_FFFF));
+            }
+            for score in probes {
+                let expected = rejects(score);
+                let actual = limit.is_some_and(|limit| score <= limit);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    expected, actual,
+                    "score={score:?} limit={limit:?} floor={floor:?} remaining={remaining:?} num_lists={num_lists}"
+                );
+                checked += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(checked > 50_000);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn exclusive_partial_score_limit_handles_non_finite_inputs() {
+        let factor = score_sum_upper_bound_factor(3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            exclusive_partial_score_limit(f64::INFINITY, 1.0, factor),
+            None
+        );
+        assert_eq!(exclusive_partial_score_limit(1.0, f32::NAN, factor), None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            exclusive_partial_score_limit(1.0, f32::INFINITY, factor),
+            None
+        );
+        // A floor no partial score can fail to beat rejects nothing.
+        let limit = exclusive_partial_score_limit(1.0e30, 1.0, factor);
+        assert!(limit.is_none_or(|limit| !score_sum_cannot_compete(
+            next_up_f32(limit),
+            1.0e30,
+            1.0,
+            factor,
+            CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive
+        )));
+    }
+    use arrow::buffer::ScalarBuffer;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+    use super::super::documents::resident_row_address_projection_for_test;
+    use super::super::impact::build_impact_skip_data;
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::scorer::{IndexBM25Scorer, MemBM25Scorer};
+    use crate::{
+        metrics::{LocalMetricsCollector, NoOpMetricsCollector},
+        scalar::inverted::{
+            CompressedPostingList, PlainPostingList, PostingListBuilder, SharedPositionStream,
+            builder::PositionRecorder,
+            encoding::{
+                compress_posting_list, compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size,
+                encode_position_stream_block_into,
+            },
+        },
+    };
+
+    struct CostOnlyDocuments {
+        total_docs: usize,
+        visible_cost_upper_bound: usize,
+    }
+
+    impl WandDocuments for CostOnlyDocuments {
+        type Candidate = u64;
+
+        fn len(&self) -> usize {
+            self.total_docs
+        }
+
+        fn visible_cost_upper_bound(&self) -> usize {
+            self.visible_cost_upper_bound
+        }
+
+        fn scoring_norms(&self) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+            None
+        }
+
+        fn scoring_num_tokens(&self, _doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+            1
+        }
+
+        fn doc_length(&self, _doc: &DocInfo) -> u32 {
+            1
+        }
+
+        fn document_key(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> Option<u64> {
+            Some(doc.doc_id())
+        }
+
+        fn document_key_for_doc_id(&self, doc_id: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+            Some(u64::from(doc_id))
+        }
+
+        fn candidate_from_key(&self, key: u64) -> Self::Candidate {
+            key
+        }
+
+        fn flat_documents(&self) -> Option<FlatDocuments<'_>> {
+            None
+        }
+
+        fn flat_doc_length(&self, _doc_id: u64, _document_key: u64, _compressed: bool) -> u32 {
+            1
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn wand_cursor_cost_uses_materialized_visibility_upper_bound() {
+        let total_docs = 10;
+        let selected = DocVisibility::Selected(roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 7]));
+        let selected_bound = <&DocVisibility as ModernVisibility>::len(&&selected, total_docs);
+
+        let filtered = DocVisibility::Filtered {
+            projection: resident_row_address_projection_for_test((0..total_docs as u64).collect()),
+            mask: Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()),
+        };
+        let filtered_bound = <&DocVisibility as ModernVisibility>::len(&&filtered, total_docs);
+        let all_bound = AllModernDocuments.len(total_docs);
+
+        assert_eq!(selected_bound, 2);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_bound, total_docs);
+        assert_eq!(all_bound, total_docs);
+
+        let scorer = Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(
+            total_docs as u64,
+            total_docs,
+            std::collections::HashMap::from([("term".to_owned(), 8)]),
+        ));
+        let posting = || {
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                "term".to_owned(),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list((0..8).collect(), 1.0, None, true),
+                total_docs,
+            )
+        };
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default();
+        let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+
+        let selected_documents = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: selected_bound,
+        };
+        let selected_cursor = WandCursor::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            vec![posting()],
+            &selected_documents,
+            scorer.clone(),
+            &params,
+            &metrics,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(selected_cursor.cost(), 2);
+
+        for visible_cost_upper_bound in [filtered_bound, all_bound] {
+            let documents = CostOnlyDocuments {
+                total_docs,
+                visible_cost_upper_bound,
+            };
+            let cursor = WandCursor::new(
+                Operator::Or,
+                vec![posting()],
+                &documents,
+                scorer.clone(),
+                &params,
+                &metrics,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(cursor.cost(), 8);
+        }
+
+        let mut complete_docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..total_docs {
+            complete_docs.append(doc_id as u64, 1);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            WandDocuments::visible_cost_upper_bound(&complete_docs),
+            total_docs
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn conservative_score_sum_covers_query_order_f32_rounding() {
+        let values = [
+            f32::from_bits(0x3e65_15bd),
+            f32::from_bits(0x34b4_3b11),
+            f32::from_bits(0x35e9_48ed),
+            f32::from_bits(0x3203_3773),
+        ];
+        let exact_score = values
+            .into_iter()
+            .fold(0.0_f32, |score, value| score + value);
+
+        assert_eq!(exact_score.to_bits(), 0x3e65_164a);
+        assert!(conservative_score_sum(values.into_iter()) >= exact_score);
+
+        let mut reordered = [
+            f32::from_bits(0x3c87_b63e),
+            f32::from_bits(0x3d28_d10b),
+            f32::from_bits(0x3cc4_29c0),
+        ];
+        let bound = conservative_score_sum(reordered.into_iter());
+        reordered.sort_by(|left, right| right.total_cmp(left));
+        let reordered_score = reordered
+            .into_iter()
+            .fold(0.0_f32, |score, value| score + value);
+        assert_eq!(reordered_score.to_bits(), 0x3da7_6086);
+        assert!(bound >= reordered_score);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compound_global_bound_rejects_grouped_term_scoring() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1);
+        let list = generate_posting_list(vec![0], 1.0, None, false);
+        let grouped_terms = Arc::<[GroupedTermScorer]>::from([GroupedTermScorer::new(1.0, &list)]);
+        let posting =
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(String::from("term"), 0, 0, 1.0, list, docs.len())
+                .with_grouped_terms(grouped_terms);
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, std::iter::once(posting), &docs, UnitScorer);
+
+        assert_eq!(wand.compound_global_score_upper_bound(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compound_global_bound_rejects_late_partial_posting_state() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1);
+        let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            generate_posting_list(vec![0], 1.0, None, false),
+            docs.len(),
+        );
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, std::iter::once(posting), &docs, UnitScorer);
+
+        assert!(wand.next().unwrap().is_some());
+        wand.push_back_leads(1);
+        assert_eq!(wand.compound_global_score_upper_bound(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_maxscore_prefix_bound_covers_f32_summation_rounding() {
+        let remaining_bounds = [6.286_838_4e-7_f32, 0.015_441_144_f32];
+        let essential_score = 2.762_496_2_f32;
+        let threshold = f32::from_bits(0x4031_c9bc);
+
+        // Raw f32 prefix accumulation rounds down to an apparent tie, while
+        // scoring the clauses individually produces a competitive document.
+        let raw_prefix = remaining_bounds.into_iter().sum::<f32>();
+        assert_eq!(essential_score + raw_prefix, threshold);
+        let actual_score = remaining_bounds
+            .into_iter()
+            .rev()
+            .fold(essential_score, |score, bound| score + bound);
+        assert!(actual_score > threshold);
+
+        let prefix_bound = remaining_bounds.into_iter().map(f64::from).sum::<f64>();
+        assert!(!score_sum_cannot_compete(
+            essential_score,
+            prefix_bound,
+            threshold,
+            score_sum_upper_bound_factor(3),
+            CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn two_clause_inclusive_bound_rounds_outward_at_f32_boundary() {
+        let partial_score = 1.0_f32;
+        let remaining_upper_bound = f32::from_bits(0x3380_0001);
+        let floor = partial_score + remaining_upper_bound;
+
+        assert_eq!(floor.to_bits(), 0x3f80_0001);
+        assert!(!score_sum_cannot_compete(
+            partial_score,
+            f64::from(remaining_upper_bound),
+            floor,
+            score_sum_upper_bound_factor(2),
+            CompetitiveFloorMode::Inclusive,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    struct UnitScorer;
+
+    impl Scorer for UnitScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, _doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            freq as f32
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct AdjacentScoreScorer;
+
+    impl Scorer for AdjacentScoreScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, _doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            match freq {
+                1 => f32::from_bits(1.0_f32.to_bits() - 1),
+                2 => 1.0,
+                _ => unreachable!("test only defines two score buckets"),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn inclusive_floor_keeps_tie_without_admitting_lower_ulp() {
+        let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            "term".to_owned(),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            generate_posting_list_with_freqs(vec![0, 1], vec![1, 2], 1.0, None, false),
+            2,
+        );
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1);
+        docs.append(1, 1);
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            std::iter::once(posting),
+            &docs,
+            AdjacentScoreScorer,
+        )
+        .with_floor_mode(CompetitiveFloorMode::Inclusive);
+        wand.update_threshold(1.0, 1.0);
+
+        let (doc, score) = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(doc.doc_id(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(score, 1.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn final_score_uses_query_order_and_keeps_floor_ties() {
+        let contributions = [0.002_972_301_6_f32, 0.001_982_450_7_f32, 0.001_882_293_f32];
+        // Bounds deliberately make the WAND heap visit positions 2, 0, 1.
+        let bounds = [2.0_f32, 1.0, 3.0];
+        let postings = || {
+            contributions
+                .into_iter()
+                .zip(bounds)
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(position, (query_weight, max_score))| {
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        format!("t{position}"),
+                        position as u32,
+                        position as u32,
+                        query_weight,
+                        generate_posting_list(vec![0], max_score, None, false),
+                        1,
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1);
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings().into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+
+        let (_, heap_order_score) = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+        let query_order_score = contributions
+            .into_iter()
+            .fold(0.0_f32, |score, contribution| score + contribution);
+        let wide_score = contributions
+            .into_iter()
+            .fold(0.0_f64, |score, contribution| {
+                score + f64::from(contribution)
+            }) as f32;
+
+        assert_eq!(query_order_score.to_bits(), 0x3be0_094c);
+        assert_eq!(wide_score.to_bits(), 0x3be0_094b);
+        assert_eq!(heap_order_score.to_bits(), 0x3be0_094a);
+        assert_eq!(wand.score_in_query_order(1), query_order_score);
+
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default();
+        let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        let mut cursor = WandCursor::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            postings(),
+            &docs,
+            Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, std::collections::HashMap::new())),
+            &params,
+            &metrics,
+        );
+        // Equal-score candidates remain competitive because row id is the
+        // final tie-breaker. The internal heap-order sum is slightly lower.
+        cursor.set_min_competitive_score(query_order_score).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cursor.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(cursor.current_score().unwrap(), query_order_score);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::initial_floor(false)]
+    #[case::explicit_zero_floor(true)]
+    fn wand_cursor_preserves_zero_score_membership(
+        #[case] set_zero_floor: bool,
+        #[values(Operator::Or, Operator::And)] operator: Operator,
+        #[values(1, 4, 5)] num_terms: u32,
+    ) {
+        let postings = (0..num_terms)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let list = if operator == Operator::And {
+                    generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                        vec![0],
+                        vec![1],
+                        vec![1],
+                        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    generate_posting_list(vec![0], 0.0, None, false)
+                };
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("common{term}"),
+                    term,
+                    term,
+                    0.0,
+                    list,
+                    1,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1);
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default();
+        let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        let mut cursor = WandCursor::new(
+            operator,
+            postings,
+            &docs,
+            Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, std::collections::HashMap::new())),
+            &params,
+            &metrics,
+        );
+        if set_zero_floor {
+            cursor.set_min_competitive_score(0.0).unwrap();
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(cursor.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(cursor.current_score().unwrap(), 0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::all_essential(false)]
+    #[case::single_essential(true)]
+    fn maxscore_publishes_query_order_score_bits(#[case] single_essential: bool) {
+        let contributions = [0.002_972_301_6_f32, 0.001_982_450_7_f32, 0.001_882_293_f32];
+        // Each bound covers its term's exact contribution. Sorted by bound,
+        // the two smallest fit below a floor just under the exact score while
+        // all three do not, which forces the single-essential MAXSCORE path.
+        let bounds = [0.002_99_f32, 0.001_99_f32, 0.003_f32];
+        let postings = contributions
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(bounds)
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(position, (query_weight, max_score))| {
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{position}"),
+                    position as u32,
+                    position as u32,
+                    query_weight,
+                    generate_posting_list(vec![0], max_score, None, true),
+                    1,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1);
+        let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(0.0_f32.to_bits()));
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingScorer {
+                scored: scored.clone(),
+            },
+        )
+        .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor.clone());
+        let query_order_score = contributions
+            .into_iter()
+            .fold(0.0_f32, |score, contribution| score + contribution);
+        if single_essential {
+            wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(query_order_score.to_bits() - 1);
+        }
+
+        let hits = wand
+            .maxscore_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(1)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(hits.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(hits[0].document, 0);
+        let mut terms = hits[0]
+            .freqs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(term_index, freq)| {
+                assert_eq!(*freq, 1);
+                *term_index
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        terms.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(terms, vec![0, 1, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(shared_floor.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0x3be0_094c);
+        assert_eq!(scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed), contributions.len());
+        assert_eq!(wand.maxscore_single_essential_windows > 0, single_essential);
+        assert_eq!(wand.maxscore_general_windows > 0, !single_essential);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maxscore_skips_essential_blocks_below_the_floor() {
+        // Lucene ImpactsEnum.setMinCompetitiveScore: a single-essential
+        // block whose impact bound plus the optional remainder cannot
+        // enter the heap is skipped without decoding.
+        let block = crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let hot: Vec<u32> = (0..block).collect();
+        let cold: Vec<u32> = (block..2 * block).collect();
+        let ess_docs: Vec<u32> = hot.iter().copied().chain(cold.iter().copied()).collect();
+        let ess_freqs: Vec<u32> = std::iter::repeat_n(200, block as usize)
+            .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(1, block as usize))
+            .collect();
+        let opt_docs = ess_docs.clone();
+        let essential = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            "ess".to_owned(),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                ess_docs,
+                ess_freqs,
+                vec![1; 2 * block as usize],
+                crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            ),
+            2 * block as usize,
+        );
+        let optional = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            "opt".to_owned(),
+            1,
+            1,
+            0.01,
+            generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                opt_docs,
+                vec![1; 2 * block as usize],
+                vec![1; 2 * block as usize],
+                crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            ),
+            2 * block as usize,
+        );
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..2 * block {
+            docs.append(doc.into(), 1);
+        }
+        let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(5.0_f32.to_bits()));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            [essential, optional].into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            InverseDocLengthScorer,
+        )
+        .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor);
+        let hits = wand
+            .maxscore_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(!hits.is_empty());
+        for hit in &hits {
+            assert!(
+                hit.posting_doc_id < u64::from(block),
+                "cold-block doc {} should not enter the heap",
+                hit.posting_doc_id
+            );
+        }
+        // Only the single-essential path is pinned here. This fixture cannot
+        // prove a block dead -- with `InverseDocLengthScorer` every block looks
+        // unbounded -- so asserting on the skip counter as well would make the
+        // assertion a tautology. `maxscore_skips_a_dead_essential_block`
+        // covers the skip itself.
+        assert!(
+            wand.maxscore_single_essential_windows > 0,
+            "the hot block must take the single-essential path"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maxscore_block_skip_stops_at_the_end_of_the_span() {
+        // `skip_current_block()` jumps to the *next* block, so when the block
+        // extends past `upto` it would also discard the documents after `upto`.
+        // Those belong to a later window: reaching them again through another
+        // essential would score them without this clause's contribution, since
+        // the overall score accumulates across clauses. The completion must
+        // therefore stop at `upto` rather than running to the end of the block.
+        let total = 1024u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..total {
+            docs.append(doc.into(), 1);
+        }
+        let ids: Vec<u32> = (0..total).collect();
+        let freqs = vec![1u32; total as usize];
+        let doc_lengths = vec![1u32; total as usize];
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            [PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                "ess".to_owned(),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                    ids.clone(),
+                    freqs.clone(),
+                    doc_lengths.clone(),
+                    crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                ),
+                total as usize,
+            )]
+            .into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingBm25ShapeScorer {
+                scored: Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0)),
+            },
+        );
+        // High enough that every block of this clause is dead, so the skip is
+        // taken for whole blocks; `upto` sits in the middle of the second one.
+        wand.threshold = 20.0;
+        let mut clauses = vec![MaxScoreClause {
+            posting: Box::new(PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                "ess".to_owned(),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                    ids,
+                    freqs,
+                    doc_lengths,
+                    crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                ),
+                total as usize,
+            )),
+            query_rank: 1,
+            bound: 1.0,
+            prefix_bound: 1.0,
+        }];
+        let ess_term = clauses[0].posting.term_index();
+        let mut scratch = maxscore::MaxScoreSoaScratch::new();
+        let mut candidates = TopKCollector::new(10, 10);
+        let mut chunk: Vec<(u64, u32)> = Vec::new();
+        let mut comparisons = 0usize;
+        // 200 lands inside the second block (128..=255), whose end is 255.
+        let upto = 200u64;
+        wand.score_single_essential_upto(
+            &mut clauses,
+            0,
+            0,
+            upto,
+            1,
+            ess_term,
+            1.0,
+            1.0,
+            1,
+            0.0,
+            1.0,
+            None,
+            &mut chunk,
+            &mut scratch,
+            &mut candidates,
+            &mut comparisons,
+            1.0,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let after = clauses[0].posting.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id());
+        assert!(
+            after.is_none_or(|doc| doc <= upto + 1),
+            "the completion must stop at the end of the span (upto={upto}); \
+             landing on {after:?} means the skip ran past `upto` to the next block"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maxscore_skips_a_dead_essential_block() {
+        // The whole-block skip needs a finite per-block bound. An impact
+        // posting derives that bound from the scorer, and `InverseDocLengthScorer`
+        // has no finite `doc_weight_upper_bound`, so the bound falls back to
+        // infinity and no block can be proven dead. This fixture therefore bakes
+        // the block maxima into a plain compressed list: block 0 competes and
+        // fills the heap, block 1 cannot reach the resulting floor.
+        let block = crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let total = 2 * block;
+        let doc_lengths = vec![1u32; total as usize];
+        let ess_freqs: Vec<u32> = std::iter::repeat_n(200, block as usize)
+            .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(1, block as usize))
+            .collect();
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..total {
+            docs.append(doc.into(), 1);
+        }
+        let essential = |freqs: Vec<u32>| {
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                "ess".to_owned(),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                    (0..total).collect(),
+                    freqs,
+                    doc_lengths.clone(),
+                    crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                ),
+                total as usize,
+            )
+        };
+        let optional = || {
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                "opt".to_owned(),
+                1,
+                1,
+                0.01,
+                generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                    (0..total).collect(),
+                    vec![1; total as usize],
+                    doc_lengths.clone(),
+                    crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                ),
+                total as usize,
+            )
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            [essential(ess_freqs.clone()), optional()].into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingBm25ShapeScorer {
+                scored: Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0)),
+            },
+        );
+        // Above what the cold block plus the optional can reach, below what the
+        // hot block reaches.
+        wand.threshold = 20.0;
+        let mut clauses = vec![
+            MaxScoreClause {
+                posting: Box::new(optional()),
+                query_rank: 0,
+                bound: 0.01,
+                prefix_bound: 0.01,
+            },
+            MaxScoreClause {
+                posting: Box::new(essential(ess_freqs)),
+                query_rank: 1,
+                bound: 200.0,
+                prefix_bound: 200.01,
+            },
+        ];
+        let ess_term = clauses[1].posting.term_index();
+        let mut scratch = maxscore::MaxScoreSoaScratch::new();
+        let mut candidates = TopKCollector::new(10, 10);
+        let mut chunk: Vec<(u64, u32)> = Vec::new();
+        let mut comparisons = 0usize;
+        wand.score_single_essential_upto(
+            &mut clauses,
+            1,
+            1,
+            u64::from(total - 1),
+            1,
+            ess_term,
+            1.0,
+            200.0,
+            2,
+            0.01,
+            1.0,
+            None,
+            &mut chunk,
+            &mut scratch,
+            &mut candidates,
+            &mut comparisons,
+            1.0,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            wand.maxscore_essential_blocks_skipped > 0,
+            "the cold block, which cannot reach the floor, must be skipped whole"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maxscore_top2_gap_completes_with_an_optional_clause() {
+        // The top2-gap shortcut argues that no other essential contributes
+        // inside the isolated span. That only says something when a
+        // non-essential remainder is left to add afterwards, yet every existing
+        // top2-gap case reaches the shortcut with `non_essential` empty. Drive it
+        // with a live optional: one essential at doc 0, one far past the gap
+        // threshold, and a low-weight optional kept non-essential by a shared
+        // floor between their bounds.
+        let far = 3000u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..=far {
+            docs.append(doc.into(), 1);
+        }
+        let posting = |term: &str, token_id: u32, weight: f32, ids: Vec<u32>, freqs: Vec<u32>| {
+            let len = ids.len();
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                term.to_owned(),
+                token_id,
+                token_id,
+                weight,
+                generate_posting_list_with_freqs(ids, freqs, weight, None, true),
+                len,
+            )
+        };
+        // `ess_a` owns the two winning documents, `ess_b` owns one a full gap
+        // away that cannot reach them, and the optional is live on all of them
+        // but kept non-essential by the shared floor. So the shortcut has to
+        // add the optional's contribution *after* completing the span, and the
+        // published k-th score pins that the addition really happened.
+        let optional = posting("opt", 0, 0.01, vec![0, 1, 2, far], vec![1, 1, 1, 1]);
+        let ess_a = posting("ess_a", 1, 1.0, vec![0, 1, 2], vec![200, 150, 100]);
+        let ess_b = posting("ess_b", 2, 1.0, vec![far], vec![50]);
+        let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(1.0_f32.to_bits()));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            [optional, ess_a, ess_b].into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingBm25ShapeScorer {
+                scored: Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0)),
+            },
+        )
+        .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor.clone());
+        let hits = wand
+            .maxscore_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(2)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            wand.maxscore_top2_gap_windows > 0,
+            "the top2-gap shortcut must run with a non-empty optional remainder"
+        );
+        let got = hits
+            .iter()
+            .map(|hit| hit.posting_doc_id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            got.len(),
+            2,
+            "the two heaviest documents of `ess_a` must fill the heap, got {got:?}"
+        );
+        for doc in [0u64, 1] {
+            assert!(
+                got.contains(&doc),
+                "doc {doc} must be in the top 2, got {got:?}"
+            );
+        }
+        // `CountingBm25ShapeScorer` scores every document with norm 1.2, and the
+        // canonical fold walks the clauses in query order: optional first, then
+        // the essential that owns the document.
+        let opt_addend = 0.01 * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(1, 1.2);
+        let kth = opt_addend + bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(150, 1.2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            shared_floor.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            kth.to_bits(),
+            "the published floor must be the second best score, optional included \
+             (expected {kth}, got {})",
+            f32::from_bits(shared_floor.load(Ordering::Relaxed))
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The completion asks about visibility before it scores rather than
+    /// after, so a hidden document must never reach the scorer. The filter is
+    /// result-preserving -- a hidden document is dropped at insert time either
+    /// way -- so the only observable difference is how much scoring happened.
+    /// A limit that keeps the heap from filling leaves the threshold at zero,
+    /// which makes every surviving document score exactly once.
+    #[test]
+    fn maxscore_completion_filters_invisible_documents_before_scoring() {
+        struct HiddenDocs<'a> {
+            inner: &'a DocSet,
+            hidden: Vec<bool>,
+        }
+
+        impl WandDocuments for HiddenDocs<'_> {
+            type Candidate = u64;
+
+            fn len(&self) -> usize {
+                self.inner.len()
+            }
+
+            fn scoring_norms(&self) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+                self.inner.scoring_norms()
+            }
+
+            fn scoring_num_tokens(&self, doc_id: u32) -> u32 {
+                self.inner.scoring_num_tokens(doc_id)
+            }
+
+            fn doc_length(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> u32 {
+                self.inner.scoring_num_tokens(doc.doc_id() as u32)
+            }
+
+            fn document_key(&self, doc: &DocInfo) -> Option<u64> {
+                let id = doc.doc_id();
+                if self.hidden[id as usize] {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(id)
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn document_key_for_doc_id(&self, doc_id: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+                if self.hidden[doc_id as usize] {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(u64::from(doc_id))
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn candidate_from_key(&self, key: u64) -> Self::Candidate {
+                key
+            }
+
+            fn flat_documents(&self) -> Option<FlatDocuments<'_>> {
+                None
+            }
+
+            fn flat_doc_length(&self, doc_id: u64, key: u64, compressed: bool) -> u32 {
+                if compressed {
+                    self.inner.scoring_num_tokens(doc_id as u32)
+                } else {
+                    self.inner.scoring_num_tokens(key as u32)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let total = 4096u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..total {
+            docs.append(u64::from(doc), 1);
+        }
+        let run = |hidden: Vec<bool>| {
+            let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+            let documents = HiddenDocs {
+                inner: &docs,
+                hidden,
+            };
+            let ids = (0..total).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let len = ids.len();
+            let essential = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                "ess".to_owned(),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                    ids,
+                    vec![2u32; len],
+                    vec![1u32; len],
+                    MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                ),
+                len,
+            );
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(
+                Operator::Or,
+                [essential].into_iter(),
+                &documents,
+                CountingBm25ShapeScorer {
+                    scored: scored.clone(),
+                },
+            );
+            let hits = wand
+                .maxscore_search(
+                    &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(total as usize)),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            (hits, scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed))
+        };
+
+        let (all_hits, all_scored) = run(vec![false; total as usize]);
+        let (half_hits, half_scored) = run((0..total).map(|doc| doc % 2 == 0).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+
+        assert_eq!(all_hits.len(), total as usize);
+        assert_eq!(half_hits.len(), total as usize / 2);
+        // Hiding N documents has to remove at least N scoring calls; fewer
+        // means the hidden documents were scored and then thrown away.
+        assert!(
+            all_scored - half_scored >= total as usize / 2,
+            "hiding {} documents removed only {} of {} scoring calls",
+            total as usize / 2,
+            all_scored - half_scored,
+            all_scored
+        );
+        for hit in &half_hits {
+            assert_eq!(
+                hit.posting_doc_id % 2,
+                1,
+                "hidden document {} was returned",
+                hit.posting_doc_id
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// GUARD 2: `inner_min` can start a window ahead of cursors that were never
+    /// consumed, because a window that is skipped wholesale advances
+    /// `window_min` without touching them and `shallow_next` only moves
+    /// `block_idx`. The stretch the top2-gap shortcut would complete then sits
+    /// below the window floor, and taking it would either do nothing or move
+    /// `inner_min` backwards.
+    #[test]
+    fn maxscore_top2_gap_declines_a_span_below_the_window_floor() {
+        let total = 8192u32;
+        let hot_from = 4096u32;
+        let stale_b = 2048u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..total {
+            docs.append(u64::from(doc), 1);
+        }
+        let freqs = |ids: &[u32]| {
+            ids.iter()
+                .map(|doc| if *doc < hot_from { 1 } else { 200 })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        let lengths = |ids: &[u32]| vec![1u32; ids.len()];
+        let build = |term: &str, rank: u32, weight: f32, ids: Vec<u32>| {
+            let len = ids.len();
+            let list = generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                ids.clone(),
+                freqs(&ids),
+                lengths(&ids),
+                MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            );
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(term.to_owned(), rank, rank, weight, list, len)
+        };
+        let all = (0..total).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        // `ess_a` and `ess_b` are equally weighted; `ess_b` starts a full
+        // top2-gap away so the shortcut is a candidate everywhere, and `opt`
+        // is too light to ever be essential.
+        let ess_a = build("ess_a", 0, 1.0, all.clone());
+        let ess_b = build("ess_b", 1, 1.0, (stale_b..total).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let opt = build("opt", 2, 0.01, all);
+        // Above what two cold blocks can reach, below what one hot block
+        // reaches: the first windows are skipped wholesale, the hot one is not.
+        let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(2.1_f32.to_bits()));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            [ess_a, ess_b, opt].into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingBm25ShapeScorer {
+                scored: Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0)),
+            },
+        )
+        .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor);
+        wand.maxscore_search(
+            &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            wand.maxscore_top2_gap_empty_span > 0,
+            "the shortcut must decline a span that starts below the window floor"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maxscore_does_not_skip_past_the_current_window() {
+        // Optional starts in block 1. Window 0's optional remainder is 0, so
+        // the essential's next block cannot compete *in this window*. Skip
+        // must leave the cursor on that block for window 1, where the
+        // optional is live.
+        let block = crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let ess_docs: Vec<u32> = (0..2 * block).collect();
+        let opt_docs: Vec<u32> = (block..2 * block).collect();
+        let essential = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            "ess".to_owned(),
+            0,
+            0,
+            0.4,
+            generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                ess_docs,
+                vec![1; 2 * block as usize],
+                vec![1; 2 * block as usize],
+                crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            ),
+            2 * block as usize,
+        );
+        let optional = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            "opt".to_owned(),
+            1,
+            1,
+            0.3,
+            generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                opt_docs,
+                vec![1; block as usize],
+                vec![1; block as usize],
+                crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            ),
+            2 * block as usize,
+        );
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..2 * block {
+            docs.append(doc.into(), 1);
+        }
+        let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(0.5_f32.to_bits()));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            [essential, optional].into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            InverseDocLengthScorer,
+        )
+        .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor);
+        let hits = wand
+            .maxscore_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(hits.len(), 10);
+        assert!(
+            hits.iter()
+                .all(|hit| hit.posting_doc_id >= u64::from(block)),
+            "only the optional-overlap block can beat the exclusive floor"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_optional_freqs_matches_per_doc_next() {
+        let posting_docs = vec![1u32, 2, 4, 7, 11, 20, 21, 40];
+        let freqs = vec![3u32, 1, 5, 2, 9, 4, 1, 8];
+        let targets = [0u64, 2, 5, 7, 10, 11, 20, 21, 30, 40];
+        let build = || {
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                "hotels".to_owned(),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_freqs(
+                    posting_docs.clone(),
+                    freqs.clone(),
+                    1.0,
+                    None,
+                    true,
+                ),
+                64,
+            )
+        };
+        let mut merged = build();
+        let mut out = vec![0u32; targets.len()];
+        merged.merge_optional_freqs(&targets, &mut out);
+
+        let mut probe = build();
+        let mut expected = vec![0u32; targets.len()];
+        for (i, &doc) in targets.iter().enumerate() {
+            if probe.doc().is_some_and(|cur| cur.doc_id() < doc) {
+                probe.next(doc);
+            }
+            if let Some(cur) = probe.doc()
+                && cur.doc_id() == doc
+            {
+                expected[i] = cur.frequency();
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(out, expected);
+        assert_eq!(out, vec![0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 9, 4, 1, 0, 8]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maxscore_top2_gap_completes_isolated_essentials() {
+        // Two essentials 3000 docs apart: Lucene scores each stretch as a
+        // single-essential window. The optional sits on both ends so the
+        // floor can demote it without dropping either essential's hits.
+        let left: Vec<u32> = (0..32).collect();
+        let right: Vec<u32> = (3000..3032).collect();
+        let optional: Vec<u32> = left.iter().copied().chain(right.iter().copied()).collect();
+        let build = |token: &str, rank: u32, docs: Vec<u32>, weight: f32| {
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                token.to_owned(),
+                rank,
+                rank,
+                weight,
+                generate_posting_list(docs, weight, None, true),
+                4096,
+            )
+        };
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..4096u64 {
+            docs.append(doc, 1);
+        }
+        let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(0.15_f32.to_bits()));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            [
+                build("left", 0, left, 2.0),
+                build("right", 1, right, 2.0),
+                build("opt", 2, optional, 0.1),
+            ]
+            .into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            InverseDocLengthScorer,
+        )
+        .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor);
+        let hits = wand
+            .maxscore_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(hits.len(), 10);
+        assert!(
+            wand.maxscore_single_essential_windows > 0,
+            "a 2048+ gap between essentials must take the Lucene single-clause inner window"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maxscore_first_required_keeps_winners_on_the_buffer() {
+        // Optional is non-essential once the floor sits between its bound and
+        // the essential bound. Promoting it to required must still keep the
+        // document that has both terms; the essential posting is not the
+        // leapfrog driver.
+        let postings = [
+            (0_u32, 0.3_f32, vec![0_u32]),
+            (1_u32, 0.4_f32, vec![0_u32, 1]),
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|(position, query_weight, docs)| {
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                format!("t{position}"),
+                position,
+                position,
+                query_weight,
+                generate_posting_list(docs, query_weight, None, true),
+                2,
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1);
+        docs.append(1, 1);
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingScorer {
+                scored: Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0)),
+            },
+        );
+        wand.threshold = 0.45;
+        let hits = wand
+            .maxscore_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(hits.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(hits[0].document, 0);
+        assert!(hits[0].freqs.iter().any(|(term, _)| *term == 0));
+        assert!(wand.maxscore_single_essential_windows > 0);
+    }
+
+    /// Oracle: `maxscore_search` must publish the same top-k as an exhaustive
+    /// fold over every document, scored in query order. The fold shares no code
+    /// with MAXSCORE, so it pins the hit set, the order, and the k-th score
+    /// without needing a second search path to compare against.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn maxscore_matches_an_exhaustive_query_order_fold(
+        #[values(2_usize, 3_usize)] num_terms: usize,
+        #[values(4_usize, 10_usize)] limit: usize,
+        // `gapped` puts one clause's postings a full top2-gap away from the
+        // previous one, so the exhaustive comparison also covers the shortcut
+        // that hands a stretch to the single-essential path. The interleaved
+        // layout spans 768 docs and can never reach the 2048 gap.
+        #[values(false, true)] gapped: bool,
+    ) {
+        let block = MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let gap_span = (MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW / 2) as u32;
+        let total_docs = if gapped {
+            num_terms as u32 * gap_span + 64
+        } else {
+            3 * block
+        };
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..total_docs {
+            docs.append(u64::from(doc), doc % 17 + 1);
+        }
+
+        // Clause `term` covers `term, term+num_terms, term+2*num_terms, ...`,
+        // so membership is a closed form instead of a posting-list walk. The
+        // gapped layout gives clause `term` the 32 docs starting at
+        // `term * gap_span`, plus the first doc of the next clause's stretch:
+        // without a shared document the shortcut's span could be extended past
+        // the second essential without changing any score, and the oracle would
+        // not be able to tell a wrong span from a right one.
+        let covered = move |doc: u32, term: u32| {
+            if gapped {
+                let own = doc >= term * gap_span && doc < term * gap_span + 32;
+                let shared = term + 1 < num_terms as u32 && doc == (term + 1) * gap_span;
+                own || shared
+            } else {
+                doc >= term && (doc - term).is_multiple_of(num_terms as u32)
+            }
+        };
+        let freq_of = |doc: u32, term: u32| (doc + term) % 5 + 1;
+
+        let mut expected = (0..total_docs)
+            .map(|doc| {
+                let norm = 0.3 + docs.scoring_num_tokens(doc) as f32 * 0.1;
+                let score = (0..num_terms as u32)
+                    .filter(|term| covered(doc, *term))
+                    .fold(0.0_f32, |sum, term| {
+                        sum + bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq_of(doc, term), norm)
+                    });
+                (u64::from(doc), score)
+            })
+            .filter(|(_, score)| *score > 0.0)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        expected.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| {
+            right
+                .1
+                .total_cmp(&left.1)
+                .then_with(|| left.0.cmp(&right.0))
+        });
+        // Lengths and frequencies are quantized, so many documents tie on
+        // score. Which tied documents fill the last slots is not observable,
+        // so pin the strict winners and the tie set instead of one arbitrary
+        // ordering.
+        let kth = expected[limit - 1].1;
+        let strictly_better = expected
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|(_, score)| *score > kth)
+            .map(|(doc, _)| *doc)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let tying = expected
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|(_, score)| *score == kth)
+            .map(|(doc, _)| *doc)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let postings = (0..num_terms as u32)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let doc_ids = (0..total_docs)
+                    .filter(|doc| covered(*doc, term))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let freqs = doc_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|doc| freq_of(*doc, term))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let lengths = doc_ids.iter().map(|doc| doc % 17 + 1).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term,
+                    term,
+                    1.0,
+                    generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                        doc_ids,
+                        freqs,
+                        lengths,
+                        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(0.0_f32.to_bits()));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+        )
+        .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor.clone());
+        let hits = wand
+            .maxscore_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(limit)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let got = hits
+            .iter()
+            .map(|hit| hit.posting_doc_id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(got.len(), limit);
+        for doc in &strictly_better {
+            assert!(
+                got.contains(doc),
+                "doc {doc} scores above the k-th ({kth}) and must be in the top {limit}"
+            );
+        }
+        for doc in &got {
+            assert!(
+                strictly_better.contains(doc) || tying.contains(doc),
+                "doc {doc} is not a top-{limit} candidate (k-th = {kth})"
+            );
+        }
+        // The published floor is the k-th best score, so it pins the value and
+        // not just the membership.
+        assert_eq!(shared_floor.load(Ordering::Relaxed), kth.to_bits());
+        if gapped {
+            assert!(
+                wand.maxscore_top2_gap_windows > 0,
+                "a gap of {gap_span} must hand the stretch to the top2-gap shortcut"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The gap that hands a stretch to the single-essential inner window is
+    /// `MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW / 2`. Pin the boundary from both sides instead of
+    /// only testing a comfortable distance away from it.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn maxscore_top2_gap_boundary(#[values(2047_u32, 2048_u32, 2049_u32)] gap: u32) {
+        let left = (0..32_u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let right = (gap..gap + 32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let num_docs = (gap + 64) as usize;
+        let build = |token: &str, rank: u32, doc_ids: Vec<u32>, weight: f32| {
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                token.to_owned(),
+                rank,
+                rank,
+                weight,
+                generate_posting_list(doc_ids, weight, None, true),
+                num_docs,
+            )
+        };
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..num_docs as u64 {
+            docs.append(doc, 1);
+        }
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            // Distinct weights: every document of "left" outranks every document
+            // of "right", so the top ten is a known set instead of an arbitrary
+            // pick out of 64 tied documents.
+            [build("left", 0, left, 3.0), build("right", 1, right, 1.0)].into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            InverseDocLengthScorer,
+        );
+        let hits = wand
+            .maxscore_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(hits.len(), 10);
+        assert!(
+            hits.iter().all(|hit| hit.posting_doc_id < 32),
+            "the heavier clause must fill the top ten, got {:?}",
+            hits.iter()
+                .map(|hit| hit.posting_doc_id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        if gap >= (MAXSCORE_INNER_WINDOW / 2) as u32 {
+            assert!(
+                wand.maxscore_single_essential_windows > 0,
+                "gap {gap} must take the single-essential inner window"
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert!(
+                wand.maxscore_general_windows > 0,
+                "gap {gap} must stay on the general window path"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn bulk_and_and_classic_publish_identical_query_order_score_bits(
+        #[values(3, 4, 5, 8, 16)] num_clauses: usize,
+    ) {
+        let contributions = [0.002_972_301_6_f32, 0.001_982_450_7_f32, 0.001_882_293_f32]
+            .into_iter()
+            .cycle()
+            .take(num_clauses)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let bounds = [0.002_99_f32, 0.001_99_f32, 0.003_f32];
+        // Different posting lengths force cost order 1, 2, 0 instead of query
+        // order 0, 1, 2.
+        let clause_docs = [vec![0, 1, 2], vec![0], vec![0, 1]];
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..3 {
+            docs.append(doc_id, 1);
+        }
+
+        let run = |mode| {
+            let postings = contributions
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .zip(bounds.into_iter().cycle())
+                .zip(clause_docs.iter().cycle())
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(position, ((query_weight, max_score), doc_ids))| {
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        format!("t{position}"),
+                        position as u32,
+                        position as u32,
+                        query_weight,
+                        generate_posting_list(doc_ids.clone(), max_score, None, true),
+                        docs.len(),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(0.0_f32.to_bits()));
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer)
+                .with_bulk_and_mode(mode)
+                .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor.clone());
+            let hits = wand
+                .search(
+                    &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(1)),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            (
+                hits,
+                shared_floor.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+                wand.bulk_and_searches > 0,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let (bulk, bulk_score, bulk_used) = run(BulkAndMode::On);
+        let (classic, classic_score, classic_used) = run(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        assert!(bulk_used);
+        assert!(!classic_used);
+        assert_eq!(bulk.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(classic.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(bulk[0].document, 0);
+        assert_eq!(classic[0].document, 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            bulk_score,
+            contributions
+                .iter()
+                .fold(0.0_f32, |sum, value| sum + value)
+                .to_bits()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(classic_score, bulk_score);
+    }
+
+    struct PartialNormScorer;
+
+    impl Scorer for PartialNormScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, _doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            freq as f32
+        }
+
+        fn doc_norm(&self, doc_tokens: u32) -> Option<f32> {
+            (doc_tokens == 0).then_some(0.0)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_norm_cache_requires_all_norm_codes() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1);
+        docs.set_quantized_scoring(true);
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, std::iter::empty(), &docs, PartialNormScorer);
+
+        assert!(wand.norm_k_cache().is_none());
+
+        let shared = SharedNormAddends::default();
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            let wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, std::iter::empty(), &docs, PartialNormScorer)
+                .with_shared_norm_addends(shared.clone());
+            assert!(wand.norm_k_cache().is_none());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shared_norm_addends_are_built_once_and_match_local_table() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 7);
+        docs.set_quantized_scoring(true);
+        let scorer = Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(70, 10, std::collections::HashMap::new()));
+        let shared = SharedNormAddends::default();
+        let norm_addends = |shared: Option<SharedNormAddends>| {
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, std::iter::empty(), &docs, scorer.clone());
+            if let Some(shared) = shared {
+                wand = wand.with_shared_norm_addends(shared);
+            }
+            wand.norm_k_cache().unwrap().1
+        };
+
+        let first = norm_addends(Some(shared.clone()));
+        let second = norm_addends(Some(shared));
+        let local = norm_addends(None);
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &second),
+            "partitions of one query must share one table"
+        );
+        assert_eq!((*first).map(f32::to_bits), (*local).map(f32::to_bits));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_top_k_collector_reuses_frequency_slots() -> Result<()> {
+        const LIMIT: usize = 8;
+        const NUM_DOCS: usize = 10_000;
+        let mut collector = TopKCollector::new(LIMIT, LIMIT);
+
+        for doc in 0..NUM_DOCS {
+            let num_terms = doc % 4 + 1;
+            let inserted = collector.insert(
+                ScoredDoc::new(doc as u64, doc as f32),
+                num_terms as u32,
+                doc as u64,
+                (0..num_terms).map(|term| (term as u32, doc as u32)),
+            )?;
+            assert!(inserted);
+            assert!(collector.num_frequency_slots() <= LIMIT);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(collector.num_frequency_slots(), LIMIT);
+
+        let mut candidates = collector.into_candidates(|key| key)?;
+        candidates.sort_unstable_by_key(|candidate| candidate.posting_doc_id);
+        assert_eq!(candidates.len(), LIMIT);
+        for (candidate, expected_doc) in candidates.iter().zip(NUM_DOCS - LIMIT..NUM_DOCS) {
+            assert_eq!(candidate.posting_doc_id, expected_doc as u64);
+            assert_eq!(candidate.document, expected_doc as u64);
+            let expected_freqs = (0..expected_doc % 4 + 1)
+                .map(|term| (term as u32, expected_doc as u32))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert_eq!(candidate.freqs, expected_freqs);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::auto("auto", Some(BulkAndMode::Auto))]
+    #[case::auto_case_and_whitespace(" AUTO ", Some(BulkAndMode::Auto))]
+    #[case::on("on", Some(BulkAndMode::On))]
+    #[case::on_legacy("1", Some(BulkAndMode::On))]
+    #[case::off("off", Some(BulkAndMode::Off))]
+    #[case::off_legacy("0", Some(BulkAndMode::Off))]
+    #[case::invalid("true", None)]
+    #[case::empty("", None)]
+    fn test_bulk_and_mode_parse(#[case] value: &str, #[case] expected: Option<BulkAndMode>) {
+        assert_eq!(BulkAndMode::parse(value), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::auto_one(BulkAndMode::Auto, 1, false)]
+    #[case::auto_two(BulkAndMode::Auto, 2, true)]
+    #[case::auto_three(BulkAndMode::Auto, 3, true)]
+    #[case::auto_four(BulkAndMode::Auto, 4, false)]
+    #[case::on_one(BulkAndMode::On, 1, true)]
+    #[case::on_five(BulkAndMode::On, 5, true)]
+    #[case::off_two(BulkAndMode::Off, 2, false)]
+    #[case::off_five(BulkAndMode::Off, 5, false)]
+    fn test_bulk_and_mode_enabled_for(
+        #[case] mode: BulkAndMode,
+        #[case] num_clauses: usize,
+        #[case] expected: bool,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(mode.enabled_for(num_clauses), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn find_next_geq_matches_partition_point_for_full_u32_domain() {
+        let cases = [
+            vec![],
+            vec![7],
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7],
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8],
+            (0..32).collect(),
+            vec![
+                0,
+                1,
+                2,
+                3,
+                4,
+                5,
+                6,
+                7,
+                i32::MAX as u32,
+                i32::MAX as u32 + 1,
+                i32::MAX as u32 + 2,
+                i32::MAX as u32 + 3,
+                i32::MAX as u32 + 4,
+                i32::MAX as u32 + 5,
+                i32::MAX as u32 + 6,
+                u32::MAX - 2,
+                u32::MAX - 1,
+                u32::MAX,
+            ],
+        ];
+        let targets = [
+            0,
+            1,
+            6,
+            7,
+            8,
+            i32::MAX as u32 - 1,
+            i32::MAX as u32,
+            i32::MAX as u32 + 1,
+            u32::MAX - 1,
+            u32::MAX,
+        ];
+
+        for docs in &cases {
+            for pos in 0..=docs.len() {
+                for &target in &targets {
+                    let expected = pos + docs[pos..].partition_point(|&doc_id| doc_id < target);
+                    let actual = unsafe { find_next_geq(docs.as_ptr(), pos, docs.len(), target) };
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        actual, expected,
+                        "docs={docs:?}, pos={pos}, target={target}"
+                    );
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        find_next_geq_in_block(docs, pos, target),
+                        expected,
+                        "block search: docs={docs:?}, pos={pos}, target={target}"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct PanicQueryWeightScorer;
+
+    impl Scorer for PanicQueryWeightScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            panic!("query_weight should be precomputed before WAND construction");
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, _doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            freq as f32
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct InverseDocLengthScorer;
+
+    impl Scorer for InverseDocLengthScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            freq as f32 / doc_tokens as f32
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Inverse-doc-length scorer that counts scored documents, so a test can
+    // assert that block-max pruning skipped blocks.
+    struct CountingScorer {
+        scored: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    impl Scorer for CountingScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            self.scored.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            freq as f32 / doc_tokens as f32
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct CountingBm25ShapeScorer {
+        scored: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    impl Scorer for CountingBm25ShapeScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, _doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            self.scored.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, 1.2)
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+            Some(BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND)
+        }
+
+        fn doc_norm(&self, _doc_tokens: u32) -> Option<f32> {
+            Some(1.2)
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct CandidateOnlyBm25ShapeScorer {
+        norm_calls: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        unsupported_norm: Option<f32>,
+    }
+
+    impl Scorer for CandidateOnlyBm25ShapeScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, _doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, 0.4)
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+            Some(BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND)
+        }
+
+        fn doc_norm(&self, doc_tokens: u32) -> Option<f32> {
+            self.norm_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            if doc_tokens == 1 {
+                Some(0.4)
+            } else {
+                self.unsupported_norm
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct NonFiniteBoundBm25ShapeScorer;
+
+    impl Scorer for NonFiniteBoundBm25ShapeScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, _freq: u32, _doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            f32::INFINITY
+        }
+
+        fn doc_norm(&self, _doc_tokens: u32) -> Option<f32> {
+            Some(1.0)
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct VariedBm25ShapeScorer;
+
+    impl Scorer for VariedBm25ShapeScorer {
+        fn query_weight(&self, _token: &str) -> f32 {
+            1.0
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight(&self, freq: u32, doc_tokens: u32) -> f32 {
+            bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, self.doc_norm(doc_tokens).unwrap())
+        }
+
+        fn doc_weight_upper_bound(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+            Some(BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND)
+        }
+
+        fn doc_norm(&self, doc_tokens: u32) -> Option<f32> {
+            Some(0.3 + doc_tokens as f32 * 0.1)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg_attr(coverage, coverage(off))]
+    fn unit_length_docs(num_docs: usize) -> DocSet {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(doc_id as u64, 1);
+        }
+        docs
+    }
+
+    #[cfg_attr(coverage, coverage(off))]
+    fn unit_length_impact_posting(
+        term: u32,
+        doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+        frequencies: Vec<u32>,
+        num_docs: usize,
+    ) -> PostingIterator {
+        let doc_lengths = vec![1; doc_ids.len()];
+        PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            format!("t{term}"),
+            term,
+            term,
+            1.0,
+            generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                doc_ids,
+                frequencies,
+                doc_lengths,
+                MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            ),
+            num_docs,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn generate_posting_list(
+        doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+        max_score: f32,
+        block_max_scores: Option<Vec<f32>>,
+        is_compressed: bool,
+    ) -> PostingList {
+        let freqs = vec![1; doc_ids.len()];
+        generate_posting_list_with_freqs(doc_ids, freqs, max_score, block_max_scores, is_compressed)
+    }
+
+    fn generate_posting_list_with_freqs(
+        doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+        freqs: Vec<u32>,
+        max_score: f32,
+        block_max_scores: Option<Vec<f32>>,
+        is_compressed: bool,
+    ) -> PostingList {
+        assert_eq!(doc_ids.len(), freqs.len());
+        let block_max_scores = block_max_scores.unwrap_or_else(|| vec![max_score; doc_ids.len()]);
+        if is_compressed {
+            let blocks = compress_posting_list(
+                doc_ids.len(),
+                doc_ids.iter(),
+                freqs.iter(),
+                block_max_scores.into_iter(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            PostingList::Compressed(CompressedPostingList::new(
+                blocks,
+                max_score,
+                doc_ids.len() as u32,
+                crate::scalar::inverted::PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+                crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                None,
+                None,
+            ))
+        } else {
+            PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                ScalarBuffer::from_iter(doc_ids.iter().map(|id| *id as u64)),
+                ScalarBuffer::from_iter(freqs.iter().map(|freq| *freq as f32)),
+                Some(max_score),
+                None,
+            ))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs(
+        doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+        freqs: Vec<u32>,
+        doc_lengths: Vec<u32>,
+    ) -> PostingList {
+        generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+            doc_ids,
+            freqs,
+            doc_lengths,
+            crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+        doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+        freqs: Vec<u32>,
+        doc_lengths: Vec<u32>,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> PostingList {
+        assert_eq!(doc_ids.len(), freqs.len());
+        assert_eq!(doc_ids.len(), doc_lengths.len());
+        let block_max_scores = vec![0.0; doc_ids.len().div_ceil(block_size)];
+        let blocks = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            doc_ids.len(),
+            doc_ids.iter(),
+            freqs.iter(),
+            block_max_scores.into_iter(),
+            crate::scalar::inverted::PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            block_size,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let impact_blocks = doc_ids
+            .chunks(block_size)
+            .zip(freqs.chunks(block_size))
+            .zip(doc_lengths.chunks(block_size))
+            .map(|((doc_ids, freqs), doc_lengths)| {
+                doc_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .zip(freqs.iter().copied())
+                    .zip(doc_lengths.iter().copied())
+                    .map(|((doc_id, freq), doc_length)| (doc_id, freq, doc_length))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let impacts = build_impact_skip_data(impact_blocks.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        PostingList::Compressed(CompressedPostingList::new(
+            blocks,
+            0.0,
+            doc_ids.len() as u32,
+            crate::scalar::inverted::PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            block_size,
+            None,
+            Some(impacts),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn generate_contiguous_impact_posting_list_with_block_size(
+        total: usize,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> PostingList {
+        generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+            (0..total as u32).collect(),
+            vec![1; total],
+            vec![1; total],
+            block_size,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+        doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+        positions_by_doc: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+        max_score: f32,
+        is_compressed: bool,
+    ) -> PostingList {
+        let freqs = positions_by_doc
+            .iter()
+            .map(|positions| positions.len() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if is_compressed {
+            let mut builder = PostingListBuilder::new(true);
+            for (doc_id, positions) in doc_ids.iter().copied().zip(positions_by_doc) {
+                builder.add(doc_id, PositionRecorder::Position(positions.into()));
+            }
+            let batch = builder
+                .to_batch(vec![max_score; doc_ids.len().div_ceil(BLOCK_SIZE)])
+                .unwrap();
+            PostingList::from_batch(&batch, Some(max_score), Some(doc_ids.len() as u32)).unwrap()
+        } else {
+            let mut position_builder =
+                arrow::array::ListBuilder::new(arrow::array::Int32Builder::new());
+            for positions in positions_by_doc {
+                for position in positions {
+                    position_builder.values().append_value(position as i32);
+                }
+                position_builder.append(true);
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(PlainPostingList::new(
+                ScalarBuffer::from_iter(doc_ids.iter().map(|id| *id as u64)),
+                ScalarBuffer::from_iter(freqs.iter().map(|freq| *freq as f32)),
+                Some(max_score),
+                Some(position_builder.finish()),
+            ))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::packed_delta(PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta)]
+    #[case::varint_doc_delta(PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta)]
+    fn test_shared_position_cursors_use_independent_scratch(
+        #[case] codec: PositionStreamCodec,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut posting_list =
+            generate_posting_list_with_positions(vec![0], vec![vec![1_u32, 3, 10]], 1.0, true);
+        let PostingList::Compressed(ref mut list) = posting_list else {
+            unreachable!("the helper was asked for a compressed posting list");
+        };
+        let mut encoded = Vec::new();
+        encode_position_stream_block_into(&[1, 3, 10], &[3], codec, &mut encoded)?;
+        list.positions = Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(
+            SharedPositionStream::new(codec, vec![0], bytes::Bytes::from(encoded)),
+        ));
+
+        let posting = PostingIterator::new(String::from("term"), 0, 0, posting_list, 1);
+        let first = posting.position_cursor()?;
+        let second = posting.position_cursor()?;
+
+        assert_eq!(second.positions.as_slice(), &[1, 3, 10]);
+        assert_eq!(first.positions.as_slice(), &[1, 3, 10]);
+        assert!(posting.position_scratch.borrow().is_none());
+        drop(second);
+        assert!(posting.position_scratch.borrow().is_some());
+        drop(first);
+        assert!(posting.position_scratch.borrow().is_some());
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_phrase_search_propagates_corrupt_packed_positions() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 1);
+
+        let mut corrupt_list = generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+            vec![0],
+            vec![(0..BLOCK_SIZE as u32).collect()],
+            1.0,
+            true,
+        );
+        let PostingList::Compressed(ref mut list) = corrupt_list else {
+            unreachable!("the helper was asked for a compressed posting list");
+        };
+        // A bit width of one requires a 16-byte payload. Keep only the header
+        // to verify malformed on-disk data becomes a search error, not a panic.
+        list.positions = Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(
+            SharedPositionStream::new(
+                PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta,
+                vec![0],
+                bytes::Bytes::from_static(&[1]),
+            ),
+        ));
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(String::from("corrupt"), 0, 0, corrupt_list, docs.len()),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("valid"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![BLOCK_SIZE as u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    true,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        let mut params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10));
+        params.phrase_slop = Some(0);
+
+        let error = wand
+            .search(&params, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .expect_err("corrupt packed positions should fail the phrase search");
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("packed position group payload"),
+            "{message}"
+        );
+        assert!(message.contains("corrupt"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    fn sorted_candidate_row_ids(candidates: Vec<DocCandidate<u64>>) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let mut row_ids = candidates
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|candidate| candidate.document)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        row_ids.sort_unstable();
+        row_ids
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wand(#[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..2 * BLOCK_SIZE {
+            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        // when the pivot is greater than 0, and the first posting list is exhausted after shallow_next
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("test"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list(
+                    Vec::from_iter(0..=BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 1),
+                    1.0,
+                    None,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("full"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 2], 1.0, None, is_compressed),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+        // This should trigger the bug when the second posting list becomes empty
+        let result = wand
+            .search(&FtsSearchParams::default(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 0); // Should not panic
+    }
+
+    /// The shared floor prunes partitions that can't reach the global top-k: a
+    /// high-scoring partition sets the floor and the rest skip their blocks.
+    /// (Result correctness is covered by the FTS search tests, since sharing is
+    /// always on.)
+    #[test]
+    fn cross_partition_threshold_sharing_prunes() {
+        use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+        use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;
+
+        #[derive(Default)]
+        struct CountComparisons(AtomicUsize);
+        impl MetricsCollector for CountComparisons {
+            fn record_parts_loaded(&self, _: usize) {}
+            fn record_index_loads(&self, _: usize) {}
+            fn record_comparisons(&self, n: usize) {
+                self.0.fetch_add(n, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10));
+        let part_docs = 4 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        // One high-scoring partition (weight 10) then 7 low-scoring ones.
+        let parts: Vec<(f32, std::ops::Range<u32>)> = std::iter::once((10.0, 0..part_docs))
+            .chain((1..8).map(|i| (1.0, i * part_docs..(i + 1) * part_docs)))
+            .collect();
+
+        let new_floor = || Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(f32::NEG_INFINITY.to_bits()));
+
+        // Total comparisons across all partitions. `Some(floor)` makes every
+        // partition share that one floor; `None` gives each its own.
+        let total_comparisons = |shared_floor: Option<&Arc<AtomicU32>>| -> usize {
+            let metrics = CountComparisons::default();
+            for (qw, rows) in &parts {
+                let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+                for d in rows.clone() {
+                    docs.append(d as u64, 1);
+                }
+                let postings = vec![PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    String::from("t"),
+                    0,
+                    0,
+                    *qw,
+                    generate_posting_list(rows.clone().collect(), *qw, None, false),
+                    docs.len(),
+                )];
+                let floor = shared_floor.cloned().unwrap_or_else(new_floor);
+                Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer)
+                    .with_shared_threshold(floor)
+                    .search(&params, &metrics)
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            metrics.0.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+        };
+
+        let one_floor = new_floor();
+        let with_shared_floor = total_comparisons(Some(&one_floor));
+        let with_private_floors = total_comparisons(None);
+        assert!(
+            with_shared_floor < with_private_floors,
+            "shared floor should prune comparisons: \
+             shared={with_shared_floor} private={with_private_floors}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_posting_iterator_next_compressed_partition_point() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        let num_docs = (BLOCK_SIZE * 2 + 5) as u32;
+        for i in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        let doc_ids = (0..num_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let posting = generate_posting_list(doc_ids, 1.0, None, true);
+        let mut iter = PostingIterator::new(String::from("term"), 0, 0, posting, docs.len());
+
+        iter.next(10);
+        assert_eq!(iter.doc().unwrap().doc_id(), 10);
+
+        let target = BLOCK_SIZE as u64 + 3;
+        iter.next(target);
+        assert_eq!(iter.doc().unwrap().doc_id(), target);
+
+        iter.next(num_docs as u64 + 10);
+        assert!(iter.doc().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn posting_iterator_fork_restarts_shared_compressed_payload() {
+        let num_docs = (BLOCK_SIZE * 2 + 5) as u32;
+        let posting = generate_posting_list((0..num_docs).collect(), 1.0, None, true);
+        let mut original =
+            PostingIterator::new(String::from("term"), 7, 3, posting, num_docs as usize);
+
+        original.next(BLOCK_SIZE as u64 + 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            original.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id()),
+            Some(BLOCK_SIZE as u64 + 3)
+        );
+
+        let mut replay = original.fork_from_start();
+        assert_eq!(replay.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id()), Some(0));
+        replay.next(5);
+        assert_eq!(replay.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id()), Some(5));
+        assert_eq!(
+            original.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id()),
+            Some(BLOCK_SIZE as u64 + 3),
+            "fork advancement must not mutate the membership cursor"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_wand_skip_to_next_block() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..201 {
+            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        let large_posting_docs1: Vec<u32> = (0..=200).collect();
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("full"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list(large_posting_docs1, 1.0, Some(vec![0.5, 0.5]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("text"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![0], 1.0, Some(vec![0.5]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+
+        // set a threshold that the sum of max scores can hit,
+        // but the sum of block max scores is less than the threshold,
+        wand.threshold = 1.5;
+
+        let result = wand.search(&FtsSearchParams::default(), &NoOpMetricsCollector);
+
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_or_single_term_block_skip_matches_and() {
+        // Hot docs occupy the middle block; the flanking blocks score far below
+        // the threshold. A single-term disjunction must skip them yet return what
+        // the conjunctive path returns.
+        let total = 3 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let hot = BLOCK_SIZE as u32..BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 12;
+
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for row_id in 0..total {
+            // hot docs get distinct scores 1/1..1/12; the rest score 0.001
+            let doc_tokens = if hot.contains(&row_id) {
+                row_id - hot.start + 1
+            } else {
+                1000
+            };
+            docs.append(row_id as u64, doc_tokens);
+        }
+
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10));
+        let run = |operator| {
+            let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+            let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("term"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(
+                    (0..total).collect(),
+                    1.0,
+                    Some(vec![0.001, 1.0, 0.001]),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            );
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(
+                operator,
+                std::iter::once(posting),
+                &docs,
+                CountingScorer {
+                    scored: scored.clone(),
+                },
+            );
+            let hits = wand.search(&params, &NoOpMetricsCollector).unwrap();
+            let mut row_ids = hits.iter().map(|hit| hit.document).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            row_ids.sort_unstable();
+            (row_ids, scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed))
+        };
+
+        let (or_hits, or_scored) = run(Operator::Or);
+        let (and_hits, _) = run(Operator::And);
+
+        let expected = (hot.start..hot.start + 10)
+            .map(u64::from)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(or_hits, expected, "OR must return the top-k");
+        assert_eq!(or_hits, and_hits, "OR and AND must agree for a single term");
+        // Without pruning OR scores all `total` docs; with it the cold blocks are skipped.
+        assert!(
+            or_scored <= 2 * BLOCK_SIZE,
+            "expected pruning to skip a block, but scored {or_scored} of {total}",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_or_search_records_comparisons(#[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for row_id in 0..6 {
+            docs.append(row_id, 1);
+        }
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("alpha"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![0, 1, 4], 1.0, None, is_compressed),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("beta"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![1, 2, 5], 1.0, None, is_compressed),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let candidates = wand.search(&FtsSearchParams::default(), &metrics).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(sorted_candidate_row_ids(candidates), vec![0, 1, 2, 4, 5]);
+        assert!(metrics.comparisons.load(Ordering::Relaxed) > 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_wand_new_uses_precomputed_query_weight() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(1, 1);
+
+        let postings = vec![PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            2.0,
+            generate_posting_list(vec![0], 1.0, None, false),
+            docs.len(),
+        )];
+
+        let wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            PanicQueryWeightScorer,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(wand.head.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_and_search_terminates_for_disjoint_postings() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..6 {
+            docs.append(i, 1);
+        }
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![0, 2, 4], 1.0, None, false),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![1, 3, 5], 1.0, None, false),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        assert!(wand.next().unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_up_to_refreshes_on_first_candidate() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..=(BLOCK_SIZE as u64 + 1) {
+            docs.append(i, 1);
+        }
+
+        let postings = vec![PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            generate_posting_list(
+                (0..=(BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 1)).collect(),
+                1.0,
+                Some(vec![1.0, 1.0]),
+                true,
+            ),
+            docs.len(),
+        )];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        assert!(wand.up_to.is_none());
+        let _ = wand.next().unwrap();
+        assert!(wand.up_to.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_or_push_back_lead_uses_current_block_max_for_tail_bound() {
+        let total = 2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..total {
+            docs.append(doc_id as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        let postings = vec![PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            generate_posting_list((0..total).collect(), 10.0, Some(vec![1.0, 10.0]), true),
+            docs.len(),
+        )];
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        wand.threshold = 1.5;
+
+        wand.update_max_scores(0);
+        wand.move_head_doc_to_lead(0);
+        assert_eq!(wand.up_to, Some((BLOCK_SIZE - 1) as u64));
+
+        wand.push_back_leads(1);
+
+        assert_eq!(wand.tail.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            (wand.tail_max_score - 1.0).abs() < 1e-6,
+            "tail should use the current block max, got {}",
+            wand.tail_max_score
+        );
+        assert!(wand.head_doc().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_or_push_back_lead_falls_back_after_block_window_expires() {
+        let total = 2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..total {
+            docs.append(doc_id as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        let freqs = (0..total)
+            .map(|doc_id| if doc_id >= BLOCK_SIZE as u32 { 10 } else { 1 })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            generate_posting_list_with_freqs(
+                (0..total).collect(),
+                freqs,
+                10.0,
+                Some(vec![1.0, 10.0]),
+                true,
+            ),
+            docs.len(),
+        );
+        posting.next((BLOCK_SIZE - 1) as u64);
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, std::iter::once(posting), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        wand.threshold = 1.5;
+
+        let block_end = (BLOCK_SIZE - 1) as u64;
+        wand.update_max_scores(block_end);
+        wand.move_head_doc_to_lead(block_end);
+        assert_eq!(wand.up_to, Some(block_end));
+
+        wand.push_back_leads(BLOCK_SIZE as u64);
+
+        assert!(wand.tail.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(wand.head_doc(), Some(BLOCK_SIZE as u64));
+        let candidate = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(candidate.0.doc_id(), BLOCK_SIZE as u64);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_non_positive_threshold_advances_without_impact_bound_scoring() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..3 {
+            docs.append(doc_id, 1);
+        }
+        let make_posting = || {
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("term"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs(
+                    vec![0, 1, 2],
+                    vec![1, 1, 1],
+                    vec![1, 1, 1],
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            )
+        };
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            std::iter::once(make_posting()),
+            &docs,
+            CountingScorer {
+                scored: scored.clone(),
+            },
+        );
+        wand.move_head_before_target_to_tail(1);
+        assert_eq!(wand.head_doc(), Some(1));
+        assert!(wand.tail.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            std::iter::once(make_posting()),
+            &docs,
+            CountingScorer {
+                scored: scored.clone(),
+            },
+        );
+        wand.move_head_doc_to_lead(0);
+        wand.push_back_leads(1);
+        assert_eq!(wand.head_doc(), Some(1));
+        assert!(wand.tail.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_or_plain_tail_does_not_advance_headless_window() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..4 {
+            docs.append(doc_id, 1);
+        }
+
+        let postings = vec![PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            generate_posting_list(vec![0, 1, 2, 3], 1.0, None, false),
+            docs.len(),
+        )];
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        wand.threshold = 2.0;
+
+        wand.update_max_scores(0);
+        wand.move_head_doc_to_lead(0);
+        wand.push_back_leads(1);
+
+        assert_eq!(wand.tail.len(), 1);
+        assert!(wand.head_doc().is_none());
+        assert!(!wand.advance_tail_to_next_or_window());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_or_headless_tail_window_scans_past_final_top_tail() {
+        let total = 3 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..total {
+            docs.append(doc_id as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        let future_docs = (0..BLOCK_SIZE as u32)
+            .chain(2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32..3 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut future_freqs = vec![1; future_docs.len()];
+        future_freqs[0] = 4;
+        future_freqs[BLOCK_SIZE] = 20;
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("future"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_freqs(
+                    future_docs,
+                    future_freqs,
+                    20.0,
+                    Some(vec![4.0, 20.0]),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("final_tail"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_freqs(vec![0], vec![6], 6.0, Some(vec![6.0]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("booster"),
+                2,
+                2,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_freqs(vec![0], vec![7], 7.0, Some(vec![7.0]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        let result = wand
+            .search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            sorted_candidate_row_ids(result),
+            vec![(2 * BLOCK_SIZE) as u64]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_and_search_prunes_with_threshold_and_keeps_candidate() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..(2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u64) {
+            let doc_tokens = if i < BLOCK_SIZE as u64 { 100 } else { 1 };
+            docs.append(i, doc_tokens);
+        }
+        let all_docs = (0..2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(all_docs.clone(), 1.0, Some(vec![0.02, 1.0]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(all_docs, 1.0, Some(vec![0.02, 1.0]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            InverseDocLengthScorer,
+        );
+        wand.threshold = 0.5;
+
+        let candidate = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(candidate.0.doc_id(), BLOCK_SIZE as u64);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_and_advance_falls_back_to_narrow_when_range_max_loosens_bound() {
+        let total = 4 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..total {
+            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        let lead_docs = (0..total).step_by(2).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let follower_docs = (0..total).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("lead"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(lead_docs, 1.0, Some(vec![1.0, 1.0]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("follower"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(follower_docs, 10.0, Some(vec![0.1, 10.0, 0.1, 0.1]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        wand.threshold = 5.0;
+
+        let target = wand.and_advance_target(0);
+
+        assert_eq!(target, BLOCK_SIZE as u64);
+        assert_eq!(wand.up_to, Some((2 * BLOCK_SIZE - 1) as u64));
+        assert!(
+            (wand.and_max_score - 11.0).abs() < 1e-6,
+            "expected the second narrow window to include the high follower block, got {}",
+            wand.and_max_score
+        );
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.windows_wide, 0);
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.windows_narrow, 2);
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.windows_skipped, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_and_advance_uses_narrow_window_for_candidate_ranges() {
+        let total = 4 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..total {
+            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        let lead_docs = (0..total).step_by(2).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let follower_docs = (0..total).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("lead"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(lead_docs, 1.0, Some(vec![1.0, 1.0]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("follower"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(follower_docs, 1.0, Some(vec![1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        wand.threshold = 1.5;
+
+        let target = wand.and_advance_target(0);
+
+        assert_eq!(target, 0);
+        assert_eq!(wand.up_to, Some((BLOCK_SIZE - 1) as u64));
+        assert!((wand.and_max_score - 2.0).abs() < 1e-6);
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.windows_wide, 0);
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.windows_narrow, 1);
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.range_blocks_scanned, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_and_wide_window_only_skips_and_does_not_return_candidates() {
+        let total = 4 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..total {
+            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        let lead_docs = (0..total).step_by(2).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let follower_docs = (0..total).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("lead"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(lead_docs, 3.0, Some(vec![1.0, 3.0]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("follower"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(follower_docs, 3.0, Some(vec![0.1, 0.1, 3.0, 3.0]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        wand.threshold = 2.0;
+
+        let candidate = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(candidate.0.doc_id(), (2 * BLOCK_SIZE) as u64);
+        assert_eq!(wand.up_to, Some((3 * BLOCK_SIZE - 1) as u64));
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.windows_wide, 1);
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.windows_skipped, 1);
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.windows_narrow, 1);
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.candidates_returned, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_and_range_max_preserves_exact_top_k() {
+        let total = 4 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let hot = BLOCK_SIZE as u32..BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 16;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..total {
+            let doc_tokens = if hot.contains(&doc_id) { 1 } else { 1000 };
+            docs.append(doc_id as u64, doc_tokens);
+        }
+
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(8));
+        let run = |is_compressed: bool| {
+            let lead_docs = (0..total).step_by(2).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let follower_docs = (0..total).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let lead_scores = is_compressed.then_some(vec![1.0, 0.001]);
+            let follower_scores = is_compressed.then_some(vec![0.001, 1.0, 0.001, 0.001]);
+            let postings = vec![
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    String::from("lead"),
+                    0,
+                    0,
+                    1.0,
+                    generate_posting_list(lead_docs, 1.0, lead_scores, is_compressed),
+                    docs.len(),
+                ),
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    String::from("follower"),
+                    1,
+                    1,
+                    1.0,
+                    generate_posting_list(follower_docs, 1.0, follower_scores, is_compressed),
+                    docs.len(),
+                ),
+            ];
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(
+                Operator::And,
+                postings.into_iter(),
+                &docs,
+                InverseDocLengthScorer,
+            );
+            sorted_candidate_row_ids(wand.search(&params, &NoOpMetricsCollector).unwrap())
+        };
+
+        let compressed = run(true);
+        let plain = run(false);
+        let expected = hot.step_by(2).map(u64::from).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(compressed, expected);
+        assert_eq!(compressed, plain);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_max_score_up_to_slides_and_expires_old_max() {
+        let total = 5 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let posting = generate_posting_list(
+            (0..total).collect(),
+            5.0,
+            Some(vec![1.0, 4.0, 2.0, 5.0, 3.0]),
+            true,
+        );
+        let mut posting = PostingIterator::new(String::from("term"), 0, 0, posting, total as usize);
+
+        posting.shallow_next(0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            posting
+                .block_max_score_up_to_with_stats((3 * BLOCK_SIZE - 1) as u64, &UnitScorer)
+                .score,
+            4.0
+        );
+
+        posting.shallow_next((2 * BLOCK_SIZE) as u64);
+        assert_eq!(
+            posting
+                .block_max_score_up_to_with_stats((4 * BLOCK_SIZE - 1) as u64, &UnitScorer)
+                .score,
+            5.0
+        );
+
+        posting.shallow_next((4 * BLOCK_SIZE) as u64);
+        assert_eq!(
+            posting
+                .block_max_score_up_to_with_stats((5 * BLOCK_SIZE - 1) as u64, &UnitScorer)
+                .score,
+            3.0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_impact_level1_skip_keeps_boundary_equality_in_group() {
+        for block_size in [crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, 256] {
+            let total = (IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS + 1) * block_size;
+            let mut posting = PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("term"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_contiguous_impact_posting_list_with_block_size(total, block_size),
+                total,
+            );
+            let target = (IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS * block_size - 1) as u64;
+
+            posting.shallow_next(target);
+            assert_eq!(posting.block_idx, IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS - 1);
+
+            posting.next(target);
+            assert_eq!(posting.block_idx, IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS - 1);
+            assert_eq!(posting.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id()), Some(target));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_impact_level1_skip_handles_partial_final_group() {
+        for block_size in [crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, 256] {
+            let total = (IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS + 3) * block_size + 17;
+            let mut posting = PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("term"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_contiguous_impact_posting_list_with_block_size(total, block_size),
+                total,
+            );
+            let target = (total - 1) as u64;
+            let expected_block = total.div_ceil(block_size) - 1;
+
+            posting.shallow_next(target);
+            assert_eq!(posting.block_idx, expected_block);
+
+            posting.next(target);
+            assert_eq!(posting.block_idx, expected_block);
+            assert_eq!(posting.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id()), Some(target));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_impact_level1_skip_reaches_far_target_doc() {
+        for block_size in [crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, 256] {
+            let total = (IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS * 3 + 5) * block_size;
+            let target_block = IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS * 2 + 2;
+            let target = (target_block * block_size + 17) as u64;
+            let mut posting = PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("term"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_contiguous_impact_posting_list_with_block_size(total, block_size),
+                total,
+            );
+
+            posting.shallow_next(target);
+            assert_eq!(posting.block_idx, target_block);
+
+            posting.next(target);
+            assert_eq!(posting.block_idx, target_block);
+            assert_eq!(posting.doc().map(|doc| doc.doc_id()), Some(target));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_or_impact_level1_window_skips_low_group_with_single_score() {
+        let total = (IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS + 1) * BLOCK_SIZE;
+        let target = (IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS * BLOCK_SIZE) as u64;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..total as u64 {
+            docs.append(doc_id, 1);
+        }
+
+        let doc_ids = (0..total as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let freqs = doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|doc_id| if u64::from(*doc_id) < target { 1 } else { 10 })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let posting_list = generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs(doc_ids, freqs, vec![1; total]);
+        let mut probe = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            posting_list.clone(),
+            docs.len(),
+        );
+        probe.shallow_next(0);
+        let counting_scorer = CountingScorer {
+            scored: Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0)),
+        };
+        let (group_up_to, group_score) = probe.impact_group_bound(&counting_scorer).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(group_up_to, target - 1);
+        assert_eq!(group_score, 1.0);
+        // A window ending past the current block must answer from level1.
+        assert_eq!(
+            probe.window_max_score(Some(target - 1), &counting_scorer),
+            1.0
+        );
+
+        let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            posting_list,
+            docs.len(),
+        );
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            std::iter::once(posting),
+            &docs,
+            CountingScorer {
+                scored: scored.clone(),
+            },
+        );
+        wand.threshold = 2.0;
+
+        let (candidate, score) = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(candidate.doc_id(), target);
+        assert_eq!(score, 10.0);
+        // The doc-weight bounds bake exactly once (one doc_weight call per
+        // frontier pair across all entries); beyond that only the returned
+        // candidate is scored.
+        let total_entries = (IMPACT_LEVEL1_BLOCKS + 1) + 2;
+        assert!(
+            scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed) <= total_entries + 8,
+            "bounds should be baked once instead of recomputed per window; scored={}",
+            scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compressed_impact_block_max_score_memoizes_current_block() {
+        let total = 2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let doc_ids = (0..total).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let freqs = doc_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|doc_id| if *doc_id < BLOCK_SIZE as u32 { 1 } else { 2 })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let doc_lengths = vec![1; total as usize];
+        let posting_list = generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs(doc_ids, freqs, doc_lengths);
+        let mut posting =
+            PostingIterator::new(String::from("term"), 0, 0, posting_list, total as usize);
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let scorer = CountingScorer {
+            scored: scored.clone(),
+        };
+
+        let first_score = posting.block_max_score(&scorer);
+        assert_eq!(first_score, 1.0);
+        // Baking the query-local doc-weight bounds visits every frontier pair
+        // once (two level0 entries plus one level1 entry for this list).
+        let baked = scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        assert!(baked >= 2);
+        {
+            let compressed = unsafe { &mut *posting.compressed_state_ptr() };
+            assert_eq!(
+                compressed.level0_cache,
+                Some((0, BLOCK_SIZE as u32 - 1, first_score))
+            );
+        }
+
+        let second_score = posting.block_max_score(&scorer);
+        assert_eq!(second_score, first_score);
+        assert_eq!(
+            scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            baked,
+            "repeated block max scores must not recompute doc weights"
+        );
+
+        posting.shallow_next(BLOCK_SIZE as u64);
+        let next_block_score = posting.block_max_score(&scorer);
+        assert_eq!(next_block_score, 2.0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            baked,
+            "other blocks answer from the baked bounds without rescoring"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(0.0)]
+    #[case(-1.0)]
+    fn test_non_positive_query_weight_skips_global_impact_bound(#[case] query_weight: f32) {
+        let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            query_weight,
+            generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs(vec![0], vec![1], vec![1]),
+            1,
+        );
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let scorer = CountingScorer {
+            scored: scored.clone(),
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(posting.global_upper_bound(&scorer), 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_and_candidate_prune_scores_first_term_before_full_score() {
+        let total_docs = 2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 1;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..total_docs {
+            let doc_tokens = if doc_id == 0 { 1 } else { 1000 };
+            docs.append(doc_id as u64, doc_tokens);
+        }
+
+        let first_docs = (0..2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let second_docs = (0..total_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(first_docs, 1.0, Some(vec![1.0, 0.001]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(second_docs, 1.0, Some(vec![1.0, 0.001, 0.001]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingScorer {
+                scored: scored.clone(),
+            },
+        );
+
+        let result = wand
+            .search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let addrs = result
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|doc| doc.document)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(addrs, vec![0]);
+        let scored = scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        // The bulk path evaluates 63 doc weights up front to fill its
+        // frequency-bound prune LUT; those are bound computations, not
+        // per-candidate scoring.
+        assert!(
+            scored <= BLOCK_SIZE + 1 + 63,
+            "expected candidate pruning to avoid full scoring in the first block, scored {scored}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_and_candidate_prune_keeps_top_candidate() {
+        let total_docs = 2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 1;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..total_docs {
+            let doc_tokens = if doc_id == 0 { 1 } else { 1000 };
+            docs.append(doc_id as u64, doc_tokens);
+        }
+
+        let first_docs = (0..2 * BLOCK_SIZE as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let second_docs = (0..total_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(first_docs, 1.0, Some(vec![1.0, 0.001]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(second_docs, 1.0, Some(vec![1.0, 0.001, 0.001]), true),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            InverseDocLengthScorer,
+        );
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let result = wand
+            .search(&FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1)), &metrics)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let addrs = result
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|doc| doc.document)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(addrs, vec![0]);
+
+        assert_eq!(metrics.comparisons.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_and_candidate_prune_keeps_later_high_score_candidate() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..3 {
+            docs.append(doc_id, 1);
+        }
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_freqs(
+                    vec![0, 1],
+                    vec![10, 1],
+                    10.0,
+                    Some(vec![10.0]),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_freqs(
+                    vec![0, 1, 2],
+                    vec![1, 20, 1],
+                    20.0,
+                    Some(vec![20.0]),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        let result = wand
+            .search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let addrs = result
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|doc| doc.document)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(addrs, vec![1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_checks_first_follower_before_decoding_lead_frequency() {
+        let postings = [
+            vec![0],
+            vec![100, 101],
+            vec![100, 101, 102],
+            vec![100, 101, 102, 103],
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(term, doc_ids)| {
+            unit_length_impact_posting(term as u32, doc_ids.clone(), vec![1; doc_ids.len()], 104)
+        });
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: 104,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: 104,
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings, &docs, VariedBm25ShapeScorer)
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_enabled);
+        wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+
+        assert!(wand.next().unwrap().is_none());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_norm_k.get().is_none());
+        assert!(
+            wand.lead
+                .iter()
+                .all(|posting| posting.frequency_blocks_decoded() == 0),
+            "the first follower miss must leapfrog before any frequency decode"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_checks_all_followers_before_decoding_frequencies() {
+        let postings = [
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0, 200],
+            vec![100, 101, 102],
+            vec![100, 101, 102, 103],
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(term, doc_ids)| {
+            unit_length_impact_posting(term as u32, doc_ids.clone(), vec![1; doc_ids.len()], 201)
+        });
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: 201,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: 201,
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings, &docs, VariedBm25ShapeScorer)
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_enabled);
+        wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+
+        assert!(wand.next().unwrap().is_none());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_norm_k.get().is_none());
+        let decoded_by_term = wand
+            .lead
+            .iter()
+            .map(|posting| (posting.token_id, posting.frequency_blocks_decoded()))
+            .sorted_unstable()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(decoded_by_term, vec![(0, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0)]);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::dense(false, true, true, Some((0, MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64 - 1)))]
+    #[case::hole(true, true, true, None)]
+    #[case::dead_window(false, false, true, None)]
+    #[case::initial_dead_window(false, false, false, None)]
+    fn score_first_and_certifies_only_dense_blocks(
+        #[case] has_hole: bool,
+        #[case] is_live_window: bool,
+        #[case] has_prior_live_window: bool,
+        #[case] expected: Option<(u64, u64)>,
+    ) {
+        let postings = (0..4)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let doc_ids: Vec<u32> = if term == 1 && has_hole {
+                    (0..128).chain(129..=256).chain([300]).collect()
+                } else {
+                    (0..MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + term).collect()
+                };
+                unit_length_impact_posting(term, doc_ids.clone(), vec![1; doc_ids.len()], 301)
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: 301,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: 301,
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+        )
+        .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+
+        if has_prior_live_window {
+            assert_eq!(wand.and_advance_target(0), 0);
+        } else {
+            wand.threshold = f32::MAX;
+            wand.and_move_to_next_block(0);
+        }
+        // Empty decoded buffers make any payload access during preparation observable.
+        let decoded_doc_ids = wand
+            .lead
+            .iter()
+            .map(|posting| {
+                let compressed = unsafe { &mut *posting.compressed.as_ref().unwrap().get() };
+                (
+                    compressed.block_idx,
+                    std::mem::take(&mut compressed.doc_ids),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if !is_live_window {
+            wand.threshold = f32::MAX;
+        }
+        wand.prepare_score_first_and_window();
+        assert_eq!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range, expected);
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_norm_k.get().is_none());
+        if expected.is_some() {
+            assert_eq!(wand.score_first_and_bounds_up_to, wand.up_to);
+            assert_eq!(
+                wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.len(),
+                wand.lead.len() + 1
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert!(wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.is_empty());
+            assert!(wand.score_first_and_bounds_up_to.is_none());
+        }
+        for (posting, (block_idx, doc_ids)) in wand.lead.iter().zip(decoded_doc_ids) {
+            let compressed = unsafe { &mut *posting.compressed.as_ref().unwrap().get() };
+            assert_eq!(compressed.block_idx, block_idx);
+            assert!(compressed.doc_ids.is_empty());
+            compressed.doc_ids = doc_ids;
+        }
+        assert!(
+            wand.lead
+                .iter()
+                .all(|posting| posting.frequency_blocks_decoded() == 0),
+            "metadata certification must not decode frequencies"
+        );
+        if !has_hole && is_live_window {
+            wand.seek(100);
+            assert!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+            assert_eq!(wand.and_advance_target(100), 100);
+            assert_eq!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range, Some((100, 255)));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_certifies_short_tail_without_decoding_it() {
+        let postings = (0..4)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let doc_ids = (0..MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 1 + term).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                unit_length_impact_posting(
+                    term,
+                    doc_ids.clone(),
+                    vec![1; doc_ids.len()],
+                    MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE + 4,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE + 4,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE + 4,
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+        )
+        .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        for posting in &mut wand.lead {
+            posting.next_doc_id(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64, true);
+        }
+        wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            wand.and_advance_target(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64),
+            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            wand.score_first_and_dense_range,
+            Some((MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64, MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64))
+        );
+        assert!(
+            wand.lead
+                .iter()
+                .all(|posting| posting.frequency_blocks_decoded() == 0)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_intersects_differently_aligned_dense_blocks() {
+        let starts = [0, 100, 50, 80];
+        let postings = starts.into_iter().enumerate().map(|(term, start)| {
+            let doc_ids =
+                (start..start + MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + term as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            unit_length_impact_posting(term as u32, doc_ids.clone(), vec![1; doc_ids.len()], 400)
+        });
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: 400,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: 400,
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings, &docs, VariedBm25ShapeScorer)
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_advance_target(0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range, Some((100, 255)));
+        assert_eq!(wand.next().unwrap().unwrap().0.doc_id(), 100);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_certifies_first_live_window_after_impact_skip() {
+        let total_docs = 2 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let postings = (0..4).map(|term| {
+            let doc_ids = (0..total_docs + term).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let freqs = doc_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|doc_id| {
+                    if *doc_id < MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32 {
+                        1
+                    } else {
+                        20
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            unit_length_impact_posting(term, doc_ids, freqs, total_docs as usize + 4)
+        });
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: total_docs as usize + 4,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: total_docs as usize + 4,
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings, &docs, VariedBm25ShapeScorer)
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        wand.threshold = 7.0;
+
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_advance_target(0), MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64);
+        assert!(wand.and_window_stats.windows_skipped > 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            wand.score_first_and_dense_range,
+            Some((
+                MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64,
+                2 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64 - 1
+            ))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_rejects_malformed_block_count_certificate() {
+        let postings = (0..4).map(|term| {
+            let doc_ids = (0..MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + term).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let mut list = generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                doc_ids.clone(),
+                vec![1; doc_ids.len()],
+                vec![1; doc_ids.len()],
+                MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            );
+            if term == 3 {
+                let PostingList::Compressed(list) = &mut list else {
+                    unreachable!();
+                };
+                list.length += MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+            }
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                format!("t{term}"),
+                term,
+                term,
+                1.0,
+                list,
+                2 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            )
+        });
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: 2 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: 2 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings, &docs, VariedBm25ShapeScorer)
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_advance_target(0), 0);
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn dense_certificate_does_not_replace_membership_checks() {
+        let postings = [
+            vec![1],
+            vec![0, 0, 2],
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 3],
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(term, doc_ids)| {
+            unit_length_impact_posting(term as u32, doc_ids.clone(), vec![1; doc_ids.len()], 5)
+        });
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: 5,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: 5,
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings, &docs, VariedBm25ShapeScorer)
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_advance_target(1), 1);
+        assert_eq!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range, Some((1, 1)));
+        assert!(wand.next().unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::unsupported(None, 6)]
+    #[case::negative(Some(-1.0), 261)]
+    #[case::non_finite(Some(f32::INFINITY), 261)]
+    fn score_first_and_norm_cache_matches_uncached_score_bits(
+        #[case] unsupported_norm: Option<f32>,
+        #[case] expected_norm_calls: usize,
+    ) {
+        fn run<S: Scorer>(scorer: S, docs: &DocSet) -> (Vec<(u64, u32)>, Option<bool>) {
+            let postings = (0..4).map(|term| {
+                let doc_ids = (0..4 + term).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let freqs = doc_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|doc_id| (doc_id + term) % 4 + 1)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term,
+                    term,
+                    0.001_882_293 + term as f32 * 0.000_173_205,
+                    generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                        doc_ids.clone(),
+                        freqs,
+                        vec![1; doc_ids.len()],
+                        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                )
+            });
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings, docs, scorer)
+                .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+            assert!(wand.score_first_and_enabled);
+            assert!(wand.score_first_and_norm_k.get().is_none());
+            wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+
+            let mut scored = Vec::new();
+            while let Some((doc, score)) = wand.next().unwrap() {
+                scored.push((doc.doc_id(), score.to_bits()));
+                if doc.doc_id() == 0 {
+                    let norm_cache_ptr = wand
+                        .score_first_and_norm_k
+                        .get()
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|(_, cache)| cache.as_ptr());
+                    wand.seek(1);
+                    assert!(wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.is_empty());
+                    assert!(wand.score_first_and_bounds_up_to.is_none());
+                    assert!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        wand.score_first_and_norm_k
+                            .get()
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .map(|(_, cache)| cache.as_ptr()),
+                        norm_cache_ptr
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+            let cache_state = wand
+                .score_first_and_norm_k
+                .get()
+                .map(|cache| cache.is_some());
+            (scored, cache_state)
+        }
+
+        let mut docs = unit_length_docs(7);
+        docs.set_quantized_scoring(true);
+
+        let (cached, cached_state) = run(VariedBm25ShapeScorer, &docs);
+        let norm_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let (uncached, uncached_state) = run(
+            CandidateOnlyBm25ShapeScorer {
+                norm_calls: norm_calls.clone(),
+                unsupported_norm,
+            },
+            &docs,
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(cached_state, Some(true));
+        assert_eq!(uncached_state, Some(false));
+        assert_eq!(cached, uncached);
+        assert_eq!(cached.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            norm_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            expected_norm_calls,
+            "unsupported norm tables must be attempted once, then use the per-candidate fallback"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn score_first_and_clears_certified_window_before_phrase_search(
+        #[values(4, 5)] num_terms: u32,
+    ) {
+        let mut docs = unit_length_docs(2);
+        docs.set_quantized_scoring(true);
+        let postings = (0..num_terms).map(|term| {
+            let mut list = generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                vec![0, 1],
+                vec![1, 1],
+                vec![1, 1],
+                MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            );
+            let PostingList::Compressed(compressed) = &mut list else {
+                unreachable!();
+            };
+            let codec = PositionStreamCodec::PackedDelta;
+            let mut encoded = Vec::new();
+            encode_position_stream_block_into(&[term, term], &[1, 1], codec, &mut encoded).unwrap();
+            compressed.positions = Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(
+                SharedPositionStream::new(codec, vec![0], bytes::Bytes::from(encoded)),
+            ));
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                format!("t{term}"),
+                term,
+                term,
+                1.0,
+                list,
+                docs.len(),
+            )
+        });
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings, &docs, VariedBm25ShapeScorer)
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+        assert_eq!(wand.next().unwrap().unwrap().0.doc_id(), 0);
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_enabled);
+        assert_eq!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range, Some((0, 1)));
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_bounds_up_to.is_some());
+        assert!(!wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.is_empty());
+        assert!(wand.and_candidate_score.is_some());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_norm_k.get().unwrap().is_some());
+
+        let mut params = FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10));
+        params.phrase_slop = Some(0);
+        let results = wand.search(&params, &NoOpMetricsCollector).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(results[0].document, 1);
+        assert!(!wand.score_first_and_enabled);
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.is_empty());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_bounds_up_to.is_none());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+        assert!(wand.and_candidate_score.is_none());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_norm_k.get().unwrap().is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_prunes_before_decoding_final_follower() {
+        let total_docs = 2 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let doc_ids = (0..total_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let docs = unit_length_docs(doc_ids.len());
+
+        let run = |is_score_first_enabled| {
+            let postings = (0..4)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    // Every term contains the frequent-hit range [4, 512),
+                    // while staggered starts fix a deterministic cost order.
+                    let term_doc_ids = (4 - term as u32..total_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let mut freqs = vec![1; term_doc_ids.len()];
+                    freqs[term] = 2;
+                    // Each follower has a high-frequency non-winner in the
+                    // first block, so the lead-only bound cannot reject it.
+                    if term > 0 {
+                        freqs[MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE - 4] = 3;
+                        freqs[term_doc_ids.len() - 4 + term] = 3;
+                    }
+                    unit_length_impact_posting(term as u32, term_doc_ids, freqs, docs.len())
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(
+                Operator::And,
+                postings.into_iter(),
+                &docs,
+                CountingBm25ShapeScorer { scored },
+            )
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off)
+            .with_score_first_and(is_score_first_enabled);
+            let result = wand
+                .search(
+                    &FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(1)),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            (
+                sorted_candidate_row_ids(result),
+                wand.lead
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|posting| posting.frequency_blocks_decoded())
+                    .sum::<usize>(),
+                wand.and_window_stats.score_first_rejections,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let (classic_docs, classic_decodes, classic_rejections) = run(false);
+        let (score_first_docs, score_first_decodes, score_first_rejections) = run(true);
+        assert_eq!(classic_docs, vec![4]);
+        assert_eq!(score_first_docs, classic_docs);
+        assert_eq!(classic_rejections, 0);
+        assert!(score_first_rejections > MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        assert!(
+            score_first_decodes < classic_decodes,
+            "partial exact scoring should avoid decoding the final follower block: score-first={score_first_decodes}, classic={classic_decodes}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::four_k1(4, 1)]
+    #[case::four_k10(4, 10)]
+    #[case::four_underfilled(4, 1024)]
+    #[case::five_k1(5, 1)]
+    #[case::five_k10(5, 10)]
+    #[case::five_underfilled(5, 1024)]
+    fn score_first_and_matches_classic_exact_scores(
+        #[case] num_terms: usize,
+        #[case] limit: usize,
+        #[values(false, true)] is_quantized_scoring: bool,
+    ) {
+        let run = |is_score_first_enabled| {
+            let total_docs = 3 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+            let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+            for doc_id in 0..total_docs {
+                docs.append(u64::from(doc_id), doc_id % 17 + 1);
+            }
+            docs.set_quantized_scoring(is_quantized_scoring);
+            let postings = (0..num_terms)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    let doc_ids = (term as u32 * 3..total_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let freqs = doc_ids
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|doc_id| {
+                            if *doc_id + 1 == total_docs {
+                                20 + term as u32
+                            } else {
+                                (*doc_id + term as u32) % 5 + 1
+                            }
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let doc_lengths = doc_ids
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|doc_id| *doc_id % 17 + 1)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    // Later terms have shorter postings, so cost order is the
+                    // reverse of this canonical query order.
+                    let position = term as u32;
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        format!("t{term}"),
+                        term as u32,
+                        position,
+                        0.001_882_293 + position as f32 * 0.000_173_205,
+                        generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                            doc_ids,
+                            freqs,
+                            doc_lengths,
+                            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                        ),
+                        docs.len(),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(
+                Operator::And,
+                postings.into_iter(),
+                &docs,
+                VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+            )
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off)
+            .with_score_first_and(is_score_first_enabled);
+            let mut top = Vec::<(u64, f32)>::with_capacity(limit.min(total_docs as usize));
+            while let Some((doc, cached_score)) = wand.next().unwrap() {
+                let score = if wand.and_candidate_score.is_some() {
+                    cached_score
+                } else {
+                    wand.score_in_query_order(wand.documents.doc_length(&doc))
+                };
+                top.push((doc.doc_id(), score));
+                top.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| {
+                    right
+                        .1
+                        .total_cmp(&left.1)
+                        .then_with(|| left.0.cmp(&right.0))
+                });
+                top.truncate(limit);
+                if top.len() == limit {
+                    wand.update_threshold(top[limit - 1].1, 1.0);
+                }
+            }
+            (
+                top.into_iter()
+                    .map(|(doc, score)| (doc, score.to_bits()))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                wand.and_window_stats.score_first_rejections,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let (classic, classic_rejections) = run(false);
+        let (score_first, score_first_rejections) = run(true);
+        assert_eq!(score_first, classic);
+        assert_eq!(classic_rejections, 0);
+        if limit == 1 {
+            assert_eq!(score_first[0].0, 3 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64 - 1);
+        }
+        if limit > 3 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE {
+            assert_eq!(score_first_rejections, 0);
+        } else {
+            assert!(score_first_rejections > 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn score_first_and_matches_doc_first_across_dense_and_sparse_windows(
+        #[values(4, 5)] num_terms: u32,
+    ) {
+        let total_docs = 3 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 1;
+        let missing_doc = MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 128;
+        let mut docs = unit_length_docs(total_docs as usize);
+        docs.set_quantized_scoring(true);
+        let run = |is_score_first_enabled| {
+            let postings = (0..num_terms).map(|term| {
+                let doc_ids = (0..total_docs)
+                    .filter(|doc_id| *doc_id != missing_doc)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let freqs = doc_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|doc_id| (doc_id + term) % 4 + 1)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term,
+                    num_terms - term - 1,
+                    0.001_882_293 + term as f32 * 0.000_173_205,
+                    generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                        doc_ids.clone(),
+                        freqs,
+                        vec![1; doc_ids.len()],
+                        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                )
+            });
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings, &docs, VariedBm25ShapeScorer)
+                .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off)
+                .with_score_first_and(is_score_first_enabled);
+            let mut scored = Vec::new();
+            while let Some((doc, cached_score)) = wand.next().unwrap() {
+                let doc_id = doc.doc_id();
+                let is_dense = doc_id < MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64
+                    || doc_id > 2 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64;
+                assert_eq!(
+                    wand.and_candidate_score.is_some(),
+                    is_score_first_enabled && doc_id > 0 && is_dense
+                );
+                let score = if wand.and_candidate_score.is_some() {
+                    cached_score
+                } else {
+                    wand.score_in_query_order(1)
+                };
+                scored.push((doc_id, score.to_bits()));
+                if doc_id == 0 {
+                    assert!(wand.score_first_and_norm_k.get().is_none());
+                    wand.update_threshold(f32::from_bits(1), 1.0);
+                }
+            }
+            scored
+        };
+
+        let classic = run(false);
+        let score_first = run(true);
+        assert_eq!(score_first, classic);
+        assert_eq!(score_first.len(), total_docs as usize - 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_restores_shallow_probe_and_keeps_later_window() {
+        let total_docs = 3 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..total_docs {
+            docs.append(u64::from(doc_id), doc_id % 11 + 1);
+        }
+        let postings = (0..4)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let doc_ids = (0..total_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let freqs = doc_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|doc_id| {
+                        if *doc_id + 1 == total_docs {
+                            32
+                        } else {
+                            (*doc_id + term) % 4 + 1
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let doc_lengths = doc_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|doc_id| *doc_id % 11 + 1)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term,
+                    term,
+                    0.002 + term as f32 * 0.000_31,
+                    generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                        doc_ids,
+                        freqs,
+                        doc_lengths,
+                        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+        )
+        .with_score_first_and(true)
+        .with_floor_mode(CompetitiveFloorMode::Inclusive);
+        wand.threshold = f32::from_bits(1);
+
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_advance_target(0), 0);
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_bounds_up_to.is_some());
+        let internal_up_to = wand.up_to;
+        let internal_suffix_bounds = wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.clone();
+        let internal_dense_range = wand.score_first_and_dense_range;
+        let (shallow_up_to, _) = wand.compound_shallow_bound(300);
+        assert!(shallow_up_to >= 300);
+        assert_eq!(wand.up_to, internal_up_to);
+        assert_eq!(wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds, internal_suffix_bounds);
+        assert_eq!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range, internal_dense_range);
+
+        wand.seek(300);
+        assert!(wand.up_to.is_none());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.is_empty());
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+        let mut best_score = 0.0_f32;
+        let mut saw_late_winner = false;
+        while let Some((doc, score)) = wand.next().unwrap() {
+            let expected = wand.score_in_query_order(wand.documents.doc_length(&doc));
+            assert_eq!(score.to_bits(), expected.to_bits());
+            if score > best_score {
+                best_score = score;
+                wand.threshold = score;
+            }
+            if doc.doc_id() + 1 == u64::from(total_docs) {
+                saw_late_winner = true;
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(saw_late_winner);
+        assert!(wand.and_window_stats.score_first_rejections > 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_reanchors_after_future_shallow_probe() {
+        let run = |is_score_first_enabled| {
+            let total_docs = 3 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+            let postings = (0..4)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    let doc_ids = (0..total_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let mut freqs = vec![1; doc_ids.len()];
+                    freqs[0] = 20;
+                    unit_length_impact_posting(term, doc_ids, freqs, total_docs as usize)
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let docs = unit_length_docs(total_docs as usize);
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(
+                Operator::And,
+                postings.into_iter(),
+                &docs,
+                VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+            )
+            .with_score_first_and(is_score_first_enabled);
+            wand.threshold = 7.0;
+
+            let _ = wand.compound_shallow_bound(600);
+            let _ = wand.compound_shallow_bound(512);
+            let (doc, cached_score) = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+            let score = if wand.and_candidate_score.is_some() {
+                cached_score
+            } else {
+                wand.score_in_query_order(wand.documents.doc_length(&doc))
+            };
+            (doc.doc_id(), score.to_bits())
+        };
+
+        let classic = run(false);
+        let score_first = run(true);
+        assert_eq!(score_first, classic);
+        assert_eq!(score_first.0, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn score_first_and_inclusive_tie_uses_query_order(
+        #[values(4_usize, 5_usize)] num_terms: usize,
+        #[values(false, true)] is_quantized_scoring: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut contributions = SmallVec::<[ScoreContribution; 8]>::new();
+        let postings = (0..num_terms)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let position = (num_terms - term - 1) as u32;
+                let doc_ids = (100 - term as u32..=100).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let mut freqs = vec![1; doc_ids.len()];
+                freqs[term] = term as u32 + 1;
+                let query_weight = 0.001_882_293 + position as f32 * 0.000_173_205;
+                contributions.push((
+                    (position, term as u32),
+                    query_weight * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(term as u32 + 1, 0.4),
+                ));
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term as u32,
+                    position,
+                    query_weight,
+                    generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                        doc_ids.clone(),
+                        freqs,
+                        vec![1; doc_ids.len()],
+                        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    ),
+                    101,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected_score = score_contributions_in_query_order(contributions);
+        let mut docs = unit_length_docs(101);
+        docs.set_quantized_scoring(is_quantized_scoring);
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+        )
+        .with_floor_mode(CompetitiveFloorMode::Inclusive);
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_enabled);
+        wand.threshold = expected_score;
+
+        let (doc, score) = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(doc.doc_id(), 100);
+        assert_eq!(score.to_bits(), expected_score.to_bits());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn score_first_and_handles_u32_max_doc_id(#[values(0.0, 0.1)] floor: f32) {
+        let postings = (0..4)
+            .map(|term| unit_length_impact_posting(term, vec![u32::MAX], vec![1], 1))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: 1,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: 1,
+        };
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+        )
+        .with_score_first_and(true);
+        wand.threshold = floor;
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            wand.next().unwrap().unwrap().0.doc_id(),
+            u64::from(u32::MAX)
+        );
+        assert!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+        if floor == 0.0 {
+            assert_eq!(wand.up_to, Some(TERMINATED_DOC_ID));
+        }
+        assert!(wand.next().unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::local_heap("local")]
+    #[case::shared_floor("shared")]
+    #[case::compound_floor("compound")]
+    fn score_first_and_replaces_zero_floor_window_after_floor_update(
+        #[case] floor_source: &str,
+        #[values(4, 5)] num_terms: u32,
+    ) {
+        let total_docs = MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 3;
+        let docs = unit_length_docs(total_docs as usize);
+        let postings = (0..num_terms)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let doc_ids = (0..total_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                unit_length_impact_posting(term, doc_ids, vec![1; total_docs as usize], docs.len())
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default();
+        let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        let mut cursor = WandCursor::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings,
+            &docs,
+            Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(
+                total_docs as u64,
+                total_docs as usize,
+                std::collections::HashMap::new(),
+            )),
+            &params,
+            &metrics,
+        );
+        assert!(cursor.wand.score_first_and_enabled);
+        assert_eq!(cursor.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(cursor.wand.up_to, Some(TERMINATED_DOC_ID));
+        assert_eq!(cursor.next().unwrap(), Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(cursor.wand.up_to, Some(TERMINATED_DOC_ID));
+        assert_eq!(cursor.advance(10).unwrap(), Some(10));
+        assert_eq!(cursor.wand.up_to, Some(TERMINATED_DOC_ID));
+        let current_score = cursor.current_score().unwrap();
+        let shallow_up_to = cursor
+            .advance_shallow(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64)
+            .unwrap();
+        let shallow_bound = cursor.score_upper_bound(shallow_up_to).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cursor.wand.up_to, Some(TERMINATED_DOC_ID));
+        assert!(cursor.wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.is_empty());
+        assert!(cursor.wand.score_first_and_norm_k.get().is_none());
+
+        let floor = f32::from_bits(1);
+        match floor_source {
+            "local" => cursor.wand.update_threshold(floor, 1.0),
+            "shared" => {
+                cursor.wand.shared_threshold = Some(Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(floor.to_bits())));
+                cursor.wand.raise_to_shared_floor(1.0);
+            }
+            "compound" => cursor.set_min_competitive_score(floor).unwrap(),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        }
+        assert!(cursor.wand.up_to.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(cursor.doc(), Some(10));
+        assert_eq!(
+            cursor.current_score().unwrap().to_bits(),
+            current_score.to_bits()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            cursor.score_upper_bound(shallow_up_to).unwrap(),
+            shallow_bound
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cursor.next().unwrap(), Some(11));
+        assert_eq!(cursor.wand.up_to, Some(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u64 - 1));
+        assert!(cursor.wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_some());
+        assert!(cursor.wand.and_candidate_score.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(
+            cursor.current_score().unwrap().to_bits(),
+            current_score.to_bits()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn score_first_and_underfilled_window_stays_unbounded(
+        #[values(4, 5)] num_terms: u32,
+        #[values(0, 5)] num_matches: u32,
+    ) {
+        let sparse_end = 5 * MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE as u32;
+        let total_docs = sparse_end + num_matches;
+        let docs = unit_length_docs(total_docs as usize);
+        let make_postings = || {
+            (0..num_terms)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    let doc_ids = (term..sparse_end)
+                        .step_by(num_terms as usize)
+                        .chain(sparse_end..total_docs)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    unit_length_impact_posting(
+                        term,
+                        doc_ids.clone(),
+                        vec![1; doc_ids.len()],
+                        docs.len(),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        let run = |is_eligible| {
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(
+                Operator::And,
+                make_postings().into_iter(),
+                &docs,
+                VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+            )
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+            wand.score_first_and_enabled = is_eligible;
+            let mut scored = Vec::new();
+            while let Some((doc, _)) = wand.next().unwrap() {
+                scored.push((doc.doc_id(), wand.score_in_query_order(1).to_bits()));
+                if is_eligible {
+                    assert_eq!(wand.up_to, Some(TERMINATED_DOC_ID));
+                }
+            }
+            if is_eligible {
+                assert_eq!(wand.up_to, Some(TERMINATED_DOC_ID));
+            }
+            assert!(wand.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.is_empty());
+            assert!(wand.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+            assert!(wand.score_first_and_norm_k.get().is_none());
+            assert!(
+                wand.lead
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|posting| posting.impact_bound_computations() == 0)
+            );
+            scored
+        };
+        let expected = run(false);
+        assert_eq!(run(true), expected);
+        assert_eq!(expected.len(), num_matches as usize);
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            make_postings().into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+        )
+        .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        let results = wand
+            .search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), num_matches as usize);
+        assert_eq!(wand.threshold, 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(wand.up_to, Some(TERMINATED_DOC_ID));
+        let mut actual_docs = results
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|candidate| candidate.document)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        actual_docs.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual_docs,
+            expected.into_iter().map(|(doc, _)| doc).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_requires_bm25_shape_and_positive_floor() {
+        let doc_ids = vec![0, 1];
+        let make_postings = || {
+            (0..4)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    unit_length_impact_posting(term, doc_ids.clone(), vec![1, 1], doc_ids.len())
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        let docs = unit_length_docs(2);
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            make_postings().into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            UnitScorer,
+        );
+
+        assert!(!wand.score_first_and_enabled);
+        assert_eq!(wand.next().unwrap().unwrap().0.doc_id(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(wand.and_window_stats.score_first_rejections, 0);
+
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let mut underfilled = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            make_postings().into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingBm25ShapeScorer { scored },
+        );
+        assert!(underfilled.score_first_and_enabled);
+        let results = underfilled
+            .search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::new().with_limit(Some(3)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(underfilled.threshold, 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(underfilled.and_window_stats.score_first_rejections, 0);
+        assert!(underfilled.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+        assert!(underfilled.score_first_and_norm_k.get().is_none());
+
+        let mut non_finite = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            make_postings().into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            NonFiniteBoundBm25ShapeScorer,
+        );
+        assert!(non_finite.score_first_and_enabled);
+        non_finite.threshold = 1.0;
+        assert_eq!(non_finite.next().unwrap().unwrap().0.doc_id(), 0);
+        assert!(non_finite.score_first_and_suffix_bounds.is_empty());
+        assert!(non_finite.score_first_and_bounds_up_to.is_none());
+        assert!(non_finite.score_first_and_dense_range.is_none());
+        assert!(non_finite.and_candidate_score.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(non_finite.and_window_stats.score_first_rejections, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn score_first_and_selection_stays_within_modern_four_or_five_clause_path() {
+        let docs = unit_length_docs(2);
+        let modern = |num_terms, block_size| {
+            (0..num_terms)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        format!("t{term}"),
+                        term,
+                        term,
+                        1.0,
+                        generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                            vec![0, 1],
+                            vec![1, 1],
+                            vec![1, 1],
+                            block_size,
+                        ),
+                        docs.len(),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+
+        for num_terms in [2, 3] {
+            let wand = Wand::new(
+                Operator::And,
+                modern(num_terms, MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE).into_iter(),
+                &docs,
+                VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+            );
+            assert!(!wand.score_first_and_enabled);
+        }
+
+        let plain = (0..4).map(|term| {
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                format!("t{term}"),
+                term,
+                term,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![0, 1], 1.0, None, false),
+                docs.len(),
+            )
+        });
+        assert!(
+            !Wand::new(Operator::And, plain, &docs, VariedBm25ShapeScorer).score_first_and_enabled
+        );
+
+        let no_impact_non_256 = (0..4).map(|term| {
+            PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                format!("t{term}"),
+                term,
+                term,
+                1.0,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![0, 1], 1.0, None, true),
+                docs.len(),
+            )
+        });
+        assert!(
+            !Wand::new(
+                Operator::And,
+                no_impact_non_256,
+                &docs,
+                VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+            )
+            .score_first_and_enabled
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            !Wand::new(
+                Operator::And,
+                modern(4, crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE).into_iter(),
+                &docs,
+                VariedBm25ShapeScorer,
+            )
+            .score_first_and_enabled
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_wand_batches_lagging_iterators(#[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..16 {
+            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
+        }
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![1, 10], 1.0, None, is_compressed),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![2, 10], 1.0, None, is_compressed),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("c"),
+                2,
+                2,
+                generate_posting_list(vec![10], 1.0, None, is_compressed),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        wand.threshold = 2.5;
+
+        let candidate = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(candidate.0.doc_id(), 10);
+        assert_eq!(wand.lead.len(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_search_or_keeps_masked_docs_in_same_block() {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for i in 0..=(BLOCK_SIZE as u64 + 1) {
+            let doc_tokens = if i == 1 { 100 } else { 1 };
+            docs.append(i, doc_tokens);
+        }
+
+        let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("term"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            generate_posting_list(
+                (1..=(BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 1)).collect(),
+                1.0,
+                Some(vec![1.0, 1.0]),
+                true,
+            ),
+            docs.len(),
+        );
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            vec![posting].into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            InverseDocLengthScorer,
+        );
+        wand.threshold = 0.5;
+
+        let selected = vec![(1_u64, 1_u64), (2_u64, 2_u64)];
+        let result = wand
+            .flat_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default(),
+                Box::new(selected.into_iter()),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let matched = result
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|doc| doc.document)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(matched, vec![2]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_doc_ids_resolves_every_document_a_row_owns() {
+        // A list<string> column indexes each element as its own document, so
+        // one row id owns several doc ids. row 100 -> {0, 1}, row 101 -> {2}.
+        let row_id_col = arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(vec![100_u64, 100, 101]);
+        let num_tokens_col = arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(vec![1_u32, 1, 1]);
+        let docs = DocSet::from_columns(&row_id_col, &num_tokens_col, false, None).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(docs.doc_ids(100).collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(docs.doc_ids(101).collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![2]);
+        assert!(docs.doc_ids(999).next().is_none());
+
+        // legacy shape (row id == doc id) still resolves to a single document.
+        let mut legacy = DocSet::default();
+        legacy.append(7, 1);
+        assert_eq!(legacy.doc_ids(7).collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![7]);
+        assert!(legacy.doc_ids(8).next().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_flat_search_finds_list_row_with_match_at_non_last_position(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
+        // row 100 owns two element-documents (doc 0, doc 1) that share its row
+        // id; row 101 owns doc 2. The query term lives only in doc 0 — the
+        // *non-last* element of row 100. Resolving the row to a single doc id
+        // would evaluate doc 1, miss the term, and drop the row (lancedb#3352).
+        let row_id_col = arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(vec![100_u64, 100, 101]);
+        let num_tokens_col = arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(vec![1_u32, 1, 1]);
+        let docs = DocSet::from_columns(&row_id_col, &num_tokens_col, false, None).unwrap();
+
+        let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+            String::from("needle"),
+            0,
+            0,
+            1.0,
+            generate_posting_list(vec![0], 1.0, None, is_compressed),
+            docs.len(),
+        );
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::Or,
+            vec![posting].into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            InverseDocLengthScorer,
+        );
+        wand.threshold = 0.5;
+
+        let selected = docs
+            .doc_ids(100)
+            .map(|doc_id| (doc_id, 100_u64))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let result = wand
+            .flat_search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default(),
+                Box::new(selected.into_iter()),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The legacy adapter resolves the prefilter to every owned document,
+        // while the candidate identity remains row 100.
+        let addrs = result
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|doc| doc.document)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(
+            addrs.as_slice() == [100],
+            "expected exactly row 100, got {addrs:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_max_score_matches_stored_value() {
+        let doc_ids = vec![0_u32];
+        let block_max_scores = vec![0.7_f32];
+        let posting_list = generate_posting_list(doc_ids, 0.7, Some(block_max_scores), true);
+        let expected = match &posting_list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(list) => list.block_max_score(0),
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => unreachable!("expected compressed posting list"),
+        };
+
+        let posting = PostingIterator::new(String::from("test"), 0, 0, posting_list, 1);
+
+        let actual = posting.block_max_score(&UnitScorer);
+        assert!(
+            (actual - expected).abs() < 1e-6,
+            "block max score should match stored value"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_modern_doc_id_validation_checks_layout_and_upper_bound() {
+        let compressed = generate_posting_list(vec![0, 4], 1.0, None, true);
+        let posting = PostingIterator::new(String::from("term"), 0, 0, compressed, 5);
+        posting
+            .validate_modern_doc_ids(5)
+            .expect("largest DocId is inside the document table");
+        let error = posting.validate_modern_doc_ids(4).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("DocId 4"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("[0, 4)"));
+
+        let plain = generate_posting_list(vec![0], 1.0, None, false);
+        let posting = PostingIterator::new(String::from("legacy"), 0, 0, plain, 1);
+        let error = posting.validate_modern_doc_ids(1).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("legacy row-address layout"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_256_document_blocks_without_impacts_use_conservative_quantized_score_bound() {
+        let exact_doc_length = 300;
+        let quantized_doc_length = super::super::index::dequantize_doc_length(
+            super::super::index::quantize_doc_length(exact_doc_length),
+        );
+        assert!(quantized_doc_length < exact_doc_length);
+
+        let scorer = Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(100, 1, Default::default()));
+        let stored_exact_score = scorer.doc_weight(1, exact_doc_length);
+        let quantized_score = scorer.doc_weight(1, quantized_doc_length);
+        assert!(quantized_score > stored_exact_score);
+
+        let doc_ids = [0_u32];
+        let frequencies = [1_u32];
+        let blocks = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            doc_ids.len(),
+            doc_ids.iter(),
+            frequencies.iter(),
+            std::iter::once(stored_exact_score),
+            crate::scalar::inverted::PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let posting_list = PostingList::Compressed(CompressedPostingList::new(
+            blocks,
+            stored_exact_score,
+            doc_ids.len() as u32,
+            crate::scalar::inverted::PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            None,
+            None,
+        ));
+        let posting = PostingIterator::new(String::from("term"), 0, 0, posting_list, doc_ids.len());
+        let expected_bound = BM25_DOC_WEIGHT_UPPER_BOUND;
+
+        assert_eq!(posting.approximate_upper_bound(), expected_bound);
+        assert_eq!(posting.global_upper_bound(&scorer), expected_bound);
+        assert_eq!(posting.block_max_score(&scorer), expected_bound);
+        assert_eq!(
+            posting.block_max_score_up_to_with_stats(0, &scorer).score,
+            expected_bound
+        );
+        assert!(expected_bound >= quantized_score);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_256_document_blocks_without_impacts_unknown_scorer_uses_infinite_bound() {
+        let doc_ids = [0_u32];
+        let frequencies = [10_u32];
+        let blocks = compress_posting_list_with_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+            doc_ids.len(),
+            doc_ids.iter(),
+            frequencies.iter(),
+            std::iter::once(10.0),
+            crate::scalar::inverted::PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let posting_list = PostingList::Compressed(CompressedPostingList::new(
+            blocks,
+            10.0,
+            doc_ids.len() as u32,
+            crate::scalar::inverted::PostingTailCodec::VarintDelta,
+            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            None,
+            None,
+        ));
+        let posting = PostingIterator::new(String::from("term"), 0, 0, posting_list, doc_ids.len());
+
+        assert!(posting.global_upper_bound(&UnitScorer).is_infinite());
+        assert!(posting.block_max_score(&UnitScorer).is_infinite());
+        assert!(
+            posting
+                .block_max_score_up_to_with_stats(0, &UnitScorer)
+                .score
+                .is_infinite()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_exact_phrase_with_repeated_terms(#[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 16);
+
+        let token_a_positions = vec![vec![1_u32, 3, 10]];
+        let token_b_positions = vec![vec![2_u32, 11]];
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    token_a_positions.clone(),
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    token_b_positions,
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("a"),
+                2,
+                2,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    token_a_positions,
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+        assert!(wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert!(wand.check_positions(0).unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_exact_phrase_respects_query_position_gaps(#[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 16);
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("want"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![0_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("apple"),
+                1,
+                2,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![2_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+        assert!(wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert!(wand.check_positions(0).unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_and_phrase_miss_advances_to_next_candidate(#[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 8);
+        docs.append(1, 8);
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0, 1],
+                    vec![vec![1_u32], vec![10_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0, 1],
+                    vec![vec![3_u32], vec![11_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer);
+        let first = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.0.doc_id(), 0);
+        assert!(!wand.check_positions(0).unwrap());
+
+        wand.threshold = 1.5;
+        let second = wand.next().unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.0.doc_id(), 1);
+        assert!(wand.check_positions(0).unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn exact_phrase_skips_stopword_decode_when_rare_pair_misses(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 16);
+
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("the"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![(0..100_u32).collect()],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("news"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![50_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("journal"),
+                2,
+                2,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![99_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+        let _ = take_position_cursor_calls();
+        assert!(!wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(take_position_cursor_calls(), 2);
+        assert!(!wand.check_exact_positions_bulk().unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(take_position_cursor_calls(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn exact_phrase_decodes_stopword_when_rare_pair_aligns(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 16);
+
+        let hit_the: Vec<u32> = (0..100).collect();
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("the"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(vec![0], vec![hit_the], 1.0, is_compressed),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("news"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![11_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("journal"),
+                2,
+                2,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![12_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+        let _ = take_position_cursor_calls();
+        assert!(wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(take_position_cursor_calls(), 3);
+        assert!(wand.check_exact_positions_bulk().unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(take_position_cursor_calls(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn exact_phrase_rejects_when_stopword_misses_aligned_pair(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 16);
+
+        // "news journal" aligns at base 10, but "the" has no position 10.
+        let the_positions: Vec<u32> = (0..10).chain(11..100).collect();
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("the"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![the_positions],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("news"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![11_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("journal"),
+                2,
+                2,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![12_u32]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+        let _ = take_position_cursor_calls();
+        assert!(!wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(take_position_cursor_calls(), 3);
+        assert!(!wand.check_exact_positions_bulk().unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(take_position_cursor_calls(), 3);
+    }
+
+    /// The follower sits entirely past the anchor, so the very first probe
+    /// proves no base can align: the scan must jump instead of walking.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn exact_phrase_scan_skips_anchor_past_disjoint_follower(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let n = 4096u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1_000_001);
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![(0..n).collect()],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![(2 * n..3 * n).collect()],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+
+        let (matched, steps) = counted_anchor_steps(|| wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert!(!matched, "disjoint lists cannot form a phrase");
+        assert!(steps <= 2, "anchor was walked ({steps} steps), not skipped");
+
+        let (matched, steps) = counted_anchor_steps(|| wand.check_exact_positions_bulk().unwrap());
+        assert!(!matched, "disjoint lists cannot form a phrase (bulk)");
+        assert!(
+            steps <= 2,
+            "bulk anchor was walked ({steps} steps), not skipped"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The only match sits at the far end of a long anchor. Reaching it in a
+    /// couple of steps is what proves the jump lands on the right candidate
+    /// instead of over-shooting it.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn exact_phrase_scan_jumps_to_a_late_match(#[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool) {
+        let n = 4096u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1_000_001);
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![(0..n).collect()],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![(n / 2 + 1..n + 1).collect()],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+
+        let (matched, steps) = counted_anchor_steps(|| wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert!(matched, "the late match must be found");
+        assert!(
+            steps <= 3,
+            "late match took {steps} steps; the jump missed it"
+        );
+
+        let (matched, steps) = counted_anchor_steps(|| wand.check_exact_positions_bulk().unwrap());
+        assert!(matched, "the late match must be found (bulk)");
+        assert!(steps <= 3, "bulk late match took {steps} steps");
+    }
+
+    /// Interleaved lists: no bound can skip anything, so the scan must fall back
+    /// to stepping and still visit every candidate exactly once (and terminate).
+    #[rstest]
+    fn exact_phrase_scan_steps_when_no_bound_can_skip(#[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool) {
+        let n = 1024u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1_000_001);
+        let postings = vec![
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("a"),
+                0,
+                0,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![(0..n).map(|k| 3 * k).collect()],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("b"),
+                1,
+                1,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![(0..n).map(|k| 3 * k + 2).collect()],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+
+        let (matched, steps) = counted_anchor_steps(|| wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert!(!matched, "interleaved lists cannot form a phrase");
+        assert!(
+            (1..=n as usize).contains(&steps),
+            "expected a single walk of {n} anchors, got {steps}"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// The anchor jumps over a candidate before the last clause has ever been
+    /// probed, so that clause is decoded with a target already far into its
+    /// list: the lazy decode and the monotone probe have to agree.
     #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_wand(#[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool) {
+    fn exact_phrase_scan_decodes_a_follower_after_the_anchor_jumps(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
         let mut docs = DocSet::default();
-        for i in 0..2 * BLOCK_SIZE {
-            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
-        }
-
-        // when the pivot is greater than 0, and the first posting list is exhausted after shallow_next
+        docs.append(0, 1_000_001);
+        let mut middle = vec![300_u32, 901];
+        middle.extend(1000..1050);
+        let mut last = vec![902_u32];
+        last.extend(3000..3100);
         let postings = vec![
             PostingIterator::new(
-                String::from("test"),
+                String::from("a"),
                 0,
                 0,
-                generate_posting_list(
-                    Vec::from_iter(0..=BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 1),
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![100_u32, 200, 900]],
                     1.0,
-                    None,
                     is_compressed,
                 ),
                 docs.len(),
             ),
             PostingIterator::new(
-                String::from("full"),
+                String::from("b"),
                 1,
                 1,
-                generate_posting_list(vec![BLOCK_SIZE as u32 + 2], 1.0, None, is_compressed),
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(vec![0], vec![middle], 1.0, is_compressed),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("c"),
+                2,
+                2,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(vec![0], vec![last], 1.0, is_compressed),
                 docs.len(),
             ),
         ];
-
         let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
-        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
-        // This should trigger the bug when the second posting list becomes empty
-        let result = wand
-            .search(
-                &FtsSearchParams::default(),
-                Arc::new(RowAddrMask::default()),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result.len(), 0); // Should not panic
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_posting_iterator_next_compressed_partition_point() {
-        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
-        let num_docs = (BLOCK_SIZE * 2 + 5) as u32;
-        for i in 0..num_docs {
-            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
-        }
-
-        let doc_ids = (0..num_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let posting = generate_posting_list(doc_ids, 1.0, None, true);
-        let mut iter = PostingIterator::new(String::from("term"), 0, 0, posting, docs.len());
-
-        iter.next(10);
-        assert_eq!(iter.doc().unwrap().doc_id(), 10);
-
-        let target = BLOCK_SIZE as u64 + 3;
-        iter.next(target);
-        assert_eq!(iter.doc().unwrap().doc_id(), target);
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
 
-        iter.next(num_docs as u64 + 10);
-        assert!(iter.doc().is_none());
+        let (matched, steps) = counted_anchor_steps(|| wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert!(
+            matched,
+            "the clause decoded after the jump must still align"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            steps, 2,
+            "the anchor must jump straight to 900, got {steps} steps"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(take_position_cursor_calls(), 3);
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_wand_skip_to_next_block() {
+    /// The anchor clause is not the first word of the phrase, so the jump has to
+    /// account for `anchor_offset`. Without it the bound lands one position
+    /// short and the scan needs an extra step.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn exact_phrase_scan_jumps_with_a_nonzero_anchor_offset(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
         let mut docs = DocSet::default();
-        for i in 0..201 {
-            docs.append(i as u64, 1);
-        }
-
-        let large_posting_docs1: Vec<u32> = (0..=200).collect();
-
+        docs.append(0, 1_000_001);
+        let mut first = vec![100_u32, 497, 899];
+        first.extend(1000..1050);
+        let mut last = vec![500_u32];
+        last.extend(2000..2050);
+        last.push(5000);
         let postings = vec![
             PostingIterator::new(
-                String::from("full"),
+                String::from("a"),
                 0,
                 0,
-                generate_posting_list(large_posting_docs1, 1.0, Some(vec![0.5, 0.5]), true),
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(vec![0], vec![first], 1.0, is_compressed),
                 docs.len(),
             ),
             PostingIterator::new(
-                String::from("text"),
+                String::from("b"),
                 1,
                 1,
-                generate_posting_list(vec![0], 1.0, Some(vec![0.5]), true),
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![vec![101_u32, 498, 900]],
+                    1.0,
+                    is_compressed,
+                ),
+                docs.len(),
+            ),
+            PostingIterator::new(
+                String::from("c"),
+                2,
+                2,
+                generate_posting_list_with_positions(vec![0], vec![last], 1.0, is_compressed),
                 docs.len(),
             ),
         ];
+        let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+
+        let (matched, steps) = counted_anchor_steps(|| wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert!(!matched, "the last clause never reaches the phrase");
+        assert_eq!(
+            steps, 2,
+            "the jump must carry anchor_offset (bound 499, not 498), got {steps} steps"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The compound-phrase request from review: drive the exact-phrase check the
+    /// way `WandCursor::matches()` does - a phrase leaf inside a compound query -
+    /// instead of calling the entries directly.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn wand_cursor_confirmation_rejects_disjoint_phrase_positions(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let n = 4096u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1_000_001);
+        let make_postings = || {
+            vec![
+                PostingIterator::new(
+                    String::from("a"),
+                    0,
+                    0,
+                    generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                        vec![0],
+                        vec![(0..n).collect()],
+                        1.0,
+                        is_compressed,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                ),
+                PostingIterator::new(
+                    String::from("b"),
+                    1,
+                    1,
+                    generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                        vec![0],
+                        vec![(2 * n..3 * n).collect()],
+                        1.0,
+                        is_compressed,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                ),
+            ]
+        };
+        let params = FtsSearchParams {
+            phrase_slop: Some(0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        let mut cursor = WandCursor::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            make_postings(),
+            &docs,
+            Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, std::collections::HashMap::new())),
+            &params,
+            &metrics,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cursor.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+
+        let (matched, steps) = counted_anchor_steps(|| cursor.matches().unwrap());
+        assert!(!matched, "disjoint positions cannot form a phrase");
+        assert!(
+            steps <= 2,
+            "the compound path must skip too, took {steps} steps"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Same path, but the phrase really is present: the confirmation has to
+    /// survive the jump instead of over-shooting the match.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn wand_cursor_confirmation_accepts_aligned_phrase_positions(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let n = 4096u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 1_000_001);
+        let make_postings = || {
+            vec![
+                PostingIterator::new(
+                    String::from("a"),
+                    0,
+                    0,
+                    generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                        vec![0],
+                        vec![(0..n).collect()],
+                        1.0,
+                        is_compressed,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                ),
+                PostingIterator::new(
+                    String::from("b"),
+                    1,
+                    1,
+                    generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                        vec![0],
+                        vec![(1..n + 1).collect()],
+                        1.0,
+                        is_compressed,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                ),
+            ]
+        };
+        let params = FtsSearchParams {
+            phrase_slop: Some(0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let metrics = NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        let mut cursor = WandCursor::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            make_postings(),
+            &docs,
+            Arc::new(MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, std::collections::HashMap::new())),
+            &params,
+            &metrics,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cursor.next().unwrap(), Some(0));
+
+        let (matched, steps) = counted_anchor_steps(|| cursor.matches().unwrap());
+        assert!(matched, "the phrase is present at base 0");
+        assert!(
+            steps <= 2,
+            "took {steps} steps to confirm a first-position match"
+        );
+    }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    fn exact_phrase_heap_path_matches_wide_clause_count(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_compressed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        docs.append(0, 32);
+        let num_clauses = 17usize;
+        let postings = (0..num_clauses)
+            .map(|index| {
+                PostingIterator::new(
+                    format!("t{index}"),
+                    index as u32,
+                    index as u32,
+                    generate_posting_list_with_positions(
+                        vec![0],
+                        vec![vec![index as u32]],
+                        1.0,
+                        is_compressed,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let bm25 = IndexBM25Scorer::new(std::iter::empty());
-        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::Or, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+        let wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, bm25);
+        assert!(wand.check_exact_positions().unwrap());
+        assert!(wand.check_exact_positions_bulk().unwrap());
+    }
 
-        // set a threshold that the sum of max scores can hit,
-        // but the sum of block max scores is less than the threshold,
-        wand.threshold = 1.5;
+    /// The bulk conjunction path must return exactly the classic loop's
+    /// results — same docs, freqs, and doc lengths — for both plain AND and
+    /// phrase queries, across multi-block lists with heap/threshold pruning
+    /// in play.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::and_k10(false, 0, 10, 3)]
+    #[case::and_k3(false, 0, 3, 3)]
+    #[case::and_two_clauses(false, 0, 10, 2)]
+    #[case::and_one_clause(false, 0, 10, 1)]
+    #[case::and_four_clauses(false, 0, 10, 4)]
+    #[case::and_five_clauses(false, 0, 10, 5)]
+    #[case::and_six_clauses(false, 0, 10, 6)]
+    #[case::and_eight_clauses(false, 0, 10, 8)]
+    #[case::and_twelve_clauses(false, 0, 10, 12)]
+    #[case::and_sixteen_clauses(false, 0, 10, 16)]
+    #[case::phrase_k10(true, 0, 10, 3)]
+    #[case::phrase_k3(true, 0, 3, 3)]
+    #[case::phrase_slop_three(true, 3, 10, 3)]
+    #[case::phrase_two_clauses(true, 0, 10, 2)]
+    #[case::phrase_four_clauses(true, 0, 10, 4)]
+    #[case::phrase_five_clauses(true, 0, 10, 5)]
+    #[case::phrase_six_clauses(true, 0, 10, 6)]
+    #[case::phrase_eight_clauses(true, 0, 10, 8)]
+    #[case::phrase_sixteen_clauses(true, 0, 10, 16)]
+    fn test_bulk_and_matches_classic(
+        #[case] phrase: bool,
+        #[case] slop: u32,
+        #[case] limit: usize,
+        #[case] num_clauses: usize,
+    ) {
+        let num_docs = (BLOCK_SIZE * 8 + 37) as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(u64::from(doc_id), 32 + doc_id % 57);
+        }
 
-        let result = wand.search(
-            &FtsSearchParams::default(),
-            Arc::new(RowAddrMask::default()),
-            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        // Clauses with different densities; membership comes from a cheap
+        // deterministic mix so docs scatter across blocks. Clause count picks
+        // the dedicated (1-3) or generic (4+) merge kernel.
+        let clause_docs = |modulus: u32, salt: u32| -> Vec<u32> {
+            (0..num_docs)
+                .filter(|doc| (doc.wrapping_mul(2654435761).wrapping_add(salt)) % modulus < 2)
+                .collect()
+        };
+        let clauses = [
+            clause_docs(3, 7),
+            clause_docs(4, 13),
+            clause_docs(5, 29),
+            clause_docs(3, 41),
+            clause_docs(3, 7),
+            clause_docs(4, 13),
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .cycle()
+        .take(num_clauses)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let build_postings = || {
+            clauses
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(term_pos, doc_ids)| {
+                    let list = if phrase {
+                        // Roughly half of each clause's docs put the token at
+                        // position base+term_pos (forming the phrase); the
+                        // rest scatter so the position check has misses.
+                        let positions = doc_ids
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|&doc| {
+                                if doc % 2 == 0 {
+                                    vec![5 + term_pos as u32, 40 + (doc % 3)]
+                                } else {
+                                    vec![20 + (term_pos as u32) * 4]
+                                }
+                            })
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                        generate_posting_list_with_positions(doc_ids.clone(), positions, 8.0, true)
+                    } else {
+                        generate_posting_list(doc_ids.clone(), 8.0, None, true)
+                    };
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        format!("t{term_pos}"),
+                        term_pos as u32,
+                        term_pos as u32,
+                        1.0 + term_pos as f32 * 0.5,
+                        list,
+                        docs.len(),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+
+        let mut params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(limit));
+        if phrase {
+            params.phrase_slop = Some(slop);
+        }
+
+        let normalize = |result: Vec<DocCandidate<u64>>| {
+            let mut rows = result
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|candidate| {
+                    (
+                        candidate.posting_doc_id,
+                        candidate.doc_length,
+                        candidate.freqs,
+                        candidate.document,
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            rows.sort_unstable();
+            rows
+        };
+
+        let run = |mode| {
+            let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(0.0_f32.to_bits()));
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(
+                Operator::And,
+                build_postings().into_iter(),
+                &docs,
+                UnitScorer,
+            )
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(mode)
+            .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor.clone());
+            let rows = normalize(wand.search(&params, &NoOpMetricsCollector).unwrap());
+            let used_bulk = wand.bulk_and_searches > 0;
+            ((rows, shared_floor.load(Ordering::Relaxed)), used_bulk)
+        };
+
+        let (bulk, bulk_used) = run(BulkAndMode::On);
+        let (classic, classic_used) = run(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        let (auto, auto_used) = run(BulkAndMode::Auto);
+        assert!(bulk_used, "on should use bulk conjunction search");
+        assert!(!classic_used, "off should use classic conjunction search");
+        assert_eq!(auto_used, matches!(num_clauses, 2 | 3));
+        assert!(!bulk.0.is_empty(), "test corpus should produce matches");
+        assert_eq!(bulk, classic);
+        assert_eq!(auto, classic);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::bulk_two(BulkAndMode::On, 2)]
+    #[case::bulk_four(BulkAndMode::On, 4)]
+    #[case::bulk_eight(BulkAndMode::On, 8)]
+    #[case::bulk_sixteen(BulkAndMode::On, 16)]
+    #[case::classic_four(BulkAndMode::Off, 4)]
+    #[case::classic_five(BulkAndMode::Off, 5)]
+    fn underfilled_disjoint_and_decodes_no_frequencies_or_bounds(
+        #[case] mode: BulkAndMode,
+        #[case] num_clauses: usize,
+    ) {
+        let num_docs = (BLOCK_SIZE * 3) as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(u64::from(doc_id), 1);
+        }
+        let even = (0..num_docs).filter(|doc| doc % 2 == 0).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let odd = (0..num_docs).filter(|doc| doc % 2 == 1).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let all = (0..num_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let postings = (0..num_clauses)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let doc_ids = match term {
+                    0 => even.clone(),
+                    1 => odd.clone(),
+                    _ => all.clone(),
+                };
+                let len = doc_ids.len();
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term as u32,
+                    term as u32,
+                    1.0,
+                    generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs(doc_ids, vec![1; len], vec![1; len]),
+                    docs.len(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingScorer {
+                scored: scored.clone(),
+            },
+        )
+        .with_bulk_and_mode(mode);
+
+        let hits = wand
+            .search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(hits.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            wand.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.frequency_blocks_decoded())
+                .sum::<usize>(),
+            0
         );
+        assert_eq!(
+            wand.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.impact_bound_computations())
+                .sum::<usize>(),
+            0
+        );
+    }
 
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::legacy_full(crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, 0)]
+    #[case::legacy_tail(crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, 7)]
+    #[case::modern_full(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE, 0)]
+    #[case::modern_tail(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE, 7)]
+    fn underfilled_sparse_and_decodes_only_matching_frequency_blocks(
+        #[values(BulkAndMode::On, BulkAndMode::Off)] mode: BulkAndMode,
+        #[case] block_size: usize,
+        #[case] tail_len: usize,
+    ) {
+        let posting_len = block_size * 2 + tail_len;
+        let first = (0..posting_len)
+            .map(|index| (index * 2) as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut second = (0..posting_len)
+            .map(|index| (index * 2 + 1) as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let last_doc = *first.last().unwrap();
+        *second.last_mut().unwrap() = last_doc;
+        let num_docs = posting_len * 2;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(doc_id as u64, 1);
+        }
+        let postings = [first, second]
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(term, doc_ids)| {
+                let len = doc_ids.len();
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term as u32,
+                    term as u32,
+                    1.0,
+                    generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                        doc_ids,
+                        vec![1; len],
+                        vec![1; len],
+                        block_size,
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingScorer {
+                scored: scored.clone(),
+            },
+        )
+        .with_bulk_and_mode(mode);
+
+        let hits = wand
+            .search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(hits.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(hits[0].document, u64::from(last_doc));
+        assert_eq!(scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            wand.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.frequency_blocks_decoded())
+                .sum::<usize>(),
+            2,
+            "only the two blocks containing the surviving match need frequencies"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            wand.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.impact_bound_computations())
+                .sum::<usize>(),
+            0
+        );
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_block_max_score_matches_stored_value() {
-        let doc_ids = vec![0_u32];
-        let block_max_scores = vec![0.7_f32];
-        let posting_list = generate_posting_list(doc_ids, 0.7, Some(block_max_scores), true);
-        let expected = match &posting_list {
-            PostingList::Compressed(list) => list.block_max_score(0),
-            PostingList::Plain(_) => unreachable!("expected compressed posting list"),
+    /// A sparse lead over dense followers must drive the window traversal:
+    /// after an empty window the next one starts at the lead's next document,
+    /// so the number of sliced windows tracks the lead's documents rather than
+    /// the followers' block count. Results stay identical to the classic loop.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn bulk_and_windows_jump_to_next_lead_document(
+        #[values(2, 4)] num_clauses: usize,
+        #[values(0.0, 0.05)] initial_floor: f32,
+    ) {
+        let num_docs = MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE * 64;
+        let lead_stride = 2_000;
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: num_docs,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: num_docs,
+        };
+        let run = |mode| {
+            let postings = (0..num_clauses)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    let doc_ids = if term == 0 {
+                        (0..num_docs as u32)
+                            .step_by(lead_stride)
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    } else {
+                        (0..num_docs as u32)
+                            .filter(|doc| doc % 3 != term as u32)
+                            .collect()
+                    };
+                    let len = doc_ids.len();
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        format!("t{term}"),
+                        term as u32,
+                        term as u32,
+                        1.0,
+                        generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                            doc_ids,
+                            (0..len).map(|index| 1 + (index % 5) as u32).collect(),
+                            vec![1; len],
+                            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                        ),
+                        docs.len(),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(initial_floor.to_bits()));
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer)
+                .with_bulk_and_mode(mode)
+                .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor.clone());
+            let mut rows = wand
+                .search(
+                    &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|hit| (hit.document, hit.doc_length, hit.freqs))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            rows.sort_unstable();
+            (
+                rows,
+                shared_floor.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+                wand.and_window_stats.windows_sliced,
+            )
+        };
+        let (classic, classic_floor, _) = run(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        let (bulk, bulk_floor, windows) = run(BulkAndMode::On);
+        assert_eq!(bulk, classic);
+        assert_eq!(bulk_floor, classic_floor);
+        let lead_docs = num_docs / lead_stride + 1;
+        let follower_blocks = (num_docs * 2 / 3) / MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE;
+        assert!(
+            windows <= 2 * lead_docs + 2,
+            "sliced {windows} windows for {lead_docs} lead docs; followers have {follower_blocks} blocks each"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::dense("dense")]
+    #[case::sparse("sparse")]
+    #[case::shifted("shifted")]
+    #[case::underfilled_five("five")]
+    #[case::underfilled_zero("zero")]
+    #[case::max_doc_id("max")]
+    fn pairwise_and_matches_classic(
+        #[case] shape: &str,
+        #[values(4, 5, 8, 16)] num_clauses: usize,
+        #[values(0.0, 0.1)] initial_floor: f32,
+    ) {
+        let posting_len = MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE * 3 + 7;
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: posting_len * 2 + num_clauses,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: posting_len * 2 + num_clauses,
+        };
+        let run = |mode| {
+            let postings = (0..num_clauses)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    let doc_ids = (0..posting_len)
+                        .map(|index| match shape {
+                            "dense" => index as u32,
+                            "shifted" => (index + term) as u32,
+                            "sparse" => (index * 3) as u32,
+                            "max" => u32::MAX - ((posting_len - index - 1) * 1_000_003) as u32,
+                            "zero" | "five" => {
+                                let is_last_clause = term + 1 == num_clauses;
+                                let is_match = shape == "five" && index >= posting_len - 5;
+                                (index * 2 + usize::from(is_last_clause && !is_match)) as u32
+                            }
+                            _ => unreachable!(),
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let frequencies = (0..posting_len)
+                        .map(|index| 1 + ((index + term) % 7) as u32)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        format!("t{term}"),
+                        term as u32,
+                        term as u32,
+                        [0.002_972_301_6, 0.001_982_450_7, 0.001_882_293][term % 3],
+                        generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                            doc_ids,
+                            frequencies,
+                            vec![1; posting_len],
+                            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                        ),
+                        docs.len(),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let shared_floor = Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(initial_floor.to_bits()));
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer)
+                .with_bulk_and_mode(mode)
+                .with_shared_threshold(shared_floor.clone());
+            let hits = wand
+                .search(
+                    &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut rows = hits
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|hit| (hit.document, hit.doc_length, hit.freqs))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            rows.sort_unstable();
+            if mode == BulkAndMode::On {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    wand.and_window_stats.pairwise_intersections > 0,
+                    initial_floor == 0.0
+                );
+                if initial_floor == 0.0 && matches!(shape, "five" | "zero") {
+                    assert_eq!(rows.len(), if shape == "five" { 5 } else { 0 });
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        wand.lead
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|posting| posting.frequency_blocks_decoded())
+                            .sum::<usize>(),
+                        if shape == "five" { num_clauses } else { 0 },
+                        "only final matching blocks need frequency decoding"
+                    );
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        wand.lead
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|posting| posting.impact_bound_computations())
+                            .sum::<usize>(),
+                        0
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+            (rows, shared_floor.load(Ordering::Relaxed))
         };
+        let classic = run(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        assert_eq!(run(BulkAndMode::On), classic);
+        assert_eq!(run(BulkAndMode::Auto), classic);
+    }
 
-        let posting = PostingIterator::new(String::from("test"), 0, 0, posting_list, 1);
+    #[rstest]
+    fn pairwise_and_preserves_phrase_and_visibility(
+        #[values(4, 8, 16)] num_clauses: u32,
+        #[values(None, Some(0), Some(3))] phrase_slop: Option<u32>,
+        #[values(false, true)] is_filtered: bool,
+    ) {
+        let num_docs = MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE * 2 + 7;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(doc as u64, 1);
+        }
+        let mask = if is_filtered {
+            RowAddrMask::from_block([0, (num_docs - 1) as u64].into_iter().collect())
+        } else {
+            RowAddrMask::all_rows()
+        };
+        let documents = LegacyWandDocuments::new(&docs, &mask);
+        let run = |mode| {
+            let postings = (0..num_clauses)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    let mut list = generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                        (0..num_docs as u32).collect(),
+                        vec![1; num_docs],
+                        vec![1; num_docs],
+                        MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                    );
+                    let mut bytes = Vec::new();
+                    let mut offsets = Vec::new();
+                    for start in (0..num_docs).step_by(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE) {
+                        let end = (start + MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE).min(num_docs);
+                        let positions = (start..end)
+                            .map(|doc| {
+                                if doc >= num_docs - 5 {
+                                    5 + term
+                                } else {
+                                    5 + term * 8
+                                }
+                            })
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                        offsets.push(bytes.len() as u32);
+                        encode_position_stream_block_into(
+                            &positions,
+                            &vec![1; end - start],
+                            PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta,
+                            &mut bytes,
+                        )
+                        .unwrap();
+                    }
+                    if let PostingList::Compressed(list) = &mut list {
+                        list.positions = Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(
+                            SharedPositionStream::new(
+                                PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta,
+                                offsets,
+                                bytes.into(),
+                            ),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        format!("t{term}"),
+                        term,
+                        term,
+                        1.0,
+                        list,
+                        docs.len(),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &documents, UnitScorer)
+                .with_bulk_and_mode(mode);
+            let mut params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10));
+            params.phrase_slop = phrase_slop;
+            let mut hits = wand
+                .search(&params, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|hit| (hit.document, hit.freqs))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            hits.sort_unstable();
+            if mode == BulkAndMode::On {
+                assert!(wand.and_window_stats.pairwise_intersections > 0);
+            }
+            assert_eq!(
+                hits.len(),
+                if phrase_slop.is_some() {
+                    5 - usize::from(is_filtered)
+                } else {
+                    10
+                }
+            );
+            (hits, wand.threshold.to_bits())
+        };
+        let classic = run(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        assert_eq!(run(BulkAndMode::On), classic);
+        assert_eq!(run(BulkAndMode::Auto), classic);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn phrase_skips_position_confirm_when_complete_score_cannot_beat_floor(
+        #[values(BulkAndMode::Off, BulkAndMode::On)] mode: BulkAndMode,
+        #[values(0_u32, 3)] phrase_slop: u32,
+        #[values(true, false)] phrase_first: bool,
+        #[values(1_usize, 32)] limit: usize,
+    ) {
+        let num_docs = 32_usize;
+        let phrase_doc = if phrase_first { 0 } else { num_docs - 1 };
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(doc as u64, 1);
+        }
+        let postings = (0..2_u32)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let mut list = generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                    (0..num_docs as u32).collect(),
+                    vec![1; num_docs],
+                    vec![1; num_docs],
+                    MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                );
+                let positions = (0..num_docs as u32)
+                    .map(|doc| {
+                        if term == 0 {
+                            0
+                        } else if doc == phrase_doc as u32 {
+                            1
+                        } else {
+                            50
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let mut bytes = Vec::new();
+                encode_position_stream_block_into(
+                    &positions,
+                    &vec![1; num_docs],
+                    PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta,
+                    &mut bytes,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+                if let PostingList::Compressed(list) = &mut list {
+                    list.positions = Some(CompressedPositionStorage::SharedStream(
+                        SharedPositionStream::new(
+                            PositionStreamCodec::VarintDocDelta,
+                            vec![0],
+                            bytes.into(),
+                        ),
+                    ));
+                }
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term,
+                    term,
+                    1.0,
+                    list,
+                    docs.len(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer)
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(mode);
+        let mut params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(limit));
+        params.phrase_slop = Some(phrase_slop);
+        let hits = wand.search(&params, &NoOpMetricsCollector).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(hits.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(hits[0].posting_doc_id, phrase_doc as u64);
+        assert_eq!(wand.bulk_and_searches, usize::from(mode == BulkAndMode::On));
+        let expected_checks = if phrase_first && limit == 1 {
+            1
+        } else {
+            num_docs
+        };
+        assert_eq!(wand.phrase_position_checks.get(), expected_checks);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn pairwise_and_requires_current_posting_blocks(
+        #[values(BulkAndMode::On, BulkAndMode::Auto)] mode: BulkAndMode,
+        #[values(2, 3, 4, 16)] num_clauses: usize,
+        #[values(crate::scalar::inverted::LEGACY_BLOCK_SIZE, MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE)]
+        block_size: usize,
+        #[values(false, true)] has_impacts: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] has_grouped_terms: bool,
+    ) {
+        let docs = CostOnlyDocuments {
+            total_docs: 5,
+            visible_cost_upper_bound: 5,
+        };
+        let postings = (0..num_clauses)
+            .map(|term| {
+                let mut list = generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                    vec![0, 2, 4, 6, 8],
+                    vec![1; 5],
+                    vec![1; 5],
+                    block_size,
+                );
+                if !has_impacts && let PostingList::Compressed(list) = &mut list {
+                    list.impacts = None;
+                }
+                let grouped_terms = has_grouped_terms.then(|| {
+                    Arc::<[GroupedTermScorer]>::from([GroupedTermScorer::new(1.0, &list)])
+                });
+                let posting = PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term as u32,
+                    term as u32,
+                    1.0,
+                    list,
+                    docs.len(),
+                );
+                if let Some(grouped_terms) = grouped_terms {
+                    posting.with_grouped_terms(grouped_terms)
+                } else {
+                    posting
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer)
+            .with_bulk_and_mode(mode);
+        let hits = wand
+            .search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(hits.len(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(
+            wand.and_window_stats.pairwise_intersections > 0,
+            num_clauses >= 4
+                && block_size == MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE
+                && has_impacts
+                && !has_grouped_terms
+        );
+        if has_grouped_terms {
+            assert_eq!(wand.bulk_and_searches, 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn bulk_and_activates_frequencies_and_bounds_after_heap_fills(
+        #[values(2, 4, 8, 16)] num_clauses: u32,
+    ) {
+        let num_docs = (BLOCK_SIZE * 2) as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(u64::from(doc_id), 1);
+        }
+        let frequencies = (0..num_docs)
+            .map(|doc| if doc < BLOCK_SIZE as u32 { 1 } else { 10 })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let postings = (0..num_clauses)
+            .map(|term| {
+                PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                    format!("t{term}"),
+                    term,
+                    term,
+                    1.0,
+                    generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs(
+                        (0..num_docs).collect(),
+                        frequencies.clone(),
+                        vec![1; num_docs as usize],
+                    ),
+                    docs.len(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let scored = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let mut wand = Wand::new(
+            Operator::And,
+            postings.into_iter(),
+            &docs,
+            CountingScorer {
+                scored: scored.clone(),
+            },
+        )
+        .with_bulk_and_mode(BulkAndMode::On);
+
+        let hits = wand
+            .search(
+                &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(1)),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let actual = posting.block_max_score();
+        assert_eq!(hits.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(hits[0].document, BLOCK_SIZE as u64);
+        assert!(wand.threshold > 0.0);
         assert!(
-            (actual - expected).abs() < 1e-6,
-            "block max score should match stored value"
+            wand.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.frequency_blocks_decoded())
+                .sum::<usize>()
+                >= 4,
+            "the competitive second window must decode its frequency blocks"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            wand.lead
+                .iter()
+                .map(|posting| posting.impact_bound_computations())
+                .sum::<usize>()
+                > 0,
+            "impact bounds must activate on the first window after the heap fills"
+        );
+        assert!(scored.load(Ordering::Relaxed) > 0);
+    }
+
+    /// The floor turns positive in the middle of the first window, where only
+    /// the per-candidate prune refreshes the score limit. The second window
+    /// has the same floor and the same follower block max, so the frequency
+    /// prune table must still be built for it instead of staying disabled.
+    #[test]
+    fn bulk_and_builds_frequency_prune_table_after_mid_window_floor() {
+        let num_docs = (MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE * 2) as u32;
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        for doc_id in 0..num_docs {
+            docs.append(u64::from(doc_id), 1);
+        }
+        let run = |mode| {
+            // One block spanning both windows; only document 0 can win.
+            let sparse_docs = (0..num_docs).step_by(2).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let sparse_freqs = sparse_docs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&doc| if doc == 0 { 10 } else { 1 })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            // Two blocks with the same block max, so the follower bound is
+            // identical in both windows. Document 257 keeps the second window
+            // competitive by block max without matching the sparse clause.
+            let dense_docs = (0..num_docs).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let dense_freqs = dense_docs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&doc| if doc == 0 || doc == 257 { 10 } else { 1 })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let postings = [(sparse_docs, sparse_freqs), (dense_docs, dense_freqs)]
+                .into_iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(term, (doc_ids, freqs))| {
+                    let len = doc_ids.len();
+                    PostingIterator::with_query_weight(
+                        format!("t{term}"),
+                        term as u32,
+                        term as u32,
+                        1.0,
+                        generate_impact_posting_list_with_freqs_and_block_size(
+                            doc_ids,
+                            freqs,
+                            vec![1; len],
+                            MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE,
+                        ),
+                        docs.len(),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let mut wand = Wand::new(Operator::And, postings.into_iter(), &docs, UnitScorer)
+                .with_bulk_and_mode(mode);
+            let hits = wand
+                .search(
+                    &FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(1)),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|hit| (hit.document, hit.doc_length, hit.freqs))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            (
+                hits,
+                wand.threshold,
+                wand.and_window_stats.windows_sliced,
+                wand.and_window_stats.windows_frequency_pruned,
+            )
+        };
+        let (classic, classic_floor, _, _) = run(BulkAndMode::Off);
+        let (bulk, bulk_floor, windows_sliced, windows_frequency_pruned) = run(BulkAndMode::On);
+        assert_eq!(bulk, classic);
+        assert_eq!(bulk.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(bulk[0].0, 0);
+        assert_eq!(bulk_floor, 20.0);
+        assert_eq!(bulk_floor, classic_floor);
+        assert_eq!(
+            windows_sliced, 2,
+            "the dense clause's block boundary splits two windows"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            windows_frequency_pruned, 1,
+            "the second window must apply the frequency prune table"
         );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand_intersection.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand_intersection.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d9bf0bad5d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand_intersection.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Pairwise intersection of the sorted, distinct DocIDs in posting blocks.
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+use std::arch::x86_64::{
+    _mm_castsi128_ps, _mm_cmpeq_epi32, _mm_loadu_si128, _mm_movemask_ps, _mm_or_si128,
+    _mm_shuffle_epi32,
+};
+
+#[inline]
+pub(super) fn intersect(left: &[u32], right: &[u32], out: &mut Vec<u32>) {
+    out.clear();
+    out.reserve(left.len());
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+        // SAFETY: AVX2 support was checked above.
+        unsafe { intersect_avx2(left, right, out) };
+        return;
+    }
+    intersect_scalar(left, right, out);
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn intersect_scalar(left: &[u32], right: &[u32], out: &mut Vec<u32>) {
+    let (mut a, mut b) = (0, 0);
+    while a < left.len() && b < right.len() {
+        match left[a].cmp(&right[b]) {
+            std::cmp::Ordering::Less => a += 1,
+            std::cmp::Ordering::Greater => b += 1,
+            std::cmp::Ordering::Equal => {
+                out.push(left[a]);
+                a += 1;
+                b += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+unsafe fn intersect_avx2(left: &[u32], right: &[u32], out: &mut Vec<u32>) {
+    let (mut a, mut b) = (0, 0);
+    while a + 4 <= left.len() && b + 4 <= right.len() {
+        let a_max = left[a + 3];
+        let b_max = right[b + 3];
+        if a_max < right[b] {
+            a += 4;
+            continue;
+        }
+        if b_max < left[a] {
+            b += 4;
+            continue;
+        }
+        // Compare every lane in the left tile with every lane in the right
+        // tile. Equality needs no signedness conversion for high DocIDs.
+        // SAFETY: both slices have at least four entries at these offsets;
+        // unaligned loads are permitted and AVX2 was checked by the caller.
+        let mut mask = unsafe {
+            let av = _mm_loadu_si128(left.as_ptr().add(a).cast());
+            let mut bv = _mm_loadu_si128(right.as_ptr().add(b).cast());
+            let mut eq = _mm_cmpeq_epi32(av, bv);
+            bv = _mm_shuffle_epi32::<0x39>(bv);
+            eq = _mm_or_si128(eq, _mm_cmpeq_epi32(av, bv));
+            bv = _mm_shuffle_epi32::<0x39>(bv);
+            eq = _mm_or_si128(eq, _mm_cmpeq_epi32(av, bv));
+            bv = _mm_shuffle_epi32::<0x39>(bv);
+            eq = _mm_or_si128(eq, _mm_cmpeq_epi32(av, bv));
+            _mm_movemask_ps(_mm_castsi128_ps(eq)) as u32
+        };
+        while mask != 0 {
+            out.push(left[a + mask.trailing_zeros() as usize]);
+            mask &= mask - 1;
+        }
+        // Retain the tile with the larger maximum: its remaining documents
+        // may match the next tile on the other side. Distinct sorted inputs
+        // ensure emitted matches remain ordered and cannot be repeated.
+        a += usize::from(a_max <= b_max) * 4;
+        b += usize::from(b_max <= a_max) * 4;
+    }
+    intersect_scalar(&left[a..], &right[b..], out);
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn assert_intersection(left: &[u32], right: &[u32]) {
+        let expected = left
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|doc| right.contains(doc))
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut actual = Vec::new();
+        intersect_scalar(left, right, &mut actual);
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+        intersect(left, right, &mut actual);
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected, "intersection of {left:?} and {right:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn exhaustive_short_sets() {
+        for left_mask in 0u32..256 {
+            let left = (0..8)
+                .filter(|bit| left_mask & (1 << bit) != 0)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            for right_mask in 0u32..256 {
+                let right = (0..8)
+                    .filter(|bit| right_mask & (1 << bit) != 0)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                assert_intersection(&left, &right);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn sparse_full_domain_blocks(
+        #[values(0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 127, 128, 255, 256)] right_len: u32,
+    ) {
+        for left_len in 0..=256 {
+            let left = (0..left_len)
+                .map(|i| u32::MAX - (255 - i) * 10_000_000)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let right = (0..right_len)
+                .map(|i| u32::MAX - (255 - i) * 10_000_001)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert_intersection(&left, &right);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand_maxscore.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand_maxscore.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..05fcd8a4695
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/inverted/wand_maxscore.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,732 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Inner-window work for MAXSCORE: block skip, two-pointer optional freqs,
+//! and SoA completion for one essential plus at most two optionals.
+//!
+//! Lucene's `scoreInnerWindowSingleEssentialClause`. Two-essential compact
+//! union is intentionally not ported.
+
+use smallvec::SmallVec;
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+
+use super::super::builder::ScoredDoc;
+use super::super::scorer::{Scorer, bm25_doc_weight_with_norm};
+use super::MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE;
+use super::{
+    CompetitiveFloorMode, DocInfo, MaxScoreClause, PostingIterator, PostingList, RawDocInfo,
+    TopKCollector, Wand, WandDocuments, score_sum_cannot_compete,
+};
+
+#[inline]
+pub(super) fn exclusive_cannot_compete(
+    partial: f32,
+    remaining_upper_bound: f64,
+    floor: f32,
+    upper_bound_factor: f64,
+) -> bool {
+    floor > 0.0
+        && score_sum_cannot_compete(
+            partial,
+            remaining_upper_bound,
+            floor,
+            upper_bound_factor,
+            CompetitiveFloorMode::Exclusive,
+        )
+}
+
+fn bm25_tf_from_caches(
+    query_weight: f32,
+    freq: u32,
+    doc: u32,
+    quantized: Option<(&[u8], &[f32; 256])>,
+) -> Option<f32> {
+    let (norms, cache) = quantized?;
+    Some(query_weight * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, cache[norms[doc as usize] as usize]))
+}
+
+fn bulk_bm25_tf(
+    query_weight: f32,
+    hits: &[(u64, u32)],
+    quantized: Option<(&[u8], &[f32; 256])>,
+    fallback: impl Fn(u64, u32) -> f32,
+    out: &mut Vec<f32>,
+) {
+    out.clear();
+    out.reserve(hits.len());
+    if let Some((norms, cache)) = quantized {
+        for &(doc, freq) in hits {
+            out.push(
+                query_weight * bm25_doc_weight_with_norm(freq, cache[norms[doc as usize] as usize]),
+            );
+        }
+        return;
+    }
+    for &(doc, freq) in hits {
+        out.push(fallback(doc, freq));
+    }
+}
+
+/// Lucene `DocAndScoreAccBuffer`: SoA vectors reused across essential blocks.
+pub(super) struct MaxScoreSoaScratch {
+    docs: Vec<u64>,
+    ess_scores: Vec<f32>,
+    ess_freqs: Vec<u32>,
+    raw_scores: Vec<f32>,
+    opt_scores: Vec<f32>,
+    opt_freqs: Vec<u32>,
+    opt_s: [Vec<f32>; 2],
+    opt_f: [Vec<u32>; 2],
+    partial: Vec<f32>,
+}
+
+impl MaxScoreSoaScratch {
+    pub(super) fn new() -> Self {
+        // One decompressed posting block is the largest chunk
+        // `take_docs_one_block_upto` can hand over, so sizing to it keeps the
+        // dense case off the allocator's path.
+        Self {
+            docs: Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+            ess_scores: Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+            ess_freqs: Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+            raw_scores: Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+            opt_scores: Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+            opt_freqs: Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+            opt_s: [
+                Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+                Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+            ],
+            opt_f: [
+                Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+                Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+            ],
+            partial: Vec::with_capacity(MAX_POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PostingIterator {
+    /// Lucene `ScorerUtil.applyOptionalClause`: fill `out_freqs[i]` with this
+    /// clause's frequency at sorted `docs[i]`, or 0 on a miss.
+    pub(super) fn merge_optional_freqs(&mut self, docs: &[u64], out_freqs: &mut [u32]) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(docs.len(), out_freqs.len());
+        out_freqs.fill(0);
+        if docs.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        if self.doc().is_some_and(|cur| cur.doc_id() < docs[0]) {
+            self.next(docs[0]);
+        }
+        if matches!(self.list, PostingList::Plain(_)) {
+            for (i, &doc) in docs.iter().enumerate() {
+                if self.doc().is_some_and(|cur| cur.doc_id() < doc) {
+                    self.next(doc);
+                }
+                if let Some(cur) = self.doc()
+                    && cur.doc_id() == doc
+                {
+                    out_freqs[i] = cur.frequency();
+                }
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        let shift = match &self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(list) => list.block_shift(),
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => return,
+        };
+        let length = match &self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(list) => list.length as usize,
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => return,
+        };
+        let mut i = 0usize;
+        while i < docs.len() {
+            let Some(cur) = self.current_doc else {
+                return;
+            };
+            let cur_id = cur.doc_id();
+            while i < docs.len() && docs[i] < cur_id {
+                i += 1;
+            }
+            if i >= docs.len() {
+                return;
+            }
+            if docs[i] > cur_id {
+                self.next(docs[i]);
+                continue;
+            }
+            let block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+            let mask = match &self.list {
+                PostingList::Compressed(list) => list.block_mask(),
+                PostingList::Plain(_) => return,
+            };
+            let (stay, end_of_block) = match &self.list {
+                PostingList::Compressed(list) => {
+                    let compressed = unsafe { &*self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx) };
+                    let mut j = self.index & mask;
+                    let n = compressed.doc_ids.len();
+                    while i < docs.len() && j < n {
+                        let block_doc = u64::from(compressed.doc_ids[j]);
+                        if block_doc < docs[i] {
+                            j += 1;
+                        } else if block_doc == docs[i] {
+                            out_freqs[i] = compressed.freqs[j];
+                            i += 1;
+                            j += 1;
+                        } else {
+                            i += 1;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    let stay = (j < n).then(|| (compressed.doc_ids[j], compressed.freqs[j]));
+                    (stay, j)
+                }
+                PostingList::Plain(_) => return,
+            };
+            if let Some((doc_id, frequency)) = stay {
+                self.index = (block_idx << shift) + end_of_block;
+                self.block_idx = block_idx;
+                self.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo { doc_id, frequency }));
+            } else {
+                let next_start = (block_idx + 1) << shift;
+                if next_start >= length {
+                    self.index = length;
+                    self.block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                    self.current_doc = None;
+                } else {
+                    self.index = next_start;
+                    self.block_idx = block_idx + 1;
+                    let next_doc = match &self.list {
+                        PostingList::Compressed(list) => {
+                            let next =
+                                unsafe { &*self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx + 1) };
+                            (next.doc_ids[0], next.freqs[0])
+                        }
+                        PostingList::Plain(_) => return,
+                    };
+                    self.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                        doc_id: next_doc.0,
+                        frequency: next_doc.1,
+                    }));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Copy one decompressed posting block (or a 128-doc Plain slice) with
+    /// `doc_id <= window_max` into `out`. Leaves the cursor on the first doc
+    /// beyond that chunk.
+    pub(super) fn take_docs_one_block_upto(&mut self, window_max: u64, out: &mut Vec<(u64, u32)>) {
+        out.clear();
+        match self.list {
+            PostingList::Compressed(ref list) => {
+                let Some(cur) = self.current_doc else {
+                    return;
+                };
+                if cur.doc_id() > window_max {
+                    return;
+                }
+                let shift = list.block_shift();
+                let mask = list.block_mask();
+                let block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                let block_offset = self.index & mask;
+                let compressed = unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx) };
+                for offset in block_offset..compressed.doc_ids.len() {
+                    let doc_id = compressed.doc_ids[offset];
+                    if u64::from(doc_id) > window_max {
+                        self.index = (block_idx << shift) + offset;
+                        self.block_idx = block_idx;
+                        self.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                            doc_id,
+                            frequency: compressed.freqs[offset],
+                        }));
+                        return;
+                    }
+                    out.push((u64::from(doc_id), compressed.freqs[offset]));
+                }
+                let next_start = (block_idx + 1) << shift;
+                if next_start >= list.length as usize {
+                    self.index = list.length as usize;
+                    self.block_idx = self.index >> shift;
+                    self.current_doc = None;
+                    return;
+                }
+                self.index = next_start;
+                self.block_idx = block_idx + 1;
+                let compressed =
+                    unsafe { &mut *self.ensure_compressed_block_ptr(list, block_idx + 1) };
+                self.current_doc = Some(DocInfo::Raw(RawDocInfo {
+                    doc_id: compressed.doc_ids[0],
+                    frequency: compressed.freqs[0],
+                }));
+            }
+            PostingList::Plain(_) => {
+                while let Some(cur) = self.doc() {
+                    let doc = cur.doc_id();
+                    if doc > window_max {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    out.push((doc, cur.frequency()));
+                    self.next(doc + 1);
+                    if out.len() >= 128 {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Advance to the first doc of the next posting block, or exhaust.
+    pub(super) fn skip_current_block(&mut self) -> bool {
+        match self.next_block_first_doc() {
+            Some(doc) => {
+                self.next(doc);
+                self.current_doc.is_some()
+            }
+            None => {
+                if let PostingList::Compressed(ref list) = self.list {
+                    self.index = list.length as usize;
+                    self.block_idx = self.index >> list.block_shift();
+                }
+                self.current_doc = None;
+                false
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a, S: Scorer, D: WandDocuments> Wand<'a, S, D> {
+    /// Skip dead essential blocks and complete surviving docs with at most
+    /// two optional clauses via SoA buffers.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(super) fn score_single_essential_upto(
+        &mut self,
+        clauses: &mut [MaxScoreClause],
+        first_essential: usize,
+        ess_idx: usize,
+        upto: u64,
+        essential_query_rank: usize,
+        essential_term: u32,
+        essential_weight: f32,
+        essential_window_bound: f32,
+        num_query_terms: usize,
+        total_non_essential_bound: f64,
+        total_sum_upper_bound_factor: f64,
+        norm_k_ref: Option<(&[u8], &[f32; 256])>,
+        essential_chunk: &mut Vec<(u64, u32)>,
+        scratch: &mut MaxScoreSoaScratch,
+        candidates: &mut TopKCollector,
+        num_comparisons: &mut usize,
+        wand_factor: f32,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // Deleted rows are still named by the posting list and are only
+        // rejected when the hit is inserted, so on a partition with deletions
+        // this path would merge and score the optionals for documents it is
+        // about to drop -- the per-document path it replaced asked about
+        // visibility before touching any optional. Asking up front cannot
+        // change a result (an invisible document is dropped either way), but it
+        // is only worth doing when something can actually be invisible: on a
+        // fully visible partition it is a scan that rejects nothing.
+        // `any_invisible` is O(1) and conservative -- it errs towards probing,
+        // so skipping the probe can only give up the saving, never a document.
+        // (`visible_cost_upper_bound` cannot stand in for it: a deletion
+        // vector too large to materialize still reports the full count.)
+        let probe_visibility = self.documents.any_invisible();
+        loop {
+            // Lucene `nextPostings(upTo)`: do not advance past this call's
+            // exclusive end. After `take_docs` the cursor already sits on the
+            // first doc of the next block, which may belong to a later window
+            // whose optional remainder is larger.
+            if clauses[ess_idx]
+                .posting
+                .doc()
+                .is_none_or(|doc| doc.doc_id() > upto)
+            {
+                break;
+            }
+            if self.threshold > 0.0 {
+                let block_max = clauses[ess_idx].posting.block_max_score(&self.scorer);
+                if exclusive_cannot_compete(
+                    block_max,
+                    total_non_essential_bound,
+                    self.threshold,
+                    total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                ) {
+                    // `skip_current_block()` also drops the documents past `upto`,
+                    // which belong to a later window. Meeting them again through a
+                    // different essential would score them without this clause's
+                    // contribution, so only skip wholesale when the whole block
+                    // lies inside the span this call was asked to complete.
+                    if upto < clauses[ess_idx].posting.block_end_doc() {
+                        // `upto` can be the terminator, in which case there is
+                        // nothing left for this call to complete.
+                        if upto >= u32::MAX as u64 {
+                            break;
+                        }
+                        clauses[ess_idx].posting.next(upto + 1);
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    #[cfg(test)]
+                    {
+                        self.maxscore_essential_blocks_skipped += 1;
+                    }
+                    let more = clauses[ess_idx].posting.skip_current_block();
+                    if !more
+                        || clauses[ess_idx]
+                            .posting
+                            .doc()
+                            .is_none_or(|doc| doc.doc_id() > upto)
+                    {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    continue;
+                }
+            }
+            clauses[ess_idx]
+                .posting
+                .take_docs_one_block_upto(upto, essential_chunk);
+            if essential_chunk.is_empty() {
+                break;
+            }
+            if probe_visibility {
+                essential_chunk.retain(|(doc, _)| {
+                    self.documents
+                        .document_key_for_doc_id(*doc as u32)
+                        .is_some()
+                });
+                if essential_chunk.is_empty() {
+                    // The whole block was invisible; `take_docs` already left
+                    // the cursor on the next one.
+                    continue;
+                }
+            }
+            let (non_essential, _) = clauses.split_at_mut(first_essential);
+            self.complete_maxscore_single_essential(
+                essential_chunk,
+                non_essential,
+                essential_query_rank,
+                essential_term,
+                essential_weight,
+                essential_window_bound,
+                num_query_terms,
+                total_non_essential_bound,
+                total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                norm_k_ref,
+                scratch,
+                candidates,
+                num_comparisons,
+                wand_factor,
+            )?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn complete_maxscore_single_essential(
+        &mut self,
+        hits: &[(u64, u32)],
+        non_essential: &mut [MaxScoreClause],
+        essential_query_rank: usize,
+        essential_term: u32,
+        essential_weight: f32,
+        essential_window_bound: f32,
+        num_query_terms: usize,
+        total_non_essential_bound: f64,
+        total_sum_upper_bound_factor: f64,
+        norm_k_ref: Option<(&[u8], &[f32; 256])>,
+        scratch: &mut MaxScoreSoaScratch,
+        candidates: &mut TopKCollector,
+        num_comparisons: &mut usize,
+        wand_factor: f32,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        debug_assert!(non_essential.len() <= 2);
+        scratch.docs.clear();
+        scratch.ess_scores.clear();
+        scratch.ess_freqs.clear();
+        scratch.opt_scores.clear();
+        scratch.opt_freqs.clear();
+        bulk_bm25_tf(
+            essential_weight,
+            hits,
+            norm_k_ref,
+            |doc, freq| {
+                essential_weight
+                    * self
+                        .scorer
+                        .doc_weight(freq, self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(doc as u32))
+            },
+            &mut scratch.raw_scores,
+        );
+        for (hit, &score) in hits.iter().zip(scratch.raw_scores.iter()) {
+            *num_comparisons += 1;
+            if exclusive_cannot_compete(
+                score,
+                total_non_essential_bound,
+                self.threshold,
+                total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+            ) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            scratch.docs.push(hit.0);
+            scratch.ess_scores.push(score);
+            scratch.ess_freqs.push(hit.1);
+        }
+        if scratch.docs.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let mut opt_term = 0u32;
+        let mut opt_rank = 0usize;
+
+        if non_essential.len() == 1 {
+            let optional = &mut non_essential[0];
+            opt_term = optional.posting.term_index();
+            opt_rank = optional.query_rank;
+            let require_best = essential_window_bound.is_finite()
+                && essential_window_bound > 0.0
+                && exclusive_cannot_compete(
+                    essential_window_bound,
+                    0.0,
+                    self.threshold,
+                    total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                );
+            let query_weight = optional.posting.query_weight;
+            // With a single optional clause `total_non_essential_bound` is that
+            // clause's own `prefix_bound`, so the entry filter above already
+            // applied this predicate; re-running it here was a no-op pass.
+            scratch.opt_scores.clear();
+            scratch.opt_scores.resize(scratch.docs.len(), 0.0);
+            scratch.opt_freqs.clear();
+            scratch.opt_freqs.resize(scratch.docs.len(), 0);
+            let probe = &mut optional.posting;
+            probe.merge_optional_freqs(&scratch.docs, &mut scratch.opt_freqs);
+            let mut w = 0usize;
+            for r in 0..scratch.docs.len() {
+                let freq = scratch.opt_freqs[r];
+                if freq == 0 && require_best {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let contribution = if freq == 0 {
+                    0.0
+                } else {
+                    bm25_tf_from_caches(query_weight, freq, scratch.docs[r] as u32, norm_k_ref)
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                            probe.score(
+                                &self.scorer,
+                                freq,
+                                self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(scratch.docs[r] as u32),
+                            )
+                        })
+                };
+                scratch.docs[w] = scratch.docs[r];
+                scratch.ess_scores[w] = scratch.ess_scores[r];
+                scratch.ess_freqs[w] = scratch.ess_freqs[r];
+                scratch.opt_scores[w] = contribution;
+                scratch.opt_freqs[w] = freq;
+                w += 1;
+            }
+            scratch.docs.truncate(w);
+            scratch.ess_scores.truncate(w);
+            scratch.ess_freqs.truncate(w);
+            scratch.opt_scores.truncate(w);
+            scratch.opt_freqs.truncate(w);
+        } else if non_essential.len() == 2 {
+            let n_live = scratch.docs.len();
+            for slot in 0..2 {
+                scratch.opt_s[slot].clear();
+                scratch.opt_s[slot].resize(n_live, 0.0);
+                scratch.opt_f[slot].clear();
+                scratch.opt_f[slot].resize(n_live, 0);
+            }
+            scratch.partial.clear();
+            scratch.partial.extend_from_slice(&scratch.ess_scores);
+            let opt_term = [
+                non_essential[0].posting.term_index(),
+                non_essential[1].posting.term_index(),
+            ];
+            let opt_rank = [non_essential[0].query_rank, non_essential[1].query_rank];
+            let remaining_without_best = non_essential[0].prefix_bound;
+            let require_best = essential_window_bound.is_finite()
+                && essential_window_bound > 0.0
+                && remaining_without_best.is_finite()
+                && exclusive_cannot_compete(
+                    essential_window_bound,
+                    remaining_without_best,
+                    self.threshold,
+                    total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                );
+            let apply = [1usize, 0];
+            for (step, &idx) in apply.iter().enumerate() {
+                let required = require_best && step == 0;
+                let query_weight = non_essential[idx].posting.query_weight;
+                // Step 0 probes the second optional, whose `prefix_bound` is
+                // `total_non_essential_bound`; the entry filter already applied
+                // that predicate while `partial` still equalled the essential
+                // score, so re-filtering here would be a no-op pass.
+                if !required && step > 0 {
+                    let prefix_bound = non_essential[idx].prefix_bound;
+                    let mut w = 0usize;
+                    for r in 0..scratch.docs.len() {
+                        if exclusive_cannot_compete(
+                            scratch.partial[r],
+                            prefix_bound,
+                            self.threshold,
+                            total_sum_upper_bound_factor,
+                        ) {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        scratch.docs[w] = scratch.docs[r];
+                        scratch.ess_scores[w] = scratch.ess_scores[r];
+                        scratch.ess_freqs[w] = scratch.ess_freqs[r];
+                        scratch.opt_s[0][w] = scratch.opt_s[0][r];
+                        scratch.opt_s[1][w] = scratch.opt_s[1][r];
+                        scratch.opt_f[0][w] = scratch.opt_f[0][r];
+                        scratch.opt_f[1][w] = scratch.opt_f[1][r];
+                        scratch.partial[w] = scratch.partial[r];
+                        w += 1;
+                    }
+                    scratch.docs.truncate(w);
+                    scratch.ess_scores.truncate(w);
+                    scratch.ess_freqs.truncate(w);
+                    scratch.partial.truncate(w);
+                    scratch.opt_s[0].truncate(w);
+                    scratch.opt_s[1].truncate(w);
+                    scratch.opt_f[0].truncate(w);
+                    scratch.opt_f[1].truncate(w);
+                    if scratch.docs.is_empty() {
+                        return Ok(());
+                    }
+                }
+                let n = scratch.docs.len();
+                scratch.opt_f[idx].clear();
+                scratch.opt_f[idx].resize(n, 0);
+                let probe = &mut non_essential[idx].posting;
+                probe.merge_optional_freqs(&scratch.docs, &mut scratch.opt_f[idx]);
+                let mut w = 0usize;
+                for r in 0..n {
+                    let freq = scratch.opt_f[idx][r];
+                    if freq == 0 && required {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let contribution = if freq == 0 {
+                        0.0
+                    } else {
+                        bm25_tf_from_caches(query_weight, freq, scratch.docs[r] as u32, norm_k_ref)
+                            .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                                probe.score(
+                                    &self.scorer,
+                                    freq,
+                                    self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(scratch.docs[r] as u32),
+                                )
+                            })
+                    };
+                    scratch.docs[w] = scratch.docs[r];
+                    scratch.ess_scores[w] = scratch.ess_scores[r];
+                    scratch.ess_freqs[w] = scratch.ess_freqs[r];
+                    scratch.opt_s[0][w] = scratch.opt_s[0][r];
+                    scratch.opt_s[1][w] = scratch.opt_s[1][r];
+                    scratch.opt_f[0][w] = scratch.opt_f[0][r];
+                    scratch.opt_f[1][w] = scratch.opt_f[1][r];
+                    scratch.opt_s[idx][w] = contribution;
+                    scratch.opt_f[idx][w] = freq;
+                    scratch.partial[w] = scratch.partial[r] + contribution;
+                    w += 1;
+                }
+                scratch.docs.truncate(w);
+                scratch.ess_scores.truncate(w);
+                scratch.ess_freqs.truncate(w);
+                scratch.partial.truncate(w);
+                scratch.opt_s[0].truncate(w);
+                scratch.opt_s[1].truncate(w);
+                scratch.opt_f[0].truncate(w);
+                scratch.opt_f[1].truncate(w);
+                if scratch.docs.is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(());
+                }
+            }
+            for i in 0..scratch.docs.len() {
+                let mut by_rank = SmallVec::<[f32; 8]>::from_elem(0.0, num_query_terms);
+                by_rank[essential_query_rank] = scratch.ess_scores[i];
+                for (o, &rank) in opt_rank.iter().enumerate() {
+                    if scratch.opt_f[o][i] > 0 {
+                        by_rank[rank] = scratch.opt_s[o][i];
+                    }
+                }
+                let canonical = by_rank
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .fold(0.0_f32, |sum, contribution| sum + contribution);
+                if canonical <= self.threshold || candidates.rejects_score(canonical) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let Some(document_key) = self
+                    .documents
+                    .document_key_for_doc_id(scratch.docs[i] as u32)
+                else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                let doc_length = self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(scratch.docs[i] as u32);
+                let mut freqs = SmallVec::<[(u32, u32); 3]>::new();
+                freqs.push((essential_term, scratch.ess_freqs[i]));
+                for (o, &term) in opt_term.iter().enumerate() {
+                    if scratch.opt_f[o][i] > 0 {
+                        freqs.push((term, scratch.opt_f[o][i]));
+                    }
+                }
+                if candidates.insert(
+                    ScoredDoc::new(document_key, canonical),
+                    doc_length,
+                    scratch.docs[i],
+                    freqs.into_iter(),
+                )? && let Some(kth) = candidates.kth_score_if_full()
+                {
+                    self.update_threshold(kth, wand_factor);
+                }
+            }
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        for i in 0..scratch.docs.len() {
+            let opt_freq = if non_essential.len() == 1 {
+                scratch.opt_freqs.get(i).copied().unwrap_or(0)
+            } else {
+                0
+            };
+            let canonical = if non_essential.is_empty() {
+                scratch.ess_scores[i]
+            } else {
+                let mut by_rank = SmallVec::<[f32; 8]>::from_elem(0.0, num_query_terms);
+                by_rank[essential_query_rank] = scratch.ess_scores[i];
+                if opt_freq > 0 {
+                    by_rank[opt_rank] = scratch.opt_scores[i];
+                }
+                by_rank
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .fold(0.0_f32, |sum, contribution| sum + contribution)
+            };
+            if canonical <= self.threshold || candidates.rejects_score(canonical) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(document_key) = self
+                .documents
+                .document_key_for_doc_id(scratch.docs[i] as u32)
+            else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let doc_length = self.documents.scoring_num_tokens(scratch.docs[i] as u32);
+            let mut freqs = SmallVec::<[(u32, u32); 2]>::new();
+            freqs.push((essential_term, scratch.ess_freqs[i]));
+            if opt_freq > 0 {
+                freqs.push((opt_term, opt_freq));
+            }
+            if candidates.insert(
+                ScoredDoc::new(document_key, canonical),
+                doc_length,
+                scratch.docs[i],
+                freqs.into_iter(),
+            )? && let Some(kth) = candidates.kth_score_if_full()
+            {
+                self.update_threshold(kth, wand_factor);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/json.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/json.rs
index 82501444291..76f2bbb7d9f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/json.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/json.rs
@@ -1,47 +1,53 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
 use std::{
-    collections::HashMap,
     ops::Bound,
     sync::{Arc, Mutex},
 };
 
 use arrow_array::{Array, LargeBinaryArray, RecordBatch, StructArray, UInt8Array};
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Field as ArrowField, Schema};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SortOptions};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion::{
     execution::SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    physical_plan::{projection::ProjectionExec, ExecutionPlan},
+    physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, projection::ProjectionExec, sorts::sort::SortExec},
 };
-use datafusion_common::{config::ConfigOptions, ScalarValue};
+use datafusion_common::{DataFusionError, ScalarValue, config::ConfigOptions};
 use datafusion_expr::{Expr, Operator, ScalarUDF};
 use datafusion_physical_expr::{
+    PhysicalExpr, PhysicalSortExpr, ScalarFunctionExpr,
     expressions::{Column, Literal},
-    PhysicalExpr, ScalarFunctionExpr,
 };
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use futures::StreamExt;
-use lance_datafusion::exec::{get_session_context, LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec};
+use lance_arrow::json::{JsonEncoding, JsonValues, json_field};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_datafusion::exec::{
+    LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, execute_plan, get_session_context,
+};
 use lance_datafusion::udf::json::JsonbType;
 use prost::Message;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 
-use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, error::LanceOptionExt, Error, Result, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, cache::LanceCache, error::LanceOptionExt};
 
 use crate::{
-    frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex,
+    Index, IndexType,
     metrics::MetricsCollector,
     registry::IndexPluginRegistry,
     scalar::{
+        AnyQuery, CreatedIndex, IndexStore, RowIdRemapper, ScalarIndex, SearchOptions,
+        SearchResult, UpdateCriteria,
         expression::{IndexedExpression, ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch, ScalarQueryParser},
-        registry::{ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingRequest, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME},
-        AnyQuery, CreatedIndex, IndexStore, ScalarIndex, SearchResult, UpdateCriteria,
+        registry::{
+            BasicTrainer, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
+            VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+        },
     },
-    Index, IndexType,
 };
 
 const JSON_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 0;
@@ -62,7 +68,7 @@ impl JsonIndex {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for JsonIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.target_index.deep_size_of_children(context) + self.path.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
@@ -77,10 +83,6 @@ impl Index for JsonIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn crate::vector::VectorIndex>> {
-        unimplemented!()
-    }
-
     fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
         // TODO: This causes the index to appear as btree in list_indices call.  Need better logic
         // in list_indices to use details instead of index_type.
@@ -92,7 +94,7 @@ impl Index for JsonIndex {
     }
 
     fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
-        todo!()
+        self.target_index.statistics()
     }
 
     async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
@@ -100,16 +102,42 @@ impl Index for JsonIndex {
     }
 }
 
+impl JsonIndex {
+    /// The JSON index over a rewritten target index.
+    fn wrap_target(&self, target_created: CreatedIndex) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let json_details = crate::pb::JsonIndexDetails {
+            path: self.path.clone(),
+            target_details: Some(target_created.index_details),
+        };
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&json_details)?,
+            // TODO: We should store the target index version in the details
+            index_version: JSON_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: target_created.files,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
 #[async_trait]
 impl ScalarIndex for JsonIndex {
     async fn search(
         &self,
         query: &dyn AnyQuery,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        self.search_with_options(query, SearchOptions::default(), metrics)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn search_with_options(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        options: SearchOptions,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
         let query = query.as_any().downcast_ref::<JsonQuery>().unwrap();
         self.target_index
-            .search(query.target_query.as_ref(), metrics)
+            .search_with_options(query.target_query.as_ref(), options, metrics)
             .await
     }
 
@@ -119,27 +147,51 @@ impl ScalarIndex for JsonIndex {
 
     async fn remap(
         &self,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         let target_created = self.target_index.remap(mapping, dest_store).await?;
-        let json_details = crate::pb::JsonIndexDetails {
-            path: self.path.clone(),
-            target_details: Some(target_created.index_details),
-        };
-        Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&json_details)?,
-            // TODO: We should store the target index version in the details
-            index_version: JSON_INDEX_VERSION,
-        })
+        self.wrap_target(target_created)
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let target_created = self
+            .target_index
+            .remap_streaming(translator, dest_store)
+            .await?;
+        self.wrap_target(target_created)
     }
 
     async fn update(
         &self,
         new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filter: Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        let target_created = self.target_index.update(new_data, dest_store).await?;
+        let target_criteria = self.target_index.update_criteria().data_criteria;
+        let target_type = self.target_index.training_data_type().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "JSON index updates for path '{}' require target index {} to report its training data type",
+                self.path,
+                self.target_index.index_type()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let new_data = JsonIndexPlugin::extract_json(new_data, self.path.clone())?;
+        let new_data =
+            JsonIndexPlugin::convert_stream_by_type(new_data, target_type, self.path.clone())?;
+        let new_data = if target_criteria.ordering == TrainingOrdering::Values {
+            JsonIndexPlugin::sort_stream_by_value(new_data).await?
+        } else {
+            new_data
+        };
+        let target_created = self
+            .target_index
+            .update(new_data, dest_store, old_data_filter)
+            .await?;
         let json_details = crate::pb::JsonIndexDetails {
             path: self.path.clone(),
             target_details: Some(target_created.index_details),
@@ -148,15 +200,37 @@ impl ScalarIndex for JsonIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&json_details)?,
             // TODO: We should store the target index version in the details
             index_version: JSON_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: target_created.files,
         })
     }
 
     fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
-        self.target_index.update_criteria()
+        let target_criteria = self.target_index.update_criteria();
+        UpdateCriteria {
+            requires_old_data: target_criteria.requires_old_data,
+            data_criteria: json_scan_criteria(&target_criteria.data_criteria),
+        }
     }
 
     fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<super::ScalarIndexParams> {
-        self.target_index.derive_index_params()
+        let target_params = self.target_index.derive_index_params()?;
+        let target_data_type = self
+            .target_index
+            .training_data_type()
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(JsonIndexTargetType::try_from)
+            .transpose()?;
+        let params = JsonIndexParameters {
+            target_index_type: target_params.index_type,
+            target_index_parameters: target_params.params,
+            target_data_type,
+            path: self.path.clone(),
+        };
+        Ok(super::ScalarIndexParams::new("json".to_string()).with_params(&params))
+    }
+
+    fn training_data_type(&self) -> Option<DataType> {
+        self.target_index.training_data_type()
     }
 }
 
@@ -165,9 +239,50 @@ impl ScalarIndex for JsonIndex {
 pub struct JsonIndexParameters {
     target_index_type: String,
     target_index_parameters: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    target_data_type: Option<JsonIndexTargetType>,
     path: String,
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+enum JsonIndexTargetType {
+    Boolean,
+    Int64,
+    Float64,
+    Utf8,
+    // Retained for parameters derived from legacy array/object indices.
+    LargeBinary,
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&DataType> for JsonIndexTargetType {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(data_type: &DataType) -> Result<Self> {
+        match data_type {
+            DataType::Boolean => Ok(Self::Boolean),
+            DataType::Int64 => Ok(Self::Int64),
+            DataType::Float64 => Ok(Self::Float64),
+            DataType::Utf8 => Ok(Self::Utf8),
+            DataType::LargeBinary => Ok(Self::LargeBinary),
+            _ => Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "JSON index target data type {data_type:?} cannot be preserved for rebuilds"
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<JsonIndexTargetType> for DataType {
+    fn from(data_type: JsonIndexTargetType) -> Self {
+        match data_type {
+            JsonIndexTargetType::Boolean => Self::Boolean,
+            JsonIndexTargetType::Int64 => Self::Int64,
+            JsonIndexTargetType::Float64 => Self::Float64,
+            JsonIndexTargetType::Utf8 => Self::Utf8,
+            JsonIndexTargetType::LargeBinary => Self::LargeBinary,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 // TODO: Do we really need to wrap the query or could we just return the target query directly?
 //
 // I think the only thing we really gain is a different format impl (e.g. it shows up as a json query
@@ -231,13 +346,17 @@ impl JsonQueryParser {
                 ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
                     column,
                     index_name,
+                    index_type,
                     query,
                     needs_recheck,
+                    fragment_bitmap,
                 }) => ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
                     column,
                     index_name,
+                    index_type,
                     query: Arc::new(JsonQuery::new(query, self.path.clone())),
                     needs_recheck,
+                    fragment_bitmap,
                 }),
                 // This code path should only be hit on leaf expr
                 _ => unreachable!(),
@@ -304,37 +423,29 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for JsonQueryParser {
     fn is_valid_reference(&self, func: &Expr, _data_type: &DataType) -> Option<DataType> {
         match func {
             Expr::ScalarFunction(udf) => {
-                // Support multiple JSON extraction functions
-                let json_functions = [
-                    "json_extract",
-                    "json_get",
-                    "json_get_int",
-                    "json_get_float",
-                    "json_get_bool",
-                    "json_get_string",
-                ];
-                if !json_functions.contains(&udf.name()) {
-                    return None;
-                }
+                // Only the typed accessors are routable. `json_extract` evaluates to
+                // serialized JSON text (`"click"`, `2`) while index keys hold decoded
+                // native values (`click`, `2`), so an indexed `json_extract` predicate
+                // would answer a different question than the unindexed one. Quoting is
+                // also not order-preserving (`ab` < `ab!` but `"ab"` > `"ab!"`), so even
+                // a Utf8 index cannot serve `json_extract` ranges. Let these fall back
+                // to a full scan until literals are transcoded into the index's
+                // representation. See https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8806.
+                let value_type = match udf.name() {
+                    "json_get_int" => DataType::Int64,
+                    "json_get_float" => DataType::Float64,
+                    "json_get_bool" => DataType::Boolean,
+                    "json_get_string" => DataType::Utf8,
+                    _ => return None,
+                };
                 if udf.args.len() != 2 {
                     return None;
                 }
                 // We already know index 0 is a column reference to the column so we just need to
                 // ensure that index 1 matches our path
                 match &udf.args[1] {
-                    Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(path)), _) => {
-                        if path == &self.path {
-                            // Return the appropriate type based on the function
-                            match udf.name() {
-                                "json_get_int" => Some(DataType::Int64),
-                                "json_get_float" => Some(DataType::Float64),
-                                "json_get_bool" => Some(DataType::Boolean),
-                                "json_get_string" | "json_extract" => Some(DataType::Utf8),
-                                _ => None,
-                            }
-                        } else {
-                            None
-                        }
+                    Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(path)), _) if path == &self.path => {
+                        Some(value_type)
                     }
                     _ => None,
                 }
@@ -347,13 +458,26 @@ impl ScalarQueryParser for JsonQueryParser {
 pub struct JsonTrainingRequest {
     parameters: JsonIndexParameters,
     target_request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
+    criteria: TrainingCriteria,
+}
+
+fn json_scan_criteria(target_criteria: &TrainingCriteria) -> TrainingCriteria {
+    let mut criteria = target_criteria.clone();
+    if criteria.ordering == TrainingOrdering::Values {
+        // The scanner can only order the raw JSON column. The JSON wrapper sorts
+        // the extracted path value before passing it to the target index.
+        criteria.ordering = TrainingOrdering::None;
+    }
+    criteria
 }
 
 impl JsonTrainingRequest {
     pub fn new(parameters: JsonIndexParameters, target_request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>) -> Self {
+        let criteria = json_scan_criteria(target_request.criteria());
         Self {
             parameters,
             target_request,
+            criteria,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -364,7 +488,7 @@ impl TrainingRequest for JsonTrainingRequest {
     }
 
     fn criteria(&self) -> &TrainingCriteria {
-        self.target_request.criteria()
+        &self.criteria
     }
 }
 
@@ -385,351 +509,455 @@ impl JsonIndexPlugin {
         Ok(self.registry.lock().unwrap().as_ref().expect_ok()?.clone())
     }
 
-    /// Extract JSON with type information using the new UDF
-    async fn extract_json_with_type_info(
+    /// Present the indexed JSON column as JSONB, the encoding the JSON path
+    /// functions read, whichever encoding it arrives in.
+    fn jsonb_values(data: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let (value_idx, value_field) = schema.column_with_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME).expect_ok()?;
+        if JsonEncoding::of_field(value_field) != Some(JsonEncoding::Text) {
+            return Ok(data);
+        }
+        let value_field = value_field.clone();
+        let mut fields = schema.fields().to_vec();
+        fields[value_idx] = Arc::new(json_field(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, value_field.is_nullable()));
+        let jsonb_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new_with_metadata(fields, schema.metadata().clone()));
+        let output_schema = jsonb_schema.clone();
+        let stream = data.map(move |batch| {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            let values = JsonValues::try_new(&value_field, batch.column(value_idx))
+                .expect("the value field holds JSON text")
+                .to_jsonb()?;
+            let mut columns = batch.columns().to_vec();
+            columns[value_idx] = Arc::new(values);
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(jsonb_schema.clone(), columns)?)
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            output_schema,
+            stream,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    /// Extract a JSON path and its type tag while preserving all row-location columns.
+    fn extract_json(
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         path: String,
-    ) -> Result<(SendableRecordBatchStream, DataType)> {
-        let input = Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(data));
+    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let input = Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(Self::jsonb_values(data)?));
         let input_schema = input.schema();
         let value_column_idx = input_schema
             .column_with_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)
             .expect_ok()?
             .0;
-        let row_id_column_idx = input_schema.column_with_name(ROW_ID).expect_ok()?.0;
 
         // Call json_extract_with_type UDF
-        let exprs = vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(ScalarFunctionExpr::try_new(
-                    Arc::new(lance_datafusion::udf::json::json_extract_with_type_udf()),
-                    vec![
-                        Arc::new(Column::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, value_column_idx)),
-                        Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(path)))),
-                    ],
-                    &input_schema,
-                    Arc::new(ConfigOptions::default()),
-                )?) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
-                "json_result".to_string(),
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Column::new(ROW_ID, row_id_column_idx)) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
-                ROW_ID.to_string(),
-            ),
-        ];
+        let mut exprs: Vec<(Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>, String)> =
+            Vec::with_capacity(input_schema.fields().len());
+        exprs.push((
+            Arc::new(ScalarFunctionExpr::try_new(
+                Arc::new(lance_datafusion::udf::json::json_extract_with_type_udf()),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Column::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, value_column_idx)),
+                    Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(path)))),
+                ],
+                &input_schema,
+                Arc::new(ConfigOptions::default()),
+            )?) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+            "json_result".to_string(),
+        ));
+        for (column_idx, field) in input_schema.fields().iter().enumerate() {
+            if field.name() != VALUE_COLUMN_NAME {
+                exprs.push((
+                    Arc::new(Column::new(field.name(), column_idx)) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+                    field.name().clone(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
 
         let project = ProjectionExec::try_new(exprs, input)?;
         let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
-        let mut stream = project.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())?;
+        project.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).map_err(Into::into)
+    }
+
+    fn infer_type_from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, path: &str) -> Result<Option<DataType>> {
+        let json_result_column = batch
+            .column_by_name("json_result")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Missing json_result column".into()))?;
+        let struct_array = json_result_column
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("json_result is not a struct".into()))?;
+        let type_array = struct_array
+            .column_by_name("type_tag")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Missing type_tag column in struct".into()))?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("type_tag is not UInt8".into()))?;
+
+        for type_tag in type_array.iter().flatten() {
+            let jsonb_type = JsonbType::from_u8(type_tag).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("JSON path '{path}' produced invalid type tag {type_tag}").into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            let data_type = match jsonb_type {
+                JsonbType::Null => continue,
+                JsonbType::Boolean => DataType::Boolean,
+                JsonbType::Int64 => DataType::Int64,
+                JsonbType::Float64 => DataType::Float64,
+                JsonbType::String => DataType::Utf8,
+                JsonbType::Array | JsonbType::Object => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Cannot create a JSON index for JSON path '{path}' with JSON type {jsonb_type:?}; only scalar values are supported"
+                    )));
+                }
+            };
+            return Ok(Some(data_type));
+        }
+        Ok(None)
+    }
 
-        // Collect batches and determine type from first non-null value
-        let mut all_batches = Vec::new();
-        let mut inferred_type: Option<DataType> = None;
+    /// Extract JSON and infer the target type from the first non-null value.
+    ///
+    /// Only the prefix needed for inference is buffered. Once a type is found,
+    /// the remainder of the input stays streaming.
+    async fn extract_json_with_type_info(
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        path: String,
+    ) -> Result<(SendableRecordBatchStream, DataType)> {
+        let mut stream = Self::extract_json(data, path.clone())?;
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let mut buffered_batches = Vec::new();
+        let mut inferred_type = None;
 
         while let Some(batch_result) = stream.next().await {
             let batch = batch_result?;
-
-            // Determine type from first non-null value if not yet set
-            if inferred_type.is_none() {
-                if let Some(json_result_column) = batch.column_by_name("json_result") {
-                    if let Some(struct_array) =
-                        json_result_column.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
-                    {
-                        if let Some(type_array) = struct_array.column_by_name("type_tag") {
-                            if let Some(uint8_array) =
-                                type_array.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
-                            {
-                                // Find first non-null value to determine type
-                                for i in 0..uint8_array.len() {
-                                    if !uint8_array.is_null(i) {
-                                        let type_tag = uint8_array.value(i);
-                                        let jsonb_type =
-                                            JsonbType::from_u8(type_tag).ok_or_else(|| {
-                                                Error::InvalidInput {
-                                                    source: format!(
-                                                        "Invalid type tag: {}",
-                                                        type_tag
-                                                    )
-                                                    .into(),
-                                                    location: location!(),
-                                                }
-                                            })?;
-
-                                        // Map JsonbType to Arrow DataType
-                                        inferred_type = Some(match jsonb_type {
-                                            JsonbType::Null => continue, // Skip null values
-                                            JsonbType::Boolean => DataType::Boolean,
-                                            JsonbType::Int64 => DataType::Int64,
-                                            JsonbType::Float64 => DataType::Float64,
-                                            JsonbType::String => DataType::Utf8,
-                                            JsonbType::Array => DataType::LargeBinary,
-                                            JsonbType::Object => DataType::LargeBinary,
-                                        });
-                                        break;
-                                    }
-                                }
-                            }
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
+            inferred_type = Self::infer_type_from_batch(&batch, &path)?;
+            buffered_batches.push(batch);
+            if inferred_type.is_some() {
+                break;
             }
-
-            all_batches.push(batch);
         }
 
-        // If no type was inferred (all nulls), default to String
         let inferred_type = inferred_type.unwrap_or(DataType::Utf8);
-
-        // Recreate stream from collected batches
-        let schema =
-            all_batches
-                .first()
-                .map(|b| b.schema())
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "No batches in stream".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-
+        let buffered = futures::stream::iter(buffered_batches.into_iter().map(Ok));
         let recreated_stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
             schema,
-            futures::stream::iter(all_batches.into_iter().map(Ok)),
+            buffered.chain(stream),
         )) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
 
         Ok((recreated_stream, inferred_type))
     }
 
-    /// Convert the stream with JSONB values and type tags to properly typed values
-    async fn convert_stream_by_type(
-        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        target_type: DataType,
-    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let input = Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(data));
-        let _input_schema = input.schema();
-        let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
-        let mut stream = input.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())?;
-
-        let mut converted_batches = Vec::new();
+    fn validate_json_types(
+        binary_array: &LargeBinaryArray,
+        type_array: &UInt8Array,
+        target_type: &DataType,
+        path: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        for index in 0..binary_array.len() {
+            if binary_array.is_null(index) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if type_array.is_null(index) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "JSON path '{path}' has a value at batch row {index} without a type tag"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let type_tag = type_array.value(index);
+            let actual_type = JsonbType::from_u8(type_tag).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "JSON path '{path}' produced invalid type tag {type_tag} at batch row {index}"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            if actual_type == JsonbType::Null {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let is_compatible = match target_type {
+                DataType::Boolean => actual_type == JsonbType::Boolean,
+                DataType::Int64 => actual_type == JsonbType::Int64,
+                DataType::Float64 => {
+                    matches!(actual_type, JsonbType::Int64 | JsonbType::Float64)
+                }
+                DataType::Utf8 => actual_type == JsonbType::String,
+                DataType::LargeBinary => {
+                    matches!(actual_type, JsonbType::Array | JsonbType::Object)
+                }
+                _ => false,
+            };
+            if !is_compatible {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "JSON path '{path}' expected {target_type:?}, but batch row {index} has JSON type {actual_type:?}"
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-        while let Some(batch_result) = stream.next().await {
-            let batch = batch_result?;
+    fn convert_batch_by_type(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        output_schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        passthrough_indices: &[usize],
+        target_type: &DataType,
+        path: &str,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let json_result_column = batch
+            .column_by_name("json_result")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Missing json_result column".into()))?;
+
+        let struct_array = json_result_column
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("json_result is not a struct".into()))?;
+
+        let value_array = struct_array
+            .column_by_name("value")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Missing value column in struct".into()))?;
+
+        let binary_array = value_array
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("value is not LargeBinary".into()))?;
+        let type_array = struct_array
+            .column_by_name("type_tag")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Missing type_tag column in struct".into()))?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("type_tag is not UInt8".into()))?;
+
+        Self::validate_json_types(binary_array, type_array, target_type, path)?;
+        let is_null = |index| {
+            binary_array.is_null(index)
+                || (!type_array.is_null(index)
+                    && type_array.value(index) == JsonbType::Null.as_u8())
+        };
 
-            // Extract the struct column containing value and type_tag
-            let json_result_column =
-                batch
-                    .column_by_name("json_result")
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: "Missing json_result column".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-
-            let struct_array = json_result_column
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "json_result is not a struct".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-
-            let value_array =
-                struct_array
-                    .column_by_name("value")
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: "Missing value column in struct".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-
-            let binary_array = value_array
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "value is not LargeBinary".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-
-            // Convert based on target type using serde deserialization
-            let converted_array: Arc<dyn Array> = match target_type {
-                DataType::Boolean => {
-                    let mut builder =
-                        arrow_array::builder::BooleanBuilder::with_capacity(binary_array.len());
-                    for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
-                        if binary_array.is_null(i) {
-                            builder.append_null();
-                        } else if let Some(bytes) = binary_array.value(i).into() {
-                            let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(bytes);
-                            // Try to deserialize directly to bool
-                            match jsonb::from_raw_jsonb::<bool>(&raw_jsonb) {
-                                Ok(bool_val) => builder.append_value(bool_val),
-                                Err(e) => {
-                                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                                        source: format!(
-                                            "Failed to deserialize JSONB to bool at index {}: {}",
-                                            i, e
-                                        )
-                                        .into(),
-                                        location: location!(),
-                                    });
-                                }
-                            }
-                        } else {
-                            builder.append_null();
-                        }
+        let converted_array: Arc<dyn Array> = match target_type {
+            DataType::Boolean => {
+                let mut builder =
+                    arrow_array::builder::BooleanBuilder::with_capacity(binary_array.len());
+                for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
+                    if is_null(i) {
+                        builder.append_null();
+                    } else {
+                        let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(binary_array.value(i));
+                        let value = jsonb::from_raw_jsonb::<bool>(&raw_jsonb).map_err(|error| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!(
+                                    "Failed to convert JSON path '{path}' at batch row {i} to Boolean: {error}"
+                                )
+                                .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                        builder.append_value(value);
                     }
-                    Arc::new(builder.finish())
                 }
-                DataType::Int64 => {
-                    let mut builder =
-                        arrow_array::builder::Int64Builder::with_capacity(binary_array.len());
-                    for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
-                        if binary_array.is_null(i) {
-                            builder.append_null();
-                        } else if let Some(bytes) = binary_array.value(i).into() {
-                            let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(bytes);
-                            // Try to deserialize directly to i64
-                            match jsonb::from_raw_jsonb::<i64>(&raw_jsonb) {
-                                Ok(int_val) => builder.append_value(int_val),
-                                Err(e) => {
-                                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                                        source: format!(
-                                            "Failed to deserialize JSONB to i64 at index {}: {}",
-                                            i, e
-                                        )
-                                        .into(),
-                                        location: location!(),
-                                    });
-                                }
-                            }
-                        } else {
-                            builder.append_null();
-                        }
+                Arc::new(builder.finish())
+            }
+            DataType::Int64 => {
+                let mut builder =
+                    arrow_array::builder::Int64Builder::with_capacity(binary_array.len());
+                for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
+                    if is_null(i) {
+                        builder.append_null();
+                    } else {
+                        let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(binary_array.value(i));
+                        let value = jsonb::from_raw_jsonb::<i64>(&raw_jsonb).map_err(|error| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!(
+                                    "Failed to convert JSON path '{path}' at batch row {i} to Int64: {error}"
+                                )
+                                .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                        builder.append_value(value);
                     }
-                    Arc::new(builder.finish())
                 }
-                DataType::Float64 => {
-                    let mut builder =
-                        arrow_array::builder::Float64Builder::with_capacity(binary_array.len());
-                    for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
-                        if binary_array.is_null(i) {
-                            builder.append_null();
-                        } else if let Some(bytes) = binary_array.value(i).into() {
-                            let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(bytes);
-                            // Try to deserialize directly to f64 (serde handles int->float conversion)
-                            match jsonb::from_raw_jsonb::<f64>(&raw_jsonb) {
-                                Ok(float_val) => builder.append_value(float_val),
-                                Err(e) => {
-                                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                                        source: format!(
-                                            "Failed to deserialize JSONB to f64 at index {}: {}",
-                                            i, e
-                                        )
-                                        .into(),
-                                        location: location!(),
-                                    });
-                                }
-                            }
-                        } else {
-                            builder.append_null();
-                        }
+                Arc::new(builder.finish())
+            }
+            DataType::Float64 => {
+                let mut builder =
+                    arrow_array::builder::Float64Builder::with_capacity(binary_array.len());
+                for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
+                    if is_null(i) {
+                        builder.append_null();
+                    } else {
+                        let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(binary_array.value(i));
+                        let value = jsonb::from_raw_jsonb::<f64>(&raw_jsonb).map_err(|error| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!(
+                                    "Failed to convert JSON path '{path}' at batch row {i} to Float64: {error}"
+                                )
+                                .into(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                        builder.append_value(value);
                     }
-                    Arc::new(builder.finish())
                 }
-                DataType::Utf8 => {
-                    let mut builder = arrow_array::builder::StringBuilder::with_capacity(
-                        binary_array.len(),
-                        1024,
-                    );
-                    for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
-                        if binary_array.is_null(i) {
-                            builder.append_null();
-                        } else if let Some(bytes) = binary_array.value(i).into() {
-                            let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(bytes);
-                            // Try to deserialize to String, or use to_string() for any type
-                            match jsonb::from_raw_jsonb::<String>(&raw_jsonb) {
-                                Ok(str_val) => builder.append_value(&str_val),
-                                Err(_) => {
-                                    // For non-string types, convert to string representation
-                                    builder.append_value(raw_jsonb.to_string());
-                                }
-                            }
-                        } else {
-                            builder.append_null();
-                        }
+                Arc::new(builder.finish())
+            }
+            DataType::Utf8 => {
+                let mut builder =
+                    arrow_array::builder::StringBuilder::with_capacity(binary_array.len(), 1024);
+                for i in 0..binary_array.len() {
+                    if is_null(i) {
+                        builder.append_null();
+                    } else {
+                        let raw_jsonb = jsonb::RawJsonb::new(binary_array.value(i));
+                        let value =
+                            jsonb::from_raw_jsonb::<String>(&raw_jsonb).map_err(|error| {
+                                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                    format!(
+                                        "Failed to convert JSON path '{path}' at batch row {i} to Utf8: {error}"
+                                    )
+                                    .into(),
+                                )
+                            })?;
+                        builder.append_value(value);
                     }
-                    Arc::new(builder.finish())
-                }
-                DataType::LargeBinary => {
-                    // Keep as binary for array/object types
-                    value_array.clone()
                 }
-                _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("Unsupported target type: {:?}", target_type).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-            };
-
-            // Get row_id column
-            let row_id_column = batch
-                .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Missing row_id column".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?
-                .clone();
-
-            // Create new batch with converted values
-            let new_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-                ArrowField::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, target_type.clone(), true),
-                ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
-            ]));
-
-            let new_batch =
-                RecordBatch::try_new(new_schema.clone(), vec![converted_array, row_id_column])?;
-
-            converted_batches.push(new_batch);
-        }
+                Arc::new(builder.finish())
+            }
+            DataType::LargeBinary => Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(
+                (0..binary_array.len()).map(|i| (!is_null(i)).then(|| binary_array.value(i))),
+            )),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Unsupported JSON index target type: {target_type:?}").into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
 
-        // Create stream from converted batches
-        let schema = converted_batches
-            .first()
-            .map(|b| b.schema())
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "No batches to convert".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(output_schema.fields().len());
+        columns.push(converted_array);
+        columns.extend(
+            passthrough_indices
+                .iter()
+                .map(|column_idx| batch.column(*column_idx).clone()),
+        );
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(output_schema, columns)?)
+    }
 
+    /// Convert extracted JSON values one batch at a time to the target's trained type.
+    fn convert_stream_by_type(
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        target_type: DataType,
+        path: String,
+    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let input_schema = data.schema();
+        let passthrough_indices = input_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter_map(|(column_idx, field)| (field.name() != "json_result").then_some(column_idx))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(
+            std::iter::once(Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, target_type.clone(), true))
+                .chain(
+                    passthrough_indices
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|column_idx| input_schema.field(*column_idx).clone()),
+                )
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let stream_schema = output_schema.clone();
+        let converted = data.map(move |batch_result| {
+            let batch = batch_result?;
+            Self::convert_batch_by_type(
+                batch,
+                output_schema.clone(),
+                &passthrough_indices,
+                &target_type,
+                &path,
+            )
+            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+        });
         Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema,
-            futures::stream::iter(converted_batches.into_iter().map(Ok)),
+            stream_schema,
+            converted,
         )))
     }
-}
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndexPlugin for JsonIndexPlugin {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "Json"
+    /// Sort a value stream and its row-location columns ascending by value.
+    ///
+    /// Target index types that require `TrainingOrdering::Values` (e.g. btree, whose
+    /// per-page min/max stats are taken from the first/last row of each page) need this
+    /// as the only sort in the JSON training path: `JsonTrainingRequest` requests
+    /// unordered input from the scanner, since the scanner can only sort on the raw
+    /// JSON column, not on the value at `path`.
+    async fn sort_stream_by_value(
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let input = Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(data));
+        let value_idx = input.schema().index_of(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)?;
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: Arc::new(Column::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, value_idx)),
+            options: SortOptions {
+                descending: false,
+                nulls_first: true,
+            },
+        };
+        let plan = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), input));
+        execute_plan(
+            plan,
+            LanceExecutionOptions {
+                use_spilling: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
     }
+}
 
+#[async_trait]
+impl BasicTrainer for JsonIndexPlugin {
     fn new_training_request(
         &self,
         params: &str,
         field: &Field,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
-        if !matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeBinary) {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "A JSON index can only be created on a Binary or LargeBinary field.".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+        if JsonEncoding::of_field(field).is_none()
+            && !matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Binary | DataType::LargeBinary)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "A JSON index can only be created on a JSON, Binary or LargeBinary field.".into(),
+            ));
         }
 
-        // Initially use Utf8, will be refined during training with type inference
-        let target_type = DataType::Utf8;
-
         let params = serde_json::from_str::<JsonIndexParameters>(params)?;
+        if params.target_data_type == Some(JsonIndexTargetType::LargeBinary) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Cannot create a JSON index for JSON path '{}' with target data type LargeBinary (arrays or objects); only scalar values are supported",
+                params.path
+            )));
+        }
+        // Initial builds infer the type from the data. Derived rebuild parameters
+        // carry the learned type so every new segment uses the same target schema.
+        let target_type = params
+            .target_data_type
+            .map(DataType::from)
+            .unwrap_or(DataType::Utf8);
         let registry = self.registry()?;
         let target_plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name(&params.target_index_type)?;
-        let target_request = target_plugin.new_training_request(
+        if target_plugin.name().eq_ignore_ascii_case("inverted") {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "JSON-path indexes do not support target index type '{}'; create an INVERTED index directly on the JSON column instead",
+                params.target_index_type
+            )));
+        }
+        let target_trainer = target_plugin.basic_trainer().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("The '{}' index type does not support basic training, please refer to the index's documentation for more details on how to create this index.", params.target_index_type).into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let target_request = target_trainer.new_training_request(
             params.target_index_parameters.as_deref().unwrap_or("{}"),
             &Field::new("", target_type, true),
         )?;
@@ -737,75 +965,74 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for JsonIndexPlugin {
         Ok(Box::new(JsonTrainingRequest::new(params, target_request)))
     }
 
-    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
-        // TODO: Need to lookup target plugin via details to figure this out correctly
-        true
-    }
-
-    fn attach_registry(&self, registry: Arc<IndexPluginRegistry>) {
-        let mut reg_ref = self.registry.lock().unwrap();
-        *reg_ref = Some(registry);
-    }
-
-    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
-        JSON_INDEX_VERSION
-    }
-
-    fn new_query_parser(
-        &self,
-        index_name: String,
-        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
-        // TODO: Allow return Result here
-        let registry = self.registry().unwrap();
-        let json_details =
-            crate::pb::JsonIndexDetails::decode(index_details.value.as_slice()).unwrap();
-        let target_details = json_details.target_details.as_ref().expect_ok().unwrap();
-        let target_plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_details(target_details).unwrap();
-        // TODO: Use something like ${index_name}_${path} for the index name?  Don't have access to path here tho
-        let target_parser = target_plugin.new_query_parser(index_name, index_details)?;
-        Some(Box::new(JsonQueryParser::new(
-            json_details.path.clone(),
-            target_parser,
-        )) as Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>)
-    }
-
     async fn train_index(
         &self,
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
         fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         let request = (request as Box<dyn std::any::Any>)
             .downcast::<JsonTrainingRequest>()
             .unwrap();
         let path = request.parameters.path.clone();
 
-        // Extract JSON with type information
-        let (data_stream, inferred_type) =
-            Self::extract_json_with_type_info(data, path.clone()).await?;
+        let (data_stream, target_type) =
+            if let Some(target_data_type) = request.parameters.target_data_type {
+                (
+                    Self::extract_json(data, path.clone())?,
+                    DataType::from(target_data_type),
+                )
+            } else {
+                Self::extract_json_with_type_info(data, path.clone()).await?
+            };
 
-        // Convert the stream to properly typed values based on inferred type
+        // Initial builds use the inferred type; rebuilds use the learned target
+        // type carried in the derived parameters.
         let converted_stream =
-            Self::convert_stream_by_type(data_stream, inferred_type.clone()).await?;
+            Self::convert_stream_by_type(data_stream, target_type.clone(), path.clone())?;
+
+        // `JsonTrainingRequest::criteria()` asked the scanner for unordered input (see
+        // its constructor), since the scanner can only sort on the raw JSON column, not
+        // on the value at `path`. If the target index needs value-ordered input, this is
+        // the one place that sort happens: on the extracted value, after extraction.
+        //
+        // Deliberately `request.target_request.criteria()` here, not `request.criteria()`:
+        // the latter is `JsonTrainingRequest`'s own criteria, which is always `None` (that's
+        // what asked the scanner for unordered input above) and would never take this branch.
+        let converted_stream =
+            if request.target_request.criteria().ordering == TrainingOrdering::Values {
+                Self::sort_stream_by_value(converted_stream).await?
+            } else {
+                converted_stream
+            };
 
-        // Update the target request with inferred type
         let registry = self.registry()?;
         let target_plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name(&request.parameters.target_index_type)?;
 
-        // Create a new training request with the inferred type
-        let target_request = target_plugin.new_training_request(
+        let target_trainer = target_plugin.basic_trainer().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("The '{}' index type does not support basic training, please refer to the index's documentation for more details on how to create this index.", request.parameters.target_index_type).into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let target_request = target_trainer.new_training_request(
             request
                 .parameters
                 .target_index_parameters
                 .as_deref()
                 .unwrap_or("{}"),
-            &Field::new("", inferred_type, true),
+            &Field::new("", target_type, true),
         )?;
 
-        let target_index = target_plugin
-            .train_index(converted_stream, index_store, target_request, fragment_ids)
+        let target_index = target_trainer
+            .train_index(
+                converted_stream,
+                index_store,
+                target_request,
+                fragment_ids,
+                progress,
+            )
             .await?;
 
         let index_details = crate::pb::JsonIndexDetails {
@@ -815,22 +1042,87 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for JsonIndexPlugin {
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&index_details)?,
             index_version: JSON_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: target_index.files,
         })
     }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for JsonIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "Json"
+    }
+
+    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
+        // TODO: Need to lookup target plugin via details to figure this out correctly
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn attach_registry(&self, registry: Arc<IndexPluginRegistry>) {
+        let mut reg_ref = self.registry.lock().unwrap();
+        *reg_ref = Some(registry);
+    }
+
+    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
+        JSON_INDEX_VERSION
+    }
+
+    fn new_query_parser(
+        &self,
+        index_name: String,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
+        // TODO: Allow return Result here
+        let registry = self.registry().unwrap();
+        let json_details =
+            crate::pb::JsonIndexDetails::decode(index_details.value.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        let target_details = json_details.target_details.as_ref().expect_ok().unwrap();
+        let target_plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_details(target_details).unwrap();
+        // Older JSON-wrapped inverted indexes were never routable. Current training rejects this
+        // combination, so keep legacy metadata inert instead of enabling only part of its
+        // unsupported query path.
+        if target_plugin.name().eq_ignore_ascii_case("inverted") {
+            return None;
+        }
+        // TODO: Use something like ${index_name}_${path} for the index name?  Don't have access to path here tho
+        let target_parser = target_plugin.new_query_parser(index_name, target_details)?;
+        Some(Box::new(JsonQueryParser::new(
+            json_details.path.clone(),
+            target_parser,
+        )) as Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>)
+    }
 
     async fn load_index(
         &self,
         index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
         let registry = self.registry().unwrap();
         let json_details = crate::pb::JsonIndexDetails::decode(index_details.value.as_slice())?;
         let target_details = json_details.target_details.as_ref().expect_ok()?;
         let target_plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_details(target_details).unwrap();
+        // `_index_version` is this *wrapper's* version (`JSON_INDEX_VERSION`,
+        // currently always 0 -- see the `// TODO` in `remap`/`update` below), not
+        // the target's; `JsonIndexDetails` does not yet record the target's own
+        // version. Every target this wrapper builds comes from a fresh training
+        // pass in this same codebase, so it is always at that plugin's current
+        // format; passing the target's own max version is the accurate stand-in
+        // until the target's version is recorded here directly.
         let target_index = target_plugin
-            .load_index(index_store, target_details, frag_reuse_index, cache)
+            .load_index(
+                index_store,
+                target_details,
+                target_plugin.version(),
+                frag_reuse_index,
+                cache,
+            )
             .await?;
         Ok(Arc::new(JsonIndex::new(target_index, json_details.path)))
     }
@@ -851,10 +1143,166 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for JsonIndexPlugin {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use crate::scalar::{SargableQuery, TextQuery};
     use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID, utils::address::RowAddress};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::ops::Bound;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_index_rejects_inverted_target() {
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+        let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name("json").unwrap();
+        let trainer = plugin.basic_trainer().unwrap();
+        let error = trainer
+            .new_training_request(
+                r#"{"target_index_type":"inverted","path":"$.title"}"#,
+                &Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+            )
+            .err()
+            .expect("an inverted target should be rejected");
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("JSON-path indexes do not support target index type 'inverted'"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_index_rejects_large_binary_target() {
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+        let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name("json").unwrap();
+        let error = plugin
+            .basic_trainer()
+            .unwrap()
+            .new_training_request(
+                r#"{"target_index_type":"btree","target_data_type":"LargeBinary","path":"$.v"}"#,
+                &Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+            )
+            .err()
+            .expect("a LargeBinary target should be rejected");
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("JSON path '$.v'"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("LargeBinary"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("only scalar values"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::array(r#"{"v": [1, 2]}"#, JsonbType::Array)]
+    #[case::empty_array(r#"{"v": []}"#, JsonbType::Array)]
+    #[case::null_array_items(r#"{"v": [null, null]}"#, JsonbType::Array)]
+    #[case::object(r#"{"v": {"a": 1}}"#, JsonbType::Object)]
+    #[case::empty_object(r#"{"v": {}}"#, JsonbType::Object)]
+    #[case::null_object_value(r#"{"v": {"a": null}}"#, JsonbType::Object)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_json_index_rejects_non_scalar_path(
+        #[case] json_doc: &str,
+        #[case] json_type: JsonbType,
+    ) {
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+        let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name("json").unwrap();
+        let trainer = plugin.basic_trainer().unwrap();
+        let request = trainer
+            .new_training_request(
+                r#"{"target_index_type":"btree","path":"$.v"}"#,
+                &Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Inference must skip null and missing values, including an all-null batch.
+        let null_batch = json_update_batch(&[r#"{"v": null}"#, r#"{}"#], vec![0, 1]);
+        let value_batch = json_update_batch(&[json_doc], vec![2]);
+        let data = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            null_batch.schema(),
+            futures::stream::iter([Ok(null_batch), Ok(value_batch)]),
+        )) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+        let (store, _tmpdir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let error = trainer
+            .train_index(
+                data,
+                store.as_ref(),
+                request,
+                None,
+                crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .err()
+            .expect("an array or object path should be rejected");
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("JSON path '$.v'"), "{message}");
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(&format!("JSON type {json_type:?}")),
+            "{message}"
+        );
+        assert!(message.contains("only scalar values"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_query_parser_forwards_target_details() {
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+        let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name("json").unwrap();
+        let target_details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&crate::pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails {
+            rows_per_zone: Some(128),
+            use_seeds: Some(false),
+            has_null_bitmap: Some(true),
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+        let index_details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&crate::pb::JsonIndexDetails {
+            path: "$.value".to_string(),
+            target_details: Some(target_details),
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let parser = plugin
+            .new_query_parser("json_value".to_string(), &index_details)
+            .expect("zone map target should provide a query parser");
+        let expression = parser
+            .visit_is_null("doc")
+            .expect("zone map target should parse IS NULL");
+        let Some(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search)) = expression.scalar_query else {
+            panic!("JSON parser should wrap the target index query");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(search.index_type, "ZoneMap");
+        assert!(
+            !search.needs_recheck,
+            "the target's exact null-tracking detail should reach its query parser"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_query_parser_keeps_inverted_target_inert() {
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+        let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name("json").unwrap();
+        let target_details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&crate::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails {
+            base_tokenizer: Some("simple".to_string()),
+            language: serde_json::to_string(&crate::scalar::inverted::Language::English).unwrap(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+        let index_details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&crate::pb::JsonIndexDetails {
+            path: "$.value".to_string(),
+            target_details: Some(target_details),
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            plugin
+                .new_query_parser("json_value".to_string(), &index_details)
+                .is_none(),
+            "legacy JSON-wrapped inverted indexes must remain unroutable"
+        );
+    }
+
     // Note: The old test_detect_json_value_type test has been removed as we now use
     // JSONB's inherent type information instead of string-based type detection
 
@@ -992,4 +1440,574 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert_eq!(inferred_type, DataType::Utf8);
     }
+
+    /// Trains a JSON-path index of `target_index_type` over `json_docs` (fed to the
+    /// trainer in exactly the given order, with row ids `0..json_docs.len()`) and
+    /// returns the loaded index. `store` is a caller-owned `LanceIndexStore` so the
+    /// caller controls how long the backing `TempObjDir` stays alive.
+    async fn train_and_load_json_index(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        target_index_type: &str,
+        expected_ordering: TrainingOrdering,
+        path: &str,
+        json_docs: &[&str],
+    ) -> Arc<dyn ScalarIndex> {
+        use crate::progress::noop_progress;
+        use arrow_array::{LargeBinaryArray, UInt64Array};
+        use futures::stream;
+
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+        let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name("json").unwrap();
+        let trainer = plugin.basic_trainer().unwrap();
+        let params = format!(r#"{{"target_index_type":"{target_index_type}","path":"{path}"}}"#);
+        let request = trainer
+            .new_training_request(
+                &params,
+                &Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(request.criteria().ordering, expected_ordering);
+
+        let jsonb: Vec<Vec<u8>> = json_docs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.parse::<jsonb::OwnedJsonb>().unwrap().to_vec())
+            .collect();
+
+        let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(3);
+        fields.push(Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::LargeBinary, true));
+        let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(3);
+        columns.push(Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(
+            jsonb.iter().map(|v| Some(v.as_slice())).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        )) as ArrayRef);
+        if request.criteria().needs_row_ids {
+            fields.push(Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false));
+            columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(
+                (0..json_docs.len() as u64).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )) as ArrayRef);
+        }
+        if request.criteria().needs_row_addrs {
+            fields.push(Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false));
+            columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(
+                (0..json_docs.len())
+                    .map(|row_idx| {
+                        RowAddress::new_from_parts((row_idx / 2) as u32, (row_idx % 2) as u32)
+                            .into()
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<u64>>(),
+            )) as ArrayRef);
+        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(fields));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), columns).unwrap();
+        let data = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+        )) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+
+        let created = trainer
+            .train_index(data, store.as_ref(), request, None, noop_progress())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        plugin
+            .load_index(
+                store,
+                &created.index_details,
+                0,
+                None,
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn local_json_index_store() -> (Arc<dyn IndexStore>, lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir) {
+        use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        )) as Arc<dyn IndexStore>;
+        (store, tmpdir)
+    }
+
+    fn json_update_batch(json_docs: &[&str], row_ids: Vec<u64>) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::{LargeBinaryArray, UInt64Array};
+
+        let jsonb = json_docs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|json| json.parse::<jsonb::OwnedJsonb>().unwrap().to_vec())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter_values(
+                    jsonb.iter().map(Vec::as_slice),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn json_update_stream(json_docs: &[&str], row_ids: Vec<u64>) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        use futures::stream;
+
+        let batch = json_update_batch(json_docs, row_ids);
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::iter([Ok(batch)]),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::all_null_delta(
+        &[r#"{"v": 1}"#],
+        &[r#"{"v": null}"#, r#"{"other": 2}"#],
+        SargableQuery::IsNull(),
+        vec![1, 2]
+    )]
+    #[case::integer_delta_for_float_index(
+        &[r#"{"v": 1.5}"#],
+        &[r#"{"v": 2}"#],
+        SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(2.0))),
+        vec![1]
+    )]
+    // Spill-enabled index builds share the cached DataFusion memory pool within the
+    // test process, so keep them in one resource group.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_json_btree_update_uses_trained_target_type(
+        #[case] initial_docs: &[&str],
+        #[case] update_docs: &[&str],
+        #[case] query: SargableQuery,
+        #[case] expected_row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+        let (source_store, _source_dir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let index = train_and_load_json_index(
+            source_store,
+            "btree",
+            TrainingOrdering::None,
+            "v",
+            initial_docs,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let expected_type = if matches!(&query, SargableQuery::IsNull()) {
+            DataType::Int64
+        } else {
+            DataType::Float64
+        };
+        assert_eq!(index.training_data_type(), Some(expected_type));
+
+        let (dest_store, _dest_dir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let row_ids =
+            (initial_docs.len() as u64..(initial_docs.len() + update_docs.len()) as u64).collect();
+        let created = index
+            .update(
+                json_update_stream(update_docs, row_ids),
+                dest_store.as_ref(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+        let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name("json").unwrap();
+        let updated = plugin
+            .load_index(
+                dest_store,
+                &created.index_details,
+                0,
+                None,
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = updated
+            .search(
+                &JsonQuery::new(Arc::new(query), "v".to_string()),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            result,
+            SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(expected_row_ids))
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// JSON text input is indexed from the same values as stored JSONB.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_json_text_input_extracts_like_jsonb() {
+        use arrow_array::{Int64Array, StringArray};
+        use futures::{TryStreamExt, stream};
+        use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+        use lance_arrow::json::ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME;
+
+        let docs = [r#"{"v": 1}"#, r#"{"v": 2}"#];
+        let jsonb = json_update_batch(&docs, vec![0, 1]);
+        let text_field = Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(
+            std::collections::HashMap::from([(
+                ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+                ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+            )]),
+        );
+        let text_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            text_field,
+            jsonb.schema().field(1).clone(),
+        ]));
+        let text = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            text_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(docs.to_vec())),
+                jsonb.column(1).clone(),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut extracted = Vec::new();
+        for batch in [jsonb, text] {
+            let schema = batch.schema();
+            let raw_stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema,
+                stream::iter([Ok(batch)]),
+            )) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+            let converted = JsonIndexPlugin::convert_stream_by_type(
+                JsonIndexPlugin::extract_json(raw_stream, "v".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                DataType::Int64,
+                "v".to_string(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let batches = converted.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+            extracted.push(
+                batches[0][VALUE_COLUMN_NAME]
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .clone(),
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(extracted[0], Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2]));
+        assert_eq!(extracted[1], extracted[0]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_json_conversion_is_streaming() {
+        use arrow_array::Int64Array;
+        use futures::stream;
+
+        let first_batch = json_update_batch(&[r#"{"v": 1}"#], vec![0]);
+        let schema = first_batch.schema();
+        let raw_stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::iter([
+                Ok(first_batch),
+                Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "second batch must not be polled for the first output".to_string(),
+                )),
+            ]),
+        )) as SendableRecordBatchStream;
+
+        let extracted = JsonIndexPlugin::extract_json(raw_stream, "v".to_string()).unwrap();
+        let mut converted =
+            JsonIndexPlugin::convert_stream_by_type(extracted, DataType::Int64, "v".to_string())
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let first = converted.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let values = first[VALUE_COLUMN_NAME]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(values.value(0), 1);
+        let error = converted.next().await.unwrap().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("second batch must not be polled")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_json_btree_update_reports_type_drift() {
+        let (source_store, _source_dir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let index = train_and_load_json_index(
+            source_store,
+            "btree",
+            TrainingOrdering::None,
+            "v",
+            &[r#"{"v": 1}"#],
+        )
+        .await;
+        let (dest_store, _dest_dir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let error = index
+            .update(
+                json_update_stream(&[r#"{"v": true}"#], vec![1]),
+                dest_store.as_ref(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .err()
+            .expect("type drift should fail the update");
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("JSON path 'v'"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("expected Int64"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("JSON type Boolean"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_json_derived_params_preserve_wrapper() {
+        let (store, _tmpdir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let index = train_and_load_json_index(
+            store,
+            "btree",
+            TrainingOrdering::None,
+            "v",
+            &[r#"{"v": 1}"#],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let derived = index.derive_index_params().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(derived.index_type, "json");
+        let parameters: JsonIndexParameters =
+            serde_json::from_str(derived.params.as_deref().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(parameters.path, "v");
+        assert_eq!(parameters.target_index_type, "btree");
+        assert!(parameters.target_index_parameters.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(
+            parameters.target_data_type,
+            Some(JsonIndexTargetType::Int64)
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7859.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::zonemap("zonemap", TrainingOrdering::Addresses)]
+    #[case::fm("fm", TrainingOrdering::None)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_json_index_preserves_row_addresses(
+        #[case] target_index_type: &str,
+        #[case] expected_ordering: TrainingOrdering,
+    ) {
+        let (store, _tmpdir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let index = train_and_load_json_index(
+            store,
+            target_index_type,
+            expected_ordering,
+            "value",
+            &[
+                r#"{"value": "alpha"}"#,
+                r#"{"value": "bravo"}"#,
+                r#"{"value": "charlie"}"#,
+            ],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap(),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1])
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7485.
+    ///
+    /// A JSON-path btree index over float values returned wrong results because the
+    /// btree trainer assumes its input arrives sorted by value (page min/max come from
+    /// the first/last row of each page), but the value at `path` is extracted by this
+    /// plugin *after* the scanner has already produced its rows, so a scan sorted on
+    /// the raw JSON column does not sort the extracted value. This exercises the fix
+    /// end to end: `JsonTrainingRequest::criteria()` must ask for unordered input (so
+    /// the scanner does not waste time sorting on the wrong key), and `train_index` must
+    /// sort the extracted value stream itself before training the target btree.
+    ///
+    /// Rows are fed in raw storage order (not sorted by value) to simulate what an
+    /// unordered scan would produce.
+    ///
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::range_gt_zero(
+        SargableQuery::Range(Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(0.0))), Bound::Unbounded),
+        vec![0, 1]
+    )]
+    #[case::range_gte_page_min(
+        SargableQuery::Range(Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(10.5))), Bound::Unbounded),
+        vec![0, 1]
+    )]
+    #[case::equals_non_exact_float(
+        SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(40.1))),
+        vec![1]
+    )]
+    #[case::equals_exact_float(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(10.5))), vec![0])]
+    #[case::range_covers_all(
+        SargableQuery::Range(Bound::Unbounded, Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(100.0)))),
+        vec![0, 1, 2]
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_json_float_btree_index_unsorted_input(
+        #[case] query: SargableQuery,
+        #[case] expected: Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+        // row0=10.5, row1=40.1, row2=-3.2: storage order does not match ascending value
+        // order (-3.2, 10.5, 40.1), so a btree trained on this order without an explicit
+        // value sort would record a corrupted page max of -3.2.
+        let (store, _tmpdir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let index = train_and_load_json_index(
+            store,
+            "btree",
+            TrainingOrdering::None,
+            "latitude",
+            &[
+                r#"{"latitude": 10.5}"#,
+                r#"{"latitude": 40.1}"#,
+                r#"{"latitude": -3.2}"#,
+            ],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let json_query = JsonQuery::new(Arc::new(query.clone()), "latitude".to_string());
+        let result = index
+            .search(&json_query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            result,
+            SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(expected.iter().copied())),
+            "query {query:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for a null value at `path` surviving `sort_stream_by_value`.
+    ///
+    /// `sort_stream_by_value` sorts the extracted `(value, row_id)` stream with
+    /// `nulls_first: true`. This checks that a null row's row_id stays paired with its
+    /// (null) value through that sort -- if the sort ever reordered values without their
+    /// row_ids, a null-valued row could be attributed to the wrong id -- and that the
+    /// resulting btree still answers `IsNull` and non-null range/equality queries
+    /// correctly with nulls mixed in and fed out of value order.
+    ///
+    /// Row 1's `path` contains an explicit JSON null. The extracted binary value still
+    /// contains JSONB bytes, so conversion must use the accompanying type tag to turn it
+    /// into an Arrow null before sorting and training the target index.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_json_btree_index_null_at_path() {
+        use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+        let (store, _tmpdir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let index = train_and_load_json_index(
+            store,
+            "btree",
+            TrainingOrdering::None,
+            "v",
+            &[
+                r#"{"v": 40.1}"#, // row 0
+                r#"{"v": null}"#, // row 1
+                r#"{"v": -3.2}"#, // row 2
+                r#"{"v": 10.5}"#, // row 3
+            ],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let search = |query: SargableQuery| {
+            let index = index.clone();
+            let json_query = JsonQuery::new(Arc::new(query), "v".to_string());
+            async move {
+                index
+                    .search(&json_query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Range/equality queries carry row 1 in `nulls` (three-valued logic: `NULL > 0`
+        // is unknown, not false -- see `NullableRowAddrSet`), which is pre-existing
+        // btree/framework behavior. Asserting it exactly here is exactly the property
+        // this test targets: row 1's row_id must stay paired with its null value
+        // through `sort_stream_by_value`, not just be excluded from `selected`.
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(SargableQuery::IsNull()).await,
+            SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64])),
+            "IsNull"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(0.0))),
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+            ))
+            .await,
+            SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0u64, 3]))
+                .with_nulls(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64])),
+            "> 0"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(40.1)))).await,
+            SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0u64]))
+                .with_nulls(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64])),
+            "= 40.1"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(100.0))),
+            ))
+            .await,
+            SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0u64, 2, 3]))
+                .with_nulls(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64])),
+            "< 100 (null is neither < 100 nor >= 100)"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression coverage for the non-`Values`-ordering branch in `train_index`: a
+    /// JSON-path index over a target that does not need value-ordered input (ngram
+    /// requires `TrainingOrdering::None`) must skip `sort_stream_by_value` entirely and
+    /// still produce correct results from rows fed out of value order.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_json_ngram_index_skips_value_sort() {
+        use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+        let (store, _tmpdir) = local_json_index_store();
+        let index = train_and_load_json_index(
+            store,
+            "ngram",
+            TrainingOrdering::None,
+            "tag",
+            &[
+                r#"{"tag": "unique-charlie"}"#,
+                r#"{"tag": "unique-alpha"}"#,
+                r#"{"tag": "unique-bravo"}"#,
+            ],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let json_query = JsonQuery::new(
+            Arc::new(TextQuery::StringContains("unique-bravo".to_string())),
+            "tag".to_string(),
+        );
+        let result = index
+            .search(&json_query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            result,
+            SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([2u64])),
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/label_list.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/label_list.rs
index 0cfd00d4866..0dd13903009 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/label_list.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/label_list.rs
@@ -1,40 +1,68 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{any::Any, collections::HashMap, fmt::Debug, pin::Pin, sync::Arc};
+use crate::scalar::RowAddrTranslatorRef;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async};
+use std::{
+    any::Any,
+    fmt::Debug,
+    pin::Pin,
+    sync::{Arc, Mutex},
+};
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema, SchemaRef, SortOptions};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
 use datafusion::execution::RecordBatchStream;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::{stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter, SendableRecordBatchStream};
-use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::{stream::BoxStream, StreamExt, TryStream, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::NullableRowAddrSet;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream, sorts::sort::SortExec,
+    stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
+};
+use datafusion_common::{DataFusionError, ScalarValue};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{PhysicalSortExpr, expressions::Column};
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStream, TryStreamExt, future::Either, stream::BoxStream};
+use lance_arrow::deepcopy::deep_copy_batch_sliced;
+use lance_core::cache::{
+    CacheCodec, CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter, CacheKey, CacheKeySchema,
+    KeyBuilder, LanceCache,
+};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_datafusion::exec::{
+    HardCapBatchSizeExec, LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, execute_plan, get_session_context,
+};
+use lance_select::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
-use super::{bitmap::BitmapIndex, AnyQuery, IndexStore, LabelListQuery, ScalarIndex};
+use super::{
+    AnyQuery, IndexFile, IndexStore, LabelListQuery, OldIndexDataFilter, ScalarIndex,
+    bitmap::BitmapIndex,
+};
 use super::{BuiltinIndexType, SargableQuery, ScalarIndexParams};
 use super::{MetricsCollector, SearchResult};
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
 use crate::pbold;
-use crate::scalar::bitmap::BitmapIndexPlugin;
+use crate::scalar::bitmap::{
+    BitmapIndexState, OldSegment, build_index_map, merge_index_maps, merge_source_entry_count,
+    new_bitmap_batch_writer, remap_index_map, remap_row_addrs_with,
+};
 use crate::scalar::expression::{LabelListQueryParser, ScalarQueryParser};
 use crate::scalar::registry::{
-    DefaultTrainingRequest, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
-    VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+    BasicTrainer, DefaultTrainingRequest, ScalarIndexLoad, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria,
+    TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, single_flight_open,
 };
-use crate::scalar::{CreatedIndex, UpdateCriteria};
+use crate::scalar::{CreatedIndex, RowIdRemapper, UpdateCriteria};
 use crate::{Index, IndexType};
 
 pub const BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME: &str = "bitmap_page_lookup.lance";
-const LABEL_LIST_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 0;
+pub const LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY: &str = "lance:label_list_nulls";
+pub const LABEL_LIST_NULLS_MIN_VERSION: i32 = 1;
+const LABEL_LIST_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 1;
 
 #[async_trait]
 trait LabelListSubIndex: ScalarIndex + DeepSizeOf {
@@ -45,11 +73,15 @@ trait LabelListSubIndex: ScalarIndex + DeepSizeOf {
     ) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
         let result = self.search(query, metrics).await?;
         match result {
-            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => Ok(row_ids),
-            _ => Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "Label list sub-index should return exact results".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                // Label list semantics treat NULL elements as non-matches, so only TRUE/FALSE
+                // results should remain for array_has_any/array_has_all when the list itself
+                // is non-NULL. Clear nulls to avoid propagating element-level NULLs.
+                Ok(row_ids.with_nulls(RowAddrTreeMap::new()))
+            }
+            _ => Err(Error::internal(
+                "Label list sub-index should return exact results".to_string(),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -61,22 +93,41 @@ impl<T: ScalarIndex + DeepSizeOf> LabelListSubIndex for T {}
 /// and `array_has` / `array_contains`, using an underlying bitmap index.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct LabelListIndex {
-    values_index: Arc<dyn LabelListSubIndex>,
+    values_index: Arc<BitmapIndex>,
+    list_nulls: Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>,
 }
 
 impl LabelListIndex {
-    fn new(values_index: Arc<dyn LabelListSubIndex>) -> Self {
-        Self { values_index }
+    fn new(values_index: Arc<BitmapIndex>, list_nulls: Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            values_index,
+            list_nulls,
+        }
     }
 
     async fn load(
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         index_cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
-        BitmapIndex::load(store, frag_reuse_index, index_cache)
-            .await
-            .map(|index| Arc::new(Self::new(index)))
+        let values_index =
+            BitmapIndex::load(store.clone(), frag_reuse_index.clone(), index_cache).await?;
+        let list_nulls = read_list_nulls(store, frag_reuse_index).await?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(values_index, Arc::new(list_nulls))))
+    }
+
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    async fn load_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let values_index =
+            BitmapIndex::load_with_remapping(store.clone(), remapping.clone(), index_cache).await?;
+        let list_nulls = read_list_nulls_with_remapping(store, remapping).await?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(values_index, Arc::new(list_nulls))))
     }
 }
 
@@ -90,13 +141,6 @@ impl Index for LabelListIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn crate::vector::VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "LabeListIndex is not a vector index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
         self.values_index.prewarm().await
     }
@@ -159,6 +203,40 @@ impl LabelListIndex {
     }
 }
 
+impl LabelListIndex {
+    /// The one remap implementation: the legacy `remap` (an in-memory
+    /// mapping, borrowed as a synchronous translator) and `remap_streaming`
+    /// both come here, so neither copies a map nor delegates to the other.
+    async fn remap_with(
+        &self,
+        mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let remapped_nulls = remap_row_addrs_with(&self.list_nulls, mapping).await?;
+        let mut writer = new_bitmap_batch_writer(
+            dest_store,
+            BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME,
+            self.values_index.value_type(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        writer
+            .add_global_buffer(
+                LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY.to_string(),
+                serialize_list_nulls(&remapped_nulls)?,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        remap_index_map(&self.values_index, mapping, &mut writer).await?;
+        let file = writer.finish().await?;
+
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::LabelListIndexDetails::default())
+                .unwrap(),
+            index_version: LABEL_LIST_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
+        })
+    }
+}
+
 #[async_trait]
 impl ScalarIndex for LabelListIndex {
     #[instrument(skip_all, level = "debug")]
@@ -180,6 +258,13 @@ impl ScalarIndex for LabelListIndex {
                 self.set_union(values_results, labels.len() == 1).await
             }
         }?;
+        let row_ids = if self.list_nulls.as_ref().is_empty() {
+            row_ids
+        } else {
+            let mut nulls = row_ids.null_rows().clone();
+            nulls |= self.list_nulls.as_ref();
+            row_ids.with_nulls(nulls)
+        };
         Ok(SearchResult::Exact(row_ids))
     }
 
@@ -190,16 +275,18 @@ impl ScalarIndex for LabelListIndex {
     /// Remap the row ids, creating a new remapped version of this index in `dest_store`
     async fn remap(
         &self,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        self.values_index.remap(mapping, dest_store).await?;
+        self.remap_with(mapping.into(), dest_store).await
+    }
 
-        Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::LabelListIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
-            index_version: LABEL_LIST_INDEX_VERSION,
-        })
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        self.remap_with(translator.as_ref(), dest_store).await
     }
 
     /// Add the new data into the index, creating an updated version of the index in `dest_store`
@@ -207,15 +294,16 @@ impl ScalarIndex for LabelListIndex {
         &self,
         new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filter: Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        self.values_index
-            .update(unnest_chunks(new_data)?, dest_store)
-            .await?;
+        let file =
+            update_label_list_index(self, new_data, dest_store, old_data_filter.as_ref()).await?;
 
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::LabelListIndexDetails::default())
                 .unwrap(),
             index_version: LABEL_LIST_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
         })
     }
 
@@ -253,6 +341,44 @@ fn extract_flatten_indices(list_arr: &dyn Array) -> UInt64Array {
     }
 }
 
+/// Collect row_ids for list-level NULLs before unnest; unnest drops NULL lists entirely.
+fn track_list_nulls(
+    source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    list_nulls: Arc<Mutex<RowAddrTreeMap>>,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let schema = source.schema();
+    let stream = source.try_filter_map(move |batch| {
+        let list_nulls = list_nulls.clone();
+        async move {
+            record_list_nulls(&batch, &list_nulls)?;
+            Ok(Some(batch))
+        }
+    });
+
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream))
+}
+
+fn record_list_nulls(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    list_nulls: &Arc<Mutex<RowAddrTreeMap>>,
+) -> datafusion_common::Result<()> {
+    let values = batch.column_by_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME).expect_ok()?;
+    let row_ids = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).expect_ok()?;
+    let row_ids = row_ids.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>().unwrap();
+
+    let mut local_nulls = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+    for i in 0..values.len() {
+        if values.is_null(i) {
+            local_nulls.insert(row_ids.value(i));
+        }
+    }
+    if !local_nulls.is_empty() {
+        let mut guard = list_nulls.lock().unwrap();
+        *guard |= &local_nulls;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 fn unnest_schema(schema: &Schema) -> SchemaRef {
     let mut fields_iter = schema.fields.iter().cloned();
     let key_field = fields_iter.next().unwrap();
@@ -350,55 +476,521 @@ fn unnest_chunks(
     )))
 }
 
+async fn read_list_nulls(
+    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await?;
+    if let Some(buffer_idx_str) = reader.schema().metadata.get(LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY) {
+        let buffer_idx = buffer_idx_str.parse::<u32>().map_err(|err| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "LabelList metadata key {} had invalid global buffer index {}: {}",
+                LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY, buffer_idx_str, err
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let bytes = reader.read_global_buffer(buffer_idx).await?;
+        let null_map = RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bytes.as_ref())?;
+        return if let Some(frag_reuse_index) = frag_reuse_index {
+            Ok(frag_reuse_index.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&null_map))
+        } else {
+            Ok(null_map)
+        };
+    }
+    Ok(RowAddrTreeMap::default())
+}
+
+async fn read_list_nulls_with_remapping(
+    store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    let reader = store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await?;
+    if let Some(buffer_idx_str) = reader.schema().metadata.get(LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY) {
+        let buffer_idx = buffer_idx_str.parse::<u32>().map_err(|err| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "LabelList metadata key {} had invalid global buffer index {}: {}",
+                LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY, buffer_idx_str, err
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let bytes = reader.read_global_buffer(buffer_idx).await?;
+        let null_map = RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bytes.as_ref())?;
+        return if let Some(remapper) = remapping {
+            remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), &null_map).await
+        } else {
+            Ok(null_map)
+        };
+    }
+    Ok(RowAddrTreeMap::default())
+}
+
+fn serialize_list_nulls(null_map: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    let mut bytes = Vec::new();
+    null_map.serialize_into(&mut bytes)?;
+    Ok(Bytes::from(bytes))
+}
+
+/// Sort unnested `(label, row_addr)` pairs by label so that
+/// [`build_index_map`] can stream one label at a time.
+///
+/// This is DataFusion's sort, so it spills under `LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE` to
+/// `LANCE_MAX_TEMP_DIRECTORY_SIZE` rather than through a mechanism belonging to
+/// this index. `JsonIndexPlugin::sort_stream_by_value` sorts its training
+/// stream the same way. Note this is a full blocking sort, which buffers or
+/// spills the whole unnested stream -- unlike `BTreeIndexPlugin::merge_segments`,
+/// whose `SortPreservingMergeExec` streams over already-ordered inputs and never
+/// buffers the data volume at all.
+///
+/// Nulls sort first because `OrderableScalarValue` orders them below every
+/// value. [`build_index_map`] would accept a single null run anywhere -- nulls
+/// are collected separately rather than merge-joined by value -- but null-first
+/// is also what [`remap_index_map`] emits and what the plain bitmap index's
+/// training scan produces.
+///
+/// `mem_pool_size`, when set, overrides the session's memory pool for this
+/// sort instead of leaving it to `LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE`. Production callers
+/// pass `None`; the spilling-equivalence test passes an explicit size so it
+/// can force a spill without mutating the process-wide environment variable
+/// that every other cached session shares.
+///
+/// Also returns the `SortExec` node itself (not just its output stream), so a
+/// caller can inspect its metrics -- e.g. `spill_count` -- once the stream is
+/// fully drained. Production call sites have no use for it and bind it as
+/// `_`; the spilling-equivalence test uses it to confirm a forced-spill build
+/// actually spilled, rather than trusting the pool-size math alone.
+fn sort_labels_by_value(
+    unnested: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    mem_pool_size: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<(SendableRecordBatchStream, Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>)> {
+    let mut options = LanceExecutionOptions {
+        use_spilling: true,
+        mem_pool_size,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    // Keep each input batch within one sorted output chunk. DataFusion's
+    // in-memory merge reserves comparison keys as it reads each chunk;
+    // multi-chunk inputs can exhaust the pool while other chunks remain buffered.
+    let chunk_rows = get_session_context(&options).state().config().batch_size();
+    // Pin the sort's chunk size to the split's, so the two cannot drift apart.
+    options.batch_size = Some(chunk_rows);
+    let schema = unnested.schema();
+    let pieces = unnested
+        .map_ok(move |batch| {
+            let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+            if num_rows <= chunk_rows {
+                return Either::Left(futures::stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(batch))));
+            }
+            Either::Right(futures::stream::iter(
+                (0..num_rows).step_by(chunk_rows).map(move |offset| {
+                    // Copy the slice so memory accounting excludes the parent's
+                    // unused buffers.
+                    let piece = batch.slice(offset, chunk_rows.min(num_rows - offset));
+                    deep_copy_batch_sliced(&piece).map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+                }),
+            ))
+        })
+        .try_flatten();
+    let unnested: SendableRecordBatchStream =
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, pieces));
+
+    let input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(unnested));
+    // Resolved by name: `Column::evaluate` only bounds-checks the index it is
+    // given and never consults the name, so a hardcoded index would silently
+    // sort by whatever column ends up there if the unnest schema's column
+    // order ever changed.
+    let value_idx = input.schema().index_of(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)?;
+    let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
+        expr: Arc::new(Column::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, value_idx)),
+        options: SortOptions {
+            descending: false,
+            nulls_first: true,
+        },
+    };
+
+    // The row cap alone cannot bound bytes when label widths vary. DataFusion
+    // must reserve space for each incoming batch even with spilling enabled.
+    // Cap batches at a sixth of the pool to leave room for sort/merge overhead.
+    let max_batch_bytes = (options.mem_pool_size() / 6).max(1) as usize;
+    let capped: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+        Arc::new(HardCapBatchSizeExec::new(input, max_batch_bytes));
+
+    let sorted: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), capped));
+    let stream = execute_plan(sorted.clone(), options)?;
+    Ok((stream, sorted))
+}
+
+/// Write a LabelList index: a bitmap index over `sorted_labels`, plus the
+/// `list_nulls` set as a global buffer in the same file.
+///
+/// `list_nulls` is a closure, not a value, because it is only correct to read
+/// after `sorted_labels` is drained -- `track_list_nulls` fills its set as rows
+/// flow through it, and the sort upstream means no row reaches here until every
+/// input row has passed it. The buffer is attached after the data pages for the
+/// same reason; `add_global_buffer` records its index in the file metadata, so
+/// position does not matter to readers.
+async fn write_label_list_index(
+    store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    value_type: &DataType,
+    sorted_labels: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    old_index: Option<&BitmapIndex>,
+    old_data_filter: Option<&OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    list_nulls: impl FnOnce() -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap>,
+) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+    let mut writer = new_bitmap_batch_writer(store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, value_type).await?;
+    let old_segments = old_index
+        .map(|index| OldSegment {
+            index,
+            filter: old_data_filter,
+        })
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+    build_index_map(sorted_labels, old_segments, &mut writer).await?;
+    writer
+        .add_global_buffer(
+            LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY.to_string(),
+            serialize_list_nulls(&list_nulls()?)?,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    writer.finish().await
+}
+
+/// Build a LabelList index from a `(list column, row_addr)` stream, also
+/// returning the sort's `SortExec` node.
+///
+/// The list column is unnested and the resulting labels sorted, so the bitmap
+/// builder holds one label's bitmap at a time instead of the whole map. The sort
+/// is DataFusion's and spills under `LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE`.
+///
+/// [`train_label_list_index`] is a thin wrapper over this that discards the
+/// plan handle and always passes `None` for `mem_pool_size` -- production has
+/// no use for either. The spilling-equivalence test calls this directly,
+/// passing an explicit `mem_pool_size`, so its forced-spill build can assert
+/// on `spill_count` while still running the exact sequence production does,
+/// rather than a hand-maintained copy of it that could quietly drift out of
+/// step.
+async fn train_label_list_index_with_plan(
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    mem_pool_size: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<(IndexFile, Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>)> {
+    let list_nulls = Arc::new(Mutex::new(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
+    let data = track_list_nulls(data, list_nulls.clone());
+    let data = unnest_chunks(data)?;
+    let value_type = data.schema().field(0).data_type().clone();
+    let (sorted, sort_plan) = sort_labels_by_value(data, mem_pool_size)?;
+
+    let file = write_label_list_index(index_store, &value_type, sorted, None, None, || {
+        Ok(list_nulls.lock().unwrap().clone())
+    })
+    .await?;
+    Ok((file, sort_plan))
+}
+
+/// Build a LabelList index from a `(list column, row_addr)` stream.
+async fn train_label_list_index(
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+    train_label_list_index_with_plan(data, index_store, None)
+        .await
+        .map(|(file, _sort_plan)| file)
+}
+
+/// Add `new_data` to an existing LabelList index, writing the result to
+/// `dest_store`.
+///
+/// The existing index joins the new labels through bitmap's merge-join, which
+/// walks its `index_map` and loads one old bitmap at a time. Files written before
+/// this change have their keys in arbitrary on-disk order, which does not matter:
+/// `BitmapIndex::load` builds `index_map` as a `BTreeMap` recording each key's
+/// file offset, so iteration is sorted regardless.
+async fn update_label_list_index(
+    existing: &LabelListIndex,
+    new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    old_data_filter: Option<&OldIndexDataFilter>,
+) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+    let list_nulls = Arc::new(Mutex::new(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
+    let new_data = track_list_nulls(new_data, list_nulls.clone());
+    let new_data = unnest_chunks(new_data)?;
+
+    // The destination file's schema is declared from the existing index while
+    // every new key comes from the stream. If the two disagree the written
+    // batches would not match the schema they are declared under, so reject it
+    // here rather than emit a file whose schema lies about its key type.
+    let value_type = existing.values_index.value_type().clone();
+    let new_value_type = new_data.schema().field(0).data_type().clone();
+    if new_value_type != value_type {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Cannot update a LabelList index with value type {value_type} \
+             from new data whose list items are {new_value_type}"
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let (sorted, _sort_plan) = sort_labels_by_value(new_data, None)?;
+    let existing_nulls = existing.list_nulls.clone();
+
+    write_label_list_index(
+        dest_store,
+        &value_type,
+        sorted,
+        Some(&existing.values_index),
+        old_data_filter,
+        || {
+            let mut merged = (*existing_nulls).clone();
+            // Prune old state before adding replacements, which may reuse row IDs.
+            if let Some(filter) = old_data_filter {
+                filter.retain_old_rows(&mut merged);
+            }
+            merged |= &*list_nulls.lock().unwrap();
+            Ok(merged)
+        },
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Merge multiple LabelList index segments into a single index.
+///
+/// A [`LabelListIndex`] is a [`BitmapIndex`] over the unnested list values plus a
+/// separate `list_nulls` row set. Because distributed segments cover disjoint rows
+/// (distinct fragments), merging streams and unions the bitmap payloads by key
+/// and separately unions the `list_nulls` sets; no source-data re-scan is
+/// required. This mirrors [`crate::scalar::bitmap::BitmapIndex::merge_segments`]
+/// but also carries the per-segment `list_nulls`. When `old_data_filter` is provided,
+/// rows from retired fragments are removed from both the value bitmaps and
+/// `list_nulls`.
+pub async fn merge_label_list_indices(
+    source_indices: &[Arc<LabelListIndex>],
+    dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    old_data_filter: Option<OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    if source_indices.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "LabelList segment merge requires at least one source segment".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let value_type = source_indices[0].values_index.value_type().clone();
+    let mut merged_nulls = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+
+    let mut values_indices = Vec::with_capacity(source_indices.len());
+    for source_index in source_indices.iter() {
+        if source_index.values_index.value_type() != &value_type {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "LabelList segment has value type {:?}, expected {:?}",
+                source_index.values_index.value_type(),
+                value_type
+            )));
+        }
+        values_indices.push(source_index.values_index.clone());
+
+        // `list_nulls` records whole rows whose list was null, so it is a row
+        // set per segment rather than a per-label bitmap. It stays outside both
+        // the key merge and the aggregation-state budget.
+        // Only copy when there is a filter to apply: an unfiltered merge is the
+        // common case, and each copy is a whole segment's row set.
+        if let Some(filter) = old_data_filter.as_ref() {
+            let mut list_nulls = source_index.list_nulls.as_ref().clone();
+            filter.retain_old_rows(&mut list_nulls);
+            merged_nulls |= &list_nulls;
+        } else {
+            merged_nulls |= source_index.list_nulls.as_ref();
+        }
+    }
+
+    progress
+        .stage_start(
+            "merge_label_list_segments",
+            Some(merge_source_entry_count(&values_indices)),
+            "entries",
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+    let mut writer = new_bitmap_batch_writer(dest_store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, &value_type).await?;
+    writer
+        .add_global_buffer(
+            LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY.to_string(),
+            serialize_list_nulls(&merged_nulls)?,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    merge_index_maps(
+        &values_indices,
+        old_data_filter.as_ref(),
+        &mut writer,
+        Some((progress.as_ref(), "merge_label_list_segments")),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("merge_label_list_segments").await?;
+
+    progress
+        .stage_start("write_label_list_index", Some(1), "files")
+        .await?;
+    let file = writer.finish().await?;
+    progress.stage_progress("write_label_list_index", 1).await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("write_label_list_index").await?;
+
+    Ok(CreatedIndex {
+        index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::LabelListIndexDetails::default())
+            .unwrap(),
+        index_version: LABEL_LIST_INDEX_VERSION,
+        files: vec![file],
+    })
+}
+
+/// The serializable state of a [`LabelListIndex`].
+///
+/// `LabelListIndex` is a thin wrapper around a [`BitmapIndex`] plus a separate
+/// row bitmap tracking which list values were `NULL` (lost by unnest at build
+/// time). Its cache state is the corresponding [`BitmapIndexState`] plus the
+/// already-loaded `list_nulls`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct LabelListIndexState {
+    bitmap_state: BitmapIndexState,
+    list_nulls: Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for LabelListIndexState {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.bitmap_state.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.list_nulls.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl LabelListIndexState {
+    fn from_index(index: &LabelListIndex) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            bitmap_state: BitmapIndexState::from_index(&index.values_index)?,
+            list_nulls: index.list_nulls.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn from_scalar_index(index: &dyn ScalarIndex) -> Result<Self> {
+        let label_list = index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<LabelListIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(
+                    "LabelListIndexState::from_scalar_index called with a non-label-list index",
+                )
+            })?;
+        Self::from_index(label_list)
+    }
+
+    fn into_label_list_index(
+        self,
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<LabelListIndex>> {
+        let bitmap = self
+            .bitmap_state
+            .to_bitmap_index(store, index_cache, frag_reuse_index)?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(LabelListIndex::new(bitmap, self.list_nulls)))
+    }
+}
+
+impl CacheCodecImpl for LabelListIndexState {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.scalar.LabelListIndexState";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    /// Wire format:
+    /// ```text
+    /// RAW_BLOB : list_nulls (roaring tree map, portable encoding)
+    /// <nested BitmapIndexState body (self-delimiting)>
+    /// ```
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut nulls_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(self.list_nulls.serialized_size());
+        self.list_nulls.serialize_into(&mut nulls_bytes)?;
+        w.write_raw(&nulls_bytes)?;
+        // The bitmap state writes its own self-delimiting body inline.
+        self.bitmap_state.serialize(w)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let nulls_bytes = r.read_raw()?;
+        let list_nulls = Arc::new(RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(nulls_bytes.as_ref())?);
+        // The bitmap state is self-delimiting (length-prefixed null map +
+        // Arrow IPC stream with EOS marker); it continues reading the body
+        // from where the null map left off.
+        let bitmap_state = BitmapIndexState::deserialize(r)?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            bitmap_state,
+            list_nulls,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+struct LabelListIndexStateKey;
+
+impl CacheKey for LabelListIndexStateKey {
+    type ValueType = LabelListIndexState;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        "state".into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "LabelListIndexState"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.label-list-index-state-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_variant(0);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<LabelListIndexState>())
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Default)]
 pub struct LabelListIndexPlugin;
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndexPlugin for LabelListIndexPlugin {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "LabelList"
+pub(super) fn validate_label_list_data_type(data_type: &DataType) -> Result<()> {
+    let item_type = match data_type {
+        DataType::List(item_field) | DataType::LargeList(item_field) => item_field.data_type(),
+        _ => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "LabelList index can only be created on List or LargeList type columns. Column has type {:?}",
+                    data_type
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+    };
+
+    if item_type.is_nested() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
+                "LabelList index item type must be non-nested. Column has type {:?}",
+                data_type
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
     }
 
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl BasicTrainer for LabelListIndexPlugin {
     fn new_training_request(
         &self,
         _params: &str,
         field: &Field,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
-        if !matches!(
-            field.data_type(),
-            DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_)
-        ) {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
-                    "LabelList index can only be created on List or LargeList type columns. Column has type {:?}",
-                    field.data_type()
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+        validate_label_list_data_type(field.data_type())?;
 
         Ok(Box::new(DefaultTrainingRequest::new(
             TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_id(),
         )))
     }
 
-    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
-        true
-    }
-
-    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
-        LABEL_LIST_INDEX_VERSION
-    }
-
-    fn new_query_parser(
-        &self,
-        index_name: String,
-        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
-        Some(Box::new(LabelListQueryParser::new(index_name)))
-    }
-
     /// Train a new index
     ///
     /// The provided data must fulfill all the criteria returned by `training_criteria`
@@ -407,59 +999,74 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for LabelListIndexPlugin {
         &self,
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-        request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
-        fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
+        // Training over a fragment subset is supported for distributed builds: the
+        // provided `data` stream is already scoped to those fragments, so a partial
+        // index covering exactly those rows is produced. Segments are recombined by
+        // `merge_label_list_indices`.
+        _fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        if fragment_ids.is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "LabelList index does not support fragment training".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
         let schema = data.schema();
         let field = schema
             .column_with_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Index training data missing value column"
-                    .to_string()
-                    .into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Index training data missing value column"
+                        .to_string()
+                        .into(),
+                )
             })?
             .1;
 
-        if !matches!(
-            field.data_type(),
-            DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_)
-        ) {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
-                    "LabelList index can only be created on List or LargeList type columns. Column has type {:?}",
-                    field.data_type()
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+        validate_label_list_data_type(field.data_type())?;
 
-        let data = unnest_chunks(data)?;
-        let bitmap_plugin = BitmapIndexPlugin;
-        bitmap_plugin
-            .train_index(data, index_store, request, fragment_ids)
-            .await?;
+        let file = train_label_list_index(data, index_store).await?;
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::LabelListIndexDetails::default())
                 .unwrap(),
             index_version: LABEL_LIST_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
         })
     }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for LabelListIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "LabelList"
+    }
+
+    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
+        LABEL_LIST_INDEX_VERSION
+    }
+
+    fn new_query_parser(
+        &self,
+        index_name: String,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
+        Some(Box::new(LabelListQueryParser::new(
+            index_name,
+            self.name().to_string(),
+        )))
+    }
 
     /// Load an index from storage
     async fn load_index(
         &self,
         index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
         Ok(
@@ -467,4 +1074,1159 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for LabelListIndexPlugin {
                 as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
         )
     }
+
+    fn supports_batch_row_id_remapping(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn load_index_with_remapping(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        Ok(LabelListIndex::load_with_remapping(index_store, remapping, cache).await?)
+    }
+
+    async fn get_from_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>> {
+        let Some(state) = cache.get_with_key(&LabelListIndexStateKey).await else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let state = (*state).clone();
+        let index = state.into_label_list_index(index_store, cache, frag_reuse_index)?;
+        Ok(Some(index as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>))
+    }
+
+    async fn put_in_cache(
+        &self,
+        _index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let state = LabelListIndexState::from_scalar_index(index.as_ref())?;
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&LabelListIndexStateKey, Arc::new(state))
+            .await;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn get_or_insert_in_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        load: ScalarIndexLoad<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        single_flight_open(
+            cache,
+            LabelListIndexStateKey,
+            load,
+            LabelListIndexState::from_scalar_index,
+            move |state| {
+                Ok((*state)
+                    .clone()
+                    .into_label_list_index(index_store, cache, frag_reuse_index)?
+                    as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+    use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+
+    use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+    use lance_core::cache::CacheCodec;
+    use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::super::bitmap::BitmapIndexState;
+    use super::super::btree::OrderableScalarValue;
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::scalar::bitmap::test_util::{self, row_addrs};
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::list(DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
+        "item",
+        DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int64, true))),
+        true,
+    ))))]
+    #[case::large_list(DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(Field::new(
+        "item",
+        DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int64, true))),
+        true,
+    ))))]
+    fn test_rejects_nested_item_type(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
+        let field = Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, data_type, true);
+        let error = LabelListIndexPlugin
+            .new_training_request("", &field)
+            .err()
+            .expect("nested item type should be rejected");
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected invalid input error, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("LabelList index item type must be non-nested"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn sample_state() -> LabelListIndexState {
+        let mut index_map = BTreeMap::new();
+        for k in 0..32i32 {
+            index_map.insert(
+                OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(k))),
+                k as usize,
+            );
+        }
+        let mut bitmap_nulls = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        bitmap_nulls.insert(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 3).into());
+        let bitmap_state =
+            BitmapIndexState::new_for_test(index_map, bitmap_nulls, DataType::Int32).unwrap();
+
+        let mut list_nulls = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        list_nulls.insert(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 9).into());
+        LabelListIndexState {
+            bitmap_state,
+            list_nulls: Arc::new(list_nulls),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_label_list_state_codec_roundtrip() {
+        let state = sample_state();
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        state
+            .serialize(&mut CacheEntryWriter::new(&mut buf))
+            .unwrap();
+        let data = Bytes::from(buf);
+        let mut reader = CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, LabelListIndexState::CURRENT_VERSION);
+        let restored = LabelListIndexState::deserialize(&mut reader).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(&*restored.list_nulls, &*state.list_nulls);
+        assert_eq!(
+            restored.bitmap_state.lookup_batch(),
+            state.bitmap_state.lookup_batch()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            restored.bitmap_state.null_map(),
+            state.bitmap_state.null_map()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The nested bitmap lookup batch must decode zero-copy through the full
+    /// envelope, proving the leading `list_nulls` RAW_BLOB does not knock the
+    /// nested IPC section off its 64-byte boundary.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_label_list_nested_lookup_is_zero_copy() {
+        const ALIGN: usize = 64;
+        let codec = CacheCodec::from_impl::<LabelListIndexState>();
+        let any: Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync> = Arc::new(sample_state());
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        codec.serialize(&any, &mut buf).unwrap();
+
+        let mut v = vec![0u8; buf.len() + ALIGN];
+        let pad = (ALIGN - (v.as_ptr() as usize % ALIGN)) % ALIGN;
+        v[pad..pad + buf.len()].copy_from_slice(&buf);
+        let data = Bytes::from(v).slice(pad..pad + buf.len());
+
+        let restored = codec.deserialize(&data).hit().unwrap();
+        let restored = restored.downcast::<LabelListIndexState>().unwrap();
+
+        let base = data.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let end = base + data.len();
+        for col in restored.bitmap_state.lookup_batch().columns() {
+            for buffer in col.to_data().buffers() {
+                let ptr = buffer.as_ptr() as usize;
+                assert!(
+                    ptr >= base && ptr < end,
+                    "nested bitmap lookup buffer was realigned — misaligned IPC section",
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // One scan batch unnests to more bytes than the small pool can admit at once.
+    // The separate spill test checks the multi-batch merge path.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_train_index_handles_a_wide_list_in_one_scan_batch() {
+        const ROWS: usize = 256;
+        const LABELS_PER_ROW: usize = 512;
+        const LABEL_PAD: usize = 200;
+        let labels: Vec<String> = (0..LABELS_PER_ROW)
+            .map(|label| format!("label-{label:04}{}", "p".repeat(LABEL_PAD)))
+            .collect();
+
+        let schema = label_list_schema();
+        let mut builder =
+            arrow_array::builder::ListBuilder::new(arrow_array::builder::StringBuilder::new());
+        for _ in 0..ROWS {
+            for label in &labels {
+                builder.values().append_value(label);
+            }
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(builder.finish()),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..ROWS as u64)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(batch))),
+        ));
+
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        train_label_list_index_with_plan(stream, store.as_ref(), Some(32 * 1024 * 1024))
+            .await
+            .expect("the wide-list fixture must build with the selected pool");
+
+        // Every row carries every label, so each posting covers all rows.
+        let expected = IndexContents {
+            labels: labels
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|label| (Some(label), (0..ROWS as u64).collect()))
+                .collect(),
+            list_nulls: vec![],
+        };
+        assert_eq!(read_index_contents(store.as_ref()).await, expected);
+    }
+
+    // ---- shared fixtures for the spill-build tests ------------------------
+
+    /// One test row: its address, and either a null list or a list whose
+    /// elements may individually be null. Both null shapes matter — a null list
+    /// is recorded in `list_nulls`, a null element survives unnesting as a null
+    /// index key.
+    type SampleRow = (u64, Option<Vec<Option<String>>>);
+
+    /// Deterministic rows with heavy label reuse, a null list every 17th row,
+    /// and a null element every 11th, so every code path sees both.
+    fn sample_label_list_rows(count: usize, addr_offset: u64) -> Vec<SampleRow> {
+        let rows: Vec<SampleRow> = (0..count)
+            .map(|i| {
+                let addr = addr_offset + i as u64;
+                if i % 17 == 0 {
+                    return (addr, None);
+                }
+                let mut labels: Vec<Option<String>> = (0..(i % 4) + 1)
+                    .map(|k| Some(format!("label-{:04}", (i * 7 + k * 13) % 200)))
+                    .collect();
+                if i % 11 == 0 {
+                    labels.push(None);
+                }
+                (addr, Some(labels))
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // Guarded here rather than in each caller: several tests rely on this
+        // fixture carrying both null shapes, and a change to the pattern above
+        // would otherwise silently stop exercising them everywhere at once.
+        // That the shapes then reach the right places in the index is
+        // `test_null_element_null_list_and_empty_list_stay_distinct`'s job.
+        assert!(
+            rows.iter().any(|(_, labels)| labels.is_none()),
+            "fixture must contain a null list; {count} rows is too few"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            rows.iter()
+                .any(|(_, labels)| labels.as_ref().is_some_and(|l| l.contains(&None))),
+            "fixture must contain a null label; {count} rows is too few"
+        );
+        rows
+    }
+
+    fn label_list_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(
+                VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// Chunk the rows into several batches so the builder crosses batch
+    /// boundaries the way a real scan does.
+    fn sample_rows_to_stream(rows: &[SampleRow]) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        let schema = label_list_schema();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = rows
+            .chunks(64)
+            .map(|chunk| {
+                let mut builder = arrow_array::builder::ListBuilder::new(
+                    arrow_array::builder::StringBuilder::new(),
+                );
+                for (_, labels) in chunk {
+                    match labels {
+                        Some(labels) => {
+                            for label in labels {
+                                builder.values().append_option(label.as_deref());
+                            }
+                            builder.append(true);
+                        }
+                        None => builder.append(false),
+                    }
+                }
+                let addrs = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(chunk.iter().map(|(addr, _)| *addr));
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(builder.finish()), Arc::new(addrs)],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// The index as a comparable value: labels (nulls included) each mapped to
+    /// their sorted row addresses, plus the separately-stored `list_nulls`.
+    /// Read from the file rather than the loaded index so that the on-disk
+    /// format itself is what the assertions compare.
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+    struct IndexContents {
+        labels: Vec<(Option<String>, Vec<u64>)>,
+        list_nulls: Vec<u64>,
+    }
+
+    /// Also asserts that the directory holds nothing but the index. Spill files
+    /// belong in local scratch, and every path that writes an index here --
+    /// build, update, remap, merge -- must leave none of them behind, so the
+    /// check lives where all of them are already read back.
+    async fn read_index_contents(store: &dyn IndexStore) -> IndexContents {
+        let files: Vec<String> = store
+            .list_files_with_sizes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|file| file.path)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(files, vec![BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME.to_string()]);
+
+        let mut labels: Vec<(Option<String>, Vec<u64>)> =
+            test_util::read_key_bitmaps(store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME)
+                .await
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(key, bitmap)| (key, row_addrs(&bitmap)))
+                .collect();
+        // The build path emits keys in sorted order; older indexes on disk are
+        // in arbitrary order. Sort so the comparison is order-independent.
+        labels.sort();
+
+        let list_nulls = read_list_nulls(store.clone_arc(), None).await.unwrap();
+        IndexContents {
+            labels,
+            list_nulls: row_addrs(&list_nulls),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn build_label_list_index(rows: &[SampleRow]) -> IndexContents {
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        train_label_list_index(sample_rows_to_stream(rows), store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        read_index_contents(store.as_ref()).await
+    }
+
+    // Every LabelList build or update now sorts through DataFusion with spilling
+    // enabled. Most tests below get that from the default, process-cached
+    // session, whose pool `LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE` governs, and so share that
+    // resource group -- see the same pattern in btree.rs, json.rs and rtree.rs.
+    // The spill-forcing test below passes an explicit `mem_pool_size` for the
+    // spilling half, but its baseline build goes through the default session
+    // like everything else, so it joins the group too.
+    /// A pool this small forces the sort below to spill: `new_session_context`
+    /// reserves `(pool / 3).min(40 MiB)` up front, leaving only `2 * pool / 3`
+    /// (about 171 KiB here) for in-memory accumulation, which the fixture's
+    /// unnested data clears. A smaller pool (tried down to 64 KiB) instead
+    /// fails the final spill-merge with `ResourcesExhausted`, since that step
+    /// also draws on the same budget -- this size was picked empirically to
+    /// leave it enough room. Measured at this size: 3 spills, 108,096 bytes and
+    /// 4,878 rows spilled, consistent across repeated runs.
+    const SPILL_FORCING_POOL_BYTES: u64 = 256 * 1024;
+
+    /// The sort spills through DataFusion's memory pool, so a build that spills
+    /// must produce the same index as one that does not. Forced via an explicit
+    /// `mem_pool_size` rather than by mutating the process-wide
+    /// `LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE` that every other cached session shares, so this
+    /// test needs no serialization against them.
+    ///
+    /// A small pool alone does not prove a spill happened -- the sort could stay
+    /// under budget, or a regression could silently drop `use_spilling` -- so this
+    /// also reads the `SortExec`'s own metrics after the build completes and
+    /// asserts `spill_count > 0`. Calling [`train_label_list_index_with_plan`]
+    /// directly (rather than the equivalent hand-written unnest/sort/write
+    /// sequence) is what lets the forced-spill build assert on the plan while
+    /// still running the exact production build path -- the same one `generous`
+    /// below runs through `build_label_list_index`, which uses the shared
+    /// default session and is why this joins the serial group.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_train_index_identical_when_the_sort_spills() {
+        // Large enough that the unnested data clears the spill-forcing pool's
+        // remaining budget with room to spare; small enough to sort and spill
+        // well within the one-second test budget.
+        const ROWS: usize = 2_000;
+        let rows = sample_label_list_rows(ROWS, 0);
+
+        let generous = build_label_list_index(&rows).await;
+
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        let (_file, sort_plan) = train_label_list_index_with_plan(
+            sample_rows_to_stream(&rows),
+            store.as_ref(),
+            Some(SPILL_FORCING_POOL_BYTES),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = sort_plan.metrics().expect("SortExec must report metrics");
+        assert!(
+            metrics.spill_count().unwrap_or(0) > 0,
+            "fixture and pool size must force a real spill, or this test \
+             cannot tell a working spill path from a broken one; got \
+             metrics: {metrics:?}"
+        );
+
+        let tiny = read_index_contents(store.as_ref()).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(generous, tiny, "a spilling sort must not change the index");
+    }
+
+    // Unsplit inputs would produce multiple chunks in the in-memory spill merge.
+    // DataFusion's spawn_buffered reads ahead only on a multi-thread runtime.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_train_index_spills_wide_labels_in_a_large_pool() {
+        const POOL_BYTES: u64 = 256 * 1024 * 1024;
+        const LABEL_BYTES: usize = 1024;
+        const DISTINCT_LABELS: usize = 1024;
+        // 64 rows x 256 labels unnest to 16,384 rows: two of the sort's 8,192-row
+        // chunks.
+        const ROWS_PER_BATCH: usize = 64;
+        const LABELS_PER_ROW: usize = 256;
+        // 128 MiB of labels forces spilling with sort overhead and the 40 MiB
+        // merge reservation. Without row splitting, this fails in ExternalSorterMerge.
+        const BATCHES: usize = 8;
+
+        let labels: Vec<String> = (0..DISTINCT_LABELS)
+            .map(|i| format!("label-{i:04}-{}", "p".repeat(LABEL_BYTES - 11)))
+            .collect();
+        let schema = label_list_schema();
+        let batch_schema = schema.clone();
+        let input_labels = labels.clone();
+        let batches = (0..BATCHES).map(move |batch_idx| {
+            let mut builder =
+                arrow_array::builder::ListBuilder::new(arrow_array::builder::StringBuilder::new());
+            let first_row = batch_idx * ROWS_PER_BATCH;
+            for row in first_row..first_row + ROWS_PER_BATCH {
+                for slot in row * LABELS_PER_ROW..(row + 1) * LABELS_PER_ROW {
+                    builder
+                        .values()
+                        .append_value(&input_labels[slot % DISTINCT_LABELS]);
+                }
+                builder.append(true);
+            }
+            let addrs = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+                (first_row..first_row + ROWS_PER_BATCH).map(|row| row as u64),
+            );
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                batch_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(builder.finish()), Arc::new(addrs)],
+            )
+            .unwrap())
+        });
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::iter(batches),
+        ));
+
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        let (_file, sort_plan) =
+            train_label_list_index_with_plan(stream, store.as_ref(), Some(POOL_BYTES))
+                .await
+                .expect("wide labels must build when a large pool's sort spills");
+
+        let metrics = sort_plan.metrics().expect("SortExec must report metrics");
+        assert!(
+            metrics.spill_count().unwrap_or(0) > 0,
+            "the fixture must force a spill; got metrics: {metrics:?}"
+        );
+
+        let expected = IndexContents {
+            labels: labels
+                .into_iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(i, label)| {
+                    // Each group of 256 labels belongs to one of four row classes.
+                    let addrs = (i / LABELS_PER_ROW..BATCHES * ROWS_PER_BATCH)
+                        .step_by(DISTINCT_LABELS / LABELS_PER_ROW)
+                        .map(|row| row as u64)
+                        .collect();
+                    (Some(label), addrs)
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            list_nulls: vec![],
+        };
+        assert_eq!(read_index_contents(store.as_ref()).await, expected);
+    }
+
+    async fn build_label_list_segment(rows: &[SampleRow]) -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LabelListIndex>) {
+        let (tmpdir, store) = test_util::index_store();
+        train_label_list_index(sample_rows_to_stream(rows), store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let index = LabelListIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        (tmpdir, index)
+    }
+
+    /// `remap` carries `list_nulls` in a global buffer written through the
+    /// streaming writer, and nothing else covers that path. If the buffer or its
+    /// metadata key were dropped, `read_list_nulls` would return an empty set and
+    /// the index would be classified as pre-nulls, so `NOT` filters over nullable
+    /// list columns would return wrong rows with only a warning -- no error.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_remap_rewrites_addresses_and_preserves_list_nulls() {
+        const OLD_FRAGMENT: u64 = 1 << 32;
+        const NEW_FRAGMENT: u64 = 3 << 32;
+        const ROWS: usize = 120;
+
+        let rows = sample_label_list_rows(ROWS, OLD_FRAGMENT);
+        // Built here rather than via build_label_list_segment so the source
+        // store stays reachable, to compare against after the remap.
+        let (_src_dir, src_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        train_label_list_index(sample_rows_to_stream(&rows), src_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let index = LabelListIndex::load(src_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let before = read_index_contents(src_store.as_ref()).await;
+
+        // Move every row to a new fragment, and delete one so the dropped-row
+        // path is covered too.
+        let deleted = OLD_FRAGMENT + 1;
+        let mapping = RowAddrRemap::direct(
+            (0..ROWS as u64)
+                .map(|i| {
+                    let old = OLD_FRAGMENT + i;
+                    (old, (old != deleted).then_some(NEW_FRAGMENT + i))
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        );
+
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        index.remap(&mapping, dest_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+        let after = read_index_contents(dest_store.as_ref()).await;
+
+        let remapped = |addrs: &[u64]| -> Vec<u64> {
+            addrs
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|addr| **addr != deleted)
+                .map(|addr| addr - OLD_FRAGMENT + NEW_FRAGMENT)
+                .collect()
+        };
+
+        // The nulls buffer must survive, remapped, not silently become empty.
+        assert_eq!(
+            after.list_nulls,
+            remapped(&before.list_nulls),
+            "list_nulls must be carried through remap with its addresses rewritten"
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            after.labels,
+            before
+                .labels
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(key, addrs)| (key.clone(), remapped(addrs)))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            "every label must survive with its addresses rewritten to the new fragment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Many segments whose keys interleave without overlapping is the case key
+    /// selection must handle in `log(segments)` rather than by scanning every
+    /// segment for every key. Covers both shapes at once: a vocabulary unique to
+    /// each segment, plus one label every segment holds.
+    ///
+    /// The merge must equal a single build over the same rows, and being
+    /// key-driven it must also report progress as it goes -- reporting once on
+    /// return leaves a long merge indistinguishable from a hung one -- against a
+    /// denominator it actually reaches. Source entries give one; emitted keys do
+    /// not, since the shared label emits one row for `NUM_SEGMENTS` entries.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_segment_merge_matches_single_build_and_reports_progress() {
+        const NUM_SEGMENTS: usize = 5;
+        const ROWS_PER_SEGMENT: usize = 40;
+        const SHARED_LABEL: &str = "shared";
+
+        fn segment_rows(segment: usize) -> Vec<SampleRow> {
+            (0..ROWS_PER_SEGMENT)
+                .map(|i| {
+                    let addr = ((segment as u64) << 32) | i as u64;
+                    // A null list every 7th row and a null label every 5th, so
+                    // the merge carries both null shapes as well.
+                    if i % 7 == 0 {
+                        return (addr, None);
+                    }
+                    // Striding by the segment count interleaves the vocabularies,
+                    // so each segment's keys fall between its neighbours' rather
+                    // than alongside them.
+                    let mut labels = vec![
+                        Some(format!("label-{:04}", i * NUM_SEGMENTS + segment)),
+                        Some(SHARED_LABEL.to_string()),
+                    ];
+                    if i % 5 == 0 {
+                        labels.push(None);
+                    }
+                    (addr, Some(labels))
+                })
+                .collect()
+        }
+
+        let mut all_rows = Vec::new();
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        let mut _dirs = Vec::new();
+        for segment in 0..NUM_SEGMENTS {
+            let rows = segment_rows(segment);
+            all_rows.extend(rows.clone());
+            let (dir, index) = build_label_list_segment(&rows).await;
+            _dirs.push(dir);
+            segments.push(index);
+        }
+
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        merge_label_list_indices(&segments, dest_store.as_ref(), None, progress.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let merged = read_index_contents(dest_store.as_ref()).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged,
+            build_label_list_index(&all_rows).await,
+            "merging {NUM_SEGMENTS} interleaved segments must equal a single build"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merged.labels.iter().any(|(key, _)| key.is_none()),
+            "fixture must exercise null labels"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !merged.list_nulls.is_empty(),
+            "fixture must exercise null lists"
+        );
+
+        let merge_counts = progress.counts("merge_label_list_segments");
+        let declared_total = progress.declared_total("merge_label_list_segments");
+        let merged_keys = merged.labels.len() as u64;
+        // The shared label makes entries outnumber output rows. This is what an
+        // emitted-key denominator cannot express, and reverting to one fails here
+        // rather than silently under-reporting.
+        assert!(
+            declared_total > merged_keys,
+            "fixture must have segments sharing labels so entries ({declared_total}) \
+             exceed emitted keys ({merged_keys})"
+        );
+        // Pins "reports as it goes", which the monotonicity check below cannot:
+        // a throttle that collapsed to a single terminal report would satisfy
+        // both that and the declared-total check while leaving a long merge
+        // indistinguishable from a hung one.
+        assert!(
+            merge_counts.len() > 1,
+            "the merge must report incrementally, got {} report(s)",
+            merge_counts.len()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merge_counts.windows(2).all(|pair| pair[0] <= pair[1]),
+            "reported progress must never go backwards: {merge_counts:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merge_counts.last().copied(),
+            Some(declared_total),
+            "the merge must finish on exactly the total it declared"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Records what a build reported, so progress can be asserted on.
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct RecordingProgress {
+        /// `(stage, completed)` for every progress call, in order.
+        calls: std::sync::Mutex<Vec<(String, u64)>>,
+        /// `(stage, total)` for every stage start.
+        totals: std::sync::Mutex<Vec<(String, Option<u64>)>>,
+    }
+
+    impl RecordingProgress {
+        fn counts(&self, stage: &str) -> Vec<u64> {
+            self.calls
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|(reported, _)| reported == stage)
+                .map(|(_, completed)| *completed)
+                .collect()
+        }
+
+        fn declared_total(&self, stage: &str) -> u64 {
+            self.totals
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .find(|(reported, _)| reported == stage)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("stage {stage} was never started"))
+                .1
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("stage {stage} declared no total"))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress for RecordingProgress {
+        async fn stage_start(&self, stage: &str, total: Option<u64>, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            self.totals.lock().unwrap().push((stage.to_string(), total));
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        async fn stage_progress(&self, stage: &str, completed: u64) -> Result<()> {
+            self.calls
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .push((stage.to_string(), completed));
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        async fn stage_complete(&self, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Segment merge prunes rows from retired fragments. This is existing
+    /// behaviour and the streaming merge must not quietly drop it.
+    ///
+    /// A key whose rows are all retired emits nothing but still consumed its
+    /// source entries. Progress has to count it, or a merge that drops a
+    /// segment's exclusive labels ends below the total it declared -- the
+    /// stalled bar this reporting exists to remove.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_segment_merge_applies_old_data_filter() {
+        const FRAGMENT_1: u64 = 1 << 32;
+        const RETIRED_ONLY: &str = "retired-only-";
+
+        let kept = sample_label_list_rows(150, 0);
+        let retired: Vec<SampleRow> = sample_label_list_rows(150, FRAGMENT_1)
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(i, (addr, labels))| {
+                // A label the kept segment does not have, so the filter empties
+                // that key outright rather than merely trimming it. Rows with a
+                // null list keep it, so retired `list_nulls` are pruned too.
+                let labels = labels.map(|mut labels| {
+                    labels.push(Some(format!("{RETIRED_ONLY}{i:04}")));
+                    labels
+                });
+                (addr, labels)
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let expected = build_label_list_index(&kept).await;
+
+        let (_kept_dir, kept_index) = build_label_list_segment(&kept).await;
+        let (_retired_dir, retired_index) = build_label_list_segment(&retired).await;
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        merge_label_list_indices(
+            &[kept_index, retired_index],
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                to_keep: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+                to_remove: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]),
+            }),
+            progress.clone(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            retired.iter().any(|(_, labels)| labels
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|l| l.iter().flatten().any(|k| k.starts_with(RETIRED_ONLY)))),
+            "the retired segment must own labels the kept one lacks, or the filter \
+             only trims keys instead of emptying them outright"
+        );
+
+        let merged = read_index_contents(dest_store.as_ref()).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            expected, merged,
+            "rows from the retired fragment must not survive the merge"
+        );
+
+        let declared_total = progress.declared_total("merge_label_list_segments");
+        assert_eq!(
+            progress.counts("merge_label_list_segments").last().copied(),
+            Some(declared_total),
+            "entries consumed by keys the filter emptied must still be reported"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::stable_row_ids(true)]
+    #[case::row_addresses(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_update_applies_old_data_filter(#[case] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+        const KEPT: u64 = 1 << 32;
+        let initial = vec![
+            (
+                0,
+                Some(vec![Some("old".into()), Some("shared".into()), None]),
+            ),
+            (1, None),
+            (2, Some(vec![Some("old".into())])),
+            (3, None),
+            (KEPT, Some(vec![Some("kept".into())])),
+            (KEPT + 1, None),
+        ];
+        let updated_start = if stable_row_ids { 0 } else { 2 << 32 };
+        let replacements = vec![
+            (
+                updated_start,
+                Some(vec![Some("new".into()), Some("shared".into())]),
+            ),
+            (updated_start + 1, Some(vec![Some("new".into())])),
+            (updated_start + 2, None),
+            (updated_start + 3, Some(vec![])),
+        ];
+        let filter = if stable_row_ids {
+            OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds([KEPT, KEPT + 1].into_iter().collect())
+        } else {
+            OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                to_keep: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1]),
+                to_remove: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0]),
+            }
+        };
+        let (_src_dir, index) = build_label_list_segment(&initial).await;
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        index
+            .update(
+                sample_rows_to_stream(&replacements),
+                dest_store.as_ref(),
+                Some(filter),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut actual = read_index_contents(dest_store.as_ref()).await;
+        // Bitmap updates retain empty keys; compare the surviving memberships.
+        actual.labels.retain(|(_, rows)| !rows.is_empty());
+        let expected_rows = [initial[4..].to_vec(), replacements].concat();
+        assert_eq!(build_label_list_index(&expected_rows).await, actual);
+    }
+
+    /// The spill and destination file schemas are declared from the existing
+    /// index while the keys come from the new stream, so a disagreement must be
+    /// rejected rather than written as a file whose schema lies about its keys.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_update_rejects_a_mismatched_value_type() {
+        let (_src_dir, index) = build_label_list_segment(&sample_label_list_rows(64, 0)).await;
+        let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+
+        // The index above is List<Utf8>; feed the update List<LargeUtf8>.
+        let mut list_builder =
+            arrow_array::builder::ListBuilder::new(arrow_array::builder::LargeStringBuilder::new());
+        list_builder.values().append_value("a");
+        list_builder.append(true);
+        let labels = list_builder.finish();
+        let schema: SchemaRef = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, labels.data_type().clone(), true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(labels),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64 << 32])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+        ));
+
+        let error = update_label_list_index(index.as_ref(), new_data, dest_store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a value-type mismatch must be rejected");
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("value type Utf8") && message.contains("items are LargeUtf8"),
+            "the error must name both value types, got: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Every LabelList index written before spill-based builds landed has its
+    /// keys in arbitrary order on disk, because the old writer iterated a HashMap.
+    /// Nothing added here may assume sorted files: reading, updating and
+    /// merging such an index must all still be correct.
+    ///
+    /// This is also the primary update-equals-rebuild coverage. A separate test
+    /// over a current-format index would assert the same equality through the
+    /// same merge-join over strictly easier input, since `index_map` is sorted
+    /// regardless of file order.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_reads_updates_and_merges_an_unsorted_legacy_index() {
+        const FRAGMENT_1: u64 = 1 << 32;
+
+        /// Write the same index the old HashMap-consuming writer would have:
+        /// identical contents, keys in an order that is not sorted.
+        async fn write_unsorted_index(rows: &[SampleRow], store: &dyn IndexStore) {
+            let sorted = build_label_list_index(rows).await;
+            let mut writer = new_bitmap_batch_writer(store, BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, &DataType::Utf8)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            writer
+                .add_global_buffer(
+                    LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY.to_string(),
+                    serialize_list_nulls(&RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+                        sorted.list_nulls.iter().copied(),
+                    ))
+                    .unwrap(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Reverse order is sorted-ness's clearest counterexample.
+            for (key, addrs) in sorted.labels.iter().rev() {
+                writer
+                    .emit(
+                        ScalarValue::Utf8(key.clone()),
+                        &RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(addrs.iter().copied()),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let initial = sample_label_list_rows(200, 0);
+        let expected_initial = build_label_list_index(&initial).await;
+
+        let (_legacy_dir, legacy_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        write_unsorted_index(&initial, legacy_store.as_ref()).await;
+
+        // Reading: the loaded index must match one built by the current path.
+        assert_eq!(
+            expected_initial,
+            read_index_contents(legacy_store.as_ref()).await,
+            "an unsorted file must carry the same contents"
+        );
+        let legacy = LabelListIndex::load(legacy_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Updating: streaming the unsorted index in as a merge input must still
+        // produce the same index as a full rebuild.
+        let additional = sample_label_list_rows(100, FRAGMENT_1);
+        let mut all = initial.clone();
+        all.extend(additional.clone());
+        let (_updated_dir, updated_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        update_label_list_index(
+            legacy.as_ref(),
+            sample_rows_to_stream(&additional),
+            updated_store.as_ref(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            build_label_list_index(&all).await,
+            read_index_contents(updated_store.as_ref()).await,
+            "update over an unsorted index diverged from a full rebuild"
+        );
+
+        // Merging: an unsorted segment must merge correctly with a sorted one.
+        let (_other_dir, other_index) = build_label_list_segment(&additional).await;
+        let (_merged_dir, merged_store) = test_util::index_store();
+        merge_label_list_indices(
+            &[legacy, other_index],
+            merged_store.as_ref(),
+            None,
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            build_label_list_index(&all).await,
+            read_index_contents(merged_store.as_ref()).await,
+            "merging an unsorted segment diverged from a full build"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A null *element* inside a list, a null *list*, and an empty list are three
+    /// different things and must land in three different places. `track_list_nulls`
+    /// runs ahead of the unnest, where the list column's validity is still present,
+    /// which is the only reason they are separable -- after unnesting, a null list
+    /// and an empty list are both zero rows.
+    ///
+    /// Asserted through every path that writes an index, so moving the unnest
+    /// upstream of the null tracking fails here rather than silently misfiling
+    /// rows and breaking NOT filters on nullable list columns.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::build("build")]
+    #[case::update("update")]
+    #[case::merge("merge")]
+    #[case::remap("remap")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_null_element_null_list_and_empty_list_stay_distinct(#[case] path: &str) {
+        let rows: Vec<SampleRow> = vec![
+            (0, Some(vec![Some("b".to_string()), Some("a".to_string())])),
+            (1, None),                                    // null list
+            (2, Some(vec![])),                            // empty list
+            (3, Some(vec![Some("a".to_string()), None])), // null element
+        ];
+
+        // `merge_label_list_indices` is documented to assume its segments cover
+        // disjoint fragments, and every other merge test in this file honors
+        // that by giving each segment its own fragment rather than by relying
+        // on addresses 0-3 happening not to collide. Follow the same
+        // convention here: the merge case's second segment (rows 2 and 3)
+        // moves to fragment 1, taking the null-element row's expected address
+        // with it. Every other path keeps the original addresses.
+        const FRAGMENT_1: u64 = 1 << 32;
+        let null_element_addr = if path == "merge" { FRAGMENT_1 + 1 } else { 3 };
+
+        let expected_labels = vec![
+            (None, vec![null_element_addr]), // the null element
+            (Some("a".to_string()), vec![0, null_element_addr]),
+            (Some("b".to_string()), vec![0]),
+        ];
+
+        let actual = match path {
+            "build" => build_label_list_index(&rows).await,
+            "update" => {
+                // Split so both halves carry one of the null shapes.
+                let (first, second) = rows.split_at(2);
+                let (_src_dir, index) = build_label_list_segment(first).await;
+                let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+                update_label_list_index(
+                    index.as_ref(),
+                    sample_rows_to_stream(second),
+                    dest_store.as_ref(),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                read_index_contents(dest_store.as_ref()).await
+            }
+            "merge" => {
+                let (first, second) = rows.split_at(2);
+                let second: Vec<SampleRow> = second
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(addr, labels)| (*addr - 2 + FRAGMENT_1, labels.clone()))
+                    .collect();
+                let (_a_dir, a) = build_label_list_segment(first).await;
+                let (_b_dir, b) = build_label_list_segment(&second).await;
+                let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+                merge_label_list_indices(
+                    &[a, b],
+                    dest_store.as_ref(),
+                    None,
+                    crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                read_index_contents(dest_store.as_ref()).await
+            }
+            "remap" => {
+                let (_src_dir, src_store) = test_util::index_store();
+                train_label_list_index(sample_rows_to_stream(&rows), src_store.as_ref())
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let index = LabelListIndex::load(src_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                // Identity mapping: the addresses must survive untouched.
+                let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_util::index_store();
+                let mapping =
+                    RowAddrRemap::direct((0..4u64).map(|addr| (addr, Some(addr))).collect());
+                index.remap(&mapping, dest_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+                read_index_contents(dest_store.as_ref()).await
+            }
+            other => panic!("unknown path {other}"),
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual.labels, expected_labels,
+            "the null element belongs to the null key, and nothing else does"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual.list_nulls,
+            vec![1],
+            "only the null list belongs to list_nulls -- not the empty list, \
+             and not the row with a null element"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Null labels on both sides of a split point keep their rows. The fixture is
+    /// sized from the session's batch size, so it crosses a split point whatever
+    /// that size is.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_null_labels_keep_their_rows_across_a_split_point() {
+        const FRAGMENT_1: u64 = 1 << 32;
+        let chunk_rows = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions {
+            use_spilling: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .state()
+        .config()
+        .batch_size();
+        // Row 0 unnests to rows 0..chunk_rows, so its trailing null ends the first
+        // piece and the next row's leading null starts the second.
+        let mut first_labels = vec![Some("a".to_string()); chunk_rows - 1];
+        first_labels.push(None);
+        let rows: Vec<SampleRow> = vec![
+            (0, Some(first_labels)),
+            (1, None),
+            (FRAGMENT_1, Some(vec![None, Some("b".to_string())])),
+        ];
+
+        let contents = build_label_list_index(&rows).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            contents.labels,
+            vec![
+                (None, vec![0, FRAGMENT_1]),
+                (Some("a".to_string()), vec![0]),
+                (Some("b".to_string()), vec![FRAGMENT_1]),
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(contents.list_nulls, vec![1]);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/lance_format.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/lance_format.rs
index 817fb803c64..7cb2e8f0f84 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/lance_format.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/lance_format.rs
@@ -3,47 +3,95 @@
 
 //! Utilities for serializing and deserializing scalar indices in the lance format
 
-use super::{IndexReader, IndexStore, IndexWriter};
+use super::{IndexFile, IndexReader, IndexStore, IndexWriter};
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_schema::Schema;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::TryStreamExt;
-use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, Error, Result};
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, cache::LanceCache};
 use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
-use lance_file::previous::{
-    reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader,
-    writer::{FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter, ManifestProvider as PreviousManifestProvider},
-};
-use lance_file::reader::{self as current_reader, FileReaderOptions, ReaderProjection};
+use lance_file::LanceEncodingsIo;
+use lance_file::reader::{CachedFileMetadata, FileReader as CurrentFileReader, FileReaderOptions};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
+use lance_file::versions::{self, OpenedFileReader};
 use lance_file::writer as current_writer;
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
-use lance_io::{object_store::ObjectStore, ReadBatchParams};
+use lance_io::{ReadBatchParams, object_store::ObjectStore};
 use lance_table::format::SelfDescribingFileReader;
+use lance_table::format::list_index_files_with_sizes;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use std::cmp::min;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::{any::Any, sync::Arc};
 
+/// Cache key for the decoded metadata (footer, schema, column metadata) of an
+/// index file.
+///
+/// Index files are immutable and live under a per-index-uuid directory, so the
+/// full object path uniquely identifies the file contents and is safe to cache
+/// by. Caching the metadata lets repeated opens of the same file (for example a
+/// BTree page-cache miss, which re-opens the pages file) skip the tail read(s)
+/// against object storage entirely.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct IndexFileMetadataKey<'a> {
+    path: &'a Path,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for IndexFileMetadataKey<'_> {
+    type ValueType = CachedFileMetadata;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        self.path.as_ref().into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "IndexFileMetadata"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.lance-format.index-file-metadata-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_str(self.path.as_ref());
+    }
+}
+
 /// An index store that serializes scalar indices using the lance format
 ///
 /// Scalar indices are made up of named collections of record batches.  This
 /// struct relies on there being a dedicated directory for the index and stores
 /// each collection in a file in the lance format.
-#[derive(Debug)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct LanceIndexStore {
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     index_dir: Path,
     metadata_cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
     scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    /// Cached file sizes (filename -> size in bytes)
+    /// When set, used to avoid HEAD calls when opening files
+    // Partition priority views share this immutable map. Cloning all file names
+    // for every partition would make request rebinding quadratic in partitions.
+    file_sizes: Arc<HashMap<String, u64>>,
+    format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    /// Base I/O priority for all requests this store submits to `scheduler`.
+    io_priority: u64,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for LanceIndexStore {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // Exclude the shared, session-scoped `metadata_cache` (accounted once by
+        // `Session::deep_size_of_children`): it is not this store's own footprint, and
+        // sizing it here makes every opened index that holds a store report the whole
+        // cache as its own bytes — inflating and N-times double-counting it.
         self.object_store.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.index_dir.as_ref().deep_size_of_children(context)
-            + self.metadata_cache.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
@@ -53,6 +101,21 @@ impl LanceIndexStore {
         object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
         index_dir: Path,
         metadata_cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::with_format_version(
+            object_store,
+            index_dir,
+            metadata_cache,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new index store at the given directory with a specific format version
+    pub fn with_format_version(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        index_dir: Path,
+        metadata_cache: Arc<LanceCache>,
+        format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
     ) -> Self {
         let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
             object_store.clone(),
@@ -63,53 +126,93 @@ impl LanceIndexStore {
             index_dir,
             metadata_cache,
             scheduler,
+            file_sizes: Arc::default(),
+            format_version,
+            io_priority: 0,
         }
     }
-}
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl<M: PreviousManifestProvider + Send + Sync> IndexWriter for PreviousFileWriter<M> {
-    async fn write_record_batch(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<u64> {
-        let offset = self.tell().await?;
-        self.write(&[batch]).await?;
-        Ok(offset as u64)
+    /// Set cached file sizes to avoid HEAD calls when opening files.
+    ///
+    /// The map should contain relative paths (e.g., "index.idx") as keys
+    /// and file sizes in bytes as values.
+    pub fn with_file_sizes(mut self, file_sizes: HashMap<String, u64>) -> Self {
+        self.file_sizes = Arc::new(file_sizes);
+        self
     }
 
-    async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        Self::finish(self).await.map(|_| ())
+    /// The base I/O priority all this store's requests are submitted at.
+    pub fn io_priority(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.io_priority
     }
 
-    async fn finish_with_metadata(&mut self, metadata: HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()> {
-        Self::finish_with_metadata(self, &metadata)
-            .await
-            .map(|_| ())
+    fn index_file_path(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Path> {
+        let relative_path = Path::parse(name).map_err(|err| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid index file path {name:?}: {err}"))
+        })?;
+        if self.index_dir.is_root() {
+            return Ok(relative_path);
+        }
+        if relative_path.is_root() {
+            return Ok(self.index_dir.clone());
+        }
+        Path::parse(format!(
+            "{}/{}",
+            self.index_dir.as_ref(),
+            relative_path.as_ref()
+        ))
+        .map_err(|err| Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid index file path {name:?}: {err}")))
     }
 }
 
+struct LanceIndexWriter {
+    path: String,
+    inner: current_writer::FileWriter,
+}
+
 #[async_trait]
-impl IndexWriter for current_writer::FileWriter {
+impl IndexWriter for LanceIndexWriter {
     async fn write_record_batch(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<u64> {
-        let offset = self.tell().await?;
-        self.write_batch(&batch).await?;
+        let offset = self.inner.tell().await?;
+        self.inner.write_batch(&batch).await?;
         Ok(offset)
     }
 
-    async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        Self::finish(self).await.map(|_| ())
+    async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, data: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        self.inner.add_global_buffer(data).await
     }
 
-    async fn finish_with_metadata(&mut self, metadata: HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()> {
+    async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        let summary = self.inner.finish().await?;
+        Ok(IndexFile {
+            path: self.path.clone(),
+            size_bytes: summary.size_bytes,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn finish_with_metadata(
+        &mut self,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
         metadata.into_iter().for_each(|(k, v)| {
-            self.add_schema_metadata(k, v);
+            self.inner.add_schema_metadata(k, v);
         });
-        Self::finish(self).await.map(|_| ())
+        let summary = self.inner.finish().await?;
+        Ok(IndexFile {
+            path: self.path.clone(),
+            size_bytes: summary.size_bytes,
+        })
     }
 }
 
+/// Newtype wrapper to allow implementing IndexReader for V1FileReader (a foreign type)
+struct V1IndexReader(V1FileReader);
+
 #[async_trait]
-impl IndexReader for PreviousFileReader {
+impl IndexReader for V1IndexReader {
     async fn read_record_batch(&self, offset: u64, _batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        self.read_batch(offset as i32, ReadBatchParams::RangeFull, self.schema())
+        self.0
+            .read_batch(offset as i32, ReadBatchParams::RangeFull, self.0.schema())
             .await
     }
 
@@ -119,32 +222,110 @@ impl IndexReader for PreviousFileReader {
         projection: Option<&[&str]>,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         let projection = match projection {
-            Some(projection) => self.schema().project(projection)?,
-            None => self.schema().clone(),
+            Some(projection) => self.0.schema().project(projection)?,
+            None => self.0.schema().clone(),
         };
-        self.read_range(range, &projection).await
+        self.0.read_range(range, &projection).await
+    }
+
+    /// V1 files are organised in row groups, so a "batch" is a row group and
+    /// `batch_size` is ignored; the row groups are read in order, `batch_readahead`
+    /// at a time.
+    async fn read_record_batch_stream(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        _batch_size: u64,
+        batch_readahead: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream>>> {
+        let num_batches = self.0.num_batches() as i32;
+        let schema: Arc<Schema> = Arc::new(self.0.schema().into());
+        let stream = futures::stream::iter(0..num_batches)
+            .map(move |n| {
+                let reader = self.clone();
+                async move {
+                    reader
+                        .0
+                        .read_batch(n, ReadBatchParams::RangeFull, reader.0.schema())
+                        .await
+                }
+            })
+            .buffered(batch_readahead.max(1) as usize);
+        Ok(Box::pin(lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema, stream,
+        )))
     }
 
     async fn num_batches(&self, _batch_size: u64) -> u32 {
-        self.num_batches() as u32
+        self.0.num_batches() as u32
     }
 
     fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
-        self.len()
+        self.0.len()
     }
 
     fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
-        Self::schema(self)
+        V1FileReader::schema(&self.0)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Newtype wrapper to allow implementing IndexReader for CurrentFileReader (a foreign type)
+struct CurrentIndexReader(CurrentFileReader);
+
+impl CurrentIndexReader {
+    /// Row range covered by batch `offset`, clamped to the end of the file.
+    fn batch_bounds(&self, offset: u64, batch_size: u64) -> (usize, usize) {
+        let num_rows = self.0.num_rows();
+        let start = (offset * batch_size).min(num_rows);
+        let end = (start + batch_size).min(num_rows);
+        (start as usize, end as usize)
     }
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl IndexReader for current_reader::FileReader {
+impl IndexReader for CurrentIndexReader {
     async fn read_record_batch(&self, offset: u64, batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let start = offset * batch_size;
-        let end = start + batch_size;
-        let end = end.min(self.num_rows());
-        self.read_range(start as usize..end as usize, None).await
+        let (start, end) = self.batch_bounds(offset, batch_size);
+        self.read_range(start..end, None).await
+    }
+
+    /// Fold every requested batch into one [`Self::read_ranges`] call.
+    ///
+    /// Batch N occupies rows `[N * batch_size, (N + 1) * batch_size)`, so a set
+    /// of batch numbers maps directly onto a set of row ranges, and `read_ranges`
+    /// already merges adjacent and nearby ranges into shared requests.  A range
+    /// query that touches thousands of consecutive batches therefore becomes a
+    /// handful of large reads rather than one request per batch.
+    async fn read_record_batches(
+        &self,
+        batch_numbers: &[u64],
+        batch_size: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        if batch_numbers.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let ranges = batch_numbers
+            .iter()
+            .map(|n| {
+                let (start, end) = self.batch_bounds(*n, batch_size);
+                start..end
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let merged = self.read_ranges(&ranges, None).await?;
+        // `read_ranges` returns the rows in the order the ranges were given, so
+        // the batches come back out as consecutive slices of the merged batch.
+        let mut offset = 0;
+        Ok(ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|range| {
+                let len = range.end - range.start;
+                let batch = merged.slice(offset, len);
+                offset += len;
+                batch
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    async fn read_global_buffer(&self, n: u32) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        CurrentFileReader::read_global_buffer(&self.0, n).await
     }
 
     async fn read_range(
@@ -154,44 +335,190 @@ impl IndexReader for current_reader::FileReader {
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         if range.is_empty() {
             return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(
-                self.schema().as_ref().into(),
+                self.0.schema().as_ref().into(),
             )));
         }
         let projection = if let Some(projection) = projection {
-            ReaderProjection::from_column_names(
-                self.metadata().version(),
-                self.schema(),
+            versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+                self.0.metadata().version(),
+                self.0.schema(),
                 projection,
             )?
         } else {
-            ReaderProjection::from_whole_schema(self.schema(), self.metadata().version())
+            versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(
+                self.0.schema(),
+                self.0.metadata().version(),
+            )
         };
         let batches = self
+            .0
             .read_stream_projected(
                 ReadBatchParams::Range(range),
                 u32::MAX,
                 u32::MAX,
                 projection,
                 FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-            )?
+            )
+            .await?
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await?;
         assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
         Ok(batches[0].clone())
     }
 
+    async fn read_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[std::ops::Range<usize>],
+        projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let empty_batch = || {
+            Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(
+                self.0.schema().as_ref().into(),
+            )))
+        };
+        if ranges.is_empty() {
+            return empty_batch();
+        }
+        let projection = if let Some(projection) = projection {
+            versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+                self.0.metadata().version(),
+                self.0.schema(),
+                projection,
+            )?
+        } else {
+            versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(
+                self.0.schema(),
+                self.0.metadata().version(),
+            )
+        };
+        // `DecodeBatchScheduler::schedule_ranges` requires sorted,
+        // non-overlapping ranges; sort internally and permute the
+        // result back to caller order so callers don't have to know.
+        let mut order: Vec<usize> = (0..ranges.len()).collect();
+        order.sort_by_key(|&i| ranges[i].start);
+        let already_sorted = order.iter().enumerate().all(|(i, &j)| i == j);
+        let sorted_ranges: Arc<[std::ops::Range<u64>]> = order
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&i| ranges[i].start as u64..ranges[i].end as u64)
+            .collect();
+        let total_rows: u64 = sorted_ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
+        let batches = self
+            .0
+            .read_stream_projected(
+                ReadBatchParams::Ranges(sorted_ranges),
+                (total_rows as u32).max(1),
+                16,
+                projection,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await?
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        let merged = match batches.len() {
+            0 => return empty_batch(),
+            1 => batches.into_iter().next().unwrap(),
+            _ => {
+                let schema = batches[0].schema();
+                arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&schema, &batches)?
+            }
+        };
+        if already_sorted {
+            return Ok(merged);
+        }
+        let sorted_sizes: Vec<u32> = order
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&i| (ranges[i].end - ranges[i].start) as u32)
+            .collect();
+        let mut sorted_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(sorted_sizes.len());
+        let mut acc = 0u32;
+        for &s in &sorted_sizes {
+            sorted_offsets.push(acc);
+            acc += s;
+        }
+        let mut sorted_pos = vec![0usize; ranges.len()];
+        for (sp, &oi) in order.iter().enumerate() {
+            sorted_pos[oi] = sp;
+        }
+        let mut take_indices = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows as usize);
+        for &sp in &sorted_pos {
+            for k in 0..sorted_sizes[sp] {
+                take_indices.push(sorted_offsets[sp] + k);
+            }
+        }
+        let take_arr = arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(take_indices);
+        Ok(arrow_select::take::take_record_batch(&merged, &take_arr)?)
+    }
+
+    async fn read_range_stream(
+        &self,
+        range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+        projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+        batch_size: u64,
+        batch_readahead: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream>>> {
+        if range.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Box::pin(lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                Arc::new(self.0.schema().as_ref().into()),
+                futures::stream::empty(),
+            )));
+        }
+        let projection = if let Some(projection) = projection {
+            versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+                self.0.metadata().version(),
+                self.0.schema(),
+                projection,
+            )?
+        } else {
+            versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(
+                self.0.schema(),
+                self.0.metadata().version(),
+            )
+        };
+        // The v2 decoder emits exactly `batch_size` rows per batch for a range read
+        // (only the final batch is shorter), so the stream is page-aligned with
+        // `read_record_batch` when the range starts on a page boundary.
+        let batch_size = u32::try_from(batch_size.max(1)).unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+        self.0
+            .read_stream_projected(
+                ReadBatchParams::Range(range),
+                batch_size,
+                batch_readahead.max(1),
+                projection,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// One sequential read of the whole file, chunked into `batch_size` rows so
+    /// batch `n` of the stream equals `read_record_batch(n, batch_size)`.
+    async fn read_record_batch_stream(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        batch_size: u64,
+        batch_readahead: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream>>> {
+        let num_rows = CurrentFileReader::num_rows(&self.0) as usize;
+        self.read_range_stream(0..num_rows, None, batch_size, batch_readahead)
+            .await
+    }
+
     // V2 format has removed the row group concept,
     // so here we assume each batch is with 4096 rows.
     async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32 {
-        Self::num_rows(self).div_ceil(batch_size) as u32
+        CurrentFileReader::num_rows(&self.0).div_ceil(batch_size) as u32
     }
 
     fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
-        Self::num_rows(self) as usize
+        CurrentFileReader::num_rows(&self.0) as usize
     }
 
     fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
-        Self::schema(self)
+        CurrentFileReader::schema(&self.0)
+    }
+
+    fn file_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        // The manifest records each index file's size and passes it to the reader
+        // at open, so it's already in metadata here (no extra I/O).
+        Some(self.0.metadata().file_size())
     }
 }
 
@@ -201,6 +528,17 @@ impl IndexStore for LanceIndexStore {
         self
     }
 
+    fn clone_arc(&self) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+        Arc::new(self.clone())
+    }
+
+    fn is_same_storage_binding(&self, other: &dyn IndexStore) -> bool {
+        other.as_any().downcast_ref::<Self>().is_some_and(|other| {
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&self.object_store, &other.object_store)
+                && self.index_dir == other.index_dir
+        })
+    }
+
     fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
         self.object_store.io_parallelism()
     }
@@ -210,67 +548,121 @@ impl IndexStore for LanceIndexStore {
         name: &str,
         schema: Arc<Schema>,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexWriter>> {
-        let path = self.index_dir.child(name);
+        let path = self.index_file_path(name)?;
         let schema = schema.as_ref().try_into()?;
         let writer = self.object_store.create(&path).await?;
-        let writer = current_writer::FileWriter::try_new(
+        let writer = versions::create_writer(
+            self.format_version,
             writer,
             schema,
             current_writer::FileWriterOptions::default(),
         )?;
-        Ok(Box::new(writer))
+        Ok(Box::new(LanceIndexWriter {
+            path: name.to_string(),
+            inner: writer,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn with_io_priority(&self, io_priority: u64) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
+        // The `scheduler` is shared (`Arc`), so this clone is cheap and the new
+        // priority only affects requests this clone submits.
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            io_priority,
+            ..self.clone()
+        })
     }
 
     async fn open_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn IndexReader>> {
-        let path = self.index_dir.child(name);
+        let path = self.index_file_path(name)?;
+        // Use cached file size if available, otherwise unknown (requires HEAD call)
+        let cached_size = self
+            .file_sizes
+            .get(name)
+            .map(|&size| CachedFileSize::new(size))
+            .unwrap_or_else(CachedFileSize::unknown);
         let file_scheduler = self
             .scheduler
-            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .open_file_with_priority(&path, self.io_priority, &cached_size)
             .await?;
-        match current_reader::FileReader::try_open(
+        let options = FileReaderOptions::default();
+        let metadata_key = IndexFileMetadataKey { path: &path };
+
+        // Fast path: the file's metadata was decoded by an earlier open of this
+        // same (immutable) file. Build the reader from it directly so that no
+        // footer/schema/column-metadata bytes are fetched again.
+        if let Some(metadata) = self.metadata_cache.get_with_key(&metadata_key).await {
+            let io = Arc::new(
+                LanceEncodingsIo::new(file_scheduler).with_read_chunk_size(options.read_chunk_size),
+            );
+            let reader = CurrentFileReader::try_open_with_file_metadata(
+                io,
+                path,
+                None,
+                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                metadata,
+                &self.metadata_cache,
+                options,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            return Ok(Arc::new(CurrentIndexReader(reader)));
+        }
+
+        match versions::open_self_described_reader(
             file_scheduler,
-            None,
             Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
             &self.metadata_cache,
-            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+            options,
         )
-        .await
+        .await?
         {
-            Ok(reader) => Ok(Arc::new(reader)),
-            Err(e) => {
-                // If the error is a version conflict we can try to read the file with v1 reader
-                if let Error::VersionConflict { .. } = e {
-                    let path = self.index_dir.child(name);
-                    let file_reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(
-                        &self.object_store,
-                        &path,
-                        Some(&self.metadata_cache),
-                    )
-                    .await?;
-                    Ok(Arc::new(file_reader))
-                } else {
-                    Err(e)
-                }
+            OpenedFileReader::V1 { .. } => {
+                // Legacy files are not cached; they are opened through the v1
+                // reader which has its own (manifest-based) metadata handling.
+                let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(
+                    &self.object_store,
+                    &path,
+                    Some(&self.metadata_cache),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                Ok(Arc::new(V1IndexReader(reader)))
+            }
+            OpenedFileReader::Current(reader) => {
+                self.metadata_cache
+                    .insert_with_key(&metadata_key, reader.metadata().clone())
+                    .await;
+                Ok(Arc::new(CurrentIndexReader(reader)))
             }
         }
     }
 
-    async fn copy_index_file(&self, name: &str, dest_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<()> {
-        let path = self.index_dir.child(name);
+    async fn copy_index_file(&self, name: &str, dest_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        self.copy_index_file_to(name, name, dest_store).await
+    }
 
-        let other_store = dest_store.as_any().downcast_ref::<Self>();
-        match other_store {
-            Some(dest_store) if dest_store.object_store.scheme() == self.object_store.scheme() => {
-                // If both this store and the destination are lance stores we can use object_store's copy
-                // This does blindly assume that both stores are using the same underlying object_store
-                // but there is no easy way to verify this and it happens to always be true at the moment
-                let dest_path = dest_store.index_dir.child(name);
-                self.object_store.copy(&path, &dest_path).await
+    async fn copy_index_file_to(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        new_name: &str,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        let path = self.index_file_path(name)?;
+
+        match dest_store.as_any().downcast_ref::<Self>() {
+            Some(dest_store) => {
+                let dest_path = dest_store.index_file_path(new_name)?;
+                let result = self
+                    .object_store
+                    .copy_bulk(&path, &dest_store.object_store, &dest_path)
+                    .await?;
+                Ok(IndexFile {
+                    path: new_name.to_string(),
+                    size_bytes: result.size as u64,
+                })
             }
             _ => {
                 let reader = self.open_index_file(name).await?;
                 let mut writer = dest_store
-                    .new_index_file(name, Arc::new(reader.schema().into()))
+                    .new_index_file(new_name, Arc::new(reader.schema().into()))
                     .await?;
 
                 for offset in (0..reader.num_rows()).step_by(4096) {
@@ -278,28 +670,44 @@ impl IndexStore for LanceIndexStore {
                     let batch = reader.read_range(offset..next_offset, None).await?;
                     writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
                 }
-                writer.finish().await?;
-
-                Ok(())
+                writer.finish().await
             }
         }
     }
 
-    async fn rename_index_file(&self, name: &str, new_name: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        let path = self.index_dir.child(name);
-        let new_path = self.index_dir.child(new_name);
-        self.object_store.copy(&path, &new_path).await?;
-        self.object_store.delete(&path).await
+    async fn rename_index_file(&self, name: &str, new_name: &str) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        let path = self.index_file_path(name)?;
+        let new_path = self.index_file_path(new_name)?;
+        let result = self
+            .object_store
+            .copy_bulk(&path, &self.object_store, &new_path)
+            .await?;
+        self.object_store.delete(&path).await?;
+        Ok(IndexFile {
+            path: new_name.to_string(),
+            size_bytes: result.size as u64,
+        })
     }
 
     async fn delete_index_file(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        let path = self.index_dir.child(name);
+        let path = self.index_file_path(name)?;
         self.object_store.delete(&path).await
     }
+
+    async fn list_files_with_sizes(&self) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let files = list_index_files_with_sizes(&self.object_store, &self.index_dir).await?;
+        Ok(files
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|f| IndexFile {
+                path: f.path,
+                size_bytes: f.size_bytes,
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
+mod tests {
 
     use std::{collections::HashMap, ops::Bound};
 
@@ -308,29 +716,31 @@ pub mod tests {
     use crate::scalar::bitmap::BitmapIndexPlugin;
     use crate::scalar::btree::{BTreeIndexPlugin, BTreeParameters};
     use crate::scalar::label_list::LabelListIndexPlugin;
-    use crate::scalar::registry::{ScalarIndexPlugin, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME};
+    use crate::scalar::registry::{BasicTrainer, ScalarIndexPlugin, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME};
     use crate::scalar::{
-        bitmap::BitmapIndex,
-        btree::{train_btree_index, DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE},
         LabelListQuery, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
+        bitmap::BitmapIndex,
+        btree::{DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE, train_btree_index},
     };
 
     use super::*;
     use arrow::{buffer::ScalarBuffer, datatypes::UInt8Type};
     use arrow_array::{
+        Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, StringArray, UInt64Array,
         cast::AsArray,
         types::{Int32Type, UInt64Type},
-        ListArray, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, StringArray, UInt64Array,
     };
     use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, TimeUnit};
     use arrow_select::take::TakeOptions;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
     use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
     use futures::FutureExt;
-    use lance_core::utils::mask::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
     use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
+    use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 
     fn test_store(tempdir: &TempDir) -> Arc<dyn IndexStore> {
         let test_path = tempdir.obj_path();
@@ -344,6 +754,221 @@ pub mod tests {
         Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(object_store, test_path, cache))
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_store_deep_size_excludes_metadata_cache() {
+        // The metadata cache is session-scoped and shared; a store must not count
+        // it as its own footprint, so growing the cache must not change store size.
+        struct BlobKey;
+        impl lance_core::cache::CacheKey for BlobKey {
+            type ValueType = Vec<u8>;
+            fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+                std::borrow::Cow::Borrowed("blob")
+            }
+            fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+                "Vec<u8>"
+            }
+            fn stable_type_id() -> &'static str {
+                "lance.scalar.lance-format.Blob"
+            }
+            fn schema() -> lance_core::cache::CacheKeySchema {
+                lance_core::cache::CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.lance-format.blob-key", 1)
+            }
+            fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut lance_core::cache::KeyBuilder) {
+                builder.write_variant(0);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let index_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let test_path = index_dir.obj_path();
+        let (object_store, test_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(test_path.as_ref())
+            .now_or_never()
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(
+            128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        ));
+        let store = LanceIndexStore::new(object_store, test_path, cache.clone());
+
+        let before = store.deep_size_of();
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&BlobKey, Arc::new(vec![0u8; 4 * 1024 * 1024]))
+            .await;
+        // Force moka to commit the write so a cache-inclusive size would grow.
+        let _ = cache.size_bytes().await;
+        let after = store.deep_size_of();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            before, after,
+            "store deep size must exclude the shared metadata cache"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Build a concrete store over `tempdir` so tests can reach the object store's
+    /// IO counters and the store's scheduler.
+    fn concrete_test_store(tempdir: &TempDir) -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, LanceIndexStore) {
+        let test_path = tempdir.obj_path();
+        let (object_store, test_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(test_path.as_ref())
+            .now_or_never()
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let cache = Arc::new(lance_core::cache::LanceCache::with_capacity(
+            128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        ));
+        let store = LanceIndexStore::new(object_store.clone(), test_path, cache);
+        (object_store, store)
+    }
+
+    async fn write_int_index_file(store: &dyn IndexStore, name: &str) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "values",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..1000))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = store.new_index_file(name, schema).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        batch
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_index_file_reuses_cached_metadata() {
+        const FILE_NAME: &str = "pages.lance";
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let (object_store, store) = concrete_test_store(&tempdir);
+        let expected = write_int_index_file(&store, FILE_NAME).await;
+
+        // Provide the file size (as the manifest does in production) so that no
+        // HEAD request is needed and the only I/O left is the metadata read.
+        let file_sizes = store
+            .list_files_with_sizes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|f| (f.path, f.size_bytes))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let store = store.with_file_sizes(file_sizes);
+
+        // Cold open: the footer/schema/column metadata must be read from storage.
+        let _ = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let sched_before = store.scheduler.stats();
+        let first = store.open_index_file(FILE_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let cold_stats = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let sched_after = store.scheduler.stats();
+        assert!(
+            cold_stats.read_iops > 0,
+            "cold open should read the file tail, got {:?}",
+            cold_stats
+        );
+        assert!(sched_after.iops > sched_before.iops);
+        assert_eq!(first.num_rows(), 1000);
+
+        // Warm open through the same store: the cached metadata must be reused
+        // and no bytes fetched at all.
+        let sched_before = store.scheduler.stats();
+        let second = store.open_index_file(FILE_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let warm_stats = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let sched_after = store.scheduler.stats();
+        assert_eq!(
+            warm_stats.read_iops, 0,
+            "warm open must not issue reads, got {:?}",
+            warm_stats
+        );
+        assert_eq!(warm_stats.read_bytes, 0);
+        assert_eq!(sched_after.iops, sched_before.iops);
+        assert_eq!(sched_after.bytes_read, sched_before.bytes_read);
+
+        // The reader built from cached metadata still describes and reads the
+        // file correctly.
+        assert_eq!(second.num_rows(), 1000);
+        assert_eq!(
+            &ArrowSchema::from(second.schema()),
+            expected.schema().as_ref()
+        );
+        let batch = second.read_range(0..1000, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch, expected);
+        let batch = second.read_range(10..20, Some(&["values"])).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch, expected.slice(10, 10));
+        let batch = second.read_record_batch(0, 1000).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch, expected);
+
+        // Priority views are cheap clones sharing the same cache, so they must
+        // also open without I/O.
+        let prioritized = store.with_io_priority(7);
+        let _ = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let third = prioritized.open_index_file(FILE_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let prio_stats = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_eq!(
+            prio_stats.read_iops, 0,
+            "priority clone must share the metadata cache, got {:?}",
+            prio_stats
+        );
+        assert_eq!(third.num_rows(), 1000);
+
+        // A store with a fresh cache over the same directory has to read the
+        // metadata again, proving the savings come from the cache.
+        let (object_store2, store2) = concrete_test_store(&tempdir);
+        let _ = object_store2.io_stats_incremental();
+        let fresh = store2.open_index_file(FILE_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let fresh_stats = object_store2.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(fresh_stats.read_iops > 0, "got {:?}", fresh_stats);
+        assert_eq!(fresh.num_rows(), 1000);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_file_metadata_cache_is_keyed_by_full_path() {
+        // Two different files in the same store must not share cached metadata.
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let (object_store, store) = concrete_test_store(&tempdir);
+        let _small = write_int_index_file(&store, "a.lance").await;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "other",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let big = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                (0..5).map(|i| format!("row-{i}")),
+            ))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = store.new_index_file("b.lance", schema).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_record_batch(big.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        let file_sizes = store
+            .list_files_with_sizes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|f| (f.path, f.size_bytes))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let store = store.with_file_sizes(file_sizes);
+
+        // Warm the cache with a.lance, then open b.lance: it must be read from
+        // storage and describe b's schema, not a's.
+        store.open_index_file("a.lance").await.unwrap();
+        let _ = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let b = store.open_index_file("b.lance").await.unwrap();
+        let stats = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(stats.read_iops > 0, "got {:?}", stats);
+        assert_eq!(b.num_rows(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(b.schema()), big.schema().as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(b.read_range(0..5, None).await.unwrap(), big);
+
+        // And now b is cached too.
+        let _ = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let b2 = store.open_index_file("b.lance").await.unwrap();
+        let stats = object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_eq!(stats.read_iops, 0, "got {:?}", stats);
+        assert_eq!(b2.read_range(0..5, None).await.unwrap(), big);
+    }
+
     async fn train_index(
         index_store: &Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         data: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + Sync + 'static,
@@ -364,7 +989,13 @@ pub mod tests {
             )
             .unwrap();
         btree_plugin
-            .train_index(data, index_store.as_ref(), request, None)
+            .train_index(
+                data,
+                index_store.as_ref(),
+                request,
+                None,
+                crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
     }
@@ -374,6 +1005,32 @@ pub mod tests {
         prost_types::Any::from_msg(&T::default()).unwrap()
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_global_buffer_round_trip() {
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let index_store = test_store(&tempdir);
+
+        let mut writer = index_store
+            .new_index_file("global-buffer.lance", Arc::new(Schema::empty()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected = bytes::Bytes::from_static(b"scalar-global-buffer");
+        let buffer_idx = writer.add_global_buffer(expected.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        let write_summary = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        let files = index_store.list_files_with_sizes().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(files.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(files[0].path, "global-buffer.lance");
+        assert_eq!(write_summary.size_bytes, files[0].size_bytes);
+
+        let reader = index_store
+            .open_index_file("global-buffer.lance")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let actual = reader.read_global_buffer(buffer_idx).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_basic_btree() {
         let tempdir = TempDir::default();
@@ -387,6 +1044,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .load_index(
                 index_store,
                 &default_details::<pbold::BTreeIndexDetails>(),
+                0,
                 None,
                 &LanceCache::no_cache(),
             )
@@ -452,6 +1110,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .load_index(
                 index_store,
                 &default_details::<pbold::BTreeIndexDetails>(),
+                0,
                 None,
                 &LanceCache::no_cache(),
             )
@@ -472,6 +1131,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .update(
                 lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream(Box::new(data)),
                 updated_index_store.as_ref(),
+                None,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
@@ -479,6 +1139,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .load_index(
                 updated_index_store,
                 &default_details::<pbold::BTreeIndexDetails>(),
+                0,
                 None,
                 &LanceCache::no_cache(),
             )
@@ -567,6 +1228,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .load_index(
                 index_store,
                 &default_details::<pbold::BTreeIndexDetails>(),
+                0,
                 None,
                 &LanceCache::no_cache(),
             )
@@ -748,89 +1410,87 @@ pub mod tests {
         .await;
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::boolean(DataType::Boolean)]
+    #[case::int32(DataType::Int32)]
+    #[case::utf8(DataType::Utf8)]
+    #[case::float32(DataType::Float32)]
+    #[case::date32(DataType::Date32)]
+    #[case::timestamp(DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, None))]
+    #[case::date64(DataType::Date64)]
+    #[case::time64(DataType::Time64(TimeUnit::Nanosecond))]
+    #[case::time32(DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Second))]
+    #[case::fixed_size_binary(DataType::FixedSizeBinary(16))]
+    #[case::duration_second(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Second))]
+    #[case::duration_millisecond(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Millisecond))]
+    #[case::duration_microsecond(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Microsecond))]
+    #[case::duration_nanosecond(DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Nanosecond))]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_btree_types() {
-        for data_type in &[
-            DataType::Boolean,
-            DataType::Int32,
-            DataType::Utf8,
-            DataType::Float32,
-            DataType::Date32,
-            DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, None),
-            DataType::Date64,
-            DataType::Date32,
-            DataType::Time64(TimeUnit::Nanosecond),
-            DataType::Time32(TimeUnit::Second),
-            DataType::FixedSizeBinary(16),
-            // Not supported today, error from datafusion:
-            // Min/max accumulator not implemented for Duration(Nanosecond)
-            // DataType::Duration(TimeUnit::Nanosecond),
-        ] {
-            let tempdir = TempDir::default();
-            let index_store = test_store(&tempdir);
-            let data: RecordBatch = gen_batch()
-                .col(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, array::rand_type(data_type))
-                .col(ROW_ID, array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-                .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(4096 * 3))
-                .unwrap();
-
-            let sample_value = ScalarValue::try_from_array(data.column(0), 0).unwrap();
-            let sample_row_id = data.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0);
-
-            let sort_indices = arrow::compute::sort_to_indices(data.column(0), None, None).unwrap();
-            let sorted_values = arrow_select::take::take(
-                data.column(0),
-                &sort_indices,
-                Some(TakeOptions {
-                    check_bounds: false,
-                }),
-            )
-            .unwrap();
-            let sorted_row_ids = arrow_select::take::take(
-                data.column(1),
-                &sort_indices,
-                Some(TakeOptions {
-                    check_bounds: false,
-                }),
-            )
+    async fn test_btree_types(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let index_store = test_store(&tempdir);
+        let data: RecordBatch = gen_batch()
+            .col(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, array::rand_type(&data_type))
+            .col(ROW_ID, array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(4096 * 3))
             .unwrap();
-            let sorted_batch =
-                RecordBatch::try_new(data.schema().clone(), vec![sorted_values, sorted_row_ids])
-                    .unwrap();
 
-            let batch_one = sorted_batch.slice(0, 4096);
-            let batch_two = sorted_batch.slice(4096, 4096);
-            let batch_three = sorted_batch.slice(8192, 4096);
-            let training_data = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                vec![batch_one, batch_two, batch_three].into_iter().map(Ok),
-                data.schema().clone(),
-            );
+        let sample_value = ScalarValue::try_from_array(data.column(0), 0).unwrap();
+        let sample_row_id = data.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0);
 
-            train_index(&index_store, training_data, None).await;
-            let index = BTreeIndexPlugin
-                .load_index(
-                    index_store,
-                    &default_details::<pbold::BTreeIndexDetails>(),
-                    None,
-                    &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        let sort_indices = arrow::compute::sort_to_indices(data.column(0), None, None).unwrap();
+        let sorted_values = arrow_select::take::take(
+            data.column(0),
+            &sort_indices,
+            Some(TakeOptions {
+                check_bounds: false,
+            }),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let sorted_row_ids = arrow_select::take::take(
+            data.column(1),
+            &sort_indices,
+            Some(TakeOptions {
+                check_bounds: false,
+            }),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let sorted_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(data.schema(), vec![sorted_values, sorted_row_ids]).unwrap();
+
+        let batch_one = sorted_batch.slice(0, 4096);
+        let batch_two = sorted_batch.slice(4096, 4096);
+        let batch_three = sorted_batch.slice(8192, 4096);
+        let training_data = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![batch_one, batch_two, batch_three].into_iter().map(Ok),
+            data.schema(),
+        );
 
-            let result = index
-                .search(&SargableQuery::Equals(sample_value), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        train_index(&index_store, training_data, None).await;
+        let index = BTreeIndexPlugin
+            .load_index(
+                index_store,
+                &default_details::<pbold::BTreeIndexDetails>(),
+                0,
+                None,
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            assert!(result.is_exact());
-            let row_addrs = result.row_addrs().true_rows();
+        let result = index
+            .search(&SargableQuery::Equals(sample_value), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            // The random data may have had duplicates so there might be more than 1 result
-            // but even for boolean we shouldn't match the entire thing
-            assert!(!row_addrs.is_empty());
-            assert!(row_addrs.len().unwrap() < data.num_rows() as u64);
-            assert!(row_addrs.contains(sample_row_id));
-        }
+        assert!(result.is_exact());
+        let row_addrs = result.row_addrs().true_rows();
+
+        // The random data may have had duplicates so there might be more than 1 result
+        // but even for boolean we shouldn't match the entire thing
+        assert!(!row_addrs.is_empty());
+        assert!(row_addrs.len().unwrap() < data.num_rows() as u64);
+        assert!(row_addrs.contains(sample_row_id));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -870,6 +1530,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .load_index(
                 index_store,
                 &default_details::<pbold::BTreeIndexDetails>(),
+                0,
                 None,
                 &LanceCache::no_cache(),
             )
@@ -902,12 +1563,42 @@ pub mod tests {
         index_store: &Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         data: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + Sync + 'static,
     ) {
-        let data = lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream(Box::new(data));
+        // Sort the data by value column (nulls first) to match the production
+        // scanner behavior (TrainingOrdering::Values).
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = data
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let combined = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        let options = arrow::compute::SortOptions {
+            descending: false,
+            nulls_first: true,
+        };
+        let indices =
+            arrow::compute::sort_to_indices(combined.column(0), Some(options), None).unwrap();
+        let sorted_columns: Vec<_> = combined
+            .columns()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|col| arrow::compute::take(col.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        let sorted_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), sorted_columns).unwrap();
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(sorted_batch) }),
+        ));
+
         let request = BitmapIndexPlugin
             .new_training_request("{}", &Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Int32, false))
             .unwrap();
         BitmapIndexPlugin
-            .train_index(data, index_store.as_ref(), request, None)
+            .train_index(
+                stream,
+                index_store.as_ref(),
+                request,
+                None,
+                crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
     }
@@ -1290,6 +1981,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .update(
                 lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream(Box::new(data)),
                 updated_index_store.as_ref(),
+                None,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
@@ -1340,7 +2032,7 @@ pub mod tests {
         let remapped_dir = TempDir::default();
         let remapped_store = test_store(&remapped_dir);
         index
-            .remap(&mapping, remapped_store.as_ref())
+            .remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping), remapped_store.as_ref())
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let remapped_index = BitmapIndex::load(remapped_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
@@ -1348,35 +2040,41 @@ pub mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
         // Remapped to new value
-        assert!(remapped_index
-            .search(
-                &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5))),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .row_addrs()
-            .selected(65));
+        assert!(
+            remapped_index
+                .search(
+                    &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5))),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .selected(65)
+        );
         // Deleted
-        assert!(remapped_index
-            .search(
-                &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(7))),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .row_addrs()
-            .is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            remapped_index
+                .search(
+                    &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(7))),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
         // Not remapped
-        assert!(remapped_index
-            .search(
-                &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3))),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .row_addrs()
-            .selected(3));
+        assert!(
+            remapped_index
+                .search(
+                    &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3))),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .selected(3)
+        );
     }
 
     async fn train_tag(
@@ -1395,7 +2093,13 @@ pub mod tests {
             )
             .unwrap();
         LabelListIndexPlugin
-            .train_index(data, index_store.as_ref(), request, None)
+            .train_index(
+                data,
+                index_store.as_ref(),
+                request,
+                None,
+                crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
     }
@@ -1434,6 +2138,7 @@ pub mod tests {
                     .load_index(
                         index_store,
                         &default_details::<pbold::LabelListIndexDetails>(),
+                        0,
                         None,
                         &LanceCache::no_cache(),
                     )
@@ -1543,6 +2248,7 @@ pub mod tests {
             .load_index(
                 index_store,
                 &default_details::<pbold::LabelListIndexDetails>(),
+                0,
                 None,
                 &LanceCache::no_cache(),
             )
@@ -1551,7 +2257,7 @@ pub mod tests {
 
         // Test: Search for lists containing value 1
         // Row 0: [1, 2] - contains 1 → TRUE
-        // Row 1: [3, null] - has null item, unknown if it matches → NULL
+        // Row 1: [3, null] - null elements are ignored → FALSE
         // Row 2: [4] - doesn't contain 1 → FALSE
         let query = LabelListQuery::HasAnyLabel(vec![ScalarValue::UInt8(Some(1))]);
         let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
@@ -1570,20 +2276,66 @@ pub mod tests {
                     "Should find row 0 where list contains 1"
                 );
 
-                let null_row_ids = row_ids.null_rows();
                 assert!(
-                    !null_row_ids.is_empty(),
-                    "null_row_ids should not be empty - row 1 has null item"
-                );
-                let null_rows: Vec<u64> =
-                    null_row_ids.row_addrs().unwrap().map(u64::from).collect();
-                assert_eq!(
-                    null_rows,
-                    vec![1],
-                    "Should report row 1 as null because it contains a null item"
+                    row_ids.null_rows().is_empty(),
+                    "null_row_ids should be empty when null elements are ignored"
                 );
             }
             _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
         }
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_label_list_bitmap_only_layout_is_compatible() {
+        let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+        let index_store = test_store(&tempdir);
+
+        // Simulate an older released layout that only had the bitmap lookup file.
+        let values = arrow_array::UInt8Array::from(vec![1, 2]);
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![0, 2]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::UInt8, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(values), Arc::new(row_ids)])
+            .unwrap();
+
+        BitmapIndexPlugin::train_bitmap_index(
+            lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(batch)],
+                schema,
+            ))),
+            index_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let index = LabelListIndexPlugin
+            .load_index(
+                index_store,
+                &default_details::<pbold::LabelListIndexDetails>(),
+                0,
+                None,
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query = LabelListQuery::HasAnyLabel(vec![ScalarValue::UInt8(Some(1))]);
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => {
+                assert!(row_ids.null_rows().is_empty());
+                let actual_rows: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                    .true_rows()
+                    .row_addrs()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(u64::from)
+                    .collect();
+                assert_eq!(actual_rows, vec![0]);
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected Exact search result"),
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/builder.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..aec26e1659a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/builder.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1050 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Building the index files: signing text batches on the CPU pool, writing
+//! `signatures.lance`, and sorting the (band key, doc id) records into
+//! `bands.lance` with an external sort that spills to local temporary files.
+
+use crate::scalar::RowAddrTranslatorRef;
+use std::cmp::Reverse;
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+
+use lance_arrow::iter_str_array;
+use lance_datafusion::exec::LanceExecutionOptions;
+use tokio::sync::mpsc;
+
+use super::index::{scan_rows, signature_columns};
+use super::*;
+
+/// Signatures and band keys of one input batch, for rows that have tokens.
+struct SignedBatch {
+    row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    /// `row_ids.len() * num_hashes` values.
+    signatures: Vec<SignatureValue>,
+    /// `row_ids.len() * num_bands` keys.
+    band_keys: Vec<u64>,
+}
+
+fn sign_batch(mut generator: SignatureGenerator, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<SignedBatch> {
+    let row_ids = batch
+        .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+        .and_then(|column| column.as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MinHash LSH training data must contain a non-null UInt64 column {ROW_ID}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+    let values = batch.column_by_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "MinHash LSH training data must contain a column {VALUE_COLUMN_NAME}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+    let mut signed = SignedBatch {
+        row_ids: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows),
+        signatures: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * generator.num_hashes()),
+        band_keys: Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * generator.num_bands()),
+    };
+    let mut signature = vec![SignatureValue::MAX; generator.num_hashes()];
+    for (row, text) in iter_str_array(values.as_ref()).enumerate() {
+        if let Some(text) = text
+            && generator.signature(text, &mut signature)
+        {
+            signed.row_ids.push(row_ids.value(row));
+            signed.signatures.extend_from_slice(&signature);
+            generator.band_keys(&signature, &mut signed.band_keys);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(signed)
+}
+
+/// Signed batches computed from text batches, `num_cpus` batches in flight.
+fn text_signed_batches(
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    generator: SignatureGenerator,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<SignedBatch>> + Send {
+    data.map(move |batch| {
+        let generator = generator.clone();
+        async move {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            spawn_cpu(move || sign_batch(generator, batch)).await
+        }
+    })
+    .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+}
+
+/// How the row ids of an existing signature table are carried into a
+/// rebuilt segment.
+pub(super) enum RowIdTransform<'a> {
+    /// Keep every row with its row id.
+    Keep,
+    /// Keep only the rows the filter selects.
+    Filter(&'a OldIndexDataFilter),
+    /// Rewrite row ids through the translator, dropping rows it deletes.
+    Remap(RowAddrTranslatorRef<'a>),
+}
+
+impl RowIdTransform<'_> {
+    /// The row id each input row keeps, or `None` for rows to drop.
+    ///
+    /// Stored row ids predate any deferred compaction the segment was opened
+    /// with, so `frag_reuse_index` first brings them into the current address
+    /// space, which is the space the filter or mapping is expressed in. A
+    /// remap translates one batch at a time through the translator.
+    async fn apply(
+        &self,
+        row_ids: &UInt64Array,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<&dyn RowIdRemapper>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        let mut row_ids: Vec<Option<u64>> = row_ids
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&row_id| match frag_reuse_index {
+                Some(remapper) => remapper.remap_row_id(row_id),
+                None => Some(row_id),
+            })
+            .collect();
+        match self {
+            Self::Keep => {}
+            Self::Filter(filter) => {
+                let keep = filter.filter_row_ids(&UInt64Array::from(row_ids.clone()));
+                for (row_id, keep) in row_ids.iter_mut().zip(keep.iter()) {
+                    if !keep.unwrap_or(false) {
+                        *row_id = None;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Remap(translator) => {
+                let current: Vec<u64> = row_ids.iter().flatten().copied().collect();
+                let resolved = translator.resolve(current).await?;
+                resolved.remap_in_place(&mut row_ids);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(row_ids)
+    }
+}
+
+/// An existing signature table whose surviving rows are carried into a
+/// rebuilt segment.
+pub(super) struct SignatureSource<'a> {
+    pub reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+    pub num_docs: usize,
+    /// The deferred compactions the segment was opened with; see
+    /// [`RowIdTransform::apply`].
+    pub frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    pub transform: RowIdTransform<'a>,
+}
+
+type SignedBatchStream<'a> = Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<SignedBatch>> + Send + 'a>>;
+
+impl SignatureSource<'_> {
+    fn signed_batches(&self, generator: SignatureGenerator) -> SignedBatchStream<'_> {
+        let num_hashes = generator.num_hashes();
+        let batches = scan_rows(
+            self.reader.clone(),
+            0,
+            self.num_docs,
+            rows_per_batch(signature_row_bytes(num_hashes)),
+        );
+        let transform = &self.transform;
+        let frag_reuse_index = self.frag_reuse_index.as_deref();
+        let stream = batches
+            .map(move |batch| {
+                let generator = generator.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let batch = batch?;
+                    // Row id filtering needs the transform, which cannot move
+                    // into the CPU task, so it runs here, one batch at a time;
+                    // band keys are computed there.
+                    let (row_ids, _) = signature_columns(&batch, num_hashes)?;
+                    let kept = transform.apply(row_ids, frag_reuse_index).await?;
+                    spawn_cpu(move || resign_batch(generator, batch, kept)).await
+                }
+            })
+            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus());
+        Box::pin(stream)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build a signed batch from stored signatures, keeping the rows whose entry
+/// in `row_ids` is `Some` (the row id to store).
+fn resign_batch(
+    generator: SignatureGenerator,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    row_ids: Vec<Option<u64>>,
+) -> Result<SignedBatch> {
+    let num_hashes = generator.num_hashes();
+    let (_, signatures) = signature_columns(&batch, num_hashes)?;
+    let kept = row_ids.iter().filter(|row_id| row_id.is_some()).count();
+    let mut signed = SignedBatch {
+        row_ids: Vec::with_capacity(kept),
+        signatures: Vec::with_capacity(kept * num_hashes),
+        band_keys: Vec::with_capacity(kept * generator.num_bands()),
+    };
+    for (row_id, signature) in row_ids.iter().zip(signatures.chunks_exact(num_hashes)) {
+        let Some(row_id) = row_id else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        signed.row_ids.push(*row_id);
+        signed.signatures.extend_from_slice(signature);
+        generator.band_keys(signature, &mut signed.band_keys);
+    }
+    Ok(signed)
+}
+
+fn signatures_batch(
+    schema: &SchemaRef,
+    row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    signatures: Vec<SignatureValue>,
+    num_hashes: i32,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let values: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt16Array::from(signatures));
+    let signatures = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt16, false)),
+        num_hashes,
+        values,
+        None,
+    )?;
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(signatures) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+/// Streams ascending (band key, doc id) rows into `bands.lance` and records
+/// the page table as rows are written.
+struct BandsWriter {
+    writer: Box<dyn IndexWriter>,
+    page_rows: usize,
+    rows_written: usize,
+    /// Key of the most recently written row, for the trailing partial page.
+    last_key: Option<u64>,
+    page_max_keys: Vec<u64>,
+}
+
+impl BandsWriter {
+    /// Write one batch of ascending records and extend the page table.
+    async fn write_batch(&mut self, keys: Vec<u64>, doc_ids: Vec<u32>) -> Result<()> {
+        // Only the rows that end a page matter; this runs on the serial
+        // write path, so step to them instead of testing every row.
+        let mut page_end = self.page_rows - self.rows_written % self.page_rows;
+        while page_end <= keys.len() {
+            self.page_max_keys.push(keys[page_end - 1]);
+            page_end += self.page_rows;
+        }
+        self.rows_written += keys.len();
+        if let Some(last) = keys.last() {
+            self.last_key = Some(*last);
+        }
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            BANDS_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys)) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(doc_ids)) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )?;
+        self.writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn finish(mut self, params: &MinHashLshIndexParams, num_docs: u64) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        if !self.rows_written.is_multiple_of(self.page_rows)
+            && let Some(last_key) = self.last_key
+        {
+            self.page_max_keys.push(last_key);
+        }
+        let mut page_table = Vec::with_capacity(self.page_max_keys.len() * 8);
+        for key in &self.page_max_keys {
+            page_table.extend_from_slice(&key.to_le_bytes());
+        }
+        let page_table_buffer = self
+            .writer
+            .add_global_buffer(Bytes::from(page_table))
+            .await?;
+        self.writer
+            .finish_with_metadata(HashMap::from([
+                (DETAILS_META_KEY.to_string(), params.details_hex()?),
+                (
+                    INDEX_VERSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                    MINHASH_LSH_INDEX_VERSION.to_string(),
+                ),
+                (PAGE_ROWS_META_KEY.to_string(), self.page_rows.to_string()),
+                (
+                    PAGE_TABLE_BUFFER_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                    page_table_buffer.to_string(),
+                ),
+                (NUM_DOCS_META_KEY.to_string(), num_docs.to_string()),
+            ]))
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+/// The temporary directory holding the spill files of one build, removed
+/// when the last run referencing it is dropped. Every spill is accounted
+/// against the configured limit before it is written, so a build that
+/// cannot fit fails with a clear error.
+struct SpillDir {
+    dir: tempfile::TempDir,
+    limit_bytes: u64,
+    written_bytes: AtomicU64,
+}
+
+impl SpillDir {
+    fn create(limit_bytes: u64) -> Result<Self> {
+        let base = std::env::temp_dir();
+        let dir = tempfile::Builder::new()
+            .prefix("lance-minhash-lsh-")
+            .tempdir_in(&base)
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "cannot create the MinHash LSH spill directory in {}: {err}",
+                    base.display()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            dir,
+            limit_bytes,
+            written_bytes: AtomicU64::new(0),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Account `bytes` of a new run against the limit.
+    fn reserve(&self, bytes: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        let written = self.written_bytes.fetch_add(bytes, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        if written + bytes > self.limit_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "MinHash LSH build needs {} bytes of temporary disk in {} ({written} already written) but LANCE_MAX_TEMP_DIRECTORY_SIZE limits it to {}",
+                written + bytes,
+                self.dir.path().display(),
+                self.limit_bytes
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn run_path(&self, run: usize) -> PathBuf {
+        self.dir.path().join(format!("run-{run}.bin"))
+    }
+}
+
+/// A sorted run of (band key, doc id) records in a spill file, with the row
+/// at which each key-range partition starts (one entry per partition plus
+/// the row count; see [`RunSorter::collect`] for the number of partitions).
+struct SpilledRun {
+    dir: Arc<SpillDir>,
+    run: usize,
+    partition_starts: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+impl SpilledRun {
+    /// Rows of this run that hold `partitions`.
+    fn rows(&self, partitions: &Range<usize>) -> Range<usize> {
+        self.partition_starts[partitions.start]..self.partition_starts[partitions.end]
+    }
+
+    /// Merge every `2^steps` adjacent partitions into one. The starts are
+    /// cumulative, so the coarser map is every `2^steps`-th entry.
+    fn coarsen(&mut self, steps: u32) {
+        if steps > 0 {
+            self.partition_starts = self
+                .partition_starts
+                .iter()
+                .step_by(1 << steps)
+                .copied()
+                .collect();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Write sorted records to `path` as little-endian (key, doc id) pairs.
+fn write_spill_records(path: &Path, records: &[(u64, u32)]) -> std::io::Result<()> {
+    use std::io::Write;
+    let mut file = std::fs::OpenOptions::new()
+        .write(true)
+        .create_new(true)
+        .open(path)?;
+    let records_per_write = rows_per_batch(BAND_ROW_BYTES);
+    let mut bytes = Vec::with_capacity(records_per_write.min(records.len()) * BAND_ROW_BYTES);
+    for chunk in records.chunks(records_per_write) {
+        bytes.clear();
+        for (key, doc_id) in chunk {
+            bytes.extend_from_slice(&key.to_le_bytes());
+            bytes.extend_from_slice(&doc_id.to_le_bytes());
+        }
+        file.write_all(&bytes)?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Read the records of `rows` back from a spill file.
+fn read_spill_records(path: &Path, rows: Range<usize>) -> std::io::Result<Vec<(u64, u32)>> {
+    use std::io::{Read, Seek, SeekFrom};
+    let mut file = std::fs::File::open(path)?;
+    file.seek(SeekFrom::Start((rows.start * BAND_ROW_BYTES) as u64))?;
+    let mut bytes = vec![0u8; rows.len() * BAND_ROW_BYTES];
+    file.read_exact(&mut bytes)?;
+    Ok(bytes
+        .as_chunks::<BAND_ROW_BYTES>()
+        .0
+        .iter()
+        .map(|record| {
+            let (key, doc_id) = record.split_at(8);
+            (
+                u64::from_le_bytes(key.try_into().expect("8-byte key")),
+                u32::from_le_bytes(doc_id.try_into().expect("4-byte doc id")),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect())
+}
+
+/// Key-range partition of a record: its band id, then the high bits of the
+/// band hash, so partitions are contiguous in key order and every band's
+/// records spread evenly over `partitions_per_band` of them.
+fn spill_partition(key: u64, partitions_per_band: usize) -> usize {
+    let band = (key >> 56) as usize;
+    let hash = key & 0x00FF_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF;
+    band * partitions_per_band + ((hash as u128 * partitions_per_band as u128) >> 56) as usize
+}
+
+/// Sort one run and write it to a spill file.
+async fn spill_run(
+    dir: Arc<SpillDir>,
+    run: usize,
+    records: Vec<(u64, u32)>,
+    partitions_per_band: usize,
+) -> Result<SpilledRun> {
+    let (records, partition_starts) = spawn_cpu(move || {
+        let mut records = records;
+        records.par_sort_unstable();
+        let partition_starts: Vec<usize> = (0..=SPILL_PARTITIONS)
+            .map(|partition| {
+                records.partition_point(|record| {
+                    spill_partition(record.0, partitions_per_band) < partition
+                })
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Ok::<_, Error>((records, partition_starts))
+    })
+    .await?;
+    dir.reserve((records.len() * BAND_ROW_BYTES) as u64)?;
+    let path = dir.run_path(run);
+    // Blocking file IO stays off the runtime workers.
+    tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || write_spill_records(&path, &records))
+        .await
+        .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("spill write task failed: {err}")))?
+        .map_err(|err| Error::io(format!("cannot write MinHash LSH spill file: {err}")))?;
+    Ok(SpilledRun {
+        dir,
+        run,
+        partition_starts,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Collects (band key, doc id) records into sorted runs: in memory until
+/// `run_records` are held, then spilled to disk while signing continues.
+struct RunSorter {
+    run: Vec<(u64, u32)>,
+    run_records: usize,
+    spill_limit_bytes: u64,
+    partitions_per_band: usize,
+    /// Bytes the partition maps of the spilled runs may hold together.
+    partition_map_bytes: usize,
+    /// The maps are held at `SPILL_PARTITIONS >> shift` partitions.
+    shift: u32,
+    /// Created by the first spill and shared with every run and spill task.
+    spill_dir: Option<Arc<SpillDir>>,
+    /// Runs being sorted and written, oldest first; at most
+    /// [`MAX_INFLIGHT_SPILLS`] so the backlog of full runs stays bounded.
+    spills: FuturesOrdered<tokio::task::JoinHandle<Result<SpilledRun>>>,
+    spilled: Vec<SpilledRun>,
+}
+
+impl RunSorter {
+    async fn push(&mut self, keys: &[u64], doc_id: u32) -> Result<()> {
+        self.run.extend(keys.iter().map(|&key| (key, doc_id)));
+        if self.run.len() < self.run_records {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let records = std::mem::replace(&mut self.run, Vec::with_capacity(self.run_records));
+        self.spill(records)?;
+        if self.spills.len() >= MAX_INFLIGHT_SPILLS
+            && let Some(spilled) = self.spills.next().await
+        {
+            self.collect(spilled)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Take a finished spill. Every run keeps its partition map until the
+    /// merge, so the maps of all runs share one budget: when they outgrow
+    /// it, every map merges adjacent partitions. The merge groups only get
+    /// coarser, and a group larger than its budget is streamed; at the
+    /// default budgets the spill limit is reached before any map coarsens.
+    fn collect(
+        &mut self,
+        spilled: std::result::Result<Result<SpilledRun>, tokio::task::JoinError>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut run = joined_spill(spilled)?;
+        run.coarsen(self.shift);
+        self.spilled.push(run);
+        let map_bytes = |shift: u32| {
+            self.spilled.len() * ((SPILL_PARTITIONS >> shift) + 1) * size_of::<usize>()
+        };
+        let mut shift = self.shift;
+        while shift < SPILL_PARTITIONS.trailing_zeros()
+            && map_bytes(shift) > self.partition_map_bytes
+        {
+            shift += 1;
+        }
+        for run in &mut self.spilled {
+            run.coarsen(shift - self.shift);
+        }
+        self.shift = shift;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn spill(&mut self, records: Vec<(u64, u32)>) -> Result<()> {
+        let dir = match &self.spill_dir {
+            Some(dir) => dir.clone(),
+            None => self
+                .spill_dir
+                .insert(Arc::new(SpillDir::create(self.spill_limit_bytes)?))
+                .clone(),
+        };
+        let run = self.spilled.len() + self.spills.len();
+        self.spills.push_back(tokio::spawn(spill_run(
+            dir,
+            run,
+            records,
+            self.partitions_per_band,
+        )));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Sort the last run and wait for every spill.
+    async fn finish(mut self) -> Result<SortedRuns> {
+        if self.spill_dir.is_none() {
+            let mut run = self.run;
+            return spawn_cpu(move || {
+                run.par_sort_unstable();
+                Ok(SortedRuns::Resident(run))
+            })
+            .await;
+        }
+        if !self.run.is_empty() {
+            let run = std::mem::take(&mut self.run);
+            self.spill(run)?;
+        }
+        while let Some(spilled) = self.spills.next().await {
+            self.collect(spilled)?;
+        }
+        Ok(SortedRuns::Spilled(self.spilled.into()))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Unwrap a finished spill task, surfacing a panicked or cancelled task as an error.
+fn joined_spill(
+    spilled: std::result::Result<Result<SpilledRun>, tokio::task::JoinError>,
+) -> Result<SpilledRun> {
+    spilled.map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("spill task failed: {err}")))?
+}
+
+/// Sorted (band key, doc id) records ready to be written.
+enum SortedRuns {
+    /// Everything fit in one in-memory run.
+    Resident(Vec<(u64, u32)>),
+    /// Several runs spilled to temporary files, merged while writing.
+    Spilled(Arc<[SpilledRun]>),
+}
+
+/// Records of `partitions` over every run.
+fn group_records(runs: &[SpilledRun], partitions: &Range<usize>) -> usize {
+    runs.iter().map(|run| run.rows(partitions).len()).sum()
+}
+
+/// Split the partitions of the runs' maps into contiguous groups of at most
+/// `budget_records` records each; a partition larger than that forms a group
+/// of its own.
+fn merge_groups(runs: &[SpilledRun], budget_records: usize) -> Vec<Range<usize>> {
+    let partitions = runs.first().map_or(0, |run| run.partition_starts.len() - 1);
+    let mut groups = Vec::new();
+    let mut start = 0;
+    let mut records = 0usize;
+    for partition in 0..partitions {
+        let partition_records = group_records(runs, &(partition..partition + 1));
+        if records + partition_records > budget_records && start < partition {
+            groups.push(start..partition);
+            start = partition;
+            records = 0;
+        }
+        records += partition_records;
+    }
+    if start < partitions {
+        groups.push(start..partitions);
+    }
+    groups
+}
+
+/// Gather the records of `partitions` from every run, sort them and split
+/// them into the key and doc id columns.
+async fn merge_group(
+    runs: &[SpilledRun],
+    partitions: Range<usize>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<u32>)> {
+    let mut records: Vec<(u64, u32)> =
+        Vec::with_capacity(runs.iter().map(|run| run.rows(&partitions).len()).sum());
+    let reads: Vec<_> = runs
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|run| {
+            let rows = run.rows(&partitions);
+            if rows.is_empty() {
+                return None;
+            }
+            let path = run.dir.run_path(run.run);
+            // Spill reads are blocking file IO, kept off the runtime workers.
+            Some(async move {
+                tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || read_spill_records(&path, rows))
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("spill read task failed: {err}")))?
+                    .map_err(|err| Error::io(format!("cannot read MinHash LSH spill file: {err}")))
+            })
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let mut chunks = futures::stream::iter(reads).buffered(READ_CONCURRENCY);
+    while let Some(chunk) = chunks.try_next().await? {
+        records.extend(chunk);
+    }
+    spawn_cpu(move || {
+        records.sort_unstable();
+        Ok::<_, Error>(records.into_iter().unzip())
+    })
+    .await
+}
+
+/// A run's rows of one merge group, read one chunk at a time.
+struct SpillCursor {
+    path: PathBuf,
+    /// Rows not read yet.
+    rows: Range<usize>,
+    chunk: Vec<(u64, u32)>,
+    pos: usize,
+}
+
+impl SpillCursor {
+    async fn refill(&mut self, chunk_records: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        let to = (self.rows.start + chunk_records).min(self.rows.end);
+        let rows = self.rows.start..to;
+        self.rows.start = to;
+        let path = self.path.clone();
+        // Spill reads are blocking file IO, kept off the runtime workers.
+        self.chunk = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || read_spill_records(&path, rows))
+            .await
+            .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("spill read task failed: {err}")))?
+            .map_err(|err| Error::io(format!("cannot read MinHash LSH spill file: {err}")))?;
+        self.pos = 0;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Merge the records of `partitions` from every run in key order while
+/// holding one chunk per run, for a group larger than the memory budget: a
+/// duplicate cluster puts every one of its documents into the same partition
+/// of each band, and a partition cannot be split. The chunks together hold
+/// half the budget however many runs there are (a small budget over many
+/// runs just reads in small pieces); output batches take the other half.
+/// Runs of equal keys are copied as whole blocks, so a large bucket costs
+/// one heap step per chunk rather than per record. Batches are sent in
+/// order to `output`.
+async fn stream_merge_group(
+    runs: &[SpilledRun],
+    partitions: Range<usize>,
+    budget_records: usize,
+    output: mpsc::Sender<Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<u32>)>>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut cursors: Vec<SpillCursor> = runs
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|run| {
+            let rows = run.rows(&partitions);
+            (!rows.is_empty()).then(|| SpillCursor {
+                path: run.dir.run_path(run.run),
+                rows,
+                chunk: Vec::new(),
+                pos: 0,
+            })
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let chunk_records = (budget_records / (2 * cursors.len().max(1))).max(1);
+    for cursor in &mut cursors {
+        cursor.refill(chunk_records).await?;
+    }
+    let mut heap: BinaryHeap<Reverse<(u64, u32, usize)>> = cursors
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter_map(|(index, cursor)| {
+            cursor
+                .chunk
+                .first()
+                .map(|&(key, doc_id)| Reverse((key, doc_id, index)))
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let batch_records = rows_per_batch(BAND_ROW_BYTES)
+        .min(budget_records / 2)
+        .max(1);
+    let mut keys: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(batch_records);
+    let mut doc_ids: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(batch_records);
+    while let Some(Reverse((key, _, index))) = heap.pop() {
+        // The records of `key` are a prefix of the sorted chunk from `pos`;
+        // the block ends where another run's records of the same key would
+        // come first (never, since every run holds a contiguous range of doc
+        // ids, but the merge does not rely on it).
+        let next_doc_id = match heap.peek() {
+            Some(Reverse((next_key, next_doc_id, _))) if *next_key == key => Some(*next_doc_id),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+        let cursor = &mut cursors[index];
+        let block = cursor.chunk[cursor.pos..]
+            .partition_point(|record| {
+                record.0 == key && next_doc_id.is_none_or(|next| record.1 < next)
+            })
+            .min(batch_records - keys.len());
+        for &(key, doc_id) in &cursor.chunk[cursor.pos..cursor.pos + block] {
+            keys.push(key);
+            doc_ids.push(doc_id);
+        }
+        cursor.pos += block;
+        if keys.len() == batch_records {
+            send_batch(
+                &output,
+                std::mem::replace(&mut keys, Vec::with_capacity(batch_records)),
+                std::mem::replace(&mut doc_ids, Vec::with_capacity(batch_records)),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        }
+        if cursor.pos == cursor.chunk.len() && !cursor.rows.is_empty() {
+            cursor.refill(chunk_records).await?;
+        }
+        if let Some(&(key, doc_id)) = cursor.chunk.get(cursor.pos) {
+            heap.push(Reverse((key, doc_id, index)));
+        }
+    }
+    if !keys.is_empty() {
+        send_batch(&output, keys, doc_ids).await?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Hand one batch of ascending records to the bands writer.
+async fn send_batch(
+    output: &mpsc::Sender<Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<u32>)>>,
+    keys: Vec<u64>,
+    doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    output
+        .send(Ok((keys, doc_ids)))
+        .await
+        .map_err(|_| Error::internal("bands writer stopped before the merge finished"))
+}
+
+/// Builds the two index files from a stream of `value` (text) and `_rowid`
+/// batches.
+pub struct MinHashLshIndexBuilder {
+    params: MinHashLshIndexParams,
+    page_rows: usize,
+    /// Maximum records held in memory before a sort run is spilled.
+    sort_run_records: usize,
+    /// Records merged as one group while writing the bands file.
+    merge_group_records: usize,
+    /// Temporary disk space one build may use for its spill files.
+    spill_limit_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+impl MinHashLshIndexBuilder {
+    /// A builder with the memory budget and the temporary disk limit of the
+    /// DataFusion-backed index builds (`LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE`,
+    /// `LANCE_MAX_TEMP_DIRECTORY_SIZE`).
+    pub fn try_new(params: MinHashLshIndexParams) -> Result<Self> {
+        params.validate()?;
+        let options = LanceExecutionOptions::default();
+        // The runs (the one being filled plus the in-flight spills) get three
+        // fifths of the memory budget, the merge groups the rest.
+        let memory_bytes = options.mem_pool_size() as usize;
+        let record_bytes = std::mem::size_of::<(u64, u32)>();
+        let sort_run_records = memory_bytes * 3 / 5 / (MAX_INFLIGHT_SPILLS + 1) / record_bytes;
+        let merge_group_records = memory_bytes * 2 / 5 / MERGE_GROUPS_IN_FLIGHT / record_bytes;
+        if sort_run_records == 0 || merge_group_records == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MinHash LSH sort memory budget of {memory_bytes} bytes (LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE) is too small"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            params,
+            page_rows: DEFAULT_PAGE_ROWS,
+            sort_run_records,
+            merge_group_records,
+            spill_limit_bytes: options.max_temp_directory_size(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &MinHashLshIndexParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    /// Rows per logical page of `bands.lance`; exposed so tests can force
+    /// multi-page layouts with small inputs.
+    pub fn with_page_rows(mut self, page_rows: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        if page_rows == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "MinHash LSH page_rows must be positive".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.page_rows = page_rows;
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Records per in-memory sort run; exposed so tests can force spilling.
+    pub fn with_sort_run_records(mut self, sort_run_records: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        if sort_run_records == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "MinHash LSH sort_run_records must be positive".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.sort_run_records = sort_run_records;
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Records per merge group; exposed so tests can force streaming merges
+    /// with small inputs.
+    pub fn with_merge_group_records(mut self, merge_group_records: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        if merge_group_records == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "MinHash LSH merge_group_records must be positive".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.merge_group_records = merge_group_records;
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Bound the temporary disk space of the build; a build that would
+    /// exceed it fails before writing the spill that crosses the limit.
+    pub fn with_spill_limit_bytes(mut self, bytes: u64) -> Self {
+        self.spill_limit_bytes = bytes;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Build the index files from a stream of `value` (text) and `_rowid`
+    /// batches.
+    pub async fn train(
+        &self,
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let generator = SignatureGenerator::try_new(&self.params)?;
+        self.train_signed(text_signed_batches(data, generator), store)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Build the index files from the surviving rows of existing signature
+    /// tables plus optional new text batches, without tokenizing the existing
+    /// rows again. Used by segment merges, updates and row id remaps.
+    pub(super) async fn rebuild_from(
+        &self,
+        sources: Vec<SignatureSource<'_>>,
+        new_data: Option<SendableRecordBatchStream>,
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let generator = SignatureGenerator::try_new(&self.params)?;
+        let mut streams: Vec<SignedBatchStream<'_>> = sources
+            .iter()
+            .map(|source| source.signed_batches(generator.clone()))
+            .collect();
+        if let Some(new_data) = new_data {
+            streams.push(Box::pin(text_signed_batches(new_data, generator)));
+        }
+        self.train_signed(futures::stream::iter(streams).flatten(), store)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Write `signatures.lance` and `bands.lance` from signed batches,
+    /// assigning doc ids in arrival order.
+    async fn train_signed(
+        &self,
+        signed_batches: impl Stream<Item = Result<SignedBatch>> + Send,
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        let num_hashes = self.params.num_hashes as usize;
+        let num_bands = self.params.num_bands as usize;
+        let schema = signatures_schema(self.params.num_hashes as i32);
+        let signature_write_rows = rows_per_batch(signature_row_bytes(num_hashes));
+        let mut signatures_writer = store
+            .new_index_file(SIGNATURES_FILENAME, schema.clone())
+            .await?;
+
+        // The signing stream (CPU-pool tasks behind `buffered`) only makes
+        // progress while it is polled, and the consumer below also waits on
+        // spills and on file writes. A driver keeps polling the stream into
+        // a bounded queue and the signature file is written by its own task,
+        // so neither wait idles the CPU pool.
+        let (signed_tx, mut signed_rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel(SIGNED_BATCH_QUEUE);
+        let driver = async move {
+            let mut signed_batches = std::pin::pin!(signed_batches);
+            while let Some(signed) = signed_batches.next().await
+                && signed_tx.send(signed).await.is_ok()
+            {}
+        };
+        let (batch_tx, mut batch_rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<RecordBatch>(4);
+        let writer = tokio::spawn(async move {
+            while let Some(batch) = batch_rx.recv().await {
+                signatures_writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+            }
+            Ok::<_, Error>(signatures_writer)
+        });
+        let schema = &schema;
+        let consumer = async move {
+            let mut sorter = RunSorter {
+                run: Vec::new(),
+                run_records: self.sort_run_records,
+                spill_limit_bytes: self.spill_limit_bytes,
+                partitions_per_band: SPILL_PARTITIONS / num_bands,
+                // The maps live beside the runs while spilling and beside the
+                // merge groups while merging: half the merge groups' share, a
+                // fifth of the memory budget.
+                partition_map_bytes: self.merge_group_records
+                    * MERGE_GROUPS_IN_FLIGHT
+                    * size_of::<(u64, u32)>()
+                    / 2,
+                shift: 0,
+                spill_dir: None,
+                spills: FuturesOrdered::new(),
+                spilled: Vec::new(),
+            };
+            let mut num_docs: u64 = 0;
+            // Signed batches are coalesced into larger write batches.
+            let mut row_ids: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+            let mut signatures: Vec<SignatureValue> = Vec::new();
+            let send = |batch: RecordBatch| async {
+                batch_tx.send(batch).await.map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal("signature writer task stopped before the build finished")
+                })
+            };
+            while let Some(signed) = signed_rx.recv().await {
+                let signed = signed?;
+                for keys in signed.band_keys.chunks_exact(num_bands) {
+                    sorter.push(keys, checked_doc_id(num_docs)?).await?;
+                    num_docs += 1;
+                }
+                row_ids.extend_from_slice(&signed.row_ids);
+                signatures.extend_from_slice(&signed.signatures);
+                if row_ids.len() >= signature_write_rows {
+                    send(signatures_batch(
+                        schema,
+                        std::mem::take(&mut row_ids),
+                        std::mem::take(&mut signatures),
+                        num_hashes as i32,
+                    )?)
+                    .await?;
+                }
+            }
+            if !row_ids.is_empty() {
+                send(signatures_batch(
+                    schema,
+                    row_ids,
+                    signatures,
+                    num_hashes as i32,
+                )?)
+                .await?;
+            }
+            Ok::<_, Error>((sorter, num_docs))
+        };
+        let ((), consumed) = futures::join!(driver, consumer);
+        // The writer's own error explains a consumer that failed to send.
+        let mut signatures_writer = writer
+            .await
+            .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("signature writer task failed: {err}")))??;
+        let (sorter, num_docs) = consumed?;
+
+        let metadata = HashMap::from([
+            (DETAILS_META_KEY.to_string(), self.params.details_hex()?),
+            (
+                INDEX_VERSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                MINHASH_LSH_INDEX_VERSION.to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let (signatures_file, runs) = futures::try_join!(
+            signatures_writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata),
+            sorter.finish()
+        )?;
+        let bands_file = self.write_bands(store, &runs, num_docs).await?;
+        Ok(vec![signatures_file, bands_file])
+    }
+
+    /// Write the sorted records to `bands.lance`; spilled runs are merged one
+    /// key-range group at a time, several groups in flight as independent
+    /// tasks, written in order.
+    async fn write_bands(
+        &self,
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        runs: &SortedRuns,
+        num_docs: u64,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        let mut bands = BandsWriter {
+            writer: store
+                .new_index_file(BANDS_FILENAME, BANDS_SCHEMA.clone())
+                .await?,
+            page_rows: self.page_rows,
+            rows_written: 0,
+            last_key: None,
+            page_max_keys: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        match runs {
+            SortedRuns::Resident(records) => {
+                for chunk in records.chunks(rows_per_batch(BAND_ROW_BYTES)) {
+                    let (keys, doc_ids) = chunk.iter().copied().unzip();
+                    bands.write_batch(keys, doc_ids).await?;
+                }
+            }
+            SortedRuns::Spilled(runs) => {
+                // Each group is its own task so gathering and sorting proceed
+                // while this loop waits on the writer. A group within the
+                // budget arrives as one batch; a larger one is streamed in
+                // batches through a channel that holds one at a time.
+                let budget = self.merge_group_records;
+                let mut merged =
+                    futures::stream::iter(merge_groups(runs, self.merge_group_records))
+                        .map(|group| {
+                            let runs = runs.clone();
+                            let (output, batches) = mpsc::channel(1);
+                            let task = tokio::spawn(async move {
+                                if group_records(&runs, &group) <= budget {
+                                    let batch = merge_group(&runs, group).await;
+                                    output.send(batch).await.map_err(|_| {
+                                        Error::internal(
+                                            "bands writer stopped before the merge finished",
+                                        )
+                                    })
+                                } else {
+                                    stream_merge_group(&runs, group, budget, output).await
+                                }
+                            });
+                            futures::future::ready((batches, task))
+                        })
+                        .buffered(
+                            (get_num_compute_intensive_cpus() / 4).clamp(1, MERGE_GROUPS_IN_FLIGHT),
+                        );
+                while let Some((mut batches, task)) = merged.next().await {
+                    while let Some(batch) = batches.recv().await {
+                        let (keys, doc_ids) = batch?;
+                        if !keys.is_empty() {
+                            bands.write_batch(keys, doc_ids).await?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    task.await
+                        .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("merge task failed: {err}")))??;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        bands.finish(&self.params, num_docs).await
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/index.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/index.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ab0f891e683
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/index.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1356 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! One segment of a MinHash LSH index: opening its files, candidate lookup
+//! through the page table, refining candidates against the signature table,
+//! prewarming, and the rebuilds that update, remap or merge segments.
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::scalar::RowAddrTranslatorRef;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+
+use std::collections::VecDeque;
+
+use futures::future::try_join_all;
+
+/// One logical page of `bands.lance`, cached per page.
+#[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub(super) struct BandPage {
+    keys: Vec<u64>,
+    doc_ids: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl BandPage {
+    fn try_from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Self> {
+        let corrupt = |message: String| Error::corrupt_file_named(BANDS_FILENAME, message);
+        let keys = batch
+            .column_by_name(BAND_KEY_COL)
+            .and_then(|column| column.as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>())
+            .filter(|keys| keys.null_count() == 0)
+            .ok_or_else(|| corrupt(format!("{BAND_KEY_COL} is not a non-null UInt64 column")))?;
+        let doc_ids = batch
+            .column_by_name(DOC_ID_COL)
+            .and_then(|column| column.as_primitive_opt::<UInt32Type>())
+            .filter(|doc_ids| doc_ids.null_count() == 0)
+            .ok_or_else(|| corrupt(format!("{DOC_ID_COL} is not a non-null UInt32 column")))?;
+        // Copy out of the batch so a cached page neither pins nor is charged
+        // for the buffers of every other page read in the same request.
+        Ok(Self {
+            keys: keys.values().to_vec(),
+            doc_ids: doc_ids.values().to_vec(),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct BandPageKey {
+    page: u32,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for BandPageKey {
+    type ValueType = BandPage;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("band-page-{}", self.page).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "MinHashLshBandPage"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.minhashlsh.band-page-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.page);
+    }
+}
+
+/// `signature_chunk_docs` consecutive documents of the signature table,
+/// resident after a prewarm.
+#[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub(super) struct SignatureChunk {
+    row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    /// `row_ids.len() * num_hashes` values.
+    signatures: Vec<SignatureValue>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct SignatureChunkKey {
+    chunk: u32,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for SignatureChunkKey {
+    type ValueType = SignatureChunk;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!("signature-chunk-{}", self.chunk).into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "MinHashLshSignatureChunk"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.minhashlsh.signature-chunk-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.chunk);
+    }
+}
+
+/// A single segment of a MinHash LSH index.
+pub struct MinHashLshIndex {
+    params: MinHashLshIndexParams,
+    generator: SignatureGenerator,
+    bands: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+    signatures: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+    page_rows: usize,
+    /// Largest band key of each logical page of `bands.lance`.
+    page_max_keys: Vec<u64>,
+    num_docs: usize,
+    /// Documents per resident signature chunk; see [`RESIDENT_CHUNK_BYTES`].
+    signature_chunk_docs: usize,
+    /// Candidates held per level of a search and rows per signature read:
+    /// one IO batch of signature rows.
+    pub(super) candidate_batch: usize,
+    /// Pages a walk reads per round: one IO batch of band rows, shared by the
+    /// buckets not yet walked to their end.
+    pub(super) window_pages: usize,
+    cache: WeakLanceCache,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for MinHashLshIndex {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("MinHashLshIndex")
+            .field("params", &self.params)
+            .field("num_docs", &self.num_docs)
+            .field("num_pages", &self.page_max_keys.len())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for MinHashLshIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // Pages and signature chunks live in the index cache, which sizes them
+        // itself; the parameters are a few strings, not worth counting.
+        self.page_max_keys.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+fn metadata_value<'a>(
+    metadata: &'a HashMap<String, String>,
+    file: &str,
+    key: &str,
+) -> Result<&'a String> {
+    metadata.get(key).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::corrupt_file_named(file, format!("missing schema metadata key {key}"))
+    })
+}
+
+/// Checks that `reader` is `file` of a segment built from `params`: the exact
+/// schema, the details repeated in the metadata and the layout version.
+fn check_index_file(
+    reader: &dyn IndexReader,
+    file: &str,
+    expected: &Schema,
+    params: &MinHashLshIndexParams,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let corrupt = |message: String| Error::corrupt_file_named(file, message);
+    let expected = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(expected)?;
+    reader
+        .schema()
+        .check_compatible(&expected, &SchemaCompareOptions::default())
+        .map_err(|err| corrupt(format!("schema does not match the expected schema: {err}")))?;
+    let metadata = &reader.schema().metadata;
+    let index_version: u32 = metadata_value(metadata, file, INDEX_VERSION_META_KEY)?
+        .parse()
+        .map_err(|err| corrupt(format!("invalid {INDEX_VERSION_META_KEY}: {err}")))?;
+    if index_version > MINHASH_LSH_INDEX_VERSION {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "MinHash LSH index version {index_version} is newer than the supported version {MINHASH_LSH_INDEX_VERSION}"
+        )));
+    }
+    let file_params =
+        MinHashLshIndexParams::from_details_hex(metadata_value(metadata, file, DETAILS_META_KEY)?)?;
+    if file_params != *params {
+        return Err(corrupt(format!(
+            "index file details {file_params:?} do not match index details {params:?}"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+impl MinHashLshIndex {
+    pub async fn load(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        details: &prost_types::Any,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        let params = MinHashLshIndexParams::from_details_any(details)?;
+        let (bands, signatures) = futures::try_join!(
+            store.open_index_file(BANDS_FILENAME),
+            store.open_index_file(SIGNATURES_FILENAME)
+        )?;
+
+        check_index_file(bands.as_ref(), BANDS_FILENAME, &BANDS_SCHEMA, &params)?;
+        check_index_file(
+            signatures.as_ref(),
+            SIGNATURES_FILENAME,
+            &signatures_schema(params.num_hashes as i32),
+            &params,
+        )?;
+
+        let metadata = &bands.schema().metadata;
+        let corrupt = |message: String| Error::corrupt_file_named(BANDS_FILENAME, message);
+        let page_rows: usize = metadata_value(metadata, BANDS_FILENAME, PAGE_ROWS_META_KEY)?
+            .parse()
+            .map_err(|err| corrupt(format!("invalid {PAGE_ROWS_META_KEY}: {err}")))?;
+        if page_rows == 0 {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!("{PAGE_ROWS_META_KEY} must be positive")));
+        }
+        let num_docs: usize = metadata_value(metadata, BANDS_FILENAME, NUM_DOCS_META_KEY)?
+            .parse()
+            .map_err(|err| corrupt(format!("invalid {NUM_DOCS_META_KEY}: {err}")))?;
+        if num_docs != signatures.num_rows() {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "bands file records {num_docs} documents but {SIGNATURES_FILENAME} has {} rows",
+                signatures.num_rows()
+            )));
+        }
+        let page_table_buffer: u32 =
+            metadata_value(metadata, BANDS_FILENAME, PAGE_TABLE_BUFFER_META_KEY)?
+                .parse()
+                .map_err(|err| corrupt(format!("invalid {PAGE_TABLE_BUFFER_META_KEY}: {err}")))?;
+        let page_table = bands.read_global_buffer(page_table_buffer).await?;
+        if page_table.len() % 8 != 0 {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "page table buffer length {} is not a multiple of 8",
+                page_table.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let page_max_keys: Vec<u64> = page_table
+            .as_chunks::<8>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .map(|bytes| u64::from_le_bytes(*bytes))
+            .collect();
+        let expected_pages = bands.num_rows().div_ceil(page_rows);
+        if page_max_keys.len() != expected_pages {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "page table has {} entries but {} rows at {page_rows} rows per page need {expected_pages}",
+                page_max_keys.len(),
+                bands.num_rows()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let generator = SignatureGenerator::try_new(&params)?;
+        let row_bytes = signature_row_bytes(params.num_hashes as usize);
+        let signature_chunk_docs = (RESIDENT_CHUNK_BYTES / row_bytes).max(1);
+        let candidate_batch = rows_per_batch(row_bytes);
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            params,
+            generator,
+            bands,
+            signatures,
+            page_rows,
+            page_max_keys,
+            num_docs,
+            signature_chunk_docs,
+            candidate_batch,
+            window_pages: (rows_per_batch(BAND_ROW_BYTES) / page_rows).max(1),
+            cache: WeakLanceCache::from(cache),
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &MinHashLshIndexParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    /// Number of documents (rows with at least one token) in this segment.
+    pub fn num_docs(&self) -> usize {
+        self.num_docs
+    }
+
+    fn signature_source<'a>(&self, transform: RowIdTransform<'a>) -> SignatureSource<'a> {
+        SignatureSource {
+            reader: self.signatures.clone(),
+            num_docs: self.num_docs,
+            frag_reuse_index: self.frag_reuse_index.clone(),
+            transform,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn created_index(&self, files: Vec<IndexFile>) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: self.params.details_any()?,
+            index_version: MINHASH_LSH_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn page_range(&self, page: u32) -> Range<usize> {
+        let start = page as usize * self.page_rows;
+        start..(start + self.page_rows).min(self.bands.num_rows())
+    }
+
+    /// Signature and band keys of `text`, or `None` when the text has no
+    /// tokens and therefore matches nothing.
+    pub fn query_signature(&self, text: &str) -> Option<QuerySignature> {
+        QuerySignature::compute(&mut self.generator.clone(), text)
+    }
+
+    /// Return the `limit` rows with the smallest Jaccard distance to `text`
+    /// among rows selected by `mask`, ordered by ascending distance and then
+    /// row id. Which rows are returned among equal distances is not specified.
+    pub async fn search_text(
+        &self,
+        text: &str,
+        limit: usize,
+        mask: &RowAddrMask,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<MinHashHit>> {
+        match self.query_signature(text) {
+            Some(query) => self.search_signature(&query, limit, mask, metrics).await,
+            None => Ok(Vec::new()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::search_text`] for a signature computed by
+    /// [`Self::query_signature`] on any segment with the same parameters.
+    pub async fn search_signature(
+        &self,
+        query: &QuerySignature,
+        limit: usize,
+        mask: &RowAddrMask,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<MinHashHit>> {
+        if query.signature.len() != self.params.num_hashes as usize {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "query signature has {} values but the index uses num_hashes={}",
+                query.signature.len(),
+                self.params.num_hashes
+            )));
+        }
+        if limit == 0 || self.num_docs == 0 {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let mut buckets = self.open_buckets(&query.band_keys, metrics).await?;
+        if buckets.cursors.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        self.refine(&mut buckets, &query.signature, limit, mask, metrics)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Locate the bucket of every band key and position a cursor at its
+    /// first row.
+    ///
+    /// A bucket is a run of equal keys in the sorted bands file, and the page
+    /// table locates it without probing: its pages run from the first page
+    /// whose max key reaches the key through the first page whose max key
+    /// exceeds it, and the pages strictly between hold nothing else. The two
+    /// boundary pages of each bucket are fetched through the cache and give
+    /// the exact row range by binary search; the cursor then walks the rows
+    /// one window of pages at a time, through the cache as well.
+    async fn open_buckets(
+        &self,
+        band_keys: &[u64],
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<BucketScan> {
+        let num_pages = self.page_max_keys.len();
+        let located: Vec<(u64, usize, usize)> = band_keys
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|&key| {
+                let first = self.page_max_keys.partition_point(|&max_key| max_key < key);
+                // `first == num_pages` means the key is larger than every stored key.
+                (first < num_pages).then(|| {
+                    let end = self
+                        .page_max_keys
+                        .partition_point(|&max_key| max_key <= key);
+                    (key, first, end)
+                })
+            })
+            .collect();
+        metrics.record_comparisons(band_keys.len());
+        let mut boundary_pages: Vec<u32> = located
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|&(_, first, end)| [first as u32, end as u32])
+            .filter(|&page| (page as usize) < num_pages)
+            .collect();
+        boundary_pages.sort_unstable();
+        boundary_pages.dedup();
+        let pages = self.load_pages(&boundary_pages, metrics).await?;
+        let page = |page: usize| {
+            pages.get(&(page as u32)).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!("band page {page} was requested but not loaded"))
+            })
+        };
+        let mut cursors = Vec::with_capacity(located.len());
+        for (key, first_page, end_page) in located {
+            let first = page(first_page)?;
+            let page_start = first_page * self.page_rows;
+            let row = page_start + first.keys.partition_point(|&k| k < key);
+            let end = if end_page < num_pages {
+                end_page * self.page_rows + page(end_page)?.keys.partition_point(|&k| k <= key)
+            } else {
+                // The bucket reaches the end of the file
+                self.bands.num_rows()
+            };
+            if row < end {
+                // The first window is the bucket's rows of the page in hand,
+                // all of them for the usual bucket within one page
+                let window = first.doc_ids
+                    [row - page_start..end.min(page_start + first.doc_ids.len()) - page_start]
+                    .to_vec();
+                cursors.push(BucketCursor {
+                    next: row,
+                    end,
+                    window: window.into_iter(),
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(BucketScan { cursors })
+    }
+
+    /// Fetch pages through the cache; the pages missing from the cache are
+    /// read with scattered reads of at most [`IO_BATCH_BYTES`] each.
+    async fn load_pages(
+        &self,
+        pages: &[u32],
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<HashMap<u32, Arc<BandPage>>> {
+        let mut loaded = HashMap::with_capacity(pages.len());
+        let mut missing = Vec::new();
+        for &page in pages {
+            match self.cache.get_with_key(&BandPageKey { page }).await {
+                Some(cached) => {
+                    metrics.record_index_cache_hit();
+                    loaded.insert(page, cached);
+                }
+                None => missing.push(page),
+            }
+        }
+        metrics.record_index_cache_misses(missing.len());
+        let pages_per_read = (rows_per_batch(BAND_ROW_BYTES) / self.page_rows).max(1);
+        for missing in missing.chunks(pages_per_read) {
+            metrics.record_parts_loaded(missing.len());
+            tracing::info!(
+                target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS,
+                r#type = IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART,
+                index_type = "minhashlsh",
+                num_parts = missing.len(),
+            );
+            let ranges: Vec<Range<usize>> =
+                missing.iter().map(|&page| self.page_range(page)).collect();
+            let batch = self.bands.read_ranges(&ranges, None).await?;
+            let mut offset = 0;
+            for (&page, range) in missing.iter().zip(&ranges) {
+                let band_page =
+                    Arc::new(BandPage::try_from_batch(&batch.slice(offset, range.len()))?);
+                offset += range.len();
+                self.cache
+                    .insert_with_key(&BandPageKey { page }, band_page.clone())
+                    .await;
+                loaded.insert(page, band_page);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(loaded)
+    }
+
+    async fn load_signature_chunk(&self, chunk: usize) -> Result<SignatureChunk> {
+        let num_hashes = self.params.num_hashes as usize;
+        let start = chunk * self.signature_chunk_docs;
+        let end = (start + self.signature_chunk_docs).min(self.num_docs);
+        let batch = self.signatures.read_range(start..end, None).await?;
+        let (row_ids, signatures) = signature_columns(&batch, num_hashes)?;
+        if row_ids.len() != end - start {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                SIGNATURES_FILENAME,
+                format!(
+                    "read of docs {start}..{end} returned {} rows",
+                    row_ids.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(SignatureChunk {
+            row_ids: row_ids.values().to_vec(),
+            signatures: signatures.to_vec(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// The doc ids of the `pages` pages of `cursor`'s bucket that follow the
+    /// rows it holds, fetched through the page cache (the pages missing from
+    /// it are read together).
+    async fn load_window(
+        &self,
+        cursor: &BucketCursor,
+        pages: usize,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<u32>> {
+        let row = cursor.next + cursor.window.as_slice().len();
+        let first_page = row / self.page_rows;
+        let last_page = ((cursor.end - 1) / self.page_rows).min(first_page + pages - 1);
+        let pages: Vec<u32> = (first_page..=last_page).map(|page| page as u32).collect();
+        let loaded = self.load_pages(&pages, metrics).await?;
+        let to = cursor.end.min((last_page + 1) * self.page_rows);
+        let mut window = Vec::with_capacity(to - row);
+        for page in pages {
+            let band_page = loaded.get(&page).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!("band page {page} was requested but not loaded"))
+            })?;
+            let page_start = page as usize * self.page_rows;
+            let from = row.max(page_start) - page_start;
+            let until = to.min(page_start + band_page.doc_ids.len()) - page_start;
+            window.extend_from_slice(&band_page.doc_ids[from..until]);
+        }
+        Ok(window)
+    }
+
+    /// The next doc id in any bucket of `scan`, in ascending order, with the
+    /// number of buckets (bands) it appears in; `None` once every bucket is
+    /// exhausted. The buckets are sorted by doc id, so this is a merge of
+    /// their cursors, each refilled with a bounded window as it runs out.
+    async fn next_candidate(
+        &self,
+        scan: &mut BucketScan,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Option<(u32, u32)>> {
+        let live = |cursor: &BucketCursor| cursor.next < cursor.end;
+        let drained = |cursor: &BucketCursor| live(cursor) && cursor.window.as_slice().is_empty();
+        if scan.cursors.iter().any(drained) {
+            // The page budget is shared by the buckets still being walked, so
+            // a walk that outlives the others reads in full batches.
+            let live_cursors = scan.cursors.iter().filter(|cursor| live(cursor)).count();
+            let pages = (self.window_pages / live_cursors.max(1)).max(1);
+            let window_rows = pages * self.page_rows;
+            // One round tops up every bucket that is running low, not only the
+            // drained one, so buckets advancing together cost one concurrent
+            // read per round rather than one read each. A bucket the merge has
+            // not reached yet keeps its window and stops reading, so no bucket
+            // holds more than two windows.
+            let refills: Vec<usize> = scan
+                .cursors
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .filter(|(_, cursor)| {
+                    let held = cursor.window.as_slice().len();
+                    held < window_rows && cursor.next + held < cursor.end
+                })
+                .map(|(index, _)| index)
+                .collect();
+            let windows = try_join_all(
+                refills
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|&index| self.load_window(&scan.cursors[index], pages, metrics)),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            for (&index, window) in refills.iter().zip(windows) {
+                let cursor = &mut scan.cursors[index];
+                if cursor.window.as_slice().is_empty() {
+                    cursor.window = window.into_iter();
+                } else {
+                    let mut held = cursor.window.as_slice().to_vec();
+                    held.extend(window);
+                    cursor.window = held.into_iter();
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let mut min_doc = u32::MAX;
+        let mut shared = 0u32;
+        for cursor in &scan.cursors {
+            if let Some(&doc_id) = cursor.window.as_slice().first() {
+                if doc_id < min_doc {
+                    min_doc = doc_id;
+                    shared = 1;
+                } else if doc_id == min_doc {
+                    shared += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if shared == 0 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if min_doc as usize >= self.num_docs {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                BANDS_FILENAME,
+                format!(
+                    "posting references doc id {min_doc} but the segment has {} documents",
+                    self.num_docs
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        for cursor in &mut scan.cursors {
+            if cursor.window.as_slice().first() == Some(&min_doc) {
+                cursor.window.next();
+                cursor.next += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Some((min_doc, shared)))
+    }
+
+    /// Walk the buckets from the cursors' positions, sorting every doc id met
+    /// into the level of its shared band count. Each level keeps its first
+    /// `cap` doc ids and remembers where the scan stood when it filled up, so
+    /// the level can be continued from there. Returns when level
+    /// `pause_level` fills up or when the buckets are exhausted.
+    async fn scan_levels(
+        &self,
+        scan: &mut BucketScan,
+        levels: &mut CandidateLevels,
+        pause_level: usize,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        while let Some((doc_id, shared)) = self.next_candidate(scan, metrics).await? {
+            let shared = shared as usize;
+            levels.counts[shared] += 1;
+            let list = &mut levels.lists[shared];
+            if list.len() < levels.cap {
+                list.push(doc_id);
+                if list.len() == levels.cap {
+                    levels.resume[shared] = Some(scan.positions());
+                    if shared == pause_level {
+                        return Ok(());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        levels.complete = true;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// The next doc id of level `shared` from the cursors' positions.
+    async fn next_in_level(
+        &self,
+        scan: &mut BucketScan,
+        shared: usize,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Option<u32>> {
+        while let Some((doc_id, count)) = self.next_candidate(scan, metrics).await? {
+            if count as usize == shared {
+                return Ok(Some(doc_id));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Up to `cap` further doc ids of level `shared`, and whether the buckets
+    /// are exhausted.
+    async fn next_level_chunk(
+        &self,
+        scan: &mut BucketScan,
+        shared: usize,
+        cap: usize,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<(Vec<u32>, bool)> {
+        let mut doc_ids = Vec::new();
+        while doc_ids.len() < cap {
+            match self.next_in_level(scan, shared, metrics).await? {
+                Some(doc_id) => doc_ids.push(doc_id),
+                None => return Ok((doc_ids, true)),
+            }
+        }
+        Ok((doc_ids, false))
+    }
+
+    /// Score the candidates of the buckets against the query signature and
+    /// keep the best `limit` rows selected by `mask`.
+    ///
+    /// A candidate sharing `m` of the `b` bands differs from the query in at
+    /// least one value of every other band, so its distance is at least
+    /// `(b - m) / k`. Candidates are therefore queued by decreasing shared
+    /// bands in [`Pending`]: the top level as the walk finds it, then every
+    /// lower level, its first batch held by the walk and the rest walked again
+    /// from where it overflowed. Nothing is materialized beyond what the
+    /// results miss plus one batch per level. Which rows are returned among
+    /// equal distances is not specified.
+    async fn refine(
+        &self,
+        scan: &mut BucketScan,
+        query: &[SignatureValue],
+        limit: usize,
+        mask: &RowAddrMask,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<MinHashHit>> {
+        let num_hashes = query.len();
+        let num_bands = self.params.num_bands as usize;
+        let cap = self.candidate_batch;
+        let mut scorer = Scorer {
+            hits: TopHits::new(limit),
+            query,
+            mask,
+            remapper: self.frag_reuse_index.as_deref(),
+        };
+        let mut levels = CandidateLevels::new(num_bands, cap);
+        let missing = scorer.hits.missing();
+        let mut pending = Pending {
+            candidates: VecDeque::new(),
+            must: missing,
+            batch_rows: missing.max(MIN_REFINE_READ_ROWS).min(cap),
+        };
+
+        // Top level: candidates sharing every band, at distance zero unless a
+        // band hash collided. The walk pauses whenever a batch of them is
+        // held, so a large cluster can end the search without being walked.
+        loop {
+            self.scan_levels(scan, &mut levels, num_bands, metrics)
+                .await?;
+            pending.queue(0.0, std::mem::take(&mut levels.lists[num_bands]));
+            if !self
+                .read_queued(&mut pending, false, false, &mut scorer, metrics)
+                .await?
+            {
+                return Ok(scorer.hits.into_sorted());
+            }
+            if levels.complete {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Lower levels, complete counts known.
+        for shared in (1..num_bands).rev() {
+            let floor = (num_bands - shared) as f32 / num_hashes as f32;
+            if scorer.done(pending.floor().unwrap_or(floor)) {
+                return Ok(scorer.hits.into_sorted());
+            }
+            pending.queue(floor, std::mem::take(&mut levels.lists[shared]));
+            if let Some(positions) = levels.resume[shared].take() {
+                scan.seek(&positions);
+                let remaining = levels.counts[shared] - cap as u64;
+                if remaining.saturating_mul(100)
+                    > (self.num_docs as u64).saturating_mul(SPARSE_REFINE_READ_PERCENT)
+                {
+                    if !self
+                        .read_queued(&mut pending, true, true, &mut scorer, metrics)
+                        .await?
+                    {
+                        return Ok(scorer.hits.into_sorted());
+                    }
+                    self.score_level_dense(scan, shared, floor, &mut scorer, metrics)
+                        .await?;
+                    // The scan read far more than the results missed
+                    pending.must = 0;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                loop {
+                    if !self
+                        .read_queued(&mut pending, false, false, &mut scorer, metrics)
+                        .await?
+                        || scorer.done(pending.floor().unwrap_or(floor))
+                    {
+                        return Ok(scorer.hits.into_sorted());
+                    }
+                    let (doc_ids, exhausted) =
+                        self.next_level_chunk(scan, shared, cap, metrics).await?;
+                    pending.queue(floor, doc_ids);
+                    if exhausted {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if !self
+                .read_queued(&mut pending, true, false, &mut scorer, metrics)
+                .await?
+            {
+                return Ok(scorer.hits.into_sorted());
+            }
+        }
+        self.read_queued(&mut pending, true, true, &mut scorer, metrics)
+            .await?;
+        Ok(scorer.hits.into_sorted())
+    }
+
+    /// Read what `pending` holds as far as its plan allows: first the
+    /// candidates the results were missing when the search started, without
+    /// a stop check in between, and every queued one when the queue ends at
+    /// a level boundary (`level_end`), the only place a search usually stops;
+    /// then batches of doubling size, each only while its first candidate can
+    /// still improve the results. With `flush`, whatever is queued is read.
+    /// Returns false once the search can stop.
+    async fn read_queued(
+        &self,
+        pending: &mut Pending,
+        level_end: bool,
+        flush: bool,
+        scorer: &mut Scorer<'_>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        while let Some(floor) = pending.floor() {
+            let queued = pending.candidates.len();
+            let rows = if pending.must > 0 {
+                if queued < pending.must && !flush {
+                    return Ok(true);
+                }
+                if level_end || flush {
+                    queued
+                } else {
+                    pending.must
+                }
+            } else {
+                if scorer.done(floor) {
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+                if queued < pending.batch_rows && !flush {
+                    return Ok(true);
+                }
+                pending.batch_rows.min(queued)
+            };
+            // Sorted as a whole before it is split into IO batches, so that
+            // neighbouring rows share a batch and their requests coalesce
+            let mut doc_ids: Vec<u32> = pending
+                .candidates
+                .drain(..rows)
+                .map(|(doc_id, _)| doc_id)
+                .collect();
+            doc_ids.sort_unstable();
+            for batch in doc_ids.chunks(self.candidate_batch) {
+                self.score_batch(batch, scorer, metrics).await?;
+            }
+            if pending.must > 0 {
+                pending.must = pending.must.saturating_sub(rows);
+            } else {
+                pending.batch_rows = (pending.batch_rows * 2).min(self.candidate_batch);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(true)
+    }
+
+    /// Score one batch of ascending `doc_ids`: those in resident signature
+    /// chunks from memory, the rest with one scattered read.
+    async fn score_batch(
+        &self,
+        doc_ids: &[u32],
+        scorer: &mut Scorer<'_>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let num_hashes = self.params.num_hashes as usize;
+        let chunk_docs = self.signature_chunk_docs;
+        metrics.record_comparisons(doc_ids.len());
+        let mut pending: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
+        let mut start = 0;
+        while start < doc_ids.len() {
+            let chunk = doc_ids[start] as usize / chunk_docs;
+            let end = start
+                + doc_ids[start..].partition_point(|&doc_id| doc_id as usize / chunk_docs == chunk);
+            let group = &doc_ids[start..end];
+            start = end;
+            // A chunk that is not resident is read, not loaded, so only a
+            // hit is a cache event.
+            let Some(resident) = self
+                .cache
+                .get_with_key(&SignatureChunkKey {
+                    chunk: chunk as u32,
+                })
+                .await
+            else {
+                pending.extend_from_slice(group);
+                continue;
+            };
+            metrics.record_index_cache_hit();
+            let first_doc = chunk * chunk_docs;
+            for &doc_id in group {
+                let offset = doc_id as usize - first_doc;
+                let Some(row_id) = resident.row_ids.get(offset) else {
+                    return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                        SIGNATURES_FILENAME,
+                        format!("resident signature chunk {chunk} has no doc {doc_id}"),
+                    ));
+                };
+                scorer.score(
+                    *row_id,
+                    &resident.signatures[offset * num_hashes..(offset + 1) * num_hashes],
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        if pending.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        metrics.record_part_load();
+        tracing::info!(
+            target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS,
+            r#type = IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART,
+            index_type = "minhashlsh",
+            part_id = "signatures",
+        );
+        let ranges = doc_id_ranges(pending.iter().copied());
+        let batch = self.signatures.read_ranges(&ranges, None).await?;
+        if batch.num_rows() != pending.len() {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                SIGNATURES_FILENAME,
+                format!(
+                    "scattered read returned {} rows for {} candidates",
+                    batch.num_rows(),
+                    pending.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let (row_ids, signatures) = signature_columns(&batch, num_hashes)?;
+        for (row_id, signature) in row_ids
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(signatures.chunks_exact(num_hashes))
+        {
+            scorer.score(*row_id, signature);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Score the rest of level `shared` by walking the buckets and the
+    /// signature table together in doc id order, both sequentially: cheaper
+    /// than scattered reads once the level covers much of the segment.
+    async fn score_level_dense(
+        &self,
+        scan: &mut BucketScan,
+        shared: usize,
+        floor: f32,
+        scorer: &mut Scorer<'_>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let num_hashes = self.params.num_hashes as usize;
+        let Some(mut pending) = self.next_in_level(scan, shared, metrics).await? else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        metrics.record_part_load();
+        tracing::info!(
+            target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS,
+            r#type = IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART,
+            index_type = "minhashlsh",
+            part_id = "signatures",
+        );
+        let mut first_row = pending as usize;
+        let mut stream = std::pin::pin!(scan_rows(
+            self.signatures.clone(),
+            first_row,
+            self.num_docs,
+            rows_per_batch(signature_row_bytes(num_hashes)),
+        ));
+        while let Some(batch) = stream.try_next().await? {
+            let end_row = first_row + batch.num_rows();
+            let (row_ids, signatures) = signature_columns(&batch, num_hashes)?;
+            let mut scored = 0;
+            while (pending as usize) < end_row {
+                let offset = pending as usize - first_row;
+                scorer.score(
+                    row_ids.value(offset),
+                    &signatures[offset * num_hashes..(offset + 1) * num_hashes],
+                );
+                scored += 1;
+                match self.next_in_level(scan, shared, metrics).await? {
+                    Some(doc_id) => pending = doc_id,
+                    None => {
+                        metrics.record_comparisons(scored);
+                        return Ok(());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            metrics.record_comparisons(scored);
+            if scorer.done(floor) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            first_row = end_row;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// One bucket of a search: the rows of one band key, walked in doc id order
+/// through a bounded window.
+struct BucketCursor {
+    /// Absolute row of the head: the next doc id to yield.
+    next: usize,
+    /// Row after the bucket's last row.
+    end: usize,
+    /// Doc ids of the rows from `next`: up to two windows of pages, topped
+    /// up whenever any bucket runs dry.
+    window: std::vec::IntoIter<u32>,
+}
+
+/// The cursors of a search's buckets, merged in doc id order by
+/// [`MinHashLshIndex::next_candidate`].
+struct BucketScan {
+    cursors: Vec<BucketCursor>,
+}
+
+impl BucketScan {
+    /// The absolute row each cursor stands at.
+    fn positions(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
+        self.cursors.iter().map(|cursor| cursor.next).collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Move every cursor to `positions`, dropping the windows held.
+    fn seek(&mut self, positions: &[usize]) {
+        for (cursor, &row) in self.cursors.iter_mut().zip(positions) {
+            cursor.next = row;
+            cursor.window = Vec::new().into_iter();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Candidates sorted by the number of bands they share with the query, each
+/// level holding at most `cap` doc ids in ascending order.
+struct CandidateLevels {
+    cap: usize,
+    /// Indexed by shared band count; index 0 is unused.
+    lists: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+    /// Candidates met per level, including those beyond `cap`.
+    counts: Vec<u64>,
+    /// Cursor positions right after a level reached `cap`, where a walk
+    /// continuing that level starts.
+    resume: Vec<Option<Vec<usize>>>,
+    /// Whether the buckets were walked to the end, making `counts` exact.
+    complete: bool,
+}
+
+impl CandidateLevels {
+    fn new(num_bands: usize, cap: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            cap,
+            lists: vec![Vec::new(); num_bands + 1],
+            counts: vec![0; num_bands + 1],
+            resume: vec![None; num_bands + 1],
+            complete: false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Candidates waiting for their signatures, in refine order (by decreasing
+/// shared bands, each level in doc id order) with the smallest distance each
+/// can have, and how much to read at once (see [`MinHashLshIndex::read_queued`]).
+struct Pending {
+    candidates: VecDeque<(u32, f32)>,
+    /// Candidates still to read before the first stop check.
+    must: usize,
+    /// Candidates of the next read once `must` is read.
+    batch_rows: usize,
+}
+
+impl Pending {
+    /// Queue the doc ids of one level, whose candidates are at least `floor`
+    /// away from the query.
+    fn queue(&mut self, floor: f32, doc_ids: Vec<u32>) {
+        self.candidates
+            .extend(doc_ids.into_iter().map(|doc_id| (doc_id, floor)));
+    }
+
+    /// The smallest distance the next candidate to read can have.
+    fn floor(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        self.candidates.front().map(|&(_, floor)| floor)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Scores candidate rows against the query signature into a bounded result.
+struct Scorer<'a> {
+    hits: TopHits,
+    query: &'a [SignatureValue],
+    mask: &'a RowAddrMask,
+    remapper: Option<&'a dyn RowIdRemapper>,
+}
+
+impl Scorer<'_> {
+    fn score(&mut self, row_id: u64, signature: &[SignatureValue]) {
+        let row_id = match self.remapper {
+            Some(remapper) => match remapper.remap_row_id(row_id) {
+                Some(row_id) => row_id,
+                None => return,
+            },
+            None => row_id,
+        };
+        if !self.mask.selected(row_id) {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.hits.push(MinHashHit {
+            row_id,
+            distance: OrderedFloat(1.0 - estimate_jaccard(self.query, signature)),
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Whether no candidate at distance `floor` or more can improve the
+    /// results held.
+    fn done(&self, floor: f32) -> bool {
+        self.hits.cutoff().is_some_and(|cutoff| cutoff <= floor)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Coalesce ascending doc ids into contiguous row ranges.
+fn doc_id_ranges(doc_ids: impl Iterator<Item = u32>) -> Vec<Range<usize>> {
+    let mut ranges: Vec<Range<usize>> = Vec::new();
+    for doc_id in doc_ids {
+        let doc_id = doc_id as usize;
+        match ranges.last_mut() {
+            Some(last) if last.end == doc_id => last.end += 1,
+            _ => ranges.push(doc_id..doc_id + 1),
+        }
+    }
+    ranges
+}
+
+/// Extract the row id column and the flattened signature values of a batch
+/// read from `signatures.lance`.
+pub(super) fn signature_columns(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    num_hashes: usize,
+) -> Result<(&UInt64Array, &[SignatureValue])> {
+    let corrupt = |message: String| Error::corrupt_file_named(SIGNATURES_FILENAME, message);
+    let row_ids = batch
+        .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+        .and_then(|column| column.as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>())
+        .ok_or_else(|| corrupt(format!("missing UInt64 column {ROW_ID}")))?;
+    let signatures = batch
+        .column_by_name(SIGNATURE_COL)
+        .and_then(|column| column.as_fixed_size_list_opt())
+        .ok_or_else(|| corrupt(format!("missing FixedSizeList column {SIGNATURE_COL}")))?;
+    if signatures.value_length() as usize != num_hashes {
+        return Err(corrupt(format!(
+            "signature width {} does not match num_hashes {num_hashes}",
+            signatures.value_length()
+        )));
+    }
+    let values = signatures
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive_opt::<UInt16Type>()
+        .filter(|values| values.null_count() == 0)
+        .ok_or_else(|| corrupt(format!("{SIGNATURE_COL} values are not non-null UInt16")))?;
+    Ok((row_ids, values.values()))
+}
+
+/// Stream rows `first_row..num_rows` of `reader` as `rows_per_read` batches
+/// with a few reads in flight.
+pub(super) fn scan_rows(
+    reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+    first_row: usize,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    rows_per_read: usize,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send {
+    let ranges: Vec<Range<usize>> = (first_row..num_rows)
+        .step_by(rows_per_read.max(1))
+        .map(|start| start..(start + rows_per_read).min(num_rows))
+        .collect();
+    futures::stream::iter(ranges)
+        .map(move |range| {
+            let reader = reader.clone();
+            async move { reader.read_range(range, None).await }
+        })
+        .buffered(READ_CONCURRENCY)
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl Index for MinHashLshIndex {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index> {
+        self
+    }
+
+    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        // Load what the cache can hold, signature chunks first: a scattered
+        // signature read costs a query far more than a page read.
+        let capacity = self.cache.capacity_bytes();
+        if capacity == Some(0) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let mut budget = capacity.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        let num_chunks = self.num_docs.div_ceil(self.signature_chunk_docs);
+        let mut chunks_loaded = 0;
+        while chunks_loaded < num_chunks {
+            let start = chunks_loaded * self.signature_chunk_docs;
+            let docs = self.signature_chunk_docs.min(self.num_docs - start);
+            let bytes = docs * signature_row_bytes(self.params.num_hashes as usize);
+            if bytes > budget {
+                break;
+            }
+            budget -= bytes;
+            self.cache
+                .get_or_insert_with_key(
+                    SignatureChunkKey {
+                        chunk: chunks_loaded as u32,
+                    },
+                    || self.load_signature_chunk(chunks_loaded),
+                )
+                .await?;
+            chunks_loaded += 1;
+        }
+
+        let num_rows = self.bands.num_rows();
+        let num_pages = self.page_max_keys.len();
+        let page_bytes = self.page_rows * BAND_ROW_BYTES;
+        let pages_to_load = (budget / page_bytes).min(num_pages);
+        let pages_per_read = (RESIDENT_CHUNK_BYTES / page_bytes).max(1);
+        for first_page in (0..pages_to_load).step_by(pages_per_read) {
+            let last_page = (first_page + pages_per_read).min(pages_to_load);
+            let rows = first_page * self.page_rows..(last_page * self.page_rows).min(num_rows);
+            let batch = self.bands.read_range(rows, None).await?;
+            for page in first_page..last_page {
+                let range = self.page_range(page as u32);
+                let page_batch =
+                    batch.slice(range.start - first_page * self.page_rows, range.len());
+                let band_page = Arc::new(BandPage::try_from_batch(&page_batch)?);
+                self.cache
+                    .insert_with_key(&BandPageKey { page: page as u32 }, band_page)
+                    .await;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if chunks_loaded < num_chunks || pages_to_load < num_pages {
+            log::warn!(
+                "MinHash LSH prewarm kept {chunks_loaded} of {num_chunks} signature chunks and {pages_to_load} of {num_pages} band pages: the index cache capacity is {} bytes",
+                capacity.unwrap_or(0)
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+        Ok(serde_json::json!({
+            "type": "MinHashLsh",
+            "num_docs": self.num_docs,
+            "num_pages": self.page_max_keys.len(),
+            "num_hashes": self.params.num_hashes,
+            "num_bands": self.params.num_bands,
+            "shingle_size": self.params.shingle_size,
+            "signature_version": SIGNATURE_VERSION,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
+        IndexType::MinHashLsh
+    }
+
+    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        // The signature table stores row ids, which no longer identify a
+        // fragment once stable row ids are enabled; coverage is recorded in
+        // the index metadata when a segment is committed.
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "MinHash LSH indices do not recalculate fragment coverage from their files; the fragment bitmap of the index metadata is authoritative".to_string(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+impl MinHashLshIndex {
+    /// The one remap implementation: the legacy `remap` (an in-memory
+    /// mapping, borrowed as a synchronous translator) and `remap_streaming`
+    /// both come here, so neither copies a map nor delegates to the other.
+    async fn remap_with(
+        &self,
+        mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let files = MinHashLshIndexBuilder::try_new(self.params.clone())?
+            .rebuild_from(
+                vec![self.signature_source(RowIdTransform::Remap(mapping))],
+                None,
+                dest_store,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        self.created_index(files)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndex for MinHashLshIndex {
+    async fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "MinHash LSH index cannot evaluate scalar filter {query:?}; query it with a MinHash similarity search instead"
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn remap(
+        &self,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        self.remap_with(mapping.into(), dest_store).await
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        self.remap_with(translator.as_ref(), dest_store).await
+    }
+
+    async fn update(
+        &self,
+        new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filter: Option<OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let transform = match &old_data_filter {
+            Some(filter) => RowIdTransform::Filter(filter),
+            None => RowIdTransform::Keep,
+        };
+        let files = MinHashLshIndexBuilder::try_new(self.params.clone())?
+            .rebuild_from(
+                vec![self.signature_source(transform)],
+                Some(new_data),
+                dest_store,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        self.created_index(files)
+    }
+
+    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
+        UpdateCriteria::only_new_data(TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_id())
+    }
+
+    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
+        Ok(ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::MinHashLsh).with_params(&self.params))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Merge segments into one new segment in `dest_store`, keeping only the rows
+/// each segment's filter selects. Every segment must have been built with the
+/// same parameters.
+pub async fn merge_minhash_indices(
+    sources: &[(&MinHashLshIndex, Option<&OldIndexDataFilter>)],
+    dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    let Some((first, _)) = sources.first() else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "merging MinHash LSH segments requires at least one segment".to_string(),
+        ));
+    };
+    for (index, _) in sources {
+        if index.params != first.params {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MinHash LSH segments were built with different parameters and cannot be merged: {:?} vs {:?}; rebuild the index with replace=true instead",
+                first.params, index.params
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    let total_docs: u64 = sources.iter().map(|(index, _)| index.num_docs as u64).sum();
+    if total_docs > u32::MAX as u64 + 1 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "merging these MinHash LSH segments would produce {total_docs} documents but a segment holds at most {}; keep the segments separate",
+            u32::MAX as u64 + 1
+        )));
+    }
+    let signature_sources = sources
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(index, filter)| {
+            index.signature_source(match filter {
+                Some(filter) => RowIdTransform::Filter(filter),
+                None => RowIdTransform::Keep,
+            })
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let files = MinHashLshIndexBuilder::try_new(first.params.clone())?
+        .rebuild_from(signature_sources, None, dest_store)
+        .await?;
+    first.created_index(files)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/mod.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..953b471cc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,923 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! MinHash LSH index for near-duplicate detection over text columns.
+//!
+//! The index answers "which rows have the highest estimated Jaccard similarity
+//! (over token shingles) to this query text?" and is the building block for
+//! fuzzy deduplication of training corpora, web crawls, and RAG ingestion.
+//!
+//! Every indexed row gets a signature of `num_hashes` MinHash values, computed
+//! from the row's token shingles. The signature is split into `num_bands`
+//! bands; rows that agree on at least one band become candidates and are then
+//! refined by comparing their full signatures against the query signature.
+//!
+//! A segment stores two files:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! segment (_indices/{uuid}/)
+//! ├── signatures.lance   one row per indexed document, row number = doc id
+//! │     ├── _rowid     UInt64
+//! │     └── signature  FixedSizeList<UInt16, num_hashes>   (full-zip, no compression)
+//! └── bands.lance        one row per (band key, doc id), ascending
+//!       ├── band_key   UInt64   band id (high 8 bits) | hash of band values (low 56 bits)
+//!       └── doc_id     UInt32   row number in signatures.lance
+//!       (schema metadata: details, doc count, page rows, page table buffer)
+//!
+//! Both files repeat the index details and the file format version in their
+//! schema metadata; a segment is opened only when both files match the
+//! details of the index metadata.
+//! ```
+//!
+//! A bucket is the run of rows sharing a band key; it may span pages. Lookups
+//! binary-search a resident page table (max band key per page) for the pages
+//! of each bucket, fetch its two boundary pages through the cache and
+//! binary-search them for the bucket's exact rows, then walk the buckets
+//! together in doc id order, topping up every bucket with a share of one IO
+//! batch of pages whenever one runs dry, to count the bands each doc id
+//! shares with the query. Candidates are refined
+//! by decreasing shared bands: their signatures are read with scattered reads
+//! that gather consecutive levels and end where a level ends (or
+//! sequentially when a level covers much of the segment) until no remaining
+//! candidate can beat the results held. A search never holds more than two IO
+//! batches of pages, one batch of candidates per level and the candidates the
+//! results miss, whatever the size or number of the buckets.
+
+mod builder;
+mod index;
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests;
+
+pub use builder::MinHashLshIndexBuilder;
+pub use index::{MinHashLshIndex, merge_minhash_indices};
+
+use builder::{RowIdTransform, SignatureSource};
+
+use std::any::Any;
+use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap};
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
+
+use crate::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::{UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt16Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use futures::stream::FuturesOrdered;
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::datatypes::SchemaCompareOptions;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
+use lance_core::utils::tracing::{IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, TRACE_IO_EVENTS};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_encoding::constants::{
+    COMPRESSION_META_KEY, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP, STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY,
+};
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+use lance_tokenizer::TokenStream;
+use prost::Message;
+use rayon::slice::ParallelSliceMut;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use twox_hash::XxHash64;
+
+use crate::scalar::expression::ScalarQueryParser;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+use crate::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer;
+use crate::scalar::registry::{
+    BasicTrainer, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
+    VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+};
+use crate::scalar::{
+    AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, IndexFile, IndexReader, IndexStore, IndexWriter,
+    MetricsCollector, OldIndexDataFilter, RowIdRemapper, ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams,
+    SearchResult, UpdateCriteria,
+};
+use crate::vector::graph::OrderedFloat;
+use crate::{Index, IndexType};
+use crate::{pb, pbold};
+
+/// On-disk format version of the index files. The format is unstable; bump
+/// on any layout change instead of adding compatibility paths.
+pub const MINHASH_LSH_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 0;
+/// Version of the signature generation behavior (the token streams of the
+/// tokenizers that ship with Lance, shingle hashing, permutation family, the
+/// 16-bit compression and the band keys); bumped whenever a
+/// change would make old and new signatures incomparable.
+pub const SIGNATURE_VERSION: u32 = 0;
+
+/// Seed of the shingle hash and of the generator that derives the permutation
+/// and compression coefficients. Part of the signature scheme: changing it
+/// changes every signature and therefore [`SIGNATURE_VERSION`].
+const SIGNATURE_SEED: u64 = 42;
+
+/// A stored MinHash value: the 64-bit permuted minimum compressed to 16 bits
+/// by multiply-shift hashing (b-bit MinHash). A minimum is not uniformly
+/// distributed (it shrinks as the set grows), so its bits cannot be stored
+/// directly; multiply-shift with a random odd multiplier is 2-universal, so
+/// two unrelated documents agree on a stored value with probability at most
+/// 2^-15 whatever their length, far below the 1/num_hashes resolution of the
+/// Jaccard estimate.
+pub type SignatureValue = u16;
+
+pub const SIGNATURES_FILENAME: &str = "signatures.lance";
+pub const BANDS_FILENAME: &str = "bands.lance";
+pub const SIGNATURE_COL: &str = "signature";
+pub const BAND_KEY_COL: &str = "band_key";
+pub const DOC_ID_COL: &str = "doc_id";
+
+const DETAILS_META_KEY: &str = "minhash_lsh_details";
+const INDEX_VERSION_META_KEY: &str = "minhash_lsh_index_version";
+const PAGE_ROWS_META_KEY: &str = "minhash_lsh_page_rows";
+const PAGE_TABLE_BUFFER_META_KEY: &str = "minhash_lsh_page_table_buffer";
+const NUM_DOCS_META_KEY: &str = "minhash_lsh_num_docs";
+
+/// Number of band-key rows per logical page of `bands.lance`. The page table
+/// keeps one u64 per page in memory, so 4096 rows per page keeps the table at
+/// ~0.01% of the bands file while one page read stays small (tens of KiB for
+/// typical postings).
+const DEFAULT_PAGE_ROWS: usize = 4096;
+/// Byte inserted between the tokens of one shingle so that different token
+/// splits of the same characters hash differently.
+const SHINGLE_SEPARATOR: u8 = 0x1F;
+/// Bytes per read or write batch of an index file. Scattered reads,
+/// sequential scans and the batches handed to the file writers all size
+/// themselves from it by their row width: large enough to amortize a
+/// request, small enough to bound the transient memory of a query or of a
+/// build stage.
+const IO_BATCH_BYTES: usize = 8 * 1024 * 1024;
+/// Bytes per resident chunk of the signature table and per prewarm read of
+/// band pages. Chunks are separate cache entries, so a prewarm keeps as many
+/// as the cache holds and a query scores candidates in resident chunks from
+/// memory.
+const RESIDENT_CHUNK_BYTES: usize = 128 * 1024 * 1024;
+/// Reads in flight while a scan or a merge group gathers its rows.
+const READ_CONCURRENCY: usize = 4;
+/// A candidate set covering more than this percentage of a segment is refined
+/// with a sequential scan of the signature file instead of a scattered read.
+const SPARSE_REFINE_READ_PERCENT: u64 = 10;
+/// Fewest rows of one scattered signature read of a refine beyond what it
+/// must read. A read this small costs one round trip whatever its size, so
+/// smaller batches would only add round trips.
+const MIN_REFINE_READ_ROWS: usize = 64;
+
+/// Bytes of one (band key, doc id) row, in the bands file and in spill files.
+const BAND_ROW_BYTES: usize = std::mem::size_of::<u64>() + std::mem::size_of::<u32>();
+/// Runs sorted and written concurrently with signing. Each holds a full run
+/// in memory, so this bounds the backlog when signing outpaces the disk.
+const MAX_INFLIGHT_SPILLS: usize = 4;
+/// Signed batches queued between the driver that polls the signing stream
+/// and the loop that consumes them.
+const SIGNED_BATCH_QUEUE: usize = 16;
+/// Every sorted run records the row at which each key-range partition
+/// starts, so the merge can gather one partition from every run, sort it in
+/// memory and write it, partitions processed independently and in key order.
+/// A band gets `SPILL_PARTITIONS / num_bands` partitions split on the hash
+/// bits below the band id, so a partition holds `num_bands / SPILL_PARTITIONS`
+/// of all records: 1.5 MB per 10^9 rows at eight bands, 47 MB at 256. A
+/// build with so many runs that their maps outgrow their memory share
+/// merges adjacent partitions.
+const SPILL_PARTITIONS: usize = 1 << 16;
+/// Upper bound on merge groups gathered and sorted concurrently; the actual
+/// count is a quarter of the CPU pool.
+const MERGE_GROUPS_IN_FLIGHT: usize = 16;
+/// Highest band count representable in the 8-bit band id prefix of a band key.
+const MAX_NUM_BANDS: u32 = 256;
+/// Highest signature width. Beyond it the estimate gains nothing (the error
+/// is already ~1.5%) while every derived size keeps growing; the bound keeps
+/// them all small enough that no parameter combination can overflow or
+/// allocate unboundedly before validation runs.
+const MAX_NUM_HASHES: u32 = 4096;
+
+/// Rows of `row_bytes` each that fit one IO batch.
+fn rows_per_batch(row_bytes: usize) -> usize {
+    (IO_BATCH_BYTES / row_bytes.max(1)).max(1)
+}
+
+/// Bytes of one row of the signature table: the row id and `num_hashes`
+/// stored values.
+fn signature_row_bytes(num_hashes: usize) -> usize {
+    std::mem::size_of::<u64>() + num_hashes * std::mem::size_of::<SignatureValue>()
+}
+
+/// `bands.lance`: (band key, doc id) records in ascending order. Both columns
+/// are fixed width and stored raw, so a page is one exact ranged read that
+/// decodes without copying.
+static BANDS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(BAND_KEY_COL, DataType::UInt64, false).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "none".to_string(),
+        )])),
+        Field::new(DOC_ID_COL, DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "none".to_string(),
+        )])),
+    ]))
+});
+
+fn signatures_schema(num_hashes: i32) -> SchemaRef {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new(
+            SIGNATURE_COL,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt16, false)),
+                num_hashes,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(HashMap::from([
+            (
+                STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP.to_string(),
+            ),
+            (COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(), "none".to_string()),
+        ])),
+    ]))
+}
+
+/// A MinHash similarity search: the rows of `column` whose token shingles have
+/// the highest estimated Jaccard similarity to `text`.
+///
+/// The number of rows comes from the scan limit and the output carries a
+/// `_distance` column equal to `1 - estimated Jaccard similarity`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct MinHashQuery {
+    /// Column with a MinHash LSH index.
+    pub column: String,
+    /// Query text, tokenized and shingled exactly like the indexed rows.
+    pub text: String,
+}
+
+impl MinHashQuery {
+    pub fn new(text: impl Into<String>, column: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            column: column.into(),
+            text: text.into(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Parameters of a MinHash LSH index.
+///
+/// These are the only inputs to signature generation, so every segment of a
+/// logical index must be built from identical parameters. They are persisted
+/// in the index details and re-read on the query side.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, PartialEq)]
+pub struct MinHashLshIndexParams {
+    /// Number of MinHash values per signature (k), in `[1, 4096]` and a
+    /// multiple of `num_bands`. The Jaccard estimate has error ~1/sqrt(k).
+    pub num_hashes: u32,
+    /// Number of LSH bands (b), in `[1, 256]`. Two rows become candidates when
+    /// all `num_hashes / num_bands` values of at least one band agree.
+    pub num_bands: u32,
+    /// Number of consecutive tokens joined into one shingle. Documents shorter
+    /// than this produce a single shingle of all their tokens.
+    pub shingle_size: u32,
+    /// Tokenizer configuration, using the same keys as the inverted (full
+    /// text search) index. Defaults to lower-casing without stemming or stop
+    /// word removal: aggressive normalization inflates Jaccard similarity and
+    /// turns "related" into "duplicate".
+    pub tokenizer: InvertedIndexParams,
+}
+
+impl Default for MinHashLshIndexParams {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            num_hashes: 128,
+            num_bands: 16,
+            shingle_size: 3,
+            tokenizer: InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                .stem(false)
+                .remove_stop_words(false),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// User-facing JSON shape: every key optional, tokenizer keys layered over the
+/// MinHash tokenizer defaults rather than the full text search defaults.
+#[derive(Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+struct RawMinHashLshIndexParams {
+    num_hashes: Option<u32>,
+    num_bands: Option<u32>,
+    shingle_size: Option<u32>,
+    tokenizer: Option<serde_json::Map<String, serde_json::Value>>,
+}
+
+impl MinHashLshIndexParams {
+    /// Parse user parameters from JSON, filling omitted keys with defaults and
+    /// validating the result.
+    pub fn from_json(params: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        let params = if params.trim().is_empty() {
+            "{}"
+        } else {
+            params
+        };
+        let raw: RawMinHashLshIndexParams = serde_json::from_str(params).map_err(|err| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid MinHash LSH index params {params:?}: {err}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let mut resolved = Self::default();
+        if let Some(num_hashes) = raw.num_hashes {
+            resolved.num_hashes = num_hashes;
+        }
+        if let Some(num_bands) = raw.num_bands {
+            resolved.num_bands = num_bands;
+        }
+        if let Some(shingle_size) = raw.shingle_size {
+            resolved.shingle_size = shingle_size;
+        }
+        if let Some(tokenizer) = raw.tokenizer {
+            // Presets (`analyzer`) and full text search defaults resolve inside
+            // InvertedIndexParams; the dedup defaults are layered back for the
+            // keys the user did not set.
+            let has_stem = tokenizer.contains_key("stem");
+            let has_stop_words = tokenizer.contains_key("remove_stop_words");
+            let mut parsed: InvertedIndexParams =
+                serde_json::from_value(serde_json::Value::Object(tokenizer)).map_err(|err| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid MinHash LSH tokenizer params: {err}"))
+                })?;
+            if !has_stem {
+                parsed.stem = false;
+            }
+            if !has_stop_words {
+                parsed.remove_stop_words = false;
+            }
+            resolved.tokenizer = parsed;
+        }
+        resolved.validate()?;
+        // Keep only what the index details can record, so parameters compare
+        // equal wherever they were read from.
+        resolved.tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(
+            &pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&resolved.tokenizer)?,
+        )?;
+        Ok(resolved)
+    }
+
+    fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.num_hashes == 0 || self.num_hashes > MAX_NUM_HASHES {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MinHash LSH index requires 1 <= num_hashes <= {MAX_NUM_HASHES}, got num_hashes={}",
+                self.num_hashes
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.num_bands == 0 || self.num_bands > MAX_NUM_BANDS {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MinHash LSH index requires 1 <= num_bands <= {MAX_NUM_BANDS}, got num_bands={}",
+                self.num_bands
+            )));
+        }
+        if !self.num_hashes.is_multiple_of(self.num_bands) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MinHash LSH index requires num_hashes to be a multiple of num_bands, got num_hashes={} num_bands={}",
+                self.num_hashes, self.num_bands
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.shingle_size == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "MinHash LSH index requires shingle_size > 0".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.validate_tokenizer()?;
+        // Surface tokenizer configuration errors at index creation instead of
+        // on the first batch.
+        self.tokenizer.build()?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// The index details must identify the tokenizer completely: a query is
+    /// tokenized from the details alone, and a segment built elsewhere must
+    /// tokenize the same way. Settings the details cannot record, and
+    /// tokenizers whose data is not part of Lance, are therefore rejected
+    /// rather than silently tokenizing queries differently from the index.
+    fn validate_tokenizer(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let unsupported = |reason: &str| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MinHash LSH index cannot identify its tokenizer from the index details: {reason}"
+            ))
+        };
+        if self.tokenizer.custom_stop_words.is_some() {
+            return Err(unsupported("custom_stop_words are not recorded"));
+        }
+        if self.tokenizer.lance_tokenizer.is_some() {
+            return Err(unsupported("lance_tokenizer is not recorded"));
+        }
+        let base_tokenizer = self.tokenizer.base_tokenizer.as_str();
+        if base_tokenizer == "jieba"
+            || base_tokenizer.starts_with("jieba/")
+            || base_tokenizer.starts_with("lindera/")
+        {
+            return Err(unsupported(&format!(
+                "the {base_tokenizer} tokenizer loads a dictionary from LANCE_LANGUAGE_MODEL_HOME, outside Lance"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    // The details are the persisted identity of the signature procedure:
+    // stored as an `Any` in the index metadata and repeated, hex encoded, in
+    // the schema metadata of both index files.
+
+    fn to_details(&self) -> Result<pb::MinHashLshIndexDetails> {
+        Ok(pb::MinHashLshIndexDetails {
+            num_hashes: self.num_hashes,
+            num_bands: self.num_bands,
+            shingle_size: self.shingle_size,
+            tokenizer: Some(pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&self.tokenizer)?),
+            signature_version: SIGNATURE_VERSION,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn from_details(details: &pb::MinHashLshIndexDetails) -> Result<Self> {
+        if details.signature_version != SIGNATURE_VERSION {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "MinHash LSH index was built with signature_version {} but this version of Lance produces signature_version {}; rebuild the index",
+                details.signature_version, SIGNATURE_VERSION
+            )));
+        }
+        let tokenizer = details.tokenizer.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("MinHash LSH index details carry no tokenizer".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let params = Self {
+            num_hashes: details.num_hashes,
+            num_bands: details.num_bands,
+            shingle_size: details.shingle_size,
+            tokenizer: InvertedIndexParams::try_from(tokenizer)?,
+        };
+        params.validate()?;
+        Ok(params)
+    }
+
+    fn details_any(&self) -> Result<prost_types::Any> {
+        Ok(prost_types::Any::from_msg(&self.to_details()?)?)
+    }
+
+    /// Parse the details stored in the index metadata.
+    pub fn from_details_any(details: &prost_types::Any) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::from_details(&details.to_msg::<pb::MinHashLshIndexDetails>()?)
+    }
+
+    fn details_hex(&self) -> Result<String> {
+        Ok(hex::encode(self.to_details()?.encode_to_vec()))
+    }
+
+    fn from_details_hex(hex: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        let bytes = hex::decode(hex).map_err(|err| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("{hex:?} is not a hex-encoded message: {err}"))
+        })?;
+        let details = pb::MinHashLshIndexDetails::decode(bytes.as_slice()).map_err(|err| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid MinHash LSH index details: {err}"))
+        })?;
+        Self::from_details(&details)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Deterministic 64-bit generator (SplitMix64) used to derive the permutation
+/// coefficients from the seed. Implemented inline so the sequence is a fixed
+/// part of the signature contract rather than a dependency's implementation
+/// detail.
+fn splitmix64(state: &mut u64) -> u64 {
+    *state = state.wrapping_add(0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15);
+    let mut z = *state;
+    z = (z ^ (z >> 30)).wrapping_mul(0xBF58_476D_1CE4_E5B9);
+    z = (z ^ (z >> 27)).wrapping_mul(0x94D0_49BB_1331_11EB);
+    z ^ (z >> 31)
+}
+
+/// Computes signatures and band keys. Cloned per batch during builds and per
+/// query during searches; the build and query side must share this code path
+/// so signatures stay comparable.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct SignatureGenerator {
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    shingle_size: usize,
+    num_bands: usize,
+    /// Odd multipliers of the `num_hashes` permutations `h(x) = a * x + b`.
+    multipliers: Vec<u64>,
+    /// Increments of the permutations.
+    increments: Vec<u64>,
+    /// Odd multipliers compressing each 64-bit minimum to its stored 16 bits.
+    compressors: Vec<u64>,
+    /// Token bytes of the current document, separated by [`SHINGLE_SEPARATOR`],
+    /// and the end offset of each token; a shingle is one contiguous slice.
+    token_text: Vec<u8>,
+    token_ends: Vec<usize>,
+    /// 64-bit permuted minima of the current document, mixed into the signature.
+    mins: Vec<u64>,
+}
+
+impl SignatureGenerator {
+    pub fn try_new(params: &MinHashLshIndexParams) -> Result<Self> {
+        params.validate()?;
+        let num_hashes = params.num_hashes as usize;
+        let mut state = SIGNATURE_SEED;
+        let mut multipliers = Vec::with_capacity(num_hashes);
+        let mut increments = Vec::with_capacity(num_hashes);
+        for _ in 0..num_hashes {
+            multipliers.push(splitmix64(&mut state) | 1);
+            increments.push(splitmix64(&mut state));
+        }
+        let compressors = (0..num_hashes)
+            .map(|_| splitmix64(&mut state) | 1)
+            .collect();
+        Ok(Self {
+            tokenizer: params.tokenizer.build()?,
+            shingle_size: params.shingle_size as usize,
+            num_bands: params.num_bands as usize,
+            multipliers,
+            increments,
+            compressors,
+            token_text: Vec::new(),
+            token_ends: Vec::new(),
+            mins: vec![u64::MAX; num_hashes],
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_hashes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.multipliers.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_bands(&self) -> usize {
+        self.num_bands
+    }
+
+    /// Fill `signature` (length `num_hashes`) with the MinHash signature of
+    /// `text`. Returns false, leaving `signature` unspecified, when the text
+    /// has no tokens and therefore no signature.
+    pub fn signature(&mut self, text: &str, signature: &mut [SignatureValue]) -> bool {
+        debug_assert_eq!(
+            signature.len(),
+            self.multipliers.len(),
+            "signature buffer must hold num_hashes values"
+        );
+        self.token_text.clear();
+        self.token_ends.clear();
+        {
+            let mut stream = self.tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(text);
+            while stream.advance() {
+                if !self.token_ends.is_empty() {
+                    self.token_text.push(SHINGLE_SEPARATOR);
+                }
+                self.token_text
+                    .extend_from_slice(stream.token().text.as_bytes());
+                self.token_ends.push(self.token_text.len());
+            }
+        }
+        let num_tokens = self.token_ends.len();
+        if num_tokens == 0 {
+            return false;
+        }
+        self.mins.fill(u64::MAX);
+        let window = self.shingle_size.min(num_tokens);
+        for start in 0..=(num_tokens - window) {
+            // Tokens are stored back to back with separators, so the shingle
+            // is the byte range from this token's start to the window's end.
+            let from = if start == 0 {
+                0
+            } else {
+                self.token_ends[start - 1] + 1
+            };
+            let to = self.token_ends[start + window - 1];
+            let base = XxHash64::oneshot(SIGNATURE_SEED, &self.token_text[from..to]);
+            for ((value, multiplier), increment) in self
+                .mins
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(&self.multipliers)
+                .zip(&self.increments)
+            {
+                // Wrapping arithmetic is the hash function itself, not an
+                // overflowing counter. The full 64-bit value is compared: the
+                // ordering is decided by its high bits, so the weak low bits
+                // of `a * x + b` only break ties. Branch-free min keeps this
+                // loop vectorizable.
+                let permuted = multiplier.wrapping_mul(base).wrapping_add(*increment);
+                *value = (*value).min(permuted);
+            }
+        }
+        // A minimum shrinks with the number of shingles, so its raw bits are
+        // not comparable across documents of different lengths. Multiply-shift
+        // with a random odd multiplier is 2-universal for any input
+        // distribution: distinct minima collide with probability <= 2^-15.
+        for ((value, min), compressor) in
+            signature.iter_mut().zip(&self.mins).zip(&self.compressors)
+        {
+            *value = (compressor.wrapping_mul(*min) >> 48) as SignatureValue;
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    /// Append the `num_bands` band keys of `signature` to `keys`.
+    ///
+    /// A band key is the band id in the high 8 bits and the low 56 bits of
+    /// the hash of the band's signature values, so keys of one band are
+    /// contiguous in the sorted bands file.
+    pub fn band_keys(&self, signature: &[SignatureValue], keys: &mut Vec<u64>) {
+        let band_width = signature.len() / self.num_bands;
+        let mut band_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(band_width * std::mem::size_of::<SignatureValue>());
+        for (band_id, band) in signature.chunks_exact(band_width).enumerate() {
+            band_bytes.clear();
+            for value in band {
+                band_bytes.extend_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
+            }
+            let hash = XxHash64::oneshot(SIGNATURE_SEED, &band_bytes);
+            keys.push(((band_id as u64) << 56) | (hash & 0x00FF_FFFF_FFFF_FFFF));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Estimated Jaccard similarity of two signatures: the fraction of positions
+/// whose MinHash values agree.
+pub fn estimate_jaccard(a: &[SignatureValue], b: &[SignatureValue]) -> f32 {
+    debug_assert_eq!(a.len(), b.len(), "signatures must have the same width");
+    let matches = a.iter().zip(b).filter(|(x, y)| x == y).count();
+    matches as f32 / a.len() as f32
+}
+
+/// Convert a document index into a segment-local doc id.
+///
+/// This is the only place where a document count becomes a `u32`; a segment
+/// that overflows it must be split rather than silently wrapped.
+fn checked_doc_id(doc_index: u64) -> Result<u32> {
+    u32::try_from(doc_index).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "MinHash LSH index segment cannot hold more than {} rows (row index {} does not fit a u32 doc id); \
+             build the index in pieces by calling create_index_uncommitted on disjoint fragment subsets \
+             and committing the resulting segments together with commit_existing_index_segments",
+            u32::MAX as u64 + 1,
+            doc_index
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+/// A query's signature and band keys, computed once and searched against
+/// every segment of a logical index.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct QuerySignature {
+    signature: Vec<SignatureValue>,
+    band_keys: Vec<u64>,
+}
+
+impl QuerySignature {
+    /// Compute the query signature with `generator`, or `None` when the text
+    /// has no tokens.
+    pub fn compute(generator: &mut SignatureGenerator, text: &str) -> Option<Self> {
+        let mut signature = vec![SignatureValue::MAX; generator.num_hashes()];
+        if !generator.signature(text, &mut signature) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let mut band_keys = Vec::with_capacity(generator.num_bands());
+        generator.band_keys(&signature, &mut band_keys);
+        Some(Self {
+            signature,
+            band_keys,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn signature(&self) -> &[SignatureValue] {
+        &self.signature
+    }
+
+    /// Whether a row signature shares at least one band with the query: the
+    /// candidate test the index applies, so rows scored without the index
+    /// (unindexed fragments) follow the same rule.
+    pub fn shares_band(
+        &self,
+        generator: &SignatureGenerator,
+        signature: &[SignatureValue],
+        scratch: &mut Vec<u64>,
+    ) -> bool {
+        scratch.clear();
+        generator.band_keys(signature, scratch);
+        scratch
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&self.band_keys)
+            .any(|(row, query)| row == query)
+    }
+}
+
+/// One search hit: its Jaccard distance (`1 - estimated Jaccard`) and row id,
+/// ordered by distance and then row id.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+pub struct MinHashHit {
+    pub distance: OrderedFloat,
+    pub row_id: u64,
+}
+
+/// Bounded collection of the `limit` best (smallest distance) hits.
+pub struct TopHits {
+    limit: usize,
+    heap: BinaryHeap<MinHashHit>,
+}
+
+impl TopHits {
+    pub fn new(limit: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            limit,
+            heap: BinaryHeap::with_capacity(limit.min(1024)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn push(&mut self, hit: MinHashHit) {
+        if self.limit == 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+        if self.heap.len() < self.limit {
+            self.heap.push(hit);
+        } else if self.heap.peek().is_some_and(|worst| hit < *worst) {
+            self.heap.pop();
+            self.heap.push(hit);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Hits still missing to hold `limit` of them.
+    pub fn missing(&self) -> usize {
+        self.limit - self.heap.len()
+    }
+
+    /// The distance a new hit must beat, once `limit` hits are held.
+    pub fn cutoff(&self) -> Option<f32> {
+        if self.heap.len() < self.limit {
+            return None;
+        }
+        self.heap.peek().map(|worst| worst.distance.0)
+    }
+
+    /// Hits ordered by ascending distance, ties broken by row id.
+    pub fn into_sorted(self) -> Vec<MinHashHit> {
+        self.heap.into_sorted_vec()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Extend<MinHashHit> for TopHits {
+    fn extend<I: IntoIterator<Item = MinHashHit>>(&mut self, hits: I) {
+        for hit in hits {
+            self.push(hit);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct MinHashLshIndexPlugin;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct MinHashLshTrainingRequest {
+    pub params: MinHashLshIndexParams,
+    criteria: TrainingCriteria,
+}
+
+impl MinHashLshTrainingRequest {
+    pub fn new(params: MinHashLshIndexParams) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            params,
+            criteria: TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_id(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TrainingRequest for MinHashLshTrainingRequest {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn criteria(&self) -> &TrainingCriteria {
+        &self.criteria
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl BasicTrainer for MinHashLshIndexPlugin {
+    fn new_training_request(
+        &self,
+        params: &str,
+        field: &Field,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
+        match field.data_type() {
+            DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Utf8View => {}
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "MinHash LSH index can only be created on a string column (Utf8, LargeUtf8, Utf8View), field {} has type {other}",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        let params = MinHashLshIndexParams::from_json(params)?;
+        Ok(Box::new(MinHashLshTrainingRequest::new(params)))
+    }
+
+    async fn train_index(
+        &self,
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
+        _fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let request = (request as Box<dyn Any>)
+            .downcast::<MinHashLshTrainingRequest>()
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input(
+                    "must provide training request created by new_training_request".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        let builder = MinHashLshIndexBuilder::try_new(request.params.clone())?;
+        let files = builder.train(data, index_store).await?;
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: request.params.details_any()?,
+            index_version: MINHASH_LSH_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for MinHashLshIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "MinHashLsh"
+    }
+
+    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
+        MINHASH_LSH_INDEX_VERSION
+    }
+
+    fn new_query_parser(
+        &self,
+        _index_name: String,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
+        // Similarity search is planned by the MinHash search node, not by
+        // filter expression rewriting.
+        None
+    }
+
+    async fn load_index(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        Ok(
+            MinHashLshIndex::load(index_store, index_details, frag_reuse_index, cache).await?
+                as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn validate_new_segments_against_existing(
+        &self,
+        existing: &[&prost_types::Any],
+        incoming: &[&prost_types::Any],
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // Compare parsed parameters rather than bytes: a newer Lance may
+        // serialize additional tokenizer keys with their default values, which
+        // must not split a logical index.
+        let mut all = existing
+            .iter()
+            .chain(incoming)
+            .map(|details| MinHashLshIndexParams::from_details_any(details));
+        let Some(first) = all.next().transpose()? else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        for params in all {
+            let params = params?;
+            if params != first {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "MinHash LSH index segments must share identical parameters (signatures are only comparable under the same hash functions and tokenizer); found {first:?} and {params:?}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn details_as_json(&self, details: &prost_types::Any) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+        let details = details.to_msg::<pb::MinHashLshIndexDetails>()?;
+        let params = MinHashLshIndexParams::from_details(&details)?;
+        let mut value = serde_json::to_value(&params)?;
+        if let Some(object) = value.as_object_mut() {
+            object.insert(
+                "signature_version".to_string(),
+                serde_json::Value::from(details.signature_version),
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(value)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/tests.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..79c080c381a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/minhash_lsh/tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,994 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed;
+
+use arrow_array::StringArray;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use rstest::rstest;
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::metrics::{LocalMetricsCollector, NoOpMetricsCollector};
+use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+
+fn test_store() -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceIndexStore>) {
+    let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+        tmpdir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    (tmpdir, store)
+}
+
+/// Stream of `(text, row id)` rows split into batches of `batch_rows`.
+fn text_stream(rows: &[(Option<&str>, u64)], batch_rows: usize) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, true),
+        Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]));
+    let batches: Vec<datafusion::error::Result<RecordBatch>> = rows
+        .chunks(batch_rows.max(1))
+        .map(|chunk| {
+            let texts = StringArray::from(chunk.iter().map(|(text, _)| *text).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+            let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(chunk.iter().map(|(_, id)| *id).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(texts) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(row_ids) as ArrayRef],
+            )?)
+        })
+        .collect();
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema,
+        futures::stream::iter(batches),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn rows_from<'a>(texts: &[&'a str]) -> Vec<(Option<&'a str>, u64)> {
+    texts
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, text)| (Some(*text), i as u64))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+async fn load(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    details: &prost_types::Any,
+    cache: &LanceCache,
+) -> Arc<MinHashLshIndex> {
+    MinHashLshIndex::load(store.clone(), details, None, cache)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Build an index and load it against `cache`; the caller keeps the cache
+/// alive because the index only holds a weak reference to it.
+async fn build_and_load(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    builder: MinHashLshIndexBuilder,
+    rows: &[(Option<&str>, u64)],
+    batch_rows: usize,
+    cache: &LanceCache,
+) -> Arc<MinHashLshIndex> {
+    let params = builder.params().clone();
+    builder
+        .train(text_stream(rows, batch_rows), store.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    load(store, &params.details_any().unwrap(), cache).await
+}
+
+fn default_builder() -> MinHashLshIndexBuilder {
+    MinHashLshIndexBuilder::try_new(MinHashLshIndexParams::default()).unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn search(index: &MinHashLshIndex, text: &str, limit: usize) -> Vec<MinHashHit> {
+    index
+        .search_text(text, limit, &RowAddrMask::all_rows(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn row_ids(index: &MinHashLshIndex, text: &str, limit: usize) -> Vec<u64> {
+    ids(&search(index, text, limit).await)
+}
+
+fn ids(hits: &[MinHashHit]) -> Vec<u64> {
+    hits.iter().map(|hit| hit.row_id).collect()
+}
+
+/// Tiny deterministic generator for synthetic corpora.
+struct Lcg(u64);
+
+impl Lcg {
+    fn next(&mut self) -> u64 {
+        self.0 = self
+            .0
+            .wrapping_mul(6364136223846793005)
+            .wrapping_add(1442695040888963407);
+        self.0 >> 33
+    }
+
+    fn below(&mut self, bound: usize) -> usize {
+        (self.next() % bound as u64) as usize
+    }
+}
+
+/// Exact Jaccard similarity of the 3-shingle sets of two whitespace
+/// tokenized documents, independent of the index code under test.
+fn shingle_jaccard(a: &str, b: &str) -> f64 {
+    let shingles = |text: &str| -> HashSet<String> {
+        let tokens: Vec<&str> = text.split_whitespace().collect();
+        tokens.windows(3).map(|w| w.join(" ")).collect()
+    };
+    let (a, b) = (shingles(a), shingles(b));
+    a.intersection(&b).count() as f64 / a.union(&b).count() as f64
+}
+
+/// Base documents plus one near duplicate of each, with two replaced words.
+fn near_duplicate_corpus(num_docs: usize, words_per_doc: usize) -> (Vec<String>, Vec<String>) {
+    let mut rng = Lcg(7);
+    let mut bases = Vec::with_capacity(num_docs);
+    let mut duplicates = Vec::with_capacity(num_docs);
+    for _ in 0..num_docs {
+        let words: Vec<String> = (0..words_per_doc)
+            .map(|_| format!("w{}", rng.below(500)))
+            .collect();
+        let mut edited = words.clone();
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            let position = rng.below(words_per_doc);
+            edited[position] = format!("x{}", rng.below(1000));
+        }
+        bases.push(words.join(" "));
+        duplicates.push(edited.join(" "));
+    }
+    (bases, duplicates)
+}
+
+/// Base texts followed by their near duplicates, row id = position.
+fn corpus_rows<'a>(bases: &'a [String], duplicates: &'a [String]) -> Vec<(Option<&'a str>, u64)> {
+    bases
+        .iter()
+        .chain(duplicates)
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, text)| (Some(text.as_str()), i as u64))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_signature_estimates_jaccard() {
+    let params = MinHashLshIndexParams::default();
+    let mut generator = SignatureGenerator::try_new(&params).unwrap();
+    let (bases, duplicates) = near_duplicate_corpus(2, 80);
+    let mut a = vec![0 as SignatureValue; params.num_hashes as usize];
+    let mut b = a.clone();
+    assert!(generator.signature(&bases[0], &mut a));
+    assert!(generator.signature(&bases[0], &mut b));
+    assert_eq!(a, b, "same text must yield the same signature");
+    assert!(generator.signature(&duplicates[0], &mut b));
+    let exact = shingle_jaccard(&bases[0], &duplicates[0]);
+    let estimate = estimate_jaccard(&a, &b) as f64;
+    assert!((estimate - exact).abs() < 0.15, "{estimate} vs {exact}");
+    assert!(generator.signature(&bases[1], &mut b));
+    assert!(estimate_jaccard(&a, &b) < 0.2);
+
+    // The minimum over many shingles is a small number: a signature that
+    // stored its raw high bits made unrelated long texts look identical.
+    let mut rng = Lcg(5);
+    let mut text = |prefix: char| {
+        (0..10_000)
+            .map(|_| format!("{prefix}{}", rng.next() % 1_000_000))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(" ")
+    };
+    let (long_a, long_b) = (text('a'), text('b'));
+    assert!(generator.signature(&long_a, &mut a));
+    assert!(generator.signature(&long_b, &mut b));
+    let estimate = estimate_jaccard(&a, &b);
+    assert!(estimate < 0.05, "disjoint texts estimated at {estimate}");
+}
+
+/// The vectors of the format specification
+/// (`docs/src/format/index/scalar/minhash_lsh.md`); any change here is a
+/// `SIGNATURE_VERSION` bump.
+#[test]
+fn test_signature_known_answer_vectors() {
+    let params =
+        MinHashLshIndexParams::from_json(r#"{"num_hashes": 4, "num_bands": 2, "shingle_size": 2}"#)
+            .unwrap();
+    let mut generator = SignatureGenerator::try_new(&params).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(generator.multipliers[0], 0xbdd7_3226_2feb_6e95);
+    assert_eq!(generator.increments[0], 0x28ef_e333_b266_f103);
+    assert_eq!(generator.compressors[0], 0x5705_b877_0b3d_7dd5);
+
+    let mut signature = [0u16; 4];
+    let mut keys = Vec::new();
+    assert!(generator.signature("The quick brown fox", &mut signature));
+    assert_eq!(signature, [0xb00f, 0x59d6, 0x511a, 0xcd2c]);
+    generator.band_keys(&signature, &mut keys);
+    assert_eq!(keys, [0x00f3_0f35_01d4_58ea, 0x01ae_c5df_28d0_4915]);
+
+    // Fewer tokens than the shingle size: one shingle of all tokens.
+    assert!(generator.signature("Fox", &mut signature));
+    assert_eq!(signature, [0x2970, 0xd6db, 0x65f8, 0xadfc]);
+    keys.clear();
+    generator.band_keys(&signature, &mut keys);
+    assert_eq!(keys, [0x003c_f6e8_0331_2eca, 0x017c_5504_fbc8_3f36]);
+
+    assert!(!generator.signature("", &mut signature));
+    assert!(!generator.signature("  \n", &mut signature));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_params_defaults_and_details_round_trip() {
+    let params = MinHashLshIndexParams::default();
+    assert!(params.tokenizer.lower_case);
+    assert!(!params.tokenizer.stem && !params.tokenizer.remove_stop_words);
+
+    // Partial tokenizer objects layer over the MinHash defaults, not the
+    // full text search defaults.
+    let params = MinHashLshIndexParams::from_json(
+        r#"{"num_hashes": 64, "num_bands": 8, "tokenizer": {"base_tokenizer": "whitespace"}}"#,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(params.num_hashes, 64);
+    assert_eq!(params.tokenizer.base_tokenizer, "whitespace");
+    assert!(!params.tokenizer.stem);
+
+    let details = params.to_details().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(details.signature_version, SIGNATURE_VERSION);
+    assert_eq!(
+        MinHashLshIndexParams::from_details(&details).unwrap(),
+        params
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        MinHashLshIndexParams::from_details_hex(&params.details_hex().unwrap()).unwrap(),
+        params
+    );
+    let stale = pb::MinHashLshIndexDetails {
+        signature_version: SIGNATURE_VERSION + 1,
+        ..details
+    };
+    let err = MinHashLshIndexParams::from_details(&stale).unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{err}");
+    let json = MinHashLshIndexPlugin
+        .details_as_json(&params.details_any().unwrap())
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(json["tokenizer"]["base_tokenizer"], "whitespace");
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::not_divisible(r#"{"num_hashes": 100, "num_bands": 16}"#, "multiple of num_bands")]
+#[case::too_many_hashes(r#"{"num_hashes": 8192, "num_bands": 16}"#, "num_hashes <= 4096")]
+#[case::too_many_bands(r#"{"num_hashes": 512, "num_bands": 512}"#, "num_bands <= 256")]
+#[case::zero_shingle(r#"{"shingle_size": 0}"#, "shingle_size > 0")]
+#[case::custom_stop_words(
+    r#"{"tokenizer": {"custom_stop_words": ["the"]}}"#,
+    "custom_stop_words"
+)]
+#[case::jieba(r#"{"tokenizer": {"base_tokenizer": "jieba"}}"#, "outside Lance")]
+#[case::unknown_key(r#"{"num_hash": 128}"#, "unknown field")]
+fn test_params_validation(#[case] json: &str, #[case] message: &str) {
+    let err = MinHashLshIndexParams::from_json(json).unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err}");
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains(message), "{err}");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_plugin_rejects_non_string_fields() {
+    let plugin = MinHashLshIndexPlugin;
+    let Err(err) = plugin.new_training_request("{}", &Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false))
+    else {
+        panic!("non-string field must be rejected");
+    };
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err}");
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("string column"), "{err}");
+    assert!(
+        plugin
+            .new_training_request("", &Field::new("text", DataType::LargeUtf8, true))
+            .is_ok()
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_build_load_search_roundtrip() {
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let texts = [
+        "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog near the river bank",
+        "an entirely different sentence about databases and columnar storage formats",
+        "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog near the river bank today",
+        "short",
+        "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog near the river bank",
+    ];
+    let rows: Vec<(Option<&str>, u64)> = texts
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, text)| (Some(*text), (i as u64 % 2) << 32 | i as u64))
+        .collect();
+    let index = build_and_load(&store, default_builder(), &rows, 2, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    assert_eq!(index.num_docs(), 5);
+
+    let hits = search(&index, texts[0], 10).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        hits[0],
+        MinHashHit {
+            row_id: rows[0].1,
+            distance: OrderedFloat(0.0)
+        }
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        hits[1],
+        MinHashHit {
+            row_id: rows[4].1,
+            distance: OrderedFloat(0.0)
+        }
+    );
+    assert_eq!(hits[2].row_id, rows[2].1);
+    assert!(
+        hits[2].distance.0 > 0.0 && hits[2].distance.0 < 0.4,
+        "{hits:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        hits.iter()
+            .all(|hit| hit.row_id != rows[1].1 && hit.row_id != rows[3].1),
+        "unrelated rows must not be candidates: {hits:?}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(search(&index, texts[0], 1).await.len(), 1);
+    assert!(search(&index, texts[0], 0).await.is_empty());
+    assert!(
+        search(&index, "nothing in common with the corpus at all", 10)
+            .await
+            .is_empty()
+    );
+    // Documents shorter than the shingle size are indexed as one shingle.
+    assert_eq!(row_ids(&index, "short", 10).await, vec![rows[3].1]);
+
+    let err = index
+        .search(
+            &crate::scalar::SargableQuery::IsNull(),
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{err}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_recall_on_near_duplicates() {
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let (bases, duplicates) = near_duplicate_corpus(60, 80);
+    let rows = corpus_rows(&bases, &duplicates);
+    let index = build_and_load(
+        &store,
+        default_builder(),
+        &rows,
+        17,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(index.num_docs(), 120);
+
+    let (mut pairs, mut found) = (0, 0);
+    for (i, duplicate) in duplicates.iter().enumerate() {
+        if shingle_jaccard(&bases[i], duplicate) < 0.8 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        pairs += 1;
+        let hits = row_ids(&index, duplicate, 2).await;
+        assert_eq!(hits[0], (bases.len() + i) as u64, "{hits:?}");
+        found += hits.contains(&(i as u64)) as usize;
+        assert!(
+            hits.iter()
+                .all(|&hit| hit == i as u64 || hit == (bases.len() + i) as u64),
+            "unrelated row surfaced: {hits:?}"
+        );
+    }
+    assert!(pairs >= 50, "{pairs} pairs above 0.8");
+    let recall = found as f64 / pairs as f64;
+    assert!(recall >= 0.9, "recall {recall} ({found}/{pairs})");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rows_without_tokens_are_not_indexed() {
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let rows = vec![
+        (Some("alpha beta gamma delta"), 10u64),
+        (None, 11),
+        (Some(""), 12),
+        (Some("   \n\t "), 13),
+        (Some("alpha beta gamma delta"), 14),
+    ];
+    let index = build_and_load(&store, default_builder(), &rows, 2, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    assert_eq!(index.num_docs(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_ids(&index, "alpha beta gamma delta", 10).await,
+        vec![10, 14]
+    );
+    assert!(search(&index, "   ", 10).await.is_empty());
+
+    for rows in [vec![], vec![(None, 0), (Some(""), 1)]] {
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+        let empty =
+            build_and_load(&store, default_builder(), &rows, 4, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+        assert_eq!(empty.num_docs(), 0);
+        assert!(search(&empty, "anything at all here", 5).await.is_empty());
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::with_other_texts(5)]
+#[case::whole_file(0)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_buckets_spanning_pages_and_dense_candidates(#[case] num_others: usize) {
+    // Forty identical texts share every bucket: with four rows per page each
+    // bucket spans ten pages, and the candidates cover most of the segment,
+    // which is refined with a sequential scan. Without other texts every
+    // bucket also runs up to the next band or the end of the file.
+    let (bases, _) = near_duplicate_corpus(1 + num_others, 40);
+    let mut texts = vec![bases[0].as_str(); 40];
+    texts.extend(bases[1..].iter().map(String::as_str));
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let index = build_and_load(
+        &store,
+        default_builder().with_page_rows(4).unwrap(),
+        &rows_from(&texts),
+        64,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert!(index.statistics().unwrap()["num_pages"].as_u64().unwrap() > 100);
+
+    let hits = search(&index, &bases[0], 5).await;
+    assert!(hits.iter().all(|hit| hit.distance.0 == 0.0), "{hits:?}");
+    assert_eq!(ids(&hits), vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4], "ties are broken by row id");
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_ids(&index, &bases[0], 100).await,
+        (0..40).collect::<Vec<u64>>()
+    );
+    let mask = RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(0..20u64));
+    let hits = index
+        .search_text(&bases[0], 100, &mask, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(ids(&hits), (20..40).collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_spilled_multi_page_build_matches_single_run() {
+    let (bases, duplicates) = near_duplicate_corpus(20, 40);
+    let rows = corpus_rows(&bases, &duplicates);
+    let (_single_dir, single_store) = test_store();
+    let single = build_and_load(
+        &single_store,
+        default_builder(),
+        &rows,
+        64,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(single.statistics().unwrap()["num_pages"], 1);
+
+    let (_split_dir, split_store) = test_store();
+    let split = build_and_load(
+        &split_store,
+        default_builder()
+            .with_page_rows(7)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_sort_run_records(50)
+            .unwrap(),
+        &rows,
+        3,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert!(split.statistics().unwrap()["num_pages"].as_u64().unwrap() > 10);
+    let files = split_store.list_files_with_sizes().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(files.len(), 2, "spill files must be deleted: {files:?}");
+    for (text, _) in rows.iter().step_by(5) {
+        let text = text.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(&single, text, 5).await,
+            search(&split, text, 5).await
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_spill_limit_fails_before_writing() {
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let texts: Vec<String> = (0..2_000)
+        .map(|i| format!("doc {i} words {}", i % 7))
+        .collect();
+    let rows = rows_from(&texts.iter().map(String::as_str).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+    let err = default_builder()
+        .with_sort_run_records(50)
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_spill_limit_bytes(100)
+        .train(text_stream(&rows, 64), store.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::IO { .. }), "{err}");
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("LANCE_MAX_TEMP_DIRECTORY_SIZE"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cache_prewarm_and_mask() {
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let (bases, duplicates) = near_duplicate_corpus(10, 120);
+    let rows = corpus_rows(&bases, &duplicates);
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(64 * 1024 * 1024);
+    let index = build_and_load(
+        &store,
+        default_builder().with_page_rows(16).unwrap(),
+        &rows,
+        8,
+        &cache,
+    )
+    .await;
+    let all_rows = RowAddrMask::all_rows();
+
+    // A cold search reads band pages; a repeated one finds them cached.
+    let cold = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    let hits = index
+        .search_text(&duplicates[5], 2, &all_rows, &cold)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(ids(&hits), vec![15, 5]);
+    assert!(cold.index_cache_misses() > 0);
+    let warm = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    assert_eq!(
+        index
+            .search_text(&duplicates[5], 2, &all_rows, &warm)
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        hits
+    );
+    assert_eq!(warm.index_cache_misses(), 0);
+    assert!(warm.index_cache_hits() > 0);
+
+    // After a prewarm the signatures are resident too and a search reads
+    // nothing.
+    index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+    let resident = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    assert_eq!(
+        index
+            .search_text(&duplicates[5], 2, &all_rows, &resident)
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        hits
+    );
+    assert_eq!(resident.parts_loaded.load(Relaxed), 0);
+    assert_eq!(resident.index_cache_misses(), 0);
+
+    let masked = |mask: RowAddrMask| {
+        let (index, text) = (&index, &duplicates[5]);
+        async move {
+            let hits = index
+                .search_text(text, 2, &mask, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            ids(&hits)
+        }
+    };
+    let blocked = masked(RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([15u64]))).await;
+    assert!(!blocked.contains(&15) && blocked[0] == 5, "{blocked:?}");
+    let allowed = masked(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([5u64]))).await;
+    assert_eq!(allowed, vec![5]);
+    assert!(masked(RowAddrMask::allow_nothing()).await.is_empty());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_load_rejects_mismatched_details_or_schema() {
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let rows = rows_from(&["some text to index for this test"]);
+    let builder = default_builder();
+    let params = builder.params().clone();
+    builder
+        .train(text_stream(&rows, 1), store.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let other = MinHashLshIndexParams::from_json(r#"{"shingle_size": 4}"#).unwrap();
+    let err = MinHashLshIndex::load(
+        store.clone(),
+        &other.details_any().unwrap(),
+        None,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err}");
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("do not match index details"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+
+    // Replace the signature file with one whose signature is wider.
+    let other_schema = signatures_schema(params.num_hashes as i32 + 1);
+    let mut writer = store
+        .new_index_file(SIGNATURES_FILENAME, other_schema.clone())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer
+        .write_record_batch(RecordBatch::new_empty(other_schema))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    let err = MinHashLshIndex::load(
+        store.clone(),
+        &params.details_any().unwrap(),
+        None,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err}");
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("expected schema"), "{err}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_update_keeps_filtered_rows_and_adds_new_rows() {
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let (bases, duplicates) = near_duplicate_corpus(6, 120);
+    let rows = corpus_rows(&bases, &[]);
+    let index = build_and_load(&store, default_builder(), &rows, 4, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+
+    // Drop base rows 0 and 1, append the near duplicates as rows 100..106
+    let filter = OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(2..6u64));
+    let new_rows: Vec<(Option<&str>, u64)> = duplicates
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, text)| (Some(text.as_str()), 100 + i as u64))
+        .collect();
+    let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_store();
+    let created = index
+        .update(text_stream(&new_rows, 3), dest_store.as_ref(), Some(filter))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let updated = load(&dest_store, &created.index_details, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    assert_eq!(updated.num_docs(), 4 + 6);
+    let hits = row_ids(&updated, &bases[0], 3).await;
+    assert_eq!(hits[0], 100);
+    assert!(!hits.contains(&0) && !hits.contains(&1), "{hits:?}");
+    assert_eq!(row_ids(&updated, &duplicates[3], 2).await, vec![103, 3]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_remap_rewrites_and_drops_row_ids() {
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let (bases, _) = near_duplicate_corpus(4, 40);
+    let rows = corpus_rows(&bases, &[]);
+    let index = build_and_load(&store, default_builder(), &rows, 4, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    assert!(index.can_remap());
+
+    // Row 1 is deleted, row 2 is absent from the mapping and keeps its id
+    let mapping = RowAddrRemap::direct(HashMap::from([
+        (0u64, Some(7u64)),
+        (1u64, None),
+        (3u64, Some(9u64)),
+    ]));
+    let (_dest_dir, dest_store) = test_store();
+    let created = index.remap(&mapping, dest_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+    let remapped = load(&dest_store, &created.index_details, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    assert_eq!(remapped.num_docs(), 3);
+    assert_eq!(row_ids(&remapped, &bases[0], 1).await, vec![7]);
+    assert!(search(&remapped, &bases[1], 5).await.is_empty());
+    assert_eq!(row_ids(&remapped, &bases[2], 1).await, vec![2]);
+    assert_eq!(row_ids(&remapped, &bases[3], 1).await, vec![9]);
+}
+
+/// Row id remapper of a segment opened after a deferred compaction.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct TestRemapper(HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>);
+
+impl RowIdRemapper for TestRemapper {
+    fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.0.get(&row_id).copied().unwrap_or(Some(row_id))
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, _row_addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+        unreachable!()
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(
+        &self,
+        _row_ids: &roaring::RoaringTreemap,
+    ) -> roaring::RoaringTreemap {
+        unreachable!()
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
+        &self,
+        _batch: RecordBatch,
+        _row_id_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        unreachable!()
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rebuilds_remap_rows_of_a_deferred_compaction() {
+    // The segment stores fragment 0 addresses; a deferred compaction moved
+    // its rows to fragment 1 and deleted row 2. Filters are expressed in
+    // the compacted address space, so a rebuild applying them to the
+    // stored addresses dropped every old row.
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let (bases, duplicates) = near_duplicate_corpus(4, 40);
+    let rows = corpus_rows(&bases, &[]);
+    build_and_load(&store, default_builder(), &rows, 4, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    let compacted = |row: u64| (1u64 << 32) | row;
+    let remapper = TestRemapper(HashMap::from([
+        (0u64, Some(compacted(0))),
+        (1u64, Some(compacted(1))),
+        (2u64, None),
+        (3u64, Some(compacted(3))),
+    ]));
+    let index = MinHashLshIndex::load(
+        store.clone(),
+        &MinHashLshIndexParams::default().details_any().unwrap(),
+        Some(Arc::new(remapper)),
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids(&index, &bases[0], 1).await, vec![compacted(0)]);
+
+    // Keep the compacted fragment, add a duplicate of row 3
+    let filter = OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+        to_keep: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]),
+        to_remove: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+    };
+    let new_rows = [(Some(duplicates[3].as_str()), 2u64 << 32)];
+    let (_dir, dest_store) = test_store();
+    let created = index
+        .update(text_stream(&new_rows, 1), dest_store.as_ref(), Some(filter))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let updated = load(&dest_store, &created.index_details, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    assert_eq!(updated.num_docs(), 3 + 1);
+    assert_eq!(row_ids(&updated, &bases[0], 1).await, vec![compacted(0)]);
+    assert!(search(&updated, &bases[2], 5).await.is_empty());
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_ids(&updated, &duplicates[3], 2).await,
+        vec![2u64 << 32, compacted(3)]
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_segments() {
+    let (bases, duplicates) = near_duplicate_corpus(8, 120);
+    let (_dir_a, store_a) = test_store();
+    let rows_a = corpus_rows(&bases, &[]);
+    let segment_a = build_and_load(
+        &store_a,
+        default_builder(),
+        &rows_a,
+        3,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let (_dir_b, store_b) = test_store();
+    let rows_b: Vec<(Option<&str>, u64)> = duplicates
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, text)| (Some(text.as_str()), (1u64 << 32) | i as u64))
+        .collect();
+    let segment_b = build_and_load(
+        &store_b,
+        default_builder(),
+        &rows_b,
+        3,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Segment b keeps only its first four rows
+    let filter_b = OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+        (0..4u64).map(|i| (1u64 << 32) | i),
+    ));
+    let (_dir_merged, merged_store) = test_store();
+    let created = merge_minhash_indices(
+        &[(&segment_a, None), (&segment_b, Some(&filter_b))],
+        merged_store.as_ref(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let merged = load(
+        &merged_store,
+        &created.index_details,
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(merged.num_docs(), 8 + 4);
+    for (i, duplicate) in duplicates.iter().enumerate() {
+        let hits = row_ids(&merged, duplicate, 2).await;
+        if i < 4 {
+            assert_eq!(hits, vec![(1u64 << 32) | i as u64, i as u64]);
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(hits[0], i as u64, "{hits:?}");
+            assert!(hits.iter().all(|hit| hit >> 32 == 0), "{hits:?}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Segments built with different parameters cannot be merged
+    let (_dir_c, store_c) = test_store();
+    let other = MinHashLshIndexBuilder::try_new(
+        MinHashLshIndexParams::from_json(r#"{"shingle_size": 4}"#).unwrap(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let segment_c = build_and_load(&store_c, other, &rows_a, 3, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+    let Err(err) = merge_minhash_indices(
+        &[(&segment_a, None), (&segment_c, None)],
+        merged_store.as_ref(),
+    )
+    .await
+    else {
+        panic!("segments with different parameters must not merge");
+    };
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err}");
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("different parameters"), "{err}");
+}
+
+/// Load the index in `store` holding `candidate_batch` candidates per level
+/// and `window_pages` pages of the walked buckets, so that a small corpus
+/// exercises the paused, continued and dense walks of the buckets.
+async fn load_bounded(
+    store: &Arc<LanceIndexStore>,
+    details: &prost_types::Any,
+    cache: &LanceCache,
+    candidate_batch: usize,
+    window_pages: usize,
+) -> Arc<MinHashLshIndex> {
+    let mut index = load(store, details, cache).await;
+    let bounds = Arc::get_mut(&mut index).unwrap();
+    bounds.candidate_batch = candidate_batch;
+    bounds.window_pages = window_pages;
+    index
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_large_cluster_is_walked_in_bounded_windows() {
+    // 300 identical texts, four rows per page: every bucket spans 75 pages.
+    // Holding 32 candidates per level and 128 pages over the 16 buckets
+    // (eight per window), a search stops after the first windows instead
+    // of walking every page,
+    // a second search finds those pages cached, and any limit or mask gives
+    // the same result as holding every candidate at once.
+    let (bases, _) = near_duplicate_corpus(6, 40);
+    let mut texts = vec![bases[0].as_str(); 300];
+    texts.extend(bases[1..].iter().map(String::as_str));
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let builder = default_builder().with_page_rows(4).unwrap();
+    let details = builder.params().details_any().unwrap();
+    builder
+        .train(text_stream(&rows_from(&texts), 64), store.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(64 << 20);
+    let bounded = load_bounded(&store, &details, &cache, 32, 128).await;
+    let unbounded = load(&store, &details, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+
+    let parts = |metrics: &LocalMetricsCollector| metrics.parts_loaded.load(Relaxed);
+    let cold = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    let hits = bounded
+        .search_text(&bases[0], 10, &RowAddrMask::all_rows(), &cold)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(ids(&hits), (0..10).collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+    // 32 boundary pages, two windows of eight pages per bucket and one
+    // signature read at most; the whole walk would be 75 pages per bucket
+    assert!(parts(&cold) <= 32 + 16 * 16 + 1, "{} parts", parts(&cold));
+    let warm = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    search_with(&bounded, &bases[0], 10, &RowAddrMask::all_rows(), &warm).await;
+    assert_eq!(parts(&warm), 1, "only the signatures are read again");
+
+    for limit in [10, 32, 33, 300, 400] {
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(&bounded, &bases[0], limit).await,
+            search(&unbounded, &bases[0], limit).await,
+            "limit {limit}"
+        );
+    }
+    // Only the tail of the cluster is allowed: the walk continues batch by
+    // batch until the results fill
+    let tail = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(290..300u64));
+    let hits = search_with(&bounded, &bases[0], 10, &tail, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await;
+    assert_eq!(ids(&hits), (290..300).collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+}
+
+async fn search_with(
+    index: &MinHashLshIndex,
+    text: &str,
+    limit: usize,
+    mask: &RowAddrMask,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+) -> Vec<MinHashHit> {
+    index.search_text(text, limit, mask, metrics).await.unwrap()
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::dense(0)]
+#[case::sparse(3000)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_overflowing_lower_level_is_continued(#[case] num_fillers: usize) {
+    // 200 copies of a text (rows 0..200) and 200 copies of a near duplicate
+    // (rows 200..400) sharing some but not all bands with it. Searching the
+    // near duplicate for 250 rows takes its copies, then the 50 lowest rows
+    // of the text, whose level holds only 32 candidates and is walked again
+    // from where it overflowed: against a sequential scan of the signatures
+    // when the level is most of the segment, by scattered reads when filler
+    // texts dilute it below a tenth.
+    let (bases, _) = near_duplicate_corpus(1 + num_fillers, 60);
+    let mut words: Vec<&str> = bases[0].split(' ').collect();
+    words[59] = "zzz";
+    let near = words.join(" ");
+    let mut texts = vec![bases[0].as_str(); 200];
+    texts.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(near.as_str(), 200));
+    texts.extend(bases[1..].iter().map(String::as_str));
+    let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+    let builder = default_builder().with_page_rows(8).unwrap();
+    let details = builder.params().details_any().unwrap();
+    builder
+        .train(text_stream(&rows_from(&texts), 64), store.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let bounded = load_bounded(&store, &details, &LanceCache::no_cache(), 32, 128).await;
+    let unbounded = load(&store, &details, &LanceCache::no_cache()).await;
+
+    let hits = ids(&search(&bounded, &near, 250).await);
+    assert_eq!(hits[..200], (200..400).collect::<Vec<u64>>()[..]);
+    assert_eq!(hits[200..], (0..50).collect::<Vec<u64>>()[..]);
+    for limit in [10, 201, 250, 500] {
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(&bounded, &near, limit).await,
+            search(&unbounded, &near, limit).await,
+            "limit {limit}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_oversized_merge_groups_stream_and_match_gather() {
+    // 3000 identical texts put 3000 records into one partition of every
+    // band; with 2000 records per merge group those partitions exceed the
+    // budget and are merged by streaming in chunks of a few records, and the
+    // maps of the 49 runs share 256 KB, so they are coarsened to 512
+    // partitions. Either way the bands file must be the in-memory sort's.
+    let (bases, _) = near_duplicate_corpus(30, 40);
+    let mut texts = vec![bases[0].as_str(); 3000];
+    texts.extend(bases[1..].iter().map(String::as_str));
+    let rows = rows_from(&texts);
+    async fn bands(
+        builder: MinHashLshIndexBuilder,
+        rows: &[(Option<&str>, u64)],
+    ) -> Vec<(u64, u32)> {
+        let (_tmpdir, store) = test_store();
+        builder
+            .train(text_stream(rows, 64), store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let files = store.list_files_with_sizes().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(files.len(), 2, "spill files must be deleted: {files:?}");
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(BANDS_FILENAME).await.unwrap();
+        let batch = reader.read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), None).await.unwrap();
+        let keys = batch[BAND_KEY_COL].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+        let doc_ids = batch[DOC_ID_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().values();
+        keys.iter().copied().zip(doc_ids.iter().copied()).collect()
+    }
+    let sorted_in_memory = bands(default_builder(), &rows).await;
+    let streamed = default_builder()
+        .with_sort_run_records(1000)
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_merge_group_records(2000)
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(bands(streamed, &rows).await, sorted_in_memory);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/ngram.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/ngram.rs
index 4d4c0bfeef2..41b711b1bd6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/ngram.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/ngram.rs
@@ -1,64 +1,86 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use crate::scalar::RowAddrTranslatorRef;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map_async};
 use std::any::Any;
 use std::collections::BTreeMap;
 use std::iter::once;
+use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::time::Instant;
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use std::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    sync::Arc,
+};
 
 use super::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
 use super::{
-    AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, IndexReader, IndexStore, IndexWriter, MetricsCollector,
+    AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, IndexFile, IndexReader, IndexStore, IndexWriter, MetricsCollector,
     ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult, TextQuery,
 };
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexHandle};
 use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use crate::pbold;
 use crate::scalar::expression::{ScalarQueryParser, TextQueryParser};
 use crate::scalar::registry::{
-    DefaultTrainingRequest, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
-    VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+    BasicTrainer, DefaultTrainingRequest, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering,
+    TrainingRequest, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
 };
-use crate::scalar::{CreatedIndex, UpdateCriteria};
-use crate::vector::VectorIndex;
+use crate::scalar::{CreatedIndex, RowIdRemapper, UpdateCriteria};
 use crate::{Index, IndexType};
 use arrow::array::{AsArray, UInt32Builder};
+use arrow::buffer::{Buffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
 use arrow::datatypes::{UInt32Type, UInt64Type};
 use arrow_array::{BinaryArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::{stream, FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
 use lance_arrow::iter_str_array;
-use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, TRACE_IO_EVENTS};
-use lance_core::{utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap, Error};
-use lance_core::{Result, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
+use lance_tokenizer::{
+    AlphaNumOnlyFilter, AsciiFoldingFilter, LowerCaser, NgramTokenizer, RawTokenizer, TextAnalyzer,
+};
 use log::info;
 use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
 use serde::Serialize;
-use snafu::location;
-use tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
+mod ngram_regex;
+pub(crate) use ngram_regex::regex_can_use_index;
+
 const TOKENS_COL: &str = "tokens";
 const POSTING_LIST_COL: &str = "posting_list";
-const POSTINGS_FILENAME: &str = "ngram_postings.lance";
+pub const POSTINGS_FILENAME: &str = "ngram_postings.lance";
 const NGRAM_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 0;
 
+/// An i32-offset Binary array can hold at most i32::MAX bytes of values in total,
+/// so a spill state whose serialized posting lists exceed that must be written as
+/// multiple record batches (same approach as the bitmap index).  Leave headroom.
+const MAX_POSTING_LIST_BATCH_BYTES: usize = i32::MAX as usize - 1024 * 1024;
+const POSTING_LIST_STREAM_BATCH_ROWS: usize = 64;
+
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 
 pub static TOKENS_FIELD: LazyLock<Field> =
     LazyLock::new(|| Field::new(TOKENS_COL, DataType::UInt32, true));
-pub static POSTINGS_FIELD: LazyLock<Field> =
-    LazyLock::new(|| Field::new(POSTING_LIST_COL, DataType::Binary, false));
+pub static POSTINGS_FIELD: LazyLock<Field> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Field::new(POSTING_LIST_COL, DataType::Binary, false).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+        lance_encoding::constants::COMPRESSION_META_KEY.to_string(),
+        "none".to_string(),
+    )]))
+});
 pub static POSTINGS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
         TOKENS_FIELD.clone(),
@@ -66,15 +88,15 @@ pub static POSTINGS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     ]))
 });
 pub static TEXT_PREPPER: LazyLock<TextAnalyzer> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    TextAnalyzer::builder(tantivy::tokenizer::RawTokenizer::default())
-        .filter(tantivy::tokenizer::LowerCaser)
-        .filter(tantivy::tokenizer::AsciiFoldingFilter)
+    TextAnalyzer::builder(RawTokenizer::default())
+        .filter(LowerCaser)
+        .filter(AsciiFoldingFilter)
         .build()
 });
 /// Currently we ALWAYS use trigrams with ascii folding and lower casing.  We may want to make this configurable in the future.
 pub static NGRAM_TOKENIZER: LazyLock<TextAnalyzer> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    TextAnalyzer::builder(tantivy::tokenizer::NgramTokenizer::all_ngrams(3, 3).unwrap())
-        .filter(tantivy::tokenizer::AlphaNumOnlyFilter)
+    TextAnalyzer::builder(NgramTokenizer::all_ngrams(3, 3).unwrap())
+        .filter(AlphaNumOnlyFilter)
         .build()
 });
 
@@ -101,6 +123,12 @@ fn tokenize_visitor(tokenizer: &TextAnalyzer, text: &str, mut visitor: impl FnMu
 const ALPHA_SPAN: usize = 37;
 const MAX_TOKEN: usize = ALPHA_SPAN.pow(2) + ALPHA_SPAN;
 const MIN_TOKEN: usize = 0;
+/// The width, in characters, of the tokens stored in an ngram index.
+///
+/// Trigrams are the standard choice for substring search: they are selective
+/// enough to prune well while keeping the token space small enough
+/// (`ALPHA_SPAN^3`) to address with a `u32`.  This must match the tokenizer
+/// configured in [`NGRAM_TOKENIZER`].
 const NGRAM_N: usize = 3;
 
 // Convert an ngram (string) to a token (u32).  This helps avoid heap allocations
@@ -154,7 +182,7 @@ pub struct NGramPostingList {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for NGramPostingList {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.bitmap.serialized_size()
     }
 }
@@ -171,25 +199,45 @@ impl CacheKey for NGramPostingListKey {
     fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
         format!("posting-list-{}", self.row_offset).into()
     }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "NGramPostingList"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.ngram-posting-list-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u32(self.row_offset);
+    }
 }
 
 impl NGramPostingList {
     fn try_from_batch(
         batch: RecordBatch,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let bitmap_bytes = batch.column(0).as_binary::<i32>().value(0);
-        let mut bitmap =
-            RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(bitmap_bytes).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Error deserializing ngram list: {}", e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let mut bitmap = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(bitmap_bytes)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Error deserializing ngram list: {}", e)))?;
         if let Some(frag_reuse_index_ref) = frag_reuse_index.as_ref() {
             bitmap = frag_reuse_index_ref.remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&bitmap);
         }
         Ok(Self { bitmap })
     }
 
+    async fn try_from_batch_with_remapping(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        remapper: Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let bitmap_bytes = batch.column(0).as_binary::<i32>().value(0);
+        let bitmap = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(bitmap_bytes)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Error deserializing ngram list: {}", e)))?;
+        let bitmap = remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), &bitmap).await?;
+        Ok(Self { bitmap })
+    }
+
     fn intersect<'a>(lists: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a Self>) -> RoaringTreemap {
         let mut iter = lists.into_iter();
         let mut result = iter
@@ -206,12 +254,16 @@ impl NGramPostingList {
 /// Reads on-demand ngram posting lists from storage (and stores them in a cache)
 struct NGramPostingListReader {
     reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    /// Legacy synchronous remapper (index_version 0). Mutually exclusive with
+    /// `batch_remapper`; both `None` means no translation is needed.
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    /// Asynchronous batch remapper (tagged histories).
+    batch_remapper: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
     index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for NGramPostingListReader {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         0
     }
 }
@@ -229,7 +281,7 @@ impl NGramPostingListReader {
         row_offset: u32,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<Arc<NGramPostingList>> {
-        self.index_cache.get_or_insert_with_key(NGramPostingListKey { row_offset }, || async move {
+        let result = self.index_cache.get_or_insert_with_key_hit(NGramPostingListKey { row_offset }, || async move {
             metrics.record_part_load();
                 tracing::info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_SCALAR_PART, index_type="ngram", part_id=row_offset);
                 let batch = self
@@ -239,8 +291,19 @@ impl NGramPostingListReader {
                         Some(&[POSTING_LIST_COL]),
                     )
                     .await?;
-                NGramPostingList::try_from_batch(batch, self.frag_reuse_index.clone())
-        }).await
+                if let Some(remapper) = self.batch_remapper.clone() {
+                    // Tagged asynchronous path.
+                    NGramPostingList::try_from_batch_with_remapping(batch, remapper).await
+                } else {
+                    // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+                    NGramPostingList::try_from_batch(batch, self.frag_reuse_index.clone())
+                }
+        }).await;
+        match &result {
+            Ok((_, true)) => metrics.record_index_cache_hit(),
+            _ => metrics.record_index_cache_miss(),
+        }
+        result.map(|(v, _)| v)
     }
 }
 
@@ -283,7 +346,7 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for NGramIndex {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for NGramIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.tokens.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
@@ -291,7 +354,7 @@ impl DeepSizeOf for NGramIndex {
 impl NGramIndex {
     async fn from_store(
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         index_cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let tokens = store.open_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME).await?;
@@ -313,6 +376,7 @@ impl NGramIndex {
         let posting_reader = Arc::new(NGramPostingListReader {
             reader: store.open_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME).await?,
             frag_reuse_index,
+            batch_remapper: None,
             index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
         });
 
@@ -325,49 +389,56 @@ impl NGramIndex {
         })
     }
 
-    fn remap_batch(
+    async fn remap_state(
         &self,
-        batch: RecordBatch,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let posting_lists_array = batch
-            .column_by_name(POSTING_LIST_COL)
-            .expect_ok()?
-            .as_binary::<i32>();
-
-        let new_posting_lists = posting_lists_array
-            .iter()
-            .map(|posting_list| {
-                let posting_list = posting_list.unwrap();
-                let posting_list = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(posting_list)?;
-                let new_posting_list =
-                    RoaringTreemap::from_iter(posting_list.into_iter().filter_map(|row_id| {
-                        match mapping.get(&row_id) {
-                            Some(Some(new_row_id)) => Some(*new_row_id),
-                            Some(None) => None,
-                            None => Some(row_id),
-                        }
-                    }));
-                let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(new_posting_list.serialized_size());
-                new_posting_list.serialize_into(&mut buf)?;
-                Ok(buf)
-            })
-            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-
-        let new_posting_lists_array = BinaryArray::from_iter_values(new_posting_lists);
+        state: NGramIndexSpillState,
+        mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        // A spill batch is bounded in serialized bytes, not in cardinality: a
+        // common n-gram in a large full-coverage index decodes into millions
+        // of addresses. Each posting is translated in slices of at most
+        // `TRANSLATION_SLICE` addresses into a fresh bitmap, so the temporary
+        // storage is bounded by the slice, never by the posting.
+        const TRANSLATION_SLICE: usize = 64 * 1024;
+        async fn translate_slice(
+            mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+            slice: &mut Vec<u64>,
+            translated: &mut RoaringTreemap,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            // An address the translator does not touch stays as it is; a
+            // deleted row is dropped.
+            for new_row_id in mapping.remap_row_addrs(slice).await?.into_iter().flatten() {
+                translated.insert(new_row_id);
+            }
+            slice.clear();
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        let mut bitmaps = Vec::with_capacity(state.bitmaps.len());
+        for posting_list in state.bitmaps {
+            let mut translated = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            let mut slice = Vec::with_capacity(TRANSLATION_SLICE.min(posting_list.len() as usize));
+            for row_id in posting_list.iter() {
+                slice.push(row_id);
+                if slice.len() == TRANSLATION_SLICE {
+                    translate_slice(mapping, &mut slice, &mut translated).await?;
+                }
+            }
+            if !slice.is_empty() {
+                translate_slice(mapping, &mut slice, &mut translated).await?;
+            }
+            bitmaps.push(translated);
+        }
 
-        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
-            POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone(),
-            vec![
-                batch.column_by_name(TOKENS_COL).expect_ok()?.clone(),
-                Arc::new(new_posting_lists_array),
-            ],
-        )?)
+        NGramIndexSpillState {
+            tokens: state.tokens,
+            bitmaps,
+        }
+        .try_into_batches()
     }
 
     async fn load(
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         index_cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<Self>>
     where
@@ -377,6 +448,81 @@ impl NGramIndex {
             Self::from_store(store, frag_reuse_index, index_cache).await?,
         ))
     }
+
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    async fn load_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let mut index = Self::from_store(store, None, index_cache).await?;
+        index.list_reader = Arc::new(NGramPostingListReader {
+            reader: index.list_reader.reader.clone(),
+            frag_reuse_index: None,
+            batch_remapper: remapping,
+            index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+        });
+        debug_assert!(
+            index.list_reader.frag_reuse_index.is_none()
+                || index.list_reader.batch_remapper.is_none()
+        );
+        Ok(Arc::new(index))
+    }
+
+    /// Merge several built NGram segments (and optional new data) into a single
+    /// canonical segment in `dest_store`, unioning their posting lists by token
+    /// without rescanning the dataset.
+    pub async fn merge_segments(
+        segment_stores: &[Arc<dyn IndexStore>],
+        new_data: Option<SendableRecordBatchStream>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filters: &[Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>],
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+            .map(|index| Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        Self::merge_segments_with_remapper(
+            segment_stores,
+            new_data,
+            dest_store,
+            old_data_filters,
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub async fn merge_segments_with_remapper(
+        segment_stores: &[Arc<dyn IndexStore>],
+        new_data: Option<SendableRecordBatchStream>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        old_data_filters: &[Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>],
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let mut builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default())?;
+        // Pure consolidation has no new rows, so skip `train` (and its
+        // worker-per-partition tokenization pipeline) entirely.
+        let new_data_spills = match new_data {
+            Some(new_data) => builder.train(new_data).await?,
+            None => Vec::new(),
+        };
+        let file = builder
+            .merge_indices(
+                new_data_spills,
+                segment_stores,
+                old_data_filters,
+                frag_reuse_index,
+                dest_store,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::NGramIndexDetails::default())?,
+            index_version: NGRAM_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
@@ -389,21 +535,12 @@ impl Index for NGramIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "NGramIndex is not a vector index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-
     fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
         let ngram_stats = NGramStatistics {
             num_ngrams: self.tokens.len(),
         };
-        serde_json::to_value(ngram_stats).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("Error serializing statistics: {}", e),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        serde_json::to_value(ngram_stats)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Error serializing statistics: {}", e)))
     }
 
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
@@ -432,6 +569,38 @@ impl Index for NGramIndex {
     }
 }
 
+impl NGramIndex {
+    /// The one remap implementation: the legacy `remap` (an in-memory
+    /// mapping, borrowed as a synchronous translator) and `remap_streaming`
+    /// both come here, so neither copies a map nor delegates to the other.
+    async fn remap_with(
+        &self,
+        mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        let reader = self.store.open_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME).await?;
+        let mut writer = dest_store
+            .new_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME, POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone())
+            .await?;
+
+        let mut spill_stream =
+            NGramIndexBuilder::stream_spill_reader(reader, MAX_POSTING_LIST_BATCH_BYTES)?;
+        while let Some(state) = spill_stream.try_next().await? {
+            for batch in self.remap_state(state, mapping).await? {
+                writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let file = writer.finish().await?;
+
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::NGramIndexDetails::default())?,
+            index_version: NGRAM_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
+        })
+    }
+}
+
 #[async_trait]
 impl ScalarIndex for NGramIndex {
     async fn search(
@@ -439,17 +608,16 @@ impl ScalarIndex for NGramIndex {
         query: &dyn AnyQuery,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
-        let query =
-            query
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<TextQuery>()
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Query is not a TextQuery".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+        let query = query
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<TextQuery>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Query is not a TextQuery".into()))?;
         match query {
             TextQuery::StringContains(substr) => {
-                if substr.len() < NGRAM_N {
+                // Count characters, not bytes: the tokenizer splits on
+                // characters, so a two character multi-byte needle is just as
+                // untokenizable as a two byte one.
+                if substr.chars().count() < NGRAM_N {
                     // We know nothing on short searches, need to recheck all
                     return Ok(SearchResult::at_least(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
                 }
@@ -468,6 +636,12 @@ impl ScalarIndex for NGramIndex {
                 if missing {
                     return Ok(SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
                 }
+                // The needle was long enough but still yielded no tokens (e.g. the
+                // tokenizer's filters dropped every character).  As with a short
+                // needle, the index knows nothing and every row must be rechecked.
+                if row_offsets.is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(SearchResult::at_least(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
+                }
                 let posting_lists = futures::stream::iter(
                     row_offsets
                         .into_iter()
@@ -481,6 +655,45 @@ impl ScalarIndex for NGramIndex {
                 let row_ids = NGramPostingList::intersect(list_refs);
                 Ok(SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from(row_ids)))
             }
+            TextQuery::Regex(pattern) => {
+                let trigram_query = ngram_regex::regex_to_trigram_query(pattern);
+                match &trigram_query {
+                    // No usable trigram structure (e.g. `a.b`, `.*`): the index
+                    // cannot prune, so every row must be rechecked.
+                    ngram_regex::TrigramQuery::All => {
+                        Ok(SearchResult::at_least(RowAddrTreeMap::new()))
+                    }
+                    // The pattern is provably unsatisfiable.
+                    ngram_regex::TrigramQuery::None => {
+                        Ok(SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::new()))
+                    }
+                    _ => {
+                        let mut tokens = HashSet::new();
+                        ngram_regex::collect_tokens(&trigram_query, &mut tokens);
+                        // Fetch the posting list for every trigram the condition
+                        // references; a token absent from the index contributes
+                        // an empty list, which `eval_trigram_query` handles.
+                        let present = tokens.into_iter().filter_map(|token| {
+                            self.tokens.get(&token).map(|offset| (token, *offset))
+                        });
+                        let lists = futures::stream::iter(present.map(|(token, offset)| {
+                            self.list_reader
+                                .ngram_list(offset, metrics)
+                                .map(move |result| result.map(|list| (token, list)))
+                        }))
+                        .buffer_unordered(self.io_parallelism)
+                        .try_collect::<Vec<(u32, Arc<NGramPostingList>)>>()
+                        .await?;
+                        metrics.record_comparisons(lists.len());
+                        let bitmaps: HashMap<u32, RoaringTreemap> = lists
+                            .into_iter()
+                            .map(|(token, list)| (token, list.bitmap.clone()))
+                            .collect();
+                        let row_ids = ngram_regex::eval_trigram_query(&trigram_query, &bitmaps);
+                        Ok(SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from(row_ids)))
+                    }
+                }
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -490,50 +703,37 @@ impl ScalarIndex for NGramIndex {
 
     async fn remap(
         &self,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        let reader = self.store.open_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME).await?;
-        let mut writer = dest_store
-            .new_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME, POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone())
-            .await?;
-
-        let mut offset = 0;
-        let num_rows = reader.num_rows();
-        const BATCH_SIZE: usize = 64;
-        while offset < num_rows {
-            let batch_size = BATCH_SIZE.min(num_rows - offset);
-            let batch = reader.read_range(offset..offset + batch_size, None).await?;
-            let batch = self.remap_batch(batch, mapping)?;
-            writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
-            offset += BATCH_SIZE;
-        }
-
-        writer.finish().await?;
+        self.remap_with(mapping.into(), dest_store).await
+    }
 
-        Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::NGramIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
-            index_version: NGRAM_INDEX_VERSION,
-        })
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        self.remap_with(translator.as_ref(), dest_store).await
     }
 
     async fn update(
         &self,
         new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        _old_data_filter: Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         let mut builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default())?;
         let spill_files = builder.train(new_data).await?;
 
-        builder
+        let file = builder
             .write_index(dest_store, spill_files, Some(self.store.clone()))
             .await?;
 
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::NGramIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::NGramIndexDetails::default())?,
             index_version: NGRAM_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
         })
     }
 
@@ -549,6 +749,9 @@ impl ScalarIndex for NGramIndex {
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct NGramIndexBuilderOptions {
     tokens_per_spill: usize,
+    /// How many partitions the token space is sharded across. Spilling is tracked
+    /// per worker, so tests pin this to keep the spill/merge schedule deterministic.
+    num_workers: usize,
 }
 
 // A higher value will use more RAM.  A lower value will have to do more spilling
@@ -582,6 +785,7 @@ impl Default for NGramIndexBuilderOptions {
     fn default() -> Self {
         Self {
             tokens_per_spill: *DEFAULT_TOKENS_PER_SPILL,
+            num_workers: *DEFAULT_NUM_PARTITIONS,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -594,6 +798,85 @@ struct NGramIndexSpillState {
     bitmaps: Vec<RoaringTreemap>,
 }
 
+struct NGramIndexSpillStateBuilder {
+    tokens: UInt32Builder,
+    bitmaps: Vec<RoaringTreemap>,
+    serialized_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+impl NGramIndexSpillStateBuilder {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            tokens: UInt32Builder::with_capacity(0),
+            bitmaps: Vec::new(),
+            serialized_bytes: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.bitmaps.is_empty()
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.bitmaps.len()
+    }
+
+    fn push(
+        &mut self,
+        token: u32,
+        bitmap: RoaringTreemap,
+        max_batch_bytes: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Option<NGramIndexSpillState>> {
+        let posting_size = bitmap.serialized_size();
+        if posting_size > max_batch_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "posting list for ngram token {} serializes to {} bytes, which exceeds the {} bytes that fit in a single binary array",
+                token, posting_size, max_batch_bytes,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let new_size = self
+            .serialized_bytes
+            .checked_add(posting_size)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "posting list byte size overflowed while adding ngram token {}",
+                    token
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let full_state = if !self.is_empty() && new_size > max_batch_bytes {
+            Some(self.finish())
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        self.tokens.append_value(token);
+        self.bitmaps.push(bitmap);
+        self.serialized_bytes = posting_size
+            .checked_add(if full_state.is_some() {
+                0
+            } else {
+                self.serialized_bytes
+            })
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "posting list byte size overflowed while adding ngram token {}",
+                    token
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+        Ok(full_state)
+    }
+
+    fn finish(&mut self) -> NGramIndexSpillState {
+        self.serialized_bytes = 0;
+        NGramIndexSpillState {
+            tokens: std::mem::replace(&mut self.tokens, UInt32Builder::with_capacity(0)).finish(),
+            bitmaps: std::mem::take(&mut self.bitmaps),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 impl NGramIndexSpillState {
     fn try_from_batch(batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<Self> {
         let tokens = batch
@@ -609,26 +892,153 @@ impl NGramIndexSpillState {
         let bitmaps = postings
             .into_iter()
             .map(|bytes| {
-                RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(bytes.expect_ok()?).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Error deserializing ngram list: {}", e),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(bytes.expect_ok()?)
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Error deserializing ngram list: {}", e)))
             })
             .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
 
         Ok(Self { tokens, bitmaps })
     }
 
-    fn try_into_batch(self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let bitmap_array = BinaryArray::from_iter_values(self.bitmaps.into_iter().map(|bitmap| {
-            let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(bitmap.serialized_size());
-            bitmap.serialize_into(&mut buf).unwrap();
-            buf
-        }));
-        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
-            POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(self.tokens), Arc::new(bitmap_array)],
-        )?)
+    fn try_into_batches(self) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        self.try_into_batches_impl(MAX_POSTING_LIST_BATCH_BYTES)
+    }
+
+    // Split into multiple batches so that the cumulative serialized posting bytes
+    // of each batch stay under `max_batch_bytes`, avoiding i32 offset overflow in
+    // the Binary posting array.  Postings are serialized straight into each batch's
+    // values buffer to avoid a second contiguous copy of multi-GiB payloads.
+    fn try_into_batches_impl(self, max_batch_bytes: usize) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        debug_assert_eq!(self.tokens.len(), self.bitmaps.len());
+        debug_assert!(max_batch_bytes <= i32::MAX as usize);
+        let make_batch =
+            |tokens: UInt32Array, values: Vec<u8>, offsets: Vec<i32>| -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+                let posting_array = BinaryArray::new(
+                    OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+                    Buffer::from_vec(values),
+                    None,
+                );
+                Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(tokens), Arc::new(posting_array)],
+                )?)
+            };
+
+        let mut batches = Vec::new();
+        let mut values: Vec<u8> = Vec::new();
+        let mut offsets: Vec<i32> = vec![0];
+        let mut batch_start = 0;
+        for (idx, bitmap) in self.bitmaps.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            let posting_size = bitmap.serialized_size();
+            if posting_size > max_batch_bytes {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "posting list for ngram token {} serializes to {} bytes, which exceeds the {} bytes that fit in a single binary array",
+                    self.tokens.value(idx),
+                    posting_size,
+                    max_batch_bytes,
+                )));
+            }
+            if values.len() + posting_size > max_batch_bytes {
+                batches.push(make_batch(
+                    self.tokens.slice(batch_start, idx - batch_start),
+                    std::mem::take(&mut values),
+                    std::mem::replace(&mut offsets, vec![0]),
+                )?);
+                batch_start = idx;
+            }
+            bitmap.serialize_into(&mut values)?;
+            offsets.push(values.len() as i32);
+        }
+        if offsets.len() > 1 || batches.is_empty() {
+            batches.push(make_batch(
+                self.tokens.slice(batch_start, offsets.len() - 1),
+                values,
+                offsets,
+            )?);
+        }
+        Ok(batches)
+    }
+
+    fn remap_and_filter_rows(
+        self,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<&dyn RowIdRemapper>,
+        filter: Option<&super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        if let Some(fri) = frag_reuse_index {
+            return self.remap_then_keep(fri, filter);
+        }
+        match filter {
+            None => self,
+            Some(filter) => self.retain_rows(filter),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Remap stale addresses per row, keeping only rows still selected by
+    /// `filter`. Used only under a pending deferred-remap compaction.
+    fn remap_then_keep(
+        self,
+        fri: &dyn RowIdRemapper,
+        filter: Option<&super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let mut tokens = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(self.tokens.len());
+        let mut bitmaps = Vec::with_capacity(self.bitmaps.len());
+        for (token, bitmap) in self.tokens.values().iter().zip(self.bitmaps) {
+            let remapped = fri.remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&bitmap);
+            let kept = match filter {
+                Some(filter) => RoaringTreemap::from_iter(
+                    remapped
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .filter(|row_id| old_filter_keeps(filter, *row_id)),
+                ),
+                None => remapped,
+            };
+            if !kept.is_empty() {
+                tokens.append_value(*token);
+                bitmaps.push(kept);
+            }
+        }
+        Self {
+            tokens: tokens.finish(),
+            bitmaps,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn retain_rows(self, filter: &super::OldIndexDataFilter) -> Self {
+        if let super::OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments { to_keep, .. } = filter
+            && self.bitmaps.iter().all(|bitmap| {
+                bitmap
+                    .bitmaps()
+                    .all(|(fragment, _)| to_keep.contains(fragment))
+            })
+        {
+            return self;
+        }
+        let mut tokens = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(self.tokens.len());
+        let mut bitmaps = Vec::with_capacity(self.bitmaps.len());
+        for (token, bitmap) in self.tokens.values().iter().zip(self.bitmaps) {
+            let kept = RoaringTreemap::from_iter(
+                bitmap
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .filter(|row_id| old_filter_keeps(filter, *row_id)),
+            );
+            if !kept.is_empty() {
+                tokens.append_value(*token);
+                bitmaps.push(kept);
+            }
+        }
+        Self {
+            tokens: tokens.finish(),
+            bitmaps,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn old_filter_keeps(filter: &super::OldIndexDataFilter, row_id: u64) -> bool {
+    match filter {
+        super::OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments { to_keep, .. } => {
+            to_keep.contains((row_id >> 32) as u32)
+        }
+        super::OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid) => valid.contains(row_id),
     }
 }
 
@@ -681,6 +1091,9 @@ pub struct NGramIndexBuilder {
     tokens_seen: usize,
     worker_number: usize,
     has_flushed: bool,
+    /// Flushes that merged into an existing spill file rather than writing the first
+    /// one, aggregated across workers by `train`.
+    merging_flushes: usize,
 
     state: NGramIndexBuildState,
 }
@@ -703,6 +1116,7 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
             tokens_seen: 0,
             worker_number,
             has_flushed: false,
+            merging_flushes: 0,
         }
     }
 
@@ -725,31 +1139,29 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
             tokens_seen: 0,
             worker_number: 0,
             has_flushed: false,
+            merging_flushes: 0,
         })
     }
 
     fn validate_schema(schema: &Schema) -> Result<()> {
         if schema.fields().len() != 2 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Ngram index schema must have exactly two fields".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Ngram index schema must have exactly two fields".into(),
+            ));
         }
         let values_field = schema.field_with_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)?;
         if *values_field.data_type() != DataType::Utf8
             && *values_field.data_type() != DataType::LargeUtf8
         {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "First field in ngram index schema must be of type Utf8/LargeUtf8".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "First field in ngram index schema must be of type Utf8/LargeUtf8".into(),
+            ));
         }
         let row_id_field = schema.field_with_name(ROW_ID)?;
         if *row_id_field.data_type() != DataType::UInt64 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Second field in ngram index schema must be of type UInt64".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Second field in ngram index schema must be of type UInt64".into(),
+            ));
         }
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -795,6 +1207,7 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
         // The primary builder should never flush
         debug_assert_ne!(self.worker_number, 0);
         if self.has_flushed {
+            self.merging_flushes += 1;
             info!("Merging flush for worker {}", self.worker_number);
             // If we have flushed before then we need to merge with the spill file
             let mut writer = self
@@ -869,7 +1282,7 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
         let schema = data.schema();
         Self::validate_schema(schema.as_ref())?;
 
-        let num_workers = *DEFAULT_NUM_PARTITIONS;
+        let num_workers = self.options.num_workers;
         let mut senders = Vec::with_capacity(num_workers);
         let mut builders = Vec::with_capacity(num_workers);
         for worker_idx in 0..num_workers {
@@ -920,6 +1333,7 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
             if builder.flush(state).await? {
                 to_spill.push(builder.worker_number);
             }
+            self.merging_flushes += builder.merging_flushes;
         }
 
         Ok(to_spill)
@@ -930,33 +1344,60 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
         mut writer: Box<dyn IndexWriter>,
         state: NGramIndexSpillState,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        writer.write_record_batch(state.try_into_batch()?).await?;
+        Self::write_state(writer.as_mut(), state).await?;
         writer.finish().await?;
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    async fn stream_spill_reader(
+    async fn write_state(writer: &mut dyn IndexWriter, state: NGramIndexSpillState) -> Result<()> {
+        for batch in state.try_into_batches()? {
+            writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn stream_spill_reader(
         reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        max_batch_bytes: usize,
     ) -> Result<impl Stream<Item = Result<NGramIndexSpillState>>> {
         let num_rows = reader.num_rows();
 
-        Ok(stream::try_unfold(0, move |offset| {
-            let reader = reader.clone();
-            async move {
-                // These are small batches but, in the worst case scenario, each row could
-                // be massive (up to 128MB per row at 1B rows) and we end up breaking memory
-                let batch_size = std::cmp::min(num_rows - offset, 64);
-                if batch_size == 0 {
-                    return Ok(None);
+        Ok(stream::try_unfold(
+            (0, NGramIndexSpillStateBuilder::new()),
+            move |(mut offset, mut builder)| {
+                let reader = reader.clone();
+                async move {
+                    loop {
+                        if offset >= num_rows {
+                            return if builder.is_empty() {
+                                Ok(None)
+                            } else {
+                                let state = builder.finish();
+                                Ok(Some((state, (offset, builder))))
+                            };
+                        }
+
+                        let state = NGramIndexSpillState::try_from_batch(
+                            reader.read_range(offset..offset + 1, None).await?,
+                        )?;
+                        offset += 1;
+                        for (token, bitmap) in
+                            state.tokens.values().iter().copied().zip(state.bitmaps)
+                        {
+                            if let Some(full) = builder.push(token, bitmap, max_batch_bytes)? {
+                                return Ok(Some((full, (offset, builder))));
+                            }
+                            if builder.len() >= POSTING_LIST_STREAM_BATCH_ROWS {
+                                let state = builder.finish();
+                                return Ok(Some((state, (offset, builder))));
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
                 }
-                let batch = reader.read_range(offset..offset + batch_size, None).await?;
-                let state = NGramIndexSpillState::try_from_batch(batch)?;
-                let new_offset = offset + batch_size;
-                Ok(Some((state, new_offset)))
-            }
-            .boxed()
-        }))
+                .boxed()
+            },
+        ))
     }
 
     async fn stream_spill(
@@ -966,7 +1407,7 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
         let reader = spill_store
             .open_index_file(&Self::spill_filename(id))
             .await?;
-        Self::stream_spill_reader(reader).await
+        Self::stream_spill_reader(reader, MAX_POSTING_LIST_BATCH_BYTES)
     }
 
     fn merge_spill_states(
@@ -1054,7 +1495,7 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
         mut left_stream: impl Stream<Item = Result<NGramIndexSpillState>> + Unpin,
         mut right_stream: impl Stream<Item = Result<NGramIndexSpillState>> + Unpin,
         writer: &mut dyn IndexWriter,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
         let mut left_state = left_stream.try_next().await?;
         let mut right_state = right_stream.try_next().await?;
 
@@ -1062,21 +1503,21 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
             if left_state.is_none() {
                 // Left is done, full drain right
                 let state = right_state.take().expect_ok()?;
-                writer.write_record_batch(state.try_into_batch()?).await?;
+                Self::write_state(writer, state).await?;
                 while let Some(state) = right_stream.try_next().await? {
-                    writer.write_record_batch(state.try_into_batch()?).await?;
+                    Self::write_state(writer, state).await?;
                 }
             } else if right_state.is_none() {
                 // Right is done, full drain left
                 let state = left_state.take().expect_ok()?;
-                writer.write_record_batch(state.try_into_batch()?).await?;
+                Self::write_state(writer, state).await?;
                 while let Some(state) = left_stream.try_next().await? {
-                    writer.write_record_batch(state.try_into_batch()?).await?;
+                    Self::write_state(writer, state).await?;
                 }
             } else {
                 // There is a batch from both left and right.  Need to merge them
                 let merged = Self::merge_spill_states(&mut left_state, &mut right_state);
-                writer.write_record_batch(merged.try_into_batch()?).await?;
+                Self::write_state(writer, merged).await?;
                 if left_state.is_none() {
                     left_state = left_stream.try_next().await?;
                 }
@@ -1151,7 +1592,9 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
                 spill_files.push(spill_counter + i);
             }
             spill_counter += new_spills.len();
-            futures::future::try_join_all(new_spills).await?;
+            for result in futures::future::try_join_all(new_spills).await? {
+                result?;
+            }
         }
 
         spill_files.pop().expect_ok()
@@ -1172,7 +1615,7 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
 
         let left_stream = Self::stream_spill(self.spill_store.clone(), new_data_num).await?;
         let old_reader = old_index.open_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME).await?;
-        let right_stream = Self::stream_spill_reader(old_reader).await?;
+        let right_stream = Self::stream_spill_reader(old_reader, MAX_POSTING_LIST_BATCH_BYTES)?;
 
         Self::merge_spill_streams(left_stream, right_stream, writer.as_mut()).await?;
 
@@ -1188,7 +1631,7 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
         store: &dyn IndexStore,
         spill_files: Vec<usize>,
         old_index: Option<Arc<dyn IndexStore>>,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
         let mut writer = store
             .new_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME, POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone())
             .await?;
@@ -1196,15 +1639,14 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
         if spill_files.is_empty() {
             if let Some(old_index) = old_index {
                 // An update with no new data, just copy the old index to the new store
-                old_index.copy_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME, store).await?;
+                return old_index.copy_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME, store).await;
             } else {
                 // Training an index with no data, make an empty index
                 let mut writer = store
                     .new_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME, POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone())
                     .await?;
-                writer.finish().await?;
+                return writer.finish().await;
             }
-            return Ok(());
         }
 
         let mut index_to_copy = self.merge_spills(spill_files).await?;
@@ -1218,16 +1660,126 @@ impl NGramIndexBuilder {
             .open_index_file(&Self::spill_filename(index_to_copy))
             .await?;
 
-        let num_rows = reader.num_rows();
-        let mut offset = 0;
+        let mut spill_stream = Self::stream_spill_reader(reader, MAX_POSTING_LIST_BATCH_BYTES)?;
+        while let Some(state) = spill_stream.try_next().await? {
+            Self::write_state(writer.as_mut(), state).await?;
+        }
 
-        while offset < num_rows {
-            let batch_size = std::cmp::min(num_rows - offset, 64);
-            let batch = reader.read_range(offset..offset + batch_size, None).await?;
-            writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
-            offset += batch_size;
+        writer.finish().await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_segment_stream(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        filter: Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<NGramIndexSpillState>> + Send>>> {
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME).await?;
+        let stream =
+            Self::stream_spill_reader(reader, MAX_POSTING_LIST_BATCH_BYTES)?.map(move |res| {
+                res.map(|state| {
+                    state.remap_and_filter_rows(frag_reuse_index.as_deref(), filter.as_ref())
+                })
+            });
+        Ok(Box::pin(stream))
+    }
+
+    /// Merge the source segments' posting files with any new-data spills into a
+    /// single canonical posting file in `dest_store`.
+    async fn merge_indices(
+        mut self,
+        new_data_spills: Vec<usize>,
+        segment_stores: &[Arc<dyn IndexStore>],
+        old_data_filters: &[Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>],
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        if old_data_filters.len() != segment_stores.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "NGram merge: expected one old-data filter per source segment \
+                 ({} segments) but got {}",
+                segment_stores.len(),
+                old_data_filters.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut writer = dest_store
+            .new_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME, POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone())
+            .await?;
+
+        // No segments and no new data: write an empty index.
+        if segment_stores.is_empty() && new_data_spills.is_empty() {
+            return writer.finish().await;
+        }
+
+        // Fast path
+        if segment_stores.len() == 1 {
+            let seg_stream = Self::open_segment_stream(
+                segment_stores[0].clone(),
+                frag_reuse_index,
+                old_data_filters[0].clone(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            let new_data_stream: Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<NGramIndexSpillState>> + Send>> =
+                if new_data_spills.is_empty() {
+                    Box::pin(stream::empty::<Result<NGramIndexSpillState>>())
+                } else {
+                    let new_data = self.merge_spills(new_data_spills).await?;
+                    Box::pin(Self::stream_spill(self.spill_store.clone(), new_data).await?)
+                };
+            return Self::merge_spill_streams(seg_stream, new_data_stream, writer.as_mut()).await;
         }
 
+        let mut spills = new_data_spills;
+        let next_spill = spills.iter().copied().max().map_or(0, |id| id + 1);
+        let mut tasks = Vec::new();
+        for (offset, (stores, filters)) in segment_stores
+            .chunks(2)
+            .zip(old_data_filters.chunks(2))
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            let out = next_spill + offset;
+            spills.push(out);
+            let spill_store = self.spill_store.clone();
+            let fri = frag_reuse_index.clone();
+            let s0 = stores[0].clone();
+            let f0 = filters[0].clone();
+            let second = (stores.len() == 2).then(|| (stores[1].clone(), filters[1].clone()));
+            tasks.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                let mut writer = spill_store
+                    .new_index_file(&Self::spill_filename(out), POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone())
+                    .await?;
+                let mut left = Self::open_segment_stream(s0, fri.clone(), f0).await?;
+                match second {
+                    Some((s1, f1)) => {
+                        let right = Self::open_segment_stream(s1, fri, f1).await?;
+                        // `merge_spill_streams` finishes the writer itself.
+                        Self::merge_spill_streams(left, right, writer.as_mut()).await?;
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        // Odd segment out: materialize it alone (cost of one segment).
+                        while let Some(state) = left.try_next().await? {
+                            Self::write_state(writer.as_mut(), state).await?;
+                        }
+                        writer.finish().await?;
+                    }
+                }
+                Result::Ok(())
+            }));
+        }
+        for result in futures::future::try_join_all(tasks).await? {
+            result?;
+        }
+
+        // Balanced parallel union of every spill (new data + paired segments).
+        let final_spill = self.merge_spills(spills).await?;
+        let reader = self
+            .spill_store
+            .open_index_file(&Self::spill_filename(final_spill))
+            .await?;
+        let mut spill_stream = Self::stream_spill_reader(reader, MAX_POSTING_LIST_BATCH_BYTES)?;
+        while let Some(state) = spill_stream.try_next().await? {
+            Self::write_state(writer.as_mut(), state).await?;
+        }
         writer.finish().await
     }
 }
@@ -1239,7 +1791,7 @@ impl NGramIndexPlugin {
     pub async fn train_ngram_index(
         batches_source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
         let mut builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default())?;
 
         let spill_files = builder.train(batches_source).await?;
@@ -1249,31 +1801,53 @@ impl NGramIndexPlugin {
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndexPlugin for NGramIndexPlugin {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "NGram"
-    }
-
+impl BasicTrainer for NGramIndexPlugin {
     fn new_training_request(
         &self,
         _params: &str,
         field: &Field,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
         if !matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8) {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
-                    "A ngram index can only be created on a Utf8 or LargeUtf8 field.  Column has type {:?}",
-                    field.data_type()
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!(
+                "A ngram index can only be created on a Utf8 or LargeUtf8 field.  Column has type {:?}",
+                field.data_type()
+            )
+            .into()));
         }
         Ok(Box::new(DefaultTrainingRequest::new(
             TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None).with_row_id(),
         )))
     }
 
+    async fn train_index(
+        &self,
+        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        _request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
+        _fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        // `fragment_ids` only scopes the rows scanned into `data`; the builder
+        // always writes one canonical file, so a per-fragment build is a segment.
+        let file = Self::train_ngram_index(data, index_store).await?;
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::NGramIndexDetails::default())?,
+            index_version: NGRAM_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files: vec![file],
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for NGramIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "NGram"
+    }
+
     fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
         false
     }
@@ -1287,75 +1861,127 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for NGramIndexPlugin {
         index_name: String,
         _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
     ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
-        Some(Box::new(TextQueryParser::new(index_name, true)))
+        Some(Box::new(TextQueryParser::new(
+            index_name,
+            self.name().to_string(),
+            // needs_recheck: ngram results are an inexact candidate superset.
+            true,
+            // supports_regex: the ngram index can answer regex queries.
+            true,
+            // min_contains_chars: a needle shorter than one trigram yields no
+            // tokens, so the index cannot narrow the search at all.
+            NGRAM_N,
+        )))
     }
 
-    async fn train_index(
+    async fn load_index(
         &self,
-        data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
-        _request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
-        fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
-    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        if fragment_ids.is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "NGram index does not support fragment training".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
-        Self::train_ngram_index(data, index_store).await?;
-        Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::NGramIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
-            index_version: NGRAM_INDEX_VERSION,
-        })
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        Ok(NGramIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await? as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+    }
+    fn supports_batch_row_id_remapping(&self) -> bool {
+        true
     }
 
-    async fn load_index(
+    async fn load_index_with_remapping(
         &self,
         index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
         cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
-        Ok(NGramIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await? as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+        Ok(NGramIndex::load_with_remapping(index_store, remapping, cache).await?)
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+    use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+    use rstest::rstest;
     use std::{
         collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
         sync::Arc,
     };
 
-    use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
-    use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt64Array};
+    use arrow::array::AsArray;
+    use arrow::datatypes::{UInt32Type, UInt64Type};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
     use datafusion::{
         execution::SendableRecordBatchStream, physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
     };
     use datafusion_common::DataFusionError;
-    use futures::{stream, TryStreamExt};
+    use futures::{TryStreamExt, stream};
     use itertools::Itertools;
-    use lance_core::{
-        cache::LanceCache,
-        utils::{mask::RowAddrTreeMap, tempfile::TempDir},
-        ROW_ID,
-    };
+    use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result, cache::LanceCache, utils::tempfile::TempDir};
     use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
     use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-    use tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer;
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+    use lance_tokenizer::TextAnalyzer;
+    use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
 
     use crate::scalar::{
+        IndexReader, IndexStore, ScalarIndex, SearchResult, TextQuery,
         lance_format::LanceIndexStore,
         ngram::{NGramIndex, NGramIndexBuilder, NGramIndexBuilderOptions},
-        ScalarIndex, SearchResult, TextQuery,
     };
     use crate::{metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector, scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME};
 
-    use super::{ngram_to_token, tokenize_visitor, NGRAM_TOKENIZER};
+    use super::{
+        NGRAM_TOKENIZER, NGramIndexSpillState, POSTINGS_FILENAME, POSTINGS_SCHEMA, ngram_to_token,
+        tokenize_visitor,
+    };
+
+    struct MaxReadRangeReader {
+        inner: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+        max_rows: usize,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexReader for MaxReadRangeReader {
+        async fn read_record_batch(&self, n: u64, batch_size: u64) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            self.inner.read_record_batch(n, batch_size).await
+        }
+
+        async fn read_range(
+            &self,
+            range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+            projection: Option<&[&str]>,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            let rows = range.end - range.start;
+            if rows > self.max_rows {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "read_range requested {} rows, max is {}",
+                    rows, self.max_rows,
+                )));
+            }
+            self.inner.read_range(range, projection).await
+        }
+
+        async fn num_batches(&self, batch_size: u64) -> u32 {
+            self.inner.num_batches(batch_size).await
+        }
+
+        fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.num_rows()
+        }
+
+        fn schema(&self) -> &lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
+            self.inner.schema()
+        }
+
+        fn file_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.inner.file_size_bytes()
+        }
+    }
 
     fn collect_tokens(analyzer: &TextAnalyzer, text: &str) -> Vec<String> {
         let mut tokens = Vec::with_capacity(text.len() * 3);
@@ -1404,8 +2030,9 @@ mod tests {
     async fn do_train(
         mut builder: NGramIndexBuilder,
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    ) -> (NGramIndex, Arc<TempDir>) {
+    ) -> (NGramIndex, usize, Arc<TempDir>) {
         let spill_files = builder.train(data).await.unwrap();
+        let merging_flushes = builder.merging_flushes;
 
         let tmpdir = Arc::new(TempDir::default());
         let test_store = LanceIndexStore::new(
@@ -1423,6 +2050,7 @@ mod tests {
             NGramIndex::from_store(Arc::new(test_store), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
                 .await
                 .unwrap(),
+            merging_flushes,
             tmpdir,
         )
     }
@@ -1475,7 +2103,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
 
-        let (index, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
         assert_eq!(index.tokens.len(), 21);
 
         // Basic search
@@ -1535,6 +2163,30 @@ mod tests {
         let expected = SearchResult::at_least(RowAddrTreeMap::new());
         assert_eq!(expected, res);
 
+        // Two characters but four bytes: still too short to tokenize, so the
+        // length check must count characters and not bytes.
+        let res = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("éé".to_string()),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected = SearchResult::at_least(RowAddrTreeMap::new());
+        assert_eq!(expected, res);
+
+        // Long enough to tokenize, but the tokenizer's alphanumeric filter drops
+        // every trigram, so again we know nothing.
+        let res = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("---".to_string()),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected = SearchResult::at_least(RowAddrTreeMap::new());
+        assert_eq!(expected, res);
+
         // One short string but we still get at least one trigram, this is ok
         let res = index
             .search(
@@ -1547,6 +2199,107 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(expected, res);
     }
 
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_ngram_regex_search() {
+        // Same corpus as test_basic_ngram_index.
+        let data = StringArray::from_iter_values([
+            "cat",         // 0
+            "dog",         // 1
+            "cat dog",     // 2
+            "dog cat",     // 3
+            "elephant",    // 4
+            "mouse",       // 5
+            "rhino",       // 6
+            "giraffe",     // 7
+            "rhinos nose", // 8
+        ]);
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values((0..data.len()).map(|i| i as u64));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let data =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(data), Arc::new(row_ids)]).unwrap();
+        let data = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(data))),
+        ));
+
+        let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+
+        async fn search(index: &NGramIndex, pattern: &str) -> SearchResult {
+            index
+                .search(
+                    &TextQuery::Regex(pattern.to_string()),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        // A plain literal yields the same candidates as contains("cat").
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(&index, "cat").await,
+            SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0, 2, 3]))
+        );
+
+        // Alternation -> union of each branch's rows.
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(&index, "(cat|dog)").await,
+            SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0, 1, 2, 3]))
+        );
+
+        // AND across `.*`: must contain both the `rhino` and `nose` trigrams, so
+        // row 6 ("rhino") is correctly excluded and only row 8 survives.
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(&index, "rhino.*nose").await,
+            SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([8]))
+        );
+
+        // No derivable trigram -> recheck everything.
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(&index, "a.b").await,
+            SearchResult::at_least(RowAddrTreeMap::new())
+        );
+
+        // A trigram that is absent from the index -> empty candidate set.
+        assert_eq!(
+            search(&index, "zzz").await,
+            SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::new())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_ngram_regex_search_nulls() {
+        // Rows: cat(0), dog(1), NULL(2), NULL(3), cat dog(4).
+        let data = simple_data_with_nulls();
+        let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+
+        // The NULL rows (2, 3) must never appear in the candidate set.
+        let res = index
+            .search(&TextQuery::Regex("cat".to_string()), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            res,
+            SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0, 4]))
+        );
+
+        let res = index
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::Regex("(cat|dog)".to_string()),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            res,
+            SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0, 1, 4]))
+        );
+    }
+
     fn test_data_schema() -> Arc<Schema> {
         Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
             Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, true),
@@ -1572,7 +2325,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
 
-        let (index, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
         assert_eq!(index.tokens.len(), 3);
 
         let res = index
@@ -1602,7 +2355,7 @@ mod tests {
     async fn test_train_empty() {
         let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
 
-        let (index, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, empty_data()).await;
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, empty_data()).await;
         assert_eq!(index.tokens.len(), 0);
     }
 
@@ -1611,7 +2364,7 @@ mod tests {
         let data = simple_data_with_nulls();
 
         let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
-        let (index, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, empty_data()).await;
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, empty_data()).await;
 
         let new_tmpdir = Arc::new(TempDir::default());
         let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
@@ -1620,7 +2373,7 @@ mod tests {
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        index.update(data, test_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+        index.update(data, test_store.as_ref(), None).await.unwrap();
 
         let index = NGramIndex::from_store(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
@@ -1645,7 +2398,7 @@ mod tests {
     async fn test_ngram_index_remap() {
         let data = simple_data_with_nulls();
         let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
-        let (index, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
 
         let row_ids = row_ids_in_index(&index).await;
         assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
@@ -1658,7 +2411,10 @@ mod tests {
         ));
 
         let remapping = HashMap::from([(2, Some(100)), (3, None), (4, Some(101))]);
-        index.remap(&remapping, test_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+        index
+            .remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(remapping), test_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
         let index = NGramIndex::from_store(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
@@ -1670,11 +2426,137 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(null_posting_list, vec![100]);
     }
 
+    /// Postings are translated per posting in slices of at most 64K
+    /// addresses: two trigrams with 40K rows each reach a batch translator as
+    /// calls of at most 40K addresses, never as one 64K call over the spill
+    /// batch's concatenated postings (which is what materializing every
+    /// address of the batch first would produce), and every row comes out
+    /// translated.
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_ngram_index_remap_translates_postings_in_bounded_slices() {
+        use lance_index_core::remapping::BatchRowIdRemapper;
+        use std::sync::Mutex;
+
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct Recording {
+            calls: Mutex<Vec<usize>>,
+        }
+        #[async_trait::async_trait]
+        impl BatchRowIdRemapper for Recording {
+            async fn remap_row_ids(&self, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+                self.calls.lock().unwrap().push(row_ids.len());
+                Ok(row_ids.iter().map(|id| Some(id + 1_000_000)).collect())
+            }
+        }
+
+        const ROWS: u64 = 40_000;
+        let text = StringArray::from_iter_values(
+            (0..ROWS).map(|i| if i % 2 == 0 { "cat" } else { "dog" }),
+        );
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..ROWS);
+        let schema = test_data_schema();
+        let data =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(text), Arc::new(row_ids)]).unwrap();
+        let data = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(data))),
+        ));
+        let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+        assert_eq!(row_ids_in_index(&index).await.len(), ROWS as usize);
+
+        let new_tmpdir = Arc::new(TempDir::default());
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            new_tmpdir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let recording = Arc::new(Recording {
+            calls: Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+        });
+        index
+            .remap_streaming(
+                &RowAddrTranslator::Batch(recording.clone()),
+                test_store.as_ref(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let calls = recording.calls.lock().unwrap().clone();
+        assert!(!calls.is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            calls.iter().all(|len| *len <= ROWS as usize / 2),
+            "a call never spans more than one posting: {calls:?}"
+        );
+
+        let index = NGramIndex::from_store(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids_in_index(&index).await,
+            (1_000_000..1_000_000 + ROWS).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Like `test_ngram_index_remap` but covering both RowAddrRemap modes: rows
+    // 0..4 of frag 0 are rewritten into frag 10; row 4 is deleted.
+    fn ngram_remap_compact() -> RowAddrRemap {
+        use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::GroupInput;
+        use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+        RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter(0u64..4),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![0],
+            new_frags: vec![(10, 4)],
+        }])
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn ngram_remap_explicit() -> RowAddrRemap {
+        RowAddrRemap::direct(
+            (0u64..4)
+                .map(|i| (i, Some((10u64 << 32) | i)))
+                .chain(std::iter::once((4u64, None)))
+                .collect(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(ngram_remap_compact())]
+    #[case(ngram_remap_explicit())]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ngram_index_remap_compact(#[case] remap: RowAddrRemap) {
+        let data = simple_data_with_nulls();
+        let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+
+        let row_ids = row_ids_in_index(&index).await;
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+
+        let new_tmpdir = Arc::new(TempDir::default());
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            new_tmpdir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        index.remap(&remap, test_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let index = NGramIndex::from_store(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let addr = |offset: u64| (10u64 << 32) | offset;
+        let row_ids = row_ids_in_index(&index).await;
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![addr(0), addr(1), addr(2), addr(3)]);
+
+        // rows 2 and 3 are the null docs; both are rewritten into frag 10.
+        let null_posting_list = get_null_posting_list(&index).await;
+        assert_eq!(null_posting_list, vec![addr(2), addr(3)]);
+    }
+
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_ngram_index_merge() {
         let data = simple_data_with_nulls();
         let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions::default()).unwrap();
-        let (index, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+        let (index, _merges, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
 
         let data = StringArray::from_iter(&[Some("giraffe"), Some("cat"), None]);
         let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values((0..data.len()).map(|i| i as u64 + 100));
@@ -1699,7 +2581,7 @@ mod tests {
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
 
-        index.update(data, test_store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+        index.update(data, test_store.as_ref(), None).await.unwrap();
 
         let index = NGramIndex::from_store(test_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
             .await
@@ -1717,6 +2599,100 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(posting_list, vec![2, 3, 102]);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_row_ids_filters_by_allow_list() {
+        use arrow_array::UInt32Array;
+        use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+
+        use super::NGramIndexSpillState;
+        use crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter;
+
+        let addr = |frag: u32, local: u32| ((frag as u64) << 32) | local as u64;
+
+        // Three tokens whose postings span fragments 0, 1 and 2.
+        let state = NGramIndexSpillState {
+            tokens: UInt32Array::from(vec![10u32, 20, 30]),
+            bitmaps: vec![
+                RoaringTreemap::from_iter([addr(0, 0), addr(0, 1), addr(1, 0), addr(2, 0)]),
+                RoaringTreemap::from_iter([addr(2, 5)]),
+                RoaringTreemap::from_iter([addr(1, 0), addr(1, 1), addr(1, 2)]),
+            ],
+        };
+
+        // Allow-list: fragment 0 fully live, fragment 1 keeps only local row 0,
+        // fragment 2 absent (fully retired).
+        let mut valid = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        valid.insert_fragment(0);
+        valid.insert(addr(1, 0));
+
+        let filtered = state.remap_and_filter_rows(None, Some(&OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid)));
+
+        // Token 20 lived only in retired fragment 2, so it is dropped entirely.
+        assert_eq!(filtered.tokens.values().to_vec(), vec![10u32, 30]);
+        // Token 10: fragment 0 kept whole, fragment 1 trimmed to local 0,
+        // fragment 2 dropped.
+        assert_eq!(
+            filtered.bitmaps[0].iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![addr(0, 0), addr(0, 1), addr(1, 0)],
+        );
+        // Token 30: only the allow-listed local row 0 survives.
+        assert_eq!(
+            filtered.bitmaps[1].iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![addr(1, 0)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remap_then_keep_relocates_and_filters() {
+        use arrow_array::UInt32Array;
+        use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
+        use uuid::Uuid;
+
+        use super::NGramIndexSpillState;
+        use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseIndexHandle};
+        use crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter;
+
+        let addr = |frag: u32, local: u32| ((frag as u64) << 32) | local as u64;
+
+        // One token spanning fragments 0 and 1.
+        let state = NGramIndexSpillState {
+            tokens: UInt32Array::from(vec![10u32]),
+            bitmaps: vec![RoaringTreemap::from_iter([
+                addr(0, 0),
+                addr(0, 1),
+                addr(1, 0),
+            ])],
+        };
+
+        // Compaction fused fragment 0 into fragment 2: row (0,0) survives at
+        // (2,0), row (0,1) was deleted (maps to None). Row (1,0) isn't in the
+        // map, so remap passes it through unchanged.
+        let fri = FragReuseIndexHandle(Arc::new(FragReuseIndex::new(
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            vec![HashMap::from([
+                (addr(0, 0), Some(addr(2, 0))),
+                (addr(0, 1), None),
+            ])],
+            FragReuseIndexDetails { versions: vec![] },
+        )));
+
+        // After remap the live rows sit in fragments 2 and 1; fragment 1 is retired.
+        let filter = OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+            to_keep: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32]),
+            to_remove: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]),
+        };
+
+        let filtered = state.remap_and_filter_rows(Some(&fri), Some(&filter));
+
+        // Only the relocated, still-live row survives: (0,0) -> (2,0). (0,1) was
+        // dropped by remap; (1,0) was dropped by the retired-fragment filter.
+        assert_eq!(filtered.tokens.values().to_vec(), vec![10u32]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            filtered.bitmaps[0].iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![addr(2, 0)]
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_ngram_index_with_spill() {
         let (data, schema) = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
@@ -1725,20 +2701,170 @@ mod tests {
                 lance_datagen::array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(50), false),
             )
             .col(ROW_ID, lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .into_reader_stream(RowCount::from(128), BatchCount::from(32));
+            .into_reader_stream(RowCount::from(128), BatchCount::from(4));
 
         let data = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
             schema,
             data.map_err(|arrow_err| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(arrow_err), None)),
         ));
 
+        // Spilling is tracked per worker, so pin the worker count and keep the spill
+        // threshold well below the tokens each worker sees. That way every worker spills
+        // repeatedly and the merge-into-existing-spill path runs, independent of how many
+        // partitions the default would pick.
         let builder = NGramIndexBuilder::try_new(NGramIndexBuilderOptions {
             tokens_per_spill: 100,
+            num_workers: 8,
         })
         .unwrap();
 
-        let (index, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+        let (index, merging_flushes, _tmpdir) = do_train(builder, data).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(index.tokens.len(), 5716);
+        assert!(
+            merging_flushes > 0,
+            "expected repeat spills to merge into existing spill files, got none"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_spill_state_chunks_by_byte_size() {
+        let bitmaps = (0..8u64)
+            .map(|i| RoaringTreemap::from_iter(0..(i + 1) * 100))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let tokens = UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..8);
+        let state = NGramIndexSpillState {
+            tokens: tokens.clone(),
+            bitmaps: bitmaps.clone(),
+        };
+
+        // Small enough that several splits are required, large enough that some
+        // batches hold more than one posting
+        let max_batch_bytes = bitmaps.iter().map(|b| b.serialized_size()).max().unwrap() * 2;
+        let batches = state.try_into_batches_impl(max_batch_bytes).unwrap();
+        assert!(batches.len() > 1);
+
+        // Token order and posting contents survive the chunking
+        let mut row = 0;
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let batch_tokens = batch["tokens"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+            let batch_postings = batch["posting_list"].as_binary::<i32>();
+            let mut batch_bytes = 0;
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                assert_eq!(batch_tokens.value(i), tokens.value(row));
+                let posting = batch_postings.value(i);
+                batch_bytes += posting.len();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(posting).unwrap(),
+                    bitmaps[row]
+                );
+                row += 1;
+            }
+            assert!(batch_bytes <= max_batch_bytes || batch.num_rows() == 1);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(row, 8);
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(index.tokens.len(), 29012);
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_spill_reader_does_not_materialize_multirow_posting_batches() {
+        let bitmaps = (0..8u64)
+            .map(|i| RoaringTreemap::from_iter(0..(i + 1) * 100))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let tokens = UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..8);
+        let state = NGramIndexSpillState {
+            tokens: tokens.clone(),
+            bitmaps: bitmaps.clone(),
+        };
+        let max_batch_bytes = bitmaps.iter().map(|b| b.serialized_size()).max().unwrap() * 2;
+
+        let tmpdir = Arc::new(TempDir::default());
+        let store = LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.obj_path(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        );
+        let mut writer = store
+            .new_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME, POSTINGS_SCHEMA.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for batch in state.try_into_batches().unwrap() {
+            writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = store.open_index_file(POSTINGS_FILENAME).await.unwrap();
+        let reader = Arc::new(MaxReadRangeReader {
+            inner: reader,
+            max_rows: 1,
+        });
+        let states = NGramIndexBuilder::stream_spill_reader(reader, max_batch_bytes)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(states.len() > 1);
+
+        let mut row = 0;
+        for state in states {
+            let batch_bytes = state
+                .bitmaps
+                .iter()
+                .map(RoaringTreemap::serialized_size)
+                .sum::<usize>();
+            assert!(batch_bytes <= max_batch_bytes || state.bitmaps.len() == 1);
+            for (token, bitmap) in state.tokens.values().iter().zip(state.bitmaps) {
+                assert_eq!(*token, tokens.value(row));
+                assert_eq!(bitmap, bitmaps[row]);
+                row += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(row, 8);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_spill_state_rejects_oversized_posting() {
+        let bitmap = RoaringTreemap::from_iter(0..1000u64);
+        let too_small = bitmap.serialized_size() - 1;
+        let state = NGramIndexSpillState {
+            tokens: UInt32Array::from_iter_values([42]),
+            bitmaps: vec![bitmap],
+        };
+        let err = state.try_into_batches_impl(too_small).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("token 42"), "{}", err);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_empty_spill_state_yields_one_empty_batch() {
+        let state = NGramIndexSpillState {
+            tokens: UInt32Array::from_iter_values([]),
+            bitmaps: vec![],
+        };
+        let batches = state.try_into_batches().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 0);
+    }
+
+    // Reproduces https://linear.app/lancedb/issue/ENT-874: serialized posting lists
+    // totalling more than i32::MAX bytes used to panic with "byte array offset
+    // overflow" when packed into a single Binary array.
+    #[test]
+    #[ignore = "needs ~8 GiB of RAM and a couple of minutes; run manually"]
+    fn test_spill_state_over_i32_max_bytes() {
+        // Every 16th value keeps each container an array container (4096 entries,
+        // 2 bytes per value, immune to run compression), so the treemap serializes
+        // to ~450 MiB.  Six copies exceed i32::MAX total bytes.
+        let bitmap = RoaringTreemap::from_sorted_iter((0..225_000_000u64).map(|v| v * 16)).unwrap();
+        assert!(bitmap.serialized_size() > 400 * 1024 * 1024);
+        let bitmaps = vec![bitmap; 6];
+        let tokens = UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..6);
+        let state = NGramIndexSpillState { tokens, bitmaps };
+
+        let batches = state.try_into_batches().unwrap();
+        assert!(batches.len() > 1);
+        assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), 6);
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let postings = batch["posting_list"].as_binary::<i32>();
+            assert!(postings.value_data().len() <= i32::MAX as usize);
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/ngram/ngram_regex.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/ngram/ngram_regex.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ee67c479a71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/ngram/ngram_regex.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,673 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Deriving a trigram pre-filter from a regular expression.
+//!
+//! This is the query-side counterpart of the ngram index that lets us
+//! accelerate `regexp_like` / `regexp_match` predicates the same way the index
+//! already accelerates `contains`. The idea (the same one Postgres `pg_trgm`
+//! and Russ Cox's Google Code Search use) is to derive, from the regex, a
+//! boolean condition over trigram presence that is *necessary* for any string
+//! to match, evaluate it against the inverted index, and let the scan recheck
+//! the true regex on the surviving rows.
+//!
+//! The derived condition is a [`TrigramQuery`] -- an AND/OR tree of trigram
+//! tokens. `AND` maps onto posting-list intersection and `OR` onto union, which
+//! is exactly the set algebra the ngram index is built for.
+//!
+//! # Soundness
+//!
+//! The single invariant that matters is that the condition must never require a
+//! trigram that a matching string could lack -- otherwise we would drop real
+//! matches (a false negative, far worse than a false positive, which the recheck
+//! removes). Everything here is therefore a conservative *over*-approximation:
+//! when in doubt we emit [`TrigramQuery::All`] ("no constraint, recheck
+//! everything"). Concretely:
+//!
+//! * Every trigram requirement is produced by [`trigrams_of_string`], which runs
+//!   the *same* tokenizer the index was built with, so a string shorter than a
+//!   trigram (or with no alphanumeric run) contributes no requirement.
+//! * Character classes and case-insensitive folds are treated as a single
+//!   unknown character (`All`), because the index's normalization does not agree
+//!   with Unicode case folding (e.g. `(?i)c` also matches `ℂ`, which the index
+//!   does not fold to `c`). Literal runs -- the common case -- are fully used.
+//! * When the exact / prefix / suffix string sets grow past a bound we first fold
+//!   their trigrams into the running condition and only then drop the strings, so
+//!   collapsing precision never removes a necessary trigram.
+
+use std::collections::{BTreeSet, HashMap, HashSet};
+
+use regex_syntax::hir::{Class, Hir, HirKind};
+use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+
+use super::{NGRAM_N, NGRAM_TOKENIZER, ngram_to_token, tokenize_visitor};
+
+/// Maximum number of strings kept in an `exact` / `prefix` / `suffix` set before
+/// it is folded into the trigram condition and dropped.
+const MAX_SET_SIZE: usize = 16;
+/// Maximum length (in characters) of a string kept in a set. Longer strings are
+/// trimmed to a sound shorter affix.
+const MAX_STRING_LEN: usize = 32;
+
+/// A boolean condition over trigram presence that is *necessary* for a regex to
+/// match. `All` means "no constraint" and `None` means "unsatisfiable"; by
+/// construction these only ever appear at the root of the tree.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+pub enum TrigramQuery {
+    /// No constraint: every row is a candidate (the scan must recheck all rows).
+    All,
+    /// Unsatisfiable: no row can match.
+    None,
+    /// The given trigram token must be present.
+    Trigram(u32),
+    /// Every child condition must hold (posting-list intersection).
+    And(Vec<Self>),
+    /// At least one child condition must hold (posting-list union).
+    Or(Vec<Self>),
+}
+
+impl TrigramQuery {
+    /// Build an `AND` of conditions, applying identity (`All`), absorbing
+    /// (`None`), flattening, sorting and de-duplication so the result is
+    /// canonical and free of nested `All`/`None`.
+    fn and(items: Vec<Self>) -> Self {
+        let mut flat = Vec::with_capacity(items.len());
+        for item in items {
+            match item {
+                Self::All => {}                               // identity
+                Self::None => return Self::None,              // absorbing
+                Self::And(children) => flat.extend(children), // flatten
+                other => flat.push(other),
+            }
+        }
+        flat.sort();
+        flat.dedup();
+        match flat.len() {
+            0 => Self::All,
+            1 => flat.pop().unwrap(),
+            _ => Self::And(flat),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build an `OR` of conditions, applying absorbing (`All`), identity
+    /// (`None`), flattening, sorting and de-duplication.
+    fn or(items: Vec<Self>) -> Self {
+        let mut flat = Vec::with_capacity(items.len());
+        for item in items {
+            match item {
+                Self::All => return Self::All,               // absorbing
+                Self::None => {}                             // identity
+                Self::Or(children) => flat.extend(children), // flatten
+                other => flat.push(other),
+            }
+        }
+        flat.sort();
+        flat.dedup();
+        match flat.len() {
+            0 => Self::None,
+            1 => flat.pop().unwrap(),
+            _ => Self::Or(flat),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Information about the set of strings a sub-expression can match, used to
+/// build a necessary trigram condition bottom-up. For every string `s` the
+/// sub-expression matches: `s` is in `exact` (when it is `Some`), `s` starts
+/// with some member of `prefix` and ends with some member of `suffix`, and `s`
+/// satisfies `match_q`.
+struct RegexInfo {
+    /// Whether the sub-expression can match the empty string.
+    emptyable: bool,
+    /// The complete set of strings the sub-expression matches, or `None` if that
+    /// set is unbounded / unknown.
+    exact: Option<BTreeSet<String>>,
+    /// Strings that every match must start with (empty = unknown).
+    prefix: BTreeSet<String>,
+    /// Strings that every match must end with (empty = unknown).
+    suffix: BTreeSet<String>,
+    /// A necessary trigram condition for the sub-expression.
+    match_q: TrigramQuery,
+}
+
+impl RegexInfo {
+    /// The empty string (also used for zero-width anchors): matches only `""`.
+    fn empty_string() -> Self {
+        let empty = BTreeSet::from([String::new()]);
+        Self {
+            emptyable: true,
+            exact: Some(empty.clone()),
+            prefix: empty.clone(),
+            suffix: empty,
+            match_q: TrigramQuery::All,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A fixed literal string.
+    fn literal(s: &str) -> Self {
+        let set = BTreeSet::from([s.to_string()]);
+        Self {
+            emptyable: s.is_empty(),
+            exact: Some(set.clone()),
+            prefix: set.clone(),
+            suffix: set,
+            match_q: trigrams_of_string(s),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A single unknown character (a character class we cannot pin down).
+    fn any_char() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            emptyable: false,
+            exact: None,
+            prefix: BTreeSet::new(),
+            suffix: BTreeSet::new(),
+            match_q: TrigramQuery::All,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Enforce the size/length bounds, folding any information about to be
+    /// discarded into `match_q` first so that precision loss never drops a
+    /// necessary trigram. Idempotent.
+    fn bound(&mut self) {
+        let oversized_exact = self.exact.as_ref().is_some_and(|exact| {
+            exact.len() > MAX_SET_SIZE || exact.iter().any(|s| s.chars().count() > MAX_STRING_LEN)
+        });
+        if oversized_exact {
+            let exact = self.exact.take().expect("checked above");
+            self.fold_into_match(&exact);
+        }
+
+        self.prefix = self
+            .prefix
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| leading(s, MAX_STRING_LEN))
+            .collect();
+        if self.prefix.len() > MAX_SET_SIZE {
+            let prefix = std::mem::take(&mut self.prefix);
+            self.fold_into_match(&prefix);
+        }
+
+        self.suffix = self
+            .suffix
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| trailing(s, MAX_STRING_LEN))
+            .collect();
+        if self.suffix.len() > MAX_SET_SIZE {
+            let suffix = std::mem::take(&mut self.suffix);
+            self.fold_into_match(&suffix);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// AND the trigrams of `set` (a complete set of possible affixes/strings)
+    /// into `match_q`. Sound because the set is exhaustive for its role.
+    fn fold_into_match(&mut self, set: &BTreeSet<String>) {
+        let folded = trigrams_of_set(set.iter());
+        let current = std::mem::replace(&mut self.match_q, TrigramQuery::All);
+        self.match_q = TrigramQuery::and(vec![current, folded]);
+    }
+}
+
+/// AND together the trigrams of `s`. Reuses the index's own tokenizer so the
+/// tokens are normalized (lowercase, ASCII-folded, alphanumeric-bounded)
+/// exactly as they were stored. Returns `All` if `s` yields no trigram (too
+/// short, or no run of three alphanumeric characters).
+fn trigrams_of_string(s: &str) -> TrigramQuery {
+    let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+    tokenize_visitor(&NGRAM_TOKENIZER, s, |ngram| {
+        tokens.push(TrigramQuery::Trigram(ngram_to_token(ngram, NGRAM_N)));
+    });
+    TrigramQuery::and(tokens)
+}
+
+/// OR together the trigram conditions of each string in `set`. An empty set
+/// means "unknown" and yields `All` (no constraint); if any member yields `All`
+/// the whole OR is `All`.
+fn trigrams_of_set<'a>(set: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a String>) -> TrigramQuery {
+    let queries: Vec<_> = set.into_iter().map(|s| trigrams_of_string(s)).collect();
+    if queries.is_empty() {
+        return TrigramQuery::All;
+    }
+    TrigramQuery::or(queries)
+}
+
+/// Concatenate every string in `a` with every string in `b`.
+fn cross_concat(a: &BTreeSet<String>, b: &BTreeSet<String>) -> BTreeSet<String> {
+    let mut out = BTreeSet::new();
+    for x in a {
+        for y in b {
+            out.insert(format!("{x}{y}"));
+        }
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+/// The first `n` characters of `s` (a sound shorter prefix).
+fn leading(s: &str, n: usize) -> String {
+    s.chars().take(n).collect()
+}
+
+/// The last `n` characters of `s` (a sound shorter suffix).
+fn trailing(s: &str, n: usize) -> String {
+    let count = s.chars().count();
+    s.chars().skip(count.saturating_sub(n)).collect()
+}
+
+/// If `class` matches exactly one scalar value, return that character.
+fn singleton_char(class: &Class) -> Option<char> {
+    match class {
+        Class::Unicode(u) => {
+            let ranges = u.ranges();
+            match ranges {
+                [r] if r.start() == r.end() => Some(r.start()),
+                _ => None,
+            }
+        }
+        Class::Bytes(b) => {
+            let ranges = b.ranges();
+            match ranges {
+                [r] if r.start() == r.end() && r.start() < 0x80 => Some(r.start() as char),
+                _ => None,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compute the [`RegexInfo`] for `hir` bottom-up.
+fn analyze(hir: &Hir) -> RegexInfo {
+    let mut info = match hir.kind() {
+        // Zero-width: the empty match. Anchors (^, $, \b) carry no trigram.
+        HirKind::Empty | HirKind::Look(_) => RegexInfo::empty_string(),
+        HirKind::Literal(lit) => match std::str::from_utf8(&lit.0) {
+            Ok(s) => RegexInfo::literal(s),
+            // A literal that is not valid UTF-8 cannot be reasoned about here.
+            Err(_) => RegexInfo::any_char(),
+        },
+        HirKind::Class(class) => match singleton_char(class) {
+            Some(ch) => RegexInfo::literal(ch.encode_utf8(&mut [0u8; 4])),
+            None => RegexInfo::any_char(),
+        },
+        HirKind::Repetition(rep) => {
+            let inner = analyze(&rep.sub);
+            let at_least_one = rep.min >= 1;
+            RegexInfo {
+                emptyable: !at_least_one || inner.emptyable,
+                // We do not unroll bounded repetitions, so the matched set is
+                // unbounded as far as we are concerned.
+                exact: None,
+                prefix: if at_least_one {
+                    inner.prefix.clone()
+                } else {
+                    BTreeSet::new()
+                },
+                suffix: if at_least_one {
+                    inner.suffix.clone()
+                } else {
+                    BTreeSet::new()
+                },
+                // Only a required occurrence (min >= 1) contributes; the single
+                // inner match is necessary, never multiplied.
+                match_q: if at_least_one {
+                    inner.match_q
+                } else {
+                    TrigramQuery::All
+                },
+            }
+        }
+        HirKind::Capture(cap) => analyze(&cap.sub),
+        HirKind::Concat(subs) => analyze_concat(subs),
+        HirKind::Alternation(subs) => analyze_alternation(subs),
+    };
+    info.bound();
+    info
+}
+
+fn analyze_concat(subs: &[Hir]) -> RegexInfo {
+    let mut acc = RegexInfo::empty_string();
+    for sub in subs {
+        acc = concat_info(acc, analyze(sub));
+    }
+    acc
+}
+
+/// Combine two adjacent sub-expressions. This is the subtle part: it recovers
+/// trigrams that straddle the junction via the cross product of `acc.suffix` and
+/// `next.prefix`.
+fn concat_info(acc: RegexInfo, next: RegexInfo) -> RegexInfo {
+    let emptyable = acc.emptyable && next.emptyable;
+
+    // Trigrams spanning the junction (computed from the pre-merge affixes).
+    let boundary = if acc.suffix.is_empty() || next.prefix.is_empty() {
+        TrigramQuery::All
+    } else {
+        trigrams_of_set(cross_concat(&acc.suffix, &next.prefix).iter())
+    };
+
+    // exact = acc.exact x next.exact, only while both are finite and small.
+    let exact = match (&acc.exact, &next.exact) {
+        (Some(a), Some(b)) if a.len().saturating_mul(b.len()) <= MAX_SET_SIZE => {
+            Some(cross_concat(a, b))
+        }
+        _ => None,
+    };
+
+    // A match starts with acc's full string (when known) then next's prefix,
+    // otherwise with acc's own prefix.
+    let prefix = match &acc.exact {
+        Some(a) if !next.prefix.is_empty() => cross_concat(a, &next.prefix),
+        Some(a) => a.clone(),
+        None => acc.prefix.clone(),
+    };
+
+    // Mirror image for the suffix (driven by the right side).
+    let suffix = match &next.exact {
+        Some(b) if !acc.suffix.is_empty() => cross_concat(&acc.suffix, b),
+        Some(b) => b.clone(),
+        None => next.suffix.clone(),
+    };
+
+    let match_q = TrigramQuery::and(vec![acc.match_q, next.match_q, boundary]);
+
+    let mut info = RegexInfo {
+        emptyable,
+        exact,
+        prefix,
+        suffix,
+        match_q,
+    };
+    info.bound();
+    info
+}
+
+fn analyze_alternation(subs: &[Hir]) -> RegexInfo {
+    let infos: Vec<RegexInfo> = subs.iter().map(analyze).collect();
+
+    let emptyable = infos.iter().any(|i| i.emptyable);
+
+    let exact = if infos.iter().all(|i| i.exact.is_some()) {
+        Some(
+            infos
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|i| i.exact.as_ref().unwrap().iter().cloned())
+                .collect(),
+        )
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    // A common prefix exists only if every branch contributes one.
+    let prefix = if infos.iter().all(|i| !i.prefix.is_empty()) {
+        infos
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|i| i.prefix.iter().cloned())
+            .collect()
+    } else {
+        BTreeSet::new()
+    };
+    let suffix = if infos.iter().all(|i| !i.suffix.is_empty()) {
+        infos
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|i| i.suffix.iter().cloned())
+            .collect()
+    } else {
+        BTreeSet::new()
+    };
+
+    let match_q = TrigramQuery::or(infos.into_iter().map(|i| i.match_q).collect());
+
+    RegexInfo {
+        emptyable,
+        exact,
+        prefix,
+        suffix,
+        match_q,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Derive a necessary trigram condition from a regular expression pattern.
+///
+/// Returns [`TrigramQuery::All`] when no useful condition can be derived (an
+/// unparsable pattern, or one with no trigram-able literal structure such as
+/// `a.b` or `.*`); callers must treat that as "recheck everything".
+pub fn regex_to_trigram_query(pattern: &str) -> TrigramQuery {
+    // An unparsable pattern cannot be accelerated; rechecking is still safe.
+    let Ok(hir) = regex_syntax::parse(pattern) else {
+        return TrigramQuery::All;
+    };
+    let info = analyze(&hir);
+
+    let mut conditions = vec![info.match_q];
+    if let Some(exact) = &info.exact {
+        if exact.is_empty() {
+            // The expression matches nothing.
+            return TrigramQuery::None;
+        }
+        conditions.push(trigrams_of_set(exact.iter()));
+    }
+    conditions.push(trigrams_of_set(info.prefix.iter()));
+    conditions.push(trigrams_of_set(info.suffix.iter()));
+    TrigramQuery::and(conditions)
+}
+
+/// Whether a regular expression yields any trigram condition the index can use
+/// to prune candidates. When it does not (e.g. `a.b`, `.*`, or a case-insensitive
+/// pattern), callers should leave the predicate to a full scan rather than route
+/// it to the index, which would otherwise have to ask the scan to recheck every
+/// row -- a path the index result type (`AtLeast`) does not support.
+pub fn regex_can_use_index(pattern: &str) -> bool {
+    regex_to_trigram_query(pattern) != TrigramQuery::All
+}
+
+/// Collect the distinct trigram tokens referenced anywhere in the tree.
+pub fn collect_tokens(query: &TrigramQuery, out: &mut HashSet<u32>) {
+    match query {
+        TrigramQuery::Trigram(token) => {
+            out.insert(*token);
+        }
+        TrigramQuery::And(items) | TrigramQuery::Or(items) => {
+            for item in items {
+                collect_tokens(item, out);
+            }
+        }
+        TrigramQuery::All | TrigramQuery::None => {}
+    }
+}
+
+/// Evaluate the tree against a map of `trigram token -> posting list`. A token
+/// missing from the map contributes an empty set (sound: a required trigram that
+/// is absent everywhere yields no rows; an absent OR branch contributes
+/// nothing). `All` / `None` are handled by the caller before evaluation.
+pub fn eval_trigram_query(
+    query: &TrigramQuery,
+    bitmaps: &HashMap<u32, RoaringTreemap>,
+) -> RoaringTreemap {
+    match query {
+        TrigramQuery::Trigram(token) => bitmaps.get(token).cloned().unwrap_or_default(),
+        TrigramQuery::And(items) => {
+            let mut iter = items.iter();
+            let mut acc = match iter.next() {
+                Some(first) => eval_trigram_query(first, bitmaps),
+                None => return RoaringTreemap::new(),
+            };
+            for item in iter {
+                if acc.is_empty() {
+                    break;
+                }
+                acc &= &eval_trigram_query(item, bitmaps);
+            }
+            acc
+        }
+        TrigramQuery::Or(items) => {
+            let mut acc = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            for item in items {
+                acc |= &eval_trigram_query(item, bitmaps);
+            }
+            acc
+        }
+        TrigramQuery::All | TrigramQuery::None => RoaringTreemap::new(),
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    /// A single trigram condition, hashed the same way the index hashes it.
+    fn tri(trigram: &str) -> TrigramQuery {
+        TrigramQuery::Trigram(ngram_to_token(trigram, NGRAM_N))
+    }
+
+    fn q(pattern: &str) -> TrigramQuery {
+        regex_to_trigram_query(pattern)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_single_literal_trigram() {
+        assert_eq!(q("foo"), tri("foo"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multi_trigram_literal() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            q("foobar"),
+            TrigramQuery::and(vec![tri("foo"), tri("oob"), tri("oba"), tri("bar")])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_wildcard_splits_into_and() {
+        // `.*` breaks the literal run; both sides are required.
+        assert_eq!(
+            q("foo.*bar"),
+            TrigramQuery::and(vec![tri("foo"), tri("bar")])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_alternation_is_or() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            q("(cat|dog)"),
+            TrigramQuery::or(vec![tri("cat"), tri("dog")])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_anchors_are_transparent() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            q("^rhino"),
+            TrigramQuery::and(vec![tri("rhi"), tri("hin"), tri("ino")])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(q("nose$"), TrigramQuery::and(vec![tri("nos"), tri("ose")]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_boundary_trigram_recovered_across_groups() {
+        // A capturing group is not merged into the adjacent literals, so this
+        // exercises the suffix x prefix cross product that recovers the `foo`
+        // trigram straddling the `(o)` group boundary in "foobar".
+        assert_eq!(
+            q("fo(o)bar"), // spellchecker:disable-line
+            TrigramQuery::and(vec![tri("foo"), tri("oob"), tri("oba"), tri("bar")])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_no_trigram_yields_all() {
+        // No run of three literal characters anywhere.
+        assert_eq!(q("a.b"), TrigramQuery::All);
+        assert_eq!(q(".*"), TrigramQuery::All);
+        // Every alternation branch is shorter than a trigram, so we must not
+        // require either two-character branch as a (non-existent) trigram.
+        assert_eq!(q("fo|ba"), TrigramQuery::All); // spellchecker:disable-line
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_case_insensitive_not_accelerated() {
+        // Unicode case folding (e.g. `(?i)c` also matches U+2102) does not agree
+        // with the index's normalization, so case-insensitive patterns are left
+        // unaccelerated (correct via recheck) rather than risk a false negative.
+        assert_eq!(q("(?i)Cat"), TrigramQuery::All);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_unparsable_pattern_yields_all() {
+        assert_eq!(q("("), TrigramQuery::All);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_large_alternation_stays_bounded() {
+        // More than MAX_SET_SIZE branches: must still produce a sound OR without
+        // panicking or exploding.
+        let pattern = (0..40)
+            .map(|i| format!("aa{i:02}zz"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join("|");
+        let result = q(&pattern);
+        // Each branch shares the trigram `aa0`/`aa1`/... and `zz`-ish endings;
+        // the important property is that it is a sound non-empty condition.
+        assert_ne!(result, TrigramQuery::None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plus_requires_inner() {
+        // `(abc)+` must contain at least one `abc`.
+        assert_eq!(q("(abc)+"), tri("abc"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_optional_group_is_not_required() {
+        // `(foo)?bar` -> foo optional, bar required.
+        assert_eq!(q("(foo)?bar"), tri("bar"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_eval_and_or_with_missing_tokens() {
+        let foo = ngram_to_token("foo", NGRAM_N);
+        let bar = ngram_to_token("bar", NGRAM_N);
+        let mut bitmaps = HashMap::new();
+        bitmaps.insert(foo, RoaringTreemap::from_iter([1u64, 2, 3]));
+        bitmaps.insert(bar, RoaringTreemap::from_iter([2u64, 3, 4]));
+        // `baz` is absent from the index.
+
+        // AND intersects.
+        let and = TrigramQuery::and(vec![tri("foo"), tri("bar")]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            eval_trigram_query(&and, &bitmaps),
+            RoaringTreemap::from_iter([2u64, 3])
+        );
+
+        // OR unions.
+        let or = TrigramQuery::or(vec![tri("foo"), tri("bar")]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            eval_trigram_query(&or, &bitmaps),
+            RoaringTreemap::from_iter([1u64, 2, 3, 4])
+        );
+
+        // A missing token is empty: it zeroes an AND but is harmless in an OR.
+        let and_missing = TrigramQuery::and(vec![tri("foo"), tri("baz")]);
+        assert!(eval_trigram_query(&and_missing, &bitmaps).is_empty());
+        let or_missing = TrigramQuery::or(vec![tri("foo"), tri("baz")]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            eval_trigram_query(&or_missing, &bitmaps),
+            RoaringTreemap::from_iter([1u64, 2, 3])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_tokens() {
+        let query = TrigramQuery::and(vec![
+            tri("foo"),
+            TrigramQuery::or(vec![tri("bar"), tri("baz")]),
+        ]);
+        let mut tokens = HashSet::new();
+        collect_tokens(&query, &mut tokens);
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens,
+            HashSet::from([
+                ngram_to_token("foo", NGRAM_N),
+                ngram_to_token("bar", NGRAM_N),
+                ngram_to_token("baz", NGRAM_N),
+            ])
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/registry.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/registry.rs
index 76b088518e3..934889973d9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/registry.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/registry.rs
@@ -1,67 +1,37 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex, OnceLock};
 
-use arrow_schema::Field;
+use arc_swap::ArcSwap;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, Result};
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use lance_core::{
+    Result,
+    cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache, UnsizedCacheKey},
+    deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf},
+};
 
+use crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
 use crate::registry::IndexPluginRegistry;
-use crate::{
-    frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex,
-    scalar::{expression::ScalarQueryParser, CreatedIndex, IndexStore, ScalarIndex},
-};
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
+use crate::scalar::{CreatedIndex, IndexStore, ScalarIndex, expression::ScalarQueryParser};
+use lance_index_core::remapping::BatchRowIdRemapper;
+// Re-export training types that were previously defined here
+pub use crate::scalar::{TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering};
 
 pub const VALUE_COLUMN_NAME: &str = "value";
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
-pub enum TrainingOrdering {
-    /// The input will arrive sorted by the value column in ascending order
-    Values,
-    /// The input will arrive sorted by the address column in ascending order
-    Addresses,
-    /// The input will arrive in an arbitrary order
-    None,
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct TrainingCriteria {
-    pub ordering: TrainingOrdering,
-    pub needs_row_ids: bool,
-    pub needs_row_addrs: bool,
-}
-
-impl TrainingCriteria {
-    pub fn new(ordering: TrainingOrdering) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            ordering,
-            needs_row_ids: false,
-            needs_row_addrs: false,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn with_row_id(mut self) -> Self {
-        self.needs_row_ids = true;
-        self
-    }
-
-    pub fn with_row_addr(mut self) -> Self {
-        self.needs_row_addrs = true;
-        self
-    }
-}
-
-/// A trait that describes what criteria is needed to train an index
-///
-/// The training process has two steps.  First, the parameters are given to the
-/// plugin and it creates a TrainingRequest.  Then, the caller prepares the training
-/// data and calls train_index.
+/// A trait object for plugin-specific training parameters and data requirements.
 ///
-/// The call to train_index will include the training request.  This allows the plugin
-/// to stash any deserialized parameter info in the request and fetch it later during
-/// training by downcasting to the appropriate type.
+/// Returned by [`BasicTrainer::new_training_request`]. The caller uses
+/// [`criteria`](Self::criteria) to prepare the training data stream, then passes
+/// the request back to [`BasicTrainer::train_index`], which may downcast
+/// it to the plugin-specific concrete type to recover parsed parameters.
 pub trait TrainingRequest: std::any::Any + Send + Sync {
     fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any;
     fn criteria(&self) -> &TrainingCriteria;
@@ -88,33 +58,73 @@ impl TrainingRequest for DefaultTrainingRequest {
     }
 }
 
-/// A trait for scalar index plugins
+/// Implemented by indexes that can train on a stream of column data.
+///
+/// The training process has two stages. In the first stage, the caller provides
+/// index parameters and receives a [`TrainingRequest`] that describes what criteria
+/// the training data must satisfy (e.g. sort order, row-ID availability). In the
+/// second stage, the caller prepares the data accordingly and calls
+/// [`train_index`](Self::train_index).
+///
+/// Any scalar index plugin that builds from a column data stream should implement
+/// this trait.
 #[async_trait]
-pub trait ScalarIndexPlugin: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
-    /// Creates a new training request from the given parameters
+pub trait BasicTrainer: Send + Sync {
+    /// Creates a new training request from the given parameters.
     ///
-    /// This training request specifies the criteria that the data must satisfy to train the index.
-    /// For example, does the index require the input data to be sorted?
+    /// The returned request specifies the criteria the training data must satisfy.
+    /// It is the caller's responsibility to prepare data that meets those criteria
+    /// before calling [`train_index`](Self::train_index).
     fn new_training_request(&self, params: &str, field: &Field)
-        -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>>;
+    -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>>;
 
-    /// Train a new index
-    ///
-    /// The provided data must fulfill all the criteria returned by `training_criteria`.
-    /// It is the caller's responsibility to ensure this.
+    /// Train a new index from a prepared data stream.
     ///
-    /// Returns index details that describe the index.  These details can potentially be
-    /// useful for planning (although this will currently require inside information on
-    /// the index type) and they will need to be provided when loading the index.
+    /// The provided data must fulfill all the criteria returned by
+    /// [`new_training_request`](Self::new_training_request). It is the caller's
+    /// responsibility to ensure this.
     ///
-    /// It is the caller's responsibility to store these details somewhere.
+    /// Returns index details describing the index. These details may be useful for
+    /// planning and must be provided when loading the index. It is the caller's
+    /// responsibility to store them.
     async fn train_index(
         &self,
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
         fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex>;
+}
+
+/// A trait for scalar index plugins
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait ScalarIndexPlugin: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
+    /// Returns this plugin's [`BasicTrainer`] implementation, if any.
+    ///
+    /// Training an index can be a complex process.  For example, a btree index might
+    /// be trained using a shuffler from a distributed OLAP system such as
+    /// Spark or Ray.  A vector index can be trained by sampling the column to create
+    /// a kmeans model and then streaming the vectors to assign partitions.  Encapsulating
+    /// the entire set of possible approaches is beyond what this trait can model.
+    /// This is especially true because this is a low-level crate with no concept of a table
+    /// or a dataset.
+    ///
+    /// However, in many cases, an index can be trained on a (potentially sorted) stream
+    /// of column data.  There is also significant utility in being able to provide users
+    /// with a simple generic "create an index" API.
+    ///
+    /// This method is a compromise.  Indexes that support training on a stream of column
+    /// data should override this to return `Some(self)`.  Indexes that need their own
+    /// individualized training approaches should return `None` and provide their own
+    /// methods for training.
+    ///
+    /// An index can take both approaches.  Providing a simple (but maybe less
+    /// efficient) stream-based trainer while also providing more specialized index
+    /// creation methods elsewhere.
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        None
+    }
 
     /// A short name for the index
     ///
@@ -148,14 +158,128 @@ pub trait ScalarIndexPlugin: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
     ///
     /// The index details should match the details that were returned when the index was
     /// originally trained.
+    ///
+    /// `index_version` is this segment's own persisted format version (its
+    /// `IndexMetadata::index_version`), not [`Self::version`] (the plugin's
+    /// current maximum). Most plugins have only ever had one on-disk format and
+    /// can ignore it; a plugin that has changed its on-disk format over time
+    /// (e.g. which domain a stored row identifier is in) uses it to read an
+    /// older segment correctly instead of reinterpreting it under the newest
+    /// format.
     async fn load_index(
         &self,
         index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>;
 
+    /// Whether this plugin can await batch row-ID translation while loading its data.
+    ///
+    /// Returning `true` requires overriding
+    /// [`load_index_with_remapping`](Self::load_index_with_remapping).
+    fn supports_batch_row_id_remapping(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Load under a mapping whose payload may require asynchronous reads.
+    ///
+    /// This entry point is additive; the legacy [`load_index`](Self::load_index)
+    /// path never routes through it.
+    async fn load_index_with_remapping(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        index_version: u32,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        if remapping.is_some() {
+            debug_assert!(
+                !self.supports_batch_row_id_remapping(),
+                "{} advertises batch row-ID remapping but does not override load_index_with_remapping",
+                self.name()
+            );
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "{} does not support asynchronous row-ID remapping",
+                self.name()
+            )));
+        }
+        self.load_index(index_store, index_details, index_version, None, cache)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Look up a previously-opened index in the cache.
+    ///
+    /// `cache` is already per-index namespaced by the caller, so a plugin's key
+    /// only needs to disambiguate entries within a single index.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation reads an in-memory `Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>` entry.
+    /// Plugins whose index has a serializable representation should override this
+    /// (together with [`put_in_cache`](Self::put_in_cache)) to store that
+    /// representation under a sized [`CacheKey`] with
+    /// a codec, and reconstruct the index here. `index_store` and
+    /// `frag_reuse_index` are provided so the override can rebuild the index
+    /// without re-reading metadata.
+    async fn get_from_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>> {
+        let Some(entry) = cache.get_unsized_with_key(&ScalarIndexCacheKey).await else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        Ok(entry.index_for_store(&index_store))
+    }
+
+    /// Store a freshly-opened index in the cache.
+    ///
+    /// `cache` is already per-index namespaced; see
+    /// [`get_from_cache`](Self::get_from_cache).
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation stores the `Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>` in-memory.
+    async fn put_in_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        cache
+            .insert_unsized_with_key(
+                &ScalarIndexCacheKey,
+                Arc::new(StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry::new(index_store, index)),
+            )
+            .await;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Open an index through the cache, awaiting `load` only on a miss.
+    ///
+    /// The default read-through / write-back over
+    /// [`get_from_cache`](Self::get_from_cache) and
+    /// [`put_in_cache`](Self::put_in_cache) does not coalesce concurrent cold
+    /// opens; plugins with a serializable form should override with
+    /// [`single_flight_open`] so one shared load populates the sized state key.
+    async fn get_or_insert_in_cache(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+        load: ScalarIndexLoad<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        if let Some(index) = self
+            .get_from_cache(index_store.clone(), frag_reuse_index, cache)
+            .await?
+        {
+            return Ok(index);
+        }
+        let index = load.await?;
+        self.put_in_cache(index_store, cache, index.clone()).await?;
+        Ok(index)
+    }
+
     /// Optional hook allowing a plugin to provide statistics without loading the index.
     async fn load_statistics(
         &self,
@@ -168,6 +292,21 @@ pub trait ScalarIndexPlugin: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
     /// Optional hook that plugins can use if they need to be aware of the registry
     fn attach_registry(&self, _registry: Arc<IndexPluginRegistry>) {}
 
+    /// Validate that new segments can join the segments of the same logical
+    /// index.
+    ///
+    /// Called before segments are committed next to `existing` segments (empty
+    /// for a new index) and before segments are merged. Plugins whose segments
+    /// are only compatible under identical parameters (for example shared hash
+    /// functions) override this to reject drift; the default accepts any mix.
+    fn validate_new_segments_against_existing(
+        &self,
+        _existing: &[&prost_types::Any],
+        _incoming: &[&prost_types::Any],
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// Returns a JSON string representation of the provided index details
     ///
     /// These details will be user-visible and should be considered part of the public
@@ -177,4 +316,534 @@ pub trait ScalarIndexPlugin: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         // Return an empty JSON object as the default implementation
         Ok(serde_json::json!({}))
     }
+
+    /// Optionally create a seed writer for the given column.
+    ///
+    /// A seed writer observes column values during data file writes, accumulates
+    /// compact statistics in memory, and serializes them as a global buffer
+    /// embedded in the data file footer. The buffer is later harvested during
+    /// index updates to skip a full column scan.
+    ///
+    /// All parameters needed to construct the writer must be derivable from
+    /// `index_details` — this method must not perform any I/O. Return `Ok(None)`
+    /// if this index type does not support seed writing.
+    async fn create_seed_writer(
+        &self,
+        _field_path: &str,
+        _data_type: &DataType,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn super::seed::IndexSeedWriter>>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if this index type may have seed buffers embedded in data
+    /// files for the given index configuration.
+    ///
+    /// When false the caller can skip opening data files to look for seeds
+    /// entirely, avoiding I/O for index types or configurations that never
+    /// write seeds.
+    fn might_use_seeds(&self, _index_details: &prost_types::Any) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Attempt to update `reference_index` using pre-harvested `seeds` instead
+    /// of re-scanning column data.
+    ///
+    /// Each [`FragmentSeed`](super::seed::FragmentSeed) carries the raw bytes
+    /// written by the corresponding [`IndexSeedWriter`](super::seed::IndexSeedWriter)
+    /// and the original `metadata_value` stored in the data file, which the plugin
+    /// can use for compatibility validation (e.g. confirming `rows_per_zone`).
+    ///
+    /// Return `Ok(Some(created))` if the seed-based update succeeded, or
+    /// `Ok(None)` to signal that the caller should fall back to a full column scan.
+    async fn update_from_seeds(
+        &self,
+        _seeds: Vec<super::seed::FragmentSeed>,
+        _reference_index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<Option<CreatedIndex>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A boxed, `Send` future performing the storage-level load of a scalar index
+/// (compat checks, `load_index`, metrics).
+///
+/// Passed to [`ScalarIndexPlugin::get_or_insert_in_cache`], which awaits it at
+/// most once on a cache miss and drops it un-awaited on a warm hit.
+pub type ScalarIndexLoad<'a> = BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>>;
+
+/// Single-flight open helper for plugins with a serializable form.
+///
+/// Concurrent cold opens of the same index coalesce onto one `load`: it runs
+/// once, `to_state` converts the opened index to its sized state, and the state
+/// is cached under `state_key` (persisted via the key's
+/// [`CacheCodec`](lance_core::cache::CacheCodec)). Every caller — warm hits
+/// included — then rebuilds the index from the shared state via `from_state`, an
+/// IO-free reconstruct.
+///
+/// `to_state` / `from_state` mirror the plugin's
+/// [`put_in_cache`](ScalarIndexPlugin::put_in_cache) /
+/// [`get_from_cache`](ScalarIndexPlugin::get_from_cache), keeping the state
+/// representation defined in one place.
+pub async fn single_flight_open<K, ToState, FromState>(
+    cache: &LanceCache,
+    state_key: K,
+    load: ScalarIndexLoad<'_>,
+    to_state: ToState,
+    from_state: FromState,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>
+where
+    K: CacheKey + Send,
+    K::ValueType: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ToState: FnOnce(&dyn ScalarIndex) -> Result<K::ValueType> + Send,
+    FromState: FnOnce(Arc<K::ValueType>) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> + Send,
+{
+    let state = cache
+        .get_or_insert_with_key(state_key, move || async move {
+            let index = load.await?;
+            to_state(index.as_ref())
+        })
+        .await?;
+    from_state(state)
+}
+
+/// Coalesce index loading, rebinding cached state when supported by the caller.
+pub async fn single_flight_store_bound_open<Rebind, RebindFuture>(
+    index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    cache: &LanceCache,
+    load: ScalarIndexLoad<'_>,
+    rebind: Rebind,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>
+where
+    Rebind: FnOnce(Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>) -> RebindFuture + Send,
+    RebindFuture: Future<Output = Result<Option<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>>> + Send,
+{
+    let pending_load = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Some(load)));
+    let cache_load = pending_load.clone();
+    let loaded_index = Arc::new(OnceLock::new());
+    let cache_loaded_index = loaded_index.clone();
+    let cache_index_store = index_store.clone();
+    let entry = cache
+        .get_or_insert_unsized_with_key(ScalarIndexCacheKey, move || async move {
+            let load = take_scalar_index_load(&cache_load)?.ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::internal(
+                    "store-bound scalar index cache loader was already consumed",
+                )
+            })?;
+            let index = load.await?;
+            cache_loaded_index.get_or_init(|| index.clone());
+            Ok(Arc::new(StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry::new(
+                cache_index_store,
+                index,
+            )))
+        })
+        .await?;
+
+    // Another request can replace the shared slot after our load is published
+    // but before this caller resumes. Keep the result of our own load so that
+    // this request always receives the storage binding it opened.
+    if let Some(index) = loaded_index.get() {
+        return Ok(index.clone());
+    }
+
+    let binding = entry.binding.load_full();
+    if index_store.is_same_storage_binding(binding.index_store.as_ref()) {
+        return Ok(binding.index.clone());
+    }
+
+    // Reader-free state can be rebound independently for each request. Do not
+    // let a slow or cancelled binding delay unrelated requests. Publish only
+    // if the source binding is still current, so a delayed caller cannot roll
+    // the cache back after another request has replaced it.
+    if let Some(index) = rebind(binding.index.clone()).await? {
+        let previous = entry.binding.compare_and_swap(
+            &binding,
+            Arc::new(StoreBoundScalarIndexBinding {
+                index_store: index_store.clone(),
+                index: index.clone(),
+            }),
+        );
+        if !Arc::ptr_eq(&previous, &binding)
+            && index_store.is_same_storage_binding(previous.index_store.as_ref())
+        {
+            return Ok(previous.index.clone());
+        }
+        return Ok(index);
+    }
+
+    // The cache slot stays stable across rotations. Serialize replacements and
+    // recheck after locking so same-binding waiters reuse the first reload.
+    let _replacement_guard = entry.replacement_guard.lock().await;
+    if let Some(index) = entry.index_for_store(&index_store) {
+        return Ok(index);
+    }
+
+    let load = take_scalar_index_load(&pending_load)?.ok_or_else(|| {
+        lance_core::Error::internal("store-bound scalar index load has no retained result")
+    })?;
+    let index = load.await?;
+    entry.replace(index_store, index.clone());
+    Ok(index)
+}
+
+fn take_scalar_index_load<'a>(
+    pending_load: &Arc<Mutex<Option<ScalarIndexLoad<'a>>>>,
+) -> Result<Option<ScalarIndexLoad<'a>>> {
+    pending_load
+        .lock()
+        .map_err(|_| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal("store-bound scalar index cache loader mutex was poisoned")
+        })
+        .map(|mut pending_load| pending_load.take())
+}
+
+/// A live scalar index together with the store binding used to open it.
+#[derive(DeepSizeOf)]
+struct StoreBoundScalarIndexBinding {
+    index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+    index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+}
+
+/// A stable cache slot for one live, store-bound scalar index.
+pub struct StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry {
+    binding: ArcSwap<StoreBoundScalarIndexBinding>,
+    replacement_guard: tokio::sync::Mutex<()>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.binding.load_full().deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry {
+    fn new(index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>, index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            binding: ArcSwap::from_pointee(StoreBoundScalarIndexBinding { index_store, index }),
+            replacement_guard: tokio::sync::Mutex::new(()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn index_for_store(&self, index_store: &Arc<dyn IndexStore>) -> Option<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        let binding = self.binding.load();
+        index_store
+            .is_same_storage_binding(binding.index_store.as_ref())
+            .then(|| binding.index.clone())
+    }
+
+    fn replace(&self, index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>, index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>) {
+        self.binding.store(Arc::new(StoreBoundScalarIndexBinding {
+            index_store,
+            index,
+        }));
+    }
+
+    /// Return a shared handle to the cached scalar index.
+    pub fn index(&self) -> Arc<dyn ScalarIndex> {
+        self.binding.load().index.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+/// In-memory cache key for a live, store-bound scalar index.
+///
+/// Used by the default [`ScalarIndexPlugin::get_from_cache`] /
+/// [`ScalarIndexPlugin::put_in_cache`] implementations. The cache is already
+/// per-index namespaced by the caller, so a constant key suffices. The entry
+/// cannot be serialized, so this is an [`UnsizedCacheKey`] with no codec —
+/// plugins that want a persistable cache entry override those methods with a
+/// sized key.
+pub struct ScalarIndexCacheKey;
+
+impl UnsizedCacheKey for ScalarIndexCacheKey {
+    type ValueType = StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        Cow::Borrowed("scalar_index")
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "ScalarIndex"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.registry.scalar-index-key", 2)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_variant(0);
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use std::{collections::HashMap, pin::Pin};
+
+    use arrow_schema::Schema;
+    use futures::FutureExt;
+    use lance_core::cache::{
+        CacheBackend, CacheCodec, CacheEntry, InternalCacheKey, MokaCacheBackend,
+    };
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use tokio::sync::Notify;
+
+    use crate::scalar::inverted::{
+        InvertedIndex, InvertedIndexParams, METADATA_FILE, TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY, TokenSetFormat,
+    };
+    use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+
+    /// Pause the cold caller after publication, allowing a warm caller to rotate
+    /// the same entry before the cold caller receives its result.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct PauseColdReturn {
+        inner: MokaCacheBackend,
+        published: Notify,
+        resume: Notify,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl CacheBackend for PauseColdReturn {
+        async fn get(
+            &self,
+            key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> Option<CacheEntry> {
+            self.inner.get(key, codec).await
+        }
+
+        async fn insert(
+            &self,
+            key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            entry: CacheEntry,
+            size_bytes: usize,
+            codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) {
+            self.inner.insert(key, entry, size_bytes, codec).await;
+        }
+
+        async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+            &self,
+            key: &InternalCacheKey,
+            loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+            codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> Result<(CacheEntry, bool)> {
+            let result = self.inner.get_or_insert(key, loader, codec).await?;
+            if !result.1 {
+                self.published.notify_one();
+                self.resume.notified().await;
+            }
+            Ok(result)
+        }
+
+        async fn clear(&self) {
+            self.inner.clear().await;
+        }
+
+        async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.num_entries().await
+        }
+
+        async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.size_bytes().await
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn empty_index_bindings() -> [(Arc<dyn IndexStore>, Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>); 2] {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let metadata_cache = Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024));
+        let store_a: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
+            "index".into(),
+            metadata_cache.clone(),
+        ));
+        let store_b: Arc<dyn IndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(object_store),
+            "index".into(),
+            metadata_cache,
+        ));
+        assert!(!store_a.is_same_storage_binding(store_b.as_ref()));
+        let mut writer = store_a
+            .new_index_file(METADATA_FILE, Arc::new(Schema::empty()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .finish_with_metadata(HashMap::from([
+                ("partitions".to_owned(), "[]".to_owned()),
+                (
+                    "params".to_owned(),
+                    serde_json::to_string(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+                ),
+                (
+                    TOKEN_SET_FORMAT_KEY.to_owned(),
+                    TokenSetFormat::default().to_string(),
+                ),
+            ]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_cache = LanceCache::no_cache();
+        let index_a = InvertedIndex::load(store_a.clone(), None, &index_cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_b = InvertedIndex::load(store_b.clone(), None, &index_cache)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        [(store_a, index_a), (store_b, index_b)]
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cold_scalar_open_keeps_its_binding_after_concurrent_rotation() {
+        let [(store_a, index_a), (store_b, index_b)] = empty_index_bindings().await;
+        let backend = Arc::new(PauseColdReturn {
+            inner: MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(1024 * 1024),
+            published: Notify::new(),
+            resume: Notify::new(),
+        });
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_backend(backend.clone());
+        let cold_cache = cache.clone();
+        let cold_index = index_a.clone();
+        let cold = tokio::spawn(async move {
+            single_flight_store_bound_open(
+                store_a,
+                &cold_cache,
+                async move { Ok(cold_index) }.boxed(),
+                |_| async { panic!("cold caller must keep its own loaded index") },
+            )
+            .await
+        });
+        backend.published.notified().await;
+        let replacement = index_b.clone();
+        let warm = single_flight_store_bound_open(
+            store_b,
+            &cache,
+            async { panic!("warm caller must rebind the cached index") }.boxed(),
+            |_| async move { Ok(Some(replacement)) },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&warm, &index_b));
+        backend.resume.notify_one();
+        let cold = cold.await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&cold, &index_a));
+        let cached = cache
+            .get_unsized_with_key(&ScalarIndexCacheKey)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&cached.index(), &index_b));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_independent_scalar_rebinds_do_not_wait_for_each_other() {
+        let [(store_a, index_a), (store_b, index_b)] = empty_index_bindings().await;
+        let [(store_c, index_c), _] = empty_index_bindings().await;
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+        let entry = Arc::new(StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry::new(store_a, index_a));
+        cache
+            .insert_unsized_with_key(&ScalarIndexCacheKey, entry.clone())
+            .await;
+        let started = Arc::new(Notify::new());
+        let resume = Arc::new(Notify::new());
+        let slow_started = started.clone();
+        let slow_resume = resume.clone();
+        let slow_cache = cache.clone();
+        let slow_index = index_b.clone();
+        let slow = tokio::spawn(async move {
+            single_flight_store_bound_open(
+                store_b,
+                &slow_cache,
+                async { panic!("warm request must not reload metadata") }.boxed(),
+                |_| async move {
+                    slow_started.notify_one();
+                    slow_resume.notified().await;
+                    Ok(Some(slow_index))
+                },
+            )
+            .await
+        });
+        started.notified().await;
+        let fast_index = index_c.clone();
+        let fast = tokio::time::timeout(
+            std::time::Duration::from_millis(500),
+            single_flight_store_bound_open(
+                store_c,
+                &cache,
+                async { panic!("warm request must not reload metadata") }.boxed(),
+                |_| async move { Ok(Some(fast_index)) },
+            ),
+        )
+        .await;
+        resume.notify_one();
+        let slow = slow.await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let fast = fast
+            .expect("an independent request waited for another binding's rebind")
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&slow, &index_b));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&fast, &index_c));
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&entry.index(), &index_c),
+            "a delayed rebind must not overwrite the newer cache binding"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_failed_or_cancelled_scalar_rebind_preserves_cached_binding() {
+        let [(store_a, index_a), (store_b, index_b)] = empty_index_bindings().await;
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
+        let entry = Arc::new(StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry::new(
+            store_a,
+            index_a.clone(),
+        ));
+        cache
+            .insert_unsized_with_key(&ScalarIndexCacheKey, entry.clone())
+            .await;
+        let error = single_flight_store_bound_open(
+            store_b.clone(),
+            &cache,
+            async { panic!("failed rebind must not fall back to loading") }.boxed(),
+            |_| async { Err(lance_core::Error::io("replacement credentials revoked")) },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::IO { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("replacement credentials revoked")
+        );
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&entry.index(), &index_a));
+
+        let started = Arc::new(Notify::new());
+        let cancel_started = started.clone();
+        let cancel_cache = cache.clone();
+        let cancel_store = store_b.clone();
+        let cancelled = tokio::spawn(async move {
+            single_flight_store_bound_open(
+                cancel_store,
+                &cancel_cache,
+                async { panic!("cancelled rebind must not fall back to loading") }.boxed(),
+                |_| async move {
+                    cancel_started.notify_one();
+                    futures::future::pending().await
+                },
+            )
+            .await
+        });
+        started.notified().await;
+        cancelled.abort();
+        assert!(cancelled.await.unwrap_err().is_cancelled());
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&entry.index(), &index_a));
+
+        let replacement = index_b.clone();
+        let reopened = single_flight_store_bound_open(
+            store_b,
+            &cache,
+            async { panic!("retry must rebind the cached index") }.boxed(),
+            |_| async move { Ok(Some(replacement)) },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&reopened, &index_b));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&entry.index(), &index_b));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/remap_compat_tests.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/remap_compat_tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9d1ed55a6f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/remap_compat_tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,263 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! The remap compatibility contract: an index that only implements the
+//! legacy in-memory `remap` keeps working through `remap_streaming` (a
+//! synchronous translator is forwarded, a batch translator is materialized
+//! first), and the built-in indices never enter that fallback.
+
+use std::any::Any;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use crate::scalar::{
+    AnyQuery, BatchRowIdRemapper, CreatedIndex, IndexStore, RemapUnavailable, RowAddrTranslator,
+    ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult, UpdateCriteria,
+};
+use crate::{Index, IndexType};
+
+/// A plugin index written against the legacy API: `remap` only, plus the
+/// list of fragments its files hold.
+#[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+struct LegacyOnlyIndex {
+    stored: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+    /// `(pointer of the map handed to remap, snapshot of it)` per call.
+    remaps: Mutex<Vec<(usize, RowAddrRemap)>>,
+}
+
+impl LegacyOnlyIndex {
+    fn new(stored: Option<Vec<u32>>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            stored,
+            remaps: Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl Index for LegacyOnlyIndex {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+        self
+    }
+    fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index> {
+        self
+    }
+    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+        Ok(serde_json::Value::Null)
+    }
+    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+    fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
+        IndexType::Scalar
+    }
+    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        Ok(RoaringBitmap::new())
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndex for LegacyOnlyIndex {
+    async fn search(&self, _: &dyn AnyQuery, _: &dyn MetricsCollector) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        unimplemented!()
+    }
+    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+    async fn remap(&self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap, _: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        self.remaps
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .push((mapping as *const RowAddrRemap as usize, mapping.clone()));
+        Ok(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: prost_types::Any::default(),
+            index_version: 0,
+            files: vec![],
+        })
+    }
+    fn stored_fragments(&self) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        self.stored
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|fragments| fragments.iter().copied().collect())
+    }
+    async fn update(
+        &self,
+        _: datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        _: &dyn IndexStore,
+        _: Option<crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        unimplemented!()
+    }
+    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
+        unimplemented!()
+    }
+    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
+        unimplemented!()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fragment 1 (4 rows, offset 1 deleted, the rest move to fragment 5),
+/// fragment 3 (2 rows, excluded). Counts every question asked of it.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Hops {
+    translations: AtomicUsize,
+    sizings: AtomicUsize,
+    budget: u64,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl BatchRowIdRemapper for Hops {
+    async fn remap_row_ids(&self, ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        self.translations.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        Ok(ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&address| {
+                let fragment = RowAddress::from(address).fragment_id();
+                let offset = u64::from(RowAddress::from(address).row_offset());
+                match fragment {
+                    1 if offset == 1 => None,
+                    1 => Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(5, offset as u32))),
+                    3 => None,
+                    _ => Some(address),
+                }
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
+    fn fragment_physical_rows(&self, fragment: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.sizings.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        match fragment {
+            1 => Some(4),
+            3 => Some(2),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+    fn materialization_budget_bytes(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.budget
+    }
+}
+
+fn hops_with_budget(budget: u64) -> Arc<Hops> {
+    Arc::new(Hops {
+        translations: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        sizings: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        budget,
+    })
+}
+
+fn temp_store() -> (TempObjDir, Arc<LanceIndexStore>) {
+    let dir = TempObjDir::default();
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+        dir.clone(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    (dir, store)
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_only_index_gets_a_synchronous_map_as_it_is() {
+    let (_dir, store) = temp_store();
+    let index = LegacyOnlyIndex::new(None);
+    let map = Arc::new(RowAddrRemap::direct(
+        [(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0).into(), None)].into(),
+    ));
+    let translator = RowAddrTranslator::Sync(map.clone());
+    index
+        .remap_streaming(&translator, store.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let remaps = index.remaps.lock().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(remaps.len(), 1, "one call to the legacy remap");
+    assert_eq!(
+        remaps[0].0,
+        Arc::as_ptr(&map) as usize,
+        "the very same map, not a copy"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_only_index_gets_a_complete_materialized_map_once() {
+    let (_dir, store) = temp_store();
+    let index = LegacyOnlyIndex::new(Some(vec![1, 3]));
+    let hops = hops_with_budget(u64::MAX);
+    let translator = RowAddrTranslator::Batch(hops.clone());
+    index
+        .remap_streaming(&translator, store.as_ref())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let remaps = index.remaps.lock().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(remaps.len(), 1, "one call to the legacy remap");
+    let map = &remaps[0].1;
+    let at = |fragment: u32, offset: u32| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment, offset));
+    assert_eq!(map.get(at(1, 0)), Some(Some(at(5, 0))));
+    assert_eq!(map.get(at(1, 1)), Some(None), "the deleted row is explicit");
+    assert_eq!(map.get(at(1, 3)), Some(Some(at(5, 3))));
+    // The excluded fragment is mapped to None row by row: the legacy remap
+    // would otherwise keep its stale addresses.
+    assert_eq!(map.get(at(3, 0)), Some(None));
+    assert_eq!(map.get(at(3, 1)), Some(None));
+    assert_eq!(
+        map.get(at(3, 2)),
+        None,
+        "nothing beyond the fragment's rows"
+    );
+    assert!(hops.sizings.load(Ordering::Relaxed) >= 2);
+    assert_eq!(
+        hops.translations.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+        2,
+        "one slice per fragment"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_only_index_is_left_alone_when_the_fallback_cannot_be_proven() {
+    let (_dir, store) = temp_store();
+    // Unknown stored fragments.
+    let index = LegacyOnlyIndex::new(None);
+    let hops = hops_with_budget(u64::MAX);
+    let Err(error) = index
+        .remap_streaming(&RowAddrTranslator::Batch(hops.clone()), store.as_ref())
+        .await
+    else {
+        panic!("the fallback cannot run without stored fragments");
+    };
+    assert_eq!(
+        RemapUnavailable::from_error(&error),
+        Some(&RemapUnavailable::StoredFragmentsUnknown)
+    );
+    assert!(
+        index.remaps.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "the legacy remap never ran"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(hops.translations.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    // Over budget.
+    let index = LegacyOnlyIndex::new(Some(vec![1, 3]));
+    let hops = hops_with_budget(16);
+    let Err(error) = index
+        .remap_streaming(&RowAddrTranslator::Batch(hops.clone()), store.as_ref())
+        .await
+    else {
+        panic!("the fallback cannot run over budget");
+    };
+    assert!(matches!(
+        RemapUnavailable::from_error(&error),
+        Some(RemapUnavailable::OverBudget { .. })
+    ));
+    assert!(index.remaps.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
+    assert_eq!(hops.translations.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    // A plain error is not a skip.
+    let error = Error::io("disk");
+    assert!(RemapUnavailable::from_error(&error).is_none());
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/rtree.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/rtree.rs
index 3f36ee399ab..5478f3c8ba6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/rtree.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/rtree.rs
@@ -1,47 +1,51 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
 use crate::metrics::{MetricsCollector, NoOpMetricsCollector};
 use crate::scalar::expression::{GeoQueryParser, ScalarQueryParser};
 use crate::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
 use crate::scalar::registry::{
-    ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
+    BasicTrainer, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
 };
 use crate::scalar::rtree::sort::Sorter;
 use crate::scalar::{
-    AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, GeoQuery, IndexReader, IndexReaderStream, IndexStore,
-    IndexWriter, ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult, UpdateCriteria,
+    AnyQuery, BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, GeoQuery, IndexFile, IndexReader, IndexStore,
+    IndexWriter, OldIndexDataFilter, RowIdRemapper, ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult,
+    UpdateCriteria,
 };
-use crate::vector::VectorIndex;
-use crate::{pb, Index, IndexType};
+use crate::{Index, IndexType, pb};
+use arrow_array::UInt32Array;
 use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
-use arrow_array::UInt32Array;
 use arrow_array::{Array, BinaryArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion_common::DataFusionError;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::{stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt};
-use geoarrow_array::array::{from_arrow_array, RectArray};
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use geoarrow_array::array::{RectArray, from_arrow_array};
 use geoarrow_array::builder::RectBuilder;
 use geoarrow_array::{GeoArrowArray, GeoArrowArrayAccessor, IntoArrow};
 use geoarrow_schema::{Dimension, RectType};
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
-use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
 use lance_datafusion::chunker::chunk_concat_stream;
-pub use lance_geo::bbox::{bounding_box, total_bounds, BoundingBox};
+pub use lance_geo::bbox::{BoundingBox, bounding_box, total_bounds};
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{
+    BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_record_batch_async, remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async,
+};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_select::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 use sort::hilbert_sort::HilbertSorter;
 use std::any::Any;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
@@ -55,6 +59,24 @@ const RTREE_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 0;
 const RTREE_PAGES_NAME: &str = "page_data.lance";
 const RTREE_NULLS_NAME: &str = "nulls.lance";
 
+fn validate_page_size(page_size: u32) -> Result<()> {
+    if page_size < 2 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "RTree page_size must be at least 2".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_stored_page_size(page_size: u32, num_items: usize) -> Result<()> {
+    if page_size == 0 || (page_size == 1 && num_items > 1) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "stored RTree page_size {page_size} cannot represent {num_items} items"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 static BBOX_FIELD: LazyLock<Arc<ArrowField>> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     let bbox_type = RectType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
     Arc::new(bbox_type.to_field("bbox", false))
@@ -79,6 +101,56 @@ static RTREE_NULLS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<Arc<ArrowSchema>> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     )]))
 });
 
+/// A stream that reads the original training data back out of the index
+struct IndexReaderStream {
+    reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
+    batch_size: u64,
+    offset: u64,
+    limit: u64,
+}
+
+impl IndexReaderStream {
+    async fn new(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>, batch_size: u64) -> Self {
+        let limit = reader.num_rows() as u64;
+        Self::new_with_limit(reader, batch_size, limit).await
+    }
+
+    async fn new_with_limit(reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>, batch_size: u64, limit: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            reader,
+            batch_size,
+            offset: 0,
+            limit,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Stream for IndexReaderStream {
+    type Item = BoxFuture<'static, Result<RecordBatch>>;
+
+    fn poll_next(
+        self: std::pin::Pin<&mut Self>,
+        _cx: &mut std::task::Context<'_>,
+    ) -> std::task::Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        let this = self.get_mut();
+        if this.offset >= this.limit {
+            return std::task::Poll::Ready(None);
+        }
+        let read_start = this.offset;
+        let read_end = this.limit.min(this.offset + this.batch_size);
+        this.offset = read_end;
+        let reader_copy = this.reader.clone();
+
+        let read_task = async move {
+            reader_copy
+                .read_range(read_start as usize..read_end as usize, None)
+                .await
+        }
+        .boxed();
+        std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(read_task))
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize)]
 pub struct RTreeMetadata {
     pub(crate) page_size: u32,
@@ -91,7 +163,9 @@ pub struct RTreeMetadata {
 impl RTreeMetadata {
     pub fn new(page_size: u32, num_pages: u64, num_items: usize, bbox: BoundingBox) -> Self {
         let page_offsets = Self::calculate_page_offsets(num_items, page_size);
-        debug_assert_eq!(page_offsets.len(), num_pages as usize);
+        if page_size >= 2 {
+            debug_assert_eq!(page_offsets.len(), num_pages as usize);
+        }
         Self {
             page_size,
             num_pages,
@@ -102,6 +176,9 @@ impl RTreeMetadata {
     }
 
     fn calculate_page_offsets(num_items: usize, page_size: u32) -> Vec<usize> {
+        if page_size < 2 {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
         let mut page_offsets = vec![];
         let mut cur_level_items = num_items;
         let mut cur_offset = 0;
@@ -157,9 +234,11 @@ pub fn extract_bounding_boxes(
     geometry_array: &dyn Array,
     geometry_field: &ArrowField,
 ) -> Result<RectArray> {
-    let geo_array = from_arrow_array(geometry_array, geometry_field).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-        message: format!("Construct GeoArrowArray from an Arrow Array failed: {}", e),
-        location: location!(),
+    let geo_array = from_arrow_array(geometry_array, geometry_field).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "Construct GeoArrowArray from an Arrow Array failed: {}",
+            e
+        ))
     })?;
     let rect_array = bounding_box(geo_array.as_ref())?;
 
@@ -169,7 +248,7 @@ pub fn extract_bounding_boxes(
 struct BboxStreamStats {
     null_map: RowAddrTreeMap,
     total_bbox: BoundingBox,
-    // Number of non-null items
+    // Number of indexable items
     num_items: usize,
 }
 
@@ -183,8 +262,8 @@ pub enum RTreeCacheKey {
 pub struct RTreeCacheValue(Arc<RecordBatch>);
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for RTreeCacheValue {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.0.get_array_memory_size()
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.0.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
@@ -197,13 +276,35 @@ impl CacheKey for RTreeCacheKey {
             Self::Nulls => "nulls".into(),
         }
     }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "RTree"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.scalar.rtree-entry-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Page(page_id) => {
+                builder.write_variant(0);
+                builder.write_u64(*page_id);
+            }
+            Self::Nulls => builder.write_variant(1),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct RTreeIndex {
     pub(crate) metadata: Arc<RTreeMetadata>,
     store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    /// Legacy synchronous remapper (index_version 0). Mutually exclusive with
+    /// `batch_remapper`; both `None` means no translation is needed.
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    /// Asynchronous batch remapper (tagged histories).
+    batch_remapper: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
     index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
     pages_reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
     nulls_reader: Arc<dyn IndexReader>,
@@ -221,17 +322,43 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for RTreeIndex {
 impl RTreeIndex {
     pub async fn load(
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         index_cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
         let pages_reader = store.open_index_file(RTREE_PAGES_NAME).await?;
         let metadata = RTreeMetadata::from(&pages_reader.schema().metadata);
+        validate_stored_page_size(metadata.page_size, metadata.num_items)?;
         let nulls_reader = store.open_index_file(RTREE_NULLS_NAME).await?;
 
         Ok(Arc::new(Self {
             metadata: Arc::new(metadata),
             store,
             frag_reuse_index,
+            batch_remapper: None,
+            index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+            pages_reader,
+            nulls_reader,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    async fn load_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let pages_reader = store.open_index_file(RTREE_PAGES_NAME).await?;
+        let metadata = RTreeMetadata::from(&pages_reader.schema().metadata);
+        validate_stored_page_size(metadata.page_size, metadata.num_items)?;
+        let nulls_reader = store.open_index_file(RTREE_NULLS_NAME).await?;
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            metadata: Arc::new(metadata),
+            store,
+            frag_reuse_index: None,
+            batch_remapper: remapping,
             index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
             pages_reader,
             nulls_reader,
@@ -265,15 +392,19 @@ impl RTreeIndex {
         while let Some(page_idx) = stack.pop() {
             let range = self.page_range(page_idx).await?;
             let is_leaf = range.start < self.metadata.num_items;
-            let batch = self
+            let result = self
                 .index_cache
-                .get_or_insert_with_key(RTreeCacheKey::Page(page_idx), move || async move {
+                .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(RTreeCacheKey::Page(page_idx), move || async move {
                     let batch = self.pages_reader.read_range(range, None).await?;
                     metrics.record_part_load();
                     Ok(RTreeCacheValue(Arc::new(batch)))
                 })
-                .await
-                .map(|v| v.0.clone())?;
+                .await;
+            match &result {
+                Ok((_, true)) => metrics.record_index_cache_hit(),
+                _ => metrics.record_index_cache_miss(),
+            }
+            let batch = result.map(|(v, _)| v.0.clone())?;
 
             let bbox_array =
                 extract_bounding_boxes(batch.column(0).as_ref(), batch.schema().field(0))?;
@@ -301,16 +432,20 @@ impl RTreeIndex {
     }
 
     async fn search_null(&self, metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
-        let batch = self
+        let result = self
             .index_cache
-            .get_or_insert_with_key(RTreeCacheKey::Nulls, move || async move {
+            .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(RTreeCacheKey::Nulls, move || async move {
                 // Only one row
                 let batch = self.nulls_reader.read_range(0..1, None).await?;
                 metrics.record_part_load();
                 Ok(RTreeCacheValue(Arc::new(batch)))
             })
-            .await
-            .map(|v| v.0.clone())?;
+            .await;
+        match &result {
+            Ok((_, true)) => metrics.record_index_cache_hit(),
+            _ => metrics.record_index_cache_miss(),
+        }
+        let batch = result.map(|(v, _)| v.0.clone())?;
 
         let null_map = match batch.num_rows() {
             0 => RowAddrTreeMap::default(),
@@ -373,8 +508,178 @@ impl RTreeIndex {
     }
 }
 
+fn filter_keeps_nothing(filter: &Option<OldIndexDataFilter>) -> bool {
+    match filter {
+        Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments { to_keep, .. }) => to_keep.is_empty(),
+        Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid)) => valid.is_empty(),
+        None => false,
+    }
+}
+
+fn filter_rtree_data(
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    filter: OldIndexDataFilter,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let schema = data.schema();
+    let filtered = data.map(move |batch_result| {
+        let batch = batch_result?;
+        let row_ids = batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .and_then(|column| column.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("expected UInt64Array for RTree row ids"))?;
+        let mask = filter.filter_row_ids(row_ids);
+        Ok(arrow_select::filter::filter_record_batch(&batch, &mask)?)
+    });
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, filtered))
+}
+
+fn remap_rtree_data(
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    remapper: Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let schema = data.schema();
+    let remapped = data.map(move |batch_result| {
+        let batch = batch_result?;
+        // The row ID is column 1 in BBOX_ROWID_SCHEMA.
+        Ok(remapper.remap_row_ids_record_batch(batch, 1)?)
+    });
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, remapped))
+}
+
+fn remap_rtree_data_async(
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    remapper: Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let schema = data.schema();
+    let remapped = data.and_then(move |batch| {
+        let remapper = remapper.clone();
+        // The row ID is column 1 in BBOX_ROWID_SCHEMA.
+        async move { Ok(remap_record_batch_async(remapper.as_ref(), batch, 1).await?) }
+    });
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, remapped))
+}
+
+/// Merge caller-selected RTree segments into one self-contained segment.
+///
+/// Each source may supply a filter for rows that are still live. The merged index recomputes its
+/// bounding box from the retained, remapped rows and preserves retained null row IDs.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```no_run
+/// use std::sync::Arc;
+///
+/// use lance_core::Result;
+/// use lance_index::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter;
+/// use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+/// use lance_index::scalar::rtree::{RTreeIndex, merge_rtree_indices};
+///
+/// async fn merge(
+///     segments: &[Arc<RTreeIndex>],
+///     destination: &LanceIndexStore,
+///     filters: &[Option<OldIndexDataFilter>],
+/// ) -> Result<()> {
+///     merge_rtree_indices(segments, destination, filters).await?;
+///     Ok(())
+/// }
+/// ```
+pub async fn merge_rtree_indices(
+    source_indices: &[Arc<RTreeIndex>],
+    dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    old_data_filters: &[Option<OldIndexDataFilter>],
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    if source_indices.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "merge_rtree_indices requires at least one source index",
+        ));
+    }
+    if source_indices.len() != old_data_filters.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "merge_rtree_indices received {} source indices but {} filters",
+            source_indices.len(),
+            old_data_filters.len()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let first_contributing = source_indices
+        .iter()
+        .zip(old_data_filters)
+        .find(|(source, filter)| source.metadata.num_items > 0 && !filter_keeps_nothing(filter))
+        .or_else(|| {
+            source_indices
+                .iter()
+                .zip(old_data_filters)
+                .find(|(_, filter)| !filter_keeps_nothing(filter))
+        })
+        .map(|(source, _)| source)
+        .unwrap_or(&source_indices[0]);
+    let page_size = first_contributing.metadata.page_size;
+    validate_page_size(page_size)?;
+    let mut data_streams = Vec::with_capacity(source_indices.len());
+    let mut null_map = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+
+    for (source, filter) in source_indices.iter().zip(old_data_filters) {
+        if filter_keeps_nothing(filter) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if source.metadata.num_items > 0 && source.metadata.page_size != page_size {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cannot merge RTree segments with different page sizes: {} and {}",
+                page_size, source.metadata.page_size
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut source_nulls = source.search_null(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
+        if let Some(remapper) = &source.frag_reuse_index {
+            // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+            source_nulls = remapper.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&source_nulls);
+        } else if let Some(remapper) = &source.batch_remapper {
+            // Tagged asynchronous path.
+            source_nulls = remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), &source_nulls).await?;
+        }
+        if let Some(filter) = filter {
+            filter.retain_old_rows(&mut source_nulls);
+        }
+        null_map |= &source_nulls;
+
+        let mut data = source.as_ref().clone().into_data_stream().await?;
+        if let Some(remapper) = source.frag_reuse_index.clone() {
+            // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+            data = remap_rtree_data(data, remapper);
+        } else if let Some(remapper) = source.batch_remapper.clone() {
+            // Tagged asynchronous path.
+            data = remap_rtree_data_async(data, remapper);
+        }
+        data_streams.push(match filter {
+            Some(filter) => filter_rtree_data(data, filter.clone()),
+            None => data,
+        });
+    }
+
+    let combined = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        BBOX_ROWID_SCHEMA.clone(),
+        stream::select_all(data_streams),
+    ));
+    let tmpdir = Arc::new(TempDir::default());
+    let spill_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+        tmpdir.obj_path(),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    ));
+    let (bbox_data, mut stats) =
+        RTreeIndexPlugin::process_and_analyze_bbox_stream(combined, page_size, spill_store).await?;
+    stats.null_map = null_map;
+    let files =
+        RTreeIndexPlugin::train_rtree_index(bbox_data, stats, page_size, dest_store).await?;
+
+    Ok(CreatedIndex {
+        index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pb::RTreeIndexDetails::default())?,
+        index_version: RTREE_INDEX_VERSION,
+        files,
+    })
+}
+
 impl DeepSizeOf for RTreeIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         let mut total_size = 0;
 
         total_size += self.store.deep_size_of_children(context);
@@ -393,18 +698,9 @@ impl Index for RTreeIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "RTreeIndex is not vector index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-
     fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
-        serde_json::to_value(self.metadata.clone()).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("Error serializing statistics: {}", e),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        serde_json::to_value(self.metadata.clone())
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Error serializing statistics: {}", e)))
     }
 
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
@@ -471,8 +767,13 @@ impl ScalarIndex for RTreeIndex {
                 let mut null_map = self.search_null(metrics).await?;
 
                 if let Some(fri) = &self.frag_reuse_index {
+                    // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
                     rowids = fri.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&rowids);
                     null_map = fri.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&null_map);
+                } else if let Some(remapper) = &self.batch_remapper {
+                    // Tagged asynchronous path.
+                    rowids = remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), &rowids).await?;
+                    null_map = remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), &null_map).await?;
                 }
                 Ok(SearchResult::AtMost(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
                     rowids, null_map,
@@ -482,7 +783,11 @@ impl ScalarIndex for RTreeIndex {
                 let mut null_map = self.search_null(metrics).await?;
 
                 if let Some(fri) = &self.frag_reuse_index {
+                    // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
                     null_map = fri.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&null_map);
+                } else if let Some(remapper) = &self.batch_remapper {
+                    // Tagged asynchronous path.
+                    null_map = remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), &null_map).await?;
                 }
                 Ok(SearchResult::Exact(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
                     null_map,
@@ -498,51 +803,52 @@ impl ScalarIndex for RTreeIndex {
 
     async fn remap(
         &self,
-        _mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        _mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
         _dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "RTree does not support remap".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "RTree does not support remap".into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        _translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        _dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        // No mapping to materialize for an index that cannot be remapped.
+        Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "RTree does not support remap".into(),
+        ))
     }
 
     async fn update(
         &self,
         new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        _old_data_filter: Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         let bbox_data = RTreeIndexPlugin::convert_bbox_stream(new_data)?;
+        let combined_bbox_data = self.clone().combine_old_new(bbox_data).await?;
         let tmpdir = Arc::new(TempDir::default());
         let spill_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
             tmpdir.obj_path(),
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
-        let (new_bbox_data, stats) = RTreeIndexPlugin::process_and_analyze_bbox_stream(
-            bbox_data,
+        let (bbox_data, mut stats) = RTreeIndexPlugin::process_and_analyze_bbox_stream(
+            combined_bbox_data,
             self.metadata.page_size,
             spill_store.clone(),
         )
         .await?;
 
-        let merged_bbox_data = self.clone().combine_old_new(new_bbox_data).await?;
-
         let null_map = self.search_null(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
+        stats.null_map |= &null_map;
 
-        let mut new_bbox = BoundingBox::new();
-        new_bbox.add_rect(&stats.total_bbox);
-        new_bbox.add_rect(&self.metadata.bbox);
-
-        let merge_stats = BboxStreamStats {
-            null_map: RowAddrTreeMap::union_all(&[&null_map, &stats.null_map]),
-            total_bbox: new_bbox,
-            num_items: self.metadata.num_items + stats.num_items,
-        };
-
-        RTreeIndexPlugin::train_rtree_index(
-            merged_bbox_data,
-            merge_stats,
+        let files = RTreeIndexPlugin::train_rtree_index(
+            bbox_data,
+            stats,
             self.metadata.page_size,
             dest_store,
         )
@@ -551,6 +857,7 @@ impl ScalarIndex for RTreeIndex {
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pb::RTreeIndexDetails::default())?,
             index_version: RTREE_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
         })
     }
 
@@ -611,18 +918,16 @@ pub struct RTreeIndexPlugin;
 impl RTreeIndexPlugin {
     fn validate_schema(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> Result<()> {
         if schema.fields().len() != 2 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "RTree index schema must have exactly two fields".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "RTree index schema must have exactly two fields".into(),
+            ));
         }
 
         let row_id_field = schema.field_with_name(ROW_ID)?;
         if *row_id_field.data_type() != DataType::UInt64 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Second field in RTree index schema must be of type UInt64".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Second field in RTree index schema must be of type UInt64".into(),
+            ));
         }
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -653,8 +958,8 @@ impl RTreeIndexPlugin {
         )))
     }
 
-    /// Processes a bounding box data stream, separating null and non-null elements, and collects
-    /// statistics about non-null elements.
+    /// Processes a bounding box data stream, separating null and empty elements, and collects
+    /// statistics about indexable elements.
     async fn process_and_analyze_bbox_stream(
         mut data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         page_size: u32,
@@ -662,7 +967,7 @@ impl RTreeIndexPlugin {
     ) -> Result<(SendableRecordBatchStream, BboxStreamStats)> {
         let mut null_rowaddrs = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
         let mut total_bbox = BoundingBox::new();
-        let mut num_non_null_rows = 0;
+        let mut num_items = 0;
 
         let schema = data.schema();
 
@@ -682,27 +987,33 @@ impl RTreeIndexPlugin {
 
             let num_rows = bbox_array.len();
 
-            let mut non_null_indexes = vec![];
+            let mut indexable_indices = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+            let lower = bbox_array.lower().raw_buffers();
+            let upper = bbox_array.upper().raw_buffers();
+            let (min_x, min_y) = (&lower[0][..num_rows], &lower[1][..num_rows]);
+            let (max_x, max_y) = (&upper[0][..num_rows], &upper[1][..num_rows]);
+            let x_bounds = min_x.iter().zip(max_x);
+            let y_bounds = min_y.iter().zip(max_y);
 
-            for i in 0..num_rows {
+            for (i, ((minx, maxx), (miny, maxy))) in x_bounds.zip(y_bounds).enumerate() {
                 if bbox_array.is_null(i) {
                     let rowaddr = rowaddr_array.value(i);
                     null_rowaddrs.insert(rowaddr);
-                } else {
-                    non_null_indexes.push(i as u32);
+                } else if !(minx > maxx || miny > maxy) {
+                    indexable_indices.push(i as u32);
                 }
             }
 
-            let new_batch = if non_null_indexes.is_empty() {
-                // all nulls, skip write
+            let new_batch = if indexable_indices.is_empty() {
+                // No indexable bounds, skip write.
                 continue;
-            } else if non_null_indexes.len() == num_rows {
+            } else if indexable_indices.len() == num_rows {
                 batch
             } else {
-                batch.take(&UInt32Array::from(non_null_indexes))?
+                batch.take(&UInt32Array::from(indexable_indices))?
             };
 
-            num_non_null_rows += new_batch.num_rows();
+            num_items += new_batch.num_rows();
             writer.write_record_batch(new_batch).await?;
         }
         writer.finish().await?;
@@ -719,7 +1030,7 @@ impl RTreeIndexPlugin {
             BboxStreamStats {
                 null_map: null_rowaddrs,
                 total_bbox,
-                num_items: num_non_null_rows,
+                num_items,
             },
         ))
     }
@@ -778,7 +1089,8 @@ impl RTreeIndexPlugin {
         total_bbox: BoundingBox,
         store: &dyn IndexStore,
         page_size: u32,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+        validate_page_size(page_size)?;
         let mut page_idx: u64 = 0;
         let mut writer = store
             .new_index_file(RTREE_PAGES_NAME, RTREE_PAGE_SCHEMA.clone())
@@ -816,12 +1128,13 @@ impl RTreeIndexPlugin {
             .finish_with_metadata(
                 RTreeMetadata::new(page_size, page_idx, num_items, total_bbox).into_map(),
             )
-            .await?;
-
-        Ok(())
+            .await
     }
 
-    pub async fn write_nulls(store: &dyn IndexStore, null_map: RowAddrTreeMap) -> Result<()> {
+    pub async fn write_nulls(
+        store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        null_map: RowAddrTreeMap,
+    ) -> Result<IndexFile> {
         let mut writer = store
             .new_index_file(RTREE_NULLS_NAME, RTREE_NULLS_SCHEMA.clone())
             .await?;
@@ -841,12 +1154,12 @@ impl RTreeIndexPlugin {
         stats: BboxStreamStats,
         page_size: u32,
         store: &dyn IndexStore,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
         // new sorted stream
         let sorter = HilbertSorter::new(stats.total_bbox);
         let sorted_data = sorter.sort(bbox_data).await?;
 
-        Self::write_index(
+        let page_file = Self::write_index(
             sorted_data,
             stats.num_items,
             stats.total_bbox,
@@ -855,24 +1168,23 @@ impl RTreeIndexPlugin {
         )
         .await?;
 
-        Self::write_nulls(store, stats.null_map).await?;
+        let nulls_file = Self::write_nulls(store, stats.null_map).await?;
 
-        Ok(())
+        Ok(vec![page_file, nulls_file])
     }
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndexPlugin for RTreeIndexPlugin {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "RTree"
-    }
-
+impl BasicTrainer for RTreeIndexPlugin {
     fn new_training_request(
         &self,
         params: &str,
         _field: &ArrowField,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
         let params = serde_json::from_str::<RTreeParameters>(params)?;
+        if let Some(page_size) = params.page_size {
+            validate_page_size(page_size)?;
+        }
         Ok(Box::new(RTreeTrainingRequest::new(params)))
     }
 
@@ -881,15 +1193,9 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for RTreeIndexPlugin {
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
-        fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        if fragment_ids.is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "RTree index does not support fragment training".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
         Self::validate_schema(&data.schema())?;
 
         let request = request
@@ -900,6 +1206,7 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for RTreeIndexPlugin {
             .parameters
             .page_size
             .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_RTREE_PAGE_SIZE);
+        validate_page_size(page_size)?;
 
         let bbox_data = Self::convert_bbox_stream(data)?;
         let tmpdir = Arc::new(TempDir::default());
@@ -912,13 +1219,25 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for RTreeIndexPlugin {
             Self::process_and_analyze_bbox_stream(bbox_data, page_size, spill_store.clone())
                 .await?;
 
-        Self::train_rtree_index(bbox_data, stats, page_size, index_store).await?;
+        let files = Self::train_rtree_index(bbox_data, stats, page_size, index_store).await?;
 
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
             index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pb::RTreeIndexDetails::default())?,
             index_version: RTREE_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
         })
     }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for RTreeIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "RTree"
+    }
 
     fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
         false
@@ -933,18 +1252,36 @@ impl ScalarIndexPlugin for RTreeIndexPlugin {
         index_name: String,
         _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
     ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
-        Some(Box::new(GeoQueryParser::new(index_name)))
+        Some(Box::new(GeoQueryParser::new(
+            index_name,
+            self.name().to_string(),
+        )))
     }
 
     async fn load_index(
         &self,
         index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
         _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         cache: &LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
         Ok(RTreeIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await? as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
     }
+    fn supports_batch_row_id_remapping(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn load_index_with_remapping(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        Ok(RTreeIndex::load_with_remapping(index_store, remapping, cache).await?)
+    }
 }
 
 struct EncodedBatch {
@@ -955,20 +1292,41 @@ struct EncodedBatch {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseIndexHandle};
     use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
     use crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
     use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
     use arrow_schema::Schema;
-    use geo_types::{coord, Rect};
-    use geoarrow_array::builder::{PointBuilder, RectBuilder};
-    use geoarrow_schema::{Dimension, PointType, RectType};
+    use geo_types::{LineString, Rect, coord, line_string};
+    use geoarrow_array::builder::{LineStringBuilder, PointBuilder, RectBuilder};
+    use geoarrow_schema::{Dimension, LineStringType, PointType, RectType};
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+    use lance_geo::bbox::is_empty_rect;
     use rand::Rng;
 
     fn expected_num_pages(num_items: usize, page_size: u32) -> u64 {
         RTreeMetadata::calculate_page_offsets(num_items, page_size).len() as u64
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rejects_page_size_that_cannot_reduce_tree_levels() {
+        let plugin = RTreeIndexPlugin;
+        let field = ArrowField::new("geometry", DataType::Null, true);
+        let error = plugin
+            .new_training_request(r#"{"page_size":1}"#, &field)
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("page_size must be at least 2"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_stored_page_size_preserves_single_item_compatibility() {
+        assert!(validate_stored_page_size(1, 1).is_ok());
+        assert!(validate_stored_page_size(1, 0).is_ok());
+        assert!(validate_stored_page_size(1, 2).is_err());
+        assert!(validate_stored_page_size(0, 0).is_err());
+    }
+
     fn convert_bbox_rowid_batch_stream(
         geo_array: &dyn GeoArrowArray,
         row_id_array: ArrayRef,
@@ -991,12 +1349,10 @@ mod tests {
         page_size: Option<u32>,
     ) -> (Arc<RTreeIndex>, Arc<LanceIndexStore>, TempObjDir) {
         let page_size = page_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_RTREE_PAGE_SIZE);
-        let mut num_items = 0;
-        for i in 0..geo_array.len() {
-            if !geo_array.is_null(i) {
-                num_items += 1;
-            }
-        }
+        let bbox_array = bounding_box(geo_array).unwrap();
+        let num_items = (0..bbox_array.len())
+            .filter(|i| !bbox_array.is_null(*i) && !is_empty_rect(&bbox_array.value(*i).unwrap()))
+            .count();
 
         let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
         let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
@@ -1021,6 +1377,7 @@ mod tests {
                     page_size: Some(page_size),
                 })),
                 None,
+                crate::progress::noop_progress(),
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
@@ -1039,7 +1396,10 @@ mod tests {
         )
     }
 
+    // Spill-enabled index builds share the cached DataFusion memory pool within the
+    // test process, so keep them in one resource group.
     #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
     async fn test_search_bbox() {
         let bbox_type = RectType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
 
@@ -1085,6 +1445,7 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
     async fn test_search_null() {
         let point_type = PointType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
 
@@ -1121,6 +1482,273 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_empty_geometries_are_not_indexed() {
+        let line_string_type = LineStringType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
+        let mut builder = LineStringBuilder::new(line_string_type);
+        builder
+            .push_line_string(Some(&line_string![(x: 1.0, y: 2.0), (x: 3.0, y: 4.0)]))
+            .unwrap();
+        builder
+            .push_line_string(Some(&line_string![(x: 2.0, y: 3.0)]))
+            .unwrap();
+        builder
+            .push_line_string(Some(&LineString::new(vec![])))
+            .unwrap();
+        builder.push_line_string(None::<&LineString>).unwrap();
+        let geometries = builder.finish();
+
+        let (rtree_index, _store, _tmpdir) = train_index(&geometries, Some(4)).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(rtree_index.metadata.num_items, 2);
+        assert_eq!(rtree_index.metadata.bbox.minx(), 1.0);
+        assert_eq!(rtree_index.metadata.bbox.miny(), 2.0);
+        assert_eq!(rtree_index.metadata.bbox.maxx(), 3.0);
+        assert_eq!(rtree_index.metadata.bbox.maxy(), 4.0);
+
+        let query = BoundingBox::new_with_rect(&Rect::new(
+            coord! { x: 0.0, y: 0.0 },
+            coord! { x: 5.0, y: 5.0 },
+        ));
+        let mut expected_match = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected_match.insert(0);
+        expected_match.insert(1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            rtree_index
+                .search_bbox(query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            expected_match
+        );
+
+        let mut expected_null = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected_null.insert(3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            rtree_index
+                .search_null(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            expected_null
+        );
+
+        let line_string_type = LineStringType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
+        let mut builder = LineStringBuilder::new(line_string_type);
+        builder.push_empty();
+        builder.push_empty();
+        let empty_geometries = builder.finish();
+
+        let (empty_index, _store, _tmpdir) = train_index(&empty_geometries, Some(4)).await;
+        assert_eq!(empty_index.metadata.num_items, 0);
+        assert_eq!(empty_index.metadata.num_pages, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_non_finite_bounds_are_not_treated_as_empty() {
+        let rect_type = RectType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
+        let mut builder = RectBuilder::new(rect_type);
+        builder.push_rect(Some(&Rect::new(
+            coord! { x: f64::NAN, y: 1.0 },
+            coord! { x: 2.0, y: 3.0 },
+        )));
+        let bounds = builder.finish();
+        assert!(!is_empty_rect(&bounds.value(0).unwrap()));
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            BBOX_ROWID_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            vec![
+                bounds.into_array_ref(),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            BBOX_ROWID_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) }),
+        ));
+
+        let (mut analyzed, stats) =
+            RTreeIndexPlugin::process_and_analyze_bbox_stream(stream, 4, store)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_items, 1);
+        assert_eq!(analyzed.try_next().await.unwrap().unwrap().num_rows(), 1);
+        assert!(analyzed.try_next().await.unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_merge_rtree_indices_filters_rows_and_nulls() {
+        let point_type = PointType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
+        let mut first_builder = PointBuilder::new(point_type.clone());
+        first_builder.push_point(Some(&geo_types::point!(x: 10.0, y: 10.0)));
+        first_builder.push_null();
+        let first = first_builder.finish();
+
+        let mut second_builder = PointBuilder::new(point_type);
+        second_builder.push_point(Some(&geo_types::point!(x: 100.0, y: 100.0)));
+        second_builder.push_null();
+        let second = second_builder.finish();
+        let empty = PointBuilder::new(PointType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default())).finish();
+
+        let (empty_index, _empty_store, _empty_tmpdir) = train_index(&empty, Some(8)).await;
+        let (first_index, _first_store, _first_tmpdir) = train_index(&first, Some(4)).await;
+        let (second_index, _second_store, _second_tmpdir) = train_index(&second, Some(4)).await;
+        let mut near_origin = BoundingBox::new();
+        near_origin.add_rect(&Rect::new(
+            coord! { x: 9.0, y: 9.0 },
+            coord! { x: 11.0, y: 11.0 },
+        ));
+        let mut expected_geometry = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected_geometry.insert(0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            first_index
+                .search_bbox(near_origin, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            expected_geometry
+        );
+        let merged_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let merged_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            merged_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let remapped_geometry = RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 0).into();
+        let remapped_null = RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 1).into();
+        expected_geometry = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected_geometry.insert(remapped_geometry);
+        let remapper = FragReuseIndexHandle(Arc::new(FragReuseIndex::new(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            vec![HashMap::from([
+                (0, Some(remapped_geometry)),
+                (1, Some(remapped_null)),
+            ])],
+            FragReuseIndexDetails { versions: vec![] },
+        )));
+        let mut first_index = first_index.as_ref().clone();
+        first_index.frag_reuse_index = Some(Arc::new(remapper));
+
+        let mut keep_first_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        keep_first_rows.insert(remapped_geometry);
+        keep_first_rows.insert(remapped_null);
+        merge_rtree_indices(
+            &[empty_index, Arc::new(first_index), second_index],
+            merged_store.as_ref(),
+            &[
+                None,
+                Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(keep_first_rows)),
+                Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(RowAddrTreeMap::new())),
+            ],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let merged = RTreeIndex::load(merged_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(merged.metadata.num_items, 1);
+        assert_eq!(merged.metadata.bbox.minx(), 10.0);
+        assert_eq!(merged.metadata.bbox.miny(), 10.0);
+        assert_eq!(merged.metadata.bbox.maxx(), 10.0);
+        assert_eq!(merged.metadata.bbox.maxy(), 10.0);
+        assert!(
+            merged.metadata.bbox.rect_intersects(&near_origin),
+            "merged bounds {:?} do not intersect {:?}",
+            merged.metadata.bbox,
+            near_origin
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged
+                .search_bbox(near_origin, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            expected_geometry
+        );
+        let mut expected_null = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected_null.insert(remapped_null);
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.search_null(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap(),
+            expected_null
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
+    async fn test_update_removes_pre_fix_empty_entries() {
+        let rect_type = RectType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
+        let mut builder = RectBuilder::new(rect_type);
+        builder.push_rect(Some(&BoundingBox::new()));
+        let empty_bounds = builder.finish();
+
+        let old_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let old_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            old_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let old_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            BBOX_ROWID_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            vec![
+                empty_bounds.clone().into_array_ref(),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let old_stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            BBOX_ROWID_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            stream::once(async move { Ok(old_batch) }),
+        ));
+        RTreeIndexPlugin::train_rtree_index(
+            old_stream,
+            BboxStreamStats {
+                null_map: RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
+                total_bbox: BoundingBox::new(),
+                num_items: 1,
+            },
+            4,
+            old_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let old_index = RTreeIndex::load(old_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let new_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let new_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            new_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let new_stream = convert_bbox_rowid_batch_stream(
+            &empty_bounds,
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![u64::from(
+                RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0),
+            )])),
+        );
+        old_index
+            .update(new_stream, new_store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let updated = RTreeIndex::load(new_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(updated.metadata.num_items, 0);
+        assert_eq!(updated.metadata.num_pages, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
     async fn test_update_and_search() {
         fn gen_data(num_items: u32, frag_id: u32, nulls_addrs: &mut RowAddrTreeMap) -> RectArray {
             let bbox_type = RectType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
@@ -1172,7 +1800,7 @@ mod tests {
             Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(new_rowaddr_arr.clone())),
         );
         rtree_index
-            .update(stream, new_store.as_ref())
+            .update(stream, new_store.as_ref(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -1218,6 +1846,7 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DF_SPILL_POOL)]
     async fn test_prewarm() {
         let point_type = PointType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
 
@@ -1247,17 +1876,21 @@ mod tests {
         rtree_index.prewarm().await.unwrap();
 
         for page_id in 0..rtree_index.metadata.num_pages {
-            assert!(rtree_index
-                .index_cache
-                .get_with_key(&RTreeCacheKey::Page(page_id))
-                .await
-                .is_some())
+            assert!(
+                rtree_index
+                    .index_cache
+                    .get_with_key(&RTreeCacheKey::Page(page_id))
+                    .await
+                    .is_some()
+            )
         }
 
-        assert!(rtree_index
-            .index_cache
-            .get_with_key(&RTreeCacheKey::Nulls)
-            .await
-            .is_some())
+        assert!(
+            rtree_index
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&RTreeCacheKey::Nulls)
+                .await
+                .is_some()
+        )
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/rtree/sort/hilbert_sort.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/rtree/sort/hilbert_sort.rs
index ee03d1e86be..9816bfebd51 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/rtree/sort/hilbert_sort.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/rtree/sort/hilbert_sort.rs
@@ -2,16 +2,15 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use crate::scalar::rtree::sort::Sorter;
-use crate::Result;
 use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, UInt32Array};
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType as ArrowDataType, Field as ArrowField, Field};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 use datafusion::logical_expr::{ColumnarValue, Signature, Volatility};
 use datafusion::physical_expr::PhysicalSortExpr;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::projection::ProjectionExec;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
 use datafusion_common::config::ConfigOptions;
 use datafusion_common::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
 use datafusion_expr::{ScalarFunctionArgs, ScalarUDFImpl};
@@ -19,9 +18,9 @@ use datafusion_physical_expr::expressions::Column as DFColumn;
 use datafusion_physical_expr::{PhysicalExpr, ScalarFunctionExpr};
 use geoarrow_array::array::from_arrow_array;
 use geoarrow_array::{GeoArrowArray, GeoArrowArrayAccessor};
-use lance_datafusion::exec::{execute_plan, LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec};
-use lance_geo::bbox::{bounding_box, BoundingBox};
-use std::any::Any;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_datafusion::exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, execute_plan};
+use lance_geo::bbox::{BoundingBox, bounding_box};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 const HILBERT_FIELD_NAME: &str = "_hilbert";
@@ -149,10 +148,6 @@ impl HilbertUDF {
 }
 
 impl ScalarUDFImpl for HilbertUDF {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn name(&self) -> &str {
         HILBERT_UDF_NAME
     }
@@ -264,12 +259,12 @@ mod tests {
     use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
     use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-    use futures::{stream, StreamExt};
+    use futures::{StreamExt, stream};
     use geo_traits::{CoordTrait, PointTrait};
     use geo_types::Point;
+    use geoarrow_array::GeoArrowArray;
     use geoarrow_array::array::PointArray;
     use geoarrow_array::builder::PointBuilder;
-    use geoarrow_array::GeoArrowArray;
     use geoarrow_schema::{Dimension, PointType};
     use lance_core::ROW_ID;
     use lance_geo::bbox::total_bounds;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/seed.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/seed.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..eaa5766fafa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/seed.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Index seed writers — compact per-fragment summaries embedded in data files.
+//!
+//! A seed writer observes column values as they are written to a data file,
+//! accumulates compact statistics in memory, and serializes them to a byte
+//! buffer that is embedded in the data file footer as a global buffer.
+//!
+//! The buffer can later be read back during index updates to reconstruct index
+//! statistics without re-scanning the column data.
+
+use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::Result;
+
+/// Schema metadata key prefix for all seed buffers: `"lance.seed.<column_name>"`.
+pub const SEED_META_KEY_PREFIX: &str = "lance.seed.";
+
+/// A hook registered during data file writes that observes column values batch
+/// by batch, accumulates compact statistics in memory, and serializes them to
+/// a byte buffer that is embedded in the data file footer as a global buffer.
+///
+/// The buffer can later be read back during index updates to reconstruct index
+/// statistics without re-scanning the column data.
+pub trait IndexSeedWriter: Send + std::fmt::Debug {
+    /// The column this writer is interested in.
+    fn column_name(&self) -> &str;
+
+    /// Observe a slice of column values as they are written to the current fragment.
+    /// Called once per batch.
+    fn observe_batch(&mut self, values: &ArrayRef) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Serialize accumulated state to bytes and reset for the next fragment.
+    /// Returns `None` if no data was observed (empty fragment).
+    fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<Option<Bytes>>;
+
+    /// Schema metadata key used to record that a seed buffer was written.
+    /// Convention: `"lance.seed.<column_name>"`.
+    fn schema_metadata_key(&self) -> String;
+
+    /// Create a string to store in the file's schema metadata. This will normally
+    /// contain the buffer index (provided by the caller after `add_global_buffer`)
+    /// as well as any other information needed to validate or understand the seed
+    /// (e.g. `rows_per_zone` for zone map seeds).
+    fn schema_metadata_value(&self, buf_index: u32) -> String;
+}
+
+/// A pre-harvested seed buffer from a single fragment's data file.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct FragmentSeed {
+    pub fragment_id: u64,
+    pub bytes: Bytes,
+    /// The raw value that was stored in the data file's schema metadata under
+    /// the seed key (i.e. the output of [`IndexSeedWriter::schema_metadata_value`]).
+    /// Plugins can inspect this to validate that the seed is compatible with the
+    /// current index configuration before consuming `bytes`.
+    pub metadata_value: String,
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/zoned.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/zoned.rs
index bb2be962d16..9c090f5e1d8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/zoned.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/zoned.rs
@@ -12,10 +12,9 @@ use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use lance_core::error::Error;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap;
-use lance_core::{Result, ROW_ADDR};
+use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, Result};
 use lance_datafusion::chunker::chunk_concat_stream;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
 
 //
 // Example: Suppose we have two fragments, each with 4 rows.
@@ -74,7 +73,6 @@ where
         if zone_capacity == 0 {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "zone capacity must be greater than zero",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
         Ok(Self {
@@ -94,16 +92,14 @@ where
     pub async fn train(
         mut self,
         stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<P::ZoneStatistics>> {
+    ) -> Result<(Vec<P::ZoneStatistics>, RowAddrTreeMap)> {
         let zone_size = usize::try_from(self.zone_capacity).map_err(|_| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                "zone capacity does not fit into usize on this platform",
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input("zone capacity does not fit into usize on this platform")
         })?;
 
         let mut batches = chunk_concat_stream(stream, zone_size);
         let mut zones = Vec::new();
+        let mut null_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
         let mut current_fragment_id: Option<u64> = None;
         let mut current_zone_len: usize = 0;
         let mut zone_start_offset: Option<u64> = None;
@@ -160,6 +156,16 @@ where
                 self.processor
                     .process_chunk(&values.slice(batch_offset, take))?;
 
+                // Record exact row addresses for null values in this chunk.
+                let chunk = values.slice(batch_offset, take);
+                if chunk.null_count() > 0 {
+                    for i in 0..take {
+                        if values.is_null(batch_offset + i) {
+                            null_rows.insert(row_addr_col.value(batch_offset + i));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
                 // Track the first and last row offsets to handle non-contiguous offsets
                 // after deletions. Zone length (offset span) is computed as (last - first + 1),
                 // not the actual row count.
@@ -205,7 +211,7 @@ where
             }
         }
 
-        Ok(zones)
+        Ok((zones, null_rows))
     }
 
     /// Flushes a non-empty zone and resets the processor state.
@@ -221,10 +227,7 @@ where
         let inferred_end =
             zone_end_offset.unwrap_or_else(|| start + (*current_zone_len as u64).saturating_sub(1));
         if inferred_end < start {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "zone row offsets are out of order",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("zone row offsets are out of order"));
         }
         let bound = ZoneBound {
             fragment_id,
@@ -274,21 +277,21 @@ where
 }
 
 /// Helper that retrains zones from `stream` and appends them to the existing
-/// statistics. Useful for index update paths that need to merge new fragments
-/// into an existing zone list.
+/// statistics. Returns the combined zone list and the null-row bitmap for the
+/// new data only — callers are responsible for merging with any existing bitmap.
 pub async fn rebuild_zones<P>(
     existing: &[P::ZoneStatistics],
     trainer: ZoneTrainer<P>,
     stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-) -> Result<Vec<P::ZoneStatistics>>
+) -> Result<(Vec<P::ZoneStatistics>, RowAddrTreeMap)>
 where
     P: ZoneProcessor,
     P::ZoneStatistics: Clone,
 {
     let mut combined = existing.to_vec();
-    let mut new_zones = trainer.train(stream).await?;
+    let (mut new_zones, null_rows) = trainer.train(stream).await?;
     combined.append(&mut new_zones);
-    Ok(combined)
+    Ok((combined, null_rows))
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -370,7 +373,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 4).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // Three zones: offsets [0..=3], [4..=7], [8..=9]
         assert_eq!(stats.len(), 3);
@@ -401,7 +404,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 10).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // Two zones, one per fragment (capacity=10 is large enough)
         assert_eq!(stats.len(), 2);
@@ -455,7 +458,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 10).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // One zone containing the 3 valid rows (empty batches skipped)
         assert_eq!(stats.len(), 1);
@@ -477,7 +480,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 1).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // Three zones, one per row (capacity=1)
         assert_eq!(stats.len(), 3);
@@ -502,7 +505,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 10000).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // One zone containing all 100 rows (capacity is large enough)
         assert_eq!(stats.len(), 1);
@@ -516,10 +519,12 @@ mod tests {
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let result = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 0);
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("zone capacity must be greater than zero"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("zone capacity must be greater than zero")
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -536,7 +541,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 4).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // Two zones: first 4 rows, then remaining 2 rows
         assert_eq!(stats.len(), 2);
@@ -567,7 +572,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 3).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // Three zones: frag 0 full zone, frag 0 partial (flushed at boundary), frag 1
         assert_eq!(stats.len(), 3);
@@ -608,7 +613,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 4).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // Should create 2 zones (capacity=4):
         // Zone 0: rows at offsets [0, 1, 5, 7] (4 rows)
@@ -643,7 +648,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 10).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // One zone with 3 rows, but offset span [0..=200] so length=201 due to large gaps
         assert_eq!(stats.len(), 1);
@@ -669,7 +674,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let processor = MockProcessor::new();
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, 10).unwrap();
-        let stats = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (stats, _) = trainer.train(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // Should create 3 zones (one per fragment)
         assert_eq!(stats.len(), 3);
@@ -816,7 +821,7 @@ mod tests {
         ));
 
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(MockProcessor::new(), 2).unwrap();
-        let rebuilt = rebuild_zones(&existing, trainer, stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (rebuilt, _) = rebuild_zones(&existing, trainer, stream).await.unwrap();
         // Existing zone should remain unchanged and new stats appended afterwards
         assert_eq!(rebuilt.len(), 2);
         assert_eq!(rebuilt[0].sum, 50);
@@ -846,7 +851,7 @@ mod tests {
         ));
 
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(MockProcessor::new(), 2).unwrap();
-        let rebuilt = rebuild_zones(&existing, trainer, stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (rebuilt, _) = rebuild_zones(&existing, trainer, stream).await.unwrap();
         // Existing zone plus two new fragments should yield three total zones
         assert_eq!(rebuilt.len(), 3);
         assert_eq!(rebuilt[0].bound.fragment_id, 0);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/zonemap.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/zonemap.rs
index b631ba89d48..a8237f5e671 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/zonemap.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/scalar/zonemap.rs
@@ -15,45 +15,52 @@
 use crate::pbold;
 use crate::scalar::expression::{SargableQueryParser, ScalarQueryParser};
 use crate::scalar::registry::{
-    ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
+    BasicTrainer, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, TrainingRequest,
 };
+use crate::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter;
 use crate::scalar::{
-    BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, SargableQuery, ScalarIndexParams, UpdateCriteria,
+    BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, IndexFile, SargableQuery, ScalarIndexParams, UpdateCriteria,
+    compute_next_prefix,
 };
-use crate::Any;
-use datafusion::functions_aggregate::min_max::{MaxAccumulator, MinAccumulator};
-use datafusion_expr::Accumulator;
+use lance_arrow_stats::StatisticsAccumulator;
 use lance_core::cache::{LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async};
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use std::any::Any;
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 
-use arrow_array::{new_empty_array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array, new_empty_array, new_null_array,
+};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
 use super::{AnyQuery, IndexStore, MetricsCollector, ScalarIndex, SearchResult};
-use crate::scalar::FragReuseIndex;
-use crate::vector::VectorIndex;
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
 use crate::{Index, IndexType};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::Error;
 use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
 
-use super::zoned::{rebuild_zones, search_zones, ZoneBound, ZoneProcessor, ZoneTrainer};
+use super::zoned::{ZoneBound, ZoneProcessor, ZoneTrainer, rebuild_zones, search_zones};
 const ROWS_PER_ZONE_DEFAULT: u64 = 8192; // 1 zone every two batches
 
 const ZONEMAP_FILENAME: &str = "zonemap.lance";
 const ZONEMAP_SIZE_META_KEY: &str = "rows_per_zone";
+const NULL_BITMAP_META_KEY: &str = "null_bitmap";
+const SEED_NULL_BITMAP_META_KEY: &str = "seed_null_bitmap";
 const ZONEMAP_INDEX_VERSION: u32 = 0;
 
 /// Basic stats about zonemap index
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Clone)]
-struct ZoneMapStatistics {
+pub(crate) struct ZoneMapStatistics {
     min: ScalarValue,
     max: ScalarValue,
     null_count: u32,
@@ -65,7 +72,7 @@ struct ZoneMapStatistics {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ZoneMapStatistics {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         // Estimate sizes for ScalarValue
         let min_size = self.min.size() - std::mem::size_of::<ScalarValue>();
         let max_size = self.max.size() - std::mem::size_of::<ScalarValue>();
@@ -106,9 +113,17 @@ pub struct ZoneMapIndex {
     data_type: DataType,
     // The maximum rows per zone provided by user
     rows_per_zone: u64,
+    use_seeds: bool,
     store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-    fri: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    /// Legacy synchronous remapper (index_version 0). Mutually exclusive with
+    /// `batch_remapper`; both `None` means no translation is needed.
+    fri: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    /// Asynchronous batch remapper (tagged histories).
+    batch_remapper: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
     index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
+    // Exact set of null row addresses across all zones; None when loaded from an
+    // older index that did not persist this bitmap.
+    null_rows: Option<RowAddrTreeMap>,
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for ZoneMapIndex {
@@ -117,6 +132,7 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for ZoneMapIndex {
             .field("zones", &self.zones)
             .field("data_type", &self.data_type)
             .field("rows_per_zone", &self.rows_per_zone)
+            .field("use_seeds", &self.use_seeds)
             .field("store", &self.store)
             .field("fri", &self.fri)
             .field("index_cache", &self.index_cache)
@@ -125,15 +141,104 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for ZoneMapIndex {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ZoneMapIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.zones.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.zones.deep_size_of_children(context) + self.null_rows.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
 impl ZoneMapIndex {
-    /// Evaluates whether a zone could potentially contain values matching the query
-    /// For NaN, total order is used here
-    /// reference: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.f64.html#method.total_cmp
+    /// Returns the rows-per-zone parameter for this index.
+    pub fn rows_per_zone(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.rows_per_zone
+    }
+
+    fn scalar_is_nan(value: &ScalarValue) -> bool {
+        match value {
+            ScalarValue::Float16(Some(value)) => value.is_nan(),
+            ScalarValue::Float32(Some(value)) => value.is_nan(),
+            ScalarValue::Float64(Some(value)) => value.is_nan(),
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if the zone has a non-null, non-NaN min value.
+    fn zone_has_finite_min(zone: &ZoneMapStatistics) -> bool {
+        !(zone.min.is_null() || Self::scalar_is_nan(&zone.min))
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if both min and max are non-null / non-NaN.
+    fn zone_has_finite_extrema(zone: &ZoneMapStatistics) -> bool {
+        Self::zone_has_finite_min(zone) && !(zone.max.is_null() || Self::scalar_is_nan(&zone.max))
+    }
+
+    fn zone_has_missing_extrema(zone: &ZoneMapStatistics) -> bool {
+        zone.min.is_null() || zone.max.is_null()
+    }
+
+    /// Counts prove whether missing extrema mean "no comparable values" or
+    /// "bounds unknown". Only the latter must conservatively retain the zone.
+    fn zone_has_comparable_values(zone: &ZoneMapStatistics) -> bool {
+        zone.bound.length as u128 > u128::from(zone.null_count) + u128::from(zone.nan_count)
+    }
+
+    /// Global `[min, max]` folded across one or more ZoneMap segments (the
+    /// disjoint per-column segments of a multi-segment index), without a scan.
+    ///
+    /// `None` when no zone has a finite bound, or when any zone's `max` is NaN:
+    /// `ScalarValue`'s total order ranks NaN above every finite value, so a
+    /// NaN-bearing zone hides its true finite max and no sound upper bound exists
+    /// without a scan — folding only the finite maxes would yield a *subset* that
+    /// prunes live rows. Folding raw zones (not each segment's `value_range`)
+    /// keeps this exact across segments.
+    ///
+    /// Otherwise the range is a superset of the segments' live values,
+    /// conservative under deletion vectors: safe to prune with, not guaranteed
+    /// tight. The caller must ensure the segments jointly cover every live
+    /// fragment.
+    pub fn value_range_over<'a>(
+        segments: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a Self>,
+    ) -> Option<(ScalarValue, ScalarValue)> {
+        let mut min: Option<&ScalarValue> = None;
+        let mut max: Option<&ScalarValue> = None;
+        for seg in segments.into_iter() {
+            // Nested types have no meaningful ordering
+            if seg.data_type.is_nested() {
+                return None;
+            }
+            for zone in seg.zones.iter() {
+                // Legacy Decimal zones can contain comparable values even though their
+                // extrema were never written, so skipping them would produce a subset.
+                if Self::zone_has_missing_extrema(zone) && Self::zone_has_comparable_values(zone) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                if Self::scalar_is_nan(&zone.max) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                if Self::scalar_is_finite_bound(&zone.min)
+                    && min.is_none_or(|cur| zone.min.partial_cmp(cur).is_some_and(|o| o.is_lt()))
+                {
+                    min = Some(&zone.min);
+                }
+                if Self::scalar_is_finite_bound(&zone.max)
+                    && max.is_none_or(|cur| zone.max.partial_cmp(cur).is_some_and(|o| o.is_gt()))
+                {
+                    max = Some(&zone.max);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Some((min?.clone(), max?.clone()))
+    }
+
+    /// A scalar usable as a global-range bound: non-null and, for floats, non-NaN.
+    fn scalar_is_finite_bound(v: &ScalarValue) -> bool {
+        !v.is_null() && !Self::scalar_is_nan(v)
+    }
+
+    /// Evaluates whether a zone could potentially contain values matching the query.
+    ///
+    /// NaN query values use the explicit `nan_count`. For finite query values,
+    /// `ScalarValue` total ordering keeps finite values below a stored NaN max,
+    /// so zones with finite values plus NaNs remain conservative false positives.
     fn evaluate_zone_against_query(
         &self,
         zone: &ZoneMapStatistics,
@@ -141,6 +246,29 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
     ) -> Result<bool> {
         use std::ops::Bound;
 
+        // For nested types we only track null_count; prune only when certain.
+        if self.data_type.is_nested() {
+            let all_null = zone.null_count as usize == zone.bound.length;
+            return match query {
+                SargableQuery::IsNull() => Ok(zone.null_count > 0),
+                SargableQuery::Equals(target) => {
+                    if target.is_null() {
+                        Ok(zone.null_count > 0)
+                    } else {
+                        Ok(!all_null)
+                    }
+                }
+                SargableQuery::IsIn(values) => {
+                    if values.iter().any(|v| !v.is_null()) {
+                        Ok(!all_null)
+                    } else {
+                        Ok(zone.null_count > 0)
+                    }
+                }
+                _ => Ok(!all_null),
+            };
+        }
+
         match query {
             SargableQuery::IsNull() => {
                 // Zone contains matching values if it has any null values
@@ -165,20 +293,19 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
                     return Ok(zone.nan_count > 0);
                 }
 
-                // Check if target is within the zone's range
-                // Handle the case where zone.max is NaN (zone contains both finite values and NaN)
-                let min_check = target >= &zone.min;
-                let max_check = match &zone.max {
-                    ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f)) if f.is_nan() => true,
-                    ScalarValue::Float32(Some(f)) if f.is_nan() => true,
-                    ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) if f.is_nan() => true,
-                    _ => target <= &zone.max,
-                };
-                Ok(min_check && max_check)
+                if Self::zone_has_missing_extrema(zone) {
+                    return Ok(Self::zone_has_comparable_values(zone));
+                }
+
+                Ok(target >= &zone.min && target <= &zone.max)
             }
             SargableQuery::Range(start, end) => {
                 // Zone overlaps with query range if there's any intersection between
                 // the zone's [min, max] and the query's range
+                if Self::zone_has_missing_extrema(zone) {
+                    return Ok(Self::zone_has_comparable_values(zone));
+                }
+
                 let zone_min = &zone.min;
                 let zone_max = &zone.max;
 
@@ -197,10 +324,8 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
                                     return Ok(zone.nan_count > 0);
                                 }
                             }
-                            ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) => {
-                                if f.is_nan() {
-                                    return Ok(zone.nan_count > 0);
-                                }
+                            ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) if f.is_nan() => {
+                                return Ok(zone.nan_count > 0);
                             }
                             _ => {}
                         }
@@ -227,10 +352,8 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
                                     return Ok(false); // Nothing is greater than NaN
                                 }
                             }
-                            ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) => {
-                                if f.is_nan() {
-                                    return Ok(false); // Nothing is greater than NaN
-                                }
+                            ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) if f.is_nan() => {
+                                return Ok(false); // Nothing is greater than NaN
                             }
                             _ => {}
                         }
@@ -254,10 +377,8 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
                                     return Ok(zone.nan_count > 0 || zone_min <= e);
                                 }
                             }
-                            ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) => {
-                                if f.is_nan() {
-                                    return Ok(zone.nan_count > 0 || zone_min <= e);
-                                }
+                            ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) if f.is_nan() => {
+                                return Ok(zone.nan_count > 0 || zone_min <= e);
                             }
                             _ => {}
                         }
@@ -277,10 +398,8 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
                                     return Ok(true);
                                 }
                             }
-                            ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) => {
-                                if f.is_nan() {
-                                    return Ok(true);
-                                }
+                            ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) if f.is_nan() => {
+                                return Ok(true);
                             }
                             _ => {}
                         }
@@ -300,6 +419,10 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
                             ScalarValue::Float16(Some(f)) => {
                                 if f.is_nan() {
                                     zone.nan_count > 0
+                                } else if Self::zone_has_missing_extrema(zone) {
+                                    Self::zone_has_comparable_values(zone)
+                                } else if !Self::zone_has_finite_min(zone) {
+                                    false
                                 } else {
                                     value >= &zone.min && value <= &zone.max
                                 }
@@ -307,6 +430,10 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
                             ScalarValue::Float32(Some(f)) => {
                                 if f.is_nan() {
                                     zone.nan_count > 0
+                                } else if Self::zone_has_missing_extrema(zone) {
+                                    Self::zone_has_comparable_values(zone)
+                                } else if !Self::zone_has_finite_min(zone) {
+                                    false
                                 } else {
                                     value >= &zone.min && value <= &zone.max
                                 }
@@ -314,27 +441,103 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
                             ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f)) => {
                                 if f.is_nan() {
                                     zone.nan_count > 0
+                                } else if Self::zone_has_missing_extrema(zone) {
+                                    Self::zone_has_comparable_values(zone)
+                                } else if !Self::zone_has_finite_min(zone) {
+                                    false
                                 } else {
                                     value >= &zone.min && value <= &zone.max
                                 }
                             }
-                            _ => value >= &zone.min && value <= &zone.max,
+                            _ => {
+                                if Self::zone_has_missing_extrema(zone) {
+                                    Self::zone_has_comparable_values(zone)
+                                } else {
+                                    Self::zone_has_finite_extrema(zone)
+                                        && value >= &zone.min
+                                        && value <= &zone.max
+                                }
+                            }
                         }
                     }
                 }))
             }
-            SargableQuery::FullTextSearch(_) => Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "full text search is not supported for zonemap indexes".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            SargableQuery::FullTextSearch(_) => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "full text search is not supported for zonemap indexes".into(),
+            )),
+            SargableQuery::LikePrefix(prefix) => {
+                // For prefix matching, a zone can match if:
+                // - zone.max >= prefix (there could be values >= prefix)
+                // - zone.min < next_prefix (there could be values < next_prefix)
+                //
+                // For example, prefix "foo":
+                // - Zone [aaa, azz]: max="azz" < "foo", so no match
+                // - Zone [fa, foz]: min="fa" < "fop", max="foz" >= "foo", so potential match
+                // - Zone [fop, fzz]: min="fop" >= "fop", so no match
+
+                let prefix_str = match prefix {
+                    ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s)) => s.as_str(),
+                    ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(s)) => s.as_str(),
+                    _ => return Ok(true), // Conservative: include zone if not a string prefix
+                };
+
+                // Empty prefix matches everything
+                if prefix_str.is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(true);
+                }
+
+                // Check zone.max >= prefix
+                let max_check = &zone.max >= prefix;
+                if !max_check {
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+
+                // Compute next_prefix by incrementing the last byte
+                // If the prefix ends with 0xFF bytes, we need to handle overflow
+                let next_prefix = compute_next_prefix(prefix_str);
+
+                match next_prefix {
+                    Some(next) => {
+                        // Check zone.min < next_prefix
+                        let next_scalar = match prefix {
+                            ScalarValue::Utf8(_) => ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(next)),
+                            ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(_) => ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(next)),
+                            _ => return Ok(true),
+                        };
+                        Ok(zone.min < next_scalar)
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        // No upper bound (prefix is all 0xFF), so any zone with max >= prefix matches
+                        Ok(true)
+                    }
+                }
+            }
         }
     }
 
+    /// Additive sibling of [`Self::load`] for mappings that require
+    /// asynchronous batch row-ID translation.
+    async fn load_with_remapping(
+        store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        remapping: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        index_cache: &LanceCache,
+        use_seeds: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        let index = Self::load(store, None, index_cache, use_seeds).await?;
+        let mut index = Arc::into_inner(index)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("freshly loaded zone map index must be unshared"))?;
+        index.batch_remapper = remapping;
+        debug_assert!(index.fri.is_none() || index.batch_remapper.is_none());
+        Ok(Arc::new(index))
+    }
+
     /// Load the scalar index from storage
     async fn load(
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        fri: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        fri: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         index_cache: &LanceCache,
+        use_seeds: bool,
     ) -> Result<Arc<Self>>
     where
         Self: Sized,
@@ -350,95 +553,85 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
             .get(ZONEMAP_SIZE_META_KEY)
             .and_then(|bs| bs.parse().ok())
             .unwrap_or(ROWS_PER_ZONE_DEFAULT);
+
+        let null_rows = if let Some(idx_str) = file_schema.metadata.get(NULL_BITMAP_META_KEY) {
+            let idx = idx_str.parse::<u32>().map_err(|e| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid null bitmap buffer index: {e}"))
+            })?;
+            let bytes = index_file.read_global_buffer(idx).await?;
+            Some(RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bytes.as_ref())?)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
         Ok(Arc::new(Self::try_from_serialized(
             zone_maps,
             store,
             fri,
             index_cache,
             rows_per_zone,
+            null_rows,
+            use_seeds,
         )?))
     }
 
     fn try_from_serialized(
         data: RecordBatch,
         store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        fri: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        fri: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
         index_cache: &LanceCache,
         rows_per_zone: u64,
+        null_rows: Option<RowAddrTreeMap>,
+        use_seeds: bool,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         // The RecordBatch should have columns: min, max, null_count
-        let min_col = data.column_by_name("min").ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'min' column", location!())
-        })?;
-        let max_col = data.column_by_name("max").ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'max' column", location!())
-        })?;
+        let min_col = data
+            .column_by_name("min")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'min' column"))?;
+        let max_col = data
+            .column_by_name("max")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'max' column"))?;
         let null_count_col = data
             .column_by_name("null_count")
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'null_count' column", location!())
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'null_count' column"))?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt32Array>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "ZoneMapIndex: 'null_count' column is not UInt32",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: 'null_count' column is not UInt32")
             })?;
         let nan_count_col = data
             .column_by_name("nan_count")
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'nan_count' column", location!())
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'nan_count' column"))?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt32Array>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "ZoneMapIndex: 'nan_count' column is not UInt32",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: 'nan_count' column is not UInt32")
             })?;
         let zone_length = data
             .column_by_name("zone_length")
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'zone_length' column", location!())
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'zone_length' column"))?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "ZoneMapIndex: 'zone_length' column is not UInt64",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: 'zone_length' column is not UInt64")
             })?;
 
         let fragment_id_col = data
             .column_by_name("fragment_id")
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'fragment_id' column", location!())
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'fragment_id' column"))?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "ZoneMapIndex: 'fragment_id' column is not UInt64",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: 'fragment_id' column is not UInt64")
             })?;
 
         let zone_start_col = data
             .column_by_name("zone_start")
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'zone_start' column", location!())
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: missing 'zone_start' column"))?
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "ZoneMapIndex: 'zone_start' column is not UInt64",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("ZoneMapIndex: 'zone_start' column is not UInt64")
             })?;
 
         let data_type = min_col.data_type().clone();
@@ -448,9 +641,12 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
                 zones: Vec::new(),
                 data_type,
                 rows_per_zone,
+                use_seeds,
                 store,
                 fri,
+                batch_remapper: None,
                 index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+                null_rows,
             });
         }
 
@@ -458,8 +654,17 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
         let mut zones = Vec::with_capacity(num_zones);
 
         for i in 0..num_zones {
-            let min = ScalarValue::try_from_array(min_col, i)?;
-            let max = ScalarValue::try_from_array(max_col, i)?;
+            let (min, max) = if data_type.is_nested() {
+                (
+                    ScalarValue::try_new_null(&data_type)?,
+                    ScalarValue::try_new_null(&data_type)?,
+                )
+            } else {
+                (
+                    ScalarValue::try_from_array(min_col, i)?,
+                    ScalarValue::try_from_array(max_col, i)?,
+                )
+            };
             let null_count = null_count_col.value(i);
             let nan_count = nan_count_col.value(i);
             zones.push(ZoneMapStatistics {
@@ -479,9 +684,12 @@ impl ZoneMapIndex {
             zones,
             data_type,
             rows_per_zone,
+            use_seeds,
             store,
             fri,
+            batch_remapper: None,
             index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(index_cache),
+            null_rows,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -496,13 +704,6 @@ impl Index for ZoneMapIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "ZoneMapIndex is not a vector index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
         // Not much to prewarm
         Ok(())
@@ -539,11 +740,48 @@ impl ScalarIndex for ZoneMapIndex {
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
         let query = query.as_any().downcast_ref::<SargableQuery>().unwrap();
-        search_zones(&self.zones, metrics, |zone| {
-            self.evaluate_zone_against_query(zone, query)
+        let result = if let SargableQuery::IsNull() = query
+            && let Some(null_rows) = &self.null_rows
+        {
+            SearchResult::exact(null_rows.clone())
+        } else {
+            search_zones(&self.zones, metrics, |zone| {
+                self.evaluate_zone_against_query(zone, query)
+            })?
+        };
+
+        let (selected, nulls) = if let Some(remapper) = &self.fri {
+            // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+            (
+                remapper.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(result.row_addrs().selected_rows()),
+                remapper.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(result.row_addrs().null_rows()),
+            )
+        } else if let Some(remapper) = &self.batch_remapper {
+            // Tagged asynchronous path.
+            (
+                remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(
+                    remapper.as_ref(),
+                    result.row_addrs().selected_rows(),
+                )
+                .await?,
+                remap_row_addrs_tree_map_async(remapper.as_ref(), result.row_addrs().null_rows())
+                    .await?,
+            )
+        } else {
+            return Ok(result);
+        };
+
+        Ok(match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(_) => SearchResult::exact(selected).with_nulls(nulls),
+            SearchResult::AtMost(_) => SearchResult::at_most(selected).with_nulls(nulls),
+            SearchResult::AtLeast(_) => SearchResult::at_least(selected).with_nulls(nulls),
         })
     }
 
+    fn results_are_row_addresses(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
     fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
         false
     }
@@ -551,13 +789,23 @@ impl ScalarIndex for ZoneMapIndex {
     /// Remap the row ids, creating a new remapped version of this index in `dest_store`
     async fn remap(
         &self,
-        _mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        _mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
         _dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "ZoneMapIndex does not support remap".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "ZoneMapIndex does not support remap".into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        _translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        _dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        // No mapping to materialize for an index that cannot be remapped.
+        Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "ZoneMapIndex does not support remap".into(),
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Add the new data , creating an updated version of the index in `dest_store`
@@ -565,6 +813,7 @@ impl ScalarIndex for ZoneMapIndex {
         &self,
         new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+        _old_data_filter: Option<super::OldIndexDataFilter>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
         // Train new zones for the incoming data stream
         let schema = new_data.schema();
@@ -573,18 +822,34 @@ impl ScalarIndex for ZoneMapIndex {
         let options = ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(self.rows_per_zone);
         let processor = ZoneMapProcessor::new(value_type.clone())?;
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, self.rows_per_zone)?;
-        let updated_zones = rebuild_zones(&self.zones, trainer, new_data).await?;
+        let (updated_zones, new_null_rows) = rebuild_zones(&self.zones, trainer, new_data).await?;
+
+        // Merge existing and new null rows.  If the existing index had no null bitmap
+        // (legacy format — null positions unknown), preserve that None: updating cannot
+        // recover the missing information, and claiming the result has zero nulls would
+        // be a false negative.  Only a full retrain produces a fresh, complete bitmap.
+        let merged_null_rows = self.null_rows.as_ref().map(|existing| {
+            let mut merged = existing.clone();
+            merged |= &new_null_rows;
+            merged
+        });
 
         // Serialize the combined zones back into the index file
         let mut builder = ZoneMapIndexBuilder::try_new(options, self.data_type.clone())?;
         builder.options.rows_per_zone = self.rows_per_zone;
         builder.maps = updated_zones;
-        builder.write_index(dest_store).await?;
+        builder.null_rows = merged_null_rows;
+        let has_null_bitmap = builder.null_rows.is_some();
+        let files = builder.write_index(dest_store).await?;
 
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
+            index_details: make_zone_map_index_details(
+                self.rows_per_zone,
+                self.use_seeds,
+                has_null_bitmap,
+            ),
             index_version: ZONEMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
         })
     }
 
@@ -595,9 +860,265 @@ impl ScalarIndex for ZoneMapIndex {
     }
 
     fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
-        let params = serde_json::to_value(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(self.rows_per_zone))?;
+        let params = serde_json::to_value(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams {
+            rows_per_zone: self.rows_per_zone,
+            use_seeds: Some(self.use_seeds),
+        })?;
         Ok(ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap).with_params(&params))
     }
+
+    /// Single-segment `[min, max]` folded from this index's zones; see
+    /// [`value_range_over`](Self::value_range_over) for the full contract.
+    fn value_range(&self) -> Option<(ScalarValue, ScalarValue)> {
+        // We don't record min/max for nested types
+        if self.data_type.is_nested() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Self::value_range_over([self])
+    }
+}
+
+impl ZoneMapIndex {
+    async fn try_update_with_seeds(
+        &self,
+        seeds: &[crate::scalar::seed::FragmentSeed],
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<Option<CreatedIndex>> {
+        let mut new_zones = self.zones.clone();
+        let mut merged_null_rows = self.null_rows.clone();
+        let mut any_missing_bitmap = self.null_rows.is_none();
+
+        for seed in seeds {
+            let (mut zones, seed_null_bitmap) = ZoneMapSeedWriter::deserialize_seed(
+                seed.fragment_id,
+                &seed.bytes,
+                self.rows_per_zone,
+            )?;
+            new_zones.append(&mut zones);
+
+            if !any_missing_bitmap {
+                match seed_null_bitmap {
+                    Some(bitmap) => {
+                        let frag_id = u32::try_from(seed.fragment_id).map_err(|_| {
+                            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "fragment_id {} exceeds u32::MAX",
+                                seed.fragment_id
+                            ))
+                        })?;
+                        merged_null_rows
+                            .as_mut()
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .insert_bitmap(frag_id, bitmap);
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        any_missing_bitmap = true;
+                        merged_null_rows = None;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        new_zones.sort_by_key(|z| (z.bound.fragment_id, z.bound.start));
+
+        let mut builder = ZoneMapIndexBuilder::try_new(
+            ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(self.rows_per_zone),
+            self.data_type.clone(),
+        )?;
+        builder.maps = new_zones;
+        builder.null_rows = merged_null_rows;
+        let has_null_bitmap = builder.null_rows.is_some();
+        let files = builder.write_index(dest_store).await?;
+
+        Ok(Some(CreatedIndex {
+            index_details: make_zone_map_index_details(
+                self.rows_per_zone,
+                self.use_seeds,
+                has_null_bitmap,
+            ),
+            index_version: ZONEMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+fn remap_zone(
+    zone: &ZoneMapStatistics,
+    remapper: &dyn RowIdRemapper,
+    remapped_null_rows: Option<&RowAddrTreeMap>,
+    is_nested: bool,
+) -> Result<Vec<ZoneMapStatistics>> {
+    let zone_start = (zone.bound.fragment_id << 32).saturating_add(zone.bound.start);
+    let mut remapped = (0..zone.bound.length as u64)
+        .filter_map(|offset| remapper.remap_row_id(zone_start.saturating_add(offset)))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    remapped.sort_unstable();
+    remapped.dedup();
+
+    let make_zone = |start: u64, end: u64| -> Result<ZoneMapStatistics> {
+        let length = (end - start + 1) as usize;
+        let null_count = if let Some(null_rows) = remapped_null_rows {
+            u32::try_from(
+                (start..=end)
+                    .filter(|row_id| null_rows.contains(*row_id))
+                    .count(),
+            )
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "remapped ZoneMap zone has more null rows than can be represented: \
+                     fragment_id={}, start={}, length={}",
+                    start >> 32,
+                    start & u64::from(u32::MAX),
+                    length
+                ))
+            })?
+        } else if length == zone.bound.length {
+            zone.null_count
+        } else if zone.null_count == 0 {
+            0
+        } else if zone.null_count as usize == zone.bound.length {
+            u32::try_from(length).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "remapped all-null ZoneMap zone length cannot be represented: \
+                     fragment_id={}, start={}, length={}",
+                    start >> 32,
+                    start & u64::from(u32::MAX),
+                    length
+                ))
+            })?
+        } else if length > 1 || (!is_nested && !ZoneMapIndex::zone_has_missing_extrema(zone)) {
+            // Without exact null positions, one null conservatively preserves both
+            // null and non-null candidates when the run has multiple rows. A scalar
+            // singleton is also safe when its extrema independently prove that it
+            // may contain a comparable value. Otherwise null_count == length would
+            // fabricate an all-null zone and could prune live non-null rows.
+            1
+        } else {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "cannot safely remap a mixed-null ZoneMap zone without an exact null bitmap: \
+                 fragment_id={}, start={}, original_length={}, null_count={}, remapped_length={}, \
+                 nested={}, missing_extrema={}",
+                zone.bound.fragment_id,
+                zone.bound.start,
+                zone.bound.length,
+                zone.null_count,
+                length,
+                is_nested,
+                ZoneMapIndex::zone_has_missing_extrema(zone)
+            )));
+        };
+
+        Ok(ZoneMapStatistics {
+            min: zone.min.clone(),
+            max: zone.max.clone(),
+            null_count,
+            nan_count: zone.nan_count,
+            bound: ZoneBound {
+                fragment_id: start >> 32,
+                start: start & u64::from(u32::MAX),
+                length,
+            },
+        })
+    };
+    let mut zones = Vec::new();
+    let mut run_start = None;
+    let mut previous = 0u64;
+    for row_id in remapped {
+        if run_start.is_none() {
+            run_start = Some(row_id);
+        } else if row_id != previous.saturating_add(1) || row_id >> 32 != previous >> 32 {
+            if let Some(start) = run_start {
+                zones.push(make_zone(start, previous)?);
+            }
+            run_start = Some(row_id);
+        }
+        previous = row_id;
+    }
+    if let Some(start) = run_start {
+        zones.push(make_zone(start, previous)?);
+    }
+    Ok(zones)
+}
+
+/// Merge caller-selected ZoneMap segments into one self-contained segment.
+pub async fn merge_zonemap_indices(
+    source_indices: &[&ZoneMapIndex],
+    dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    fragment_filter: &RoaringBitmap,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    let first = source_indices.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input("merge_zonemap_indices requires at least one source index")
+    })?;
+    let rows_per_zone = first.rows_per_zone;
+    let use_seeds = first.use_seeds;
+    let data_type = first.data_type.clone();
+
+    let mut zones = Vec::new();
+    let mut merged_null_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+    let mut any_missing_bitmap = false;
+    for source in source_indices {
+        if source.batch_remapper.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "this index maintenance operation does not support asynchronous row-ID remapping",
+            ));
+        }
+        if source.rows_per_zone != rows_per_zone {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cannot merge ZoneMap segments with different rows_per_zone values: {} and {}",
+                rows_per_zone, source.rows_per_zone
+            )));
+        }
+        if source.data_type != data_type {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cannot merge ZoneMap segments with different value types: {:?} and {:?}",
+                data_type, source.data_type
+            )));
+        }
+        let remapped_null_rows = source.null_rows.as_ref().map(|null_rows| {
+            source.fri.as_deref().map_or_else(
+                || null_rows.clone(),
+                |remapper| remapper.remap_row_addrs_tree_map(null_rows),
+            )
+        });
+        for zone in &source.zones {
+            let source_zones = source.fri.as_deref().map_or_else(
+                || Ok(vec![zone.clone()]),
+                |remapper| {
+                    remap_zone(
+                        zone,
+                        remapper,
+                        remapped_null_rows.as_ref(),
+                        source.data_type.is_nested(),
+                    )
+                },
+            )?;
+            zones.extend(source_zones.into_iter().filter(|zone| {
+                u32::try_from(zone.bound.fragment_id)
+                    .is_ok_and(|fragment_id| fragment_filter.contains(fragment_id))
+            }));
+        }
+        match remapped_null_rows {
+            Some(mut filtered) => {
+                filtered.retain_fragments(fragment_filter.iter());
+                merged_null_rows |= &filtered;
+            }
+            None => any_missing_bitmap = true,
+        }
+    }
+    zones.sort_by_key(|zone| (zone.bound.fragment_id, zone.bound.start));
+
+    let mut builder =
+        ZoneMapIndexBuilder::try_new(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(rows_per_zone), data_type)?;
+    builder.maps = zones;
+    if !any_missing_bitmap {
+        builder.null_rows = Some(merged_null_rows);
+    }
+    let has_null_bitmap = builder.null_rows.is_some();
+    let files = builder.write_index(dest_store).await?;
+
+    Ok(CreatedIndex {
+        index_details: make_zone_map_index_details(rows_per_zone, use_seeds, has_null_bitmap),
+        index_version: ZONEMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
+        files,
+    })
 }
 
 fn default_rows_per_zone() -> u64 {
@@ -608,6 +1129,12 @@ fn default_rows_per_zone() -> u64 {
 pub struct ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams {
     #[serde(default = "default_rows_per_zone")]
     rows_per_zone: u64,
+    /// Whether to embed per-fragment seed buffers in data files for use during
+    /// incremental index updates. `None` means auto-detect based on column type
+    /// (see [`default_use_seeds`]). Resolved to a concrete `bool` during
+    /// training in [`ZoneMapIndexPlugin::new_training_request`].
+    #[serde(default)]
+    use_seeds: Option<bool>,
 }
 
 static DEFAULT_ROWS_PER_ZONE: LazyLock<u64> = LazyLock::new(|| {
@@ -621,13 +1148,17 @@ impl Default for ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams {
     fn default() -> Self {
         Self {
             rows_per_zone: *DEFAULT_ROWS_PER_ZONE,
+            use_seeds: None,
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams {
     pub fn new(rows_per_zone: u64) -> Self {
-        Self { rows_per_zone }
+        Self {
+            rows_per_zone,
+            use_seeds: None,
+        }
     }
 
     pub fn rows_per_zone(&self) -> u64 {
@@ -641,6 +1172,10 @@ pub struct ZoneMapIndexBuilder {
 
     items_type: DataType,
     maps: Vec<ZoneMapStatistics>,
+    // None means "legacy index — null positions unknown"; Some means a complete bitmap.
+    // write_index omits the null-bitmap global buffer when this is None, preserving the
+    // legacy format so that downstream searches remain conservative.
+    null_rows: Option<RowAddrTreeMap>,
 }
 
 impl ZoneMapIndexBuilder {
@@ -649,6 +1184,7 @@ impl ZoneMapIndexBuilder {
             options,
             items_type,
             maps: Vec::new(),
+            null_rows: None,
         })
     }
 
@@ -658,21 +1194,30 @@ impl ZoneMapIndexBuilder {
     pub async fn train(&mut self, batches_source: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Result<()> {
         let processor = ZoneMapProcessor::new(self.items_type.clone())?;
         let trainer = ZoneTrainer::new(processor, self.options.rows_per_zone)?;
-        self.maps = trainer.train(batches_source).await?;
+        let (maps, null_rows) = trainer.train(batches_source).await?;
+        self.maps = maps;
+        self.null_rows = Some(null_rows);
         Ok(())
     }
 
     fn zonemap_stats_as_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         // Flush self.maps as a RecordBatch
-        let mins = if self.maps.is_empty() {
-            new_empty_array(&self.items_type)
+        let (mins, maxs) = if self.maps.is_empty() {
+            let bounds = new_empty_array(&self.items_type);
+            (bounds.clone(), bounds)
+        } else if matches!(self.items_type, DataType::Struct(_)) {
+            // Scalar index files use v2.0, which cannot encode struct validity. Nested
+            // bounds are never consulted, so persist a valid placeholder and restore the
+            // typed-null sentinel when loading the index.
+            let placeholder = ScalarValue::new_default(&self.items_type)?;
+            let bounds =
+                ScalarValue::iter_to_array(std::iter::repeat_n(placeholder, self.maps.len()))?;
+            (bounds.clone(), bounds)
         } else {
-            ScalarValue::iter_to_array(self.maps.iter().map(|stat| stat.min.clone()))?
-        };
-        let maxs = if self.maps.is_empty() {
-            new_empty_array(&self.items_type)
-        } else {
-            ScalarValue::iter_to_array(self.maps.iter().map(|stat| stat.max.clone()))?
+            (
+                ScalarValue::iter_to_array(self.maps.iter().map(|stat| stat.min.clone()))?,
+                ScalarValue::iter_to_array(self.maps.iter().map(|stat| stat.max.clone()))?,
+            )
         };
         let null_counts =
             UInt32Array::from_iter_values(self.maps.iter().map(|stat| stat.null_count));
@@ -711,7 +1256,7 @@ impl ZoneMapIndexBuilder {
         Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?)
     }
 
-    pub async fn write_index(self, index_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<()> {
+    pub async fn write_index(self, index_store: &dyn IndexStore) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
         let record_batch = self.zonemap_stats_as_batch()?;
 
         let mut file_schema = record_batch.schema().as_ref().clone();
@@ -724,92 +1269,177 @@ impl ZoneMapIndexBuilder {
             .new_index_file(ZONEMAP_FILENAME, Arc::new(file_schema))
             .await?;
         index_file.write_record_batch(record_batch).await?;
-        index_file.finish().await?;
-        Ok(())
+
+        let zonemap_file = if let Some(null_rows) = self.null_rows {
+            let mut null_bitmap_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(null_rows.serialized_size());
+            null_rows.serialize_into(&mut null_bitmap_bytes)?;
+            let null_bitmap_idx = index_file
+                .add_global_buffer(bytes::Bytes::from(null_bitmap_bytes))
+                .await?;
+            index_file
+                .finish_with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                    NULL_BITMAP_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                    null_bitmap_idx.to_string(),
+                )]))
+                .await?
+        } else {
+            index_file.finish_with_metadata(HashMap::new()).await?
+        };
+
+        Ok(vec![zonemap_file])
     }
 }
 
-/// Index-specific processor that computes min/max statistics for each zone while the
-/// trainer takes care of chunking and fragment boundaries.
+/// Index-specific processor that computes zone statistics while the trainer
+/// handles chunking and fragment boundaries.
+///
+/// For non-nested types, tracks min, max, null_count, and nan_count.
+/// For nested types (List, FixedSizeList, Struct, Map, etc.), tracks only
+/// null_count; min and max are stored as typed null values.
+#[derive(Debug)]
 struct ZoneMapProcessor {
     data_type: DataType,
-    min: MinAccumulator,
-    max: MaxAccumulator,
-    null_count: u32,
-    nan_count: u32,
+    statistics: StatisticsAccumulator,
 }
 
 impl ZoneMapProcessor {
     fn new(data_type: DataType) -> Result<Self> {
-        let min = MinAccumulator::try_new(&data_type)?;
-        let max = MaxAccumulator::try_new(&data_type)?;
+        let statistics = StatisticsAccumulator::new(&data_type);
         Ok(Self {
             data_type,
-            min,
-            max,
-            null_count: 0,
-            nan_count: 0,
+            statistics,
         })
     }
 
-    fn count_nans(array: &ArrayRef) -> u32 {
-        match array.data_type() {
-            DataType::Float16 => {
-                let array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float16Array>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                array.values().iter().filter(|&&x| x.is_nan()).count() as u32
-            }
-            DataType::Float32 => {
-                let array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                array.values().iter().filter(|&&x| x.is_nan()).count() as u32
-            }
-            DataType::Float64 => {
-                let array = array
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float64Array>()
-                    .unwrap();
-                array.values().iter().filter(|&&x| x.is_nan()).count() as u32
-            }
-            _ => 0,
+    fn scalar_value_from_stat(
+        value: Option<&ArrayRef>,
+        data_type: &DataType,
+    ) -> Result<ScalarValue> {
+        let array = value
+            .cloned()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| new_null_array(data_type, 1));
+        Ok(ScalarValue::try_from_array(&array, 0)?)
+    }
+
+    fn stat_count_to_u32(name: &str, value: u64) -> Result<u32> {
+        u32::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "{} value {} exceeds the supported UInt32 range",
+                name, value
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn nan_scalar(data_type: &DataType) -> Option<ScalarValue> {
+        match data_type {
+            DataType::Float16 => Some(ScalarValue::Float16(Some(half::f16::NAN))),
+            DataType::Float32 => Some(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(f32::NAN))),
+            DataType::Float64 => Some(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(f64::NAN))),
+            _ => None,
         }
     }
+
+    fn max_value_from_stats(
+        value: Option<&ArrayRef>,
+        data_type: &DataType,
+        nan_count: u32,
+    ) -> Result<ScalarValue> {
+        if nan_count > 0
+            && let Some(nan) = Self::nan_scalar(data_type)
+        {
+            // DataFusion's max accumulator surfaced NaN as the zone max.  Keep
+            // that stored zonemap shape while using arrow_stats so existing
+            // range/equality pruning remains conservative around NaN.
+            return Ok(nan);
+        }
+        Self::scalar_value_from_stat(value, data_type)
+    }
 }
 
 impl ZoneProcessor for ZoneMapProcessor {
     type ZoneStatistics = ZoneMapStatistics;
 
     fn process_chunk(&mut self, array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
-        self.null_count += array.null_count() as u32;
-        self.nan_count += Self::count_nans(array);
-        self.min.update_batch(std::slice::from_ref(array))?;
-        self.max.update_batch(std::slice::from_ref(array))?;
+        self.statistics.update(array)?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
     fn finish_zone(&mut self, bound: ZoneBound) -> Result<Self::ZoneStatistics> {
+        let statistics = self.statistics.statistics();
+        let null_count = Self::stat_count_to_u32("null_count", statistics.null_count)?;
+
+        // For nested types, only null_count is meaningful; store null min/max.
+        if self.data_type.is_nested() {
+            return Ok(ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::try_new_null(&self.data_type)?,
+                max: ScalarValue::try_new_null(&self.data_type)?,
+                null_count,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound,
+            });
+        }
+
+        let nan_count = Self::stat_count_to_u32("nan_count", statistics.nan_count.unwrap_or(0))?;
         Ok(ZoneMapStatistics {
-            min: self.min.evaluate()?,
-            max: self.max.evaluate()?,
-            null_count: self.null_count,
-            nan_count: self.nan_count,
+            min: Self::scalar_value_from_stat(
+                statistics.min.as_ref().map(|scalar| scalar.as_array()),
+                &self.data_type,
+            )?,
+            max: Self::max_value_from_stats(
+                statistics.max.as_ref().map(|scalar| scalar.as_array()),
+                &self.data_type,
+                nan_count,
+            )?,
+            null_count,
+            nan_count,
             bound,
         })
     }
 
     fn reset(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        self.min = MinAccumulator::try_new(&self.data_type)?;
-        self.max = MaxAccumulator::try_new(&self.data_type)?;
-        self.null_count = 0;
-        self.nan_count = 0;
+        self.statistics.reset();
         Ok(())
     }
 }
 
+fn make_zone_map_index_details(
+    rows_per_zone: u64,
+    use_seeds: bool,
+    has_null_bitmap: bool,
+) -> prost_types::Any {
+    prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails {
+        rows_per_zone: Some(rows_per_zone),
+        use_seeds: Some(use_seeds),
+        has_null_bitmap: Some(has_null_bitmap),
+    })
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Returns true when seed-based incremental updates should be enabled by
+/// default for the given column type.
+///
+/// Seeds pay off for variable-length types (strings, binary) — which can be
+/// arbitrarily wide — and fixed-width types wider than 8 bytes (e.g.
+/// Decimal128, FixedSizeBinary tensors). Fixed-width types ≤ 8 bytes (Int64,
+/// Float64, …) scan fast enough that the seed overhead is not worth it.
+fn default_use_seeds(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+    match data_type {
+        // Variable-length: width is unbounded, skipping scans is always valuable.
+        DataType::Utf8
+        | DataType::LargeUtf8
+        | DataType::Utf8View
+        | DataType::Binary
+        | DataType::LargeBinary
+        | DataType::BinaryView => true,
+        // Fixed-width types wider than 8 bytes.
+        DataType::Decimal128(_, _) | DataType::Decimal256(_, _) => true,
+        DataType::FixedSizeBinary(n) => *n > 8,
+        // Nested types (FSL, List, Struct, Map, …): typically wide.
+        _ if data_type.is_nested() => true,
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Default)]
 pub struct ZoneMapIndexPlugin;
 
@@ -818,16 +1448,14 @@ impl ZoneMapIndexPlugin {
         batches_source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         options: Option<ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams>,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        // train_zonemap_index: calling scan_aligned_chunks
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
         let value_type = batches_source.schema().field(0).data_type().clone();
 
         let mut builder = ZoneMapIndexBuilder::try_new(options.unwrap_or_default(), value_type)?;
 
         builder.train(batches_source).await?;
 
-        builder.write_index(index_store).await?;
-        Ok(())
+        builder.write_index(index_store).await
     }
 }
 
@@ -855,119 +1483,558 @@ impl TrainingRequest for ZoneMapIndexTrainingRequest {
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl ScalarIndexPlugin for ZoneMapIndexPlugin {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "ZoneMap"
-    }
-
+impl BasicTrainer for ZoneMapIndexPlugin {
     fn new_training_request(
         &self,
         params: &str,
         field: &Field,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn TrainingRequest>> {
-        if field.data_type().is_nested() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "A zone map index can only be created on a non-nested field.".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+        let mut params = serde_json::from_str::<ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams>(params)?;
+        // Resolve None → type-based default so train_index always sees Some(bool).
+        if params.use_seeds.is_none() {
+            params.use_seeds = Some(default_use_seeds(field.data_type()));
         }
 
-        let params = serde_json::from_str::<ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams>(params)?;
-
         Ok(Box::new(ZoneMapIndexTrainingRequest::new(params)))
     }
 
-    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
-        false
-    }
-
-    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
-        ZONEMAP_INDEX_VERSION
-    }
-
-    fn new_query_parser(
-        &self,
-        index_name: String,
-        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
-        Some(Box::new(SargableQueryParser::new(index_name, true)))
-    }
-
     async fn train_index(
         &self,
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
         request: Box<dyn TrainingRequest>,
-        fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        _progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-        if fragment_ids.is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "ZoneMap index does not support fragment training".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
         let request = (request as Box<dyn std::any::Any>)
             .downcast::<ZoneMapIndexTrainingRequest>()
-            .map_err(|_| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "must provide training request created by new_training_request".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "must provide training request created by new_training_request".into(),
+                )
             })?;
-        Self::train_zonemap_index(data, index_store, Some(request.params)).await?;
+        let rows_per_zone = request.params.rows_per_zone;
+        let use_seeds = request.params.use_seeds.unwrap_or(false);
+        let files = Self::train_zonemap_index(data, index_store, Some(request.params)).await?;
+        // Training a new index will always populate the null bitmap
+        let has_null_bitmap = true;
         Ok(CreatedIndex {
-            index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(&pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails::default())
-                .unwrap(),
+            index_details: make_zone_map_index_details(rows_per_zone, use_seeds, has_null_bitmap),
             index_version: ZONEMAP_INDEX_VERSION,
+            files,
         })
     }
+}
 
-    async fn load_index(
-        &self,
-        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
-        _index_details: &prost_types::Any,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-        cache: &LanceCache,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
-        Ok(ZoneMapIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache).await? as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexPlugin for ZoneMapIndexPlugin {
+    fn basic_trainer(&self) -> Option<&dyn BasicTrainer> {
+        Some(self)
     }
-}
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
-    use crate::scalar::{zonemap::ROWS_PER_ZONE_DEFAULT, IndexStore};
-    use std::sync::Arc;
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "ZoneMap"
+    }
 
-    use crate::scalar::zoned::ZoneBound;
-    use crate::scalar::zonemap::{ZoneMapIndexPlugin, ZoneMapStatistics};
-    use arrow::datatypes::Float32Type;
-    use arrow_array::{record_batch, Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-    use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-    use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+    fn provides_exact_answer(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn version(&self) -> u32 {
+        ZONEMAP_INDEX_VERSION
+    }
+
+    fn new_query_parser(
+        &self,
+        index_name: String,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Option<Box<dyn ScalarQueryParser>> {
+        let has_null_bitmap = index_details
+            .to_msg::<pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails>()
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|d| d.has_null_bitmap)
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+        let parser = SargableQueryParser::new(index_name, self.name().to_string(), true);
+        let parser = if has_null_bitmap {
+            parser.with_exact_null_tracking()
+        } else {
+            parser
+        };
+        Some(Box::new(parser))
+    }
+
+    async fn load_index(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        let use_seeds = index_details
+            .to_msg::<pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails>()
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|d| d.use_seeds)
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+        Ok(
+            ZoneMapIndex::load(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache, use_seeds).await?
+                as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn supports_batch_row_id_remapping(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn load_index_with_remapping(
+        &self,
+        index_store: Arc<dyn IndexStore>,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        _index_version: u32,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
+        cache: &LanceCache,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        let use_seeds = index_details
+            .to_msg::<pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails>()
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|d| d.use_seeds)
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+        Ok(
+            ZoneMapIndex::load_with_remapping(index_store, frag_reuse_index, cache, use_seeds)
+                .await? as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn might_use_seeds(&self, index_details: &prost_types::Any) -> bool {
+        index_details
+            .to_msg::<pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails>()
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|d| d.use_seeds)
+            .unwrap_or(false)
+    }
+
+    async fn create_seed_writer(
+        &self,
+        field_path: &str,
+        data_type: &DataType,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn crate::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter>>> {
+        let details = index_details.to_msg::<pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails>().ok();
+        let Some(rows_per_zone) = details.as_ref().and_then(|d| d.rows_per_zone) else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if !details.as_ref().and_then(|d| d.use_seeds).unwrap_or(false) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        Ok(Some(Box::new(ZoneMapSeedWriter::new(
+            field_path,
+            rows_per_zone,
+            data_type.clone(),
+        )?)))
+    }
+
+    async fn update_from_seeds(
+        &self,
+        seeds: Vec<crate::scalar::seed::FragmentSeed>,
+        reference_index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+        index_details: &prost_types::Any,
+        dest_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<Option<CreatedIndex>> {
+        let Some(rows_per_zone) = index_details
+            .to_msg::<pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails>()
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|d| d.rows_per_zone)
+        else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        // Validate each seed was written with the same rows_per_zone.
+        for seed in &seeds {
+            let rpz_in_seed = seed
+                .metadata_value
+                .split_once(':')
+                .and_then(|(_, rpz)| rpz.parse::<u64>().ok());
+            if rpz_in_seed != Some(rows_per_zone) {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let Some(zone_map) = reference_index.as_any().downcast_ref::<ZoneMapIndex>() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        zone_map.try_update_with_seeds(&seeds, dest_store).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// A seed writer that observes column values during data file writes and
+/// accumulates zone map statistics for later harvest during index updates.
+///
+/// Zone statistics are serialized as Arrow IPC bytes and embedded in the data
+/// file footer as a global buffer, keyed by `"lance.seed.<column_name>"`.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct ZoneMapSeedWriter {
+    column_name: String,
+    rows_per_zone: u64,
+    data_type: DataType,
+    completed_zones: Vec<ZoneMapStatistics>,
+    processor: ZoneMapProcessor,
+    rows_in_current_zone: u64,
+    next_zone_start: u64,
+    /// Null row offsets within this fragment (sequential, 0-indexed).
+    null_offsets: RoaringBitmap,
+}
+
+impl ZoneMapSeedWriter {
+    /// Create a new `ZoneMapSeedWriter` for the given column.
+    pub fn new(
+        column_name: impl Into<String>,
+        rows_per_zone: u64,
+        data_type: DataType,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if rows_per_zone == 0 {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+                "rows_per_zone must be greater than zero",
+            ));
+        }
+        let processor = ZoneMapProcessor::new(data_type.clone())?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            column_name: column_name.into(),
+            rows_per_zone,
+            data_type,
+            completed_zones: Vec::new(),
+            processor,
+            rows_in_current_zone: 0,
+            next_zone_start: 0,
+            null_offsets: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn seed_batch_from_zones(
+        zones: &[ZoneMapStatistics],
+        data_type: &DataType,
+    ) -> Result<arrow_array::RecordBatch> {
+        let mins = if zones.is_empty() {
+            arrow_array::new_empty_array(data_type)
+        } else {
+            datafusion_common::ScalarValue::iter_to_array(zones.iter().map(|s| s.min.clone()))?
+        };
+        let maxs = if zones.is_empty() {
+            arrow_array::new_empty_array(data_type)
+        } else {
+            datafusion_common::ScalarValue::iter_to_array(zones.iter().map(|s| s.max.clone()))?
+        };
+        let null_counts =
+            arrow_array::UInt32Array::from_iter_values(zones.iter().map(|s| s.null_count));
+        let nan_counts =
+            arrow_array::UInt32Array::from_iter_values(zones.iter().map(|s| s.nan_count));
+        let zone_lengths =
+            arrow_array::UInt64Array::from_iter_values(zones.iter().map(|s| s.bound.length as u64));
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("min", data_type.clone(), true),
+            Field::new("max", data_type.clone(), true),
+            Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("nan_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("zone_length", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![
+            mins,
+            maxs,
+            Arc::new(null_counts) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(nan_counts) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(zone_lengths) as ArrayRef,
+        ];
+        Ok(arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?)
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize zone map seed bytes (Arrow IPC) into zone statistics and a null bitmap.
+    ///
+    /// Returns zone statistics (bounds reconstructed from sequential fragment layout) and an
+    /// optional `RoaringBitmap` of null row offsets within the fragment. The bitmap is absent
+    /// for seeds written by older code that did not track null positions.
+    pub(crate) fn deserialize_seed(
+        fragment_id: u64,
+        bytes: &bytes::Bytes,
+        rows_per_zone: u64,
+    ) -> Result<(Vec<ZoneMapStatistics>, Option<RoaringBitmap>)> {
+        use arrow_ipc::reader::FileReader;
+        use std::io::Cursor;
+
+        let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.as_ref());
+        let mut reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("failed to read zone map seed IPC: {}", e))
+        })?;
+
+        let null_bitmap = if let Some(hex) = reader.schema().metadata.get(SEED_NULL_BITMAP_META_KEY)
+        {
+            let bitmap_bytes = hex_decode(hex).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "failed to decode seed null bitmap hex: {}",
+                    e
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let bitmap = if bitmap_bytes.is_empty() {
+                RoaringBitmap::default()
+            } else {
+                RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(bitmap_bytes.as_slice()).map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "failed to deserialize seed null bitmap: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))
+                })?
+            };
+            Some(bitmap)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        let batch = match reader.next() {
+            Some(Ok(batch)) => batch,
+            Some(Err(e)) => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "failed to read zone map seed batch: {}",
+                    e
+                )));
+            }
+            None => return Ok((Vec::new(), null_bitmap)),
+        };
+
+        let min_col = batch
+            .column_by_name("min")
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input("seed batch missing 'min' column"))?;
+        let max_col = batch
+            .column_by_name("max")
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input("seed batch missing 'max' column"))?;
+        let null_count_col = batch
+            .column_by_name("null_count")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input("seed batch missing 'null_count' column")
+            })?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt32Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input("seed 'null_count' is not UInt32"))?;
+        let nan_count_col = batch
+            .column_by_name("nan_count")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input("seed batch missing 'nan_count' column")
+            })?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt32Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input("seed 'nan_count' is not UInt32"))?;
+        let zone_length_col = batch
+            .column_by_name("zone_length")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input("seed batch missing 'zone_length' column")
+            })?
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input("seed 'zone_length' is not UInt64"))?;
+
+        let num_zones = batch.num_rows();
+        let mut zones = Vec::with_capacity(num_zones);
+        for i in 0..num_zones {
+            let zone_start = i as u64 * rows_per_zone;
+            let zone_length = zone_length_col.value(i) as usize;
+            zones.push(ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: datafusion_common::ScalarValue::try_from_array(min_col, i)?,
+                max: datafusion_common::ScalarValue::try_from_array(max_col, i)?,
+                null_count: null_count_col.value(i),
+                nan_count: nan_count_col.value(i),
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id,
+                    start: zone_start,
+                    length: zone_length,
+                },
+            });
+        }
+        Ok((zones, null_bitmap))
+    }
+}
+
+impl IndexSeedWriter for ZoneMapSeedWriter {
+    fn column_name(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.column_name
+    }
+
+    fn observe_batch(&mut self, values: &ArrayRef) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+        let mut offset = 0usize;
+
+        while offset < values.len() {
+            let remaining_in_zone = self.rows_per_zone - self.rows_in_current_zone;
+            let chunk_len = ((values.len() as u64 - offset as u64).min(remaining_in_zone)) as usize;
+            let chunk = values.slice(offset, chunk_len);
+            self.processor.process_chunk(&chunk)?;
+
+            if chunk.null_count() > 0 {
+                let base_offset = (self.next_zone_start + self.rows_in_current_zone) as u32;
+                for i in 0..chunk_len {
+                    if chunk.is_null(i) {
+                        self.null_offsets.insert(base_offset + i as u32);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            self.rows_in_current_zone += chunk_len as u64;
+            offset += chunk_len;
+
+            if self.rows_in_current_zone >= self.rows_per_zone {
+                let bound = ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 0,
+                    start: self.next_zone_start,
+                    length: self.rows_per_zone as usize,
+                };
+                let stats = self.processor.finish_zone(bound)?;
+                self.processor.reset()?;
+                self.completed_zones.push(stats);
+                self.next_zone_start += self.rows_per_zone;
+                self.rows_in_current_zone = 0;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn finish(&mut self) -> lance_core::Result<Option<bytes::Bytes>> {
+        use arrow_ipc::writer::FileWriter;
+        use std::io::Cursor;
+
+        // Flush partial final zone
+        if self.rows_in_current_zone > 0 {
+            let bound = ZoneBound {
+                fragment_id: 0,
+                start: self.next_zone_start,
+                length: self.rows_in_current_zone as usize,
+            };
+            let stats = self.processor.finish_zone(bound)?;
+            self.processor.reset()?;
+            self.completed_zones.push(stats);
+            self.next_zone_start += self.rows_in_current_zone;
+            self.rows_in_current_zone = 0;
+        }
+
+        if self.completed_zones.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let batch = Self::seed_batch_from_zones(&self.completed_zones, &self.data_type)?;
+
+        // Embed null bitmap in schema metadata so deserialize_seed can reconstruct null_rows.
+        let null_offsets = std::mem::take(&mut self.null_offsets);
+        let bitmap_bytes = if null_offsets.is_empty() {
+            Vec::default()
+        } else {
+            let mut bitmap_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(null_offsets.serialized_size());
+            null_offsets
+                .serialize_into(&mut bitmap_bytes)
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "failed to serialize seed null bitmap: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            bitmap_bytes
+        };
+        let mut schema = batch.schema().as_ref().clone();
+        schema.metadata.insert(
+            SEED_NULL_BITMAP_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            hex_encode(&bitmap_bytes),
+        );
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(schema), batch.columns().to_vec())?;
+
+        // Serialize to Arrow IPC
+        let mut buf = Cursor::new(Vec::new());
+        {
+            let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(&mut buf, batch.schema_ref()).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("failed to create IPC writer: {}", e))
+            })?;
+            writer.write(&batch).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("failed to write IPC batch: {}", e))
+            })?;
+            writer.finish().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("failed to finish IPC writer: {}", e))
+            })?;
+        }
+
+        // Reset state for next fragment
+        self.completed_zones.clear();
+        self.next_zone_start = 0;
+        self.processor = ZoneMapProcessor::new(self.data_type.clone())?;
+
+        Ok(Some(bytes::Bytes::from(buf.into_inner())))
+    }
+
+    fn schema_metadata_key(&self) -> String {
+        format!(
+            "{}{}",
+            crate::scalar::seed::SEED_META_KEY_PREFIX,
+            self.column_name
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn schema_metadata_value(&self, buf_index: u32) -> String {
+        format!("{}:{}", buf_index, self.rows_per_zone)
+    }
+}
+
+fn hex_encode(data: &[u8]) -> String {
+    data.iter().map(|b| format!("{:02x}", b)).collect()
+}
+
+fn hex_decode(s: &str) -> std::result::Result<Vec<u8>, String> {
+    if s.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(Vec::default());
+    }
+    if !s.len().is_multiple_of(2) {
+        return Err(format!("odd hex length: {}", s.len()));
+    }
+    (0..s.len())
+        .step_by(2)
+        .map(|i| {
+            u8::from_str_radix(&s[i..i + 2], 16).map_err(|e| format!("invalid hex at {}: {}", i, e))
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use crate::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
+    use crate::scalar::{IndexStore, zonemap::ROWS_PER_ZONE_DEFAULT};
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use crate::scalar::zoned::ZoneBound;
+    use crate::scalar::zonemap::{ZoneMapIndexPlugin, ZoneMapStatistics};
+    use arrow::datatypes::{ArrowPrimitiveType, Decimal128Type, Float32Type, Int64Type};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, record_batch};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
     use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
-    use futures::{stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-    use lance_core::utils::mask::NullableRowAddrSet;
+    use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
-    use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap, ROW_ADDR};
+    use lance_core::{
+        ROW_ADDR,
+        cache::{LanceCache, WeakLanceCache},
+    };
     use lance_datafusion::datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt;
     use lance_datagen::ArrayGeneratorExt;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
     use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
 
     use crate::scalar::{
+        RowIdRemapper, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
         lance_format::LanceIndexStore,
         zonemap::{
-            ZoneMapIndex, ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams, ZONEMAP_FILENAME, ZONEMAP_SIZE_META_KEY,
+            ZONEMAP_FILENAME, ZONEMAP_SIZE_META_KEY, ZoneMapIndex, ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams,
+            merge_zonemap_indices, remap_zone,
         },
-        SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
     };
 
     // Add missing imports for the tests
-    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
     use crate::Index; // Import Index trait to access calculate_included_frags
+    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
     use roaring::RoaringBitmap; // Import RoaringBitmap for the test
-    use std::collections::Bound;
+    use std::collections::{Bound, HashMap};
 
     // Adds a _rowaddr column emulating each batch as a new fragment
     fn add_row_addr(stream: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
@@ -990,85 +2057,418 @@ mod tests {
         Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream))
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_empty_zonemap_index() {
+    /// Build a single-column ZoneMap of primitive type `T` from `fragments`
+    /// (one batch -> one fragment), with small zones, then load it back.
+    async fn train_and_load<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        fragments: Vec<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>,
+    ) -> Arc<ZoneMapIndex>
+    where
+        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>,
+    {
         let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
         let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
             tmpdir.clone(),
             Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
         ));
-
-        let data = arrow_array::Int32Array::from(Vec::<i32>::new());
-        let row_ids = arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(Vec::<u64>::new());
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
-        ]));
-        let data =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(data), Arc::new(row_ids)]).unwrap();
-
-        let data_stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema,
-            stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(data))),
-        ));
-
-        ZoneMapIndexPlugin::train_zonemap_index(data_stream, test_store.as_ref(), None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        log::debug!("Successfully wrote the index file");
-
-        // Read the index file back and check its contents
-        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
-            .await
-            .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
-        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 0);
-        assert_eq!(index.data_type, DataType::Int32);
-        assert_eq!(index.rows_per_zone, ROWS_PER_ZONE_DEFAULT);
-
-        // Equals query: null (should match nothing, as there are no nulls)
-        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(None));
-        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    // Test that a zonemap index can be created with null values from few fragments
-    async fn test_null_zonemap_index() {
-        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
-        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
-            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
-            tmpdir.clone(),
-            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+            T::DATA_TYPE,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = fragments
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|vals| {
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(vals))],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)),
         ));
-
-        let stream = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
-                array::rand::<Float32Type>().with_nulls(&[true, false, false, false, false]),
-            )
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(5000), BatchCount::from(10));
-
-        // Add _rowaddr column
         let stream = add_row_addr(stream);
 
         ZoneMapIndexPlugin::train_zonemap_index(
             stream,
             test_store.as_ref(),
-            Some(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(5000)),
+            Some(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(2)),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        log::debug!("Successfully wrote the index file");
-
-        // Read the index file back and check its contents
-        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
             .await
-            .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
-        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 10);
-        for (i, zone) in index.zones.iter().enumerate() {
+            .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex")
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct TestRemapper {
+        mappings: HashMap<u64, u64>,
+    }
+
+    impl TestRemapper {
+        fn new(mappings: impl IntoIterator<Item = (u64, u64)>) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                mappings: mappings.into_iter().collect(),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl RowIdRemapper for TestRemapper {
+        fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+            self.mappings.get(&row_id).copied()
+        }
+
+        fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, _row_addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+            unreachable!()
+        }
+
+        fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(
+            &self,
+            _row_ids: &roaring::RoaringTreemap,
+        ) -> roaring::RoaringTreemap {
+            unreachable!()
+        }
+
+        fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
+            &self,
+            _batch: RecordBatch,
+            _row_id_idx: usize,
+        ) -> lance_core::Result<RecordBatch> {
+            unreachable!()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remap_zone_splits_discontiguous_runs() {
+        let old_start = (2_u64 << 32) + 10;
+        let new_start = 3_u64 << 32;
+        let zone = ZoneMapStatistics {
+            min: ScalarValue::Int64(Some(10)),
+            max: ScalarValue::Int64(Some(40)),
+            null_count: 1,
+            nan_count: 0,
+            bound: ZoneBound {
+                fragment_id: 2,
+                start: 10,
+                length: 4,
+            },
+        };
+        let mut first_run = zone.clone();
+        first_run.bound = ZoneBound {
+            fragment_id: 3,
+            start: 1,
+            length: 2,
+        };
+        let mut second_run = zone.clone();
+        second_run.bound = ZoneBound {
+            fragment_id: 3,
+            start: 7,
+            length: 2,
+        };
+        second_run.null_count = 0;
+
+        let remapper = TestRemapper::new([
+            (old_start, new_start + 1),
+            (old_start + 1, new_start + 2),
+            (old_start + 2, new_start + 7),
+            (old_start + 3, new_start + 8),
+        ]);
+        let mut remapped_null_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        remapped_null_rows.insert(new_start + 1);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            remap_zone(&zone, &remapper, Some(&remapped_null_rows), false).unwrap(),
+            vec![first_run, second_run]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_nested_mixed_null_zone_keeps_non_null_candidates() {
+        let index = train_and_load_fsl(
+            vec![
+                vec![Some(0.0), Some(0.0)],
+                vec![Some(0.0), Some(0.0)],
+                vec![Some(3.0), Some(4.0)],
+                vec![Some(5.0), Some(6.0)],
+            ],
+            2,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let mut mixed_null_zone = index.zones[0].clone();
+        mixed_null_zone.null_count = 2;
+
+        let new_start = 3_u64 << 32;
+        let remapper = TestRemapper::new([(2, new_start), (3, new_start + 1)]);
+        let remapped_null_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        let zones =
+            remap_zone(&mixed_null_zone, &remapper, Some(&remapped_null_rows), true).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(zones.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].bound.length, 2);
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].null_count, 0);
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(
+                    &zones[0],
+                    &SargableQuery::Equals(fsl_scalar(vec![Some(3.0), Some(4.0)])),
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            "the two surviving rows are non-null candidates"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remap_nested_mixed_null_singleton_without_bitmap_is_rejected() {
+        let zone = ZoneMapStatistics {
+            min: ScalarValue::Null,
+            max: ScalarValue::Null,
+            null_count: 2,
+            nan_count: 0,
+            bound: ZoneBound {
+                fragment_id: 0,
+                start: 0,
+                length: 4,
+            },
+        };
+        let remapper = TestRemapper::new([(2, 0)]);
+
+        let error = remap_zone(&zone, &remapper, None, true).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("cannot safely remap a mixed-null ZoneMap zone")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_legacy_decimal_mixed_null_singleton_is_rejected() {
+        let mut source = train_and_load::<Decimal128Type>(vec![vec![None, Some(200)]]).await;
+        let source_mut = Arc::get_mut(&mut source).unwrap();
+        let zone = &mut source_mut.zones[0];
+        zone.min = ScalarValue::Decimal128(None, 38, 10);
+        zone.max = ScalarValue::Decimal128(None, 38, 10);
+        source_mut.null_rows = None;
+        source_mut.fri = Some(Arc::new(TestRemapper::new([(1, 3_u64 << 32)])));
+
+        let candidate = ScalarValue::Decimal128(Some(200), 38, 10);
+        let queries = [
+            SargableQuery::Equals(candidate.clone()),
+            SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(candidate.clone()),
+                Bound::Included(candidate.clone()),
+            ),
+            SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![candidate]),
+        ];
+        for query in queries {
+            assert!(
+                source
+                    .evaluate_zone_against_query(&source.zones[0], &query)
+                    .unwrap(),
+                "legacy Decimal source must retain the non-null candidate for {query:?}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let dest_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            dest_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let error = merge_zonemap_indices(
+            &[source.as_ref()],
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3]),
+        )
+        .await
+        .err()
+        .expect("ambiguous legacy Decimal singleton must reject consolidation");
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("cannot safely remap a mixed-null ZoneMap zone")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_value_range_spans_fragments() {
+        // Two fragments, multiple zones each; global min/max straddle both.
+        let index = train_and_load::<Int64Type>(vec![
+            vec![Some(10), Some(50), Some(30)],
+            vec![Some(5), Some(99), Some(42)],
+        ])
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.value_range(),
+            Some((ScalarValue::Int64(Some(5)), ScalarValue::Int64(Some(99))))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_value_range_all_null_is_none() {
+        let index = train_and_load::<Int64Type>(vec![vec![None, None, None]]).await;
+        assert_eq!(index.value_range(), None);
+
+        let result = index
+            .search(
+                &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1))),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_value_range_nan_max_is_none() {
+        // Zones of size 2: [1.0, 2.0] then [100.0, NaN]. The NaN-bearing zone hides
+        // its finite max (100.0), so the only sound answer is None.
+        let index = train_and_load::<Float32Type>(vec![vec![
+            Some(1.0),
+            Some(2.0),
+            Some(100.0),
+            Some(f32::NAN),
+        ]])
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(index.value_range(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_value_range_over_folds_segments() {
+        // Two disjoint segments of one logical index; the global range straddles
+        // both (min and max from `b`), proving the fold spans segments.
+        let a = train_and_load::<Int64Type>(vec![vec![Some(5), Some(9)]]).await;
+        let b = train_and_load::<Int64Type>(vec![vec![Some(1), Some(20)]]).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            ZoneMapIndex::value_range_over([a.as_ref(), b.as_ref()]),
+            Some((ScalarValue::Int64(Some(1)), ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_value_range_over_nan_in_any_segment_is_none() {
+        // NaN in one segment hides that segment's finite max; the cross-segment
+        // fold must bail to None just as the single-segment path does.
+        let a = train_and_load::<Float32Type>(vec![vec![Some(1.0), Some(2.0)]]).await;
+        let b = train_and_load::<Float32Type>(vec![vec![Some(100.0), Some(f32::NAN)]]).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            ZoneMapIndex::value_range_over([a.as_ref(), b.as_ref()]),
+            None
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_value_range_over_missing_extrema() {
+        // An all-null segment yields no finite zone; folding it with a finite
+        // segment returns the finite segment's range (null contributes nothing).
+        let a = train_and_load::<Int64Type>(vec![vec![None, None]]).await;
+        let b = train_and_load::<Int64Type>(vec![vec![Some(3), Some(7)]]).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            ZoneMapIndex::value_range_over([a.as_ref(), b.as_ref()]),
+            Some((ScalarValue::Int64(Some(3)), ScalarValue::Int64(Some(7))))
+        );
+
+        // Lance v8 persisted typed-null Decimal extrema even when a zone contained
+        // values. Such unknown bounds cannot be skipped like an all-null segment.
+        let mut legacy = train_and_load::<Decimal128Type>(vec![vec![Some(100), Some(200)]]).await;
+        for zone in &mut Arc::get_mut(&mut legacy).unwrap().zones {
+            zone.min = ScalarValue::Decimal128(None, 38, 10);
+            zone.max = ScalarValue::Decimal128(None, 38, 10);
+        }
+        let current =
+            train_and_load::<Decimal128Type>(vec![vec![Some(10_000), Some(20_000)]]).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            ZoneMapIndex::value_range_over([legacy.as_ref(), current.as_ref()]),
+            None
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_empty_zonemap_index() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let data = arrow_array::Int32Array::from(Vec::<i32>::new());
+        let row_ids = arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(Vec::<u64>::new());
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let data =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(data), Arc::new(row_ids)]).unwrap();
+
+        let data_stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(data))),
+        ));
+
+        ZoneMapIndexPlugin::train_zonemap_index(data_stream, test_store.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        log::debug!("Successfully wrote the index file");
+
+        // Read the index file back and check its contents
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
+        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(index.data_type, DataType::Int32);
+        assert_eq!(index.rows_per_zone, ROWS_PER_ZONE_DEFAULT);
+
+        // Equals query: null (should match nothing, as there are no nulls)
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(None));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    // Test that a zonemap index can be created with null values from few fragments
+    async fn test_null_zonemap_index() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let stream = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+                array::rand::<Float32Type>().with_nulls(&[true, false, false, false, false]),
+            )
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(5000), BatchCount::from(10));
+
+        // Add _rowaddr column
+        let stream = add_row_addr(stream);
+
+        ZoneMapIndexPlugin::train_zonemap_index(
+            stream,
+            test_store.as_ref(),
+            Some(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(5000)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        log::debug!("Successfully wrote the index file");
+
+        // Read the index file back and check its contents
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
+        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 10);
+        for (i, zone) in index.zones.iter().enumerate() {
             assert_eq!(zone.null_count, 1000);
             assert_eq!(zone.nan_count, 0, "Zone {} should have nan_count = 0", i);
             assert_eq!(zone.bound.length, 5000);
@@ -1111,14 +2511,15 @@ mod tests {
         // Directly pass the stream with proper row addresses instead of using MockTrainingSource
         // which would regenerate row addresses starting from 0
         index
-            .update(new_data_stream, test_store.as_ref())
+            .update(new_data_stream, test_store.as_ref(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
         // Verify the updated index has more zones
-        let updated_index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
-            .await
-            .expect("Failed to load updated ZoneMapIndex");
+        let updated_index =
+            ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+                .await
+                .expect("Failed to load updated ZoneMapIndex");
 
         // Should have original 10 zones + 1 new zone (5000 rows with zone size 5000)
         assert_eq!(updated_index.zones.len(), 11);
@@ -1187,7 +2588,7 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
         let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024);
-        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache)
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &cache, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -1290,7 +2691,7 @@ mod tests {
         .unwrap();
 
         // Load the index
-        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
             .await
             .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
 
@@ -1314,6 +2715,17 @@ mod tests {
             );
         }
 
+        let zone = &index.zones[0];
+        assert!(matches!(
+            zone.max,
+            ScalarValue::Float32(Some(value)) if value.is_nan()
+        ));
+        let finite_target = ScalarValue::Float32(Some(1000.0));
+        assert!(
+            finite_target >= zone.min && finite_target <= zone.max,
+            "ScalarValue total ordering keeps finite values below NaN max"
+        );
+
         // Test search for NaN values using Equals with NaN
         let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Float32(Some(f32::NAN)));
         let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
@@ -1383,7 +2795,7 @@ mod tests {
         // Test IsNull query (should match nothing since there are no null values)
         let query = SargableQuery::IsNull();
         let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::AtMost(NullableRowAddrSet::empty()));
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
 
         // Test range queries with NaN bounds
         // Range with NaN as start bound (included)
@@ -1426,7 +2838,7 @@ mod tests {
         );
         let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
         // Should match nothing since nothing is greater than NaN
-        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::AtMost(NullableRowAddrSet::empty()));
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
 
         // Test IsIn query with mixed float types (Float16, Float32, Float64)
         let query = SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![
@@ -1514,7 +2926,7 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(metadata.get(ZONEMAP_SIZE_META_KEY).unwrap(), "100");
 
         // Read the index file back and check its contents
-        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
             .await
             .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
         assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 2);
@@ -1610,7 +3022,7 @@ mod tests {
         // 8. IsNull query (no nulls in data, should match nothing)
         let query = SargableQuery::IsNull();
         let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
         // 9. IsIn query: [0, 100, 101, 50]
         let query = SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![
             ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)),
@@ -1677,7 +3089,7 @@ mod tests {
         log::debug!("Successfully wrote the index file");
 
         // Read the index file back and check its contents
-        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
             .await
             .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
         assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 3);
@@ -1837,9 +3249,10 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
             // Read the index file back and check its contents
-            let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
-                .await
-                .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
+            let index =
+                ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+                    .await
+                    .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
             assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 5);
             assert_eq!(
                 index.zones,
@@ -2045,9 +3458,10 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
             // Read the index file back and check its contents
-            let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
-                .await
-                .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
+            let index =
+                ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+                    .await
+                    .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
             assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 3);
             assert_eq!(
                 index.zones,
@@ -2120,9 +3534,10 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
             // Read the index file back and check its contents
-            let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
-                .await
-                .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
+            let index =
+                ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+                    .await
+                    .expect("Failed to load ZoneMapIndex");
             assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 3);
             assert_eq!(
                 index.zones,
@@ -2225,4 +3640,1437 @@ mod tests {
             &[4294967296, 4294967297, 4294967298, 4294967299, 4294967300]
         );
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_query() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Create zones with different string ranges
+        // Zone 0: ["aaa", "azz"] - should NOT match "foo%"
+        // Zone 1: ["bar", "baz"] - should NOT match "foo%"
+        // Zone 2: ["fa", "foz"]  - should match "foo%" (contains potential matches)
+        // Zone 3: ["fop", "fzz"] - should NOT match "foo%" (all values >= "fop")
+        // Zone 4: ["foo", "foobar"] - should match "foo%"
+        // Zone 5: ["gaa", "gzz"] - should NOT match "foo%"
+
+        let zones = vec![
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("aaa".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("azz".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 0,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("bar".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("baz".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 1,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("fa".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foz".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 2,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("fop".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("fzz".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 3,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foobar".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 4,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("gaa".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("gzz".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 5,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex {
+            zones,
+            data_type: DataType::Utf8,
+            rows_per_zone: ROWS_PER_ZONE_DEFAULT,
+            use_seeds: false,
+            store: test_store,
+            fri: None,
+            batch_remapper: None,
+            index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(&LanceCache::no_cache()),
+            null_rows: None,
+        };
+
+        // Test LikePrefix query for "foo"
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should match zones 2 and 4 only
+        let mut expected = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        // Zone 2: fragment 2
+        expected.insert_range((2u64 << 32)..((2u64 << 32) + 100));
+        // Zone 4: fragment 4
+        expected.insert_range((4u64 << 32)..((4u64 << 32) + 100));
+
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(expected));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_edge_cases() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Test edge cases for LIKE prefix
+        let zones = vec![
+            // Zone with values that contain the prefix exactly
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("test".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("test".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 0,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+            // Zone with values that span across the prefix boundary
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("te".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("tf".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 1,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+            // Zone completely before prefix
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("abc".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("def".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 2,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex {
+            zones,
+            data_type: DataType::Utf8,
+            rows_per_zone: ROWS_PER_ZONE_DEFAULT,
+            use_seeds: false,
+            store: test_store,
+            fri: None,
+            batch_remapper: None,
+            index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(&LanceCache::no_cache()),
+            null_rows: None,
+        };
+
+        // Test LikePrefix "test"
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("test".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should match zones 0 and 1
+        let mut expected = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected.insert_range(0..100); // Zone 0: fragment 0
+        expected.insert_range((1u64 << 32)..((1u64 << 32) + 100));
+
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(expected));
+
+        // Test empty prefix - should match all zones
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut expected = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected.insert_range(0..100); // Zone 0: fragment 0
+        expected.insert_range((1u64 << 32)..((1u64 << 32) + 100));
+        expected.insert_range((2u64 << 32)..((2u64 << 32) + 100));
+
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(expected));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_large_utf8() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Test with LargeUtf8 type
+        let zones = vec![
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("aaa".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("azz".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 0,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+            ZoneMapStatistics {
+                min: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("foo".to_string())),
+                max: ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("foobar".to_string())),
+                null_count: 0,
+                nan_count: 0,
+                bound: ZoneBound {
+                    fragment_id: 1,
+                    start: 0,
+                    length: 100,
+                },
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex {
+            zones,
+            data_type: DataType::LargeUtf8,
+            rows_per_zone: ROWS_PER_ZONE_DEFAULT,
+            use_seeds: false,
+            store: test_store,
+            fri: None,
+            batch_remapper: None,
+            index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(&LanceCache::no_cache()),
+            null_rows: None,
+        };
+
+        // Test LikePrefix with LargeUtf8
+        let query = SargableQuery::LikePrefix(ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some("foo".to_string())));
+        let result = index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should match only zone 1
+        let mut expected = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        expected.insert_range((1u64 << 32)..((1u64 << 32) + 100));
+
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::at_most(expected));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compute_next_prefix() {
+        use super::compute_next_prefix;
+
+        // Basic cases
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("foo"), Some("fop".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("abc"), Some("abd".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("a"), Some("b".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("z"), Some("{".to_string())); // 'z' + 1 = '{'
+
+        // Edge case: prefix with 'z' at the end
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("abz"), Some("ab{".to_string()));
+
+        // Edge case with tilde (~) which is 0x7E
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("ab~"), Some("ab\x7f".to_string()));
+
+        // Empty prefix
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix(""), None);
+
+        // Non-ASCII: works correctly by incrementing Unicode code points
+        // é (U+00E9) -> ê (U+00EA)
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("café"), Some("cafê".to_string()));
+        // 中 (U+4E2D) -> 丮 (U+4E2E)
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("abc中"), Some("abc丮".to_string()));
+        // ÿ (U+00FF) -> Ā (U+0100) - crosses byte boundary but works
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("cafÿ"), Some("cafĀ".to_string()));
+
+        // Edge case: character just before surrogate range
+        // U+D7FF -> U+E000 (skips surrogate range U+D800-U+DFFF)
+        assert_eq!(
+            compute_next_prefix("a\u{D7FF}"),
+            Some("a\u{E000}".to_string())
+        );
+
+        // Edge case: max Unicode character U+10FFFF, falls back to previous char
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("ab\u{10FFFF}"), Some("ac".to_string()));
+        // All max characters
+        assert_eq!(compute_next_prefix("\u{10FFFF}\u{10FFFF}"), None);
+    }
+
+    // When merging zone map segments, if ANY source segment has null_rows = None
+    // (legacy — null positions unknown), the merged result must also be None.
+    // The bug: any_null_bitmap is set to true as soon as one source has Some(...),
+    // and the None sources are silently skipped.  The merged index then has
+    // null_rows = Some(partial_bitmap), so an IsNull search returns exact results
+    // that only cover the modern segment's nulls — a false negative for the legacy
+    // segment whose null positions were never tracked.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_with_legacy_none_segment_not_treated_as_no_nulls() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, UInt32Array};
+
+        // Index A: fragment 0, modern — has a complete null bitmap with 2 known null rows.
+        let schema_a = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("min", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("max", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("nan_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("fragment_id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_start", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_length", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch_a = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema_a,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(5i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2u32])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![10u64])) as _,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut modern_null_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        modern_null_rows.insert(3); // frag 0 row 3
+        modern_null_rows.insert(7); // frag 0 row 7
+        let cache = LanceCache::no_cache();
+        let index_a = Arc::new(
+            ZoneMapIndex::try_from_serialized(
+                batch_a,
+                store.clone(),
+                None,
+                &cache,
+                10,
+                Some(modern_null_rows), // modern: complete bitmap
+                false,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Index B: fragment 1, legacy — null_rows = None despite null_count = 3.
+        let schema_b = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("min", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("max", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("nan_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("fragment_id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_start", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_length", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch_b = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema_b,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(10i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(20i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![3u32])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![10u64])) as _,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let index_b = Arc::new(
+            ZoneMapIndex::try_from_serialized(
+                batch_b,
+                store.clone(),
+                None,
+                &cache,
+                10,
+                None, // legacy: null positions unknown
+                false,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let dest_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            dest_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        let all_frags = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]);
+        merge_zonemap_indices(
+            &[index_a.as_ref(), index_b.as_ref()],
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &all_frags,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let merged = ZoneMapIndex::load(dest_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Index B had null_rows = None, so the merged index cannot know all null positions.
+        // IsNull must NOT return exact — that would be a false negative for fragment 1's nulls.
+        let result = merged
+            .search(&SargableQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // With the bug: any_null_bitmap=true (from A) → null_rows=Some(A's bitmap only)
+        //              → IsNull returns exact, missing B's unknown nulls ← FALSE NEGATIVE
+        // With the fix: any_null_bitmap=false (because B is None) → null_rows=None
+        //              → IsNull falls through to zone scan → AtMost
+        assert!(
+            !result.is_exact(),
+            "IsNull on a merged index where one source had null_rows=None must not return \
+             exact; the legacy segment had null_count=3 so its nulls exist at unknown positions"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Writes a zonemap file in the legacy format (no null bitmap global buffer),
+    // simulating an index created before the null bitmap feature was added.
+    async fn write_legacy_zonemap(store: &dyn IndexStore, null_count: u32) {
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, UInt32Array};
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("min", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("max", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("nan_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("fragment_id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_start", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_length", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(0)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(99)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![null_count])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![100u64])) as _,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut file_schema = schema.as_ref().clone();
+        file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .insert(ZONEMAP_SIZE_META_KEY.to_string(), "8192".to_string());
+        let mut writer = store
+            .new_index_file(ZONEMAP_FILENAME, Arc::new(file_schema))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_legacy_zonemap_no_null_bitmap() {
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Write a legacy index with one zone that has nulls but no null bitmap.
+        write_legacy_zonemap(store.as_ref(), 10).await;
+
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .expect("failed to load legacy zonemap");
+
+        assert!(
+            index.null_rows.is_none(),
+            "legacy index should have no null bitmap"
+        );
+
+        // IS NULL should fall back to the zone-scan path and return AtMost, not Exact.
+        let result = index
+            .search(&SargableQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !result.is_exact(),
+            "IS NULL on a legacy index should not be exact"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zone_map_seed_writer_round_trip() {
+        use crate::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter;
+        use crate::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapSeedWriter;
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array};
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+
+        let rows_per_zone = 4u64;
+        let data_type = DataType::Int32;
+        let mut writer = ZoneMapSeedWriter::new("test_col", rows_per_zone, data_type).unwrap();
+
+        // Batch 1: values 0..4 (fills exactly one zone)
+        let batch1: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4));
+        writer.observe_batch(&batch1).unwrap();
+
+        // Batch 2: values 10..14 (fills a second zone exactly)
+        let batch2: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(10..14));
+        writer.observe_batch(&batch2).unwrap();
+
+        // Batch 3: values 20..22 (partial final zone)
+        let batch3: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(20..22));
+        writer.observe_batch(&batch3).unwrap();
+
+        let bytes = writer.finish().unwrap().expect("should produce bytes");
+
+        // Check schema metadata key/value format
+        assert_eq!(writer.schema_metadata_key(), "lance.seed.test_col");
+        let meta_val = writer.schema_metadata_value(3);
+        assert_eq!(meta_val, "3:4");
+
+        // Deserialize and verify
+        let (zones, null_bitmap) =
+            ZoneMapSeedWriter::deserialize_seed(42, &bytes, rows_per_zone).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(zones.len(), 3, "expected 3 zones");
+
+        // No nulls in the input, so null bitmap is empty
+        assert_eq!(null_bitmap, Some(RoaringBitmap::default()));
+
+        // Zone 0: values 0..4 -> min=0, max=3
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].bound.fragment_id, 42);
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].bound.start, 0);
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].min, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].max, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3)));
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].null_count, 0);
+
+        // Zone 1: values 10..14 -> min=10, max=13
+        assert_eq!(zones[1].bound.start, 4);
+        assert_eq!(zones[1].min, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(10)));
+        assert_eq!(zones[1].max, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(13)));
+
+        // Zone 2: values 20..22 -> min=20, max=21, partial zone of 2 rows
+        assert_eq!(zones[2].bound.start, 8);
+        assert_eq!(
+            zones[2].bound.length, 2,
+            "partial zone length must be exact"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(zones[2].min, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(20)));
+        assert_eq!(zones[2].max, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(21)));
+
+        // Full zones must have the full rows_per_zone length
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].bound.length, rows_per_zone as usize);
+        assert_eq!(zones[1].bound.length, rows_per_zone as usize);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zone_map_seed_writer_spanning_batches() {
+        use crate::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter;
+        use crate::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapSeedWriter;
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array};
+        use datafusion_common::ScalarValue;
+
+        let rows_per_zone = 5u64;
+        let data_type = DataType::Int32;
+        let mut writer = ZoneMapSeedWriter::new("val", rows_per_zone, data_type).unwrap();
+
+        // Single batch with 12 values -> should produce 2 complete zones + 1 partial
+        let batch: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..12));
+        writer.observe_batch(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        let bytes = writer.finish().unwrap().expect("should produce bytes");
+        let (zones, _null_bitmap) =
+            ZoneMapSeedWriter::deserialize_seed(1, &bytes, rows_per_zone).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            zones.len(),
+            3,
+            "expected 3 zones from 12 rows with zone size 5"
+        );
+
+        // Zone 0: rows 0..5
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].bound.length, 5);
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].min, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].max, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(4)));
+        // Zone 1: rows 5..10
+        assert_eq!(zones[1].bound.length, 5);
+        assert_eq!(zones[1].min, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5)));
+        assert_eq!(zones[1].max, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(9)));
+        // Zone 2: rows 10..12 (partial)
+        assert_eq!(zones[2].bound.length, 2, "partial zone length must be 2");
+        assert_eq!(zones[2].min, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(10)));
+        assert_eq!(zones[2].max, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(11)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zone_map_seed_writer_empty() {
+        use crate::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter;
+        use crate::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapSeedWriter;
+
+        let mut writer = ZoneMapSeedWriter::new("col", 8, DataType::Int32).unwrap();
+        let result = writer.finish().unwrap();
+        assert!(result.is_none(), "empty fragment should return None");
+    }
+
+    /// Seeds produced for fragments that contain null values must carry a null
+    /// bitmap so that `try_update_with_seeds` can reconstruct `null_rows` without
+    /// rescanning data.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_seed_null_bitmap_round_trip() {
+        use crate::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter;
+        use crate::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapSeedWriter;
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use lance_select::RowSetOps;
+
+        // rows_per_zone = 4, 10 rows: nulls at positions 1, 3, 5, 9
+        //   zone 0: rows 0-3 → nulls at 1, 3
+        //   zone 1: rows 4-7 → null at 5
+        //   zone 2: rows 8-9 → null at 9
+        let rows_per_zone = 4u64;
+        let values: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+            Some(0),
+            None, // offset 1
+            Some(2),
+            None, // offset 3
+            Some(4),
+            None, // offset 5
+            Some(6),
+            Some(7),
+            Some(8),
+            None, // offset 9
+        ]));
+
+        let mut writer = ZoneMapSeedWriter::new("col", rows_per_zone, DataType::Int32).unwrap();
+        writer.observe_batch(&values).unwrap();
+        let bytes = writer.finish().unwrap().expect("should produce bytes");
+
+        let (zones, null_bitmap) =
+            ZoneMapSeedWriter::deserialize_seed(7, &bytes, rows_per_zone).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(zones.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(zones[0].null_count, 2);
+        assert_eq!(zones[1].null_count, 1);
+        assert_eq!(zones[2].null_count, 1);
+
+        let bitmap = null_bitmap.expect("null bitmap must be present");
+        assert!(bitmap.contains(1), "offset 1 must be in bitmap");
+        assert!(bitmap.contains(3), "offset 3 must be in bitmap");
+        assert!(bitmap.contains(5), "offset 5 must be in bitmap");
+        assert!(bitmap.contains(9), "offset 9 must be in bitmap");
+        assert_eq!(bitmap.len(), 4, "exactly 4 null positions");
+
+        // Reconstruct a RowAddrTreeMap as try_update_with_seeds would do.
+        let mut null_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        null_rows.insert_bitmap(7, bitmap);
+        // Verify the row addresses are (fragment 7 << 32 | offset).
+        let frag7 = 7u64 << 32;
+        assert!(null_rows.contains(frag7 | 1));
+        assert!(null_rows.contains(frag7 | 3));
+        assert!(null_rows.contains(frag7 | 5));
+        assert!(null_rows.contains(frag7 | 9));
+        assert!(!null_rows.contains(frag7));
+    }
+
+    /// After updating a zone map index via seeds from a fragment that contains
+    /// nulls, IS NULL must return an exact result (not a zone-scan approximation).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_with_seeds_propagates_null_bitmap() {
+        use crate::scalar::seed::{FragmentSeed, IndexSeedWriter};
+        use crate::scalar::zonemap::{ZoneMapIndexBuilder, ZoneMapSeedWriter};
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use lance_select::RowSetOps;
+
+        // Build an initial zone map index with one fragment that has nulls at rows 0 and 2.
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Initial training: fragment 0, rows 0-3, nulls at 0 and 2.
+        let rows_per_zone = 4u64;
+        let initial_values: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+            None, // frag 0, row 0
+            Some(1),
+            None, // frag 0, row 2
+            Some(3),
+        ]));
+        let mut builder = ZoneMapIndexBuilder::try_new(
+            ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(rows_per_zone),
+            DataType::Int32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let row_addrs: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1, 2, 3]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![initial_values, row_addrs]).unwrap();
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::once(async { Ok(batch) }),
+        ));
+        builder.train(stream).await.unwrap();
+        builder.write_index(store.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Load the trained index.
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            index.null_rows.is_some(),
+            "initial index must have null bitmap"
+        );
+
+        // Build a seed for fragment 1: rows 0-3, null at row 1.
+        let seed_values: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+            Some(10),
+            None, // frag 1, row 1
+            Some(12),
+            Some(13),
+        ]));
+        let mut seed_writer =
+            ZoneMapSeedWriter::new("value", rows_per_zone, DataType::Int32).unwrap();
+        seed_writer.observe_batch(&seed_values).unwrap();
+        let seed_bytes = seed_writer
+            .finish()
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("seed must produce bytes");
+
+        let seed = FragmentSeed {
+            fragment_id: 1,
+            bytes: seed_bytes,
+            metadata_value: format!("0:{}", rows_per_zone),
+        };
+
+        // Update the index with the seed.
+        let dest_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            dest_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        index
+            .try_update_with_seeds(&[seed], dest_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("update must produce a result");
+
+        let updated_index = ZoneMapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The updated index must have a null bitmap covering both fragments.
+        let null_rows = updated_index
+            .null_rows
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("updated index must have null bitmap");
+
+        // Fragment 0: nulls at offsets 0 and 2
+        assert!(null_rows.contains(0u64), "frag 0 row 0 must be null");
+        assert!(null_rows.contains(2u64), "frag 0 row 2 must be null");
+        assert!(!null_rows.contains(1u64), "frag 0 row 1 must not be null");
+
+        // Fragment 1: null at offset 1
+        let frag1 = 1u64 << 32;
+        assert!(null_rows.contains(frag1 | 1), "frag 1 row 1 must be null");
+        assert!(!null_rows.contains(frag1), "frag 1 row 0 must not be null");
+
+        // IS NULL must return exact results (not a zone-scan approximation).
+        let result = updated_index
+            .search(&SargableQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(result.is_exact(), "IS NULL after seed update must be exact");
+    }
+
+    /// A legacy index (null_rows = None) updated with a seed must still have
+    /// null_rows = None in the result.  The seed cannot retroactively supply null
+    /// positions for the rows already in the old index, so the updated index must
+    /// stay conservative and fall back to zone-scan for IS NULL.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_with_seeds_legacy_index_keeps_null_rows_none() {
+        use crate::scalar::seed::{FragmentSeed, IndexSeedWriter};
+        use crate::scalar::zonemap::{ZoneMapIndex, ZoneMapSeedWriter};
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, UInt32Array};
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+
+        // Build a legacy index (fragment 0, null_rows = None).
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("min", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("max", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("nan_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("fragment_id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_start", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_length", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(0i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(9i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2u32])) as _, // 2 nulls, positions unknown
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![10u64])) as _,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let cache = LanceCache::no_cache();
+        let legacy_index = Arc::new(
+            ZoneMapIndex::try_from_serialized(
+                batch,
+                store.clone(),
+                None,
+                &cache,
+                10,
+                None, // legacy: null positions unknown
+                true,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert!(legacy_index.null_rows.is_none());
+
+        // Build a seed for fragment 1 with known null positions.
+        let rows_per_zone = 10u64;
+        let seed_values: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+            None, // frag 1, row 0
+            Some(1),
+        ]));
+        let mut seed_writer =
+            ZoneMapSeedWriter::new("value", rows_per_zone, DataType::Int32).unwrap();
+        seed_writer.observe_batch(&seed_values).unwrap();
+        let seed_bytes = seed_writer
+            .finish()
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("seed must produce bytes");
+
+        let dest_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            dest_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        legacy_index
+            .try_update_with_seeds(
+                &[FragmentSeed {
+                    fragment_id: 1,
+                    bytes: seed_bytes,
+                    metadata_value: format!("0:{}", rows_per_zone),
+                }],
+                dest_store.as_ref(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("update must produce a result");
+
+        let updated = ZoneMapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            updated.null_rows.is_none(),
+            "updating a legacy index must not fabricate a null bitmap: \
+             the old fragment's null positions were never tracked"
+        );
+
+        let result = updated
+            .search(&SargableQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !result.is_exact(),
+            "IS NULL on an index derived from a legacy source must use zone scan, not exact lookup"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Merging a modern index (null_rows = Some) with a legacy index (null_rows = None)
+    /// must produce a merged index with null_rows = None.  Returning the modern
+    /// fragment's bitmap as-is would be a false negative for the legacy fragment.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_modern_and_legacy_index_drops_null_bitmap() {
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, UInt32Array};
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let cache = LanceCache::no_cache();
+
+        // Modern index: fragment 0, null_rows = Some(bitmap with 1 known null).
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("min", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("max", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("null_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("nan_count", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("fragment_id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_start", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("zone_length", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let modern_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(5i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1u32])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![10u64])) as _,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut modern_null_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        modern_null_rows.insert(2u64); // frag 0, row 2
+        let modern_index = Arc::new(
+            ZoneMapIndex::try_from_serialized(
+                modern_batch,
+                store.clone(),
+                None,
+                &cache,
+                10,
+                Some(modern_null_rows),
+                false,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Legacy index: fragment 1, null_rows = None.
+        let legacy_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(10i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(20i32)])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![3u32])) as _, // 3 nulls, positions unknown
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])) as _,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![10u64])) as _,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let legacy_index = Arc::new(
+            ZoneMapIndex::try_from_serialized(
+                legacy_batch,
+                store.clone(),
+                None,
+                &cache,
+                10,
+                None, // legacy: null positions unknown
+                false,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let dest_tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let dest_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            dest_tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let all_frags = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]);
+        merge_zonemap_indices(
+            &[modern_index.as_ref(), legacy_index.as_ref()],
+            dest_store.as_ref(),
+            &all_frags,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let merged = ZoneMapIndex::load(dest_store, None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            merged.null_rows.is_none(),
+            "merging a modern index with a legacy index must drop the null bitmap: \
+             the legacy fragment's null positions are unknown"
+        );
+
+        let result = merged
+            .search(&SargableQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !result.is_exact(),
+            "IS NULL on a merged index with a legacy source must use zone scan, not exact lookup"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // ───────────────────────────── Nested type zone map tests ─────────────────────────────
+
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+
+    /// Build a FixedSizeList<Float32, list_size> zone map from `rows` (each row is a
+    /// `Vec<Option<f32>>` of length `list_size`), then load and return the index.
+    async fn train_and_load_fsl(rows: Vec<Vec<Option<f32>>>, list_size: i32) -> Arc<ZoneMapIndex> {
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let fsl_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(item_field.clone(), list_size);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, fsl_type.clone(), true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let mut fsl_builder =
+            arrow_array::builder::FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), list_size);
+        for row in &rows {
+            assert_eq!(row.len(), list_size as usize);
+            for &v in row {
+                match v {
+                    Some(f) => fsl_builder.values().append_value(f),
+                    None => fsl_builder.values().append_null(),
+                }
+            }
+            fsl_builder.append(true);
+        }
+        let fsl_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(fsl_builder.finish());
+        let n = rows.len() as u64;
+        let row_addr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..n));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![fsl_arr, row_addr]).unwrap();
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(batch))),
+        ));
+
+        ZoneMapIndexPlugin::train_zonemap_index(
+            stream,
+            test_store.as_ref(),
+            Some(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(4)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .expect("failed to load ZoneMapIndex")
+    }
+
+    use arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder;
+    use datafusion_common::ScalarValue as SV;
+
+    fn fsl_scalar(values: Vec<Option<f32>>) -> SV {
+        let list_size = values.len() as i32;
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let items: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values));
+        let arr = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::new(item_field, list_size, items, None));
+        SV::FixedSizeList(arr)
+    }
+
+    // Zones for nested types have null min/max; all non-null queries are conservative (not pruned)
+    // unless every row in the zone is null.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fsl_zonemap_conservative_equals() {
+        // Two zones, 4 rows each, no null rows.
+        let index = train_and_load_fsl(
+            vec![
+                vec![Some(1.0), Some(2.0)],
+                vec![Some(3.0), Some(4.0)],
+                vec![Some(5.0), Some(6.0)],
+                vec![Some(7.0), Some(8.0)],
+                vec![Some(10.0), Some(20.0)],
+                vec![Some(30.0), Some(40.0)],
+                vec![Some(50.0), Some(60.0)],
+                vec![Some(70.0), Some(80.0)],
+            ],
+            2,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 2);
+        // min/max are null for nested types
+        assert!(index.zones[0].min.is_null());
+        assert!(index.zones[0].max.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[0].null_count, 0);
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[0].nan_count, 0);
+
+        // Non-null Equals: conservative — neither zone is pruned
+        let q = SargableQuery::Equals(fsl_scalar(vec![Some(100.0), Some(200.0)]));
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[0], &q)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "non-null Equals on nested type is conservative"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[1], &q)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "non-null Equals on nested type is conservative"
+        );
+
+        // IsNull: no null rows → both zones pruned
+        let q_null = SargableQuery::IsNull();
+        assert!(
+            !index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[0], &q_null)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "IsNull pruned when null_count=0"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[1], &q_null)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "IsNull pruned when null_count=0"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fsl_zonemap_null_list() {
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let fsl_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(item_field.clone(), 2);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, fsl_type.clone(), true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        // Build FSL array with some null entries
+        let mut builder = arrow_array::builder::FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 2);
+        // Row 0: null list
+        builder.values().append_value(0.0);
+        builder.values().append_value(0.0);
+        builder.append(false);
+        // Row 1: [3.0, 4.0]
+        builder.values().append_value(3.0);
+        builder.values().append_value(4.0);
+        builder.append(true);
+        let fsl_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(builder.finish());
+        let row_addr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..2));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![fsl_arr, row_addr]).unwrap();
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(batch))),
+        ));
+        ZoneMapIndexPlugin::train_zonemap_index(
+            stream,
+            test_store.as_ref(),
+            Some(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(4)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[0].null_count, 1, "one null list");
+
+        // IsNull should match
+        let q = SargableQuery::IsNull();
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[0], &q)
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+
+        // Equals null should match (null_count > 0)
+        let null_scalar = SV::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::new_null(
+            item_field.clone(),
+            2,
+            1,
+        )));
+        let q2 = SargableQuery::Equals(null_scalar);
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[0], &q2)
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fsl_zonemap_is_in_conservative() {
+        // Two zones (4 rows each), no null rows.
+        let index = train_and_load_fsl(
+            vec![
+                vec![Some(1.0), Some(2.0)],
+                vec![Some(3.0), Some(4.0)],
+                vec![Some(5.0), Some(6.0)],
+                vec![Some(7.0), Some(8.0)],
+                vec![Some(10.0), Some(20.0)],
+                vec![Some(30.0), Some(40.0)],
+                vec![Some(50.0), Some(60.0)],
+                vec![Some(70.0), Some(80.0)],
+            ],
+            2,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 2);
+
+        // IsIn with non-null values: conservative — neither zone is pruned
+        let q = SargableQuery::IsIn(vec![
+            fsl_scalar(vec![Some(4.0), Some(5.0)]),
+            fsl_scalar(vec![Some(100.0), Some(200.0)]),
+        ]);
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[0], &q)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "IsIn with non-null values is conservative for nested types"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[1], &q)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "IsIn with non-null values is conservative for nested types"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fsl_zonemap_value_range_is_none() {
+        let index = train_and_load_fsl(
+            vec![vec![Some(1.0), Some(2.0)], vec![Some(3.0), Some(4.0)]],
+            2,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(index.value_range(), None, "FSL index has no scalar range");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fsl_zonemap_all_null_zone() {
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let fsl_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(item_field.clone(), 2);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, fsl_type.clone(), true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let mut builder = arrow_array::builder::FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 2);
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            builder.values().append_value(0.0);
+            builder.values().append_value(0.0);
+            builder.append(false); // null list
+        }
+        let fsl_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(builder.finish());
+        let row_addr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..2));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![fsl_arr, row_addr]).unwrap();
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(batch))),
+        ));
+        ZoneMapIndexPlugin::train_zonemap_index(
+            stream,
+            test_store.as_ref(),
+            Some(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(4)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[0].null_count, 2);
+        assert!(index.zones[0].min.is_null(), "all-null zone: min is null");
+
+        // When every row is null (null_count == zone length), a non-null query is pruned.
+        let q = SargableQuery::Equals(fsl_scalar(vec![Some(1.0), Some(2.0)]));
+        assert!(
+            !index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[0], &q)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "all-null zone (null_count == length) is pruned for non-null target"
+        );
+
+        // Range and IsIn are also pruned when all rows are null.
+        let q_range = SargableQuery::Range(std::ops::Bound::Unbounded, std::ops::Bound::Unbounded);
+        assert!(
+            !index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[0], &q_range)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "all-null zone is pruned for Range query"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Build a zone map on a Struct column and verify training succeeds and stats are correct.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_struct_zonemap_null_tracking() {
+        use arrow_array::StructArray;
+        use arrow_schema::Fields;
+
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let struct_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![item_field.clone()]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, struct_type.clone(), true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        // 3 non-null struct rows
+        let x_values: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30]));
+        let struct_arr: ArrayRef =
+            Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(item_field.clone(), x_values)]));
+        let row_addr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..3));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![struct_arr, row_addr]).unwrap();
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(batch))),
+        ));
+        ZoneMapIndexPlugin::train_zonemap_index(
+            stream,
+            test_store.as_ref(),
+            Some(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(10)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[0].null_count, 0, "no null struct rows");
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[0].nan_count, 0);
+        assert!(index.zones[0].min.is_null());
+        assert!(index.zones[0].max.is_null());
+
+        // IsNull: no null rows → zone is pruned
+        assert!(
+            !index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(&index.zones[0], &SargableQuery::IsNull())
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+
+        // Non-null Equals: conservative (not pruned) since not all rows are null
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .evaluate_zone_against_query(
+                    &index.zones[0],
+                    &SargableQuery::Equals(SV::Int32(Some(99)))
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+
+        // value_range: always None for nested types
+        assert_eq!(index.value_range(), None);
+    }
+
+    /// Build a zone map on a List<Int32> column and verify null tracking works.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_zonemap_null_tracking() {
+        use arrow_array::builder::ListBuilder;
+
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let list_type = DataType::List(item_field.clone());
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, list_type.clone(), true),
+            Field::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        // Build: [null, [1,2], [3]]
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(arrow_array::builder::Int32Builder::new());
+        builder.append_null();
+        builder.values().append_value(1);
+        builder.values().append_value(2);
+        builder.append(true);
+        builder.values().append_value(3);
+        builder.append(true);
+        let list_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(builder.finish());
+        let row_addr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..3));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![list_arr, row_addr]).unwrap();
+
+        let tmpdir = TempObjDir::default();
+        let test_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            tmpdir.clone(),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::once(std::future::ready(Ok(batch))),
+        ));
+        ZoneMapIndexPlugin::train_zonemap_index(
+            stream,
+            test_store.as_ref(),
+            Some(ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(10)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let index = ZoneMapIndex::load(test_store.clone(), None, &LanceCache::no_cache(), false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.zones.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(index.zones[0].null_count, 1, "one null list row");
+        // min/max are typed null ScalarValues for nested types
+
+        // IsNull search: the null bitmap is populated during training so
+        // the result is an exact set containing just the null row (row address 0).
+        let result = index
+            .search(&SargableQuery::IsNull(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut exact_nulls = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        exact_nulls.insert(0); // only row 0 is null
+        assert_eq!(result, SearchResult::exact(exact_nulls));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/traits.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/traits.rs
index efe5caf635a..93abea9c46b 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/traits.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/traits.rs
@@ -1,16 +1,13 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::fmt::Display;
 
-use async_trait::async_trait;
-use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::Result;
 
-use crate::{optimize::OptimizeOptions, IndexParams, IndexType};
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
-use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity;
 
 /// A set of criteria used to filter potential indices to use for a query
 #[derive(Debug, Default)]
@@ -22,8 +19,12 @@ pub struct IndexCriteria<'a> {
     pub has_name: Option<&'a str>,
     /// If true, only consider indices that support FTS
     pub must_support_fts: bool,
+    /// Logical FTS document boundary. FTS lookups default to row documents.
+    pub fts_document_granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
     /// If true, only consider indices that support exact equality
     pub must_support_exact_equality: bool,
+    /// If true, only consider indices that support MinHash similarity search
+    pub must_support_minhash: bool,
 }
 
 impl<'a> IndexCriteria<'a> {
@@ -46,6 +47,15 @@ impl<'a> IndexCriteria<'a> {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Select an FTS index with the requested logical document boundary.
+    pub fn with_fts_document_granularity(
+        mut self,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.fts_document_granularity = Some(document_granularity);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Only consider indices that support exact equality
     ///
     /// This will disqualify, for example, the ngram and inverted indices
@@ -54,11 +64,258 @@ impl<'a> IndexCriteria<'a> {
         self.must_support_exact_equality = true;
         self
     }
+
+    /// Only consider MinHash LSH indices
+    pub fn supports_minhash(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.must_support_minhash = true;
+        self
+    }
 }
 
 #[deprecated(since = "0.39.0", note = "Use IndexCriteria instead")]
 pub type ScalarIndexCriteria<'a> = IndexCriteria<'a>;
 
+/// Options for prewarming an inverted index.
+#[non_exhaustive]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct FtsPrewarmOptions {
+    /// If true, prewarm positions along with posting lists.
+    pub with_position: bool,
+    /// Controls whether prewarm requires the full requested FTS working set to
+    /// remain resident when the operation completes.
+    pub mode: FtsPrewarmMode,
+}
+
+impl FtsPrewarmOptions {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::default()
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_position(mut self, with_position: bool) -> Self {
+        self.with_position = with_position;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_mode(mut self, mode: FtsPrewarmMode) -> Self {
+        self.mode = mode;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn best_effort(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.mode = FtsPrewarmMode::BestEffort;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum FtsPrewarmMode {
+    #[default]
+    Strict,
+    BestEffort,
+}
+
+impl FtsPrewarmMode {
+    pub fn is_best_effort(self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::BestEffort)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct FtsPrewarmResult {
+    pub fully_resident: bool,
+    pub diagnostics: Option<FtsPrewarmDiagnostics>,
+}
+
+impl FtsPrewarmResult {
+    pub fn fully_resident() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            fully_resident: true,
+            diagnostics: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn partial(diagnostics: FtsPrewarmDiagnostics) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            fully_resident: false,
+            diagnostics: Some(diagnostics),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct FtsPrewarmDiagnostics {
+    pub partition_count: usize,
+    pub failing_segments: Vec<FtsPrewarmSegmentStatus>,
+    pub failing_partitions: Vec<FtsPrewarmPartitionStatus>,
+}
+
+impl FtsPrewarmDiagnostics {
+    pub fn fully_resident(&self) -> bool {
+        self.failing_segments.is_empty() && self.failing_partitions.is_empty()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Display for FtsPrewarmDiagnostics {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(
+            f,
+            "FTS prewarm completed without publishing query-ready scalar container, document, and posting state; \
+             {} segment(s) and {} of {} partition(s) are not fully resident",
+            self.failing_segments.len(),
+            self.failing_partitions.len(),
+            self.partition_count
+        )?;
+        if !self.failing_segments.is_empty() || !self.failing_partitions.is_empty() {
+            write!(f, ": ")?;
+            let mut first = true;
+            for segment in &self.failing_segments {
+                if !first {
+                    write!(f, "; ")?;
+                }
+                first = false;
+                write!(f, "{segment}")?;
+            }
+            for partition in &self.failing_partitions {
+                if !first {
+                    write!(f, "; ")?;
+                }
+                first = false;
+                write!(f, "{partition}")?;
+            }
+        }
+        write!(
+            f,
+            ". Likely cause: index cache pressure or insufficient capacity. \
+             Suggested remediation: increase index-cache capacity, reduce the number of FTS \
+             segments assigned to each executor, or adjust placement/segment sizing."
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct FtsPrewarmSegmentStatus {
+    pub segment_id: String,
+    pub scalar_index_container_resident: bool,
+    /// Whether the cached container shares the opened segment's prewarm state,
+    /// including when its storage readers have been rebound to another request.
+    pub scalar_index_container_matches_prewarmed: bool,
+}
+
+impl FtsPrewarmSegmentStatus {
+    pub fn query_ready(&self) -> bool {
+        self.scalar_index_container_resident && self.scalar_index_container_matches_prewarmed
+    }
+}
+
+impl Display for FtsPrewarmSegmentStatus {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let mut missing = Vec::new();
+        if !self.scalar_index_container_resident {
+            missing.push("resident scalar index container");
+        }
+        if !self.scalar_index_container_matches_prewarmed {
+            missing.push("shared scalar index prewarm state");
+        }
+        write!(
+            f,
+            "segment {} missing {}",
+            self.segment_id,
+            missing.join(", ")
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct FtsPrewarmPartitionStatus {
+    pub segment_id: Option<String>,
+    pub partition_id: u64,
+    pub documents: FtsPrewarmDocumentStatus,
+    pub posting_validation_ready: bool,
+    pub posting_resident: bool,
+    pub position_resident: Option<bool>,
+}
+
+impl FtsPrewarmPartitionStatus {
+    pub fn query_ready(&self) -> bool {
+        self.documents.query_ready()
+            && self.posting_validation_ready
+            && self.posting_resident
+            && self.position_resident.unwrap_or(true)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Display for FtsPrewarmPartitionStatus {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let mut missing = Vec::new();
+        if !self.documents.prewarm_complete {
+            missing.push("document prewarm completion");
+        }
+        if !self.documents.scoring_ready {
+            missing.push("scoring lengths/norms");
+        }
+        if !self.documents.reverse_lookup_ready {
+            missing.push("reverse document lookup");
+        }
+        if !self.documents.ascending_addresses_ready {
+            missing.push("memoized ascending-address gate");
+        }
+        if !self.documents.projection_resident {
+            missing.push("resident row-address projection");
+        }
+        if !self.posting_validation_ready {
+            missing.push("posting validation");
+        }
+        if !self.posting_resident {
+            missing.push("resident posting lists");
+        }
+        if self.position_resident == Some(false) {
+            missing.push("resident positions");
+        }
+        let segment = self
+            .segment_id
+            .as_deref()
+            .map(|segment_id| format!("segment {segment_id} "))
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        write!(
+            f,
+            "{}partition {} missing {}",
+            segment,
+            self.partition_id,
+            missing.join(", ")
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct FtsPrewarmDocumentStatus {
+    pub prewarm_complete: bool,
+    pub scoring_ready: bool,
+    pub reverse_lookup_ready: bool,
+    /// Whether the memoized "are the stored addresses strictly ascending?"
+    /// answer is populated. Cross-field search reads it on every query, so a
+    /// prewarmed partition that left it empty would still pay an O(num_docs)
+    /// address scan on its first query.
+    pub ascending_addresses_ready: bool,
+    pub projection_resident: bool,
+}
+
+impl FtsPrewarmDocumentStatus {
+    pub fn query_ready(&self) -> bool {
+        self.prewarm_complete
+            && self.scoring_ready
+            && self.reverse_lookup_ready
+            && self.ascending_addresses_ready
+            && self.projection_resident
+    }
+}
+
+/// Options for prewarming an index.
+#[non_exhaustive]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum PrewarmOptions {
+    Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions),
+}
+
 /// Additional information about an index
 ///
 /// Note that a single index might consist of multiple segments.  Each segment has its own
@@ -79,6 +336,13 @@ pub trait IndexDescription: Send + Sync {
     /// IndexMetadata for each segment of the index.
     fn metadata(&self) -> &[IndexMetadata];
 
+    /// Returns the physical index segments that make up this logical index.
+    ///
+    /// This is an alias for [`Self::metadata`] with a less ambiguous name.
+    fn segments(&self) -> &[IndexMetadata] {
+        self.metadata()
+    }
+
     /// Returns the index type URL
     ///
     /// This is extracted from the type url of the index details
@@ -116,172 +380,10 @@ pub trait IndexDescription: Send + Sync {
     /// plugin.  As a result, this method may fail if there is no plugin
     /// available for the index.
     fn details(&self) -> Result<String>;
-}
-
-// Extends Lance Dataset with secondary index.
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait DatasetIndexExt {
-    type IndexBuilder<'a>
-    where
-        Self: 'a;
-
-    /// Create a builder for creating an index on columns.
-    ///
-    /// This returns a builder that can be configured with additional options
-    /// like `name()`, `replace()`, and `train()` before awaiting to execute.
-    ///
-    /// # Parameters
-    /// - `columns`: the columns to build the indices on.
-    /// - `index_type`: specify [`IndexType`].
-    /// - `params`: index parameters.
-    fn create_index_builder<'a>(
-        &'a mut self,
-        columns: &'a [&'a str],
-        index_type: IndexType,
-        params: &'a dyn IndexParams,
-    ) -> Self::IndexBuilder<'a>;
-
-    /// Create indices on columns.
-    ///
-    /// Upon finish, a new dataset version is generated.
-    ///
-    /// Parameters:
-    ///
-    ///  - `columns`: the columns to build the indices on.
-    ///  - `index_type`: specify [`IndexType`].
-    ///  - `name`: optional index name. Must be unique in the dataset.
-    ///            if not provided, it will auto-generate one.
-    ///  - `params`: index parameters.
-    ///  - `replace`: replace the existing index if it exists.
-    ///
-    /// Returns the metadata of the created index.
-    async fn create_index(
-        &mut self,
-        columns: &[&str],
-        index_type: IndexType,
-        name: Option<String>,
-        params: &dyn IndexParams,
-        replace: bool,
-    ) -> Result<IndexMetadata>;
-
-    /// Drop indices by name.
-    ///
-    /// Upon finish, a new dataset version is generated.
-    ///
-    /// Parameters:
-    ///
-    /// - `name`: the name of the index to drop.
-    async fn drop_index(&mut self, name: &str) -> Result<()>;
-
-    /// Prewarm an index by name.
-    ///
-    /// This will load the index into memory and cache it.
-    ///
-    /// Generally, this should only be called when it is known the entire index will
-    /// fit into the index cache.
-    ///
-    /// This is a hint that is not enforced by all indices today.  Some indices may choose
-    /// to ignore this hint.
-    async fn prewarm_index(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()>;
-
-    /// Read all indices of this Dataset version.
-    ///
-    /// The indices are lazy loaded and cached in memory within the `Dataset` instance.
-    /// The cache is invalidated when the dataset version (Manifest) is changed.
-    async fn load_indices(&self) -> Result<Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>>;
 
-    /// Loads all the indies of a given UUID.
-    ///
-    /// Note that it is possible to have multiple indices with the same UUID,
-    /// as they are the deltas of the same index.
-    async fn load_index(&self, uuid: &str) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
-        self.load_indices().await.map(|indices| {
-            indices
-                .iter()
-                .find(|idx| idx.uuid.to_string() == uuid)
-                .cloned()
-        })
-    }
-
-    /// Loads a specific index with the given index name
-    ///
-    /// Returns
-    /// -------
-    /// - `Ok(indices)`: if the index exists, returns the index.
-    /// - `Ok(vec![])`: if the index does not exist.
-    /// - `Err(e)`: if there is an error loading indices.
-    ///
-    async fn load_indices_by_name(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
-        self.load_indices().await.map(|indices| {
-            indices
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|idx| idx.name == name)
-                .cloned()
-                .collect()
-        })
-    }
-
-    /// Loads a specific index with the given index name.
-    /// This function only works for indices that are unique.
-    /// If there are multiple indices sharing the same name, please use [`Self::load_indices_by_name`]
-    ///
-    /// Returns
-    /// -------
-    /// - `Ok(Some(index))`: if the index exists, returns the index.
-    /// - `Ok(None)`: if the index does not exist.
-    /// - `Err(e)`: Index error if there are multiple indexes sharing the same name.
-    ///
-    async fn load_index_by_name(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
-        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
-        if indices.is_empty() {
-            Ok(None)
-        } else if indices.len() == 1 {
-            Ok(Some(indices[0].clone()))
-        } else {
-            Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Found multiple indices of the same name: {:?}, please use load_indices_by_name", 
-                    indices.iter().map(|idx| &idx.name).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Describes indexes in a dataset
-    ///
-    /// This method should only access the index metadata and should not load the index into memory.
-    ///
-    /// More detailed information may be available from `index_statistics` but that will require
-    /// loading the index into memory.
-    async fn describe_indices<'a, 'b>(
-        &'a self,
-        criteria: Option<IndexCriteria<'b>>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<Arc<dyn IndexDescription>>>;
-
-    /// Loads a specific index with the given index name.
-    async fn load_scalar_index<'a, 'b>(
-        &'a self,
-        criteria: IndexCriteria<'b>,
-    ) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>>;
-
-    /// Optimize indices.
-    async fn optimize_indices(&mut self, options: &OptimizeOptions) -> Result<()>;
-
-    /// Find index with a given index_name and return its serialized statistics.
+    /// Returns the total size in bytes of all files across all segments.
     ///
-    /// If the index does not exist, return Error.
-    async fn index_statistics(&self, index_name: &str) -> Result<String>;
-
-    async fn commit_existing_index(
-        &mut self,
-        index_name: &str,
-        column: &str,
-        index_id: Uuid,
-    ) -> Result<()>;
-
-    async fn read_index_partition(
-        &self,
-        index_name: &str,
-        partition_id: usize,
-        with_vector: bool,
-    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream>;
+    /// Returns `None` if file size information is not available for any segment
+    /// (for backward compatibility with indices created before file tracking was added).
+    fn total_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64>;
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector.rs
index 4cc8a6492a1..c7e8e2e3344 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector.rs
@@ -4,20 +4,25 @@
 //! Vector Index
 //!
 
+use crate::scalar::{RowAddrTranslator, materialize_remap};
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
 use std::any::Any;
 use std::fmt::Debug;
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
 use arrow_schema::Field;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use futures::stream;
 use ivf::storage::IvfModel;
-use lance_core::{Result, ROW_ID_FIELD};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result};
 use lance_io::traits::Reader;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use quantizer::{QuantizationType, Quantizer};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 use v3::subindex::SubIndexType;
 
@@ -28,6 +33,7 @@ pub mod graph;
 pub mod hnsw;
 pub mod ivf;
 pub mod kmeans;
+pub mod pairwise;
 pub mod pq;
 pub mod quantizer;
 pub mod residual;
@@ -40,7 +46,7 @@ pub mod v3;
 
 use super::pb;
 use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
-use crate::{prefilter::PreFilter, Index};
+use crate::{Index, prefilter::PreFilter};
 
 // TODO: Make these crate private once the migration from lance to lance-index is done.
 pub const DIST_COL: &str = "_distance";
@@ -54,9 +60,18 @@ pub const PQ_CODE_COLUMN: &str = "__pq_code";
 pub const SQ_CODE_COLUMN: &str = "__sq_code";
 pub const LOSS_METADATA_KEY: &str = "_loss";
 
+pub type PreparedPartitionSearchHandle = Box<dyn Any + Send>;
+
+/// Controls when a multi-partition search should stop producing more partition results.
+pub trait PartitionSearchControl: Send + Sync {
+    fn should_stop(&self) -> bool;
+
+    fn record_batch(&self, _batch: &RecordBatch) {}
+}
+
 pub static VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA: LazyLock<arrow_schema::SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     arrow_schema::SchemaRef::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-        Field::new(DIST_COL, arrow_schema::DataType::Float32, false),
+        Field::new(DIST_COL, arrow_schema::DataType::Float32, true),
         ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
     ]))
 });
@@ -69,7 +84,28 @@ pub static CENTROID_DIST_FIELD: LazyLock<arrow_schema::Field> = LazyLock::new(||
     arrow_schema::Field::new(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN, arrow_schema::DataType::Float32, true)
 });
 
+pub const DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM: i32 = 0;
+
+/// Controls the speed / accuracy tradeoff for approximate vector search.
+///
+/// This currently affects RQ-quantized vector indexes (such as IVF_RQ) and
+/// prefiltered search on HNSW sub-indexes, where `Fast` enables the ACORN
+/// traversal. Other index types ignore this setting.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]
+pub enum ApproxMode {
+    /// Prefer lower query latency, which can reduce recall.
+    Fast,
+
+    /// Use the default balance between query latency and recall.
+    #[default]
+    Normal,
+
+    /// Prefer higher recall, which can increase query latency.
+    Accurate,
+}
+
 /// Query parameters for the vector indices
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct Query {
     /// The column to be searched.
@@ -113,9 +149,26 @@ pub struct Query {
     /// Whether to use an ANN index if available
     pub use_index: bool,
 
+    /// Maximum partition-search concurrency for a single vector query.
+    ///
+    /// The default is 0.
+    /// Value 0 selects the automatic policy; today this resolves to 1 for the
+    /// sequential fast path unless an index implementation overrides it.
+    /// Value -1 uses the CPU pool size.
+    /// Value 1 uses the single-worker sequential partition search path.
+    /// Values >= 2 use the partition-parallel path and are clamped to the CPU
+    /// pool size by the execution layer.
+    pub query_parallelism: i32,
+
     /// the distance between the query and the centroid
     /// this is only used for IVF index with Rabit quantization
     pub dist_q_c: f32,
+
+    /// Controls the speed / accuracy tradeoff for approximate vector search.
+    ///
+    /// This currently only affects RQ-quantized vector indexes, such as IVF_RQ.
+    /// Other index types ignore this setting.
+    pub approx_mode: ApproxMode,
 }
 
 impl From<pb::VectorMetricType> for DistanceType {
@@ -159,7 +212,7 @@ pub trait VectorIndex: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug + Index {
     ///
     /// Schema::new(vec![
     ///   Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, true),
-    ///   Field::new("_distance", DataType::Float32, false),
+    ///   Field::new("_distance", DataType::Float32, true),
     /// ]);
     /// ```
     ///
@@ -198,6 +251,161 @@ pub trait VectorIndex: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug + Index {
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch>;
 
+    /// Asynchronously prepare a single-partition search so the CPU-heavy portion
+    /// can be executed separately.
+    async fn prepare_partition_search(
+        &self,
+        _partition_id: usize,
+        _query: &Query,
+        _pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<PreparedPartitionSearchHandle> {
+        unimplemented!("prepared partition search is not supported for this index")
+    }
+
+    /// Execute the synchronous portion of a previously prepared partition search.
+    fn search_prepared_partition(
+        &self,
+        _prepared: PreparedPartitionSearchHandle,
+        _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        unimplemented!("prepared partition search is not supported for this index")
+    }
+
+    /// Return true if the index supports splitting partition search into async
+    /// prepare and sync execute phases.
+    fn supports_prepared_partition_search(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Choose partition search concurrency for `query_parallelism = 0`.
+    ///
+    /// The default keeps the single-worker sequential path. Index
+    /// implementations can override this when their sub-index search work does
+    /// not benefit from the sequential fast path.
+    fn auto_query_parallelism(&self, _cpu_pool_size: usize) -> usize {
+        1
+    }
+
+    /// Search a range of partitions and return a stream of per-partition result batches.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation searches each partition sequentially with
+    /// [`VectorIndex::search_in_partition`]. Implementations can override this
+    /// to use a more efficient execution strategy.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn search_partitions(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        query: Query,
+        partitions: Arc<UInt32Array>,
+        q_c_dists: Arc<Float32Array>,
+        start_idx: usize,
+        end_idx: usize,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        control: Option<Arc<dyn PartitionSearchControl>>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream>
+    where
+        Self: 'static,
+    {
+        if partitions.len() != q_c_dists.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "partition count {} does not match centroid distance count {}",
+                partitions.len(),
+                q_c_dists.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        if start_idx > end_idx || end_idx > partitions.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid partition search range [{start_idx}, {end_idx}) for {} partitions",
+                partitions.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let stream = stream::try_unfold(start_idx, move |idx| {
+            let index = self.clone();
+            let partitions = partitions.clone();
+            let q_c_dists = q_c_dists.clone();
+            let query = query.clone();
+            let pre_filter = pre_filter.clone();
+            let control = control.clone();
+            let metrics = metrics.clone();
+            async move {
+                if idx >= end_idx
+                    || control
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .is_some_and(|control| control.should_stop())
+                {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                let part_id = partitions.value(idx);
+                let mut query = query;
+                query.dist_q_c = q_c_dists.value(idx);
+                index
+                    .search_in_partition(part_id as usize, &query, pre_filter, metrics.as_ref())
+                    .await
+                    .map(|batch| {
+                        if let Some(control) = control.as_ref() {
+                            control.record_batch(&batch);
+                        }
+                        Some((batch, idx + 1))
+                    })
+                    .map_err(Into::into)
+            }
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            stream,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this index can search multiple query vectors in a single pass
+    /// via [`VectorIndex::search_partitions_batch`], reading each partition's
+    /// storage once and scoring every query that probes it.
+    ///
+    /// Defaults to `false`; callers should fall back to repeated single-query
+    /// search for indices that return `false`.
+    fn supports_batch_partition_search(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Search a batch of query vectors against a shared set of partitions.
+    ///
+    /// `query.key` holds all query vectors concatenated (length
+    /// `query_count * dim`, where `query_count == partitions_per_query.len()`).
+    /// `partitions_per_query[i]` / `q_c_dists_per_query[i]` are the ranked
+    /// partition ids and query-to-centroid distances for query `i`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns one [RecordBatch] per query (in query order) with the
+    /// [`VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA`] (`_distance`, `_rowid`) and at most `query.k`
+    /// rows each. Implementations should read each distinct partition's storage
+    /// only once and score every query assigned to it against the loaded data.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation returns an error; callers must gate on
+    /// [`VectorIndex::supports_batch_partition_search`].
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn search_partitions_batch(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        query: Query,
+        partitions_per_query: Vec<Arc<UInt32Array>>,
+        q_c_dists_per_query: Vec<Arc<Float32Array>>,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>>
+    where
+        Self: 'static,
+    {
+        let _ = (
+            query,
+            partitions_per_query,
+            q_c_dists_per_query,
+            pre_filter,
+            metrics,
+        );
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "batch partition search is not supported for this index",
+        ))
+    }
+
     /// If the index is loadable by IVF, so it can be a sub-index that
     /// is loaded on demand by IVF.
     fn is_loadable(&self) -> bool;
@@ -237,6 +445,27 @@ pub trait VectorIndex: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug + Index {
         unimplemented!("only for IVF")
     }
 
+    /// Whether bounded native code-to-code scoring is available (current format).
+    fn supports_pairwise_vectors(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Stage a partition's codes once, in storage order, for native
+    /// code-to-code tile scoring (see [`pairwise`] for the distance
+    /// definitions). `batch_size` is the maximum rows per staged batch.
+    /// Partitions staged beyond `memory_limit` bytes use the caller's spill store.
+    async fn prepare_pairwise_partition(
+        &self,
+        _partition_id: usize,
+        _batch_size: usize,
+        _memory_limit: usize,
+        _spill_store: &dyn lance_io::spill::SpillStore,
+    ) -> Result<pairwise::PairwisePartition> {
+        Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported(
+            "pair enumeration requires a current-format vector index; rebuild this index",
+        ))
+    }
+
     // for SubIndex only
     async fn to_batch_stream(&self, with_vector: bool) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream>;
 
@@ -253,7 +482,45 @@ pub trait VectorIndex: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug + Index {
     ///
     /// If an old row id is not in the mapping then it should be
     /// left alone.
-    async fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<()>;
+    ///
+    /// Legacy remapping API using an in-memory mapping. Retained for existing
+    /// callers and plugins; new tagged fragment reuse maintenance goes through
+    /// [`Self::remap_streaming`].
+    async fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// The fragments whose row addresses this index holds, or `None` when the
+    /// index cannot tell. Read only by the in-memory fallback of
+    /// [`Self::remap_streaming`], which maps every address of every listed
+    /// fragment explicitly and declines when the list is unknown; see
+    /// `ScalarIndex::stored_fragments` for the contract.
+    fn stored_fragments(&self) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// Remap the row ids through a translator whose payload may need reads.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation hands a synchronous translator to
+    /// [`Self::remap`] as it is, and materializes a batch translator into a
+    /// complete in-memory mapping first (`materialize_remap`, bounded by the
+    /// translator's budget and requiring [`Self::stored_fragments`]), then
+    /// calls [`Self::remap`] once. It declines with a
+    /// [`RemapUnavailable`](crate::scalar::RemapUnavailable) when it cannot
+    /// prove a complete mapping within budget. Built-in indices translate one
+    /// unit of work at a time instead.
+    async fn remap_streaming(&mut self, translator: &RowAddrTranslator) -> Result<()> {
+        match translator {
+            RowAddrTranslator::Sync(mapping) => self.remap(mapping.as_ref()).await,
+            RowAddrTranslator::Batch(remapper) => {
+                let mapping =
+                    materialize_remap(remapper.as_ref(), self.stored_fragments().as_ref()).await?;
+                self.remap(&mapping).await
+            }
+            #[allow(unreachable_patterns)]
+            _ => Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "this build does not know how to translate through this row address translator",
+            )),
+        }
+    }
 
     /// The metric type of this vector index.
     fn metric_type(&self) -> DistanceType;
@@ -264,6 +531,14 @@ pub trait VectorIndex: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug + Index {
 
     /// the index type of this vector index.
     fn sub_index_type(&self) -> (SubIndexType, QuantizationType);
+
+    /// The cumulative I/O performed while opening this index (file footers, IVF
+    /// centroids, quantization metadata).  This is a one-time cost; it is
+    /// reported once, on the query that actually opens the index, and is `None`
+    /// for index implementations that do not track it.
+    fn open_io_stats(&self) -> Option<lance_io::scheduler::ScanStats> {
+        None
+    }
 }
 
 // it can be an IVF index or a partition of IVF index
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq.rs
index b36003fddf9..9d246e910e7 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq.rs
@@ -4,20 +4,34 @@
 //! Binary Quantization (BQ)
 
 use std::iter::once;
+use std::str::FromStr;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use crate::pb::vector_index_details::RabitQuantization;
 use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, Array, ArrayRef, UInt8Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, UInt8Array, cast::AsArray};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use num_traits::Float;
-use snafu::location;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
 
+use crate::vector::bq::storage::RabitQuantizationMetadata;
 use crate::vector::quantizer::QuantizerBuildParams;
 
 pub mod builder;
+pub(crate) mod dist_table_quant;
+pub mod ex_dot;
+pub(crate) mod pairwise;
+pub mod prune;
+pub mod rotation;
 pub mod storage;
 pub mod transform;
 
+pub const RABIT_MIN_NUM_BITS: u8 = 1;
+pub const RABIT_MAX_NUM_BITS: u8 = 9;
+pub const RABIT_BINARY_NUM_BITS: u8 = 1;
+/// Default number of bits per dimension for IVF_RQ indexes.
+pub(crate) const RABIT_DEFAULT_NUM_BITS: u8 = 5;
+
 #[derive(Clone, Default)]
 pub struct BinaryQuantization {}
 
@@ -26,25 +40,19 @@ impl BinaryQuantization {
     pub fn transform(&self, data: &dyn Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         let fsl = data
             .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Expect to be a float vector array, got: {:?}",
-                    data.data_type()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Expect to be a float vector array, got: {:?}",
+                data.data_type()
+            )))?
             .clone();
 
         let data = fsl
             .values()
             .as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Expect to be a float32 vector array, got: {:?}",
-                    fsl.values().data_type()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Expect to be a float32 vector array, got: {:?}",
+                fsl.values().data_type()
+            )))?;
         let dim = fsl.value_length() as usize;
         let code = data
             .values()
@@ -60,8 +68,9 @@ impl BinaryQuantization {
 ///
 /// Use the sign bit of the float vector to represent the binary vector.
 fn binary_quantization<T: Float>(data: &[T]) -> impl Iterator<Item = u8> + '_ {
-    let iter = data.chunks_exact(8);
-    iter.clone()
+    let (chunks, remainder) = data.as_chunks::<8>();
+    chunks
+        .iter()
         .map(|c| {
             // Auto vectorized.
             // Before changing this code, please check the assembly output.
@@ -73,21 +82,110 @@ fn binary_quantization<T: Float>(data: &[T]) -> impl Iterator<Item = u8> + '_ {
         })
         .chain(once(0).map(move |_| {
             let mut bits: u8 = 0;
-            iter.remainder().iter().enumerate().for_each(|(idx, v)| {
+            remainder.iter().enumerate().for_each(|(idx, v)| {
                 bits |= (v.is_sign_positive() as u8) << idx;
             });
             bits
         }))
 }
 
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Default, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "snake_case")]
+pub enum RQRotationType {
+    #[default]
+    Fast,
+    Matrix,
+}
+
+impl FromStr for RQRotationType {
+    type Err = Error;
+
+    fn from_str(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, Self::Err> {
+        match value.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+            "fast" | "fht_kac" | "fht-kac" => Ok(Self::Fast),
+            "matrix" | "dense" => Ok(Self::Matrix),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unknown RQ rotation type: {}. Expected one of: fast, matrix",
+                value
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 pub struct RQBuildParams {
+    /// Number of bits per dimension. Defaults to 5.
     pub num_bits: u8,
+    pub rotation_type: RQRotationType,
+    /// Optional pre-built rotation to reuse instead of generating a fresh random one.
+    ///
+    /// Distributed `IVF_RQ` builds mint one rotation and broadcast it so every segment
+    /// rotates vectors identically. This is transient build-time state and is never
+    /// persisted to the `RabitQuantization` params proto.
+    pub rotation: Option<RabitQuantizationMetadata>,
+}
+
+pub fn validate_rq_num_bits(num_bits: u8) -> Result<()> {
+    if !(RABIT_MIN_NUM_BITS..=RABIT_MAX_NUM_BITS).contains(&num_bits) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "IVF_RQ num_bits must be in {}..={}, got {}",
+            RABIT_MIN_NUM_BITS, RABIT_MAX_NUM_BITS, num_bits
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn validate_supported_rq_num_bits(num_bits: u8) -> Result<()> {
+    validate_rq_num_bits(num_bits)
+}
+
+pub fn rabit_ex_bits(num_bits: u8) -> Result<u8> {
+    validate_rq_num_bits(num_bits)?;
+    Ok(num_bits - RABIT_BINARY_NUM_BITS)
+}
+
+pub fn rabit_binary_code_bytes(rotated_dim: usize) -> usize {
+    rotated_dim.div_ceil(u8::BITS as usize)
+}
+
+pub fn rabit_ex_code_bytes(rotated_dim: usize, ex_bits: u8) -> Result<usize> {
+    let total_bits = rotated_dim.checked_mul(ex_bits as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "IVF_RQ ex-code byte size overflow: rotated_dim={}, ex_bits={}",
+            rotated_dim, ex_bits
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok(total_bits.div_ceil(u8::BITS as usize))
 }
 
 impl RQBuildParams {
     pub fn new(num_bits: u8) -> Self {
-        Self { num_bits }
+        Self {
+            num_bits,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::default(),
+            rotation: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_rotation_type(num_bits: u8, rotation_type: RQRotationType) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            num_bits,
+            rotation_type,
+            rotation: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&RQBuildParams> for RabitQuantization {
+    fn from(value: &RQBuildParams) -> Self {
+        use crate::pb::vector_index_details::rabit_quantization::RotationType;
+        Self {
+            num_bits: value.num_bits as u32,
+            rotation_type: match value.rotation_type {
+                RQRotationType::Fast => RotationType::Fast as i32,
+                RQRotationType::Matrix => RotationType::Matrix as i32,
+            },
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -99,7 +197,11 @@ impl QuantizerBuildParams for RQBuildParams {
 
 impl Default for RQBuildParams {
     fn default() -> Self {
-        Self { num_bits: 1 }
+        Self {
+            num_bits: RABIT_DEFAULT_NUM_BITS,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::default(),
+            rotation: None,
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -126,4 +228,59 @@ mod tests {
         test_bq::<f32>();
         test_bq::<f64>();
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rotation_type_parse() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            "fast".parse::<RQRotationType>().unwrap(),
+            RQRotationType::Fast
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            "matrix".parse::<RQRotationType>().unwrap(),
+            RQRotationType::Matrix
+        );
+        assert!("invalid".parse::<RQRotationType>().is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rq_build_params_default_num_bits() {
+        assert_eq!(RQBuildParams::default().num_bits, 5);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_num_bits_validation() {
+        validate_rq_num_bits(1).unwrap();
+        validate_rq_num_bits(9).unwrap();
+
+        let err = validate_rq_num_bits(0).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("IVF_RQ num_bits must be in"),
+            "{}",
+            err
+        );
+
+        let err = validate_rq_num_bits(10).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("IVF_RQ num_bits must be in"),
+            "{}",
+            err
+        );
+
+        validate_supported_rq_num_bits(1).unwrap();
+        validate_supported_rq_num_bits(9).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_split_code_byte_sizing() {
+        assert_eq!(rabit_ex_bits(1).unwrap(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(rabit_ex_bits(9).unwrap(), 8);
+
+        assert_eq!(rabit_binary_code_bytes(128), 16);
+        assert_eq!(rabit_binary_code_bytes(129), 17);
+
+        assert_eq!(rabit_ex_code_bytes(128, 0).unwrap(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(rabit_ex_code_bytes(128, 3).unwrap(), 48);
+        assert_eq!(rabit_ex_code_bytes(128, 8).unwrap(), 128);
+        assert_eq!(rabit_ex_code_bytes(129, 3).unwrap(), 49);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/builder.rs
index 47a40c55801..c77c3027b8b 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/builder.rs
@@ -8,31 +8,43 @@ use arrow::datatypes::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
 use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 use bitvec::prelude::{BitVec, Lsb0};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FixedSizeListArrayExt, FloatArray, FloatType};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use ndarray::{s, Axis};
+use ndarray::{Axis, ShapeBuilder, s};
 use num_traits::{AsPrimitive, FromPrimitive};
 use rand_distr::Distribution;
-use snafu::location;
+use rayon::prelude::*;
 
 use crate::vector::bq::storage::{
-    RabitQuantizationMetadata, RabitQuantizationStorage, RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, RABIT_METADATA_KEY,
+    RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, RABIT_METADATA_KEY, RabitQuantizationMetadata, RabitQuantizationStorage,
+    RabitQueryEstimator, rabit_binary_code_field, rabit_ex_code_field,
+};
+use crate::vector::bq::transform::{
+    ADD_FACTORS_FIELD, ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD, EX_ADD_FACTORS_FIELD, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD,
+    SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD,
+};
+use crate::vector::bq::{
+    RABIT_DEFAULT_NUM_BITS, RQBuildParams, RQRotationType, rabit_binary_code_bytes, rabit_ex_bits,
+    rotation::{apply_fast_rotation, fast_rotation_signs_len, random_fast_rotation_signs},
+    validate_rq_num_bits,
 };
-use crate::vector::bq::transform::{ADD_FACTORS_FIELD, SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD};
-use crate::vector::bq::RQBuildParams;
 use crate::vector::quantizer::{Quantization, Quantizer, QuantizerBuildParams};
 
 /// Build parameters for RabitQuantizer.
 ///
-/// num_bits: the number of bits per dimension.
+/// num_bits: the number of bits per dimension. Defaults to 5.
 pub struct RabitBuildParams {
     pub num_bits: u8,
+    pub rotation_type: RQRotationType,
 }
 
 impl Default for RabitBuildParams {
     fn default() -> Self {
-        Self { num_bits: 1 }
+        Self {
+            num_bits: RABIT_DEFAULT_NUM_BITS,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::default(),
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -48,27 +60,252 @@ pub struct RabitQuantizer {
     metadata: RabitQuantizationMetadata,
 }
 
+pub(crate) struct RabitQuantizedBatch {
+    pub binary_codes: ArrayRef,
+    pub ex_codes: Option<ArrayRef>,
+    pub ex_res_dot_dists: Option<Vec<f32>>,
+    pub rotated_residuals: Option<Vec<f32>>,
+    pub ex_code_values: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn pack_sign_bits(codes: &mut [u8], rotated: &[f32]) {
+    codes.fill(0);
+    for (bit_idx, value) in rotated.iter().enumerate() {
+        if value.is_sign_positive() {
+            codes[bit_idx / u8::BITS as usize] |= 1u8 << (bit_idx % u8::BITS as usize);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+const EX_QUANTIZATION_EPSILON: f32 = 1.0e-5;
+const EX_TIGHT_START: [f32; 9] = [0.0, 0.15, 0.20, 0.52, 0.59, 0.71, 0.75, 0.77, 0.81];
+
+/// Sort packed `(positive_f32_bits, index)` values by their floating-point key.
+///
+/// All thresholds emitted by [`best_ex_rescale_factor`] are positive and finite,
+/// so their IEEE-754 bit patterns have the same order as the represented values.
+/// Four stable byte-wise passes avoid the comparison-heavy tuple sort on every
+/// vector while preserving the exact threshold order.
+fn radix_sort_positive_f32_indices(values: &mut [u64]) {
+    if values.len() < 2 {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    fn pass(source: &[u64], destination: &mut [u64], shift: u32) {
+        let mut offsets = [0usize; 256];
+        for &value in source {
+            offsets[((value >> shift) & 0xff) as usize] += 1;
+        }
+        let mut next_offset = 0;
+        for offset in &mut offsets {
+            let count = *offset;
+            *offset = next_offset;
+            next_offset += count;
+        }
+        for &value in source {
+            let bucket = ((value >> shift) & 0xff) as usize;
+            destination[offsets[bucket]] = value;
+            offsets[bucket] += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut scratch = vec![0u64; values.len()];
+    pass(values, &mut scratch, 32);
+    pass(&scratch, values, 40);
+    pass(values, &mut scratch, 48);
+    pass(&scratch, values, 56);
+}
+
+/// Sort RQ threshold events without changing the existing equal-key behavior.
+///
+/// The quantizer updates its floating-point objective after every event, so the
+/// order chosen by the previous unstable comparison sort remains observable when
+/// thresholds tie. Radix sort the common unique-key case, but reconstruct the
+/// original event order and use the previous sort when duplicate keys are found.
+fn sort_ex_thresholds(values: &mut [u64]) {
+    radix_sort_positive_f32_indices(values);
+    let has_duplicate_keys = values
+        .windows(2)
+        .any(|pair| pair[0] >> u32::BITS == pair[1] >> u32::BITS);
+    if !has_duplicate_keys {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    // Events were originally emitted by index, then by increasing threshold.
+    values.sort_unstable_by_key(|value| (*value as u32, (value >> u32::BITS) as u32));
+    let mut comparison_thresholds = values
+        .iter()
+        .map(|value| {
+            (
+                f32::from_bits((value >> u32::BITS) as u32),
+                *value as u32 as usize,
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    comparison_thresholds.sort_unstable_by(|(left, _), (right, _)| left.total_cmp(right));
+    for (value, (threshold, idx)) in values.iter_mut().zip(comparison_thresholds) {
+        *value = ((threshold.to_bits() as u64) << u32::BITS) | idx as u64;
+    }
+}
+
+fn best_ex_rescale_factor(abs_normalized: &[f32], ex_bits: u8) -> f32 {
+    let max_value = abs_normalized
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .filter(|value| value.is_finite())
+        .fold(0.0f32, f32::max);
+    if max_value <= 0.0 {
+        return 0.0;
+    }
+
+    let max_code = (1usize << ex_bits) - 1;
+    let t_end = ((max_code + 10) as f32) / max_value;
+    let t_start = t_end * EX_TIGHT_START[ex_bits as usize];
+
+    let mut current_codes = Vec::with_capacity(abs_normalized.len());
+    let mut squared_denominator = abs_normalized.len() as f32 * 0.25;
+    let mut numerator = 0.0f32;
+    let mut thresholds = Vec::with_capacity(abs_normalized.len() * max_code);
+
+    for (idx, &value) in abs_normalized.iter().enumerate() {
+        if value <= 0.0 || !value.is_finite() {
+            current_codes.push(0usize);
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let current = ((t_start * value) + EX_QUANTIZATION_EPSILON)
+            .floor()
+            .clamp(0.0, max_code as f32) as usize;
+        current_codes.push(current);
+        squared_denominator += (current * current + current) as f32;
+        numerator += (current as f32 + 0.5) * value;
+
+        let mut next = current + 1;
+        while next <= max_code {
+            let threshold = next as f32 / value;
+            if threshold < t_end {
+                debug_assert!(u32::try_from(idx).is_ok());
+                thresholds.push(((threshold.to_bits() as u64) << u32::BITS) | idx as u64);
+            }
+            next += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    sort_ex_thresholds(&mut thresholds);
+
+    let mut best_inner_product = numerator / squared_denominator.sqrt();
+    let mut best_t = t_start;
+    for packed_threshold in thresholds {
+        let threshold = f32::from_bits((packed_threshold >> u32::BITS) as u32);
+        let idx = packed_threshold as u32 as usize;
+        current_codes[idx] += 1;
+        let updated = current_codes[idx];
+        squared_denominator += (2 * updated) as f32;
+        numerator += abs_normalized[idx];
+
+        let current_inner_product = numerator / squared_denominator.sqrt();
+        if current_inner_product > best_inner_product {
+            best_inner_product = current_inner_product;
+            best_t = threshold;
+        }
+    }
+
+    best_t
+}
+
+fn quantize_ex_code(
+    rotated: &[f32],
+    ex_bits: u8,
+    ex_code_dst: &mut [u8],
+    ex_code_values_dst: &mut [u8],
+) -> f32 {
+    debug_assert_eq!(rotated.len(), ex_code_values_dst.len());
+    let norm_squared = rotated.iter().map(|value| value * value).sum::<f32>();
+    if norm_squared <= f32::EPSILON || !norm_squared.is_finite() {
+        ex_code_dst.fill(0);
+        ex_code_values_dst.fill(0);
+        return 0.0;
+    }
+
+    let norm = norm_squared.sqrt();
+    let abs_normalized = rotated
+        .iter()
+        .map(|value| value.abs() / norm)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let t = best_ex_rescale_factor(&abs_normalized, ex_bits);
+    let max_code = ((1u16 << ex_bits) - 1) as u8;
+    let mask = max_code;
+    let code_bias = -((1u32 << ex_bits) as f32 - 0.5);
+    let mut residual_dot_code = 0.0f32;
+
+    for ((&value, &abs_value), ex_code_value) in rotated
+        .iter()
+        .zip(abs_normalized.iter())
+        .zip(ex_code_values_dst.iter_mut())
+    {
+        let mut ex_code = ((t * abs_value) + EX_QUANTIZATION_EPSILON)
+            .floor()
+            .clamp(0.0, max_code as f32) as u8;
+        if value.is_sign_negative() {
+            ex_code = (!ex_code) & mask;
+        }
+        let sign_code = u8::from(value.is_sign_positive());
+        let full_code = ((sign_code as u32) << ex_bits) + ex_code as u32;
+        residual_dot_code += value * (full_code as f32 + code_bias);
+        *ex_code_value = ex_code;
+    }
+
+    crate::vector::bq::ex_dot::pack_blocked_row(ex_code_values_dst, ex_bits, ex_code_dst);
+    residual_dot_code
+}
+
 impl RabitQuantizer {
     pub fn new<T: ArrowFloatType>(num_bits: u8, dim: i32) -> Self {
-        // we don't need to calculate the inverse of P,
-        // just take the generated matrix as P^{-1}
-        let code_dim = dim * num_bits as i32;
-        let rotate_mat = random_orthogonal::<T>(code_dim as usize);
-        let (rotate_mat, _) = rotate_mat.into_raw_vec_and_offset();
-
-        let rotate_mat = match T::FLOAT_TYPE {
-            FloatType::Float16 | FloatType::Float32 | FloatType::Float64 => {
-                let rotate_mat = <T::ArrayType as FloatArray<T>>::from_values(rotate_mat);
-                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(rotate_mat, code_dim).unwrap()
-            }
-            _ => unimplemented!("RabitQ does not support data type: {:?}", T::FLOAT_TYPE),
-        };
+        Self::new_with_rotation::<T>(num_bits, dim, RQRotationType::default())
+    }
 
-        let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
-            rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
-            rotate_mat_position: 0,
-            num_bits,
-            packed: false,
+    pub fn new_with_rotation<T: ArrowFloatType>(
+        num_bits: u8,
+        dim: i32,
+        rotation_type: RQRotationType,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(dim >= 0, "RabitQ dimension should be non-negative");
+        let code_dim = dim as usize;
+        let metadata = match rotation_type {
+            RQRotationType::Matrix => {
+                // we don't need to calculate the inverse of P, just take generated Q as P^{-1}
+                let rotate_mat = random_orthogonal::<T>(code_dim);
+                let (rotate_mat, _) = rotate_mat.into_raw_vec_and_offset();
+                let rotate_mat = match T::FLOAT_TYPE {
+                    FloatType::Float16 | FloatType::Float32 | FloatType::Float64 => {
+                        let rotate_mat = <T::ArrayType as FloatArray<T>>::from_values(rotate_mat);
+                        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(rotate_mat, code_dim as i32)
+                            .unwrap()
+                    }
+                    _ => unimplemented!("RabitQ does not support data type: {:?}", T::FLOAT_TYPE),
+                };
+                RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+                    rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
+                    rotate_mat_position: None,
+                    fast_rotation_signs: None,
+                    rotation_type,
+                    code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+                    num_bits,
+                    packed: false,
+                    query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+                }
+            }
+            RQRotationType::Fast => RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+                rotate_mat: None,
+                rotate_mat_position: None,
+                fast_rotation_signs: Some(random_fast_rotation_signs(code_dim)),
+                rotation_type,
+                code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+                num_bits,
+                packed: false,
+                query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+            },
         };
         Self { metadata }
     }
@@ -77,6 +314,82 @@ impl RabitQuantizer {
         self.metadata.num_bits
     }
 
+    pub fn rotation_type(&self) -> RQRotationType {
+        self.metadata.rotation_type
+    }
+
+    pub fn metadata_ref(&self) -> &RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+        &self.metadata
+    }
+
+    fn from_supplied_rotation(params: &RQBuildParams, dim: usize) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        let Some(metadata) = params.rotation.as_ref() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        if metadata.num_bits != params.num_bits {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "rabitq_model num_bits={} does not match requested num_bits={}",
+                metadata.num_bits, params.num_bits
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let rotated_dim = metadata.rotated_dim();
+        if rotated_dim != dim {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "rabitq_model dimension={} does not match vector dimension={}",
+                rotated_dim, dim
+            )));
+        }
+
+        match metadata.rotation_type {
+            RQRotationType::Fast => {
+                let signs = metadata.fast_rotation_signs.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(
+                        "rabitq_model fast rotation is missing fast_rotation_signs".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                let expected_len = fast_rotation_signs_len(dim);
+                if signs.len() != expected_len {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "rabitq_model fast_rotation_signs length={} does not match expected length={} for dimension={}",
+                        signs.len(),
+                        expected_len,
+                        dim
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+            RQRotationType::Matrix => {
+                let rotate_mat = metadata.rotate_mat.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(
+                        "rabitq_model matrix rotation is missing rotate_mat".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                if rotate_mat.len() != dim || rotate_mat.value_length() != dim as i32 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "rabitq_model matrix rotation shape=({}, {}) does not match vector dimension={}",
+                        rotate_mat.len(),
+                        rotate_mat.value_length(),
+                        dim
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(Some(Self {
+            metadata: metadata.clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn fast_rotation_signs(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        self.metadata
+            .fast_rotation_signs
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("RabitQ fast rotation signs missing")
+            .as_slice()
+    }
+
     #[inline]
     fn rotate_mat_flat<T: ArrowFloatType>(&self) -> &[T::Native] {
         let rotate_mat = self.metadata.rotate_mat.as_ref().unwrap();
@@ -94,8 +407,101 @@ impl RabitQuantizer {
         ndarray::ArrayView2::from_shape((code_dim, code_dim), self.rotate_mat_flat::<T>()).unwrap()
     }
 
+    fn rotate_vectors<T: ArrowFloatType>(
+        &self,
+        vectors: ndarray::ArrayView2<'_, T::Native>,
+    ) -> ndarray::Array2<f32>
+    where
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
+    {
+        let dim = vectors.nrows();
+        let code_dim = self.code_dim();
+        match self.rotation_type() {
+            RQRotationType::Matrix => {
+                let rotate_mat = self.rotate_mat::<T>();
+                let rotate_mat = rotate_mat.slice(s![.., 0..dim]);
+                rotate_mat.dot(&vectors).mapv(|v| v.as_())
+            }
+            RQRotationType::Fast => {
+                let signs = self.fast_rotation_signs();
+                let ncols = vectors.ncols();
+                let mut rotated_data = vec![0.0f32; code_dim * ncols];
+                rotated_data
+                    .par_chunks_mut(code_dim)
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .for_each_init(
+                        || vec![0.0f32; code_dim],
+                        |scratch, (col_idx, dst)| {
+                            let column = vectors.column(col_idx);
+                            let input = column
+                                .as_slice()
+                                .expect("RabitQ input vectors should be contiguous");
+                            apply_fast_rotation(input, scratch, signs);
+                            dst.copy_from_slice(scratch);
+                        },
+                    );
+
+                ndarray::Array2::from_shape_vec((code_dim, ncols).f(), rotated_data).unwrap()
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn rotate_fsl_to_f32(&self, vectors: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<Vec<f32>> {
+        match vectors.value_type() {
+            DataType::Float16 => self.rotate_fsl_to_f32_typed::<Float16Type>(vectors),
+            DataType::Float32 => self.rotate_fsl_to_f32_typed::<Float32Type>(vectors),
+            DataType::Float64 => self.rotate_fsl_to_f32_typed::<Float64Type>(vectors),
+            value_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported data type: {:?}",
+                value_type
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn rotate_fsl_to_f32_typed<T: ArrowFloatType>(
+        &self,
+        vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<f32>>
+    where
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32> + Sync,
+    {
+        let dim = self.dim();
+        if vectors.value_length() as usize != dim {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Vector dimension mismatch: {} != {}",
+                vectors.value_length(),
+                dim
+            )));
+        }
+        let values = vectors
+            .values()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Vector values have unexpected data type: {}",
+                    vectors.value_type()
+                ))
+            })?
+            .as_slice();
+        let vec_mat = ndarray::ArrayView2::from_shape((vectors.len(), dim), values)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+        let rotated = self.rotate_vectors::<T>(vec_mat.t());
+        let code_dim = self.code_dim();
+        let mut row_major = vec![0.0f32; vectors.len() * code_dim];
+        for row_idx in 0..vectors.len() {
+            for (dst, value) in row_major[row_idx * code_dim..(row_idx + 1) * code_dim]
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(rotated.column(row_idx).iter())
+            {
+                *dst = *value;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(row_major)
+    }
+
     pub fn dim(&self) -> usize {
-        self.code_dim() / self.metadata.num_bits as usize
+        self.code_dim()
     }
 
     // compute the dot product of v_q * v_r
@@ -104,41 +510,54 @@ impl RabitQuantizer {
         residual_vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
     ) -> Result<Vec<f32>>
     where
-        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32> + Sync,
     {
         let dim = self.dim();
         if residual_vectors.value_length() as usize != dim {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Vector dimension mismatch: {} != {}",
-                    residual_vectors.value_length(),
-                    dim
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Vector dimension mismatch: {} != {}",
+                residual_vectors.value_length(),
+                dim
+            )));
         }
 
-        // convert the vector to a dxN matrix
-        let vec_mat = ndarray::ArrayView2::from_shape(
-            (residual_vectors.len(), dim),
-            residual_vectors
-                .values()
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
-                .unwrap()
-                .as_slice(),
-        )
-        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string(), location!()))?;
-        let vec_mat = vec_mat.t();
-
-        let rotate_mat = self.rotate_mat::<T>();
-        // slice to (code_dim, dim)
-        let rotate_mat = rotate_mat.slice(s![.., 0..dim]);
-        let rotated_vectors = rotate_mat.dot(&vec_mat);
-        let sqrt_dim = (dim as f32 * self.metadata.num_bits as f32).sqrt();
-        let norm_dists = rotated_vectors.mapv(|v| v.as_().abs()).sum_axis(Axis(0)) / sqrt_dim;
-        debug_assert_eq!(norm_dists.len(), residual_vectors.len());
-        Ok(norm_dists.to_vec())
+        let sqrt_dim = (dim as f32).sqrt();
+        let values = residual_vectors
+            .values()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_slice();
+
+        match self.rotation_type() {
+            RQRotationType::Matrix => {
+                // convert the vector to a dxN matrix
+                let vec_mat =
+                    ndarray::ArrayView2::from_shape((residual_vectors.len(), dim), values)
+                        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+                let vec_mat = vec_mat.t();
+                let rotated_vectors = self.rotate_vectors::<T>(vec_mat);
+                let norm_dists = rotated_vectors.mapv(f32::abs).sum_axis(Axis(0)) / sqrt_dim;
+                debug_assert_eq!(norm_dists.len(), residual_vectors.len());
+                Ok(norm_dists.to_vec())
+            }
+            RQRotationType::Fast => {
+                let code_dim = self.code_dim();
+                let signs = self.fast_rotation_signs();
+                let mut norm_dists = vec![0.0f32; residual_vectors.len()];
+                norm_dists
+                    .par_iter_mut()
+                    .zip(values.par_chunks_exact(dim))
+                    .for_each_init(
+                        || vec![0.0f32; code_dim],
+                        |scratch, (dst, input)| {
+                            apply_fast_rotation(input, scratch, signs);
+                            *dst = scratch.iter().map(|v| v.abs()).sum::<f32>() / sqrt_dim;
+                        },
+                    );
+                Ok(norm_dists)
+            }
+        }
     }
 
     fn transform<T: ArrowFloatType>(
@@ -146,38 +565,179 @@ impl RabitQuantizer {
         residual_vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
     ) -> Result<ArrayRef>
     where
-        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32> + Sync,
     {
         // we don't need to normalize the residual vectors,
         // because the sign of P^{-1} * v_r is the same as P^{-1} * v_r / ||v_r||
         let n = residual_vectors.len();
         let dim = self.dim();
         debug_assert_eq!(residual_vectors.values().len(), n * dim);
+        let values = residual_vectors
+            .values()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_slice();
+        let code_dim = self.code_dim();
+        let code_bytes = rabit_binary_code_bytes(code_dim);
+
+        match self.rotation_type() {
+            RQRotationType::Matrix => {
+                let vectors = ndarray::ArrayView2::from_shape((n, dim), values)
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+                let vectors = vectors.t();
+                let rotated_vectors = self.rotate_vectors::<T>(vectors);
+
+                let quantized_vectors = rotated_vectors.t().mapv(|v| v.is_sign_positive());
+                let bv: BitVec<u8, Lsb0> = BitVec::from_iter(quantized_vectors);
+
+                let codes = UInt8Array::from(bv.into_vec());
+                debug_assert_eq!(codes.len(), n * code_bytes);
+                Ok(Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                    codes,
+                    code_bytes as i32,
+                )?))
+            }
+            RQRotationType::Fast => {
+                let signs = self.fast_rotation_signs();
+                let mut encoded_codes = vec![0u8; n * code_bytes];
+                encoded_codes
+                    .par_chunks_mut(code_bytes)
+                    .zip(values.par_chunks_exact(dim))
+                    .for_each_init(
+                        || vec![0.0f32; code_dim],
+                        |scratch, (code_dst, input)| {
+                            apply_fast_rotation(input, scratch, signs);
+                            pack_sign_bits(code_dst, scratch);
+                        },
+                    );
+                let codes = UInt8Array::from(encoded_codes);
+                debug_assert_eq!(codes.len(), n * code_bytes);
+                Ok(Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                    codes,
+                    code_bytes as i32,
+                )?))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn quantize_split(
+        &self,
+        vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    ) -> Result<RabitQuantizedBatch> {
+        match vectors.value_type() {
+            DataType::Float16 => self.transform_split::<Float16Type>(vectors),
+            DataType::Float32 => self.transform_split::<Float32Type>(vectors),
+            DataType::Float64 => self.transform_split::<Float64Type>(vectors),
+            value_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported data type: {:?}",
+                value_type
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn transform_split<T: ArrowFloatType>(
+        &self,
+        residual_vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    ) -> Result<RabitQuantizedBatch>
+    where
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32> + Sync,
+    {
+        let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(self.metadata.num_bits)?;
+        let n = residual_vectors.len();
+        let dim = self.dim();
+        debug_assert_eq!(residual_vectors.values().len(), n * dim);
+        let values = residual_vectors
+            .values()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_slice();
+        let code_dim = self.code_dim();
+        let code_bytes = rabit_binary_code_bytes(code_dim);
+        let ex_code_bytes = if ex_bits == 0 {
+            0
+        } else {
+            crate::vector::bq::ex_dot::blocked_ex_code_bytes(code_dim, ex_bits)
+        };
+
+        let mut encoded_codes = vec![0u8; n * code_bytes];
+        let mut encoded_ex_codes = (ex_bits != 0).then(|| vec![0u8; n * ex_code_bytes]);
+        let mut ex_res_dot_dists = (ex_bits != 0).then(|| vec![0.0f32; n]);
+        let mut rotated_residuals = vec![0.0f32; n * code_dim];
+        let mut ex_code_values = (ex_bits != 0).then(|| vec![0u8; n * code_dim]);
+
+        match self.rotation_type() {
+            RQRotationType::Matrix => {
+                let vectors = ndarray::ArrayView2::from_shape((n, dim), values)
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+                let vectors = vectors.t();
+                let rotated_vectors = self.rotate_vectors::<T>(vectors);
 
-        let vectors = ndarray::ArrayView2::from_shape(
-            (n, dim),
-            residual_vectors
-                .values()
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
-                .unwrap()
-                .as_slice(),
-        )
-        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string(), location!()))?;
-        let vectors = vectors.t();
-        let rotate_mat = self.rotate_mat::<T>();
-        let rotate_mat = rotate_mat.slice(s![.., 0..dim]);
-        let rotated_vectors = rotate_mat.dot(&vectors);
-
-        let quantized_vectors = rotated_vectors.t().mapv(|v| v.as_().is_sign_positive());
-        let bv: BitVec<u8, Lsb0> = BitVec::from_iter(quantized_vectors);
-
-        let codes = UInt8Array::from(bv.into_vec());
-        debug_assert_eq!(codes.len(), n * self.code_dim() / u8::BITS as usize);
-        Ok(Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-            codes,
-            self.code_dim() as i32 / u8::BITS as i32, // num_bits -> num_bytes
-        )?))
+                encoded_codes
+                    .chunks_mut(code_bytes)
+                    .zip(rotated_residuals.chunks_mut(code_dim))
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .for_each(|(row_idx, (code_dst, rotated_dst))| {
+                        for (dst, value) in rotated_dst
+                            .iter_mut()
+                            .zip(rotated_vectors.column(row_idx).iter())
+                        {
+                            *dst = *value;
+                        }
+                        pack_sign_bits(code_dst, rotated_dst);
+                    });
+            }
+            RQRotationType::Fast => {
+                let signs = self.fast_rotation_signs();
+                encoded_codes
+                    .par_chunks_mut(code_bytes)
+                    .zip(rotated_residuals.par_chunks_mut(code_dim))
+                    .zip(values.par_chunks_exact(dim))
+                    .for_each(|((code_dst, rotated_dst), input)| {
+                        apply_fast_rotation(input, rotated_dst, signs);
+                        pack_sign_bits(code_dst, rotated_dst);
+                    });
+            }
+        }
+
+        if ex_bits != 0 {
+            let encoded_ex_codes = encoded_ex_codes
+                .as_mut()
+                .expect("ex-code buffer should exist for multi-bit RQ");
+            let ex_res_dot_dists = ex_res_dot_dists
+                .as_mut()
+                .expect("ex dot buffer should exist for multi-bit RQ");
+            let ex_code_values = ex_code_values
+                .as_mut()
+                .expect("ex-code value buffer should exist for multi-bit RQ");
+            encoded_ex_codes
+                .par_chunks_mut(ex_code_bytes)
+                .zip(ex_code_values.par_chunks_mut(code_dim))
+                .zip(ex_res_dot_dists.par_iter_mut())
+                .zip(rotated_residuals.par_chunks(code_dim))
+                .for_each(|(((ex_dst, ex_values_dst), ex_dot_dst), rotated)| {
+                    *ex_dot_dst = quantize_ex_code(rotated, ex_bits, ex_dst, ex_values_dst);
+                });
+        }
+
+        let binary_codes = UInt8Array::from(encoded_codes);
+        let ex_codes = encoded_ex_codes.map(UInt8Array::from);
+        Ok(RabitQuantizedBatch {
+            binary_codes: Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                binary_codes,
+                code_bytes as i32,
+            )?),
+            ex_codes: ex_codes
+                .map(|ex_codes| {
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(ex_codes, ex_code_bytes as i32)
+                        .map(|array| Arc::new(array) as ArrayRef)
+                })
+                .transpose()?,
+            ex_res_dot_dists,
+            rotated_residuals: Some(rotated_residuals),
+            ex_code_values,
+        })
     }
 }
 
@@ -191,21 +751,39 @@ impl Quantization for RabitQuantizer {
         _: lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType,
         params: &Self::BuildParams,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
+        validate_rq_num_bits(params.num_bits)?;
+
+        let dim = data.as_fixed_size_list().value_length() as usize;
+        if !dim.is_multiple_of(u8::BITS as usize) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "vector dimension must be divisible by 8 for IVF_RQ",
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(q) = Self::from_supplied_rotation(params, dim)? {
+            return Ok(q);
+        }
+
         let q = match data.as_fixed_size_list().value_type() {
-            DataType::Float16 => {
-                Self::new::<Float16Type>(params.num_bits, data.as_fixed_size_list().value_length())
-            }
-            DataType::Float32 => {
-                Self::new::<Float32Type>(params.num_bits, data.as_fixed_size_list().value_length())
-            }
-            DataType::Float64 => {
-                Self::new::<Float64Type>(params.num_bits, data.as_fixed_size_list().value_length())
-            }
+            DataType::Float16 => Self::new_with_rotation::<Float16Type>(
+                params.num_bits,
+                data.as_fixed_size_list().value_length(),
+                params.rotation_type,
+            ),
+            DataType::Float32 => Self::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(
+                params.num_bits,
+                data.as_fixed_size_list().value_length(),
+                params.rotation_type,
+            ),
+            DataType::Float64 => Self::new_with_rotation::<Float64Type>(
+                params.num_bits,
+                data.as_fixed_size_list().value_length(),
+                params.rotation_type,
+            ),
             dt => {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", dt),
-                    location!(),
-                ))
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Unsupported data type: {:?}",
+                    dt
+                )));
             }
         };
         Ok(q)
@@ -216,11 +794,15 @@ impl Quantization for RabitQuantizer {
     }
 
     fn code_dim(&self) -> usize {
-        self.metadata
-            .rotate_mat
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|inv_p| inv_p.len())
-            .unwrap_or(0)
+        if self.metadata.code_dim > 0 {
+            self.metadata.code_dim as usize
+        } else {
+            self.metadata
+                .rotate_mat
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|rotate_mat| rotate_mat.len())
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+        }
     }
 
     fn column(&self) -> &'static str {
@@ -237,10 +819,10 @@ impl Quantization for RabitQuantizer {
             DataType::Float16 => self.transform::<Float16Type>(vectors),
             DataType::Float32 => self.transform::<Float32Type>(vectors),
             DataType::Float64 => self.transform::<Float64Type>(vectors),
-            value_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", value_type),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            value_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported data type: {:?}",
+                value_type
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -265,24 +847,29 @@ impl Quantization for RabitQuantizer {
         metadata: &Self::Metadata,
         _: lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType,
     ) -> Result<Quantizer> {
+        validate_rq_num_bits(metadata.num_bits)?;
         Ok(Quantizer::Rabit(Self {
             metadata: metadata.clone(),
         }))
     }
 
     fn field(&self) -> Field {
-        Field::new(
-            RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
-                self.code_dim() as i32 / u8::BITS as i32, // num_bits -> num_bytes
-            ),
-            true,
-        )
+        rabit_binary_code_field(self.code_dim())
     }
 
     fn extra_fields(&self) -> Vec<Field> {
-        vec![ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(), SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone()]
+        let mut fields = vec![ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(), SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone()];
+        if self.metadata.query_estimator == RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery {
+            fields.push(ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(ex_code_field) = rabit_ex_code_field(self.code_dim(), self.metadata.num_bits)
+            .expect("RabitQ num_bits should be validated")
+        {
+            fields.push(ex_code_field);
+            fields.push(EX_ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone());
+            fields.push(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone());
+        }
+        fields
     }
 }
 
@@ -294,7 +881,6 @@ impl TryFrom<Quantizer> for RabitQuantizer {
             Quantizer::Rabit(quantizer) => Ok(quantizer),
             _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Cannot convert non-RabitQuantizer to RabitQuantizer",
-                location!(),
             )),
         }
     }
@@ -370,8 +956,131 @@ where
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use approx::assert_relative_eq;
+    use arrow::datatypes::Float32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
     use rstest::rstest;
 
+    use crate::vector::bq::storage::RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_build_params_default_num_bits() {
+        assert_eq!(RabitBuildParams::default().num_bits, 5);
+    }
+
+    fn reference_best_ex_rescale_factor(abs_normalized: &[f32], ex_bits: u8) -> f32 {
+        let max_value = abs_normalized
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .filter(|value| value.is_finite())
+            .fold(0.0f32, f32::max);
+        if max_value <= 0.0 {
+            return 0.0;
+        }
+
+        let max_code = (1usize << ex_bits) - 1;
+        let t_end = ((max_code + 10) as f32) / max_value;
+        let t_start = t_end * EX_TIGHT_START[ex_bits as usize];
+        let mut current_codes = Vec::with_capacity(abs_normalized.len());
+        let mut squared_denominator = abs_normalized.len() as f32 * 0.25;
+        let mut numerator = 0.0f32;
+        let mut thresholds = Vec::with_capacity(abs_normalized.len() * max_code);
+
+        for (idx, &value) in abs_normalized.iter().enumerate() {
+            if value <= 0.0 || !value.is_finite() {
+                current_codes.push(0usize);
+                continue;
+            }
+            let current = ((t_start * value) + EX_QUANTIZATION_EPSILON)
+                .floor()
+                .clamp(0.0, max_code as f32) as usize;
+            current_codes.push(current);
+            squared_denominator += (current * current + current) as f32;
+            numerator += (current as f32 + 0.5) * value;
+
+            for next in (current + 1)..=max_code {
+                let threshold = next as f32 / value;
+                if threshold < t_end {
+                    thresholds.push((threshold, idx));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        thresholds.sort_unstable_by(|(left, _), (right, _)| left.total_cmp(right));
+        let mut best_inner_product = numerator / squared_denominator.sqrt();
+        let mut best_t = t_start;
+        for (threshold, idx) in thresholds {
+            current_codes[idx] += 1;
+            let updated = current_codes[idx];
+            squared_denominator += (2 * updated) as f32;
+            numerator += abs_normalized[idx];
+            let current_inner_product = numerator / squared_denominator.sqrt();
+            if current_inner_product > best_inner_product {
+                best_inner_product = current_inner_product;
+                best_t = threshold;
+            }
+        }
+        best_t
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_radix_sort_positive_f32_indices_matches_float_order() {
+        let mut values = (0..4096u32)
+            .map(|idx| {
+                let key = ((idx.wrapping_mul(2654435761) % 997) + 1) as f32 / 37.0;
+                ((key.to_bits() as u64) << u32::BITS) | idx as u64
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut expected = values.clone();
+        expected.sort_by_key(|value| *value >> u32::BITS);
+
+        radix_sort_positive_f32_indices(&mut values);
+
+        assert_eq!(values, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_best_ex_rescale_factor_matches_comparison_sort() {
+        let mut values = (0..1536u32)
+            .map(|idx| {
+                let mixed = idx
+                    .wrapping_mul(747796405)
+                    .wrapping_add(2891336453)
+                    .rotate_right((idx % 31) + 1);
+                (mixed as f32 / u32::MAX as f32) * 0.1
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        values[0] = 0.0;
+        values[1] = f32::NAN;
+        values[2] = f32::INFINITY;
+        values[3] = values[4];
+
+        for ex_bits in 1..=8 {
+            let expected = reference_best_ex_rescale_factor(&values, ex_bits);
+            let actual = best_ex_rescale_factor(&values, ex_bits);
+            assert_eq!(actual.to_bits(), expected.to_bits(), "ex_bits={ex_bits}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_best_ex_rescale_factor_preserves_equal_threshold_order() {
+        let rotated = [0.75, 1.0, 0.0625, 0.5, 2.0 / 3.0, 0.75, 0.5, 2.0 / 3.0];
+        let norm = rotated
+            .iter()
+            .map(|value| value * value)
+            .sum::<f32>()
+            .sqrt();
+        let abs_normalized = rotated
+            .iter()
+            .map(|value| value.abs() / norm)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let expected = reference_best_ex_rescale_factor(&abs_normalized, 7);
+        let actual = best_ex_rescale_factor(&abs_normalized, 7);
+
+        assert_eq!(actual.to_bits(), expected.to_bits());
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[case(8)]
     #[case(16)]
@@ -410,4 +1119,171 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(q.dim(), (m, m));
         assert_eq!(r.dim(), (m, n));
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_quantizer_rotation_modes() {
+        let fast_q = RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(1, 128, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        assert_eq!(fast_q.rotation_type(), RQRotationType::Fast);
+        assert_eq!(fast_q.dim(), 128);
+        assert_eq!(fast_q.code_dim(), 128);
+
+        let matrix_q =
+            RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(1, 128, RQRotationType::Matrix);
+        assert_eq!(matrix_q.rotation_type(), RQRotationType::Matrix);
+        assert_eq!(matrix_q.dim(), 128);
+        assert_eq!(matrix_q.code_dim(), 128);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_quantizer_field_uses_binary_code_size() {
+        let q = RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(1, 128, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        let field = q.field();
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(_, code_bytes) = field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("RabitQ code field should be FixedSizeList");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(*code_bytes, 16);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_quantizer_extra_fields_include_raw_query_error_factor() {
+        let q = RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(1, 128, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        let fields = q.extra_fields();
+        assert!(
+            fields
+                .iter()
+                .any(|field| field.name() == ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD.name())
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !fields
+                .iter()
+                .any(|field| field.name() == RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN)
+        );
+
+        let q = RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(3, 128, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        let fields = q.extra_fields();
+        for expected in [
+            ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD.name().as_str(),
+            RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN,
+            EX_ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.name().as_str(),
+            EX_SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.name().as_str(),
+        ] {
+            assert!(
+                fields.iter().any(|field| field.name().as_str() == expected),
+                "missing {expected}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_quantizer_requires_dim_divisible_by_8() {
+        let vectors = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4 * 30]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, 30).unwrap();
+        let params = RQBuildParams::new(1);
+
+        let err = RabitQuantizer::build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2, &params).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("vector dimension must be divisible by 8 for IVF_RQ"),
+            "{}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_quantizer_reuses_supplied_rotation() {
+        let vectors = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4 * 32]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, 32).unwrap();
+        let supplied =
+            RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(3, 32, RQRotationType::Fast)
+                .metadata(None);
+        let supplied_signs = supplied.fast_rotation_signs.clone();
+
+        let mut params = RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(3, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        params.rotation = Some(supplied);
+
+        let quantizer = RabitQuantizer::build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2, &params).unwrap();
+        let metadata = quantizer.metadata_ref();
+        assert_eq!(metadata.num_bits, 3);
+        assert_eq!(metadata.rotation_type, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        assert_eq!(metadata.fast_rotation_signs, supplied_signs);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_quantizer_validates_supplied_rotation() {
+        let vectors = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4 * 32]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, 32).unwrap();
+        let supplied =
+            RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(3, 32, RQRotationType::Fast)
+                .metadata(None);
+
+        let mut wrong_num_bits = supplied.clone();
+        wrong_num_bits.num_bits = 1;
+        let mut params = RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(3, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        params.rotation = Some(wrong_num_bits);
+        let err = RabitQuantizer::build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2, &params).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("does not match requested num_bits")
+        );
+
+        let mut wrong_dim = supplied.clone();
+        wrong_dim.code_dim = 64;
+        let mut params = RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(3, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        params.rotation = Some(wrong_dim);
+        let err = RabitQuantizer::build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2, &params).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("does not match vector dimension"));
+
+        let mut wrong_sign_len = supplied;
+        wrong_sign_len.fast_rotation_signs.as_mut().unwrap().pop();
+        let mut params = RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(3, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        params.rotation = Some(wrong_sign_len);
+        let err = RabitQuantizer::build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2, &params).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("fast_rotation_signs length"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_quantizer_accepts_multi_bit_range() {
+        let vectors = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4 * 32]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, 32).unwrap();
+
+        let err =
+            RabitQuantizer::build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2, &RQBuildParams::new(0)).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("IVF_RQ num_bits must be in"),
+            "{}",
+            err
+        );
+
+        for rotation_type in [RQRotationType::Fast, RQRotationType::Matrix] {
+            let quantizer = RabitQuantizer::build(
+                &fsl,
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                &RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(9, rotation_type),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let quantized = quantizer.quantize_split(&fsl).unwrap();
+            assert!(quantized.ex_codes.is_some());
+            assert_eq!(
+                quantized.binary_codes.as_fixed_size_list().value_length(),
+                4
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                quantized
+                    .ex_codes
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_fixed_size_list()
+                    .value_length(),
+                // dim=32 is padded to one 64-dim block at ex_bits=8.
+                64
+            );
+        }
+
+        let err =
+            RabitQuantizer::build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2, &RQBuildParams::new(10)).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("IVF_RQ num_bits must be in"),
+            "{}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/dist_table_quant.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/dist_table_quant.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..528bdb6a376
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/dist_table_quant.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,934 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! SIMD kernels for quantizing the RaBitQ FastScan distance table.
+//!
+//! Once per (query, probed partition) the `dim * 4`-entry `f32` distance
+//! table is quantized into `u8` (fast/normal approx modes) or `u16`
+//! (accurate mode) FastScan LUT entries: a min/max pass over the table
+//! followed by an affine quantize-and-narrow pass. Both passes are branchy
+//! in scalar form, so they get the same runtime-dispatch treatment as
+//! [`super::ex_dot`]: explicit AVX-512/AVX2 kernels on x86_64 and a portable
+//! fold elsewhere that LLVM auto-vectorizes (NEON is part of the aarch64
+//! baseline).
+//!
+//! Table values are sums of rotated-query components: always finite, never
+//! NaN, so lanewise IEEE `min`/`max` matches `total_cmp` ordering. The only
+//! divergence is the sign of zero, which callers cannot observe: `d - qmin`
+//! and the `qmin == qmax` early-out are arithmetically identical either way.
+//!
+//! Quantization rounds half-to-even so that the scalar fallback and the SIMD
+//! kernels agree bit-exactly. All paths round with fixed-mode rounding,
+//! independent of the dynamic MXCSR rounding mode native code may have
+//! installed: the SIMD kernels use the converts' static rounding and the
+//! scalar path (also the SIMD tails) rounds via `f32::floor` rather than
+//! `f32::round_ties_even`, which can lower to an MXCSR-honoring instruction on
+//! x86. Relative to the pre-SIMD implementation (`f32::round`,
+//! half-away-from-zero) this can move a LUT entry by 1 on exact .5 ties, which
+//! is within the table's inherent quantization error.
+
+use std::mem::MaybeUninit;
+use std::sync::LazyLock;
+
+use super::storage::SEGMENT_NUM_CODES;
+
+type MinMaxFn = fn(&[f32]) -> (f32, f32);
+type QuantizeU8Fn = fn(&[f32], f32, f32, &mut [MaybeUninit<u8>]);
+type QuantizeU16Fn = fn(&[f32], f32, f32, &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>]);
+
+/// How the caller reconstructs binary inner-product distances from the
+/// FastScan accumulator sums computed against the quantized LUT.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+pub enum DistTableDequant {
+    /// Reconstruct each distance with the affine map
+    /// `q_sum * (qmax - qmin) / SCALE + num_tables * qmin`. Returned whenever
+    /// that map is finite, including a zero/sub-resolution range — then the
+    /// LUT is zeroed and every distance collapses to the constant
+    /// `num_tables * qmin`.
+    Affine { qmin: f32, qmax: f32 },
+    /// `num_tables * {qmin, qmax, qmax - qmin}` overflowed f32, so the affine
+    /// reconstruction would yield NaN/inf. The LUT is zeroed; the caller must
+    /// compute exact distances directly from the f32 table.
+    Exact,
+}
+
+/// Quantize `dist_table` into `u8` FastScan LUT entries in the caller-owned
+/// scratch buffer, returning how the caller must dequantize the FastScan
+/// sums (see [`DistTableDequant`]). `dist_table` must be non-empty and all
+/// values finite.
+pub fn quantize_dist_table_into(
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    quantized_dist_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+) -> DistTableDequant {
+    debug_assert!(!dist_table.is_empty(), "dist table must be non-empty");
+    let (qmin, qmax) = min_max(dist_table);
+    if dequant_overflows(dist_table.len(), qmin, qmax) {
+        // The caller's affine reconstruction would be non-finite; it computes
+        // exact distances and ignores the LUT, but keep the buffer valid.
+        quantized_dist_table.clear();
+        quantized_dist_table.resize(dist_table.len(), 0);
+        return DistTableDequant::Exact;
+    }
+    let factor = u8::MAX as f32 / (qmax - qmin);
+    if !factor.is_finite() {
+        // Zero or sub-u8-resolution range (e.g. an all-zeros query): the LUT
+        // carries no information, but the finite affine map sends every sum
+        // to the constant `num_tables * qmin`.
+        quantized_dist_table.clear();
+        quantized_dist_table.resize(dist_table.len(), 0);
+        return DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax };
+    }
+    quantized_dist_table.clear();
+    quantized_dist_table.reserve(dist_table.len());
+    quantize_u8(
+        dist_table,
+        qmin,
+        factor,
+        &mut quantized_dist_table.spare_capacity_mut()[..dist_table.len()],
+    );
+    // SAFETY: the kernel initialized every element in the reserved range.
+    unsafe {
+        quantized_dist_table.set_len(dist_table.len());
+    }
+    DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax }
+}
+
+/// `u16` variant of [`quantize_dist_table_into`] for the accurate approx
+/// mode.
+pub fn quantize_dist_table_u16_into(
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    quantized_dist_table: &mut Vec<u16>,
+) -> DistTableDequant {
+    debug_assert!(!dist_table.is_empty(), "dist table must be non-empty");
+    let (qmin, qmax) = min_max(dist_table);
+    if dequant_overflows(dist_table.len(), qmin, qmax) {
+        quantized_dist_table.clear();
+        quantized_dist_table.resize(dist_table.len(), 0);
+        return DistTableDequant::Exact;
+    }
+    let factor = u16::MAX as f32 / (qmax - qmin);
+    if !factor.is_finite() {
+        quantized_dist_table.clear();
+        quantized_dist_table.resize(dist_table.len(), 0);
+        return DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax };
+    }
+    quantized_dist_table.clear();
+    quantized_dist_table.reserve(dist_table.len());
+    quantize_u16(
+        dist_table,
+        qmin,
+        factor,
+        &mut quantized_dist_table.spare_capacity_mut()[..dist_table.len()],
+    );
+    // SAFETY: the kernel initialized every element in the reserved range.
+    unsafe {
+        quantized_dist_table.set_len(dist_table.len());
+    }
+    DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax }
+}
+
+/// Whether the caller's affine dequantization
+/// `q_sum * (qmax - qmin) / SCALE + num_tables * qmin` would overflow `f32`
+/// for some row. Each row's reconstructed binary IP lies in
+/// `[num_tables * qmin, num_tables * qmax]` and its quantized term is at most
+/// `num_tables * (qmax - qmin)`, so if any of those is non-finite the table
+/// must fall back to exact distances. The bound is scale-independent — the
+/// `1 / SCALE` factor and the `q_sum <= num_tables * SCALE` range cancel.
+/// Real dist tables are bounded sums of rotated-query components and never
+/// approach this; the guard exists so a pathological query degrades to exact
+/// distances instead of producing NaN.
+fn dequant_overflows(table_len: usize, qmin: f32, qmax: f32) -> bool {
+    let num_tables = (table_len / SEGMENT_NUM_CODES) as f32;
+    !(num_tables * qmin).is_finite()
+        || !(num_tables * qmax).is_finite()
+        || !(num_tables * (qmax - qmin)).is_finite()
+}
+
+fn min_max(values: &[f32]) -> (f32, f32) {
+    static KERNEL: LazyLock<MinMaxFn> = LazyLock::new(select_min_max);
+    KERNEL(values)
+}
+
+fn quantize_u8(values: &[f32], qmin: f32, factor: f32, out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u8>]) {
+    static KERNEL: LazyLock<QuantizeU8Fn> = LazyLock::new(select_quantize_u8);
+    KERNEL(values, qmin, factor, out)
+}
+
+fn quantize_u16(values: &[f32], qmin: f32, factor: f32, out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>]) {
+    static KERNEL: LazyLock<QuantizeU16Fn> = LazyLock::new(select_quantize_u16);
+    KERNEL(values, qmin, factor, out)
+}
+
+fn select_min_max() -> MinMaxFn {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            return x86::min_max_avx512_dispatch;
+        }
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return x86::min_max_avx2_dispatch;
+        }
+    }
+    min_max_fold
+}
+
+fn select_quantize_u8() -> QuantizeU8Fn {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            return x86::quantize_u8_avx512_dispatch;
+        }
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return x86::quantize_u8_avx2_dispatch;
+        }
+    }
+    quantize_u8_scalar
+}
+
+fn select_quantize_u16() -> QuantizeU16Fn {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            return x86::quantize_u16_avx512_dispatch;
+        }
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return x86::quantize_u16_avx2_dispatch;
+        }
+    }
+    quantize_u16_scalar
+}
+
+const FOLD_LANES: usize = 16;
+
+/// Portable 16-lane min/max fold; the scalar fallback and the aarch64 path.
+/// The `if` comparisons (rather than `f32::min`/`max`, which carry NaN
+/// bookkeeping) lower to lanewise min/max instructions on targets with
+/// baseline SIMD.
+fn min_max_fold(values: &[f32]) -> (f32, f32) {
+    let mut mins = [f32::INFINITY; FOLD_LANES];
+    let mut maxs = [f32::NEG_INFINITY; FOLD_LANES];
+    let (chunks, remainder) = values.as_chunks::<FOLD_LANES>();
+    for chunk in chunks {
+        for (i, &v) in chunk.iter().enumerate() {
+            mins[i] = if v < mins[i] { v } else { mins[i] };
+            maxs[i] = if v > maxs[i] { v } else { maxs[i] };
+        }
+    }
+    let mut min = f32::INFINITY;
+    let mut max = f32::NEG_INFINITY;
+    for v in mins {
+        min = if v < min { v } else { min };
+    }
+    for v in maxs {
+        max = if v > max { v } else { max };
+    }
+    for &v in remainder {
+        min = if v < min { v } else { min };
+        max = if v > max { v } else { max };
+    }
+    (min, max)
+}
+
+/// Round `x` to the nearest integer, ties to even — the same rule the SIMD
+/// converts use — with fixed-mode operations only, so the result never
+/// depends on the dynamic rounding mode native code may have installed.
+///
+/// On x86, `f32::round_ties_even` can lower to an MXCSR-honoring instruction
+/// (outside an SSE4.1 context), so nearest-even is built from `f32::floor`,
+/// which is always fixed-mode. `x` is a non-negative quantization product, so
+/// only the upward tie case is reachable, but the form is correct for any
+/// finite `x` whose floor fits in `i64`. Elsewhere (e.g. aarch64) the standard
+/// `round_ties_even` is already a fixed-mode instruction (`frintn`) that the
+/// quantize loop — which has no dedicated SIMD kernel there — vectorizes, so
+/// it is kept.
+#[inline(always)]
+fn round_ties_even_fixed(x: f32) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        let lower = x.floor();
+        let frac = x - lower;
+        let round_up = frac > 0.5 || (frac == 0.5 && (lower as i64 & 1) != 0);
+        lower + f32::from(round_up)
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        x.round_ties_even()
+    }
+}
+
+fn quantize_u8_scalar(values: &[f32], qmin: f32, factor: f32, out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u8>]) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), out.len());
+    for (quantized, &d) in out.iter_mut().zip(values) {
+        quantized.write(round_ties_even_fixed((d - qmin) * factor) as u8);
+    }
+}
+
+fn quantize_u16_scalar(values: &[f32], qmin: f32, factor: f32, out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>]) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), out.len());
+    for (quantized, &d) in out.iter_mut().zip(values) {
+        quantized.write(round_ties_even_fixed((d - qmin) * factor) as u16);
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+    use std::mem::MaybeUninit;
+
+    use super::{quantize_u8_scalar, quantize_u16_scalar};
+
+    pub(super) fn min_max_avx512_dispatch(values: &[f32]) -> (f32, f32) {
+        // SAFETY: only selected when AVX-512F was detected.
+        unsafe { min_max_avx512(values) }
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    unsafe fn min_max_avx512(values: &[f32]) -> (f32, f32) {
+        // Two accumulators per direction break the lanewise min/max latency
+        // chain; they are reduced once at the end.
+        let mut min0 = _mm512_set1_ps(f32::INFINITY);
+        let mut min1 = min0;
+        let mut max0 = _mm512_set1_ps(f32::NEG_INFINITY);
+        let mut max1 = max0;
+        let (chunks, remainder) = values.as_chunks::<32>();
+        for chunk in chunks {
+            // SAFETY: the chunk holds 32 consecutive floats.
+            let (v0, v1) = unsafe {
+                (
+                    _mm512_loadu_ps(chunk.as_ptr()),
+                    _mm512_loadu_ps(chunk.as_ptr().add(16)),
+                )
+            };
+            min0 = _mm512_min_ps(min0, v0);
+            max0 = _mm512_max_ps(max0, v0);
+            min1 = _mm512_min_ps(min1, v1);
+            max1 = _mm512_max_ps(max1, v1);
+        }
+        let mut min = _mm512_reduce_min_ps(_mm512_min_ps(min0, min1));
+        let mut max = _mm512_reduce_max_ps(_mm512_max_ps(max0, max1));
+        for &v in remainder {
+            min = if v < min { v } else { min };
+            max = if v > max { v } else { max };
+        }
+        (min, max)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn min_max_avx2_dispatch(values: &[f32]) -> (f32, f32) {
+        // SAFETY: only selected when AVX2 was detected.
+        unsafe { min_max_avx2(values) }
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    unsafe fn min_max_avx2(values: &[f32]) -> (f32, f32) {
+        let mut min0 = _mm256_set1_ps(f32::INFINITY);
+        let mut min1 = min0;
+        let mut max0 = _mm256_set1_ps(f32::NEG_INFINITY);
+        let mut max1 = max0;
+        let (chunks, remainder) = values.as_chunks::<16>();
+        for chunk in chunks {
+            // SAFETY: the chunk holds 16 consecutive floats.
+            let (v0, v1) = unsafe {
+                (
+                    _mm256_loadu_ps(chunk.as_ptr()),
+                    _mm256_loadu_ps(chunk.as_ptr().add(8)),
+                )
+            };
+            min0 = _mm256_min_ps(min0, v0);
+            max0 = _mm256_max_ps(max0, v0);
+            min1 = _mm256_min_ps(min1, v1);
+            max1 = _mm256_max_ps(max1, v1);
+        }
+        let mut min = reduce_min_avx2(_mm256_min_ps(min0, min1));
+        let mut max = reduce_max_avx2(_mm256_max_ps(max0, max1));
+        for &v in remainder {
+            min = if v < min { v } else { min };
+            max = if v > max { v } else { max };
+        }
+        (min, max)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    fn reduce_min_avx2(v: __m256) -> f32 {
+        let halves = _mm_min_ps(_mm256_castps256_ps128(v), _mm256_extractf128_ps::<1>(v));
+        let pairs = _mm_min_ps(halves, _mm_movehl_ps(halves, halves));
+        let single = _mm_min_ss(pairs, _mm_shuffle_ps::<0b01>(pairs, pairs));
+        _mm_cvtss_f32(single)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    fn reduce_max_avx2(v: __m256) -> f32 {
+        let halves = _mm_max_ps(_mm256_castps256_ps128(v), _mm256_extractf128_ps::<1>(v));
+        let pairs = _mm_max_ps(halves, _mm_movehl_ps(halves, halves));
+        let single = _mm_max_ss(pairs, _mm_shuffle_ps::<0b01>(pairs, pairs));
+        _mm_cvtss_f32(single)
+    }
+
+    /// Load 16 floats and affine-quantize them into `i32` lanes, rounding to
+    /// nearest-even with static rounding (`_MM_FROUND_TO_NEAREST_INT`) so the
+    /// result does not depend on the dynamic MXCSR rounding mode and matches
+    /// the scalar [`super::round_ties_even_fixed`].
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    unsafe fn quantize16_epi32(src: *const f32, min: __m512, factor: __m512) -> __m512i {
+        // SAFETY: the caller guarantees 16 floats are readable at `src`.
+        let v = unsafe { _mm512_loadu_ps(src) };
+        let scaled = _mm512_mul_ps(_mm512_sub_ps(v, min), factor);
+        _mm512_cvt_roundps_epi32::<{ _MM_FROUND_TO_NEAREST_INT | _MM_FROUND_NO_EXC }>(scaled)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn quantize_u8_avx512_dispatch(
+        values: &[f32],
+        qmin: f32,
+        factor: f32,
+        out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u8>],
+    ) {
+        // SAFETY: only selected when AVX-512F was detected.
+        unsafe { quantize_u8_avx512(values, qmin, factor, out) }
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    unsafe fn quantize_u8_avx512(
+        values: &[f32],
+        qmin: f32,
+        factor: f32,
+        out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u8>],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), out.len());
+        let min = _mm512_set1_ps(qmin);
+        let factor_v = _mm512_set1_ps(factor);
+        let full = values.len() - values.len() % 16;
+        let src = values.as_ptr();
+        let dst = out.as_mut_ptr().cast::<u8>();
+        for i in (0..full).step_by(16) {
+            // SAFETY: `i + 16 <= values.len() == out.len()`.
+            unsafe {
+                let q = quantize16_epi32(src.add(i), min, factor_v);
+                // Unsigned-saturating i32 -> u8 narrow: lanes are in
+                // [0, 255] plus float epsilon, which saturation clips.
+                _mm_storeu_si128(dst.add(i).cast(), _mm512_cvtusepi32_epi8(q));
+            }
+        }
+        quantize_u8_scalar(&values[full..], qmin, factor, &mut out[full..]);
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn quantize_u16_avx512_dispatch(
+        values: &[f32],
+        qmin: f32,
+        factor: f32,
+        out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>],
+    ) {
+        // SAFETY: only selected when AVX-512F was detected.
+        unsafe { quantize_u16_avx512(values, qmin, factor, out) }
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    unsafe fn quantize_u16_avx512(
+        values: &[f32],
+        qmin: f32,
+        factor: f32,
+        out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), out.len());
+        let min = _mm512_set1_ps(qmin);
+        let factor_v = _mm512_set1_ps(factor);
+        let full = values.len() - values.len() % 16;
+        let src = values.as_ptr();
+        let dst = out.as_mut_ptr().cast::<u16>();
+        for i in (0..full).step_by(16) {
+            // SAFETY: `i + 16 <= values.len() == out.len()`.
+            unsafe {
+                let q = quantize16_epi32(src.add(i), min, factor_v);
+                _mm256_storeu_si256(dst.add(i).cast(), _mm512_cvtusepi32_epi16(q));
+            }
+        }
+        quantize_u16_scalar(&values[full..], qmin, factor, &mut out[full..]);
+    }
+
+    /// Load 8 floats and affine-quantize them into `i32` lanes. AVX2 has no
+    /// embedded-rounding convert, so round to nearest-even explicitly with
+    /// `_mm256_round_ps` (which ignores MXCSR); the subsequent convert then
+    /// sees an integral value, so its dynamic rounding mode cannot change the
+    /// result, keeping it bit-identical to the scalar
+    /// [`super::round_ties_even_fixed`].
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    unsafe fn quantize8_epi32(src: *const f32, min: __m256, factor: __m256) -> __m256i {
+        // SAFETY: the caller guarantees 8 floats are readable at `src`.
+        let v = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(src) };
+        let scaled = _mm256_mul_ps(_mm256_sub_ps(v, min), factor);
+        let rounded = _mm256_round_ps::<{ _MM_FROUND_TO_NEAREST_INT | _MM_FROUND_NO_EXC }>(scaled);
+        _mm256_cvtps_epi32(rounded)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn quantize_u8_avx2_dispatch(
+        values: &[f32],
+        qmin: f32,
+        factor: f32,
+        out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u8>],
+    ) {
+        // SAFETY: only selected when AVX2 was detected.
+        unsafe { quantize_u8_avx2(values, qmin, factor, out) }
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    unsafe fn quantize_u8_avx2(
+        values: &[f32],
+        qmin: f32,
+        factor: f32,
+        out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u8>],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), out.len());
+        let min = _mm256_set1_ps(qmin);
+        let factor_v = _mm256_set1_ps(factor);
+        // The 32->16 and 16->8 packs interleave the two 128-bit lanes; this
+        // permutation of 32-bit groups restores natural order.
+        let restore = _mm256_setr_epi32(0, 4, 1, 5, 2, 6, 3, 7);
+        let full = values.len() - values.len() % 32;
+        let src = values.as_ptr();
+        let dst = out.as_mut_ptr().cast::<u8>();
+        for i in (0..full).step_by(32) {
+            // SAFETY: `i + 32 <= values.len() == out.len()`.
+            unsafe {
+                let q0 = quantize8_epi32(src.add(i), min, factor_v);
+                let q1 = quantize8_epi32(src.add(i + 8), min, factor_v);
+                let q2 = quantize8_epi32(src.add(i + 16), min, factor_v);
+                let q3 = quantize8_epi32(src.add(i + 24), min, factor_v);
+                // Unsigned-saturating i32 -> u16 -> u8 narrows: lanes are in
+                // [0, 255] plus float epsilon, which saturation clips.
+                let lo = _mm256_packus_epi32(q0, q1);
+                let hi = _mm256_packus_epi32(q2, q3);
+                let bytes = _mm256_permutevar8x32_epi32(_mm256_packus_epi16(lo, hi), restore);
+                _mm256_storeu_si256(dst.add(i).cast(), bytes);
+            }
+        }
+        quantize_u8_scalar(&values[full..], qmin, factor, &mut out[full..]);
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn quantize_u16_avx2_dispatch(
+        values: &[f32],
+        qmin: f32,
+        factor: f32,
+        out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>],
+    ) {
+        // SAFETY: only selected when AVX2 was detected.
+        unsafe { quantize_u16_avx2(values, qmin, factor, out) }
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    unsafe fn quantize_u16_avx2(
+        values: &[f32],
+        qmin: f32,
+        factor: f32,
+        out: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), out.len());
+        let min = _mm256_set1_ps(qmin);
+        let factor_v = _mm256_set1_ps(factor);
+        let full = values.len() - values.len() % 16;
+        let src = values.as_ptr();
+        let dst = out.as_mut_ptr().cast::<u16>();
+        for i in (0..full).step_by(16) {
+            // SAFETY: `i + 16 <= values.len() == out.len()`.
+            unsafe {
+                let q0 = quantize8_epi32(src.add(i), min, factor_v);
+                let q1 = quantize8_epi32(src.add(i + 8), min, factor_v);
+                // The pack interleaves the 128-bit lanes as
+                // [q0_lo, q1_lo, q0_hi, q1_hi]; the 64-bit-lane permute
+                // restores [q0_lo, q0_hi, q1_lo, q1_hi].
+                let packed = _mm256_packus_epi32(q0, q1);
+                let words = _mm256_permute4x64_epi64::<0b11_01_10_00>(packed);
+                _mm256_storeu_si256(dst.add(i).cast(), words);
+            }
+        }
+        quantize_u16_scalar(&values[full..], qmin, factor, &mut out[full..]);
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    /// Straightforward scalar reference implementing the documented
+    /// semantics: `total_cmp` min/max plus nearest-even rounding.
+    fn reference_min_max(values: &[f32]) -> (f32, f32) {
+        let min = values
+            .iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .min_by(|a, b| a.total_cmp(b))
+            .unwrap();
+        let max = values
+            .iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .max_by(|a, b| a.total_cmp(b))
+            .unwrap();
+        (min, max)
+    }
+
+    fn reference_u8(values: &[f32]) -> (DistTableDequant, Vec<u8>) {
+        let (qmin, qmax) = reference_min_max(values);
+        if dequant_overflows(values.len(), qmin, qmax) {
+            return (DistTableDequant::Exact, vec![0; values.len()]);
+        }
+        let factor = u8::MAX as f32 / (qmax - qmin);
+        if !factor.is_finite() {
+            return (
+                DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax },
+                vec![0; values.len()],
+            );
+        }
+        let quantized = values
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&d| ((d - qmin) * factor).round_ties_even() as u8)
+            .collect();
+        (DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax }, quantized)
+    }
+
+    fn reference_u16(values: &[f32]) -> (DistTableDequant, Vec<u16>) {
+        let (qmin, qmax) = reference_min_max(values);
+        if dequant_overflows(values.len(), qmin, qmax) {
+            return (DistTableDequant::Exact, vec![0; values.len()]);
+        }
+        let factor = u16::MAX as f32 / (qmax - qmin);
+        if !factor.is_finite() {
+            return (
+                DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax },
+                vec![0; values.len()],
+            );
+        }
+        let quantized = values
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&d| ((d - qmin) * factor).round_ties_even() as u16)
+            .collect();
+        (DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax }, quantized)
+    }
+
+    fn available_kernels() -> Vec<(&'static str, MinMaxFn, QuantizeU8Fn, QuantizeU16Fn)> {
+        // `mut` is only exercised on x86_64 where extra kernels may be pushed.
+        #[allow(unused_mut)]
+        let mut kernels = vec![(
+            "scalar",
+            min_max_fold as MinMaxFn,
+            quantize_u8_scalar as QuantizeU8Fn,
+            quantize_u16_scalar as QuantizeU16Fn,
+        )];
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+                kernels.push((
+                    "avx2",
+                    x86::min_max_avx2_dispatch,
+                    x86::quantize_u8_avx2_dispatch,
+                    x86::quantize_u16_avx2_dispatch,
+                ));
+            }
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                kernels.push((
+                    "avx512",
+                    x86::min_max_avx512_dispatch,
+                    x86::quantize_u8_avx512_dispatch,
+                    x86::quantize_u16_avx512_dispatch,
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        kernels
+    }
+
+    /// Every available kernel must agree bit-exactly with the reference on
+    /// the given input.
+    fn check_against_reference(values: &[f32]) {
+        let (expected_dequant_u8, expected_u8) = reference_u8(values);
+        let (expected_dequant_u16, expected_u16) = reference_u16(values);
+        let (expected_min, expected_max) = reference_min_max(values);
+
+        for (name, min_max_fn, quantize_u8_fn, quantize_u16_fn) in available_kernels() {
+            let (qmin, qmax) = min_max_fn(values);
+            assert_eq!(
+                (qmin, qmax),
+                (expected_min, expected_max),
+                "kernel={name} len={}",
+                values.len()
+            );
+
+            // The quantize kernels are only invoked on the populated path, so
+            // mirror that guard before exercising them directly.
+            let overflows = dequant_overflows(values.len(), qmin, qmax);
+            let factor_u8 = u8::MAX as f32 / (qmax - qmin);
+            if !overflows && factor_u8.is_finite() {
+                let mut out_u8 = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+                quantize_u8_fn(
+                    values,
+                    qmin,
+                    factor_u8,
+                    &mut out_u8.spare_capacity_mut()[..values.len()],
+                );
+                // SAFETY: the kernel initialized every element.
+                unsafe { out_u8.set_len(values.len()) };
+                assert_eq!(out_u8, expected_u8, "kernel={name} len={}", values.len());
+            }
+
+            let factor_u16 = u16::MAX as f32 / (qmax - qmin);
+            if !overflows && factor_u16.is_finite() {
+                let mut out_u16 = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+                quantize_u16_fn(
+                    values,
+                    qmin,
+                    factor_u16,
+                    &mut out_u16.spare_capacity_mut()[..values.len()],
+                );
+                // SAFETY: the kernel initialized every element.
+                unsafe { out_u16.set_len(values.len()) };
+                assert_eq!(out_u16, expected_u16, "kernel={name} len={}", values.len());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // The public entry points exercise the dispatched kernels, the
+        // dequantization classification, and the scratch-buffer handling.
+        let mut out_u8 = Vec::new();
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantize_dist_table_into(values, &mut out_u8),
+            expected_dequant_u8,
+            "len={}",
+            values.len()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(out_u8, expected_u8, "len={}", values.len());
+        let mut out_u16 = Vec::new();
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantize_dist_table_u16_into(values, &mut out_u16),
+            expected_dequant_u16,
+            "len={}",
+            values.len()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(out_u16, expected_u16, "len={}", values.len());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_quantize_matches_reference(
+        #[values(1, 2, 15, 16, 17, 31, 32, 33, 63, 64, 100, 6144, 6160)] len: usize,
+        #[values(1.0, 1e-3, 1e4)] scale: f32,
+    ) {
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(42 + len as u64);
+        let values = (0..len)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(-scale..scale))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        check_against_reference(&values);
+    }
+
+    /// Integer tables with range 510 (resp. 131070) make `factor` exactly
+    /// 0.5, so odd values land on exact .5 ties; all kernels must round them
+    /// to even and agree with each other.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_exact_half_ties_round_to_even() {
+        let values = (0..=510).map(|v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        check_against_reference(&values);
+        let mut quantized = Vec::new();
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantize_dist_table_into(&values, &mut quantized),
+            DistTableDequant::Affine {
+                qmin: 0.0,
+                qmax: 510.0
+            }
+        );
+        // Spot-check nearest-even: 0.5 -> 0, 1.5 -> 2, 127.5 -> 128,
+        // 254.5 -> 254.
+        assert_eq!(&quantized[..6], &[0, 0, 1, 2, 2, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(quantized[255], 128);
+        assert_eq!(quantized[509], 254);
+        assert_eq!(quantized[510], 255);
+
+        // Integers up to 131070 are exactly representable in f32.
+        let values = (0..=510).map(|v| (v * 257) as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        check_against_reference(&values);
+        let mut quantized = Vec::new();
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantize_dist_table_u16_into(&values, &mut quantized),
+            DistTableDequant::Affine {
+                qmin: 0.0,
+                qmax: 131070.0
+            }
+        );
+        // value * 0.5 = 128.5 -> 128, 385.5 -> 386 under nearest-even.
+        assert_eq!(&quantized[..4], &[0, 128, 257, 386]);
+        assert_eq!(quantized[510], u16::MAX);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_negative_and_mixed_sign_values() {
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(7);
+        let values = (0..1000)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(-100.0f32..-1.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        check_against_reference(&values);
+        let values = (0..999)
+            .map(|i| (i as f32 - 499.5) * 0.75)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        check_against_reference(&values);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_all_equal_input_zeroes_table(#[values(0.0, -7.25, 3.5)] value: f32) {
+        let values = vec![value; 100];
+        check_against_reference(&values);
+        // Zero range: a zeroed LUT plus the finite affine map (every sum maps
+        // to `num_tables * value`).
+        let expected = DistTableDequant::Affine {
+            qmin: value,
+            qmax: value,
+        };
+        let mut quantized = vec![1u8; 5];
+        assert_eq!(quantize_dist_table_into(&values, &mut quantized), expected);
+        assert_eq!(quantized, vec![0; 100]);
+        let mut quantized = vec![1u16; 5];
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantize_dist_table_u16_into(&values, &mut quantized),
+            expected
+        );
+        assert_eq!(quantized, vec![0; 100]);
+    }
+
+    /// A finite sub-resolution range zeroes the LUT but still dequantizes
+    /// with the finite affine map (`Affine`), whereas a range whose
+    /// `num_tables`-scaled reconstruction overflows must signal `Exact` so the
+    /// caller computes exact distances instead of `0 * inf = NaN`.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_degenerate_range_classification() {
+        // factor = 255 / 1e-38 overflows to +inf, but the reconstruction
+        // (num_tables * {0, 1e-38}) stays finite -> Affine, zeroed LUT.
+        let mut tiny_range = vec![0.0f32; 32];
+        tiny_range[1] = 1e-38;
+        // num_tables * (2e38 - (-2e38)) overflows f32 -> Exact.
+        let mut huge_range = vec![0.0f32; 32];
+        huge_range[0] = -2e38;
+        huge_range[1] = 2e38;
+        // factor = 65535 / 1e-35 overflows only in the u16 variant; the u8
+        // variant still quantizes normally.
+        let mut u16_only = vec![0.0f32; 32];
+        u16_only[1] = 1e-35;
+
+        for values in [&tiny_range, &huge_range, &u16_only] {
+            check_against_reference(values);
+        }
+        let mut quantized_u8 = Vec::new();
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantize_dist_table_into(&tiny_range, &mut quantized_u8),
+            DistTableDequant::Affine {
+                qmin: 0.0,
+                qmax: 1e-38
+            }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(quantized_u8, vec![0; 32]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantize_dist_table_into(&huge_range, &mut quantized_u8),
+            DistTableDequant::Exact
+        );
+        assert_eq!(quantized_u8, vec![0; 32]);
+        let mut quantized_u16 = Vec::new();
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantize_dist_table_u16_into(&u16_only, &mut quantized_u16),
+            DistTableDequant::Affine {
+                qmin: 0.0,
+                qmax: 1e-35
+            }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(quantized_u16, vec![0; 32]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            quantize_dist_table_into(&u16_only, &mut quantized_u8),
+            DistTableDequant::Affine {
+                qmin: 0.0,
+                qmax: 1e-35
+            }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(quantized_u8[1], u8::MAX);
+    }
+
+    /// `-0.0 == 0.0` must keep taking the zero-range path (zeroed LUT,
+    /// `Affine`) even though SIMD min/max may pick either sign for the
+    /// extremes.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_signed_zero_mix_zeroes_table() {
+        let mut values = vec![0.0f32; 64];
+        values.iter_mut().step_by(2).for_each(|v| *v = -0.0);
+        let mut quantized = Vec::new();
+        match quantize_dist_table_into(&values, &mut quantized) {
+            DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax } => assert_eq!(qmin, qmax),
+            other => panic!("expected Affine, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+        assert_eq!(quantized, vec![0; 64]);
+    }
+
+    /// Every quantizer — scalar, AVX2, AVX-512, including the SIMD kernels'
+    /// scalar tails — must round with fixed nearest-even, independent of the
+    /// dynamic MXCSR rounding mode. Run each with MXCSR forced to
+    /// round-toward-zero and require it still matches the nearest-even
+    /// reference (computed under the default mode). `factor == 0.5` puts odd
+    /// integers on exact .5 ties, where truncation (1.5 -> 1) and nearest-even
+    /// (1.5 -> 2) disagree, so a path that honored MXCSR would fail. The
+    /// length (511) is deliberately not a multiple of the SIMD step so the
+    /// kernels' scalar tails are exercised too.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    #[allow(deprecated)] // _mm_getcsr/_mm_setcsr: no stable non-asm replacement.
+    fn test_quantize_rounding_ignores_mxcsr() {
+        use std::arch::x86_64::{_MM_ROUND_MASK, _MM_ROUND_TOWARD_ZERO, _mm_getcsr, _mm_setcsr};
+
+        let values = (0..=510).map(|v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        // Computed under the default (nearest-even) rounding mode.
+        let (_, expected_u8) = reference_u8(&values);
+        let (_, expected_u16) = reference_u16(&values);
+        let factor_u8 = u8::MAX as f32 / 510.0;
+        let factor_u16 = u16::MAX as f32 / 510.0;
+
+        for (name, _, quantize_u8_fn, quantize_u16_fn) in available_kernels() {
+            let mut out_u8 = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+            let mut out_u16 = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+            // SAFETY: SSE is baseline on x86_64. MXCSR is restored before any
+            // assertion so a failure cannot leak the truncating mode.
+            let saved = unsafe { _mm_getcsr() };
+            unsafe {
+                _mm_setcsr((saved & !_MM_ROUND_MASK) | _MM_ROUND_TOWARD_ZERO);
+                quantize_u8_fn(
+                    &values,
+                    0.0,
+                    factor_u8,
+                    &mut out_u8.spare_capacity_mut()[..values.len()],
+                );
+                quantize_u16_fn(
+                    &values,
+                    0.0,
+                    factor_u16,
+                    &mut out_u16.spare_capacity_mut()[..values.len()],
+                );
+                _mm_setcsr(saved);
+                out_u8.set_len(values.len());
+                out_u16.set_len(values.len());
+            }
+            assert_eq!(out_u8, expected_u8, "kernel={name} under truncating MXCSR");
+            assert_eq!(
+                out_u16, expected_u16,
+                "kernel={name} under truncating MXCSR"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The scratch buffer must be fully overwritten across reuses with
+    /// different lengths.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_scratch_buffer_reuse() {
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(11);
+        let mut scratch_u8 = vec![7u8; 500];
+        let mut scratch_u16 = vec![7u16; 500];
+        for len in [48, 512, 16] {
+            let values = (0..len)
+                .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            quantize_dist_table_into(&values, &mut scratch_u8);
+            assert_eq!(scratch_u8, reference_u8(&values).1);
+            quantize_dist_table_u16_into(&values, &mut scratch_u16);
+            assert_eq!(scratch_u16, reference_u16(&values).1);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/ex_dot.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/ex_dot.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..94a1757ee9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/ex_dot.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1093 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Inner-product kernels between an `f32` query and bit-packed RaBitQ ex-codes.
+//!
+//! Multi-bit RaBitQ reranking reduces to `sum_d query[d] * ex_code[d]`, where
+//! `ex_code[d]` is an unsigned `ex_bits`-wide integer. Materializing a
+//! `dim * 2^ex_bits` lookup table and gathering one entry per dimension is
+//! cache-hostile (the table is 1MiB for `ex_bits=8`, `dim=1024`); these kernels
+//! instead unpack the codes with shifts and masks and FMA them against the
+//! query directly, following the kernel design of the RaBitQ reference library
+//! (<https://github.com/VectorDB-NTU/RaBitQ-Library>, Apache-2.0).
+//!
+//! Codes are stored in the *blocked* layout: dims are grouped into 64-dim
+//! blocks (the last block zero-padded) and bit-interleaved within each block
+//! so that the SIMD unpack emits codes in natural dim order:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! per 64-dim block (T = ex_bits - 1, the top bit; "run k" = dims 16k..16k+16):
+//! 1 bit:  [8B]  bit i of the LE word = dim i
+//! 2 bits: [16B] byte b = dims {b, b+16, b+32, b+48} at bit pairs 0/2/4/6
+//! 3 bits: [16B 2-bit plane as above][8B top-bit plane]
+//! 4 bits: [32B] byte 8j+b = dim 16j+b (low nibble) | dim 16j+8+b (high nibble)
+//! 5 bits: [32B 4-bit plane: byte b = dims b|b+16; byte 16+b = dims b+32|b+48]
+//!         [8B top-bit plane]
+//! 6 bits: [48B] byte 16k+b = dim 16k+b (6 low bits) | bits 2k..2k+2 of
+//!         dim 48+b (2 high bits)
+//! 7 bits: [48B as 6 bits][8B top-bit plane]
+//! 8 bits: [64B] identity
+//! top-bit plane: top bit of dim 16k+b at bit 8*(b%8) + 2k + b/8 of a LE u64
+//! ```
+//!
+//! Because unpack order is natural, the kernels read the rotated query
+//! directly; it only needs zero-padding ([`pad_query_into`]) when the rotated
+//! dim is not a multiple of 64. Legacy indexes store ex codes sequentially
+//! (LSB-first bit stream) and are repacked once at load time
+//! ([`repack_sequential_row`]); for `ex_bits` ∈ {1, 8} the two layouts agree
+//! (modulo trailing padding, which the kernels tolerate) and rows are used as
+//! stored.
+
+use std::sync::LazyLock;
+
+/// Dims are packed in blocks of this size; the query is zero-padded to a
+/// whole number of blocks when the rotated dim is not already a multiple.
+pub const EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS: usize = 64;
+
+/// `f32` length of the query consumed by the kernels.
+pub fn padded_query_len(dim: usize) -> usize {
+    dim.next_multiple_of(EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS)
+}
+
+/// Whether the legacy sequential layout of a row already matches the blocked
+/// layout (modulo trailing zero padding, which the kernels tolerate), so
+/// legacy rows can be consumed without repacking.
+pub fn sequential_matches_blocked(ex_bits: u8) -> bool {
+    matches!(ex_bits, 1 | 8)
+}
+
+/// Bytes per row of the blocked ex-code layout.
+pub fn blocked_ex_code_bytes(dim: usize, ex_bits: u8) -> usize {
+    debug_assert!((1..=8).contains(&ex_bits));
+    padded_query_len(dim) * ex_bits as usize / 8
+}
+
+/// Dimensions per unpacking group for the given code width.
+fn group_dims(ex_bits: u8) -> usize {
+    match ex_bits {
+        1 | 4 | 8 => 16,
+        _ => EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS,
+    }
+}
+
+fn group_bytes(ex_bits: u8) -> usize {
+    group_dims(ex_bits) * ex_bits as usize / 8
+}
+
+/// Extract the `ex_bits`-wide code of `dim_idx` from a sequentially bit-packed
+/// row (LSB-first, codes may straddle byte boundaries).
+#[inline]
+pub fn packed_ex_code_value(row_codes: &[u8], dim_idx: usize, ex_bits: u8) -> u8 {
+    debug_assert!(ex_bits > 0);
+    let bit_offset = dim_idx * ex_bits as usize;
+    let byte_idx = bit_offset / u8::BITS as usize;
+    let bit_shift = bit_offset % u8::BITS as usize;
+    let bits = row_codes[byte_idx] as u16
+        | row_codes
+            .get(byte_idx + 1)
+            .map(|byte| (*byte as u16) << u8::BITS)
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+    let mask = (1u16 << ex_bits) - 1;
+    ((bits >> bit_shift) & mask) as u8
+}
+
+/// Zero-pad the rotated query to a whole number of 64-dim blocks. Only needed
+/// when `dim` is not a multiple of [`EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS`]; aligned queries are
+/// passed to the kernels as-is.
+pub fn pad_query_into(rotated_query: &[f32], out: &mut [f32]) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(out.len(), padded_query_len(rotated_query.len()));
+    out[..rotated_query.len()].copy_from_slice(rotated_query);
+    out[rotated_query.len()..].fill(0.0);
+}
+
+/// Pack the top bit of each of 64 codes into a `u64` so kernels can position
+/// it with two shifts per 16-code run: the top bit of dim `16k + b` is stored
+/// at bit `8 * (b % 8) + 2k + b / 8`.
+fn pack_top_plane(block_values: &[u8; 64], top_bit: u8) -> u64 {
+    let mut plane = 0u64;
+    for k in 0..4 {
+        for b in 0..16 {
+            let bit = (block_values[16 * k + b] >> top_bit) & 1;
+            plane |= (bit as u64) << (8 * (b % 8) + 2 * k + b / 8);
+        }
+    }
+    plane
+}
+
+/// Shift `plane` so that its bit `8j + from_bit` lands at bit `8j + to_bit`.
+#[inline(always)]
+fn shift_plane(plane: u64, from_bit: usize, to_bit: usize) -> u64 {
+    if from_bit >= to_bit {
+        plane >> (from_bit - to_bit)
+    } else {
+        plane << (to_bit - from_bit)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Pack one block of 64 code values (natural dim order) into the blocked
+/// layout described in the module docs.
+fn pack_block(ex_bits: u8, block_values: &[u8; 64], out: &mut [u8]) {
+    let v = block_values;
+    match ex_bits {
+        1 => {
+            for (b, byte) in out[..8].iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                *byte = (0..8).fold(0, |acc, t| acc | ((v[8 * b + t] & 1) << t));
+            }
+        }
+        2 | 3 => {
+            for b in 0..16 {
+                out[b] = (v[b] & 0b11)
+                    | ((v[16 + b] & 0b11) << 2)
+                    | ((v[32 + b] & 0b11) << 4)
+                    | ((v[48 + b] & 0b11) << 6);
+            }
+            if ex_bits == 3 {
+                out[16..24].copy_from_slice(&pack_top_plane(v, 2).to_le_bytes());
+            }
+        }
+        4 => {
+            for unit in 0..4 {
+                for b in 0..8 {
+                    out[8 * unit + b] =
+                        (v[16 * unit + b] & 0x0f) | ((v[16 * unit + 8 + b] & 0x0f) << 4);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        5 => {
+            for b in 0..16 {
+                out[b] = (v[b] & 0x0f) | ((v[16 + b] & 0x0f) << 4);
+                out[16 + b] = (v[32 + b] & 0x0f) | ((v[48 + b] & 0x0f) << 4);
+            }
+            out[32..40].copy_from_slice(&pack_top_plane(v, 4).to_le_bytes());
+        }
+        6 | 7 => {
+            // Runs 0..3 keep their 6 low bits in place; the fourth run's dims
+            // are split into three 2-bit pieces stored in the runs' top bits.
+            for k in 0..3 {
+                for b in 0..16 {
+                    out[16 * k + b] =
+                        (v[16 * k + b] & 0x3f) | (((v[48 + b] >> (2 * k)) & 0b11) << 6);
+                }
+            }
+            if ex_bits == 7 {
+                out[48..56].copy_from_slice(&pack_top_plane(v, 6).to_le_bytes());
+            }
+        }
+        8 => out[..64].copy_from_slice(v),
+        _ => unreachable!("invalid RabitQ ex_bits={ex_bits}"),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Pack one row of unpacked code values (one `u8` per dim) into the blocked
+/// layout; the writer path. `out` must have [`blocked_ex_code_bytes`] bytes.
+pub fn pack_blocked_row(values: &[u8], ex_bits: u8, out: &mut [u8]) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(out.len(), blocked_ex_code_bytes(values.len(), ex_bits));
+    let block_bytes = EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS * ex_bits as usize / 8;
+    let mut block_values = [0u8; 64];
+    for (block, out) in out.chunks_exact_mut(block_bytes).enumerate() {
+        let base = block * EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS;
+        let count = EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS.min(values.len() - base);
+        block_values[..count].copy_from_slice(&values[base..base + count]);
+        block_values[count..].fill(0);
+        pack_block(ex_bits, &block_values, out);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Repack one legacy sequentially bit-packed row into the blocked layout.
+/// `out` must have [`blocked_ex_code_bytes`] bytes.
+pub fn repack_sequential_row(seq_row: &[u8], dim: usize, ex_bits: u8, out: &mut [u8]) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(out.len(), blocked_ex_code_bytes(dim, ex_bits));
+    let block_bytes = EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS * ex_bits as usize / 8;
+    let mut block_values = [0u8; 64];
+    for (block, out) in out.chunks_exact_mut(block_bytes).enumerate() {
+        block_values.fill(0);
+        let base = block * EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS;
+        let count = EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS.min(dim.saturating_sub(base));
+        for (i, value) in block_values[..count].iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            *value = packed_ex_code_value(seq_row, base + i, ex_bits);
+        }
+        pack_block(ex_bits, &block_values, out);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Unpack one code group into per-dim values (natural dim order). Reference
+/// implementation for the SIMD unpackers; also the scalar fallback.
+fn unpack_group(ex_bits: u8, group_codes: &[u8], out: &mut [u8; 64]) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(group_codes.len(), group_bytes(ex_bits));
+    match ex_bits {
+        1 => {
+            for (i, value) in out[..16].iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                *value = (group_codes[i / 8] >> (i % 8)) & 1;
+            }
+        }
+        2 => {
+            for k in 0..4 {
+                for b in 0..16 {
+                    out[16 * k + b] = (group_codes[b] >> (2 * k)) & 0b11;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        3 => {
+            let plane = u64::from_le_bytes(group_codes[16..24].try_into().unwrap());
+            for k in 0..4 {
+                for b in 0..16 {
+                    let top = (plane >> (8 * (b % 8) + 2 * k + b / 8)) & 1;
+                    out[16 * k + b] = ((group_codes[b] >> (2 * k)) & 0b11) | ((top as u8) << 2);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        4 => {
+            for b in 0..8 {
+                out[b] = group_codes[b] & 0x0f;
+                out[8 + b] = group_codes[b] >> 4;
+            }
+        }
+        5 => {
+            let plane = u64::from_le_bytes(group_codes[32..40].try_into().unwrap());
+            for k in 0..4 {
+                for b in 0..16 {
+                    let nibble = (group_codes[16 * (k / 2) + b] >> (4 * (k % 2))) & 0x0f;
+                    let top = (plane >> (8 * (b % 8) + 2 * k + b / 8)) & 1;
+                    out[16 * k + b] = nibble | ((top as u8) << 4);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        6 | 7 => {
+            for k in 0..3 {
+                for b in 0..16 {
+                    out[16 * k + b] = group_codes[16 * k + b] & 0x3f;
+                }
+            }
+            for b in 0..16 {
+                out[48 + b] = (group_codes[b] >> 6)
+                    | ((group_codes[16 + b] >> 6) << 2)
+                    | ((group_codes[32 + b] >> 6) << 4);
+            }
+            if ex_bits == 7 {
+                let plane = u64::from_le_bytes(group_codes[48..56].try_into().unwrap());
+                for k in 0..4 {
+                    for b in 0..16 {
+                        let top = (plane >> (8 * (b % 8) + 2 * k + b / 8)) & 1;
+                        out[16 * k + b] |= (top as u8) << 6;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        8 => out[..16].copy_from_slice(group_codes),
+        _ => unreachable!("invalid RabitQ ex_bits={ex_bits}"),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Decode a validated blocked row into per-dim values, reusing `values`.
+pub(crate) fn unpack_blocked_row(codes: &[u8], ex_bits: u8, dim: usize, values: &mut Vec<u8>) {
+    values.clear();
+    values.reserve(padded_query_len(dim));
+    let mut group = [0; EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS];
+    for codes in codes.chunks_exact(group_bytes(ex_bits)) {
+        unpack_group(ex_bits, codes, &mut group);
+        values.extend_from_slice(&group[..group_dims(ex_bits)]);
+    }
+    values.truncate(dim);
+}
+
+/// `sum_d query[d] * code[d]` for one row of blocked-layout codes.
+///
+/// The query must cover a whole number of 64-dim blocks (the rotated query
+/// as-is for aligned dims, otherwise zero-padded via [`pad_query_into`]);
+/// `codes` is the blocked row slice. Rows shorter than the padded query
+/// length are treated as zero-padded.
+pub type ExDotFn = fn(&[f32], &[u8]) -> f32;
+
+/// Resolve the dot kernel for `ex_bits` once; the result can be cached by the
+/// caller for per-candidate use.
+pub fn ex_dot_kernel(ex_bits: u8) -> ExDotFn {
+    debug_assert!((1..=8).contains(&ex_bits));
+    static KERNELS: LazyLock<[ExDotFn; 8]> =
+        LazyLock::new(|| std::array::from_fn(|i| select_ex_dot_kernel(i as u8 + 1)));
+    KERNELS[usize::from(ex_bits) - 1]
+}
+
+fn select_ex_dot_kernel(ex_bits: u8) -> ExDotFn {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            return x86::avx512_kernel(ex_bits);
+        }
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") && std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")
+        {
+            return x86::avx2_kernel(ex_bits);
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+    {
+        // NEON is part of the aarch64 baseline.
+        return neon::kernel(ex_bits);
+    }
+    #[allow(unreachable_code)]
+    scalar_kernel(ex_bits)
+}
+
+fn scalar_kernel(ex_bits: u8) -> ExDotFn {
+    match ex_bits {
+        1 => ex_dot_scalar::<1>,
+        2 => ex_dot_scalar::<2>,
+        3 => ex_dot_scalar::<3>,
+        4 => ex_dot_scalar::<4>,
+        5 => ex_dot_scalar::<5>,
+        6 => ex_dot_scalar::<6>,
+        7 => ex_dot_scalar::<7>,
+        8 => ex_dot_scalar::<8>,
+        _ => unreachable!("invalid RabitQ ex_bits={ex_bits}"),
+    }
+}
+
+fn ex_dot_scalar<const EX_BITS: u8>(ex_query: &[f32], codes: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+    let group_dims = group_dims(EX_BITS);
+    let bytes_per_group = group_bytes(EX_BITS);
+    debug_assert_eq!(ex_query.len() % EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS, 0);
+    debug_assert!(codes.len() * u8::BITS as usize <= ex_query.len() * EX_BITS as usize);
+
+    let mut sum = 0.0f32;
+    let mut unpacked = [0u8; 64];
+    let mut padded = [0u8; 56];
+    for (group, query) in ex_query.chunks_exact(group_dims).enumerate() {
+        let start = group * bytes_per_group;
+        if start >= codes.len() {
+            // The remaining query lanes are zero padding.
+            break;
+        }
+        let group_codes = if start + bytes_per_group <= codes.len() {
+            &codes[start..start + bytes_per_group]
+        } else {
+            let avail = codes.len() - start;
+            padded[..bytes_per_group].fill(0);
+            padded[..avail].copy_from_slice(&codes[start..]);
+            &padded[..bytes_per_group]
+        };
+        unpack_group(EX_BITS, group_codes, &mut unpacked);
+        for (q, &code) in query.iter().zip(unpacked[..group_dims].iter()) {
+            sum += q * code as f32;
+        }
+    }
+    sum
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use super::ExDotFn;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    pub(super) fn avx2_kernel(ex_bits: u8) -> ExDotFn {
+        match ex_bits {
+            1 => dot_u1_avx2_dispatch,
+            2 => dot_u2_avx2_dispatch,
+            3 => dot_u3_avx2_dispatch,
+            4 => dot_u4_avx2_dispatch,
+            5 => dot_u5_avx2_dispatch,
+            6 => dot_u6_avx2_dispatch,
+            7 => dot_u7_avx2_dispatch,
+            8 => dot_u8_avx2_dispatch,
+            _ => unreachable!("invalid RabitQ ex_bits={ex_bits}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn avx512_kernel(ex_bits: u8) -> ExDotFn {
+        match ex_bits {
+            1 => dot_u1_avx512_dispatch,
+            2 => dot_u2_avx512_dispatch,
+            3 => dot_u3_avx512_dispatch,
+            4 => dot_u4_avx512_dispatch,
+            5 => dot_u5_avx512_dispatch,
+            6 => dot_u6_avx512_dispatch,
+            7 => dot_u7_avx512_dispatch,
+            8 => dot_u8_avx512_dispatch,
+            _ => unreachable!("invalid RabitQ ex_bits={ex_bits}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Broadcast a byte to the 8 bytes of a `u64`.
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn splat_byte(byte: u8) -> u64 {
+        byte as u64 * 0x0101_0101_0101_0101
+    }
+
+    // Unpack helpers. They read exactly one group of code bytes and return
+    // runs of 16 codes matching the kernel-order query. Only SSE2 (baseline on
+    // x86_64) is required.
+
+    /// 16 1-bit codes from 2 bytes: compare each replicated byte against
+    /// per-lane bit masks to turn set bits into 0/1 bytes.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse2")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u1(ptr: *const u8) -> [__m128i; 1] {
+        let (b0, b1) = unsafe { (ptr.read(), ptr.add(1).read()) };
+        let bytes = _mm_set_epi64x(splat_byte(b1) as i64, splat_byte(b0) as i64);
+        let bit_select = _mm_set1_epi64x(0x8040_2010_0804_0201u64 as i64);
+        let selected = _mm_cmpeq_epi8(_mm_and_si128(bytes, bit_select), bit_select);
+        [_mm_and_si128(selected, _mm_set1_epi8(1))]
+    }
+
+    /// 64 2-bit codes from 16 bytes: byte b holds dims 4b..4b+3 at bit pairs.
+    /// The 16-bit shifts drag bits across byte boundaries, which the per-byte
+    /// mask removes.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse2")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u2(ptr: *const u8) -> [__m128i; 4] {
+        let raw = unsafe { _mm_loadu_si128(ptr as *const __m128i) };
+        let mask = _mm_set1_epi8(0b11);
+        [
+            _mm_and_si128(raw, mask),
+            _mm_and_si128(_mm_srli_epi16::<2>(raw), mask),
+            _mm_and_si128(_mm_srli_epi16::<4>(raw), mask),
+            _mm_and_si128(_mm_srli_epi16::<6>(raw), mask),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    /// Position the top-bit plane (see [`super::pack_top_plane`]) of run `k`
+    /// at `top_bit` within each byte.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse2")]
+    fn top_plane_run(plane: u64, k: usize, top_bit: usize) -> __m128i {
+        let lo = super::shift_plane(plane, 2 * k, top_bit);
+        let hi = super::shift_plane(plane, 2 * k + 1, top_bit);
+        _mm_and_si128(
+            _mm_set_epi64x(hi as i64, lo as i64),
+            _mm_set1_epi8(1 << top_bit),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse2")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u3(ptr: *const u8) -> [__m128i; 4] {
+        let mut runs = unsafe { unpack_u2(ptr) };
+        let plane = unsafe { (ptr.add(16) as *const u64).read_unaligned() };
+        for (k, run) in runs.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            *run = _mm_or_si128(*run, top_plane_run(plane, k, 2));
+        }
+        runs
+    }
+
+    /// 16 4-bit codes from 8 bytes: low nibbles are the even dims, high
+    /// nibbles the odd dims.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse2")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u4(ptr: *const u8) -> [__m128i; 1] {
+        let word = unsafe { (ptr as *const u64).read_unaligned() };
+        let mask = 0x0f0f_0f0f_0f0f_0f0fu64;
+        [_mm_set_epi64x(
+            ((word >> 4) & mask) as i64,
+            (word & mask) as i64,
+        )]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse2")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u5(ptr: *const u8) -> [__m128i; 4] {
+        let blk0 = unsafe { _mm_loadu_si128(ptr as *const __m128i) };
+        let blk1 = unsafe { _mm_loadu_si128(ptr.add(16) as *const __m128i) };
+        let plane = unsafe { (ptr.add(32) as *const u64).read_unaligned() };
+        let mask = _mm_set1_epi8(0x0f);
+        let mut runs = [
+            _mm_and_si128(blk0, mask),
+            _mm_and_si128(_mm_srli_epi16::<4>(blk0), mask),
+            _mm_and_si128(blk1, mask),
+            _mm_and_si128(_mm_srli_epi16::<4>(blk1), mask),
+        ];
+        for (k, run) in runs.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            *run = _mm_or_si128(*run, top_plane_run(plane, k, 4));
+        }
+        runs
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse2")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u6(ptr: *const u8) -> [__m128i; 4] {
+        let blk0 = unsafe { _mm_loadu_si128(ptr as *const __m128i) };
+        let blk1 = unsafe { _mm_loadu_si128(ptr.add(16) as *const __m128i) };
+        let blk2 = unsafe { _mm_loadu_si128(ptr.add(32) as *const __m128i) };
+        let mask6 = _mm_set1_epi8(0x3f);
+        let mask2 = _mm_set1_epi8(0b1100_0000u8 as i8);
+        let stolen = _mm_or_si128(
+            _mm_or_si128(
+                _mm_srli_epi16::<6>(_mm_and_si128(blk0, mask2)),
+                _mm_srli_epi16::<4>(_mm_and_si128(blk1, mask2)),
+            ),
+            _mm_srli_epi16::<2>(_mm_and_si128(blk2, mask2)),
+        );
+        [
+            _mm_and_si128(blk0, mask6),
+            _mm_and_si128(blk1, mask6),
+            _mm_and_si128(blk2, mask6),
+            stolen,
+        ]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse2")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u7(ptr: *const u8) -> [__m128i; 4] {
+        let mut runs = unsafe { unpack_u6(ptr) };
+        let plane = unsafe { (ptr.add(48) as *const u64).read_unaligned() };
+        for (k, run) in runs.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            *run = _mm_or_si128(*run, top_plane_run(plane, k, 6));
+        }
+        runs
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "sse2")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u8x16(ptr: *const u8) -> [__m128i; 1] {
+        [unsafe { _mm_loadu_si128(ptr as *const __m128i) }]
+    }
+
+    /// FMA 16 code bytes against 16 query floats (AVX2: two 8-float halves).
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2", enable = "fma")]
+    unsafe fn fma16_avx2(codes: __m128i, query: *const f32, acc: &mut [__m256; 2]) {
+        let lo = _mm256_cvtepi32_ps(_mm256_cvtepu8_epi32(codes));
+        acc[0] = _mm256_fmadd_ps(lo, unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(query) }, acc[0]);
+        let hi = _mm256_cvtepi32_ps(_mm256_cvtepu8_epi32(_mm_srli_si128::<8>(codes)));
+        acc[1] = _mm256_fmadd_ps(hi, unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(query.add(8)) }, acc[1]);
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    unsafe fn reduce_add_avx2(acc: [__m256; 2]) -> f32 {
+        let v = _mm256_add_ps(acc[0], acc[1]);
+        let halves = _mm_add_ps(_mm256_castps256_ps128(v), _mm256_extractf128_ps::<1>(v));
+        let pairs = _mm_add_ps(halves, _mm_movehl_ps(halves, halves));
+        let total = _mm_add_ss(pairs, _mm_shuffle_ps::<0b01>(pairs, pairs));
+        _mm_cvtss_f32(total)
+    }
+
+    /// FMA 16 code bytes against 16 query floats (AVX-512: one 16-float lane).
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    unsafe fn fma16_avx512(codes: __m128i, query: *const f32, acc: &mut __m512) {
+        let values = _mm512_cvtepi32_ps(_mm512_cvtepu8_epi32(codes));
+        *acc = _mm512_fmadd_ps(values, unsafe { _mm512_loadu_ps(query) }, *acc);
+    }
+
+    macro_rules! x86_dot_kernel {
+        ($name:ident, $dispatch:ident, $unpack:ident, $ex_bits:expr, $runs:expr) => {
+            #[target_feature(enable = "avx2", enable = "fma")]
+            unsafe fn $name(ex_query: &[f32], codes: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+                const GROUP_DIMS: usize = if $runs == 1 { 16 } else { 64 };
+                const GROUP_BYTES: usize = GROUP_DIMS * $ex_bits / 8;
+                debug_assert_eq!(ex_query.len() % super::EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS, 0);
+                debug_assert!(codes.len() * 8 <= ex_query.len() * $ex_bits);
+
+                let groups = ex_query.len() / GROUP_DIMS;
+                let full_groups = (codes.len() / GROUP_BYTES).min(groups);
+                // Two accumulators per run position break the FMA latency
+                // chain; they are summed once at the end.
+                let mut acc = [_mm256_setzero_ps(); 2];
+                for group in 0..full_groups {
+                    // SAFETY: `group < full_groups` keeps both the code group
+                    // and the query run in bounds.
+                    let runs = unsafe { $unpack(codes.as_ptr().add(group * GROUP_BYTES)) };
+                    for (run, codes16) in runs.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                        unsafe {
+                            fma16_avx2(
+                                codes16,
+                                ex_query.as_ptr().add(group * GROUP_DIMS + run * 16),
+                                &mut acc,
+                            )
+                        };
+                    }
+                }
+                let consumed = full_groups * GROUP_BYTES;
+                if consumed < codes.len() && full_groups < groups {
+                    // Zero-pad the final partial code group on the stack.
+                    let mut padded = [0u8; GROUP_BYTES];
+                    padded[..codes.len() - consumed].copy_from_slice(&codes[consumed..]);
+                    let runs = unsafe { $unpack(padded.as_ptr()) };
+                    for (run, codes16) in runs.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                        unsafe {
+                            fma16_avx2(
+                                codes16,
+                                ex_query.as_ptr().add(full_groups * GROUP_DIMS + run * 16),
+                                &mut acc,
+                            )
+                        };
+                    }
+                }
+                unsafe { reduce_add_avx2(acc) }
+            }
+
+            fn $dispatch(ex_query: &[f32], codes: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+                // SAFETY: only selected when AVX2 and FMA were detected.
+                unsafe { $name(ex_query, codes) }
+            }
+        };
+    }
+
+    macro_rules! x86_dot_kernel_avx512 {
+        ($name:ident, $dispatch:ident, $unpack:ident, $ex_bits:expr, $runs:expr) => {
+            #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+            unsafe fn $name(ex_query: &[f32], codes: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+                const GROUP_DIMS: usize = if $runs == 1 { 16 } else { 64 };
+                const GROUP_BYTES: usize = GROUP_DIMS * $ex_bits / 8;
+                debug_assert_eq!(ex_query.len() % super::EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS, 0);
+                debug_assert!(codes.len() * 8 <= ex_query.len() * $ex_bits);
+
+                let groups = ex_query.len() / GROUP_DIMS;
+                let full_groups = (codes.len() / GROUP_BYTES).min(groups);
+                // Alternating by group as well as run keeps two independent
+                // FMA chains even for the single-run widths.
+                let mut acc = [_mm512_setzero_ps(); 2];
+                for group in 0..full_groups {
+                    // SAFETY: `group < full_groups` keeps both the code group
+                    // and the query run in bounds.
+                    let runs = unsafe { $unpack(codes.as_ptr().add(group * GROUP_BYTES)) };
+                    for (run, codes16) in runs.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                        unsafe {
+                            fma16_avx512(
+                                codes16,
+                                ex_query.as_ptr().add(group * GROUP_DIMS + run * 16),
+                                &mut acc[(group + run) % 2],
+                            )
+                        };
+                    }
+                }
+                let consumed = full_groups * GROUP_BYTES;
+                if consumed < codes.len() && full_groups < groups {
+                    let mut padded = [0u8; GROUP_BYTES];
+                    padded[..codes.len() - consumed].copy_from_slice(&codes[consumed..]);
+                    let runs = unsafe { $unpack(padded.as_ptr()) };
+                    for (run, codes16) in runs.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                        unsafe {
+                            fma16_avx512(
+                                codes16,
+                                ex_query.as_ptr().add(full_groups * GROUP_DIMS + run * 16),
+                                &mut acc[(full_groups + run) % 2],
+                            )
+                        };
+                    }
+                }
+                _mm512_reduce_add_ps(_mm512_add_ps(acc[0], acc[1]))
+            }
+
+            fn $dispatch(ex_query: &[f32], codes: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+                // SAFETY: only selected when AVX-512F was detected.
+                unsafe { $name(ex_query, codes) }
+            }
+        };
+    }
+
+    x86_dot_kernel!(dot_u1_avx2, dot_u1_avx2_dispatch, unpack_u1, 1, 1);
+    x86_dot_kernel!(dot_u2_avx2, dot_u2_avx2_dispatch, unpack_u2, 2, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel!(dot_u3_avx2, dot_u3_avx2_dispatch, unpack_u3, 3, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel!(dot_u4_avx2, dot_u4_avx2_dispatch, unpack_u4, 4, 1);
+    x86_dot_kernel!(dot_u5_avx2, dot_u5_avx2_dispatch, unpack_u5, 5, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel!(dot_u6_avx2, dot_u6_avx2_dispatch, unpack_u6, 6, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel!(dot_u7_avx2, dot_u7_avx2_dispatch, unpack_u7, 7, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel!(dot_u8_avx2, dot_u8_avx2_dispatch, unpack_u8x16, 8, 1);
+
+    x86_dot_kernel_avx512!(dot_u1_avx512, dot_u1_avx512_dispatch, unpack_u1, 1, 1);
+    x86_dot_kernel_avx512!(dot_u2_avx512, dot_u2_avx512_dispatch, unpack_u2, 2, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel_avx512!(dot_u3_avx512, dot_u3_avx512_dispatch, unpack_u3, 3, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel_avx512!(dot_u4_avx512, dot_u4_avx512_dispatch, unpack_u4, 4, 1);
+    x86_dot_kernel_avx512!(dot_u5_avx512, dot_u5_avx512_dispatch, unpack_u5, 5, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel_avx512!(dot_u6_avx512, dot_u6_avx512_dispatch, unpack_u6, 6, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel_avx512!(dot_u7_avx512, dot_u7_avx512_dispatch, unpack_u7, 7, 4);
+    x86_dot_kernel_avx512!(dot_u8_avx512, dot_u8_avx512_dispatch, unpack_u8x16, 8, 1);
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+mod neon {
+    use super::ExDotFn;
+    use std::arch::aarch64::*;
+
+    pub(super) fn kernel(ex_bits: u8) -> ExDotFn {
+        match ex_bits {
+            1 => dot_u1_neon_dispatch,
+            2 => dot_u2_neon_dispatch,
+            3 => dot_u3_neon_dispatch,
+            4 => dot_u4_neon_dispatch,
+            5 => dot_u5_neon_dispatch,
+            6 => dot_u6_neon_dispatch,
+            7 => dot_u7_neon_dispatch,
+            8 => dot_u8_neon_dispatch,
+            _ => unreachable!("invalid RabitQ ex_bits={ex_bits}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u1(ptr: *const u8) -> [uint8x16_t; 1] {
+        let (b0, b1) = unsafe { (ptr.read(), ptr.add(1).read()) };
+        let bytes = vcombine_u8(vdup_n_u8(b0), vdup_n_u8(b1));
+        let bit_select = vreinterpretq_u8_u64(vdupq_n_u64(0x8040_2010_0804_0201));
+        [vandq_u8(vtstq_u8(bytes, bit_select), vdupq_n_u8(1))]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u2(ptr: *const u8) -> [uint8x16_t; 4] {
+        let raw = unsafe { vld1q_u8(ptr) };
+        let mask = vdupq_n_u8(0b11);
+        [
+            vandq_u8(raw, mask),
+            vandq_u8(vshrq_n_u8::<2>(raw), mask),
+            vandq_u8(vshrq_n_u8::<4>(raw), mask),
+            vshrq_n_u8::<6>(raw),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    fn top_plane_run(plane: u64, k: usize, top_bit: usize) -> uint8x16_t {
+        let lo = super::shift_plane(plane, 2 * k, top_bit);
+        let hi = super::shift_plane(plane, 2 * k + 1, top_bit);
+        vandq_u8(
+            vreinterpretq_u8_u64(vcombine_u64(vcreate_u64(lo), vcreate_u64(hi))),
+            vdupq_n_u8(1 << top_bit),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u3(ptr: *const u8) -> [uint8x16_t; 4] {
+        let mut runs = unsafe { unpack_u2(ptr) };
+        let plane = unsafe { (ptr.add(16) as *const u64).read_unaligned() };
+        for (k, run) in runs.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            *run = vorrq_u8(*run, top_plane_run(plane, k, 2));
+        }
+        runs
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u4(ptr: *const u8) -> [uint8x16_t; 1] {
+        let word = unsafe { (ptr as *const u64).read_unaligned() };
+        let mask = 0x0f0f_0f0f_0f0f_0f0fu64;
+        [vreinterpretq_u8_u64(vcombine_u64(
+            vcreate_u64(word & mask),
+            vcreate_u64((word >> 4) & mask),
+        ))]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u5(ptr: *const u8) -> [uint8x16_t; 4] {
+        let blk0 = unsafe { vld1q_u8(ptr) };
+        let blk1 = unsafe { vld1q_u8(ptr.add(16)) };
+        let plane = unsafe { (ptr.add(32) as *const u64).read_unaligned() };
+        let mask = vdupq_n_u8(0x0f);
+        let mut runs = [
+            vandq_u8(blk0, mask),
+            vshrq_n_u8::<4>(blk0),
+            vandq_u8(blk1, mask),
+            vshrq_n_u8::<4>(blk1),
+        ];
+        for (k, run) in runs.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            *run = vorrq_u8(*run, top_plane_run(plane, k, 4));
+        }
+        runs
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u6(ptr: *const u8) -> [uint8x16_t; 4] {
+        let blk0 = unsafe { vld1q_u8(ptr) };
+        let blk1 = unsafe { vld1q_u8(ptr.add(16)) };
+        let blk2 = unsafe { vld1q_u8(ptr.add(32)) };
+        let mask6 = vdupq_n_u8(0x3f);
+        let stolen = vorrq_u8(
+            vorrq_u8(
+                vshrq_n_u8::<6>(blk0),
+                vshlq_n_u8::<2>(vshrq_n_u8::<6>(blk1)),
+            ),
+            vshlq_n_u8::<4>(vshrq_n_u8::<6>(blk2)),
+        );
+        [
+            vandq_u8(blk0, mask6),
+            vandq_u8(blk1, mask6),
+            vandq_u8(blk2, mask6),
+            stolen,
+        ]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u7(ptr: *const u8) -> [uint8x16_t; 4] {
+        let mut runs = unsafe { unpack_u6(ptr) };
+        let plane = unsafe { (ptr.add(48) as *const u64).read_unaligned() };
+        for (k, run) in runs.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            *run = vorrq_u8(*run, top_plane_run(plane, k, 6));
+        }
+        runs
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    unsafe fn unpack_u8x16(ptr: *const u8) -> [uint8x16_t; 1] {
+        [unsafe { vld1q_u8(ptr) }]
+    }
+
+    /// FMA 16 code bytes against 16 query floats over four 4-float lanes.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+    unsafe fn fma16_neon(codes: uint8x16_t, query: *const f32, acc: &mut [float32x4_t; 4]) {
+        let lo = vmovl_u8(vget_low_u8(codes));
+        let hi = vmovl_u8(vget_high_u8(codes));
+        let c0 = vcvtq_f32_u32(vmovl_u16(vget_low_u16(lo)));
+        let c1 = vcvtq_f32_u32(vmovl_u16(vget_high_u16(lo)));
+        let c2 = vcvtq_f32_u32(vmovl_u16(vget_low_u16(hi)));
+        let c3 = vcvtq_f32_u32(vmovl_u16(vget_high_u16(hi)));
+        unsafe {
+            acc[0] = vfmaq_f32(acc[0], c0, vld1q_f32(query));
+            acc[1] = vfmaq_f32(acc[1], c1, vld1q_f32(query.add(4)));
+            acc[2] = vfmaq_f32(acc[2], c2, vld1q_f32(query.add(8)));
+            acc[3] = vfmaq_f32(acc[3], c3, vld1q_f32(query.add(12)));
+        }
+    }
+
+    macro_rules! neon_dot_kernel {
+        ($name:ident, $dispatch:ident, $unpack:ident, $ex_bits:expr, $runs:expr) => {
+            #[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+            unsafe fn $name(ex_query: &[f32], codes: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+                const GROUP_DIMS: usize = if $runs == 1 { 16 } else { 64 };
+                const GROUP_BYTES: usize = GROUP_DIMS * $ex_bits / 8;
+                debug_assert_eq!(ex_query.len() % super::EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS, 0);
+                debug_assert!(codes.len() * 8 <= ex_query.len() * $ex_bits);
+
+                let groups = ex_query.len() / GROUP_DIMS;
+                let full_groups = (codes.len() / GROUP_BYTES).min(groups);
+                let mut acc = [vdupq_n_f32(0.0); 4];
+                for group in 0..full_groups {
+                    // SAFETY: `group < full_groups` keeps both the code group
+                    // and the query run in bounds.
+                    let runs = unsafe { $unpack(codes.as_ptr().add(group * GROUP_BYTES)) };
+                    for (run, codes16) in runs.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                        unsafe {
+                            fma16_neon(
+                                codes16,
+                                ex_query.as_ptr().add(group * GROUP_DIMS + run * 16),
+                                &mut acc,
+                            )
+                        };
+                    }
+                }
+                let consumed = full_groups * GROUP_BYTES;
+                if consumed < codes.len() && full_groups < groups {
+                    // Zero-pad the final partial code group on the stack.
+                    let mut padded = [0u8; GROUP_BYTES];
+                    padded[..codes.len() - consumed].copy_from_slice(&codes[consumed..]);
+                    let runs = unsafe { $unpack(padded.as_ptr()) };
+                    for (run, codes16) in runs.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                        unsafe {
+                            fma16_neon(
+                                codes16,
+                                ex_query.as_ptr().add(full_groups * GROUP_DIMS + run * 16),
+                                &mut acc,
+                            )
+                        };
+                    }
+                }
+                vaddvq_f32(vaddq_f32(
+                    vaddq_f32(acc[0], acc[1]),
+                    vaddq_f32(acc[2], acc[3]),
+                ))
+            }
+
+            fn $dispatch(ex_query: &[f32], codes: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+                // SAFETY: NEON is part of the aarch64 baseline.
+                unsafe { $name(ex_query, codes) }
+            }
+        };
+    }
+
+    neon_dot_kernel!(dot_u1_neon, dot_u1_neon_dispatch, unpack_u1, 1, 1);
+    neon_dot_kernel!(dot_u2_neon, dot_u2_neon_dispatch, unpack_u2, 2, 4);
+    neon_dot_kernel!(dot_u3_neon, dot_u3_neon_dispatch, unpack_u3, 3, 4);
+    neon_dot_kernel!(dot_u4_neon, dot_u4_neon_dispatch, unpack_u4, 4, 1);
+    neon_dot_kernel!(dot_u5_neon, dot_u5_neon_dispatch, unpack_u5, 5, 4);
+    neon_dot_kernel!(dot_u6_neon, dot_u6_neon_dispatch, unpack_u6, 6, 4);
+    neon_dot_kernel!(dot_u7_neon, dot_u7_neon_dispatch, unpack_u7, 7, 4);
+    neon_dot_kernel!(dot_u8_neon, dot_u8_neon_dispatch, unpack_u8x16, 8, 1);
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    /// Bit-pack code values sequentially (LSB-first), the on-disk ex-code layout.
+    fn pack_sequential(values: &[u8], ex_bits: u8) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; (values.len() * ex_bits as usize).div_ceil(8)];
+        for (dim, &value) in values.iter().enumerate() {
+            let bit_offset = dim * ex_bits as usize;
+            let bits = (value as u16) << (bit_offset % 8);
+            out[bit_offset / 8] |= bits as u8;
+            if bits >> 8 != 0 {
+                out[bit_offset / 8 + 1] |= (bits >> 8) as u8;
+            }
+        }
+        out
+    }
+
+    fn kernel_codes(values: &[u8], dim: usize, ex_bits: u8) -> Vec<u8> {
+        debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), dim);
+        let mut out = vec![0u8; blocked_ex_code_bytes(dim, ex_bits)];
+        pack_blocked_row(values, ex_bits, &mut out);
+        out
+    }
+
+    fn available_kernels(ex_bits: u8) -> Vec<(&'static str, ExDotFn)> {
+        // `mut` is only exercised on x86_64 where extra kernels may be pushed.
+        #[allow(unused_mut)]
+        let mut kernels = vec![
+            ("scalar", scalar_kernel(ex_bits)),
+            ("dispatched", ex_dot_kernel(ex_bits)),
+        ];
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2")
+                && std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")
+            {
+                kernels.push(("avx2", x86::avx2_kernel(ex_bits)));
+            }
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                kernels.push(("avx512", x86::avx512_kernel(ex_bits)));
+            }
+        }
+        kernels
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_ex_dot_matches_reference(
+        #[values(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)] ex_bits: u8,
+        #[values(7, 16, 60, 64, 100, 128, 1024, 1536, 2048)] dim: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(42 + ex_bits as u64 * 1000 + dim as u64);
+        let max_code = ((1u16 << ex_bits) - 1) as u8;
+        let values = (0..dim)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=max_code))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let query = (0..dim)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let expected = query
+            .iter()
+            .zip(values.iter())
+            .map(|(q, &c)| *q as f64 * c as f64)
+            .sum::<f64>();
+
+        let codes = kernel_codes(&values, dim, ex_bits);
+        let mut ex_query = vec![0.0; padded_query_len(dim)];
+        pad_query_into(&query, &mut ex_query);
+
+        let tolerance = 1e-3 * expected.abs().max(1.0);
+        for (name, kernel) in available_kernels(ex_bits) {
+            let actual = kernel(&ex_query, &codes) as f64;
+            assert!(
+                (actual - expected).abs() <= tolerance,
+                "ex_bits={ex_bits} dim={dim} kernel={name}: {actual} != {expected}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_unpack_group_roundtrip(#[values(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)] ex_bits: u8) {
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(7 + ex_bits as u64);
+        let max_code = ((1u16 << ex_bits) - 1) as u8;
+        let values = (0..EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=max_code))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let codes = kernel_codes(&values, EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS, ex_bits);
+        let mut unpacked_row = vec![u8::MAX; 3];
+        unpack_blocked_row(&codes, ex_bits, values.len(), &mut unpacked_row);
+        assert_eq!(unpacked_row, values);
+
+        // Unpacking each kernel group must reproduce the values in natural
+        // dim order.
+        let dims = group_dims(ex_bits);
+        let bytes = group_bytes(ex_bits);
+        let mut unpacked = [0u8; 64];
+        for group in 0..EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS / dims {
+            unpack_group(
+                ex_bits,
+                &codes[group * bytes..(group + 1) * bytes],
+                &mut unpacked,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                &unpacked[..dims],
+                &values[group * dims..(group + 1) * dims],
+                "ex_bits={ex_bits} group={group}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The legacy sequential rows must repack into exactly what the writer
+    /// produces from the unpacked values.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_repack_sequential_matches_blocked(
+        #[values(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)] ex_bits: u8,
+        #[values(7, 64, 100, 1536)] dim: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(11 + ex_bits as u64 * 100 + dim as u64);
+        let max_code = ((1u16 << ex_bits) - 1) as u8;
+        let values = (0..dim)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=max_code))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let seq = pack_sequential(&values, ex_bits);
+
+        let mut repacked = vec![0u8; blocked_ex_code_bytes(dim, ex_bits)];
+        repack_sequential_row(&seq, dim, ex_bits, &mut repacked);
+        assert_eq!(repacked, kernel_codes(&values, dim, ex_bits));
+
+        // For the widths where the sequential layout is already blocked
+        // (modulo trailing padding), the raw row must be a prefix.
+        if sequential_matches_blocked(ex_bits) {
+            assert_eq!(&repacked[..seq.len()], &seq);
+            assert!(repacked[seq.len()..].iter().all(|&byte| byte == 0));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Dense dim sweep for the bit-plane widths: every tail shape within the
+    /// 64-dim kernel group, plus multi-group sizes.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_ex_dot_plane_widths_dense_dims(#[values(3, 5)] ex_bits: u8) {
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(97 + ex_bits as u64);
+        let max_code = ((1u16 << ex_bits) - 1) as u8;
+        for dim in (1..=160).chain([255, 256, 1000, 1536, 2048]) {
+            let values = (0..dim)
+                .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=max_code))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let query = (0..dim)
+                .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let expected = query
+                .iter()
+                .zip(values.iter())
+                .map(|(q, &c)| *q as f64 * c as f64)
+                .sum::<f64>();
+
+            let codes = kernel_codes(&values, dim, ex_bits);
+            let mut ex_query = vec![0.0; padded_query_len(dim)];
+            pad_query_into(&query, &mut ex_query);
+            let tolerance = 1e-3 * expected.abs().max(1.0);
+            for (name, kernel) in available_kernels(ex_bits) {
+                let actual = kernel(&ex_query, &codes) as f64;
+                assert!(
+                    (actual - expected).abs() <= tolerance,
+                    "ex_bits={ex_bits} dim={dim} kernel={name}: {actual} != {expected}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pad_query_pads_with_zeros() {
+        let query = vec![1.0f32; 100];
+        let mut padded = vec![f32::NAN; padded_query_len(query.len())];
+        pad_query_into(&query, &mut padded);
+        assert_eq!(padded.len(), 128);
+        assert_eq!(&padded[..100], &query[..]);
+        assert!(padded[100..].iter().all(|&value| value == 0.0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/pairwise.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/pairwise.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..959db4c113f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/pairwise.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1276 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Symmetric RQ code-to-code scoring with exact integer code products.
+//!
+//! A row reconstructs `x̂ = c + s·ō` in the rotated space, where `c` is the
+//! partition centroid, `ō_d = code_d − (2^bits − 1)/2` is the centered code and
+//! `s` the row's scale. Distances are closed-form in the integer `Σ ōa·ōb` and
+//! per-row scalars staged once. Multi-bit codes are staged one integer per
+//! dimension (u8 up to 8 bits, u16 for 9); 1-bit codes stay packed sign words.
+
+use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow::buffer::{Buffer, ScalarBuffer};
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, ArrowPrimitiveType, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Float64Array, PrimitiveArray,
+    RecordBatch, UInt64Array,
+    cast::AsArray,
+    types::{Float32Type, Float64Type, UInt8Type, UInt16Type, UInt64Type},
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, dot_u8::dot_u8_u64};
+
+use super::{
+    builder::RabitQuantizer,
+    ex_dot::{blocked_ex_code_bytes, unpack_blocked_row},
+    storage::{RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN, RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, RabitQueryEstimator, unpack_codes},
+    transform::{EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN, SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN},
+};
+use crate::vector::pairwise::{
+    NORM_COLUMN, PairKernel, PairScorer, column_values, l2_to_cosine, list_values, norm_field,
+};
+
+const CODES: &str = "__pairwise_rq_codes";
+const SCALE: &str = "__pairwise_rq_scale";
+const SUM: &str = "__pairwise_rq_sum";
+const CODE_NORM: &str = "__pairwise_rq_code_norm";
+const CENTER_DOT: &str = "__pairwise_rq_center_dot";
+
+/// Partition-local RQ code scoring.
+pub struct RQPairScorer {
+    dim: usize,
+    bits: u8,
+    packed: bool,
+    metric: DistanceType,
+    /// Rotated partition centroid, for dot and cosine; empty for l2, where
+    /// the centroid cancels.
+    centroid: Vec<f32>,
+    centroid_norm: f32,
+}
+
+impl RQPairScorer {
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        rq: &RabitQuantizer,
+        centroid: ArrayRef,
+        metric: DistanceType,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let meta = rq.metadata_ref();
+        if !(1..=9).contains(&meta.num_bits)
+            || meta.rotated_dim() == 0
+            || !meta.rotated_dim().is_multiple_of(8)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RQ pair scoring requires 1..=9 bits and a positive code dimension divisible by 8, got bits={} dim={}",
+                meta.num_bits,
+                meta.rotated_dim()
+            )));
+        }
+        if meta.query_estimator != RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "pair enumeration requires a current RQ index; rebuild the index",
+            ));
+        }
+        if !matches!(
+            metric,
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot
+        ) {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "RQ pair scoring with {metric} distance"
+            )));
+        }
+        let centroid = if metric == DistanceType::L2 {
+            Vec::new()
+        } else {
+            let dim = centroid.len();
+            rq.rotate_fsl_to_f32(&FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                centroid, dim as i32,
+            )?)?
+        };
+        let centroid_norm = centroid.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum();
+        Ok(Self {
+            dim: meta.rotated_dim(),
+            bits: meta.num_bits,
+            packed: meta.packed,
+            metric,
+            centroid,
+            centroid_norm,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn words(&self) -> usize {
+        self.dim.div_ceil(64)
+    }
+
+    /// Stored scale factors are `-2s` (l2, cosine) or `-s` (dot).
+    fn scale_divisor(&self) -> f32 {
+        if self.metric == DistanceType::Dot {
+            -1.0
+        } else {
+            -2.0
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PairScorer for RQPairScorer {
+    type Kernel<'a> = RQKernel<'a>;
+
+    fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        let codes = match self.bits {
+            1 => self.words() * 8,
+            2..=8 => self.dim,
+            _ => self.dim * 2,
+        };
+        let sum = if self.bits > 1 { 8 } else { 0 };
+        let center_dot = if self.centroid.is_empty() { 0 } else { 4 };
+        let norm = if self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            8
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        // Scale and code norm are always staged.
+        codes + 8 + sum + center_dot + norm
+    }
+
+    fn stage(&self, source: &RecordBatch, rows: Range<usize>) -> Result<Vec<(Field, ArrayRef)>> {
+        // Batches start at multiples of 32 rows, so packed sign groups stay whole.
+        let source = source.slice(rows.start, rows.len());
+        let num_rows = source.num_rows();
+        let signs = source
+            .column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN)
+            .and_then(|codes| codes.as_fixed_size_list_opt())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("RQ pair batch missing sign codes"))?;
+        let signs = if self.packed {
+            unpack_codes(signs)
+        } else {
+            signs.clone()
+        };
+        let signs = signs.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+        let sign_bytes = self.dim / 8;
+        if signs.len() != num_rows * sign_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RQ sign codes have {} bytes for {num_rows} rows of dim {}",
+                signs.len(),
+                self.dim
+            )));
+        }
+        let ex_bits = self.bits - 1;
+        let (extended, ex_width) = if ex_bits == 0 {
+            (&[][..], 0)
+        } else {
+            let width = blocked_ex_code_bytes(self.dim, ex_bits);
+            let values = list_values::<UInt8Type>(&source, RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN)?;
+            if values.len() != num_rows * width {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "RQ extended codes have {} bytes for {num_rows} rows of {width} bytes",
+                    values.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            (values, width)
+        };
+        let scale_column = if self.bits == 1 {
+            SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN
+        } else {
+            EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN
+        };
+        let divisor = self.scale_divisor();
+        let scales: Vec<f32> = column_values::<Float32Type>(&source, scale_column)?
+            .iter()
+            .map(|scale| scale / divisor)
+            .collect();
+
+        let dim = self.dim;
+        let words = self.words();
+        let bias = (1i64 << self.bits) - 1;
+        let mut sign_words = Vec::new();
+        let mut codes_u8 = Vec::new();
+        let mut codes_u16 = Vec::new();
+        match self.bits {
+            1 => sign_words.reserve(num_rows * words),
+            2..=8 => codes_u8.reserve(num_rows * dim),
+            _ => codes_u16.reserve(num_rows * dim),
+        }
+        let mut sums = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+        let mut code_norms = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+        let mut center_dots = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+        let mut ex = Vec::new();
+        for row in 0..num_rows {
+            let signs = &signs[row * sign_bytes..(row + 1) * sign_bytes];
+            if ex_bits == 0 {
+                // Little-endian words keep dimension d at bit d % 64 of word d / 64.
+                for bytes in signs.chunks(8) {
+                    let mut word = [0u8; 8];
+                    word[..bytes.len()].copy_from_slice(bytes);
+                    sign_words.push(u64::from_le_bytes(word));
+                }
+            } else {
+                unpack_blocked_row(
+                    &extended[row * ex_width..(row + 1) * ex_width],
+                    ex_bits,
+                    dim,
+                    &mut ex,
+                );
+            }
+            let mut sum = 0u64;
+            let mut code_norm = 0i64;
+            let mut center_dot = 0.0f32;
+            for d in 0..dim {
+                let sign = u16::from((signs[d / 8] >> (d % 8)) & 1);
+                let code = (sign << ex_bits) | ex.get(d).copied().map_or(0, u16::from);
+                match self.bits {
+                    1 => {}
+                    2..=8 => codes_u8.push(code as u8),
+                    _ => codes_u16.push(code),
+                }
+                let centered = 2 * i64::from(code) - bias;
+                sum += u64::from(code);
+                code_norm += centered * centered;
+                if !self.centroid.is_empty() {
+                    center_dot += self.centroid[d] * centered as f32 * 0.5;
+                }
+            }
+            sums.push(sum);
+            code_norms.push(code_norm as f32 * 0.25);
+            center_dots.push(center_dot);
+        }
+
+        let codes: ArrayRef = match self.bits {
+            1 => Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                aligned::<UInt64Type>(&sign_words),
+                words as i32,
+            )?),
+            2..=8 => Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                aligned::<UInt8Type>(&codes_u8),
+                dim as i32,
+            )?),
+            _ => Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                aligned::<UInt16Type>(&codes_u16),
+                dim as i32,
+            )?),
+        };
+        let norms = (self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine).then(|| {
+            // ‖c + s·ō‖² = ‖c‖² + 2s⟨c, ō⟩ + s²‖ō‖²
+            let centroid_norm: f64 = self.centroid.iter().map(|&c| f64::from(c).powi(2)).sum();
+            scales
+                .iter()
+                .zip(&center_dots)
+                .zip(&code_norms)
+                .map(|((&s, &cd), &n)| {
+                    let (s, cd, n) = (f64::from(s), f64::from(cd), f64::from(n));
+                    (centroid_norm + 2.0 * s * cd + s * s * n).max(0.0).sqrt()
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        });
+        let mut columns: Vec<(Field, ArrayRef)> = vec![
+            (Field::new(CODES, codes.data_type().clone(), false), codes),
+            (
+                Field::new(SCALE, DataType::Float32, false),
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(scales)),
+            ),
+            (
+                Field::new(CODE_NORM, DataType::Float32, false),
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(code_norms)),
+            ),
+        ];
+        if self.bits > 1 {
+            columns.push((
+                Field::new(SUM, DataType::UInt64, false),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(sums)),
+            ));
+        }
+        if !self.centroid.is_empty() {
+            columns.push((
+                Field::new(CENTER_DOT, DataType::Float32, false),
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(center_dots)),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(norms) = norms {
+            columns.push((norm_field(), Arc::new(Float64Array::from(norms))));
+        }
+        Ok(columns)
+    }
+
+    fn kernel<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        anchor: &'a RecordBatch,
+        candidates: &'a RecordBatch,
+    ) -> Result<Self::Kernel<'a>> {
+        RQKernel::new(self, anchor, candidates, true)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Copies staged codes into an Arrow-aligned buffer. A large `Vec` from the
+/// system allocator is often only 16-byte aligned, which would make every
+/// 64-byte SIMD load of a code row straddle two cache lines.
+fn aligned<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(values: &[T::Native]) -> PrimitiveArray<T> {
+    PrimitiveArray::new(ScalarBuffer::from(Buffer::from_slice_ref(values)), None)
+}
+
+/// Writes `Σ ōa·ōb` of one anchor row against consecutive candidate rows.
+/// Every backend computes the same exact integer and rounds it to f32 once,
+/// so all backends agree bit for bit.
+type SignDotsFn = fn(anchor: &[u64], candidates: &[u64], dim: usize, out: &mut [f32]);
+/// [`SignDotsFn`] for one integer code per dimension, given the staged code
+/// sums of the anchor and of each candidate, and `bias = 2^bits − 1`.
+type CodeDotsFn<T> =
+    fn(anchor: &[T], candidates: &[T], anchor_sum: u64, sums: &[u64], bias: i64, out: &mut [f32]);
+
+enum RQCodes<'a> {
+    Signs {
+        anchor: &'a [u64],
+        candidates: &'a [u64],
+        dots: SignDotsFn,
+    },
+    U8 {
+        anchor: &'a [u8],
+        candidates: &'a [u8],
+        dots: CodeDotsFn<u8>,
+    },
+    U16 {
+        anchor: &'a [u16],
+        candidates: &'a [u16],
+        dots: CodeDotsFn<u16>,
+    },
+}
+
+impl<'a> RQCodes<'a> {
+    /// Resolve the code kernel once per binding. `simd = false` forces the
+    /// portable kernels, the reference for the SIMD ones.
+    fn bind(
+        scorer: &RQPairScorer,
+        anchor: &'a RecordBatch,
+        candidates: &'a RecordBatch,
+        simd: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(match scorer.bits {
+            1 => Self::Signs {
+                anchor: list_values::<UInt64Type>(anchor, CODES)?,
+                candidates: list_values::<UInt64Type>(candidates, CODES)?,
+                dots: select_sign_dots(simd),
+            },
+            2..=8 => Self::U8 {
+                anchor: list_values::<UInt8Type>(anchor, CODES)?,
+                candidates: list_values::<UInt8Type>(candidates, CODES)?,
+                dots: select_u8_dots(simd && centered_fits_i32(scorer.dim, scorer.bits)),
+            },
+            _ => Self::U16 {
+                anchor: list_values::<UInt16Type>(anchor, CODES)?,
+                candidates: list_values::<UInt16Type>(candidates, CODES)?,
+                dots: select_u16_dots(simd && centered_fits_i32(scorer.dim, scorer.bits)),
+            },
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// SIMD code kernels evaluate `Σ(2ōa)(2ōb)` in wrapping i32 arithmetic, which
+/// is exact while its bound `dim·bias²` fits in i32.
+fn centered_fits_i32(dim: usize, bits: u8) -> bool {
+    let bias = (1u64 << bits) - 1;
+    (dim as u64)
+        .checked_mul(bias * bias)
+        .is_some_and(|bound| bound <= i32::MAX as u64)
+}
+
+fn select_sign_dots(simd: bool) -> SignDotsFn {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    if simd && *x86::HAS_AVX512_POPCNT {
+        // SAFETY: the required CPU features were detected.
+        return |anchor, candidates, dim, out| unsafe {
+            x86::sign_dots(anchor, candidates, dim, out)
+        };
+    }
+    let _ = simd;
+    sign_dots_scalar
+}
+
+fn select_u8_dots(simd: bool) -> CodeDotsFn<u8> {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    if simd && *x86::HAS_AVX512_VNNI {
+        // SAFETY: the required CPU features were detected.
+        return |anchor, candidates, anchor_sum, sums, bias, out| unsafe {
+            x86::u8_dots(anchor, candidates, anchor_sum, sums, bias, out)
+        };
+    }
+    let _ = simd;
+    u8_dots_scalar
+}
+
+fn select_u16_dots(simd: bool) -> CodeDotsFn<u16> {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    if simd && *x86::HAS_AVX512_VNNI {
+        // SAFETY: the required CPU features were detected.
+        return |anchor, candidates, anchor_sum, sums, bias, out| unsafe {
+            x86::u16_dots(anchor, candidates, anchor_sum, sums, bias, out)
+        };
+    }
+    let _ = simd;
+    u16_dots_scalar
+}
+
+/// Sign codes center to `±1/2`: `Σ ōa·ōb = (dim − 2·popcount(a ⊕ b)) / 4`.
+fn sign_dots_scalar(anchor: &[u64], candidates: &[u64], dim: usize, out: &mut [f32]) {
+    for (out, y) in out.iter_mut().zip(candidates.chunks_exact(anchor.len())) {
+        let differences: u32 = anchor
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y)
+            .map(|(x, y)| (x ^ y).count_ones())
+            .sum();
+        *out = (dim as f32 - 2.0 * differences as f32) * 0.25;
+    }
+}
+
+/// With `2ō = 2·code − bias`:
+/// `Σ(2ōa)(2ōb) = 4Σab − 2·bias·(Σa + Σb) + dim·bias²`, exact in i64.
+#[inline]
+fn centered_from_product(product: u64, sums: u64, dim: usize, bias: i64) -> f32 {
+    let centered = 4 * product as i64 - 2 * bias * sums as i64 + dim as i64 * bias * bias;
+    centered as f32 * 0.25
+}
+
+fn u8_dots_scalar(
+    anchor: &[u8],
+    candidates: &[u8],
+    anchor_sum: u64,
+    sums: &[u64],
+    bias: i64,
+    out: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    let dim = anchor.len();
+    for ((out, y), &sum) in out.iter_mut().zip(candidates.chunks_exact(dim)).zip(sums) {
+        *out = centered_from_product(dot_u8_u64(anchor, y), anchor_sum + sum, dim, bias);
+    }
+}
+
+fn u16_dots_scalar(
+    anchor: &[u16],
+    candidates: &[u16],
+    anchor_sum: u64,
+    sums: &[u64],
+    bias: i64,
+    out: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    let dim = anchor.len();
+    for ((out, y), &sum) in out.iter_mut().zip(candidates.chunks_exact(dim)).zip(sums) {
+        let product = anchor
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y)
+            .map(|(&x, &y)| u64::from(x) * u64::from(y))
+            .sum();
+        *out = centered_from_product(product, anchor_sum + sum, dim, bias);
+    }
+}
+
+/// AVX-512 code kernels. They score one anchor row against groups of up to 16
+/// candidate rows: each anchor vector is loaded once per group and step, every
+/// candidate has its own accumulator, and a transpose-add reduces the
+/// accumulators to one vector of per-candidate totals. The integers are exact,
+/// and the f32 conversion repeats the portable expression, so values are
+/// bit-identical to the portable kernels.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+    use std::sync::LazyLock;
+
+    pub(super) static HAS_AVX512_VNNI: LazyLock<bool> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+        is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vnni")
+    });
+
+    pub(super) static HAS_AVX512_POPCNT: LazyLock<bool> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+        is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vpopcntdq")
+    });
+
+    /// Candidates per group, one accumulator register each.
+    const GROUP: usize = 16;
+
+    /// Lane `j` of the result is the wrapping sum of the i32 lanes of `acc[j]`.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    fn transpose_sum(acc: &[__m512i; GROUP]) -> __m512i {
+        // Each 128-bit block of pairs[k] holds partials of [2k, 2k+1, 2k, 2k+1].
+        let mut pairs = [_mm512_setzero_si512(); 8];
+        for (k, pair) in pairs.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let (a, b) = (acc[2 * k], acc[2 * k + 1]);
+            *pair = _mm512_add_epi32(_mm512_unpacklo_epi32(a, b), _mm512_unpackhi_epi32(a, b));
+        }
+        // Each 128-bit block of quads[k] holds partials of [4k, .., 4k+3].
+        let mut quads = [_mm512_setzero_si512(); 4];
+        for (k, quad) in quads.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let (a, b) = (pairs[2 * k], pairs[2 * k + 1]);
+            *quad = _mm512_add_epi32(_mm512_unpacklo_epi64(a, b), _mm512_unpackhi_epi64(a, b));
+        }
+        // Blocks [0..4, 0..4, 4..8, 4..8], then [0..4, 4..8, 8..12, 12..16].
+        let low = fold_blocks(quads[0], quads[1]);
+        let high = fold_blocks(quads[2], quads[3]);
+        fold_blocks(low, high)
+    }
+
+    /// `[a0 + a1, a2 + a3, b0 + b1, b2 + b3]` over 128-bit blocks.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    fn fold_blocks(a: __m512i, b: __m512i) -> __m512i {
+        _mm512_add_epi32(
+            _mm512_shuffle_i64x2::<0x88>(a, b),
+            _mm512_shuffle_i64x2::<0xDD>(a, b),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Lanes `0..m` of a group.
+    #[inline]
+    fn group_mask(m: usize) -> __mmask16 {
+        ((1u32 << m) - 1) as __mmask16
+    }
+
+    /// Starts of the `N` rows of width `dim` in a group of `rows.len() / dim`
+    /// candidates, repeating the last row to fill the group; lanes past the
+    /// real candidates are never stored. Each start has at least `dim`
+    /// readable elements, as the slicing is bounds-checked.
+    #[inline]
+    fn group_rows<T, const N: usize>(rows: &[T], dim: usize) -> [*const T; N] {
+        let last = rows.len() / dim - 1;
+        std::array::from_fn(|j| rows[j.min(last) * dim..].as_ptr())
+    }
+
+    /// Stores lanes `mask` of `(4r + coef·Σb + offset) / 4`, evaluated in
+    /// wrapping i32 arithmetic: exact because the true value fits in i32.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The CPU supports AVX-512F, and `mask` is a [`group_mask`] of at most
+    /// `sums.len()` and `out.len()` lanes.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    unsafe fn store_centered(
+        r: __m512i,
+        coef: i64,
+        offset: i64,
+        sums: &[u64],
+        mask: __mmask16,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        let lanes = (u16::BITS - mask.leading_zeros()) as usize;
+        debug_assert!(
+            lanes <= sums.len() && lanes <= out.len(),
+            "RQ store mask={mask:#06x} covers {lanes} lanes, sums.len()={}, out.len()={}",
+            sums.len(),
+            out.len()
+        );
+        // SAFETY: masked loads read only the lanes set in `mask`, which are in
+        // bounds of `sums`; the high half reads nothing unless `mask` sets a
+        // lane past 8.
+        let (low, high) = unsafe {
+            (
+                _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi64(mask as __mmask8, sums.as_ptr().cast()),
+                _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi64(
+                    (mask >> 8) as __mmask8,
+                    sums.as_ptr().wrapping_add(8).cast(),
+                ),
+            )
+        };
+        let sums = _mm512_inserti64x4::<1>(
+            _mm512_castsi256_si512(_mm512_cvtepi64_epi32(low)),
+            _mm512_cvtepi64_epi32(high),
+        );
+        let centered = _mm512_add_epi32(
+            _mm512_add_epi32(
+                _mm512_slli_epi32::<2>(r),
+                _mm512_mullo_epi32(sums, _mm512_set1_epi32(coef as i32)),
+            ),
+            _mm512_set1_epi32(offset as i32),
+        );
+        let values = _mm512_mul_ps(_mm512_cvtepi32_ps(centered), _mm512_set1_ps(0.25));
+        // SAFETY: the masked store writes only the lanes set in `mask`, which
+        // are in bounds of `out`.
+        unsafe { _mm512_mask_storeu_ps(out.as_mut_ptr(), mask, values) };
+    }
+
+    /// Accumulators for a group of `m` candidates. Short tails use a narrower
+    /// group rather than a padded full one; unused accumulators stay zero.
+    macro_rules! group_by_width {
+        ($m:expr, $group:ident($($arg:expr),*)) => {
+            match $m {
+                9.. => $group::<16>($($arg),*),
+                5..=8 => $group::<8>($($arg),*),
+                _ => $group::<4>($($arg),*),
+            }
+        };
+    }
+
+    /// `Σ ōa·ōb` for u8 codes. VPDPBUSD takes the candidate as the unsigned
+    /// operand and the anchor biased to `a − 128` as the signed one, so
+    /// `r = Σ b·(a − 128)` and `Σab = r + 128·Σb`.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The CPU supports AVX-512F, AVX-512BW and AVX-512 VNNI.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn u8_dots(
+        anchor: &[u8],
+        candidates: &[u8],
+        anchor_sum: u64,
+        sums: &[u64],
+        bias: i64,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        let dim = anchor.len();
+        let n = out.len();
+        assert!(
+            dim > 0 && candidates.len() >= n * dim && sums.len() >= n,
+            "RQ u8 kernel needs n={n} rows of dim={dim} > 0, got candidates.len()={} and sums.len()={}",
+            candidates.len(),
+            sums.len()
+        );
+        // 4Σab − 2·bias·(Σa + Σb) + dim·bias² = 4r + coef·Σb + offset.
+        let coef = 512 - 2 * bias;
+        let offset = dim as i64 * bias * bias - 2 * bias * anchor_sum as i64;
+        let mut first = 0;
+        while first < n {
+            let m = (n - first).min(GROUP);
+            let rows = &candidates[first * dim..(first + m) * dim];
+            // SAFETY: the caller guarantees this function's CPU features.
+            let acc = unsafe { group_by_width!(m, u8_group(anchor, rows)) };
+            // SAFETY: as above, and `sums` and `out` hold at least
+            // `n - first >= m` values from `first`.
+            unsafe {
+                store_centered(
+                    transpose_sum(&acc),
+                    coef,
+                    offset,
+                    &sums[first..],
+                    group_mask(m),
+                    &mut out[first..],
+                )
+            };
+            first += m;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Accumulators of `Σ b·(a − 128)` per candidate row of a group.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The CPU supports AVX-512F, AVX-512BW and AVX-512 VNNI.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    unsafe fn u8_group<const N: usize>(anchor: &[u8], rows: &[u8]) -> [__m512i; GROUP] {
+        let dim = anchor.len();
+        let rows = group_rows::<u8, N>(rows, dim);
+        let flip = _mm512_set1_epi8(i8::MIN);
+        let x = anchor.as_ptr();
+        let steps = dim / 64;
+        let mut acc = [_mm512_setzero_si512(); GROUP];
+        for step in 0..steps {
+            let at = step * 64;
+            // SAFETY: `at + 64 <= dim`, and the anchor and every group row
+            // hold `dim` bytes.
+            unsafe {
+                let a = _mm512_xor_si512(_mm512_loadu_si512(x.add(at).cast()), flip);
+                for (sum, row) in acc.iter_mut().zip(&rows) {
+                    let b = _mm512_loadu_si512(row.add(at).cast());
+                    *sum = _mm512_dpbusd_epi32(*sum, b, a);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let tail = (1u64 << (dim % 64)) - 1;
+        if tail != 0 {
+            let at = steps * 64;
+            // SAFETY: masked loads touch only the `dim - at` in-bounds bytes.
+            unsafe {
+                let a = _mm512_xor_si512(_mm512_maskz_loadu_epi8(tail, x.add(at).cast()), flip);
+                for (sum, row) in acc.iter_mut().zip(&rows) {
+                    let b = _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi8(tail, row.add(at).cast());
+                    *sum = _mm512_dpbusd_epi32(*sum, b, a);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        acc
+    }
+
+    /// `Σ ōa·ōb` for u16 codes below 2^15, which VPDPWSSD multiplies exactly
+    /// as signed words.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The CPU supports AVX-512F, AVX-512BW and AVX-512 VNNI.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn u16_dots(
+        anchor: &[u16],
+        candidates: &[u16],
+        anchor_sum: u64,
+        sums: &[u64],
+        bias: i64,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        let dim = anchor.len();
+        let n = out.len();
+        assert!(
+            dim > 0 && candidates.len() >= n * dim && sums.len() >= n,
+            "RQ u16 kernel needs n={n} rows of dim={dim} > 0, got candidates.len()={} and sums.len()={}",
+            candidates.len(),
+            sums.len()
+        );
+        let coef = -2 * bias;
+        let offset = dim as i64 * bias * bias - 2 * bias * anchor_sum as i64;
+        let mut first = 0;
+        while first < n {
+            let m = (n - first).min(GROUP);
+            let rows = &candidates[first * dim..(first + m) * dim];
+            // SAFETY: the caller guarantees this function's CPU features.
+            let acc = unsafe { group_by_width!(m, u16_group(anchor, rows)) };
+            // SAFETY: as above, and `sums` and `out` hold at least
+            // `n - first >= m` values from `first`.
+            unsafe {
+                store_centered(
+                    transpose_sum(&acc),
+                    coef,
+                    offset,
+                    &sums[first..],
+                    group_mask(m),
+                    &mut out[first..],
+                )
+            };
+            first += m;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Accumulators of `Σ a·b` per candidate row of a group.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The CPU supports AVX-512F, AVX-512BW and AVX-512 VNNI.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    unsafe fn u16_group<const N: usize>(anchor: &[u16], rows: &[u16]) -> [__m512i; GROUP] {
+        let dim = anchor.len();
+        let rows = group_rows::<u16, N>(rows, dim);
+        let x = anchor.as_ptr();
+        let steps = dim / 32;
+        let mut acc = [_mm512_setzero_si512(); GROUP];
+        for step in 0..steps {
+            let at = step * 32;
+            // SAFETY: `at + 32 <= dim`, and the anchor and every group row
+            // hold `dim` words.
+            unsafe {
+                let a = _mm512_loadu_si512(x.add(at).cast());
+                for (sum, row) in acc.iter_mut().zip(&rows) {
+                    let b = _mm512_loadu_si512(row.add(at).cast());
+                    *sum = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(*sum, a, b);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let tail = ((1u64 << (dim % 32)) - 1) as __mmask32;
+        if tail != 0 {
+            let at = steps * 32;
+            // SAFETY: masked loads touch only the `dim - at` in-bounds words.
+            unsafe {
+                let a = _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi16(tail, x.add(at).cast());
+                for (sum, row) in acc.iter_mut().zip(&rows) {
+                    let b = _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi16(tail, row.add(at).cast());
+                    *sum = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(*sum, a, b);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        acc
+    }
+
+    /// `(dim − 2·popcount(a ⊕ b)) / 4` for packed sign words.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The CPU supports AVX-512F and AVX-512 VPOPCNTDQ.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512vpopcntdq")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn sign_dots(
+        anchor: &[u64],
+        candidates: &[u64],
+        dim: usize,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        let words = anchor.len();
+        let n = out.len();
+        assert!(
+            words > 0 && candidates.len() >= n * words,
+            "RQ sign kernel needs n={n} rows of {words} > 0 words (dim={dim}), got candidates.len()={}",
+            candidates.len()
+        );
+        let dim = _mm512_set1_ps(dim as f32);
+        let mut first = 0;
+        while first < n {
+            let m = (n - first).min(GROUP);
+            let rows = &candidates[first * words..(first + m) * words];
+            // SAFETY: the caller guarantees this function's CPU features.
+            let acc = unsafe { group_by_width!(m, sign_group(anchor, rows)) };
+            let differences = _mm512_cvtepi32_ps(transpose_sum(&acc));
+            let values = _mm512_mul_ps(
+                _mm512_sub_ps(dim, _mm512_mul_ps(_mm512_set1_ps(2.0), differences)),
+                _mm512_set1_ps(0.25),
+            );
+            // SAFETY: the masked store writes only the first `m` lanes, and
+            // `out` holds `n - first >= m` floats from `first`.
+            unsafe { _mm512_mask_storeu_ps(out[first..].as_mut_ptr(), group_mask(m), values) };
+            first += m;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Accumulators of `popcount(a ⊕ b)` per candidate row of a group.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The CPU supports AVX-512F and AVX-512 VPOPCNTDQ.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512vpopcntdq")]
+    unsafe fn sign_group<const N: usize>(anchor: &[u64], rows: &[u64]) -> [__m512i; GROUP] {
+        let words = anchor.len();
+        let rows = group_rows::<u64, N>(rows, words);
+        let x = anchor.as_ptr();
+        let steps = words / 8;
+        let mut acc = [_mm512_setzero_si512(); GROUP];
+        for step in 0..steps {
+            let at = step * 8;
+            // SAFETY: `at + 8 <= words`, and the anchor and every group row
+            // hold `words` words.
+            unsafe {
+                let a = _mm512_loadu_si512(x.add(at).cast());
+                for (sum, row) in acc.iter_mut().zip(&rows) {
+                    let b = _mm512_loadu_si512(row.add(at).cast());
+                    *sum = _mm512_add_epi32(*sum, _mm512_popcnt_epi32(_mm512_xor_si512(a, b)));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let tail = ((1u32 << (words % 8)) - 1) as __mmask8;
+        if tail != 0 {
+            let at = steps * 8;
+            // SAFETY: masked loads touch only the `words - at` in-bounds words.
+            unsafe {
+                let a = _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi64(tail, x.add(at).cast());
+                for (sum, row) in acc.iter_mut().zip(&rows) {
+                    let b = _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi64(tail, row.add(at).cast());
+                    *sum = _mm512_add_epi32(*sum, _mm512_popcnt_epi32(_mm512_xor_si512(a, b)));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        acc
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-row scalars of one staged batch.
+struct RQRows<'a> {
+    scales: &'a [f32],
+    code_norms: &'a [f32],
+    sums: &'a [u64],
+    center_dots: &'a [f32],
+    norms: &'a [f64],
+}
+
+impl<'a> RQRows<'a> {
+    fn try_new(scorer: &RQPairScorer, batch: &'a RecordBatch) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            scales: column_values::<Float32Type>(batch, SCALE)?,
+            code_norms: column_values::<Float32Type>(batch, CODE_NORM)?,
+            sums: if scorer.bits > 1 {
+                column_values::<UInt64Type>(batch, SUM)?
+            } else {
+                &[]
+            },
+            center_dots: if scorer.centroid.is_empty() {
+                &[]
+            } else {
+                column_values::<Float32Type>(batch, CENTER_DOT)?
+            },
+            norms: if scorer.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+                column_values::<Float64Type>(batch, NORM_COLUMN)?
+            } else {
+                &[]
+            },
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct RQKernel<'a> {
+    scorer: &'a RQPairScorer,
+    codes: RQCodes<'a>,
+    anchor: RQRows<'a>,
+    candidates: RQRows<'a>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> RQKernel<'a> {
+    fn new(
+        scorer: &'a RQPairScorer,
+        anchor: &'a RecordBatch,
+        candidates: &'a RecordBatch,
+        simd: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            scorer,
+            codes: RQCodes::bind(scorer, anchor, candidates, simd)?,
+            anchor: RQRows::try_new(scorer, anchor)?,
+            candidates: RQRows::try_new(scorer, candidates)?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// `Σ ōa·ōb` per candidate. Integer products are exact, so the result
+    /// does not depend on the evaluation order or the kernel.
+    fn centered_dots(&self, anchor_row: usize, candidates: Range<usize>, out: &mut [f32]) {
+        let dim = self.scorer.dim;
+        let bias = (1i64 << self.scorer.bits) - 1;
+        match &self.codes {
+            RQCodes::Signs {
+                anchor,
+                candidates: values,
+                dots,
+            } => {
+                let words = self.scorer.words();
+                let x = &anchor[anchor_row * words..(anchor_row + 1) * words];
+                let y = &values[candidates.start * words..candidates.end * words];
+                dots(x, y, dim, out);
+            }
+            RQCodes::U8 {
+                anchor,
+                candidates: values,
+                dots,
+            } => {
+                let x = &anchor[anchor_row * dim..(anchor_row + 1) * dim];
+                let y = &values[candidates.start * dim..candidates.end * dim];
+                let sums = &self.candidates.sums[candidates];
+                dots(x, y, self.anchor.sums[anchor_row], sums, bias, out);
+            }
+            RQCodes::U16 {
+                anchor,
+                candidates: values,
+                dots,
+            } => {
+                let x = &anchor[anchor_row * dim..(anchor_row + 1) * dim];
+                let y = &values[candidates.start * dim..candidates.end * dim];
+                let sums = &self.candidates.sums[candidates];
+                dots(x, y, self.anchor.sums[anchor_row], sums, bias, out);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PairKernel for RQKernel<'_> {
+    fn distances(&self, anchor_row: usize, candidates: Range<usize>, out: &mut [f32]) {
+        self.centered_dots(anchor_row, candidates.clone(), out);
+        let a_scale = self.anchor.scales[anchor_row];
+        let b_scales = &self.candidates.scales[candidates.clone()];
+        if self.scorer.metric == DistanceType::Dot {
+            let a_center = self.anchor.center_dots[anchor_row];
+            let b_centers = &self.candidates.center_dots[candidates];
+            for ((out, &scale), &center) in out.iter_mut().zip(b_scales).zip(b_centers) {
+                *out = 1.0
+                    - (self.scorer.centroid_norm
+                        + a_scale * a_center
+                        + scale * center
+                        + a_scale * scale * *out);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        let a_norm = self.anchor.code_norms[anchor_row];
+        let b_norms = &self.candidates.code_norms[candidates.clone()];
+        for ((out, &scale), &norm) in out.iter_mut().zip(b_scales).zip(b_norms) {
+            // Identical codes and scales cancel exactly; negative roundoff
+            // elsewhere is not a negative squared distance.
+            let squared =
+                a_scale * a_scale * a_norm + scale * scale * norm - 2.0 * a_scale * scale * *out;
+            *out = if squared < 0.0 { 0.0 } else { squared };
+        }
+        if self.scorer.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            l2_to_cosine(
+                out,
+                self.anchor.norms[anchor_row],
+                &self.candidates.norms[candidates],
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::super::{ex_dot::pack_blocked_row, storage::pack_codes};
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Array, UInt8Array};
+    use arrow_schema::Schema;
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn staged(scorer: &RQPairScorer, source: &RecordBatch, rows: Range<usize>) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(
+            scorer
+                .stage(source, rows)
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(field, column)| (field.name().clone(), column)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::rq1(1)]
+    #[case::rq2(2)]
+    #[case::rq3(3)]
+    #[case::rq4(4)]
+    #[case::rq5(5)]
+    #[case::rq6(6)]
+    #[case::rq7(7)]
+    #[case::rq8(8)]
+    #[case::rq9(9)]
+    fn test_native_batch_distance(
+        #[case] bits: u8,
+        #[values(false, true)] packed: bool,
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot)] metric: DistanceType,
+    ) {
+        // 72 dimensions exercise padding in sign words and extended codes;
+        // 35 rows exercise both a full packed group and its partial tail.
+        let dim = 72;
+        let rows = 35;
+        let centroid: Vec<f32> = (0..dim).map(|d| (d % 7) as f32 * 0.125).collect();
+        let scorer = RQPairScorer {
+            dim,
+            bits,
+            packed,
+            metric,
+            centroid_norm: centroid.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum(),
+            centroid: if metric == DistanceType::L2 {
+                Vec::new()
+            } else {
+                centroid.clone()
+            },
+        };
+        let mask = (1u16 << bits) - 1;
+        let ex_bits = bits - 1;
+        let mut sign_codes = vec![0u8; rows * dim / 8];
+        let ex_width = if ex_bits == 0 {
+            0
+        } else {
+            blocked_ex_code_bytes(dim, ex_bits)
+        };
+        let mut ex_codes = vec![0u8; rows * ex_width];
+        let mut exact = Vec::new();
+        let scales: Vec<f32> = (0..rows)
+            .map(|r| match r {
+                0 => 0.0,
+                // Row 2 duplicates row 1's codes and scale.
+                2 => 0.125,
+                _ => (r % 4 + 1) as f32 * 0.0625,
+            })
+            .collect();
+        for (row, &scale) in scales.iter().enumerate() {
+            let seed = if row == 2 { 1 } else { row };
+            let codes: Vec<u16> = (0..dim)
+                .map(|d| ((seed * 17 + d * 13) as u16) & mask)
+                .collect();
+            for (d, &code) in codes.iter().enumerate() {
+                sign_codes[row * (dim / 8) + d / 8] |= ((code >> ex_bits) as u8) << (d % 8);
+            }
+            if ex_bits > 0 {
+                let ex: Vec<u8> = codes
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|c| (c & ((1 << ex_bits) - 1)) as u8)
+                    .collect();
+                pack_blocked_row(
+                    &ex,
+                    ex_bits,
+                    &mut ex_codes[row * ex_width..(row + 1) * ex_width],
+                );
+            }
+            // Exactly representable lattice points provide an independent
+            // scalar oracle, including scale zero and nonzero centroids.
+            exact.push(
+                codes
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(|(d, &q)| {
+                        f64::from(centroid[d])
+                            + f64::from(scale) * (f64::from(q) - f64::from(mask) * 0.5)
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+        }
+        let signs =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(sign_codes), (dim / 8) as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let signs = if packed { pack_codes(&signs) } else { signs };
+        let scale_name = if bits == 1 {
+            SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN
+        } else {
+            EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN
+        };
+        let divisor = scorer.scale_divisor();
+        let mut fields = vec![
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, signs.data_type().clone(), false),
+            Field::new(scale_name, DataType::Float32, false),
+        ];
+        let mut arrays: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..rows as u64)),
+            Arc::new(signs),
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(
+                scales.iter().map(|s| s * divisor).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )),
+        ];
+        if bits > 1 {
+            let ex = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                UInt8Array::from(ex_codes),
+                ex_width as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            fields.push(Field::new(
+                RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN,
+                ex.data_type().clone(),
+                false,
+            ));
+            arrays.push(Arc::new(ex));
+        }
+        let source = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(Schema::new(fields)), arrays).unwrap();
+        // A full packed group followed by the partition's unpacked tail.
+        let head = staged(&scorer, &source, 0..32);
+        let tail = staged(&scorer, &source, 32..rows);
+        assert!(head.column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN).is_none());
+        // Code rows start cache-line aligned for the SIMD kernels.
+        let codes = head[CODES].as_fixed_size_list().values().to_data();
+        assert_eq!(codes.buffers()[0].as_ptr().align_offset(64), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            head[CODES].as_fixed_size_list().value_type(),
+            match bits {
+                1 => DataType::UInt64,
+                2..=8 => DataType::UInt8,
+                _ => DataType::UInt16,
+            }
+        );
+        let same = scorer.kernel(&head, &head).unwrap();
+        let later = scorer.kernel(&head, &tail).unwrap();
+        let portable = [
+            RQKernel::new(&scorer, &head, &head, false).unwrap(),
+            RQKernel::new(&scorer, &head, &tail, false).unwrap(),
+        ];
+        for row in [0, 1, 2, 17, 31] {
+            let mut actual = vec![0.0; 32];
+            same.distances(row, 0..32, &mut actual);
+            let mut rest = vec![0.0; rows - 32];
+            later.distances(row, 0..rows - 32, &mut rest);
+            let mut part = vec![0.0; 4];
+            same.distances(row, 5..9, &mut part);
+            assert_eq!(part, actual[5..9]);
+            // The dispatched kernels match the portable ones bit for bit.
+            let mut reference = vec![0.0; 32];
+            portable[0].distances(row, 0..32, &mut reference);
+            assert_eq!(to_bits(&reference), to_bits(&actual));
+            let mut reference = vec![0.0; rows - 32];
+            portable[1].distances(row, 0..rows - 32, &mut reference);
+            assert_eq!(to_bits(&reference), to_bits(&rest));
+            for (i, distance) in actual.into_iter().chain(rest).enumerate() {
+                let (x, y) = (&exact[row], &exact[i]);
+                let dot: f64 = x.iter().zip(y).map(|(a, b)| a * b).sum();
+                let norm = |v: &[f64]| v.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum::<f64>().sqrt();
+                let expected: f64 = match metric {
+                    DistanceType::Dot => 1.0 - dot,
+                    DistanceType::L2 => x.iter().zip(y).map(|(a, b)| (a - b).powi(2)).sum(),
+                    _ => 1.0 - dot / (norm(x) * norm(y)),
+                };
+                assert!(
+                    (distance as f64 - expected).abs() <= 1e-5 * expected.abs().max(1.0),
+                    "bits={bits} packed={packed} {metric} row={row} candidate={i} actual={distance} expected={expected}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        if metric != DistanceType::Dot {
+            // Identical codes and scales score exactly zero.
+            let mut out = [1.0];
+            same.distances(1, 2..3, &mut out);
+            assert_eq!(out, [0.0]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn to_bits(values: &[f32]) -> Vec<u32> {
+        values.iter().map(|v| v.to_bits()).collect()
+    }
+
+    /// The dispatched code kernels agree bit for bit with the portable ones
+    /// on candidate groups of every length and offset, dimension tails, and
+    /// the extreme codes at the largest dimension the SIMD kernels accept.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::signs_tail(1, 648)]
+    #[case::u8_tail(5, 200)]
+    #[case::u8_bound(8, 33024)]
+    #[case::u16_tail(9, 200)]
+    #[case::u16_bound(9, 8224)]
+    fn test_code_dots_match_portable(#[case] bits: u8, #[case] dim: usize) {
+        let rows = 37;
+        let max = (1u16 << bits) - 1;
+        // Rows 0 and 1 hold the extreme codes, so their product is the most
+        // negative centered value, `−dim·bias²/4`.
+        let codes: Vec<u16> = (0..rows * dim)
+            .map(|i| match i / dim {
+                0 => 0,
+                1 => max,
+                r => ((r * 31 + (i % dim) * 17 + (i % dim) % 5 * 101) as u16) & max,
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let sums: Vec<u64> = codes
+            .chunks(dim)
+            .map(|row| row.iter().map(|&c| u64::from(c)).sum())
+            .collect();
+        let bias = i64::from(max);
+        let signs: Vec<u64> = codes
+            .chunks(dim)
+            .flat_map(|row| {
+                let mut words = vec![0u64; dim.div_ceil(64)];
+                for (d, &code) in row.iter().enumerate() {
+                    words[d / 64] |= u64::from(code) << (d % 64);
+                }
+                words
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let bytes: Vec<u8> = codes.iter().map(|&c| c as u8).collect();
+        let dots = |simd: bool, anchor: usize, candidates: Range<usize>| {
+            let mut out = vec![f32::NAN; candidates.len()];
+            let sum = sums[anchor];
+            let row_sums = &sums[candidates.clone()];
+            match bits {
+                1 => {
+                    let words = dim.div_ceil(64);
+                    select_sign_dots(simd)(
+                        &signs[anchor * words..(anchor + 1) * words],
+                        &signs[candidates.start * words..candidates.end * words],
+                        dim,
+                        &mut out,
+                    );
+                }
+                2..=8 => select_u8_dots(simd)(
+                    &bytes[anchor * dim..(anchor + 1) * dim],
+                    &bytes[candidates.start * dim..candidates.end * dim],
+                    sum,
+                    row_sums,
+                    bias,
+                    &mut out,
+                ),
+                _ => select_u16_dots(simd)(
+                    &codes[anchor * dim..(anchor + 1) * dim],
+                    &codes[candidates.start * dim..candidates.end * dim],
+                    sum,
+                    row_sums,
+                    bias,
+                    &mut out,
+                ),
+            }
+            out
+        };
+        if bits > 1 {
+            assert!(centered_fits_i32(dim, bits));
+            let extreme = dots(true, 0, 1..2)[0];
+            assert_eq!(extreme, -((dim as i64 * bias * bias) as f32) * 0.25);
+        }
+        for anchor in [0, 1, 5] {
+            for candidates in [0..rows, 1..rows, 3..19, 2..17, 3..10, 7..8, 4..4] {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    to_bits(&dots(true, anchor, candidates.clone())),
+                    to_bits(&dots(false, anchor, candidates.clone())),
+                    "bits={bits} dim={dim} anchor={anchor} candidates={candidates:?}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_centered_fits_i32() {
+        assert!(centered_fits_i32(33024, 8));
+        assert!(!centered_fits_i32(33032, 8));
+        assert!(centered_fits_i32(8224, 9));
+        assert!(!centered_fits_i32(8232, 9));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/prune.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/prune.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5cf28eeb84d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/prune.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,631 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! SIMD kernels for the RaBitQ top-k lower-bound pruning scan.
+//!
+//! Multi-bit IVF_RQ search gates the exact ex-code rerank with a per-row
+//! distance lower bound: after the binary FastScan fills the per-row binary
+//! inner products, every row of the partition is classified against the query
+//! upper bound and the current top-k heap threshold, and only the survivors
+//! (typically well under 1%) are reranked. The classification is the per-row
+//! formula of `RabitDistCalculator::raw_query_lower_bound`:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! lower_bound = (binary_ip - 0.5 * sum_q) * scale_factor
+//!             + add_factor_scale * (add_factor - add_factor_offset) + query_factor
+//!             - error_factor * query_error
+//! ```
+//!
+//! These kernels evaluate the formula and both comparisons for
+//! [`PRUNE_LANES`] rows at a time, returning bit masks instead of values so
+//! the caller can skip whole groups (the overwhelmingly common case) and run
+//! the existing scalar rerank only for the surviving lanes.
+//!
+//! Correctness contract:
+//!
+//! - The lower bound is computed with exactly the operation order of the
+//!   scalar helper — multiplies and adds, never FMA. A fused multiply-add
+//!   rounds differently, which could prune a row the scalar code would have
+//!   kept; with bit-identical lower bounds the masks reproduce the scalar
+//!   `>=` decisions exactly, keeping heap contents and prune-stats counters
+//!   unchanged.
+//! - Comparisons use ordered-quiet GE predicates (`_CMP_GE_OQ`), matching
+//!   scalar `>=`: a NaN lower bound is never pruned and falls through to the
+//!   exact rerank.
+//! - The heap threshold may be a stale snapshot (it only ever tightens); the
+//!   caller re-checks surviving lanes against live values, so a stale
+//!   threshold can only over-select survivors, never wrongly prune.
+
+use std::sync::LazyLock;
+
+/// Rows classified per kernel invocation.
+pub const PRUNE_LANES: usize = 16;
+
+/// Per-query constants for the unscaled raw-query lower bound.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct LowerBoundTerms {
+    /// `0.5 * sum_q`, subtracted from the binary inner product.
+    pub half_sum_q: f32,
+    pub query_factor: f32,
+    pub query_error: f32,
+}
+
+/// Classify rows using the stored additive factors without rescaling them.
+pub type PruneMaskFn = fn(
+    &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    LowerBoundTerms,
+    f32,
+    Option<f32>,
+) -> (u16, u16);
+
+/// Resolve the unscaled prune-mask kernel, preserving the public kernel API.
+pub fn prune_mask_kernel() -> PruneMaskFn {
+    |dists, scales, adds, errors, terms, upper, heap| {
+        scaled_prune_mask_kernel()(
+            dists,
+            scales,
+            adds,
+            errors,
+            ScaledLowerBoundTerms {
+                half_sum_q: terms.half_sum_q,
+                add_factor_scale: 1.0,
+                add_factor_offset: 0.0,
+                query_factor: terms.query_factor,
+                query_error: terms.query_error,
+            },
+            upper,
+            heap,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-query constants of the lower-bound formula, mirroring
+/// `RabitDistCalculator::raw_query_lower_bound` term by term.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub(crate) struct ScaledLowerBoundTerms {
+    /// `0.5 * sum_q`, subtracted from the binary inner product.
+    pub half_sum_q: f32,
+    /// Scales the stored centroid correction for dot queries; one for L2.
+    pub add_factor_scale: f32,
+    /// Removes the constant one from dot factors before projection scaling.
+    pub add_factor_offset: f32,
+    pub query_factor: f32,
+    pub query_error: f32,
+}
+
+/// Classify [`PRUNE_LANES`] rows against the pruning bounds.
+///
+/// Arguments are the per-row binary inner products, scale factors, add
+/// factors, and error factors, followed by the formula constants, the query
+/// upper bound, and the heap threshold (`None` while the heap is not full,
+/// which disables the heap mask).
+///
+/// Returns `(pruned_upper_bound, pruned_heap)` masks: bit `i` of
+/// `pruned_upper_bound` is set when `lower_bound[i] >= upper_bound`, and bit
+/// `i` of `pruned_heap` is set when the row is not already pruned by the
+/// upper bound and `lower_bound[i] >= heap_threshold`. Surviving rows are the
+/// zero bits of the OR of both masks.
+pub(crate) type ScaledPruneMaskFn = fn(
+    &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    ScaledLowerBoundTerms,
+    f32,
+    Option<f32>,
+) -> (u16, u16);
+
+/// Resolve the prune-mask kernel for the running CPU once; the result can be
+/// cached by the caller for per-partition use.
+pub(crate) fn scaled_prune_mask_kernel() -> ScaledPruneMaskFn {
+    static KERNEL: LazyLock<ScaledPruneMaskFn> = LazyLock::new(select_scaled_prune_mask_kernel);
+    *KERNEL
+}
+
+fn select_scaled_prune_mask_kernel() -> ScaledPruneMaskFn {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            return x86::prune_masks_avx512_dispatch;
+        }
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return x86::prune_masks_avx2_dispatch;
+        }
+    }
+    // On aarch64 the plain 16-wide loop auto-vectorizes to NEON (part of the
+    // baseline), so no dedicated kernel is needed.
+    prune_masks_portable
+}
+
+/// Portable implementation; also the reference for the SIMD kernels.
+fn prune_masks_portable(
+    dists: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    scale_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    add_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    error_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+    terms: ScaledLowerBoundTerms,
+    upper_bound: f32,
+    heap_threshold: Option<f32>,
+) -> (u16, u16) {
+    let mut lower_bounds = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+    for lane in 0..PRUNE_LANES {
+        lower_bounds[lane] = ((dists[lane] - terms.half_sum_q) * scale_factors[lane]
+            + terms.add_factor_scale * (add_factors[lane] - terms.add_factor_offset)
+            + terms.query_factor)
+            - error_factors[lane] * terms.query_error;
+    }
+    let mut pruned_upper_bound = 0u16;
+    for (lane, lower_bound) in lower_bounds.iter().enumerate() {
+        pruned_upper_bound |= u16::from(*lower_bound >= upper_bound) << lane;
+    }
+    let mut pruned_heap = 0u16;
+    if let Some(threshold) = heap_threshold {
+        for (lane, lower_bound) in lower_bounds.iter().enumerate() {
+            pruned_heap |= u16::from(*lower_bound >= threshold) << lane;
+        }
+        pruned_heap &= !pruned_upper_bound;
+    }
+    (pruned_upper_bound, pruned_heap)
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use super::{PRUNE_LANES, ScaledLowerBoundTerms};
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    /// Lower bounds for 8 lanes with the scalar operation order (no FMA).
+    #[inline]
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    fn lower_bounds_avx(
+        dists: __m256,
+        scale_factors: __m256,
+        add_factors: __m256,
+        error_factors: __m256,
+        half_sum_q: __m256,
+        add_factor_scale: __m256,
+        add_factor_offset: __m256,
+        query_factor: __m256,
+        query_error: __m256,
+    ) -> __m256 {
+        let binary_distance = _mm256_add_ps(
+            _mm256_add_ps(
+                _mm256_mul_ps(_mm256_sub_ps(dists, half_sum_q), scale_factors),
+                _mm256_mul_ps(
+                    add_factor_scale,
+                    _mm256_sub_ps(add_factors, add_factor_offset),
+                ),
+            ),
+            query_factor,
+        );
+        _mm256_sub_ps(binary_distance, _mm256_mul_ps(error_factors, query_error))
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    fn ge_mask_avx(lower_bounds_lo: __m256, lower_bounds_hi: __m256, bound: f32) -> u16 {
+        let bound = _mm256_set1_ps(bound);
+        let lo = _mm256_movemask_ps(_mm256_cmp_ps::<_CMP_GE_OQ>(lower_bounds_lo, bound));
+        let hi = _mm256_movemask_ps(_mm256_cmp_ps::<_CMP_GE_OQ>(lower_bounds_hi, bound));
+        (lo | (hi << 8)) as u16
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    unsafe fn prune_masks_avx2(
+        dists: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        scale_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        add_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        error_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        terms: ScaledLowerBoundTerms,
+        upper_bound: f32,
+        heap_threshold: Option<f32>,
+    ) -> (u16, u16) {
+        let half_sum_q = _mm256_set1_ps(terms.half_sum_q);
+        let query_factor = _mm256_set1_ps(terms.query_factor);
+        let query_error = _mm256_set1_ps(terms.query_error);
+        // SAFETY: the array references guarantee 16 readable floats each.
+        let lower_bounds_lo = unsafe {
+            lower_bounds_avx(
+                _mm256_loadu_ps(dists.as_ptr()),
+                _mm256_loadu_ps(scale_factors.as_ptr()),
+                _mm256_loadu_ps(add_factors.as_ptr()),
+                _mm256_loadu_ps(error_factors.as_ptr()),
+                half_sum_q,
+                _mm256_set1_ps(terms.add_factor_scale),
+                _mm256_set1_ps(terms.add_factor_offset),
+                query_factor,
+                query_error,
+            )
+        };
+        let lower_bounds_hi = unsafe {
+            lower_bounds_avx(
+                _mm256_loadu_ps(dists.as_ptr().add(8)),
+                _mm256_loadu_ps(scale_factors.as_ptr().add(8)),
+                _mm256_loadu_ps(add_factors.as_ptr().add(8)),
+                _mm256_loadu_ps(error_factors.as_ptr().add(8)),
+                half_sum_q,
+                _mm256_set1_ps(terms.add_factor_scale),
+                _mm256_set1_ps(terms.add_factor_offset),
+                query_factor,
+                query_error,
+            )
+        };
+        let pruned_upper_bound = ge_mask_avx(lower_bounds_lo, lower_bounds_hi, upper_bound);
+        let pruned_heap = match heap_threshold {
+            Some(threshold) => {
+                ge_mask_avx(lower_bounds_lo, lower_bounds_hi, threshold) & !pruned_upper_bound
+            }
+            None => 0,
+        };
+        (pruned_upper_bound, pruned_heap)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn prune_masks_avx2_dispatch(
+        dists: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        scale_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        add_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        error_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        terms: ScaledLowerBoundTerms,
+        upper_bound: f32,
+        heap_threshold: Option<f32>,
+    ) -> (u16, u16) {
+        // SAFETY: only selected when AVX2 was detected.
+        unsafe {
+            prune_masks_avx2(
+                dists,
+                scale_factors,
+                add_factors,
+                error_factors,
+                terms,
+                upper_bound,
+                heap_threshold,
+            )
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    unsafe fn prune_masks_avx512(
+        dists: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        scale_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        add_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        error_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        terms: ScaledLowerBoundTerms,
+        upper_bound: f32,
+        heap_threshold: Option<f32>,
+    ) -> (u16, u16) {
+        // SAFETY: the array references guarantee 16 readable floats each.
+        let (dists, scale_factors, add_factors, error_factors) = unsafe {
+            (
+                _mm512_loadu_ps(dists.as_ptr()),
+                _mm512_loadu_ps(scale_factors.as_ptr()),
+                _mm512_loadu_ps(add_factors.as_ptr()),
+                _mm512_loadu_ps(error_factors.as_ptr()),
+            )
+        };
+        let binary_distance = _mm512_add_ps(
+            _mm512_add_ps(
+                _mm512_mul_ps(
+                    _mm512_sub_ps(dists, _mm512_set1_ps(terms.half_sum_q)),
+                    scale_factors,
+                ),
+                _mm512_mul_ps(
+                    _mm512_set1_ps(terms.add_factor_scale),
+                    _mm512_sub_ps(add_factors, _mm512_set1_ps(terms.add_factor_offset)),
+                ),
+            ),
+            _mm512_set1_ps(terms.query_factor),
+        );
+        let lower_bounds = _mm512_sub_ps(
+            binary_distance,
+            _mm512_mul_ps(error_factors, _mm512_set1_ps(terms.query_error)),
+        );
+        let pruned_upper_bound =
+            _mm512_cmp_ps_mask::<_CMP_GE_OQ>(lower_bounds, _mm512_set1_ps(upper_bound));
+        let pruned_heap = match heap_threshold {
+            Some(threshold) => {
+                _mm512_cmp_ps_mask::<_CMP_GE_OQ>(lower_bounds, _mm512_set1_ps(threshold))
+                    & !pruned_upper_bound
+            }
+            None => 0,
+        };
+        (pruned_upper_bound, pruned_heap)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn prune_masks_avx512_dispatch(
+        dists: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        scale_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        add_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        error_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        terms: ScaledLowerBoundTerms,
+        upper_bound: f32,
+        heap_threshold: Option<f32>,
+    ) -> (u16, u16) {
+        // SAFETY: only selected when AVX-512F was detected.
+        unsafe {
+            prune_masks_avx512(
+                dists,
+                scale_factors,
+                add_factors,
+                error_factors,
+                terms,
+                upper_bound,
+                heap_threshold,
+            )
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+
+    fn available_kernels() -> Vec<(&'static str, ScaledPruneMaskFn)> {
+        // `mut` is only exercised on x86_64 where extra kernels may be pushed.
+        #[allow(unused_mut)]
+        let mut kernels = vec![
+            ("portable", prune_masks_portable as ScaledPruneMaskFn),
+            ("dispatched", scaled_prune_mask_kernel()),
+        ];
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+                kernels.push(("avx2", x86::prune_masks_avx2_dispatch));
+            }
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                kernels.push(("avx512", x86::prune_masks_avx512_dispatch));
+            }
+        }
+        kernels
+    }
+
+    /// Per-lane reference mirroring `raw_query_lower_bound` and the scalar
+    /// pruning checks of the top-k scan.
+    fn reference_masks(
+        dists: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        scale_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        add_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        error_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        terms: ScaledLowerBoundTerms,
+        upper_bound: f32,
+        heap_threshold: Option<f32>,
+    ) -> (u16, u16) {
+        let mut pruned_upper_bound = 0u16;
+        let mut pruned_heap = 0u16;
+        for lane in 0..PRUNE_LANES {
+            let lower_bound = (dists[lane] - terms.half_sum_q) * scale_factors[lane]
+                + terms.add_factor_scale * (add_factors[lane] - terms.add_factor_offset)
+                + terms.query_factor
+                - error_factors[lane] * terms.query_error;
+            if lower_bound >= upper_bound {
+                pruned_upper_bound |= 1 << lane;
+            } else if heap_threshold.is_some_and(|threshold| lower_bound >= threshold) {
+                pruned_heap |= 1 << lane;
+            }
+        }
+        (pruned_upper_bound, pruned_heap)
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn assert_kernels_match_reference(
+        dists: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        scale_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        add_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        error_factors: &[f32; PRUNE_LANES],
+        terms: ScaledLowerBoundTerms,
+        upper_bound: f32,
+        heap_threshold: Option<f32>,
+        case: &str,
+    ) {
+        let expected = reference_masks(
+            dists,
+            scale_factors,
+            add_factors,
+            error_factors,
+            terms,
+            upper_bound,
+            heap_threshold,
+        );
+        for (name, kernel) in available_kernels() {
+            let actual = kernel(
+                dists,
+                scale_factors,
+                add_factors,
+                error_factors,
+                terms,
+                upper_bound,
+                heap_threshold,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual, expected,
+                "kernel={name} case={case}: masks {actual:04x?} != {expected:04x?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_centered_dot_factor_keeps_constant(#[values(-1e8, 1e8)] add_factor_scale: f32) {
+        for (name, kernel) in available_kernels() {
+            let masks = kernel(
+                &[0.0; PRUNE_LANES],
+                &[0.0; PRUNE_LANES],
+                &[1.0; PRUNE_LANES],
+                &[0.0; PRUNE_LANES],
+                ScaledLowerBoundTerms {
+                    half_sum_q: 0.0,
+                    add_factor_scale,
+                    add_factor_offset: 1.0,
+                    query_factor: 1.0 - 6.4e-7,
+                    query_error: 0.0,
+                },
+                0.5,
+                Some(0.5),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(masks, (u16::MAX, 0), "kernel={name}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_public_prune_kernel_keeps_unscaled_factors() {
+        let result = prune_mask_kernel()(
+            &[0.0; PRUNE_LANES],
+            &[0.0; PRUNE_LANES],
+            &[2.0; PRUNE_LANES],
+            &[0.0; PRUNE_LANES],
+            LowerBoundTerms {
+                half_sum_q: 0.0,
+                query_factor: 0.0,
+                query_error: 0.0,
+            },
+            3.0,
+            Some(1.0),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(result, (0, u16::MAX));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prune_masks_match_reference_on_random_inputs() {
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(42);
+        for round in 0..200 {
+            let mut dists = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+            let mut scale_factors = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+            let mut add_factors = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+            let mut error_factors = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+            for lane in 0..PRUNE_LANES {
+                dists[lane] = rng.random_range(-100.0f32..100.0);
+                scale_factors[lane] = rng.random_range(-2.0f32..2.0);
+                add_factors[lane] = rng.random_range(-10.0f32..10.0);
+                error_factors[lane] = rng.random_range(0.0f32..5.0);
+            }
+            let terms = ScaledLowerBoundTerms {
+                half_sum_q: rng.random_range(-50.0f32..50.0),
+                add_factor_scale: rng.random_range(-3.0f32..3.0),
+                add_factor_offset: rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0),
+                query_factor: rng.random_range(-10.0f32..10.0),
+                query_error: rng.random_range(0.0f32..2.0),
+            };
+            let upper_bound = rng.random_range(-50.0f32..50.0);
+            let heap_threshold = if round % 3 == 0 {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(rng.random_range(-50.0f32..50.0))
+            };
+            assert_kernels_match_reference(
+                &dists,
+                &scale_factors,
+                &add_factors,
+                &error_factors,
+                terms,
+                upper_bound,
+                heap_threshold,
+                &format!("random round {round}"),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prune_masks_exact_boundaries() {
+        // With scale=1, err=0, half_sum_q=0, query_factor=0 the lower bound
+        // is the input itself, so bounds can be placed exactly on lanes.
+        let dists: [f32; PRUNE_LANES] = std::array::from_fn(|lane| lane as f32);
+        let scale_factors = [1.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+        let add_factors = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+        let error_factors = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+        let terms = ScaledLowerBoundTerms {
+            half_sum_q: 0.0,
+            add_factor_scale: 1.0,
+            add_factor_offset: 0.0,
+            query_factor: 0.0,
+            query_error: 1.0,
+        };
+        // Equality must prune (scalar uses `>=`): lanes 3.. hit the upper
+        // bound, lanes 1..3 hit only the heap threshold.
+        let (pruned_upper_bound, pruned_heap) = prune_masks_portable(
+            &dists,
+            &scale_factors,
+            &add_factors,
+            &error_factors,
+            terms,
+            3.0,
+            Some(1.0),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(pruned_upper_bound, 0xfff8);
+        assert_eq!(pruned_heap, 0x0006);
+        assert_kernels_match_reference(
+            &dists,
+            &scale_factors,
+            &add_factors,
+            &error_factors,
+            terms,
+            3.0,
+            Some(1.0),
+            "exact boundaries",
+        );
+        // No heap threshold: only the upper-bound mask is set.
+        assert_kernels_match_reference(
+            &dists,
+            &scale_factors,
+            &add_factors,
+            &error_factors,
+            terms,
+            3.0,
+            None,
+            "no heap threshold",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prune_masks_nan_and_infinity_semantics() {
+        let mut dists = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+        dists[0] = f32::NAN;
+        dists[1] = f32::INFINITY;
+        dists[2] = f32::NEG_INFINITY;
+        dists[3] = 1.0;
+        let mut scale_factors = [1.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+        scale_factors[4] = f32::NAN;
+        let add_factors = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+        let mut error_factors = [0.0f32; PRUNE_LANES];
+        error_factors[5] = f32::INFINITY;
+        let terms = ScaledLowerBoundTerms {
+            half_sum_q: 0.0,
+            add_factor_scale: 1.0,
+            add_factor_offset: 0.0,
+            query_factor: 0.0,
+            query_error: 1.0,
+        };
+        for (upper_bound, heap_threshold) in [
+            (0.5, Some(0.0)),
+            (f32::INFINITY, Some(f32::NEG_INFINITY)),
+            (f32::NAN, Some(f32::NAN)),
+            (0.5, None),
+        ] {
+            assert_kernels_match_reference(
+                &dists,
+                &scale_factors,
+                &add_factors,
+                &error_factors,
+                terms,
+                upper_bound,
+                heap_threshold,
+                &format!("special values ub={upper_bound} thr={heap_threshold:?}"),
+            );
+        }
+        // NaN lower bounds (lane 0 via a NaN binary inner product, lane 4 via
+        // a NaN scale factor) must never be pruned by either mask.
+        let (pruned_upper_bound, pruned_heap) = prune_masks_portable(
+            &dists,
+            &scale_factors,
+            &add_factors,
+            &error_factors,
+            terms,
+            0.5,
+            Some(0.0),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(pruned_upper_bound & 0b1_0001, 0);
+        assert_eq!(pruned_heap & 0b1_0001, 0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/rotation.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/rotation.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..de8c8acccb3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/rotation.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,234 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use num_traits::AsPrimitive;
+use rand::RngCore;
+
+// Fast random rotation used by the RabitQ "fast" path.
+//
+// The transform is a composition of:
+// 1) random diagonal sign flips (Rademacher variables),
+// 2) FWHT-style mixing on a power-of-two window,
+// 3) a Kac-style pairwise mixing step for non-power-of-two dimensions.
+//
+// Background:
+// - Hadamard transform: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadamard_transform
+// - Fast Walsh-Hadamard transform (FWHT):
+//   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Walsh%E2%80%93Hadamard_transform
+// - Rademacher random signs:
+//   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rademacher_distribution
+// - Kac-walk-based fast dimension reduction (uses fixed-angle pair rotations):
+//   https://arxiv.org/abs/2003.10069
+// - Givens / plane rotation:
+//   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Givens_rotation
+const FAST_ROTATION_ROUNDS: usize = 4;
+
+#[inline]
+fn fwht_in_place(values: &mut [f32]) {
+    // In-place FWHT butterfly network.
+    // For each stage, pair entries (x, y) and map to (x + y, x - y).
+    // Complexity: O(n log n) operations, no extra heap allocation.
+    debug_assert!(values.len().is_power_of_two());
+    let mut half = 1usize;
+    while half < values.len() {
+        let step = half * 2;
+        for block in values.chunks_exact_mut(step) {
+            let (left, right) = block.split_at_mut(half);
+            for (x, y) in left.iter_mut().zip(right.iter_mut()) {
+                let lx = *x;
+                let ry = *y;
+                *x = lx + ry;
+                *y = lx - ry;
+            }
+        }
+        half = step;
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn flip_signs_scalar(values: &mut [f32], signs: &[u8]) {
+    // Apply a random diagonal matrix with +/-1 entries by toggling the f32 sign bit.
+    // One bit in `signs` controls one element in `values`.
+    for (byte_idx, &mask) in signs.iter().enumerate() {
+        let start = byte_idx * 8;
+        if start >= values.len() {
+            break;
+        }
+        let end = (start + 8).min(values.len());
+        for (bit_idx, value) in values[start..end].iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let sign_mask = (((mask >> bit_idx) & 1) as u32) << 31;
+            *value = f32::from_bits(value.to_bits() ^ sign_mask);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+unsafe fn flip_signs_avx2(values: &mut [f32], signs: &[u8]) {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86")]
+    use std::arch::x86::*;
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    // Vectorized variant of `flip_signs_scalar`: consume 8 f32 values per AVX2 lane.
+    // The sign mask is expanded from one byte to 8 lane-wise sign-bit masks.
+    let full_chunks = values.len() / 8;
+    let bit_select = _mm256_setr_epi32(0x01, 0x02, 0x04, 0x08, 0x10, 0x20, 0x40, 0x80);
+    let sign_flip = _mm256_set1_epi32(0x80000000u32 as i32);
+
+    for (chunk_idx, &mask) in signs.iter().take(full_chunks).enumerate() {
+        let mask = mask as i32;
+        let mask_bits = _mm256_set1_epi32(mask);
+        let test = _mm256_and_si256(mask_bits, bit_select);
+        let cmp = _mm256_cmpeq_epi32(test, bit_select);
+        let xor_mask = _mm256_and_si256(cmp, sign_flip);
+
+        let ptr = unsafe { values.as_mut_ptr().add(chunk_idx * 8) };
+        let vec = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(ptr) };
+        let out = _mm256_xor_ps(vec, _mm256_castsi256_ps(xor_mask));
+        unsafe { _mm256_storeu_ps(ptr, out) };
+    }
+
+    if full_chunks * 8 < values.len() {
+        flip_signs_scalar(&mut values[full_chunks * 8..], &signs[full_chunks..]);
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn flip_signs(values: &mut [f32], signs: &[u8]) {
+    debug_assert!(signs.len() * 8 >= values.len());
+    #[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            // SAFETY: guarded by runtime feature detection.
+            unsafe {
+                flip_signs_avx2(values, signs);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+    }
+    flip_signs_scalar(values, signs);
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn kacs_walk(values: &mut [f32]) {
+    // A fixed-angle (pi/4) plane-rotation-like sweep over paired coordinates:
+    // (x, y) -> (x + y, x - y). Up to normalization, this is a 2x2 Hadamard block
+    // and corresponds to one Kac-style mixing step.
+    let half = values.len() / 2;
+    let (left, right) = values.split_at_mut(half);
+    for (x, y) in left.iter_mut().zip(right.iter_mut()) {
+        let lx = *x;
+        let ry = *y;
+        *x = lx + ry;
+        *y = lx - ry;
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn rescale(values: &mut [f32], factor: f32) {
+    // Keep the transform numerically stable and approximately orthonormal.
+    for value in values.iter_mut() {
+        *value *= factor;
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn sign_bytes_per_round(dim: usize) -> usize {
+    dim.div_ceil(8)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn fast_rotation_signs_len(dim: usize) -> usize {
+    FAST_ROTATION_ROUNDS * sign_bytes_per_round(dim)
+}
+
+pub fn random_fast_rotation_signs(dim: usize) -> Vec<u8> {
+    // Each round needs one random sign bit per dimension.
+    let mut signs = vec![0u8; fast_rotation_signs_len(dim)];
+    rand::rng().fill_bytes(&mut signs);
+    signs
+}
+
+#[inline]
+pub fn apply_fast_rotation<T: AsPrimitive<f32>>(input: &[T], output: &mut [f32], signs: &[u8]) {
+    // Fast random rotation pipeline, aligned with RaBitQ-Library's FhtKacRotator:
+    // - power-of-two dims: repeat [random signs -> FWHT -> scale] for 4 rounds
+    // - non-power-of-two dims: alternate FWHT on head/tail + Kac mixing
+    //
+    // This keeps the fast path matrix-free: no dense orthogonal matrix materialization.
+    let dim = output.len();
+    let input_len = input.len().min(dim);
+    output[..input_len]
+        .iter_mut()
+        .zip(input[..input_len].iter())
+        .for_each(|(dst, src)| *dst = src.as_());
+    if input_len < dim {
+        output[input_len..].fill(0.0);
+    }
+
+    apply_fast_rotation_in_place(output, signs);
+}
+
+#[inline]
+pub fn apply_fast_rotation_in_place(output: &mut [f32], signs: &[u8]) {
+    let dim = output.len();
+    let bytes_per_round = sign_bytes_per_round(dim);
+    debug_assert_eq!(signs.len(), FAST_ROTATION_ROUNDS * bytes_per_round);
+    if dim == 0 {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    let trunc_dim = 1usize << dim.ilog2();
+    let scale = 1.0f32 / (trunc_dim as f32).sqrt();
+    if trunc_dim == dim {
+        for round in 0..FAST_ROTATION_ROUNDS {
+            let offset = round * bytes_per_round;
+            flip_signs(output, &signs[offset..offset + bytes_per_round]);
+            fwht_in_place(output);
+            rescale(output, scale);
+        }
+        return;
+    }
+
+    let start = dim - trunc_dim;
+    for round in 0..FAST_ROTATION_ROUNDS {
+        let offset = round * bytes_per_round;
+        flip_signs(output, &signs[offset..offset + bytes_per_round]);
+
+        if round % 2 == 0 {
+            let head = &mut output[..trunc_dim];
+            fwht_in_place(head);
+            rescale(head, scale);
+        } else {
+            let tail = &mut output[start..];
+            fwht_in_place(tail);
+            rescale(tail, scale);
+        }
+
+        kacs_walk(output);
+    }
+
+    // Matches RaBitQ-Library FhtKacRotator behavior for non-power-of-two dimensions.
+    // The extra factor compensates the alternating truncated FWHT + Kac steps above.
+    rescale(output, 0.25);
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fast_rotation_sign_bytes() {
+        assert_eq!(random_fast_rotation_signs(128).len(), 64);
+        assert_eq!(random_fast_rotation_signs(130).len(), 68);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fast_rotation_preserves_shape() {
+        let input = vec![1.0f32; 129];
+        let mut output = vec![0.0f32; 129];
+        let signs = random_fast_rotation_signs(129);
+        apply_fast_rotation(&input, &mut output, &signs);
+        assert_eq!(output.len(), 129);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/storage.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/storage.rs
index cead98a72f6..d1140862087 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/storage.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/storage.rs
@@ -1,42 +1,250 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap};
+use std::ops::Sub;
+use std::sync::{
+    Arc, OnceLock,
+    atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
+};
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
-use arrow::datatypes::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type};
+use arrow::datatypes::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, UInt8Type, UInt64Type};
 use arrow_array::{
-    Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
 };
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, SchemaRef};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, SchemaRef};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::{Bytes, BytesMut};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use itertools::Itertools;
+use itertools::{Itertools, izip};
 use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FixedSizeListArrayExt, FloatArray, RecordBatchExt};
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
-use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot};
-use lance_linalg::simd::dist_table::{BATCH_SIZE, PERM0, PERM0_INVERSE};
-use lance_linalg::simd::{self};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, dot};
+use lance_linalg::simd::{
+    self,
+    dist_table::{BATCH_SIZE, PERM0, PERM0_INVERSE},
+};
+#[cfg(any(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_arch = "aarch64",
+    target_arch = "loongarch64"
+))]
+use lance_linalg::simd::{SIMD, f32::f32x16};
 use lance_table::utils::LanceIteratorExtension;
 use num_traits::AsPrimitive;
 use prost::Message;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexHandle};
 use crate::pb;
-use crate::vector::bq::transform::{ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN};
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
+use crate::vector::ApproxMode;
+use crate::vector::bq::dist_table_quant::{
+    DistTableDequant, quantize_dist_table_into, quantize_dist_table_u16_into,
+};
+use crate::vector::bq::ex_dot::{
+    EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS, ExDotFn, blocked_ex_code_bytes, ex_dot_kernel, pad_query_into,
+    padded_query_len, repack_sequential_row, sequential_matches_blocked,
+};
+use crate::vector::bq::prune::{PRUNE_LANES, ScaledLowerBoundTerms, scaled_prune_mask_kernel};
+use crate::vector::bq::rotation::{apply_fast_rotation, apply_fast_rotation_in_place};
+use crate::vector::bq::transform::{
+    ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+    SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+};
+use crate::vector::bq::{
+    RQRotationType, rabit_binary_code_bytes, rabit_ex_bits, rabit_ex_code_bytes,
+    validate_rq_num_bits,
+};
+use crate::vector::graph::{OrderedFloat, OrderedNode};
 use crate::vector::pq::storage::transpose;
 use crate::vector::quantizer::{QuantizerMetadata, QuantizerStorage};
-use crate::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore};
+use crate::vector::storage::{
+    DistCalculator, DistanceCalculatorOptions, QueryResidual, RabitRawQueryContext, VectorStore,
+};
 
 pub const RABIT_METADATA_KEY: &str = "lance:rabit";
 pub const RABIT_CODE_COLUMN: &str = "_rabit_codes";
+/// Legacy ex-code column: sequential LSB-first bit stream per row. Read-only;
+/// rows are repacked into the blocked layout at load time.
+pub const RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN: &str = "__ex_codes";
+/// Ex-code column in the blocked layout consumed by the ex-dot kernels (see
+/// `ex_dot` module docs). Indexes written with this column cannot be read by
+/// older versions, which fail with a missing-column error instead of
+/// misinterpreting the bytes.
+pub const RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN: &str = "__blocked_ex_codes";
 pub const SEGMENT_LENGTH: usize = 4;
 pub const SEGMENT_NUM_CODES: usize = 1 << SEGMENT_LENGTH;
+const RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_ENV: &str = "LANCE_RQ_PRUNE_STATS";
+const RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_INTERVAL_ENV: &str = "LANCE_RQ_PRUNE_STATS_INTERVAL";
+const DEFAULT_RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_INTERVAL: u64 = 1024;
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct RabitPruneStats {
+    calls: AtomicU64,
+    candidates: AtomicU64,
+    pruned_upper_bound: AtomicU64,
+    pruned_heap: AtomicU64,
+    exact: AtomicU64,
+    exact_rejected: AtomicU64,
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct RabitPruneBypassStats {
+    calls: AtomicU64,
+}
+
+static RABIT_PRUNE_STATS: OnceLock<RabitPruneStats> = OnceLock::new();
+static RABIT_PRUNE_BYPASS_STATS: OnceLock<RabitPruneBypassStats> = OnceLock::new();
+static RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_ENABLED: OnceLock<bool> = OnceLock::new();
+static RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_INTERVAL: OnceLock<u64> = OnceLock::new();
+
+fn rabit_prune_stats_enabled() -> bool {
+    *RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_ENABLED.get_or_init(|| match std::env::var(RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_ENV) {
+        Ok(value) => str_is_truthy(value.trim()),
+        Err(_) => false,
+    })
+}
+
+fn rabit_prune_stats_interval() -> u64 {
+    *RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_INTERVAL.get_or_init(|| {
+        std::env::var(RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_INTERVAL_ENV)
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|value| value.parse::<u64>().ok())
+            .filter(|interval| *interval > 0)
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_RABIT_PRUNE_STATS_INTERVAL)
+    })
+}
+
+fn ratio(numerator: u64, denominator: u64) -> f64 {
+    if denominator == 0 {
+        0.0
+    } else {
+        numerator as f64 / denominator as f64
+    }
+}
+
+fn emit_rabit_prune_stats(message: &str) {
+    log::warn!(
+        target: "lance_index::vector::bq::prune_stats",
+        "{}",
+        message
+    );
+}
+
+/// Per-scan tallies of the raw-query lower-bound gating, reported through
+/// `record_rabit_prune_stats`.
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct RabitPruneCounters {
+    candidates: usize,
+    pruned_upper_bound: usize,
+    pruned_heap: usize,
+    exact: usize,
+    exact_rejected: usize,
+}
+
+fn record_rabit_prune_stats(counters: &RabitPruneCounters) {
+    if !rabit_prune_stats_enabled() {
+        return;
+    }
+    let RabitPruneCounters {
+        candidates,
+        pruned_upper_bound,
+        pruned_heap,
+        exact,
+        exact_rejected,
+    } = *counters;
+
+    let stats = RABIT_PRUNE_STATS.get_or_init(RabitPruneStats::default);
+    let calls = stats.calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed) + 1;
+    let candidates = stats
+        .candidates
+        .fetch_add(candidates as u64, Ordering::Relaxed)
+        + candidates as u64;
+    let pruned_upper_bound = stats
+        .pruned_upper_bound
+        .fetch_add(pruned_upper_bound as u64, Ordering::Relaxed)
+        + pruned_upper_bound as u64;
+    let pruned_heap = stats
+        .pruned_heap
+        .fetch_add(pruned_heap as u64, Ordering::Relaxed)
+        + pruned_heap as u64;
+    let exact = stats.exact.fetch_add(exact as u64, Ordering::Relaxed) + exact as u64;
+    let exact_rejected = stats
+        .exact_rejected
+        .fetch_add(exact_rejected as u64, Ordering::Relaxed)
+        + exact_rejected as u64;
+    let interval = rabit_prune_stats_interval();
+    if calls.is_multiple_of(interval) {
+        let pruned = pruned_upper_bound + pruned_heap;
+        emit_rabit_prune_stats(&format!(
+            "ivf_rq_prune_stats calls={} candidates={} pruned={} pruned_upper_bound={} pruned_heap={} prune_ratio={:.6} exact={} exact_ratio={:.6} exact_rejected={} exact_reject_ratio={:.6}",
+            calls,
+            candidates,
+            pruned,
+            pruned_upper_bound,
+            pruned_heap,
+            ratio(pruned, candidates),
+            exact,
+            ratio(exact, candidates),
+            exact_rejected,
+            ratio(exact_rejected, exact),
+        ));
+    }
+}
+
+fn record_rabit_prune_bypass(reason: &'static str) {
+    if !rabit_prune_stats_enabled() {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    let stats = RABIT_PRUNE_BYPASS_STATS.get_or_init(RabitPruneBypassStats::default);
+    let calls = stats.calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed) + 1;
+    if calls.is_multiple_of(rabit_prune_stats_interval()) {
+        emit_rabit_prune_stats(&format!(
+            "ivf_rq_prune_stats_bypass calls={} reason={}",
+            calls, reason
+        ));
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "snake_case")]
+pub enum RabitQueryEstimator {
+    ResidualQuery,
+    RawQuery,
+}
+
+pub fn rabit_binary_code_field(rotated_dim: usize) -> Field {
+    Field::new(
+        RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+            rabit_binary_code_bytes(rotated_dim) as i32,
+        ),
+        true,
+    )
+}
+
+pub fn rabit_ex_code_field(rotated_dim: usize, num_bits: u8) -> Result<Option<Field>> {
+    let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(num_bits)?;
+    if ex_bits == 0 {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    Ok(Some(Field::new(
+        RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN,
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+            blocked_ex_code_bytes(rotated_dim, ex_bits) as i32,
+        ),
+        true,
+    )))
+}
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 pub struct RabitQuantizationMetadata {
@@ -45,65 +253,227 @@ pub struct RabitQuantizationMetadata {
     // in the global buffer, which is a binary format (protobuf for now) for efficiency.
     #[serde(skip)]
     pub rotate_mat: Option<FixedSizeListArray>,
-    pub rotate_mat_position: u32,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub rotate_mat_position: Option<u32>,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub fast_rotation_signs: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+    #[serde(default = "default_rotation_type_compat")]
+    pub rotation_type: RQRotationType,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub code_dim: u32,
     pub num_bits: u8,
     pub packed: bool,
+    #[serde(default = "default_query_estimator_compat")]
+    pub query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator,
+}
+
+impl RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+    pub fn rotated_dim(&self) -> usize {
+        if self.code_dim > 0 {
+            self.code_dim as usize
+        } else {
+            self.rotate_mat
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|rotate_mat| rotate_mat.len())
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn binary_code_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        rabit_binary_code_bytes(self.rotated_dim())
+    }
+}
+
+fn default_rotation_type_compat() -> RQRotationType {
+    // Older metadata does not have this field and always used dense matrices.
+    RQRotationType::Matrix
+}
+
+fn default_query_estimator_compat() -> RabitQueryEstimator {
+    // Released IVF_RQ indexes predate this marker and used residual queries.
+    RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery
+}
+
+impl RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+    fn code_dim(&self) -> usize {
+        self.rotated_dim()
+    }
+
+    fn rotate_vector_with_residual_into(
+        &self,
+        vector: &dyn Array,
+        residual_centroid: Option<&dyn Array>,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), self.code_dim());
+        match self.rotation_type {
+            RQRotationType::Matrix => {
+                let rotate_mat = self
+                    .rotate_mat
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("RabitQ dense rotation metadata not loaded");
+
+                match rotate_mat.value_type() {
+                    DataType::Float16 => {
+                        RabitQuantizationStorage::rotate_query_vector_dense_into::<Float16Type>(
+                            rotate_mat,
+                            vector,
+                            residual_centroid,
+                            output,
+                        )
+                    }
+                    DataType::Float32 => {
+                        RabitQuantizationStorage::rotate_query_vector_dense_into::<Float32Type>(
+                            rotate_mat,
+                            vector,
+                            residual_centroid,
+                            output,
+                        )
+                    }
+                    DataType::Float64 => {
+                        RabitQuantizationStorage::rotate_query_vector_dense_into::<Float64Type>(
+                            rotate_mat,
+                            vector,
+                            residual_centroid,
+                            output,
+                        )
+                    }
+                    dt => unimplemented!("RabitQ does not support data type: {}", dt),
+                }
+            }
+            RQRotationType::Fast => {
+                let signs = self
+                    .fast_rotation_signs
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("RabitQ fast rotation metadata not loaded");
+                match vector.data_type() {
+                    DataType::Float16 => RabitQuantizationStorage::rotate_query_vector_fast_into::<
+                        Float16Type,
+                    >(
+                        signs, vector, residual_centroid, output
+                    ),
+                    DataType::Float32 => {
+                        RabitQuantizationStorage::rotate_query_vector_fast_f32_into(
+                            signs,
+                            vector,
+                            residual_centroid,
+                            output,
+                        )
+                    }
+                    DataType::Float64 => RabitQuantizationStorage::rotate_query_vector_fast_into::<
+                        Float64Type,
+                    >(
+                        signs, vector, residual_centroid, output
+                    ),
+                    dt => unimplemented!("RabitQ does not support data type: {}", dt),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn prepare_raw_query_context(&self, query: &dyn Array) -> Result<RabitRawQueryContext> {
+        validate_rq_num_bits(self.num_bits)?;
+        let code_dim = self.code_dim();
+        let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(self.num_bits)?;
+        let dist_table_len = code_dim * 4;
+
+        let mut rotated_query = vec![0.0; code_dim];
+        self.rotate_vector_with_residual_into(query, None, &mut rotated_query);
+
+        let mut dist_table = vec![0.0; dist_table_len];
+        build_dist_table_direct_into::<Float32Type>(&rotated_query, &mut dist_table);
+
+        // The kernels consume the rotated query directly; a zero-padded copy
+        // is only needed when the rotated dim is not block-aligned.
+        let mut ex_query = Vec::new();
+        if ex_bits > 0 && !code_dim.is_multiple_of(EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS) {
+            ex_query.resize(padded_query_len(code_dim), 0.0);
+            pad_query_into(&rotated_query, &mut ex_query);
+        }
+
+        let sum_q = rotated_query.iter().copied().sum();
+        Ok(RabitRawQueryContext {
+            code_dim,
+            ex_bits,
+            rotated_query,
+            dist_table,
+            ex_query,
+            sum_q,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for RabitQuantizationMetadata {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.rotate_mat
             .as_ref()
-            .map(|inv_p| inv_p.get_array_memory_size())
+            .map(|inv_p| (inv_p as &dyn arrow_array::Array).deep_size_of_children(context))
             .unwrap_or(0)
+            + self
+                .fast_rotation_signs
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|signs| signs.len())
+                .unwrap_or(0)
     }
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl QuantizerMetadata for RabitQuantizationMetadata {
     fn buffer_index(&self) -> Option<u32> {
-        Some(self.rotate_mat_position)
+        match self.rotation_type {
+            RQRotationType::Matrix => self.rotate_mat_position,
+            RQRotationType::Fast => None,
+        }
     }
 
     fn set_buffer_index(&mut self, index: u32) {
-        self.rotate_mat_position = index;
+        self.rotate_mat_position = Some(index);
     }
 
     fn parse_buffer(&mut self, bytes: Bytes) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.rotation_type != RQRotationType::Matrix {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
         debug_assert!(!bytes.is_empty());
         let codebook_tensor: pb::Tensor = pb::Tensor::decode(bytes)?;
         self.rotate_mat = Some(FixedSizeListArray::try_from(&codebook_tensor)?);
+        if self.code_dim == 0 {
+            self.code_dim = self
+                .rotate_mat
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|rotate_mat| rotate_mat.len() as u32)
+                .unwrap_or(0);
+        }
         Ok(())
     }
 
     fn extra_metadata(&self) -> Result<Option<Bytes>> {
-        if let Some(inv_p) = &self.rotate_mat {
-            let inv_p_tensor = pb::Tensor::try_from(inv_p)?;
-            let mut bytes = BytesMut::new();
-            inv_p_tensor.encode(&mut bytes)?;
-            Ok(Some(bytes.freeze()))
-        } else {
-            Ok(None)
+        match self.rotation_type {
+            RQRotationType::Matrix => {
+                if let Some(inv_p) = &self.rotate_mat {
+                    let inv_p_tensor = pb::Tensor::try_from(inv_p)?;
+                    let mut bytes = BytesMut::new();
+                    inv_p_tensor.encode(&mut bytes)?;
+                    Ok(Some(bytes.freeze()))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(None)
+                }
+            }
+            RQRotationType::Fast => Ok(None),
         }
     }
 
-    async fn load(reader: &PreviousFileReader) -> Result<Self> {
-        let metadata_str =
-            reader
-                .schema()
-                .metadata
-                .get(RABIT_METADATA_KEY)
-                .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Reading Rabit metadata: metadata key {} not found",
-                        RABIT_METADATA_KEY
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-        serde_json::from_str(metadata_str).map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+    async fn load(reader: &V1FileReader) -> Result<Self> {
+        let metadata_str = reader
+            .schema()
+            .metadata
+            .get(RABIT_METADATA_KEY)
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Reading Rabit metadata: metadata key {} not found",
+                RABIT_METADATA_KEY
+            )))?;
+        serde_json::from_str(metadata_str)
+            .map_err(|_| Error::index(format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str)))
     }
 }
 
@@ -118,24 +488,215 @@ pub struct RabitQuantizationStorage {
     codes: FixedSizeListArray,
     add_factors: Float32Array,
     scale_factors: Float32Array,
+    error_factors: Option<Float32Array>,
+    // ex codes in the blocked kernel layout; always aliases the batch column
+    // (legacy sequential batches are normalized at load, replacing the
+    // sequential column with the repacked one, so rewrites emit the blocked
+    // format).
+    ex_codes: Option<FixedSizeListArray>,
+    packed_ex_codes: Option<FixedSizeListArray>,
+    ex_add_factors: Option<Float32Array>,
+    ex_scale_factors: Option<Float32Array>,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for RabitQuantizationStorage {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.metadata.deep_size_of_children(context) + self.batch.get_array_memory_size()
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.metadata.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.batch.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .packed_ex_codes
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|codes| (codes as &dyn Array).deep_size_of_children(context))
+                .unwrap_or_default()
     }
 }
 
 impl RabitQuantizationStorage {
-    fn rotate_query_vector<T: ArrowFloatType>(
+    fn code_dim(&self) -> usize {
+        self.metadata.code_dim()
+    }
+
+    fn residual_query_factor(&self, dist_q_c: f32) -> f32 {
+        match self.distance_type {
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine => dist_q_c,
+            DistanceType::Dot => dist_q_c - 1.0,
+            _ => unimplemented!(
+                "RabitQ does not support distance type: {}",
+                self.distance_type
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn raw_query_factors(
+        &self,
+        dist_q_c: f32,
+        rotated_query: &[f32],
+        rotated_centroid: Option<&[f32]>,
+    ) -> RabitQueryFactors {
+        let gated = self.metadata.num_bits > 1 && self.error_factors.is_some();
+        match self.distance_type {
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine => RabitQueryFactors {
+                add_scale: 1.0,
+                add_offset: 0.0,
+                add: if self.distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
+                    dist_q_c - 1.0
+                } else {
+                    dist_q_c
+                },
+                error: if gated { dist_q_c.max(0.0).sqrt() } else { 0.0 },
+            },
+            DistanceType::Dot => {
+                // With x=c+r and a quantized residual r_hat, the stored add factor
+                // is 1-c·(r-r_hat). Scale that correction by the projection of q
+                // onto c: alpha=(q·c)/||c||². Then the score is linear in q and
+                // its error is (q-alpha*c)·(r-r_hat), rather than (q-c)·(r-r_hat).
+                // The projection also minimizes the query norm in the error bound.
+                let (ip, alpha) = rotated_centroid.map_or((1.0 - dist_q_c, 0.0), |c| {
+                    let ip = dot(rotated_query, c);
+                    let norm_square = dot(c, c);
+                    let alpha = ip / norm_square;
+                    // An unrepresentable projection cannot be applied to f32
+                    // factors. Use the uncorrected residual estimator instead.
+                    (ip, if alpha.is_finite() { alpha } else { 0.0 })
+                });
+                RabitQueryFactors {
+                    add_scale: alpha,
+                    // Center the stored factor before scaling: splitting the
+                    // constant as alpha*A + (1-alpha-ip) loses it for large alpha.
+                    add_offset: 1.0,
+                    add: 1.0 - ip,
+                    error: if gated {
+                        // Subtract components before squaring. The difference
+                        // ||q||²-alpha*(q·c) cancels for nearly parallel vectors,
+                        // which can erase the margin and incorrectly prune rows.
+                        // f64 also keeps finite f32 queries from overflowing here.
+                        let norm_square: f64 = if let Some(c) = rotated_centroid {
+                            let (query_blocks, query_tail) = rotated_query.as_chunks::<8>();
+                            let (centroid_blocks, centroid_tail) = c.as_chunks::<8>();
+                            // Independent accumulators let this per-partition
+                            // reduction vectorize without f32 cancellation.
+                            let mut sums = [0.0f64; 8];
+                            for (query, centroid) in query_blocks.iter().zip(centroid_blocks) {
+                                for lane in 0..8 {
+                                    let residual =
+                                        query[lane] as f64 - alpha as f64 * centroid[lane] as f64;
+                                    sums[lane] += residual * residual;
+                                }
+                            }
+                            let tail: f64 = query_tail
+                                .iter()
+                                .zip(centroid_tail)
+                                .map(|(&q, &c)| (q as f64 - alpha as f64 * c as f64).powi(2))
+                                .sum();
+                            sums.into_iter().sum::<f64>() + tail
+                        } else {
+                            rotated_query.iter().map(|&q| (q as f64).powi(2)).sum()
+                        };
+                        let norm = norm_square.sqrt();
+                        let rounded = norm as f32;
+                        // Rounding the query norm downward would narrow the bound.
+                        if (rounded as f64) < norm {
+                            rounded.next_up()
+                        } else {
+                            rounded
+                        }
+                    } else {
+                        0.0
+                    },
+                }
+            }
+            _ => unimplemented!(
+                "RabitQ does not support distance type: {}",
+                self.distance_type
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn distance_calculator_from_parts<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        parts: RabitDistCalculatorParts<'a>,
+    ) -> RabitDistCalculator<'a> {
+        let RabitDistCalculatorParts {
+            dim,
+            dist_table,
+            ex_query,
+            sum_q,
+            query_factors,
+            approx_mode,
+        } = parts;
+        let ex_code_len = self
+            .ex_codes
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|codes| codes.value_length() as usize)
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let ex_codes = self
+            .ex_codes
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|codes| codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values().as_ref());
+        let packed_ex_codes = self
+            .packed_ex_codes
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|codes| codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values().as_ref());
+        let mut calculator = RabitDistCalculator::new(
+            dim,
+            self.metadata.num_bits,
+            self.metadata.query_estimator,
+            dist_table,
+            ex_query,
+            sum_q,
+            self.codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values(),
+            ex_codes,
+            ex_code_len,
+            self.add_factors.values(),
+            self.scale_factors.values(),
+            self.error_factors
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|factors| factors.values().as_ref()),
+            self.ex_add_factors
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|factors| factors.values().as_ref()),
+            self.ex_scale_factors
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|factors| factors.values().as_ref()),
+            packed_ex_codes,
+            query_factors.add,
+            query_factors.error,
+            approx_mode,
+        );
+        calculator.add_factor_scale = query_factors.add_scale;
+        calculator.add_factor_offset = query_factors.add_offset;
+        calculator
+    }
+
+    fn rotate_query_vector(&self, code_dim: usize, qr: &dyn Array) -> Vec<f32> {
+        let mut output = vec![0.0f32; code_dim];
+        self.rotate_query_vector_into(code_dim, qr, None, &mut output);
+        output
+    }
+
+    fn rotate_query_vector_into(
+        &self,
+        code_dim: usize,
+        qr: &dyn Array,
+        residual_centroid: Option<&dyn Array>,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), code_dim);
+        self.metadata
+            .rotate_vector_with_residual_into(qr, residual_centroid, output);
+    }
+
+    fn rotate_query_vector_dense_into<T: ArrowFloatType>(
         rotate_mat: &FixedSizeListArray,
         qr: &dyn Array,
-    ) -> Vec<f32>
-    where
-        T::Native: Dot,
+        residual_centroid: Option<&dyn Array>,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) where
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32> + Dot + Sub<Output = T::Native>,
     {
         let d = qr.len();
         let code_dim = rotate_mat.len();
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), code_dim);
         let rotate_mat = rotate_mat
             .values()
             .as_any()
@@ -149,27 +710,197 @@ impl RabitQuantizationStorage {
             .unwrap()
             .as_slice();
 
-        rotate_mat
-            .chunks_exact(code_dim)
-            .map(|chunk| lance_linalg::distance::dot(&chunk[..d], qr))
-            .collect()
+        if let Some(residual_centroid) = residual_centroid {
+            let residual_centroid = residual_centroid
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_slice();
+            debug_assert_eq!(residual_centroid.len(), d);
+            for (chunk, out) in rotate_mat.chunks_exact(code_dim).zip(output.iter_mut()) {
+                let mut sum = 0.0;
+                for idx in 0..d {
+                    let residual = qr[idx] - residual_centroid[idx];
+                    sum += chunk[idx].as_() * residual.as_();
+                }
+                *out = sum;
+            }
+        } else {
+            rotate_mat
+                .chunks_exact(code_dim)
+                .zip(output.iter_mut())
+                .for_each(|(chunk, out)| {
+                    *out = lance_linalg::distance::dot(&chunk[..d], qr);
+                });
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn rotate_query_vector_fast_into<T: ArrowFloatType>(
+        signs: &[u8],
+        qr: &dyn Array,
+        residual_centroid: Option<&dyn Array>,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) where
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32> + Sub<Output = T::Native>,
+    {
+        let qr = qr
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_slice();
+
+        if let Some(residual_centroid) = residual_centroid {
+            let residual_centroid = residual_centroid
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_slice();
+            let input_len = qr.len().min(output.len());
+            debug_assert!(residual_centroid.len() >= input_len);
+            for idx in 0..input_len {
+                output[idx] = (qr[idx] - residual_centroid[idx]).as_();
+            }
+            if input_len < output.len() {
+                output[input_len..].fill(0.0);
+            }
+            apply_fast_rotation_in_place(output, signs);
+        } else {
+            apply_fast_rotation(qr, output, signs);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn rotate_query_vector_fast_f32_into(
+        signs: &[u8],
+        qr: &dyn Array,
+        residual_centroid: Option<&dyn Array>,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        let qr = qr.as_any().downcast_ref::<Float32Array>().unwrap().values();
+
+        if let Some(residual_centroid) = residual_centroid {
+            let residual_centroid = residual_centroid
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .values();
+            copy_subtract_f32(qr, residual_centroid, output);
+            apply_fast_rotation_in_place(output, signs);
+        } else {
+            apply_fast_rotation(qr, output, signs);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn copy_subtract_f32(lhs: &[f32], rhs: &[f32], output: &mut [f32]) {
+    let input_len = lhs.len().min(output.len());
+    debug_assert!(rhs.len() >= input_len);
+
+    #[cfg(any(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_arch = "aarch64",
+        target_arch = "loongarch64"
+    ))]
+    let simd_len = input_len / f32x16::LANES * f32x16::LANES;
+    #[cfg(not(any(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_arch = "aarch64",
+        target_arch = "loongarch64"
+    )))]
+    let simd_len = 0;
+
+    #[cfg(any(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_arch = "aarch64",
+        target_arch = "loongarch64"
+    ))]
+    for idx in (0..simd_len).step_by(f32x16::LANES) {
+        let lhs = f32x16::from(&lhs[idx..]);
+        let rhs = f32x16::from(&rhs[idx..]);
+        let result = lhs - rhs;
+        unsafe {
+            result.store_unaligned(output.as_mut_ptr().add(idx));
+        }
+    }
+
+    for idx in simd_len..input_len {
+        output[idx] = lhs[idx] - rhs[idx];
+    }
+    if input_len < output.len() {
+        output[input_len..].fill(0.0);
+    }
+}
+
+struct RabitQueryFactors {
+    add_scale: f32,
+    add_offset: f32,
+    add: f32,
+    error: f32,
+}
+
+struct RabitDistCalculatorParts<'a> {
+    dim: usize,
+    dist_table: Cow<'a, [f32]>,
+    ex_query: Cow<'a, [f32]>,
+    sum_q: f32,
+    query_factors: RabitQueryFactors,
+    approx_mode: ApproxMode,
+}
+
+/// Loop-invariant inputs of the raw-query multi-bit top-k scans: the row
+/// count, the resolved ex-code state for exact reranking, and the query
+/// bounds.
+struct RawQueryTopkContext<'a> {
+    n: usize,
+    k: usize,
+    ex_bits: u8,
+    ex_codes: &'a [u8],
+    ex_add_factors: &'a [f32],
+    ex_scale_factors: &'a [f32],
+    query_lower_bound: f32,
+    query_upper_bound: f32,
+}
+
+/// Pick the query slice the ex-dot kernels consume: the rotated query itself
+/// when the dim is block-aligned, otherwise a zero-padded copy.
+fn kernel_query<'a>(rotated_query: &'a [f32], padded: &'a [f32]) -> &'a [f32] {
+    if rotated_query.len().is_multiple_of(EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS) {
+        rotated_query
+    } else {
+        padded
     }
 }
 
 pub struct RabitDistCalculator<'a> {
     dim: usize,
-    // num_bits is the number of bits per dimension,
-    // it's always 1 for now
     num_bits: u8,
-    // n * d * num_bits / 8 bytes
+    query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator,
+    // n * d / 8 binary-code bytes
     codes: &'a [u8],
+    // per-row ex codes in the blocked kernel layout
+    ex_codes: Option<&'a [u8]>,
+    // bytes per ex-code row; legacy rows for layout-compatible widths may be
+    // shorter than the blocked size, which the kernels treat as zero padding
+    ex_code_len: usize,
     // this is a flattened 2D array of size d/4 * 16,
     // we split the query codes into d/4 chunks, each chunk is with 4 elements,
     // then dist_table[i][j] is the distance between the i-th query code and the code j
-    dist_table: Vec<f32>,
+    dist_table: Cow<'a, [f32]>,
+    // the rotated query, zero-padded to a 64-dim multiple when needed; also
+    // the source for the FastScan ex LUT on the legacy bypass path
+    ex_query: Cow<'a, [f32]>,
+    ex_dot: Option<ExDotFn>,
     add_factors: &'a [f32],
     scale_factors: &'a [f32],
+    error_factors: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+    ex_add_factors: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+    ex_scale_factors: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+    packed_ex_codes: Option<&'a [u8]>,
     query_factor: f32,
+    query_error: f32,
+    add_factor_scale: f32,
+    add_factor_offset: f32,
+    approx_mode: ApproxMode,
 
     sum_q: f32,
     sqrt_d: f32,
@@ -180,647 +911,4202 @@ impl<'a> RabitDistCalculator<'a> {
     pub fn new(
         dim: usize,
         num_bits: u8,
-        dist_table: Vec<f32>,
+        query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator,
+        dist_table: Cow<'a, [f32]>,
+        ex_query: Cow<'a, [f32]>,
         sum_q: f32,
         codes: &'a [u8],
+        ex_codes: Option<&'a [u8]>,
+        ex_code_len: usize,
         add_factors: &'a [f32],
         scale_factors: &'a [f32],
+        error_factors: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+        ex_add_factors: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+        ex_scale_factors: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+        packed_ex_codes: Option<&'a [u8]>,
         query_factor: f32,
+        query_error: f32,
+        approx_mode: ApproxMode,
     ) -> Self {
+        let ex_dot = (num_bits > 1).then(|| ex_dot_kernel(num_bits - 1));
         Self {
             dim,
             num_bits,
+            query_estimator,
             codes,
+            ex_codes,
+            ex_code_len,
             dist_table,
+            ex_query,
+            ex_dot,
             add_factors,
             scale_factors,
+            error_factors,
+            ex_add_factors,
+            ex_scale_factors,
+            packed_ex_codes,
             query_factor,
+            query_error,
+            approx_mode,
+            add_factor_scale: 1.0,
+            add_factor_offset: 0.0,
             sqrt_d: (dim as f32 * num_bits as f32).sqrt(),
             sum_q,
         }
     }
-}
-
-#[inline]
-fn lowbit(x: usize) -> usize {
-    1 << x.trailing_zeros()
-}
-
-#[inline]
-pub fn build_dist_table_direct<T: ArrowFloatType>(qc: &[T::Native]) -> Vec<f32>
-where
-    T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
-{
-    // every 4 bits (SEGMENT_LENGTH) is a segment, and we need to compute the distance between the segment and all the codes
-    // so there are dim/4 segments, and the number of codes is 16 (2^{SEGMENT_LENGTH}),
-    // so we have dim/4 * 16 = dim * 4 elements in the dist_table
-    let mut dist_table = vec![0.0; qc.len() * 4];
-    qc.chunks_exact(SEGMENT_LENGTH)
-        .zip(dist_table.chunks_exact_mut(SEGMENT_NUM_CODES))
-        .for_each(|(sub_vec, dist_table)| build_dist_table_for_subvec::<T>(sub_vec, dist_table));
-    dist_table
-}
-
-#[inline(always)]
-fn build_dist_table_for_subvec<T: ArrowFloatType>(sub_vec: &[T::Native], dist_table: &mut [f32])
-where
-    T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
-{
-    // skip 0 because it's always 0
-    (1..SEGMENT_NUM_CODES).for_each(|j| {
-        // this is a little bit tricky,
-        // j represents a subset of 4 bits, that if the i-th bit of `j` is 1,
-        // then we need to add the distance of the i-th dim of the segment.
-        // but we don't need to check all bits of `j`,
-        // because `j` = `j - lowbit(j)` + `lowbit(j)`,
-        // where `j-lowbit(j)` is less than `j`,
-        // which means dist_table[j-lowbit(j)] is already computed,
-        // and we can use it to compute dist_table[j]
-        // for example, if j = 0b1010, then j - lowbit(j) = 0b1000,
-        // and dist_table[0b1000] is already computed,
-        // so dist_table[0b1010] = dist_table[0b1000] + sub_vec[LOWBIT_IDX[0b1010]];
-        // where lowbit(0b1010) = 0b10, LOWBIT_IDX[0b1010] = LOWBIT_IDX[0b10] = 1.
-        dist_table[j] = dist_table[j - lowbit(j)] + sub_vec[LOWBIT_IDX[j]].as_();
-    })
-}
-
-// Quantize the distance table to u8, map distance `d` to `(d-qmin) * 255 / (qmax-qmin)`
-#[inline]
-fn quantize_dist_table(dist_table: &[f32]) -> (f32, f32, Vec<u8>) {
-    let (qmin, qmax) = dist_table
-        .iter()
-        .cloned()
-        .minmax_by(|a, b| a.total_cmp(b))
-        .into_option()
-        .unwrap();
-    // this happens if the query is all zeros
-    if qmin == qmax {
-        return (qmin, qmax, vec![0; dist_table.len()]);
-    }
-    let factor = 255.0 / (qmax - qmin);
-    let quantized_dist_table = dist_table
-        .iter()
-        .map(|&d| ((d - qmin) * factor).round() as u8)
-        .collect();
 
-    (qmin, qmax, quantized_dist_table)
-}
-
-#[inline]
-fn compute_rq_distance_flat(
-    dist_table: &[f32],
-    codes: &[u8],
-    offset: usize,
-    length: usize,
-    dists: &mut [f32],
-) {
-    let d = dist_table.len() / 4;
-    let code_len = d / u8::BITS as usize;
-    let codes = &codes[offset * code_len..(offset + length) * code_len];
-    let dists = &mut dists[offset..offset + length];
-
-    for (sub_vec_idx, codes) in codes.chunks_exact(length).enumerate() {
-        let current_dist_table = &dist_table
-            [sub_vec_idx * 2 * SEGMENT_NUM_CODES..(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 1) * SEGMENT_NUM_CODES];
-        let next_dist_table = &dist_table
-            [(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 1) * SEGMENT_NUM_CODES..(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 2) * SEGMENT_NUM_CODES];
-
-        codes.iter().zip(dists.iter_mut()).for_each(|(code, dist)| {
-            let current_code = (code & 0x0F) as usize;
-            let next_code = (code >> 4) as usize;
-            *dist += current_dist_table[current_code] + next_dist_table[next_code];
-        });
+    /// `sum_d query[d] * ex_code[d]` for the candidate's packed ex codes.
+    #[inline]
+    fn ex_code_dot(&self, ex_codes: &[u8], id: usize) -> f32 {
+        let ex_dot = self
+            .ex_dot
+            .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires an ex-dot kernel");
+        ex_dot(
+            self.ex_query.as_ref(),
+            &ex_codes[id * self.ex_code_len..(id + 1) * self.ex_code_len],
+        )
     }
-}
-
-impl DistCalculator for RabitDistCalculator<'_> {
-    #[inline(always)]
-    fn distance(&self, id: u32) -> f32 {
-        let id = id as usize;
-        let code_len = self.dim * (self.num_bits as usize) / u8::BITS as usize;
-        let num_vectors = self.codes.len() / code_len;
-        let code = get_rq_code(self.codes, id, num_vectors, code_len);
-        let dist = code
-            .zip(self.dist_table.chunks_exact(SEGMENT_NUM_CODES).tuples())
-            .map(|(code_byte, (dist_table, next_dist_table))| {
-                // code is a bit vector, we iterate over 8 bits at a time,
-                // every 4 bits is a sub-vector, we need to extract the bits
-                let current_code = (code_byte & 0x0F) as usize;
-                let next_code = (code_byte >> 4) as usize;
-                dist_table[current_code] + next_dist_table[next_code]
-            })
-            .sum::<f32>();
 
-        // distance between quantized vector and query vector
-        let dist_vq_qr = (2.0 * dist - self.sum_q) / self.sqrt_d;
-        dist_vq_qr * self.scale_factors[id] + self.add_factors[id] + self.query_factor
+    /// Fill `dists[0..n]` with exact per-row binary distances computed
+    /// directly from the f32 dist table — the fallback when the quantized
+    /// reconstruction scale would be non-finite ([`DistTableDequant::Exact`]).
+    fn fill_exact_binary_distances(&self, n: usize, code_len: usize, dists: &mut Vec<f32>) {
+        dists.clear();
+        dists.reserve(n);
+        dists.spare_capacity_mut()[..n]
+            .iter_mut()
+            .enumerate()
+            .for_each(|(id, dist)| {
+                dist.write(compute_single_rq_distance(
+                    self.codes,
+                    id,
+                    n,
+                    code_len,
+                    &self.dist_table,
+                ));
+            });
+        // Every reserved slot was initialized above.
+        unsafe { dists.set_len(n) };
     }
 
-    #[inline(always)]
-    fn distance_all(&self, _: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
-        let code_len = self.dim * (self.num_bits as usize) / u8::BITS as usize;
-        let n = self.codes.len() / code_len;
-        if n == 0 {
-            return Vec::new();
+    fn binary_distances_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        n: usize,
+        code_len: usize,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_dists_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        hacc_quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) -> usize {
+        if self.approx_mode == ApproxMode::Accurate {
+            return self.binary_distances_hacc_with_scratch(
+                n,
+                code_len,
+                dists,
+                quantized_dists,
+                quantized_dists_table,
+                hacc_quantized_dists,
+            );
         }
 
-        let mut dists = vec![0.0; n];
-
-        let (qmin, qmax, quantized_dists_table) = quantize_dist_table(&self.dist_table);
-        let mut quantized_dists = vec![0; n];
-
+        let (qmin, qmax) = match quantize_dist_table_into(&self.dist_table, quantized_dists_table) {
+            DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax } => (qmin, qmax),
+            DistTableDequant::Exact => {
+                // The affine reconstruction would be non-finite; compute every
+                // binary distance exactly and report no SIMD rows so the
+                // ex-rerank caller takes the per-row path for all of them.
+                self.fill_exact_binary_distances(n, code_len, dists);
+                return 0;
+            }
+        };
         let remainder = n % BATCH_SIZE;
-        simd::dist_table::sum_4bit_dist_table(
-            n - remainder,
-            code_len,
-            self.codes,
-            &quantized_dists_table,
-            &mut quantized_dists,
-        );
-        if remainder > 0 {
-            compute_rq_distance_flat(
-                &self.dist_table,
+        let simd_len = n - remainder;
+        // Past `SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN` a full-range LUT overflows the `u16`
+        // accumulator; the wide sum is what the narrow one would have produced.
+        // Storage construction proves the code and table layouts, and the
+        // reserved output has exactly one slot per SIMD row.
+        let is_wide = code_len > simd::dist_table::SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN;
+        if is_wide {
+            hacc_quantized_dists.clear();
+            hacc_quantized_dists.reserve(simd_len);
+            unsafe {
+                simd::dist_table::sum_4bit_dist_table_u32_uninit(
+                    simd_len,
+                    code_len,
+                    self.codes,
+                    quantized_dists_table,
+                    &mut hacc_quantized_dists.spare_capacity_mut()[..simd_len],
+                );
+                // The kernel initialized every SIMD output slot.
+                hacc_quantized_dists.set_len(simd_len);
+            }
+        } else {
+            quantized_dists.clear();
+            quantized_dists.reserve(simd_len);
+            unsafe {
+                simd::dist_table::sum_4bit_dist_table_uninit(
+                    simd_len,
+                    code_len,
+                    self.codes,
+                    quantized_dists_table,
+                    &mut quantized_dists.spare_capacity_mut()[..simd_len],
+                );
+                // The kernel initialized every SIMD output slot.
+                quantized_dists.set_len(simd_len);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let range = (qmax - qmin) / 255.0;
+        let num_tables = quantized_dists_table.len() / SEGMENT_NUM_CODES;
+        let sum_min = num_tables as f32 * qmin;
+        dists.clear();
+        dists.reserve(n);
+        let uninit_dists = &mut dists.spare_capacity_mut()[..n];
+        if is_wide {
+            uninit_dists[..simd_len]
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(hacc_quantized_dists.iter())
+                .for_each(|(dist, q_dist)| {
+                    dist.write((*q_dist as f32) * range + sum_min);
+                });
+        } else {
+            uninit_dists[..simd_len]
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(quantized_dists.iter())
+                .for_each(|(dist, q_dist)| {
+                    dist.write((*q_dist as f32) * range + sum_min);
+                });
+        }
+
+        uninit_dists[simd_len..]
+            .iter_mut()
+            .enumerate()
+            .for_each(|(id, dist)| {
+                dist.write(compute_single_rq_distance(
+                    self.codes,
+                    simd_len + id,
+                    n,
+                    code_len,
+                    &self.dist_table,
+                ));
+            });
+        // Both the SIMD reconstruction and scalar remainder initialized their slots.
+        unsafe { dists.set_len(n) };
+        simd_len
+    }
+
+    fn binary_distances_hacc_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        n: usize,
+        code_len: usize,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dist_table: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        hacc_dist_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) -> usize {
+        let (qmin, qmax) =
+            match quantize_dist_table_u16_into(&self.dist_table, quantized_dist_table) {
+                DistTableDequant::Affine { qmin, qmax } => (qmin, qmax),
+                DistTableDequant::Exact => {
+                    // See binary_distances_with_scratch: non-finite affine
+                    // scale falls back to exact per-row distances.
+                    self.fill_exact_binary_distances(n, code_len, dists);
+                    return 0;
+                }
+            };
+        simd::dist_table::transfer_4bit_dist_table_u16(quantized_dist_table, hacc_dist_table);
+        let remainder = n % BATCH_SIZE;
+        let simd_len = n - remainder;
+        quantized_dists.clear();
+        quantized_dists.reserve(simd_len);
+        unsafe {
+            // Storage construction proves the code and table layouts, and the
+            // reserved output has exactly one slot per SIMD row.
+            simd::dist_table::sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table_uninit(
+                simd_len,
+                code_len,
                 self.codes,
-                n - remainder,
-                remainder,
-                &mut dists,
+                hacc_dist_table,
+                &mut quantized_dists.spare_capacity_mut()[..simd_len],
             );
+            // The high-accuracy kernel initialized every SIMD output slot.
+            quantized_dists.set_len(simd_len);
         }
 
-        let range = (qmax - qmin) / 255.0;
-        let num_tables = quantized_dists_table.len() / 16;
+        let range = (qmax - qmin) / u16::MAX as f32;
+        let num_tables = quantized_dist_table.len() / SEGMENT_NUM_CODES;
         let sum_min = num_tables as f32 * qmin;
-        dists
+        dists.clear();
+        dists.reserve(n);
+        let uninit_dists = &mut dists.spare_capacity_mut()[..n];
+        uninit_dists[..simd_len]
             .iter_mut()
-            .take(n - remainder)
-            .zip(quantized_dists.into_iter().take(n - remainder))
+            .zip(quantized_dists.iter())
             .for_each(|(dist, q_dist)| {
-                *dist = (q_dist as f32) * range + sum_min;
+                dist.write((*q_dist as f32) * range + sum_min);
             });
 
-        dists
-            .into_iter()
+        uninit_dists[simd_len..]
+            .iter_mut()
             .enumerate()
-            .map(|(id, dist)| {
-                let dist_vq_qr = (2.0 * dist - self.sum_q) / self.sqrt_d;
-                dist_vq_qr * self.scale_factors[id] + self.add_factors[id] + self.query_factor
-            })
-            .collect()
+            .for_each(|(id, dist)| {
+                dist.write(compute_single_rq_distance(
+                    self.codes,
+                    simd_len + id,
+                    n,
+                    code_len,
+                    &self.dist_table,
+                ));
+            });
+        // Both the SIMD reconstruction and scalar remainder initialized their slots.
+        unsafe { dists.set_len(n) };
+        simd_len
     }
-}
-
-impl VectorStore for RabitQuantizationStorage {
-    type DistanceCalculator<'a> = RabitDistCalculator<'a>;
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
+    #[inline]
+    fn binary_distance_factor_params(&self) -> (f32, f32) {
+        match self.query_estimator {
+            RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery => (2.0 / self.sqrt_d, -self.sum_q / self.sqrt_d),
+            RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery => (1.0, -0.5 * self.sum_q),
+        }
     }
 
-    fn schema(&self) -> &SchemaRef {
-        self.batch.schema_ref()
+    fn one_bit_distances_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        n: usize,
+        code_len: usize,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_dists_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        hacc_quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        self.binary_distances_with_scratch(
+            n,
+            code_len,
+            dists,
+            quantized_dists,
+            quantized_dists_table,
+            hacc_quantized_dists,
+        );
+        let (binary_distance_multiplier, binary_distance_offset) =
+            self.binary_distance_factor_params();
+        dists.iter_mut().enumerate().for_each(|(id, dist)| {
+            let binary_dist = *dist;
+            *dist = (binary_dist * binary_distance_multiplier + binary_distance_offset)
+                * self.scale_factors[id]
+                + self.add_factor_scale * (self.add_factors[id] - self.add_factor_offset)
+                + self.query_factor;
+        });
     }
 
-    fn to_batches(&self) -> Result<impl Iterator<Item = RecordBatch> + Send> {
-        Ok(std::iter::once(self.batch.clone()))
-    }
+    fn apply_raw_query_multi_bit_distances(
+        &self,
+        simd_len: usize,
+        dists: &mut [f32],
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_dists_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+    ) {
+        let ex_bits = self.num_bits - 1;
+        let ex_codes = self
+            .ex_codes
+            .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires ex codes");
+        let ex_add_factors = self
+            .ex_add_factors
+            .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires ex add factors");
+        let ex_scale_factors = self
+            .ex_scale_factors
+            .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires ex scale factors");
+        let code_scale = (1u32 << ex_bits) as f32;
+        let code_bias = -(code_scale - 0.5);
 
-    fn append_batch(&self, _batch: RecordBatch, _vector_column: &str) -> Result<Self> {
-        unimplemented!("RabitQ does not support append_batch")
+        let fastscan_len = if simd_len > 0 && supports_ex_fastscan(ex_bits) {
+            self.packed_ex_codes
+                .map(|packed_ex_codes| {
+                    let fastscan_len = simd_len;
+                    let fastscan_code_len = self.ex_code_len;
+                    let (qmin, qmax, quantization_max) = quantize_ex_fastscan_dist_table_into(
+                        ex_bits,
+                        self.ex_code_len,
+                        self.ex_query.as_ref(),
+                        quantized_dists_table,
+                    );
+                    quantized_dists.clear();
+                    quantized_dists.reserve(fastscan_len);
+                    unsafe {
+                        // The packed ex-code layout and table size are fixed at
+                        // construction, and the output reserves one slot per row.
+                        simd::dist_table::sum_4bit_dist_table_uninit(
+                            fastscan_len,
+                            fastscan_code_len,
+                            packed_ex_codes,
+                            quantized_dists_table,
+                            &mut quantized_dists.spare_capacity_mut()[..fastscan_len],
+                        );
+                        // The distance-table kernel initialized every fast-scan slot.
+                        quantized_dists.set_len(fastscan_len);
+                    }
+
+                    let range = (qmax - qmin) / quantization_max;
+                    let num_tables = quantized_dists_table.len() / SEGMENT_NUM_CODES;
+                    let sum_min = num_tables as f32 * qmin;
+                    dists
+                        .iter_mut()
+                        .take(fastscan_len)
+                        .zip(quantized_dists.iter())
+                        .enumerate()
+                        .for_each(|(id, (dist, q_ex_dist))| {
+                            let ex_dist = (*q_ex_dist as f32) * range + sum_min;
+                            let full_dot = code_scale * *dist + ex_dist + code_bias * self.sum_q;
+                            *dist = full_dot * ex_scale_factors[id]
+                                + self.add_factor_scale
+                                    * (ex_add_factors[id] - self.add_factor_offset)
+                                + self.query_factor;
+                        });
+                    fastscan_len
+                })
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+
+        dists
+            .iter_mut()
+            .enumerate()
+            .skip(fastscan_len)
+            .for_each(|(id, dist)| {
+                let ex_dist = self.ex_code_dot(ex_codes, id);
+                let full_dot = code_scale * *dist + ex_dist + code_bias * self.sum_q;
+                *dist = full_dot * ex_scale_factors[id]
+                    + self.add_factor_scale * (ex_add_factors[id] - self.add_factor_offset)
+                    + self.query_factor;
+            });
     }
 
-    fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.batch.num_rows()
+    #[inline]
+    fn raw_query_binary_distance(&self, id: usize, binary_ip: f32) -> f32 {
+        (binary_ip - 0.5 * self.sum_q) * self.scale_factors[id]
+            + self.add_factor_scale * (self.add_factors[id] - self.add_factor_offset)
+            + self.query_factor
     }
 
-    fn row_id(&self, id: u32) -> u64 {
-        self.row_ids.value(id as usize)
+    #[inline]
+    fn raw_query_lower_bound(&self, id: usize, binary_ip: f32) -> Option<f32> {
+        let error_factors = self.error_factors?;
+        Some(self.raw_query_binary_distance(id, binary_ip) - error_factors[id] * self.query_error)
     }
 
-    fn row_ids(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &u64> {
-        self.row_ids.values().iter()
+    #[inline]
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn raw_query_multi_bit_exact_distance(
+        &self,
+        id: usize,
+        binary_ip: f32,
+        ex_bits: u8,
+        ex_codes: &[u8],
+        ex_add_factors: &[f32],
+        ex_scale_factors: &[f32],
+    ) -> f32 {
+        let ex_dist = self.ex_code_dot(ex_codes, id);
+        let code_bias = -((1u32 << ex_bits) as f32 - 0.5);
+        let full_dot = (1u32 << ex_bits) as f32 * binary_ip + ex_dist + code_bias * self.sum_q;
+        full_dot * ex_scale_factors[id]
+            + self.add_factor_scale * (ex_add_factors[id] - self.add_factor_offset)
+            + self.query_factor
     }
 
-    fn distance_type(&self) -> DistanceType {
-        self.distance_type
+    /// Compute the binary inner products into `dists` and resolve the inputs
+    /// shared by the raw-query multi-bit top-k scans. Returns `None` when the
+    /// partition has no rows.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn raw_query_multi_bit_topk_context(
+        &self,
+        k: usize,
+        lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+        upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_dists_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        hacc_quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) -> Option<RawQueryTopkContext<'_>> {
+        let code_len = rabit_binary_code_bytes(self.dim);
+        let n = self.codes.len() / code_len;
+        if n == 0 {
+            dists.clear();
+            quantized_dists.clear();
+            hacc_quantized_dists.clear();
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        self.binary_distances_with_scratch(
+            n,
+            code_len,
+            dists,
+            quantized_dists,
+            quantized_dists_table,
+            hacc_quantized_dists,
+        );
+
+        Some(RawQueryTopkContext {
+            n,
+            k,
+            ex_bits: self.num_bits - 1,
+            ex_codes: self
+                .ex_codes
+                .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires ex codes"),
+            ex_add_factors: self
+                .ex_add_factors
+                .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires ex add factors"),
+            ex_scale_factors: self
+                .ex_scale_factors
+                .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires ex scale factors"),
+            query_lower_bound: lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN),
+            query_upper_bound: upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX),
+        })
     }
 
-    // qr = (q-c)
-    #[inline(never)]
-    fn dist_calculator(&self, qr: Arc<dyn Array>, dist_q_c: f32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_> {
-        let codes = self.codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
-        let rotate_mat = self
-            .metadata
-            .rotate_mat
-            .as_ref()
-            .expect("RabitQ metadata not loaded");
+    /// Process one candidate row given its lower bound: the bound checks,
+    /// the exact rerank, and the heap update shared by the sparse scan and
+    /// the dense scan's surviving lanes and tail.
+    #[inline]
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_raw_query_multi_bit_row(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &RawQueryTopkContext<'_>,
+        id: usize,
+        row_id: u64,
+        binary_ip: f32,
+        raw_lower_bound: f32,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        max_dist: &mut Option<OrderedFloat>,
+        counters: &mut RabitPruneCounters,
+    ) {
+        if raw_lower_bound >= ctx.query_upper_bound {
+            counters.pruned_upper_bound += 1;
+            return;
+        }
+        if res.len() >= ctx.k && max_dist.is_some_and(|max_dist| raw_lower_bound >= max_dist.0) {
+            counters.pruned_heap += 1;
+            return;
+        }
+
+        counters.exact += 1;
+        let dist = self.raw_query_multi_bit_exact_distance(
+            id,
+            binary_ip,
+            ctx.ex_bits,
+            ctx.ex_codes,
+            ctx.ex_add_factors,
+            ctx.ex_scale_factors,
+        );
+        if dist < ctx.query_lower_bound || dist >= ctx.query_upper_bound {
+            counters.exact_rejected += 1;
+            return;
+        }
+        let dist = OrderedFloat(dist);
+        if res.len() < ctx.k {
+            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
+            if res.len() == ctx.k {
+                *max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+            }
+        } else if max_dist.is_some_and(|max_dist| max_dist > dist) {
+            res.pop();
+            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
+            *max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+        }
+    }
 
-        let rotated_qr = match rotate_mat.value_type() {
-            DataType::Float16 => Self::rotate_query_vector::<Float16Type>(rotate_mat, &qr),
-            DataType::Float32 => Self::rotate_query_vector::<Float32Type>(rotate_mat, &qr),
-            DataType::Float64 => Self::rotate_query_vector::<Float64Type>(rotate_mat, &qr),
-            dt => unimplemented!("RabitQ does not support data type: {}", dt),
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_raw_query_multi_bit_topk_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        k: usize,
+        lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+        upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+        row_ids: impl Iterator<Item = (usize, u64)>,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_dists_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        hacc_quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        let Some(ctx) = self.raw_query_multi_bit_topk_context(
+            k,
+            lower_bound,
+            upper_bound,
+            dists,
+            quantized_dists,
+            quantized_dists_table,
+            hacc_quantized_dists,
+        ) else {
+            return;
         };
+        let mut max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+        let mut counters = RabitPruneCounters::default();
 
-        let dist_table = build_dist_table_direct::<Float32Type>(&rotated_qr);
-        let sum_q = rotated_qr.into_iter().sum();
+        for (id, row_id) in row_ids {
+            let Some(binary_ip) = dists.get(id).copied() else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            counters.candidates += 1;
+            let Some(raw_lower_bound) = self.raw_query_lower_bound(id, binary_ip) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            self.accumulate_raw_query_multi_bit_row(
+                &ctx,
+                id,
+                row_id,
+                binary_ip,
+                raw_lower_bound,
+                res,
+                &mut max_dist,
+                &mut counters,
+            );
+        }
+        record_rabit_prune_stats(&counters);
+    }
 
-        let q_factor = match self.distance_type {
-            DistanceType::L2 => dist_q_c,
-            DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot => dist_q_c - 1.0,
-            _ => unimplemented!(
-                "RabitQ does not support distance type: {}",
-                self.distance_type
-            ),
+    /// Top-k scan over all rows `0..n` in order: classify [`PRUNE_LANES`]
+    /// rows at a time with the SIMD lower-bound kernel and run the scalar
+    /// rerank only for the surviving lanes.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_raw_query_multi_bit_topk_dense_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        k: usize,
+        lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+        upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+        row_id: impl Fn(u32) -> u64,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_dists_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        hacc_quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        let Some(ctx) = self.raw_query_multi_bit_topk_context(
+            k,
+            lower_bound,
+            upper_bound,
+            dists,
+            quantized_dists,
+            quantized_dists_table,
+            hacc_quantized_dists,
+        ) else {
+            return;
         };
-        RabitDistCalculator::new(
-            qr.len(),
-            self.metadata.num_bits,
-            dist_table,
-            sum_q,
-            codes,
-            self.add_factors.values(),
-            self.scale_factors.values(),
-            q_factor,
-        )
-    }
+        let dists = dists.as_slice();
+        debug_assert_eq!(dists.len(), ctx.n);
+        let scale_factors = &self.scale_factors[..ctx.n];
+        let add_factors = &self.add_factors[..ctx.n];
+        let error_factors = &self
+            .error_factors
+            .expect("raw-query lower-bound gating requires error factors")[..ctx.n];
+        // Same expression as `raw_query_lower_bound` with `error_factors`
+        // already resolved; the masks below match it bit for bit.
+        let lower_bound_of = |id: usize, binary_ip: f32| {
+            self.raw_query_binary_distance(id, binary_ip) - error_factors[id] * self.query_error
+        };
+        let terms = ScaledLowerBoundTerms {
+            half_sum_q: 0.5 * self.sum_q,
+            add_factor_scale: self.add_factor_scale,
+            add_factor_offset: self.add_factor_offset,
+            query_factor: self.query_factor,
+            query_error: self.query_error,
+        };
+        let prune_masks = scaled_prune_mask_kernel();
+        let mut max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+        let mut counters = RabitPruneCounters::default();
 
-    // TODO: implement this
-    // This method is required for HNSW, we can't support HNSW_RABIT before this is implemented
-    fn dist_calculator_from_id(&self, _: u32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_> {
-        unimplemented!("RabitQ does not support dist_calculator_from_id")
-    }
-}
+        let (dist_groups, dist_tail) = dists.as_chunks::<PRUNE_LANES>();
+        let (scale_groups, _) = scale_factors.as_chunks::<PRUNE_LANES>();
+        let (add_groups, _) = add_factors.as_chunks::<PRUNE_LANES>();
+        let (error_groups, _) = error_factors.as_chunks::<PRUNE_LANES>();
+        for (group, (dist16, scale16, add16, error16)) in
+            izip!(dist_groups, scale_groups, add_groups, error_groups).enumerate()
+        {
+            counters.candidates += PRUNE_LANES;
+            // The heap threshold only ever tightens, so this group-start
+            // snapshot can only over-select survivors (which the per-row
+            // processing below re-checks against live values), never prune a
+            // row the scalar scan would have kept.
+            let heap_threshold = (res.len() >= ctx.k)
+                .then(|| max_dist.map(|max_dist| max_dist.0))
+                .flatten();
+            let (pruned_upper_bound, pruned_heap) = prune_masks(
+                dist16,
+                scale16,
+                add16,
+                error16,
+                terms,
+                ctx.query_upper_bound,
+                heap_threshold,
+            );
+            counters.pruned_upper_bound += pruned_upper_bound.count_ones() as usize;
+            counters.pruned_heap += pruned_heap.count_ones() as usize;
+            let mut survivors = !(pruned_upper_bound | pruned_heap);
+            while survivors != 0 {
+                let lane = survivors.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+                survivors &= survivors - 1;
+                let id = group * PRUNE_LANES + lane;
+                let binary_ip = dists[id];
+                self.accumulate_raw_query_multi_bit_row(
+                    &ctx,
+                    id,
+                    row_id(id as u32),
+                    binary_ip,
+                    lower_bound_of(id, binary_ip),
+                    res,
+                    &mut max_dist,
+                    &mut counters,
+                );
+            }
+        }
 
-const LOWBIT_IDX: [usize; 16] = {
-    let mut array = [0; 16];
-    let mut i = 1;
-    while i < 16 {
-        array[i] = i.trailing_zeros() as usize;
-        i += 1;
+        let tail_start = ctx.n - dist_tail.len();
+        for (offset, binary_ip) in dist_tail.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+            let id = tail_start + offset;
+            counters.candidates += 1;
+            self.accumulate_raw_query_multi_bit_row(
+                &ctx,
+                id,
+                row_id(id as u32),
+                binary_ip,
+                lower_bound_of(id, binary_ip),
+                res,
+                &mut max_dist,
+                &mut counters,
+            );
+        }
+        record_rabit_prune_stats(&counters);
     }
-    array
-};
 
-fn get_column(
-    quantization_code: &[u8],
-    code_len: usize,
-    row: usize,
-    col_idx: usize,
-    codes: &mut [u8; 32],
-) {
-    for (i, code) in codes.iter_mut().enumerate() {
-        let vec_idx = row + i;
-        *code = quantization_code[vec_idx * code_len + col_idx];
+    fn raw_query_lower_bound_gating_disabled_reason(&self) -> Option<&'static str> {
+        if self.approx_mode == ApproxMode::Fast {
+            Some("approx_mode_fast")
+        } else if self.query_estimator != RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery {
+            Some("residual_query_estimator")
+        } else if self.num_bits <= 1 {
+            Some("num_bits_le_one")
+        } else if self.error_factors.is_none() {
+            Some("missing_error_factors")
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
     }
 }
 
-pub fn pack_codes(codes: &FixedSizeListArray) -> FixedSizeListArray {
-    let code_len = codes.value_length() as usize;
+#[inline]
+fn lowbit(x: usize) -> usize {
+    1 << x.trailing_zeros()
+}
 
-    // round up num of vectors to multiple of batch size (32)
-    let num_blocks = codes.len() / BATCH_SIZE;
-    let num_packed_vectors = num_blocks * BATCH_SIZE;
+#[inline]
+pub fn build_dist_table_direct<T: ArrowFloatType>(qc: &[T::Native]) -> Vec<f32>
+where
+    T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
+{
+    // every 4 bits (SEGMENT_LENGTH) is a segment, and we need to compute the distance between the segment and all the codes
+    // so there are dim/4 segments, and the number of codes is 16 (2^{SEGMENT_LENGTH}),
+    // so we have dim/4 * 16 = dim * 4 elements in the dist_table
+    let mut dist_table = vec![0.0; qc.len() * 4];
+    build_dist_table_direct_into::<T>(qc, &mut dist_table);
+    dist_table
+}
 
-    // calculate total size for packed blocks
-    // we pack each 32 vectors into a block, each block contains 2 codes (1byte) of each vector
-    // so every 32 vectors would produce code_len blocks
-    // the low 16 bytes of each block is the codes for the low 4 bits of each vector
-    // the high 16 bytes of each block is the codes for the high 4 bits of each vector
-    let mut blocks = vec![0u8; codes.values().len()];
+fn build_dist_table_direct_into<T: ArrowFloatType>(qc: &[T::Native], dist_table: &mut [f32])
+where
+    T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
+{
+    debug_assert_eq!(dist_table.len(), qc.len() * 4);
+    qc.as_chunks::<SEGMENT_LENGTH>()
+        .0
+        .iter()
+        .zip(dist_table.as_chunks_mut::<SEGMENT_NUM_CODES>().0)
+        .for_each(|(sub_vec, dist_table)| {
+            dist_table[0] = 0.0;
+            build_dist_table_for_subvec::<T>(sub_vec, dist_table);
+        });
+}
 
-    let codes_values = codes
-        .slice(0, num_packed_vectors)
-        .values()
-        .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
-        .clone();
-    let codes_values = codes_values.values();
+#[inline(always)]
+fn build_dist_table_for_subvec<T: ArrowFloatType>(sub_vec: &[T::Native], dist_table: &mut [f32])
+where
+    T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
+{
+    // skip 0 because it's always 0
+    (1..SEGMENT_NUM_CODES).for_each(|j| {
+        // this is a little bit tricky,
+        // j represents a subset of 4 bits, that if the i-th bit of `j` is 1,
+        // then we need to add the distance of the i-th dim of the segment.
+        // but we don't need to check all bits of `j`,
+        // because `j` = `j - lowbit(j)` + `lowbit(j)`,
+        // where `j-lowbit(j)` is less than `j`,
+        // which means dist_table[j-lowbit(j)] is already computed,
+        // and we can use it to compute dist_table[j]
+        // for example, if j = 0b1010, then j - lowbit(j) = 0b1000,
+        // and dist_table[0b1000] is already computed,
+        // so dist_table[0b1010] = dist_table[0b1000] + sub_vec[LOWBIT_IDX[0b1010]];
+        // where lowbit(0b1010) = 0b10, LOWBIT_IDX[0b1010] = LOWBIT_IDX[0b10] = 1.
+        dist_table[j] = dist_table[j - lowbit(j)] + sub_vec[LOWBIT_IDX[j]].as_();
+    })
+}
 
-    // Pack codes batch by batch
-    // Each batch contains codes for 32 vectors
-    let mut col = [0u8; 32];
-    let mut col_0 = [0u8; 32]; // lower 4 bits
-    let mut col_1 = [0u8; 32]; // higher 4 bits
-    for row in (0..num_packed_vectors).step_by(BATCH_SIZE) {
-        // Get quantization codes for each column for each batch
-        // i.e., we get the codes for 8 dims of 32 vectors and reorganize the data layout
-        // based on the shuffle SIMD instruction used during querying
-        for i in 0..code_len {
-            get_column(codes_values, code_len, row, i, &mut col);
+/// Build the u8 FastScan LUT for the ex codes directly from the rotated
+/// query (`ex_query`, natural dim order, padding dims zero): the underlying
+/// per-dim table is the pure multiplication `q[d] * code`, so no intermediate
+/// `dim * 2^ex_bits` table is materialized.
+fn quantize_ex_fastscan_dist_table_into(
+    ex_bits: u8,
+    ex_code_len: usize,
+    ex_query: &[f32],
+    quantized_dist_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+) -> (f32, f32, f32) {
+    debug_assert!(supports_ex_fastscan(ex_bits));
 
-            for j in 0..32 {
-                col_0[j] = col[j] & 0xF;
-                col_1[j] = col[j] >> 4;
-            }
+    // One split table per code nibble of the row.
+    let num_split_tables = ex_code_len * 2;
+    let quantization_max = (u16::MAX as usize / num_split_tables)
+        .min(u8::MAX as usize)
+        .max(1) as f32;
 
-            let block_offset = (row / BATCH_SIZE) * code_len * BATCH_SIZE + i * BATCH_SIZE;
-            for j in 0..16 {
-                // The lower 4 bits represent vector 0 to 15
-                // The upper 4 bits represent vector 16 to 31
-                let val0 = col_0[PERM0[j]] | (col_0[PERM0[j] + 16] << 4);
-                let val1 = col_1[PERM0[j]] | (col_1[PERM0[j] + 16] << 4);
-                blocks[block_offset + j] = val0;
-                blocks[block_offset + j + 16] = val1;
-            }
+    let mut qmin = f32::INFINITY;
+    let mut qmax = f32::NEG_INFINITY;
+    for table_idx in 0..num_split_tables {
+        for code in 0..SEGMENT_NUM_CODES {
+            let value = ex_fastscan_dist_table_value(ex_query, ex_bits, table_idx, code);
+            qmin = qmin.min(value);
+            qmax = qmax.max(value);
         }
     }
 
-    // for the left codes, transpose them for better cache locality
-    let transposed_codes = transpose(
-        &codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().slice(
-            num_packed_vectors * code_len,
-            (codes.len() - num_packed_vectors) * code_len,
-        ),
-        codes.len() - num_packed_vectors,
-        code_len,
-    );
+    quantized_dist_table.clear();
+    quantized_dist_table.reserve(num_split_tables * SEGMENT_NUM_CODES);
+    if qmin == qmax {
+        quantized_dist_table.resize(num_split_tables * SEGMENT_NUM_CODES, 0);
+        return (qmin, qmax, quantization_max);
+    }
 
-    let offset = codes.values().len() - transposed_codes.len();
-    for (i, v) in transposed_codes.values().iter().enumerate() {
-        blocks[offset + i] = *v;
+    let factor = quantization_max / (qmax - qmin);
+    for table_idx in 0..num_split_tables {
+        for code in 0..SEGMENT_NUM_CODES {
+            let value = ex_fastscan_dist_table_value(ex_query, ex_bits, table_idx, code);
+            quantized_dist_table.push(((value - qmin) * factor).round() as u8);
+        }
     }
 
-    assert_eq!(blocks.len(), codes.values().len());
-    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(blocks), code_len as i32).unwrap()
+    (qmin, qmax, quantization_max)
 }
 
-// Inverse of pack_codes
-pub fn unpack_codes(codes: &FixedSizeListArray) -> FixedSizeListArray {
-    let code_len = codes.value_length() as usize;
-    let num_vectors = codes.len();
+#[inline]
+fn supports_ex_fastscan(ex_bits: u8) -> bool {
+    matches!(ex_bits, 2 | 4 | 8)
+}
 
-    // Calculate number of complete batches
-    let num_blocks = num_vectors / BATCH_SIZE;
-    let num_packed_vectors = num_blocks * BATCH_SIZE;
+/// The FastScan LUT value for one nibble of a blocked-layout code byte:
+/// `table_idx / 2` is the byte position within a row and `table_idx % 2`
+/// selects its low/high nibble (see the `ex_dot` module docs for the
+/// byte-to-dim mapping per width). Dims beyond the query length (block
+/// padding) contribute zero.
+#[inline]
+fn ex_fastscan_dist_table_value(
+    ex_query: &[f32],
+    ex_bits: u8,
+    table_idx: usize,
+    code: usize,
+) -> f32 {
+    let query = |dim_idx: usize| ex_query.get(dim_idx).copied().unwrap_or(0.0);
+    let byte_idx = table_idx / 2;
+    let high_nibble = table_idx % 2 == 1;
+    match ex_bits {
+        2 => {
+            // byte 16g+b = dims {64g+b, +16, +32, +48} at bit pairs; the low
+            // nibble covers the first two dims, the high nibble the last two.
+            let dim_idx = 64 * (byte_idx / 16) + byte_idx % 16 + 32 * usize::from(high_nibble);
+            let low = (code & 0b11) as f32;
+            let high = ((code >> 2) & 0b11) as f32;
+            query(dim_idx) * low + query(dim_idx + 16) * high
+        }
+        4 => {
+            // byte 32g+8j+b = dim 64g+16j+b (low nibble) | dim +8 (high).
+            let in_block = byte_idx % 32;
+            let dim_idx = 64 * (byte_idx / 32)
+                + 16 * (in_block / 8)
+                + in_block % 8
+                + 8 * usize::from(high_nibble);
+            query(dim_idx) * code as f32
+        }
+        8 => {
+            // byte = dim identity; the high nibble carries code bits 4..8.
+            let code = if high_nibble {
+                code << SEGMENT_LENGTH
+            } else {
+                code
+            };
+            query(byte_idx) * code as f32
+        }
+        _ => unreachable!("unsupported RabitQ ex_bits={ex_bits} for FastScan"),
+    }
+}
 
-    let mut unpacked = vec![0u8; codes.values().len()];
+/// Transpose ex codes for the FastScan bulk path. That path is only reachable
+/// when lower-bound gating is disabled, i.e. for legacy indexes without error
+/// factors; gated indexes rerank per candidate with the ex-dot kernels and
+/// never touch this copy, so skip the transpose (and its resident memory).
+fn maybe_pack_ex_codes(
+    ex_codes: Option<&FixedSizeListArray>,
+    ex_bits: u8,
+    error_factors: Option<&Float32Array>,
+) -> Option<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let ex_codes = ex_codes?;
+    if error_factors.is_some() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    match ex_bits {
+        2 | 4 | 8 => Some(pack_codes(ex_codes)),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
 
-    let codes_values = codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+/// Bring legacy sequential ex codes into the blocked kernel layout: rows are
+/// repacked, except for the widths whose layouts agree byte-for-byte (then
+/// the column is used as stored).
+fn blocked_ex_codes_from_sequential(
+    seq_codes: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    dim: usize,
+    ex_bits: u8,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    if sequential_matches_blocked(ex_bits)
+        && seq_codes.value_length() as usize == blocked_ex_code_bytes(dim, ex_bits)
+    {
+        return Ok(seq_codes.clone());
+    }
+    let seq_code_len = seq_codes.value_length() as usize;
+    let seq_values = seq_codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+    let blocked_code_len = blocked_ex_code_bytes(dim, ex_bits);
+    let mut blocked_values = vec![0u8; seq_codes.len() * blocked_code_len];
+    for (seq_row, blocked_row) in seq_values
+        .chunks_exact(seq_code_len)
+        .zip(blocked_values.chunks_exact_mut(blocked_code_len))
+    {
+        repack_sequential_row(seq_row, dim, ex_bits, blocked_row);
+    }
+    Ok(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        UInt8Array::from(blocked_values),
+        blocked_code_len as i32,
+    )?)
+}
 
-    // Unpack complete batches
-    for batch_idx in 0..num_blocks {
-        let block_start = batch_idx * code_len * BATCH_SIZE;
+/// Load the ex-code column of an index batch into the blocked kernel layout,
+/// accepting both the blocked format and the legacy sequential format. Legacy
+/// batches are normalized in place (the sequential column is replaced by the
+/// blocked one), so rewrites — remap, optimize merges — always emit the
+/// blocked format and legacy indexes upgrade on their next rewrite.
+pub(crate) fn load_blocked_ex_codes(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    rotated_dim: usize,
+    num_bits: u8,
+) -> Result<(RecordBatch, FixedSizeListArray)> {
+    let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(num_bits)?;
+    if let Some(column) = batch.column_by_name(RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN) {
+        let codes = column.as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+        let expected_bytes = blocked_ex_code_bytes(rotated_dim, ex_bits);
+        if codes.value_length() as usize != expected_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RabitQ ex-code byte width mismatch: column {} has {} bytes, metadata rotated_dim={} ex_bits={} requires {} bytes",
+                RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN,
+                codes.value_length(),
+                rotated_dim,
+                ex_bits,
+                expected_bytes
+            )));
+        }
+        return Ok((batch, codes));
+    }
+    let column = batch.column_by_name(RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "RabitQ num_bits={} requires {} column",
+            num_bits, RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let codes = column.as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+    let expected_bytes = rabit_ex_code_bytes(rotated_dim, ex_bits)?;
+    if codes.value_length() as usize != expected_bytes {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "RabitQ ex-code byte width mismatch: column {} has {} bytes, metadata rotated_dim={} ex_bits={} requires {} bytes",
+            RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN,
+            codes.value_length(),
+            rotated_dim,
+            ex_bits,
+            expected_bytes
+        )));
+    }
+    let blocked = blocked_ex_codes_from_sequential(&codes, rotated_dim, ex_bits)?;
+    let ex_code_field = rabit_ex_code_field(rotated_dim, num_bits)?
+        .expect("multi-bit RabitQ always has an ex-code field");
+    let batch = batch
+        .drop_column(RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN)?
+        .try_with_column(ex_code_field, Arc::new(blocked.clone()))?;
+    Ok((batch, blocked))
+}
 
-        for i in 0..code_len {
-            let block_offset = block_start + i * BATCH_SIZE;
-            let block = &codes_values[block_offset..block_offset + BATCH_SIZE];
+impl DistCalculator for RabitDistCalculator<'_> {
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn distance(&self, id: u32) -> f32 {
+        let id = id as usize;
+        let code_len = rabit_binary_code_bytes(self.dim);
+        let num_vectors = self.codes.len() / code_len;
+        let dist =
+            compute_single_rq_distance(self.codes, id, num_vectors, code_len, &self.dist_table);
 
-            // Reverse the permutation
-            for j in 0..16 {
-                let val0 = block[j];
-                let val1 = block[j + 16];
+        match self.query_estimator {
+            RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery => {
+                // distance between quantized residual vector and residual query vector
+                let dist_vq_qr = (2.0 * dist - self.sum_q) / self.sqrt_d;
+                dist_vq_qr * self.scale_factors[id] + self.add_factors[id] + self.query_factor
+            }
+            RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery => {
+                let ex_bits = self.num_bits - 1;
+                if ex_bits == 0 || self.approx_mode == ApproxMode::Fast {
+                    return self.raw_query_binary_distance(id, dist);
+                }
 
-                let low_0 = val0 & 0xF;
-                let high_0 = val0 >> 4;
-                let low_1 = val1 & 0xF;
-                let high_1 = val1 >> 4;
+                let ex_codes = self
+                    .ex_codes
+                    .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires ex codes");
+                let ex_add_factors = self
+                    .ex_add_factors
+                    .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires ex add factors");
+                let ex_scale_factors = self
+                    .ex_scale_factors
+                    .expect("raw-query multi-bit RQ requires ex scale factors");
+                self.raw_query_multi_bit_exact_distance(
+                    id,
+                    dist,
+                    ex_bits,
+                    ex_codes,
+                    ex_add_factors,
+                    ex_scale_factors,
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-                let vec_idx_0 = batch_idx * BATCH_SIZE + PERM0[j];
-                let vec_idx_1 = batch_idx * BATCH_SIZE + PERM0[j] + 16;
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn distance_all(&self, _: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+        let mut dists = Vec::new();
+        let mut quantized_dists = Vec::new();
+        let mut quantized_dists_table = Vec::new();
+        let mut hacc_quantized_dists = Vec::new();
+        self.distance_all_with_scratch(
+            0,
+            &mut dists,
+            &mut quantized_dists,
+            &mut quantized_dists_table,
+            &mut hacc_quantized_dists,
+        );
+        dists
+    }
 
-                unpacked[vec_idx_0 * code_len + i] = low_0 | (low_1 << 4);
-                unpacked[vec_idx_1 * code_len + i] = high_0 | (high_1 << 4);
-            }
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn distance_all_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        _: usize,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_dists_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        hacc_quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        let code_len = rabit_binary_code_bytes(self.dim);
+        let n = self.codes.len() / code_len;
+        if n == 0 {
+            dists.clear();
+            quantized_dists.clear();
+            return;
+        }
+
+        if self.query_estimator == RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery
+            || self.num_bits == 1
+            || self.approx_mode == ApproxMode::Fast
+        {
+            self.one_bit_distances_with_scratch(
+                n,
+                code_len,
+                dists,
+                quantized_dists,
+                quantized_dists_table,
+                hacc_quantized_dists,
+            );
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let simd_len = self.binary_distances_with_scratch(
+            n,
+            code_len,
+            dists,
+            quantized_dists,
+            quantized_dists_table,
+            hacc_quantized_dists,
+        );
+
+        self.apply_raw_query_multi_bit_distances(
+            simd_len,
+            dists,
+            quantized_dists,
+            quantized_dists_table,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        k: usize,
+        lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+        upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+        row_id: impl Fn(u32) -> u64,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_dists_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        hacc_quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        if k == 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+        if let Some(reason) = self.raw_query_lower_bound_gating_disabled_reason() {
+            record_rabit_prune_bypass(reason);
+            self.distance_all_with_scratch(
+                k,
+                dists,
+                quantized_dists,
+                quantized_dists_table,
+                hacc_quantized_dists,
+            );
+            accumulate_distances_into_heap(k, lower_bound, upper_bound, row_id, res, dists);
+            return;
         }
+
+        self.accumulate_raw_query_multi_bit_topk_dense_with_scratch(
+            k,
+            lower_bound,
+            upper_bound,
+            row_id,
+            res,
+            dists,
+            quantized_dists,
+            quantized_dists_table,
+            hacc_quantized_dists,
+        );
     }
 
-    // Transpose back the remainder
-    if num_packed_vectors < num_vectors {
-        let remainder = num_vectors - num_packed_vectors;
-        let offset = num_packed_vectors * code_len;
-        let transposed_data = &codes_values[offset..];
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_filtered_topk_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        k: usize,
+        lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+        upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+        row_ids: impl Iterator<Item = (u32, u64)>,
+        accept_row: impl Fn(u64) -> bool,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_dists_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        hacc_quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        if k == 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+        if let Some(reason) = self.raw_query_lower_bound_gating_disabled_reason() {
+            record_rabit_prune_bypass(reason);
+            self.distance_all_with_scratch(
+                k,
+                dists,
+                quantized_dists,
+                quantized_dists_table,
+                hacc_quantized_dists,
+            );
+            accumulate_filtered_distances_into_heap(
+                k,
+                lower_bound,
+                upper_bound,
+                row_ids,
+                accept_row,
+                res,
+                dists,
+            );
+            return;
+        }
 
-        // Transpose from column-major back to row-major
-        for row in 0..remainder {
-            for col in 0..code_len {
-                unpacked[offset + row * code_len + col] = transposed_data[col * remainder + row];
+        self.accumulate_raw_query_multi_bit_topk_with_scratch(
+            k,
+            lower_bound,
+            upper_bound,
+            row_ids
+                .filter(|(_, row_id)| accept_row(*row_id))
+                .map(|(id, row_id)| (id as usize, row_id)),
+            res,
+            dists,
+            quantized_dists,
+            quantized_dists_table,
+            hacc_quantized_dists,
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+fn accumulate_distances_into_heap(
+    k: usize,
+    lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+    upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+    row_id: impl Fn(u32) -> u64,
+    res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+    dists: &[f32],
+) {
+    let lower_bound = lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN).into();
+    let upper_bound = upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX).into();
+    let mut max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+    for (id, dist) in dists.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+        let dist = OrderedFloat(dist);
+        if dist < lower_bound || dist >= upper_bound {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if res.len() < k {
+            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id(id as u32), dist));
+            if res.len() == k {
+                max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
             }
+        } else if max_dist.is_some_and(|max_dist| max_dist > dist) {
+            res.pop();
+            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id(id as u32), dist));
+            max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
         }
     }
+}
 
-    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(unpacked), code_len as i32).unwrap()
+fn accumulate_filtered_distances_into_heap(
+    k: usize,
+    lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+    upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+    row_ids: impl Iterator<Item = (u32, u64)>,
+    accept_row: impl Fn(u64) -> bool,
+    res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+    dists: &[f32],
+) {
+    let lower_bound = lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN).into();
+    let upper_bound = upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX).into();
+    let mut max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+    for (id, row_id) in row_ids {
+        if !accept_row(row_id) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let Some(dist) = dists.get(id as usize).copied() else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let dist = OrderedFloat(dist);
+        if dist < lower_bound || dist >= upper_bound {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if res.len() < k {
+            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
+            if res.len() == k {
+                max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+            }
+        } else if max_dist.is_some_and(|max_dist| max_dist > dist) {
+            res.pop();
+            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
+            max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+        }
+    }
 }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl QuantizerStorage for RabitQuantizationStorage {
-    type Metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata;
+impl VectorStore for RabitQuantizationStorage {
+    type DistanceCalculator<'a> = RabitDistCalculator<'a>;
 
-    fn try_from_batch(
-        batch: RecordBatch,
-        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
-        distance_type: DistanceType,
-        _fri: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().clone();
-        let codes = batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list().clone();
-        let add_factors = batch[ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN]
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .clone();
-        let scale_factors = batch[SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN]
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .clone();
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+        self
+    }
 
-        let (batch, codes) = if !metadata.packed {
-            let codes = pack_codes(&codes);
-            let batch = batch.replace_column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(codes))?;
-            let codes = batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list().clone();
-            (batch, codes)
-        } else {
-            (batch, codes)
-        };
+    fn schema(&self) -> &SchemaRef {
+        self.batch.schema_ref()
+    }
 
-        let mut metadata = metadata.clone();
-        metadata.packed = true;
+    fn to_batches(&self) -> Result<impl Iterator<Item = RecordBatch> + Send> {
+        Ok(std::iter::once(self.batch.clone()))
+    }
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            metadata,
-            batch,
-            distance_type,
-            row_ids,
-            codes,
-            add_factors,
-            scale_factors,
-        })
+    fn append_batch(&self, _batch: RecordBatch, _vector_column: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        unimplemented!("RabitQ does not support append_batch")
     }
 
-    fn metadata(&self) -> &Self::Metadata {
-        &self.metadata
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.batch.num_rows()
     }
 
-    async fn load_partition(
-        reader: &PreviousFileReader,
-        range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
-        distance_type: DistanceType,
-        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let schema = reader.schema();
-        let batch = reader.read_range(range, schema).await?;
-        Self::try_from_batch(batch, metadata, distance_type, frag_reuse_index)
+    fn row_id(&self, id: u32) -> u64 {
+        self.row_ids.value(id as usize)
     }
 
-    fn remap(&self, mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<Self> {
-        let num_vectors = self.codes.len();
-        let num_code_bytes = self.codes.value_length() as usize;
-        let codes = self.codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
-        let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(num_vectors);
-        let mut new_row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(num_vectors);
-        let mut new_codes = Vec::with_capacity(codes.len());
+    fn row_ids(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &u64> {
+        self.row_ids.values().iter()
+    }
 
-        let row_ids = self.row_ids.values();
-        for (i, row_id) in row_ids.iter().enumerate() {
-            match mapping.get(row_id) {
-                Some(Some(new_id)) => {
-                    indices.push(i as u32);
-                    new_row_ids.push(*new_id);
-                    new_codes.extend(get_rq_code(codes, i, num_vectors, num_code_bytes));
-                }
-                Some(None) => {}
-                None => {
-                    indices.push(i as u32);
-                    new_row_ids.push(*row_id);
-                    new_codes.extend(get_rq_code(codes, i, num_vectors, num_code_bytes));
-                }
-            }
+    fn distance_type(&self) -> DistanceType {
+        self.distance_type
+    }
+
+    // qr = (q-c)
+    #[inline(never)]
+    fn dist_calculator(&self, qr: Arc<dyn Array>, dist_q_c: f32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_> {
+        let code_dim = self.code_dim();
+        let rotated_qr = self.rotate_query_vector(code_dim, &qr);
+        let dist_table = build_dist_table_direct::<Float32Type>(&rotated_qr);
+        let query_factors = match self.metadata.query_estimator {
+            RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery => RabitQueryFactors {
+                add_scale: 1.0,
+                add_offset: 0.0,
+                add: self.residual_query_factor(dist_q_c),
+                error: 0.0,
+            },
+            RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery => self.raw_query_factors(dist_q_c, &rotated_qr, None),
+        };
+        let sum_q = rotated_qr.iter().copied().sum();
+        // The kernels read the rotated query directly; only unaligned dims
+        // need a zero-padded copy.
+        let ex_query = if code_dim.is_multiple_of(EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS) {
+            rotated_qr
+        } else {
+            let mut padded = vec![0.0; padded_query_len(code_dim)];
+            pad_query_into(&rotated_qr, &mut padded);
+            padded
+        };
+
+        self.distance_calculator_from_parts(RabitDistCalculatorParts {
+            dim: code_dim,
+            dist_table: Cow::Owned(dist_table),
+            ex_query: Cow::Owned(ex_query),
+            sum_q,
+            query_factors,
+            approx_mode: ApproxMode::Normal,
+        })
+    }
+
+    // qr = (q-c)
+    #[inline(never)]
+    fn dist_calculator_with_scratch<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        qr: Arc<dyn Array>,
+        dist_q_c: f32,
+        residual: Option<QueryResidual<'a>>,
+        f32_scratch: &'a mut Vec<f32>,
+        options: DistanceCalculatorOptions,
+    ) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'a> {
+        let code_dim = self.code_dim();
+        if let (
+            RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+            Some(QueryResidual::RabitRawQuery {
+                rotated_centroid,
+                query: Some(raw_query),
+            }),
+        ) = (self.metadata.query_estimator, residual)
+        {
+            debug_assert_eq!(raw_query.code_dim, code_dim);
+            debug_assert_eq!(raw_query.ex_bits, self.metadata.num_bits - 1);
+            let query_factors =
+                self.raw_query_factors(dist_q_c, &raw_query.rotated_query, rotated_centroid);
+            return self.distance_calculator_from_parts(RabitDistCalculatorParts {
+                dim: code_dim,
+                dist_table: Cow::Borrowed(&raw_query.dist_table),
+                ex_query: Cow::Borrowed(kernel_query(
+                    &raw_query.rotated_query,
+                    &raw_query.ex_query,
+                )),
+                sum_q: raw_query.sum_q,
+                query_factors,
+                approx_mode: options.approx_mode,
+            });
         }
 
-        let new_row_ids = UInt64Array::from(new_row_ids);
-        let new_codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-            UInt8Array::from(new_codes),
-            num_code_bytes as i32,
-        )?;
-        let batch = if new_row_ids.is_empty() {
-            RecordBatch::new_empty(self.schema().clone())
+        let dist_table_len = code_dim * 4;
+        let ex_bits = self.metadata.num_bits - 1;
+        // The kernels read the rotated query in place; a zero-padded copy is
+        // only needed when the rotated dim is not block-aligned.
+        let ex_query_table_len = if ex_bits == 0 || code_dim.is_multiple_of(EX_DOT_BLOCK_DIMS) {
+            0
         } else {
-            let codes = Arc::new(pack_codes(&new_codes));
-            self.batch
-                .take(&UInt32Array::from(indices))?
-                .replace_column_by_name(ROW_ID, Arc::new(new_row_ids.clone()))?
-                .replace_column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, codes)?
+            padded_query_len(code_dim)
         };
-        let codes = batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+        f32_scratch.resize(code_dim + dist_table_len + ex_query_table_len, 0.0);
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            metadata: self.metadata.clone(),
-            distance_type: self.distance_type,
-            batch,
-            codes,
-            add_factors: self.add_factors.clone(),
-            scale_factors: self.scale_factors.clone(),
-            row_ids: new_row_ids,
+        let query_factors;
+        let sum_q = {
+            let (rotated_qr, remaining) = f32_scratch.split_at_mut(code_dim);
+            let (dist_table, ex_query) = remaining.split_at_mut(dist_table_len);
+            match residual {
+                Some(QueryResidual::Centroid(residual_centroid)) => {
+                    self.rotate_query_vector_into(
+                        code_dim,
+                        &qr,
+                        Some(residual_centroid),
+                        rotated_qr,
+                    );
+                }
+                Some(QueryResidual::RabitRawQuery { .. }) | None => {
+                    self.rotate_query_vector_into(code_dim, &qr, None, rotated_qr);
+                }
+            }
+            query_factors = match (self.metadata.query_estimator, residual) {
+                (RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery, _) => RabitQueryFactors {
+                    add_scale: 1.0,
+                    add_offset: 0.0,
+                    add: self.residual_query_factor(dist_q_c),
+                    error: 0.0,
+                },
+                (
+                    RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+                    Some(QueryResidual::RabitRawQuery {
+                        rotated_centroid, ..
+                    }),
+                ) => self.raw_query_factors(dist_q_c, rotated_qr, rotated_centroid),
+                (RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery, _) => {
+                    self.raw_query_factors(dist_q_c, rotated_qr, None)
+                }
+            };
+            build_dist_table_direct_into::<Float32Type>(rotated_qr, dist_table);
+            if ex_query_table_len > 0 {
+                pad_query_into(rotated_qr, ex_query);
+            }
+            rotated_qr.iter().copied().sum()
+        };
+
+        let ex_query_start = code_dim + dist_table_len;
+        self.distance_calculator_from_parts(RabitDistCalculatorParts {
+            dim: code_dim,
+            dist_table: Cow::Borrowed(&f32_scratch[code_dim..ex_query_start]),
+            ex_query: Cow::Borrowed(kernel_query(
+                &f32_scratch[..code_dim],
+                &f32_scratch[ex_query_start..ex_query_start + ex_query_table_len],
+            )),
+            sum_q,
+            query_factors,
+            approx_mode: options.approx_mode,
         })
     }
+
+    // TODO: implement this
+    // This method is required for HNSW, we can't support HNSW_RABIT before this is implemented
+    fn dist_calculator_from_id(&self, _: u32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_> {
+        unimplemented!("RabitQ does not support dist_calculator_from_id")
+    }
 }
 
-#[inline]
-fn get_rq_code(
-    codes: &[u8],
-    id: usize,
-    num_vectors: usize,
-    num_code_bytes: usize,
-) -> impl Iterator<Item = u8> + '_ {
-    let remainder = num_vectors % BATCH_SIZE;
+const LOWBIT_IDX: [usize; 16] = {
+    let mut array = [0; 16];
+    let mut i = 1;
+    while i < 16 {
+        array[i] = i.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+        i += 1;
+    }
+    array
+};
+
+fn get_column(
+    quantization_code: &[u8],
+    code_len: usize,
+    row: usize,
+    col_idx: usize,
+    codes: &mut [u8; 32],
+) {
+    for (i, code) in codes.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+        let vec_idx = row + i;
+        *code = quantization_code[vec_idx * code_len + col_idx];
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn pack_codes(codes: &FixedSizeListArray) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+    let code_len = codes.value_length() as usize;
+
+    // round up num of vectors to multiple of batch size (32)
+    let num_blocks = codes.len() / BATCH_SIZE;
+    let num_packed_vectors = num_blocks * BATCH_SIZE;
+
+    // calculate total size for packed blocks
+    // we pack each 32 vectors into a block, each block contains 2 codes (1byte) of each vector
+    // so every 32 vectors would produce code_len blocks
+    // the low 16 bytes of each block is the codes for the low 4 bits of each vector
+    // the high 16 bytes of each block is the codes for the high 4 bits of each vector
+    let mut blocks = vec![0u8; codes.values().len()];
+
+    let codes_values = codes
+        .slice(0, num_packed_vectors)
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
+        .clone();
+    let codes_values = codes_values.values();
+
+    // Pack codes batch by batch
+    // Each batch contains codes for 32 vectors
+    let mut col = [0u8; 32];
+    let mut col_0 = [0u8; 32]; // lower 4 bits
+    let mut col_1 = [0u8; 32]; // higher 4 bits
+    for row in (0..num_packed_vectors).step_by(BATCH_SIZE) {
+        // Get quantization codes for each column for each batch
+        // i.e., we get the codes for 8 dims of 32 vectors and reorganize the data layout
+        // based on the shuffle SIMD instruction used during querying
+        for i in 0..code_len {
+            get_column(codes_values, code_len, row, i, &mut col);
+
+            for j in 0..32 {
+                col_0[j] = col[j] & 0xF;
+                col_1[j] = col[j] >> 4;
+            }
+
+            let block_offset = (row / BATCH_SIZE) * code_len * BATCH_SIZE + i * BATCH_SIZE;
+            for j in 0..16 {
+                // The lower 4 bits represent vector 0 to 15
+                // The upper 4 bits represent vector 16 to 31
+                let val0 = col_0[PERM0[j]] | (col_0[PERM0[j] + 16] << 4);
+                let val1 = col_1[PERM0[j]] | (col_1[PERM0[j] + 16] << 4);
+                blocks[block_offset + j] = val0;
+                blocks[block_offset + j + 16] = val1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // for the left codes, transpose them for better cache locality
+    let transposed_codes = transpose(
+        &codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().slice(
+            num_packed_vectors * code_len,
+            (codes.len() - num_packed_vectors) * code_len,
+        ),
+        codes.len() - num_packed_vectors,
+        code_len,
+    );
+
+    let offset = codes.values().len() - transposed_codes.len();
+    for (i, v) in transposed_codes.values().iter().enumerate() {
+        blocks[offset + i] = *v;
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(blocks.len(), codes.values().len());
+    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(blocks), code_len as i32).unwrap()
+}
+
+// Inverse of pack_codes
+pub fn unpack_codes(codes: &FixedSizeListArray) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+    let code_len = codes.value_length() as usize;
+    let num_vectors = codes.len();
+
+    // Calculate number of complete batches
+    let num_blocks = num_vectors / BATCH_SIZE;
+    let num_packed_vectors = num_blocks * BATCH_SIZE;
+
+    let mut unpacked = vec![0u8; codes.values().len()];
+
+    let codes_values = codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+
+    // Unpack complete batches
+    for batch_idx in 0..num_blocks {
+        let block_start = batch_idx * code_len * BATCH_SIZE;
+
+        for i in 0..code_len {
+            let block_offset = block_start + i * BATCH_SIZE;
+            let block = &codes_values[block_offset..block_offset + BATCH_SIZE];
+
+            // Reverse the permutation
+            for j in 0..16 {
+                let val0 = block[j];
+                let val1 = block[j + 16];
+
+                let low_0 = val0 & 0xF;
+                let high_0 = val0 >> 4;
+                let low_1 = val1 & 0xF;
+                let high_1 = val1 >> 4;
+
+                let vec_idx_0 = batch_idx * BATCH_SIZE + PERM0[j];
+                let vec_idx_1 = batch_idx * BATCH_SIZE + PERM0[j] + 16;
+
+                unpacked[vec_idx_0 * code_len + i] = low_0 | (low_1 << 4);
+                unpacked[vec_idx_1 * code_len + i] = high_0 | (high_1 << 4);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Transpose back the remainder
+    if num_packed_vectors < num_vectors {
+        let remainder = num_vectors - num_packed_vectors;
+        let offset = num_packed_vectors * code_len;
+        let transposed_data = &codes_values[offset..];
+
+        // Transpose from column-major back to row-major
+        for row in 0..remainder {
+            for col in 0..code_len {
+                unpacked[offset + row * code_len + col] = transposed_data[col * remainder + row];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(unpacked), code_len as i32).unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Build a row-id remapping for the rows present in this partition from a
+/// fragment-reuse index, mirroring the PQ storage frag-reuse path.
+///
+/// Returns `None` when there is nothing to do (no fragment-reuse index, or the
+/// index leaves every present row id unchanged), so callers keep the zero-cost
+/// no-op path. Otherwise, returns a `HashMap` mapping every affected old row id
+/// to `Some(new_id)` for surviving rows or `None` for rows whose covering
+/// fragment was compacted away, suitable for `RabitQuantizationStorage::remap`.
+fn build_frag_reuse_mapping(
+    fri: Option<&dyn RowIdRemapper>,
+    row_ids: &UInt64Array,
+) -> Option<HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>> {
+    let fri = fri?;
+    let mut mapping: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> = HashMap::new();
+    for row_id in row_ids.values().iter() {
+        match fri.remap_row_id(*row_id) {
+            Some(new_id) if new_id == *row_id => {}
+            mapped => {
+                mapping.insert(*row_id, mapped);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if mapping.is_empty() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(mapping)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl QuantizerStorage for RabitQuantizationStorage {
+    type Metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata;
+
+    fn try_from_batch(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        fri: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let fri = fri.map(|index| Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        Self::try_from_batch_with_remapper(batch, metadata, distance_type, fri)
+    }
+
+    fn try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        fri: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let distance_type = match (metadata.query_estimator, distance_type) {
+            (RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery, DistanceType::Cosine) => DistanceType::L2,
+            _ => distance_type,
+        };
+        validate_rq_num_bits(metadata.num_bits)?;
+        // The FastScan LUT is `4 * rotated_dim` bytes while the kernels index it
+        // as `BATCH_SIZE * rotated_dim.div_ceil(8)`, so the two agree only when
+        // the dimension is a multiple of 8. `RabitQuantizer::build` has rejected
+        // a non-multiple since #6024, but an index written before that still
+        // loads here, and the AVX-512, AVX2 and NEON kernels read the LUT
+        // through unchecked raw pointers. Only the scalar fallback panics.
+        //
+        // This has to go through `rotated_dim()`, not `metadata.code_dim`:
+        // `code_dim` was added by #6024 itself, so it deserializes to 0 for the
+        // very indices this rejects, and `rotated_dim()` recovers the real
+        // dimension from the rotation matrix that `parse_buffer` backfills.
+        let rotated_dim = metadata.rotated_dim();
+        if rotated_dim % 8 != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RabitQ vector dimension must be divisible by 8, got {rotated_dim}. \
+                 Rebuild the index."
+            )));
+        }
+        let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().clone();
+        let codes = batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+        // `rotated_dim() == 0` means the metadata never recorded a code
+        // dimension, so the width check below could only ever report that the
+        // column needs 0 bytes. Reject up front with the real cause.
+        if metadata.rotated_dim() == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "rabitq metadata",
+                format!(
+                    "no code dimension: code_dim is 0 and the rotation matrix is not loaded \
+                     (rotation_type={:?}, rotate_mat_position={:?})",
+                    metadata.rotation_type, metadata.rotate_mat_position
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let expected_code_bytes = metadata.binary_code_bytes();
+        if codes.value_length() as usize != expected_code_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RabitQ code byte width mismatch: column {} has {} bytes, metadata rotated_dim={} requires {} bytes",
+                RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
+                codes.value_length(),
+                metadata.rotated_dim(),
+                expected_code_bytes
+            )));
+        }
+        let add_factors = batch[ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN]
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .clone();
+        let scale_factors = batch[SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN]
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .clone();
+        let error_factors = batch
+            .column_by_name(ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN)
+            .map(|factors| factors.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone());
+        let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(metadata.num_bits)?;
+        let mut batch = batch;
+        let mut ex_codes = None;
+        let mut ex_add_factors = None;
+        let mut ex_scale_factors = None;
+        if ex_bits != 0 {
+            let (normalized_batch, codes) =
+                load_blocked_ex_codes(batch, metadata.rotated_dim(), metadata.num_bits)?;
+            batch = normalized_batch;
+            ex_codes = Some(codes);
+            ex_add_factors = Some(
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name(EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "RabitQ num_bits={} requires {} column",
+                            metadata.num_bits, EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN
+                        ))
+                    })?
+                    .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                    .clone(),
+            );
+            ex_scale_factors = Some(
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "RabitQ num_bits={} requires {} column",
+                            metadata.num_bits, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN
+                        ))
+                    })?
+                    .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                    .clone(),
+            );
+        } else if metadata.query_estimator == RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery {
+            if batch.column_by_name(EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_some()
+                || batch.column_by_name(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_some()
+                || batch.column_by_name(RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN).is_some()
+                || batch.column_by_name(RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN).is_some()
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "RabitQ num_bits=1 raw-query indexes must not contain ex-code columns"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+        } else if batch.column_by_name(RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN).is_some()
+            || batch.column_by_name(RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN).is_some()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RabitQ num_bits={} does not support ex-code columns",
+                metadata.num_bits
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let (batch, codes) = if !metadata.packed {
+            let codes = pack_codes(&codes);
+            let batch = batch.replace_column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(codes))?;
+            let codes = batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+            (batch, codes)
+        } else {
+            (batch, codes)
+        };
+
+        let mut metadata = metadata.clone();
+        metadata.packed = true;
+        let packed_ex_codes =
+            maybe_pack_ex_codes(ex_codes.as_ref(), ex_bits, error_factors.as_ref());
+
+        let storage = Self {
+            metadata,
+            batch,
+            distance_type,
+            row_ids,
+            codes,
+            add_factors,
+            scale_factors,
+            error_factors,
+            ex_codes,
+            packed_ex_codes,
+            ex_add_factors,
+            ex_scale_factors,
+        };
+
+        match build_frag_reuse_mapping(fri.as_deref(), &storage.row_ids) {
+            Some(mapping) => storage.remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping)),
+            None => Ok(storage),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn metadata(&self) -> &Self::Metadata {
+        &self.metadata
+    }
+
+    async fn load_partition(
+        reader: &V1FileReader,
+        range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let schema = reader.schema();
+        let batch = reader.read_range(range, schema).await?;
+        Self::try_from_batch(batch, metadata, distance_type, frag_reuse_index)
+    }
+
+    fn remap(&self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<Self> {
+        let num_vectors = self.codes.len();
+        let num_code_bytes = self.codes.value_length() as usize;
+        let codes = self.codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+        let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(num_vectors);
+        let mut new_row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(num_vectors);
+        let mut new_codes = Vec::with_capacity(codes.len());
+
+        let row_ids = self.row_ids.values();
+        for (i, row_id) in row_ids.iter().enumerate() {
+            match mapping.get(*row_id) {
+                Some(Some(new_id)) => {
+                    indices.push(i as u32);
+                    new_row_ids.push(new_id);
+                    new_codes.extend(get_rq_code(codes, i, num_vectors, num_code_bytes));
+                }
+                Some(None) => {}
+                None => {
+                    indices.push(i as u32);
+                    new_row_ids.push(*row_id);
+                    new_codes.extend(get_rq_code(codes, i, num_vectors, num_code_bytes));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let new_row_ids = UInt64Array::from(new_row_ids);
+        let new_codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from(new_codes),
+            num_code_bytes as i32,
+        )?;
+        let batch = if new_row_ids.is_empty() {
+            RecordBatch::new_empty(self.schema().clone())
+        } else {
+            let codes = Arc::new(pack_codes(&new_codes));
+            self.batch
+                .take(&UInt32Array::from(indices))?
+                .replace_column_by_name(ROW_ID, Arc::new(new_row_ids.clone()))?
+                .replace_column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, codes)?
+        };
+        let codes = batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+        let add_factors = batch[ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN]
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .clone();
+        let scale_factors = batch[SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN]
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .clone();
+        let error_factors = batch
+            .column_by_name(ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN)
+            .map(|factors| factors.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone());
+        let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(self.metadata.num_bits)?;
+        let (batch, ex_codes) = if ex_bits == 0 {
+            (batch, None)
+        } else {
+            // `self.batch` is already normalized at load, so this is a
+            // zero-copy column lookup.
+            let (batch, codes) =
+                load_blocked_ex_codes(batch, self.metadata.rotated_dim(), self.metadata.num_bits)?;
+            (batch, Some(codes))
+        };
+        let packed_ex_codes =
+            maybe_pack_ex_codes(ex_codes.as_ref(), ex_bits, error_factors.as_ref());
+        let ex_add_factors = batch
+            .column_by_name(EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN)
+            .map(|factors| factors.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone());
+        let ex_scale_factors = batch
+            .column_by_name(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN)
+            .map(|factors| factors.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone());
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            metadata: self.metadata.clone(),
+            distance_type: self.distance_type,
+            batch,
+            codes,
+            add_factors,
+            scale_factors,
+            error_factors,
+            ex_codes,
+            packed_ex_codes,
+            ex_add_factors,
+            ex_scale_factors,
+            row_ids: new_row_ids,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compute the raw distance for a single vector without allocating.
+///
+/// Fuses code extraction from the packed layout with distance accumulation
+/// in a single pass, avoiding the intermediate `Vec` allocation that
+/// `get_rq_code` + iterator would require.
+#[inline]
+fn compute_single_rq_distance(
+    codes: &[u8],
+    id: usize,
+    num_vectors: usize,
+    num_code_bytes: usize,
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+) -> f32 {
+    let remainder = num_vectors % BATCH_SIZE;
+    let mut dist_table_iter = dist_table
+        .as_chunks::<SEGMENT_NUM_CODES>()
+        .0
+        .iter()
+        .tuples();
+
+    if id < num_vectors - remainder {
+        let batch_codes = &codes[id / BATCH_SIZE * BATCH_SIZE * num_code_bytes
+            ..(id / BATCH_SIZE + 1) * BATCH_SIZE * num_code_bytes];
+
+        let id_in_batch = id % BATCH_SIZE;
+        let idx = PERM0_INVERSE[id_in_batch % 16];
+        let is_lower = id_in_batch < 16;
+
+        let mut dist = 0.0f32;
+        for block in batch_codes.as_chunks::<BATCH_SIZE>().0 {
+            let code_byte = if is_lower {
+                (block[idx] & 0xF) | (block[idx + 16] << 4)
+            } else {
+                (block[idx] >> 4) | (block[idx + 16] & 0xF0)
+            };
+            if let Some((current_dt, next_dt)) = dist_table_iter.next() {
+                let current_code = (code_byte & 0x0F) as usize;
+                let next_code = (code_byte >> 4) as usize;
+                dist += current_dt[current_code] + next_dt[next_code];
+            }
+        }
+        dist
+    } else {
+        let offset_id = id - (num_vectors - remainder);
+        let remainder_codes = &codes[(num_vectors - remainder) * num_code_bytes..];
+
+        let mut dist = 0.0f32;
+        for &code_byte in remainder_codes.iter().skip(offset_id).step_by(remainder) {
+            if let Some((current_dt, next_dt)) = dist_table_iter.next() {
+                let current_code = (code_byte & 0x0F) as usize;
+                let next_code = (code_byte >> 4) as usize;
+                dist += current_dt[current_code] + next_dt[next_code];
+            }
+        }
+        dist
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn get_rq_code(
+    codes: &[u8],
+    id: usize,
+    num_vectors: usize,
+    num_code_bytes: usize,
+) -> impl Iterator<Item = u8> + '_ {
+    let remainder = num_vectors % BATCH_SIZE;
 
     if id < num_vectors - remainder {
         // the codes are packed
         let codes = &codes[id / BATCH_SIZE * BATCH_SIZE * num_code_bytes
             ..(id / BATCH_SIZE + 1) * BATCH_SIZE * num_code_bytes];
 
-        let id_in_batch = id % BATCH_SIZE;
-        if id_in_batch < 16 {
-            let idx = PERM0_INVERSE[id_in_batch];
-            codes
-                .chunks_exact(BATCH_SIZE)
-                .map(|block| (block[idx] & 0xF) | (block[idx + 16] << 4))
-                .exact_size(num_code_bytes)
-                .collect_vec()
-                .into_iter()
+        let id_in_batch = id % BATCH_SIZE;
+        if id_in_batch < 16 {
+            let idx = PERM0_INVERSE[id_in_batch];
+            codes
+                .as_chunks::<BATCH_SIZE>()
+                .0
+                .iter()
+                .map(|block| (block[idx] & 0xF) | (block[idx + 16] << 4))
+                .exact_size(num_code_bytes)
+                .collect_vec()
+                .into_iter()
+        } else {
+            let idx = PERM0_INVERSE[id_in_batch - 16];
+            codes
+                .as_chunks::<BATCH_SIZE>()
+                .0
+                .iter()
+                .map(|block| (block[idx] >> 4) | (block[idx + 16] & 0xF0))
+                .exact_size(num_code_bytes)
+                .collect_vec()
+                .into_iter()
+        }
+    } else {
+        let id = id - (num_vectors - remainder);
+        let codes = &codes[(num_vectors - remainder) * num_code_bytes..];
+        codes
+            .iter()
+            .skip(id)
+            .step_by(remainder)
+            .copied()
+            .exact_size(num_code_bytes)
+            .collect_vec()
+            .into_iter()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap};
+
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, Float64Array, UInt64Array};
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+    use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+
+    use crate::vector::bq::{RQRotationType, builder::RabitQuantizer};
+    use crate::vector::quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizerStorage};
+
+    fn build_dist_table_not_optimized<T: ArrowFloatType>(
+        sub_vec: &[T::Native],
+        dist_table: &mut [f32],
+    ) where
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
+    {
+        for (j, dist) in dist_table.iter_mut().enumerate().take(SEGMENT_NUM_CODES) {
+            for (k, v) in sub_vec.iter().enumerate().take(SEGMENT_LENGTH) {
+                if j & (1 << k) != 0 {
+                    *dist += v.as_();
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_dist_table_not_optimized() {
+        let sub_vec = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0];
+        let mut expected = vec![0.0; SEGMENT_NUM_CODES];
+        build_dist_table_not_optimized::<Float32Type>(&sub_vec, &mut expected);
+        let mut dist_table = vec![0.0; SEGMENT_NUM_CODES];
+        build_dist_table_for_subvec::<Float32Type>(&sub_vec, &mut dist_table);
+        assert_eq!(dist_table, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dist_calculator_with_scratch_matches_owned_and_reuses_buffer() {
+        let code_dim = 64;
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, code_dim);
+        let metadata = make_test_metadata(original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8);
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(original_codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim).map(|idx| idx as f32 / code_dim as f32),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let expected = storage.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.25).distance_all(0);
+        let expected_scratch_len = code_dim as usize + code_dim as usize * 4;
+        let mut scratch = Vec::with_capacity(expected_scratch_len);
+        let initial_ptr = scratch.as_ptr();
+        {
+            let calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+                query.clone(),
+                0.25,
+                None,
+                &mut scratch,
+                DistanceCalculatorOptions::default(),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(calc.distance_all(0), expected);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(scratch.len(), expected_scratch_len);
+        assert_eq!(scratch.as_ptr(), initial_ptr);
+
+        scratch.fill(f32::NAN);
+        {
+            let calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+                query,
+                0.25,
+                None,
+                &mut scratch,
+                DistanceCalculatorOptions::default(),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(calc.distance_all(0), expected);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(scratch.as_ptr(), initial_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dist_calculator_with_scratch_applies_residual_centroid_without_residual_array() {
+        let code_dim = 64usize;
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, code_dim as i32);
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8);
+        metadata.query_estimator = RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery;
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(original_codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query_values = (0..code_dim)
+            .map(|idx| idx as f32 / code_dim as f32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let centroid_values = (0..code_dim)
+            .map(|idx| (idx % 7) as f32 / code_dim as f32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let residual_values = query_values
+            .iter()
+            .zip(centroid_values.iter())
+            .map(|(query, centroid)| query - centroid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(query_values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let centroid = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(centroid_values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let residual = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(residual_values)) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let expected = storage.dist_calculator(residual, 0.25).distance_all(0);
+        let mut scratch = Vec::new();
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+            query.clone(),
+            0.25,
+            Some(QueryResidual::Centroid(centroid.as_ref())),
+            &mut scratch,
+            DistanceCalculatorOptions::default(),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(calc.distance_all(0), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dist_calculator_with_scratch_applies_float64_residual_before_f32_cast() {
+        let code_dim = 64usize;
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, code_dim as i32);
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8);
+        metadata.query_estimator = RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery;
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(original_codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query_values = (0..code_dim)
+            .map(|idx| 1.0 + idx as f64 * 1.0e-9)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let centroid_values = vec![1.0; code_dim];
+        let residual_values = query_values
+            .iter()
+            .zip(centroid_values.iter())
+            .map(|(query, centroid)| query - centroid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(query_values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let centroid = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(centroid_values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let residual = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(residual_values)) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let expected = storage.dist_calculator(residual, 0.25).distance_all(0);
+        let mut scratch = Vec::new();
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+            query,
+            0.25,
+            Some(QueryResidual::Centroid(centroid.as_ref())),
+            &mut scratch,
+            DistanceCalculatorOptions::default(),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(calc.distance_all(0), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pack_unpack_codes() {
+        // Test with multiple batch sizes to cover both packed and transposed sections
+        for num_vectors in [10, 32, 50, 64, 100] {
+            let code_len = 8;
+
+            // Create test data with known pattern
+            let mut codes_data = Vec::new();
+            for i in 0..num_vectors {
+                for j in 0..code_len {
+                    codes_data.push((i * code_len + j) as u8);
+                }
+            }
+
+            let original_codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                UInt8Array::from(codes_data.clone()),
+                code_len,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            // Pack and then unpack
+            let packed = pack_codes(&original_codes);
+            let unpacked = unpack_codes(&packed);
+
+            // Verify they match
+            assert_eq!(original_codes.len(), unpacked.len());
+            assert_eq!(original_codes.value_length(), unpacked.value_length());
+
+            let original_values = original_codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+            let unpacked_values = unpacked.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                original_values, unpacked_values,
+                "Mismatch for num_vectors={}",
+                num_vectors
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_split_code_fields() {
+        let bin_field = rabit_binary_code_field(128);
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(_, bin_code_bytes) = bin_field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("binary code field should be FixedSizeList");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(*bin_code_bytes, 16);
+
+        assert!(rabit_ex_code_field(128, 1).unwrap().is_none());
+        let ex_field = rabit_ex_code_field(128, 9).unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ex_field.name(), RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN);
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(_, ex_code_bytes) = ex_field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("ex-code field should be FixedSizeList");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(*ex_code_bytes, 128);
+    }
+
+    fn make_test_codes(num_vectors: usize, code_dim: i32) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+        let quantizer =
+            RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(1, code_dim, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..num_vectors * code_dim as usize).map(|idx| idx as f32 / code_dim as f32),
+        );
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, code_dim).unwrap();
+        quantizer
+            .quantize(&vectors)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .clone()
+    }
+
+    fn make_test_metadata(code_dim: usize) -> RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+        RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(1, code_dim as i32, RQRotationType::Fast)
+            .metadata(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Indices written before #6024 could carry a `code_dim` that is not a
+    /// multiple of 8. The FastScan LUT is sized `4 * code_dim` while the kernels
+    /// index it as `BATCH_SIZE * code_dim.div_ceil(8)`, so loading one made the
+    /// kernels read past the LUT through raw pointers.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_from_batch_rejects_dim_not_multiple_of_eight() {
+        let code_dim = 12usize;
+        let metadata = make_test_metadata(code_dim);
+        assert_eq!(metadata.code_dim as usize, code_dim);
+        let code_bytes = metadata.binary_code_bytes();
+        let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from(vec![0u8; 2 * code_bytes]),
+            code_bytes as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = make_test_batch(codes);
+
+        let err =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .expect_err("a dimension that is not a multiple of 8 must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected variant: {err:?}"
+        );
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("divisible by 8") && message.contains("12"),
+            "unexpected error: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_metadata_defaults_old_indexes_to_residual_query() {
+        let metadata: RabitQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(
+            r#"{"rotate_mat_position":0,"rotation_type":"matrix","code_dim":64,"num_bits":1,"packed":true}"#,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metadata.query_estimator, RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_new_rabit_metadata_uses_raw_query_estimator() {
+        let metadata = make_test_metadata(64);
+        assert_eq!(metadata.query_estimator, RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_degenerate_metadata_rejects_any_code_width() {
+        // Metadata with no code dimension (code_dim absent, so 0, and the
+        // rotation matrix not loaded) made the code-width check below it
+        // compare against 0, which the check read as "nothing to compare" and
+        // skipped, so a code column of any width loaded.
+        let metadata: RabitQuantizationMetadata =
+            serde_json::from_str(r#"{"num_bits":1,"packed":true}"#).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metadata.rotated_dim(), 0);
+
+        let codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![0u8; 16]), 8).unwrap();
+        let batch = make_test_batch(codes);
+        let err =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .expect_err("metadata without a code dimension must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got {err:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("no code dimension"), "got: {err}");
+    }
+
+    /// Metadata written before #6024 carries no `code_dim` and depends on the
+    /// rotation matrix for the dimension, so the rejection above must not fire
+    /// once `parse_buffer` has installed it.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_metadata_without_code_dim_loads_from_the_rotation_matrix() {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        let mut metadata: RabitQuantizationMetadata =
+            serde_json::from_str(r#"{"num_bits":1,"packed":true}"#).unwrap();
+        metadata.rotate_mat = Some(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; DIM * DIM]),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(metadata.rotated_dim(), DIM);
+
+        let code_bytes = metadata.binary_code_bytes();
+        let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from(vec![0u8; 2 * code_bytes]),
+            code_bytes as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = make_test_batch(codes);
+        RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+            .expect("a code dimension recovered from the rotation matrix must still load");
+    }
+
+    fn make_test_batch(codes: FixedSizeListArray) -> RecordBatch {
+        let num_rows = codes.len();
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            (
+                ROW_ID,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64)) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(codes) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|v| v as f32),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|v| v as f32 + 0.5),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|v| v as f32 + 0.25),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn make_test_ex_codes(num_vectors: usize, code_dim: usize, num_bits: u8) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+        let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(num_bits).unwrap();
+        let ex_code_bytes = rabit_ex_code_bytes(code_dim, ex_bits).unwrap();
+        let values = (0..num_vectors * ex_code_bytes)
+            .map(|idx| (idx % 251) as u8)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(values), ex_code_bytes as i32)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn make_test_batch_with_ex(
+        codes: FixedSizeListArray,
+        ex_codes: FixedSizeListArray,
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        let num_rows = codes.len();
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            (
+                ROW_ID,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64)) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(codes) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|v| v as f32),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|v| v as f32 + 0.5),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|v| v as f32 + 0.25),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(ex_codes) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|v| v as f32 + 10.5),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|v| v as f32 + 1.5),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn assert_codes_eq(actual: &FixedSizeListArray, expected: &FixedSizeListArray) {
+        assert_eq!(actual.len(), expected.len());
+        assert_eq!(actual.value_length(), expected.value_length());
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values(),
+            expected.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_raw_query_multi_bit_distance_uses_ex_factors() {
+        let code_dim = 8usize;
+        let identity = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim)
+                .flat_map(|row| (0..code_dim).map(move |col| if row == col { 1.0 } else { 0.0 })),
+        );
+        let rotate_mat =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(identity, code_dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: None,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Matrix,
+            code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+            num_bits: 2,
+            packed: false,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
+        let codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![0xff, 0xff]), 1).unwrap();
+        let ex_codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![0x00, 0xff]), 1).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            (ROW_ID, Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0, 1])) as ArrayRef),
+            (RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(codes) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(ex_codes) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![100.0, 10.0])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 1.0])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+        let storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; code_dim])) as ArrayRef;
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+
+        assert_eq!(calc.distance(0), 104.0);
+        assert_eq!(calc.distance(1), 22.0);
+        let mut distances = Vec::new();
+        let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+        calc.distance_all_with_scratch(
+            0,
+            &mut distances,
+            &mut u16_scratch,
+            &mut u8_scratch,
+            &mut u32_scratch,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(distances, vec![104.0, 22.0]);
+    }
+
+    /// Exercise the ex-dot kernel through the storage API for every ex width,
+    /// including the widths without FastScan support ({1, 3, 5, 6, 7}), and a
+    /// dim that is not a multiple of the 64-dim kernel group.
+    ///
+    /// The dim must be a multiple of 8: the binary distance stage consumes
+    /// two 4-dim segments per code byte and ignores trailing dims otherwise.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_raw_query_multi_bit_distance_matches_reference_for_all_ex_widths() {
+        use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+
+        // 72 exercises the kernels' padded-tail path; 1536 is a production
+        // embedding dim exercising the full-group path. Both the blocked
+        // format and the legacy sequential format must produce the same
+        // distances.
+        for (code_dim, num_rows) in [(72usize, 33usize), (1536, 33)] {
+            for num_bits in 2..=9u8 {
+                for legacy_format in [false, true] {
+                    let ex_bits = num_bits - 1;
+                    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(num_bits as u64);
+
+                    let sign_bits = (0..num_rows * code_dim)
+                        .map(|_| rng.random_bool(0.5))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let max_code = ((1u16 << ex_bits) - 1) as u8;
+                    let ex_values = (0..num_rows * code_dim)
+                        .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=max_code))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+                    let code_len = rabit_binary_code_bytes(code_dim);
+                    let mut code_bytes = vec![0u8; num_rows * code_len];
+                    for (row, bits) in sign_bits.chunks_exact(code_dim).enumerate() {
+                        for (dim, &bit) in bits.iter().enumerate() {
+                            code_bytes[row * code_len + dim / 8] |= (bit as u8) << (dim % 8);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    let (ex_code_column, ex_code_len, ex_code_bytes) = if legacy_format {
+                        let ex_code_len = rabit_ex_code_bytes(code_dim, ex_bits).unwrap();
+                        let mut ex_code_bytes = vec![0u8; num_rows * ex_code_len];
+                        for (row, values) in ex_values.chunks_exact(code_dim).enumerate() {
+                            for (dim, &value) in values.iter().enumerate() {
+                                let bit_offset = dim * ex_bits as usize;
+                                let bits = (value as u16) << (bit_offset % 8);
+                                ex_code_bytes[row * ex_code_len + bit_offset / 8] |= bits as u8;
+                                if bits >> 8 != 0 {
+                                    ex_code_bytes[row * ex_code_len + bit_offset / 8 + 1] |=
+                                        (bits >> 8) as u8;
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                        (RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN, ex_code_len, ex_code_bytes)
+                    } else {
+                        let ex_code_len = blocked_ex_code_bytes(code_dim, ex_bits);
+                        let mut ex_code_bytes = vec![0u8; num_rows * ex_code_len];
+                        for (row, values) in ex_code_bytes
+                            .chunks_exact_mut(ex_code_len)
+                            .zip(ex_values.chunks_exact(code_dim))
+                        {
+                            crate::vector::bq::ex_dot::pack_blocked_row(values, ex_bits, row);
+                        }
+                        (RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN, ex_code_len, ex_code_bytes)
+                    };
+
+                    let identity = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..code_dim).flat_map(|row| {
+                        (0..code_dim).map(move |col| if row == col { 1.0 } else { 0.0 })
+                    }));
+                    let rotate_mat =
+                        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(identity, code_dim as i32).unwrap();
+                    let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+                        rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
+                        rotate_mat_position: None,
+                        fast_rotation_signs: None,
+                        rotation_type: RQRotationType::Matrix,
+                        code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+                        num_bits,
+                        packed: false,
+                        query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+                    };
+                    let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        UInt8Array::from(code_bytes),
+                        code_len as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap();
+                    let ex_codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        UInt8Array::from(ex_code_bytes),
+                        ex_code_len as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap();
+                    let ex_add_factors = (0..num_rows)
+                        .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let ex_scale_factors = (0..num_rows)
+                        .map(|_| rng.random_range(0.1f32..1.0))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+                        (
+                            ROW_ID,
+                            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64)) as ArrayRef,
+                        ),
+                        (RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(codes) as ArrayRef),
+                        (
+                            ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; num_rows])) as ArrayRef,
+                        ),
+                        (
+                            SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; num_rows])) as ArrayRef,
+                        ),
+                        (ex_code_column, Arc::new(ex_codes) as ArrayRef),
+                        (
+                            EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(ex_add_factors.clone())) as ArrayRef,
+                        ),
+                        (
+                            EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(ex_scale_factors.clone())) as ArrayRef,
+                        ),
+                    ])
+                    .unwrap();
+                    let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+                        batch,
+                        &metadata,
+                        DistanceType::L2,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                    let query = (0..code_dim)
+                        .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let sum_q = query.iter().sum::<f32>();
+                    let calc = storage.dist_calculator(
+                        Arc::new(Float32Array::from(query.clone())) as ArrayRef,
+                        0.0,
+                    );
+
+                    let code_scale = (1u32 << ex_bits) as f32;
+                    let code_bias = -(code_scale - 0.5);
+                    let expected = (0..num_rows)
+                        .map(|row| {
+                            let binary_ip = (0..code_dim)
+                                .map(|dim| {
+                                    query[dim] * sign_bits[row * code_dim + dim] as u8 as f32
+                                })
+                                .sum::<f32>();
+                            let ex_dist = (0..code_dim)
+                                .map(|dim| query[dim] * ex_values[row * code_dim + dim] as f32)
+                                .sum::<f32>();
+                            let full_dot = code_scale * binary_ip + ex_dist + code_bias * sum_q;
+                            full_dot * ex_scale_factors[row] + ex_add_factors[row]
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+                    for (row, &want) in expected.iter().enumerate() {
+                        let got = calc.distance(row as u32);
+                        assert!(
+                            (got - want).abs() <= 1e-3 * want.abs().max(1.0),
+                            "num_bits={num_bits} row={row}: {got} != {want}"
+                        );
+                    }
+
+                    let mut distances = Vec::new();
+                    let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+                    let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+                    let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+                    calc.distance_all_with_scratch(
+                        0,
+                        &mut distances,
+                        &mut u16_scratch,
+                        &mut u8_scratch,
+                        &mut u32_scratch,
+                    );
+                    assert_eq!(distances.len(), num_rows);
+                    // The bulk path quantizes the binary LUT to u8, and that error is
+                    // amplified by 2^ex_bits in the multi-bit estimate, so the value
+                    // assertions need a quantization-aware bound. The FastScan ex
+                    // widths additionally quantize the ex LUT and are covered by
+                    // `test_raw_query_multi_bit_distance_all_uses_fastscan_for_split_ex_codes`.
+                    if !matches!(ex_bits, 2 | 4 | 8) {
+                        // Worst-case |error| of one u8-quantized binary LUT lookup is
+                        // (table range) / 255 / 2, accumulated over one lookup per
+                        // 8-dim pair of segments.
+                        let num_tables = code_dim.div_ceil(4);
+                        let mut table_min = f32::INFINITY;
+                        let mut table_max = f32::NEG_INFINITY;
+                        for segment in query.chunks(4) {
+                            for subset in 0..16usize {
+                                let value = segment
+                                    .iter()
+                                    .enumerate()
+                                    .filter(|(idx, _)| subset & (1 << idx) != 0)
+                                    .map(|(_, q)| *q)
+                                    .sum::<f32>();
+                                table_min = table_min.min(value);
+                                table_max = table_max.max(value);
+                            }
+                        }
+                        let binary_bound =
+                            code_scale * num_tables as f32 * (table_max - table_min) / 255.0 / 2.0
+                                * ex_scale_factors.iter().fold(0.0f32, |max, &s| max.max(s));
+                        for (row, (&got, &want)) in
+                            distances.iter().zip(expected.iter()).enumerate()
+                        {
+                            assert!(
+                                (got - want).abs() <= binary_bound + 1e-3,
+                                "num_bits={num_bits} row={row} (distance_all): {got} != {want} (bound {binary_bound})"
+                            );
+                        }
+                        // Rows past the SIMD batch use the exact binary path, so the
+                        // final remainder row must match the per-candidate distance.
+                        let remainder_row = num_rows - 1;
+                        let got = distances[remainder_row];
+                        let want = calc.distance(remainder_row as u32);
+                        assert!(
+                            (got - want).abs() <= 1e-3 * want.abs().max(1.0),
+                            "num_bits={num_bits} remainder row (distance_all): {got} != {want}"
+                        );
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fast_approx_mode_uses_one_bit_scores_for_multi_bit_raw_query() {
+        let code_dim = 8usize;
+        let identity = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim)
+                .flat_map(|row| (0..code_dim).map(move |col| if row == col { 1.0 } else { 0.0 })),
+        );
+        let rotate_mat =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(identity, code_dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: None,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Matrix,
+            code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+            num_bits: 2,
+            packed: false,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
+        let codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![0xff, 0xff]), 1).unwrap();
+        let ex_codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![0x00, 0xff]), 1).unwrap();
+        let batch = make_test_batch_with_ex(codes, ex_codes)
+            .replace_column_by_name(
+                SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; code_dim])) as ArrayRef;
+        let normal = storage.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0).distance_all(0);
+
+        let mut f32_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+            query,
+            0.0,
+            None,
+            &mut f32_scratch,
+            DistanceCalculatorOptions {
+                approx_mode: ApproxMode::Fast,
+            },
+        );
+        let mut distances = Vec::new();
+        let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+        calc.distance_all_with_scratch(
+            0,
+            &mut distances,
+            &mut u16_scratch,
+            &mut u8_scratch,
+            &mut u32_scratch,
+        );
+
+        let expected_fast = (0..2)
+            .map(|id| calc.distance(id as u32))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_ne!(normal, distances);
+        assert_eq!(distances, expected_fast);
+        assert_eq!(
+            calc.raw_query_lower_bound_gating_disabled_reason(),
+            Some("approx_mode_fast")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_accurate_approx_mode_reduces_binary_lut_quantization_error() {
+        let code_dim = 64usize;
+        let num_rows = BATCH_SIZE;
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(num_rows, code_dim as i32);
+        let metadata = make_test_metadata(code_dim);
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(original_codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim).map(|idx| (idx as f32 * 0.137).sin() + idx as f32 * 0.003),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let exact_calc = storage.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0);
+        let exact = (0..num_rows)
+            .map(|id| exact_calc.distance(id as u32))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let normal = {
+            let mut f32_scratch = Vec::new();
+            let calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+                query.clone(),
+                0.0,
+                None,
+                &mut f32_scratch,
+                DistanceCalculatorOptions::default(),
+            );
+            let mut distances = Vec::new();
+            let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+            let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+            let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+            calc.distance_all_with_scratch(
+                0,
+                &mut distances,
+                &mut u16_scratch,
+                &mut u8_scratch,
+                &mut u32_scratch,
+            );
+            distances
+        };
+
+        let (accurate, hacc_table_len, hacc_packed_table_len, hacc_accum_len) = {
+            let mut f32_scratch = Vec::new();
+            let calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+                query,
+                0.0,
+                None,
+                &mut f32_scratch,
+                DistanceCalculatorOptions {
+                    approx_mode: ApproxMode::Accurate,
+                },
+            );
+            let mut distances = Vec::new();
+            let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+            let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+            let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+            calc.distance_all_with_scratch(
+                0,
+                &mut distances,
+                &mut u16_scratch,
+                &mut u8_scratch,
+                &mut u32_scratch,
+            );
+            (
+                distances,
+                u16_scratch.len(),
+                u8_scratch.len(),
+                u32_scratch.len(),
+            )
+        };
+
+        let normal_error = normal
+            .iter()
+            .zip(exact.iter())
+            .map(|(actual, expected)| (actual - expected).abs())
+            .sum::<f32>();
+        let accurate_error = accurate
+            .iter()
+            .zip(exact.iter())
+            .map(|(actual, expected)| (actual - expected).abs())
+            .sum::<f32>();
+
+        assert!(normal_error > 0.0);
+        assert!(
+            accurate_error < normal_error,
+            "accurate_error={accurate_error}, normal_error={normal_error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(hacc_table_len, code_dim * 4);
+        assert_eq!(hacc_packed_table_len, code_dim * 8);
+        assert_eq!(hacc_accum_len, num_rows);
+    }
+
+    fn assert_raw_query_multi_bit_distance_all_uses_fastscan(
+        num_bits: u8,
+        legacy_format: bool,
+        with_error_factors: bool,
+    ) {
+        // Not a multiple of 64, so the padded-tail LUT entries are exercised;
+        // a multiple of 8 as the binary stage requires.
+        let code_dim = 72usize;
+        let num_rows = BATCH_SIZE + 1;
+        let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(num_bits).unwrap();
+        let max_code = ((1u16 << ex_bits) - 1) as u8;
+        let identity = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim)
+                .flat_map(|row| (0..code_dim).map(move |col| if row == col { 1.0 } else { 0.0 })),
+        );
+        let rotate_mat =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(identity, code_dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: None,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Matrix,
+            code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+            num_bits,
+            packed: false,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
+        let code_len = rabit_binary_code_bytes(code_dim);
+        let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows * code_len).map(|idx| (idx * 13) as u8)),
+            code_len as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let ex_values = (0..num_rows * code_dim)
+            .map(|idx| ((idx * 37) % (max_code as usize + 1)) as u8)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let (ex_code_column, ex_code_len, ex_code_bytes) = if legacy_format {
+            let ex_code_len = rabit_ex_code_bytes(code_dim, ex_bits).unwrap();
+            let mut ex_code_bytes = vec![0u8; num_rows * ex_code_len];
+            for (row, values) in ex_values.chunks_exact(code_dim).enumerate() {
+                for (dim, &value) in values.iter().enumerate() {
+                    let bit_offset = dim * ex_bits as usize;
+                    let bits = (value as u16) << (bit_offset % 8);
+                    ex_code_bytes[row * ex_code_len + bit_offset / 8] |= bits as u8;
+                    if bits >> 8 != 0 {
+                        ex_code_bytes[row * ex_code_len + bit_offset / 8 + 1] |= (bits >> 8) as u8;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            (RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN, ex_code_len, ex_code_bytes)
         } else {
-            let idx = PERM0_INVERSE[id_in_batch - 16];
-            codes
-                .chunks_exact(BATCH_SIZE)
-                .map(|block| (block[idx] >> 4) | (block[idx + 16] & 0xF0))
-                .exact_size(num_code_bytes)
-                .collect_vec()
-                .into_iter()
+            let ex_code_len = blocked_ex_code_bytes(code_dim, ex_bits);
+            let mut ex_code_bytes = vec![0u8; num_rows * ex_code_len];
+            for (row, values) in ex_code_bytes
+                .chunks_exact_mut(ex_code_len)
+                .zip(ex_values.chunks_exact(code_dim))
+            {
+                crate::vector::bq::ex_dot::pack_blocked_row(values, ex_bits, row);
+            }
+            (RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN, ex_code_len, ex_code_bytes)
+        };
+        let ex_codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from(ex_code_bytes),
+            ex_code_len as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            (
+                ROW_ID,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64)) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(codes) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; num_rows])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; num_rows])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (ex_code_column, Arc::new(ex_codes) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; num_rows])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; num_rows])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = if with_error_factors {
+            batch
+                .try_with_column(
+                    crate::vector::bq::transform::ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(),
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1000.0; num_rows])) as ArrayRef,
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        } else {
+            batch
+        };
+        let storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .unwrap();
+        // The FastScan transpose only exists for indexes that can reach the
+        // bulk bypass path (no error factors); gated indexes fall through to
+        // the exact per-row kernels in `distance_all`.
+        assert_eq!(storage.packed_ex_codes.is_some(), !with_error_factors);
+
+        // A per-dim varying query so that any dim-mapping error in the
+        // FastScan LUT shows up as a value mismatch.
+        let query_values = (0..code_dim)
+            .map(|dim| (dim % 11) as f32 * 0.3 - 1.5)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(query_values.clone())) as ArrayRef;
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+        let mut distances = Vec::new();
+        let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+        calc.distance_all_with_scratch(
+            0,
+            &mut distances,
+            &mut u16_scratch,
+            &mut u8_scratch,
+            &mut u32_scratch,
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(distances.len(), num_rows);
+        assert_eq!(u16_scratch.len(), BATCH_SIZE);
+        let loaded_ex_code_len = storage.ex_codes.as_ref().unwrap().value_length() as usize;
+        if with_error_factors {
+            // The gated path never builds the ex LUT; the scratch holds the
+            // binary LUT only.
+            assert_eq!(u8_scratch.len(), code_dim * 4);
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(u8_scratch.len(), loaded_ex_code_len * 2 * SEGMENT_NUM_CODES);
+        }
+
+        // The fastscan estimate differs from the exact path only by the u8
+        // quantization of the binary LUT (amplified by 2^ex_bits) and of the
+        // ex LUT, so bound the comparison by those quantization errors.
+        let mut table_min = f32::INFINITY;
+        let mut table_max = f32::NEG_INFINITY;
+        for segment in query_values.chunks(4) {
+            for subset in 0..SEGMENT_NUM_CODES {
+                let value = segment
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .filter(|(idx, _)| subset & (1 << idx) != 0)
+                    .map(|(_, q)| *q)
+                    .sum::<f32>();
+                table_min = table_min.min(value);
+                table_max = table_max.max(value);
+            }
+        }
+        let code_scale = (1u32 << ex_bits) as f32;
+        let binary_bound =
+            code_scale * code_dim.div_ceil(4) as f32 * (table_max - table_min) / 510.0;
+        let mut padded_query = vec![0.0f32; crate::vector::bq::ex_dot::padded_query_len(code_dim)];
+        crate::vector::bq::ex_dot::pad_query_into(&query_values, &mut padded_query);
+        let mut quantized_table = Vec::new();
+        let (ex_qmin, ex_qmax, ex_qcap) = quantize_ex_fastscan_dist_table_into(
+            ex_bits,
+            loaded_ex_code_len,
+            &padded_query,
+            &mut quantized_table,
+        );
+        // Without the FastScan transpose the ex stage is exact, so only the
+        // binary LUT quantization remains.
+        let ex_bound = if with_error_factors {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            (loaded_ex_code_len * 2) as f32 * (ex_qmax - ex_qmin) / ex_qcap / 2.0
+        };
+        let bound = (binary_bound + ex_bound) * 1.5 + 1e-3;
+        for (id, distance) in distances.iter().take(BATCH_SIZE).enumerate() {
+            let exact = calc.distance(id as u32);
+            assert!(
+                (*distance - exact).abs() <= bound,
+                "distance_all fastscan mismatch for id {id} (num_bits={num_bits} legacy={legacy_format}): actual={distance}, exact={exact}, bound={bound}"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(distances[BATCH_SIZE], calc.distance(BATCH_SIZE as u32));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_raw_query_multi_bit_distance_all_uses_fastscan_for_split_ex_codes() {
+        for num_bits in [3, 5, 9] {
+            for legacy_format in [false, true] {
+                assert_raw_query_multi_bit_distance_all_uses_fastscan(
+                    num_bits,
+                    legacy_format,
+                    false,
+                );
+            }
+            // Gated indexes (with error factors) skip the FastScan artifacts
+            // and score the bulk path with the exact kernels.
+            assert_raw_query_multi_bit_distance_all_uses_fastscan(num_bits, false, true);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A dist table whose `num_tables`-scaled reconstruction overflows `f32`
+    /// must fall back to exact distances rather than the affine dequant's
+    /// `0 * inf = NaN`. Covers both the u8 (Normal) and u16 (Accurate) LUT
+    /// paths end-to-end through `distance_all`, asserting the result is
+    /// NaN-free and bit-identical to the always-exact per-row computation.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_degenerate_dist_table_falls_back_to_exact_distances(
+        #[values(ApproxMode::Normal, ApproxMode::Accurate)] approx_mode: ApproxMode,
+    ) {
+        let code_dim = 8usize;
+        let num_rows = BATCH_SIZE + 5;
+        let num_bits = 3;
+        let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(num_bits).unwrap();
+        let identity = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim)
+                .flat_map(|row| (0..code_dim).map(move |col| if row == col { 1.0 } else { 0.0 })),
+        );
+        let rotate_mat =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(identity, code_dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: None,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Matrix,
+            code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+            num_bits,
+            packed: false,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
+        let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|idx| (idx * 19) as u8)),
+            rabit_binary_code_bytes(code_dim) as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let ex_codes = make_test_ex_codes(num_rows, code_dim, num_bits);
+        let batch = make_test_batch_with_ex(codes, ex_codes);
+        let storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; code_dim])) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let mut calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 4.0);
+        calc.approx_mode = approx_mode;
+        // num_tables = (code_dim * 4) / SEGMENT_NUM_CODES = 2; the extrema sum
+        // (qmax - qmin = 4e38) overflows when scaled by num_tables, so the
+        // quantizer returns `Exact`. Per-row sums stay finite (each row reads
+        // one entry per segment), so the exact path is well-defined.
+        let mut degenerate = vec![0.0f32; code_dim * 4];
+        degenerate[0] = -2e38;
+        degenerate[1] = 2e38;
+        calc.dist_table = Cow::Owned(degenerate);
+
+        let code_len = rabit_binary_code_bytes(code_dim);
+        let ex_codes = calc.ex_codes.unwrap();
+        let ex_add_factors = calc.ex_add_factors.unwrap();
+        let ex_scale_factors = calc.ex_scale_factors.unwrap();
+        let expected = (0..num_rows)
+            .map(|id| {
+                let binary_ip = compute_single_rq_distance(
+                    calc.codes,
+                    id,
+                    num_rows,
+                    code_len,
+                    &calc.dist_table,
+                );
+                calc.raw_query_multi_bit_exact_distance(
+                    id,
+                    binary_ip,
+                    ex_bits,
+                    ex_codes,
+                    ex_add_factors,
+                    ex_scale_factors,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let actual = calc.distance_all(0);
+        assert_eq!(actual.len(), num_rows);
+        for id in 0..num_rows {
+            assert!(
+                !actual[id].is_nan(),
+                "approx_mode={approx_mode:?} id={id}: degenerate table produced NaN"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual[id].to_bits(),
+                expected[id].to_bits(),
+                "approx_mode={approx_mode:?} id={id}: distance_all must match the exact path"
+            );
         }
-    } else {
-        let id = id - (num_vectors - remainder);
-        let codes = &codes[(num_vectors - remainder) * num_code_bytes..];
-        codes
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_raw_query_multi_bit_accumulate_topk_uses_lower_bound_gating() {
+        let code_dim = 8usize;
+        let num_rows = BATCH_SIZE + 9;
+        let num_bits = 3;
+        let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(num_bits).unwrap();
+        let identity = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim)
+                .flat_map(|row| (0..code_dim).map(move |col| if row == col { 1.0 } else { 0.0 })),
+        );
+        let rotate_mat =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(identity, code_dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: None,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Matrix,
+            code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+            num_bits,
+            packed: false,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
+        let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|idx| (idx * 19) as u8)),
+            1,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let ex_code_len = rabit_ex_code_bytes(code_dim, ex_bits).unwrap();
+        let ex_codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from_iter_values(
+                (0..num_rows * ex_code_len).map(|idx| (idx * 29 % 251) as u8),
+            ),
+            ex_code_len as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = make_test_batch_with_ex(codes, ex_codes)
+            .replace_column_by_name(
+                ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1000.0; num_rows])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; code_dim])) as ArrayRef;
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 4.0);
+        assert!(
+            calc.raw_query_lower_bound_gating_disabled_reason()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+
+        let k = 5;
+        let mut binary_ips = Vec::new();
+        let mut binary_u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut binary_u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut binary_u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+        calc.binary_distances_with_scratch(
+            num_rows,
+            rabit_binary_code_bytes(code_dim),
+            &mut binary_ips,
+            &mut binary_u16_scratch,
+            &mut binary_u8_scratch,
+            &mut binary_u32_scratch,
+        );
+        let ex_codes = calc.ex_codes.unwrap();
+        let ex_add_factors = calc.ex_add_factors.unwrap();
+        let ex_scale_factors = calc.ex_scale_factors.unwrap();
+        let mut expected = binary_ips
             .iter()
-            .skip(id)
-            .step_by(remainder)
             .copied()
-            .exact_size(num_code_bytes)
-            .collect_vec()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(id, binary_ip)| {
+                (
+                    id,
+                    calc.raw_query_multi_bit_exact_distance(
+                        id,
+                        binary_ip,
+                        ex_bits,
+                        ex_codes,
+                        ex_add_factors,
+                        ex_scale_factors,
+                    ),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        expected.sort_by(|left, right| left.1.total_cmp(&right.1));
+        expected.truncate(k);
+        let mut expected = expected
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(id, dist)| (id as u64, dist))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        expected.sort_by_key(|left| left.0);
+
+        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k);
+        let mut distances = Vec::new();
+        let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+        calc.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+            k,
+            None,
+            None,
+            |id| id as u64,
+            &mut heap,
+            &mut distances,
+            &mut u16_scratch,
+            &mut u8_scratch,
+            &mut u32_scratch,
+        );
+        let mut actual = heap
             .into_iter()
+            .map(|node| (node.id, node.dist.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        actual.sort_by_key(|left| left.0);
+
+        assert_eq!(actual.len(), expected.len());
+        for ((actual_id, actual_dist), (expected_id, expected_dist)) in
+            actual.into_iter().zip(expected)
+        {
+            assert_eq!(actual_id, expected_id);
+            assert!(
+                (actual_dist - expected_dist).abs() < 1e-5,
+                "actual={actual_dist}, expected={expected_dist}"
+            );
+        }
     }
-}
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
+    /// Inputs crafted so the top-k scan outcomes are fully determined by the
+    /// factor columns: with zero scale factors, a zero query factor, and a
+    /// query error of one, the lower bound is
+    /// `add_factors[id] - error_factors[id]`, and with zero ex scale factors
+    /// the exact distance is `ex_add_factors[id]`, regardless of the random
+    /// codes and query.
+    struct CraftedTopkData {
+        codes: Vec<u8>,
+        ex_codes: Vec<u8>,
+        dist_table: Vec<f32>,
+        ex_query: Vec<f32>,
+        scale_factors: Vec<f32>,
+        add_factors: Vec<f32>,
+        error_factors: Vec<f32>,
+        ex_scale_factors: Vec<f32>,
+        ex_add_factors: Vec<f32>,
+    }
 
-    fn build_dist_table_not_optimized<T: ArrowFloatType>(
-        sub_vec: &[T::Native],
-        dist_table: &mut [f32],
-    ) where
-        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
-    {
-        for (j, dist) in dist_table.iter_mut().enumerate().take(SEGMENT_NUM_CODES) {
-            for (k, v) in sub_vec.iter().enumerate().take(SEGMENT_LENGTH) {
-                if j & (1 << k) != 0 {
-                    *dist += v.as_();
+    const CRAFTED_TOPK_DIM: usize = 64;
+    const CRAFTED_TOPK_NUM_BITS: u8 = 5;
+
+    impl CraftedTopkData {
+        fn new(
+            exact_dists: &[f32],
+            lower_bound_margins: &[f32],
+            error_factors: Vec<f32>,
+            rng: &mut SmallRng,
+        ) -> Self {
+            let n = exact_dists.len();
+            let code_len = rabit_binary_code_bytes(CRAFTED_TOPK_DIM);
+            let ex_code_len = blocked_ex_code_bytes(CRAFTED_TOPK_DIM, CRAFTED_TOPK_NUM_BITS - 1);
+            let add_factors = izip!(exact_dists, lower_bound_margins, &error_factors)
+                .map(|(dist, margin, error)| dist - margin + error)
+                .collect();
+            Self {
+                codes: (0..n * code_len).map(|_| rng.random()).collect(),
+                ex_codes: (0..n * ex_code_len).map(|_| rng.random()).collect(),
+                dist_table: (0..CRAFTED_TOPK_DIM * 4)
+                    .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+                    .collect(),
+                ex_query: (0..CRAFTED_TOPK_DIM)
+                    .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0))
+                    .collect(),
+                scale_factors: vec![0.0; n],
+                add_factors,
+                error_factors,
+                ex_scale_factors: vec![0.0; n],
+                ex_add_factors: exact_dists.to_vec(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn calculator(&self, approx_mode: ApproxMode) -> RabitDistCalculator<'_> {
+            RabitDistCalculator::new(
+                CRAFTED_TOPK_DIM,
+                CRAFTED_TOPK_NUM_BITS,
+                RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+                Cow::Borrowed(self.dist_table.as_slice()),
+                Cow::Borrowed(self.ex_query.as_slice()),
+                0.7,
+                &self.codes,
+                Some(&self.ex_codes),
+                blocked_ex_code_bytes(CRAFTED_TOPK_DIM, CRAFTED_TOPK_NUM_BITS - 1),
+                &self.add_factors,
+                &self.scale_factors,
+                Some(&self.error_factors),
+                Some(&self.ex_add_factors),
+                Some(&self.ex_scale_factors),
+                None,
+                0.0,
+                1.0,
+                approx_mode,
+            )
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn canonical_heap_rows(heap: BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>) -> Vec<(u32, u64)> {
+        let mut rows = heap
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|node| (node.dist.0.to_bits(), node.id))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        rows.sort_unstable();
+        rows
+    }
+
+    /// The dense (SIMD-pruned) scan must reproduce the sparse scalar scan
+    /// exactly: identical heap contents including row ids, and the k smallest
+    /// in-bounds exact distances overall.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_raw_query_multi_bit_topk_dense_matches_sparse(
+        #[values(ApproxMode::Normal, ApproxMode::Accurate)] approx_mode: ApproxMode,
+        #[values("descending", "ascending", "random", "duplicates", "duplicate_ties")]
+        ordering: &str,
+    ) {
+        for n in [1usize, 15, 16, 17, 100, 4109] {
+            let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(n as u64 * 31 + ordering.len() as u64);
+            let exact_dists: Vec<f32> = match ordering {
+                // Improving rows force constant heap updates.
+                "descending" => (0..n).map(|id| (n - id) as f32).collect(),
+                // Worsening rows force mass pruning, the common regime.
+                "ascending" => (0..n).map(|id| id as f32).collect(),
+                "random" => (0..n).map(|_| rng.random_range(0.0..n as f32)).collect(),
+                "duplicates" => (0..n).map(|id| (id % 7) as f32).collect(),
+                // Lower bound equals the distance, so heap-threshold and
+                // upper-bound comparisons hit exact `>=` ties.
+                "duplicate_ties" => (0..n).map(|id| (id % 5) as f32).collect(),
+                _ => unreachable!(),
+            };
+            let (margins, error_factors) = if ordering == "duplicate_ties" {
+                (vec![0.0; n], vec![0.0; n])
+            } else if ordering == "random" {
+                (
+                    (0..n).map(|_| rng.random_range(0.0f32..2.0)).collect(),
+                    (0..n).map(|_| rng.random_range(0.0f32..1.0)).collect(),
+                )
+            } else {
+                (
+                    vec![1.0; n],
+                    (0..n).map(|_| rng.random_range(0.0f32..1.0)).collect(),
+                )
+            };
+            let data = CraftedTopkData::new(&exact_dists, &margins, error_factors, &mut rng);
+            let calc = data.calculator(approx_mode);
+            assert!(
+                calc.raw_query_lower_bound_gating_disabled_reason()
+                    .is_none()
+            );
+
+            let max_dist = exact_dists.iter().fold(0.0f32, |acc, dist| acc.max(*dist));
+            for k in [1usize, 10, n + 7] {
+                for bounds in [(None, None), (Some(max_dist * 0.25), Some(max_dist * 0.7))] {
+                    let (lower_bound, upper_bound) = bounds;
+                    let mut dense_heap = BinaryHeap::new();
+                    let mut sparse_heap = BinaryHeap::new();
+                    let mut dists = Vec::new();
+                    let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+                    let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+                    let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+                    // Two passes sharing the heap, as IVF partition probing
+                    // does: the second pass starts with a full, tight heap.
+                    for pass in 0..2u64 {
+                        let offset = pass * n as u64;
+                        calc.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+                            k,
+                            lower_bound,
+                            upper_bound,
+                            |id| id as u64 + offset,
+                            &mut dense_heap,
+                            &mut dists,
+                            &mut u16_scratch,
+                            &mut u8_scratch,
+                            &mut u32_scratch,
+                        );
+                        calc.accumulate_filtered_topk_with_scratch(
+                            k,
+                            lower_bound,
+                            upper_bound,
+                            (0..n as u32).map(|id| (id, id as u64 + offset)),
+                            |_| true,
+                            &mut sparse_heap,
+                            &mut dists,
+                            &mut u16_scratch,
+                            &mut u8_scratch,
+                            &mut u32_scratch,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    let dense = canonical_heap_rows(dense_heap);
+                    let sparse = canonical_heap_rows(sparse_heap);
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        dense, sparse,
+                        "ordering={ordering} n={n} k={k} bounds={bounds:?} mode={approx_mode:?}"
+                    );
+
+                    // The distance multiset must be the k smallest in-bounds
+                    // distances over both passes. Row ids are not compared:
+                    // evictions among tied maxima depend on heap layout.
+                    let query_lower_bound = lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN);
+                    let query_upper_bound = upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX);
+                    let mut expected = (0..2 * n)
+                        .map(|row| exact_dists[row % n])
+                        .filter(|dist| *dist >= query_lower_bound && *dist < query_upper_bound)
+                        .map(|dist| dist.to_bits())
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    expected.sort_unstable();
+                    expected.truncate(k);
+                    let actual = dense.iter().map(|(dist, _)| *dist).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        actual, expected,
+                        "ordering={ordering} n={n} k={k} bounds={bounds:?} mode={approx_mode:?}"
+                    );
                 }
             }
         }
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_build_dist_table_not_optimized() {
-        let sub_vec = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0];
-        let mut expected = vec![0.0; SEGMENT_NUM_CODES];
-        build_dist_table_not_optimized::<Float32Type>(&sub_vec, &mut expected);
-        let mut dist_table = vec![0.0; SEGMENT_NUM_CODES];
-        build_dist_table_for_subvec::<Float32Type>(&sub_vec, &mut dist_table);
-        assert_eq!(dist_table, expected);
+    fn test_raw_query_one_bit_distance_uses_binary_factors_without_ex_columns() {
+        let code_dim = 8usize;
+        let identity = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim)
+                .flat_map(|row| (0..code_dim).map(move |col| if row == col { 1.0 } else { 0.0 })),
+        );
+        let rotate_mat =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(identity, code_dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: None,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Matrix,
+            code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+            num_bits: 1,
+            packed: false,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
+        let codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![0xff, 0x00]), 1).unwrap();
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; code_dim])) as ArrayRef;
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 3.0);
+
+        assert_eq!(calc.distance_all(0), vec![5.0, -2.0]);
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_pack_unpack_codes() {
-        // Test with multiple batch sizes to cover both packed and transposed sections
-        for num_vectors in [10, 32, 50, 64, 100] {
-            let code_len = 8;
+    fn test_raw_query_context_matches_fallback_and_only_updates_partition_factor() {
+        let code_dim = 8usize;
+        let identity = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim)
+                .flat_map(|row| (0..code_dim).map(move |col| if row == col { 1.0 } else { 0.0 })),
+        );
+        let rotate_mat =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(identity, code_dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: Some(rotate_mat),
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: None,
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Matrix,
+            code_dim: code_dim as u32,
+            num_bits: 2,
+            packed: false,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
+        let codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![0xff, 0xff]), 1).unwrap();
+        let ex_codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![0x00, 0xff]), 1).unwrap();
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch_with_ex(codes, ex_codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; code_dim])) as ArrayRef;
+        let rotated_centroid = vec![0.25; code_dim];
+        let raw_query = metadata.prepare_raw_query_context(query.as_ref()).unwrap();
 
-            // Create test data with known pattern
-            let mut codes_data = Vec::new();
-            for i in 0..num_vectors {
-                for j in 0..code_len {
-                    codes_data.push((i * code_len + j) as u8);
+        let mut fallback_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let expected = storage
+            .dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+                query.clone(),
+                123.0,
+                Some(QueryResidual::RabitRawQuery {
+                    rotated_centroid: Some(&rotated_centroid),
+                    query: None,
+                }),
+                &mut fallback_scratch,
+                DistanceCalculatorOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .distance_all(0);
+
+        let mut prepared_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let actual = storage
+            .dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+                query,
+                456.0,
+                Some(QueryResidual::RabitRawQuery {
+                    rotated_centroid: Some(&rotated_centroid),
+                    query: Some(&raw_query),
+                }),
+                &mut prepared_scratch,
+                DistanceCalculatorOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .distance_all(0);
+
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+        assert!(prepared_scratch.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_dot_query_projection_scales_scores_and_pruning(
+        #[values(1, 5, 9)] num_bits: u8,
+        #[values(ApproxMode::Fast, ApproxMode::Normal, ApproxMode::Accurate)]
+        approx_mode: ApproxMode,
+        #[values(-0.25, 0.0, 0.25)] centroid_value: f32,
+    ) {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        const ROWS: usize = 35; // Both SIMD batches and scalar tails.
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(DIM);
+        metadata.num_bits = num_bits;
+        let codes = make_test_codes(ROWS, DIM as i32);
+        let batch = if num_bits == 1 {
+            make_test_batch(codes)
+        } else {
+            make_test_batch_with_ex(codes, make_test_ex_codes(ROWS, DIM, num_bits))
+        };
+        let storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::Dot, None)
+                .unwrap();
+        let centroid = vec![centroid_value; DIM];
+        let query = (0..DIM)
+            .map(|i| (i % 7) as f32 / 8.0 - 0.125)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut reference_distances = Vec::new();
+        let mut reference_ids = Vec::new();
+        let mut reference_scalar = Vec::new();
+        for scale in [1.0, 0.125, 8.0] {
+            let scaled = query.iter().map(|q| q * scale).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            // A supplied rotated centroid is authoritative; the distance argument
+            // is deliberately unrelated, as in the prepared-query entry point.
+            let factors = storage.raw_query_factors(123.0, &scaled, Some(&centroid));
+            let expected_alpha = if centroid_value == 0.0 {
+                0.0
+            } else {
+                scaled.iter().sum::<f32>() / (DIM as f32 * centroid_value)
+            };
+            assert!((factors.add_scale - expected_alpha).abs() < 1e-5);
+            if num_bits > 1 {
+                let expected_error = scaled
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(&centroid)
+                    .map(|(q, c)| (q - expected_alpha * c).powi(2))
+                    .sum::<f32>()
+                    .sqrt();
+                assert!((factors.error - expected_error).abs() < 1e-4);
+            }
+            let calc = storage.distance_calculator_from_parts(RabitDistCalculatorParts {
+                dim: DIM,
+                dist_table: Cow::Owned(build_dist_table_direct::<Float32Type>(&scaled)),
+                ex_query: Cow::Borrowed(&scaled),
+                sum_q: scaled.iter().sum(),
+                query_factors: factors,
+                approx_mode,
+            });
+            let distances = calc.distance_all(ROWS);
+            let mut heap = BinaryHeap::new();
+            calc.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+                10,
+                None,
+                None,
+                |id| id as u64,
+                &mut heap,
+                &mut Vec::new(),
+                &mut Vec::new(),
+                &mut Vec::new(),
+                &mut Vec::new(),
+            );
+            let mut ids = heap.into_iter().map(|node| node.id).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            ids.sort_unstable();
+            if scale == 1.0 {
+                reference_scalar = (0..ROWS)
+                    .map(|id| calc.distance(id as u32))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                reference_distances = distances;
+                reference_ids = ids;
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(ids, reference_ids);
+                for (id, (&actual, &reference)) in
+                    distances.iter().zip(&reference_distances).enumerate()
+                {
+                    let expected = 1.0 + scale * (reference - 1.0);
+                    assert!(
+                        (actual - expected).abs() <= 2e-4 * expected.abs().max(1.0),
+                        "row={id}, scale={scale}, actual={actual}, expected={expected}"
+                    );
+                    let scalar = calc.distance(id as u32);
+                    let expected_scalar = 1.0 + scale * (reference_scalar[id] - 1.0);
+                    assert!(
+                        (scalar - expected_scalar).abs() <= 2e-4 * expected_scalar.abs().max(1.0)
+                    );
                 }
             }
+        }
+        let zero = vec![0.0; DIM];
+        let factors = storage.raw_query_factors(1.0, &zero, Some(&centroid));
+        assert_eq!(factors.add_scale, 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(factors.add, 1.0);
+        assert_eq!(factors.error, 0.0);
+        // Without a centroid, the uncorrected residual estimator must still use
+        // ||q|| for its bound, not the dot distance to the centroid.
+        let factors = storage.raw_query_factors(-100.0, &query, None);
+        assert_eq!(factors.add_scale, 0.0);
+        if num_bits > 1 {
+            assert!((factors.error - dot(&query, &query).sqrt()).abs() < 1e-5);
+        }
+    }
 
-            let original_codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-                UInt8Array::from(codes_data.clone()),
-                code_len,
-            )
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_dot_projection_preserves_zero_residual_distance(
+        #[values(1, 5, 9)] num_bits: u8,
+        #[values(ApproxMode::Fast, ApproxMode::Normal, ApproxMode::Accurate)]
+        approx_mode: ApproxMode,
+        #[values(-1e-8, 1e-8)] centroid_value: f32,
+    ) {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        const ROWS: usize = 35;
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(DIM);
+        metadata.num_bits = num_bits;
+        let codes = make_test_codes(ROWS, DIM as i32);
+        let batch = if num_bits == 1 {
+            make_test_batch(codes)
+        } else {
+            make_test_batch_with_ex(codes, make_test_ex_codes(ROWS, DIM, num_bits))
+        };
+        let mut storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::Dot, None)
+                .unwrap();
+        // A vector equal to its centroid has a zero residual, regardless of codes.
+        storage.add_factors = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; ROWS]);
+        storage.scale_factors = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; ROWS]);
+        storage.error_factors = Some(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; ROWS]));
+        if num_bits > 1 {
+            storage.ex_add_factors = Some(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; ROWS]));
+            storage.ex_scale_factors = Some(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; ROWS]));
+        }
+        let query = vec![1.0; DIM];
+        let centroid = vec![centroid_value; DIM];
+        let expected = 1.0 - dot(&query, &centroid);
+        let calc = storage.distance_calculator_from_parts(RabitDistCalculatorParts {
+            dim: DIM,
+            dist_table: Cow::Owned(build_dist_table_direct::<Float32Type>(&query)),
+            ex_query: Cow::Borrowed(&query),
+            sum_q: query.iter().sum(),
+            query_factors: storage.raw_query_factors(expected, &query, Some(&centroid)),
+            approx_mode,
+        });
+        for (id, distance) in calc.distance_all(ROWS).into_iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(distance, expected, "bulk row={id}");
+            assert_eq!(calc.distance(id as u32), expected, "scalar row={id}");
+        }
+        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::new();
+        calc.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+            ROWS,
+            None,
+            Some(0.5),
+            |id| id as u64,
+            &mut heap,
+            &mut Vec::new(),
+            &mut Vec::new(),
+            &mut Vec::new(),
+            &mut Vec::new(),
+        );
+        assert!(heap.is_empty(), "all distances exceed the upper bound");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::near_parallel(1e-5)]
+    #[case::parallel(0.0)]
+    fn test_dot_projection_residual_bound_near_parallel(#[case] perturbation: f32) {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(DIM);
+        metadata.num_bits = 5;
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch_with_ex(
+                make_test_codes(1, DIM as i32),
+                make_test_ex_codes(1, DIM, 5),
+            ),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let centroid = vec![0.125; DIM];
+        let query = (0..DIM)
+            .map(|i| {
+                0.125
+                    + if i % 2 == 0 {
+                        perturbation
+                    } else {
+                        -perturbation
+                    }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let factors = storage.raw_query_factors(1.0, &query, Some(&centroid));
+        let residual_norm = query
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&centroid)
+            .map(|(&q, &c)| (q as f64 - factors.add_scale as f64 * c as f64).powi(2))
+            .sum::<f64>()
+            .sqrt();
+        assert!(factors.error as f64 >= residual_norm);
+        assert!((factors.error as f64 - residual_norm).abs() < 1e-10);
+        let calc = storage.distance_calculator_from_parts(RabitDistCalculatorParts {
+            dim: DIM,
+            dist_table: Cow::Owned(build_dist_table_direct::<Float32Type>(&query)),
+            ex_query: Cow::Borrowed(&query),
+            sum_q: query.iter().sum(),
+            query_factors: factors,
+            approx_mode: ApproxMode::Normal,
+        });
+        // The bound must retain the margin even when the two squared energies
+        // round to the same f32 value. A heap threshold inside it must not prune.
+        let binary_ip = 0.5 * calc.sum_q;
+        let binary_distance = calc.raw_query_binary_distance(0, binary_ip);
+        let bound = calc.raw_query_lower_bound(0, binary_ip).unwrap();
+        let margin = calc.error_factors.unwrap()[0] as f64 * residual_norm;
+        if perturbation > 0.0 {
+            let threshold = (binary_distance as f64 - margin * 0.5) as f32;
+            assert!(bound < threshold);
+            let masks = scaled_prune_mask_kernel()(
+                &[binary_ip; PRUNE_LANES],
+                &[calc.scale_factors[0]; PRUNE_LANES],
+                &[calc.add_factors[0]; PRUNE_LANES],
+                &[calc.error_factors.unwrap()[0]; PRUNE_LANES],
+                ScaledLowerBoundTerms {
+                    half_sum_q: 0.5 * calc.sum_q,
+                    add_factor_scale: calc.add_factor_scale,
+                    add_factor_offset: calc.add_factor_offset,
+                    query_factor: calc.query_factor,
+                    query_error: calc.query_error,
+                },
+                f32::INFINITY,
+                Some(threshold),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(masks, (0, 0), "the residual margin must keep every lane");
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(bound, binary_distance);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::projected(Some(0.25))]
+    #[case::zero_centroid(Some(0.0))]
+    #[case::tiny_centroid(Some(1e-20))]
+    #[case::missing_centroid(None)]
+    fn test_dot_query_projection_handles_overflowed_squared_norm(
+        #[case] centroid_value: Option<f32>,
+    ) {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(DIM);
+        metadata.num_bits = 5;
+        let batch = make_test_batch_with_ex(
+            make_test_codes(2, DIM as i32),
+            make_test_ex_codes(2, DIM, 5),
+        );
+        let storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::Dot, None)
+                .unwrap();
+        let query = (0..DIM).map(|i| (i % 7) as f32 * 1e20).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let centroid = centroid_value.map(|v| vec![v; DIM]);
+        let factors = storage.raw_query_factors(1.0, &query, centroid.as_deref());
+        assert!(factors.add_scale.is_finite());
+        assert!(factors.add.is_finite());
+        assert!(factors.error.is_finite() && factors.error > 0.0);
+        let expected = query
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(i, &q)| {
+                let c = centroid.as_ref().map_or(0.0, |c| c[i] as f64);
+                (q as f64 - factors.add_scale as f64 * c).powi(2)
+            })
+            .sum::<f64>()
+            .sqrt();
+        assert!((factors.error as f64 / expected - 1.0).abs() < 1e-6);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_from_batch_canonicalizes_rq_codes_to_packed_layout() {
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, 64);
+        let metadata = make_test_metadata(original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8);
+        assert!(!metadata.packed);
+
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(original_codes.clone()),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(storage.metadata().packed);
+        let stored_batch = storage.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        let stored_codes = stored_batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list();
+        let expected_codes = pack_codes(&original_codes);
+        assert_codes_eq(stored_codes, &expected_codes);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_from_batch_uses_l2_for_cosine() {
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, 64);
+        let metadata = make_test_metadata(original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8);
+
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(original_codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(storage.distance_type(), DistanceType::L2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_residual_query_cosine_uses_l2_query_factor() {
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, 64);
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8);
+        metadata.query_estimator = RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery;
+        let batch = make_test_batch(original_codes);
+
+        let cosine_storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            batch.clone(),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let l2_storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(cosine_storage.distance_type(), DistanceType::Cosine);
+
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.125; 64])) as ArrayRef;
+        let dist_q_c = 0.25;
+        let cosine_distances = cosine_storage
+            .dist_calculator(query.clone(), dist_q_c)
+            .distance_all(0);
+        let l2_distances = l2_storage.dist_calculator(query, dist_q_c).distance_all(0);
+
+        assert_eq!(cosine_distances, l2_distances);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_from_batch_requires_ex_columns_for_multi_bit_rq() {
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, 64);
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8);
+        metadata.num_bits = 2;
+
+        let err = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(original_codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("requires __blocked_ex_codes column"),
+            "{}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_from_batch_requires_ex_add_factors_for_multi_bit_rq() {
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, 64);
+        let code_dim = original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8;
+        let ex_codes = make_test_ex_codes(original_codes.len(), code_dim, 9);
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(code_dim);
+        metadata.num_bits = 9;
+        let batch = make_test_batch_with_ex(original_codes, ex_codes)
+            .drop_column(EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN)
             .unwrap();
 
-            // Pack and then unpack
-            let packed = pack_codes(&original_codes);
-            let unpacked = unpack_codes(&packed);
+        let err =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("requires __add_factors_ex column"),
+            "{}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
 
-            // Verify they match
-            assert_eq!(original_codes.len(), unpacked.len());
-            assert_eq!(original_codes.value_length(), unpacked.value_length());
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_from_batch_accepts_multi_bit_rq_split_codes() {
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, 64);
+        let code_dim = original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8;
+        let ex_codes = make_test_ex_codes(original_codes.len(), code_dim, 9);
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(code_dim);
+        metadata.num_bits = 9;
 
-            let original_values = original_codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
-            let unpacked_values = unpacked.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch_with_ex(original_codes, ex_codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(storage.metadata().packed);
+        // Legacy batches are normalized to the blocked column at load.
+        let stored_batch = storage.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        assert!(stored_batch.column_by_name(RABIT_EX_CODE_COLUMN).is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            stored_batch[RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN]
+                .as_fixed_size_list()
+                .value_length(),
+            64
+        );
+        assert!(stored_batch.column_by_name(ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_from_batch_accepts_missing_error_factors_for_compatibility() {
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, 64);
+        let code_dim = original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8;
+        let ex_codes = make_test_ex_codes(original_codes.len(), code_dim, 9);
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(code_dim);
+        metadata.num_bits = 9;
+        let batch = make_test_batch_with_ex(original_codes, ex_codes)
+            .drop_column(ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let storage =
+            RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, DistanceType::L2, None)
+                .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0; code_dim])) as ArrayRef;
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 4.0);
+
+        assert!(storage.error_factors.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            calc.raw_query_lower_bound_gating_disabled_reason(),
+            Some("missing_error_factors")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remap_preserves_packed_rq_storage_layout() {
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, 64);
+        let metadata = make_test_metadata(original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8);
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(original_codes.clone()),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut mapping = HashMap::new();
+        mapping.insert(1, Some(101));
+        mapping.insert(3, None);
+        mapping.insert(4, Some(104));
+
+        let remapped = storage.remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping)).unwrap();
+        assert!(remapped.metadata().packed);
+
+        let remapped_batch = remapped.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        let remapped_row_ids = remapped_batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+        let expected_row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+            [0, 101, 2, 104]
+                .into_iter()
+                .chain(5..original_codes.len() as u64),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(remapped_row_ids, expected_row_ids.values());
+
+        let remapped_codes = remapped_batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list();
+        let repacked = pack_codes(&unpack_codes(remapped_codes));
+        assert_codes_eq(remapped_codes, &repacked);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remap_preserves_multi_bit_rq_split_columns() {
+        // num_bits=9 keeps sequential ex codes; num_bits 4/6/8 (ex_bits
+        // 3/5/7) also exercise the bit-plane repack rebuild in `remap`.
+        for num_bits in [4, 6, 8, 9u8] {
+            test_remap_preserves_multi_bit_rq_split_columns_impl(num_bits);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn test_remap_preserves_multi_bit_rq_split_columns_impl(num_bits: u8) {
+        let original_codes = make_test_codes(50, 64);
+        let code_dim = original_codes.value_length() as usize * 8;
+        let ex_codes = make_test_ex_codes(original_codes.len(), code_dim, num_bits);
+        let mut metadata = make_test_metadata(code_dim);
+        metadata.num_bits = num_bits;
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch_with_ex(original_codes.clone(), ex_codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut mapping = HashMap::new();
+        mapping.insert(1, Some(101));
+        mapping.insert(3, None);
+        mapping.insert(4, Some(104));
+
+        let remapped = storage.remap(&RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping)).unwrap();
+        let remapped_batch = remapped.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        let remapped_row_ids = remapped_batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+        let expected_row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+            [0, 101, 2, 104]
+                .into_iter()
+                .chain(5..original_codes.len() as u64),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(remapped_row_ids, expected_row_ids.values());
+
+        // Legacy batches are normalized to the blocked format at load, so the
+        // remapped batch carries the blocked column.
+        let ex_code_len = blocked_ex_code_bytes(code_dim, rabit_ex_bits(num_bits).unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(
+            remapped_batch[RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN]
+                .as_fixed_size_list()
+                .value_length(),
+            ex_code_len as i32
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            &remapped_batch[EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN]
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()[..5],
+            &[10.5, 11.5, 12.5, 14.5, 15.5]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            &remapped_batch[EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN]
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()[..5],
+            &[1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 5.5, 6.5]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            &remapped_batch[ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN]
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()[..5],
+            &[0.25, 1.25, 2.25, 4.25, 5.25]
+        );
+
+        // The remapped storage must hold the same kernel-layout ex codes as a
+        // storage freshly loaded from the remapped batch.
+        let reloaded = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            remapped_batch,
+            &remapped.metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(remapped.ex_codes, reloaded.ex_codes);
+        assert_eq!(
+            remapped.ex_codes.as_ref().unwrap().value_length() as usize,
+            blocked_ex_code_bytes(code_dim, rabit_ex_bits(num_bits).unwrap())
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Past 128 code bytes (rotated dim above 1024) a row's binary sum no
+    /// longer fits a `u16`, and the ranking collapses.
+    /// See https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7157.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::narrow(1024, false, false)]
+    #[case::wide_ragged_chunk(1536, true, false)]
+    #[case::wide_overflowing(4096, true, true)]
+    fn test_binary_distances_match_exact_at_high_dim(
+        #[case] code_dim: usize,
+        #[case] expect_wide: bool,
+        #[case] expect_u16_overflow: bool,
+    ) {
+        let num_rows = 64;
+        let code_len = rabit_binary_code_bytes(code_dim);
+        // Not `make_test_codes`: its per-row ramp is nearly parallel to the
+        // all-ones vector, leaving every row sharing over 80% of its bits.
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(7157);
+        let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows * code_len).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>())),
+            code_len as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let metadata = make_test_metadata(code_dim);
+        let storage = RabitQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(
+            make_test_batch(codes),
+            &metadata,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..code_dim).map(|idx| ((idx % 17) as f32 - 8.0) / 8.0),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 4.0);
+
+        let mut binary_ips = Vec::new();
+        let mut u16_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u8_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let mut u32_scratch = Vec::new();
+        let simd_len = calc.binary_distances_with_scratch(
+            num_rows,
+            code_len,
+            &mut binary_ips,
+            &mut u16_scratch,
+            &mut u8_scratch,
+            &mut u32_scratch,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(simd_len, num_rows, "every row should take the kernel path");
 
+        let sums: Vec<u32> = if expect_wide {
+            assert_eq!(u32_scratch.len(), num_rows, "dim {code_dim} should be wide");
+            u32_scratch.clone()
+        } else {
             assert_eq!(
-                original_values, unpacked_values,
-                "Mismatch for num_vectors={}",
-                num_vectors
+                u16_scratch.len(),
+                num_rows,
+                "dim {code_dim} should stay narrow"
+            );
+            u16_scratch.iter().map(|sum| *sum as u32).collect()
+        };
+
+        let wide_table: Vec<u16> = u8_scratch.iter().map(|entry| *entry as u16).collect();
+        let mut expected_sums = vec![0u32; num_rows];
+        lance_linalg::simd::dist_table::sum_4bit_dist_table_u16_scalar(
+            code_len,
+            &calc.codes[..num_rows * code_len],
+            &wide_table,
+            &mut expected_sums,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            sums, expected_sums,
+            "dim {code_dim}: quantized sums diverge"
+        );
+
+        // Or the case quietly stops exercising the overflow it was written for.
+        let widest = expected_sums.iter().copied().max().unwrap_or(0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            widest > u16::MAX as u32,
+            expect_u16_overflow,
+            "dim {code_dim}: widest sum {widest} against the u16 ceiling"
+        );
+
+        // Half a step of rounding on each of `2 * code_len` terms.
+        let qmin = calc
+            .dist_table
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .fold(f32::INFINITY, f32::min);
+        let qmax = calc
+            .dist_table
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .fold(f32::NEG_INFINITY, f32::max);
+        let quantization_bound = code_len as f32 * (qmax - qmin) / 255.0;
+        assert!(quantization_bound > 0.0, "the test query must vary the LUT");
+
+        for (id, binary_ip) in binary_ips.iter().enumerate() {
+            let exact =
+                compute_single_rq_distance(calc.codes, id, num_rows, code_len, &calc.dist_table);
+            let error = (binary_ip - exact).abs();
+            assert!(
+                error <= quantization_bound + 1e-4 * exact.abs(),
+                "row {id} at dim {code_dim}: binary ip {binary_ip} vs exact {exact}, \
+                 error {error} over the {quantization_bound} quantization bound",
             );
         }
     }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/transform.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/transform.rs
index 305342afc04..c87695e14cd 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/transform.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/bq/transform.rs
@@ -6,16 +6,20 @@ use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
 use arrow::datatypes::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, UInt32Type};
-use arrow_array::{Array, ArrowNativeTypeOp, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrowNativeTypeOp, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array,
+};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_linalg::distance::{norm_squared_fsl, DistanceType};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, norm_squared_fsl};
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 use crate::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
-use crate::vector::bq::storage::RABIT_CODE_COLUMN;
+use crate::vector::bq::rabit_ex_bits;
+use crate::vector::bq::storage::{
+    RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN, RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, RabitQueryEstimator,
+};
 use crate::vector::quantizer::Quantization;
 use crate::vector::transform::Transformer;
 use crate::vector::{CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN, PART_ID_COLUMN};
@@ -24,6 +28,11 @@ use crate::vector::{CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN, PART_ID_COLUMN};
 pub const ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN: &str = "__add_factors";
 // the inner product of quantized vector and the centroid vector.
 pub const SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN: &str = "__scale_factors";
+pub const EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN: &str = "__add_factors_ex";
+pub const EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN: &str = "__scale_factors_ex";
+pub const ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN: &str = "__error_factors";
+
+const RABIT_ERROR_EPSILON: f32 = 1.9;
 
 pub static ADD_FACTORS_FIELD: LazyLock<arrow_schema::Field> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     arrow_schema::Field::new(ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, arrow_schema::DataType::Float32, true)
@@ -31,11 +40,25 @@ pub static ADD_FACTORS_FIELD: LazyLock<arrow_schema::Field> = LazyLock::new(|| {
 pub static SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD: LazyLock<arrow_schema::Field> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     arrow_schema::Field::new(SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN, arrow_schema::DataType::Float32, true)
 });
+pub static EX_ADD_FACTORS_FIELD: LazyLock<arrow_schema::Field> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    arrow_schema::Field::new(EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, arrow_schema::DataType::Float32, true)
+});
+pub static EX_SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD: LazyLock<arrow_schema::Field> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    arrow_schema::Field::new(
+        EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+        arrow_schema::DataType::Float32,
+        true,
+    )
+});
+pub static ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD: LazyLock<arrow_schema::Field> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    arrow_schema::Field::new(ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN, arrow_schema::DataType::Float32, true)
+});
 
 pub struct RQTransformer {
     rq: RabitQuantizer,
     distance_type: DistanceType,
     centroids_norm_square: Option<Float32Array>,
+    rotated_centroids: Option<Vec<f32>>,
     vector_column: String,
 }
 
@@ -45,18 +68,209 @@ impl RQTransformer {
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         centroids: FixedSizeListArray,
         vector_column: impl Into<String>,
-    ) -> Self {
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
         // for dot product, the add factor is `1 - v*c + |c|^2`, so we need to compute |c|^2
         let centroids_norm_square = (distance_type == DistanceType::Dot)
             .then(|| Float32Array::from(norm_squared_fsl(&centroids)));
+        let rotated_centroids = (rq.metadata_ref().query_estimator
+            == RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery)
+            .then(|| rq.rotate_fsl_to_f32(&centroids))
+            .transpose()?;
 
-        Self {
+        Ok(Self {
             rq,
             distance_type,
             centroids_norm_square,
+            rotated_centroids,
             vector_column: vector_column.into(),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+struct RabitRawQueryFactors {
+    add_factors: Float32Array,
+    scale_factors: Float32Array,
+    error_factors: Float32Array,
+    ex_add_factors: Option<Float32Array>,
+    ex_scale_factors: Option<Float32Array>,
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn factor_ratio(numerator: f32, denominator: f32) -> f32 {
+    if denominator == 0.0 {
+        0.0
+    } else {
+        numerator / denominator
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn binary_factor_value(rotated_residual: f32) -> f32 {
+    if rotated_residual.is_sign_positive() {
+        0.5
+    } else {
+        -0.5
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn error_factor_value(
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    norm_square: f32,
+    binary_res_dot: f32,
+    code_dim: usize,
+) -> f32 {
+    if code_dim <= 1 || norm_square <= 0.0 || binary_res_dot == 0.0 {
+        return 0.0;
+    }
+
+    let code_norm_square = code_dim as f32 * 0.25;
+    let alignment = norm_square * code_norm_square / binary_res_dot.powi(2);
+    let angular_error = ((alignment - 1.0).max(0.0) / (code_dim as f32 - 1.0)).sqrt();
+    let error = norm_square.sqrt() * RABIT_ERROR_EPSILON * angular_error;
+    match distance_type {
+        DistanceType::L2 => 2.0 * error,
+        DistanceType::Dot => error,
+        _ => unreachable!(),
+    }
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn compute_raw_query_factors(
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    res_norm_square: &Float32Array,
+    rotated_residuals: &[f32],
+    rotated_centroids: &[f32],
+    part_ids: &UInt32Array,
+    ex_code_values: Option<&[u8]>,
+    ex_res_dot_dists: Option<&[f32]>,
+    ex_bits: u8,
+    code_dim: usize,
+) -> Result<RabitRawQueryFactors> {
+    if !matches!(distance_type, DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Dot) {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "RQ Transform: distance type {} not supported",
+            distance_type
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let num_rows = res_norm_square.len();
+    debug_assert_eq!(rotated_residuals.len(), num_rows * code_dim);
+    if let Some(ex_code_values) = ex_code_values {
+        debug_assert_eq!(ex_code_values.len(), num_rows * code_dim);
+    }
+    if let Some(ex_res_dot_dists) = ex_res_dot_dists {
+        debug_assert_eq!(ex_res_dot_dists.len(), num_rows);
+    }
+
+    let has_ex_codes = ex_bits != 0;
+    let ex_code_bias = -((1u32 << ex_bits) as f32 - 0.5);
+    let mut add_factors = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+    let mut scale_factors = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+    let mut error_factors = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+    let mut ex_add_factors = has_ex_codes.then(|| Vec::with_capacity(num_rows));
+    let mut ex_scale_factors = has_ex_codes.then(|| Vec::with_capacity(num_rows));
+
+    for (row_idx, &norm_square) in res_norm_square.values().iter().enumerate() {
+        let part_id = part_ids.value(row_idx) as usize;
+        let centroid_start = part_id.checked_mul(code_dim).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RQ Transform: partition id {} overflows code_dim {}",
+                part_id, code_dim
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let centroid_end = centroid_start.checked_add(code_dim).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RQ Transform: partition id {} plus code_dim {} overflows",
+                part_id, code_dim
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if centroid_end > rotated_centroids.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "RQ Transform: partition id {} out of range for {} rotated centroids",
+                part_id,
+                rotated_centroids.len() / code_dim
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let row_start = row_idx * code_dim;
+        let row_end = row_start + code_dim;
+        let residual = &rotated_residuals[row_start..row_end];
+        let centroid = &rotated_centroids[centroid_start..centroid_end];
+        let ex_values = ex_code_values.map(|values| &values[row_start..row_end]);
+
+        let mut binary_res_dot = 0.0f32;
+        let mut binary_cent_dot = 0.0f32;
+        let mut ex_cent_dot = 0.0f32;
+        let mut residual_centroid_dot = 0.0f32;
+        for (dim_idx, (&residual_value, &centroid_value)) in
+            residual.iter().zip(centroid.iter()).enumerate()
+        {
+            let residual_value: f32 = residual_value;
+            let centroid_value: f32 = centroid_value;
+            let binary_code = if residual_value.is_sign_positive() {
+                1u32
+            } else {
+                0u32
+            };
+            let binary_factor = binary_factor_value(residual_value);
+
+            binary_res_dot += residual_value * binary_factor;
+            binary_cent_dot += centroid_value * binary_factor;
+            if let Some(ex_values) = ex_values {
+                let ex_code_value = ex_values[dim_idx];
+                let ex_factor =
+                    ((binary_code << ex_bits) + ex_code_value as u32) as f32 + ex_code_bias;
+                ex_cent_dot += centroid_value * ex_factor;
+            }
+            residual_centroid_dot += residual_value * centroid_value;
+        }
+
+        let binary_correction = factor_ratio(norm_square * binary_cent_dot, binary_res_dot);
+        let ex_res_dot = ex_res_dot_dists
+            .map(|values| values[row_idx])
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let ex_correction = factor_ratio(norm_square * ex_cent_dot, ex_res_dot);
+        error_factors.push(error_factor_value(
+            distance_type,
+            norm_square,
+            binary_res_dot,
+            code_dim,
+        ));
+
+        match distance_type {
+            DistanceType::L2 => {
+                add_factors.push(norm_square + 2.0 * binary_correction);
+                scale_factors.push(factor_ratio(-2.0 * norm_square, binary_res_dot));
+                if let Some(ex_add_factors) = ex_add_factors.as_mut() {
+                    ex_add_factors.push(norm_square + 2.0 * ex_correction);
+                }
+                if let Some(ex_scale_factors) = ex_scale_factors.as_mut() {
+                    ex_scale_factors.push(factor_ratio(-2.0 * norm_square, ex_res_dot));
+                }
+            }
+            DistanceType::Dot => {
+                let dot_base = 1.0 - residual_centroid_dot;
+                add_factors.push(dot_base + binary_correction);
+                scale_factors.push(factor_ratio(-norm_square, binary_res_dot));
+                if let Some(ex_add_factors) = ex_add_factors.as_mut() {
+                    ex_add_factors.push(dot_base + ex_correction);
+                }
+                if let Some(ex_scale_factors) = ex_scale_factors.as_mut() {
+                    ex_scale_factors.push(factor_ratio(-norm_square, ex_res_dot));
+                }
+            }
+            _ => unreachable!(),
         }
     }
+
+    Ok(RabitRawQueryFactors {
+        add_factors: Float32Array::from(add_factors),
+        scale_factors: Float32Array::from(scale_factors),
+        error_factors: Float32Array::from(error_factors),
+        ex_add_factors: ex_add_factors.map(Float32Array::from),
+        ex_scale_factors: ex_scale_factors.map(Float32Array::from),
+    })
 }
 
 impl Debug for RQTransformer {
@@ -68,39 +282,34 @@ impl Debug for RQTransformer {
 impl Transformer for RQTransformer {
     #[instrument(name = "RQTransformer::transform", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     fn transform(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        if batch.column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN).is_some() {
+        let has_split_codes = self.rq.num_bits() == 1
+            || (batch.column_by_name(RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN).is_some()
+                && batch.column_by_name(EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_some()
+                && batch.column_by_name(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_some());
+        if batch.column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN).is_some() && has_split_codes {
             return Ok(batch.clone());
         }
 
         let residual_vectors = batch
             .column_by_name(&self.vector_column)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "RQ Transform: column {} not found in batch",
-                    self.vector_column
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "RQ Transform: column {} not found in batch",
+                self.vector_column
+            )))?;
         let residual_vectors = residual_vectors
             .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "RQ Transform: column {} is not a fixed size list, got {}",
-                    self.vector_column,
-                    residual_vectors.data_type(),
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "RQ Transform: column {} is not a fixed size list, got {}",
+                self.vector_column,
+                residual_vectors.data_type(),
+            )))?;
 
         let dist_v_c = batch
             .column_by_name(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "RQ Transform: column {} not found in batch",
-                    CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "RQ Transform: column {} not found in batch",
+                CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN
+            )))?;
         let dist_v_c = dist_v_c.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
 
         let res_norm_square = match self.distance_type {
@@ -108,110 +317,165 @@ impl Transformer for RQTransformer {
             DistanceType::L2 => dist_v_c.clone(),
             DistanceType::Dot => Float32Array::from(norm_squared_fsl(residual_vectors)),
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "RQ Transform: distance type {} not supported",
-                        self.distance_type
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "RQ Transform: distance type {} not supported",
+                    self.distance_type
+                )));
             }
         };
 
-        let rq_codes = self.rq.quantize(&residual_vectors)?;
-        let codes_fsl = rq_codes.as_fixed_size_list();
+        let rq_codes = self.rq.quantize_split(residual_vectors)?;
+        let codes_fsl = rq_codes.binary_codes.as_fixed_size_list();
+        debug_assert_eq!(codes_fsl.len(), batch.num_rows());
 
-        let ip_rq_res = match residual_vectors.value_type() {
-            DataType::Float16 => Float32Array::from(
-                self.rq
-                    .codes_res_dot_dists::<Float16Type>(residual_vectors)?,
-            ),
-            DataType::Float32 => Float32Array::from(
-                self.rq
-                    .codes_res_dot_dists::<Float32Type>(residual_vectors)?,
-            ),
-            DataType::Float64 => Float32Array::from(
-                self.rq
-                    .codes_res_dot_dists::<Float64Type>(residual_vectors)?,
-            ),
-            _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
+        let mut batch = batch.try_with_column(self.rq.field(), rq_codes.binary_codes)?;
+        if self.rq.metadata_ref().query_estimator == RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery {
+            // Preserve the released residual-query estimator and factor layout.
+            let ip_rq_res = match residual_vectors.value_type() {
+                DataType::Float16 => Float32Array::from(
+                    self.rq
+                        .codes_res_dot_dists::<Float16Type>(residual_vectors)?,
+                ),
+                DataType::Float32 => Float32Array::from(
+                    self.rq
+                        .codes_res_dot_dists::<Float32Type>(residual_vectors)?,
+                ),
+                DataType::Float64 => Float32Array::from(
+                    self.rq
+                        .codes_res_dot_dists::<Float64Type>(residual_vectors)?,
+                ),
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
                         "RQ Transform: unsupported residual vector data type: {}",
                         residual_vectors.data_type()
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-        };
-        debug_assert_eq!(codes_fsl.len(), batch.num_rows());
+                    )));
+                }
+            };
 
-        let add_factors = match self.distance_type {
-            DistanceType::L2 => res_norm_square.clone(),
-            DistanceType::Dot => {
-                // for dot, the add factor is `1 - v*c + |c|^2 = dist_v_c + |c|^2`
-                let part_ids = &batch[PART_ID_COLUMN];
-                let part_ids = part_ids.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
-                let centroids_norm_square =
-                    self.centroids_norm_square.as_ref().ok_or(Error::Index {
-                        message: "RQ Transform: centroids norm square not found".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-                let centroids_norm_square =
-                    arrow::compute::take(centroids_norm_square, part_ids, None)?;
-                let centroids_norm_square = centroids_norm_square.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
-                Float32Array::from_iter_values(
-                    dist_v_c
-                        .values()
-                        .iter()
-                        .zip(centroids_norm_square.values().iter())
-                        .map(|(dist_v_c, centroids_norm_square)| dist_v_c + centroids_norm_square),
-                )
-            }
-            _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
+            let add_factors = match self.distance_type {
+                DistanceType::L2 => res_norm_square.clone(),
+                DistanceType::Dot => {
+                    // for dot, the add factor is `1 - v*c + |c|^2 = dist_v_c + |c|^2`
+                    let part_ids = &batch[PART_ID_COLUMN];
+                    let part_ids = part_ids.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+                    let centroids_norm_square = self.centroids_norm_square.as_ref().ok_or(
+                        Error::index("RQ Transform: centroids norm square not found".to_string()),
+                    )?;
+                    let centroids_norm_square =
+                        arrow::compute::take(centroids_norm_square, part_ids, None)?;
+                    let centroids_norm_square = centroids_norm_square.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+                    Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                        dist_v_c
+                            .values()
+                            .iter()
+                            .zip(centroids_norm_square.values().iter())
+                            .map(|(dist_v_c, centroids_norm_square)| {
+                                dist_v_c + centroids_norm_square
+                            }),
+                    )
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
                         "RQ Transform: distance type {} not supported",
                         self.distance_type
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-        };
+                    )));
+                }
+            };
 
-        let scale_factors = match self.distance_type {
-            DistanceType::L2 => Float32Array::from_iter_values(
-                res_norm_square.values().iter().zip(ip_rq_res.values()).map(
-                    |(res_norm_square, ip_rq_res)| {
-                        (-2.0 * res_norm_square)
-                            .div_checked(*ip_rq_res)
-                            .unwrap_or_default()
-                    },
+            let scale_factors = match self.distance_type {
+                DistanceType::L2 => Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    res_norm_square.values().iter().zip(ip_rq_res.values()).map(
+                        |(res_norm_square, ip_rq_res)| {
+                            (-2.0 * res_norm_square)
+                                .div_checked(*ip_rq_res)
+                                .unwrap_or_default()
+                        },
+                    ),
                 ),
-            ),
-            DistanceType::Dot => Float32Array::from_iter_values(
-                res_norm_square.values().iter().zip(ip_rq_res.values()).map(
-                    |(res_norm_square, ip_rq_res)| {
-                        -res_norm_square.div_checked(*ip_rq_res).unwrap_or_default()
-                    },
+                DistanceType::Dot => Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    res_norm_square.values().iter().zip(ip_rq_res.values()).map(
+                        |(res_norm_square, ip_rq_res)| {
+                            -res_norm_square.div_checked(*ip_rq_res).unwrap_or_default()
+                        },
+                    ),
                 ),
-            ),
-            _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
                         "RQ Transform: distance type {} not supported",
                         self.distance_type
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                    )));
+                }
+            };
+
+            batch = batch
+                .try_with_column(ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(), Arc::new(add_factors))?
+                .try_with_column(SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(), Arc::new(scale_factors))?;
+        } else {
+            // New RQ indexes use the RaBitQ-Library raw-query estimator.
+            let ex_bits = rabit_ex_bits(self.rq.num_bits())?;
+            let ex_codes = rq_codes.ex_codes;
+            let ex_res_dot_dists = rq_codes.ex_res_dot_dists;
+            let rotated_residuals = rq_codes.rotated_residuals.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("RabitQ quantization did not return rotated residuals".to_string())
+            })?;
+            let ex_code_values = rq_codes.ex_code_values;
+            if ex_bits != 0
+                && (ex_codes.is_none() || ex_res_dot_dists.is_none() || ex_code_values.is_none())
+            {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "RabitQ multi-bit quantization did not return split-code values".to_string(),
+                ));
             }
-        };
 
-        let batch = batch.try_with_column(self.rq.field(), Arc::new(rq_codes))?;
-        let batch = batch
-            .try_with_column(ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(), Arc::new(add_factors))?
-            .drop_column(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN)?;
-        let batch = batch.try_with_column(SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(), Arc::new(scale_factors))?;
+            let part_ids = batch[PART_ID_COLUMN].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+            let rotated_centroids = self.rotated_centroids.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("RabitQ raw-query transformer is missing rotated centroids")
+            })?;
+            let raw_query_factors = compute_raw_query_factors(
+                self.distance_type,
+                &res_norm_square,
+                &rotated_residuals,
+                rotated_centroids,
+                part_ids,
+                ex_code_values.as_deref(),
+                ex_res_dot_dists.as_deref(),
+                ex_bits,
+                self.rq.dim(),
+            )?;
+
+            batch = batch
+                .try_with_column(
+                    ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(),
+                    Arc::new(raw_query_factors.add_factors),
+                )?
+                .try_with_column(
+                    SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(),
+                    Arc::new(raw_query_factors.scale_factors),
+                )?
+                .try_with_column(
+                    ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(),
+                    Arc::new(raw_query_factors.error_factors),
+                )?;
+
+            if let Some(ex_codes) = ex_codes {
+                batch = batch.try_with_column(
+                    crate::vector::bq::storage::rabit_ex_code_field(
+                        self.rq.dim(),
+                        self.rq.num_bits(),
+                    )?
+                    .expect("ex-code field should exist for num_bits > 1"),
+                    ex_codes,
+                )?;
+            }
+            if let Some(ex_add_factors) = raw_query_factors.ex_add_factors {
+                batch = batch
+                    .try_with_column(EX_ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(), Arc::new(ex_add_factors))?;
+            }
+            if let Some(ex_scale_factors) = raw_query_factors.ex_scale_factors {
+                batch = batch
+                    .try_with_column(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(), Arc::new(ex_scale_factors))?;
+            }
+        }
 
         let batch = batch
             .drop_column(&self.vector_column)?
@@ -219,3 +483,207 @@ impl Transformer for RQTransformer {
         Ok(batch)
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow::array::AsArray;
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt8Type};
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+    use crate::vector::bq::RQRotationType;
+    use crate::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
+    use crate::vector::bq::ex_dot::blocked_ex_code_bytes;
+    use crate::vector::bq::storage::RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN;
+    use crate::vector::transform::Transformer;
+    use crate::vector::{CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN, PART_ID_COLUMN};
+
+    use super::{
+        ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+        RQTransformer, compute_raw_query_factors, error_factor_value,
+    };
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rq_transformer_writes_multi_bit_ex_factors() {
+        let rq = RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(4, 8, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        let centroids =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 8]), 8)
+                .unwrap();
+        let transformer =
+            RQTransformer::new(rq.clone(), DistanceType::L2, centroids, "vector").unwrap();
+
+        let residual_vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![
+                1.0, -2.0, 3.0, -4.0, 1.5, -2.5, 3.5, -4.5, 0.5, -1.0, 1.5, -2.0, 2.5, -3.0, 3.5,
+                -4.0,
+            ]),
+            8,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let res_norm_square = Float32Array::from(vec![73.0f32, 47.0]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("vector", Arc::new(residual_vectors.clone()) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                PART_ID_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(res_norm_square.clone()) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let transformed = transformer.transform(&batch).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            transformed
+                .column_by_name(RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN)
+                .is_some()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            transformed[RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN]
+                .as_fixed_size_list()
+                .value_length(),
+            blocked_ex_code_bytes(8, 3) as i32
+        );
+        assert!(
+            transformed[RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN]
+                .as_fixed_size_list()
+                .values()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|value| *value != 0)
+        );
+        let expected_ex_dots = rq
+            .quantize_split(&residual_vectors)
+            .unwrap()
+            .ex_res_dot_dists
+            .unwrap();
+        let ex_add_factors = transformed[EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        assert_eq!(ex_add_factors.values(), res_norm_square.values());
+        let ex_scale_factors = transformed[EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        for ((actual, norm), ex_dot) in ex_scale_factors
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(res_norm_square.values())
+            .zip(expected_ex_dots)
+        {
+            let expected = if ex_dot == 0.0 {
+                0.0
+            } else {
+                -2.0 * norm / ex_dot
+            };
+            assert!((actual - expected).abs() < 1e-6);
+        }
+        assert!(transformed.column_by_name("vector").is_none());
+        assert!(transformed.column_by_name(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN).is_none());
+        assert!(transformed.column_by_name(ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_some());
+        assert!(transformed.column_by_name(ERROR_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rq_transformer_caches_rotated_centroids_for_raw_query() {
+        let centroids =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 8]), 8)
+                .unwrap();
+        let raw_query_rq =
+            RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(1, 8, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        let raw_query_transformer =
+            RQTransformer::new(raw_query_rq, DistanceType::L2, centroids.clone(), "vector")
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            raw_query_transformer
+                .rotated_centroids
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            8
+        );
+
+        let multi_bit_rq =
+            RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(4, 8, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        let multi_bit_transformer =
+            RQTransformer::new(multi_bit_rq, DistanceType::L2, centroids, "vector").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            multi_bit_transformer
+                .rotated_centroids
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            8
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_raw_query_factors_match_reference_l2_formula() {
+        let res_norm_square = Float32Array::from(vec![5.0f32, 7.0]);
+        let rotated_residuals = vec![2.0, -1.0, 0.0, 0.0];
+        let rotated_centroids = vec![3.0, 4.0];
+        let part_ids = UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0]);
+        let ex_code_values = vec![1, 0, 0, 0];
+        let ex_res_dot_dists = vec![4.5, 0.0];
+
+        let factors = compute_raw_query_factors(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            &res_norm_square,
+            &rotated_residuals,
+            &rotated_centroids,
+            &part_ids,
+            Some(&ex_code_values),
+            Some(&ex_res_dot_dists),
+            1,
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!((factors.add_factors.value(0) - 1.6666667).abs() < 1e-5);
+        assert!((factors.scale_factors.value(0) + 6.6666665).abs() < 1e-5);
+        let expected_error = error_factor_value(DistanceType::L2, 5.0, 1.5, 2);
+        assert!((factors.error_factors.value(0) - expected_error).abs() < 1e-5);
+        let ex_add_factors = factors.ex_add_factors.unwrap();
+        let ex_scale_factors = factors.ex_scale_factors.unwrap();
+        assert!((ex_add_factors.value(0) - 1.6666667).abs() < 1e-5);
+        assert!((ex_scale_factors.value(0) + 2.2222223).abs() < 1e-5);
+        assert_eq!(factors.add_factors.value(1), 7.0);
+        assert_eq!(factors.scale_factors.value(1), 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(factors.error_factors.value(1), 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(ex_add_factors.value(1), 7.0);
+        assert_eq!(ex_scale_factors.value(1), 0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_raw_query_factors_match_reference_dot_formula() {
+        let res_norm_square = Float32Array::from(vec![5.0f32]);
+        let rotated_residuals = vec![2.0, -1.0];
+        let rotated_centroids = vec![3.0, 4.0];
+        let part_ids = UInt32Array::from(vec![0]);
+        let ex_code_values = vec![1, 0];
+        let ex_res_dot_dists = vec![4.5];
+
+        let factors = compute_raw_query_factors(
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+            &res_norm_square,
+            &rotated_residuals,
+            &rotated_centroids,
+            &part_ids,
+            Some(&ex_code_values),
+            Some(&ex_res_dot_dists),
+            1,
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!((factors.add_factors.value(0) + 2.6666667).abs() < 1e-5);
+        assert!((factors.scale_factors.value(0) + 3.3333333).abs() < 1e-5);
+        let expected_error = error_factor_value(DistanceType::Dot, 5.0, 1.5, 2);
+        assert!((factors.error_factors.value(0) - expected_error).abs() < 1e-5);
+        let ex_add_factors = factors.ex_add_factors.unwrap();
+        let ex_scale_factors = factors.ex_scale_factors.unwrap();
+        assert!((ex_add_factors.value(0) + 2.6666667).abs() < 1e-5);
+        assert!((ex_scale_factors.value(0) + 1.1111112).abs() < 1e-5);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/distributed/index_merger.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/distributed/index_merger.rs
index dd604adb138..370011eb8bd 100755
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/distributed/index_merger.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/distributed/index_merger.rs
@@ -3,40 +3,72 @@
 
 //! Index merging mechanisms for distributed vector index building
 
+use crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
 use crate::vector::shared::partition_merger::{
-    write_unified_ivf_and_index_metadata, SupportedIvfIndexType,
+    SupportedIvfIndexType, write_unified_ivf_and_index_metadata,
 };
 use arrow::{compute::concat_batches, datatypes::Float32Type};
 use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-use arrow_array::types::UInt8Type;
-use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::types::{UInt8Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch};
 use futures::StreamExt as _;
 use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, RecordBatchExt};
-use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID_FIELD};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result};
 use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use crate::IndexMetadata as IndexMetaSchema;
 use crate::pb;
+use crate::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter;
+use crate::vector::bq::storage::{
+    RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, RABIT_METADATA_KEY, RabitQuantizationMetadata, RabitQueryEstimator,
+    pack_codes, rabit_binary_code_field, rabit_ex_code_field,
+};
+use crate::vector::bq::transform::{
+    ADD_FACTORS_FIELD, ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD, EX_ADD_FACTORS_FIELD, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD,
+    SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD,
+};
+use crate::vector::bq::validate_rq_num_bits;
 use crate::vector::flat::index::FlatMetadata;
-use crate::vector::ivf::storage::{IvfModel as IvfStorageModel, IVF_METADATA_KEY};
-use crate::vector::pq::storage::{transpose, ProductQuantizationMetadata, PQ_METADATA_KEY};
+use crate::vector::ivf::storage::{IVF_METADATA_KEY, IvfModel as IvfStorageModel};
+use crate::vector::pq::storage::{PQ_METADATA_KEY, ProductQuantizationMetadata, transpose};
 use crate::vector::quantizer::QuantizerMetadata;
-use crate::vector::sq::storage::{ScalarQuantizationMetadata, SQ_METADATA_KEY};
+use crate::vector::sq::storage::{SQ_METADATA_KEY, ScalarQuantizationMetadata};
 use crate::vector::storage::STORAGE_METADATA_KEY;
 use crate::vector::{DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY, PQ_CODE_COLUMN, SQ_CODE_COLUMN};
-use crate::IndexMetadata as IndexMetaSchema;
 use crate::{INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use bytes::Bytes;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
 use lance_file::reader::{FileReader as V2Reader, FileReaderOptions as V2ReaderOptions};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_file::versions;
 use lance_file::writer::{FileWriter as V2Writer, FileWriter, FileWriterOptions};
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use prost::Message;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::LazyLock;
+
+const DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_SIZE: usize = 512;
+const PARTITION_WINDOW_SIZE_ENV: &str = "LANCE_IVF_PQ_MERGE_PARTITION_WINDOW_SIZE";
+const DEFAULT_PARTITION_PREFETCH_WINDOW_COUNT: usize = 2;
+const PARTITION_PREFETCH_WINDOW_COUNT_ENV: &str =
+    "LANCE_IVF_PQ_MERGE_PARTITION_PREFETCH_WINDOW_COUNT";
+static PARTITION_WINDOW_SIZE: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    std::env::var(PARTITION_WINDOW_SIZE_ENV)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|v| v.parse::<usize>().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_SIZE)
+});
+static PARTITION_PREFETCH_WINDOW_COUNT: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    std::env::var(PARTITION_PREFETCH_WINDOW_COUNT_ENV)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|v| v.parse::<usize>().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_PARTITION_PREFETCH_WINDOW_COUNT)
+});
 
 /// Strict bitwise equality check for FixedSizeListArray values.
 /// Returns true only if length, value_length and all underlying primitive values are equal.
@@ -61,6 +93,11 @@ fn fixed_size_list_equal(a: &FixedSizeListArray, b: &FixedSizeListArray) -> bool
             let vb = b.values().as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float16Type>();
             va.values() == vb.values()
         }
+        (DataType::UInt8, DataType::UInt8) => {
+            let va = a.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+            let vb = b.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+            va.values() == vb.values()
+        }
         _ => false,
     }
 }
@@ -82,6 +119,9 @@ fn fixed_size_list_almost_equal(a: &FixedSizeListArray, b: &FixedSizeListArray,
                 return false;
             }
             for i in 0..av.len() {
+                if av[i].is_nan() || bv[i].is_nan() {
+                    return false;
+                }
                 if (av[i] - bv[i]).abs() > tol {
                     return false;
                 }
@@ -97,6 +137,9 @@ fn fixed_size_list_almost_equal(a: &FixedSizeListArray, b: &FixedSizeListArray,
                 return false;
             }
             for i in 0..av.len() {
+                if av[i].is_nan() || bv[i].is_nan() {
+                    return false;
+                }
                 if (av[i] - bv[i]).abs() > tol as f64 {
                     return false;
                 }
@@ -114,6 +157,9 @@ fn fixed_size_list_almost_equal(a: &FixedSizeListArray, b: &FixedSizeListArray,
             for i in 0..av.len() {
                 let da = av[i].to_f32();
                 let db = bv[i].to_f32();
+                if da.is_nan() || db.is_nan() {
+                    return false;
+                }
                 if (da - db).abs() > tol {
                     return false;
                 }
@@ -124,6 +170,63 @@ fn fixed_size_list_almost_equal(a: &FixedSizeListArray, b: &FixedSizeListArray,
     }
 }
 
+fn ensure_fixed_size_list_compatible(
+    what: &str,
+    reference: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    candidate: &FixedSizeListArray,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if !fixed_size_list_equal(reference, candidate) {
+        const TOL: f32 = 1e-5;
+        if !fixed_size_list_almost_equal(reference, candidate, TOL) {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!("{what} mismatch across shards")));
+        }
+        log::warn!("{what} differs within tolerance; proceeding with first shard value");
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn try_read_ivf_proto(reader: &V2Reader) -> Result<Option<pb::Ivf>> {
+    let Some(ivf_idx) = reader.metadata().file_schema.metadata.get(IVF_METADATA_KEY) else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    let ivf_idx = ivf_idx
+        .parse()
+        .map_err(|_| Error::index("IVF index parse error".to_string()))?;
+    let bytes = reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_idx).await?;
+    Ok(Some(pb::Ivf::decode(bytes)?))
+}
+
+fn ivf_centroids_from_proto(ivf: &pb::Ivf) -> Result<Option<FixedSizeListArray>> {
+    ivf.centroids_tensor
+        .as_ref()
+        .map(FixedSizeListArray::try_from)
+        .transpose()
+}
+
+async fn open_sibling_index_reader(
+    object_store: &lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore,
+    sched: &Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    idx_path: &object_store::path::Path,
+) -> Result<Option<V2Reader>> {
+    if !object_store.exists(idx_path).await? {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let fh = sched
+        .open_file(idx_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+        .await?;
+    Ok(Some(
+        V2Reader::try_open(
+            fh,
+            None,
+            Arc::default(),
+            &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            V2ReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await?,
+    ))
+}
+
 /// Initialize schema-level metadata on a writer for a given storage.
 ///
 /// It writes the distance type and the storage metadata (as a vector payload),
@@ -151,21 +254,24 @@ pub async fn init_writer_for_flat(
     object_store: &lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore,
     aux_out: &object_store::path::Path,
     d0: usize,
+    item_type: &DataType,
     dt: DistanceType,
+    format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
 ) -> Result<FileWriter> {
     let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
         (*ROW_ID_FIELD).clone(),
         Field::new(
             crate::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN,
             DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", item_type.clone(), true)),
                 d0 as i32,
             ),
             true,
         ),
     ]);
     let writer = object_store.create(aux_out).await?;
-    let mut w = FileWriter::try_new(
+    let mut w = versions::create_writer(
+        format_version,
         writer,
         LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema)?,
         FileWriterOptions::default(),
@@ -184,6 +290,7 @@ pub async fn init_writer_for_pq(
     aux_out: &object_store::path::Path,
     dt: DistanceType,
     pm: &ProductQuantizationMetadata,
+    format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
 ) -> Result<FileWriter> {
     let num_bytes = if pm.nbits == 4 {
         pm.num_sub_vectors / 2
@@ -202,16 +309,17 @@ pub async fn init_writer_for_pq(
         ),
     ]);
     let writer = object_store.create(aux_out).await?;
-    let mut w = FileWriter::try_new(
+    let mut w = versions::create_writer(
+        format_version,
         writer,
         LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema)?,
         FileWriterOptions::default(),
     )?;
     let mut pm_init = pm.clone();
-    let cb = pm_init.codebook.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-        message: "PQ codebook missing".to_string(),
-        location: snafu::location!(),
-    })?;
+    let cb = pm_init
+        .codebook
+        .as_ref()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("PQ codebook missing".to_string()))?;
     let codebook_tensor: pb::Tensor = pb::Tensor::try_from(cb)?;
     let buf = Bytes::from(codebook_tensor.encode_to_vec());
     let pos = w.add_global_buffer(buf).await?;
@@ -227,6 +335,7 @@ pub async fn init_writer_for_sq(
     aux_out: &object_store::path::Path,
     dt: DistanceType,
     sq_meta: &ScalarQuantizationMetadata,
+    format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
 ) -> Result<FileWriter> {
     let d0 = sq_meta.dim;
     let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
@@ -241,7 +350,8 @@ pub async fn init_writer_for_sq(
         ),
     ]);
     let writer = object_store.create(aux_out).await?;
-    let mut w = FileWriter::try_new(
+    let mut w = versions::create_writer(
+        format_version,
         writer,
         LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema)?,
         FileWriterOptions::default(),
@@ -251,6 +361,48 @@ pub async fn init_writer_for_sq(
     Ok(w)
 }
 
+/// Create and initialize a unified writer for RQ storage.
+pub async fn init_writer_for_rq(
+    object_store: &lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore,
+    aux_out: &object_store::path::Path,
+    dt: DistanceType,
+    rq_meta: &RabitQuantizationMetadata,
+    format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+) -> Result<FileWriter> {
+    let mut fields = vec![
+        (*ROW_ID_FIELD).clone(),
+        rabit_binary_code_field(rq_meta.rotated_dim()),
+        ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(),
+        SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(),
+    ];
+    if rq_meta.query_estimator == RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery {
+        fields.push(ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD.clone());
+    }
+    if let Some(ex_code_field) = rabit_ex_code_field(rq_meta.rotated_dim(), rq_meta.num_bits)? {
+        fields.push(ex_code_field);
+        fields.push(EX_ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone());
+        fields.push(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone());
+    }
+    let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(fields);
+    let writer = object_store.create(aux_out).await?;
+    let mut w = versions::create_writer(
+        format_version,
+        writer,
+        LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema)?,
+        FileWriterOptions::default(),
+    )?;
+
+    let mut rq_meta_init = rq_meta.clone();
+    rq_meta_init.packed = true;
+    if let Some(extra_metadata) = rq_meta_init.extra_metadata()? {
+        let pos = w.add_global_buffer(extra_metadata).await?;
+        rq_meta_init.set_buffer_index(pos);
+    }
+    let rq_meta_json = serde_json::to_string(&rq_meta_init)?;
+    init_writer_for_storage(&mut w, dt, &rq_meta_json, RABIT_METADATA_KEY)?;
+    Ok(w)
+}
+
 /// Stream and write a range of rows from reader into writer.
 ///
 /// The caller is responsible for ensuring that `range` corresponds to a
@@ -260,12 +412,14 @@ pub async fn write_partition_rows(
     w: &mut FileWriter,
     range: Range<usize>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let mut stream = reader.read_stream(
-        lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(range),
-        u32::MAX,
-        4,
-        lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-    )?;
+    let mut stream = reader
+        .read_stream(
+            lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(range),
+            u32::MAX,
+            4,
+            lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await?;
     use futures::StreamExt as _;
     while let Some(rb) = stream.next().await {
         let rb = rb?;
@@ -274,6 +428,35 @@ pub async fn write_partition_rows(
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Stream a partition range, retain its owned rows, and return the number written.
+async fn write_filtered_partition_rows(
+    reader: &V2Reader,
+    w: &mut FileWriter,
+    range: Range<usize>,
+    row_filter: &OldIndexDataFilter,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let mut stream = reader
+        .read_stream(
+            lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(range),
+            u32::MAX,
+            4,
+            lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+    let mut written_rows = 0usize;
+    while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
+        let batch = filter_batch_to_owned_rows(&batch?, row_filter)?;
+        if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        written_rows = written_rows.checked_add(batch.num_rows()).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index("Filtered partition row count exceeds usize capacity".to_string())
+        })?;
+        w.write_batch(&batch).await?;
+    }
+    Ok(written_rows)
+}
+
 /// Transpose the PQ code column for a batch and write it to the unified writer.
 ///
 /// This helper assumes `batch` contains a contiguous range of rows for a single
@@ -287,22 +470,19 @@ async fn write_partition_rows_pq_transposed(
         return Ok(());
     }
 
-    let pq_col = batch
-        .column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN)
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("PQ column {} missing in auxiliary shard", PQ_CODE_COLUMN),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-    let pq_fsl = pq_col
-        .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "PQ column {} is not a FixedSizeList in auxiliary shard, got {}",
-                PQ_CODE_COLUMN,
-                pq_col.data_type(),
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+    let pq_col = batch.column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "PQ column {} missing in auxiliary shard",
+            PQ_CODE_COLUMN
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let pq_fsl = pq_col.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "PQ column {} is not a FixedSizeList in auxiliary shard, got {}",
+            PQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+            pq_col.data_type(),
+        ))
+    })?;
     let num_bytes = pq_fsl.value_length() as usize;
     let values = pq_fsl.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
     let transposed_codes = transpose(values, num_rows, num_bytes);
@@ -322,6 +502,41 @@ async fn write_partition_rows_pq_transposed(
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Pack the RQ code column for a batch and write it to the unified writer.
+///
+/// This helper assumes `batch` contains a contiguous range of rows for a single
+/// IVF partition and that the shard batch stores row-major RQ codes.
+async fn write_partition_rows_rq_packed(w: &mut FileWriter, mut batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+    let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+    if num_rows == 0 {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let rq_col = batch.column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "RQ column {} missing in auxiliary shard",
+            RABIT_CODE_COLUMN
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let rq_fsl = rq_col.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "RQ column {} is not a FixedSizeList in auxiliary shard, got {}",
+            RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
+            rq_col.data_type(),
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let packed_codes = pack_codes(rq_fsl);
+    batch = batch.replace_column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, Arc::new(packed_codes))?;
+
+    let batch_size: usize = 10_240;
+    for offset in (0..num_rows).step_by(batch_size) {
+        let len = std::cmp::min(batch_size, num_rows - offset);
+        let slice = batch.slice(offset, len);
+        w.write_batch(&slice).await?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 /// Detect and return supported index type from reader and schema.
 ///
 /// This is a lightweight wrapper around SupportedIndexType::detect to keep
@@ -333,189 +548,342 @@ fn detect_supported_index_type(
     SupportedIvfIndexType::detect_from_reader_and_schema(reader, schema)
 }
 
-/// Decode the fragment id from an encoded row id.
-///
-/// Row ids are stored as a 64-bit [RowAddress] where the upper 32 bits encode
-/// the fragment id and the lower 32 bits encode the row offset.
-fn decode_fragment_id_from_row_id(row_id_u64: u64) -> u32 {
-    let addr = RowAddress::new_from_u64(row_id_u64);
-    addr.fragment_id()
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ShardInfo {
+    reader: Arc<V2Reader>,
+    lengths: Vec<u32>,
+    partition_offsets: Vec<usize>,
+    total_rows: usize,
+    row_filter: Option<Arc<OldIndexDataFilter>>,
 }
 
-/// Compute a content-derived shard sort key for a partial auxiliary file.
-///
-/// The key is `(min_fragment_id, min_row_id, parent_dir_name)` where:
-/// - `min_fragment_id` is the minimum fragment id observed among the first row
-///   of each non-empty IVF partition.
-/// - `min_row_id` is the minimum encoded row id (as `u64`) among the same
-///   representative rows.
-/// - `parent_dir_name` is the `partial_*` directory name extracted from
-///   `aux_path` and used only as a final lexicographic tie-breaker.
-///
-/// This helper reads exactly one row per non-empty partition (the first row in
-/// that partition) and never scans entire shards.
-async fn compute_shard_content_key(
-    sched: &std::sync::Arc<ScanScheduler>,
-    _store: &lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore,
-    aux_path: &object_store::path::Path,
-) -> Result<(u32, u64, String)> {
-    let fh = sched
-        .open_file(aux_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-        .await?;
-    let reader = V2Reader::try_open(
-        fh,
-        None,
-        Arc::default(),
-        &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
-        V2ReaderOptions::default(),
-    )
-    .await?;
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ShardWindowReadJob {
+    reader: Arc<V2Reader>,
+    window_lengths: Vec<u32>,
+    window_total_rows: usize,
+    start_offset: usize,
+    end_offset: usize,
+    row_filter: Option<Arc<OldIndexDataFilter>>,
+}
 
-    // Locate the ROW_ID_FIELD column to decode fragment / row ids.
-    let schema_arrow: ArrowSchema = reader.schema().as_ref().into();
-    let row_id_idx = schema_arrow
-        .fields
-        .iter()
-        .position(|f| f.name() == ROW_ID_FIELD.name())
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: "ROW_ID_FIELD missing in auxiliary shard".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PartitionWindowBatches {
+    window_start: usize,
+    per_partition_batches: Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>>,
+}
 
-    // Read IVF lengths from the global buffer.
-    let ivf_idx: u32 = reader
-        .metadata()
-        .file_schema
-        .metadata
-        .get(IVF_METADATA_KEY)
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: "IVF meta missing".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?
-        .parse()
-        .map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-            message: "IVF index parse error".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-    let bytes = reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_idx).await?;
-    let pb_ivf: pb::Ivf = prost::Message::decode(bytes)?;
-    let lengths = pb_ivf.lengths;
-
-    let mut min_fragment_id: Option<u32> = None;
-    let mut min_row_id: Option<u64> = None;
-
-    let mut offset: usize = 0;
-    for len in &lengths {
-        let part_len = *len as usize;
-        if part_len > 0 {
-            let mut stream = reader.read_stream(
-                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(offset..offset + 1),
-                u32::MAX,
-                4,
-                lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-            )?;
-            if let Some(batch_res) = stream.next().await {
-                let batch = batch_res?;
-                if batch.num_rows() > 0 {
-                    let arr = batch
-                        .column(row_id_idx)
-                        .as_any()
-                        .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
-                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                            message: "ROW_ID_FIELD must be a UInt64 column in auxiliary shard"
-                                .to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-                    let row_id_val = arr.value(0);
-                    let frag_id = decode_fragment_id_from_row_id(row_id_val);
-                    min_fragment_id = Some(match min_fragment_id {
-                        Some(cur) => cur.min(frag_id),
-                        None => frag_id,
-                    });
-                    min_row_id = Some(match min_row_id {
-                        Some(cur) => cur.min(row_id_val),
-                        None => row_id_val,
-                    });
+type PartitionWindowFuture = Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<PartitionWindowBatches>> + Send>>;
+
+struct ShardMergeReader {
+    shard_infos: Arc<Vec<ShardInfo>>,
+    nlist: usize,
+    partition_window_size: usize,
+    prefetch_window_count: usize,
+    next_window_start: usize,
+    in_flight_windows: futures::stream::FuturesOrdered<PartitionWindowFuture>,
+    current_window: Option<PartitionWindowBatches>,
+    current_partition_offset: usize,
+}
+
+impl ShardMergeReader {
+    fn new(
+        shard_infos: Vec<ShardInfo>,
+        nlist: usize,
+        partition_window_size: usize,
+        prefetch_window_count: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let mut this = Self {
+            shard_infos: Arc::new(shard_infos),
+            nlist,
+            partition_window_size: partition_window_size.max(1),
+            prefetch_window_count: prefetch_window_count.max(1),
+            next_window_start: 0,
+            in_flight_windows: futures::stream::FuturesOrdered::new(),
+            current_window: None,
+            current_partition_offset: 0,
+        };
+        this.fill_prefetch();
+        this
+    }
+
+    fn fill_prefetch(&mut self) {
+        while self.in_flight_windows.len() < self.prefetch_window_count
+            && self.next_window_start < self.nlist
+        {
+            let window_start = self.next_window_start;
+            let window_end = std::cmp::min(window_start + self.partition_window_size, self.nlist);
+            self.next_window_start = window_end;
+
+            let shard_infos = Arc::clone(&self.shard_infos);
+            let nlist = self.nlist;
+            let fut: PartitionWindowFuture = Box::pin(async move {
+                read_partition_window(shard_infos, nlist, window_start, window_end).await
+            });
+            self.in_flight_windows.push_back(fut);
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn next_partition(&mut self) -> Result<Option<(usize, Vec<RecordBatch>)>> {
+        loop {
+            if let Some(window) = self.current_window.as_mut() {
+                if self.current_partition_offset < window.per_partition_batches.len() {
+                    let partition_id = window.window_start + self.current_partition_offset;
+                    let batches = std::mem::take(
+                        &mut window.per_partition_batches[self.current_partition_offset],
+                    );
+                    self.current_partition_offset += 1;
+                    if self.current_partition_offset == window.per_partition_batches.len() {
+                        self.current_window = None;
+                        self.current_partition_offset = 0;
+                    }
+                    self.fill_prefetch();
+                    return Ok(Some((partition_id, batches)));
+                }
+                self.current_window = None;
+                self.current_partition_offset = 0;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            self.fill_prefetch();
+            match self.in_flight_windows.next().await {
+                Some(window) => {
+                    self.current_window = Some(window?);
+                    self.current_partition_offset = 0;
                 }
+                None => return Ok(None),
             }
         }
-        offset += part_len;
     }
+}
 
-    let min_fragment_id = min_fragment_id.unwrap_or(RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_FRAG);
-    let min_row_id = min_row_id.unwrap_or(RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW);
+async fn read_partition_window(
+    shard_infos: Arc<Vec<ShardInfo>>,
+    nlist: usize,
+    window_start: usize,
+    window_end: usize,
+) -> Result<PartitionWindowBatches> {
+    let window_len = window_end - window_start;
 
-    let parent_name = {
-        let parts: Vec<_> = aux_path.parts().collect();
-        if parts.len() >= 2 {
-            parts[parts.len() - 2].as_ref().to_string()
-        } else {
-            String::new()
+    let shard_jobs: Vec<ShardWindowReadJob> = shard_infos
+        .iter()
+        .map(|shard| {
+            let window_lengths = shard.lengths[window_start..window_end].to_vec();
+            let window_total_rows = window_lengths.iter().map(|len| *len as usize).sum();
+            let start_offset = shard.partition_offsets[window_start];
+            let end_offset = if window_end < nlist {
+                shard.partition_offsets[window_end]
+            } else {
+                shard.total_rows
+            };
+
+            ShardWindowReadJob {
+                reader: Arc::clone(&shard.reader),
+                window_lengths,
+                window_total_rows,
+                start_offset,
+                end_offset,
+                row_filter: shard.row_filter.clone(),
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let shard_parallelism = shard_jobs.len().max(1);
+    let mut shard_results_stream = futures::stream::iter(shard_jobs.into_iter().enumerate().map(
+        |(shard_idx, shard_job)| async move {
+            let per_partition_batches =
+                read_shard_window_partitions(shard_job, window_start, window_end, window_len)
+                    .await?;
+            Ok::<(usize, Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>>), Error>((shard_idx, per_partition_batches))
+        },
+    ))
+    .buffer_unordered(shard_parallelism);
+
+    let mut shard_results: Vec<(usize, Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>>)> =
+        Vec::with_capacity(shard_parallelism);
+    while let Some(shard_result) = shard_results_stream.next().await {
+        shard_results.push(shard_result?);
+    }
+    shard_results.sort_by_key(|(shard_idx, _)| *shard_idx);
+
+    let mut per_partition_batches: Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>> = vec![Vec::new(); window_len];
+    for (_, mut shard_partition_batches) in shard_results {
+        for rel_partition in 0..window_len {
+            per_partition_batches[rel_partition]
+                .append(&mut shard_partition_batches[rel_partition]);
         }
+    }
+
+    Ok(PartitionWindowBatches {
+        window_start,
+        per_partition_batches,
+    })
+}
+
+async fn read_shard_window_partitions(
+    shard_job: ShardWindowReadJob,
+    window_start: usize,
+    window_end: usize,
+    window_len: usize,
+) -> Result<Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>>> {
+    let mut per_partition_batches: Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>> = vec![Vec::new(); window_len];
+    if shard_job.window_total_rows == 0 {
+        return Ok(per_partition_batches);
+    }
+
+    let mut stream = shard_job
+        .reader
+        .read_stream(
+            lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(shard_job.start_offset..shard_job.end_offset),
+            u32::MAX,
+            4,
+            lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+    let mut rel_partition = 0usize;
+    while rel_partition < window_len && shard_job.window_lengths[rel_partition] == 0 {
+        rel_partition += 1;
+    }
+    let mut remaining = if rel_partition < window_len {
+        shard_job.window_lengths[rel_partition] as usize
+    } else {
+        0
     };
 
-    Ok((min_fragment_id, min_row_id, parent_name))
+    while let Some(rb) = stream.next().await {
+        let rb = rb?;
+        let mut consumed = 0usize;
+
+        while consumed < rb.num_rows() {
+            while rel_partition < window_len && remaining == 0 {
+                rel_partition += 1;
+                if rel_partition < window_len {
+                    remaining = shard_job.window_lengths[rel_partition] as usize;
+                }
+            }
+
+            if rel_partition >= window_len {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Shard has more rows than declared lengths in partition window [{}, {})",
+                    window_start, window_end
+                )));
+            }
+
+            let to_take = std::cmp::min(remaining, rb.num_rows() - consumed);
+            let mut partition_batch = rb.slice(consumed, to_take);
+            if let Some(row_filter) = shard_job.row_filter.as_deref() {
+                partition_batch = filter_batch_to_owned_rows(&partition_batch, row_filter)?;
+            }
+            if partition_batch.num_rows() > 0 {
+                per_partition_batches[rel_partition].push(partition_batch);
+            }
+            consumed += to_take;
+            remaining -= to_take;
+        }
+    }
+
+    while rel_partition < window_len && remaining == 0 {
+        rel_partition += 1;
+        if rel_partition < window_len {
+            remaining = shard_job.window_lengths[rel_partition] as usize;
+        }
+    }
+
+    if rel_partition != window_len {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Shard has fewer rows than declared lengths in partition window [{}, {})",
+            window_start, window_end
+        )));
+    }
+
+    Ok(per_partition_batches)
+}
+
+fn filter_batch_to_owned_rows(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    row_filter: &OldIndexDataFilter,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let row_ids = batch
+        .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("Column {ROW_ID} missing in auxiliary shard")))?
+        .as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("Column {ROW_ID} is not UInt64 in auxiliary shard")))?;
+    let keep = row_filter.filter_row_ids(row_ids);
+    Ok(arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(batch, &keep)?)
 }
 
-/// Merge all partial_* vector index auxiliary files under `index_dir/{uuid}/partial_*/auxiliary.idx`
-/// into `index_dir/{uuid}/auxiliary.idx`.
+/// Merge the selected segment auxiliary files into `target_dir`.
+///
+/// This is the storage merge kernel for vector segment build. Callers choose
+/// which segments belong to one built segment and pass the
+/// corresponding auxiliary files here. The merge writes one unified
+/// `auxiliary.idx` into `target_dir`.
 ///
-/// Supports IVF_FLAT, IVF_PQ, IVF_SQ, IVF_HNSW_FLAT, IVF_HNSW_PQ, IVF_HNSW_SQ storage types.
-/// For PQ and SQ, this assumes all partial indices share the same quantizer/codebook
-/// and distance type; it will reuse the first encountered metadata.
+/// Supports IVF_FLAT, IVF_PQ, IVF_SQ, IVF_HNSW_FLAT, IVF_HNSW_PQ, and
+/// IVF_HNSW_SQ storage types. For PQ and SQ, this assumes all selected source
+/// segments share the same quantizer/codebook and distance type; it reuses the
+/// first encountered metadata.
 pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
     object_store: &lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore,
-    index_dir: &object_store::path::Path,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    let mut aux_paths: Vec<object_store::path::Path> = Vec::new();
-    let mut stream = object_store.list(Some(index_dir.clone()));
-    while let Some(item) = stream.next().await {
-        if let Ok(meta) = item {
-            if let Some(fname) = meta.location.filename() {
-                if fname == INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME {
-                    // Check parent dir name starts with partial_
-                    let parts: Vec<_> = meta.location.parts().collect();
-                    if parts.len() >= 2 {
-                        let pname = parts[parts.len() - 2].as_ref();
-                        if pname.starts_with("partial_") {
-                            aux_paths.push(meta.location.clone());
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
+    aux_paths: &[object_store::path::Path],
+    target_dir: &object_store::path::Path,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<lance_table::format::IndexFile> {
+    merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files_inner(object_store, aux_paths, target_dir, None, progress)
+        .await
+}
+
+/// Merge auxiliary files while retaining only rows owned by each source segment.
+pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files_with_row_filters(
+    object_store: &lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore,
+    aux_paths: &[object_store::path::Path],
+    target_dir: &object_store::path::Path,
+    row_filters: &[OldIndexDataFilter],
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<lance_table::format::IndexFile> {
+    if aux_paths.len() != row_filters.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Expected one row filter per auxiliary file, got {} files and {} filters",
+            aux_paths.len(),
+            row_filters.len()
+        )));
     }
+    merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files_inner(
+        object_store,
+        aux_paths,
+        target_dir,
+        Some(row_filters),
+        progress,
+    )
+    .await
+}
 
+async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files_inner(
+    object_store: &lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore,
+    aux_paths: &[object_store::path::Path],
+    target_dir: &object_store::path::Path,
+    row_filters: Option<&[OldIndexDataFilter]>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<lance_table::format::IndexFile> {
     if aux_paths.is_empty() {
-        // If a unified auxiliary file already exists at the root, no merge is required.
-        let aux_out = index_dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        if object_store.exists(&aux_out).await.unwrap_or(false) {
-            log::warn!(
-                "No partial_* auxiliary files found under index dir: {}, but unified auxiliary file already exists; skipping merge",
-                index_dir
-            );
-            return Ok(());
-        }
-        // For certain index types (e.g., FLAT/HNSW-only) the merge may be a no-op in distributed setups
-        // where shards were committed directly. In such cases, proceed without error to avoid blocking
-        // index manifest merge. PQ/SQ variants still require merging artifacts and will be handled by
-        // downstream open logic if missing.
-        log::warn!(
-            "No partial_* auxiliary files found under index dir: {}; proceeding without merge for index types that do not require auxiliary shards",
-            index_dir
-        );
-        return Ok(());
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "No partial auxiliary files were selected for merge".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     // Prepare IVF model and storage metadata aggregation
     let mut distance_type: Option<DistanceType> = None;
     let mut pq_meta: Option<ProductQuantizationMetadata> = None;
     let mut sq_meta: Option<ScalarQuantizationMetadata> = None;
+    let mut rq_meta: Option<RabitQuantizationMetadata> = None;
     let mut dim: Option<usize> = None;
     let mut detected_index_type: Option<SupportedIvfIndexType> = None;
+    // Inherit file format version from the first shard (set on first iteration)
+    let mut format_version: Option<ConcreteFileVersion> = None;
 
     // Prepare output path; we'll create writer once when we know schema
-    let aux_out = index_dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+    let aux_out = target_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
 
     // We'll delay creating the V2 writer until we know the vector schema (dim and quantizer type)
     let mut v2w_opt: Option<V2Writer> = None;
@@ -526,31 +894,25 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
         SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(object_store),
     );
 
-    // Compute content-derived sort keys for each shard once while opening the
-    // auxiliary readers. These keys will be reused both for ordering the
-    // enumeration of shards and for per-partition writes.
-    let mut shard_keys: Vec<(object_store::path::Path, (u32, u64, String))> =
-        Vec::with_capacity(aux_paths.len());
-    for aux in aux_paths.into_iter() {
-        let key = compute_shard_content_key(&sched, object_store, &aux).await?;
-        shard_keys.push((aux, key));
-    }
-
-    // Sort shards by their content-derived keys (min_fragment_id, min_row_id,
-    // parent_dir_name) to detach from underlying listing order.
-    shard_keys.sort_by(|a, b| a.1.cmp(&b.1));
-
     // Track IVF partition count consistency and accumulate lengths per partition
     let mut nlist_opt: Option<usize> = None;
     let mut accumulated_lengths: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
     let mut first_centroids: Option<FixedSizeListArray> = None;
 
-    // Track per-shard IVF lengths to reorder writing to partitions later
-    #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
-    let mut shard_infos: Vec<(object_store::path::Path, Vec<u32>, (u32, u64, String))> = Vec::new();
+    // Track per-shard readers, IVF lengths, and precomputed partition offsets.
+    // This avoids reopening each shard file for every partition during merge.
+    let mut shard_infos: Vec<ShardInfo> = Vec::new();
+
+    progress
+        .stage_start(
+            "read_shard_metadata",
+            Some(aux_paths.len() as u64),
+            "shards",
+        )
+        .await?;
 
     // Iterate over each shard auxiliary file and merge its metadata and collect lengths
-    for (aux, key) in &shard_keys {
+    for (idx, aux) in aux_paths.iter().enumerate() {
         let fh = sched.open_file(aux, &CachedFileSize::unknown()).await?;
         let reader = V2Reader::try_open(
             fh,
@@ -561,80 +923,63 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
         )
         .await?;
         let meta = reader.metadata();
+        let idx_path = aux
+            .parent()
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+            .join(crate::INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+        let mut idx_reader: Option<V2Reader> = None;
+        let mut idx_reader_checked = false;
+
+        // Inherit format version from the first shard file
+        if format_version.is_none() {
+            format_version = Some(meta.version());
+        }
 
         // Read distance type
         let dt = meta
             .file_schema
             .metadata
             .get(DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Missing {} in shard", DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("Missing {} in shard", DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY)))?;
         let dt: DistanceType = DistanceType::try_from(dt.as_str())?;
         if distance_type.is_none() {
             distance_type = Some(dt);
         } else if distance_type.as_ref().map(|v| *v != dt).unwrap_or(false) {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Distance type mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "Distance type mismatch across shards".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
 
         // Detect index type (first iteration only)
         if detected_index_type.is_none() {
             // Try to derive precise type from sibling partial index.idx metadata if available
-            // Try resolve sibling index.idx path by trimming the last component of aux path
-            let parent_str = {
-                let s = aux.as_ref();
-                if let Some((p, _)) = s.trim_end_matches('/').rsplit_once('/') {
-                    p.to_string()
-                } else {
-                    s.to_string()
-                }
-            };
-            let idx_path = object_store::path::Path::from(format!(
-                "{}/{}",
-                parent_str,
-                crate::INDEX_FILE_NAME
-            ));
-            if object_store.exists(&idx_path).await.unwrap_or(false) {
-                let fh2 = sched
-                    .open_file(&idx_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-                    .await?;
-                let idx_reader = V2Reader::try_open(
-                    fh2,
-                    None,
-                    Arc::default(),
-                    &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
-                    V2ReaderOptions::default(),
-                )
-                .await?;
-                if let Some(idx_meta_json) = idx_reader
+            if !idx_reader_checked {
+                idx_reader = open_sibling_index_reader(object_store, &sched, &idx_path).await?;
+                idx_reader_checked = true;
+            }
+            if let Some(idx_reader) = idx_reader.as_ref()
+                && let Some(idx_meta_json) = idx_reader
                     .metadata()
                     .file_schema
                     .metadata
                     .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
-                {
-                    let idx_meta: IndexMetaSchema = serde_json::from_str(idx_meta_json)?;
-                    detected_index_type = Some(match idx_meta.index_type.as_str() {
-                        "IVF_FLAT" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfFlat,
-                        "IVF_PQ" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfPq,
-                        "IVF_SQ" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfSq,
-                        "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswFlat,
-                        "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswPq,
-                        "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswSq,
-                        other => {
-                            return Err(Error::Index {
-                                message: format!(
-                                    "Unsupported index type in shard index.idx: {}",
-                                    other
-                                ),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
-                        }
-                    });
-                }
+            {
+                let idx_meta: IndexMetaSchema = serde_json::from_str(idx_meta_json)?;
+                detected_index_type = Some(match idx_meta.index_type.as_str() {
+                    "IVF_FLAT" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfFlat,
+                    "IVF_PQ" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfPq,
+                    "IVF_SQ" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfSq,
+                    "IVF_RQ" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfRq,
+                    "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswFlat,
+                    "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswPq,
+                    "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswSq,
+                    other => {
+                        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                            "Unsupported index type in shard index.idx: {}",
+                            other
+                        )));
+                    }
+                });
             }
             // Fallback: infer from auxiliary schema
             if detected_index_type.is_none() {
@@ -644,49 +989,61 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
         }
 
         // Read IVF lengths from global buffer
-        let ivf_idx: u32 = reader
-            .metadata()
-            .file_schema
-            .metadata
-            .get(IVF_METADATA_KEY)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message: "IVF meta missing".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
-            .parse()
-            .map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-                message: "IVF index parse error".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        let bytes = reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_idx).await?;
-        let pb_ivf: pb::Ivf = prost::Message::decode(bytes)?;
+        let pb_ivf = try_read_ivf_proto(&reader)
+            .await?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("IVF meta missing".to_string()))?;
         let lengths = pb_ivf.lengths.clone();
         let nlist = lengths.len();
 
+        let mut current_centroids = ivf_centroids_from_proto(&pb_ivf)?;
+        if current_centroids.is_none() {
+            if !idx_reader_checked {
+                idx_reader = open_sibling_index_reader(object_store, &sched, &idx_path).await?;
+            }
+            if let Some(idx_reader) = idx_reader.as_ref()
+                && let Some(index_ivf) = try_read_ivf_proto(idx_reader).await?
+            {
+                current_centroids = ivf_centroids_from_proto(&index_ivf)?;
+            }
+        }
         if nlist_opt.is_none() {
             nlist_opt = Some(nlist);
             accumulated_lengths = vec![0; nlist];
-            // Try load centroids tensor if present
-            if let Some(tensor) = pb_ivf.centroids_tensor.as_ref() {
-                let arr = FixedSizeListArray::try_from(tensor)?;
-                first_centroids = Some(arr.clone());
+            if let Some(arr) = current_centroids {
                 let d0 = arr.value_length() as usize;
                 if dim.is_none() {
                     dim = Some(d0);
                 }
+                first_centroids = Some(arr);
             }
         } else if nlist_opt.as_ref().map(|v| *v != nlist).unwrap_or(false) {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "IVF partition count mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "IVF partition count mismatch across shards".to_string(),
+            ));
+        } else {
+            match (&first_centroids, &current_centroids) {
+                (Some(reference), Some(candidate)) => {
+                    ensure_fixed_size_list_compatible("IVF centroids", reference, candidate)?;
+                }
+                (Some(_), None) => {
+                    return Err(Error::index("IVF centroids missing from shard".to_string()));
+                }
+                (None, Some(_)) => {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "IVF centroids missing from first shard".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                (None, None) => {}
+            }
         }
 
         // Handle logic based on detected index type
-        let idx_type = detected_index_type.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: "Unable to detect index type".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let idx_type = detected_index_type
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Unable to detect index type".to_string()))?;
+
+        // Preserve the historical fallback while keeping the writer boundary exact.
+        let fv = format_version.unwrap_or(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0);
+
         match idx_type {
             SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfSq => {
                 // Handle Scalar Quantization (SQ) storage for IVF_SQ
@@ -702,9 +1059,8 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                 {
                     // Try to extract SQ metadata from storage metadata
                     let storage_metadata_vec: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(storage_meta_json)
-                        .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                            message: format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e),
-                            location: location!(),
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            Error::index(format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e))
                         })?;
                     if let Some(first_meta) = storage_metadata_vec.first() {
                         // Check if this is SQ metadata by trying to parse it
@@ -713,155 +1069,235 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                         {
                             first_meta.clone()
                         } else {
-                            return Err(Error::Index {
-                                message: "SQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
+                            return Err(Error::index(
+                                "SQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                            ));
                         }
                     } else {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "SQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::index(
+                            "SQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                        ));
                     }
                 } else {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: "SQ metadata missing".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index("SQ metadata missing".to_string()));
                 };
 
                 let sq_meta_parsed: ScalarQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&sq_json)
-                    .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("SQ metadata parse error: {}", e),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("SQ metadata parse error: {}", e)))?;
 
                 let d0 = sq_meta_parsed.dim;
                 dim.get_or_insert(d0);
-                if let Some(dprev) = dim {
-                    if dprev != d0 {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
+                if let Some(dprev) = dim
+                    && dprev != d0
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index("Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string()));
                 }
 
                 if sq_meta.is_none() {
                     sq_meta = Some(sq_meta_parsed.clone());
                 }
                 if v2w_opt.is_none() {
-                    let w = init_writer_for_sq(object_store, &aux_out, dt, &sq_meta_parsed).await?;
+                    let w =
+                        init_writer_for_sq(object_store, &aux_out, dt, &sq_meta_parsed, fv).await?;
                     v2w_opt = Some(w);
                 }
             }
-            SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfPq => {
-                // Handle Product Quantization (PQ) storage
-                // Load PQ metadata JSON; construct ProductQuantizationMetadata
-                let pm_json = if let Some(pm_json) =
-                    reader.metadata().file_schema.metadata.get(PQ_METADATA_KEY)
+            SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfRq => {
+                let rq_json = if let Some(rq_json) = reader
+                    .metadata()
+                    .file_schema
+                    .metadata
+                    .get(RABIT_METADATA_KEY)
                 {
-                    pm_json.clone()
+                    rq_json.clone()
                 } else if let Some(storage_meta_json) = reader
                     .metadata()
                     .file_schema
                     .metadata
                     .get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY)
                 {
-                    // Try to extract PQ metadata from storage metadata
                     let storage_metadata_vec: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(storage_meta_json)
-                        .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                            message: format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e),
-                            location: location!(),
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            Error::index(format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e))
                         })?;
                     if let Some(first_meta) = storage_metadata_vec.first() {
-                        // Check if this is PQ metadata by trying to parse it
-                        if let Ok(_pq_meta) =
-                            serde_json::from_str::<ProductQuantizationMetadata>(first_meta)
+                        if let Ok(_rq_meta) =
+                            serde_json::from_str::<RabitQuantizationMetadata>(first_meta)
                         {
                             first_meta.clone()
                         } else {
-                            return Err(Error::Index {
-                                message: "PQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
+                            return Err(Error::index(
+                                "RQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                            ));
                         }
                     } else {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "PQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::index(
+                            "RQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                        ));
                     }
                 } else {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: "PQ metadata missing".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index("RQ metadata missing".to_string()));
                 };
-                let mut pm: ProductQuantizationMetadata =
-                    serde_json::from_str(&pm_json).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("PQ metadata parse error: {}", e),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-                // Load codebook from global buffer if not present
-                if pm.codebook.is_none() {
-                    let tensor_bytes = reader
-                        .read_global_buffer(pm.codebook_position as u32)
-                        .await?;
-                    let codebook_tensor: crate::pb::Tensor = prost::Message::decode(tensor_bytes)?;
-                    pm.codebook = Some(FixedSizeListArray::try_from(&codebook_tensor)?);
+                let mut rq_meta_parsed: RabitQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&rq_json)
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("RQ metadata parse error: {}", e)))?;
+                if rq_meta_parsed.rotation_type == crate::vector::bq::RQRotationType::Matrix
+                    && rq_meta_parsed.rotate_mat.is_none()
+                    && let Some(buf_idx) = rq_meta_parsed.buffer_index()
+                {
+                    let rotate_mat_bytes = reader.read_global_buffer(buf_idx).await?;
+                    rq_meta_parsed.parse_buffer(rotate_mat_bytes)?;
+                }
+                validate_rq_num_bits(rq_meta_parsed.num_bits)?;
+                if rq_meta_parsed.packed {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "Distributed RQ merge: source shard {idx} stores packed RQ codes; expected row-major distributed shard"
+                    )));
+                }
+
+                let d0 = rq_meta_parsed.rotated_dim();
+                if d0 == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "Invalid RQ metadata: rotated dimension is zero".to_string(),
+                    ));
                 }
-                let d0 = pm.dimension;
                 dim.get_or_insert(d0);
-                if let Some(dprev) = dim {
-                    if dprev != d0 {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                if let Some(dprev) = dim
+                    && dprev != d0
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index("Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string()));
+                }
+                if let Some(existing_rq) = rq_meta.as_ref()
+                    && (existing_rq.code_dim != rq_meta_parsed.code_dim
+                        || existing_rq.num_bits != rq_meta_parsed.num_bits
+                        || existing_rq.rotation_type != rq_meta_parsed.rotation_type
+                        || existing_rq.query_estimator != rq_meta_parsed.query_estimator
+                        || existing_rq.fast_rotation_signs != rq_meta_parsed.fast_rotation_signs)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "Distributed RQ merge: structural mismatch across shards; first(code_dim={}, num_bits={}, rotation_type={:?}), current(code_dim={}, num_bits={}, rotation_type={:?})",
+                        existing_rq.code_dim,
+                        existing_rq.num_bits,
+                        existing_rq.rotation_type,
+                        rq_meta_parsed.code_dim,
+                        rq_meta_parsed.num_bits,
+                        rq_meta_parsed.rotation_type
+                    )));
+                }
+                if let Some(existing_rq) = rq_meta.as_ref() {
+                    match (&existing_rq.rotate_mat, &rq_meta_parsed.rotate_mat) {
+                        (Some(reference), Some(candidate)) => {
+                            ensure_fixed_size_list_compatible(
+                                "RQ rotation matrix",
+                                reference,
+                                candidate,
+                            )?;
+                        }
+                        (Some(_), None) | (None, Some(_)) => {
+                            return Err(Error::index(
+                                "Distributed RQ merge: rotation matrix mismatch across shards"
+                                    .to_string(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        (None, None) => {}
                     }
                 }
-                if let Some(existing_pm) = pq_meta.as_ref() {
-                    // Enforce structural equality
+                if rq_meta.is_none() {
+                    rq_meta = Some(rq_meta_parsed.clone());
+                }
+                if v2w_opt.is_none() {
+                    let w =
+                        init_writer_for_rq(object_store, &aux_out, dt, &rq_meta_parsed, fv).await?;
+                    v2w_opt = Some(w);
+                }
+            }
+            SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfPq => {
+                // Handle Product Quantization (PQ) storage
+                // Load PQ metadata JSON; construct ProductQuantizationMetadata
+                let pm_json = if let Some(pm_json) =
+                    reader.metadata().file_schema.metadata.get(PQ_METADATA_KEY)
+                {
+                    pm_json.clone()
+                } else if let Some(storage_meta_json) = reader
+                    .metadata()
+                    .file_schema
+                    .metadata
+                    .get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY)
+                {
+                    // Try to extract PQ metadata from storage metadata
+                    let storage_metadata_vec: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(storage_meta_json)
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            Error::index(format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e))
+                        })?;
+                    if let Some(first_meta) = storage_metadata_vec.first() {
+                        // Check if this is PQ metadata by trying to parse it
+                        if let Ok(_pq_meta) =
+                            serde_json::from_str::<ProductQuantizationMetadata>(first_meta)
+                        {
+                            first_meta.clone()
+                        } else {
+                            return Err(Error::index(
+                                "PQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    } else {
+                        return Err(Error::index(
+                            "PQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    return Err(Error::index("PQ metadata missing".to_string()));
+                };
+                let mut pm: ProductQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&pm_json)
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("PQ metadata parse error: {}", e)))?;
+                if pm.transposed {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "Distributed PQ merge: source shard {idx} stores transposed PQ codes; expected row-major distributed shard"
+                    )));
+                }
+                // Load codebook from global buffer if not present
+                if pm.codebook.is_none() {
+                    let tensor_bytes = reader
+                        .read_global_buffer(pm.codebook_position as u32)
+                        .await?;
+                    let codebook_tensor: crate::pb::Tensor = prost::Message::decode(tensor_bytes)?;
+                    pm.codebook = Some(FixedSizeListArray::try_from(&codebook_tensor)?);
+                }
+                let d0 = pm.dimension;
+                dim.get_or_insert(d0);
+                if let Some(dprev) = dim
+                    && dprev != d0
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index("Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string()));
+                }
+                if let Some(existing_pm) = pq_meta.as_ref() {
+                    // Enforce structural equality
                     if existing_pm.num_sub_vectors != pm.num_sub_vectors
                         || existing_pm.nbits != pm.nbits
                         || existing_pm.dimension != pm.dimension
                     {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "Distributed PQ merge: structural mismatch across shards; first(dim={}, m={}, nbits={}), current(dim={}, m={}, nbits={})",
-                                existing_pm.dimension,
-                                existing_pm.num_sub_vectors,
-                                existing_pm.nbits,
-                                pm.dimension,
-                                pm.num_sub_vectors,
-                                pm.nbits
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                            "Distributed PQ merge: structural mismatch across shards; first(dim={}, m={}, nbits={}), current(dim={}, m={}, nbits={})",
+                            existing_pm.dimension,
+                            existing_pm.num_sub_vectors,
+                            existing_pm.nbits,
+                            pm.dimension,
+                            pm.num_sub_vectors,
+                            pm.nbits
+                        )));
                     }
                     // Enforce codebook equality with tolerance for minor serialization diffs
-                    let existing_cb =
-                        existing_pm.codebook.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                            message: "PQ codebook missing in first shard".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-                    let current_cb = pm.codebook.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: "PQ codebook missing in shard".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
+                    let existing_cb = existing_pm.codebook.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index("PQ codebook missing in first shard".to_string())
                     })?;
-                    if !fixed_size_list_equal(existing_cb, current_cb) {
-                        const TOL: f32 = 1e-5;
-                        if !fixed_size_list_almost_equal(existing_cb, current_cb, TOL) {
-                            return Err(Error::Index {
-                                message: "PQ codebook content mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
-                        } else {
-                            log::warn!("PQ codebook differs within tolerance; proceeding with first shard codebook");
-                        }
-                    }
+                    let current_cb = pm
+                        .codebook
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("PQ codebook missing in shard".to_string()))?;
+                    ensure_fixed_size_list_compatible(
+                        "PQ codebook content",
+                        existing_cb,
+                        current_cb,
+                    )?;
                 }
                 if pq_meta.is_none() {
                     pq_meta = Some(pm.clone());
@@ -869,7 +1305,8 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                 if v2w_opt.is_none() {
                     let mut pm_for_unified = pm.clone();
                     pm_for_unified.transposed = true;
-                    let w = init_writer_for_pq(object_store, &aux_out, dt, &pm_for_unified).await?;
+                    let w =
+                        init_writer_for_pq(object_store, &aux_out, dt, &pm_for_unified, fv).await?;
                     v2w_opt = Some(w);
                 }
             }
@@ -881,90 +1318,57 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                     .fields
                     .iter()
                     .find(|f| f.name() == crate::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN)
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: "FLAT column missing".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-                let d0 = match flat_field.data_type() {
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(_, sz) => *sz as usize,
-                    _ => 0,
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("FLAT column missing".to_string()))?;
+                let (d0, item_type) = match flat_field.data_type() {
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(item, sz) => (*sz as usize, item.data_type().clone()),
+                    _ => {
+                        return Err(Error::index(
+                            "FLAT column is not a FixedSizeList in shard schema".to_string(),
+                        ));
+                    }
                 };
                 dim.get_or_insert(d0);
-                if let Some(dprev) = dim {
-                    if dprev != d0 {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
+                if let Some(dprev) = dim
+                    && dprev != d0
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index("Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string()));
                 }
                 if v2w_opt.is_none() {
-                    let w = init_writer_for_flat(object_store, &aux_out, d0, dt).await?;
+                    let w = init_writer_for_flat(object_store, &aux_out, d0, &item_type, dt, fv)
+                        .await?;
                     v2w_opt = Some(w);
                 }
             }
             SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswFlat => {
-                // Treat HNSW_FLAT storage the same as FLAT: create schema with ROW_ID + flat vectors
-                // Determine dimension from shard schema (flat column) or fallback to STORAGE_METADATA_KEY
+                // Treat HNSW_FLAT storage the same as FLAT and preserve the actual flat item dtype.
                 let schema_arrow: ArrowSchema = reader.schema().as_ref().into();
-                // Try to find flat column and derive dim
-                let d0 = if let Some(flat_field) = schema_arrow
+                let Some(flat_field) = schema_arrow
                     .fields
                     .iter()
                     .find(|f| f.name() == crate::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN)
-                {
-                    match flat_field.data_type() {
-                        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, sz) => *sz as usize,
-                        _ => 0,
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    // Fallback to STORAGE_METADATA_KEY FlatMetadata
-                    if let Some(storage_meta_json) = reader
-                        .metadata()
-                        .file_schema
-                        .metadata
-                        .get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY)
-                    {
-                        let storage_metadata_vec: Vec<String> =
-                            serde_json::from_str(storage_meta_json).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                                message: format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            })?;
-                        if let Some(first_meta) = storage_metadata_vec.first() {
-                            if let Ok(flat_meta) = serde_json::from_str::<FlatMetadata>(first_meta)
-                            {
-                                flat_meta.dim
-                            } else {
-                                return Err(Error::Index {
-                                    message: "FLAT metadata missing in storage metadata"
-                                        .to_string(),
-                                    location: location!(),
-                                });
-                            }
-                        } else {
-                            return Err(Error::Index {
-                                message: "FLAT metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
-                        }
-                    } else {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "FLAT column missing and no storage metadata".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                else {
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "FLAT column missing from IVF_HNSW_FLAT shard schema".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                };
+                let (d0, item_type) = match flat_field.data_type() {
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(item, sz) => (*sz as usize, item.data_type().clone()),
+                    _ => {
+                        return Err(Error::index(
+                            "FLAT column is not a FixedSizeList in IVF_HNSW_FLAT shard schema"
+                                .to_string(),
+                        ));
                     }
                 };
                 dim.get_or_insert(d0);
-                if let Some(dprev) = dim {
-                    if dprev != d0 {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
+                if let Some(dprev) = dim
+                    && dprev != d0
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index("Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string()));
                 }
                 if v2w_opt.is_none() {
-                    let w = init_writer_for_flat(object_store, &aux_out, d0, dt).await?;
+                    let w = init_writer_for_flat(object_store, &aux_out, d0, &item_type, dt, fv)
+                        .await?;
                     v2w_opt = Some(w);
                 }
             }
@@ -981,9 +1385,8 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                     .get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY)
                 {
                     let storage_metadata_vec: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(storage_meta_json)
-                        .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                            message: format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e),
-                            location: location!(),
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            Error::index(format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e))
                         })?;
                     if let Some(first_meta) = storage_metadata_vec.first() {
                         if let Ok(_pq_meta) =
@@ -991,28 +1394,25 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                         {
                             first_meta.clone()
                         } else {
-                            return Err(Error::Index {
-                                message: "PQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
+                            return Err(Error::index(
+                                "PQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                            ));
                         }
                     } else {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "PQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::index(
+                            "PQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                        ));
                     }
                 } else {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: "PQ metadata missing".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index("PQ metadata missing".to_string()));
                 };
-                let mut pm: ProductQuantizationMetadata =
-                    serde_json::from_str(&pm_json).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("PQ metadata parse error: {}", e),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
+                let mut pm: ProductQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&pm_json)
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("PQ metadata parse error: {}", e)))?;
+                if pm.transposed {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "Distributed PQ merge: source shard {idx} stores transposed PQ codes; expected row-major distributed shard"
+                    )));
+                }
                 if pm.codebook.is_none() {
                     let tensor_bytes = reader
                         .read_global_buffer(pm.codebook_position as u32)
@@ -1022,13 +1422,10 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                 }
                 let d0 = pm.dimension;
                 dim.get_or_insert(d0);
-                if let Some(dprev) = dim {
-                    if dprev != d0 {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
+                if let Some(dprev) = dim
+                    && dprev != d0
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index("Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string()));
                 }
                 if let Some(existing_pm) = pq_meta.as_ref() {
                     // Enforce structural equality
@@ -1036,40 +1433,29 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                         || existing_pm.nbits != pm.nbits
                         || existing_pm.dimension != pm.dimension
                     {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "Distributed PQ merge (HNSW_PQ): structural mismatch across shards; first(dim={}, m={}, nbits={}), current(dim={}, m={}, nbits={})",
-                                existing_pm.dimension,
-                                existing_pm.num_sub_vectors,
-                                existing_pm.nbits,
-                                pm.dimension,
-                                pm.num_sub_vectors,
-                                pm.nbits
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                            "Distributed PQ merge (HNSW_PQ): structural mismatch across shards; first(dim={}, m={}, nbits={}), current(dim={}, m={}, nbits={})",
+                            existing_pm.dimension,
+                            existing_pm.num_sub_vectors,
+                            existing_pm.nbits,
+                            pm.dimension,
+                            pm.num_sub_vectors,
+                            pm.nbits
+                        )));
                     }
                     // Enforce codebook equality with tolerance for minor serialization diffs
-                    let existing_cb =
-                        existing_pm.codebook.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                            message: "PQ codebook missing in first shard".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-                    let current_cb = pm.codebook.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: "PQ codebook missing in shard".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
+                    let existing_cb = existing_pm.codebook.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index("PQ codebook missing in first shard".to_string())
                     })?;
-                    if !fixed_size_list_equal(existing_cb, current_cb) {
-                        const TOL: f32 = 1e-5;
-                        if !fixed_size_list_almost_equal(existing_cb, current_cb, TOL) {
-                            return Err(Error::Index {
-                                message: "PQ codebook content mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
-                        } else {
-                            log::warn!("PQ codebook differs within tolerance; proceeding with first shard codebook");
-                        }
-                    }
+                    let current_cb = pm
+                        .codebook
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("PQ codebook missing in shard".to_string()))?;
+                    ensure_fixed_size_list_compatible(
+                        "PQ codebook content",
+                        existing_cb,
+                        current_cb,
+                    )?;
                 }
                 if pq_meta.is_none() {
                     pq_meta = Some(pm.clone());
@@ -1077,7 +1463,8 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                 if v2w_opt.is_none() {
                     let mut pm_for_unified = pm.clone();
                     pm_for_unified.transposed = true;
-                    let w = init_writer_for_pq(object_store, &aux_out, dt, &pm_for_unified).await?;
+                    let w =
+                        init_writer_for_pq(object_store, &aux_out, dt, &pm_for_unified, fv).await?;
                     v2w_opt = Some(w);
                 }
             }
@@ -1094,9 +1481,8 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                     .get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY)
                 {
                     let storage_metadata_vec: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(storage_meta_json)
-                        .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                            message: format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e),
-                            location: location!(),
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            Error::index(format!("Failed to parse storage metadata: {}", e))
                         })?;
                     if let Some(first_meta) = storage_metadata_vec.first() {
                         if let Ok(_sq_meta) =
@@ -1104,188 +1490,259 @@ pub async fn merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
                         {
                             first_meta.clone()
                         } else {
-                            return Err(Error::Index {
-                                message: "SQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
+                            return Err(Error::index(
+                                "SQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                            ));
                         }
                     } else {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "SQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::index(
+                            "SQ metadata missing in storage metadata".to_string(),
+                        ));
                     }
                 } else {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: "SQ metadata missing".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index("SQ metadata missing".to_string()));
                 };
                 let sq_meta_parsed: ScalarQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&sq_json)
-                    .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("SQ metadata parse error: {}", e),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("SQ metadata parse error: {}", e)))?;
                 let d0 = sq_meta_parsed.dim;
                 dim.get_or_insert(d0);
-                if let Some(dprev) = dim {
-                    if dprev != d0 {
-                        return Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: "Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
+                if let Some(dprev) = dim
+                    && dprev != d0
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index("Dimension mismatch across shards".to_string()));
                 }
                 if sq_meta.is_none() {
                     sq_meta = Some(sq_meta_parsed.clone());
                 }
                 if v2w_opt.is_none() {
-                    let w = init_writer_for_sq(object_store, &aux_out, dt, &sq_meta_parsed).await?;
+                    let w =
+                        init_writer_for_sq(object_store, &aux_out, dt, &sq_meta_parsed, fv).await?;
                     v2w_opt = Some(w);
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        // Collect per-shard lengths to write grouped by partition later
-        shard_infos.push((aux.clone(), lengths.clone(), key.clone()));
-        // Accumulate overall lengths per partition for unified IVF model
+        let mut partition_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(nlist);
+        let mut running_offset = 0usize;
+        for len in &lengths {
+            partition_offsets.push(running_offset);
+            running_offset = running_offset.saturating_add(*len as usize);
+        }
+
+        // Accumulate overall lengths per partition for unified IVF model.
         for pid in 0..nlist {
             let part_len = lengths[pid];
             accumulated_lengths[pid] = accumulated_lengths[pid].saturating_add(part_len);
         }
-    }
 
-    // Re-sort shard_infos using content-derived keys to decouple per-partition
-    // write ordering from discovery order.
-    shard_infos.sort_by(|a, b| a.2.cmp(&b.2));
+        // Keep one opened reader per shard and reuse it during partition merge.
+        shard_infos.push(ShardInfo {
+            reader: Arc::new(reader),
+            lengths,
+            partition_offsets,
+            total_rows: running_offset,
+            row_filter: row_filters.map(|filters| Arc::new(filters[idx].clone())),
+        });
+        progress
+            .stage_progress("read_shard_metadata", idx as u64 + 1)
+            .await?;
+    }
+    progress.stage_complete("read_shard_metadata").await?;
 
     // Write rows grouped by partition across all shards to ensure contiguous ranges per partition
 
     if v2w_opt.is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Failed to initialize unified writer".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "Failed to initialize unified writer".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
-    let nlist = nlist_opt.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-        message: "Missing IVF partition count".to_string(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
-    let idx_type_final = detected_index_type.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-        message: "Unable to detect index type".to_string(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
+    let nlist = nlist_opt.ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Missing IVF partition count".to_string()))?;
+    let idx_type_final = detected_index_type
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Unable to detect index type".to_string()))?;
+
+    let total_rows = accumulated_lengths
+        .iter()
+        .map(|length| *length as u64)
+        .sum::<u64>();
+    progress
+        .stage_start("merge_partitions", Some(total_rows), "rows")
+        .await?;
+    let mut merged_rows = 0u64;
+    let mut merged_lengths = vec![0u32; nlist];
 
     match idx_type_final {
         SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfPq | SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswPq => {
             // For PQ-backed indices, transpose PQ codes while merging partitions
             // so that the unified file stores column-major PQ codes.
-            for pid in 0..nlist {
-                let total_len = accumulated_lengths[pid] as usize;
-                if total_len == 0 {
+            let partition_window_size = *PARTITION_WINDOW_SIZE;
+            let prefetch_window_count = *PARTITION_PREFETCH_WINDOW_COUNT;
+            let mut shard_merge_reader = ShardMergeReader::new(
+                shard_infos,
+                nlist,
+                partition_window_size,
+                prefetch_window_count,
+            );
+
+            while let Some((pid, batches)) = shard_merge_reader.next_partition().await? {
+                let partition_len = batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>();
+                if partition_len == 0 {
                     continue;
                 }
 
-                let mut part_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = Vec::new();
-                for (path, lens, _) in shard_infos.iter() {
-                    let part_len = lens[pid] as usize;
-                    if part_len == 0 {
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    let offset: usize = lens.iter().take(pid).map(|x| *x as usize).sum();
-                    let fh = sched.open_file(path, &CachedFileSize::unknown()).await?;
-                    let reader = V2Reader::try_open(
-                        fh,
-                        None,
-                        Arc::default(),
-                        &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
-                        V2ReaderOptions::default(),
-                    )
-                    .await?;
-                    let mut stream = reader.read_stream(
-                        lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(offset..offset + part_len),
-                        u32::MAX,
-                        4,
-                        lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                    )?;
-                    while let Some(rb) = stream.next().await {
-                        let rb = rb?;
-                        part_batches.push(rb);
-                    }
+                let schema = batches[0].schema();
+                let partition_batch = concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?;
+                if let Some(w) = v2w_opt.as_mut() {
+                    write_partition_rows_pq_transposed(w, partition_batch).await?;
                 }
+                merged_lengths[pid] = u32::try_from(partition_len).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::index(format!("Merged partition {pid} exceeds u32 row capacity"))
+                })?;
+                merged_rows = merged_rows.saturating_add(partition_len as u64);
+                progress
+                    .stage_progress("merge_partitions", merged_rows)
+                    .await?;
+            }
+        }
+        SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfRq => {
+            let partition_window_size = *PARTITION_WINDOW_SIZE;
+            let prefetch_window_count = *PARTITION_PREFETCH_WINDOW_COUNT;
+            let mut shard_merge_reader = ShardMergeReader::new(
+                shard_infos,
+                nlist,
+                partition_window_size,
+                prefetch_window_count,
+            );
 
-                if part_batches.is_empty() {
+            while let Some((pid, batches)) = shard_merge_reader.next_partition().await? {
+                let partition_len = batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>();
+                if partition_len == 0 {
                     continue;
                 }
 
-                let schema = part_batches[0].schema();
-                let partition_batch = concat_batches(&schema, part_batches.iter())?;
+                // Shards written by older lance versions carry sequential ex
+                // codes; normalize every batch to the blocked layout before
+                // concatenation so mixed-version shards merge correctly
+                // (concat_batches combines columns by position and would
+                // otherwise mix the two layouts silently).
+                let batches = match rq_meta.as_ref() {
+                    Some(meta) if meta.num_bits > 1 => batches
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|batch| {
+                            crate::vector::bq::storage::load_blocked_ex_codes(
+                                batch,
+                                meta.rotated_dim(),
+                                meta.num_bits,
+                            )
+                            .map(|(batch, _)| batch)
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                    _ => batches,
+                };
+                let schema = batches[0].schema();
+                let partition_batch = concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?;
                 if let Some(w) = v2w_opt.as_mut() {
-                    write_partition_rows_pq_transposed(w, partition_batch).await?;
+                    write_partition_rows_rq_packed(w, partition_batch).await?;
                 }
+                merged_lengths[pid] = u32::try_from(partition_len).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::index(format!("Merged partition {pid} exceeds u32 row capacity"))
+                })?;
+                merged_rows = merged_rows.saturating_add(partition_len as u64);
+                progress
+                    .stage_progress("merge_partitions", merged_rows)
+                    .await?;
             }
         }
         _ => {
-            for pid in 0..nlist {
-                for (path, lens, _) in shard_infos.iter() {
-                    let part_len = lens[pid] as usize;
-                    if part_len == 0 {
+            // FLAT, SQ, and their HNSW variants do not need whole-partition
+            // transforms. Stream one shard partition at a time so filtering
+            // never materializes a multi-partition window in memory.
+            for (pid, merged_length) in merged_lengths.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                let mut partition_len = 0usize;
+                for shard in &shard_infos {
+                    let source_len = shard.lengths[pid] as usize;
+                    if source_len == 0 {
                         continue;
                     }
-                    let offset: usize = lens.iter().take(pid).map(|x| *x as usize).sum();
-                    let fh = sched.open_file(path, &CachedFileSize::unknown()).await?;
-                    let reader = V2Reader::try_open(
-                        fh,
-                        None,
-                        Arc::default(),
-                        &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
-                        V2ReaderOptions::default(),
-                    )
-                    .await?;
-                    if let Some(w) = v2w_opt.as_mut() {
-                        write_partition_rows(&reader, w, offset..offset + part_len).await?;
-                    }
+                    let offset = shard.partition_offsets[pid];
+                    let writer = v2w_opt.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index("Failed to initialize unified writer".to_string())
+                    })?;
+                    let written = if let Some(row_filter) = shard.row_filter.as_deref() {
+                        write_filtered_partition_rows(
+                            shard.reader.as_ref(),
+                            writer,
+                            offset..offset + source_len,
+                            row_filter,
+                        )
+                        .await?
+                    } else {
+                        write_partition_rows(
+                            shard.reader.as_ref(),
+                            writer,
+                            offset..offset + source_len,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        source_len
+                    };
+                    partition_len = partition_len.checked_add(written).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index(format!("Merged partition {pid} exceeds usize row capacity"))
+                    })?;
+                }
+                if partition_len == 0 {
+                    continue;
                 }
+                *merged_length = u32::try_from(partition_len).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::index(format!("Merged partition {pid} exceeds u32 row capacity"))
+                })?;
+                merged_rows = merged_rows.saturating_add(partition_len as u64);
+                progress
+                    .stage_progress("merge_partitions", merged_rows)
+                    .await?;
             }
         }
     }
+    progress.stage_complete("merge_partitions").await?;
 
     // Write unified IVF metadata into global buffer & set schema metadata
     if let Some(w) = v2w_opt.as_mut() {
+        progress
+            .stage_start("write_auxiliary_index", Some(1), "files")
+            .await?;
         let mut ivf_model = if let Some(c) = first_centroids {
             IvfStorageModel::new(c, None)
         } else {
             IvfStorageModel::empty()
         };
-        for len in accumulated_lengths.iter() {
+        for len in merged_lengths.iter() {
             ivf_model.add_partition(*len);
         }
-        let dt2 = distance_type.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: "Distance type missing".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let dt2 = distance_type.ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Distance type missing".to_string()))?;
         write_unified_ivf_and_index_metadata(w, &ivf_model, dt2, idx_type_final).await?;
-        w.finish().await?;
+        let summary = w.finish().await?;
+        progress.stage_progress("write_auxiliary_index", 1).await?;
+        progress.stage_complete("write_auxiliary_index").await?;
+        Ok(lance_table::format::IndexFile {
+            path: INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+            size_bytes: summary.size_bytes,
+        })
     } else {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Failed to initialize unified writer".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        Err(Error::index(
+            "Failed to initialize unified writer".to_string(),
+        ))
     }
-
-    Ok(())
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
-    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, UInt8Array};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Float64Array, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt64Array,
+    };
     use arrow_schema::Field;
     use bytes::Bytes;
     use futures::StreamExt;
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-    use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
     use lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD;
     use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions as V2WriterOptions;
     use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
@@ -1295,6 +1752,40 @@ mod tests {
     use object_store::path::Path;
     use prost::Message;
 
+    use crate::vector::bq::RQRotationType;
+    use crate::vector::bq::storage::{RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN, RabitQueryEstimator};
+    use crate::vector::bq::transform::{EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN};
+    lance_testing::define_stage_event_progress!(
+        RecordingProgress,
+        IndexBuildProgress,
+        lance_core::Result<()>
+    );
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_uint8_fixed_size_list_compatibility() {
+        let values = (0_u8..16).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let reference =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(values.clone()), 8).unwrap();
+        let matching =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(values.clone()), 8).unwrap();
+
+        ensure_fixed_size_list_compatible("IVF centroids", &reference, &matching).unwrap();
+
+        let mut differing_values = values;
+        differing_values[15] = 16;
+        let differing =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(differing_values), 8).unwrap();
+        let error =
+            ensure_fixed_size_list_compatible("IVF centroids", &reference, &differing).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::Index { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("IVF centroids mismatch across shards")
+        );
+    }
+
     async fn write_flat_partial_aux(
         store: &ObjectStore,
         aux_path: &Path,
@@ -1302,6 +1793,7 @@ mod tests {
         lengths: &[u32],
         base_row_id: u64,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
+        file_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
     ) -> Result<usize> {
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
             (*ROW_ID_FIELD).clone(),
@@ -1313,7 +1805,8 @@ mod tests {
         ]);
 
         let writer = store.create(aux_path).await?;
-        let mut v2w = V2Writer::try_new(
+        let mut v2w = versions::create_writer(
+            file_version,
             writer,
             lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema)?,
             V2WriterOptions::default(),
@@ -1365,32 +1858,189 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(total_rows)
     }
 
+    async fn write_flat_partial_aux_f64(
+        store: &ObjectStore,
+        aux_path: &Path,
+        dim: i32,
+        lengths: &[u32],
+        base_row_id: u64,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            (*ROW_ID_FIELD).clone(),
+            Field::new(
+                crate::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN,
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float64, true)), dim),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let writer = store.create(aux_path).await?;
+        let mut v2w = versions::v2_1::create_writer(
+            writer,
+            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema)?,
+            V2WriterOptions::default(),
+        )?;
+        v2w.add_schema_metadata(DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY, distance_type.to_string());
+
+        let ivf_meta = pb::Ivf {
+            centroids: Vec::new(),
+            offsets: Vec::new(),
+            lengths: lengths.to_vec(),
+            centroids_tensor: None,
+            loss: None,
+        };
+        let buf = Bytes::from(ivf_meta.encode_to_vec());
+        let pos = v2w.add_global_buffer(buf).await?;
+        v2w.add_schema_metadata(IVF_METADATA_KEY, pos.to_string());
+
+        let total_rows: usize = lengths.iter().map(|v| *v as usize).sum();
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows);
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows * dim as usize);
+
+        let mut current_row_id = base_row_id;
+        for (pid, len) in lengths.iter().enumerate() {
+            for _ in 0..*len {
+                row_ids.push(current_row_id);
+                current_row_id += 1;
+                for d in 0..dim {
+                    values.push(pid as f64 + d as f64 * 0.01);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let row_id_arr = UInt64Array::from(row_ids);
+        let value_arr = Float64Array::from(values);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(value_arr, dim).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(arrow_schema),
+            vec![Arc::new(row_id_arr), Arc::new(fsl)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        v2w.write_batch(&batch).await?;
+        v2w.finish().await?;
+        Ok(total_rows)
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_merge_ivf_flat_success_basic() {
         let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
         let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid");
 
-        let partial0 = index_dir.child("partial_0");
-        let partial1 = index_dir.child("partial_1");
-        let aux0 = partial0.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let aux1 = partial1.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let partial0 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_0");
+        let partial1 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_1");
+        let aux0 = partial0.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux1 = partial1.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
 
         let lengths0 = vec![2_u32, 1_u32];
         let lengths1 = vec![1_u32, 2_u32];
         let dim = 2_i32;
 
-        write_flat_partial_aux(&object_store, &aux0, dim, &lengths0, 0, DistanceType::L2)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        write_flat_partial_aux(&object_store, &aux1, dim, &lengths1, 100, DistanceType::L2)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        write_flat_partial_aux(
+            &object_store,
+            &aux0,
+            dim,
+            &lengths0,
+            0,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        write_flat_partial_aux(
+            &object_store,
+            &aux1,
+            dim,
+            &lengths1,
+            100,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(&object_store, &index_dir)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            &[aux0.clone(), aux1.clone()],
+            &index_dir,
+            progress.clone(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let events = progress.recorded_events();
+        let tags = events
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(kind, stage, _)| format!("{kind}:{stage}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let merge_total = events
+            .iter()
+            .find_map(|(kind, stage, value)| {
+                if kind == "start" && stage == "merge_partitions" {
+                    Some(*value)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            })
+            .expect("missing merge_partitions start total");
+        let merged_rows = events
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|(kind, stage, value)| {
+                if kind == "progress" && stage == "merge_partitions" {
+                    Some(*value)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            })
+            .next_back()
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let read_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:read_shard_metadata")
+            .expect("missing read_shard_metadata start");
+        let read_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:read_shard_metadata")
+            .expect("missing read_shard_metadata complete");
+        let merge_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:merge_partitions")
+            .expect("missing merge_partitions start");
+        let merge_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:merge_partitions")
+            .expect("missing merge_partitions complete");
+        let write_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:write_auxiliary_index")
+            .expect("missing write_auxiliary_index start");
+        let write_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:write_auxiliary_index")
+            .expect("missing write_auxiliary_index complete");
+        assert!(read_start < read_complete);
+        assert!(read_complete < merge_start);
+        assert!(merge_start < merge_complete);
+        assert!(merge_complete < write_start);
+        assert!(write_start < write_complete);
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:read_shard_metadata"),
+            "expected read_shard_metadata progress callbacks"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:merge_partitions"),
+            "expected merge_partitions progress callbacks"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(merge_total, 6, "expected merge_partitions total rows");
+        assert_eq!(merged_rows, 6, "expected merge_partitions completed rows");
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:write_auxiliary_index"),
+            "expected write_auxiliary_index progress callbacks"
+        );
 
-        let aux_out = index_dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux_out = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
         assert!(object_store.exists(&aux_out).await.unwrap());
 
         // Use ScanScheduler to obtain a FileScheduler (required by V2Reader::try_open)
@@ -1412,6 +2062,7 @@ mod tests {
         .await
         .unwrap();
         let meta = reader.metadata();
+        assert_eq!(meta.version(), ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2);
 
         // Validate IVF lengths aggregation.
         let ivf_idx: u32 = meta
@@ -1449,6 +2100,7 @@ mod tests {
                 4,
                 lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await
             .unwrap();
         while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
             total_rows += batch.unwrap().num_rows();
@@ -1458,34 +2110,138 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_distance_type_mismatch() {
+    async fn test_merge_ivf_flat_filters_each_source_by_ownership() {
         let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
         let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid");
+        let aux0 = index_dir
+            .clone()
+            .join("stale")
+            .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux1 = index_dir
+            .clone()
+            .join("fresh")
+            .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let lengths = vec![2_u32, 1_u32];
 
-        let partial0 = index_dir.child("partial_0");
-        let partial1 = index_dir.child("partial_1");
-        let aux0 = partial0.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let aux1 = partial1.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-
-        let lengths = vec![2_u32, 2_u32];
-        let dim = 2_i32;
-
-        write_flat_partial_aux(&object_store, &aux0, dim, &lengths, 0, DistanceType::L2)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        write_flat_partial_aux(
+            &object_store,
+            &aux0,
+            2,
+            &lengths,
+            0,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
         write_flat_partial_aux(
             &object_store,
             &aux1,
-            dim,
+            2,
             &lengths,
             100,
-            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let res = merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(&object_store, &index_dir).await;
-        match res {
+        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files_with_row_filters(
+            &object_store,
+            &[aux0, aux1],
+            &index_dir,
+            &[
+                OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                    to_keep: roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                    to_remove: roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                },
+                OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(100_u64..103)),
+            ],
+            Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let aux_out = index_dir.join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let sched = ScanScheduler::new(
+            Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
+            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
+        );
+        let reader = V2Reader::try_open(
+            sched
+                .open_file(&aux_out, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            None,
+            Arc::default(),
+            &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            V2ReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let merged_ivf = try_read_ivf_proto(&reader).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(merged_ivf.lengths, lengths);
+
+        let mut total_rows = 0;
+        let mut stream = reader
+            .read_stream(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                u32::MAX,
+                4,
+                lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
+            total_rows += batch.unwrap().num_rows();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 3, "stale source rows must not be copied");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_distance_type_mismatch() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid");
+
+        let partial0 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_0");
+        let partial1 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_1");
+        let aux0 = partial0.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux1 = partial1.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+
+        let lengths = vec![2_u32, 2_u32];
+        let dim = 2_i32;
+
+        write_flat_partial_aux(
+            &object_store,
+            &aux0,
+            dim,
+            &lengths,
+            0,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        write_flat_partial_aux(
+            &object_store,
+            &aux1,
+            dim,
+            &lengths,
+            100,
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let res = merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            &[aux0.clone(), aux1.clone()],
+            &index_dir,
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await;
+        match res {
             Err(Error::Index { message, .. }) => {
                 assert!(
                     message.contains("Distance type mismatch"),
@@ -1500,6 +2256,64 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_ivf_flat_preserves_float64_schema() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let index_dir = Path::from("index/float64_uuid");
+
+        let partial0 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_0");
+        let partial1 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_1");
+        let aux0 = partial0.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux1 = partial1.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+
+        let lengths = vec![2_u32, 2_u32];
+        let dim = 3_i32;
+
+        write_flat_partial_aux_f64(&object_store, &aux0, dim, &lengths, 0, DistanceType::L2)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        write_flat_partial_aux_f64(&object_store, &aux1, dim, &lengths, 100, DistanceType::L2)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            &[aux0.clone(), aux1.clone()],
+            &index_dir,
+            Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let aux_out = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let sched = ScanScheduler::new(
+            Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
+            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
+        );
+        let fh = sched
+            .open_file(&aux_out, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = V2Reader::try_open(
+            fh,
+            None,
+            Arc::default(),
+            &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            V2ReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let flat_field = reader
+            .schema()
+            .field(crate::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap();
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _) = flat_field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("flat column should be a fixed size list");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(item.data_type(), &DataType::Float64);
+    }
+
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     async fn write_pq_partial_aux(
         store: &ObjectStore,
@@ -1511,6 +2325,7 @@ mod tests {
         base_row_id: u64,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         codebook: &FixedSizeListArray,
+        transposed: bool,
     ) -> Result<usize> {
         let num_bytes = if nbits == 4 {
             // Two 4-bit codes per byte.
@@ -1532,7 +2347,7 @@ mod tests {
         ]);
 
         let writer = store.create(aux_path).await?;
-        let mut v2w = V2Writer::try_new(
+        let mut v2w = versions::v2_1::create_writer(
             writer,
             lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema)?,
             V2WriterOptions::default(),
@@ -1549,7 +2364,7 @@ mod tests {
             dimension,
             codebook: Some(codebook.clone()),
             codebook_tensor: Vec::new(),
-            transposed: true,
+            transposed,
         };
 
         let codebook_tensor: pb::Tensor = pb::Tensor::try_from(codebook)?;
@@ -1604,15 +2419,135 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(total_rows)
     }
 
+    async fn write_rq_partial_aux(
+        store: &ObjectStore,
+        aux_path: &Path,
+        metadata: &RabitQuantizationMetadata,
+        lengths: &[u32],
+        base_row_id: u64,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let num_bytes = (metadata.code_dim as usize).div_ceil(u8::BITS as usize);
+        let ex_code_field = rabit_ex_code_field(metadata.code_dim as usize, metadata.num_bits)?;
+        let ex_code_bytes = ex_code_field.as_ref().map(|field| {
+            let DataType::FixedSizeList(_, num_bytes) = field.data_type() else {
+                panic!("RQ ex-code field should be FixedSizeList");
+            };
+            *num_bytes as usize
+        });
+        let mut fields = vec![
+            (*ROW_ID_FIELD).clone(),
+            Field::new(
+                RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                    num_bytes as i32,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(),
+            SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone(),
+        ];
+        if metadata.query_estimator == RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery {
+            fields.push(ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(field) = ex_code_field {
+            fields.push(field);
+            fields.push(EX_ADD_FACTORS_FIELD.clone());
+            fields.push(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_FIELD.clone());
+        }
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(fields);
+
+        let writer = store.create(aux_path).await?;
+        let mut v2w = versions::v2_1::create_writer(
+            writer,
+            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema)?,
+            V2WriterOptions::default(),
+        )?;
+        v2w.add_schema_metadata(DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY, distance_type.to_string());
+
+        let rq_meta_json = serde_json::to_string(metadata)?;
+        v2w.add_schema_metadata(RABIT_METADATA_KEY, rq_meta_json);
+
+        let ivf_meta = pb::Ivf {
+            centroids: Vec::new(),
+            offsets: Vec::new(),
+            lengths: lengths.to_vec(),
+            centroids_tensor: None,
+            loss: None,
+        };
+        let buf = Bytes::from(ivf_meta.encode_to_vec());
+        let ivf_pos = v2w.add_global_buffer(buf).await?;
+        v2w.add_schema_metadata(IVF_METADATA_KEY, ivf_pos.to_string());
+
+        let total_rows: usize = lengths.iter().map(|v| *v as usize).sum();
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows);
+        let mut codes = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows * num_bytes);
+        let mut add_factors = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows);
+        let mut scale_factors = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows);
+        let mut error_factors = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows);
+        let mut ex_codes =
+            ex_code_bytes.map(|num_bytes| Vec::with_capacity(total_rows * num_bytes));
+        let mut ex_add_factors = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows);
+        let mut ex_scale_factors = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows);
+
+        let mut current_row_id = base_row_id;
+        for (pid, len) in lengths.iter().enumerate() {
+            for row_offset in 0..*len as usize {
+                row_ids.push(current_row_id);
+                current_row_id += 1;
+                for b in 0..num_bytes {
+                    codes.push((pid + row_offset + b) as u8);
+                }
+                add_factors.push(pid as f32 + row_offset as f32 * 0.1);
+                scale_factors.push(pid as f32 + row_offset as f32 * 0.2);
+                error_factors.push(pid as f32 + row_offset as f32 * 0.3);
+                if let (Some(ex_codes), Some(ex_code_bytes)) = (ex_codes.as_mut(), ex_code_bytes) {
+                    for b in 0..ex_code_bytes {
+                        ex_codes.push((17 + pid + row_offset + b) as u8);
+                    }
+                    ex_add_factors.push(pid as f32 + 10.0 + row_offset as f32 * 0.2);
+                    ex_scale_factors.push(pid as f32 + 1.0 + row_offset as f32 * 0.2);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut columns: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                UInt8Array::from(codes),
+                num_bytes as i32,
+            )?),
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(add_factors)),
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(scale_factors)),
+        ];
+        if metadata.query_estimator == RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery {
+            columns.push(Arc::new(Float32Array::from(error_factors)));
+        }
+        if let (Some(ex_codes), Some(ex_code_bytes)) = (ex_codes, ex_code_bytes) {
+            columns.push(Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                UInt8Array::from(ex_codes),
+                ex_code_bytes as i32,
+            )?));
+            columns.push(Arc::new(Float32Array::from(ex_add_factors)));
+            columns.push(Arc::new(Float32Array::from(ex_scale_factors)));
+        }
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(arrow_schema), columns)?;
+
+        v2w.write_batch(&batch).await?;
+        v2w.finish().await?;
+        Ok(total_rows)
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_merge_ivf_pq_success() {
         let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
         let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_pq");
 
-        let partial0 = index_dir.child("partial_0");
-        let partial1 = index_dir.child("partial_1");
-        let aux0 = partial0.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let aux1 = partial1.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let partial0 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_0");
+        let partial1 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_1");
+        let aux0 = partial0.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux1 = partial1.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
 
         let lengths0 = vec![2_u32, 1_u32];
         let lengths1 = vec![1_u32, 2_u32];
@@ -1640,6 +2575,7 @@ mod tests {
             0,
             DistanceType::L2,
             &codebook,
+            false,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
@@ -1654,17 +2590,23 @@ mod tests {
             1_000,
             DistanceType::L2,
             &codebook,
+            false,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
         // Merge PQ auxiliary files.
-        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(&object_store, &index_dir)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            &[aux0.clone(), aux1.clone()],
+            &index_dir,
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
         // 3) Unified auxiliary file exists.
-        let aux_out = index_dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux_out = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
         assert!(object_store.exists(&aux_out).await.unwrap());
 
         // Open merged auxiliary file.
@@ -1730,149 +2672,314 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_ivf_pq_codebook_mismatch() {
+    async fn test_merge_ivf_pq_rejects_transposed_source_shard() {
         let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
-        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_pq_mismatch");
+        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_pq_transposed");
 
-        let partial0 = index_dir.child("partial_0");
-        let partial1 = index_dir.child("partial_1");
-        let aux0 = partial0.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let aux1 = partial1.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let partial0 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_0");
+        let aux0 = partial0.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let lengths = vec![2_u32, 1_u32];
 
-        let lengths0 = vec![2_u32, 1_u32];
-        let lengths1 = vec![1_u32, 2_u32];
-
-        // PQ parameters.
         let nbits = 4_u32;
         let num_sub_vectors = 2_usize;
         let dimension = 8_usize;
-
-        // Base PQ codebook for shard 0.
         let num_centroids = 1_usize << nbits;
         let num_codebook_vectors = num_centroids * num_sub_vectors;
         let total_values = num_codebook_vectors * dimension;
-        let values0 = Float32Array::from_iter((0..total_values).map(|v| v as f32));
-        let codebook0 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values0, dimension as i32).unwrap();
-
-        // Different PQ codebook for shard 1 with values shifted beyond tolerance.
-        let values1 = Float32Array::from_iter((0..total_values).map(|v| v as f32 + 1.0));
-        let codebook1 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values1, dimension as i32).unwrap();
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..total_values).map(|v| v as f32));
+        let codebook = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension as i32).unwrap();
 
-        // Non-overlapping row id ranges across shards.
         write_pq_partial_aux(
             &object_store,
             &aux0,
             nbits,
             num_sub_vectors,
             dimension,
-            &lengths0,
+            &lengths,
             0,
             DistanceType::L2,
-            &codebook0,
+            &codebook,
+            true,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        write_pq_partial_aux(
+        let res = merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            std::slice::from_ref(&aux0),
+            &index_dir,
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await;
+        match res {
+            Err(Error::Index { message, .. }) => {
+                assert!(
+                    message.contains("source shard 0"),
+                    "unexpected message: {}",
+                    message
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    message.contains("transposed PQ codes"),
+                    "unexpected message: {}",
+                    message
+                );
+            }
+            other => panic!(
+                "expected Error::Index for transposed PQ source shard, got {:?}",
+                other
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_ivf_rq_success() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_rq");
+
+        let partial0 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_0");
+        let partial1 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_1");
+        let aux0 = partial0.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux1 = partial1.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+
+        let lengths0 = vec![2_u32, 1_u32];
+        let lengths1 = vec![1_u32, 2_u32];
+
+        let rq_meta = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: None,
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: Some(vec![0xAA; 2]),
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Fast,
+            code_dim: 16,
+            num_bits: 1,
+            packed: false,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
+
+        write_rq_partial_aux(
+            &object_store,
+            &aux0,
+            &rq_meta,
+            &lengths0,
+            0,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        write_rq_partial_aux(
             &object_store,
             &aux1,
-            nbits,
-            num_sub_vectors,
-            dimension,
+            &rq_meta,
             &lengths1,
             1_000,
             DistanceType::L2,
-            &codebook1,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let res = merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(&object_store, &index_dir).await;
+        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            &[aux0.clone(), aux1.clone()],
+            &index_dir,
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let aux_out = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        assert!(object_store.exists(&aux_out).await.unwrap());
+
+        let sched = ScanScheduler::new(
+            Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
+            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
+        );
+        let fh = sched
+            .open_file(&aux_out, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = V2Reader::try_open(
+            fh,
+            None,
+            Arc::default(),
+            &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            V2ReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let meta = reader.metadata();
+
+        let ivf_idx: u32 = meta
+            .file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .get(IVF_METADATA_KEY)
+            .unwrap()
+            .parse()
+            .unwrap();
+        let bytes = reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_idx).await.unwrap();
+        let pb_ivf: pb::Ivf = prost::Message::decode(bytes).unwrap();
+        let expected_lengths: Vec<u32> = lengths0
+            .iter()
+            .zip(lengths1.iter())
+            .map(|(a, b)| *a + *b)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(pb_ivf.lengths, expected_lengths);
+
+        let idx_meta_json = meta
+            .file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
+            .unwrap();
+        let idx_meta: IndexMetaSchema = serde_json::from_str(idx_meta_json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(idx_meta.index_type, "IVF_RQ");
+        assert_eq!(idx_meta.distance_type, DistanceType::L2.to_string());
+
+        let rq_meta_json = meta.file_schema.metadata.get(RABIT_METADATA_KEY).unwrap();
+        let merged_rq_meta: RabitQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(rq_meta_json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(merged_rq_meta.code_dim, rq_meta.code_dim);
+        assert_eq!(merged_rq_meta.num_bits, rq_meta.num_bits);
+        assert!(merged_rq_meta.packed);
+
+        let mut total_rows = 0usize;
+        let mut checked_code_width = false;
+        let mut stream = reader
+            .read_stream(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                u32::MAX,
+                4,
+                lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
+            let batch = batch.unwrap();
+            if !checked_code_width {
+                let schema = batch.schema();
+                let code_field = schema.field_with_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN).unwrap();
+                let DataType::FixedSizeList(_, code_bytes) = code_field.data_type() else {
+                    panic!("RQ code field should be FixedSizeList");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(*code_bytes, rq_meta.binary_code_bytes() as i32);
+                checked_code_width = true;
+            }
+            total_rows += batch.num_rows();
+        }
+        assert!(checked_code_width);
+        let expected_total: usize = expected_lengths.iter().map(|v| *v as usize).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, expected_total);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_ivf_rq_rejects_packed_source_shard() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_rq_packed");
+
+        let partial0 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_0");
+        let aux0 = partial0.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let lengths = vec![2_u32, 1_u32];
+
+        let rq_meta = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: None,
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: Some(vec![0xAA; 2]),
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Fast,
+            code_dim: 16,
+            num_bits: 1,
+            packed: true,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
+
+        write_rq_partial_aux(
+            &object_store,
+            &aux0,
+            &rq_meta,
+            &lengths,
+            0,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let res = merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            std::slice::from_ref(&aux0),
+            &index_dir,
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await;
         match res {
             Err(Error::Index { message, .. }) => {
                 assert!(
-                    message.contains("PQ codebook content mismatch"),
+                    message.contains("source shard 0"),
+                    "unexpected message: {}",
+                    message
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    message.contains("packed RQ codes"),
                     "unexpected message: {}",
                     message
                 );
             }
             other => panic!(
-                "expected Error::Index with PQ codebook content mismatch, got {:?}",
+                "expected Error::Index for packed RQ source shard, got {:?}",
                 other
             ),
         }
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_partial_order_tie_breaker() {
-        // Two partial directories that map to the same (min_fragment_id, dataset_version)
-        // but differ in their parent directory name. This exercises the third
-        // lexicographic tie-breaker component of the sort key.
+    async fn test_merge_ivf_rq_multi_bit_preserves_split_columns() {
         let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
-        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_tie");
-
-        let partial_a = index_dir.child("partial_1_10");
-        let partial_b = index_dir.child("partial_1_10b");
-        let aux_a = partial_a.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let aux_b = partial_b.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_rq_multi_bit");
 
-        // Equal-length shards to simulate the tie scenario where per-partition
-        // row counts alone cannot disambiguate ordering.
-        let lengths = vec![2_u32, 2_u32];
+        let partial0 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_0");
+        let partial1 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_1");
+        let aux0 = partial0.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux1 = partial1.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
 
-        // PQ parameters shared by both shards.
-        let nbits = 4_u32;
-        let num_sub_vectors = 2_usize;
-        let dimension = 8_usize;
+        let lengths0 = vec![2_u32, 1_u32];
+        let lengths1 = vec![1_u32, 2_u32];
 
-        let num_centroids = 1_usize << nbits;
-        let num_codebook_vectors = num_centroids * num_sub_vectors;
-        let total_values = num_codebook_vectors * dimension;
-        let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..total_values).map(|v| v as f32));
-        let codebook = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension as i32).unwrap();
+        let rq_meta = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat: None,
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: Some(vec![0xAA; 2]),
+            rotation_type: RQRotationType::Fast,
+            code_dim: 16,
+            num_bits: 4,
+            packed: false,
+            query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        };
 
-        // Shard A: base_row_id = 0.
-        write_pq_partial_aux(
+        write_rq_partial_aux(
             &object_store,
-            &aux_a,
-            nbits,
-            num_sub_vectors,
-            dimension,
-            &lengths,
+            &aux0,
+            &rq_meta,
+            &lengths0,
             0,
             DistanceType::L2,
-            &codebook,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
-
-        // Shard B: base_row_id = 1_000, identical lengths and PQ metadata.
-        write_pq_partial_aux(
+        write_rq_partial_aux(
             &object_store,
-            &aux_b,
-            nbits,
-            num_sub_vectors,
-            dimension,
-            &lengths,
+            &aux1,
+            &rq_meta,
+            &lengths1,
             1_000,
             DistanceType::L2,
-            &codebook,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Merge must succeed and produce a unified auxiliary file.
-        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(&object_store, &index_dir)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let aux_out = index_dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&aux_out).await.unwrap());
+        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            &[aux0.clone(), aux1.clone()],
+            &index_dir,
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Open merged auxiliary file and verify that the per-partition write
-        // order follows the lexicographic parent-dir tiebreaker: rows from
-        // `partial_1_10` (row ids starting at 0) should precede rows from
-        // `partial_1_10b` (row ids starting at 1_000) for the first partition.
+        let aux_out = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
         let sched = ScanScheduler::new(
             Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
             SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
@@ -1890,7 +2997,14 @@ mod tests {
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
+        let meta = reader.metadata();
+        let rq_meta_json = meta.file_schema.metadata.get(RABIT_METADATA_KEY).unwrap();
+        let merged_rq_meta: RabitQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(rq_meta_json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(merged_rq_meta.num_bits, 4);
+        assert!(merged_rq_meta.packed);
 
+        let mut total_rows = 0usize;
+        let mut checked_split_columns = false;
         let mut stream = reader
             .read_stream(
                 lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
@@ -1898,42 +3012,133 @@ mod tests {
                 4,
                 lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        let mut row_ids = Vec::new();
         while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
             let batch = batch.unwrap();
-            let arr = batch
-                .column(0)
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
-                .unwrap();
-            for i in 0..arr.len() {
-                row_ids.push(arr.value(i));
+            if !checked_split_columns {
+                let schema = batch.schema();
+                let ex_code_field = schema
+                    .field_with_name(RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN)
+                    .unwrap();
+                let DataType::FixedSizeList(_, ex_code_bytes) = ex_code_field.data_type() else {
+                    panic!("RQ ex-code field should be FixedSizeList");
+                };
+                // code_dim=16 padded to one 64-dim block at ex_bits=3.
+                assert_eq!(*ex_code_bytes, 24);
+                assert!(schema.field_with_name(ERROR_FACTORS_FIELD.name()).is_ok());
+                assert!(schema.field_with_name(EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_ok());
+                assert!(schema.field_with_name(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_ok());
+                checked_split_columns = true;
             }
+            total_rows += batch.num_rows();
         }
+        assert!(checked_split_columns);
+        let expected_total: usize = lengths0
+            .iter()
+            .zip(lengths1.iter())
+            .map(|(a, b)| (*a + *b) as usize)
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, expected_total);
+    }
 
-        // We expect two partitions with aggregated lengths [4, 4].
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), 8);
-        let first_partition_ids = &row_ids[..4];
-        assert_eq!(first_partition_ids, &[0, 1, 1_000, 1_001]);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_ivf_pq_codebook_mismatch() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_pq_mismatch");
+
+        let partial0 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_0");
+        let partial1 = index_dir.clone().join("partial_1");
+        let aux0 = partial0.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux1 = partial1.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+
+        let lengths0 = vec![2_u32, 1_u32];
+        let lengths1 = vec![1_u32, 2_u32];
+
+        // PQ parameters.
+        let nbits = 4_u32;
+        let num_sub_vectors = 2_usize;
+        let dimension = 8_usize;
+
+        // Base PQ codebook for shard 0.
+        let num_centroids = 1_usize << nbits;
+        let num_codebook_vectors = num_centroids * num_sub_vectors;
+        let total_values = num_codebook_vectors * dimension;
+        let values0 = Float32Array::from_iter((0..total_values).map(|v| v as f32));
+        let codebook0 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values0, dimension as i32).unwrap();
+
+        // Different PQ codebook for shard 1 with values shifted beyond tolerance.
+        let values1 = Float32Array::from_iter((0..total_values).map(|v| v as f32 + 1.0));
+        let codebook1 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values1, dimension as i32).unwrap();
+
+        // Non-overlapping row id ranges across shards.
+        write_pq_partial_aux(
+            &object_store,
+            &aux0,
+            nbits,
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            dimension,
+            &lengths0,
+            0,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            &codebook0,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        write_pq_partial_aux(
+            &object_store,
+            &aux1,
+            nbits,
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            dimension,
+            &lengths1,
+            1_000,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            &codebook1,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let res = merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            &[aux0.clone(), aux1.clone()],
+            &index_dir,
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await;
+        match res {
+            Err(Error::Index { message, .. }) => {
+                assert!(
+                    message.contains("PQ codebook content mismatch"),
+                    "unexpected message: {}",
+                    message
+                );
+            }
+            other => panic!(
+                "expected Error::Index with PQ codebook content mismatch, got {:?}",
+                other
+            ),
+        }
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_content_key_order_invariance() {
-        // Two partial directories whose content-derived keys
-        // (min_fragment_id, min_row_id) are identical; ordering is determined
-        // solely by the parent directory name as a lexicographic tie-breaker.
+    async fn test_merge_partial_order_tie_breaker() {
+        // Two partial directories that map to the same (min_fragment_id, dataset_version)
+        // but differ in their parent directory name. This exercises the third
+        // lexicographic tie-breaker component of the sort key.
         let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
-        let index_dir = Path::from("index/content_key");
+        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_tie");
 
-        let partial_a = index_dir.child("partial_content_a");
-        let partial_b = index_dir.child("partial_content_b");
-        let aux_a = partial_a.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let aux_b = partial_b.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let partial_a = index_dir.clone().join("partial_1_10");
+        let partial_b = index_dir.clone().join("partial_1_10b");
+        let aux_a = partial_a.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux_b = partial_b.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
 
-        // Equal-length shards so per-partition lengths alone cannot disambiguate
-        // ordering.
+        // Equal-length shards to simulate the tie scenario where per-partition
+        // row counts alone cannot disambiguate ordering.
         let lengths = vec![2_u32, 2_u32];
 
         // PQ parameters shared by both shards.
@@ -1947,11 +3152,7 @@ mod tests {
         let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..total_values).map(|v| v as f32));
         let codebook = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension as i32).unwrap();
 
-        // Use a RowAddress-encoded base so both shards have the same
-        // (fragment_id, row_offset) for their first row, hence identical
-        // content-derived numeric keys.
-        let base_addr: u64 = RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 5).into();
-
+        // Shard A: base_row_id = 0.
         write_pq_partial_aux(
             &object_store,
             &aux_a,
@@ -1959,13 +3160,15 @@ mod tests {
             num_sub_vectors,
             dimension,
             &lengths,
-            base_addr,
+            0,
             DistanceType::L2,
             &codebook,
+            false,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
+        // Shard B: base_row_id = 1_000, identical lengths and PQ metadata.
         write_pq_partial_aux(
             &object_store,
             &aux_b,
@@ -1973,22 +3176,31 @@ mod tests {
             num_sub_vectors,
             dimension,
             &lengths,
-            base_addr,
+            1_000,
             DistanceType::L2,
             &codebook,
+            false,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
         // Merge must succeed and produce a unified auxiliary file.
-        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(&object_store, &index_dir)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+            &object_store,
+            &[aux_a.clone(), aux_b.clone()],
+            &index_dir,
+            crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let aux_out = index_dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let aux_out = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
         assert!(object_store.exists(&aux_out).await.unwrap());
 
-        // Open merged auxiliary file and inspect row id layout.
+        // Open merged auxiliary file and verify that the per-partition write
+        // order follows the lexicographic parent-dir tiebreaker: rows from
+        // `partial_1_10` (row ids starting at 0) should precede rows from
+        // `partial_1_10b` (row ids starting at 1_000) for the first partition.
         let sched = ScanScheduler::new(
             Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
             SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
@@ -2014,6 +3226,7 @@ mod tests {
                 4,
                 lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await
             .unwrap();
 
         let mut row_ids = Vec::new();
@@ -2029,21 +3242,9 @@ mod tests {
             }
         }
 
-        // Two shards, each contributing `sum(lengths)` rows.
-        let expected_total_rows: usize = lengths.iter().map(|v| *v as usize).sum::<usize>() * 2;
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), expected_total_rows);
-
-        let first_partition_rows = lengths[0] as usize * 2;
-        let (p0, p1) = row_ids.split_at(first_partition_rows);
-
-        let base = base_addr;
-        // For partition 0 we expect rows from `partial_content_a` first, then
-        // from `partial_content_b`.
-        let expected_p0 = vec![base, base + 1, base, base + 1];
-        assert_eq!(p0, expected_p0.as_slice());
-
-        // For partition 1 the pattern continues with offsets +2, +3.
-        let expected_p1 = vec![base + 2, base + 3, base + 2, base + 3];
-        assert_eq!(p1, expected_p1.as_slice());
+        // We expect two partitions with aggregated lengths [4, 4].
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), 8);
+        let first_partition_ids = &row_ids[..4];
+        assert_eq!(first_partition_ids, &[0, 1, 1_000, 1_001]);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat.rs
index 65a305d9c37..4a9d12fabba 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat.rs
@@ -7,17 +7,17 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::{array::AsArray, buffer::NullBuffer};
-use arrow_array::{make_array, Array, ArrayRef, Float32Array, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, Float32Array, RecordBatch, make_array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField};
 use lance_arrow::*;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
-use lance_linalg::distance::{multivec_distance, DistanceType};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, multivec_distance};
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 use super::DIST_COL;
 
 pub mod index;
+pub(crate) mod pairwise;
 pub mod storage;
 pub mod transform;
 
@@ -39,27 +39,24 @@ fn get_column_from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<ArrayRef>
 
     // Parse the field path using Lance's field path parsing logic
     // This properly handles backtick-escaped field names
-    let parts = lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(column).map_err(|e| Error::Schema {
-        message: format!("Failed to parse field path '{}': {}", column, e),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
+    let parts = lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(column)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::schema(format!("Failed to parse field path '{}': {}", column, e)))?;
 
     if parts.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: format!("Invalid empty field path: {}", column),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+            "Invalid empty field path: {}",
+            column
+        )));
     }
 
     // Get the root column
     let mut current_array: ArrayRef = batch
         .column_by_name(&parts[0])
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Schema {
-            message: format!(
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::schema(format!(
                 "Column '{}' does not exist in batch (looking for root field '{}')",
                 column, parts[0]
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
+            ))
         })?
         .clone();
 
@@ -68,22 +65,20 @@ fn get_column_from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<ArrayRef>
         let struct_array = current_array
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Schema {
-                message: format!(
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::schema(format!(
                     "Cannot access nested field '{}' in column '{}': parent is not a struct",
                     part, column
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
+                ))
             })?;
 
         current_array = struct_array
             .column_by_name(part)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Schema {
-                message: format!(
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::schema(format!(
                     "Nested field '{}' does not exist in column '{}'",
                     part, column
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
+                ))
             })?
             .clone();
     }
@@ -138,10 +133,7 @@ pub async fn compute_distance(
 
         batch
             .try_with_column(distance_field(), distances)
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Execution {
-                message: format!("Failed to adding distance column: {}", e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            .map_err(|e| Error::execution(format!("Failed to adding distance column: {}", e)))
     })
     .await?
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/index.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/index.rs
index bdf19b3c218..6c80c612ccb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/index.rs
@@ -4,32 +4,52 @@
 //! Flat Vector Index.
 //!
 
-use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap};
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use std::collections::BinaryHeap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID_FIELD};
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::{
-    metrics::MetricsCollector,
+    metrics::{IndexTimer, IndexTiming, MetricsCollector},
     prefilter::PreFilter,
     vector::{
-        graph::OrderedNode,
+        ApproxMode, DIST_COL, Query,
+        graph::{OrderedFloat, OrderedNode},
         quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizationType, Quantizer, QuantizerMetadata},
-        storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore},
+        storage::{
+            DistCalculator, DistanceCalculatorOptions, QueryResidual, QueryScratch, VectorStore,
+        },
         v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex,
-        Query, DIST_COL,
     },
 };
 
-use super::storage::{FlatBinStorage, FlatFloatStorage, FLAT_COLUMN};
+use super::storage::{FLAT_COLUMN, FlatBinStorage, FlatFloatStorage};
+
+#[inline(always)]
+fn push_candidate_local(
+    res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+    k: usize,
+    row_id: u64,
+    dist: OrderedFloat,
+) {
+    if k == 0 {
+        return;
+    }
+    if res.len() < k {
+        res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
+    } else if res.peek().is_some_and(|node| node.dist > dist) {
+        res.pop();
+        res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
+    }
+}
 
 /// A Flat index is any index that stores no metadata, and
 /// during query, it simply scans over the storage and returns the top k results
@@ -46,11 +66,27 @@ static ANN_SEARCH_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     .into()
 });
 
+/// A partition goes through the screened top-k scan only when it has more
+/// than this many rows per result. Screening computes a quantized sum for every
+/// row and then rescores its candidates exactly, in SIMD chunks of 16; with few
+/// rows per result most rows end up rescored, so the quantization and sums
+/// cost more than the scoring they skip. With 4-bit PQ at m=96 it lost to the
+/// bulk scan at 2.5 rows per result on x86 (won on Graviton3), and won on both
+/// at 5. Those ratios were measured when this routing was added, before later
+/// changes to candidate selection and the kernels, and have not been re-tuned.
+const MIN_ROWS_PER_RESULT_FOR_TOPK_SCAN: usize = 4;
+
+/// Marker schema for the flat index, which stores no data of its own.
+static FLAT_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Schema::new(vec![Field::new("__flat_marker", DataType::UInt64, false)]).into()
+});
+
 #[derive(Default)]
 pub struct FlatQueryParams {
     lower_bound: Option<f32>,
     upper_bound: Option<f32>,
     dist_q_c: f32,
+    approx_mode: ApproxMode,
 }
 
 impl From<&Query> for FlatQueryParams {
@@ -59,6 +95,7 @@ impl From<&Query> for FlatQueryParams {
             lower_bound: q.lower_bound,
             upper_bound: q.upper_bound,
             dist_q_c: q.dist_q_c,
+            approx_mode: q.approx_mode,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -76,7 +113,7 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for FlatIndex {
     }
 
     fn schema() -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef {
-        Schema::new(vec![Field::new("__flat_marker", DataType::UInt64, false)]).into()
+        FLAT_SCHEMA.clone()
     }
 
     fn search(
@@ -87,16 +124,76 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for FlatIndex {
         storage: &impl VectorStore,
         prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let mut scratch = QueryScratch::new();
+        self.search_with_scratch(
+            query,
+            k,
+            params,
+            storage,
+            prefilter,
+            metrics,
+            None,
+            &mut scratch,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn search_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        k: usize,
+        params: Self::QueryParams,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        residual: Option<QueryResidual<'_>>,
+        scratch: &mut QueryScratch,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         let is_range_query = params.lower_bound.is_some() || params.upper_bound.is_some();
         let row_ids = storage.row_ids();
-        let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, params.dist_q_c);
+        let query_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::QueryPrepare);
+        let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+            query,
+            params.dist_q_c,
+            residual,
+            &mut scratch.query_f32,
+            DistanceCalculatorOptions {
+                approx_mode: params.approx_mode,
+            },
+        );
+        drop(query_timer);
         let mut res = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k);
         metrics.record_comparisons(storage.len());
+        // Filtering, distance evaluation and heap updates are fused in fast-scan paths.
+        let distance_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::DistanceTopK);
 
         match prefilter.is_empty() {
+            // The calculator certifies that its top-k scan keeps every row the
+            // push below would, so it can skip scoring most rows.
+            true if storage.len() > k.saturating_mul(MIN_ROWS_PER_RESULT_FOR_TOPK_SCAN)
+                && dist_calc.has_exact_topk_scan() =>
+            {
+                dist_calc.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+                    k,
+                    params.lower_bound,
+                    params.upper_bound,
+                    |id| storage.row_id(id),
+                    &mut res,
+                    &mut scratch.distances,
+                    &mut scratch.u16,
+                    &mut scratch.u8,
+                    &mut scratch.u32,
+                );
+            }
             true => {
-                let dists = dist_calc.distance_all(k);
+                dist_calc.distance_all_with_scratch(
+                    k,
+                    &mut scratch.distances,
+                    &mut scratch.u16,
+                    &mut scratch.u8,
+                    &mut scratch.u32,
+                );
+                let dists = scratch.distances.iter().copied();
 
                 if is_range_query {
                     let lower_bound = params.lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN).into();
@@ -107,22 +204,12 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for FlatIndex {
                         if dist < lower_bound || dist >= upper_bound {
                             continue;
                         }
-                        if res.len() < k {
-                            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
-                        } else if res.peek().unwrap().dist > dist {
-                            res.pop();
-                            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
-                        }
+                        push_candidate_local(&mut res, k, row_id, dist);
                     }
                 } else {
                     for (&row_id, dist) in row_ids.zip(dists) {
                         let dist = dist.into();
-                        if res.len() < k {
-                            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
-                        } else if res.peek().unwrap().dist > dist {
-                            res.pop();
-                            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
-                        }
+                        push_candidate_local(&mut res, k, row_id, dist);
                     }
                 }
             }
@@ -140,12 +227,7 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for FlatIndex {
                             continue;
                         }
 
-                        if res.len() < k {
-                            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_addr, dist));
-                        } else if res.peek().unwrap().dist > dist {
-                            res.pop();
-                            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_addr, dist));
-                        }
+                        push_candidate_local(&mut res, k, row_addr, dist);
                     }
                 } else {
                     for (id, &row_addr) in row_ids.enumerate() {
@@ -154,17 +236,14 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for FlatIndex {
                         }
 
                         let dist = dist_calc.distance(id as u32).into();
-                        if res.len() < k {
-                            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_addr, dist));
-                        } else if res.peek().unwrap().dist > dist {
-                            res.pop();
-                            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_addr, dist));
-                        }
+                        push_candidate_local(&mut res, k, row_addr, dist);
                     }
                 }
             }
         };
 
+        drop(distance_timer);
+        let _result_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::ResultMaterialize);
         // we don't need to sort the results by distances here
         // because there's a SortExec node in the query plan which sorts the results from all partitions
         let (row_ids, dists): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = res.into_iter().map(|r| (r.id, r.dist.0)).unzip();
@@ -176,6 +255,96 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for FlatIndex {
         )?)
     }
 
+    fn supports_global_topk_heap() -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn accumulate_topk(
+        &self,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        k: usize,
+        params: Self::QueryParams,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut scratch = QueryScratch::new();
+        self.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+            query,
+            k,
+            params,
+            storage,
+            prefilter,
+            res,
+            None,
+            &mut scratch,
+            metrics,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        k: usize,
+        params: Self::QueryParams,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        residual: Option<QueryResidual<'_>>,
+        scratch: &mut QueryScratch,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let row_ids = storage.row_ids();
+        let query_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::QueryPrepare);
+        let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+            query,
+            params.dist_q_c,
+            residual,
+            &mut scratch.query_f32,
+            DistanceCalculatorOptions {
+                approx_mode: params.approx_mode,
+            },
+        );
+        drop(query_timer);
+        metrics.record_comparisons(storage.len());
+        // Filtering, distance evaluation and heap updates are fused in fast-scan paths.
+        let distance_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::DistanceTopK);
+
+        match prefilter.is_empty() {
+            true => {
+                dist_calc.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+                    k,
+                    params.lower_bound,
+                    params.upper_bound,
+                    |id| storage.row_id(id),
+                    res,
+                    &mut scratch.distances,
+                    &mut scratch.u16,
+                    &mut scratch.u8,
+                    &mut scratch.u32,
+                );
+            }
+            false => {
+                let row_addr_mask = prefilter.mask();
+                dist_calc.accumulate_filtered_topk_with_scratch(
+                    k,
+                    params.lower_bound,
+                    params.upper_bound,
+                    row_ids.enumerate().map(|(id, &row_id)| (id as u32, row_id)),
+                    |row_id| row_addr_mask.selected(row_id),
+                    res,
+                    &mut scratch.distances,
+                    &mut scratch.u16,
+                    &mut scratch.u8,
+                    &mut scratch.u32,
+                );
+            }
+        };
+        drop(distance_timer);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     fn load(_: RecordBatch) -> Result<Self> {
         Ok(Self {})
     }
@@ -187,7 +356,7 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for FlatIndex {
         Ok(Self {})
     }
 
-    fn remap(&self, _: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>, _: &impl VectorStore) -> Result<Self> {
+    fn remap(&self, _: &RowAddrRemap, _: &impl VectorStore) -> Result<Self> {
         Ok(self.clone())
     }
 
@@ -203,7 +372,7 @@ pub struct FlatMetadata {
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl QuantizerMetadata for FlatMetadata {
-    async fn load(_: &PreviousFileReader) -> Result<Self> {
+    async fn load(_: &V1FileReader) -> Result<Self> {
         unimplemented!("Flat will be used in new index builder which doesn't require this")
     }
 }
@@ -289,10 +458,7 @@ impl TryFrom<Quantizer> for FlatQuantizer {
     fn try_from(value: Quantizer) -> Result<Self> {
         match value {
             Quantizer::Flat(quantizer) => Ok(quantizer),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "quantizer is not FlatQuantizer",
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input("quantizer is not FlatQuantizer")),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -347,7 +513,7 @@ impl Quantization for FlatBinQuantizer {
     }
 
     fn quantization_type() -> QuantizationType {
-        QuantizationType::Flat
+        QuantizationType::FlatBin
     }
 
     fn quantize(&self, vectors: &dyn Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
@@ -378,10 +544,171 @@ impl TryFrom<Quantizer> for FlatBinQuantizer {
     fn try_from(value: Quantizer) -> Result<Self> {
         match value {
             Quantizer::FlatBin(quantizer) => Ok(quantizer),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "quantizer is not FlatBinQuantizer",
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input("quantizer is not FlatBinQuantizer")),
         }
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray;
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use crate::prefilter::NoFilter;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_schema_is_initialized_once() {
+        // The subindex schema is requested per call, so it is shared rather
+        // than rebuilt. Pointer equality is what distinguishes a shared schema
+        // from an equal-but-freshly-allocated one.
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&FlatIndex::schema(), &FlatIndex::schema()));
+        assert_eq!(FlatIndex::schema().field(0).name(), "__flat_marker");
+    }
+
+    struct MaskPreFilter {
+        mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl PreFilter for MaskPreFilter {
+        async fn wait_for_ready(&self) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+            false
+        }
+
+        fn mask(&self) -> Arc<RowAddrMask> {
+            self.mask.clone()
+        }
+
+        fn filter_row_ids<'a>(&self, row_ids: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &'a u64> + 'a>) -> Vec<u64> {
+            self.mask.selected_indices(row_ids)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn test_storage() -> FlatFloatStorage {
+        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![
+            0.0, 0.0, // row 0
+            1.0, 0.0, // row 1
+            1.0, 1.0, // row 2
+            3.0, 3.0, // row 3
+            4.0, 4.0, // row 4
+        ]);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::L2)
+    }
+
+    fn query() -> ArrayRef {
+        Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 1.0]))
+    }
+
+    fn batch_results(batch: RecordBatch) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
+        let dists = batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>();
+        let row_ids = batch
+            .column(1)
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+        let mut results = row_ids
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(dists.values().iter())
+            .map(|(row_id, dist)| (*row_id, *dist))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        results.sort_by_key(|left| left.0);
+        results
+    }
+
+    fn heap_results(heap: BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
+        let mut results = heap
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|node| (node.id, node.dist.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        results.sort_by_key(|left| left.0);
+        results
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_search_matches_accumulate_topk_without_prefilter() {
+        let index = FlatIndex::default();
+        let storage = test_storage();
+        let k = 3;
+        let search_results = batch_results(
+            index
+                .search(
+                    query(),
+                    k,
+                    FlatQueryParams::default(),
+                    &storage,
+                    Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k);
+        index
+            .accumulate_topk(
+                query(),
+                k,
+                FlatQueryParams::default(),
+                &storage,
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                &mut heap,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(search_results, heap_results(heap));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_search_matches_accumulate_topk_with_prefilter() {
+        let index = FlatIndex::default();
+        let storage = test_storage();
+        let k = 2;
+        let filter = Arc::new(MaskPreFilter {
+            mask: Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([
+                0_u64, 3, 4,
+            ]))),
+        });
+        let search_results = batch_results(
+            index
+                .search(
+                    query(),
+                    k,
+                    FlatQueryParams::default(),
+                    &storage,
+                    filter.clone(),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k);
+        index
+            .accumulate_topk(
+                query(),
+                k,
+                FlatQueryParams::default(),
+                &storage,
+                filter,
+                &mut heap,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(search_results, heap_results(heap));
+        assert_eq!(
+            search_results.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 3]
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/pairwise.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/pairwise.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2904e09a617
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/pairwise.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,845 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Exact pair scoring over stored IVF_FLAT vectors.
+
+use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, Float64Array, RecordBatch,
+    cast::AsArray,
+    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, UInt8Type},
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use half::f16;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, L2, hamming::hamming};
+use num_traits::AsPrimitive;
+
+use crate::vector::pairwise::{
+    NORM_COLUMN, PairKernel, PairScorer, column_values, l2_to_cosine, list_values, norm_field,
+};
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+enum Element {
+    Float16,
+    Float32,
+    Float64,
+    Binary,
+}
+
+pub struct FlatPairScorer {
+    column: &'static str,
+    dim: usize,
+    element: Element,
+    metric: DistanceType,
+}
+
+impl FlatPairScorer {
+    pub(crate) fn new(column: &'static str, source: &Schema, metric: DistanceType) -> Result<Self> {
+        let field = source.field_with_name(column)?;
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(item, dim) = field.data_type() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "flat vector column {column} must be a fixed-size list, got {}",
+                field.data_type()
+            )));
+        };
+        let element = match (item.data_type(), metric) {
+            (DataType::UInt8, DistanceType::Hamming) => Element::Binary,
+            (DataType::Float16, DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot) => {
+                Element::Float16
+            }
+            (DataType::Float32, DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot) => {
+                Element::Float32
+            }
+            (DataType::Float64, DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot) => {
+                Element::Float64
+            }
+            (other, metric) => {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "pair scoring of {other} flat vectors with {metric} distance"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Self {
+            column,
+            dim: *dim as usize,
+            element,
+            metric,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+fn norms<T: AsPrimitive<f64>>(values: &[T], dim: usize) -> Vec<f64> {
+    values
+        .chunks_exact(dim)
+        .map(|v| v.iter().map(|x| x.as_().powi(2)).sum::<f64>().sqrt())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+impl PairScorer for FlatPairScorer {
+    type Kernel<'a> = FlatKernel<'a>;
+
+    fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        let width = match self.element {
+            Element::Float16 => 2,
+            Element::Float32 => 4,
+            Element::Float64 => 8,
+            Element::Binary => 1,
+        };
+        let norm = if self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            8
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        self.dim * width + norm
+    }
+
+    fn stage(&self, source: &RecordBatch, rows: Range<usize>) -> Result<Vec<(Field, ArrayRef)>> {
+        let (field, vectors) = source
+            .schema()
+            .column_with_name(self.column)
+            .map(|(index, field)| {
+                (
+                    field.clone(),
+                    source.column(index).slice(rows.start, rows.len()),
+                )
+            })
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal(format!("flat batch missing {}", self.column)))?;
+        let mut columns = vec![(field, vectors.clone())];
+        if self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            let values = vectors
+                .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("flat vectors must be a fixed-size list"))?
+                .values();
+            let norms = match self.element {
+                Element::Float16 => norms(values.as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values(), self.dim),
+                Element::Float32 => norms(values.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(), self.dim),
+                Element::Float64 => norms(values.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values(), self.dim),
+                Element::Binary => {
+                    return Err(Error::internal("binary flat vectors have no cosine norm"));
+                }
+            };
+            columns.push((
+                norm_field(),
+                Arc::new(Float64Array::from(norms)) as ArrayRef,
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(columns)
+    }
+
+    fn kernel<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        anchor: &'a RecordBatch,
+        candidates: &'a RecordBatch,
+    ) -> Result<Self::Kernel<'a>> {
+        fn float<'a, T: arrow_array::ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+            scorer: &FlatPairScorer,
+            anchor: &'a RecordBatch,
+            candidates: &'a RecordBatch,
+        ) -> Result<FloatKernel<'a, T::Native>>
+        where
+            T::Native: FlatFloat,
+        {
+            let norms = |batch: &'a RecordBatch| -> Result<&'a [f64]> {
+                if scorer.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+                    column_values::<Float64Type>(batch, NORM_COLUMN)
+                } else {
+                    Ok(&[])
+                }
+            };
+            Ok(FloatKernel {
+                dim: scorer.dim,
+                metric: scorer.metric,
+                anchor: list_values::<T>(anchor, scorer.column)?,
+                candidates: list_values::<T>(candidates, scorer.column)?,
+                anchor_norms: norms(anchor)?,
+                candidate_norms: norms(candidates)?,
+                rows: T::Native::rows_kernel(scorer.metric, scorer.dim),
+            })
+        }
+        Ok(match self.element {
+            Element::Float16 => {
+                FlatKernel::Float16(float::<Float16Type>(self, anchor, candidates)?)
+            }
+            Element::Float32 => {
+                FlatKernel::Float32(float::<Float32Type>(self, anchor, candidates)?)
+            }
+            Element::Float64 => {
+                FlatKernel::Float64(float::<Float64Type>(self, anchor, candidates)?)
+            }
+            Element::Binary => FlatKernel::Binary {
+                dim: self.dim,
+                anchor: list_values::<UInt8Type>(anchor, self.column)?,
+                candidates: list_values::<UInt8Type>(candidates, self.column)?,
+            },
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+pub enum FlatKernel<'a> {
+    Float16(FloatKernel<'a, f16>),
+    Float32(FloatKernel<'a, f32>),
+    Float64(FloatKernel<'a, f64>),
+    Binary {
+        dim: usize,
+        anchor: &'a [u8],
+        candidates: &'a [u8],
+    },
+}
+
+pub struct FloatKernel<'a, T> {
+    dim: usize,
+    metric: DistanceType,
+    anchor: &'a [T],
+    candidates: &'a [T],
+    anchor_norms: &'a [f64],
+    candidate_norms: &'a [f64],
+    /// Squared L2 (dot product for [`DistanceType::Dot`]) to consecutive
+    /// rows, resolved once per binding.
+    rows: RowsFn<T>,
+}
+
+/// Squared L2 or dot product from `anchor` to each of the `out.len()`
+/// consecutive `anchor.len()`-wide rows in `rows`.
+type RowsFn<T> = fn(anchor: &[T], rows: &[T], out: &mut [f32]);
+
+/// Float element types of IVF_FLAT vectors.
+pub trait FlatFloat: L2 + Dot {
+    fn rows_kernel(metric: DistanceType, dim: usize) -> RowsFn<Self>;
+}
+
+/// lance-linalg's batch kernels, one row at a time.
+fn batch_rows_kernel<T: L2 + Dot>(metric: DistanceType) -> RowsFn<T> {
+    fn l2_rows<T: L2>(anchor: &[T], rows: &[T], out: &mut [f32]) {
+        for (out, l2) in out.iter_mut().zip(T::l2_batch(anchor, rows, anchor.len())) {
+            *out = l2;
+        }
+    }
+    fn dot_rows<T: Dot>(anchor: &[T], rows: &[T], out: &mut [f32]) {
+        for (out, dot) in out.iter_mut().zip(T::dot_batch(anchor, rows, anchor.len())) {
+            *out = dot;
+        }
+    }
+    if metric == DistanceType::Dot {
+        dot_rows::<T>
+    } else {
+        l2_rows::<T>
+    }
+}
+
+impl FlatFloat for f16 {
+    fn rows_kernel(metric: DistanceType, _dim: usize) -> RowsFn<Self> {
+        batch_rows_kernel(metric)
+    }
+}
+
+impl FlatFloat for f64 {
+    fn rows_kernel(metric: DistanceType, _dim: usize) -> RowsFn<Self> {
+        batch_rows_kernel(metric)
+    }
+}
+
+impl FlatFloat for f32 {
+    fn rows_kernel(metric: DistanceType, dim: usize) -> RowsFn<Self> {
+        // Up to one lane block, lance-linalg scores f32 with an FMA kernel on
+        // x86, which the blocked kernels do not reproduce.
+        if dim <= f32_rows::LANES {
+            batch_rows_kernel(metric)
+        } else {
+            f32_rows::select(metric != DistanceType::Dot)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: FlatFloat> FloatKernel<'_, T> {
+    fn distances(&self, anchor_row: usize, candidates: Range<usize>, out: &mut [f32]) {
+        let dim = self.dim;
+        let x = &self.anchor[anchor_row * dim..(anchor_row + 1) * dim];
+        let y = &self.candidates[candidates.start * dim..candidates.end * dim];
+        (self.rows)(x, y, out);
+        match self.metric {
+            DistanceType::Dot => {
+                for out in out.iter_mut() {
+                    *out = 1.0 - *out;
+                }
+            }
+            DistanceType::Cosine => l2_to_cosine(
+                out,
+                self.anchor_norms[anchor_row],
+                &self.candidate_norms[candidates],
+            ),
+            _ => {}
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// f32 squared L2 and dot product over rows wider than one lane block,
+/// bit-identical to lance-linalg's `l2_scalar::<f32, f32, 16>` and
+/// `dot_scalar::<f32, f32, 16>` (what its batch kernels run above 16
+/// dimensions on the x86 AVX2 baseline and on aarch64).
+///
+/// Each row keeps the same 16 independent lane sums, updated with a separate
+/// multiply and add (never FMA), then folds the remainder and the lanes in
+/// the same order. On x86 the 16 lanes are one AVX-512 register (or two AVX
+/// registers), so a single row's sums form one or two dependent add chains;
+/// the x86 kernels score several rows per pass over the anchor to keep the
+/// floating-point ports busy instead.
+mod f32_rows {
+    pub(super) const LANES: usize = 16;
+
+    pub(super) fn select(l2: bool) -> super::RowsFn<f32> {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return if l2 { x86::l2_avx512 } else { x86::dot_avx512 };
+            }
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return if l2 { x86::l2_avx } else { x86::dot_avx };
+            }
+        }
+        if l2 {
+            portable::<true>
+        } else {
+            portable::<false>
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Every kernel this CPU can run, named.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn backends(l2: bool) -> Vec<(&'static str, super::RowsFn<f32>)> {
+        #[cfg_attr(not(target_arch = "x86_64"), allow(unused_mut))]
+        let mut backends: Vec<(&'static str, super::RowsFn<f32>)> = vec![(
+            "portable",
+            if l2 {
+                portable::<true>
+            } else {
+                portable::<false>
+            },
+        )];
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                backends.push(("avx512", if l2 { x86::l2_avx512 } else { x86::dot_avx512 }));
+            }
+            if std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                backends.push(("avx", if l2 { x86::l2_avx } else { x86::dot_avx }));
+            }
+        }
+        backends
+    }
+
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn term<const L2: bool>(anchor: f32, row: f32) -> f32 {
+        if L2 {
+            let diff = anchor - row;
+            diff * diff
+        } else {
+            anchor * row
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Remainder dimensions summed in order, plus the lane sums folded in
+    /// order, as lance-linalg does.
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn finish<const L2: bool>(anchor_tail: &[f32], row_tail: &[f32], lanes: &[f32; LANES]) -> f32 {
+        let tail = if anchor_tail.is_empty() {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            anchor_tail
+                .iter()
+                .zip(row_tail)
+                .map(|(&x, &y)| term::<L2>(x, y))
+                .sum::<f32>()
+        };
+        tail + lanes.iter().copied().sum::<f32>()
+    }
+
+    /// One row at a time, in lance-linalg's own loop shape. Autovectorized
+    /// NEON already runs the 16 lanes as four independent chains, so blocking
+    /// rows gains nothing there.
+    fn portable<const L2: bool>(anchor: &[f32], rows: &[f32], out: &mut [f32]) {
+        assert_eq!(rows.len(), anchor.len() * out.len());
+        for (out, row) in out.iter_mut().zip(rows.chunks_exact(anchor.len())) {
+            let (x, x_tail) = anchor.as_chunks::<LANES>();
+            let (y, y_tail) = row.as_chunks::<LANES>();
+            let mut sums = [0.0f32; LANES];
+            for (x, y) in x.iter().zip(y) {
+                for i in 0..LANES {
+                    sums[i] += term::<L2>(x[i], y[i]);
+                }
+            }
+            *out = finish::<L2>(x_tail, y_tail, &sums);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    mod x86 {
+        use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+        use super::{LANES, finish};
+
+        /// Rows scored per pass over the anchor.
+        const BLOCK: usize = 4;
+
+        /// Score `rows` in blocks of [`BLOCK`], then the leftover rows as one
+        /// narrower block.
+        #[inline(always)]
+        fn blocked(
+            anchor: &[f32],
+            rows: &[f32],
+            out: &mut [f32],
+            block: impl Fn(&[f32], &mut [f32]),
+        ) {
+            let dim = anchor.len();
+            assert_eq!(rows.len(), dim * out.len());
+            let mut blocks = rows.chunks_exact(dim * BLOCK);
+            let (outs, out) = out.as_chunks_mut::<BLOCK>();
+            for (rows, out) in (&mut blocks).zip(outs) {
+                block(rows, out);
+            }
+            if !out.is_empty() {
+                block(blocks.remainder(), out);
+            }
+        }
+
+        macro_rules! rows_kernel {
+            ($name:ident, $block:ident, $l2:literal) => {
+                pub(super) fn $name(anchor: &[f32], rows: &[f32], out: &mut [f32]) {
+                    // SAFETY: `select` returns this kernel only when the CPU
+                    // supports `$block`'s target features.
+                    blocked(anchor, rows, out, |rows, out| unsafe {
+                        match out.len() {
+                            BLOCK => $block::<$l2, BLOCK>(anchor, rows, out),
+                            3 => $block::<$l2, 3>(anchor, rows, out),
+                            2 => $block::<$l2, 2>(anchor, rows, out),
+                            _ => $block::<$l2, 1>(anchor, rows, out),
+                        }
+                    });
+                }
+            };
+        }
+
+        rows_kernel!(l2_avx512, block_avx512, true);
+        rows_kernel!(dot_avx512, block_avx512, false);
+        rows_kernel!(l2_avx, block_avx, true);
+        rows_kernel!(dot_avx, block_avx, false);
+
+        /// Adds the terms of 16 dimensions at `x` and at `y` plus each row
+        /// offset. Masked-off positions load zeros, whose term is `+0.0` and
+        /// leaves the sum unchanged.
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+        unsafe fn accumulate_avx512<const L2: bool, const N: usize>(
+            x: *const f32,
+            y: *const f32,
+            dim: usize,
+            mask: __mmask16,
+            sums: &mut [__m512; N],
+        ) {
+            // Inlined with a constant full mask, these are plain loads.
+            let xv = _mm512_maskz_loadu_ps(mask, x);
+            for (r, sums) in sums.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                let yv = _mm512_maskz_loadu_ps(mask, y.wrapping_add(r * dim));
+                let term = if L2 {
+                    let diff = _mm512_sub_ps(xv, yv);
+                    _mm512_mul_ps(diff, diff)
+                } else {
+                    _mm512_mul_ps(xv, yv)
+                };
+                *sums = _mm512_add_ps(*sums, term);
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Scores `N = out.len()` rows; `rows` holds exactly `N` rows.
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+        unsafe fn block_avx512<const L2: bool, const N: usize>(
+            anchor: &[f32],
+            rows: &[f32],
+            out: &mut [f32],
+        ) {
+            let dim = anchor.len();
+            debug_assert_eq!(rows.len(), N * dim);
+            if dim.is_multiple_of(LANES) {
+                return block_avx512_aligned::<L2, N>(anchor, rows, out);
+            }
+            let full = dim - dim % LANES;
+            let mut sums = [_mm512_setzero_ps(); N];
+            let mut k = 0;
+            while k < full {
+                accumulate_avx512::<L2, N>(
+                    anchor.as_ptr().add(k),
+                    rows.as_ptr().add(k),
+                    dim,
+                    !0,
+                    &mut sums,
+                );
+                k += LANES;
+            }
+            for (r, sums) in sums.iter().enumerate() {
+                let mut lanes = [0.0f32; LANES];
+                _mm512_storeu_ps(lanes.as_mut_ptr(), *sums);
+                let row = &rows[r * dim..(r + 1) * dim];
+                out[r] = finish::<L2>(&anchor[full..], &row[full..], &lanes);
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// [`block_avx512`] for whole lane blocks, reading the rows along
+        /// their 64-byte boundaries.
+        ///
+        /// Rows are then a multiple of 64 bytes apart, so all start `shift`
+        /// floats past a boundary. A 64-byte load that crosses a cache line
+        /// costs two, and staged Arrow buffers are commonly only 16-byte
+        /// aligned, so the loads start `shift` floats early: register
+        /// position `q` then holds dimension `16k - shift + q`, which belongs
+        /// to lane `(q - shift) mod 16`. Each lane still adds its dimensions
+        /// in order, the partial first and last loads mask off dimensions
+        /// outside the row, and the lanes are rotated back before folding.
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+        unsafe fn block_avx512_aligned<const L2: bool, const N: usize>(
+            anchor: &[f32],
+            rows: &[f32],
+            out: &mut [f32],
+        ) {
+            let dim = anchor.len();
+            debug_assert_eq!(dim % LANES, 0);
+            let shift = (rows.as_ptr() as usize / size_of::<f32>()) % LANES;
+            // Masked lanes are never accessed, so these may point before the
+            // slices.
+            let x = anchor.as_ptr().wrapping_sub(shift);
+            let y = rows.as_ptr().wrapping_sub(shift);
+            let mut sums = [_mm512_setzero_ps(); N];
+            accumulate_avx512::<L2, N>(x, y, dim, !0 << shift, &mut sums);
+            let mut k = LANES;
+            while k < dim {
+                accumulate_avx512::<L2, N>(
+                    x.wrapping_add(k),
+                    y.wrapping_add(k),
+                    dim,
+                    !0,
+                    &mut sums,
+                );
+                k += LANES;
+            }
+            if shift > 0 {
+                accumulate_avx512::<L2, N>(
+                    x.wrapping_add(dim),
+                    y.wrapping_add(dim),
+                    dim,
+                    (1 << shift) - 1,
+                    &mut sums,
+                );
+            }
+            // Lane j sits at position (j + shift) mod 16.
+            let positions = _mm512_and_si512(
+                _mm512_add_epi32(
+                    _mm512_setr_epi32(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15),
+                    _mm512_set1_epi32(shift as i32),
+                ),
+                _mm512_set1_epi32(LANES as i32 - 1),
+            );
+            for (out, sums) in out.iter_mut().zip(&sums) {
+                let mut lanes = [0.0f32; LANES];
+                _mm512_storeu_ps(lanes.as_mut_ptr(), _mm512_permutexvar_ps(positions, *sums));
+                *out = finish::<L2>(&[], &[], &lanes);
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// [`block_avx512`] with each 16-lane sum split across two registers.
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+        unsafe fn block_avx<const L2: bool, const N: usize>(
+            anchor: &[f32],
+            rows: &[f32],
+            out: &mut [f32],
+        ) {
+            let dim = anchor.len();
+            let full = dim - dim % LANES;
+            debug_assert_eq!(rows.len(), N * dim);
+            let x = anchor.as_ptr();
+            let y = rows.as_ptr();
+            let mut sums = [[_mm256_setzero_ps(); 2]; N];
+            let mut k = 0;
+            while k < full {
+                let xv = [_mm256_loadu_ps(x.add(k)), _mm256_loadu_ps(x.add(k + 8))];
+                for (r, sums) in sums.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                    for (half, sums) in sums.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                        let yv = _mm256_loadu_ps(y.add(r * dim + k + 8 * half));
+                        let term = if L2 {
+                            let diff = _mm256_sub_ps(xv[half], yv);
+                            _mm256_mul_ps(diff, diff)
+                        } else {
+                            _mm256_mul_ps(xv[half], yv)
+                        };
+                        *sums = _mm256_add_ps(*sums, term);
+                    }
+                }
+                k += LANES;
+            }
+            for (r, sums) in sums.iter().enumerate() {
+                let mut lanes = [0.0f32; LANES];
+                _mm256_storeu_ps(lanes.as_mut_ptr(), sums[0]);
+                _mm256_storeu_ps(lanes.as_mut_ptr().add(8), sums[1]);
+                let row = &rows[r * dim..(r + 1) * dim];
+                out[r] = finish::<L2>(&anchor[full..], &row[full..], &lanes);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PairKernel for FlatKernel<'_> {
+    fn distances(&self, anchor_row: usize, candidates: Range<usize>, out: &mut [f32]) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Float16(kernel) => kernel.distances(anchor_row, candidates, out),
+            Self::Float32(kernel) => kernel.distances(anchor_row, candidates, out),
+            Self::Float64(kernel) => kernel.distances(anchor_row, candidates, out),
+            Self::Binary {
+                dim,
+                anchor,
+                candidates: values,
+            } => {
+                let x = &anchor[anchor_row * dim..(anchor_row + 1) * dim];
+                let y = &values[candidates.start * dim..candidates.end * dim];
+                for (out, y) in out.iter_mut().zip(y.chunks_exact(*dim)) {
+                    *out = hamming(x, y);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float16Array, Float32Array, UInt8Array, UInt64Array,
+    };
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn source(values: ArrayRef, dim: i32) -> RecordBatch {
+        let rows = values.len() / dim as usize;
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dim).unwrap();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+                Field::new(FLAT_COLUMN, vectors.data_type().clone(), false),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..rows as u64)),
+                Arc::new(vectors),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn score_all(scorer: &FlatPairScorer, source: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<Vec<f32>> {
+        let rows = source.num_rows();
+        let staged = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(
+            scorer
+                .stage(source, 0..rows)
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(field, column)| (field.name().clone(), column)),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let kernel = scorer.kernel(&staged, &staged).unwrap();
+        (0..rows)
+            .map(|a| {
+                let mut out = vec![0.0; rows];
+                kernel.distances(a, 0..rows, &mut out);
+                out
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_flat_distances(
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot)] metric: DistanceType,
+        #[values(DataType::Float16, DataType::Float32, DataType::Float64)] element: DataType,
+        // Above 16 dimensions f32 takes the blocked kernels, with a remainder.
+        #[values(3, 35)] dim: usize,
+    ) {
+        // Small integers and halves are exact in every float width, and so
+        // are all their sums of products here.
+        let base = [
+            [1.0, 0.0, 0.0],
+            [1.0, 0.0, 0.0],
+            [0.0, 2.0, 0.0],
+            [-1.5, 0.5, 2.0],
+            [0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
+        ];
+        let exact: Vec<f64> = base
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|row| {
+                (0..dim).map(|i| row[i % 3] * if (i / 3) % 2 == 0 { 1.0 } else { -0.5 })
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let values: ArrayRef = match element {
+            DataType::Float16 => Arc::new(Float16Array::from_iter_values(
+                exact.iter().map(|&v| f16::from_f64(v)),
+            )),
+            DataType::Float32 => Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                exact.iter().map(|&v| v as f32),
+            )),
+            _ => Arc::new(Float64Array::from(exact.clone())),
+        };
+        let source = source(values, dim as i32);
+        let scorer = FlatPairScorer::new(FLAT_COLUMN, source.schema_ref(), metric).unwrap();
+        let actual = score_all(&scorer, &source);
+        let rows: Vec<&[f64]> = exact.chunks_exact(dim).collect();
+        for (a, x) in rows.iter().enumerate() {
+            for (b, y) in rows.iter().enumerate() {
+                let dot: f64 = x.iter().zip(*y).map(|(x, y)| x * y).sum();
+                let norm = |v: &[f64]| v.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum::<f64>().sqrt();
+                let expected = match metric {
+                    DistanceType::L2 => x.iter().zip(*y).map(|(x, y)| (x - y).powi(2)).sum(),
+                    DistanceType::Dot => 1.0 - dot,
+                    _ => 1.0 - dot / (norm(x) * norm(y)),
+                };
+                let distance = actual[a][b];
+                if expected.is_nan() {
+                    assert!(distance.is_nan(), "{a} {b} {distance}");
+                } else {
+                    assert!(
+                        (f64::from(distance) - expected).abs() <= 1e-6,
+                        "{metric} {element} a={a} b={b} actual={distance} expected={expected}"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if metric != DistanceType::Dot {
+            // Identical vectors score exactly zero, including after renormalization.
+            assert_eq!(actual[0][1], 0.0);
+            assert_eq!(actual[3][3], 0.0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// lance-linalg's `dot_scalar::<f32, f32, 16>`, which is private there.
+    fn dot_reference(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let (x_chunks, x_remainder) = y.as_chunks::<16>();
+        let (y_chunks, y_remainder) = x.as_chunks::<16>();
+        let sum = if x_remainder.is_empty() {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            x_remainder
+                .iter()
+                .zip(y_remainder)
+                .map(|(&x, &y)| x * y)
+                .sum::<f32>()
+        };
+        let mut sums = [0.0f32; 16];
+        for (x, y) in x_chunks.iter().zip(y_chunks) {
+            for i in 0..16 {
+                sums[i] += x[i] * y[i];
+            }
+        }
+        sum + sums.iter().copied().sum::<f32>()
+    }
+
+    fn assert_same_bits(actual: &[f32], expected: &[f32], context: &str) {
+        assert_eq!(actual.len(), expected.len(), "{context}");
+        for (i, (a, e)) in actual.iter().zip(expected).enumerate() {
+            assert!(
+                a.to_bits() == e.to_bits() || (a.is_nan() && e.is_nan()),
+                "{context} row={i} actual={a:e} expected={e:e}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The blocked f32 kernels reproduce lance-linalg's 16-lane kernels bit
+    /// for bit on every backend and for every block split of the rows.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_f32_rows_bit_identical(
+        #[values(17, 32, 35, 64, 100, 1536)] dim: usize,
+        #[values(true, false)] l2: bool,
+    ) {
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::SmallRng};
+
+        let num_rows = 11;
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(dim as u64);
+        let anchor: Vec<f32> = (0..dim).map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0..1.0)).collect();
+        let mut rows: Vec<f32> = (0..num_rows * dim)
+            .map(|i| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0) * 10f32.powi((i / dim % 5) as i32 - 2))
+            .collect();
+        rows[3 * dim..4 * dim].copy_from_slice(&anchor);
+        rows[5 * dim + dim / 2] = f32::NAN;
+        rows[6 * dim + 1] = f32::INFINITY;
+
+        let reference = |y: &[f32]| {
+            if l2 {
+                lance_linalg::distance::l2_scalar::<f32, f32, 16>(&anchor, y)
+            } else {
+                dot_reference(&anchor, y)
+            }
+        };
+        let expected: Vec<f32> = rows.chunks_exact(dim).map(reference).collect();
+        if l2 {
+            assert_eq!(expected[3], 0.0);
+        }
+        // lance-linalg's batch kernels are these 16-lane kernels on the
+        // default builds; sub-AVX2 x86 builds dispatch per host instead.
+        #[cfg(any(
+            not(target_arch = "x86_64"),
+            all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma")
+        ))]
+        {
+            let mut batch = vec![0.0; num_rows];
+            batch_rows_kernel::<f32>(if l2 {
+                DistanceType::L2
+            } else {
+                DistanceType::Dot
+            })(&anchor, &rows, &mut batch);
+            assert_same_bits(&batch, &expected, "lance-linalg batch");
+        }
+
+        // Shift both inputs across every float offset within 64 bytes, as
+        // the AVX-512 kernel realigns its loads to the rows.
+        let shifted = |values: &[f32], offset: usize| {
+            let mut buffer = vec![f32::NAN; values.len() + offset];
+            buffer[offset..].copy_from_slice(values);
+            buffer
+        };
+        for (anchor_offset, rows_offset) in [(0, 0), (0, 5), (3, 0), (4, 4), (15, 1), (9, 12)] {
+            let anchor = shifted(&anchor, anchor_offset);
+            let anchor = &anchor[anchor_offset..];
+            let rows = shifted(&rows, rows_offset);
+            let rows = &rows[rows_offset..];
+            for (name, kernel) in f32_rows::backends(l2) {
+                for start in 0..num_rows {
+                    for end in start + 1..=num_rows {
+                        let mut out = vec![0.0; end - start];
+                        kernel(anchor, &rows[start * dim..end * dim], &mut out);
+                        assert_same_bits(
+                            &out,
+                            &expected[start..end],
+                            &format!(
+                                "{name} dim={dim} l2={l2} rows={start}..{end} \
+                                 offsets={anchor_offset},{rows_offset}"
+                            ),
+                        );
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_hamming() {
+        let values = UInt8Array::from(vec![0b1010_1010, 0xff, 0b1010_1011, 0x0f, 0, 0]);
+        let source = source(Arc::new(values), 2);
+        let scorer =
+            FlatPairScorer::new(FLAT_COLUMN, source.schema_ref(), DistanceType::Hamming).unwrap();
+        let actual = score_all(&scorer, &source);
+        assert_eq!(actual[0], vec![0.0, 5.0, 12.0]);
+        assert_eq!(actual[1][2], 9.0);
+        let err = FlatPairScorer::new(FLAT_COLUMN, source.schema_ref(), DistanceType::L2)
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{err}");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/storage.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/storage.rs
index 93117187178..1de4c4387fb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/storage.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/storage.rs
@@ -1,31 +1,44 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::{borrow::Cow, sync::Arc};
 
 use super::index::FlatMetadata;
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexHandle};
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
 use crate::vector::quantizer::QuantizerStorage;
 use crate::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore};
 use crate::vector::utils::do_prefetch;
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
 use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
-use arrow::datatypes::UInt8Type;
+use arrow::datatypes::{Float16Type, Float64Type, UInt8Type};
 use arrow_array::ArrowPrimitiveType;
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array,
     types::{Float32Type, UInt64Type},
-    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array,
 };
-use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, SchemaRef};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
 use lance_linalg::distance::hamming::hamming;
-use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_linalg::distance::{Cosine, DistanceType, Dot, L2, Normalize, norm_l2_fsl};
 
 pub const FLAT_COLUMN: &str = "flat";
 
+/// Per-vector L2 norms cached for Cosine distance, so `cosine_with_norms` can
+/// skip recomputing each stored vector's norm per comparison. `None` for other
+/// metrics and for value types without a norm kernel.
+fn cosine_norms_cache(
+    vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+) -> Option<Arc<Float32Array>> {
+    if distance_type != DistanceType::Cosine {
+        return None;
+    }
+    norm_l2_fsl(vectors).ok().map(Arc::new)
+}
+
 /// All data are stored in memory
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct FlatFloatStorage {
@@ -36,11 +49,17 @@ pub struct FlatFloatStorage {
     // helper fields
     pub(super) row_ids: Arc<UInt64Array>,
     vectors: Arc<FixedSizeListArray>,
+    /// Per-vector L2 norms for Cosine. `None` for other metrics.
+    norms: Option<Arc<Float32Array>>,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for FlatFloatStorage {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.batch.get_array_memory_size()
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        let mut size = self.batch.get_array_memory_size();
+        if let Some(norms) = &self.norms {
+            size += norms.get_array_memory_size();
+        }
+        size
     }
 }
 
@@ -53,6 +72,17 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for FlatFloatStorage {
         metadata: &Self::Metadata,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+            .map(|index| Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        Self::try_from_batch_with_remapper(batch, metadata, distance_type, frag_reuse_index)
+    }
+
+    fn try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let batch = if let Some(frag_reuse_index_ref) = frag_reuse_index.as_ref() {
             frag_reuse_index_ref.remap_row_ids_record_batch(batch, 0)?
@@ -63,29 +93,25 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for FlatFloatStorage {
         let row_ids = Arc::new(
             batch
                 .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
-                .ok_or(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("column {} not found", ROW_ID),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?
+                .ok_or(Error::schema(format!("column {} not found", ROW_ID)))?
                 .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
                 .clone(),
         );
         let vectors = Arc::new(
             batch
                 .column_by_name(FLAT_COLUMN)
-                .ok_or(Error::Schema {
-                    message: "column flat not found".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?
+                .ok_or(Error::schema("column flat not found".to_string()))?
                 .as_fixed_size_list()
                 .clone(),
         );
+        let norms = cosine_norms_cache(&vectors, distance_type);
         Ok(Self {
             metadata: metadata.clone(),
             batch,
             distance_type,
             row_ids,
             vectors,
+            norms,
         })
     }
 
@@ -94,7 +120,7 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for FlatFloatStorage {
     }
 
     async fn load_partition(
-        _: &PreviousFileReader,
+        _: &V1FileReader,
         _: std::ops::Range<usize>,
         _: DistanceType,
         _: &Self::Metadata,
@@ -116,6 +142,7 @@ impl FlatFloatStorage {
         ])
         .unwrap();
 
+        let norms = cosine_norms_cache(&vectors, distance_type);
         Self {
             metadata: FlatMetadata {
                 dim: vectors.value_length() as usize,
@@ -124,6 +151,7 @@ impl FlatFloatStorage {
             distance_type,
             row_ids,
             vectors,
+            norms,
         }
     }
 
@@ -133,7 +161,7 @@ impl FlatFloatStorage {
 }
 
 impl VectorStore for FlatFloatStorage {
-    type DistanceCalculator<'a> = FlatDistanceCal<'a, Float32Type>;
+    type DistanceCalculator<'a> = FlatFloatDistanceCalc<'a>;
 
     fn to_batches(&self) -> Result<impl Iterator<Item = RecordBatch>> {
         Ok([self.batch.clone()].into_iter())
@@ -141,8 +169,23 @@ impl VectorStore for FlatFloatStorage {
 
     fn append_batch(&self, batch: RecordBatch, _vector_column: &str) -> Result<Self> {
         // TODO: use chunked storage
-        let new_batch = concat_batches(&batch.schema(), vec![&self.batch, &batch].into_iter())?;
+        let new_batch = concat_batches(&batch.schema(), vec![&self.batch, &batch])?;
         let mut storage = self.clone();
+        storage.row_ids = Arc::new(
+            new_batch
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                .ok_or(Error::schema(format!("column {} not found", ROW_ID)))?
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                .clone(),
+        );
+        storage.vectors = Arc::new(
+            new_batch
+                .column_by_name(FLAT_COLUMN)
+                .ok_or(Error::schema("column flat not found".to_string()))?
+                .as_fixed_size_list()
+                .clone(),
+        );
+        storage.norms = cosine_norms_cache(&storage.vectors, storage.distance_type);
         storage.batch = new_batch;
         Ok(storage)
     }
@@ -172,15 +215,13 @@ impl VectorStore for FlatFloatStorage {
     }
 
     fn dist_calculator(&self, query: ArrayRef, _dist_q_c: f32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_> {
-        Self::DistanceCalculator::new(self.vectors.as_ref(), query, self.distance_type)
+        let norms = self.norms.as_ref().map(|n| n.values().as_ref());
+        Self::DistanceCalculator::new(self.vectors.as_ref(), query, self.distance_type, norms)
     }
 
     fn dist_calculator_from_id(&self, id: u32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_> {
-        Self::DistanceCalculator::new(
-            self.vectors.as_ref(),
-            self.vectors.value(id as usize),
-            self.distance_type,
-        )
+        let norms = self.norms.as_ref().map(|n| n.values().as_ref());
+        Self::DistanceCalculator::new_from_id(self.vectors.as_ref(), id, self.distance_type, norms)
     }
 }
 
@@ -197,7 +238,7 @@ pub struct FlatBinStorage {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for FlatBinStorage {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.batch.get_array_memory_size()
     }
 }
@@ -211,6 +252,17 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for FlatBinStorage {
         metadata: &Self::Metadata,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+            .map(|index| Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        Self::try_from_batch_with_remapper(batch, metadata, distance_type, frag_reuse_index)
+    }
+
+    fn try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let batch = if let Some(frag_reuse_index_ref) = frag_reuse_index.as_ref() {
             frag_reuse_index_ref.remap_row_ids_record_batch(batch, 0)?
@@ -221,20 +273,14 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for FlatBinStorage {
         let row_ids = Arc::new(
             batch
                 .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
-                .ok_or(Error::Schema {
-                    message: format!("column {} not found", ROW_ID),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?
+                .ok_or(Error::schema(format!("column {} not found", ROW_ID)))?
                 .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
                 .clone(),
         );
         let vectors = Arc::new(
             batch
                 .column_by_name(FLAT_COLUMN)
-                .ok_or(Error::Schema {
-                    message: "column flat not found".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?
+                .ok_or(Error::schema("column flat not found".to_string()))?
                 .as_fixed_size_list()
                 .clone(),
         );
@@ -252,7 +298,7 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for FlatBinStorage {
     }
 
     async fn load_partition(
-        _: &PreviousFileReader,
+        _: &V1FileReader,
         _: std::ops::Range<usize>,
         _: DistanceType,
         _: &Self::Metadata,
@@ -299,8 +345,22 @@ impl VectorStore for FlatBinStorage {
 
     fn append_batch(&self, batch: RecordBatch, _vector_column: &str) -> Result<Self> {
         // TODO: use chunked storage
-        let new_batch = concat_batches(&batch.schema(), vec![&self.batch, &batch].into_iter())?;
+        let new_batch = concat_batches(&batch.schema(), vec![&self.batch, &batch])?;
         let mut storage = self.clone();
+        storage.row_ids = Arc::new(
+            new_batch
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                .ok_or(Error::schema(format!("column {} not found", ROW_ID)))?
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                .clone(),
+        );
+        storage.vectors = Arc::new(
+            new_batch
+                .column_by_name(FLAT_COLUMN)
+                .ok_or(Error::schema("column flat not found".to_string()))?
+                .as_fixed_size_list()
+                .clone(),
+        );
         storage.batch = new_batch;
         Ok(storage)
     }
@@ -330,51 +390,123 @@ impl VectorStore for FlatBinStorage {
     }
 
     fn dist_calculator(&self, query: ArrayRef, _dist_q_c: f32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_> {
-        Self::DistanceCalculator::new(self.vectors.as_ref(), query, self.distance_type)
+        Self::DistanceCalculator::new_binary(self.vectors.as_ref(), query, self.distance_type)
     }
 
     fn dist_calculator_from_id(&self, id: u32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_> {
-        Self::DistanceCalculator::new(
-            self.vectors.as_ref(),
-            self.vectors.value(id as usize),
-            self.distance_type,
-        )
+        Self::DistanceCalculator::new_binary_from_id(self.vectors.as_ref(), id, self.distance_type)
     }
 }
 
 pub struct FlatDistanceCal<'a, T: ArrowPrimitiveType> {
     vectors: &'a [T::Native],
-    query: Vec<T::Native>,
+    query: Cow<'a, [T::Native]>,
     dimension: usize,
+    query_norm: Option<f32>,
+    vector_norms: Option<&'a [f32]>,
     #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
     distance_fn: fn(&[T::Native], &[T::Native]) -> f32,
 }
 
-impl<'a> FlatDistanceCal<'a, Float32Type> {
-    fn new(vectors: &'a FixedSizeListArray, query: ArrayRef, distance_type: DistanceType) -> Self {
+impl<'a, T> FlatDistanceCal<'a, T>
+where
+    T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
+    T::Native: L2 + Cosine + Dot,
+{
+    fn new(
+        vectors: &'a FixedSizeListArray,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        vector_norms: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(
+            vector_norms.is_none_or(|norms| norms.len() == vectors.len()),
+            "expected one cached norm per vector"
+        );
         // Gained significant performance improvement by using strong typed primitive slice.
-        // TODO: to support other data types other than `f32`, make FlatDistanceCal a generic struct.
-        let flat_array = vectors.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        let flat_array = vectors.values().as_primitive::<T>();
         let dimension = vectors.value_length() as usize;
+        let query: Cow<'a, [T::Native]> = Cow::Owned(query.as_primitive::<T>().values().to_vec());
+        // Only cache the query norm alongside the stored norms.
+        let query_norm = (distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine && vector_norms.is_some())
+            .then(|| T::Native::norm_l2(query.as_ref()));
         Self {
             vectors: flat_array.values(),
-            query: query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().to_vec(),
+            query,
             dimension,
+            query_norm,
+            vector_norms,
+            distance_fn: distance_type.func(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn new_from_id(
+        vectors: &'a FixedSizeListArray,
+        id: u32,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        vector_norms: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(
+            vector_norms.is_none_or(|norms| norms.len() == vectors.len()),
+            "expected one cached norm per vector"
+        );
+        let flat_array = vectors.values().as_primitive::<T>();
+        let dimension = vectors.value_length() as usize;
+        let vectors = flat_array.values();
+        let id = id as usize;
+        let query: Cow<'a, [T::Native]> =
+            Cow::Borrowed(&vectors[dimension * id..dimension * (id + 1)]);
+        // The query is stored vector `id`, so reuse its cached norm.
+        let query_norm = match (distance_type, vector_norms) {
+            (DistanceType::Cosine, Some(norms)) => Some(norms[id]),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+        Self {
+            vectors,
+            query,
+            dimension,
+            query_norm,
+            vector_norms,
             distance_fn: distance_type.func(),
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl<'a> FlatDistanceCal<'a, UInt8Type> {
-    fn new(vectors: &'a FixedSizeListArray, query: ArrayRef, _distance_type: DistanceType) -> Self {
+    fn new_binary(
+        vectors: &'a FixedSizeListArray,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        _distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> Self {
         // Gained significant performance improvement by using strong typed primitive slice.
         // TODO: to support other data types other than `f32`, make FlatDistanceCal a generic struct.
         let flat_array = vectors.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
         let dimension = vectors.value_length() as usize;
         Self {
             vectors: flat_array.values(),
-            query: query.as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values().to_vec(),
+            query: Cow::Owned(query.as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values().to_vec()),
             dimension,
+            query_norm: None,
+            vector_norms: None,
+            distance_fn: hamming,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn new_binary_from_id(
+        vectors: &'a FixedSizeListArray,
+        id: u32,
+        _distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let flat_array = vectors.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+        let dimension = vectors.value_length() as usize;
+        let vectors = flat_array.values();
+        let id = id as usize;
+        Self {
+            vectors,
+            query: Cow::Borrowed(&vectors[dimension * id..dimension * (id + 1)]),
+            dimension,
+            query_norm: None,
+            vector_norms: None,
             distance_fn: hamming,
         }
     }
@@ -387,19 +519,45 @@ impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType> FlatDistanceCal<'_, T> {
     }
 }
 
-impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType> DistCalculator for FlatDistanceCal<'_, T> {
+impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType> DistCalculator for FlatDistanceCal<'_, T>
+where
+    T::Native: Cosine,
+{
     #[inline]
     fn distance(&self, id: u32) -> f32 {
+        let query = self.query.as_ref();
         let vector = self.get_vector(id);
-        (self.distance_fn)(&self.query, vector)
+        match (self.query_norm, self.vector_norms) {
+            (Some(x_norm), Some(norms)) => {
+                T::Native::cosine_with_norms(query, x_norm, norms[id as usize], vector)
+            }
+            _ => (self.distance_fn)(query, vector),
+        }
     }
 
     fn distance_all(&self, _k_hint: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
-        let query = &self.query;
-        self.vectors
-            .chunks_exact(self.dimension)
-            .map(|vector| (self.distance_fn)(query, vector))
-            .collect()
+        let query = self.query.as_ref();
+        match (self.query_norm, self.vector_norms) {
+            (Some(x_norm), Some(norms)) => {
+                debug_assert_eq!(
+                    norms.len(),
+                    self.vectors.len() / self.dimension,
+                    "cached norms must cover every vector, otherwise `zip` silently truncates"
+                );
+                self.vectors
+                    .chunks_exact(self.dimension)
+                    .zip(norms)
+                    .map(|(vector, &y_norm)| {
+                        T::Native::cosine_with_norms(query, x_norm, y_norm, vector)
+                    })
+                    .collect()
+            }
+            _ => self
+                .vectors
+                .chunks_exact(self.dimension)
+                .map(|vector| (self.distance_fn)(query, vector))
+                .collect(),
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -408,3 +566,359 @@ impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType> DistCalculator for FlatDistanceCal<'_, T> {
         do_prefetch(vector.as_ptr_range())
     }
 }
+
+pub enum FlatFloatDistanceCalc<'a> {
+    Float16(FlatDistanceCal<'a, Float16Type>),
+    Float32(FlatDistanceCal<'a, Float32Type>),
+    Float64(FlatDistanceCal<'a, Float64Type>),
+}
+
+impl<'a> FlatFloatDistanceCalc<'a> {
+    fn new(
+        vectors: &'a FixedSizeListArray,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        vector_norms: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        match vectors.value_type() {
+            DataType::Float16 => Self::Float16(FlatDistanceCal::<Float16Type>::new(
+                vectors,
+                query,
+                distance_type,
+                vector_norms,
+            )),
+            DataType::Float32 => Self::Float32(FlatDistanceCal::<Float32Type>::new(
+                vectors,
+                query,
+                distance_type,
+                vector_norms,
+            )),
+            DataType::Float64 => Self::Float64(FlatDistanceCal::<Float64Type>::new(
+                vectors,
+                query,
+                distance_type,
+                vector_norms,
+            )),
+            dt => panic!("flat float storage does not support data type {dt}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn new_from_id(
+        vectors: &'a FixedSizeListArray,
+        id: u32,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        vector_norms: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        match vectors.value_type() {
+            DataType::Float16 => Self::Float16(FlatDistanceCal::<Float16Type>::new_from_id(
+                vectors,
+                id,
+                distance_type,
+                vector_norms,
+            )),
+            DataType::Float32 => Self::Float32(FlatDistanceCal::<Float32Type>::new_from_id(
+                vectors,
+                id,
+                distance_type,
+                vector_norms,
+            )),
+            DataType::Float64 => Self::Float64(FlatDistanceCal::<Float64Type>::new_from_id(
+                vectors,
+                id,
+                distance_type,
+                vector_norms,
+            )),
+            dt => panic!("flat float storage does not support data type {dt}"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DistCalculator for FlatFloatDistanceCalc<'_> {
+    fn distance(&self, id: u32) -> f32 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Float16(calc) => calc.distance(id),
+            Self::Float32(calc) => calc.distance(id),
+            Self::Float64(calc) => calc.distance(id),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn distance_all(&self, k_hint: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Float16(calc) => calc.distance_all(k_hint),
+            Self::Float32(calc) => calc.distance_all(k_hint),
+            Self::Float64(calc) => calc.distance_all(k_hint),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn prefetch(&self, id: u32) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Float16(calc) => calc.prefetch(id),
+            Self::Float32(calc) => calc.prefetch(id),
+            Self::Float64(calc) => calc.prefetch(id),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array};
+    use half::f16;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn make_f16_storage() -> FlatFloatStorage {
+        let values = Float16Array::from(vec![
+            f16::from_f32(1.0),
+            f16::from_f32(2.0),
+            f16::from_f32(4.0),
+            f16::from_f32(6.0),
+        ]);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::L2)
+    }
+
+    fn make_f64_storage() -> FlatFloatStorage {
+        let values = Float64Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0]);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::L2)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_float_storage_distance_f16() {
+        let storage = make_f16_storage();
+        let query: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float16Array::from(vec![
+            f16::from_f32(1.0),
+            f16::from_f32(2.0),
+        ]));
+
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+        let distances = calc.distance_all(2);
+
+        assert_eq!(distances.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(distances[0], 0.0);
+        assert!((distances[1] - 25.0).abs() < 1e-4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_float_storage_distance_f64() {
+        let storage = make_f64_storage();
+        let query: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0]));
+
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+        let distances = calc.distance_all(2);
+
+        assert_eq!(distances.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(distances[0], 0.0);
+        assert!((distances[1] - 25.0).abs() < 1e-6);
+    }
+
+    fn make_flat_test_batch(vectors: FixedSizeListArray, first_row_id: u64) -> RecordBatch {
+        let num_rows = vectors.len() as u64;
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            (
+                ROW_ID,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    first_row_id..first_row_id + num_rows,
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (FLAT_COLUMN, Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef),
+        ])
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Assert that the cached-norm Cosine path agrees with the uncached
+    /// `Cosine::cosine` reference for both `distance` and `distance_all`.
+    fn assert_cosine_matches_uncached<T>(vectors: FixedSizeListArray, query: ArrayRef)
+    where
+        T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
+        T::Native: L2 + Cosine + Dot,
+    {
+        let dim = vectors.value_length() as usize;
+        let values = vectors.values().as_primitive::<T>().values().to_vec();
+        let query_values = query.as_primitive::<T>().values().to_vec();
+
+        let storage = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::Cosine);
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+        let all = calc.distance_all(storage.len());
+        assert_eq!(all.len(), storage.len());
+
+        for (id, vector) in values.chunks_exact(dim).enumerate() {
+            let expected = T::Native::cosine(&query_values, vector);
+            assert!(
+                (all[id] - expected).abs() < 1e-5,
+                "distance_all[{id}]: {} vs uncached {expected}",
+                all[id]
+            );
+            assert!(
+                (calc.distance(id as u32) - expected).abs() < 1e-5,
+                "distance({id}): {} vs uncached {expected}",
+                calc.distance(id as u32)
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cosine_cached_norms_match_uncached_cosine() {
+        // Caching the stored vectors' norms must not change the distances that
+        // `Cosine::cosine` would compute inline, for any supported value type.
+        let f32_vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0]),
+            4,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_cosine_matches_uncached::<Float32Type>(
+            f32_vectors,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])),
+        );
+
+        let f16_values: Vec<f16> = [1.0f32, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&v| f16::from_f32(v))
+            .collect();
+        let f16_vectors =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float16Array::from(f16_values), 4).unwrap();
+        assert_cosine_matches_uncached::<Float16Type>(
+            f16_vectors,
+            Arc::new(Float16Array::from(vec![f16::from_f32(0.5); 4])),
+        );
+
+        let f64_vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float64Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0]),
+            4,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_cosine_matches_uncached::<Float64Type>(
+            f64_vectors,
+            Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])),
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2(DistanceType::L2, false)]
+    #[case::dot(DistanceType::Dot, false)]
+    #[case::cosine(DistanceType::Cosine, true)]
+    fn test_norms_cached_only_for_cosine(
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[case] expect_norms: bool,
+    ) {
+        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0]);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 4).unwrap();
+        let batch = make_flat_test_batch(vectors.clone(), 0);
+        let metadata = FlatMetadata { dim: 4 };
+
+        let loaded =
+            FlatFloatStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, distance_type, None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(loaded.distance_type(), distance_type);
+        assert_eq!(loaded.norms.is_some(), expect_norms);
+
+        // `new` is on the build path (see `HnswBuilder::build`) and must agree.
+        let built = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, distance_type);
+        assert_eq!(built.norms.is_some(), expect_norms);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_append_batch_recomputes_norms() {
+        // A stale norms cache would silently truncate `distance_all` via `zip`,
+        // so appending must extend it to cover the new rows.
+        let head = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]),
+            4,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let storage = FlatFloatStorage::new(head, DistanceType::Cosine);
+        assert_eq!(storage.norms.as_ref().unwrap().len(), 1);
+
+        let tail = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0]),
+            4,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let appended = storage
+            .append_batch(make_flat_test_batch(tail, 1), FLAT_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(appended.len(), 3);
+        let norms = appended.norms.as_ref().expect("norms kept after append");
+        assert_eq!(norms.len(), 3);
+        for (id, expected) in [
+            (0, 30.0f32.sqrt()),
+            (1, 174.0f32.sqrt()),
+            (2, 446.0f32.sqrt()),
+        ] {
+            assert!(
+                (norms.value(id) - expected).abs() < 1e-4,
+                "norms[{id}]: {} vs {expected}",
+                norms.value(id)
+            );
+        }
+
+        let query: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5]));
+        assert_eq!(
+            appended.dist_calculator(query, 0.0).distance_all(3).len(),
+            3
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dist_calculator_from_id_reuses_cached_norms() {
+        // HNSW builds graphs through `dist_calculator_from_id`; the query is a
+        // stored vector, so its norm comes from the cache instead of `norm_l2`.
+        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0]);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 4).unwrap();
+        let storage = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::Cosine);
+
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator_from_id(1);
+        // Self-distance of a vector against itself is ~0 under cosine.
+        assert!(calc.distance(1).abs() < 1e-6, "got {}", calc.distance(1));
+
+        let expected = f32::cosine(&[5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0], &[1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]);
+        assert!(
+            (calc.distance(0) - expected).abs() < 1e-6,
+            "{} vs {expected}",
+            calc.distance(0)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn normalized_f16_cosine_keeps_self_match_at_zero_lower_bound() {
+        let values = Float16Array::from(vec![
+            f16::from_f32(7.0),
+            f16::from_f32(47.0),
+            f16::from_f32(13.0),
+        ]);
+        let raw = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 3).unwrap();
+        let normalized = lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl(&raw).unwrap();
+        let query = normalized.value(0);
+        let batch = make_flat_test_batch(normalized, 0);
+        let storage = FlatFloatStorage::try_from_batch(
+            batch,
+            &FlatMetadata { dim: 3 },
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let distance = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0).distance(0);
+        assert!(
+            distance >= 0.0,
+            "lower_bound=0 would drop self-match: {distance}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_deep_size_accounts_for_cached_norms() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0]);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 4).unwrap();
+
+        let cosine = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors.clone(), DistanceType::Cosine);
+        let l2 = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::L2);
+        assert!(
+            cosine.deep_size_of() > l2.deep_size_of(),
+            "cosine storage must report the cached norms: {} vs {}",
+            cosine.deep_size_of(),
+            l2.deep_size_of()
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/transform.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/transform.rs
index 7afe5d4d9e3..b2358ccd1eb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/transform.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/flat/transform.rs
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@ use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_schema::Field;
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use lance_core::Error;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 use crate::vector::transform::Transformer;
@@ -27,16 +26,13 @@ impl FlatTransformer {
 
 impl Transformer for FlatTransformer {
     #[instrument(name = "FlatTransformer::transform", level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    fn transform(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> crate::Result<RecordBatch> {
+    fn transform(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> lance_core::Result<RecordBatch> {
         let input_arr = batch
             .column_by_name(&self.input_column)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "FlatTransform: column {} not found in batch",
-                    self.input_column
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "FlatTransform: column {} not found in batch",
+                self.input_column
+            )))?;
         let field = Field::new(
             FLAT_COLUMN,
             input_arr.data_type().clone(),
@@ -49,3 +45,109 @@ impl Transformer for FlatTransformer {
         Ok(batch)
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow::buffer::NullBuffer;
+    use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    const DIM: i32 = 4;
+    const ROWS: usize = 8;
+
+    fn batch() -> RecordBatch {
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..(DIM as usize * ROWS)).map(|v| v as f32));
+        let vectors = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, DIM).unwrap());
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("vec", vectors.data_type().clone(), true),
+            Field::new("other", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema),
+            vec![
+                vectors,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..ROWS as i32)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_transform_renames_vector_column() {
+        let input = batch();
+        let output = FlatTransformer::new("vec").transform(&input).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(output.column_by_name("vec").is_none());
+        assert!(
+            output.column_by_name("other").is_some(),
+            "unrelated columns should survive"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(output.num_rows(), ROWS);
+
+        let flat = output.column_by_name(FLAT_COLUMN).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            flat.data_type(),
+            input.column_by_name("vec").unwrap().data_type()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(flat.as_ref(), input.column_by_name("vec").unwrap().as_ref());
+    }
+
+    /// Builds a batch whose vector column holds `nulls`, one entry per row.
+    fn batch_with_nulls(nulls: &[bool]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let rows = nulls.len();
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..(DIM as usize * rows)).map(|v| v as f32));
+        let item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let validity = NullBuffer::from(nulls.iter().map(|n| !n).collect::<Vec<bool>>());
+        let vectors = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(item, DIM, Arc::new(values), Some(validity)).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("vec", vectors.data_type().clone(), true),
+            Field::new("other", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema),
+            vec![
+                vectors,
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..rows as i32)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The renamed field takes its nullability from `Array::is_nullable`, which
+    /// reports whether the column *currently holds* nulls rather than what the
+    /// source schema declared. Both directions are pinned so the flag cannot be
+    /// hardcoded either way.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::no_nulls(&[false, false], false)]
+    #[case::some_nulls(&[false, true], true)]
+    fn test_flat_transform_nullability_follows_the_data(
+        #[case] nulls: &[bool],
+        #[case] expected: bool,
+    ) {
+        let input = batch_with_nulls(nulls);
+        let output = FlatTransformer::new("vec").transform(&input).unwrap();
+        let field = output
+            .schema()
+            .field_with_name(FLAT_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+        assert_eq!(field.is_nullable(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_transform_reports_missing_column() {
+        let message = FlatTransformer::new("absent")
+            .transform(&batch())
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("column absent"), "{message}");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/graph.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/graph.rs
index 2dac8a23f7e..9100034eaea 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/graph.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/graph.rs
@@ -5,12 +5,11 @@
 //!
 
 use std::cmp::Reverse;
-use std::collections::BinaryHeap;
+use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, VecDeque};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-use bitvec::vec::BitVec;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 
 use crate::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswQueryParams;
 
@@ -161,40 +160,64 @@ pub trait Graph {
     fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>>;
 }
 
-/// Array-based visited list (faster than HashSet)
+pub trait BorrowingGraph {
+    /// Get the number of nodes in the graph.
+    fn len(&self) -> usize;
+
+    /// Returns true if the graph is empty.
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    /// Borrow the neighbors of a graph node, identified by the index.
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> &[u32];
+}
+
+const WORD_BITS: usize = usize::BITS as usize;
+
+/// Compact visited list for graph traversals.
 pub struct Visited<'a> {
-    visited: &'a mut BitVec,
-    recently_visited: Vec<u32>,
+    visited: &'a mut Vec<usize>,
+    recently_visited: &'a mut Vec<u32>,
 }
 
 impl Visited<'_> {
     pub fn insert(&mut self, node_id: u32) {
         let node_id_usize = node_id as usize;
-        if !self.visited[node_id_usize] {
-            self.visited.set(node_id_usize, true);
+        let word_index = node_id_usize / WORD_BITS;
+        let mask = 1usize << (node_id_usize % WORD_BITS);
+        if self.visited[word_index] & mask == 0 {
+            self.visited[word_index] |= mask;
             self.recently_visited.push(node_id);
         }
     }
 
     pub fn contains(&self, node_id: u32) -> bool {
         let node_id_usize = node_id as usize;
-        self.visited[node_id_usize]
+        let word_index = node_id_usize / WORD_BITS;
+        let mask = 1usize << (node_id_usize % WORD_BITS);
+        self.visited[word_index] & mask != 0
     }
 
     #[inline(always)]
     pub fn iter_ones(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = usize> + '_ {
-        self.visited.iter_ones()
+        self.recently_visited
+            .iter()
+            .map(|node_id| *node_id as usize)
     }
 
     pub fn count_ones(&self) -> usize {
-        self.visited.count_ones()
+        self.recently_visited.len()
     }
 }
 
 impl Drop for Visited<'_> {
     fn drop(&mut self) {
-        for node_id in self.recently_visited.iter() {
-            self.visited.set(*node_id as usize, false);
+        for node_id in self.recently_visited.iter().copied() {
+            let node_id_usize = node_id as usize;
+            let word_index = node_id_usize / WORD_BITS;
+            let mask = 1usize << (node_id_usize % WORD_BITS);
+            self.visited[word_index] &= !mask;
         }
         self.recently_visited.clear();
     }
@@ -202,14 +225,16 @@ impl Drop for Visited<'_> {
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct VisitedGenerator {
-    visited: BitVec,
+    visited: Vec<usize>,
+    recently_visited: Vec<u32>,
     capacity: usize,
 }
 
 impl VisitedGenerator {
     pub fn new(capacity: usize) -> Self {
         Self {
-            visited: BitVec::repeat(false, capacity),
+            visited: vec![0; capacity.div_ceil(WORD_BITS)],
+            recently_visited: Vec::new(),
             capacity,
         }
     }
@@ -217,12 +242,12 @@ impl VisitedGenerator {
     pub fn generate(&mut self, node_count: usize) -> Visited<'_> {
         if node_count > self.capacity {
             let new_capacity = self.capacity.max(node_count).next_power_of_two();
-            self.visited.resize(new_capacity, false);
+            self.visited.resize(new_capacity.div_ceil(WORD_BITS), 0);
             self.capacity = new_capacity;
         }
         Visited {
             visited: &mut self.visited,
-            recently_visited: Vec::new(),
+            recently_visited: &mut self.recently_visited,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -253,6 +278,91 @@ fn process_neighbors_with_look_ahead<F>(
     }
 }
 
+#[inline]
+fn furthest_distance(results: &BinaryHeap<OrderedNode>) -> OrderedFloat {
+    results
+        .peek()
+        .map(|node| node.dist)
+        .unwrap_or(OrderedFloat(f32::INFINITY))
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn push_result(results: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode>, candidate: OrderedNode, k: usize) {
+    if results.len() < k {
+        results.push(candidate);
+    } else if candidate.dist < results.peek().unwrap().dist {
+        results.pop();
+        results.push(candidate);
+    }
+}
+
+macro_rules! beam_search_loop {
+    (
+        $candidates:ident,
+        $results:ident,
+        $visited:ident,
+        $k:expr,
+        $dist_calc:expr,
+        $accepts_result:expr,
+        |$current:ident, $process_neighbor:ident| $visit_neighbors:block
+    ) => {{
+        while !$candidates.is_empty() {
+            let $current = $candidates.pop().expect("candidates is empty").0;
+            let furthest = furthest_distance(&$results);
+
+            if $current.dist > furthest && $results.len() == $k {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            let $process_neighbor = |neighbor: u32| {
+                if $visited.contains(neighbor) {
+                    return;
+                }
+                $visited.insert(neighbor);
+                let dist: OrderedFloat = $dist_calc.distance(neighbor).into();
+                // Algorithm 2 refreshes the furthest result after every
+                // update to W, including updates made by an earlier neighbor
+                // of this same expanded node.
+                let furthest = furthest_distance(&$results);
+                if dist <= furthest || $results.len() < $k {
+                    if $accepts_result(neighbor, dist) {
+                        push_result(&mut $results, (dist, neighbor).into(), $k);
+                    }
+                    $candidates.push(Reverse((dist, neighbor).into()));
+                }
+            };
+            $visit_neighbors
+        }
+    }};
+}
+
+macro_rules! greedy_search_loop {
+    (
+        $current:ident,
+        $closest_dist:ident,
+        $dist_calc:expr,
+        |$process_neighbor:ident| $visit_neighbors:block
+    ) => {{
+        loop {
+            let mut next = None;
+            let $process_neighbor = |neighbor: u32| {
+                let dist = $dist_calc.distance(neighbor);
+                if dist < $closest_dist {
+                    $closest_dist = dist;
+                    next = Some(neighbor);
+                }
+            };
+            $visit_neighbors
+
+            if let Some(next) = next {
+                $current = next;
+            } else {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+    }};
+}
+
 /// Beam search over a graph
 ///
 /// This is the same as ``search-layer`` in HNSW.
@@ -291,11 +401,114 @@ pub fn beam_search(
     visited.insert(ep.id);
     candidates.push(Reverse(ep.clone()));
 
+    let mut results = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k);
+    let no_filter =
+        bitset.is_none() && params.lower_bound.is_none() && params.upper_bound.is_none();
+
+    if no_filter {
+        results.push(ep.clone());
+        let accepts_result = |_: u32, _: OrderedFloat| true;
+        beam_search_loop!(
+            candidates,
+            results,
+            visited,
+            k,
+            dist_calc,
+            accepts_result,
+            |current, process_neighbor| {
+                let neighbors = graph.neighbors(current.id);
+                process_neighbors_with_look_ahead(
+                    &neighbors,
+                    process_neighbor,
+                    prefetch_distance,
+                    dist_calc,
+                );
+            }
+        );
+        return results.into_sorted_vec();
+    }
+
     // add range search support
     let lower_bound: OrderedFloat = params.lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN).into();
     let upper_bound: OrderedFloat = params.upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX).into();
 
+    if bitset.map(|bitset| bitset.contains(ep.id)).unwrap_or(true)
+        && ep.dist >= lower_bound
+        && ep.dist < upper_bound
+    {
+        results.push(ep.clone());
+    }
+
+    let accepts_result = |node_id: u32, dist: OrderedFloat| {
+        bitset
+            .map(|bitset| bitset.contains(node_id))
+            .unwrap_or(true)
+            && dist >= lower_bound
+            && dist < upper_bound
+    };
+    beam_search_loop!(
+        candidates,
+        results,
+        visited,
+        k,
+        dist_calc,
+        accepts_result,
+        |current, process_neighbor| {
+            let neighbors = graph.neighbors(current.id);
+            process_neighbors_with_look_ahead(
+                &neighbors,
+                process_neighbor,
+                prefetch_distance,
+                dist_calc,
+            );
+        }
+    );
+    results.into_sorted_vec()
+}
+
+pub fn beam_search_borrowed(
+    graph: &impl BorrowingGraph,
+    ep: &OrderedNode,
+    params: &HnswQueryParams,
+    dist_calc: &impl DistCalculator,
+    bitset: Option<&Visited>,
+    prefetch_distance: Option<usize>,
+    visited: &mut Visited,
+) -> Vec<OrderedNode> {
+    let k = params.ef;
+    let mut candidates = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k);
+    visited.insert(ep.id);
+    candidates.push(Reverse(ep.clone()));
+
     let mut results = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k);
+    let no_filter =
+        bitset.is_none() && params.lower_bound.is_none() && params.upper_bound.is_none();
+
+    if no_filter {
+        results.push(ep.clone());
+        let accepts_result = |_: u32, _: OrderedFloat| true;
+        beam_search_loop!(
+            candidates,
+            results,
+            visited,
+            k,
+            dist_calc,
+            accepts_result,
+            |current, process_neighbor| {
+                let neighbors = graph.neighbors(current.id);
+                process_neighbors_with_look_ahead(
+                    neighbors,
+                    process_neighbor,
+                    prefetch_distance,
+                    dist_calc,
+                );
+            }
+        );
+        return results.into_sorted_vec();
+    }
+
+    let lower_bound: OrderedFloat = params.lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN).into();
+    let upper_bound: OrderedFloat = params.upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX).into();
 
     if bitset.map(|bitset| bitset.contains(ep.id)).unwrap_or(true)
         && ep.dist >= lower_bound
@@ -304,54 +517,176 @@ pub fn beam_search(
         results.push(ep.clone());
     }
 
-    while !candidates.is_empty() {
-        let current = candidates.pop().expect("candidates is empty").0;
-        let furthest = results
-            .peek()
-            .map(|node| node.dist)
-            .unwrap_or(OrderedFloat(f32::INFINITY));
+    let accepts_result = |node_id: u32, dist: OrderedFloat| {
+        bitset
+            .map(|bitset| bitset.contains(node_id))
+            .unwrap_or(true)
+            && dist >= lower_bound
+            && dist < upper_bound
+    };
+    beam_search_loop!(
+        candidates,
+        results,
+        visited,
+        k,
+        dist_calc,
+        accepts_result,
+        |current, process_neighbor| {
+            let neighbors = graph.neighbors(current.id);
+            process_neighbors_with_look_ahead(
+                neighbors,
+                process_neighbor,
+                prefetch_distance,
+                dist_calc,
+            );
+        }
+    );
+    results.into_sorted_vec()
+}
 
-        // TODO: add an option to ignore the second condition for better performance.
-        if current.dist > furthest && results.len() == k {
-            break;
+/// Number of mask-passing nodes used to seed [beam_search_acorn]'s frontier.
+const ACORN_SEED_COUNT: usize = 16;
+
+/// Cap on starved-frontier waypoint expansions in [beam_search_acorn],
+/// as a multiple of `ef`.
+const ACORN_BRIDGE_BUDGET_FACTOR: usize = 4;
+
+/// Beam search over the mask-passing subgraph (ACORN-1).
+///
+/// Only nodes in `bitset` get distances. A filtered-out neighbor contributes
+/// its own neighbors instead, expanded once via `expanded`. Deeper masked
+/// chains are crossed through unscored waypoints under a budget. The frontier
+/// starts from the entry point plus mask-sampled seeds. May return fewer than
+/// `min(ef, passing)` results if the budget runs out, so callers needing a
+/// guarantee must check the count.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub fn beam_search_acorn(
+    graph: &impl BorrowingGraph,
+    ep: &OrderedNode,
+    params: &HnswQueryParams,
+    dist_calc: &impl DistCalculator,
+    bitset: &Visited,
+    prefetch_distance: Option<usize>,
+    visited: &mut Visited,
+    expanded: &mut Visited,
+) -> Vec<OrderedNode> {
+    let ef = params.ef;
+    let lower_bound: OrderedFloat = params.lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN).into();
+    let upper_bound: OrderedFloat = params.upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX).into();
+    let passing_total = bitset.count_ones();
+    let mut candidates = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(ef);
+    let mut results = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(ef);
+    // collected per node before scoring so prefetch targets are the ids
+    // that actually get distances
+    let mut passing: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(64);
+    // masked nodes seen two hops out, expandable if the frontier starves,
+    // deduped against `expanded` at pop rather than at push
+    let mut waypoints: VecDeque<u32> = VecDeque::new();
+    let mut bridge_budget = ACORN_BRIDGE_BUDGET_FACTOR * ef;
+
+    // the entry point seeds the traversal even if it fails the mask
+    visited.insert(ep.id);
+    candidates.push(Reverse(ep.clone()));
+    if bitset.contains(ep.id) && ep.dist >= lower_bound && ep.dist < upper_bound {
+        results.push(ep.clone());
+    }
+
+    let stride = (passing_total / ACORN_SEED_COUNT).max(1);
+    for seed in bitset.iter_ones().step_by(stride).take(ACORN_SEED_COUNT) {
+        let seed = seed as u32;
+        if visited.contains(seed) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        visited.insert(seed);
+        let dist: OrderedFloat = dist_calc.distance(seed).into();
+        if dist >= lower_bound && dist < upper_bound {
+            push_result(&mut results, (dist, seed).into(), ef);
         }
-        let furthest = results
-            .peek()
-            .map(|node| node.dist)
-            .unwrap_or(OrderedFloat(f32::INFINITY));
-
-        let process_neighbor = |neighbor: u32| {
-            if visited.contains(neighbor) {
-                return;
+        candidates.push(Reverse((dist, seed).into()));
+    }
+
+    loop {
+        let Some(Reverse(current)) = candidates.pop() else {
+            // frontier starved: burn bridge budget through masked waypoints
+            // until a new passing node is found
+            if results.len() >= ef.min(passing_total) {
+                break;
             }
-            visited.insert(neighbor);
-            let dist: OrderedFloat = dist_calc.distance(neighbor).into();
-            if dist <= furthest || results.len() < k {
-                if bitset
-                    .map(|bitset| bitset.contains(neighbor))
-                    .unwrap_or(true)
-                    && dist >= lower_bound
-                    && dist < upper_bound
-                {
-                    if results.len() < k {
-                        results.push((dist, neighbor).into());
-                    } else if results.len() == k && dist < results.peek().unwrap().dist {
-                        results.pop();
-                        results.push((dist, neighbor).into());
+            let mut found = false;
+            while let Some(waypoint) = waypoints.pop_front() {
+                if bridge_budget == 0 {
+                    break;
+                }
+                if expanded.contains(waypoint) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                expanded.insert(waypoint);
+                bridge_budget -= 1;
+                for &neighbor in graph.neighbors(waypoint) {
+                    if bitset.contains(neighbor) {
+                        if !visited.contains(neighbor) {
+                            visited.insert(neighbor);
+                            let dist: OrderedFloat = dist_calc.distance(neighbor).into();
+                            if dist >= lower_bound && dist < upper_bound {
+                                push_result(&mut results, (dist, neighbor).into(), ef);
+                            }
+                            candidates.push(Reverse((dist, neighbor).into()));
+                            found = true;
+                        }
+                    } else if !expanded.contains(neighbor) {
+                        waypoints.push_back(neighbor);
                     }
                 }
-                candidates.push(Reverse((dist, neighbor).into()));
+                if found {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            if !found {
+                break;
             }
+            continue;
         };
-        let neighbors = graph.neighbors(current.id);
+        if current.dist > furthest_distance(&results) && results.len() == ef {
+            break;
+        }
+
+        passing.clear();
+        for &neighbor in graph.neighbors(current.id) {
+            if bitset.contains(neighbor) {
+                if !visited.contains(neighbor) {
+                    visited.insert(neighbor);
+                    passing.push(neighbor);
+                }
+            } else if !expanded.contains(neighbor) {
+                expanded.insert(neighbor);
+                for &second_hop in graph.neighbors(neighbor) {
+                    if bitset.contains(second_hop) {
+                        if !visited.contains(second_hop) {
+                            visited.insert(second_hop);
+                            passing.push(second_hop);
+                        }
+                    } else if !expanded.contains(second_hop) {
+                        waypoints.push_back(second_hop);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
         process_neighbors_with_look_ahead(
-            &neighbors,
-            process_neighbor,
+            &passing,
+            |node| {
+                let dist: OrderedFloat = dist_calc.distance(node).into();
+                if dist <= furthest_distance(&results) || results.len() < ef {
+                    if dist >= lower_bound && dist < upper_bound {
+                        push_result(&mut results, (dist, node).into(), ef);
+                    }
+                    candidates.push(Reverse((dist, node).into()));
+                }
+            },
             prefetch_distance,
             dist_calc,
         );
     }
-
     results.into_sorted_vec()
 }
 
@@ -381,33 +716,188 @@ pub fn greedy_search(
 ) -> OrderedNode {
     let mut current = start.id;
     let mut closest_dist = start.dist.0;
-    loop {
+    greedy_search_loop!(current, closest_dist, dist_calc, |process_neighbor| {
         let neighbors = graph.neighbors(current);
-        let mut next = None;
-
-        let process_neighbor = |neighbor: u32| {
-            let dist = dist_calc.distance(neighbor);
-            if dist < closest_dist {
-                closest_dist = dist;
-                next = Some(neighbor);
-            }
-        };
         process_neighbors_with_look_ahead(
             &neighbors,
             process_neighbor,
             prefetch_distance,
             dist_calc,
         );
+    });
+    OrderedNode::new(current, closest_dist.into())
+}
 
-        if let Some(next) = next {
-            current = next;
-        } else {
-            break;
-        }
-    }
-
+pub fn greedy_search_borrowed(
+    graph: &impl BorrowingGraph,
+    start: OrderedNode,
+    dist_calc: &impl DistCalculator,
+    prefetch_distance: Option<usize>,
+) -> OrderedNode {
+    let mut current = start.id;
+    let mut closest_dist = start.dist.0;
+    greedy_search_loop!(current, closest_dist, dist_calc, |process_neighbor| {
+        let neighbors = graph.neighbors(current);
+        process_neighbors_with_look_ahead(
+            neighbors,
+            process_neighbor,
+            prefetch_distance,
+            dist_calc,
+        );
+    });
     OrderedNode::new(current, closest_dist.into())
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {}
+mod tests {
+    use std::cell::Cell;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    struct ChainGraph {
+        neighbors: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+    }
+
+    impl BorrowingGraph for ChainGraph {
+        fn len(&self) -> usize {
+            self.neighbors.len()
+        }
+
+        fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> &[u32] {
+            &self.neighbors[key as usize]
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct ZeroDistance;
+
+    impl DistCalculator for ZeroDistance {
+        fn distance(&self, _id: u32) -> f32 {
+            0.0
+        }
+
+        fn distance_all(&self, _k_hint: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+            Vec::new()
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct CountingDistCalculator<'a> {
+        distances: &'a [f32],
+        computations: Cell<usize>,
+    }
+
+    impl DistCalculator for CountingDistCalculator<'_> {
+        fn distance(&self, id: u32) -> f32 {
+            self.computations.set(self.computations.get() + 1);
+            self.distances[id as usize]
+        }
+
+        fn distance_all(&self, _k_hint: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+            self.distances.to_vec()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_beam_search_refreshes_furthest_neighbor_bound() {
+        // The entry point is closer than the first candidates. Once those
+        // candidates fill W, its furthest distance grows from 1 to 10. The
+        // next neighbor must be compared with that new bound so it can enter
+        // the candidate queue and lead the search to node 4.
+        let graph = ChainGraph {
+            neighbors: vec![vec![1, 2, 3], vec![], vec![], vec![4], vec![]],
+        };
+        let distances = [1.0, 10.0, 9.0, 8.0, 7.0];
+        let dist_calc = CountingDistCalculator {
+            distances: &distances,
+            computations: Cell::new(0),
+        };
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 3,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let entry = OrderedNode::new(0, distances[0].into());
+        let mut visited_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(graph.len());
+
+        let results = beam_search_borrowed(
+            &graph,
+            &entry,
+            &params,
+            &dist_calc,
+            None,
+            None,
+            &mut visited_generator.generate(graph.len()),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            results.iter().map(|node| node.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 4, 3]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dist_calc.computations.get(), 4);
+    }
+
+    /// Passing components joined only through chains of two masked nodes
+    /// must still all be found (from review: without waypoint expansion
+    /// only the seeded nodes return).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_acorn_reaches_across_masked_chains() {
+        const PASSING_COUNT: usize = 20;
+        const FAILING_COUNT: usize = (PASSING_COUNT - 1) * 2;
+        let mut neighbors = vec![Vec::new(); PASSING_COUNT + FAILING_COUNT];
+        for index in 0..PASSING_COUNT - 1 {
+            let left = index as u32;
+            let first_failing = (PASSING_COUNT + index * 2) as u32;
+            let second_failing = first_failing + 1;
+            let right = left + 1;
+
+            neighbors[left as usize].push(first_failing);
+            neighbors[first_failing as usize].extend([left, second_failing]);
+            neighbors[second_failing as usize].extend([first_failing, right]);
+            neighbors[right as usize].push(second_failing);
+        }
+        let graph = ChainGraph { neighbors };
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 30,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let entry = OrderedNode::new(0, 0.0.into());
+
+        let mut mask_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(graph.len());
+        let mut mask = mask_generator.generate(graph.len());
+        for id in 0..PASSING_COUNT as u32 {
+            mask.insert(id);
+        }
+
+        let mut acorn_visited_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(graph.len());
+        let mut acorn_expanded_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(graph.len());
+        let acorn_results = beam_search_acorn(
+            &graph,
+            &entry,
+            &params,
+            &ZeroDistance,
+            &mask,
+            None,
+            &mut acorn_visited_generator.generate(graph.len()),
+            &mut acorn_expanded_generator.generate(graph.len()),
+        );
+
+        let mut basic_visited_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(graph.len());
+        let basic_results = beam_search_borrowed(
+            &graph,
+            &entry,
+            &params,
+            &ZeroDistance,
+            Some(&mask),
+            None,
+            &mut basic_visited_generator.generate(graph.len()),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(basic_results.len(), PASSING_COUNT);
+        assert_eq!(acorn_results.len(), PASSING_COUNT);
+        assert!(acorn_results.iter().all(|node| mask.contains(node.id)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/graph/builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/graph/builder.rs
index 8cce6a6eca9..2cbc8855568 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/graph/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/graph/builder.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 
 use super::OrderedFloat;
 use super::OrderedNode;
@@ -19,6 +19,20 @@ pub struct GraphBuilderNode {
 }
 
 impl GraphBuilderNode {
+    /// Construct a node from already-computed parts. Used by the online
+    /// builder to convert its mutable state into an immutable `HNSW`.
+    pub(crate) fn from_parts(
+        level_neighbors: Vec<Arc<Vec<u32>>>,
+        level_neighbors_ranked: Vec<Vec<OrderedNode>>,
+        bottom_neighbors: Arc<Vec<u32>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bottom_neighbors,
+            level_neighbors,
+            level_neighbors_ranked,
+        }
+    }
+
     pub(crate) fn new(_id: u32, max_level: usize) -> Self {
         let bottom_neighbors = Arc::new(Vec::new());
         let level_neighbors = (0..max_level).map(|_| Arc::new(Vec::new())).collect();
@@ -46,25 +60,4 @@ impl GraphBuilderNode {
             self.bottom_neighbors = self.level_neighbors[0].clone();
         }
     }
-
-    pub(crate) fn cutoff(&self, level: u16, max_size: usize) -> OrderedFloat {
-        let neighbors = &self.level_neighbors_ranked[level as usize];
-        if neighbors.len() < max_size {
-            OrderedFloat(f32::INFINITY)
-        } else {
-            neighbors.last().unwrap().dist
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct GraphBuilderStats {
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
-    pub num_nodes: usize,
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
-    pub max_edges: usize,
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
-    pub mean_edges: f32,
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
-    pub mean_distance: f32,
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw.rs
index 73d111cf56c..afa2e03bdda 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw.rs
@@ -7,19 +7,22 @@
 //!
 
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use itertools::Itertools;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
 
 use self::builder::HnswBuildParams;
-use super::graph::{OrderedFloat, OrderedNode};
+use super::graph::OrderedNode;
 use super::storage::VectorStore;
 
 pub mod builder;
 pub mod index;
+pub mod online;
+pub mod remap;
 
 pub use builder::HNSW;
 pub use index::HNSWIndex;
+pub use online::OnlineHnswBuilder;
 
 const HNSW_TYPE: &str = "HNSW";
 const VECTOR_ID_COL: &str = "__vector_id";
@@ -46,7 +49,7 @@ pub struct HnswMetadata {
 impl Default for HnswMetadata {
     fn default() -> Self {
         let params = HnswBuildParams::default();
-        let level_offsets = vec![0; params.max_level as usize];
+        let level_offsets = vec![0; params.max_level as usize + 1];
         Self {
             entry_point: 0,
             params,
@@ -57,9 +60,16 @@ impl Default for HnswMetadata {
 
 /// Algorithm 4 in the HNSW paper.
 ///
+/// This uses the paper's `extendCandidates = false` and
+/// `keepPrunedConnections = true` configuration. Keeping pruned connections
+/// fills the requested degree without exceeding it, reducing sparse directed
+/// components. It does not guarantee that every node is reachable: lower
+/// construction settings trade graph quality for size and build work. Callers
+/// supply the complete candidate set that should participate in this selection.
+///
 /// # NOTE
 /// The results are not ordered.
-fn select_neighbors_heuristic(
+pub(crate) fn select_neighbors_heuristic(
     storage: &impl VectorStore,
     candidates: &[OrderedNode],
     k: usize,
@@ -67,22 +77,72 @@ fn select_neighbors_heuristic(
     if candidates.len() <= k {
         return candidates.iter().cloned().collect_vec();
     }
-    let mut candidates = candidates.to_vec();
+
+    select_neighbors_heuristic_owned(storage, candidates.to_vec(), k)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn select_neighbors_heuristic_owned(
+    storage: &impl VectorStore,
+    mut candidates: Vec<OrderedNode>,
+    k: usize,
+) -> Vec<OrderedNode> {
+    if candidates.len() <= k {
+        return candidates;
+    }
+
     candidates.sort_unstable();
 
     let mut results: Vec<OrderedNode> = Vec::with_capacity(k);
-    for u in candidates.iter() {
+    let mut pruned = Vec::with_capacity(candidates.len());
+    for candidate in candidates {
         if results.len() >= k {
             break;
         }
 
-        if results.is_empty()
-            || results
-                .iter()
-                .all(|v| u.dist < OrderedFloat(storage.dist_between(u.id, v.id)))
-        {
-            results.push(u.clone());
+        if results.is_empty() || storage.prefers_candidate(&candidate, &results) {
+            results.push(candidate);
+        } else {
+            pruned.push(candidate);
         }
     }
+    results.extend(pruned.into_iter().take(k - results.len()));
     results
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+    use super::select_neighbors_heuristic_owned;
+    use crate::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
+    use crate::vector::graph::OrderedNode;
+    use crate::vector::storage::VectorStore;
+
+    /// A reciprocal candidate must join the complete old-plus-new set before
+    /// Algorithm 4 runs. A farther, directionally diverse connection is
+    /// selected first, then pruned connections refill the remaining capacity.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_selection_retains_farther_diverse_reciprocal_candidate() {
+        let vectors = Float32Array::from(vec![
+            0.0, 0.0, // node receiving the reciprocal connection
+            1.0, 0.0, // close candidate
+            2.0, 0.0, // redundant candidate
+            3.0, 0.0, // redundant candidate
+            4.0, 0.0, // redundant candidate
+            0.0, 5.0, // farther but directionally diverse candidate
+        ]);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, 2).unwrap();
+        let storage = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::L2);
+        let candidates = (1..=5)
+            .map(|id| OrderedNode::new(id, storage.dist_between(0, id).into()))
+            .collect();
+
+        let selected = select_neighbors_heuristic_owned(&storage, candidates, 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            selected.iter().map(|node| node.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![1, 5, 2, 3]
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/builder.rs
index 66e1bee758f..551bd019b86 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/builder.rs
@@ -5,49 +5,75 @@
 
 use arrow::array::{AsArray, ListBuilder, UInt32Builder};
 use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
-use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt32Type};
-use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, UInt32Type};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, Float32Array, ListArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
 use crossbeam_queue::ArrayQueue;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use itertools::Itertools;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
 
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use rayon::prelude::*;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::cmp::min;
 use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap, VecDeque};
 use std::fmt::Debug;
-use std::iter;
-use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::sync::RwLock;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use rand::{rng, Rng};
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::SmallRng};
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
 
 use super::super::graph::beam_search;
-use super::{select_neighbors_heuristic, HnswMetadata, HNSW_TYPE, VECTOR_ID_COL, VECTOR_ID_FIELD};
+use super::{
+    HNSW_TYPE, HnswMetadata, VECTOR_ID_COL, VECTOR_ID_FIELD, select_neighbors_heuristic_owned,
+};
 use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
 use crate::prefilter::PreFilter;
-use crate::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
+use crate::vector::flat::storage::{FlatBinStorage, FlatFloatStorage};
 use crate::vector::graph::builder::GraphBuilderNode;
-use crate::vector::graph::{greedy_search, Visited};
 use crate::vector::graph::{
-    Graph, OrderedFloat, OrderedNode, VisitedGenerator, DISTS_FIELD, NEIGHBORS_COL, NEIGHBORS_FIELD,
+    BorrowingGraph, DISTS_FIELD, Graph, NEIGHBORS_COL, NEIGHBORS_FIELD, OrderedFloat, OrderedNode,
+    VisitedGenerator,
+};
+use crate::vector::graph::{
+    Visited, beam_search_acorn, beam_search_borrowed, greedy_search, greedy_search_borrowed,
 };
 use crate::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore};
 use crate::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
-use crate::vector::{Query, DIST_COL, VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA};
+use crate::vector::{ApproxMode, Query, VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA};
 
 pub const HNSW_METADATA_KEY: &str = "lance:hnsw";
 
+/// Fixed seed for HNSW node-level assignment.
+///
+/// A constant seed makes graph construction reproducible (same data + params =>
+/// same graph), which keeps index builds deterministic and tests stable. Recall
+/// is statistically unaffected — the level distribution is identical, only the
+/// random draws become fixed. Shared by the offline ([`HNSWBuilder`]) and online
+/// ([`super::online::OnlineHnswBuilder`]) builders so both produce comparable graphs.
+pub(crate) const HNSW_LEVEL_RNG_SEED: u64 = 42;
+
+/// Minimum edge count that avoids severely fragmented graphs during parallel
+/// construction while still allowing deliberately small test and index sizes.
+pub(crate) const MIN_HNSW_M: usize = 4;
+
+/// Draw a node level using the distribution from Algorithm 1.
+pub(crate) fn random_level_with<R: Rng + ?Sized>(params: &HnswBuildParams, rng: &mut R) -> u16 {
+    let ml = 1.0 / (params.m as f32).ln();
+    min(
+        (-rng.random::<f32>().ln() * ml) as u16,
+        params.max_level - 1,
+    )
+}
+
 /// Parameters of building HNSW index
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct HnswBuildParams {
-    /// max level ofm
+    /// Maximum number of levels in the graph.
     pub max_level: u16,
 
     /// number of connections to establish while inserting new element
@@ -60,6 +86,16 @@ pub struct HnswBuildParams {
     pub prefetch_distance: Option<usize>,
 }
 
+impl From<&HnswBuildParams> for crate::pb::HnswParameters {
+    fn from(params: &HnswBuildParams) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            max_connections: params.m as u32,
+            construction_ef: params.ef_construction as u32,
+            max_level: params.max_level as u32,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 impl Default for HnswBuildParams {
     fn default() -> Self {
         Self {
@@ -73,14 +109,17 @@ impl Default for HnswBuildParams {
 
 impl HnswBuildParams {
     /// The maximum level of the graph.
-    /// The default value is `8`.
+    /// The default value is `7`.
     pub fn max_level(mut self, max_level: u16) -> Self {
         self.max_level = max_level;
         self
     }
 
     /// The number of connections to establish while inserting new element
-    /// The default value is `30`.
+    ///
+    /// Must be at least 4. Smaller values produce severely fragmented graphs
+    /// during parallel construction.
+    /// The default value is `20`.
     pub fn num_edges(mut self, m: usize) -> Self {
         self.m = m;
         self
@@ -89,23 +128,66 @@ impl HnswBuildParams {
     /// Number of candidates to be considered when searching for the nearest neighbors
     /// during the construction of the graph.
     ///
-    /// The default value is `100`.
+    /// The default value is `150`.
     pub fn ef_construction(mut self, ef_construction: usize) -> Self {
         self.ef_construction = ef_construction;
         self
     }
 
+    pub(crate) fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.max_level == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "HnswBuildParams::max_level must be greater than 0, got {}",
+                self.max_level
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.m < MIN_HNSW_M {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "HnswBuildParams::m must be at least {MIN_HNSW_M} to avoid severely fragmented graphs, got {}",
+                self.m,
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.m > usize::MAX / 2 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "HnswBuildParams::m must be at most {} so the level-0 reciprocal limit can be represented, got {}",
+                usize::MAX / 2,
+                self.m
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.ef_construction < self.m {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "HnswBuildParams::ef_construction must be at least m ({}), got {}",
+                self.m, self.ef_construction
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// Build the HNSW index from the given data.
     ///
     /// # Parameters
     /// - `data`: A FixedSizeList to build the HNSW.
     /// - `distance_type`: The distance type to use.
     pub async fn build(self, data: ArrayRef, distance_type: DistanceType) -> Result<HNSW> {
-        let vec_store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(
-            data.as_fixed_size_list().clone(),
-            distance_type,
-        ));
-        HNSW::index_vectors(vec_store.as_ref(), self)
+        let vectors = data.as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+        match (vectors.value_type(), distance_type) {
+            (DataType::UInt8, DistanceType::Hamming) => {
+                let vec_store = Arc::new(FlatBinStorage::new(vectors, distance_type));
+                HNSW::index_vectors(vec_store.as_ref(), self)
+            }
+            (DataType::UInt8, _) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "HNSW only supports hamming distance for UInt8 vectors, got {}",
+                distance_type
+            ))),
+            (_, DistanceType::Hamming) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "HNSW hamming distance only supports UInt8 vectors, got {}",
+                vectors.value_type()
+            ))),
+            _ => {
+                let vec_store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, distance_type));
+                HNSW::index_vectors(vec_store.as_ref(), self)
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -118,7 +200,37 @@ impl HnswBuildParams {
 /// Each node in the graph has a global ID which is the index on the base layer.
 #[derive(Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct HNSW {
-    inner: Arc<HnswBuilder>,
+    inner: Arc<HnswCore>,
+}
+
+struct HnswCore {
+    params: HnswBuildParams,
+    graph: HnswGraph,
+    level_count: Vec<usize>,
+    entry_point: u32,
+    visited_generator_queue: Arc<ArrayQueue<VisitedGenerator>>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for HnswCore {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.params.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.graph.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.level_count.deep_size_of_children(context)
+        // Skipping the visited_generator_queue
+    }
+}
+
+impl HnswCore {
+    fn max_level(&self) -> u16 {
+        self.level_count
+            .iter()
+            .rposition(|count| *count != 0)
+            .map_or(0, |level| level + 1) as u16
+    }
+
+    fn num_nodes(&self, level: usize) -> usize {
+        self.level_count[level]
+    }
 }
 
 impl Debug for HNSW {
@@ -128,11 +240,35 @@ impl Debug for HNSW {
 }
 
 impl HNSW {
+    /// Construct an HNSW from its constituent parts. Used by the online
+    /// builder when finalizing.
+    pub(crate) fn from_parts(
+        params: HnswBuildParams,
+        nodes: Vec<GraphBuilderNode>,
+        level_count: Vec<usize>,
+        entry_point: u32,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let queue_size = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1) * 2;
+        let visited_generator_queue = Arc::new(ArrayQueue::new(queue_size));
+        for _ in 0..queue_size {
+            let _ = visited_generator_queue.push(VisitedGenerator::new(0));
+        }
+        Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(HnswCore {
+                params,
+                graph: HnswGraph::Built(Arc::new(nodes)),
+                level_count,
+                entry_point,
+                visited_generator_queue,
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
     pub fn empty() -> Self {
         Self {
-            inner: Arc::new(HnswBuilder {
+            inner: Arc::new(HnswCore {
                 params: HnswBuildParams::default(),
-                nodes: Arc::new(Vec::new()),
+                graph: HnswGraph::Built(Arc::new(Vec::new())),
                 level_count: Vec::new(),
                 entry_point: 0,
                 visited_generator_queue: Arc::new(ArrayQueue::new(1)),
@@ -141,7 +277,11 @@ impl HNSW {
     }
 
     pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.inner.nodes.len()
+        match &self.inner.graph {
+            HnswGraph::Built(nodes) => nodes.len(),
+            // `level_count[0]` is the bottom-level (== total) node count.
+            HnswGraph::Loaded(graph) => graph.level_count[0],
+        }
     }
 
     pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
@@ -156,8 +296,44 @@ impl HNSW {
         self.inner.num_nodes(level)
     }
 
-    pub fn nodes(&self) -> Arc<Vec<RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>>> {
-        self.inner.nodes()
+    /// Returns the in-memory builder nodes, if this graph was freshly built.
+    ///
+    /// A disk-loaded graph is Arrow-backed and has no `GraphBuilderNode`s,
+    /// so this returns `None` for it.
+    pub fn nodes(&self) -> Option<Arc<Vec<GraphBuilderNode>>> {
+        match &self.inner.graph {
+            HnswGraph::Built(nodes) => Some(nodes.clone()),
+            HnswGraph::Loaded(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Refuse a graph whose nodes outrun the vectors behind them.
+    ///
+    /// Node ids are row numbers into `storage`, so a graph with more nodes than
+    /// storage has rows holds ids no vector backs. Scoring one indexes past the
+    /// storage buffer and panics, which takes the worker rather than the query,
+    /// and the entry point is scored before any traversal decision -- so this has
+    /// to run first.
+    ///
+    /// Only that direction is refused. Storage with rows the graph never reached
+    /// is safe and common: those rows are simply unreachable by traversal, and a
+    /// sparse-prefilter search still brute-forces them.
+    ///
+    /// Written before the export bounded the pair, such an index cannot be
+    /// searched at all -- the vectors are not on disk -- so it is refused with a
+    /// message naming it rather than left to fault.
+    fn ensure_storage_covers_graph(&self, storage: &impl VectorStore) -> Result<()> {
+        let nodes = self.len();
+        let rows = storage.len();
+        if nodes > rows {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "HNSW graph has {nodes} nodes but its vector storage has {rows} \
+                 rows, so {} node(s) have no vector to score; the index predates \
+                 the export bound and has to be rebuilt",
+                nodes - rows
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
@@ -171,33 +347,104 @@ impl HNSW {
         storage: &impl VectorStore,
         prefetch_distance: Option<usize>,
     ) -> Result<Vec<OrderedNode>> {
+        self.ensure_storage_covers_graph(storage)?;
         let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, params.dist_q_c);
-        let mut ep = OrderedNode::new(0, dist_calc.distance(0).into());
-        let nodes = &self.nodes();
-        for level in (0..self.max_level()).rev() {
-            let cur_level = HnswLevelView::new(level, nodes);
-            ep = greedy_search(
+        let entry = self.inner.entry_point;
+        let ep = OrderedNode::new(entry, dist_calc.distance(entry).into());
+
+        // The level descent + bottom beam search are identical across
+        // graph backends; only the view types differ. `run_search` is
+        // generic over those view types so the loop is single-sourced:
+        // each backend supplies a per-level view closure and a
+        // bottom-level view.
+        let result = match &self.inner.graph {
+            HnswGraph::Built(nodes) => {
+                let nodes = nodes.as_slice();
+                self.run_search(
+                    ep,
+                    k,
+                    params,
+                    bitset.as_ref(),
+                    visited_generator,
+                    storage.len(),
+                    prefetch_distance,
+                    &dist_calc,
+                    |level| ImmutableHnswLevelView::new(level, nodes),
+                    ImmutableHnswBottomView::new(nodes),
+                )
+            }
+            HnswGraph::Loaded(graph) => {
+                let graph = graph.as_ref();
+                self.run_search(
+                    ep,
+                    k,
+                    params,
+                    bitset.as_ref(),
+                    visited_generator,
+                    storage.len(),
+                    prefetch_distance,
+                    &dist_calc,
+                    |level| LoadedHnswLevelView::new(level, graph),
+                    LoadedHnswBottomView::new(graph),
+                )
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+
+    /// Drives the shared HNSW query path over backend-specific graph
+    /// views: a per-level view produced by `make_level` and a
+    /// bottom-level view `bottom`. The views borrow their backing store
+    /// and are created, used, and dropped entirely within this call;
+    /// only the owned result escapes. Monomorphizing over `L`/`B` is the
+    /// single seam that lets the in-memory and disk-loaded backends
+    /// share one search loop.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn run_search<L, B>(
+        &self,
+        ep: OrderedNode,
+        k: usize,
+        params: &HnswQueryParams,
+        bitset: Option<&Visited>,
+        visited_generator: &mut VisitedGenerator,
+        storage_len: usize,
+        prefetch_distance: Option<usize>,
+        dist_calc: &impl DistCalculator,
+        make_level: impl Fn(u16) -> L,
+        bottom: B,
+    ) -> Vec<OrderedNode>
+    where
+        L: BorrowingGraph,
+        B: BorrowingGraph,
+    {
+        // Greedy descent stops at level 1 (HNSW paper, Algorithm 2): level 0
+        // is searched only by the ef-bounded beam below. Greedily descending
+        // into level 0 first collapses the entry point into a deep local
+        // minimum, which costs extra distance computations and measurably
+        // hurts recall at low ef (https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/5208).
+        let mut ep = ep;
+        for level in (1..self.max_level()).rev() {
+            let cur_level = make_level(level);
+            ep = greedy_search_borrowed(
                 &cur_level,
                 ep,
-                &dist_calc,
+                dist_calc,
                 self.inner.params.prefetch_distance,
             );
         }
-
-        let bottom_level = HnswBottomView::new(nodes);
-        let mut visited = visited_generator.generate(storage.len());
-        Ok(beam_search(
-            &bottom_level,
+        let mut visited = visited_generator.generate(storage_len);
+        beam_search_borrowed(
+            &bottom,
             &ep,
             params,
-            &dist_calc,
-            bitset.as_ref(),
+            dist_calc,
+            bitset,
             prefetch_distance,
             &mut visited,
         )
         .into_iter()
         .take(k)
-        .collect())
+        .collect::<Vec<OrderedNode>>()
     }
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, query, bitset, storage))]
@@ -234,6 +481,142 @@ impl HNSW {
         result
     }
 
+    /// Like [Self::search_basic] but the bottom level runs
+    /// [beam_search_acorn], which only scores mask-passing nodes.
+    pub fn search_acorn(
+        &self,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        k: usize,
+        params: &HnswQueryParams,
+        bitset: &Visited,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<OrderedNode>> {
+        let mut visited_generator = self
+            .inner
+            .visited_generator_queue
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| VisitedGenerator::new(storage.len()));
+        let mut expanded_generator = self
+            .inner
+            .visited_generator_queue
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| VisitedGenerator::new(storage.len()));
+
+        let result = self.search_acorn_inner(
+            query,
+            k,
+            params,
+            bitset,
+            &mut visited_generator,
+            &mut expanded_generator,
+            storage,
+            Some(2),
+        );
+
+        // if the queue is full, we just don't push it back, so ignore the error here
+        let _ = self.inner.visited_generator_queue.push(visited_generator);
+        let _ = self.inner.visited_generator_queue.push(expanded_generator);
+        result
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn search_acorn_inner(
+        &self,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        k: usize,
+        params: &HnswQueryParams,
+        bitset: &Visited,
+        visited_generator: &mut VisitedGenerator,
+        expanded_generator: &mut VisitedGenerator,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        prefetch_distance: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<OrderedNode>> {
+        self.ensure_storage_covers_graph(storage)?;
+        let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, params.dist_q_c);
+        let entry = self.inner.entry_point;
+        let ep = OrderedNode::new(entry, dist_calc.distance(entry).into());
+
+        let result = match &self.inner.graph {
+            HnswGraph::Built(nodes) => {
+                let nodes = nodes.as_slice();
+                self.run_search_acorn(
+                    ep,
+                    params,
+                    bitset,
+                    visited_generator,
+                    expanded_generator,
+                    storage.len(),
+                    prefetch_distance,
+                    &dist_calc,
+                    |level| ImmutableHnswLevelView::new(level, nodes),
+                    ImmutableHnswBottomView::new(nodes),
+                )
+            }
+            HnswGraph::Loaded(graph) => {
+                let graph = graph.as_ref();
+                self.run_search_acorn(
+                    ep,
+                    params,
+                    bitset,
+                    visited_generator,
+                    expanded_generator,
+                    storage.len(),
+                    prefetch_distance,
+                    &dist_calc,
+                    |level| LoadedHnswLevelView::new(level, graph),
+                    LoadedHnswBottomView::new(graph),
+                )
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(result.into_iter().take(k).collect())
+    }
+
+    /// [Self::run_search] for the ACORN traversal: same level descent, but
+    /// the bottom level runs [beam_search_acorn].
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn run_search_acorn<L, B>(
+        &self,
+        ep: OrderedNode,
+        params: &HnswQueryParams,
+        bitset: &Visited,
+        visited_generator: &mut VisitedGenerator,
+        expanded_generator: &mut VisitedGenerator,
+        storage_len: usize,
+        prefetch_distance: Option<usize>,
+        dist_calc: &impl DistCalculator,
+        make_level: impl Fn(u16) -> L,
+        bottom: B,
+    ) -> Vec<OrderedNode>
+    where
+        L: BorrowingGraph,
+        B: BorrowingGraph,
+    {
+        // Same level descent as [Self::run_search]: greedy stops at level 1
+        // (see the comment there); level 0 is left to the beam below.
+        let mut ep = ep;
+        for level in (1..self.max_level()).rev() {
+            let cur_level = make_level(level);
+            ep = greedy_search_borrowed(
+                &cur_level,
+                ep,
+                dist_calc,
+                self.inner.params.prefetch_distance,
+            );
+        }
+        let mut visited = visited_generator.generate(storage_len);
+        let mut expanded = expanded_generator.generate(storage_len);
+        beam_search_acorn(
+            &bottom,
+            &ep,
+            params,
+            dist_calc,
+            bitset,
+            prefetch_distance,
+            &mut visited,
+            &mut expanded,
+        )
+    }
+
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, storage, query, prefilter_bitset))]
     fn flat_search(
         &self,
@@ -270,7 +653,7 @@ impl HNSW {
                     }
 
                     let dist: OrderedFloat = dist_calc.distance(node_id).into();
-                    if dist <= lower_bound || dist > upper_bound {
+                    if dist < lower_bound || dist >= upper_bound {
                         continue;
                     }
                     if heap.len() < k {
@@ -284,7 +667,7 @@ impl HNSW {
             _ => {
                 for node_id in prefilter_bitset.iter_ones().map(|i| i as u32) {
                     let dist: OrderedFloat = dist_calc.distance(node_id).into();
-                    if dist <= lower_bound || dist > upper_bound {
+                    if dist < lower_bound || dist >= upper_bound {
                         continue;
                     }
                     if heap.len() < k {
@@ -301,19 +684,18 @@ impl HNSW {
 
     /// Returns the metadata of this [`HNSW`].
     pub fn metadata(&self) -> HnswMetadata {
-        // calculate the offsets of each level,
-        // start from 0
-        let level_offsets = self
-            .inner
-            .level_count
-            .iter()
-            .chain(iter::once(&AtomicUsize::new(0)))
-            .scan(0, |state, x| {
-                let start = *state;
-                *state += x.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
-                Some(start)
-            })
-            .collect();
+        // Version-1 readers use params.max_level as the number of level
+        // batches and index them directly. Preserve that configured shape,
+        // padding levels above the sampled graph height with empty ranges.
+        let configured_levels = self.inner.params.max_level as usize;
+        let mut level_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(configured_levels + 1);
+        let mut offset = 0;
+        level_offsets.push(0);
+        for level in 0..configured_levels {
+            let level_count = self.inner.level_count.get(level).copied().unwrap_or(0);
+            offset += level_count;
+            level_offsets.push(offset);
+        }
 
         HnswMetadata {
             entry_point: self.inner.entry_point,
@@ -335,7 +717,7 @@ struct HnswBuilder {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for HnswBuilder {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.params.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.nodes.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.level_count.deep_size_of_children(context)
@@ -344,16 +726,38 @@ impl DeepSizeOf for HnswBuilder {
 }
 
 impl HnswBuilder {
-    fn max_level(&self) -> u16 {
-        self.params.max_level
-    }
+    fn finish(self) -> HNSW {
+        let nodes: Vec<GraphBuilderNode> = match Arc::try_unwrap(self.nodes) {
+            Ok(nodes) => nodes
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|node| node.into_inner().expect("builder lock poisoned"))
+                .collect(),
+            Err(nodes) => nodes
+                .iter()
+                .map(|node| node.read().expect("builder lock poisoned").clone())
+                .collect(),
+        };
 
-    fn num_nodes(&self, level: usize) -> usize {
-        self.level_count[level].load(Ordering::Relaxed)
-    }
+        let actual_levels = nodes
+            .get(self.entry_point as usize)
+            .map(|node| node.level_neighbors.len())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        let level_count = self
+            .level_count
+            .into_iter()
+            .take(actual_levels)
+            .map(|count| count.load(Ordering::Relaxed))
+            .collect();
 
-    fn nodes(&self) -> Arc<Vec<RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>>> {
-        self.nodes.clone()
+        HNSW {
+            inner: Arc::new(HnswCore {
+                params: self.params,
+                graph: HnswGraph::Built(Arc::new(nodes)),
+                level_count,
+                entry_point: self.entry_point,
+                visited_generator_queue: self.visited_generator_queue,
+            }),
+        }
     }
 
     /// Create a new [`HNSWBuilder`] with prepared params and in memory vector storage.
@@ -384,34 +788,24 @@ impl HnswBuilder {
         }
 
         let mut nodes = Vec::with_capacity(len);
-        {
-            if len > 0 {
-                nodes.push(RwLock::new(GraphBuilderNode::new(0, max_level as usize)));
-            }
-            for i in 1..len {
-                nodes.push(RwLock::new(GraphBuilderNode::new(
-                    i as u32,
-                    builder.random_level() as usize + 1,
-                )));
+        let mut level_rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(HNSW_LEVEL_RNG_SEED);
+        let mut highest_level = 0;
+        for i in 0..len {
+            let target_level = random_level_with(&builder.params, &mut level_rng);
+            if target_level > highest_level {
+                highest_level = target_level;
+                builder.entry_point = i as u32;
             }
+            nodes.push(RwLock::new(GraphBuilderNode::new(
+                i as u32,
+                target_level as usize + 1,
+            )));
         }
         builder.nodes = Arc::new(nodes);
 
         builder
     }
 
-    /// New node's level
-    ///
-    /// See paper `Algorithm 1`
-    fn random_level(&self) -> u16 {
-        let mut rng = rng();
-        let ml = 1.0 / (self.params.m as f32).ln();
-        min(
-            (-rng.random::<f32>().ln() * ml) as u16,
-            self.params.max_level - 1,
-        )
-    }
-
     /// Insert one node.
     fn insert(
         &self,
@@ -421,6 +815,12 @@ impl HnswBuilder {
     ) {
         let nodes = &self.nodes;
         let target_level = nodes[node as usize].read().unwrap().level_neighbors.len() as u16 - 1;
+        let entry_level = nodes[self.entry_point as usize]
+            .read()
+            .unwrap()
+            .level_neighbors
+            .len() as u16
+            - 1;
         let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator_from_id(node);
         let mut ep = OrderedNode::new(
             self.entry_point,
@@ -435,7 +835,7 @@ impl HnswBuilder {
         //    ep = Select-Neighbors(W, 1)
         //  }
         // ```
-        for level in (target_level + 1..self.params.max_level).rev() {
+        for level in (target_level + 1..=entry_level).rev() {
             let cur_level = HnswLevelView::new(level, nodes);
             ep = greedy_search(&cur_level, ep, &dist_calc, self.params.prefetch_distance);
         }
@@ -451,7 +851,9 @@ impl HnswBuilder {
                 for neighbor in &neighbors {
                     current_node.add_neighbor(neighbor.id, neighbor.dist, level);
                 }
-                self.prune(storage, &mut current_node, level);
+                // Algorithm 1 selects M neighbors for the new node. Mmax0 is
+                // reserved for reciprocal edges on existing level-0 nodes.
+                self.prune(storage, &mut current_node, level, self.params.m);
                 pruned_neighbors_per_level[level as usize]
                     .clone_from(&current_node.level_neighbors_ranked[level as usize]);
 
@@ -459,26 +861,20 @@ impl HnswBuilder {
             }
         }
         for (level, pruned_neighbors) in pruned_neighbors_per_level.iter().enumerate() {
-            let _: Vec<_> = pruned_neighbors
-                .iter()
-                .map(|unpruned_edge| {
-                    let level = level as u16;
-                    let m_max = match level {
-                        0 => self.params.m * 2,
-                        _ => self.params.m,
-                    };
-                    if unpruned_edge.dist
-                        < nodes[unpruned_edge.id as usize]
-                            .read()
-                            .unwrap()
-                            .cutoff(level, m_max)
-                    {
-                        let mut chosen_node = nodes[unpruned_edge.id as usize].write().unwrap();
-                        chosen_node.add_neighbor(node, unpruned_edge.dist, level);
-                        self.prune(storage, &mut chosen_node, level);
-                    }
-                })
-                .collect();
+            let level = level as u16;
+            let reciprocal_limit = if level == 0 {
+                self.params.m * 2
+            } else {
+                self.params.m
+            };
+            for selected_edge in pruned_neighbors {
+                // Algorithm 1 adds the reciprocal candidate before applying
+                // SELECT-NEIGHBORS. A distance-only cutoff would incorrectly
+                // discard farther candidates that improve directional diversity.
+                let mut chosen_node = nodes[selected_edge.id as usize].write().unwrap();
+                chosen_node.add_neighbor(node, selected_edge.dist, level);
+                self.prune(storage, &mut chosen_node, level, reciprocal_limit);
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -487,7 +883,7 @@ impl HnswBuilder {
         ep: &OrderedNode,
         level: u16,
         dist_calc: &impl DistCalculator,
-        nodes: &Vec<RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>>,
+        nodes: &[RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>],
         visited_generator: &mut VisitedGenerator,
     ) -> Vec<OrderedNode> {
         let cur_level = HnswLevelView::new(level, nodes);
@@ -500,6 +896,7 @@ impl HnswBuilder {
                 lower_bound: None,
                 upper_bound: None,
                 dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                use_acorn: false,
             },
             dist_calc,
             None,
@@ -508,34 +905,250 @@ impl HnswBuilder {
         )
     }
 
-    fn prune(&self, storage: &impl VectorStore, builder_node: &mut GraphBuilderNode, level: u16) {
-        let m_max = match level {
-            0 => self.params.m * 2,
-            _ => self.params.m,
+    /// Give every node an inbound path from the entry point on level 0.
+    ///
+    /// See [`connect_stranded_level0`]. Called after the parallel insert.
+    /// Remap repair calls that function on the repaired level-0 edges.
+    fn connect_stranded_nodes(&self, storage: &impl VectorStore) {
+        let mut level0 = BuilderLevel0 {
+            nodes: self.nodes.as_slice(),
         };
+        connect_stranded_level0(
+            &mut level0,
+            self.entry_point,
+            self.params.ef_construction,
+            storage,
+        );
+    }
 
+    fn prune(
+        &self,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        builder_node: &mut GraphBuilderNode,
+        level: u16,
+        max_connections: usize,
+    ) {
         let neighbors_ranked = &mut builder_node.level_neighbors_ranked[level as usize];
-        let level_neighbors = neighbors_ranked.clone();
-        if level_neighbors.len() <= m_max {
+        if neighbors_ranked.len() <= max_connections {
             builder_node.update_from_ranked_neighbors(level);
             return;
-            //return level_neighbors;
         }
 
-        *neighbors_ranked = select_neighbors_heuristic(storage, &level_neighbors, m_max);
+        let level_neighbors = std::mem::take(neighbors_ranked);
+        *neighbors_ranked =
+            select_neighbors_heuristic_owned(storage, level_neighbors, max_connections);
         builder_node.update_from_ranked_neighbors(level);
     }
 }
 
+/// Level-0 graph [`connect_stranded_level0`] reads and extends.
+///
+/// `neighbors` returns the list search walks. `ranked` returns those edges
+/// with distances. `link` appends one edge and does not drop a neighbor.
+pub(crate) trait Level0Links {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize;
+    fn neighbors(&self, id: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>>;
+    fn ranked(&self, id: u32) -> Vec<OrderedNode>;
+    fn link(&mut self, anchor: OrderedNode, node: u32);
+}
+
+struct BuilderLevel0<'a> {
+    nodes: &'a [RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>],
+}
+
+impl Level0Links for BuilderLevel0<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.nodes.len()
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, id: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>> {
+        self.nodes[id as usize].read().unwrap().level_neighbors[0].clone()
+    }
+
+    fn ranked(&self, id: u32) -> Vec<OrderedNode> {
+        self.nodes[id as usize]
+            .read()
+            .unwrap()
+            .level_neighbors_ranked[0]
+            .clone()
+    }
+
+    fn link(&mut self, anchor: OrderedNode, node: u32) {
+        let mut anchor_node = self.nodes[anchor.id as usize].write().unwrap();
+        anchor_node.add_neighbor(node, anchor.dist, 0);
+        anchor_node.update_from_ranked_neighbors(0);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Give every node an inbound path from the entry point on level 0.
+///
+/// A query only ever enumerates level 0, so a node without a level-0 path
+/// from the entry point can never be returned by a graph traversal.
+/// Parallel insertion cannot rule that out: a node picks its neighbors
+/// from the graph it searched, and by the time its reciprocal edges are
+/// written those neighbors may have filled up with closer nodes and pruned
+/// it straight back out, leaving it with no inbound edge at all. A node
+/// inserted while the graph was still nearly empty is the usual victim:
+/// its only neighbors are the first few hubs, and hubs fill up first.
+/// Nothing inserted afterwards can rediscover such a node, since discovery
+/// only happens by traversal. Remap repair can open the same hole when it
+/// trims a reciprocal edge that was a node's only inbound link.
+///
+/// The level-0 graph is walked once from the entry point, and every stranded
+/// node is linked from a reachable node near it. The work is bounded
+/// explicitly, because degenerate data (many identical vectors) can strand
+/// most of the graph and an unbounded per-node search would then cost more
+/// than the build itself:
+///
+/// - The audit and the bookkeeping are `O(N + E)`: a stranded node is
+///   anchored on its nearest reachable out-neighbor, and a node whose
+///   out-neighbors are all stranded waits until one of them is linked.
+/// - The anchor is refined by a greedy walk over reachable nodes of at
+///   most `ef_construction` hops, so a node costs at most
+///   `ef_construction * 2 * m` distance computations.
+/// - Every node anchors at most one stranded node, so a level-0 list never
+///   exceeds `2 * m + 1`. Once the candidates near a node are all taken, it
+///   chains onto the most recently linked node instead, which has room by
+///   construction.
+///
+/// The anchor is allowed that one extra edge rather than evicting a
+/// neighbor, which could strand that neighbor in turn.
+pub(crate) fn connect_stranded_level0<G: Level0Links, S: VectorStore>(
+    graph: &mut G,
+    entry_point: u32,
+    ef_construction: usize,
+    storage: &S,
+) {
+    let n = graph.len();
+    let mut reachable = vec![false; n];
+    mark_level0_reachable(graph, entry_point, &mut reachable);
+
+    let stranded: Vec<u32> = (0..n as u32)
+        .filter(|node| !reachable[*node as usize])
+        .collect();
+    if stranded.is_empty() {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    // Stranded nodes keyed by the stranded out-neighbors they wait on.
+    let mut waiting_on: HashMap<u32, Vec<u32>> = HashMap::new();
+    for &node in &stranded {
+        for &neighbor in graph.neighbors(node).iter() {
+            if !reachable[neighbor as usize] {
+                waiting_on.entry(neighbor).or_default().push(node);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut anchored = vec![false; n];
+    // The most recently linked node that has not anchored anything yet.
+    let mut chain_tail: Option<u32> = None;
+    let mut isolated = Vec::new();
+    let mut ready: VecDeque<u32> = stranded.iter().copied().collect();
+    while let Some(node) = ready.pop_front() {
+        if reachable[node as usize] {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator_from_id(node);
+        let mut candidates: Vec<OrderedNode> = graph
+            .ranked(node)
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|neighbor| reachable[neighbor.id as usize])
+            .collect();
+        let Some(nearest) = candidates.iter().min().cloned() else {
+            isolated.push(node);
+            continue;
+        };
+
+        // Walk toward the node over reachable nodes only; the walk is
+        // capped so that it cannot degenerate into a graph-wide search.
+        let mut closest = nearest.clone();
+        for _ in 0..ef_construction {
+            let step = graph
+                .neighbors(closest.id)
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|neighbor| reachable[**neighbor as usize])
+                .map(|&neighbor| OrderedNode::new(neighbor, dist_calc.distance(neighbor).into()))
+                .min();
+            match step {
+                Some(step) if step.dist < closest.dist => closest = step,
+                _ => break,
+            }
+        }
+
+        candidates.sort_unstable();
+        let anchor = std::iter::once(closest)
+            .chain(candidates)
+            .find(|candidate| !anchored[candidate.id as usize])
+            .or_else(|| {
+                chain_tail.map(|tail| OrderedNode::new(tail, dist_calc.distance(tail).into()))
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(nearest);
+        graph.link(anchor.clone(), node);
+        anchored[anchor.id as usize] = true;
+        chain_tail = Some(node);
+        for newly_reachable in mark_level0_reachable(graph, node, &mut reachable) {
+            if let Some(waiting) = waiting_on.remove(&newly_reachable) {
+                ready.extend(waiting);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Nodes whose out-edges never lead back to the entry point have no
+    // nearby anchor to offer; chain them onto the last linked node.
+    for node in isolated {
+        if reachable[node as usize] {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let anchor = chain_tail.unwrap_or(entry_point);
+        let anchor = OrderedNode::new(anchor, storage.dist_between(anchor, node).into());
+        graph.link(anchor.clone(), node);
+        anchored[anchor.id as usize] = true;
+        chain_tail = Some(node);
+        mark_level0_reachable(graph, node, &mut reachable);
+    }
+
+    log::debug!(
+        "Linked {} HNSW node(s) that had no level-0 path from the entry point",
+        stranded.len()
+    );
+}
+
+/// Marks everything the walk reaches from `start` and returns the nodes that
+/// were not reachable before.
+fn mark_level0_reachable<G: Level0Links>(
+    graph: &G,
+    start: u32,
+    reachable: &mut [bool],
+) -> Vec<u32> {
+    let mut newly_reachable = Vec::new();
+    if reachable[start as usize] {
+        return newly_reachable;
+    }
+    let mut queue = VecDeque::new();
+    reachable[start as usize] = true;
+    queue.push_back(start);
+    while let Some(current) = queue.pop_front() {
+        newly_reachable.push(current);
+        for &neighbor in graph.neighbors(current).iter() {
+            if !reachable[neighbor as usize] {
+                reachable[neighbor as usize] = true;
+                queue.push_back(neighbor);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    newly_reachable
+}
+
 // View of a level in HNSW graph.
 // This is used to iterate over neighbors in a specific level.
 pub(crate) struct HnswLevelView<'a> {
     level: u16,
-    nodes: &'a Vec<RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>>,
+    nodes: &'a [RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>],
 }
 
 impl<'a> HnswLevelView<'a> {
-    pub fn new(level: u16, nodes: &'a Vec<RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>>) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(level: u16, nodes: &'a [RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>]) -> Self {
         Self { level, nodes }
     }
 }
@@ -551,44 +1164,327 @@ impl Graph for HnswLevelView<'_> {
     }
 }
 
-pub(crate) struct HnswBottomView<'a> {
-    nodes: &'a Vec<RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>>,
+pub(crate) struct ImmutableHnswLevelView<'a> {
+    level: u16,
+    nodes: &'a [GraphBuilderNode],
 }
 
-impl<'a> HnswBottomView<'a> {
-    pub fn new(nodes: &'a Vec<RwLock<GraphBuilderNode>>) -> Self {
-        Self { nodes }
+impl<'a> ImmutableHnswLevelView<'a> {
+    pub fn new(level: u16, nodes: &'a [GraphBuilderNode]) -> Self {
+        Self { level, nodes }
     }
 }
 
-impl Graph for HnswBottomView<'_> {
+impl Graph for ImmutableHnswLevelView<'_> {
     fn len(&self) -> usize {
         self.nodes.len()
     }
 
     fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>> {
-        let node = &self.nodes[key as usize];
-        node.read().unwrap().bottom_neighbors.clone()
+        self.nodes[key as usize].level_neighbors[self.level as usize].clone()
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
-pub struct HnswQueryParams {
-    pub ef: usize,
-    pub lower_bound: Option<f32>,
-    pub upper_bound: Option<f32>,
-    pub dist_q_c: f32,
-}
+impl BorrowingGraph for ImmutableHnswLevelView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.nodes.len()
+    }
 
-impl From<&Query> for HnswQueryParams {
-    fn from(query: &Query) -> Self {
-        let k = query.k * query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize;
-        Self {
-            ef: query.ef.unwrap_or(k + k / 2),
-            lower_bound: query.lower_bound,
-            upper_bound: query.upper_bound,
-            dist_q_c: query.dist_q_c,
-        }
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> &[u32] {
+        self.nodes[key as usize].level_neighbors[self.level as usize].as_slice()
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) struct ImmutableHnswBottomView<'a> {
+    nodes: &'a [GraphBuilderNode],
+}
+
+impl<'a> ImmutableHnswBottomView<'a> {
+    pub fn new(nodes: &'a [GraphBuilderNode]) -> Self {
+        Self { nodes }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Graph for ImmutableHnswBottomView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.nodes.len()
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>> {
+        self.nodes[key as usize].bottom_neighbors.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+impl BorrowingGraph for ImmutableHnswBottomView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.nodes.len()
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> &[u32] {
+        self.nodes[key as usize].bottom_neighbors.as_slice()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-level node-id -> row-index lookup for a disk-loaded HNSW graph.
+enum LevelLookup {
+    /// `row == node id`. Used only for level 0, where [`HNSW::to_batch`]
+    /// writes every node once in ascending `__vector_id` (== node id) order,
+    /// so the level-0 slice is exactly `[0, N)` with `row == id`.
+    Dense,
+    /// Upper level: an explicit `node_id -> row` map built from the level's
+    /// `__vector_id` column.
+    ///
+    /// We do *not* assume the column is sorted or that the slice is aligned
+    /// to a true level boundary. Indices written before issue #5156 was fixed
+    /// omitted the entry point from every upper-level count, so their slices
+    /// start progressively earlier than the true boundaries. Keying by the
+    /// `__vector_id` value -- exactly what the old per-node `load` did --
+    /// preserves their behavior bit-for-bit. Upper levels shrink
+    /// geometrically, so this map stays tiny.
+    Sparse(HashMap<u32, u32>),
+}
+
+/// Drop neighbor ids that name no node in this graph.
+///
+/// A writer that read adjacency live while snapshotting a node count could
+/// persist edges past its own node count, and those indices are already on
+/// disk. Traversal scores a neighbor id before it is ever looked up as a node,
+/// so a guard at the lookup is too late -- the id has to be gone before search
+/// begins.
+///
+/// Returns the original array untouched when every id is in domain, which is
+/// the only case that matters for cost: the ids stay zero-copy views of the
+/// loaded batch and nothing is allocated. `to_batch()` still returns the
+/// retained batch verbatim, so a filtered edge is dropped for this reader
+/// without rewriting what is on disk.
+fn neighbors_within_domain(neighbors: &ListArray, node_count: usize) -> (ListArray, usize) {
+    // Ids are `u32` on the wire, so a node count past `u32::MAX` cannot be
+    // addressed by one; clamping keeps every id in domain rather than wrapping.
+    let node_count = u32::try_from(node_count).unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+    let values = neighbors.values().as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+    // Each level is a slice of the concatenated batch and `values()` hands back
+    // the whole child array regardless, so bound the scan to this array's own
+    // offset window. Scanning all of it would count another level's ids, put a
+    // clean level on the rebuild path, and report a count that is not this
+    // level's.
+    let offsets = neighbors.offsets();
+    let start = offsets[0] as usize;
+    let end = offsets[offsets.len() - 1] as usize;
+    let dropped = values.values()[start..end]
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|&&id| id >= node_count)
+        .count();
+    if dropped == 0 {
+        return (neighbors.clone(), 0);
+    }
+
+    let mut builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(UInt32Builder::new(), neighbors.len());
+    for row in 0..neighbors.len() {
+        if neighbors.is_null(row) {
+            builder.append_null();
+            continue;
+        }
+        let row_ids = neighbors.value(row);
+        let row_ids = row_ids.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        builder.append_value(
+            row_ids
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .filter(|&id| id < node_count)
+                .map(Some),
+        );
+    }
+    (builder.finish(), dropped)
+}
+
+/// A search-only HNSW graph backed directly by the Arrow buffers of the
+/// on-disk `RecordBatch`.
+///
+/// Loading performs no per-node reconstruction: neighbor adjacency is served
+/// as `&[u32]` slices straight out of the `__neighbors` `ListArray` value
+/// buffer (zero copy). The full `batch` is retained so [`HNSW::to_batch`] is a
+/// near-free passthrough -- required, because the IVF partition cache
+/// re-serializes loaded indices through `to_batch()`
+/// (`lance/src/index/vector/ivf/partition_serde.rs`) -- and so a future
+/// zero-copy `CacheCodec` (#6745) can write/read it through
+/// `lance_arrow::ipc` without rebuilding the graph.
+struct LoadedHnswGraph {
+    /// The full loaded batch (all levels concatenated, level 0 first),
+    /// retained verbatim for `to_batch()` and #6745.
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    /// Per-level `__neighbors` `List<UInt32>`, zero-copy slices of `batch`.
+    level_neighbors: Vec<ListArray>,
+    /// Per-level node-id -> row lookup (see [`LevelLookup`]).
+    level_lookup: Vec<LevelLookup>,
+    /// Number of nodes present at each level (`level_count[0]` == total).
+    level_count: Vec<usize>,
+    /// Bytes in `level_neighbors` that are *not* views into `batch`, from a
+    /// level rebuilt to drop out-of-domain ids. Zero for a clean index, which
+    /// keeps every level zero-copy.
+    owned_neighbor_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for LoadedHnswGraph {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // `level_neighbors` are zero-copy views into `batch`, so counting
+        // `batch` alone avoids double counting (mirrors
+        // `vector/flat/storage.rs`). The upper-level `level_lookup` maps are
+        // sized to the geometrically-shrinking node counts above level 0 --
+        // negligible next to the batch and not separately accounted here.
+        //
+        // A level rebuilt to drop out-of-domain ids owns its buffers instead,
+        // so those bytes are counted on top: they are real and the cache sizes
+        // itself from this number.
+        self.batch.get_array_memory_size() + self.owned_neighbor_bytes
+    }
+}
+
+impl LoadedHnswGraph {
+    /// Borrow the neighbor ids of `key` at `level` directly from the Arrow
+    /// `ListArray` value buffer -- no allocation, no copy.
+    #[inline]
+    fn neighbors_at(&self, level: usize, key: u32) -> &[u32] {
+        let row = match &self.level_lookup[level] {
+            // `Dense` means row == id, so an id at or beyond the level's row
+            // count addresses nothing. The writers now bound what they emit to
+            // the prefix they publish, but indices written before that are
+            // already on disk, and following such an edge panicked the search
+            // instead of degrading it. Treat it exactly like an absent node: no
+            // neighbors, so greedy search stays put and descends, losing one
+            // edge rather than the whole query.
+            LevelLookup::Dense if key as usize >= self.level_count[level] => return &[],
+            LevelLookup::Dense => key as usize,
+            LevelLookup::Sparse(id_to_row) => match id_to_row.get(&key) {
+                Some(&row) => row as usize,
+                // The node is absent at this level -- e.g. an empty upper
+                // level the search descends through, or a node that only
+                // exists at lower levels. Mirror the old representation
+                // (`level_neighbors[level]` defaulted to empty): no
+                // neighbors here, so greedy search stays put and descends.
+                None => return &[],
+            },
+        };
+        let list = &self.level_neighbors[level];
+        let offsets = list.value_offsets();
+        let start = offsets[row] as usize;
+        let end = offsets[row + 1] as usize;
+        // The `__neighbors` list child is `UInt32` per `HNSW::schema()`.
+        // Validity bitmap is ignored on purpose: `to_batch` never writes null
+        // neighbor lists, matching the previous `.unwrap()`-based load.
+        let values = list.values().as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        &values.values()[start..end]
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-level search view over a disk-loaded [`LoadedHnswGraph`].
+pub(crate) struct LoadedHnswLevelView<'a> {
+    level: usize,
+    graph: &'a LoadedHnswGraph,
+}
+
+impl<'a> LoadedHnswLevelView<'a> {
+    fn new(level: u16, graph: &'a LoadedHnswGraph) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            level: level as usize,
+            graph,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Graph for LoadedHnswLevelView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        // Mirrors `ImmutableHnswLevelView::len` (total node count).
+        self.graph.level_count[0]
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>> {
+        // Non-hot fallback: HNSW search goes through `BorrowingGraph`. Kept
+        // only so the `Graph` trait / legacy `greedy_search` need no
+        // special-casing for loaded graphs.
+        Arc::new(self.graph.neighbors_at(self.level, key).to_vec())
+    }
+}
+
+impl BorrowingGraph for LoadedHnswLevelView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.graph.level_count[0]
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> &[u32] {
+        self.graph.neighbors_at(self.level, key)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Bottom-level (level 0) search view over a disk-loaded [`LoadedHnswGraph`].
+pub(crate) struct LoadedHnswBottomView<'a> {
+    graph: &'a LoadedHnswGraph,
+}
+
+impl<'a> LoadedHnswBottomView<'a> {
+    fn new(graph: &'a LoadedHnswGraph) -> Self {
+        Self { graph }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Graph for LoadedHnswBottomView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.graph.level_count[0]
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>> {
+        Arc::new(self.graph.neighbors_at(0, key).to_vec())
+    }
+}
+
+impl BorrowingGraph for LoadedHnswBottomView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.graph.level_count[0]
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> &[u32] {
+        self.graph.neighbors_at(0, key)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The graph backing an [`HNSW`]: either built in memory or disk-loaded.
+enum HnswGraph {
+    /// Built in memory by the (online) builder / `index_vectors` /
+    /// `from_parts`. Mutable-shaped `GraphBuilderNode`s; `to_batch()`
+    /// re-encodes from these (it needs the per-node ranked distances).
+    Built(Arc<Vec<GraphBuilderNode>>),
+    /// Loaded from disk, Arrow-backed, search-only.
+    Loaded(Arc<LoadedHnswGraph>),
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for HnswGraph {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Built(nodes) => nodes.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            Self::Loaded(graph) => graph.deep_size_of_children(context),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct HnswQueryParams {
+    pub ef: usize,
+    pub lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+    pub upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+    pub dist_q_c: f32,
+    pub use_acorn: bool,
+}
+
+impl From<&Query> for HnswQueryParams {
+    fn from(query: &Query) -> Self {
+        let k = query.k * query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize;
+        Self {
+            ef: query.ef.unwrap_or(k + k / 2),
+            lower_bound: query.lower_bound,
+            upper_bound: query.upper_bound,
+            dist_q_c: query.dist_q_c,
+            use_acorn: query.approx_mode == ApproxMode::Fast,
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -604,56 +1500,112 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for HNSW {
             return Ok(Self::empty());
         }
 
-        let hnsw_metadata =
-            data.schema_ref()
-                .metadata()
-                .get(HNSW_METADATA_KEY)
-                .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("{} not found", HNSW_METADATA_KEY),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-        let hnsw_metadata: HnswMetadata =
-            serde_json::from_str(hnsw_metadata).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Failed to decode HNSW metadata: {}, json: {}",
-                    e, hnsw_metadata
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-
-        let levels: Vec<_> = hnsw_metadata
+        let hnsw_metadata = data
+            .schema_ref()
+            .metadata()
+            .get(HNSW_METADATA_KEY)
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!("{} not found", HNSW_METADATA_KEY)))?;
+        let hnsw_metadata: HnswMetadata = serde_json::from_str(hnsw_metadata).map_err(|e| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "Failed to decode HNSW metadata: {}, json: {}",
+                e, hnsw_metadata
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        // Slice the concatenated batch into one (zero-copy) view per level.
+        let level_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = hnsw_metadata
             .level_offsets
             .iter()
             .tuple_windows()
             .map(|(start, end)| data.slice(*start, end - start))
             .collect();
 
-        let level_count = levels.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let level_count = level_batches
+            .iter()
+            .map(|b| b.num_rows())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        let bottom_level_len = levels[0].num_rows();
-        let mut nodes = Vec::with_capacity(bottom_level_len);
-        for i in 0..bottom_level_len {
-            nodes.push(GraphBuilderNode::new(i as u32, levels.len()));
-        }
-        for (level, batch) in levels.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        // No per-node reconstruction: keep the Arrow adjacency buffers as-is
+        // and only build the tiny per-upper-level id->row lookups. The
+        // `__distance` column is never materialized here -- search doesn't
+        // need it, and `to_batch()` returns the retained `data` verbatim.
+        let mut level_neighbors = Vec::with_capacity(level_batches.len());
+        let mut level_lookup = Vec::with_capacity(level_batches.len());
+        let mut dropped_edges = 0usize;
+        let mut owned_neighbor_bytes = 0usize;
+        for (level, batch) in level_batches.iter().enumerate() {
+            // `.clone()` on an Arrow array bumps a refcount; buffers stay
+            // shared with `data` (zero copy).
+            let neighbors = batch[NEIGHBORS_COL].as_list::<i32>().clone();
+            let (neighbors, dropped) = neighbors_within_domain(&neighbors, level_count[0]);
+            if dropped > 0 {
+                // Rebuilt, so it no longer borrows `batch`; see `DeepSizeOf`.
+                owned_neighbor_bytes += neighbors.get_array_memory_size();
+            }
+            dropped_edges += dropped;
             let ids = batch[VECTOR_ID_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
-            let neighbors = batch[NEIGHBORS_COL].as_list::<i32>();
-            let distances = batch[DIST_COL].as_list::<i32>();
-
-            for ((node, neighbors), distances) in
-                ids.iter().zip(neighbors.iter()).zip(distances.iter())
-            {
-                let node = node.unwrap();
-                let neighbors = neighbors.as_ref().unwrap().as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
-                let distances = distances.as_ref().unwrap().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
-
-                nodes[node as usize].level_neighbors_ranked[level] = neighbors
+            if level == 0 {
+                // `to_batch` writes every node at level 0 exactly once in
+                // ascending `__vector_id` (== node id) order, so the level-0
+                // slice is exactly `[0, N)` and the row index *is* the node
+                // id. The `Dense` lookup below depends on this: in a release
+                // build a violated invariant would silently make search read
+                // the wrong neighbor list, so enforce it at load time (not via
+                // `debug_assert!`) and reject a malformed or version-
+                // incompatible batch.
+                if let Some((row, id)) = ids
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .find(|&(row, id)| *id != row as u32)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "HNSW level-0 __vector_id must equal the row index, but \
+                         row {row} has __vector_id {id}; the on-disk batch is \
+                         malformed or was written by an incompatible version"
+                    )));
+                }
+                level_lookup.push(LevelLookup::Dense);
+            } else {
+                // Upper levels: explicit id -> row map. No ordering/alignment
+                // assumption (see `LevelLookup::Sparse`). On the rare
+                // duplicate id (a misaligned slice can repeat one across a
+                // level boundary) the last wins, matching the old load's
+                // `nodes[id].level_neighbors[level] = ...` last-write.
+                let id_to_row: HashMap<u32, u32> = ids
+                    .values()
                     .iter()
-                    .zip(distances.iter())
-                    .map(|(n, dist)| OrderedNode::new(n.unwrap(), OrderedFloat(dist.unwrap())))
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(|(row, id)| (*id, row as u32))
                     .collect();
-                nodes[node as usize].update_from_ranked_neighbors(level as u16);
+                level_lookup.push(LevelLookup::Sparse(id_to_row));
             }
+            level_neighbors.push(neighbors);
+        }
+
+        if dropped_edges > 0 {
+            // Dropped, not rejected: an edge to a node this graph does not hold
+            // costs one edge, where refusing the batch costs every query over
+            // it. The entry point below is refused instead, because search
+            // cannot start without it.
+            log::warn!(
+                "HNSW batch carried {dropped_edges} neighbor id(s) outside its                  {} nodes; dropping them for this reader",
+                level_count[0]
+            );
+        }
+
+        // `entry_point` is read from untrusted metadata and indexes the `Dense`
+        // level-0 lookup directly; an out-of-range value would read past the
+        // level-0 neighbor buffer during search. Validate it under the same
+        // persisted-format invariant as the level-0 ids above.
+        let num_nodes = level_count[0];
+        if hnsw_metadata.entry_point as usize >= num_nodes {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "HNSW entry_point {} is out of range for a graph with {num_nodes} \
+                 nodes; the on-disk batch is malformed or was written by an \
+                 incompatible version",
+                hnsw_metadata.entry_point
+            )));
         }
 
         let visited_generator_queue =
@@ -663,10 +1615,18 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for HNSW {
                 .push(VisitedGenerator::new(0))
                 .unwrap();
         }
-        let inner = HnswBuilder {
+
+        let graph = LoadedHnswGraph {
+            batch: data,
+            level_neighbors,
+            level_lookup,
+            level_count: level_count.clone(),
+            owned_neighbor_bytes,
+        };
+        let inner = HnswCore {
             params: hnsw_metadata.params,
-            nodes: Arc::new(nodes.into_iter().map(RwLock::new).collect()),
-            level_count: level_count.into_iter().map(AtomicUsize::new).collect(),
+            graph: HnswGraph::Loaded(Arc::new(graph)),
+            level_count,
             entry_point: hnsw_metadata.entry_point,
             visited_generator_queue,
         };
@@ -694,6 +1654,15 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for HNSW {
         .into()
     }
 
+    // `schema()` governs the on-disk index file, and readers older than v8.0.0
+    // index the distance column there unconditionally, panicking when it is
+    // absent, so it cannot be dropped from what we write. Skipping it on read
+    // costs nothing in compatibility and keeps most of the graph bytes off the
+    // wire.
+    fn read_columns() -> Option<&'static [&'static str]> {
+        Some(&[VECTOR_ID_COL, NEIGHBORS_COL])
+    }
+
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, query, storage, prefilter, _metrics))]
     fn search(
         &self,
@@ -705,10 +1674,9 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for HNSW {
         _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         if params.ef < k {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "ef must be greater than or equal to k".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "ef must be greater than or equal to k".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
 
         let schema = VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone();
@@ -721,27 +1689,40 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for HNSW {
             .visited_generator_queue
             .pop()
             .unwrap_or_else(|| VisitedGenerator::new(storage.len()));
-        let prefilter_bitset = if prefilter.is_empty() {
-            None
+        let results = if prefilter.is_empty() {
+            self.search_basic(query, k, &params, None, storage)?
         } else {
+            // the bitset must be moved into a callee on every path so its
+            // borrow of `prefilter_generator` ends before the push below
             let indices = prefilter.filter_row_ids(Box::new(storage.row_ids()));
-            let mut bitset = prefilter_generator.generate(storage.len());
-            for indices in indices {
-                bitset.insert(indices as u32);
+            let mut prefilter_bitset = prefilter_generator.generate(storage.len());
+            for index in indices {
+                prefilter_bitset.insert(index as u32);
+            }
+            let remained = prefilter_bitset.count_ones();
+            if remained == storage.len() {
+                // mask passes every row: same as unfiltered
+                drop(prefilter_bitset);
+                self.search_basic(query, k, &params, None, storage)?
+            } else if remained < self.len() * 10 / 100 {
+                // few matching rows: brute force is cheaper and exact
+                self.flat_search(storage, query, k, prefilter_bitset, &params)
+            } else if params.use_acorn {
+                let acorn_results =
+                    self.search_acorn(query.clone(), k, &params, &prefilter_bitset, storage)?;
+                // under-delivery means the budget ran out on a fragmented
+                // mask, except range-bounded queries which return short
+                // legitimately
+                let bounded = params.lower_bound.is_some() || params.upper_bound.is_some();
+                if !bounded && acorn_results.len() < k.min(remained) {
+                    self.search_basic(query, k, &params, Some(prefilter_bitset), storage)?
+                } else {
+                    drop(prefilter_bitset);
+                    acorn_results
+                }
+            } else {
+                self.search_basic(query, k, &params, Some(prefilter_bitset), storage)?
             }
-            Some(bitset)
-        };
-
-        let remained = prefilter_bitset
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|b| b.count_ones())
-            .unwrap_or(storage.len());
-        let results = if remained < self.len() * 10 / 100 {
-            let prefilter_bitset =
-                prefilter_bitset.expect("the prefilter bitset must be set for flat search");
-            self.flat_search(storage, query, k, prefilter_bitset, &params)
-        } else {
-            self.search_basic(query, k, &params, prefilter_bitset, storage)?
         };
         // if the queue is full, we just don't push it back, so ignore the error here
         let _ = self.inner.visited_generator_queue.push(prefilter_generator);
@@ -763,40 +1744,49 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for HNSW {
     where
         Self: Sized,
     {
-        let inner = HnswBuilder::with_params(params, storage);
-        let hnsw = Self {
-            inner: Arc::new(inner),
-        };
+        params.validate()?;
+        let builder = HnswBuilder::with_params(params, storage);
 
         log::debug!(
             "Building HNSW graph: num={}, max_levels={}, m={}, ef_construction={}, distance_type:{}",
             storage.len(),
-            hnsw.inner.params.max_level,
-            hnsw.inner.params.m,
-            hnsw.inner.params.ef_construction,
+            builder.params.max_level,
+            builder.params.m,
+            builder.params.ef_construction,
             storage.distance_type(),
         );
 
         if storage.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(hnsw);
+            return Ok(builder.finish());
         }
 
         let len = storage.len();
-        hnsw.inner.level_count[0].fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-        (1..len).into_par_iter().for_each_init(
-            || VisitedGenerator::new(len),
-            |visited_generator, node| {
-                hnsw.inner.insert(node as u32, visited_generator, storage);
-            },
-        );
+        let entry_levels = builder.nodes[builder.entry_point as usize]
+            .read()
+            .unwrap()
+            .level_neighbors
+            .len();
+        for count in builder.level_count.iter().take(entry_levels) {
+            count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        (0..len)
+            .into_par_iter()
+            .filter(|node| *node as u32 != builder.entry_point)
+            .for_each_init(
+                || VisitedGenerator::new(len),
+                |visited_generator, node| {
+                    builder.insert(node as u32, visited_generator, storage);
+                },
+            );
 
-        assert_eq!(hnsw.inner.level_count[0].load(Ordering::Relaxed), len);
-        Ok(hnsw)
+        assert_eq!(builder.level_count[0].load(Ordering::Relaxed), len);
+        builder.connect_stranded_nodes(storage);
+        Ok(builder.finish())
     }
 
     fn remap(
         &self,
-        _mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>, // we don't need the mapping here because we rebuild the graph from remapped storage
+        _mapping: &RowAddrRemap, // we don't need the mapping here because we rebuild the graph from remapped storage
         store: &impl VectorStore,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         // We can't simply remap the row ids in the graph because the vectors are changed,
@@ -806,6 +1796,34 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for HNSW {
 
     /// Encode the sub index into a record batch
     fn to_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let nodes = match &self.inner.graph {
+            HnswGraph::Built(nodes) => nodes,
+            HnswGraph::Loaded(graph) => {
+                // A loaded graph is already Arrow-backed: return the retained
+                // batch verbatim, re-stamped with up-to-date HNSW metadata.
+                // The IVF partition cache re-serializes loaded indices through
+                // here (`ivf/partition_serde.rs`), so this must round-trip.
+                //
+                // Merge into (not replace) the existing schema metadata: a
+                // disk-loaded batch inherits other keys from the index file
+                // schema (e.g. `INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY`, `IVF_METADATA_KEY`),
+                // and `RecordBatch::with_schema` requires the new metadata to be
+                // a superset of the current one. Dropping those keys here makes
+                // the new schema a non-superset and fails the round-trip with
+                // "target schema is not superset of current schema".
+                let metadata = serde_json::to_string(&self.metadata())?;
+                let mut schema_metadata = graph.batch.schema_ref().metadata().clone();
+                schema_metadata.insert(HNSW_METADATA_KEY.to_string(), metadata);
+                let schema = graph
+                    .batch
+                    .schema()
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .clone()
+                    .with_metadata(schema_metadata);
+                return Ok(graph.batch.clone().with_schema(Arc::new(schema))?);
+            }
+        };
+
         let mut vector_id_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(self.len());
         let mut neighbors_builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(UInt32Builder::new(), self.len());
         let mut distances_builder =
@@ -813,8 +1831,7 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for HNSW {
         let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(self.max_level() as usize);
         for level in 0..self.max_level() {
             let level = level as usize;
-            for (id, node) in self.inner.nodes.iter().enumerate() {
-                let node = node.read().unwrap();
+            for (id, node) in nodes.iter().enumerate() {
                 if level >= node.level_neighbors.len() {
                     continue;
                 }
@@ -856,34 +1873,81 @@ impl IvfSubIndex for HNSW {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 
-    use arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray;
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt32Array,
+    };
     use arrow_schema::Schema;
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-    use lance_file::previous::{
-        reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader,
-        writer::{
-            FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter, FileWriterOptions as PreviousFileWriterOptions,
-        },
+    use lance_core::{Error, Result, deepsize::DeepSizeOf};
+    use lance_file::versions::v1::{
+        reader::FileReader as V1FileReader,
+        writer::{FileWriter as V1FileWriter, FileWriterOptions as V1FileWriterOptions},
     };
     use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
     use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
     use lance_table::format::SelfDescribingFileReader;
     use lance_table::io::manifest::ManifestDescribing;
     use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
     use object_store::path::Path;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::SmallRng};
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-    use crate::scalar::IndexWriter;
+    use super::{
+        HNSW_LEVEL_RNG_SEED, HNSW_METADATA_KEY, HnswBuilder, HnswGraph, ImmutableHnswBottomView,
+        ImmutableHnswLevelView, MIN_HNSW_M, random_level_with,
+    };
+    use crate::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use crate::prefilter::PreFilter;
+    use crate::vector::graph::builder::GraphBuilderNode;
+    use crate::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore};
     use crate::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
     use crate::vector::{
-        flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage,
-        graph::{DISTS_FIELD, NEIGHBORS_FIELD},
+        flat::storage::{FlatBinStorage, FlatFloatStorage},
+        graph::{DISTS_FIELD, NEIGHBORS_FIELD, OrderedNode, VisitedGenerator},
         hnsw::{
+            HNSW, HnswMetadata, VECTOR_ID_FIELD,
             builder::{HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams},
-            HNSW, VECTOR_ID_FIELD,
         },
     };
 
+    fn with_hnsw_metadata(batch: &RecordBatch, hnsw_metadata: HnswMetadata) -> RecordBatch {
+        let mut metadata = batch.schema_ref().metadata().clone();
+        metadata.insert(
+            HNSW_METADATA_KEY.to_string(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&hnsw_metadata).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let schema = batch.schema().as_ref().clone().with_metadata(metadata);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(schema), batch.columns().to_vec()).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    struct MaskPreFilter {
+        mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl PreFilter for MaskPreFilter {
+        async fn wait_for_ready(&self) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+            false
+        }
+
+        fn mask(&self) -> Arc<RowAddrMask> {
+            self.mask.clone()
+        }
+
+        fn filter_row_ids<'a>(&self, row_ids: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &'a u64> + 'a>) -> Vec<u64> {
+            self.mask.selected_indices(row_ids)
+        }
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_builder_write_load() {
         const DIM: usize = 32;
@@ -909,18 +1973,80 @@ mod tests {
             DISTS_FIELD.clone(),
         ]);
         let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&schema).unwrap();
-        let mut writer = PreviousFileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::with_object_writer(
+        let mut writer = V1FileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::with_object_writer(
+            writer,
+            schema,
+            &V1FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let metadata = batch.schema_ref().metadata().clone();
+        writer.write(&[batch]).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish_with_metadata(&metadata).await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = reader
+            .read_range(0..reader.len(), reader.schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let loaded_hnsw = HNSW::load(batch).unwrap();
+
+        let query = fsl.value(0);
+        let k = 10;
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 50,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let builder_results = builder
+            .search_basic(query.clone(), k, &params, None, store.as_ref())
+            .unwrap();
+        let loaded_results = loaded_hnsw
+            .search_basic(query, k, &params, None, store.as_ref())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(builder_results, loaded_results);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_builder_write_load_binary_hamming() {
+        const DIM: usize = 8;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 256;
+        const NUM_EDGES: usize = 20;
+        let data = UInt8Array::from_iter_values((0..TOTAL * DIM).map(|v| (v % 16) as u8));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatBinStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::Hamming));
+        let builder = HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .num_edges(NUM_EDGES)
+            .ef_construction(50)
+            .build(Arc::new(fsl.clone()), DistanceType::Hamming)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let path = Path::from("test_builder_write_load_binary_hamming");
+        let writer = object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            VECTOR_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+            NEIGHBORS_FIELD.clone(),
+            DISTS_FIELD.clone(),
+        ]);
+        let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&schema).unwrap();
+        let mut writer = V1FileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::with_object_writer(
             writer,
             schema,
-            &PreviousFileWriterOptions::default(),
+            &V1FileWriterOptions::default(),
         )
         .unwrap();
         let batch = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
         let metadata = batch.schema_ref().metadata().clone();
-        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write(&[batch]).await.unwrap();
         writer.finish_with_metadata(&metadata).await.unwrap();
 
-        let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None)
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let batch = reader
@@ -936,6 +2062,7 @@ mod tests {
             lower_bound: None,
             upper_bound: None,
             dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
         };
         let builder_results = builder
             .search_basic(query.clone(), k, &params, None, store.as_ref())
@@ -945,4 +2072,1348 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(builder_results, loaded_results);
     }
+
+    /// Brute-force top-`k` node ids by distance -- recall ground truth.
+    fn brute_force_topk(store: &FlatFloatStorage, query: ArrayRef, k: usize) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let dist_calc = store.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+        let mut all: Vec<(f32, u32)> = (0..store.len() as u32)
+            .map(|id| (dist_calc.distance(id), id))
+            .collect();
+        all.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.partial_cmp(&b.0).unwrap());
+        all.into_iter().take(k).map(|(_, id)| id).collect()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::zero_max_level(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().max_level(0),
+        "max_level must be greater than 0"
+    )]
+    #[case::zero_m(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(0),
+        "m must be at least 4"
+    )]
+    #[case::one_m(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(1),
+        "m must be at least 4"
+    )]
+    #[case::three_m(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(3),
+        "m must be at least 4"
+    )]
+    #[case::small_ef(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(19),
+        "ef_construction must be at least m (20)"
+    )]
+    #[case::overflowing_level_zero_limit(
+        HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .num_edges(usize::MAX)
+            .ef_construction(usize::MAX),
+        "level-0 reciprocal limit can be represented"
+    )]
+    fn test_rejects_invalid_build_params(
+        #[case] params: HnswBuildParams,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0]), 2).unwrap();
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2);
+
+        let error = HNSW::index_vectors(&store, params).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(expected_message),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Every node must have a level-0 path from the entry point, which is what
+    /// [HnswBuilder::connect_stranded_nodes] guarantees after a build.
+    fn assert_all_reachable_on_level0(hnsw: &HNSW) {
+        let nodes = hnsw.nodes().unwrap();
+        let mut reachable = vec![false; nodes.len()];
+        let mut queue = std::collections::VecDeque::from([hnsw.metadata().entry_point]);
+        reachable[hnsw.metadata().entry_point as usize] = true;
+        while let Some(current) = queue.pop_front() {
+            for &neighbor in nodes[current as usize].bottom_neighbors.iter() {
+                if !reachable[neighbor as usize] {
+                    reachable[neighbor as usize] = true;
+                    queue.push_back(neighbor);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let stranded: Vec<usize> = (0..nodes.len()).filter(|id| !reachable[*id]).collect();
+        assert!(
+            stranded.is_empty(),
+            "nodes {stranded:?} are unreachable from the entry point on level 0"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Every level-0 list stays within `2 * m` plus the one edge a repair may
+    /// add, which is what bounds the degree of repaired graphs.
+    fn assert_level0_degree_bound(hnsw: &HNSW, m: usize) {
+        for (id, node) in hnsw.nodes().unwrap().iter().enumerate() {
+            let degree = node.level_neighbors[0].len();
+            assert!(
+                degree <= 2 * m + 1,
+                "node {id} has {degree} level-0 neighbors, more than 2 * {m} + 1"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A node that parallel construction left without any inbound level-0
+    /// edge is linked from a reachable node near it: its nearest reachable
+    /// out-neighbor, refined by walking toward the node. A full anchor takes
+    /// the one extra edge. Nodes that only become reachable through a repaired
+    /// node need no link of their own, and a node whose out-edges all lead to
+    /// stranded nodes waits for one of them to be linked, or is chained onto
+    /// the last repaired node when none ever is.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_connect_stranded_nodes_links_from_nearby_reachable_node() {
+        // Points on a line at x = id, except node 4 sits at 4.5 so that node 2
+        // is strictly the nearest reachable node to node 3.
+        let mut xs: Vec<f32> = (0..16).map(|id| id as f32).collect();
+        xs[4] = 4.5;
+        let values = Float32Array::from(xs.into_iter().flat_map(|x| [x, 0.0]).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2);
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .num_edges(MIN_HNSW_M)
+            .max_level(1);
+        let builder = HnswBuilder::with_params(params, &store);
+        assert_eq!(builder.entry_point, 0);
+        let set_neighbors = |id: u32, neighbors: &[u32]| {
+            let mut node = builder.nodes[id as usize].write().unwrap();
+            for &neighbor in neighbors {
+                node.add_neighbor(neighbor, store.dist_between(id, neighbor).into(), 0);
+            }
+            node.update_from_ranked_neighbors(0);
+        };
+        // Reachable: 0, 1, 2 and 4..=9. Node 2 is full (2 * MIN_HNSW_M edges).
+        set_neighbors(0, &[1]);
+        set_neighbors(1, &[0, 2]);
+        set_neighbors(2, &[1, 0, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]);
+        for id in 4..=9 {
+            set_neighbors(id, &[2]);
+        }
+        // Stranded, nearest reachable node is the full node 2.
+        set_neighbors(3, &[2]);
+        // Stranded pair: 10 is anchored on 9, 11 is reached through 10.
+        set_neighbors(10, &[9, 11]);
+        set_neighbors(11, &[10]);
+        // Stranded, only out-neighbor is 9, but walking from 9 reaches 11.
+        set_neighbors(12, &[9]);
+        // Stranded pair whose out-edges never lead back to the entry point.
+        set_neighbors(13, &[14]);
+        set_neighbors(14, &[13]);
+        // Stranded, only out-neighbor is the entry point, far away.
+        set_neighbors(15, &[0]);
+
+        builder.connect_stranded_nodes(&store);
+
+        let hnsw = builder.finish();
+        assert_all_reachable_on_level0(&hnsw);
+        assert_level0_degree_bound(&hnsw, MIN_HNSW_M);
+        let nodes = hnsw.nodes().unwrap();
+        let level0 = |id: usize| nodes[id].level_neighbors[0].as_slice().to_vec();
+        let inbound = |id: u32| -> Vec<usize> {
+            (0..nodes.len())
+                .filter(|other| nodes[*other].level_neighbors[0].contains(&id))
+                .collect()
+        };
+        // 3: the full node 2 takes the extra edge.
+        assert_eq!(level0(2), vec![1, 0, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 3]);
+        // 10: anchored on 9; 11 becomes reachable through 10 with no new edge.
+        assert_eq!(level0(9), vec![2, 10]);
+        assert_eq!(inbound(11), vec![10]);
+        // 12: the walk from 9 continues through 10 to 11.
+        assert_eq!(level0(11), vec![10, 12]);
+        // 15: the walk from the entry point ends at 12, the closest reachable node.
+        assert_eq!(level0(12), vec![9, 15]);
+        // 13: never reachable through its own edges, chained onto the last
+        // repaired node; 14 becomes reachable through 13 with no new edge.
+        assert_eq!(level0(15), vec![0, 13]);
+        assert_eq!(inbound(14), vec![13]);
+    }
+
+    /// Every node anchors at most one stranded node. When the nodes near a
+    /// stranded node have all anchored one already, it chains onto the most
+    /// recently repaired node instead of growing an anchor further.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_connect_stranded_nodes_anchors_each_node_once() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![
+            0.0, 0.0, // entry point
+            1.0, 0.0, // reachable
+            0.0, 5.0, // stranded, anchored on 0
+            5.0, 0.0, // stranded, anchored on 1
+            0.0, -5.0, // stranded, 0 is the closest node but already an anchor
+        ]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2);
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .num_edges(MIN_HNSW_M)
+            .max_level(1);
+        let builder = HnswBuilder::with_params(params, &store);
+        assert_eq!(builder.entry_point, 0);
+        let set_neighbors = |id: u32, neighbors: &[u32]| {
+            let mut node = builder.nodes[id as usize].write().unwrap();
+            for &neighbor in neighbors {
+                node.add_neighbor(neighbor, store.dist_between(id, neighbor).into(), 0);
+            }
+            node.update_from_ranked_neighbors(0);
+        };
+        set_neighbors(0, &[1]);
+        set_neighbors(1, &[0]);
+        for id in 2..=4 {
+            set_neighbors(id, &[0]);
+        }
+
+        builder.connect_stranded_nodes(&store);
+
+        let hnsw = builder.finish();
+        assert_all_reachable_on_level0(&hnsw);
+        let nodes = hnsw.nodes().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*nodes[0].level_neighbors[0], vec![1, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(*nodes[1].level_neighbors[0], vec![0, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(*nodes[3].level_neighbors[0], vec![0, 4]);
+    }
+
+    /// Identical or nearly identical vectors strand most of the graph, since
+    /// pruning keeps the same few ids everywhere. The repair still has to
+    /// finish in linear time and keep every level-0 list within `2 * m + 1`.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::identical(1)]
+    #[case::few_distinct(3)]
+    fn test_degenerate_vectors_stay_reachable_within_degree_bound(#[case] distinct: usize) {
+        const TOTAL: usize = 2000;
+        let values = Float32Array::from(
+            (0..TOTAL)
+                .flat_map(|id| [(id % distinct) as f32, 0.0])
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2);
+        let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            &store,
+            HnswBuildParams::default()
+                .num_edges(MIN_HNSW_M)
+                .ef_construction(MIN_HNSW_M),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_all_reachable_on_level0(&hnsw);
+        assert_level0_degree_bound(&hnsw, MIN_HNSW_M);
+    }
+
+    /// The lowest accepted construction settings keep every node reachable on
+    /// level 0, and the greedy descent still lands close enough for a full
+    /// enumeration to cover nearly all of them.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_minimum_params_reachability() {
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 2048;
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0);
+        let values = Float32Array::from(
+            (0..TOTAL * DIM)
+                .map(|_| rng.random::<f32>())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors.clone(), DistanceType::L2);
+        let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            &store,
+            HnswBuildParams::default()
+                .num_edges(MIN_HNSW_M)
+                .ef_construction(MIN_HNSW_M),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_all_reachable_on_level0(&hnsw);
+        let results = hnsw
+            .search_basic(
+                vectors.value(0),
+                TOTAL,
+                &HnswQueryParams {
+                    ef: TOTAL,
+                    lower_bound: None,
+                    upper_bound: None,
+                    dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                    use_acorn: false,
+                },
+                None,
+                &store,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let minimum_reachable = TOTAL * 90 / 100;
+        assert!(
+            results.len() >= minimum_reachable,
+            "minimum HNSW construction settings reached only {} of {TOTAL} nodes; expected at least {minimum_reachable}",
+            results.len(),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Algorithm 1 limits a newly inserted node to M connections even on
+    /// level 0. The larger Mmax0 limit only applies when old nodes receive
+    /// reciprocal connections.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_new_node_uses_m_connections() {
+        // Four equidistant, mutually diverse points around the final point.
+        // With the old shared Mmax0 limit, node 4 retained all four.
+        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![
+            1.0, 0.0, // east
+            0.0, 1.0, // north
+            -1.0, 0.0, // west
+            0.0, -1.0, // south
+            0.0, 0.0, // final node
+        ]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2);
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .max_level(1)
+            .num_edges(2)
+            .ef_construction(5);
+        let builder = HnswBuilder::with_params(params, &store);
+        let mut visited_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(store.len());
+
+        for node in 1..store.len() as u32 {
+            builder.insert(node, &mut visited_generator, &store);
+        }
+
+        let final_node = builder.nodes[4].read().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(final_node.level_neighbors_ranked[0].len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            builder
+                .nodes
+                .iter()
+                .all(|node| node.read().unwrap().level_neighbors_ranked[0].len() <= 4),
+            "existing level-0 nodes must remain bounded by Mmax0"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Offline construction pre-assigns the same random node heights as the
+    /// online builder and uses the first globally highest node as the anchor
+    /// for parallel insertion. This matches the final entry point produced by
+    /// sequential dynamic promotion without forcing node 0 to full height.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_offline_entry_point_uses_random_node_levels() {
+        const TOTAL: usize = 2048;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * 2), 2).unwrap();
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2);
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+        let builder = HnswBuilder::with_params(params.clone(), &store);
+
+        let mut level_rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(HNSW_LEVEL_RNG_SEED);
+        let expected_levels = (0..TOTAL)
+            .map(|_| random_level_with(&params, &mut level_rng))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let highest_level = *expected_levels.iter().max().unwrap();
+        let expected_entry = expected_levels
+            .iter()
+            .position(|level| *level == highest_level)
+            .unwrap() as u32;
+
+        for (node, expected_level) in builder.nodes.iter().zip(expected_levels) {
+            assert_eq!(
+                node.read().unwrap().level_neighbors.len(),
+                expected_level as usize + 1
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(builder.entry_point, expected_entry);
+    }
+
+    /// The Arrow-backed loaded graph must search bit-identically to the
+    /// in-memory build, across distance types and graph sizes (single node,
+    /// pair, and a multi-level graph exercising the sparse upper-level
+    /// id->row lookup).
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2_single(DistanceType::L2, 1)]
+    #[case::l2_pair(DistanceType::L2, 2)]
+    #[case::l2_multi_level(DistanceType::L2, 2048)]
+    #[case::dot_multi_level(DistanceType::Dot, 2048)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_loaded_search_parity_and_recall(
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[case] total: usize,
+    ) {
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(total * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), distance_type));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(!matches!(builder.inner.graph, HnswGraph::Loaded(_)));
+
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(builder.to_batch().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(loaded.inner.graph, HnswGraph::Loaded(_)));
+        assert_eq!(loaded.len(), total);
+
+        let k = total.min(10);
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 50,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let query = fsl.value(0);
+
+        let builder_results = builder
+            .search_basic(query.clone(), k, &params, None, store.as_ref())
+            .unwrap();
+        let loaded_results = loaded
+            .search_basic(query.clone(), k, &params, None, store.as_ref())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(builder_results, loaded_results);
+
+        // Recall vs brute-force ground truth (project rule: >= 0.5).
+        let truth: std::collections::HashSet<u32> = brute_force_topk(store.as_ref(), query, k)
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        let hits = loaded_results
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|n| truth.contains(&n.id))
+            .count();
+        let recall = hits as f32 / k as f32;
+        assert!(recall >= 0.5, "recall {recall} below 0.5 (k={k})");
+    }
+
+    /// A [`DistCalculator`] over fixed per-node distances that counts how
+    /// many distances it computes, so a test can assert exactly which search
+    /// phases ran.
+    struct CountingDistCalculator<'a> {
+        distances: &'a [f32],
+        calls: &'a AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    impl DistCalculator for CountingDistCalculator<'_> {
+        fn distance(&self, id: u32) -> f32 {
+            self.calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            self.distances[id as usize]
+        }
+
+        fn distance_all(&self, _k_hint: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+            self.distances.to_vec()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/5208>:
+    /// the query-time greedy descent must stop at level 1 (HNSW paper,
+    /// Algorithm 2); level 0 must be searched only by the ef-bounded beam.
+    ///
+    /// Drives [`HNSW::run_search`] / [`HNSW::run_search_acorn`] directly over
+    /// a hand-built graph: node 0 is the entry point and the only node at
+    /// level 1 (with no level-1 neighbors), so the greedy descent over
+    /// levels >= 1 computes no distances, and with ef == N the bottom beam
+    /// visits every level-0 node exactly once. A greedy step at level 0
+    /// would show up as 10 extra distance computations: the level-0 degrees
+    /// along the path are 1,2,2,2,2,1 and the strictly decreasing distances
+    /// make greedy walk it end to end.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_greedy_descent_stops_before_level_0() {
+        const N: usize = 6;
+        // Strictly decreasing along the path; the true top-3 is nodes 5,4,3.
+        let distances: Vec<f32> = (0..N).map(|id| (N - id) as f32).collect();
+
+        // Level 0 is the path 0-1-...-5, mirrored into both the bottom view
+        // and the level-0 view (only the bottom view may be used at query
+        // time, which is what this test asserts).
+        let mut nodes: Vec<GraphBuilderNode> = (0..N as u32)
+            .map(|id| GraphBuilderNode::new(id, 2))
+            .collect();
+        for (id, node) in nodes.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let mut adjacency = Vec::new();
+            if id > 0 {
+                adjacency.push(id as u32 - 1);
+            }
+            if id + 1 < N {
+                adjacency.push(id as u32 + 1);
+            }
+            let adjacency = Arc::new(adjacency);
+            node.bottom_neighbors = adjacency.clone();
+            node.level_neighbors[0] = adjacency;
+        }
+
+        let build_params = HnswBuildParams {
+            max_level: 2,
+            m: 4,
+            ef_construction: 10,
+            prefetch_distance: None,
+        };
+        let hnsw = HNSW::from_parts(build_params, nodes.clone(), vec![N, 1], 0);
+        let query_params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: N,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+
+        let calls = AtomicUsize::new(0);
+        let dist_calc = CountingDistCalculator {
+            distances: &distances,
+            calls: &calls,
+        };
+        // The entry-point distance (1 call) mirrors `search_inner`.
+        let ep = OrderedNode::new(0, dist_calc.distance(0).into());
+        let mut visited_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(N);
+
+        let results = hnsw.run_search(
+            ep.clone(),
+            3,
+            &query_params,
+            None,
+            &mut visited_generator,
+            N,
+            None,
+            &dist_calc,
+            |level| ImmutableHnswLevelView::new(level, &nodes),
+            ImmutableHnswBottomView::new(&nodes),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            results.iter().map(|node| node.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![5, 4, 3]
+        );
+        // Exactly 1 entry-point distance + 5 beam visits (one per remaining
+        // node); the pre-fix level-0 greedy step brought this to 16.
+        assert_eq!(calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), N);
+
+        // The ACORN traversal shares the descent. Its beam additionally seeds
+        // mask-passing nodes with distance computations, so only bound the
+        // total: a level-0 greedy step would push it past one call per node.
+        let mut mask_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(N);
+        let mut mask = mask_generator.generate(N);
+        for id in 0..N as u32 {
+            mask.insert(id);
+        }
+        let mut expanded_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(N);
+        calls.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        let results = hnsw.run_search_acorn(
+            ep,
+            &query_params,
+            &mask,
+            &mut visited_generator,
+            &mut expanded_generator,
+            N,
+            None,
+            &dist_calc,
+            |level| ImmutableHnswLevelView::new(level, &nodes),
+            ImmutableHnswBottomView::new(&nodes),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            results
+                .iter()
+                .take(3)
+                .map(|node| node.id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![5, 4, 3]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed) <= N,
+            "level-0 greedy descent adds distance computations beyond the \
+             beam's one per node"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Brute-force top-`k` restricted to mask-passing ids.
+    fn brute_force_topk_masked(
+        store: &FlatFloatStorage,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        k: usize,
+        passes: impl Fn(u32) -> bool,
+    ) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let dist_calc = store.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+        let mut matching: Vec<(f32, u32)> = (0..store.len() as u32)
+            .filter(|id| passes(*id))
+            .map(|id| (dist_calc.distance(id), id))
+            .collect();
+        matching.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.partial_cmp(&b.0).unwrap());
+        matching.into_iter().take(k).map(|(_, id)| id).collect()
+    }
+
+    /// ACORN returns only mask-passing nodes, searches built and loaded
+    /// graphs identically, and holds recall vs brute force over the mask.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_acorn_filtered_search() {
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 2048;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(builder.to_batch().unwrap()).unwrap();
+
+        let mut mask_generator = VisitedGenerator::new(TOTAL);
+        let k = 10;
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 50,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let query = fsl.value(0);
+        let truth: std::collections::HashSet<u32> =
+            brute_force_topk_masked(store.as_ref(), query.clone(), k, |id| id % 2 == 0)
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect();
+
+        let mut all_results = vec![];
+        for hnsw in [&builder, &loaded] {
+            let mut bitset = mask_generator.generate(TOTAL);
+            for id in (0..TOTAL as u32).step_by(2) {
+                bitset.insert(id);
+            }
+            let results = hnsw
+                .search_acorn(query.clone(), k, &params, &bitset, store.as_ref())
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(results.len(), k);
+            assert!(results.iter().all(|node| node.id % 2 == 0));
+            assert!(results.windows(2).all(|w| w[0].dist <= w[1].dist));
+            let hits = results.iter().filter(|n| truth.contains(&n.id)).count();
+            let recall = hits as f32 / k as f32;
+            assert!(recall >= 0.5, "recall {recall} below 0.5 (k={k})");
+            all_results.push(results);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(all_results[0], all_results[1]);
+
+        // default ef (k + k/2) and a deletion-style mask (all but a few rows)
+        let default_ef_params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: k + k / 2,
+            ..params
+        };
+        for excluded_stride in [2, 400] {
+            let passes = |id: u32| id % excluded_stride != 1;
+            let mut bitset = mask_generator.generate(TOTAL);
+            for id in (0..TOTAL as u32).filter(|id| passes(*id)) {
+                bitset.insert(id);
+            }
+            let truth: std::collections::HashSet<u32> =
+                brute_force_topk_masked(store.as_ref(), query.clone(), k, passes)
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .collect();
+            let results = builder
+                .search_acorn(
+                    query.clone(),
+                    k,
+                    &default_ef_params,
+                    &bitset,
+                    store.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(results.len(), k);
+            assert!(results.iter().all(|node| passes(node.id)));
+            let hits = results.iter().filter(|n| truth.contains(&n.id)).count();
+            let recall = hits as f32 / k as f32;
+            assert!(recall >= 0.5, "recall {recall} below 0.5 (k={k})");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Dispatch: dense prefilters take the graph traversal, sparse ones the
+    /// exact flat scan, and both return only mask-passing row ids.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_subindex_prefilter_dispatch() {
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 2048;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2));
+        let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let k = 10;
+        let query_key = fsl.value(0);
+
+        let search_row_ids = |allowed: Vec<u64>, use_acorn: bool| {
+            let params = HnswQueryParams {
+                ef: 50,
+                lower_bound: None,
+                upper_bound: None,
+                dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                use_acorn,
+            };
+            let filter = Arc::new(MaskPreFilter {
+                mask: Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+                    allowed,
+                ))),
+            });
+            let batch = hnsw
+                .search(
+                    query_key.clone(),
+                    k,
+                    params,
+                    store.as_ref(),
+                    filter,
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            batch[lance_core::ROW_ID]
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        };
+
+        // Dense mask (50% of rows), in both modes.
+        let dense: Vec<u64> = (0..TOTAL as u64).step_by(2).collect();
+        for use_acorn in [false, true] {
+            let row_ids = search_row_ids(dense.clone(), use_acorn);
+            assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), k);
+            assert!(row_ids.iter().all(|id| id % 2 == 0));
+        }
+
+        // All-pass mask: shortcuts to the unfiltered path.
+        let all: Vec<u64> = (0..TOTAL as u64).collect();
+        let unfiltered = hnsw
+            .search_basic(
+                query_key.clone(),
+                k,
+                &HnswQueryParams {
+                    ef: 50,
+                    lower_bound: None,
+                    upper_bound: None,
+                    dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                    use_acorn: false,
+                },
+                None,
+                store.as_ref(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_ids = search_row_ids(all, true);
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids,
+            unfiltered.iter().map(|n| n.id as u64).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+
+        // Sparse mask (< 10% of rows): the flat scan, which is exact.
+        let sparse: Vec<u64> = (0..TOTAL as u64).step_by(25).collect();
+        let row_ids = search_row_ids(sparse.clone(), true);
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), k);
+        let truth = brute_force_topk_masked(store.as_ref(), query_key.clone(), k, |id| {
+            sparse.contains(&(id as u64))
+        });
+        let mut got: Vec<u32> = row_ids.iter().map(|id| *id as u32).collect();
+        got.sort_unstable();
+        let mut expected = truth;
+        expected.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(got, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::prefetch(Some(2))]
+    #[case::no_prefetch(None)]
+    fn test_distance_range_prefilter_dispatch(#[case] prefetch_distance: Option<usize>) {
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 100;
+
+        let mut values = vec![0.0; TOTAL * DIM];
+        for row in 1..TOTAL {
+            values[row * DIM] = row as f32;
+        }
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), DIM as i32)
+            .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2));
+        let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams {
+                prefetch_distance,
+                ..HnswBuildParams::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query = fsl.value(0);
+
+        let search_row_ids = |allowed: Vec<u64>| {
+            let filter = Arc::new(MaskPreFilter {
+                mask: Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+                    allowed,
+                ))),
+            });
+            let batch = hnsw
+                .search(
+                    query.clone(),
+                    10,
+                    HnswQueryParams {
+                        ef: TOTAL,
+                        lower_bound: Some(0.0),
+                        upper_bound: Some(1.0),
+                        dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                        use_acorn: false,
+                    },
+                    store.as_ref(),
+                    filter,
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            batch[lance_core::ROW_ID]
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        };
+
+        // Sparse masks take the exact flat scan, while dense masks traverse
+        // the graph. Both must include the lower bound and exclude the upper.
+        assert_eq!(search_row_ids(vec![0, 1, 2]), vec![0]);
+        assert_eq!(search_row_ids((0..60).collect()), vec![0]);
+    }
+
+    /// Every fresh `level_offsets` range must exactly delimit the rows emitted
+    /// for that HNSW level (issue #5156).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_level_offsets_match_serialized_levels() {
+        use arrow::array::AsArray;
+        use arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type;
+
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 2048;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // The scenario only exists on a multi-level graph.
+        assert!(
+            builder.max_level() >= 2,
+            "expected a multi-level graph (got max_level {})",
+            builder.max_level()
+        );
+
+        let batch = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let metadata = builder.metadata();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *metadata.level_offsets.last().unwrap(),
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            "level offsets must cover every serialized row",
+        );
+
+        let nodes = builder.nodes().unwrap();
+        for level in 0..builder.max_level() as usize {
+            let start = metadata.level_offsets[level];
+            let end = metadata.level_offsets[level + 1];
+            let level_batch = batch.slice(start, end - start);
+            let ids = level_batch.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+            let expected_ids = nodes
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .filter_map(|(id, node)| (level < node.level_neighbors.len()).then_some(id as u32))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                ids.values().as_ref(),
+                expected_ids.as_slice(),
+                "serialized ids do not match level {level}",
+            );
+            assert_eq!(builder.num_nodes(level), expected_ids.len());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Version-1 readers use the configured max level to index serialized
+    /// level batches directly. Empty trailing ranges keep that persisted
+    /// shape while current readers use only the sampled, non-empty height.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_metadata_preserves_configured_empty_levels() {
+        const CONFIGURED_LEVELS: usize = 7;
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default().max_level(CONFIGURED_LEVELS as u16);
+        let hnsw = HNSW::from_parts(params, vec![GraphBuilderNode::new(0, 1)], vec![1], 0);
+
+        assert_eq!(hnsw.max_level(), 1);
+        let metadata = hnsw.metadata();
+        assert_eq!(metadata.level_offsets.len(), CONFIGURED_LEVELS + 1);
+        assert_eq!(metadata.level_offsets[0], 0);
+        assert!(
+            metadata.level_offsets[1..]
+                .iter()
+                .all(|offset| *offset == 1)
+        );
+
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(hnsw.to_batch().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(loaded.max_level(), 1);
+        match &loaded.inner.graph {
+            HnswGraph::Loaded(graph) => {
+                assert_eq!(graph.level_neighbors.len(), CONFIGURED_LEVELS);
+                assert_eq!(graph.level_count[0], 1);
+                assert!(graph.level_count[1..].iter().all(|count| *count == 0));
+            }
+            HnswGraph::Built(_) => panic!("expected an Arrow-backed loaded graph"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Indices written before issue #5156 was fixed omitted the entry point
+    /// from every upper-level count. Loading those misaligned slices must keep
+    /// the previous id-keyed, last-write-wins behavior.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_load_legacy_misaligned_level_offsets() {
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 2048;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(builder.max_level() >= 2);
+
+        let batch = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let mut metadata = builder.metadata();
+        let mut legacy_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(metadata.level_offsets.len());
+        legacy_offsets.push(0);
+        for level in 0..builder.max_level() as usize {
+            let level_count = metadata.level_offsets[level + 1] - metadata.level_offsets[level];
+            let legacy_level_count = level_count - usize::from(level > 0);
+            legacy_offsets.push(legacy_offsets.last().unwrap() + legacy_level_count);
+        }
+        metadata.level_offsets = legacy_offsets;
+        assert!(*metadata.level_offsets.last().unwrap() < batch.num_rows());
+
+        let legacy_batch = with_hnsw_metadata(&batch, metadata);
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(legacy_batch).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(loaded.inner.graph, HnswGraph::Loaded(_)));
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 50,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let entry_point = builder.inner.entry_point as usize;
+        let query_indices = [0, 1, TOTAL / 3, TOTAL - 1]
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|query_index| *query_index != entry_point)
+            .take(3)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(query_indices.len(), 3);
+        for query_index in query_indices {
+            let query = fsl.value(query_index);
+            let builder_results = builder
+                .search_basic(query.clone(), 10, &params, None, store.as_ref())
+                .unwrap();
+            let loaded_results = loaded
+                .search_basic(query, 10, &params, None, store.as_ref())
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(builder_results, loaded_results);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `load()` must reject a batch whose level-0 `__vector_id` no longer
+    /// matches the row index. The `LevelLookup::Dense` fast path relies on
+    /// `row == id`, and the old `debug_assert!` was compiled out of release
+    /// builds -- so a corrupt batch must fail at the `load()` boundary instead
+    /// of silently searching the wrong neighbor lists.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_load_rejects_misaligned_level0_id() {
+        use arrow::array::AsArray;
+        use arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type;
+
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 256;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
+        // Row 0 is always a level-0 node; break its `__vector_id == row`
+        // invariant while preserving the (metadata-bearing) schema.
+        let mut ids = batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        ids[0] = ids.len() as u32;
+        let mut columns = batch.columns().to_vec();
+        columns[0] = Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(ids));
+        let corrupted = RecordBatch::try_new(batch.schema(), columns).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            HNSW::load(corrupted).is_err(),
+            "load() must reject a misaligned level-0 __vector_id"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A graph whose nodes outrun its storage must be refused, not faulted.
+    ///
+    /// Node ids are storage row numbers, so scoring a node past the last row
+    /// indexes out of bounds and panics the worker rather than failing the
+    /// query. The entry point is scored before any traversal decision, so the
+    /// refusal has to come first. Storage with rows the graph never reached is
+    /// left alone -- that direction is safe and ordinary.
+    #[test]
+    fn search_refuses_a_graph_its_storage_cannot_cover() {
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        const NODES: usize = 256;
+        let build_store = |rows: usize| {
+            let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                generate_random_array(rows * DIM),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2))
+        };
+
+        let full = build_store(NODES);
+        let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            full.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(hnsw.len(), NODES);
+
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 50,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let query = Arc::new(generate_random_array(DIM)) as ArrayRef;
+
+        // Storage short of the graph: refused with a message, never scored.
+        let short = build_store(NODES / 4);
+        let refused = hnsw.search_basic(query.clone(), 10, &params, None, short.as_ref());
+        let message = refused
+            .expect_err("a graph its storage cannot cover must be refused")
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("no vector to score"),
+            "the error has to name the defect, got: {message}"
+        );
+
+        // The safe direction, and the matching one, both still search.
+        let over = build_store(NODES * 2);
+        for storage in [full.as_ref(), over.as_ref()] {
+            let results = hnsw
+                .search_basic(query.clone(), 10, &params, None, storage)
+                .expect("storage that covers the graph must search");
+            assert!(!results.is_empty());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The domain scan must see only the rows it was handed.
+    ///
+    /// Each level is a slice of the concatenated batch, and `ListArray::values()`
+    /// hands back the whole child array regardless of the slice, so a scan over
+    /// it would count another level's ids.
+    #[test]
+    fn neighbors_within_domain_counts_only_the_sliced_rows() {
+        use arrow::array::{ListBuilder, UInt32Builder};
+        use arrow_array::Array;
+
+        use super::neighbors_within_domain;
+
+        const NODE_COUNT: usize = 4;
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(UInt32Builder::new(), 4);
+        // Rows 0..2 stay inside the domain; rows 2..4 do not.
+        builder.append_value([Some(0u32), Some(1)]);
+        builder.append_value([Some(2u32), Some(3)]);
+        builder.append_value([Some(99u32)]);
+        builder.append_value([Some(100u32)]);
+        let all = builder.finish();
+
+        let clean = all.slice(0, 2);
+        let (out, dropped) = neighbors_within_domain(&clean, NODE_COUNT);
+        assert_eq!(dropped, 0, "a clean slice must report no dropped ids");
+        assert_eq!(out.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(out.value(0).len(), 2, "a clean slice keeps its ids");
+
+        let dirty = all.slice(2, 2);
+        let (out, dropped) = neighbors_within_domain(&dirty, NODE_COUNT);
+        assert_eq!(dropped, 2, "both out-of-domain ids are counted");
+        assert_eq!(out.value(0).len(), 0, "the bad id is gone");
+        assert_eq!(out.value(1).len(), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// A dangling neighbor id must be gone before search, not caught at lookup.
+    ///
+    /// Traversal scores a neighbor before it is ever looked up as a node, so a
+    /// guard inside the node lookup runs too late -- the id has already reached
+    /// the distance calculator. Indices written before the writer bounded its
+    /// own snapshot carry such edges, so `load()` drops them and the query
+    /// still answers.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_load_drops_neighbor_ids_outside_the_graph() {
+        use arrow::array::{AsArray, ListBuilder, UInt32Builder};
+        use arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type;
+        use arrow_array::Array;
+
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 256;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
+
+        // Put an out-of-domain edge on every node, the shape a writer that
+        // snapshotted a node count while reading adjacency live would persist.
+        // Every node, so whichever ones traversal expands, it scores the bad id
+        // -- `FlatFloatStorage::dist_calculator` panics on an id past its rows.
+        let neighbors = batch.column(1).as_list::<i32>();
+        let mut rebuilt = ListBuilder::with_capacity(UInt32Builder::new(), neighbors.len());
+        for row in 0..neighbors.len() {
+            let ids = neighbors.value(row);
+            let ids = ids.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+            let mut ids: Vec<u32> = ids.values().to_vec();
+            ids.insert(0, TOTAL as u32 + 7);
+            rebuilt.append_value(ids.into_iter().map(Some));
+        }
+        let mut columns = batch.columns().to_vec();
+        columns[1] = Arc::new(rebuilt.finish());
+        // `__distance` is now shorter than `__neighbors` per row, which search
+        // does not read; the ids are what traversal follows.
+        let corrupted = RecordBatch::try_new(batch.schema(), columns).unwrap();
+
+        let corrupted_bytes = corrupted.get_array_memory_size();
+        let clean_loaded = HNSW::load(batch.clone()).expect("the clean batch loads");
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(corrupted).expect("a dangling edge must not fail the load");
+        // A clean load borrows every level from its batch, so it charges little
+        // beyond it. A repaired level owns its buffers, and they have to be
+        // charged too or the index cache sizes itself from memory it is not
+        // holding. Measured: ~0.3 KiB over for clean, ~38 KiB for repaired.
+        let clean_over = clean_loaded.deep_size_of() - batch.get_array_memory_size();
+        let repaired_over = loaded.deep_size_of() - corrupted_bytes;
+        assert!(
+            clean_over < 1024,
+            "a clean load keeps its levels zero-copy, but charged {clean_over} bytes over its batch"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            repaired_over > 16 * 1024,
+            "a repaired load must charge the buffers it owns, but charged only \
+             {repaired_over} bytes over its batch"
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(loaded.len(), TOTAL);
+        // Searching has to answer rather than panic on the out-of-domain id.
+        let query = Arc::new(generate_random_array(DIM)) as ArrayRef;
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 50,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let results = loaded
+            .search_basic(query, 10, &params, None, store.as_ref())
+            .expect("search must survive a dropped edge");
+        assert!(!results.is_empty(), "the query still returns neighbors");
+    }
+
+    /// `load()` must reject metadata whose `entry_point` is out of range for
+    /// the node count: it indexes the `Dense` level-0 lookup directly, so an
+    /// out-of-range value would read past the level-0 neighbor buffer at search
+    /// time.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_load_rejects_out_of_range_entry_point() {
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 256;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let mut md: HnswMetadata = serde_json::from_str(
+            batch
+                .schema_ref()
+                .metadata()
+                .get(HNSW_METADATA_KEY)
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        // Valid entry points are `[0, N)`; `level_offsets[1]` == N is one past.
+        let n = md.level_offsets[1];
+        md.entry_point = n as u32;
+        let corrupted = with_hnsw_metadata(&batch, md);
+
+        assert!(
+            HNSW::load(corrupted).is_err(),
+            "load() must reject an out-of-range entry_point"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An empty index round-trips: 0-row `to_batch` -> `load` -> empty graph.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_loaded_empty_index() {
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(0), DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(store.as_ref(), HnswBuildParams::default()).unwrap();
+        assert!(builder.is_empty());
+
+        let batch = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
+
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(batch).unwrap();
+        assert!(loaded.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(loaded.len(), 0);
+        // A 0-row load short-circuits to the empty (Built) graph.
+        assert!(!matches!(loaded.inner.graph, HnswGraph::Loaded(_)));
+        assert_eq!(loaded.to_batch().unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// build -> `to_batch` (b1) -> `load` -> `to_batch` (b2) must satisfy
+    /// `b1 == b2`, and the round-tripped batch must reload and search
+    /// identically. This is exactly the IVF partition-cache path:
+    /// `ivf/partition_serde.rs` calls `to_batch()` on a *loaded* index.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_to_batch_roundtrip_loaded() {
+        const DIM: usize = 24;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 1500;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(16).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let b1 = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(b1.clone()).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(loaded.inner.graph, HnswGraph::Loaded(_)));
+        let b2 = loaded.to_batch().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(b1, b2);
+
+        let reloaded = HNSW::load(b2).unwrap();
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 50,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let query = fsl.value(7);
+        let a = builder
+            .search_basic(query.clone(), 10, &params, None, store.as_ref())
+            .unwrap();
+        let b = reloaded
+            .search_basic(query, 10, &params, None, store.as_ref())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(a, b);
+    }
+
+    /// Regression for the IVF partition-cache round-trip: a disk-loaded batch
+    /// inherits extra schema metadata keys from the index file (e.g.
+    /// `INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY`, `IVF_METADATA_KEY`). `to_batch()` on the
+    /// loaded graph must *merge* the HNSW key into that metadata rather than
+    /// replacing it -- otherwise the new schema is not a superset of the
+    /// current one and `RecordBatch::with_schema` fails with "target schema is
+    /// not superset of current schema".
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_to_batch_loaded_preserves_extra_schema_metadata() {
+        use super::HNSW_METADATA_KEY;
+
+        const DIM: usize = 24;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 512;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(16).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Simulate the disk-load path (`ivf/v2.rs::load_partition_entry`):
+        // the batch reaching `HNSW::load` carries the index file's schema
+        // metadata in addition to the HNSW key.
+        let built_batch = builder.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let mut metadata = built_batch.schema_ref().metadata().clone();
+        metadata.insert(
+            "lance:index_metadata".to_string(),
+            "{\"distance_type\":\"l2\"}".to_string(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert("lance:ivf".to_string(), "42".to_string());
+        let schema = built_batch
+            .schema()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone()
+            .with_metadata(metadata);
+        let batch_with_extra =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(schema), built_batch.columns().to_vec()).unwrap();
+
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(batch_with_extra).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(loaded.inner.graph, HnswGraph::Loaded(_)));
+
+        // Before the fix this fails: the re-stamped schema dropped the extra
+        // keys, so `with_schema`'s superset check rejected the round-trip.
+        let out = loaded.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let out_metadata = out.schema_ref().metadata();
+        assert!(out_metadata.contains_key(HNSW_METADATA_KEY));
+        assert_eq!(
+            out_metadata.get("lance:index_metadata").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("{\"distance_type\":\"l2\"}"),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            out_metadata.get("lance:ivf").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("42")
+        );
+
+        // The HNSW key must still decode to valid metadata after the merge.
+        let reloaded = HNSW::load(out).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reloaded.len(), loaded.len());
+    }
+
+    /// The loaded graph shares the Arrow batch and reconstructs no per-node
+    /// `Vec<GraphBuilderNode>` / `Vec<OrderedNode>`, so it is strictly
+    /// lighter than the in-memory build representation.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_loaded_graph_is_arrow_backed() {
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 2048;
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap();
+        let store = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2));
+        let builder = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            store.as_ref(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(50),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(!matches!(builder.inner.graph, HnswGraph::Loaded(_)));
+
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(builder.to_batch().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(loaded.inner.graph, HnswGraph::Loaded(_)));
+        assert!(
+            loaded.deep_size_of() < builder.deep_size_of(),
+            "loaded graph ({}) should be lighter than built ({})",
+            loaded.deep_size_of(),
+            builder.deep_size_of(),
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/index.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/index.rs
index 0155dbbba0d..2cc5b675155 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/index.rs
@@ -1,9 +1,10 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use crate::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
 use std::{
     any::Any,
-    collections::HashMap,
     fmt::{Debug, Formatter},
     sync::Arc,
 };
@@ -12,34 +13,33 @@ use arrow_array::{Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Schema, Error, Result};
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
 use lance_io::traits::Reader;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use lance_table::format::SelfDescribingFileReader;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use serde_json::json;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 use crate::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
 use crate::vector::quantizer::QuantizationType;
 use crate::vector::v3::subindex::{IvfSubIndex, SubIndexType};
-use crate::{metrics::MetricsCollector, prefilter::PreFilter};
 use crate::{
+    Index, IndexType,
     vector::{
+        Query, VectorIndex,
         graph::NEIGHBORS_FIELD,
-        hnsw::{HnswMetadata, HNSW, VECTOR_ID_FIELD},
+        hnsw::{HNSW, HnswMetadata, VECTOR_ID_FIELD},
         ivf::storage::IVF_PARTITION_KEY,
         quantizer::{IvfQuantizationStorage, Quantization, Quantizer},
         storage::VectorStore,
-        Query, VectorIndex,
     },
-    Index, IndexType,
 };
+use crate::{metrics::MetricsCollector, prefilter::PreFilter};
 
 #[derive(Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct HNSWIndexOptions {
@@ -71,8 +71,7 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> HNSWIndex<Q> {
         aux_reader: Arc<dyn Reader>,
         options: HNSWIndexOptions,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let reader =
-            PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(reader.clone(), None).await?;
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(reader.clone(), None).await?;
 
         let partition_metadata = match reader.schema().metadata.get(IVF_PARTITION_KEY) {
             Some(json) => {
@@ -103,10 +102,7 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> HNSWIndex<Q> {
     fn get_partition_metadata(&self, partition_id: usize) -> Result<HnswMetadata> {
         match self.partition_metadata {
             Some(ref metadata) => Ok(metadata[partition_id].clone()),
-            None => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "No partition metadata found".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            None => Err(Error::index("No partition metadata found".to_string())),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -123,11 +119,6 @@ impl<Q: Quantization + Send + Sync + 'static> Index for HNSWIndex<Q> {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Cast to [VectorIndex]
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Ok(self)
-    }
-
     /// Retrieve index statistics as a JSON Value
     fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
         Ok(json!({
@@ -164,15 +155,15 @@ impl<Q: Quantization + Send + Sync + 'static> VectorIndex for HNSWIndex<Q> {
         pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let hnsw = self.hnsw.as_ref().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "HNSW index not loaded".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let hnsw = self
+            .hnsw
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or(Error::index("HNSW index not loaded".to_string()))?;
 
-        let storage = self.storage.as_ref().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "vector storage not loaded".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let storage = self
+            .storage
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or(Error::index("vector storage not loaded".to_string()))?;
 
         let refine_factor = query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize;
         let k = query.k * refine_factor;
@@ -224,7 +215,7 @@ impl<Q: Quantization + Send + Sync + 'static> VectorIndex for HNSWIndex<Q> {
             VECTOR_ID_FIELD.clone(),
         ]))?;
 
-        let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_from_reader(
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_from_reader(
             reader.path(),
             reader.clone(),
             None,
@@ -256,7 +247,7 @@ impl<Q: Quantization + Send + Sync + 'static> VectorIndex for HNSWIndex<Q> {
         length: usize,
         partition_id: usize,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(reader, None).await?;
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(reader, None).await?;
 
         let metadata = self.get_partition_metadata(partition_id)?;
         let storage = Arc::new(self.partition_storage.load_partition(partition_id).await?);
@@ -281,10 +272,10 @@ impl<Q: Quantization + Send + Sync + 'static> VectorIndex for HNSWIndex<Q> {
     }
 
     async fn to_batch_stream(&self, with_vector: bool) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let store = self.storage.as_ref().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "vector storage not loaded".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let store = self
+            .storage
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or(Error::index("vector storage not loaded".to_string()))?;
 
         let schema = if with_vector {
             store.schema().clone()
@@ -316,11 +307,17 @@ impl<Q: Quantization + Send + Sync + 'static> VectorIndex for HNSWIndex<Q> {
         Box::new(self.storage.as_ref().unwrap().row_ids())
     }
 
-    async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<()> {
-        Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Remapping HNSW in this way not supported".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+    async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(Error::index(
+            "Remapping HNSW in this way not supported".to_string(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(&mut self, _translator: &RowAddrTranslator) -> Result<()> {
+        // No mapping to materialize for an index that cannot be remapped.
+        Err(Error::index(
+            "Remapping HNSW in this way not supported".to_string(),
+        ))
     }
 
     fn ivf_model(&self) -> &IvfModel {
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/online.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/online.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..170884f7748
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/online.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,924 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Online (incremental) HNSW builder.
+//!
+//! Supports concurrent search while a single writer is appending nodes.
+//! Designed for in-memory MemTable indexes that need to be queryable during
+//! build and convertible to the on-disk Lance HNSW format at flush time.
+//!
+//! # Concurrency
+//!
+//! - Single writer (typically the MemTable flush handler thread).
+//! - Many concurrent readers (search threads).
+//!
+//! Per-level neighbor lists are stored in `ArcSwap<Vec<u32>>` so search reads
+//! are lock-free. Writer-only state (ranked neighbor heaps used during prune)
+//! is behind a `Mutex`; with a single writer, the mutex is uncontended.
+//!
+//! # Lifecycle
+//!
+//! 1. `OnlineHnswBuilder::try_with_capacity(...)` pre-allocates fixed-size node
+//!    arrays. Each slot has its target level pre-assigned so concurrent
+//!    inserts don't need to allocate.
+//! 2. Writer calls `insert(id, storage)` for `id` in `0..capacity`. The vector
+//!    at `id` must already be in `storage` (committed before `insert` is
+//!    called).
+//! 3. Readers call `search(...)` at any time; visible nodes are those whose
+//!    `insert` returned.
+//! 4. `finalize()` consumes the builder and returns an immutable
+//!    [`super::HNSW`] that can be serialized via `HNSW::to_batch()`.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::Mutex;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU32, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+use arc_swap::ArcSwap;
+use crossbeam_queue::ArrayQueue;
+use rand::{SeedableRng, rngs::SmallRng};
+
+use super::builder::{
+    HNSW, HNSW_LEVEL_RNG_SEED, HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams, random_level_with,
+};
+use super::select_neighbors_heuristic;
+use crate::vector::graph::builder::GraphBuilderNode;
+use crate::vector::graph::{
+    Graph, OrderedFloat, OrderedNode, VisitedGenerator, beam_search, greedy_search,
+};
+use crate::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore};
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
+
+/// A node in the online HNSW graph.
+///
+/// Read-visible neighbor lists use [`ArcSwap`] for lock-free reads. The
+/// writer-only ranked heap used during prune is wrapped in a [`Mutex`] for
+/// interior mutability — under single-writer use the mutex is always
+/// uncontended.
+pub struct OnlineGraphBuilderNode {
+    /// Per-level read-visible neighbor lists. Length = target_level + 1.
+    /// Empty `Arc<Vec<u32>>` means the node is allocated but not yet inserted.
+    pub(crate) level_neighbors: Vec<ArcSwap<Vec<u32>>>,
+    /// Writer-only per-level ranked neighbors used during prune.
+    pub(crate) level_neighbors_ranked: Mutex<Vec<Vec<OrderedNode>>>,
+    /// Convenience hot path mirror of `level_neighbors[0]`.
+    pub(crate) bottom_neighbors: ArcSwap<Vec<u32>>,
+}
+
+impl OnlineGraphBuilderNode {
+    pub fn new(target_level: u16) -> Self {
+        let levels = (target_level as usize) + 1;
+        let level_neighbors = (0..levels)
+            .map(|_| ArcSwap::from_pointee(Vec::new()))
+            .collect();
+        let level_neighbors_ranked = (0..levels).map(|_| Vec::new()).collect();
+        Self {
+            level_neighbors,
+            level_neighbors_ranked: Mutex::new(level_neighbors_ranked),
+            bottom_neighbors: ArcSwap::from_pointee(Vec::new()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn target_level(&self) -> u16 {
+        self.level_neighbors.len() as u16 - 1
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if this node exists at the given level.
+    fn has_level(&self, level: u16) -> bool {
+        (level as usize) < self.level_neighbors.len()
+    }
+
+    fn add_neighbor(&self, v: u32, dist: OrderedFloat, level: u16) {
+        if !self.has_level(level) {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut ranked = self
+            .level_neighbors_ranked
+            .lock()
+            .expect("level_neighbors_ranked mutex poisoned");
+        ranked[level as usize].push(OrderedNode { dist, id: v });
+    }
+
+    /// Rebuild `level_neighbors[level]` from the current ranked list and
+    /// publish it via `ArcSwap`. Also updates `bottom_neighbors` for level 0.
+    fn publish_from_ranked(&self, level: u16) {
+        if !self.has_level(level) {
+            return;
+        }
+        let ranked = self
+            .level_neighbors_ranked
+            .lock()
+            .expect("level_neighbors_ranked mutex poisoned");
+        let new_list: Vec<u32> = ranked[level as usize].iter().map(|n| n.id).collect();
+        drop(ranked);
+        let new_arc = Arc::new(new_list);
+        self.level_neighbors[level as usize].store(new_arc.clone());
+        if level == 0 {
+            self.bottom_neighbors.store(new_arc);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Online HNSW builder with pre-allocated capacity.
+///
+/// # Pre-allocation
+///
+/// All `capacity` nodes are allocated up front with a randomly-chosen target
+/// level (matching the offline builder's level distribution). This avoids
+/// any concurrent reallocation of the node array during inserts.
+pub struct OnlineHnswBuilder {
+    params: HnswBuildParams,
+    nodes: Vec<OnlineGraphBuilderNode>,
+    /// Number of nodes per level (level → count of nodes inserted whose
+    /// `target_level >= level`).
+    level_count: Vec<AtomicUsize>,
+    /// Entry point id of the graph. Updated when a node with a new max level
+    /// is inserted.
+    entry_point: AtomicU32,
+    /// Number of nodes whose insert has fully completed.
+    inserted_len: AtomicUsize,
+    /// Pool of visited bitmaps to amortize allocations during search.
+    visited_generator_queue: Arc<ArrayQueue<VisitedGenerator>>,
+}
+
+impl OnlineHnswBuilder {
+    /// Create a new builder with validated parameters.
+    ///
+    /// Each node's target level is pre-assigned at random.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_index::vector::hnsw::{OnlineHnswBuilder, builder::HnswBuildParams};
+    ///
+    /// let builder = OnlineHnswBuilder::try_with_capacity(
+    ///     1_024,
+    ///     HnswBuildParams::default(),
+    /// )?;
+    /// assert_eq!(builder.capacity(), 1_024);
+    /// # Ok::<(), lance_core::Error>(())
+    /// ```
+    pub fn try_with_capacity(capacity: usize, params: HnswBuildParams) -> Result<Self> {
+        params.validate()?;
+        Ok(Self::new(capacity, params))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new builder with the given capacity.
+    ///
+    /// Use [`Self::try_with_capacity`] to handle invalid parameters without
+    /// panicking.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics when `params` violates an HNSW construction precondition.
+    #[deprecated(note = "use OnlineHnswBuilder::try_with_capacity")]
+    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize, params: HnswBuildParams) -> Self {
+        Self::try_with_capacity(capacity, params)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|error| panic!("invalid HNSW build parameters: {error}"))
+    }
+
+    fn new(capacity: usize, params: HnswBuildParams) -> Self {
+        let max_level = params.max_level;
+        let level_count = (0..max_level).map(|_| AtomicUsize::new(0)).collect();
+
+        let mut level_rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(HNSW_LEVEL_RNG_SEED);
+        let nodes: Vec<_> = (0..capacity)
+            .map(|_| OnlineGraphBuilderNode::new(random_level_with(&params, &mut level_rng)))
+            .collect();
+
+        let queue_size = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1);
+        let visited_generator_queue = Arc::new(ArrayQueue::new(queue_size));
+        for _ in 0..queue_size {
+            let _ = visited_generator_queue.push(VisitedGenerator::new(0));
+        }
+
+        Self {
+            params,
+            nodes,
+            level_count,
+            entry_point: AtomicU32::new(0),
+            inserted_len: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            visited_generator_queue,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn capacity(&self) -> usize {
+        self.nodes.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inserted_len.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &HnswBuildParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    /// Insert the node at `id` into the graph.
+    ///
+    /// The vector at `id` must already be visible via `storage`'s
+    /// `dist_calculator_from_id(id)` and `dist_calculator(query, _)` — i.e.
+    /// the storage's committed length must include `id`.
+    pub fn insert(&self, id: u32, storage: &impl VectorStore) {
+        let mut visited_generator = self
+            .visited_generator_queue
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| VisitedGenerator::new(self.nodes.len()));
+
+        self.insert_with_generator(id, storage, &mut visited_generator);
+
+        // Best-effort return to pool. If full, drop.
+        let _ = self.visited_generator_queue.push(visited_generator);
+    }
+
+    fn insert_with_generator(
+        &self,
+        id: u32,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        visited_generator: &mut VisitedGenerator,
+    ) {
+        let nodes = self.nodes.as_slice();
+        let target_level = nodes[id as usize].target_level();
+        let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator_from_id(id);
+
+        // First insert anchors the graph.
+        if self.inserted_len.load(Ordering::Acquire) == 0 {
+            for level in 0..=target_level {
+                self.level_count[level as usize].fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            }
+            self.entry_point.store(id, Ordering::Release);
+            self.inserted_len.store(1, Ordering::Release);
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let entry = self.entry_point.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let entry_target_level = nodes[entry as usize].target_level();
+        let mut ep = OrderedNode::new(entry, dist_calc.distance(entry).into());
+
+        // Walk down upper levels with greedy_search to refine the entry point.
+        for level in (target_level + 1..=entry_target_level).rev() {
+            let cur_level = OnlineHnswLevelView::new(level, nodes);
+            ep = greedy_search(&cur_level, ep, &dist_calc, self.params.prefetch_distance);
+        }
+
+        // Insert at each level from target_level down to 0.
+        let mut pruned_neighbors_per_level: Vec<Vec<OrderedNode>> =
+            vec![Vec::new(); (target_level + 1) as usize];
+
+        let current_node = &nodes[id as usize];
+        for level in (0..=target_level).rev() {
+            self.level_count[level as usize].fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+            let neighbors = self.search_level(&ep, level, &dist_calc, nodes, visited_generator);
+            // Only nodes that actually exist at this level can be neighbors here.
+            // Beam search may return the entry point even if it lacks this level
+            // (when the upper-level graph is sparse during early inserts).
+            for neighbor in &neighbors {
+                if !nodes[neighbor.id as usize].has_level(level) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                current_node.add_neighbor(neighbor.id, neighbor.dist, level);
+            }
+            // New nodes select M connections at every level. The larger
+            // level-0 limit applies only to reciprocal edges on old nodes.
+            self.prune(storage, current_node, level, self.params.m);
+            // Snapshot the pruned ranked list before publishing.
+            let snapshot = {
+                let ranked = current_node
+                    .level_neighbors_ranked
+                    .lock()
+                    .expect("level_neighbors_ranked mutex poisoned");
+                ranked[level as usize].clone()
+            };
+            current_node.publish_from_ranked(level);
+            pruned_neighbors_per_level[level as usize] = snapshot;
+
+            // Use the closest valid neighbor as the next entry point. If
+            // the only result is an invalid (level-lacking) entry, fall back
+            // to the existing ep.
+            if let Some(next) = neighbors
+                .iter()
+                .find(|n| nodes[n.id as usize].has_level(level))
+            {
+                ep = next.clone();
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Add reverse edges to chosen neighbors, prune them too.
+        for (level, pruned_neighbors) in pruned_neighbors_per_level.iter().enumerate() {
+            let level = level as u16;
+            let reciprocal_limit = if level == 0 {
+                self.params.m * 2
+            } else {
+                self.params.m
+            };
+            for selected_edge in pruned_neighbors {
+                let chosen = &nodes[selected_edge.id as usize];
+                chosen.add_neighbor(id, selected_edge.dist, level);
+                self.prune(storage, chosen, level, reciprocal_limit);
+                chosen.publish_from_ranked(level);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Promote entry point if this node has a higher target level than the
+        // current entry point's target level. The contract is single-writer,
+        // so this CAS is uncontested in practice; we use CAS rather than a
+        // plain store to keep `entry_point` updates atomic against concurrent
+        // searches and to leave the door open if the writer ever becomes
+        // multi-threaded.
+        if target_level > entry_target_level {
+            let _ =
+                self.entry_point
+                    .compare_exchange(entry, id, Ordering::AcqRel, Ordering::Acquire);
+        }
+
+        self.inserted_len.fetch_add(1, Ordering::AcqRel);
+    }
+
+    fn search_level(
+        &self,
+        ep: &OrderedNode,
+        level: u16,
+        dist_calc: &impl DistCalculator,
+        nodes: &[OnlineGraphBuilderNode],
+        visited_generator: &mut VisitedGenerator,
+    ) -> Vec<OrderedNode> {
+        let cur_level = OnlineHnswLevelView::new(level, nodes);
+        let mut visited = visited_generator.generate(nodes.len());
+        beam_search(
+            &cur_level,
+            ep,
+            &HnswQueryParams {
+                ef: self.params.ef_construction,
+                lower_bound: None,
+                upper_bound: None,
+                dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                use_acorn: false,
+            },
+            dist_calc,
+            None,
+            self.params.prefetch_distance,
+            &mut visited,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn prune(
+        &self,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        node: &OnlineGraphBuilderNode,
+        level: u16,
+        max_connections: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut ranked = node
+            .level_neighbors_ranked
+            .lock()
+            .expect("level_neighbors_ranked mutex poisoned");
+        let level_neighbors = ranked[level as usize].clone();
+        if level_neighbors.len() <= max_connections {
+            return;
+        }
+        ranked[level as usize] =
+            select_neighbors_heuristic(storage, &level_neighbors, max_connections);
+    }
+
+    /// Search the graph for the k nearest neighbors of `query`.
+    ///
+    /// Visible nodes are those whose insert has fully returned. Returns
+    /// (node_id, distance) pairs sorted by ascending distance.
+    /// Return the top candidates from beam search.
+    ///
+    /// Returns up to `ef.max(k)` candidates ordered by distance. The caller
+    /// is responsible for any post-filtering (visibility, etc.) and the final
+    /// truncate to `k`. Returning the full beam — not just `k` — lets a
+    /// post-filter that drops some candidates still produce up to `k`
+    /// results before recall regresses.
+    pub fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: arrow_array::ArrayRef,
+        k: usize,
+        ef: usize,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+    ) -> Vec<OrderedNode> {
+        let visible = self.inserted_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        if visible == 0 {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+
+        let mut visited_generator = self
+            .visited_generator_queue
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| VisitedGenerator::new(self.nodes.len()));
+
+        let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+        let entry = self.entry_point.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let mut ep = OrderedNode::new(entry, dist_calc.distance(entry).into());
+
+        let nodes = self.nodes.as_slice();
+        for level in (1..=nodes[entry as usize].target_level()).rev() {
+            let cur_level = OnlineHnswLevelView::new(level, nodes);
+            ep = greedy_search(&cur_level, ep, &dist_calc, self.params.prefetch_distance);
+        }
+
+        let bottom = OnlineHnswBottomView::new(nodes);
+        let mut visited = visited_generator.generate(nodes.len());
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: ef.max(k),
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let result = beam_search(
+            &bottom,
+            &ep,
+            &params,
+            &dist_calc,
+            None,
+            self.params.prefetch_distance,
+            &mut visited,
+        );
+        drop(visited);
+
+        let _ = self.visited_generator_queue.push(visited_generator);
+
+        // Return up to `ef.max(k)` so post-filtering at the caller has more
+        // headroom than just `k`.
+        let limit = ef.max(k);
+        result.into_iter().take(limit).collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Snapshot the current graph as an immutable on-disk Lance HNSW.
+    ///
+    /// Only nodes whose insert has fully completed are included.
+    ///
+    /// `level_count` is recomputed from the actual per-level emissions so the
+    /// serialized batch and metadata stay in sync.
+    ///
+    /// # Self-containment under concurrent insert
+    ///
+    /// The node *count* is snapshotted (`inserted_len`) but each node's
+    /// adjacency is read live, so an insert racing this freeze can append
+    /// itself to an already-visited node's neighbor list. The snapshot
+    /// therefore drops references to ids it does not contain -- edges and the
+    /// entry point alike. An edge to an excluded node has no meaning in the
+    /// snapshot, so nothing representable is lost, and the frozen graph is
+    /// self-contained by construction rather than by convention.
+    ///
+    /// Ids must be dense and ascending from 0: `id` indexes the pre-allocated
+    /// node array and the first `inserted_len` slots are taken as the completed
+    /// nodes.
+    ///
+    pub fn to_hnsw(&self) -> HNSW {
+        let inserted = self.inserted_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        // Ids are dense and ascending from 0, so the count bounds them.
+        let inserted_u32 = u32::try_from(inserted).unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+        // The entry point is promoted before `inserted_len` is bumped, so a
+        // racing insert can publish itself here while this snapshot excludes
+        // it. An entry point outside the snapshot dangles exactly as an edge to
+        // one does, and search starting from an absent node finds nothing at
+        // all -- so fall back to the deepest node the snapshot does hold.
+        let published_entry = self.entry_point.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let entry_point = if published_entry < inserted_u32 {
+            published_entry
+        } else {
+            self.nodes
+                .iter()
+                .take(inserted)
+                .enumerate()
+                .max_by_key(|(_, node)| node.level_neighbors.len())
+                .map(|(id, _)| id as u32)
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+        };
+        let actual_levels = if inserted == 0 {
+            0
+        } else {
+            self.nodes[entry_point as usize].level_neighbors.len()
+        };
+
+        // Retains the common case's `Arc` without copying: only a list that
+        // actually contains an out-of-snapshot id is rebuilt.
+        let mut frozen_nodes: Vec<GraphBuilderNode> = Vec::with_capacity(inserted);
+        for node in self.nodes.iter().take(inserted) {
+            // Both serialized columns come from this one snapshot. Reading the
+            // published id lists separately pairs `__neighbors` with a
+            // `__distance` captured at a different moment: `level_neighbors` is
+            // a cache `publish_from_ranked` rebuilds, so a prune landing between
+            // the two reads drops ids the snapshot filter cannot restore and the
+            // columns disagree.
+            let level_neighbors_ranked: Vec<Vec<_>> = node
+                .level_neighbors_ranked
+                .lock()
+                .expect("level_neighbors_ranked mutex poisoned")
+                .iter()
+                .map(|ranked| {
+                    ranked
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter(|n| n.id < inserted_u32)
+                        .cloned()
+                        .collect()
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let level_neighbors: Vec<Arc<Vec<u32>>> = level_neighbors_ranked
+                .iter()
+                .map(|ranked| Arc::new(ranked.iter().map(|n| n.id).collect()))
+                .collect();
+
+            let bottom_neighbors = level_neighbors
+                .first()
+                .cloned()
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| Arc::new(Vec::new()));
+            frozen_nodes.push(GraphBuilderNode::from_parts(
+                level_neighbors,
+                level_neighbors_ranked,
+                bottom_neighbors,
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut level_count: Vec<usize> = vec![0; actual_levels];
+        for node in &frozen_nodes {
+            let levels = node.level_neighbors.len().min(actual_levels);
+            for count in level_count.iter_mut().take(levels) {
+                *count += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        HNSW::from_parts(self.params.clone(), frozen_nodes, level_count, entry_point)
+    }
+
+    /// Backwards-compat shim: equivalent to `to_hnsw()` but consumes self.
+    pub fn finalize(self) -> HNSW {
+        self.to_hnsw()
+    }
+}
+
+/// View of a single level of an [`OnlineHnswBuilder`]'s graph for use with
+/// the shared [`Graph`]-trait search algorithms.
+pub struct OnlineHnswLevelView<'a> {
+    level: u16,
+    nodes: &'a [OnlineGraphBuilderNode],
+}
+
+impl<'a> OnlineHnswLevelView<'a> {
+    pub fn new(level: u16, nodes: &'a [OnlineGraphBuilderNode]) -> Self {
+        Self { level, nodes }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Graph for OnlineHnswLevelView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.nodes.len()
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>> {
+        let node = &self.nodes[key as usize];
+        let level_idx = self.level as usize;
+        if level_idx >= node.level_neighbors.len() {
+            // Node doesn't exist at this level (target_level too low).
+            return Arc::new(Vec::new());
+        }
+        node.level_neighbors[level_idx].load_full()
+    }
+}
+
+/// View of the bottom level (level 0) of an online HNSW for search.
+pub struct OnlineHnswBottomView<'a> {
+    nodes: &'a [OnlineGraphBuilderNode],
+}
+
+impl<'a> OnlineHnswBottomView<'a> {
+    pub fn new(nodes: &'a [OnlineGraphBuilderNode]) -> Self {
+        Self { nodes }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Graph for OnlineHnswBottomView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.nodes.len()
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>> {
+        self.nodes[key as usize].bottom_neighbors.load_full()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
+    use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
+
+    // `to_batch` lives on the trait.
+    use crate::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
+    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+    use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    fn build_storage(n: usize, dim: usize) -> (Arc<FlatFloatStorage>, FixedSizeListArray) {
+        let data = generate_random_array(n * dim);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let storage = Arc::new(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2));
+        (storage, fsl)
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::zero_max_level(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().max_level(0),
+        "max_level must be greater than 0"
+    )]
+    #[case::zero_m(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(0),
+        "m must be at least 4"
+    )]
+    #[case::one_m(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(1),
+        "m must be at least 4"
+    )]
+    #[case::three_m(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(3),
+        "m must be at least 4"
+    )]
+    #[case::small_ef(
+        HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(20).ef_construction(19),
+        "ef_construction must be at least m (20)"
+    )]
+    #[case::overflowing_level_zero_limit(
+        HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .num_edges(usize::MAX)
+            .ef_construction(usize::MAX),
+        "level-0 reciprocal limit can be represented"
+    )]
+    fn test_try_with_capacity_rejects_invalid_params(
+        #[case] params: HnswBuildParams,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let Err(error) = OnlineHnswBuilder::try_with_capacity(2, params) else {
+            panic!("expected invalid HNSW parameters to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(&error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(expected_message),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_online_hnsw_recall() {
+        const N: usize = 1000;
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+
+        let (storage, fsl) = build_storage(N, DIM);
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .num_edges(16)
+            .ef_construction(100);
+        let builder = OnlineHnswBuilder::try_with_capacity(N, params).unwrap();
+
+        for i in 0..N {
+            builder.insert(i as u32, storage.as_ref());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(builder.len(), N);
+
+        // Pick a few queries and check recall against brute force.
+        let k = 10;
+        let mut total_correct = 0usize;
+        for q_idx in 0..50 {
+            let query = fsl.value(q_idx);
+
+            // brute force
+            let mut all_dists: Vec<(usize, f32)> = (0..N)
+                .map(|i| {
+                    let v = fsl.value(i);
+                    let q = query
+                        .as_any()
+                        .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
+                        .unwrap();
+                    let vv = v
+                        .as_any()
+                        .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
+                        .unwrap();
+                    let mut s = 0.0f32;
+                    for j in 0..DIM {
+                        let d = q.value(j) - vv.value(j);
+                        s += d * d;
+                    }
+                    (i, s)
+                })
+                .collect();
+            all_dists.sort_by(|a, b| a.1.partial_cmp(&b.1).unwrap());
+            let truth: std::collections::HashSet<usize> =
+                all_dists.iter().take(k).map(|(i, _)| *i).collect();
+
+            let results = builder.search(query, k, 64, storage.as_ref());
+            let found: std::collections::HashSet<usize> =
+                results.iter().map(|r| r.id as usize).collect();
+            total_correct += truth.intersection(&found).count();
+        }
+
+        let recall = total_correct as f32 / (50 * k) as f32;
+        assert!(recall >= 0.85, "recall too low: {}", recall);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_online_hnsw_finalize_matches_search() {
+        const N: usize = 256;
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+
+        let (storage, fsl) = build_storage(N, DIM);
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .num_edges(16)
+            .ef_construction(100);
+        let builder = OnlineHnswBuilder::try_with_capacity(N, params).unwrap();
+        for i in 0..N {
+            builder.insert(i as u32, storage.as_ref());
+        }
+
+        let online_results = builder.search(fsl.value(0), 10, 64, storage.as_ref());
+
+        let hnsw = builder.finalize();
+        let mut visited = VisitedGenerator::new(N);
+        let bottom_results = hnsw
+            .search_inner(
+                fsl.value(0),
+                10,
+                &HnswQueryParams {
+                    ef: 64,
+                    lower_bound: None,
+                    upper_bound: None,
+                    dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                    use_acorn: false,
+                },
+                None,
+                &mut visited,
+                storage.as_ref(),
+                Some(2),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let online_ids: std::collections::HashSet<u32> =
+            online_results.iter().map(|r| r.id).collect();
+        let frozen_ids: std::collections::HashSet<u32> =
+            bottom_results.iter().map(|r| r.id).collect();
+        // Allow a small disagreement window since the two paths use slightly
+        // different entry-point handling, but the bulk of results should
+        // overlap.
+        let overlap = online_ids.intersection(&frozen_ids).count();
+        assert!(
+            overlap >= 7,
+            "frozen vs online overlap too low: {}",
+            overlap
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_online_hnsw_empty_search() {
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+        let builder = OnlineHnswBuilder::try_with_capacity(16, params).unwrap();
+        let (storage, fsl) = build_storage(1, 8);
+        let results = builder.search(fsl.value(0), 10, 32, storage.as_ref());
+        assert!(results.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// Online construction uses the same Algorithm 1 distinction as the
+    /// offline builder: M for a new node and Mmax0 for reciprocal edges.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_online_new_node_uses_m_connections() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![
+            1.0, 0.0, // east
+            0.0, 1.0, // north
+            -1.0, 0.0, // west
+            0.0, -1.0, // south
+            0.0, 0.0, // final node
+        ]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        let storage = FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2);
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .max_level(1)
+            .num_edges(2)
+            .ef_construction(5);
+        // Bypass public validation to isolate the Algorithm 1 degree rule.
+        let builder = OnlineHnswBuilder::new(5, params);
+
+        for id in 0..5 {
+            builder.insert(id, &storage);
+        }
+
+        let final_node = builder.nodes[4].level_neighbors_ranked.lock().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(final_node[0].len(), 2);
+        drop(final_node);
+        assert!(
+            builder
+                .nodes
+                .iter()
+                .all(|node| { node.level_neighbors_ranked.lock().unwrap()[0].len() <= 4 }),
+            "existing level-0 nodes must remain bounded by Mmax0"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_online_promotes_first_highest_random_level() {
+        const TOTAL: usize = 128;
+        let (storage, _) = build_storage(TOTAL, 4);
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+        let builder = OnlineHnswBuilder::try_with_capacity(TOTAL, params.clone()).unwrap();
+
+        let mut level_rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(HNSW_LEVEL_RNG_SEED);
+        let expected_levels = (0..TOTAL)
+            .map(|_| random_level_with(&params, &mut level_rng))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        for (node, expected_level) in builder.nodes.iter().zip(&expected_levels) {
+            assert_eq!(node.target_level(), *expected_level);
+        }
+
+        for id in 0..TOTAL as u32 {
+            builder.insert(id, storage.as_ref());
+        }
+        let highest_level = *expected_levels.iter().max().unwrap();
+        let expected_entry = expected_levels
+            .iter()
+            .position(|level| *level == highest_level)
+            .unwrap() as u32;
+        assert_eq!(builder.entry_point.load(Ordering::Acquire), expected_entry);
+    }
+
+    /// A freeze racing inserts must still produce a self-contained graph.
+    ///
+    /// `to_hnsw` snapshots the node *count* but reads adjacency live, so an
+    /// insert landing mid-freeze can append itself to an already-visited node's
+    /// neighbor list -- or promote itself to entry point. Either reference points
+    /// outside the snapshot; persisted, `HNSW::load` slices level 0 short and the
+    /// first query that walks one addresses past the level's rows.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_to_hnsw_snapshot_is_self_contained_under_concurrent_insert() {
+        const N: usize = 1200;
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        let (storage, _fsl) = build_storage(N, DIM);
+        let params = HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(12).ef_construction(30);
+        let builder = Arc::new(OnlineHnswBuilder::new(N, params));
+
+        // Seed enough that a freeze has real adjacency to walk.
+        for id in 0..(N / 2) as u32 {
+            builder.insert(id, storage.as_ref());
+        }
+
+        let writing = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(true));
+        let writer = {
+            let builder = Arc::clone(&builder);
+            let storage = Arc::clone(&storage);
+            let writing = Arc::clone(&writing);
+            std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                for id in (N / 2) as u32..N as u32 {
+                    builder.insert(id, storage.as_ref());
+                }
+                writing.store(false, Ordering::Release);
+            })
+        };
+
+        // Freeze for as long as the writer runs rather than a fixed count, so the
+        // overlap does not depend on how fast this machine inserts; the floor
+        // covers the writer finishing first.
+        let mut freezes = 0;
+        let mut edges_checked = 0;
+        while writing.load(Ordering::Acquire) || freezes < 5 {
+            let hnsw = builder.to_hnsw();
+            let nodes = hnsw.nodes().expect("freshly built graph exposes nodes");
+            let n = nodes.len() as u32;
+            for (id, node) in nodes.iter().enumerate() {
+                for (level, neighbors) in node.level_neighbors.iter().enumerate() {
+                    for &nid in neighbors.iter() {
+                        assert!(
+                            nid < n,
+                            "frozen graph has a dangling edge: node {id} level {level} \
+                             points at {nid}, but the snapshot holds only {n} nodes"
+                        );
+                        edges_checked += 1;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            let meta = hnsw.metadata();
+            // Search starts here, so an entry point outside the snapshot finds
+            // nothing at all rather than merely losing one edge.
+            assert!(
+                n == 0 || meta.entry_point < n,
+                "frozen graph entry point {} is outside its {n} nodes",
+                meta.entry_point
+            );
+            // The serialized form must agree with its own metadata, or a reader
+            // slices level 0 short and the dangling edge comes back.
+            let batch = hnsw.to_batch().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                *meta.level_offsets.last().unwrap(),
+                batch.num_rows(),
+                "level offsets must cover exactly the serialized rows"
+            );
+            freezes += 1;
+        }
+        writer.join().unwrap();
+        assert!(edges_checked > 0, "test never inspected an edge");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/remap.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/remap.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2ae4678ca4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/hnsw/remap.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1126 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Carry a serialized HNSW graph across a row-address remap.
+//!
+//! HNSW edges name local vector ids (row numbers in the partition storage),
+//! not row addresses. Compaction rewrites row addresses and may delete rows,
+//! but every storage `remap` keeps the surviving vectors in their original
+//! order. So a remap never invalidates the surviving edges: without deletions
+//! the graph is unchanged. With deletions, surviving edges stay, and each node
+//! that lost a neighbor gets a new list from the builder's own search: a
+//! construction-`ef` beam over the surviving graph, plus the deleted node's
+//! other neighbors, chosen with the same heuristic used at build time.
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::array::{ArrayBuilder, AsArray, Float32Builder, ListBuilder, UInt32Builder};
+use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt32Type};
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use rayon::prelude::*;
+
+use super::builder::{HNSW_METADATA_KEY, HnswQueryParams, Level0Links, connect_stranded_level0};
+use super::{HNSW, HnswMetadata, VECTOR_ID_COL, select_neighbors_heuristic_owned};
+use crate::vector::DIST_COL;
+use crate::vector::graph::{
+    BorrowingGraph, NEIGHBORS_COL, OrderedNode, VisitedGenerator, beam_search_borrowed,
+    greedy_search_borrowed,
+};
+use crate::vector::storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore};
+use crate::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
+
+/// Rewrite a serialized HNSW graph after some of its nodes were removed.
+///
+/// `graph` is the batch written by [`HNSW::to_batch`], including the distance
+/// column. `new_ids[old_id]` is the id node `old_id` takes after the removal,
+/// or `None` if it was removed; surviving ids must keep their relative order,
+/// which is what every vector storage `remap` produces.
+///
+/// Surviving adjacency lists and their distances are kept, minus the edges to
+/// removed nodes; nothing is re-linked, so node degree drops by the number of
+/// removed neighbors. If the entry point is removed, the first surviving node
+/// on the highest non-empty level replaces it, so search still starts from
+/// the top of the graph.
+///
+/// `new_ids` must have one entry per graph node. If no node is removed, the
+/// input batch is returned as is. Returns an empty batch if no node survives.
+pub fn remap_graph_batch(graph: &RecordBatch, new_ids: &[Option<u32>]) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let metadata_json = graph
+        .schema_ref()
+        .metadata()
+        .get(HNSW_METADATA_KEY)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{HNSW_METADATA_KEY} not found in HNSW batch")))?;
+    let metadata: HnswMetadata = serde_json::from_str(metadata_json).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "Failed to decode HNSW metadata: {e}, json: {metadata_json}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let num_nodes = match metadata.level_offsets.as_slice() {
+        [start, end, ..] => end.saturating_sub(*start),
+        _ => 0,
+    };
+    if num_nodes != new_ids.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "HNSW graph has {num_nodes} nodes but the remap covers {} nodes",
+            new_ids.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    let column = |name: &str| {
+        graph.column_by_name(name).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "HNSW batch has no {name} column; remapping needs every column the writer emits"
+            ))
+        })
+    };
+    let ids = column(VECTOR_ID_COL)?
+        .as_primitive_opt::<UInt32Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{VECTOR_ID_COL} must be UInt32")))?;
+    let neighbors = column(NEIGHBORS_COL)?
+        .as_list_opt::<i32>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{NEIGHBORS_COL} must be List<UInt32>")))?;
+    let distances = column(DIST_COL)?
+        .as_list_opt::<i32>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{DIST_COL} must be List<Float32>")))?;
+    let neighbor_values = neighbors
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive_opt::<UInt32Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{NEIGHBORS_COL} must be List<UInt32>")))?
+        .values();
+    let distance_values = distances
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{DIST_COL} must be List<Float32>")))?
+        .values();
+    if new_ids
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .all(|(old_id, new_id)| *new_id == Some(old_id as u32))
+    {
+        return Ok(graph.clone());
+    }
+    let new_id = |old_id: u32| new_ids.get(old_id as usize).copied().flatten();
+
+    let num_rows = graph.num_rows();
+    let mut id_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(num_rows);
+    let mut neighbors_builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(
+        UInt32Builder::with_capacity(neighbor_values.len()),
+        num_rows,
+    );
+    let mut distances_builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(
+        Float32Builder::with_capacity(neighbor_values.len()),
+        num_rows,
+    );
+    let mut level_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(metadata.level_offsets.len());
+    level_offsets.push(0);
+    // First surviving node of each level, to replace a removed entry point.
+    let mut level_first_node = Vec::with_capacity(metadata.level_offsets.len());
+    for (&start, &end) in metadata.level_offsets.iter().tuple_windows() {
+        if start > end || end > num_rows {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "HNSW level range {start}..{end} is invalid for a batch of {num_rows} rows"
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut first_node = None;
+        for row in start..end {
+            let Some(node) = new_id(ids.value(row)) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            first_node.get_or_insert(node);
+            id_builder.append_value(node);
+            if !neighbors.is_null(row) {
+                let edges = neighbors.value_offsets()[row] as usize
+                    ..neighbors.value_offsets()[row + 1] as usize;
+                let dists = distances.value_offsets()[row] as usize
+                    ..distances.value_offsets()[row + 1] as usize;
+                if edges.len() != dists.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "HNSW row {row} has {} neighbors but {} distances",
+                        edges.len(),
+                        dists.len()
+                    )));
+                }
+                for (&neighbor, &dist) in neighbor_values[edges].iter().zip(&distance_values[dists])
+                {
+                    if let Some(neighbor) = new_id(neighbor) {
+                        neighbors_builder.values().append_value(neighbor);
+                        distances_builder.values().append_value(dist);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            neighbors_builder.append(true);
+            distances_builder.append(true);
+        }
+        level_offsets.push(id_builder.len());
+        level_first_node.push(first_node);
+    }
+
+    if id_builder.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(HNSW::schema()));
+    }
+    let entry_point = match new_id(metadata.entry_point) {
+        Some(entry_point) => entry_point,
+        None => level_first_node
+            .iter()
+            .rev()
+            .find_map(|node| *node)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("HNSW remap kept nodes on no level".to_string()))?,
+    };
+    let metadata = HnswMetadata {
+        entry_point,
+        params: metadata.params,
+        level_offsets,
+    };
+
+    let mut schema_metadata = graph.schema_ref().metadata().clone();
+    schema_metadata.insert(
+        HNSW_METADATA_KEY.to_string(),
+        serde_json::to_string(&metadata)?,
+    );
+    let schema = HNSW::schema()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone()
+        .with_metadata(schema_metadata);
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(schema),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(id_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(neighbors_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(distances_builder.finish()),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+struct LevelRows {
+    rows: Vec<GraphRow>,
+}
+
+struct GraphRow {
+    /// New id when this node survives. `None` when it was deleted.
+    node: Option<u32>,
+    is_entry: bool,
+    /// Each edge's new id, when that neighbor survives, and its stored distance.
+    edges: Vec<(Option<u32>, f32)>,
+}
+
+struct ParsedGraph {
+    identity: bool,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    neighbor_count: usize,
+    metadata: HnswMetadata,
+    /// New id of the entry point when it survives.
+    new_entry: Option<u32>,
+    levels: Vec<LevelRows>,
+}
+
+fn parse_graph(graph: &RecordBatch, new_ids: &[Option<u32>]) -> Result<ParsedGraph> {
+    let metadata_json = graph
+        .schema_ref()
+        .metadata()
+        .get(HNSW_METADATA_KEY)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{HNSW_METADATA_KEY} not found in HNSW batch")))?;
+    let metadata: HnswMetadata = serde_json::from_str(metadata_json).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "Failed to decode HNSW metadata: {e}, json: {metadata_json}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let num_nodes = match metadata.level_offsets.as_slice() {
+        [start, end, ..] => end.saturating_sub(*start),
+        _ => 0,
+    };
+    if num_nodes != new_ids.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "HNSW graph has {num_nodes} nodes but the remap covers {} nodes",
+            new_ids.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    let column = |name: &str| {
+        graph.column_by_name(name).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "HNSW batch has no {name} column; remapping needs every column the writer emits"
+            ))
+        })
+    };
+    let ids = column(VECTOR_ID_COL)?
+        .as_primitive_opt::<UInt32Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{VECTOR_ID_COL} must be UInt32")))?;
+    let neighbors = column(NEIGHBORS_COL)?
+        .as_list_opt::<i32>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{NEIGHBORS_COL} must be List<UInt32>")))?;
+    let distances = column(DIST_COL)?
+        .as_list_opt::<i32>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{DIST_COL} must be List<Float32>")))?;
+    let neighbor_values = neighbors
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive_opt::<UInt32Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{NEIGHBORS_COL} must be List<UInt32>")))?
+        .values();
+    let distance_values = distances
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{DIST_COL} must be List<Float32>")))?
+        .values();
+    let identity = new_ids
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .all(|(old_id, new_id)| *new_id == Some(old_id as u32));
+    let new_id = |old_id: u32| new_ids.get(old_id as usize).copied().flatten();
+    let num_rows = graph.num_rows();
+    let mut levels = Vec::with_capacity(metadata.level_offsets.len().saturating_sub(1));
+    for (&start, &end) in metadata.level_offsets.iter().tuple_windows() {
+        if start > end || end > num_rows {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "HNSW level range {start}..{end} is invalid for a batch of {num_rows} rows"
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut rows = Vec::with_capacity(end - start);
+        for row in start..end {
+            let old = ids.value(row);
+            let mut edges = Vec::new();
+            if !neighbors.is_null(row) {
+                let edge_range = neighbors.value_offsets()[row] as usize
+                    ..neighbors.value_offsets()[row + 1] as usize;
+                let dist_range = distances.value_offsets()[row] as usize
+                    ..distances.value_offsets()[row + 1] as usize;
+                if edge_range.len() != dist_range.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "HNSW row {row} has {} neighbors but {} distances",
+                        edge_range.len(),
+                        dist_range.len()
+                    )));
+                }
+                edges.extend(
+                    neighbor_values[edge_range]
+                        .iter()
+                        .zip(&distance_values[dist_range])
+                        .map(|(&neighbor, &dist)| (new_id(neighbor), dist)),
+                );
+            }
+            rows.push(GraphRow {
+                node: new_id(old),
+                is_entry: old == metadata.entry_point,
+                edges,
+            });
+        }
+        levels.push(LevelRows { rows });
+    }
+    Ok(ParsedGraph {
+        identity,
+        num_rows,
+        neighbor_count: neighbor_values.len(),
+        new_entry: new_id(metadata.entry_point),
+        metadata,
+        levels,
+    })
+}
+
+fn linked(links: &[(u32, f32)], neighbor: u32) -> bool {
+    links.iter().any(|(id, _)| *id == neighbor)
+}
+
+/// One HNSW level after deleted nodes have been removed.
+struct LevelAdj {
+    neighbors: Vec<Vec<(u32, f32)>>,
+    /// Neighbor ids only, kept in sync with `neighbors` for search.
+    search_ids: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+    /// Degree the node had before deletions, including edges that were dropped.
+    target: Vec<usize>,
+    on_level: Vec<bool>,
+    /// Surviving nodes in their original row order.
+    order: Vec<u32>,
+    /// Nodes that lost at least one edge.
+    damaged: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+struct SearchView<'a> {
+    neighbors: &'a [Vec<u32>],
+}
+
+impl BorrowingGraph for SearchView<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.neighbors.len()
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, key: u32) -> &[u32] {
+        &self.neighbors[key as usize]
+    }
+}
+
+/// Connect the surviving neighbors of each deleted node so search can still
+/// step across the hole. The edges are a scaffold: nodes that lost a neighbor
+/// are reselected afterwards.
+fn fill_holes<S: VectorStore>(level: &mut LevelAdj, holes: &[Vec<u32>], storage: &S) {
+    for hole in holes {
+        for &node in hole {
+            if !level.on_level[node as usize]
+                || level.neighbors[node as usize].len() >= level.target[node as usize]
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let distances = storage.dist_calculator_from_id(node);
+            let mut candidates = Vec::new();
+            for &other in hole {
+                if other != node && !linked(&level.neighbors[node as usize], other) {
+                    candidates.push((other, distances.distance(other)));
+                }
+            }
+            candidates.sort_unstable_by(|a, b| a.1.total_cmp(&b.1));
+            for (other, dist) in candidates {
+                if level.neighbors[node as usize].len() >= level.target[node as usize] {
+                    break;
+                }
+                if !linked(&level.neighbors[node as usize], other) {
+                    level.neighbors[node as usize].push((other, dist));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn refresh_search_ids(level: &mut LevelAdj) {
+    for (ids, edges) in level.search_ids.iter_mut().zip(&level.neighbors) {
+        ids.clear();
+        ids.extend(edges.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id));
+    }
+}
+
+/// Neighbor list a damaged node would have been given at build time.
+///
+/// The search runs on the scaffold (surviving edges plus the hole links), from
+/// high levels down to this one, with the same `ef` the graph was built with.
+/// Candidates are that beam plus the node's current neighbors, and Algorithm 4
+/// keeps `target` of them. Existing edges stay in the candidate set, so a
+/// diverse surviving edge is not thrown away just because a closer local edge
+/// exists.
+fn choose_neighbors<S: VectorStore>(
+    level: &LevelAdj,
+    higher: &[LevelAdj],
+    entry: u32,
+    node: u32,
+    query: &HnswQueryParams,
+    storage: &S,
+    visited_gen: &mut VisitedGenerator,
+) -> Vec<(u32, f32)> {
+    let distances = storage.dist_calculator_from_id(node);
+    let on_this_level = |id: u32| level.on_level.get(id as usize).copied().unwrap_or(false);
+    let mut ep = if on_this_level(entry) { entry } else { node };
+    for higher_level in higher.iter().rev() {
+        let on_higher = higher_level
+            .on_level
+            .get(ep as usize)
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+        if !on_higher {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let view = SearchView {
+            neighbors: &higher_level.search_ids,
+        };
+        let start = OrderedNode::new(ep, distances.distance(ep).into());
+        ep = greedy_search_borrowed(&view, start, &distances, None).id;
+    }
+    if !on_this_level(ep) {
+        ep = node;
+    }
+    let view = SearchView {
+        neighbors: &level.search_ids,
+    };
+    let start = OrderedNode::new(ep, distances.distance(ep).into());
+    let mut visited = visited_gen.generate(level.neighbors.len());
+    let found = beam_search_borrowed(&view, &start, query, &distances, None, None, &mut visited);
+    drop(visited);
+
+    let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+    let mut candidates = Vec::new();
+    let mut push = |id: u32, dist: f32| {
+        if id != node && seen.insert(id) {
+            candidates.push(OrderedNode::new(id, dist.into()));
+        }
+    };
+    for hit in found {
+        push(hit.id, hit.dist.0);
+    }
+    for &(id, dist) in &level.neighbors[node as usize] {
+        push(id, dist);
+    }
+    if candidates.is_empty() {
+        return level.neighbors[node as usize].clone();
+    }
+    let k = level.target[node as usize].max(1);
+    select_neighbors_heuristic_owned(storage, candidates, k)
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|neighbor| (neighbor.id, neighbor.dist.0))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn reselect_damaged<S: VectorStore + Sync>(
+    levels: &mut [LevelAdj],
+    entry: u32,
+    ef: usize,
+    storage: &S,
+) {
+    let query = HnswQueryParams {
+        ef: ef.max(1),
+        lower_bound: None,
+        upper_bound: None,
+        dist_q_c: 0.0,
+        use_acorn: false,
+    };
+    for level_idx in (0..levels.len()).rev() {
+        if levels[level_idx].damaged.is_empty() {
+            refresh_search_ids(&mut levels[level_idx]);
+            continue;
+        }
+        let (below, higher) = levels.split_at_mut(level_idx + 1);
+        let level = &mut below[level_idx];
+        refresh_search_ids(level);
+        let n = level.neighbors.len();
+        let chosen: Vec<Vec<(u32, f32)>> = level
+            .damaged
+            .par_iter()
+            .map_init(
+                || VisitedGenerator::new(n),
+                |visited_gen, &node| {
+                    choose_neighbors(level, higher, entry, node, &query, storage, visited_gen)
+                },
+            )
+            .collect();
+        for (&node, edges) in level.damaged.iter().zip(chosen) {
+            level.neighbors[node as usize] = edges;
+        }
+        add_reciprocals(level, storage);
+        refresh_search_ids(level);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Add the reverse of every edge. A list that grows past the degree the node
+/// had before the deletion is cut back to that degree with the builder's heuristic.
+fn add_reciprocals<S: VectorStore>(level: &mut LevelAdj, storage: &S) {
+    let n = level.neighbors.len();
+    let mut incoming = vec![Vec::<(u32, f32)>::new(); n];
+    for (node, edges) in level.neighbors.iter().enumerate() {
+        for &(other, dist) in edges {
+            if other as usize >= n || other == node as u32 {
+                continue;
+            }
+            incoming[other as usize].push((node as u32, dist));
+        }
+    }
+    for (node, incoming_edges) in incoming.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+        if !level.on_level[node] {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let edges = &mut level.neighbors[node];
+        for (src, dist) in incoming_edges.drain(..) {
+            if !linked(edges, src) {
+                edges.push((src, dist));
+            }
+        }
+        let limit = level.target[node].max(1);
+        if edges.len() > limit {
+            let candidates = edges
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&(id, dist)| OrderedNode::new(id, dist.into()))
+                .collect();
+            *edges = select_neighbors_heuristic_owned(storage, candidates, limit)
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|neighbor| (neighbor.id, neighbor.dist.0))
+                .collect();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn level_from_rows<S: VectorStore>(
+    rows: &[GraphRow],
+    kept: usize,
+    storage: &S,
+    entry_replacement: &mut Option<(u32, f32)>,
+) -> LevelAdj {
+    let mut level = LevelAdj {
+        neighbors: vec![Vec::new(); kept],
+        search_ids: vec![Vec::new(); kept],
+        target: vec![0; kept],
+        on_level: vec![false; kept],
+        order: Vec::with_capacity(rows.len()),
+        damaged: Vec::new(),
+    };
+    let mut holes = Vec::new();
+    for row in rows {
+        let Some(node) = row.node else {
+            if row.is_entry
+                && let Some(best) = row
+                    .edges
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter_map(|(neighbor, dist)| neighbor.map(|id| (id, *dist)))
+                    .min_by(|left, right| left.1.total_cmp(&right.1))
+            {
+                // Higher levels are visited later and overwrite, so the
+                // replacement is the closest survivor on the highest level
+                // that still has one.
+                *entry_replacement = Some(best);
+            }
+            let survivors = row
+                .edges
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|(neighbor, _)| *neighbor)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            if survivors.len() > 1 {
+                holes.push(survivors);
+            }
+            continue;
+        };
+        level.on_level[node as usize] = true;
+        level.order.push(node);
+        level.target[node as usize] = row.edges.len();
+        let surviving = row
+            .edges
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|(neighbor, dist)| neighbor.map(|id| (id, *dist)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if surviving.len() < row.edges.len() {
+            level.damaged.push(node);
+        }
+        level.neighbors[node as usize] = surviving;
+    }
+    fill_holes(&mut level, &holes, storage);
+    level
+}
+
+/// Remap a graph and replace edges that pointed at deleted nodes.
+///
+/// Every edge between two surviving nodes is kept. A node that lost a neighbor
+/// is given a new list by searching the surviving graph with the `ef` it was
+/// built with and selecting with the builder's heuristic, so the links that
+/// used to step through a deleted node are replaced by links a rebuild would
+/// have drawn. Nodes that lost nothing keep their edges.
+///
+/// Reciprocal trimming can drop the only inbound edge of a node. Search only
+/// walks level 0 from the entry point, so those nodes are then linked with
+/// `connect_stranded_level0`, the same pass the builder runs after a
+/// parallel insert.
+///
+/// `storage` is the remapped partition, in the new local-id order `new_ids`
+/// assigns. With no deletions the input batch is returned unchanged.
+pub fn remap_graph_repair<S: VectorStore + Sync>(
+    graph: &RecordBatch,
+    new_ids: &[Option<u32>],
+    storage: &S,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let parsed = parse_graph(graph, new_ids)?;
+    if parsed.identity {
+        return Ok(graph.clone());
+    }
+    let kept = new_ids.iter().filter(|id| id.is_some()).count();
+    if storage.len() != kept {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "remapped storage has {} rows but the graph kept {kept} nodes",
+            storage.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    if kept == 0 {
+        return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(HNSW::schema()));
+    }
+
+    let mut entry_replacement: Option<(u32, f32)> = None;
+    let mut highest_first: Option<u32> = None;
+    let mut levels = Vec::with_capacity(parsed.levels.len());
+    for level in &parsed.levels {
+        let adj = level_from_rows(&level.rows, kept, storage, &mut entry_replacement);
+        if let Some(&node) = adj.order.first() {
+            highest_first = Some(node);
+        }
+        levels.push(adj);
+    }
+    let entry_point = parsed
+        .new_entry
+        .or(entry_replacement.map(|(id, _)| id))
+        .or(highest_first)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("HNSW repair kept nodes on no level".to_string()))?;
+    let ef = parsed.metadata.params.ef_construction.min(kept.max(1));
+    reselect_damaged(&mut levels, entry_point, ef, storage);
+    {
+        let mut level0 = Level0Adj::new(&mut levels[0]);
+        connect_stranded_level0(
+            &mut level0,
+            entry_point,
+            parsed.metadata.params.ef_construction,
+            storage,
+        );
+    }
+    refresh_search_ids(&mut levels[0]);
+
+    let mut id_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(parsed.num_rows);
+    let mut neighbors_builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(
+        UInt32Builder::with_capacity(parsed.neighbor_count),
+        parsed.num_rows,
+    );
+    let mut distances_builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(
+        Float32Builder::with_capacity(parsed.neighbor_count),
+        parsed.num_rows,
+    );
+    let mut level_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(parsed.metadata.level_offsets.len());
+    level_offsets.push(0);
+    for level in &levels {
+        for &node in &level.order {
+            id_builder.append_value(node);
+            for &(neighbor, dist) in &level.neighbors[node as usize] {
+                neighbors_builder.values().append_value(neighbor);
+                distances_builder.values().append_value(dist);
+            }
+            neighbors_builder.append(true);
+            distances_builder.append(true);
+        }
+        level_offsets.push(id_builder.len());
+    }
+
+    let metadata = HnswMetadata {
+        entry_point,
+        params: parsed.metadata.params.clone(),
+        level_offsets,
+    };
+    let mut schema_metadata = graph.schema_ref().metadata().clone();
+    schema_metadata.insert(
+        HNSW_METADATA_KEY.to_string(),
+        serde_json::to_string(&metadata)?,
+    );
+    let schema = HNSW::schema()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone()
+        .with_metadata(schema_metadata);
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(schema),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(id_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(neighbors_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(distances_builder.finish()),
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+/// Level 0 of a repaired graph, as the builder's stranded-node linker sees it.
+struct Level0Adj<'a> {
+    edges: &'a mut [Vec<(u32, f32)>],
+    ids: Vec<Arc<Vec<u32>>>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> Level0Adj<'a> {
+    fn new(level: &'a mut LevelAdj) -> Self {
+        let ids = level
+            .neighbors
+            .iter()
+            .map(|edges| Arc::new(edges.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect()))
+            .collect();
+        Self {
+            edges: level.neighbors.as_mut_slice(),
+            ids,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Level0Links for Level0Adj<'_> {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.edges.len()
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, id: u32) -> Arc<Vec<u32>> {
+        self.ids[id as usize].clone()
+    }
+
+    fn ranked(&self, id: u32) -> Vec<OrderedNode> {
+        self.edges[id as usize]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(id, dist)| OrderedNode::new(*id, (*dist).into()))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn link(&mut self, anchor: OrderedNode, node: u32) {
+        let edges = &mut self.edges[anchor.id as usize];
+        edges.push((node, anchor.dist.0));
+        self.ids[anchor.id as usize] = Arc::new(edges.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect());
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+    use arrow::array::AsArray;
+    use arrow::compute::take;
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt32Type};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+    use itertools::Itertools;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_core::Error;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+    use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::{remap_graph_batch, remap_graph_repair};
+    use crate::vector::DIST_COL;
+    use crate::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
+    use crate::vector::graph::NEIGHBORS_COL;
+    use crate::vector::hnsw::builder::{HNSW_METADATA_KEY, HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams};
+    use crate::vector::hnsw::{HNSW, HnswMetadata, VECTOR_ID_COL};
+    use crate::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
+
+    const DIM: usize = 16;
+    const TOTAL: usize = 2000;
+    const K: usize = 10;
+
+    fn build(total: usize) -> (FixedSizeListArray, HNSW) {
+        let data = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(total * DIM, [7; 32]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl.clone(), DistanceType::L2);
+        let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            &store,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(16).ef_construction(64),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        (fsl, hnsw)
+    }
+
+    fn metadata(batch: &RecordBatch) -> HnswMetadata {
+        serde_json::from_str(&batch.schema_ref().metadata()[HNSW_METADATA_KEY]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn num_level_members(hnsw: &HNSW) -> usize {
+        (0..hnsw.max_level() as usize)
+            .map(|level| hnsw.num_nodes(level))
+            .sum()
+    }
+
+    fn query_params() -> HnswQueryParams {
+        HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 64,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn recall(hnsw: &HNSW, vectors: &FixedSizeListArray, queries: &FixedSizeListArray) -> f32 {
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors.clone(), DistanceType::L2);
+        let mut hits = 0;
+        for i in 0..queries.len() {
+            let query = queries.value(i);
+            let truth = (0..vectors.len())
+                .map(|j| {
+                    let v = vectors.value(j);
+                    let v = v.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+                    let q = query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+                    let dist: f32 = v
+                        .values()
+                        .iter()
+                        .zip(q.values())
+                        .map(|(a, b)| (a - b) * (a - b))
+                        .sum();
+                    (dist, j as u32)
+                })
+                .sorted_by(|a, b| a.0.total_cmp(&b.0))
+                .take(K)
+                .map(|(_, id)| id)
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+            let found = hnsw
+                .search_basic(query, K, &query_params(), None, &store)
+                .unwrap();
+            hits += found.iter().filter(|n| truth.contains(&n.id)).count();
+        }
+        hits as f32 / (queries.len() * K) as f32
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remap_without_removals_keeps_graph() {
+        let (_, hnsw) = build(TOTAL);
+        let batch = HNSW::load(hnsw.to_batch().unwrap())
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_batch()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), num_level_members(&hnsw));
+
+        let new_ids = (0..TOTAL as u32).map(Some).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let remapped = remap_graph_batch(&batch, &new_ids).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(remapped, batch);
+    }
+
+    /// Repair has to stay with a rebuild. The tolerance is wider than the bench
+    /// because this graph is small; a broken reconnection misses by much more.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_repair_recall_stays_with_rebuild() {
+        let (vectors, hnsw) = build(TOTAL);
+        let batch = hnsw.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let params = metadata(&batch).params;
+        let queries = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(20 * DIM, [9; 32]);
+        let queries = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(queries, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        for remove_every in [100, 10, 2] {
+            let mut new_ids = Vec::with_capacity(TOTAL);
+            let mut kept_idx = Vec::new();
+            for old_id in 0..TOTAL {
+                if old_id % remove_every == 0 {
+                    new_ids.push(None);
+                } else {
+                    new_ids.push(Some(kept_idx.len() as u32));
+                    kept_idx.push(old_id as u32);
+                }
+            }
+            let kept_idx = UInt32Array::from(kept_idx);
+            let kept = take(&vectors, &kept_idx, None).unwrap();
+            let kept = kept.as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+            let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(kept.clone(), DistanceType::L2);
+            let repaired =
+                HNSW::load(remap_graph_repair(&batch, &new_ids, &store).unwrap()).unwrap();
+            let rebuilt = HNSW::index_vectors(&store, params.clone()).unwrap();
+            let repair_recall = recall(&repaired, &kept, &queries);
+            let rebuild_recall = recall(&rebuilt, &kept, &queries);
+            assert!(
+                repair_recall + 0.08 >= rebuild_recall,
+                "remove_every={remove_every} repair {repair_recall:.4} rebuild {rebuild_recall:.4}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::one_percent(100)]
+    #[case::ten_percent(10)]
+    #[case::half(2)]
+    fn test_remap_drops_removed_nodes(#[case] remove_every: usize) {
+        let (vectors, hnsw) = build(TOTAL);
+        let batch = hnsw.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let old_metadata = metadata(&batch);
+
+        let mut new_ids = Vec::with_capacity(TOTAL);
+        let mut kept = Vec::new();
+        for old_id in 0..TOTAL {
+            if old_id % remove_every == 0 {
+                new_ids.push(None);
+            } else {
+                new_ids.push(Some(kept.len() as u32));
+                kept.push(old_id as u32);
+            }
+        }
+        let remapped = remap_graph_batch(&batch, &new_ids).unwrap();
+        let new_metadata = metadata(&remapped);
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_metadata.level_offsets.len(),
+            old_metadata.level_offsets.len()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(new_metadata.level_offsets[1], kept.len());
+
+        // Every level keeps exactly its surviving members, renumbered in order.
+        let old_ids = batch[VECTOR_ID_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let new_ids_col = remapped[VECTOR_ID_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let old_levels = old_metadata.level_offsets.iter().tuple_windows::<(_, _)>();
+        let new_levels = new_metadata.level_offsets.iter().tuple_windows::<(_, _)>();
+        for (level, ((old_start, old_end), (new_start, new_end))) in
+            old_levels.zip(new_levels).enumerate()
+        {
+            let expected = (*old_start..*old_end)
+                .filter_map(|row| new_ids[old_ids.value(row) as usize])
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let actual = new_ids_col.values()[*new_start..*new_end].to_vec();
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "level {level}");
+        }
+
+        // No edge names a removed or out-of-range node, and each surviving
+        // edge is an old edge with its distance carried along.
+        let old_neighbors = batch[NEIGHBORS_COL].as_list::<i32>();
+        let old_dists = batch[DIST_COL].as_list::<i32>();
+        let new_neighbors = remapped[NEIGHBORS_COL].as_list::<i32>();
+        let new_dists = remapped[DIST_COL].as_list::<i32>();
+        let mut old_row = 0;
+        for new_row in 0..remapped.num_rows() {
+            while new_ids[old_ids.value(old_row) as usize].is_none() {
+                old_row += 1;
+            }
+            let expected = old_neighbors
+                .value(old_row)
+                .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .zip(
+                    old_dists
+                        .value(old_row)
+                        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                        .values(),
+                )
+                .filter_map(|(n, d)| new_ids[*n as usize].map(|n| (n, *d)))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let actual = new_neighbors
+                .value(new_row)
+                .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .zip(
+                    new_dists
+                        .value(new_row)
+                        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                        .values()
+                        .iter()
+                        .copied(),
+                )
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected, "row {new_row}");
+            assert!(actual.iter().all(|(n, _)| (*n as usize) < kept.len()));
+            old_row += 1;
+        }
+
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(remapped.clone()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(loaded.len(), kept.len());
+        assert_eq!(loaded.to_batch().unwrap(), remapped);
+        assert_eq!(remapped.num_rows(), num_level_members(&loaded));
+
+        let kept_vectors = take(&vectors, &UInt32Array::from(kept), None).unwrap();
+        let kept_vectors = kept_vectors.as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+        let queries = kept_vectors.slice(0, 50);
+        let recall = recall(&loaded, &kept_vectors, &queries);
+        assert!(
+            recall >= 0.5,
+            "recall {recall} after removing 1/{remove_every}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remap_replaces_removed_entry_point() {
+        let (_, hnsw) = build(TOTAL);
+        let batch = hnsw.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let old_metadata = metadata(&batch);
+        let entry_point = old_metadata.entry_point as usize;
+
+        let new_ids = (0..TOTAL)
+            .map(|old_id| match old_id.cmp(&entry_point) {
+                std::cmp::Ordering::Less => Some(old_id as u32),
+                std::cmp::Ordering::Equal => None,
+                std::cmp::Ordering::Greater => Some(old_id as u32 - 1),
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let remapped = remap_graph_batch(&batch, &new_ids).unwrap();
+        let new_metadata = metadata(&remapped);
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(remapped.clone()).unwrap();
+
+        // The replacement sits on the highest level that still has nodes.
+        let top = loaded.max_level() as usize - 1;
+        let ids = remapped[VECTOR_ID_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let top_ids =
+            &ids.values()[new_metadata.level_offsets[top]..new_metadata.level_offsets[top + 1]];
+        assert!(top_ids.contains(&new_metadata.entry_point));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remap_removing_every_node() {
+        let (_, hnsw) = build(64);
+        let batch = hnsw.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let remapped = remap_graph_batch(&batch, &[None; 64]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(remapped.num_rows(), 0);
+        assert!(HNSW::load(remapped).unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remap_rejects_mismatched_node_count() {
+        let (_, hnsw) = build(64);
+        let batch = hnsw.to_batch().unwrap();
+        let err = remap_graph_batch(&batch, &[Some(0); 63]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("64 nodes"), "{err}");
+
+        // A search-projected batch lacks the distances the index file keeps.
+        let projected = batch.project(&[0, 1]).unwrap();
+        let new_ids = (0..64).map(Some).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let err = remap_graph_batch(&projected, &new_ids).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains(DIST_COL), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    /// Deleting from a graph of identical vectors drops the only inbound edge of
+    /// many nodes. The repair links each of them back, and a wide search can
+    /// return them.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_repair_keeps_survivors_reachable() {
+        const N: usize = 500;
+        let values = arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; N * DIM]);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors.clone(), DistanceType::L2);
+        let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(
+            &store,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(4).ef_construction(4),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = hnsw.to_batch().unwrap();
+
+        let mut new_ids = Vec::with_capacity(N);
+        let mut kept_idx = Vec::new();
+        for old_id in 0..N {
+            if old_id % 100 == 0 {
+                new_ids.push(None);
+            } else {
+                new_ids.push(Some(kept_idx.len() as u32));
+                kept_idx.push(old_id as u32);
+            }
+        }
+        let kept = take(&vectors, &UInt32Array::from(kept_idx), None).unwrap();
+        let kept = kept.as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+        let kept_store = FlatFloatStorage::new(kept, DistanceType::L2);
+
+        let repaired = remap_graph_repair(&batch, &new_ids, &kept_store).unwrap();
+        let (reached, total) = reachable_from_entry(&repaired);
+        assert_eq!(reached, total, "repair left nodes stranded");
+        assert_eq!(total, N - N / 100);
+
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 300,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let hits = HNSW::load(repaired)
+            .unwrap()
+            .search_basic(vectors.value(0), 300, &params, None, &kept_store)
+            .unwrap()
+            .len();
+        assert_eq!(hits, 300);
+    }
+
+    fn reachable_from_entry(batch: &RecordBatch) -> (usize, usize) {
+        let meta = metadata(batch);
+        let ids = batch[VECTOR_ID_COL].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let neighbors = batch[NEIGHBORS_COL].as_list::<i32>();
+        let level0 = meta.level_offsets[1];
+        let n = ids.values()[..level0].iter().copied().max().unwrap_or(0) as usize + 1;
+        let mut adj = vec![Vec::new(); n];
+        let mut present = vec![false; n];
+        for row in 0..level0 {
+            let id = ids.value(row) as usize;
+            present[id] = true;
+            adj[id] = neighbors
+                .value(row)
+                .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec();
+        }
+        let mut reachable = vec![false; n];
+        let mut queue = std::collections::VecDeque::new();
+        let entry = meta.entry_point as usize;
+        if entry < n {
+            reachable[entry] = true;
+            queue.push_back(entry);
+        }
+        while let Some(current) = queue.pop_front() {
+            for &neighbor in &adj[current] {
+                let neighbor = neighbor as usize;
+                if neighbor < n && !reachable[neighbor] {
+                    reachable[neighbor] = true;
+                    queue.push_back(neighbor);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let total = present.iter().filter(|on| **on).count();
+        let reached = present
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&reachable)
+            .filter(|(on, reached)| **on && **reached)
+            .count();
+        (reached, total)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf.rs
index 4c96bb903b6..433612e39b3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf.rs
@@ -23,11 +23,11 @@ use super::flat::transform::FlatTransformer;
 use super::pq::transform::PQTransformer;
 use super::quantizer::Quantization;
 use super::residual::ResidualTransform;
-use super::sq::transform::SQTransformer;
 use super::sq::ScalarQuantizer;
+use super::sq::transform::SQTransformer;
 use super::transform::KeepFiniteVectors;
-use super::{quantizer::Quantizer, residual::compute_residual};
 use super::{PART_ID_COLUMN, PQ_CODE_COLUMN, SQ_CODE_COLUMN};
+use super::{quantizer::Quantizer, residual::compute_residual};
 
 pub mod builder;
 pub mod shuffler;
@@ -79,13 +79,9 @@ pub fn new_ivf_transformer_with_quantizer(
             sq,
             range,
         )),
-        Quantizer::Rabit(rq) => Ok(IvfTransformer::with_rq(
-            centroids,
-            metric_type,
-            vector_column,
-            rq,
-            range,
-        )),
+        Quantizer::Rabit(rq) => {
+            IvfTransformer::with_rq(centroids, metric_type, vector_column, rq, range)
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -181,7 +177,11 @@ impl IvfTransformer {
 
         transforms.push(Arc::new(FlatTransformer::new(vector_column)));
 
-        Self::new(centroids, distance_type, transforms)
+        // Keep the converted metric, like the sibling constructors: the chain
+        // above normalized for cosine and assigns with L2, so the transformer's
+        // own `find_partitions` and `compute_partitions` have to measure the
+        // same way.
+        Self::new(centroids, dt, transforms)
     }
 
     /// Create a IVF_PQ struct.
@@ -284,7 +284,7 @@ impl IvfTransformer {
         vector_column: &str,
         rq: RabitQuantizer,
         range: Option<Range<u32>>,
-    ) -> Self {
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut transforms: Vec<Arc<dyn Transformer>> =
             vec![Arc::new(super::transform::Flatten::new(vector_column))];
 
@@ -322,9 +322,9 @@ impl IvfTransformer {
             distance_type,
             centroids.clone(),
             vector_column,
-        )));
+        )?));
 
-        Self::new(centroids, distance_type, transforms)
+        Ok(Self::new(centroids, distance_type, transforms))
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -364,3 +364,40 @@ impl Transformer for IvfTransformer {
         Ok(batch)
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::Float32Array;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+    /// `new_flat` normalizes the vectors for cosine and assigns partitions with
+    /// L2, like its sibling constructors, so the metric it stores has to be the
+    /// converted one too. Otherwise the transformer's own `find_partitions` and
+    /// `compute_partitions` measure with cosine while the chain measured with
+    /// L2, and the distances it hands back are on a different scale than the
+    /// ones it wrote into the batch.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_new_flat_keeps_the_converted_metric() {
+        let centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![1.0f32, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]),
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0f32, 0.0]);
+
+        let cosine =
+            IvfTransformer::new_flat(centroids.clone(), DistanceType::Cosine, "vector", None);
+        let l2 = IvfTransformer::new_flat(centroids, DistanceType::L2, "vector", None);
+
+        let (cosine_parts, cosine_dists) = cosine.find_partitions(&query, 2).unwrap();
+        let (l2_parts, l2_dists) = l2.find_partitions(&query, 2).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(cosine_parts.values(), l2_parts.values());
+        assert_eq!(
+            cosine_dists.values(),
+            l2_dists.values(),
+            "the cosine flat transformer should report the L2 distances it assigns with"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/builder.rs
index 9d1a288859d..b8b6e0ec4cc 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/builder.rs
@@ -10,7 +10,6 @@ use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
 use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream;
@@ -40,6 +39,33 @@ pub struct IvfBuildParams {
 
     pub sample_rate: usize,
 
+    /// Optional per-step sample rate for streaming IVF kmeans training.
+    ///
+    /// When set, IVF training loads at most `num_partitions * streaming_sample_rate`
+    /// vectors at a time. For `num_partitions > 256`, each chunk is compressed into
+    /// a weighted coreset and final centroids are trained with weighted hierarchical
+    /// kmeans over the coreset. The coreset budget is also bounded by this rate by
+    /// default so large partition counts can control peak memory by lowering
+    /// `streaming_sample_rate`. The total number of sampled vectors remains bounded
+    /// by `num_partitions * sample_rate`.
+    pub streaming_sample_rate: Option<usize>,
+
+    /// Optional coreset rate for streaming IVF kmeans training.
+    ///
+    /// When set, the final weighted coreset budget is
+    /// `num_partitions * streaming_coreset_rate`, independent of
+    /// `streaming_sample_rate`. The streaming chunk size is still controlled by
+    /// `streaming_sample_rate`.
+    pub streaming_coreset_rate: Option<usize>,
+
+    /// Number of extra streaming Lloyd refinement passes to run after streaming
+    /// coreset training.
+    ///
+    /// Each pass reuses the same sampled vectors and only loads
+    /// `num_partitions * streaming_sample_rate` raw vectors at a time.  This is
+    /// experimental and defaults to 0 to preserve existing behavior.
+    pub streaming_refine_passes: usize,
+
     /// Precomputed partitions file (row_id -> partition_id)
     /// mutually exclusive with `precomputed_shuffle_buffers`
     pub precomputed_partitions_file: Option<String>,
@@ -68,6 +94,9 @@ impl Default for IvfBuildParams {
             centroids: None,
             retrain: false,
             sample_rate: 256, // See faiss
+            streaming_sample_rate: None,
+            streaming_coreset_rate: None,
+            streaming_refine_passes: 0,
             precomputed_partitions_file: None,
             precomputed_shuffle_buffers: None,
             shuffle_partition_batches: 1024 * 10,
@@ -99,14 +128,11 @@ impl IvfBuildParams {
         centroids: Arc<FixedSizeListArray>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         if num_partitions != centroids.len() {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids: num_partitions {} != centroids.len() {}",
-                    num_partitions,
-                    centroids.len()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids: num_partitions {} != centroids.len() {}",
+                num_partitions,
+                centroids.len()
+            )));
         }
         Ok(Self {
             num_partitions: Some(num_partitions),
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/shuffler.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/shuffler.rs
index 4dc3678a876..ca0e8f7ebe7 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/shuffler.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/shuffler.rs
@@ -15,52 +15,52 @@ use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::array::{
-    ArrayBuilder, FixedSizeListBuilder, StructBuilder, UInt32Builder, UInt64Builder, UInt8Builder,
+    ArrayBuilder, FixedSizeListBuilder, StructBuilder, UInt8Builder, UInt32Builder, UInt64Builder,
 };
 use arrow::buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
 use arrow::compute::sort_to_indices;
 use arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type;
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type, Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type};
 use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array};
 use arrow_array::{ListArray, StructArray, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
 use futures::stream::repeat_with;
-use futures::{stream, FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::utils::futures::StreamOnDropExt;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Schema, Error, Result, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result, datatypes::Schema};
 use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
-use lance_file::previous::writer::FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter;
 use lance_file::reader::{FileReader as Lancev2FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_file::versions;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::writer::FileWriter as V1FileWriter;
 use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream;
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
-use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
 use lance_table::format::SelfDescribingFileReader;
 use lance_table::io::manifest::ManifestDescribing;
 use log::info;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 
+use crate::vector::PART_ID_COLUMN;
 use crate::vector::ivf::IvfTransformer;
 use crate::vector::transform::Transformer;
-use crate::vector::PART_ID_COLUMN;
 
 const UNSORTED_BUFFER: &str = "unsorted.lance";
 const SHUFFLE_BATCH_SIZE: usize = 1024;
 
-fn get_temp_dir() -> Result<Path> {
-    // Note: using keep here means we will not delete this TempDir automatically
-    let dir = tempfile::TempDir::new()?.keep();
-    let tmp_dir_path = Path::from_filesystem_path(dir).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-        source: Box::new(e),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
-    Ok(tmp_dir_path)
+/// Returns the temp dir path plus a guard whose `Drop` removes the directory.
+fn get_temp_dir() -> Result<(Path, tempfile::TempDir)> {
+    let dir = tempfile::TempDir::new()?;
+    let tmp_dir_path =
+        Path::from_filesystem_path(dir.path()).map_err(|e| Error::io_source(Box::new(e)))?;
+    Ok((tmp_dir_path, dir))
 }
 
 /// A builder for a partition of data
@@ -254,9 +254,7 @@ pub async fn shuffle_dataset(
     let shuffler = if let Some((path, buffers)) = precomputed_shuffle_buffers {
         info!("Precomputed shuffle files provided, skip calculation of IVF partition.");
         let mut shuffler = IvfShuffler::try_new(num_partitions, Some(path), true, None)?;
-        unsafe {
-            shuffler.set_unsorted_buffers(&buffers);
-        }
+        shuffler.set_unsorted_buffers(&buffers);
 
         shuffler
     } else {
@@ -282,10 +280,9 @@ pub async fn shuffle_dataset(
                     let mut batch = b?;
 
                     if !partition_map.is_empty() {
-                        let row_ids = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).ok_or(Error::Index {
-                            message: "column does not exist".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
+                        let row_ids = batch
+                            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                            .ok_or(Error::index("column does not exist".to_string()))?;
                         let part_ids = UInt32Array::from_iter(
                             row_ids
                                 .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
@@ -323,10 +320,7 @@ pub async fn shuffle_dataset(
             .map(|res| match res {
                 Ok(Ok(batch)) => Ok(batch),
                 Ok(Err(err)) => Err(err),
-                Err(join_err) => Err(Error::Execution {
-                    message: join_err.to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }),
+                Err(join_err) => Err(Error::execution(join_err.to_string())),
             })
             .boxed();
 
@@ -349,11 +343,22 @@ pub async fn shuffle_dataset(
 
     // step 3: load the sorted chunks, consumers are expect to be responsible for merging the streams
     let start = std::time::Instant::now();
-    let stream =
+    let streams =
         IvfShuffler::load_partitioned_shuffles(&shuffler.output_dir, partition_files).await?;
     info!("merged partitioned shuffles in {:?}", start.elapsed());
 
-    Ok(stream)
+    // Clone the temp-dir guard into each returned stream so the shuffle
+    // files are removed only after the consumer drops every stream.
+    let temp_dir_guard = shuffler.owned_temp_dir.clone();
+    let guarded_streams = streams
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|stream| {
+            let guard = temp_dir_guard.clone();
+            stream.on_drop(move || drop(guard))
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    Ok(guarded_streams)
 }
 
 pub async fn shuffle_vectors(
@@ -372,9 +377,7 @@ pub async fn shuffle_vectors(
         Some(shuffle_output_root_filename.to_string()),
     )?;
 
-    unsafe {
-        shuffler.set_unsorted_buffers(&unsorted_filenames);
-    }
+    shuffler.set_unsorted_buffers(&unsorted_filenames);
 
     let partition_files = shuffler
         .write_partitioned_shuffles(shuffle_partition_batches, shuffle_partition_concurrency)
@@ -391,10 +394,16 @@ pub struct IvfShuffler {
 
     output_dir: Path,
 
+    // `Some` for an auto-created `output_dir`; cleanup runs when the last
+    // clone of this `Arc` is dropped. `None` when the caller owns cleanup.
+    owned_temp_dir: Option<Arc<tempfile::TempDir>>,
+
     // whether the lance file is v1 (legacy) or v2
     is_legacy: bool,
 
     shuffle_output_root_filename: String,
+
+    format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
 }
 
 /// Represents a range of batches in a file that should be shuffled
@@ -414,9 +423,12 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
         is_legacy: bool,
         shuffle_output_root_filename: Option<String>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let output_dir = match output_dir {
-            Some(output_dir) => output_dir,
-            None => get_temp_dir()?,
+        let (output_dir, owned_temp_dir) = match output_dir {
+            Some(output_dir) => (output_dir, None),
+            None => {
+                let (path, dir) = get_temp_dir()?;
+                (path, Some(Arc::new(dir)))
+            }
         };
 
         let shuffle_output_root_filename = match shuffle_output_root_filename {
@@ -427,18 +439,21 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
         Ok(Self {
             num_partitions,
             output_dir,
+            owned_temp_dir,
             unsorted_buffers: vec![],
             is_legacy,
             shuffle_output_root_filename,
+            format_version: ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
         })
     }
 
+    pub fn with_format_version(mut self, format_version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Self {
+        self.format_version = format_version;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set the unsorted buffers to be shuffled.
-    ///
-    /// # Safety
-    ///
-    /// user must ensure the buffers are valid.
-    pub unsafe fn set_unsorted_buffers(&mut self, unsorted_buffers: &[impl ToString]) {
+    pub fn set_unsorted_buffers(&mut self, unsorted_buffers: &[impl ToString]) {
         self.unsorted_buffers = unsorted_buffers.iter().map(|x| x.to_string()).collect();
     }
 
@@ -447,7 +462,7 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
         data: impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>>,
     ) -> Result<()> {
         let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
-        let path = self.output_dir.child(UNSORTED_BUFFER);
+        let path = self.output_dir.clone().join(UNSORTED_BUFFER);
         let writer = object_store.create(&path).await?;
 
         let mut data = Box::pin(data.peekable());
@@ -458,10 +473,7 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
                 return Err(std::mem::replace(err, Error::Stop));
             }
             None => {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "data must not be empty".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source("data must not be empty".into()));
             }
         };
 
@@ -469,16 +481,15 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
         // we need to have row ID and partition ID column
         schema
             .column_with_name(ROW_ID)
-            .ok_or(Error::io("row ID column not found".to_owned(), location!()))?;
-        schema.column_with_name(PART_ID_COLUMN).ok_or(Error::io(
-            "partition ID column not found".to_owned(),
-            location!(),
-        ))?;
+            .ok_or(Error::io("row ID column not found".to_owned()))?;
+        schema
+            .column_with_name(PART_ID_COLUMN)
+            .ok_or(Error::io("partition ID column not found".to_owned()))?;
 
         info!("Writing unsorted data to disk at {}", path);
         info!("with schema: {:?}", schema);
 
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::with_object_writer(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::with_object_writer(
             writer,
             Schema::try_from(schema.as_ref())?,
             &Default::default(),
@@ -495,9 +506,7 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
 
         file_writer.finish().await?;
 
-        unsafe {
-            self.set_unsorted_buffers(&[UNSORTED_BUFFER]);
-        }
+        self.set_unsorted_buffers(&[UNSORTED_BUFFER]);
 
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -506,11 +515,11 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
         let mut total_batches = vec![];
         for buffer in &self.unsorted_buffers {
             let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
-            let path = self.output_dir.child(buffer.as_str());
+            let path = self.output_dir.clone().join(buffer.as_str());
 
             if self.is_legacy {
                 let reader =
-                    PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None).await?;
+                    V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None).await?;
                 total_batches.push(reader.num_batches());
             } else {
                 let scheduler_config = SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store);
@@ -550,11 +559,11 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
         } in inputs
         {
             let file_name = &self.unsorted_buffers[file_idx];
-            let path = self.output_dir.child(file_name.as_str());
+            let path = self.output_dir.clone().join(file_name.as_str());
 
             if self.is_legacy {
                 let reader =
-                    PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None).await?;
+                    V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None).await?;
                 let lance_schema = reader
                     .schema()
                     .project(&[PART_ID_COLUMN])
@@ -595,6 +604,7 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
                         16,
                         FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                     )
+                    .await
                     .unwrap();
 
                 while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
@@ -632,13 +642,12 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
         {
             let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
             let file_name = &self.unsorted_buffers[file_idx];
-            let path = self.output_dir.child(file_name.as_str());
+            let path = self.output_dir.clone().join(file_name.as_str());
             let mut _reader_handle = None;
 
             let mut stream = if self.is_legacy {
-                _reader_handle = Some(
-                    PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None).await?,
-                );
+                _reader_handle =
+                    Some(V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None).await?);
 
                 stream::iter(start..end)
                     .map(|i| {
@@ -669,7 +678,8 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
                         SHUFFLE_BATCH_SIZE as u32,
                         16,
                         FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                    )?
+                    )
+                    .await?
                     .boxed()
             };
 
@@ -772,7 +782,7 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
                     // finally, write the shuffled data to disk
                     let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
                     let output_file = format!("{}_{}.lance", this.shuffle_output_root_filename, i);
-                    let path = this.output_dir.child(output_file.clone());
+                    let path = this.output_dir.clone().join(output_file.clone());
                     let writer = object_store.create(&path).await?;
 
                     info!(
@@ -786,7 +796,8 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
                         true,
                     )]));
                     let lance_schema = Schema::try_from(sorted_file_schema.as_ref())?;
-                    let mut file_writer = lance_file::writer::FileWriter::try_new(
+                    let mut file_writer = versions::create_writer(
+                        this.format_version,
                         writer,
                         lance_schema,
                         FileWriterOptions::default(),
@@ -818,13 +829,13 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
     pub async fn load_partitioned_shuffles(
         basedir: &Path,
         files: Vec<String>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>>>> {
+    ) -> Result<Vec<impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + use<>>> {
         // impl RecordBatchStream
         let mut streams = vec![];
 
         for file in files {
             let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
-            let path = basedir.child(file);
+            let path = basedir.clone().join(file);
             let scheduler_config = SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store);
             let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, scheduler_config);
             let file_scheduler = scan_scheduler
@@ -844,7 +855,8 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
                     /*batch_size=*/ 1,
                     /*batch_readahead=*/ 32,
                     FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                )?
+                )
+                .await?
                 .and_then(|batch| {
                     let list_array = batch
                         .column(0)
@@ -871,8 +883,8 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
     use arrow_array::{
-        types::{UInt32Type, UInt8Type},
-        FixedSizeListArray, UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
+        FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array, UInt64Array,
+        types::{UInt8Type, UInt32Type},
     };
     use arrow_schema::DataType;
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
@@ -953,6 +965,14 @@ mod test {
         (stream, shuffler)
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_missing_unsorted_buffer_returns_error() {
+        let mut shuffler = IvfShuffler::try_new(1, None, false, None).unwrap();
+        shuffler.set_unsorted_buffers(&["missing.lance"]);
+
+        shuffler.total_batches().await.unwrap_err();
+    }
+
     fn check_batch(batch: RecordBatch, idx: usize, num_rows: usize) {
         let row_ids = batch
             .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
@@ -1065,7 +1085,7 @@ mod test {
         shuffler.write_unsorted_stream(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // set the same buffer twice we should get double the data
-        unsafe { shuffler.set_unsorted_buffers(&[UNSORTED_BUFFER, UNSORTED_BUFFER]) }
+        shuffler.set_unsorted_buffers(&[UNSORTED_BUFFER, UNSORTED_BUFFER]);
 
         let partition_files = shuffler.write_partitioned_shuffles(200, 1).await.unwrap();
 
@@ -1095,7 +1115,7 @@ mod test {
         shuffler.write_unsorted_stream(stream).await.unwrap();
 
         // set the same buffer twice we should get double the data
-        unsafe { shuffler.set_unsorted_buffers(&[UNSORTED_BUFFER, UNSORTED_BUFFER]) }
+        shuffler.set_unsorted_buffers(&[UNSORTED_BUFFER, UNSORTED_BUFFER]);
 
         let partition_files = shuffler.write_partitioned_shuffles(1, 32).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(partition_files.len(), 200);
@@ -1194,4 +1214,63 @@ mod test {
 
         assert_eq!(num_batches, NUM_PARTITIONS * expected_num_part_files);
     }
+
+    // Auto-created shuffler temp dir must be removed once the shuffler and
+    // its returned streams are dropped.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shuffler_cleans_up_auto_temp_dir() {
+        let (stream, mut shuffler) = make_stream_and_shuffler(false);
+
+        // Snapshot the path without cloning the `Arc` — a clone here would
+        // block cleanup on drop.
+        let temp_dir_path = shuffler
+            .owned_temp_dir
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("shuffler built with output_dir = None should own a TempDir guard")
+            .path()
+            .to_path_buf();
+
+        assert!(
+            temp_dir_path.is_dir(),
+            "auto-created shuffler temp dir should exist while shuffler is alive: {:?}",
+            temp_dir_path,
+        );
+
+        shuffler.write_unsorted_stream(stream).await.unwrap();
+        let partition_files = shuffler.write_partitioned_shuffles(100, 1).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(partition_files.len(), 1);
+
+        assert!(
+            temp_dir_path.join("unsorted.lance").is_file(),
+            "shuffler should have written unsorted.lance into its working dir: {:?}",
+            temp_dir_path,
+        );
+        assert!(
+            temp_dir_path.join("sorted_0.lance").is_file(),
+            "shuffler should have written sorted_0.lance into its working dir: {:?}",
+            temp_dir_path,
+        );
+
+        let mut result_streams =
+            IvfShuffler::load_partitioned_shuffles(&shuffler.output_dir, partition_files)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        while let Some(mut s) = result_streams.pop() {
+            while let Some(item) = s.next().await {
+                let _ = item.unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+        drop(result_streams);
+        // Dropping the shuffler releases the last `Arc<TempDir>`, which
+        // removes the on-disk directory.
+        drop(shuffler);
+
+        assert!(
+            !temp_dir_path.exists(),
+            "auto-created shuffler temp dir should be removed once the IvfShuffler and \
+             its returned streams are dropped, but it still exists: {:?}",
+            temp_dir_path,
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/storage.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/storage.rs
index a0bebbe598b..19b795c580e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/storage.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/storage.rs
@@ -4,19 +4,18 @@
 use std::ops::Range;
 
 use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, UInt32Array};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_file::previous::{
-    reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader, writer::FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter,
+use lance_file::versions::v1::{
+    reader::FileReader as V1FileReader, writer::FileWriter as V1FileWriter,
 };
 use lance_io::{traits::WriteExt, utils::read_message};
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use lance_table::io::manifest::ManifestDescribing;
 use log::debug;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::pb::Ivf as PbIvf;
 
@@ -42,10 +41,10 @@ pub struct IvfModel {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for IvfModel {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.centroids
             .as_ref()
-            .map(|centroids| centroids.get_array_memory_size())
+            .map(|centroids| (centroids as &dyn arrow_array::Array).deep_size_of_children(context))
             .unwrap_or_default()
             + self.lengths.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.offsets.deep_size_of_children(context)
@@ -147,17 +146,17 @@ impl IvfModel {
         start..end
     }
 
-    pub async fn load(reader: &PreviousFileReader) -> Result<Self> {
+    pub async fn load(reader: &V1FileReader) -> Result<Self> {
         let schema = reader.schema();
-        let meta_str = schema.metadata.get(IVF_METADATA_KEY).ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("{} not found during search", IVF_METADATA_KEY),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-        let ivf_metadata: IvfMetadata =
-            serde_json::from_str(meta_str).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Failed to parse IVF metadata: {}", e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let meta_str = schema
+            .metadata
+            .get(IVF_METADATA_KEY)
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "{} not found during search",
+                IVF_METADATA_KEY
+            )))?;
+        let ivf_metadata: IvfMetadata = serde_json::from_str(meta_str)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Failed to parse IVF metadata: {}", e)))?;
 
         let pb: PbIvf = read_message(
             reader.object_reader.as_ref(),
@@ -168,7 +167,7 @@ impl IvfModel {
     }
 
     /// Write the IVF metadata to the lance file.
-    pub async fn write(&self, writer: &mut PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>) -> Result<()> {
+    pub async fn write(&self, writer: &mut V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>) -> Result<()> {
         let pb = PbIvf::try_from(self)?;
         let pos = writer.object_writer.write_protobuf(&pb).await?;
         let ivf_metadata = IvfMetadata { pb_position: pos };
@@ -206,6 +205,13 @@ impl TryFrom<PbIvf> for IvfModel {
         } else if !proto.centroids.is_empty() {
             // For backward-compatibility
             debug!("Ivf: loading IVF centroids from index format v1");
+            if proto.lengths.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "ivf metadata",
+                    "v1 IVF centroids are present but no partition lengths are, \
+                     so the centroid dimension cannot be derived",
+                ));
+            }
             let f32_centroids = Float32Array::from(proto.centroids.clone());
             let dimension = f32_centroids.len() / proto.lengths.len();
             Some(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
@@ -233,7 +239,16 @@ impl TryFrom<PbIvf> for IvfModel {
                 .collect_vec(),
             _ => proto.offsets.iter().map(|x| *x as usize).collect(),
         };
-        assert_eq!(offsets.len(), proto.lengths.len());
+        if offsets.len() != proto.lengths.len() {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "ivf metadata",
+                format!(
+                    "{} partition offsets do not match {} partition lengths",
+                    offsets.len(),
+                    proto.lengths.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
         Ok(Self {
             centroids,
             offsets,
@@ -275,6 +290,65 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(ivf.row_range(1), 20..70);
     }
 
+    /// A corrupt or foreign index file can carry mismatched offsets and
+    /// lengths. `assert_eq!` survives release builds, so the parse boundary
+    /// aborted the process instead of reporting the file.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ivf_model_rejects_mismatched_proto_lengths() {
+        let proto = pb::Ivf {
+            lengths: vec![1, 2, 3],
+            offsets: vec![0, 3],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let error = IvfModel::try_from(proto).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("2 partition offsets") && message.contains("3 partition lengths"),
+            "the error must give both counts: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The v1 branch derives the centroid dimension by dividing by the number
+    /// of partition lengths, so a damaged file with centroids and no lengths
+    /// used to divide by zero. Integer division by zero is not compiled out,
+    /// so this had to be a check rather than an assert.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ivf_model_rejects_v1_centroids_without_lengths() {
+        let proto = pb::Ivf {
+            centroids: vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0],
+            lengths: vec![],
+            offsets: vec![],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let error = IvfModel::try_from(proto).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected CorruptFile, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("cannot be derived"),
+            "the error must say why the dimension is unknown: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An empty offsets vector is the normal v3 shape: the offsets are derived
+    /// by scanning the lengths, so the mismatch check must not fire there.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ivf_model_derives_offsets_from_lengths() {
+        let proto = pb::Ivf {
+            lengths: vec![1, 2, 3],
+            offsets: vec![],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let ivf = IvfModel::try_from(proto).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ivf.offsets, vec![0, 1, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(ivf.lengths, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_write_and_load() {
         let mut ivf = IvfModel::empty();
@@ -287,14 +361,10 @@ mod tests {
         let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
 
         {
-            let mut writer = PreviousFileWriter::try_new(
-                &object_store,
-                &path,
-                schema.clone(),
-                &Default::default(),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            let mut writer =
+                V1FileWriter::try_new(&object_store, &path, schema.clone(), &Default::default())
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
             // Write some dummy data
             let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
                 Arc::new(arrow_schema),
@@ -306,7 +376,7 @@ mod tests {
             writer.finish().await.unwrap();
         }
 
-        let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None)
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, &path, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert!(reader.schema().metadata.contains_key(IVF_METADATA_KEY));
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/transform.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/transform.rs
index 7619c16f154..f8fc35755f9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/transform.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/ivf/transform.rs
@@ -8,10 +8,9 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::Float32Array;
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::AsArray, types::UInt32Type, Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array,
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, cast::AsArray, types::UInt32Type,
 };
 use lance_table::utils::LanceIteratorExtension;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
@@ -71,43 +70,72 @@ impl PartitionTransformer {
         self.with_distance = with_distance;
         self
     }
+
+    fn with_distances_to_chosen_partitions(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let fsl = self.input_vectors(batch)?;
+        let part_ids = batch
+            .column_by_name(&self.output_column)
+            .expect("checked by the caller")
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let mut dists = Vec::with_capacity(fsl.len());
+        for (vector, part_id) in fsl.iter().zip(part_ids.iter()) {
+            let (Some(vector), Some(part_id)) = (vector, part_id) else {
+                dists.push(None);
+                continue;
+            };
+            let centroid = self.centroids.slice(part_id as usize, 1);
+            let dist = self.distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(vector.as_ref(), &centroid)?;
+            dists.push(Some(dist.value(0)));
+        }
+        let loss = dists
+            .iter()
+            .map(|d| d.unwrap_or_default() as f64)
+            .sum::<f64>();
+        let batch = batch.drop_column(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN)?.try_with_column(
+            CENTROID_DIST_FIELD.clone(),
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(dists)),
+        )?;
+        Ok(batch.add_metadata(LOSS_METADATA_KEY.to_owned(), loss.to_string())?)
+    }
+
+    fn input_vectors<'a>(&self, batch: &'a RecordBatch) -> Result<&'a FixedSizeListArray> {
+        let arr = batch.column_by_name(&self.input_column).ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::index(format!(
+                "PartitionTransformer: column {} not found in the RecordBatch",
+                self.input_column
+            ))
+        })?;
+        arr.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::index(format!(
+                "PartitionTransformer: column {} is not a FixedSizeListArray: {}",
+                self.input_column,
+                arr.data_type(),
+            ))
+        })
+    }
 }
 impl Transformer for PartitionTransformer {
     #[instrument(name = "PartitionTransformer::transform", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     fn transform(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        if !(batch.column_by_name(&self.output_column).is_none()
-            || self.with_distance && batch.column_by_name(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN).is_none())
-        {
+        let has_part_ids = batch.column_by_name(&self.output_column).is_some();
+        let needs_dists =
+            self.with_distance && batch.column_by_name(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN).is_none();
+        if has_part_ids && !needs_dists {
             // If the output columns are already present, we don't need to compute it again.
             return Ok(batch.clone());
         }
+        if has_part_ids {
+            // The caller chose every row's partition (a join placing rows where
+            // there is room): keep it and measure the distance to that centroid
+            // rather than reassign the row to its nearest one.
+            return self.with_distances_to_chosen_partitions(batch);
+        }
 
         // clear the columns if any of them is present
         let batch = batch
             .drop_column(PART_ID_COLUMN)?
             .drop_column(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN)?;
-
-        let arr =
-            batch
-                .column_by_name(&self.input_column)
-                .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "PartitionTransformer: column {} not found in the RecordBatch",
-                        self.input_column
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-
-        let fsl = arr
-            .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
-            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "PartitionTransformer: column {} is not a FixedSizeListArray: {}",
-                    self.input_column,
-                    arr.data_type(),
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let fsl = self.input_vectors(&batch)?;
 
         let (part_ids, dists) = match &self.index {
             Some(index) => fsl
@@ -173,17 +201,270 @@ impl Transformer for PartitionFilter {
     #[instrument(name = "PartitionFilter::transform", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     fn transform(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         // TODO: use datafusion execute?
-        let arr = batch
-            .column_by_name(&self.column)
-            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "PartitionFilter: column {} not found in the RecordBatch",
-                    self.column
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let arr = batch.column_by_name(&self.column).ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::index(format!(
+                "PartitionFilter: column {} not found in the RecordBatch",
+                self.column
+            ))
+        })?;
         let part_ids = arr.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
         let indices = UInt32Array::from(self.filter_row_ids(part_ids.values()));
         Ok(batch.take(&indices)?)
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, cast::AsArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+    const VECTOR_COLUMN: &str = "v";
+
+    /// Two centroids far enough apart that assignment is unambiguous regardless
+    /// of accumulation precision.
+    fn centroids() -> FixedSizeListArray {
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0, 100.0, 100.0]), 2)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn transformer() -> PartitionTransformer {
+        PartitionTransformer::new(centroids(), DistanceType::L2, VECTOR_COLUMN)
+    }
+
+    fn vector_batch(vectors: Vec<Vec<f32>>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type, _, _>(
+            vectors.into_iter().map(|v| Some(v.into_iter().map(Some))),
+            2,
+        );
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            VECTOR_COLUMN,
+            fsl.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.into(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn part_ids_of(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<Option<u32>> {
+        batch
+            .column_by_name(PART_ID_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .iter()
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn loss_of(batch: &RecordBatch) -> f64 {
+        batch
+            .schema_ref()
+            .metadata()
+            .get(LOSS_METADATA_KEY)
+            .expect("loss metadata should be attached")
+            .parse()
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// A vector assigned to the wrong partition is never searched in the right
+    /// one, so this is the assertion the whole file exists for.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assigns_the_nearest_centroid() {
+        let batch = vector_batch(vec![vec![1.0, -1.0], vec![99.0, 101.0], vec![2.0, 2.0]]);
+
+        let output = transformer().transform(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(part_ids_of(&output), vec![Some(0), Some(1), Some(0)]);
+        // The vector column survives untouched next to the new partition column.
+        assert_eq!(
+            output.column_by_name(VECTOR_COLUMN).unwrap(),
+            batch.column_by_name(VECTOR_COLUMN).unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Loss is the accumulated centroid distance and is read back by the
+    /// shuffler, so it has to be attached even when nothing is off-centroid.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_loss_is_zero_when_vectors_sit_on_centroids() {
+        let batch = vector_batch(vec![vec![0.0, 0.0], vec![100.0, 100.0]]);
+
+        let output = transformer().transform(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(loss_of(&output), 0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_loss_accumulates_across_rows() {
+        let batch = vector_batch(vec![vec![3.0, 4.0], vec![100.0, 100.0]]);
+
+        let loss = loss_of(&transformer().transform(&batch).unwrap());
+
+        assert!(
+            loss > 0.0,
+            "loss should reflect the off-centroid row: {loss}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_centroid_distance_is_opt_in() {
+        let batch = vector_batch(vec![vec![1.0, 1.0]]);
+
+        let without = transformer().transform(&batch).unwrap();
+        assert!(without.column_by_name(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN).is_none());
+
+        let with = transformer().with_distance(true).transform(&batch).unwrap();
+        let dists = with
+            .column_by_name(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN)
+            .expect("distance column requested")
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>();
+        assert_eq!(dists.len(), 1);
+        assert!(dists.value(0) > 0.0);
+    }
+
+    /// Recomputing over an already-assigned batch would waste the work and could
+    /// disagree with the ids the caller already wrote.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_keeps_chosen_partitions_and_measures_their_distance() {
+        // A caller that chose partition 1 for a vector nearest to partition 0
+        // gets the distance to partition 1, not a new assignment.
+        let batch = vector_batch(vec![vec![1.0, 1.0]])
+            .try_with_column(
+                PART_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1_u32])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let output = transformer().with_distance(true).transform(&batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(part_ids_of(&output), vec![Some(1)]);
+        let dists = output
+            .column_by_name(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>();
+        assert!((dists.value(0) - 99.0_f32 * 99.0 * 2.0).abs() < 1e-3);
+        assert!((loss_of(&output) - 99.0_f64 * 99.0 * 2.0).abs() < 1e-3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_is_noop_when_partitions_already_present() {
+        let assigned = transformer()
+            .transform(&vector_batch(vec![vec![1.0, 1.0]]))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let output = transformer().transform(&assigned).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(output, assigned);
+    }
+
+    /// Partitions present but distances missing is the one case that still has to
+    /// recompute, otherwise `with_distance` silently returns a batch without the
+    /// column it promised.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_recomputes_when_distance_requested_but_absent() {
+        let assigned = transformer()
+            .transform(&vector_batch(vec![vec![1.0, 1.0]]))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(assigned.column_by_name(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN).is_none());
+
+        let output = transformer()
+            .with_distance(true)
+            .transform(&assigned)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(output.column_by_name(CENTROID_DIST_COLUMN).is_some());
+        assert_eq!(part_ids_of(&output), vec![Some(0)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reports_missing_vector_column() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Schema::new(vec![Field::new("other", DataType::Int32, false)]).into(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let message = transformer().transform(&batch).unwrap_err().to_string();
+
+        assert!(message.contains(VECTOR_COLUMN), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("not found"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reports_non_vector_column() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Schema::new(vec![Field::new(VECTOR_COLUMN, DataType::Int32, false)]).into(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let message = transformer().transform(&batch).unwrap_err().to_string();
+
+        assert!(message.contains("is not a FixedSizeListArray"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("Int32"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    fn partitioned_batch(part_ids: Vec<u32>, tags: Vec<i32>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(PART_ID_COLUMN, DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("tag", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.into(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(part_ids)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(tags)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// A sharded build only writes the partitions in its own range. Keeping a row
+    /// outside the range would put it in the wrong shard's file; dropping one
+    /// inside it loses the vector from the index entirely.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_partition_filter_keeps_only_the_requested_range() {
+        let batch = partitioned_batch(vec![0, 3, 1, 7, 2], vec![10, 13, 11, 17, 12]);
+
+        let output = PartitionFilter::new(PART_ID_COLUMN, 1..3)
+            .transform(&batch)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let kept: Vec<u32> = output
+            .column_by_name(PART_ID_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(kept, vec![1, 2]);
+        // The filter has to carry every other column along with it.
+        let tags: Vec<i32> = output
+            .column_by_name("tag")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(tags, vec![11, 12]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_partition_filter_can_keep_nothing() {
+        let batch = partitioned_batch(vec![0, 5], vec![1, 2]);
+
+        let output = PartitionFilter::new(PART_ID_COLUMN, 9..10)
+            .transform(&batch)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(output.num_rows(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(output.schema(), batch.schema());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_partition_filter_reports_missing_column() {
+        let batch = partitioned_batch(vec![0], vec![1]);
+
+        let message = PartitionFilter::new("absent", 0..1)
+            .transform(&batch)
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+
+        assert!(message.contains("absent"), "{message}");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/kmeans.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/kmeans.rs
index be76fade6f6..2a3be29e351 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/kmeans.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/kmeans.rs
@@ -10,53 +10,57 @@
 //!
 
 use core::f32;
-use std::cmp::Ordering;
-use std::collections::BinaryHeap;
+use std::cmp::Reverse;
 use std::ops::{AddAssign, DivAssign};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::vec;
 use std::{collections::HashMap, ops::MulAssign};
 
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, PrimitiveArray, UInt32Array,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{ArrowPrimitiveType, Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, UInt8Type},
-    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, PrimitiveArray, UInt32Array,
 };
 use arrow_array::{ArrowNumericType, UInt8Array};
 use arrow_ord::sort::sort_to_indices;
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
 use bitvec::prelude::*;
+use half::f16;
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
+use lance_linalg::distance::dot_f16::{
+    PackedCentroidsF16, amx_fp16_available, amx_fp16_supported, dot_f16_batch_16,
+};
 use lance_linalg::distance::hamming::{hamming, hamming_distance_batch};
-use lance_linalg::distance::{dot_distance_batch, DistanceType, Normalize};
-use lance_linalg::kernels::{argmin_value_float, argmin_value_float_with_bias};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Normalize, dot_distance_batch};
+use lance_linalg::kernels::{
+    Normalizable, argmin_value_float, argmin_value_float_with_bias, normalize,
+};
 use log::{info, warn};
 use num_traits::One;
 use num_traits::{AsPrimitive, Float, FromPrimitive, Num, Zero};
 use rand::prelude::*;
 use rayon::prelude::*;
-use snafu::location;
 use {
     lance_linalg::distance::{
-        l2::{l2_distance_batch, L2},
         Dot,
+        l2::{L2, l2_distance_batch},
     },
     lance_linalg::kernels::argmin_value,
 };
 
 use crate::vector::utils::SimpleIndex;
-use crate::{Error, Result};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
 /// KMean initialization method.
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub enum KMeanInit {
     Random,
     Incremental(Arc<FixedSizeListArray>),
 }
 
 /// KMean Training Parameters
-#[derive(Debug)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct KMeansParams {
     /// Max number of iterations.
     pub max_iters: u32,
@@ -81,12 +85,47 @@ pub struct KMeansParams {
     /// which is the same as normal kmeans clustering.
     pub balance_factor: f32,
 
-    /// The number of clusters to train in each hierarchical level.
+    /// The number of sub-clusters each node of the hierarchy is split into.
     ///
-    /// Default is 16, which performs the best performance in our experiments.
-    /// Higher would split the clusters more aggressively, which would be more accurate but slower.
-    /// hierarchical kmeans is enabled only if hierarchical_k > 1 and k > 256.
+    /// Default is 16. A larger fan-out makes a shallower tree with fewer
+    /// sub-tree boundaries, which improves the clustering a little at a higher
+    /// training cost; a smaller one is faster but loses recall.
+    /// Hierarchical k-means is enabled only if hierarchical_k > 1 and k > 256.
     pub hierarchical_k: usize,
+
+    /// Number of global Lloyd iterations run over the whole training sample after
+    /// the hierarchical tree is built, with every centroid competing for every
+    /// vector. The tree fits each centroid only against its own sub-tree's
+    /// vectors, so this pass repairs the boundaries between sub-trees. Each
+    /// iteration costs about as much as assigning the training sample to the
+    /// centroids once. Off by default (`0`); two iterations typically recover
+    /// most of the gap to flat k-means in WCSS and recall. Non-hierarchical
+    /// training already iterates globally and ignores it.
+    pub refine_iters: u32,
+
+    /// Seed for centroid initialization. `None` draws a seed from the OS, so two
+    /// trainings of the same data may pick different initial centroids.
+    pub seed: Option<u64>,
+
+    /// Optional sync callback for iteration progress: (current_iteration, max_iterations).
+    pub on_progress: Option<Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for KMeansParams {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("KMeansParams")
+            .field("max_iters", &self.max_iters)
+            .field("tolerance", &self.tolerance)
+            .field("redos", &self.redos)
+            .field("init", &self.init)
+            .field("distance_type", &self.distance_type)
+            .field("balance_factor", &self.balance_factor)
+            .field("hierarchical_k", &self.hierarchical_k)
+            .field("refine_iters", &self.refine_iters)
+            .field("seed", &self.seed)
+            .field("on_progress", &self.on_progress.as_ref().map(|_| "..."))
+            .finish()
+    }
 }
 
 impl Default for KMeansParams {
@@ -99,6 +138,9 @@ impl Default for KMeansParams {
             distance_type: DistanceType::L2,
             balance_factor: 0.0,
             hierarchical_k: 16,
+            refine_iters: 0,
+            seed: None,
+            on_progress: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -133,14 +175,48 @@ impl KMeansParams {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set the number of clusters to train in each hierarchical level.
-    ///
-    /// Higher would split the clusters more aggressively, which would be more accurate but slower.
-    /// hierarchical kmeans is enabled only if hierarchical_k > 1 and k > 256.
+    pub fn with_on_progress(mut self, cb: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>) -> Self {
+        self.on_progress = Some(cb);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the number of sub-clusters each node of the hierarchy is split into.
+    /// See [`KMeansParams::hierarchical_k`].
     pub fn with_hierarchical_k(mut self, hierarchical_k: usize) -> Self {
         self.hierarchical_k = hierarchical_k;
         self
     }
+
+    /// Set the number of global refinement iterations run after hierarchical
+    /// training. See [`KMeansParams::refine_iters`].
+    pub fn with_refine_iters(mut self, refine_iters: u32) -> Self {
+        self.refine_iters = refine_iters;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Seed centroid initialization, making training reproducible.
+    pub fn with_seed(mut self, seed: u64) -> Self {
+        self.seed = Some(seed);
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn rng(&self) -> SmallRng {
+        match self.seed {
+            Some(seed) => SmallRng::seed_from_u64(seed),
+            None => SmallRng::from_os_rng(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The same parameters with a seed derived for one sub-problem, so sibling
+    /// sub-trees of a hierarchical training do not share initial centroids.
+    /// Unseeded parameters stay unseeded.
+    fn derive(&self, salt: u64) -> Self {
+        let mut params = self.clone();
+        params.seed = self
+            .seed
+            .map(|seed| seed ^ salt.wrapping_mul(0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15).rotate_left(17));
+        params
+    }
 }
 
 /// Randomly initialize kmeans centroids.
@@ -169,26 +245,21 @@ fn kmeans_random_init<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
     }
 }
 
-/// Split one big cluster into two smaller clusters. After split, each
-/// cluster has approximately half of the vectors.
-fn split_clusters<T: Float + MulAssign>(
-    n: usize,
-    cnts: &mut [usize],
-    centroids: &mut [T],
-    dim: usize,
-) {
+/// Give every empty cluster half of the currently largest cluster. After the
+/// split each of the two has approximately half of the vectors.
+///
+/// Draining the largest cluster first keeps the result independent of a random
+/// draw, so seeded trainings stay reproducible.
+fn split_clusters<T: Float + MulAssign>(cnts: &mut [usize], centroids: &mut [T], dim: usize) {
     let eps = T::from(1.0 / 1024.0).unwrap();
-    let mut rng = SmallRng::from_os_rng();
     for i in 0..cnts.len() {
         if cnts[i] == 0 {
-            let mut j = 0;
-            loop {
-                let p = (cnts[j] as f32 - 1.0) / (n - cnts.len()) as f32;
-                if rng.random::<f32>() < p {
-                    break;
-                }
-                j += 1;
-                j %= cnts.len();
+            let Some(j) = (0..cnts.len()).max_by_key(|&j| cnts[j]) else {
+                break;
+            };
+            if cnts[j] < 2 {
+                // Nothing left to split.
+                break;
             }
 
             cnts[i] = cnts[j] / 2;
@@ -236,6 +307,29 @@ fn compute_balance_loss(cluster_sizes: &[usize], n: usize, balance_factor: f32)
     balance_factor * (size_loss - n.pow(2) as f32 / cluster_sizes.len() as f32)
 }
 
+/// Dot clustering constrains nonzero centroids to the unit sphere. A zero
+/// cluster sum has no preferred direction, so leave it zero instead of creating
+/// NaNs. Normalize after splitting as well, since perturbation changes the norm.
+fn normalize_centroids<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    centroids: &PrimitiveArray<T>,
+    dimension: usize,
+) -> ArrayRef
+where
+    T::Native: Normalizable,
+{
+    Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<T>::from_iter_values(
+        centroids.values().chunks(dimension).flat_map(|centroid| {
+            let is_zero = centroid.iter().all(Zero::is_zero);
+            let (normalized, _) = normalize(centroid);
+            normalized.zip(centroid).map(
+                move |(value, &original)| {
+                    if is_zero { original } else { value }
+                },
+            )
+        }),
+    ))
+}
+
 pub trait KMeansAlgo<T: Num> {
     /// Recompute the membership of each vector.
     ///
@@ -302,6 +396,112 @@ pub trait KMeansAlgo<T: Num> {
     ) -> KMeans;
 }
 
+/// Reads a `T::Native` slice as `f16` when — and only when — that is what it is.
+///
+/// The default body answers `None`, so every element type opts out until it
+/// says otherwise, and [`Float16Type`] is the one that overrides it with the
+/// identity. That keeps "is this f16?" a compile-time property of `T` for the
+/// dot-distance kernel below, rather than a `DataType` comparison paired with a
+/// transmute whose correctness the compiler cannot check.
+pub(crate) trait MaybeF16: ArrowNumericType {
+    fn as_f16_slice(_values: &[Self::Native]) -> Option<&[f16]> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+impl MaybeF16 for Float16Type {
+    fn as_f16_slice(values: &[f16]) -> Option<&[f16]> {
+        Some(values)
+    }
+}
+impl MaybeF16 for Float32Type {}
+impl MaybeF16 for Float64Type {}
+
+/// Per-thread score-buffer budget for [`dot_membership_amx_f16`], in f32
+/// values: 256 KB, sized to stay within a typical private L2 alongside the
+/// vectors and packed centroids a block streams past.
+const AMX_DOT_SCRATCH_F32: usize = 64 * 1024;
+
+/// Assigns each row of `data` (row-major `[_, dimension]`) to its nearest
+/// centroid under dot distance using the AMX-FP16 GEMM, scoring 32 vectors
+/// against every centroid per tile pass instead of one vector at a time.
+///
+/// `None` — the kernel is unavailable on this build or host, or the shape does
+/// not suit it — means the caller must run its own per-vector path. The output
+/// is otherwise identical in content and order to that path: `(centroid,
+/// distance)` per row, `None` for a row whose distances are all NaN.
+///
+/// Answers only "can this shape run here": the `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX` kill switch
+/// is checked by the caller, so the accelerated path stays directly testable
+/// while production traffic honours an operator who turned it off.
+fn dot_membership_amx_f16(
+    centroids: &[f16],
+    data: &[f16],
+    dimension: usize,
+    balance_factor: f32,
+    cluster_sizes: Option<&[usize]>,
+) -> Option<Vec<Option<(u32, f32)>>> {
+    let k = centroids.len() / dimension;
+    // Under one full 32-wide k-pass the GEMM degenerates to the kernel's scalar
+    // cleanup, and under one full 32-centroid block most of its work would be
+    // the zero padding. Neither is worth leaving the per-vector path for.
+    if dimension < 32 || k < 32 {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let packed = PackedCentroidsF16::new(centroids, k, dimension)?;
+    let n_padded = packed.num_centroids_padded();
+    // Rows per block: as many as the scratch budget buys, rounded down to the
+    // kernel's 32-row granularity, and capped so a large input still splits
+    // into enough blocks to spread across threads. Very large `k` blows the
+    // budget on a single row, hence the lower clamp back to one tile pass.
+    let block_rows = ((AMX_DOT_SCRATCH_F32 / n_padded) & !31).clamp(32, 512);
+    // Precomputed once, not per row. The bias depends only on the centroid, so
+    // rebuilding it inside the loop would repeat `k` multiplications for every
+    // one of the `n` vectors -- `n * k` of them across the call, against `k` here.
+    let biases: Option<Vec<f32>> = cluster_sizes.map(|sizes| {
+        sizes
+            .iter()
+            .map(|size| balance_factor * *size as f32)
+            .collect()
+    });
+    let biases = || biases.as_deref().map(|b| b.iter().copied());
+
+    Some(
+        data.par_chunks(block_rows * dimension)
+            .map_init(
+                || vec![0f32; block_rows * n_padded],
+                |scores, block| {
+                    let rows = block.len() / dimension;
+                    let tiled = rows - rows % 32;
+                    let mut assignments = Vec::with_capacity(rows);
+
+                    packed.score(block, tiled, dimension, scores, n_padded);
+                    for row in 0..tiled {
+                        // Only the first `k` columns. The rest score the zero
+                        // centroids padding `n` up to the kernel's block size,
+                        // at distance exactly 1.0 — which beats every real
+                        // centroid whose dot product happens to be negative.
+                        let dots = &scores[row * n_padded..row * n_padded + k];
+                        assignments.push(argmin_value_float_with_bias(
+                            dots.iter().map(|dot| 1.0 - dot),
+                            biases(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    // Rows past the last whole tile pass keep the per-vector path.
+                    for vector in block[tiled * dimension..].chunks(dimension) {
+                        assignments.push(argmin_value_float_with_bias(
+                            dot_distance_batch(vector, centroids, dimension),
+                            biases(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    assignments
+                },
+            )
+            .flatten_iter()
+            .collect(),
+    )
+}
+
 pub struct KMeansAlgoFloat<T: ArrowNumericType>
 where
     T::Native: Float + Num,
@@ -309,7 +509,7 @@ where
     phantom_data: std::marker::PhantomData<T>,
 }
 
-impl<T: ArrowNumericType> KMeansAlgo<T::Native> for KMeansAlgoFloat<T>
+impl<T: ArrowNumericType + MaybeF16> KMeansAlgo<T::Native> for KMeansAlgoFloat<T>
 where
     T::Native: Float + Dot + L2 + MulAssign + DivAssign + AddAssign + FromPrimitive + Sync,
     PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
@@ -346,16 +546,34 @@ where
                         )
                     })
                     .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-                DistanceType::Dot => data
-                    .par_chunks(dimension)
-                    .map(|vec| {
-                        argmin_value_float_with_bias(
-                            dot_distance_batch(vec, centroids, dimension),
-                            cluster_sizes
-                                .map(|size| size.iter().map(|size| balance_factor * *size as f32)),
+                DistanceType::Dot => T::as_f16_slice(centroids)
+                    .zip(T::as_f16_slice(data))
+                    // The kill switch is enforced here rather than inside the
+                    // kernel wrapper: this is the one place production work is
+                    // routed onto the GEMM, and `prefers_flat_amx_assignment`
+                    // reads the same flag, so the two stay in lockstep.
+                    .filter(|_| amx_fp16_available())
+                    .and_then(|(centroids, data)| {
+                        dot_membership_amx_f16(
+                            centroids,
+                            data,
+                            dimension,
+                            balance_factor,
+                            cluster_sizes,
                         )
                     })
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                        data.par_chunks(dimension)
+                            .map(|vec| {
+                                argmin_value_float_with_bias(
+                                    dot_distance_batch(vec, centroids, dimension),
+                                    cluster_sizes.map(|size| {
+                                        size.iter().map(|size| balance_factor * *size as f32)
+                                    }),
+                                )
+                            })
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    }),
                 _ => {
                     panic!(
                         "KMeans::find_partitions: {} is not supported",
@@ -420,29 +638,33 @@ where
         let empty_clusters = cluster_sizes.iter().filter(|&cnt| *cnt == 0).count();
         if empty_clusters as f32 / k as f32 > 0.1 {
             if data.len() / dimension < k * 256 {
-                warn!("KMeans: more than 10% of clusters are empty: {} of {}.\nHelp: this could mean your dataset \
+                warn!(
+                    "KMeans: more than 10% of clusters are empty: {} of {}.\nHelp: this could mean your dataset \
                 is too small to have a meaningful index ({} < {}) or has many duplicate vectors.",
-                empty_clusters, k, data.len() / dimension, k * 256);
+                    empty_clusters,
+                    k,
+                    data.len() / dimension,
+                    k * 256
+                );
             } else {
-                warn!("KMeans: more than 10% of clusters are empty: {} of {}.\nHelp: this could mean your dataset \
+                warn!(
+                    "KMeans: more than 10% of clusters are empty: {} of {}.\nHelp: this could mean your dataset \
                 has many duplicate vectors.",
-                empty_clusters, k);
+                    empty_clusters, k
+                );
             }
         }
 
-        split_clusters(
-            data.len() / dimension,
-            cluster_sizes,
-            &mut centroids,
-            dimension,
-        );
+        split_clusters(cluster_sizes, &mut centroids, dimension);
 
-        KMeans {
+        let mut model = KMeans {
             centroids: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(centroids)),
             dimension,
             distance_type,
             loss,
-        }
+        };
+        model.normalize_dot_centroids();
+        model
     }
 }
 
@@ -532,6 +754,78 @@ impl KMeansAlgo<u8> for KModeAlgo {
     }
 }
 
+/// Cluster id assignment for each vector in a batch.
+pub type KMeansMembership = Vec<Option<u32>>;
+
+/// Distance from each vector to its assigned centroid.
+pub type KMeansDistances = Vec<Option<f32>>;
+
+/// Maximum assignment distance per centroid.
+pub type KMeansClusterRadii = Vec<f32>;
+
+/// Sum of assignment distances per centroid.
+pub type KMeansClusterLosses = Vec<f64>;
+
+/// Batch assignment results with per-centroid radii and losses.
+pub type KMeansMembershipAndLoss = (KMeansMembership, KMeansClusterRadii, KMeansClusterLosses);
+
+/// Batch assignment results with per-vector distances.
+pub type KMeansMembershipAndDistances = (KMeansMembership, KMeansDistances);
+
+/// Rows gathered per centroid to train one node of the hierarchy; the same
+/// prefix `train_kmeans` keeps for itself.
+const TRAINING_ROWS_PER_CENTROID: usize = 512;
+/// Bytes of vectors gathered at a time when assigning a node's rows to its
+/// sub-clusters. One such chunk is held per worker thread, so this is sized in
+/// bytes rather than rows: a row-count budget would hold a multiple of it on
+/// high-dimensional data.
+const MEMBERSHIP_CHUNK_BYTES: usize = 4 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// One leaf of the proportional hierarchy: a centroid and the training vectors
+/// it was fitted on.
+struct Leaf<N> {
+    centroid: Vec<N>,
+    indices: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+/// Apportion `quota` centroids over sub-clusters of the given sizes so that each
+/// sub-cluster's share follows its share of the vectors (largest-remainder
+/// rounding). A sub-cluster never gets more centroids than it has vectors, and
+/// one whose share rounds to zero gets none.
+fn allocate_quotas(sizes: &[usize], quota: usize) -> Vec<usize> {
+    let total: usize = sizes.iter().sum();
+    debug_assert!(
+        total > 0,
+        "cannot apportion centroids over empty sub-clusters"
+    );
+    let mut quotas: Vec<usize> = sizes
+        .iter()
+        .map(|&size| (quota * size / total).min(size))
+        .collect();
+    let mut remaining = quota.saturating_sub(quotas.iter().sum::<usize>());
+    let mut order: Vec<usize> = (0..sizes.len()).collect();
+    order.sort_by_key(|&i| (Reverse(quota * sizes[i] % total), Reverse(sizes[i])));
+    // Hand out the remainder by fractional share, going around again while some
+    // sub-cluster still has room for another centroid.
+    while remaining > 0 {
+        let mut handed = 0;
+        for &i in &order {
+            if remaining == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
+            if quotas[i] < sizes[i] {
+                quotas[i] += 1;
+                remaining -= 1;
+                handed += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        if handed == 0 {
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+    quotas
+}
+
 /// KMeans implementation for Apache Arrow Arrays.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct KMeans {
@@ -551,6 +845,24 @@ pub struct KMeans {
 }
 
 impl KMeans {
+    fn normalize_dot_centroids(&mut self) {
+        if self.distance_type != DistanceType::Dot {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.centroids = match self.centroids.data_type() {
+            DataType::Float16 => {
+                normalize_centroids(self.centroids.as_primitive::<Float16Type>(), self.dimension)
+            }
+            DataType::Float32 => {
+                normalize_centroids(self.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(), self.dimension)
+            }
+            DataType::Float64 => {
+                normalize_centroids(self.centroids.as_primitive::<Float64Type>(), self.dimension)
+            }
+            _ => self.centroids.clone(),
+        };
+    }
+
     fn empty(dimension: usize, distance_type: DistanceType) -> Self {
         Self {
             centroids: arrow_array::array::new_empty_array(&DataType::Float32),
@@ -607,6 +919,116 @@ impl KMeans {
         Self::new_with_params(data, k, &params)
     }
 
+    /// Assign a batch of vectors to these centroids and return membership, radius, and loss.
+    pub fn compute_membership_and_loss(
+        &self,
+        data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    ) -> arrow::error::Result<KMeansMembershipAndLoss> {
+        let (membership, distances) = self.compute_membership_and_distances(data)?;
+        let k = self.centroids.len() / self.dimension;
+        let mut cluster_radius: Vec<f32> = vec![0.0_f32; k];
+        let mut losses = vec![0.0; k];
+        for (cluster_id, dist) in membership.iter().zip(distances.iter()) {
+            if let (Some(cluster_id), Some(dist)) = (cluster_id, dist) {
+                let cluster_id = *cluster_id as usize;
+                cluster_radius[cluster_id] = cluster_radius[cluster_id].max(*dist);
+                losses[cluster_id] += *dist as f64;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok((membership, cluster_radius, losses))
+    }
+
+    /// Assign a batch of vectors to these centroids and return per-vector distances.
+    pub fn compute_membership_and_distances(
+        &self,
+        data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    ) -> arrow::error::Result<KMeansMembershipAndDistances> {
+        if data.value_length() as usize != self.dimension {
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "KMeans: data dimension {} does not match centroid dimension {}",
+                data.value_length(),
+                self.dimension
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let index = SimpleIndex::may_train_index(
+            self.centroids.clone(),
+            self.dimension,
+            self.distance_type,
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| ArrowError::ExternalError(Box::new(e)))?;
+        match (
+            data.value_type(),
+            self.centroids.data_type(),
+            self.distance_type,
+        ) {
+            (DataType::Float16, DataType::Float16, _) => {
+                let data_values = data.values().as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values();
+                let centroids = self.centroids.as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values();
+                Ok(KMeansAlgoFloat::<Float16Type>::compute_membership_and_dist(
+                    centroids,
+                    data_values,
+                    self.dimension,
+                    self.distance_type,
+                    0.0,
+                    None,
+                    index.as_ref(),
+                ))
+            }
+            (DataType::Float32, DataType::Float32, _) => {
+                let data_values = data.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+                let centroids = self.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+                Ok(KMeansAlgoFloat::<Float32Type>::compute_membership_and_dist(
+                    centroids,
+                    data_values,
+                    self.dimension,
+                    self.distance_type,
+                    0.0,
+                    None,
+                    index.as_ref(),
+                ))
+            }
+            (DataType::Float64, DataType::Float64, _) => {
+                let data_values = data.values().as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values();
+                let centroids = self.centroids.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values();
+                Ok(KMeansAlgoFloat::<Float64Type>::compute_membership_and_dist(
+                    centroids,
+                    data_values,
+                    self.dimension,
+                    self.distance_type,
+                    0.0,
+                    None,
+                    index.as_ref(),
+                ))
+            }
+            (DataType::UInt8, DataType::UInt8, DistanceType::Hamming) => {
+                let data_values = data.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+                let centroids = self.centroids.as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
+                Ok(KModeAlgo::compute_membership_and_dist(
+                    centroids,
+                    data_values,
+                    self.dimension,
+                    self.distance_type,
+                    0.0,
+                    None,
+                    index.as_ref(),
+                ))
+            }
+            _ => Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "KMeans: can not compute membership for data type {} with centroid type {} and distance type {}",
+                data.value_type(),
+                self.centroids.data_type(),
+                self.distance_type
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Compute the kmeans loss for a batch of vectors against these centroids.
+    pub fn compute_loss(&self, data: &FixedSizeListArray) -> arrow::error::Result<f64> {
+        let (_, _, losses) = self.compute_membership_and_loss(data)?;
+        Ok(losses.iter().sum())
+    }
+
     fn train_kmeans<T: ArrowNumericType, Algo: KMeansAlgo<T::Native>>(
         data: &FixedSizeListArray,
         k: usize,
@@ -642,15 +1064,14 @@ impl KMeans {
         let mut cluster_sizes = vec![0; k];
         let mut adjusted_balance_factor = f32::MAX;
 
-        // TODO: use seed for Rng.
-        let rng = SmallRng::from_os_rng();
+        let mut rng = params.rng();
         for redo in 1..=params.redos {
             let mut kmeans: Self = match &params.init {
                 KMeanInit::Random => Self::init_random::<T>(
                     data.values(),
                     dimension,
                     k,
-                    rng.clone(),
+                    &mut rng,
                     params.distance_type,
                 ),
                 KMeanInit::Incremental(centroids) => Self::with_centroids(
@@ -661,8 +1082,14 @@ impl KMeans {
                 ),
             };
 
+            // Random samples and caller-provided training seeds may have
+            // different norms; constrain them before the first assignment.
+            kmeans.normalize_dot_centroids();
             let mut loss = f64::MAX;
             for i in 1..=params.max_iters {
+                if let Some(cb) = &params.on_progress {
+                    cb(i, params.max_iters);
+                }
                 if i % 10 == 0 {
                     info!(
                         "KMeans training: iteration {} / {}, redo={}",
@@ -704,7 +1131,12 @@ impl KMeans {
                 if (loss - last_loss).abs() < params.tolerance * last_loss {
                     info!(
                         "KMeans training: converged at iteration {} / {}, redo={}, loss={}, last_loss={}, loss_diff={}",
-                        i, params.max_iters, redo, loss, last_loss, (loss - last_loss).abs() / last_loss
+                        i,
+                        params.max_iters,
+                        redo,
+                        loss,
+                        last_loss,
+                        (loss - last_loss).abs() / last_loss
                     );
                     break;
                 }
@@ -719,6 +1151,40 @@ impl KMeans {
     }
 
     /// Helper function to create a FixedSizeListArray from indices
+    /// Nearest centroid of every row in `indices`, computed over gathered chunks
+    /// so that no copy of the whole node is ever held.
+    fn membership_of_rows<T: ArrowNumericType, Algo: KMeansAlgo<T::Native>>(
+        centroids: &[T::Native],
+        data_values: &[T::Native],
+        dimension: usize,
+        indices: &[usize],
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> Vec<Option<u32>>
+    where
+        T::Native: Num,
+    {
+        let chunk_rows = (MEMBERSHIP_CHUNK_BYTES / (dimension * size_of::<T::Native>())).max(1);
+        indices
+            .par_chunks(chunk_rows)
+            .flat_map_iter(|chunk| {
+                let mut rows = Vec::with_capacity(chunk.len() * dimension);
+                for &idx in chunk {
+                    rows.extend_from_slice(&data_values[idx * dimension..(idx + 1) * dimension]);
+                }
+                let (membership, _) = Algo::compute_membership_and_dist(
+                    centroids,
+                    &rows,
+                    dimension,
+                    distance_type,
+                    0.0,
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                );
+                membership
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
     fn create_array_from_indices<T: ArrowNumericType>(
         indices: &[usize],
         data_values: &[T::Native],
@@ -738,11 +1204,11 @@ impl KMeans {
         FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(array, dimension as i32)
     }
 
-    /// Train a hierarchical KMeans model when k > 256
+    /// Train a hierarchical KMeans model when k > 256.
     ///
-    /// This function implements a hierarchical clustering approach:
-    /// 1. Start with k'=256 initial clusters
-    /// 2. Iteratively split the largest cluster until we have k clusters
+    /// Grows the centroid tree with size-proportional quotas
+    /// ([`Self::train_hierarchical_proportional`]), then optionally refines every
+    /// centroid against the whole sample ([`KMeansParams::refine_iters`]).
     fn train_hierarchical_kmeans<T: ArrowNumericType, Algo: KMeansAlgo<T::Native>>(
         data: &FixedSizeListArray,
         target_k: usize,
@@ -752,46 +1218,46 @@ impl KMeans {
         T::Native: Num,
         PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
     {
-        // Cluster structure for the heap
-        #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-        struct Cluster<N> {
-            id: usize,
-            indices: Vec<usize>,
-            centroid: Vec<N>,
-            finalized: bool,
-        }
-
-        impl<N> Eq for Cluster<N> {}
-
-        impl<N> PartialEq for Cluster<N> {
-            fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-                self.indices.len() == other.indices.len()
-            }
-        }
-
-        impl<N> Ord for Cluster<N> {
-            fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering {
-                // Non-finalized clusters should always have higher priority than finalized ones
-                match (self.finalized, other.finalized) {
-                    (false, true) => Ordering::Greater,
-                    (true, false) => Ordering::Less,
-                    _ => {
-                        // Max heap: larger clusters first
-                        self.indices.len().cmp(&other.indices.len())
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        impl<N> PartialOrd for Cluster<N> {
-            fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<Ordering> {
-                Some(self.cmp(other))
-            }
+        let tree = Self::train_hierarchical_proportional::<T, Algo>(data, target_k, params)?;
+        if params.refine_iters == 0 {
+            return Ok(tree);
         }
+        info!(
+            "Hierarchical clustering: refining {} centroids for {} iterations",
+            target_k, params.refine_iters
+        );
+        let centroids =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(tree.centroids.clone(), tree.dimension as i32)?;
+        let refine_params = KMeansParams {
+            init: KMeanInit::Incremental(Arc::new(centroids)),
+            max_iters: params.refine_iters,
+            redos: 1,
+            ..params.clone()
+        };
+        Self::train_kmeans::<T, Algo>(data, target_k, &refine_params)
+    }
 
+    /// Hierarchical training that gives every sub-cluster a centroid quota
+    /// proportional to its share of the vectors and grows the sub-trees in
+    /// parallel.
+    ///
+    /// Every node holds `n` vectors and owes `quota` centroids. It runs one small
+    /// k-means with `min(hierarchical_k, quota)` centroids over its vectors and
+    /// hands each sub-cluster `quota * n_i / n` of the quota, so a leaf ends up
+    /// with roughly `n / k` training vectors however skewed the data is. The
+    /// recursion bottoms out where a node's quota fits one k-means run; there the
+    /// sub-clusters become the leaves, each centroid the mean of its vectors.
+    fn train_hierarchical_proportional<T: ArrowNumericType, Algo: KMeansAlgo<T::Native>>(
+        data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+        target_k: usize,
+        params: &KMeansParams,
+    ) -> arrow::error::Result<Self>
+    where
+        T::Native: Num,
+        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
+    {
         let n = data.len();
         let dimension = data.value_length() as usize;
-
         let data_values = data
             .values()
             .as_primitive_opt::<T>()
@@ -801,210 +1267,311 @@ impl KMeans {
                 data.value_type()
             )))?
             .values();
-
-        // Initial clustering with k'=16
-        let initial_k = params.hierarchical_k.min(target_k).min(n);
         info!(
-            "Hierarchical clustering: initial k={}, target k={}",
-            initial_k, target_k
+            "Hierarchical clustering (proportional): branching {}, target k={}",
+            params.hierarchical_k.max(2),
+            target_k
         );
 
-        let initial_kmeans = Self::train_kmeans::<T, Algo>(data, initial_k, params)?;
-
-        // Get membership for all data points
-        let (membership, _, _) = Algo::compute_membership_and_loss(
-            initial_kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<T>().values(),
+        let indices: Vec<usize> = (0..n).collect();
+        let mut leaves = Self::grow_proportional_subtree::<T, Algo>(
             data_values,
             dimension,
-            params.distance_type,
-            0.0, // No balance factor for membership computation
-            None,
-            None,
-        );
+            indices,
+            target_k,
+            params,
+            1,
+        )?;
+        Self::fill_missing_leaves::<T, Algo>(
+            data_values,
+            dimension,
+            &mut leaves,
+            target_k,
+            params,
+        )?;
 
-        // Build initial clusters and add to heap
-        let mut heap: BinaryHeap<Cluster<T::Native>> = BinaryHeap::new();
-        let mut next_cluster_id = 0;
-        let initial_centroids = initial_kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<T>().values();
-
-        for i in 0..initial_k {
-            let mut cluster_indices = Vec::new();
-            for (idx, &cluster_id) in membership.iter().enumerate() {
-                if let Some(cid) = cluster_id {
-                    if cid as usize == i {
-                        cluster_indices.push(idx);
-                    }
-                }
-            }
+        let centroids: Vec<T::Native> = leaves.into_iter().flat_map(|leaf| leaf.centroid).collect();
+        Ok(Self {
+            centroids: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(centroids)),
+            dimension,
+            distance_type: params.distance_type,
+            loss: 0.0, // Loss is not meaningful for hierarchical clustering
+        })
+    }
 
-            if !cluster_indices.is_empty() {
-                let centroid_start = i * dimension;
-                let centroid_end = centroid_start + dimension;
-                let centroid = initial_centroids[centroid_start..centroid_end].to_vec();
-
-                heap.push(Cluster {
-                    id: next_cluster_id,
-                    indices: cluster_indices,
-                    centroid,
-                    finalized: false,
-                });
-                next_cluster_id += 1;
-            }
+    /// Grow the sub-tree under one node of the proportional hierarchy.
+    ///
+    /// `indices` are the node's training vectors and `quota` the number of leaf
+    /// centroids it owes. `salt` derives per-node seeds from a seeded training,
+    /// so sibling sub-trees do not repeat each other's initialization.
+    fn grow_proportional_subtree<T: ArrowNumericType, Algo: KMeansAlgo<T::Native>>(
+        data_values: &[T::Native],
+        dimension: usize,
+        indices: Vec<usize>,
+        quota: usize,
+        params: &KMeansParams,
+        salt: u64,
+    ) -> arrow::error::Result<Vec<Leaf<T::Native>>>
+    where
+        T::Native: Num,
+        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
+    {
+        let n = indices.len();
+        if quota <= 1 || n <= 1 {
+            return Ok(vec![Self::leaf_from_indices::<T, Algo>(
+                data_values,
+                dimension,
+                indices,
+                params.distance_type,
+            )?]);
         }
 
-        // Iteratively split largest clusters until we have target_k clusters
-        while heap.len() < target_k {
-            // Get the largest cluster
-            let mut largest_cluster = heap.pop().ok_or(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
-                "No cluster can be further split".to_string(),
-            ))?;
-
-            // If this cluster is already finalized, no further split is possible; stop splitting
-            if largest_cluster.finalized {
-                log::warn!("Cluster {} is already finalized, no further split is possible, finish with {} clusters", largest_cluster.id, heap.len()+ 1);
-                heap.push(largest_cluster);
-                break;
-            }
-
-            // Because the clusters are sorted by size, if the cluster has only 1 point, no further split is possible; stop splitting
-            if largest_cluster.indices.len() <= 1 {
-                log::warn!("Cluster {} has only 1 point, no further split is possible, finish with {} clusters", largest_cluster.id, heap.len()+ 1);
-                heap.push(largest_cluster);
-                break;
+        let branching = params.hierarchical_k.max(2);
+        let k = branching.min(quota).min(n);
+        // Train on a prefix of the node's rows, which is a uniform subsample
+        // because the sample is in random order (`train_kmeans` would take the
+        // same prefix itself). Gathering only the prefix, and assigning the rest
+        // in chunks, keeps memory at the sample plus one chunk instead of a copy
+        // of every level of the tree.
+        let training_rows = indices.len().min(k * TRAINING_ROWS_PER_CENTROID);
+        let training = Self::create_array_from_indices::<T>(
+            &indices[..training_rows],
+            data_values,
+            dimension,
+        )?;
+        let kmeans = Self::train_kmeans::<T, Algo>(&training, k, &params.derive(salt))?;
+        drop(training);
+        let membership = Self::membership_of_rows::<T, Algo>(
+            kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<T>().values(),
+            data_values,
+            dimension,
+            &indices,
+            params.distance_type,
+        );
+        let mut children: Vec<(usize, Vec<usize>)> =
+            (0..k).map(|centroid| (centroid, Vec::new())).collect();
+        for (local, cluster) in membership.iter().enumerate() {
+            if let Some(cluster) = cluster {
+                children[*cluster as usize].1.push(indices[local]);
             }
+        }
+        children.retain(|(_, child)| !child.is_empty());
 
-            let cluster_size = largest_cluster.indices.len();
-            log::debug!(
-                "Splitting cluster {} with {} points (current total clusters: {})",
-                largest_cluster.id,
-                cluster_size,
-                heap.len() + 1 // +1 for the cluster we just popped
-            );
+        if children.len() <= 1 {
+            // Every vector landed in the same sub-cluster (duplicates): the node
+            // cannot be split. It becomes one leaf; the centroids it still owes
+            // are filled from other leaves afterwards.
+            return Ok(vec![Self::leaf_from_indices::<T, Algo>(
+                data_values,
+                dimension,
+                indices,
+                params.distance_type,
+            )?]);
+        }
 
-            // Determine k' for this cluster based on its size
-            let remaining_k = target_k - heap.len(); // Spaces left to fill
-            let cluster_k = if cluster_size <= params.hierarchical_k {
-                2.min(remaining_k).min(cluster_size)
-            } else {
-                // For larger clusters, split more aggressively
-                let suggested_k = cluster_size / params.hierarchical_k;
-                suggested_k
-                    .min(remaining_k)
-                    .min(params.hierarchical_k)
-                    .max(2)
-            };
+        if quota <= k {
+            // Bottom of the tree: the sub-clusters are the leaves.
+            return children
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(_, child)| {
+                    Self::leaf_from_indices::<T, Algo>(
+                        data_values,
+                        dimension,
+                        child,
+                        params.distance_type,
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect();
+        }
 
-            // Create sub-dataset for this cluster using indices
-            let sub_data = Self::create_array_from_indices::<T>(
-                &largest_cluster.indices,
+        let sizes: Vec<usize> = children.iter().map(|(_, child)| child.len()).collect();
+        let quotas = allocate_quotas(&sizes, quota);
+        let (children, quotas) = Self::merge_unfunded_children::<T, Algo>(
+            data_values,
+            dimension,
+            children,
+            quotas,
+            kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<T>().values(),
+            params.distance_type,
+        )?;
+        if children.len() < 2 {
+            // The merge handed every vector to one sub-cluster (say 999 duplicates
+            // and one outlier with a quota of 300), which would be this very node
+            // again: recursing could never make progress. Stop here as a leaf;
+            // `fill_missing_leaves` tries the remaining splits with a bounded
+            // loop and reports the shortfall.
+            let indices = children.into_iter().flatten().collect();
+            return Ok(vec![Self::leaf_from_indices::<T, Algo>(
                 data_values,
                 dimension,
-            )?;
+                indices,
+                params.distance_type,
+            )?]);
+        }
+        debug_assert!(
+            children.iter().all(|child| child.len() < n),
+            "every sub-cluster must be smaller than its parent for the recursion to end"
+        );
 
-            // Run kmeans on this cluster
-            let sub_kmeans = Self::train_kmeans::<T, Algo>(&sub_data, cluster_k, params)?;
+        let leaves = children
+            .into_par_iter()
+            .zip(quotas.into_par_iter())
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(child_id, (child, child_quota))| {
+                Self::grow_proportional_subtree::<T, Algo>(
+                    data_values,
+                    dimension,
+                    child,
+                    child_quota,
+                    params,
+                    salt.wrapping_mul(branching as u64 + 1)
+                        .wrapping_add(child_id as u64 + 1),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<arrow::error::Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        Ok(leaves.into_iter().flatten().collect())
+    }
 
-            // Get membership for points in the sub-cluster
-            let sub_data = sub_data.values().as_primitive::<T>().values();
-            let (sub_membership, _, _) = Algo::compute_membership_and_loss(
-                sub_kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<T>().values(),
-                sub_data,
+    /// Hand the vectors of sub-clusters whose quota rounded to zero to the
+    /// nearest sibling that did earn centroids, and drop those sub-clusters.
+    fn merge_unfunded_children<T: ArrowNumericType, Algo: KMeansAlgo<T::Native>>(
+        data_values: &[T::Native],
+        dimension: usize,
+        children: Vec<(usize, Vec<usize>)>,
+        quotas: Vec<usize>,
+        centroids: &[T::Native],
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> arrow::error::Result<(Vec<Vec<usize>>, Vec<usize>)>
+    where
+        T::Native: Num,
+        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
+    {
+        let (mut funded, unfunded): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = children
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(quotas)
+            .partition(|(_, quota)| *quota > 0);
+        if !unfunded.is_empty() {
+            let funded_centroids: Vec<T::Native> = funded
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|((centroid, _), _)| {
+                    centroids[centroid * dimension..(centroid + 1) * dimension]
+                        .iter()
+                        .copied()
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let orphans: Vec<usize> = unfunded
+                .into_iter()
+                .flat_map(|((_, child), _)| child)
+                .collect();
+            let orphan_data =
+                Self::create_array_from_indices::<T>(&orphans, data_values, dimension)?;
+            let (membership, _) = Algo::compute_membership_and_dist(
+                &funded_centroids,
+                orphan_data.values().as_primitive::<T>().values(),
                 dimension,
-                params.distance_type,
+                distance_type,
                 0.0,
                 None,
                 None,
             );
-
-            // Build per-cluster membership while checking whether the split is effective
-            let approx_cluster_capacity = if cluster_k > 0 {
-                largest_cluster.indices.len().div_ceil(cluster_k)
-            } else {
-                0
-            };
-            let mut cluster_assignments: Vec<Vec<usize>> = (0..cluster_k)
-                .map(|_| Vec::with_capacity(approx_cluster_capacity))
-                .collect();
-
-            let mut first_sid: Option<u32> = None;
-            let mut all_same = true;
-            for (local_idx, &membership) in sub_membership.iter().enumerate() {
-                let Some(sub_cluster_id) = membership else {
-                    continue;
-                };
-
-                if let Some(first) = first_sid {
-                    if sub_cluster_id != first {
-                        all_same = false;
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    first_sid = Some(sub_cluster_id);
+            for (orphan, cluster) in orphans.into_iter().zip(membership) {
+                if let Some(cluster) = cluster {
+                    funded[cluster as usize].0.1.push(orphan);
                 }
-
-                let sub_cluster_id = sub_cluster_id as usize;
-                if let Some(indices) = cluster_assignments.get_mut(sub_cluster_id) {
-                    indices.push(largest_cluster.indices[local_idx]);
-                } else {
-                    // Unexpected assignment outside [0, cluster_k); treat as ineffective split.
-                    all_same = false;
-                }
-            }
-
-            // If all memberships are identical, the split is ineffective; finalize the original cluster
-            if all_same {
-                largest_cluster.finalized = true;
-                heap.push(largest_cluster);
-                continue;
             }
-
-            // Create new sub-clusters and add to heap
-            let sub_centroids = sub_kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<T>().values();
-            for (i, new_cluster_indices) in cluster_assignments.into_iter().enumerate() {
-                if new_cluster_indices.is_empty() {
-                    continue;
-                }
-
-                let centroid_start = i * dimension;
-                let centroid_end = centroid_start + dimension;
-                let centroid = sub_centroids[centroid_start..centroid_end].to_vec();
-
-                heap.push(Cluster {
-                    id: next_cluster_id,
-                    indices: new_cluster_indices,
-                    centroid,
-                    finalized: false,
-                });
-                next_cluster_id += 1;
-            }
-
-            log::debug!(
-                "Split complete: now have {} clusters (target: {})",
-                heap.len(),
-                target_k
-            );
         }
-        debug_assert_eq!(heap.len(), target_k);
-
-        // Construct final KMeans model with all centroids
-        let mut all_clusters: Vec<Cluster<T::Native>> = heap.into_vec();
-        // Sort by ID to ensure consistent ordering
-        all_clusters.sort_by_key(|c| c.id);
-
-        let flat_centroids: Vec<T::Native> =
-            all_clusters.into_iter().flat_map(|c| c.centroid).collect();
-        let centroids_array = PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(flat_centroids);
+        Ok(funded
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|((_, child), quota)| (child, quota))
+            .unzip())
+    }
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            centroids: Arc::new(centroids_array),
+    /// One leaf from the given vectors: its centroid is their mean (or mode).
+    fn leaf_from_indices<T: ArrowNumericType, Algo: KMeansAlgo<T::Native>>(
+        data_values: &[T::Native],
+        dimension: usize,
+        indices: Vec<usize>,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> arrow::error::Result<Leaf<T::Native>>
+    where
+        T::Native: Num,
+        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
+    {
+        let sub_data = Self::create_array_from_indices::<T>(&indices, data_values, dimension)?;
+        let membership = vec![Some(0); indices.len()];
+        let mut sizes = vec![indices.len()];
+        let kmeans = Algo::to_kmeans(
+            sub_data.values().as_primitive::<T>().values(),
             dimension,
-            distance_type: params.distance_type,
-            loss: 0.0, // Loss is not meaningful for hierarchical clustering
+            1,
+            &membership,
+            &mut sizes,
+            distance_type,
+            0.0,
+        );
+        Ok(Leaf {
+            centroid: kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<T>().values().to_vec(),
+            indices,
         })
     }
 
+    /// Split the largest leaves in two until `target_k` leaves exist, for the
+    /// rare tree that came up short because nodes of duplicate vectors could not
+    /// be split.
+    fn fill_missing_leaves<T: ArrowNumericType, Algo: KMeansAlgo<T::Native>>(
+        data_values: &[T::Native],
+        dimension: usize,
+        leaves: &mut Vec<Leaf<T::Native>>,
+        target_k: usize,
+        params: &KMeansParams,
+    ) -> arrow::error::Result<()>
+    where
+        T::Native: Num,
+        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
+    {
+        let n = data_values.len() / dimension;
+        let mut unsplittable = vec![false; leaves.len()];
+        let mut salt = u64::MAX / 2;
+        while leaves.len() < target_k {
+            let largest = (0..leaves.len())
+                .filter(|&i| !unsplittable[i] && leaves[i].indices.len() >= 2)
+                .max_by_key(|&i| leaves[i].indices.len());
+            let Some(largest) = largest else {
+                return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                    "Cannot create {target_k} IVF partitions: k-means could only form {} non-empty \
+                     clusters from {n} training vectors. The dataset is likely too small or has too \
+                     many (near-)duplicate vectors for this many partitions. Reduce num_partitions to \
+                     <= {} or provide more diverse data.",
+                    leaves.len(),
+                    leaves.len()
+                )));
+            };
+            salt += 1;
+            let indices = std::mem::take(&mut leaves[largest].indices);
+            let mut halves = Self::grow_proportional_subtree::<T, Algo>(
+                data_values,
+                dimension,
+                indices.clone(),
+                2,
+                params,
+                salt,
+            )?;
+            if halves.len() < 2 {
+                leaves[largest].indices = indices;
+                unsplittable[largest] = true;
+                continue;
+            }
+            leaves[largest] = halves.pop().unwrap();
+            leaves.push(halves.pop().unwrap());
+            unsplittable.push(false);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// Train a [`KMeans`] model with full parameters.
     ///
-    /// If the DistanceType is `Cosine`, the input vectors will be normalized with each iteration.
+    /// Dot training normalizes centroids, including initialization and
+    /// hierarchical leaves, while preserving the norms of the input vectors.
     pub fn new_with_params(
         data: &FixedSizeListArray,
         k: usize,
@@ -1012,12 +1579,10 @@ impl KMeans {
     ) -> arrow::error::Result<Self> {
         let n = data.len();
         if n < k {
-            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
-                format!(
-                    "KMeans: training does not have sufficient data points: n({}) is smaller than k({})",
-                    n, k
-                )
-            ));
+            return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "KMeans: training does not have sufficient data points: n({}) is smaller than k({})",
+                n, k
+            )));
         }
 
         // use hierarchical clustering if k > 256 and hierarchical_k > 1
@@ -1088,12 +1653,22 @@ pub fn kmeans_find_partitions_arrow_array(
     }
 
     match (centroids.value_type(), query.data_type()) {
-        (DataType::Float16, DataType::Float16) => Ok(kmeans_find_partitions(
-            centroids.values().as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values(),
-            query.as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values(),
-            nprobes,
-            distance_type,
-        )?),
+        (DataType::Float16, DataType::Float16) => {
+            let centroids = centroids.values().as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values();
+            let query = query.as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values();
+            if distance_type == DistanceType::Dot
+                && amx_fp16_available()
+                && let Some(dists) = dot_f16_partitions_amx(centroids, query)
+            {
+                return smallest_nprobes(dists, nprobes);
+            }
+            Ok(kmeans_find_partitions(
+                centroids,
+                query,
+                nprobes,
+                distance_type,
+            )?)
+        }
         (DataType::Float32, DataType::Float32) => Ok(kmeans_find_partitions(
             centroids.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
             query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
@@ -1123,6 +1698,69 @@ pub fn kmeans_find_partitions_arrow_array(
 /// KMeans finds N nearest partitions.
 ///
 /// Parameters:
+/// The `nprobes` smallest distances and the partitions they belong to.
+fn smallest_nprobes(
+    dists: Vec<f32>,
+    nprobes: usize,
+) -> arrow::error::Result<(UInt32Array, Float32Array)> {
+    // TODO: use heap to just keep nprobes smallest values.
+    let dists_arr = Float32Array::from(dists);
+    let indices = sort_to_indices(&dists_arr, None, Some(nprobes))?;
+    let dists = arrow::compute::take(&dists_arr, &indices, None)?
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        .clone();
+    Ok((indices, dists))
+}
+
+/// `Dot` distances from `query` to every centroid, through the AMX-FP16 kernel,
+/// or `None` when this build/CPU/shape cannot use it.
+///
+/// Partition selection is one query against every centroid, so on paper it needs
+/// well under 1% of this machine's arithmetic. It measured at 33% of a saturated
+/// IVF_HNSW_SQ query because `dot_f16_avx512` carries no vector instruction at
+/// all under GCC 13.4 -- disassembly shows 30 `vcvtsh2ss` / 15 `vmulss` /
+/// 14 `vaddss` and zero `zmm` operands, since GCC has no packed `_Float16` ->
+/// `float` widening pattern. The scalar loop, not the work, is the cost.
+///
+/// Sixteen centroids at a time rather than the `M x N` GEMM: the GEMM steps its
+/// centroid loop by 32 and would spend 31 of every 32 output columns on padding
+/// for a single query (16 MAC/cycle), while this shape wastes 15 of 16 and
+/// reaches 32 MAC/cycle. Those rates count tile work only; each call also pays
+/// one LDTILECFG plus one TILERELEASE, which at these shapes is the larger term.
+/// Beating either needs several queries scored together, which the per-query
+/// search API does not offer.
+fn dot_f16_partitions_amx(centroids: &[f16], query: &[f16]) -> Option<Vec<f32>> {
+    let dim = query.len();
+    // Below one full 32-wide k-pass the kernel is all scalar cleanup, so a dim
+    // that short would run at a loss. Support, not the `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX` kill
+    // switch: the caller has already decided to use AMX, and this only declines
+    // shapes the kernel cannot pay for.
+    if dim < 32 || !amx_fp16_supported() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    debug_assert_eq!(centroids.len() % dim, 0);
+
+    let mut dists = vec![0f32; centroids.len() / dim];
+    let row = |i: usize| &centroids[i * dim..(i + 1) * dim];
+    for (g, out) in dists.chunks_mut(16).enumerate() {
+        let base = g * 16;
+        // `dot_f16_batch_16` requires 16 slices of the query's length even when
+        // only `len` of them are scored, so the tail repeats a valid row; those
+        // lanes are computed and discarded.
+        let mut group: [&[f16]; 16] = [row(base); 16];
+        for (i, slot) in group.iter_mut().enumerate().take(out.len()) {
+            *slot = row(base + i);
+        }
+        // The kernel returns raw dot products; `Dot` distance is `1 - dot`, the
+        // same convention `dot_distance_batch` applies.
+        let dots = dot_f16_batch_16(query, &group, out.len());
+        for (d, dot) in out.iter_mut().zip(dots.iter()) {
+            *d = 1.0 - *dot;
+        }
+    }
+    Some(dists)
+}
+
 /// - *centroids*: a `k * dimension` floating array.
 /// - *query*: a `dimension` floating array.
 /// - *nprobes*: the number of partitions to find.
@@ -1148,13 +1786,7 @@ pub fn kmeans_find_partitions<T: Float + L2 + Dot>(
         }
     };
 
-    // TODO: use heap to just keep nprobes smallest values.
-    let dists_arr = Float32Array::from(dists);
-    let indices = sort_to_indices(&dists_arr, None, Some(nprobes))?;
-    let dists = arrow::compute::take(&dists_arr, &indices, None)?
-        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-        .clone();
-    Ok((indices, dists))
+    smallest_nprobes(dists, nprobes)
 }
 
 pub fn kmeans_find_partitions_binary(
@@ -1319,12 +1951,9 @@ where
 {
     let num_rows = array.len() / dimension;
     if num_rows < k {
-        return Err(Error::Unprocessable {
-            message: format!(
-                "KMeans cannot train {k} centroids with {num_rows} vectors; choose a smaller K (< {num_rows})"
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::unprocessable(format!(
+            "KMeans cannot train {k} centroids with {num_rows} vectors; choose a smaller K (< {num_rows})"
+        )));
     }
 
     // Only sample sample_rate * num_clusters. See Faiss
@@ -1375,16 +2004,188 @@ pub fn compute_partition<T: Float + L2 + Dot>(
 mod tests {
     use std::iter::repeat_n;
 
-    use arrow_array::types::Float16Type;
     use arrow_array::Float16Array;
+    use arrow_array::types::Float16Type;
     use half::f16;
     use lance_arrow::*;
-    use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+    use lance_testing::datagen::{generate_random_array, generate_random_array_with_seed};
 
     use super::*;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::dot_f16::amx_fp16_supported;
     use lance_linalg::distance::l2;
     use lance_linalg::kernels::argmin;
 
+    /// The AMX partition path must pick the same partitions as the scalar one.
+    /// Exact equality on the distances is not required -- the kernel accumulates
+    /// in a different order -- but the chosen partition ids must match, since a
+    /// different choice silently changes which vectors a query can ever see.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_amx_find_partitions_matches_scalar() {
+        if !amx_fp16_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        // (dim, k): a production shape, one with a partial 16-group tail, and one
+        // whose dimension is not a multiple of the kernel's 32-wide k-pass.
+        for (dim, k) in [(768usize, 10_000usize), (768, 37), (133, 100)] {
+            let mut st = 0x9E37u64;
+            let mut next = || {
+                st = st.wrapping_mul(6364136223846793005).wrapping_add(1);
+                f16::from_f32(((st >> 33) as f32 / (1u64 << 31) as f32) - 0.5)
+            };
+            let centroids: Vec<f16> = (0..k * dim).map(|_| next()).collect();
+            let query: Vec<f16> = (0..dim).map(|_| next()).collect();
+
+            let amx = dot_f16_partitions_amx(&centroids, &query)
+                .expect("the AMX path declined a shape it should accept");
+            let scalar: Vec<f32> = dot_distance_batch(&query[..], &centroids[..], dim).collect();
+            assert_eq!(amx.len(), scalar.len(), "dim={dim} k={k}");
+
+            for nprobes in [1usize, 8, 32] {
+                let (amx_idx, _) = smallest_nprobes(amx.clone(), nprobes).unwrap();
+                let (scalar_idx, _) = smallest_nprobes(scalar.clone(), nprobes).unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    amx_idx.values(),
+                    scalar_idx.values(),
+                    "dim={dim} k={k} nprobes={nprobes} picked different partitions"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_normalizes_initial_centroids_before_assignment() {
+        let data = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![10.0, 0.0, 1.0, 1.0]),
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let params = KMeansParams {
+            init: KMeanInit::Incremental(Arc::new(data.clone())),
+            distance_type: DistanceType::Dot,
+            max_iters: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let model = KMeans::new_with_params(&data, 2, &params).unwrap();
+        let centroids = model.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+        assert_eq!(&centroids[..2], &[1.0, 0.0]);
+        for value in &centroids[2..] {
+            assert!((value - std::f32::consts::FRAC_1_SQRT_2).abs() < 1e-6);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            model.compute_membership_and_loss(&data).unwrap().0,
+            vec![Some(0), Some(1)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case(DataType::Float16, 2e-3, 1.0)]
+    #[case(DataType::Float32, 1e-6, 1.0)]
+    #[case(DataType::Float64, 1e-12, 1.0)]
+    #[case(DataType::Float64, 1e-12, 1e-50)]
+    fn test_dot_normalizes_means_without_normalizing_data(
+        #[case] data_type: DataType,
+        #[case] tolerance: f64,
+        #[case] scale: f64,
+    ) {
+        let values = arrow::compute::cast(
+            &arrow_array::Float64Array::from(vec![6.0 * scale, 0.0, 0.0, 2.0 * scale]),
+            &data_type,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let data = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        let model = KMeans::new_with_params(
+            &data,
+            1,
+            &KMeansParams {
+                distance_type: DistanceType::Dot,
+                max_iters: 1,
+                seed: Some(42),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let centroids = arrow::compute::cast(model.centroids.as_ref(), &DataType::Float64).unwrap();
+        let values = centroids.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values();
+        // Preserve the input norms: normalizing the rows would instead yield
+        // equal centroid coordinates.
+        assert!((values[0] - 3.0 / 10.0f64.sqrt()).abs() < tolerance);
+        assert!((values[1] - 1.0 / 10.0f64.sqrt()).abs() < tolerance);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case(vec![0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0])]
+    #[case(vec![3.0, 4.0, -3.0, -4.0])]
+    fn test_dot_zero_cluster_sum_stays_finite(#[case] values: Vec<f32>) {
+        let data = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), 2).unwrap();
+        let model = KMeans::new_with_params(
+            &data,
+            1,
+            &KMeansParams {
+                distance_type: DistanceType::Dot,
+                max_iters: 2,
+                seed: Some(42),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            model
+                .centroids
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .as_ref(),
+            &[0.0, 0.0]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_normalizes_split_centroids() {
+        let model = KMeansAlgoFloat::<Float32Type>::to_kmeans(
+            &[3.0, 4.0, 3.0, 4.0],
+            2,
+            2,
+            &[Some(0), Some(0)],
+            &mut [2, 0],
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+            0.0,
+        );
+        let centroids = model.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+        for centroid in centroids.as_chunks::<2>().0 {
+            assert!((centroid.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum::<f32>() - 1.0).abs() < 1e-6);
+        }
+        assert_ne!(&centroids[..2], &centroids[2..]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_hierarchical_centroids_are_normalized() {
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(42);
+        let values = (0..512 * 8)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(-3.0f32..3.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let data = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), 8).unwrap();
+        let model = KMeans::new_with_params(
+            &data,
+            257,
+            &KMeansParams {
+                distance_type: DistanceType::Dot,
+                max_iters: 2,
+                seed: Some(42),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(model.centroids.len(), 257 * 8);
+        for centroid in model
+            .centroids
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .as_chunks::<8>()
+            .0
+        {
+            assert!((centroid.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum::<f32>() - 1.0).abs() < 1e-6);
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_train_with_small_dataset() {
         let data = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]);
@@ -1424,6 +2225,21 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(expected, actual);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_random_init_advances_rng() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..64).map(|value| value as f32));
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(42);
+        let first =
+            KMeans::init_random::<Float32Type>(values.values(), 1, 8, &mut rng, DistanceType::L2);
+        let second =
+            KMeans::init_random::<Float32Type>(values.values(), 1, 8, &mut rng, DistanceType::L2);
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            first.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+            second.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_compute_membership_and_loss() {
         const DIM: usize = 256;
@@ -1539,6 +2355,411 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hierarchical_kmeans_too_few_distinct_vectors_errors() {
+        // Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7867
+        //
+        // With a small number of distinct vectors repeated many times (heavy
+        // near-duplication) and dot distance, hierarchical k-means cannot form
+        // `target_k` non-empty clusters no matter how it splits: every split of a
+        // cluster of identical vectors is either ineffective (`all_same`) or
+        // immediately hits the "<= 1 point" floor. This used to trip
+        // `debug_assert_eq!(heap.len(), target_k)` (panic in debug builds) or
+        // silently return a half-empty centroid set (release builds). It should
+        // now return a clear error instead.
+        const DIM: usize = 8;
+        const NUM_DISTINCT: usize = 5;
+        const REPEATS: usize = 200;
+        const TARGET_K: usize = 300; // > 256 to trigger hierarchical clustering
+
+        let base_vectors = generate_random_array(NUM_DISTINCT * DIM);
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(NUM_DISTINCT * REPEATS * DIM);
+        for _ in 0..REPEATS {
+            values.extend_from_slice(base_vectors.values());
+        }
+        let values = Float32Array::from(values);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+
+        let params = KMeansParams {
+            max_iters: 10,
+            hierarchical_k: 16,
+            distance_type: DistanceType::Dot,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let err = KMeans::new_with_params(&fsl, TARGET_K, &params)
+            .expect_err("training should fail rather than panic or silently under-produce");
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("Cannot create") && msg.contains(&TARGET_K.to_string()),
+            "unexpected error message: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+    // AMX-FP16 dot-distance assignment
+    // -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+    /// Relative tolerance between the AMX and per-vector distances. Both
+    /// accumulate f32-widened products and differ only in summation order, so
+    /// this is far looser than what they actually differ by (~1e-4) and far
+    /// tighter than fp16's own representational error.
+    const AMX_REL_TOL: f32 = 5e-3;
+
+    /// A vector this much nearer its best centroid than its runner-up cannot
+    /// change hands on summation order alone. Closer ties are allowed to
+    /// disagree — that is fp16 arithmetic, not a bug.
+    const AMX_TIE_GAP: f32 = 1e-2;
+
+    fn random_f16(count: usize, rng: &mut SmallRng) -> Vec<f16> {
+        (0..count)
+            .map(|_| f16::from_f32(rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0)))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Assert the AMX dot path engages for this input and assigns every vector
+    /// where the per-vector path does.
+    fn assert_dot_paths_agree(
+        centroids: &[f16],
+        data: &[f16],
+        dimension: usize,
+        balance_factor: f32,
+        cluster_sizes: Option<&[usize]>,
+        ctx: &str,
+    ) {
+        let k = centroids.len() / dimension;
+        // The AMX path's own output, not `compute_membership_and_dist`'s: that
+        // entry point falls back to the per-vector path whenever this one
+        // declines, so going through it would silently degrade this into a
+        // scalar-against-scalar comparison on any host or build that lacks the
+        // kernel, and prove nothing about it.
+        let amx = dot_membership_amx_f16(centroids, data, dimension, balance_factor, cluster_sizes)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                panic!("{ctx}: the AMX path declined this shape, so agreeing proves nothing")
+            });
+
+        for (i, vector) in data.chunks(dimension).enumerate() {
+            let row = dot_distance_batch(vector, centroids, dimension).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let want = argmin_value_float_with_bias(
+                row.iter().copied(),
+                cluster_sizes.map(|sizes| sizes.iter().map(|size| balance_factor * *size as f32)),
+            );
+            let got = amx[i];
+            let (Some((want_id, _)), Some((got_id, got_dist))) = (want, got) else {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    want.is_none(),
+                    got.is_none(),
+                    "{ctx}: row {i} is assigned by one path only: {want:?} vs {got:?}"
+                );
+                continue;
+            };
+
+            assert!(
+                (got_id as usize) < k,
+                "{ctx}: row {i} landed on centroid {got_id}, outside the {k} real ones"
+            );
+            // Check the reported distance against the reported centroid's own
+            // rather than against the winner's: on a near-tie the paths may
+            // pick different centroids, and then only this identity has to hold.
+            let want_dist = row[got_id as usize];
+            assert!(
+                (got_dist - want_dist).abs() <= AMX_REL_TOL * want_dist.abs() + 1e-3,
+                "{ctx}: row {i} centroid {got_id} distance {got_dist}, want {want_dist}"
+            );
+
+            let mut biased = row
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(j, dist)| {
+                    dist + cluster_sizes.map_or(0.0, |sizes| balance_factor * sizes[j] as f32)
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            biased.sort_by(f32::total_cmp);
+            if biased[1] - biased[0] > AMX_TIE_GAP {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    got_id, want_id,
+                    "{ctx}: row {i} is not a tie ({} vs {}) but the paths disagree",
+                    biased[0], biased[1]
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The two paths across the shapes that exercise each boundary: `k` on and
+    /// off the kernel's 32-centroid block (so with and without zero padding),
+    /// `dim` with and without the kernel's scalar tail, and row counts on and
+    /// off the 32-row tile pass (so with and without trailing fallback rows).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_amx_matches_per_vector_path() {
+        if !amx_fp16_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0xD07);
+        for k in [32usize, 64, 100] {
+            for dimension in [32usize, 64, 768] {
+                for n in [64usize, 100, 1000] {
+                    let centroids = random_f16(k * dimension, &mut rng);
+                    let data = random_f16(n * dimension, &mut rng);
+                    assert_dot_paths_agree(
+                        &centroids,
+                        &data,
+                        dimension,
+                        0.0,
+                        None,
+                        &format!("k={k} dim={dimension} n={n}"),
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The padding columns must be unreachable by the argmin.
+    ///
+    /// `k` is not a multiple of 32, so the GEMM's `n` block is filled out with
+    /// zero centroids, which score a dot product of 0 — distance exactly 1.0.
+    /// Here every real dot product is negative, so every real distance exceeds
+    /// 1.0 and a reduction over the padded row width would hand *every* vector
+    /// a cluster id past the end of the centroid set.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_amx_padding_columns_never_win() {
+        if !amx_fp16_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        const K: usize = 100;
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        const N: usize = 128;
+
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0xBAD5);
+        let negate = |v: &f16| f16::from_f32(-v.to_f32().abs() - 0.1);
+        let centroids = random_f16(K * DIM, &mut rng)
+            .iter()
+            .map(negate)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let data = random_f16(N * DIM, &mut rng)
+            .iter()
+            .map(|v| f16::from_f32(v.to_f32().abs() + 0.1))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        for vector in data.chunks(DIM) {
+            assert!(
+                dot_distance_batch(vector, &centroids, DIM).all(|dist| dist > 1.0),
+                "premise broken: a real centroid is nearer than the zero padding"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_dot_paths_agree(&centroids, &data, DIM, 0.0, None, "padding");
+    }
+
+    /// The bias path. `argmin_value_float_with_bias` minimizes `distance +
+    /// bias` but reports the unbiased distance, so both halves of that have to
+    /// survive the AMX path; the balance factor is sized to actually move
+    /// assignments, which the test asserts rather than assumes.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_amx_with_balance_bias() {
+        if !amx_fp16_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        const K: usize = 64;
+        const DIM: usize = 128;
+        const N: usize = 256;
+        const BALANCE_FACTOR: f32 = 0.02;
+
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0xB1A5);
+        let centroids = random_f16(K * DIM, &mut rng);
+        let data = random_f16(N * DIM, &mut rng);
+        let cluster_sizes = (0..K).map(|id| id * 4).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        assert_dot_paths_agree(
+            &centroids,
+            &data,
+            DIM,
+            BALANCE_FACTOR,
+            Some(&cluster_sizes),
+            "bias",
+        );
+
+        let assign = |balance_factor, sizes| {
+            KMeansAlgoFloat::<Float16Type>::compute_membership_and_dist(
+                &centroids,
+                &data,
+                DIM,
+                DistanceType::Dot,
+                balance_factor,
+                sizes,
+                None,
+            )
+            .0
+        };
+        assert_ne!(
+            assign(BALANCE_FACTOR, Some(cluster_sizes.as_slice())),
+            assign(0.0, None),
+            "the balance factor is too small to move any assignment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A row of NaNs has no nearest centroid — `distance + bias < min` is false
+    /// for every centroid — and the AMX path has to reach the same `None` as
+    /// the per-vector one instead of defaulting to cluster 0. Covered in both
+    /// the tiled rows and the trailing rows that fall back per vector.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_amx_all_nan_row_is_unassigned() {
+        if !amx_fp16_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        const K: usize = 64;
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        const N: usize = 100; // 3 full tile passes, then 4 fallback rows
+        const NAN_ROWS: [usize; 2] = [7, 98];
+
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0x4A4);
+        let centroids = random_f16(K * DIM, &mut rng);
+        let mut data = random_f16(N * DIM, &mut rng);
+        for row in NAN_ROWS {
+            data[row * DIM..(row + 1) * DIM].fill(f16::NAN);
+        }
+
+        assert_dot_paths_agree(&centroids, &data, DIM, 0.0, None, "nan");
+
+        let (membership, _) = KMeansAlgoFloat::<Float16Type>::compute_membership_and_dist(
+            &centroids,
+            &data,
+            DIM,
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+            0.0,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        for (row, cluster_id) in membership.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                cluster_id.is_none(),
+                NAN_ROWS.contains(&row),
+                "row {row} membership {cluster_id:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Wall-clock throughput of the dot-distance assignment the AMX path above
+    /// accelerates, swept over `(threads, dim, k)`.
+    ///
+    /// The path is picked inside `compute_membership_and_dist` from run-time
+    /// capability and the data's shape, so there is nothing to toggle per
+    /// iteration: run this same binary twice — once as-is for the AMX path, once
+    /// with `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX=1` for the per-vector path — and divide. The
+    /// header line reports which path the process took, so the two outputs
+    /// cannot be confused.
+    ///
+    /// Each point runs for a wall-clock budget rather than a fixed pass count, so
+    /// a 1-thread point and an all-core point take comparable time and every
+    /// point averages over enough work to be stable.
+    ///
+    /// `#[ignore]` -- run:
+    ///   cargo test -p lance-index --release \
+    ///     kmeans_dot_f16_membership_bench -- --ignored --nocapture
+    /// Tune with `BENCH_N`, `BENCH_DIMS` / `BENCH_KS` / `BENCH_THREADS`
+    /// (comma-separated; threads default `<ncpu>,32,1`) and `BENCH_SECONDS` (the
+    /// wall-clock budget each measured point gets).
+    #[test]
+    #[ignore]
+    #[allow(clippy::print_stderr)]
+    fn kmeans_dot_f16_membership_bench() {
+        use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+        let env_usize = |key: &str, default: usize| -> usize {
+            std::env::var(key)
+                .ok()
+                .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+                .unwrap_or(default)
+        };
+        let env_list = |key: &str, default: &[usize]| -> Vec<usize> {
+            std::env::var(key)
+                .ok()
+                .map(|s| s.split(',').filter_map(|t| t.trim().parse().ok()).collect())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| default.to_vec())
+        };
+
+        let n = env_usize("BENCH_N", 65_536);
+        let dims = env_list("BENCH_DIMS", &[128, 768, 1536]);
+        let ks = env_list("BENCH_KS", &[32, 64, 128, 256, 1024, 4096]);
+        let ncpu = std::thread::available_parallelism()
+            .map(|n| n.get())
+            .unwrap_or(8);
+        let thread_counts = env_list("BENCH_THREADS", &[ncpu, 32, 1]);
+        let budget = Duration::from_secs_f64(
+            std::env::var("BENCH_SECONDS")
+                .ok()
+                .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+                .unwrap_or(3.0),
+        );
+
+        eprintln!(
+            "[kmeans_dot_f16_bench] n={n} ncpu={ncpu} budget={:.1}s amx_fp16_available={}",
+            budget.as_secs_f64(),
+            amx_fp16_available(),
+        );
+
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0x9E37);
+        for &dimension in &dims {
+            // Random data *and* random centroids: with degenerate inputs every
+            // vector would reduce to the same centroid and the argmin's branches
+            // and the score buffer's access pattern would both be unrealistic.
+            let data = random_f16(n * dimension, &mut rng);
+            for &k in &ks {
+                if k >= n {
+                    eprintln!(
+                        "[kmeans_dot_f16_bench]   dim={dimension} k={k}: skipped, k must be < n={n}"
+                    );
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let centroids = random_f16(k * dimension, &mut rng);
+                for &nthreads in &thread_counts {
+                    if nthreads == 0 || nthreads > ncpu {
+                        eprintln!(
+                            "[kmeans_dot_f16_bench]   dim={dimension} k={k} threads={nthreads}: skipped, not in 1..={ncpu}"
+                        );
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    // A private pool so the sweep sets the width exactly, without
+                    // reconfiguring (or being limited by) the global one.
+                    let pool = rayon::ThreadPoolBuilder::new()
+                        .num_threads(nthreads)
+                        .build()
+                        .unwrap();
+                    let run_pass = || {
+                        pool.install(|| {
+                            KMeansAlgoFloat::<Float16Type>::compute_membership_and_dist(
+                                &centroids,
+                                &data,
+                                dimension,
+                                DistanceType::Dot,
+                                0.0,
+                                None,
+                                None,
+                            )
+                        })
+                    };
+                    let warm = run_pass(); // page-in and thread spin-up, untimed
+                    std::hint::black_box(&warm);
+                    drop(warm);
+
+                    let t0 = Instant::now();
+                    let mut passes = 0usize;
+                    while t0.elapsed() < budget {
+                        let assigned = run_pass();
+                        std::hint::black_box(&assigned);
+                        passes += 1;
+                    }
+                    let elapsed = t0.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+                    let vectors = passes * n;
+                    let vec_per_s = vectors as f64 / elapsed;
+                    eprintln!(
+                        "[kmeans_dot_f16_bench]   dim={dimension:>5} k={k:>5} threads={nthreads:>4} passes={passes:>6} vec_per_s={vec_per_s:>12.0} us_per_vec={:>9.4} Gpair_per_s={:>8.2}",
+                        1e6 / vec_per_s,
+                        vec_per_s * k as f64 / 1e9,
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_float16_underflow_fix() {
         // This test verifies the fix for float16 division underflow
@@ -1576,4 +2797,163 @@ mod tests {
             assert!(val != f16::ZERO);
         }
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hierarchical_kmeans_one_outlier_among_duplicates_errors() {
+        // 999 identical rows plus one outlier with a quota of 300: the outlier's
+        // sub-cluster earns no centroid and is merged back, which used to hand the
+        // whole node to itself again and recurse until the stack overflowed. It
+        // must end in the bounded "cannot create" error instead.
+        let mut values = vec![1.0_f32; 999];
+        values.push(100.0);
+        let data = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), 1).unwrap();
+        let params = KMeansParams {
+            max_iters: 10,
+            seed: Some(42),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let err = KMeans::new_with_params(&data, 300, &params)
+            .expect_err("duplicates cannot be split into 300 partitions");
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("Cannot create") && msg.contains("300"),
+            "unexpected error message: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_allocate_quotas_follows_sizes() {
+        // Exact shares.
+        assert_eq!(allocate_quotas(&[100, 100, 100, 100], 8), vec![2, 2, 2, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(allocate_quotas(&[700, 200, 100], 10), vec![7, 2, 1]);
+        // Equal fractional parts: the remainder still adds up to the quota.
+        let quotas = allocate_quotas(&[1000, 1000, 1000], 10);
+        assert_eq!(quotas.iter().sum::<usize>(), 10);
+        assert!(quotas.iter().all(|&q| (3..=4).contains(&q)));
+        // Sub-clusters whose share rounds to zero get nothing; the remainder
+        // goes to the largest fractional share.
+        assert_eq!(allocate_quotas(&[1, 1, 1000], 20), vec![0, 0, 20]);
+        assert_eq!(allocate_quotas(&[1, 10_000], 10), vec![0, 10]);
+        // A sub-cluster never gets more centroids than vectors.
+        assert_eq!(allocate_quotas(&[2, 2], 10), vec![2, 2]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_split_clusters_takes_half_of_the_largest() {
+        let mut cnts = vec![0, 10, 4];
+        let mut centroids = vec![0.0f32, 0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0];
+        split_clusters(&mut cnts, &mut centroids, 2);
+        assert_eq!(cnts, vec![5, 5, 4]);
+        // The empty cluster's centroid is a perturbed copy of the largest one.
+        assert!((centroids[0] - 1.0).abs() < 0.01 && centroids[0] != centroids[2]);
+        assert!((centroids[1] - 2.0).abs() < 0.01 && centroids[1] != centroids[3]);
+    }
+
+    fn skewed_training_data(rows: usize, dim: usize) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+        // 80% of the vectors sit in one dense blob near the origin, the rest
+        // spread over the unit cube, so a fixed fan-out would starve the blob
+        // of centroids.
+        //
+        // Seeded so that tests asserting on seeded training see the same input
+        // every run: on about 1% of random inputs, exact reassignment leaves a
+        // hierarchical leaf without vectors when refinement is off.
+        let mut values = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(rows * dim, [42; 32])
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        for value in values.iter_mut().take(rows * 8 / 10 * dim) {
+            *value *= 0.05;
+        }
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), dim as i32).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn assigned_sizes(kmeans: &KMeans, data: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Vec<usize> {
+        let (membership, _) =
+            compute_partitions_with_dists::<Float32Type, KMeansAlgoFloat<Float32Type>>(
+                kmeans.centroids.as_primitive(),
+                data.values().as_primitive(),
+                kmeans.dimension,
+                kmeans.distance_type,
+            );
+        let mut sizes = vec![0; kmeans.centroids.len() / kmeans.dimension];
+        for cluster in membership.into_iter().flatten() {
+            sizes[cluster as usize] += 1;
+        }
+        sizes
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hierarchical_kmeans_is_seeded_and_balanced() {
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        const K: usize = 300;
+        let data = skewed_training_data(K * 32, DIM);
+        let params = KMeansParams {
+            max_iters: 10,
+            hierarchical_k: 16,
+            seed: Some(42),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let kmeans = KMeans::new_with_params(&data, K, &params).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(kmeans.centroids.len(), K * DIM);
+        let again = KMeans::new_with_params(&data, K, &params).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+            again.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+            "seeded training must be reproducible"
+        );
+
+        let sizes = assigned_sizes(&kmeans, &data);
+        let mean = data.len() as f64 / K as f64;
+        let max = *sizes.iter().max().unwrap() as f64;
+        assert_eq!(
+            sizes.iter().filter(|&&s| s == 0).count(),
+            0,
+            "no empty partition"
+        );
+        assert!(max <= 4.0 * mean, "largest partition {max} vs mean {mean}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hierarchical_refinement_lowers_loss() {
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        const K: usize = 300;
+        let data = skewed_training_data(K * 16, DIM);
+        let loss_of = |refine_iters: u32| {
+            let params = KMeansParams {
+                max_iters: 5,
+                hierarchical_k: 8,
+                refine_iters,
+                seed: Some(7),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            KMeans::new_with_params(&data, K, &params)
+                .unwrap()
+                .compute_loss(&data)
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        let unrefined = loss_of(0);
+        let refined = loss_of(3);
+        assert!(
+            refined <= unrefined * 1.001,
+            "refinement raised the loss from {unrefined} to {refined}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_kmeans_seed_is_reproducible() {
+        const DIM: usize = 8;
+        let data = generate_random_array(4096 * DIM);
+        let data = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let params = KMeansParams {
+            max_iters: 5,
+            seed: Some(3),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let first = KMeans::new_with_params(&data, 16, &params).unwrap();
+        let second = KMeans::new_with_params(&data, 16, &params).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            first.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+            second.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values()
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pairwise.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pairwise.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..df94ad623cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pairwise.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,818 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Bounded staging and native code-to-code tile scoring of index codes.
+//!
+//! Distances are symmetric values between the index representations `x̂` (the
+//! vectors that the stored codes reconstruct). They are computed directly from
+//! the codes; no floating-point vector is reconstructed:
+//!
+//! | metric  | distance                                          |
+//! |---------|---------------------------------------------------|
+//! | l2      | squared L2 `‖x̂a − x̂b‖²`                           |
+//! | cosine  | `1 − cos(x̂a, x̂b)`, clamped to `[0, 2]`            |
+//! | dot     | `1 − x̂a·x̂b`                                       |
+//! | hamming | number of differing bits (binary IVF_FLAT)        |
+//!
+//! Cosine renormalizes the reconstructions, as the metric (and exact or refined
+//! search) defines it. It is evaluated as
+//! `(‖x̂a − x̂b‖² − (‖x̂a‖ − ‖x̂b‖)²) / (2‖x̂a‖‖x̂b‖)` from norms staged once per
+//! row, so identical codes score exactly zero. A zero-norm reconstruction has
+//! no cosine distance (NaN). Unrefined ANN search over quantized cosine indices
+//! reports `‖q̂ − x̂‖²` of normalized vectors instead, about twice this value.
+//!
+//! Each distance depends only on its two rows, with the lower storage position
+//! as the anchor, so results are bit-identical for every batch, block, spill and
+//! concurrency layout.
+
+use super::{
+    bq::pairwise::RQPairScorer, flat::pairwise::FlatPairScorer, pq::pairwise::PQPairScorer,
+    quantizer::Quantizer, sq::pairwise::SQPairScorer,
+};
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, ArrowPrimitiveType, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_ipc::{reader::StreamReader, writer::StreamWriter};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::spawn_cpu;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_io::{
+    spill::{Spill, SpillStore},
+    traits::{Reader, Writer},
+};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use std::{io::Cursor, ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+/// Default budget for staged codes. Larger partitions use session spill storage.
+pub const PAIRWISE_MEMORY_LIMIT: usize = 256 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Candidate payload scored per pass over an anchor block. Together with the
+/// anchor rows it stays in L2 cache, so each candidate row is loaded from
+/// memory once per block rather than once per anchor.
+const CANDIDATE_CHUNK_BYTES: usize = 256 * 1024;
+const MIN_CANDIDATE_CHUNK_ROWS: usize = 16;
+
+/// Row IDs plus Arrow overhead in the staged size estimate.
+const STAGED_ROW_OVERHEAD_BYTES: usize = 16;
+
+/// Staged `‖x̂‖` (f64) per row, for cosine.
+pub(crate) const NORM_COLUMN: &str = "__pairwise_norm";
+
+/// One staged batch of index rows in storage order.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct PairwiseVectorBatch {
+    /// Current row IDs; null where compaction remapping deleted the row.
+    pub row_ids: UInt64Array,
+    /// Quantizer-specific staged payload, including the row IDs.
+    pub codes: RecordBatch,
+    batch_id: usize,
+    selected: Vec<bool>,
+}
+
+impl PairwiseVectorBatch {
+    /// Position of this batch in the partition's storage order.
+    pub fn batch_id(&self) -> usize {
+        self.batch_id
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
+        self.row_ids.len()
+    }
+
+    /// Per-row eligibility for pairing. Rows with null IDs are never eligible.
+    pub fn selected(&self) -> &[bool] {
+        &self.selected
+    }
+
+    /// Restrict pairing to rows whose current row ID satisfies `keep`,
+    /// evaluated once per row rather than once per pair.
+    pub fn filter_rows(&mut self, keep: impl Fn(u64) -> bool) {
+        for (selected, id) in self.selected.iter_mut().zip(self.row_ids.iter()) {
+            *selected = *selected && id.is_some_and(&keep);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Qualifying pairs of one scoring block, ordered by anchor row, then by
+/// candidate row, in storage order.
+#[derive(Debug, Default, PartialEq)]
+pub struct PairwiseHits {
+    pub row_id_a: Vec<u64>,
+    pub row_id_b: Vec<u64>,
+    pub distances: Vec<f32>,
+}
+
+/// Native distances from one anchor row to a range of candidate rows.
+pub(crate) trait PairKernel {
+    fn distances(&self, anchor_row: usize, candidates: Range<usize>, out: &mut [f32]);
+}
+
+/// A quantizer's staged layout and code-to-code kernel.
+pub(crate) trait PairScorer {
+    type Kernel<'a>: PairKernel
+    where
+        Self: 'a;
+
+    /// Staged payload bytes per row, excluding row IDs.
+    fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize;
+
+    /// Stage `rows` of a source index batch as payload columns.
+    fn stage(&self, source: &RecordBatch, rows: Range<usize>) -> Result<Vec<(Field, ArrayRef)>>;
+
+    /// Bind the kernel to two staged batches.
+    fn kernel<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        anchor: &'a RecordBatch,
+        candidates: &'a RecordBatch,
+    ) -> Result<Self::Kernel<'a>>;
+}
+
+pub(crate) enum PairwiseScorer {
+    Flat(FlatPairScorer),
+    Product(PQPairScorer),
+    Scalar(SQPairScorer),
+    Rabit(RQPairScorer),
+}
+
+impl PairwiseScorer {
+    /// `centroid` is the partition centroid; `source` is the index file schema.
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        quantizer: &Quantizer,
+        centroid: ArrayRef,
+        metric: DistanceType,
+        source: &Schema,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(match quantizer {
+            Quantizer::Flat(_) | Quantizer::FlatBin(_) => {
+                Self::Flat(FlatPairScorer::new(quantizer.column(), source, metric)?)
+            }
+            Quantizer::Product(pq) => Self::Product(PQPairScorer::new(pq, &centroid, metric)?),
+            Quantizer::Scalar(sq) => Self::Scalar(SQPairScorer::new(sq, metric)?),
+            Quantizer::Rabit(rq) => Self::Rabit(RQPairScorer::new(rq, centroid, metric)?),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Estimated staged bytes per row, including row IDs.
+    pub(crate) fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        STAGED_ROW_OVERHEAD_BYTES
+            + match self {
+                Self::Flat(scorer) => scorer.row_bytes(),
+                Self::Product(scorer) => scorer.row_bytes(),
+                Self::Scalar(scorer) => scorer.row_bytes(),
+                Self::Rabit(scorer) => scorer.row_bytes(),
+            }
+    }
+
+    /// Stage `rows` of a source index batch once: remapped row IDs followed by
+    /// the quantizer payload. Replays never touch the source index again.
+    pub(crate) fn stage(
+        &self,
+        source: &RecordBatch,
+        rows: Range<usize>,
+        remapper: Option<&dyn RowIdRemapper>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let ids = source
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("index batch missing row IDs"))?
+            .as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("index row IDs must be UInt64"))?
+            .slice(rows.start, rows.len());
+        let ids = match remapper {
+            Some(remapper) => ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| id.and_then(|id| remapper.remap_row_id(id)))
+                .collect::<UInt64Array>(),
+            None => ids,
+        };
+        let payload = match self {
+            Self::Flat(scorer) => scorer.stage(source, rows)?,
+            Self::Product(scorer) => scorer.stage(source, rows)?,
+            Self::Scalar(scorer) => scorer.stage(source, rows)?,
+            Self::Rabit(scorer) => scorer.stage(source, rows)?,
+        };
+        let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(payload.len() + 1);
+        let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(payload.len() + 1);
+        fields.push(Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true));
+        columns.push(Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef);
+        for (field, column) in payload {
+            fields.push(field);
+            columns.push(column);
+        }
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(fields)),
+            columns,
+        )?)
+    }
+
+    fn score_block(
+        &self,
+        anchor: &PairwiseVectorBatch,
+        anchor_rows: Range<usize>,
+        candidates: &PairwiseVectorBatch,
+        threshold: f32,
+    ) -> Result<PairwiseHits> {
+        fn score<S: PairScorer>(
+            scorer: &S,
+            anchor: &PairwiseVectorBatch,
+            anchor_rows: Range<usize>,
+            candidates: &PairwiseVectorBatch,
+            threshold: f32,
+        ) -> Result<PairwiseHits> {
+            let kernel = scorer.kernel(&anchor.codes, &candidates.codes)?;
+            let chunk_rows =
+                (CANDIDATE_CHUNK_BYTES / scorer.row_bytes().max(1)).max(MIN_CANDIDATE_CHUNK_ROWS);
+            Ok(collect_pairs(
+                &kernel,
+                chunk_rows,
+                anchor,
+                anchor_rows,
+                candidates,
+                threshold,
+            ))
+        }
+        match self {
+            Self::Flat(s) => score(s, anchor, anchor_rows, candidates, threshold),
+            Self::Product(s) => score(s, anchor, anchor_rows, candidates, threshold),
+            Self::Scalar(s) => score(s, anchor, anchor_rows, candidates, threshold),
+            Self::Rabit(s) => score(s, anchor, anchor_rows, candidates, threshold),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Score anchor rows against every later candidate row. Candidates are processed
+/// in cache-sized chunks with anchors in the inner loop; hits are buffered per
+/// anchor row so the output stays row-major.
+fn collect_pairs<K: PairKernel>(
+    kernel: &K,
+    chunk_rows: usize,
+    anchor: &PairwiseVectorBatch,
+    anchor_rows: Range<usize>,
+    candidates: &PairwiseVectorBatch,
+    threshold: f32,
+) -> PairwiseHits {
+    let is_diagonal = anchor.batch_id == candidates.batch_id;
+    let num_candidates = candidates.num_rows();
+    let first = if is_diagonal {
+        anchor_rows.start + 1
+    } else {
+        0
+    };
+    let a_ids = anchor.row_ids.values();
+    let b_ids = candidates.row_ids.values();
+    let mut rows: Vec<Vec<(u32, f32)>> = vec![Vec::new(); anchor_rows.len()];
+    let mut scratch = vec![0.0f32; chunk_rows.min(num_candidates)];
+    let mut chunk_start = first;
+    while chunk_start < num_candidates {
+        let chunk_end = chunk_start.saturating_add(chunk_rows).min(num_candidates);
+        for (a, hits) in anchor_rows.clone().zip(rows.iter_mut()) {
+            if !anchor.selected[a] {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let start = if is_diagonal {
+                chunk_start.max(a + 1)
+            } else {
+                chunk_start
+            };
+            if start >= chunk_end {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let out = &mut scratch[..chunk_end - start];
+            kernel.distances(a, start..chunk_end, out);
+            let a_id = a_ids[a];
+            for (b, &distance) in (start..chunk_end).zip(out.iter()) {
+                // NaN fails the threshold test; infinite distances are dropped too.
+                if distance <= threshold
+                    && distance.is_finite()
+                    && candidates.selected[b]
+                    && b_ids[b] != a_id
+                {
+                    hits.push((b as u32, distance));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        chunk_start = chunk_end;
+    }
+    let total = rows.iter().map(Vec::len).sum();
+    let mut output = PairwiseHits {
+        row_id_a: Vec::with_capacity(total),
+        row_id_b: Vec::with_capacity(total),
+        distances: Vec::with_capacity(total),
+    };
+    for (a, hits) in anchor_rows.zip(rows) {
+        output
+            .row_id_a
+            .extend(std::iter::repeat_n(a_ids[a], hits.len()));
+        for (b, distance) in hits {
+            output.row_id_b.push(b_ids[b as usize]);
+            output.distances.push(distance);
+        }
+    }
+    output
+}
+
+/// `1 − cos` of two vectors from their squared L2 distance and norms.
+/// Identical vectors give exactly zero; a zero norm gives NaN.
+#[inline]
+pub(crate) fn cosine_from_l2(l2: f32, anchor_norm: f64, candidate_norm: f64) -> f32 {
+    let denominator = 2.0 * anchor_norm * candidate_norm;
+    if denominator > 0.0 {
+        let norm_gap = anchor_norm - candidate_norm;
+        ((f64::from(l2) - norm_gap * norm_gap) / denominator).clamp(0.0, 2.0) as f32
+    } else {
+        f32::NAN
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert squared L2 distances to cosine distances in place.
+pub(crate) fn l2_to_cosine(distances: &mut [f32], anchor_norm: f64, candidate_norms: &[f64]) {
+    for (distance, &norm) in distances.iter_mut().zip(candidate_norms) {
+        *distance = cosine_from_l2(*distance, anchor_norm, norm);
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn norm_field() -> Field {
+    Field::new(NORM_COLUMN, DataType::Float64, false)
+}
+
+/// Values of a primitive staged column.
+pub(crate) fn column_values<'a, T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    batch: &'a RecordBatch,
+    name: &str,
+) -> Result<&'a [T::Native]> {
+    Ok(batch
+        .column_by_name(name)
+        .and_then(|column| column.as_primitive_opt::<T>())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "pairwise batch missing {} column {name}",
+                T::DATA_TYPE
+            ))
+        })?
+        .values())
+}
+
+/// Flattened values of a fixed-size-list staged column.
+pub(crate) fn list_values<'a, T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    batch: &'a RecordBatch,
+    name: &str,
+) -> Result<&'a [T::Native]> {
+    Ok(batch
+        .column_by_name(name)
+        .and_then(|column| column.as_fixed_size_list_opt())
+        .and_then(|list| list.values().as_primitive_opt::<T>())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "pairwise batch missing {} list column {name}",
+                T::DATA_TYPE
+            ))
+        })?
+        .values())
+}
+
+pub(crate) enum EncodedPartition {
+    Memory(Vec<RecordBatch>),
+    Spilled(SpilledPartition),
+}
+
+pub(crate) struct SpilledPartition {
+    ranges: Vec<Range<usize>>,
+    reader: Box<dyn Reader>,
+    // Keep the spill alive until its reader has been dropped.
+    _spill: Box<dyn Spill>,
+}
+
+impl SpilledPartition {
+    async fn read_batch(&self, batch_id: usize) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let range = self.ranges.get(batch_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("pairwise spill batch_id={batch_id} out of range"))
+        })?;
+        let bytes = self.reader.get_range(range.clone()).await?;
+        spawn_cpu(move || {
+            StreamReader::try_new(Cursor::new(bytes), None)?
+                .next()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("empty pairwise spill batch"))?
+                .map_err(Error::from)
+        })
+        .await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Invocation-owned staged codes and quantizer state. Replays do not access
+/// the original index or source-table vectors.
+pub struct PairwisePartition {
+    pub(crate) encoded: EncodedPartition,
+    pub(crate) scorer: Arc<PairwiseScorer>,
+    pub(crate) batch_size: usize,
+    pub(crate) num_rows: usize,
+}
+
+impl PairwisePartition {
+    /// Stage each source batch as one in-memory staged batch, without row ID
+    /// remapping. PQ sources must hold column-major codes. Benchmark support
+    /// only; production staging goes through the IVF storage reader.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn stage_in_memory(
+        quantizer: &Quantizer,
+        centroid: ArrayRef,
+        metric: DistanceType,
+        sources: &[RecordBatch],
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let schema = sources
+            .first()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("pairwise staging needs a source batch"))?
+            .schema();
+        let scorer = PairwiseScorer::new(quantizer, centroid, metric, &schema)?;
+        let batches = sources
+            .iter()
+            .map(|source| scorer.stage(source, 0..source.num_rows(), None))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            batch_size: sources.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).max().unwrap_or(0),
+            num_rows: sources.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum(),
+            encoded: EncodedPartition::Memory(batches),
+            scorer: Arc::new(scorer),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Number of rows per staged batch, possibly smaller than the requested
+    /// maximum to bound wide code arrays. The final batch can contain fewer rows.
+    pub fn vector_batch_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.batch_size
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_batches(&self) -> usize {
+        self.num_rows.div_ceil(self.batch_size)
+    }
+
+    /// Estimated staged bytes per row, a proxy for per-pair scoring work.
+    pub fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.scorer.row_bytes()
+    }
+
+    /// Whether staged batches live in spill storage. Each spilled
+    /// [`Self::read_vectors`] decodes a fresh copy of the batch, while
+    /// in-memory reads share the staged buffers.
+    pub fn is_spilled(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self.encoded, EncodedPartition::Spilled(_))
+    }
+
+    /// Read one staged batch. All rows with non-null IDs start out selected.
+    pub async fn read_vectors(&self, batch_id: usize) -> Result<PairwiseVectorBatch> {
+        let codes = match &self.encoded {
+            EncodedPartition::Memory(batches) => {
+                batches.get(batch_id).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("pairwise batch_id={batch_id} out of range"))
+                })?
+            }
+            EncodedPartition::Spilled(spill) => spill.read_batch(batch_id).await?,
+        };
+        let row_ids = codes
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .and_then(|ids| ids.as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("pairwise batch missing row IDs"))?
+            .clone();
+        let selected = (0..row_ids.len()).map(|i| row_ids.is_valid(i)).collect();
+        Ok(PairwiseVectorBatch {
+            row_ids,
+            codes,
+            batch_id,
+            selected,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Score `anchor_rows` of `anchor` against every later row of `candidates`
+    /// (all of its rows for a later batch, rows after the anchor within the
+    /// same batch) and keep selected pairs with distinct IDs and finite
+    /// `distance <= threshold`. Hits are ordered by anchor row, then candidate row.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance_index::vector::pairwise::PairwisePartition;
+    /// # async fn example(partition: &PairwisePartition) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    /// let batch = partition.read_vectors(0).await?;
+    /// let hits = partition.score_block(&batch, 0..batch.num_rows(), &batch, 0.05)?;
+    /// assert!(hits.row_id_a.len() < batch.num_rows() * batch.num_rows());
+    /// # Ok(()) }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn score_block(
+        &self,
+        anchor: &PairwiseVectorBatch,
+        anchor_rows: Range<usize>,
+        candidates: &PairwiseVectorBatch,
+        threshold: f32,
+    ) -> Result<PairwiseHits> {
+        if candidates.batch_id < anchor.batch_id {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "pairwise candidate batch_id={} precedes anchor batch_id={}",
+                candidates.batch_id, anchor.batch_id
+            )));
+        }
+        if anchor_rows.start > anchor_rows.end || anchor_rows.end > anchor.num_rows() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "pairwise anchor rows {anchor_rows:?} out of range for {} rows",
+                anchor.num_rows()
+            )));
+        }
+        self.scorer
+            .score_block(anchor, anchor_rows, candidates, threshold)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Each Arrow stream is independently readable, so replay needs one local
+/// range read, without opening a file or scanning earlier batches.
+pub(crate) struct PairwiseSpillWriter {
+    writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
+    spill: Box<dyn Spill>,
+    ranges: Vec<Range<usize>>,
+    offset: usize,
+}
+
+impl PairwiseSpillWriter {
+    pub(crate) async fn new(store: &dyn SpillStore) -> Result<Self> {
+        let (writer, spill) = store.new_spill().await?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            writer,
+            spill,
+            ranges: Vec::new(),
+            offset: 0,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn write(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        let bytes = spawn_cpu(move || -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+            let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(Vec::new(), batch.schema_ref())?;
+            writer.write(&batch)?;
+            writer.finish()?;
+            Ok(writer.into_inner()?)
+        })
+        .await?;
+        let end = self
+            .offset
+            .checked_add(bytes.len())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("pairwise spill offset overflow"))?;
+        self.writer.write_all(&bytes).await?;
+        self.ranges.push(self.offset..end);
+        self.offset = end;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn finish(mut self) -> Result<SpilledPartition> {
+        Writer::shutdown(self.writer.as_mut()).await?;
+        drop(self.writer);
+        let reader = self.spill.reader().await?;
+        Ok(SpilledPartition {
+            ranges: self.ranges,
+            reader,
+            _spill: self.spill,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::vector::flat::index::FlatQuantizer;
+    use crate::vector::quantizer::Quantization;
+    use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, UInt64Type};
+    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_io::spill::LocalSpillStore;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn flat_batch() -> RecordBatch {
+        let quantizer = FlatQuantizer::new(2, DistanceType::L2);
+        gen_batch()
+            .col(ROW_ID, array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col(quantizer.column(), array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(2.into()))
+            .into_batch_rows(32.into())
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn flat_scorer() -> PairwiseScorer {
+        let batch = flat_batch();
+        PairwiseScorer::new(
+            &Quantizer::Flat(FlatQuantizer::new(2, DistanceType::L2)),
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 2])),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            batch.schema_ref(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_pairwise_spill_releases_disk_budget() {
+        let batch = flat_batch();
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::default();
+        let mut writer = PairwiseSpillWriter::new(&store).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write(batch.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        let encoded = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        let bytes = encoded.reader.size().await.unwrap();
+        let spill_path =
+            std::path::PathBuf::from(lance_io::local::to_local_path(encoded.reader.path()));
+        let spill_dir = spill_path.parent().unwrap().to_owned();
+        drop(encoded);
+        let mut aborted = PairwiseSpillWriter::new(&store).await.unwrap();
+        aborted.write(batch.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        drop(aborted);
+        assert_eq!(
+            std::fs::read_dir(spill_dir).unwrap().count(),
+            0,
+            "cancelled preparation must remove temporary files"
+        );
+
+        let capped = LocalSpillStore::with_cap(bytes as u64).unwrap();
+        let mut writer = PairwiseSpillWriter::new(&capped).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write(batch.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        let held = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        let mut blocked = PairwiseSpillWriter::new(&capped).await.unwrap();
+        let err = blocked.write(batch.clone()).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::DiskCapExceeded { .. }), "{err}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("cap"));
+        drop(blocked);
+        drop(held);
+
+        // Dropping the prepared data must release its disk reservation, so the
+        // same session can prepare another partition without leaking quota.
+        let mut replacement = PairwiseSpillWriter::new(&capped).await.unwrap();
+        replacement.write(batch).await.unwrap();
+        drop(replacement.finish().await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_pairwise_spill_roundtrip_and_bounds() {
+        let scorer = flat_scorer();
+        let batch = flat_batch();
+        let staged = [
+            scorer.stage(&batch, 0..32, None).unwrap(),
+            scorer.stage(&batch, 0..1, None).unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::default();
+        let mut writer = PairwiseSpillWriter::new(&store).await.unwrap();
+        for batch in &staged {
+            writer.write(batch.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let prepared = PairwisePartition {
+            encoded: EncodedPartition::Spilled(writer.finish().await.unwrap()),
+            scorer: Arc::new(scorer),
+            batch_size: 32,
+            num_rows: 33,
+        };
+        assert_eq!(prepared.num_batches(), 2);
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            for (id, expected) in staged.iter().enumerate() {
+                let codes = prepared.read_vectors(id).await.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(codes.batch_id(), id);
+                assert_eq!(&codes.codes, expected);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    &codes.row_ids,
+                    expected[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        for id in [2, usize::MAX] {
+            let err = prepared.read_vectors(id).await.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(err.to_string().contains("batch_id"));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Distance `|value_a - value_b|` over one scalar per row.
+    struct AbsDiff<'a> {
+        anchor: &'a [f32],
+        candidates: &'a [f32],
+    }
+
+    impl PairKernel for AbsDiff<'_> {
+        fn distances(&self, anchor_row: usize, candidates: Range<usize>, out: &mut [f32]) {
+            let a = self.anchor[anchor_row];
+            for (out, &b) in out.iter_mut().zip(&self.candidates[candidates]) {
+                *out = (a - b).abs();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn scalar_batch(batch_id: usize, ids: Vec<Option<u64>>) -> PairwiseVectorBatch {
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(ids);
+        let codes = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                ROW_ID,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(row_ids.clone())],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let selected = (0..row_ids.len()).map(|i| row_ids.is_valid(i)).collect();
+        PairwiseVectorBatch {
+            row_ids,
+            codes,
+            batch_id,
+            selected,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn pairs(hits: &PairwiseHits) -> Vec<(u64, u64, f32)> {
+        hits.row_id_a
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&hits.row_id_b)
+            .zip(&hits.distances)
+            .map(|((&a, &b), &d)| (a, b, d))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_collect_pairs_tile_order(#[values(1, 2, 3, 64)] chunk_rows: usize) {
+        let values_a = [0.0f32, 1.0, 1.0, 5.0, 2.0];
+        let values_b = [1.0f32, 0.5, 9.0, 0.0];
+        let mut anchor = scalar_batch(0, vec![Some(10), Some(11), None, Some(13), Some(14)]);
+        // Row 14 is filtered out once per batch, as a deleted row would be.
+        anchor.filter_rows(|id| id != 14);
+        let candidates = scalar_batch(1, vec![Some(20), Some(21), Some(22), Some(10)]);
+        let diagonal = AbsDiff {
+            anchor: &values_a,
+            candidates: &values_a,
+        };
+        // Diagonal tile: upper triangle only; null and filtered rows are skipped
+        // both as anchors and candidates; the threshold is inclusive.
+        let hits = collect_pairs(&diagonal, chunk_rows, &anchor, 0..5, &anchor, 1.0);
+        assert_eq!(pairs(&hits), vec![(10, 11, 1.0)]);
+        let hits = collect_pairs(&diagonal, chunk_rows, &anchor, 1..3, &anchor, 4.0);
+        assert_eq!(pairs(&hits), vec![(11, 13, 4.0)]);
+
+        // Off-diagonal tile: every candidate row, row-major, excluding the
+        // anchor's own ID (a remapper can alias two rows to one ID).
+        let tile = AbsDiff {
+            anchor: &values_a,
+            candidates: &values_b,
+        };
+        let hits = collect_pairs(&tile, chunk_rows, &anchor, 0..5, &candidates, 1.0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            pairs(&hits),
+            vec![
+                (10, 20, 1.0),
+                (10, 21, 0.5),
+                (11, 20, 0.0),
+                (11, 21, 0.5),
+                (11, 10, 1.0),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_pairs_drops_non_finite() {
+        let values = [0.0f32, f32::NAN, f32::NEG_INFINITY, 0.0];
+        let batch = scalar_batch(0, (0..4).map(Some).collect());
+        let kernel = AbsDiff {
+            anchor: &values,
+            candidates: &values,
+        };
+        let hits = collect_pairs(&kernel, 2, &batch, 0..4, &batch, f32::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(pairs(&hits), vec![(0, 3, 0.0)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cosine_from_l2() {
+        assert_eq!(cosine_from_l2(0.0, 3.0, 3.0), 0.0);
+        // [1, 0] vs [0, 2]: orthogonal.
+        assert_eq!(cosine_from_l2(5.0, 1.0, 2.0), 1.0);
+        // [1, 0] vs [-2, 0]: opposite.
+        assert_eq!(cosine_from_l2(9.0, 1.0, 2.0), 2.0);
+        // Roundoff outside [0, 2] is clamped.
+        assert_eq!(cosine_from_l2(9.5, 1.0, 2.0), 2.0);
+        assert!(cosine_from_l2(1.0, 0.0, 1.0).is_nan());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_score_block_validates_tiles() {
+        let scorer = flat_scorer();
+        let batch = flat_batch();
+        let prepared = PairwisePartition {
+            encoded: EncodedPartition::Memory(vec![
+                scorer.stage(&batch, 0..16, None).unwrap(),
+                scorer.stage(&batch, 16..32, None).unwrap(),
+            ]),
+            scorer: Arc::new(scorer),
+            batch_size: 16,
+            num_rows: 32,
+        };
+        let first = prepared.read_vectors(0).await.unwrap();
+        let second = prepared.read_vectors(1).await.unwrap();
+        let err = prepared
+            .score_block(&second, 0..1, &first, 1.0)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("precedes"), "{err}");
+        let err = prepared
+            .score_block(&first, 0..17, &second, 1.0)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("out of range"), "{err}");
+        let all = prepared
+            .score_block(&first, 0..16, &second, f32::MAX)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(all.row_id_a.len(), 16 * 16);
+        let diagonal = prepared
+            .score_block(&first, 0..16, &first, f32::MAX)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(diagonal.row_id_a.len(), 16 * 15 / 2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq.rs
index bbe0dd6ff45..6e684f3a978 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq.rs
@@ -7,33 +7,35 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::datatypes::{self, ArrowPrimitiveType};
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, Array, FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array, cast::AsArray};
 use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, PrimitiveArray};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use distance::build_distance_table_dot;
 use lance_arrow::*;
-use lance_core::{assume_eq, Error, Result};
-use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, L2};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, assume_eq};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, L2, l2::L2Prepared};
 use lance_table::utils::LanceIteratorExtension;
 use num_traits::Float;
 use prost::Message;
-use snafu::location;
-use storage::{ProductQuantizationMetadata, ProductQuantizationStorage, PQ_METADATA_KEY};
+use storage::{PQ_METADATA_KEY, ProductQuantizationMetadata, ProductQuantizationStorage};
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 pub mod builder;
 pub mod distance;
+pub(crate) mod pairwise;
 pub mod storage;
 pub mod transform;
 pub(crate) mod utils;
 
-use self::distance::{build_distance_table_l2, compute_pq_distance};
+use self::distance::{
+    build_distance_table_l2, build_distance_table_l2_prepared, compute_pq_distance,
+};
 pub use self::utils::num_centroids;
 use super::quantizer::{
     Quantization, QuantizationMetadata, QuantizationType, Quantizer, QuantizerBuildParams,
 };
-use super::{pb, PQ_CODE_COLUMN};
+use super::{PQ_CODE_COLUMN, pb};
 use crate::vector::kmeans::compute_partition;
 pub use builder::PQBuildParams;
 use utils::get_sub_vector_centroids;
@@ -45,19 +47,56 @@ pub struct ProductQuantizer {
     pub dimension: usize,
     pub codebook: FixedSizeListArray,
     pub distance_type: DistanceType,
+    /// Pre-transposed L2 targets per sub-vector for fast f32 L2 batch computation.
+    /// Only populated when codebook is f32 and distance_type is L2
+    /// (Cosine is converted to L2 before construction, so it benefits too).
+    /// Wrapped in Arc so all clones (one per cached IVF partition) share one copy.
+    l2_targets: Option<Arc<Vec<L2Prepared>>>,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ProductQuantizer {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.codebook.get_array_memory_size()
             + self.num_sub_vectors.deep_size_of_children(_context)
             + self.num_bits.deep_size_of_children(_context)
             + self.dimension.deep_size_of_children(_context)
             + self.distance_type.deep_size_of_children(_context)
+            // deep_size_of_children on the Arc de-duplicates shared allocations
+            // via the context, so partitions sharing one l2_targets are counted once.
+            + self.l2_targets.deep_size_of_children(_context)
     }
 }
 
 impl ProductQuantizer {
+    /// Build per-sub-vector L2Prepared from the codebook if applicable (f32 + L2).
+    fn build_l2_targets(
+        codebook: &FixedSizeListArray,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        num_sub_vectors: usize,
+        num_bits: u32,
+        dimension: usize,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<Vec<L2Prepared>>> {
+        if codebook.value_type() != DataType::Float32 || distance_type != DistanceType::L2 {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let values = codebook
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float32Type>()
+            .values();
+        let sub_dim = dimension / num_sub_vectors;
+        let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(num_bits);
+        let block_size = sub_dim * num_centroids;
+
+        let targets: Vec<L2Prepared> = (0..num_sub_vectors)
+            .map(|sub_idx| {
+                let block_start = sub_idx * block_size;
+                let block = &values[block_start..block_start + block_size];
+                L2Prepared::new(block, sub_dim)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Some(Arc::new(targets))
+    }
+
     pub fn new(
         num_sub_vectors: usize,
         num_bits: u32,
@@ -65,12 +104,20 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
         codebook: FixedSizeListArray,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
     ) -> Self {
+        let l2_targets = Self::build_l2_targets(
+            &codebook,
+            distance_type,
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            num_bits,
+            dimension,
+        );
         Self {
             num_bits,
             num_sub_vectors,
             dimension,
             codebook,
             distance_type,
+            l2_targets,
         }
     }
 
@@ -86,13 +133,13 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
                 proto.dimension as i32,
             )?,
         };
-        Ok(Self {
-            num_bits: proto.num_bits,
-            num_sub_vectors: proto.num_sub_vectors as usize,
-            dimension: proto.dimension as usize,
+        Ok(Self::new(
+            proto.num_sub_vectors as usize,
+            proto.num_bits,
+            proto.dimension as usize,
             codebook,
             distance_type,
-        })
+        ))
     }
 
     #[instrument(name = "ProductQuantizer::transform", level = "debug", skip_all)]
@@ -103,13 +150,10 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
         match self.num_bits {
             4 => self.transform_impl::<4, T>(vectors),
             8 => self.transform_impl::<8, T>(vectors),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "ProductQuantization: num_bits {} not supported",
-                    self.num_bits
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "ProductQuantization: num_bits {} not supported",
+                self.num_bits
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -120,23 +164,19 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
     where
         T::Native: Float + L2 + Dot,
     {
-        let fsl = vectors.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
+        let fsl = vectors
+            .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
                 "Expect to be a FixedSizeList<float> vector array, got: {:?} array",
                 vectors.data_type()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+            )))?;
         let num_sub_vectors = self.num_sub_vectors;
         let dim = self.dimension;
         if NUM_BITS == 4 && !num_sub_vectors.is_multiple_of(2) {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "PQ: num_sub_vectors must be divisible by 2 for num_bits=4, but got {}",
-                    num_sub_vectors,
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "PQ: num_sub_vectors must be divisible by 2 for num_bits=4, but got {}",
+                num_sub_vectors,
+            )));
         }
         let codebook = self.codebook.values().as_primitive::<T>();
 
@@ -144,38 +184,76 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
 
         let flatten_data = fsl.values().as_primitive::<T>();
         let sub_dim = dim / num_sub_vectors;
+        let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(NUM_BITS);
         let total_code_length = fsl.len() * num_sub_vectors / (8 / NUM_BITS as usize);
-        let values = flatten_data
-            .values()
-            .chunks_exact(dim)
-            .flat_map(|vector| {
-                let sub_vec_code = vector
-                    .chunks_exact(sub_dim)
-                    .enumerate()
-                    .map(|(sub_idx, sub_vector)| {
-                        let centroids = get_sub_vector_centroids::<NUM_BITS, _>(
-                            codebook.values(),
-                            dim,
-                            num_sub_vectors,
-                            sub_idx,
-                        );
-                        // SAFETY: The must be 2^NUM_BITS centroids, it's safe to unwrap_or(0),
-                        // this could happen if all distances are INFs in the case of vectors are large.
-                        assume_eq!(centroids.len(), 2_usize.pow(NUM_BITS) * sub_dim);
-                        compute_partition(centroids, sub_vector, distance_type).unwrap_or(0) as u8
-                    })
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let values = if let Some(targets) = &self.l2_targets {
+            // Fast path for f32 + L2: use pre-transposed codebook.
+            // SAFETY: l2_targets is only populated when T::Native is f32.
+            let flat_f32: &[f32] = unsafe {
+                std::slice::from_raw_parts(
+                    flatten_data.values().as_ptr() as *const f32,
+                    flatten_data.values().len(),
+                )
+            };
+            let mut values = vec![0u8; total_code_length];
+            let bytes_per_vector = num_sub_vectors / (8 / NUM_BITS as usize);
+            let mut dist_buf = vec![0.0f32; num_centroids];
+            for (vec_idx, vector) in flat_f32.chunks_exact(dim).enumerate() {
+                let out = &mut values[vec_idx * bytes_per_vector..][..bytes_per_vector];
                 if NUM_BITS == 4 {
-                    sub_vec_code
-                        .chunks_exact(2)
-                        .map(|v| (v[1] << 4) | v[0])
-                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    for (pair_idx, pair) in vector.chunks_exact(sub_dim * 2).enumerate() {
+                        let lo = targets[pair_idx * 2]
+                            .nearest_into(&pair[..sub_dim], &mut dist_buf)
+                            .unwrap_or(0) as u8;
+                        let hi = targets[pair_idx * 2 + 1]
+                            .nearest_into(&pair[sub_dim..], &mut dist_buf)
+                            .unwrap_or(0) as u8;
+                        out[pair_idx] = (hi << 4) | lo;
+                    }
                 } else {
-                    sub_vec_code
+                    for (sub_idx, sv) in vector.chunks_exact(sub_dim).enumerate() {
+                        out[sub_idx] = targets[sub_idx]
+                            .nearest_into(sv, &mut dist_buf)
+                            .unwrap_or(0) as u8;
+                    }
                 }
-            })
-            .exact_size(total_code_length)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            }
+            values
+        } else {
+            flatten_data
+                .values()
+                .chunks_exact(dim)
+                .flat_map(|vector| {
+                    let sub_vec_code: Vec<u8> = vector
+                        .chunks_exact(sub_dim)
+                        .enumerate()
+                        .map(|(sub_idx, sub_vector)| {
+                            let centroids = get_sub_vector_centroids::<NUM_BITS, _>(
+                                codebook.values(),
+                                dim,
+                                num_sub_vectors,
+                                sub_idx,
+                            );
+                            assume_eq!(centroids.len(), num_centroids * sub_dim);
+                            compute_partition(centroids, sub_vector, distance_type).unwrap_or(0)
+                                as u8
+                        })
+                        .collect();
+                    if NUM_BITS == 4 {
+                        sub_vec_code
+                            .as_chunks::<2>()
+                            .0
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|v| (v[1] << 4) | v[0])
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    } else {
+                        sub_vec_code
+                    }
+                })
+                .exact_size(total_code_length)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
 
         let num_sub_vectors_in_byte = if NUM_BITS == 4 {
             num_sub_vectors / 2
@@ -224,15 +302,7 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
     /// It returns the squared L2 distance.
     fn l2_distances(&self, key: &dyn Array, code: &UInt8Array) -> Result<Float32Array> {
         let distance_table = self.build_l2_distance_table(key)?;
-
-        #[cfg(target_feature = "avx512f")]
-        {
-            Ok(self.compute_l2_distance(&distance_table, code.values()))
-        }
-        #[cfg(not(target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        {
-            Ok(self.compute_l2_distance(&distance_table, code.values()))
-        }
+        Ok(self.compute_l2_distance(&distance_table, code.values()))
     }
 
     /// Parameters
@@ -251,10 +321,10 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
             DataType::Float64 => {
                 self.dot_distances_impl::<datatypes::Float64Type>(key.as_primitive(), code)
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("unsupported data type: {}", key.data_type()),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "unsupported data type: {}",
+                key.data_type()
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -278,7 +348,6 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
             self.num_bits,
             self.num_sub_vectors,
             code.values(),
-            0,
         );
 
         let diff = self.num_sub_vectors as f32 - 1.0;
@@ -292,15 +361,21 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
                 Ok(self.build_l2_distance_table_impl::<datatypes::Float16Type>(key.as_primitive()))
             }
             DataType::Float32 => {
-                Ok(self.build_l2_distance_table_impl::<datatypes::Float32Type>(key.as_primitive()))
+                if let Some(targets) = &self.l2_targets {
+                    let query = key.as_primitive::<datatypes::Float32Type>().values();
+                    Ok(build_distance_table_l2_prepared(targets.as_slice(), query))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(self
+                        .build_l2_distance_table_impl::<datatypes::Float32Type>(key.as_primitive()))
+                }
             }
             DataType::Float64 => {
                 Ok(self.build_l2_distance_table_impl::<datatypes::Float64Type>(key.as_primitive()))
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("unsupported data type: {}", key.data_type()),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "unsupported data type: {}",
+                key.data_type()
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -342,7 +417,6 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
             self.num_bits,
             self.num_sub_vectors,
             code,
-            100,
         ))
     }
 
@@ -371,6 +445,45 @@ impl ProductQuantizer {
     }
 }
 
+/// Reject a caller-supplied codebook whose size disagrees with the column.
+///
+/// The codebook buffer is sliced by column-derived arithmetic downstream
+/// (`get_sub_vector_centroids` computes the sub-vector width as
+/// `dimension / num_sub_vectors`), so a wrong size is not a local error: an
+/// oversized codebook has its sub-vector boundaries read at the wrong offsets
+/// and trains a garbage index without complaining, and an undersized one slices
+/// out of bounds and panics.
+pub fn validate_supplied_codebook(
+    codebook_len: usize,
+    dimension: usize,
+    num_sub_vectors: usize,
+    num_bits: usize,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if num_sub_vectors == 0 || dimension == 0 || !dimension.is_multiple_of(num_sub_vectors) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "PQ codebook requires a nonzero vector dimension divisible by num_sub_vectors, \
+             got dimension {dimension} and num_sub_vectors {num_sub_vectors}"
+        )));
+    }
+    let num_centroids = u32::try_from(num_bits)
+        .ok()
+        .filter(|num_bits| *num_bits > 0)
+        .and_then(|num_bits| 1usize.checked_shl(num_bits));
+    let expected = num_centroids.and_then(|num_centroids| num_centroids.checked_mul(dimension));
+    let (Some(num_centroids), Some(expected)) = (num_centroids, expected) else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "PQ codebook size is not representable: num_bits {num_bits}, dimension {dimension}"
+        )));
+    };
+    if codebook_len != expected {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "PQ codebook has {codebook_len} values, but the vector column requires {expected} \
+             ({num_centroids} centroids x dimension {dimension} for num_bits {num_bits})"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 impl Quantization for ProductQuantizer {
     type BuildParams = PQBuildParams;
     type Metadata = ProductQuantizationMetadata;
@@ -382,19 +495,23 @@ impl Quantization for ProductQuantizer {
         params: &Self::BuildParams,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         assert_eq!(data.null_count(), 0);
-        let fsl = data.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "PQ builder: input is not a FixedSizeList: {}",
-                data.data_type()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let fsl = data.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+            "PQ builder: input is not a FixedSizeList: {}",
+            data.data_type()
+        )))?;
 
         if let Some(codebook) = params.codebook.as_ref() {
+            let dimension = fsl.value_length() as usize;
+            validate_supplied_codebook(
+                codebook.len(),
+                dimension,
+                params.num_sub_vectors,
+                params.num_bits,
+            )?;
             return Ok(Self::new(
                 params.num_sub_vectors,
                 params.num_bits as u32,
-                fsl.value_length() as usize,
+                dimension,
                 FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(codebook.clone(), fsl.value_length())?,
                 distance_type,
             ));
@@ -428,22 +545,21 @@ impl Quantization for ProductQuantizer {
     }
 
     fn quantize(&self, vectors: &dyn Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
-        let fsl = vectors.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
+        let fsl = vectors
+            .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
                 "Expect to be a FixedSizeList<float> vector array, got: {:?} array",
                 vectors.data_type()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+            )))?;
 
         match fsl.value_type() {
             DataType::Float16 => self.transform::<datatypes::Float16Type>(vectors),
             DataType::Float32 => self.transform::<datatypes::Float32Type>(vectors),
             DataType::Float64 => self.transform::<datatypes::Float64Type>(vectors),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("unsupported data type: {}", fsl.value_type()),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "unsupported data type: {}",
+                fsl.value_type()
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -527,10 +643,7 @@ impl TryFrom<Quantizer> for ProductQuantizer {
     fn try_from(value: Quantizer) -> Result<Self> {
         match value {
             Quantizer::Product(pq) => Ok(pq),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Expect to be a ProductQuantizer".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index("Expect to be a ProductQuantizer".to_string())),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -624,6 +737,99 @@ mod tests {
             });
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_distance_with_legacy_truncated_dimension() {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        const NUM_SUB_VECTORS: usize = 14;
+        const NUM_BITS: u32 = 8;
+        const NUM_CENTROIDS: usize = 1 << NUM_BITS;
+        const SUB_VECTOR_DIM: usize = DIM / NUM_SUB_VECTORS;
+        const PERSISTED_DIM: usize = NUM_SUB_VECTORS * SUB_VECTOR_DIM;
+
+        // Older writers silently omitted the tail when the dimension was not
+        // divisible by the number of sub-vectors. Preserve searches over those
+        // indexes even though current writers reject this configuration.
+        let indexed_vector = (1..=DIM).map(|value| value as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut codebook = Vec::with_capacity(NUM_SUB_VECTORS * NUM_CENTROIDS * SUB_VECTOR_DIM);
+        for sub_vector in indexed_vector[..PERSISTED_DIM]
+            .as_chunks::<SUB_VECTOR_DIM>()
+            .0
+        {
+            for _ in 0..NUM_CENTROIDS {
+                codebook.extend_from_slice(sub_vector);
+            }
+        }
+        let query = indexed_vector
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(idx, value)| value + if idx < PERSISTED_DIM { 1.0 } else { 1_000.0 })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let code = UInt8Array::from(vec![0; NUM_SUB_VECTORS]);
+
+        let prepared_l2 = ProductQuantizer::new(
+            NUM_SUB_VECTORS,
+            NUM_BITS,
+            DIM,
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(codebook.clone()),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+        assert!(prepared_l2.l2_targets.is_some());
+        let distances = prepared_l2
+            .compute_distances(&Float32Array::from(query.clone()), &code)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_relative_eq!(distances.value(0), PERSISTED_DIM as f32, epsilon = 1e-4);
+
+        let generic_l2 = ProductQuantizer::new(
+            NUM_SUB_VECTORS,
+            NUM_BITS,
+            DIM,
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                PrimitiveArray::<datatypes::Float64Type>::from(
+                    codebook
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|value| *value as f64)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                ),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+        assert!(generic_l2.l2_targets.is_none());
+        let distances = generic_l2
+            .compute_distances(
+                &PrimitiveArray::<datatypes::Float64Type>::from(
+                    query.iter().map(|value| *value as f64).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                ),
+                &code,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_relative_eq!(distances.value(0), PERSISTED_DIM as f32, epsilon = 1e-4);
+
+        let dot = ProductQuantizer::new(
+            NUM_SUB_VECTORS,
+            NUM_BITS,
+            DIM,
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(codebook), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap(),
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+        );
+        let expected_dot_distance = 1.0
+            - indexed_vector[..PERSISTED_DIM]
+                .iter()
+                .zip(&query[..PERSISTED_DIM])
+                .map(|(left, right)| left * right)
+                .sum::<f32>();
+        let distances = dot
+            .compute_distances(&Float32Array::from(query), &code)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_relative_eq!(distances.value(0), expected_dot_distance, epsilon = 1e-4);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_pq_transform() {
         const DIM: usize = 16;
@@ -642,16 +848,23 @@ mod tests {
         let pq_code = pq.quantize(&fsl).unwrap();
 
         let mut expected = Vec::with_capacity(TOTAL * 4);
-        vectors.values().chunks_exact(DIM).for_each(|vec| {
-            vec.chunks_exact(DIM / 4)
-                .enumerate()
-                .for_each(|(sub_idx, sub_vec)| {
-                    let centroids = pq.centroids::<datatypes::Float32Type>(sub_idx);
-                    let dists = l2_distance_batch(sub_vec, centroids, DIM / 4);
-                    let code = argmin(dists).unwrap() as u8;
-                    expected.push(code);
-                });
-        });
+        vectors
+            .values()
+            .as_chunks::<DIM>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .for_each(|vec| {
+                vec.as_chunks::<{ DIM / 4 }>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .for_each(|(sub_idx, sub_vec)| {
+                        let centroids = pq.centroids::<datatypes::Float32Type>(sub_idx);
+                        let dists = l2_distance_batch(sub_vec, centroids, DIM / 4);
+                        let code = argmin(dists).unwrap() as u8;
+                        expected.push(code);
+                    });
+            });
 
         assert_eq!(pq_code.len(), TOTAL);
         assert_eq!(
@@ -663,4 +876,51 @@ mod tests {
                 .values()
         );
     }
+
+    /// A caller-supplied codebook is sliced by column-derived arithmetic, so a
+    /// size that disagrees with the column has to be rejected here: oversized
+    /// would read the sub-vector boundaries at the wrong offsets and train a
+    /// garbage index, undersized would slice out of bounds and panic.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_supplied_codebook() {
+        const DIM: usize = 128;
+        const NUM_SUB_VECTORS: usize = 8;
+        let expected = 256 * DIM;
+
+        validate_supplied_codebook(expected, DIM, NUM_SUB_VECTORS, 8).unwrap();
+        validate_supplied_codebook(16 * DIM, DIM, NUM_SUB_VECTORS, 4).unwrap();
+
+        let error = validate_supplied_codebook(expected * 2, DIM, NUM_SUB_VECTORS, 8).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(&(expected * 2).to_string())
+                && message.contains(&expected.to_string()),
+            "the error must give both the supplied and the required size: {message}"
+        );
+
+        let error = validate_supplied_codebook(expected / 2, DIM, NUM_SUB_VECTORS, 8).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+
+        let error = validate_supplied_codebook(expected, DIM, 5, 8).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("divisible by num_sub_vectors"),
+            "a dimension that does not divide by num_sub_vectors must say so: {error}"
+        );
+
+        let error = validate_supplied_codebook(DIM, DIM, NUM_SUB_VECTORS, 0).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("not representable"),
+            "num_bits 0 must be rejected rather than accepting one centroid: {error}"
+        );
+
+        let error = validate_supplied_codebook(expected, DIM, NUM_SUB_VECTORS, 1024).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("not representable"),
+            "an absurd num_bits must be reported rather than wrapping: {error}"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/builder.rs
index a2c87a4a960..ba9777f526c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/builder.rs
@@ -9,18 +9,18 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 use crate::vector::quantizer::QuantizerBuildParams;
 use arrow::array::PrimitiveBuilder;
 use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float64Type};
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, types::Float32Type, Array, ArrayRef};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, cast::AsArray, types::Float32Type};
 use arrow_array::{ArrowNumericType, FixedSizeListArray, PrimitiveArray};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
-use lance_linalg::distance::{Dot, Normalize, L2};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_linalg::distance::{Dot, L2, Normalize};
 
-use super::utils::divide_to_subvectors;
 use super::ProductQuantizer;
-use crate::vector::kmeans::{train_kmeans, KMeansParams};
+use super::utils::divide_to_subvectors;
+use super::validate_supplied_codebook;
+use crate::vector::kmeans::{KMeansParams, train_kmeans};
 
 /// Parameters for building product quantizer.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -45,6 +45,15 @@ pub struct PQBuildParams {
     pub sample_rate: usize,
 }
 
+impl From<&PQBuildParams> for crate::pb::vector_index_details::ProductQuantization {
+    fn from(params: &PQBuildParams) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            num_bits: params.num_bits as u32,
+            num_sub_vectors: params.num_sub_vectors as u32,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 impl Default for PQBuildParams {
     fn default() -> Self {
         Self {
@@ -60,7 +69,12 @@ impl Default for PQBuildParams {
 
 impl QuantizerBuildParams for PQBuildParams {
     fn sample_size(&self) -> usize {
-        self.sample_rate * 2_usize.pow(self.num_bits as u32)
+        self.training_sample_size()
+            .expect("PQ training sample size must fit in usize")
+    }
+
+    fn try_sample_size(&self) -> Result<usize> {
+        self.training_sample_size()
     }
 
     fn use_residual(distance_type: DistanceType) -> bool {
@@ -86,6 +100,29 @@ impl PQBuildParams {
         }
     }
 
+    fn num_centroids(&self) -> Result<usize> {
+        u32::try_from(self.num_bits)
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|num_bits| 1_usize.checked_shl(num_bits))
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "PQ centroid count overflows: num_bits={}, usize_bits={}",
+                    self.num_bits,
+                    usize::BITS
+                ))
+            })
+    }
+
+    fn training_sample_size(&self) -> Result<usize> {
+        let num_centroids = self.num_centroids()?;
+        self.sample_rate.checked_mul(num_centroids).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "PQ training sample size overflows: sample_rate={}, num_centroids={num_centroids}",
+                self.sample_rate
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
     fn build_from_fsl<T: ArrowNumericType>(
         &self,
         data: &FixedSizeListArray,
@@ -101,8 +138,10 @@ impl PQBuildParams {
             "PQ code does not support cosine"
         );
 
-        let sub_vectors = divide_to_subvectors::<T>(data, self.num_sub_vectors)?;
-        let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(self.num_bits as u32);
+        let num_centroids = self.num_centroids()?;
+        let max_training_rows = self.try_sample_size()?;
+        let training_rows = data.len().min(max_training_rows);
+        let sub_vectors = divide_to_subvectors::<T>(data, self.num_sub_vectors, training_rows)?;
         let dimension = data.value_length() as usize;
         let sub_vector_dimension = dimension / self.num_sub_vectors;
 
@@ -161,23 +200,36 @@ impl PQBuildParams {
     /// If the [`DistanceType`] is [`DistanceType::Cosine`], the input data will be normalized.
     pub fn build(&self, data: &dyn Array, distance_type: DistanceType) -> Result<ProductQuantizer> {
         assert_eq!(data.null_count(), 0);
-        let fsl = data.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "PQ builder: input is not a FixedSizeList: {}",
-                data.data_type()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-
-        let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(self.num_bits as u32);
+        let fsl = data.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+            "PQ builder: input is not a FixedSizeList: {}",
+            data.data_type()
+        )))?;
+
+        if let Some(codebook) = self.codebook.as_ref() {
+            // build_from_fsl slices this buffer with offsets derived from the
+            // column dimension, so a size that disagrees with the column reads
+            // the sub-vector boundaries at the wrong offsets or slices out of
+            // bounds.
+            let codebook = codebook.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "PQ builder: codebook is not a FixedSizeList: {}",
+                    codebook.data_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+            validate_supplied_codebook(
+                codebook.values().len(),
+                fsl.value_length() as usize,
+                self.num_sub_vectors,
+                self.num_bits,
+            )?;
+        }
+
+        let num_centroids = self.num_centroids()?;
         if data.len() < num_centroids {
-            return Err(Error::Unprocessable {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Not enough rows to train PQ. Requires {num_centroids} rows but only {} available",
-                    data.len()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::unprocessable(format!(
+                "Not enough rows to train PQ. Requires {num_centroids} rows but only {} available",
+                data.len()
+            )));
         }
 
         // TODO: support bf16 later.
@@ -185,10 +237,159 @@ impl PQBuildParams {
             DataType::Float16 => self.build_from_fsl::<Float16Type>(fsl, distance_type),
             DataType::Float32 => self.build_from_fsl::<Float32Type>(fsl, distance_type),
             DataType::Float64 => self.build_from_fsl::<Float64Type>(fsl, distance_type),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("PQ builder: unsupported data type: {}", fsl.value_type()),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "PQ builder: unsupported data type: {}",
+                fsl.value_type()
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::Float32Array;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_samples_before_materializing_subvectors() {
+        const N: usize = 4096;
+        const DIM: usize = 8;
+        const NUM_SUB_VECTORS: usize = 2;
+        const NUM_BITS: usize = 2;
+        const K: usize = 1 << NUM_BITS;
+        const SUB_DIM: usize = DIM / NUM_SUB_VECTORS;
+
+        // The 256 * K sample cap is smaller than N. Initial centroids make
+        // training deterministic so the optimized and reference paths can be
+        // compared exactly.
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..N).flat_map(|row| {
+            let cluster = row % K;
+            (0..DIM).map(move |col| (cluster * 1000 + col) as f32 + row as f32 * 1e-4)
+        }));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values.clone(), DIM as i32).unwrap();
+
+        let init_values: Vec<f32> = (0..NUM_SUB_VECTORS * K)
+            .flat_map(|i| (0..SUB_DIM).map(move |col| (i % K * 1000 + col) as f32))
+            .collect();
+        let init_codebook: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(init_values.clone()),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let pq = PQBuildParams::with_codebook(NUM_SUB_VECTORS, NUM_BITS, init_codebook)
+            .build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut expected = Vec::with_capacity(K * DIM);
+        for sub_idx in 0..NUM_SUB_VECTORS {
+            let mut sub_values = Vec::with_capacity(N * SUB_DIM);
+            for row in values.values().chunks(DIM) {
+                sub_values.extend_from_slice(&row[sub_idx * SUB_DIM..(sub_idx + 1) * SUB_DIM]);
+            }
+            let sub_init = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(
+                    init_values[sub_idx * K * SUB_DIM..(sub_idx + 1) * K * SUB_DIM].to_vec(),
+                ),
+                SUB_DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let params = KMeansParams::new(Some(Arc::new(sub_init)), 50, 1, DistanceType::L2);
+            let kmeans = train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(
+                &Float32Array::from(sub_values),
+                params,
+                SUB_DIM,
+                K,
+                256,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            expected.extend_from_slice(kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values());
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            pq.codebook.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+            expected.as_slice()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_sample_size_rejects_overflow() {
+        let mut params = PQBuildParams::new(2, 2);
+        params.sample_rate = usize::MAX;
+
+        let error = params.try_sample_size().unwrap_err();
+        let expected = format!(
+            "PQ training sample size overflows: sample_rate={}, num_centroids=4",
+            usize::MAX
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(&expected), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_sample_size_rejects_centroid_count_overflow() {
+        let params = PQBuildParams::new(2, usize::BITS as usize);
+
+        let error = params.try_sample_size().unwrap_err();
+        let expected = format!(
+            "PQ centroid count overflows: num_bits={}, usize_bits={}",
+            usize::BITS,
+            usize::BITS
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(&expected), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_rejects_sample_size_overflow() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..4 * 8).map(|v| v as f32));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 8).unwrap();
+        let mut params = PQBuildParams::new(2, 2);
+        params.sample_rate = usize::MAX;
+
+        let error = params.build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2).unwrap_err();
+        let expected = format!(
+            "PQ training sample size overflows: sample_rate={}, num_centroids=4",
+            usize::MAX
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(&expected), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// A supplied codebook is sliced with offsets derived from the column, so a
+    /// size that disagrees with the column used to pass through here: oversized
+    /// read the sub-vector boundaries at the wrong offsets and trained a garbage
+    /// quantizer, undersized sliced out of bounds and panicked.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_rejects_mismatched_codebook() {
+        const DIM: usize = 8;
+        const NUM_SUB_VECTORS: usize = 2;
+        const NUM_BITS: usize = 2;
+        const K: usize = 1 << NUM_BITS;
+
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..64 * DIM).map(|v| v as f32));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let codebook = |num_centroids: usize| -> ArrayRef {
+            let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..num_centroids * DIM).map(|v| v as f32));
+            Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, DIM as i32).unwrap())
+        };
+
+        PQBuildParams::with_codebook(NUM_SUB_VECTORS, NUM_BITS, codebook(K))
+            .build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2)
+            .expect("a codebook sized for the column must still be accepted");
+
+        for supplied in [K * 2, K / 2] {
+            let error = PQBuildParams::with_codebook(NUM_SUB_VECTORS, NUM_BITS, codebook(supplied))
+                .build(&fsl, DistanceType::L2)
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains(&(supplied * DIM).to_string())
+                    && error.to_string().contains(&(K * DIM).to_string()),
+                "the error must give the supplied and the required size: {error}"
+            );
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/distance.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/distance.rs
index 9c6c25bcfc2..db2d01ad2d3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/distance.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/distance.rs
@@ -2,20 +2,13 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use core::panic;
-use std::cmp::{max, min};
 
-use super::{num_centroids, utils::get_sub_vector_centroids};
+use super::utils::get_sub_vector_centroids;
 use lance_core::assume_eq;
-use lance_linalg::distance::{dot_distance_batch, l2_distance_batch, Dot, L2};
-use lance_linalg::simd::u8::u8x16;
-use lance_linalg::simd::{Shuffle, SIMD};
-
-// for quantizing the distance table, we need to know the max possible distance,
-// so we perform a flat search on the first `FLAT_NUM_4BIT_PQ` rows.
-// increasing this number will increase the accuracy of the quantization,
-// but also increase the computation time.
-// 200 is a good trade-off according to the original paper.
-const FLAT_NUM_4BIT_PQ: usize = 200;
+use lance_linalg::distance::{Dot, L2, dot_distance_batch, l2::L2Prepared, l2_distance_batch};
+use lance_linalg::simd::dist_table::{
+    sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_row, sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_rows, sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_transposed,
+};
 
 /// Build a Distance Table from the query to each PQ centroid
 /// using L2 distance.
@@ -42,7 +35,13 @@ pub fn build_distance_table_l2_impl<const NUM_BITS: u32, T: L2>(
     let sub_vector_length = dimension / num_sub_vectors;
     let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(NUM_BITS);
     let mut result = Vec::with_capacity(num_sub_vectors * num_centroids);
-    for (i, sub_vec) in query.chunks_exact(sub_vector_length).enumerate() {
+    // Legacy writers allowed non-divisible dimensions and truncated the tail.
+    // Limit iteration to the sub-vectors that were persisted by those writers.
+    for (i, sub_vec) in query
+        .chunks_exact(sub_vector_length)
+        .take(num_sub_vectors)
+        .enumerate()
+    {
         let subvec_centroids =
             get_sub_vector_centroids::<NUM_BITS, _>(codebook, dimension, num_sub_vectors, i);
         result.extend(l2_distance_batch(
@@ -54,6 +53,27 @@ pub fn build_distance_table_l2_impl<const NUM_BITS: u32, T: L2>(
     result
 }
 
+/// Build an L2 distance table using pre-prepared [L2Prepared] per sub-vector.
+///
+/// This avoids the per-call AoS→SoA transpose by reusing targets that were
+/// transposed once at `ProductQuantizer` construction time.
+pub fn build_distance_table_l2_prepared(l2_targets: &[L2Prepared], query: &[f32]) -> Vec<f32> {
+    let sub_dim = query.len() / l2_targets.len();
+    let num_targets = l2_targets[0].num_targets();
+
+    let mut result = vec![0.0f32; l2_targets.len() * num_targets];
+    // The target count also bounds legacy codebooks whose writers truncated
+    // a non-divisible vector tail.
+    for (i, (target, sub_vec)) in l2_targets
+        .iter()
+        .zip(query.chunks_exact(sub_dim))
+        .enumerate()
+    {
+        target.distances_into(sub_vec, &mut result[i * num_targets..][..num_targets]);
+    }
+    result
+}
+
 /// Build a Distance Table from the query to each PQ centroid
 /// using Dot distance.
 pub fn build_distance_table_dot<T: Dot>(
@@ -79,7 +99,13 @@ pub fn build_distance_table_dot_impl<const NUM_BITS: u32, T: Dot>(
     let sub_vector_length = dimension / num_sub_vectors;
     let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(NUM_BITS);
     let mut result = Vec::with_capacity(num_sub_vectors * num_centroids);
-    for (i, sub_vec) in query.chunks_exact(sub_vector_length).enumerate() {
+    // Legacy writers allowed non-divisible dimensions and truncated the tail.
+    // Limit iteration to the sub-vectors that were persisted by those writers.
+    for (i, sub_vec) in query
+        .chunks_exact(sub_vector_length)
+        .take(num_sub_vectors)
+        .enumerate()
+    {
         let subvec_centroids =
             get_sub_vector_centroids::<NUM_BITS, _>(codebook, dimension, num_sub_vectors, i);
         result.extend(dot_distance_batch(
@@ -111,13 +137,21 @@ pub(super) fn compute_pq_distance(
     num_bits: u32,
     num_sub_vectors: usize,
     code: &[u8],
-    k_hint: usize,
 ) -> Vec<f32> {
     if code.is_empty() {
         return Vec::new();
     }
     if num_bits == 4 {
-        return compute_pq_distance_4bit(distance_table, num_sub_vectors, code, k_hint);
+        let code_len = num_sub_vectors / 2;
+        let mut distances = vec![0.0; code.len() / code_len];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_transposed(
+            distances.len(),
+            code_len,
+            code,
+            distance_table,
+            &mut distances,
+        );
+        return distances;
     }
     // here `code` has been transposed,
     // so code[i][j] is the code of i-th sub-vector of the j-th vector,
@@ -143,144 +177,324 @@ pub(super) fn compute_pq_distance(
     distances
 }
 
-#[inline]
-pub(super) fn compute_pq_distance_4bit(
+/// Exact 4-bit PQ distance of row `id` over column-major codes, in the
+/// reference order every exact 4-bit path follows; see
+/// [`sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_row`].
+pub(super) fn compute_pq_distance_4bit_row(distance_table: &[f32], code: &[u8], id: usize) -> f32 {
+    let code_len = distance_table.len() / 32;
+    sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_row(code.len() / code_len, code_len, code, distance_table, id)
+}
+
+/// Exact 4-bit PQ distances of rows `ids` over column-major codes, writing the
+/// distance of `ids[i]` to `distances[i]`, bit-identical to
+/// [`compute_pq_distance_4bit_row`].
+pub(super) fn compute_pq_distance_4bit_rows(
     distance_table: &[f32],
-    num_sub_vectors: usize,
     code: &[u8],
-    k_hint: usize,
-) -> Vec<f32> {
-    let num_vectors = code.len() * 2 / num_sub_vectors;
-    let mut distances = vec![0.0f32; num_vectors];
-
-    // compute the distances for first k_hint rows
-    // then use the max distance as qmax to quantize the distance table
-    let k_hint = min(k_hint, num_vectors);
-    let flat_num = max(FLAT_NUM_4BIT_PQ, k_hint).min(num_vectors);
-    compute_pq_distance_4bit_flat(
-        distance_table,
-        num_vectors,
+    ids: &[u32],
+    distances: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    let code_len = distance_table.len() / 32;
+    sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_rows(
+        code.len() / code_len,
+        code_len,
         code,
-        0,
-        flat_num,
-        &mut distances,
+        distance_table,
+        ids,
+        distances,
     );
-    let qmax = *distances
-        .iter()
-        .take(flat_num)
-        .max_by(|a, b| a.total_cmp(b))
-        .unwrap();
-
-    let (qmin, quantized_dists_table) = quantize_distance_table(distance_table, qmax);
-    const NUM_CENTROIDS: usize = 2_usize.pow(4);
-    let mut quantized_dists = vec![0_u8; num_vectors];
-
-    let remainder = num_vectors % NUM_CENTROIDS;
-    for i in (0..num_vectors - remainder).step_by(NUM_CENTROIDS) {
-        let mut block_distances = u8x16::zeros();
-
-        for (sub_vec_idx, vec_indices) in code.chunks_exact(num_vectors).enumerate() {
-            let origin_dist_table = unsafe {
-                u8x16::load_unaligned(
-                    quantized_dists_table
-                        .as_ptr()
-                        .add(sub_vec_idx * 2 * NUM_CENTROIDS),
-                )
-            };
-            let origin_next_dist_table = unsafe {
-                u8x16::load_unaligned(
-                    quantized_dists_table
-                        .as_ptr()
-                        .add((sub_vec_idx * 2 + 1) * NUM_CENTROIDS),
-                )
-            };
-
-            let indices = unsafe { u8x16::load_unaligned(vec_indices.as_ptr().add(i)) };
-
-            // compute current distances
-            let current_indices = indices.bit_and(0x0F);
-            block_distances += origin_dist_table.shuffle(current_indices);
-
-            // compute next distances
-            let next_indices = indices.right_shift::<4>();
-            block_distances += origin_next_dist_table.shuffle(next_indices);
-        }
+}
 
-        unsafe {
-            block_distances.store_unaligned(quantized_dists.as_mut_ptr().add(i));
-        }
+/// A 4-bit PQ distance table quantized to `u8` lookup entries.
+///
+/// Like faiss' fast-scan LUTs, every 16-entry table is shifted by its own
+/// minimum and all tables share one scale, chosen so a row's sum of `2 *
+/// code_len` entries cannot overflow a `u16` accumulator.
+///
+/// # Error bounds
+///
+/// With `q_t(j)` the byte of entry `d_t(j)` and `e_t(j) = q_t(j) * step -
+/// (d_t(j) - min_t)` its signed rounding error, a row picking `c_t` in every
+/// table has the real sum `S = bias + q * step - sum_t e_t(c_t)`, so
+/// `bias + q * step - err_below <= S <= bias + q * step + err_above`.
+///
+/// `distance()` rounds `S` in `f32` as `-0.0 + fl(lo + hi) + ...`, one
+/// rounding per pair and per accumulation. The first accumulation is exact, so
+/// each entry passes through at most `C = code_len` roundings, and additions
+/// that underflow are exact. Every summand then carries a factor `1 + theta`
+/// with `|theta| <= gamma_C = C u / (1 - C u)`, `u = 2^-24` (Higham, Lemma
+/// 3.1), which gives `|fl(S) - S| <= gamma_C * magnitude`, and `fl(S)` within
+/// `S * (1 -+ gamma_C)` when no entry is negative. Dot scores subtract `diff =
+/// num_sub_vectors - 1` once more, off by at most `u * (|fl(S)| + diff)`.
+/// `gamma` counts `C + 1` roundings for headroom, and `slack` covers the `f64`
+/// rounding of these bounds; both only widen them.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub(super) struct QuantizedDistanceTable {
+    /// Sum of the per-table minimums.
+    bias: f64,
+    /// Distance represented by one quantized unit.
+    step: f32,
+    /// Sum over tables of the largest rounding error, `max_j e_t(j) >= 0`.
+    err_below: f64,
+    /// Sum over tables of `-min_j e_t(j) >= 0`.
+    err_above: f64,
+    /// Sum of the largest entry magnitude of each table, which bounds the
+    /// magnitude of every partial sum of a row.
+    magnitude: f64,
+    /// Whether no entry is negative, so the `f32` rounding error of a row
+    /// scales with its sum instead of `magnitude`.
+    nonnegative: bool,
+    /// Relative rounding bound `gamma_{C+1}` of a row's `f32` sum.
+    gamma: f64,
+    /// `1 / step` and `1 / (1 - gamma)`, which only steer the first guess of
+    /// [`Self::sum_cutoff`], so their rounding cannot change its result.
+    inv_step: f64,
+    inv_lower_gain: f64,
+    /// Allowance for the `f64` rounding of `bias`, the errors and the bounds.
+    slack: f64,
+}
+
+/// Quantize `distance_table` into `quantized`, or return `None` when callers
+/// must score exactly: the table has a non-finite entry, no positive span to
+/// quantize, or entries so large that a row's `f32` sum could overflow.
+pub(super) fn quantize_4bit_distance_table(
+    distance_table: &[f32],
+    quantized: &mut Vec<u8>,
+) -> Option<QuantizedDistanceTable> {
+    const NUM_CENTROIDS: usize = 16;
+    let (tables, _) = distance_table.as_chunks::<NUM_CENTROIDS>();
+    let num_tables = tables.len();
+    // Each rounded entry may exceed `span * scale` by half a unit.
+    let max_total = (u16::MAX as usize).checked_sub(num_tables)? as f32;
+
+    let mut max_span = 0.0f32;
+    let mut span_sum = 0.0f32;
+    let mut bias = 0.0f64;
+    let mut magnitude = 0.0f64;
+    let mut nonnegative = true;
+    // The minimum and maximum below would skip or misplace NaN, which would
+    // leave NaN entries out of every bound.
+    let mut finite = true;
+    for table in tables {
+        finite &= reduce_16(&table.map(f32::is_finite), |a, b| a & b);
+        let (min, max) = (reduce_16(table, min_of), reduce_16(table, max_of));
+        max_span = max_span.max(max - min);
+        span_sum += max - min;
+        bias += f64::from(min);
+        magnitude += f64::from(min.abs().max(max.abs()));
+        nonnegative &= min >= 0.0;
     }
-    if remainder > 0 {
-        let offset = max(num_vectors - remainder, flat_num);
-        compute_pq_distance_4bit_flat(
-            distance_table,
-            num_vectors,
-            code,
-            offset,
-            num_vectors - offset,
-            &mut distances,
-        );
+    if !(finite && span_sum.is_finite() && max_span > 0.0 && magnitude <= f64::from(f32::MAX / 4.0))
+    {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let scale = (u8::MAX as f32 / max_span).min(max_total / span_sum);
+    let step = scale.recip();
+    if !(scale.is_finite() && scale > 0.0 && step.is_finite()) {
+        return None;
     }
 
-    // need to dequantize the distances
-    // to make the distances comparable to the others from the other partitions
-    let range = (qmax - qmin) / 255.0;
-    distances
-        .iter_mut()
-        .take(num_vectors - remainder) // don't overwrite the remainder
-        .skip(flat_num) // don't overwrite the first k_hint
-        .zip(
-            quantized_dists
-                .into_iter()
-                .take(num_vectors - remainder)
-                .skip(flat_num),
-        )
-        .for_each(|(dist, q_dist)| {
-            *dist = (q_dist as f32) * range + qmin;
+    quantized.clear();
+    quantized.reserve(num_tables * NUM_CENTROIDS);
+    let (mut err_below, mut err_above) = (0.0f64, 0.0f64);
+    let mut max_sum = 0u32;
+    for table in tables {
+        let min = reduce_16(table, min_of);
+        let codes = table.map(|d| ((d - min) * scale + 0.5).floor().min(u8::MAX as f32) as u8);
+        // The minimum entry quantizes to 0 with no error, so the largest error
+        // is `>= 0` and the smallest `<= 0`. `code * step` and, short of a
+        // 29-bit exponent gap, `d - min` are exact in `f64`.
+        let errors: [f64; NUM_CENTROIDS] = std::array::from_fn(|j| {
+            f64::from(codes[j]) * f64::from(step) - (f64::from(table[j]) - f64::from(min))
         });
-    distances
+        err_below += reduce_16(&errors, max_of);
+        err_above -= reduce_16(&errors, min_of);
+        max_sum += u32::from(reduce_16(&codes, max_of));
+        quantized.extend_from_slice(&codes);
+    }
+    // The scale rules this out; checked so that the kernel's `u16` sums
+    // provably never wrap.
+    if max_sum > u32::from(u16::MAX) {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    const U: f64 = f32::EPSILON as f64 / 2.0;
+    let roundings = num_tables.div_ceil(2) as f64 + 1.0;
+    let gamma = roundings * U / (1.0 - roundings * U);
+    // Each of the `num_tables + O(1)` `f64` operations behind a bound rounds
+    // by at most `2^-53` of these magnitudes; `2^-50` per operation plus 64
+    // spare operations is generous.
+    let slack = (num_tables as f64 + 64.0)
+        * 2.0f64.powi(-50)
+        * (2.0 * magnitude + err_below + err_above + f64::from(u16::MAX) * f64::from(step));
+    Some(QuantizedDistanceTable {
+        bias,
+        step,
+        err_below,
+        err_above,
+        magnitude,
+        nonnegative,
+        gamma,
+        inv_step: f64::from(step).recip(),
+        inv_lower_gain: (1.0 - gamma).recip(),
+        slack,
+    })
 }
 
-// compute the distance for 4bit PQ
-// it only computes for the rows from offset to offset + length
-fn compute_pq_distance_4bit_flat(
-    distance_table: &[f32],
-    num_vectors: usize,
-    code: &[u8],
-    offset: usize,
-    length: usize,
-    dists: &mut [f32],
-) {
-    const NUM_CENTROIDS: usize = 2_usize.pow(4);
+/// Reduce the 16 entries of a table pairwise.
+///
+/// Quantization runs once per partition and query. Unlike a sequential fold
+/// of `f32::min`, which must handle NaN, the pairwise form vectorizes; for
+/// the finite values it sees, it finds the same minimum up to the sign of
+/// zero, which never changes a quantized byte.
+#[inline(always)]
+fn reduce_16<T: Copy>(values: &[T; 16], f: impl Fn(T, T) -> T) -> T {
+    let halves: [T; 8] = std::array::from_fn(|i| f(values[i], values[i + 8]));
+    let quarters: [T; 4] = std::array::from_fn(|i| f(halves[i], halves[i + 4]));
+    f(f(quarters[0], quarters[2]), f(quarters[1], quarters[3]))
+}
 
-    for (sub_vec_idx, vec_indices) in code.chunks_exact(num_vectors).enumerate() {
-        let vec_indices = &vec_indices[offset..offset + length];
-        let distances = &mut dists[offset..offset + length];
-        let dist_table = &distance_table[sub_vec_idx * 2 * NUM_CENTROIDS..];
-        let next_dist_table = &distance_table[(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 1) * NUM_CENTROIDS..];
-        for (i, &centroid_idx) in vec_indices.iter().enumerate() {
-            let current_idx = centroid_idx & 0xF;
-            let next_idx = centroid_idx >> 4;
-            distances[i] += dist_table[current_idx as usize];
-            distances[i] += next_dist_table[next_idx as usize];
+fn min_of<T: PartialOrd>(a: T, b: T) -> T {
+    if b < a { b } else { a }
+}
+
+fn max_of<T: PartialOrd>(a: T, b: T) -> T {
+    if b > a { b } else { a }
+}
+
+/// Whether every entry of a 4-bit distance table is finite and the per-table
+/// maximum magnitudes sum to less than `f32::MAX / 4`.
+///
+/// A row score adds one entry per table, so every partial sum stays within
+/// that sum times a rounding factor far below 2, and the dot offset of
+/// `num_sub_vectors - 1` cannot push it out of `(f32::MIN, f32::MAX)` either.
+pub(super) fn bounded_4bit_scores(distance_table: &[f32]) -> bool {
+    const NUM_CENTROIDS: usize = 16;
+    let mut magnitude_sum = 0.0f32;
+    for table in distance_table.as_chunks::<NUM_CENTROIDS>().0 {
+        let mut max_magnitude = 0.0f32;
+        for &d in table {
+            if !d.is_finite() {
+                return false;
+            }
+            max_magnitude = max_magnitude.max(d.abs());
         }
+        magnitude_sum += max_magnitude;
     }
+    magnitude_sum < f32::MAX / 4.0
 }
 
-// Quantize the distance table to u8,
-// map distance `d` to `(d-qmin) * 255 / (qmax-qmin)`m
-// used for only 4bit PQ so num_centroids must be 16
-// returns (qmin, quantized_distance_table)
-#[inline]
-fn quantize_distance_table(distance_table: &[f32], qmax: f32) -> (f32, Vec<u8>) {
-    let qmin = distance_table.iter().cloned().fold(f32::INFINITY, f32::min);
-    let factor = 255.0 / (qmax - qmin);
-    let quantized_dist_table = distance_table
-        .iter()
-        .map(|&d| ((d - qmin) * factor).round() as u8)
-        .collect();
+impl QuantizedDistanceTable {
+    /// The amount `distance()` subtracts from a row's sum to get its score,
+    /// and a bound on the rounding of that subtraction. Only dot subtracts,
+    /// with `score_diff = num_sub_vectors - 1 > 0`.
+    fn score_shift(&self, score_diff: f32) -> (f64, f64) {
+        if score_diff == 0.0 {
+            return (0.0, 0.0);
+        }
+        const U: f64 = f32::EPSILON as f64 / 2.0;
+        let diff = f64::from(score_diff);
+        // The `2^-20` margin covers the `f64` rounding of the `diff` terms.
+        let rounding =
+            U * (self.magnitude * (1.0 + self.gamma) + diff.abs()) * (1.0 + 2.0f64.powi(-20));
+        (diff, rounding)
+    }
+
+    /// `bias` lowered by the largest quantization error.
+    fn lower_offset(&self) -> f64 {
+        self.bias - self.err_below - self.slack
+    }
+
+    /// `bias + sum * step` lowered by the largest quantization error.
+    fn lower_row_sum(&self, sum: u16) -> f64 {
+        f64::from(sum) * f64::from(self.step) + self.lower_offset()
+    }
+
+    /// A lower bound of the score of every row whose quantized sum is `sum`,
+    /// nondecreasing in `sum` since every `f64` operation rounds monotonically.
+    fn lower_score(&self, sum: u16, (diff, rounding): (f64, f64)) -> f64 {
+        let row_sum = self.lower_row_sum(sum);
+        let dist = if self.nonnegative {
+            row_sum.max(0.0) * (1.0 - self.gamma)
+        } else {
+            row_sum - self.gamma * self.magnitude
+        };
+        dist - diff - rounding
+    }
+
+    /// An upper bound of the score of every row whose quantized sum is `sum`,
+    /// nondecreasing in `sum`.
+    fn upper_score(&self, sum: u16, (diff, rounding): (f64, f64)) -> f64 {
+        let row_sum =
+            f64::from(sum) * f64::from(self.step) + (self.bias + self.err_above + self.slack);
+        let dist = if self.nonnegative {
+            row_sum.max(0.0) * (1.0 + self.gamma)
+        } else {
+            row_sum + self.gamma * self.magnitude
+        };
+        dist - diff + rounding
+    }
 
-    (qmin, quantized_dist_table)
+    /// The largest quantized sum of a row whose score (exact distance minus
+    /// `score_diff`) may still order below `threshold`, or `None` when no row's
+    /// can. Every row with a larger sum scores at or above `threshold`.
+    ///
+    /// Scores compare in the total order of
+    /// [`OrderedFloat`](crate::vector::graph::OrderedFloat): a positive NaN
+    /// threshold ranks above every score and cuts nothing, a negative NaN
+    /// below all, and `-0.0` orders below `+0.0`.
+    pub(super) fn sum_cutoff(&self, threshold: f32, score_diff: f32) -> Option<u16> {
+        if threshold.is_nan() {
+            return threshold.is_sign_positive().then_some(u16::MAX);
+        }
+        // A score whose real bound is `>= 0` may still be `-0.0`, which orders
+        // below a `+0.0` threshold, so that threshold keeps bounds `<= 0`.
+        let threshold = if threshold.to_bits() == 0 {
+            f64::from_bits(1)
+        } else {
+            f64::from(threshold)
+        };
+        let shift = self.score_shift(score_diff);
+        let below = |sum| self.lower_score(sum, shift) < threshold;
+        // Invert `lower_score` in closed form, then step to the exact largest
+        // qualifying sum, which the inversion's `f64` rounding can miss by a
+        // unit. This runs on every heap replacement, so a good guess costs two
+        // evaluations of `below`.
+        let dist = threshold + shift.0 + shift.1;
+        let row_sum = if self.nonnegative {
+            dist * self.inv_lower_gain
+        } else {
+            dist + self.gamma * self.magnitude
+        };
+        let estimate = ((row_sum - self.lower_offset()) * self.inv_step).ceil() - 1.0;
+        let mut sum = estimate.clamp(0.0, f64::from(u16::MAX)) as u16;
+        if below(sum) {
+            while sum < u16::MAX && below(sum + 1) {
+                sum += 1;
+            }
+        } else {
+            if !below(0) {
+                return None;
+            }
+            // `below(0)` ends the walk.
+            while !below(sum) {
+                sum -= 1;
+            }
+        }
+        Some(sum)
+    }
+
+    /// A distance strictly above the score (exact distance minus
+    /// `score_diff`) of every row whose quantized sum is at most `sum`.
+    pub(super) fn kth_bound_distance(&self, sum: u16, score_diff: f32) -> f32 {
+        let upper = self.upper_score(sum, self.score_shift(score_diff));
+        let bound = upper as f32;
+        if f64::from(bound) > upper {
+            bound
+        } else {
+            bound.next_up()
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 /// Compute L2 distance from the query to all code without transposing the code.
@@ -291,14 +505,14 @@ fn quantize_distance_table(distance_table: &[f32], qmax: f32) -> (f32, Vec<u8>)
 /// - C: the tile size of code-book to run at once.
 /// - V: the tile size of PQ code to run at once.
 ///
-#[allow(dead_code)]
+#[cfg(test)]
 fn compute_l2_distance_without_transposing<const C: usize, const V: usize>(
     distance_table: &[f32],
     num_bits: u32,
     num_sub_vectors: usize,
     code: &[u8],
 ) -> Vec<f32> {
-    let num_centroids = num_centroids(num_bits);
+    let num_centroids = super::num_centroids(num_bits);
     let iter = code.chunks_exact(num_sub_vectors * V);
     let distances = iter.clone().flat_map(|c| {
         let mut sums = [0.0_f32; V];
@@ -307,7 +521,7 @@ fn compute_l2_distance_without_transposing<const C: usize, const V: usize>(
                 let vec_start = vec_idx * num_sub_vectors;
                 let s = c[vec_start + i..]
                     .iter()
-                    .take(min(C, num_sub_vectors - i))
+                    .take(C.min(num_sub_vectors - i))
                     .enumerate()
                     .map(|(k, c)| distance_table[(i + k) * num_centroids + *c as usize])
                     .sum::<f32>();
@@ -332,6 +546,7 @@ mod tests {
 
     use super::*;
     use arrow_array::UInt8Array;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::StdRng};
 
     #[test]
     fn test_compute_on_transposed_codes() {
@@ -352,7 +567,6 @@ mod tests {
             num_bits,
             num_sub_vectors,
             transposed_codes.values(),
-            100,
         );
         let expected = compute_l2_distance_without_transposing::<4, 1>(
             &distance_table,
@@ -362,4 +576,58 @@ mod tests {
         );
         assert_eq!(distances, expected);
     }
+
+    /// Per-row 4-bit PQ distances over row-major packed codes, summed in the
+    /// same order as `PQDistCalculator::distance`.
+    fn reference_4bit_distances(
+        distance_table: &[f32],
+        packed_codes: &[u8],
+        code_len: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<f32> {
+        packed_codes
+            .chunks_exact(code_len)
+            .map(|codes| {
+                codes
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(|(column, code)| {
+                        distance_table[column * 32 + (code & 0x0f) as usize]
+                            + distance_table[column * 32 + 16 + (code >> 4) as usize]
+                    })
+                    .sum::<f32>()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn random_4bit_codes(rng: &mut StdRng, num_vectors: usize, code_len: usize) -> UInt8Array {
+        UInt8Array::from_iter_values((0..num_vectors * code_len).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>()))
+    }
+
+    fn transposed_4bit_codes(
+        packed_codes: &UInt8Array,
+        num_vectors: usize,
+        code_len: usize,
+    ) -> UInt8Array {
+        if num_vectors == 0 {
+            return packed_codes.clone();
+        }
+        transpose(packed_codes, num_vectors, code_len)
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_compute_4bit_bulk_distance_matches_per_row(#[values(0, 17, 600)] num_vectors: usize) {
+        const NUM_SUB_VECTORS: usize = 6;
+        const CODE_LEN: usize = NUM_SUB_VECTORS / 2;
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(num_vectors as u64);
+        let distance_table = (0..NUM_SUB_VECTORS * 16)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(-3.0f32..5.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let packed_codes = random_4bit_codes(&mut rng, num_vectors, CODE_LEN);
+        let transposed = transposed_4bit_codes(&packed_codes, num_vectors, CODE_LEN);
+
+        let actual = compute_pq_distance(&distance_table, 4, NUM_SUB_VECTORS, transposed.values());
+        let expected = reference_4bit_distances(&distance_table, packed_codes.values(), CODE_LEN);
+        let bits = |dists: &[f32]| dists.iter().map(|d| d.to_bits()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(bits(&actual), bits(&expected));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/pairwise.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/pairwise.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..401b84d662c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/pairwise.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1017 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Symmetric PQ code-to-code scoring through a codeword distance table.
+//!
+//! Staged codes are column-major per batch (all rows' first code byte, then
+//! the second, ...), like the on-disk transposed layout, so one sub-vector's
+//! codes for a candidate range are contiguous.
+
+use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow::compute::cast;
+use arrow::datatypes::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, UInt8Type};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float64Array, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, cast::AsArray,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+use super::{ProductQuantizer, storage::build_pairwise_distance_table};
+use crate::vector::PQ_CODE_COLUMN;
+use crate::vector::pairwise::{
+    NORM_COLUMN, PairKernel, PairScorer, column_values, l2_to_cosine, list_values, norm_field,
+};
+
+pub struct PQPairScorer {
+    num_bits: u32,
+    num_sub_vectors: usize,
+    code_bytes: usize,
+    metric: DistanceType,
+    /// Codeword distances `[sub][code_a][code_b]`: squared L2 for l2 and
+    /// cosine (residuals share the partition centroid, which cancels), or
+    /// per-sub-vector dot distance for dot.
+    table: CodewordTable,
+    /// Cosine only: `‖c_sub + codeword‖²` per `[sub][code]`, where `c` is the
+    /// partition centroid that residual codes are relative to.
+    squared_norms: Vec<f64>,
+    /// Resolved once per scorer; it also fixes the table layout.
+    backend: LookupBackend,
+}
+
+/// The codeword distance table in the layout its lookup backend reads.
+enum CodewordTable {
+    /// `[sub][code_a][code_b]` f32 entries.
+    Rows(Vec<f32>),
+    /// 8-bit only: `[sub][code_a][k][code_b]` holding byte `k` of each
+    /// little-endian f32 entry, so byte shuffles can look up 64 entries at once.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    BytePlanes(Vec<u8>),
+}
+
+impl CodewordTable {
+    fn new(rows: Vec<f32>, backend: LookupBackend) -> Self {
+        match backend {
+            #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+            LookupBackend::Avx512Vbmi => Self::BytePlanes(
+                rows.as_chunks::<256>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|row| {
+                        (0..4).flat_map(move |k| row.iter().map(move |v| v.to_le_bytes()[k]))
+                    })
+                    .collect(),
+            ),
+            _ => Self::Rows(rows),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn rows(&self) -> &[f32] {
+        match self {
+            Self::Rows(rows) => rows,
+            #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+            Self::BytePlanes(_) => unreachable!("the lookup backend reads byte planes"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    fn byte_planes(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        match self {
+            Self::BytePlanes(planes) => planes,
+            Self::Rows(_) => unreachable!("the lookup backend reads f32 rows"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PQPairScorer {
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        pq: &ProductQuantizer,
+        centroid: &ArrayRef,
+        metric: DistanceType,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::with_backend(pq, centroid, metric, LookupBackend::best(pq.num_bits))
+    }
+
+    fn with_backend(
+        pq: &ProductQuantizer,
+        centroid: &ArrayRef,
+        metric: DistanceType,
+        backend: LookupBackend,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        debug_assert!(LookupBackend::supported(pq.num_bits).contains(&backend));
+        let num_sub_vectors = pq.num_sub_vectors;
+        let code_bytes = match pq.num_bits {
+            8 => num_sub_vectors,
+            4 if num_sub_vectors.is_multiple_of(2) => num_sub_vectors / 2,
+            bits => {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "PQ pair scoring requires 4 or 8 bits (with an even sub-vector count for 4), got bits={bits} num_sub_vectors={num_sub_vectors}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        let table_metric = match metric {
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine => DistanceType::L2,
+            DistanceType::Dot => DistanceType::Dot,
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "PQ pair scoring with {other} distance"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        let values = pq.codebook.values();
+        macro_rules! table {
+            ($ty:ty) => {
+                build_pairwise_distance_table(
+                    values.as_primitive::<$ty>().values(),
+                    pq.num_bits,
+                    num_sub_vectors,
+                    pq.dimension,
+                    table_metric,
+                )
+            };
+        }
+        let table = match values.data_type() {
+            DataType::Float16 => table!(Float16Type),
+            DataType::Float32 => table!(Float32Type),
+            DataType::Float64 => table!(Float64Type),
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "PQ pair scoring codebook type {other}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        let squared_norms = if metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            let codebook = cast(values, &DataType::Float64)?;
+            let centroid = cast(centroid, &DataType::Float64)?;
+            codeword_squared_norms(
+                codebook.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values(),
+                centroid.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values(),
+                pq,
+            )?
+        } else {
+            Vec::new()
+        };
+        Ok(Self {
+            num_bits: pq.num_bits,
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            code_bytes,
+            metric,
+            table: CodewordTable::new(table, backend),
+            squared_norms,
+            backend,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn num_centroids(&self) -> usize {
+        1 << self.num_bits
+    }
+}
+
+fn codeword_squared_norms(
+    codebook: &[f64],
+    centroid: &[f64],
+    pq: &ProductQuantizer,
+) -> Result<Vec<f64>> {
+    let num_centroids = 1usize << pq.num_bits;
+    let width = pq.dimension / pq.num_sub_vectors;
+    if centroid.len() != pq.dimension || codebook.len() != num_centroids * pq.dimension {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "PQ pair scoring expects a {}-d centroid and {num_centroids}x{} codebook, got {} and {} values",
+            pq.dimension,
+            pq.dimension,
+            centroid.len(),
+            codebook.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(codebook
+        .chunks_exact(width)
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, codeword)| {
+            let sub = i / num_centroids;
+            codeword
+                .iter()
+                .zip(&centroid[sub * width..(sub + 1) * width])
+                .map(|(w, c)| (w + c).powi(2))
+                .sum()
+        })
+        .collect())
+}
+
+impl PairScorer for PQPairScorer {
+    type Kernel<'a> = PQKernel<'a>;
+
+    fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.code_bytes
+            + if self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+                8
+            } else {
+                0
+            }
+    }
+
+    /// `source` codes must be column-major over all of its rows.
+    fn stage(&self, source: &RecordBatch, rows: Range<usize>) -> Result<Vec<(Field, ArrayRef)>> {
+        let values = list_values::<UInt8Type>(source, PQ_CODE_COLUMN)?;
+        let stride = source.num_rows();
+        if values.len() != stride * self.code_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "PQ source has {} code bytes for {stride} rows of {} bytes",
+                values.len(),
+                self.code_bytes
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut codes = Vec::with_capacity(rows.len() * self.code_bytes);
+        for byte in 0..self.code_bytes {
+            let start = byte * stride;
+            codes.extend_from_slice(&values[start + rows.start..start + rows.end]);
+        }
+        let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(2);
+        if self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            let norms = self.staged_norms(&codes, rows.len());
+            columns.push((
+                norm_field(),
+                Arc::new(Float64Array::from(norms)) as ArrayRef,
+            ));
+        }
+        let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from(codes),
+            self.code_bytes as i32,
+        )?;
+        columns.insert(
+            0,
+            (
+                Field::new(PQ_CODE_COLUMN, codes.data_type().clone(), false),
+                Arc::new(codes) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        );
+        Ok(columns)
+    }
+
+    fn kernel<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        anchor: &'a RecordBatch,
+        candidates: &'a RecordBatch,
+    ) -> Result<Self::Kernel<'a>> {
+        let norms = |batch: &'a RecordBatch| -> Result<&'a [f64]> {
+            if self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+                column_values::<Float64Type>(batch, NORM_COLUMN)
+            } else {
+                Ok(&[])
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(PQKernel {
+            scorer: self,
+            anchor: list_values::<UInt8Type>(anchor, PQ_CODE_COLUMN)?,
+            anchor_stride: anchor.num_rows(),
+            candidates: list_values::<UInt8Type>(candidates, PQ_CODE_COLUMN)?,
+            candidate_stride: candidates.num_rows(),
+            anchor_norms: norms(anchor)?,
+            candidate_norms: norms(candidates)?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl PQPairScorer {
+    /// `‖x̂‖` per row of column-major codes, summing sub-vectors in order.
+    fn staged_norms(&self, codes: &[u8], rows: usize) -> Vec<f64> {
+        let num_centroids = self.num_centroids();
+        let mut squared = vec![0.0f64; rows];
+        for (byte, codes) in codes.chunks_exact(rows.max(1)).enumerate() {
+            for (sum, &code) in squared.iter_mut().zip(codes) {
+                if self.num_bits == 4 {
+                    let low = (2 * byte) * num_centroids + usize::from(code & 0x0f);
+                    let high = (2 * byte + 1) * num_centroids + usize::from(code >> 4);
+                    *sum += self.squared_norms[low];
+                    *sum += self.squared_norms[high];
+                } else {
+                    *sum += self.squared_norms[byte * num_centroids + usize::from(code)];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        squared.into_iter().map(f64::sqrt).collect()
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct PQKernel<'a> {
+    scorer: &'a PQPairScorer,
+    anchor: &'a [u8],
+    anchor_stride: usize,
+    candidates: &'a [u8],
+    candidate_stride: usize,
+    anchor_norms: &'a [f64],
+    candidate_norms: &'a [f64],
+}
+
+impl<'a> PQKernel<'a> {
+    fn anchor_code(&self, byte: usize, anchor_row: usize) -> u8 {
+        self.anchor[byte * self.anchor_stride + anchor_row]
+    }
+
+    fn candidate_codes(&self, byte: usize, candidates: &Range<usize>) -> &'a [u8] {
+        let start = byte * self.candidate_stride;
+        &self.candidates[start + candidates.start..start + candidates.end]
+    }
+
+    /// Distances from the anchor's codeword `code` of sub-vector `sub` to all
+    /// `N` codewords of that sub-vector.
+    fn table_row<const N: usize>(&self, sub: usize, code: u8) -> &'a [f32; N] {
+        let start = (sub * N + usize::from(code)) * N;
+        self.scorer.table.rows()[start..start + N]
+            .try_into()
+            .expect("a table row holds one entry per codeword")
+    }
+}
+
+// The scalar backends apply one code byte per pass: the compiler vectorizes
+// each pass over the candidates, which is faster than grouping bytes per
+// candidate on both x86 and aarch64.
+
+fn lookup8_scalar(
+    kernel: &PQKernel<'_>,
+    anchor_row: usize,
+    candidates: Range<usize>,
+    out: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    out.fill(0.0);
+    for byte in 0..kernel.scorer.code_bytes {
+        let row: &[f32; 256] = kernel.table_row(byte, kernel.anchor_code(byte, anchor_row));
+        for (out, &code) in out
+            .iter_mut()
+            .zip(kernel.candidate_codes(byte, &candidates))
+        {
+            *out += row[usize::from(code)];
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn lookup4_scalar(
+    kernel: &PQKernel<'_>,
+    anchor_row: usize,
+    candidates: Range<usize>,
+    out: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    out.fill(0.0);
+    for byte in 0..kernel.scorer.code_bytes {
+        let code = kernel.anchor_code(byte, anchor_row);
+        let low: &[f32; 16] = kernel.table_row(2 * byte, code & 0x0f);
+        let high: &[f32; 16] = kernel.table_row(2 * byte + 1, code >> 4);
+        for (out, &code) in out
+            .iter_mut()
+            .zip(kernel.candidate_codes(byte, &candidates))
+        {
+            *out += low[usize::from(code & 0x0f)];
+            *out += high[usize::from(code >> 4)];
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+    use std::ops::Range;
+
+    use super::PQKernel;
+
+    const LANES: usize = 16;
+
+    /// 4-bit code bytes whose table rows are applied per pass over the
+    /// candidates: their 16 rows stay in registers, and each partial sum is
+    /// loaded and stored once per group rather than once per sub-vector.
+    const LOOKUP_GROUP: usize = 8;
+
+    /// Runs `$body` with the const `$group` = [`LOOKUP_GROUP`] for each full
+    /// group of code bytes starting at `$first`, then with `$group` = 1 per
+    /// remaining byte. Each candidate's sum still adds sub-vectors in order
+    /// starting from zero, so every distance is independent of the grouping,
+    /// the SIMD width and the candidate range.
+    macro_rules! for_byte_groups {
+        ($code_bytes:expr, |$first:ident, $group:ident| $body:block) => {{
+            let code_bytes: usize = $code_bytes;
+            let mut $first = 0;
+            while $first + LOOKUP_GROUP <= code_bytes {
+                const $group: usize = LOOKUP_GROUP;
+                $body
+                $first += LOOKUP_GROUP;
+            }
+            while $first < code_bytes {
+                const $group: usize = 1;
+                $body
+                $first += 1;
+            }
+        }};
+    }
+
+    /// 4-bit `(low nibble, high nibble)` table rows and candidate codes of the
+    /// `G` code bytes from `first`.
+    #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
+    fn rows4<'a, const G: usize>(
+        kernel: &PQKernel<'a>,
+        first: usize,
+        anchor_row: usize,
+        candidates: &Range<usize>,
+    ) -> ([(&'a [f32; 16], &'a [f32; 16]); G], [&'a [u8]; G]) {
+        (
+            std::array::from_fn(|g| {
+                let byte = first + g;
+                let code = kernel.anchor_code(byte, anchor_row);
+                (
+                    kernel.table_row(2 * byte, code & 0x0f),
+                    kernel.table_row(2 * byte + 1, code >> 4),
+                )
+            }),
+            std::array::from_fn(|g| kernel.candidate_codes(first + g, candidates)),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Adds the entries of one 4-bit byte group, low nibble first, in byte order,
+    /// to `out[start..]`.
+    fn add_entries4<const G: usize>(
+        rows: &[(&[f32; 16], &[f32; 16]); G],
+        codes: &[&[u8]; G],
+        out: &mut [f32],
+        start: usize,
+    ) {
+        let codes = codes.map(|codes| &codes[..out.len()]);
+        for (c, out) in out.iter_mut().enumerate().skip(start) {
+            for ((low, high), codes) in rows.iter().zip(&codes) {
+                let code = codes[c];
+                *out += low[usize::from(code & 0x0f)];
+                *out += high[usize::from(code >> 4)];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Codes of candidates `c..c + 16`, widened to u32 lanes.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    fn load_codes(codes: &[u8], c: usize) -> __m512i {
+        let codes = &codes[c..c + LANES];
+        // SAFETY: `codes` holds exactly 16 bytes.
+        _mm512_cvtepu8_epi32(unsafe { _mm_loadu_si128(codes.as_ptr().cast()) })
+    }
+
+    /// Looks 16 candidates' nibbles up per instruction in 16-float rows held
+    /// in registers.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub(super) fn lookup4_avx512(
+        kernel: &PQKernel<'_>,
+        anchor_row: usize,
+        candidates: Range<usize>,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        out.fill(0.0);
+        let n = out.len();
+        for_byte_groups!(kernel.scorer.code_bytes, |first, G| {
+            let (rows, codes) = rows4::<G>(kernel, first, anchor_row, &candidates);
+            let codes = codes.map(|codes| &codes[..n]);
+            // SAFETY: each row holds exactly 16 floats.
+            let tables = rows.map(|(low, high)| unsafe {
+                (
+                    _mm512_loadu_ps(low.as_ptr()),
+                    _mm512_loadu_ps(high.as_ptr()),
+                )
+            });
+            let mut c = 0;
+            while c + LANES <= n {
+                let out = &mut out[c..c + LANES];
+                // SAFETY: `out` holds exactly 16 floats.
+                let mut sum = unsafe { _mm512_loadu_ps(out.as_ptr()) };
+                for ((low, high), codes) in tables.iter().zip(&codes) {
+                    // `vpermps` reads only the low 4 bits of each index, so
+                    // the low nibble needs no mask.
+                    let code = load_codes(codes, c);
+                    sum = _mm512_add_ps(sum, _mm512_permutexvar_ps(code, *low));
+                    let code = _mm512_srli_epi32::<4>(code);
+                    sum = _mm512_add_ps(sum, _mm512_permutexvar_ps(code, *high));
+                }
+                // SAFETY: as above.
+                unsafe { _mm512_storeu_ps(out.as_mut_ptr(), sum) };
+                c += LANES;
+            }
+            add_entries4(&rows, &codes, out, c);
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Entries of 8 nibbles (the low 4 bits of each u32 lane; higher bits are
+    /// ignored) from a 16-float row held as two 8-float halves.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    fn lookup16_avx2(nibbles: __m256i, (lower, upper): (__m256, __m256)) -> __m256 {
+        let from_lower = _mm256_permutevar8x32_ps(lower, nibbles);
+        let from_upper = _mm256_permutevar8x32_ps(upper, nibbles);
+        // Bit 3 of each nibble, shifted into the sign bit, picks the half.
+        let upper = _mm256_castsi256_ps(_mm256_slli_epi32::<28>(nibbles));
+        _mm256_blendv_ps(from_lower, from_upper, upper)
+    }
+
+    /// The AVX2 variant of [`lookup4_avx512`]: 8 candidates per step, with
+    /// each 16-float row split across two registers.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    pub(super) fn lookup4_avx2(
+        kernel: &PQKernel<'_>,
+        anchor_row: usize,
+        candidates: Range<usize>,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        const LANES: usize = 8;
+        out.fill(0.0);
+        let n = out.len();
+        for_byte_groups!(kernel.scorer.code_bytes, |first, G| {
+            let (rows, codes) = rows4::<G>(kernel, first, anchor_row, &candidates);
+            let codes = codes.map(|codes| &codes[..n]);
+            let halves = rows.map(|(low, high)| {
+                // SAFETY: each row holds exactly 16 floats.
+                unsafe {
+                    (
+                        (
+                            _mm256_loadu_ps(low.as_ptr()),
+                            _mm256_loadu_ps(low[8..].as_ptr()),
+                        ),
+                        (
+                            _mm256_loadu_ps(high.as_ptr()),
+                            _mm256_loadu_ps(high[8..].as_ptr()),
+                        ),
+                    )
+                }
+            });
+            let mut c = 0;
+            while c + LANES <= n {
+                let out = &mut out[c..c + LANES];
+                // SAFETY: `out` holds exactly 8 floats.
+                let mut sum = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(out.as_ptr()) };
+                for ((low, high), codes) in halves.iter().zip(&codes) {
+                    let code = &codes[c..c + LANES];
+                    // SAFETY: `code` holds exactly 8 bytes.
+                    let code = unsafe { _mm_loadl_epi64(code.as_ptr().cast()) };
+                    let code = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi32(code);
+                    sum = _mm256_add_ps(sum, lookup16_avx2(code, *low));
+                    let code = _mm256_srli_epi32::<4>(code);
+                    sum = _mm256_add_ps(sum, lookup16_avx2(code, *high));
+                }
+                // SAFETY: as above.
+                unsafe { _mm256_storeu_ps(out.as_mut_ptr(), sum) };
+                c += LANES;
+            }
+            add_entries4(&rows, &codes, out, c);
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Byte `p` of the reordered codes holds candidate
+    /// `16 * (p / 4 % 4) + 4 * (p / 16) + p % 4`, so the byte-to-f32 unpacks in
+    /// [`lookup64`], which interleave within 128-bit lanes, leave candidates
+    /// `16 * r..16 * (r + 1)` in output register `r`.
+    const UNPACK_ORDER: [u8; 64] = {
+        let mut order = [0u8; 64];
+        let mut p = 0;
+        while p < 64 {
+            order[p] = (16 * (p / 4 % 4) + 4 * (p / 16) + p % 4) as u8;
+            p += 1;
+        }
+        order
+    };
+
+    /// Table entries of 64 candidate codes from one 256-entry row stored as 4
+    /// byte planes of 4 registers each.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vbmi")]
+    fn lookup64(planes: &[__m512i; 16], codes: __m512i, order: __m512i) -> [__m512; 4] {
+        let codes = _mm512_permutexvar_epi8(order, codes);
+        // Two-source byte shuffles cover codes below 128; bit 7 picks the
+        // upper half.
+        let upper = _mm512_movepi8_mask(codes);
+        let bytes: [__m512i; 4] = std::array::from_fn(|k| {
+            let low = _mm512_permutex2var_epi8(planes[4 * k], codes, planes[4 * k + 1]);
+            let high = _mm512_permutex2var_epi8(planes[4 * k + 2], codes, planes[4 * k + 3]);
+            _mm512_mask_blend_epi8(upper, low, high)
+        });
+        let low01 = _mm512_unpacklo_epi8(bytes[0], bytes[1]);
+        let high01 = _mm512_unpackhi_epi8(bytes[0], bytes[1]);
+        let low23 = _mm512_unpacklo_epi8(bytes[2], bytes[3]);
+        let high23 = _mm512_unpackhi_epi8(bytes[2], bytes[3]);
+        [
+            _mm512_castsi512_ps(_mm512_unpacklo_epi16(low01, low23)),
+            _mm512_castsi512_ps(_mm512_unpackhi_epi16(low01, low23)),
+            _mm512_castsi512_ps(_mm512_unpacklo_epi16(high01, high23)),
+            _mm512_castsi512_ps(_mm512_unpackhi_epi16(high01, high23)),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    /// Looks 64 candidates' codes up per step with byte shuffles over the
+    /// anchor's table row, held in registers as byte planes. One code byte
+    /// per pass keeps the 16 row registers live across all candidates.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vbmi")]
+    pub(super) fn lookup8_avx512_vbmi(
+        kernel: &PQKernel<'_>,
+        anchor_row: usize,
+        candidates: Range<usize>,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        const BLOCK: usize = 64;
+        out.fill(0.0);
+        let n = out.len();
+        let planes = kernel.scorer.table.byte_planes();
+        // SAFETY: `UNPACK_ORDER` holds exactly 64 bytes.
+        let order = unsafe { _mm512_loadu_si512(UNPACK_ORDER.as_ptr().cast()) };
+        let code_bytes = kernel.scorer.code_bytes;
+        let row_start =
+            |byte: usize| (byte * 256 + usize::from(kernel.anchor_code(byte, anchor_row))) * 1024;
+        for byte in 0..code_bytes {
+            let start = row_start(byte);
+            let row: &[u8; 1024] = planes[start..start + 1024]
+                .try_into()
+                .expect("a byte-plane row holds 1024 bytes");
+            // An anchor's rows are spread over the whole table, which exceeds
+            // L2, so fetch the next row while this one is applied.
+            if byte + 1 < code_bytes {
+                let next = row_start(byte + 1);
+                for line in planes[next..next + 1024].as_chunks::<64>().0 {
+                    // `_mm_prefetch` is safe in newer toolchains but unsafe at
+                    // the 1.91 MSRV, so allow both.
+                    // SAFETY: prefetching an in-bounds address has no side effects.
+                    #[allow(unused_unsafe)]
+                    unsafe {
+                        _mm_prefetch::<_MM_HINT_T0>(line.as_ptr().cast())
+                    };
+                }
+            }
+            // SAFETY: each register loads 64 of the row's 1024 bytes.
+            let row: [__m512i; 16] = std::array::from_fn(|i| unsafe {
+                _mm512_loadu_si512(row[BLOCK * i..].as_ptr().cast())
+            });
+            let codes = &kernel.candidate_codes(byte, &candidates)[..n];
+            let mut c = 0;
+            while c + BLOCK <= n {
+                // SAFETY: the slice holds exactly 64 bytes.
+                let block = unsafe { _mm512_loadu_si512(codes[c..c + BLOCK].as_ptr().cast()) };
+                let entries = lookup64(&row, block, order);
+                for (out, entry) in out[c..c + BLOCK]
+                    .as_chunks_mut::<LANES>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter_mut()
+                    .zip(entries)
+                {
+                    // SAFETY: `out` holds exactly 16 floats.
+                    unsafe {
+                        let sum = _mm512_add_ps(_mm512_loadu_ps(out.as_ptr()), entry);
+                        _mm512_storeu_ps(out.as_mut_ptr(), sum);
+                    }
+                }
+                c += BLOCK;
+            }
+            if c < n {
+                let mut block = [0u8; BLOCK];
+                block[..n - c].copy_from_slice(&codes[c..]);
+                // SAFETY: `block` holds exactly 64 bytes.
+                let block = unsafe { _mm512_loadu_si512(block.as_ptr().cast()) };
+                let mut entries = [0.0f32; BLOCK];
+                for (values, entry) in entries
+                    .as_chunks_mut::<LANES>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter_mut()
+                    .zip(lookup64(&row, block, order))
+                {
+                    // SAFETY: `values` holds exactly 16 floats.
+                    unsafe { _mm512_storeu_ps(values.as_mut_ptr(), entry) };
+                }
+                for (out, entry) in out[c..].iter_mut().zip(entries) {
+                    *out += entry;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// How [`PQKernel`] looks codeword distances up; resolved once per scorer
+/// from the host's CPU features. Every backend sums each candidate's
+/// sub-vectors in order starting from zero, without fused operations, so all
+/// backends give bit-identical distances for any candidate range.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum LookupBackend {
+    Scalar,
+    /// 4-bit only: nibble permutes over 16-float rows in registers.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    Avx512,
+    /// 4-bit only: the 256-bit variant of `Avx512`.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    Avx2,
+    /// 8-bit only: byte shuffles over byte-plane rows in registers.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    Avx512Vbmi,
+}
+
+impl LookupBackend {
+    /// Backends this host supports for `num_bits` codes, fastest first.
+    #[cfg_attr(not(target_arch = "x86_64"), allow(unused_variables))]
+    fn supported(num_bits: u32) -> Vec<Self> {
+        let mut backends = Vec::with_capacity(3);
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if num_bits == 4 {
+            if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                backends.push(Self::Avx512);
+            }
+            if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+                backends.push(Self::Avx2);
+            }
+        } else if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vbmi")
+        {
+            backends.push(Self::Avx512Vbmi);
+        }
+        backends.push(Self::Scalar);
+        backends
+    }
+
+    fn best(num_bits: u32) -> Self {
+        Self::supported(num_bits)[0]
+    }
+}
+
+impl PairKernel for PQKernel<'_> {
+    fn distances(&self, anchor_row: usize, candidates: Range<usize>, out: &mut [f32]) {
+        let scorer = self.scorer;
+        assert_eq!(out.len(), candidates.len());
+        let range = candidates.clone();
+        match scorer.backend {
+            LookupBackend::Scalar if scorer.num_bits == 8 => {
+                lookup8_scalar(self, anchor_row, range, out)
+            }
+            LookupBackend::Scalar => lookup4_scalar(self, anchor_row, range, out),
+            // SAFETY: `LookupBackend::supported` detected the CPU features of
+            // each x86 backend, for this code width.
+            #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+            LookupBackend::Avx512 => unsafe { x86::lookup4_avx512(self, anchor_row, range, out) },
+            #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+            LookupBackend::Avx2 => unsafe { x86::lookup4_avx2(self, anchor_row, range, out) },
+            #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+            LookupBackend::Avx512Vbmi => unsafe {
+                x86::lookup8_avx512_vbmi(self, anchor_row, range, out)
+            },
+        }
+        match scorer.metric {
+            DistanceType::Dot => {
+                // Each sub-vector contributed `1 - dot`; keep a single `1 -`.
+                let offset = scorer.num_sub_vectors as f32 - 1.0;
+                out.iter_mut().for_each(|distance| *distance -= offset);
+            }
+            DistanceType::Cosine => l2_to_cosine(
+                out,
+                self.anchor_norms[anchor_row],
+                &self.candidate_norms[candidates],
+            ),
+            _ => {}
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::vector::pq::storage::transpose;
+    use arrow_array::{Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+    use arrow_schema::Schema;
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    /// Dimension 6 with 3 sub-vectors of width 2; codewords are small
+    /// integers so the f64 oracle and the f32 table agree closely.
+    fn quantizer(num_bits: u32, metric: DistanceType) -> ProductQuantizer {
+        let num_sub_vectors = if num_bits == 4 { 4 } else { 3 };
+        let dimension = num_sub_vectors * 2;
+        let num_centroids = 1usize << num_bits;
+        let codebook: Vec<f32> = (0..num_sub_vectors * num_centroids * 2)
+            .map(|i| ((i * 7 + 3) % 11) as f32 - 5.0)
+            .collect();
+        ProductQuantizer::new(
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            num_bits,
+            dimension,
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(codebook), dimension as i32)
+                .unwrap(),
+            metric,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_pq_distances(
+        #[values(4, 8)] num_bits: u32,
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot)] metric: DistanceType,
+    ) {
+        let pq = quantizer(num_bits, metric);
+        let dim = pq.dimension;
+        let width = 2;
+        let num_centroids = 1usize << num_bits;
+        let centroid: Vec<f32> = (0..dim).map(|d| d as f32 * 0.5 - 1.0).collect();
+        let centroid_array = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(centroid.clone())) as ArrayRef;
+        let scorer = PQPairScorer::new(&pq, &centroid_array, metric).unwrap();
+        // 37 rows: row 1 repeats row 0, and the last row pairs with a tail.
+        let rows = 37;
+        let subs: Vec<Vec<usize>> = (0..rows)
+            .map(|r| {
+                let r = if r == 1 { 0 } else { r };
+                (0..pq.num_sub_vectors)
+                    .map(|m| (r * 5 + m * 3) % num_centroids)
+                    .collect()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let row_major: Vec<u8> = subs
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|codes| {
+                if num_bits == 4 {
+                    codes
+                        .as_chunks::<2>()
+                        .0
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|c| (c[0] | (c[1] << 4)) as u8)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                } else {
+                    codes.iter().map(|&c| c as u8).collect()
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let code_bytes = row_major.len() / rows;
+        let column_major = transpose(&UInt8Array::from(row_major), rows, code_bytes);
+        let codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(column_major, code_bytes as i32).unwrap();
+        let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+                Field::new(PQ_CODE_COLUMN, codes.data_type().clone(), false),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..rows as u64)),
+                Arc::new(codes),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let stage = |rows: Range<usize>| {
+            RecordBatch::try_from_iter(
+                scorer
+                    .stage(&source, rows)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|(field, column)| (field.name().clone(), column)),
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let anchor = stage(0..32);
+        let tail = stage(32..rows);
+        let codebook = pq.codebook.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+        let reconstruct = |r: usize| -> Vec<f64> {
+            (0..dim)
+                .map(|d| {
+                    let m = d / width;
+                    let word = codebook[(m * num_centroids + subs[r][m]) * width + d % width];
+                    let base = if metric == DistanceType::Dot {
+                        0.0
+                    } else {
+                        f64::from(centroid[d])
+                    };
+                    base + f64::from(word)
+                })
+                .collect()
+        };
+        for backend in LookupBackend::supported(num_bits) {
+            let scorer = PQPairScorer::with_backend(&pq, &centroid_array, metric, backend).unwrap();
+            let kernel = scorer.kernel(&anchor, &anchor).unwrap();
+            let tail_kernel = scorer.kernel(&anchor, &tail).unwrap();
+            for a in [0, 1, 17, 31] {
+                let mut same = vec![0.0; 32];
+                kernel.distances(a, 0..32, &mut same);
+                let mut later = vec![0.0; rows - 32];
+                tail_kernel.distances(a, 0..rows - 32, &mut later);
+                // A sub-range yields bit-identical values.
+                let mut part = vec![0.0; 5];
+                kernel.distances(a, 3..8, &mut part);
+                assert_eq!(part, same[3..8]);
+                for (b, distance) in same.into_iter().chain(later).enumerate() {
+                    let (x, y) = (reconstruct(a), reconstruct(b));
+                    let dot: f64 = x.iter().zip(&y).map(|(x, y)| x * y).sum();
+                    let norm = |v: &[f64]| v.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum::<f64>().sqrt();
+                    let expected = match metric {
+                        DistanceType::L2 => x.iter().zip(&y).map(|(x, y)| (x - y).powi(2)).sum(),
+                        DistanceType::Dot => 1.0 - dot,
+                        _ => 1.0 - dot / (norm(&x) * norm(&y)),
+                    };
+                    assert!(
+                        (f64::from(distance) - expected).abs() <= 1e-5 * expected.abs().max(1.0),
+                        "{backend:?} bits={num_bits} {metric} a={a} b={b} actual={distance} expected={expected}"
+                    );
+                    if subs[a] == subs[b] && metric != DistanceType::Dot {
+                        assert_eq!(distance, 0.0, "{backend:?} a={a} b={b}");
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The previous one-sub-vector-per-pass lookup over `[sub][code_a][code_b]`
+    /// f32 rows, the bit-exact reference.
+    fn reference_lookup(
+        kernel: &PQKernel<'_>,
+        table: &[f32],
+        anchor_row: usize,
+        candidates: Range<usize>,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        let scorer = kernel.scorer;
+        let num_centroids = scorer.num_centroids();
+        let table_row = |sub: usize, code: u8| {
+            let start = (sub * num_centroids + usize::from(code)) * num_centroids;
+            &table[start..start + num_centroids]
+        };
+        out.fill(0.0);
+        for byte in 0..scorer.code_bytes {
+            let code = kernel.anchor[byte * kernel.anchor_stride + anchor_row];
+            let start = byte * kernel.candidate_stride;
+            let codes = &kernel.candidates[start + candidates.start..start + candidates.end];
+            if scorer.num_bits == 4 {
+                let low = table_row(2 * byte, code & 0x0f);
+                let high = table_row(2 * byte + 1, code >> 4);
+                for (out, &code) in out.iter_mut().zip(codes) {
+                    *out += low[usize::from(code & 0x0f)];
+                    *out += high[usize::from(code >> 4)];
+                }
+            } else {
+                let row = table_row(byte, code);
+                for (out, &code) in out.iter_mut().zip(codes) {
+                    *out += row[usize::from(code)];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Every backend sums each candidate's sub-vectors in the same order, so
+    /// its values are bit-identical to the reference for any byte grouping,
+    /// SIMD block and tail. An 8-bit table is 16x larger per sub-vector than
+    /// a 4-bit one, so 8-bit cases stop at 34 sub-vectors to stay fast in
+    /// debug builds; any multi-byte case already exercises the VBMI kernel's
+    /// next-row prefetch.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::bits4_subs2(4, 2)]
+    #[case::bits4_subs18(4, 18)]
+    #[case::bits4_subs34(4, 34)]
+    #[case::bits4_subs96(4, 96)]
+    #[case::bits8_subs2(8, 2)]
+    #[case::bits8_subs18(8, 18)]
+    #[case::bits8_subs34(8, 34)]
+    fn test_pq_lookup_backends_bit_identical(
+        #[case] num_bits: u32,
+        #[case] num_sub_vectors: usize,
+    ) {
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::SmallRng};
+
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(u64::from(num_bits) * 1000 + num_sub_vectors as u64);
+        let num_centroids = 1usize << num_bits;
+        let code_bytes = num_sub_vectors * num_bits as usize / 8;
+        // Magnitudes spanning several decades make any reordering of the sum
+        // change the rounded result.
+        let table: Vec<f32> = (0..num_sub_vectors * num_centroids * num_centroids)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0) * 10f32.powi(rng.random_range(-4..4)))
+            .collect();
+        let (anchor_stride, candidate_stride) = (40, 200);
+        let anchor: Vec<u8> = (0..code_bytes * anchor_stride)
+            .map(|_| rng.random())
+            .collect();
+        let candidates: Vec<u8> = (0..code_bytes * candidate_stride)
+            .map(|_| rng.random())
+            .collect();
+        let backends = LookupBackend::supported(num_bits);
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            assert_ne!(backends[0], LookupBackend::Scalar);
+        }
+        for backend in backends {
+            let scorer = PQPairScorer {
+                num_bits,
+                num_sub_vectors,
+                code_bytes,
+                metric: DistanceType::L2,
+                table: CodewordTable::new(table.clone(), backend),
+                squared_norms: Vec::new(),
+                backend,
+            };
+            let kernel = PQKernel {
+                scorer: &scorer,
+                anchor: &anchor,
+                anchor_stride,
+                candidate_stride,
+                candidates: &candidates,
+                anchor_norms: &[],
+                candidate_norms: &[],
+            };
+            for anchor_row in [0, 7, 39] {
+                for range in [0..200, 3..200, 60..190, 5..21, 16..32, 50..50, 199..200] {
+                    let mut expected = vec![0.0; range.len()];
+                    reference_lookup(&kernel, &table, anchor_row, range.clone(), &mut expected);
+                    let mut actual = vec![f32::NAN; range.len()];
+                    kernel.distances(anchor_row, range.clone(), &mut actual);
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        actual.iter().map(|d| d.to_bits()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                        expected.iter().map(|d| d.to_bits()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                        "{backend:?} bits={num_bits} subs={num_sub_vectors} a={anchor_row} {range:?}"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/storage.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/storage.rs
index ea7615596eb..9f30cef1d45 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/storage.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/storage.rs
@@ -5,46 +5,57 @@
 //!
 //! Used as storage backend for Graph based algorithms.
 
-use std::{cmp::min, collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use std::{
+    cmp::min,
+    collections::BinaryHeap,
+    sync::{Arc, OnceLock},
+};
 
 use arrow::datatypes::{self, UInt8Type};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, ArrowPrimitiveType, PrimitiveArray};
 use arrow_array::{
+    FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt64Array,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{Float32Type, UInt64Type},
-    FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
 };
-use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, ArrowPrimitiveType, PrimitiveArray};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, SchemaRef};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::{Bytes, BytesMut};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, RecordBatchExt};
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
-use lance_file::previous::{
-    reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader, writer::FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter,
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::{
+    reader::FileReader as V1FileReader, writer::FileWriter as V1FileWriter,
 };
 use lance_io::{object_store::ObjectStore, utils::read_message};
-use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, L2};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{Cosine, DistanceType, Dot, L2};
+use lance_linalg::simd::dist_table::{
+    filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed, sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed,
+};
 use lance_table::utils::LanceIteratorExtension;
 use lance_table::{format::SelfDescribingFileReader, io::manifest::ManifestDescribing};
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 
-use super::distance::{build_distance_table_dot, build_distance_table_l2, compute_pq_distance};
 use super::ProductQuantizer;
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use super::distance::{
+    bounded_4bit_scores, build_distance_table_dot, build_distance_table_l2, compute_pq_distance,
+    compute_pq_distance_4bit_row, compute_pq_distance_4bit_rows, quantize_4bit_distance_table,
+};
+use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexHandle};
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
+use crate::vector::graph::{OrderedFloat, OrderedNode};
 use crate::{
-    pb,
+    INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, IndexMetadata, pb,
     vector::{
+        PQ_CODE_COLUMN,
         pq::transform::PQTransformer,
         quantizer::{QuantizerMetadata, QuantizerStorage},
-        storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore},
+        storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore, accumulate_distances_into_heap},
         transform::Transformer,
-        PQ_CODE_COLUMN,
     },
-    IndexMetadata, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
 };
 
 pub const PQ_METADATA_KEY: &str = "lance:pq";
@@ -67,10 +78,10 @@ pub struct ProductQuantizationMetadata {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ProductQuantizationMetadata {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.codebook
             .as_ref()
-            .map(|codebook| codebook.get_array_memory_size())
+            .map(|codebook| (codebook as &dyn arrow_array::Array).deep_size_of_children(context))
             .unwrap_or(0)
     }
 }
@@ -86,6 +97,10 @@ impl PartialEq for ProductQuantizationMetadata {
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl QuantizerMetadata for ProductQuantizationMetadata {
+    fn is_transposed(&self) -> bool {
+        self.transposed
+    }
+
     fn buffer_index(&self) -> Option<u32> {
         if self.codebook_position > 0 {
             // the global buffer index starts from 1
@@ -108,29 +123,32 @@ impl QuantizerMetadata for ProductQuantizationMetadata {
     }
 
     fn extra_metadata(&self) -> Result<Option<Bytes>> {
-        debug_assert!(self.codebook.is_some());
-        let codebook_tensor: pb::Tensor = pb::Tensor::try_from(self.codebook.as_ref().unwrap())?;
-        let mut bytes = BytesMut::new();
-        codebook_tensor.encode(&mut bytes)?;
-        Ok(Some(bytes.freeze()))
+        if let Some(codebook) = &self.codebook {
+            let codebook_tensor: pb::Tensor = pb::Tensor::try_from(codebook)?;
+            let mut bytes = BytesMut::new();
+            codebook_tensor.encode(&mut bytes)?;
+            Ok(Some(bytes.freeze()))
+        } else if !self.codebook_tensor.is_empty() {
+            // Legacy format: codebook is stored inline in the metadata JSON.
+            // Return it as-is; it's already a protobuf-encoded Tensor that
+            // parse_buffer() can handle.
+            Ok(Some(Bytes::from(self.codebook_tensor.clone())))
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn load(reader: &PreviousFileReader) -> Result<Self> {
+    async fn load(reader: &V1FileReader) -> Result<Self> {
         let metadata = reader
             .schema()
             .metadata
             .get(PQ_METADATA_KEY)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Reading PQ storage: metadata key {} not found",
-                    PQ_METADATA_KEY
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        let mut metadata: Self = serde_json::from_str(metadata).map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Failed to parse PQ metadata: {}", metadata),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Reading PQ storage: metadata key {} not found",
+                PQ_METADATA_KEY
+            )))?;
+        let mut metadata: Self = serde_json::from_str(metadata)
+            .map_err(|_| Error::index(format!("Failed to parse PQ metadata: {}", metadata)))?;
 
         debug_assert!(metadata.codebook.is_none());
         debug_assert!(metadata.codebook_tensor.is_empty());
@@ -156,16 +174,24 @@ pub struct ProductQuantizationStorage {
     // For easy access
     pq_code: Arc<UInt8Array>,
     row_ids: Arc<UInt64Array>,
+    pairwise_distance_table: Arc<OnceLock<Vec<f32>>>,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ProductQuantizationStorage {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.batch.get_array_memory_size()
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.batch.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self
                 .metadata
                 .codebook
                 .as_ref()
-                .map(|codebook| codebook.get_array_memory_size())
+                .map(|codebook| {
+                    (codebook as &dyn arrow_array::Array).deep_size_of_children(context)
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+            + self
+                .pairwise_distance_table
+                .get()
+                .map(|table| table.deep_size_of_children(context))
                 .unwrap_or(0)
     }
 }
@@ -182,13 +208,38 @@ impl ProductQuantizationStorage {
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub fn new(
         codebook: FixedSizeListArray,
-        mut batch: RecordBatch,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
         num_bits: u32,
         num_sub_vectors: usize,
         dimension: usize,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         transposed: bool,
         frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+            .map(|index| Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        Self::new_with_remapper(
+            codebook,
+            batch,
+            num_bits,
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            dimension,
+            distance_type,
+            transposed,
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn new_with_remapper(
+        codebook: FixedSizeListArray,
+        mut batch: RecordBatch,
+        num_bits: u32,
+        num_sub_vectors: usize,
+        dimension: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        transposed: bool,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         if batch.num_columns() != 2 {
             log::warn!(
@@ -203,17 +254,15 @@ impl ProductQuantizationStorage {
         }
 
         let Some(row_ids) = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID) else {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Row ID column not found from PQ storage".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "Row ID column not found from PQ storage".to_string(),
+            ));
         };
-        let row_ids: Arc<UInt64Array> = row_ids
+        let mut row_ids: Arc<UInt64Array> = row_ids
             .as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "Row ID column is not of type UInt64".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(
+                "Row ID column is not of type UInt64".to_string(),
+            ))?
             .clone()
             .into();
 
@@ -281,6 +330,11 @@ impl ProductQuantizationStorage {
                 .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
                 .clone()
                 .into();
+            // Refresh the stored row ids from the remapped batch. Without this
+            // the storage keeps the pre-remap (compacted-away) addresses while
+            // its codes are remapped, so search returns stale row ids and the
+            // take fails with "fragment ... does not exist".
+            row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().clone().into();
         }
 
         let distance_type = match distance_type {
@@ -302,6 +356,7 @@ impl ProductQuantizationStorage {
             batch,
             pq_code,
             row_ids,
+            pairwise_distance_table: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
         })
     }
 
@@ -368,24 +423,19 @@ impl ProductQuantizationStorage {
         path: &Path,
         frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(object_store, path, None).await?;
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(object_store, path, None).await?;
         let schema = reader.schema();
 
         let metadata_str = schema
             .metadata
             .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Reading PQ storage: index key {} not found",
-                    INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        let index_metadata: IndexMetadata =
-            serde_json::from_str(metadata_str).map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Reading PQ storage: index key {} not found",
+                INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY
+            )))?;
+        let index_metadata: IndexMetadata = serde_json::from_str(metadata_str).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::index(format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str))
+        })?;
         let distance_type: DistanceType =
             DistanceType::try_from(index_metadata.distance_type.as_str())?;
 
@@ -410,12 +460,53 @@ impl ProductQuantizationStorage {
             .collect()
     }
 
+    fn pairwise_distance_table(&self) -> &[f32] {
+        self.pairwise_distance_table
+            .get_or_init(|| {
+                let codebook = self.metadata.codebook.as_ref().unwrap();
+                match codebook.value_type() {
+                    DataType::Float16 => build_pairwise_distance_table(
+                        codebook
+                            .values()
+                            .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float16Type>()
+                            .values(),
+                        self.metadata.nbits,
+                        self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+                        self.metadata.dimension,
+                        self.distance_type,
+                    ),
+                    DataType::Float32 => build_pairwise_distance_table(
+                        codebook
+                            .values()
+                            .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float32Type>()
+                            .values(),
+                        self.metadata.nbits,
+                        self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+                        self.metadata.dimension,
+                        self.distance_type,
+                    ),
+                    DataType::Float64 => build_pairwise_distance_table(
+                        codebook
+                            .values()
+                            .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float64Type>()
+                            .values(),
+                        self.metadata.nbits,
+                        self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+                        self.metadata.dimension,
+                        self.distance_type,
+                    ),
+                    _ => unimplemented!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", codebook.value_type()),
+                }
+            })
+            .as_slice()
+    }
+
     /// Write the PQ storage as a Lance partition to disk,
     /// and returns the number of rows written.
     ///
     pub async fn write_partition(
         &self,
-        writer: &mut PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
+        writer: &mut V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
     ) -> Result<usize> {
         let batch_size: usize = 10240; // TODO: make it configurable
         for offset in (0..self.batch.num_rows()).step_by(batch_size) {
@@ -490,22 +581,52 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for ProductQuantizationStorage {
         )
     }
 
+    fn try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let distance_type = match distance_type {
+            DistanceType::Cosine => DistanceType::L2,
+            _ => distance_type,
+        };
+        let codebook = match &metadata.codebook {
+            Some(codebook) => codebook.clone(),
+            None => {
+                debug_assert!(!metadata.codebook_tensor.is_empty());
+                let codebook_tensor = pb::Tensor::decode(metadata.codebook_tensor.as_slice())?;
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_from(&codebook_tensor)?
+            }
+        };
+        Self::new_with_remapper(
+            codebook,
+            batch,
+            metadata.nbits,
+            metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+            metadata.dimension,
+            distance_type,
+            metadata.transposed,
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )
+    }
+
     fn metadata(&self) -> &Self::Metadata {
         &self.metadata
     }
 
     // we can't use the default implementation of remap,
     // because PQ Storage transposed the PQ codes
-    fn remap(&self, mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<Self> {
+    fn remap(&self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<Self> {
         let transposed_codes = self.pq_code.values();
         let mut new_row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(self.len());
         let mut new_codes = Vec::with_capacity(self.len() * self.metadata.num_sub_vectors);
 
         let row_ids = self.row_ids.values();
         for (i, row_id) in row_ids.iter().enumerate() {
-            match mapping.get(row_id) {
+            match mapping.get(*row_id) {
                 Some(Some(new_id)) => {
-                    new_row_ids.push(*new_id);
+                    new_row_ids.push(new_id);
                     new_codes.extend(get_pq_code(
                         transposed_codes,
                         self.metadata.nbits,
@@ -551,6 +672,7 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for ProductQuantizationStorage {
             batch,
             pq_code: Arc::new(transposed_codes),
             row_ids: new_row_ids,
+            pairwise_distance_table: self.pairwise_distance_table.clone(),
         })
     }
 
@@ -558,9 +680,9 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for ProductQuantizationStorage {
     ///
     /// Parameters
     /// ----------
-    /// - *reader: &PreviousFileReader
+    /// - *reader: &V1FileReader
     async fn load_partition(
-        reader: &PreviousFileReader,
+        reader: &V1FileReader,
         range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         metadata: &Self::Metadata,
@@ -570,10 +692,9 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for ProductQuantizationStorage {
         let codebook = metadata
             .codebook
             .as_ref()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "Codebook not found in PQ metadata".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(
+                "Codebook not found in PQ metadata".to_string(),
+            ))?
             .values()
             .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
             .clone();
@@ -679,73 +800,14 @@ impl VectorStore for ProductQuantizationStorage {
             self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
             id,
         );
-        let codebook = self.metadata.codebook.as_ref().unwrap();
-        match codebook.value_type() {
-            DataType::Float16 => {
-                let codebook = codebook
-                    .values()
-                    .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float16Type>()
-                    .values();
-                let query = get_centroids(
-                    codebook,
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.metadata.dimension,
-                    codes,
-                );
-                PQDistCalculator::new(
-                    codebook,
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.pq_code.clone(),
-                    &query,
-                    self.distance_type,
-                )
-            }
-            DataType::Float32 => {
-                let codebook = codebook
-                    .values()
-                    .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float32Type>()
-                    .values();
-                let query = get_centroids(
-                    codebook,
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.metadata.dimension,
-                    codes,
-                );
-                PQDistCalculator::new(
-                    codebook,
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.pq_code.clone(),
-                    &query,
-                    self.distance_type,
-                )
-            }
-            DataType::Float64 => {
-                let codebook = codebook
-                    .values()
-                    .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float64Type>()
-                    .values();
-                let query = get_centroids(
-                    codebook,
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.metadata.dimension,
-                    codes,
-                );
-                PQDistCalculator::new(
-                    codebook,
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.pq_code.clone(),
-                    &query,
-                    self.distance_type,
-                )
-            }
-            _ => unimplemented!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", codebook.value_type()),
-        }
+        PQDistCalculator::new_from_codes(
+            self.pairwise_distance_table(),
+            self.metadata.nbits,
+            self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+            self.pq_code.clone(),
+            codes,
+            self.distance_type,
+        )
     }
 
     fn dist_between(&self, u: u32, v: u32) -> f32 {
@@ -764,80 +826,20 @@ impl VectorStore for ProductQuantizationStorage {
             self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
             v,
         );
-        let codebook = self.metadata.codebook.as_ref().unwrap();
+        pq_code_distance(
+            self.pairwise_distance_table(),
+            self.metadata.nbits,
+            self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+            u_codes,
+            v_codes,
+            self.distance_type,
+        )
+    }
 
-        match codebook.value_type() {
-            DataType::Float16 => {
-                let qu = get_centroids(
-                    codebook
-                        .values()
-                        .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float16Type>()
-                        .values(),
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.metadata.dimension,
-                    u_codes,
-                );
-                let qv = get_centroids(
-                    codebook
-                        .values()
-                        .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float16Type>()
-                        .values(),
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.metadata.dimension,
-                    v_codes,
-                );
-                self.distance_type.func()(&qu, &qv)
-            }
-            DataType::Float32 => {
-                let qu = get_centroids(
-                    codebook
-                        .values()
-                        .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float32Type>()
-                        .values(),
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.metadata.dimension,
-                    u_codes,
-                );
-                let qv = get_centroids(
-                    codebook
-                        .values()
-                        .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float32Type>()
-                        .values(),
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.metadata.dimension,
-                    v_codes,
-                );
-                self.distance_type.func()(&qu, &qv)
-            }
-            DataType::Float64 => {
-                let qu = get_centroids(
-                    codebook
-                        .values()
-                        .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float64Type>()
-                        .values(),
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.metadata.dimension,
-                    u_codes,
-                );
-                let qv = get_centroids(
-                    codebook
-                        .values()
-                        .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float64Type>()
-                        .values(),
-                    self.metadata.nbits,
-                    self.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
-                    self.metadata.dimension,
-                    v_codes,
-                );
-                self.distance_type.func()(&qu, &qv)
-            }
-            _ => unimplemented!("Unsupported data type: {:?}", codebook.value_type()),
-        }
+    fn prefers_candidate(&self, candidate: &OrderedNode, selected: &[OrderedNode]) -> bool {
+        selected
+            .iter()
+            .all(|other| candidate.dist < OrderedFloat(self.dist_between(candidate.id, other.id)))
     }
 }
 
@@ -877,6 +879,29 @@ impl PQDistCalculator {
         }
     }
 
+    fn new_from_codes(
+        pairwise_distance_table: &[f32],
+        num_bits: u32,
+        num_sub_vectors: usize,
+        pq_code: Arc<UInt8Array>,
+        query_codes: impl Iterator<Item = u8>,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let distance_table = distance_table_from_codes(
+            pairwise_distance_table,
+            num_bits,
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            query_codes,
+        );
+        Self {
+            distance_table,
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            pq_code,
+            num_bits,
+            distance_type,
+        }
+    }
+
     fn get_pq_code(&self, id: u32) -> impl Iterator<Item = usize> + '_ {
         get_pq_code(
             self.pq_code.values(),
@@ -890,42 +915,36 @@ impl PQDistCalculator {
 
 impl DistCalculator for PQDistCalculator {
     fn distance(&self, id: u32) -> f32 {
-        let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(self.num_bits);
-        let pq_code = self.get_pq_code(id);
-        let diff = self.num_sub_vectors as f32 - 1.0;
         let dist = if self.num_bits == 4 {
-            pq_code
-                .enumerate()
-                .map(|(i, c)| {
-                    let current_idx = c & 0x0F;
-                    let next_idx = c >> 4;
-
-                    self.distance_table[2 * i * num_centroids + current_idx]
-                        + self.distance_table[(2 * i + 1) * num_centroids + next_idx]
-                })
-                .sum()
+            compute_pq_distance_4bit_row(&self.distance_table, self.pq_code.values(), id as usize)
         } else {
-            pq_code
+            let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(self.num_bits);
+            self.get_pq_code(id)
                 .enumerate()
                 .map(|(i, c)| self.distance_table[i * num_centroids + c])
                 .sum()
         };
 
         if self.distance_type == DistanceType::Dot {
-            dist - diff
+            dist - (self.num_sub_vectors as f32 - 1.0)
         } else {
             dist
         }
     }
 
-    fn distance_all(&self, k_hint: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+    fn has_exact_topk_scan(&self) -> bool {
+        self.num_bits == 4
+            && matches!(self.distance_type, DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Dot)
+            && bounded_4bit_scores(&self.distance_table)
+    }
+
+    fn distance_all(&self, _k_hint: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
         match self.distance_type {
             DistanceType::L2 => compute_pq_distance(
                 &self.distance_table,
                 self.num_bits,
                 self.num_sub_vectors,
                 self.pq_code.values(),
-                k_hint,
             ),
             DistanceType::Cosine => {
                 // it seems we implemented cosine distance at some version,
@@ -942,7 +961,6 @@ impl DistCalculator for PQDistCalculator {
                     self.num_bits,
                     self.num_sub_vectors,
                     self.pq_code.values(),
-                    k_hint,
                 );
                 l2_dists.into_iter().map(|v| v / 2.0).collect()
             }
@@ -952,7 +970,6 @@ impl DistCalculator for PQDistCalculator {
                     self.num_bits,
                     self.num_sub_vectors,
                     self.pq_code.values(),
-                    k_hint,
                 );
                 let diff = self.num_sub_vectors as f32 - 1.0;
                 dot_dists.into_iter().map(|v| v - diff).collect()
@@ -960,6 +977,477 @@ impl DistCalculator for PQDistCalculator {
             _ => unimplemented!("distance type is not supported: {:?}", self.distance_type),
         }
     }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        k: usize,
+        lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+        upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+        row_id: impl Fn(u32) -> u64,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        quantized_dists: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        quantized_table: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        candidates: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        // `OrderedFloat` ranks a positive NaN above every score, so such a
+        // lower bound admits no row.
+        if k == 0 || lower_bound.is_some_and(|bound| bound.is_nan() && bound.is_sign_positive()) {
+            return;
+        }
+        let code_len = self.num_sub_vectors / 2;
+        let table = (self.num_bits == 4
+            && matches!(self.distance_type, DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Dot)
+            // When every row fits in the heap, every row is scored anyway.
+            && self.pq_code.len() / code_len > k.saturating_sub(res.len()))
+        .then(|| quantize_4bit_distance_table(&self.distance_table, quantized_table))
+        .flatten();
+        let Some(table) = table else {
+            *dists = self.distance_all(k);
+            accumulate_distances_into_heap(k, lower_bound, upper_bound, row_id, res, dists);
+            return;
+        };
+
+        // A row whose quantized sum is `q` scores within a bounded error of `q`
+        // steps above an offset. Rows whose sums exceed `cutoff` cannot score
+        // below the current k-th best, so only the others are scored exactly;
+        // the heap sees the same distances as a per-row scan.
+        let score_diff = if self.distance_type == DistanceType::Dot {
+            self.num_sub_vectors as f32 - 1.0
+        } else {
+            0.0
+        };
+        let lower_bound = OrderedFloat(lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN));
+        let upper_bound = OrderedFloat(upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX));
+        let mut threshold = upper_bound;
+        if res.len() >= k
+            && let Some(node) = res.peek()
+        {
+            threshold = threshold.min(node.dist);
+        }
+        let Some(mut cutoff) = table.sum_cutoff(threshold.0, score_diff) else {
+            return;
+        };
+
+        let num_rows = self.pq_code.len() / code_len;
+        let stored_all_sums = if res.len() >= k && lower_bound <= OrderedFloat(f32::MIN) {
+            // A full heap already bounds the k-th best distance, so the kernel
+            // reports only the rows within `cutoff`, and only their sums are
+            // stored, at their rows, for the sort and the rescoring below; the
+            // other rows' entries are never read. The cutoff stays fixed during
+            // the scan and only the rescoring lowers it.
+            //
+            // A heap inherited from a farther partition can be loose enough to
+            // admit most rows, which costs more to push and sort than storing
+            // every sum and narrowing them by the k-th sum bound. Once more
+            // rows than the budget are admitted, the scan switches to that:
+            // the rows already passed over are marked above any cutoff and
+            // every later row's sum is stored.
+            let budget = fused_candidate_budget(num_rows, k);
+            if quantized_dists.len() < num_rows {
+                quantized_dists.resize(num_rows, 0);
+            }
+            candidates.clear();
+            let mut store_all = false;
+            filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed(
+                num_rows,
+                code_len,
+                self.pq_code.values(),
+                quantized_table,
+                cutoff,
+                |start, mut mask, sums| {
+                    if store_all {
+                        if mask == u64::MAX {
+                            quantized_dists[start..start + sums.len()].copy_from_slice(sums);
+                        } else {
+                            while mask != 0 {
+                                let i = mask.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+                                quantized_dists[start + i] = sums[i];
+                                mask &= mask - 1;
+                            }
+                        }
+                        return u16::MAX;
+                    }
+                    while mask != 0 {
+                        let i = mask.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+                        quantized_dists[start + i] = sums[i];
+                        candidates.push((start + i) as u32);
+                        mask &= mask - 1;
+                    }
+                    if candidates.len() <= budget {
+                        return cutoff;
+                    }
+                    store_all = true;
+                    // Candidates hold every admitted row so far, ascending, so
+                    // the rows between them are the ones passed over.
+                    let mut next_row = 0;
+                    for &row in candidates.iter() {
+                        quantized_dists[next_row..row as usize].fill(u16::MAX);
+                        next_row = row as usize + 1;
+                    }
+                    let passed = (start + sums.len()).min(num_rows);
+                    quantized_dists[next_row..passed].fill(u16::MAX);
+                    u16::MAX
+                },
+            );
+            store_all
+        } else {
+            // Before the heap is full only the upper bound limits the cutoff,
+            // so a filter would report most rows. Storing every sum instead
+            // lets the k-th sum bound below narrow the candidates first. A
+            // search with a lower bound takes this path as well.
+            quantized_dists.resize(num_rows, 0);
+            sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed(
+                num_rows,
+                code_len,
+                self.pq_code.values(),
+                quantized_table,
+                quantized_dists,
+            );
+            true
+        };
+        if stored_all_sums {
+            // Without a lower bound, k rows with small sums bound the k-th best
+            // distance of this partition before any row is scored. A row marked
+            // `u16::MAX` only raises its block's minimum, so the bound holds.
+            if lower_bound <= OrderedFloat(f32::MIN)
+                && let Some(sum) =
+                    kth_smallest_sum_bound(&quantized_dists[..num_rows], k, candidates)
+            {
+                threshold = threshold.min(OrderedFloat(table.kth_bound_distance(sum, score_diff)));
+                let Some(sum) = table.sum_cutoff(threshold.0, score_diff) else {
+                    return;
+                };
+                cutoff = cutoff.min(sum);
+            }
+            candidates.clear();
+            collect_sums_at_most(&quantized_dists[..num_rows], cutoff, candidates);
+        }
+
+        // Score candidates from the smallest sum up, so the heap settles on its
+        // final rows early and the remaining candidates can be cut off at once.
+        let candidates = sort_ids_by_sum(candidates, quantized_dists);
+        // Candidates are scored a chunk at a time so their add chains overlap,
+        // then fed to the heap one by one in the same order as before. A chunk
+        // may score up to `RESCORE_CHUNK - 1` rows past the cut-off; those
+        // distances are dropped unused.
+        const RESCORE_CHUNK: usize = 16;
+        let dot_offset =
+            (self.distance_type == DistanceType::Dot).then_some(self.num_sub_vectors as f32 - 1.0);
+        'rescore: for chunk in candidates.chunks(RESCORE_CHUNK) {
+            if quantized_dists[chunk[0] as usize] > cutoff {
+                break;
+            }
+            dists.resize(chunk.len(), 0.0);
+            compute_pq_distance_4bit_rows(
+                &self.distance_table,
+                self.pq_code.values(),
+                chunk,
+                dists,
+            );
+            if let Some(dot_offset) = dot_offset {
+                // The same post-op as `distance()`.
+                dists.iter_mut().for_each(|dist| *dist -= dot_offset);
+            }
+            for (&id, &dist) in chunk.iter().zip(dists.iter()) {
+                if quantized_dists[id as usize] > cutoff {
+                    break 'rescore;
+                }
+                let dist = OrderedFloat(dist);
+                if dist < lower_bound || dist >= upper_bound {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if res.len() < k {
+                    res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id(id), dist));
+                } else if let Some(mut top) = res.peek_mut()
+                    && top.dist > dist
+                {
+                    *top = OrderedNode::new(row_id(id), dist);
+                } else {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if res.len() >= k
+                    && let Some(node) = res.peek()
+                {
+                    match table.sum_cutoff(node.dist.0, score_diff) {
+                        Some(sum) => cutoff = cutoff.min(sum),
+                        None => break 'rescore,
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Append the ids of the rows whose sum is at most `cutoff`, in ascending
+/// order.
+///
+/// Comparing a fixed-size block of sums into a bitmask vectorizes, where a
+/// per-row branch would mispredict on a sparse selection.
+fn collect_sums_at_most(sums: &[u16], cutoff: u16, ids: &mut Vec<u32>) {
+    const BLOCK: usize = 64;
+    let mask = |block: &[u16]| {
+        block.iter().enumerate().fold(0u64, |mask, (i, &sum)| {
+            mask | (u64::from(sum <= cutoff) << i)
+        })
+    };
+    let (blocks, tail) = sums.as_chunks::<BLOCK>();
+    let masks = blocks
+        .iter()
+        .map(|block| mask(block))
+        .chain(std::iter::once(mask(tail)));
+    for (block_idx, mut mask) in masks.enumerate() {
+        let start = (block_idx * BLOCK) as u32;
+        while mask != 0 {
+            ids.push(start + mask.trailing_zeros());
+            mask &= mask - 1;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sort `ids` by their sums and return the sorted ids, which may be stored
+/// past the input in `ids`.
+///
+/// Candidate sums usually span a narrow window, where a counting sort replaces
+/// `n log n` indirect comparisons with a few linear passes.
+fn sort_ids_by_sum<'a>(ids: &'a mut Vec<u32>, sums: &[u16]) -> &'a [u32] {
+    /// Sum range always sorted by counting. Its 16 KiB of u32 buckets stay in
+    /// L1 and cost about as much as a small comparison sort, and it covers the
+    /// whole sum span of 16 sub-vectors (`16 * 255` units). Wider ranges use
+    /// counting only up to twice the candidate count, which keeps the sort
+    /// linear in the candidates.
+    const MIN_COUNTING_RANGE: usize = 4096;
+    let num_ids = ids.len();
+    let Some((min_sum, max_sum)) =
+        ids.iter()
+            .map(|&id| sums[id as usize])
+            .fold(None, |range, sum| {
+                let (min, max) = range.unwrap_or((sum, sum));
+                Some((min.min(sum), max.max(sum)))
+            })
+    else {
+        return ids;
+    };
+    let range = usize::from(max_sum - min_sum) + 1;
+    if range > MIN_COUNTING_RANGE.max(2 * num_ids) {
+        ids.sort_unstable_by_key(|&id| sums[id as usize]);
+        return ids;
+    }
+
+    ids.resize(2 * num_ids + range, 0);
+    let (unsorted, rest) = ids.split_at_mut(num_ids);
+    let (starts, sorted) = rest.split_at_mut(range);
+    for &id in unsorted.iter() {
+        starts[usize::from(sums[id as usize] - min_sum)] += 1;
+    }
+    let mut start = 0;
+    for count in starts.iter_mut() {
+        (*count, start) = (start, start + *count);
+    }
+    for &id in unsorted.iter() {
+        let start = &mut starts[usize::from(sums[id as usize] - min_sum)];
+        sorted[*start as usize] = id;
+        *start += 1;
+    }
+    sorted
+}
+
+/// How many rows the fused filter of a full-heap scan may admit before it
+/// switches to storing every sum.
+///
+/// The store path's extra passes cost well under a nanosecond per row, while
+/// each admitted row costs a few to push and sort, more when a wide sum range
+/// sends the sort to comparisons. Switching is not free either: the rows after
+/// the switch are stored through the filter's callback, which is slower than
+/// the plain store kernel. On the x86 `pq4_topk_prefilled` bench, a heap
+/// admitting all 1024 rows (m=96, k=100) ran the fused path at 0.55x the store
+/// path and 0.92x with this budget, while budgets of `num_rows / 32` and
+/// `num_rows / 64` switched more often and lowered the bench's geomean against
+/// the store path from 1.03x to 1.01x and 1.00x.
+///
+/// A heap that admits a few percent of a large partition stays within the
+/// budget yet can cost more than the store path, whose k-th sum bound comes
+/// from the partition's own rows: with m=64, rows=16384, k=10 and a heap at
+/// twice the k-th distance, the filter admits about 1000 rows where that bound
+/// keeps about 90, and the scan runs at 0.87x the store path. No budget fixes
+/// this case alone. Checking the budget against the rows passed so far
+/// (`k + passed_rows / 8` after each batch) never switched here and matched
+/// this budget within noise, `passed_rows / 16` still did not switch, and
+/// `passed_rows / 32` raised the case to 0.93x but slowed k=100 heaps at 1.2
+/// and 2.0 times the k-th distance to 0.85x-0.88x and the geomean to 1.03x.
+fn fused_candidate_budget(num_rows: usize, k: usize) -> usize {
+    k + num_rows / 8
+}
+
+/// An upper bound of the k-th smallest value in `sums`, or `None` if there are
+/// fewer than `k` sums. Each of about `4 * k` contiguous blocks contributes its
+/// minimum, a distinct row, so the k-th smallest block minimum is reached by at
+/// least `k` rows while costing only a vectorizable pass and a small selection.
+fn kth_smallest_sum_bound(sums: &[u16], k: usize, block_mins: &mut Vec<u32>) -> Option<u16> {
+    if k == 0 || sums.len() < k {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let block_len = (sums.len() / (4 * k)).max(1);
+    block_mins.clear();
+    block_mins.extend(
+        sums.chunks(block_len)
+            .map(|block| block.iter().copied().min().unwrap_or(u16::MAX) as u32),
+    );
+    debug_assert!(
+        block_mins.len() >= k,
+        "{} blocks for k={k}",
+        block_mins.len()
+    );
+    let (_, kth, _) = block_mins.select_nth_unstable(k - 1);
+    Some(*kth as u16)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn build_pairwise_distance_table<T: L2 + Cosine + Dot>(
+    codebook: &[T],
+    num_bits: u32,
+    num_sub_vectors: usize,
+    dimension: usize,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+) -> Vec<f32> {
+    let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(num_bits);
+    let sub_vector_width = dimension / num_sub_vectors;
+    let mut result = Vec::with_capacity(num_sub_vectors * num_centroids * num_centroids);
+    let distance_fn = distance_type.func();
+    for sub_vector_idx in 0..num_sub_vectors {
+        let sub_vector_offset = sub_vector_idx * num_centroids * sub_vector_width;
+        let centroids =
+            &codebook[sub_vector_offset..sub_vector_offset + num_centroids * sub_vector_width];
+        for query_centroid_idx in 0..num_centroids {
+            let query_offset = query_centroid_idx * sub_vector_width;
+            let query = &centroids[query_offset..query_offset + sub_vector_width];
+            for centroid_idx in 0..num_centroids {
+                let centroid_offset = centroid_idx * sub_vector_width;
+                let centroid = &centroids[centroid_offset..centroid_offset + sub_vector_width];
+                result.push(distance_fn(query, centroid));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    result
+}
+
+fn distance_table_from_codes(
+    pairwise_distance_table: &[f32],
+    num_bits: u32,
+    num_sub_vectors: usize,
+    query_codes: impl Iterator<Item = u8>,
+) -> Vec<f32> {
+    let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(num_bits);
+    let mut distance_table = Vec::with_capacity(num_sub_vectors * num_centroids);
+    if num_bits == 4 {
+        for (byte_idx, query_code) in query_codes.enumerate() {
+            let current_idx = (query_code & 0x0F) as usize;
+            let current_sub_vector_idx = 2 * byte_idx;
+            extend_pairwise_distance_row(
+                &mut distance_table,
+                pairwise_distance_table,
+                num_centroids,
+                current_sub_vector_idx,
+                current_idx,
+            );
+
+            let next_idx = (query_code >> 4) as usize;
+            let next_sub_vector_idx = current_sub_vector_idx + 1;
+            extend_pairwise_distance_row(
+                &mut distance_table,
+                pairwise_distance_table,
+                num_centroids,
+                next_sub_vector_idx,
+                next_idx,
+            );
+        }
+    } else {
+        for (sub_vector_idx, query_code) in query_codes.enumerate() {
+            extend_pairwise_distance_row(
+                &mut distance_table,
+                pairwise_distance_table,
+                num_centroids,
+                sub_vector_idx,
+                query_code as usize,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+    distance_table
+}
+
+fn extend_pairwise_distance_row(
+    distance_table: &mut Vec<f32>,
+    pairwise_distance_table: &[f32],
+    num_centroids: usize,
+    sub_vector_idx: usize,
+    query_centroid_idx: usize,
+) {
+    let start = (sub_vector_idx * num_centroids + query_centroid_idx) * num_centroids;
+    distance_table.extend_from_slice(&pairwise_distance_table[start..start + num_centroids]);
+}
+
+fn pq_code_distance(
+    pairwise_distance_table: &[f32],
+    num_bits: u32,
+    num_sub_vectors: usize,
+    lhs_codes: impl Iterator<Item = u8>,
+    rhs_codes: impl Iterator<Item = u8>,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+) -> f32 {
+    let num_centroids = 2_usize.pow(num_bits);
+    let dist = if num_bits == 4 {
+        lhs_codes
+            .zip(rhs_codes)
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(byte_idx, (lhs, rhs))| {
+                let current_sub_vector_idx = 2 * byte_idx;
+                pairwise_distance(
+                    pairwise_distance_table,
+                    num_centroids,
+                    current_sub_vector_idx,
+                    (lhs & 0x0F) as usize,
+                    (rhs & 0x0F) as usize,
+                ) + pairwise_distance(
+                    pairwise_distance_table,
+                    num_centroids,
+                    current_sub_vector_idx + 1,
+                    (lhs >> 4) as usize,
+                    (rhs >> 4) as usize,
+                )
+            })
+            .sum()
+    } else {
+        lhs_codes
+            .zip(rhs_codes)
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(sub_vector_idx, (lhs, rhs))| {
+                pairwise_distance(
+                    pairwise_distance_table,
+                    num_centroids,
+                    sub_vector_idx,
+                    lhs as usize,
+                    rhs as usize,
+                )
+            })
+            .sum()
+    };
+
+    if distance_type == DistanceType::Dot {
+        dist - (num_sub_vectors as f32 - 1.0)
+    } else {
+        dist
+    }
+}
+
+fn pairwise_distance(
+    pairwise_distance_table: &[f32],
+    num_centroids: usize,
+    sub_vector_idx: usize,
+    query_centroid_idx: usize,
+    centroid_idx: usize,
+) -> f32 {
+    pairwise_distance_table
+        [(sub_vector_idx * num_centroids + query_centroid_idx) * num_centroids + centroid_idx]
 }
 
 fn get_pq_code(
@@ -983,6 +1471,7 @@ fn get_pq_code(
         .exact_size(num_bytes)
 }
 
+#[cfg(test)]
 fn get_centroids<T: Clone>(
     codebook: &[T],
     num_bits: u32,
@@ -1011,6 +1500,7 @@ fn get_centroids<T: Clone>(
     centroids
 }
 
+#[cfg(test)]
 fn get_centroids_4bit<T: Clone>(
     codebook: &[T],
     num_sub_vectors: usize,
@@ -1046,7 +1536,8 @@ mod tests {
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
     use lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD;
-    use rand::Rng;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::StdRng};
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     const DIM: usize = 32;
     const TOTAL: usize = 512;
@@ -1126,6 +1617,108 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(storage.row_ids.len(), TOTAL);
     }
 
+    fn create_4bit_pq_storage(
+        rows: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> ProductQuantizationStorage {
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(rows as u64);
+        let codebook = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..16 * DIM).map(|_| rng.random()));
+        let codebook = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(codebook, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let pq = ProductQuantizer::new(NUM_SUB_VECTORS, 4, DIM, codebook, distance_type);
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Field::new_list_field(DataType::Float32, true).into(),
+                    DIM as i32,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        ]);
+        let vectors = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..rows * DIM).map(|_| rng.random()));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..rows as u64);
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.into(), vec![Arc::new(fsl), Arc::new(row_ids)]).unwrap();
+        StorageBuilder::new("vec".to_owned(), distance_type, pq, None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .build(vec![batch])
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The 4-bit bulk scan must select the same top-k, with the same
+    /// distances, as scoring every row with `distance()`, from an empty heap or
+    /// one already holding another partition's rows, with or without bounds.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_4bit_accumulate_topk_matches_per_row(
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Dot)] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[values((5, 10), (1000, 10), (5000, 100))] rows_and_k: (usize, usize),
+        #[values(false, true)] prefilled: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] bounded: bool,
+    ) {
+        let (rows, k) = rows_and_k;
+        let storage = create_4bit_pq_storage(rows, distance_type);
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(7);
+        let query: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..DIM).map(|_| rng.random::<f32>()),
+        ));
+        let calc = storage.dist_calculator(query, 0.0);
+        let exact = (0..rows as u32)
+            .map(|id| calc.distance(id))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut sorted = exact.clone();
+        sorted.sort_by(f32::total_cmp);
+        let (lower_bound, upper_bound) = if bounded {
+            (Some(sorted[rows / 5]), Some(sorted[rows * 4 / 5]))
+        } else {
+            (None, None)
+        };
+        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::new();
+        if prefilled {
+            for (i, dist) in sorted.iter().step_by(3).take(k).enumerate() {
+                heap.push(OrderedNode::new(u64::MAX - i as u64, OrderedFloat(*dist)));
+            }
+        }
+        let row_id = |id: u32| id as u64 + 1_000_000;
+        let mut expected = heap.clone();
+        accumulate_distances_into_heap(k, lower_bound, upper_bound, row_id, &mut expected, &exact);
+
+        let mut actual = heap;
+        calc.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+            k,
+            lower_bound,
+            upper_bound,
+            row_id,
+            &mut actual,
+            &mut Vec::new(),
+            &mut Vec::new(),
+            &mut Vec::new(),
+            &mut Vec::new(),
+        );
+        // Rows tied at the k-th distance may be kept in either order, so
+        // compare the selected distances and check each row's own distance.
+        let dists = |heap: &BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>| {
+            let mut dists = heap
+                .iter()
+                .map(|node| node.dist.0.to_bits())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            dists.sort_unstable();
+            dists
+        };
+        assert_eq!(dists(&actual), dists(&expected));
+        for node in &actual {
+            // Prefilled nodes carry ids far above every row's.
+            if let Some(id) = node
+                .id
+                .checked_sub(1_000_000)
+                .filter(|&id| id < rows as u64)
+            {
+                assert_eq!(node.dist.0.to_bits(), exact[id as usize].to_bits());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_distance_all() {
         let storage = create_pq_storage().await;
@@ -1150,20 +1743,125 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_remap_with_extra_column() {
-        let storage = create_pq_storage_with_extra_column().await;
-        let mut mapping = HashMap::new();
-        for i in 0..TOTAL / 2 {
-            mapping.insert(i as u64, Some((TOTAL + i) as u64));
-        }
-        for i in TOTAL / 2..TOTAL {
-            mapping.insert(i as u64, None);
+    async fn test_dist_calculator_from_id_matches_reconstructed_distance() {
+        let mut rng = rand::rng();
+        let storage = create_pq_storage().await;
+        let u = rng.random_range(0..storage.len() as u32);
+        let v = rng.random_range(0..storage.len() as u32);
+        let codebook = storage
+            .metadata
+            .codebook
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive::<datatypes::Float32Type>();
+        let pq_codes = storage.pq_code.values();
+        let qu = get_centroids(
+            codebook.values(),
+            storage.metadata.nbits,
+            storage.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+            storage.metadata.dimension,
+            get_pq_code(
+                pq_codes,
+                storage.metadata.nbits,
+                storage.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+                u,
+            ),
+        );
+        let qv = get_centroids(
+            codebook.values(),
+            storage.metadata.nbits,
+            storage.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+            storage.metadata.dimension,
+            get_pq_code(
+                pq_codes,
+                storage.metadata.nbits,
+                storage.metadata.num_sub_vectors,
+                v,
+            ),
+        );
+        let expected = storage.distance_type.func()(&qu, &qv);
+        let dist_calc = storage.dist_calculator_from_id(u);
+        assert!((dist_calc.distance(v) - expected).abs() < 1e-4);
+        assert!((storage.dist_between(u, v) - expected).abs() < 1e-4);
+    }
+
+    // The first half of the rows is rewritten in order into frag 1; the second
+    // half is deleted. remap must behave the same in either RowAddrRemap mode.
+    fn pq_remap_compact() -> RowAddrRemap {
+        use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::GroupInput;
+        use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+        RowAddrRemap::compact([GroupInput {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::from_iter((0..TOTAL / 2).map(|i| i as u64)),
+            old_frag_ids: vec![0],
+            new_frags: vec![(1, (TOTAL / 2) as u32)],
+        }])
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn pq_remap_explicit() -> RowAddrRemap {
+        RowAddrRemap::direct(
+            (0..TOTAL / 2)
+                .map(|i| (i as u64, Some((1u64 << 32) | i as u64)))
+                .chain((TOTAL / 2..TOTAL).map(|i| (i as u64, None)))
+                .collect(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_async_remap_preserves_transposed_codes() {
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct Mapping(RowAddrRemap);
+        #[async_trait::async_trait]
+        impl lance_index_core::remapping::BatchRowIdRemapper for Mapping {
+            async fn remap_row_ids(&self, ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+                Ok(ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|id| self.0.get(*id).unwrap_or(Some(*id)))
+                    .collect())
+            }
         }
-        let new_storage = storage.remap(&mapping).unwrap();
+        let storage = create_pq_storage().await;
+        let mapping = pq_remap_compact();
+        let expected = storage.remap(&mapping).unwrap();
+        let remapping = Mapping(mapping);
+        let row_id_idx = storage.batch.schema().index_of(ROW_ID).unwrap();
+        let (batch, remapper) = lance_index_core::remapping::remap_row_ids_preserving_layout_async(
+            &remapping,
+            storage.batch.clone(),
+            row_id_idx,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN),
+            storage.batch.column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN)
+        );
+        let mut metadata = storage.metadata.clone();
+        metadata.transposed = true;
+        let actual = ProductQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+            batch,
+            &metadata,
+            storage.distance_type,
+            Some(remapper),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual.row_ids, expected.row_ids);
+        assert_eq!(actual.pq_code, expected.pq_code);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(pq_remap_compact())]
+    #[case(pq_remap_explicit())]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_with_extra_column(#[case] remap: RowAddrRemap) {
+        let storage = create_pq_storage_with_extra_column().await;
+        let new_storage = storage.remap(&remap).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(new_storage.len(), TOTAL / 2);
         assert_eq!(new_storage.row_ids.len(), TOTAL / 2);
         for (i, row_id) in new_storage.row_ids().enumerate() {
-            assert_eq!(*row_id, (TOTAL + i) as u64);
+            // Rewritten row i lands at offset i of frag 1.
+            assert_eq!(*row_id, (1u64 << 32) | i as u64);
         }
         assert_eq!(new_storage.batch.num_columns(), 2);
         assert!(new_storage.batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).is_some());
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/transform.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/transform.rs
index 987e4f665bb..45ed2d9746f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/transform.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/transform.rs
@@ -4,11 +4,10 @@
 use std::fmt::{Debug, Formatter};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, Array, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, cast::AsArray};
 use arrow_schema::Field;
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 use super::ProductQuantizer;
@@ -52,21 +51,17 @@ impl Transformer for PQTransformer {
         }
         let input_arr = batch
             .column_by_name(&self.input_column)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "PQ Transform: column {} not found in batch",
-                    self.input_column
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        let data = input_arr.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "PQ Transform: column {} not found in batch",
+                self.input_column
+            )))?;
+        let data = input_arr
+            .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
                 "PQ Transform: column {} is not a fixed size list, got {}",
                 self.input_column,
                 input_arr.data_type(),
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+            )))?;
         let pq_code = self.quantizer.quantize(&data)?;
         let pq_field = Field::new(&self.output_column, pq_code.data_type().clone(), false);
         let batch = batch.try_with_column(pq_field, Arc::new(pq_code))?;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/utils.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/utils.rs
index 95d3b3396e3..4203dd1f0e3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/pq/utils.rs
@@ -2,43 +2,46 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::AsArray, types::ArrowPrimitiveType, Array, FixedSizeListArray, PrimitiveArray,
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, PrimitiveArray, cast::AsArray, types::ArrowPrimitiveType,
 };
-use lance_core::{assume, Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, assume};
 
-/// Divide a 2D vector in [`T::Array`] to `m` sub-vectors.
+/// Divide the first `num_rows` of a 2D vector in [`T::Array`] to `m`
+/// sub-vectors.
 ///
 /// For example, for a `[1024x1M]` matrix, when `n = 8`, this function divides
 /// the matrix into  `[128x1M; 8]` vector of matrix.
 pub(super) fn divide_to_subvectors<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
     fsl: &FixedSizeListArray,
     m: usize,
+    num_rows: usize,
 ) -> Result<Vec<PrimitiveArray<T>>>
 where
     PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
 {
+    if num_rows > fsl.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "cannot divide {num_rows} rows from an array with {} rows",
+            fsl.len()
+        )));
+    }
     let dim = fsl.value_length() as usize;
     if !dim.is_multiple_of(m) {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "num_sub_vectors must divide vector dimension {}, but got {}",
-                dim, m
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ));
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "num_sub_vectors must divide vector dimension {}, but got {}",
+            dim, m
+        )));
     };
 
     let sub_vector_length = dim / m;
-    let capacity = fsl.len() * sub_vector_length;
+    let capacity = num_rows * sub_vector_length;
     let mut subarrays = vec![Vec::with_capacity(capacity); m];
 
-    // TODO: very intensive memory copy involved!!! But this is on the write path.
-    // Optimize for memory copy later.
     fsl.values()
         .as_primitive::<T>()
         .values()
         .chunks(dim)
+        .take(num_rows)
         .for_each(|vec| {
             for i in 0..m {
                 subarrays[i]
@@ -78,23 +81,42 @@ pub fn get_sub_vector_centroids<const NUM_BITS: u32, T>(
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use arrow_array::{types::Float32Type, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, types::Float32Type};
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_divide_to_subvectors() {
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::all_rows(10)]
+    #[case::sampled_rows(3)]
+    fn test_divide_to_subvectors(#[case] num_rows: usize) {
         let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..320).map(|v| v as f32));
         // A [10, 32] array.
         let mat = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 32).unwrap();
-        let sub_vectors = divide_to_subvectors::<Float32Type>(&mat, 4).unwrap();
+        let sub_vectors = divide_to_subvectors::<Float32Type>(&mat, 4, num_rows).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(sub_vectors.len(), 4);
-        assert_eq!(sub_vectors[0].len(), 10 * 8);
+        assert_eq!(sub_vectors[0].len(), num_rows * 8);
 
         assert_eq!(
             sub_vectors[0].values().to_vec(),
-            (0..10)
+            (0..num_rows)
                 .flat_map(|i| (0..8).map(move |c| 32.0 * i as f32 + c as f32))
                 .collect::<Vec<_>>()
         );
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_divide_to_subvectors_rejects_too_many_rows() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter((0..320).map(|v| v as f32));
+        let mat = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 32).unwrap();
+
+        let error = divide_to_subvectors::<Float32Type>(&mat, 4, 11).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("cannot divide 11 rows from an array with 10 rows"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/quantizer.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/quantizer.rs
index 267b6bb433c..13477ae660f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/quantizer.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/quantizer.rs
@@ -2,31 +2,32 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use core::fmt;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use std::fmt::Debug;
 use std::str::FromStr;
 use std::sync::Arc;
-use std::{collections::HashMap, fmt::Debug};
 
 use arrow::{array::AsArray, compute::concat_batches, datatypes::UInt64Type};
 use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::Field;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
 use lance_io::traits::Reader;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use lance_table::format::SelfDescribingFileReader;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use super::flat::index::{FlatBinQuantizer, FlatQuantizer};
 use super::pq::ProductQuantizer;
 use super::{ivf::storage::IvfModel, sq::ScalarQuantizer, storage::VectorStore};
 use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
 use crate::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
-use crate::{IndexMetadata, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY};
+use crate::{INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, IndexMetadata};
 
 pub trait Quantization:
     Send
@@ -66,6 +67,7 @@ pub trait Quantization:
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
 pub enum QuantizationType {
     Flat,
+    FlatBin,
     Product,
     Scalar,
     Rabit,
@@ -77,13 +79,13 @@ impl FromStr for QuantizationType {
     fn from_str(s: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, Self::Err> {
         match s {
             "FLAT" => Ok(Self::Flat),
+            "FLATBIN" => Ok(Self::FlatBin),
             "PQ" => Ok(Self::Product),
             "SQ" => Ok(Self::Scalar),
-            "RABIT" => Ok(Self::Rabit),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Unknown quantization type: {}", s),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            // `Display` writes "RQ"; "RABIT" is accepted for headers written
+            // before this variant round-tripped.
+            "RQ" | "RABIT" => Ok(Self::Rabit),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!("Unknown quantization type: {}", s))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -92,6 +94,7 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for QuantizationType {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         match self {
             Self::Flat => write!(f, "FLAT"),
+            Self::FlatBin => write!(f, "FLATBIN"),
             Self::Product => write!(f, "PQ"),
             Self::Scalar => write!(f, "SQ"),
             Self::Rabit => write!(f, "RQ"),
@@ -100,7 +103,29 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for QuantizationType {
 }
 
 pub trait QuantizerBuildParams: Send + Sync {
+    /// Returns the number of rows to sample when training the quantizer.
     fn sample_size(&self) -> usize;
+
+    /// Returns the number of rows to sample, rejecting parameters whose sample size
+    /// cannot be represented by [`usize`].
+    ///
+    /// Implementations with fallible sample-size calculations should override this
+    /// method. The default preserves the behavior of existing implementations.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+    /// use lance_index::vector::quantizer::QuantizerBuildParams;
+    ///
+    /// let params = PQBuildParams::new(16, 8);
+    /// assert_eq!(params.try_sample_size()?, 65_536);
+    /// # Ok::<(), lance_core::Error>(())
+    /// ```
+    fn try_sample_size(&self) -> Result<usize> {
+        Ok(self.sample_size())
+    }
+
     fn use_residual(_: DistanceType) -> bool {
         false
     }
@@ -160,7 +185,7 @@ impl Quantizer {
     pub fn quantization_type(&self) -> QuantizationType {
         match self {
             Self::Flat(_) => QuantizationType::Flat,
-            Self::FlatBin(_) => QuantizationType::Flat,
+            Self::FlatBin(_) => QuantizationType::FlatBin,
             Self::Product(_) => QuantizationType::Product,
             Self::Scalar(_) => QuantizationType::Scalar,
             Self::Rabit(_) => QuantizationType::Rabit,
@@ -203,6 +228,11 @@ pub struct QuantizationMetadata {
 pub trait QuantizerMetadata:
     fmt::Debug + Clone + Sized + DeepSizeOf + for<'a> Deserialize<'a> + Serialize
 {
+    /// Whether code bytes are laid out column-major across a whole partition.
+    fn is_transposed(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
     // the extra metadata index in global buffer
     fn buffer_index(&self) -> Option<u32> {
         None
@@ -223,7 +253,7 @@ pub trait QuantizerMetadata:
         Ok(None)
     }
 
-    async fn load(reader: &PreviousFileReader) -> Result<Self>;
+    async fn load(reader: &V1FileReader) -> Result<Self>;
 }
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
@@ -239,9 +269,26 @@ pub trait QuantizerStorage: Clone + Sized + DeepSizeOf + VectorStore {
         frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
     ) -> Result<Self>;
 
+    /// Internal entry point for compact FRI loading without changing the
+    /// existing concrete-type API.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    fn try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if frag_reuse_index.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "this quantization storage does not support a generic row-id remapper".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Self::try_from_batch(batch, metadata, distance_type, None)
+    }
+
     fn metadata(&self) -> &Self::Metadata;
 
-    fn remap(&self, mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<Self> {
+    fn remap(&self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<Self> {
         let batches = self
             .to_batches()?
             .map(|b| {
@@ -250,10 +297,10 @@ pub trait QuantizerStorage: Clone + Sized + DeepSizeOf + VectorStore {
 
                 let row_ids = b.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
                 for (i, row_id) in row_ids.iter().enumerate() {
-                    match mapping.get(row_id) {
+                    match mapping.get(*row_id) {
                         Some(Some(new_id)) => {
                             indices.push(i as u32);
-                            new_row_ids.push(*new_id);
+                            new_row_ids.push(new_id);
                         }
                         Some(None) => {}
                         None => {
@@ -277,7 +324,7 @@ pub trait QuantizerStorage: Clone + Sized + DeepSizeOf + VectorStore {
     }
 
     async fn load_partition(
-        reader: &PreviousFileReader,
+        reader: &V1FileReader,
         range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         metadata: &Self::Metadata,
@@ -287,7 +334,7 @@ pub trait QuantizerStorage: Clone + Sized + DeepSizeOf + VectorStore {
 
 /// Loader to load partitioned [VectorStore] from disk.
 pub struct IvfQuantizationStorage<Q: Quantization> {
-    reader: PreviousFileReader,
+    reader: V1FileReader,
 
     distance_type: DistanceType,
     quantizer: Quantizer,
@@ -297,7 +344,7 @@ pub struct IvfQuantizationStorage<Q: Quantization> {
 }
 
 impl<Q: Quantization> DeepSizeOf for IvfQuantizationStorage<Q> {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.reader.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.quantizer.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.metadata.deep_size_of_children(context)
@@ -317,30 +364,24 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> Clone for IvfQuantizationStorage<Q> {
     }
 }
 
-#[allow(dead_code)]
 impl<Q: Quantization> IvfQuantizationStorage<Q> {
     /// Open a Loader.
     ///
     ///
     pub async fn open(reader: Arc<dyn Reader>) -> Result<Self> {
-        let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(reader, None).await?;
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(reader, None).await?;
         let schema = reader.schema();
 
         let metadata_str = schema
             .metadata
             .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Reading quantization storage: index key {} not found",
-                    INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        let index_metadata: IndexMetadata =
-            serde_json::from_str(metadata_str).map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Reading quantization storage: index key {} not found",
+                INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY
+            )))?;
+        let index_metadata: IndexMetadata = serde_json::from_str(metadata_str).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::index(format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str))
+        })?;
         let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(index_metadata.distance_type.as_str())?;
 
         let ivf_data = IvfModel::load(&reader).await?;
@@ -391,3 +432,34 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> IvfQuantizationStorage<Q> {
         .await
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    /// `IvfIndexState` persists the quantization type with `Display` and reads
+    /// it back with `FromStr`, so the two must agree for every variant.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::flat(QuantizationType::Flat)]
+    #[case::flat_bin(QuantizationType::FlatBin)]
+    #[case::product(QuantizationType::Product)]
+    #[case::scalar(QuantizationType::Scalar)]
+    #[case::rabit(QuantizationType::Rabit)]
+    fn test_display_from_str_round_trip(#[case] quantization_type: QuantizationType) {
+        let encoded = quantization_type.to_string();
+        assert_eq!(
+            encoded.parse::<QuantizationType>().unwrap(),
+            quantization_type,
+            "{encoded} did not round-trip"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_str_accepts_legacy_rabit_spelling() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            "RABIT".parse::<QuantizationType>().unwrap(),
+            QuantizationType::Rabit
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/residual.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/residual.rs
index 10ecc2fc75b..5774d42f246 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/residual.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/residual.rs
@@ -5,23 +5,21 @@ use std::ops::{AddAssign, DivAssign};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::{iter, ops::MulAssign};
 
-use crate::vector::kmeans::{compute_partitions, KMeansAlgoFloat};
+use crate::vector::kmeans::{KMeansAlgoFloat, MaybeF16, compute_partitions};
 use arrow_array::ArrowNumericType;
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, UInt32Type},
-    Array, FixedSizeListArray, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array,
 };
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, RecordBatchExt};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, L2};
-use lance_table::utils::LanceIteratorExtension;
 use num_traits::{Float, FromPrimitive, Num};
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
-use super::{transform::Transformer, PQ_CODE_COLUMN};
+use super::{PQ_CODE_COLUMN, transform::Transformer};
 
 /// Compute the residual vector of a Vector Matrix to their centroids.
 ///
@@ -55,7 +53,7 @@ impl ResidualTransform {
     }
 }
 
-fn do_compute_residual<T: ArrowNumericType>(
+fn do_compute_residual<T: ArrowNumericType + MaybeF16>(
     centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
     vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
     distance_type: Option<DistanceType>,
@@ -83,16 +81,13 @@ where
 
     let vectors_slice = vectors.values();
     let centroids_slice = centroids.values();
-    let residuals = vectors_slice
-        .chunks_exact(dimension)
-        .enumerate()
-        .flat_map(|(idx, vector)| {
-            let part_id = part_ids[idx] as usize;
-            let c = &centroids_slice[part_id * dimension..(part_id + 1) * dimension];
-            iter::zip(vector, c).map(|(v, cent)| *v - *cent)
-        })
-        .exact_size(vectors.len())
-        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut residuals = Vec::with_capacity(vectors.len());
+    for (idx, vector) in vectors_slice.chunks_exact(dimension).enumerate() {
+        let part_id = part_ids[idx] as usize;
+        let c = &centroids_slice[part_id * dimension..(part_id + 1) * dimension];
+        residuals.extend(iter::zip(vector, c).map(|(v, cent)| *v - *cent));
+    }
+    debug_assert_eq!(residuals.len(), vectors.len());
     let residual_arr = PrimitiveArray::<T>::from_iter_values(residuals);
     debug_assert_eq!(residual_arr.len(), vectors.len());
     Ok(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
@@ -115,14 +110,11 @@ pub(crate) fn compute_residual(
     partitions: Option<&UInt32Array>,
 ) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
     if centroids.value_length() != vectors.value_length() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "Compute residual vector: centroid and vector length mismatch: centroid: {}, vector: {}",
-                centroids.value_length(),
-                vectors.value_length(),
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Compute residual vector: centroid and vector length mismatch: centroid: {}, vector: {}",
+            centroids.value_length(),
+            vectors.value_length(),
+        )));
     }
     // TODO: Bf16 is not supported yet.
     match (centroids.value_type(), vectors.value_type()) {
@@ -135,21 +127,17 @@ pub(crate) fn compute_residual(
         (DataType::Float64, DataType::Float64) => {
             do_compute_residual::<Float64Type>(centroids, vectors, distance_type, partitions)
         }
-        (DataType::Float32, DataType::Int8) => {
-            do_compute_residual::<Float32Type>(
-                centroids,
-                &vectors.convert_to_floating_point()?,
-                distance_type,
-                partitions)
-        }
-        _ => Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "Compute residual vector: centroids and vector type mismatch: centroid: {}, vector: {}",
-                centroids.value_type(),
-                vectors.value_type(),
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        (DataType::Float32, DataType::Int8) => do_compute_residual::<Float32Type>(
+            centroids,
+            &vectors.convert_to_floating_point()?,
+            distance_type,
+            partitions,
+        ),
+        _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Compute residual vector: centroids and vector type mismatch: centroid: {}, vector: {}",
+            centroids.value_type(),
+            vectors.value_type(),
+        ))),
     }
 }
 
@@ -164,29 +152,26 @@ impl Transformer for ResidualTransform {
             return Ok(batch.clone());
         }
 
-        let part_ids = batch.column_by_name(&self.part_col).ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
+        let part_ids = batch
+            .column_by_name(&self.part_col)
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
                 "Compute residual vector: partition id column not found: {}",
                 self.part_col
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-        let original = batch.column_by_name(&self.vec_col).ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
+            )))?;
+        let original = batch
+            .column_by_name(&self.vec_col)
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
                 "Compute residual vector: original vector column {} not found in batch {}",
                 self.vec_col,
                 batch.schema(),
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-        let original_vectors = original.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
+            )))?;
+        let original_vectors = original
+            .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
                 "Compute residual vector: original vector column {} is not fixed size list: {}",
                 self.vec_col,
                 original.data_type(),
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+            )))?;
 
         let part_ids_ref = part_ids.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
         let residual_arr =
@@ -205,3 +190,262 @@ impl Transformer for ResidualTransform {
         Ok(batch)
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int8Array, Int32Array};
+    use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+    use half::f16;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+    const PART_COLUMN: &str = "part_id";
+    const VECTOR_COLUMN: &str = "v";
+
+    fn fsl<T: Array + 'static>(values: T, dim: i32) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dim).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn f32_values(arr: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Vec<f32> {
+        arr.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().to_vec()
+    }
+
+    /// A batch holding a vector column plus the partition ids the transform reads.
+    fn batch(vectors: ArrayRef, part_ids: Vec<u32>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VECTOR_COLUMN, vectors.data_type().clone(), true),
+            Field::new(PART_COLUMN, DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.into(),
+            vec![vectors, Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(part_ids))],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn transform_of(centroids: FixedSizeListArray) -> ResidualTransform {
+        ResidualTransform::new(centroids, PART_COLUMN, VECTOR_COLUMN)
+    }
+
+    /// The whole point of the file: each vector loses the centroid of *its own*
+    /// partition, not the first one. Two partitions with distinct centroids and
+    /// interleaved partition ids are what make a row/centroid mix-up visible.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compute_residual_subtracts_the_assigned_centroid() {
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0, 10.0, 20.0]), 2);
+        let vectors = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 11.0, 23.0, 3.0, 4.0]), 2);
+        let part_ids = UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 0]);
+
+        let residual = compute_residual(&centroids, &vectors, None, Some(&part_ids)).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(residual.value_length(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(f32_values(&residual), vec![1.0, 2.0, 1.0, 3.0, 3.0, 4.0]);
+    }
+
+    /// Mismatched widths would slice the centroid row out of bounds, so this is
+    /// rejected up front. The message has to name both widths to be actionable.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compute_residual_rejects_dimension_mismatch() {
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0]), 2);
+        let vectors = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0]), 3);
+
+        let message = compute_residual(&centroids, &vectors, None, None)
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+
+        assert!(message.contains("centroid: 2"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("vector: 3"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    /// Only the four pairs listed in `compute_residual` are dispatched; anything
+    /// else must report both value types rather than silently picking one.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compute_residual_rejects_type_mismatch() {
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0]), 2);
+        let vectors = fsl(Float64Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0]), 2);
+
+        let message = compute_residual(&centroids, &vectors, None, None)
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+
+        assert!(message.contains("Float32"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("Float64"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compute_residual_float16() {
+        let centroids = fsl(
+            Float16Array::from(vec![f16::from_f32(1.0), f16::from_f32(2.0)]),
+            2,
+        );
+        let vectors = fsl(
+            Float16Array::from(vec![f16::from_f32(4.0), f16::from_f32(8.0)]),
+            2,
+        );
+        let part_ids = UInt32Array::from(vec![0]);
+
+        let residual = compute_residual(&centroids, &vectors, None, Some(&part_ids)).unwrap();
+
+        let values = residual.values().as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values();
+        assert_eq!(values, &[f16::from_f32(3.0), f16::from_f32(6.0)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compute_residual_float64() {
+        let centroids = fsl(Float64Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0]), 2);
+        let vectors = fsl(Float64Array::from(vec![4.0, 8.0]), 2);
+        let part_ids = UInt32Array::from(vec![0]);
+
+        let residual = compute_residual(&centroids, &vectors, None, Some(&part_ids)).unwrap();
+
+        let values = residual.values().as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values();
+        assert_eq!(values, &[3.0, 6.0]);
+    }
+
+    /// Int8 vectors are the one asymmetric arm: they are widened to Float32
+    /// before subtraction, so the residual comes back wider than the input.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compute_residual_widens_int8_vectors_to_float32() {
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![0.5, 1.5]), 2);
+        let vectors = fsl(Int8Array::from(vec![4i8, 9]), 2);
+        let part_ids = UInt32Array::from(vec![0]);
+
+        let residual = compute_residual(&centroids, &vectors, None, Some(&part_ids)).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(residual.value_type(), DataType::Float32);
+        assert_eq!(f32_values(&residual), vec![3.5, 7.5]);
+    }
+
+    /// With no partition ids the transform falls back to assigning them from the
+    /// distance type. Centroids are far apart so the assignment is unambiguous
+    /// regardless of accumulation precision.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compute_residual_assigns_partitions_when_absent() {
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0, 100.0, 100.0]), 2);
+        let vectors = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![99.0, 101.0, 1.0, -2.0]), 2);
+
+        let residual =
+            compute_residual(&centroids, &vectors, Some(DistanceType::L2), None).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(f32_values(&residual), vec![-1.0, 1.0, 1.0, -2.0]);
+    }
+
+    /// An already-quantized batch has nothing to subtract, and recomputing would
+    /// corrupt the codes, so the batch must pass through untouched.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_transform_is_noop_when_pq_code_present() {
+        let vectors = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0]), 2);
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(VECTOR_COLUMN, vectors.data_type().clone(), true),
+            Field::new(PART_COLUMN, DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new(PQ_CODE_COLUMN, DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]);
+        let input = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.into(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(vectors),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![9.0, 9.0]), 2);
+        let output = transform_of(centroids).transform(&input).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(output, input);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_transform_reports_missing_partition_column() {
+        let vectors = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0]), 2);
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            VECTOR_COLUMN,
+            vectors.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let input = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.into(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0]), 2);
+        let message = transform_of(centroids)
+            .transform(&input)
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+
+        assert!(message.contains(PART_COLUMN), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_transform_reports_missing_vector_column() {
+        let input = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Schema::new(vec![Field::new(PART_COLUMN, DataType::UInt32, false)]).into(),
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0]), 2);
+        let message = transform_of(centroids)
+            .transform(&input)
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+
+        assert!(message.contains(VECTOR_COLUMN), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_transform_reports_non_vector_column() {
+        let input = batch(Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])), vec![0, 0]);
+
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0]), 2);
+        let message = transform_of(centroids)
+            .transform(&input)
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+
+        assert!(message.contains("is not fixed size list"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("Int32"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    /// Same-width residuals replace the column in place: the name and schema stay
+    /// put and only the values change, so downstream projections keep working.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_transform_replaces_vector_column_in_place() {
+        let vectors = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 11.0, 22.0]), 2);
+        let input = batch(Arc::new(vectors), vec![0, 1]);
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 1.0, 10.0, 20.0]), 2);
+
+        let output = transform_of(centroids).transform(&input).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(output.schema(), input.schema());
+        let residual = output
+            .column_by_name(VECTOR_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_fixed_size_list();
+        assert_eq!(f32_values(residual), vec![0.0, 1.0, 1.0, 2.0]);
+    }
+
+    /// Int8 input widens to Float32, so replacing the column alone would leave the
+    /// schema claiming Int8 while the data is Float32. This is the branch that has
+    /// to rewrite the field type as well.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_transform_rewrites_schema_when_residual_widens() {
+        let input = batch(Arc::new(fsl(Int8Array::from(vec![4i8, 9]), 2)), vec![0]);
+        let centroids = fsl(Float32Array::from(vec![0.5, 1.5]), 2);
+
+        let output = transform_of(centroids).transform(&input).unwrap();
+
+        let field = output
+            .schema()
+            .field_with_name(VECTOR_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+        let residual = output
+            .column_by_name(VECTOR_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_fixed_size_list();
+        assert_eq!(field.data_type(), residual.data_type());
+        assert_eq!(residual.value_type(), DataType::Float32);
+        assert_eq!(f32_values(residual), vec![3.5, 7.5]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/shared/partition_merger.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/shared/partition_merger.rs
index b038860578d..a94c462e46b 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/shared/partition_merger.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/shared/partition_merger.rs
@@ -17,11 +17,12 @@ use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use prost::Message;
 
 use crate::pb;
-use crate::vector::ivf::storage::{IvfModel, IVF_METADATA_KEY};
+use crate::vector::bq::storage::RABIT_METADATA_KEY;
+use crate::vector::ivf::storage::{IVF_METADATA_KEY, IvfModel};
 use crate::vector::pq::storage::PQ_METADATA_KEY;
 use crate::vector::sq::storage::SQ_METADATA_KEY;
 use crate::vector::{PQ_CODE_COLUMN, SQ_CODE_COLUMN};
-use crate::{IndexMetadata as IndexMetaSchema, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY};
+use crate::{INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, IndexMetadata as IndexMetaSchema};
 
 /// Supported vector index types for unified IVF metadata writing.
 ///
@@ -34,6 +35,7 @@ pub enum SupportedIvfIndexType {
     IvfFlat,
     IvfPq,
     IvfSq,
+    IvfRq,
     IvfHnswFlat,
     IvfHnswPq,
     IvfHnswSq,
@@ -46,6 +48,7 @@ impl SupportedIvfIndexType {
             Self::IvfFlat => "IVF_FLAT",
             Self::IvfPq => "IVF_PQ",
             Self::IvfSq => "IVF_SQ",
+            Self::IvfRq => "IVF_RQ",
             Self::IvfHnswFlat => "IVF_HNSW_FLAT",
             Self::IvfHnswPq => "IVF_HNSW_PQ",
             Self::IvfHnswSq => "IVF_HNSW_SQ",
@@ -60,6 +63,7 @@ impl SupportedIvfIndexType {
             "IVF_FLAT" => Some(Self::IvfFlat),
             "IVF_PQ" => Some(Self::IvfPq),
             "IVF_SQ" => Some(Self::IvfSq),
+            "IVF_RQ" => Some(Self::IvfRq),
             "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => Some(Self::IvfHnswFlat),
             "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => Some(Self::IvfHnswPq),
             "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => Some(Self::IvfHnswSq),
@@ -74,6 +78,10 @@ impl SupportedIvfIndexType {
     pub fn detect_from_reader_and_schema(reader: &V2Reader, schema: &ArrowSchema) -> Result<Self> {
         let has_pq_code_col = schema.fields.iter().any(|f| f.name() == PQ_CODE_COLUMN);
         let has_sq_code_col = schema.fields.iter().any(|f| f.name() == SQ_CODE_COLUMN);
+        let has_rq_code_col = schema
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .any(|f| f.name() == crate::vector::bq::storage::RABIT_CODE_COLUMN);
 
         let is_pq = reader
             .metadata()
@@ -87,24 +95,30 @@ impl SupportedIvfIndexType {
             .metadata
             .contains_key(SQ_METADATA_KEY)
             || has_sq_code_col;
+        let is_rq = reader
+            .metadata()
+            .file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .contains_key(RABIT_METADATA_KEY)
+            || has_rq_code_col;
 
         // Detect HNSW-related columns
         let has_hnsw_vector_id_col = schema.fields.iter().any(|f| f.name() == "__vector_id");
         let has_hnsw_pointer_col = schema.fields.iter().any(|f| f.name() == "__pointer");
         let has_hnsw = has_hnsw_vector_id_col || has_hnsw_pointer_col;
 
-        let index_type = match (has_hnsw, is_pq, is_sq) {
-            (false, false, false) => Self::IvfFlat,
-            (false, true, false) => Self::IvfPq,
-            (false, false, true) => Self::IvfSq,
-            (true, false, false) => Self::IvfHnswFlat,
-            (true, true, false) => Self::IvfHnswPq,
-            (true, false, true) => Self::IvfHnswSq,
+        let index_type = match (has_hnsw, is_pq, is_sq, is_rq) {
+            (false, false, false, false) => Self::IvfFlat,
+            (false, true, false, false) => Self::IvfPq,
+            (false, false, true, false) => Self::IvfSq,
+            (false, false, false, true) => Self::IvfRq,
+            (true, false, false, false) => Self::IvfHnswFlat,
+            (true, true, false, false) => Self::IvfHnswPq,
+            (true, false, true, false) => Self::IvfHnswSq,
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                    source: "Unsupported index type combination detected".into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "Unsupported index type combination detected".into(),
+                ));
             }
         };
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq.rs
index 520ed3fc212..69407999ba8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq.rs
@@ -9,19 +9,19 @@ use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array};
 
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
 use builder::SQBuildParams;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use lance_arrow::*;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use num_traits::*;
-use snafu::location;
-use storage::{ScalarQuantizationMetadata, ScalarQuantizationStorage, SQ_METADATA_KEY};
+use storage::{SQ_METADATA_KEY, ScalarQuantizationMetadata, ScalarQuantizationStorage};
 
-use super::quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizationMetadata, QuantizationType, Quantizer};
 use super::SQ_CODE_COLUMN;
+use super::quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizationMetadata, QuantizationType, Quantizer};
 
 pub mod builder;
+pub(crate) mod pairwise;
 pub mod storage;
 pub mod transform;
 
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ pub struct ScalarQuantizer {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ScalarQuantizer {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         0
     }
 }
@@ -72,13 +72,10 @@ impl ScalarQuantizer {
             .values()
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Expect to be a float vector array, got: {:?}",
-                    vectors.value_type()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Expect to be a float vector array, got: {:?}",
+                vectors.value_type()
+            )))?
             .as_slice();
 
         self.metadata.bounds = data.iter().fold(self.metadata.bounds.clone(), |f, v| {
@@ -91,25 +88,19 @@ impl ScalarQuantizer {
     pub fn transform<T: ArrowFloatType>(&self, data: &dyn Array) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         let fsl = data
             .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Expect to be a FixedSizeList<float> vector array, got: {:?} array",
-                    data.data_type()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Expect to be a FixedSizeList<float> vector array, got: {:?} array",
+                data.data_type()
+            )))?
             .clone();
         let data = fsl
             .values()
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Expect to be a float vector array, got: {:?}",
-                    fsl.value_type()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Expect to be a float vector array, got: {:?}",
+                fsl.value_type()
+            )))?
             .as_slice();
 
         // TODO: support SQ4
@@ -136,10 +127,7 @@ impl TryFrom<Quantizer> for ScalarQuantizer {
     fn try_from(value: Quantizer) -> Result<Self> {
         match value {
             Quantizer::Scalar(sq) => Ok(sq),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Expect to be a ScalarQuantizer".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index("Expect to be a ScalarQuantizer".to_string())),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -150,13 +138,10 @@ impl Quantization for ScalarQuantizer {
     type Storage = ScalarQuantizationStorage;
 
     fn build(data: &dyn Array, _: DistanceType, params: &Self::BuildParams) -> Result<Self> {
-        let fsl = data.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "SQ builder: input is not a FixedSizeList: {}",
-                data.data_type()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let fsl = data.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+            "SQ builder: input is not a FixedSizeList: {}",
+            data.data_type()
+        )))?;
 
         let mut quantizer = Self::new(params.num_bits, fsl.value_length() as usize);
 
@@ -171,10 +156,10 @@ impl Quantization for ScalarQuantizer {
                 quantizer.update_bounds::<Float64Type>(fsl)?;
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("SQ builder: unsupported data type: {}", fsl.value_type()),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "SQ builder: unsupported data type: {}",
+                    fsl.value_type()
+                )));
             }
         }
 
@@ -182,13 +167,10 @@ impl Quantization for ScalarQuantizer {
     }
 
     fn retrain(&mut self, data: &dyn Array) -> Result<()> {
-        let fsl = data.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "SQ retrain: input is not a FixedSizeList: {}",
-                data.data_type()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let fsl = data.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+            "SQ retrain: input is not a FixedSizeList: {}",
+            data.data_type()
+        )))?;
 
         match fsl.value_type() {
             DataType::Float16 => {
@@ -201,10 +183,10 @@ impl Quantization for ScalarQuantizer {
                 self.update_bounds::<Float64Type>(fsl)?;
             }
             value_type => {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("unsupported data type {} for scalar quantizer", value_type),
-                    location!(),
-                ))
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "unsupported data type {} for scalar quantizer",
+                    value_type
+                )));
             }
         }
         Ok(())
@@ -223,10 +205,10 @@ impl Quantization for ScalarQuantizer {
             DataType::Float16 => self.transform::<Float16Type>(vectors),
             DataType::Float32 => self.transform::<Float32Type>(vectors),
             DataType::Float64 => self.transform::<Float64Type>(vectors),
-            value_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("unsupported data type {} for scalar quantizer", value_type),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            value_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "unsupported data type {} for scalar quantizer",
+                value_type
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/builder.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/builder.rs
index 913751062cf..359765040dd 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/builder.rs
@@ -12,6 +12,14 @@ pub struct SQBuildParams {
     pub sample_rate: usize,
 }
 
+impl From<&SQBuildParams> for crate::pb::vector_index_details::ScalarQuantization {
+    fn from(params: &SQBuildParams) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            num_bits: params.num_bits as u32,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 impl Default for SQBuildParams {
     fn default() -> Self {
         Self {
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/pairwise.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/pairwise.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b52f8bdd5c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/pairwise.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,705 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Symmetric SQ code-to-code scoring with exact integer kernels.
+//!
+//! A code reconstructs `x̃ = lower + value_scale * code`, so squared L2 is the
+//! integer `Σ(a − b)²` times `value_scale²`, and the dot product expands into
+//! the integer `Σ a·b` plus per-row code sums staged once.
+//!
+//! On x86-64 with AVX-512 VNNI, one anchor row is scored against eight
+//! candidate rows per pass, with squared L2 in its dot form
+//! `Σa² + Σb² − 2Σa·b` over staged per-row code statistics. Every integer is
+//! exact, so each distance is bit-identical to the portable per-pair kernels.
+
+use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, Float64Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array,
+    cast::AsArray,
+    types::{Float64Type, UInt8Type, UInt64Type},
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, dot_u8::dot_u8_u64, l2_u8::l2_u8_u64};
+
+use super::{
+    ScalarQuantizer,
+    storage::{sq_distance_scale, sq_value_scale},
+};
+use crate::vector::SQ_CODE_COLUMN;
+use crate::vector::pairwise::{
+    NORM_COLUMN, PairKernel, PairScorer, column_values, l2_to_cosine, list_values, norm_field,
+};
+use crate::vector::quantizer::Quantization;
+
+/// Staged `Σ code` per row, for dot and for the batched kernels.
+const CODE_SUM_COLUMN: &str = "__pairwise_sq_code_sum";
+/// Staged `Σ code²` per row, for the batched l2 and cosine kernels.
+const CODE_SQUARES_COLUMN: &str = "__pairwise_sq_code_squares";
+
+/// Largest dimension whose code statistics, `Σ a·b` and squared L2 all fit
+/// in an i32 (`dim · 255² < 2³¹`), as the batched SIMD kernels require.
+const MAX_BATCHED_DIM: usize = 32768;
+
+pub struct SQPairScorer {
+    dim: usize,
+    metric: DistanceType,
+    lower_bound: f32,
+    value_scale: f32,
+    /// `value_scale²`, the factor from integer to reconstructed squared L2.
+    distance_scale: f32,
+    /// Whether this host runs the batched SIMD kernels, which need the staged
+    /// code statistics. Staged batches, spilled or not, never leave the
+    /// process that staged them, so staging and scoring agree on it.
+    batched: bool,
+}
+
+impl SQPairScorer {
+    pub(crate) fn new(sq: &ScalarQuantizer, metric: DistanceType) -> Result<Self> {
+        if sq.num_bits() != 8 {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "SQ pair scoring requires 8-bit codes, got {}",
+                sq.num_bits()
+            )));
+        }
+        if !matches!(
+            metric,
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot
+        ) {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "SQ pair scoring with {metric} distance"
+            )));
+        }
+        let bounds = sq.bounds();
+        Ok(Self {
+            dim: sq.code_dim(),
+            metric,
+            lower_bound: bounds.start as f32,
+            value_scale: sq_value_scale(&bounds),
+            distance_scale: sq_distance_scale(&bounds),
+            batched: batched_kernels_available(sq.code_dim()),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl PairScorer for SQPairScorer {
+    type Kernel<'a> = SQKernel<'a>;
+
+    fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        let is_dot = self.metric == DistanceType::Dot;
+        let sums = if is_dot || self.batched { 8 } else { 0 };
+        let squares = if !is_dot && self.batched { 8 } else { 0 };
+        let norms = if self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            8
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        self.dim + sums + squares + norms
+    }
+
+    fn stage(&self, source: &RecordBatch, rows: Range<usize>) -> Result<Vec<(Field, ArrayRef)>> {
+        let (index, field) = source
+            .schema()
+            .column_with_name(SQ_CODE_COLUMN)
+            .map(|(index, field)| (index, field.clone()))
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal(format!("SQ batch missing {SQ_CODE_COLUMN}")))?;
+        let codes = source.column(index).slice(rows.start, rows.len());
+        let values = codes
+            .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
+            .and_then(|codes| codes.values().as_primitive_opt::<UInt8Type>())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("SQ codes must be a fixed-size list of u8"))?
+            .values();
+        let is_dot = self.metric == DistanceType::Dot;
+        let row_stat = |name: &str, stat: fn(u64) -> u64| -> (Field, ArrayRef) {
+            let stats: Vec<u64> = values
+                .chunks_exact(self.dim)
+                .map(|codes| codes.iter().map(|&code| stat(u64::from(code))).sum())
+                .collect();
+            (
+                Field::new(name, DataType::UInt64, false),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(stats)),
+            )
+        };
+        let mut columns = vec![(field, codes.clone())];
+        if is_dot || self.batched {
+            columns.push(row_stat(CODE_SUM_COLUMN, |code| code));
+        }
+        if !is_dot && self.batched {
+            columns.push(row_stat(CODE_SQUARES_COLUMN, |code| code * code));
+        }
+        if self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            let lower = f64::from(self.lower_bound);
+            let scale = f64::from(self.value_scale);
+            let squares: Vec<f64> = (0..=255u8)
+                .map(|code| (lower + scale * f64::from(code)).powi(2))
+                .collect();
+            let norms: Float64Array = values
+                .chunks_exact(self.dim)
+                .map(|codes| {
+                    codes
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|&code| squares[usize::from(code)])
+                        .sum::<f64>()
+                        .sqrt()
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .into();
+            columns.push((norm_field(), Arc::new(norms)));
+        }
+        Ok(columns)
+    }
+
+    fn kernel<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        anchor: &'a RecordBatch,
+        candidates: &'a RecordBatch,
+    ) -> Result<Self::Kernel<'a>> {
+        let is_dot = self.metric == DistanceType::Dot;
+        let rows = |batch: &'a RecordBatch| -> Result<StagedRows<'a>> {
+            let staged = StagedRows {
+                codes: list_values::<UInt8Type>(batch, SQ_CODE_COLUMN)?,
+                sums: if is_dot || self.batched {
+                    column_values::<UInt64Type>(batch, CODE_SUM_COLUMN)?
+                } else {
+                    &[]
+                },
+                #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+                squares: if !is_dot && self.batched {
+                    column_values::<UInt64Type>(batch, CODE_SQUARES_COLUMN)?
+                } else {
+                    &[]
+                },
+                norms: if self.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+                    column_values::<Float64Type>(batch, NORM_COLUMN)?
+                } else {
+                    &[]
+                },
+            };
+            if staged.codes.len() != batch.num_rows() * self.dim {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "SQ pairwise batch has {} code bytes for {} rows of dim {}",
+                    staged.codes.len(),
+                    batch.num_rows(),
+                    self.dim
+                )));
+            }
+            Ok(staged)
+        };
+        Ok(SQKernel {
+            scorer: self,
+            anchor: rows(anchor)?,
+            candidates: rows(candidates)?,
+            batched: self.batched,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether this host runs the batched SIMD kernels at dimension `dim`.
+fn batched_kernels_available(dim: usize) -> bool {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    let has_vnni = std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f")
+        && std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw")
+        && std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vnni");
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    let has_vnni = false;
+    dim <= MAX_BATCHED_DIM && has_vnni
+}
+
+/// One staged batch's rows as raw slices.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct StagedRows<'a> {
+    codes: &'a [u8],
+    /// For dot or the batched kernels; empty otherwise.
+    sums: &'a [u64],
+    /// For the batched l2 and cosine kernels; empty otherwise.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    squares: &'a [u64],
+    /// Cosine only.
+    norms: &'a [f64],
+}
+
+/// The float terms of the reconstructed dot product
+/// `dim·lower² + lower·value_scale·(Sa + Sb) + value_scale²·Σa·b`, in the
+/// expression order of search's code-to-code SQ dot distance.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct DotTerms {
+    constant: f32,
+    lower_scale: f32,
+    distance_scale: f32,
+    anchor_sum: f32,
+}
+
+impl DotTerms {
+    #[inline]
+    fn distance(&self, dot: u64, candidate_sum: u64) -> f32 {
+        let dot = self.constant
+            + self.lower_scale * (candidate_sum as f32 + self.anchor_sum)
+            + self.distance_scale * dot as f32;
+        1.0 - dot
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct SQKernel<'a> {
+    scorer: &'a SQPairScorer,
+    anchor: StagedRows<'a>,
+    candidates: StagedRows<'a>,
+    /// Whether the batched SIMD kernels apply, from the scorer; tests clear
+    /// it to compare against the portable kernels.
+    batched: bool,
+}
+
+impl PairKernel for SQKernel<'_> {
+    fn distances(&self, anchor_row: usize, candidates: Range<usize>, out: &mut [f32]) {
+        let scorer = self.scorer;
+        let dim = scorer.dim;
+        let a = &self.anchor.codes[anchor_row * dim..(anchor_row + 1) * dim];
+        let codes = &self.candidates.codes[candidates.start * dim..candidates.end * dim];
+        let out = &mut out[..candidates.len()];
+        if scorer.metric == DistanceType::Dot {
+            let sums = &self.candidates.sums[candidates];
+            let lower = scorer.lower_bound;
+            let terms = DotTerms {
+                constant: dim as f32 * lower * lower,
+                lower_scale: lower * scorer.value_scale,
+                distance_scale: scorer.distance_scale,
+                anchor_sum: self.anchor.sums[anchor_row] as f32,
+            };
+            #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+            if self.batched {
+                // SAFETY: `batched` is set only when AVX-512 VNNI was detected
+                // and `dim <= MAX_BATCHED_DIM`.
+                unsafe { x86::dot_distances(a, codes, sums, &terms, out) };
+                return;
+            }
+            for ((out, b), &b_sum) in out.iter_mut().zip(codes.chunks_exact(dim)).zip(sums) {
+                *out = terms.distance(dot_u8_u64(b, a), b_sum);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if self.batched {
+            // SAFETY: as for dot.
+            unsafe {
+                x86::l2_distances(
+                    a,
+                    self.anchor.squares[anchor_row],
+                    codes,
+                    &self.candidates.sums[candidates.clone()],
+                    &self.candidates.squares[candidates.clone()],
+                    scorer.distance_scale,
+                    out,
+                )
+            };
+        }
+        if !self.batched {
+            for (out, b) in out.iter_mut().zip(codes.chunks_exact(dim)) {
+                *out = l2_u8_u64(b, a) as f32 * scorer.distance_scale;
+            }
+        }
+        if scorer.metric == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            l2_to_cosine(
+                out,
+                self.anchor.norms[anchor_row],
+                &self.candidates.norms[candidates],
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    //! AVX-512 VNNI kernels scoring one anchor row against 8 candidate rows
+    //! per pass: each 64-byte anchor block is loaded once for all 8 rows, and
+    //! the 8 accumulators are reduced together.
+    //!
+    //! `VPDPBUSD` multiplies unsigned by signed bytes, so the anchor is
+    //! biased into the signed domain (`a ⊕ 0x80 = a − 128`) and
+    //! `D = Σ b·(a − 128) = Σ a·b − 128·Sb` is corrected with the staged
+    //! candidate code sum `Sb`. For `dim <= MAX_BATCHED_DIM` every lane, `D`,
+    //! `Σ a·b` and the squared L2 fit in an i32; intermediate sums wrap
+    //! modulo 2³², which leaves the in-range final value exact.
+
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    use super::{DotTerms, MAX_BATCHED_DIM};
+
+    const ROWS: usize = 8;
+
+    /// Biased dots `D` of the anchor against `ROWS` consecutive candidate rows
+    /// starting at `rows`, in row order.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// `anchor` points at `dim` bytes and `rows` at `ROWS * dim` bytes.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn biased_dots(anchor: *const u8, rows: *const u8, dim: usize) -> __m256i {
+        let flip = _mm512_set1_epi8(i8::MIN);
+        let mut acc = [_mm512_setzero_si512(); ROWS];
+        let full = dim / 64 * 64;
+        let mut k = 0;
+        while k < full {
+            // SAFETY: `k + 64 <= dim` for the anchor and every row.
+            unsafe {
+                let a = _mm512_xor_si512(_mm512_loadu_si512(anchor.add(k).cast()), flip);
+                for (r, acc) in acc.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                    let b = _mm512_loadu_si512(rows.add(r * dim + k).cast());
+                    *acc = _mm512_dpbusd_epi32(*acc, b, a);
+                }
+            }
+            k += 64;
+        }
+        if k < dim {
+            // Masked-out candidate bytes load as zero, so they add nothing.
+            let mask = u64::MAX >> (64 - (dim - k));
+            // SAFETY: masked loads touch only the `dim - k` in-bounds bytes.
+            unsafe {
+                let a = _mm512_xor_si512(_mm512_maskz_loadu_epi8(mask, anchor.add(k).cast()), flip);
+                for (r, acc) in acc.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                    let b = _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi8(mask, rows.add(r * dim + k).cast());
+                    *acc = _mm512_dpbusd_epi32(*acc, b, a);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        reduce(acc)
+    }
+
+    /// Horizontal sums of 8 accumulators as one vector, in accumulator order.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    #[inline]
+    fn reduce(acc: [__m512i; ROWS]) -> __m256i {
+        // Per 128-bit lane: [x y x y] partial sums, then [w x y z].
+        let pair = |x: __m512i, y: __m512i| {
+            _mm512_add_epi32(_mm512_unpacklo_epi32(x, y), _mm512_unpackhi_epi32(x, y))
+        };
+        let quad = |x: __m512i, y: __m512i| {
+            _mm512_add_epi32(_mm512_unpacklo_epi64(x, y), _mm512_unpackhi_epi64(x, y))
+        };
+        let low = quad(pair(acc[0], acc[1]), pair(acc[2], acc[3]));
+        let high = quad(pair(acc[4], acc[5]), pair(acc[6], acc[7]));
+        // 128-bit lanes [low0 + low1, low2 + low3, high0 + high1, high2 + high3].
+        let halves = _mm512_add_epi32(
+            _mm512_shuffle_i32x4::<0b10_00_10_00>(low, high),
+            _mm512_shuffle_i32x4::<0b11_01_11_01>(low, high),
+        );
+        let sums = _mm512_add_epi32(
+            _mm512_shuffle_i32x4::<0b00_00_10_00>(halves, halves),
+            _mm512_shuffle_i32x4::<0b00_00_11_01>(halves, halves),
+        );
+        _mm512_castsi512_si256(sums)
+    }
+
+    /// The exact `Σ a·b` of the anchor and one candidate row, for fewer than
+    /// `ROWS` candidates.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// Both pointers point at `dim` bytes.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn dot(anchor: *const u8, row: *const u8, dim: usize, row_sum: u64) -> u64 {
+        let flip = _mm512_set1_epi8(i8::MIN);
+        let mut acc = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let mut k = 0;
+        while k < dim {
+            let mask = u64::MAX >> (64 - (dim - k).min(64));
+            // SAFETY: masked loads touch only in-bounds bytes.
+            unsafe {
+                let a = _mm512_xor_si512(_mm512_maskz_loadu_epi8(mask, anchor.add(k).cast()), flip);
+                let b = _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi8(mask, row.add(k).cast());
+                acc = _mm512_dpbusd_epi32(acc, b, a);
+            }
+            k += 64;
+        }
+        (i64::from(_mm512_reduce_add_epi32(acc)) + 128 * row_sum as i64) as u64
+    }
+
+    /// Low 32 bits of 8 staged u64 statistics.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// `values` points at 8 u64s.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn load_low32(values: *const u64) -> __m256i {
+        // SAFETY: the caller guarantees 8 readable u64s.
+        _mm512_cvtepi64_epi32(unsafe { _mm512_loadu_si512(values.cast()) })
+    }
+
+    /// First rows of the 8-row groups covering `num_rows >= ROWS` rows. A
+    /// partial tail is covered by one more group ending at the last row: it
+    /// rescores a few rows, whose exact values are rewritten unchanged.
+    fn groups(num_rows: usize) -> impl Iterator<Item = usize> {
+        let tail = (!num_rows.is_multiple_of(ROWS)).then(|| num_rows - ROWS);
+        (0..num_rows / ROWS).map(|g| g * ROWS).chain(tail)
+    }
+
+    /// Checks the slice shapes every unchecked access relies on; returns `dim`.
+    fn check_shapes(anchor: &[u8], codes: &[u8], sums: &[u64], out: &[f32]) -> usize {
+        let dim = anchor.len();
+        assert!(
+            (1..=MAX_BATCHED_DIM).contains(&dim),
+            "SQ batched kernel dim={dim} must be in 1..={MAX_BATCHED_DIM}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(codes.len(), sums.len() * dim);
+        assert_eq!(out.len(), sums.len());
+        dim
+    }
+
+    /// Squared L2 times `scale` of the anchor against every candidate row.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The CPU supports AVX-512F, AVX-512BW and AVX-512 VNNI.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn l2_distances(
+        anchor: &[u8],
+        anchor_squares: u64,
+        codes: &[u8],
+        sums: &[u64],
+        squares: &[u64],
+        scale: f32,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        let dim = check_shapes(anchor, codes, sums, out);
+        assert_eq!(squares.len(), sums.len());
+        let num_rows = sums.len();
+        if num_rows < ROWS {
+            for (i, out) in out.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                // SAFETY: row `i` is in bounds.
+                let row = unsafe { codes.as_ptr().add(i * dim) };
+                let dot = unsafe { dot(anchor.as_ptr(), row, dim, sums[i]) };
+                *out = (anchor_squares + squares[i] - 2 * dot) as f32 * scale;
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        let anchor_squares = _mm256_set1_epi32(anchor_squares as i32);
+        let scale = _mm256_set1_ps(scale);
+        for i in groups(num_rows) {
+            // SAFETY: rows `i..i + ROWS` are in bounds of every slice.
+            unsafe {
+                let dots = biased_dots(anchor.as_ptr(), codes.as_ptr().add(i * dim), dim);
+                let sums = load_low32(sums.as_ptr().add(i));
+                let squares = load_low32(squares.as_ptr().add(i));
+                // Σa² + Σb² − 2(D + 128·Sb), wrapping.
+                let l2 = _mm256_sub_epi32(
+                    _mm256_sub_epi32(
+                        _mm256_add_epi32(anchor_squares, squares),
+                        _mm256_slli_epi32::<1>(dots),
+                    ),
+                    _mm256_slli_epi32::<8>(sums),
+                );
+                let distances = _mm256_mul_ps(_mm256_cvtepi32_ps(l2), scale);
+                _mm256_storeu_ps(out.as_mut_ptr().add(i), distances);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Dot distances of the anchor against every candidate row.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The CPU supports AVX-512F, AVX-512BW and AVX-512 VNNI.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn dot_distances(
+        anchor: &[u8],
+        codes: &[u8],
+        sums: &[u64],
+        terms: &DotTerms,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        let dim = check_shapes(anchor, codes, sums, out);
+        let num_rows = sums.len();
+        if num_rows < ROWS {
+            for (i, out) in out.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                // SAFETY: row `i` is in bounds.
+                let row = unsafe { codes.as_ptr().add(i * dim) };
+                let dot = unsafe { dot(anchor.as_ptr(), row, dim, sums[i]) };
+                *out = terms.distance(dot, sums[i]);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        let one = _mm256_set1_ps(1.0);
+        let constant = _mm256_set1_ps(terms.constant);
+        let lower_scale = _mm256_set1_ps(terms.lower_scale);
+        let distance_scale = _mm256_set1_ps(terms.distance_scale);
+        let anchor_sum = _mm256_set1_ps(terms.anchor_sum);
+        for i in groups(num_rows) {
+            // SAFETY: rows `i..i + ROWS` are in bounds of every slice.
+            unsafe {
+                let dots = biased_dots(anchor.as_ptr(), codes.as_ptr().add(i * dim), dim);
+                let sums = load_low32(sums.as_ptr().add(i));
+                let dot = _mm256_add_epi32(dots, _mm256_slli_epi32::<7>(sums));
+                // Separate multiplies and adds in `DotTerms::distance` order.
+                let sum_term = _mm256_mul_ps(
+                    lower_scale,
+                    _mm256_add_ps(_mm256_cvtepi32_ps(sums), anchor_sum),
+                );
+                let code_term = _mm256_mul_ps(distance_scale, _mm256_cvtepi32_ps(dot));
+                let dot = _mm256_add_ps(_mm256_add_ps(constant, sum_term), code_term);
+                _mm256_storeu_ps(out.as_mut_ptr().add(i), _mm256_sub_ps(one, dot));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, UInt8Array};
+    use arrow_schema::Schema;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn stage(scorer: &SQPairScorer, codes: &[u8], rows: Range<usize>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let dim = scorer.dim;
+        let num_rows = codes.len() / dim;
+        let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+                Field::new(
+                    SQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                        dim as i32,
+                    ),
+                    false,
+                ),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64)),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        UInt8Array::from(codes.to_vec()),
+                        dim as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(
+            scorer
+                .stage(&source, rows)
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(field, column)| (field.name().clone(), column)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Distances from the batched kernel (where the CPU supports it) and from
+    /// the portable per-pair kernel, which must agree bit for bit.
+    fn distances(kernel: &SQKernel, anchor: usize, candidates: Range<usize>) -> Vec<f32> {
+        let mut out = vec![f32::NAN; candidates.len()];
+        kernel.distances(anchor, candidates.clone(), &mut out);
+        let portable = SQKernel {
+            batched: false,
+            ..*kernel
+        };
+        let mut expected = vec![f32::NAN; candidates.len()];
+        portable.distances(anchor, candidates, &mut expected);
+        assert_eq!(
+            out.iter().map(|d| d.to_bits()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected.iter().map(|d| d.to_bits()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            "batched and portable kernels disagree"
+        );
+        out
+    }
+
+    // Dimensions cover a tail-only row, whole 64-byte blocks, and blocks plus
+    // a tail; 20 rows cover full 8-row groups plus a partial one.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_sq_distances(
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot)] metric: DistanceType,
+        #[values(19, 64, 131)] dim: usize,
+    ) {
+        let rows = 20;
+        let sq = ScalarQuantizer::with_bounds(8, dim, -1.0..1.5);
+        let scorer = SQPairScorer::new(&sq, metric).unwrap();
+        let mut codes: Vec<u8> = (0..rows * dim)
+            .map(|i| ((i * 37 + 11) % 256) as u8)
+            .collect();
+        // Row 1 repeats row 0.
+        codes.copy_within(0..dim, dim);
+        let staged = stage(&scorer, &codes, 0..rows);
+        // Codes plus one 8-byte statistic or norm per extra column.
+        assert_eq!(scorer.row_bytes(), dim + 8 * (staged.num_columns() - 1));
+        // Stage a slice so offsets into the source are exercised.
+        let tail = stage(&scorer, &codes, 4..rows);
+        let reconstruct = |r: usize| -> Vec<f64> {
+            codes[r * dim..(r + 1) * dim]
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&c| {
+                    f64::from(scorer.lower_bound) + f64::from(scorer.value_scale) * f64::from(c)
+                })
+                .collect()
+        };
+        let kernel = scorer.kernel(&staged, &staged).unwrap();
+        let tail_kernel = scorer.kernel(&staged, &tail).unwrap();
+        for a in 0..rows {
+            let out = distances(&kernel, a, 0..rows);
+            // Other candidate ranges shift the 8-row groups or fall below one
+            // group; values must not change.
+            assert_eq!(distances(&tail_kernel, a, 0..rows - 4), out[4..]);
+            assert_eq!(distances(&kernel, a, 3..rows), out[3..]);
+            assert_eq!(distances(&kernel, a, 13..rows), out[13..]);
+            for (b, &distance) in out.iter().enumerate() {
+                let (x, y) = (reconstruct(a), reconstruct(b));
+                let dot: f64 = x.iter().zip(&y).map(|(x, y)| x * y).sum();
+                let norm = |v: &[f64]| v.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum::<f64>().sqrt();
+                let expected = match metric {
+                    DistanceType::L2 => x.iter().zip(&y).map(|(x, y)| (x - y).powi(2)).sum(),
+                    DistanceType::Dot => 1.0 - dot,
+                    _ => 1.0 - dot / (norm(&x) * norm(&y)),
+                };
+                // f32 roundoff scales with the per-dimension terms.
+                let tolerance = 1e-5 * expected.abs().max(dim as f64 * 0.25);
+                assert!(
+                    (f64::from(distance) - expected).abs() <= tolerance,
+                    "{metric} dim={dim} a={a} b={b} actual={distance} expected={expected}"
+                );
+            }
+            if metric != DistanceType::Dot {
+                assert_eq!(out[a], 0.0);
+            }
+        }
+        if metric != DistanceType::Dot {
+            assert_eq!(distances(&kernel, 0, 1..2), [0.0]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Extreme codes at the largest batched dimension reach the i32 limits of
+    /// the batched kernels, which must still match the u64 portable kernels.
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_sq_batched_limits(
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot)] metric: DistanceType,
+    ) {
+        let dim = MAX_BATCHED_DIM;
+        let rows = 11;
+        let sq = ScalarQuantizer::with_bounds(8, dim, 0.0..1.0);
+        let scorer = SQPairScorer::new(&sq, metric).unwrap();
+        let codes: Vec<u8> = (0..rows)
+            .flat_map(|r| {
+                (0..dim).map(move |i| match r % 4 {
+                    0 => 0,
+                    1 => 255,
+                    2 => (i * 131 + r) as u8,
+                    _ => 255 - (i % 2) as u8,
+                })
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let staged = stage(&scorer, &codes, 0..rows);
+        let kernel = scorer.kernel(&staged, &staged).unwrap();
+        for a in 0..rows {
+            let out = distances(&kernel, a, 0..rows);
+            if metric == DistanceType::L2 {
+                // All-zero vs all-255 codes: the largest squared L2.
+                let expected = (dim as u64 * 255 * 255) as f32 * scorer.distance_scale;
+                match a % 4 {
+                    0 => assert_eq!(out[1], expected),
+                    1 => assert_eq!(out[0], expected),
+                    _ => {}
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(!batched_kernels_available(MAX_BATCHED_DIM + 1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/storage.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/storage.rs
index 13c916aa657..0289fda8d17 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/storage.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/storage.rs
@@ -6,38 +6,40 @@ use std::ops::Range;
 use arrow::datatypes::Float64Type;
 use arrow::{compute::concat_batches, datatypes::Float16Type};
 use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt64Array,
     cast::AsArray,
-    types::{Float32Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type},
-    ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
+    types::{Float32Type, UInt8Type, UInt64Type},
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, SchemaRef};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
+use lance_arrow::ArrowFloatType;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use lance_linalg::distance::{dot_distance, l2_distance_uint_scalar, DistanceType};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, dot_u8::dot_u8_u64, l2_u8::l2_u8_u64};
 use lance_table::format::SelfDescribingFileReader;
+use num_traits::AsPrimitive;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use super::{scale_to_u8, ScalarQuantizer};
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use super::{ScalarQuantizer, scale_to_u8};
+use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexHandle};
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
 use crate::{
+    INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, IndexMetadata,
     vector::{
+        SQ_CODE_COLUMN,
         quantizer::{QuantizerMetadata, QuantizerStorage},
-        storage::{DistCalculator, VectorStore},
+        storage::{DistCalculator, DistanceCalculatorOptions, QueryResidual, VectorStore},
         transform::Transformer,
-        SQ_CODE_COLUMN,
     },
-    IndexMetadata, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
 };
 
 pub const SQ_METADATA_KEY: &str = "lance:sq";
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 pub struct ScalarQuantizationMetadata {
     pub dim: usize,
     pub num_bits: u16,
@@ -45,29 +47,24 @@ pub struct ScalarQuantizationMetadata {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ScalarQuantizationMetadata {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         0
     }
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl QuantizerMetadata for ScalarQuantizationMetadata {
-    async fn load(reader: &PreviousFileReader) -> Result<Self> {
+    async fn load(reader: &V1FileReader) -> Result<Self> {
         let metadata_str = reader
             .schema()
             .metadata
             .get(SQ_METADATA_KEY)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Reading SQ metadata: metadata key {} not found",
-                    SQ_METADATA_KEY
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        serde_json::from_str(metadata_str).map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Reading SQ metadata: metadata key {} not found",
+                SQ_METADATA_KEY
+            )))?;
+        serde_json::from_str(metadata_str)
+            .map_err(|_| Error::index(format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str)))
     }
 }
 
@@ -90,27 +87,24 @@ impl SQStorageChunk {
     fn new(batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<Self> {
         let row_ids = batch
             .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "Row ID column not found in the batch".to_owned(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(
+                "Row ID column not found in the batch".to_owned(),
+            ))?
             .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
             .clone();
         let fsl = batch
             .column_by_name(SQ_CODE_COLUMN)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "SQ code column not found in the batch".to_owned(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(
+                "SQ code column not found in the batch".to_owned(),
+            ))?
             .as_fixed_size_list();
         let dim = fsl.value_length() as usize;
         let sq_codes = fsl
             .values()
             .as_primitive_opt::<UInt8Type>()
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "SQ code column is not FixedSizeList<u8>".to_owned(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(
+                "SQ code column is not FixedSizeList<u8>".to_owned(),
+            ))?
             .clone();
         Ok(Self {
             batch,
@@ -147,8 +141,8 @@ impl SQStorageChunk {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for SQStorageChunk {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.batch.get_array_memory_size()
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.batch.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
@@ -164,7 +158,7 @@ pub struct ScalarQuantizationStorage {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ScalarQuantizationStorage {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.chunks
             .iter()
             .map(|c| c.deep_size_of_children(context))
@@ -181,6 +175,18 @@ impl ScalarQuantizationStorage {
         bounds: Range<f64>,
         batches: impl IntoIterator<Item = RecordBatch>,
         frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+            .map(|index| Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        Self::try_new_with_remapper(num_bits, distance_type, bounds, batches, frag_reuse_index)
+    }
+
+    fn try_new_with_remapper(
+        num_bits: u16,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        bounds: Range<f64>,
+        batches: impl IntoIterator<Item = RecordBatch>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut chunks = Vec::with_capacity(SQ_CHUNK_CAPACITY);
         let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(SQ_CHUNK_CAPACITY + 1);
@@ -222,24 +228,19 @@ impl ScalarQuantizationStorage {
         path: &Path,
         frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(object_store, path, None).await?;
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(object_store, path, None).await?;
         let schema = reader.schema();
 
         let metadata_str = schema
             .metadata
             .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Reading SQ storage: index key {} not found",
-                    INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        let index_metadata: IndexMetadata =
-            serde_json::from_str(metadata_str).map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "Reading SQ storage: index key {} not found",
+                INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY
+            )))?;
+        let index_metadata: IndexMetadata = serde_json::from_str(metadata_str).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::index(format!("Failed to parse index metadata: {}", metadata_str))
+        })?;
         let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(index_metadata.distance_type.as_str())?;
         let metadata = ScalarQuantizationMetadata::load(&reader).await?;
 
@@ -291,6 +292,21 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for ScalarQuantizationStorage {
         )
     }
 
+    fn try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        metadata: &Self::Metadata,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_new_with_remapper(
+            metadata.num_bits,
+            distance_type,
+            metadata.bounds.clone(),
+            [batch],
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        )
+    }
+
     fn metadata(&self) -> &Self::Metadata {
         &self.quantizer.metadata
     }
@@ -304,7 +320,7 @@ impl QuantizerStorage for ScalarQuantizationStorage {
     /// - *metric_type: metric type of the vectors
     /// - *metadata: scalar quantization metadata
     async fn load_partition(
-        reader: &PreviousFileReader,
+        reader: &V1FileReader,
         range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         metadata: &Self::Metadata,
@@ -384,73 +400,278 @@ impl VectorStore for ScalarQuantizationStorage {
         SQDistCalculator::new(query, self, self.quantizer.bounds())
     }
 
+    fn dist_calculator_with_scratch<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        _dist_q_c: f32,
+        _residual: Option<QueryResidual<'a>>,
+        f32_scratch: &'a mut Vec<f32>,
+        _options: DistanceCalculatorOptions,
+    ) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'a> {
+        SQDistCalculator::new_with_scratch(query, self, self.quantizer.bounds(), f32_scratch)
+    }
+
     fn dist_calculator_from_id(&self, id: u32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_> {
         let (offset, chunk) = self.chunk(id);
-        let query_sq_code = chunk.sq_code_slice(id - offset).to_vec();
+        let query_sq_code = chunk.sq_code_slice(id - offset);
         let bounds = self.quantizer.bounds();
+        let lower_bound = bounds.start as f32;
+        let value_scale = sq_value_scale(&bounds);
+        let query_dot = match self.distance_type {
+            DistanceType::Dot => Some(SQDotQuery::from_sq_code(query_sq_code)),
+            _ => None,
+        };
         SQDistCalculator {
-            query_sq_code,
+            query_sq_code: SQQueryCode::Borrowed(query_sq_code),
+            query_dot,
             scale: sq_distance_scale(&bounds),
+            lower_bound,
+            value_scale,
             storage: self,
         }
     }
 }
 
 #[inline]
-fn sq_distance_scale(bounds: &Range<f64>) -> f32 {
-    let range = (bounds.end - bounds.start) as f32;
-    (range * range) / (255.0_f32 * 255.0_f32)
+pub(crate) fn sq_value_scale(bounds: &Range<f64>) -> f32 {
+    (bounds.end - bounds.start) as f32 / 255.0_f32
+}
+
+#[inline]
+pub(crate) fn sq_distance_scale(bounds: &Range<f64>) -> f32 {
+    let scale = sq_value_scale(bounds);
+    scale * scale
 }
 
 pub struct SQDistCalculator<'a> {
-    query_sq_code: Vec<u8>,
+    query_sq_code: SQQueryCode<'a>,
+    query_dot: Option<SQDotQuery<'a>>,
     scale: f32,
+    lower_bound: f32,
+    value_scale: f32,
     storage: &'a ScalarQuantizationStorage,
 }
 
+enum SQDotQuery<'a> {
+    Values { values: SQFloatQuery<'a>, sum: f32 },
+    SqCode { code: &'a [u8], sum: f32 },
+}
+
+enum SQFloatQuery<'a> {
+    Borrowed(&'a [f32]),
+    Owned(Vec<f32>),
+}
+
+impl SQFloatQuery<'_> {
+    fn as_slice(&self) -> &[f32] {
+        match self {
+            Self::Borrowed(values) => values,
+            Self::Owned(values) => values,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> SQDotQuery<'a> {
+    fn from_values<T: ArrowFloatType>(values: &[T::Native]) -> Self
+    where
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
+    {
+        let values: Vec<_> = values.iter().map(|v| v.as_()).collect();
+        let sum = values.iter().sum();
+        Self::Values {
+            values: SQFloatQuery::Owned(values),
+            sum,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn from_values_with_scratch<T: ArrowFloatType>(
+        values: &[T::Native],
+        scratch: &'a mut Vec<f32>,
+    ) -> Self
+    where
+        T::Native: AsPrimitive<f32>,
+    {
+        scratch.clear();
+        scratch.extend(values.iter().map(|v| v.as_()));
+        let sum = scratch.iter().sum();
+        Self::Values {
+            values: SQFloatQuery::Borrowed(scratch.as_slice()),
+            sum,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn from_sq_code(sq_code: &'a [u8]) -> Self {
+        Self::SqCode {
+            code: sq_code,
+            sum: sq_code_sum(sq_code),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn sq_code_sum(sq_code: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+    sq_code.iter().map(|code| *code as u32).sum::<u32>() as f32
+}
+
+enum SQQueryCode<'a> {
+    Borrowed(&'a [u8]),
+    Owned(Vec<u8>),
+}
+
+impl SQQueryCode<'_> {
+    #[inline]
+    fn as_slice(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        match self {
+            Self::Borrowed(query) => query,
+            Self::Owned(query) => query,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 impl<'a> SQDistCalculator<'a> {
     fn new(query: ArrayRef, storage: &'a ScalarQuantizationStorage, bounds: Range<f64>) -> Self {
         // This is okay-ish to use hand-rolled dynamic dispatch here
         // since we search 10s-100s of partitions, we can afford the overhead
         // this could be annoying at indexing time for HNSW, which requires constructing the
         // dist calculator frequently. However, HNSW isn't first-class citizen in Lance yet. so be it.
-        let query_sq_code = match query.data_type() {
-            DataType::Float16 => {
-                scale_to_u8::<Float16Type>(query.as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values(), &bounds)
-            }
-            DataType::Float32 => {
-                scale_to_u8::<Float32Type>(query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(), &bounds)
+        let (query_sq_code, query_dot) = match storage.distance_type {
+            DistanceType::Dot => {
+                let query_dot = match query.data_type() {
+                    DataType::Float16 => SQDotQuery::from_values::<Float16Type>(
+                        query.as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values(),
+                    ),
+                    DataType::Float32 => SQDotQuery::from_values::<Float32Type>(
+                        query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+                    ),
+                    DataType::Float64 => SQDotQuery::from_values::<Float64Type>(
+                        query.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values(),
+                    ),
+                    _ => {
+                        panic!("Unsupported data type for ScalarQuantizationStorage");
+                    }
+                };
+                (SQQueryCode::Owned(Vec::new()), Some(query_dot))
             }
-            DataType::Float64 => {
-                scale_to_u8::<Float64Type>(query.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values(), &bounds)
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine => {
+                let query_sq_code = match query.data_type() {
+                    DataType::Float16 => scale_to_u8::<Float16Type>(
+                        query.as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values(),
+                        &bounds,
+                    ),
+                    DataType::Float32 => scale_to_u8::<Float32Type>(
+                        query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+                        &bounds,
+                    ),
+                    DataType::Float64 => scale_to_u8::<Float64Type>(
+                        query.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values(),
+                        &bounds,
+                    ),
+                    _ => {
+                        panic!("Unsupported data type for ScalarQuantizationStorage");
+                    }
+                };
+                (SQQueryCode::Owned(query_sq_code), None)
             }
+            _ => panic!("We should not reach here: sq distance can only be L2 or Dot"),
+        };
+        let lower_bound = bounds.start as f32;
+        let value_scale = sq_value_scale(&bounds);
+        Self {
+            query_sq_code,
+            query_dot,
+            scale: sq_distance_scale(&bounds),
+            lower_bound,
+            value_scale,
+            storage,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn new_with_scratch(
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        storage: &'a ScalarQuantizationStorage,
+        bounds: Range<f64>,
+        f32_scratch: &'a mut Vec<f32>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        if storage.distance_type != DistanceType::Dot {
+            return Self::new(query, storage, bounds);
+        }
+
+        let query_dot = match query.data_type() {
+            DataType::Float16 => SQDotQuery::from_values_with_scratch::<Float16Type>(
+                query.as_primitive::<Float16Type>().values(),
+                f32_scratch,
+            ),
+            DataType::Float32 => SQDotQuery::from_values_with_scratch::<Float32Type>(
+                query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+                f32_scratch,
+            ),
+            DataType::Float64 => SQDotQuery::from_values_with_scratch::<Float64Type>(
+                query.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values(),
+                f32_scratch,
+            ),
             _ => {
                 panic!("Unsupported data type for ScalarQuantizationStorage");
             }
         };
+        let lower_bound = bounds.start as f32;
+        let value_scale = sq_value_scale(&bounds);
         Self {
-            query_sq_code,
+            query_sq_code: SQQueryCode::Owned(Vec::new()),
+            query_dot: Some(query_dot),
             scale: sq_distance_scale(&bounds),
+            lower_bound,
+            value_scale,
             storage,
         }
     }
+
+    fn dot_distance(&self, sq_code: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+        let query = self
+            .query_dot
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("SQ dot distance requires a dot query");
+        let dot = match query {
+            SQDotQuery::Values { values, sum } => {
+                let values = values.as_slice();
+                self.lower_bound * *sum
+                    + self.value_scale
+                        * sq_code
+                            .iter()
+                            .zip(values.iter())
+                            .map(|(code, query_value)| *code as f32 * *query_value)
+                            .sum::<f32>()
+            }
+            SQDotQuery::SqCode {
+                code: query_sq_code,
+                sum: query_code_sum,
+            } => {
+                let dim = sq_code.len() as f32;
+                let code_dot = dot_u8_u64(sq_code, query_sq_code) as f32;
+                let code_sum = sq_code_sum(sq_code);
+                dim * self.lower_bound * self.lower_bound
+                    + self.lower_bound * self.value_scale * (code_sum + *query_code_sum)
+                    + self.scale * code_dot
+            }
+        };
+        1.0 - dot
+    }
 }
 
 impl DistCalculator for SQDistCalculator<'_> {
     fn distance(&self, id: u32) -> f32 {
         let (offset, chunk) = self.storage.chunk(id);
         let sq_code = chunk.sq_code_slice(id - offset);
-        let dist = match self.storage.distance_type {
+        let query_sq_code = self.query_sq_code.as_slice();
+        match self.storage.distance_type {
             DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine => {
-                l2_distance_uint_scalar(sq_code, &self.query_sq_code)
+                l2_u8_u64(sq_code, query_sq_code) as f32 * self.scale
             }
-            DistanceType::Dot => dot_distance(sq_code, &self.query_sq_code),
+            DistanceType::Dot => self.dot_distance(sq_code),
             _ => panic!("We should not reach here: sq distance can only be L2 or Dot"),
-        };
-        dist * self.scale
+        }
     }
 
     fn distance_all(&self, _k_hint: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+        let query_sq_code = self.query_sq_code.as_slice();
         match self.storage.distance_type {
             DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine => self
                 .storage
@@ -460,7 +681,7 @@ impl DistCalculator for SQDistCalculator<'_> {
                     c.sq_codes
                         .values()
                         .chunks_exact(c.dim())
-                        .map(|sq_codes| l2_distance_uint_scalar(sq_codes, &self.query_sq_code))
+                        .map(|sq_codes| l2_u8_u64(sq_codes, query_sq_code) as f32)
                 })
                 .map(|dist| dist * self.scale)
                 .collect(),
@@ -472,9 +693,8 @@ impl DistCalculator for SQDistCalculator<'_> {
                     c.sq_codes
                         .values()
                         .chunks_exact(c.dim())
-                        .map(|sq_codes| dot_distance(sq_codes, &self.query_sq_code))
+                        .map(|sq_codes| self.dot_distance(sq_codes))
                 })
-                .map(|dist| dist * self.scale)
                 .collect(),
             _ => panic!("We should not reach here: sq distance can only be L2 or Dot"),
         }
@@ -494,7 +714,7 @@ impl DistCalculator for SQDistCalculator<'_> {
                 // Loop over the sq_code to prefetch each cache line
                 for offset in (0..dim).step_by(CACHE_LINE_SIZE) {
                     {
-                        use core::arch::x86_64::{_mm_prefetch, _MM_HINT_T0};
+                        use core::arch::x86_64::{_MM_HINT_T0, _mm_prefetch};
                         _mm_prefetch(base_ptr.add(offset) as *const i8, _MM_HINT_T0);
                     }
                 }
@@ -510,7 +730,7 @@ mod tests {
     use std::iter::repeat_with;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
-    use arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray;
+    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
     use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
@@ -540,6 +760,31 @@ mod tests {
         RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(code_arr)]).unwrap()
     }
 
+    fn create_record_batch_with_sq_codes(
+        row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+        sq_codes: Vec<u8>,
+        dim: usize,
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        assert_eq!(sq_codes.len(), row_ids.len() * dim);
+
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(row_ids);
+        let sq_code = UInt8Array::from_iter_values(sq_codes);
+        let code_arr = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(sq_code, dim as i32).unwrap();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new(
+                SQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                    dim as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(code_arr)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_get_chunks() {
         const DIM: usize = 64;
@@ -591,4 +836,53 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(offset, 400);
         assert_eq!(chunk.row_id(5), 105);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_distance_accounts_for_sq_offset() {
+        const DIM: usize = 2;
+
+        let storage = ScalarQuantizationStorage::try_new(
+            8,
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+            -1.0..1.0,
+            [create_record_batch_with_sq_codes(
+                vec![0, 1],
+                vec![
+                    255, 255, // [1.0, 1.0]
+                    0, 191, // [-1.0, 0.498]
+                ],
+                DIM,
+            )],
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![-1.0, 1.0])) as ArrayRef;
+        let calculator = storage.dist_calculator(query.clone(), 0.0);
+        let distances = calculator.distance_all(2);
+
+        assert!(
+            distances[1] < distances[0],
+            "expected [-1.0, 0.498] to rank before [1.0, 1.0], got {distances:?}"
+        );
+        assert!((calculator.distance(0) - 1.0).abs() < 1e-6);
+        assert!((calculator.distance(1) - -0.49803925).abs() < 1e-6);
+
+        let mut scratch = Vec::new();
+        let scratch_distances = {
+            let scratch_calculator = storage.dist_calculator_with_scratch(
+                query,
+                0.0,
+                None,
+                &mut scratch,
+                DistanceCalculatorOptions::default(),
+            );
+            scratch_calculator.distance_all(2)
+        };
+        assert_eq!(scratch_distances, distances);
+        assert_eq!(scratch.len(), DIM);
+
+        let stored_query_calculator = storage.dist_calculator_from_id(0);
+        assert!((stored_query_calculator.distance(1) - 1.5019608).abs() < 1e-6);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/transform.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/transform.rs
index 0e45fb661d3..78ca2942bf6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/transform.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/sq/transform.rs
@@ -8,11 +8,10 @@ use std::{
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::{
-    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
     RecordBatch,
+    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 use crate::vector::transform::Transformer;
@@ -53,26 +52,27 @@ impl Transformer for SQTransformer {
     fn transform(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         let input = batch
             .column_by_name(&self.input_column)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "SQ Transform: column {} not found in batch",
-                    self.input_column
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        let fsl = input.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "input column is not vector type".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                "SQ Transform: column {} not found in batch",
+                self.input_column
+            )))?;
+        let fsl = input.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "SQ Transform: column {} is not a fixed size list vector: {}",
+                self.input_column,
+                input.data_type()
+            ))
         })?;
         let sq_code = match fsl.value_type() {
             DataType::Float16 => self.quantizer.transform::<Float16Type>(input)?,
             DataType::Float32 => self.quantizer.transform::<Float32Type>(input)?,
             DataType::Float64 => self.quantizer.transform::<Float64Type>(input)?,
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("unsupported data type: {}", fsl.value_type()),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "SQ Transform: column {} has unsupported value type: {}",
+                    self.input_column,
+                    fsl.value_type()
+                )));
             }
         };
 
@@ -83,3 +83,87 @@ impl Transformer for SQTransformer {
         Ok(batch)
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array};
+    use arrow_schema::Schema;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+    const SQ_COLUMN: &str = "sq";
+    const VECTOR_COLUMN: &str = "v";
+
+    fn transformer(dim: usize) -> SQTransformer {
+        let mut quantizer = ScalarQuantizer::new(8, dim);
+        quantizer.metadata.bounds = 0.0..1.0;
+        SQTransformer::new(quantizer, VECTOR_COLUMN.into(), SQ_COLUMN.into())
+    }
+
+    fn vector_batch(values: Float32Array, dim: i32) -> RecordBatch {
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dim).unwrap();
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            VECTOR_COLUMN,
+            fsl.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.into(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sq_transform_replaces_vector_with_code_column() {
+        let batch = vector_batch(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 0.25]), 2);
+        let output = transformer(2).transform(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            output.column_by_name(VECTOR_COLUMN).is_none(),
+            "input column should be dropped"
+        );
+        let codes = output
+            .column_by_name(SQ_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_fixed_size_list();
+        assert_eq!(codes.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(codes.value_length(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sq_transform_reports_missing_column() {
+        let batch = vector_batch(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 1.0]), 2);
+        let transformer = SQTransformer::new(
+            ScalarQuantizer::new(8, 2),
+            "absent".into(),
+            SQ_COLUMN.into(),
+        );
+        let message = transformer.transform(&batch).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("column absent"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sq_transform_reports_non_vector_column() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Schema::new(vec![Field::new(VECTOR_COLUMN, DataType::Int32, false)]).into(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let message = transformer(2).transform(&batch).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("column v"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("Int32"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sq_transform_reports_unsupported_value_type() {
+        let values = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            VECTOR_COLUMN,
+            fsl.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.into(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap();
+        let message = transformer(2).transform(&batch).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("column v"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("Int32"), "{message}");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/storage.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/storage.rs
index 20fd1f444af..35e15ab64a7 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/storage.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/storage.rs
@@ -5,31 +5,109 @@
 
 use crate::vector::quantizer::QuantizerStorage;
 use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
-use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, cast::AsArray, types::UInt8Type,
+};
 use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::prelude::stream::TryStreamExt;
-use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
+use futures::stream::{self, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, RecordBatchExt};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
 use lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression;
 use lance_file::reader::FileReader;
+use lance_index_core::remapping::{BatchRowIdRemapper, remap_row_ids_preserving_layout_async};
 use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+use lance_io::scheduler::IoStats;
+use lance_io::spill::SpillStore;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use prost::Message;
-use snafu::location;
-use std::{any::Any, sync::Arc};
+use std::{
+    any::Any,
+    borrow::Cow,
+    collections::BinaryHeap,
+    mem::size_of,
+    ops::{Deref, DerefMut},
+    sync::Arc,
+};
 
-use crate::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use crossbeam_queue::ArrayQueue;
+
+use crate::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexHandle};
+use crate::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
 use crate::{
     pb,
     vector::{
-        ivf::storage::{IvfModel, IVF_METADATA_KEY},
+        ivf::storage::{IVF_METADATA_KEY, IvfModel},
         quantizer::Quantization,
     },
 };
 
+use super::graph::OrderedFloat;
+use super::graph::OrderedNode;
+use super::pairwise::{
+    EncodedPartition, PairwisePartition, PairwiseScorer, PairwiseSpillWriter, list_values,
+};
 use super::quantizer::{Quantizer, QuantizerMetadata};
-use super::DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY;
+use super::{ApproxMode, DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY};
+
+/// Coalesce source-index reads independently of the scoring vector batch size.
+const PAIRWISE_READ_BATCH_SIZE: usize = 8192;
+// Bound each scoring/spill batch in code space; very wide vectors still need
+// at least one aligned group of 32 rows for packed quantizers.
+const PAIRWISE_VECTOR_BATCH_BYTES: usize = 16 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Stage consecutive `batch_size` row ranges of `source` concurrently on the
+/// CPU pool, yielding them in storage order.
+fn stage_pairwise_batches(
+    scorer: Arc<PairwiseScorer>,
+    source: RecordBatch,
+    batch_size: usize,
+    remapper: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> {
+    let source = Arc::new(source);
+    let num_rows = source.num_rows();
+    stream::iter((0..num_rows).step_by(batch_size))
+        .map(move |start| {
+            let rows = start..start.saturating_add(batch_size).min(num_rows);
+            let (source, scorer, remapper) = (source.clone(), scorer.clone(), remapper.clone());
+            spawn_cpu(move || scorer.stage(&source, rows, remapper.as_deref()))
+        })
+        .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+}
+
+async fn spawn_prewarm_materialization<R, F>(materialize: F) -> Result<R>
+where
+    R: Send + 'static,
+    F: FnOnce() -> Result<R> + Send + 'static,
+{
+    // `spawn_cpu` work is non-cancellable. If the caller-owned cache loader is
+    // dropped, this pure CPU tail may finish, but its result is dropped with
+    // this future and therefore cannot be inserted into the cache. A later
+    // cache lookup remains responsible for retrying the load.
+    spawn_cpu(materialize).await
+}
+
+fn compact_prewarm_batches(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let schema = batches
+        .first()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("prewarm partition has no storage batches"))?
+        .schema();
+    if batches.len() == 1 {
+        let batch = batches.into_iter().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("prewarm partition storage batch unexpectedly missing")
+        })?;
+        if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+            Ok(batch)
+        } else {
+            Ok(batch.shrink_to_fit()?)
+        }
+    } else {
+        // Concatenation allocates compact output buffers already; do not
+        // deep-copy them a second time with `shrink_to_fit`.
+        Ok(concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?)
+    }
+}
 
 /// <section class="warning">
 ///  Internal API
@@ -43,11 +121,345 @@ pub trait DistCalculator {
     // k_hint is a hint that can be used for optimization
     fn distance_all(&self, k_hint: usize) -> Vec<f32>;
 
+    // Write the distances of all rows into caller-owned scratch buffers.
+    fn distance_all_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        k_hint: usize,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        _u16_scratch: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        _u8_scratch: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        _u32_scratch: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        *dists = self.distance_all(k_hint);
+    }
+
     fn prefetch(&self, _id: u32) {}
+
+    /// Whether [`Self::accumulate_topk_with_scratch`] can replace scoring every
+    /// row with [`Self::distance_all`] and pushing each score into a top-k heap.
+    ///
+    /// When this returns true, `accumulate_topk_with_scratch` into an empty heap
+    /// must, for any `lower_bound` and `upper_bound`, select the same rows (up
+    /// to ties at the k-th distance), with bit-identical distances, as pushing
+    /// every `distance_all` score that lies in `[lower_bound, upper_bound)`, or
+    /// every score when both bounds are `None`. Since the accumulator treats a
+    /// missing bound as `f32::MIN` or `f32::MAX`, every score must lie in
+    /// `[f32::MIN, f32::MAX)`.
+    fn has_exact_topk_scan(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        k: usize,
+        lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+        upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+        row_id: impl Fn(u32) -> u64,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        u16_scratch: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        u8_scratch: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        u32_scratch: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        if k == 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        self.distance_all_with_scratch(k, dists, u16_scratch, u8_scratch, u32_scratch);
+        accumulate_distances_into_heap(k, lower_bound, upper_bound, row_id, res, dists);
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_filtered_topk_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        k: usize,
+        lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+        upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+        row_ids: impl Iterator<Item = (u32, u64)>,
+        accept_row: impl Fn(u64) -> bool,
+        res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        _dists: &mut Vec<f32>,
+        _u16_scratch: &mut Vec<u16>,
+        _u8_scratch: &mut Vec<u8>,
+        _u32_scratch: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        if k == 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let lower_bound = lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN).into();
+        let upper_bound = upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX).into();
+        let mut max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+
+        for (id, row_id) in row_ids {
+            if !accept_row(row_id) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let dist = OrderedFloat(self.distance(id));
+            if dist < lower_bound || dist >= upper_bound {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if res.len() < k {
+                res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
+                if res.len() == k {
+                    max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+                }
+            } else if max_dist.is_some_and(|max_dist| max_dist > dist) {
+                res.pop();
+                res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id, dist));
+                max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Push rows `0..dists.len()` whose distance lies in `[lower_bound,
+/// upper_bound)` into the top-`k` heap `res`.
+pub(crate) fn accumulate_distances_into_heap(
+    k: usize,
+    lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+    upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+    row_id: impl Fn(u32) -> u64,
+    res: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+    dists: &[f32],
+) {
+    let lower_bound = lower_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MIN).into();
+    let upper_bound = upper_bound.unwrap_or(f32::MAX).into();
+    let mut max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+
+    for (id, dist) in dists.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+        let dist = OrderedFloat(dist);
+        if dist < lower_bound || dist >= upper_bound {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if res.len() < k {
+            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id(id as u32), dist));
+            if res.len() == k {
+                max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+            }
+        } else if max_dist.is_some_and(|max_dist| max_dist > dist) {
+            res.pop();
+            res.push(OrderedNode::new(row_id(id as u32), dist));
+            max_dist = res.peek().map(|node| node.dist);
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 pub const STORAGE_METADATA_KEY: &str = "storage_metadata";
 
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct QueryScratch {
+    pub distances: Vec<f32>,
+    pub query_f32: Vec<f32>,
+    pub u16: Vec<u16>,
+    pub u8: Vec<u8>,
+    pub u32: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl QueryScratch {
+    pub const fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            distances: Vec::new(),
+            query_f32: Vec::new(),
+            u16: Vec::new(),
+            u8: Vec::new(),
+            u32: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: QueryScratchCapacity) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            distances: vec![0.0; capacity.distances],
+            query_f32: vec![0.0; capacity.query_f32],
+            u16: vec![0; capacity.u16],
+            u8: vec![0; capacity.u8],
+            u32: vec![0; capacity.u32],
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for QueryScratch {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for QueryScratch {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.distances.capacity() * size_of::<f32>()
+            + self.query_f32.capacity() * size_of::<f32>()
+            + self.u16.capacity() * size_of::<u16>()
+            + self.u8.capacity() * size_of::<u8>()
+            + self.u32.capacity() * size_of::<u32>()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Default)]
+pub struct QueryScratchCapacity {
+    pub distances: usize,
+    pub query_f32: usize,
+    pub u16: usize,
+    pub u8: usize,
+    pub u32: usize,
+}
+
+impl QueryScratchCapacity {
+    pub const fn new(distances: usize, query_f32: usize, u16: usize, u8: usize) -> Self {
+        Self::new_with_u32(distances, query_f32, u16, u8, 0)
+    }
+
+    pub const fn new_with_u32(
+        distances: usize,
+        query_f32: usize,
+        u16: usize,
+        u8: usize,
+        u32: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            distances,
+            query_f32,
+            u16,
+            u8,
+            u32,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn deep_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.distances * size_of::<f32>()
+            + self.query_f32 * size_of::<f32>()
+            + self.u16 * size_of::<u16>()
+            + self.u8 * size_of::<u8>()
+            + self.u32 * size_of::<u32>()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Default)]
+pub struct DistanceCalculatorOptions {
+    pub approx_mode: ApproxMode,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct RabitRawQueryContext {
+    pub code_dim: usize,
+    pub ex_bits: u8,
+    pub rotated_query: Vec<f32>,
+    pub dist_table: Vec<f32>,
+    /// The rotated query zero-padded to a 64-dim multiple for the ex-dot
+    /// kernels; empty when `code_dim` is already aligned (the kernels then
+    /// read `rotated_query` directly).
+    pub ex_query: Vec<f32>,
+    pub sum_q: f32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub enum QueryResidual<'a> {
+    Centroid(&'a dyn arrow_array::Array),
+    RabitRawQuery {
+        rotated_centroid: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+        query: Option<&'a RabitRawQueryContext>,
+    },
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct QueryScratchPool {
+    scratches: ArrayQueue<QueryScratch>,
+    scratch_capacity: QueryScratchCapacity,
+}
+
+impl QueryScratchPool {
+    pub fn new(size: usize) -> Self {
+        Self::with_capacity(size, QueryScratchCapacity::default())
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_capacity(size: usize, capacity: QueryScratchCapacity) -> Self {
+        let size = size.max(1);
+        let scratches = ArrayQueue::new(size);
+        for _ in 0..size {
+            scratches
+                .push(QueryScratch::with_capacity(capacity))
+                .expect("query scratch pool should have spare capacity during initialization");
+        }
+        Self {
+            scratches,
+            scratch_capacity: capacity,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn scratch(&self) -> QueryScratchGuard<'_> {
+        let (scratch, pooled) = if let Some(scratch) = self.scratches.pop() {
+            (scratch, true)
+        } else {
+            (QueryScratch::with_capacity(self.scratch_capacity), false)
+        };
+        QueryScratchGuard {
+            pool: self,
+            scratch: Some(scratch),
+            pooled,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_scratch<T>(&self, f: impl FnOnce(&mut QueryScratch) -> T) -> T {
+        let mut scratch = self.scratch();
+        f(&mut scratch)
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct QueryScratchGuard<'a> {
+    pool: &'a QueryScratchPool,
+    scratch: Option<QueryScratch>,
+    pooled: bool,
+}
+
+impl Deref for QueryScratchGuard<'_> {
+    type Target = QueryScratch;
+
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        self.scratch
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("query scratch guard should hold scratch")
+    }
+}
+
+impl DerefMut for QueryScratchGuard<'_> {
+    fn deref_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Self::Target {
+        self.scratch
+            .as_mut()
+            .expect("query scratch guard should hold scratch")
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for QueryScratchGuard<'_> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        if !self.pooled {
+            return;
+        }
+        if let Some(scratch) = self.scratch.take() {
+            match self.pool.scratches.push(scratch) {
+                Ok(()) => {}
+                Err(_) => unreachable!("query scratch pool should not exceed its capacity"),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for QueryScratchPool {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        let mut total = self.scratches.capacity() * size_of::<QueryScratch>();
+        let mut scratches = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(scratch) = self.scratches.pop() {
+            total += scratch.deep_size_of_children(context);
+            scratches.push(scratch);
+        }
+        let checked_out = self.scratches.capacity().saturating_sub(scratches.len());
+        total += checked_out * self.scratch_capacity.deep_size_bytes();
+        for scratch in scratches {
+            let _ = self.scratches.push(scratch);
+        }
+        total
+    }
+}
+
 /// Vector Storage is the abstraction to store the vectors.
 ///
 /// It can be in-memory or on-disk, raw vector or quantized vectors.
@@ -97,12 +509,32 @@ pub trait VectorStore: Send + Sync + Sized + Clone {
     /// values.
     fn dist_calculator(&self, query: ArrayRef, dist_q_c: f32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_>;
 
+    /// Create a [DistCalculator], reusing caller-owned scratch for query-time
+    /// precomputed state when the storage supports it.
+    fn dist_calculator_with_scratch<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        dist_q_c: f32,
+        _residual: Option<QueryResidual<'a>>,
+        _f32_scratch: &'a mut Vec<f32>,
+        _options: DistanceCalculatorOptions,
+    ) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'a> {
+        self.dist_calculator(query, dist_q_c)
+    }
+
     fn dist_calculator_from_id(&self, id: u32) -> Self::DistanceCalculator<'_>;
 
     fn dist_between(&self, u: u32, v: u32) -> f32 {
         let dist_cal_u = self.dist_calculator_from_id(u);
         dist_cal_u.distance(v)
     }
+
+    fn prefers_candidate(&self, candidate: &OrderedNode, selected: &[OrderedNode]) -> bool {
+        let dist_cal_candidate = self.dist_calculator_from_id(candidate.id);
+        selected
+            .iter()
+            .all(|other| candidate.dist < OrderedFloat(dist_cal_candidate.distance(other.id)))
+    }
 }
 
 pub struct StorageBuilder<Q: Quantization> {
@@ -110,7 +542,7 @@ pub struct StorageBuilder<Q: Quantization> {
     distance_type: DistanceType,
     quantizer: Q,
 
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
 }
 
 impl<Q: Quantization> StorageBuilder<Q> {
@@ -119,6 +551,18 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> StorageBuilder<Q> {
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         quantizer: Q,
         frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+            .map(|index| Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        Self::new_with_remapper(vector_column, distance_type, quantizer, frag_reuse_index)
+    }
+
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn new_with_remapper(
+        vector_column: String,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        quantizer: Q,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         Ok(Self {
             vector_column,
@@ -134,10 +578,10 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> StorageBuilder<Q> {
         if batch.column_by_name(self.quantizer.column()).is_none() {
             let vectors = batch
                 .column_by_name(&self.vector_column)
-                .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Vector column {} not found in batch", self.vector_column),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+                .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Vector column {} not found in batch",
+                    self.vector_column
+                )))?;
             let codes = self.quantizer.quantize(vectors)?;
             batch = batch.drop_column(&self.vector_column)?.try_with_column(
                 arrow_schema::Field::new(self.quantizer.column(), codes.data_type().clone(), true),
@@ -148,7 +592,7 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> StorageBuilder<Q> {
         debug_assert!(batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).is_some());
         debug_assert!(batch.column_by_name(self.quantizer.column()).is_some());
 
-        Q::Storage::try_from_batch(
+        Q::Storage::try_from_batch_with_remapper(
             batch,
             &self.quantizer.metadata(None),
             self.distance_type,
@@ -166,11 +610,15 @@ pub struct IvfQuantizationStorage<Q: Quantization> {
     metadata: Q::Metadata,
 
     ivf: IvfModel,
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    /// Legacy synchronous remapper (index_version 0). Mutually exclusive with
+    /// `batch_remapper`; both `None` means no translation is needed.
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    /// Asynchronous batch remapper (tagged histories).
+    batch_remapper: Option<Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>>,
 }
 
 impl<Q: Quantization> DeepSizeOf for IvfQuantizationStorage<Q> {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.metadata.deep_size_of_children(context) + self.ivf.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
@@ -182,6 +630,16 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> IvfQuantizationStorage<Q> {
     pub async fn try_new(
         reader: FileReader,
         frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+            .map(|index| Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        Self::try_new_with_remapper(reader, frag_reuse_index).await
+    }
+
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub async fn try_new_with_remapper(
+        reader: FileReader,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let schema = reader.schema();
 
@@ -189,49 +647,49 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> IvfQuantizationStorage<Q> {
             schema
                 .metadata
                 .get(DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY)
-                .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("{} not found", DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?
+                .ok_or(Error::index(format!("{} not found", DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY)))?
                 .as_str(),
         )?;
 
         let ivf_pos = schema
             .metadata
             .get(IVF_METADATA_KEY)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("{} not found", IVF_METADATA_KEY),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!("{} not found", IVF_METADATA_KEY)))?
             .parse()
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Failed to decode IVF metadata: {}", e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        let ivf_bytes = reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_pos).await?;
-        let ivf = IvfModel::try_from(pb::Ivf::decode(ivf_bytes)?)?;
-
-        let mut metadata: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(
+            .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Failed to decode IVF metadata: {}", e)))?;
+        // Parsed before the reads below because it holds the position of the
+        // quantizer buffer, which is what lets that read start alongside the
+        // IVF one.
+        let mut metadata_strs: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(
             schema
                 .metadata
                 .get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY)
-                .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("{} not found", STORAGE_METADATA_KEY),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?
+                .ok_or(Error::index(format!("{} not found", STORAGE_METADATA_KEY)))?
                 .as_str(),
         )?;
-        debug_assert_eq!(metadata.len(), 1);
+        debug_assert_eq!(metadata_strs.len(), 1);
         // for now the metadata is the same for all partitions, so we just store one
-        let metadata = metadata.pop().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "metadata is empty".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-        let mut metadata: Q::Metadata = serde_json::from_str(&metadata)?;
+        let metadata_str = metadata_strs
+            .pop()
+            .ok_or(Error::index("metadata is empty".to_string()))?;
+        let mut metadata: Q::Metadata = serde_json::from_str(&metadata_str)?;
+        let quantizer_buffer_pos = metadata.buffer_index();
+
+        // Both positions come from the schema metadata, so the reads do not
+        // depend on each other: issue them together instead of waiting for the
+        // IVF protobuf before asking for the quantizer buffer.
+        let (ivf_bytes, quantizer_bytes) =
+            futures::try_join!(reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_pos), async {
+                match quantizer_buffer_pos {
+                    Some(pos) => reader.read_global_buffer(pos).await.map(Some),
+                    None => Ok(None),
+                }
+            })?;
+        let ivf = IvfModel::try_from(pb::Ivf::decode(ivf_bytes)?)?;
+
         // we store large metadata (e.g. PQ codebook) in global buffer,
         // and the schema metadata just contains a pointer to the buffer
-        if let Some(pos) = metadata.buffer_index() {
-            let bytes = reader.read_global_buffer(pos).await?;
+        if let Some(bytes) = quantizer_bytes {
             metadata.parse_buffer(bytes)?;
         }
 
@@ -241,9 +699,61 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> IvfQuantizationStorage<Q> {
             metadata,
             ivf,
             frag_reuse_index,
+            batch_remapper: None,
         })
     }
 
+    /// Construct from pre-parsed metadata, skipping global buffer reads.
+    /// Used when reconstructing from a disk cache.
+    pub fn from_cached(
+        reader: FileReader,
+        ivf: IvfModel,
+        metadata: Q::Metadata,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+            .map(|index| Arc::new(FragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        Self::from_cached_with_remapper(reader, ivf, metadata, distance_type, frag_reuse_index)
+    }
+
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn from_cached_with_remapper(
+        reader: FileReader,
+        ivf: IvfModel,
+        metadata: Q::Metadata,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            reader,
+            distance_type,
+            metadata,
+            ivf,
+            frag_reuse_index,
+            batch_remapper: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the batch row-ID remapper used when decoding each partition.
+    ///
+    /// Only tagged fragment-reuse histories use this; the legacy remapper is
+    /// supplied through the constructors instead.
+    pub fn with_row_id_remapping(mut self, remapping: Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>) -> Self {
+        self.frag_reuse_index = None;
+        self.batch_remapper = Some(remapping);
+        debug_assert!(self.frag_reuse_index.is_none() || self.batch_remapper.is_none());
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn reader(&self) -> &FileReader {
+        &self.reader
+    }
+
+    pub fn ivf(&self) -> &IvfModel {
+        &self.ivf
+    }
+
     pub fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
         self.reader.num_rows()
     }
@@ -274,31 +784,535 @@ impl<Q: Quantization> IvfQuantizationStorage<Q> {
         self.ivf.num_partitions()
     }
 
-    pub async fn load_partition(&self, part_id: usize) -> Result<Q::Storage> {
+    /// Load a partition's quantization storage, optionally measuring the exact
+    /// I/O it performs into `io_stats`.
+    ///
+    /// When `io_stats` is `Some`, the partition is read through a reader whose
+    /// scheduler also records into the sink (a cheap clone that shares all
+    /// cached metadata, so no file is re-opened).  When `None`, the normal
+    /// uninstrumented reader is used.
+    pub async fn load_partition(
+        &self,
+        part_id: usize,
+        io_stats: Option<IoStats>,
+    ) -> Result<Q::Storage> {
         let range = self.ivf.row_range(part_id);
         let batch = if range.is_empty() {
             let schema = self.reader.schema();
             let arrow_schema = arrow_schema::Schema::from(schema.as_ref());
             RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(arrow_schema))
         } else {
-            let batches = self
-                .reader
+            let reader = match &io_stats {
+                Some(io_stats) => Cow::Owned(self.reader.with_io_stats(io_stats.recorder())),
+                None => Cow::Borrowed(&self.reader),
+            };
+            let batches = reader
                 .read_stream(
                     ReadBatchParams::Range(range),
                     u32::MAX,
                     1,
                     FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                )?
+                )
+                .await?
                 .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
                 .await?;
             let schema = Arc::new(self.reader.schema().as_ref().into());
             concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?
         };
-        Q::Storage::try_from_batch(
+        if let Some(remapping) = &self.batch_remapper {
+            // Tagged asynchronous path.
+            lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+            let row_id_idx = batch.schema().index_of(ROW_ID)?;
+            let (batch, remapper) =
+                remap_row_ids_preserving_layout_async(remapping.as_ref(), batch, row_id_idx)
+                    .await?;
+            return Q::Storage::try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+                batch,
+                self.metadata(),
+                self.distance_type,
+                Some(remapper),
+            );
+        }
+        // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+        Q::Storage::try_from_batch_with_remapper(
             batch,
             self.metadata(),
             self.distance_type,
             self.frag_reuse_index.clone(),
         )
     }
+
+    /// Read only `columns` of the given rows; the batch keeps file schema order.
+    async fn read_vector_columns(
+        &self,
+        params: ReadBatchParams,
+        columns: &[&str],
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let projection = lance_file::versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+            self.reader.version(),
+            self.reader.schema(),
+            columns,
+        )?;
+        let schema = Arc::new(projection.schema.as_ref().into());
+        let batches = self
+            .reader
+            .read_stream_projected(
+                params,
+                u32::MAX,
+                1,
+                projection,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await?
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        Ok(concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?)
+    }
+
+    async fn read_vector_range(&self, range: std::ops::Range<usize>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let batches = self
+            .reader
+            .read_stream(
+                ReadBatchParams::Range(range),
+                u32::MAX,
+                1,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await?
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        let schema = Arc::new(self.reader.schema().as_ref().into());
+        Ok(concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?)
+    }
+
+    /// Stage a partition's codes once for native pair scoring, in storage order.
+    ///
+    /// `batch_size` is a maximum; wide staged rows use smaller power-of-two
+    /// batches targeting 16 MiB, with a minimum packed group of 32 rows.
+    /// Partitions whose staged size exceeds `memory_limit` are written to
+    /// `spill_store` one batch at a time. Row IDs are remapped during staging.
+    pub async fn prepare_pairwise_partition(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        batch_size: usize,
+        memory_limit: usize,
+        centroid: ArrayRef,
+        spill_store: &dyn SpillStore,
+    ) -> Result<PairwisePartition> {
+        if batch_size == 0 || !batch_size.is_multiple_of(32) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "pairwise batch_size={batch_size} must be a positive multiple of 32"
+            )));
+        }
+        if partition_id >= self.num_partitions() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "partition_id={partition_id} out of range 0..{}",
+                self.num_partitions()
+            )));
+        }
+        let num_rows = self.partition_size(partition_id);
+        let quantizer = self.quantizer()?;
+        let scorer = {
+            let quantizer = quantizer.clone();
+            let metric = self.distance_type;
+            let schema = self.schema();
+            Arc::new(
+                spawn_cpu(move || PairwiseScorer::new(&quantizer, centroid, metric, &schema))
+                    .await?,
+            )
+        };
+        let row_bytes = scorer.row_bytes();
+        let rows = PAIRWISE_VECTOR_BATCH_BYTES / row_bytes;
+        let batch_size = if rows < batch_size {
+            1usize << rows.max(32).ilog2()
+        } else {
+            batch_size
+        };
+        let fits = row_bytes
+            .checked_mul(num_rows)
+            .and_then(|bytes| bytes.checked_add(4096))
+            .is_some_and(|bytes| bytes <= memory_limit);
+        let encoded = if num_rows == 0 {
+            EncodedPartition::Memory(Vec::new())
+        } else if fits {
+            let source = self
+                .read_pairwise_codes(partition_id, 0..num_rows, &quantizer)
+                .await?;
+            EncodedPartition::Memory(
+                stage_pairwise_batches(
+                    scorer.clone(),
+                    source,
+                    batch_size,
+                    self.frag_reuse_index.clone(),
+                )
+                .try_collect()
+                .await?,
+            )
+        } else {
+            let mut writer = PairwiseSpillWriter::new(spill_store).await?;
+            // Align source reads to whole vector batches so each spill range
+            // still corresponds to exactly one staged batch during replay.
+            let read_batch_size = PAIRWISE_READ_BATCH_SIZE.div_ceil(batch_size) * batch_size;
+            for start in (0..num_rows).step_by(read_batch_size) {
+                let end = start.saturating_add(read_batch_size).min(num_rows);
+                let source = self
+                    .read_pairwise_codes(partition_id, start..end, &quantizer)
+                    .await?;
+                let mut batches = stage_pairwise_batches(
+                    scorer.clone(),
+                    source,
+                    batch_size,
+                    self.frag_reuse_index.clone(),
+                );
+                while let Some(batch) = batches.try_next().await? {
+                    writer.write(batch).await?;
+                }
+            }
+            EncodedPartition::Spilled(writer.finish().await?)
+        };
+        Ok(PairwisePartition {
+            encoded,
+            scorer,
+            batch_size,
+            num_rows,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Read a row range of a partition's index file. PQ codes are returned
+    /// column-major over the range (the on-disk transposed layout), which the
+    /// PQ scorer stages without transposing.
+    async fn read_pairwise_codes(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+        quantizer: &Quantizer,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        if partition_id >= self.num_partitions() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "partition_id={partition_id} out of range 0..{}",
+                self.num_partitions()
+            )));
+        }
+        let partition = self.ivf.row_range(partition_id);
+        if range.start > range.end || range.end > partition.len() || range.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "vector range {range:?} outside partition {partition_id} of size {}",
+                partition.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let start = range.start;
+        let rows = partition.start + start..partition.start + range.end;
+        let column = quantizer.column();
+        let transposed_pq =
+            matches!(quantizer, Quantizer::Product(_)) && self.metadata.is_transposed();
+        if !transposed_pq || range.len() == partition.len() {
+            let batch = self.read_vector_range(rows).await?;
+            if !matches!(quantizer, Quantizer::Product(_)) || transposed_pq {
+                // Non-PQ codes are row-major, and a whole partition's
+                // flattened transposed PQ rows are already column-major.
+                return Ok(batch);
+            }
+            return spawn_cpu(move || {
+                let codes = batch
+                    .column_by_name(column)
+                    .and_then(|codes| codes.as_fixed_size_list_opt())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("missing {column}")))?;
+                let code_bytes = codes.value_length() as usize;
+                let values = codes
+                    .values()
+                    .as_primitive_opt::<UInt8Type>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("{column} must hold u8 codes")))?;
+                let values = super::pq::storage::transpose(values, batch.num_rows(), code_bytes);
+                let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, code_bytes as i32)?;
+                Ok(batch.replace_column_by_name(column, Arc::new(codes))?)
+            })
+            .await;
+        }
+        let schema = arrow_schema::Schema::from(self.reader.schema().as_ref());
+        let code_index = schema.index_of(column)?;
+        let code_nullable = schema.field(code_index).is_nullable();
+        let code_bytes = match schema.field(code_index).data_type() {
+            arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(_, size) => *size as usize,
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "{column} must be a fixed-size list, got {other}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        // The file rows at this range hold unrelated code bytes, so read only
+        // the other columns (row IDs) there.
+        let other_columns = schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| field.name().as_str())
+            .filter(|name| *name != column)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let batch = self
+            .read_vector_columns(ReadBatchParams::Range(rows), &other_columns)
+            .await?;
+        // The flattened column-major matrix spans the whole partition: each
+        // code byte's values for this range are one contiguous span. Coalesce
+        // the file rows holding all spans into a single ranged read.
+        let spans = (0..code_bytes)
+            .map(|byte| {
+                let first = byte * partition.len() + start;
+                first..first + range.len()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut row_ranges: Vec<std::ops::Range<usize>> = Vec::new();
+        let mut span_ranges = Vec::with_capacity(spans.len());
+        for span in &spans {
+            let rows = span.start / code_bytes..span.end.div_ceil(code_bytes);
+            match row_ranges.last_mut() {
+                Some(last) if last.end >= rows.start => last.end = last.end.max(rows.end),
+                _ => row_ranges.push(rows),
+            }
+            span_ranges.push(row_ranges.len() - 1);
+        }
+        let encoded = self
+            .read_vector_columns(
+                ReadBatchParams::Ranges(
+                    row_ranges
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|rows| {
+                            (partition.start + rows.start) as u64
+                                ..(partition.start + rows.end) as u64
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        .into(),
+                ),
+                &[column],
+            )
+            .await?;
+        spawn_cpu(move || {
+            let values = list_values::<UInt8Type>(&encoded, column)?;
+            let mut range_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(row_ranges.len());
+            let mut offset = 0;
+            for rows in &row_ranges {
+                range_offsets.push(offset);
+                offset += rows.len();
+            }
+            let mut codes = Vec::with_capacity(spans.len() * range.len());
+            for (span, index) in spans.into_iter().zip(span_ranges) {
+                let row = range_offsets[index] + span.start / code_bytes - row_ranges[index].start;
+                let first = row * code_bytes + span.start % code_bytes;
+                codes.extend_from_slice(&values[first..first + span.len()]);
+            }
+            let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                UInt8Array::from(codes),
+                code_bytes as i32,
+            )?;
+            let field = arrow_schema::Field::new(column, codes.data_type().clone(), code_nullable);
+            Ok(batch.try_with_column_at(code_index, field, Arc::new(codes))?)
+        })
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Materialize a compact partition for the parallel prewarm path.
+    ///
+    /// The input may be a slice of a larger contiguous read. Deep-copying its
+    /// visible rows before constructing storage prevents a cached partition
+    /// from retaining the entire prewarm window's Arrow buffers.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub async fn materialize_partition_for_prewarm(
+        &self,
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<Q::Storage>
+    where
+        Q::Metadata: 'static,
+        Q::Storage: 'static,
+    {
+        let metadata = self.metadata.clone();
+        let distance_type = self.distance_type;
+        if let Some(remapping) = &self.batch_remapper {
+            // Tagged asynchronous path.
+            lance_index_core::remapping::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+            let batch =
+                spawn_prewarm_materialization(move || compact_prewarm_batches(batches)).await?;
+            let row_id_idx = batch.schema().index_of(ROW_ID)?;
+            // Row-map IO must finish outside the CPU-only materialization pool.
+            let (batch, remapper) =
+                remap_row_ids_preserving_layout_async(remapping.as_ref(), batch, row_id_idx)
+                    .await?;
+            return spawn_prewarm_materialization(move || {
+                Q::Storage::try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+                    batch,
+                    &metadata,
+                    distance_type,
+                    Some(remapper),
+                )
+            })
+            .await;
+        }
+        // Legacy synchronous remapping path.
+        let frag_reuse_index = self.frag_reuse_index.clone();
+        spawn_prewarm_materialization(move || {
+            let batch = compact_prewarm_batches(batches)?;
+            Q::Storage::try_from_batch_with_remapper(
+                batch,
+                &metadata,
+                distance_type,
+                frag_reuse_index,
+            )
+        })
+        .await
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::{
+        QueryScratchCapacity, QueryScratchPool, compact_prewarm_batches,
+        spawn_prewarm_materialization,
+    };
+    use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+    use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_prewarm_materialization_uses_cpu_pool() {
+        let thread_name =
+            spawn_prewarm_materialization(|| Ok(std::thread::current().name().map(str::to_owned)))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(thread_name.as_deref(), Some("lance-cpu"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prewarm_storage_batches_own_compact_buffers() {
+        let parent = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+            "value",
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..100)) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let parent_array = parent
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let parent_ptr = parent_array.values().as_ptr();
+        let parent_size = parent_array.get_array_memory_size();
+
+        let compact = compact_prewarm_batches(vec![parent.slice(10, 10)]).unwrap();
+        let compact_array = compact
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(compact_array.values().as_ptr(), parent_ptr);
+        assert!(compact_array.get_array_memory_size() < parent_size);
+        assert_eq!(compact_array.values(), &(10..20).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_scratch_pool_reuses_buffers() {
+        let pool = QueryScratchPool::new(1);
+        let first_ptrs = pool.with_scratch(|scratch| {
+            scratch.query_f32.clear();
+            scratch.query_f32.resize(16, 1.0);
+            scratch.distances.clear();
+            scratch.distances.resize(8, 2.0);
+            scratch.u16.clear();
+            scratch.u16.resize(4, 3);
+            scratch.u8.clear();
+            scratch.u8.resize(2, 4);
+            scratch.u32.clear();
+            scratch.u32.resize(3, 5);
+            (
+                scratch.query_f32.as_ptr(),
+                scratch.distances.as_ptr(),
+                scratch.u16.as_ptr(),
+                scratch.u8.as_ptr(),
+                scratch.u32.as_ptr(),
+            )
+        });
+
+        let second_ptrs = pool.with_scratch(|scratch| {
+            assert_eq!(scratch.query_f32.len(), 16);
+            assert!(scratch.query_f32.iter().all(|value| *value == 1.0));
+            assert_eq!(scratch.distances.len(), 8);
+            assert!(scratch.distances.iter().all(|value| *value == 2.0));
+            assert_eq!(scratch.u16.len(), 4);
+            assert!(scratch.u16.iter().all(|value| *value == 3));
+            assert_eq!(scratch.u8.len(), 2);
+            assert!(scratch.u8.iter().all(|value| *value == 4));
+            assert_eq!(scratch.u32.len(), 3);
+            assert!(scratch.u32.iter().all(|value| *value == 5));
+            (
+                scratch.query_f32.as_ptr(),
+                scratch.distances.as_ptr(),
+                scratch.u16.as_ptr(),
+                scratch.u8.as_ptr(),
+                scratch.u32.as_ptr(),
+            )
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(first_ptrs, second_ptrs);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_scratch_pool_is_pool_owned() {
+        let first_pool = QueryScratchPool::new(1);
+        let second_pool = QueryScratchPool::new(1);
+
+        let first_ptr = first_pool.with_scratch(|scratch| {
+            scratch.query_f32.resize(16, 1.0);
+            scratch.query_f32.as_ptr()
+        });
+        let second_ptr = second_pool.with_scratch(|scratch| {
+            scratch.query_f32.resize(16, 1.0);
+            scratch.query_f32.as_ptr()
+        });
+
+        assert_ne!(first_ptr, second_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_scratch_pool_uses_temporary_scratch_when_empty() {
+        let pool =
+            QueryScratchPool::with_capacity(1, QueryScratchCapacity::new_with_u32(8, 16, 4, 2, 3));
+        let pooled = pool.scratch();
+        assert!(pooled.pooled);
+
+        let temporary = pool.scratch();
+        assert!(!temporary.pooled);
+        assert_eq!(temporary.distances.len(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(temporary.query_f32.len(), 16);
+        assert_eq!(temporary.u16.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(temporary.u8.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(temporary.u32.len(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_scratch_pool_deep_size_includes_buffer_capacity() {
+        let empty_size = QueryScratchPool::new(1).deep_size_of();
+        let pool =
+            QueryScratchPool::with_capacity(1, QueryScratchCapacity::new_with_u32(8, 16, 4, 2, 3));
+
+        assert!(pool.deep_size_of() > empty_size);
+
+        let idle_size = pool.deep_size_of();
+        let _checked_out = pool.scratch();
+
+        assert_eq!(pool.deep_size_of(), idle_size);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_scratch_pool_initializes_buffer_capacity() {
+        let pool =
+            QueryScratchPool::with_capacity(1, QueryScratchCapacity::new_with_u32(8, 16, 4, 2, 3));
+
+        pool.with_scratch(|scratch| {
+            assert_eq!(scratch.distances.len(), 8);
+            assert_eq!(scratch.distances.capacity(), 8);
+            assert_eq!(scratch.query_f32.len(), 16);
+            assert_eq!(scratch.query_f32.capacity(), 16);
+            assert_eq!(scratch.u16.len(), 4);
+            assert_eq!(scratch.u16.capacity(), 4);
+            assert_eq!(scratch.u8.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(scratch.u8.capacity(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(scratch.u32.len(), 3);
+            assert_eq!(scratch.u32.capacity(), 3);
+        });
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/transform.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/transform.rs
index f60a763c41e..2faae7b9ce6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/transform.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/transform.rs
@@ -8,15 +8,14 @@ use std::fmt::Debug;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
-use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
 use arrow_array::UInt64Array;
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, Array, ArrowPrimitiveType, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrowPrimitiveType, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, cast::AsArray};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use num_traits::Float;
-use snafu::location;
 
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result};
 use lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
@@ -59,16 +58,13 @@ impl NormalizeTransformer {
 impl Transformer for NormalizeTransformer {
     #[instrument(name = "NormalizeTransformer::transform", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     fn transform(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let arr = batch
-            .column_by_name(&self.input_column)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Normalize Transform: column {} not found in RecordBatch {}",
-                    self.input_column,
-                    batch.schema(),
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let arr = batch.column_by_name(&self.input_column).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "Normalize Transform: column {} not found in RecordBatch {}",
+                self.input_column,
+                batch.schema(),
+            ))
+        })?;
 
         let data = arr.as_fixed_size_list();
         let norm = normalize_fsl(data)?;
@@ -120,14 +116,11 @@ impl Transformer for KeepFiniteVectors {
             DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => arr.as_fixed_size_list(),
             DataType::List(_) => arr.as_list::<i32>().values().as_fixed_size_list(),
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "KeepFiniteVectors: column {} is not a fixed size list: {}",
-                        self.column,
-                        arr.data_type()
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "KeepFiniteVectors: column {} is not a fixed size list: {}",
+                    self.column,
+                    arr.data_type()
+                )));
             }
         };
 
@@ -222,14 +215,11 @@ impl Transformer for Flatten {
                     RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(vectors)])?;
                 Ok(batch)
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Flatten: column {} is not a vector: {}",
-                    self.column,
-                    arr.data_type()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Flatten: column {} is not a vector: {}",
+                self.column,
+                arr.data_type()
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -239,6 +229,7 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
     use approx::assert_relative_eq;
+    use arrow::buffer::NullBuffer;
     use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float16Array, Float32Array, Int32Array};
     use arrow_schema::Schema;
     use half::f16;
@@ -355,6 +346,92 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(dup_drop_result.is_ok());
     }
 
+    /// Builds a 2-dim FSL column with one row per `rows` entry. `None` means a
+    /// null vector; otherwise the two f32 values are used as-is.
+    fn fsl_batch(rows: &[Option<[f32; 2]>]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let values = Float32Array::from(
+            rows.iter()
+                .flat_map(|row| row.unwrap_or([0.0, 0.0]))
+                .collect::<Vec<f32>>(),
+        );
+        let nulls = NullBuffer::from(rows.iter().map(Option::is_some).collect::<Vec<bool>>());
+        let item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(item.clone(), 2, Arc::new(values), Some(nulls)).unwrap();
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "v",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(item, 2),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.into(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_keep_finite_vectors_drops_null_and_non_finite_rows() {
+        let batch = fsl_batch(&[
+            Some([1.0, 2.0]),
+            None,
+            Some([f32::NAN, 1.0]),
+            Some([f32::INFINITY, 1.0]),
+            Some([f32::NEG_INFINITY, 1.0]),
+            Some([1e20, -1e20]),
+            Some([3.0, 4.0]),
+        ]);
+        let output = KeepFiniteVectors::new("v").transform(&batch).unwrap();
+
+        let kept = output.column_by_name("v").unwrap().as_fixed_size_list();
+        assert_eq!(kept.len(), 3, "only finite rows survive");
+        assert_eq!(kept.null_count(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            kept.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+            &[1.0, 2.0, 1e20, -1e20, 3.0, 4.0]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_keep_finite_vectors_on_all_null_and_empty_batches() {
+        let all_null = fsl_batch(&[None, None]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            KeepFiniteVectors::new("v")
+                .transform(&all_null)
+                .unwrap()
+                .num_rows(),
+            0
+        );
+
+        let empty = fsl_batch(&[]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            KeepFiniteVectors::new("v")
+                .transform(&empty)
+                .unwrap()
+                .num_rows(),
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_keep_finite_vectors_passes_through_missing_column() {
+        // A batch without the configured column is returned untouched rather
+        // than erroring, so the transform is a no-op on unrelated batches.
+        let batch = fsl_batch(&[Some([1.0, 2.0])]);
+        let output = KeepFiniteVectors::new("other").transform(&batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(output.num_rows(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_keep_finite_vectors_rejects_non_list_column() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Schema::new(vec![Field::new("v", DataType::Int32, false)]).into(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let error = KeepFiniteVectors::new("v").transform(&batch).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Index { .. }), "{error:?}");
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("column v"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("Int32"), "{message}");
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_is_all_finite() {
         let array = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0]);
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/utils.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/utils.rs
index 9f1a80476da..e343c738e85 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/utils.rs
@@ -2,25 +2,27 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use arrow::{
-    array::AsArray,
-    datatypes::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
+    array::{ArrayData, make_array},
+    buffer::Buffer,
+    compute::cast,
 };
-use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, FixedSizeListArray};
+use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, FixedSizeListArray, cast::AsArray};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_arrow::{BufferExt, DataTypeExt, FixedSizeListArrayExt};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_io::encodings::plain::bytes_to_array;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use lance_linalg::distance::dot_f16::amx_fp16_available;
 use prost::bytes;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
 use super::pb;
 use crate::pb::Tensor;
+use crate::vector::flat::storage::FlatBinStorage;
 use crate::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
-use crate::vector::hnsw::builder::{HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams};
 use crate::vector::hnsw::HNSW;
+use crate::vector::hnsw::builder::{HnswBuildParams, HnswQueryParams};
 use crate::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
 
 enum SimpleIndexStatus {
@@ -43,27 +45,83 @@ static USE_HNSW_SPEEDUP_INDEXING: LazyLock<SimpleIndexStatus> = LazyLock::new(||
     }
 });
 
+/// Whether partition assignment is better served by the exact flat path than by
+/// an approximate lookup through this index.
+///
+/// The index turns one `M x N` problem -- every vector against every centroid --
+/// into `M` independent top-1 graph searches. Each search walks its own path, so
+/// no two vectors share a candidate set and the AMX-FP16 kernel behind them can
+/// only ever score one query against a handful of neighbors: 32 MAC/cycle, one
+/// of the tile's 16 output columns. Keeping the problem in its matrix shape lets
+/// [`crate::vector::kmeans::compute_partitions`] reach the AMX-FP16 GEMM, which
+/// fills all four accumulator tiles at 512 MAC/cycle.
+///
+/// Measured on 100M x 768 fp16 (dot, node-local, m=20, ef_construction=150), the
+/// flat path won on both build time and recall at every `k` tried:
+///
+/// | k     | flat        | indexed     |
+/// |-------|-------------|-------------|
+/// | 10000 | 1965s / .980 | 2011s / .976 |
+/// | 20000 | 2494s / .964 | 2588s / .832 |
+/// | 40000 | 3730s / .970 | 3976s / .940 |
+///
+/// The recall gap is the larger effect: the graph lookup runs at `ef = 15`, so
+/// some vectors land in a partition that is not their nearest and no `nprobes`
+/// setting recovers them. Flat assignment is exact.
+///
+/// The conditions below must stay in lockstep with the AMX gate in
+/// `compute_membership_and_dist`; without the GEMM the flat path is ~2.7x slower
+/// than the index (5361s vs 2011s at k=10000), so a mismatch here is expensive.
+/// That includes the `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX` kill switch, which both consult through
+/// [`amx_fp16_available`]: an operator turning AMX off has to move this decision
+/// too, or the build would take the exact-assignment path with no GEMM under it.
+fn prefers_flat_amx_assignment(
+    centroid_type: &DataType,
+    num_centroids: usize,
+    dimension: usize,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+) -> bool {
+    centroid_type == &DataType::Float16
+        && distance_type == DistanceType::Dot
+        && dimension >= 32
+        && num_centroids >= 32
+        && amx_fp16_available()
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct SimpleIndex {
-    store: FlatFloatStorage,
+    store: SimpleStore,
     index: HNSW,
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum SimpleStore {
+    Float(FlatFloatStorage),
+    Binary(FlatBinStorage),
+}
+
 impl SimpleIndex {
-    pub fn try_new(store: FlatFloatStorage) -> Result<Self> {
-        let hnsw = HNSW::index_vectors(
-            &store,
-            HnswBuildParams::default().ef_construction(15).num_edges(12),
-        )?;
+    fn try_new(store: SimpleStore) -> Result<Self> {
+        let hnsw = match &store {
+            SimpleStore::Float(store) => HNSW::index_vectors(
+                store,
+                HnswBuildParams::default().ef_construction(15).num_edges(12),
+            )?,
+            SimpleStore::Binary(store) => HNSW::index_vectors(
+                store,
+                HnswBuildParams::default().ef_construction(15).num_edges(12),
+            )?,
+        };
         Ok(Self { store, index: hnsw })
     }
 
     // train HNSW over the centroids to speed up finding the nearest clusters,
     // only train if all conditions are met:
-    //  - the centroids are float32s or uint8s
+    //  - the centroids are float16/float32 or uint8 with hamming distance
     //  - `num_centroids * dimension >= 1_000_000`
     //      we benchmarked that it's 2x faster in the case of 1024 centroids and 1024 dimensions,
     //      so set the threshold to 1_000_000.
+    //  - the exact flat assignment is not already faster, see `prefers_flat_amx_assignment`
     pub fn may_train_index(
         centroids: ArrayRef,
         dimension: usize,
@@ -74,70 +132,56 @@ impl SimpleIndex {
                 if centroids.len() < 1_000_000 {
                     return Ok(None);
                 }
+                if prefers_flat_amx_assignment(
+                    centroids.data_type(),
+                    centroids.len() / dimension,
+                    dimension,
+                    distance_type,
+                ) {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
             }
             SimpleIndexStatus::Disabled => return Ok(None),
             _ => {}
         }
 
-        match centroids.data_type() {
-            DataType::Float32 => {
-                let fsl =
-                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids.clone(), dimension as i32)?;
-                let store = FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, distance_type);
-                Self::try_new(store).map(Some)
+        let store = match (centroids.data_type(), distance_type) {
+            (DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64, _) => {
+                let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, dimension as i32)?;
+                SimpleStore::Float(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, distance_type))
             }
-            _ => Ok(None),
-        }
+            (DataType::UInt8, DistanceType::Hamming) => {
+                let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, dimension as i32)?;
+                SimpleStore::Binary(FlatBinStorage::new(fsl, distance_type))
+            }
+            _ => return Ok(None),
+        };
+        Self::try_new(store).map(Some)
     }
 
     pub(crate) fn search(&self, query: ArrayRef) -> Result<(u32, f32)> {
-        let res = self.index.search_basic(
-            query,
-            1,
-            &HnswQueryParams {
-                ef: 15,
-                lower_bound: None,
-                upper_bound: None,
-                dist_q_c: 0.0,
-            },
-            None,
-            &self.store,
-        )?;
+        let params = HnswQueryParams {
+            ef: 15,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            use_acorn: false,
+        };
+        let res = match &self.store {
+            SimpleStore::Float(store) => self.index.search_basic(query, 1, &params, None, store)?,
+            SimpleStore::Binary(store) => {
+                let query = if query.data_type() == &DataType::UInt8 {
+                    query
+                } else {
+                    cast(&query, &DataType::UInt8).map_err(|e| Error::index(e.to_string()))?
+                };
+                self.index.search_basic(query, 1, &params, None, store)?
+            }
+        };
         Ok((res[0].id, res[0].dist.0))
     }
 }
 
-#[inline]
-#[allow(dead_code)]
-pub(crate) fn prefetch_arrow_array(array: &dyn Array) -> Result<()> {
-    match array.data_type() {
-        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => {
-            let array = array.as_fixed_size_list();
-            return prefetch_arrow_array(array.values());
-        }
-        DataType::Float16 => {
-            let array = array.as_primitive::<Float16Type>();
-            do_prefetch(array.values().as_ptr_range())
-        }
-        DataType::Float32 => {
-            let array = array.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
-            do_prefetch(array.values().as_ptr_range())
-        }
-        DataType::Float64 => {
-            let array = array.as_primitive::<Float64Type>();
-            do_prefetch(array.values().as_ptr_range())
-        }
-        _ => {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Unsupported data type for prefetch: {}", array.data_type()),
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
-    }
-
-    Ok(())
-}
-
 #[inline]
 pub(crate) fn do_prefetch<T>(ptrs: Range<*const T>) {
     // TODO use rust intrinsics instead of x86 intrinsics
@@ -149,7 +193,7 @@ pub(crate) fn do_prefetch<T>(ptrs: Range<*const T>) {
             const CACHE_LINE_SIZE: usize = 64;
             #[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
             {
-                use core::arch::x86_64::{_mm_prefetch, _MM_HINT_T0};
+                use core::arch::x86_64::{_MM_HINT_T0, _mm_prefetch};
                 _mm_prefetch(current_ptr, _MM_HINT_T0);
             }
             current_ptr = current_ptr.add(CACHE_LINE_SIZE);
@@ -184,10 +228,10 @@ impl TryFrom<&DataType> for pb::tensor::DataType {
             DataType::Float16 => Ok(Self::Float16),
             DataType::Float32 => Ok(Self::Float32),
             DataType::Float64 => Ok(Self::Float64),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("pb tensor type not supported: {:?}", dt),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "pb tensor type not supported: {:?}",
+                dt
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -206,7 +250,7 @@ impl TryFrom<&FixedSizeListArray> for pb::Tensor {
     fn try_from(array: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut tensor = Self::default();
         tensor.data_type = pb::tensor::DataType::try_from(array.value_type())? as i32;
-        tensor.shape = vec![array.len() as u32, array.value_length() as u32];
+        tensor.shape = vec![Array::len(array) as u32, array.value_length() as u32];
         let flat_array = array.values();
         tensor.data = flat_array.into_data().buffers()[0].to_vec();
         Ok(tensor)
@@ -218,33 +262,47 @@ impl TryFrom<&pb::Tensor> for FixedSizeListArray {
 
     fn try_from(tensor: &Tensor) -> Result<Self> {
         if tensor.shape.len() != 2 {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("only accept 2-D tensor shape, got: {:?}", tensor.shape),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "only accept 2-D tensor shape, got: {:?}",
+                tensor.shape
+            )));
         }
         let dim = tensor.shape[1] as usize;
         let num_rows = tensor.shape[0] as usize;
-
-        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(tensor.data.clone());
-        let flat_array = bytes_to_array(
-            &DataType::from(pb::tensor::DataType::try_from(tensor.data_type).unwrap()),
-            data,
-            dim * num_rows,
-            0,
-        )?;
-
-        if flat_array.len() != dim * num_rows {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Tensor shape {:?} does not match to data len: {}",
-                    tensor.shape,
-                    flat_array.len()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+        let num_values = dim.checked_mul(num_rows).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "Tensor shape {:?} exceeds the supported size",
+                tensor.shape
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let data_type = DataType::from(pb::tensor::DataType::try_from(tensor.data_type).unwrap());
+        let expected_data_len =
+            num_values
+                .checked_mul(data_type.byte_width())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "Tensor shape {:?} exceeds the supported byte length",
+                        tensor.shape
+                    ))
+                })?;
+        if tensor.data.len() != expected_data_len {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Tensor shape {:?} with data type {data_type} requires {expected_data_len} bytes, got {}",
+                tensor.shape,
+                tensor.data.len()
+            )));
         }
 
+        let buffer = Buffer::from_bytes_bytes(
+            bytes::Bytes::from(tensor.data.clone()),
+            data_type.byte_width() as u64,
+        );
+        let data = ArrayData::builder(data_type)
+            .len(num_values)
+            .null_count(0)
+            .add_buffer(buffer)
+            .build()?;
+        let flat_array = make_array(data);
         let field = Field::new("item", flat_array.data_type().clone(), true);
         Ok(Self::try_new(
             Arc::new(field),
@@ -267,17 +325,17 @@ pub fn is_finite(fsl: &FixedSizeListArray) -> BooleanArray {
             Some(v) => match v.data_type() {
                 DataType::Float16 => {
                     let v = v.as_primitive::<Float16Type>();
-                    v.null_count() == 0 && v.values().iter().all(|v| v.is_finite())
+                    Array::null_count(v) == 0 && v.values().iter().all(|v| v.is_finite())
                 }
                 DataType::Float32 => {
                     let v = v.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
-                    v.null_count() == 0 && v.values().iter().all(|v| v.is_finite())
+                    Array::null_count(v) == 0 && v.values().iter().all(|v| v.is_finite())
                 }
                 DataType::Float64 => {
                     let v = v.as_primitive::<Float64Type>();
-                    v.null_count() == 0 && v.values().iter().all(|v| v.is_finite())
+                    Array::null_count(v) == 0 && v.values().iter().all(|v| v.is_finite())
                 }
-                _ => v.null_count() == 0,
+                _ => Array::null_count(&v) == 0,
             },
             None => false,
         })
@@ -289,10 +347,76 @@ pub fn is_finite(fsl: &FixedSizeListArray) -> BooleanArray {
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
-    use arrow_array::{Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array};
+    use arrow_array::{Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array, UInt8Array};
     use half::f16;
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
     use num_traits::identities::Zero;
+    use rayon::ThreadPoolBuilder;
+
+    use arrow::compute::cast;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn build_index(centroids: ArrayRef, dim: usize) -> SimpleIndex {
+        let f32_centroids = cast(&centroids, &DataType::Float32).unwrap();
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(f32_centroids, dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let store = SimpleStore::Float(FlatFloatStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::L2));
+        SimpleIndex::try_new(store).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn build_binary_index(centroids: ArrayRef, dim: usize) -> SimpleIndex {
+        let u8_centroids = if centroids.data_type() == &DataType::UInt8 {
+            centroids
+        } else {
+            cast(&centroids, &DataType::UInt8).unwrap()
+        };
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(u8_centroids, dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let store = SimpleStore::Binary(FlatBinStorage::new(fsl, DistanceType::Hamming));
+        SimpleIndex::try_new(store).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::f16(Arc::new(Float16Array::from(
+        (0..100).flat_map(|i| std::iter::repeat_n(f16::from_f32(i as f32), 16)).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    )) as ArrayRef, 42.0f32)]
+    #[case::f32(Arc::new(Float32Array::from(
+        (0..100).flat_map(|i| std::iter::repeat_n(i as f32, 16)).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    )) as ArrayRef, 42.0f32)]
+    fn test_simple_index_nearest_centroid(#[case] centroids: ArrayRef, #[case] query_val: f32) {
+        let thread_pool = ThreadPoolBuilder::new().num_threads(1).build().unwrap();
+        let index = thread_pool.install(|| build_index(centroids, 16));
+        let query: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![query_val; 16]));
+        let (id, dist) = index.search(query).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(id, 42);
+        assert_eq!(dist, 0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_simple_index_nearest_centroid_binary() {
+        let centroids: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(
+            (0..100)
+                .flat_map(|i| std::iter::repeat_n(i as u8, 16))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let index = build_binary_index(centroids, 16);
+        let query: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![42u8; 16]));
+        let (id, dist) = index.search(query).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(id, 42);
+        assert_eq!(dist, 0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_simple_index_rejects_f64() {
+        let centroids: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![0.0; 1600]));
+        let result = SimpleIndex::may_train_index(centroids, 16, DistanceType::L2).unwrap();
+        assert!(result.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_simple_index_rejects_uint8_non_hamming() {
+        let centroids: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![0u8; 1600]));
+        let result = SimpleIndex::may_train_index(centroids, 16, DistanceType::L2).unwrap();
+        assert!(result.is_none());
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_fsl_to_tensor() {
@@ -303,6 +427,8 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(tensor.data_type, pb::tensor::DataType::Float16 as i32);
         assert_eq!(tensor.shape, vec![4, 5]);
         assert_eq!(tensor.data.len(), 20 * 2);
+        let decoded = FixedSizeListArray::try_from(&tensor).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded.values().to_data(), fsl.values().to_data());
 
         let fsl =
             FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 20]), 5).unwrap();
@@ -310,6 +436,8 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(tensor.data_type, pb::tensor::DataType::Float32 as i32);
         assert_eq!(tensor.shape, vec![4, 5]);
         assert_eq!(tensor.data.len(), 20 * 4);
+        let decoded = FixedSizeListArray::try_from(&tensor).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded.values().to_data(), fsl.values().to_data());
 
         let fsl =
             FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float64Array::from(vec![0.0; 20]), 5).unwrap();
@@ -317,5 +445,57 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(tensor.data_type, pb::tensor::DataType::Float64 as i32);
         assert_eq!(tensor.shape, vec![4, 5]);
         assert_eq!(tensor.data.len(), 20 * 8);
+        let decoded = FixedSizeListArray::try_from(&tensor).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded.values().to_data(), fsl.values().to_data());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::too_short(vec![0; 7])]
+    #[case::too_long(vec![0; 9])]
+    fn test_tensor_to_fsl_rejects_invalid_data_length(#[case] data: Vec<u8>) {
+        let tensor = pb::Tensor {
+            data_type: pb::tensor::DataType::Uint32 as i32,
+            shape: vec![1, 2],
+            data,
+        };
+
+        let error = FixedSizeListArray::try_from(&tensor).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("requires 8 bytes"));
+    }
+
+    /// Every shape the AMX-FP16 GEMM cannot serve must keep the centroid index,
+    /// because without the GEMM the flat path it would fall back to is ~2.7x
+    /// slower than the index. These four are the exact complement of the gate in
+    /// `compute_membership_and_dist`.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::not_f16(&DataType::Float32, 10_000, 768, DistanceType::Dot)]
+    #[case::not_dot(&DataType::Float16, 10_000, 768, DistanceType::L2)]
+    #[case::dim_below_one_k_pass(&DataType::Float16, 10_000, 31, DistanceType::Dot)]
+    #[case::k_below_one_b_block(&DataType::Float16, 31, 768, DistanceType::Dot)]
+    fn test_flat_amx_assignment_declines_unsupported_shapes(
+        #[case] centroid_type: &DataType,
+        #[case] num_centroids: usize,
+        #[case] dimension: usize,
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) {
+        assert!(!prefers_flat_amx_assignment(
+            centroid_type,
+            num_centroids,
+            dimension,
+            distance_type
+        ));
+    }
+
+    /// On a supported shape the decision is exactly "is AMX-FP16 usable here",
+    /// which is a property of the build, the CPU and the `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX`
+    /// kill switch, so the expectation is derived rather than hardcoded -- the
+    /// same assertion has to hold with the switch set, on a machine without AMX,
+    /// and in a build whose toolchain could not compile the kernel.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_amx_assignment_follows_amx_availability() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            prefers_flat_amx_assignment(&DataType::Float16, 10_000, 768, DistanceType::Dot),
+            amx_fp16_available()
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3.rs
index b210e4a7215..07f3979c66d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub mod shuffle_bench;
 pub mod shuffler;
 pub mod subindex;
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/shuffle_bench.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/shuffle_bench.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..32a53ce90b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/shuffle_bench.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmark-only support for reopening a frozen two-file shuffle fixture.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+use super::shuffler::{ShuffleReader, TwoFileShuffleReader};
+/// The path-independent metadata needed to reopen a two-file shuffle fixture.
+///
+/// This is public only so the external Criterion benchmark can serialize the
+/// manifest on one revision and reopen the same data from another revision.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Deserialize, Serialize)]
+pub struct TwoFileShuffleFixtureManifest {
+    pub num_partitions: usize,
+    pub num_flush_groups: u64,
+    pub partition_counts: Vec<u64>,
+    pub total_loss: f64,
+}
+
+/// Reopen a frozen local two-file shuffle fixture.
+///
+/// `output_dir` is deliberately separate from the manifest so a fixture can be
+/// copied without embedding a machine-specific absolute path.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub async fn open_two_file_shuffle_fixture(
+    output_dir: Path,
+    manifest: &TwoFileShuffleFixtureManifest,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn ShuffleReader>> {
+    TwoFileShuffleReader::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+        output_dir,
+        manifest.num_partitions,
+        manifest.num_flush_groups,
+        manifest.partition_counts.clone(),
+        manifest.total_loss,
+    )
+    .await
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/shuffler.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/shuffler.rs
index c1d74812b85..50206343610 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/shuffler.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/shuffler.rs
@@ -4,23 +4,28 @@
 //! Shuffler is a component that takes a stream of record batches and shuffles them into
 //! the corresponding IVF partitions.
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::env::VarError;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
 
 use arrow::{array::AsArray, compute::sort_to_indices};
-use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
-use arrow_schema::Schema;
-use future::try_join_all;
-use futures::prelude::*;
-use lance_arrow::{RecordBatchExt, SchemaExt};
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use futures::{future::try_join_all, prelude::*};
+use lance_arrow::{DataTypeExt, RecordBatchExt, SchemaExt, interleave_batches};
 use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
     cache::LanceCache,
+    utils::parse::str_is_truthy,
     utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu},
-    Error, Result,
 };
 use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
 use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
-use lance_file::writer::FileWriter;
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_file::versions;
+use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
 use lance_io::{
+    ReadBatchParams,
     object_store::ObjectStore,
     scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig},
     stream::{RecordBatchStream, RecordBatchStreamAdapter},
@@ -30,6 +35,36 @@ use object_store::path::Path;
 
 use crate::vector::{LOSS_METADATA_KEY, PART_ID_COLUMN};
 
+/// Target decoded size for a contiguous shuffle partition window.
+pub const DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES: usize = 128 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// One partition returned by [`ShuffleReader::read_partition_window`].
+pub struct ShufflePartition {
+    /// Zero-based IVF partition identifier.
+    pub partition_id: usize,
+    /// Partition rows, or `None` when the partition is empty.
+    pub data: Option<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>>,
+}
+
+/// A contiguous range of shuffled partitions read as one I/O window.
+pub struct ShufflePartitionWindow {
+    /// Half-open range covered by `partitions`.
+    pub partition_range: Range<usize>,
+    /// One entry per partition in `partition_range`, including empty ones.
+    pub partitions: Vec<ShufflePartition>,
+    /// Decoded bytes already materialized by the reader, counted once per
+    /// backing Arrow allocation. `None` means the returned streams are lazy.
+    pub materialized_decoded_bytes: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+/// Metadata-only plan for a contiguous shuffle partition window.
+pub struct ShufflePartitionWindowPlan {
+    /// Half-open partition range that the subsequent read will return.
+    pub partition_range: Range<usize>,
+    /// Conservative decoded-memory admission charge for the read.
+    pub estimated_decoded_bytes: usize,
+}
+
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 /// A reader that can read the shuffled partitions.
 pub trait ShuffleReader: Send + Sync {
@@ -41,6 +76,69 @@ pub trait ShuffleReader: Send + Sync {
         partition_id: usize,
     ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>>>;
 
+    /// Plan a partition window without reading or decoding partition data.
+    ///
+    /// Readers without a decoded-size estimate use an oversized admission
+    /// charge for non-empty partitions so the read runs exclusively.
+    fn plan_partition_window(
+        &self,
+        start_partition_id: usize,
+        max_decoded_bytes: usize,
+    ) -> Result<ShufflePartitionWindowPlan> {
+        if max_decoded_bytes == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "max_decoded_bytes must be greater than 0",
+            ));
+        }
+        let end = start_partition_id.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "start_partition_id={} cannot be advanced",
+                start_partition_id
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let partition_rows = self.partition_size(start_partition_id)?;
+        Ok(ShufflePartitionWindowPlan {
+            partition_range: start_partition_id..end,
+            estimated_decoded_bytes: if partition_rows == 0 { 0 } else { usize::MAX },
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Read a contiguous partition window starting at `start_partition_id`.
+    ///
+    /// Readers that cannot coalesce adjacent partitions return a singleton
+    /// window. The byte budget is a decoded-memory target, not an encoded I/O
+    /// size. A partition larger than the budget is returned as a singleton.
+    async fn read_partition_window(
+        &self,
+        start_partition_id: usize,
+        max_decoded_bytes: usize,
+    ) -> Result<ShufflePartitionWindow> {
+        if max_decoded_bytes == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "max_decoded_bytes must be greater than 0",
+            ));
+        }
+        let end = start_partition_id.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "start_partition_id={} cannot be advanced",
+                start_partition_id
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let data = if self.partition_size(start_partition_id)? == 0 {
+            None
+        } else {
+            self.read_partition(start_partition_id).await?
+        };
+        Ok(ShufflePartitionWindow {
+            partition_range: start_partition_id..end,
+            partitions: vec![ShufflePartition {
+                partition_id: start_partition_id,
+                data,
+            }],
+            materialized_decoded_bytes: None,
+        })
+    }
+
     /// Get the size of the partition by partition_id
     fn partition_size(&self, partition_id: usize) -> Result<usize>;
 
@@ -67,10 +165,9 @@ pub struct IvfShuffler {
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     output_dir: Path,
     num_partitions: usize,
+    format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
 
-    // options
-    buffer_size: usize,
-    precomputed_shuffle_buffers: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
 }
 
 impl IvfShuffler {
@@ -79,21 +176,18 @@ impl IvfShuffler {
             object_store: Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
             output_dir,
             num_partitions,
-            buffer_size: 4096,
-            precomputed_shuffle_buffers: None,
+            format_version: ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            progress: crate::progress::noop_progress(),
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn with_buffer_size(mut self, buffer_size: usize) -> Self {
-        self.buffer_size = buffer_size;
+    pub fn with_format_version(mut self, format_version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Self {
+        self.format_version = format_version;
         self
     }
 
-    pub fn with_precomputed_shuffle_buffers(
-        mut self,
-        precomputed_shuffle_buffers: Option<Vec<String>>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        self.precomputed_shuffle_buffers = precomputed_shuffle_buffers;
+    pub fn with_progress(mut self, progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>) -> Self {
+        self.progress = progress;
         self
     }
 }
@@ -107,18 +201,30 @@ impl Shuffler for IvfShuffler {
         let num_partitions = self.num_partitions;
         let mut partition_sizes = vec![0; num_partitions];
         let schema = data.schema().without_column(PART_ID_COLUMN);
+        let estimated_row_bytes = estimate_decoded_row_bytes(&schema)?;
         let mut writers = stream::iter(0..num_partitions)
             .map(|partition_id| {
-                let part_path = self.output_dir.child(format!("ivf_{}.lance", partition_id));
+                let part_path = self
+                    .output_dir
+                    .clone()
+                    .join(format!("ivf_{}.lance", partition_id));
+                let spill_path = self
+                    .output_dir
+                    .clone()
+                    .join(format!("ivf_{}.spill", partition_id));
                 let object_store = self.object_store.clone();
                 let schema = schema.clone();
+                let format_version = self.format_version;
                 async move {
                     let writer = object_store.create(&part_path).await?;
-                    FileWriter::try_new(
+                    let file_writer = versions::create_writer(
+                        format_version,
                         writer,
                         lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&schema)?,
-                        Default::default(),
-                    )
+                        FileWriterOptions::default(),
+                    )?
+                    .with_page_metadata_spill(object_store.clone(), spill_path);
+                    Result::Ok(file_writer)
                 }
             })
             .buffered(self.object_store.io_parallelism())
@@ -163,44 +269,25 @@ impl Shuffler for IvfShuffler {
             })
             .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus());
 
-        // part_id:           |       0        |       1        |       3        |
-        // partition_buffers: |[batch,batch,..]|[batch,batch,..]|[batch,batch,..]|
-        let mut partition_buffers = vec![Vec::new(); num_partitions];
-
-        let mut counter = 0;
         let mut total_loss = 0.0;
+        let mut num_rows = 0u64;
         while let Some(shuffled) = parallel_sort_stream.next().await {
             let (shuffled, loss) = shuffled?;
             total_loss += loss;
 
-            for (part_id, batches) in shuffled.into_iter().enumerate() {
-                let part_batches = &mut partition_buffers[part_id];
-                part_batches.extend(batches);
-            }
-
-            counter += 1;
-
-            // do flush
-            if counter % self.buffer_size == 0 {
-                let mut futs = vec![];
-                for (part_id, writer) in writers.iter_mut().enumerate() {
-                    let batches = &partition_buffers[part_id];
-                    partition_sizes[part_id] += batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
+            let mut futs = Vec::new();
+            for (part_id, (writer, batches)) in writers.iter_mut().zip(shuffled.iter()).enumerate()
+            {
+                if !batches.is_empty() {
+                    let rows = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
+                    partition_sizes[part_id] += rows;
+                    num_rows += rows as u64;
                     futs.push(writer.write_batches(batches.iter()));
                 }
-                try_join_all(futs).await?;
-
-                partition_buffers.iter_mut().for_each(|b| b.clear());
             }
-        }
+            try_join_all(futs).await?;
 
-        // final flush
-        for (part_id, batches) in partition_buffers.into_iter().enumerate() {
-            let writer = &mut writers[part_id];
-            partition_sizes[part_id] += batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
-            for batch in batches.iter() {
-                writer.write_batch(batch).await?;
-            }
+            self.progress.stage_progress("shuffle", num_rows).await?;
         }
 
         // finish all writers
@@ -208,12 +295,15 @@ impl Shuffler for IvfShuffler {
             writer.finish().await?;
         }
 
-        Ok(Box::new(IvfShufflerReader::new(
-            self.object_store.clone(),
-            self.output_dir.clone(),
-            partition_sizes,
-            total_loss,
-        )))
+        Ok(Box::new(
+            IvfShufflerReader::new(
+                self.object_store.clone(),
+                self.output_dir.clone(),
+                partition_sizes,
+                total_loss,
+            )
+            .with_estimated_row_bytes(estimated_row_bytes),
+        ))
     }
 }
 
@@ -221,6 +311,7 @@ pub struct IvfShufflerReader {
     scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
     output_dir: Path,
     partition_sizes: Vec<usize>,
+    estimated_row_bytes: Option<usize>,
     loss: f64,
 }
 
@@ -237,9 +328,15 @@ impl IvfShufflerReader {
             scheduler,
             output_dir,
             partition_sizes,
+            estimated_row_bytes: None,
             loss,
         }
     }
+
+    fn with_estimated_row_bytes(mut self, estimated_row_bytes: usize) -> Self {
+        self.estimated_row_bytes = Some(estimated_row_bytes);
+        self
+    }
 }
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
@@ -252,7 +349,10 @@ impl ShuffleReader for IvfShufflerReader {
             return Ok(None);
         }
 
-        let partition_path = self.output_dir.child(format!("ivf_{}.lance", partition_id));
+        let partition_path = self
+            .output_dir
+            .clone()
+            .join(format!("ivf_{}.lance", partition_id));
 
         let reader = FileReader::try_open(
             self.scheduler
@@ -265,17 +365,56 @@ impl ShuffleReader for IvfShufflerReader {
         )
         .await?;
         let schema: Schema = reader.schema().as_ref().into();
-        Ok(Some(Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            Arc::new(schema),
-            reader.read_stream(
+        let stream = reader
+            .read_stream(
                 lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
                 u32::MAX,
                 16,
                 FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-            )?,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        Ok(Some(Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            Arc::new(schema),
+            stream,
         ))))
     }
 
+    fn plan_partition_window(
+        &self,
+        start_partition_id: usize,
+        max_decoded_bytes: usize,
+    ) -> Result<ShufflePartitionWindowPlan> {
+        if max_decoded_bytes == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "max_decoded_bytes must be greater than 0",
+            ));
+        }
+        let Some(&partition_rows) = self.partition_sizes.get(start_partition_id) else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "start_partition_id={} is out of range [0, {})",
+                start_partition_id,
+                self.partition_sizes.len()
+            )));
+        };
+        let end_partition_id = start_partition_id.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "start_partition_id={} cannot be advanced",
+                start_partition_id
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let estimated_decoded_bytes = match (partition_rows, self.estimated_row_bytes) {
+            (0, _) => 0,
+            (_, Some(estimated_row_bytes)) => {
+                conservative_partition_admission_bytes(partition_rows, estimated_row_bytes)?
+            }
+            (_, None) => usize::MAX,
+        };
+        Ok(ShufflePartitionWindowPlan {
+            partition_range: start_partition_id..end_partition_id,
+            estimated_decoded_bytes,
+        })
+    }
+
     fn partition_size(&self, partition_id: usize) -> Result<usize> {
         Ok(self.partition_sizes.get(partition_id).copied().unwrap_or(0))
     }
@@ -304,3 +443,2625 @@ impl ShuffleReader for EmptyReader {
         None
     }
 }
+
+/// Create an IVF shuffler. Uses [`TwoFileShuffler`] by default, which writes
+/// all data to just two files (data + offsets) instead of one file per partition.
+/// Set `LANCE_LEGACY_SHUFFLER=1` to fall back to [`IvfShuffler`], which opens
+/// one file per partition.
+///
+/// An optional `progress` callback can be provided to receive shuffle progress
+/// updates.
+pub fn create_ivf_shuffler(
+    output_dir: Path,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    progress: Option<Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>>,
+) -> Box<dyn Shuffler> {
+    let use_legacy = std::env::var("LANCE_LEGACY_SHUFFLER")
+        .map(|v| str_is_truthy(&v))
+        .unwrap_or(false);
+    if use_legacy {
+        let mut shuffler =
+            IvfShuffler::new(output_dir, num_partitions).with_format_version(format_version);
+        if let Some(progress) = progress {
+            shuffler = shuffler.with_progress(progress);
+        }
+        Box::new(shuffler)
+    } else {
+        let mut shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, num_partitions);
+        if let Some(progress) = progress {
+            shuffler = shuffler.with_progress(progress);
+        }
+        Box::new(shuffler)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Schema of the partition-offsets sidecar written alongside shuffled data.
+static OFFSETS_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "offset",
+        DataType::UInt64,
+        false,
+    )]))
+});
+
+const DEFAULT_SHUFFLE_BATCH_BYTES: usize = 128 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Maximum resident size of the preloaded offsets table.
+///
+/// This covers tens of millions of offsets while bounding the additional memory
+/// held for unusually large shuffles. Larger tables are still validated once as
+/// a stream and then read on demand.
+const DEFAULT_MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES: usize = 256 * 1024 * 1024;
+const MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES_ENV: &str = "LANCE_SHUFFLE_MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES";
+
+fn parse_max_preloaded_offsets_bytes(
+    value: std::result::Result<String, VarError>,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    match value {
+        Ok(value) => value.trim().parse::<usize>().map_err(|error| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "{MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES_ENV} must be a non-negative integer number of bytes \
+                 (0 disables preloading), got {value:?}: {error}"
+            ))
+        }),
+        Err(VarError::NotPresent) => Ok(DEFAULT_MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES),
+        Err(VarError::NotUnicode(value)) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "{MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES_ENV} must contain a UTF-8 integer number of bytes, got {value:?}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Number of rows per output batch when streaming sorted data via interleave.
+/// Small enough to keep the output chunk's memory footprint modest relative to
+/// the accumulated source data.
+const SHUFFLE_WRITE_CHUNK_ROWS: usize = 8 * 1024;
+
+/// Limit of how much transformed data we accumulate before spilling to disk.
+///
+/// A larger value will use more RAM but require less random access during the
+/// read phase.
+///
+/// This default is likely to be fine for most use cases.
+fn shuffle_batch_bytes() -> usize {
+    let batch_size = std::env::var("LANCE_SHUFFLE_BATCH_BYTES")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_SHUFFLE_BATCH_BYTES);
+    if batch_size == 0 {
+        log::warn!(
+            "LANCE_SHUFFLE_BATCH_BYTES is 0, using default of {}",
+            DEFAULT_SHUFFLE_BATCH_BYTES
+        );
+        DEFAULT_SHUFFLE_BATCH_BYTES
+    } else {
+        batch_size
+    }
+}
+
+/// A shuffler that writes all data to just two files (data + offsets) instead
+/// of one file per partition. This avoids hitting OS file descriptor limits
+/// when there are many partitions.
+///
+/// First we accumulate data in memory until we reach the batch size limit.
+/// Then we sort the data by partition ID and compute an offset per partition.
+/// Then we write the data to a data file and the offsets to an offsets file.
+///
+/// To read the data back, we read every Nth value from the offsets file to get
+/// the start and end of each partition.
+///
+/// Then we read those ranges from the data file.
+pub struct TwoFileShuffler {
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    output_dir: Path,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    batch_size_bytes: usize,
+
+    progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+}
+
+impl TwoFileShuffler {
+    pub fn new(output_dir: Path, num_partitions: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            object_store: Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            output_dir,
+            num_partitions,
+            batch_size_bytes: shuffle_batch_bytes(),
+            progress: crate::progress::noop_progress(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_progress(mut self, progress: Arc<dyn crate::progress::IndexBuildProgress>) -> Self {
+        self.progress = progress;
+        self
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn with_batch_size_bytes(mut self, batch_size_bytes: usize) -> Self {
+        self.batch_size_bytes = batch_size_bytes;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// `(batch_idx, row_idx)` pairs produced by [`sort_to_interleave_indices`], paired with
+/// per-partition row counts.
+type InterleaveResult = (Vec<(usize, usize)>, Vec<u64>);
+
+/// Sorts rows from multiple batches by partition ID and returns interleave indices.
+///
+/// Builds a sort key of `(part_id, batch_idx, row_idx)` for every row across all
+/// batches, sorts by `part_id`, then emits `(batch_idx, row_idx)` pairs in that
+/// order. This avoids concatenating the full data: only the `UInt32` partition-ID
+/// columns are touched here.
+///
+/// Also returns per-partition row counts (derived from the same sorted keys at no
+/// extra cost).
+///
+/// Returns an error if any partition ID is null or out of range `[0, num_partitions)`.
+///
+/// `PrimitiveArray::values()` stores a 0 in null slots. Treating those as
+/// partition 0 would silently move filtered/invalid rows into the first IVF
+/// partition.
+fn sort_to_interleave_indices(
+    part_id_columns: &[&UInt32Array],
+    num_partitions: usize,
+) -> Result<InterleaveResult> {
+    let total_rows: usize = part_id_columns.iter().map(|a| a.len()).sum();
+
+    // Partition ids are bounded by `num_partitions`, so counting sort orders the
+    // rows in O(n + num_partitions) passes instead of sorting n key tuples.
+    let mut partition_counts = vec![0u64; num_partitions];
+    for (batch_idx, col) in part_id_columns.iter().enumerate() {
+        for row_idx in 0..col.len() {
+            if col.is_null(row_idx) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "null partition ID at batch {} row {}",
+                    batch_idx, row_idx
+                )));
+            }
+            let part_id = col.value(row_idx) as usize;
+            if part_id >= num_partitions {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "partition ID {} is out of range [0, {})",
+                    part_id, num_partitions
+                )));
+            }
+            partition_counts[part_id] += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Prefix sums turn the counts into the first slot of each partition's run,
+    // then the scatter pass below consumes them as a write cursor per partition.
+    let mut cursors = Vec::with_capacity(num_partitions);
+    let mut running = 0usize;
+    for &count in partition_counts.iter() {
+        cursors.push(running);
+        running += count as usize;
+    }
+
+    let mut interleave_indices = vec![(0usize, 0usize); total_rows];
+    for (batch_idx, col) in part_id_columns.iter().enumerate() {
+        for (row_idx, &part_id) in col.values().iter().enumerate() {
+            let cursor = &mut cursors[part_id as usize];
+            interleave_indices[*cursor] = (batch_idx, row_idx);
+            *cursor += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok((interleave_indices, partition_counts))
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl Shuffler for TwoFileShuffler {
+    async fn shuffle(
+        &self,
+        data: Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ShuffleReader>> {
+        let max_preloaded_offsets_bytes =
+            parse_max_preloaded_offsets_bytes(std::env::var(MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES_ENV))?;
+        let num_partitions = self.num_partitions;
+        // No need to write partition ids since we can infer this from offsets
+        let schema = data.schema().without_column(PART_ID_COLUMN);
+        let offsets_schema = OFFSETS_SCHEMA.clone();
+        let batch_size_bytes = self.batch_size_bytes;
+
+        // Create data file writer
+        let data_path = self.output_dir.clone().join("shuffle_data.lance");
+        let spill_path = self.output_dir.clone().join("shuffle_data.spill");
+        let writer = self.object_store.create(&data_path).await?;
+        let mut file_writer = versions::v2_1::create_writer(
+            writer,
+            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&schema)?,
+            Default::default(),
+        )?
+        .with_page_metadata_spill(self.object_store.clone(), spill_path);
+
+        // Create offsets file writer
+        let offsets_path = self.output_dir.clone().join("shuffle_offsets.lance");
+        let spill_path = self.output_dir.clone().join("shuffle_offsets.spill");
+        let writer = self.object_store.create(&offsets_path).await?;
+        let mut offsets_writer = versions::v2_1::create_writer(
+            writer,
+            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(offsets_schema.as_ref())?,
+            Default::default(),
+        )?
+        .with_page_metadata_spill(self.object_store.clone(), spill_path);
+
+        let mut num_batches: u64 = 0;
+        let mut partition_counts: Vec<u64> = vec![0; num_partitions];
+        let mut global_row_count: u64 = 0;
+        let mut rows_processed: u64 = 0;
+        let mut total_loss = 0.0f64;
+        let mut accumulated: Vec<RecordBatch> = Vec::new();
+        let mut acc_bytes: usize = 0;
+        // Keep flush-time prefix sums so the consumer does not have to re-decode
+        // the sidecar. Drop the in-memory copy once it would exceed
+        // `max_preloaded_offsets_bytes`; the sidecar remains the bounded
+        // on-demand fallback.
+        let mut written_offsets = BoundedWrittenOffsets::new(max_preloaded_offsets_bytes);
+
+        let mut data = std::pin::pin!(data);
+        while let Some(batch) = data.next().await {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            total_loss += batch
+                .metadata()
+                .get(LOSS_METADATA_KEY)
+                .and_then(|s| s.parse::<f64>().ok())
+                .unwrap_or(0.0);
+            acc_bytes += batch.get_array_memory_size();
+            accumulated.push(batch);
+
+            if acc_bytes >= batch_size_bytes {
+                let (total_rows, counts) = flush_shuffle_batch(
+                    std::mem::take(&mut accumulated),
+                    &mut file_writer,
+                    &mut offsets_writer,
+                    offsets_schema.clone(),
+                    num_partitions,
+                    global_row_count,
+                    &mut written_offsets,
+                )
+                .await?;
+                acc_bytes = 0;
+                for (p, c) in counts.iter().enumerate() {
+                    partition_counts[p] += c;
+                }
+                global_row_count += total_rows;
+                rows_processed += total_rows;
+                num_batches += 1;
+                self.progress
+                    .stage_progress("shuffle", rows_processed)
+                    .await?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if !accumulated.is_empty() {
+            let (total_rows, counts) = flush_shuffle_batch(
+                accumulated,
+                &mut file_writer,
+                &mut offsets_writer,
+                offsets_schema,
+                num_partitions,
+                global_row_count,
+                &mut written_offsets,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            for (p, c) in counts.iter().enumerate() {
+                partition_counts[p] += c;
+            }
+            rows_processed += total_rows;
+            num_batches += 1;
+            self.progress
+                .stage_progress("shuffle", rows_processed)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        // Finish files
+        file_writer.finish().await?;
+        offsets_writer.finish().await?;
+
+        TwoFileShuffleReader::try_new_with_preload_limit(
+            self.object_store.clone(),
+            self.output_dir.clone(),
+            num_partitions,
+            num_batches,
+            partition_counts,
+            total_loss,
+            max_preloaded_offsets_bytes,
+            written_offsets.into_offsets(),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sorts `accumulated` batches by partition ID and writes the result to the data
+/// and offsets files.
+///
+/// Returns `(total_rows_written, per_partition_row_counts)`.
+async fn flush_shuffle_batch(
+    accumulated: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    file_writer: &mut versions::v2_1::Writer,
+    offsets_writer: &mut versions::v2_1::Writer,
+    offsets_schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    global_row_count: u64,
+    written_offsets: &mut BoundedWrittenOffsets,
+) -> Result<(u64, Vec<u64>)> {
+    // Clone part-id columns into the CPU task (cheap: Arc ref bump, not data copy).
+    let part_id_cols: Vec<UInt32Array> = accumulated
+        .iter()
+        .map(|b| {
+            let col: &UInt32Array = b[PART_ID_COLUMN].as_primitive();
+            col.clone()
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let np = num_partitions;
+    let (interleave_indices, batch_partition_counts) =
+        spawn_cpu(move || sort_to_interleave_indices(&part_id_cols.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), np))
+            .await?;
+
+    let total_rows = u64::try_from(interleave_indices.len()).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "shuffle flush has {} rows, which cannot be represented as u64",
+            interleave_indices.len()
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let counted_rows: u64 = batch_partition_counts.iter().sum();
+    if counted_rows != total_rows {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "partition counts sum to {} rows but the flush is interleaving {} rows",
+            counted_rows, total_rows
+        )));
+    }
+
+    // Drop part-id column from source batches before interleaving.
+    let source_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = accumulated
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|b| b.drop_column(PART_ID_COLUMN).map_err(Error::from))
+        .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+
+    // Stream sorted output to the data file in fixed-size chunks so the peak
+    // memory for the interleave output stays small relative to the source data.
+    for chunk in interleave_indices.chunks(SHUFFLE_WRITE_CHUNK_ROWS) {
+        let out = interleave_batches(&source_batches, chunk)?;
+        file_writer.write_batch(&out).await?;
+    }
+
+    // Compute cumulative end-row offsets (adjusted by global position) and write
+    // one offsets batch for this flush group.
+    let mut adjusted_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(num_partitions);
+    let mut running = 0u64;
+    for count in &batch_partition_counts {
+        running += count;
+        adjusted_offsets.push(global_row_count + running);
+    }
+    if adjusted_offsets.last().copied() != Some(global_row_count + total_rows) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "flush end offset {:?} does not equal global_row_count {} + total_rows {}",
+            adjusted_offsets.last(),
+            global_row_count,
+            total_rows
+        )));
+    }
+    written_offsets.retain(&adjusted_offsets)?;
+    let offsets_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        offsets_schema,
+        vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(adjusted_offsets))],
+    )?;
+    offsets_writer.write_batch(&offsets_batch).await?;
+
+    Ok((total_rows, batch_partition_counts))
+}
+
+pub struct TwoFileShuffleReader {
+    _scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    file_reader: FileReader,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    num_batches: usize,
+    offsets: ShuffleOffsets,
+    partition_counts: Vec<u64>,
+    estimated_row_bytes: usize,
+    total_loss: f64,
+}
+
+enum ShuffleOffsets {
+    Preloaded(Vec<u64>),
+    OnDemand(FileReader),
+}
+
+/// How the shuffle reader should obtain partition offsets.
+///
+/// A writer-side capacity/allocation fallback must stay on-demand through
+/// reader construction. Recomputing preload eligibility from logical length
+/// would retry `Vec` allocation after the writer already dropped its copy.
+enum OffsetPreloadSource {
+    /// Writer-side prefix sums. Allocated capacity is already bounded.
+    Writer(Vec<u64>),
+    /// Writer dropped its copy after a capacity or reservation fallback.
+    ForcedOnDemand,
+    /// Reopening files without a writer copy. Decide from the byte cap, but
+    /// sidecar preload itself must still be fallible and capacity-checked.
+    Sidecar,
+}
+
+/// Ranges of `partition_id`'s rows in the shuffle data file, one per flush
+/// group that holds any.
+///
+/// A partition is usually absent from most groups, and a zero-length range
+/// still costs the reader a range entry, so the empty ones are dropped.
+fn preloaded_partition_ranges(
+    offsets: &[u64],
+    num_batches: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    partition_id: usize,
+) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+    let mut ranges = Vec::with_capacity(num_batches);
+    for batch_idx in 0..num_batches {
+        let end_index = batch_idx * num_partitions + partition_id;
+        let start = if end_index == 0 {
+            0
+        } else {
+            offsets[end_index - 1]
+        };
+        let end = offsets[end_index];
+        if start < end {
+            ranges.push(start..end);
+        }
+    }
+    ranges
+}
+
+impl TwoFileShuffleReader {
+    pub(super) async fn try_new(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        output_dir: Path,
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        num_batches: u64,
+        partition_counts: Vec<u64>,
+        total_loss: f64,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ShuffleReader>> {
+        Self::try_new_with_preload_limit(
+            object_store,
+            output_dir,
+            num_partitions,
+            num_batches,
+            partition_counts,
+            total_loss,
+            parse_max_preloaded_offsets_bytes(std::env::var(MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES_ENV))?,
+            OffsetPreloadSource::Sidecar,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn try_new_with_preload_limit(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        output_dir: Path,
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        num_batches: u64,
+        partition_counts: Vec<u64>,
+        total_loss: f64,
+        max_preloaded_offsets_bytes: usize,
+        offset_source: OffsetPreloadSource,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ShuffleReader>> {
+        if num_batches == 0 {
+            return Ok(Box::new(EmptyReader));
+        }
+
+        let scheduler_config = SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store);
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, scheduler_config);
+
+        let data_path = output_dir.clone().join("shuffle_data.lance");
+        let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            scheduler
+                .open_file(&data_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+                .await?,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        if partition_counts.len() != num_partitions {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "partition_counts has {} entries, expected num_partitions={}",
+                partition_counts.len(),
+                num_partitions
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let num_batches = usize::try_from(num_batches).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "num_batches={} cannot be represented as usize",
+                num_batches
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let expected_offsets = num_batches.checked_mul(num_partitions).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "num_batches={} * num_partitions={} overflows usize",
+                num_batches, num_partitions
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let offsets_path = output_dir.clone().join("shuffle_offsets.lance");
+        let offsets = match offset_source {
+            OffsetPreloadSource::Writer(written_offsets) => {
+                if written_offsets.len() != expected_offsets {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "writer produced {} offsets, expected num_batches={} * num_partitions={} = {}",
+                        written_offsets.len(),
+                        num_batches,
+                        num_partitions,
+                        expected_offsets
+                    )));
+                }
+                let mut validator = ShuffleOffsetsValidator::new(
+                    expected_offsets,
+                    num_partitions,
+                    file_reader.num_rows(),
+                    &partition_counts,
+                    &offsets_path,
+                );
+                validator.push(&written_offsets)?;
+                validator.finish()?;
+                if should_preload_offsets(written_offsets.len(), max_preloaded_offsets_bytes)?
+                    && should_preload_offsets(
+                        written_offsets.capacity(),
+                        max_preloaded_offsets_bytes,
+                    )?
+                {
+                    // Prefer the prefix sums computed at flush time over a decode
+                    // of the ephemeral sidecar.
+                    ShuffleOffsets::Preloaded(written_offsets)
+                } else {
+                    // Writer-side copy exceeded the resident-memory bound. The
+                    // sidecar is still on disk; validate-and-stream it on demand.
+                    drop(written_offsets);
+                    load_shuffle_offsets_from_file(
+                        &scheduler,
+                        &offsets_path,
+                        expected_offsets,
+                        num_batches,
+                        num_partitions,
+                        file_reader.num_rows(),
+                        &partition_counts,
+                        false,
+                        max_preloaded_offsets_bytes,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                }
+            }
+            OffsetPreloadSource::ForcedOnDemand => {
+                // The writer already fell back; do not recompute eligibility
+                // from logical length and retry a full preload.
+                load_shuffle_offsets_from_file(
+                    &scheduler,
+                    &offsets_path,
+                    expected_offsets,
+                    num_batches,
+                    num_partitions,
+                    file_reader.num_rows(),
+                    &partition_counts,
+                    false,
+                    max_preloaded_offsets_bytes,
+                )
+                .await?
+            }
+            OffsetPreloadSource::Sidecar => {
+                let should_preload_offsets =
+                    should_preload_offsets(expected_offsets, max_preloaded_offsets_bytes)?;
+                load_shuffle_offsets_from_file(
+                    &scheduler,
+                    &offsets_path,
+                    expected_offsets,
+                    num_batches,
+                    num_partitions,
+                    file_reader.num_rows(),
+                    &partition_counts,
+                    should_preload_offsets,
+                    max_preloaded_offsets_bytes,
+                )
+                .await?
+            }
+        };
+        let decoded_schema: Schema = file_reader.schema().as_ref().into();
+        let estimated_row_bytes = estimate_decoded_row_bytes(&decoded_schema)?;
+
+        Ok(Box::new(Self {
+            _scheduler: scheduler,
+            file_reader,
+            num_partitions,
+            num_batches,
+            offsets,
+            partition_counts,
+            estimated_row_bytes,
+            total_loss,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    async fn partition_ranges(&self, partition_id: usize) -> Result<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+        if partition_id >= self.num_partitions {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "partition_id={} is out of range [0, {})",
+                partition_id, self.num_partitions
+            )));
+        }
+
+        match &self.offsets {
+            ShuffleOffsets::Preloaded(offsets) => Ok(preloaded_partition_ranges(
+                offsets,
+                self.num_batches,
+                self.num_partitions,
+                partition_id,
+            )),
+            ShuffleOffsets::OnDemand(offsets_reader) => {
+                self.read_partition_ranges(offsets_reader, partition_id)
+                    .await
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn read_partition_ranges(
+        &self,
+        offsets_reader: &FileReader,
+        partition_id: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+        let max_offset_values = self.num_batches.checked_mul(2).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "num_batches={} overflows on-demand offset count",
+                self.num_batches
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let mut offset_ranges = Vec::with_capacity(max_offset_values);
+        for batch_idx in 0..self.num_batches {
+            let end_index = batch_idx * self.num_partitions + partition_id;
+            if end_index != 0 {
+                let start_index = u64::try_from(end_index - 1).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "offset index {} cannot be represented as u64",
+                        end_index - 1
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                offset_ranges.push(start_index..start_index + 1);
+            }
+            let end_index = u64::try_from(end_index).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "offset index {} cannot be represented as u64",
+                    end_index
+                ))
+            })?;
+            offset_ranges.push(end_index..end_index + 1);
+        }
+
+        let mut offsets_stream = offsets_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                ReadBatchParams::Ranges(offset_ranges.into()),
+                u32::MAX,
+                1,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let expected_values = max_offset_values - usize::from(partition_id == 0);
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(expected_values);
+        while let Some(batch) = offsets_stream.try_next().await? {
+            let offset_column = batch
+                .column_by_name("offset")
+                .and_then(|column| column.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                        "shuffle_offsets.lance",
+                        "required UInt64 column 'offset' is missing from decoded batch",
+                    )
+                })?;
+            offsets.extend_from_slice(offset_column.values());
+        }
+        if offsets.len() != expected_values {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "shuffle_offsets.lance",
+                format!(
+                    "decoded {} on-demand offsets for partition {}, expected {}",
+                    offsets.len(),
+                    partition_id,
+                    expected_values
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut offsets = offsets.into_iter();
+        let mut ranges = Vec::with_capacity(self.num_batches);
+        for batch_idx in 0..self.num_batches {
+            let start = if batch_idx == 0 && partition_id == 0 {
+                0
+            } else {
+                offsets.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                        "shuffle_offsets.lance",
+                        format!("missing start offset for partition {}", partition_id),
+                    )
+                })?
+            };
+            let end = offsets.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "shuffle_offsets.lance",
+                    format!("missing end offset for partition {}", partition_id),
+                )
+            })?;
+            // Same as the preloaded path: skip the groups this partition has no
+            // rows in rather than passing empty ranges to the reader.
+            if start < end {
+                ranges.push(start..end);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(ranges)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn validate_shuffle_offsets(
+    offsets: &[u64],
+    num_batches: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    data_rows: u64,
+    partition_counts: &[u64],
+    offsets_path: &Path,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let expected_offsets = num_batches.checked_mul(num_partitions).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "num_batches={} * num_partitions={} overflows usize",
+            num_batches, num_partitions
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let mut validator = ShuffleOffsetsValidator::new(
+        expected_offsets,
+        num_partitions,
+        data_rows,
+        partition_counts,
+        offsets_path,
+    );
+    validator.push(offsets)?;
+    validator.finish()
+}
+
+fn should_preload_offsets(expected_offsets: usize, max_bytes: usize) -> Result<bool> {
+    let offsets_bytes = expected_offsets
+        .checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<u64>())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "expected offset count {} overflows byte-size calculation",
+                expected_offsets
+            ))
+        })?;
+    Ok(offsets_bytes <= max_bytes)
+}
+
+/// Allocate a Vec for `len` u64 offsets if both the logical size and the
+/// allocated capacity fit in `max_bytes`.
+///
+/// Returns `None` on reservation failure or allocator rounding past the
+/// ceiling so the caller can stay on-demand instead of panicking.
+fn try_allocate_preloaded_offsets(len: usize, max_bytes: usize) -> Result<Option<Vec<u64>>> {
+    if !should_preload_offsets(len, max_bytes)? {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let mut offsets = Vec::new();
+    if offsets.try_reserve_exact(len).is_err()
+        || !should_preload_offsets(offsets.capacity(), max_bytes)?
+    {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    Ok(Some(offsets))
+}
+
+/// Writer-side prefix sums kept only while their allocated `Vec` capacity
+/// fits in `max_bytes`.
+///
+/// Once a flush would exceed the bound the in-memory copy is dropped; the
+/// offsets sidecar remains the on-demand fallback. Growth uses
+/// [`Vec::try_reserve_exact`] rather than amortized doubling, and the copy
+/// is dropped if the allocator still rounds capacity above `max_bytes`.
+struct BoundedWrittenOffsets {
+    offsets: Option<Vec<u64>>,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+impl BoundedWrittenOffsets {
+    fn new(max_bytes: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            offsets: Some(Vec::new()),
+            max_bytes,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn retain(&mut self, new_offsets: &[u64]) -> Result<()> {
+        let Some(offsets) = self.offsets.as_mut() else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let new_len = offsets
+            .len()
+            .checked_add(new_offsets.len())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "written offset count {} + {} overflows usize",
+                    offsets.len(),
+                    new_offsets.len()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        if !should_preload_offsets(new_len, self.max_bytes)? {
+            self.offsets = None;
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        // `Vec::extend` doubles capacity, which can allocate past `max_bytes`
+        // even when `len * size_of::<u64>()` still fits. Reserve exactly and
+        // drop if the allocator still rounds above the ceiling.
+        if new_len > offsets.capacity()
+            && (offsets.try_reserve_exact(new_offsets.len()).is_err()
+                || !should_preload_offsets(offsets.capacity(), self.max_bytes)?)
+        {
+            self.offsets = None;
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        offsets.extend_from_slice(new_offsets);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn into_offsets(self) -> OffsetPreloadSource {
+        match self.offsets {
+            Some(offsets) => OffsetPreloadSource::Writer(offsets),
+            None => OffsetPreloadSource::ForcedOnDemand,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+async fn open_shuffle_offsets_reader(
+    scheduler: &Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    offsets_path: &Path,
+    expected_offsets: usize,
+    num_batches: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+) -> Result<FileReader> {
+    let offsets_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+        scheduler
+            .open_file(offsets_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await?,
+        None,
+        Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        FileReaderOptions::default(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let expected_offsets_u64 = u64::try_from(expected_offsets).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "expected offset count {} cannot be represented as u64",
+            expected_offsets
+        ))
+    })?;
+    if offsets_reader.num_rows() != expected_offsets_u64 {
+        return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+            offsets_path.clone(),
+            format!(
+                "offset count is {}, expected num_batches={} * num_partitions={} = {}",
+                offsets_reader.num_rows(),
+                num_batches,
+                num_partitions,
+                expected_offsets
+            ),
+        ));
+    }
+    let offsets_schema = offsets_reader.schema();
+    let offset_field = offsets_schema.field("offset").ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::corrupt_file(
+            offsets_path.clone(),
+            "required non-null UInt64 column 'offset' is missing",
+        )
+    })?;
+    if offset_field.data_type() != DataType::UInt64 || offset_field.nullable {
+        return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+            offsets_path.clone(),
+            format!(
+                "column 'offset' must be non-null UInt64, found {:?} (nullable={})",
+                offset_field.data_type(),
+                offset_field.nullable
+            ),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(offsets_reader)
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn load_shuffle_offsets_from_file(
+    scheduler: &Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    offsets_path: &Path,
+    expected_offsets: usize,
+    num_batches: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    data_rows: u64,
+    partition_counts: &[u64],
+    preload: bool,
+    max_preloaded_offsets_bytes: usize,
+) -> Result<ShuffleOffsets> {
+    let offsets_reader = open_shuffle_offsets_reader(
+        scheduler,
+        offsets_path,
+        expected_offsets,
+        num_batches,
+        num_partitions,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let mut offsets = if preload {
+        try_allocate_preloaded_offsets(expected_offsets, max_preloaded_offsets_bytes)?
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    let mut validator = ShuffleOffsetsValidator::new(
+        expected_offsets,
+        num_partitions,
+        data_rows,
+        partition_counts,
+        offsets_path,
+    );
+    let mut offsets_stream = offsets_reader
+        .read_stream(
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            1024 * 1024,
+            16,
+            FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+    while let Some(batch) = offsets_stream.try_next().await? {
+        let offset_column = batch
+            .column_by_name("offset")
+            .and_then(|column| column.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file(
+                    offsets_path.clone(),
+                    "required UInt64 column 'offset' is missing from decoded batch",
+                )
+            })?;
+        if offset_column.null_count() != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                offsets_path.clone(),
+                format!(
+                    "column 'offset' contains {} null values",
+                    offset_column.null_count()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if offset_column.values().len() != offset_column.len() {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                offsets_path.clone(),
+                format!(
+                    "offset values buffer length {} does not match array length {}",
+                    offset_column.values().len(),
+                    offset_column.len()
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        let decoded = offset_column.values().as_ref();
+        validator.push(decoded)?;
+        if let Some(offsets) = offsets.as_mut() {
+            offsets.extend_from_slice(decoded);
+        }
+    }
+    validator.finish()?;
+    Ok(match offsets {
+        Some(offsets)
+            if should_preload_offsets(offsets.capacity(), max_preloaded_offsets_bytes)? =>
+        {
+            ShuffleOffsets::Preloaded(offsets)
+        }
+        _ => ShuffleOffsets::OnDemand(offsets_reader),
+    })
+}
+
+struct ShuffleOffsetsValidator<'a> {
+    expected_offsets: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    data_rows: u64,
+    partition_counts: &'a [u64],
+    offsets_path: &'a Path,
+    decoded_offsets: usize,
+    previous_offset: u64,
+    decoded_partition_counts: Vec<u64>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> ShuffleOffsetsValidator<'a> {
+    fn new(
+        expected_offsets: usize,
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        data_rows: u64,
+        partition_counts: &'a [u64],
+        offsets_path: &'a Path,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            expected_offsets,
+            num_partitions,
+            data_rows,
+            partition_counts,
+            offsets_path,
+            decoded_offsets: 0,
+            previous_offset: 0,
+            decoded_partition_counts: vec![0; num_partitions],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn push(&mut self, offsets: &[u64]) -> Result<()> {
+        for &offset in offsets {
+            if self.decoded_offsets >= self.expected_offsets {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                    self.offsets_path.clone(),
+                    format!(
+                        "decoded more than the expected {} offsets",
+                        self.expected_offsets
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+            if self.previous_offset > offset {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                    self.offsets_path.clone(),
+                    format!(
+                        "offsets are not monotonic at indices {} and {}: {} > {}",
+                        self.decoded_offsets - 1,
+                        self.decoded_offsets,
+                        self.previous_offset,
+                        offset
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+
+            let partition_id = self.decoded_offsets % self.num_partitions;
+            self.decoded_partition_counts[partition_id] = self.decoded_partition_counts
+                [partition_id]
+                .checked_add(offset - self.previous_offset)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::corrupt_file(
+                        self.offsets_path.clone(),
+                        format!("row count for partition {} overflows u64", partition_id),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            self.previous_offset = offset;
+            self.decoded_offsets += 1;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn finish(self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.decoded_offsets != self.expected_offsets {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                self.offsets_path.clone(),
+                format!(
+                    "decoded {} offsets, expected {}",
+                    self.decoded_offsets, self.expected_offsets
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if self.previous_offset != self.data_rows {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                self.offsets_path.clone(),
+                format!(
+                    "final offset {} does not match shuffle data row count {}",
+                    self.previous_offset, self.data_rows
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some((partition_id, (&decoded, &expected))) = self
+            .decoded_partition_counts
+            .iter()
+            .zip(self.partition_counts)
+            .enumerate()
+            .find(|(_, (decoded, expected))| decoded != expected)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                self.offsets_path.clone(),
+                format!(
+                    "offset-derived count {} for partition {} does not match expected count {}; offset-derived counts={:?} expected counts={:?}",
+                    decoded,
+                    partition_id,
+                    expected,
+                    self.decoded_partition_counts,
+                    self.partition_counts
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Variable-width columns are uncommon in vector shuffle data. This fallback
+/// keeps window planning bounded when one is present without claiming an exact
+/// decoded size for values that have no fixed Arrow stride.
+const VARIABLE_WIDTH_ROW_ESTIMATE_BYTES: usize = 64;
+const WINDOW_ADMISSION_FIXED_HEADROOM_BYTES: usize = 1024 * 1024;
+
+fn estimate_decoded_row_bytes(schema: &Schema) -> Result<usize> {
+    let mut row_bytes = 0usize;
+    for field in schema.fields() {
+        let value_bytes = match field.data_type() {
+            DataType::Boolean => 1,
+            data_type => data_type
+                .byte_width_opt()
+                .unwrap_or(VARIABLE_WIDTH_ROW_ESTIMATE_BYTES),
+        };
+        row_bytes = row_bytes.checked_add(value_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "decoded row-size estimate overflows usize at field '{}'",
+                field.name()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if field.is_nullable() {
+            // Arrow validity is bit-packed. One byte per row is deliberately
+            // conservative and also covers small-buffer alignment overhead.
+            row_bytes = row_bytes.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "decoded row-size estimate overflows usize at nullable field '{}'",
+                    field.name()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(row_bytes.max(1))
+}
+
+fn plan_partition_window_end(
+    partition_counts: &[u64],
+    start_partition_id: usize,
+    estimated_row_bytes: usize,
+    max_decoded_bytes: usize,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    if max_decoded_bytes == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "max_decoded_bytes must be greater than 0",
+        ));
+    }
+    if start_partition_id >= partition_counts.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "start_partition_id={} is out of range [0, {})",
+            start_partition_id,
+            partition_counts.len()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let mut decoded_bytes = 0usize;
+    let mut end_partition_id = start_partition_id;
+    while end_partition_id < partition_counts.len() {
+        let partition_rows = usize::try_from(partition_counts[end_partition_id]).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "partition {} row count {} cannot be represented as usize",
+                end_partition_id, partition_counts[end_partition_id]
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let partition_bytes = partition_rows
+            .checked_mul(estimated_row_bytes)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "decoded byte estimate overflows for partition {} with {} rows at {} bytes per row",
+                    end_partition_id, partition_rows, estimated_row_bytes
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+        if end_partition_id > start_partition_id
+            && partition_bytes > max_decoded_bytes.saturating_sub(decoded_bytes)
+        {
+            break;
+        }
+        decoded_bytes = decoded_bytes.checked_add(partition_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "decoded window byte estimate overflows at partition {}",
+                end_partition_id
+            ))
+        })?;
+        end_partition_id += 1;
+
+        // A partition that exceeds the budget must make progress as a
+        // singleton. Otherwise stop as soon as the target has been filled.
+        if decoded_bytes >= max_decoded_bytes {
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(end_partition_id)
+}
+
+fn conservative_window_admission_bytes(
+    partition_counts: &[u64],
+    partition_range: Range<usize>,
+    estimated_row_bytes: usize,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let rows = partition_counts[partition_range]
+        .iter()
+        .try_fold(0usize, |total, count| {
+            let count = usize::try_from(*count).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "partition row count {} cannot be represented as usize",
+                    count
+                ))
+            })?;
+            total
+                .checked_add(count)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("partition window row count overflows usize"))
+        })?;
+    if rows == 0 {
+        return Ok(0);
+    }
+    conservative_partition_admission_bytes(rows, estimated_row_bytes)
+}
+
+fn conservative_partition_admission_bytes(
+    rows: usize,
+    estimated_row_bytes: usize,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let value_bytes = rows.checked_mul(estimated_row_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "decoded byte estimate overflows for {} rows at {} bytes per row",
+            rows, estimated_row_bytes
+        ))
+    })?;
+    // Arrow buffers and batch/array allocations add a small amount beyond the
+    // fixed-width values. Reserve 25% plus fixed headroom before decoding; the
+    // charge is reconciled to the allocation-backed size immediately after.
+    value_bytes
+        .checked_add(value_bytes / 4)
+        .and_then(|bytes| bytes.checked_add(WINDOW_ADMISSION_FIXED_HEADROOM_BYTES))
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("partition window admission estimate overflows usize"))
+}
+
+type PartitionWindowReadPlan = (Vec<Range<u64>>, Vec<Vec<usize>>);
+
+fn preloaded_window_ranges(
+    offsets: &[u64],
+    num_batches: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    partition_range: Range<usize>,
+) -> Result<PartitionWindowReadPlan> {
+    let window_len = partition_range.end - partition_range.start;
+    let mut ranges = Vec::with_capacity(num_batches);
+    let mut group_partition_counts = Vec::with_capacity(num_batches);
+
+    for batch_idx in 0..num_batches {
+        let group_base = batch_idx * num_partitions;
+        let range_start_index = group_base + partition_range.start;
+        let range_start = if range_start_index == 0 {
+            0
+        } else {
+            offsets[range_start_index - 1]
+        };
+        let range_end = offsets[group_base + partition_range.end - 1];
+        if range_start == range_end {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let mut counts = Vec::with_capacity(window_len);
+        let mut previous = range_start;
+        for partition_id in partition_range.clone() {
+            let end = offsets[group_base + partition_id];
+            let count = usize::try_from(end - previous).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "shuffle_offsets.lance",
+                    format!(
+                        "row count {} for flush group {} partition {} cannot be represented as usize",
+                        end - previous,
+                        batch_idx,
+                        partition_id
+                    ),
+                )
+            })?;
+            counts.push(count);
+            previous = end;
+        }
+        ranges.push(range_start..range_end);
+        group_partition_counts.push(counts);
+    }
+    Ok((ranges, group_partition_counts))
+}
+
+async fn split_partition_window_stream<S>(
+    mut stream: S,
+    window_len: usize,
+    group_partition_counts: &[Vec<usize>],
+) -> Result<(Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>>, usize)>
+where
+    S: Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Unpin,
+{
+    let expected_rows = group_partition_counts
+        .iter()
+        .flatten()
+        .try_fold(0usize, |total, count| total.checked_add(*count))
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::corrupt_file_named("shuffle_data.lance", "window row count overflows usize")
+        })?;
+    let mut segments = group_partition_counts
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|counts| counts.iter().copied().enumerate())
+        .filter(|(_, count)| *count != 0);
+    let mut current_segment = segments.next();
+    let mut segment_rows_read = 0usize;
+    let mut actual_rows = 0usize;
+    let mut materialized_decoded_bytes = 0usize;
+    let mut partition_batches = vec![Vec::new(); window_len];
+
+    while let Some(batch) = stream.try_next().await? {
+        materialized_decoded_bytes =
+            batch
+                .columns()
+                .iter()
+                .try_fold(materialized_decoded_bytes, |total, array| {
+                    total
+                        .checked_add(array.get_array_memory_size())
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal("decoded partition window byte count overflows usize")
+                        })
+                })?;
+        let mut batch_offset = 0usize;
+        while batch_offset < batch.num_rows() {
+            let Some((partition_offset, segment_rows)) = current_segment else {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "shuffle_data.lance",
+                    format!(
+                        "decoded more than the expected {} rows for partition window",
+                        expected_rows
+                    ),
+                ));
+            };
+            let remaining_in_segment = segment_rows - segment_rows_read;
+            let rows_to_take = remaining_in_segment.min(batch.num_rows() - batch_offset);
+            partition_batches[partition_offset].push(batch.slice(batch_offset, rows_to_take));
+            batch_offset += rows_to_take;
+            actual_rows = actual_rows.checked_add(rows_to_take).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "shuffle_data.lance",
+                    "decoded window row count overflows usize",
+                )
+            })?;
+            segment_rows_read += rows_to_take;
+            if segment_rows_read == segment_rows {
+                current_segment = segments.next();
+                segment_rows_read = 0;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if current_segment.is_some() {
+        return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            "shuffle_data.lance",
+            format!(
+                "decoded {} rows for partition window, expected {}",
+                actual_rows, expected_rows
+            ),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok((partition_batches, materialized_decoded_bytes))
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl ShuffleReader for TwoFileShuffleReader {
+    async fn read_partition(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>>> {
+        if partition_id >= self.num_partitions {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if self.partition_counts[partition_id] == 0 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let ranges = self.partition_ranges(partition_id).await?;
+        if ranges.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let schema: Schema = self.file_reader.schema().as_ref().into();
+        let stream = self
+            .file_reader
+            .read_stream(
+                ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges.into()),
+                u32::MAX,
+                16,
+                FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        Ok(Some(Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            Arc::new(schema),
+            stream,
+        ))))
+    }
+
+    fn plan_partition_window(
+        &self,
+        start_partition_id: usize,
+        max_decoded_bytes: usize,
+    ) -> Result<ShufflePartitionWindowPlan> {
+        if start_partition_id >= self.num_partitions {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "start_partition_id={} is out of range [0, {})",
+                start_partition_id, self.num_partitions
+            )));
+        }
+        let end_partition_id = match &self.offsets {
+            ShuffleOffsets::Preloaded(_) => plan_partition_window_end(
+                &self.partition_counts,
+                start_partition_id,
+                self.estimated_row_bytes,
+                max_decoded_bytes,
+            )?,
+            ShuffleOffsets::OnDemand(_) => start_partition_id.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "start_partition_id={} cannot be advanced",
+                    start_partition_id
+                ))
+            })?,
+        };
+        let partition_range = start_partition_id..end_partition_id;
+        let estimated_decoded_bytes = conservative_window_admission_bytes(
+            &self.partition_counts,
+            partition_range.clone(),
+            self.estimated_row_bytes,
+        )?;
+        Ok(ShufflePartitionWindowPlan {
+            partition_range,
+            estimated_decoded_bytes,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn read_partition_window(
+        &self,
+        start_partition_id: usize,
+        max_decoded_bytes: usize,
+    ) -> Result<ShufflePartitionWindow> {
+        if max_decoded_bytes == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "max_decoded_bytes must be greater than 0",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let ShuffleOffsets::Preloaded(offsets) = &self.offsets else {
+            // The bounded-memory offsets fallback retains the legacy singleton
+            // path because coalescing would otherwise re-read many offset rows.
+            let end = start_partition_id.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "start_partition_id={} cannot be advanced",
+                    start_partition_id
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let data = self.read_partition(start_partition_id).await?;
+            return Ok(ShufflePartitionWindow {
+                partition_range: start_partition_id..end,
+                partitions: vec![ShufflePartition {
+                    partition_id: start_partition_id,
+                    data,
+                }],
+                materialized_decoded_bytes: None,
+            });
+        };
+
+        let partition_range = self
+            .plan_partition_window(start_partition_id, max_decoded_bytes)?
+            .partition_range;
+        let (ranges, group_partition_counts) = preloaded_window_ranges(
+            offsets,
+            self.num_batches,
+            self.num_partitions,
+            partition_range.clone(),
+        )?;
+        let schema: Schema = self.file_reader.schema().as_ref().into();
+        let schema = Arc::new(schema);
+
+        let (partition_batches, materialized_decoded_bytes) = if ranges.is_empty() {
+            (vec![Vec::new(); partition_range.len()], 0)
+        } else {
+            let stream = self
+                .file_reader
+                .read_stream(
+                    ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges.into()),
+                    u32::MAX,
+                    16,
+                    FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+            split_partition_window_stream(stream, partition_range.len(), &group_partition_counts)
+                .await?
+        };
+
+        let partitions = partition_range
+            .clone()
+            .zip(partition_batches)
+            .map(|(partition_id, batches)| {
+                let data = if batches.is_empty() {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    let stream = futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok));
+                    Some(
+                        Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema.clone(), stream))
+                            as Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>,
+                    )
+                };
+                ShufflePartition { partition_id, data }
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        Ok(ShufflePartitionWindow {
+            partition_range,
+            partitions,
+            materialized_decoded_bytes: Some(materialized_decoded_bytes),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn partition_size(&self, partition_id: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+        Ok(self
+            .partition_counts
+            .get(partition_id)
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0) as usize)
+    }
+
+    fn total_loss(&self) -> Option<f64> {
+        Some(self.total_loss)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use futures::stream;
+    use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+
+    use crate::vector::{LOSS_METADATA_KEY, PART_ID_COLUMN};
+
+    /// Create a test batch with partition IDs, an int column, and optional loss metadata.
+    fn make_batch(part_ids: &[u32], values: &[i32], loss: Option<f64>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(PART_ID_COLUMN, DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("val", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(part_ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values.to_vec())),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        if let Some(loss_val) = loss {
+            batch
+                .add_metadata(LOSS_METADATA_KEY.to_owned(), loss_val.to_string())
+                .unwrap()
+        } else {
+            batch
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn batches_to_stream(
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static> {
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let stream = stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok));
+        Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream))
+    }
+
+    /// Collect all rows from a partition into a single RecordBatch.
+    async fn collect_partition(
+        reader: &dyn ShuffleReader,
+        partition_id: usize,
+    ) -> Option<RecordBatch> {
+        let stream = reader.read_partition(partition_id).await.unwrap()?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        if batches.is_empty() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(arrow::compute::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    async fn collect_values(mut stream: Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut values = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(batch) = stream.try_next().await.unwrap() {
+            let batch_values: &Int32Array = batch["val"].as_primitive();
+            values.extend_from_slice(batch_values.values());
+        }
+        values
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_round_trip() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let num_partitions = 3;
+
+        // Partition 0: rows with values 10, 40
+        // Partition 1: rows with values 20, 50
+        // Partition 2: rows with values 30
+        let batch = make_batch(&[0, 1, 2, 0, 1], &[10, 20, 30, 40, 50], None);
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir.clone(), num_partitions);
+        let stream = batches_to_stream(vec![batch]);
+        let reader = shuffler.shuffle(stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
+        );
+        for filename in ["shuffle_data.lance", "shuffle_offsets.lance"] {
+            let file_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+                scheduler
+                    .open_file(
+                        &output_dir.clone().join(filename),
+                        &CachedFileSize::unknown(),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                None,
+                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+                FileReaderOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(file_reader.version(), ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1);
+        }
+
+        // Verify partition sizes
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(0).unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(1).unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(2).unwrap(), 1);
+
+        // Verify partition 0 data
+        let p0 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 0).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p0.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = vals.iter().map(|x| x.unwrap()).collect();
+        v.sort();
+        assert_eq!(v, vec![10, 40]);
+
+        // Verify partition 1 data
+        let p1 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 1).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p1.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = vals.iter().map(|x| x.unwrap()).collect();
+        v.sort();
+        assert_eq!(v, vec![20, 50]);
+
+        // Verify partition 2 data
+        let p2 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 2).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p2.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        let v: Vec<i32> = vals.iter().map(|x| x.unwrap()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(v, vec![30]);
+
+        // Out of range partition returns None
+        assert!(reader.read_partition(3).await.unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_empty_first_batch() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let empty_batch = make_batch(&[], &[], None);
+        let data_batch = make_batch(&[1, 0, 1], &[10, 20, 30], None);
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, 2);
+        let stream = batches_to_stream(vec![empty_batch, data_batch]);
+        let reader = shuffler.shuffle(stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(0).unwrap(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(1).unwrap(), 2);
+
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new("val", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let p0 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 0).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(p0.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema);
+        let p0_values: &Int32Array = p0["val"].as_primitive();
+        assert_eq!(p0_values.values(), &[20]);
+
+        let p1 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 1).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(p1.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema);
+        let p1_values: &Int32Array = p1["val"].as_primitive();
+        assert_eq!(p1_values.values(), &[10, 30]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_empty_partitions() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let num_partitions = 5;
+
+        // Only use partitions 0 and 3, leaving 1, 2, 4 empty
+        let batch = make_batch(&[0, 3, 0, 3], &[10, 20, 30, 40], None);
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, num_partitions);
+        let stream = batches_to_stream(vec![batch]);
+        let reader = shuffler.shuffle(stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(0).unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(1).unwrap(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(2).unwrap(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(3).unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(4).unwrap(), 0);
+
+        assert!(reader.read_partition(1).await.unwrap().is_none());
+        assert!(reader.read_partition(2).await.unwrap().is_none());
+        assert!(reader.read_partition(4).await.unwrap().is_none());
+
+        let p0 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 0).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(p0.num_rows(), 2);
+        let p3 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 3).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(p3.num_rows(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_loss_tracking() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let num_partitions = 2;
+
+        let batch1 = make_batch(&[0, 1], &[10, 20], Some(1.5));
+        let batch2 = make_batch(&[0, 1], &[30, 40], Some(2.5));
+        let batch3 = make_batch(&[0], &[50], Some(0.25));
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, num_partitions);
+        let stream = batches_to_stream(vec![batch1, batch2, batch3]);
+        let reader = shuffler.shuffle(stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        let loss = reader.total_loss().unwrap();
+        assert!((loss - 4.25).abs() < 1e-10, "expected 4.25, got {}", loss);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_single_batch() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let num_partitions = 2;
+
+        let batch = make_batch(&[1, 0], &[100, 200], Some(3.0));
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, num_partitions);
+        let stream = batches_to_stream(vec![batch]);
+        let reader = shuffler.shuffle(stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(0).unwrap(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(1).unwrap(), 1);
+
+        let p0 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 0).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p0.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        assert_eq!(vals.value(0), 200);
+
+        let p1 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 1).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p1.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        assert_eq!(vals.value(0), 100);
+
+        assert!((reader.total_loss().unwrap() - 3.0).abs() < 1e-10);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_multiple_batches() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let num_partitions = 3;
+
+        // Use a very small batch size to force multiple write batches
+        // Each i32 is 4 bytes, each u32 is 4 bytes, so ~8 bytes/row.
+        // With a small batch_size_bytes, we get multiple rechunked batches.
+        let batch1 = make_batch(&[0, 1, 2], &[10, 20, 30], Some(1.0));
+        let batch2 = make_batch(&[2, 0, 1], &[40, 50, 60], Some(2.0));
+        let batch3 = make_batch(&[1, 2, 0], &[70, 80, 90], Some(3.0));
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, num_partitions)
+            // Set very small batch size to force multiple batches
+            .with_batch_size_bytes(16);
+        let stream = batches_to_stream(vec![batch1, batch2, batch3]);
+        let reader = shuffler.shuffle(stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Partition 0 should have values: 10, 50, 90
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(0).unwrap(), 3);
+        let p0 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 0).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p0.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = vals.iter().map(|x| x.unwrap()).collect();
+        v.sort();
+        assert_eq!(v, vec![10, 50, 90]);
+
+        // Partition 1 should have values: 20, 60, 70
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(1).unwrap(), 3);
+        let p1 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 1).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p1.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = vals.iter().map(|x| x.unwrap()).collect();
+        v.sort();
+        assert_eq!(v, vec![20, 60, 70]);
+
+        // Partition 2 should have values: 30, 40, 80
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(2).unwrap(), 3);
+        let p2 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 2).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p2.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = vals.iter().map(|x| x.unwrap()).collect();
+        v.sort();
+        assert_eq!(v, vec![30, 40, 80]);
+
+        assert!((reader.total_loss().unwrap() - 6.0).abs() < 1e-10);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_four_flush_groups_with_empty_partitions() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let num_partitions = 5;
+
+        // Each input batch is flushed independently. Partition 4 is empty in
+        // every group, while the other partitions exercise empty ranges at the
+        // beginning, middle, and end of individual groups.
+        let batch1 = make_batch(&[0, 2], &[10, 20], None);
+        let batch2 = make_batch(&[1, 3], &[30, 40], None);
+        let batch3 = make_batch(&[0, 3], &[50, 60], None);
+        let batch4 = make_batch(&[3], &[70], None);
+
+        let shuffler =
+            TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir.clone(), num_partitions).with_batch_size_bytes(1);
+        let reader = shuffler
+            .shuffle(batches_to_stream(vec![batch1, batch2, batch3, batch4]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let expected = [vec![10, 50], vec![30], vec![20], vec![40, 60, 70]];
+        for (partition_id, expected_values) in expected.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                reader.partition_size(partition_id).unwrap(),
+                expected_values.len()
+            );
+            let partition = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), partition_id)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let values: &Int32Array = partition["val"].as_primitive();
+            assert_eq!(values.values(), expected_values);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(4).unwrap(), 0);
+        assert!(reader.read_partition(4).await.unwrap().is_none());
+
+        // Force the bounded-memory fallback and verify its u64 range reads
+        // produce the same partition order and empty-partition behavior.
+        let fallback_reader = TwoFileShuffleReader::try_new_with_preload_limit(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            output_dir,
+            num_partitions,
+            4,
+            vec![2, 1, 1, 3, 0],
+            0.0,
+            0,
+            OffsetPreloadSource::Sidecar,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        for (partition_id, expected_values) in expected.iter().enumerate() {
+            let partition = collect_partition(fallback_reader.as_ref(), partition_id)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let values: &Int32Array = partition["val"].as_primitive();
+            assert_eq!(values.values(), expected_values);
+        }
+        assert!(fallback_reader.read_partition(4).await.unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partition_windows_match_singletons_with_hotspot_and_empty_boundaries() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let num_partitions = 6;
+
+        // Four flush groups, with empty partitions at the beginning, middle,
+        // and end. Partition 2 is deliberately much larger than its neighbors.
+        let batch1 = make_batch(&[1, 2, 2, 2], &[10, 20, 21, 22], None);
+        let batch2 = make_batch(&[2, 2, 4], &[23, 24, 40], None);
+        let batch3 = make_batch(&[1, 2, 2], &[11, 25, 26], None);
+        let batch4 = make_batch(&[2, 2, 2], &[27, 28, 29], None);
+        let reader = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, num_partitions)
+            .with_batch_size_bytes(1)
+            .shuffle(batches_to_stream(vec![batch1, batch2, batch3, batch4]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut singleton_values = Vec::with_capacity(num_partitions);
+        for partition_id in 0..num_partitions {
+            let values = match reader.read_partition(partition_id).await.unwrap() {
+                Some(stream) => collect_values(stream).await,
+                None => Vec::new(),
+            };
+            singleton_values.push(values);
+        }
+
+        // The decoded schema is one Int32 (4 bytes). A 12-byte target fits the
+        // first empty + two-row partition, while the ten-row hotspot is forced
+        // into a singleton window.
+        let mut next_partition_id = 0;
+        let mut ranges = Vec::new();
+        let mut admission_bytes = Vec::new();
+        let mut window_values = vec![Vec::new(); num_partitions];
+        while next_partition_id < num_partitions {
+            let plan = reader.plan_partition_window(next_partition_id, 12).unwrap();
+            let window = reader
+                .read_partition_window(next_partition_id, 12)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(window.partition_range, plan.partition_range);
+            assert!(window.materialized_decoded_bytes.is_some());
+            assert_eq!(window.partitions.len(), window.partition_range.len());
+            ranges.push(window.partition_range.clone());
+            admission_bytes.push(plan.estimated_decoded_bytes);
+            next_partition_id = window.partition_range.end;
+            for partition in window.partitions {
+                if let Some(stream) = partition.data {
+                    window_values[partition.partition_id] = collect_values(stream).await;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(ranges, vec![0..2, 2..3, 3..6]);
+        assert!(admission_bytes[1] > admission_bytes[0]);
+        assert!(admission_bytes[1] > admission_bytes[2]);
+        assert_eq!(window_values, singleton_values);
+        assert_eq!(window_values[0], Vec::<i32>::new());
+        assert_eq!(window_values[2].len(), 10);
+        assert_eq!(window_values[5], Vec::<i32>::new());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_on_demand_offsets_window_falls_back_to_singleton() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let reader = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir.clone(), 3)
+            .with_batch_size_bytes(1)
+            .shuffle(batches_to_stream(vec![
+                make_batch(&[0, 1], &[10, 20], None),
+                make_batch(&[1, 2], &[30, 40], None),
+            ]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        drop(reader);
+
+        let fallback_reader = TwoFileShuffleReader::try_new_with_preload_limit(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            output_dir.clone(),
+            3,
+            2,
+            vec![1, 2, 1],
+            0.0,
+            0,
+            OffsetPreloadSource::Sidecar,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let window = fallback_reader
+            .read_partition_window(1, DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(window.partition_range, 1..2);
+        assert_eq!(window.partitions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(window.partitions[0].partition_id, 1);
+
+        // Writer-side offsets that exceed the byte cap must take the same
+        // sidecar on-demand path rather than staying Preloaded.
+        let over_limit_reader = TwoFileShuffleReader::try_new_with_preload_limit(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            output_dir,
+            3,
+            2,
+            vec![1, 2, 1],
+            0.0,
+            0,
+            OffsetPreloadSource::Writer(vec![1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4]),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let window = over_limit_reader
+            .read_partition_window(1, DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(window.partition_range, 1..2);
+        let partition = collect_partition(over_limit_reader.as_ref(), 1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let values: &Int32Array = partition["val"].as_primitive();
+        assert_eq!(values.values(), &[20, 30]);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::disabled(0, 1)]
+    #[case::too_small(47, 1)]
+    #[case::exact_fit(48, 3)]
+    #[case::raised(536_870_912, 3)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shuffle_offset_preload_environment(
+        #[case] limit: usize,
+        #[case] window_end: usize,
+    ) {
+        const CHILD_ENV: &str = "LANCE_TEST_SHUFFLE_OFFSET_PRELOAD_CHILD";
+        if std::env::var_os(CHILD_ENV).is_none() {
+            let output = std::process::Command::new(std::env::current_exe().unwrap())
+                .args([
+                    "--exact",
+                    std::thread::current().name().unwrap(),
+                    "--nocapture",
+                ])
+                .env(CHILD_ENV, "1")
+                .env(MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES_ENV, limit.to_string())
+                .output()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                output.status.success(),
+                "child test failed: {}\n{}",
+                String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stdout),
+                String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stderr)
+            );
+            assert!(String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stdout).contains("1 passed"));
+            return;
+        }
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let reader = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir.clone(), 3)
+            .with_batch_size_bytes(1)
+            .shuffle(batches_to_stream(vec![
+                make_batch(&[0, 1], &[10, 20], None),
+                make_batch(&[1, 2], &[30, 40], None),
+            ]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(0).unwrap(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(1).unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(2).unwrap(), 1);
+        let p1 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 1).await.unwrap();
+        let values: &Int32Array = p1["val"].as_primitive();
+        assert_eq!(values.values(), &[20, 30]);
+        let window = reader
+            .read_partition_window(0, DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(window.partition_range, 0..window_end);
+
+        let reopened = TwoFileShuffleReader::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            output_dir,
+            3,
+            2,
+            vec![1, 2, 1],
+            0.0,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let window = reopened
+            .read_partition_window(0, DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(window.partition_range, 0..window_end);
+        let p1 = collect_partition(reopened.as_ref(), 1).await.unwrap();
+        let values: &Int32Array = p1["val"].as_primitive();
+        assert_eq!(values.values(), &[20, 30]);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::unset(None, 256 * 1024 * 1024)]
+    #[case::disabled(Some("0"), 0)]
+    #[case::raised(Some("536870912"), 512 * 1024 * 1024)]
+    #[case::whitespace(Some(" 48 "), 48)]
+    fn test_parse_max_preloaded_offsets_bytes(
+        #[case] value: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] expected: usize,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_max_preloaded_offsets_bytes(value.map(str::to_owned).ok_or(VarError::NotPresent))
+                .unwrap(),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::empty("")]
+    #[case::negative("-1")]
+    #[case::suffix("512MiB")]
+    #[case::overflow("18446744073709551616")]
+    fn test_parse_max_preloaded_offsets_bytes_rejects_invalid(#[case] value: &str) {
+        let error = parse_max_preloaded_offsets_bytes(Ok(value.to_owned())).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains(MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES_ENV));
+        assert!(message.contains(&format!("{value:?}")));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_forced_on_demand_does_not_repreload_when_logical_size_fits() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let reader = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir.clone(), 3)
+            .with_batch_size_bytes(1)
+            .shuffle(batches_to_stream(vec![
+                make_batch(&[0, 1], &[10, 20], None),
+                make_batch(&[1, 2], &[30, 40], None),
+            ]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        drop(reader);
+
+        // Logical table is 2 batches * 3 partitions * 8 bytes = 48 bytes, well
+        // under the default 256 MiB cap. ForcedOnDemand must still stay
+        // on-demand instead of retrying a full sidecar preload.
+        let forced = TwoFileShuffleReader::try_new_with_preload_limit(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            output_dir.clone(),
+            3,
+            2,
+            vec![1, 2, 1],
+            0.0,
+            DEFAULT_MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES,
+            OffsetPreloadSource::ForcedOnDemand,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let forced_plan = forced
+            .plan_partition_window(0, DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            forced_plan.partition_range,
+            0..1,
+            "ForcedOnDemand must not re-preload from the sidecar"
+        );
+
+        let sidecar = TwoFileShuffleReader::try_new_with_preload_limit(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            output_dir,
+            3,
+            2,
+            vec![1, 2, 1],
+            0.0,
+            DEFAULT_MAX_PRELOADED_OFFSETS_BYTES,
+            OffsetPreloadSource::Sidecar,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let sidecar_plan = sidecar
+            .plan_partition_window(0, DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            sidecar_plan.partition_range.end > 1,
+            "sidecar reopen with room under the cap should preload and coalesce"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_window_planning_uses_decoded_bytes_and_isolates_hotspot() {
+        let partition_counts = [0, 2, 10, 0, 1, 0];
+        assert_eq!(
+            plan_partition_window_end(&partition_counts, 0, 4, 12).unwrap(),
+            2
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            plan_partition_window_end(&partition_counts, 2, 4, 12).unwrap(),
+            3
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            plan_partition_window_end(&partition_counts, 3, 4, 12).unwrap(),
+            6
+        );
+
+        let error = plan_partition_window_end(&partition_counts, 0, 4, 0).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("must be greater than 0"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn legacy_shuffler_uses_schema_estimate_for_parallel_admission() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let part_ids = vec![0; 32];
+        let values = (0..32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let reader = IvfShuffler::new(output_dir, 2)
+            .shuffle(batches_to_stream(vec![make_batch(
+                &part_ids, &values, None,
+            )]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let non_empty = reader.plan_partition_window(0, 128 * 1024 * 1024).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(non_empty.partition_range, 0..1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            non_empty.estimated_decoded_bytes,
+            32 * 4 + 32 * 4 / 4 + WINDOW_ADMISSION_FIXED_HEADROOM_BYTES
+        );
+        assert_ne!(non_empty.estimated_decoded_bytes, usize::MAX);
+
+        let empty = reader.plan_partition_window(1, 128 * 1024 * 1024).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(empty.partition_range, 1..2);
+        assert_eq!(empty.estimated_decoded_bytes, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_preloaded_window_ranges_coalesce_each_nonempty_flush_group() {
+        // Three groups x five partitions. Window [1, 4) is empty in the last
+        // group, so only two ranges are submitted.
+        let offsets = [1, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 10];
+        let (ranges, counts) = preloaded_window_ranges(&offsets, 3, 5, 1..4).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ranges, vec![1..4, 4..7]);
+        assert_eq!(counts, vec![vec![2, 0, 1], vec![0, 2, 1]]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partition_window_split_rejects_short_and_extra_rows() {
+        let data = make_batch(&[0, 0, 0, 0, 0], &[10, 20, 30, 40, 50], None)
+            .drop_column(PART_ID_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap();
+        let group_counts = vec![vec![1, 2], vec![0, 1]];
+
+        let short_stream = stream::iter(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 3))]);
+        let error = split_partition_window_stream(short_stream, 2, &group_counts)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("decoded 3 rows for partition window, expected 4"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+
+        let extra_stream = stream::iter(vec![Ok(data)]);
+        let error = split_partition_window_stream(extra_stream, 2, &group_counts)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("decoded more than the expected 4 rows"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partition_window_split_propagates_stream_error() {
+        let injected = Error::io("injected window read failure");
+        let error = split_partition_window_stream(stream::iter(vec![Err(injected)]), 1, &[vec![1]])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("injected window read failure"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_shuffle_offsets_rejects_truncated_offsets() {
+        let offsets_path = Path::from("shuffle_offsets.lance");
+        let offsets = [2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8];
+        let error =
+            validate_shuffle_offsets(&offsets, 3, 4, 10, &[3, 3, 1, 3], &offsets_path).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("decoded 11 offsets, expected 12"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_shuffle_offsets_rejects_non_monotonic_offsets() {
+        let offsets_path = Path::from("shuffle_offsets.lance");
+        let offsets = [2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 10];
+        let error =
+            validate_shuffle_offsets(&offsets, 3, 4, 10, &[3, 3, 1, 3], &offsets_path).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("offsets are not monotonic at indices 4 and 5: 3 > 2"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_shuffle_offsets_rejects_data_boundary_mismatch() {
+        let offsets_path = Path::from("shuffle_offsets.lance");
+        let offsets = [2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 11];
+        let error =
+            validate_shuffle_offsets(&offsets, 3, 4, 10, &[3, 3, 1, 4], &offsets_path).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("final offset 11 does not match shuffle data row count 10"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_shuffle_offsets_checks_partition_counts() {
+        let offsets_path = Path::from("shuffle_offsets.lance");
+        let offsets = [2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 10];
+        let error =
+            validate_shuffle_offsets(&offsets, 3, 4, 10, &[3, 2, 1, 4], &offsets_path).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("offset-derived count 3 for partition 1 does not match expected count 2"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_should_preload_offsets_enforces_byte_limit_and_checks_overflow() {
+        assert!(should_preload_offsets(4, 4 * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()).unwrap());
+        assert!(!should_preload_offsets(5, 4 * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()).unwrap());
+
+        let error = should_preload_offsets(usize::MAX, usize::MAX).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("overflows byte-size calculation"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_allocate_preloaded_offsets_is_fallible_and_capacity_checked() {
+        let elem = std::mem::size_of::<u64>();
+        let allocated = try_allocate_preloaded_offsets(4, 4 * elem)
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("logical size fits");
+        assert!(allocated.capacity() * elem <= 4 * elem);
+
+        assert!(
+            try_allocate_preloaded_offsets(5, 4 * elem)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "logical size above the cap must stay on-demand"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn assert_allocated_bytes_within_limit(written: &BoundedWrittenOffsets, max_bytes: usize) {
+        let Some(offsets) = written.offsets.as_ref() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let allocated = offsets
+            .capacity()
+            .checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<u64>())
+            .expect("capacity * size_of::<u64> overflows");
+        assert!(
+            allocated <= max_bytes,
+            "allocated {allocated} bytes exceeds cap {max_bytes} (len={}, capacity={})",
+            offsets.len(),
+            offsets.capacity()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bounded_written_offsets_drops_copy_at_byte_limit() {
+        let max_bytes = 2 * std::mem::size_of::<u64>();
+        let mut written = BoundedWrittenOffsets::new(max_bytes);
+        written.retain(&[1, 2]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(written.offsets.as_deref(), Some(&[1, 2][..]));
+        assert_allocated_bytes_within_limit(&written, max_bytes);
+
+        written.retain(&[3]).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            written.offsets.is_none(),
+            "exceeding the preload cap must drop the in-memory copy"
+        );
+
+        written.retain(&[4]).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            written.offsets.is_none(),
+            "a dropped copy must stay dropped"
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(
+            written.into_offsets(),
+            OffsetPreloadSource::ForcedOnDemand
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bounded_written_offsets_allocated_capacity_stays_within_limit() {
+        // 3 u64s = 24 bytes. A first retain of 2 typically allocates capacity 2.
+        // A second retain of 1 still fits by length (24 bytes) but amortized
+        // doubling would grow capacity to 4 = 32 bytes, past the ceiling.
+        let max_bytes = 3 * std::mem::size_of::<u64>();
+        let mut written = BoundedWrittenOffsets::new(max_bytes);
+        written.retain(&[1, 2]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(written.offsets.as_deref(), Some(&[1, 2][..]));
+        assert_allocated_bytes_within_limit(&written, max_bytes);
+
+        written.retain(&[3]).unwrap();
+        if let Some(offsets) = written.offsets.as_ref() {
+            assert_eq!(offsets.as_slice(), &[1, 2, 3]);
+        }
+        assert_allocated_bytes_within_limit(&written, max_bytes);
+
+        // Filling the cap in a single retain must also keep allocated bytes
+        // at or below the ceiling.
+        let mut written = BoundedWrittenOffsets::new(max_bytes);
+        written.retain(&[1, 2, 3]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(written.offsets.as_deref(), Some(&[1, 2, 3][..]));
+        assert_allocated_bytes_within_limit(&written, max_bytes);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_multi_batch_single_flush() {
+        // All three batches fit within the default batch_size_bytes, so they
+        // accumulate and are interleaved in a single flush group. This exercises
+        // the cross-batch interleave path.
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let num_partitions = 3;
+
+        let batch1 = make_batch(&[0, 1, 2], &[10, 20, 30], None);
+        let batch2 = make_batch(&[2, 0, 1], &[40, 50, 60], None);
+        let batch3 = make_batch(&[1, 2, 0], &[70, 80, 90], None);
+
+        // Large batch_size_bytes so all three batches flush together.
+        let shuffler =
+            TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, num_partitions).with_batch_size_bytes(1024 * 1024);
+        let stream = batches_to_stream(vec![batch1, batch2, batch3]);
+        let reader = shuffler.shuffle(stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(0).unwrap(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(1).unwrap(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(2).unwrap(), 3);
+
+        let p0 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 0).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p0.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = vals.iter().map(|x| x.unwrap()).collect();
+        v.sort();
+        assert_eq!(v, vec![10, 50, 90]);
+
+        let p1 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 1).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p1.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = vals.iter().map(|x| x.unwrap()).collect();
+        v.sort();
+        assert_eq!(v, vec![20, 60, 70]);
+
+        let p2 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 2).await.unwrap();
+        let vals: &Int32Array = p2.column_by_name("val").unwrap().as_primitive();
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = vals.iter().map(|x| x.unwrap()).collect();
+        v.sort();
+        assert_eq!(v, vec![30, 40, 80]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_out_of_range_partition_id() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+
+        // Row with partition ID 5 is out of range for num_partitions=3.
+        let batch = make_batch(&[0, 5, 1], &[10, 20, 30], None);
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, 3);
+        let stream = batches_to_stream(vec![batch]);
+        let Err(err) = shuffler.shuffle(stream).await else {
+            panic!("expected an error for out-of-range partition ID");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("partition ID 5 is out of range"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// CI failed `test_ann_with_deletion` with:
+    /// `offset-derived count 127 for partition 0 does not match expected count 126`
+    /// on a 512-row IVF shuffle into 4 partitions. This is that exact histogram.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_uneven_512_rows_four_partitions() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+        let num_partitions = 4;
+
+        let mut part_ids = Vec::with_capacity(512);
+        part_ids.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(0u32, 126));
+        part_ids.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(1u32, 130));
+        part_ids.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(2u32, 128));
+        part_ids.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(3u32, 128));
+        let values: Vec<i32> = (0..512).collect();
+        let batch = make_batch(&part_ids, &values, None);
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, num_partitions);
+        let reader = shuffler
+            .shuffle(batches_to_stream(vec![batch]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(0).unwrap(), 126);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(1).unwrap(), 130);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(2).unwrap(), 128);
+        assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(3).unwrap(), 128);
+
+        let p0 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 0).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(p0.num_rows(), 126);
+        let p1 = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), 1).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(p1.num_rows(), 130);
+    }
+
+    /// A partition that only appears in some flush groups used to get one
+    /// zero-length range per group it is absent from, and those reach the file
+    /// reader as real range entries.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_preloaded_partition_ranges_skip_empty_groups() {
+        // Three partitions, four flush groups. Offsets are cumulative row
+        // counts per (group, partition): partition 1 holds rows in group 1 only.
+        let offsets = vec![
+            1u64, 1, 2, // group 0: p0 one row, p1 none, p2 one row
+            2, 4, 4, // group 1: p0 none, p1 two rows, p2 none
+            5, 5, 5, // group 2: p0 one row, nothing else
+            5, 5, 6, // group 3: p2 one row
+        ];
+
+        let p1 = preloaded_partition_ranges(&offsets, 4, 3, 1);
+        assert_eq!(p1, vec![2..4], "partition 1 spans group 1 only");
+
+        let p0 = preloaded_partition_ranges(&offsets, 4, 3, 0);
+        assert_eq!(p0, vec![0..1, 4..5], "partition 0 spans groups 0 and 2");
+        assert!(
+            p0.iter()
+                .chain(p1.iter())
+                .all(|range| range.start < range.end),
+            "no zero-length range should survive: {p0:?} {p1:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Two non-empty batches in one flush group: the bucketing has to keep each
+    /// row with its own batch, so a partition's rows come out batch by batch and
+    /// in row order within a batch. A wrong bucket offset would move values into
+    /// the neighbouring partition while leaving every partition size intact.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_groups_two_batches_by_partition() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+
+        let batch1 = make_batch(&[1, 0, 2], &[10, 20, 30], None);
+        let batch2 = make_batch(&[2, 1, 0], &[40, 50, 60], None);
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, 3);
+        let reader = shuffler
+            .shuffle(batches_to_stream(vec![batch1, batch2]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let expected = [vec![20, 60], vec![10, 50], vec![30, 40]];
+        for (partition_id, expected_values) in expected.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(reader.partition_size(partition_id).unwrap(), 2);
+            let partition = collect_partition(reader.as_ref(), partition_id)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let values: &Int32Array = partition["val"].as_primitive();
+            assert_eq!(
+                values.values(),
+                expected_values,
+                "partition {partition_id} holds the wrong rows"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Nullable `__ivf_part_id` must not be treated as partition 0 via `values()`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_two_file_shuffler_rejects_null_partition_ids() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let output_dir = Path::from(dir.as_ref());
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(PART_ID_COLUMN, DataType::UInt32, true),
+            Field::new("val", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![Some(0), None, Some(1)])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let shuffler = TwoFileShuffler::new(output_dir, 2);
+        let Err(err) = shuffler.shuffle(batches_to_stream(vec![batch])).await else {
+            panic!("expected an error for null partition IDs");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("null partition ID"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/subindex.rs b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/subindex.rs
index 8dc80b2f49f..cf712c1b246 100644
--- a/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/subindex.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-index/src/vector/v3/subindex.rs
@@ -1,17 +1,18 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::collections::HashMap;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use std::collections::BinaryHeap;
 use std::fmt::Debug;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::metrics::MetricsCollector;
-use crate::vector::storage::VectorStore;
+use crate::vector::graph::OrderedNode;
+use crate::vector::storage::{QueryResidual, QueryScratch, VectorStore};
 use crate::vector::{flat, hnsw};
 use crate::{prefilter::PreFilter, vector::Query};
 /// A sub index for IVF index
@@ -31,6 +32,15 @@ pub trait IvfSubIndex: Send + Sync + Debug + DeepSizeOf {
     /// Return the schema of the sub index
     fn schema() -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
 
+    /// The subset of [`Self::schema`] that [`Self::load`] actually reads.
+    ///
+    /// Index files always carry the full `schema()`, so narrowing the read is
+    /// purely a storage optimization: it keeps write-only columns from being
+    /// fetched, without changing what is written. `None` reads every column.
+    fn read_columns() -> Option<&'static [&'static str]> {
+        None
+    }
+
     /// Search the sub index for nearest neighbors.
     /// # Arguments:
     /// * `query` - The query vector
@@ -47,12 +57,66 @@ pub trait IvfSubIndex: Send + Sync + Debug + DeepSizeOf {
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch>;
 
+    /// Search the sub-index, reusing scratch buffers owned by the caller.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn search_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        k: usize,
+        params: Self::QueryParams,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        _residual: Option<QueryResidual<'_>>,
+        _scratch: &mut QueryScratch,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        self.search(query, k, params, storage, prefilter, metrics)
+    }
+
+    /// Return true if this sub-index can accumulate candidates into a caller-owned heap.
+    fn supports_global_topk_heap() -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Search this partition and accumulate candidates into a caller-owned top-k heap.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_topk(
+        &self,
+        _query: ArrayRef,
+        _k: usize,
+        _params: Self::QueryParams,
+        _storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        _prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        _heap: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        unimplemented!("global top-k heap search is not supported for this sub-index")
+    }
+
+    /// Search this partition and accumulate candidates into a caller-owned top-k heap,
+    /// reusing scratch buffers owned by the caller.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+        &self,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        k: usize,
+        params: Self::QueryParams,
+        storage: &impl VectorStore,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        heap: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        _residual: Option<QueryResidual<'_>>,
+        _scratch: &mut QueryScratch,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.accumulate_topk(query, k, params, storage, prefilter, heap, metrics)
+    }
+
     /// Given a vector storage, containing all the data for the IVF partition, build the sub index.
     fn index_vectors(storage: &impl VectorStore, params: Self::BuildParams) -> Result<Self>
     where
         Self: Sized;
 
-    fn remap(&self, mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>, store: &impl VectorStore) -> Result<Self>
+    fn remap(&self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap, store: &impl VectorStore) -> Result<Self>
     where
         Self: Sized;
 
@@ -60,6 +124,7 @@ pub trait IvfSubIndex: Send + Sync + Debug + DeepSizeOf {
     fn to_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch>;
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
 pub enum SubIndexType {
     Flat,
     Hnsw,
@@ -81,10 +146,7 @@ impl TryFrom<&str> for SubIndexType {
         match value {
             "FLAT" => Ok(Self::Flat),
             "HNSW" => Ok(Self::Hnsw),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("unknown sub index type {}", value),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!("unknown sub index type {}", value))),
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-io/Cargo.toml
index 953c9c39e6c..4c23b98a411 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-io/Cargo.toml
@@ -16,47 +16,54 @@ rust-version.workspace = true
 object_store = { workspace = true }
 opendal = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 object_store_opendal = { workspace = true, optional = true }
-lance-arrow.workspace = true
+opendal-service-goosefs = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+goosefs-sdk = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 lance-core.workspace = true
 lance-namespace.workspace = true
 arrow = { workspace = true, features = ["ffi"] }
-arrow-arith.workspace = true
 arrow-array.workspace = true
-arrow-buffer.workspace = true
-arrow-cast.workspace = true
-arrow-data.workspace = true
 arrow-schema.workspace = true
-arrow-select.workspace = true
-async-recursion.workspace = true
 async-trait.workspace = true
 aws-config = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 aws-credential-types = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 byteorder.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
 chrono.workspace = true
-deepsize.workspace = true
 futures.workspace = true
+http.workspace = true
 log.workspace = true
+metrics = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+moka.workspace = true
 pin-project.workspace = true
 prost.workspace = true
-serde.workspace = true
-shellexpand.workspace = true
-snafu.workspace = true
+serde = { workspace = true, features = ["derive"] }
+serde_json = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 tokio.workspace = true
 tracing.workspace = true
 url.workspace = true
+uuid.workspace = true
 path_abs.workspace = true
 rand.workspace = true
+tempfile.workspace = true
+reqsign-core = { version = "3.2.0", optional = true }
+reqsign-file-read-tokio = { version = "3.0.3", optional = true }
+reqsign-google = { version = "3.0.3", optional = true }
+
+[target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dependencies]
+io-uring = { workspace = true }
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 criterion.workspace = true
+lance-testing.workspace = true
 test-log.workspace = true
 mockall.workspace = true
 rstest.workspace = true
+serial_test.workspace = true
 mock_instant.workspace = true
-
-[target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dev-dependencies]
-pprof.workspace = true
+tokio = { workspace = true, features = ["test-util"] }
+tracing-mock = { workspace = true }
+metrics-util = { workspace = true }
+wiremock.workspace = true
 
 [[bench]]
 name = "scheduler"
@@ -64,13 +71,33 @@ harness = false
 
 [features]
 default = ["aws", "azure", "gcp"]
+metrics = ["dep:metrics"]
 gcs-test = []
-gcp = ["object_store/gcp", "dep:opendal", "opendal/services-gcs", "dep:object_store_opendal"]
+goosefs-test = []
+gcp = [
+    "object_store/gcp",
+    "dep:opendal",
+    "opendal/services-gcs",
+    "dep:object_store_opendal",
+    "dep:reqsign-core",
+    "dep:reqsign-file-read-tokio",
+    "dep:reqsign-google",
+    "dep:serde_json",
+]
 aws = ["object_store/aws", "dep:aws-config", "dep:aws-credential-types", "dep:opendal", "opendal/services-s3", "dep:object_store_opendal"]
-azure = ["object_store/azure", "dep:opendal", "opendal/services-azblob", "dep:object_store_opendal"]
+azure = ["object_store/azure", "dep:opendal", "opendal/services-azblob", "opendal/services-azdls", "dep:object_store_opendal"]
 oss = ["dep:opendal", "opendal/services-oss", "dep:object_store_opendal"]
+goosefs = [
+    "dep:opendal",
+    "opendal/services-goosefs",
+    "dep:opendal-service-goosefs",
+    "dep:goosefs-sdk",
+    "dep:object_store_opendal",
+]
 tencent = ["dep:opendal", "opendal/services-cos", "dep:object_store_opendal"]
 huggingface = ["dep:opendal", "opendal/services-huggingface", "dep:object_store_opendal"]
+tos = ["dep:opendal", "opendal/services-tos", "dep:object_store_opendal"]
+tos-test = ["tos"]
 test-util = []
 
 [lints]
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/benches/scheduler.rs b/rust/lance-io/benches/scheduler.rs
index bfec3c6268e..2b4c2441463 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/benches/scheduler.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/benches/scheduler.rs
@@ -10,26 +10,26 @@ use lance_io::{
     utils::CachedFileSize,
 };
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use rand::{seq::SliceRandom, RngCore};
+use rand::{RngCore, seq::SliceRandom};
 use std::{fmt::Display, process::Command, sync::Arc};
 use tokio::{runtime::Runtime, sync::mpsc, task::JoinHandle};
 
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, BenchmarkId, Criterion};
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
 struct FullReadParams {
     io_parallelism: u32,
     page_size: u64,
-    use_lite_scheduler: bool,
+    use_lite_scheduler: Option<bool>,
 }
 
 impl Display for FullReadParams {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         write!(
             f,
-            "full_read,parallel={},read_size={},use_lite_scheduler={}",
+            "full_read,parallel={},read_size={},use_lite_scheduler={:?}",
             self.io_parallelism, self.page_size, self.use_lite_scheduler
         )
     }
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ async fn create_data(num_bytes: u64) -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Path) {
         store_uri
     );
     let (obj_store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&store_uri).await.unwrap();
-    let tmp_file = path.child("foo.file");
+    let tmp_file = path.clone().join("foo.file");
 
     let mut some_data = vec![0; num_bytes as usize];
     rand::rng().fill_bytes(&mut some_data);
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ fn bench_full_read(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let runtime = Runtime::new().unwrap();
     let (obj_store, tmp_file) = runtime.block_on(create_data(DATA_SIZE));
 
-    for use_lite_scheduler in [false, true] {
+    for use_lite_scheduler in [Some(false), Some(true)] {
         for io_parallelism in [1, 16] {
             for page_size in [4096, 1024 * 1024] {
                 let params = FullReadParams {
@@ -98,11 +98,13 @@ fn bench_full_read(c: &mut Criterion) {
                                     .output()
                                     .unwrap();
                             }
-                            std::env::set_var("IO_THREADS", io_parallelism.to_string());
-                            let mut config = SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing();
-                            if use_lite_scheduler {
-                                config = config.with_lite_scheduler();
+                            unsafe {
+                                std::env::set_var("IO_THREADS", io_parallelism.to_string());
                             }
+                            let config = SchedulerConfig {
+                                use_lite_scheduler,
+                                ..SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing()
+                            };
                             runtime.block_on(async {
                                 let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, config);
                                 let file_scheduler = scheduler
@@ -140,7 +142,7 @@ struct RandomReadParams {
     io_parallelism: u32,
     item_size: u32,
     indices: Arc<Vec<u32>>,
-    use_lite_scheduler: bool,
+    use_lite_scheduler: Option<bool>,
     noisy_runtime: bool,
 }
 
@@ -148,7 +150,7 @@ impl Display for RandomReadParams {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         write!(
             f,
-            "random_read,parallel={},item_size={},use_lite_scheduler={},noisy={}",
+            "random_read,parallel={},item_size={},use_lite_scheduler={:?},noisy={}",
             self.io_parallelism, self.item_size, self.use_lite_scheduler, self.noisy_runtime
         )
     }
@@ -185,7 +187,7 @@ fn bench_random_read(c: &mut Criterion) {
     ));
 
     for noisy_runtime in [false, true] {
-        for use_lite_scheduler in [false, true] {
+        for use_lite_scheduler in [Some(false), Some(true)] {
             for io_parallelism in [1, 16] {
                 for item_size in [4096, 32 * 1024] {
                     let runtime = Runtime::new().unwrap();
@@ -221,7 +223,12 @@ fn bench_random_read(c: &mut Criterion) {
                                         .output()
                                         .unwrap();
                                 }
-                                std::env::set_var("IO_THREADS", params.io_parallelism.to_string());
+                                unsafe {
+                                    std::env::set_var(
+                                        "IO_THREADS",
+                                        params.io_parallelism.to_string(),
+                                    );
+                                }
                                 runtime.block_on(async {
                                     // Spawn background CPU tasks if noisy_runtime is enabled
                                     let mut noise_tasks: Vec<JoinHandle<()>> = Vec::new();
@@ -233,10 +240,10 @@ fn bench_random_read(c: &mut Criterion) {
                                         }
                                     }
 
-                                    let mut config = SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing();
-                                    if use_lite_scheduler {
-                                        config = config.with_lite_scheduler();
-                                    }
+                                    let config = SchedulerConfig {
+                                        use_lite_scheduler,
+                                        ..SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing()
+                                    };
                                     let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, config);
                                     let file_scheduler = scheduler
                                         .open_file(&tmp_file, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/encodings.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/encodings.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index de2737f2366..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/encodings.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,38 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-//! Data encodings
-//!
-
-use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, UInt32Array};
-use async_trait::async_trait;
-
-pub mod binary;
-pub mod dictionary;
-pub mod plain;
-
-use crate::ReadBatchParams;
-use lance_core::Result;
-
-/// Encoder - Write an arrow array to the file.
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait Encoder {
-    /// Write an slice of Arrays, and returns the file offset of the beginning of the batch.
-    async fn encode(&mut self, array: &[&dyn Array]) -> Result<usize>;
-}
-
-/// Decoder - Read Arrow Data.
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait Decoder: Send + AsyncIndex<ReadBatchParams> {
-    async fn decode(&self) -> Result<ArrayRef>;
-
-    /// Take by indices.
-    async fn take(&self, indices: &UInt32Array) -> Result<ArrayRef>;
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait AsyncIndex<IndexType> {
-    type Output: Send + Sync;
-
-    async fn get(&self, index: IndexType) -> Self::Output;
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/lib.rs
index f383278fc0a..f2bab646792 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/lib.rs
@@ -7,21 +7,22 @@ use std::{
 
 use arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type;
 use arrow_array::{PrimitiveArray, UInt32Array};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
-pub mod encodings;
 pub mod ffi;
 pub mod local;
 pub mod object_reader;
 pub mod object_store;
 pub mod object_writer;
 pub mod scheduler;
+pub mod spill;
 pub mod stream;
 #[cfg(test)]
 pub mod testing;
 pub mod traits;
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+pub mod uring;
 pub mod utils;
 
 pub use scheduler::{bytes_read_counter, iops_counter};
@@ -154,14 +155,13 @@ impl ReadBatchParams {
     /// return an error.
     pub fn slice(&self, start: usize, length: usize) -> Result<Self> {
         let out_of_bounds = |size: usize| {
-            Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "Cannot slice from {} with length {} given a selection of size {}",
                     start, length, size
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            ))
         };
 
         match self {
@@ -239,15 +239,9 @@ impl ReadBatchParams {
                 }
                 Ok(UInt32Array::from(offsets))
             }
-            Self::RangeFull => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "cannot materialize RangeFull",
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            Self::RangeFull => Err(Error::invalid_input("cannot materialize RangeFull")),
             Self::RangeTo(r) => Ok(UInt32Array::from(Vec::from_iter(0..r.end as u32))),
-            Self::RangeFrom(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "cannot materialize RangeFrom",
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            Self::RangeFrom(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input("cannot materialize RangeFrom")),
         }
     }
 
@@ -260,15 +254,9 @@ impl ReadBatchParams {
             Self::Ranges(ranges) => Ok(Box::new(
                 ranges.iter().map(|r| r.start as u32..r.end as u32),
             )),
-            Self::RangeFull => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "cannot materialize RangeFull",
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            Self::RangeFull => Err(Error::invalid_input("cannot materialize RangeFull")),
             Self::RangeTo(r) => Ok(Box::new(std::iter::once(0..r.end as u32))),
-            Self::RangeFrom(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "cannot materialize RangeFrom",
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            Self::RangeFrom(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input("cannot materialize RangeFrom")),
         }
     }
 
@@ -282,15 +270,9 @@ impl ReadBatchParams {
                 .collect()),
             Self::Range(r) => Ok(vec![r.start as u64..r.end as u64]),
             Self::Ranges(ranges) => Ok(ranges.to_vec()),
-            Self::RangeFull => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "cannot materialize RangeFull",
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            Self::RangeFull => Err(Error::invalid_input("cannot materialize RangeFull")),
             Self::RangeTo(r) => Ok(vec![0..r.end as u64]),
-            Self::RangeFrom(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "cannot materialize RangeFrom",
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            Self::RangeFrom(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input("cannot materialize RangeFrom")),
         }
     }
 
@@ -395,8 +377,10 @@ mod test {
         check_error(ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(RangeTo { end: 10 }), 5, 6);
 
         assert!(ReadBatchParams::RangeFull.to_offsets().is_err());
-        assert!(ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(RangeFrom { start: 10 })
-            .to_offsets()
-            .is_err());
+        assert!(
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(RangeFrom { start: 10 })
+                .to_offsets()
+                .is_err()
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/local.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/local.rs
index a08f81460e2..91e82c4fd0a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/local.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/local.rs
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 //! Optimized local I/Os
 
+use std::collections::HashSet;
 use std::fs::File;
 use std::io::{ErrorKind, Read, SeekFrom};
 use std::ops::Range;
@@ -16,17 +17,19 @@ use std::os::windows::fs::FileExt;
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::{Bytes, BytesMut};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
 use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 use tokio::io::AsyncSeekExt;
 use tokio::sync::OnceCell;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
+use crate::object_reader::stream_local_range;
 use crate::object_store::DEFAULT_LOCAL_IO_PARALLELISM;
-use crate::traits::{Reader, Writer};
+use crate::object_writer::WriteResult;
+use crate::traits::{ByteStream, Reader, Writer};
 use crate::utils::tracking_store::IOTracker;
 
 /// Convert an [`object_store::path::Path`] to a [`std::path::Path`].
@@ -40,17 +43,134 @@ pub fn to_local_path(path: &Path) -> String {
 
 /// Recursively remove a directory, specified by [`object_store::path::Path`].
 pub fn remove_dir_all(path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
-    let local_path = to_local_path(path);
-    std::fs::remove_dir_all(local_path).map_err(|err| match err.kind() {
-        ErrorKind::NotFound => Error::NotFound {
-            uri: path.to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        },
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(to_local_path(path)).map_err(|err| match err.kind() {
+        ErrorKind::NotFound => Error::not_found(path.to_string()),
         _ => Error::from(err),
     })?;
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Remove eligible empty directories below `root` without following symbolic links.
+pub(crate) fn remove_empty_dirs(
+    root: &Path,
+    retained_dirs: &HashSet<Path>,
+    verified_dirs: &HashSet<Path>,
+    unmodified_since: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let root_path = std::path::PathBuf::from(to_local_path(root));
+    let root_metadata = match std::fs::symlink_metadata(&root_path) {
+        Ok(metadata) => metadata,
+        Err(err) if err.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound => return Ok(()),
+        Err(err) => return Err(Error::from(err)),
+    };
+    if !root_metadata.file_type().is_dir() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let canonical_root = std::fs::canonicalize(&root_path)?;
+
+    let mut pending_dirs = vec![(root_path, root.clone(), None::<Path>)];
+    let mut discovered_dirs = Vec::new();
+    let mut file_bearing_roots = HashSet::new();
+    let mut first_error = None;
+    while let Some((local_dir, object_store_dir, index_root)) = pending_dirs.pop() {
+        let entries = match std::fs::read_dir(&local_dir) {
+            Ok(entries) => entries,
+            Err(err) if err.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound => continue,
+            Err(err) => return Err(Error::from(err)),
+        };
+        for entry in entries {
+            let entry = entry?;
+            // DirEntry::file_type does not follow symbolic links. Non-directories, including
+            // symlinks, remain in place and prevent their parent from being removed as empty.
+            if !entry.file_type()?.is_dir() {
+                if let Some(index_root) = &index_root {
+                    file_bearing_roots.insert(index_root.clone());
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(name) = entry.file_name().to_str().map(str::to_owned) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let child = object_store_dir.clone().join(name);
+            if retained_dirs.contains(&child) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let local_child = entry.path();
+            let index_root = index_root.clone().unwrap_or_else(|| child.clone());
+            // Removing a child changes its parent's mtime, so capture age eligibility before
+            // deepest-first deletion starts.
+            let is_old_enough = match std::fs::symlink_metadata(&local_child) {
+                Ok(metadata) => unmodified_since.is_none_or(|threshold| {
+                    metadata
+                        .modified()
+                        .ok()
+                        .map(DateTime::<Utc>::from)
+                        .is_some_and(|modified| modified < threshold)
+                }),
+                Err(err) if err.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound => continue,
+                Err(err) => {
+                    first_error.get_or_insert_with(|| Error::from(err));
+                    false
+                }
+            };
+            discovered_dirs.push((
+                local_child.clone(),
+                child.clone(),
+                index_root.clone(),
+                is_old_enough,
+            ));
+            pending_dirs.push((local_child, child, Some(index_root)));
+        }
+    }
+
+    discovered_dirs.sort_unstable_by_key(|(_, path, _, _)| std::cmp::Reverse(path.parts_count()));
+    for (local_dir, object_store_dir, index_root, is_old_enough) in discovered_dirs {
+        if file_bearing_roots.contains(&index_root) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        match std::fs::symlink_metadata(&local_dir) {
+            Ok(metadata) if metadata.file_type().is_dir() => {}
+            Ok(_) => continue,
+            Err(err) if err.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound => continue,
+            Err(err) => {
+                first_error.get_or_insert_with(|| Error::from(err));
+                continue;
+            }
+        }
+        let is_verified = verified_dirs.contains(&object_store_dir);
+        if !is_verified && !is_old_enough {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        // Canonicalization rejects any directory reached through a symlink outside the supplied
+        // root. Removing the canonical path also avoids trusting prefixes returned by an object
+        // store listing.
+        let canonical_dir = match std::fs::canonicalize(&local_dir) {
+            Ok(path) if path != canonical_root && path.starts_with(&canonical_root) => path,
+            Ok(_) => continue,
+            Err(err) if err.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound => continue,
+            Err(err) => {
+                first_error.get_or_insert_with(|| Error::from(err));
+                continue;
+            }
+        };
+        if let Err(err) = std::fs::remove_dir(canonical_dir)
+            && !matches!(
+                err.kind(),
+                ErrorKind::NotFound | ErrorKind::DirectoryNotEmpty
+            )
+        {
+            first_error.get_or_insert_with(|| Error::from(err));
+        }
+    }
+
+    if let Some(error) = first_error {
+        Err(error)
+    } else {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
 /// Copy a file from one location to another, supporting cross-filesystem copies.
 ///
 /// Unlike hard links, this function works across filesystem boundaries.
@@ -64,15 +184,30 @@ pub fn copy_file(from: &Path, to: &Path) -> Result<()> {
     }
 
     std::fs::copy(&from_path, &to_path).map_err(|err| match err.kind() {
-        ErrorKind::NotFound => Error::NotFound {
-            uri: from.to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        },
+        ErrorKind::NotFound => Error::not_found(from.to_string()),
         _ => Error::from(err),
     })?;
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Await a filesystem operation running on a blocking thread, flattening the
+/// join and IO errors into a single `object_store` error.
+///
+/// Deliberately not written as `handle.await?` at the call sites: a `JoinError`
+/// means the operation panicked, and short-circuiting on it would skip the
+/// caller's metrics recording for exactly the failure worth counting.
+pub(crate) async fn join_local_io<T>(
+    handle: tokio::task::JoinHandle<std::io::Result<T>>,
+) -> object_store::Result<T> {
+    match handle.await {
+        Ok(result) => result.map_err(|err| object_store::Error::Generic {
+            store: "LocalFileSystem",
+            source: err.into(),
+        }),
+        Err(err) => Err(err.into()),
+    }
+}
+
 /// Object reader for local file system.
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct LocalObjectReader {
@@ -94,7 +229,7 @@ pub struct LocalObjectReader {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for LocalObjectReader {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         // Skipping `file` as it should just be a file handle
         self.path.as_ref().deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
@@ -135,10 +270,7 @@ impl LocalObjectReader {
         let local_path = to_local_path(&path);
         tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
             let file = File::open(&local_path).map_err(|e| match e.kind() {
-                ErrorKind::NotFound => Error::NotFound {
-                    uri: path.to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                },
+                ErrorKind::NotFound => Error::not_found(path.to_string()),
                 _ => e.into(),
             })?;
             let size = OnceCell::new_with(known_size);
@@ -173,14 +305,13 @@ impl Reader for LocalObjectReader {
             let file = self.file.clone();
             self.size
                 .get_or_try_init(|| async move {
-                    let metadata = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
-                        file.metadata().map_err(|err| object_store::Error::Generic {
-                            store: "LocalFileSystem",
-                            source: err.into(),
-                        })
-                    })
-                    .await??;
-                    Ok(metadata.len() as usize)
+                    // The metadata lookup is this reader's equivalent of the HEAD
+                    // request a cloud reader makes to learn the object size.
+                    let metrics = self.io_tracker.begin_io("head");
+                    let result =
+                        join_local_io(tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || file.metadata())).await;
+                    metrics.record(&result, 0);
+                    Ok(result?.len() as usize)
                 })
                 .await
                 .cloned()
@@ -197,7 +328,8 @@ impl Reader for LocalObjectReader {
         let range_u64 = (range.start as u64)..(range.end as u64);
 
         Box::pin(async move {
-            let result = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let metrics = io_tracker.begin_io("get");
+            let result = join_local_io(tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
                 let mut buf = BytesMut::with_capacity(range.len());
                 // Safety: `buf` is set with appropriate capacity above. It is
                 // written to below and we check all data is initialized at that point.
@@ -208,13 +340,10 @@ impl Reader for LocalObjectReader {
                 read_exact_at(file, buf.as_mut(), range.start as u64)?;
 
                 Ok(buf.freeze())
-            })
-            .await?
-            .map_err(|err: std::io::Error| object_store::Error::Generic {
-                store: "LocalFileSystem",
-                source: err.into(),
-            });
+            }))
+            .await;
 
+            metrics.record(&result, num_bytes);
             if result.is_ok() {
                 io_tracker.record_read("get_range", path, num_bytes, Some(range_u64));
             }
@@ -231,17 +360,16 @@ impl Reader for LocalObjectReader {
             let io_tracker = self.io_tracker.clone();
             let path = self.path.clone();
 
-            let result = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let metrics = io_tracker.begin_io("get");
+            let result = join_local_io(tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
                 let mut buf = Vec::new();
                 file.read_to_end(buf.as_mut())?;
                 Ok(Bytes::from(buf))
-            })
-            .await?
-            .map_err(|err: std::io::Error| object_store::Error::Generic {
-                store: "LocalFileSystem",
-                source: err.into(),
-            });
+            }))
+            .await;
 
+            let num_bytes = result.as_ref().map_or(0, |bytes| bytes.len() as u64);
+            metrics.record(&result, num_bytes);
             if let Ok(bytes) = &result {
                 io_tracker.record_read("get_all", path, bytes.len() as u64, None);
             }
@@ -249,10 +377,42 @@ impl Reader for LocalObjectReader {
             result
         })
     }
+
+    fn get_stream(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<ByteStream>> {
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            let size = self.size().await?;
+            Ok(stream_local_range(
+                self.file.clone(),
+                self.path.clone(),
+                self.io_tracker.clone(),
+                0..size,
+                self.block_size.max(8 * 1024),
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn get_range_stream(
+        &self,
+        range: Range<usize>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<ByteStream>> {
+        let file = self.file.clone();
+        let path = self.path.clone();
+        let io_tracker = self.io_tracker.clone();
+        let chunk_size = self.block_size.max(8 * 1024);
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            Ok(stream_local_range(
+                file, path, io_tracker, range, chunk_size,
+            ))
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(windows)]
-fn read_exact_at(file: Arc<File>, mut buf: &mut [u8], mut offset: u64) -> std::io::Result<()> {
+pub(crate) fn read_exact_at(
+    file: Arc<File>,
+    mut buf: &mut [u8],
+    mut offset: u64,
+) -> std::io::Result<()> {
     let expected_len = buf.len();
     while !buf.is_empty() {
         match file.seek_read(buf, offset) {
@@ -284,4 +444,10 @@ impl Writer for tokio::fs::File {
     async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<usize> {
         Ok(self.seek(SeekFrom::Current(0)).await? as usize)
     }
+
+    async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        let size = self.seek(SeekFrom::Current(0)).await? as usize;
+        tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(self).await?;
+        Ok(WriteResult { size, e_tag: None })
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_reader.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_reader.rs
index b81a3d75752..15cfdfaa068 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_reader.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_reader.rs
@@ -1,21 +1,33 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::fs::File;
 use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use crate::local::join_local_io;
+#[cfg(windows)]
+use crate::local::read_exact_at;
+#[cfg(unix)]
+use std::os::unix::fs::FileExt;
+
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use futures::{
-    future::{BoxFuture, Shared},
     FutureExt,
+    future::{BoxFuture, Shared},
+    stream::{self, StreamExt},
 };
-use lance_core::{error::CloneableError, Error, Result};
-use object_store::{path::Path, GetOptions, GetResult, ObjectStore, Result as OSResult};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, error::CloneableError};
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+use object_store::{GetOptions, GetResult, ObjectStore, Result as OSResult, path::Path};
 use tokio::sync::OnceCell;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
-use crate::{object_store::DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, traits::Reader};
+use crate::{
+    object_store::DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM,
+    traits::{ByteStream, Reader},
+};
 
 trait StaticGetRange {
     fn path(&self) -> &Path;
@@ -59,11 +71,12 @@ pub struct CloudObjectReader {
     size: OnceCell<usize>,
 
     block_size: usize,
+    io_parallelism: usize,
     download_retry_count: usize,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for CloudObjectReader {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         // Skipping object_store because there is no easy way to do that and it shouldn't be too big
         self.path.as_ref().deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
@@ -83,9 +96,21 @@ impl CloudObjectReader {
             path,
             size: OnceCell::new_with(known_size),
             block_size,
+            io_parallelism: DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM,
             download_retry_count,
         })
     }
+
+    /// Override the I/O parallelism this reader advertises.
+    ///
+    /// `ObjectStore::open` / `open_with_size` pass their normalized effective
+    /// parallelism (`LANCE_IO_THREADS` override applied, at least 1) so
+    /// consumers that size concurrency windows off the reader honor the
+    /// configured request limit instead of the hardcoded cloud default.
+    pub fn with_io_parallelism(mut self, io_parallelism: usize) -> Self {
+        self.io_parallelism = io_parallelism;
+        self
+    }
 }
 
 // Retries for the initial request are handled by object store, but
@@ -126,7 +151,13 @@ async fn do_get_with_outer_retry(
             Ok(bytes) => return Ok(bytes),
             Err(err) => {
                 if retries == 0 {
-                    log::warn!("Failed to download {} from {} after {} attempts.  This may indicate that cloud storage is overloaded or your timeout settings are too restrictive.  Error details: {:?}", desc(), get_request.path(), download_retry_count, err);
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "Failed to download {} from {} after {} attempts.  This may indicate that cloud storage is overloaded or your timeout settings are too restrictive.  Error details: {:?}",
+                        desc(),
+                        get_request.path(),
+                        download_retry_count,
+                        err
+                    );
                     return Err(err);
                 }
                 log::debug!(
@@ -152,7 +183,7 @@ impl Reader for CloudObjectReader {
     }
 
     fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
-        DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM
+        self.io_parallelism
     }
 
     /// Object/File Size.
@@ -160,7 +191,8 @@ impl Reader for CloudObjectReader {
         Box::pin(async move {
             self.size
                 .get_or_try_init(|| async move {
-                    let meta = do_with_retry(|| self.object_store.head(&self.path)).await?;
+                    let meta =
+                        do_with_retry(|| Box::pin(self.object_store.head(&self.path))).await?;
                     Ok(meta.size as usize)
                 })
                 .await
@@ -170,6 +202,46 @@ impl Reader for CloudObjectReader {
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
     fn get_range(&self, range: Range<usize>) -> BoxFuture<'static, OSResult<Bytes>> {
+        let object_store = self.object_store.clone();
+        let path = self.path.clone();
+        let range = Range {
+            start: range.start as u64,
+            end: range.end as u64,
+        };
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            do_with_retry(|| Box::pin(object_store.get_range(&path, range.clone()))).await
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn get_all(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, OSResult<Bytes>> {
+        let get_request = Arc::new(GetRequest {
+            object_store: self.object_store.clone(),
+            path: self.path.clone(),
+            options: GetOptions::default(),
+        });
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            do_get_with_outer_retry(self.download_retry_count, get_request, || {
+                "read_all".to_string()
+            })
+            .await
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn get_stream(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, OSResult<ByteStream>> {
+        let get_request = Arc::new(GetRequest {
+            object_store: self.object_store.clone(),
+            path: self.path.clone(),
+            options: GetOptions::default(),
+        });
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            let get_request_clone = get_request.clone();
+            let get_result = do_with_retry(move || get_request_clone.get_range()).await?;
+            Ok(get_result.into_stream())
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn get_range_stream(&self, range: Range<usize>) -> BoxFuture<'_, OSResult<ByteStream>> {
         let get_request = Arc::new(GetRequest {
             object_store: self.object_store.clone(),
             path: self.path.clone(),
@@ -184,25 +256,10 @@ impl Reader for CloudObjectReader {
                 ..Default::default()
             },
         });
-        Box::pin(do_get_with_outer_retry(
-            self.download_retry_count,
-            get_request,
-            move || format!("range {:?}", range),
-        ))
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    fn get_all(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, OSResult<Bytes>> {
-        let get_request = Arc::new(GetRequest {
-            object_store: self.object_store.clone(),
-            path: self.path.clone(),
-            options: GetOptions::default(),
-        });
         Box::pin(async move {
-            do_get_with_outer_retry(self.download_retry_count, get_request, || {
-                "read_all".to_string()
-            })
-            .await
+            let get_request_clone = get_request.clone();
+            let get_result = do_with_retry(move || get_request_clone.get_range()).await?;
+            Ok(get_result.into_stream())
         })
     }
 }
@@ -344,14 +401,61 @@ impl Reader for SmallReader {
     }
 }
 
+pub(crate) fn stream_local_range(
+    file: Arc<File>,
+    path: Path,
+    io_tracker: Arc<crate::utils::tracking_store::IOTracker>,
+    range: Range<usize>,
+    chunk_size: usize,
+) -> ByteStream {
+    stream::try_unfold(
+        (file, path, io_tracker, range.start, range.end),
+        move |state| async move {
+            let (file, path, io_tracker, start, end) = state;
+            if start >= end {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+
+            let next = (start + chunk_size).min(end);
+            let file_clone = file.clone();
+            let path_clone = path.clone();
+            let num_bytes = (next - start) as u64;
+            let metrics = io_tracker.begin_io("get");
+            let result = join_local_io(tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+                let mut buf = bytes::BytesMut::with_capacity(next - start);
+                // Safety: buffer capacity matches the exact number of bytes we read below.
+                unsafe { buf.set_len(next - start) };
+                #[cfg(unix)]
+                file_clone.read_exact_at(buf.as_mut(), start as u64)?;
+                #[cfg(windows)]
+                read_exact_at(file_clone, buf.as_mut(), start as u64)?;
+                Ok::<_, std::io::Error>(buf.freeze())
+            }))
+            .await;
+            metrics.record(&result, num_bytes);
+            let bytes = result?;
+
+            io_tracker.record_read(
+                "get_range_stream",
+                path_clone,
+                num_bytes,
+                Some(start as u64..next as u64),
+            );
+
+            Ok(Some((bytes, (file, path, io_tracker, next, end))))
+        },
+    )
+    .boxed()
+}
+
 impl DeepSizeOf for SmallReader {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         let mut size = self.inner.path.as_ref().deep_size_of_children(context);
 
-        if let Ok(guard) = self.inner.state.try_lock() {
-            if let SmallReaderState::Finished(Ok(data)) = &*guard {
-                size += data.len();
-            }
+        if let Ok(guard) = self.inner.state.try_lock()
+            && let SmallReaderState::Finished(Ok(data)) = &*guard
+        {
+            size += data.len();
         }
 
         size
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store.rs
index 2e0921542b2..21cf127a321 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store.rs
@@ -3,41 +3,73 @@
 
 //! Extend [object_store::ObjectStore] functionalities
 
-use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::ops::Range;
+#[cfg(unix)]
+use std::os::unix::fs::PermissionsExt;
 use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::str::FromStr;
 use std::sync::Arc;
-use std::time::Duration;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 
+use ::tracing::{Span, field::Empty, instrument};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
 use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::{future, stream::BoxStream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use futures::{FutureExt, Stream};
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, future, stream::BoxStream};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
-use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
+use lance_core::utils::parse::{parse_env_as_bool, str_is_truthy};
 use list_retry::ListRetryStream;
+use object_store::DynObjectStore;
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt as OSObjectStoreExt;
 #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
 use object_store::aws::AwsCredentialProvider;
-use object_store::DynObjectStore;
-use object_store::Error as ObjectStoreError;
-use object_store::{path::Path, ObjectMeta, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore};
+use object_store::list::PaginatedListStore;
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+use object_store::{ClientOptions, HeaderMap, HeaderValue};
+use object_store::{
+    ListResult, ObjectMeta, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, PutMode, PutOptions, PutPayload,
+    path::Path,
+};
 use providers::local::FileStoreProvider;
 use providers::memory::MemoryStoreProvider;
-use shellexpand::tilde;
-use snafu::location;
 use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 use url::Url;
 
 use super::local::LocalObjectReader;
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+use crate::uring::{UringCurrentThreadReader, UringReader};
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+pub(crate) mod dynamic_credentials;
+#[cfg(any(feature = "oss", feature = "huggingface", feature = "tos"))]
+pub(crate) mod dynamic_opendal;
 mod list_retry;
+#[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+pub mod metrics;
+#[cfg(any(
+    feature = "aws",
+    feature = "gcp",
+    feature = "azure",
+    feature = "oss",
+    feature = "tencent",
+    feature = "huggingface",
+    feature = "tos",
+    feature = "goosefs",
+))]
+pub(crate) mod opendal_store;
 pub mod providers;
+pub(crate) mod read_dir;
 pub mod storage_options;
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(crate) mod test_utils;
+pub mod throttle;
 mod tracing;
 use crate::object_reader::SmallReader;
-use crate::object_writer::WriteResult;
+use crate::object_writer::{LocalWriter, WriteResult};
+use crate::traits::{WriteExt, Writer};
 use crate::utils::tracking_store::{IOTracker, IoStats};
 use crate::{object_reader::CloudObjectReader, object_writer::ObjectWriter, traits::Reader};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
@@ -50,8 +82,19 @@ pub const DEFAULT_LOCAL_IO_PARALLELISM: usize = 8;
 // Cloud disks often need many many threads to saturate the network
 pub const DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM: usize = 64;
 
+const SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED_ENV: &str = "LANCE_IO_SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED";
+
 const DEFAULT_LOCAL_BLOCK_SIZE: usize = 4 * 1024; // 4KB block size
-#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "gcp", feature = "azure"))]
+#[cfg(any(
+    feature = "aws",
+    feature = "gcp",
+    feature = "azure",
+    feature = "oss",
+    feature = "tencent",
+    feature = "huggingface",
+    feature = "tos",
+    feature = "goosefs",
+))]
 const DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE: usize = 64 * 1024; // 64KB block size
 
 pub static DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE: std::sync::LazyLock<u64> = std::sync::LazyLock::new(|| {
@@ -62,10 +105,51 @@ pub static DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE: std::sync::LazyLock<u64> = std::sync::LazyLock:
 
 pub const DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT: usize = 3;
 
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct StreamCopyError {
+    stage: &'static str,
+    source_path: String,
+    destination_path: String,
+    source: Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for StreamCopyError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(
+            f,
+            "multipart_stream_copy failed during {} from {} to {}: {}",
+            self.stage, self.source_path, self.destination_path, self.source
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for StreamCopyError {
+    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn std::error::Error + 'static)> {
+        Some(self.source.as_ref())
+    }
+}
+
+fn stream_copy_error(
+    stage: &'static str,
+    source_path: &Path,
+    destination_path: &Path,
+    source: impl std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static,
+) -> Error {
+    Error::io_source(Box::new(StreamCopyError {
+        stage,
+        source_path: source_path.to_string(),
+        destination_path: destination_path.to_string(),
+        source: Box::new(source),
+    }))
+}
+
 pub use providers::{ObjectStoreProvider, ObjectStoreRegistry};
+pub use read_dir::ReadDirOptions;
 pub use storage_options::{
-    LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, StorageOptionsAccessor, StorageOptionsProvider,
-    EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY, REFRESH_OFFSET_MILLIS_KEY,
+    BASE_SCOPED_OPTION_PREFIX, BaseScopedStorageOptionsProvider, EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY,
+    LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, REFRESH_OFFSET_MILLIS_KEY, StorageOptionsAccessor,
+    StorageOptionsProvider, has_base_scoped_options, parse_base_scoped_key,
+    resolve_base_scoped_options,
 };
 
 #[async_trait]
@@ -83,6 +167,11 @@ pub trait ObjectStoreExt {
     ) -> BoxStream<'a, Result<ObjectMeta>>;
 }
 
+#[async_trait]
+pub(super) trait LocalDirOperations: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
+    async fn remove_dir_all(&self, path: &Path) -> Result<()>;
+}
+
 #[async_trait]
 impl<O: OSObjectStore + ?Sized> ObjectStoreExt for O {
     fn read_dir_all<'a, 'b>(
@@ -110,10 +199,12 @@ impl<O: OSObjectStore + ?Sized> ObjectStoreExt for O {
 }
 
 /// Wraps [ObjectStore](object_store::ObjectStore)
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct ObjectStore {
     // Inner object store
     pub inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+    // Provider-owned native directory operations for rooted local stores.
+    local_dir_operations: Option<Arc<dyn LocalDirOperations>>,
     scheme: String,
     block_size: usize,
     max_iop_size: u64,
@@ -132,10 +223,35 @@ pub struct ObjectStore {
     /// which usually cannot be found in the URL such as Azure account name. The prefix plus the
     /// path uniquely identifies any object inside the store.
     pub store_prefix: String,
+    /// The backend's paginated listing API, when it has one. `None` means
+    /// [`Self::read_dir_page`] has to list a directory in full to page through it.
+    pub(crate) paginated_lister: Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>>,
+}
+
+// Hand-written because `PaginatedListStore` is not `Debug`.
+impl std::fmt::Debug for ObjectStore {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("ObjectStore")
+            .field("inner", &self.inner)
+            .field("scheme", &self.scheme)
+            .field("block_size", &self.block_size)
+            .field("max_iop_size", &self.max_iop_size)
+            .field(
+                "use_constant_size_upload_parts",
+                &self.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
+            )
+            .field("list_is_lexically_ordered", &self.list_is_lexically_ordered)
+            .field("io_parallelism", &self.io_parallelism)
+            .field("download_retry_count", &self.download_retry_count)
+            .field("io_tracker", &self.io_tracker)
+            .field("store_prefix", &self.store_prefix)
+            .field("paginated_lister", &self.paginated_lister.is_some())
+            .finish()
+    }
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ObjectStore {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         // We aren't counting `inner` here which is problematic but an ObjectStore
         // shouldn't be too big.  The only exception might be the write cache but, if
         // the writer cache has data, it means we're using it somewhere else that isn't
@@ -156,6 +272,34 @@ pub trait WrappingObjectStore: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
     /// The store_prefix is a string which uniquely identifies the object
     /// store being wrapped.
     fn wrap(&self, store_prefix: &str, original: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>) -> Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>;
+
+    /// Wrap the paginated listing API that goes with the store, if it has one.
+    ///
+    /// [`ObjectStore::read_dir_page`] pushes the page size and the resume position into
+    /// [`PaginatedListStore`], which is a separate trait from [`OSObjectStore`] and so cannot
+    /// be reached through the store [`Self::wrap`] returns. A listing that is pushed down
+    /// therefore does not pass through [`Self::wrap`], and this is where a wrapper says what
+    /// should happen instead:
+    ///
+    /// - `Some(lister)` keeps the pushdown, wrapping the lister or handing back the one
+    ///   given. Right for a wrapper that observes rather than intercepts — metering, caching,
+    ///   mirroring writes.
+    /// - `None` gives up the pushdown, so listings go through [`Self::wrap`] as a full
+    ///   directory read. Right for a wrapper that hides, rewrites or fails paths, which a
+    ///   pushed-down listing would otherwise walk straight past.
+    ///
+    /// A wrapper that keeps the pushdown must leave the listing itself alone: setting
+    /// [`offset`](object_store::list::PaginatedListOptions::offset) or changing the delimiter
+    /// breaks paging, since `read_dir_page` reads one directory level and resumes by the token
+    /// it got back.
+    ///
+    /// There is deliberately no default: getting this wrong is either a silent loss of speed
+    /// or a silent loss of the wrapper, and neither announces itself.
+    fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        store_prefix: &str,
+        original: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>>;
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -179,6 +323,18 @@ impl WrappingObjectStore for ChainedWrappingObjectStore {
             .iter()
             .fold(original, |acc, wrapper| wrapper.wrap(store_prefix, acc))
     }
+
+    // One wrapper giving up the pushdown gives it up for the chain: the listing has to go
+    // through `wrap`, which is every wrapper in the chain at once.
+    fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        store_prefix: &str,
+        original: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>> {
+        self.wrappers.iter().try_fold(original, |acc, wrapper| {
+            wrapper.wrap_paginated(store_prefix, acc)
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 /// Parameters to create an [ObjectStore]
@@ -239,6 +395,45 @@ impl ObjectStoreParams {
             .as_ref()
             .and_then(|a| a.initial_storage_options())
     }
+
+    /// The block size to use: the explicit `block_size` parameter, else the
+    /// `block_size` storage option, else `None` for the store's default.
+    pub fn resolved_block_size(&self) -> Result<Option<usize>> {
+        if self.block_size.is_some() {
+            return Ok(self.block_size);
+        }
+        match self.storage_options() {
+            Some(options) => StorageOptions(options.clone()).block_size(),
+            None => Ok(None),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve these params for a single base path scope.
+    ///
+    /// Storage options may carry base-scoped entries (`base_<id>.<key>`) that
+    /// apply only to one registered base path; see
+    /// [`StorageOptionsAccessor::scoped_to_base`]. Returns the params unchanged
+    /// when the storage options contain no base-scoped entries.
+    pub fn scoped_to_base(&self, base_id: Option<u32>) -> Cow<'_, Self> {
+        let Some(accessor) = &self.storage_options_accessor else {
+            return Cow::Borrowed(self);
+        };
+        let scoped = accessor.scoped_to_base(base_id);
+        if Arc::ptr_eq(&scoped, accessor) {
+            Cow::Borrowed(self)
+        } else {
+            Cow::Owned(Self {
+                storage_options_accessor: Some(scoped),
+                ..self.clone()
+            })
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn wrapper_allocation_ptr(wrapper: &Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>) -> *const () {
+    // Trait object pointers include vtable metadata, which is not stable across codegen units.
+    // Cache identity must follow the Arc allocation instead.
+    Arc::as_ptr(wrapper) as *const ()
 }
 
 // We implement hash for caching
@@ -257,7 +452,7 @@ impl std::hash::Hash for ObjectStoreParams {
             Arc::as_ptr(aws_credentials).hash(state);
         }
         if let Some(wrapper) = &self.object_store_wrapper {
-            Arc::as_ptr(wrapper).hash(state);
+            wrapper_allocation_ptr(wrapper).hash(state);
         }
         if let Some(accessor) = &self.storage_options_accessor {
             accessor.accessor_id().hash(state);
@@ -289,8 +484,14 @@ impl PartialEq for ObjectStoreParams {
                     .as_ref()
                     .map(|(store, url)| (Arc::as_ptr(store), url))
             && self.s3_credentials_refresh_offset == other.s3_credentials_refresh_offset
-            && self.object_store_wrapper.as_ref().map(Arc::as_ptr)
-                == other.object_store_wrapper.as_ref().map(Arc::as_ptr)
+            && self
+                .object_store_wrapper
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(wrapper_allocation_ptr)
+                == other
+                    .object_store_wrapper
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(wrapper_allocation_ptr)
             && self
                 .storage_options_accessor
                 .as_ref()
@@ -336,28 +537,44 @@ pub fn uri_to_url(uri: &str) -> Result<Url> {
 }
 
 fn expand_path(str_path: impl AsRef<str>) -> Result<std::path::PathBuf> {
-    let expanded = tilde(str_path.as_ref()).to_string();
+    let str_path = str_path.as_ref();
+    let expanded = expand_tilde_path(str_path).unwrap_or_else(|| str_path.into());
 
     let mut expanded_path = path_abs::PathAbs::new(expanded)
         .unwrap()
         .as_path()
         .to_path_buf();
     // path_abs::PathAbs::new(".") returns an empty string.
-    if let Some(s) = expanded_path.as_path().to_str() {
-        if s.is_empty() {
-            expanded_path = std::env::current_dir()?;
-        }
+    if let Some(s) = expanded_path.as_path().to_str()
+        && s.is_empty()
+    {
+        expanded_path = std::env::current_dir()?;
     }
 
     Ok(expanded_path)
 }
 
+fn expand_tilde_path(path: &str) -> Option<std::path::PathBuf> {
+    let home_dir = std::env::home_dir()?;
+    if path == "~" {
+        return Some(home_dir);
+    }
+    if let Some(stripped) = path.strip_prefix("~/") {
+        return Some(home_dir.join(stripped));
+    }
+    #[cfg(windows)]
+    if let Some(stripped) = path.strip_prefix("~\\") {
+        return Some(home_dir.join(stripped));
+    }
+
+    None
+}
+
 fn local_path_to_url(str_path: &str) -> Result<Url> {
     let expanded_path = expand_path(str_path)?;
 
-    Url::from_directory_path(expanded_path).map_err(|_| Error::InvalidInput {
-        source: format!("Invalid table location: '{}'", str_path).into(),
-        location: location!(),
+    Url::from_directory_path(expanded_path).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(format!("Invalid table location: '{}'", str_path).into())
     })
 }
 
@@ -378,7 +595,6 @@ fn parse_hf_repo_id(url: &Url) -> Result<String> {
     if segments.len() < 2 {
         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
             "Huggingface URL must contain at least owner and repo",
-            location!(),
         ));
     }
 
@@ -387,7 +603,6 @@ fn parse_hf_repo_id(url: &Url) -> Result<String> {
         if segments.len() < 3 {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Huggingface URL missing owner/repo after repo type",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
         (segments[1].as_str(), segments[2].as_str())
@@ -423,24 +638,54 @@ impl ObjectStore {
         registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
         uri: &str,
         params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<Self>, Path)> {
+        Self::from_uri_and_params_impl(registry, uri, params, true).await
+    }
+
+    /// Parse a URI and build a fresh object store outside the registry cache.
+    ///
+    /// The caller must retain the returned store for as long as its
+    /// provider-local state should be reused.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub async fn from_uri_and_params_uncached(
+        registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+        uri: &str,
+        params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<Self>, Path)> {
+        Self::from_uri_and_params_impl(registry, uri, params, false).await
+    }
+
+    async fn from_uri_and_params_impl(
+        registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+        uri: &str,
+        params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+        use_registry_cache: bool,
     ) -> Result<(Arc<Self>, Path)> {
         #[allow(deprecated)]
         if let Some((store, path)) = params.object_store.as_ref() {
             let mut inner = store.clone();
             let store_prefix =
                 registry.calculate_object_store_prefix(uri, params.storage_options())?;
+
+            let mut io_tracker = IOTracker::default();
+            meter_store(
+                &mut inner,
+                &mut io_tracker,
+                &metrics_base(&store_prefix, path),
+            );
+
             if let Some(wrapper) = params.object_store_wrapper.as_ref() {
                 inner = wrapper.wrap(&store_prefix, inner);
             }
 
             // Always wrap with IO tracking
-            let io_tracker = IOTracker::default();
             let tracked_store = io_tracker.wrap("", inner);
 
             let store = Self {
                 inner: tracked_store,
+                local_dir_operations: None,
                 scheme: path.scheme().to_string(),
-                block_size: params.block_size.unwrap_or(64 * 1024),
+                block_size: params.resolved_block_size()?.unwrap_or(64 * 1024),
                 max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
                 use_constant_size_upload_parts: params.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
                 list_is_lexically_ordered: params.list_is_lexically_ordered.unwrap_or_default(),
@@ -448,13 +693,19 @@ impl ObjectStore {
                 download_retry_count: DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT,
                 io_tracker,
                 store_prefix,
+                // Type-erased on the way in, so there is no telling if it can paginate.
+                paginated_lister: None,
             };
             let path = Path::parse(path.path())?;
             return Ok((Arc::new(store), path));
         }
         let url = uri_to_url(uri)?;
 
-        let store = registry.get_store(url.clone(), params).await?;
+        let store = if use_registry_cache {
+            registry.get_store(url.clone(), params).await?
+        } else {
+            registry.new_store(url.clone(), params).await?
+        };
         // We know the scheme is valid if we got a store back.
         let provider = registry.get_provider(url.scheme()).expect_ok()?;
         let path = provider.extract_path(&url)?;
@@ -477,9 +728,9 @@ impl ObjectStore {
     /// The extracted path component
     pub fn extract_path_from_uri(registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>, uri: &str) -> Result<Path> {
         let url = uri_to_url(uri)?;
-        let provider = registry.get_provider(url.scheme()).ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input(format!("Unknown scheme: {}", url.scheme()), location!())
-        })?;
+        let provider = registry
+            .get_provider(url.scheme())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("Unknown scheme: {}", url.scheme())))?;
         provider.extract_path(&url)
     }
 
@@ -516,11 +767,30 @@ impl ObjectStore {
 
     /// Returns true if the object store pointed to a local file system.
     pub fn is_local(&self) -> bool {
-        self.scheme == "file"
+        self.scheme == "file" || self.scheme == "file+uring"
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true when object paths directly encode absolute local filesystem paths.
+    ///
+    /// Local stores rooted below the filesystem root, such as UNC-backed stores, use
+    /// their inner object-store implementation instead of direct filesystem access.
+    pub fn has_direct_local_paths(&self) -> bool {
+        self.is_local() && self.store_prefix == self.scheme
     }
 
     pub fn is_cloud(&self) -> bool {
-        self.scheme != "file" && self.scheme != "memory"
+        if self.is_local() || self.scheme == "memory" || self.scheme == "shared-memory" {
+            return false;
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this object store prefers the lite scheduler.
+    ///
+    /// The lite scheduler is designed for backends like io_uring where
+    /// tasks should only be polled when the consumer polls them.
+    pub fn prefers_lite_scheduler(&self) -> bool {
+        self.scheme == "file+uring"
     }
 
     pub fn scheme(&self) -> &str {
@@ -535,10 +805,17 @@ impl ObjectStore {
         self.max_iop_size
     }
 
+    /// The amount of parallelism to use for I/O operations.
+    ///
+    /// Honors the `LANCE_IO_THREADS` override when set, otherwise the store's configured value.
+    /// Always at least 1: callers feed this straight into `buffered` / `buffer_unordered`, and a
+    /// window of 0 makes those streams never poll their input — e.g. a metadata-only `count_rows`
+    /// would hang rather than return.
     pub fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
         std::env::var("LANCE_IO_THREADS")
             .map(|val| val.parse::<usize>().unwrap())
             .unwrap_or(self.io_parallelism)
+            .max(1)
     }
 
     /// Get the IO tracker for this object store
@@ -566,13 +843,26 @@ impl ObjectStore {
         self.io_tracker.incremental_stats()
     }
 
+    /// Apply a [`WrappingObjectStore`] to both `inner` and `paginated_lister` together.
+    ///
+    /// Keeps both halves in sync: a wrapper returning `None` from
+    /// [`WrappingObjectStore::wrap_paginated`] clears the lister so that
+    /// [`Self::read_dir_page`] falls back through the (already-wrapped) `inner`.
+    pub fn apply_wrapper(&mut self, wrapper: &dyn WrappingObjectStore) {
+        self.inner = wrapper.wrap(&self.store_prefix, self.inner.clone());
+        self.paginated_lister = self
+            .paginated_lister
+            .take()
+            .and_then(|lister| wrapper.wrap_paginated(&self.store_prefix, lister));
+    }
+
     /// Open a file for path.
     ///
     /// Parameters
     /// - ``path``: Absolute path to the file.
     pub async fn open(&self, path: &Path) -> Result<Box<dyn Reader>> {
         match self.scheme.as_str() {
-            "file" => {
+            "file" if self.has_direct_local_paths() => {
                 LocalObjectReader::open_with_tracker(
                     path,
                     self.block_size,
@@ -581,13 +871,41 @@ impl ObjectStore {
                 )
                 .await
             }
-            _ => Ok(Box::new(CloudObjectReader::new(
-                self.inner.clone(),
-                path.clone(),
-                self.block_size,
-                None,
-                self.download_retry_count,
-            )?)),
+            #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+            "file+uring" => {
+                // Check if current-thread mode enabled
+                let use_current_thread = std::env::var("LANCE_URING_CURRENT_THREAD")
+                    .map(|v| str_is_truthy(&v))
+                    .unwrap_or(false);
+
+                if use_current_thread {
+                    UringCurrentThreadReader::open(
+                        path,
+                        self.block_size,
+                        None,
+                        Arc::new(self.io_tracker.clone()),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                } else {
+                    UringReader::open(
+                        path,
+                        self.block_size,
+                        None,
+                        Arc::new(self.io_tracker.clone()),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                }
+            }
+            _ => Ok(Box::new(
+                CloudObjectReader::new(
+                    self.inner.clone(),
+                    path.clone(),
+                    self.block_size,
+                    None,
+                    self.download_retry_count,
+                )?
+                .with_io_parallelism(self.io_parallelism()),
+            )),
         }
     }
 
@@ -609,7 +927,7 @@ impl ObjectStore {
         }
 
         match self.scheme.as_str() {
-            "file" => {
+            "file" if self.has_direct_local_paths() => {
                 LocalObjectReader::open_with_tracker(
                     path,
                     self.block_size,
@@ -618,13 +936,41 @@ impl ObjectStore {
                 )
                 .await
             }
-            _ => Ok(Box::new(CloudObjectReader::new(
-                self.inner.clone(),
-                path.clone(),
-                self.block_size,
-                Some(known_size),
-                self.download_retry_count,
-            )?)),
+            #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+            "file+uring" => {
+                // Check if current-thread mode enabled
+                let use_current_thread = std::env::var("LANCE_URING_CURRENT_THREAD")
+                    .map(|v| str_is_truthy(&v))
+                    .unwrap_or(false);
+
+                if use_current_thread {
+                    UringCurrentThreadReader::open(
+                        path,
+                        self.block_size,
+                        Some(known_size),
+                        Arc::new(self.io_tracker.clone()),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                } else {
+                    UringReader::open(
+                        path,
+                        self.block_size,
+                        Some(known_size),
+                        Arc::new(self.io_tracker.clone()),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                }
+            }
+            _ => Ok(Box::new(
+                CloudObjectReader::new(
+                    self.inner.clone(),
+                    path.clone(),
+                    self.block_size,
+                    Some(known_size),
+                    self.download_retry_count,
+                )?
+                .with_io_parallelism(self.io_parallelism()),
+            )),
         }
     }
 
@@ -633,7 +979,7 @@ impl ObjectStore {
         let object_store = Self::local();
         let absolute_path = expand_path(path.to_string_lossy())?;
         let os_path = Path::from_absolute_path(absolute_path)?;
-        object_store.create(&os_path).await
+        ObjectWriter::new(&object_store, &os_path).await
     }
 
     /// Open an [Reader] from local [std::path::Path]
@@ -645,15 +991,100 @@ impl ObjectStore {
     }
 
     /// Create a new file.
-    pub async fn create(&self, path: &Path) -> Result<ObjectWriter> {
-        ObjectWriter::new(self, path).await
+    pub async fn create(&self, path: &Path) -> Result<Box<dyn Writer>> {
+        match self.scheme.as_str() {
+            "file" if self.has_direct_local_paths() => {
+                let local_path = super::local::to_local_path(path);
+                let local_path = std::path::PathBuf::from(&local_path);
+                if let Some(parent) = local_path.parent() {
+                    tokio::fs::create_dir_all(parent).await?;
+                }
+                let parent = local_path
+                    .parent()
+                    .expect("file path must have parent")
+                    .to_owned();
+                let named_temp = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+                    #[cfg(unix)]
+                    {
+                        // NamedTempFile defaults to 0o600. Use ordinary file creation permissions so the published file honors the caller's umask.
+                        tempfile::Builder::new()
+                            .permissions(std::fs::Permissions::from_mode(0o666))
+                            .tempfile_in(parent)
+                    }
+                    #[cfg(not(unix))]
+                    tempfile::NamedTempFile::new_in(parent)
+                })
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("spawn_blocking failed: {}", e)))??;
+                let (std_file, temp_path) = named_temp.into_parts();
+                let file = tokio::fs::File::from_std(std_file);
+                Ok(Box::new(LocalWriter::new(
+                    file,
+                    path.clone(),
+                    temp_path,
+                    Arc::new(self.io_tracker.clone()),
+                )))
+            }
+            _ => Ok(Box::new(ObjectWriter::new(self, path).await?)),
+        }
     }
 
     /// A helper function to create a file and write content to it.
     pub async fn put(&self, path: &Path, content: &[u8]) -> Result<WriteResult> {
         let mut writer = self.create(path).await?;
         writer.write_all(content).await?;
-        writer.shutdown().await
+        Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await
+    }
+
+    /// Atomically creates an object without replacing an existing object.
+    ///
+    /// Local stores publish a uniquely named staging object with a conditional
+    /// rename. Other stores use their conditional create operation. Tencent COS
+    /// is rejected because it can silently ignore conditional create requests.
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`object_store::Error::NotSupported`] without writing when the
+    /// backend cannot reliably provide put-if-absent semantics.
+    pub async fn put_if_absent(
+        &self,
+        path: &Path,
+        content: PutPayload,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
+        if self.scheme == "cos" {
+            return Err(object_store::Error::NotSupported {
+                source: "Tencent COS does not reliably enforce put-if-absent after bucket \
+                         versioning has ever been enabled"
+                    .into(),
+            });
+        }
+
+        if self.is_local() {
+            let staging_path =
+                Path::from(format!("{}.tmp.{}", path, uuid::Uuid::new_v4().simple()));
+            self.inner.put(&staging_path, content).await?;
+            let result = self.inner.rename_if_not_exists(&staging_path, path).await;
+            if result.is_err()
+                && let Err(error) = self.inner.delete(&staging_path).await
+            {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Failed to remove staging object {} after atomic create failed: {}",
+                    staging_path,
+                    error
+                );
+            }
+            result
+        } else {
+            self.inner
+                .put_opts(
+                    path,
+                    content,
+                    PutOptions {
+                        mode: PutMode::Create,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    },
+                )
+                .await
+                .map(|_| ())
+        }
     }
 
     pub async fn delete(&self, path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
@@ -661,15 +1092,391 @@ impl ObjectStore {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    /// AWS S3 and GCS reject a single-shot server-side copy whose source is
+    /// larger than this; such sources are streamed through a multipart write.
+    const MAX_SINGLE_COPY_BYTES: u64 = 5 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024; // 5 GiB
+
     pub async fn copy(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> Result<()> {
-        if self.is_local() {
+        // S3 and GCS cap single-shot server-side copies at 5 GiB and object_store
+        // does not fall back to a multipart copy for larger sources
+        // (https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs-object-store/issues/563). Azure and
+        // other blob stores don't have this limit, so we only pay for the fallback
+        // (an extra size lookup) on S3 and GCS.
+        let multipart_copy_fallback = matches!(self.scheme.as_str(), "s3" | "s3+ddb" | "gs");
+        self.copy_impl(
+            from,
+            to,
+            multipart_copy_fallback,
+            Self::MAX_SINGLE_COPY_BYTES,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Copy an object using the policy for bulk file movement.
+    ///
+    /// Streaming is the default because it works across object stores and does
+    /// not require provider-native copy support. Setting
+    /// `LANCE_IO_SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED` to a truthy value opts same-store
+    /// copies into [`Self::copy`]. Cross-store and local copies continue to use
+    /// [`Self::copy_via_stream`].
+    ///
+    /// ```no_run
+    /// # use lance_core::Result;
+    /// # use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    /// # use object_store::path::Path;
+    /// # async fn copy(source: &ObjectStore, destination: &ObjectStore) -> Result<()> {
+    /// source
+    ///     .copy_bulk(
+    ///         &Path::from("staging/index.lance"),
+    ///         destination,
+    ///         &Path::from("index.lance"),
+    ///     )
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn copy_bulk(
+        &self,
+        source_path: &Path,
+        destination_store: &Self,
+        destination_path: &Path,
+    ) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        self.copy_bulk_with_server_side_copy(
+            source_path,
+            destination_store,
+            destination_path,
+            self.uses_server_side_copy(destination_store),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    fn uses_server_side_copy(&self, destination_store: &Self) -> bool {
+        parse_env_as_bool(SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED_ENV, false)
+            && self.can_server_side_copy_to(destination_store)
+    }
+
+    async fn copy_bulk_with_server_side_copy(
+        &self,
+        source_path: &Path,
+        destination_store: &Self,
+        destination_path: &Path,
+        server_side_copy_enabled: bool,
+    ) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        if !server_side_copy_enabled || !self.can_server_side_copy_to(destination_store) {
+            return self
+                .copy_via_stream(source_path, destination_store, destination_path)
+                .await;
+        }
+
+        let source_size = self.size(source_path).await?;
+        let result_size = usize::try_from(source_size).map_err(|source| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "server-side copy source size conversion failed from {source_path} to \
+                 {destination_path}: source_size={source_size}, error={source}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        destination_store
+            .copy(source_path, destination_path)
+            .await?;
+        let destination_size = destination_store.size(destination_path).await?;
+        if destination_size != source_size {
+            return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "server-side copy destination size mismatch from {source_path} to \
+                 {destination_path}: source_size={source_size}, \
+                 destination_size={destination_size}"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(WriteResult {
+            size: result_size,
+            e_tag: None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn can_server_side_copy_to(&self, destination_store: &Self) -> bool {
+        // Prefixes can collide across endpoints or wrappers, where native copy could
+        // read or write the wrong backend. Exact client identity is required.
+        self.is_cloud()
+            && destination_store.is_cloud()
+            && Arc::ptr_eq(&self.inner, &destination_store.inner)
+    }
+
+    /// Copy an object by streaming its bytes through Lance's multipart-aware writer.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`Self::copy`], this never delegates to a provider-native server-side
+    /// copy. The source and destination may use different object stores. The copy
+    /// succeeds only after the byte count reported by the writer and a destination
+    /// metadata lookup both match the source size.
+    ///
+    /// ```no_run
+    /// # use lance_core::Result;
+    /// # use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    /// # use object_store::path::Path;
+    /// # async fn copy(source: &ObjectStore, destination: &ObjectStore) -> Result<()> {
+    /// source
+    ///     .copy_via_stream(
+    ///         &Path::from("staging/index.lance"),
+    ///         destination,
+    ///         &Path::from("index.lance"),
+    ///     )
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    #[instrument(
+        name = "multipart_stream_copy",
+        level = "info",
+        skip(self, source_path, destination_store, destination_path),
+        fields(
+            source = %source_path,
+            destination = %destination_path,
+            source_size = Empty,
+            read_chunk_size = Empty,
+            multipart_part_size = crate::object_writer::initial_upload_size(),
+            multipart_concurrency = crate::object_writer::max_upload_parallelism(),
+            part_count = Empty,
+            bytes_transferred = Empty,
+            destination_size = Empty,
+            validation = Empty,
+            elapsed_ms = Empty,
+        ),
+        err
+    )]
+    pub async fn copy_via_stream(
+        &self,
+        source_path: &Path,
+        destination_store: &Self,
+        destination_path: &Path,
+    ) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        let started_at = Instant::now();
+        if self.has_direct_local_paths() && destination_store.has_direct_local_paths() {
+            let source_size = std::fs::metadata(super::local::to_local_path(source_path))
+                .map_err(|source| {
+                    let source = if source.kind() == std::io::ErrorKind::NotFound {
+                        Error::not_found(source_path.to_string())
+                    } else {
+                        Error::from(source)
+                    };
+                    stream_copy_error("source metadata", source_path, destination_path, source)
+                })?
+                .len();
+            let source_size = usize::try_from(source_size).map_err(|source| {
+                stream_copy_error(
+                    "source size conversion",
+                    source_path,
+                    destination_path,
+                    source,
+                )
+            })?;
+            Span::current().record("source_size", source_size as u64);
+
+            let metrics = destination_store.io_tracker.begin_io("copy");
+            let result = super::local::copy_file(source_path, destination_path);
+            metrics.record(&result, source_size as u64);
+            result.map_err(|source| {
+                stream_copy_error(
+                    "local filesystem copy",
+                    source_path,
+                    destination_path,
+                    source,
+                )
+            })?;
+
+            let destination_size =
+                destination_store
+                    .size(destination_path)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|source| {
+                        stream_copy_error(
+                            "destination validation",
+                            source_path,
+                            destination_path,
+                            source,
+                        )
+                    })?;
+            Span::current().record("bytes_transferred", source_size as u64);
+            Span::current().record("destination_size", destination_size);
+            if destination_size != source_size as u64 {
+                Span::current().record("validation", "failed");
+                return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                    "multipart_stream_copy destination size mismatch from {source_path} to \
+                     {destination_path}: source_size={source_size}, \
+                     destination_size={destination_size}"
+                )));
+            }
+
+            Span::current().record("validation", "passed");
+            Span::current().record("elapsed_ms", started_at.elapsed().as_millis() as u64);
+            return Ok(WriteResult {
+                size: source_size,
+                e_tag: None,
+            });
+        }
+
+        let reader = self.open(source_path).await.map_err(|source| {
+            stream_copy_error("source open", source_path, destination_path, source)
+        })?;
+        let source_size = reader.size().await.map_err(|source| {
+            stream_copy_error("source metadata", source_path, destination_path, source)
+        })?;
+        Span::current().record("source_size", source_size as u64);
+
+        let mut writer = destination_store
+            .create(destination_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|source| {
+                stream_copy_error(
+                    "destination writer creation",
+                    source_path,
+                    destination_path,
+                    source,
+                )
+            })?;
+        let read_chunk_size = usize::try_from(self.max_iop_size())
+            .unwrap_or(usize::MAX)
+            .max(1);
+        Span::current().record("read_chunk_size", read_chunk_size as u64);
+        let mut bytes_transferred = 0usize;
+        if source_size > 0 {
+            let first_range = 0..read_chunk_size.min(source_size);
+            let mut current_range = first_range.clone();
+            let mut current_bytes = reader.get_range(first_range).await.map_err(|source| {
+                stream_copy_error("source read", source_path, destination_path, source)
+            })?;
+
+            loop {
+                let expected_bytes = current_range.len();
+                if current_bytes.len() != expected_bytes {
+                    Span::current().record("validation", "failed");
+                    return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                        "multipart_stream_copy source range size mismatch from {source_path} to \
+                         {destination_path}: range={current_range:?}, \
+                         expected_bytes={expected_bytes}, actual_bytes={}",
+                        current_bytes.len()
+                    )));
+                }
+                bytes_transferred = bytes_transferred
+                    .checked_add(current_bytes.len())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::io(format!(
+                            "multipart_stream_copy byte count overflow from {source_path} to \
+                             {destination_path}"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+
+                if bytes_transferred == source_size {
+                    writer.write_all(&current_bytes).await.map_err(|source| {
+                        stream_copy_error(
+                            "destination write",
+                            source_path,
+                            destination_path,
+                            source,
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    break;
+                }
+
+                let range_end = bytes_transferred
+                    .checked_add(read_chunk_size)
+                    .unwrap_or(source_size)
+                    .min(source_size);
+                let next_range = bytes_transferred..range_end;
+                let next_read = reader.get_range(next_range.clone());
+                let (write_result, next_bytes) =
+                    tokio::join!(writer.write_all(&current_bytes), next_read);
+                write_result.map_err(|source| {
+                    stream_copy_error("destination write", source_path, destination_path, source)
+                })?;
+                current_bytes = next_bytes.map_err(|source| {
+                    stream_copy_error("source read", source_path, destination_path, source)
+                })?;
+                current_range = next_range;
+            }
+        }
+        Span::current().record("bytes_transferred", bytes_transferred as u64);
+
+        let write_result = Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await.map_err(|source| {
+            stream_copy_error(
+                "destination completion",
+                source_path,
+                destination_path,
+                source,
+            )
+        })?;
+        if write_result.size != source_size {
+            Span::current().record("validation", "failed");
+            return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "multipart_stream_copy writer size mismatch from {source_path} to \
+                 {destination_path}: source_size={source_size}, \
+                 writer_size={}",
+                write_result.size
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let destination_size =
+            destination_store
+                .size(destination_path)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|source| {
+                    stream_copy_error(
+                        "destination validation",
+                        source_path,
+                        destination_path,
+                        source,
+                    )
+                })?;
+        Span::current().record("destination_size", destination_size);
+        if destination_size != source_size as u64 {
+            Span::current().record("validation", "failed");
+            return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "multipart_stream_copy destination size mismatch from {source_path} to \
+                 {destination_path}: source_size={source_size}, \
+                 destination_size={destination_size}"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Span::current().record("validation", "passed");
+        Span::current().record("elapsed_ms", started_at.elapsed().as_millis() as u64);
+        Ok(write_result)
+    }
+
+    /// Copy `from` to `to`. When `multipart_copy_fallback` is set, a source
+    /// larger than `max_single_copy` is streamed through a multipart write
+    /// instead of a single-shot server-side copy. Both are parameters so tests
+    /// can drive the streaming path without a multi-gigabyte fixture or an S3
+    /// endpoint.
+    async fn copy_impl(
+        &self,
+        from: &Path,
+        to: &Path,
+        multipart_copy_fallback: bool,
+        max_single_copy: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.has_direct_local_paths() {
             // Use std::fs::copy for local filesystem to support cross-filesystem copies
-            return super::local::copy_file(from, to);
+            let metrics = self.io_tracker.begin_io("copy");
+            let result = super::local::copy_file(from, to);
+            metrics.record(&result, 0);
+            return result;
+        }
+        if multipart_copy_fallback {
+            // Reuse the reader for both the size lookup (a single cached HEAD)
+            // and the streamed copy, avoiding a separate HEAD request.
+            let reader = self.open(from).await?;
+            if reader.size().await? as u64 > max_single_copy {
+                let mut writer = self.create(to).await?;
+                writer.copy_from_reader(reader.as_ref()).await?;
+                Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await?;
+                return Ok(());
+            }
         }
         Ok(self.inner.copy(from, to).await?)
     }
 
     /// Read a directory (start from base directory) and returns all sub-paths in the directory.
+    ///
+    /// This enumerates the whole prefix before it returns, however many children it holds.
+    /// Use [`Self::read_dir_page`] to page through a directory instead.
     pub async fn read_dir(&self, dir_path: impl Into<Path>) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
         let path = dir_path.into();
         let path = Path::parse(&path)?;
@@ -678,10 +1485,20 @@ impl ObjectStore {
             .common_prefixes
             .iter()
             .chain(output.objects.iter().map(|o| &o.location))
-            .map(|s| s.filename().unwrap().to_string())
+            .filter_map(|s| s.filename().map(|f| f.to_string()))
             .collect())
     }
 
+    /// Non-recursive, path-segment delimited list of a single directory level.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`Self::list`], which recurses into the entire subtree, this returns
+    /// only the immediate children of `prefix`: the child "directories" as
+    /// [`ListResult::common_prefixes`] and the direct child files as
+    /// [`ListResult::objects`].
+    pub async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> Result<ListResult> {
+        Ok(self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await?)
+    }
+
     pub fn list(
         &self,
         path: Option<Path>,
@@ -705,9 +1522,20 @@ impl ObjectStore {
         let path = dir_path.into();
         let path = Path::parse(&path)?;
 
-        if self.is_local() {
+        if let Some(local_dir_operations) = &self.local_dir_operations {
+            let metrics = self.io_tracker.begin_io("delete");
+            let result = local_dir_operations.remove_dir_all(&path).await;
+            metrics.record(&result, 0);
+            return result;
+        }
+        if self.has_direct_local_paths() {
             // The local file system provider needs to delete both files and directories.
-            return super::local::remove_dir_all(&path);
+            // Counted as a single delete request, matching how `delete_stream`
+            // counts one batched request regardless of how many paths it removes.
+            let metrics = self.io_tracker.begin_io("delete");
+            let result = super::local::remove_dir_all(&path);
+            metrics.record(&result, 0);
+            return result;
         }
         let sub_entries = self
             .inner
@@ -726,13 +1554,85 @@ impl ObjectStore {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    /// Remove eligible materialized empty directories below a local root.
+    ///
+    /// This is a no-op for object stores, which do not materialize directories.
+    /// Traversal does not follow symbolic links. Directories in `retained_dirs` and their
+    /// descendants are preserved. Other directories are removed only if they are empty and
+    /// either appear in `verified_dirs` or predate `unmodified_since`. Passing `None` for
+    /// `unmodified_since` disables the age check.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use std::collections::HashSet;
+    /// # use chrono::Utc;
+    /// # use lance_core::Result;
+    /// # use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    /// # async fn remove_stale_index_dirs(store: &ObjectStore) -> Result<()> {
+    /// store
+    ///     .remove_empty_dirs(
+    ///         "dataset/_indices",
+    ///         HashSet::new(),
+    ///         HashSet::new(),
+    ///         Some(Utc::now()),
+    ///     )
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn remove_empty_dirs(
+        &self,
+        root_path: impl Into<Path>,
+        retained_dirs: HashSet<Path>,
+        verified_dirs: HashSet<Path>,
+        unmodified_since: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.has_direct_local_paths() && self.scheme != "file-object-store" {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let path = Path::parse(root_path.into())?;
+        let metrics = self.io_tracker.begin_io("delete");
+        let result = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            super::local::remove_empty_dirs(&path, &retained_dirs, &verified_dirs, unmodified_since)
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|error| Error::io(format!("empty-directory cleanup task failed: {error}")))?;
+        metrics.record(&result, 0);
+        result
+    }
+
+    /// Delete every location in the stream, up to `io_parallelism` at a time.
+    ///
+    /// Deleting serially costs a round trip per object — ~30/s against a cloud store,
+    /// which is days for a table with millions of unreferenced files.
+    ///
+    /// `ObjectStore::delete_stream` would also batch (S3: 1000 keys per request) but
+    /// needs a `'static` stream of `object_store::Result`; callers pass a borrowed
+    /// stream of `lance_core::Result`. Using it means changing this signature.
+    ///
+    /// Order is not preserved; no caller may depend on it.
+    ///
+    /// A location that is already gone counts as removed. Callers list first and
+    /// delete after, so a concurrent writer or a second cleanup can remove a path in
+    /// between; failing there would abandon an entire sweep over one absent object.
     pub fn remove_stream<'a>(
         &'a self,
         locations: BoxStream<'a, Result<Path>>,
     ) -> BoxStream<'a, Result<Path>> {
-        self.inner
-            .delete_stream(locations.err_into::<ObjectStoreError>().boxed())
-            .err_into::<Error>()
+        let store = Arc::clone(&self.inner);
+        locations
+            .map(move |location| {
+                let store = Arc::clone(&store);
+                async move {
+                    let location = location?;
+                    match store.delete(&location).await {
+                        Ok(()) => Ok(location),
+                        Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. }) => Ok(location),
+                        Err(error) => Err(error.into()),
+                    }
+                }
+            })
+            .buffer_unordered(self.io_parallelism())
             .boxed()
     }
 
@@ -779,10 +1679,9 @@ impl FromStr for LanceConfigKey {
     fn from_str(s: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, Self::Err> {
         match s.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str() {
             "download_retry_count" => Ok(Self::DownloadRetryCount),
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Invalid LanceConfigKey: {}", s).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Invalid LanceConfigKey: {}", s).into(),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -819,6 +1718,24 @@ impl StorageOptions {
         })
     }
 
+    /// Byte gap below which the I/O scheduler merges two reads of one file
+    /// into a single request, overriding the store's default.
+    pub fn block_size(&self) -> Result<Option<usize>> {
+        let Some((_, value)) = self
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(key, _)| key.eq_ignore_ascii_case("block_size"))
+        else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let block_size = value.trim().parse::<usize>().map_err(|err| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "storage option block_size must be a number of bytes, got `{value}`: {err}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(Some(block_size))
+    }
+
     /// Number of times to retry a download that fails
     pub fn download_retry_count(&self) -> usize {
         self.0
@@ -834,7 +1751,7 @@ impl StorageOptions {
             .iter()
             .find(|(key, _)| key.eq_ignore_ascii_case("client_max_retries"))
             .and_then(|(_, value)| value.parse::<usize>().ok())
-            .unwrap_or(10)
+            .unwrap_or(3)
     }
 
     /// Seconds of timeout to set in RetryConfig for object store client
@@ -850,6 +1767,36 @@ impl StorageOptions {
         self.0.get(key)
     }
 
+    /// Build [`ClientOptions`] with default headers extracted from `headers.*` keys.
+    ///
+    /// Keys prefixed with `headers.` are parsed into HTTP headers. For example,
+    /// `headers.x-ms-version = 2023-11-03` results in a default header
+    /// `x-ms-version: 2023-11-03`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if any `headers.*` key has an invalid header name or value.
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+    pub fn client_options(&self) -> Result<ClientOptions> {
+        let mut headers = HeaderMap::new();
+        for (key, value) in &self.0 {
+            if let Some(header_name) = key.strip_prefix("headers.") {
+                let name = header_name
+                    .parse::<http::header::HeaderName>()
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid header name '{header_name}': {e}"))
+                    })?;
+                let val = HeaderValue::from_str(value).map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid header value for '{header_name}': {e}"))
+                })?;
+                headers.insert(name, val);
+            }
+        }
+        let mut client_options = ClientOptions::default();
+        if !headers.is_empty() {
+            client_options = client_options.with_default_headers(headers);
+        }
+        Ok(client_options)
+    }
+
     /// Get the expiration time in milliseconds since epoch, if present
     pub fn expires_at_millis(&self) -> Option<u64> {
         self.0
@@ -870,7 +1817,7 @@ static DEFAULT_OBJECT_STORE_REGISTRY: std::sync::LazyLock<ObjectStoreRegistry> =
 impl ObjectStore {
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub fn new(
-        store: Arc<DynObjectStore>,
+        mut store: Arc<DynObjectStore>,
         location: Url,
         block_size: Option<usize>,
         wrapper: Option<Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>>,
@@ -888,21 +1835,31 @@ impl ObjectStore {
                 .unwrap(),
             None => {
                 let store_prefix = format!("{}${}", location.scheme(), location.authority());
-                log::warn!("Guessing that object store prefix is {}, since object store scheme is not found in registry.", store_prefix);
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Guessing that object store prefix is {}, since object store scheme is not found in registry.",
+                    store_prefix
+                );
                 store_prefix
             }
         };
+        let mut io_tracker = IOTracker::default();
+        meter_store(
+            &mut store,
+            &mut io_tracker,
+            &metrics_base(&store_prefix, &location),
+        );
+
         let store = match wrapper {
             Some(wrapper) => wrapper.wrap(&store_prefix, store),
             None => store,
         };
 
         // Always wrap with IO tracking
-        let io_tracker = IOTracker::default();
         let tracked_store = io_tracker.wrap("", store);
 
         Self {
             inner: tracked_store,
+            local_dir_operations: None,
             scheme: scheme.into(),
             block_size,
             max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
@@ -912,10 +1869,43 @@ impl ObjectStore {
             download_retry_count,
             io_tracker,
             store_prefix,
+            // Type-erased on the way in, so there is no telling if it can paginate.
+            paginated_lister: None,
         }
     }
 }
 
+/// Wrap `inner` so its operations publish metrics labelled by `store_prefix`,
+/// and label `io_tracker` with the same prefix so the local reads and writes
+/// that bypass `inner` publish under it too.
+///
+/// The two go together on purpose: a store metered on one path but not the other
+/// would report a partial picture that reads like a complete one. Every
+/// constructor that hands an [`ObjectStore`] to a caller must route its `inner`
+/// through here, or through nothing at all.
+#[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+fn meter_store(inner: &mut Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>, io_tracker: &mut IOTracker, base: &str) {
+    use crate::object_store::metrics::ObjectStoreMetricsExt;
+    io_tracker.set_metrics_base(base);
+    *inner = inner.clone().metered(base.to_owned());
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "metrics"))]
+fn meter_store(_inner: &mut Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>, _io_tracker: &mut IOTracker, _base: &str) {}
+
+/// The `base` metrics label for a store opened at `location`; see
+/// [`metrics::metrics_base`]. Without the `metrics` feature the label is unused
+/// and the prefix keeps the registry cache keyed per bucket as before.
+#[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+pub(crate) fn metrics_base(store_prefix: &str, location: &Url) -> String {
+    metrics::metrics_base(metrics::base_label_mode(), store_prefix, location)
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "metrics"))]
+pub(crate) fn metrics_base(store_prefix: &str, _location: &Url) -> String {
+    store_prefix.to_owned()
+}
+
 fn infer_block_size(scheme: &str) -> usize {
     // Block size: On local file systems, we use 4KB block size. On cloud
     // object stores, we use 64KB block size. This is generally the largest
@@ -929,18 +1919,26 @@ fn infer_block_size(scheme: &str) -> usize {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use bytes::Bytes;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempStdDir, TempStdFile, TempStrDir};
     use object_store::memory::InMemory;
+    use object_store::{
+        CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, PutMultipartOptions,
+        PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, Result as OSResult, UploadPart,
+    };
     use rstest::rstest;
+    use serial_test::serial;
     use std::env::set_current_dir;
+    use std::fmt::{Display, Formatter};
     use std::fs::{create_dir_all, write};
+    use std::ops::Range;
     use std::path::Path as StdPath;
-    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 
     /// Write test content to file.
     fn write_to_file(path_str: &str, contents: &str) -> std::io::Result<()> {
-        let expanded = tilde(path_str).to_string();
-        let path = StdPath::new(&expanded);
+        let path = expand_path(path_str).map_err(std::io::Error::other)?;
         std::fs::create_dir_all(path.parent().unwrap())?;
         write(path, contents)
     }
@@ -953,6 +1951,97 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(contents)
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_put_if_absent() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let path = Path::from(format!("{}/atomic-create", temp_dir.as_str()));
+        let store = ObjectStore::local();
+        store
+            .put_if_absent(&path, Bytes::from_static(b"first").into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let error = store
+            .put_if_absent(&path, Bytes::from_static(b"second").into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            error,
+            object_store::Error::AlreadyExists { .. } | object_store::Error::Precondition { .. }
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(
+            store.read_one_all(&path).await.unwrap(),
+            b"first".as_slice()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_put_if_absent_rejects_cos() {
+        let mut store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        store.scheme = "cos".to_string();
+        let path = Path::from("atomic-create");
+
+        let error = store
+            .put_if_absent(&path, Bytes::from_static(b"value").into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, object_store::Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(!store.exists(&path).await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_io_parallelism_clamped_to_nonzero() {
+        // `io_parallelism()` feeds `buffered`/`buffer_unordered` windows; a value of 0 makes those
+        // streams never poll, hanging callers (e.g. a metadata-only `count_rows`). It must clamp.
+        let store = ObjectStore::local();
+        // Readers opened by the store must advertise the store's normalized
+        // effective parallelism, not the hardcoded cloud default.
+        let mem_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let path = Path::from("/io_parallelism_probe");
+        mem_store.put(&path, b"x").await.unwrap();
+
+        // SAFETY: process-global env var, set and restored within this test. `io_parallelism()`
+        // only reads it, and a concurrent reader observes a valid clamped value, never 0.
+        unsafe { std::env::set_var("LANCE_IO_THREADS", "0") };
+        assert_eq!(
+            store.io_parallelism(),
+            1,
+            "LANCE_IO_THREADS=0 must clamp to 1"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            mem_store.open(&path).await.unwrap().io_parallelism(),
+            1,
+            "an opened reader must report the store's clamped parallelism"
+        );
+
+        unsafe { std::env::set_var("LANCE_IO_THREADS", "8") };
+        assert_eq!(
+            store.io_parallelism(),
+            8,
+            "a positive override must pass through unchanged"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            mem_store.open(&path).await.unwrap().io_parallelism(),
+            8,
+            "an opened reader must honor the configured request limit"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            mem_store
+                .open_with_size(&path, 1024 * 1024)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .io_parallelism(),
+            8,
+            "a sized reader must honor the configured request limit"
+        );
+
+        unsafe { std::env::remove_var("LANCE_IO_THREADS") };
+        assert!(
+            store.io_parallelism() >= 1,
+            "the configured default parallelism must be at least 1"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_absolute_paths() {
         let tmp_path = TempStrDir::default();
@@ -969,7 +2058,7 @@ mod tests {
             format!("{tmp_path}/bar/foo.lance/../foo.lance"),
         ] {
             let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(uri).await.unwrap();
-            let contents = read_from_store(store.as_ref(), &path.child("test_file"))
+            let contents = read_from_store(store.as_ref(), &path.clone().join("test_file"))
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
             assert_eq!(contents, "TEST_CONTENT");
@@ -994,6 +2083,13 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(store.scheme, "gs");
         assert_eq!(path.to_string(), "foo.lance");
+
+        let (store, path) =
+            ObjectStore::from_uri("abfss://filesystem@account.dfs.core.windows.net/foo.lance")
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(store.scheme, "abfss");
+        assert_eq!(path.to_string(), "foo.lance");
     }
 
     async fn test_block_size_used_test_helper(
@@ -1026,22 +2122,76 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(store.block_size, 1024);
-    }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case("s3://bucket/foo.lance", None)]
-    #[case("gs://bucket/foo.lance", None)]
-    #[case("az://account/bucket/foo.lance",
-      Some(HashMap::from([
-            (String::from("account_name"), String::from("account")),
-            (String::from("container_name"), String::from("container"))
-           ])))]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_block_size_used_cloud(
-        #[case] uri: &str,
-        #[case] storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-    ) {
-        test_block_size_used_test_helper(uri, storage_options, 64 * 1024).await;
+        // The storage option applies when no parameter is given...
+        let mut options_with_block_size = storage_options.unwrap_or_default();
+        options_with_block_size.insert(String::from("block_size"), String::from("2048"));
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+            options_with_block_size,
+        ));
+        let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor.clone()),
+            ..ObjectStoreParams::default()
+        };
+        let (store, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, uri, &params)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(store.block_size, 2048);
+
+        // ...and the explicit parameter wins over it.
+        let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            block_size: Some(1024),
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor),
+            ..ObjectStoreParams::default()
+        };
+        let (store, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, uri, &params)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(store.block_size, 1024);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_block_size_option_rejects_invalid_values() {
+        let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(HashMap::from(
+            [(String::from("block_size"), String::from("64KiB"))],
+        )));
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor),
+            ..ObjectStoreParams::default()
+        };
+        let error =
+            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, "memory:///bucket/foo.lance", &params)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "{error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("block_size"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case("s3://bucket/foo.lance", None)]
+    #[case("gs://bucket/foo.lance", None)]
+    #[case("az://account/bucket/foo.lance",
+      Some(HashMap::from([
+            (String::from("account_name"), String::from("account")),
+            (String::from("container_name"), String::from("container"))
+           ])))]
+    #[case("abfss://filesystem@account.dfs.core.windows.net/foo.lance",
+      Some(HashMap::from([
+            (String::from("account_name"), String::from("account")),
+            (String::from("container_name"), String::from("filesystem"))
+           ])))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_block_size_used_cloud(
+        #[case] uri: &str,
+        #[case] storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+    ) {
+        test_block_size_used_test_helper(uri, storage_options, 64 * 1024).await;
     }
 
     #[rstest]
@@ -1069,7 +2219,7 @@ mod tests {
         set_current_dir(StdPath::new(tmp_path.as_ref())).expect("Error changing current dir");
         let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri("./bar/foo.lance").await.unwrap();
 
-        let contents = read_from_store(store.as_ref(), &path.child("test_file"))
+        let contents = read_from_store(store.as_ref(), &path.clone().join("test_file"))
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(contents, "RELATIVE_URL");
@@ -1080,7 +2230,7 @@ mod tests {
         let uri = "~/foo.lance";
         write_to_file(&format!("{uri}/test_file"), "TILDE").unwrap();
         let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(uri).await.unwrap();
-        let contents = read_from_store(store.as_ref(), &path.child("test_file"))
+        let contents = read_from_store(store.as_ref(), &path.clone().join("test_file"))
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(contents, "TILDE");
@@ -1099,7 +2249,7 @@ mod tests {
         .unwrap();
         let (store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(path.to_str().unwrap()).await.unwrap();
 
-        let sub_dirs = store.read_dir(base.child("foo")).await.unwrap();
+        let sub_dirs = store.read_dir(base.clone().join("foo")).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(sub_dirs, vec!["bar", "zoo", "test_file"]);
     }
 
@@ -1137,11 +2287,92 @@ mod tests {
             url
         };
         let (store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(url.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
-        store.remove_dir_all(base.child("foo")).await.unwrap();
+        store
+            .remove_dir_all(base.clone().join("foo"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
         assert!(!path.join("foo").exists());
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case("file")]
+    #[case("file-object-store")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remove_empty_directories(#[case] scheme: &str) {
+        let path = TempStdDir::default();
+        let stale_dir = path.join("stale");
+        let nested_stale_dir = path.join("nested_stale");
+        let nested_stale_child = nested_stale_dir.join("child");
+        create_dir_all(&stale_dir).unwrap();
+        create_dir_all(&nested_stale_child).unwrap();
+        create_dir_all(path.join("retained").join("child")).unwrap();
+        write_to_file(
+            path.join("file_bearing")
+                .join("test_file")
+                .to_str()
+                .unwrap(),
+            "keep",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        create_dir_all(path.join("file_bearing").join("empty_child")).unwrap();
+
+        let file_url = Url::from_directory_path(&path).unwrap();
+        let mut url = Url::parse(&format!("{scheme}:///")).unwrap();
+        url.set_path(file_url.path());
+        let (store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(url.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+
+        #[cfg(unix)]
+        let unmodified_since = {
+            let old_modified_time =
+                std::time::SystemTime::now() - std::time::Duration::from_secs(10 * 24 * 60 * 60);
+            for directory in [&stale_dir, &nested_stale_dir, &nested_stale_child] {
+                std::fs::File::open(directory)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .set_times(std::fs::FileTimes::new().set_modified(old_modified_time))
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            DateTime::<Utc>::from(std::time::SystemTime::now())
+                - chrono::TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap()
+        };
+        #[cfg(not(unix))]
+        let unmodified_since = DateTime::<Utc>::from(std::time::SystemTime::now())
+            + chrono::TimeDelta::try_days(1).unwrap();
+
+        store
+            .remove_empty_dirs(
+                base.clone(),
+                HashSet::from([base.clone().join("retained")]),
+                HashSet::new(),
+                Some(unmodified_since),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!path.join("stale").exists());
+        assert!(!path.join("nested_stale").exists());
+        assert!(path.join("retained").join("child").exists());
+        assert!(path.join("file_bearing").join("empty_child").exists());
+
+        create_dir_all(path.join("fresh")).unwrap();
+        create_dir_all(path.join("verified")).unwrap();
+        store
+            .remove_empty_dirs(
+                base.clone(),
+                HashSet::from([base.clone().join("retained")]),
+                HashSet::from([base.clone().join("verified")]),
+                Some(
+                    DateTime::<Utc>::from(std::time::SystemTime::now())
+                        - chrono::TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap(),
+                ),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(path.join("fresh").exists());
+        assert!(!path.join("verified").exists());
+    }
+
     #[derive(Debug)]
     struct TestWrapper {
         called: AtomicBool,
@@ -1160,6 +2391,16 @@ mod tests {
             // return a mocked value so we can check if the final store is the one we expect
             self.return_value.clone()
         }
+
+        // This one swaps the store out entirely, so a listing that went around it would be
+        // listing something else.
+        fn wrap_paginated(
+            &self,
+            _store_prefix: &str,
+            _original: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+        ) -> Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>> {
+            None
+        }
     }
 
     impl TestWrapper {
@@ -1168,6 +2409,153 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    /// A lister that exists only to be wrapped.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct StubLister;
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl PaginatedListStore for StubLister {
+        async fn list_paginated(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&str>,
+            _opts: object_store::list::PaginatedListOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<object_store::list::PaginatedListResult> {
+            unimplemented!("this lister exists to be wrapped, not to list")
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Records the listers it was handed, and leaves the store alone.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct PaginatedTestWrapper {
+        name: &'static str,
+        log: Arc<std::sync::Mutex<Vec<String>>>,
+    }
+
+    impl WrappingObjectStore for PaginatedTestWrapper {
+        fn wrap(
+            &self,
+            _store_prefix: &str,
+            original: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+        ) -> Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> {
+            original
+        }
+
+        fn wrap_paginated(
+            &self,
+            store_prefix: &str,
+            original: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+        ) -> Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>> {
+            self.log
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .push(format!("{}@{store_prefix}", self.name));
+            Some(original)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A chain hands the lister to each of its wrappers in turn. One wrapper giving up the
+    /// pushdown gives it up for the chain, and the wrappers after it are never asked: the
+    /// listing is going through `wrap` either way, which is every wrapper at once.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::every_wrapper_keeps_it(false, vec!["first@memory", "second@memory"])]
+    #[case::one_wrapper_gives_it_up(true, vec!["first@memory"])]
+    fn test_a_chain_wraps_the_lister_until_one_gives_it_up(
+        #[case] gives_up: bool,
+        #[case] expected_log: Vec<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let log = Arc::new(std::sync::Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let mut wrappers: Vec<Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>> =
+            vec![Arc::new(PaginatedTestWrapper {
+                name: "first",
+                log: log.clone(),
+            })];
+        if gives_up {
+            wrappers.push(Arc::new(TestWrapper {
+                called: AtomicBool::new(false),
+                return_value: Arc::new(InMemory::new()),
+            }));
+        }
+        wrappers.push(Arc::new(PaginatedTestWrapper {
+            name: "second",
+            log: log.clone(),
+        }));
+
+        let wrapped = ChainedWrappingObjectStore::new(wrappers)
+            .wrap_paginated("memory", Arc::new(StubLister));
+
+        assert_eq!(wrapped.is_none(), gives_up);
+        assert_eq!(*log.lock().unwrap(), expected_log);
+    }
+
+    /// `apply_wrapper` keeps both halves of the store in sync. A wrapper that gives up the
+    /// pushdown has to clear the lister too, or `read_dir_page` would keep talking to the
+    /// backend behind the wrapper's back.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::gives_up_the_pushdown(true)]
+    #[case::keeps_the_pushdown(false)]
+    fn test_apply_wrapper_keeps_inner_and_the_lister_in_sync(#[case] gives_up: bool) {
+        let replacement = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let giving_up = TestWrapper {
+            called: AtomicBool::new(false),
+            return_value: replacement.clone(),
+        };
+        let keeping = PaginatedTestWrapper {
+            name: "passthrough",
+            log: Arc::new(std::sync::Mutex::new(Vec::new())),
+        };
+        let wrapper: &dyn WrappingObjectStore = match gives_up {
+            true => &giving_up,
+            false => &keeping,
+        };
+
+        let mut store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        store.paginated_lister = Some(Arc::new(StubLister) as Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>);
+        store.apply_wrapper(wrapper);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            store.paginated_lister.is_some(),
+            !gives_up,
+            "the lister has to follow what the wrapper said"
+        );
+        // The wrapper that gives up the pushdown is also the one that swaps the store out, so
+        // whether `inner` was replaced says that `wrap` ran on the same wrapper.
+        assert_eq!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&store.inner, &(replacement as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>)),
+            gives_up
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wrapper_identity_is_stable_across_tasks() {
+        let wrapper = Arc::new(TestWrapper {
+            called: AtomicBool::new(false),
+            return_value: Arc::new(InMemory::new()),
+        });
+        let initial_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            object_store_wrapper: Some(wrapper.clone()),
+            ..ObjectStoreParams::default()
+        };
+        let task_params = tokio::spawn(async move {
+            ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(wrapper),
+                ..ObjectStoreParams::default()
+            }
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(initial_params, task_params);
+
+        let mut initial_hasher = std::hash::DefaultHasher::new();
+        std::hash::Hash::hash(&initial_params, &mut initial_hasher);
+        let mut task_hasher = std::hash::DefaultHasher::new();
+        std::hash::Hash::hash(&task_params, &mut task_hasher);
+        assert_eq!(
+            std::hash::Hasher::finish(&initial_hasher),
+            std::hash::Hasher::finish(&task_hasher)
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_wrapping_object_store_option_is_used() {
         // Make a store for the inner store first
@@ -1206,19 +2594,42 @@ mod tests {
         let file_path = TempStdFile::default();
         let mut writer = ObjectStore::create_local_writer(&file_path).await.unwrap();
         writer.write_all(b"LOCAL").await.unwrap();
-        writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+        Writer::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
 
         let reader = ObjectStore::open_local(&file_path).await.unwrap();
         let buf = reader.get_range(0..5).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(buf.as_ref(), b"LOCAL");
     }
 
+    #[cfg(unix)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_direct_local_writer_uses_standard_file_permissions() {
+        let directory = TempStdDir::default();
+        let reference_path = directory.join("reference");
+        std::fs::File::create(&reference_path).unwrap();
+        let expected_mode = std::fs::metadata(reference_path)
+            .unwrap()
+            .permissions()
+            .mode()
+            & 0o777;
+
+        let output_path = directory.join("output");
+        let object_path = Path::from_absolute_path(&output_path).unwrap();
+        let store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let mut writer = store.create(&object_path).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_all(b"LOCAL").await.unwrap();
+        Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let actual_mode = std::fs::metadata(output_path).unwrap().permissions().mode() & 0o777;
+        assert_eq!(actual_mode, expected_mode);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_read_one() {
         let file_path = TempStdFile::default();
         let mut writer = ObjectStore::create_local_writer(&file_path).await.unwrap();
         writer.write_all(b"LOCAL").await.unwrap();
-        writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+        Writer::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
 
         let file_path_os = object_store::path::Path::parse(file_path.to_str().unwrap()).unwrap();
         let obj_store = ObjectStore::local();
@@ -1236,7 +2647,7 @@ mod tests {
         use std::path::Prefix;
         use std::path::Prefix::*;
 
-        fn get_path_prefix(path: &StdPath) -> Prefix {
+        fn get_path_prefix(path: &StdPath) -> Prefix<'_> {
             match path.components().next().unwrap() {
                 Component::Prefix(prefix_component) => prefix_component.kind(),
                 _ => panic!(),
@@ -1265,7 +2676,7 @@ mod tests {
             format!("{drive_letter}:\\test_folder\\test.lance"),
         ] {
             let (store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(uri).await.unwrap();
-            let contents = read_from_store(store.as_ref(), &base.child("test_file"))
+            let contents = read_from_store(store.as_ref(), &base.clone().join("test_file"))
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
             assert_eq!(contents, "WINDOWS");
@@ -1289,7 +2700,7 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
         // Create paths relative to the ObjectStore base
-        let from_path = base_path.child(source_file_name);
+        let from_path = base_path.clone().join(source_file_name);
 
         // Use object_store::Path::parse for the destination
         let dest_file = dest_dir.join("copied_file.txt");
@@ -1321,7 +2732,7 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
         // Create paths
-        let from_path = base_path.child(source_file_name);
+        let from_path = base_path.clone().join(source_file_name);
 
         // Create destination with nested directories that don't exist yet
         let dest_file = dest_dir.join("nested").join("dirs").join("copied_file.txt");
@@ -1337,4 +2748,773 @@ mod tests {
         let copied_content = std::fs::read(&dest_file).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(copied_content, b"test content");
     }
+
+    /// Inner store that forwards everything to `InMemory` except single-shot
+    /// server-side copy (`copy_opts`), which always fails. This lets a test
+    /// prove that `ObjectStore::copy` fell back to a streaming multipart copy
+    /// for an oversized source rather than issuing a single `CopyObject`.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct CopyFailingStore {
+        inner: InMemory,
+    }
+
+    impl Display for CopyFailingStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "CopyFailingStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct MultipartObservations {
+        part_count: AtomicUsize,
+        abort_count: AtomicUsize,
+        native_copy_count: AtomicUsize,
+        delete_stream_count: AtomicUsize,
+        delete_in_flight: AtomicUsize,
+        /// High-water mark of concurrent deletions; 1 means serial.
+        delete_max_in_flight: AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    /// Decrements the in-flight count when its stream is dropped.
+    struct InFlightGuard(Arc<MultipartObservations>);
+
+    impl Drop for InFlightGuard {
+        fn drop(&mut self) {
+            self.0.delete_in_flight.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct ObservedMultipartUpload {
+        inner: Box<dyn MultipartUpload>,
+        observations: Arc<MultipartObservations>,
+        fail_parts: bool,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl MultipartUpload for ObservedMultipartUpload {
+        fn put_part(&mut self, data: PutPayload) -> UploadPart {
+            self.observations.part_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            if self.fail_parts {
+                return Box::pin(async {
+                    Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                        store: "ObservedMultipartStore",
+                        source: "injected multipart part failure".into(),
+                    })
+                });
+            }
+            self.inner.put_part(data)
+        }
+
+        async fn complete(&mut self) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.complete().await
+        }
+
+        async fn abort(&mut self) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.observations.abort_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            self.inner.abort().await
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct ObservedMultipartStore {
+        inner: InMemory,
+        observations: Arc<MultipartObservations>,
+        fail_parts: bool,
+        destination_size_adjustment: u64,
+    }
+
+    impl Display for ObservedMultipartStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "ObservedMultipartStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl OSObjectStore for ObservedMultipartStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            let inner = self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await?;
+            Ok(Box::new(ObservedMultipartUpload {
+                inner,
+                observations: self.observations.clone(),
+                fail_parts: self.fail_parts,
+            }))
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            let is_head = options.head;
+            let mut result = self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await?;
+            if is_head && location.filename() == Some("destination.bin") {
+                result.meta.size = result
+                    .meta
+                    .size
+                    .checked_add(self.destination_size_adjustment)
+                    .expect("test destination size should not overflow");
+            }
+            Ok(result)
+        }
+
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            let observations = self.observations.clone();
+            observations
+                .delete_stream_count
+                .fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            let in_flight = observations.delete_in_flight.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst) + 1;
+            observations
+                .delete_max_in_flight
+                .fetch_max(in_flight, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            let guard = InFlightGuard(observations);
+            let inner = self.inner.delete_stream(locations);
+            // An in-memory delete resolves on first poll, so overlap is only
+            // observable if the deletion yields.
+            async move {
+                tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(5)).await;
+                inner.map(move |result| {
+                    let _ = &guard;
+                    result
+                })
+            }
+            .flatten_stream()
+            .boxed()
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list(prefix)
+        }
+
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.observations
+                .native_copy_count
+                .fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl OSObjectStore for CopyFailingStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+        }
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
+        }
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list(prefix)
+        }
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
+        }
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, _from: &Path, _to: &Path, _opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                store: "CopyFailingStore",
+                source: "single-shot copy disabled in test".into(),
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_copy_streams_objects_larger_than_threshold() {
+        // memory:// is non-local but isn't an S3/GCS scheme, so copy() wouldn't
+        // enable the fallback on its own. Drive copy_impl directly with
+        // multipart_copy_fallback = true to exercise the streaming path. The
+        // inner store rejects any single-shot copy, so a successful copy can only
+        // have gone through the streaming branch.
+        let mut store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        store.inner = Arc::new(CopyFailingStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+        });
+
+        let from = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let contents = b"streaming multipart copy payload well past the tiny threshold";
+        store.put(&from, contents).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Source size (61 bytes) exceeds the threshold -> must stream via a
+        // multipart write rather than a single-shot server-side copy.
+        let streamed = Path::from("streamed.bin");
+        store.copy_impl(&from, &streamed, true, 8).await.unwrap();
+        let copied = store.read_one_all(&streamed).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(copied.as_ref(), contents.as_slice());
+
+        // Source size below the threshold -> single-shot copy, which the inner
+        // store rejects, confirming that the streaming branch (not native copy)
+        // is what made the first copy succeed.
+        let native = Path::from("native.bin");
+        assert!(
+            store
+                .copy_impl(&from, &native, true, u64::MAX)
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_copy_via_stream_never_uses_native_copy() {
+        let mut store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        store.inner = Arc::new(CopyFailingStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+        });
+
+        let source = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let destination = Path::from("destination.bin");
+        let contents = b"stream raw bytes instead of issuing native copy";
+        store.put(&source, contents).await.unwrap();
+
+        let result = store
+            .copy_via_stream(&source, &store, &destination)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.size, contents.len());
+        assert_eq!(
+            store.read_one_all(&destination).await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            contents
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remove_stream_removes_every_path() {
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let paths: Vec<Path> = (0..64).map(|i| Path::from(format!("obj-{i:03}"))).collect();
+        for path in &paths {
+            store.put(path, b"x").await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let to_remove = futures::stream::iter(paths.clone().into_iter().map(Ok)).boxed();
+        let mut reported = store
+            .remove_stream(to_remove)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Concurrent deletion does not preserve order.
+        reported.sort_unstable();
+        let mut expected = paths.clone();
+        expected.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(reported, expected);
+        for path in &paths {
+            assert!(!store.exists(path).await.unwrap(), "{path} still present");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remove_stream_tolerates_already_deleted() {
+        // Callers list first and delete after, so a path can disappear in between.
+        // Failing there abandons the whole sweep over one absent object.
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let present = Path::from("present");
+        let absent = Path::from("never-written");
+        store.put(&present, b"x").await.unwrap();
+
+        let to_remove =
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(absent.clone()), Ok(present.clone())]).boxed();
+        let mut removed = store
+            .remove_stream(to_remove)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .expect("an already-absent path must not fail the stream");
+
+        removed.sort_unstable();
+        let mut expected = vec![absent, present.clone()];
+        expected.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(removed, expected);
+        assert!(!store.exists(&present).await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remove_stream_deletes_concurrently() {
+        // Serial deletion is a round trip per object; the high-water mark is 1
+        // exactly when that regression happens.
+        let observations = Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default());
+        let mut store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            observations: observations.clone(),
+            fail_parts: false,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 0,
+        });
+
+        let paths: Vec<Path> = (0..64).map(|i| Path::from(format!("obj-{i:03}"))).collect();
+        for path in &paths {
+            store.put(path, b"x").await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let to_remove = futures::stream::iter(paths.clone().into_iter().map(Ok)).boxed();
+        let removed = store
+            .remove_stream(to_remove)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(removed.len(), paths.len());
+        assert!(
+            observations.delete_max_in_flight.load(Ordering::SeqCst) > 1,
+            "deletions ran one at a time; remove_stream must overlap them"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bulk_copy_streams_when_server_side_copy_is_disabled() {
+        let observations = Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default());
+        let mut store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            observations: observations.clone(),
+            fail_parts: false,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 0,
+        });
+
+        let source = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let destination = Path::from("destination.bin");
+        let contents = b"stream by default";
+        store.put(&source, contents).await.unwrap();
+
+        let result = store
+            .copy_bulk_with_server_side_copy(&source, &store, &destination, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.size, contents.len());
+        assert_eq!(observations.native_copy_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            store.read_one_all(&destination).await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            contents
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[serial(server_side_copy_env)]
+    fn test_server_side_copy_environment_policy() {
+        let previous_value = std::env::var_os(SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED_ENV);
+        let mut store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        store.scheme = "test-cloud".to_string();
+        let destination_store = store.clone();
+
+        // SAFETY: this serialized test is the only test that mutates this task-specific
+        // environment variable, and it restores the original value before returning.
+        unsafe { std::env::remove_var(SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED_ENV) };
+        assert!(!store.uses_server_side_copy(&destination_store));
+
+        // SAFETY: see the serialized-test guarantee above.
+        unsafe { std::env::set_var(SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED_ENV, "true") };
+        assert!(store.uses_server_side_copy(&destination_store));
+
+        // SAFETY: restore the process environment before the test returns.
+        unsafe {
+            match previous_value {
+                Some(value) => std::env::set_var(SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED_ENV, value),
+                None => std::env::remove_var(SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED_ENV),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bulk_copy_uses_server_side_copy_when_enabled_for_same_store() {
+        let observations = Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default());
+        let mut source_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        source_store.scheme = "test-cloud".to_string();
+        source_store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            observations: observations.clone(),
+            fail_parts: false,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 0,
+        });
+        let destination_store = source_store.clone();
+
+        let source = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let destination = Path::from("destination.bin");
+        let contents = b"use native copy when explicitly enabled";
+        source_store.put(&source, contents).await.unwrap();
+
+        let result = source_store
+            .copy_bulk_with_server_side_copy(&source, &destination_store, &destination, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.size, contents.len());
+        assert_eq!(observations.native_copy_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            destination_store
+                .read_one_all(&destination)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_ref(),
+            contents
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bulk_copy_streams_for_distinct_clients_with_same_prefix() {
+        let shared_inner = InMemory::new();
+        let source_observations = Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default());
+        let mut source_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        source_store.scheme = "test-cloud".to_string();
+        source_store.store_prefix = "test-cloud$bucket".to_string();
+        source_store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: shared_inner.clone(),
+            observations: source_observations.clone(),
+            fail_parts: false,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 0,
+        });
+        let destination_observations = Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default());
+        let mut destination_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        destination_store.scheme = "test-cloud".to_string();
+        destination_store.store_prefix = "test-cloud$bucket".to_string();
+        destination_store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: shared_inner,
+            observations: destination_observations.clone(),
+            fail_parts: false,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 0,
+        });
+
+        let source = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let destination = Path::from("destination.bin");
+        let contents = b"use native copy when explicitly enabled";
+        source_store.put(&source, contents).await.unwrap();
+
+        let result = source_store
+            .copy_bulk_with_server_side_copy(&source, &destination_store, &destination, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.size, contents.len());
+        assert_eq!(
+            source_observations.native_copy_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            0
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            destination_observations
+                .native_copy_count
+                .load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            0
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            destination_store
+                .read_one_all(&destination)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_ref(),
+            contents
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bulk_copy_rejects_server_side_destination_size_mismatch() {
+        let observations = Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default());
+        let mut source_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        source_store.scheme = "test-cloud".to_string();
+        source_store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            observations: observations.clone(),
+            fail_parts: false,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 1,
+        });
+        let destination_store = source_store.clone();
+
+        let source = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let destination = Path::from("destination.bin");
+        source_store
+            .put(&source, b"validate native copy")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = source_store
+            .copy_bulk_with_server_side_copy(&source, &destination_store, &destination, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("destination size mismatch"),
+            "expected validation failure, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(observations.native_copy_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bulk_copy_streams_across_stores_when_server_side_copy_is_enabled() {
+        let source_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let observations = Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default());
+        let mut destination_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        destination_store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            observations: observations.clone(),
+            fail_parts: false,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 0,
+        });
+
+        let source = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let destination = Path::from("destination.bin");
+        let contents = b"cross-store copies must stream";
+        source_store.put(&source, contents).await.unwrap();
+
+        let result = source_store
+            .copy_bulk_with_server_side_copy(&source, &destination_store, &destination, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.size, contents.len());
+        assert_eq!(observations.native_copy_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            destination_store
+                .read_one_all(&destination)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_ref(),
+            contents
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_copy_via_stream_preserves_local_not_found() {
+        let directory = TempStdDir::default();
+        let (store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(directory.to_str().unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let source = base_path.clone().join("missing.bin");
+        let destination = base_path.join("destination.bin");
+
+        let error = store
+            .copy_via_stream(&source, &store, &destination)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            error.is_not_found(),
+            "expected not-found error, got: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_copy_via_stream_uses_multiple_parts() {
+        let mut source_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        source_store.max_iop_size = 1024 * 1024;
+        let observations = Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default());
+        let mut destination_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        destination_store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            observations: observations.clone(),
+            fail_parts: false,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 0,
+        });
+
+        let source = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let destination = Path::from("destination.bin");
+        let contents = vec![42; crate::object_writer::initial_upload_size() * 2 + 1];
+        source_store.put(&source, &contents).await.unwrap();
+
+        let result = source_store
+            .copy_via_stream(&source, &destination_store, &destination)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.size, contents.len());
+        assert!(
+            observations.part_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst) >= 2,
+            "stream copy should split a large destination into multiple upload parts"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            destination_store
+                .read_one_all(&destination)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_ref(),
+            contents.as_slice()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_copy_via_stream_aborts_failed_upload_and_retains_source() {
+        let source_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let observations = Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default());
+        let mut destination_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        destination_store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            observations: observations.clone(),
+            fail_parts: true,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 0,
+        });
+
+        let source = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let destination = Path::from("destination.bin");
+        let contents = vec![7; crate::object_writer::initial_upload_size() * 2];
+        source_store.put(&source, &contents).await.unwrap();
+
+        let error = source_store
+            .copy_via_stream(&source, &destination_store, &destination)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        let error_message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            (error_message.contains("destination write")
+                || error_message.contains("destination completion"))
+                && error_message.contains("injected multipart part failure"),
+            "expected upload-stage context and the underlying error, got: {error}"
+        );
+
+        tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(1), async {
+            loop {
+                if observations.abort_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst) > 0 {
+                    break;
+                }
+                tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+            }
+        })
+        .await
+        .expect("multipart abort should complete");
+        assert_eq!(observations.abort_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            source_store.read_one_all(&source).await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            contents.as_slice()
+        );
+        assert!(!destination_store.exists(&destination).await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_copy_via_stream_rejects_destination_size_mismatch() {
+        let source_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let mut destination_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        destination_store.inner = Arc::new(ObservedMultipartStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            observations: Arc::new(MultipartObservations::default()),
+            fail_parts: false,
+            destination_size_adjustment: 1,
+        });
+
+        let source = Path::from("source.bin");
+        let destination = Path::from("destination.bin");
+        let contents = b"validate the destination after completion";
+        source_store.put(&source, contents).await.unwrap();
+
+        let error = source_store
+            .copy_via_stream(&source, &destination_store, &destination)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("destination size mismatch"),
+            "expected validation failure, got: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+    fn test_client_options_extracts_headers() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+            ("headers.x-custom-foo".to_string(), "bar".to_string()),
+            ("headers.x-ms-version".to_string(), "2023-11-03".to_string()),
+            ("region".to_string(), "us-west-2".to_string()),
+        ]));
+        let client_options = opts.client_options().unwrap();
+
+        // Verify non-header keys are not consumed as headers by creating
+        // another StorageOptions with no headers.* keys.
+        let opts_no_headers = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([(
+            "region".to_string(),
+            "us-west-2".to_string(),
+        )]));
+        opts_no_headers.client_options().unwrap();
+
+        // Smoke test: the client_options with headers should be usable
+        // in a builder (we can't inspect the headers directly, but building
+        // should not fail).
+        #[cfg(feature = "gcp")]
+        {
+            use object_store::gcp::GoogleCloudStorageBuilder;
+            let _builder = GoogleCloudStorageBuilder::new()
+                .with_client_options(client_options)
+                .with_url("gs://test-bucket");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+    fn test_client_options_rejects_invalid_header_name() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([(
+            "headers.bad header".to_string(),
+            "value".to_string(),
+        )]));
+        let err = opts.client_options().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("invalid header name"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+    fn test_client_options_rejects_invalid_header_value() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([(
+            "headers.x-good-name".to_string(),
+            "bad\x01value".to_string(),
+        )]));
+        let err = opts.client_options().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("invalid header value"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+    fn test_client_options_empty_when_no_header_keys() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+            ("region".to_string(), "us-east-1".to_string()),
+            ("access_key_id".to_string(), "AKID".to_string()),
+        ]));
+        opts.client_options().unwrap();
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/dynamic_credentials.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/dynamic_credentials.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8a39e568d44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/dynamic_credentials.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,411 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::fmt;
+use std::marker::PhantomData;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
+use object_store::{CredentialProvider, Result as ObjectStoreResult};
+
+use crate::object_store::{StorageOptionsAccessor, StorageOptionsProvider};
+
+#[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+use object_store::aws::AwsCredential as ObjectStoreAwsCredential;
+#[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+use object_store::azure::{AzureAccessKey, AzureCredential};
+#[cfg(feature = "gcp")]
+use object_store::gcp::GcpCredential;
+
+/// Raw dynamic storage options fetched from a credential-vending source.
+///
+/// Callers must convert this bag into a cloud-specific credential type via
+/// `TryFrom<DynamicCredentials>`.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct DynamicCredentials(pub HashMap<String, String>);
+
+impl fmt::Debug for DynamicCredentials {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_tuple("DynamicCredentials")
+            .field(&format_args!("[{} keys redacted]", self.0.len()))
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct NamespaceCredentialsProvider<T> {
+    accessor: Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>,
+    _credential: PhantomData<T>,
+}
+
+impl<T> fmt::Debug for NamespaceCredentialsProvider<T> {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("NamespaceCredentialsProvider")
+            .field("accessor", &self.accessor)
+            .field("credential_type", &std::any::type_name::<T>())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> NamespaceCredentialsProvider<T> {
+    pub fn new(accessor: Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            accessor,
+            _credential: PhantomData,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_provider(provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>) -> Self {
+        Self::new(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(provider)))
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_provider_with_initial(
+        provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>,
+        initial_options: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::new(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+            initial_options,
+            provider,
+        )))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build a dynamic credential provider for any cloud type, returning `None`
+/// if the accessor has no provider or the provider options are incompatible with `T`.
+pub async fn build_dynamic_credential_provider<T>(
+    accessor: Option<Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>>,
+) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn CredentialProvider<Credential = T>>>>
+where
+    T: TryFrom<DynamicCredentials, Error = Error> + fmt::Debug + Send + Sync + 'static,
+{
+    let Some(accessor) = accessor.filter(|a| a.has_provider()) else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+
+    let compatible = if let Some(initial) = accessor.initial_storage_options()
+        && T::try_from(DynamicCredentials(initial.clone())).is_ok()
+    {
+        true
+    } else {
+        let fetched = accessor.refresh_storage_options().await?.0;
+        T::try_from(DynamicCredentials(fetched)).is_ok()
+    };
+
+    if !compatible {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    Ok(Some(
+        Arc::new(NamespaceCredentialsProvider::<T>::new(accessor))
+            as Arc<dyn CredentialProvider<Credential = T>>,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn map_credential_error(error: Error) -> object_store::Error {
+    object_store::Error::Generic {
+        store: "NamespaceCredentialsProvider",
+        source: Box::new(error),
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl<T> CredentialProvider for NamespaceCredentialsProvider<T>
+where
+    T: TryFrom<DynamicCredentials, Error = Error> + fmt::Debug + Send + Sync + 'static,
+{
+    type Credential = T;
+
+    async fn get_credential(&self) -> ObjectStoreResult<Arc<Self::Credential>> {
+        let storage_options = self
+            .accessor
+            .get_storage_options()
+            .await
+            .map_err(map_credential_error)?;
+
+        let credential = match T::try_from(DynamicCredentials(storage_options.0)) {
+            Ok(credential) => credential,
+            Err(_) if self.accessor.has_provider() => {
+                let storage_options = self
+                    .accessor
+                    .refresh_storage_options()
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(map_credential_error)?;
+                T::try_from(DynamicCredentials(storage_options.0)).map_err(map_credential_error)?
+            }
+            Err(error) => return Err(map_credential_error(error)),
+        };
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(credential))
+    }
+}
+
+fn missing_dynamic_credential(kind: &str) -> Error {
+    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "Missing required {kind} credential fields in dynamic storage options"
+    ))
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+fn split_azure_sas(sas: &str) -> Result<Vec<(String, String)>> {
+    let pairs = url::form_urlencoded::parse(sas.trim_start_matches('?').as_bytes())
+        .map(|(key, value)| (key.into_owned(), value.into_owned()))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    if pairs.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Azure SAS token is empty or invalid in dynamic storage options",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    Ok(pairs)
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+impl TryFrom<DynamicCredentials> for ObjectStoreAwsCredential {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(credentials: DynamicCredentials) -> Result<Self> {
+        let key_id = credentials
+            .0
+            .get("aws_access_key_id")
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("access_key_id"))
+            .cloned();
+        let secret_key = credentials
+            .0
+            .get("aws_secret_access_key")
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("secret_access_key"))
+            .cloned();
+        let token = credentials
+            .0
+            .get("aws_session_token")
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("aws_token"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("aws_security_token"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("session_token"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("token"))
+            .cloned();
+
+        match (key_id, secret_key) {
+            (Some(key_id), Some(secret_key)) => Ok(Self {
+                key_id,
+                secret_key,
+                token,
+            }),
+            _ => Err(missing_dynamic_credential("AWS")),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+impl TryFrom<DynamicCredentials> for AzureCredential {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(credentials: DynamicCredentials) -> Result<Self> {
+        if let Some(sas) = credentials
+            .0
+            .get("azure_storage_sas_token")
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("azure_storage_sas_key"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("sas_token"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("sas_key"))
+        {
+            return Ok(Self::SASToken(split_azure_sas(sas)?));
+        }
+
+        if let Some(token) = credentials
+            .0
+            .get("azure_storage_token")
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("bearer_token"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("token"))
+        {
+            return Ok(Self::BearerToken(token.clone()));
+        }
+
+        if let Some(access_key) = credentials
+            .0
+            .get("azure_storage_account_key")
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("azure_storage_access_key"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("azure_storage_master_key"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("access_key"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("master_key"))
+            .or_else(|| credentials.0.get("account_key"))
+        {
+            return Ok(Self::AccessKey(
+                AzureAccessKey::try_new(access_key).map_err(|source| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("Invalid Azure access key: {source}"))
+                })?,
+            ));
+        }
+
+        Err(missing_dynamic_credential("Azure"))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "gcp")]
+impl TryFrom<DynamicCredentials> for GcpCredential {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(credentials: DynamicCredentials) -> Result<Self> {
+        let bearer = credentials
+            .0
+            .get("google_storage_token")
+            .cloned()
+            .ok_or_else(|| missing_dynamic_credential("GCP"))?;
+
+        Ok(Self { bearer })
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::object_store::test_utils::StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider;
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_aws_credentials() {
+        let provider = Arc::new(StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+            options: HashMap::from([
+                ("aws_access_key_id".to_string(), "AKID".to_string()),
+                ("aws_secret_access_key".to_string(), "SECRET".to_string()),
+                ("aws_session_token".to_string(), "TOKEN".to_string()),
+            ]),
+        });
+
+        let credentials =
+            NamespaceCredentialsProvider::<ObjectStoreAwsCredential>::from_provider(provider)
+                .get_credential()
+                .await
+                .expect("aws credentials should convert");
+
+        assert_eq!(credentials.key_id, "AKID");
+        assert_eq!(credentials.secret_key, "SECRET");
+        assert_eq!(credentials.token.as_deref(), Some("TOKEN"));
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_aws_credentials_aws_token_alias() {
+        let provider = Arc::new(StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+            options: HashMap::from([
+                ("aws_access_key_id".to_string(), "AKID".to_string()),
+                ("aws_secret_access_key".to_string(), "SECRET".to_string()),
+                ("aws_token".to_string(), "TOKEN".to_string()),
+            ]),
+        });
+
+        let credentials =
+            NamespaceCredentialsProvider::<ObjectStoreAwsCredential>::from_provider(provider)
+                .get_credential()
+                .await
+                .expect("aws credentials should convert");
+
+        assert_eq!(credentials.token.as_deref(), Some("TOKEN"));
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_credentials_fetch_provider_when_initial_has_metadata_only() {
+        let provider = Arc::new(StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+            options: HashMap::from([
+                ("aws_access_key_id".to_string(), "AKID".to_string()),
+                ("aws_secret_access_key".to_string(), "SECRET".to_string()),
+            ]),
+        });
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+            HashMap::from([("region".to_string(), "us-west-2".to_string())]),
+            provider,
+        ));
+
+        let credentials =
+            build_dynamic_credential_provider::<ObjectStoreAwsCredential>(Some(accessor))
+                .await
+                .expect("dynamic credential provider should build")
+                .expect("provider should be returned")
+                .get_credential()
+                .await
+                .expect("provider-vended aws credentials should convert");
+
+        assert_eq!(credentials.key_id, "AKID");
+        assert_eq!(credentials.secret_key, "SECRET");
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_azure_credentials() {
+        let provider = Arc::new(StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+            options: HashMap::from([(
+                "azure_storage_sas_token".to_string(),
+                "?sv=2022-11-02&sp=rl&sig=test".to_string(),
+            )]),
+        });
+
+        let credentials = NamespaceCredentialsProvider::<AzureCredential>::from_provider(provider)
+            .get_credential()
+            .await
+            .expect("azure credentials should convert");
+
+        match credentials.as_ref() {
+            AzureCredential::SASToken(pairs) => {
+                assert!(
+                    pairs
+                        .iter()
+                        .any(|(key, value)| key == "sv" && value == "2022-11-02")
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    pairs
+                        .iter()
+                        .any(|(key, value)| key == "sig" && value == "test")
+                );
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected SAS token, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_azure_credentials_short_sas_aliases() {
+        for key in ["sas_token", "sas_key"] {
+            let provider = Arc::new(StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+                options: HashMap::from([(
+                    key.to_string(),
+                    "?sv=2022-11-02&sp=rl&sig=short".to_string(),
+                )]),
+            });
+
+            let credentials =
+                NamespaceCredentialsProvider::<AzureCredential>::from_provider(provider)
+                    .get_credential()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|_| panic!("azure credentials should convert for key '{key}'"));
+
+            match credentials.as_ref() {
+                AzureCredential::SASToken(pairs) => {
+                    assert!(
+                        pairs.iter().any(|(k, v)| k == "sig" && v == "short"),
+                        "SAS token from key '{key}' should contain sig=short"
+                    );
+                }
+                other => panic!("expected SAS token for key '{key}', got {other:?}"),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "gcp")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_gcp_credentials() {
+        let provider = Arc::new(StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+            options: HashMap::from([("google_storage_token".to_string(), "gcp-token".to_string())]),
+        });
+
+        let credentials = NamespaceCredentialsProvider::<GcpCredential>::from_provider(provider)
+            .get_credential()
+            .await
+            .expect("gcp credentials should convert");
+
+        assert_eq!(credentials.bearer, "gcp-token");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/dynamic_opendal.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/dynamic_opendal.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..50b15d2180b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/dynamic_opendal.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,334 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::fmt;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream, stream::BoxStream};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use object_store::{
+    CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+    ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult,
+    RenameOptions,
+};
+use tokio::sync::RwLock;
+
+use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
+use crate::object_store::opendal_store::OpendalStore;
+use lance_core::Result;
+
+type NormalizeConfigFn = fn(&HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<HashMap<String, String>>;
+type BuildStoreFn = fn(HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<OpendalStore>;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct CachedOpenDalStore {
+    config: HashMap<String, String>,
+    store: Arc<OpendalStore>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub(in crate::object_store) struct DynamicOpenDalStore {
+    name: Arc<str>,
+    base_options: Arc<HashMap<String, String>>,
+    accessor: Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>,
+    normalize_config: NormalizeConfigFn,
+    build_store: BuildStoreFn,
+    protected_keys: Vec<&'static str>,
+    cache: Arc<RwLock<Option<CachedOpenDalStore>>>,
+}
+
+impl fmt::Debug for DynamicOpenDalStore {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("DynamicOpenDalStore")
+            .field("name", &self.name)
+            .field("accessor", &self.accessor)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl DynamicOpenDalStore {
+    pub(in crate::object_store) fn new(
+        name: impl Into<Arc<str>>,
+        base_options: HashMap<String, String>,
+        accessor: Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>,
+        normalize_config: NormalizeConfigFn,
+        build_store: BuildStoreFn,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            name: name.into(),
+            base_options: Arc::new(base_options),
+            accessor,
+            normalize_config,
+            build_store,
+            protected_keys: Vec::new(),
+            cache: Arc::new(RwLock::new(None)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(in crate::object_store) fn with_protected_keys(
+        mut self,
+        keys: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'static str>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.protected_keys = keys.into_iter().collect();
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn merge_options(
+        &self,
+        mut dynamic_options: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+        for key in &self.protected_keys {
+            dynamic_options.remove(*key);
+        }
+        let mut merged = self.base_options.as_ref().clone();
+        merged.extend(dynamic_options);
+        merged
+    }
+
+    pub(in crate::object_store) async fn current_store(&self) -> Result<Arc<OpendalStore>> {
+        let merged_options = self.merge_options(self.accessor.get_storage_options().await?.0);
+        let config = (self.normalize_config)(&merged_options)?;
+
+        // Cache reuse depends on exact normalized config equality. Providers
+        // should return stable, canonicalized values for semantically identical
+        // configurations to avoid unnecessary store rebuilds.
+        {
+            let cache = self.cache.read().await;
+            if let Some(cached) = cache.as_ref()
+                && cached.config == config
+            {
+                return Ok(cached.store.clone());
+            }
+        }
+
+        let store = Arc::new((self.build_store)(config.clone())?);
+        let mut cache = self.cache.write().await;
+        if let Some(cached) = cache.as_ref()
+            && cached.config == config
+        {
+            return Ok(cached.store.clone());
+        }
+
+        *cache = Some(CachedOpenDalStore {
+            config,
+            store: store.clone(),
+        });
+        Ok(store)
+    }
+
+    fn map_store_error(&self, error: lance_core::Error) -> object_store::Error {
+        object_store::Error::Generic {
+            store: "DynamicOpenDalStore",
+            source: Box::new(error),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for DynamicOpenDalStore {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "DynamicOpenDalStore({})", self.name)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl OSObjectStore for DynamicOpenDalStore {
+    async fn put_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        payload: PutPayload,
+        opts: PutOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<PutResult> {
+        self.current_store()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| self.map_store_error(e))?
+            .put_opts(location, payload, opts)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn put_multipart_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+        self.current_store()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| self.map_store_error(e))?
+            .put_multipart_opts(location, opts)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        options: GetOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<GetResult> {
+        self.current_store()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| self.map_store_error(e))?
+            .get_opts(location, options)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_ranges(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+    ) -> object_store::Result<Vec<Bytes>> {
+        self.current_store()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| self.map_store_error(e))?
+            .get_ranges(location, ranges)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    fn delete_stream(
+        &self,
+        locations: BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<Path>>,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<Path>> {
+        let this = self.clone();
+        stream::once(async move {
+            let store = this
+                .current_store()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| this.map_store_error(e))?;
+            Ok::<_, object_store::Error>((store, locations))
+        })
+        .map_ok(|(store, locations)| store.delete_stream(locations))
+        .try_flatten()
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<ObjectMeta>> {
+        let prefix = prefix.cloned();
+        let this = self.clone();
+        stream::once(async move {
+            this.current_store()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| this.map_store_error(e))
+        })
+        .map_ok(move |store| store.list(prefix.as_ref()))
+        .try_flatten()
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> object_store::Result<ListResult> {
+        self.current_store()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| self.map_store_error(e))?
+            .list_with_delimiter(prefix)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn copy_opts(
+        &self,
+        from: &Path,
+        to: &Path,
+        opts: CopyOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
+        self.current_store()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| self.map_store_error(e))?
+            .copy_opts(from, to, opts)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn rename_opts(
+        &self,
+        from: &Path,
+        to: &Path,
+        opts: RenameOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
+        self.current_store()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| self.map_store_error(e))?
+            .rename_opts(from, to, opts)
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use opendal::{Operator, services::Memory};
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::object_store::test_utils::StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_store_caches_by_normalized_config() {
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(Arc::new(
+            StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+                options: HashMap::from([("token".to_string(), "value".to_string())]),
+            },
+        )));
+
+        let store = DynamicOpenDalStore::new(
+            "memory",
+            HashMap::new(),
+            accessor,
+            |options| Ok(options.clone()),
+            |_| {
+                let operator = Operator::new(Memory::default()).map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Failed to create memory operator: {e:?}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                Ok(OpendalStore::new(operator))
+            },
+        );
+
+        let first = store
+            .current_store()
+            .await
+            .expect("first store should build");
+        let second = store
+            .current_store()
+            .await
+            .expect("second store should reuse cache");
+
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &second));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_options_preserves_protected_base_keys() {
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(Arc::new(
+            StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+                options: HashMap::new(),
+            },
+        )));
+        let store = DynamicOpenDalStore::new(
+            "memory",
+            HashMap::from([
+                ("bucket".to_string(), "url-bucket".to_string()),
+                ("root".to_string(), "/".to_string()),
+                ("token".to_string(), "base-token".to_string()),
+            ]),
+            accessor,
+            |options| Ok(options.clone()),
+            |_| {
+                let operator = Operator::new(Memory::default()).map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Failed to create memory operator: {e:?}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                Ok(OpendalStore::new(operator))
+            },
+        )
+        .with_protected_keys(["bucket", "root"]);
+
+        let merged = store.merge_options(HashMap::from([
+            ("bucket".to_string(), "provider-bucket".to_string()),
+            ("root".to_string(), "/provider-root".to_string()),
+            ("token".to_string(), "provider-token".to_string()),
+        ]));
+
+        assert_eq!(merged.get("bucket").unwrap(), "url-bucket");
+        assert_eq!(merged.get("root").unwrap(), "/");
+        assert_eq!(merged.get("token").unwrap(), "provider-token");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/list_retry.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/list_retry.rs
index 71b2ffbd721..f1ee6503536 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/list_retry.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/list_retry.rs
@@ -1,11 +1,16 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{sync::Arc, task::Poll};
+use std::{future::Future, pin::Pin, sync::Arc, task::Poll, time::Duration};
 
 use futures::stream::BoxStream;
 use futures::{Stream, StreamExt};
-use object_store::{path::Path, ObjectMeta, ObjectStore};
+use object_store::{ObjectMeta, ObjectStore, path::Path};
+use rand::Rng;
+use tokio::time::Sleep;
+
+const DEFAULT_BASE_RETRY_DELAY: Duration = Duration::from_millis(100);
+const DEFAULT_MAX_RETRY_DELAY: Duration = Duration::from_secs(5);
 
 /// A stream that does outer retries on list operations.
 ///
@@ -18,6 +23,9 @@ pub struct ListRetryStream {
     last_successful_key: Option<Path>,
     max_retries: usize,
     current_retries: usize,
+    retry_sleep: Option<Pin<Box<Sleep>>>,
+    base_retry_delay: Duration,
+    max_retry_delay: Duration,
 }
 
 impl ListRetryStream {
@@ -34,6 +42,31 @@ impl ListRetryStream {
             last_successful_key: None,
             max_retries,
             current_retries: 0,
+            retry_sleep: None,
+            base_retry_delay: DEFAULT_BASE_RETRY_DELAY,
+            max_retry_delay: DEFAULT_MAX_RETRY_DELAY,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn new_with_backoff(
+        object_store: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+        prefix: Option<Path>,
+        max_retries: usize,
+        base_retry_delay: Duration,
+        max_retry_delay: Duration,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let current_stream = object_store.list(prefix.as_ref());
+        Self {
+            object_store,
+            current_stream,
+            prefix,
+            last_successful_key: None,
+            max_retries,
+            current_retries: 0,
+            retry_sleep: None,
+            base_retry_delay,
+            max_retry_delay,
         }
     }
 
@@ -43,9 +76,32 @@ impl ListRetryStream {
             object_store::Error::NotFound { .. }
                 | object_store::Error::InvalidPath { .. }
                 | object_store::Error::NotSupported { .. }
-                | object_store::Error::NotImplemented
+                | object_store::Error::NotImplemented { .. }
         )
     }
+
+    fn retry_delay(&self) -> Duration {
+        let exponent = self.current_retries.saturating_sub(1).min(16) as u32;
+        let base_ms = self.base_retry_delay.as_millis().max(1);
+        let max_ms = self.max_retry_delay.as_millis().max(base_ms);
+        let cap_ms = base_ms.saturating_mul(1_u128 << exponent).min(max_ms);
+        let min_ms = (cap_ms / 2).max(1);
+        let delay_ms = if cap_ms > min_ms {
+            rand::rng().random_range(min_ms..=cap_ms)
+        } else {
+            cap_ms
+        };
+        Duration::from_millis(delay_ms.min(u64::MAX as u128) as u64)
+    }
+
+    fn recreate_stream(&mut self) {
+        self.current_stream = if let Some(offset) = self.last_successful_key.clone() {
+            self.object_store
+                .list_with_offset(self.prefix.as_ref(), &offset)
+        } else {
+            self.object_store.list(self.prefix.as_ref())
+        };
+    }
 }
 
 impl Stream for ListRetryStream {
@@ -57,6 +113,16 @@ impl Stream for ListRetryStream {
     ) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
         let this = self.get_mut();
         loop {
+            if let Some(sleep) = this.retry_sleep.as_mut() {
+                match sleep.as_mut().poll(cx) {
+                    Poll::Ready(()) => {
+                        this.retry_sleep = None;
+                        this.recreate_stream();
+                    }
+                    Poll::Pending => return Poll::Pending,
+                }
+            }
+
             match this.current_stream.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
                 Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(meta))) => {
                     this.last_successful_key = Some(meta.location.clone());
@@ -69,14 +135,7 @@ impl Stream for ListRetryStream {
                 Poll::Ready(Some(Err(error))) if Self::is_retryable(&error) => {
                     if this.current_retries < this.max_retries {
                         this.current_retries += 1;
-
-                        this.current_stream = if let Some(offset) = this.last_successful_key.clone()
-                        {
-                            this.object_store
-                                .list_with_offset(this.prefix.as_ref(), &offset)
-                        } else {
-                            this.object_store.list(this.prefix.as_ref())
-                        };
+                        this.retry_sleep = Some(Box::pin(tokio::time::sleep(this.retry_delay())));
 
                         continue;
                     } else {
@@ -97,6 +156,21 @@ impl Stream for ListRetryStream {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use std::collections::VecDeque;
+    use std::fmt::{Debug, Display, Formatter};
+    use std::ops::Range;
+    use std::sync::Mutex;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+    use std::time::Instant;
+
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use futures::stream;
+    use object_store::memory::InMemory;
+    use object_store::{
+        CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, PutMultipartOptions,
+        PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, Result as OSResult,
+    };
 
     fn assert_send<T: Send>() {}
 
@@ -105,4 +179,225 @@ mod tests {
         // Ensure that ListRetryStream is Send
         assert_send::<ListRetryStream>();
     }
+
+    fn object_meta(path: &str) -> ObjectMeta {
+        ObjectMeta {
+            location: Path::from(path),
+            last_modified: chrono::Utc::now(),
+            size: 1,
+            e_tag: None,
+            version: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn retryable_error() -> object_store::Error {
+        object_store::Error::Generic {
+            store: "scripted",
+            source: "retryable list error".into(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn not_found_error() -> object_store::Error {
+        object_store::Error::NotFound {
+            path: "missing".to_string(),
+            source: "missing".into(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct ScriptedListStore {
+        inner: InMemory,
+        list_streams: Mutex<VecDeque<Vec<OSResult<ObjectMeta>>>>,
+        offset_streams: Mutex<VecDeque<Vec<OSResult<ObjectMeta>>>>,
+        list_calls: AtomicUsize,
+        offset_calls: AtomicUsize,
+        last_offset: Mutex<Option<Path>>,
+    }
+
+    impl ScriptedListStore {
+        fn new(
+            list_streams: Vec<Vec<OSResult<ObjectMeta>>>,
+            offset_streams: Vec<Vec<OSResult<ObjectMeta>>>,
+        ) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                inner: InMemory::new(),
+                list_streams: Mutex::new(list_streams.into()),
+                offset_streams: Mutex::new(offset_streams.into()),
+                list_calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                offset_calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                last_offset: Mutex::new(None),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn list_calls(&self) -> usize {
+            self.list_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+        }
+
+        fn offset_calls(&self) -> usize {
+            self.offset_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+        }
+
+        fn last_offset(&self) -> Option<Path> {
+            self.last_offset.lock().unwrap().clone()
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Display for ScriptedListStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "ScriptedListStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Debug for ScriptedListStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            f.debug_struct("ScriptedListStore").finish()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ObjectStore for ScriptedListStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, _prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.list_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            let results = self
+                .list_streams
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .pop_front()
+                .unwrap_or_default();
+            stream::iter(results).boxed()
+        }
+
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.offset_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            *self.last_offset.lock().unwrap() = Some(offset.clone());
+            let results = self
+                .offset_streams
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .pop_front()
+                .unwrap_or_default();
+            stream::iter(results).boxed()
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_retry_stream_retries_after_backoff() {
+        let store = Arc::new(ScriptedListStore::new(
+            vec![
+                vec![Err(retryable_error())],
+                vec![Ok(object_meta("prefix/file"))],
+            ],
+            vec![],
+        ));
+        let stream = ListRetryStream::new_with_backoff(
+            store.clone(),
+            Some(Path::from("prefix")),
+            1,
+            Duration::from_millis(20),
+            Duration::from_millis(20),
+        );
+
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let items = stream.collect::<Vec<_>>().await;
+
+        assert_eq!(items.len(), 1);
+        assert!(items[0].is_ok());
+        assert_eq!(store.list_calls(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            start.elapsed() >= Duration::from_millis(10),
+            "retry should wait before recreating the list stream"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_retry_stream_resumes_after_last_successful_key() {
+        let store = Arc::new(ScriptedListStore::new(
+            vec![vec![Ok(object_meta("prefix/a")), Err(retryable_error())]],
+            vec![vec![Ok(object_meta("prefix/b"))]],
+        ));
+        let stream = ListRetryStream::new_with_backoff(
+            store.clone(),
+            Some(Path::from("prefix")),
+            1,
+            Duration::from_millis(1),
+            Duration::from_millis(1),
+        );
+
+        let items = stream.collect::<Vec<_>>().await;
+
+        assert_eq!(items.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(items[0].as_ref().unwrap().location, Path::from("prefix/a"));
+        assert_eq!(items[1].as_ref().unwrap().location, Path::from("prefix/b"));
+        assert_eq!(store.list_calls(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(store.offset_calls(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(store.last_offset(), Some(Path::from("prefix/a")));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_retry_stream_non_retryable_errors_return_immediately() {
+        let store = Arc::new(ScriptedListStore::new(
+            vec![vec![Err(not_found_error())]],
+            vec![],
+        ));
+        let stream = ListRetryStream::new_with_backoff(
+            store.clone(),
+            Some(Path::from("prefix")),
+            5,
+            Duration::from_millis(1),
+            Duration::from_millis(1),
+        );
+
+        let items = stream.collect::<Vec<_>>().await;
+
+        assert_eq!(items.len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            items.into_iter().next().unwrap(),
+            Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. })
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(store.list_calls(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(store.offset_calls(), 0);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/metrics.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/metrics.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..72984ca3a1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/metrics.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1877 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Publishes object store metrics via the [`metrics`] crate.
+//!
+//! Two layers cooperate:
+//!
+//! * [`MeteredObjectStore`] wraps any [`object_store::ObjectStore`] and records
+//!   per-operation request counts, transferred bytes, latency, errors, and the
+//!   number of requests currently in flight. It works for every store
+//!   regardless of backend.
+//! * [`MeteringHttpConnector`] wraps the HTTP client used by the native cloud
+//!   stores (S3 / GCS / Azure) and records throttle / retryable responses per
+//!   attempt. Because `object_store`'s retry loop re-issues each request
+//!   through the [`HttpService`](object_store::client::HttpService), this sees
+//!   every retried response, which a store-level wrapper cannot observe.
+//!
+//! The two layers have different coverage: every store gets the request-level
+//! metrics from [`MeteredObjectStore`], but only the native cloud stores get
+//! the HTTP-level throttle metrics. Opendal-backed stores (tos, oss, etc.)
+//! bypass `object_store`'s HTTP client, so there is no place to install the
+//! connector for them.
+//!
+//! Neither layer sees the optimized local reads and writes ([`LocalObjectReader`],
+//! [`LocalWriter`], the io_uring readers, and the local `copy` / recursive delete
+//! shortcuts), which go straight to the filesystem. Those publish the same
+//! request-level metrics themselves through
+//! [`IOTracker::begin_io`](crate::utils::tracking_store::IOTracker::begin_io).
+//! The two are installed together, so a store either publishes for all of its
+//! IO or for none of it. A store built by calling a provider's `new_store`
+//! directly, bypassing both `ObjectStore` constructors — as
+//! [`ObjectStore::local`](crate::object_store::ObjectStore::local) and
+//! [`ObjectStore::memory`](crate::object_store::ObjectStore::memory) do — is in
+//! the "none of it" case.
+//!
+//! [`LocalObjectReader`]: crate::local::LocalObjectReader
+//! [`LocalWriter`]: crate::object_writer::LocalWriter
+//!
+//! Metrics carry a `base` label identifying the store. Its cardinality is
+//! controlled by the `LANCE_OBJECT_STORE_METRICS_LABEL` environment variable
+//! ([`BASE_LABEL_ENV_VAR`]):
+//!
+//! * `scheme` (default) — scheme only, e.g. `s3`; low, bounded cardinality.
+//! * `full` — the full store prefix, e.g. `s3$bucket` or `az$container@account`,
+//!   so multiple buckets on the same cloud can be told apart.
+//! * `dataset` — `base` as in `full`, plus a `dataset` label with the URI the
+//!   store was opened for, e.g. `s3://bucket/path/table.lance`, so IO can be
+//!   attributed to a dataset. Each URI gets its own store (and HTTP client)
+//!   instead of sharing one per bucket, while the AIMD throttle budget stays
+//!   shared per bucket; cardinality grows with the number of datasets opened.
+//! * `off` — omit the `base` label entirely.
+//!
+//! The metric name constants ([`METRIC_REQUESTS`] etc.) and the recording
+//! helpers ([`record_request`], [`record_count`], [`record_error`],
+//! [`InFlightGuard`]) are public so custom object stores can emit the same
+//! metrics.
+
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use object_store::{
+    CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, GetResultPayload, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+    PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, RenameOptions, Result as OSResult,
+    UploadPart,
+};
+use url::Url;
+
+/// Total number of object store requests, labelled by `operation` and `base`.
+pub const METRIC_REQUESTS: &str = "lance_object_store_requests_total";
+/// Total bytes transferred by object store requests, labelled by `operation` and `base`.
+pub const METRIC_BYTES: &str = "lance_object_store_request_bytes_total";
+/// Object store request latency in seconds, labelled by `operation` and `base`.
+pub const METRIC_DURATION: &str = "lance_object_store_request_duration_seconds";
+/// Total number of failed object store requests, labelled by `operation` and `base`.
+pub const METRIC_ERRORS: &str = "lance_object_store_errors_total";
+/// Total number of throttle responses (HTTP 429 / 503) seen at the HTTP layer,
+/// labelled by `status` and `base`. Counts every attempt, including retries.
+pub const METRIC_THROTTLE: &str = "lance_object_store_throttle_total";
+/// Total number of retryable responses (HTTP 5xx / 429 / 408) seen at the HTTP
+/// layer, labelled by `status` and `base`. Counts every attempt, including
+/// retries. This is a superset of [`METRIC_THROTTLE`]; 409 (conflict) is
+/// deliberately excluded so commit conflicts are not counted as retries.
+pub const METRIC_RETRYABLE: &str = "lance_object_store_retryable_responses_total";
+/// Number of object store requests currently in flight, labelled by `operation`
+/// and `base`.
+pub const METRIC_IN_FLIGHT: &str = "lance_object_store_in_flight_requests";
+
+/// Environment variable controlling the cardinality of the `base` label.
+pub const BASE_LABEL_ENV_VAR: &str = "LANCE_OBJECT_STORE_METRICS_LABEL";
+
+/// Controls how much of a store's identity the `base` label carries, traded off
+/// against metric cardinality. Selected via [`BASE_LABEL_ENV_VAR`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum BaseLabelMode {
+    /// Full store prefix, e.g. `s3$bucket` or `az$container@account`: one
+    /// series family per bucket/container.
+    Full,
+    /// Scheme only, e.g. `s3`. The default: low, bounded cardinality.
+    Scheme,
+    /// Full store prefix as `base`, plus a `dataset` label with the URI the
+    /// store was opened for, e.g. `s3://bucket/path/table.lance`. Highest
+    /// cardinality: one series family per dataset.
+    Dataset,
+    /// Omit the `base` label entirely.
+    Off,
+}
+
+fn parse_base_label_mode(value: Option<&str>) -> BaseLabelMode {
+    match value {
+        Some("full") => BaseLabelMode::Full,
+        Some("dataset") => BaseLabelMode::Dataset,
+        Some("off") | Some("none") => BaseLabelMode::Off,
+        Some("scheme") | None => BaseLabelMode::Scheme,
+        Some(other) => {
+            tracing::warn!(
+                "Unrecognized {BASE_LABEL_ENV_VAR}={other:?}; \
+                 expected one of full, scheme, dataset, off. Defaulting to scheme."
+            );
+            BaseLabelMode::Scheme
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The label mode is read once from the environment and cached for the process.
+pub(crate) fn base_label_mode() -> BaseLabelMode {
+    static MODE: OnceLock<BaseLabelMode> = OnceLock::new();
+    *MODE.get_or_init(|| parse_base_label_mode(std::env::var(BASE_LABEL_ENV_VAR).ok().as_deref()))
+}
+
+/// Reduce a store identity from [`metrics_base`] to the configured `base`
+/// label, plus the `dataset` label in dataset mode. Empty when the label should
+/// be omitted. A bare prefix (`scheme$authority`, or just `scheme` for stores
+/// without buckets) in dataset mode, as a caller-metered store hands over, gets
+/// only the `base` label.
+fn base_labels(mode: BaseLabelMode, base: &str) -> Vec<metrics::Label> {
+    let base_label = |base: &str| metrics::Label::new("base", base.to_owned());
+    match mode {
+        BaseLabelMode::Full => vec![base_label(base)],
+        BaseLabelMode::Scheme => vec![base_label(base.split('$').next().unwrap_or(base))],
+        BaseLabelMode::Dataset => match base.split_once(' ') {
+            Some((prefix, uri)) => vec![
+                base_label(prefix),
+                metrics::Label::new("dataset", uri.to_owned()),
+            ],
+            None => vec![base_label(base)],
+        },
+        BaseLabelMode::Off => vec![],
+    }
+}
+
+/// The identity a store's metrics are labelled with: its prefix
+/// (`scheme$authority`), followed in dataset mode by a space and the URI it was
+/// opened for. A space cannot occur in either part, so [`base_labels`] splits
+/// on it. The registry also keys its store cache by this, so per-dataset labels
+/// come with per-dataset stores.
+pub(crate) fn metrics_base(mode: BaseLabelMode, store_prefix: &str, location: &Url) -> String {
+    match mode {
+        BaseLabelMode::Dataset => {
+            format!("{store_prefix} {}", location.as_str().trim_end_matches('/'))
+        }
+        _ => store_prefix.to_owned(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build the `operation` (+ optional `base`) label set shared by all
+/// store-level metrics, honoring the configured label mode.
+fn operation_labels(base: &str, operation: &'static str) -> Vec<metrics::Label> {
+    let mut labels = vec![metrics::Label::new("operation", operation)];
+    labels.extend(base_labels(base_label_mode(), base));
+    labels
+}
+
+/// Recommended histogram bucket boundaries for [`METRIC_DURATION`], in seconds.
+///
+/// Object store requests can take anywhere from a few milliseconds to the
+/// client timeout (commonly ~120s), so the boundaries are dense below 10s and
+/// keep useful resolution through the timeout band out to 5 minutes. Exporters
+/// that aggregate into fixed buckets (e.g. the OpenTelemetry bridge in the
+/// Python bindings) use these.
+pub const REQUEST_DURATION_BOUNDS: &[f64] = &[
+    0.005, 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, // sub-10s
+    10.0, 20.0, 30.0, 45.0, 60.0, 90.0, 120.0, 150.0, 180.0, 240.0, 300.0, // 10s–5min
+];
+
+/// Register descriptions (units and help text) for the object store metrics.
+///
+/// This routes through whatever [`metrics::Recorder`] is currently installed,
+/// so it must be called *after* the recorder is set. Exporters that build a
+/// catalog of available metrics (such as the OpenTelemetry bridge) rely on
+/// these descriptions to discover metric names, kinds, and units up front.
+pub fn describe_metrics() {
+    metrics::describe_counter!(
+        METRIC_REQUESTS,
+        metrics::Unit::Count,
+        "Total number of object store requests, by operation and scheme."
+    );
+    metrics::describe_counter!(
+        METRIC_BYTES,
+        metrics::Unit::Bytes,
+        "Total bytes transferred by object store requests, by operation and scheme."
+    );
+    metrics::describe_histogram!(
+        METRIC_DURATION,
+        metrics::Unit::Seconds,
+        "Object store request latency in seconds, by operation and scheme."
+    );
+    metrics::describe_counter!(
+        METRIC_ERRORS,
+        metrics::Unit::Count,
+        "Total number of failed object store requests, by operation and scheme."
+    );
+    metrics::describe_counter!(
+        METRIC_THROTTLE,
+        metrics::Unit::Count,
+        "Total number of throttle responses (HTTP 429 / 503) seen at the HTTP layer, by status and scheme."
+    );
+    metrics::describe_counter!(
+        METRIC_RETRYABLE,
+        metrics::Unit::Count,
+        "Total number of retryable responses (HTTP 5xx / 429 / 408) seen at the HTTP layer, by status and scheme."
+    );
+    metrics::describe_gauge!(
+        METRIC_IN_FLIGHT,
+        metrics::Unit::Count,
+        "Number of object store requests currently in flight, by operation and scheme."
+    );
+}
+
+/// Recommended fixed bucket boundaries for the histogram metrics defined here,
+/// as `(metric_name, boundaries)` pairs. Exporters that aggregate histograms
+/// into fixed buckets read this to configure each histogram.
+pub fn histogram_bounds() -> &'static [(&'static str, &'static [f64])] {
+    &[(METRIC_DURATION, REQUEST_DURATION_BOUNDS)]
+}
+
+/// Record the outcome of a unary request: count, latency, bytes (on success), and errors.
+pub fn record_request<T>(
+    base: &str,
+    operation: &'static str,
+    start: Instant,
+    bytes: u64,
+    result: &OSResult<T>,
+) {
+    record_outcome(base, operation, start, bytes, result.is_err());
+}
+
+/// Record count, latency, and either transferred bytes or an error for a
+/// completed request. Used both for unary requests and for streamed GETs whose
+/// bytes are only known once the body finishes.
+pub fn record_outcome(
+    base: &str,
+    operation: &'static str,
+    start: Instant,
+    bytes: u64,
+    is_error: bool,
+) {
+    let elapsed = start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let labels = operation_labels(base, operation);
+    metrics::counter!(METRIC_REQUESTS, labels.clone()).increment(1);
+    metrics::histogram!(METRIC_DURATION, labels.clone()).record(elapsed);
+    if is_error {
+        metrics::counter!(METRIC_ERRORS, labels).increment(1);
+    } else if bytes > 0 {
+        metrics::counter!(METRIC_BYTES, labels).increment(bytes);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Record a single request count without latency, used for streaming operations
+/// (list / delete) whose work happens lazily as the stream is polled.
+pub fn record_count(base: &str, operation: &'static str) {
+    metrics::counter!(METRIC_REQUESTS, operation_labels(base, operation)).increment(1);
+}
+
+/// Record a single error for an operation.
+pub fn record_error(base: &str, operation: &'static str) {
+    metrics::counter!(METRIC_ERRORS, operation_labels(base, operation)).increment(1);
+}
+
+/// Raises the in-flight gauge for an operation on creation and lowers it on
+/// drop, so the count stays balanced even if the request future or stream is
+/// cancelled or dropped before completing.
+pub struct InFlightGuard {
+    labels: Vec<metrics::Label>,
+}
+
+impl InFlightGuard {
+    pub fn new(base: &str, operation: &'static str) -> Self {
+        let labels = operation_labels(base, operation);
+        metrics::gauge!(METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, labels.clone()).increment(1.0);
+        Self { labels }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for InFlightGuard {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        metrics::gauge!(METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, self.labels.clone()).decrement(1.0);
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct MeteredObjectStore {
+    target: Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+    base: String,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for MeteredObjectStore {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "MeteredObjectStore({})", self.target)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+#[deny(clippy::missing_trait_methods)]
+impl object_store::ObjectStore for MeteredObjectStore {
+    async fn put_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        bytes: PutPayload,
+        opts: PutOptions,
+    ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+        let size = bytes.content_length() as u64;
+        let _in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "put");
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let result = self.target.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await;
+        record_request(&self.base, "put", start, size, &result);
+        result
+    }
+
+    async fn put_multipart_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+    ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+        let upload = self.target.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await?;
+        Ok(Box::new(MeteredMultipartUpload {
+            target: upload,
+            base: self.base.clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+        // `head()` is implemented as a `get_opts` call with `head = true`, so we
+        // distinguish it here to keep HEAD and GET as separate operations.
+        let is_head = options.head;
+        let operation = if is_head { "head" } else { "get" };
+        let in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, operation);
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let result = self.target.get_opts(location, options).await;
+
+        // A HEAD transfers only metadata, and errors carry no payload, so both
+        // are recorded immediately. `get_opts` only resolves once the response
+        // headers arrive; the body is streamed afterwards, so for a successful
+        // GET we defer recording until the body has been drained (see below).
+        if is_head || result.is_err() {
+            record_request(&self.base, operation, start, 0, &result);
+            return result;
+        }
+
+        let result = result.expect("checked to be Ok above");
+        Ok(meter_get_result(
+            result,
+            self.base.clone(),
+            start,
+            in_flight,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+        let _in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "get");
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let result = self.target.get_ranges(location, ranges).await;
+        let bytes = match &result {
+            Ok(parts) => parts.iter().map(|b| b.len() as u64).sum(),
+            Err(_) => 0,
+        };
+        record_request(&self.base, "get", start, bytes, &result);
+        result
+    }
+
+    fn delete_stream(
+        &self,
+        locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+        let base = self.base.clone();
+        // Count one logical delete request per call, matching `list`: a single
+        // `delete_stream` maps to one batched request on stores that support it
+        // (e.g. S3's `DeleteObjects`), so counting per yielded path would
+        // over-count. Errors are still recorded per failing path.
+        record_count(&self.base, "delete");
+        let in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "delete");
+        self.target
+            .delete_stream(locations)
+            .map(move |result| {
+                // Reference `in_flight` so this `move` closure captures (owns)
+                // the guard, keeping the gauge raised until the stream is
+                // dropped (a move closure only captures the variables it uses).
+                let _in_flight = &in_flight;
+                if result.is_err() {
+                    record_error(&base, "delete");
+                }
+                result
+            })
+            .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+        record_count(&self.base, "list");
+        meter_list_stream(
+            self.target.list(prefix),
+            self.base.clone(),
+            InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "list"),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn list_with_offset(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&Path>,
+        offset: &Path,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+        record_count(&self.base, "list");
+        meter_list_stream(
+            self.target.list_with_offset(prefix, offset),
+            self.base.clone(),
+            InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "list"),
+        )
+    }
+
+    async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+        let _in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "list");
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let result = self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await;
+        record_request(&self.base, "list", start, 0, &result);
+        result
+    }
+
+    async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+        let _in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "copy");
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let result = self.target.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await;
+        record_request(&self.base, "copy", start, 0, &result);
+        result
+    }
+
+    async fn rename_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: RenameOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+        let _in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "rename");
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let result = self.target.rename_opts(from, to, opts).await;
+        record_request(&self.base, "rename", start, 0, &result);
+        result
+    }
+}
+
+/// Count errors yielded while draining a list stream. The request itself is
+/// counted once when the stream is created (a single LIST may return many items).
+fn meter_list_stream(
+    stream: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>>,
+    base: String,
+    in_flight: InFlightGuard,
+) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+    stream
+        .map(move |result| {
+            // Reference `in_flight` so this `move` closure captures (owns) the
+            // guard: a move closure only captures the variables it uses, and
+            // holding it here keeps the gauge raised until the stream is dropped.
+            let _in_flight = &in_flight;
+            if result.is_err() {
+                record_error(&base, "list");
+            }
+            result
+        })
+        .boxed()
+}
+
+/// Wrap a successful GET so the request is recorded once its body has been
+/// fully read, capturing the true transfer duration and byte count rather than
+/// the time-to-first-byte and declared range. For payloads without a body
+/// stream (e.g. a local file handle) the request is recorded immediately.
+fn meter_get_result(
+    mut result: GetResult,
+    base: String,
+    start: Instant,
+    in_flight: InFlightGuard,
+) -> GetResult {
+    match result.payload {
+        GetResultPayload::Stream(stream) => {
+            result.payload = GetResultPayload::Stream(
+                MeteredGetStream {
+                    inner: stream,
+                    base,
+                    start,
+                    bytes: 0,
+                    errored: false,
+                    recorded: false,
+                    _in_flight: in_flight,
+                }
+                .boxed(),
+            );
+            result
+        }
+        // No body stream to observe (e.g. a local file), so record now.
+        other => {
+            let bytes = result.range.end - result.range.start;
+            record_outcome(&base, "get", start, bytes, false);
+            result.payload = other;
+            result
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Stream wrapper over a GET body that records the request (count, duration,
+/// bytes, errors) once the body is fully drained or the stream is dropped.
+struct MeteredGetStream {
+    inner: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Bytes>>,
+    base: String,
+    start: Instant,
+    bytes: u64,
+    errored: bool,
+    recorded: bool,
+    _in_flight: InFlightGuard,
+}
+
+impl MeteredGetStream {
+    fn record(&mut self) {
+        if self.recorded {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.recorded = true;
+        record_outcome(&self.base, "get", self.start, self.bytes, self.errored);
+    }
+}
+
+impl Stream for MeteredGetStream {
+    type Item = OSResult<Bytes>;
+
+    fn poll_next(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        match self.inner.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(chunk))) => {
+                self.bytes += chunk.len() as u64;
+                Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(chunk)))
+            }
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))) => {
+                self.errored = true;
+                Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e)))
+            }
+            Poll::Ready(None) => {
+                self.record();
+                Poll::Ready(None)
+            }
+            Poll::Pending => Poll::Pending,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for MeteredGetStream {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        // Records the partial transfer if the body was dropped before it drained.
+        self.record();
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct MeteredMultipartUpload {
+    target: Box<dyn MultipartUpload>,
+    base: String,
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl MultipartUpload for MeteredMultipartUpload {
+    fn put_part(&mut self, data: PutPayload) -> UploadPart {
+        // Each part upload is a distinct request, recorded under the `put_part`
+        // operation with the same count / bytes / latency / error set as a
+        // unary put.
+        let base = self.base.clone();
+        let size = data.content_length() as u64;
+        let inner = self.target.put_part(data);
+        async move {
+            let _in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&base, "put_part");
+            let start = Instant::now();
+            let result = inner.await;
+            record_request(&base, "put_part", start, size, &result);
+            result
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    async fn complete(&mut self) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+        // Completing a multipart upload issues its own request that can throttle
+        // or fail, so it is metered like any other operation.
+        let _in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "complete_multipart");
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let result = self.target.complete().await;
+        record_request(&self.base, "complete_multipart", start, 0, &result);
+        result
+    }
+
+    async fn abort(&mut self) -> OSResult<()> {
+        let _in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.base, "abort_multipart");
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let result = self.target.abort().await;
+        record_request(&self.base, "abort_multipart", start, 0, &result);
+        result
+    }
+}
+
+pub trait ObjectStoreMetricsExt {
+    /// Wrap this store so its operations publish metrics under the given `base` label.
+    fn metered(self, base: String) -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>;
+}
+
+impl ObjectStoreMetricsExt for Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
+    fn metered(self, base: String) -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
+        Arc::new(MeteredObjectStore { target: self, base })
+    }
+}
+
+// --- Layer 2: HTTP-level throttle metrics for native cloud stores ---
+
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+mod http {
+    use super::*;
+    use object_store::client::{
+        ClientOptions, HttpClient, HttpConnector, HttpError, HttpRequest, HttpResponse,
+        HttpService, ReqwestConnector,
+    };
+
+    /// An [`HttpConnector`] that records throttle and retryable responses
+    /// observed by the underlying HTTP client. Install it on the S3 / GCS /
+    /// Azure builders via `with_http_connector`.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    pub struct MeteringHttpConnector {
+        base: String,
+        inner: ReqwestConnector,
+    }
+
+    impl MeteringHttpConnector {
+        pub fn new(base: String) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                base,
+                inner: ReqwestConnector::default(),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl HttpConnector for MeteringHttpConnector {
+        fn connect(&self, options: &ClientOptions) -> object_store::Result<HttpClient> {
+            let client = self.inner.connect(options)?;
+            Ok(HttpClient::new(MeteringHttpService {
+                base: self.base.clone(),
+                inner: client,
+            }))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct MeteringHttpService {
+        base: String,
+        inner: HttpClient,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl HttpService for MeteringHttpService {
+        async fn call(&self, req: HttpRequest) -> Result<HttpResponse, HttpError> {
+            let response = self.inner.execute(req).await?;
+            let status = response.status().as_u16();
+            // Each attempt that object_store may retry is recorded with its
+            // numeric status. Throttles (429 / 503) are a distinct, narrower
+            // signal than the broader set of retryable responses, so they get
+            // their own counter. 409 (conflict) is intentionally excluded from
+            // the retryable set so commit conflicts are not counted as retries.
+            let is_throttle = status == 429 || status == 503;
+            let is_retryable = status == 429 || status == 408 || (500..600).contains(&status);
+            if is_throttle {
+                metrics::counter!(METRIC_THROTTLE, status_labels(&self.base, status)).increment(1);
+            }
+            if is_retryable {
+                metrics::counter!(METRIC_RETRYABLE, status_labels(&self.base, status)).increment(1);
+            }
+            Ok(response)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build the `status` (+ optional `base`) label set for HTTP-layer metrics,
+    /// honoring the configured label mode.
+    fn status_labels(base: &str, status: u16) -> Vec<metrics::Label> {
+        let mut labels = vec![metrics::Label::new("status", status.to_string())];
+        labels.extend(base_labels(base_label_mode(), base));
+        labels
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    mod tests {
+        use super::*;
+        use metrics_util::debugging::{DebugValue, DebuggingRecorder};
+        use object_store::client::{HttpRequestBody, HttpResponseBody};
+
+        /// A mock [`HttpService`] that always responds with a fixed status code.
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct StaticStatusService {
+            status: u16,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait::async_trait]
+        impl HttpService for StaticStatusService {
+            async fn call(&self, _req: HttpRequest) -> Result<HttpResponse, HttpError> {
+                Ok(::http::Response::builder()
+                    .status(self.status)
+                    .body(HttpResponseBody::from(Bytes::new()))
+                    .unwrap())
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn request() -> HttpRequest {
+            ::http::Request::builder()
+                .method("GET")
+                .uri("http://example.com/obj")
+                .body(HttpRequestBody::empty())
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        fn metric_count(
+            metrics: &[(metrics::Key, DebugValue)],
+            name: &str,
+            base: &str,
+            status: &str,
+        ) -> u64 {
+            for (key, value) in metrics {
+                if key.name() != name {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let labels: std::collections::HashMap<&str, &str> =
+                    key.labels().map(|l| (l.key(), l.value())).collect();
+                if labels.get("base") == Some(&base)
+                    && labels.get("status") == Some(&status)
+                    && let DebugValue::Counter(v) = value
+                {
+                    return *v;
+                }
+            }
+            0
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_throttle_and_retryable_responses_counted_by_status() {
+            let recorder = DebuggingRecorder::new();
+            let snapshotter = recorder.snapshotter();
+            metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+                let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                    .build()
+                    .unwrap();
+                rt.block_on(async {
+                    // Each attempt that object_store retries flows through `call`
+                    // again; here we simulate that by issuing several responses.
+                    // The base is baked into the connector, so it labels the
+                    // metric. Bases here have no `$`, so they are unaffected by
+                    // the label mode and this test isolates status handling.
+                    for (base, status) in [
+                        ("s3", 429u16),
+                        ("s3", 503),
+                        ("s3", 503),
+                        ("s3", 500),
+                        ("s3", 408),
+                        ("s3", 409),
+                        ("s3", 200),
+                        ("s3", 404),
+                        ("gs", 429),
+                    ] {
+                        let service = MeteringHttpService {
+                            base: base.into(),
+                            inner: HttpClient::new(StaticStatusService { status }),
+                        };
+                        service.call(request()).await.unwrap();
+                    }
+                });
+            });
+
+            let recorded: Vec<_> = snapshotter
+                .snapshot()
+                .into_vec()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(ck, _unit, _desc, value)| (ck.key().clone(), value))
+                .collect();
+
+            let throttle = |base, status| metric_count(&recorded, METRIC_THROTTLE, base, status);
+            let retryable = |base, status| metric_count(&recorded, METRIC_RETRYABLE, base, status);
+
+            // Throttles are only 429 and 503.
+            assert_eq!(throttle("s3", "429"), 1);
+            assert_eq!(throttle("s3", "503"), 2);
+            assert_eq!(throttle("s3", "500"), 0);
+            assert_eq!(throttle("s3", "408"), 0);
+
+            // Retryable is the broader set: 5xx, 429, 408 (but not 409).
+            assert_eq!(retryable("s3", "429"), 1);
+            assert_eq!(retryable("s3", "503"), 2);
+            assert_eq!(retryable("s3", "500"), 1);
+            assert_eq!(retryable("s3", "408"), 1);
+            // 409 conflict is excluded so commit conflicts are not counted as retries.
+            assert_eq!(retryable("s3", "409"), 0);
+
+            // Success and non-retryable client errors count as neither.
+            assert_eq!(throttle("s3", "200"), 0);
+            assert_eq!(retryable("s3", "404"), 0);
+
+            // The base label is taken from the connector, not shared across stores.
+            assert_eq!(throttle("gs", "429"), 1);
+            assert_eq!(retryable("gs", "429"), 1);
+            assert_eq!(throttle("gs", "503"), 0);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+pub use http::MeteringHttpConnector;
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir;
+    use metrics_util::debugging::{DebugValue, DebuggingRecorder, Snapshotter};
+    use object_store::memory::InMemory;
+    use object_store::{ObjectStoreExt, PutPayload};
+    use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+    use url::Url;
+
+    use crate::object_store::ObjectStore as LanceObjectStore;
+    use crate::traits::Writer;
+
+    fn payload(data: &[u8]) -> PutPayload {
+        PutPayload::from_bytes(Bytes::copy_from_slice(data))
+    }
+
+    fn metered_store() -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
+        (Arc::new(InMemory::new()) as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>).metered("memory".into())
+    }
+
+    /// A single materialized snapshot of recorded metrics. It must be taken
+    /// only once: the snapshotter *drains* histogram samples on every
+    /// `snapshot()` call, so a second snapshot would see empty histograms.
+    type Metrics = Vec<(metrics::Key, DebugValue)>;
+
+    /// Materialize the current recorder state. Histogram samples are *drained*
+    /// on each call, so a metric must be read from a single snapshot.
+    fn snapshot(snapshotter: &Snapshotter) -> Metrics {
+        snapshotter
+            .snapshot()
+            .into_vec()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(ck, _unit, _desc, value)| (ck.key().clone(), value))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Run an async closure with a thread-local metrics recorder installed and
+    /// return the resulting metrics. Uses a current-thread runtime so all polls
+    /// happen on the thread that holds the recorder guard.
+    fn capture_metrics<F, Fut>(f: F) -> Metrics
+    where
+        F: FnOnce() -> Fut,
+        Fut: std::future::Future<Output = ()>,
+    {
+        let recorder = DebuggingRecorder::new();
+        let snapshotter = recorder.snapshotter();
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .build()
+                .unwrap();
+            rt.block_on(f());
+        });
+        snapshot(&snapshotter)
+    }
+
+    fn key_matches(key: &metrics::Key, name: &str, labels: &[(&str, &str)]) -> bool {
+        if key.name() != name {
+            return false;
+        }
+        let actual: std::collections::HashSet<(&str, &str)> =
+            key.labels().map(|l| (l.key(), l.value())).collect();
+        labels.len() == actual.len() && labels.iter().all(|l| actual.contains(l))
+    }
+
+    fn counter_value(metrics: &Metrics, name: &str, labels: &[(&str, &str)]) -> u64 {
+        for (key, value) in metrics {
+            if key_matches(key, name, labels)
+                && let DebugValue::Counter(v) = value
+            {
+                return *v;
+            }
+        }
+        0
+    }
+
+    fn histogram_count(metrics: &Metrics, name: &str, labels: &[(&str, &str)]) -> usize {
+        for (key, value) in metrics {
+            if key_matches(key, name, labels)
+                && let DebugValue::Histogram(samples) = value
+            {
+                return samples.len();
+            }
+        }
+        0
+    }
+
+    fn gauge_value(metrics: &Metrics, name: &str, labels: &[(&str, &str)]) -> f64 {
+        for (key, value) in metrics {
+            if key_matches(key, name, labels)
+                && let DebugValue::Gauge(v) = value
+            {
+                return v.0;
+            }
+        }
+        0.0
+    }
+
+    fn has_metric(metrics: &Metrics, name: &str, labels: &[(&str, &str)]) -> bool {
+        metrics
+            .iter()
+            .any(|(key, _)| key_matches(key, name, labels))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_base_label_mode() {
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_label_mode(None), BaseLabelMode::Scheme);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_label_mode(Some("scheme")), BaseLabelMode::Scheme);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_label_mode(Some("full")), BaseLabelMode::Full);
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_base_label_mode(Some("dataset")),
+            BaseLabelMode::Dataset
+        );
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_label_mode(Some("off")), BaseLabelMode::Off);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_label_mode(Some("none")), BaseLabelMode::Off);
+        // Unrecognized values fall back to the conservative default.
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_label_mode(Some("bogus")), BaseLabelMode::Scheme);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::full(BaseLabelMode::Full, "s3$bucket", &[("base", "s3$bucket")])]
+    #[case::scheme(BaseLabelMode::Scheme, "s3$bucket", &[("base", "s3")])]
+    // Azure keeps only the scheme even though its prefix carries the account.
+    #[case::scheme_azure(BaseLabelMode::Scheme, "az$container@account", &[("base", "az")])]
+    // A prefix without `$` (e.g. memory/file) is unchanged by scheme mode.
+    #[case::scheme_no_bucket(BaseLabelMode::Scheme, "memory", &[("base", "memory")])]
+    #[case::off(BaseLabelMode::Off, "s3$bucket", &[])]
+    #[case::dataset(
+        BaseLabelMode::Dataset,
+        "s3$bucket s3://bucket/a/b.lance",
+        &[("base", "s3$bucket"), ("dataset", "s3://bucket/a/b.lance")]
+    )]
+    // A caller-metered store carries no URI, so dataset mode degrades to `full`.
+    #[case::dataset_bare_prefix(BaseLabelMode::Dataset, "s3$bucket", &[("base", "s3$bucket")])]
+    fn test_base_labels(
+        #[case] mode: BaseLabelMode,
+        #[case] base: &str,
+        #[case] expected: &[(&str, &str)],
+    ) {
+        let labels = base_labels(mode, base);
+        let got: Vec<(&str, &str)> = labels.iter().map(|l| (l.key(), l.value())).collect();
+        assert_eq!(got, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_metrics_base() {
+        let url = Url::parse("s3://bucket/a/b.lance/").unwrap();
+        // Only dataset mode appends the URI; a trailing slash does not split a
+        // dataset's series in two.
+        assert_eq!(
+            metrics_base(BaseLabelMode::Dataset, "s3$bucket", &url),
+            "s3$bucket s3://bucket/a/b.lance"
+        );
+        for mode in [
+            BaseLabelMode::Full,
+            BaseLabelMode::Scheme,
+            BaseLabelMode::Off,
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(metrics_base(mode, "s3$bucket", &url), "s3$bucket");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_base_label_defaults_to_scheme() {
+        // No env var is set in the test process, so the default `scheme` mode
+        // applies: the full prefix collapses to just the scheme.
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = (Arc::new(InMemory::new()) as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>)
+                .metered("s3$my-bucket".into());
+            store.put(&Path::from("a"), payload(b"x")).await.unwrap();
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(
+                &recorded,
+                METRIC_REQUESTS,
+                &[("operation", "put"), ("base", "s3")]
+            ),
+            1
+        );
+        // The full prefix is not emitted as the label under the default mode.
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(
+                &recorded,
+                METRIC_REQUESTS,
+                &[("operation", "put"), ("base", "s3$my-bucket")]
+            ),
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_put_records_count_bytes_and_latency() {
+        let data = b"hello world";
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            store
+                .put(&Path::from("a/b.bin"), payload(data))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        });
+
+        let labels = [("operation", "put"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels),
+            data.len() as u64
+        );
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &labels), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_get_records_count_and_bytes() {
+        let data = b"hello world";
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+            store.put(&path, payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+            // The GET is only recorded once its body has been fully drained.
+            store.get(&path).await.unwrap().bytes().await.unwrap();
+        });
+
+        let labels = [("operation", "get"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels),
+            data.len() as u64
+        );
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &labels), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_get_not_recorded_until_body_drained() {
+        let data = b"hello world";
+        let recorder = DebuggingRecorder::new();
+        let snapshotter = recorder.snapshotter();
+        let labels = [("operation", "get"), ("base", "memory")];
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .build()
+                .unwrap();
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                let store = metered_store();
+                let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+                store.put(&path, payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+
+                // Holding the result without reading the body records nothing yet.
+                let result = store.get(&path).await.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    counter_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels),
+                    0
+                );
+
+                // Draining the body records the request with the true byte count.
+                let bytes = result.bytes().await.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(bytes.len(), data.len());
+                let recorded = snapshot(&snapshotter);
+                assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels),
+                    data.len() as u64
+                );
+            });
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_head_is_a_separate_operation() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+            store.put(&path, payload(b"hello world")).await.unwrap();
+            store.head(&path).await.unwrap();
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(
+                &recorded,
+                METRIC_REQUESTS,
+                &[("operation", "head"), ("base", "memory")]
+            ),
+            1
+        );
+        // The head call must not be counted as a get.
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(
+                &recorded,
+                METRIC_REQUESTS,
+                &[("operation", "get"), ("base", "memory")]
+            ),
+            0
+        );
+        // A HEAD transfers only metadata, so it records no payload bytes.
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(
+                &recorded,
+                METRIC_BYTES,
+                &[("operation", "head"), ("base", "memory")]
+            ),
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_delete_records_one_request_per_call() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            for i in 0..3 {
+                store
+                    .put(&Path::from(format!("a/{i}.bin")), payload(b"x"))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            // `delete` drives `delete_stream`; deleting three paths is still one
+            // logical delete request (a single batched request on real stores).
+            let paths =
+                futures::stream::iter((0..3).map(|i| Ok(Path::from(format!("a/{i}.bin"))))).boxed();
+            let _: Vec<_> = store.delete_stream(paths).collect().await;
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(
+                &recorded,
+                METRIC_REQUESTS,
+                &[("operation", "delete"), ("base", "memory")]
+            ),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_list_counts_one_request_not_per_item() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            for i in 0..3 {
+                store
+                    .put(&Path::from(format!("a/{i}.bin")), payload(b"x"))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            let _: Vec<_> = store.list(Some(&Path::from("a"))).collect().await;
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(
+                &recorded,
+                METRIC_REQUESTS,
+                &[("operation", "list"), ("base", "memory")]
+            ),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_error_is_counted() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            // Getting a missing object errors.
+            let _ = store.get(&Path::from("does/not/exist")).await;
+        });
+
+        let labels = [("operation", "get"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_ERRORS, &labels), 1);
+        // A failed request is still counted as a request, with latency recorded.
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &labels), 1);
+        // No bytes are transferred on a failed get.
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_get_ranges_sums_part_bytes_and_labels_get() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+            store.put(&path, payload(b"hello world")).await.unwrap();
+            // Two disjoint ranges of 3 bytes each.
+            store.get_ranges(&path, &[2..5, 6..9]).await.unwrap();
+        });
+
+        let labels = [("operation", "get"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels), 6);
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &labels), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_copy_and_rename_record_zero_bytes() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            store
+                .put(&Path::from("a/src"), payload(b"x"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            store
+                .copy(&Path::from("a/src"), &Path::from("a/copy"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            store
+                .rename(&Path::from("a/copy"), &Path::from("a/moved"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        });
+
+        for operation in ["copy", "rename"] {
+            let labels = [("operation", operation), ("base", "memory")];
+            assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+            assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels), 0);
+            assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &labels), 1);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_list_with_delimiter_records_latency() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            store.put(&Path::from("a/b"), payload(b"x")).await.unwrap();
+            store
+                .list_with_delimiter(Some(&Path::from("a")))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        });
+
+        let labels = [("operation", "list"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_list_with_offset_counts_one_request() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            for i in 0..3 {
+                store
+                    .put(&Path::from(format!("a/{i}")), payload(b"x"))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            let _: Vec<_> = store
+                .list_with_offset(Some(&Path::from("a")), &Path::from("a/0"))
+                .collect()
+                .await;
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(
+                &recorded,
+                METRIC_REQUESTS,
+                &[("operation", "list"), ("base", "memory")]
+            ),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multipart_records_each_part_and_complete() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            let mut upload = store.put_multipart(&Path::from("a/big")).await.unwrap();
+            upload.put_part(payload(b"hello")).await.unwrap(); // 5 bytes
+            upload.put_part(payload(b"world!!")).await.unwrap(); // 7 bytes
+            upload.complete().await.unwrap();
+        });
+
+        let part_labels = [("operation", "put_part"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &part_labels), 2);
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &part_labels), 12);
+        // Each part records its own latency sample, like a unary put.
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &part_labels), 2);
+        // A successful part upload records no error.
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_ERRORS, &part_labels), 0);
+
+        // Completing the upload is its own metered request.
+        let complete_labels = [("operation", "complete_multipart"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &complete_labels),
+            1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &complete_labels),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multipart_abort_is_recorded() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            let mut upload = store.put_multipart(&Path::from("a/big")).await.unwrap();
+            upload.put_part(payload(b"hello")).await.unwrap();
+            upload.abort().await.unwrap();
+        });
+
+        let labels = [("operation", "abort_multipart"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &labels), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multipart_part_error_is_counted() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = (Arc::new(FailingStreamStore) as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>)
+                .metered("memory".into());
+            let mut upload = store.put_multipart(&Path::from("a/big")).await.unwrap();
+            let _ = upload.put_part(payload(b"data")).await;
+        });
+
+        let labels = [("operation", "put_part"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_ERRORS, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &labels), 1);
+        // A failed part transfers no counted bytes.
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_in_flight_guard_tracks_and_releases() {
+        let recorder = DebuggingRecorder::new();
+        let snapshotter = recorder.snapshotter();
+        let labels = [("operation", "get"), ("base", "memory")];
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            let g1 = InFlightGuard::new("memory", "get");
+            let g2 = InFlightGuard::new("memory", "get");
+            assert_eq!(
+                gauge_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels),
+                2.0
+            );
+            drop(g1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                gauge_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels),
+                1.0
+            );
+            drop(g2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                gauge_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels),
+                0.0
+            );
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_in_flight_gauge_is_wired_and_balances() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = metered_store();
+            let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+            store.put(&path, payload(b"hello")).await.unwrap();
+            store.get(&path).await.unwrap();
+        });
+
+        // The gauge is emitted for each operation (guard is wired in) and, once
+        // the operation completes, balances back to zero.
+        for operation in ["put", "get"] {
+            let labels = [("operation", operation), ("base", "memory")];
+            assert!(has_metric(&recorded, METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels));
+            assert_eq!(gauge_value(&recorded, METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels), 0.0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_list_stream_holds_in_flight_until_dropped() {
+        let recorder = DebuggingRecorder::new();
+        let snapshotter = recorder.snapshotter();
+        let labels = [("operation", "list"), ("base", "memory")];
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .build()
+                .unwrap();
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                let store = metered_store();
+                store.put(&Path::from("a/x"), payload(b"x")).await.unwrap();
+
+                // Creating the stream raises the gauge; it stays raised until the
+                // stream is dropped, even before any items are drained.
+                let stream = store.list(Some(&Path::from("a")));
+                assert_eq!(
+                    gauge_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels),
+                    1.0
+                );
+                drop(stream);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    gauge_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels),
+                    0.0
+                );
+            });
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_delete_stream_holds_in_flight_until_dropped() {
+        let recorder = DebuggingRecorder::new();
+        let snapshotter = recorder.snapshotter();
+        let labels = [("operation", "delete"), ("base", "memory")];
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .build()
+                .unwrap();
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                let store = metered_store();
+                let locations = futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(Path::from("a/b"))]).boxed();
+
+                // Like list, creating the delete stream raises the gauge and holds
+                // it until the stream is dropped, before any items are drained.
+                let stream = store.delete_stream(locations);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    gauge_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels),
+                    1.0
+                );
+                drop(stream);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    gauge_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels),
+                    0.0
+                );
+            });
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_in_flight_released_when_operation_future_dropped() {
+        let recorder = DebuggingRecorder::new();
+        let snapshotter = recorder.snapshotter();
+        let labels = [("operation", "get"), ("base", "memory")];
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .build()
+                .unwrap();
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                let started = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Notify::new());
+                // Never signalled: the request stays blocked mid-flight.
+                let release = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Notify::new());
+                let store = (Arc::new(BlockingStore {
+                    started: started.clone(),
+                    release,
+                }) as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>)
+                    .metered("memory".into());
+
+                let path = Path::from("a/b");
+                let mut fut = Box::pin(store.get(&path));
+                // Drive the request until it is blocked inside the inner store.
+                tokio::select! {
+                    _ = &mut fut => unreachable!("the blocking store never returns"),
+                    _ = started.notified() => {}
+                }
+
+                // The gauge is raised while the request is outstanding, and
+                // dropping the future before it completes releases it.
+                assert_eq!(
+                    gauge_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels),
+                    1.0
+                );
+                drop(fut);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    gauge_value(&snapshot(&snapshotter), METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels),
+                    0.0
+                );
+            });
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_streaming_errors_are_counted() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let delete_store = (Arc::new(FailingStreamStore) as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>)
+                .metered("memory".into());
+            let _ = delete_store.delete(&Path::from("a/b")).await;
+
+            let list_store = (Arc::new(FailingStreamStore) as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>)
+                .metered("memory".into());
+            let _: Vec<_> = list_store.list(None).collect().await;
+        });
+
+        // delete_stream counts the item and records an error when it fails.
+        let delete_labels = [("operation", "delete"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &delete_labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_ERRORS, &delete_labels), 1);
+
+        // A list request is counted once; a failure while draining records an error.
+        let list_labels = [("operation", "list"), ("base", "memory")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &list_labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_ERRORS, &list_labels), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// The optimized local reads and writes talk to the filesystem directly, so
+    /// they never reach [`MeteredObjectStore`] and publish these metrics
+    /// themselves. They must land under the same `base` label as the store's
+    /// metered operations, which for a local store is its scheme.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_local_filesystem_io_is_metered() {
+        let tmp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let dir = tmp.join("sub");
+        let data = b"hello world";
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            // Built through the registry, like any store opened from a URI.
+            let (store, path) = LanceObjectStore::from_uri(dir.join("a.bin").to_str().unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Writes go through LocalWriter.
+            store.put(&path, data).await.unwrap();
+
+            // Reads go through LocalObjectReader.
+            let reader = store.open(&path).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(reader.size().await.unwrap(), data.len());
+            assert_eq!(reader.get_range(0..5).await.unwrap().len(), 5);
+            assert_eq!(reader.get_all().await.unwrap().len(), data.len());
+            // The file is smaller than the block size, so it streams as one chunk.
+            let chunks: Vec<_> = reader.get_stream().await.unwrap().collect().await;
+            assert_eq!(chunks.len(), 1);
+
+            // Copy and recursive delete both shortcut to the filesystem too.
+            store
+                .copy(&path, &Path::from_absolute_path(dir.join("b.bin")).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            store
+                .remove_dir_all(Path::from_absolute_path(&dir).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        });
+
+        let put_labels = [("operation", "put"), ("base", "file")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &put_labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &put_labels),
+            data.len() as u64
+        );
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &put_labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(gauge_value(&recorded, METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &put_labels), 0.0);
+
+        // One request each for the range read, the full read and the single
+        // streamed chunk.
+        let get_labels = [("operation", "get"), ("base", "file")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &get_labels), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &get_labels),
+            (5 + 2 * data.len()) as u64
+        );
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &get_labels), 3);
+        assert_eq!(gauge_value(&recorded, METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &get_labels), 0.0);
+
+        // The size lookup is the local equivalent of a HEAD, and transfers no
+        // payload bytes.
+        let head_labels = [("operation", "head"), ("base", "file")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &head_labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &head_labels), 0);
+
+        for operation in ["copy", "delete"] {
+            let labels = [("operation", operation), ("base", "file")];
+            assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+            assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels), 0);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_ERRORS, &get_labels), 0);
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_ERRORS, &put_labels), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_local_read_error_is_counted() {
+        let tmp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let (store, path) = LanceObjectStore::from_uri(tmp.join("a.bin").to_str().unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            store.put(&path, b"hello").await.unwrap();
+
+            let reader = store.open(&path).await.unwrap();
+            // Reading past the end of the file fails.
+            assert!(reader.get_range(0..100).await.is_err());
+        });
+
+        let labels = [("operation", "get"), ("base", "file")];
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_ERRORS, &labels), 1);
+        // A failed read is still counted as a request, with latency recorded.
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(histogram_count(&recorded, METRIC_DURATION, &labels), 1);
+        assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// A local write is reported as a single `put` covering the whole file, so it
+    /// stays in flight until the file is persisted under its final path.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_local_write_is_in_flight_until_persisted() {
+        let tmp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let recorder = DebuggingRecorder::new();
+        let snapshotter = recorder.snapshotter();
+        let labels = [("operation", "put"), ("base", "file")];
+        metrics::with_local_recorder(&recorder, || {
+            let rt = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .build()
+                .unwrap();
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                let (store, path) = LanceObjectStore::from_uri(tmp.join("a.bin").to_str().unwrap())
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let mut writer = store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+                writer.write_all(b"hello").await.unwrap();
+
+                let recorded = snapshot(&snapshotter);
+                assert_eq!(gauge_value(&recorded, METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels), 1.0);
+                assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 0);
+
+                Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await.unwrap();
+                let recorded = snapshot(&snapshotter);
+                assert_eq!(gauge_value(&recorded, METRIC_IN_FLIGHT, &labels), 0.0);
+                assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels), 1);
+                assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels), 5);
+            });
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// A store handed in by the caller is metered like one built by the registry.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_caller_supplied_store_is_metered() {
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            let params = crate::object_store::ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store: Some((
+                    Arc::new(InMemory::new()) as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+                    Url::parse("memory:///").unwrap(),
+                )),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let (store, _) = LanceObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+                Arc::new(crate::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+                "memory:///",
+                &params,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            store.put(&Path::from("a"), b"hello").await.unwrap();
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            counter_value(
+                &recorded,
+                METRIC_REQUESTS,
+                &[("operation", "put"), ("base", "memory")]
+            ),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `ObjectStore::new` is how `DatasetBuilder` wraps a caller-supplied store,
+    /// so it must meter both halves of the store: the operations that go through
+    /// `inner`, and the local ones that bypass it. Metering only one half would
+    /// report a partial picture that reads like a complete one.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_store_built_from_new_is_metered() {
+        let tmp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let recorded = capture_metrics(|| async {
+            let store = LanceObjectStore::new(
+                Arc::new(object_store::local::LocalFileSystem::new()),
+                Url::parse("file:///").unwrap(),
+                None,
+                None,
+                false,
+                false,
+                1,
+                3,
+                None,
+            );
+            let path = Path::from_absolute_path(tmp.join("a.bin")).unwrap();
+            // put and open bypass `inner` and publish for themselves.
+            store.put(&path, b"hello").await.unwrap();
+            let reader = store.open(&path).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(reader.get_all().await.unwrap().len(), 5);
+            // delete goes through `inner`, so only MeteredObjectStore can count it.
+            store.delete(&path).await.unwrap();
+        });
+
+        for (operation, bytes) in [("put", 5), ("get", 5), ("delete", 0)] {
+            let labels = [("operation", operation), ("base", "file")];
+            assert_eq!(
+                counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_REQUESTS, &labels),
+                1,
+                "expected one {operation} request"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(counter_value(&recorded, METRIC_BYTES, &labels), bytes);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A store whose stream-producing operations always yield an error, used to
+    /// exercise the error branches of the streaming wrappers.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingStreamStore;
+
+    impl std::fmt::Display for FailingStreamStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "FailingStreamStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn test_error() -> object_store::Error {
+        object_store::Error::Generic {
+            store: "FailingStreamStore",
+            source: "injected failure".into(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl object_store::ObjectStore for FailingStreamStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _bytes: PutPayload,
+            _opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            Ok(Box::new(FailingUpload))
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, _location: &Path, _options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            _locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            futures::stream::once(async { Err(test_error()) }).boxed()
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, _prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            futures::stream::once(async { Err(test_error()) }).boxed()
+        }
+
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            _offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, _prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, _from: &Path, _to: &Path, _opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_opts(
+            &self,
+            _from: &Path,
+            _to: &Path,
+            _opts: RenameOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<()> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A [`MultipartUpload`] whose part uploads always fail, used to exercise the
+    /// error branch of the metered `put_part`.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingUpload;
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl MultipartUpload for FailingUpload {
+        fn put_part(&mut self, _data: PutPayload) -> UploadPart {
+            async { Err(test_error()) }.boxed()
+        }
+
+        async fn complete(&mut self) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn abort(&mut self) -> OSResult<()> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A store whose `get_opts` blocks after signalling `started`, so a request
+    /// can be observed mid-flight and then dropped before it completes.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct BlockingStore {
+        started: Arc<tokio::sync::Notify>,
+        release: Arc<tokio::sync::Notify>,
+    }
+
+    impl std::fmt::Display for BlockingStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "BlockingStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl object_store::ObjectStore for BlockingStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _bytes: PutPayload,
+            _opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, _location: &Path, _options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            self.started.notify_one();
+            self.release.notified().await;
+            unreachable!("release is never signalled in the test")
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            _locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, _prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            _offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, _prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, _from: &Path, _to: &Path, _opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_opts(
+            &self,
+            _from: &Path,
+            _to: &Path,
+            _opts: RenameOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<()> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/opendal_store.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/opendal_store.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..99523759095
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/opendal_store.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,226 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::fmt;
+use std::ops::Range;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, future, stream::BoxStream};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use object_store::{
+    CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+    ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult,
+    RenameOptions,
+};
+use object_store_opendal::OpendalStore as InnerOpendalStore;
+use opendal::Operator;
+
+/// Adapts OpenDAL listing paths to the spelling used by the request.
+///
+/// The upstream bridge builds listed locations with [`Path::from`], which
+/// percent-encodes reserved characters. Lance builds dataset base paths with
+/// [`Path::from_url_path`], so mismatched listed locations must be decoded.
+/// Locations that already match the requested prefix retain their spelling to
+/// preserve paths containing literal percent escapes.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(super) struct OpendalStore {
+    inner: InnerOpendalStore,
+}
+
+impl OpendalStore {
+    pub(super) fn new(operator: Operator) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: InnerOpendalStore::new(operator),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for OpendalStore {
+    fn fmt(&self, formatter: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        self.inner.fmt(formatter)
+    }
+}
+
+fn normalize_location(location: &Path, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> object_store::Result<Path> {
+    if prefix.is_none_or(|prefix| location.prefix_matches(prefix)) {
+        return Ok(location.clone());
+    }
+
+    Path::from_url_path(location.as_ref()).map_err(|source| object_store::Error::Generic {
+        store: "OpendalStore",
+        source: Box::new(source),
+    })
+}
+
+fn normalize_object_meta(
+    mut meta: ObjectMeta,
+    prefix: Option<&Path>,
+) -> object_store::Result<ObjectMeta> {
+    meta.location = normalize_location(&meta.location, prefix)?;
+    Ok(meta)
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl OSObjectStore for OpendalStore {
+    async fn put_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        payload: PutPayload,
+        options: PutOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<PutResult> {
+        self.inner.put_opts(location, payload, options).await
+    }
+
+    async fn put_multipart_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        options: PutMultipartOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+        self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, options).await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        options: GetOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<GetResult> {
+        self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_ranges(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+    ) -> object_store::Result<Vec<Bytes>> {
+        self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+    }
+
+    fn delete_stream(
+        &self,
+        locations: BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<Path>>,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<Path>> {
+        self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+    }
+
+    fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<ObjectMeta>> {
+        let listed = self.inner.list(prefix);
+        let prefix = prefix.cloned();
+        listed
+            .map(move |result| result.and_then(|meta| normalize_object_meta(meta, prefix.as_ref())))
+            .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn list_with_offset(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&Path>,
+        offset: &Path,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<ObjectMeta>> {
+        if self.inner.info().capability().list_with_start_after {
+            let listed = self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset);
+            let prefix = prefix.cloned();
+            listed
+                .map(move |result| {
+                    result.and_then(|meta| normalize_object_meta(meta, prefix.as_ref()))
+                })
+                .boxed()
+        } else {
+            // The bridge's fallback compares its encoded output with the raw
+            // offset. Filter normalized locations so both sides use one form.
+            let offset = offset.clone();
+            self.list(prefix)
+                .try_filter(move |meta| future::ready(meta.location > offset))
+                .boxed()
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> object_store::Result<ListResult> {
+        let mut result = self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await?;
+        for object in &mut result.objects {
+            object.location = normalize_location(&object.location, prefix)?;
+        }
+        for common_prefix in &mut result.common_prefixes {
+            *common_prefix = normalize_location(common_prefix, prefix)?;
+        }
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+
+    async fn copy_opts(
+        &self,
+        from: &Path,
+        to: &Path,
+        options: CopyOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
+        self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, options).await
+    }
+
+    async fn rename_opts(
+        &self,
+        from: &Path,
+        to: &Path,
+        options: RenameOptions,
+    ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
+        self.inner.rename_opts(from, to, options).await
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+    use opendal::services::Memory;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::raw_reserved_character("tables/run~1/t.lance")]
+    #[case::literal_percent_escape("tables/run%25231/t.lance")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_preserves_request_path_spelling(#[case] base_url: &str) {
+        let operator = Operator::new(Memory::default()).unwrap();
+        let store = OpendalStore::new(operator);
+        let base = Path::from_url_path(base_url).unwrap();
+        let direct_location = base.clone().join("manifest.lance");
+        let nested_location = Path::from_url_path(format!("{base_url}/data/part.lance")).unwrap();
+        for location in [&direct_location, &nested_location] {
+            store
+                .put(location, Bytes::from_static(b"data").into())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let listed = store
+            .list(Some(&base))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut listed_locations = listed
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|meta| meta.location)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        listed_locations.sort();
+        let mut expected_locations = vec![direct_location.clone(), nested_location.clone()];
+        expected_locations.sort();
+        assert_eq!(listed_locations, expected_locations);
+        assert!(
+            listed_locations
+                .iter()
+                .all(|location| location.prefix_matches(&base))
+        );
+
+        let listed_after_nested = store
+            .list_with_offset(Some(&base), &nested_location)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(listed_after_nested.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(listed_after_nested[0].location, direct_location);
+
+        let delimited = store.list_with_delimiter(Some(&base)).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(delimited.objects.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(delimited.objects[0].location, direct_location);
+        assert_eq!(delimited.common_prefixes, vec![base.clone().join("data")]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers.rs
index ee72b0b874e..4982c2b97ee 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers.rs
@@ -4,19 +4,18 @@
 use std::{
     collections::HashMap,
     sync::{
-        atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
         Arc, RwLock, Weak,
+        atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
     },
 };
 
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 use url::Url;
 
-use crate::object_store::uri_to_url;
 use crate::object_store::WrappingObjectStore;
+use crate::object_store::uri_to_url;
 
-use super::{tracing::ObjectStoreTracingExt, ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams};
+use super::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, tracing::ObjectStoreTracingExt};
 use lance_core::error::{Error, LanceOptionExt, Result};
 
 #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
@@ -25,14 +24,19 @@ pub mod aws;
 pub mod azure;
 #[cfg(feature = "gcp")]
 pub mod gcp;
+#[cfg(feature = "goosefs")]
+pub mod goosefs;
 #[cfg(feature = "huggingface")]
 pub mod huggingface;
 pub mod local;
 pub mod memory;
 #[cfg(feature = "oss")]
 pub mod oss;
+pub mod shared_memory;
 #[cfg(feature = "tencent")]
 pub mod tencent;
+#[cfg(feature = "tos")]
+pub mod tos;
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 pub trait ObjectStoreProvider: std::fmt::Debug + Sync + Send {
@@ -46,8 +50,12 @@ pub trait ObjectStoreProvider: std::fmt::Debug + Sync + Send {
     /// Meanwhile, for a file store, the path is relative to the filesystem root.
     /// So a URL of `file:///path/to/file` would return `/path/to/file`.
     fn extract_path(&self, url: &Url) -> Result<Path> {
-        Path::parse(url.path()).map_err(|_| {
-            Error::invalid_input(format!("Invalid path in URL: {}", url.path()), location!())
+        // url.path() returns a percent-encoded string (per the WHATWG URL spec).
+        // Path::from_url_path decodes it first so the Path internal representation
+        // holds the raw UTF-8 string. This prevents double-encoding when the
+        // object store client later percent-encodes the path for HTTP requests.
+        Path::from_url_path(url.path()).map_err(|e| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Invalid path in URL '{}': {}", url.path(), e))
         })
     }
 
@@ -91,10 +99,12 @@ pub struct ObjectStoreRegistryStats {
 /// - `file`: A local file object store, with optimized code paths.
 /// - `file-object-store`: A local file object store that uses the ObjectStore API,
 ///   for all operations. Used for testing with ObjectStore wrappers.
+/// - `file+uring`: A local file object store using io_uring (Linux only).
 /// - `s3`: An S3 object store.
 /// - `s3+ddb`: An S3 object store with DynamoDB for metadata.
 /// - `az`: An Azure Blob Storage object store.
 /// - `gs`: A Google Cloud Storage object store.
+/// - `tos`: A Volcengine TOS object store.
 ///
 /// Use [`Self::empty()`] to create an empty registry, with no providers registered.
 ///
@@ -192,7 +202,65 @@ impl ObjectStoreRegistry {
             let valid_schemes = providers.keys().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>().join(", ");
             message.push_str(&format!("\nValid schemes: {}", valid_schemes));
         }
-        Error::invalid_input(message, location!())
+        Error::invalid_input(message)
+    }
+
+    async fn build_store(
+        &self,
+        provider: Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>,
+        base_path: Url,
+        params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+        metrics_base: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<ObjectStore>> {
+        let mut store = provider.new_store(base_path, params).await?;
+        // Providers only know the explicit parameter; the storage option is
+        // applied here so every store honours it the same way.
+        if let Some(block_size) = params.resolved_block_size()? {
+            store.block_size = block_size;
+        }
+
+        store.inner = store.inner.traced();
+
+        // Label metrics by the store's unique prefix (e.g. `s3$bucket`,
+        // `az$container@account`) so multiple stores on one cloud differ, or by
+        // the dataset URI when the label mode asks for it.
+        crate::object_store::meter_store(&mut store.inner, &mut store.io_tracker, metrics_base);
+
+        if let Some(wrapper) = &params.object_store_wrapper {
+            store.apply_wrapper(wrapper.as_ref());
+        }
+
+        // Always wrap with IO tracking
+        store.inner = store.io_tracker.wrap("", store.inner);
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(store))
+    }
+
+    /// Build a fresh object store without consulting or populating the cache.
+    ///
+    /// Callers should retain the returned [`Arc`] for as long as they want to
+    /// reuse provider-local state such as HTTP clients and rate limiters.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub async fn new_store(
+        &self,
+        base_path: Url,
+        params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<ObjectStore>> {
+        // Base-scoped storage options (`base_<id>.<key>`) are directives for
+        // other registered base paths; resolve them away before building a
+        // store for this location.
+        let params = params.scoped_to_base(None);
+        let params = params.as_ref();
+        let scheme = base_path.scheme();
+        let Some(provider) = self.get_provider(scheme) else {
+            return Err(self.scheme_not_found_error(scheme));
+        };
+        let store_prefix =
+            provider.calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?;
+        let metrics_base = crate::object_store::metrics_base(&store_prefix, &base_path);
+
+        self.build_store(provider, base_path, params, &metrics_base)
+            .await
     }
 
     /// Get an object store for a given base path and parameters.
@@ -205,13 +273,23 @@ impl ObjectStoreRegistry {
         base_path: Url,
         params: &ObjectStoreParams,
     ) -> Result<Arc<ObjectStore>> {
+        // Base-scoped storage options (`base_<id>.<key>`) are directives for
+        // other registered base paths; resolve them away before building or
+        // caching a store for this location. Params already resolved for a
+        // base contain no scoped entries, so this is a no-op for them.
+        let params = params.scoped_to_base(None);
+        let params = params.as_ref();
         let scheme = base_path.scheme();
         let Some(provider) = self.get_provider(scheme) else {
             return Err(self.scheme_not_found_error(scheme));
         };
 
-        let cache_path =
+        // Keyed by the metrics identity rather than the bare prefix: in
+        // `dataset` label mode that is the dataset URI, so datasets sharing a
+        // bucket get separate stores and their metrics stay attributed.
+        let store_prefix =
             provider.calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?;
+        let cache_path = crate::object_store::metrics_base(&store_prefix, &base_path);
         let cache_key = (cache_path.clone(), params.clone());
 
         // Check if we have a cached store for this base path and params
@@ -233,11 +311,11 @@ impl ObjectStoreRegistry {
                         .active_stores
                         .write()
                         .expect("ObjectStoreRegistry lock poisoned");
-                    if let Some(store) = cache_lock.get(&cache_key) {
-                        if store.upgrade().is_none() {
-                            // Remove the weak reference if it is no longer valid
-                            cache_lock.remove(&cache_key);
-                        }
+                    if let Some(store) = cache_lock.get(&cache_key)
+                        && store.upgrade().is_none()
+                    {
+                        // Remove the weak reference if it is no longer valid
+                        cache_lock.remove(&cache_key);
                     }
                 }
             }
@@ -245,18 +323,9 @@ impl ObjectStoreRegistry {
 
         self.misses.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
 
-        let mut store = provider.new_store(base_path, params).await?;
-
-        store.inner = store.inner.traced();
-
-        if let Some(wrapper) = &params.object_store_wrapper {
-            store.inner = wrapper.wrap(&cache_path, store.inner);
-        }
-
-        // Always wrap with IO tracking
-        store.inner = store.io_tracker.wrap("", store.inner);
-
-        let store = Arc::new(store);
+        let store = self
+            .build_store(provider, base_path, params, &cache_path)
+            .await?;
 
         {
             // Insert the store into the cache
@@ -293,6 +362,10 @@ impl Default for ObjectStoreRegistry {
         let mut providers: HashMap<String, Arc<dyn ObjectStoreProvider>> = HashMap::new();
 
         providers.insert("memory".into(), Arc::new(memory::MemoryStoreProvider));
+        providers.insert(
+            "shared-memory".into(),
+            Arc::new(shared_memory::SharedMemoryStoreProvider::default()),
+        );
         providers.insert("file".into(), Arc::new(local::FileStoreProvider));
         // The "file" scheme has special optimized code paths that bypass
         // the ObjectStore API for better performance. However, this can make it
@@ -303,6 +376,8 @@ impl Default for ObjectStoreRegistry {
             "file-object-store".into(),
             Arc::new(local::FileStoreProvider),
         );
+        #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+        providers.insert("file+uring".into(), Arc::new(local::FileStoreProvider));
 
         #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
         {
@@ -311,15 +386,23 @@ impl Default for ObjectStoreRegistry {
             providers.insert("s3+ddb".into(), aws);
         }
         #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
-        providers.insert("az".into(), Arc::new(azure::AzureBlobStoreProvider));
+        {
+            let azure = Arc::new(azure::AzureBlobStoreProvider);
+            providers.insert("az".into(), azure.clone());
+            providers.insert("abfss".into(), azure);
+        }
         #[cfg(feature = "gcp")]
         providers.insert("gs".into(), Arc::new(gcp::GcsStoreProvider));
+        #[cfg(feature = "goosefs")]
+        providers.insert("goosefs".into(), Arc::new(goosefs::GooseFsStoreProvider));
         #[cfg(feature = "oss")]
         providers.insert("oss".into(), Arc::new(oss::OssStoreProvider));
         #[cfg(feature = "tencent")]
         providers.insert("cos".into(), Arc::new(tencent::TencentStoreProvider));
         #[cfg(feature = "huggingface")]
         providers.insert("hf".into(), Arc::new(huggingface::HuggingfaceStoreProvider));
+        #[cfg(feature = "tos")]
+        providers.insert("tos".into(), Arc::new(tos::TosStoreProvider));
         Self {
             providers: RwLock::new(providers),
             active_stores: RwLock::new(HashMap::new()),
@@ -343,8 +426,14 @@ impl ObjectStoreRegistry {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Mutex;
 
     use super::*;
+    use object_store::ObjectStore as OSObjectStore;
+
+    use crate::object_store::providers::memory::MemoryStoreProvider;
+    use object_store::list::{PaginatedListOptions, PaginatedListResult, PaginatedListStore};
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     #[derive(Debug)]
     struct DummyProvider;
@@ -360,6 +449,125 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    /// A lister that exists only to be handed to a wrapper.
+    struct StubLister;
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl PaginatedListStore for StubLister {
+        async fn list_paginated(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&str>,
+            _opts: PaginatedListOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<PaginatedListResult> {
+            unimplemented!("this lister exists to be wrapped, not to list")
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A provider whose stores come with a paginated lister, which the memory store does not.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct PaginatedProvider;
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl ObjectStoreProvider for PaginatedProvider {
+        async fn new_store(
+            &self,
+            base_path: Url,
+            params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+        ) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
+            let mut store = MemoryStoreProvider.new_store(base_path, params).await?;
+            store.paginated_lister = Some(Arc::new(StubLister));
+            Ok(store)
+        }
+
+        fn calculate_object_store_prefix(
+            &self,
+            _url: &Url,
+            _storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+        ) -> Result<String> {
+            Ok("memory".to_string())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Swaps the store out for an empty one, the way a wrapper enforcing visibility would, and
+    /// records the prefix each call was labelled with. `keep_pushdown` is what it answers when
+    /// asked about the lister.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct RecordingWrapper {
+        keep_pushdown: bool,
+        prefixes: Mutex<Vec<String>>,
+    }
+
+    impl WrappingObjectStore for RecordingWrapper {
+        fn wrap(
+            &self,
+            store_prefix: &str,
+            _original: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+        ) -> Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> {
+            self.prefixes
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .push(format!("wrap@{store_prefix}"));
+            Arc::new(object_store::memory::InMemory::new())
+        }
+
+        fn wrap_paginated(
+            &self,
+            store_prefix: &str,
+            original: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+        ) -> Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>> {
+            self.prefixes
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .push(format!("wrap_paginated@{store_prefix}"));
+            self.keep_pushdown.then_some(original)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A decorator supplied through [`ObjectStoreParams`] has to reach the paginated lister
+    /// too, or `read_dir_page` would talk to the backend behind its back — and a decorator
+    /// that gives the pushdown up gets a store with no lister, so its listings go through the
+    /// wrapped `inner` and see what the wrapper allows rather than what the backend holds.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::keeps_the_pushdown(true)]
+    #[case::gives_up_the_pushdown(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_the_registry_hands_the_lister_to_the_wrapper(#[case] keep_pushdown: bool) {
+        let wrapper = Arc::new(RecordingWrapper {
+            keep_pushdown,
+            prefixes: Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+        });
+        let registry = ObjectStoreRegistry::default();
+        registry.insert("pagmem", Arc::new(PaginatedProvider));
+
+        let store = registry
+            .get_store(
+                Url::parse("pagmem:///").unwrap(),
+                &ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(wrapper.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(store.paginated_lister.is_some(), keep_pushdown);
+        // Both halves of the store are labelled with the same prefix.
+        assert_eq!(
+            *wrapper.prefixes.lock().unwrap(),
+            vec!["wrap@memory", "wrap_paginated@memory"]
+        );
+        if !keep_pushdown {
+            // `StubLister` panics if it is ever asked to list, so reaching a page at all is
+            // the other half of the assertion.
+            let page = store
+                .read_dir_page(Path::from(""), Default::default())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(page.result.common_prefixes.is_empty());
+            assert!(page.result.objects.is_empty());
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_calculate_object_store_prefix() {
         let provider = DummyProvider;
@@ -370,6 +578,36 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_get_store_resolves_base_scoped_options() {
+        use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
+
+        let registry = ObjectStoreRegistry::default();
+        let url = Url::parse("memory://test").unwrap();
+
+        let with_scoped = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("shared".to_string(), "value".to_string()),
+                    ("base_1.account_key".to_string(), "base1-key".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let without_scoped = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([("shared".to_string(), "value".to_string())]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        // Base-scoped entries are resolved away before the store is built and
+        // cached, so params with and without them yield the same cached store.
+        let store_scoped = registry.get_store(url.clone(), &with_scoped).await.unwrap();
+        let store_plain = registry.get_store(url, &without_scoped).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&store_scoped, &store_plain));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_calculate_object_store_scheme_not_found() {
         let registry = ObjectStoreRegistry::empty();
@@ -453,4 +691,18 @@ mod tests {
         // Same params returns same instance
         assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&stores[0], &stores[1]));
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_new_store_bypasses_cache() {
+        let registry = ObjectStoreRegistry::default();
+        let url = Url::parse("memory://test").unwrap();
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams::default();
+
+        let first = registry.new_store(url.clone(), &params).await.unwrap();
+        let second = registry.new_store(url, &params).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &second));
+        let stats = registry.stats();
+        assert_eq!((stats.hits, stats.misses, stats.active_stores), (0, 0, 0));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/aws.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/aws.rs
index 982470581f2..6c1299d970f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/aws.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/aws.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{collections::HashMap, fmt, str::FromStr, sync::Arc, time::Duration};
+use std::{collections::HashMap, str::FromStr, sync::Arc, time::Duration};
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 use mock_instant::thread_local::{SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
@@ -10,76 +10,131 @@ use mock_instant::thread_local::{SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
 use std::time::{SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
 
 use object_store::ObjectStore as OSObjectStore;
-use object_store_opendal::OpendalStore;
-use opendal::{services::S3, Operator};
+use object_store::list::PaginatedListStore;
+use opendal::{Operator, services::S3};
 
 use aws_config::default_provider::credentials::DefaultCredentialsChain;
+use aws_config::ecs::EcsCredentialsProvider;
+use aws_config::provider_config::ProviderConfig;
+use aws_config::web_identity_token::WebIdentityTokenCredentialsProvider;
+use aws_config::{BehaviorVersion, Region, SdkConfig};
 use aws_credential_types::provider::ProvideCredentials;
 use object_store::{
+    ClientOptions, CredentialProvider, Result as ObjectStoreResult, RetryConfig,
+    StaticCredentialProvider,
     aws::{
-        AmazonS3Builder, AmazonS3ConfigKey, AwsCredential as ObjectStoreAwsCredential,
+        AmazonS3, AmazonS3Builder, AmazonS3ConfigKey, AwsCredential as ObjectStoreAwsCredential,
         AwsCredentialProvider,
     },
-    ClientOptions, CredentialProvider, Result as ObjectStoreResult, RetryConfig,
-    StaticCredentialProvider,
 };
-use snafu::location;
-use tokio::sync::RwLock;
+use tokio::sync::{Mutex, RwLock};
 use url::Url;
 
+use crate::object_store::opendal_store::OpendalStore;
 use crate::object_store::{
-    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, StorageOptionsAccessor,
-    StorageOptionsProvider, DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM,
-    DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, StorageOptionsAccessor,
+    dynamic_credentials::{NamespaceCredentialsProvider, build_dynamic_credential_provider},
+    throttle::{AimdThrottleState, cloud_http_connector, shared_throttle_state, with_throttling},
 };
 use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
 
 #[derive(Default, Debug)]
 pub struct AwsStoreProvider;
 
+struct ResolvedS3StorageOptions {
+    options: HashMap<AmazonS3ConfigKey, String>,
+    profile_region: Option<String>,
+}
+
+impl ResolvedS3StorageOptions {
+    fn new(
+        mut options: HashMap<AmazonS3ConfigKey, String>,
+        profile_config: Option<&SdkConfig>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        if effective_s3_endpoint(&options).is_none()
+            && let Some(endpoint) = profile_config.and_then(SdkConfig::endpoint_url)
+        {
+            options.insert(AmazonS3ConfigKey::Endpoint, endpoint.to_string());
+        }
+        let profile_region = profile_config
+            .and_then(SdkConfig::region)
+            .map(|region| region.as_ref().to_string());
+        Self {
+            options,
+            profile_region,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn effective_endpoint(&self) -> Option<&str> {
+        effective_s3_endpoint(&self.options)
+    }
+
+    fn requires_constant_size_upload_parts(&self) -> bool {
+        self.effective_endpoint()
+            .is_some_and(|endpoint| endpoint.contains("r2.cloudflarestorage.com"))
+    }
+}
+
 impl AwsStoreProvider {
     async fn build_amazon_s3_store(
         &self,
         base_path: &mut Url,
         params: &ObjectStoreParams,
         storage_options: &StorageOptions,
+        mut resolved_s3_options: ResolvedS3StorageOptions,
         is_s3_express: bool,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>> {
-        let max_retries = storage_options.client_max_retries();
-        let retry_timeout = storage_options.client_retry_timeout();
+        throttle_state: Option<&AimdThrottleState>,
+        // Concrete rather than `dyn`, so the caller keeps the handle a paginated listing
+        // needs: `PaginatedListStore` is a separate trait from `ObjectStore`.
+    ) -> Result<Arc<AmazonS3>> {
+        // Use a low retry count since the AIMD throttle layer handles
+        // throttle recovery with its own retry loop.
         let retry_config = RetryConfig {
             backoff: Default::default(),
-            max_retries,
-            retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(retry_timeout),
+            max_retries: storage_options.client_max_retries(),
+            retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(storage_options.client_retry_timeout()),
         };
 
-        let mut s3_storage_options = storage_options.as_s3_options();
-        let region = resolve_s3_region(base_path, &s3_storage_options).await?;
+        let region = resolve_s3_region(base_path, &resolved_s3_options).await?;
 
         // Get accessor from params
         let accessor = params.get_accessor();
 
+        let provider_scheme = storage_options.aws_provider_scheme()?;
+
         let (aws_creds, region) = build_aws_credential(
             params.s3_credentials_refresh_offset,
             params.aws_credentials.clone(),
-            Some(&s3_storage_options),
+            Some(&resolved_s3_options.options),
             region,
             accessor,
+            provider_scheme,
         )
         .await?;
 
         // Set S3Express flag if detected
         if is_s3_express {
-            s3_storage_options.insert(AmazonS3ConfigKey::S3Express, true.to_string());
+            resolved_s3_options
+                .options
+                .insert(AmazonS3ConfigKey::S3Express, true.to_string());
         }
 
+        // Compute the metrics label before rewriting the URL below so it
+        // matches the prefix the registry uses to key this store.
+        let store_prefix =
+            self.calculate_object_store_prefix(base_path, Some(&storage_options.0))?;
+        let metrics_base = crate::object_store::metrics_base(&store_prefix, base_path);
+
         // before creating the OSObjectStore we need to rewrite the url to drop ddb related parts
         base_path.set_scheme("s3").unwrap();
         base_path.set_query(None);
 
         // we can't use parse_url_opts here because we need to manually set the credentials provider
-        let mut builder = AmazonS3Builder::new();
-        for (key, value) in s3_storage_options {
+        let mut builder =
+            AmazonS3Builder::new().with_client_options(storage_options.client_options()?);
+        for (key, value) in resolved_s3_options.options {
             builder = builder.with_config(key, value);
         }
         builder = builder
@@ -88,7 +143,9 @@ impl AwsStoreProvider {
             .with_retry(retry_config)
             .with_region(region);
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(builder.build()?) as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>)
+        builder = builder.with_http_connector(cloud_http_connector(throttle_state, metrics_base));
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(builder.build()?))
     }
 
     async fn build_opendal_s3_store(
@@ -98,7 +155,7 @@ impl AwsStoreProvider {
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>> {
         let bucket = base_path
             .host_str()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("S3 URL must contain bucket name", location!()))?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("S3 URL must contain bucket name"))?
             .to_string();
 
         let prefix = base_path.path().trim_start_matches('/').to_string();
@@ -107,6 +164,13 @@ impl AwsStoreProvider {
         // OpenDAL will handle environment variables through its default credentials chain
         let mut config_map: HashMap<String, String> = storage_options.0.clone();
 
+        if let Some(provider_scheme) = storage_options.aws_provider_scheme()? {
+            return Result::Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "OpendalStore does not currently support an explicit provider_scheme (currently set to {:?})",
+                provider_scheme
+            )));
+        }
+
         // Set required OpenDAL configuration
         config_map.insert("bucket".to_string(), bucket);
 
@@ -115,13 +179,7 @@ impl AwsStoreProvider {
         }
 
         let operator = Operator::from_iter::<S3>(config_map)
-            .map_err(|e| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Failed to create S3 operator: {:?}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?
-            .finish();
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create S3 operator: {:?}", e)))?;
 
         Ok(Arc::new(OpendalStore::new(operator)) as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>)
     }
@@ -136,37 +194,66 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for AwsStoreProvider {
     ) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
         let block_size = params.block_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE);
         let mut storage_options =
-            StorageOptions(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
+            StorageOptions::new(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
         storage_options.with_env_s3();
         let download_retry_count = storage_options.download_retry_count();
 
         let use_opendal = storage_options
             .0
             .get("use_opendal")
-            .map(|v| v == "true")
+            .map(|v| str_is_truthy(v))
             .unwrap_or(false);
 
+        let profile_config = if std::env::var_os("AWS_PROFILE").is_some() {
+            Some(aws_config::load_defaults(BehaviorVersion::latest()).await)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let resolved_s3_options =
+            ResolvedS3StorageOptions::new(storage_options.as_s3_options(), profile_config.as_ref());
+
         // Determine S3 Express and constant size upload parts before building the store
         let is_s3_express = check_s3_express(&base_path, &storage_options);
 
-        let use_constant_size_upload_parts = storage_options
-            .0
-            .get("aws_endpoint")
-            .map(|endpoint| endpoint.contains("r2.cloudflarestorage.com"))
-            .unwrap_or(false);
+        let use_constant_size_upload_parts =
+            resolved_s3_options.requires_constant_size_upload_parts();
 
-        let inner = if use_opendal {
+        // Keyed like the registry cache so per-dataset stores share the bucket's budget.
+        let store_prefix =
+            self.calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?;
+        let throttle_state = shared_throttle_state(&store_prefix, params)?;
+
+        let (inner, paginated_lister) = if use_opendal {
             // Use OpenDAL implementation
-            self.build_opendal_s3_store(&base_path, &storage_options)
-                .await?
+            // Listed in full: no paginated lister covers OpenDAL yet.
+            (
+                self.build_opendal_s3_store(&base_path, &storage_options)
+                    .await?,
+                None,
+            )
         } else {
             // Use default Amazon S3 implementation
-            self.build_amazon_s3_store(&mut base_path, params, &storage_options, is_s3_express)
-                .await?
+            let store = self
+                .build_amazon_s3_store(
+                    &mut base_path,
+                    params,
+                    &storage_options,
+                    resolved_s3_options,
+                    is_s3_express,
+                    throttle_state.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+            (
+                store.clone() as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+                Some(store as Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>),
+            )
         };
+        let (inner, paginated_lister) =
+            with_throttling(throttle_state, !use_opendal, inner, paginated_lister);
 
         Ok(ObjectStore {
             inner,
+            local_dir_operations: None,
             scheme: String::from(base_path.scheme()),
             block_size,
             max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
@@ -177,6 +264,7 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for AwsStoreProvider {
             io_tracker: Default::default(),
             store_prefix: self
                 .calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?,
+            paginated_lister,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -186,32 +274,38 @@ fn check_s3_express(url: &Url, storage_options: &StorageOptions) -> bool {
     storage_options
         .0
         .get("s3_express")
-        .map(|v| v == "true")
+        .map(|v| str_is_truthy(v))
         .unwrap_or(false)
         || url.authority().ends_with("--x-s3")
 }
 
+fn effective_s3_endpoint(storage_options: &HashMap<AmazonS3ConfigKey, String>) -> Option<&str> {
+    storage_options
+        .get(&AmazonS3ConfigKey::S3Endpoint)
+        .or_else(|| storage_options.get(&AmazonS3ConfigKey::Endpoint))
+        .map(String::as_str)
+}
+
 /// Figure out the S3 region of the bucket.
 ///
 /// This resolves in order of precedence:
 /// 1. The region provided in the storage options
-/// 2. (If endpoint is not set), the region returned by the S3 API for the bucket
+/// 2. The selected AWS profile's region when a custom endpoint is configured
+/// 3. (If endpoint is not set), the region returned by the S3 API for the bucket
 ///
 /// It can return None if no region is provided and the endpoint is set.
 async fn resolve_s3_region(
     url: &Url,
-    storage_options: &HashMap<AmazonS3ConfigKey, String>,
+    resolved_s3_options: &ResolvedS3StorageOptions,
 ) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+    let storage_options = &resolved_s3_options.options;
     if let Some(region) = storage_options.get(&AmazonS3ConfigKey::Region) {
         Ok(Some(region.clone()))
-    } else if storage_options.get(&AmazonS3ConfigKey::Endpoint).is_none() {
+    } else if resolved_s3_options.effective_endpoint().is_none() {
         // If no endpoint is set, we can assume this is AWS S3 and the region
         // can be resolved from the bucket.
         let bucket = url.host_str().ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Could not parse bucket from url: {}", url),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Could not parse bucket from url: {}", url))
         })?;
 
         let mut client_options = ClientOptions::default();
@@ -225,18 +319,40 @@ async fn resolve_s3_region(
             object_store::aws::resolve_bucket_region(bucket, &client_options).await?;
         Ok(Some(bucket_region))
     } else {
-        Ok(None)
+        Ok(resolved_s3_options.profile_region.clone())
     }
 }
 
+/// Selects which AWS credential provider to use for a dataset.
+///
+/// When set, overrides automatic credential resolution for everything except an
+/// explicitly-supplied `credentials` provider or `storage_options_accessor`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub enum AwsProviderScheme {
+    /// Require static access-key credentials (`aws_access_key_id` +
+    /// `aws_secret_access_key`). Returns an error if they are absent.
+    Token,
+    /// Use the ECS/Pod Identity container credential endpoint.
+    /// The endpoint URI is read from the `AWS_CONTAINER_CREDENTIALS_FULL_URI`
+    /// or `AWS_CONTAINER_CREDENTIALS_RELATIVE_URI` environment variables.
+    Ecs,
+    /// Use IRSA (IAM Roles for Service Accounts) web identity token credentials.
+    /// The token file and role ARN are read from the `AWS_WEB_IDENTITY_TOKEN_FILE`
+    /// and `AWS_ROLE_ARN` environment variables.
+    Irsa,
+}
+
 /// Build AWS credentials
 ///
 /// This resolves credentials from the following sources in order:
-/// 1. An explicit `storage_options_accessor` with a provider
-/// 2. An explicit `credentials` provider
-/// 3. Explicit credentials in storage_options (as in `aws_access_key_id`,
-///    `aws_secret_access_key`, `aws_session_token`)
-/// 4. The default credential provider chain from AWS SDK.
+/// 1. An explicit `credentials` provider
+/// 2. An explicit `storage_options_accessor` with a provider
+/// 3. If `provider_scheme` is set:
+///    - [`AwsProviderScheme::Token`]: static access-key credentials (error if absent)
+///    - [`AwsProviderScheme::Ecs`]: ECS container credential provider
+///    - [`AwsProviderScheme::Irsa`]: web identity token (IRSA) provider
+/// 4. Static access-key credentials from `storage_options`, if present
+/// 5. The default AWS credential provider chain
 ///
 /// # Storage Options Accessor
 ///
@@ -251,6 +367,7 @@ pub async fn build_aws_credential(
     storage_options: Option<&HashMap<AmazonS3ConfigKey, String>>,
     region: Option<String>,
     storage_options_accessor: Option<Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>>,
+    provider_scheme: Option<AwsProviderScheme>,
 ) -> Result<(AwsCredentialProvider, String)> {
     use aws_config::meta::region::RegionProviderChain;
     const DEFAULT_REGION: &str = "us-west-2";
@@ -266,39 +383,87 @@ pub async fn build_aws_credential(
             .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_REGION.to_string())
     };
 
-    let storage_options_credentials = storage_options.and_then(extract_static_s3_credentials);
+    // If the user supplied their own credential provider that takes top priority
+    if let Some(creds) = credentials {
+        return Ok((creds, region));
+    }
 
-    // If accessor has a provider, use DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider
-    if let Some(accessor) = storage_options_accessor {
-        if accessor.has_provider() {
-            // Explicit aws_credentials takes precedence
-            if let Some(creds) = credentials {
-                return Ok((creds, region));
-            }
-            // Use accessor for dynamic credential refresh
-            return Ok((
-                Arc::new(DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider::new(accessor)),
-                region,
-            ));
-        }
+    // Otherwise, if the user provided a storage_options_accessor, try and use that
+    if let Some(dynamic_creds) = build_dynamic_credential_provider::<ObjectStoreAwsCredential>(
+        storage_options_accessor.clone(),
+    )
+    .await?
+    {
+        return Ok((dynamic_creds, region));
     }
 
-    // Fall back to existing logic for static credentials
-    if let Some(creds) = credentials {
-        Ok((creds, region))
-    } else if let Some(creds) = storage_options_credentials {
-        Ok((Arc::new(creds), region))
-    } else {
-        let credentials_provider = DefaultCredentialsChain::builder().build().await;
+    // If the user provided a storage_options_accessor, then it must not have matched AWS.
+    // Log a message and ignore it.
+    if storage_options_accessor
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|a| a.has_provider())
+    {
+        log::debug!(
+            "Storage options from provider do not contain explicit AWS credentials, \
+             falling back to default AWS credentials chain."
+        );
+    }
 
-        Ok((
-            Arc::new(AwsCredentialAdapter::new(
-                Arc::new(credentials_provider),
-                credentials_refresh_offset,
-            )),
-            region,
-        ))
+    // If the caller specified an explicit provider scheme, use only that provider.
+    if let Some(scheme) = provider_scheme {
+        return match scheme {
+            AwsProviderScheme::Token => {
+                let creds = storage_options
+                    .and_then(extract_static_s3_credentials)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(
+                            "aws_provider_scheme=token requires aws_access_key_id \
+                             and aws_secret_access_key to be set",
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                Ok((Arc::new(creds), region))
+            }
+            AwsProviderScheme::Ecs => {
+                let provider = EcsCredentialsProvider::builder().build();
+                Ok((
+                    Arc::new(AwsCredentialAdapter::new(
+                        Arc::new(provider),
+                        credentials_refresh_offset,
+                    )),
+                    region,
+                ))
+            }
+            AwsProviderScheme::Irsa => {
+                let conf = ProviderConfig::default().with_region(Some(Region::new(region.clone())));
+                let provider = WebIdentityTokenCredentialsProvider::builder()
+                    .configure(&conf)
+                    .build();
+                Ok((
+                    Arc::new(AwsCredentialAdapter::new(
+                        Arc::new(provider),
+                        credentials_refresh_offset,
+                    )),
+                    region,
+                ))
+            }
+        };
+    }
+
+    if let Some(opts) = storage_options {
+        // Check for static credentials (access key & secret)
+        if let Some(creds) = extract_static_s3_credentials(opts) {
+            return Ok((Arc::new(creds), region));
+        }
     }
+
+    let credentials_provider = DefaultCredentialsChain::builder().build().await;
+    Ok((
+        Arc::new(AwsCredentialAdapter::new(
+            Arc::new(credentials_provider),
+            credentials_refresh_offset,
+        )),
+        region,
+    ))
 }
 
 fn extract_static_s3_credentials(
@@ -324,8 +489,11 @@ fn extract_static_s3_credentials(
 pub struct AwsCredentialAdapter {
     pub inner: Arc<dyn ProvideCredentials>,
 
-    // RefCell can't be shared across threads, so we use HashMap
-    cache: Arc<RwLock<HashMap<String, Arc<aws_credential_types::Credentials>>>>,
+    // The cached credential, if any.
+    credentials: RwLock<Option<Arc<aws_credential_types::Credentials>>>,
+
+    // Serialize refreshes without holding the cache lock during network requests.
+    refresh_lock: Mutex<()>,
 
     // The amount of time before expiry to refresh credentials
     credentials_refresh_offset: Duration,
@@ -338,14 +506,13 @@ impl AwsCredentialAdapter {
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             inner: provider,
-            cache: Arc::new(RwLock::new(HashMap::new())),
+            credentials: RwLock::new(None),
+            refresh_lock: Mutex::new(()),
             credentials_refresh_offset,
         }
     }
 }
 
-const AWS_CREDS_CACHE_KEY: &str = "aws_credentials";
-
 /// Convert std::time::SystemTime from AWS SDK to our mockable SystemTime
 fn to_system_time(time: std::time::SystemTime) -> SystemTime {
     let duration_since_epoch = time
@@ -359,68 +526,104 @@ impl CredentialProvider for AwsCredentialAdapter {
     type Credential = ObjectStoreAwsCredential;
 
     async fn get_credential(&self) -> ObjectStoreResult<Arc<Self::Credential>> {
-        let cached_creds = {
-            let cache_value = self.cache.read().await.get(AWS_CREDS_CACHE_KEY).cloned();
-            let expired = cache_value
-                .clone()
-                .map(|cred| {
-                    cred.expiry()
-                        .map(|exp| {
-                            to_system_time(exp)
-                                .checked_sub(self.credentials_refresh_offset)
-                                .expect("this time should always be valid")
-                                < SystemTime::now()
-                        })
-                        // no expiry is never expire
-                        .unwrap_or(false)
-                })
-                .unwrap_or(true); // no cred is the same as expired;
-            if expired {
-                None
-            } else {
-                cache_value.clone()
+        let cached = self.credentials.read().await.clone();
+        let credentials = match cached {
+            None => self.must_refresh().await?,
+            Some(credentials) => {
+                let (is_expired, is_stale) = self.check_staleness(&credentials);
+                if is_expired {
+                    self.must_refresh().await?
+                } else if is_stale {
+                    self.maybe_refresh(credentials).await?
+                } else {
+                    credentials
+                }
             }
         };
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::Credential {
+            key_id: credentials.access_key_id().to_string(),
+            secret_key: credentials.secret_access_key().to_string(),
+            token: credentials.session_token().map(|s| s.to_string()),
+        }))
+    }
+}
 
-        if let Some(creds) = cached_creds {
-            Ok(Arc::new(Self::Credential {
-                key_id: creds.access_key_id().to_string(),
-                secret_key: creds.secret_access_key().to_string(),
-                token: creds.session_token().map(|s| s.to_string()),
-            }))
-        } else {
-            let refreshed_creds = Arc::new(self.inner.provide_credentials().await.map_err(
-                |e| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Failed to get AWS credentials: {:?}", e),
-                    location: location!(),
-                },
-            )?);
-
-            self.cache
-                .write()
-                .await
-                .insert(AWS_CREDS_CACHE_KEY.to_string(), refreshed_creds.clone());
+impl AwsCredentialAdapter {
+    // Return a tuple of (credential expired, credential stale).
+    fn check_staleness(&self, credentials: &aws_credential_types::Credentials) -> (bool, bool) {
+        match credentials.expiry() {
+            None => (false, false),
+            Some(expiry) => {
+                let remaining = to_system_time(expiry).duration_since(SystemTime::now());
+                match remaining {
+                    Ok(remaining) => (
+                        remaining.is_zero(),
+                        remaining <= self.credentials_refresh_offset,
+                    ),
+                    Err(_) => (true, true),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-            Ok(Arc::new(Self::Credential {
-                key_id: refreshed_creds.access_key_id().to_string(),
-                secret_key: refreshed_creds.secret_access_key().to_string(),
-                token: refreshed_creds.session_token().map(|s| s.to_string()),
-            }))
+    /// Wait for an in-flight refresh, or fetch credentials ourselves.
+    async fn must_refresh(&self) -> ObjectStoreResult<Arc<aws_credential_types::Credentials>> {
+        let _lock = self.refresh_lock.lock().await;
+        if let Some(credentials) = self.credentials.read().await.clone()
+            && !self.check_staleness(&credentials).0
+        {
+            return Ok(credentials);
+        }
+        self.do_refresh().await
+    }
+
+    /// Let concurrent requests use valid cached credentials during a refresh.
+    async fn maybe_refresh(
+        &self,
+        old_credentials: Arc<aws_credential_types::Credentials>,
+    ) -> ObjectStoreResult<Arc<aws_credential_types::Credentials>> {
+        let Ok(_lock) = self.refresh_lock.try_lock() else {
+            return Ok(old_credentials);
+        };
+        if let Some(credentials) = self.credentials.read().await.clone()
+            && !Arc::ptr_eq(&credentials, &old_credentials)
+            && !self.check_staleness(&credentials).0
+        {
+            return Ok(credentials);
+        }
+        match self.do_refresh().await {
+            Ok(credentials) => Ok(credentials),
+            // The cached credentials may have expired while the request was in flight.
+            Err(_) if !self.check_staleness(&old_credentials).0 => Ok(old_credentials),
+            Err(error) => Err(error),
         }
     }
+
+    async fn do_refresh(&self) -> ObjectStoreResult<Arc<aws_credential_types::Credentials>> {
+        let credentials = Arc::new(
+            self.inner
+                .provide_credentials()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to get AWS credentials: {:?}", e)))?,
+        );
+        *self.credentials.write().await = Some(credentials.clone());
+        Ok(credentials)
+    }
 }
 
 impl StorageOptions {
-    /// Add values from the environment to storage options
+    /// Add values from the environment to storage options.
+    ///
+    /// Only adds keys that are not already present, so explicitly-set options
+    /// (including empty-string sentinels) always take precedence over env vars.
     pub fn with_env_s3(&mut self) {
         for (os_key, os_value) in std::env::vars_os() {
-            if let (Some(key), Some(value)) = (os_key.to_str(), os_value.to_str()) {
-                if let Ok(config_key) = AmazonS3ConfigKey::from_str(&key.to_ascii_lowercase()) {
-                    if !self.0.contains_key(config_key.as_ref()) {
-                        self.0
-                            .insert(config_key.as_ref().to_string(), value.to_string());
-                    }
-                }
+            if let (Some(key), Some(value)) = (os_key.to_str(), os_value.to_str())
+                && let Ok(config_key) = AmazonS3ConfigKey::from_str(&key.to_ascii_lowercase())
+                && !self.0.contains_key(config_key.as_ref())
+            {
+                self.0
+                    .insert(config_key.as_ref().to_string(), value.to_string());
             }
         }
     }
@@ -435,6 +638,20 @@ impl StorageOptions {
             })
             .collect()
     }
+
+    /// Parse the `aws_provider_scheme` storage option, if set.
+    pub fn aws_provider_scheme(&self) -> Result<Option<AwsProviderScheme>> {
+        match self.0.get("aws_provider_scheme").map(|s| s.as_str()) {
+            None | Some("") => Ok(None),
+            Some("token") => Ok(Some(AwsProviderScheme::Token)),
+            Some("ecs") => Ok(Some(AwsProviderScheme::Ecs)),
+            Some("irsa") => Ok(Some(AwsProviderScheme::Irsa)),
+            Some(other) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid aws_provider_scheme '{}'. Valid values are: token, ecs, irsa",
+                other
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 impl ObjectStoreParams {
@@ -456,109 +673,19 @@ impl ObjectStoreParams {
     }
 }
 
-/// AWS Credential Provider that delegates to StorageOptionsAccessor
-///
-/// This adapter converts storage options from a [`StorageOptionsAccessor`] into
-/// AWS-specific credentials that can be used with S3. All caching and refresh logic
-/// is handled by the accessor.
-///
-/// # Future Work
-///
-/// TODO: Support AWS/GCP/Azure together in a unified credential provider.
-/// Currently this is AWS-specific. Needs investigation of how GCP and Azure credential
-/// refresh mechanisms work and whether they can be unified with AWS's approach.
-///
-/// See: <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/4905#discussion_r2474605265>
-pub struct DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider {
-    accessor: Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>,
-}
-
-impl fmt::Debug for DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
-        f.debug_struct("DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider")
-            .field("accessor", &self.accessor)
-            .finish()
-    }
-}
-
-impl DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider {
-    /// Create a new credential provider from a storage options accessor
-    pub fn new(accessor: Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>) -> Self {
-        Self { accessor }
-    }
-
-    /// Create a new credential provider from a storage options provider
-    ///
-    /// This is a convenience constructor for backward compatibility.
-    /// The refresh offset will be extracted from storage options using
-    /// the `refresh_offset_millis` key, defaulting to 60 seconds.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    /// * `provider` - The storage options provider
-    pub fn from_provider(provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            accessor: Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(provider)),
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Create a new credential provider with initial credentials
-    ///
-    /// This is a convenience constructor for backward compatibility.
-    /// The refresh offset will be extracted from initial_options using
-    /// the `refresh_offset_millis` key, defaulting to 60 seconds.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    /// * `provider` - The storage options provider
-    /// * `initial_options` - Initial storage options to cache
-    pub fn from_provider_with_initial(
-        provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>,
-        initial_options: HashMap<String, String>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            accessor: Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
-                initial_options,
-                provider,
-            )),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl CredentialProvider for DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider {
-    type Credential = ObjectStoreAwsCredential;
-
-    async fn get_credential(&self) -> ObjectStoreResult<Arc<Self::Credential>> {
-        let storage_options = self.accessor.get_storage_options().await.map_err(|e| {
-            object_store::Error::Generic {
-                store: "DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider",
-                source: Box::new(e),
-            }
-        })?;
-
-        let s3_options = storage_options.as_s3_options();
-        let static_creds = extract_static_s3_credentials(&s3_options).ok_or_else(|| {
-            object_store::Error::Generic {
-                store: "DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider",
-                source: "Missing required credentials in storage options".into(),
-            }
-        })?;
-
-        static_creds
-            .get_credential()
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| object_store::Error::Generic {
-                store: "DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider",
-                source: Box::new(e),
-            })
-    }
-}
+pub type DynamicStorageOptionsCredentialProvider =
+    NamespaceCredentialsProvider<ObjectStoreAwsCredential>;
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use crate::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry;
+    use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider;
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    use aws_config::profile::profile_file::{ProfileFileKind, ProfileFiles};
+    use aws_credential_types::provider::error::CredentialsError;
     use mock_instant::thread_local::MockClock;
     use object_store::path::Path;
-    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 
     use super::*;
 
@@ -581,6 +708,167 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    async fn load_test_profile(config: &str) -> SdkConfig {
+        let profile_files = ProfileFiles::builder()
+            .with_contents(ProfileFileKind::Config, config)
+            .build();
+        aws_config::defaults(BehaviorVersion::latest())
+            .profile_name("selected")
+            .profile_files(profile_files)
+            .load()
+            .await
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingAwsCredentialsProvider;
+
+    impl ProvideCredentials for FailingAwsCredentialsProvider {
+        fn provide_credentials<'a>(
+            &'a self,
+        ) -> aws_credential_types::provider::future::ProvideCredentials<'a>
+        where
+            Self: 'a,
+        {
+            aws_credential_types::provider::future::ProvideCredentials::new(async {
+                Err(CredentialsError::provider_error(Box::new(
+                    std::io::Error::other("Glue credential endpoint unavailable"),
+                )))
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_aws_credential_failure_is_io_error() {
+        let provider = AwsCredentialAdapter::new(
+            Arc::new(FailingAwsCredentialsProvider),
+            Duration::from_secs(60),
+        );
+
+        let error = provider.get_credential().await.unwrap_err();
+        let object_store::Error::Generic { source, .. } = &error else {
+            panic!("expected a generic object store error, got {error}");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(
+            source.downcast_ref::<Error>(),
+            Some(Error::IO { .. })
+        ));
+
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("Failed to get AWS credentials"));
+        assert!(message.contains("Glue credential endpoint unavailable"));
+        assert!(!message.contains("Encountered internal error"));
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct RefreshingAwsCredentialsProvider {
+        calls: AtomicUsize,
+        fail: AtomicBool,
+        advance_seconds: u64,
+    }
+
+    impl ProvideCredentials for RefreshingAwsCredentialsProvider {
+        fn provide_credentials<'a>(
+            &'a self,
+        ) -> aws_credential_types::provider::future::ProvideCredentials<'a>
+        where
+            Self: 'a,
+        {
+            aws_credential_types::provider::future::ProvideCredentials::new(async {
+                let call = self.calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+                MockClock::advance_system_time(Duration::from_secs(self.advance_seconds));
+                if self.fail.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+                    return Err(CredentialsError::provider_error(std::io::Error::other(
+                        "STS unavailable",
+                    )));
+                }
+                Ok(aws_credential_types::Credentials::new(
+                    format!("key-{call}"),
+                    "secret",
+                    Some("token".to_string()),
+                    Some(
+                        std::time::UNIX_EPOCH + MockClock::system_time() + Duration::from_secs(120),
+                    ),
+                    "test",
+                ))
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::fresh(Some(120), 0, true, 0)]
+    #[case::no_expiry(None, 0, true, 0)]
+    #[case::refresh_boundary(Some(60), 0, true, 1)]
+    #[case::stale(Some(30), 0, true, 1)]
+    #[case::expires_during_refresh(Some(30), 30, false, 1)]
+    #[case::expiry_boundary(Some(0), 0, false, 1)]
+    #[case::expired(Some(-1), 0, false, 1)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_aws_credential_refresh_failure(
+        #[case] expires_in: Option<i64>,
+        #[case] advance_seconds: u64,
+        #[case] succeeds: bool,
+        #[case] expected_calls: usize,
+    ) {
+        MockClock::set_system_time(Duration::from_secs(100_000));
+        let inner = Arc::new(RefreshingAwsCredentialsProvider {
+            fail: AtomicBool::new(true),
+            advance_seconds,
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+        let provider = AwsCredentialAdapter::new(inner.clone(), Duration::from_secs(60));
+        *provider.credentials.write().await =
+            Some(Arc::new(aws_credential_types::Credentials::new(
+                "cached-key",
+                "cached-secret",
+                Some("cached-token".to_string()),
+                expires_in.map(|seconds| {
+                    std::time::UNIX_EPOCH + Duration::from_secs((100_000 + seconds) as u64)
+                }),
+                "test",
+            )));
+
+        let result = provider.get_credential().await;
+        if succeeds {
+            let credentials = result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(credentials.key_id, "cached-key");
+            assert_eq!(credentials.secret_key, "cached-secret");
+            assert_eq!(credentials.token.as_deref(), Some("cached-token"));
+        } else {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, object_store::Error::Generic { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("STS unavailable"));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(inner.calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), expected_calls);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_aws_credential_concurrent_refresh() {
+        MockClock::set_system_time(Duration::from_secs(100_000));
+        let inner = Arc::new(RefreshingAwsCredentialsProvider::default());
+        let provider = AwsCredentialAdapter::new(inner.clone(), Duration::from_secs(60));
+
+        let (first, second) = tokio::join!(provider.get_credential(), provider.get_credential());
+        assert_eq!(first.unwrap().key_id, "key-0");
+        assert_eq!(second.unwrap().key_id, "key-0");
+        assert_eq!(inner.calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+
+        MockClock::advance_system_time(Duration::from_secs(60));
+        let (refreshed, cached) =
+            tokio::join!(provider.get_credential(), provider.get_credential());
+        assert_eq!(refreshed.unwrap().key_id, "key-1");
+        assert_eq!(cached.unwrap().key_id, "key-0");
+        assert_eq!(provider.get_credential().await.unwrap().key_id, "key-1");
+        assert_eq!(inner.calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 2);
+
+        MockClock::advance_system_time(Duration::from_secs(120));
+        let (first, second) = tokio::join!(provider.get_credential(), provider.get_credential());
+        assert_eq!(first.unwrap().key_id, "key-2");
+        assert_eq!(second.unwrap().key_id, "key-2");
+        assert_eq!(inner.calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_injected_aws_creds_option_is_used() {
         let mock_provider = Arc::new(MockAwsCredentialsProvider::default());
@@ -610,13 +898,86 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(mock_provider.called.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_resolve_s3_region_from_aws_profile() {
+        let profile_config = load_test_profile(
+            "[profile selected]\n\
+             region = us-west-004\n\
+             endpoint_url = https://s3.us-west-004.backblazeb2.com\n\
+             aws_access_key_id = test-key\n\
+             aws_secret_access_key = test-secret",
+        )
+        .await;
+        let url = Url::parse("s3://test-bucket/path").unwrap();
+
+        let resolved_s3_options =
+            ResolvedS3StorageOptions::new(HashMap::new(), Some(&profile_config));
+        let region = resolve_s3_region(&url, &resolved_s3_options).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(region.as_deref(), Some("us-west-004"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolved_s3_options
+                .options
+                .get(&AmazonS3ConfigKey::Endpoint),
+            Some(&"https://s3.us-west-004.backblazeb2.com".to_string())
+        );
+
+        let explicit_options = HashMap::from([
+            (AmazonS3ConfigKey::Region, "explicit-region".to_string()),
+            (
+                AmazonS3ConfigKey::Endpoint,
+                "https://explicit.example.com".to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let resolved_s3_options =
+            ResolvedS3StorageOptions::new(explicit_options, Some(&profile_config));
+        let region = resolve_s3_region(&url, &resolved_s3_options).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(region.as_deref(), Some("explicit-region"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolved_s3_options
+                .options
+                .get(&AmazonS3ConfigKey::Endpoint),
+            Some(&"https://explicit.example.com".to_string())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_region_only_aws_profile_preserves_bucket_discovery() {
+        let profile_config = load_test_profile("[profile selected]\nregion = us-east-1").await;
+        let resolved_s3_options =
+            ResolvedS3StorageOptions::new(HashMap::new(), Some(&profile_config));
+
+        let url = Url::parse("s3:///path").unwrap();
+        let error = resolve_s3_region(&url, &resolved_s3_options)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Could not parse bucket"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_r2_aws_profile_requires_constant_size_upload_parts() {
+        let profile_config = load_test_profile(
+            "[profile selected]\n\
+             region = auto\n\
+             endpoint_url = https://account.r2.cloudflarestorage.com",
+        )
+        .await;
+        let resolved_s3_options =
+            ResolvedS3StorageOptions::new(HashMap::new(), Some(&profile_config));
+
+        assert!(resolved_s3_options.requires_constant_size_upload_parts());
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_s3_path_parsing() {
         let provider = AwsStoreProvider;
 
         let cases = [
             ("s3://bucket/path/to/file", "path/to/file"),
-            // for non ASCII string tests
+            // for non ASCII string tests: the URL encodes them, extract_path must decode back
             ("s3://bucket/测试path/to/file", "测试path/to/file"),
             ("s3://bucket/path/&to/file", "path/&to/file"),
             ("s3://bucket/path/=to/file", "path/=to/file"),
@@ -629,11 +990,34 @@ mod tests {
         for (uri, expected_path) in cases {
             let url = Url::parse(uri).unwrap();
             let path = provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap();
-            let expected_path = Path::from(expected_path);
+            // extract_path decodes url.path(), so the Path stores the raw (decoded)
+            // string. Path::parse keeps its input verbatim, matching that, whereas
+            // Path::from would percent-encode non-ASCII bytes and not match.
+            let expected_path = Path::parse(expected_path).unwrap();
             assert_eq!(path, expected_path)
         }
     }
 
+    // Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/6643
+    // extract_path must NOT double-encode paths that contain non-ASCII characters.
+    // url.path() returns a percent-encoded string; we must decode it back to raw
+    // UTF-8 before storing it in a Path, so the object store HTTP client can apply
+    // a single, correct percent-encoding when building the request URL.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_s3_non_ascii_path_no_double_encoding() {
+        let provider = AwsStoreProvider;
+
+        // "s3://bucket/中文路径" → url.path() == "/%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%84".
+        // The buggy Path::parse(url.path()) stored "%E4%B8%AD..." verbatim; the S3
+        // client then percent-encodes the '%' again, yielding "%25E4%25B8%25AD...".
+        // With Path::from_url_path the Path stores the decoded UTF-8 instead.
+        let url = Url::parse("s3://bucket/中文路径").unwrap();
+        let path = provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap();
+
+        // The Path must hold the decoded UTF-8, not the percent-encoded form.
+        assert_eq!(path.as_ref(), "中文路径");
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_is_s3_express() {
         let cases = [
@@ -691,6 +1075,36 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(store.scheme, "s3");
     }
 
+    /// S3 Express ignores `start-after` and does not list in key order, but it does hand back
+    /// continuation tokens, which is all the native store resumes from — so an Express bucket
+    /// pages like any other. The OpenDAL arm has no lister to page with at all.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::native("false", true)]
+    #[case::opendal("true", false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_s3_express_is_paged_by_continuation_token(
+        #[case] use_opendal: &str,
+        #[case] paginated: bool,
+    ) {
+        let provider = AwsStoreProvider;
+        // Express bucket names carry their availability zone, which the S3 client validates.
+        let url = Url::parse("s3://test-bucket--use1-az4--x-s3/path").unwrap();
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("use_opendal".to_string(), use_opendal.to_string()),
+                    ("region".to_string(), "us-west-2".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let store = provider.new_store(url, &params).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!store.list_is_lexically_ordered);
+        assert_eq!(store.paginated_lister.is_some(), paginated);
+    }
+
     #[derive(Debug)]
     struct MockStorageOptionsProvider {
         call_count: Arc<RwLock<usize>>,
@@ -1104,6 +1518,7 @@ mod tests {
             None, // no storage_options
             Some("us-west-2".to_string()),
             Some(accessor),
+            None,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
@@ -1167,6 +1582,7 @@ mod tests {
             None, // no storage_options
             Some("us-west-2".to_string()),
             Some(accessor),
+            None,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
@@ -1190,4 +1606,126 @@ mod tests {
         // Storage options provider should have been called once
         assert_eq!(mock_storage_provider.get_call_count().await, 1);
     }
+
+    // Test that aws_provider_scheme=token selects static credentials.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_provider_scheme_token() {
+        let opts = HashMap::from([
+            (AmazonS3ConfigKey::AccessKeyId, "AKID".to_string()),
+            (AmazonS3ConfigKey::SecretAccessKey, "SECRET".to_string()),
+        ]);
+
+        let (provider, _) = build_aws_credential(
+            Duration::from_secs(300),
+            None,
+            Some(&opts),
+            Some("us-east-1".to_string()),
+            None,
+            Some(AwsProviderScheme::Token),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let cred = provider.get_credential().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cred.key_id, "AKID");
+        assert_eq!(cred.secret_key, "SECRET");
+    }
+
+    // Test that aws_provider_scheme=token errors when no static credentials are present.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_provider_scheme_token_errors_without_credentials() {
+        let opts: HashMap<AmazonS3ConfigKey, String> = HashMap::new();
+
+        let result = build_aws_credential(
+            Duration::from_secs(300),
+            None,
+            Some(&opts),
+            Some("us-east-1".to_string()),
+            None,
+            Some(AwsProviderScheme::Token),
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("aws_provider_scheme=token"),
+            "error should mention aws_provider_scheme=token"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Test that aws_provider_scheme=ecs builds a provider without error.
+    // The ECS provider itself reads from env vars lazily; construction always succeeds.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_provider_scheme_ecs() {
+        let opts: HashMap<AmazonS3ConfigKey, String> = HashMap::new();
+
+        let result = build_aws_credential(
+            Duration::from_secs(300),
+            None,
+            Some(&opts),
+            Some("us-east-1".to_string()),
+            None,
+            Some(AwsProviderScheme::Ecs),
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok(), "ECS provider should build without error");
+    }
+
+    // Test that aws_provider_scheme=irsa builds a provider and attempts credential
+    // retrieval (which fails with a provider error, not a config error like
+    // "Missing Region" — confirming the region is wired through to the STS client).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_provider_scheme_irsa() {
+        let opts: HashMap<AmazonS3ConfigKey, String> = HashMap::new();
+
+        let (provider, _) = build_aws_credential(
+            Duration::from_secs(300),
+            None,
+            Some(&opts),
+            Some("us-east-1".to_string()),
+            None,
+            Some(AwsProviderScheme::Irsa),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Credential retrieval must fail with a provider error (missing env vars or
+        // network), NOT a configuration error like "Invalid Configuration: Missing Region".
+        let err = provider.get_credential().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            !err.to_string().contains("Missing Region"),
+            "should not fail with Missing Region; region was provided. got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Test that an invalid aws_provider_scheme value produces a clear error.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_provider_scheme_invalid_value() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions::new(HashMap::from([(
+            "aws_provider_scheme".to_string(),
+            "magic".to_string(),
+        )]));
+        let result = opts.aws_provider_scheme();
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("magic"));
+    }
+
+    // Test that no aws_provider_scheme falls through to DefaultCredentialsChain without error.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_no_provider_scheme_uses_default_chain() {
+        let opts: HashMap<AmazonS3ConfigKey, String> = HashMap::new();
+
+        let result = build_aws_credential(
+            Duration::from_secs(300),
+            None,
+            Some(&opts),
+            Some("us-east-1".to_string()),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/azure.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/azure.rs
index 7bf566c8972..794a717b31c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/azure.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/azure.rs
@@ -9,113 +9,294 @@ use std::{
 };
 
 use object_store::ObjectStore as OSObjectStore;
-use object_store_opendal::OpendalStore;
-use opendal::{services::Azblob, Operator};
-use snafu::location;
+use object_store::list::PaginatedListStore;
+use opendal::{Operator, services::Azblob, services::Azdls};
 
 use object_store::{
-    azure::{AzureConfigKey, MicrosoftAzureBuilder},
     RetryConfig,
+    azure::{AzureConfigKey, AzureCredential, MicrosoftAzure, MicrosoftAzureBuilder},
 };
 use url::Url;
 
+use crate::object_store::opendal_store::OpendalStore;
 use crate::object_store::{
-    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE,
-    DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, StorageOptionsAccessor,
+    dynamic_credentials::build_dynamic_credential_provider,
+    throttle::{AimdThrottleState, cloud_http_connector, shared_throttle_state, with_throttling},
 };
 use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
 
 #[derive(Default, Debug)]
 pub struct AzureBlobStoreProvider;
 
 impl AzureBlobStoreProvider {
-    async fn build_opendal_azure_store(
-        &self,
-        base_path: &Url,
-        storage_options: &StorageOptions,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>> {
-        let container = base_path
-            .host_str()
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("Azure URL must contain container name", location!())
-            })?
-            .to_string();
+    /// Normalize Azure storage options for OpenDAL, resolving aliases for
+    /// well-known keys while passing through all other options (e.g.
+    /// `client_id`, `tenant_id`, `encryption_key`, etc.) so that OpenDAL
+    /// can use them directly.
+    fn normalize_opendal_azure_options(
+        options: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+        // Start with all options so unknown keys are forwarded to OpenDAL.
+        let mut config_map = options.clone();
+
+        // Normalize well-known aliases into canonical OpenDAL key names.
+        // Remove the alias after resolving to avoid duplicate/conflicting entries.
+        let alias_groups: &[(&str, &[&str])] = &[
+            ("account_name", &["azure_storage_account_name"]),
+            ("endpoint", &["azure_storage_endpoint", "azure_endpoint"]),
+            (
+                "account_key",
+                &[
+                    "azure_storage_account_key",
+                    "azure_storage_access_key",
+                    "azure_storage_master_key",
+                    "access_key",
+                    "master_key",
+                ],
+            ),
+            (
+                "sas_token",
+                &[
+                    "azure_storage_sas_token",
+                    "azure_storage_sas_key",
+                    "sas_key",
+                ],
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        for (canonical, aliases) in alias_groups {
+            if !config_map.contains_key(*canonical) {
+                for alias in *aliases {
+                    if let Some(value) = config_map.remove(*alias) {
+                        config_map.insert(canonical.to_string(), value);
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                // Canonical key exists; remove aliases to avoid conflicts.
+                for alias in *aliases {
+                    config_map.remove(*alias);
+                }
+            }
+        }
 
-        let prefix = base_path.path().trim_start_matches('/').to_string();
+        config_map
+    }
 
+    fn build_opendal_operator(
+        base_path: &Url,
+        storage_options: &StorageOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Operator> {
         // Start with all storage options as the config map
         // OpenDAL will handle environment variables through its default credentials chain
-        let mut config_map: HashMap<String, String> = storage_options.0.clone();
+        let mut config_map = Self::normalize_opendal_azure_options(&storage_options.0);
 
-        // Set required OpenDAL configuration
-        config_map.insert("container".to_string(), container);
+        match base_path.scheme() {
+            "az" => {
+                let container = base_path
+                    .host_str()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Azure URL must contain container name"))?
+                    .to_string();
 
-        if !prefix.is_empty() {
-            config_map.insert("root".to_string(), format!("/{}", prefix));
-        }
+                config_map.insert("container".to_string(), container);
 
-        let operator = Operator::from_iter::<Azblob>(config_map)
-            .map_err(|e| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Failed to create Azure Blob operator: {:?}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?
-            .finish();
+                let prefix = base_path.path().trim_start_matches('/');
+                if !prefix.is_empty() {
+                    config_map.insert("root".to_string(), format!("/{}", prefix));
+                }
+
+                Operator::from_iter::<Azblob>(config_map).map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create Azure Blob operator: {:?}", e))
+                })
+            }
+            "abfss" => {
+                let filesystem = base_path.username();
+                if filesystem.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "abfss:// URL must include account: abfss://<filesystem>@<account>.dfs.core.windows.net/path",
+                    ));
+                }
+                let host = base_path.host_str().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(
+                        "abfss:// URL must include account: abfss://<filesystem>@<account>.dfs.core.windows.net/path"
+                    )
+                })?;
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(OpendalStore::new(operator)) as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>)
+                config_map.insert("filesystem".to_string(), filesystem.to_string());
+                config_map.insert("endpoint".to_string(), format!("https://{}", host));
+                config_map
+                    .entry("account_name".to_string())
+                    .or_insert_with(|| host.split('.').next().unwrap_or(host).to_string());
+
+                let root_path = base_path.path().trim_start_matches('/');
+                if !root_path.is_empty() {
+                    config_map.insert("root".to_string(), format!("/{}", root_path));
+                }
+
+                Operator::from_iter::<Azdls>(config_map).map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Failed to create Azure DFS (ADLS Gen2) operator: {:?}",
+                        e
+                    ))
+                })
+            }
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported Azure scheme: {}",
+                base_path.scheme()
+            ))),
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn build_microsoft_azure_store(
+    async fn build_opendal_azure_store(
         &self,
         base_path: &Url,
         storage_options: &StorageOptions,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>> {
-        let max_retries = storage_options.client_max_retries();
-        let retry_timeout = storage_options.client_retry_timeout();
+        let operator = Self::build_opendal_operator(base_path, storage_options)?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(OpendalStore::new(operator)))
+    }
+
+    async fn build_microsoft_azure_store(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Url,
+        storage_options: &StorageOptions,
+        accessor: Option<Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>>,
+        throttle_state: Option<&AimdThrottleState>,
+        // Concrete rather than `dyn`, so the caller keeps the handle a paginated listing
+        // needs: `PaginatedListStore` is a separate trait from `ObjectStore`.
+    ) -> Result<Arc<MicrosoftAzure>> {
+        // Use a low retry count since the AIMD throttle layer handles
+        // throttle recovery with its own retry loop.
         let retry_config = RetryConfig {
             backoff: Default::default(),
-            max_retries,
-            retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(retry_timeout),
+            max_retries: storage_options.client_max_retries(),
+            retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(storage_options.client_retry_timeout()),
         };
 
         let mut builder = MicrosoftAzureBuilder::new()
             .with_url(base_path.as_ref())
-            .with_retry(retry_config);
+            .with_retry(retry_config)
+            .with_client_options(storage_options.client_options()?);
         for (key, value) in storage_options.as_azure_options() {
             builder = builder.with_config(key, value);
         }
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(builder.build()?) as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>)
+        if let Some(credentials) =
+            build_dynamic_credential_provider::<AzureCredential>(accessor).await?
+        {
+            builder = builder.with_credentials(credentials);
+        }
+
+        let store_prefix =
+            self.calculate_object_store_prefix(base_path, Some(&storage_options.0))?;
+        builder = builder.with_http_connector(cloud_http_connector(
+            throttle_state,
+            crate::object_store::metrics_base(&store_prefix, base_path),
+        ));
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(builder.build()?))
+    }
+
+    fn calculate_object_store_prefix_with_env(
+        url: &Url,
+        storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+        env_options: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<String> {
+        let authority = url.authority();
+        let (container, account) = match authority.find("@") {
+            Some(at_index) => {
+                // The URI has an:
+                // - az:// schema type and is similar to 'az://container@account.dfs.core.windows.net/path-part/file
+                //         or possibly 'az://container@account/path-part/file' (the short version).
+                // - abfss:// schema type and is similar to 'abfss://filesystem@account.dfs.core.windows.net/path-part/file'.
+                let container = &authority[..at_index];
+                let account = &authority[at_index + 1..];
+                (
+                    container,
+                    account.split(".").next().unwrap_or_default().to_string(),
+                )
+            }
+            None => {
+                // The URI looks like 'az://container/path-part/file'.
+                // We must look at the storage options to find the account.
+                let mut account = match storage_options {
+                    Some(opts) => StorageOptions::find_configured_storage_account(opts),
+                    None => None,
+                };
+                if account.is_none() {
+                    account = StorageOptions::find_configured_storage_account(env_options);
+                }
+                let account = account.ok_or(Error::invalid_input("Unable to find object store prefix: no Azure account name in URI, and no storage account configured."))?;
+                (authority, account)
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(format!("{}${}@{}", url.scheme(), container, account))
     }
 }
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl ObjectStoreProvider for AzureBlobStoreProvider {
     async fn new_store(&self, base_path: Url, params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
+        let scheme = base_path.scheme().to_string();
+        if scheme != "az" && scheme != "abfss" {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported Azure scheme '{}', expected 'az' or 'abfss'",
+                scheme
+            )));
+        }
+
         let block_size = params.block_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE);
         let mut storage_options =
-            StorageOptions(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
+            StorageOptions::new(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
         storage_options.with_env_azure();
         let download_retry_count = storage_options.download_retry_count();
 
         let use_opendal = storage_options
             .0
             .get("use_opendal")
-            .map(|v| v.as_str() == "true")
+            .map(|v| str_is_truthy(v.as_str()))
             .unwrap_or(false);
 
-        let inner = if use_opendal {
-            self.build_opendal_azure_store(&base_path, &storage_options)
-                .await?
+        let accessor = params.get_accessor();
+
+        // Keyed like the registry cache so per-dataset stores share the bucket's budget.
+        let store_prefix =
+            self.calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?;
+        let throttle_state = shared_throttle_state(&store_prefix, params)?;
+
+        let (inner, paginated_lister) = if use_opendal {
+            // OpenDAL Azure intentionally uses static/environment-backed configuration only.
+            // Namespace-vended dynamic credentials are supported on the native object_store path.
+            // Listed in full: no paginated lister covers OpenDAL yet.
+            (
+                self.build_opendal_azure_store(&base_path, &storage_options)
+                    .await?,
+                None,
+            )
         } else {
-            self.build_microsoft_azure_store(&base_path, &storage_options)
-                .await?
+            let store = self
+                .build_microsoft_azure_store(
+                    &base_path,
+                    &storage_options,
+                    accessor,
+                    throttle_state.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+            (
+                store.clone() as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+                Some(store as Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>),
+            )
         };
+        let (inner, paginated_lister) =
+            with_throttling(throttle_state, !use_opendal, inner, paginated_lister);
 
         Ok(ObjectStore {
             inner,
-            scheme: String::from("az"),
+            local_dir_operations: None,
+            scheme,
             block_size,
             max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
             use_constant_size_upload_parts: false,
@@ -125,6 +306,7 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for AzureBlobStoreProvider {
             io_tracker: Default::default(),
             store_prefix: self
                 .calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?,
+            paginated_lister,
         })
     }
 
@@ -133,36 +315,7 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for AzureBlobStoreProvider {
         url: &Url,
         storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
     ) -> Result<String> {
-        let authority = url.authority();
-        let (container, account) = match authority.find("@") {
-            Some(at_index) => {
-                // The URI looks like 'az://container@account.dfs.core.windows.net/path-part/file',
-                // or possibly 'az://container@account/path-part/file'.
-                let container = &authority[..at_index];
-                let account = &authority[at_index + 1..];
-                (
-                    container,
-                    account.split(".").next().unwrap_or_default().to_string(),
-                )
-            }
-            None => {
-                // The URI looks like 'az://container/path-part/file'.
-                // We must look at the storage options to find the account.
-                let mut account = match storage_options {
-                    Some(opts) => StorageOptions::find_configured_storage_account(opts),
-                    None => None,
-                };
-                if account.is_none() {
-                    account = StorageOptions::find_configured_storage_account(&ENV_OPTIONS.0);
-                }
-                let account = account.ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "Unable to find object store prefix: no Azure account name in URI, and no storage account configured.",
-                    location!(),
-                ))?;
-                (authority, account)
-            }
-        };
-        Ok(format!("{}${}@{}", url.scheme(), container, account))
+        Self::calculate_object_store_prefix_with_env(url, storage_options, &ENV_OPTIONS.0)
     }
 }
 
@@ -173,10 +326,10 @@ impl StorageOptions {
     fn from_env() -> Self {
         let mut opts = HashMap::<String, String>::new();
         for (os_key, os_value) in std::env::vars_os() {
-            if let (Some(key), Some(value)) = (os_key.to_str(), os_value.to_str()) {
-                if let Ok(config_key) = AzureConfigKey::from_str(&key.to_ascii_lowercase()) {
-                    opts.insert(config_key.as_ref().to_string(), value.to_string());
-                }
+            if let (Some(key), Some(value)) = (os_key.to_str(), os_value.to_str())
+                && let Ok(config_key) = AzureConfigKey::from_str(&key.to_ascii_lowercase())
+            {
+                opts.insert(config_key.as_ref().to_string(), value.to_string());
             }
         }
         Self(opts)
@@ -217,7 +370,10 @@ impl StorageOptions {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use crate::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use crate::object_store::test_utils::StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider;
+    use crate::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptionsAccessor};
     use std::collections::HashMap;
 
     #[test]
@@ -232,7 +388,6 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_use_opendal_flag() {
-        use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
         let provider = AzureBlobStoreProvider;
         let url = Url::parse("az://test-container/path").unwrap();
         let params_with_flag = ObjectStoreParams {
@@ -258,6 +413,43 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(store.scheme, "az");
+        let inner_desc = store.inner.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            inner_desc.contains("Opendal") && inner_desc.contains("azblob"),
+            "az:// with use_opendal=true should use OpenDAL Azblob, got: {}",
+            inner_desc
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_azure_credentials_provider() {
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(Arc::new(
+            StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+                options: HashMap::from([(
+                    "azure_storage_sas_token".to_string(),
+                    "?sv=2022-11-02&sp=rl&sig=test".to_string(),
+                )]),
+            },
+        )));
+
+        let credentials = build_dynamic_credential_provider::<AzureCredential>(Some(accessor))
+            .await
+            .expect("dynamic azure credentials should build")
+            .expect("expected credential provider")
+            .get_credential()
+            .await
+            .expect("expected azure credential");
+
+        match credentials.as_ref() {
+            AzureCredential::SASToken(pairs) => {
+                assert!(
+                    pairs
+                        .iter()
+                        .any(|(key, value)| key == "sig" && value == "test")
+                );
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected SAS token, got {other:?}"),
+        }
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -308,17 +500,207 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_fail_to_calculate_object_store_prefix_from_url() {
+    fn test_calculate_object_store_prefix_from_url_short_account() {
         let provider = AzureBlobStoreProvider;
+        let options = HashMap::from_iter([("account_name".to_string(), "bob".to_string())]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            "az$container@account",
+            provider
+                .calculate_object_store_prefix(
+                    &Url::parse("az://container@account/path").unwrap(),
+                    Some(&options)
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fail_to_calculate_object_store_prefix_from_url() {
         let options = HashMap::from_iter([("access_key".to_string(), "myaccesskey".to_string())]);
         let expected = "Invalid user input: Unable to find object store prefix: no Azure account name in URI, and no storage account configured.";
-        let result = provider
-            .calculate_object_store_prefix(
-                &Url::parse("az://container/path").unwrap(),
-                Some(&options),
-            )
-            .expect_err("expected error")
-            .to_string();
+        let result = AzureBlobStoreProvider::calculate_object_store_prefix_with_env(
+            &Url::parse("az://container/path").unwrap(),
+            Some(&options),
+            &HashMap::new(),
+        )
+        .expect_err("expected error")
+        .to_string();
         assert_eq!(expected, &result[..expected.len()]);
     }
+
+    // --- abfss:// tests ---
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_abfss_extract_path() {
+        let provider = AzureBlobStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("abfss://myfs@myaccount.dfs.core.windows.net/path/to/dataset.lance")
+            .unwrap();
+        let path = provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            path,
+            object_store::path::Path::from("path/to/dataset.lance")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_calculate_abfss_prefix() {
+        let provider = AzureBlobStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("abfss://myfs@myaccount.dfs.core.windows.net/path/to/data").unwrap();
+        let prefix = provider.calculate_object_store_prefix(&url, None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(prefix, "abfss$myfs@myaccount");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_calculate_abfss_prefix_ignores_storage_options() {
+        let provider = AzureBlobStoreProvider;
+        let options =
+            HashMap::from_iter([("account_name".to_string(), "other_account".to_string())]);
+        let url = Url::parse("abfss://myfs@myaccount.dfs.core.windows.net/path").unwrap();
+        let prefix = provider
+            .calculate_object_store_prefix(&url, Some(&options))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(prefix, "abfss$myfs@myaccount");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_abfss_default_uses_microsoft_builder() {
+        use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
+        let provider = AzureBlobStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("abfss://testfs@testaccount.dfs.core.windows.net/data").unwrap();
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("account_name".to_string(), "testaccount".to_string()),
+                    ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let store = provider.new_store(url, &params).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(store.scheme, "abfss");
+        assert!(!store.is_local());
+        assert!(store.is_cloud());
+        let inner_desc = store.inner.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            inner_desc.contains("MicrosoftAzure"),
+            "abfss:// without use_opendal should use MicrosoftAzureBuilder, got: {}",
+            inner_desc
+        );
+        assert!(
+            store.paginated_lister.is_some(),
+            "the native store pages an ADLS Gen2 account by continuation token"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_blob_container_is_paged() {
+        use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
+        let provider = AzureBlobStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("az://container@testaccount.blob.core.windows.net/data").unwrap();
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("account_name".to_string(), "testaccount".to_string()),
+                    ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let store = provider.new_store(url, &params).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(store.paginated_lister.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unsupported_scheme_rejected() {
+        use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
+        let provider = AzureBlobStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("wasbs://container@myaccount.blob.core.windows.net/path").unwrap();
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("account_name".to_string(), "myaccount".to_string()),
+                    ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let err = provider
+            .new_store(url, &params)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("expected error for unsupported scheme");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Unsupported Azure scheme"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_abfss_with_opendal_uses_azdls() {
+        use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
+        let provider = AzureBlobStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("abfss://testfs@testaccount.dfs.core.windows.net/data").unwrap();
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("use_opendal".to_string(), "true".to_string()),
+                    ("account_name".to_string(), "testaccount".to_string()),
+                    ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let store = provider.new_store(url, &params).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(store.scheme, "abfss");
+        assert!(!store.is_local());
+        assert!(store.is_cloud());
+        let inner_desc = store.inner.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            inner_desc.contains("Opendal") && inner_desc.contains("azdls"),
+            "abfss:// with use_opendal=true should use OpenDAL Azdls, got: {}",
+            inner_desc
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_azdls_capabilities_differ_from_azblob() {
+        let common_opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+            ("account_name".to_string(), "testaccount".to_string()),
+            ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+            (
+                "endpoint".to_string(),
+                "https://testaccount.blob.core.windows.net".to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        // Build az:// operator (uses Azblob backend)
+        let az_url = Url::parse("az://test-container/path").unwrap();
+        let az_operator =
+            AzureBlobStoreProvider::build_opendal_operator(&az_url, &common_opts).unwrap();
+
+        // Build abfss:// operator (uses Azdls backend)
+        let abfss_url = Url::parse("abfss://testfs@testaccount.dfs.core.windows.net/data").unwrap();
+        let abfss_operator =
+            AzureBlobStoreProvider::build_opendal_operator(&abfss_url, &common_opts).unwrap();
+
+        let azblob_cap = az_operator.info().capability();
+        let azdls_cap = abfss_operator.info().capability();
+
+        // Both support basic operations
+        assert!(azblob_cap.read);
+        assert!(azdls_cap.read);
+        assert!(azblob_cap.write);
+        assert!(azdls_cap.write);
+        assert!(azblob_cap.list);
+        assert!(azdls_cap.list);
+
+        // Azdls supports rename and create_dir (HNS features); Azblob does not
+        assert!(azdls_cap.rename, "Azdls should support rename");
+        assert!(azdls_cap.create_dir, "Azdls should support create_dir");
+        assert!(!azblob_cap.rename, "Azblob should not support rename");
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/gcp.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/gcp.rs
index dba5cd8dd40..e3e4e4ee81c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/gcp.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/gcp.rs
@@ -3,26 +3,205 @@
 
 use std::{collections::HashMap, str::FromStr, sync::Arc, time::Duration};
 
-use object_store::ObjectStore as OSObjectStore;
-use object_store_opendal::OpendalStore;
-use opendal::{services::Gcs, Operator};
-use snafu::location;
+use object_store::list::PaginatedListStore;
+use object_store::{
+    ClientOptions, CredentialProvider, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, Result as ObjectStoreResult,
+    client::{HttpClient, HttpConnector, HttpRequestBody, ReqwestConnector},
+};
+use opendal::{Operator, services::Gcs};
+use reqsign_core::{Context as ReqsignContext, HttpSend, OsEnv, ProvideCredential};
+use reqsign_file_read_tokio::TokioFileRead;
+use reqsign_google::{Credential as ReqsignCredential, FileCredentialProvider};
+use tokio::sync::RwLock;
 
 use object_store::{
-    gcp::{GcpCredential, GoogleCloudStorageBuilder, GoogleConfigKey},
     RetryConfig, StaticCredentialProvider,
+    gcp::{GcpCredential, GoogleCloudStorage, GoogleCloudStorageBuilder, GoogleConfigKey},
 };
 use url::Url;
 
+use crate::object_store::opendal_store::OpendalStore;
 use crate::object_store::{
-    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE,
-    DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, StorageOptionsAccessor,
+    dynamic_credentials::build_dynamic_credential_provider,
+    throttle::{AimdThrottleState, cloud_http_connector, shared_throttle_state, with_throttling},
 };
 use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
-
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
 #[derive(Default, Debug)]
 pub struct GcsStoreProvider;
 
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ObjectStoreHttpSend {
+    client: HttpClient,
+}
+
+impl HttpSend for ObjectStoreHttpSend {
+    async fn http_send(
+        &self,
+        request: http::Request<bytes::Bytes>,
+    ) -> reqsign_core::Result<http::Response<bytes::Bytes>> {
+        let (parts, body) = request.into_parts();
+        let request = http::Request::from_parts(parts, HttpRequestBody::from(body));
+        let response = self.client.execute(request).await.map_err(|source| {
+            reqsign_core::Error::unexpected("failed to send Google workload identity HTTP request")
+                .with_source(source)
+        })?;
+        let (parts, body) = response.into_parts();
+        let body = body.bytes().await.map_err(|source| {
+            reqsign_core::Error::unexpected("failed to read Google workload identity HTTP response")
+                .with_source(source)
+        })?;
+        Ok(http::Response::from_parts(parts, body))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct WorkloadIdentityCredentialProvider {
+    provider: FileCredentialProvider,
+    context: ReqsignContext,
+    cached_credential: RwLock<Option<ReqsignCredential>>,
+}
+
+impl WorkloadIdentityCredentialProvider {
+    fn new(application_credentials_path: String, http_client: HttpClient) -> Self {
+        let context = ReqsignContext::new()
+            .with_file_read(TokioFileRead)
+            .with_http_send(ObjectStoreHttpSend {
+                client: http_client,
+            })
+            .with_env(OsEnv);
+        Self {
+            provider: FileCredentialProvider::new(application_credentials_path),
+            context,
+            cached_credential: RwLock::new(None),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn usable_gcp_credential(credential: &ReqsignCredential) -> Option<GcpCredential> {
+    credential
+        .token
+        .as_ref()
+        .filter(|_| credential.has_valid_token())
+        .map(|token| GcpCredential {
+            bearer: token.access_token.clone(),
+        })
+}
+
+fn workload_identity_error(
+    source: impl std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static,
+) -> object_store::Error {
+    object_store::Error::Generic {
+        store: "GCS workload identity credentials",
+        source: Box::new(source),
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl CredentialProvider for WorkloadIdentityCredentialProvider {
+    type Credential = GcpCredential;
+
+    async fn get_credential(&self) -> ObjectStoreResult<Arc<Self::Credential>> {
+        if let Some(credential) = self
+            .cached_credential
+            .read()
+            .await
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(usable_gcp_credential)
+        {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(credential));
+        }
+
+        let mut cached_credential = self.cached_credential.write().await;
+        if let Some(credential) = cached_credential.as_ref().and_then(usable_gcp_credential) {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(credential));
+        }
+
+        let credential = self
+            .provider
+            .provide_credential(&self.context)
+            .await
+            .map_err(workload_identity_error)?
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                workload_identity_error(std::io::Error::other(
+                    "application credentials did not provide a Google access token",
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let gcp_credential = usable_gcp_credential(&credential).ok_or_else(|| {
+            workload_identity_error(std::io::Error::other(
+                "application credentials provided an expired or unusable Google access token",
+            ))
+        })?;
+        *cached_credential = Some(credential);
+        Ok(Arc::new(gcp_credential))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(serde::Deserialize)]
+struct ApplicationCredentialKind {
+    #[serde(rename = "type")]
+    credential_type: String,
+}
+
+struct GcsClientOptions {
+    object_requests: ClientOptions,
+    credential_requests: ClientOptions,
+}
+
+fn gcs_client_options(storage_options: &StorageOptions) -> Result<GcsClientOptions> {
+    let mut object_requests = storage_options.client_options()?;
+    // headers.* options are scoped to object requests and may contain secrets. Credential
+    // exchanges can target unrelated identity endpoints, so only share typed client settings.
+    let mut credential_requests = object_requests
+        .clone()
+        .with_default_headers(Default::default());
+    for (key, value) in storage_options.as_gcs_options() {
+        if let GoogleConfigKey::Client(key) = key {
+            object_requests = object_requests.with_config(key, value.clone());
+            credential_requests = credential_requests.with_config(key, value);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(GcsClientOptions {
+        object_requests,
+        credential_requests,
+    })
+}
+
+fn workload_identity_credential_provider(
+    storage_options: &StorageOptions,
+    client_options: &ClientOptions,
+) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn CredentialProvider<Credential = GcpCredential>>>> {
+    let gcs_options = storage_options.as_gcs_options();
+    if gcs_options.contains_key(&GoogleConfigKey::ServiceAccount)
+        || gcs_options.contains_key(&GoogleConfigKey::ServiceAccountKey)
+    {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let Some(application_credentials_path) =
+        gcs_options.get(&GoogleConfigKey::ApplicationCredentials)
+    else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    let Ok(contents) = std::fs::read(application_credentials_path) else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    let Ok(credential_kind) = serde_json::from_slice::<ApplicationCredentialKind>(&contents) else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if credential_kind.credential_type != "external_account" {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let http_client = ReqwestConnector::default().connect(client_options)?;
+    Ok(Some(Arc::new(WorkloadIdentityCredentialProvider::new(
+        application_credentials_path.clone(),
+        http_client,
+    ))))
+}
+
 impl GcsStoreProvider {
     async fn build_opendal_gcs_store(
         &self,
@@ -31,7 +210,7 @@ impl GcsStoreProvider {
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>> {
         let bucket = base_path
             .host_str()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("GCS URL must contain bucket name", location!()))?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("GCS URL must contain bucket name"))?
             .to_string();
 
         let prefix = base_path.path().trim_start_matches('/').to_string();
@@ -48,13 +227,7 @@ impl GcsStoreProvider {
         }
 
         let operator = Operator::from_iter::<Gcs>(config_map)
-            .map_err(|e| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Failed to create GCS operator: {:?}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?
-            .finish();
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create GCS operator: {:?}", e)))?;
 
         Ok(Arc::new(OpendalStore::new(operator)) as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>)
     }
@@ -63,31 +236,56 @@ impl GcsStoreProvider {
         &self,
         base_path: &Url,
         storage_options: &StorageOptions,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>> {
-        let max_retries = storage_options.client_max_retries();
-        let retry_timeout = storage_options.client_retry_timeout();
+        accessor: Option<Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>>,
+        throttle_state: Option<&AimdThrottleState>,
+        // Concrete rather than `dyn`, so the caller keeps the handle a paginated listing
+        // needs: `PaginatedListStore` is a separate trait from `ObjectStore`.
+    ) -> Result<Arc<GoogleCloudStorage>> {
+        // Use a low retry count since the AIMD throttle layer handles
+        // throttle recovery with its own retry loop.
         let retry_config = RetryConfig {
             backoff: Default::default(),
-            max_retries,
-            retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(retry_timeout),
+            max_retries: storage_options.client_max_retries(),
+            retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(storage_options.client_retry_timeout()),
         };
 
+        let client_options = gcs_client_options(storage_options)?;
+
         let mut builder = GoogleCloudStorageBuilder::new()
             .with_url(base_path.as_ref())
-            .with_retry(retry_config);
+            .with_retry(retry_config)
+            .with_client_options(client_options.object_requests.clone());
         for (key, value) in storage_options.as_gcs_options() {
             builder = builder.with_config(key, value);
         }
-        let token_key = "google_storage_token";
-        if let Some(storage_token) = storage_options.get(token_key) {
+
+        if let Some(credentials) =
+            build_dynamic_credential_provider::<GcpCredential>(accessor).await?
+        {
+            builder = builder.with_credentials(credentials);
+        } else if let Some(storage_token) = storage_options.get("google_storage_token") {
             let credential = GcpCredential {
                 bearer: storage_token.clone(),
             };
             let credential_provider = Arc::new(StaticCredentialProvider::new(credential)) as _;
             builder = builder.with_credentials(credential_provider);
+        } else if let Some(credential_provider) = workload_identity_credential_provider(
+            storage_options,
+            &client_options.credential_requests,
+        )? {
+            // object_store cannot exchange external-account ADC files, while reqsign supports
+            // the workload identity format emitted by google-github-actions/auth.
+            builder = builder.with_credentials(credential_provider);
         }
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(builder.build()?) as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>)
+        let store_prefix =
+            self.calculate_object_store_prefix(base_path, Some(&storage_options.0))?;
+        builder = builder.with_http_connector(cloud_http_connector(
+            throttle_state,
+            crate::object_store::metrics_base(&store_prefix, base_path),
+        ));
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(builder.build()?))
     }
 }
 
@@ -96,26 +294,52 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for GcsStoreProvider {
     async fn new_store(&self, base_path: Url, params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
         let block_size = params.block_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE);
         let mut storage_options =
-            StorageOptions(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
+            StorageOptions::new(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
         storage_options.with_env_gcs();
         let download_retry_count = storage_options.download_retry_count();
 
         let use_opendal = storage_options
             .0
             .get("use_opendal")
-            .map(|v| v.as_str() == "true")
+            .map(|v| str_is_truthy(v.as_str()))
             .unwrap_or(false);
 
-        let inner = if use_opendal {
-            self.build_opendal_gcs_store(&base_path, &storage_options)
-                .await?
+        let accessor = params.get_accessor();
+
+        // Keyed like the registry cache so per-dataset stores share the bucket's budget.
+        let store_prefix =
+            self.calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?;
+        let throttle_state = shared_throttle_state(&store_prefix, params)?;
+
+        let (inner, paginated_lister) = if use_opendal {
+            // OpenDAL GCS intentionally uses static/environment-backed configuration only.
+            // Namespace-vended dynamic credentials are supported on the native object_store path.
+            // Listed in full: no paginated lister covers OpenDAL yet.
+            (
+                self.build_opendal_gcs_store(&base_path, &storage_options)
+                    .await?,
+                None,
+            )
         } else {
-            self.build_google_cloud_store(&base_path, &storage_options)
-                .await?
+            let store = self
+                .build_google_cloud_store(
+                    &base_path,
+                    &storage_options,
+                    accessor,
+                    throttle_state.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+            (
+                store.clone() as Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+                Some(store as Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>),
+            )
         };
+        let (inner, paginated_lister) =
+            with_throttling(throttle_state, !use_opendal, inner, paginated_lister);
 
         Ok(ObjectStore {
             inner,
+            local_dir_operations: None,
             scheme: String::from("gs"),
             block_size,
             max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
@@ -126,6 +350,7 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for GcsStoreProvider {
             io_tracker: Default::default(),
             store_prefix: self
                 .calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?,
+            paginated_lister,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -167,8 +392,47 @@ impl StorageOptions {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use crate::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::{collections::HashMap, fs, sync::Arc};
+
+    use crate::object_store::test_utils::StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider;
+    use crate::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptionsAccessor};
+    use tempfile::TempDir;
+    use wiremock::{
+        Mock, MockServer, ResponseTemplate,
+        matchers::{method, path},
+    };
+
+    fn external_account_storage_options(
+        temp_dir: &TempDir,
+        token_url: String,
+    ) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+        let subject_token_path = temp_dir.path().join("oidc-token");
+        fs::write(&subject_token_path, "github-oidc-token").unwrap();
+        let application_credentials_path = temp_dir.path().join("credentials.json");
+        fs::write(
+            &application_credentials_path,
+            serde_json::to_vec(&serde_json::json!({
+                "type": "external_account",
+                "audience": "test-audience",
+                "subject_token_type": "urn:ietf:params:oauth:token-type:jwt",
+                "token_url": token_url,
+                "credential_source": {
+                    "file": subject_token_path.to_string_lossy(),
+                    "format": { "type": "text" }
+                }
+            }))
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "google_application_credentials".to_string(),
+                application_credentials_path.to_string_lossy().into_owned(),
+            ),
+            ("allow_http".to_string(), "true".to_string()),
+        ])
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_gcs_store_path() {
@@ -182,7 +446,6 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_use_opendal_flag() {
-        use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
         let provider = GcsStoreProvider;
         let url = Url::parse("gs://test-bucket/path").unwrap();
         let params_with_flag = ObjectStoreParams {
@@ -204,4 +467,126 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(store.scheme, "gs");
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_gcp_credentials_provider() {
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(Arc::new(
+            StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+                options: HashMap::from([(
+                    "google_storage_token".to_string(),
+                    "gcp-token".to_string(),
+                )]),
+            },
+        )));
+
+        let credentials = build_dynamic_credential_provider::<GcpCredential>(Some(accessor))
+            .await
+            .expect("dynamic gcp credentials should build")
+            .expect("expected credential provider")
+            .get_credential()
+            .await
+            .expect("expected gcp credential");
+
+        assert_eq!(credentials.bearer, "gcp-token");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_external_account_application_credentials() {
+        let mock_server = MockServer::start().await;
+        Mock::given(method("POST"))
+            .and(path("/token"))
+            .respond_with(ResponseTemplate::new(200).set_body_json(serde_json::json!({
+                "access_token": "federated-token",
+                "expires_in": 3600
+            })))
+            .expect(1)
+            .mount(&mock_server)
+            .await;
+
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut storage_options =
+            external_account_storage_options(&temp_dir, format!("{}/token", mock_server.uri()));
+        storage_options.insert(
+            "headers.Authorization".to_string(),
+            "Bearer storage-secret".to_string(),
+        );
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                storage_options.clone(),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let store = GcsStoreProvider
+            .new_store(Url::parse("gs://test-bucket/path").unwrap(), &params)
+            .await
+            .expect("external account credentials should build a GCS store");
+        assert_eq!(store.scheme, "gs");
+
+        let storage_options = StorageOptions::new(storage_options);
+        let client_options = gcs_client_options(&storage_options).unwrap();
+        let credential_provider = workload_identity_credential_provider(
+            &storage_options,
+            &client_options.credential_requests,
+        )
+        .expect("external account credential provider should build")
+        .expect("external account credentials should select the reqsign provider");
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            let credential = credential_provider
+                .get_credential()
+                .await
+                .expect("workload identity token exchange should succeed");
+            assert_eq!(credential.bearer, "federated-token");
+        }
+        mock_server.verify().await;
+        let requests = mock_server.received_requests().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!requests[0].headers.contains_key("authorization"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_external_account_respects_client_timeout() {
+        let mock_server = MockServer::start().await;
+        Mock::given(method("POST"))
+            .and(path("/token"))
+            .respond_with(
+                ResponseTemplate::new(200)
+                    .set_delay(Duration::from_secs(1))
+                    .set_body_json(serde_json::json!({
+                        "access_token": "federated-token",
+                        "expires_in": 3600
+                    })),
+            )
+            .expect(1)
+            .mount(&mock_server)
+            .await;
+
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut storage_options =
+            external_account_storage_options(&temp_dir, format!("{}/token", mock_server.uri()));
+        storage_options.insert("timeout".to_string(), "50ms".to_string());
+        let storage_options = StorageOptions::new(storage_options);
+        let client_options = gcs_client_options(&storage_options).unwrap();
+        let credential_provider = workload_identity_credential_provider(
+            &storage_options,
+            &client_options.credential_requests,
+        )
+        .expect("external account credential provider should build")
+        .expect("external account credentials should select the reqsign provider");
+
+        let credential_result = tokio::time::timeout(
+            Duration::from_millis(200),
+            credential_provider.get_credential(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("configured client timeout should bound the credential exchange");
+        let error = credential_result.expect_err("the delayed token exchange should time out");
+        assert!(matches!(&error, object_store::Error::Generic { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("failed to send Google workload identity HTTP request"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+        mock_server.verify().await;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/goosefs.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/goosefs.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ea13c7d38b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/goosefs.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,959 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use opendal::{Operator, services::GooseFs};
+// Direct deps so Cargo unifies `goosefs-sdk` 0.2.2 and
+// `metadata-cache` / `page-cache-io-uring` into the same
+// `opendal-service-goosefs` build as `opendal/services-goosefs`.
+use goosefs_sdk as _;
+use opendal_service_goosefs as _;
+use url::Url;
+
+use crate::object_store::opendal_store::OpendalStore;
+use crate::object_store::{
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions,
+};
+use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Default GooseFS Master gRPC port.
+const DEFAULT_GOOSEFS_PORT: u16 = 9200;
+
+/// Canonical `storage_options` keys. Matching environment variables use the
+/// `GOOSEFS_*` spelling; dict keys must be this lowercase form. Wrong-case
+/// variants are rejected up front so they cannot silently fall back to the
+/// URL authority / OS username and surface as a misleading auth error.
+const STORAGE_OPTION_KEYS: &[&str] = &[
+    "goosefs_master_addr",
+    "goosefs_root",
+    "goosefs_write_type",
+    "goosefs_block_size",
+    "goosefs_chunk_size",
+    "goosefs_auth_type",
+    "goosefs_auth_username",
+];
+
+/// GooseFS object store provider.
+///
+/// Uses OpenDAL's GooseFs service to access GooseFS via gRPC.
+/// URL format: `goosefs://host:port/path` or `goosefs:///path`.
+///
+/// Where:
+/// - `host:port` is the GooseFS Master address (default port: 9200). It may
+///   be omitted (`goosefs:///path`) when the master is supplied by
+///   `storage_options`, `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR`, or `goosefs-site.properties`.
+/// - `/path` is the filesystem path within GooseFS
+///
+/// Path handling model (S3-style):
+/// - The OpenDAL `root` is fixed to `/` (or a user-supplied cluster-wide base)
+///   so that a single `Operator` can serve every dataset under the same
+///   master. This keeps the `ObjectStoreRegistry` cache correct: two URLs
+///   like `goosefs://host:9200/a.lance` and `goosefs://host:9200/b.lance`
+///   share one store and each request carries its own object key.
+/// - Path extraction relies on the default [`ObjectStoreProvider::extract_path`]
+///   implementation, which returns the URL path (percent-decoded) as the key
+///   passed to `ObjectStore::get`, `put`, etc. — mirroring how `s3://bucket/k`
+///   yields key `k`.
+///
+/// Supported configuration keys (via `storage_options` or environment variables,
+/// resolved with priority: `storage_options` > env var > URL authority > default).
+/// Master address is the exception: OpenDAL/SDK apply
+/// `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR` > `goosefs-site.properties` > `master_addr`
+/// (the latter is filled from `storage_options` or the URL authority).
+/// `storage_options` keys must be lowercase; uppercase/mixed-case spellings are
+/// rejected rather than silently ignored.
+///
+/// | storage_options key       | env var                 | purpose                                                                                       |
+/// |---------------------------|-------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
+/// | `goosefs_master_addr`     | `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR`   | Master gRPC address, e.g. `host:9200`. Supports HA: `addr1:port,addr2:port`.                  |
+/// | `goosefs_root`            | `GOOSEFS_ROOT`          | Cluster-wide OpenDAL root shared by all datasets under the same master. Defaults to `/`.      |
+/// | `goosefs_write_type`      | `GOOSEFS_WRITE_TYPE`    | GooseFS write type (e.g. `MUST_CACHE`, `CACHE_THROUGH`, `THROUGH`, `ASYNC_THROUGH`).          |
+/// | `goosefs_block_size`      | `GOOSEFS_BLOCK_SIZE`    | GooseFS block size. Bytes or suffixes like `4MB` (binary: 1KB=1024). Distinct from Lance I/O `block_size`. |
+/// | `goosefs_chunk_size`      | `GOOSEFS_CHUNK_SIZE`    | GooseFS client chunk size. Bytes or suffixes like `4MB` (binary: 1KB=1024).                   |
+/// | `goosefs_auth_type`       | `GOOSEFS_AUTH_TYPE`     | Authentication mode: `nosasl` or `simple`.                                                    |
+/// | `goosefs_auth_username`   | `GOOSEFS_AUTH_USERNAME` | Username for `simple` auth mode.                                                              |
+///
+/// Note on `goosefs_root`: it is deliberately cluster-wide (not per-URL) so
+/// that many datasets under the same master share a single cached `Operator`.
+/// A custom root also participates in the `ObjectStoreRegistry` cache prefix,
+/// so stores rooted at different subtrees do not collide.
+///
+/// Client caches are compiled into this provider via `opendal-service-goosefs`
+/// (`metadata-cache`, `page-cache-io-uring`) and `goosefs-sdk` 0.2.2.
+/// Compiling a cache does not replace runtime configuration:
+/// `Operator::build()` still loads `goosefs-site.properties` and `GOOSEFS_*`
+/// environment variables. Both caches stay off until explicitly enabled.
+///
+/// - Metadata cache: off by default (0.2.2 matches Java
+///   `goosefs.user.metadata.cache.enabled`). Set
+///   `GOOSEFS_METADATA_CACHE_ENABLED=true` to opt in.
+/// - Page cache: off by default. Set `GOOSEFS_USER_CLIENT_CACHE_ENABLED=true`
+///   and configure cache directories through `goosefs.user.client.cache.dirs`
+///   / `GOOSEFS_USER_CLIENT_CACHE_DIRS`. `page-cache-io-uring` uses io_uring
+///   on Linux and the portable `tokio::fs` store elsewhere.
+#[derive(Default, Debug)]
+pub struct GooseFsStoreProvider;
+
+/// Parse the exponent of a scientific coefficient (`e10`, `E-3`, `e+02`).
+///
+/// Magnitudes that do not fit in `i32` saturate to `i32::MAX` / `i32::MIN`
+/// so a zero significand such as `0e9999999999` still evaluates to 0, while
+/// a non-zero significand overflows later in checked arithmetic.
+fn parse_decimal_exponent(s: &str) -> Option<i32> {
+    if s.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let (negative, digits) = if let Some(rest) = s.strip_prefix('+') {
+        (false, rest)
+    } else if let Some(rest) = s.strip_prefix('-') {
+        (true, rest)
+    } else {
+        (false, s)
+    };
+    if digits.is_empty() || !digits.chars().all(|c| c.is_ascii_digit()) {
+        return None;
+    }
+    match digits.parse::<i32>() {
+        Ok(n) => Some(if negative { -n } else { n }),
+        Err(_) => Some(if negative { i32::MIN } else { i32::MAX }),
+    }
+}
+
+impl GooseFsStoreProvider {
+    /// Reject GooseFS `storage_options` keys that match a canonical key
+    /// case-insensitively but are not lowercase.
+    ///
+    /// `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR` is valid as an environment variable, not as a
+    /// dict key. Silently ignoring it previously fell back to the URI host
+    /// and default OS username, which then failed as `authentication failed`.
+    fn validate_storage_option_keys(storage_options: &StorageOptions) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut wrong_case = Vec::new();
+        for key in storage_options.0.keys() {
+            let lower = key.to_ascii_lowercase();
+            if let Some(&canonical) = STORAGE_OPTION_KEYS
+                .iter()
+                .find(|&&canonical| canonical == lower.as_str())
+                && key != canonical
+            {
+                wrong_case.push((key.clone(), canonical));
+            }
+        }
+        if wrong_case.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        wrong_case.sort_by(|a, b| a.1.cmp(b.1));
+        let details = wrong_case
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(got, want)| format!("`{got}` (use `{want}`)"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(", ");
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "GooseFS storage_options keys must be lowercase; got {details}"
+        )))
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve an explicit GooseFS Master address for OpenDAL's `master_addr`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` when neither `storage_options`, `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR`, nor
+    /// the URL authority supplies an address. Callers must omit `master_addr`
+    /// from the OpenDAL config in that case so the SDK can still load masters
+    /// from `goosefs-site.properties`. Requiring a host here would reject
+    /// Hadoop-style `goosefs:///path` URLs before OpenDAL runs.
+    ///
+    /// Priority among the sources this function *does* consult:
+    /// 1. `storage_options["goosefs_master_addr"]` (supports HA: "addr1:port,addr2:port")
+    /// 2. `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR` environment variable
+    /// 3. URL authority (host:port from the URL)
+    ///
+    /// OpenDAL then applies `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR` > `goosefs-site.properties` >
+    /// this `master_addr` value, so a deployed site file can still supply the
+    /// HA master list that a single URI authority cannot express.
+    fn resolve_master_addr(url: &Url, storage_options: &StorageOptions) -> Option<String> {
+        // 1. storage_options
+        if let Some(addr) = storage_options
+            .0
+            .get("goosefs_master_addr")
+            .filter(|v| !v.is_empty())
+        {
+            return Some(addr.clone());
+        }
+
+        // 2. Environment variable
+        if let Ok(addr) = std::env::var("GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR")
+            && !addr.is_empty()
+        {
+            return Some(addr);
+        }
+
+        // 3. URL authority. Empty host (`goosefs:///path`) is valid: OpenDAL
+        //    will resolve the master from `goosefs-site.properties`.
+        let host = url.host_str()?;
+        let port = url.port().unwrap_or(DEFAULT_GOOSEFS_PORT);
+        Some(format!("{}:{}", host, port))
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve a storage option from storage_options or environment variable.
+    fn resolve_option(
+        storage_options: &StorageOptions,
+        option_key: &str,
+        env_key: &str,
+    ) -> Option<String> {
+        storage_options
+            .0
+            .get(option_key)
+            .cloned()
+            .or_else(|| std::env::var(env_key).ok())
+            .filter(|v| !v.is_empty())
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve the OpenDAL `root` for this Operator. See the file-level docs on
+    /// [`GooseFsStoreProvider`] for the semantics of `goosefs_root`.
+    fn resolve_root(storage_options: &StorageOptions) -> String {
+        Self::resolve_option(storage_options, "goosefs_root", "GOOSEFS_ROOT")
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| "/".to_string())
+    }
+
+    /// Parse a GooseFS space-size string into bytes.
+    ///
+    /// OpenDAL's GooseFS config deserializes `chunk_size` / `block_size` as
+    /// `u64`, so a value like `4MB` fails with `ParseIntError`. GooseFS itself
+    /// accepts Hadoop-style suffixes via `FormatUtils.parseSpaceSize`, where
+    /// units are **binary** (`1KB = 1024`, so `4MB` is `4194304`), not SI
+    /// (`10^6`). Generic crates such as `parse-size` / `bytesize` default to
+    /// SI for `MB`, so this parser matches GooseFS instead of adding a dep.
+    ///
+    /// Accepted suffixes (case-insensitive): `b`, `k`/`kb`, `m`/`mb`,
+    /// `g`/`gb`, `t`/`tb`, `p`/`pb`. A missing suffix means bytes. Fractional
+    /// and scientific coefficients such as `1.5MB` or `1e3KB` are accepted
+    /// and converted with exact decimal arithmetic (truncated toward zero,
+    /// matching GooseFS `parseSpaceSize` without the `double` rounding fudge).
+    fn parse_space_size(option_key: &str, value: &str) -> Result<u64> {
+        let trimmed = value.trim();
+        if trimmed.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "{option_key} must be a size such as `4MB` or `4194304`, got `{value}`"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let suffix_start = trimmed
+            .char_indices()
+            .rev()
+            .find(|(_, c)| c.is_ascii_digit())
+            .map(|(i, c)| i + c.len_utf8())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        let (number, suffix) = trimmed.split_at(suffix_start);
+        if number.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid {option_key} `{value}`: missing numeric coefficient"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let multiplier = match suffix.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str() {
+            "" | "b" => 1u64,
+            "k" | "kb" => 1024,
+            "m" | "mb" => 1024 * 1024,
+            "g" | "gb" => 1024 * 1024 * 1024,
+            "t" | "tb" => 1024u64.pow(4),
+            "p" | "pb" => 1024u64.pow(5),
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "invalid {option_key} `{value}`: unrecognized size suffix `{other}` \
+                     (supported: b, k/kb, m/mb, g/gb, t/tb, p/pb; units are binary, 1KB=1024)"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+
+        let overflow = || {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid {option_key} `{value}`: size overflows u64"
+            ))
+        };
+
+        // Exact integer path. Digit-only coefficients that fail `u64` parsing
+        // have overflowed; do not retry them as decimals.
+        if let Ok(n) = number.parse::<u64>() {
+            return n.checked_mul(multiplier).ok_or_else(overflow);
+        }
+        if number.chars().all(|c| c.is_ascii_digit()) {
+            return Err(overflow());
+        }
+
+        Self::parse_decimal_times_unit(option_key, value, number, multiplier)
+    }
+
+    /// Parse a decimal or scientific coefficient and return `floor(coeff * multiplier)`.
+    ///
+    /// GooseFS `FormatUtils.parseSpaceSize` truncates toward zero after
+    /// `coeff * unit` in IEEE-754 `double`. That silently changes integers
+    /// above `2^53` (e.g. `9007199254740993.0` becomes `9007199254740992`).
+    /// This path keeps the same truncation semantics with checked decimal
+    /// arithmetic so every accepted configuration preserves its value.
+    fn parse_decimal_times_unit(
+        option_key: &str,
+        value: &str,
+        number: &str,
+        multiplier: u64,
+    ) -> Result<u64> {
+        let invalid_number = || {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid {option_key} `{value}`: `{number}` is not a valid number"
+            ))
+        };
+        let overflow = || {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid {option_key} `{value}`: size overflows u64"
+            ))
+        };
+        let negative = || {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid {option_key} `{value}`: size must be a non-negative number"
+            ))
+        };
+
+        if number.starts_with('-') {
+            return Err(negative());
+        }
+        let s = number.strip_prefix('+').unwrap_or(number);
+        if s.is_empty() {
+            return Err(invalid_number());
+        }
+
+        let (mantissa, exp) = if let Some(e_idx) = s.find(['e', 'E']) {
+            let mantissa = &s[..e_idx];
+            let exp_str = &s[e_idx + 1..];
+            if mantissa.is_empty() {
+                return Err(invalid_number());
+            }
+            let exp = parse_decimal_exponent(exp_str).ok_or_else(invalid_number)?;
+            (mantissa, exp)
+        } else {
+            (s, 0i32)
+        };
+
+        let mut parts = mantissa.split('.');
+        let int_str = parts.next().unwrap_or("");
+        let frac_raw = parts.next();
+        if parts.next().is_some() {
+            return Err(invalid_number());
+        }
+        if !int_str.chars().all(|c| c.is_ascii_digit()) {
+            return Err(invalid_number());
+        }
+        let frac_raw = match frac_raw {
+            Some(frac) if frac.chars().all(|c| c.is_ascii_digit()) => frac,
+            Some(_) => return Err(invalid_number()),
+            None => "",
+        };
+        if int_str.is_empty() && frac_raw.is_empty() {
+            return Err(invalid_number());
+        }
+        let frac_str = frac_raw.trim_end_matches('0');
+
+        let int_part: u128 = if int_str.is_empty() {
+            0
+        } else {
+            int_str.parse().map_err(|_| overflow())?
+        };
+        let frac_digits = u32::try_from(frac_str.len()).map_err(|_| overflow())?;
+        let frac_part: u128 = if frac_str.is_empty() {
+            0
+        } else {
+            frac_str.parse().map_err(|_| overflow())?
+        };
+
+        let significand = if frac_digits == 0 {
+            int_part
+        } else {
+            let pow10 = 10u128.checked_pow(frac_digits).ok_or_else(overflow)?;
+            int_part
+                .checked_mul(pow10)
+                .and_then(|v| v.checked_add(frac_part))
+                .ok_or_else(overflow)?
+        };
+        if significand == 0 {
+            return Ok(0);
+        }
+
+        // floor(significand * multiplier * 10^exp / 10^frac_digits)
+        let mut num = significand
+            .checked_mul(u128::from(multiplier))
+            .ok_or_else(overflow)?;
+        let scale = i64::from(frac_digits) - i64::from(exp);
+        if scale > 0 {
+            match u32::try_from(scale)
+                .ok()
+                .and_then(|s| 10u128.checked_pow(s))
+            {
+                Some(den) => num /= den,
+                None => num = 0,
+            }
+        } else if scale < 0 {
+            let raise = u32::try_from(scale.unsigned_abs()).map_err(|_| overflow())?;
+            let factor = 10u128.checked_pow(raise).ok_or_else(overflow)?;
+            num = num.checked_mul(factor).ok_or_else(overflow)?;
+        }
+
+        u64::try_from(num).map_err(|_| overflow())
+    }
+
+    fn resolve_space_size(
+        storage_options: &StorageOptions,
+        option_key: &str,
+        env_key: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        let Some(raw) = Self::resolve_option(storage_options, option_key, env_key) else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        Self::parse_space_size(option_key, &raw).map(Some)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl ObjectStoreProvider for GooseFsStoreProvider {
+    async fn new_store(&self, base_path: Url, params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
+        let block_size = params.block_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let storage_options = StorageOptions(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
+
+        Self::validate_storage_option_keys(&storage_options)?;
+
+        // Resolve master address. Omit the OpenDAL key when unset so the SDK
+        // can still read `goosefs-site.properties` (and OpenDAL can still
+        // reject the build if no source at all supplies a master).
+        let master_addr = Self::resolve_master_addr(&base_path, &storage_options);
+
+        // Resolve a stable cluster-wide root. The URL path is *not* used here
+        // because it varies per dataset; per-request keys are supplied by
+        // `extract_path` instead.
+        let root = Self::resolve_root(&storage_options);
+
+        // Build OpenDAL config map
+        let mut config_map: HashMap<String, String> = HashMap::new();
+        if let Some(master_addr) = master_addr {
+            config_map.insert("master_addr".to_string(), master_addr);
+        }
+        config_map.insert("root".to_string(), root);
+
+        // Optional: write_type
+        if let Some(wt) =
+            Self::resolve_option(&storage_options, "goosefs_write_type", "GOOSEFS_WRITE_TYPE")
+        {
+            config_map.insert("write_type".to_string(), wt);
+        }
+
+        // Optional: block_size (for GooseFS, not Lance block_size).
+        // Normalize suffixes like `64MB` to a raw byte count; OpenDAL expects u64.
+        if let Some(bs) =
+            Self::resolve_space_size(&storage_options, "goosefs_block_size", "GOOSEFS_BLOCK_SIZE")?
+        {
+            config_map.insert("block_size".to_string(), bs.to_string());
+        }
+
+        // Optional: chunk_size
+        if let Some(cs) =
+            Self::resolve_space_size(&storage_options, "goosefs_chunk_size", "GOOSEFS_CHUNK_SIZE")?
+        {
+            config_map.insert("chunk_size".to_string(), cs.to_string());
+        }
+
+        // Optional: auth_type (nosasl / simple)
+        if let Some(at) =
+            Self::resolve_option(&storage_options, "goosefs_auth_type", "GOOSEFS_AUTH_TYPE")
+        {
+            config_map.insert("auth_type".to_string(), at);
+        }
+
+        // Optional: auth_username (used in SIMPLE auth mode)
+        if let Some(au) = Self::resolve_option(
+            &storage_options,
+            "goosefs_auth_username",
+            "GOOSEFS_AUTH_USERNAME",
+        ) {
+            config_map.insert("auth_username".to_string(), au);
+        }
+
+        // Create OpenDAL Operator with GooseFS service
+        let operator = Operator::from_iter::<GooseFs>(config_map).map_err(|e| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create GooseFS operator: {:?}", e))
+        })?;
+
+        // Wrap as object_store::ObjectStore via OpendalStore bridge
+        let opendal_store = Arc::new(OpendalStore::new(operator));
+
+        Ok(ObjectStore {
+            scheme: "goosefs".to_string(),
+            inner: opendal_store,
+            local_dir_operations: None,
+            block_size,
+            max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+            use_constant_size_upload_parts: params.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
+            list_is_lexically_ordered: params.list_is_lexically_ordered.unwrap_or(false),
+            io_parallelism: DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM,
+            download_retry_count: storage_options.download_retry_count(),
+            io_tracker: Default::default(),
+            store_prefix: self
+                .calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?,
+            // Listed in full: no paginated lister covers OpenDAL yet.
+            paginated_lister: None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    // `extract_path` uses the default `ObjectStoreProvider` trait implementation:
+    // it percent-decodes the URL path and returns it as the object key, exactly
+    // like S3 does for `s3://bucket/key`. Overriding it here would only
+    // duplicate that behavior. See the file-level doc comment above for the
+    // full path-handling model.
+
+    /// Calculate the object store prefix used as the registry cache key.
+    ///
+    /// Format: `goosefs$master_addr`. The address is derived through the same
+    /// chain that [`Self::new_store`] feeds to OpenDAL as `master_addr`
+    /// (`goosefs_master_addr`, then `GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR`, then the URL
+    /// authority), so the prefix always tracks the master the Operator
+    /// actually uses — including when those options override the URL
+    /// authority, and for hostless URLs such as `goosefs:///path`. When
+    /// nothing resolves (the master comes only from
+    /// `goosefs-site.properties`), the prefix stays `goosefs$` — that file
+    /// is process-wide, so one cached Operator is correct. Because the
+    /// OpenDAL root is cluster-wide (not per-URL), all datasets under the
+    /// same master intentionally share the same cached [`ObjectStore`]; the
+    /// URL path is disambiguated by [`Self::extract_path`] on each request.
+    /// This is analogous to how two `s3://bucket/a` and `s3://bucket/b`
+    /// URLs share one store.
+    fn calculate_object_store_prefix(
+        &self,
+        url: &Url,
+        storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+    ) -> Result<String> {
+        // If a custom `goosefs_root` is provided, include it in the prefix so
+        // that stores built with different roots don't accidentally collide.
+        let opts = StorageOptions(storage_options.cloned().unwrap_or_default());
+        let authority = Self::resolve_master_addr(url, &opts).unwrap_or_default();
+        let root = Self::resolve_root(&opts);
+        if root == "/" {
+            Ok(format!("{}${}", url.scheme(), authority))
+        } else {
+            Ok(format!("{}${}#{}", url.scheme(), authority, root))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use serial_test::serial;
+    use std::ffi::OsString;
+
+    /// Restore an environment variable when dropped so tests that mutate
+    /// `GOOSEFS_*` cannot leak into later cases.
+    struct RestoreEnv {
+        key: &'static str,
+        original: Option<OsString>,
+    }
+
+    impl RestoreEnv {
+        fn unset(key: &'static str) -> Self {
+            let original = std::env::var_os(key);
+            unsafe { std::env::remove_var(key) };
+            Self { key, original }
+        }
+
+        fn set(key: &'static str, value: impl AsRef<std::ffi::OsStr>) -> Self {
+            let original = std::env::var_os(key);
+            unsafe { std::env::set_var(key, value) };
+            Self { key, original }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Drop for RestoreEnv {
+        fn drop(&mut self) {
+            unsafe {
+                match &self.original {
+                    Some(value) => std::env::set_var(self.key, value),
+                    None => std::env::remove_var(self.key),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_goosefs_extract_path_basic() {
+        let provider = GooseFsStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/data/embeddings.lance").unwrap();
+        let path = provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(path.to_string(), "data/embeddings.lance");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_goosefs_extract_path_hostless_url() {
+        let provider = GooseFsStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("goosefs:///data/embeddings.lance").unwrap();
+        let path = provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(path.to_string(), "data/embeddings.lance");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_goosefs_extract_path_root() {
+        let provider = GooseFsStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/").unwrap();
+        let path = provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(path.to_string(), "");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_goosefs_extract_path_deep() {
+        let provider = GooseFsStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("goosefs://master:9200/a/b/c/d.lance").unwrap();
+        let path = provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(path.to_string(), "a/b/c/d.lance");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_goosefs_extract_path_percent_decoded() {
+        // The URL contains a percent-encoded space; extract_path must decode
+        // it once so the ObjectStore layer does not double-encode later.
+        let provider = GooseFsStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("goosefs://master:9200/dir/with%20space/f.lance").unwrap();
+        let path = provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(path.to_string(), "dir/with space/f.lance");
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test: two URLs pointing at different datasets under the
+    /// same master must produce the *same* cache prefix so they share one
+    /// Operator, and correctness must come from `extract_path` returning
+    /// distinct keys — never from a per-URL root baked into the prefix.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prefix_shared_across_datasets_same_master() {
+        let provider = GooseFsStoreProvider;
+        let url_a = Url::parse("goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/repro/a.lance").unwrap();
+        let url_b = Url::parse("goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/repro/b.lance").unwrap();
+
+        let pa = provider
+            .calculate_object_store_prefix(&url_a, None)
+            .unwrap();
+        let pb = provider
+            .calculate_object_store_prefix(&url_b, None)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(pa, pb, "same master must share one cache prefix");
+
+        // Extracted keys must differ so the shared Operator can route
+        // requests to the correct dataset.
+        assert_ne!(
+            provider.extract_path(&url_a).unwrap(),
+            provider.extract_path(&url_b).unwrap(),
+            "distinct URLs must yield distinct object keys",
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Different masters must never share a cache entry.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prefix_isolated_across_masters() {
+        let provider = GooseFsStoreProvider;
+        let u1 = Url::parse("goosefs://host-a:9200/x.lance").unwrap();
+        let u2 = Url::parse("goosefs://host-b:9200/x.lance").unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(
+            provider.calculate_object_store_prefix(&u1, None).unwrap(),
+            provider.calculate_object_store_prefix(&u2, None).unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A user-supplied `goosefs_root` participates in the cache prefix so
+    /// stores rooted at different subtrees don't collide.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prefix_includes_custom_root() {
+        let provider = GooseFsStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("goosefs://host:9200/x.lance").unwrap();
+
+        let default_prefix = provider.calculate_object_store_prefix(&url, None).unwrap();
+        let custom_opts: HashMap<String, String> =
+            HashMap::from([("goosefs_root".to_string(), "/tenant-a".to_string())]);
+        let custom_prefix = provider
+            .calculate_object_store_prefix(&url, Some(&custom_opts))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(default_prefix, "goosefs$host:9200");
+        assert_eq!(custom_prefix, "goosefs$host:9200#/tenant-a");
+        assert_ne!(default_prefix, custom_prefix);
+    }
+
+    fn master_option_map(addr: Option<&str>) -> Option<HashMap<String, String>> {
+        addr.map(|addr| HashMap::from([("goosefs_master_addr".to_string(), addr.to_string())]))
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::from_url("goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/data", None, Some("10.0.0.1:9200"))]
+    #[case::default_port("goosefs://10.0.0.1/data", None, Some("10.0.0.1:9200"))]
+    #[case::storage_options(
+        "goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/data",
+        Some("10.0.0.2:9200,10.0.0.3:9200"),
+        Some("10.0.0.2:9200,10.0.0.3:9200")
+    )]
+    #[case::hostless_with_option(
+        "goosefs:///data/foo.lance",
+        Some("10.0.0.2:9200"),
+        Some("10.0.0.2:9200")
+    )]
+    #[case::hostless_none("goosefs:///data/foo.lance", None, None)]
+    #[serial]
+    fn test_resolve_master_addr(
+        #[case] uri: &str,
+        #[case] master_option: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] expected: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let _clear_env = RestoreEnv::unset("GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR");
+        let url = Url::parse(uri).unwrap();
+        let storage_options = StorageOptions(master_option_map(master_option).unwrap_or_default());
+        assert_eq!(
+            GooseFsStoreProvider::resolve_master_addr(&url, &storage_options).as_deref(),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::from_url("goosefs://10.0.0.1:9200/data", None, "goosefs$10.0.0.1:9200")]
+    #[case::hostname("goosefs://myhost:9200/data", None, "goosefs$myhost:9200")]
+    #[case::hostless("goosefs:///data/foo.lance", None, "goosefs$")]
+    #[case::hostless_option(
+        "goosefs:///data/foo.lance",
+        Some("10.0.0.1:9200"),
+        "goosefs$10.0.0.1:9200"
+    )]
+    #[case::authority_overridden(
+        "goosefs://placeholder:9200/data/foo.lance",
+        Some("10.0.0.1:9200"),
+        "goosefs$10.0.0.1:9200"
+    )]
+    #[case::authority_overridden_other_master(
+        "goosefs://placeholder:9200/data/foo.lance",
+        Some("10.0.0.2:9200"),
+        "goosefs$10.0.0.2:9200"
+    )]
+    #[serial]
+    fn test_calculate_object_store_prefix(
+        #[case] uri: &str,
+        #[case] master_option: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] expected: &str,
+    ) {
+        let _clear_env = RestoreEnv::unset("GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR");
+        let url = Url::parse(uri).unwrap();
+        let opts = master_option_map(master_option);
+        let prefix = GooseFsStoreProvider
+            .calculate_object_store_prefix(&url, opts.as_ref())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(prefix, expected);
+    }
+
+    /// Regression: a Hadoop-style `goosefs:///path` URL plus
+    /// `goosefs-site.properties` must build an Operator. The previous
+    /// `resolve_master_addr` required a URL host and rejected this before
+    /// OpenDAL could read the site file.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial]
+    async fn test_new_store_hostless_url_uses_site_properties() {
+        let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let site = dir.path().join("goosefs-site.properties");
+        std::fs::write(
+            &site,
+            "goosefs.master.hostname=10.0.0.1\ngoosefs.master.rpc.port=9200\n",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let _config_file = RestoreEnv::set("GOOSEFS_CONFIG_FILE", &site);
+        let _clear_addr = RestoreEnv::unset("GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR");
+
+        let provider = GooseFsStoreProvider;
+        let url = Url::parse("goosefs:///data/foo.lance").unwrap();
+        let store = provider
+            .new_store(url, &ObjectStoreParams::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(store.scheme, "goosefs");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_root_defaults_to_slash() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::new());
+        assert_eq!(GooseFsStoreProvider::resolve_root(&opts), "/");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_root_from_storage_options() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([(
+            "goosefs_root".to_string(),
+            "/tenant-a".to_string(),
+        )]));
+        assert_eq!(GooseFsStoreProvider::resolve_root(&opts), "/tenant-a");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_storage_option_keys_accepts_lowercase() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "goosefs_master_addr".to_string(),
+                "10.0.0.1:9200,10.0.0.2:9200".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("goosefs_auth_type".to_string(), "simple".to_string()),
+            ("goosefs_auth_username".to_string(), "lance".to_string()),
+            ("allow_http".to_string(), "true".to_string()),
+        ]));
+        GooseFsStoreProvider::validate_storage_option_keys(&opts).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_storage_option_keys_rejects_uppercase() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([(
+            "GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR".to_string(),
+            "10.0.0.1:9200,10.0.0.2:9200".to_string(),
+        )]));
+        let err = GooseFsStoreProvider::validate_storage_option_keys(&opts).unwrap_err();
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("must be lowercase"),
+            "expected lowercase-key error, got: {msg}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("`GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR` (use `goosefs_master_addr`)"),
+            "expected canonical key hint, got: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_storage_option_keys_rejects_mixed_case() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "Goosefs_Master_Addr".to_string(),
+                "10.0.0.1:9200".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("GOOSEFS_AUTH_TYPE".to_string(), "simple".to_string()),
+        ]));
+        let err = GooseFsStoreProvider::validate_storage_option_keys(&opts).unwrap_err();
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains("must be lowercase"), "got: {msg}");
+        assert!(msg.contains("goosefs_master_addr"), "got: {msg}");
+        assert!(msg.contains("goosefs_auth_type"), "got: {msg}");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::bare_bytes("4096", 4096)]
+    #[case::suffix_b("4096b", 4096)]
+    #[case::suffix_k("4k", 4096)]
+    #[case::suffix_kb("4KB", 4096)]
+    #[case::suffix_m("4m", 4 * 1024 * 1024)]
+    #[case::suffix_mb("4MB", 4 * 1024 * 1024)]
+    #[case::suffix_gb("1GB", 1024 * 1024 * 1024)]
+    #[case::fractional_mb("1.5MB", 1_572_864)]
+    #[case::fractional_kb("2.5KB", 2560)]
+    #[case::scientific_kb("1e3KB", 1000 * 1024)]
+    #[case::leading_dot(".5KB", 512)]
+    #[case::truncate_toward_zero("1.9", 1)]
+    #[case::trimmed("  4MB  ", 4 * 1024 * 1024)]
+    fn test_parse_space_size_accepts_goosefs_suffixes(#[case] input: &str, #[case] expected: u64) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            GooseFsStoreProvider::parse_space_size("goosefs_chunk_size", input).unwrap(),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::empty("")]
+    #[case::whitespace("   ")]
+    #[case::missing_number("MB")]
+    #[case::unknown_suffix("4MiB")]
+    #[case::si_mismatch_not_mib("4XB")]
+    #[case::negative("-4MB")]
+    #[case::two_dots("1.2.3")]
+    fn test_parse_space_size_rejects_invalid(#[case] input: &str) {
+        let err = GooseFsStoreProvider::parse_space_size("goosefs_chunk_size", input).unwrap_err();
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("goosefs_chunk_size"),
+            "error should name the option, got: {msg}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains(input.trim()) || input.trim().is_empty(),
+            "error should include the input, got: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::u64_max_plus_one("18446744073709551616")]
+    #[case::u64_max_plus_one_bytes("18446744073709551616b")]
+    #[case::integer_mul_overflow("16384PB")]
+    #[case::fractional_mul_overflow("16384.0PB")]
+    #[case::scientific_overflow("1e20")]
+    #[case::scientific_u64_max_plus_one("1.8446744073709551616e19")]
+    fn test_parse_space_size_rejects_overflow(#[case] input: &str) {
+        let err = GooseFsStoreProvider::parse_space_size("goosefs_chunk_size", input).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got: {err:?}"
+        );
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("overflows u64"),
+            "overflowing size should be rejected, got: {msg}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains(input),
+            "error should include the input, got: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_space_size_accepts_u64_max_integer() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            GooseFsStoreProvider::parse_space_size("goosefs_chunk_size", "18446744073709551615")
+                .unwrap(),
+            u64::MAX
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            GooseFsStoreProvider::parse_space_size(
+                "goosefs_chunk_size",
+                "1.8446744073709551615e19"
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            u64::MAX
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_space_size_preserves_values_beyond_f64_precision() {
+        // 2^53+1 is not representable as f64. The previous `double` path
+        // silently converted `9007199254740993.0` to `9007199254740992`.
+        assert_eq!(
+            GooseFsStoreProvider::parse_space_size("goosefs_chunk_size", "9007199254740993.0")
+                .unwrap(),
+            9007199254740993
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            GooseFsStoreProvider::parse_space_size("goosefs_chunk_size", "9007199254740993.0b")
+                .unwrap(),
+            9007199254740993
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_space_size_four_mb_is_binary_not_si() {
+        let bytes = GooseFsStoreProvider::parse_space_size("goosefs_chunk_size", "4MB").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes, 4_194_304, "GooseFS MB is 1024^2, not 10^6");
+        assert_ne!(bytes, 4_000_000);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_space_size_from_storage_options() {
+        let opts = StorageOptions(HashMap::from([(
+            "goosefs_chunk_size".to_string(),
+            "4MB".to_string(),
+        )]));
+        let bytes = GooseFsStoreProvider::resolve_space_size(
+            &opts,
+            "goosefs_chunk_size",
+            "GOOSEFS_CHUNK_SIZE",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes, Some(4 * 1024 * 1024));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/huggingface.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/huggingface.rs
index 55c5f6d50b9..2a423aab7a9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/huggingface.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/huggingface.rs
@@ -4,17 +4,17 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use object_store::path::Path;
 use object_store::ObjectStore as OSObjectStore;
-use object_store_opendal::OpendalStore;
-use opendal::{services::Huggingface, Operator};
-use snafu::location;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use opendal::{Operator, services::Huggingface};
 use url::Url;
 
+use crate::object_store::dynamic_opendal::DynamicOpenDalStore;
+use crate::object_store::opendal_store::OpendalStore;
 use crate::object_store::parse_hf_repo_id;
 use crate::object_store::{
-    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE,
-    DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions,
 };
 use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
 
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ struct ParsedHfUrl {
 fn parse_hf_url(url: &Url) -> Result<ParsedHfUrl> {
     let mut repo_type = url
         .host_str()
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Huggingface URL must contain repo type", location!()))?
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Huggingface URL must contain repo type"))?
         .to_string();
     // OpenDAL expects `dataset` instead of `datasets`; keep the workaround here and adapt tests.
     if repo_type == "datasets" {
@@ -43,10 +43,10 @@ fn parse_hf_url(url: &Url) -> Result<ParsedHfUrl> {
     let mut segments = url.path().trim_start_matches('/').split('/');
     let owner = segments
         .next()
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Huggingface URL must contain owner", location!()))?;
-    let repo_name = segments.next().ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input("Huggingface URL must contain repository name", location!())
-    })?;
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Huggingface URL must contain owner"))?;
+    let repo_name = segments
+        .next()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Huggingface URL must contain repository name"))?;
 
     let relative_path = segments.collect::<Vec<_>>().join("/");
 
@@ -57,6 +57,131 @@ fn parse_hf_url(url: &Url) -> Result<ParsedHfUrl> {
     })
 }
 
+fn build_hf_base_options(
+    repo_type: &str,
+    repo_id: &str,
+    storage_options: &StorageOptions,
+) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+    let mut options = storage_options.0.clone();
+    options.insert("repo_type".to_string(), repo_type.to_string());
+    options.insert("repo_id".to_string(), repo_id.to_string());
+    options
+}
+
+fn normalize_download_mode(download_mode: String) -> Result<String> {
+    match download_mode.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+        "xet" => Ok("xet".to_string()),
+        "http" => Ok("http".to_string()),
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Invalid Huggingface download_mode: {download_mode}. Expected one of: xet, http"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn normalize_hf_config(options: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<HashMap<String, String>> {
+    let mut config_map = HashMap::new();
+
+    let repo_type = options
+        .get("repo_type")
+        .cloned()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Huggingface repo_type is required"))?;
+    let repo_id = options
+        .get("repo_id")
+        .cloned()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Huggingface repo_id is required"))?;
+
+    config_map.insert("repo_type".to_string(), repo_type);
+    config_map.insert("repo_id".to_string(), repo_id);
+
+    if let Some(revision) = options
+        .get("hf_revision")
+        .cloned()
+        .or_else(|| options.get("revision").cloned())
+    {
+        config_map.insert("revision".to_string(), revision);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(root) = options
+        .get("hf_root")
+        .cloned()
+        .or_else(|| options.get("root").cloned())
+        && !root.is_empty()
+    {
+        config_map.insert("root".to_string(), root);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(token) = options
+        .get("hf_token")
+        .cloned()
+        .or_else(|| options.get("token").cloned())
+        && !token.is_empty()
+    {
+        config_map.insert("token".to_string(), token);
+    }
+
+    let download_mode = options
+        .get("hf_download_mode")
+        .filter(|download_mode| !download_mode.is_empty())
+        .cloned()
+        .or_else(|| {
+            options
+                .get("download_mode")
+                .filter(|download_mode| !download_mode.is_empty())
+                .cloned()
+        })
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| "http".to_string());
+    config_map.insert(
+        "download_mode".to_string(),
+        normalize_download_mode(download_mode)?,
+    );
+
+    if let Some(enabled) = options
+        .get("hf_enable_resolve_cache")
+        .or_else(|| options.get("enable_resolve_cache"))
+    {
+        config_map.insert("enable_resolve_cache".to_string(), enabled.clone());
+    }
+
+    Ok(config_map)
+}
+
+fn build_hf_store(config_map: HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<OpendalStore> {
+    let repo_type = config_map
+        .get("repo_type")
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Huggingface repo_type is required"))?;
+    let repo_id = config_map
+        .get("repo_id")
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Huggingface repo_id is required"))?;
+
+    let mut builder = Huggingface::default().repo_type(repo_type).repo_id(repo_id);
+    if let Some(revision) = config_map.get("revision") {
+        builder = builder.revision(revision);
+    }
+    if let Some(root) = config_map.get("root") {
+        builder = builder.root(root);
+    }
+    if let Some(token) = config_map.get("token") {
+        builder = builder.token(token);
+    }
+    if let Some(download_mode) = config_map.get("download_mode") {
+        builder = builder.download_mode(download_mode);
+    }
+    if let Some(enabled) = config_map.get("enable_resolve_cache") {
+        // let enabled = enabled.parse::<bool>().map_err(|_| {
+        //     Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        //         "Invalid Huggingface enable_resolve_cache: {enabled:?}. Expected true or false"
+        //     ))
+        // })?;
+        // builder = builder.enable_resolve_cache(enabled);
+    }
+
+    let operator = Operator::new(builder).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create Huggingface operator: {:?}", e))
+    })?;
+
+    Ok(OpendalStore::new(operator))
+}
+
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl ObjectStoreProvider for HuggingfaceStoreProvider {
     async fn new_store(&self, base_path: Url, params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
@@ -68,45 +193,36 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for HuggingfaceStoreProvider {
         let storage_options = StorageOptions(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
         let download_retry_count = storage_options.download_retry_count();
 
-        // Build OpenDAL config with allowed keys only.
-        let mut config_map: HashMap<String, String> = HashMap::new();
-
-        config_map.insert("repo_type".to_string(), repo_type);
-        config_map.insert("repo_id".to_string(), repo_id);
-
-        if let Some(rev) = storage_options.get("hf_revision").cloned() {
-            config_map.insert("revision".to_string(), rev);
-        }
-
-        if let Some(root) = storage_options.get("hf_root").cloned() {
-            if !root.is_empty() {
-                config_map.insert("root".to_string(), root);
+        let mut base_options = build_hf_base_options(&repo_type, &repo_id, &storage_options);
+        if !base_options.contains_key("hf_token") && !base_options.contains_key("token") {
+            if let Ok(token) = std::env::var("HF_TOKEN") {
+                base_options.insert("hf_token".to_string(), token);
+            } else if let Ok(token) = std::env::var("HUGGINGFACE_TOKEN") {
+                base_options.insert("hf_token".to_string(), token);
             }
         }
 
-        if let Some(token) = storage_options
-            .get("hf_token")
-            .cloned()
-            .or_else(|| std::env::var("HF_TOKEN").ok())
-            .or_else(|| std::env::var("HUGGINGFACE_TOKEN").ok())
-        {
-            config_map.insert("token".to_string(), token);
-        }
-
-        let operator = Operator::from_iter::<Huggingface>(config_map)
-            .map_err(|e| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Failed to create Huggingface operator: {:?}", e),
-                    location!(),
+        let accessor = params.get_accessor();
+        let inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> =
+            if let Some(accessor) = accessor.filter(|a| a.has_provider()) {
+                Arc::new(
+                    DynamicOpenDalStore::new(
+                        format!("hf:{}", base_path),
+                        base_options,
+                        accessor,
+                        normalize_hf_config,
+                        build_hf_store,
+                    )
+                    .with_protected_keys(["repo_type", "repo_id"]),
                 )
-            })?
-            .finish();
-
-        let inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> = Arc::new(OpendalStore::new(operator));
+            } else {
+                Arc::new(build_hf_store(normalize_hf_config(&base_options)?)?)
+            };
 
         Ok(ObjectStore {
             scheme: "hf".to_string(),
             inner,
+            local_dir_operations: None,
             block_size,
             max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
             use_constant_size_upload_parts: params.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
@@ -116,16 +232,15 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for HuggingfaceStoreProvider {
             io_tracker: Default::default(),
             store_prefix: self
                 .calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?,
+            // Listed in full: no paginated lister covers OpenDAL yet.
+            paginated_lister: None,
         })
     }
 
     fn extract_path(&self, url: &Url) -> Result<Path> {
         let parsed = parse_hf_url(url)?;
-        Path::parse(&parsed.relative_path).map_err(|_| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Invalid path in Huggingface URL: {}", url.path()),
-                location!(),
-            )
+        Path::from_url_path(&parsed.relative_path).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Invalid path in Huggingface URL: {}", url.path()))
         })
     }
 
@@ -142,6 +257,12 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for HuggingfaceStoreProvider {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
+    use crate::object_store::dynamic_opendal::DynamicOpenDalStore;
+    use crate::object_store::test_utils::StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider;
 
     #[test]
     fn parse_basic_url() {
@@ -188,6 +309,130 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(config_map.get("revision").unwrap(), "stable");
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_options_cannot_override_url_repo_identity() {
+        let config = normalize_hf_config(&build_hf_base_options(
+            "dataset",
+            "acme/repo",
+            &crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+                ("repo_type".to_string(), "model".to_string()),
+                ("repo_id".to_string(), "other/repo".to_string()),
+                ("hf_revision".to_string(), "stable".to_string()),
+            ])),
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.get("repo_type").unwrap(), "dataset");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("repo_id").unwrap(), "acme/repo");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("revision").unwrap(), "stable");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_option_download_mode_takes_hf_prefix_precedence() {
+        let config = normalize_hf_config(&build_hf_base_options(
+            "dataset",
+            "acme/repo",
+            &crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+                ("download_mode".to_string(), "xet".to_string()),
+                ("hf_download_mode".to_string(), "http".to_string()),
+            ])),
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.get("download_mode").unwrap(), "http");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_option_download_mode_defaults_to_http() {
+        let config = normalize_hf_config(&build_hf_base_options(
+            "dataset",
+            "acme/repo",
+            &crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::new()),
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.get("download_mode").unwrap(), "http");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::default(None, None, None)]
+    #[case::prefixed_enabled(Some("true"), None, Some("true"))]
+    #[case::prefixed_disabled(Some("false"), None, Some("false"))]
+    #[case::unprefixed_enabled(None, Some("true"), Some("true"))]
+    #[case::unprefixed_disabled(None, Some("false"), Some("false"))]
+    #[case::prefixed_takes_precedence(Some("false"), Some("true"), Some("false"))]
+    fn storage_option_resolve_cache(
+        #[case] prefixed: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] unprefixed: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] expected: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let mut options = HashMap::new();
+        if let Some(value) = prefixed {
+            options.insert("hf_enable_resolve_cache".to_string(), value.to_string());
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = unprefixed {
+            options.insert("enable_resolve_cache".to_string(), value.to_string());
+        }
+        let config = normalize_hf_config(&build_hf_base_options(
+            "dataset",
+            "acme/repo",
+            &StorageOptions(options),
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            config.get("enable_resolve_cache").map(String::as_str),
+            expected
+        );
+        build_hf_store(config).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::prefixed("hf_enable_resolve_cache", "invalid")]
+    #[case::unprefixed("enable_resolve_cache", "invalid")]
+    #[case::empty("hf_enable_resolve_cache", "")]
+    #[case::uppercase("hf_enable_resolve_cache", "TRUE")]
+    #[case::numeric("hf_enable_resolve_cache", "1")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn new_store_rejects_invalid_resolve_cache(#[case] key: &str, #[case] value: &str) {
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([(key.to_string(), value.to_string())]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let err = HuggingfaceStoreProvider
+            .new_store(
+                Url::parse("hf://datasets/acme/repo/table.lance").unwrap(),
+                &params,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("enable_resolve_cache"));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Expected true or false"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_option_download_mode_rejects_invalid_value() {
+        let err = normalize_hf_config(&build_hf_base_options(
+            "dataset",
+            "acme/repo",
+            &crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::from([(
+                "hf_download_mode".to_string(),
+                "invalid".to_string(),
+            )])),
+        ))
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("download_mode"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn parse_hf_repo_id_with_type_and_owner_repo() {
         let url = Url::parse("hf://models/owner/repo/path/to/file").unwrap();
@@ -242,4 +487,36 @@ mod tests {
         let err = parse_hf_url(&url).unwrap_err();
         assert!(err.to_string().contains("repository name"));
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_opendal_hf_store_uses_provider_token() {
+        let parsed = parse_hf_url(&Url::parse("hf://datasets/acme/repo/path").unwrap()).unwrap();
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(Arc::new(
+            StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+                options: HashMap::from([
+                    ("hf_token".to_string(), "dynamic-token".to_string()),
+                    ("hf_enable_resolve_cache".to_string(), "true".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            },
+        )));
+
+        let store = DynamicOpenDalStore::new(
+            "hf",
+            build_hf_base_options(
+                &parsed.repo_type,
+                &parsed.repo_id,
+                &crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::new()),
+            ),
+            accessor,
+            normalize_hf_config,
+            build_hf_store,
+        );
+
+        let current_store = store
+            .current_store()
+            .await
+            .expect("dynamic OpenDAL HuggingFace store should build");
+
+        assert!(current_store.to_string().contains("Opendal"));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/local.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/local.rs
index 78c8c9632c4..4dd834c9151 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/local.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/local.rs
@@ -3,27 +3,131 @@
 
 use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
+#[cfg(any(windows, test))]
+use crate::object_store::LocalDirOperations;
 use crate::object_store::{
-    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, DEFAULT_LOCAL_BLOCK_SIZE,
-    DEFAULT_LOCAL_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+    DEFAULT_LOCAL_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_LOCAL_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions,
 };
-use lance_core::error::Result;
 use lance_core::Error;
+use lance_core::error::Result;
 use object_store::{local::LocalFileSystem, path::Path};
-use snafu::location;
+#[cfg(any(windows, test))]
+use std::io::ErrorKind;
 use url::Url;
 
 #[derive(Default, Debug)]
 pub struct FileStoreProvider;
 
+#[cfg(any(windows, test))]
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FileSystemDirOperations {
+    local_file_system: LocalFileSystem,
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(windows, test))]
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl LocalDirOperations for FileSystemDirOperations {
+    async fn remove_dir_all(&self, path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
+        let local_path = self.local_file_system.path_to_filesystem(path)?;
+        let object_store_path = path.to_string();
+        tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            std::fs::remove_dir_all(local_path).map_err(|error| match error.kind() {
+                ErrorKind::NotFound => Error::not_found(object_store_path),
+                _ => Error::from(error),
+            })
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|error| Error::io(format!("recursive directory removal task failed: {error}")))?
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(windows)]
+mod windows {
+    use std::path::PathBuf;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    pub(super) struct UncPath {
+        pub(super) root: PathBuf,
+        pub(super) relative_path: Path,
+        pub(super) store_prefix: String,
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn extract_unc_path(url: &Url) -> Result<Option<UncPath>> {
+        if url.scheme() != "file" {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let Some(host) = url.host_str().filter(|host| *host != "localhost") else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let encoded_path = url.path().strip_prefix('/').unwrap_or(url.path());
+        let (encoded_share, relative_path) =
+            encoded_path.split_once('/').unwrap_or((encoded_path, ""));
+        if encoded_share.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "UNC URL '{}' is missing a share name",
+                url
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let share = Path::from_url_path(encoded_share).map_err(|error| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Failed to parse share name from UNC URL '{}': {}",
+                url, error
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if share.parts_count() != 1 || share.as_ref().contains('\\') {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "UNC URL '{}' has an invalid share name",
+                url
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Some(UncPath {
+            root: PathBuf::from(format!(r"\\{}\{}", host, share)),
+            relative_path: Path::from_url_path(relative_path).map_err(|error| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Failed to parse path '{}' from UNC URL '{}': {}",
+                    relative_path, url, error
+                ))
+            })?,
+            store_prefix: format!("{}${}/{}", url.scheme(), host, encoded_share),
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl ObjectStoreProvider for FileStoreProvider {
     async fn new_store(&self, base_path: Url, params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
         let block_size = params.block_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_LOCAL_BLOCK_SIZE);
         let storage_options = StorageOptions(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
         let download_retry_count = storage_options.download_retry_count();
+
+        #[cfg(windows)]
+        let (inner, local_dir_operations) = match windows::extract_unc_path(&base_path)? {
+            Some(unc_path) => {
+                let inner = LocalFileSystem::new_with_prefix(unc_path.root)?;
+                let operations = FileSystemDirOperations {
+                    local_file_system: inner.clone(),
+                };
+                (
+                    inner,
+                    Some(Arc::new(operations) as Arc<dyn LocalDirOperations>),
+                )
+            }
+            None => (LocalFileSystem::new(), None),
+        };
+        #[cfg(not(windows))]
+        let inner = LocalFileSystem::new();
+        #[cfg(not(windows))]
+        let local_dir_operations = None;
+
         Ok(ObjectStore {
-            inner: Arc::new(LocalFileSystem::new()),
+            inner: Arc::new(inner),
+            local_dir_operations,
             scheme: base_path.scheme().to_owned(),
             block_size,
             max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
@@ -34,21 +138,25 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for FileStoreProvider {
             io_tracker: Default::default(),
             store_prefix: self
                 .calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?,
+            // Listed in full: reading a directory is one local walk whatever the page size,
+            // so there is no request for a page to be pushed into.
+            paginated_lister: None,
         })
     }
 
     fn extract_path(&self, url: &Url) -> Result<Path> {
-        if let Ok(file_path) = url.to_file_path() {
-            if let Ok(path) = Path::from_absolute_path(&file_path) {
-                return Ok(path);
-            }
+        #[cfg(windows)]
+        if let Some(unc_path) = windows::extract_unc_path(url)? {
+            return Ok(unc_path.relative_path);
+        }
+        if let Ok(file_path) = url.to_file_path()
+            && let Ok(path) = Path::from_absolute_path(&file_path)
+        {
+            return Ok(path);
         }
 
-        Path::parse(url.path()).map_err(|e| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Failed to parse path '{}': {}", url.path(), e),
-                location!(),
-            )
+        Path::from_url_path(url.path()).map_err(|e| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to parse path '{}': {}", url.path(), e))
         })
     }
 
@@ -57,16 +165,89 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for FileStoreProvider {
         url: &Url,
         _storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
     ) -> Result<String> {
+        #[cfg(windows)]
+        if let Some(unc_path) = windows::extract_unc_path(url)? {
+            return Ok(unc_path.store_prefix);
+        }
+
         Ok(url.scheme().to_string())
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use std::fs::{create_dir_all, write};
+    use std::path::Path as StdPath;
+
     use crate::object_store::uri_to_url;
+    #[cfg(unix)]
+    use std::os::unix::fs::symlink;
+    use tempfile::tempdir;
 
     use super::*;
 
+    fn rooted_local_store(root: &StdPath) -> ObjectStore {
+        let inner = LocalFileSystem::new_with_prefix(root).unwrap();
+        let local_dir_operations = Arc::new(FileSystemDirOperations {
+            local_file_system: inner.clone(),
+        });
+        ObjectStore {
+            inner: Arc::new(inner),
+            local_dir_operations: Some(local_dir_operations),
+            scheme: "file".to_owned(),
+            block_size: DEFAULT_LOCAL_BLOCK_SIZE,
+            max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+            use_constant_size_upload_parts: false,
+            list_is_lexically_ordered: false,
+            io_parallelism: DEFAULT_LOCAL_IO_PARALLELISM,
+            download_retry_count: 0,
+            io_tracker: Default::default(),
+            store_prefix: "file$rooted-test".to_owned(),
+            paginated_lister: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_rooted_remove_dir_all_removes_tree() {
+        let sandbox = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let root = sandbox.path().join("share");
+        let dataset = root.join("dataset");
+        create_dir_all(dataset.join("nested")).unwrap();
+        write(dataset.join("nested/data"), "delete").unwrap();
+
+        rooted_local_store(&root)
+            .remove_dir_all(Path::from("dataset"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!dataset.exists(), "recursive deletion must remove the tree");
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(unix)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_rooted_remove_dir_all_does_not_follow_directory_symlink() {
+        let sandbox = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let root = sandbox.path().join("share");
+        let dataset = root.join("dataset");
+        let outside = sandbox.path().join("outside");
+        create_dir_all(&dataset).unwrap();
+        create_dir_all(&outside).unwrap();
+        let sentinel = outside.join("sentinel");
+        write(&sentinel, "keep").unwrap();
+        symlink(&outside, dataset.join("link")).unwrap();
+
+        rooted_local_store(&root)
+            .remove_dir_all(Path::from("dataset"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            sentinel.exists(),
+            "recursive deletion must not follow links"
+        );
+        assert!(!dataset.exists(), "recursive deletion must remove the tree");
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_file_store_path() {
         let provider = FileStoreProvider;
@@ -124,6 +305,18 @@ mod tests {
                 "C:\\Users\\ADMINI~1\\AppData\\Local\\..\\",
                 "C:/Users/ADMINI~1/AppData",
             ),
+            (
+                "file-object-store:///C:/Users/ADMINI~1/AppData/Local",
+                "C:/Users/ADMINI~1/AppData/Local",
+            ),
+            (
+                "file:///C:/Users/RUNNER~1/AppData/Local/Temp/tmpm49j_w0f",
+                "C:/Users/RUNNER~1/AppData/Local/Temp/tmpm49j_w0f",
+            ),
+            (
+                "file://192.168.0.1/My%20Share/data/my-dataset.lance",
+                "data/my-dataset.lance",
+            ),
         ];
 
         for (uri, expected_path) in cases {
@@ -132,4 +325,26 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(path.as_ref(), expected_path);
         }
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(windows)]
+    fn test_unc_share_path() {
+        let url = Url::parse("file://server/My%20Share/data/my-dataset.lance").unwrap();
+        let unc_path = windows::extract_unc_path(&url).unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            unc_path.root,
+            std::path::PathBuf::from(r"\\server\My Share")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(unc_path.relative_path.as_ref(), "data/my-dataset.lance");
+        assert_eq!(unc_path.store_prefix, "file$server/My%20Share");
+
+        let object_store_url =
+            Url::parse("file-object-store://server/My%20Share/data/my-dataset.lance").unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            windows::extract_unc_path(&object_store_url)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/memory.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/memory.rs
index addc2fafc80..f9b4a22e2cc 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/memory.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/memory.rs
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
 use crate::object_store::{
-    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions,
-    DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_LOCAL_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_LOCAL_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions,
 };
 use lance_core::error::Result;
 use object_store::{memory::InMemory, path::Path};
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for MemoryStoreProvider {
         let download_retry_count = storage_options.download_retry_count();
         Ok(ObjectStore {
             inner: Arc::new(InMemory::new()),
+            local_dir_operations: None,
             scheme: String::from("memory"),
             block_size,
             max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
@@ -33,6 +34,9 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for MemoryStoreProvider {
             io_tracker: Default::default(),
             store_prefix: self
                 .calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, params.storage_options())?,
+            // Listed in full: the store is already in memory, so a page costs no less than
+            // the directory does.
+            paginated_lister: None,
         })
     }
 
@@ -42,6 +46,9 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for MemoryStoreProvider {
             output.push_str(domain);
         }
         output.push_str(url.path());
+        // The in-memory store uses the Path directly as a key with no HTTP layer,
+        // so there is no re-encoding step and thus no double-encoding to avoid.
+        // Path::from also tolerates the empty segments that local temp paths embed.
         Ok(Path::from(output))
     }
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/oss.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/oss.rs
index aace58921d2..0adf52db0a2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/oss.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/oss.rs
@@ -4,93 +4,129 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use object_store_opendal::OpendalStore;
-use opendal::{services::Oss, Operator};
-use snafu::location;
+use object_store::ObjectStore as OSObjectStore;
+use opendal::{Operator, services::Oss};
 use url::Url;
 
+use crate::object_store::dynamic_opendal::DynamicOpenDalStore;
+use crate::object_store::opendal_store::OpendalStore;
 use crate::object_store::{
-    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE,
-    DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions,
 };
 use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
 
 #[derive(Default, Debug)]
 pub struct OssStoreProvider;
 
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl ObjectStoreProvider for OssStoreProvider {
-    async fn new_store(&self, base_path: Url, params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
-        let block_size = params.block_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE);
-        let storage_options = StorageOptions(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
-
+impl OssStoreProvider {
+    fn base_oss_options(
+        base_path: &Url,
+        storage_options: &StorageOptions,
+    ) -> Result<HashMap<String, String>> {
         let bucket = base_path
             .host_str()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("OSS URL must contain bucket name", location!()))?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("OSS URL must contain bucket name"))?
             .to_string();
 
         let prefix = base_path.path().trim_start_matches('/').to_string();
 
-        // Start with environment variables as base configuration
+        // Snapshot env-backed OSS defaults at store construction time. Dynamic provider
+        // options can still override these values during per-request config merging.
         let mut config_map: HashMap<String, String> = std::env::vars()
-            .filter(|(k, _)| {
-                k.starts_with("OSS_") || k.starts_with("AWS_") || k.starts_with("ALIBABA_CLOUD_")
+            .filter(|(key, _)| {
+                key.starts_with("OSS_")
+                    || key.starts_with("AWS_")
+                    || key.starts_with("ALIBABA_CLOUD_")
             })
-            .map(|(k, v)| {
-                // Convert env var names to opendal config keys
-                let key = k
+            .map(|(key, value)| {
+                let normalized_key = key
                     .to_lowercase()
                     .replace("oss_", "")
                     .replace("aws_", "")
                     .replace("alibaba_cloud_", "");
-                (key, v)
+                (normalized_key, value)
             })
             .collect();
 
-        config_map.insert("bucket".to_string(), bucket);
+        config_map.extend(storage_options.0.clone());
 
-        if !prefix.is_empty() {
+        config_map.insert("bucket".to_string(), bucket);
+        if prefix.is_empty() {
+            config_map.remove("root");
+        } else {
             config_map.insert("root".to_string(), "/".to_string());
         }
 
-        // Override with storage options if provided
-        if let Some(endpoint) = storage_options.0.get("oss_endpoint") {
-            config_map.insert("endpoint".to_string(), endpoint.clone());
-        }
-
-        if let Some(access_key_id) = storage_options.0.get("oss_access_key_id") {
-            config_map.insert("access_key_id".to_string(), access_key_id.clone());
-        }
+        Ok(config_map)
+    }
 
-        if let Some(secret_access_key) = storage_options.0.get("oss_secret_access_key") {
-            config_map.insert("access_key_secret".to_string(), secret_access_key.clone());
-        }
+    /// Normalize OSS storage options, resolving aliases for well-known keys
+    /// while passing through all other options (e.g. `role_arn`,
+    /// `sts_endpoint`, `allow_anonymous`, etc.) so that OpenDAL can use them.
+    fn normalize_oss_config(options: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<HashMap<String, String>> {
+        let mut config_map = options.clone();
 
-        if let Some(region) = storage_options.0.get("oss_region") {
-            config_map.insert("region".to_string(), region.clone());
-        }
+        let alias_groups: &[(&str, &[&str])] = &[
+            ("endpoint", &["oss_endpoint"]),
+            ("access_key_id", &["oss_access_key_id"]),
+            ("access_key_secret", &["oss_secret_access_key"]),
+            ("region", &["oss_region"]),
+            ("security_token", &["oss_security_token"]),
+        ];
 
-        if let Some(security_token) = storage_options.0.get("oss_security_token") {
-            config_map.insert("security_token".to_string(), security_token.clone());
+        for (canonical, aliases) in alias_groups {
+            for alias in *aliases {
+                if let Some(value) = config_map.remove(*alias) {
+                    config_map.insert(canonical.to_string(), value);
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
         }
 
         if !config_map.contains_key("endpoint") {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "OSS endpoint is required. Please provide 'oss_endpoint' in storage options or set OSS_ENDPOINT environment variable",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
+        Ok(config_map)
+    }
+
+    fn build_oss_store(config_map: HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<OpendalStore> {
         let operator = Operator::from_iter::<Oss>(config_map)
-            .map_err(|e| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Failed to create OSS operator: {:?}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?
-            .finish();
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create OSS operator: {:?}", e)))?;
 
-        let opendal_store = Arc::new(OpendalStore::new(operator));
+        Ok(OpendalStore::new(operator))
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl ObjectStoreProvider for OssStoreProvider {
+    async fn new_store(&self, base_path: Url, params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
+        let block_size = params.block_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let storage_options = StorageOptions(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
+
+        let base_options = Self::base_oss_options(&base_path, &storage_options)?;
+        let accessor = params.get_accessor();
+
+        let inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> =
+            if let Some(accessor) = accessor.filter(|a| a.has_provider()) {
+                Arc::new(
+                    DynamicOpenDalStore::new(
+                        format!("oss:{}", base_path),
+                        base_options,
+                        accessor,
+                        Self::normalize_oss_config,
+                        Self::build_oss_store,
+                    )
+                    .with_protected_keys(["bucket", "root"]),
+                )
+            } else {
+                Arc::new(Self::build_oss_store(Self::normalize_oss_config(
+                    &base_options,
+                )?)?)
+            };
 
         let mut url = base_path;
         if !url.path().ends_with('/') {
@@ -99,7 +135,8 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for OssStoreProvider {
 
         Ok(ObjectStore {
             scheme: "oss".to_string(),
-            inner: opendal_store,
+            inner,
+            local_dir_operations: None,
             block_size,
             max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
             use_constant_size_upload_parts: params.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
@@ -108,14 +145,21 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for OssStoreProvider {
             download_retry_count: storage_options.download_retry_count(),
             io_tracker: Default::default(),
             store_prefix: self.calculate_object_store_prefix(&url, params.storage_options())?,
+            // Listed in full: no paginated lister covers OpenDAL yet.
+            paginated_lister: None,
         })
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
     use super::OssStoreProvider;
-    use crate::object_store::ObjectStoreProvider;
+    use crate::object_store::dynamic_opendal::DynamicOpenDalStore;
+    use crate::object_store::test_utils::StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider;
+    use crate::object_store::{ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptionsAccessor};
     use url::Url;
 
     #[test]
@@ -127,4 +171,118 @@ mod tests {
         let expected_path = object_store::path::Path::from("path/to/file");
         assert_eq!(path, expected_path);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_oss_alias_options_override_canonical_env_options() {
+        let config = OssStoreProvider::normalize_oss_config(&HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "endpoint".to_string(),
+                "https://env.example.com".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "oss_endpoint".to_string(),
+                "https://user.example.com".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("access_key_id".to_string(), "env-akid".to_string()),
+            ("oss_access_key_id".to_string(), "user-akid".to_string()),
+            ("access_key_secret".to_string(), "env-secret".to_string()),
+            (
+                "oss_secret_access_key".to_string(),
+                "user-secret".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("region".to_string(), "env-region".to_string()),
+            ("oss_region".to_string(), "user-region".to_string()),
+            ("security_token".to_string(), "env-token".to_string()),
+            ("oss_security_token".to_string(), "user-token".to_string()),
+            ("bucket".to_string(), "bucket".to_string()),
+        ]))
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.get("endpoint").unwrap(), "https://user.example.com");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("access_key_id").unwrap(), "user-akid");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("access_key_secret").unwrap(), "user-secret");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("region").unwrap(), "user-region");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("security_token").unwrap(), "user-token");
+        assert!(!config.contains_key("oss_endpoint"));
+        assert!(!config.contains_key("oss_security_token"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_oss_url_bucket_and_root_are_authoritative() {
+        let storage_options = crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "oss_endpoint".to_string(),
+                "https://oss-cn-hangzhou.aliyuncs.com".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("bucket".to_string(), "storage-options-bucket".to_string()),
+            ("root".to_string(), "/storage-options-root".to_string()),
+        ]));
+        let base_options = OssStoreProvider::base_oss_options(
+            &Url::parse("oss://url-bucket/path").unwrap(),
+            &storage_options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let config = OssStoreProvider::normalize_oss_config(&base_options).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.get("bucket").unwrap(), "url-bucket");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("root").unwrap(), "/");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_oss_empty_url_path_removes_storage_option_root() {
+        let storage_options = crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "oss_endpoint".to_string(),
+                "https://oss-cn-hangzhou.aliyuncs.com".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("root".to_string(), "/storage-options-root".to_string()),
+        ]));
+        let base_options = OssStoreProvider::base_oss_options(
+            &Url::parse("oss://url-bucket").unwrap(),
+            &storage_options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let config = OssStoreProvider::normalize_oss_config(&base_options).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.get("bucket").unwrap(), "url-bucket");
+        assert!(!config.contains_key("root"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_opendal_oss_store_uses_provider_credentials() {
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(Arc::new(
+            StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+                options: HashMap::from([
+                    (
+                        "oss_endpoint".to_string(),
+                        "https://oss-cn-hangzhou.aliyuncs.com".to_string(),
+                    ),
+                    ("oss_access_key_id".to_string(), "akid".to_string()),
+                    ("oss_secret_access_key".to_string(), "secret".to_string()),
+                    ("oss_security_token".to_string(), "token".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            },
+        )));
+
+        let base_options = OssStoreProvider::base_oss_options(
+            &Url::parse("oss://bucket/path").unwrap(),
+            &crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::new()),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let store = DynamicOpenDalStore::new(
+            "oss",
+            base_options,
+            accessor,
+            OssStoreProvider::normalize_oss_config,
+            OssStoreProvider::build_oss_store,
+        );
+
+        let current_store = store
+            .current_store()
+            .await
+            .expect("dynamic OpenDAL OSS store should build");
+
+        assert!(current_store.to_string().contains("Opendal"));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/shared_memory.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/shared_memory.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5e7ef4e8dbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/shared_memory.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{
+    collections::HashMap,
+    sync::{Arc, LazyLock, Mutex},
+};
+
+use crate::object_store::{
+    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, providers::memory::MemoryStoreProvider,
+};
+use lance_core::error::Result;
+use object_store::{memory::InMemory, path::Path};
+use url::Url;
+
+/// Process-global pool of in-memory backends keyed by URL authority.
+///
+/// Different authorities map to different backends (act as "buckets"); same
+/// authority across any caller in the process resolves to the same `Arc<InMemory>`.
+/// The pool grows for the lifetime of the process — entries are never evicted.
+static SHARED_BACKENDS: LazyLock<Mutex<HashMap<String, Arc<InMemory>>>> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| Mutex::new(HashMap::new()));
+
+fn shared_backend_for(url: &Url) -> Arc<InMemory> {
+    SHARED_BACKENDS
+        .lock()
+        .expect("SHARED_BACKENDS mutex poisoned")
+        .entry(url.authority().to_string())
+        .or_insert_with(|| Arc::new(InMemory::new()))
+        .clone()
+}
+
+/// Like [`MemoryStoreProvider`], but every caller resolving a `shared-memory://<authority>/...`
+/// URL with the same `<authority>` sees the same backing bytes — across `ObjectStoreRegistry`
+/// instances, threads, and unrelated components in the same process.
+///
+/// Intended for tests and harnesses that need multiple actors to coordinate through a
+/// common in-memory object store (e.g. a writer and an independent reader, multi-pod
+/// fence simulations). Choose distinct authorities for isolation
+/// (`shared-memory://test-a` vs `shared-memory://test-b`).
+///
+/// Unlike `memory://` — which mints a fresh `InMemory` per `new_store` call — this
+/// provider is opt-in precisely so existing tests relying on per-call isolation are
+/// unaffected.
+#[derive(Default, Debug)]
+pub struct SharedMemoryStoreProvider {
+    inner: MemoryStoreProvider,
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl ObjectStoreProvider for SharedMemoryStoreProvider {
+    async fn new_store(&self, base_path: Url, params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
+        let mut store = self.inner.new_store(base_path.clone(), params).await?;
+        store.inner = shared_backend_for(&base_path);
+        store.scheme = String::from("shared-memory");
+        store.store_prefix = self.calculate_object_store_prefix(&base_path, None)?;
+        Ok(store)
+    }
+
+    fn extract_path(&self, url: &Url) -> Result<Path> {
+        // The authority is the bucket; the URL path is the object path within it.
+        Ok(Path::from(url.path().trim_start_matches('/')))
+    }
+
+    fn calculate_object_store_prefix(
+        &self,
+        url: &Url,
+        _storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+    ) -> Result<String> {
+        Ok(format!("shared-memory${}", url.authority()))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry;
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use object_store::{ObjectStoreExt as _, PutPayload};
+
+    async fn store_for(uri: &str) -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Path) {
+        let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, uri, &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        (store, path)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn same_authority_shares_bytes_across_registries() {
+        let (writer, _) = store_for("shared-memory://bucket-a/").await;
+        writer
+            .inner
+            .put(&Path::from("file"), PutPayload::from_static(b"hello"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Build a *separate* registry — no shared state at the registry layer.
+        let (reader, _) = store_for("shared-memory://bucket-a/").await;
+        let bytes = reader.inner.get(&Path::from("file")).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes.bytes().await.unwrap(), Bytes::from_static(b"hello"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn different_authorities_are_isolated() {
+        let (a, _) = store_for("shared-memory://iso-a/").await;
+        let (b, _) = store_for("shared-memory://iso-b/").await;
+        a.inner
+            .put(&Path::from("k"), PutPayload::from_static(b"in-a"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(b.inner.get(&Path::from("k")).await.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn extract_path_strips_authority() {
+        let provider = SharedMemoryStoreProvider::default();
+        let url = Url::parse("shared-memory://bucket/foo/bar").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap(), Path::from("foo/bar"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn from_uri_and_params_resolves_path_correctly() {
+        let (store, path) = store_for("shared-memory://path-test/sub/dir/obj").await;
+        assert_eq!(path, Path::from("sub/dir/obj"));
+        store
+            .inner
+            .put(&path, PutPayload::from_static(b"payload"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let (peer, peer_path) = store_for("shared-memory://path-test/sub/dir/obj").await;
+        let bytes = peer.inner.get(&peer_path).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes.bytes().await.unwrap(), Bytes::from_static(b"payload"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn calculate_prefix_is_per_authority() {
+        let provider = SharedMemoryStoreProvider::default();
+        let a = provider
+            .calculate_object_store_prefix(&Url::parse("shared-memory://x/p").unwrap(), None)
+            .unwrap();
+        let b = provider
+            .calculate_object_store_prefix(&Url::parse("shared-memory://y/p").unwrap(), None)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(a, b);
+        assert_eq!(a, "shared-memory$x");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/tencent.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/tencent.rs
index f30bf052d4e..9ad0a91765d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/tencent.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/tencent.rs
@@ -4,14 +4,13 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use object_store_opendal::OpendalStore;
-use opendal::{services::Cos, Operator};
-use snafu::location;
+use opendal::{Operator, services::Cos};
 use url::Url;
 
+use crate::object_store::opendal_store::OpendalStore;
 use crate::object_store::{
-    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions, DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE,
-    DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions,
 };
 use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
 
@@ -26,9 +25,7 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for TencentStoreProvider {
 
         let bucket = base_path
             .host_str()
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input("Tencent Cos URL must contain bucket name", location!())
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Tencent Cos URL must contain bucket name"))?
             .to_string();
 
         let prefix = base_path.path().trim_start_matches('/').to_string();
@@ -79,18 +76,11 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for TencentStoreProvider {
         if !config_map.contains_key("endpoint") {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "COS endpoint is required. Please provide 'cos_endpoint' in storage options or set COS_ENDPOINT environment variable",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
         let operator = Operator::from_iter::<Cos>(config_map)
-            .map_err(|e| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Failed to create COS operator: {:?}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?
-            .finish();
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create COS operator: {:?}", e)))?;
 
         let opendal_store = Arc::new(OpendalStore::new(operator));
 
@@ -102,6 +92,7 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for TencentStoreProvider {
         Ok(ObjectStore {
             scheme: "cos".to_string(),
             inner: opendal_store,
+            local_dir_operations: None,
             block_size,
             max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
             use_constant_size_upload_parts: params.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
@@ -110,6 +101,8 @@ impl ObjectStoreProvider for TencentStoreProvider {
             download_retry_count: storage_options.download_retry_count(),
             io_tracker: Default::default(),
             store_prefix: self.calculate_object_store_prefix(&url, params.storage_options())?,
+            // Listed in full: no paginated lister covers OpenDAL yet.
+            paginated_lister: None,
         })
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/tos.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/tos.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9f558e92550
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/providers/tos.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,303 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use object_store::ObjectStore as OSObjectStore;
+use opendal::{Operator, services::Tos};
+use url::Url;
+
+use crate::object_store::dynamic_opendal::DynamicOpenDalStore;
+use crate::object_store::opendal_store::OpendalStore;
+use crate::object_store::{
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptions,
+};
+use lance_core::error::{Error, Result};
+
+#[derive(Default, Debug)]
+pub struct TosStoreProvider;
+
+impl TosStoreProvider {
+    fn tos_env_options_from_iter<I, K, V>(vars: I) -> HashMap<String, String>
+    where
+        I: IntoIterator<Item = (K, V)>,
+        K: Into<String>,
+        V: Into<String>,
+    {
+        let vars = vars
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(key, value)| (key.into(), value.into()))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut config_map = HashMap::new();
+
+        for prefix in ["VOLCENGINE_", "TOS_"] {
+            for (key, value) in &vars {
+                if let Some(stripped_key) = key.strip_prefix(prefix) {
+                    config_map.insert(stripped_key.to_ascii_lowercase(), value.clone());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        config_map
+    }
+
+    fn base_tos_options(
+        base_path: &Url,
+        storage_options: &StorageOptions,
+    ) -> Result<HashMap<String, String>> {
+        let bucket = base_path
+            .host_str()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("TOS URL must contain bucket name"))?
+            .to_string();
+
+        let prefix = base_path.path().trim_start_matches('/').to_string();
+
+        let mut config_map = Self::tos_env_options_from_iter(std::env::vars());
+
+        config_map.extend(storage_options.0.clone());
+
+        config_map.insert("bucket".to_string(), bucket);
+        if prefix.is_empty() {
+            config_map.remove("root");
+        } else {
+            config_map.insert("root".to_string(), "/".to_string());
+        }
+
+        Ok(config_map)
+    }
+
+    /// Normalize TOS storage options, resolving aliases for well-known keys
+    /// while passing through all other options so that OpenDAL can use them.
+    fn normalize_tos_config(options: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<HashMap<String, String>> {
+        let mut config_map = options.clone();
+
+        let alias_groups: &[(&str, &[&str])] = &[
+            ("endpoint", &["tos_endpoint"]),
+            ("region", &["tos_region"]),
+            ("access_key_id", &["tos_access_key_id"]),
+            ("secret_access_key", &["tos_secret_access_key"]),
+            ("security_token", &["tos_security_token"]),
+        ];
+
+        for (canonical, aliases) in alias_groups {
+            for alias in *aliases {
+                if let Some(value) = config_map.remove(*alias) {
+                    config_map.insert(canonical.to_string(), value);
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if !config_map.contains_key("endpoint") {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "TOS endpoint is required. Please provide 'tos_endpoint' in storage options or set TOS_ENDPOINT environment variable",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        Ok(config_map)
+    }
+
+    fn build_tos_store(config_map: HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<OpendalStore> {
+        let operator = Operator::from_iter::<Tos>(config_map)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create TOS operator: {:?}", e)))?;
+
+        Ok(OpendalStore::new(operator))
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl ObjectStoreProvider for TosStoreProvider {
+    async fn new_store(&self, base_path: Url, params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
+        let block_size = params.block_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_CLOUD_BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let storage_options = StorageOptions(params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default());
+
+        let base_options = Self::base_tos_options(&base_path, &storage_options)?;
+        let accessor = params.get_accessor();
+
+        let inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> =
+            if let Some(accessor) = accessor.filter(|a| a.has_provider()) {
+                Arc::new(
+                    DynamicOpenDalStore::new(
+                        format!("tos:{}", base_path),
+                        base_options,
+                        accessor,
+                        Self::normalize_tos_config,
+                        Self::build_tos_store,
+                    )
+                    .with_protected_keys(["bucket", "root"]),
+                )
+            } else {
+                Arc::new(Self::build_tos_store(Self::normalize_tos_config(
+                    &base_options,
+                )?)?)
+            };
+
+        let mut url = base_path;
+        if !url.path().ends_with('/') {
+            url.set_path(&format!("{}/", url.path()));
+        }
+
+        Ok(ObjectStore {
+            scheme: "tos".to_string(),
+            inner,
+            local_dir_operations: None,
+            block_size,
+            max_iop_size: *DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE,
+            use_constant_size_upload_parts: params.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
+            list_is_lexically_ordered: params.list_is_lexically_ordered.unwrap_or(true),
+            io_parallelism: DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM,
+            download_retry_count: storage_options.download_retry_count(),
+            io_tracker: Default::default(),
+            store_prefix: self.calculate_object_store_prefix(&url, params.storage_options())?,
+            // Listed in full: no paginated lister covers OpenDAL yet.
+            paginated_lister: None,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use super::TosStoreProvider;
+    use crate::object_store::dynamic_opendal::DynamicOpenDalStore;
+    use crate::object_store::test_utils::StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider;
+    use crate::object_store::{ObjectStoreProvider, StorageOptionsAccessor};
+    use url::Url;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tos_store_path() {
+        let provider = TosStoreProvider;
+
+        let url = Url::parse("tos://bucket/path/to/file").unwrap();
+        let path = provider.extract_path(&url).unwrap();
+        let expected_path = object_store::path::Path::from("path/to/file");
+        assert_eq!(path, expected_path);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tos_env_options_normalize_supported_prefixes() {
+        let config = TosStoreProvider::tos_env_options_from_iter([
+            ("VOLCENGINE_ENDPOINT", "https://tos-cn-beijing.volces.com"),
+            ("TOS_ACCESS_KEY_ID", "tos-akid"),
+            ("TOS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY", "tos-secret"),
+        ]);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            config.get("endpoint").unwrap(),
+            "https://tos-cn-beijing.volces.com"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(config.get("access_key_id").unwrap(), "tos-akid");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("secret_access_key").unwrap(), "tos-secret");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tos_alias_options_override_canonical_env_options() {
+        let config = TosStoreProvider::normalize_tos_config(&HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "endpoint".to_string(),
+                "https://env.example.com".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "tos_endpoint".to_string(),
+                "https://user.example.com".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("region".to_string(), "env-region".to_string()),
+            ("tos_region".to_string(), "user-region".to_string()),
+            ("access_key_id".to_string(), "env-akid".to_string()),
+            ("tos_access_key_id".to_string(), "user-akid".to_string()),
+            ("secret_access_key".to_string(), "env-secret".to_string()),
+            (
+                "tos_secret_access_key".to_string(),
+                "user-secret".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("security_token".to_string(), "env-token".to_string()),
+            ("tos_security_token".to_string(), "user-token".to_string()),
+            ("bucket".to_string(), "bucket".to_string()),
+        ]))
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.get("endpoint").unwrap(), "https://user.example.com");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("region").unwrap(), "user-region");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("access_key_id").unwrap(), "user-akid");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("secret_access_key").unwrap(), "user-secret");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("security_token").unwrap(), "user-token");
+        assert!(!config.contains_key("tos_endpoint"));
+        assert!(!config.contains_key("tos_secret_access_key"));
+        assert!(!config.contains_key("tos_security_token"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tos_url_bucket_and_root_are_authoritative() {
+        let storage_options = crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "tos_endpoint".to_string(),
+                "https://tos-cn-beijing.volces.com".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("bucket".to_string(), "storage-options-bucket".to_string()),
+            ("root".to_string(), "/storage-options-root".to_string()),
+        ]));
+        let base_options = TosStoreProvider::base_tos_options(
+            &Url::parse("tos://url-bucket/path").unwrap(),
+            &storage_options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let config = TosStoreProvider::normalize_tos_config(&base_options).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.get("bucket").unwrap(), "url-bucket");
+        assert_eq!(config.get("root").unwrap(), "/");
+
+        let base_options = TosStoreProvider::base_tos_options(
+            &Url::parse("tos://url-bucket").unwrap(),
+            &storage_options,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let config = TosStoreProvider::normalize_tos_config(&base_options).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.get("bucket").unwrap(), "url-bucket");
+        assert!(!config.contains_key("root"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_opendal_tos_store_uses_provider_credentials() {
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(Arc::new(
+            StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+                options: HashMap::from([
+                    (
+                        "tos_endpoint".to_string(),
+                        "https://tos-cn-beijing.volces.com".to_string(),
+                    ),
+                    ("tos_region".to_string(), "cn-beijing".to_string()),
+                    ("tos_access_key_id".to_string(), "akid".to_string()),
+                    ("tos_secret_access_key".to_string(), "secret".to_string()),
+                    ("tos_security_token".to_string(), "token".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            },
+        )));
+
+        let base_options = TosStoreProvider::base_tos_options(
+            &Url::parse("tos://url-bucket/path").unwrap(),
+            &crate::object_store::StorageOptions(HashMap::new()),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let store = DynamicOpenDalStore::new(
+            "tos",
+            base_options,
+            accessor,
+            TosStoreProvider::normalize_tos_config,
+            TosStoreProvider::build_tos_store,
+        )
+        .with_protected_keys(["bucket", "root"]);
+
+        let current_store = store
+            .current_store()
+            .await
+            .expect("dynamic OpenDAL TOS store should build");
+
+        assert!(current_store.to_string().contains("Opendal"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/read_dir.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/read_dir.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9be5a805d62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/read_dir.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,643 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Paginated listing of a single directory level.
+//!
+//! [`ObjectStore::read_dir_page`] returns one page of the immediate children of a prefix, plus
+//! a token that resumes after it. Where the backend implements `object_store`'s paginated list
+//! API — S3, GCS and Azure do — the page size and the resume position are pushed into the list
+//! request, so a caller that wants the first few children pays for the first few children
+//! rather than for the whole prefix. Everything else lists the level in full and pages
+//! locally, which is correct but costs what the whole directory costs.
+//!
+//! The token is opaque, and a caller only ever hands it back: it is the backend's own
+//! continuation token where there is one, and the last key of the page where there is not.
+//! That is what lets a store without key-ordered listings, such as S3 Express, be paged at
+//! all — nothing outside this module compares one token to another.
+
+use object_store::list::{PaginatedListOptions, PaginatedListResult, PaginatedListStore};
+use object_store::{ListResult, ObjectMeta, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, path::Path};
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+use super::ObjectStore;
+
+#[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+use crate::object_store::metrics::{InFlightGuard, record_outcome};
+#[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+/// The path delimiter that separates directory levels.
+const DELIMITER: &str = "/";
+
+/// Operation label for the metrics and IO statistics a paginated listing records.
+const LIST_OP: &str = "list_paginated";
+
+/// Options for [`ObjectStore::read_dir_page`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct ReadDirOptions {
+    /// Resume after the page a previous call returned, using the token it handed back.
+    ///
+    /// A token means something only to the store that minted it, and only for the directory
+    /// it was minted over. Handing one to a different store resumes from the wrong place
+    /// rather than failing.
+    pub page_token: Option<String>,
+    /// The page size to ask the backend for. Must be at least one. `None` lets the backend
+    /// return as much as it will.
+    pub limit: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl ObjectStore {
+    /// One page of the immediate children of `dir`, one directory level deep.
+    ///
+    /// On backends with a paginated list API — S3, GCS and Azure — the resume position and the
+    /// page size are pushed into the list request, so the page costs what the page holds.
+    /// Elsewhere the directory is listed in full and paged locally, which is correct but no
+    /// cheaper than [`Self::read_dir`].
+    ///
+    /// Child directories come back as [`ListResult::common_prefixes`] and child objects as
+    /// [`ListResult::objects`], the same split [`Self::list_with_delimiter`] returns.
+    ///
+    /// One page is one request, so a page can hold fewer children than `limit` asked for and
+    /// still be followed by more: with a delimiter a backend spends its page budget on keys it
+    /// collapses away, and it has a cap of its own besides. Walk until
+    /// [`PaginatedListResult::page_token`] is `None` rather than until a page comes back short.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ReadDirOptions};
+    /// # async fn example(store: &ObjectStore) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<String>> {
+    /// let mut tables = Vec::new();
+    /// let mut page_token = None;
+    /// loop {
+    ///     let page = store
+    ///         .read_dir_page("my_db", ReadDirOptions { page_token, limit: Some(10) })
+    ///         .await?;
+    ///     // A table is a directory, so a loose object that happens to be named like one is not
+    ///     // a table.
+    ///     tables.extend(page.result.common_prefixes.iter().filter_map(|table| {
+    ///         Some(table.filename()?.strip_suffix(".lance")?.to_string())
+    ///     }));
+    ///     page_token = page.page_token;
+    ///     if page_token.is_none() || tables.len() >= 10 {
+    ///         break;
+    ///     }
+    /// }
+    /// # Ok(tables)
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn read_dir_page(
+        &self,
+        dir: impl Into<Path>,
+        options: ReadDirOptions,
+    ) -> Result<PaginatedListResult> {
+        let dir = dir.into();
+        // A page of nothing cannot advance a listing, and the two paths below would disagree
+        // about what it means: the pushdown path would report an empty directory while the
+        // full listing ignored the limit and returned everything.
+        if options.limit == Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "read_dir_page limit must be at least 1, got 0",
+            ));
+        }
+        match &self.paginated_lister {
+            Some(lister) => self.pushdown_page(lister.as_ref(), &dir, options).await,
+            // Goes through `inner`, so the wrappers around it instrument the request. The
+            // pushdown path talks to the backend directly and instruments itself.
+            None => full_listing_page(self.inner.as_ref(), &dir, options).await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// One page from the backend's own paginated list API.
+    ///
+    /// The pushdown path holds the backend directly, so its request never passes through the
+    /// wrappers around [`Self::inner`] that would otherwise record it, and it records itself.
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all, fields(dir = %dir))]
+    async fn pushdown_page(
+        &self,
+        lister: &dyn PaginatedListStore,
+        dir: &Path,
+        options: ReadDirOptions,
+    ) -> Result<PaginatedListResult> {
+        let prefix = list_prefix(dir);
+        self.io_tracker.record_read(LIST_OP, dir.clone(), 0, None);
+        #[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+        let _in_flight = InFlightGuard::new(&self.store_prefix, LIST_OP);
+        #[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+        let start = Instant::now();
+
+        let page = lister
+            .list_paginated(
+                prefix.as_deref(),
+                PaginatedListOptions {
+                    delimiter: Some(DELIMITER.into()),
+                    max_keys: options.limit,
+                    page_token: options.page_token,
+                    // `offset` is left unset: a continuation token is a position of its own,
+                    // and a caller-supplied key means something different on every store —
+                    // S3 excludes it, Azure includes it.
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            )
+            .await;
+
+        #[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+        record_outcome(&self.store_prefix, LIST_OP, start, 0, page.is_err());
+        let mut page = page?;
+
+        retain_children(&mut page.result, prefix.as_deref());
+        Ok(page)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The prefix to list under, carrying the trailing delimiter that the paginated API expects.
+/// `None` for the root of the store, which has no prefix at all.
+fn list_prefix(dir: &Path) -> Option<String> {
+    let dir = dir.as_ref();
+    (!dir.is_empty()).then(|| format!("{dir}{DELIMITER}"))
+}
+
+/// One page of a directory on a store with no paginated list API: list the level in full and
+/// page it locally.
+///
+/// The page has to be the smallest `limit` children past the token rather than any `limit` of
+/// them, since the next call lists the same directory again and keeps only what sorts after
+/// the key this page hands back. That means putting the listing in key order, which
+/// `list_with_delimiter` does not promise — a sort over children already in memory, costing no
+/// extra request.
+async fn full_listing_page(
+    store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+    dir: &Path,
+    options: ReadDirOptions,
+) -> Result<PaginatedListResult> {
+    let listed = store.list_with_delimiter(Some(dir)).await?;
+    let mut children = keyed_children(listed, list_prefix(dir).as_deref());
+    if let Some(resume) = &options.page_token {
+        children.retain(|child| child.key > *resume);
+    }
+    let total = children.len();
+    children.truncate(options.limit.unwrap_or(total).min(total));
+    // The last key this page took, so a page that took nothing ends the listing rather than
+    // resuming from a position no page ever reached.
+    let page_token = match children.last() {
+        Some(last) if children.len() < total => Some(last.key.clone()),
+        _ => None,
+    };
+
+    let mut result = ListResult {
+        common_prefixes: Vec::new(),
+        objects: Vec::new(),
+    };
+    for child in children {
+        match child.child {
+            Child::Directory(location) => result.common_prefixes.push(location),
+            Child::File(meta) => result.objects.push(meta),
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(PaginatedListResult { result, page_token })
+}
+
+/// Drop everything in `listed` that is not a child of the level being listed.
+///
+/// This covers the marker object some stores keep for a directory: it lists as an object whose
+/// location is the directory's own prefix.
+fn retain_children(listed: &mut ListResult, prefix: Option<&str>) {
+    listed
+        .common_prefixes
+        .retain(|location| relative_key(prefix, location).is_some());
+    listed
+        .objects
+        .retain(|object| relative_key(prefix, &object.location).is_some());
+}
+
+/// A child of the directory being listed, with the key the backend listed it under.
+struct KeyedChild {
+    /// The key relative to the directory, which is what a full-listing token names. A child
+    /// directory keeps its trailing delimiter, since that is the prefix its keys share and so
+    /// where it sits in the listing; a child file is its name.
+    key: String,
+    child: Child,
+}
+
+enum Child {
+    Directory(Path),
+    File(ObjectMeta),
+}
+
+/// The children of `prefix` in `listed`, in key order, each with the key it was listed under.
+///
+/// Stores report common prefixes and objects as two separate lists, so the two are put back
+/// into one order here — the order a full-listing token pages through. Anything that is not a
+/// child of this level is dropped, as in [`retain_children`].
+fn keyed_children(listed: ListResult, prefix: Option<&str>) -> Vec<KeyedChild> {
+    let ListResult {
+        common_prefixes,
+        objects,
+    } = listed;
+    let directories = common_prefixes.into_iter().filter_map(|location| {
+        let key = format!("{}{DELIMITER}", relative_key(prefix, &location)?);
+        Some(KeyedChild {
+            key,
+            child: Child::Directory(location),
+        })
+    });
+    let files = objects.into_iter().filter_map(|meta| {
+        let key = relative_key(prefix, &meta.location)?.to_string();
+        Some(KeyedChild {
+            key,
+            child: Child::File(meta),
+        })
+    });
+    let mut children: Vec<KeyedChild> = directories.chain(files).collect();
+    children.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| left.key.cmp(&right.key));
+    children
+}
+
+/// Where a listed location sits inside the directory being listed, which is the space
+/// full-listing tokens live in, or `None` if it is not a child of that directory at all.
+fn relative_key<'a>(prefix: Option<&str>, location: &'a Path) -> Option<&'a str> {
+    let location = location.as_ref();
+    let relative = match prefix {
+        // Both halves of the prefix, so a location that merely starts with the directory's
+        // name — `dbx/y` against `db/` — is reported as not being under it, and so is the
+        // directory's own marker, whose location is `db`.
+        Some(prefix) => location.strip_prefix(prefix)?,
+        None => location,
+    };
+    (!relative.is_empty()).then_some(relative)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
+    use chrono::Utc;
+    use object_store::memory::InMemory;
+    use object_store::{ObjectStoreExt, PutPayload};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    /// How the store under test resolves a listing.
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+    enum Backend {
+        /// No paginated API: list the whole directory and page it locally.
+        FullListing,
+        /// A paginated API, as the native S3, GCS and Azure stores have.
+        Pushdown,
+    }
+    use Backend::{FullListing, Pushdown};
+
+    /// One list request, as the backend saw it.
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+    struct ListRequest {
+        prefix: Option<String>,
+        opts: PaginatedListOptions,
+    }
+
+    /// A stand-in for a store with a paginated list API.
+    ///
+    /// Keys are listed in the order they were given, a delimiter collapses each level, and the
+    /// continuation token is a position in that listing order — which is what a real token is:
+    /// exact, and never compared against a key. `page_bound` is the store's own cap, which is
+    /// why a page can come back holding less than it was asked for.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FakeListStore {
+        keys: Vec<String>,
+        page_bound: usize,
+        requests: Arc<Mutex<Vec<ListRequest>>>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl PaginatedListStore for FakeListStore {
+        async fn list_paginated(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&str>,
+            opts: PaginatedListOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<PaginatedListResult> {
+            self.requests.lock().unwrap().push(ListRequest {
+                prefix: prefix.map(String::from),
+                opts: opts.clone(),
+            });
+            let prefix = prefix.unwrap_or("");
+            let budget = opts
+                .max_keys
+                .unwrap_or(self.page_bound)
+                .min(self.page_bound);
+            let mut result = ListResult {
+                common_prefixes: Vec::new(),
+                objects: Vec::new(),
+            };
+            let mut idx: usize = match &opts.page_token {
+                Some(token) => token.parse().expect("a token this store minted"),
+                None => 0,
+            };
+
+            while idx < self.keys.len() {
+                if result.common_prefixes.len() + result.objects.len() >= budget {
+                    return Ok(PaginatedListResult {
+                        result,
+                        page_token: Some(idx.to_string()),
+                    });
+                }
+                // `Path::parse`, so that a key holding a character `Path::from` would encode
+                // is reported under the name it was stored with. This is what the S3, GCS and
+                // Azure clients do.
+                let key = self.keys[idx].clone();
+                idx += 1;
+                let Some(rest) = key.strip_prefix(prefix) else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                match rest.find(DELIMITER) {
+                    // A collapsed prefix, and everything behind it: a store reports the child
+                    // directory once and skips the keys it stands for.
+                    Some(end) => {
+                        let child = format!("{prefix}{}", &rest[..=end]);
+                        result.common_prefixes.push(Path::parse(&child).unwrap());
+                        while idx < self.keys.len() && self.keys[idx].starts_with(&child) {
+                            idx += 1;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    None => result.objects.push(ObjectMeta {
+                        location: Path::parse(&key).unwrap(),
+                        last_modified: Utc::now(),
+                        size: 1,
+                        e_tag: None,
+                        version: None,
+                    }),
+                }
+            }
+
+            Ok(PaginatedListResult {
+                result,
+                page_token: None,
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct TestStore {
+        store: ObjectStore,
+        requests: Arc<Mutex<Vec<ListRequest>>>,
+    }
+
+    impl TestStore {
+        /// Every child of `dir`, taken a page at a time, which is how a caller walks a
+        /// directory: the token ends the walk, never a short page.
+        async fn walk(&self, dir: &str, limit: Option<usize>) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+            let mut names = Vec::new();
+            let mut page_token = None;
+            for _ in 0..100 {
+                let page = self
+                    .store
+                    .read_dir_page(Path::from(dir), ReadDirOptions { page_token, limit })
+                    .await?;
+                names.extend(page_names(&page));
+                page_token = page.page_token;
+                if page_token.is_none() {
+                    return Ok(names);
+                }
+            }
+            panic!("the walk is not making progress: {names:?}")
+        }
+
+        async fn names(&self, dir: &str, limit: Option<usize>) -> Vec<String> {
+            self.walk(dir, limit).await.unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// The first page only, as a caller wanting a bounded number of children would take it.
+        async fn first_page(&self, dir: &str, limit: Option<usize>) -> PaginatedListResult {
+            self.store
+                .read_dir_page(
+                    Path::from(dir),
+                    ReadDirOptions {
+                        page_token: None,
+                        limit,
+                    },
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The names of every child in a page, directories and files alike.
+    fn page_names(page: &PaginatedListResult) -> Vec<String> {
+        page.result
+            .common_prefixes
+            .iter()
+            .chain(page.result.objects.iter().map(|object| &object.location))
+            .map(|location| location.filename().unwrap().to_string())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    async fn test_store(backend: Backend, keys: &[&str]) -> TestStore {
+        paged_test_store(backend, keys, usize::MAX).await
+    }
+
+    /// A store over `keys`, listing them in the order given. `page_bound` is the store's own
+    /// cap on a page, which only the pushdown backend has.
+    async fn paged_test_store(backend: Backend, keys: &[&str], page_bound: usize) -> TestStore {
+        let inner = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        for key in keys {
+            // `Path::parse`, so that a key holding a character `Path::from` would encode is
+            // stored under the name it was given.
+            inner
+                .put(&Path::parse(key).unwrap(), PutPayload::from_static(b"x"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            object_store: Some((inner, url::Url::parse("memory:///").unwrap())),
+            // Set because the deprecated hand-built path assumes nothing about the store it
+            // was given, and set conservatively: nothing on the `read_dir_page` path reads it,
+            // since the fallback sorts what it listed and the pushdown never compares keys.
+            list_is_lexically_ordered: Some(false),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let (store, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            "memory:///",
+            &params,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut store = Arc::try_unwrap(store).unwrap();
+
+        let requests = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        if backend == Pushdown {
+            store.paginated_lister = Some(Arc::new(FakeListStore {
+                keys: keys.iter().map(|key| key.to_string()).collect(),
+                page_bound,
+                requests: requests.clone(),
+            }));
+        }
+        TestStore { store, requests }
+    }
+
+    const TABLES: &[&str] = &[
+        "db/a.lance/_versions/1.manifest",
+        "db/a.lance/data/1.lance",
+        "db/b.lance/data/1.lance",
+        "db/c.lance/data/1.lance",
+        "db/loose.txt",
+        "other/d.lance/data/1.lance",
+    ];
+
+    /// Walking a directory hands back every child exactly once, however the store resolves the
+    /// listing and however small the pages are. That it holds whatever order the store lists
+    /// in is [`test_an_unordered_store_is_still_paged`].
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::whole_directory(TABLES, "db", vec!["a.lance", "b.lance", "c.lance", "loose.txt"])]
+    #[case::empty_directory(TABLES, "nonexistent", vec![])]
+    // A directory and the sibling that follows it: `foo/` and `foo0` are adjacent in key order
+    // with nothing between them, so resuming past `foo`'s contents must not swallow `foo0`.
+    #[case::the_sibling_after_a_directory(&["db/foo/inside", "db/foo0"], "db", vec!["foo", "foo0"])]
+    // Siblings where one name is a prefix of another, which is where a page boundary is easiest
+    // to get wrong: `foo/` and `foo-bar/` differ at `/` against `-`.
+    #[case::a_prefix_shaped_sibling(&["db/foo/inside", "db/foo-bar/inside", "db/zzz.txt"], "db", vec!["foo", "foo-bar", "zzz.txt"])]
+    // A store that keeps a marker object for a directory reports the directory itself when
+    // that directory is listed. Dropping the marker must not also drop the progress the page
+    // made, or a page holding nothing but the marker reads as the end of the listing.
+    #[case::a_directory_marker(&["db/marked/", "db/marked/a.txt", "db/marked/b.txt"], "db/marked", vec!["a.txt", "b.txt"])]
+    // A name holding a character `Path::from` would percent-encode is still reported, and
+    // sorted, under the name it was stored with.
+    #[case::an_encodable_name(&["db/az", "db/a~"], "db", vec!["az", "a~"])]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_walking_a_directory_is_complete(
+        #[values(FullListing, Pushdown)] backend: Backend,
+        #[values(None, Some(1), Some(2), Some(3))] limit: Option<usize>,
+        #[case] keys: &[&str],
+        #[case] dir: &str,
+        #[case] expected: Vec<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let store = test_store(backend, keys).await;
+
+        // The order children come back in is the store's, so the walk is checked for holding
+        // every child once rather than for holding them in one particular order.
+        let mut listed = store.names(dir, limit).await;
+        let seen = listed.clone();
+        listed.sort();
+        assert_eq!(listed, expected, "from {seen:?}");
+    }
+
+    /// A store that lists in no particular order — S3 Express — is still paged, because a
+    /// continuation token is never compared to anything. This is the case a token spelled as a
+    /// key could not serve.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_an_unordered_store_is_still_paged() {
+        let reversed: Vec<&str> = TABLES.iter().rev().copied().collect();
+        let store = test_store(Pushdown, &reversed).await;
+
+        let mut names = store.names("db", Some(1)).await;
+        names.sort();
+
+        assert_eq!(names, vec!["a.lance", "b.lance", "c.lance", "loose.txt"]);
+        assert!(
+            !store.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "the paginated lister should have been used"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The point of the pushdown: a caller that wants one child of a directory makes one
+    /// request, for one child, one level deep. A listing that quietly fell back to reading the
+    /// whole directory would answer the same thing, so what tells the two apart is the request.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_bounded_page_is_one_request_for_that_page() {
+        let store = test_store(Pushdown, TABLES).await;
+
+        let page = store.first_page("db", Some(1)).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(page_names(&page).len(), 1);
+        assert!(page.page_token.is_some());
+        let requests = store.requests.lock().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(requests.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(requests[0].prefix.as_deref(), Some("db/"));
+        assert_eq!(requests[0].opts.max_keys, Some(1));
+        // Without a delimiter the listing would be recursive rather than one level deep.
+        assert_eq!(requests[0].opts.delimiter.as_deref(), Some(DELIMITER));
+        // A continuation token is a position of its own, so no offset goes with it.
+        assert_eq!(requests[0].opts.offset, None);
+    }
+
+    /// A backend that caps its pages below what was asked for hands back a short page with
+    /// more to come. Only the token ends a walk, so a caller that stopped at a short page
+    /// would report a directory as smaller than it is.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_short_page_is_not_the_end_of_the_listing() {
+        let store = paged_test_store(Pushdown, TABLES, 1).await;
+
+        let page = store.first_page("db", Some(3)).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(page_names(&page).len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            page.page_token.is_some(),
+            "the directory holds four children"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            store.names("db", Some(3)).await.len(),
+            4,
+            "the walk should still reach every child"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A page of nothing is rejected rather than left to mean whatever the backend makes of it:
+    /// pushing it down reports an empty directory, and a full listing ignores it. The rejection
+    /// comes before the store is consulted, so one backend covers it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zero_limit_is_rejected() {
+        let store = test_store(Pushdown, TABLES).await;
+
+        let err = store.walk("db", Some(0)).await.unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("limit must be at least 1"));
+        assert!(store.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// Child directories and child objects stay in the two lists a listing reports them in, so
+    /// a caller that wants only one of the two — tables are directories — can take it.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_directories_and_files_stay_apart(
+        #[values(FullListing, Pushdown)] backend: Backend,
+    ) {
+        let store = test_store(backend, TABLES).await;
+
+        let page = store.first_page("db", None).await;
+
+        let mut directories: Vec<&str> = page
+            .result
+            .common_prefixes
+            .iter()
+            .map(|location| location.filename().unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        directories.sort();
+        assert_eq!(directories, vec!["a.lance", "b.lance", "c.lance"]);
+        let files: Vec<&str> = page
+            .result
+            .objects
+            .iter()
+            .map(|object| object.location.filename().unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(files, vec!["loose.txt"]);
+        // The metadata a listing reports for a child object survives the page.
+        assert_eq!(page.result.objects[0].size, 1);
+    }
+
+    /// The pushdown path holds the backend directly, so it has to record its own IO. A listing
+    /// invisible to `io_tracker` would also be invisible to the metrics and tracing layers that
+    /// sit in the same chain.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_listing_is_recorded_in_io_stats(
+        #[values(FullListing, Pushdown)] backend: Backend,
+    ) {
+        let store = test_store(backend, TABLES).await;
+        assert_eq!(store.store.io_tracker().stats().read_iops, 0);
+
+        let _ = store.first_page("db", Some(2)).await;
+
+        // The full listing reaches the store through its wrappers, which record it there.
+        assert_eq!(store.store.io_tracker().stats().read_iops, 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/storage_options.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/storage_options.rs
index d0f5cc20e93..355845fd9b6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/storage_options.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/storage_options.rs
@@ -21,9 +21,8 @@ use mock_instant::thread_local::{SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
 use std::time::{SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use lance_namespace::models::DescribeTableRequest;
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_namespace::models::DescribeTableRequest;
 use tokio::sync::RwLock;
 
 use crate::{Error, Result};
@@ -80,6 +79,15 @@ pub trait StorageOptionsProvider: Send + Sync + fmt::Debug {
     /// If [`EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY`] is not provided, the options are considered to never expire.
     async fn fetch_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>>;
 
+    /// Fetch fresh storage options, bypassing caches along the chain.
+    ///
+    /// Providers that serve from an upstream cache (e.g. base-scoped wrappers
+    /// reading through a parent accessor) override this to force the upstream
+    /// to re-fetch. Defaults to [`Self::fetch_storage_options`].
+    async fn force_fetch_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
+        self.fetch_storage_options().await
+    }
+
     /// Return a human-readable unique identifier for this provider instance
     ///
     /// This is used for equality comparison and hashing in the object store registry.
@@ -95,7 +103,7 @@ pub trait StorageOptionsProvider: Send + Sync + fmt::Debug {
 
 /// StorageOptionsProvider implementation that fetches options from a LanceNamespace
 pub struct LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider {
-    namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
+    namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
     table_id: Vec<String>,
 }
 
@@ -115,11 +123,11 @@ impl LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider {
     /// Create a new LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider
     ///
     /// # Arguments
-    /// * `namespace` - The namespace implementation to fetch storage options from
+    /// * `namespace_client` - The namespace implementation to fetch storage options from
     /// * `table_id` - The table identifier
-    pub fn new(namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>, table_id: Vec<String>) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>, table_id: Vec<String>) -> Self {
         Self {
-            namespace,
+            namespace_client,
             table_id,
         }
     }
@@ -130,19 +138,20 @@ impl StorageOptionsProvider for LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider {
     async fn fetch_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
         let request = DescribeTableRequest {
             id: Some(self.table_id.clone()),
+            // Some server implementations may not return credentials unless explicitly requested
+            vend_credentials: Some(true),
             ..Default::default()
         };
 
         let response = self
-            .namespace
+            .namespace_client
             .describe_table(request)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
                     "Failed to fetch storage options: {}",
                     e
-                ))),
-                location: location!(),
+                ))))
             })?;
 
         Ok(response.storage_options)
@@ -150,13 +159,111 @@ impl StorageOptionsProvider for LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider {
 
     fn provider_id(&self) -> String {
         format!(
-            "LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider {{ namespace: {}, table_id: {:?} }}",
-            self.namespace.namespace_id(),
+            "LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider {{ namespace_client: {}, table_id: {:?} }}",
+            self.namespace_client.namespace_id(),
             self.table_id
         )
     }
 }
 
+/// Prefix marking a storage option as scoped to a single registered base path.
+///
+/// A key of the form `base_<id>.<key>` applies `<key>` only to the base path
+/// with manifest id `<id>`, overriding the shared (unscoped) options for that
+/// base. For example `base_1.account_key = abc` gives the base with id 1 the
+/// option `account_key = abc` while it inherits every unscoped option.
+pub const BASE_SCOPED_OPTION_PREFIX: &str = "base_";
+
+/// Parse a base-scoped storage option key of the form `base_<id>.<key>`.
+///
+/// Returns `Some((base_id, key))` only for keys that match the convention
+/// exactly: the `base_` prefix, an all-digit u32 base id, a `.` separator, and
+/// a non-empty remainder. Any other key (e.g. `base_url`, `base_x.key`,
+/// `base_1.`) is not base-scoped.
+pub fn parse_base_scoped_key(key: &str) -> Option<(u32, &str)> {
+    let rest = key.strip_prefix(BASE_SCOPED_OPTION_PREFIX)?;
+    let (id_str, scoped_key) = rest.split_once('.')?;
+    if scoped_key.is_empty() || id_str.is_empty() || !id_str.bytes().all(|b| b.is_ascii_digit()) {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let id = id_str.parse::<u32>().ok()?;
+    Some((id, scoped_key))
+}
+
+/// Returns true if any key in `options` is base-scoped (`base_<id>.<key>`).
+pub fn has_base_scoped_options(options: &HashMap<String, String>) -> bool {
+    options
+        .keys()
+        .any(|key| parse_base_scoped_key(key).is_some())
+}
+
+/// Resolve the effective storage options for one base path scope.
+///
+/// All base-scoped keys are removed from the result. When `base_id` is
+/// `Some(id)`, entries scoped to that id are overlaid on the unscoped options,
+/// adding or overriding keys. `None` resolves the default scope (the primary
+/// dataset base), which simply drops every base-scoped entry.
+pub fn resolve_base_scoped_options(
+    options: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    base_id: Option<u32>,
+) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+    let mut resolved = HashMap::with_capacity(options.len());
+    let mut overrides = Vec::new();
+    for (key, value) in options {
+        match parse_base_scoped_key(key) {
+            Some((id, scoped_key)) => {
+                if Some(id) == base_id {
+                    overrides.push((scoped_key.to_string(), value.clone()));
+                }
+            }
+            None => {
+                resolved.insert(key.clone(), value.clone());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    resolved.extend(overrides);
+    resolved
+}
+
+/// A [`StorageOptionsProvider`] that resolves another accessor's options for a
+/// single base path scope.
+///
+/// Fetching through this provider first refreshes the parent accessor when its
+/// options have expired, then resolves the refreshed options for the scope. As
+/// a result, dynamically vended per-base credentials (e.g. a namespace server
+/// returning `base_<id>.<key>` entries in one flat map) stay fresh per base.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct BaseScopedStorageOptionsProvider {
+    inner: Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>,
+    base_id: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+impl BaseScopedStorageOptionsProvider {
+    pub fn new(inner: Arc<StorageOptionsAccessor>, base_id: Option<u32>) -> Self {
+        Self { inner, base_id }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl StorageOptionsProvider for BaseScopedStorageOptionsProvider {
+    async fn fetch_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
+        let options = self.inner.get_storage_options().await?;
+        Ok(Some(resolve_base_scoped_options(&options.0, self.base_id)))
+    }
+
+    async fn force_fetch_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
+        let options = self.inner.refresh_storage_options().await?;
+        Ok(Some(resolve_base_scoped_options(&options.0, self.base_id)))
+    }
+
+    fn provider_id(&self) -> String {
+        match self.base_id {
+            Some(id) => format!("base-scoped[base_id={}]({})", id, self.inner.accessor_id()),
+            None => format!("base-scoped[default]({})", self.inner.accessor_id()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// Unified access to storage options with automatic caching and refresh
 ///
 /// This struct bundles static storage options with an optional dynamic provider,
@@ -186,6 +293,11 @@ pub struct StorageOptionsAccessor {
 
     /// Duration before expiry to trigger refresh
     refresh_offset: Duration,
+
+    /// True when this accessor was produced by [`Self::scoped_to_base`]; its
+    /// options are already resolved for one base path scope, so scoping again
+    /// is a no-op.
+    scope_resolved: bool,
 }
 
 impl fmt::Debug for StorageOptionsAccessor {
@@ -214,14 +326,33 @@ impl StorageOptionsAccessor {
             .unwrap_or(Duration::from_millis(DEFAULT_REFRESH_OFFSET_MILLIS))
     }
 
+    /// Effective expiration of a raw options map: the minimum of the unscoped
+    /// `expires_at_millis` and every `base_<id>.expires_at_millis` entry.
+    ///
+    /// A flat map may vend per-base credentials that expire before the shared
+    /// ones. Refreshing when the earliest credential is due keeps base-scoped
+    /// accessors (which refresh through this accessor) from re-resolving stale
+    /// per-base credentials out of a still-"valid" cache.
+    fn effective_expires_at_millis(options: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Option<u64> {
+        options
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|(key, _)| {
+                key.as_str() == EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY
+                    || matches!(
+                        parse_base_scoped_key(key),
+                        Some((_, scoped_key)) if scoped_key == EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY
+                    )
+            })
+            .filter_map(|(_, value)| value.parse::<u64>().ok())
+            .min()
+    }
+
     /// Create an accessor with only static options (no refresh capability)
     ///
     /// The returned accessor will always return the provided options.
     /// This is useful when credentials don't expire or are managed externally.
     pub fn with_static_options(options: HashMap<String, String>) -> Self {
-        let expires_at_millis = options
-            .get(EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY)
-            .and_then(|s| s.parse::<u64>().ok());
+        let expires_at_millis = Self::effective_expires_at_millis(&options);
         let refresh_offset = Self::extract_refresh_offset(&options);
 
         Self {
@@ -232,6 +363,7 @@ impl StorageOptionsAccessor {
                 expires_at_millis,
             }))),
             refresh_offset,
+            scope_resolved: false,
         }
     }
 
@@ -249,6 +381,7 @@ impl StorageOptionsAccessor {
             provider: Some(provider),
             cache: Arc::new(RwLock::new(None)),
             refresh_offset: Duration::from_millis(DEFAULT_REFRESH_OFFSET_MILLIS),
+            scope_resolved: false,
         }
     }
 
@@ -265,9 +398,7 @@ impl StorageOptionsAccessor {
         initial_options: HashMap<String, String>,
         provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider>,
     ) -> Self {
-        let expires_at_millis = initial_options
-            .get(EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY)
-            .and_then(|s| s.parse::<u64>().ok());
+        let expires_at_millis = Self::effective_expires_at_millis(&initial_options);
         let refresh_offset = Self::extract_refresh_offset(&initial_options);
 
         Self {
@@ -278,6 +409,7 @@ impl StorageOptionsAccessor {
                 expires_at_millis,
             }))),
             refresh_offset,
+            scope_resolved: false,
         }
     }
 
@@ -305,26 +437,69 @@ impl StorageOptionsAccessor {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Fetch fresh options from the provider and update the cache.
+    ///
+    /// This bypasses the cache for callers that need to validate provider-vended
+    /// credentials even when initial metadata has no expiration. The force
+    /// propagates through provider chains (e.g. base-scoped wrappers), so the
+    /// origin provider is re-queried even when intermediate caches are valid.
+    pub(crate) async fn refresh_storage_options(&self) -> Result<super::StorageOptions> {
+        let Some(provider) = &self.provider else {
+            return self.get_storage_options().await;
+        };
+
+        log::debug!(
+            "Refreshing storage options from provider: {}",
+            provider.provider_id()
+        );
+
+        let storage_options_map = provider.force_fetch_storage_options().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to fetch storage options: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?;
+
+        let Some(options) = storage_options_map else {
+            if let Some(initial) = &self.initial_options {
+                return Ok(super::StorageOptions(initial.clone()));
+            }
+            log::debug!(
+                "Provider {} returned no storage options, using default credentials",
+                provider.provider_id()
+            );
+            return Ok(super::StorageOptions(HashMap::new()));
+        };
+
+        let expires_at_millis = Self::effective_expires_at_millis(&options);
+
+        let mut cache = self.cache.write().await;
+        *cache = Some(CachedStorageOptions {
+            options: options.clone(),
+            expires_at_millis,
+        });
+
+        Ok(super::StorageOptions(options))
+    }
+
     async fn do_get_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<super::StorageOptions>> {
         // Check if we have valid cached options with read lock
         {
             let cached = self.cache.read().await;
-            if !self.needs_refresh(&cached) {
-                if let Some(cached_opts) = &*cached {
-                    return Ok(Some(super::StorageOptions(cached_opts.options.clone())));
-                }
+            if !self.needs_refresh(&cached)
+                && let Some(cached_opts) = &*cached
+            {
+                return Ok(Some(super::StorageOptions(cached_opts.options.clone())));
             }
         }
 
-        // If no provider, return initial options or error
+        // If no provider, return initial options or use defaults
         let Some(provider) = &self.provider else {
             return if let Some(initial) = &self.initial_options {
                 Ok(Some(super::StorageOptions(initial.clone())))
             } else {
-                Err(Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other("No storage options available")),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                // No provider and no initial options - use default credentials
+                Ok(Some(super::StorageOptions(HashMap::new())))
             };
         };
 
@@ -335,45 +510,39 @@ impl StorageOptionsAccessor {
 
         // Double-check if options are still stale after acquiring write lock
         // (another thread might have refreshed them)
-        if !self.needs_refresh(&cache) {
-            if let Some(cached_opts) = &*cache {
-                return Ok(Some(super::StorageOptions(cached_opts.options.clone())));
-            }
+        if !self.needs_refresh(&cache)
+            && let Some(cached_opts) = &*cache
+        {
+            return Ok(Some(super::StorageOptions(cached_opts.options.clone())));
         }
-
         log::debug!(
             "Refreshing storage options from provider: {}",
             provider.provider_id()
         );
 
-        let storage_options_map =
-            provider
-                .fetch_storage_options()
-                .await
-                .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to fetch storage options: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+        let storage_options_map = provider.fetch_storage_options().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to fetch storage options: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?;
 
         let Some(options) = storage_options_map else {
-            // Provider returned None, fall back to initial options
+            // Provider returned None, fall back to initial options or use defaults
             if let Some(initial) = &self.initial_options {
                 return Ok(Some(super::StorageOptions(initial.clone())));
             }
-            return Err(Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(
-                    "Provider returned no storage options",
-                )),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            // Provider returned None and no initial options - use default credentials
+            // This is valid when namespace doesn't vend credentials (e.g., directory namespace
+            // where environment credentials are used)
+            log::debug!(
+                "Provider {} returned no storage options, using default credentials",
+                provider.provider_id()
+            );
+            return Ok(Some(super::StorageOptions(HashMap::new())));
         };
 
-        let expires_at_millis = options
-            .get(EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY)
-            .and_then(|s| s.parse::<u64>().ok());
+        let expires_at_millis = Self::effective_expires_at_millis(&options);
 
         if let Some(expires_at) = expires_at_millis {
             let now_ms = SystemTime::now()
@@ -455,6 +624,50 @@ impl StorageOptionsAccessor {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Resolve this accessor for a single base path scope.
+    ///
+    /// Storage options may carry base-scoped entries (`base_<id>.<key>`) that
+    /// apply only to one registered base path. The returned accessor resolves
+    /// options for `base_id`: entries scoped to that base overlay the unscoped
+    /// defaults, and all other scoped entries are dropped. `None` resolves the
+    /// default scope used for the primary dataset base.
+    ///
+    /// A static accessor whose options contain no base-scoped entries is
+    /// returned unchanged, preserving accessor identity (and thus object store
+    /// registry cache keys). A provider-backed accessor is always wrapped
+    /// through [`BaseScopedStorageOptionsProvider`] — fetched options may vend
+    /// base-scoped entries at any refresh, even when the initial options carry
+    /// none — so refreshed options are re-resolved for the scope on every
+    /// fetch. Accessors already produced by this method are returned unchanged.
+    pub fn scoped_to_base(self: &Arc<Self>, base_id: Option<u32>) -> Arc<Self> {
+        if self.scope_resolved {
+            return self.clone();
+        }
+        if self.has_provider() {
+            let provider = Arc::new(BaseScopedStorageOptionsProvider::new(self.clone(), base_id));
+            let mut scoped = match self.initial_storage_options() {
+                Some(initial) => Self::with_initial_and_provider(
+                    resolve_base_scoped_options(initial, base_id),
+                    provider,
+                ),
+                None => Self::with_provider(provider),
+            };
+            scoped.scope_resolved = true;
+            Arc::new(scoped)
+        } else {
+            match self.initial_storage_options() {
+                Some(initial) if has_base_scoped_options(initial) => {
+                    let mut scoped =
+                        Self::with_static_options(resolve_base_scoped_options(initial, base_id));
+                    scoped.scope_resolved = true;
+                    Arc::new(scoped)
+                }
+                // Static options never change, so there is nothing to scope.
+                _ => self.clone(),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Check if this accessor has a dynamic provider
     pub fn has_provider(&self) -> bool {
         self.provider.is_some()
@@ -593,7 +806,7 @@ mod tests {
         MockClock::set_system_time(Duration::from_secs(100_000));
 
         let mock_provider = Arc::new(MockStorageOptionsProvider::new(Some(600_000))); // 10 min expiry
-                                                                                      // Use with_initial_and_provider to set custom refresh_offset_millis (5 min = 300000ms)
+        // Use with_initial_and_provider to set custom refresh_offset_millis (5 min = 300000ms)
         let now_ms = MockClock::system_time().as_millis() as u64;
         let expires_at = now_ms + 600_000; // 10 minutes from now
         let initial = HashMap::from([
@@ -710,4 +923,322 @@ mod tests {
         accessor.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(mock_provider.get_call_count().await, 1);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_base_scoped_key() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_base_scoped_key("base_1.account_key"),
+            Some((1, "account_key"))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_base_scoped_key("base_12.headers.x-ms-version"),
+            Some((12, "headers.x-ms-version"))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("base_0.region"), Some((0, "region")));
+
+        // Not base-scoped keys
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("account_key"), None);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("base_url"), None);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("base_hot.account_key"), None);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("base_1x.account_key"), None);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("base_+1.account_key"), None);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("base_.account_key"), None);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("base_1."), None);
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("base_1"), None);
+        // Overflows u32
+        assert_eq!(parse_base_scoped_key("base_4294967296.key"), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_base_scoped_options() {
+        let options = HashMap::from([
+            ("region".to_string(), "us-east-1".to_string()),
+            ("account_key".to_string(), "shared-key".to_string()),
+            ("base_1.account_key".to_string(), "base1-key".to_string()),
+            ("base_2.account_key".to_string(), "base2-key".to_string()),
+            ("base_2.endpoint".to_string(), "http://b2".to_string()),
+        ]);
+        assert!(has_base_scoped_options(&options));
+
+        let base1 = resolve_base_scoped_options(&options, Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(
+            base1,
+            HashMap::from([
+                ("region".to_string(), "us-east-1".to_string()),
+                ("account_key".to_string(), "base1-key".to_string()),
+            ])
+        );
+
+        let base2 = resolve_base_scoped_options(&options, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(
+            base2,
+            HashMap::from([
+                ("region".to_string(), "us-east-1".to_string()),
+                ("account_key".to_string(), "base2-key".to_string()),
+                ("endpoint".to_string(), "http://b2".to_string()),
+            ])
+        );
+
+        // A base without scoped entries inherits only the unscoped options
+        let base3 = resolve_base_scoped_options(&options, Some(3));
+        assert_eq!(
+            base3,
+            HashMap::from([
+                ("region".to_string(), "us-east-1".to_string()),
+                ("account_key".to_string(), "shared-key".to_string()),
+            ])
+        );
+
+        // The default scope drops every scoped entry
+        let default = resolve_base_scoped_options(&options, None);
+        assert_eq!(default, base3);
+
+        assert!(!has_base_scoped_options(&HashMap::from([(
+            "account_key".to_string(),
+            "shared-key".to_string()
+        )])));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scoped_to_base_identity_and_idempotency() {
+        // Static accessors without scoped keys are returned unchanged.
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(HashMap::from(
+            [("account_key".to_string(), "shared-key".to_string())],
+        )));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&accessor.scoped_to_base(Some(1)), &accessor));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&accessor.scoped_to_base(None), &accessor));
+
+        // Scoping an already-scoped accessor is a no-op (the registry choke
+        // point re-applies the default scope to every params it sees).
+        let scoped = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(HashMap::from(
+            [
+                ("account_key".to_string(), "shared-key".to_string()),
+                ("base_1.account_key".to_string(), "base1-key".to_string()),
+            ],
+        )))
+        .scoped_to_base(Some(1));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&scoped.scoped_to_base(None), &scoped));
+
+        let provider_scoped = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(Arc::new(
+            MockStorageOptionsProvider::new(None),
+        )))
+        .scoped_to_base(Some(1));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &provider_scoped.scoped_to_base(None),
+            &provider_scoped
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scoped_to_base_provider_only_resolves_vended_options() {
+        MockClock::set_system_time(Duration::from_secs(100_000));
+
+        // No initial options: scoped entries arrive only through the provider.
+        let provider = Arc::new(MockBaseScopedVendingProvider {
+            call_count: Arc::new(RwLock::new(0)),
+            expires_in_millis: 600_000,
+        });
+        let parent = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_provider(provider.clone()));
+
+        let base1 = parent.scoped_to_base(Some(1));
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&base1, &parent));
+        let result = base1.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.0.get("account_key").unwrap(), "BASE1_1");
+        assert!(!result.0.contains_key("base_1.account_key"));
+
+        let default = parent.scoped_to_base(None);
+        let result = default.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.0.get("account_key").unwrap(), "SHARED_1");
+        assert!(!result.0.contains_key("base_1.account_key"));
+
+        // Both scopes were served from one parent fetch.
+        assert_eq!(*provider.call_count.read().await, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scoped_earlier_base_expiry_refreshes_parent() {
+        MockClock::set_system_time(Duration::from_secs(100_000));
+        let now_ms = MockClock::system_time().as_millis() as u64;
+
+        // Base 1 credentials expire before the shared ones; the parent must
+        // refresh when the earliest credential is due, or the scoped accessor
+        // would keep re-resolving stale base-1 credentials from a still-
+        // "valid" parent cache.
+        let provider = Arc::new(MockBaseScopedVendingProvider {
+            call_count: Arc::new(RwLock::new(0)),
+            expires_in_millis: 600_000,
+        });
+        let initial = HashMap::from([
+            ("account_key".to_string(), "SHARED_0".to_string()),
+            ("base_1.account_key".to_string(), "BASE1_0".to_string()),
+            (
+                EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY.to_string(),
+                (now_ms + 600_000).to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                format!("base_1.{}", EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY),
+                (now_ms + 120_000).to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let parent = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+            initial,
+            provider.clone(),
+        ));
+
+        let base1 = parent.scoped_to_base(Some(1));
+        let result = base1.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.0.get("account_key").unwrap(), "BASE1_0");
+        assert_eq!(*provider.call_count.read().await, 0);
+
+        // Past the base-1 expiry but before the shared expiry: the parent's
+        // effective expiry is the earlier one, so the refresh chain fetches
+        // fresh credentials instead of re-serving BASE1_0.
+        MockClock::set_system_time(Duration::from_secs(100_000 + 121));
+        let result = base1.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.0.get("account_key").unwrap(), "BASE1_1");
+        assert_eq!(*provider.call_count.read().await, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scoped_to_base_static() {
+        let accessor = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(HashMap::from(
+            [
+                ("account_key".to_string(), "shared-key".to_string()),
+                ("base_1.account_key".to_string(), "base1-key".to_string()),
+            ],
+        )));
+
+        let base1 = accessor.scoped_to_base(Some(1));
+        let result = base1.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            result.0,
+            HashMap::from([("account_key".to_string(), "base1-key".to_string())])
+        );
+        assert!(!base1.has_provider());
+
+        let default = accessor.scoped_to_base(None);
+        let result = default.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            result.0,
+            HashMap::from([("account_key".to_string(), "shared-key".to_string())])
+        );
+
+        // Scoped accessor ids are stable across derivations and distinct per scope
+        assert_eq!(
+            accessor.scoped_to_base(Some(1)).accessor_id(),
+            base1.accessor_id()
+        );
+        assert_ne!(base1.accessor_id(), default.accessor_id());
+        assert_ne!(base1.accessor_id(), accessor.accessor_id());
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct MockBaseScopedVendingProvider {
+        call_count: Arc<RwLock<usize>>,
+        expires_in_millis: u64,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl StorageOptionsProvider for MockBaseScopedVendingProvider {
+        async fn fetch_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
+            let count = {
+                let mut c = self.call_count.write().await;
+                *c += 1;
+                *c
+            };
+            let now_ms = SystemTime::now()
+                .duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_millis() as u64;
+            Ok(Some(HashMap::from([
+                ("account_key".to_string(), format!("SHARED_{}", count)),
+                ("base_1.account_key".to_string(), format!("BASE1_{}", count)),
+                (
+                    EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY.to_string(),
+                    (now_ms + self.expires_in_millis).to_string(),
+                ),
+            ])))
+        }
+
+        fn provider_id(&self) -> String {
+            "MockBaseScopedVendingProvider".to_string()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scoped_to_base_refreshes_through_parent() {
+        MockClock::set_system_time(Duration::from_secs(100_000));
+        let now_ms = MockClock::system_time().as_millis() as u64;
+
+        let provider = Arc::new(MockBaseScopedVendingProvider {
+            call_count: Arc::new(RwLock::new(0)),
+            expires_in_millis: 600_000,
+        });
+        let initial = HashMap::from([
+            ("account_key".to_string(), "SHARED_0".to_string()),
+            ("base_1.account_key".to_string(), "BASE1_0".to_string()),
+            (
+                EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY.to_string(),
+                (now_ms + 600_000).to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let parent = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+            initial,
+            provider.clone(),
+        ));
+
+        let base1 = parent.scoped_to_base(Some(1));
+        let default = parent.scoped_to_base(None);
+        assert!(base1.has_provider());
+
+        // Initial options are resolved per scope without fetching
+        let result = base1.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.0.get("account_key").unwrap(), "BASE1_0");
+        assert!(!result.0.contains_key("base_1.account_key"));
+        let result = default.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.0.get("account_key").unwrap(), "SHARED_0");
+        assert_eq!(*provider.call_count.read().await, 0);
+
+        // Expire the vended options; the scoped accessor refreshes through the
+        // parent and re-resolves the refreshed options for its scope.
+        MockClock::set_system_time(Duration::from_secs(100_000 + 601));
+        let result = base1.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.0.get("account_key").unwrap(), "BASE1_1");
+        assert_eq!(*provider.call_count.read().await, 1);
+
+        // The parent refresh is shared: other scopes see it without refetching
+        let result = default.get_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.0.get("account_key").unwrap(), "SHARED_1");
+        assert_eq!(*provider.call_count.read().await, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scoped_forced_refresh_reaches_origin_provider() {
+        MockClock::set_system_time(Duration::from_secs(100_000));
+        let now_ms = MockClock::system_time().as_millis() as u64;
+
+        let provider = Arc::new(MockBaseScopedVendingProvider {
+            call_count: Arc::new(RwLock::new(0)),
+            expires_in_millis: 600_000,
+        });
+        let initial = HashMap::from([
+            ("account_key".to_string(), "SHARED_0".to_string()),
+            ("base_1.account_key".to_string(), "BASE1_0".to_string()),
+            (
+                EXPIRES_AT_MILLIS_KEY.to_string(),
+                (now_ms + 600_000).to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let parent = Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+            initial,
+            provider.clone(),
+        ));
+        let base1 = parent.scoped_to_base(Some(1));
+
+        // A forced refresh must reach the origin provider even though both the
+        // scoped and the parent caches are still valid.
+        let result = base1.refresh_storage_options().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.0.get("account_key").unwrap(), "BASE1_1");
+        assert_eq!(*provider.call_count.read().await, 1);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/test_utils.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/test_utils.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b22ff491258
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/test_utils.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+
+use super::StorageOptionsProvider;
+use lance_core::Result;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+    pub options: HashMap<String, String>,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl StorageOptionsProvider for StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider {
+    async fn fetch_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
+        Ok(Some(self.options.clone()))
+    }
+
+    fn provider_id(&self) -> String {
+        "StaticMockStorageOptionsProvider".to_string()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/throttle.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/throttle.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d487a8321f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/throttle.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2356 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! AIMD-controlled token bucket rate limiter for ObjectStore operations.
+//!
+//! Wraps any [`object_store::ObjectStore`] with per-category token buckets
+//! whose fill rates are dynamically adjusted by AIMD controllers. When cloud
+//! stores return HTTP 429/503, the fill rate decreases multiplicatively. During
+//! sustained success windows, it increases additively.
+//!
+//! Operations are split into four independent categories — **read**, **write**,
+//! **delete**, **list** — each with its own AIMD controller and token bucket.
+//! This prevents a burst of reads from starving writes, and vice versa.
+//!
+//! # Example
+//!
+//! ```ignore
+//! use lance_io::object_store::throttle::{AimdThrottleConfig, AimdThrottledStore};
+//!
+//! let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(target, AimdThrottleConfig::default()).unwrap();
+//! ```
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::fmt::{Debug, Display, Formatter};
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock, Weak};
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::StreamExt;
+use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+use lance_core::utils::aimd::{AimdConfig, AimdController, RequestOutcome};
+use lance_core::utils::tracing::TRACE_OBJECT_STORE_THROTTLE;
+#[cfg(test)]
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+use object_store::client::{
+    ClientOptions, HttpClient, HttpConnector, HttpError, HttpErrorKind, HttpRequest, HttpResponse,
+    HttpResponseBody, HttpService,
+};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use object_store::{
+    CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta, ObjectStore,
+    PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, RenameOptions, Result as OSResult,
+    UploadPart,
+};
+use rand::Rng;
+use tokio::sync::Mutex;
+use tracing::{debug, warn};
+
+use object_store::list::{PaginatedListOptions, PaginatedListResult, PaginatedListStore};
+
+use crate::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+/// Check whether an `object_store::Error` represents a throttle response
+/// (HTTP 429 / 503) from a cloud object store.
+///
+/// Regrettably, this information is not fully exposed by the `object_store` crate.
+/// There is no generic mechanism for a custom object store to return a throttle error.
+///
+/// However, the builtin object stores all use RetryError when retries are configured and
+/// throttle errors are returned.  Sadly, RetryError is not a public type, so we have to
+/// infer it from the error message.  This is potentially dangerous because these errors
+/// often include the URI itself and that URI could have any characters in it (e.g. if we
+/// look for 429 then we might match a 429 in a UUID).These error messages currently look like:
+///
+/// ", after ... retries, max_retries: ..., retry_timeout: ..."
+///
+/// So, as a crude heuristic, which should work for the builtin object stores, but won't
+/// work for custom object stores, we simply look for the string "retries, max_retries"
+/// in the error message.
+pub fn is_throttle_error(err: &object_store::Error) -> bool {
+    // Only Generic errors can carry throttle responses
+    if let object_store::Error::Generic { source, .. } = err {
+        let message = source.to_string();
+        let lowercase = message.to_ascii_lowercase();
+        lowercase.contains("retries, max_retries")
+            || lowercase.contains("serverbusy")
+            || lowercase.contains("server busy")
+            || lowercase.contains("egress is over the account limit")
+            || lowercase.contains("http 429")
+            || lowercase.contains("status code: 429")
+            || lowercase.contains("429 too many requests")
+            || lowercase.contains("too many requests")
+            || lowercase.contains("slowdown")
+            || lowercase.contains("please reduce your request rate")
+            || lowercase.contains("rate limit")
+            || lowercase.contains("throttling")
+            || lowercase.contains("throttled")
+    } else {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+/// Configuration for the AIMD-throttled ObjectStore wrapper.
+///
+/// Each operation category (read, write, delete, list) has its own AIMD config.
+/// Use [`with_aimd`](AimdThrottleConfig::with_aimd) to set all categories at
+/// once, or per-category methods like [`with_read_aimd`](AimdThrottleConfig::with_read_aimd)
+/// for fine-grained control.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct AimdThrottleConfig {
+    /// AIMD configuration for read operations (get, get_opts, get_range, get_ranges, head).
+    pub read: AimdConfig,
+    /// AIMD configuration for write operations (put, put_opts, put_multipart, copy, rename, etc.).
+    pub write: AimdConfig,
+    /// AIMD configuration for delete operations.
+    pub delete: AimdConfig,
+    /// AIMD configuration for list operations.
+    pub list: AimdConfig,
+    /// Maximum tokens that can accumulate for bursts (shared across all categories).
+    pub burst_capacity: u32,
+    /// Maximum number of retries for throttle errors within the AIMD layer.
+    pub max_retries: usize,
+    /// Minimum backoff in milliseconds between retry attempts.
+    pub min_backoff_ms: u64,
+    /// Maximum backoff in milliseconds between retry attempts.
+    pub max_backoff_ms: u64,
+}
+
+impl Default for AimdThrottleConfig {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        let aimd = AimdConfig::default();
+        Self {
+            read: aimd.clone(),
+            write: aimd.clone(),
+            delete: aimd.clone(),
+            list: aimd,
+            burst_capacity: 100,
+            max_retries: 3,
+            min_backoff_ms: 100,
+            max_backoff_ms: 300,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AimdThrottleConfig {
+    /// Set the AIMD configuration for all four operation categories at once.
+    pub fn with_aimd(self, aimd: AimdConfig) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            read: aimd.clone(),
+            write: aimd.clone(),
+            delete: aimd.clone(),
+            list: aimd,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the AIMD configuration for read operations.
+    pub fn with_read_aimd(self, aimd: AimdConfig) -> Self {
+        Self { read: aimd, ..self }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the AIMD configuration for write operations.
+    pub fn with_write_aimd(self, aimd: AimdConfig) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            write: aimd,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the AIMD configuration for delete operations.
+    pub fn with_delete_aimd(self, aimd: AimdConfig) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            delete: aimd,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the AIMD configuration for list operations.
+    pub fn with_list_aimd(self, aimd: AimdConfig) -> Self {
+        Self { list: aimd, ..self }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns `true` when the AIMD throttle layer should be bypassed entirely.
+    pub fn is_disabled(&self) -> bool {
+        self.max_retries == 0
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_burst_capacity(self, burst_capacity: u32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            burst_capacity,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build an `AimdThrottleConfig` from storage options and environment variables.
+    ///
+    /// Storage options take precedence over environment variables, which take
+    /// precedence over defaults. A single AIMD config is applied to all four
+    /// operation categories (read/write/delete/list).
+    ///
+    /// | Setting              | Storage Option Key               | Env Var                          | Default |
+    /// |----------------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------|---------|
+    /// | Initial rate         | `lance_aimd_initial_rate`        | `LANCE_AIMD_INITIAL_RATE`        | 2000    |
+    /// | Min rate             | `lance_aimd_min_rate`            | `LANCE_AIMD_MIN_RATE`            | 1       |
+    /// | Max rate             | `lance_aimd_max_rate`            | `LANCE_AIMD_MAX_RATE`            | 5000    |
+    /// | Decrease factor      | `lance_aimd_decrease_factor`     | `LANCE_AIMD_DECREASE_FACTOR`     | 0.5     |
+    /// | Additive increment   | `lance_aimd_additive_increment`  | `LANCE_AIMD_ADDITIVE_INCREMENT`  | 300     |
+    /// | Burst capacity       | `lance_aimd_burst_capacity`      | `LANCE_AIMD_BURST_CAPACITY`      | 100     |
+    /// | Max retries          | `lance_aimd_max_retries`         | `LANCE_AIMD_MAX_RETRIES`         | 3       |
+    /// | Min backoff ms       | `lance_aimd_min_backoff_ms`      | `LANCE_AIMD_MIN_BACKOFF_MS`      | 100     |
+    /// | Max backoff ms       | `lance_aimd_max_backoff_ms`      | `LANCE_AIMD_MAX_BACKOFF_MS`      | 300     |
+    pub fn from_storage_options(
+        storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
+        fn resolve_f64(
+            key: &str,
+            storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+            default: f64,
+        ) -> lance_core::Result<f64> {
+            let env_key = key.to_ascii_uppercase();
+            if let Some(val) = storage_options.and_then(|opts| opts.get(key)) {
+                val.parse::<f64>().map_err(|_| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid value for storage option '{key}': '{val}'"
+                    ))
+                })
+            } else if let Ok(val) = std::env::var(&env_key) {
+                val.parse::<f64>().map_err(|_| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid value for env var '{env_key}': '{val}'"
+                    ))
+                })
+            } else {
+                Ok(default)
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn resolve_u32(
+            key: &str,
+            storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+            default: u32,
+        ) -> lance_core::Result<u32> {
+            let env_key = key.to_ascii_uppercase();
+            if let Some(val) = storage_options.and_then(|opts| opts.get(key)) {
+                val.parse::<u32>().map_err(|_| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid value for storage option '{key}': '{val}'"
+                    ))
+                })
+            } else if let Ok(val) = std::env::var(&env_key) {
+                val.parse::<u32>().map_err(|_| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid value for env var '{env_key}': '{val}'"
+                    ))
+                })
+            } else {
+                Ok(default)
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn resolve_usize(
+            key: &str,
+            storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+            default: usize,
+        ) -> lance_core::Result<usize> {
+            let env_key = key.to_ascii_uppercase();
+            if let Some(val) = storage_options.and_then(|opts| opts.get(key)) {
+                val.parse::<usize>().map_err(|_| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid value for storage option '{key}': '{val}'"
+                    ))
+                })
+            } else if let Ok(val) = std::env::var(&env_key) {
+                val.parse::<usize>().map_err(|_| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid value for env var '{env_key}': '{val}'"
+                    ))
+                })
+            } else {
+                Ok(default)
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn resolve_u64(
+            key: &str,
+            storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+            default: u64,
+        ) -> lance_core::Result<u64> {
+            let env_key = key.to_ascii_uppercase();
+            if let Some(val) = storage_options.and_then(|opts| opts.get(key)) {
+                val.parse::<u64>().map_err(|_| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid value for storage option '{key}': '{val}'"
+                    ))
+                })
+            } else if let Ok(val) = std::env::var(&env_key) {
+                val.parse::<u64>().map_err(|_| {
+                    lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Invalid value for env var '{env_key}': '{val}'"
+                    ))
+                })
+            } else {
+                Ok(default)
+            }
+        }
+
+        let initial_rate = resolve_f64("lance_aimd_initial_rate", storage_options, 2000.0)?;
+        let min_rate = resolve_f64("lance_aimd_min_rate", storage_options, 1.0)?;
+        let max_rate = resolve_f64("lance_aimd_max_rate", storage_options, 5000.0)?;
+        let decrease_factor = resolve_f64("lance_aimd_decrease_factor", storage_options, 0.5)?;
+        let additive_increment =
+            resolve_f64("lance_aimd_additive_increment", storage_options, 300.0)?;
+        let burst_capacity = resolve_u32("lance_aimd_burst_capacity", storage_options, 100)?;
+        let max_retries = resolve_usize("lance_aimd_max_retries", storage_options, 3)?;
+        let min_backoff_ms = resolve_u64("lance_aimd_min_backoff_ms", storage_options, 100)?;
+        let max_backoff_ms = resolve_u64("lance_aimd_max_backoff_ms", storage_options, 300)?;
+
+        let aimd = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(initial_rate)
+            .with_min_rate(min_rate)
+            .with_max_rate(max_rate)
+            .with_decrease_factor(decrease_factor)
+            .with_additive_increment(additive_increment);
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            max_retries,
+            min_backoff_ms,
+            max_backoff_ms,
+            ..Self::default()
+                .with_aimd(aimd)
+                .with_burst_capacity(burst_capacity)
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+struct TokenBucketState {
+    tokens: f64,
+    last_refill: tokio::time::Instant,
+    rate: f64,
+}
+
+/// Per-category throttle state: an AIMD controller paired with a token bucket.
+struct OperationThrottle {
+    controller: AimdController,
+    bucket: Mutex<TokenBucketState>,
+    burst_capacity: f64,
+    max_retries: usize,
+    min_backoff_ms: u64,
+    max_backoff_ms: u64,
+}
+
+impl OperationThrottle {
+    fn new(
+        aimd_config: AimdConfig,
+        burst_capacity: f64,
+        max_retries: usize,
+        min_backoff_ms: u64,
+        max_backoff_ms: u64,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
+        let initial_rate = aimd_config.initial_rate;
+        let controller = AimdController::new(aimd_config)?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            controller,
+            bucket: Mutex::new(TokenBucketState {
+                tokens: burst_capacity,
+                last_refill: tokio::time::Instant::now(),
+                rate: initial_rate,
+            }),
+            burst_capacity,
+            max_retries,
+            min_backoff_ms,
+            max_backoff_ms,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Acquire a token from the bucket, sleeping if none are available.
+    ///
+    /// Each caller reserves a token immediately (allowing `tokens` to go
+    /// negative) so that concurrent waiters queue behind each other instead
+    /// of all waking at the same instant (thundering herd).
+    async fn acquire_token(&self) {
+        let sleep_duration = {
+            let mut bucket = self.bucket.lock().await;
+            let now = tokio::time::Instant::now();
+            let elapsed = now.duration_since(bucket.last_refill).as_secs_f64();
+            bucket.tokens = (bucket.tokens + elapsed * bucket.rate).min(self.burst_capacity);
+            bucket.last_refill = now;
+
+            // Reserve a token (may go negative to queue behind other waiters)
+            bucket.tokens -= 1.0;
+
+            if bucket.tokens >= 0.0 {
+                // Had a token available, no need to sleep
+                return;
+            }
+
+            // Sleep proportional to our position in the queue
+            std::time::Duration::from_secs_f64(-bucket.tokens / bucket.rate)
+        };
+
+        tokio::time::sleep(sleep_duration).await;
+    }
+
+    /// Update the bucket's fill rate from the controller.
+    async fn update_bucket_rate(&self, new_rate: f64) {
+        let mut bucket = self.bucket.lock().await;
+        bucket.rate = new_rate;
+    }
+
+    /// Classify a result and feed it back to the AIMD controller without
+    /// acquiring a token. Uses `try_lock` for the bucket update so that if the
+    /// bucket lock is contended the rate update is deferred to the next
+    /// `throttled()` call.
+    fn observe_outcome<T>(&self, result: &OSResult<T>) {
+        let outcome = match result {
+            Ok(_) => RequestOutcome::Success,
+            Err(err) if is_throttle_error(err) => {
+                debug!(
+                    target: TRACE_OBJECT_STORE_THROTTLE,
+                    error = %err,
+                    "Throttle error detected in stream"
+                );
+                RequestOutcome::Throttled
+            }
+            Err(_) => RequestOutcome::Success,
+        };
+        let error = result
+            .as_ref()
+            .err()
+            .map(|error| error as &dyn std::fmt::Display);
+        let new_rate = self.record_outcome(outcome, error);
+        if let Ok(mut bucket) = self.bucket.try_lock() {
+            bucket.rate = new_rate;
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn record_outcome(
+        &self,
+        outcome: RequestOutcome,
+        error: Option<&dyn std::fmt::Display>,
+    ) -> f64 {
+        let prev_rate = self.controller.current_rate();
+        let new_rate = self.controller.record_outcome(outcome);
+        if new_rate < prev_rate {
+            if let Some(error) = error {
+                warn!(
+                    target: TRACE_OBJECT_STORE_THROTTLE,
+                    previous_rate = format!("{prev_rate:.1}"),
+                    new_rate = format!("{new_rate:.1}"),
+                    error = %error,
+                    "AIMD throttle: rate reduced due to throttle errors"
+                );
+            } else {
+                warn!(
+                    target: TRACE_OBJECT_STORE_THROTTLE,
+                    previous_rate = format!("{prev_rate:.1}"),
+                    new_rate = format!("{new_rate:.1}"),
+                    "AIMD throttle: rate reduced due to throttle errors"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        new_rate
+    }
+
+    /// Execute an operation with throttling: acquire token, run, classify result.
+    /// On throttle errors, retries up to `max_retries` times with a random
+    /// backoff between `min_backoff_ms` and `max_backoff_ms` between attempts.
+    async fn throttled<T, F, Fut>(&self, f: F) -> OSResult<T>
+    where
+        F: Fn() -> Fut,
+        Fut: std::future::Future<Output = OSResult<T>>,
+    {
+        for attempt in 0..=self.max_retries {
+            self.acquire_token().await;
+            let result = f().await;
+            let outcome = match &result {
+                Ok(_) => RequestOutcome::Success,
+                Err(err) if is_throttle_error(err) => {
+                    debug!(
+                        target: TRACE_OBJECT_STORE_THROTTLE,
+                        error = %err,
+                        "Throttle error detected"
+                    );
+                    RequestOutcome::Throttled
+                }
+                Err(_) => RequestOutcome::Success, // Non-throttle errors don't indicate capacity problems
+            };
+            let error = result
+                .as_ref()
+                .err()
+                .map(|error| error as &dyn std::fmt::Display);
+            let new_rate = self.record_outcome(outcome, error);
+            self.update_bucket_rate(new_rate).await;
+
+            match &result {
+                Err(err) if is_throttle_error(err) && attempt < self.max_retries => {
+                    let backoff_ms =
+                        rand::rng().random_range(self.min_backoff_ms..=self.max_backoff_ms);
+                    debug!(
+                        target: TRACE_OBJECT_STORE_THROTTLE,
+                        attempt = attempt + 1,
+                        max_retries = self.max_retries,
+                        backoff_ms,
+                        error = %err,
+                        "Retrying after throttle error"
+                    );
+                    tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(backoff_ms)).await;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                _ => return result,
+            }
+        }
+        unreachable!()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Debug for OperationThrottle {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("OperationThrottle")
+            .field("controller", &self.controller)
+            .field("burst_capacity", &self.burst_capacity)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct AimdThrottleState {
+    read: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+    write: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+    delete: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+    list: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+}
+
+impl AimdThrottleState {
+    pub(crate) fn new(config: AimdThrottleConfig) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
+        let burst_capacity = config.burst_capacity as f64;
+        let max_retries = config.max_retries;
+        let min_backoff_ms = config.min_backoff_ms;
+        let max_backoff_ms = config.max_backoff_ms;
+        Ok(Self {
+            read: Arc::new(OperationThrottle::new(
+                config.read,
+                burst_capacity,
+                max_retries,
+                min_backoff_ms,
+                max_backoff_ms,
+            )?),
+            write: Arc::new(OperationThrottle::new(
+                config.write,
+                burst_capacity,
+                max_retries,
+                min_backoff_ms,
+                max_backoff_ms,
+            )?),
+            delete: Arc::new(OperationThrottle::new(
+                config.delete,
+                burst_capacity,
+                max_retries,
+                min_backoff_ms,
+                max_backoff_ms,
+            )?),
+            list: Arc::new(OperationThrottle::new(
+                config.list,
+                burst_capacity,
+                max_retries,
+                min_backoff_ms,
+                max_backoff_ms,
+            )?),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn downgrade(&self) -> WeakThrottleState {
+        WeakThrottleState {
+            read: Arc::downgrade(&self.read),
+            write: Arc::downgrade(&self.write),
+            delete: Arc::downgrade(&self.delete),
+            list: Arc::downgrade(&self.list),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A cache entry of [`SHARED_THROTTLE_STATES`]: alive exactly as long as some
+/// store still holds the budgets, since a store keeps all four.
+struct WeakThrottleState {
+    read: Weak<OperationThrottle>,
+    write: Weak<OperationThrottle>,
+    delete: Weak<OperationThrottle>,
+    list: Weak<OperationThrottle>,
+}
+
+impl WeakThrottleState {
+    fn upgrade(&self) -> Option<AimdThrottleState> {
+        Some(AimdThrottleState {
+            read: self.read.upgrade()?,
+            write: self.write.upgrade()?,
+            delete: self.delete.upgrade()?,
+            list: self.list.upgrade()?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Throttle budgets keyed by the same `(store prefix, params)` identity the
+/// registry caches stores under. The AIMD contract is one budget per bucket, so
+/// stores that are split further, one per dataset in the `dataset` metrics label
+/// mode, must share the bucket's budget rather than each getting a full one.
+static SHARED_THROTTLE_STATES: LazyLock<
+    std::sync::Mutex<HashMap<(String, ObjectStoreParams), WeakThrottleState>>,
+> = LazyLock::new(Default::default);
+
+/// The throttle state for a store of `store_prefix` built with `params`: the one
+/// its sibling stores already use, or a fresh one. `None` when throttling is
+/// disabled by the params.
+pub(crate) fn shared_throttle_state(
+    store_prefix: &str,
+    params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Option<AimdThrottleState>> {
+    let config = AimdThrottleConfig::from_storage_options(params.storage_options())?;
+    if config.is_disabled() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let key = (store_prefix.to_owned(), params.clone());
+    let mut states = SHARED_THROTTLE_STATES
+        .lock()
+        .expect("SHARED_THROTTLE_STATES lock poisoned");
+    if let Some(state) = states.get(&key).and_then(WeakThrottleState::upgrade) {
+        return Ok(Some(state));
+    }
+    let state = AimdThrottleState::new(config)?;
+    // Entries whose stores are gone can only be replaced, never hit, so drop them
+    // while the map is being grown anyway.
+    states.retain(|_, weak| weak.upgrade().is_some());
+    states.insert(key, state.downgrade());
+    Ok(Some(state))
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct AimdMultipartUploadConnector<C> {
+    inner: C,
+    write: Option<Arc<OperationThrottle>>,
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+impl<C> AimdMultipartUploadConnector<C> {
+    fn new(inner: C, state: Option<&AimdThrottleState>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner,
+            write: state.map(|state| Arc::clone(&state.write)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"),
+    feature = "metrics"
+))]
+pub(crate) fn cloud_http_connector(
+    state: Option<&AimdThrottleState>,
+    metrics_base: String,
+) -> AimdMultipartUploadConnector<crate::object_store::metrics::MeteringHttpConnector> {
+    AimdMultipartUploadConnector::new(
+        crate::object_store::metrics::MeteringHttpConnector::new(metrics_base),
+        state,
+    )
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"),
+    not(feature = "metrics")
+))]
+pub(crate) fn cloud_http_connector(
+    state: Option<&AimdThrottleState>,
+    _metrics_base: String,
+) -> AimdMultipartUploadConnector<object_store::client::ReqwestConnector> {
+    AimdMultipartUploadConnector::new(object_store::client::ReqwestConnector::default(), state)
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+impl<C: HttpConnector> HttpConnector for AimdMultipartUploadConnector<C> {
+    fn connect(&self, options: &ClientOptions) -> object_store::Result<HttpClient> {
+        Ok(HttpClient::new(AimdMultipartUploadService {
+            inner: self.inner.connect(options)?,
+            write: self.write.clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct AimdMultipartUploadService {
+    inner: HttpClient,
+    write: Option<Arc<OperationThrottle>>,
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+fn is_multipart_part_request(request: &HttpRequest) -> bool {
+    if request.method() != ::http::Method::PUT {
+        return false;
+    }
+    request.uri().query().is_some_and(|query| {
+        url::form_urlencoded::parse(query.as_bytes()).any(|(key, value)| {
+            key.eq_ignore_ascii_case("partNumber")
+                || (key.eq_ignore_ascii_case("comp") && value.eq_ignore_ascii_case("block"))
+        })
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+fn is_retryable_http_error(error: &HttpError) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        error.kind(),
+        HttpErrorKind::Connect
+            | HttpErrorKind::Request
+            | HttpErrorKind::Timeout
+            | HttpErrorKind::Interrupted
+    )
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+#[async_trait]
+impl HttpService for AimdMultipartUploadService {
+    async fn call(&self, request: HttpRequest) -> Result<HttpResponse, HttpError> {
+        let Some(write) = self.write.as_ref() else {
+            return self.inner.execute(request).await;
+        };
+        if !is_multipart_part_request(&request) {
+            return self.inner.execute(request).await;
+        }
+
+        for attempt in 0..=write.max_retries {
+            write.acquire_token().await;
+            let mut result = self.inner.execute(request.clone()).await;
+            let mut is_retryable = result.as_ref().err().is_some_and(is_retryable_http_error);
+            let mut is_throttle = false;
+            let mut response_status = None;
+
+            if let Ok(response) = result {
+                let status = response.status();
+                response_status = Some(status);
+                is_retryable = status == ::http::StatusCode::REQUEST_TIMEOUT
+                    || status == ::http::StatusCode::TOO_MANY_REQUESTS
+                    || status.is_server_error();
+                is_throttle = status == ::http::StatusCode::TOO_MANY_REQUESTS
+                    || status == ::http::StatusCode::SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE;
+
+                let (parts, body) = response.into_parts();
+                result = match body.bytes().await {
+                    Ok(bytes) => {
+                        let body = String::from_utf8_lossy(&bytes).to_ascii_lowercase();
+                        let is_throttle_body = body.contains("requesttimeout")
+                            || body.contains("slowdown")
+                            || body.contains("serverbusy")
+                            || body.contains("throttl");
+                        is_retryable |= is_throttle_body;
+                        is_throttle |= is_throttle_body;
+                        Ok(HttpResponse::from_parts(
+                            parts,
+                            HttpResponseBody::from(bytes),
+                        ))
+                    }
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        is_retryable = is_retryable_http_error(&error);
+                        Err(error)
+                    }
+                };
+            }
+
+            let detail = response_status
+                .filter(|status| !status.is_success())
+                .map(|status| format!("HTTP status {status}"));
+            let error = result
+                .as_ref()
+                .err()
+                .map(|error| error as &dyn std::fmt::Display)
+                .or_else(|| {
+                    detail
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|detail| detail as &dyn std::fmt::Display)
+                });
+            let outcome = if is_throttle {
+                RequestOutcome::Throttled
+            } else {
+                RequestOutcome::Success
+            };
+            let new_rate = write.record_outcome(outcome, error);
+            write.update_bucket_rate(new_rate).await;
+
+            if is_retryable && attempt < write.max_retries {
+                let backoff_ms =
+                    rand::rng().random_range(write.min_backoff_ms..=write.max_backoff_ms);
+                debug!(
+                    target: TRACE_OBJECT_STORE_THROTTLE,
+                    attempt = attempt + 1,
+                    max_retries = write.max_retries,
+                    backoff_ms,
+                    "Retrying multipart upload part after retryable HTTP response"
+                );
+                tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(backoff_ms)).await;
+                continue;
+            }
+            return result;
+        }
+        unreachable!()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A [`MultipartUpload`] wrapper that applies the write AIMD controller.
+struct ThrottledMultipartUpload {
+    target: Box<dyn MultipartUpload>,
+    write: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+    parts_throttled_at_http: bool,
+}
+
+impl Debug for ThrottledMultipartUpload {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("ThrottledMultipartUpload").finish()
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl MultipartUpload for ThrottledMultipartUpload {
+    fn put_part(&mut self, data: PutPayload) -> UploadPart {
+        // Call put_part synchronously to preserve part ordering regardless
+        // of which futures are awaited first.
+        let fut = self.target.put_part(data);
+        if self.parts_throttled_at_http {
+            return fut;
+        }
+        let write = Arc::clone(&self.write);
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            write.acquire_token().await;
+            let result = fut.await;
+            write.observe_outcome(&result);
+            result
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn complete(&mut self) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+        let target = &mut self.target;
+        for attempt in 0..=self.write.max_retries {
+            self.write.acquire_token().await;
+            let result = target.complete().await;
+            self.write.observe_outcome(&result);
+
+            match &result {
+                Err(err) if is_throttle_error(err) && attempt < self.write.max_retries => {
+                    let backoff_ms = rand::rng()
+                        .random_range(self.write.min_backoff_ms..=self.write.max_backoff_ms);
+                    tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(backoff_ms)).await;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                _ => return result,
+            }
+        }
+        unreachable!()
+    }
+
+    async fn abort(&mut self) -> OSResult<()> {
+        let target = &mut self.target;
+        for attempt in 0..=self.write.max_retries {
+            self.write.acquire_token().await;
+            let result = target.abort().await;
+            self.write.observe_outcome(&result);
+
+            match &result {
+                Err(err) if is_throttle_error(err) && attempt < self.write.max_retries => {
+                    let backoff_ms = rand::rng()
+                        .random_range(self.write.min_backoff_ms..=self.write.max_backoff_ms);
+                    tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(backoff_ms)).await;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                _ => return result,
+            }
+        }
+        unreachable!()
+    }
+}
+
+/// An ObjectStore wrapper that rate-limits operations using per-category token
+/// buckets whose fill rates are controlled by AIMD algorithms.
+///
+/// Operations are split into four independent categories:
+/// - **read**: `get`, `get_opts`, `get_range`, `get_ranges`, `head`
+/// - **write**: `put`, `put_opts`, `put_multipart`, `put_multipart_opts`, `copy`, `copy_if_not_exists`, `rename`, `rename_if_not_exists`
+/// - **delete**: `delete`
+/// - **list**: `list`, `list_with_offset`, `list_with_delimiter`
+///
+/// Streaming list operations acquire a token before starting the underlying list stream.
+/// Streaming operations also observe each yielded item and feed the result back to the
+/// AIMD controller so it can adjust the rate for other operations in the same category.
+///
+/// This is not perfect but probably as close as we can get without moving the throttle into
+/// the object_store crate itself.
+pub struct AimdThrottledStore {
+    target: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+    read: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+    write: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+    delete: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+    list: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+    multipart_parts_throttled_at_http: bool,
+}
+
+impl Debug for AimdThrottledStore {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("AimdThrottledStore")
+            .field("target", &self.target)
+            .field("read", &self.read)
+            .field("write", &self.write)
+            .field("delete", &self.delete)
+            .field("list", &self.list)
+            .field(
+                "multipart_parts_throttled_at_http",
+                &self.multipart_parts_throttled_at_http,
+            )
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Display for AimdThrottledStore {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "AimdThrottledStore({})", self.target)
+    }
+}
+
+impl AimdThrottledStore {
+    pub fn new(
+        target: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+        config: AimdThrottleConfig,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::new_with_state(
+            target,
+            AimdThrottleState::new(config)?,
+            false,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn new_with_state(
+        target: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+        state: AimdThrottleState,
+        multipart_parts_throttled_at_http: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            target,
+            read: state.read,
+            write: state.write,
+            delete: state.delete,
+            list: state.list,
+            multipart_parts_throttled_at_http,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Put a paginated lister on the same list budget as this store.
+    pub fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        inner: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore> {
+        Arc::new(ThrottledListStore {
+            inner,
+            throttle: self.list.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// A store paired with the paginated lister that shares its rate limits.
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+type StoreWithLister = (Arc<dyn ObjectStore>, Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>>);
+
+/// Apply AIMD throttling to a store and to the lister that shares its list budget.
+///
+/// [`crate::object_store::ObjectStore::read_dir_page`] goes to the lister rather than
+/// through the store, so both have to be wrapped for list requests to be counted once
+/// against one rate.
+#[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+pub(crate) fn with_throttling(
+    state: Option<AimdThrottleState>,
+    multipart_parts_throttled_at_http: bool,
+    store: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+    lister: Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>>,
+) -> StoreWithLister {
+    let Some(state) = state else {
+        return (store, lister);
+    };
+    let store = Arc::new(AimdThrottledStore::new_with_state(
+        store,
+        state,
+        multipart_parts_throttled_at_http,
+    ));
+    let lister = lister.map(|lister| store.wrap_paginated(lister));
+    (store, lister)
+}
+
+/// A [`PaginatedListStore`] whose requests draw on a store's list token bucket.
+struct ThrottledListStore {
+    inner: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+    throttle: Arc<OperationThrottle>,
+}
+
+// Throttling only adds waiting, so every semantic of the store it wraps has to reach the
+// listing unchanged; the lint keeps a method added to the trait from silently falling back to
+// its default here.
+#[async_trait]
+#[deny(clippy::missing_trait_methods)]
+impl PaginatedListStore for ThrottledListStore {
+    async fn list_paginated(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&str>,
+        opts: PaginatedListOptions,
+    ) -> OSResult<PaginatedListResult> {
+        self.throttle
+            .throttled(|| self.inner.list_paginated(prefix, opts.clone()))
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+#[deny(clippy::missing_trait_methods)]
+impl ObjectStore for AimdThrottledStore {
+    async fn put_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        bytes: PutPayload,
+        opts: PutOptions,
+    ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+        self.write
+            .throttled(|| self.target.put_opts(location, bytes.clone(), opts.clone()))
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn put_multipart_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+    ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+        let target = self
+            .write
+            .throttled(|| self.target.put_multipart_opts(location, opts.clone()))
+            .await?;
+        Ok(Box::new(ThrottledMultipartUpload {
+            target,
+            write: Arc::clone(&self.write),
+            parts_throttled_at_http: self.multipart_parts_throttled_at_http,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+        self.read
+            .throttled(|| self.target.get_opts(location, options.clone()))
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+        self.read
+            .throttled(|| self.target.get_ranges(location, ranges))
+            .await
+    }
+
+    fn delete_stream(
+        &self,
+        locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+        let delete = Arc::clone(&self.delete);
+        self.target
+            .delete_stream(locations)
+            .map(move |item| {
+                delete.observe_outcome(&item);
+                item
+            })
+            .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+        let throttle = Arc::clone(&self.list);
+        let throttle_for_start = Arc::clone(&throttle);
+        let target = Arc::clone(&self.target);
+        let prefix = prefix.cloned();
+        futures::stream::once(async move {
+            throttle_for_start.acquire_token().await;
+            target.list(prefix.as_ref())
+        })
+        .flatten()
+        .map(move |item| {
+            throttle.observe_outcome(&item);
+            item
+        })
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn list_with_offset(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&Path>,
+        offset: &Path,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+        let throttle = Arc::clone(&self.list);
+        let throttle_for_start = Arc::clone(&throttle);
+        let target = Arc::clone(&self.target);
+        let prefix = prefix.cloned();
+        let offset = offset.clone();
+        futures::stream::once(async move {
+            throttle_for_start.acquire_token().await;
+            target.list_with_offset(prefix.as_ref(), &offset)
+        })
+        .flatten()
+        .map(move |item| {
+            throttle.observe_outcome(&item);
+            item
+        })
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+        self.list
+            .throttled(|| self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix))
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+        self.write
+            .throttled(|| self.target.copy_opts(from, to, opts.clone()))
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn rename_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: RenameOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+        self.write
+            .throttled(|| self.target.rename_opts(from, to, opts.clone()))
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shared_throttle_state_follows_store_identity() {
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams::default();
+        let a = shared_throttle_state("s3$shared-bucket", &params)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let b = shared_throttle_state("s3$shared-bucket", &params)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        // Two stores of one bucket, e.g. two datasets in dataset label mode, draw
+        // on one budget per operation category.
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&a.read, &b.read));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&a.write, &b.write));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&a.delete, &b.delete));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&a.list, &b.list));
+
+        let other = shared_throttle_state("s3$other-bucket", &params)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&a.read, &other.read));
+
+        let disabled = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([("lance_aimd_max_retries".to_string(), "0".to_string())]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(
+            shared_throttle_state("s3$shared-bucket", &disabled)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+    use object_store::memory::InMemory;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::VecDeque;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+    const THROTTLE_ERROR_RESPONSE: &str = "request failed, after 3 retries, max_retries: 3, retry_timeout: 30s - Server returned non-2xx status code: 503: x-ms-request-id: azure-request-id";
+
+    fn make_generic_error(msg: &str) -> object_store::Error {
+        object_store::Error::Generic {
+            store: "test",
+            source: msg.into(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::retry_error("Error after 10 retries, max_retries: 10, retry_timeout: 180s", true)]
+    #[case::retries_in_message(
+        "request failed, after 3 retries, max_retries: 5, retry_timeout: 60s",
+        true
+    )]
+    #[case::not_found("Object not found", false)]
+    #[case::permission_denied("Access denied", false)]
+    #[case::timeout("Connection timed out", false)]
+    #[case::http_429_without_retries("HTTP 429 Too Many Requests", true)]
+    #[case::slowdown_without_retries("SlowDown: Please reduce your request rate", true)]
+    #[case::azure_server_busy("Code: ServerBusy", true)]
+    #[case::azure_egress_limit("Message: Egress is over the account limit", true)]
+    fn test_is_throttle_error(#[case] msg: &str, #[case] expected: bool) {
+        let err = make_generic_error(msg);
+        assert_eq!(
+            is_throttle_error(&err),
+            expected,
+            "is_throttle_error for '{}' should be {}",
+            msg,
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_non_generic_errors_are_not_throttle() {
+        let err = object_store::Error::NotFound {
+            path: "test".to_string(),
+            source: "not found".into(),
+        };
+        assert!(!is_throttle_error(&err));
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "aws", feature = "azure", feature = "gcp"))]
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::s3("https://bucket/object?partNumber=1&uploadId=id", true)]
+    #[case::azure_block("https://account/object?comp=block&blockid=id", true)]
+    #[case::azure_block_list("https://account/object?comp=blocklist", false)]
+    #[case::ordinary_put("https://bucket/object", false)]
+    fn test_is_multipart_part_request(#[case] uri: &str, #[case] expected: bool) {
+        let request = ::http::Request::builder()
+            .method(::http::Method::PUT)
+            .uri(uri)
+            .body(object_store::client::HttpRequestBody::empty())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(is_multipart_part_request(&request), expected);
+    }
+
+    /// One page of a fixed directory, counting the requests that reached it.
+    #[derive(Default)]
+    struct CountingListStore {
+        calls: AtomicUsize,
+        fail_with: Option<String>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl PaginatedListStore for CountingListStore {
+        async fn list_paginated(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&str>,
+            _opts: PaginatedListOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PaginatedListResult> {
+            self.calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            match &self.fail_with {
+                Some(message) => Err(make_generic_error(message)),
+                None => Ok(PaginatedListResult {
+                    result: ListResult {
+                        common_prefixes: vec![Path::from("prefix/child")],
+                        objects: Vec::new(),
+                    },
+                    page_token: None,
+                }),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_paginated_lister_acquires_a_token_before_listing() {
+        let lister = Arc::new(CountingListStore::default());
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(
+            Arc::new(InMemory::new()) as Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+            list_start_throttle_config(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let throttled_lister = throttled.wrap_paginated(lister.clone());
+
+        let mut page = Box::pin(
+            throttled_lister.list_paginated(Some("prefix/"), PaginatedListOptions::default()),
+        );
+        // With rate=10 tokens/s and burst_capacity=0, the token acquisition sleeps for
+        // 100 ms. A 50 ms timeout must expire before that.
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(50), &mut page)
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(lister.calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+
+        let page = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(300), page)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(page.result.common_prefixes.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(lister.calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_paginated_lister_throttle_errors_decrease_rate() {
+        let lister = Arc::new(CountingListStore {
+            calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            fail_with: Some(THROTTLE_ERROR_RESPONSE.to_string()),
+        });
+        let mut config = AimdThrottleConfig::default().with_list_aimd(
+            AimdConfig::default()
+                .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+                .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+                .with_window_duration(std::time::Duration::from_millis(1)),
+        );
+        config.max_retries = 1;
+        // The AIMD window is only evaluated when an outcome is recorded after the
+        // window has elapsed, so the retry backoff must outlast `window_duration`.
+        // With a zero backoff the two attempts against this in-memory lister can
+        // finish inside the first window (observed on Windows), leaving the rate
+        // untouched.
+        config.min_backoff_ms = 5;
+        config.max_backoff_ms = 5;
+        let throttled =
+            AimdThrottledStore::new(Arc::new(InMemory::new()) as Arc<dyn ObjectStore>, config)
+                .unwrap();
+        let throttled_lister = throttled.wrap_paginated(lister.clone());
+
+        assert!(
+            throttled_lister
+                .list_paginated(Some("prefix/"), PaginatedListOptions::default())
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+
+        // The request was retried once, and the throttle response pushed the rate down.
+        assert_eq!(lister.calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 2);
+        assert!(throttled.list.controller.current_rate() < 100.0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_basic_put_get_through_wrapper() {
+        let store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default();
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(store, config).unwrap();
+
+        let path = Path::from("test/file.txt");
+        let data = PutPayload::from_static(b"hello world");
+        throttled.put(&path, data).await.unwrap();
+
+        let result = throttled.get(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let bytes = result.bytes().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes.as_ref(), b"hello world");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_rate_decreases_on_throttle() {
+        let store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default().with_aimd(
+            AimdConfig::default()
+                .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+                .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+                .with_window_duration(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10)),
+        );
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(store, config).unwrap();
+
+        let initial_rate = throttled.read.controller.current_rate();
+        assert_eq!(initial_rate, 100.0);
+
+        // Simulate a throttle outcome directly
+        throttled
+            .read
+            .controller
+            .record_outcome(RequestOutcome::Throttled);
+
+        // Wait for window to expire and trigger evaluation
+        tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(20)).await;
+        throttled
+            .read
+            .controller
+            .record_outcome(RequestOutcome::Success);
+
+        let new_rate = throttled.read.controller.current_rate();
+        assert!(
+            new_rate < initial_rate,
+            "Rate should decrease after throttle: {} < {}",
+            new_rate,
+            initial_rate
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_rate_recovers_on_success() {
+        let store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default().with_aimd(
+            AimdConfig::default()
+                .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+                .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+                .with_additive_increment(10.0)
+                .with_window_duration(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10)),
+        );
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(store, config).unwrap();
+
+        // First decrease via throttle
+        throttled
+            .read
+            .controller
+            .record_outcome(RequestOutcome::Throttled);
+        tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(20)).await;
+        throttled
+            .read
+            .controller
+            .record_outcome(RequestOutcome::Success);
+        let decreased_rate = throttled.read.controller.current_rate();
+        assert_eq!(decreased_rate, 50.0);
+
+        // Now recover via success
+        tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(20)).await;
+        throttled
+            .read
+            .controller
+            .record_outcome(RequestOutcome::Success);
+        let recovered_rate = throttled.read.controller.current_rate();
+        assert_eq!(recovered_rate, 60.0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_as_dyn_object_store() {
+        let store: Arc<dyn ObjectStore> = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let throttled: Arc<dyn ObjectStore> =
+            Arc::new(AimdThrottledStore::new(store, AimdThrottleConfig::default()).unwrap());
+
+        let path = Path::from("test/data.bin");
+        let data = PutPayload::from_static(b"test data");
+        throttled.put(&path, data).await.unwrap();
+
+        let result = throttled.get(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let bytes = result.bytes().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes.as_ref(), b"test data");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_token_bucket_delays_when_exhausted() {
+        let store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        // Very low rate and burst capacity to force waiting
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default()
+            .with_burst_capacity(1)
+            .with_aimd(AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(10.0));
+        let throttled = Arc::new(AimdThrottledStore::new(store, config).unwrap());
+
+        let path = Path::from("test/file.txt");
+        let data = PutPayload::from_static(b"data");
+        throttled.put(&path, data).await.unwrap();
+
+        // After consuming the burst token, the next request should take ~100ms
+        // (1 token / 10 tokens-per-sec). We verify it takes at least 50ms.
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        let data2 = PutPayload::from_static(b"data2");
+        throttled.put(&path, data2).await.unwrap();
+        let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+
+        assert!(
+            elapsed >= std::time::Duration::from_millis(50),
+            "Expected delay for token refill, but elapsed was {:?}",
+            elapsed
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_observes_outcomes() {
+        let store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default();
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(store.clone(), config).unwrap();
+
+        let path = Path::from("prefix/file.txt");
+        let data = PutPayload::from_static(b"data");
+        store.put(&path, data).await.unwrap();
+
+        let items: Vec<_> = throttled.list(Some(&Path::from("prefix"))).collect().await;
+        assert_eq!(items.len(), 1);
+        assert!(items[0].is_ok());
+    }
+
+    /// A mock store whose `list` stream yields a configurable sequence of
+    /// Ok / throttle-error items. Used to verify that the AIMD wrapper
+    /// observes errors surfaced inside list streams.
+    struct ThrottlingListMockStore {
+        inner: InMemory,
+        /// Number of throttle errors to inject at the start of each list call.
+        throttle_count: usize,
+    }
+
+    impl Display for ThrottlingListMockStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "ThrottlingListMockStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Debug for ThrottlingListMockStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            f.debug_struct("ThrottlingListMockStore").finish()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ObjectStore for ThrottlingListMockStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+        }
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
+        }
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            let n = self.throttle_count;
+            let inner_stream = self.inner.list(prefix);
+            let errors = futures::stream::iter((0..n).map(|_| {
+                Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                    store: "ThrottlingListMock",
+                    source: "request failed, after 3 retries, max_retries: 5, retry_timeout: 60s"
+                        .into(),
+                })
+            }));
+            errors.chain(inner_stream).boxed()
+        }
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
+        }
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_stream_throttle_errors_decrease_rate() {
+        let mock = Arc::new(ThrottlingListMockStore {
+            inner: InMemory::new(),
+            throttle_count: 5,
+        });
+
+        // Seed a file so the real items come through after the errors.
+        mock.put(
+            &Path::from("prefix/file.txt"),
+            PutPayload::from_static(b"data"),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default().with_list_aimd(
+            AimdConfig::default()
+                .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+                .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+                .with_window_duration(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10)),
+        );
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(mock as Arc<dyn ObjectStore>, config).unwrap();
+
+        let initial_rate = throttled.list.controller.current_rate();
+        assert_eq!(initial_rate, 100.0);
+
+        let items: Vec<_> = throttled.list(Some(&Path::from("prefix"))).collect().await;
+
+        // 5 errors + 1 real item
+        assert_eq!(items.len(), 6);
+        assert!(items[0].is_err());
+        assert!(items[5].is_ok());
+
+        // Wait for the AIMD window to expire and trigger evaluation.
+        tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(20)).await;
+        throttled
+            .list
+            .controller
+            .record_outcome(RequestOutcome::Success);
+
+        let new_rate = throttled.list.controller.current_rate();
+        assert!(
+            new_rate < initial_rate,
+            "List rate should decrease after stream throttle errors: {} < {}",
+            new_rate,
+            initial_rate
+        );
+    }
+
+    struct CountingListStartStore {
+        inner: InMemory,
+        list_calls: AtomicUsize,
+        offset_calls: AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    impl Default for CountingListStartStore {
+        fn default() -> Self {
+            Self {
+                inner: InMemory::new(),
+                list_calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                offset_calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl CountingListStartStore {
+        fn list_calls(&self) -> usize {
+            self.list_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+        }
+
+        fn offset_calls(&self) -> usize {
+            self.offset_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Display for CountingListStartStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "CountingListStartStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Debug for CountingListStartStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            f.debug_struct("CountingListStartStore").finish()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ObjectStore for CountingListStartStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.list_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            self.inner.list(prefix)
+        }
+
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.offset_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn list_start_throttle_config() -> AimdThrottleConfig {
+        // Use a low rate (10 tokens/s) so that the token-acquisition sleep is
+        // 1/10 = 100 ms — well above the 50 ms timeout used in assertions,
+        // avoiding flakiness from coarse OS timer resolution (e.g. Windows ~16 ms).
+        AimdThrottleConfig::default()
+            .with_burst_capacity(0)
+            .with_list_aimd(AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(10.0))
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_list_acquires_token_before_starting_underlying_stream() {
+        let store = Arc::new(CountingListStartStore::default());
+        store
+            .put(
+                &Path::from("prefix/file.txt"),
+                PutPayload::from_static(b"data"),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(
+            store.clone() as Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+            list_start_throttle_config(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut stream = throttled.list(Some(&Path::from("prefix")));
+        assert_eq!(store.list_calls(), 0);
+        // With rate=10 tokens/s and burst_capacity=0, the token acquisition
+        // sleeps for 100 ms. A 50 ms timeout must expire before that.
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(50), stream.next())
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(store.list_calls(), 0);
+
+        let item = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(300), stream.next())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(item.location, Path::from("prefix/file.txt"));
+        assert_eq!(store.list_calls(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_list_with_offset_acquires_token_before_starting_underlying_stream() {
+        let store = Arc::new(CountingListStartStore::default());
+        store
+            .put(&Path::from("prefix/b"), PutPayload::from_static(b"data"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(
+            store.clone() as Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+            list_start_throttle_config(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut stream =
+            throttled.list_with_offset(Some(&Path::from("prefix")), &Path::from("prefix/a"));
+        assert_eq!(store.offset_calls(), 0);
+        // With rate=10 tokens/s and burst_capacity=0, the token acquisition
+        // sleeps for 100 ms. A 50 ms timeout must expire before that.
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(50), stream.next())
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(store.offset_calls(), 0);
+
+        let item = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(300), stream.next())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(item.location, Path::from("prefix/b"));
+        assert_eq!(store.offset_calls(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_per_category_independence() {
+        let store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default().with_aimd(
+            AimdConfig::default()
+                .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+                .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+                .with_window_duration(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10)),
+        );
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(store, config).unwrap();
+
+        // Push the read controller into a throttled state
+        throttled
+            .read
+            .controller
+            .record_outcome(RequestOutcome::Throttled);
+        tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(20)).await;
+        throttled
+            .read
+            .controller
+            .record_outcome(RequestOutcome::Success);
+
+        let read_rate = throttled.read.controller.current_rate();
+        let write_rate = throttled.write.controller.current_rate();
+        let delete_rate = throttled.delete.controller.current_rate();
+        let list_rate = throttled.list.controller.current_rate();
+
+        assert_eq!(read_rate, 50.0, "Read rate should have decreased");
+        assert_eq!(write_rate, 100.0, "Write rate should be unaffected");
+        assert_eq!(delete_rate, 100.0, "Delete rate should be unaffected");
+        assert_eq!(list_rate, 100.0, "List rate should be unaffected");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_per_category_config() {
+        let store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default()
+            .with_read_aimd(AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(200.0))
+            .with_write_aimd(AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(100.0))
+            .with_delete_aimd(AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(50.0))
+            .with_list_aimd(AimdConfig::default().with_initial_rate(25.0));
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(store, config).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(throttled.read.controller.current_rate(), 200.0);
+        assert_eq!(throttled.write.controller.current_rate(), 100.0);
+        assert_eq!(throttled.delete.controller.current_rate(), 50.0);
+        assert_eq!(throttled.list.controller.current_rate(), 25.0);
+    }
+
+    /// A mock [`ObjectStore`] that measures request rate over a sliding window
+    /// and returns 503 errors when the rate exceeds a configurable threshold.
+    /// Write and metadata-only operations are not rate-limited.
+    struct RateLimitingMockStore {
+        inner: InMemory,
+        /// Timestamps of recent successful (admitted) requests.
+        timestamps: std::sync::Mutex<VecDeque<std::time::Instant>>,
+        /// Maximum requests allowed within `window`.
+        max_per_window: usize,
+        /// Sliding window duration.
+        window: std::time::Duration,
+        success_count: AtomicU64,
+        throttle_count: AtomicU64,
+    }
+
+    impl RateLimitingMockStore {
+        fn new(max_per_window: usize, window: std::time::Duration) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                inner: InMemory::new(),
+                timestamps: std::sync::Mutex::new(VecDeque::new()),
+                max_per_window,
+                window,
+                success_count: AtomicU64::new(0),
+                throttle_count: AtomicU64::new(0),
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Returns `true` if the request is admitted, `false` if throttled.
+        fn check_rate(&self) -> bool {
+            let mut ts = self.timestamps.lock().unwrap();
+            let now = std::time::Instant::now();
+            while let Some(&front) = ts.front() {
+                if now.duration_since(front) > self.window {
+                    ts.pop_front();
+                } else {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            if ts.len() >= self.max_per_window {
+                self.throttle_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                false
+            } else {
+                ts.push_back(now);
+                self.success_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                true
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn throttle_error() -> object_store::Error {
+            object_store::Error::Generic {
+                store: "RateLimitingMock",
+                source: THROTTLE_ERROR_RESPONSE.into(),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Display for RateLimitingMockStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "RateLimitingMockStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Debug for RateLimitingMockStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            f.debug_struct("RateLimitingMockStore").finish()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ObjectStore for RateLimitingMockStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            if self.check_rate() {
+                self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
+            } else {
+                Err(Self::throttle_error())
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            if self.check_rate() {
+                self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+            } else {
+                Err(Self::throttle_error())
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list(prefix)
+        }
+
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Verify that multiple concurrent readers sharing an AIMD-throttled store
+    /// converge to the backend's actual capacity.
+    ///
+    /// Setup:
+    /// - Mock backend allows 30 requests per 100ms (= 300 req/s).
+    /// - 5 reader tasks, each with their own [`AimdThrottledStore`] wrapping
+    ///   the shared mock.
+    /// - AIMD: 100ms window, initial rate 100 req/s, decrease 0.5, increase 2.
+    /// - Readers issue `head()` requests as fast as the throttle allows for 2s.
+    ///
+    /// Expected behaviour:
+    /// - Initial burst (100 burst tokens × 5 readers) overshoots the mock
+    ///   capacity, causing many 503s. Each reader's AIMD halves its rate.
+    /// - After the transient, each reader converges to ~60 req/s (300/5).
+    /// - Over 2 seconds, total successful requests should be in the range
+    ///   [300, 900] (theoretical max ≈ 600).
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 8)]
+    async fn test_aimd_throttle_under_concurrent_load() {
+        let mock = Arc::new(RateLimitingMockStore::new(
+            30,
+            std::time::Duration::from_millis(100),
+        ));
+
+        // Seed a test file so head() succeeds when admitted.
+        let path = Path::from("test/data.bin");
+        mock.put(&path, PutPayload::from_static(b"test data"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let aimd = AimdConfig::default()
+            .with_initial_rate(100.0)
+            .with_decrease_factor(0.5)
+            .with_additive_increment(2.0)
+            .with_window_duration(std::time::Duration::from_millis(100));
+        let throttle_config = AimdThrottleConfig::default()
+            .with_aimd(aimd)
+            .with_burst_capacity(100);
+
+        let num_readers = 5;
+        let test_duration = std::time::Duration::from_secs(2);
+        let mut handles = Vec::new();
+
+        for _ in 0..num_readers {
+            let store = Arc::new(
+                AimdThrottledStore::new(
+                    mock.clone() as Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+                    throttle_config.clone(),
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let p = path.clone();
+            handles.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                let deadline = std::time::Instant::now() + test_duration;
+                let mut count = 0u64;
+                while std::time::Instant::now() < deadline {
+                    let _ = store.head(&p).await;
+                    count += 1;
+                }
+                count
+            }));
+        }
+
+        let mut total_reader_requests = 0u64;
+        for handle in handles {
+            total_reader_requests += handle.await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let successes = mock.success_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        let throttled = mock.throttle_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        let total_mock = successes + throttled;
+
+        // Mock-side count >= reader-side count because the AIMD layer retries
+        // throttle errors internally, causing multiple mock calls per reader call.
+        assert!(
+            total_mock >= total_reader_requests,
+            "Mock-side count ({total_mock}) should be >= reader-side count ({total_reader_requests})"
+        );
+
+        // Mock capacity is 30/100ms = 300 req/s. Over 2s the theoretical max is
+        // ~600 successful requests. With AIMD ramp-up, expect somewhat fewer.
+        assert!(
+            successes >= 300,
+            "Expected >= 300 successful requests over 2s, got {successes}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            successes <= 900,
+            "Expected <= 900 successful requests, got {successes}"
+        );
+
+        // The initial burst exceeds mock capacity, so throttling must occur.
+        assert!(throttled > 0, "Expected some throttled requests but got 0");
+
+        // Without AIMD, raw tokio tasks against InMemory would fire 100k+ req/s.
+        // AIMD should keep the total well under 5000 over 2s.
+        assert!(
+            total_mock <= 5000,
+            "AIMD should limit total requests, got {total_mock}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A mock store that returns a configurable number of throttle errors
+    /// before succeeding on `get` operations. Used to test the retry logic
+    /// inside `OperationThrottle::throttled()`.
+    struct RetryTestMockStore {
+        inner: InMemory,
+        /// Number of throttle errors remaining before success.
+        errors_remaining: std::sync::Mutex<usize>,
+        /// Total number of `get` calls observed.
+        get_call_count: AtomicU64,
+    }
+
+    impl RetryTestMockStore {
+        fn new(errors_before_success: usize) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                inner: InMemory::new(),
+                errors_remaining: std::sync::Mutex::new(errors_before_success),
+                get_call_count: AtomicU64::new(0),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Display for RetryTestMockStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "RetryTestMockStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Debug for RetryTestMockStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            f.debug_struct("RetryTestMockStore").finish()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ObjectStore for RetryTestMockStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+        }
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            self.get_call_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            let should_error = {
+                let mut remaining = self.errors_remaining.lock().unwrap();
+                if *remaining > 0 {
+                    *remaining -= 1;
+                    true
+                } else {
+                    false
+                }
+            };
+            if should_error {
+                Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                    store: "RetryTestMock",
+                    source: THROTTLE_ERROR_RESPONSE.into(),
+                })
+            } else {
+                self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
+            }
+        }
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list(prefix)
+        }
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
+        }
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_throttled_retries_on_throttle_error_then_succeeds() {
+        // Mock returns 2 throttle errors then succeeds (within MAX_RETRIES=3)
+        let mock = Arc::new(RetryTestMockStore::new(2));
+        let path = Path::from("test/retry.txt");
+        mock.put(&path, PutPayload::from_static(b"retry data"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default();
+        let throttled =
+            AimdThrottledStore::new(mock.clone() as Arc<dyn ObjectStore>, config).unwrap();
+
+        let result = throttled.get(&path).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Expected success after retries");
+
+        let bytes = result.unwrap().bytes().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes.as_ref(), b"retry data");
+
+        // Should have called get 3 times total: 2 failures + 1 success
+        assert_eq!(mock.get_call_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_throttled_fails_after_max_retries_exceeded() {
+        // Mock returns 4 throttle errors (more than MAX_RETRIES=3),
+        // so all 4 attempts (initial + 3 retries) will fail.
+        let mock = Arc::new(RetryTestMockStore::new(10));
+        let path = Path::from("test/fail.txt");
+        mock.put(&path, PutPayload::from_static(b"fail data"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default();
+        let throttled =
+            AimdThrottledStore::new(mock.clone() as Arc<dyn ObjectStore>, config).unwrap();
+
+        let result = throttled.get(&path).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Expected error after max retries");
+        let err = result.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(is_throttle_error(&err));
+
+        let lance_error = lance_core::Error::from(err);
+        let error_message = lance_error.to_string();
+        assert!(error_message.contains("x-ms-request-id"));
+        assert!(error_message.contains("azure-request-id"));
+
+        // Should have called get 4 times: initial attempt + 3 retries
+        assert_eq!(mock.get_call_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct MultipartRetryState {
+        failures_remaining: AtomicUsize,
+        part_uris: std::sync::Mutex<Vec<String>>,
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct MultipartRetryConnector {
+        state: Arc<MultipartRetryState>,
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+    impl HttpConnector for MultipartRetryConnector {
+        fn connect(&self, _options: &ClientOptions) -> object_store::Result<HttpClient> {
+            Ok(HttpClient::new(MultipartRetryService {
+                state: Arc::clone(&self.state),
+            }))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct MultipartRetryService {
+        state: Arc<MultipartRetryState>,
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl HttpService for MultipartRetryService {
+        async fn call(&self, request: HttpRequest) -> Result<HttpResponse, HttpError> {
+            let method = request.method().clone();
+            let query = request.uri().query().unwrap_or_default();
+            let (status, body, e_tag) = if method == ::http::Method::POST
+                && query
+                    .split('&')
+                    .any(|part| part == "uploads" || part == "uploads=")
+            {
+                (
+                    ::http::StatusCode::OK,
+                    "<InitiateMultipartUploadResult><Bucket>bucket</Bucket><Key>object</Key><UploadId>upload-id</UploadId></InitiateMultipartUploadResult>",
+                    None,
+                )
+            } else if method == ::http::Method::PUT && query.contains("partNumber=") {
+                self.state
+                    .part_uris
+                    .lock()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .push(request.uri().to_string());
+                let mut remaining = self.state.failures_remaining.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
+                let should_fail = loop {
+                    let Some(next) = remaining.checked_sub(1) else {
+                        break false;
+                    };
+                    match self.state.failures_remaining.compare_exchange_weak(
+                        remaining,
+                        next,
+                        Ordering::SeqCst,
+                        Ordering::SeqCst,
+                    ) {
+                        Ok(_) => break true,
+                        Err(actual) => remaining = actual,
+                    }
+                };
+                if should_fail {
+                    (
+                        ::http::StatusCode::SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE,
+                        "<Error><Code>SlowDown</Code><Message>Please reduce your request rate.</Message></Error>",
+                        None,
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    (::http::StatusCode::OK, "", Some("\"part-etag\""))
+                }
+            } else if method == ::http::Method::POST && query.contains("uploadId=") {
+                (
+                    ::http::StatusCode::OK,
+                    "<CompleteMultipartUploadResult><Location>https://bucket/object</Location><Bucket>bucket</Bucket><Key>object</Key><ETag>\"object-etag\"</ETag></CompleteMultipartUploadResult>",
+                    None,
+                )
+            } else {
+                (::http::StatusCode::BAD_REQUEST, "unexpected request", None)
+            };
+
+            let mut response = ::http::Response::builder().status(status);
+            if let Some(e_tag) = e_tag {
+                response = response.header(::http::header::ETAG, e_tag);
+            }
+            Ok(response
+                .body(HttpResponseBody::from(body.to_string()))
+                .unwrap())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Retries must remain inside the original S3 `put_part` call. Re-entering
+    /// `MultipartUpload::put_part` would allocate a new part number and leave a
+    /// gap that makes `complete` fail with "Missing part".
+    #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_multipart_http_retry_reuses_part_number() {
+        use object_store::RetryConfig;
+        use object_store::aws::AmazonS3Builder;
+
+        let retry_state = Arc::new(MultipartRetryState {
+            failures_remaining: AtomicUsize::new(3),
+            part_uris: std::sync::Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+        });
+        let throttle_state = AimdThrottleState::new(AimdThrottleConfig::default()).unwrap();
+        let connector = AimdMultipartUploadConnector::new(
+            MultipartRetryConnector {
+                state: Arc::clone(&retry_state),
+            },
+            Some(&throttle_state),
+        );
+        let store = AmazonS3Builder::new()
+            .with_bucket_name("bucket")
+            .with_region("us-east-1")
+            .with_skip_signature(true)
+            .with_retry(RetryConfig {
+                max_retries: 0,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .with_http_connector(connector)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut upload = store.put_multipart(&Path::from("object")).await.unwrap();
+        upload
+            .put_part(PutPayload::from_static(b"payload"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        upload.complete().await.unwrap();
+
+        let part_uris = retry_state.part_uris.lock().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(part_uris.len(), 4);
+        assert!(part_uris.iter().all(|uri| uri == &part_uris[0]));
+        assert!(part_uris[0].contains("partNumber=1"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_throttled_multipart_reorders_parts() {
+        let store = Arc::new(InMemory::new()) as Arc<dyn ObjectStore>;
+        let config = AimdThrottleConfig::default();
+        let throttled = AimdThrottledStore::new(store.clone(), config).unwrap();
+
+        let path = Path::from("test/multipart_ordering.bin");
+        let mut upload = throttled.put_multipart(&path).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create futures for two parts in order: A then B.
+        let fut_a = upload.put_part(PutPayload::from_static(b"AAAA"));
+        let fut_b = upload.put_part(PutPayload::from_static(b"BBBB"));
+
+        // Await in REVERSE order. Part ordering should be determined by
+        // creation order (put_part call order), not by await order.
+        fut_b.await.unwrap();
+        fut_a.await.unwrap();
+
+        upload.complete().await.unwrap();
+
+        let result = store.get(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let bytes = result.bytes().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            bytes.as_ref(),
+            b"AAAABBBB",
+            "Parts were reordered! Got {:?} instead of AAAABBBB.",
+            std::str::from_utf8(&bytes).unwrap_or("<non-utf8>"),
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/tracing.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/tracing.rs
index fc2e1b825ae..8c31e72e507 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/tracing.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_store/tracing.rs
@@ -7,33 +7,38 @@ use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::stream::BoxStream;
 use futures::StreamExt;
+use futures::stream::BoxStream;
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::StreamTracingExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use object_store::{
-    GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta, PutMultipartOptions,
-    PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, Result as OSResult, UploadPart,
+    CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+    PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, RenameOptions, Result as OSResult,
+    UploadPart,
 };
-use tracing::{debug_span, instrument, Instrument, Span};
+use tracing::{Instrument, Span, instrument};
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct TracedMultipartUpload {
     write_span: Span,
     target: Box<dyn MultipartUpload>,
+    write_size: usize,
 }
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl MultipartUpload for TracedMultipartUpload {
     fn put_part(&mut self, data: PutPayload) -> UploadPart {
         let write_span = self.write_span.clone();
+        self.write_size += data.content_length();
         let fut = self.target.put_part(data);
         Box::pin(fut.instrument(write_span))
     }
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
     async fn complete(&mut self) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
-        self.target.complete().await
+        let res = self.target.complete().await?;
+        self.write_span.record("size", self.write_size);
+        Ok(res)
     }
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
@@ -56,12 +61,7 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for TracedObjectStore {
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 #[deny(clippy::missing_trait_methods)]
 impl object_store::ObjectStore for TracedObjectStore {
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, bytes))]
-    async fn put(&self, location: &Path, bytes: PutPayload) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
-        self.target.put(location, bytes).await
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, bytes))]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, bytes, location, opts), fields(path = location.as_ref(), size = bytes.content_length()))]
     async fn put_opts(
         &self,
         location: &Path,
@@ -71,17 +71,7 @@ impl object_store::ObjectStore for TracedObjectStore {
         self.target.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
     }
 
-    async fn put_multipart(
-        &self,
-        location: &Path,
-    ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn object_store::MultipartUpload>> {
-        let upload = self.target.put_multipart(location).await?;
-        Ok(Box::new(TracedMultipartUpload {
-            target: upload,
-            write_span: debug_span!("put_multipart"),
-        }))
-    }
-
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, location, opts), fields(path = location.as_ref(), size = tracing::field::Empty))]
     async fn put_multipart_opts(
         &self,
         location: &Path,
@@ -90,57 +80,43 @@ impl object_store::ObjectStore for TracedObjectStore {
         let upload = self.target.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await?;
         Ok(Box::new(TracedMultipartUpload {
             target: upload,
-            write_span: debug_span!("put_multipart_opts"),
+            write_span: tracing::Span::current(),
+            write_size: 0,
         }))
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, location))]
-    async fn get(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
-        self.target.get(location).await
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, options))]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, options, location), fields(path = location.as_ref(), size = tracing::field::Empty))]
     async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
-        self.target.get_opts(location, options).await
-    }
+        let res = self.target.get_opts(location, options).await?;
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
-    async fn get_range(&self, location: &Path, range: Range<u64>) -> OSResult<Bytes> {
-        self.target.get_range(location, range).await
+        let span = tracing::Span::current();
+        span.record("size", res.range.end - res.range.start);
+
+        Ok(res)
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, ranges))]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, location), fields(path = location.as_ref(), size = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>()))]
     async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
         self.target.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
-    async fn head(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<ObjectMeta> {
-        self.target.head(location).await
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
-    async fn delete(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        self.target.delete(location).await
-    }
-
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    fn delete_stream<'a>(
-        &'a self,
-        locations: BoxStream<'a, OSResult<Path>>,
-    ) -> BoxStream<'a, OSResult<Path>> {
+    fn delete_stream(
+        &self,
+        locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
         self.target
             .delete_stream(locations)
             .stream_in_current_span()
             .boxed()
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, prefix), fields(prefix = prefix.map(|p| p.as_ref())))]
     fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
         self.target.list(prefix).stream_in_current_span().boxed()
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, prefix, offset), fields(prefix = prefix.map(|p| p.as_ref()), offset = offset.as_ref()))]
     fn list_with_offset(
         &self,
         prefix: Option<&Path>,
@@ -152,29 +128,19 @@ impl object_store::ObjectStore for TracedObjectStore {
             .boxed()
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, prefix), fields(prefix = prefix.map(|p| p.as_ref())))]
     async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
         self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
-    async fn copy(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        self.target.copy(from, to).await
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
-    async fn rename(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        self.target.rename(from, to).await
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
-    async fn rename_if_not_exists(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        self.target.rename_if_not_exists(from, to).await
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, from, to, opts), fields(from = from.as_ref(), to = to.as_ref()))]
+    async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+        self.target.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
-    async fn copy_if_not_exists(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        self.target.copy_if_not_exists(from, to).await
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, from, to, opts), fields(from = from.as_ref(), to = to.as_ref()))]
+    async fn rename_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: RenameOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+        self.target.rename_opts(from, to, opts).await
     }
 }
 
@@ -193,3 +159,243 @@ impl<T: object_store::ObjectStore> ObjectStoreTracingExt for Arc<T> {
         Arc::new(TracedObjectStore { target: self })
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use object_store::memory::InMemory;
+    use object_store::path::Path;
+    use object_store::{ObjectStoreExt, PutPayload};
+    use tracing_mock::{expect, subscriber};
+
+    fn payload(data: &[u8]) -> PutPayload {
+        PutPayload::from_bytes(Bytes::copy_from_slice(data))
+    }
+
+    fn make_store() -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
+        Arc::new(InMemory::new()).traced()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_put_records_path_and_size() {
+        let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+        let data = b"hello world";
+
+        let span = expect::span().named("put_opts");
+        let (sub, handle) = subscriber::mock()
+            .new_span(
+                span.clone().with_fields(
+                    expect::field("path")
+                        .with_value(&"a/b.bin")
+                        .and(expect::field("size").with_value(&data.len()))
+                        .only(),
+                ),
+            )
+            .enter(span.clone())
+            .exit(span.clone())
+            .run_with_handle();
+
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(sub);
+        make_store().put(&path, payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+        drop(_guard);
+
+        handle.assert_finished();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_get_records_path_and_size() {
+        let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+        let data = b"hello world";
+        let size = data.len() as u64; // meta.size is u64
+
+        // Seed without an active mock subscriber.
+        let store = make_store();
+        store.put(&path, payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+
+        let span = expect::span().named("get_opts");
+        let (sub, handle) = subscriber::mock()
+            .new_span(
+                // size = Empty at span creation, so only path is visited.
+                span.clone()
+                    .with_fields(expect::field("path").with_value(&"a/b.bin").only()),
+            )
+            .enter(span.clone())
+            .record(span.clone(), expect::field("size").with_value(&size))
+            .exit(span.clone())
+            .run_with_handle();
+
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(sub);
+        store.get(&path).await.unwrap();
+        drop(_guard);
+
+        handle.assert_finished();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_get_range_records_path_and_size() {
+        let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+        let data = b"hello world";
+
+        let store = make_store();
+        store.put(&path, payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+
+        let range = 2u64..7u64;
+        let size = range.end - range.start;
+
+        let span = expect::span().named("get_opts");
+        let (sub, handle) = subscriber::mock()
+            .new_span(
+                span.clone()
+                    .with_fields(expect::field("path").with_value(&"a/b.bin").only()),
+            )
+            .enter(span.clone())
+            .record(span.clone(), expect::field("size").with_value(&size))
+            .exit(span.clone())
+            .run_with_handle();
+
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(sub);
+        store.get_range(&path, range).await.unwrap();
+        drop(_guard);
+
+        handle.assert_finished();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_get_ranges_records_path_and_total_size() {
+        let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+        let data = b"hello world";
+
+        let store = make_store();
+        store.put(&path, payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+
+        let ranges = [2u64..5u64, 6u64..9u64];
+        let size: u64 = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum();
+
+        let span = expect::span().named("get_ranges");
+        let (sub, handle) = subscriber::mock()
+            .new_span(
+                // `ranges` is also captured automatically as a debug field since
+                // it is not in the skip list, so we don't use `.only()` here.
+                span.clone().with_fields(
+                    expect::field("path")
+                        .with_value(&"a/b.bin")
+                        .and(expect::field("size").with_value(&size)),
+                ),
+            )
+            .enter(span.clone())
+            .exit(span.clone())
+            .run_with_handle();
+
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(sub);
+        store.get_ranges(&path, &ranges).await.unwrap();
+        drop(_guard);
+
+        handle.assert_finished();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_head_records_path() {
+        let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+        let data = b"hello world";
+        let size = data.len() as u64;
+
+        let store = make_store();
+        store.put(&path, payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+
+        let span = expect::span().named("get_opts");
+        let (sub, handle) = subscriber::mock()
+            .new_span(
+                span.clone()
+                    .with_fields(expect::field("path").with_value(&"a/b.bin").only()),
+            )
+            .enter(span.clone())
+            .record(span.clone(), expect::field("size").with_value(&size))
+            .exit(span.clone())
+            .run_with_handle();
+
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(sub);
+        store.head(&path).await.unwrap();
+        drop(_guard);
+
+        handle.assert_finished();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_delete_records_path() {
+        let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+        let data = b"hello world";
+
+        let store = make_store();
+        store.put(&path, payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+
+        let span = expect::span().named("delete_stream");
+        let (sub, handle) = subscriber::mock()
+            .new_span(span.clone())
+            .enter(span.clone())
+            .exit(span.clone())
+            .run_with_handle();
+
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(sub);
+        store.delete(&path).await.unwrap();
+        drop(_guard);
+
+        handle.assert_finished();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_copy_records_from_and_to() {
+        let from = Path::from("a/src.bin");
+        let to = Path::from("a/dst.bin");
+        let data = b"hello world";
+
+        let store = make_store();
+        store.put(&from, payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+
+        let span = expect::span().named("copy_opts");
+        let (sub, handle) = subscriber::mock()
+            .new_span(
+                span.clone().with_fields(
+                    expect::field("from")
+                        .with_value(&"a/src.bin")
+                        .and(expect::field("to").with_value(&"a/dst.bin"))
+                        .only(),
+                ),
+            )
+            .enter(span.clone())
+            .exit(span.clone())
+            .run_with_handle();
+
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(sub);
+        store.copy(&from, &to).await.unwrap();
+        drop(_guard);
+
+        handle.assert_finished();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_put_multipart_records_path() {
+        let path = Path::from("a/b.bin");
+        let data = b"hello world";
+
+        let put_mp_span = expect::span().named("put_multipart_opts");
+        // Expect only the span creation; any subsequent enter/exit/record
+        // events are not in the queue so they are silently ignored.
+        let (sub, handle) = subscriber::mock()
+            .new_span(
+                // size = Empty at span creation, so only path is visited.
+                put_mp_span.with_fields(expect::field("path").with_value(&"a/b.bin").only()),
+            )
+            .run_with_handle();
+
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(sub);
+        let store = make_store();
+        let mut upload = store.put_multipart(&path).await.unwrap();
+        upload.put_part(payload(data)).await.unwrap();
+        upload.complete().await.unwrap();
+        drop(_guard);
+
+        handle.assert_finished();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/object_writer.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/object_writer.rs
index f2ad57f56f6..68bfdb638bb 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/object_writer.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/object_writer.rs
@@ -5,15 +5,15 @@ use std::io;
 use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
 use std::task::Poll;
+use std::time::Instant;
 
 use crate::object_store::ObjectStore as LanceObjectStore;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 use futures::FutureExt;
-use object_store::MultipartUpload;
-use object_store::{path::Path, Error as OSError, ObjectStore, Result as OSResult};
-use rand::Rng;
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use object_store::{MultipartUpload, ObjectStoreExt};
+use object_store::{ObjectStore, path::Path};
 use tokio::io::{AsyncWrite, AsyncWriteExt};
 use tokio::task::JoinSet;
 
@@ -21,13 +21,13 @@ use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use tracing::Instrument;
 
 use crate::traits::Writer;
-use snafu::location;
+use crate::utils::tracking_store::{IOTracker, IoMetricsGuard};
 use tokio::runtime::Handle;
 
 /// Start at 5MB.
 const INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP: usize = 1024 * 1024 * 5;
 
-fn max_upload_parallelism() -> usize {
+pub(crate) fn max_upload_parallelism() -> usize {
     static MAX_UPLOAD_PARALLELISM: OnceLock<usize> = OnceLock::new();
     *MAX_UPLOAD_PARALLELISM.get_or_init(|| {
         std::env::var("LANCE_UPLOAD_CONCURRENCY")
@@ -37,32 +37,39 @@ fn max_upload_parallelism() -> usize {
     })
 }
 
-fn max_conn_reset_retries() -> u16 {
-    static MAX_CONN_RESET_RETRIES: OnceLock<u16> = OnceLock::new();
-    *MAX_CONN_RESET_RETRIES.get_or_init(|| {
-        std::env::var("LANCE_CONN_RESET_RETRIES")
-            .ok()
-            .and_then(|s| s.parse::<u16>().ok())
-            .unwrap_or(20)
-    })
+/// Maximum body size for a single S3 PUT: strictly less than 5 GiB.
+/// AWS rejects single-PUT bodies of exactly 5 GiB (= 5 * 1024^3) with
+/// `EntityTooLarge`, so we clamp `LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE` one byte
+/// below that threshold to keep the buffer-fills-to-clamp single-PUT
+/// path safe. See lance#6750 for the related txn-file write fix.
+const MAX_UPLOAD_PART_SIZE: usize = 1024 * 1024 * 1024 * 5 - 1;
+
+/// Clamps a requested upload part size to the valid [5MB, 5GB] range.
+/// Returns the clamped value and whether clamping was necessary.
+fn clamp_initial_upload_size(raw: usize) -> (usize, bool) {
+    let clamped = raw.clamp(INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP, MAX_UPLOAD_PART_SIZE);
+    (clamped, clamped != raw)
 }
 
-fn initial_upload_size() -> usize {
+pub(crate) fn initial_upload_size() -> usize {
     static LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE: OnceLock<usize> = OnceLock::new();
     *LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE.get_or_init(|| {
-        std::env::var("LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE")
+        let Some(raw) = std::env::var("LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE")
             .ok()
             .and_then(|s| s.parse::<usize>().ok())
-            .inspect(|size| {
-                if *size < INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP {
-                    // Minimum part size in GCS and S3
-                    panic!("LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE must be at least 5MB");
-                } else if *size > 1024 * 1024 * 1024 * 5 {
-                    // Maximum part size in GCS and S3
-                    panic!("LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE must be at most 5GB");
-                }
-            })
-            .unwrap_or(INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP)
+        else {
+            return INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP;
+        };
+        let (clamped, was_clamped) = clamp_initial_upload_size(raw);
+        if was_clamped {
+            // OnceLock caches the result, so this warning fires at most once per process.
+            tracing::warn!(
+                requested = raw,
+                clamped,
+                "LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE must be between 5MB and 5GB; clamping to valid range"
+            );
+        }
+        clamped
     })
 }
 
@@ -72,12 +79,16 @@ fn initial_upload_size() -> usize {
 /// PUT request. If the object is larger, the writer will create a multipart
 /// upload and upload parts in parallel.
 ///
+/// Parts stay in flight across writes and flushes, so a writer can hold up to
+/// `LANCE_UPLOAD_CONCURRENCY` part bodies in memory at once. With a large
+/// `LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE` that product is what bounds the writer's
+/// footprint, not the part size alone.
+///
 /// This implements the `AsyncWrite` trait.
 pub struct ObjectWriter {
     state: UploadState,
     path: Arc<Path>,
     cursor: usize,
-    connection_resets: u16,
     buffer: Vec<u8>,
     // TODO: use constant size to support R2
     use_constant_size_upload_parts: bool,
@@ -89,23 +100,123 @@ pub struct WriteResult {
     pub e_tag: Option<String>,
 }
 
+/// An object-store upload failure, annotated with what Lance was uploading.
+///
+/// `object_store` reports its own elapsed time, but its clock starts inside
+/// `RetryContext::new`, which runs on the *first poll* of the request future.
+/// The `elapsed` reported here is measured from the moment Lance handed the
+/// request to the uploader, so the two together tell a slow request (both
+/// durations agree) apart from one whose task sat unpolled before it ever
+/// issued (this duration is much larger). That distinction is what identifies
+/// runtime starvation as the cause of a whole-request timeout, and it is not
+/// recoverable from the object-store error alone.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct UploadFailure {
+    context: String,
+    /// The kind `into_io_error` restores. Without it every contextualized
+    /// failure would collapse to `ErrorKind::Other`, changing what callers
+    /// matching on the kind observe.
+    kind: io::ErrorKind,
+    source: Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync>,
+}
+
+impl UploadFailure {
+    /// Wraps an object store error.
+    ///
+    /// The `io::ErrorKind` is taken from `object_store`'s own conversion rather
+    /// than a local copy of its mapping, and the error itself is kept as the
+    /// source, so both callers matching on the kind and `Error::is_not_found`
+    /// (which downcasts along the source chain) keep working.
+    fn new(context: String, source: object_store::Error) -> Self {
+        let mapped = io::Error::from(source);
+        let kind = mapped.kind();
+        let source: Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync> =
+            match mapped.downcast::<object_store::Error>() {
+                Ok(source) => Box::new(source),
+                Err(mapped) => Box::new(mapped),
+            };
+        Self {
+            context,
+            kind,
+            source,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Wraps a failure that carries no object store error to map a kind from.
+    fn from_task(context: String, source: tokio::task::JoinError) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            context,
+            kind: io::ErrorKind::Other,
+            source: Box::new(source),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn into_io_error(self) -> io::Error {
+        let kind = self.kind;
+        io::Error::new(kind, self)
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for UploadFailure {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "{}: {}", self.context, self.source)
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for UploadFailure {
+    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn std::error::Error + 'static)> {
+        Some(self.source.as_ref())
+    }
+}
+
+type UploadResult<T> = std::result::Result<T, UploadFailure>;
+
+/// Identifies a single part upload, for its failure message.
+struct PartUpload {
+    path: Arc<Path>,
+    part_idx: u16,
+    /// Concurrent part uploads, counting this one, when it was submitted.
+    parts_in_flight: usize,
+    /// The part size in effect, which is the buffer capacity this part was
+    /// filled to. [`ObjectWriter::next_part_buffer`] grows the part size every
+    /// 100 parts so one upload can cover a very large object within the
+    /// 10,000-part limit, so on a long upload this is a multiple of
+    /// `LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE` rather than equal to it. A body smaller than
+    /// this is the final flush.
+    part_size: usize,
+}
+
+/// Describes the upload knobs in effect, for inclusion in failure messages.
+///
+/// Both are process-global and read from the environment, so a failure that is
+/// sensitive to either is impossible to interpret without them. Note that
+/// `LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE` is the starting part size, not the size in
+/// effect: see [`PartUpload::part_size`].
+fn upload_settings() -> String {
+    format!(
+        "LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE={} bytes, LANCE_UPLOAD_CONCURRENCY={}",
+        initial_upload_size(),
+        max_upload_parallelism()
+    )
+}
+
 enum UploadState {
     /// The writer has been opened but no data has been written yet. Will be in
     /// this state until the buffer is full or the writer is shut down.
     Started(Arc<dyn ObjectStore>),
     /// The writer is in the process of creating a multipart upload.
-    CreatingUpload(BoxFuture<'static, OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>>>),
+    CreatingUpload(BoxFuture<'static, UploadResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>>>),
     /// The writer is in the process of uploading parts.
     InProgress {
         part_idx: u16,
         upload: Box<dyn MultipartUpload>,
-        futures: JoinSet<std::result::Result<(), UploadPutError>>,
+        futures: JoinSet<UploadResult<()>>,
     },
     /// The writer is in the process of uploading data in a single PUT request.
     /// This happens when shutdown is called before the buffer is full.
-    PuttingSingle(BoxFuture<'static, OSResult<WriteResult>>),
+    PuttingSingle(BoxFuture<'static, UploadResult<WriteResult>>),
     /// The writer is in the process of completing the multipart upload.
-    Completing(BoxFuture<'static, OSResult<WriteResult>>),
+    Completing(BoxFuture<'static, UploadResult<WriteResult>>),
     /// The writer has been shut down and all data has been written.
     Done(WriteResult),
 }
@@ -117,9 +228,20 @@ impl UploadState {
         let this = std::mem::replace(self, Self::Done(WriteResult::default()));
         *self = match this {
             Self::Started(store) => {
+                tracing::Span::current().record("part_count", 1_u64);
+                let started_at = Instant::now();
                 let fut = async move {
                     let size = buffer.len();
-                    let res = store.put(&path, buffer.into()).await?;
+                    let res = store.put(&path, buffer.into()).await.map_err(|source| {
+                        UploadFailure::new(
+                            format!(
+                                "single PUT of {path} failed after {:?} ({size} bytes, {})",
+                                started_at.elapsed(),
+                                upload_settings()
+                            ),
+                            source,
+                        )
+                    })?;
                     Ok(WriteResult {
                         size,
                         e_tag: res.e_tag,
@@ -131,18 +253,30 @@ impl UploadState {
         }
     }
 
-    fn in_progress_to_completing(&mut self) {
+    fn in_progress_to_completing(&mut self, path: Arc<Path>, bytes_written: usize) {
         // To get owned self, we temporarily swap with Done.
         let this = std::mem::replace(self, Self::Done(WriteResult::default()));
         *self = match this {
             Self::InProgress {
                 mut upload,
                 futures,
-                ..
+                part_idx,
             } => {
                 debug_assert!(futures.is_empty());
+                tracing::Span::current().record("part_count", part_idx as u64);
+                let started_at = Instant::now();
                 let fut = async move {
-                    let res = upload.complete().await?;
+                    let res = upload.complete().await.map_err(|source| {
+                        UploadFailure::new(
+                            format!(
+                                "completing multipart upload of {path} failed after {:?} \
+                                 ({part_idx} parts, {bytes_written} bytes, {})",
+                                started_at.elapsed(),
+                                upload_settings()
+                            ),
+                            source,
+                        )
+                    })?;
                     Ok(WriteResult {
                         size: 0, // This will be set properly later.
                         e_tag: res.e_tag,
@@ -161,7 +295,6 @@ impl ObjectWriter {
             state: UploadState::Started(object_store.inner.clone()),
             cursor: 0,
             path: Arc::new(path.clone()),
-            connection_resets: 0,
             buffer: Vec::with_capacity(initial_upload_size()),
             use_constant_size_upload_parts: object_store.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
         })
@@ -185,24 +318,33 @@ impl ObjectWriter {
     fn put_part(
         upload: &mut dyn MultipartUpload,
         buffer: Bytes,
-        part_idx: u16,
-        sleep: Option<std::time::Duration>,
-    ) -> BoxFuture<'static, std::result::Result<(), UploadPutError>> {
-        log::debug!(
-            "MultipartUpload submitting part with {} bytes",
-            buffer.len()
-        );
-        let fut = upload.put_part(buffer.clone().into());
+        part: PartUpload,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'static, UploadResult<()>> {
+        let body_size = buffer.len();
+        log::debug!("MultipartUpload submitting part with {} bytes", body_size);
+        // Stamped before the future is spawned so the reported duration covers
+        // any time the task spent waiting to be polled, not just the request.
+        let queued_at = Instant::now();
+        let fut = upload.put_part(buffer.into());
         Box::pin(async move {
-            if let Some(sleep) = sleep {
-                tokio::time::sleep(sleep).await;
-            }
-            fut.await.map_err(|source| UploadPutError {
-                part_idx,
-                buffer,
-                source,
-            })?;
-            Ok(())
+            fut.await.map_err(|source| {
+                let PartUpload {
+                    path,
+                    part_idx,
+                    parts_in_flight,
+                    part_size,
+                } = part;
+                UploadFailure::new(
+                    format!(
+                        "multipart upload of part {part_idx} of {path} failed after {:?} \
+                         ({body_size} bytes, part_size={part_size} bytes, \
+                          parts_in_flight={parts_in_flight} at submission, {})",
+                        queued_at.elapsed(),
+                        upload_settings()
+                    ),
+                    source,
+                )
+            })
         })
     }
 
@@ -214,16 +356,28 @@ impl ObjectWriter {
         loop {
             match &mut mut_self.state {
                 UploadState::Started(_) | UploadState::Done(_) => break,
-                UploadState::CreatingUpload(ref mut fut) => match fut.poll_unpin(cx) {
+                UploadState::CreatingUpload(fut) => match fut.poll_unpin(cx) {
                     Poll::Ready(Ok(mut upload)) => {
                         let mut futures = JoinSet::new();
 
+                        // Read before the buffer is swapped out: capacity is the
+                        // part size this body was filled to.
+                        let part_size = mut_self.buffer.capacity();
                         let data = Self::next_part_buffer(
                             &mut mut_self.buffer,
                             0,
                             mut_self.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
                         );
-                        futures.spawn(Self::put_part(upload.as_mut(), data, 0, None));
+                        futures.spawn(Self::put_part(
+                            upload.as_mut(),
+                            data,
+                            PartUpload {
+                                path: mut_self.path.clone(),
+                                part_idx: 0,
+                                parts_in_flight: 1,
+                                part_size,
+                            },
+                        ));
 
                         mut_self.state = UploadState::InProgress {
                             part_idx: 1, // We just used 0
@@ -231,65 +385,35 @@ impl ObjectWriter {
                             upload,
                         };
                     }
-                    Poll::Ready(Err(e)) => return Err(std::io::Error::other(e)),
+                    Poll::Ready(Err(err)) => return Err(err.into_io_error()),
                     Poll::Pending => break,
                 },
-                UploadState::InProgress {
-                    upload, futures, ..
-                } => {
+                UploadState::InProgress { futures, .. } => {
                     while let Poll::Ready(Some(res)) = futures.poll_join_next(cx) {
                         match res {
                             Ok(Ok(())) => {}
-                            Err(err) => return Err(std::io::Error::other(err)),
-                            Ok(Err(UploadPutError {
-                                source: OSError::Generic { source, .. },
-                                part_idx,
-                                buffer,
-                            })) if source
-                                .to_string()
-                                .to_lowercase()
-                                .contains("connection reset by peer") =>
-                            {
-                                if mut_self.connection_resets < max_conn_reset_retries() {
-                                    // Retry, but only up to max_conn_reset_retries of them.
-                                    mut_self.connection_resets += 1;
-
-                                    // Resubmit with random jitter
-                                    let sleep_time_ms = rand::rng().random_range(2_000..8_000);
-                                    let sleep_time =
-                                        std::time::Duration::from_millis(sleep_time_ms);
-
-                                    futures.spawn(Self::put_part(
-                                        upload.as_mut(),
-                                        buffer,
-                                        part_idx,
-                                        Some(sleep_time),
-                                    ));
-                                } else {
-                                    return Err(io::Error::new(
-                                        io::ErrorKind::ConnectionReset,
-                                        Box::new(ConnectionResetError {
-                                            message: format!(
-                                                "Hit max retries ({}) for connection reset",
-                                                max_conn_reset_retries()
-                                            ),
-                                            source,
-                                        }),
-                                    ));
-                                }
+                            Err(err) => {
+                                return Err(UploadFailure::from_task(
+                                    format!(
+                                        "multipart upload task for {} did not complete",
+                                        mut_self.path
+                                    ),
+                                    err,
+                                )
+                                .into_io_error());
                             }
-                            Ok(Err(err)) => return Err(err.source.into()),
+                            Ok(Err(err)) => return Err(err.into_io_error()),
                         }
                     }
                     break;
                 }
-                UploadState::PuttingSingle(ref mut fut) | UploadState::Completing(ref mut fut) => {
+                UploadState::PuttingSingle(fut) | UploadState::Completing(fut) => {
                     match fut.poll_unpin(cx) {
                         Poll::Ready(Ok(mut res)) => {
                             res.size = mut_self.cursor;
                             mut_self.state = UploadState::Done(res)
                         }
-                        Poll::Ready(Err(e)) => return Err(std::io::Error::other(e)),
+                        Poll::Ready(Err(err)) => return Err(err.into_io_error()),
                         Poll::Pending => break,
                     }
                 }
@@ -298,21 +422,6 @@ impl ObjectWriter {
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    pub async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<WriteResult> {
-        AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(self).await.map_err(|e| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!("failed to shutdown object writer for {}: {}", self.path, e),
-                // and wrap it in here.
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })?;
-        if let UploadState::Done(result) = &self.state {
-            Ok(result.clone())
-        } else {
-            unreachable!()
-        }
-    }
-
     pub async fn abort(&mut self) {
         let state = std::mem::replace(&mut self.state, UploadState::Done(WriteResult::default()));
         if let UploadState::InProgress { mut upload, .. } = state {
@@ -328,40 +437,17 @@ impl Drop for ObjectWriter {
             // Take ownership of the state.
             let state =
                 std::mem::replace(&mut self.state, UploadState::Done(WriteResult::default()));
-            if let UploadState::InProgress { mut upload, .. } = state {
-                if let Ok(handle) = Handle::try_current() {
-                    handle.spawn(async move {
-                        let _ = upload.abort().await;
-                    });
-                }
+            if let UploadState::InProgress { mut upload, .. } = state
+                && let Ok(handle) = Handle::try_current()
+            {
+                handle.spawn(async move {
+                    let _ = upload.abort().await;
+                });
             }
         }
     }
 }
 
-/// Returned error from trying to upload a part.
-/// Has the part_idx and buffer so we can pass
-/// them to the retry logic.
-struct UploadPutError {
-    part_idx: u16,
-    buffer: Bytes,
-    source: OSError,
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct ConnectionResetError {
-    message: String,
-    source: Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync>,
-}
-
-impl std::error::Error for ConnectionResetError {}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for ConnectionResetError {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{}: {}", self.message, self.source)
-    }
-}
-
 impl AsyncWrite for ObjectWriter {
     fn poll_write(
         mut self: std::pin::Pin<&mut Self>,
@@ -386,28 +472,48 @@ impl AsyncWrite for ObjectWriter {
                 UploadState::Started(store) => {
                     let path = mut_self.path.clone();
                     let store = store.clone();
-                    let fut = Box::pin(async move { store.put_multipart(path.as_ref()).await });
+                    let started_at = Instant::now();
+                    let fut = Box::pin(async move {
+                        store.put_multipart(path.as_ref()).await.map_err(|source| {
+                            UploadFailure::new(
+                                format!(
+                                    "failed to create multipart upload for {path} after {:?} ({})",
+                                    started_at.elapsed(),
+                                    upload_settings()
+                                ),
+                                source,
+                            )
+                        })
+                    });
                     self.state = UploadState::CreatingUpload(fut);
                 }
+                // TODO: Make max concurrency configurable from storage options.
                 UploadState::InProgress {
                     upload,
                     part_idx,
                     futures,
                     ..
-                } => {
-                    // TODO: Make max concurrency configurable from storage options.
-                    if futures.len() < max_upload_parallelism() {
-                        let data = Self::next_part_buffer(
-                            &mut mut_self.buffer,
-                            *part_idx,
-                            mut_self.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
-                        );
-                        futures.spawn(
-                            Self::put_part(upload.as_mut(), data, *part_idx, None)
-                                .instrument(tracing::Span::current()),
-                        );
-                        *part_idx += 1;
-                    }
+                } if futures.len() < max_upload_parallelism() => {
+                    // Read before the buffer is swapped out: capacity is the
+                    // part size this body was filled to, which grows as the
+                    // upload progresses.
+                    let part_size = mut_self.buffer.capacity();
+                    let data = Self::next_part_buffer(
+                        &mut mut_self.buffer,
+                        *part_idx,
+                        mut_self.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
+                    );
+                    let part = PartUpload {
+                        path: mut_self.path.clone(),
+                        part_idx: *part_idx,
+                        parts_in_flight: futures.len() + 1,
+                        part_size,
+                    };
+                    futures.spawn(
+                        Self::put_part(upload.as_mut(), data, part)
+                            .instrument(tracing::Span::current()),
+                    );
+                    *part_idx += 1;
                 }
                 _ => {}
             }
@@ -432,13 +538,16 @@ impl AsyncWrite for ObjectWriter {
             UploadState::CreatingUpload(_)
             | UploadState::Completing(_)
             | UploadState::PuttingSingle(_) => Poll::Pending,
-            UploadState::InProgress { futures, .. } => {
-                if futures.is_empty() {
-                    Poll::Ready(Ok(()))
-                } else {
-                    Poll::Pending
-                }
-            }
+            // In-flight parts are spawned tasks, so the runtime drives them
+            // whether or not this writer is polled again; `poll_tasks` above
+            // only reaps them. Waiting for them here would serialize every part
+            // upload behind the caller's next batch, because callers flush once
+            // per batch. `poll_shutdown` still drains them before completing the
+            // upload, which is the only point at which the object becomes
+            // readable. Note this never flushed the tail buffer either, so it
+            // was not a "all data has reached the destination" barrier to begin
+            // with.
+            UploadState::InProgress { .. } => Poll::Ready(Ok(())),
         }
     }
 
@@ -471,9 +580,19 @@ impl AsyncWrite for ObjectWriter {
                     // Flush final batch
                     if !mut_self.buffer.is_empty() && futures.len() < max_upload_parallelism() {
                         // We can just use `take` since we don't need the buffer anymore.
+                        let part_size = mut_self.buffer.capacity();
                         let data = Bytes::from(std::mem::take(&mut mut_self.buffer));
+                        let part = PartUpload {
+                            path: mut_self.path.clone(),
+                            part_idx: *part_idx,
+                            parts_in_flight: futures.len() + 1,
+                            part_size,
+                        };
+                        // Counted like every other part so the part total
+                        // reported when completing the upload is accurate.
+                        *part_idx += 1;
                         futures.spawn(
-                            Self::put_part(upload.as_mut(), data, *part_idx, None)
+                            Self::put_part(upload.as_mut(), data, part)
                                 .instrument(tracing::Span::current()),
                         );
                         // We need to go back to beginning of loop to poll the
@@ -483,7 +602,9 @@ impl AsyncWrite for ObjectWriter {
 
                     // We handle the transition from in progress to completing here.
                     if futures.is_empty() {
-                        self.state.in_progress_to_completing();
+                        let path = mut_self.path.clone();
+                        let bytes_written = mut_self.cursor;
+                        self.state.in_progress_to_completing(path, bytes_written);
                     } else {
                         return Poll::Pending;
                     }
@@ -498,14 +619,788 @@ impl Writer for ObjectWriter {
     async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<usize> {
         Ok(self.cursor)
     }
+
+    async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        // Propagated structurally rather than formatted into a message: every
+        // failure from this writer already names the path, and stringifying it
+        // would flatten the object store error out of the source chain.
+        AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(self).await?;
+        if let UploadState::Done(result) = &self.state {
+            Ok(result.clone())
+        } else {
+            unreachable!()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct LocalWriter {
+    path: Path,
+    state: LocalWriteState,
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+enum LocalWriteState {
+    Writing(Box<WritingState>),
+    Finishing {
+        size: usize,
+        future: BoxFuture<'static, Result<WriteResult>>,
+    },
+    Done(WriteResult),
+    #[default]
+    Poisoned,
+}
+
+struct WritingState {
+    writer: tokio::io::BufWriter<tokio::fs::File>,
+    cursor: usize,
+    /// Temp path that auto-deletes on drop. Set to `None` after `persist()`.
+    temp_path: tempfile::TempPath,
+    io_tracker: Arc<IOTracker>,
+    /// The whole file is reported as a single `put`, so this covers everything
+    /// from opening the file to it being durable under its final path. A writer
+    /// dropped before `persist()` records nothing, like an aborted upload.
+    metrics: IoMetricsGuard,
+}
+
+impl LocalWriter {
+    pub fn new(
+        file: tokio::fs::File,
+        path: Path,
+        temp_path: tempfile::TempPath,
+        io_tracker: Arc<IOTracker>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            path,
+            state: LocalWriteState::Writing(Box::new(WritingState {
+                writer: tokio::io::BufWriter::new(file),
+                cursor: 0,
+                temp_path,
+                metrics: io_tracker.begin_io("put"),
+                io_tracker,
+            })),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn already_closed_err(path: &Path) -> io::Error {
+        io::Error::other(format!(
+            "cannot write to LocalWriter for {} after shutdown",
+            path
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn poisoned_err(path: &Path) -> io::Error {
+        io::Error::other(format!("LocalWriter for {} is in poisoned state", path))
+    }
+
+    async fn persist(
+        temp_path: tempfile::TempPath,
+        final_path: Path,
+        size: usize,
+        io_tracker: Arc<IOTracker>,
+        metrics: IoMetricsGuard,
+    ) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        let local_path = crate::local::to_local_path(&final_path);
+        let persisted = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || -> Result<String> {
+            temp_path.persist(&local_path).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "failed to persist temp file to {}: {}",
+                    local_path, e.error
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+            let metadata = std::fs::metadata(&local_path).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io(format!("failed to read metadata for {}: {}", local_path, e))
+            })?;
+            Ok(get_etag(&metadata))
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("spawn_blocking failed: {}", e)))
+        .and_then(|e_tag| e_tag);
+
+        metrics.record(&persisted, size as u64);
+        let e_tag = persisted?;
+
+        io_tracker.record_write("put", final_path, size as u64);
+
+        Ok(WriteResult {
+            size,
+            e_tag: Some(e_tag),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl AsyncWrite for LocalWriter {
+    fn poll_write(
+        mut self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+        cx: &mut std::task::Context<'_>,
+        buf: &[u8],
+    ) -> Poll<std::result::Result<usize, std::io::Error>> {
+        if let LocalWriteState::Writing(state) = &mut self.state {
+            let poll = Pin::new(&mut state.writer).poll_write(cx, buf);
+            if let Poll::Ready(Ok(n)) = &poll {
+                state.cursor += *n;
+            }
+            poll
+        } else {
+            Poll::Ready(Err(Self::already_closed_err(&self.path)))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn poll_flush(
+        mut self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+        cx: &mut std::task::Context<'_>,
+    ) -> Poll<std::result::Result<(), std::io::Error>> {
+        if let LocalWriteState::Writing(state) = &mut self.state {
+            Pin::new(&mut state.writer).poll_flush(cx)
+        } else {
+            Poll::Ready(Err(Self::already_closed_err(&self.path)))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn poll_shutdown(
+        mut self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+        cx: &mut std::task::Context<'_>,
+    ) -> Poll<std::result::Result<(), std::io::Error>> {
+        let mut_self = &mut *self;
+        loop {
+            match &mut mut_self.state {
+                LocalWriteState::Writing(state) => {
+                    if Pin::new(&mut state.writer).poll_shutdown(cx).is_pending() {
+                        return Poll::Pending;
+                    }
+
+                    // Write is complete, we can transition to persisting.
+                    let LocalWriteState::Writing(state) =
+                        std::mem::replace(&mut mut_self.state, LocalWriteState::Poisoned)
+                    else {
+                        unreachable!()
+                    };
+                    let size = state.cursor;
+                    mut_self.state = LocalWriteState::Finishing {
+                        size,
+                        future: Box::pin(Self::persist(
+                            state.temp_path,
+                            mut_self.path.clone(),
+                            size,
+                            state.io_tracker,
+                            state.metrics,
+                        )),
+                    };
+                }
+                LocalWriteState::Finishing { future, .. } => match future.poll_unpin(cx) {
+                    Poll::Ready(Ok(result)) => mut_self.state = LocalWriteState::Done(result),
+                    Poll::Ready(Err(e)) => {
+                        return Poll::Ready(Err(io::Error::other(e)));
+                    }
+                    Poll::Pending => return Poll::Pending,
+                },
+                LocalWriteState::Done(_) => return Poll::Ready(Ok(())),
+                LocalWriteState::Poisoned => {
+                    return Poll::Ready(Err(Self::poisoned_err(&self.path)));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl Writer for LocalWriter {
+    async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<usize> {
+        match &mut self.state {
+            LocalWriteState::Writing(state) => Ok(state.cursor),
+            LocalWriteState::Finishing { size, .. } => Ok(*size),
+            LocalWriteState::Done(result) => Ok(result.size),
+            LocalWriteState::Poisoned => Err(Self::poisoned_err(&self.path).into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(self).await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "failed to shutdown local writer for {}: {}",
+                self.path, e
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        match &self.state {
+            LocalWriteState::Done(result) => Ok(result.clone()),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// Based on object store's implementation.
+pub fn get_etag(metadata: &std::fs::Metadata) -> String {
+    let inode = get_inode(metadata);
+    let size = metadata.len();
+    let mtime = metadata
+        .modified()
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|mtime| mtime.duration_since(std::time::SystemTime::UNIX_EPOCH).ok())
+        .unwrap_or_default()
+        .as_micros();
+
+    // Use an ETag scheme based on that used by many popular HTTP servers
+    // <https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/core.html#fileetag>
+    format!("{inode:x}-{mtime:x}-{size:x}")
+}
+
+#[cfg(unix)]
+fn get_inode(metadata: &std::fs::Metadata) -> u64 {
+    std::os::unix::fs::MetadataExt::ino(metadata)
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(unix))]
+fn get_inode(_metadata: &std::fs::Metadata) -> u64 {
+    0
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+    use object_store::{
+        CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, ObjectMeta, PutMultipartOptions,
+        PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, RenameOptions, Result as OSResult, UploadPart,
+    };
+    use std::sync::Mutex;
+    use std::time::Duration;
     use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+    use tokio::sync::Semaphore;
 
     use super::*;
 
+    /// Which stage of an upload the mock store rejects.
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+    enum FailAt {
+        Nothing,
+        CreateMultipart,
+        PutPart,
+        Complete,
+        SinglePut,
+    }
+
+    /// What the mock store saw, so a test can assert on uploads that are still
+    /// in flight as well as on the object they eventually assemble.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct UploadObservations {
+        /// One permit per part upload that has begun. A test waits on this
+        /// rather than sampling a counter: `write_all` and a non-waiting
+        /// `flush` can both complete without ever returning `Pending`, so on a
+        /// current-thread runtime the spawned upload tasks may not have run yet.
+        started: Semaphore,
+        /// `(part index, body)` in completion order. The index is recorded
+        /// because it, not completion order, determines the assembled object.
+        parts: Mutex<Vec<(usize, Vec<u8>)>>,
+    }
+
+    impl Default for UploadObservations {
+        fn default() -> Self {
+            Self {
+                started: Semaphore::new(0),
+                parts: Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn rejected(stage: &'static str) -> object_store::Error {
+        object_store::Error::Generic {
+            store: "FailingUploadStore",
+            source: format!("{stage} rejected by test").into(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingUpload {
+        fail_at: FailAt,
+        /// When set, a part upload does not resolve until the gate is given a
+        /// permit, so a test can hold requests in flight.
+        gate: Option<Arc<Semaphore>>,
+        observations: Arc<UploadObservations>,
+        next_part: usize,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl MultipartUpload for FailingUpload {
+        fn put_part(&mut self, data: PutPayload) -> UploadPart {
+            let fails = self.fail_at == FailAt::PutPart;
+            let part_idx = self.next_part;
+            self.next_part += 1;
+            let gate = self.gate.clone();
+            let observations = self.observations.clone();
+            Box::pin(async move {
+                observations.started.add_permits(1);
+                if let Some(gate) = gate {
+                    // `forget` keeps the permit from being returned on drop, so
+                    // adding N permits releases exactly N parts.
+                    gate.acquire_owned().await.unwrap().forget();
+                }
+                if fails {
+                    return Err(rejected("part"));
+                }
+                let body = data
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|chunk| chunk.iter().copied())
+                    .collect();
+                observations.parts.lock().unwrap().push((part_idx, body));
+                Ok(())
+            })
+        }
+
+        async fn complete(&mut self) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            if self.fail_at == FailAt::Complete {
+                Err(rejected("complete"))
+            } else {
+                Ok(PutResult {
+                    e_tag: None,
+                    version: None,
+                })
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn abort(&mut self) -> OSResult<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Rejects exactly one stage of an upload so each failure site can be
+    /// exercised on its own, and optionally holds part uploads open.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingUploadStore {
+        fail_at: FailAt,
+        gate: Option<Arc<Semaphore>>,
+        observations: Arc<UploadObservations>,
+    }
+
+    impl FailingUploadStore {
+        fn new(fail_at: FailAt) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                fail_at,
+                gate: None,
+                observations: Arc::new(UploadObservations::default()),
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Builds a store whose part uploads stay in flight until the returned
+        /// gate is given permits.
+        fn gated(fail_at: FailAt) -> (Self, Arc<Semaphore>) {
+            let gate = Arc::new(Semaphore::new(0));
+            let store = Self {
+                fail_at,
+                gate: Some(gate.clone()),
+                observations: Arc::new(UploadObservations::default()),
+            };
+            (store, gate)
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl std::fmt::Display for FailingUploadStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "FailingUploadStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ObjectStore for FailingUploadStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _bytes: PutPayload,
+            _opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            if self.fail_at == FailAt::SinglePut {
+                Err(rejected("single put"))
+            } else {
+                Ok(PutResult {
+                    e_tag: None,
+                    version: None,
+                })
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            if self.fail_at == FailAt::CreateMultipart {
+                Err(rejected("create multipart"))
+            } else {
+                Ok(Box::new(FailingUpload {
+                    fail_at: self.fail_at,
+                    gate: self.gate.clone(),
+                    observations: self.observations.clone(),
+                    next_part: 0,
+                }))
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, _location: &Path, _options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            _locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, _prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            _offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, _prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, _from: &Path, _to: &Path, _opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_opts(
+            &self,
+            _from: &Path,
+            _to: &Path,
+            _opts: RenameOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<()> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+    }
+
+    const FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH: &str = "part_7_invert.lance";
+
+    /// Enough bytes for two full multipart parts, so a failing part has a
+    /// sibling in flight. Derived from the configured part size rather than the
+    /// default, since `LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE` may raise it.
+    fn two_parts() -> usize {
+        initial_upload_size() * 2
+    }
+
+    /// Drives a write against a store that rejects `fail_at`, returning the
+    /// error. The failure can surface either from a write or from shutdown
+    /// depending on when the rejected request is reaped, so both are checked.
+    async fn failing_upload(fail_at: FailAt, num_bytes: usize) -> io::Error {
+        let mut store = LanceObjectStore::memory();
+        store.inner = Arc::new(FailingUploadStore::new(fail_at));
+
+        let mut writer = ObjectWriter::new(&store, &Path::from(FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let buf = vec![0u8; num_bytes];
+        match writer.write_all(buf.as_slice()).await {
+            Err(err) => err,
+            Ok(()) => AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(&mut writer)
+                .await
+                .expect_err("upload should have failed"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_part_upload_failure_reports_upload_context() {
+        let err = failing_upload(FailAt::PutPart, two_parts()).await;
+        let message = err.to_string();
+
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("multipart upload of part"),
+            "should name the failing stage: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH),
+            "should name the object: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(&format!("{} bytes", initial_upload_size())),
+            "should report the body size: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(&format!("part_size={} bytes", initial_upload_size())),
+            "should report the part size in effect: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("parts_in_flight="),
+            "should report upload concurrency in use: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE")
+                && message.contains("LANCE_UPLOAD_CONCURRENCY"),
+            "should report the knobs governing the request: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("part rejected by test"),
+            "should keep the underlying object store error: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // The elapsed time is the whole point of the added context: it is what tells
+    // a slow request apart from one whose task was never polled.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_part_upload_failure_reports_elapsed_time() {
+        let err = failing_upload(FailAt::PutPart, two_parts()).await;
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("failed after"),
+            "should report how long the request took: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // `part_size` in the failure message is the live buffer capacity, which is
+    // what makes it report the size actually in effect. The part size grows
+    // every 100 parts, so on a long upload that diverges from
+    // LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE by a multiple; reporting only the configured
+    // value would understate a late part by that factor. Reaching part 100
+    // through the writer would mean allocating hundreds of MiB, so the growth
+    // is asserted on the buffer the message reads from.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_part_buffer_capacity_tracks_grown_part_size() {
+        let mut buffer = Vec::<u8>::with_capacity(initial_upload_size());
+        assert_eq!(buffer.capacity(), initial_upload_size());
+
+        let _ = ObjectWriter::next_part_buffer(&mut buffer, 0, false);
+        assert_eq!(
+            buffer.capacity(),
+            initial_upload_size(),
+            "early parts stay at the configured size"
+        );
+
+        let _ = ObjectWriter::next_part_buffer(&mut buffer, 100, false);
+        assert_eq!(
+            buffer.capacity(),
+            initial_upload_size().max(2 * INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP),
+            "the part size has grown past the first step"
+        );
+
+        // A store pinned to constant part sizes never grows, so the reported
+        // size stays equal to the configured one.
+        let _ = ObjectWriter::next_part_buffer(&mut buffer, 100, true);
+        assert_eq!(buffer.capacity(), initial_upload_size());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_part_upload_failure_preserves_source_chain() {
+        let err = failing_upload(FailAt::PutPart, two_parts()).await;
+
+        let failure = err
+            .get_ref()
+            .expect("io error should carry the upload failure");
+        let source = std::error::Error::source(failure)
+            .expect("upload failure should expose the object store error");
+        assert!(
+            source.downcast_ref::<object_store::Error>().is_some(),
+            "source should still be the object store error, got: {source}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Adding context must not flatten the `io::ErrorKind` that `object_store`
+    /// maps an error to, since that kind is observable to callers.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_upload_failure_preserves_error_kind() {
+        fn not_found() -> object_store::Error {
+            object_store::Error::NotFound {
+                path: FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH.to_string(),
+                source: "not found".into(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        let unwrapped = io::Error::from(not_found());
+        assert_eq!(unwrapped.kind(), io::ErrorKind::NotFound);
+
+        let wrapped =
+            UploadFailure::new("part upload failed".to_string(), not_found()).into_io_error();
+        assert_eq!(wrapped.kind(), unwrapped.kind());
+    }
+
+    /// `Writer::shutdown` is the public boundary most callers see. The object
+    /// store error has to remain reachable through it, not be flattened into a
+    /// message.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_writer_shutdown_preserves_object_store_source() {
+        let mut store = LanceObjectStore::memory();
+        store.inner = Arc::new(FailingUploadStore::new(FailAt::SinglePut));
+        let mut writer = ObjectWriter::new(&store, &Path::from(FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.write_all(&[0u8; 256]).await.unwrap();
+        let err = Writer::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap_err();
+
+        let mut current: Option<&(dyn std::error::Error + 'static)> = Some(&err);
+        let mut found_object_store = false;
+        while let Some(source) = current {
+            if source.downcast_ref::<object_store::Error>().is_some() {
+                found_object_store = true;
+                break;
+            }
+            current = source.source();
+        }
+        assert!(found_object_store, "source chain was flattened: {err:?}");
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains(FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH),
+            "should still name the object: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_multipart_failure_reports_upload_context() {
+        let err = failing_upload(FailAt::CreateMultipart, two_parts()).await;
+        let message = err.to_string();
+
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("failed to create multipart upload for"),
+            "should name the failing stage: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH),
+            "should name the object: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("create multipart rejected by test"),
+            "should keep the underlying object store error: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_complete_multipart_failure_reports_upload_context() {
+        let num_bytes = two_parts();
+        let err = failing_upload(FailAt::Complete, num_bytes).await;
+        let message = err.to_string();
+
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("completing multipart upload of"),
+            "should name the failing stage: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(&format!("{num_bytes} bytes")),
+            "should report how much had been written: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("complete rejected by test"),
+            "should keep the underlying object store error: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_single_put_failure_reports_upload_context() {
+        // Below the multipart threshold, so shutdown takes the single-PUT path.
+        let err = failing_upload(FailAt::SinglePut, 256).await;
+        let message = err.to_string();
+
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("single PUT of"),
+            "should name the failing stage: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH),
+            "should name the object: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("256 bytes"),
+            "should report the body size: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("single put rejected by test"),
+            "should keep the underlying object store error: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Released permits, comfortably above the part count of any test here so
+    /// no test depends on the exact number of parts a payload produces.
+    const GATE_RELEASE: usize = 64;
+
+    /// How long a flush is allowed to take before it counts as waiting. A flush
+    /// that does not wait resolves immediately; this bound only has to be short
+    /// of the test harness timeout.
+    const FLUSH_BOUND: Duration = Duration::from_secs(10);
+
+    /// Blocks until a part upload has begun, so the assertions that follow are
+    /// made against a request that is genuinely in flight.
+    async fn await_part_in_flight(observations: &UploadObservations) {
+        tokio::time::timeout(FLUSH_BOUND, observations.started.acquire())
+            .await
+            .expect("a part upload should have started")
+            .unwrap()
+            .forget();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flush_does_not_wait_for_in_flight_parts() {
+        let (store, gate) = FailingUploadStore::gated(FailAt::Nothing);
+        let observations = store.observations.clone();
+        let mut lance_store = LanceObjectStore::memory();
+        lance_store.inner = Arc::new(store);
+
+        let mut writer = ObjectWriter::new(&lance_store, &Path::from("gated.lance"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Distinct bytes so a part landing out of order is detectable.
+        let payload = (0..two_parts()).map(|i| i as u8).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        writer.write_all(payload.as_slice()).await.unwrap();
+        await_part_in_flight(&observations).await;
+
+        tokio::time::timeout(FLUSH_BOUND, AsyncWriteExt::flush(&mut writer))
+            .await
+            .expect("flush must not wait for in-flight part uploads")
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            observations.parts.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "no gated part may have completed before the gate opened"
+        );
+
+        gate.add_permits(GATE_RELEASE);
+        let result = Writer::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.size, payload.len());
+
+        let mut parts = observations.parts.lock().unwrap().clone();
+        parts.sort_by_key(|(part_idx, _)| *part_idx);
+        let assembled = parts
+            .into_iter()
+            .flat_map(|(_, body)| body)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            assembled, payload,
+            "parts must reassemble into the original bytes"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_part_failure_after_flush_surfaces_at_shutdown() {
+        let (store, gate) = FailingUploadStore::gated(FailAt::PutPart);
+        let observations = store.observations.clone();
+        let mut lance_store = LanceObjectStore::memory();
+        lance_store.inner = Arc::new(store);
+
+        let mut writer = ObjectWriter::new(&lance_store, &Path::from(FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_all(vec![0u8; two_parts()].as_slice())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        await_part_in_flight(&observations).await;
+        // The parts are still gated, so nothing has failed yet and flush passes.
+        AsyncWriteExt::flush(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Now let them fail. Shutdown is the first place that can report it, so
+        // no longer waiting in flush must not lose the error.
+        gate.add_permits(GATE_RELEASE);
+        let err = AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(&mut writer)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a failed part upload must still surface");
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(FAILING_UPLOAD_PATH),
+            "should name the object being written: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_write() {
         let store = LanceObjectStore::memory();
@@ -525,7 +1420,7 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(object_writer.write(buf.as_slice()).await.unwrap(), 256);
         assert_eq!(object_writer.tell().await.unwrap(), 256 * 3);
 
-        let res = object_writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+        let res = Writer::shutdown(&mut object_writer).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(res.size, 256 * 3);
 
         // Trigger multi part upload
@@ -540,7 +1435,7 @@ mod tests {
             // Check the cursor
             assert_eq!(object_writer.tell().await.unwrap(), (i + 1) * buf.len());
         }
-        let res = object_writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+        let res = Writer::shutdown(&mut object_writer).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(res.size, buf.len() * 5);
     }
 
@@ -553,4 +1448,109 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         object_writer.abort().await;
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_local_writer_shutdown() {
+        let tmp = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir::default();
+        let file_path = tmp.join("test_local_writer.bin");
+        let os_path = Path::from_absolute_path(&file_path).unwrap();
+        let io_tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+
+        let named_temp = tempfile::NamedTempFile::new_in(&*tmp).unwrap();
+        let temp_file_path = named_temp.path().to_owned();
+        let (std_file, temp_path) = named_temp.into_parts();
+        let file = tokio::fs::File::from_std(std_file);
+        let mut writer = LocalWriter::new(file, os_path, temp_path, io_tracker.clone());
+
+        let data = b"hello local writer";
+        writer.write_all(data).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Before shutdown, the final path should not exist
+        assert!(!file_path.exists());
+        // But the temp file should exist
+        assert!(temp_file_path.exists());
+
+        let result = Writer::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.size, data.len());
+        assert!(result.e_tag.is_some());
+        assert!(!result.e_tag.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+
+        // After shutdown, the final path should exist and temp should be gone
+        assert!(file_path.exists());
+        assert!(!temp_file_path.exists());
+
+        let stats = io_tracker.stats();
+        assert_eq!(stats.write_iops, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.written_bytes, data.len() as u64);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_local_writer_drop_cleans_up() {
+        let tmp = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir::default();
+        let file_path = tmp.join("test_drop.bin");
+        let os_path = Path::from_absolute_path(&file_path).unwrap();
+        let io_tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+
+        let named_temp = tempfile::NamedTempFile::new_in(&*tmp).unwrap();
+        let temp_file_path = named_temp.path().to_owned();
+        let (std_file, temp_path) = named_temp.into_parts();
+        let file = tokio::fs::File::from_std(std_file);
+        let mut writer = LocalWriter::new(file, os_path, temp_path, io_tracker);
+
+        writer.write_all(b"some data").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(temp_file_path.exists());
+
+        // Drop without shutdown should clean up the temp file
+        drop(writer);
+        assert!(!temp_file_path.exists());
+        assert!(!file_path.exists());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn clamp_initial_upload_size_below_min_is_clamped_up() {
+        assert_eq!(clamp_initial_upload_size(0), (INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP, true));
+        assert_eq!(
+            clamp_initial_upload_size(INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP - 1),
+            (INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP, true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn clamp_initial_upload_size_within_range_is_unchanged() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            clamp_initial_upload_size(INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP),
+            (INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP, false)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            clamp_initial_upload_size(MAX_UPLOAD_PART_SIZE),
+            (MAX_UPLOAD_PART_SIZE, false)
+        );
+        let mid = INITIAL_UPLOAD_STEP * 8; // 40MB, in range
+        assert_eq!(clamp_initial_upload_size(mid), (mid, false));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn clamp_initial_upload_size_above_max_is_clamped_down() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            clamp_initial_upload_size(MAX_UPLOAD_PART_SIZE + 1),
+            (MAX_UPLOAD_PART_SIZE, true)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            clamp_initial_upload_size(usize::MAX),
+            (MAX_UPLOAD_PART_SIZE, true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression for the foot-gun where `LANCE_INITIAL_UPLOAD_SIZE=5368709120`
+    /// (exactly 5 GiB, Pucheng's setting) caused a single-PUT of 5 GiB on
+    /// shutdown — which S3 rejects with `EntityTooLarge`. After tightening
+    /// `MAX_UPLOAD_PART_SIZE` to 5 GiB - 1, raw 5 GiB must clamp DOWN.
+    #[test]
+    fn clamp_initial_upload_size_at_5gib_clamps_down() {
+        let exactly_5_gib: usize = 5 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024;
+        assert_eq!(
+            clamp_initial_upload_size(exactly_5_gib),
+            (MAX_UPLOAD_PART_SIZE, true)
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/scheduler.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/scheduler.rs
index 4a2ca236a46..1876fe3feba 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/scheduler.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/scheduler.rs
@@ -3,9 +3,9 @@
 
 use bytes::Bytes;
 use futures::channel::oneshot;
+use futures::future::Either;
 use futures::{FutureExt, TryFutureExt};
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::collections::BinaryHeap;
 use std::fmt::Debug;
 use std::future::Future;
@@ -14,8 +14,10 @@ use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
 use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 use std::time::Instant;
-use tokio::sync::{Notify, Semaphore, SemaphorePermit};
+use tokio::sync::Notify;
 
+use lance_core::utils::io_stats::IoStatsRecorder;
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
 use crate::object_store::ObjectStore;
@@ -28,24 +30,12 @@ mod lite;
 const BACKPRESSURE_MIN: u64 = 5;
 // Don't log backpressure warnings more than once / minute
 const BACKPRESSURE_DEBOUNCE: u64 = 60;
+const SCHEDULER_STATE_EVENT_TARGET: &str = "lance_io::scheduler::state";
 
 // Global counter of how many IOPS we have issued
 static IOPS_COUNTER: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(0);
 // Global counter of how many bytes were read by the scheduler
 static BYTES_READ_COUNTER: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(0);
-// By default, we limit the number of IOPS across the entire process to 128
-//
-// In theory this is enough for ~10GBps on S3 following the guidelines to issue
-// 1 IOP per 80MBps.  In practice, I have noticed slightly better performance going
-// up to 256.
-//
-// However, non-S3 stores (e.g. GCS, Azure) can suffer significantly from too many
-// concurrent IOPS.  For safety, we set the default to 128 and let the user override
-// this if needed.
-//
-// Note: this only limits things that run through the scheduler.  It does not limit
-// IOPS from other sources like writing or commits.
-static DEFAULT_PROCESS_IOPS_LIMIT: i32 = 128;
 
 pub fn iops_counter() -> u64 {
     IOPS_COUNTER.load(Ordering::Acquire)
@@ -55,97 +45,6 @@ pub fn bytes_read_counter() -> u64 {
     BYTES_READ_COUNTER.load(Ordering::Acquire)
 }
 
-// There are two structures that control the I/O scheduler concurrency.  First,
-// we have a hard limit on the number of IOPS that can be issued concurrently.
-// This limit is process-wide.
-//
-// Second, we try and limit how many I/O requests can be buffered in memory without
-// being consumed by a decoder of some kind.  This limit is per-scheduler.  We cannot
-// make this limit process wide without introducing deadlock (because the decoder for
-// file 0 might be waiting on IOPS blocked by a queue filled with requests for file 1)
-// and vice-versa.
-//
-// There is also a per-scan limit on the number of IOPS that can be issued concurrently.
-//
-// The process-wide limit exists when users need a hard limit on the number of parallel
-// IOPS, e.g. due to port availability limits or to prevent multiple scans from saturating
-// the network.  (Note: a process-wide limit of X will not necessarily limit the number of
-// open TCP connections to exactly X.  The underlying object store may open more connections
-// anyways)
-//
-// However, it can be too tough in some cases, e.g. when some scans are reading from
-// cloud storage and other scans are reading from local disk.  In these cases users don't
-// need to set a process-limit and can rely on the per-scan limits.
-
-// The IopsQuota enforces the first of the above limits, it is the per-process hard cap
-// on the number of IOPS that can be issued concurrently.
-//
-// The per-scan limits are enforced by IoQueue
-struct IopsQuota {
-    // An Option is used here to avoid mutex overhead if no limit is set
-    iops_avail: Option<Semaphore>,
-}
-
-/// A reservation on the global IOPS quota
-///
-/// When the reservation is dropped, the IOPS quota is released unless
-/// [`Self::forget`] is called.
-struct IopsReservation<'a> {
-    value: Option<SemaphorePermit<'a>>,
-}
-
-impl IopsReservation<'_> {
-    // Forget the reservation, so it won't be released on drop
-    fn forget(&mut self) {
-        if let Some(value) = self.value.take() {
-            value.forget();
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl IopsQuota {
-    // By default, we throttle the number of scan IOPS across the entire process
-    //
-    // However, the user can disable this by setting the environment variable
-    // LANCE_PROCESS_IO_THREADS_LIMIT to zero (or a negative integer).
-    fn new() -> Self {
-        let initial_capacity = std::env::var("LANCE_PROCESS_IO_THREADS_LIMIT")
-            .map(|s| {
-                s.parse::<i32>().unwrap_or_else(|_| {
-                    log::warn!("Ignoring invalid LANCE_PROCESS_IO_THREADS_LIMIT: {}", s);
-                    DEFAULT_PROCESS_IOPS_LIMIT
-                })
-            })
-            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_PROCESS_IOPS_LIMIT);
-        let iops_avail = if initial_capacity <= 0 {
-            None
-        } else {
-            Some(Semaphore::new(initial_capacity as usize))
-        };
-        Self { iops_avail }
-    }
-
-    // Return a reservation on the global IOPS quota
-    fn release(&self) {
-        if let Some(iops_avail) = self.iops_avail.as_ref() {
-            iops_avail.add_permits(1);
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Acquire a reservation on the global IOPS quota
-    async fn acquire(&self) -> IopsReservation<'_> {
-        if let Some(iops_avail) = self.iops_avail.as_ref() {
-            IopsReservation {
-                value: Some(iops_avail.acquire().await.unwrap()),
-            }
-        } else {
-            IopsReservation { value: None }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-static IOPS_QUOTA: std::sync::LazyLock<IopsQuota> = std::sync::LazyLock::new(IopsQuota::new);
-
 // We want to allow requests that have a lower priority than any
 // currently in-flight request.  This helps avoid potential deadlocks
 // related to backpressure.  Unfortunately, it is quite expensive to
@@ -169,6 +68,10 @@ impl PrioritiesInFlight {
         self.in_flight.first().copied().unwrap_or(u128::MAX)
     }
 
+    fn contains(&self, prio: u128) -> bool {
+        self.in_flight.binary_search(&prio).is_ok()
+    }
+
     fn push(&mut self, prio: u128) {
         let pos = match self.in_flight.binary_search(&prio) {
             Ok(pos) => pos,
@@ -182,11 +85,23 @@ impl PrioritiesInFlight {
             self.in_flight.remove(pos);
         }
     }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.in_flight.len()
+    }
+
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.in_flight.is_empty()
+    }
 }
 
 struct IoQueueState {
+    // The configured number of IOPS that can be issued concurrently.
+    io_capacity: u32,
     // Number of IOPS we can issue concurrently before pausing I/O
     iops_avail: u32,
+    // The configured byte budget for unread I/O.
+    io_buffer_size: u64,
     // Number of bytes we are allowed to buffer in memory before pausing I/O
     //
     // This can dip below 0 due to I/O prioritization
@@ -202,19 +117,83 @@ struct IoQueueState {
     start: Instant,
     // Last time we warned about backpressure
     last_warn: AtomicU64,
+    // When true, skip all byte-based backpressure checks (set when io_buffer_size == 0)
+    no_backpressure: bool,
 }
 
 impl IoQueueState {
     fn new(io_capacity: u32, io_buffer_size: u64) -> Self {
         Self {
+            io_capacity,
             iops_avail: io_capacity,
+            io_buffer_size,
             bytes_avail: io_buffer_size as i64,
             pending_requests: BinaryHeap::new(),
             priorities_in_flight: PrioritiesInFlight::new(io_capacity),
             done_scheduling: false,
             start: Instant::now(),
             last_warn: AtomicU64::from(0),
+            no_backpressure: io_buffer_size == 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn scheduler_state_event(&self) -> Option<SchedulerStateEvent> {
+        if !tracing::enabled!(target: SCHEDULER_STATE_EVENT_TARGET, tracing::Level::TRACE) {
+            return None;
         }
+
+        let pending_bytes = self
+            .pending_requests
+            .iter()
+            .map(IoTask::num_bytes)
+            .sum::<u64>();
+        let head_task = self.pending_requests.peek();
+        let min_in_flight_priority = if self.priorities_in_flight.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(self.priorities_in_flight.min_in_flight())
+        };
+        let head_task_priority_bypass = head_task.map(|task| {
+            self.no_backpressure
+                || task.bypass_backpressure
+                || task.priority <= self.priorities_in_flight.min_in_flight()
+        });
+        let head_task_blocked_by_iops = head_task.map(|_| self.iops_avail == 0);
+        let head_task_blocked_by_bytes = head_task.map(|task| {
+            let bypasses_bytes = self.no_backpressure
+                || task.bypass_backpressure
+                || task.priority <= self.priorities_in_flight.min_in_flight();
+            !bypasses_bytes && task.num_bytes() as i64 > self.bytes_avail
+        });
+        let head_task_can_deliver = head_task.map(|task| self.can_deliver_without_warning(task));
+        let head_task_bytes = head_task.map(IoTask::num_bytes);
+        let (head_task_priority_high, head_task_priority_low) =
+            split_priority(head_task.map(|task| task.priority));
+        let (min_in_flight_priority_high, min_in_flight_priority_low) =
+            split_priority(min_in_flight_priority);
+
+        Some(SchedulerStateEvent {
+            queue_kind: "standard",
+            io_capacity: u64::from(self.io_capacity),
+            iops_available: u64::from(self.iops_avail),
+            active_iops: u64::from(self.io_capacity.saturating_sub(self.iops_avail)),
+            pending_iops: self.pending_requests.len() as u64,
+            pending_bytes,
+            bytes_available: self.bytes_avail,
+            bytes_reserved: self.io_buffer_size as i64 - self.bytes_avail,
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: self.io_buffer_size,
+            priorities_in_flight: self.priorities_in_flight.len() as u64,
+            no_backpressure: self.no_backpressure,
+            head_task_bytes,
+            head_task_priority_high,
+            head_task_priority_low,
+            min_in_flight_priority_high,
+            min_in_flight_priority_low,
+            head_task_can_deliver,
+            head_task_priority_bypass,
+            head_task_blocked_by_iops,
+            head_task_blocked_by_bytes,
+        })
     }
 
     fn warn_if_needed(&self) {
@@ -227,37 +206,60 @@ impl IoQueueState {
             || since_last_warn > BACKPRESSURE_DEBOUNCE
         {
             tracing::event!(tracing::Level::DEBUG, "Backpressure throttle exceeded");
-            log::debug!("Backpressure throttle is full, I/O will pause until buffer is drained.  Max I/O bandwidth will not be achieved because CPU is falling behind");
+            log::debug!(
+                "Backpressure throttle is full, I/O will pause until buffer is drained.  Max I/O bandwidth will not be achieved because CPU is falling behind"
+            );
             self.last_warn
                 .store(seconds_elapsed.max(1), Ordering::Release);
         }
     }
 
     fn can_deliver(&self, task: &IoTask) -> bool {
+        let can_deliver = self.can_deliver_without_warning(task);
+        if !can_deliver
+            && self.iops_avail > 0
+            && !(self.no_backpressure
+                || task.bypass_backpressure
+                || task.priority <= self.priorities_in_flight.min_in_flight())
+            && task.num_bytes() as i64 > self.bytes_avail
+        {
+            self.warn_if_needed();
+        }
+        can_deliver
+    }
+
+    fn can_deliver_without_warning(&self, task: &IoTask) -> bool {
         if self.iops_avail == 0 {
             false
-        } else if task.priority <= self.priorities_in_flight.min_in_flight() {
+        } else if self.no_backpressure
+            || task.bypass_backpressure
+            || task.priority <= self.priorities_in_flight.min_in_flight()
+            // Chunks from an admitted logical request must keep moving.  A
+            // higher-priority request may be scheduled later and remain
+            // unconsumed while the caller awaits this request.
+            || self.priorities_in_flight.contains(task.priority)
+        {
             true
-        } else if task.num_bytes() as i64 > self.bytes_avail {
-            self.warn_if_needed();
-            false
         } else {
-            true
+            task.num_bytes() as i64 <= self.bytes_avail
         }
     }
 
     fn next_task(&mut self) -> Option<IoTask> {
         let task = self.pending_requests.peek()?;
         if self.can_deliver(task) {
+            let skip_bytes_accounting = self.no_backpressure || task.bypass_backpressure;
             self.priorities_in_flight.push(task.priority);
             self.iops_avail -= 1;
-            self.bytes_avail -= task.num_bytes() as i64;
-            if self.bytes_avail < 0 {
-                // This can happen when we admit special priority requests
-                log::debug!(
-                    "Backpressure throttle temporarily exceeded by {} bytes due to priority I/O",
-                    -self.bytes_avail
-                );
+            if !skip_bytes_accounting {
+                self.bytes_avail -= task.num_bytes() as i64;
+                if self.bytes_avail < 0 {
+                    // This can happen when we admit special priority requests
+                    log::debug!(
+                        "Backpressure throttle temporarily exceeded by {} bytes due to priority I/O",
+                        -self.bytes_avail
+                    );
+                }
             }
             Some(self.pending_requests.pop().unwrap())
         } else {
@@ -275,13 +277,15 @@ struct IoQueue {
     state: Mutex<IoQueueState>,
     // Used to signal new I/O requests have arrived that might potentially be runnable
     notify: Notify,
+    stats: IoStats,
 }
 
 impl IoQueue {
-    fn new(io_capacity: u32, io_buffer_size: u64) -> Self {
+    fn new(io_capacity: u32, io_buffer_size: u64, stats: IoStats) -> Self {
         Self {
             state: Mutex::new(IoQueueState::new(io_capacity, io_buffer_size)),
             notify: Notify::new(),
+            stats,
         }
     }
 
@@ -292,9 +296,12 @@ impl IoQueue {
             task.priority >> 64,
             task.priority & 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
         );
-        let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
-        state.pending_requests.push(task);
-        drop(state);
+        let event = {
+            let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
+            state.pending_requests.push(task);
+            state.scheduler_state_event()
+        };
+        emit_scheduler_state_event(event, &self.stats);
 
         self.notify.notify_one();
     }
@@ -302,17 +309,11 @@ impl IoQueue {
     async fn pop(&self) -> Option<IoTask> {
         loop {
             {
-                // First, grab a reservation on the global IOPS quota
-                // If we then get a task to run, transfer the reservation
-                // to the task.  Otherwise, the reservation will be released
-                // when iop_res is dropped.
-                let mut iop_res = IOPS_QUOTA.acquire().await;
-                // Next, try and grab a reservation from the queue
                 let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
                 if let Some(task) = state.next_task() {
-                    // Reservation successfully acquired, we will release the global
-                    // global reservation after task has run.
-                    iop_res.forget();
+                    let event = state.scheduler_state_event();
+                    drop(state);
+                    emit_scheduler_state_event(event, &self.stats);
                     return Some(task);
                 }
 
@@ -326,29 +327,39 @@ impl IoQueue {
     }
 
     fn on_iop_complete(&self) {
-        let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
-        state.iops_avail += 1;
-        drop(state);
+        let event = {
+            let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
+            state.iops_avail += 1;
+            state.scheduler_state_event()
+        };
+        emit_scheduler_state_event(event, &self.stats);
 
         self.notify.notify_one();
     }
 
     fn on_bytes_consumed(&self, bytes: u64, priority: u128, num_reqs: usize) {
-        let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
-        state.bytes_avail += bytes as i64;
-        for _ in 0..num_reqs {
-            state.priorities_in_flight.remove(priority);
-        }
-        drop(state);
+        let event = {
+            let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
+            state.bytes_avail += bytes as i64;
+            for _ in 0..num_reqs {
+                state.priorities_in_flight.remove(priority);
+            }
+            state.scheduler_state_event()
+        };
+        emit_scheduler_state_event(event, &self.stats);
 
         self.notify.notify_one();
     }
 
     fn close(&self) {
-        let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
-        state.done_scheduling = true;
-        let pending_requests = std::mem::take(&mut state.pending_requests);
-        drop(state);
+        let (pending_requests, event) = {
+            let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
+            state.done_scheduling = true;
+            let pending_requests = std::mem::take(&mut state.pending_requests);
+            let event = state.scheduler_state_event();
+            (pending_requests, event)
+        };
+        emit_scheduler_state_event(event, &self.stats);
         for request in pending_requests {
             request.cancel();
         }
@@ -367,18 +378,34 @@ struct MutableBatch<F: FnOnce(Response) + Send> {
     num_bytes: u64,
     priority: u128,
     num_reqs: usize,
-    err: Option<Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static>>,
+    num_delivered: usize,
+    err: Option<Error>,
+    // When true, report 0 bytes consumed so the backpressure budget is unaffected
+    bypass_backpressure: bool,
+    // Queue the batch's backpressure reservation is refunded to once its response
+    // is delivered or discarded (see `Response`'s `Drop`).
+    io_queue: Arc<IoQueue>,
 }
 
 impl<F: FnOnce(Response) + Send> MutableBatch<F> {
-    fn new(when_done: F, num_data_buffers: u32, priority: u128, num_reqs: usize) -> Self {
+    fn new(
+        when_done: F,
+        num_data_buffers: u32,
+        priority: u128,
+        num_reqs: usize,
+        bypass_backpressure: bool,
+        io_queue: Arc<IoQueue>,
+    ) -> Self {
         Self {
             when_done: Some(when_done),
             data_buffers: vec![Bytes::default(); num_data_buffers as usize],
             num_bytes: 0,
             priority,
             num_reqs,
+            num_delivered: 0,
             err: None,
+            bypass_backpressure,
+            io_queue,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -389,12 +416,16 @@ impl<F: FnOnce(Response) + Send> MutableBatch<F> {
 // data.
 impl<F: FnOnce(Response) + Send> Drop for MutableBatch<F> {
     fn drop(&mut self) {
-        // If we have an error, return that.  Otherwise return the data
-        let result = if self.err.is_some() {
-            Err(Error::Wrapped {
-                error: self.err.take().unwrap(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+        // If we have an error, return that. Otherwise return the data, as long as the I/O requests have been processed.
+        let result = if let Some(err) = self.err.take() {
+            Err(err)
+        } else if self.num_delivered < self.data_buffers.len() {
+            // This usually happens on tokio runtime shutdown
+            Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "I/O request was dropped before completion ({} of {} reads delivered)",
+                self.num_delivered,
+                self.data_buffers.len()
+            )))
         } else {
             let mut data = Vec::new();
             std::mem::swap(&mut data, &mut self.data_buffers);
@@ -403,8 +434,14 @@ impl<F: FnOnce(Response) + Send> Drop for MutableBatch<F> {
         // We don't really care if no one is around to receive it, just let
         // the result go out of scope and get cleaned up
         let response = Response {
-            data: result,
-            num_bytes: self.num_bytes,
+            data: Some(result),
+            io_queue: self.io_queue.clone(),
+            // Report 0 bytes for bypass tasks so the backpressure budget is unaffected
+            num_bytes: if self.bypass_backpressure {
+                0
+            } else {
+                self.num_bytes
+            },
             priority: self.priority,
             num_reqs: self.num_reqs,
         };
@@ -426,13 +463,14 @@ impl<F: FnOnce(Response) + Send> DataSink for MutableBatch<F> {
     // Called by worker tasks to add data to the MutableBatch
     fn deliver_data(&mut self, data: DataChunk) {
         self.num_bytes += data.num_bytes;
+        self.num_delivered += 1;
         match data.data {
             Ok(data_bytes) => {
                 self.data_buffers[data.task_idx] = data_bytes;
             }
             Err(err) => {
                 // This keeps the original error, if present
-                self.err.get_or_insert(Box::new(err));
+                self.err.get_or_insert(err);
             }
         }
     }
@@ -443,13 +481,31 @@ struct IoTask {
     to_read: Range<u64>,
     when_done: Box<dyn FnOnce(Result<Bytes>) + Send>,
     priority: u128,
+    bypass_backpressure: bool,
+}
+
+fn validate_read_length(
+    file_path: &Path,
+    requested_range: &Range<u64>,
+    bytes: Bytes,
+) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    let expected_len = requested_range.end - requested_range.start;
+    if bytes.len() as u64 != expected_len {
+        return Err(Error::io(format!(
+            "I/O request for file {file_path} and range {}..{} returned {} bytes, expected {expected_len} bytes",
+            requested_range.start,
+            requested_range.end,
+            bytes.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(bytes)
 }
 
 impl Eq for IoTask {}
 
 impl PartialEq for IoTask {
     fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        self.priority == other.priority
+        self.bypass_backpressure == other.bypass_backpressure && self.priority == other.priority
     }
 }
 
@@ -461,8 +517,11 @@ impl PartialOrd for IoTask {
 
 impl Ord for IoTask {
     fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
-        // This is intentionally inverted.  We want a min-heap
-        other.priority.cmp(&self.priority)
+        // Bypass tasks are always delivered before normal tasks.
+        // Within the same bypass class, this is a min-heap on priority.
+        self.bypass_backpressure
+            .cmp(&other.bypass_backpressure)
+            .then(other.priority.cmp(&self.priority))
     }
 }
 
@@ -471,10 +530,9 @@ impl IoTask {
         self.to_read.end - self.to_read.start
     }
     fn cancel(self) {
-        (self.when_done)(Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: "Scheduler closed before I/O was completed".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }));
+        (self.when_done)(Err(Error::internal(
+            "Scheduler closed before I/O was completed".to_string(),
+        )));
     }
 
     async fn run(self) {
@@ -494,6 +552,7 @@ impl IoTask {
                 })
                 .await
                 .map_err(Error::from)
+                .and_then(|bytes| validate_read_length(self.reader.path(), &self.to_read, bytes))
         };
         // Emit per-file I/O trace event only when tracing is enabled
         tracing::trace!(
@@ -504,7 +563,6 @@ impl IoTask {
             range_end = self.to_read.end,
             "File I/O completed"
         );
-        IOPS_QUOTA.release();
         (self.when_done)(bytes);
     }
 }
@@ -564,8 +622,25 @@ impl StatsCollector {
             Ordering::Relaxed,
         );
     }
+
+    /// Add already-aggregated counts (e.g. a snapshot captured from another
+    /// scheduler) into these counters.
+    fn add(&self, iops: u64, requests: u64, bytes_read: u64) {
+        self.iops.fetch_add(iops, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.requests.fetch_add(requests, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.bytes_read.fetch_add(bytes_read, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
 }
 
+impl IoStatsRecorder for StatsCollector {
+    fn record_request(&self, request: &[Range<u64>]) {
+        // Inherent methods take precedence in resolution, so this delegates to
+        // the inherent `record_request` above rather than recursing.
+        Self::record_request(self, request)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
 pub struct ScanStats {
     pub iops: u64,
     pub requests: u64,
@@ -582,6 +657,135 @@ impl ScanStats {
     }
 }
 
+fn split_priority(priority: Option<u128>) -> (Option<u64>, Option<u64>) {
+    priority
+        .map(|priority| ((priority >> 64) as u64, priority as u64))
+        .unzip()
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub(super) struct SchedulerStateEvent {
+    pub(super) queue_kind: &'static str,
+    pub(super) io_capacity: u64,
+    pub(super) iops_available: u64,
+    pub(super) active_iops: u64,
+    pub(super) pending_iops: u64,
+    pub(super) pending_bytes: u64,
+    pub(super) bytes_available: i64,
+    pub(super) bytes_reserved: i64,
+    pub(super) io_buffer_size_bytes: u64,
+    pub(super) priorities_in_flight: u64,
+    pub(super) no_backpressure: bool,
+    pub(super) head_task_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    pub(super) head_task_priority_high: Option<u64>,
+    pub(super) head_task_priority_low: Option<u64>,
+    pub(super) min_in_flight_priority_high: Option<u64>,
+    pub(super) min_in_flight_priority_low: Option<u64>,
+    pub(super) head_task_can_deliver: Option<bool>,
+    pub(super) head_task_priority_bypass: Option<bool>,
+    pub(super) head_task_blocked_by_iops: Option<bool>,
+    pub(super) head_task_blocked_by_bytes: Option<bool>,
+}
+
+impl SchedulerStateEvent {
+    fn trace(self, stats: ScanStats) {
+        tracing::event!(
+            target: SCHEDULER_STATE_EVENT_TARGET,
+            tracing::Level::TRACE,
+            queue_kind = self.queue_kind,
+            scheduler_iops = stats.iops,
+            scheduler_requests = stats.requests,
+            scheduler_bytes_read = stats.bytes_read,
+            io_capacity = self.io_capacity,
+            iops_available = self.iops_available,
+            active_iops = self.active_iops,
+            pending_iops = self.pending_iops,
+            pending_bytes = self.pending_bytes,
+            bytes_available = self.bytes_available,
+            bytes_reserved = self.bytes_reserved,
+            io_buffer_size_bytes = self.io_buffer_size_bytes,
+            priorities_in_flight = self.priorities_in_flight,
+            no_backpressure = self.no_backpressure,
+            head_task_bytes_present = self.head_task_bytes.is_some(),
+            head_task_bytes = self.head_task_bytes.unwrap_or_default(),
+            head_task_priority_high_present = self.head_task_priority_high.is_some(),
+            head_task_priority_high = self.head_task_priority_high.unwrap_or_default(),
+            head_task_priority_low_present = self.head_task_priority_low.is_some(),
+            head_task_priority_low = self.head_task_priority_low.unwrap_or_default(),
+            min_in_flight_priority_high_present = self.min_in_flight_priority_high.is_some(),
+            min_in_flight_priority_high = self.min_in_flight_priority_high.unwrap_or_default(),
+            min_in_flight_priority_low_present = self.min_in_flight_priority_low.is_some(),
+            min_in_flight_priority_low = self.min_in_flight_priority_low.unwrap_or_default(),
+            head_task_can_deliver_present = self.head_task_can_deliver.is_some(),
+            head_task_can_deliver = self.head_task_can_deliver.unwrap_or(false),
+            head_task_priority_bypass_present = self.head_task_priority_bypass.is_some(),
+            head_task_priority_bypass = self.head_task_priority_bypass.unwrap_or(false),
+            head_task_blocked_by_iops_present = self.head_task_blocked_by_iops.is_some(),
+            head_task_blocked_by_iops = self.head_task_blocked_by_iops.unwrap_or(false),
+            head_task_blocked_by_bytes_present = self.head_task_blocked_by_bytes.is_some(),
+            head_task_blocked_by_bytes = self.head_task_blocked_by_bytes.unwrap_or(false),
+            "Scheduler state"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn emit_scheduler_state_event(event: Option<SchedulerStateEvent>, stats: &IoStats) {
+    if let Some(event) = event {
+        event.trace(stats.snapshot());
+    }
+}
+
+/// A shareable, cloneable handle to a set of cumulative I/O counters.
+///
+/// All clones share the same underlying counters.  This serves two purposes:
+///
+/// 1. It backs each [`ScanScheduler`]'s own running totals.
+/// 2. It can be attached to an individual [`FileScheduler`] (via
+///    [`FileScheduler::with_io_stats`]) as a *secondary* sink, so a caller can
+///    measure the exact bytes/IOPS performed through that file handle for a
+///    bounded scope (e.g. a single query) without disturbing the scheduler's
+///    global totals.  Read the result back with [`IoStats::snapshot`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct IoStats(Arc<StatsCollector>);
+
+impl IoStats {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self(Arc::new(StatsCollector::new()))
+    }
+
+    /// Record a single completed request.  `request` holds the byte ranges as
+    /// actually submitted to storage (post coalescing/splitting), so the counts
+    /// reflect physical I/O.
+    pub fn record_request(&self, request: &[Range<u64>]) {
+        self.0.record_request(request);
+    }
+
+    /// Take an immutable snapshot of the current cumulative counters.
+    pub fn snapshot(&self) -> ScanStats {
+        ScanStats::new(self.0.as_ref())
+    }
+
+    /// Return this handle as a type-erased [`IoStatsRecorder`], suitable for
+    /// attaching to a file reader (e.g. `FileReader::with_io_stats`).  The
+    /// returned recorder shares the same underlying counters as `self`.
+    pub fn recorder(&self) -> Arc<dyn IoStatsRecorder> {
+        self.0.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Add a snapshot of already-aggregated statistics into this sink.  Used to
+    /// fold in I/O measured on a separate scheduler (e.g. the one-time reads
+    /// performed while opening an index).
+    pub fn add_scan_stats(&self, stats: &ScanStats) {
+        self.0.add(stats.iops, stats.requests, stats.bytes_read);
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for IoStats {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
 enum IoQueueType {
     Standard(Arc<IoQueue>),
     Lite(Arc<lite::IoQueue>),
@@ -598,7 +802,7 @@ enum IoQueueType {
 pub struct ScanScheduler {
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     io_queue: IoQueueType,
-    stats: Arc<StatsCollector>,
+    stats: IoStats,
 }
 
 impl Debug for ScanScheduler {
@@ -610,27 +814,46 @@ impl Debug for ScanScheduler {
 }
 
 struct Response {
-    data: Result<Vec<Bytes>>,
+    // `Option` so the caller can take the data out while the response (and its
+    // backpressure refund on drop) stays intact.
+    data: Option<Result<Vec<Bytes>>>,
+    io_queue: Arc<IoQueue>,
     priority: u128,
     num_reqs: usize,
     num_bytes: u64,
 }
 
+// Refund the batch's backpressure reservation when the response is dropped, be
+// that on delivery or when a cancelled request's undelivered response is
+// discarded.  This releases the budget even if the caller drops the future early.
+impl Drop for Response {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.io_queue
+            .on_bytes_consumed(self.num_bytes, self.priority, self.num_reqs);
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct SchedulerConfig {
     /// the # of bytes that can be buffered but not yet requested.
     /// This controls back pressure.  If data is not processed quickly enough then this
     /// buffer will fill up and the I/O loop will pause until the buffer is drained.
     pub io_buffer_size_bytes: u64,
-    /// Whether to use the new lite scheduler
-    pub use_lite_scheduler: bool,
+    /// Whether to use the lite scheduler.
+    ///
+    /// - `Some(true)` forces the lite scheduler (e.g. from env var or programmatic).
+    /// - `Some(false)` forces the standard scheduler.
+    /// - `None` defers to the object store's preference (see [`ObjectStore::prefers_lite_scheduler`]).
+    pub use_lite_scheduler: Option<bool>,
 }
 
 impl SchedulerConfig {
     pub fn new(io_buffer_size_bytes: u64) -> Self {
         Self {
             io_buffer_size_bytes,
-            use_lite_scheduler: std::env::var("LANCE_USE_LITE_SCHEDULER").is_ok(),
+            use_lite_scheduler: std::env::var("LANCE_USE_LITE_SCHEDULER")
+                .ok()
+                .map(|v| str_is_truthy(v.trim())),
         }
     }
 
@@ -638,7 +861,7 @@ impl SchedulerConfig {
     pub fn default_for_testing() -> Self {
         Self {
             io_buffer_size_bytes: 256 * 1024 * 1024,
-            use_lite_scheduler: false,
+            use_lite_scheduler: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -650,7 +873,7 @@ impl SchedulerConfig {
 
     pub fn with_lite_scheduler(self) -> Self {
         Self {
-            use_lite_scheduler: true,
+            use_lite_scheduler: Some(true),
             ..self
         }
     }
@@ -665,16 +888,22 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
     /// * config - configuration settings for the scheduler
     pub fn new(object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, config: SchedulerConfig) -> Arc<Self> {
         let io_capacity = object_store.io_parallelism();
-        let io_queue = if config.use_lite_scheduler {
+        let stats = IoStats::new();
+        let use_lite = config
+            .use_lite_scheduler
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| object_store.prefers_lite_scheduler());
+        let io_queue = if use_lite {
             let io_queue = Arc::new(lite::IoQueue::new(
                 io_capacity as u64,
                 config.io_buffer_size_bytes,
+                stats.clone(),
             ));
             IoQueueType::Lite(io_queue)
         } else {
             let io_queue = Arc::new(IoQueue::new(
                 io_capacity as u32,
                 config.io_buffer_size_bytes,
+                stats.clone(),
             ));
             let io_queue_clone = io_queue.clone();
             // Best we can do here is fire and forget.  If the I/O loop is still running when the scheduler is
@@ -686,7 +915,7 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
         Arc::new(Self {
             object_store,
             io_queue,
-            stats: Arc::new(StatsCollector::new()),
+            stats,
         })
     }
 
@@ -725,6 +954,8 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
             root: self.clone(),
             base_priority,
             max_iop_size,
+            bypass_backpressure: false,
+            extra_stats: None,
         })
     }
 
@@ -739,6 +970,28 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
         self.open_file_with_priority(path, 0, file_size_bytes).await
     }
 
+    /// Open a [`FileScheduler`] over an already-open [`Reader`].
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`Self::open_file`], this skips the path lookup and size probe and
+    /// schedules I/O against `reader` directly. This is useful when the reader
+    /// was produced outside the scheduler's object store (e.g. a spill file
+    /// opened via [`crate::spill::Spill::reader`]), since a bare `Reader`
+    /// cannot otherwise drive a v2 `FileReader` (which needs a scheduler).
+    ///
+    /// Uses a base priority of 0; chain [`FileScheduler::with_priority`] to set
+    /// a different one.
+    pub fn open_reader(self: &Arc<Self>, reader: Arc<dyn Reader>) -> FileScheduler {
+        FileScheduler {
+            reader,
+            block_size: self.object_store.block_size() as u64,
+            root: self.clone(),
+            base_priority: 0,
+            max_iop_size: self.object_store.max_iop_size(),
+            bypass_backpressure: false,
+            extra_stats: None,
+        }
+    }
+
     fn do_submit_request(
         &self,
         reader: Arc<dyn Reader>,
@@ -746,6 +999,7 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
         tx: oneshot::Sender<Response>,
         priority: u128,
         io_queue: &Arc<IoQueue>,
+        bypass_backpressure: bool,
     ) {
         let num_iops = request.len() as u32;
 
@@ -759,6 +1013,8 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
             num_iops,
             priority,
             request.len(),
+            bypass_backpressure,
+            io_queue.clone(),
         ))));
 
         for (task_idx, iop) in request.into_iter().enumerate() {
@@ -769,6 +1025,7 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
                 reader: reader.clone(),
                 to_read: iop,
                 priority,
+                bypass_backpressure,
                 when_done: Box::new(move |data| {
                     io_queue_clone.on_iop_complete();
                     let mut dest = dest.lock().unwrap();
@@ -790,19 +1047,17 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
         request: Vec<Range<u64>>,
         priority: u128,
         io_queue: &Arc<IoQueue>,
-    ) -> impl Future<Output = Result<Vec<Bytes>>> + Send {
+        bypass_backpressure: bool,
+    ) -> impl Future<Output = Result<Vec<Bytes>>> + Send + use<> {
         let (tx, rx) = oneshot::channel::<Response>();
 
-        self.do_submit_request(reader, request, tx, priority, io_queue);
-
-        let io_queue_clone = io_queue.clone();
+        self.do_submit_request(reader, request, tx, priority, io_queue, bypass_backpressure);
 
-        rx.map(move |wrapped_rsp| {
-            // Right now, it isn't possible for I/O to be cancelled so a cancel error should
-            // not occur
-            let rsp = wrapped_rsp.unwrap();
-            io_queue_clone.on_bytes_consumed(rsp.num_bytes, rsp.priority, rsp.num_reqs);
-            rsp.data
+        rx.map(|wrapped_rsp| {
+            // A cancel error can't occur: the sender always sends before dropping.
+            // The reservation is refunded on `Response` drop, so just take the data.
+            let mut rsp = wrapped_rsp.unwrap();
+            rsp.data.take().unwrap()
         })
     }
 
@@ -812,20 +1067,25 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
         request: Vec<Range<u64>>,
         priority: u128,
         io_queue: &Arc<lite::IoQueue>,
-    ) -> impl Future<Output = Result<Vec<Bytes>>> + Send {
+        bypass_backpressure: bool,
+    ) -> impl Future<Output = Result<Vec<Bytes>>> + Send + use<> {
         // It's important that we submit all requests _before_ we await anything
         let maybe_tasks = request
             .into_iter()
             .map(|task| {
                 let reader = reader.clone();
                 let queue = io_queue.clone();
+                let requested_range = task.clone();
                 let run_fn = Box::new(move || {
-                    reader
-                        .get_range(task.start as usize..task.end as usize)
-                        .map_err(Error::from)
-                        .boxed()
+                    let bytes_fut = reader
+                        .get_range(requested_range.start as usize..requested_range.end as usize);
+                    async move {
+                        let bytes = bytes_fut.await.map_err(Error::from)?;
+                        validate_read_length(reader.path(), &requested_range, bytes)
+                    }
+                    .boxed()
                 });
-                queue.submit(task, priority, run_fn)
+                queue.submit(task, priority, run_fn, bypass_backpressure)
             })
             .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>();
         match maybe_tasks {
@@ -846,19 +1106,31 @@ impl ScanScheduler {
         reader: Arc<dyn Reader>,
         request: Vec<Range<u64>>,
         priority: u128,
-    ) -> impl Future<Output = Result<Vec<Bytes>>> + Send {
+        bypass_backpressure: bool,
+    ) -> impl Future<Output = Result<Vec<Bytes>>> + Send + use<> {
         match &self.io_queue {
-            IoQueueType::Standard(io_queue) => futures::future::Either::Left(
-                self.submit_request_standard(reader, request, priority, io_queue),
-            ),
+            IoQueueType::Standard(io_queue) => {
+                futures::future::Either::Left(self.submit_request_standard(
+                    reader,
+                    request,
+                    priority,
+                    io_queue,
+                    bypass_backpressure,
+                ))
+            }
             IoQueueType::Lite(io_queue) => futures::future::Either::Right(
-                self.submit_request_lite(reader, request, priority, io_queue),
+                self.submit_request_lite(reader, request, priority, io_queue, bypass_backpressure),
             ),
         }
     }
 
     pub fn stats(&self) -> ScanStats {
-        ScanStats::new(self.stats.as_ref())
+        self.stats.snapshot()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn uses_lite_scheduler(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self.io_queue, IoQueueType::Lite(_))
     }
 }
 
@@ -890,6 +1162,11 @@ pub struct FileScheduler {
     block_size: u64,
     base_priority: u64,
     max_iop_size: u64,
+    bypass_backpressure: bool,
+    /// Optional secondary statistics sink.  When set, every request submitted
+    /// through this handle is also recorded here, in addition to the
+    /// scheduler's global totals.  Used to measure per-scope I/O.
+    extra_stats: Option<Arc<dyn IoStatsRecorder>>,
 }
 
 fn is_close_together(range1: &Range<u64>, range2: &Range<u64>, block_size: u64) -> bool {
@@ -914,14 +1191,29 @@ impl FileScheduler {
     /// Each request has a backpressure ID which controls which backpressure throttle
     /// is applied to the request.  Requests made to the same backpressure throttle
     /// will be throttled together.
+    ///
+    /// Ranges must be sorted by their start offset.
     pub fn submit_request(
         &self,
         request: Vec<Range<u64>>,
         priority: u64,
-    ) -> impl Future<Output = Result<Vec<Bytes>>> + Send {
+    ) -> impl Future<Output = Result<Vec<Bytes>>> + Send + use<> {
         // The final priority is a combination of the row offset and the file number
         let priority = ((self.base_priority as u128) << 64) + priority as u128;
 
+        if let Some((range_index, ranges)) = request
+            .windows(2)
+            .enumerate()
+            .find(|(_, ranges)| ranges[0].start > ranges[1].start)
+        {
+            return Either::Left(std::future::ready(Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "I/O request ranges must be sorted by start offset: range at index {range_index} is {:?}, but range at index {} is {:?}",
+                ranges[0],
+                range_index + 1,
+                ranges[1]
+            )))));
+        }
+
         let mut merged_requests = Vec::with_capacity(request.len());
 
         if !request.is_empty() {
@@ -960,15 +1252,21 @@ impl FileScheduler {
         }
 
         self.root.stats.record_request(&updated_requests);
+        if let Some(extra_stats) = &self.extra_stats {
+            extra_stats.record_request(&updated_requests);
+        }
 
-        let bytes_vec_fut =
-            self.root
-                .submit_request(self.reader.clone(), updated_requests.clone(), priority);
+        let bytes_vec_fut = self.root.submit_request(
+            self.reader.clone(),
+            updated_requests.clone(),
+            priority,
+            self.bypass_backpressure,
+        );
 
         let mut updated_index = 0;
         let mut final_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(request.len());
 
-        async move {
+        Either::Right(async move {
             let bytes_vec = bytes_vec_fut.await?;
 
             let mut orig_index = 0;
@@ -1011,7 +1309,7 @@ impl FileScheduler {
             }
 
             Ok(final_bytes)
-        }
+        })
     }
 
     pub fn with_priority(&self, priority: u64) -> Self {
@@ -1021,6 +1319,35 @@ impl FileScheduler {
             block_size: self.block_size,
             max_iop_size: self.max_iop_size,
             base_priority: priority,
+            bypass_backpressure: self.bypass_backpressure,
+            extra_stats: self.extra_stats.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a copy of this scheduler that additionally records the I/O it
+    /// performs into `stats`, on top of the scheduler's global statistics.
+    ///
+    /// This is the mechanism for measuring exact per-scope (e.g. per-query) I/O:
+    /// attach a recorder here (e.g. via [`IoStats::recorder`]), perform the reads
+    /// through the returned handle, then read the totals back with
+    /// [`IoStats::snapshot`].  The returned handle is cheap to create (a few
+    /// `Arc` clones) and reuses the same underlying reader, so it does not
+    /// re-open the file.
+    pub fn with_io_stats(&self, stats: Arc<dyn IoStatsRecorder>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            extra_stats: Some(stats),
+            ..self.clone()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a copy of this scheduler that bypasses backpressure for all requests.
+    ///
+    /// This should be used for indirect I/O (e.g. fetching items after decoding offsets) where
+    /// blocking on backpressure could cause a deadlock or excessive latency.
+    pub fn with_bypass_backpressure(&self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bypass_backpressure: true,
+            ..self.clone()
         }
     }
 
@@ -1056,8 +1383,9 @@ mod tests {
     use futures::poll;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjFile;
     use rand::RngCore;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-    use object_store::{memory::InMemory, GetRange, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore};
+    use object_store::{GetRange, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, ObjectStoreExt, memory::InMemory};
     use tokio::{runtime::Handle, time::timeout};
     use url::Url;
 
@@ -1068,6 +1396,100 @@ mod tests {
 
     use super::*;
 
+    fn make_task(priority: u128, bypass_backpressure: bool) -> IoTask {
+        IoTask {
+            reader: Arc::new(TrackingReader {
+                get_range_count: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
+                path: Path::parse("test").unwrap(),
+            }),
+            to_read: 0..1,
+            when_done: Box::new(|_| {}),
+            priority,
+            bypass_backpressure,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_scheduler_state_event_fields() {
+        use tracing_mock::{expect, subscriber};
+
+        let event = expect::event()
+            .with_target(SCHEDULER_STATE_EVENT_TARGET)
+            .at_level(tracing::Level::TRACE)
+            .with_fields(
+                expect::field("queue_kind")
+                    .with_value(&"standard")
+                    .and(expect::field("scheduler_iops").with_value(&7u64))
+                    .and(expect::field("scheduler_requests").with_value(&3u64))
+                    .and(expect::field("scheduler_bytes_read").with_value(&4096u64))
+                    .and(expect::field("io_capacity").with_value(&4u64))
+                    .and(expect::field("pending_iops").with_value(&1u64))
+                    .and(expect::field("bytes_available").with_value(&128i64))
+                    .and(expect::field("head_task_bytes_present").with_value(&true))
+                    .and(expect::field("head_task_bytes").with_value(&1u64))
+                    .and(expect::field("head_task_can_deliver_present").with_value(&true))
+                    .and(expect::field("head_task_can_deliver").with_value(&true)),
+            );
+        let (subscriber, handle) = subscriber::mock().event(event).run_with_handle();
+
+        let stats = IoStats::new();
+        stats.add_scan_stats(&ScanStats {
+            iops: 7,
+            requests: 3,
+            bytes_read: 4096,
+        });
+        let mut state = IoQueueState::new(4, 192);
+        state.iops_avail = 2;
+        state.bytes_avail = 128;
+        state.pending_requests.push(make_task(1, false));
+
+        tracing::subscriber::with_default(subscriber, || {
+            emit_scheduler_state_event(state.scheduler_state_event(), &stats);
+        });
+
+        handle.assert_finished();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_iotask_ordering() {
+        // Bypass tasks must come out of the heap before non-bypass tasks.
+        // Within each group, lower priority number (= higher priority) comes first.
+        let mut heap = BinaryHeap::new();
+        heap.push(make_task(10, false)); // non-bypass, low priority
+        heap.push(make_task(1, false)); // non-bypass, high priority
+        heap.push(make_task(20, true)); // bypass, low priority
+        heap.push(make_task(5, true)); // bypass, high priority
+
+        let order: Vec<(u128, bool)> = std::iter::from_fn(|| heap.pop())
+            .map(|t| (t.priority, t.bypass_backpressure))
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(order, vec![(5, true), (20, true), (1, false), (10, false)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_batch_with_undelivered_slot_is_error() {
+        let response = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let response_clone = response.clone();
+        let io_queue = Arc::new(IoQueue::new(1, 1024, IoStats::new()));
+        let batch = MutableBatch::new(
+            move |rsp| *response_clone.lock().unwrap() = Some(rsp),
+            2, // num_data_buffers
+            0, // priority
+            2, // num_reqs
+            false,
+            io_queue,
+        );
+        drop(batch);
+
+        let mut rsp = response.lock().unwrap().take().unwrap();
+        let data = rsp.data.take().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            data.is_err(),
+            "undelivered slot must yield an error, got {data:?}",
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_full_seq_read() {
         let tmp_file = TempObjFile::default();
@@ -1115,6 +1537,100 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_reader_bridge() {
+        let tmp_file = TempObjFile::default();
+
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+
+        const DATA_SIZE: u64 = 64 * 1024;
+        let mut some_data = vec![0; DATA_SIZE as usize];
+        rand::rng().fill_bytes(&mut some_data);
+        obj_store.put(&tmp_file, &some_data).await.unwrap();
+
+        let config = SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing();
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store.clone(), config);
+
+        // Open a bare Reader ourselves, then bridge it into a FileScheduler.
+        let reader: Arc<dyn Reader> = obj_store.open(&tmp_file).await.unwrap().into();
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler.open_reader(reader);
+
+        let bytes = file_scheduler
+            .submit_request(vec![0..DATA_SIZE], 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes[0], some_data);
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct ShortReader {
+        path: Path,
+    }
+
+    impl lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf for ShortReader {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Reader for ShortReader {
+        fn path(&self) -> &Path {
+            &self.path
+        }
+
+        fn block_size(&self) -> usize {
+            4096
+        }
+
+        fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+            1
+        }
+
+        fn size(&self) -> futures::future::BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<usize>> {
+            Box::pin(async { Ok(0) })
+        }
+
+        fn get_range(
+            &self,
+            _range: Range<usize>,
+        ) -> futures::future::BoxFuture<'static, object_store::Result<Bytes>> {
+            Box::pin(async { Ok(Bytes::new()) })
+        }
+
+        fn get_all(&self) -> futures::future::BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<Bytes>> {
+            Box::pin(async { Ok(Bytes::new()) })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::standard(false)]
+    #[case::lite(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_short_read_returns_io_error(#[case] use_lite_scheduler: bool) {
+        let config = SchedulerConfig {
+            use_lite_scheduler: Some(use_lite_scheduler),
+            ..SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing()
+        };
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory()), config);
+        let reader = Arc::new(ShortReader {
+            path: Path::parse("short-file").unwrap(),
+        });
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler.open_reader(reader);
+
+        let error = file_scheduler
+            .submit_request(vec![0..8], 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }), "{error:?}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(
+                "I/O request for file short-file and range 0..8 returned 0 bytes, expected 8 bytes"
+            ),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_split_coalesce() {
         let tmp_file = TempObjFile::default();
@@ -1199,32 +1715,117 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(11, scheduler.stats().iops);
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::standard(false)]
+    #[case::lite(true)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_priority() {
-        let some_path = Path::parse("foo").unwrap();
-        let base_store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
-        base_store
-            .put(&some_path, vec![0; 1000].into())
+    async fn test_unordered_ranges_are_rejected(#[case] use_lite_scheduler: bool) {
+        let path = Path::parse("unordered-ranges").unwrap();
+        let source = (0_u8..64).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
+        object_store.put(&path, &source).await.unwrap();
+
+        let config = SchedulerConfig {
+            use_lite_scheduler: Some(use_lite_scheduler),
+            ..SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing()
+        };
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, config);
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler
+            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let semaphore = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Semaphore::new(0));
-        let mut obj_store = MockObjectStore::default();
-        let semaphore_copy = semaphore.clone();
-        obj_store
-            .expect_get_opts()
-            .returning(move |location, options| {
-                let semaphore = semaphore.clone();
-                let base_store = base_store.clone();
-                let location = location.clone();
-                async move {
-                    semaphore.acquire().await.unwrap().forget();
-                    base_store.get_opts(&location, options).await
-                }
-                .boxed()
-            });
-        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
-            Arc::new(obj_store),
+        let ranges = vec![9..26, 0..49];
+        let error = file_scheduler.submit_request(ranges, 0).await.unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error:?}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(
+                "I/O request ranges must be sorted by start offset: range at index 0 is 9..26, but range at index 1 is 0..49"
+            ),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_io_stats_sink() {
+        let tmp_file = TempObjFile::default();
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+
+        const DATA_SIZE: u64 = 1024 * 1024;
+        let mut some_data = vec![0; DATA_SIZE as usize];
+        rand::rng().fill_bytes(&mut some_data);
+        obj_store.put(&tmp_file, &some_data).await.unwrap();
+
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing());
+
+        // Attach a per-scope sink to one file handle.
+        let sink = IoStats::new();
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler
+            .open_file(&tmp_file, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_io_stats(sink.recorder());
+
+        // Three reads within 4KiB coalesce into a single physical IOP.  The sink
+        // and the scheduler's global totals must agree exactly, because both are
+        // recorded from the same post-coalescing request.
+        file_scheduler
+            .submit_request(vec![50_000..51_000, 52_000..53_000, 54_000..55_000], 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let global = scheduler.stats();
+        let scoped = sink.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(1, scoped.iops);
+        assert_eq!(1, scoped.requests);
+        // Coalesced range 50_000..55_000 => 5000 physical bytes.
+        assert_eq!(5000, scoped.bytes_read);
+        assert_eq!(global.iops, scoped.iops);
+        assert_eq!(global.requests, scoped.requests);
+        assert_eq!(global.bytes_read, scoped.bytes_read);
+
+        // A sibling handle without the sink: the global totals advance but the
+        // sink stays put, proving per-scope isolation.
+        let other = scheduler
+            .open_file(&tmp_file, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        other.submit_request(vec![0..1000], 0).await.unwrap();
+
+        let global_after = scheduler.stats();
+        let scoped_after = sink.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(global.bytes_read + 1000, global_after.bytes_read);
+        assert_eq!(scoped.bytes_read, scoped_after.bytes_read);
+        assert_eq!(scoped.iops, scoped_after.iops);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_priority() {
+        let some_path = Path::parse("foo").unwrap();
+        let base_store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        base_store
+            .put(&some_path, vec![0; 1000].into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let semaphore = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Semaphore::new(0));
+        let mut obj_store = MockObjectStore::default();
+        let semaphore_copy = semaphore.clone();
+        obj_store
+            .expect_get_opts()
+            .returning(move |location, options| {
+                let semaphore = semaphore.clone();
+                let base_store = base_store.clone();
+                let location = location.clone();
+                async move {
+                    semaphore.acquire().await.unwrap().forget();
+                    base_store.get_opts(&location, options).await
+                }
+                .boxed()
+            });
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
+            Arc::new(obj_store),
             Url::parse("mem://").unwrap(),
             Some(500),
             None,
@@ -1237,7 +1838,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let config = SchedulerConfig {
             io_buffer_size_bytes: 1024 * 1024,
-            use_lite_scheduler: false,
+            use_lite_scheduler: None,
         };
 
         let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, config);
@@ -1288,6 +1889,136 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(second_fut.await.unwrap().unwrap().len() == 20);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_standard_scheduler_state_tracks_queue_state() {
+        let some_path = Path::parse("foo").unwrap();
+        let base_store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        base_store
+            .put(&some_path, vec![0; 1000].into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let semaphore = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Semaphore::new(0));
+        let mut obj_store = MockObjectStore::default();
+        let semaphore_copy = semaphore.clone();
+        obj_store
+            .expect_get_opts()
+            .returning(move |location, options| {
+                let semaphore = semaphore.clone();
+                let base_store = base_store.clone();
+                let location = location.clone();
+                async move {
+                    semaphore.acquire().await.unwrap().forget();
+                    base_store.get_opts(&location, options).await
+                }
+                .boxed()
+            });
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
+            Arc::new(obj_store),
+            Url::parse("mem://").unwrap(),
+            Some(500),
+            None,
+            false,
+            false,
+            1,
+            DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT,
+            None,
+        ));
+
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+            obj_store,
+            SchedulerConfig {
+                io_buffer_size_bytes: 1024 * 1024,
+                use_lite_scheduler: Some(false),
+            },
+        );
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler
+            .open_file(&Path::parse("foo").unwrap(), &CachedFileSize::new(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let first_fut = timeout(
+            Duration::from_secs(10),
+            file_scheduler.submit_single(0..10, 0),
+        )
+        .boxed();
+        let second_fut = timeout(
+            Duration::from_secs(10),
+            file_scheduler.submit_single(0..20, 100),
+        )
+        .boxed();
+        let third_fut = timeout(
+            Duration::from_secs(10),
+            file_scheduler.submit_single(0..30, 0),
+        )
+        .boxed();
+
+        let io_queue = match &scheduler.io_queue {
+            IoQueueType::Standard(io_queue) => io_queue.clone(),
+            IoQueueType::Lite(_) => unreachable!("test forces the standard scheduler"),
+        };
+        let (
+            io_capacity,
+            iops_available,
+            pending_bytes,
+            bytes_reserved,
+            priorities_in_flight,
+            head_task_bytes,
+            head_task_blocked_by_iops,
+            head_task_blocked_by_bytes,
+        ) = timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), async {
+            loop {
+                let observed = {
+                    let state = io_queue.state.lock().unwrap();
+                    let active_iops = state.io_capacity.saturating_sub(state.iops_avail);
+                    if active_iops == 1 && state.pending_requests.len() == 2 {
+                        let pending_bytes = state
+                            .pending_requests
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(IoTask::num_bytes)
+                            .sum::<u64>();
+                        let head_task = state.pending_requests.peek().unwrap();
+                        let bypasses_bytes = state.no_backpressure
+                            || head_task.bypass_backpressure
+                            || head_task.priority <= state.priorities_in_flight.min_in_flight();
+                        Some((
+                            state.io_capacity,
+                            state.iops_avail,
+                            pending_bytes,
+                            state.io_buffer_size as i64 - state.bytes_avail,
+                            state.priorities_in_flight.len(),
+                            head_task.num_bytes(),
+                            state.iops_avail == 0,
+                            !bypasses_bytes && head_task.num_bytes() as i64 > state.bytes_avail,
+                        ))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    }
+                };
+                if let Some(observed) = observed {
+                    break observed;
+                }
+                tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+            }
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(io_capacity, 1);
+        assert_eq!(iops_available, 0);
+        assert_eq!(pending_bytes, 50);
+        assert_eq!(bytes_reserved, 10);
+        assert_eq!(priorities_in_flight, 1);
+        assert_eq!(head_task_bytes, 30);
+        assert!(head_task_blocked_by_iops);
+        assert!(!head_task_blocked_by_bytes);
+
+        semaphore_copy.add_permits(3);
+        assert_eq!(first_fut.await.unwrap().unwrap().len(), 10);
+        assert_eq!(third_fut.await.unwrap().unwrap().len(), 30);
+        assert_eq!(second_fut.await.unwrap().unwrap().len(), 20);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
     async fn test_backpressure() {
         let some_path = Path::parse("foo").unwrap();
@@ -1328,7 +2059,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let config = SchedulerConfig {
             io_buffer_size_bytes: 10,
-            use_lite_scheduler: false,
+            use_lite_scheduler: None,
         };
 
         let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store.clone(), config);
@@ -1403,7 +2134,7 @@ mod tests {
         // Ensure deadlock prevention timeout can be disabled
         let config = SchedulerConfig {
             io_buffer_size_bytes: 10,
-            use_lite_scheduler: false,
+            use_lite_scheduler: None,
         };
 
         let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, config);
@@ -1420,6 +2151,102 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(second_fut.await.unwrap().len(), 10);
     }
 
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct BlockingReader {
+        semaphore: Arc<tokio::sync::Semaphore>,
+        get_range_count: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+        path: Path,
+    }
+
+    impl lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf for BlockingReader {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Reader for BlockingReader {
+        fn path(&self) -> &Path {
+            &self.path
+        }
+
+        fn block_size(&self) -> usize {
+            4096
+        }
+
+        fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+            1
+        }
+
+        fn size(&self) -> futures::future::BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<usize>> {
+            Box::pin(async { Ok(1_000_000) })
+        }
+
+        fn get_range(
+            &self,
+            range: Range<usize>,
+        ) -> futures::future::BoxFuture<'static, object_store::Result<Bytes>> {
+            self.get_range_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Release);
+            let semaphore = self.semaphore.clone();
+            let num_bytes = range.end - range.start;
+            Box::pin(async move {
+                semaphore.acquire().await.unwrap().forget();
+                Ok(Bytes::from(vec![0u8; num_bytes]))
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn get_all(&self) -> futures::future::BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<Bytes>> {
+            Box::pin(async { Ok(Bytes::from(vec![0u8; 1_000_000])) })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_same_priority_chunks_continue_after_higher_priority_request() {
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
+            Arc::new(InMemory::new()),
+            Url::parse("mem://").unwrap(),
+            Some(4096),
+            None,
+            false,
+            false,
+            1,
+            DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT,
+            None,
+        ));
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+            obj_store,
+            SchedulerConfig {
+                io_buffer_size_bytes: 10,
+                use_lite_scheduler: Some(false),
+            },
+        );
+        let semaphore = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Semaphore::new(0));
+        let reader: Arc<dyn Reader> = Arc::new(BlockingReader {
+            semaphore: semaphore.clone(),
+            get_range_count: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
+            path: Path::parse("test").unwrap(),
+        });
+
+        let low_priority =
+            scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![0..6, 100..106], 10, false);
+        let high_priority = scheduler.submit_request(reader, vec![200..204], 0, false);
+
+        semaphore.add_permits(3);
+        let low_priority = timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), low_priority)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            low_priority.iter().map(|bytes| bytes.len()).sum::<usize>(),
+            12
+        );
+
+        let high_priority = timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), high_priority)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(high_priority[0].len(), 4);
+    }
+
     /// A Reader that tracks how many times get_range has been called.
     #[derive(Debug)]
     struct TrackingReader {
@@ -1427,8 +2254,8 @@ mod tests {
         path: Path,
     }
 
-    impl deepsize::DeepSizeOf for TrackingReader {
-        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    impl lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf for TrackingReader {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
             0
         }
     }
@@ -1478,9 +2305,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Submit several requests. The lite scheduler should call get_range
         // eagerly during submit (before the returned future is polled).
-        let fut1 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![0..100], 0);
-        let fut2 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![100..200], 10);
-        let fut3 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![200..300], 20);
+        let fut1 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![0..100], 0, false);
+        let fut2 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![100..200], 10, false);
+        let fut3 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![200..300], 20, false);
 
         // get_range must have been called for all 3 requests already.
         assert_eq!(get_range_count.load(Ordering::Acquire), 3);
@@ -1491,6 +2318,55 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(fut3.await.unwrap()[0].len(), 100);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_object_store_selects_scheduler() {
+        // A memory:// store should use the standard scheduler when config is None
+        let memory_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
+        assert!(!memory_store.prefers_lite_scheduler());
+        let config = SchedulerConfig {
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: 256 * 1024 * 1024,
+            use_lite_scheduler: None,
+        };
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(memory_store.clone(), config);
+        assert!(!scheduler.uses_lite_scheduler());
+
+        // A file+uring:// store should use the lite scheduler when config is None
+        let uring_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
+            Arc::new(InMemory::new()),
+            Url::parse("file+uring:///tmp").unwrap(),
+            None,
+            None,
+            false,
+            false,
+            8,
+            DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT,
+            None,
+        ));
+        assert!(uring_store.prefers_lite_scheduler());
+        let config = SchedulerConfig {
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: 256 * 1024 * 1024,
+            use_lite_scheduler: None,
+        };
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(uring_store.clone(), config);
+        assert!(scheduler.uses_lite_scheduler());
+
+        // Explicit Some(false) overrides a file+uring:// store's preference
+        let config = SchedulerConfig {
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: 256 * 1024 * 1024,
+            use_lite_scheduler: Some(false),
+        };
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(uring_store, config);
+        assert!(!scheduler.uses_lite_scheduler());
+
+        // Explicit Some(true) overrides a memory:// store's preference
+        let config = SchedulerConfig {
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: 256 * 1024 * 1024,
+            use_lite_scheduler: Some(true),
+        };
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(memory_store, config);
+        assert!(scheduler.uses_lite_scheduler());
+    }
+
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
     async fn stress_backpressure() {
         // This test ensures that the backpressure mechanism works correctly with
@@ -1506,7 +2382,7 @@ mod tests {
         // Only one request will be allowed in
         let config = SchedulerConfig {
             io_buffer_size_bytes: 1,
-            use_lite_scheduler: false,
+            use_lite_scheduler: None,
         };
         let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store.clone(), config);
         let file_scheduler = scan_scheduler
@@ -1523,4 +2399,235 @@ mod tests {
             fut.await.unwrap();
         }
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_zero_buffer_size_no_backpressure() {
+        // With io_buffer_size_bytes=0 (no_backpressure=true), reads at any priority go
+        // through without blocking, even though a zero budget would normally halt all I/O.
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
+        let config = SchedulerConfig {
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: 0,
+            use_lite_scheduler: Some(false),
+        };
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, config);
+
+        let get_range_count = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+        let reader: Arc<dyn Reader> = Arc::new(TrackingReader {
+            get_range_count: get_range_count.clone(),
+            path: Path::parse("test").unwrap(),
+        });
+
+        // Submit three reads at increasing priorities without awaiting any first.
+        // Priority 1 and 2 would deadlock under a real 0-byte budget without no_backpressure.
+        let fut1 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![0..1000], 0, false);
+        let fut2 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![1000..2000], 1, false);
+        let fut3 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![2000..3000], 2, false);
+
+        let bytes1 = timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), fut1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let bytes2 = timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), fut2)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let bytes3 = timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), fut3)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes1[0].len(), 1000);
+        assert_eq!(bytes2[0].len(), 1000);
+        assert_eq!(bytes3[0].len(), 1000);
+        assert_eq!(get_range_count.load(Ordering::Acquire), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_file_scheduler_bypass_backpressure() {
+        // A FileScheduler obtained via with_bypass_backpressure() submits reads that bypass
+        // the byte budget, allowing them to proceed even when the budget is exhausted.
+        let some_path = Path::parse("foo").unwrap();
+        let base_store = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        base_store
+            .put(&some_path, vec![0u8; 1000].into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let bytes_dispatched = Arc::new(AtomicU64::from(0));
+        let mut obj_store = MockObjectStore::default();
+        let bytes_dispatched_copy = bytes_dispatched.clone();
+        obj_store
+            .expect_get_opts()
+            .returning(move |location, options| {
+                let range = options.range.as_ref().unwrap();
+                let num_bytes = match range {
+                    GetRange::Bounded(bounded) => bounded.end - bounded.start,
+                    _ => panic!(),
+                };
+                bytes_dispatched_copy.fetch_add(num_bytes, Ordering::Release);
+                let location = location.clone();
+                let base_store = base_store.clone();
+                async move { base_store.get_opts(&location, options).await }.boxed()
+            });
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
+            Arc::new(obj_store),
+            Url::parse("mem://").unwrap(),
+            Some(500),
+            None,
+            false,
+            false,
+            1,
+            DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT,
+            None,
+        ));
+
+        // Budget = 10 bytes.
+        let config = SchedulerConfig {
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: 10,
+            use_lite_scheduler: Some(false),
+        };
+        let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, config);
+        let file_scheduler = scan_scheduler
+            .open_file(&Path::parse("foo").unwrap(), &CachedFileSize::new(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let bypass_scheduler = file_scheduler.with_bypass_backpressure();
+
+        // Fill the 10-byte budget with a priority-0 read.
+        let blocker_fut = file_scheduler.submit_single(0..10, 0);
+        while bytes_dispatched.load(Ordering::Acquire) < 10 {
+            tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await;
+        }
+
+        // A normal read at priority 2 is blocked: budget = 0, priority 2 > min-in-flight 0.
+        // A bypass read at priority 1 (higher priority in the queue) bypasses the budget check.
+        let normal_fut = file_scheduler.submit_single(0..10, 2);
+        let bypass_fut = bypass_scheduler.submit_single(0..10, 1);
+
+        // Bypass read is dispatched; normal read is still blocked.
+        while bytes_dispatched.load(Ordering::Acquire) < 20 {
+            tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await;
+        }
+        tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(20)).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            bytes_dispatched.load(Ordering::Acquire),
+            20,
+            "normal read should still be blocked while budget is exhausted"
+        );
+
+        // Consuming the blocker releases its 10-byte budget → normal read can proceed.
+        timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), blocker_fut)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), bypass_fut)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), normal_fut)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes_dispatched.load(Ordering::Acquire), 30);
+    }
+
+    // Against a 100-byte budget: submit fut1 (50 bytes, priority 0), drop it while
+    // its read is still blocked in get_range, then submit fut2 (60 bytes, priority 1).
+    // fut2's priority can't win the priority-bypass, so it needs 60 of the budget --
+    // available only if fut1's dropped reservation was refunded. Returns whether fut2
+    // completed within 2s (false = the reservation leaked and fut2 deadlocked).
+    async fn run_caller_drop_scenario(use_lite_scheduler: bool) -> (bool, Duration) {
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
+            Arc::new(InMemory::new()),
+            Url::parse("mem://").unwrap(),
+            Some(4096),
+            None,
+            false,
+            false,
+            1,
+            DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT,
+            None,
+        ));
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+            obj_store,
+            SchedulerConfig {
+                io_buffer_size_bytes: 100,
+                use_lite_scheduler: Some(use_lite_scheduler),
+            },
+        );
+
+        let semaphore = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Semaphore::new(0));
+        let get_range_count = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+        let reader: Arc<dyn Reader> = Arc::new(BlockingReader {
+            semaphore: semaphore.clone(),
+            get_range_count: get_range_count.clone(),
+            path: Path::parse("test").unwrap(),
+        });
+
+        // Step 1: reserve 50 of the 100 budget bytes with a read we never consume.
+        // Spawn it so we can cancel the caller-side future while it is still parked
+        // waiting for the (blocked) read to finish.
+        let fut1 = scheduler.submit_request(reader.clone(), vec![0..50], 0, false);
+        let handle = tokio::spawn(async move {
+            let _ = fut1.await;
+        });
+
+        // Wait until the read is genuinely in flight (blocked on the semaphore).
+        // This guarantees the 50-byte reservation has been taken before we drop
+        // the caller, closing the race between the I/O loop and the abort.
+        while get_range_count.load(Ordering::Acquire) == 0 {
+            tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await;
+        }
+
+        // Step 2: drop the caller-side future while its `rx` is still pending.
+        handle.abort();
+        let _ = handle.await;
+
+        // Step 3: let the in-flight read finish. The reservation should be refunded
+        // now that the request is done, whether or not the caller is still around.
+        semaphore.add_permits(1);
+        // Give the read time to run to completion so the refund would already have
+        // happened.
+        tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await;
+
+        // Step 4: submit the follow-up. Add a permit up front so that, if it *is*
+        // admitted, its own read can complete rather than block on the semaphore.
+        semaphore.add_permits(1);
+        let fut2 = scheduler.submit_request(reader, vec![100..160], 1, false);
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        let outcome = timeout(Duration::from_secs(2), fut2).await;
+        let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+        match outcome {
+            Ok(res) => {
+                assert_eq!(res.unwrap().iter().map(|b| b.len()).sum::<usize>(), 60);
+                (true, elapsed)
+            }
+            Err(_) => (false, elapsed),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Dropping a standard-scheduler request future while its read is in flight must
+    /// still refund the backpressure reservation, so a later request that needs the
+    /// budget does not deadlock.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn standard_scheduler_refunds_reservation_on_caller_drop() {
+        let (completed, elapsed) = run_caller_drop_scenario(false).await;
+        assert!(
+            completed,
+            "standard scheduler deadlocked the follow-up request (elapsed {elapsed:?}); \
+             the dropped request's reservation was not refunded"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Same guarantee for the lite scheduler: dropping a request future mid-read
+    /// releases its reservation via the `TaskHandle` drop path.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn lite_scheduler_refunds_reservation_on_caller_drop() {
+        let (completed, elapsed) = run_caller_drop_scenario(true).await;
+        assert!(
+            completed,
+            "lite scheduler deadlocked the follow-up request (elapsed {elapsed:?}); \
+             the dropped request's reservation was not refunded"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/scheduler/lite.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/scheduler/lite.rs
index e744cf7aff6..b7a06e11bb7 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/scheduler/lite.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/scheduler/lite.rs
@@ -23,8 +23,8 @@ use std::{
     ops::Range,
     pin::Pin,
     sync::{
-        atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
         Arc, Mutex, MutexGuard,
+        atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
     },
     task::{Context, Poll, Waker},
     time::Instant,
@@ -32,9 +32,11 @@ use std::{
 
 use bytes::Bytes;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
-use super::{BACKPRESSURE_DEBOUNCE, BACKPRESSURE_MIN};
+use super::{
+    BACKPRESSURE_DEBOUNCE, BACKPRESSURE_MIN, IoStats, SCHEDULER_STATE_EVENT_TARGET,
+    SchedulerStateEvent, emit_scheduler_state_event,
+};
 
 type RunFn = Box<dyn FnOnce() -> Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<Bytes>> + Send>> + Send>;
 
@@ -68,6 +70,26 @@ enum TaskState {
     },
 }
 
+impl TaskState {
+    fn backpressure_reservation(&self) -> Option<BackpressureReservation> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Reserved {
+                backpressure_reservation,
+                ..
+            }
+            | Self::Running {
+                backpressure_reservation,
+                ..
+            }
+            | Self::Finished {
+                backpressure_reservation,
+                ..
+            } => Some(*backpressure_reservation),
+            Self::Initial { .. } | Self::Broken => None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// A custom error type that might have a backpressure reservation
 ///
 /// This is used instead of Lance's standard error type so we can ensure
@@ -86,25 +108,14 @@ impl BrokenTaskError {
     // This will capture any backpressure reservation the task has and put it into the
     // error so we make sure to release it when returning the error.
     fn new(task_state: TaskState, message: String) -> Self {
-        match task_state {
-            TaskState::Reserved {
-                backpressure_reservation,
-                ..
-            }
-            | TaskState::Running {
-                backpressure_reservation,
-                ..
-            }
-            | TaskState::Finished {
-                backpressure_reservation,
-                ..
-            } => Self {
+        match task_state.backpressure_reservation() {
+            None => Self {
                 message,
-                backpressure_reservation: Some(backpressure_reservation),
+                backpressure_reservation: None,
             },
-            TaskState::Broken | TaskState::Initial { .. } => Self {
+            Some(reservation) => Self {
                 message,
-                backpressure_reservation: None,
+                backpressure_reservation: Some(reservation),
             },
         }
     }
@@ -120,6 +131,8 @@ struct IoTask {
     priority: u128,
     /// The current state of the task
     state: TaskState,
+    /// When true, the task bypasses backpressure
+    bypass_backpressure: bool,
 }
 
 impl IoTask {
@@ -134,13 +147,9 @@ impl IoTask {
                 num_bytes: 0,
                 priority: 0,
             },
-            data: Err(Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(Error::IO {
-                    source: "I/O Task cancelled".to_string().into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            data: Err(Error::io_source(Box::new(Error::io_source(
+                "I/O Task cancelled".to_string().into(),
+            )))),
         };
         was_running
     }
@@ -218,10 +227,10 @@ impl IoTask {
             backpressure_reservation,
         } = self.state
         else {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Task with id {} not in finished state", self.id),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Task with id {} not in finished state",
+                self.id
+            )));
         };
         Ok((data, backpressure_reservation))
     }
@@ -237,6 +246,10 @@ struct BackpressureReservation {
 trait BackpressureThrottle: Send {
     fn try_acquire(&mut self, num_bytes: u64, priority: u128) -> Option<BackpressureReservation>;
     fn release(&mut self, reservation: BackpressureReservation);
+    /// Unconditionally acquire a zero-cost reservation, tracking only the priority.
+    /// Used for bypass tasks that must never be blocked by backpressure.
+    fn force_acquire(&mut self, priority: u128) -> BackpressureReservation;
+    fn state(&self) -> BackpressureState;
 }
 
 // We want to allow requests that have a lower priority than any
@@ -262,6 +275,10 @@ impl PrioritiesInFlight {
         self.in_flight.first().copied().unwrap_or(u128::MAX)
     }
 
+    fn contains(&self, prio: u128) -> bool {
+        self.in_flight.binary_search(&prio).is_ok()
+    }
+
     fn push(&mut self, prio: u128) {
         let pos = match self.in_flight.binary_search(&prio) {
             Ok(pos) => pos,
@@ -275,13 +292,28 @@ impl PrioritiesInFlight {
             self.in_flight.remove(pos);
         }
     }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.in_flight.len()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct BackpressureState {
+    max_bytes: u64,
+    bytes_available: i64,
+    priorities_in_flight: u64,
+    no_backpressure: bool,
 }
 
 struct SimpleBackpressureThrottle {
+    max_bytes: u64,
     start: Instant,
     last_warn: AtomicU64,
     bytes_available: i64,
     priorities_in_flight: PrioritiesInFlight,
+    // When true, skip all byte-based backpressure checks (set when max_bytes == 0)
+    no_backpressure: bool,
 }
 
 impl SimpleBackpressureThrottle {
@@ -291,10 +323,12 @@ impl SimpleBackpressureThrottle {
             panic!("Max bytes must be less than {}", i64::MAX);
         }
         Self {
+            max_bytes,
             start: Instant::now(),
             last_warn: AtomicU64::new(0),
             bytes_available: max_bytes as i64,
             priorities_in_flight: PrioritiesInFlight::new(max_concurrency),
+            no_backpressure: max_bytes == 0,
         }
     }
 
@@ -308,7 +342,9 @@ impl SimpleBackpressureThrottle {
             || since_last_warn > BACKPRESSURE_DEBOUNCE
         {
             tracing::event!(tracing::Level::DEBUG, "Backpressure throttle exceeded");
-            log::debug!("Backpressure throttle is full, I/O will pause until buffer is drained.  Max I/O bandwidth will not be achieved because CPU is falling behind");
+            log::debug!(
+                "Backpressure throttle is full, I/O will pause until buffer is drained.  Max I/O bandwidth will not be achieved because CPU is falling behind"
+            );
             self.last_warn
                 .store(seconds_elapsed.max(1), Ordering::Release);
         }
@@ -317,8 +353,13 @@ impl SimpleBackpressureThrottle {
 
 impl BackpressureThrottle for SimpleBackpressureThrottle {
     fn try_acquire(&mut self, num_bytes: u64, priority: u128) -> Option<BackpressureReservation> {
-        if self.bytes_available >= num_bytes as i64
+        if self.no_backpressure
+            || self.bytes_available >= num_bytes as i64
             || self.priorities_in_flight.min_in_flight() >= priority
+            // Chunks from an admitted logical request must keep moving.  A
+            // higher-priority request may be scheduled later and remain
+            // unconsumed while the caller awaits this request.
+            || self.priorities_in_flight.contains(priority)
         {
             self.bytes_available -= num_bytes as i64;
             self.priorities_in_flight.push(priority);
@@ -336,6 +377,23 @@ impl BackpressureThrottle for SimpleBackpressureThrottle {
         self.bytes_available += reservation.num_bytes as i64;
         self.priorities_in_flight.remove(reservation.priority);
     }
+
+    fn force_acquire(&mut self, priority: u128) -> BackpressureReservation {
+        self.priorities_in_flight.push(priority);
+        BackpressureReservation {
+            num_bytes: 0,
+            priority,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn state(&self) -> BackpressureState {
+        BackpressureState {
+            max_bytes: self.max_bytes,
+            bytes_available: self.bytes_available,
+            priorities_in_flight: self.priorities_in_flight.len() as u64,
+            no_backpressure: self.no_backpressure,
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 struct TaskEntry {
@@ -400,14 +458,53 @@ impl IoQueueState {
             if let Some(reservation) = error.backpressure_reservation {
                 self.backpressure_throttle.release(reservation);
             }
-            Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: error.message,
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Error::internal(error.message))
         } else {
             Ok(())
         }
     }
+
+    fn scheduler_state_event(&self) -> Option<SchedulerStateEvent> {
+        if !tracing::enabled!(target: SCHEDULER_STATE_EVENT_TARGET, tracing::Level::TRACE) {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let backpressure = self.backpressure_throttle.state();
+        let pending_bytes = self
+            .pending_tasks
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|entry| self.tasks.get(&entry.task_id))
+            .map(|task| task.num_bytes)
+            .sum::<u64>();
+        let active_iops = self
+            .tasks
+            .values()
+            .filter(|task| matches!(task.state, TaskState::Running { .. }))
+            .count() as u64;
+
+        Some(SchedulerStateEvent {
+            queue_kind: "lite",
+            io_capacity: 0,
+            iops_available: 0,
+            active_iops,
+            pending_iops: self.pending_tasks.len() as u64,
+            pending_bytes,
+            bytes_available: backpressure.bytes_available,
+            bytes_reserved: backpressure.max_bytes as i64 - backpressure.bytes_available,
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: backpressure.max_bytes,
+            priorities_in_flight: backpressure.priorities_in_flight,
+            no_backpressure: backpressure.no_backpressure,
+            head_task_bytes: None,
+            head_task_priority_high: None,
+            head_task_priority_low: None,
+            min_in_flight_priority_high: None,
+            min_in_flight_priority_low: None,
+            head_task_can_deliver: None,
+            head_task_priority_bypass: None,
+            head_task_blocked_by_iops: None,
+            head_task_blocked_by_bytes: None,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 /// A queue of I/O tasks to be shared between the I/O scheduler and the I/O decoder.
@@ -430,24 +527,33 @@ impl IoQueueState {
 /// day as well)
 pub(super) struct IoQueue {
     state: Arc<Mutex<IoQueueState>>,
+    stats: IoStats,
 }
 
 impl IoQueue {
-    pub fn new(max_concurrency: u64, max_bytes: u64) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(max_concurrency: u64, max_bytes: u64, stats: IoStats) -> Self {
         Self {
             state: Arc::new(Mutex::new(IoQueueState::new(max_concurrency, max_bytes))),
+            stats,
         }
     }
 
     fn push(&self, mut task: IoTask, mut state: MutexGuard<IoQueueState>) -> Result<()> {
         let task_id = task.id;
-        if let Some(reservation) = state
-            .backpressure_throttle
-            .try_acquire(task.num_bytes, task.priority)
-        {
+        let maybe_reservation = if task.bypass_backpressure {
+            Some(state.backpressure_throttle.force_acquire(task.priority))
+        } else {
+            state
+                .backpressure_throttle
+                .try_acquire(task.num_bytes, task.priority)
+        };
+        if let Some(reservation) = maybe_reservation {
             state.handle_result(task.reserve(reservation))?;
             state.handle_result(task.start())?;
             state.tasks.insert(task_id, task);
+            let event = state.scheduler_state_event();
+            drop(state);
+            emit_scheduler_state_event(event, &self.stats);
             return Ok(());
         }
 
@@ -457,6 +563,9 @@ impl IoQueue {
             reserved: task.is_reserved(),
         });
         state.tasks.insert(task_id, task);
+        let event = state.scheduler_state_event();
+        drop(state);
+        emit_scheduler_state_event(event, &self.stats);
         Ok(())
     }
 
@@ -465,6 +574,7 @@ impl IoQueue {
         range: Range<u64>,
         priority: u128,
         run_fn: RunFn,
+        bypass_backpressure: bool,
     ) -> Result<TaskHandle> {
         log::trace!(
             "Submitting I/O task with range {:?}, priority {:?}",
@@ -479,6 +589,7 @@ impl IoQueue {
             id: task_id,
             num_bytes: range.end - range.start,
             priority,
+            bypass_backpressure,
             state: TaskState::Initial {
                 idle_waker: None,
                 run_fn,
@@ -493,44 +604,52 @@ impl IoQueue {
 
     // When a task completes we should check to see if any other tasks are now runnable
     fn on_task_complete(&self, mut state: MutexGuard<IoQueueState>) -> Result<()> {
-        let state_ref = &mut *state;
-        let mut task_result = TaskResult::Ok(());
-        while !state_ref.pending_tasks.is_empty() {
-            // Unwrap safe here since we just checked the queue is not empty
-            let next_task = state_ref.pending_tasks.peek().unwrap();
-            let Some(task) = state_ref.tasks.get_mut(&next_task.task_id) else {
-                log::warn!("Task with id {} was lost", next_task.task_id);
-                continue;
-            };
-            if !task.is_reserved() {
-                let Some(reservation) = state_ref
-                    .backpressure_throttle
-                    .try_acquire(task.num_bytes, task.priority)
-                else {
-                    break;
+        let result = {
+            let state_ref = &mut *state;
+            let mut task_result = TaskResult::Ok(());
+            while !state_ref.pending_tasks.is_empty() {
+                // Unwrap safe here since we just checked the queue is not empty
+                let task_id = state_ref.pending_tasks.peek().unwrap().task_id;
+                let Some(task) = state_ref.tasks.get_mut(&task_id) else {
+                    // The caller dropped this task's handle (see `abandon`); discard the
+                    // stale queue entry instead of spinning on it.
+                    state_ref.pending_tasks.pop();
+                    continue;
                 };
-                if let Err(e) = task.reserve(reservation) {
+                if !task.is_reserved() {
+                    let Some(reservation) = state_ref
+                        .backpressure_throttle
+                        .try_acquire(task.num_bytes, task.priority)
+                    else {
+                        break;
+                    };
+                    if let Err(e) = task.reserve(reservation) {
+                        task_result = Err(e);
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+                state_ref.pending_tasks.pop();
+                if let Err(e) = task.start() {
                     task_result = Err(e);
                     break;
                 }
             }
-            state_ref.pending_tasks.pop();
-            if let Err(e) = task.start() {
-                task_result = Err(e);
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-        state_ref.handle_result(task_result)
+            state_ref.handle_result(task_result)
+        };
+        let event = state.scheduler_state_event();
+        drop(state);
+        emit_scheduler_state_event(event, &self.stats);
+        result
     }
 
     fn poll(&self, task_id: u64, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Result<Bytes>> {
         let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
         let Some(task) = state.tasks.get_mut(&task_id) else {
             // This should never happen and indicates a bug
-            return Poll::Ready(Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Task with id {} was lost", task_id),
-                location: location!(),
-            }));
+            return Poll::Ready(Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Task with id {} was lost",
+                task_id
+            ))));
         };
         match task.poll(cx) {
             Poll::Ready(_) => {
@@ -548,10 +667,34 @@ impl IoQueue {
     }
 
     pub(super) fn close(&self) {
+        let event = {
+            let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
+            for task in std::mem::take(&mut state.tasks).values_mut() {
+                task.cancel();
+            }
+            state.scheduler_state_event()
+        };
+        emit_scheduler_state_event(event, &self.stats);
+    }
+
+    // Called when a caller drops a task's handle before the task finishes.  Removes
+    // the task and returns any backpressure reservation it holds to the budget, then
+    // re-checks the queue so newly-affordable tasks can start.  Unlike the standard
+    // release path (`poll`), this runs without the task being polled to completion,
+    // so a cancelled read does not leak its reservation.
+    fn abandon(&self, task_id: u64) {
         let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
-        for task in std::mem::take(&mut state.tasks).values_mut() {
-            task.cancel();
+        let Some(task) = state.tasks.remove(&task_id) else {
+            // Already consumed by `poll`; nothing to release.
+            return;
+        };
+
+        if let Some(reservation) = task.state.backpressure_reservation() {
+            state.backpressure_throttle.release(reservation);
         }
+        // Freed budget may make queued tasks runnable; there is no caller to surface
+        // an error to here.
+        let _ = self.on_task_complete(state);
     }
 }
 
@@ -567,6 +710,12 @@ impl Future for TaskHandle {
     }
 }
 
+impl Drop for TaskHandle {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.queue.abandon(self.task_id);
+    }
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
@@ -575,7 +724,7 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_priority_ordering() {
         // Backpressure budget of 10 bytes: only one 10-byte task runs at a time.
-        let queue = Arc::new(IoQueue::new(128, 10));
+        let queue = Arc::new(IoQueue::new(128, 10, IoStats::default()));
 
         // Records the priority of each task when its run_fn is invoked (i.e. when
         // the task transitions to Running).
@@ -596,7 +745,12 @@ mod tests {
         let (blocker_tx, blocker_rx) = oneshot::channel();
         let blocker = queue
             .clone()
-            .submit(0..10, 0, make_run_fn(0, blocker_rx, start_order.clone()))
+            .submit(
+                0..10,
+                0,
+                make_run_fn(0, blocker_rx, start_order.clone()),
+                false,
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
         // Submit four tasks with out-of-order priorities.
@@ -604,25 +758,45 @@ mod tests {
         let (tx_30, rx_30) = oneshot::channel();
         let h30 = queue
             .clone()
-            .submit(0..10, 30, make_run_fn(30, rx_30, start_order.clone()))
+            .submit(
+                0..10,
+                30,
+                make_run_fn(30, rx_30, start_order.clone()),
+                false,
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
         let (tx_10, rx_10) = oneshot::channel();
         let h10 = queue
             .clone()
-            .submit(0..10, 10, make_run_fn(10, rx_10, start_order.clone()))
+            .submit(
+                0..10,
+                10,
+                make_run_fn(10, rx_10, start_order.clone()),
+                false,
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
         let (tx_50, rx_50) = oneshot::channel();
         let h50 = queue
             .clone()
-            .submit(0..10, 50, make_run_fn(50, rx_50, start_order.clone()))
+            .submit(
+                0..10,
+                50,
+                make_run_fn(50, rx_50, start_order.clone()),
+                false,
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
         let (tx_20, rx_20) = oneshot::channel();
         let h20 = queue
             .clone()
-            .submit(0..10, 20, make_run_fn(20, rx_20, start_order.clone()))
+            .submit(
+                0..10,
+                20,
+                make_run_fn(20, rx_20, start_order.clone()),
+                false,
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
         // Only the blocker has started so far.
@@ -653,4 +827,129 @@ mod tests {
         h50.await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(*start_order.lock().unwrap(), vec![0, 10, 20, 30, 50]);
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zero_buffer_bypasses_backpressure() {
+        // Budget = 0 sets no_backpressure = true, so all tasks start immediately
+        // regardless of how many bytes are "outstanding".
+        let queue = Arc::new(IoQueue::new(128, 0, IoStats::default()));
+        let start_order: Arc<Mutex<Vec<u128>>> = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+
+        let make_run_fn =
+            |prio: u128, rx: oneshot::Receiver<Bytes>, order: Arc<Mutex<Vec<u128>>>| -> RunFn {
+                Box::new(move || {
+                    order.lock().unwrap().push(prio);
+                    Box::pin(async move { Ok(rx.await.unwrap()) })
+                })
+            };
+
+        let (tx0, rx0) = oneshot::channel();
+        let h0 = queue
+            .clone()
+            .submit(0..10, 0, make_run_fn(0, rx0, start_order.clone()), false)
+            .unwrap();
+        let (tx1, rx1) = oneshot::channel();
+        let h1 = queue
+            .clone()
+            .submit(0..10, 1, make_run_fn(1, rx1, start_order.clone()), false)
+            .unwrap();
+        let (tx2, rx2) = oneshot::channel();
+        let h2 = queue
+            .clone()
+            .submit(0..10, 2, make_run_fn(2, rx2, start_order.clone()), false)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // All three tasks start immediately — no backpressure budget check when max_bytes=0.
+        assert_eq!(*start_order.lock().unwrap(), vec![0, 1, 2]);
+
+        tx0.send(Bytes::from_static(b"done")).unwrap();
+        tx1.send(Bytes::from_static(b"done")).unwrap();
+        tx2.send(Bytes::from_static(b"done")).unwrap();
+        h0.await.unwrap();
+        h1.await.unwrap();
+        h2.await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bypass_flag_proceeds_past_exhausted_budget() {
+        // Budget of 10 bytes. A blocker task fills it. A task with bypass=true starts
+        // immediately despite the exhausted budget; a normal task stays queued.
+        let queue = Arc::new(IoQueue::new(128, 10, IoStats::default()));
+        let start_order: Arc<Mutex<Vec<u128>>> = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+
+        let make_run_fn =
+            |prio: u128, rx: oneshot::Receiver<Bytes>, order: Arc<Mutex<Vec<u128>>>| -> RunFn {
+                Box::new(move || {
+                    order.lock().unwrap().push(prio);
+                    Box::pin(async move { Ok(rx.await.unwrap()) })
+                })
+            };
+
+        // Blocker (priority 0, 10 bytes): fills the budget.
+        let (blocker_tx, blocker_rx) = oneshot::channel();
+        let blocker = queue
+            .clone()
+            .submit(
+                0..10,
+                0,
+                make_run_fn(0, blocker_rx, start_order.clone()),
+                false,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Normal (priority 1, 10 bytes): blocked — budget exhausted, no priority bypass.
+        let (normal_tx, normal_rx) = oneshot::channel();
+        let normal = queue
+            .clone()
+            .submit(
+                0..10,
+                1,
+                make_run_fn(1, normal_rx, start_order.clone()),
+                false,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Bypass (priority 2, 10 bytes): starts immediately via force_acquire.
+        let (bypass_tx, bypass_rx) = oneshot::channel();
+        let bypass = queue
+            .clone()
+            .submit(
+                0..10,
+                2,
+                make_run_fn(2, bypass_rx, start_order.clone()),
+                true,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Blocker (0) and bypass (2) have started; normal (1) is still queued.
+        assert_eq!(*start_order.lock().unwrap(), vec![0, 2]);
+
+        // Completing the blocker frees the budget and unblocks the normal task.
+        blocker_tx.send(Bytes::from_static(b"done")).unwrap();
+        blocker.await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*start_order.lock().unwrap(), vec![0, 2, 1]);
+
+        bypass_tx.send(Bytes::from_static(b"done")).unwrap();
+        bypass.await.unwrap();
+        normal_tx.send(Bytes::from_static(b"done")).unwrap();
+        normal.await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_same_priority_reservation_continues_after_higher_priority() {
+        let mut throttle = SimpleBackpressureThrottle::new(10, 128);
+
+        let low_priority_first = throttle.try_acquire(6, 10).unwrap();
+        let high_priority = throttle.try_acquire(4, 0).unwrap();
+        let low_priority_next = throttle.try_acquire(6, 10);
+
+        assert!(
+            low_priority_next.is_some(),
+            "chunks from an already admitted logical request should continue"
+        );
+
+        throttle.release(low_priority_first);
+        throttle.release(high_priority);
+        throttle.release(low_priority_next.unwrap());
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/spill.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/spill.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4e0d6e05584
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/spill.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,606 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Reclaimable scratch storage.
+//!
+//! A [`SpillStore`] hands out scratch space for temporary state that is too
+//! large to keep in memory and is read back later in the same process (for
+//! example, posting lists or shuffle runs accumulated while building an index).
+//! The backing storage is reclaimed automatically when the handle is dropped.
+//!
+//! [`SpillStore::new_spill`] returns a [`Writer`] paired with a [`Spill`]
+//! handle: the writer is the byte sink (feed it to `FileWriter::try_new`, or
+//! write to it directly); the [`Spill`] reads the bytes back (via
+//! [`crate::scheduler::ScanScheduler::open_reader`] for a v2 `FileReader`) and
+//! owns the file's lifetime.
+//!
+//! # Lifecycle
+//!
+//! - **Write-once.** The only way to obtain a writer is `new_spill`, and each
+//!   call allocates a fresh unit of storage, so a single spill cannot be
+//!   written twice — there is no second-writer path to guard against.
+//! - **Write-before-read.** [`Spill::reader`] fails until the writer has been
+//!   shut down, so partially written bytes are never read back.
+//! - **RAII.** Dropping the [`Spill`] deletes the file and releases its bytes
+//!   back to the store's disk budget. The store's temp directory is created on
+//!   first use and is the backstop for anything leaked if a handle is forgotten.
+//!
+//! # Disk cap
+//!
+//! [`LocalSpillStore::with_cap`] enforces a byte budget shared across all live
+//! handles, returning a typed [`lance_core::Error::DiskCapExceeded`] rather than
+//! silently filling the disk. Accounting is reserve-on-write + release-on-drop
+//! (by stat), which is exact for the write-once contract. Two minor
+//! inexactnesses are not engineered around: a write aborted at the cap leaks its
+//! reservation until the store is dropped, and a file whose size cannot be
+//! stat-ed on drop is not released.
+
+use std::io;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWrite;
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+use crate::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use crate::object_writer::WriteResult;
+use crate::traits::{Reader, Writer};
+
+/// A factory for scratch storage.
+///
+/// The trait is object-safe and `Send + Sync` so it can be held behind an
+/// `Arc<dyn SpillStore>` (e.g. inside a `Session`). Implementations need not be
+/// backed by local files (e.g. in-memory buffers, remote object stores).
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait SpillStore: Send + Sync + 'static {
+    /// Allocate a unit of scratch storage.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the byte sink to write it with and a [`Spill`] handle to read it
+    /// back. For a capped store, writes that would exceed the cap fail with
+    /// [`lance_core::Error::DiskCapExceeded`]. The storage is reclaimed when the
+    /// [`Spill`] is dropped.
+    async fn new_spill(&self) -> Result<(Box<dyn Writer>, Box<dyn Spill>)>;
+}
+
+/// The readable half of a spill, and the owner of its backing storage.
+///
+/// Dropping it reclaims the storage. The trait is object-safe so it can be
+/// returned as `Box<dyn Spill>` from [`SpillStore::new_spill`].
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait Spill: Send + Sync {
+    /// Open a reader over the spilled bytes.
+    ///
+    /// Fails until the paired writer has been shut down, since the bytes are not
+    /// complete before then.
+    async fn reader(&self) -> Result<Box<dyn Reader>>;
+}
+
+/// A shared, cloneable byte budget.
+///
+/// Cloning produces another handle to the *same* underlying counter, so a quota
+/// shared across many writers enforces a single combined cap.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct DiskQuota {
+    cap_bytes: u64,
+    used: Arc<Mutex<u64>>,
+}
+
+impl DiskQuota {
+    fn new(cap_bytes: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            cap_bytes,
+            used: Arc::new(Mutex::new(0)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Try to reserve `n` bytes, failing with [`Error::DiskCapExceeded`] if the
+    /// reservation would push total usage past the cap.
+    fn try_reserve(&self, n: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        // The lock is held only for a couple of arithmetic ops and never across
+        // an `.await`, so a std `Mutex` is the simplest correct choice.
+        let mut used = self.used.lock().unwrap();
+        let next = used.saturating_add(n);
+        if next > self.cap_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::disk_cap_exceeded(self.cap_bytes, *used));
+        }
+        *used = next;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Release `n` previously reserved bytes back to the budget.
+    fn release(&self, n: u64) {
+        // Saturating sub keeps a stray double-release from underflowing.
+        let mut used = self.used.lock().unwrap();
+        *used = used.saturating_sub(n);
+    }
+}
+
+/// The byte sink handed out by [`SpillStore::new_spill`].
+///
+/// It optionally reserves a [`DiskQuota`] as bytes are written (keeping cap
+/// enforcement inside the spill store rather than in [`ObjectStore`], and
+/// working for any backend the store opens), and flips a shared `finished` flag
+/// on shutdown so the paired [`Spill`] knows the bytes are complete.
+struct SpillWriter {
+    inner: Box<dyn Writer>,
+    quota: Option<DiskQuota>,
+    finished: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+}
+
+impl AsyncWrite for SpillWriter {
+    fn poll_write(
+        self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+        cx: &mut Context<'_>,
+        buf: &[u8],
+    ) -> Poll<io::Result<usize>> {
+        let this = self.get_mut();
+        let Some(quota) = &this.quota else {
+            return Pin::new(this.inner.as_mut()).poll_write(cx, buf);
+        };
+        // Reserve up-front for the bytes we intend to write, then release the
+        // remainder the inner writer did not accept so the reservation tracks
+        // bytes actually buffered (and, for a write-once file, the file size).
+        if let Err(e) = quota.try_reserve(buf.len() as u64) {
+            return Poll::Ready(Err(io::Error::other(e)));
+        }
+        let poll = Pin::new(this.inner.as_mut()).poll_write(cx, buf);
+        match &poll {
+            Poll::Ready(Ok(n)) => quota.release((buf.len() - *n) as u64),
+            _ => quota.release(buf.len() as u64),
+        }
+        poll
+    }
+
+    fn poll_flush(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<io::Result<()>> {
+        Pin::new(self.get_mut().inner.as_mut()).poll_flush(cx)
+    }
+
+    fn poll_shutdown(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<io::Result<()>> {
+        let this = self.get_mut();
+        let poll = Pin::new(this.inner.as_mut()).poll_shutdown(cx);
+        if matches!(poll, Poll::Ready(Ok(()))) {
+            // Mirrors `Writer::shutdown` so the flag is set whichever shutdown
+            // surface the consumer drives (`AsyncWrite` vs the `Writer` trait).
+            this.finished.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        poll
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl Writer for SpillWriter {
+    async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<usize> {
+        self.inner.tell().await
+    }
+
+    async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        let result = self.inner.shutdown().await?;
+        // Signal the paired `Spill` that the bytes are now complete. `Relaxed`
+        // is sufficient: this only flags that shutdown happened; the file
+        // contents are synchronized through the filesystem, not this flag.
+        self.finished.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A [`SpillStore`] that writes temporary files to a local temp directory.
+///
+/// By default there is no disk cap. Use [`LocalSpillStore::with_cap`] to
+/// configure one shared across every handle this store produces.
+///
+/// The scratch directory is created on the first [`SpillStore::new_spill`]
+/// call, not at construction, so opening a dataset does not require a writable
+/// temp directory. It is deleted when the store is dropped, cleaning up any
+/// files whose handles have already been dropped.
+pub struct LocalSpillStore {
+    store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    /// Created on first spill. Backstop cleanup removes the directory on drop.
+    temp_dir: Mutex<Option<Arc<tempfile::TempDir>>>,
+    file_counter: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+    /// Byte budget shared across every handle, enforced while writing.
+    quota: Option<DiskQuota>,
+}
+
+/// Create a unique scratch directory, retrying `PermissionDenied`.
+///
+/// Windows GitHub runners (and machines with antivirus) can reject a newly
+/// created `%TEMP%` subdirectory with `ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED`. Each attempt uses
+/// a fresh random name, so a short retry loop is the usual workaround.
+fn create_temp_dir() -> Result<tempfile::TempDir> {
+    const ATTEMPTS: u32 = 5;
+    let mut attempt = 0;
+    loop {
+        match tempfile::tempdir() {
+            Ok(dir) => return Ok(dir),
+            Err(err) if err.kind() == io::ErrorKind::PermissionDenied && attempt + 1 < ATTEMPTS => {
+                attempt += 1;
+                std::thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(10 * attempt as u64));
+            }
+            Err(err) => return Err(err.into()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl LocalSpillStore {
+    /// Create a store with no disk cap.
+    ///
+    /// Construction does not touch the filesystem; the scratch directory is
+    /// created on the first [`SpillStore::new_spill`] call.
+    pub fn new() -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Create a store that returns [`lance_core::Error::DiskCapExceeded`] once
+    /// total bytes written across all live handles would exceed `cap_bytes`.
+    pub fn with_cap(cap_bytes: u64) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            quota: Some(DiskQuota::new(cap_bytes)),
+            ..Self::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_temp_dir(&self) -> Result<Arc<tempfile::TempDir>> {
+        // The lock is held only for init (and the rare PermissionDenied retry)
+        // and never across an `.await`.
+        let mut slot = self.temp_dir.lock().unwrap();
+        if let Some(dir) = slot.as_ref() {
+            return Ok(dir.clone());
+        }
+        let dir = Arc::new(create_temp_dir()?);
+        *slot = Some(dir.clone());
+        Ok(dir)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for LocalSpillStore {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            store: Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()),
+            temp_dir: Mutex::new(None),
+            file_counter: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
+            quota: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl SpillStore for LocalSpillStore {
+    async fn new_spill(&self) -> Result<(Box<dyn Writer>, Box<dyn Spill>)> {
+        let temp_dir = self.ensure_temp_dir()?;
+        let idx = self.file_counter.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        let fs_path = temp_dir.path().join(format!("spill_{idx:06}.bin"));
+        let os_path = Path::from_absolute_path(&fs_path)?;
+        let finished = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+
+        let writer = Box::new(SpillWriter {
+            inner: self.store.create(&os_path).await?,
+            quota: self.quota.clone(),
+            finished: finished.clone(),
+        });
+        let spill = Box::new(LocalSpill {
+            store: self.store.clone(),
+            os_path,
+            fs_path,
+            quota: self.quota.clone(),
+            finished,
+            _temp_dir: temp_dir,
+        });
+        Ok((writer, spill))
+    }
+}
+
+/// The readable half of a [`LocalSpillStore`] spill; reclaims the file on drop.
+struct LocalSpill {
+    store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    os_path: Path,
+    fs_path: PathBuf,
+    quota: Option<DiskQuota>,
+    /// Set by the paired [`SpillWriter`] once it has been shut down.
+    finished: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    /// Keep the store's temp directory alive for at least this file's lifetime.
+    _temp_dir: Arc<tempfile::TempDir>,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl Spill for LocalSpill {
+    async fn reader(&self) -> Result<Box<dyn Reader>> {
+        // `Relaxed` is sufficient: the flag only gates "has the writer shut
+        // down"; the bytes themselves are synchronized through the filesystem,
+        // not this load.
+        if !self.finished.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "spill reader requested before the writer was shut down",
+            ));
+        }
+        self.store.open(&self.os_path).await
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for LocalSpill {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        // Release the bytes this file occupied back to the budget. We stat the
+        // persisted file rather than tracking writes, which is exact for the
+        // write-once contract.
+        if let Some(quota) = &self.quota
+            && let Ok(metadata) = std::fs::metadata(&self.fs_path)
+        {
+            quota.release(metadata.len());
+        }
+        // Best-effort removal; the temp dir is the backstop.
+        let _ = std::fs::remove_file(&self.fs_path);
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+    /// Write `data` to a fresh writer and shut it down.
+    async fn finish_writer(mut writer: Box<dyn Writer>, data: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
+        writer.write_all(data).await?;
+        Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_disk_quota_reserve_release() {
+        let quota = DiskQuota::new(100);
+        quota.try_reserve(60).unwrap();
+        assert!(quota.try_reserve(60).is_err());
+        quota.release(60);
+        quota.try_reserve(60).unwrap();
+        // Reserving exactly up to the cap succeeds; one byte past it fails.
+        quota.try_reserve(40).unwrap();
+        assert!(quota.try_reserve(1).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_then_read() {
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::new().unwrap();
+        let (writer, spill) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+
+        let data = b"hello spill world";
+        finish_writer(writer, data).await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = spill.reader().await.unwrap();
+        let read_back = reader.get_all().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(read_back.as_ref(), data);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_reader_requires_finished_writer() {
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::new().unwrap();
+        let (mut writer, spill) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_all(b"partial").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Reading before the writer is shut down is rejected.
+        let Err(err) = spill.reader().await else {
+            panic!("reader before shutdown should be rejected");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+        );
+
+        // After shutdown the reader sees the bytes.
+        Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await.unwrap();
+        let reader = spill.reader().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reader.get_all().await.unwrap().as_ref(), b"partial");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_reader_ready_after_async_shutdown() {
+        // Shutting down through the `AsyncWrite` surface (not the `Writer`
+        // trait) must also mark the spill readable — covers poll_shutdown's
+        // flag set, the path the `Writer::shutdown` tests don't reach.
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::new().unwrap();
+        let (mut writer, spill) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_all(b"async").await.unwrap();
+        AsyncWriteExt::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = spill.reader().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reader.get_all().await.unwrap().as_ref(), b"async");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_empty_spill() {
+        // A spill written with no bytes round-trips empty, and the capped path
+        // handles the zero-byte reserve/stat without error.
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::with_cap(100).unwrap();
+        let (writer, spill) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+        finish_writer(writer, b"").await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = spill.reader().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(reader.get_all().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_new_does_not_create_temp_dir() {
+        // Session construction must not touch the filesystem; Windows CI panics
+        // when thousands of tests each eagerly create a `%TEMP%` subdirectory.
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::new().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            store.temp_dir.lock().unwrap().is_none(),
+            "temp directory should be created lazily on first spill"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            LocalSpillStore::default()
+                .temp_dir
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "Default should also defer temp directory creation"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_raii_cleanup() {
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::new().unwrap();
+        let (writer, spill) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+        finish_writer(writer, b"some bytes").await.unwrap();
+
+        // The first spill gets a deterministic name under the store's temp dir.
+        let path = store
+            .temp_dir
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("new_spill creates the temp dir")
+            .path()
+            .join("spill_000000.bin");
+        assert!(path.exists());
+        drop(spill);
+        assert!(!path.exists(), "spill file should be deleted on drop");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cap_exceeded() {
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::with_cap(100).unwrap();
+        let (writer, _spill) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+        let err = finish_writer(writer, &[0u8; 101]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::DiskCapExceeded { cap_bytes: 100, .. }),
+            "expected DiskCapExceeded, got {err:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cap_shared_across_files() {
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::with_cap(100).unwrap();
+        let (writer_a, _spill_a) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+        let (writer_b, _spill_b) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+
+        finish_writer(writer_a, &[0u8; 60]).await.unwrap();
+        // 60 already reserved by `a`; writing 60 more would reach 120 > 100.
+        let err = finish_writer(writer_b, &[0u8; 60]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::DiskCapExceeded { cap_bytes: 100, .. }),
+            "expected DiskCapExceeded, got {err:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cap_freed_on_drop() {
+        let store = LocalSpillStore::with_cap(100).unwrap();
+
+        {
+            let (writer, spill) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+            finish_writer(writer, &[0u8; 80]).await.unwrap();
+            // `spill` drops at the end of this block, releasing its 80 bytes.
+            drop(spill);
+        }
+
+        let (writer, _spill) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+        // Succeeds because the cap is no longer under pressure.
+        finish_writer(writer, &[0u8; 80]).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_custom_implementation() {
+        // A custom store can satisfy the traits without a local file.
+        struct MemStore;
+        struct MemSpill;
+
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl Spill for MemSpill {
+            async fn reader(&self) -> Result<Box<dyn Reader>> {
+                ObjectStore::memory().open(&Path::from("/mem")).await
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl SpillStore for MemStore {
+            async fn new_spill(&self) -> Result<(Box<dyn Writer>, Box<dyn Spill>)> {
+                let writer = ObjectStore::memory().create(&Path::from("/mem")).await?;
+                Ok((writer, Box::new(MemSpill)))
+            }
+        }
+
+        let store = MemStore;
+        // Exercise the factory + trait objects; the in-memory store is a fresh
+        // instance per call so we don't round-trip data here.
+        let (_writer, _spill) = store.new_spill().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A [`Writer`] whose `poll_write` accepts a fixed number of bytes per call,
+    /// or fails, so we can drive the [`SpillWriter`] release arms that the local
+    /// backend (which accepts every write in full) never hits.
+    struct ControlledWriter {
+        outcome: Poll<io::Result<usize>>,
+    }
+
+    impl AsyncWrite for ControlledWriter {
+        fn poll_write(
+            self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+            _cx: &mut Context<'_>,
+            buf: &[u8],
+        ) -> Poll<io::Result<usize>> {
+            match &self.outcome {
+                Poll::Ready(Ok(n)) => Poll::Ready(Ok((*n).min(buf.len()))),
+                Poll::Ready(Err(e)) => Poll::Ready(Err(io::Error::new(e.kind(), e.to_string()))),
+                Poll::Pending => Poll::Pending,
+            }
+        }
+        fn poll_flush(self: Pin<&mut Self>, _cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<io::Result<()>> {
+            Poll::Ready(Ok(()))
+        }
+        fn poll_shutdown(self: Pin<&mut Self>, _cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<io::Result<()>> {
+            Poll::Ready(Ok(()))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl Writer for ControlledWriter {
+        async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<usize> {
+            Ok(0)
+        }
+        async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+            Ok(WriteResult::default())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_spill_writer_releases_unaccepted_bytes() {
+        // Short write: the inner writer accepts only 10 of the 40 reserved bytes,
+        // so the 30-byte remainder must be returned to the budget.
+        let quota = DiskQuota::new(100);
+        let mut writer = SpillWriter {
+            inner: Box::new(ControlledWriter {
+                outcome: Poll::Ready(Ok(10)),
+            }),
+            quota: Some(quota.clone()),
+            finished: Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false)),
+        };
+        let n = writer.write(&[0u8; 40]).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(n, 10);
+        assert_eq!(
+            *quota.used.lock().unwrap(),
+            10,
+            "only the accepted bytes should remain reserved"
+        );
+
+        // Failed write: the full reservation must be released.
+        let quota = DiskQuota::new(100);
+        let mut writer = SpillWriter {
+            inner: Box::new(ControlledWriter {
+                outcome: Poll::Ready(Err(io::Error::other("boom"))),
+            }),
+            quota: Some(quota.clone()),
+            finished: Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false)),
+        };
+        writer.write(&[0u8; 40]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *quota.used.lock().unwrap(),
+            0,
+            "a failed write should release its entire reservation"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/testing.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/testing.rs
index d0d4a426274..aca9b925aa3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/testing.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/testing.rs
@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ use async_trait::async_trait;
 use futures::stream::BoxStream;
 use mockall::mock;
 use object_store::{
-    path::Path, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+    CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
     ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult,
-    Result as OSResult,
+    Result as OSResult, path::Path,
 };
 use std::future::Future;
 
@@ -31,11 +31,10 @@ mock! {
         Self: 'async_trait,
         'life0: 'async_trait,
         'life1: 'async_trait;
-        async fn delete(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<()>;
+        fn delete_stream(&self, locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>;
         fn list<'a>(&'a self, prefix: Option<&'a Path>) -> BoxStream<'_, OSResult<ObjectMeta>>;
         async fn list_with_delimiter<'a, 'b>(&'a self, prefix: Option<&'b Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult>;
-        async fn copy(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()>;
-        async fn copy_if_not_exists(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()>;
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()>;
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/traits.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/traits.rs
index 4a6631e6ba8..6a40171b6e0 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/traits.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/traits.rs
@@ -5,23 +5,42 @@ use std::ops::Range;
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::{StreamExt, future::BoxFuture, stream::BoxStream};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
 use tokio::io::{AsyncWrite, AsyncWriteExt};
 
 use lance_core::Result;
 
+use crate::object_writer::WriteResult;
+
 pub trait ProtoStruct {
     type Proto: Message;
 }
 
+pub type ByteStream = BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<Bytes>>;
+
 /// A trait for writing to a file on local file system or object store.
 #[async_trait]
 pub trait Writer: AsyncWrite + Unpin + Send {
     /// Tell the current offset.
     async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<usize>;
+
+    /// Flush all buffered data and finalize the write, returning metadata about
+    /// the written object.
+    async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<WriteResult>;
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl Writer for Box<dyn Writer> {
+    async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<usize> {
+        self.as_mut().tell().await
+    }
+
+    async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        self.as_mut().shutdown().await
+    }
 }
 
 /// Lance Write Extension.
@@ -50,6 +69,14 @@ pub trait WriteExt {
         minor_version: i16,
         magic: &[u8],
     ) -> Result<()>;
+
+    async fn copy_from_reader(&mut self, reader: &dyn Reader) -> Result<usize>;
+
+    async fn copy_range_from_reader(
+        &mut self,
+        reader: &dyn Reader,
+        range: Range<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<usize>;
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
@@ -78,6 +105,32 @@ impl<W: Writer + ?Sized> WriteExt for W {
         self.write_all(magic).await?;
         Ok(())
     }
+
+    async fn copy_from_reader(&mut self, reader: &dyn Reader) -> Result<usize> {
+        let mut stream = reader.get_stream().await?;
+        let mut copied = 0usize;
+        while let Some(chunk) = stream.next().await {
+            let bytes = chunk?;
+            copied += bytes.len();
+            self.write_all(&bytes).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(copied)
+    }
+
+    async fn copy_range_from_reader(
+        &mut self,
+        reader: &dyn Reader,
+        range: Range<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let mut stream = reader.get_range_stream(range).await?;
+        let mut copied = 0usize;
+        while let Some(chunk) = stream.next().await {
+            let bytes = chunk?;
+            copied += bytes.len();
+            self.write_all(&bytes).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(copied)
+    }
 }
 
 pub trait Reader: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync + DeepSizeOf {
@@ -102,4 +155,23 @@ pub trait Reader: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync + DeepSizeOf {
     /// By default this reads the size in a separate IOP but some implementations
     /// may not need the size beforehand.
     fn get_all(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<Bytes>>;
+
+    /// Read the entire object as a byte stream.
+    fn get_stream(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<ByteStream>> {
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            let bytes = self.get_all().await?;
+            Ok(futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(bytes) }).boxed())
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Read a byte range as a byte stream.
+    fn get_range_stream(
+        &self,
+        range: Range<usize>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<ByteStream>> {
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            let bytes = self.get_range(range).await?;
+            Ok(futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(bytes) }).boxed())
+        })
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/uring.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/uring.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..06786178164
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/uring.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! io_uring-based I/O for disks with high IOPS capacity (e.g. NVMe)
+//!
+//! This module provides two implementations of the [`Reader`](crate::traits::Reader) trait
+//! using Linux's io_uring interface for asynchronous I/O.
+//!
+//! One of these uses a pool of dedicated background threads which each own an io_uring instance.
+//! Read requests are submitted to a background thread's pool.
+//!
+//! The other implementation uses a thread-local io_uring instance.  This only works if the future
+//! is polled by the same thread that submitted the request.  This means that the runtime must be
+//! a single-threaded runtime.
+//!
+//! # Configuration
+//!
+//! The io_uring reader is enabled by using the `file+uring://` URI scheme instead of `file://`.
+//! Additional tuning parameters are controlled by environment variables:
+//!
+//! - `LANCE_URING_CURRENT_THREAD` - Use thread-local io_uring (default: false)
+//! - `LANCE_URING_BLOCK_SIZE` - Block size in bytes (default: 4KB)
+//! - `LANCE_URING_IO_PARALLELISM` - Max concurrent operations (default: 128)
+//! - `LANCE_URING_QUEUE_DEPTH` - io_uring queue depth (default: 16K)
+//! - `LANCE_URING_THREAD_COUNT` - Number of io_uring threads to use (default: 2)
+//! - `LANCE_URING_SUBMIT_BATCH_SIZE` - Number of requests to batch before submitting (default: 128)
+//! - `LANCE_URING_POLL_TIMEOUT_MS` - Thread poll timeout in milliseconds (default: 10)
+//!
+//! Note: the block size and io parallelism are not actually used by the io_uring implementation.  These
+//! variables just control what the filesystem reports up to Lance.
+//!
+//! # Platform Support
+//!
+//! This module is only available on Linux and requires kernel 5.1 or newer.
+//! On other platforms, the code falls back to [`LocalObjectReader`](crate::local::LocalObjectReader).
+//!
+//! # Example
+//!
+//! ```no_run
+//! # use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+//! # async fn example() -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+//! // Enable io_uring by using the file+uring:// scheme
+//! let uri = "file+uring:///path/to/file.dat";
+//! let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(uri).await?;
+//! let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+//!
+//! // Reader will use io_uring
+//! let data = reader.get_range(0..1024).await?;
+//! # Ok(())
+//! # }
+//! ```
+
+mod future;
+mod reader;
+mod requests;
+mod thread;
+
+// Thread-local io_uring implementation for current-thread runtimes
+pub(crate) mod current_thread;
+pub(crate) mod current_thread_future;
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests;
+
+use std::sync::LazyLock;
+
+pub(crate) use current_thread::UringCurrentThreadReader;
+pub use reader::UringReader;
+
+/// Default block size for io_uring reads (4KB)
+pub const DEFAULT_URING_BLOCK_SIZE: usize = 4 * 1024;
+
+/// Default I/O parallelism for io_uring (128 concurrent operations)
+pub const DEFAULT_URING_IO_PARALLELISM: usize = 128;
+
+/// Default io_uring queue depth (16K entries)
+pub const DEFAULT_URING_QUEUE_DEPTH: usize = 16 * 1024;
+
+/// Cached `LANCE_URING_BLOCK_SIZE` env var, read once at first access.
+pub(crate) static URING_BLOCK_SIZE: LazyLock<Option<usize>> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_URING_BLOCK_SIZE")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+});
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/uring/current_thread.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/current_thread.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ae2e3414ee9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/current_thread.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,430 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Thread-local io_uring implementation for current-thread runtimes.
+//!
+//! This implementation creates a thread-local IoUring instance per thread
+//! and directly processes completions during future polling, eliminating
+//! the need for background threads and MPSC channels.
+
+use super::requests::{IoRequest, RequestState};
+use super::{DEFAULT_URING_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_URING_IO_PARALLELISM, URING_BLOCK_SIZE};
+use crate::local::to_local_path;
+use crate::traits::Reader;
+use crate::uring::DEFAULT_URING_QUEUE_DEPTH;
+use crate::utils::tracking_store::IOTracker;
+use bytes::{Bytes, BytesMut};
+use futures::FutureExt;
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use io_uring::{IoUring, opcode, types};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+
+use std::cell::{LazyCell, RefCell};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::fs::File;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::io::{self, ErrorKind};
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+// Re-use file handle types from reader.rs
+use super::reader::{CacheKey, CachedReaderData, HANDLE_CACHE, UringFileHandle};
+
+/// Global counter for generating unique user_data values
+static USER_DATA_COUNTER: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(1);
+
+/// Thread-local io_uring instance with pending requests
+struct ThreadLocalUring {
+    ring: IoUring,
+    pending: HashMap<u64, Arc<IoRequest>>,
+}
+
+thread_local! {
+    static URING: LazyCell<RefCell<ThreadLocalUring>> = LazyCell::new(|| {
+        let queue_depth = std::env::var("LANCE_URING_QUEUE_DEPTH")
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_URING_QUEUE_DEPTH);
+
+        let ring = IoUring::builder()
+            // Ensures work is only done in submit_and_wait
+            .setup_defer_taskrun()
+            // Enable perf. optimization when there is only one issuer thread
+            .setup_single_issuer()
+            .build(queue_depth as u32)
+            .expect("Failed to create io_uring");
+
+        log::debug!(
+            "Created thread-local io_uring with queue depth {}",
+            queue_depth
+        );
+
+        RefCell::new(ThreadLocalUring {
+            ring,
+            pending: HashMap::new(),
+        })
+    });
+}
+
+/// Push request to thread-local submission queue
+pub(super) fn push_request(request: Arc<IoRequest>) -> io::Result<()> {
+    URING.with(|cell| {
+        let mut uring = cell.borrow_mut();
+
+        // Generate unique user_data
+        let user_data = USER_DATA_COUNTER.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+        // Get buffer pointer, adjusting for any bytes already read (short read retry)
+        let (buffer_ptr, read_offset, read_length) = {
+            let state = request.state.lock().unwrap();
+            let br = state.bytes_read;
+            (
+                unsafe { state.buffer.as_ptr().add(br) as *mut u8 },
+                request.offset + br as u64,
+                (request.length - br) as u32,
+            )
+        };
+
+        // Prepare read operation
+        let read_op =
+            opcode::Read::new(types::Fd(request.fd), buffer_ptr, read_length).offset(read_offset);
+
+        // Get submission queue
+        let mut sq = uring.ring.submission();
+
+        // Check if SQ has space
+        if sq.is_full() {
+            drop(sq);
+            return Err(io::Error::new(
+                io::ErrorKind::WouldBlock,
+                "io_uring submission queue full",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // Push to SQ
+        unsafe {
+            sq.push(&read_op.build().user_data(user_data))
+                .map_err(|_| io::Error::other("Failed to push to SQ"))?;
+        }
+        drop(sq);
+
+        // Track request in pending map
+        uring.pending.insert(user_data, request);
+
+        // Don't submit here - let the future handle submission
+
+        Ok(())
+    })
+}
+
+/// Process completions from thread-local IoUring
+pub(super) fn process_thread_local_completions() -> io::Result<usize> {
+    URING.with(|cell| {
+        let mut uring = cell.borrow_mut();
+        let mut completed = 0;
+        let mut retries: Vec<Arc<IoRequest>> = Vec::new();
+
+        // Collect completions first to avoid borrowing ring and pending simultaneously
+        let cqes: Vec<_> = uring
+            .ring
+            .completion()
+            .map(|cqe| (cqe.user_data(), cqe.result()))
+            .collect();
+
+        for (user_data, result) in cqes {
+            if let Some(request) = uring.pending.remove(&user_data) {
+                let mut state = request.state.lock().unwrap();
+
+                if result < 0 {
+                    // Kernel error
+                    state.err = Some(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(-result));
+                    state.completed = true;
+                } else if result == 0 {
+                    // EOF before full read completed
+                    let br = state.bytes_read;
+                    state.err = Some(io::Error::new(
+                        io::ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof,
+                        format!("unexpected EOF: read {} of {} bytes", br, request.length),
+                    ));
+                    state.buffer.truncate(br);
+                    state.completed = true;
+                } else {
+                    // Positive result: n bytes read
+                    let n = result as usize;
+                    state.bytes_read += n;
+                    let br = state.bytes_read;
+
+                    if br >= request.length {
+                        // Full read complete
+                        state.buffer.truncate(br);
+                        state.completed = true;
+                    } else {
+                        // Short read — need retry; don't mark completed or wake
+                        drop(state);
+                        retries.push(request);
+
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // Wake waiting future
+                if let Some(waker) = state.waker.take() {
+                    drop(state);
+                    waker.wake();
+                }
+
+                completed += 1;
+            } else {
+                log::warn!("Received completion for unknown user_data: {}", user_data);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Resubmit short-read retries
+        for request in retries {
+            // Generate unique user_data
+            let user_data = USER_DATA_COUNTER.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+            let (buffer_ptr, read_offset, read_length) = {
+                let state = request.state.lock().unwrap();
+                let br = state.bytes_read;
+                (
+                    unsafe { state.buffer.as_ptr().add(br) as *mut u8 },
+                    request.offset + br as u64,
+                    (request.length - br) as u32,
+                )
+            };
+
+            let read_op = opcode::Read::new(types::Fd(request.fd), buffer_ptr, read_length)
+                .offset(read_offset);
+
+            let mut sq = uring.ring.submission();
+            if sq.is_full() {
+                drop(sq);
+                request.fail(io::Error::new(
+                    io::ErrorKind::WouldBlock,
+                    "io_uring submission queue full during retry",
+                ));
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            unsafe {
+                if sq.push(&read_op.build().user_data(user_data)).is_err() {
+                    request.fail(io::Error::other("Failed to push short-read retry to SQ"));
+                    continue;
+                }
+            }
+            drop(sq);
+
+            uring.pending.insert(user_data, request);
+        }
+
+        if completed > 0 {
+            log::trace!("Processed {} completions", completed);
+        }
+
+        Ok(completed)
+    })
+}
+
+/// Submit all pending requests and wait with timeout 0 (non-blocking)
+pub(super) fn submit_and_wait_thread_local() -> io::Result<()> {
+    URING.with(|cell| {
+        let uring = cell.borrow_mut();
+        // Submit with wait=1 (do at least some work)
+        uring.ring.submit_and_wait(1)?;
+        Ok(())
+    })
+}
+
+/// Thread-local io_uring-based reader for current-thread runtimes
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct UringCurrentThreadReader {
+    /// File handle
+    handle: Arc<UringFileHandle>,
+
+    /// Block size for I/O operations
+    block_size: usize,
+
+    /// File size (determined at open time)
+    size: usize,
+
+    /// I/O tracker for monitoring operations
+    io_tracker: Arc<IOTracker>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for UringCurrentThreadReader {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // Skip file handle (just a system resource)
+        // Only count the path's deep size
+        self.handle.path.as_ref().deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl UringCurrentThreadReader {
+    /// Open a file with thread-local io_uring
+    ///
+    /// This reuses the file handle caching infrastructure from UringReader
+    #[instrument(level = "debug")]
+    pub(crate) async fn open(
+        path: &Path,
+        block_size: usize,
+        known_size: Option<usize>,
+        io_tracker: Arc<IOTracker>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn Reader>> {
+        // Determine block size with environment variable override
+        let block_size = URING_BLOCK_SIZE.unwrap_or(block_size.max(DEFAULT_URING_BLOCK_SIZE));
+
+        let cache_key = CacheKey::new(path, block_size);
+
+        // Try to get from cache first
+        if let Some(data) = HANDLE_CACHE.get(&cache_key).await {
+            // Use known_size if provided, otherwise use cached size
+            let size = known_size.unwrap_or(data.size);
+            return Ok(Box::new(Self {
+                handle: data.handle,
+                block_size,
+                size,
+                io_tracker,
+            }) as Box<dyn Reader>);
+        }
+
+        // Cache miss - open file and get size
+        let path_clone = path.clone();
+        let local_path = to_local_path(path);
+
+        let data = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let file = File::open(&local_path).map_err(|e| match e.kind() {
+                ErrorKind::NotFound => Error::not_found(path_clone.to_string()),
+                _ => e.into(),
+            })?;
+
+            // Get size from known_size or file metadata
+            let size = match known_size {
+                Some(s) => s,
+                None => file.metadata()?.len() as usize,
+            };
+
+            Ok::<_, Error>(CachedReaderData {
+                handle: Arc::new(UringFileHandle::new(file, path_clone)),
+                size,
+            })
+        })
+        .await??;
+
+        // Insert into cache
+        HANDLE_CACHE.insert(cache_key, data.clone()).await;
+
+        // Return new reader instance
+        Ok(Box::new(Self {
+            handle: data.handle.clone(),
+            block_size,
+            size: data.size,
+            io_tracker,
+        }) as Box<dyn Reader>)
+    }
+
+    /// Submit a read request and return a future
+    fn submit_read(
+        &self,
+        offset: u64,
+        length: usize,
+    ) -> Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = object_store::Result<Bytes>> + Send>> {
+        let mut buffer = BytesMut::with_capacity(length);
+        unsafe {
+            buffer.set_len(length);
+        }
+
+        let request = Arc::new(IoRequest {
+            fd: self.handle.fd,
+            offset,
+            length,
+            thread_id: std::thread::current().id(),
+            state: Mutex::new(RequestState {
+                completed: false,
+                waker: None,
+                err: None,
+                buffer,
+                bytes_read: 0,
+            }),
+        });
+
+        match push_request(request.clone()) {
+            Ok(()) => Box::pin(super::current_thread_future::UringCurrentThreadFuture::new(
+                request,
+            )),
+            Err(e) => Box::pin(async move {
+                Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                    store: "io_uring_ct",
+                    source: Box::new(e),
+                })
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Reader for UringCurrentThreadReader {
+    fn path(&self) -> &Path {
+        &self.handle.path
+    }
+
+    fn block_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.block_size
+    }
+
+    fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_URING_IO_PARALLELISM")
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_URING_IO_PARALLELISM)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the file size
+    fn size(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<usize>> {
+        Box::pin(async move { Ok(self.size) })
+    }
+
+    /// Read a range of bytes using thread-local io_uring
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
+    fn get_range(&self, range: Range<usize>) -> BoxFuture<'static, object_store::Result<Bytes>> {
+        let io_tracker = self.io_tracker.clone();
+        let path = self.handle.path.clone();
+        let num_bytes = range.len() as u64;
+        let range_u64 = (range.start as u64)..(range.end as u64);
+
+        let metrics = self.io_tracker.begin_io("get");
+        self.submit_read(range.start as u64, range.len())
+            .map(move |result| {
+                metrics.record(&result, num_bytes);
+                if result.is_ok() {
+                    io_tracker.record_read("get_range", path, num_bytes, Some(range_u64));
+                }
+                result
+            })
+            .boxed()
+    }
+
+    /// Read the entire file using thread-local io_uring
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
+    fn get_all(&self) -> BoxFuture<'static, object_store::Result<Bytes>> {
+        let size = self.size;
+        let io_tracker = self.io_tracker.clone();
+        let path = self.handle.path.clone();
+
+        let metrics = self.io_tracker.begin_io("get");
+        self.submit_read(0, size)
+            .map(move |result| {
+                let num_bytes = result.as_ref().map_or(0, |bytes| bytes.len() as u64);
+                metrics.record(&result, num_bytes);
+                if result.is_ok() {
+                    io_tracker.record_read("get_all", path, num_bytes, None);
+                }
+                result
+            })
+            .boxed()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/uring/current_thread_future.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/current_thread_future.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..dbcf2242673
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/current_thread_future.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Future implementation for thread-local io_uring operations.
+//!
+//! This future actively processes completions during polling instead of
+//! relying on background tasks.
+
+use super::current_thread::{process_thread_local_completions, submit_and_wait_thread_local};
+use super::requests::IoRequest;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+/// Future that awaits completion of a thread-local io_uring read operation
+pub struct UringCurrentThreadFuture {
+    request: Arc<IoRequest>,
+}
+
+impl UringCurrentThreadFuture {
+    pub(super) fn new(request: Arc<IoRequest>) -> Self {
+        Self { request }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Future for UringCurrentThreadFuture {
+    type Output = object_store::Result<Bytes>;
+
+    fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output> {
+        // Check thread safety
+        if self.request.thread_id != std::thread::current().id() {
+            panic!("Request thread ID does not match current thread ID");
+        }
+
+        // First, check if we've been completed by some other future polling for completions.
+        let mut state = self.request.state.lock().unwrap();
+
+        if state.completed {
+            // Take result and return Ready
+            match state.err.take() {
+                Some(err) => {
+                    return Poll::Ready(Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                        store: "io_uring_ct",
+                        source: Box::new(err),
+                    }));
+                }
+                None => {
+                    let br = state.bytes_read;
+                    state.buffer.truncate(br);
+                    let bytes = std::mem::take(&mut state.buffer).freeze();
+                    return Poll::Ready(Ok(bytes));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        drop(state);
+
+        // If not, then we should do any available work and then process completions.
+        if let Err(e) = submit_and_wait_thread_local() {
+            log::debug!("Submit and wait error: {:?}", e);
+        }
+
+        if let Err(e) = process_thread_local_completions() {
+            log::warn!("Error processing completions: {:?}", e);
+        }
+
+        // Check if our request completed
+        let mut state = self.request.state.lock().unwrap();
+
+        if state.completed {
+            // Take result and return Ready
+            match state.err.take() {
+                Some(err) => {
+                    return Poll::Ready(Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                        store: "io_uring_ct",
+                        source: Box::new(err),
+                    }));
+                }
+                None => {
+                    let br = state.bytes_read;
+                    state.buffer.truncate(br);
+                    let bytes = std::mem::take(&mut state.buffer).freeze();
+                    return Poll::Ready(Ok(bytes));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Not done yet - immediately wake and return Pending (don't store waker)
+        // which will force the future to be polled again.  This is intentionally
+        // a busy loop.  io_uring is intended for fast disks where read latency is
+        // so small that the cost of a true context switch (parking and unparking)
+        // would be too high.
+        //
+        // We are effectively doing a "yield" here while we wait for
+        // the io_uring thread to complete the request.
+        drop(state);
+        cx.waker().wake_by_ref();
+        Poll::Pending
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/uring/future.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/future.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..64b38993683
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/future.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Future implementation for io_uring read operations.
+
+use super::requests::IoRequest;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+/// Future that awaits completion of an io_uring read operation.
+///
+/// This future is woken by the io_uring thread when the operation completes.
+pub(super) struct UringReadFuture {
+    pub(super) request: Arc<IoRequest>,
+}
+
+impl Future for UringReadFuture {
+    type Output = object_store::Result<Bytes>;
+
+    fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output> {
+        let mut state = self.request.state.lock().unwrap();
+
+        if state.completed {
+            // Operation completed - take the result
+            match state.err.take() {
+                Some(err) => Poll::Ready(Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                    store: "io_uring",
+                    source: Box::new(err),
+                })),
+                None => {
+                    let br = state.bytes_read;
+                    state.buffer.truncate(br);
+                    let bytes = std::mem::take(&mut state.buffer).freeze();
+                    Poll::Ready(Ok(bytes))
+                }
+            }
+        } else {
+            // Operation not yet complete - store waker and return Pending
+            state.waker = Some(cx.waker().clone());
+            Poll::Pending
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/uring/reader.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/reader.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..88b784165f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/reader.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,320 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! UringReader implementation.
+
+use super::future::UringReadFuture;
+use super::requests::IoRequest;
+use super::thread::{QueuedRequest, THREAD_SELECTOR, URING_THREADS};
+use super::{DEFAULT_URING_BLOCK_SIZE, DEFAULT_URING_IO_PARALLELISM, URING_BLOCK_SIZE};
+use crate::local::to_local_path;
+use crate::traits::Reader;
+use crate::uring::requests::RequestState;
+use crate::utils::tracking_store::IOTracker;
+use bytes::{Bytes, BytesMut};
+use futures::FutureExt;
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use std::fs::File;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::io::{self, ErrorKind};
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::os::unix::io::{AsRawFd, RawFd};
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::atomic::Ordering;
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock, Mutex};
+use std::time::Duration;
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+/// Cache key for UringReader instances.
+/// We cache by (path, block_size) because block_size affects reader behavior.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Hash, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub(super) struct CacheKey {
+    path: String,
+    block_size: usize,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey {
+    pub(super) fn new(path: &Path, block_size: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            path: path.to_string(),
+            block_size,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Data stored in the cache for each opened file.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub(super) struct CachedReaderData {
+    pub(super) handle: Arc<UringFileHandle>,
+    pub(super) size: usize,
+}
+
+/// Global cache of open file handles.
+/// Entries expire after 60 seconds to ensure files are eventually closed.
+pub(super) static HANDLE_CACHE: LazyLock<moka::future::Cache<CacheKey, CachedReaderData>> =
+    LazyLock::new(|| {
+        moka::future::Cache::builder()
+            .time_to_live(Duration::from_secs(60))
+            .max_capacity(10_000)
+            .build()
+    });
+
+/// File handle for io_uring operations.
+///
+/// Keeps the file alive and provides the raw file descriptor.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct UringFileHandle {
+    /// The file (kept alive via Arc)
+    #[allow(unused)]
+    file: Arc<File>,
+
+    /// Raw file descriptor for io_uring
+    pub(super) fd: RawFd,
+
+    /// Object store path
+    pub(super) path: Path,
+}
+
+impl UringFileHandle {
+    pub(super) fn new(file: File, path: Path) -> Self {
+        let fd = file.as_raw_fd();
+        Self {
+            file: Arc::new(file),
+            fd,
+            path,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// io_uring-based reader for local files.
+///
+/// This reader uses a dedicated process-wide thread running an io_uring event loop
+/// for high-performance asynchronous I/O.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct UringReader {
+    /// File handle
+    handle: Arc<UringFileHandle>,
+
+    /// Block size for I/O operations
+    block_size: usize,
+
+    /// File size (determined at open time)
+    size: usize,
+
+    /// I/O tracker for monitoring operations
+    io_tracker: Arc<IOTracker>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for UringReader {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // Skip file handle (just a system resource)
+        // Only count the path's deep size
+        self.handle.path.as_ref().deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl UringReader {
+    /// Open a file with io_uring.
+    ///
+    /// This is the internal constructor used by ObjectStore.
+    #[instrument(level = "debug")]
+    pub(crate) async fn open(
+        path: &Path,
+        block_size: usize,
+        known_size: Option<usize>,
+        io_tracker: Arc<IOTracker>,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn Reader>> {
+        // Determine block size with environment variable override
+        let block_size = URING_BLOCK_SIZE.unwrap_or(block_size.max(DEFAULT_URING_BLOCK_SIZE));
+
+        let cache_key = CacheKey::new(path, block_size);
+
+        // Try to get from cache first
+        if let Some(data) = HANDLE_CACHE.get(&cache_key).await {
+            // Use known_size if provided, otherwise use cached size
+            let size = known_size.unwrap_or(data.size);
+            return Ok(Box::new(Self {
+                handle: data.handle,
+                block_size,
+                size,
+                io_tracker,
+            }) as Box<dyn Reader>);
+        }
+
+        // Cache miss - open file and get size
+        let path_clone = path.clone();
+        let local_path = to_local_path(path);
+
+        let data = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let file = File::open(&local_path).map_err(|e| match e.kind() {
+                ErrorKind::NotFound => Error::not_found(path_clone.to_string()),
+                _ => e.into(),
+            })?;
+
+            // Get size from known_size or file metadata
+            let size = match known_size {
+                Some(s) => s,
+                None => file.metadata()?.len() as usize,
+            };
+
+            Ok::<_, Error>(CachedReaderData {
+                handle: Arc::new(UringFileHandle::new(file, path_clone)),
+                size,
+            })
+        })
+        .await??;
+
+        // Insert into cache
+        HANDLE_CACHE.insert(cache_key, data.clone()).await;
+
+        // Return new reader instance
+        Ok(Box::new(Self {
+            handle: data.handle.clone(),
+            block_size,
+            size: data.size,
+            io_tracker,
+        }) as Box<dyn Reader>)
+    }
+
+    /// Submit a read request to the io_uring thread via channel and return a future.
+    fn submit_read(
+        &self,
+        offset: u64,
+        length: usize,
+    ) -> Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = object_store::Result<Bytes>> + Send>> {
+        let mut buffer = BytesMut::with_capacity(length);
+        unsafe {
+            buffer.set_len(length);
+        }
+
+        // Create IoRequest with all data
+        let request = Arc::new(IoRequest {
+            fd: self.handle.fd,
+            offset,
+            length,
+            thread_id: std::thread::current().id(),
+            state: Mutex::new(RequestState {
+                completed: false,
+                waker: None,
+                err: None,
+                buffer,
+                bytes_read: 0,
+            }),
+        });
+
+        if URING_THREADS.threads.is_empty() {
+            let initialization_errors = if URING_THREADS.initialization_errors.is_empty() {
+                "LANCE_URING_THREAD_COUNT is 0".to_owned()
+            } else {
+                URING_THREADS.initialization_errors.join("; ")
+            };
+            return Box::pin(async move {
+                Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                    store: "UringReader",
+                    source: Box::new(io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "no io_uring worker threads are available: {initialization_errors}"
+                    ))),
+                })
+            });
+        }
+
+        // Select thread in round-robin fashion
+        let thread_idx = (THREAD_SELECTOR.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed) as usize)
+            % URING_THREADS.threads.len();
+        let thread = &URING_THREADS.threads[thread_idx];
+
+        if !thread.is_alive.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            return Box::pin(async move {
+                Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                    store: "UringReader",
+                    source: Box::new(io::Error::new(
+                        io::ErrorKind::BrokenPipe,
+                        "io_uring thread died",
+                    )),
+                })
+            });
+        }
+
+        // Send to selected thread via channel
+        match thread
+            .request_tx
+            .send(QueuedRequest::new(Arc::clone(&request)))
+        {
+            Ok(()) => Box::pin(UringReadFuture { request }),
+            Err(_) => Box::pin(async move {
+                Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                    store: "UringReader",
+                    source: Box::new(io::Error::new(
+                        io::ErrorKind::BrokenPipe,
+                        "io_uring thread died",
+                    )),
+                })
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Reader for UringReader {
+    fn path(&self) -> &Path {
+        &self.handle.path
+    }
+
+    fn block_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.block_size
+    }
+
+    fn io_parallelism(&self) -> usize {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_URING_IO_PARALLELISM")
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_URING_IO_PARALLELISM)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the file size.
+    fn size(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, object_store::Result<usize>> {
+        Box::pin(async move { Ok(self.size) })
+    }
+
+    /// Read a range of bytes using io_uring.
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
+    fn get_range(&self, range: Range<usize>) -> BoxFuture<'static, object_store::Result<Bytes>> {
+        let io_tracker = self.io_tracker.clone();
+        let path = self.handle.path.clone();
+        let num_bytes = range.len() as u64;
+        let range_u64 = (range.start as u64)..(range.end as u64);
+
+        let metrics = self.io_tracker.begin_io("get");
+        self.submit_read(range.start as u64, range.len())
+            .map(move |result| {
+                metrics.record(&result, num_bytes);
+                if result.is_ok() {
+                    io_tracker.record_read("get_range", path, num_bytes, Some(range_u64));
+                }
+                result
+            })
+            .boxed()
+    }
+
+    /// Read the entire file using io_uring.
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
+    fn get_all(&self) -> BoxFuture<'static, object_store::Result<Bytes>> {
+        let size = self.size;
+        let io_tracker = self.io_tracker.clone();
+        let path = self.handle.path.clone();
+
+        let metrics = self.io_tracker.begin_io("get");
+        self.submit_read(0, size)
+            .map(move |result| {
+                let num_bytes = result.as_ref().map_or(0, |bytes| bytes.len() as u64);
+                metrics.record(&result, num_bytes);
+                if result.is_ok() {
+                    io_tracker.record_read("get_all", path, num_bytes, None);
+                }
+                result
+            })
+            .boxed()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/uring/requests.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/requests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d47c18d631b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/requests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Protocol types for communication between UringReader and the io_uring thread.
+
+use bytes::BytesMut;
+use std::io;
+use std::os::unix::io::RawFd;
+use std::sync::Mutex;
+use std::task::Waker;
+use std::thread::ThreadId;
+
+pub(super) struct RequestState {
+    pub completed: bool,
+    pub waker: Option<Waker>,
+    pub err: Option<io::Error>,
+    pub buffer: BytesMut,
+    /// Accumulated bytes read across retries (for handling short reads).
+    pub bytes_read: usize,
+}
+
+/// I/O request object that contains all state for a single read operation.
+/// This is shared between the submitter, uring thread, and future via Arc.
+pub(super) struct IoRequest {
+    /// File descriptor to read from.
+    pub fd: RawFd,
+
+    /// Byte offset to start reading from.
+    pub offset: u64,
+
+    /// Number of bytes to read.
+    pub length: usize,
+
+    pub thread_id: ThreadId,
+
+    /// Completion flag - set to true when operation completes.
+    pub state: Mutex<RequestState>,
+}
+
+impl IoRequest {
+    /// Mark this request as failed with the given error.
+    ///
+    /// Sets the error, marks completed, and wakes any waiting future.
+    /// Used when a request cannot be submitted (e.g. SQ full).
+    pub(super) fn fail(&self, err: io::Error) {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
+        if state.completed {
+            return;
+        }
+        state.err = Some(err);
+        state.completed = true;
+        if let Some(waker) = state.waker.take() {
+            drop(state);
+            waker.wake();
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/uring/tests.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e1d83bba214
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,416 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Tests for io_uring reader implementation.
+
+use crate::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use std::io::Write;
+use std::time::Duration;
+use tempfile::NamedTempFile;
+
+macro_rules! skip_if_no_uring_workers {
+    () => {
+        if super::thread::URING_THREADS.threads.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+/// Helper to create a temporary file with test data
+fn create_test_file(size: usize) -> Result<(NamedTempFile, Vec<u8>)> {
+    let mut file = NamedTempFile::new()?;
+    let data: Vec<u8> = (0..size).map(|i| (i % 256) as u8).collect();
+    file.write_all(&data)?;
+    file.flush()?;
+    Ok((file, data))
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_small_file() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let (file, expected_data) = create_test_file(1024)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    // Read entire file
+    let data = reader.get_all().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), expected_data.as_slice());
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_range() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let (file, expected_data) = create_test_file(4096)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    // Read a range in the middle
+    let range = 1000..2000;
+    let data = reader.get_range(range.clone()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), &expected_data[range]);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_multiple_ranges() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let (file, expected_data) = create_test_file(8192)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    // Read multiple ranges
+    let ranges = vec![0..100, 500..600, 2000..3000];
+    for range in ranges {
+        let data = reader.get_range(range.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), &expected_data[range]);
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_file_size() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let size = 5000;
+    let (file, _) = create_test_file(size)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    assert_eq!(reader.size().await.unwrap(), size);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_concurrent_reads() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let (file, expected_data) = create_test_file(16384)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+
+    // Perform multiple concurrent reads
+    let mut tasks = vec![];
+    for i in 0..10 {
+        let reader_clone = store.open(&path).await?;
+        let expected = expected_data.clone();
+        tasks.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+            let range = (i * 1000)..((i + 1) * 1000);
+            let data = reader_clone.get_range(range.clone()).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), &expected[range]);
+        }));
+    }
+
+    // Wait for all tasks
+    for task in tasks {
+        task.await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_large_file_read() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    // Test with a larger file (1MB)
+    let size = 1024 * 1024;
+    let (file, expected_data) = create_test_file(size)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    // Read entire file
+    let data = reader.get_all().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(data.len(), size);
+    assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), expected_data.as_slice());
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_edge_cases() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let (file, expected_data) = create_test_file(4096)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    // Read from start
+    let data = reader.get_range(0..100).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), &expected_data[0..100]);
+
+    // Read to end
+    let data = reader.get_range(4000..4096).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), &expected_data[4000..4096]);
+
+    // Read single byte
+    let data = reader.get_range(2000..2001).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), &expected_data[2000..2001]);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_file_not_found() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let uri = "file+uring:///nonexistent/file.dat";
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(uri).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Should fail to open non-existent file
+    let result = store.open(&path).await;
+    assert!(result.is_err());
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_block_size_and_parallelism() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let (file, _) = create_test_file(1024)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    // Check default values (or configured values)
+    assert!(reader.block_size() > 0);
+    assert!(reader.io_parallelism() > 0);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_path() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let (file, _) = create_test_file(1024)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    // Verify path is preserved
+    assert_eq!(reader.path(), &path);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Test that reading past EOF returns an error.
+///
+/// This exercises the case where `known_size` passed to `open_with_size` is larger
+/// than the actual file, causing io_uring to hit EOF before the full read completes.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_short_read_get_all() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let actual_size: usize = 8192;
+    let (file, _expected_data) = create_test_file(actual_size)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+
+    // Open with inflated known_size — the reader will think the file is 2x its real size
+    let inflated_size = actual_size * 2;
+    let reader = store.open_with_size(&path, inflated_size).await?;
+
+    // get_all() will submit a read for inflated_size bytes from an actual_size file.
+    // The kernel reads actual_size bytes then returns 0 (EOF) — this should be an error.
+    let result = reader.get_all().await;
+    assert!(result.is_err(), "reading past EOF should return an error");
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Test that a range read extending past EOF returns an error.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_short_read_get_range_past_eof() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    let actual_size: usize = 8192;
+    let (file, _expected_data) = create_test_file(actual_size)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file+uring://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    // Request a range that starts inside the file but extends past EOF.
+    // File is 8192 bytes; reading 4096..16384 hits EOF — this should be an error.
+    let range_start = 4096;
+    let range_end = actual_size * 2; // 16384, well past EOF
+    let result = reader.get_range(range_start..range_end).await;
+    assert!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        "range extending past EOF should return an error"
+    );
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Test that when push_to_sq fails (SQ full), the request's future returns
+/// an error instead of hanging forever.
+///
+/// This directly tests the thread-path scenario: create an IoUring with
+/// queue_depth=2, fill the SQ, then try to push a 3rd request. The 3rd
+/// request's future should return an error within the timeout.
+///
+/// BUG: currently the failed push silently drops the request, so the
+/// future hangs and the timeout fires.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_retry_sq_full_thread() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    use super::future::UringReadFuture;
+    use super::requests::{IoRequest, RequestState};
+    use super::thread::push_to_sq;
+    use bytes::BytesMut;
+    use io_uring::IoUring;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::os::unix::io::AsRawFd;
+    use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+
+    let (file, _) = create_test_file(4096)?;
+    let fd = file.as_file().as_raw_fd();
+
+    // Create a tiny ring with queue_depth=2
+    let mut ring = IoUring::new(2).unwrap();
+    let mut pending: HashMap<u64, Arc<IoRequest>> = HashMap::new();
+
+    // Helper to create a request
+    let make_request = || {
+        Arc::new(IoRequest {
+            fd,
+            offset: 0,
+            length: 4096,
+            thread_id: std::thread::current().id(),
+            state: Mutex::new(RequestState {
+                completed: false,
+                waker: None,
+                err: None,
+                buffer: BytesMut::zeroed(4096),
+                bytes_read: 0,
+            }),
+        })
+    };
+
+    // Fill the SQ (capacity=2)
+    let _r1 = make_request();
+    let _r2 = make_request();
+    push_to_sq(&mut ring, &mut pending, _r1).unwrap();
+    push_to_sq(&mut ring, &mut pending, _r2).unwrap();
+
+    // 3rd push should fail — SQ is full
+    let r3 = make_request();
+    let push_result = push_to_sq(&mut ring, &mut pending, r3.clone());
+    assert!(push_result.is_err(), "3rd push should fail (SQ full)");
+
+    // r3's future should return an error, not hang forever.
+    // BUG: currently nobody sets completed=true or err on r3, so the future hangs.
+    let future = UringReadFuture { request: r3 };
+    let result = tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(2), future).await;
+    assert!(
+        result.is_ok(),
+        "future timed out — request was dropped without error on SQ-full push failure"
+    );
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Test that when push_to_sq fails (SQ full) on the current-thread path,
+/// the request's future returns an error instead of hanging forever.
+///
+/// Uses UringCurrentThreadFuture (which will be a no-op poller since the
+/// thread-local URING has no knowledge of this request) after push_to_sq
+/// has already completed the request with an error.
+#[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+async fn test_retry_sq_full_current_thread() -> Result<()> {
+    skip_if_no_uring_workers!();
+    use super::current_thread_future::UringCurrentThreadFuture;
+    use super::requests::{IoRequest, RequestState};
+    use super::thread::push_to_sq;
+    use bytes::BytesMut;
+    use io_uring::IoUring;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::os::unix::io::AsRawFd;
+    use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+
+    let (file, _) = create_test_file(4096)?;
+    let fd = file.as_file().as_raw_fd();
+
+    // Create a tiny ring with queue_depth=2
+    let mut ring = IoUring::new(2).unwrap();
+    let mut pending: HashMap<u64, Arc<IoRequest>> = HashMap::new();
+
+    let make_request = || {
+        Arc::new(IoRequest {
+            fd,
+            offset: 0,
+            length: 4096,
+            thread_id: std::thread::current().id(),
+            state: Mutex::new(RequestState {
+                completed: false,
+                waker: None,
+                err: None,
+                buffer: BytesMut::zeroed(4096),
+                bytes_read: 0,
+            }),
+        })
+    };
+
+    // Fill the SQ (capacity=2)
+    push_to_sq(&mut ring, &mut pending, make_request()).unwrap();
+    push_to_sq(&mut ring, &mut pending, make_request()).unwrap();
+
+    // 3rd push should fail — SQ is full
+    let r3 = make_request();
+    let push_result = push_to_sq(&mut ring, &mut pending, r3.clone());
+    assert!(push_result.is_err(), "3rd push should fail (SQ full)");
+
+    // r3's future should return an error, not hang forever.
+    let future = UringCurrentThreadFuture::new(r3);
+    let result = tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(2), future).await;
+    assert!(
+        result.is_ok(),
+        "future timed out — request was dropped without error on SQ-full push failure"
+    );
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_uring_not_enabled_with_file_scheme() -> Result<()> {
+    // Verify that files opened with file:// don't use uring
+    let (file, expected_data) = create_test_file(1024)?;
+    let file_path = file.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    // Use regular file:// scheme, should NOT use uring
+    let uri = format!("file://{}", file_path);
+
+    let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let reader = store.open(&path).await?;
+
+    // Should still be able to read, just won't use uring
+    let data = reader.get_all().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), expected_data.as_slice());
+
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/uring/thread.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/thread.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..290310477ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/uring/thread.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,603 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Dedicated thread for io_uring operations.
+//!
+//! This module provides a background thread that owns an io_uring instance
+//! and processes read requests from a channel. Readers send requests via
+//! an MPSC channel, and the thread handles submission and completion processing.
+
+use super::DEFAULT_URING_QUEUE_DEPTH;
+use super::requests::IoRequest;
+use io_uring::{IoUring, opcode, types};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::io;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::mpsc::{Receiver, RecvTimeoutError, SyncSender, sync_channel};
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+/// Handle to the io_uring background thread.
+///
+/// This provides a channel sender for submitting read requests to the thread.
+pub(super) struct UringThreadHandle {
+    pub request_tx: SyncSender<QueuedRequest>,
+    pub is_alive: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+}
+
+/// Owns the obligation to fail a request until a worker accepts it.
+///
+/// Dropping the receiver also drops every queued item. Keeping the failure
+/// obligation with the queued item guarantees that a request accepted during
+/// worker shutdown cannot be abandoned without waking its future.
+pub(super) struct QueuedRequest {
+    request: Option<Arc<IoRequest>>,
+}
+
+impl QueuedRequest {
+    pub(super) fn new(request: Arc<IoRequest>) -> Self {
+        SUBMITTED_COUNTER.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        Self {
+            request: Some(request),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn into_request(mut self) -> Arc<IoRequest> {
+        SUBMITTED_COUNTER.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.request.take().unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn fail(mut self, error: io::Error) {
+        SUBMITTED_COUNTER.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.request.take().unwrap().fail(error);
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for QueuedRequest {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        if let Some(request) = self.request.take() {
+            SUBMITTED_COUNTER.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            request.fail(io::Error::new(
+                io::ErrorKind::BrokenPipe,
+                "io_uring worker stopped before accepting request",
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) struct UringThreadPool {
+    pub threads: Vec<UringThreadHandle>,
+    pub initialization_errors: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+/// Lazy-initialized io_uring thread pool.
+///
+/// Multiple threads are spawned on first access and run until process exit.
+pub(super) static URING_THREADS: LazyLock<UringThreadPool> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    let queue_depth = get_queue_depth();
+    let thread_count = get_thread_count();
+
+    let mut threads = Vec::with_capacity(thread_count);
+    let mut initialization_errors = Vec::new();
+
+    for i in 0..thread_count {
+        match start_uring_thread(queue_depth, i) {
+            Ok(thread) => threads.push(thread),
+            Err(error) => {
+                let message = format!("thread {i}: {error}");
+                log::error!("Failed to start io_uring {message}");
+                initialization_errors.push(message);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    log::info!(
+        "io_uring thread pool spawned ({} threads, queue_depth={})",
+        threads.len(),
+        queue_depth
+    );
+
+    UringThreadPool {
+        threads,
+        initialization_errors,
+    }
+});
+
+fn start_uring_thread(queue_depth: usize, thread_id: usize) -> io::Result<UringThreadHandle> {
+    // Initialize the ring before publishing its sender so a request can never be
+    // accepted by a worker that subsequently fails during startup.
+    let ring = IoUring::builder().build(queue_depth as u32)?;
+    let (request_tx, request_rx) = sync_channel(queue_depth);
+    let is_alive = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(true));
+    let worker_is_alive = Arc::clone(&is_alive);
+
+    std::thread::Builder::new()
+        .name(format!("lance-uring-{}", thread_id))
+        .spawn(move || run_uring_thread(ring, request_rx, worker_is_alive, thread_id))?;
+
+    Ok(UringThreadHandle {
+        request_tx,
+        is_alive,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Atomic counter for round-robin thread selection.
+pub(super) static THREAD_SELECTOR: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(0);
+
+/// Counter for generating unique user_data values.
+///
+/// Each io_uring operation needs a unique user_data ID to match completions
+/// with their corresponding requests.
+static USER_DATA_COUNTER: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(1);
+
+/// Counter for requests that have been submitted to the thread but not yet received.
+///
+/// This tracks requests sitting in the channel queue waiting to be received by the thread.
+pub(super) static SUBMITTED_COUNTER: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(0);
+
+/// Default batch size for submission - how many requests to batch before calling submit().
+const DEFAULT_SUBMIT_BATCH_SIZE: usize = 128;
+
+/// Default number of io_uring threads.
+const DEFAULT_URING_THREAD_COUNT: usize = 2;
+
+/// Get the configured queue depth from environment variable.
+fn get_queue_depth() -> usize {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_URING_QUEUE_DEPTH")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_URING_QUEUE_DEPTH)
+}
+
+/// Get the configured poll timeout from environment variable.
+fn get_poll_timeout() -> Duration {
+    let timeout_ms = std::env::var("LANCE_URING_POLL_TIMEOUT_MS")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(10);
+
+    Duration::from_millis(timeout_ms)
+}
+
+/// Get the configured submit batch size from environment variable.
+fn get_submit_batch_size() -> usize {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_URING_SUBMIT_BATCH_SIZE")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_SUBMIT_BATCH_SIZE)
+}
+
+/// Get the configured number of uring threads from environment variable.
+fn get_thread_count() -> usize {
+    std::env::var("LANCE_URING_THREAD_COUNT")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_URING_THREAD_COUNT)
+}
+
+/// Main loop for the io_uring thread.
+///
+/// This thread:
+/// 1. Receives requests from the channel
+/// 2. Submits them to io_uring
+/// 3. Processes completions
+/// 4. Wakes futures via their wakers
+fn run_uring_thread(
+    mut ring: IoUring,
+    request_rx: Receiver<QueuedRequest>,
+    is_alive: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    thread_id: usize,
+) {
+    let queue_depth = ring.submission().capacity();
+    let mut pending: HashMap<u64, Arc<IoRequest>> = HashMap::with_capacity(queue_depth);
+    let poll_timeout = get_poll_timeout();
+    let submit_batch_size = get_submit_batch_size();
+    let mut last_log = Instant::now();
+    let log_interval = Duration::from_millis(100);
+    let mut completed_iops = 0usize;
+    let mut completed_sectors = 0usize;
+    let mut min_in_flight = usize::MAX;
+
+    loop {
+        // Track minimum in-flight count
+        let in_flight = pending.len();
+        min_in_flight = min_in_flight.min(in_flight);
+
+        // Log in-flight requests every 100ms
+        let now = Instant::now();
+        if now.duration_since(last_log) >= log_interval {
+            let submitted = SUBMITTED_COUNTER.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+            log::info!(
+                "io_uring[{}]: {} submitted, {} in flight (min {}), {} iops completed, {} sectors completed",
+                thread_id,
+                submitted,
+                in_flight,
+                min_in_flight,
+                completed_iops,
+                completed_sectors
+            );
+            last_log = now;
+            completed_iops = 0; // Reset counter after logging
+            completed_sectors = 0; // Reset counter after logging
+            min_in_flight = usize::MAX; // Reset min tracker
+        }
+
+        // Process all available completions first
+        let mut needs_submit = false;
+        let completions = process_completions(&mut ring, &mut pending);
+        match completions {
+            Ok(result) => {
+                completed_iops += result.iops;
+                completed_sectors += result.sectors;
+
+                // Resubmit any short-read retries
+                for request in result.retries {
+                    if let Err(e) = push_to_sq(&mut ring, &mut pending, request) {
+                        log::error!("Failed to resubmit short read: {}", e);
+                    } else {
+                        needs_submit = true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                log::error!("Error processing io_uring completions: {}", e);
+            }
+        }
+
+        min_in_flight = min_in_flight.min(pending.len());
+
+        // Batch submit requests - keep pulling from channel and pushing to SQ
+        // until we hit batch size or channel is empty
+        let mut batch_count = 0;
+        loop {
+            // Try to receive new request
+            // Use recv_timeout only when pending is empty, otherwise use try_recv
+            let recv_result = if pending.is_empty() && batch_count == 0 {
+                // No operations in flight and no batch started - we can afford to wait with timeout
+                request_rx.recv_timeout(poll_timeout).map_err(|e| match e {
+                    RecvTimeoutError::Timeout => std::sync::mpsc::TryRecvError::Empty,
+                    RecvTimeoutError::Disconnected => std::sync::mpsc::TryRecvError::Disconnected,
+                })
+            } else {
+                // Operations in flight or batch in progress - busy loop with try_recv
+                request_rx.try_recv()
+            };
+
+            match recv_result {
+                Ok(request) => {
+                    let request = request.into_request();
+
+                    // Push to submission queue (but don't submit yet)
+                    if let Err(e) = push_to_sq(&mut ring, &mut pending, request) {
+                        log::error!("Failed to push to io_uring SQ: {}", e);
+                    } else {
+                        batch_count += 1;
+                    }
+
+                    // Break if we've hit the batch size limit
+                    if batch_count >= submit_batch_size {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+                Err(std::sync::mpsc::TryRecvError::Empty) => {
+                    // No more requests in channel - break to submit the batch
+                    break;
+                }
+                Err(std::sync::mpsc::TryRecvError::Disconnected) => {
+                    // All senders dropped - submit batch and shutdown
+                    if batch_count > 0 {
+                        let queued = ring.submission().len();
+                        if let Err(error) = submit_all(queued, || ring.submit()) {
+                            shutdown_with_error(
+                                ring,
+                                pending,
+                                &request_rx,
+                                &is_alive,
+                                thread_id,
+                                error,
+                            );
+                            return;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    log::info!(
+                        "io_uring thread {} shutting down (channel disconnected)",
+                        thread_id
+                    );
+                    return;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Submit if we have any requests (from channel or retries)
+        if batch_count > 0 || needs_submit {
+            let queued = ring.submission().len();
+            if let Err(error) = submit_all(queued, || ring.submit()) {
+                shutdown_with_error(ring, pending, &request_rx, &is_alive, thread_id, error);
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Submit every entry currently published to the submission queue.
+///
+/// `io_uring_enter` may be interrupted or accept only part of a batch. The
+/// remaining entries stay in the userspace submission queue and must be retried;
+/// otherwise their requests remain pending without a possible completion.
+fn submit_all(mut queued: usize, mut submit: impl FnMut() -> io::Result<usize>) -> io::Result<()> {
+    while queued > 0 {
+        match submit() {
+            Ok(0) => {
+                return Err(io::Error::new(
+                    io::ErrorKind::WriteZero,
+                    format!("io_uring submitted 0 of {queued} queued requests"),
+                ));
+            }
+            Ok(submitted) if submitted <= queued => queued -= submitted,
+            Ok(submitted) => {
+                return Err(io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "io_uring reported {submitted} submissions for {queued} queued requests"
+                )));
+            }
+            Err(error) if error.kind() == io::ErrorKind::Interrupted => continue,
+            Err(error) => return Err(error),
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn shutdown_with_error(
+    ring: IoUring,
+    mut pending: HashMap<u64, Arc<IoRequest>>,
+    request_rx: &Receiver<QueuedRequest>,
+    is_alive: &AtomicBool,
+    thread_id: usize,
+    error: io::Error,
+) {
+    let error_kind = error.kind();
+    let error_message = format!("io_uring worker {thread_id} stopped: {error}");
+    log::error!("{}", error_message);
+
+    // Closing the ring cancels in-flight operations before their request buffers
+    // can be released by the futures receiving the errors below.
+    drop(ring);
+    is_alive.store(false, Ordering::Release);
+
+    for request in pending.drain().map(|(_, request)| request) {
+        request.fail(io::Error::new(error_kind, error_message.clone()));
+    }
+    for request in request_rx.try_iter() {
+        request.fail(io::Error::new(error_kind, error_message.clone()));
+    }
+}
+
+/// Push a read request to the io_uring submission queue (without submitting).
+///
+/// This generates a unique user_data ID, prepares the read operation,
+/// and pushes it to the SQ. The caller is responsible for calling ring.submit().
+pub(super) fn push_to_sq(
+    ring: &mut IoUring,
+    pending: &mut HashMap<u64, Arc<IoRequest>>,
+    request: Arc<IoRequest>,
+) -> io::Result<()> {
+    // Generate unique user_data
+    let user_data = USER_DATA_COUNTER.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+    // Get buffer pointer, adjusting for any bytes already read (short read retry)
+    let (buffer_ptr, read_offset, read_length) = {
+        let state = request.state.lock().unwrap();
+        let br = state.bytes_read;
+        (
+            unsafe { state.buffer.as_ptr().add(br) as *mut u8 },
+            request.offset + br as u64,
+            (request.length - br) as u32,
+        )
+    };
+
+    // Prepare read operation
+    let read_op =
+        opcode::Read::new(types::Fd(request.fd), buffer_ptr, read_length).offset(read_offset);
+
+    // Get submission queue
+    let mut sq = ring.submission();
+
+    // Check if SQ has space
+    if sq.is_full() {
+        drop(sq);
+        request.fail(io::Error::new(
+            io::ErrorKind::WouldBlock,
+            "io_uring submission queue full",
+        ));
+        return Err(io::Error::new(
+            io::ErrorKind::WouldBlock,
+            "io_uring submission queue full",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // Push to SQ
+    unsafe {
+        if sq.push(&read_op.build().user_data(user_data)).is_err() {
+            drop(sq);
+            request.fail(io::Error::other("Failed to push to SQ"));
+            return Err(io::Error::other("Failed to push to SQ"));
+        }
+    }
+    drop(sq);
+
+    // Track request in pending map
+    pending.insert(user_data, request);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+struct CompletionResult {
+    iops: usize,
+    sectors: usize,
+    retries: Vec<Arc<IoRequest>>,
+}
+
+/// Process all available completions from the io_uring.
+///
+/// This iterates through the completion queue, matches completions to requests,
+/// updates their state, and wakes any waiting futures. Short reads are collected
+/// into `retries` for resubmission; EOF before a full read is an error.
+///
+/// Returns completion stats and a list of requests needing resubmission.
+fn process_completions(
+    ring: &mut IoUring,
+    pending: &mut HashMap<u64, Arc<IoRequest>>,
+) -> io::Result<CompletionResult> {
+    let mut iops = 0;
+    let mut sectors = 0;
+    let mut retries = Vec::new();
+
+    // Process all available completions
+    for cqe in ring.completion() {
+        let user_data = cqe.user_data();
+        let result = cqe.result();
+
+        // Look up request
+        if let Some(request) = pending.remove(&user_data) {
+            let mut state = request.state.lock().unwrap();
+
+            if result < 0 {
+                // Kernel error
+                state.err = Some(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(-result));
+                state.completed = true;
+            } else if result == 0 {
+                // EOF before full read completed
+                let br = state.bytes_read;
+                state.err = Some(io::Error::new(
+                    io::ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof,
+                    format!("unexpected EOF: read {} of {} bytes", br, request.length),
+                ));
+                state.buffer.truncate(br);
+                state.completed = true;
+            } else {
+                // Positive result: n bytes read
+                let n = result as usize;
+                state.bytes_read += n;
+                let br = state.bytes_read;
+
+                if br >= request.length {
+                    // Full read complete
+                    state.buffer.truncate(br);
+                    state.completed = true;
+
+                    if request.length > 0 {
+                        let first_sector = request.offset / 4096;
+                        let last_sector = (request.offset + request.length as u64 - 1) / 4096;
+                        let num_sectors = (last_sector - first_sector + 1) as usize;
+                        sectors += num_sectors;
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    // Short read — need retry; don't mark completed or wake
+                    drop(state);
+                    retries.push(request);
+                    continue;
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Wake the future if it's waiting
+            if let Some(waker) = state.waker.take() {
+                drop(state); // Release lock before waking
+                waker.wake();
+            }
+
+            iops += 1;
+        } else {
+            log::warn!("Received completion for unknown user_data: {}", user_data);
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(CompletionResult {
+        iops,
+        sectors,
+        retries,
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::{QueuedRequest, start_uring_thread, submit_all};
+    use crate::uring::requests::{IoRequest, RequestState};
+    use bytes::BytesMut;
+    use std::collections::VecDeque;
+    use std::io;
+    use std::sync::mpsc::sync_channel;
+    use std::sync::{Arc, Barrier, Mutex};
+    use std::thread;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_submit_all_retries_interrupted_and_partial_submissions() {
+        let mut results = VecDeque::from([
+            Err(io::Error::from(io::ErrorKind::Interrupted)),
+            Ok(1),
+            Ok(2),
+        ]);
+
+        submit_all(3, || results.pop_front().unwrap()).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(results.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_submit_all_rejects_zero_progress() {
+        let error = submit_all(1, || Ok(0)).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert_eq!(error.kind(), io::ErrorKind::WriteZero);
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("submitted 0 of 1"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_worker_is_not_published_when_ring_initialization_fails() {
+        let result = start_uring_thread(0, 0);
+
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_late_queued_request_is_failed_when_worker_receiver_drops() {
+        let request = Arc::new(IoRequest {
+            fd: -1,
+            offset: 0,
+            length: 1,
+            thread_id: thread::current().id(),
+            state: Mutex::new(RequestState {
+                completed: false,
+                waker: None,
+                err: None,
+                buffer: BytesMut::zeroed(1),
+                bytes_read: 0,
+            }),
+        });
+        let (request_tx, request_rx) = sync_channel(1);
+        let drained = Arc::new(Barrier::new(2));
+        let request_sent = Arc::new(Barrier::new(2));
+
+        let sender = {
+            let request = Arc::clone(&request);
+            let drained = Arc::clone(&drained);
+            let request_sent = Arc::clone(&request_sent);
+            thread::spawn(move || {
+                drained.wait();
+                assert!(request_tx.send(QueuedRequest::new(request)).is_ok());
+                request_sent.wait();
+            })
+        };
+
+        assert!(request_rx.try_recv().is_err());
+        drained.wait();
+        request_sent.wait();
+        drop(request_rx);
+        sender.join().unwrap();
+
+        let state = request.state.lock().unwrap();
+        assert!(state.completed);
+        assert_eq!(
+            state.err.as_ref().unwrap().kind(),
+            io::ErrorKind::BrokenPipe
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/utils.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/utils.rs
index 776231916fb..84c3918743a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/utils.rs
@@ -1,83 +1,161 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{cmp::min, num::NonZero, sync::atomic::AtomicU64};
+use std::{cmp::min, collections::VecDeque, num::NonZero, ops::Range, sync::atomic::AtomicU64};
 
-use arrow_array::{
-    types::{BinaryType, LargeBinaryType, LargeUtf8Type, Utf8Type},
-    ArrayRef,
-};
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian};
-use bytes::Bytes;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_arrow::*;
+use bytes::{Buf, Bytes};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use prost::Message;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 
-use crate::{
-    encodings::{binary::BinaryDecoder, plain::PlainDecoder, AsyncIndex, Decoder},
-    traits::ProtoStruct,
-};
-use crate::{traits::Reader, ReadBatchParams};
+use crate::traits::{ProtoStruct, Reader};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
 pub mod tracking_store;
 
-/// Read a binary array from a [Reader].
+/// Chunk size for splitting a large metadata read into concurrent range requests.
 ///
-pub async fn read_binary_array(
+/// A single object-store GET streams its body over one connection, so its
+/// throughput is capped by the TCP window over the round-trip time; on
+/// high-latency links that tops out in the tens of MB/s. Fetching the range as
+/// a window of concurrent chunk requests multiplies that per-connection limit.
+/// 16 MiB keeps per-request overhead negligible (a ~1 GiB manifest costs ~64
+/// GET requests) while a `Reader::io_parallelism` window of such chunks is
+/// enough to saturate the link.
+pub const METADATA_READ_CHUNK_SIZE: usize = 16 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Read `range` from `reader` as `chunk_size`-sized concurrent range requests,
+/// yielding the chunks in file order. Concurrency is bounded by
+/// [`Reader::io_parallelism`], clamped to at least 1: a `buffered(0)` window
+/// never polls its input, so an unvalidated reader value (e.g.
+/// `LANCE_URING_IO_PARALLELISM=0`) would hang the read.
+pub fn read_range_in_chunks(
     reader: &dyn Reader,
-    data_type: &DataType,
-    nullable: bool,
-    position: usize,
-    length: usize,
-    params: impl Into<ReadBatchParams>,
-) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
-    use arrow_schema::DataType::*;
-    let decoder: Box<dyn Decoder<Output = Result<ArrayRef>> + Send> = match data_type {
-        Utf8 => Box::new(BinaryDecoder::<Utf8Type>::new(
-            reader, position, length, nullable,
-        )),
-        Binary => Box::new(BinaryDecoder::<BinaryType>::new(
-            reader, position, length, nullable,
-        )),
-        LargeUtf8 => Box::new(BinaryDecoder::<LargeUtf8Type>::new(
-            reader, position, length, nullable,
-        )),
-        LargeBinary => Box::new(BinaryDecoder::<LargeBinaryType>::new(
-            reader, position, length, nullable,
-        )),
-        _ => {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Unsupported binary type: {}", data_type),
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
-    };
-    let fut = decoder.as_ref().get(params.into());
-    fut.await
+    range: Range<usize>,
+    chunk_size: usize,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = object_store::Result<Bytes>> + '_ {
+    let end = range.end;
+    let chunk_ranges = range
+        .step_by(chunk_size)
+        .map(move |start| start..min(start + chunk_size, end));
+    futures::stream::iter(chunk_ranges.map(|chunk| reader.get_range(chunk)))
+        .buffered(reader.io_parallelism().max(1))
 }
 
-/// Read a fixed stride array from disk.
+/// A [`Buf`] over a sequence of [`Bytes`] chunks in file order.
 ///
-pub async fn read_fixed_stride_array(
-    reader: &dyn Reader,
-    data_type: &DataType,
-    position: usize,
-    length: usize,
-    params: impl Into<ReadBatchParams>,
-) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
-    if !data_type.is_fixed_stride() {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: format!("{data_type} is not a fixed stride type"),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
-    }
-    // TODO: support more than plain encoding here.
-    let decoder = PlainDecoder::new(reader, data_type, position, length)?;
-    decoder.get(params.into()).await
+/// Lets a protobuf message fetched as concurrent range requests be decoded
+/// without first copying the chunks into one contiguous buffer. A copy of a
+/// large message is not free: the destination pages are touched for the first
+/// time, so the copy costs a page fault per 4 KiB on top of the `memmove`
+/// (measured at ~0.5 s and ~1 GiB of peak memory for a 945 MiB manifest).
+/// `copy_to_bytes` hands out a slice of the underlying chunk when the request
+/// lies within one, so `bytes`-typed fields decode zero-copy as well.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct ChunkedBuf {
+    chunks: VecDeque<Bytes>,
+    remaining: usize,
+}
+
+impl ChunkedBuf {
+    /// Append `chunk` after the chunks pushed so far. Empty chunks are dropped
+    /// so `chunk()` never reports an empty slice while data remains.
+    pub fn push(&mut self, chunk: Bytes) {
+        if !chunk.is_empty() {
+            self.remaining += chunk.len();
+            self.chunks.push_back(chunk);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Keep only the first `len` bytes.
+    ///
+    /// Prost decodes until the buffer is exhausted, so a message followed by
+    /// trailing bytes (a footer, the next section) must be cut to its exact
+    /// length before decoding.
+    pub fn truncate(&mut self, len: usize) {
+        if len >= self.remaining {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut to_drop = self.remaining - len;
+        while to_drop > 0 {
+            let Some(back) = self.chunks.back_mut() else {
+                break;
+            };
+            if to_drop >= back.len() {
+                to_drop -= back.len();
+                self.chunks.pop_back();
+            } else {
+                back.truncate(back.len() - to_drop);
+                to_drop = 0;
+            }
+        }
+        self.remaining = len;
+    }
+}
+
+impl Buf for ChunkedBuf {
+    fn remaining(&self) -> usize {
+        self.remaining
+    }
+
+    fn chunk(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        self.chunks.front().map(Bytes::as_ref).unwrap_or(&[])
+    }
+
+    fn advance(&mut self, mut cnt: usize) {
+        assert!(
+            cnt <= self.remaining,
+            "cannot advance ChunkedBuf by {cnt} bytes: only {} remain",
+            self.remaining
+        );
+        self.remaining -= cnt;
+        while cnt > 0 {
+            let front = self
+                .chunks
+                .front_mut()
+                .expect("remaining bytes imply a chunk");
+            if cnt < front.len() {
+                front.advance(cnt);
+                return;
+            }
+            cnt -= front.len();
+            self.chunks.pop_front();
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn copy_to_bytes(&mut self, len: usize) -> Bytes {
+        assert!(
+            len <= self.remaining,
+            "cannot copy {len} bytes from ChunkedBuf: only {} remain",
+            self.remaining
+        );
+        let within_front = self.chunks.front().is_some_and(|front| len <= front.len());
+        if within_front {
+            let front = self
+                .chunks
+                .front_mut()
+                .expect("checked that a front chunk exists");
+            let bytes = front.split_to(len);
+            self.remaining -= len;
+            if front.is_empty() {
+                self.chunks.pop_front();
+            }
+            return bytes;
+        }
+        // Straddles a chunk boundary: a copy is unavoidable.
+        let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(len);
+        let mut left = len;
+        while left > 0 {
+            let chunk = self.chunk();
+            let take = min(left, chunk.len());
+            out.extend_from_slice(&chunk[..take]);
+            self.advance(take);
+            left -= take;
+        }
+        Bytes::from(out)
+    }
 }
 
 /// Read a protobuf message at file position 'pos'.
@@ -86,8 +164,12 @@ pub async fn read_fixed_stride_array(
 /// followed by the message itself.
 pub async fn read_message<M: Message + Default>(reader: &dyn Reader, pos: usize) -> Result<M> {
     let file_size = reader.size().await?;
-    if pos > file_size {
-        return Err(Error::io("file size is too small".to_string(), location!()));
+    // A message is a u32 length prefix followed by its body; both must lie before
+    // the end. A `pos` too close to the end means the reader size is too small
+    // (e.g. a stale cached size). Reject it rather than slice a short buffer and
+    // panic.
+    if pos + 4 > file_size {
+        return Err(Error::io("file size is too small".to_string()));
     }
 
     let range = pos..min(pos + reader.block_size(), file_size);
@@ -96,12 +178,23 @@ pub async fn read_message<M: Message + Default>(reader: &dyn Reader, pos: usize)
 
     if msg_len + 4 > buf.len() {
         let remaining_range = range.end..min(4 + pos + msg_len, file_size);
-        let remaining_bytes = reader.get_range(remaining_range).await?;
-        let buf = [buf, remaining_bytes].concat();
-        assert!(buf.len() >= msg_len + 4);
-        Ok(M::decode(&buf[4..4 + msg_len])?)
+        // Fetching the remainder as concurrent chunks lifts the
+        // single-connection throughput cap on large messages (e.g. manifests of
+        // datasets with many fragments); decoding straight from the chunks
+        // avoids re-copying the whole message into one buffer.
+        let mut full = ChunkedBuf::default();
+        full.push(buf.slice(4..));
+        let mut chunks = read_range_in_chunks(reader, remaining_range, METADATA_READ_CHUNK_SIZE);
+        while let Some(chunk) = chunks.try_next().await? {
+            full.push(chunk);
+        }
+        if full.remaining() < msg_len {
+            return Err(Error::io("file size is too small".to_string()));
+        }
+        full.truncate(msg_len);
+        Ok(M::decode(full)?)
     } else {
-        Ok(M::decode(&buf[4..4 + msg_len])?)
+        Ok(M::decode(buf.slice(4..4 + msg_len))?)
     }
 }
 
@@ -128,13 +221,10 @@ pub async fn read_last_block(reader: &dyn Reader) -> object_store::Result<Bytes>
 pub fn read_metadata_offset(bytes: &Bytes) -> Result<usize> {
     let len = bytes.len();
     if len < 16 {
-        return Err(Error::io(
-            format!(
-                "does not have sufficient data, len: {}, bytes: {:?}",
-                len, bytes
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ));
+        return Err(Error::io(format!(
+            "does not have sufficient data, len: {}, bytes: {:?}",
+            len, bytes
+        )));
     }
     let offset_bytes = bytes.slice(len - 16..len - 8);
     Ok(LittleEndian::read_u64(offset_bytes.as_ref()) as usize)
@@ -144,13 +234,10 @@ pub fn read_metadata_offset(bytes: &Bytes) -> Result<usize> {
 pub fn read_version(bytes: &Bytes) -> Result<(u16, u16)> {
     let len = bytes.len();
     if len < 8 {
-        return Err(Error::io(
-            format!(
-                "does not have sufficient data, len: {}, bytes: {:?}",
-                len, bytes
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ));
+        return Err(Error::io(format!(
+            "does not have sufficient data, len: {}, bytes: {:?}",
+            len, bytes
+        )));
     }
 
     let major_version = LittleEndian::read_u16(bytes.slice(len - 8..len - 6).as_ref());
@@ -241,6 +328,10 @@ impl PartialEq for CachedFileSize {
 impl Eq for CachedFileSize {}
 
 impl CachedFileSize {
+    /// Create a `CachedFileSize` from a raw byte count.
+    ///
+    /// Passing `0` is equivalent to calling [`unknown`](Self::unknown): the
+    /// type interprets zero as "size not yet known".
     pub fn new(size: u64) -> Self {
         Self(AtomicU64::new(size))
     }
@@ -261,16 +352,22 @@ impl CachedFileSize {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use std::cmp::min;
+
+    use bytes::{Buf, Bytes, BytesMut};
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
     use object_store::path::Path;
+    use prost::Message;
+
+    use super::{ChunkedBuf, read_message};
 
     use crate::{
+        Error, Result,
         object_reader::CloudObjectReader,
-        object_store::{ObjectStore, DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT},
+        object_store::{DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT, ObjectStore},
         object_writer::ObjectWriter,
         traits::{ProtoStruct, WriteExt, Writer},
-        utils::read_struct,
-        Error, Result,
+        utils::{METADATA_READ_CHUNK_SIZE, read_range_in_chunks, read_struct},
     };
 
     // Bytes is a prost::Message, since we don't have any .proto files in this crate we
@@ -315,4 +412,190 @@ mod tests {
         let actual: BytesWrapper = read_struct(&object_reader, pos).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(some_message, actual);
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_range_in_chunks_reassembles_in_order() {
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let path = Path::from("/chunked");
+        // Patterned data with a range that neither starts nor ends on a chunk
+        // boundary, so ordering or off-by-one mistakes change the bytes.
+        let data: Vec<u8> = (0..10 * 1024 + 37).map(|i| (i % 251) as u8).collect();
+        store.put(&path, &data).await.unwrap();
+        let reader = store.open(&path).await.unwrap();
+
+        let range = 5..data.len() - 3;
+        let mut assembled = BytesMut::new();
+        let mut chunks = read_range_in_chunks(reader.as_ref(), range.clone(), 1024);
+        while let Some(chunk) = chunks.try_next().await.unwrap() {
+            assembled.extend_from_slice(&chunk);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(assembled.as_ref(), &data[range]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_range_in_chunks_zero_parallelism_reader() {
+        // A reader advertising io_parallelism 0 (e.g. LANCE_URING_IO_PARALLELISM=0)
+        // must not hang the chunked read: the window is clamped to at least 1.
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let path = Path::from("/zero_parallelism");
+        let data: Vec<u8> = (0..4096).map(|i| (i % 249) as u8).collect();
+        store.put(&path, &data).await.unwrap();
+        let reader =
+            CloudObjectReader::new(store.inner, path, 1024, None, DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT)
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_io_parallelism(0);
+
+        let assembled = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), async {
+            let mut buf = BytesMut::new();
+            let mut chunks = read_range_in_chunks(&reader, 0..data.len(), 1024);
+            while let Some(chunk) = chunks.try_next().await.unwrap() {
+                buf.extend_from_slice(&chunk);
+            }
+            buf
+        })
+        .await
+        .expect("chunked read with a zero-parallelism reader must not hang");
+        assert_eq!(assembled.as_ref(), &data[..]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_message_larger_than_chunk_size() {
+        // A message body crossing METADATA_READ_CHUNK_SIZE forces read_message
+        // to fetch the remainder as multiple concurrent chunks.
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let path = Path::from("/large_message");
+
+        let mut object_writer = ObjectWriter::new(&store, &path).await.unwrap();
+        let payload: Vec<u8> = (0..METADATA_READ_CHUNK_SIZE + 5 * 1024 * 1024)
+            .map(|i| (i % 253) as u8)
+            .collect();
+        let message = BytesWrapper(Bytes::from(payload));
+        let pos = object_writer.write_struct(&message).await.unwrap();
+        object_writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+
+        let object_reader =
+            CloudObjectReader::new(store.inner, path, 4096, None, DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT)
+                .unwrap();
+        let actual: BytesWrapper = read_struct(&object_reader, pos).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(message, actual);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_copy_reader_to_writer() {
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let src = Path::from("/src");
+        let dst = Path::from("/dst");
+        store.put(&src, b"abcdef").await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = store.open(&src).await.unwrap();
+        let mut writer = store.create(&dst).await.unwrap();
+        let copied = writer.copy_from_reader(reader.as_ref()).await.unwrap();
+        writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(copied, 6);
+        assert_eq!(store.read_one_all(&dst).await.unwrap().as_ref(), b"abcdef");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_copy_reader_range_to_writer() {
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let src = Path::from("/src-range");
+        let dst = Path::from("/dst-range");
+        store.put(&src, b"abcdef").await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = store.open(&src).await.unwrap();
+        let mut writer = store.create(&dst).await.unwrap();
+        let copied = writer
+            .copy_range_from_reader(reader.as_ref(), 2..5)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(copied, 3);
+        assert_eq!(store.read_one_all(&dst).await.unwrap().as_ref(), b"cde");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn chunked_buf_advances_and_copies_across_chunks() {
+        let mut buf = ChunkedBuf::default();
+        buf.push(Bytes::from_static(b"abc"));
+        buf.push(Bytes::new());
+        buf.push(Bytes::from_static(b"defgh"));
+        buf.push(Bytes::from_static(b"ij"));
+        assert_eq!(buf.remaining(), 10);
+        assert_eq!(buf.chunk(), b"abc");
+
+        // Within one chunk: zero-copy slice of that chunk.
+        let first_chunk_ptr = buf.chunk().as_ptr();
+        let head = buf.copy_to_bytes(2);
+        assert_eq!(head.as_ref(), b"ab");
+        assert_eq!(head.as_ptr(), first_chunk_ptr);
+
+        // Straddling a boundary: copied, contents preserved, cursor advanced.
+        let cross = buf.copy_to_bytes(4);
+        assert_eq!(cross.as_ref(), b"cdef");
+        assert_eq!(buf.remaining(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(buf.chunk(), b"gh");
+
+        buf.advance(3);
+        assert_eq!(buf.chunk(), b"j");
+        assert_eq!(buf.copy_to_bytes(1).as_ref(), b"j");
+        assert_eq!(buf.remaining(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(buf.chunk(), b"");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn chunked_buf_truncate_drops_trailing_bytes() {
+        let mut buf = ChunkedBuf::default();
+        buf.push(Bytes::from_static(b"0123"));
+        buf.push(Bytes::from_static(b"4567"));
+        buf.push(Bytes::from_static(b"89"));
+        buf.truncate(20);
+        assert_eq!(buf.remaining(), 10);
+        buf.truncate(5);
+        assert_eq!(buf.remaining(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(buf.copy_to_bytes(5).as_ref(), b"01234");
+        assert_eq!(buf.remaining(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn chunked_buf_decodes_message_split_across_chunks() {
+        // `Bytes` implements `prost::Message` (one bytes field), which is
+        // exactly the shape whose decoding should be zero-copy within a chunk.
+        let payload: Vec<u8> = (0..20_000u32).map(|i| (i % 251) as u8).collect();
+        let msg = Bytes::from(payload);
+        let encoded = Bytes::from(msg.encode_to_vec());
+        for chunk_size in [1usize, 7, 64, 4096, usize::MAX] {
+            let mut buf = ChunkedBuf::default();
+            for start in (0..encoded.len()).step_by(chunk_size) {
+                buf.push(encoded.slice(start..min(start + chunk_size, encoded.len())));
+            }
+            // Trailing bytes (a footer) must be cut off before decoding.
+            buf.push(Bytes::from_static(b"footer"));
+            buf.truncate(encoded.len());
+            let decoded = Bytes::decode(buf).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(decoded, msg, "chunk_size={chunk_size}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn read_message_decodes_body_larger_than_one_block_from_chunks() {
+        // A message larger than the reader block size takes the chunked path.
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let path = Path::from("/large_message");
+        let payload = Bytes::from(
+            (0..300_000u32)
+                .map(|i| (i % 253) as u8)
+                .collect::<Vec<u8>>(),
+        );
+        let mut writer = store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let pos = writer.write_protobuf(&payload).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_magics(pos, 0, 1, b"LANC").await.unwrap();
+        writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = store.open(&path).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(payload.len() > reader.block_size());
+        let decoded: Bytes = read_message(reader.as_ref(), pos).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded, payload);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/src/utils/tracking_store.rs b/rust/lance-io/src/utils/tracking_store.rs
index f1afb77990b..8e19cfc1d93 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/src/utils/tracking_store.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/src/utils/tracking_store.rs
@@ -13,19 +13,35 @@ use std::ops::Range;
 #[cfg(feature = "test-util")]
 use std::sync::atomic::AtomicU16;
 use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+#[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+use std::time::Instant;
 
 use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::StreamExt;
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use futures::stream::BoxStream;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use object_store::{
-    GetOptions, GetRange, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta, ObjectStore,
-    PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, Result as OSResult, UploadPart,
+    CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetRange, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+    ObjectStore, PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, RenameOptions,
+    Result as OSResult, UploadPart,
 };
 
 use crate::object_store::WrappingObjectStore;
+#[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+use crate::object_store::metrics::{InFlightGuard, record_outcome};
+use object_store::list::PaginatedListStore;
 
 #[derive(Debug, Default, Clone)]
-pub struct IOTracker(Arc<Mutex<IoStats>>);
+pub struct IOTracker {
+    stats: Arc<Mutex<IoStats>>,
+    /// The `base` label for the object store metrics published by IO that
+    /// bypasses the `object_store` layer (see [`Self::begin_io`]). `None` when
+    /// the IO cannot be attributed to a store, in which case no metrics are
+    /// published.
+    #[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+    metrics_base: Option<Arc<str>>,
+}
 
 impl IOTracker {
     /// Get IO statistics and reset the counters (incremental pattern).
@@ -33,7 +49,7 @@ impl IOTracker {
     /// This returns the accumulated statistics since the last call and resets
     /// the internal counters to zero.
     pub fn incremental_stats(&self) -> IoStats {
-        std::mem::take(&mut *self.0.lock().unwrap())
+        std::mem::take(&mut *self.stats.lock().unwrap())
     }
 
     /// Get a snapshot of current IO statistics without resetting counters.
@@ -41,7 +57,7 @@ impl IOTracker {
     /// This returns a clone of the current statistics without modifying the
     /// internal state. Use this when you need to check stats without resetting.
     pub fn stats(&self) -> IoStats {
-        self.0.lock().unwrap().clone()
+        self.stats.lock().unwrap().clone()
     }
 
     /// Record a read operation for tracking.
@@ -55,7 +71,7 @@ impl IOTracker {
         num_bytes: u64,
         #[allow(unused_variables)] range: Option<Range<u64>>,
     ) {
-        let mut stats = self.0.lock().unwrap();
+        let mut stats = self.stats.lock().unwrap();
         stats.read_iops += 1;
         stats.read_bytes += num_bytes;
         #[cfg(feature = "test-util")]
@@ -65,11 +81,118 @@ impl IOTracker {
             range,
         });
     }
+
+    /// Record a write operation for tracking.
+    ///
+    /// This is used by writers that bypass the ObjectStore layer (like LocalWriter)
+    /// to ensure their IO operations are still tracked.
+    pub fn record_write(
+        &self,
+        #[allow(unused_variables)] method: &'static str,
+        #[allow(unused_variables)] path: Path,
+        num_bytes: u64,
+    ) {
+        let mut stats = self.stats.lock().unwrap();
+        stats.write_iops += 1;
+        stats.written_bytes += num_bytes;
+        #[cfg(feature = "test-util")]
+        stats.requests.push(IoRequestRecord {
+            method,
+            path,
+            range: None,
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Label the metrics published through [`Self::begin_io`] with the prefix of
+    /// the store this tracker belongs to, so IO that bypasses the `object_store`
+    /// layer carries the same `base` label as the store's metered operations.
+    ///
+    /// Only `meter_store` should call this, so that labelling the tracker and
+    /// wrapping the store stay inseparable — see the rationale there.
+    #[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+    pub(crate) fn set_metrics_base(&mut self, base: &str) {
+        self.metrics_base = Some(base.into());
+    }
+
+    /// Begin an operation that talks to storage without going through the
+    /// `object_store` layer, and so is invisible to the `MeteredObjectStore`
+    /// wrapper: the optimized local reads and writes go straight to the
+    /// filesystem. `operation` must be one of the labels that wrapper uses
+    /// (`get`, `put`, `head`, ...) so this IO aggregates with the rest.
+    ///
+    /// The returned guard keeps the in-flight gauge raised until it is dropped.
+    #[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+    pub fn begin_io(&self, operation: &'static str) -> IoMetricsGuard {
+        IoMetricsGuard {
+            state: self.metrics_base.as_ref().map(|base| IoMetricsState {
+                _in_flight: InFlightGuard::new(base, operation),
+                base: base.clone(),
+                operation,
+                start: Instant::now(),
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Without the `metrics` feature there is nothing to publish.
+    #[cfg(not(feature = "metrics"))]
+    pub fn begin_io(&self, _operation: &'static str) -> IoMetricsGuard {
+        IoMetricsGuard {}
+    }
+}
+
+/// Publishes the object store metrics for a single operation that bypassed the
+/// `object_store` layer (see [`IOTracker::begin_io`]).
+///
+/// The operation is only counted by [`Self::record`]; one dropped before that —
+/// a cancelled read, an abandoned write — counts as neither a success nor a
+/// failure, and only lowers the in-flight gauge.
+#[must_use = "the operation is not recorded until `record` is called"]
+pub struct IoMetricsGuard {
+    #[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+    state: Option<IoMetricsState>,
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+struct IoMetricsState {
+    base: Arc<str>,
+    operation: &'static str,
+    start: Instant,
+    /// Lowers the in-flight gauge when the guard is dropped.
+    _in_flight: InFlightGuard,
+}
+
+impl IoMetricsGuard {
+    /// Record the operation's count and latency, along with `num_bytes`
+    /// transferred if `result` is `Ok` or an error if it is not.
+    pub fn record<T, E>(self, result: &std::result::Result<T, E>, num_bytes: u64) {
+        #[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+        if let Some(state) = self.state {
+            record_outcome(
+                &state.base,
+                state.operation,
+                state.start,
+                num_bytes,
+                result.is_err(),
+            );
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(feature = "metrics"))]
+        let _ = (result, num_bytes);
+    }
 }
 
 impl WrappingObjectStore for IOTracker {
     fn wrap(&self, _store_prefix: &str, target: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>) -> Arc<dyn ObjectStore> {
-        Arc::new(IoTrackingStore::new(target, self.0.clone()))
+        Arc::new(IoTrackingStore::new(target, self.stats.clone()))
+    }
+
+    // A pushed-down listing records itself against the store's tracker, so it is already
+    // counted without passing through here.
+    fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        _store_prefix: &str,
+        original: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>> {
+        Some(original)
     }
 }
 
@@ -169,9 +292,8 @@ macro_rules! assert_io_lt {
     };
 }
 
-// These fields are "dead code" because we just use them right now to display
-// in test failure messages through Debug. (The lint ignores Debug impls.)
-#[allow(dead_code)]
+// These request records only exist for test-only diagnostics.
+#[cfg(feature = "test-util")]
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct IoRequestRecord {
     pub method: &'static str,
@@ -179,6 +301,7 @@ pub struct IoRequestRecord {
     pub range: Option<Range<u64>>,
 }
 
+#[cfg(feature = "test-util")]
 impl std::fmt::Debug for IoRequestRecord {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         // For example: "put /path/to/file range: 0-100"
@@ -273,12 +396,6 @@ impl IoTrackingStore {
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 #[deny(clippy::missing_trait_methods)]
 impl ObjectStore for IoTrackingStore {
-    async fn put(&self, location: &Path, bytes: PutPayload) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
-        let _guard = self.stage_guard();
-        self.record_write("put", location.to_owned(), bytes.content_length() as u64);
-        self.target.put(location, bytes).await
-    }
-
     async fn put_opts(
         &self,
         location: &Path,
@@ -294,19 +411,6 @@ impl ObjectStore for IoTrackingStore {
         self.target.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
     }
 
-    async fn put_multipart(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
-        let _guard = self.stage_guard();
-        let target = self.target.put_multipart(location).await?;
-        Ok(Box::new(IoTrackingMultipartUpload {
-            target,
-            stats: self.stats.clone(),
-            #[cfg(feature = "test-util")]
-            path: location.to_owned(),
-            #[cfg(feature = "test-util")]
-            _guard,
-        }))
-    }
-
     async fn put_multipart_opts(
         &self,
         location: &Path,
@@ -324,40 +428,25 @@ impl ObjectStore for IoTrackingStore {
         }))
     }
 
-    async fn get(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
-        let _guard = self.stage_guard();
-        let result = self.target.get(location).await;
-        if let Ok(result) = &result {
-            let num_bytes = result.range.end - result.range.start;
-            self.record_read("get", location.to_owned(), num_bytes, None);
-        }
-        result
-    }
-
     async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
         let _guard = self.stage_guard();
+        let is_head = options.head;
         let range = match &options.range {
             Some(GetRange::Bounded(range)) => Some(range.clone()),
             _ => None, // TODO: fill in other options.
         };
         let result = self.target.get_opts(location, options).await;
         if let Ok(result) = &result {
-            let num_bytes = result.range.end - result.range.start;
-
-            self.record_read("get_opts", location.to_owned(), num_bytes, range);
-        }
-        result
-    }
-
-    async fn get_range(&self, location: &Path, range: Range<u64>) -> OSResult<Bytes> {
-        let _guard = self.stage_guard();
-        let result = self.target.get_range(location, range.clone()).await;
-        if let Ok(result) = &result {
+            let num_bytes = if is_head {
+                0
+            } else {
+                result.range.end - result.range.start
+            };
             self.record_read(
-                "get_range",
+                if is_head { "head" } else { "get_opts" },
                 location.to_owned(),
-                result.len() as u64,
-                Some(range),
+                num_bytes,
+                range,
             );
         }
         result
@@ -377,23 +466,25 @@ impl ObjectStore for IoTrackingStore {
         result
     }
 
-    async fn head(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<ObjectMeta> {
-        let _guard = self.stage_guard();
-        self.record_read("head", location.to_owned(), 0, None);
-        self.target.head(location).await
-    }
-
-    async fn delete(&self, location: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        let _guard = self.stage_guard();
-        self.record_write("delete", location.to_owned(), 0);
-        self.target.delete(location).await
-    }
-
-    fn delete_stream<'a>(
-        &'a self,
-        locations: BoxStream<'a, OSResult<Path>>,
-    ) -> BoxStream<'a, OSResult<Path>> {
-        self.target.delete_stream(locations)
+    fn delete_stream(
+        &self,
+        locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+        let stats = Arc::clone(&self.stats);
+        let tracked = locations
+            .map_ok(move |path| {
+                let mut stats = stats.lock().unwrap();
+                stats.write_iops += 1;
+                #[cfg(feature = "test-util")]
+                stats.requests.push(IoRequestRecord {
+                    method: "delete",
+                    path: path.clone(),
+                    range: None,
+                });
+                path
+            })
+            .boxed();
+        self.target.delete_stream(tracked)
     }
 
     fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
@@ -427,28 +518,16 @@ impl ObjectStore for IoTrackingStore {
         self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
     }
 
-    async fn copy(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
+    async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
         let _guard = self.stage_guard();
         self.record_write("copy", from.to_owned(), 0);
-        self.target.copy(from, to).await
+        self.target.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
     }
 
-    async fn rename(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
+    async fn rename_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: RenameOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
         let _guard = self.stage_guard();
         self.record_write("rename", from.to_owned(), 0);
-        self.target.rename(from, to).await
-    }
-
-    async fn rename_if_not_exists(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        let _guard = self.stage_guard();
-        self.record_write("rename_if_not_exists", from.to_owned(), 0);
-        self.target.rename_if_not_exists(from, to).await
-    }
-
-    async fn copy_if_not_exists(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path) -> OSResult<()> {
-        let _guard = self.stage_guard();
-        self.record_write("copy_if_not_exists", from.to_owned(), 0);
-        self.target.copy_if_not_exists(from, to).await
+        self.target.rename_opts(from, to, opts).await
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/tests/gcs_integration.rs b/rust/lance-io/tests/gcs_integration.rs
index 959a3a61086..af33d0a6654 100644
--- a/rust/lance-io/tests/gcs_integration.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-io/tests/gcs_integration.rs
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 // TODO: Once we re-use this logic for S3, we can instead use tests against
 // Minio to validate the multipart upload logic.
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use object_store::path::Path;
+use object_store::{ObjectStoreExt, path::Path};
 use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 
 async fn get_store() -> Arc<ObjectStore> {
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/tests/goosefs_integration.rs b/rust/lance-io/tests/goosefs_integration.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0cd18d65c3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/tests/goosefs_integration.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,485 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! GooseFS integration tests via OpenDAL.
+//!
+//! Covers Stage 2 (OpenDAL direct), Stage 3 (Lance ObjectStore I/O),
+//! and diagnostic tests (OpenDAL via lance-io ObjectStore).
+//!
+//! Run:
+//!   cargo test -p lance-io --features "goosefs goosefs-test" --test goosefs_integration -- --ignored --nocapture --test-threads=1
+#![cfg(feature = "goosefs-test")]
+#![allow(clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+use opendal::{Operator, services::GooseFs};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+fn get_operator() -> Operator {
+    let addr = std::env::var("GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR").unwrap_or("127.0.0.1:9200".into());
+    let auth_type = std::env::var("GOOSEFS_AUTH_TYPE").unwrap_or("simple".into());
+    let mut cfg = HashMap::new();
+    cfg.insert("master_addr".to_string(), addr);
+    cfg.insert("root".to_string(), "/lance-test/opendal".to_string());
+    cfg.insert("auth_type".to_string(), auth_type);
+    Operator::from_iter::<GooseFs>(cfg).unwrap()
+}
+
+// ============================================================
+// Stage 2: OpenDAL GooseFs Service tests
+// ============================================================
+
+#[ignore = "Requires GooseFS cluster"]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_opendal_write_read() {
+    let op = get_operator();
+    // Cleanup any leftover from previous runs
+    let _ = op.delete("hello.txt").await;
+    op.write("hello.txt", "Hello from OpenDAL").await.unwrap();
+    let data = op.read("hello.txt").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(data.to_vec(), b"Hello from OpenDAL");
+    op.delete("hello.txt").await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[ignore = "Requires GooseFS cluster"]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_opendal_list() {
+    let op = get_operator();
+    // Write files directly (GooseFS may have h2 issues with newly-created subdirs)
+    let _ = op.delete("list_a.txt").await;
+    let _ = op.delete("list_b.txt").await;
+    op.write("list_a.txt", "aaa").await.unwrap();
+    op.write("list_b.txt", "bbb").await.unwrap();
+    let entries: Vec<_> = op.list("/").await.unwrap();
+    let names: Vec<String> = entries.iter().map(|e| e.name().to_string()).collect();
+    eprintln!("Listed entries: {:?}", names);
+    assert!(
+        entries.len() >= 2,
+        "Expected at least 2 entries, got {}",
+        entries.len()
+    );
+    op.delete("list_a.txt").await.unwrap();
+    op.delete("list_b.txt").await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[ignore = "Requires GooseFS cluster"]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_opendal_stat() {
+    let op = get_operator();
+    // Cleanup leftover from previous runs
+    let _ = op.delete("stat_test.txt").await;
+    op.write("stat_test.txt", "12345").await.unwrap();
+    let meta = op.stat("stat_test.txt").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(meta.content_length(), 5);
+    op.delete("stat_test.txt").await.unwrap();
+}
+
+// ============================================================
+// Stage 3: Lance ObjectStore I/O tests
+// ============================================================
+
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+
+async fn get_lance_store() -> Arc<ObjectStore> {
+    let addr = std::env::var("GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR").unwrap_or("127.0.0.1:9200".into());
+    let uri = format!("goosefs://{}/lance-test/lance-io", addr);
+    ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await.unwrap().0
+}
+
+#[ignore = "Requires GooseFS cluster"]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_lance_objectstore_put_get() {
+    let store = get_lance_store().await;
+    let path = object_store::path::Path::from("test_put_get.bin");
+
+    // Cleanup
+    let _ = store.inner.delete(&path).await;
+
+    // Write
+    store
+        .inner
+        .put(&path, (&b"lance-goosefs-test"[..]).into())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Read
+    let result = store.inner.get(&path).await.unwrap();
+    let bytes = result.bytes().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(&bytes[..], b"lance-goosefs-test");
+
+    // Cleanup
+    store.inner.delete(&path).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[ignore = "Requires GooseFS cluster"]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_lance_objectstore_list() {
+    let store = get_lance_store().await;
+
+    let file_a = object_store::path::Path::from("list_a.bin");
+    let file_b = object_store::path::Path::from("list_b.bin");
+
+    // Cleanup leftovers
+    let _ = store.inner.delete(&file_a).await;
+    let _ = store.inner.delete(&file_b).await;
+
+    store
+        .inner
+        .put(&file_a, (&b"aaa"[..]).into())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    store
+        .inner
+        .put(&file_b, (&b"bbb"[..]).into())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let entries: Vec<_> = store.inner.list(None).try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    eprintln!("Listed {} entries", entries.len());
+    assert!(
+        entries.len() >= 2,
+        "Expected at least 2 entries, got {}",
+        entries.len()
+    );
+
+    store.inner.delete(&file_a).await.unwrap();
+    store.inner.delete(&file_b).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[ignore = "Requires GooseFS cluster"]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_lance_objectstore_large_file() {
+    let store = get_lance_store().await;
+    let path = object_store::path::Path::from("large_file.bin");
+    let _ = store.inner.delete(&path).await;
+
+    // Write 5MB file
+    let data = vec![42u8; 5 * 1024 * 1024];
+    store.inner.put(&path, data.clone().into()).await.unwrap();
+
+    let result = store.inner.get(&path).await.unwrap();
+    let bytes = result.bytes().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(bytes.len(), 5 * 1024 * 1024);
+    assert_eq!(&bytes[..10], &[42u8; 10]);
+
+    store.inner.delete(&path).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+// ============================================================
+// Diagnostic: lance-io ObjectStore advanced write modes
+// ============================================================
+
+use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
+
+#[tokio::test]
+#[ignore = "Requires GooseFS cluster"]
+async fn test_diag_lance_io_write_modes() {
+    let addr = std::env::var("GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR").unwrap_or_else(|_| "127.0.0.1:9200".into());
+    let ts = std::time::SystemTime::now()
+        .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_millis();
+    let root = format!("goosefs://{}/lance-test/lance_io_direct_{}", addr, ts);
+
+    eprintln!("[DIAG] Creating ObjectStore at: {}", root);
+
+    let params = ObjectStoreParams::default();
+    let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+    let (object_store, _path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, &root, &params)
+        .await
+        .expect("Failed to create ObjectStore");
+
+    // Best-effort cleanup of leftover test files. object_store_opendal maps
+    // relative paths to the GooseFS root, so prior runs leave files at /
+    // even when the ObjectStore URI uses a per-run subdirectory. The
+    // concurrent exactly-one-winner race now lives in its own
+    // `test_diag_concurrent_put_create_exactly_one_winner` test, which
+    // uses a per-run filename so it does not share state with this test.
+    for name in ["test_file.txt", "test_create.txt"].iter() {
+        let p = object_store::path::Path::parse(name).unwrap();
+        let _ = object_store.inner.delete(&p).await;
+    }
+
+    // Test 1: Basic put + get
+    let test_path = object_store::path::Path::parse("test_file.txt").unwrap();
+    let test_data = bytes::Bytes::from("Hello from lance-io ObjectStore!");
+
+    eprintln!(
+        "[DIAG] Writing test_file.txt ({} bytes)...",
+        test_data.len()
+    );
+    match object_store
+        .inner
+        .put(&test_path, test_data.clone().into())
+        .await
+    {
+        Ok(_) => eprintln!("[DIAG] Write succeeded! ✅"),
+        Err(e) => {
+            eprintln!("[DIAG] Write FAILED: {:?}", e);
+            eprintln!("[DIAG] Error source: {:?}", std::error::Error::source(&e));
+            return;
+        }
+    }
+
+    eprintln!("[DIAG] Reading test_file.txt...");
+    match object_store.inner.get(&test_path).await {
+        Ok(result) => {
+            let bytes = result.bytes().await.unwrap();
+            let content = String::from_utf8_lossy(&bytes);
+            eprintln!("[DIAG] Read content: '{}' ({} bytes)", content, bytes.len());
+            assert_eq!(bytes, test_data);
+        }
+        Err(e) => eprintln!("[DIAG] Read FAILED: {:?}", e),
+    }
+
+    // PutMode::Create (if_not_exists) — required by
+    // ConditionalPutCommitHandler for concurrent-safe manifest commits.
+    let create_path = object_store::path::Path::parse("test_create.txt").unwrap();
+    eprintln!("[DIAG] Writing with PutMode::Create (if_not_exists)...");
+    object_store
+        .inner
+        .put_opts(
+            &create_path,
+            bytes::Bytes::from("conditional write!").into(),
+            object_store::PutOptions {
+                mode: object_store::PutMode::Create,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("PutMode::Create should succeed for a new path");
+    eprintln!("[DIAG] PutMode::Create succeeded! ✅");
+
+    eprintln!("[DIAG] Second PutMode::Create on same path (expect AlreadyExists)...");
+    let conflict = object_store
+        .inner
+        .put_opts(
+            &create_path,
+            bytes::Bytes::from("should not overwrite").into(),
+            object_store::PutOptions {
+                mode: object_store::PutMode::Create,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await;
+    assert!(
+        matches!(
+            conflict,
+            Err(object_store::Error::AlreadyExists { .. })
+                | Err(object_store::Error::Precondition { .. })
+        ),
+        "second PutMode::Create must fail with AlreadyExists/Precondition, got: {conflict:?}"
+    );
+    eprintln!("[DIAG] PutMode::Create conflict correctly rejected! ✅");
+
+    // Test 3: rename_if_not_exists
+    eprintln!("[DIAG] Testing rename_if_not_exists...");
+    let tmp_path = object_store::path::Path::parse("_tmp_rename.txt").unwrap();
+    let dest_path = object_store::path::Path::parse("renamed.txt").unwrap();
+    match object_store
+        .inner
+        .put(&tmp_path, bytes::Bytes::from("rename me!").into())
+        .await
+    {
+        Ok(_) => {
+            eprintln!("[DIAG] Tmp file written ✅");
+            match object_store
+                .inner
+                .rename_if_not_exists(&tmp_path, &dest_path)
+                .await
+            {
+                Ok(_) => eprintln!("[DIAG] rename_if_not_exists succeeded! ✅"),
+                Err(e) => eprintln!("[DIAG] rename_if_not_exists FAILED: {:?}", e),
+            }
+        }
+        Err(e) => eprintln!("[DIAG] Tmp file write FAILED: {:?}", e),
+    }
+
+    eprintln!("[DIAG] lance-io direct write test complete ✅");
+}
+
+/// Concurrency regression: two `PutMode::Create` writers racing on the
+/// same fresh path must produce exactly one winner, and the stored bytes
+/// must match the winner's payload byte-for-byte. This is the property
+/// that makes `ConditionalPutCommitHandler` safe under concurrent
+/// manifest commits: every writer either commits its manifest or observes
+/// the loser's precondition failure and retries against a fresh version.
+///
+/// Split out of `test_diag_lance_io_write_modes` so the race assertions
+/// cannot be silently skipped — the basic-write `return` on error in the
+/// diagnostic test no longer covers the race, and the race is now a
+/// first-class ignored test with its own setup/teardown invariants:
+///
+/// 1. **Per-run path.** The race filename embeds a nanosecond timestamp so
+///    concurrent or back-to-back runs in the same process never share
+///    state. `object_store_opendal` maps the relative filename to the
+///    GooseFS root regardless of the ObjectStore URI path, so a
+///    per-run URI subdirectory would not isolate runs on its own.
+/// 2. **Explicit pre-cleanup.** A leftover from a prior crashed run is
+///    expected (`NotFound` is the only accepted pre-cleanup error); any
+///    other error fails the test rather than being silently ignored.
+/// 3. **Strict setup.** Every setup step uses `expect` so a transient
+///    `ObjectStore` construction or filename-parse error is surfaced
+///    rather than logged and skipped.
+/// 4. **Post-cleanup.** The winning path is removed on success; cleanup
+///    must report `Ok` or `NotFound`.
+///
+/// Requires a live GooseFS cluster.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[ignore = "Requires GooseFS cluster"]
+async fn test_diag_concurrent_put_create_exactly_one_winner() {
+    let addr = std::env::var("GOOSEFS_MASTER_ADDR").unwrap_or_else(|_| "127.0.0.1:9200".into());
+    // Nanosecond timestamp gives effectively unique filenames even for
+    // back-to-back runs in the same process. The race path is *not* put
+    // under the per-run URI subdirectory because `object_store_opendal`
+    // ignores the URL path when resolving relative keys.
+    let ts = std::time::SystemTime::now()
+        .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_nanos();
+    let race_filename = format!("test_create_race_{}.txt", ts);
+    let root = format!("goosefs://{}/lance-test", addr);
+    eprintln!(
+        "[DIAG] Creating ObjectStore at: {} (race path: {})",
+        root, race_filename
+    );
+
+    let params = ObjectStoreParams::default();
+    let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+    let (object_store, _path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry.clone(), &root, &params)
+        .await
+        .expect("Failed to create ObjectStore");
+
+    let race_path = object_store::path::Path::parse(&race_filename).unwrap();
+
+    // Pre-flight cleanup: the race path is per-run, so a leftover can
+    // only come from a prior run that crashed before its post-cleanup
+    // completed. `Ok` and `NotFound` are both expected; any other error
+    // is a setup failure that would otherwise silently skip the race.
+    match object_store.inner.delete(&race_path).await {
+        Ok(_) => {}
+        Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. }) => {}
+        Err(e) => panic!("pre-cleanup of race path {race_filename} failed: {e:?}"),
+    }
+
+    let store_a = object_store.clone();
+    let store_b = object_store.clone();
+    let path_a = race_path.clone();
+    let path_b = race_path.clone();
+    let payload_a = bytes::Bytes::from("writer-A");
+    let payload_b = bytes::Bytes::from("writer-B");
+
+    eprintln!("[DIAG] Launching two concurrent PutMode::Create on fresh path...");
+    let fut_a = tokio::spawn(async move {
+        store_a
+            .inner
+            .put_opts(
+                &path_a,
+                payload_a.clone().into(),
+                object_store::PutOptions {
+                    mode: object_store::PutMode::Create,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            )
+            .await
+            .map(|_| payload_a)
+    });
+    let fut_b = tokio::spawn(async move {
+        store_b
+            .inner
+            .put_opts(
+                &path_b,
+                payload_b.clone().into(),
+                object_store::PutOptions {
+                    mode: object_store::PutMode::Create,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            )
+            .await
+            .map(|_| payload_b)
+    });
+    let (res_a, res_b) = tokio::join!(fut_a, fut_b);
+    let res_a = res_a.expect("writer A join");
+    let res_b = res_b.expect("writer B join");
+
+    let mut wins = 0usize;
+    let mut conflicts = 0usize;
+    let mut other_err: Option<String> = None;
+    let mut winner_payload: Option<bytes::Bytes> = None;
+    match (&res_a, &res_b) {
+        (Ok(p), Err(_)) => {
+            wins = 1;
+            conflicts = 1;
+            winner_payload = Some(p.clone());
+        }
+        (Err(_), Ok(p)) => {
+            wins = 1;
+            conflicts = 1;
+            winner_payload = Some(p.clone());
+        }
+        (Ok(_), Ok(_)) => {
+            other_err = Some("both writers reported success — if-not-exists violated".into());
+        }
+        (Err(ea), Err(eb)) => {
+            other_err = Some(format!("both writers failed: a={ea:?} b={eb:?}"));
+        }
+    }
+    for r in [&res_a, &res_b] {
+        if let Err(e) = r {
+            let s = format!("{e:?}").to_lowercase();
+            assert!(
+                s.contains("already exists")
+                    || s.contains("precondition")
+                    || s.contains("conditionnotmatch")
+                    || s.contains("if_not_exists"),
+                "loser must report AlreadyExists/Precondition, got: {e:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+    assert!(
+        other_err.is_none(),
+        "exactly-one-winner violated: {}",
+        other_err.unwrap()
+    );
+    assert_eq!(wins, 1, "exactly one writer must win (got {wins})");
+    assert_eq!(
+        conflicts, 1,
+        "exactly one writer must conflict (got {conflicts})"
+    );
+
+    // Read back — stored bytes must match the winner's payload exactly.
+    let stored = object_store
+        .inner
+        .get(&race_path)
+        .await
+        .expect("get winning payload")
+        .bytes()
+        .await
+        .expect("read winning payload");
+    let expected = winner_payload.expect("winner payload recorded");
+    assert_eq!(
+        stored, expected,
+        "stored bytes must match the winner's payload"
+    );
+    eprintln!(
+        "[DIAG] concurrent exactly-one-winner ok ✅ stored={} bytes",
+        stored.len()
+    );
+
+    // Post-flight cleanup: must succeed. `NotFound` after a winning write
+    // would mean the file never actually persisted, contradicting the
+    // assertion above, so we surface it as a failure rather than masking
+    // a real regression.
+    match object_store.inner.delete(&race_path).await {
+        Ok(_) => {}
+        Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. }) => {
+            panic!(
+                "post-cleanup of race path {race_filename} reported NotFound after a winning write"
+            )
+        }
+        Err(e) => panic!("post-cleanup of race path {race_filename} failed: {e:?}"),
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-io/tests/tos_integration.rs b/rust/lance-io/tests/tos_integration.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..97eca30090e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-io/tests/tos_integration.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+//! These integration tests can only be run against a real Volcengine TOS bucket.
+
+#![cfg(feature = "tos-test")]
+
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+fn tos_bucket() -> String {
+    std::env::var("TOS_BUCKET").expect("TOS_BUCKET must be set")
+}
+
+async fn delete_prefix(store: &ObjectStore, prefix: &str) {
+    let prefix_path = Path::from(prefix);
+    let locations = store
+        .inner
+        .list(Some(&prefix_path))
+        .map_ok(|meta| meta.location)
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+
+    for location in locations {
+        let _ = store.inner.delete(&location).await;
+    }
+}
+
+#[ignore = "Must be run manually on Volcengine TOS"]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_tos_write_read_list_delete() {
+    let prefix = format!("lance-tos-{}-{}", std::process::id(), rand::random::<u64>());
+    let bucket = tos_bucket();
+    let (store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&format!("tos://{bucket}/{prefix}"))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(base_path, Path::from(prefix.as_str()));
+
+    let path = Path::from(format!("{prefix}/small.txt"));
+    delete_prefix(&store, &prefix).await;
+
+    let result: Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> = async {
+        let mut writer = store.create(&path).await?;
+        writer.write_all(b"hello").await?;
+        writer.write_all(b" tos").await?;
+        writer.shutdown().await?;
+
+        let meta = store.inner.head(&path).await?;
+        if meta.size != 9 {
+            return Err(format!("expected object size 9, got {}", meta.size).into());
+        }
+
+        let data = store.inner.get(&path).await?.bytes().await?;
+        if data.as_ref() != b"hello tos" {
+            return Err("downloaded TOS object content did not match".into());
+        }
+
+        let listed = store
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&Path::from(prefix.as_str())))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        if !listed.iter().any(|meta| meta.location == path) {
+            return Err("uploaded TOS object was not returned by list".into());
+        }
+
+        store.inner.delete(&path).await?;
+        if store.exists(&path).await? {
+            return Err("deleted TOS object still exists".into());
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+    .await;
+
+    delete_prefix(&store, &prefix).await;
+    result.unwrap();
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-linalg/Cargo.toml
index c3cb18868d8..8a75eb077c4 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/Cargo.toml
@@ -11,20 +11,21 @@ categories = { workspace = true }
 
 [dependencies]
 arrow-array = { workspace = true }
-arrow-buffer = { workspace = true }
 arrow-schema = { workspace = true }
-deepsize = { workspace = true }
 half = { workspace = true }
 lance-arrow = { workspace = true }
 lance-core = { workspace = true }
 num-traits = { workspace = true }
-rand = { workspace = true }
+rayon = { workspace = true }
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 approx = { workspace = true }
+arrow-buffer = { workspace = true }
 criterion = { workspace = true }
-lance-testing = { path = "../lance-testing" }
+lance-testing = { workspace = true }
 proptest.workspace = true
+rand = { workspace = true }
+rstest.workspace = true
 
 [build-dependencies]
 cc = "1.0.83"
@@ -35,9 +36,6 @@ cc = "1.0.83"
 # you need Clang 11 or later.)
 fp16kernels = []
 
-[target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dev-dependencies]
-pprof = { workspace = true }
-
 [[bench]]
 name = "l2"
 harness = false
@@ -55,11 +53,15 @@ name = "cosine"
 harness = false
 
 [[bench]]
-name = "hamming"
+name = "norm_l2"
 harness = false
 
 [[bench]]
-name = "norm_l2"
+name = "dist_table"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "batch_distance"
 harness = false
 
 [lints]
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/README.md b/rust/lance-linalg/README.md
index 06db3e9684e..c436da15617 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/README.md
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/README.md
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # Lance Linear Algebra Library
 
-`lance-linalg` is a internal sub-crate, containing [Apache-Arrow](https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs)
-native linear algebra algorithm used the [Lance](https://github.com/lancedb/lance).
+`lance-linalg` is an internal sub-crate, containing [Apache-Arrow](https://github.com/apache/arrow-rs)
+native linear algebra algorithms used by [Lance](https://github.com/lance-format/lance).
 
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/argmin.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/argmin.rs
index b209fe6fa22..f80ad668ab0 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/argmin.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/argmin.rs
@@ -5,12 +5,12 @@ use std::{sync::Arc, time::Duration};
 
 use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
 use arrow_array::{Float32Array, UInt32Array};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use lance_linalg::kernels::argmin_opt;
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 #[inline]
 fn argmin_arrow(x: &Float32Array) -> u32 {
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/batch_distance.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/batch_distance.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d4921b1a80c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/batch_distance.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{Cosine, Dot, L2};
+
+const DIMENSION: usize = 8;
+const TOTAL_VALUES: usize = 1024 * 1024;
+
+fn bench_batch_distance(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let key = (0..DIMENSION)
+        .map(|index| index as f32 * 0.125 + 0.25)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let batch = (0..TOTAL_VALUES)
+        .map(|index| (index % 31) as f32 * 0.03125 - 0.5)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    c.bench_function("Batch distance dot f32 dim 8", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            black_box(
+                <f32 as Dot>::dot_batch(black_box(&key), black_box(&batch), DIMENSION).sum::<f32>(),
+            )
+        })
+    });
+    c.bench_function("Batch distance l2 f32 dim 8", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            black_box(
+                <f32 as L2>::l2_batch(black_box(&key), black_box(&batch), DIMENSION).sum::<f32>(),
+            )
+        })
+    });
+    c.bench_function("Batch distance cosine f32 dim 8", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            black_box(
+                <f32 as Cosine>::cosine_batch(black_box(&key), black_box(&batch), DIMENSION)
+                    .sum::<f32>(),
+            )
+        })
+    });
+}
+
+fn bench_time() -> Duration {
+    let seconds = option_env!("TARGET_TIME")
+        .unwrap_or("5")
+        .parse()
+        .expect("TARGET_TIME must be an integer number of seconds");
+    Duration::from_secs(seconds)
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default()
+        .significance_level(0.1)
+        .sample_size(10)
+        .measurement_time(bench_time());
+    targets = bench_batch_distance
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/cosine.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/cosine.rs
index f6b4a92d693..4ab9db16203 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/cosine.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/cosine.rs
@@ -2,16 +2,19 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
     Float32Array,
+    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
 };
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
-use lance_arrow::{bfloat16::BFloat16Type, ArrowFloatType, FloatArray};
-use lance_linalg::distance::cosine::{cosine_distance_batch, Cosine};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FloatArray, bfloat16::BFloat16Type};
+use lance_linalg::distance::cosine::{Cosine, cosine_distance_batch};
+use lance_linalg::distance::cosine_u8::{cosine_u8, cosine_u8_scalar};
 use num_traits::Float;
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
 
@@ -37,7 +40,7 @@ where
     T::Native: Cosine,
 {
     const DIMENSION: usize = 1024;
-    const TOTAL: usize = 1024 * 1024; // 1M vectors
+    const TOTAL: usize = 512 * 1024;
 
     let type_name = std::any::type_name::<T::Native>();
     let key = generate_random_array_with_seed::<T>(DIMENSION, [0; 32]);
@@ -76,6 +79,46 @@ fn bench_distance(c: &mut Criterion) {
             black_box(cosine_distance_batch(key.values(), target.values(), 8).collect::<Vec<_>>())
         })
     });
+
+    // u8 cosine benchmarks
+    {
+        use rand::Rng;
+        use std::iter::repeat_with;
+
+        const DIMENSION: usize = 1024;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 1024 * 1024;
+        let mut rng = rand::rng();
+        let key_u8: Vec<u8> = repeat_with(|| rng.random()).take(DIMENSION).collect();
+        let target_u8: Vec<u8> = repeat_with(|| rng.random())
+            .take(TOTAL * DIMENSION)
+            .collect();
+
+        c.bench_function("Cosine(u8, scalar)", |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                black_box(
+                    target_u8
+                        .as_chunks::<DIMENSION>()
+                        .0
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|tgt| cosine_u8_scalar(&key_u8, tgt))
+                        .fold(0.0, |acc: f32, v| acc + v),
+                );
+            });
+        });
+
+        c.bench_function("Cosine(u8, SIMD)", |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                black_box(
+                    target_u8
+                        .as_chunks::<DIMENSION>()
+                        .0
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|tgt| cosine_u8(&key_u8, tgt))
+                        .fold(0.0, |acc: f32, v| acc + v),
+                );
+            });
+        });
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/dist_table.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/dist_table.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..954d9b02f06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/dist_table.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmark of 4-bit LUT distance table summation (RaBitQ inner loop).
+//!
+//! Measures both the dispatched path (NEON on ARM, AVX2 on x86) and the
+//! scalar fallback, so the speedup is visible in a single benchmark run.
+
+use std::iter::repeat_with;
+
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_linalg::simd::dist_table::{BATCH_SIZE, sum_4bit_dist_table, sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar};
+use rand::Rng;
+
+fn bench_sum_4bit_dist_table(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut rng = rand::rng();
+
+    // code_len = dim / 8 for 1-bit quantization
+    for (label, n_vectors, code_len) in [
+        ("32vec_dim128", 32_usize, 16_usize),
+        ("32vec_dim1536", 32, 192),
+        ("32vec_dim4096", 32, 512),
+        ("32vec_dim65536", 32, 8192),
+        ("16Kvec_dim128", 16_000, 16),
+        ("16Kvec_dim1536", 16_000, 192),
+    ] {
+        let n = n_vectors.div_ceil(BATCH_SIZE) * BATCH_SIZE;
+
+        let codes: Vec<u8> = repeat_with(|| rng.random::<u8>())
+            .take(n * code_len)
+            .collect();
+
+        let dist_table: Vec<u8> = repeat_with(|| rng.random::<u8>())
+            .take(BATCH_SIZE * code_len)
+            .collect();
+
+        let mut dists = vec![0u16; n];
+
+        // Dispatched path (NEON on ARM, AVX2 on x86)
+        c.bench_function(&format!("sum_4bit_dist_table/simd/{}", label), |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                dists.fill(0);
+                sum_4bit_dist_table(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut dists);
+                black_box(&dists);
+            })
+        });
+
+        // Scalar reference path
+        c.bench_function(&format!("sum_4bit_dist_table/scalar/{}", label), |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                dists.fill(0);
+                sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut dists);
+                black_box(&dists);
+            })
+        });
+    }
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
+    targets = bench_sum_4bit_dist_table
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/dot.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/dot.rs
index 8175591e6b6..5f2af93f30f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/dot.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/dot.rs
@@ -1,22 +1,24 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::iter::{repeat_with, Sum};
+use std::iter::{Sum, repeat_with};
 use std::time::Duration;
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
     Float32Array,
+    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
 };
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use half::bf16;
 use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FloatArray};
 use num_traits::Float;
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
-use lance_linalg::distance::dot::{dot, dot_distance, Dot};
+use lance_linalg::distance::dot::{Dot, dot, dot_distance};
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
 use rand::Rng;
 
@@ -107,6 +109,40 @@ fn bench_distance(c: &mut Criterion) {
         });
     });
 
+    // u8 dot product benchmarks: scalar baseline vs SIMD dispatch
+    {
+        use lance_linalg::distance::dot_u8::{dot_u8, dot_u8_scalar};
+
+        for &dim in &[128, 256, 512, 1024] {
+            let num_vectors = 1024 * 1024 / dim; // ~1M elements total
+            let mut rng = rand::rng();
+            let key_u8: Vec<u8> = (0..dim).map(|_| rng.random()).collect();
+            let target_u8: Vec<u8> = (0..num_vectors * dim).map(|_| rng.random()).collect();
+
+            c.bench_function(&format!("Dot(u8, scalar, dim={dim})"), |b| {
+                b.iter(|| {
+                    black_box(
+                        target_u8
+                            .chunks(dim)
+                            .map(|y| dot_u8_scalar(key_u8.as_slice(), y))
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )
+                });
+            });
+
+            c.bench_function(&format!("Dot(u8, dispatch, dim={dim})"), |b| {
+                b.iter(|| {
+                    black_box(
+                        target_u8
+                            .chunks(dim)
+                            .map(|y| dot_u8(key_u8.as_slice(), y))
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )
+                });
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
     run_bench::<Float32Type>(c);
     c.bench_function("Dot(f32, SIMD)", |b| {
         let key = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(DIMENSION, [0; 32]);
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/hamming.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/hamming.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index ebafc8d028a..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/hamming.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,50 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-use std::iter::repeat_with;
-
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
-use lance_linalg::distance::hamming::{hamming, hamming_scalar};
-use rand::Rng;
-
-const DIMENSION: usize = 1024;
-const TOTAL: usize = 1024 * 1024; // 1M vectors
-
-fn bench_hamming(c: &mut Criterion) {
-    let mut rng = rand::rng();
-
-    let key = repeat_with(|| rng.random::<u8>())
-        .take(DIMENSION)
-        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-    let target = repeat_with(|| rng.random::<u8>())
-        .take(TOTAL * DIMENSION)
-        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-    c.bench_function("hamming,scalar", |b| {
-        b.iter(|| {
-            black_box(
-                target
-                    .chunks_exact(DIMENSION)
-                    .map(|tgt| hamming_scalar(&key, tgt))
-                    .sum::<f32>(),
-            );
-        })
-    });
-
-    c.bench_function("hamming,auto_vec", |b| {
-        b.iter(|| {
-            black_box(
-                target
-                    .chunks_exact(DIMENSION)
-                    .map(|tgt| hamming(&key, tgt))
-                    .sum::<f32>(),
-            );
-        })
-    });
-}
-
-criterion_group!(
-    name=benches;
-    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
-    targets = bench_hamming);
-criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/l2.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/l2.rs
index efb490ffbef..f01d8a073ac 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/l2.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/l2.rs
@@ -4,18 +4,21 @@
 use std::iter::repeat_with;
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
     Float32Array,
+    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
 };
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use num_traits::{AsPrimitive, Float};
 use rand::Rng;
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FloatArray};
-use lance_linalg::distance::{l2::l2, l2_distance_batch, l2_distance_uint_scalar, L2};
+use lance_linalg::distance::l2_u8::l2_u8;
+use lance_linalg::distance::{L2, l2::l2, l2_distance_batch, l2_distance_uint_scalar};
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
 
 const DIMENSION: usize = 1024;
@@ -106,13 +109,10 @@ fn bench_small_distance(c: &mut Criterion) {
 fn l2_distance_uint_scalar_auto_vectorized(key: &[u8], target: &[u8]) -> f32 {
     let mut sum = 0;
     const LANE: usize = 16;
-    let x_chunks = key.chunks_exact(LANE);
-    let y_chunks = target.chunks_exact(LANE);
+    let (x_chunks, x_reminder) = key.as_chunks::<LANE>();
+    let (y_chunks, y_reminder) = target.as_chunks::<LANE>();
 
-    let x_reminder = x_chunks.remainder();
-    let y_reminder = y_chunks.remainder();
-
-    for (x, y) in x_chunks.zip(y_chunks) {
+    for (x, y) in x_chunks.iter().zip(y_chunks) {
         let mut s: u32 = 0;
         for i in 0..LANE {
             s += (x[i].abs_diff(y[i]) as u32).pow(2);
@@ -140,7 +140,9 @@ fn bench_uint_distance(c: &mut Criterion) {
         b.iter(|| {
             black_box(
                 target
-                    .chunks_exact(DIMENSION)
+                    .as_chunks::<DIMENSION>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter()
                     .map(|tgt| l2_distance_uint_scalar(&key, tgt))
                     .fold(0.0, |acc, v| acc + v),
             );
@@ -151,12 +153,27 @@ fn bench_uint_distance(c: &mut Criterion) {
         b.iter(|| {
             black_box(
                 target
-                    .chunks_exact(DIMENSION)
+                    .as_chunks::<DIMENSION>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter()
                     .map(|tgt| l2_distance_uint_scalar_auto_vectorized(&key, tgt))
                     .fold(0.0, |acc, v| acc + v),
             );
         });
     });
+
+    c.bench_function("L2(u8, SIMD)", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            black_box(
+                target
+                    .as_chunks::<DIMENSION>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|tgt| l2_u8(&key, tgt) as f32)
+                    .fold(0.0, |acc, v| acc + v),
+            );
+        });
+    });
 }
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/norm_l2.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/norm_l2.rs
index 23618101404..73b8e5d526d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/benches/norm_l2.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/benches/norm_l2.rs
@@ -4,20 +4,22 @@
 use std::iter::repeat_with;
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
     Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array,
+    types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
 };
-use criterion::{black_box, criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use half::{bf16, f16};
 use num_traits::Float;
 use rand::Rng;
 
-use lance_arrow::{bfloat16::BFloat16Type, ArrowFloatType, FloatArray};
-use lance_linalg::distance::{norm_l2, norm_l2_impl};
+use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FloatArray, bfloat16::BFloat16Type};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{norm_l2, norm_l2_f64_simd, norm_l2_impl};
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed;
 
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 const DIMENSION: usize = 1024;
 const TOTAL: usize = 1024 * 1024; // 1M vectors
@@ -48,8 +50,10 @@ fn run_bench<T: ArrowFloatType>(
             b.iter(|| {
                 black_box(
                     target
-                        .chunks_exact(DIMENSION)
-                        .map(auto_vec_impl)
+                        .as_chunks::<DIMENSION>()
+                        .0
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|v| auto_vec_impl(v))
                         .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
                 );
             });
@@ -63,8 +67,10 @@ fn run_bench<T: ArrowFloatType>(
                 b.iter(|| {
                     black_box(
                         target
-                            .chunks_exact(DIMENSION)
-                            .map(simd_impl)
+                            .as_chunks::<DIMENSION>()
+                            .0
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|v| simd_impl(v))
                             .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
                     );
                 });
@@ -106,7 +112,7 @@ fn bench_distance(c: &mut Criterion) {
         c,
         target.as_slice(),
         norm_l2_impl::<f64, f32, 8>,
-        None, // TODO: implement SIMD for f64
+        Some(norm_l2_f64_simd),
     );
 }
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/build.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/build.rs
index 10385e35431..de7199d425f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/build.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/build.rs
@@ -16,10 +16,16 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), String> {
     }
 
     // Let clippy know about our custom cfg attribute
-    println!("cargo::rustc-check-cfg=cfg(kernel_support, values(\"avx512\"))");
+    println!(
+        "cargo::rustc-check-cfg=cfg(kernel_support, values(\"avx512_f16\", \"avx512_bf16\", \"avx512_dist_table\", \"amx_fp16\"))"
+    );
+    println!("cargo::rustc-check-cfg=cfg(simd_fallback)");
 
     println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=src/simd/f16.c");
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=src/simd/bf16.c");
     println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=src/simd/dist_table.c");
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=src/simd/amx_fp16.c");
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-env-changed=LANCE_AMX_FP16_CC");
 
     // Important: we don't use `cfg!(target_arch)` here because that is the target_arch
     // for the build script, not the target_arch for the library. Similar story for
@@ -27,6 +33,11 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), String> {
     let target_arch = env::var("CARGO_CFG_TARGET_ARCH").unwrap();
     let target_os = env::var("CARGO_CFG_TARGET_OS").unwrap();
 
+    // Architectures without SIMD kernels back the vector types with plain arrays.
+    if !matches!(target_arch.as_str(), "x86_64" | "aarch64" | "loongarch64") {
+        println!("cargo:rustc-cfg=simd_fallback");
+    }
+
     if target_os == "windows" {
         println!(
             "cargo:warning=fp16 kernels are not supported on Windows. Skipping compilation of kernels."
@@ -37,9 +48,16 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), String> {
     if target_arch == "aarch64" && target_os == "macos" {
         // Build a version with NEON
         build_f16_with_flags("neon", &["-mtune=apple-m1"]).unwrap();
-    } else if target_arch == "aarch64" && target_os == "linux" {
+        build_bf16_with_flags("neon", &["-mtune=apple-m1"]).unwrap();
+    } else if target_arch == "aarch64" && target_os == "ios" {
+        // Build version with NEON
+        // A13 bionic is the earliest supported iOS SOC
+        build_f16_with_flags("neon", &["-mtune=apple-a13"]).unwrap();
+        build_bf16_with_flags("neon", &["-mtune=apple-a13"]).unwrap();
+    } else if target_arch == "aarch64" && (target_os == "linux" || target_os == "android") {
         // Build a version with NEON
         build_f16_with_flags("neon", &["-march=armv8.2-a+fp16"]).unwrap();
+        build_bf16_with_flags("neon", &["-march=armv8.2-a+fp16"]).unwrap();
     } else if target_arch == "x86_64" {
         // Build a version with AVX512
         if let Err(err) = build_f16_with_flags("avx512", &["-march=sapphirerapids", "-mavx512fp16"])
@@ -50,31 +68,81 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), String> {
                 "cargo:warning=Skipping build of AVX-512 fp16 kernels. Error: {}",
                 err
             );
-        } else {
+        } else if cfg!(feature = "fp16kernels") {
             // We create a special cfg so that we can detect we have in fact
             // generated the AVX512 version of the f16 kernels.
-            println!("cargo:rustc-cfg=kernel_support=\"avx512\"");
+            println!("cargo:rustc-cfg=kernel_support=\"avx512_f16\"");
+        };
+        // Build AVX-512 bf16 kernels (sapphirerapids has native vdpbf16ps)
+        if let Err(err) =
+            build_bf16_with_flags("avx512", &["-march=sapphirerapids", "-mavx512fp16"])
+        {
+            println!(
+                "cargo:warning=Skipping build of AVX-512 bf16 kernels. Error: {}",
+                err
+            );
+        } else if cfg!(feature = "fp16kernels") {
+            println!("cargo:rustc-cfg=kernel_support=\"avx512_bf16\"");
         };
-        if let Err(err) = build_dist_table_with_flags("avx512", &["-march=native"]) {
+        if let Err(err) = build_dist_table_with_flags("avx512", &["-march=sapphirerapids"]) {
             println!(
                 "cargo:warning=Skipping build of AVX-512 dist_table. Error: {}",
                 err
             );
         } else {
-            println!("cargo:rustc-cfg=kernel_support=\"avx512\"");
+            println!("cargo:rustc-cfg=kernel_support=\"avx512_dist_table\"");
         };
+        // Build the AMX-FP16 batched f16 dot-product kernel (Granite Rapids+).
+        //
+        // No cargo feature of its own: whether it can be built is a property of
+        // the toolchain, not a choice the user makes. `-mamx-fp16` needs clang
+        // >= 16 or gcc >= 13, so a capable compiler is probed for below; if none
+        // is found we warn, skip the kernel, and leave `kernel_support` unset.
+        //
+        // Linux only: every Rust-side cfg gate on this kernel also demands
+        // `target_os = "linux"`, and entering it needs XTILEDATA from
+        // `arch_prctl(ARCH_REQ_XCOMP_PERM)`, which is Linux-specific.
+        if target_os == "linux" {
+            if let Err(err) =
+                build_amx_fp16_with_flags(&["-march=sapphirerapids", "-mamx-fp16", "-mamx-tile"])
+            {
+                println!(
+                    "cargo:warning=Skipping build of AMX-FP16 kernels. Error: {}",
+                    err
+                );
+            } else {
+                println!("cargo:rustc-cfg=kernel_support=\"amx_fp16\"");
+            };
+        }
         // Build a version with AVX
         // While GCC doesn't have support for _Float16 until GCC 12, clang
         // has support for __fp16 going back to at least clang 6.
         // We use haswell since it's the oldest CPUs on AWS.
-        if let Err(err) = build_f16_with_flags("avx2", &["-march=haswell"]) {
-            return Err(format!("Unable to build AVX2 f16 kernels.  Please use Clang >= 6 or GCC >= 12 or remove the fp16kernels feature.  Received error: {}", err));
+        // Keep the AVX2 L2 reductions lane-partitioned. A single reassociated
+        // float accumulator can exceed the public 1e-6 relative-error contract
+        // for long f16 vectors.
+        if let Err(err) =
+            build_f16_with_flags("avx2", &["-march=haswell", "-DPRECISE_F16_REDUCTION"])
+        {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "Unable to build AVX2 f16 kernels.  Please use Clang >= 6 or GCC >= 12 or remove the fp16kernels feature.  Received error: {}",
+                err
+            ));
+        };
+        // Build AVX2 bf16 kernels (bf16-to-f32 is just a shift, auto-vectorizes well)
+        if let Err(err) = build_bf16_with_flags("avx2", &["-march=haswell"]) {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "Unable to build AVX2 bf16 kernels.  Received error: {}",
+                err
+            ));
         };
         // There is no SSE instruction set for f16 -> f32 float conversion
     } else if target_arch == "loongarch64" {
         // Build a version with LSX and LASX
         build_f16_with_flags("lsx", &["-mlsx"]).unwrap();
         build_f16_with_flags("lasx", &["-mlasx"]).unwrap();
+        build_bf16_with_flags("lsx", &["-mlsx"]).unwrap();
+        build_bf16_with_flags("lasx", &["-mlasx"]).unwrap();
     } else {
         // Only error if fp16kernels was explicitly requested on unsupported platform.
         // This allows builds on iOS, Android, etc. when the feature is disabled.
@@ -121,6 +189,32 @@ fn build_f16_with_flags(suffix: &str, flags: &[&str]) -> Result<(), cc::Error> {
     builder.try_compile(&format!("f16_{}", suffix))
 }
 
+fn build_bf16_with_flags(suffix: &str, flags: &[&str]) -> Result<(), cc::Error> {
+    if cfg!(not(feature = "fp16kernels")) {
+        println!(
+            "cargo:warning=fp16kernels feature is not enabled, skipping build of bf16 kernels"
+        );
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let mut builder = cc::Build::new();
+    builder
+        .std("c17")
+        .file("src/simd/bf16.c")
+        .flag("-ffast-math")
+        .flag("-funroll-loops")
+        .flag("-O3")
+        .flag("-Wall")
+        .flag("-Wextra")
+        .flag(format!("-DSUFFIX=_{}", suffix).as_str());
+
+    for flag in flags {
+        builder.flag(flag);
+    }
+
+    builder.try_compile(&format!("bf16_{}", suffix))
+}
+
 fn build_dist_table_with_flags(suffix: &str, flags: &[&str]) -> Result<(), cc::Error> {
     let mut builder = cc::Build::new();
     builder
@@ -137,3 +231,96 @@ fn build_dist_table_with_flags(suffix: &str, flags: &[&str]) -> Result<(), cc::E
     }
     builder.try_compile(&format!("dist_table_{}", suffix))
 }
+
+/// Compile the AMX-FP16 kernel. Unlike the other kernels this may need a
+/// different C compiler: `_tile_dpfp16ps` / `-mamx-fp16` require clang >= 16 or
+/// gcc >= 13, which is often newer than the platform default `cc`. We probe for
+/// a capable compiler (respecting a `LANCE_AMX_FP16_CC` override) and use it
+/// only for this one file; everything else keeps using the default toolchain.
+fn build_amx_fp16_with_flags(flags: &[&str]) -> Result<(), String> {
+    let compiler = find_amx_fp16_compiler(flags).ok_or_else(|| {
+        "no C compiler supporting -mamx-fp16 found (need clang>=16 or gcc>=13; \
+         set LANCE_AMX_FP16_CC to override)"
+            .to_string()
+    })?;
+    let mut builder = cc::Build::new();
+    builder
+        .compiler(&compiler)
+        .std("c17")
+        .file("src/simd/amx_fp16.c")
+        .flag("-funroll-loops")
+        .flag("-O3")
+        .flag("-Wall")
+        .flag("-Wextra");
+    for flag in flags {
+        builder.flag(flag);
+    }
+    builder.try_compile("amx_fp16").map_err(|e| e.to_string())
+}
+
+/// Find a C compiler that can build the AMX-FP16 kernel with `flags`, in order:
+/// the `LANCE_AMX_FP16_CC` override, the default toolchain `cc`, then common
+/// modern clang names. Returns the first that compiles a `_tile_dpfp16ps` probe.
+fn find_amx_fp16_compiler(flags: &[&str]) -> Option<String> {
+    let mut candidates: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
+    if let Ok(cc) = env::var("LANCE_AMX_FP16_CC") {
+        candidates.push(cc);
+    }
+    if let Ok(default_cc) = cc::Build::new()
+        .get_compiler()
+        .path()
+        .to_str()
+        .ok_or(())
+        .map(str::to_string)
+    {
+        candidates.push(default_cc);
+    }
+    for c in ["clang-18", "clang-17", "clang-16", "clang"] {
+        candidates.push(c.to_string());
+    }
+    candidates
+        .into_iter()
+        .find(|cc| cc_supports_amx_fp16(cc, flags))
+}
+
+/// True iff invoking `cc` with `flags` can compile a translation unit that uses
+/// `_tile_dpfp16ps`. `-Werror=implicit-function-declaration` turns gcc's
+/// "intrinsic not declared" *warning* (which otherwise still exits 0 on the
+/// too-old gcc that lacks amx-fp16) into a hard failure.
+fn cc_supports_amx_fp16(cc: &str, flags: &[&str]) -> bool {
+    use std::io::Write;
+    use std::process::{Command, Stdio};
+
+    let src = b"#include <immintrin.h>\n\
+        void t(const void* a, const void* b) {\n\
+        _tile_loadd(1, a, 64); _tile_loadd(2, b, 4);\n\
+        _tile_dpfp16ps(0, 1, 2); _tile_release(); }\n";
+    let out = env::var("OUT_DIR")
+        .map(|d| format!("{d}/amx_fp16_probe.o"))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| "/dev/null".to_string());
+
+    let mut cmd = Command::new(cc);
+    cmd.args(flags)
+        .args([
+            "-Werror=implicit-function-declaration",
+            "-x",
+            "c",
+            "-c",
+            "-",
+            "-o",
+        ])
+        .arg(&out)
+        .stdin(Stdio::piped())
+        .stdout(Stdio::null())
+        .stderr(Stdio::null());
+
+    let Ok(mut child) = cmd.spawn() else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    if let Some(mut stdin) = child.stdin.take()
+        && stdin.write_all(src).is_err()
+    {
+        return false;
+    }
+    child.wait().map(|s| s.success()).unwrap_or(false)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/proptest-regressions/distance/cosine.txt b/rust/lance-linalg/proptest-regressions/distance/cosine.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..04e6dcb967f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/proptest-regressions/distance/cosine.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# Seeds for failure cases proptest has generated in the past. It is
+# automatically read and these particular cases re-run before any
+# novel cases are generated.
+#
+# It is recommended to check this file in to source control so that
+# everyone who runs the test benefits from these saved cases.
+cc 679c764b02e2726ec2d943b3abdc7d7d3565e168d4081b155860c1e69b616fce # shrinks to (x, y) = ([-1.2933521e-15, -1.1194652e-8, 7.447341e-32, -0.0, -14247490.0, -8.55e-43, -4576.872, 0.009181444], [4.926e-42, -9.267065e-15, -0.0, 7e-45, -0.00036999694, -0.0, -5.7810876e-8, 1.9273644e-21])
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance.rs
index 84c81fe85ed..9822eee2592 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance.rs
@@ -12,21 +12,377 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, UInt8Type};
-use arrow_array::{Array, ArrowPrimitiveType, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, ListArray};
+use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, Int8Type, UInt8Type};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrowPrimitiveType, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, ListArray, PrimitiveArray,
+};
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
+use lance_core::utils::cpu::SimdSupport;
 
 pub mod cosine;
+pub mod cosine_u8;
 pub mod dot;
+pub mod dot_f16;
+pub mod dot_u8;
 pub mod hamming;
 pub mod l2;
+pub mod l2_u8;
 pub mod norm_l2;
 
+/// Widens an `Int8` query vector to `f32`, rejecting nulls.
+///
+/// The three `_arrow_batch` entry points that accept `Int8` take the query as a
+/// `&dyn Array`, so it has to be widened before it reaches a kernel. A null
+/// element has no distance to compute, so it is rejected rather than widened.
+fn int8_query_to_f32(query: &PrimitiveArray<Int8Type>) -> Result<Float32Array> {
+    if query.null_count() > 0 {
+        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "Int8 query vector `from` must not contain nulls, found {} in {} values",
+            query.null_count(),
+            query.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(Float32Array::from(
+        query.values().iter().map(|&v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    ))
+}
+
+// `#[track_caller]` on both helpers is load-bearing: without it a length-contract
+// panic reports this file rather than the distance function the caller reached.
+// See #8863.
+#[inline]
+#[track_caller]
+fn assert_equal_lengths(left_len: usize, right_len: usize) {
+    assert_eq!(
+        left_len, right_len,
+        "distance inputs must have equal lengths: left={left_len}, right={right_len}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[inline]
+#[track_caller]
+fn assert_batch_layout(vector_len: usize, batch_len: usize, dimension: usize) {
+    assert!(
+        dimension > 0,
+        "distance dimension must be greater than zero"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        vector_len, dimension,
+        "distance vector length must match dimension: vector={vector_len}, dimension={dimension}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch_len % dimension,
+        0,
+        "distance batch length must be divisible by dimension: batch={batch_len}, dimension={dimension}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Runtime backend shared by the f16 and bf16 C kernels.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum HalfBackend {
+    Avx512,
+    Avx2,
+    Neon,
+    Lsx,
+    Lasx,
+    Scalar,
+}
+
+/// Half-precision element type whose fallback kernel is being selected.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum HalfType {
+    F16,
+    Bf16,
+}
+
+/// CPU features required by the x86 fallback objects.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct X86HalfFeatures {
+    has_avx2: bool,
+    has_f16c: bool,
+    has_fma: bool,
+}
+
+/// Whether this target links the optional half-precision C objects.
+const HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED: bool = cfg!(all(
+    feature = "fp16kernels",
+    not(target_os = "windows"),
+    any(
+        target_arch = "aarch64",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_arch = "loongarch64"
+    )
+));
+
+/// Selects a half-precision backend without reading host or build state so the
+/// exclusive SIMD tier ladder can be tested on any machine.
+fn half_backend(
+    support: SimdSupport,
+    half_type: HalfType,
+    has_kernels: bool,
+    has_avx512_kernel: bool,
+    x86_features: X86HalfFeatures,
+) -> HalfBackend {
+    if !has_kernels {
+        return HalfBackend::Scalar;
+    }
+
+    match support {
+        SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 if has_avx512_kernel => HalfBackend::Avx512,
+        // SIMD_SUPPORT reports one exclusive tier. An AVX-512 host that cannot
+        // use the optional AVX-512 C object must therefore be named here to
+        // reach the always-built x86 fallback object.
+        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 | SimdSupport::Avx2
+            if x86_features.has_fma
+                && match half_type {
+                    HalfType::F16 => x86_features.has_f16c,
+                    HalfType::Bf16 => x86_features.has_avx2,
+                } =>
+        {
+            HalfBackend::Avx2
+        }
+        SimdSupport::Neon => HalfBackend::Neon,
+        SimdSupport::Lsx => HalfBackend::Lsx,
+        SimdSupport::Lasx => HalfBackend::Lasx,
+        _ => HalfBackend::Scalar,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Detects every feature emitted by the x86 fallback objects.
+#[inline]
+fn x86_half_features() -> X86HalfFeatures {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        X86HalfFeatures {
+            has_avx2: std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2"),
+            has_f16c: std::is_x86_feature_detected!("f16c"),
+            has_fma: std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma"),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        X86HalfFeatures::default()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Largest number of maximal u8 product terms whose sum fits in a u32.
+const U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN: usize = u32::MAX as usize / (u8::MAX as usize * u8::MAX as usize);
+
+/// Number of distances computed per call into a runtime-selected batch kernel.
+///
+/// Keeping a small output buffer amortizes the `#[target_feature]` call while
+/// avoiding the allocation and full-batch materialization that dominate the
+/// common dimension-8 case.
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+const BATCH_BUFFER_SIZE: usize = 64;
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+pub(crate) type BatchKernel = unsafe fn(&[f32], &[f32], usize, &mut [f32]);
+
+/// Runtime-selected target-feature tier for a batch kernel.
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub(crate) enum BatchKind {
+    Scalar,
+    Avx,
+    AvxFma,
+    Avx512,
+}
+
+/// Per-vector operations used when a batch consumer can be folded directly.
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+pub(crate) trait BatchOperation {
+    fn fold_scalar<B, F>(key: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, init: B, f: F) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B;
+
+    unsafe fn fold_avx<B, F>(key: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, init: B, f: F) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B;
+
+    unsafe fn fold_avx_fma<B, F>(key: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, init: B, f: F) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B;
+
+    unsafe fn fold_avx512<B, F>(key: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, init: B, f: F) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B;
+}
+
+/// Allocation-free iterator over a runtime-selected f32 distance kernel.
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+pub(crate) struct BatchIter<'a, O> {
+    key: &'a [f32],
+    batch: &'a [f32],
+    dimension: usize,
+    kernel: BatchKernel,
+    kind: BatchKind,
+    buffer: [f32; BATCH_BUFFER_SIZE],
+    buffer_index: usize,
+    buffer_len: usize,
+    operation: std::marker::PhantomData<O>,
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+impl<'a, O> BatchIter<'a, O> {
+    /// Creates an iterator after the caller has verified `kernel`'s CPU feature
+    /// requirements.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The host must support every target feature required by `kernel`.
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) unsafe fn new(
+        key: &'a [f32],
+        batch: &'a [f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        kernel: BatchKernel,
+        kind: BatchKind,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // Match `chunks_exact` validation before the buffered iterator performs
+        // division by the dimension.
+        let _ = batch.chunks_exact(dimension);
+        Self {
+            key,
+            batch,
+            dimension,
+            kernel,
+            kind,
+            buffer: [0.0; BATCH_BUFFER_SIZE],
+            buffer_index: 0,
+            buffer_len: 0,
+            operation: std::marker::PhantomData,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn refill(&mut self) -> bool {
+        let num_vectors = (self.batch.len() / self.dimension).min(BATCH_BUFFER_SIZE);
+        if num_vectors == 0 {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        let num_values = num_vectors * self.dimension;
+        let (input, remaining) = self.batch.split_at(num_values);
+        // SAFETY: `new` requires the caller to verify the selected kernel's
+        // target features before constructing the iterator.
+        unsafe {
+            (self.kernel)(
+                self.key,
+                input,
+                self.dimension,
+                &mut self.buffer[..num_vectors],
+            );
+        }
+        self.batch = remaining;
+        self.buffer_index = 0;
+        self.buffer_len = num_vectors;
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+impl<O: BatchOperation> Iterator for BatchIter<'_, O> {
+    type Item = f32;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        if self.buffer_index == self.buffer_len && !self.refill() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let value = self.buffer[self.buffer_index];
+        self.buffer_index += 1;
+        Some(value)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn size_hint(&self) -> (usize, Option<usize>) {
+        let len = self.len();
+        (len, Some(len))
+    }
+
+    /// Processes each filled buffer directly so consumers such as `sum` do not
+    /// pay a refill check for every distance.
+    #[inline]
+    fn fold<B, F>(self, init: B, mut f: F) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, Self::Item) -> B,
+    {
+        let accumulator = self.buffer[self.buffer_index..self.buffer_len]
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .fold(init, &mut f);
+
+        // SAFETY: `new` requires the caller to verify the selected tier's
+        // target features. Each helper runs the complete remaining loop in
+        // that target-feature context, avoiding intermediate output writes.
+        match self.kind {
+            BatchKind::Scalar => {
+                O::fold_scalar(self.key, self.batch, self.dimension, accumulator, f)
+            }
+            BatchKind::Avx => unsafe {
+                O::fold_avx(self.key, self.batch, self.dimension, accumulator, f)
+            },
+            BatchKind::AvxFma => unsafe {
+                O::fold_avx_fma(self.key, self.batch, self.dimension, accumulator, f)
+            },
+            BatchKind::Avx512 => unsafe {
+                O::fold_avx512(self.key, self.batch, self.dimension, accumulator, f)
+            },
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn for_each<F>(self, mut f: F)
+    where
+        F: FnMut(Self::Item),
+    {
+        self.fold((), |(), value| f(value));
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+impl<O: BatchOperation> ExactSizeIterator for BatchIter<'_, O> {
+    #[inline]
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.buffer_len - self.buffer_index + self.batch.len() / self.dimension
+    }
+}
+
 pub use cosine::*;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 pub use dot::*;
-use hamming::hamming_distance_arrow_batch;
+pub use hamming::{
+    BinaryHashValues, Cluster, ClusteringResult, PairwiseResult, UnionFind, cluster_edges,
+    cluster_pairwise_result, extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list, extract_hashes_from_fixed_list,
+    hamming_distance_arrow_batch, hamming_u64, pairwise_hamming_distance,
+    pairwise_hamming_distance_binary, pairwise_hamming_distance_binary_parallel,
+    pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel,
+};
 pub use l2::*;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 pub use norm_l2::*;
 
 use crate::Result;
@@ -104,28 +460,79 @@ impl TryFrom<&str> for DistanceType {
     }
 }
 
+/// Computes the additive late-interaction distance from a multivector query.
+///
+/// For each query sub-vector, this finds the minimum distance to any stored
+/// sub-vector in the row, then sums those minimum distances. Null or empty
+/// stored rows produce `NaN`.
 pub fn multivec_distance(
     query: &dyn Array,
     vectors: &ListArray,
     distance_type: DistanceType,
 ) -> Result<Vec<f32>> {
-    let dim = if let DataType::FixedSizeList(_, dim) = vectors.value_type() {
-        dim as usize
-    } else {
-        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
-            "vectors must be a list of fixed size list".to_string(),
-        ));
-    };
-
-    // check the query vectors type first
-    // because we don't want to check the vectors type for each vector
-    match query.data_type() {
-        DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64 | DataType::UInt8 => {}
+    let (element_type, dim) = match vectors.value_type() {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(field, dim) => (field.data_type().clone(), dim as usize),
         _ => {
             return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
-                "query must be a float array or binary array".to_string(),
+                "vectors must be a list of fixed size list".to_string(),
             ));
         }
+    };
+
+    // Validate the query once, up front, rather than per vector. The type and
+    // metric checks below prevent an arrow downcast panic or the `unreachable!`
+    // dispatch arm — the dispatch picks its kernel type from the query's dtype
+    // and then downcasts the *stored* values to that same type. The dim, null
+    // and length checks prevent a `chunks_exact` panic and, worse, silently
+    // wrong results: a short query yields no sub-vectors and scores every row
+    // `0.0`, and a null slot is scored from whatever the values buffer holds.
+    let query_type = query.data_type();
+    // Which element types have a kernel here at all. `Int8` is a valid vector
+    // element type elsewhere in the stack (`l2_distance_arrow_batch` and its
+    // siblings have an `Int8` arm) but has no multivector kernel, so it is
+    // rejected for the type, not the metric.
+    let type_supported = matches!(
+        query_type,
+        DataType::UInt8 | DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64
+    );
+    if !type_supported {
+        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "multivec_distance: unsupported vector element type {query_type}"
+        )));
+    }
+    let metric_supported = match query_type {
+        DataType::UInt8 => distance_type == DistanceType::Hamming,
+        _ => matches!(
+            distance_type,
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot
+        ),
+    };
+    if !metric_supported {
+        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "multivec_distance: distance type {distance_type} does not support query type {query_type}"
+        )));
+    }
+    if *query_type != element_type {
+        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "multivec_distance: query type {query_type} does not match the stored vector type {element_type}"
+        )));
+    }
+    if dim == 0 {
+        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+            "multivec_distance: stored vectors have dimension 0".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    if query.null_count() > 0 {
+        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "multivec_distance: query must not contain nulls, got {} null(s)",
+            query.null_count()
+        )));
+    }
+    if query.is_empty() || !query.len().is_multiple_of(dim) {
+        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "multivec_distance: query length {} must be a positive multiple of the vector dimension {dim}",
+            query.len()
+        )));
     }
 
     let mut dists = Vec::with_capacity(vectors.len());
@@ -139,47 +546,37 @@ pub fn multivec_distance(
                     continue;
                 }
 
-                let sim = match distance_type {
-                    DistanceType::Hamming => {
-                        let query = query.as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values();
-                        query
-                            .chunks_exact(dim)
-                            .map(|q| {
-                                multivector
-                                    .values()
-                                    .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
-                                    .values()
-                                    .chunks_exact(dim)
-                                    .map(|v| hamming::hamming(q, v))
-                                    .min_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap())
-                                    .unwrap()
-                            })
-                            .sum()
-                    }
+                let distance = match distance_type {
+                    DistanceType::Hamming => multivec_distance_impl::<UInt8Type>(
+                        query,
+                        multivector,
+                        dim,
+                        hamming::hamming,
+                    ),
                     _ => match query.data_type() {
                         DataType::Float16 => multivec_distance_impl::<Float16Type>(
                             query,
                             multivector,
                             dim,
-                            distance_type,
+                            distance_type.func(),
                         ),
                         DataType::Float32 => multivec_distance_impl::<Float32Type>(
                             query,
                             multivector,
                             dim,
-                            distance_type,
+                            distance_type.func(),
                         ),
                         DataType::Float64 => multivec_distance_impl::<Float64Type>(
                             query,
                             multivector,
                             dim,
-                            distance_type,
+                            distance_type.func(),
                         ),
                         _ => unreachable!("missed to check query type"),
                     },
                 };
 
-                dists.push(1.0 - sim);
+                dists.push(distance);
             }
         }
     }
@@ -190,11 +587,8 @@ fn multivec_distance_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
     query: &dyn Array,
     multivector: &FixedSizeListArray,
     dim: usize,
-    distance_type: DistanceType,
-) -> f32
-where
-    T::Native: L2 + Cosine + Dot,
-{
+    distance_func: DistanceFunc<T::Native>,
+) -> f32 {
     let query = query.as_primitive::<T>().values();
     query
         .chunks_exact(dim)
@@ -204,8 +598,8 @@ where
                 .as_primitive::<T>()
                 .values()
                 .chunks_exact(dim)
-                .map(|v| 1.0 - distance_type.func()(q, v))
-                .max_by(|a, b| a.total_cmp(b))
+                .map(|v| distance_func(q, v))
+                .min_by(|a, b| a.total_cmp(b))
                 .unwrap()
         })
         .sum()
@@ -215,12 +609,498 @@ where
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    use std::io::Write;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
-    use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-    use arrow_array::{Float32Array, ListArray};
-    use arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer;
+    use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Int8Type};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Float32Array, Float64Array, Int8Array, Int32Array, ListArray, PrimitiveArray, UInt8Array,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
     use arrow_schema::Field;
+    use half::f16;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+    const NO_X86_HALF_FEATURES: X86HalfFeatures = X86HalfFeatures {
+        has_avx2: false,
+        has_f16c: false,
+        has_fma: false,
+    };
+    const F16_X86_HALF_FEATURES: X86HalfFeatures = X86HalfFeatures {
+        has_avx2: false,
+        has_f16c: true,
+        has_fma: true,
+    };
+    const BF16_X86_HALF_FEATURES: X86HalfFeatures = X86HalfFeatures {
+        has_avx2: true,
+        has_f16c: false,
+        has_fma: true,
+    };
+    const ALL_X86_HALF_FEATURES: X86HalfFeatures = X86HalfFeatures {
+        has_avx2: true,
+        has_f16c: true,
+        has_fma: true,
+    };
+    const X86_HALF_FEATURES_WITHOUT_FMA: X86HalfFeatures = X86HalfFeatures {
+        has_avx2: true,
+        has_f16c: true,
+        has_fma: false,
+    };
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::kernels_disabled(
+        SimdSupport::Avx512FP16,
+        HalfType::F16,
+        false,
+        false,
+        ALL_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Scalar
+    )]
+    #[case::avx512_kernel_ready(
+        SimdSupport::Avx512FP16,
+        HalfType::F16,
+        true,
+        true,
+        NO_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Avx512
+    )]
+    #[case::f16_fallback_from_avx512fp16(
+        SimdSupport::Avx512FP16,
+        HalfType::F16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        F16_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Avx2
+    )]
+    #[case::bf16_fallback_from_avx512fp16(
+        SimdSupport::Avx512FP16,
+        HalfType::Bf16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        BF16_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Avx2
+    )]
+    #[case::fallback_from_avx512(
+        SimdSupport::Avx512,
+        HalfType::Bf16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        BF16_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Avx2
+    )]
+    #[case::f16_missing_f16c(
+        SimdSupport::Avx512FP16,
+        HalfType::F16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        BF16_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Scalar
+    )]
+    #[case::bf16_missing_avx2(
+        SimdSupport::Avx512FP16,
+        HalfType::Bf16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        F16_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Scalar
+    )]
+    #[case::fallback_missing_fma(
+        SimdSupport::Avx512FP16,
+        HalfType::F16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        X86_HALF_FEATURES_WITHOUT_FMA,
+        HalfBackend::Scalar
+    )]
+    #[case::avx2_tier(
+        SimdSupport::Avx2,
+        HalfType::Bf16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        BF16_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Avx2
+    )]
+    #[case::neon(
+        SimdSupport::Neon,
+        HalfType::F16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        NO_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Neon
+    )]
+    #[case::lsx(
+        SimdSupport::Lsx,
+        HalfType::Bf16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        NO_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Lsx
+    )]
+    #[case::lasx(
+        SimdSupport::Lasx,
+        HalfType::Bf16,
+        true,
+        false,
+        NO_X86_HALF_FEATURES,
+        HalfBackend::Lasx
+    )]
+    fn half_backend_follows_exclusive_tier_and_feature_requirements(
+        #[case] support: SimdSupport,
+        #[case] half_type: HalfType,
+        #[case] has_kernels: bool,
+        #[case] has_avx512_kernel: bool,
+        #[case] features: X86HalfFeatures,
+        #[case] expected: HalfBackend,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            half_backend(support, half_type, has_kernels, has_avx512_kernel, features),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_x86_runtime_feature_report() {
+        // Write directly to stderr so this remains visible when libtest captures
+        // ordinary output from passing tests.
+        writeln!(
+            std::io::stderr().lock(),
+            "lance-linalg x86 runtime features: avx={}, fma={}, avx2={}, avx512f={}, avx512bw={}, avx512vnni={}, avx512vpopcntdq={}",
+            std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx"),
+            std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma"),
+            std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2"),
+            std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f"),
+            std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw"),
+            std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vnni"),
+            std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vpopcntdq"),
+        )
+        .expect("write x86 runtime feature report");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_arrow_batch_type_errors_identify_the_argument() {
+        let float32_targets =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0]), 2).unwrap();
+        let unsupported_query = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]);
+
+        for distance_type in [DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            let error =
+                distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(&unsupported_query, &float32_targets).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(_)),
+                "{distance_type} returned a different error variant: {error}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let unsupported_from_error =
+            cosine_distance_arrow_batch(&unsupported_query, &float32_targets).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&unsupported_from_error, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(message)
+                if message == "`from` has unsupported data type Int32"),
+            "unexpected unsupported `from` error: {unsupported_from_error}"
+        );
+
+        let float32_query = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0]);
+        let float64_targets =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float64Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0]), 2).unwrap();
+        let mismatched_to_error =
+            cosine_distance_arrow_batch(&float32_query, &float64_targets).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&mismatched_to_error, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(message)
+                if message == "`to` values have data type Float64, expected Float32 to match `from`"),
+            "unexpected mismatched `to` error: {mismatched_to_error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Build `List<FixedSizeList<T, dim>>` rows from flattened sub-vector values.
+    fn multivecs_of<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(rows: Vec<Vec<T::Native>>, dim: i32) -> ListArray {
+        let lengths = rows
+            .iter()
+            .map(|row| {
+                assert_eq!(row.len() % dim as usize, 0);
+                row.len() / dim as usize
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let values = ScalarBuffer::from(rows.into_iter().flatten().collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let inner = PrimitiveArray::<T>::new(values, None);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", T::DATA_TYPE, true)),
+            dim,
+            Arc::new(inner),
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::from_lengths(lengths);
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", fsl.data_type().clone(), true));
+        ListArray::try_new(field, offsets, Arc::new(fsl), None).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Build one `List<FixedSizeList<T, dim>>` row.
+    fn multivec_of<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(values: Vec<T::Native>, dim: i32) -> ListArray {
+        multivecs_of::<T>(vec![values], dim)
+    }
+
+    /// The `(query dtype, distance type)` pre-check and the dispatch must agree.
+    /// `UInt8` is only valid with Hamming, and the float types only with the
+    /// float metrics; a mismatch must be an error rather than a panic in the
+    /// dispatch arm or inside an arrow downcast.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multivec_distance_rejects_dtype_metric_mismatch() {
+        let f32_vectors = multivec_of::<Float32Type>(vec![1.0, 2.0], 2);
+        let u8_vectors = multivec_of::<UInt8Type>(vec![1, 2], 2);
+
+        let u8_query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![1_u8, 2]));
+        let f32_query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0_f32, 2.0]));
+
+        // Query and stored types MATCH in each case, so only the metric is wrong
+        // — otherwise the element-type check would reject these first and this
+        // test would pass with the metric guard deleted.
+        for dt in [DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            let err = multivec_distance(u8_query.as_ref(), &u8_vectors, dt).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(&err, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(m) if m.contains("does not support query type")),
+                "UInt8 query with {dt} must be rejected for the metric, got: {err}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let err =
+            multivec_distance(f32_query.as_ref(), &f32_vectors, DistanceType::Hamming).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&err, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(m) if m.contains("does not support query type")),
+            "Float32 query with hamming must be rejected for the metric, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The `_arrow_batch` entry points that accept `Int8` widen the query element
+    /// by element.
+    /// A null there used to reach an `unwrap`, so a query column with a null in
+    /// its values panicked instead of returning an error, on the metrics that
+    /// accept `Int8`.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_arrow_batch_rejects_null_int8_query() {
+        let targets =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Int8Array::from(vec![1_i8, 2, 3, 4]), 2)
+                .unwrap();
+        let query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None]));
+
+        for dt in [DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            let err = dt.arrow_batch_func()(query.as_ref(), &targets).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(&err, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(m)
+                    if m.contains("Int8 query vector `from`") && m.contains("found 1 in 2 values")),
+                "{dt} accepted a null Int8 query element, got: {err}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // The same query without nulls goes through, so the guard is not
+        // rejecting every `Int8` query.
+        let query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Int8Array::from(vec![1_i8, 2]));
+        for dt in [DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                dt.arrow_batch_func()(query.as_ref(), &targets)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .len(),
+                2,
+                "{dt} rejected a well-formed Int8 query"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // A sliced query reads through `values()`, which has to follow the slice:
+        // the window here holds no nulls while the full buffer does. The L2
+        // distances are asserted literally rather than against a second call,
+        // since computing the expected values by the same route would hide a bug
+        // that transformed both alike. Query [3, 4] against [[1, 2], [3, 4]]
+        // gives (3-1)^2 + (4-2)^2 = 8 and 0.
+        let sliced = Int8Array::from(vec![None, Some(3_i8), Some(4), None]).slice(1, 2);
+        let query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(sliced);
+        let got = DistanceType::L2.arrow_batch_func()(query.as_ref(), &targets).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            got.values(),
+            &[8.0_f32, 0.0],
+            "L2 did not follow the query slice"
+        );
+        for dt in [DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            let got = dt.arrow_batch_func()(query.as_ref(), &targets).unwrap();
+            let want =
+                dt.arrow_batch_func()(Arc::new(Int8Array::from(vec![3_i8, 4])).as_ref(), &targets)
+                    .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(got, want, "{dt} did not follow the query slice");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// An input that is both a length mismatch and a null query must reach the
+    /// null error on all three metrics. `dot` used to carry a second
+    /// `debug_assert_eq!` on the dimension in its public entry point, ahead of
+    /// the `Int8` arm's null guard.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_arrow_batch_null_and_length_mismatch_agree() {
+        let targets =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Int8Array::from(vec![1_i8, 2, 3, 4]), 2)
+                .unwrap();
+        let query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None, Some(2)]));
+
+        for dt in [DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            let err = dt.arrow_batch_func()(query.as_ref(), &targets).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(&err, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(m) if m.contains("must not contain nulls")),
+                "{dt} did not report the null query, got: {err}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `Int8` is a valid vector element type elsewhere in the crate but has no
+    /// multivector kernel, so it must be rejected for the type, not the metric.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multivec_distance_rejects_unsupported_element_type() {
+        let i8_vectors = multivec_of::<Int8Type>(vec![1, 2], 2);
+        let i8_query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Int8Array::from(vec![1_i8, 2]));
+
+        let err = multivec_distance(i8_query.as_ref(), &i8_vectors, DistanceType::L2).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&err, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(m) if m.contains("unsupported vector element type")),
+            "Int8 must be rejected for the element type, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The query's element type must match the stored vectors': the dispatch
+    /// picks `T` from the query and then downcasts the stored array to the same
+    /// `T` without checking it.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multivec_distance_rejects_element_type_mismatch() {
+        let f16_vectors =
+            multivec_of::<Float16Type>(vec![f16::from_f32(1.0), f16::from_f32(2.0)], 2);
+        let f32_query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0_f32, 2.0]));
+
+        let err =
+            multivec_distance(f32_query.as_ref(), &f16_vectors, DistanceType::L2).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&err, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(m) if m.contains("does not match the stored vector type")),
+            "Float32 query against a Float16 column must be rejected, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A query length that is not a positive multiple of `dim` is structurally
+    /// invalid: `chunks_exact` would silently drop the tail, and a query shorter
+    /// than `dim` would yield no sub-vectors at all and score every row `0.0`.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multivec_distance_rejects_bad_query_length() {
+        let vectors = multivec_of::<Float32Type>(vec![1.0, 2.0], 2);
+
+        for bad in [vec![7.0_f32], vec![7.0, 7.0, 999.0], vec![]] {
+            let len = bad.len();
+            let query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(bad));
+            let err = multivec_distance(query.as_ref(), &vectors, DistanceType::L2).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(&err, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(m) if m.contains("must be a positive multiple")),
+                "query of length {len} against dim 2 must be rejected, got: {err}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A zero-dimension column would panic in `chunks_exact(0)`; it gets its own
+    /// message rather than blaming the query's length.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multivec_distance_rejects_zero_dim() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from(Vec::<f32>::new());
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_with_length(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            0,
+            Arc::new(values),
+            None,
+            1,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", fsl.data_type().clone(), true));
+        let vectors = ListArray::try_new(
+            field,
+            OffsetBuffer::from_lengths([1_usize]),
+            Arc::new(fsl),
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0_f32, 2.0]));
+
+        let err = multivec_distance(query.as_ref(), &vectors, DistanceType::L2).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&err, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(m)
+                if m.contains("stored vectors have dimension 0")
+                    && !m.contains("positive multiple")),
+            "a zero-dim column must be rejected on its own terms, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A null query slot is read from the raw values buffer, so it would be
+    /// silently scored as whatever the buffer holds.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multivec_distance_rejects_null_query() {
+        let vectors = multivec_of::<Float32Type>(vec![1.0, 2.0], 2);
+        let query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![Some(1.0_f32), None]));
+
+        let err = multivec_distance(query.as_ref(), &vectors, DistanceType::L2).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&err, ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(m) if m.contains("must not contain nulls")),
+            "a query with nulls must be rejected, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Each query sub-vector contributes its minimum Hamming distance to the
+    /// row total.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multivec_distance_hamming() {
+        let vectors =
+            multivecs_of::<UInt8Type>(vec![vec![0b0000_0000, 0b0000_1111], vec![0b0000_0011]], 1);
+        let query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![0b0000_0000_u8, 0b0000_1111]));
+
+        let dists = multivec_distance(query.as_ref(), &vectors, DistanceType::Hamming).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dists, vec![0.0, 4.0]);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::l2_perfect(
+        DistanceType::L2,
+        vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0],
+        vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0],
+        0.0
+    )]
+    #[case::cosine_perfect(
+        DistanceType::Cosine,
+        vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0],
+        vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0],
+        0.0
+    )]
+    #[case::dot_perfect(
+        DistanceType::Dot,
+        vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0],
+        vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0],
+        0.0
+    )]
+    #[case::cosine_repeated_query(
+        DistanceType::Cosine,
+        vec![0.6, 0.8],
+        vec![1.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0],
+        0.8
+    )]
+    #[case::cosine_single_query(
+        DistanceType::Cosine,
+        vec![0.0, 1.0],
+        vec![1.0, 0.0],
+        1.0
+    )]
+    fn test_multivec_distance_float(
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[case] vectors: Vec<f32>,
+        #[case] query: Vec<f32>,
+        #[case] expected: f32,
+    ) {
+        let vectors = multivec_of::<Float32Type>(vectors, 2);
+        let query: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(query));
+
+        let dists = multivec_distance(query.as_ref(), &vectors, distance_type).unwrap();
+
+        assert!((dists[0] - expected).abs() < 1e-6);
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_multivec_distance_empty_row_is_nan() {
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/cosine.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/cosine.rs
index 62b9838c29e..90e45217103 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/cosine.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/cosine.rs
@@ -7,25 +7,35 @@
 //!
 //! `bf16, f16, f32, f64` types are supported.
 
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+use std::arch::x86_64::{
+    _mm_add_ps, _mm_add_ss, _mm_cvtss_f32, _mm_loadu_ps, _mm_movehl_ps, _mm_mul_ps, _mm_shuffle_ps,
+};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, Int8Type},
-    Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array,
 };
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use half::{bf16, f16};
 use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FixedSizeListArrayExt, FloatArray};
-#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
-use lance_core::utils::cpu::SimdSupport;
-use lance_core::utils::cpu::SIMD_SUPPORT;
+#[allow(unused_imports)]
+use lance_core::utils::cpu::{SIMD_SUPPORT, SimdSupport};
 
-use super::{dot::dot, Normalize};
-use super::{norm_l2::norm_l2, Dot};
+#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
+use super::HalfBackend;
+use super::{
+    Dot, HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED, HalfType, Normalize, assert_equal_lengths, dot::dot, half_backend,
+    int8_query_to_f32, norm_l2::norm_l2, x86_half_features,
+};
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+use crate::distance::BatchKind;
+#[allow(unused_imports)]
 use crate::simd::{
-    f32::{f32x16, f32x8},
     FloatSimd, SIMD,
+    f32::{f32x8, f32x16},
 };
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 
@@ -65,9 +75,83 @@ pub trait Cosine: Dot + Normalize {
     }
 }
 
-impl Cosine for u8 {}
+impl Cosine for u8 {
+    #[inline]
+    fn cosine(x: &[Self], other: &[Self]) -> f32 {
+        super::cosine_u8::cosine_u8(x, other)
+    }
+}
 
-impl Cosine for bf16 {}
+#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
+mod bf16_kernel {
+    use half::bf16;
+
+    // These are the `cosine_bf16` function in bf16.c. Our build.rs script compiles
+    // a version of this file for each SIMD level with different suffixes.
+    unsafe extern "C" {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        pub fn cosine_bf16_neon(x: *const bf16, x_norm: f32, y: *const bf16, dimension: u32)
+        -> f32;
+        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_bf16", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        pub fn cosine_bf16_avx512(
+            x: *const bf16,
+            x_norm: f32,
+            y: *const bf16,
+            dimension: u32,
+        ) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        pub fn cosine_bf16_avx2(x: *const bf16, x_norm: f32, y: *const bf16, dimension: u32)
+        -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        pub fn cosine_bf16_lsx(x: *const bf16, x_norm: f32, y: *const bf16, dimension: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        pub fn cosine_bf16_lasx(x: *const bf16, x_norm: f32, y: *const bf16, dimension: u32)
+        -> f32;
+    }
+}
+
+impl Cosine for bf16 {
+    fn cosine_fast(x: &[Self], x_norm: f32, y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        match half_backend(
+            *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+            HalfType::Bf16,
+            HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED,
+            cfg!(all(kernel_support = "avx512_bf16", target_arch = "x86_64")),
+            x86_half_features(),
+        ) {
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Neon => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::cosine_bf16_neon(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(
+                feature = "fp16kernels",
+                kernel_support = "avx512_bf16",
+                target_arch = "x86_64"
+            ))]
+            HalfBackend::Avx512 => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::cosine_bf16_avx512(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Avx2 => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::cosine_bf16_avx2(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Lasx => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::cosine_bf16_lasx(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Lsx => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::cosine_bf16_lsx(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
+            },
+            // SimdSupport::AvxFma and SimdSupport::Avx fall through here:
+            // the bf16 C kernels in `bf16_kernel::*` are compiled with
+            // `-march=haswell` minimum (which requires AVX2), so they cannot
+            // run on AVX-only or AVX+FMA hosts. Scalar is the correct route.
+            _ => cosine_scalar(x, x_norm, y),
+        }
+    }
+}
 
 #[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
 mod kernel {
@@ -75,10 +159,10 @@ mod kernel {
 
     // These are the `cosine_f16` function in f16.c. Our build.rs script compiles
     // a version of this file for each SIMD level with different suffixes.
-    extern "C" {
+    unsafe extern "C" {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         pub fn cosine_f16_neon(x: *const f16, x_norm: f32, y: *const f16, dimension: u32) -> f32;
-        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_f16", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
         pub fn cosine_f16_avx512(x: *const f16, x_norm: f32, y: *const f16, dimension: u32) -> f32;
         #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         pub fn cosine_f16_avx2(x: *const f16, x_norm: f32, y: *const f16, dimension: u32) -> f32;
@@ -91,80 +175,984 @@ mod kernel {
 
 impl Cosine for f16 {
     fn cosine_fast(x: &[Self], x_norm: f32, y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        match half_backend(
+            *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+            HalfType::F16,
+            HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED,
+            cfg!(all(kernel_support = "avx512_f16", target_arch = "x86_64")),
+            x86_half_features(),
+        ) {
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Neon => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Neon => unsafe {
                 kernel::cosine_f16_neon(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(
                 feature = "fp16kernels",
-                kernel_support = "avx512",
+                kernel_support = "avx512_f16",
                 target_arch = "x86_64"
             ))]
-            SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Avx512 => unsafe {
                 kernel::cosine_f16_avx512(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Avx2 => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Avx2 => unsafe {
                 kernel::cosine_f16_avx2(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Lasx => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Lasx => unsafe {
                 kernel::cosine_f16_lasx(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Lsx => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Lsx => unsafe {
                 kernel::cosine_f16_lsx(x.as_ptr(), x_norm, y.as_ptr(), y.len() as u32)
             },
+            // SimdSupport::AvxFma and SimdSupport::Avx retain their scalar
+            // route; this fallback only extends the tiers the C kernel already
+            // served to Avx512FP16 after checking F16C and FMA.
             _ => cosine_scalar(x, x_norm, y),
         }
     }
 }
 
-/// f32 kernels for Cosine
+/// f32 single-vector cosine helpers used by `cosine_batch` for fixed
+/// dimensions 8 and 16.
+///
+/// These were previously a single generic `cosine_once<S, N>` but the
+/// monomorphizations have to dispatch on `SIMD_SUPPORT` for the SIMD path
+/// to stay correct under any compile baseline. Splitting them into two
+/// concrete entry points keeps the dispatch site flat and lets each width
+/// route to a `#[target_feature]` AVX2 inner function.
 mod f32 {
     use super::*;
 
-    // TODO: how can we explicitly infer N?
+    #[cfg(any(test, not(target_arch = "x86_64")))]
+    #[inline]
+    pub(super) fn cosine_once_8(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+                SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+                    cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_8_avx512(x, x_norm, y)
+                },
+                SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe {
+                    cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_8_avx_fma(x, x_norm, y)
+                },
+                SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_8_avx(x, x_norm, y) },
+                _ => cosine_once_8_scalar(x, x_norm, y),
+            }
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        {
+            cosine_once_8_other(x, x_norm, y)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(any(test, not(target_arch = "x86_64")))]
+    #[inline]
+    pub(super) fn cosine_once_16(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+                SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+                    cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx512(x, x_norm, y)
+                },
+                SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe {
+                    cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx_fma(x, x_norm, y)
+                },
+                SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx(x, x_norm, y) },
+                _ => cosine_once_16_scalar(x, x_norm, y),
+            }
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        {
+            cosine_once_16_other(x, x_norm, y)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Portable scalar `cosine_once` for length-8 vectors. Matches the SIMD
+    /// path modulo summation order.
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", test))]
+    #[inline]
+    pub(super) fn cosine_once_8_scalar(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let mut xy = 0.0f32;
+        let mut y2 = 0.0f32;
+        for i in 0..8 {
+            xy += x[i] * y[i];
+            y2 += y[i] * y[i];
+        }
+        1.0 - xy / x_norm / y2.sqrt()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", any(test, not(target_feature = "avx2"))))]
+    #[inline]
+    pub(super) fn cosine_once_16_scalar(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let mut xy = 0.0f32;
+        let mut y2 = 0.0f32;
+        for i in 0..16 {
+            xy += x[i] * y[i];
+            y2 += y[i] * y[i];
+        }
+        1.0 - xy / x_norm / y2.sqrt()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    pub(super) mod cosine_once_x86 {
+        use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        use super::f32x8;
+        #[cfg(any(test, not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+        use super::f32x16;
+        #[cfg(any(test, not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+        use crate::simd::SIMD;
+
+        /// AVX + FMA path for 8-lane cosine. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+        pub unsafe fn cosine_once_8_avx_fma(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+            let xv = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr());
+            let yv = f32x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr());
+            let y2 = yv * yv;
+            let xy = xv * yv;
+            1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt()
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA path for 16-lane cosine. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+        #[cfg(any(test, not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+        pub unsafe fn cosine_once_16_avx_fma(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+            let xv = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr());
+            let yv = f32x16::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr());
+            let y2 = yv * yv;
+            let xy = xv * yv;
+            1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt()
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only path for 8-lane cosine (no FMA): body unchanged from AVX2 path; gated on Sandy/Ivy Bridge.
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+        pub unsafe fn cosine_once_8_avx(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+            let xv = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr());
+            let yv = f32x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr());
+            let y2 = yv * yv;
+            let xy = xv * yv;
+            1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt()
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only path for 16-lane cosine (no FMA): body unchanged from AVX2 path; gated on Sandy/Ivy Bridge.
+        #[cfg(any(test, not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+        pub unsafe fn cosine_once_16_avx(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+            let xv = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr());
+            let yv = f32x16::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr());
+            let y2 = yv * yv;
+            let xy = xv * yv;
+            1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt()
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512 path for 8-lane cosine: masked load into a `__m512` lower half, reduce.
+        #[cfg(any(test, target_feature = "avx2"))]
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+        pub unsafe fn cosine_once_8_avx512(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+            // mask 0x00FF: load the lower 8 f32 lanes, zero the upper 8.
+            let mask: __mmask16 = 0x00FF;
+            let xv = _mm512_maskz_loadu_ps(mask, x.as_ptr());
+            let yv = _mm512_maskz_loadu_ps(mask, y.as_ptr());
+            let xy = _mm512_mul_ps(xv, yv);
+            let y2 = _mm512_mul_ps(yv, yv);
+            let xy_sum = _mm512_reduce_add_ps(xy);
+            let y2_sum = _mm512_reduce_add_ps(y2);
+            1.0 - xy_sum / x_norm / y2_sum.sqrt()
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512 path for 16-lane cosine: single full-width `__m512` load (16 f32 fits one `zmm`).
+        #[inline]
+        #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+        pub unsafe fn cosine_once_16_avx512(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+            let xv = _mm512_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr());
+            let yv = _mm512_loadu_ps(y.as_ptr());
+            let xy = _mm512_mul_ps(xv, yv);
+            let y2 = _mm512_mul_ps(yv, yv);
+            let xy_sum = _mm512_reduce_add_ps(xy);
+            let y2_sum = _mm512_reduce_add_ps(y2);
+            1.0 - xy_sum / x_norm / y2_sum.sqrt()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
     #[inline]
-    pub(super) fn cosine_once<S: SIMD<f32, N>, const N: usize>(
+    fn cosine_once_8_other(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let xv = unsafe { f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr()) };
+        let yv = unsafe { f32x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr()) };
+        let y2 = yv * yv;
+        let xy = xv * yv;
+        1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt()
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    #[inline]
+    fn cosine_once_16_other(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let xv = unsafe { f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr()) };
+        let yv = unsafe { f32x16::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr()) };
+        let y2 = yv * yv;
+        let xy = xv * yv;
+        1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt()
+    }
+
+    /// Batch-level SIMD helper used for direct AVX/FMA parity tests.
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", test))]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn cosine_batch_avx_fma(
         x: &[f32],
         x_norm: f32,
-        y: &[f32],
-    ) -> f32 {
-        let x = unsafe { S::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr()) };
-        let y = unsafe { S::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr()) };
-        let y2 = y * y;
-        let xy = x * y;
-        1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt()
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+        match dimension {
+            8 => {
+                let x_values = unsafe { f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr()) };
+                output
+                    .iter_mut()
+                    .zip(batch.as_chunks::<8>().0)
+                    .for_each(|(distance, y)| {
+                        let y_values = unsafe { f32x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr()) };
+                        let y2 = y_values * y_values;
+                        let xy = x_values * y_values;
+                        *distance = 1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt();
+                    });
+            }
+            16 => output
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(batch.as_chunks::<16>().0)
+                .for_each(|(distance, y)| {
+                    *distance = unsafe { cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx_fma(x, x_norm, y) };
+                }),
+            _ => output
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension))
+                .for_each(|(distance, y)| {
+                    *distance = unsafe { super::f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx_fma(x, x_norm, y) };
+                }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", any(test, target_feature = "avx2")))]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn cosine_batch_avx512(
+        x: &[f32],
+        x_norm: f32,
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+        match dimension {
+            8 => output
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(batch.as_chunks::<8>().0)
+                .for_each(|(distance, y)| {
+                    *distance = unsafe { cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_8_avx512(x, x_norm, y) };
+                }),
+            16 => output
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(batch.as_chunks::<16>().0)
+                .for_each(|(distance, y)| {
+                    *distance = unsafe { cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx512(x, x_norm, y) };
+                }),
+            _ => output
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension))
+                .for_each(|(distance, y)| {
+                    *distance = unsafe { super::f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx512(x, x_norm, y) };
+                }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", test))]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn cosine_batch_avx(
+        x: &[f32],
+        x_norm: f32,
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+        match dimension {
+            8 => {
+                let x_values = unsafe { f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr()) };
+                output
+                    .iter_mut()
+                    .zip(batch.as_chunks::<8>().0)
+                    .for_each(|(distance, y)| {
+                        let y_values = unsafe { f32x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr()) };
+                        let y2 = y_values * y_values;
+                        let xy = x_values * y_values;
+                        *distance = 1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt();
+                    });
+            }
+            16 => output
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(batch.as_chunks::<16>().0)
+                .for_each(|(distance, y)| {
+                    *distance = unsafe { cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx(x, x_norm, y) };
+                }),
+            _ => output
+                .iter_mut()
+                .zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension))
+                .for_each(|(distance, y)| {
+                    *distance = unsafe { super::f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx(x, x_norm, y) };
+                }),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Inlined f32 cosine kernels for builds whose baseline already guarantees
+/// AVX2. No `#[target_feature]`, no runtime dispatch: under
+/// `target-feature=+avx2,+fma` these compile to AVX2 and inline into the batch
+/// loop, so explicitly tuned builds are not taxed by the runtime-dispatch
+/// machinery needed below the AVX2 baseline.
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx2"))]
+mod f32_baseline {
+    use super::{dot, f32x8, f32x16, norm_l2};
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn cosine_once_8(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        unsafe {
+            let xv = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr());
+            let yv = f32x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr());
+            let y2 = yv * yv;
+            let xy = xv * yv;
+            1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn cosine_once_16(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        unsafe {
+            let xv = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr());
+            let yv = f32x16::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr());
+            let y2 = yv * yv;
+            let xy = xv * yv;
+            1.0 - xy.reduce_sum() / x_norm / y2.reduce_sum().sqrt()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn cosine_fast(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, other: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        unsafe {
+            let dim = x.len();
+            let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
+            let mut y_norm16 = f32x16::zeros();
+            let mut xy16 = f32x16::zeros();
+            for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
+                let xv = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+                let yv = f32x16::load_unaligned(other.as_ptr().add(i));
+                xy16.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+                y_norm16.multiply_add(yv, yv);
+            }
+            let aligned_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+            let mut y_norm8 = f32x8::zeros();
+            let mut xy8 = f32x8::zeros();
+            for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(8) {
+                let xv = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+                let yv = f32x8::load_unaligned(other.as_ptr().add(i));
+                xy8.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+                y_norm8.multiply_add(yv, yv);
+            }
+            let y_norm = y_norm16.reduce_sum()
+                + y_norm8.reduce_sum()
+                + norm_l2(&other[aligned_len..]).powi(2);
+            let xy = xy16.reduce_sum()
+                + xy8.reduce_sum()
+                + dot(&x[aligned_len..], &other[aligned_len..]);
+            1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm.sqrt()
+        }
     }
 }
 
 impl Cosine for f32 {
     #[inline]
     fn cosine_fast(x: &[Self], x_norm: Self, other: &[Self]) -> f32 {
+        // Trait methods cannot carry `#[target_feature]` attributes, so the body
+        // lives in a free function that runtime-dispatches via `*SIMD_SUPPORT`
+        // to an AVX2 inner kernel on capable hosts, or a portable scalar fallback.
+        cosine_fast_f32_dispatched(x, x_norm, other)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn cosine_with_norms(x: &[Self], x_norm: Self, y_norm: Self, y: &[Self]) -> Self {
+        // Trait methods cannot carry `#[target_feature]` attributes, so the body
+        // lives in a free function that runtime-dispatches via `*SIMD_SUPPORT`
+        // to an AVX2 inner kernel on capable hosts, or a portable scalar fallback.
+        cosine_with_norms_f32_dispatched(x, x_norm, y_norm, y)
+    }
+
+    fn cosine_batch<'a>(
+        x: &'a [Self],
+        batch: &'a [Self],
+        dimension: usize,
+    ) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = f32> + 'a> {
+        // Preserve the original `chunks_exact` validation before constructing
+        // a specialized iterator.
+        let _ = batch.chunks_exact(dimension);
+        let x_norm = norm_l2(x);
+
+        // On a build whose baseline already guarantees AVX2, avoid the
+        // per-vector runtime dispatch + `#[target_feature]` wrapping that taxes
+        // the tuned path. Dispatch ONCE per batch: AVX-512 hosts get the wide
+        // kernel; everyone else uses the inlined AVX2 baseline path. The
+        // runtime-dispatch path below is only compiled/reached when the baseline
+        // is below AVX2.
+        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx2"))]
+        {
+            // dim 8/16 always use the inlined AVX2 baseline: AVX-512 gives no
+            // benefit for such tiny vectors (a masked 512-bit load is slower than
+            // a plain AVX2 load) and only adds dispatch + eager-collect overhead.
+            // Only the larger-dim path routes to AVX-512 on capable hosts — that's
+            // where the wider lanes actually pay off.
+            match dimension {
+                8 => Box::new(
+                    batch
+                        .as_chunks::<8>()
+                        .0
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(move |y| f32_baseline::cosine_once_8(x, x_norm, y)),
+                ),
+                16 => Box::new(
+                    batch
+                        .as_chunks::<16>()
+                        .0
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(move |y| f32_baseline::cosine_once_16(x, x_norm, y)),
+                ),
+                _ => {
+                    if matches!(*SIMD_SUPPORT, SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16) {
+                        let mut distances = vec![0.0; batch.len() / dimension];
+                        unsafe {
+                            f32::cosine_batch_avx512(x, x_norm, batch, dimension, &mut distances);
+                        }
+                        Box::new(distances.into_iter())
+                    } else {
+                        Box::new(
+                            batch
+                                .chunks_exact(dimension)
+                                .map(move |y| f32_baseline::cosine_fast(x, x_norm, y)),
+                        )
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Sub-AVX2 build: select once. Dimension 8 uses an inlined SSE
+        // iterator; wider dimensions enter the selected target-feature kernel
+        // once per vector without materializing the full batch.
+        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+        {
+            if dimension == 8 && x.len() >= 8 {
+                // SAFETY: both loads read from the verified eight-element key,
+                // and x86_64 guarantees SSE.
+                return Box::new(unsafe { CosineBatch8Iter::new(x, x_norm, batch) });
+            }
+
+            let kind = match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+                SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 if dimension > 16 => {
+                    BatchKind::Avx512
+                }
+                SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16
+                    if std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") =>
+                {
+                    BatchKind::AvxFma
+                }
+                SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => BatchKind::AvxFma,
+                SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 | SimdSupport::Avx => BatchKind::Avx,
+                _ => BatchKind::Scalar,
+            };
+            Box::new(CosineBatchIter {
+                key: x,
+                key_norm: x_norm,
+                batch,
+                dimension,
+                offset: 0,
+                kind,
+            })
+        }
+
+        // Scalar / non-x86 fallback.
+        #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        {
+            match dimension {
+                8 => Box::new(
+                    batch
+                        .chunks_exact(dimension)
+                        .map(move |y| f32::cosine_once_8(x, x_norm, y)),
+                ),
+                16 => Box::new(
+                    batch
+                        .chunks_exact(dimension)
+                        .map(move |y| f32::cosine_once_16(x, x_norm, y)),
+                ),
+                _ => Box::new(
+                    batch
+                        .chunks_exact(dimension)
+                        .map(move |y| Self::cosine_fast(x, x_norm, y)),
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+struct CosineBatchIter<'a> {
+    key: &'a [f32],
+    key_norm: f32,
+    batch: &'a [f32],
+    dimension: usize,
+    offset: usize,
+    kind: BatchKind,
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+struct CosineBatch8Iter<'a> {
+    key_lo: std::arch::x86_64::__m128,
+    key_hi: std::arch::x86_64::__m128,
+    key_norm: f32,
+    batch: &'a [f32],
+    offset: usize,
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+impl<'a> CosineBatch8Iter<'a> {
+    /// # Safety
+    /// `key` must contain at least eight elements.
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn new(key: &[f32], key_norm: f32, batch: &'a [f32]) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            key_lo: unsafe { _mm_loadu_ps(key.as_ptr()) },
+            key_hi: unsafe { _mm_loadu_ps(key.as_ptr().add(4)) },
+            key_norm,
+            batch,
+            offset: 0,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// SSE implementation for the dimension-8 boxed iterator. SSE is guaranteed
+/// on x86_64, so this inlines into `Iterator::next` without a target-feature
+/// call boundary while wider kernels remain runtime-dispatched.
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn cosine_once_8_sse(
+    key_lo: std::arch::x86_64::__m128,
+    key_hi: std::arch::x86_64::__m128,
+    key_norm: f32,
+    vector: &[f32],
+) -> f32 {
+    let vector_lo = unsafe { _mm_loadu_ps(vector.as_ptr()) };
+    let vector_hi = unsafe { _mm_loadu_ps(vector.as_ptr().add(4)) };
+    let xy = unsafe { _mm_add_ps(_mm_mul_ps(key_lo, vector_lo), _mm_mul_ps(key_hi, vector_hi)) };
+    let y2 = unsafe {
+        _mm_add_ps(
+            _mm_mul_ps(vector_lo, vector_lo),
+            _mm_mul_ps(vector_hi, vector_hi),
+        )
+    };
+    1.0 - unsafe { hsum128_ps(xy) } / key_norm / unsafe { hsum128_ps(y2) }.sqrt()
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+impl Iterator for CosineBatch8Iter<'_> {
+    type Item = f32;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        let end = self.offset + 8;
+        let vector = self.batch.get(self.offset..end)?;
+        self.offset = end;
+        // SAFETY: the constructor preloads a valid key and `vector` contains
+        // exactly eight elements. x86_64 guarantees SSE.
+        Some(unsafe { cosine_once_8_sse(self.key_lo, self.key_hi, self.key_norm, vector) })
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn size_hint(&self) -> (usize, Option<usize>) {
+        let len = self.len();
+        (len, Some(len))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+impl ExactSizeIterator for CosineBatch8Iter<'_> {
+    #[inline]
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        (self.batch.len() - self.offset) / 8
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn hsum128_ps(values: std::arch::x86_64::__m128) -> f32 {
+    let sum64 = unsafe { _mm_add_ps(values, _mm_movehl_ps(values, values)) };
+    let sum32 = unsafe { _mm_add_ss(sum64, _mm_shuffle_ps(sum64, sum64, 0x55)) };
+    unsafe { _mm_cvtss_f32(sum32) }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+impl Iterator for CosineBatchIter<'_> {
+    type Item = f32;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        let remaining = &self.batch[self.offset..];
+        if remaining.len() < self.dimension {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let vector = &remaining[..self.dimension];
+        self.offset += self.dimension;
+
+        let distance = match self.kind {
+            BatchKind::Scalar => match self.dimension {
+                16 => f32::cosine_once_16_scalar(self.key, self.key_norm, vector),
+                _ => cosine_scalar(self.key, self.key_norm, vector),
+            },
+            // SAFETY: each kind is selected only after runtime detection of
+            // the kernel's required target features.
+            BatchKind::Avx => match self.dimension {
+                16 => unsafe {
+                    f32::cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx(self.key, self.key_norm, vector)
+                },
+                _ => unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx(self.key, self.key_norm, vector) },
+            },
+            BatchKind::AvxFma => match self.dimension {
+                16 => unsafe {
+                    f32::cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx_fma(self.key, self.key_norm, vector)
+                },
+                _ => unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx_fma(self.key, self.key_norm, vector) },
+            },
+            BatchKind::Avx512 => match self.dimension {
+                16 => unsafe {
+                    f32::cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx512(self.key, self.key_norm, vector)
+                },
+                _ => unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx512(self.key, self.key_norm, vector) },
+            },
+        };
+        Some(distance)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn size_hint(&self) -> (usize, Option<usize>) {
+        let len = self.len();
+        (len, Some(len))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx2")))]
+impl ExactSizeIterator for CosineBatchIter<'_> {
+    #[inline]
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        (self.batch.len() - self.offset) / self.dimension
+    }
+}
+
+impl Cosine for f64 {
+    #[inline]
+    fn cosine_fast(x: &[Self], x_norm: f32, y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
+        // Trait methods cannot carry `#[target_feature]` attributes, so the body
+        // lives in a free function that runtime-dispatches via `*SIMD_SUPPORT`
+        // to an AVX2 inner kernel on capable hosts, or a portable scalar fallback.
+        cosine_fast_f64_dispatched(x, x_norm, y)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fast cosine for f64, runtime-dispatched via `SIMD_SUPPORT` on x86_64
+/// (AVX-512 / AVX2+FMA / AVX+FMA / AVX / scalar). Non-x86 uses the SIMD
+/// primitives in `crate::simd::f64`.
+#[inline]
+fn cosine_fast_f64_dispatched(x: &[f64], x_norm: f32, y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+            SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+                f64_x86::cosine_fast_avx512(x, x_norm, y)
+            },
+            SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe {
+                f64_x86::cosine_fast_avx_fma(x, x_norm, y)
+            },
+            SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { f64_x86::cosine_fast_avx(x, x_norm, y) },
+            _ => cosine_scalar(x, x_norm, y),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        cosine_fast_f64_simd_other(x, x_norm, y)
+    }
+}
+
+/// AVX2 + FMA implementation of the f64 cosine_fast kernel.
+///
+/// Lives in a `#[target_feature]`-annotated function so the SIMD primitives
+/// in `crate::simd::f64` (which use raw AVX intrinsics) inline correctly
+/// even when the compile baseline does not have AVX2 enabled. Caller must
+/// ensure the host supports AVX2 + FMA.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod f64_x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    use crate::simd::f64::{f64x4, f64x8};
+    use crate::simd::x86::hsum256_pd;
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    /// AVX-512 path for f64 fast cosine: 8-wide `__m512d` xy/yy with `vfmadd231pd` per iteration.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_fast_avx512(x: &[f64], x_norm: f32, y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc_xy = _mm512_setzero_pd();
+        let mut acc_yy = _mm512_setzero_pd();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let xv = _mm512_loadu_pd(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = _mm512_loadu_pd(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc_xy = _mm512_fmadd_pd(xv, yv, acc_xy);
+            acc_yy = _mm512_fmadd_pd(yv, yv, acc_yy);
+        }
+
+        let mut xy = _mm512_reduce_add_pd(acc_xy);
+        let mut yy = _mm512_reduce_add_pd(acc_yy);
+        for i in unrolled_len..dim {
+            xy += x[i] * y[i];
+            yy += y[i] * y[i];
+        }
+
+        let y_norm_sq = yy as f32;
+        let xy_f32 = xy as f32;
+        1.0 - xy_f32 / x_norm / y_norm_sq.sqrt()
+    }
+
+    /// AVX + FMA path for f64 fast cosine. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_fast_avx_fma(x: &[f64], x_norm: f32, y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+        let mut y_norm8 = f64x8::zeros();
+        let mut xy8 = f64x8::zeros();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let xv = f64x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f64x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy8.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+            y_norm8.multiply_add(yv, yv);
+        }
+        let aligned_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+        let mut y_norm4 = f64x4::zeros();
+        let mut xy4 = f64x4::zeros();
+        for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(4) {
+            let xv = f64x4::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f64x4::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy4.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+            y_norm4.multiply_add(yv, yv);
+        }
+        let tail_y_norm: f64 = y[aligned_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+        let tail_xy: f64 = x[aligned_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[aligned_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+            .sum();
+
+        let y_norm_sq = (y_norm8.reduce_sum() + y_norm4.reduce_sum() + tail_y_norm) as f32;
+        let xy = (xy8.reduce_sum() + xy4.reduce_sum() + tail_xy) as f32;
+        1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm_sq.sqrt()
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-only path for f64 fast cosine (no FMA): `_mm256_mul_pd` + `_mm256_add_pd` per iteration; tail handled inline.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_fast_avx(x: &[f64], x_norm: f32, y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let aligned_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+
+        let mut acc_xy = _mm256_setzero_pd();
+        let mut acc_yy = _mm256_setzero_pd();
+        for i in (0..aligned_len).step_by(4) {
+            let xv = _mm256_loadu_pd(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = _mm256_loadu_pd(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc_xy = _mm256_add_pd(acc_xy, _mm256_mul_pd(xv, yv));
+            acc_yy = _mm256_add_pd(acc_yy, _mm256_mul_pd(yv, yv));
+        }
+
+        let xy_main = hsum256_pd(acc_xy);
+        let yy_main = hsum256_pd(acc_yy);
+
+        let tail_y_norm: f64 = y[aligned_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+        let tail_xy: f64 = x[aligned_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[aligned_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+            .sum();
+
+        let y_norm_sq = (yy_main + tail_y_norm) as f32;
+        let xy = (xy_main + tail_xy) as f32;
+        1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm_sq.sqrt()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+#[inline]
+fn cosine_fast_f64_simd_other(x: &[f64], x_norm: f32, y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    use crate::simd::f64::{f64x4, f64x8};
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    let dim = x.len();
+    let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+    let mut y_norm8 = f64x8::zeros();
+    let mut xy8 = f64x8::zeros();
+    for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+        unsafe {
+            let xv = f64x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f64x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy8.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+            y_norm8.multiply_add(yv, yv);
+        }
+    }
+    let aligned_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+    let mut y_norm4 = f64x4::zeros();
+    let mut xy4 = f64x4::zeros();
+    for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(4) {
+        unsafe {
+            let xv = f64x4::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f64x4::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy4.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+            y_norm4.multiply_add(yv, yv);
+        }
+    }
+    let tail_y_norm: f64 = y[aligned_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+    let tail_xy: f64 = x[aligned_len..]
+        .iter()
+        .zip(y[aligned_len..].iter())
+        .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+        .sum();
+
+    let y_norm_sq = (y_norm8.reduce_sum() + y_norm4.reduce_sum() + tail_y_norm) as f32;
+    let xy = (xy8.reduce_sum() + xy4.reduce_sum() + tail_xy) as f32;
+    1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm_sq.sqrt()
+}
+
+/// Cosine for f32 with known norms, runtime-dispatched via `SIMD_SUPPORT`
+/// on x86_64 (AVX-512 / AVX2+FMA / AVX+FMA / AVX / scalar). Non-x86 uses
+/// the auto-vectorised scalar loop.
+#[inline]
+fn cosine_with_norms_f32_dispatched(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+            SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+                f32_x86::cosine_with_norms_avx512(x, x_norm, y_norm, y)
+            },
+            SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe {
+                f32_x86::cosine_with_norms_avx_fma(x, x_norm, y_norm, y)
+            },
+            SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_with_norms_avx(x, x_norm, y_norm, y) },
+            _ => cosine_scalar_fast(x, x_norm, y, y_norm),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        cosine_with_norms_f32_simd_other(x, x_norm, y_norm, y)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+#[inline]
+fn cosine_with_norms_f32_simd_other(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    let dim = x.len();
+    let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
+    let mut xy16 = f32x16::zeros();
+    for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
+        unsafe {
+            let xv = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f32x16::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy16.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+        }
+    }
+    let aligned_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+    let mut xy8 = f32x8::zeros();
+    for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(8) {
+        unsafe {
+            let xv = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f32x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy8.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+        }
+    }
+    let xy = xy16.reduce_sum() + xy8.reduce_sum() + dot(&x[aligned_len..], &y[aligned_len..]);
+    1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm
+}
+
+/// Fast cosine for f32, runtime-dispatched via `SIMD_SUPPORT` on x86_64
+/// (AVX-512 / AVX2+FMA / AVX+FMA / AVX / scalar). Non-x86 uses the
+/// `simd::f32` primitives, unconditionally backed by NEON / LSX.
+#[inline]
+fn cosine_fast_f32_dispatched(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, other: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+            SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+                f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx512(x, x_norm, other)
+            },
+            SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe {
+                f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx_fma(x, x_norm, other)
+            },
+            SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx(x, x_norm, other) },
+            _ => cosine_scalar(x, x_norm, other),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        cosine_fast_f32_simd_other(x, x_norm, other)
+    }
+}
+
+/// AVX2 + FMA implementation of the f32 fast cosine kernel.
+///
+/// Lives in a `#[target_feature]`-annotated function so the SIMD primitives
+/// in `crate::simd::f32` (which use raw AVX intrinsics) inline correctly
+/// even when the compile baseline does not have AVX2 enabled. Caller must
+/// ensure the host supports AVX2 + FMA.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod f32_x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    use super::{dot, f32x8, f32x16, norm_l2};
+    use crate::simd::x86::hsum256_ps;
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    /// AVX + FMA path for f32 fast cosine. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_fast_avx_fma(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, other: &[f32]) -> f32 {
         let dim = x.len();
         let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
         let mut y_norm16 = f32x16::zeros();
         let mut xy16 = f32x16::zeros();
         for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
-            unsafe {
-                let x = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
-                let y = f32x16::load_unaligned(other.as_ptr().add(i));
-                xy16.multiply_add(x, y);
-                y_norm16.multiply_add(y, y);
-            }
+            let xv = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f32x16::load_unaligned(other.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy16.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+            y_norm16.multiply_add(yv, yv);
         }
         let aligned_len = dim / 8 * 8;
         let mut y_norm8 = f32x8::zeros();
         let mut xy8 = f32x8::zeros();
         for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(8) {
-            unsafe {
-                let x = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
-                let y = f32x8::load_unaligned(other.as_ptr().add(i));
-                xy8.multiply_add(x, y);
-                y_norm8.multiply_add(y, y);
-            }
+            let xv = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f32x8::load_unaligned(other.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy8.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+            y_norm8.multiply_add(yv, yv);
         }
         let y_norm =
             y_norm16.reduce_sum() + y_norm8.reduce_sum() + norm_l2(&other[aligned_len..]).powi(2);
@@ -173,62 +1161,149 @@ impl Cosine for f32 {
         1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm.sqrt()
     }
 
-    #[inline]
-    fn cosine_with_norms(x: &[Self], x_norm: Self, y_norm: Self, y: &[Self]) -> Self {
+    /// AVX-only path for f32 fast cosine (no FMA): `_mm256_mul_ps` + `_mm256_add_ps` per iteration; tail via trait-routed `dot`/`norm_l2`.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_fast_avx(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, other: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let aligned_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc_xy = _mm256_setzero_ps();
+        let mut acc_yy = _mm256_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..aligned_len).step_by(8) {
+            let xv = _mm256_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = _mm256_loadu_ps(other.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc_xy = _mm256_add_ps(acc_xy, _mm256_mul_ps(xv, yv));
+            acc_yy = _mm256_add_ps(acc_yy, _mm256_mul_ps(yv, yv));
+        }
+
+        let xy_main = hsum256_ps(acc_xy);
+        let yy_main = hsum256_ps(acc_yy);
+
+        let y_norm = yy_main + norm_l2(&other[aligned_len..]).powi(2);
+        let xy = xy_main + dot(&x[aligned_len..], &other[aligned_len..]);
+        1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm.sqrt()
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 path for f32 fast cosine: 16-wide `__m512` xy/yy with `vfmadd231ps` per iteration.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_fast_avx512(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, other: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
+
+        let mut acc_xy = _mm512_setzero_ps();
+        let mut acc_yy = _mm512_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
+            let xv = _mm512_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = _mm512_loadu_ps(other.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc_xy = _mm512_fmadd_ps(xv, yv, acc_xy);
+            acc_yy = _mm512_fmadd_ps(yv, yv, acc_yy);
+        }
+
+        let mut xy = _mm512_reduce_add_ps(acc_xy);
+        let mut yy = _mm512_reduce_add_ps(acc_yy);
+        for i in unrolled_len..dim {
+            xy += x[i] * other[i];
+            yy += other[i] * other[i];
+        }
+
+        1.0 - xy / x_norm / yy.sqrt()
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 path for f32 cosine with known norms: 16-wide `__m512` with `vfmadd231ps` per iteration.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_with_norms_avx512(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm512_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
+            let xv = _mm512_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = _mm512_loadu_ps(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm512_fmadd_ps(xv, yv, acc);
+        }
+
+        let mut xy = _mm512_reduce_add_ps(acc);
+        for i in unrolled_len..dim {
+            xy += x[i] * y[i];
+        }
+
+        1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm
+    }
+
+    /// AVX + FMA path for f32 cosine with known norms. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_with_norms_avx_fma(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
         let dim = x.len();
         let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
         let mut xy16 = f32x16::zeros();
         for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
-            unsafe {
-                let x = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
-                let y = f32x16::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
-                xy16.multiply_add(x, y);
-            }
+            let xv = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f32x16::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy16.multiply_add(xv, yv);
         }
         let aligned_len = dim / 8 * 8;
         let mut xy8 = f32x8::zeros();
         for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(8) {
-            unsafe {
-                let x = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
-                let y = f32x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
-                xy8.multiply_add(x, y);
-            }
+            let xv = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f32x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy8.multiply_add(xv, yv);
         }
         let xy = xy16.reduce_sum() + xy8.reduce_sum() + dot(&x[aligned_len..], &y[aligned_len..]);
         1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm
     }
 
-    fn cosine_batch<'a>(
-        x: &'a [Self],
-        batch: &'a [Self],
-        dimension: usize,
-    ) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = f32> + 'a> {
-        let x_norm = norm_l2(x);
+    /// AVX-only path for f32 cosine with known norms (no FMA): `_mm256_mul_ps` + `_mm256_add_ps` per iteration; tail via trait-routed `dot`.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_with_norms_avx(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, y_norm: f32, y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let aligned_len = dim / 8 * 8;
 
-        match dimension {
-            8 => Box::new(
-                batch
-                    .chunks_exact(dimension)
-                    .map(move |y| f32::cosine_once::<f32x8, 8>(x, x_norm, y)),
-            ),
-            16 => Box::new(
-                batch
-                    .chunks_exact(dimension)
-                    .map(move |y| f32::cosine_once::<f32x16, 16>(x, x_norm, y)),
-            ),
-            _ => Box::new(
-                batch
-                    .chunks_exact(dimension)
-                    .map(move |y| Self::cosine_fast(x, x_norm, y)),
-            ),
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..aligned_len).step_by(8) {
+            let xv = _mm256_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = _mm256_loadu_ps(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm256_add_ps(acc, _mm256_mul_ps(xv, yv));
         }
+
+        let xy_main = hsum256_ps(acc);
+        let xy = xy_main + dot(&x[aligned_len..], &y[aligned_len..]);
+        1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm
     }
 }
 
-impl Cosine for f64 {}
+#[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+#[inline]
+fn cosine_fast_f32_simd_other(x: &[f32], x_norm: f32, other: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    let dim = x.len();
+    let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
+    let mut y_norm16 = f32x16::zeros();
+    let mut xy16 = f32x16::zeros();
+    for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
+        unsafe {
+            let xv = f32x16::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f32x16::load_unaligned(other.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy16.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+            y_norm16.multiply_add(yv, yv);
+        }
+    }
+    let aligned_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+    let mut y_norm8 = f32x8::zeros();
+    let mut xy8 = f32x8::zeros();
+    for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(8) {
+        unsafe {
+            let xv = f32x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let yv = f32x8::load_unaligned(other.as_ptr().add(i));
+            xy8.multiply_add(xv, yv);
+            y_norm8.multiply_add(yv, yv);
+        }
+    }
+    let y_norm =
+        y_norm16.reduce_sum() + y_norm8.reduce_sum() + norm_l2(&other[aligned_len..]).powi(2);
+    let xy = xy16.reduce_sum() + xy8.reduce_sum() + dot(&x[aligned_len..], &other[aligned_len..]);
+    1.0 - xy / x_norm / y_norm.sqrt()
+}
 
 /// Fallback non-SIMD implementation
-#[allow(dead_code)] // Does not fallback on aarch64.
 #[inline]
 fn cosine_scalar<T: Dot>(x: &[T], x_norm: f32, y: &[T]) -> f32 {
     let y_sq = dot(y, y);
@@ -289,8 +1364,9 @@ where
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<T::ArrayType>()
             .ok_or(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
-                "Unsupported data type {:?}",
-                to.values().data_type()
+                "`to` values have data type {}, expected {} to match `from`",
+                to.values().data_type(),
+                from.data_type()
             )))?;
     let dists = cosine_distance_batch(from.as_slice(), to_values.as_slice(), dimension);
 
@@ -309,9 +1385,18 @@ where
 /// - `from`: the vector to compute distance from.
 /// - `to`: a list of vectors to compute distance to.
 ///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns an error if `from` is an `Int8` array containing nulls, since a null
+/// query element has no distance to compute. The unsupported-type and downcast
+/// paths return errors of their own; this list is not exhaustive.
+///
 /// # Panics
 ///
-/// Panics if the length of `from` is not equal to the dimension (value length) of `to`.
+/// With debug assertions on, panics if the length of `from` is not equal to the
+/// dimension (value length) of `to`. Without them the mismatch is not reliably
+/// caught, since cosine has no always-on layout assert of its own, unlike the l2
+/// and dot equivalents.
 pub fn cosine_distance_arrow_batch(
     from: &dyn Array,
     to: &FixedSizeListArray,
@@ -321,26 +1406,42 @@ pub fn cosine_distance_arrow_batch(
         DataType::Float32 => do_cosine_distance_arrow_batch::<Float32Type>(from.as_primitive(), to),
         DataType::Float64 => do_cosine_distance_arrow_batch::<Float64Type>(from.as_primitive(), to),
         DataType::Int8 => do_cosine_distance_arrow_batch::<Float32Type>(
-            &from
-                .as_primitive::<Int8Type>()
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|x| x.unwrap() as f32)
-                .collect(),
+            &int8_query_to_f32(from.as_primitive::<Int8Type>())?,
             &to.convert_to_floating_point()?,
         ),
         _ => Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
-            "Unsupported data type {:?}",
+            "`from` has unsupported data type {}",
             from.data_type()
         ))),
     }
 }
 
+/// Portable scalar reference cosine over f64 inputs. Used by parity tests
+/// to compare against every dispatched per-tier inner kernel. Computes
+/// `1 - xy / (x_norm * y_norm_sq.sqrt())` in f64 then casts to f32, matching
+/// the reduction order of the dispatched kernels.
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn cosine_fast_scalar(x: &[f64], x_norm: f32, y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    let xy: f64 = x.iter().zip(y.iter()).map(|(&a, &b)| a * b).sum();
+    let y_norm_sq: f64 = y.iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+    1.0 - (xy as f32) / x_norm / (y_norm_sq as f32).sqrt()
+}
+
+/// Portable scalar reference cosine when both norms are known. Mirrors
+/// `cosine_with_norms_f32_dispatched` for parity testing.
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn cosine_with_norms_scalar(x: &[f64], x_norm: f32, y_norm: f32, y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    let xy: f64 = x.iter().zip(y.iter()).map(|(&a, &b)| a * b).sum();
+    1.0 - (xy as f32) / x_norm / y_norm
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
     use crate::test_utils::{
         arbitrary_bf16, arbitrary_f16, arbitrary_f32, arbitrary_f64, arbitrary_vector_pair,
+        dimension_shard, run_vector_pair_proptest,
     };
     use approx::assert_relative_eq;
     use num_traits::AsPrimitive;
@@ -357,6 +1458,22 @@ mod tests {
         1.0 - xy / x_sq / y_sq
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn half_cosine_rejects_mismatched_lengths_before_ffi() {
+        let f16_x = [f16::from_f32(1.0)];
+        let f16_y = [f16::from_f32(1.0), f16::from_f32(2.0)];
+        assert!(
+            std::panic::catch_unwind(|| <f16 as Cosine>::cosine_fast(&f16_x, 1.0, &f16_y)).is_err()
+        );
+
+        let bf16_x = [bf16::from_f32(1.0)];
+        let bf16_y = [bf16::from_f32(1.0), bf16::from_f32(2.0)];
+        assert!(
+            std::panic::catch_unwind(|| <bf16 as Cosine>::cosine_fast(&bf16_x, 1.0, &bf16_y))
+                .is_err()
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_cosine() {
         let x: Float32Array = (1..9).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
@@ -428,6 +1545,78 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_cosine_f32(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f32, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            do_cosine_test(&x, &y)
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_cosine_f64(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f64, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-20);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-20);
+            do_cosine_test(&x, &y)
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_cosine_fast_f32_scalar_simd_parity(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f32, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let x_f64: Vec<f64> = x.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let y_f64: Vec<f64> = y.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let scalar = cosine_fast_scalar(&x_f64, x_norm, &y_f64);
+            let simd = <f32 as Cosine>::cosine_fast(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, max_relative = 1e-3));
+            Ok(())
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_cosine_with_norms_f32_scalar_simd_parity(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f32, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let y_norm = norm_l2(&y);
+            let x_f64: Vec<f64> = x.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let y_f64: Vec<f64> = y.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let scalar = cosine_with_norms_scalar(&x_f64, x_norm, y_norm, &y_f64);
+            let simd = <f32 as Cosine>::cosine_with_norms(&x, x_norm, y_norm, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, max_relative = 1e-3));
+            Ok(())
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_cosine_fast_f64_scalar_simd_parity(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f64, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-20);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-20);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = cosine_fast_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let simd = <f64 as Cosine>::cosine_fast(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, max_relative = 1e-3));
+            Ok(())
+        });
+    }
+
     proptest::proptest! {
         #[test]
         fn test_cosine_f16((x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f16, 4..4048)) {
@@ -444,18 +1633,423 @@ mod tests {
             do_cosine_test(&x, &y)?;
         }
 
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity for the f32 cosine_fast kernel. Early-returns
+        /// on hosts without AVX-512F so the test stays portable.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         #[test]
-        fn test_cosine_f32((x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)){
+        fn test_cosine_fast_f32_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
             prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
             prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
-            do_cosine_test(&x, &y)?;
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = cosine_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx512 = unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx512(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the f32 cosine_fast kernel. Covers
+        /// the AMD Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier. Early-returns
+        /// on hosts without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_fast_f32_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = cosine_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx_fma = unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx_fma(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the f32 cosine_fast kernel. Covers
+        /// the Intel Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier. Early-returns on
+        /// hosts without AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_fast_f32_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = cosine_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx = unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_fast_avx(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity for the f32 cosine_with_norms kernel.
+        /// Early-returns on hosts without AVX-512F.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_with_norms_f32_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let y_norm = norm_l2(&y);
+            let scalar = cosine_scalar_fast(&x, x_norm, &y, y_norm);
+            let avx512 = unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_with_norms_avx512(&x, x_norm, y_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, max_relative = 1e-5));
         }
 
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the f32 cosine_with_norms kernel.
+        /// Covers the AMD Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier.
+        /// Early-returns on hosts without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_with_norms_f32_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let y_norm = norm_l2(&y);
+            let scalar = cosine_scalar_fast(&x, x_norm, &y, y_norm);
+            let avx_fma = unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_with_norms_avx_fma(&x, x_norm, y_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the f32 cosine_with_norms kernel.
+        /// Covers the Intel Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier. Early-returns
+        /// on hosts without AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_with_norms_f32_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let y_norm = norm_l2(&y);
+            let scalar = cosine_scalar_fast(&x, x_norm, &y, y_norm);
+            let avx = unsafe { f32_x86::cosine_with_norms_avx(&x, x_norm, y_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity for the f64 cosine_fast kernel. Early-returns
+        /// on hosts without AVX-512F.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         #[test]
-        fn test_cosine_f64((x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)){
+        fn test_cosine_fast_f64_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
             prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-20);
             prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-20);
-            do_cosine_test(&x, &y)?;
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = cosine_fast_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx512 = unsafe { f64_x86::cosine_fast_avx512(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the f64 cosine_fast kernel. Covers
+        /// the AMD Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier. Early-returns
+        /// on hosts without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_fast_f64_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-20);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-20);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = cosine_fast_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx_fma = unsafe { f64_x86::cosine_fast_avx_fma(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the f64 cosine_fast kernel. Covers
+        /// the Intel Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier. Early-returns on
+        /// hosts without AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_fast_f64_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-20);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-20);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = cosine_fast_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx = unsafe { f64_x86::cosine_fast_avx(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// Parity check for `cosine_once_8` (despecialised 8-lane width).
+        ///
+        /// The `epsilon = 1e-6` clause handles the case where the proptest
+        /// generator produces inputs with extreme dynamic range (e.g., mixing
+        /// `1e-43` with `1e7` in the same vector). When the dot product is
+        /// dominated by one large term and the cosine result is near zero,
+        /// the f32-precision SIMD path and the f64-precision scalar reference
+        /// can legitimately differ by more than `max_relative = 1e-3` of the
+        /// (near-zero) result. The absolute epsilon catches these without
+        /// masking real bugs (where the absolute error would be > 1e-6).
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_once_8_scalar_simd_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 8..9)
+        ) {
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let x_f64: Vec<f64> = x.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let y_f64: Vec<f64> = y.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let scalar = cosine_fast_scalar(&x_f64, x_norm, &y_f64);
+            let simd = f32::cosine_once_8(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, max_relative = 1e-3, epsilon = 1e-6));
+        }
+
+        /// Parity check for `cosine_once_16` (despecialised 16-lane width).
+        /// See `test_cosine_once_8_scalar_simd_parity` for `epsilon` rationale.
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_once_16_scalar_simd_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 16..17)
+        ) {
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let x_f64: Vec<f64> = x.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let y_f64: Vec<f64> = y.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let scalar = cosine_fast_scalar(&x_f64, x_norm, &y_f64);
+            let simd = f32::cosine_once_16(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, max_relative = 1e-3, epsilon = 1e-6));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity for the 8-lane cosine_once kernel. Verifies
+        /// the masked-load (mask 0x00FF) AVX-512 implementation produces
+        /// the same result as the scalar reference. Early-returns on hosts
+        /// without AVX-512F.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_once_8_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 8..9)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = super::f32::cosine_once_8_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx512 =
+                unsafe { super::f32::cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_8_avx512(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity for the 16-lane cosine_once kernel. Verifies
+        /// the full-width `__m512` load implementation produces the same
+        /// result as the scalar reference. Early-returns on hosts without
+        /// AVX-512F.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_once_16_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 16..17)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = super::f32::cosine_once_16_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx512 =
+                unsafe { super::f32::cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx512(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the 8-lane cosine_once kernel.
+        /// Covers the AMD Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier.
+        /// Early-returns on hosts without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_once_8_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 8..9)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = super::f32::cosine_once_8_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx_fma =
+                unsafe { super::f32::cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_8_avx_fma(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the 16-lane cosine_once kernel.
+        /// Covers the AMD Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier.
+        /// Early-returns on hosts without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_once_16_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 16..17)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = super::f32::cosine_once_16_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx_fma =
+                unsafe { super::f32::cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx_fma(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the 8-lane cosine_once kernel.
+        /// Covers the Intel Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier. Early-returns
+        /// on hosts without AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_once_8_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 8..9)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = super::f32::cosine_once_8_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx = unsafe { super::f32::cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_8_avx(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the 16-lane cosine_once kernel.
+        /// Covers the Intel Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier. Early-returns
+        /// on hosts without AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_cosine_once_16_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 16..17)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&x) > 1e-10);
+            prop_assume!(norm_l2(&y) > 1e-10);
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let scalar = super::f32::cosine_once_16_scalar(&x, x_norm, &y);
+            let avx = unsafe { super::f32::cosine_once_x86::cosine_once_16_avx(&x, x_norm, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, max_relative = 1e-5));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::dim_8(8)]
+    #[case::dim_16(16)]
+    #[case::dim_40(40)]
+    fn test_cosine_batch_matches_per_vector(#[case] dimension: usize) {
+        let num_vectors = 5;
+        let x: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension)
+            .map(|index| (index % 13) as f32 * 0.25 + 1.0)
+            .collect();
+        let batch: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension * num_vectors)
+            .map(|index| (index % 11) as f32 * 0.5 - 2.0)
+            .collect();
+
+        let boxed: Vec<f32> = f32::cosine_batch(&x, &batch, dimension).collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(boxed.len(), num_vectors);
+        for (boxed_distance, vector) in boxed.iter().zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension)) {
+            let expected = f32::cosine(&x, vector);
+            assert_relative_eq!(
+                *boxed_distance,
+                expected,
+                max_relative = 1e-5,
+                epsilon = 1e-6
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Asserts a batch-level f32 cosine SIMD kernel matches the scalar
+    /// `cosine_fast` reference for every vector in a multi-vector batch. Runs
+    /// each of the kernel's three internal dimension arms (8, 16, and the
+    /// general `chunks_exact` path). The AVX/FMA helpers are test-only, while
+    /// the AVX-512 helper is selected only by AVX2-baseline builds, so direct
+    /// calls cover them under the default x86-64-v2 baseline.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    fn check_cosine_batch_kernel(kernel: unsafe fn(&[f32], f32, &[f32], usize, &mut [f32])) {
+        for dimension in [8_usize, 16, 40] {
+            let x: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.5 + 1.0).collect();
+            let x_norm = norm_l2(&x);
+            let num_vectors = 3;
+            let batch: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension * num_vectors)
+                .map(|i| ((i % 7) as f32) + 1.0)
+                .collect();
+
+            let mut got = vec![0.0; num_vectors];
+            unsafe { kernel(&x, x_norm, &batch, dimension, &mut got) };
+            assert_eq!(got.len(), num_vectors);
+
+            let x_f64: Vec<f64> = x.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            for (chunk, &g) in batch.chunks_exact(dimension).zip(got.iter()) {
+                let y_f64: Vec<f64> = chunk.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+                let expected = cosine_fast_scalar(&x_f64, x_norm, &y_f64);
+                assert_relative_eq!(g, expected, max_relative = 1e-3, epsilon = 1e-6);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// AVX + FMA batch kernel parity (AVX2 / AVX+FMA tiers). Runs on any
+    /// Haswell-or-newer host; early-returns without AVX and FMA.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cosine_batch_avx_fma_matches_scalar() {
+        if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+            return;
+        }
+        check_cosine_batch_kernel(super::f32::cosine_batch_avx_fma);
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-only batch kernel parity (Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier).
+    /// Early-returns on hosts without AVX.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cosine_batch_avx_matches_scalar() {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        check_cosine_batch_kernel(super::f32::cosine_batch_avx);
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 batch kernel parity. Early-returns on hosts without AVX-512F.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cosine_batch_avx512_matches_scalar() {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            return;
         }
+        check_cosine_batch_kernel(super::f32::cosine_batch_avx512);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/cosine_u8.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/cosine_u8.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..40b6867b1c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/cosine_u8.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,388 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Unsigned int8 cosine distance with runtime-dispatched SIMD backends.
+//!
+//! Computes `1 - dot(a,b) / (‖a‖ × ‖b‖)` for u8 slices in a single
+//! pass over the data. The fused kernel maintains three accumulators
+//! simultaneously — `Σ(a·b)`, `Σ(a²)`, `Σ(b²)` — so memory is only
+//! traversed once instead of 2-3 times (norm + dot).
+//!
+//! Backends (selected at runtime, best available wins):
+//!   1. scalar     — portable reference, also used for tails
+//!   2. avx2       — zero-extend u8→i16, triple VPMADDWD, 32 elements/iter
+//!   3. avx512vnni — same with VPDPWSSD accumulation, 64 elements/iter
+
+use std::sync::OnceLock;
+
+use super::assert_equal_lengths;
+
+/// Intermediate results from the fused u8 cosine kernel: (dot_ab, norm_a², norm_b²).
+///
+/// Separated from the final normalization so SIMD backends can be tested
+/// for exact integer equality before the f32 division.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct CosineAccumulators {
+    pub dot_ab: u32,
+    pub norm_a_sq: u32,
+    pub norm_b_sq: u32,
+}
+
+/// Portable scalar fused cosine accumulation.
+#[inline]
+pub fn cosine_u8_accum_scalar(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> CosineAccumulators {
+    assert_equal_lengths(a.len(), b.len());
+    let (mut dot_ab, mut norm_a_sq, mut norm_b_sq) = (0u32, 0u32, 0u32);
+    for (&x, &y) in a.iter().zip(b.iter()) {
+        let (xu, yu) = (x as u32, y as u32);
+        dot_ab += xu * yu;
+        norm_a_sq += xu * xu;
+        norm_b_sq += yu * yu;
+    }
+    CosineAccumulators {
+        dot_ab,
+        norm_a_sq,
+        norm_b_sq,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert accumulators to cosine distance: `1 - dot / (‖a‖ × ‖b‖)`.
+#[inline]
+fn normalize(acc: CosineAccumulators) -> f32 {
+    let na = (acc.norm_a_sq as f32).sqrt();
+    let nb = (acc.norm_b_sq as f32).sqrt();
+    let denom = na * nb;
+    if denom == 0.0 {
+        // Both zero-norm → identical → distance 0.
+        // One zero-norm → undefined, but 0 is a safe sentinel.
+        return 0.0;
+    }
+    1.0 - acc.dot_ab as f32 / denom
+}
+
+/// Portable scalar u8 cosine distance.
+#[inline]
+pub fn cosine_u8_scalar(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+    normalize(cosine_u8_accum_scalar(a, b))
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use super::CosineAccumulators;
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    /// Horizontal sum of all 8 × i32 lanes in a __m256i.
+    #[inline(always)]
+    unsafe fn hsum_epi32_avx2(v: __m256i) -> u32 {
+        let lo128 = _mm256_castsi256_si128(v);
+        let hi128 = _mm256_extracti128_si256(v, 1);
+        let mut sum128 = _mm_add_epi32(lo128, hi128);
+        sum128 = _mm_hadd_epi32(sum128, sum128);
+        sum128 = _mm_hadd_epi32(sum128, sum128);
+        _mm_cvtsi128_si32(sum128) as u32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX2 fused cosine: three VPMADDWD products per half, 32 elements/iter.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_u8_accum_avx2(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> CosineAccumulators {
+        debug_assert_eq!(a.len(), b.len());
+        let n = a.len();
+        let mut acc_dot = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+        let mut acc_na = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+        let mut acc_nb = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+        let mut i = 0usize;
+
+        while i + 32 <= n {
+            let av = _mm256_loadu_si256(a.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m256i);
+            let bv = _mm256_loadu_si256(b.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m256i);
+
+            // Zero-extend each 128-bit half to 16 × i16.
+            let a_lo = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi16(_mm256_castsi256_si128(av));
+            let a_hi = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi16(_mm256_extracti128_si256(av, 1));
+            let b_lo = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi16(_mm256_castsi256_si128(bv));
+            let b_hi = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi16(_mm256_extracti128_si256(bv, 1));
+
+            // VPMADDWD: pairwise multiply i16 and accumulate pairs into i32.
+            acc_dot = _mm256_add_epi32(acc_dot, _mm256_madd_epi16(a_lo, b_lo));
+            acc_dot = _mm256_add_epi32(acc_dot, _mm256_madd_epi16(a_hi, b_hi));
+            acc_na = _mm256_add_epi32(acc_na, _mm256_madd_epi16(a_lo, a_lo));
+            acc_na = _mm256_add_epi32(acc_na, _mm256_madd_epi16(a_hi, a_hi));
+            acc_nb = _mm256_add_epi32(acc_nb, _mm256_madd_epi16(b_lo, b_lo));
+            acc_nb = _mm256_add_epi32(acc_nb, _mm256_madd_epi16(b_hi, b_hi));
+            i += 32;
+        }
+
+        let mut dot_ab = hsum_epi32_avx2(acc_dot);
+        let mut norm_a_sq = hsum_epi32_avx2(acc_na);
+        let mut norm_b_sq = hsum_epi32_avx2(acc_nb);
+
+        // Scalar tail
+        while i < n {
+            let (xu, yu) = (a[i] as u32, b[i] as u32);
+            dot_ab += xu * yu;
+            norm_a_sq += xu * xu;
+            norm_b_sq += yu * yu;
+            i += 1;
+        }
+
+        CosineAccumulators {
+            dot_ab,
+            norm_a_sq,
+            norm_b_sq,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 VNNI fused cosine: VPDPWSSD for each product, 64 elements/iter.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    pub unsafe fn cosine_u8_accum_avx512_vnni(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> CosineAccumulators {
+        debug_assert_eq!(a.len(), b.len());
+        let n = a.len();
+        let zeros = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let mut acc_dot = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let mut acc_na = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let mut acc_nb = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let mut i = 0usize;
+
+        while i + 64 <= n {
+            let av = _mm512_loadu_si512(a.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m512i);
+            let bv = _mm512_loadu_si512(b.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m512i);
+
+            // Zero-extend u8→i16 via interleave with zeros.
+            let a_lo = _mm512_unpacklo_epi8(av, zeros);
+            let a_hi = _mm512_unpackhi_epi8(av, zeros);
+            let b_lo = _mm512_unpacklo_epi8(bv, zeros);
+            let b_hi = _mm512_unpackhi_epi8(bv, zeros);
+
+            // VPDPWSSD: signed i16 multiply-add into i32 accumulator.
+            acc_dot = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(acc_dot, a_lo, b_lo);
+            acc_dot = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(acc_dot, a_hi, b_hi);
+            acc_na = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(acc_na, a_lo, a_lo);
+            acc_na = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(acc_na, a_hi, a_hi);
+            acc_nb = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(acc_nb, b_lo, b_lo);
+            acc_nb = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(acc_nb, b_hi, b_hi);
+            i += 64;
+        }
+
+        let mut dot_ab = _mm512_reduce_add_epi32(acc_dot) as u32;
+        let mut norm_a_sq = _mm512_reduce_add_epi32(acc_na) as u32;
+        let mut norm_b_sq = _mm512_reduce_add_epi32(acc_nb) as u32;
+
+        // Scalar tail
+        while i < n {
+            let (xu, yu) = (a[i] as u32, b[i] as u32);
+            dot_ab += xu * yu;
+            norm_a_sq += xu * xu;
+            norm_b_sq += yu * yu;
+            i += 1;
+        }
+
+        CosineAccumulators {
+            dot_ab,
+            norm_a_sq,
+            norm_b_sq,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+type CosineU8AccumFn = fn(&[u8], &[u8]) -> CosineAccumulators;
+
+static DISPATCH: OnceLock<CosineU8AccumFn> = OnceLock::new();
+
+fn select_backend() -> CosineU8AccumFn {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vnni")
+        {
+            return |a, b| unsafe { x86::cosine_u8_accum_avx512_vnni(a, b) };
+        }
+
+        if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return |a, b| unsafe { x86::cosine_u8_accum_avx2(a, b) };
+        }
+        // AvxFma and Avx hosts (AMD Piledriver / Steamroller, Intel Sandy
+        // Bridge / Ivy Bridge) fall through to scalar: the AVX2 inner uses
+        // `vpmaddubsw` / `vpmaddwd` integer ops which neither AVX nor
+        // AVX+FMA provides.
+    }
+
+    cosine_u8_accum_scalar
+}
+
+/// Dispatched fused u8 cosine accumulation.
+#[inline]
+fn cosine_u8_accum(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> CosineAccumulators {
+    assert_equal_lengths(a.len(), b.len());
+    (DISPATCH.get_or_init(select_backend))(a, b)
+}
+
+/// Dispatched u8 cosine distance, selecting the best available SIMD backend.
+///
+/// Returns `1 - dot(a,b) / (‖a‖ × ‖b‖)` computed in a single pass.
+#[inline]
+pub fn cosine_u8(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> f32 {
+    normalize(cosine_u8_accum(a, b))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::shorter_right(64, 1)]
+    #[case::longer_right(1, 64)]
+    fn rejects_mismatched_lengths(#[case] a_len: usize, #[case] b_len: usize) {
+        let a = vec![1; a_len];
+        let b = vec![1; b_len];
+
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| cosine_u8_accum_scalar(&a, &b)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| cosine_u8_scalar(&a, &b)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| cosine_u8(&a, &b)).is_err());
+    }
+
+    fn fill_random(buf: &mut [u8], seed: &mut u32) {
+        for slot in buf.iter_mut() {
+            *seed = seed.wrapping_mul(1103515245).wrapping_add(12345);
+            *slot = (*seed >> 16) as u8;
+        }
+    }
+
+    const SIZES: &[usize] = &[
+        0, 1, 7, 15, 16, 31, 32, 33, 63, 64, 65, 127, 128, 255, 256, 1024, 4096, 4097,
+    ];
+
+    /// Verify SIMD backends produce identical integer accumulators to scalar.
+    fn check_all_backends_accum(a: &[u8], b: &[u8], case: &str) {
+        let reference = cosine_u8_accum_scalar(a, b);
+
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+                let got = unsafe { x86::cosine_u8_accum_avx2(a, b) };
+                assert_eq!(got, reference, "avx2 [{case}] n={}", a.len());
+            }
+
+            if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f")
+                && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw")
+                && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vnni")
+            {
+                let got = unsafe { x86::cosine_u8_accum_avx512_vnni(a, b) };
+                assert_eq!(got, reference, "avx512_vnni [{case}] n={}", a.len());
+            }
+        }
+
+        let dispatched = cosine_u8_accum(a, b);
+        assert_eq!(dispatched, reference, "dispatch [{case}] n={}", a.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn random_inputs_across_sizes_and_seeds() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for seed_idx in 0..4u32 {
+            let mut seed = 0xC0FFEE_u32.wrapping_add(seed_idx.wrapping_mul(7919));
+            for &n in SIZES {
+                fill_random(&mut a[..n], &mut seed);
+                fill_random(&mut b[..n], &mut seed);
+                check_all_backends_accum(&a[..n], &b[..n], "random");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn boundary_values() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for &n in SIZES {
+            a[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            b[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            check_all_backends_accum(&a[..n], &b[..n], "max-max");
+
+            a[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            b[..n].fill(0);
+            check_all_backends_accum(&a[..n], &b[..n], "max-0");
+
+            a[..n].fill(0);
+            b[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            check_all_backends_accum(&a[..n], &b[..n], "0-max");
+
+            a[..n].fill(0);
+            b[..n].fill(0);
+            check_all_backends_accum(&a[..n], &b[..n], "0-0");
+
+            for i in 0..n {
+                a[i] = if i & 1 == 0 { 0 } else { u8::MAX };
+                b[i] = if i & 1 == 0 { u8::MAX } else { 0 };
+            }
+            check_all_backends_accum(&a[..n], &b[..n], "alt 0/max");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn one_sided_zeros() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for &n in SIZES {
+            let mut seed = 0xDEAD_BEEF_u32;
+            fill_random(&mut a[..n], &mut seed);
+            b[..n].fill(0);
+            check_all_backends_accum(&a[..n], &b[..n], "b=0");
+
+            a[..n].fill(0);
+            fill_random(&mut b[..n], &mut seed);
+            check_all_backends_accum(&a[..n], &b[..n], "a=0");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn cosine_known_values() {
+        // Identical vectors → distance 0
+        let v = [10u8, 20, 30, 40];
+        assert_eq!(cosine_u8(&v, &v), 0.0);
+
+        // Orthogonal-ish: one vector all in first half, other in second half
+        let a = [255u8, 255, 0, 0];
+        let b = [0u8, 0, 255, 255];
+        assert_eq!(cosine_u8(&a, &b), 1.0); // dot=0 → distance=1
+
+        // Zero vectors → distance 0 (by convention)
+        assert_eq!(cosine_u8(&[0, 0], &[0, 0]), 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(cosine_u8(&[0, 0], &[1, 2]), 0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn cosine_distance_symmetry() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 256];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 256];
+        let mut seed = 0xBEEF_u32;
+        fill_random(&mut a, &mut seed);
+        fill_random(&mut b, &mut seed);
+
+        let d1 = cosine_u8(&a, &b);
+        let d2 = cosine_u8(&b, &a);
+        assert_eq!(d1, d2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn cosine_distance_range() {
+        // Cosine distance should be in [0, 1] for non-negative u8 inputs
+        // (all u8 values are ≥ 0, so dot product is always ≥ 0).
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 1024];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 1024];
+
+        for seed_idx in 0..8u32 {
+            let mut seed = 0xABCD_u32.wrapping_add(seed_idx.wrapping_mul(31));
+            fill_random(&mut a, &mut seed);
+            fill_random(&mut b, &mut seed);
+            let d = cosine_u8(&a, &b);
+            assert!(
+                (0.0..=1.0).contains(&d),
+                "cosine distance {d} out of [0,1] range"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot.rs
index 92e65c1fe68..0350d0dd806 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot.rs
@@ -3,23 +3,42 @@
 
 //! Dot product.
 
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+use std::arch::x86_64::{_mm256_loadu_ps, _mm256_mul_ps};
 use std::iter::Sum;
 use std::ops::AddAssign;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use crate::Error;
 use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float64Type, Int8Type};
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, types::Float32Type, Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, cast::AsArray, types::Float32Type};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use half::{bf16, f16};
 use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FixedSizeListArrayExt, FloatArray};
-use lance_core::assume_eq;
-#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
-use lance_core::utils::cpu::SimdSupport;
-use lance_core::utils::cpu::SIMD_SUPPORT;
-use num_traits::{real::Real, AsPrimitive, Num};
+#[allow(unused_imports)]
+use lance_core::utils::cpu::{SIMD_SUPPORT, SimdSupport};
+use num_traits::{AsPrimitive, Num, real::Real};
 
 use crate::Result;
+#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
+use crate::distance::HalfBackend;
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+use crate::distance::{BatchIter, BatchKernel, BatchKind, BatchOperation};
+use crate::distance::{
+    HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED, HalfType, assert_batch_layout, assert_equal_lengths, half_backend,
+    int8_query_to_f32, x86_half_features,
+};
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+use crate::simd::x86::hsum256_ps;
 
 /// Default implementation of dot product.
 ///
@@ -35,21 +54,20 @@ fn dot_scalar<
     from: &[T],
     to: &[T],
 ) -> Output {
-    let x_chunks = to.chunks_exact(LANES);
-    let y_chunks = from.chunks_exact(LANES);
-    let sum = if x_chunks.remainder().is_empty() {
+    let (x_chunks, x_remainder) = to.as_chunks::<LANES>();
+    let (y_chunks, y_remainder) = from.as_chunks::<LANES>();
+    let sum = if x_remainder.is_empty() {
         Output::zero()
     } else {
-        x_chunks
-            .remainder()
+        x_remainder
             .iter()
-            .zip(y_chunks.remainder().iter())
+            .zip(y_remainder.iter())
             .map(|(&x, &y)| x.as_() * y.as_())
             .sum::<Output>()
     };
     // Use known size to allow LLVM to kick in auto-vectorization.
     let mut sums = [Output::zero(); LANES];
-    for (x, y) in x_chunks.zip(y_chunks) {
+    for (x, y) in x_chunks.iter().zip(y_chunks) {
         for i in 0..LANES {
             sums[i] += x[i].as_() * y[i].as_();
         }
@@ -63,6 +81,14 @@ pub fn dot<T: Dot>(from: &[T], to: &[T]) -> f32 {
     T::dot(from, to)
 }
 
+/// Dot product between two f32 slices, dispatched to the widest SIMD backend
+/// available at runtime. See [`crate::distance::l2::l2_f32`] for why this is
+/// needed on top of the generic [`dot`].
+#[inline]
+pub fn dot_f32(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    f32::dot(x, y)
+}
+
 /// Negative [Dot] distance.
 #[inline]
 pub fn dot_distance<T: Dot>(from: &[T], to: &[T]) -> f32 {
@@ -73,12 +99,87 @@ pub fn dot_distance<T: Dot>(from: &[T], to: &[T]) -> f32 {
 pub trait Dot: Num {
     /// Dot product.
     fn dot(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32;
+
+    /// Dot product of `x` against each `dimension`-sized vector in `batch`.
+    ///
+    /// The default calls [`Dot::dot`] per vector. `f32` overrides it so the
+    /// SIMD tier is chosen once for the whole batch instead of once per
+    /// vector — on a build whose baseline already implies AVX2, per-vector
+    /// dispatch costs more than the kernel it selects.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `impl Iterator` rather than a trait object: hot consumers drive
+    /// this one element at a time, so a `Box<dyn Iterator>` would cost a
+    /// virtual call per element and an allocation per batch.
+    fn dot_batch<'a>(
+        x: &'a [Self],
+        batch: &'a [Self],
+        dimension: usize,
+    ) -> impl Iterator<Item = f32> + 'a {
+        assert_batch_layout(x.len(), batch.len(), dimension);
+        batch.chunks_exact(dimension).map(move |y| Self::dot(x, y))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
+mod bf16_kernel {
+    use half::bf16;
+
+    // These are the `dot_bf16` function in bf16.c. Our build.rs script compiles
+    // a version of this file for each SIMD level with different suffixes.
+    unsafe extern "C" {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        pub fn dot_bf16_neon(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_bf16", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        pub fn dot_bf16_avx512(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        pub fn dot_bf16_avx2(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        pub fn dot_bf16_lsx(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        pub fn dot_bf16_lasx(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+    }
 }
 
 impl Dot for bf16 {
     #[inline]
     fn dot(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        dot_scalar::<Self, f32, 32>(x, y)
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        match half_backend(
+            *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+            HalfType::Bf16,
+            HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED,
+            cfg!(all(kernel_support = "avx512_bf16", target_arch = "x86_64")),
+            x86_half_features(),
+        ) {
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Neon => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::dot_bf16_neon(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(
+                feature = "fp16kernels",
+                kernel_support = "avx512_bf16",
+                target_arch = "x86_64"
+            ))]
+            HalfBackend::Avx512 => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::dot_bf16_avx512(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Avx2 => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::dot_bf16_avx2(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Lasx => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::dot_bf16_lasx(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Lsx => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::dot_bf16_lsx(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            // SimdSupport::AvxFma and SimdSupport::Avx fall through here:
+            // the bf16 C kernels are compiled with `-march=haswell` minimum
+            // (AVX2), so they cannot run on AVX-only or AVX+FMA hosts.
+            _ => dot_scalar::<Self, f32, 32>(x, y),
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -88,10 +189,10 @@ mod kernel {
 
     // These are the `dot_f16` function in f16.c. Our build.rs script compiles
     // a version of this file for each SIMD level with different suffixes.
-    extern "C" {
+    unsafe extern "C" {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         pub fn dot_f16_neon(ptr1: *const f16, ptr2: *const f16, len: u32) -> f32;
-        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_f16", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
         pub fn dot_f16_avx512(ptr1: *const f16, ptr2: *const f16, len: u32) -> f32;
         #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         pub fn dot_f16_avx2(ptr1: *const f16, ptr2: *const f16, len: u32) -> f32;
@@ -105,31 +206,41 @@ mod kernel {
 impl Dot for f16 {
     #[inline]
     fn dot(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        match half_backend(
+            *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+            HalfType::F16,
+            HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED,
+            cfg!(all(kernel_support = "avx512_f16", target_arch = "x86_64")),
+            x86_half_features(),
+        ) {
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Neon => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Neon => unsafe {
                 kernel::dot_f16_neon(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(
                 feature = "fp16kernels",
-                kernel_support = "avx512",
+                kernel_support = "avx512_f16",
                 target_arch = "x86_64"
             ))]
-            SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Avx512 => unsafe {
                 kernel::dot_f16_avx512(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Avx2 => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Avx2 => unsafe {
                 kernel::dot_f16_avx2(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Lasx => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Lasx => unsafe {
                 kernel::dot_f16_lasx(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Lsx => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Lsx => unsafe {
                 kernel::dot_f16_lsx(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
+            // SimdSupport::AvxFma and SimdSupport::Avx retain their scalar
+            // route; this fallback only extends the tiers the C kernel already
+            // served to Avx512FP16 after checking F16C and FMA.
             _ => dot_scalar::<Self, f32, 32>(x, y),
         }
     }
@@ -138,25 +249,525 @@ impl Dot for f16 {
 impl Dot for f32 {
     #[inline]
     fn dot(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        dot_scalar::<Self, Self, 16>(x, y)
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        // Trait methods cannot carry `#[target_feature]` attributes, so the body
+        // lives in a free function that runtime-dispatches via `*SIMD_SUPPORT`
+        // to an AVX2 or AVX-512 inner kernel on capable hosts, or a portable
+        // scalar fallback. Same shape as the f64 sibling and the existing
+        // u8 distance kernels in `dot_u8.rs`.
+        dot_f32_dispatched(x, y)
+    }
+
+    fn dot_batch<'a>(
+        x: &'a [Self],
+        batch: &'a [Self],
+        dimension: usize,
+    ) -> impl Iterator<Item = Self> + 'a {
+        assert_batch_layout(x.len(), batch.len(), dimension);
+        // Exactly one arm compiles. Keeping each a tail expression (rather than
+        // an early `return` guarded by `cfg`) mirrors `dot_f32_dispatched` and
+        // avoids an unreachable tail on AVX2-baseline builds.
+        // On an AVX2-baseline build, hoist the tier choice out of the loop, but
+        // keep the SIMD kernel: the baseline already guarantees avx2+fma, so
+        // call the AVX+FMA kernel directly rather than re-checking per vector.
+        // Falling back to the scalar kernel here would lose ~4x at small
+        // dimensions, which is where batch calls live (PQ sub-vectors are 8
+        // wide).
+        //
+        // The iterator is a bare `Map`: `Map<ChunksExact, _>` is `TrustedLen`,
+        // so `.collect()` preallocates, and `Map::fold` drives `ChunksExact` in
+        // one inlined loop. Any wrapper — trait object or enum — loses both.
+        #[cfg(all(
+            target_arch = "x86_64",
+            target_feature = "avx2",
+            target_feature = "fma"
+        ))]
+        {
+            // See `L2::l2_batch` for f32: below 16 lanes `dot_scalar`'s chunking
+            // degenerates to a scalar remainder loop, so the explicit AVX kernel
+            // wins big; above it the autovectorizer is already good and the
+            // 8-wide kernel can lose, so keep the pre-dispatch kernel exactly.
+            //
+            // SAFETY: avx2+fma are enabled for the whole crate by the build
+            // baseline, so the kernel's `#[target_feature]` contract holds
+            // statically.
+            let narrow = dimension <= 16;
+            batch.chunks_exact(dimension).map(move |y| {
+                if narrow {
+                    unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx_fma(x, y) }
+                } else {
+                    dot_f32_scalar(x, y)
+                }
+            })
+        }
+        #[cfg(all(
+            target_arch = "x86_64",
+            not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+        ))]
+        {
+            dot_batch_f32_runtime_dispatch(x, batch, dimension)
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        {
+            // `assert_batch_layout` proves every chunk has the same length as
+            // `x`, so call the private kernel directly instead of repeating
+            // the public `Dot::dot` validation for every vector.
+            batch
+                .chunks_exact(dimension)
+                .map(move |y| dot_f32_dispatched(x, y))
+        }
     }
 }
 
+/// Sub-AVX2 builds: the scalar kernel cannot reach the wide registers, so pick
+/// a `#[target_feature]` kernel — once for the batch, not once per vector.
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+#[inline]
+fn dot_batch_f32_runtime_dispatch<'a>(
+    x: &'a [f32],
+    batch: &'a [f32],
+    dimension: usize,
+) -> impl Iterator<Item = f32> + 'a {
+    let (kernel, kind): (BatchKernel, BatchKind) = match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+        // AVX-512 has no useful work for an eight-element vector. Retain the
+        // AVX/FMA kernel used by the former Haswell baseline for PQ dimensions.
+        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 if dimension > 16 => {
+            (x86::dot_batch_f32_avx512, BatchKind::Avx512)
+        }
+        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 if std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") => {
+            (x86::dot_batch_f32_avx_fma, BatchKind::AvxFma)
+        }
+        SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => (x86::dot_batch_f32_avx_fma, BatchKind::AvxFma),
+        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 | SimdSupport::Avx => {
+            (x86::dot_batch_f32_avx, BatchKind::Avx)
+        }
+        _ => (dot_batch_f32_scalar, BatchKind::Scalar),
+    };
+
+    // SAFETY: the runtime tier and the explicit FMA check above establish the
+    // selected kernel's target-feature contract.
+    unsafe { BatchIter::<DotBatch>::new(x, batch, dimension, kernel, kind) }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+struct DotBatch;
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+impl BatchOperation for DotBatch {
+    #[inline]
+    fn fold_scalar<B, F>(key: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, init: B, mut f: F) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B,
+    {
+        batch
+            .chunks_exact(dimension)
+            .fold(init, |acc, vector| f(acc, dot_f32_scalar(key, vector)))
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    unsafe fn fold_avx<B, F>(key: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, init: B, mut f: F) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B,
+    {
+        if dimension == 8 {
+            let key_values = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(key.as_ptr()) };
+            return batch.as_chunks::<8>().0.iter().fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+                let vector_values = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(vector.as_ptr()) };
+                let product = _mm256_mul_ps(key_values, vector_values);
+                f(acc, unsafe { hsum256_ps(product) })
+            });
+        }
+        batch.chunks_exact(dimension).fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+            f(acc, unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx(key, vector) })
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    unsafe fn fold_avx_fma<B, F>(
+        key: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        init: B,
+        mut f: F,
+    ) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B,
+    {
+        if dimension == 8 {
+            let key_values = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(key.as_ptr()) };
+            return batch.as_chunks::<8>().0.iter().fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+                let vector_values = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(vector.as_ptr()) };
+                let product = _mm256_mul_ps(key_values, vector_values);
+                f(acc, unsafe { hsum256_ps(product) })
+            });
+        }
+        batch.chunks_exact(dimension).fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+            f(acc, unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx_fma(key, vector) })
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    unsafe fn fold_avx512<B, F>(
+        key: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        init: B,
+        mut f: F,
+    ) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B,
+    {
+        batch.chunks_exact(dimension).fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+            f(acc, unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx512(key, vector) })
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+unsafe fn dot_batch_f32_scalar(x: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, output: &mut [f32]) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+    for (distance, y) in output.iter_mut().zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension)) {
+        *distance = dot_f32_scalar(x, y);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Dot product for f32, runtime-dispatched via `SIMD_SUPPORT` on x86_64
+/// (AVX-512 / AVX2+FMA / AVX+FMA / AVX / scalar). Non-x86 uses the
+/// auto-vectorised scalar loop.
+#[inline]
+fn dot_f32_dispatched(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+            SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx512(x, y) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx_fma(x, y) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx(x, y) },
+            _ => dot_f32_scalar(x, y),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        dot_f32_scalar(x, y)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Portable scalar dot product for f32. Used as the x86_64 fallback when no
+/// AVX2 is detected, and as the only path on non-x86 architectures. The
+/// `LANES = 16` chunking matches the explicit-SIMD inner kernels above.
+#[inline]
+fn dot_f32_scalar(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    dot_scalar::<f32, f32, 16>(x, y)
+}
+
 impl Dot for f64 {
     #[inline]
     fn dot(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        dot_scalar::<Self, Self, 8>(x, y) as f32
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        dot_f64_simd(x, y)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Dot product for f64, runtime-dispatched via `SIMD_SUPPORT` on x86_64
+/// (AVX-512 / AVX2+FMA / AVX+FMA / AVX / scalar). Non-x86 uses the SIMD
+/// primitives in `crate::simd::f64`, unconditionally backed by NEON / LSX-LASX.
+#[inline]
+fn dot_f64_simd(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+            SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe { x86::dot_f64_avx512(x, y) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe { x86::dot_f64_avx_fma(x, y) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { x86::dot_f64_avx(x, y) },
+            _ => dot_f64_scalar(x, y),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        dot_f64_simd_other(x, y)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Portable scalar dot product for f64. Used as the x86_64 fallback when no
+/// AVX2 is detected, and exposed for cross-backend parity testing.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[inline]
+fn dot_f64_scalar(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    x.iter().zip(y.iter()).map(|(&a, &b)| a * b).sum::<f64>() as f32
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    use crate::simd::f64::{f64x4, f64x8};
+    use crate::simd::x86::hsum256_ps;
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    /// Dot product of `x` against every `dimension`-sized vector in `batch`,
+    /// entering the AVX-512 tier once for the whole batch rather than once per
+    /// vector.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The host must support AVX-512F.
+    ///
+    /// Only compiled for builds whose baseline is below avx2+fma; at or above
+    /// that baseline `dot_batch` inlines the kernel directly and never runtime-
+    /// dispatches, so this wrapper would be dead code (see `dot_batch`).
+    #[cfg(not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma")))]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn dot_batch_f32_avx512(
+        x: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+        for (distance, y) in output.iter_mut().zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension)) {
+            *distance = unsafe { dot_f32_avx512(x, y) };
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// As [`dot_batch_f32_avx512`], for the AVX2 and AVX+FMA tiers.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The host must support AVX and FMA.
+    #[cfg(not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma")))]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn dot_batch_f32_avx_fma(
+        x: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+        for (distance, y) in output.iter_mut().zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension)) {
+            *distance = unsafe { dot_f32_avx_fma(x, y) };
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// As [`dot_batch_f32_avx512`], for the AVX-without-FMA tier.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The host must support AVX.
+    #[cfg(not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma")))]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn dot_batch_f32_avx(
+        x: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+        for (distance, y) in output.iter_mut().zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension)) {
+            *distance = unsafe { dot_f32_avx(x, y) };
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 path for f64: 8-wide `__m512d` with `vfmadd231pd` per iteration.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub unsafe fn dot_f64_avx512(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm512_setzero_pd();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let a = _mm512_loadu_pd(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm512_loadu_pd(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm512_fmadd_pd(a, b, acc);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f64 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+            .sum();
+
+        (_mm512_reduce_add_pd(acc) + tail) as f32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX + FMA path for f64. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub unsafe fn dot_f64_avx_fma(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc8 = f64x8::zeros();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let a = f64x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = f64x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc8.multiply_add(a, b);
+        }
+
+        let aligned_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+        let mut acc4 = f64x4::zeros();
+        for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(4) {
+            let a = f64x4::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = f64x4::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc4.multiply_add(a, b);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f64 = x[aligned_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[aligned_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+            .sum();
+
+        (acc8.reduce_sum() + acc4.reduce_sum() + tail) as f32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-only path for f64 (no FMA): `_mm256_mul_pd` + `_mm256_add_pd` per iteration for Sandy/Ivy Bridge.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub unsafe fn dot_f64_avx(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_pd();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(4) {
+            let a = _mm256_loadu_pd(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm256_loadu_pd(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm256_add_pd(acc, _mm256_mul_pd(a, b));
+        }
+
+        // Horizontal sum of __m256d -> f64. Two pairwise adds across lanes.
+        let lo = _mm256_castpd256_pd128(acc);
+        let hi = _mm256_extractf128_pd(acc, 1);
+        let sum128 = _mm_add_pd(lo, hi);
+        let sum64 = _mm_add_pd(sum128, _mm_unpackhi_pd(sum128, sum128));
+        let acc_sum = _mm_cvtsd_f64(sum64);
+
+        let tail: f64 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+            .sum();
+
+        (acc_sum + tail) as f32
     }
+
+    /// AVX-512 path for f32: 16-wide `__m512` with `vfmadd231ps` per iteration.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub unsafe fn dot_f32_avx512(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm512_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
+            let a = _mm512_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm512_loadu_ps(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm512_fmadd_ps(a, b, acc);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f32 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+            .sum();
+
+        _mm512_reduce_add_ps(acc) + tail
+    }
+
+    /// AVX + FMA path for f32. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub unsafe fn dot_f32_avx_fma(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let a = _mm256_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm256_loadu_ps(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm256_fmadd_ps(a, b, acc);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f32 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+            .sum();
+
+        hsum256_ps(acc) + tail
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-only path for f32 (no FMA): `_mm256_mul_ps` + `_mm256_add_ps` per iteration for Sandy/Ivy Bridge.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub unsafe fn dot_f32_avx(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let a = _mm256_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm256_loadu_ps(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm256_add_ps(acc, _mm256_mul_ps(a, b));
+        }
+
+        let tail: f32 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+            .sum();
+
+        hsum256_ps(acc) + tail
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+#[inline]
+fn dot_f64_simd_other(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    use crate::simd::f64::{f64x4, f64x8};
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    let dim = x.len();
+    let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+    let mut acc8 = f64x8::zeros();
+    for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+        unsafe {
+            let a = f64x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = f64x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc8.multiply_add(a, b);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let aligned_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+    let mut acc4 = f64x4::zeros();
+    for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(4) {
+        unsafe {
+            let a = f64x4::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = f64x4::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc4.multiply_add(a, b);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let tail: f64 = x[aligned_len..]
+        .iter()
+        .zip(y[aligned_len..].iter())
+        .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+        .sum();
+
+    (acc8.reduce_sum() + acc4.reduce_sum() + tail) as f32
 }
 
 impl Dot for u8 {
     #[inline]
     fn dot(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        // TODO: this is not optimized for auto vectorization yet.
-        x.iter()
-            .zip(y.iter())
-            .map(|(&x_i, &y_i)| x_i as u32 * y_i as u32)
-            .sum::<u32>() as f32
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        super::dot_u8::dot_u8_u64(x, y) as f32
     }
 }
 
@@ -166,9 +777,7 @@ pub fn dot_distance_batch<'a, T: Dot>(
     to: &'a [T],
     dimension: usize,
 ) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = f32> + 'a> {
-    assume_eq!(from.len(), dimension);
-    assume_eq!(to.len() % dimension, 0);
-    Box::new(to.chunks_exact(dimension).map(|v| dot_distance(from, v)))
+    Box::new(T::dot_batch(from, to, dimension).map(|d| 1.0 - d))
 }
 
 fn do_dot_distance_arrow_batch<T: ArrowFloatType>(
@@ -192,10 +801,9 @@ where
                 to.value_type()
             )))?;
 
-    let dists = to_values
-        .as_slice()
-        .chunks_exact(dimension)
-        .map(|v| dot_distance(from.as_slice(), v));
+    // Route through `dot_distance_batch` rather than mapping `dot_distance` per
+    // vector, so this entry point gets the same hoisted dispatch.
+    let dists = dot_distance_batch(from.as_slice(), to_values.as_slice(), dimension);
 
     Ok(Arc::new(Float32Array::new(
         dists.collect(),
@@ -212,6 +820,12 @@ where
 /// - `from`: the vector to compute distance from.
 /// - `to`: a list of vectors to compute distance to.
 ///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns an error if `from` is an `Int8` array containing nulls, since a null
+/// query element has no distance to compute. The unsupported-type and downcast
+/// paths return errors of their own; this list is not exhaustive.
+///
 /// # Panics
 ///
 /// Panics if the length of `from` is not equal to the dimension (value length) of `to`.
@@ -219,19 +833,12 @@ pub fn dot_distance_arrow_batch(
     from: &dyn Array,
     to: &FixedSizeListArray,
 ) -> Result<Arc<Float32Array>> {
-    let dimension = to.value_length() as usize;
-    debug_assert_eq!(from.len(), dimension);
-
     match *from.data_type() {
         DataType::Float16 => do_dot_distance_arrow_batch::<Float16Type>(from.as_primitive(), to),
         DataType::Float32 => do_dot_distance_arrow_batch::<Float32Type>(from.as_primitive(), to),
         DataType::Float64 => do_dot_distance_arrow_batch::<Float64Type>(from.as_primitive(), to),
         DataType::Int8 => do_dot_distance_arrow_batch::<Float32Type>(
-            &from
-                .as_primitive::<Int8Type>()
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|x| x.unwrap() as f32)
-                .collect(),
+            &int8_query_to_f32(from.as_primitive::<Int8Type>())?,
             &to.convert_to_floating_point()?,
         ),
         _ => Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
@@ -246,10 +853,36 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use crate::test_utils::{
         arbitrary_bf16, arbitrary_f16, arbitrary_f32, arbitrary_f64, arbitrary_vector_pair,
+        dimension_shard, run_vector_pair_proptest,
     };
     use num_traits::{Float, FromPrimitive};
     use proptest::prelude::*;
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_rejects_mismatched_lengths() {
+        let short = [1.0_f32];
+        let long = [1.0_f32, 2.0];
+
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| dot(&short, &long)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| dot_f32(&short, &long)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| f32::dot(&short, &long)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| dot_distance(&short, &long)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| dot_distance_batch(&short, &long, 2)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| dot_distance_batch(&long, &[1.0_f32; 3], 2)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| dot_distance_batch::<f32>(&[], &[], 0)).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_f32_dispatch_matches_scalar() {
+        use approx::assert_relative_eq;
+        // Covers tail handling for lengths around the 16-lane AVX-512 stride.
+        for dim in [1usize, 7, 15, 16, 17, 31, 33, 64, 100, 1024] {
+            let x: Vec<f32> = (0..dim).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.5 - 3.0).collect();
+            let y: Vec<f32> = (0..dim).map(|i| (i as f32) * -0.25 + 1.5).collect();
+            assert_relative_eq!(dot_f32(&x, &y), dot(&x, &y), max_relative = 1e-5);
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_dot() {
         let x: Vec<f32> = (0..20).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
@@ -304,11 +937,16 @@ mod tests {
         let k = ((2 * x.len()) - 1) as f64;
         let k_epsilon = k * T::epsilon().as_();
 
-        if k_epsilon < 1.0 {
-            (k_epsilon * dot) as f32
+        let error = if k_epsilon < 1.0 {
+            k_epsilon * dot
         } else {
-            (2.0 * T::epsilon().as_() * dot) as f32
-        }
+            2.0 * T::epsilon().as_() * dot
+        };
+
+        // Near the subnormal range the analytical error can underflow to zero,
+        // but f32 accumulation can still differ by a few subnormal ULPs.
+        let subnormal_rounding_floor = x.len() as f64 * f64::from(f32::from_bits(1));
+        error.max(subnormal_rounding_floor) as f32
     }
 
     fn do_dot_test<T: Dot + AsPrimitive<f64> + Float>(
@@ -327,6 +965,39 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_dot_f32(#[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f32, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            do_dot_test(&x, &y)
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_dot_f64(#[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f64, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            do_dot_test(&x, &y)
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_dot_f32_scalar_simd_parity(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f32, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            let x_f64: Vec<f64> = x.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let y_f64: Vec<f64> = y.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let scalar = x_f64
+                .iter()
+                .zip(y_f64.iter())
+                .map(|(&a, &b)| a * b)
+                .sum::<f64>() as f32;
+            let simd = <f32 as Dot>::dot(&x, &y);
+            let max_error = max_error::<f32>(&x_f64, &y_f64);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, epsilon = max_error));
+            Ok(())
+        });
+    }
+
     proptest::proptest! {
         #[test]
         fn test_dot_f16((x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f16, 4..4048)) {
@@ -338,14 +1009,242 @@ mod tests {
             do_dot_test(&x, &y)?;
         }
 
+        /// Cross-backend parity: scalar fallback must match the dispatched
+        /// SIMD path within numerical tolerance. Exercises `dot_f64_scalar`
+        /// directly so the runtime fallback is exercised even on AVX2-capable
+        /// CI hosts.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_dot_f64_scalar_simd_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            let scalar = dot_f64_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let simd = dot_f64_simd(&x, &y);
+            let max_error = max_error::<f64>(&x, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, epsilon = max_error));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity for f32: explicitly compares the scalar
+        /// fallback against the native f32 AVX-512 inner kernel on
+        /// AVX-512F-capable hosts. Early-returns on hosts without AVX-512F.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         #[test]
-        fn test_dot_f32((x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)){
-            do_dot_test(&x, &y)?;
+        fn test_dot_f32_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = dot_f32_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx512 = unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx512(&x, &y) };
+            let x_f64: Vec<f64> = x.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let y_f64: Vec<f64> = y.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let max_error = max_error::<f32>(&x_f64, &y_f64);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, epsilon = max_error));
         }
 
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the f32 dot kernel. Covers the AMD
+        /// Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier. Early-returns on hosts
+        /// without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         #[test]
-        fn test_dot_f64((x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)){
-            do_dot_test(&x, &y)?;
+        fn test_dot_f32_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = dot_f32_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx_fma = unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx_fma(&x, &y) };
+            let x_f64: Vec<f64> = x.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let y_f64: Vec<f64> = y.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let max_error = max_error::<f32>(&x_f64, &y_f64);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, epsilon = max_error));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the f32 dot kernel. Covers the Intel
+        /// Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier. Early-returns on hosts without
+        /// AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_dot_f32_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = dot_f32_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx = unsafe { x86::dot_f32_avx(&x, &y) };
+            let x_f64: Vec<f64> = x.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let y_f64: Vec<f64> = y.iter().map(|&v| v as f64).collect();
+            let max_error = max_error::<f32>(&x_f64, &y_f64);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, epsilon = max_error));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity: explicitly compares the scalar fallback
+        /// against the native AVX-512 inner kernel on AVX-512F-capable hosts
+        /// (Skylake-X+, Ice Lake, Sapphire Rapids, Zen 4). Early-returns on
+        /// hosts without AVX-512F.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_dot_f64_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = dot_f64_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx512 = unsafe { x86::dot_f64_avx512(&x, &y) };
+            let max_error = max_error::<f64>(&x, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, epsilon = max_error));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the f64 dot kernel. Covers the AMD
+        /// Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier. Early-returns on hosts
+        /// without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_dot_f64_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = dot_f64_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx_fma = unsafe { x86::dot_f64_avx_fma(&x, &y) };
+            let max_error = max_error::<f64>(&x, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, epsilon = max_error));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the f64 dot kernel. Covers the Intel
+        /// Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier (AVX without FMA). Early-returns
+        /// on hosts without AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_dot_f64_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = dot_f64_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx = unsafe { x86::dot_f64_avx(&x, &y) };
+            let max_error = max_error::<f64>(&x, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, epsilon = max_error));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `dot_batch` must agree with the per-vector `dot` it replaced, on every
+    /// build: AVX2-baseline, hoisted-dispatch, and portable fallback all
+    /// funnel through here.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::dim_8(8)]
+    #[case::dim_16(16)]
+    #[case::dim_32(32)]
+    #[case::dim_1024(1024)]
+    fn test_dot_batch_f32_matches_per_vector_dot(#[case] dimension: usize) {
+        let num_vectors = 5;
+        let x: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension)
+            .map(|i| ((i % 13) as f32) * 0.25 + 1.0)
+            .collect();
+        let batch: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension * num_vectors)
+            .map(|i| ((i % 11) as f32) * 0.5 - 2.0)
+            .collect();
+
+        let got: Vec<f32> = f32::dot_batch(&x, &batch, dimension).collect();
+        let want: Vec<f32> = batch
+            .chunks_exact(dimension)
+            .map(|y| f32::dot(&x, y))
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(got.len(), num_vectors);
+        for (g, w) in got.iter().zip(want.iter()) {
+            assert!(
+                approx::relative_eq!(g, w, epsilon = 1e-4),
+                "dim {dimension}: batch {g} != per-vector {w}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `dot_distance_batch` still yields `1.0 - dot`, unchanged by the hoist.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_distance_batch_preserves_distance_semantics() {
+        let dimension = 32;
+        let x: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.1).collect();
+        let batch: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension * 3).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.05).collect();
+
+        let got: Vec<f32> = dot_distance_batch(&x, &batch, dimension).collect();
+        for (chunk, &g) in batch.chunks_exact(dimension).zip(got.iter()) {
+            assert!(approx::relative_eq!(
+                g,
+                1.0 - f32::dot(&x, chunk),
+                epsilon = 1e-5
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The per-batch `#[target_feature]` kernels are only reached on sub-AVX2
+    /// builds or AVX-512 hosts, so call them directly to cover them.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+    ))]
+    fn check_dot_batch_kernel(kernel: BatchKernel) {
+        for dimension in [8_usize, 16, 40] {
+            let num_vectors = 3;
+            let x: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.5 + 1.0).collect();
+            let batch: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension * num_vectors)
+                .map(|i| ((i % 7) as f32) + 1.0)
+                .collect();
+
+            let mut got = vec![0.0; num_vectors];
+            unsafe { kernel(&x, &batch, dimension, &mut got) };
+            assert_eq!(got.len(), num_vectors);
+            for (chunk, &g) in batch.chunks_exact(dimension).zip(got.iter()) {
+                let want = dot_scalar::<f32, f32, 16>(&x, chunk);
+                assert!(
+                    approx::relative_eq!(g, want, epsilon = 1e-4),
+                    "dim {dimension}: kernel {g} != scalar {want}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // The runtime-dispatch batch kernels only exist in sub-avx2+fma builds
+    // (see `x86::dot_batch_f32_avx512`), so gate their tests the same way.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_batch_avx_fma_matches_scalar() {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") || !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") {
+            return;
+        }
+        check_dot_batch_kernel(x86::dot_batch_f32_avx_fma);
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_batch_avx_matches_scalar() {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        check_dot_batch_kernel(x86::dot_batch_f32_avx);
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_batch_avx512_matches_scalar() {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            return;
         }
+        check_dot_batch_kernel(x86::dot_batch_f32_avx512);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot_f16.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot_f16.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0fad2c27f88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot_f16.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1299 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Batched f16 dot product with an optional AMX-FP16 tile backend.
+//!
+//! Used by IVF over an fp16 column under dot distance: [`dot_f16_batch_16`]
+//! scores one query against 16 centroids when choosing the partitions to probe,
+//! and the GEMM behind [`PackedCentroidsF16`] assigns vectors to partitions
+//! while an index is built.
+//!
+//! [`dot_f16_batch_16`] returns the 16 raw dot products `Σ query·candidate`
+//! (same value convention as [`crate::distance::dot()`]); the caller applies the
+//! `1.0 - dot` distance wrapping. On Linux/x86_64 hosts with AMX-FP16 it
+//! dispatches to a single tile pass; everywhere else (and on any AMX
+//! unavailability) it falls back to 16 independent [`crate::distance::dot()`]
+//! calls, which are bit-identical to the per-vector scalar path.
+//!
+//! Two gates cover all of this, and they are deliberately separate:
+//! [`amx_fp16_supported`] answers whether the tile instructions can run here at
+//! all, and [`amx_fp16_available`] adds the `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX` kill switch on
+//! top. The kernels here are guarded by the former so tests can always reach
+//! them; callers routing production work consult the latter. AMX is on by
+//! default — the switch exists for A/B measurement and for getting the previous
+//! path back without a rebuild.
+//!
+//! Unlike integer AMX kernels this is floating point: the AMX and fallback paths
+//! are **not** bit-for-bit identical (tile accumulation order rounds
+//! differently), but both accumulate products in f32 and agree to within fp16
+//! precision — a relative error on the order of 1e-4, far below fp16's own
+//! representational error, so recall is unaffected.
+
+use half::f16;
+
+use crate::distance::dot::dot;
+
+/// Batched f16 dot product: the raw dot products of one `query` against the
+/// first `len` of 16 `candidates`, in order. Every candidate slice must have the
+/// same length as `query`, and `len` must be in `1..=16`.
+///
+/// A batch is shorter than 16 only in the last group of a sweep, when the
+/// centroid count is not a multiple of 16. `len` keeps the `16 - len` padding
+/// rows out of the kernel's staging copy; with at most one short group per
+/// sweep that saves much less than it would for a caller whose batches were
+/// usually partial. Lanes `len..16` are returned as `0` rather than left
+/// unspecified, so both the AMX and fallback paths agree exactly on what a
+/// caller that reads past `len` sees.
+///
+/// Safe to call unconditionally: the caller never needs to know whether AMX is
+/// present. The function panics if any candidate has a different length from
+/// `query`, or if `len` is out of range, rather than allowing a malformed batch
+/// to reach the FFI kernel. See the module docs for the accuracy contract.
+#[inline]
+pub fn dot_f16_batch_16(query: &[f16], candidates: &[&[f16]; 16], len: usize) -> [f32; 16] {
+    assert!(
+        candidates
+            .iter()
+            .all(|candidate| candidate.len() == query.len()),
+        "all candidate vectors must have the same length as query"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        (1..=16).contains(&len),
+        "batch length must be in 1..=16, got {len}"
+    );
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    {
+        // AMX only earns its tile-config overhead once there is at least one
+        // full 32-wide pass; for tiny dims the fallback is cheaper anyway.
+        if query.len() >= 32 && crate::simd::amx_fp16::amx_supported() {
+            return unsafe { crate::simd::amx_fp16::dot_f16_batch_16_amx(query, candidates, len) };
+        }
+    }
+    dot_f16_batch_16_fallback(query, candidates, len)
+}
+
+/// Fallback for [`dot_f16_batch_16`]: `len` independent [`crate::distance::dot()`]
+/// calls — bit-identical to the per-vector scalar path (both go through
+/// `f16::dot`) — and `0` for the remaining lanes, matching what the kernel
+/// leaves there. Exposed separately so tests can exercise it regardless of host.
+#[inline]
+pub(crate) fn dot_f16_batch_16_fallback(
+    query: &[f16],
+    candidates: &[&[f16]; 16],
+    len: usize,
+) -> [f32; 16] {
+    std::array::from_fn(|i| {
+        if i < len {
+            dot(query, candidates[i])
+        } else {
+            0.0
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// Centroids pre-packed into the layout the AMX-FP16 GEMM reads its B operand
+/// in, together with the scoring entry point that consumes them.
+///
+/// This type exists unconditionally, and construction is the only gate:
+/// [`PackedCentroidsF16::new`] returns `None` on a build or host without the
+/// kernel. Callers in other crates cannot see lance-linalg's `kernel_support`
+/// cfg, so an `Option` at run time is the only form of the gate they can branch
+/// on to keep their own fallback path.
+///
+/// Packing costs `O(k * dim)` and is done once here rather than per block of
+/// vectors, where it would outweigh the GEMM it feeds.
+pub struct PackedCentroidsF16(Packed);
+
+/// [`PackedCentroidsF16`]'s payload — and the reason that type needs no `cfg`
+/// of its own: without the kernel this is uninhabited, so `PackedCentroidsF16`
+/// is too. `new` provably cannot return `Some`, which is what lets the methods
+/// discharge their bodies against a value that cannot exist instead of carrying
+/// a fallback implementation that could never run.
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+struct Packed {
+    /// Zero-padded `[n_padded, dim]` centroids, row-major and tight. Held
+    /// because the kernel reads the unpacked centroids directly for the
+    /// `dim % 32` tail dims, which are not part of the packed layout.
+    centroids: Vec<f16>,
+    /// `centroids` in the kernel's VNNI B-tile order.
+    packed: Vec<f16>,
+    n_padded: usize,
+    dim: usize,
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+)))]
+enum Packed {}
+
+/// How many elements a buffer must hold for `m` rows of `row_len`, `stride`
+/// apart — `(m - 1) * stride + row_len` — or `None` if that overflows `usize`.
+///
+/// The checked arithmetic is the point. Written inline, the expression wraps
+/// silently in release builds, and a wrapped requirement is *small*, so it
+/// satisfies the very length check it was computed for: `m = 32`,
+/// `stride = 595_056_260_442_243_601`, `row_len = 32` wraps to 47, admitting a
+/// 47-element slice into a kernel that then strides `data + i * stride` past its
+/// end. Every caller here is a safe function guarding an FFI boundary, so an
+/// overflow has to be rejected rather than folded into a comparison.
+///
+/// Zero rows need zero elements. Handling that here rather than leaving it to
+/// the caller keeps the function total: `m - 1` would underflow, which panics in
+/// debug builds and wraps to `usize::MAX` in release ones — the same class of
+/// silent wrap this function exists to prevent.
+pub(crate) fn strided_len(m: usize, stride: usize, row_len: usize) -> Option<usize> {
+    let Some(last_row) = m.checked_sub(1) else {
+        return Some(0);
+    };
+    last_row.checked_mul(stride)?.checked_add(row_len)
+}
+
+impl PackedCentroidsF16 {
+    /// Packs `n` row-major `dim`-dimensional `centroids` for repeated scoring.
+    ///
+    /// `None` means the GEMM is unavailable — this build has no kernel, this
+    /// host cannot run it (both are [`amx_fp16_supported`]), or the shape is
+    /// empty — and the caller must keep using its own path. There is no partial
+    /// mode. Whether an operator has taken the AMX paths out of service is a
+    /// separate question, answered by [`amx_fp16_available`] at the caller's
+    /// routing decision, so that tests can build one of these regardless.
+    ///
+    /// `n` is rounded up to a multiple of 32 with zero centroids, since the
+    /// kernel blocks its `n` loop by 32 and has no partial-tile path. The
+    /// padding is visible to [`score`](Self::score)'s output and callers must
+    /// account for it; see [`num_centroids_padded`](Self::num_centroids_padded).
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    /// If `centroids` does not hold exactly `n * dim` values.
+    pub fn new(centroids: &[f16], n: usize, dim: usize) -> Option<Self> {
+        let expected = n
+            .checked_mul(dim)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("centroid shape n = {n} x dim = {dim} overflows usize"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            centroids.len(),
+            expected,
+            "centroids must hold n*dim = {expected} values, got {}",
+            centroids.len()
+        );
+        if n == 0 || dim == 0 || !amx_fp16_supported() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        #[cfg(all(
+            kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+            target_arch = "x86_64",
+            target_os = "linux"
+        ))]
+        {
+            // Same checked-size contract as the length guards below: this
+            // allocation is what the kernel later reads through a raw pointer,
+            // so a shape whose padded size is not representable is rejected
+            // here rather than wrapped into an allocation smaller than the rows
+            // the kernel will address. `packed_centroids_len` needs no separate
+            // check -- `(dim / 32) * (n_padded / 16) * 512 <= n_padded * dim`
+            // for every input, so it cannot overflow once this one holds.
+            let n_padded = n.checked_next_multiple_of(32).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                panic!("padding n = {n} up to a multiple of 32 overflows usize")
+            });
+            let padded_len = n_padded.checked_mul(dim).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                panic!("padded centroid shape {n_padded} x dim = {dim} overflows usize")
+            });
+            let mut padded = vec![f16::ZERO; padded_len];
+            padded[..centroids.len()].copy_from_slice(centroids);
+            let mut packed =
+                Vec::with_capacity(crate::simd::amx_fp16::packed_centroids_len(n_padded, dim));
+            crate::simd::amx_fp16::pack_centroids_vnni(&padded, n_padded, dim, &mut packed);
+            return Some(Self(Packed {
+                centroids: padded,
+                packed,
+                n_padded,
+                dim,
+            }));
+        }
+        #[allow(unreachable_code)]
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// The centroid count [`score`](Self::score) actually writes per row: the
+    /// `n` given to [`new`](Self::new) rounded up to a multiple of 32.
+    pub fn num_centroids_padded(&self) -> usize {
+        self.shape().0
+    }
+
+    /// `(padded centroid count, dim)`. The single place the uninhabited-payload
+    /// build is discharged, so the methods above it read as ordinary code.
+    fn shape(&self) -> (usize, usize) {
+        #[cfg(all(
+            kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+            target_arch = "x86_64",
+            target_os = "linux"
+        ))]
+        {
+            (self.0.n_padded, self.0.dim)
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(all(
+            kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+            target_arch = "x86_64",
+            target_os = "linux"
+        )))]
+        {
+            match self.0 {}
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Scores `m` vectors against every centroid: `out[i * out_stride + j]` is
+    /// the raw dot product `Σ data_i·centroid_j` — the same value convention as
+    /// [`crate::distance::dot()`], with no `1.0 - d` distance wrapping.
+    ///
+    /// Row `i` of `data` starts at `i * data_stride`, so both buffers may be
+    /// windows of larger ones. Columns `n..num_centroids_padded()` are the zero
+    /// padding centroids' scores; they are `0.0` for any finite input, which
+    /// *beats* a real centroid whose dot product is negative. A caller reducing
+    /// across a row must therefore stop at its own centroid count.
+    ///
+    /// See the module docs for the accuracy contract against the scalar path.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    /// If `m` is not a multiple of 32 (the kernel blocks its `m` loop by 32 and
+    /// has no partial-tile path), if either stride is too small, or if either
+    /// slice is too short for the last row its stride reaches.
+    pub fn score(
+        &self,
+        data: &[f16],
+        m: usize,
+        data_stride: usize,
+        out: &mut [f32],
+        out_stride: usize,
+    ) {
+        let (n_padded, dim) = self.shape();
+        assert_eq!(m % 32, 0, "m ({m}) must be a multiple of 32");
+        assert!(
+            data_stride >= dim,
+            "data_stride ({data_stride}) is below dim ({dim})"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            out_stride >= n_padded,
+            "out_stride ({out_stride}) is below the padded centroid count ({n_padded})"
+        );
+        if m == 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+        let data_needed = strided_len(m, data_stride, dim).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            panic!("m = {m} rows of dim {dim} at stride {data_stride} overflow usize")
+        });
+        assert!(
+            data.len() >= data_needed,
+            "data ({}) holds fewer than m = {m} rows of dim {dim} at stride {data_stride}",
+            data.len()
+        );
+        let out_needed = strided_len(m, out_stride, n_padded).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            panic!("m = {m} rows of {n_padded} at stride {out_stride} overflow usize")
+        });
+        assert!(
+            out.len() >= out_needed,
+            "out ({}) holds fewer than m = {m} rows of {n_padded} at stride {out_stride}",
+            out.len()
+        );
+        #[cfg(all(
+            kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+            target_arch = "x86_64",
+            target_os = "linux"
+        ))]
+        // SAFETY: the kernel's preconditions are exactly the asserts above plus
+        // AMX availability. `n_padded % 32 == 0` and the packing / length
+        // agreement between `packed`, `centroids`, `n_padded` and `dim` hold by
+        // construction in `new`, which also proved `amx_fp16_supported()` — a
+        // process-wide, monotonic property (CPUID plus a one-time, idempotent
+        // XTILEDATA grant), so it cannot have lapsed since.
+        unsafe {
+            crate::simd::amx_fp16::dot_f16_gemm_amx(
+                data,
+                m,
+                data_stride,
+                &self.0.packed,
+                &self.0.centroids,
+                n_padded,
+                dim,
+                out,
+                out_stride,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether this process *can* execute the AMX-FP16 kernels at all. True when
+/// all of the following hold:
+///
+/// - the kernel was compiled in, i.e. `build.rs` found a C compiler accepting
+///   `-mamx-fp16` (clang >= 16 or gcc >= 13) and set `kernel_support`;
+/// - the target is Linux/x86_64;
+/// - the CPU reports both the amx-tile and the amx-fp16 CPUID bits;
+/// - the one-time XTILEDATA `arch_prctl` grant succeeded.
+///
+/// This is the safety question — without the `arch_prctl` grant the first tile
+/// instruction would SIGILL — so no tile instruction in this module runs until
+/// it holds. It deliberately ignores [`LANCE_DISABLE_AMX`][amx_fp16_available],
+/// so kernel-level tests can exercise the kernels on any host that can run them
+/// even when an operator has turned the production paths off.
+///
+/// Callers choosing between the AMX path and their fallback want
+/// [`amx_fp16_available`] instead.
+///
+/// Evaluated once and cached by the hardware probe underneath; nothing is
+/// recomputed per call.
+pub fn amx_fp16_supported() -> bool {
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    {
+        return crate::simd::amx_fp16::amx_supported();
+    }
+    #[allow(unreachable_code)]
+    false
+}
+
+/// Whether production work should be routed onto the AMX-FP16 kernels: this
+/// host can run them ([`amx_fp16_supported`]) and no operator has turned them
+/// off.
+///
+/// **AMX is on by default.** Dispatch is a run-time decision made from CPU
+/// capability alone, so a host with the silicon uses it with nothing to enable —
+/// there is no Cargo feature and no opt-in variable. `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX` is the
+/// escape hatch for the cases where a capability probe is not the whole story:
+/// A/B measurement, and an operator who needs the previous code path back
+/// without rebuilding. Set it to `1`, `true` or `on` (case-insensitive,
+/// surrounding whitespace ignored) to take the AMX paths out of service; every
+/// other value, and an unset variable, leave them in.
+///
+/// Note this changes *which algorithm* an index build uses, not just how fast it
+/// runs: without the GEMM, partition assignment falls back to an approximate
+/// graph lookup (see `lance_index`'s `prefers_flat_amx_assignment`). Two indexes
+/// built on either side of this variable are not interchangeable.
+pub fn amx_fp16_available() -> bool {
+    !amx_fp16_disabled() && amx_fp16_supported()
+}
+
+/// The `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX` kill switch on its own, read once and cached. Cached
+/// because the routing decisions that consult it run per block of vectors, and
+/// because a build that flipped behaviour halfway through would be far harder to
+/// reason about than one that reads the environment at startup.
+fn amx_fp16_disabled() -> bool {
+    static DISABLED: std::sync::OnceLock<bool> = std::sync::OnceLock::new();
+    *DISABLED.get_or_init(|| {
+        std::env::var("LANCE_DISABLE_AMX").is_ok_and(|value| is_amx_disable_value(&value))
+    })
+}
+
+/// The accepted spellings of "off". Anything else — including `0`, `false` and
+/// the empty string — leaves AMX enabled, because an unrecognised value must not
+/// silently disable a path the operator did not clearly ask to disable.
+fn is_amx_disable_value(value: &str) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        value.trim().to_ascii_lowercase().as_str(),
+        "1" | "true" | "on"
+    )
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rand::rngs::StdRng;
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+
+    /// Dims covering: < 32 (no tile pass, pure fallback), exactly 32 (one pass,
+    /// no tail), non-multiples of 32 (exercise the AMX tail), and larger dims
+    /// (multiple passes).
+    const BATCH_DIMS: &[usize] = &[
+        1, 7, 31, 32, 33, 47, 64, 96, 100, 127, 128, 200, 256, 384, 768, 1000, 1536,
+    ];
+
+    fn make_batch(dim: usize, rng: &mut StdRng) -> (Vec<f16>, Vec<Vec<f16>>) {
+        let gen_vec = |rng: &mut StdRng| -> Vec<f16> {
+            (0..dim)
+                .map(|_| f16::from_f32(rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0)))
+                .collect()
+        };
+        let query = gen_vec(rng);
+        let candidates = (0..16).map(|_| gen_vec(rng)).collect();
+        (query, candidates)
+    }
+
+    /// f32-accumulated reference dot product — the semantic contract both the
+    /// AMX and fallback paths approximate. `f16::dot` itself accumulates in f32.
+    fn ref_dot_f32(query: &[f16], cand: &[f16]) -> f32 {
+        query
+            .iter()
+            .zip(cand.iter())
+            .map(|(&q, &c)| q.to_f32() * c.to_f32())
+            .sum()
+    }
+
+    /// Relative-error tolerance justification: fp16 carries ~11 bits of mantissa
+    /// (~3 decimal digits). The AMX path and the f32 reference differ only in
+    /// summation order of f32-widened products, so the error is many orders
+    /// tighter than fp16's own representational error; 5e-3 relative is a very
+    /// safe bound (observed worst case is ~2e-4).
+    const REL_TOL: f32 = 5e-3;
+
+    fn assert_close(got: f32, want: f32, ctx: &str) {
+        let rel = (got - want).abs() / (want.abs() + 1e-6);
+        assert!(
+            rel <= REL_TOL || (got - want).abs() <= 1e-3,
+            "{ctx}: got {got} want {want} rel_err {rel}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fallback_matches_reference() {
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0xF16);
+        for &dim in BATCH_DIMS {
+            let (query, cands) = make_batch(dim, &mut rng);
+            let candidates: [&[f16]; 16] = std::array::from_fn(|i| cands[i].as_slice());
+            let got = dot_f16_batch_16_fallback(&query, &candidates, 16);
+            for i in 0..16 {
+                assert_close(
+                    got[i],
+                    ref_dot_f32(&query, &cands[i]),
+                    &format!("fb dim={dim} i={i}"),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn dispatch_matches_reference() {
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0xBEEF);
+        for &dim in BATCH_DIMS {
+            let (query, cands) = make_batch(dim, &mut rng);
+            let candidates: [&[f16]; 16] = std::array::from_fn(|i| cands[i].as_slice());
+            let got = dot_f16_batch_16(&query, &candidates, 16);
+            for i in 0..16 {
+                assert_close(
+                    got[i],
+                    ref_dot_f32(&query, &cands[i]),
+                    &format!("disp dim={dim} i={i}"),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "all candidate vectors must have the same length")]
+    fn rejects_mismatched_candidate_length() {
+        let query = vec![f16::from_f32(1.0); 32];
+        let short = vec![f16::from_f32(1.0); 31];
+        let candidates: [&[f16]; 16] = std::array::from_fn(|i| {
+            if i == 0 {
+                short.as_slice()
+            } else {
+                query.as_slice()
+            }
+        });
+        let _ = dot_f16_batch_16(&query, &candidates, 16);
+    }
+
+    /// A live lane must be bit-identical whatever `len` the batch was issued at.
+    /// Shortening the batch changes only how many rows are gathered, never a
+    /// row's contents nor the order the tile passes accumulate them, so anything
+    /// less than bit-exact here would mean a staging offset moved with `len` —
+    /// exactly the bug a tolerance would hide. Lanes past `len` must read 0 on
+    /// both paths: dispatch is host-dependent, so a caller must not be able to
+    /// tell which one ran.
+    #[test]
+    fn partial_len_matches_full_batch_and_zeroes_the_rest() {
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0x1EE);
+        for &dim in BATCH_DIMS {
+            let (query, cands) = make_batch(dim, &mut rng);
+            let candidates: [&[f16]; 16] = std::array::from_fn(|i| cands[i].as_slice());
+            let full = dot_f16_batch_16(&query, &candidates, 16);
+            let full_fb = dot_f16_batch_16_fallback(&query, &candidates, 16);
+            for len in 1..=16 {
+                let got = dot_f16_batch_16(&query, &candidates, len);
+                let got_fb = dot_f16_batch_16_fallback(&query, &candidates, len);
+                for i in 0..len {
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        got[i].to_bits(),
+                        full[i].to_bits(),
+                        "dim={dim} len={len} i={i}: {} vs {}",
+                        got[i],
+                        full[i]
+                    );
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        got_fb[i].to_bits(),
+                        full_fb[i].to_bits(),
+                        "fb dim={dim} i={i}"
+                    );
+                }
+                for i in len..16 {
+                    assert_eq!(got[i], 0.0, "dim={dim} len={len}: lane {i} must be 0");
+                    assert_eq!(got_fb[i], 0.0, "fb dim={dim} len={len}: lane {i} must be 0");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `len` is rejected, never clamped: the kernel indexes its staging buffer
+    /// by it, and a caller that meant 16 and passed 17 should hear about it.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::zero(0)]
+    #[case::seventeen(17)]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "batch length must be in 1..=16")]
+    fn rejects_out_of_range_len(#[case] len: usize) {
+        let query = vec![f16::from_f32(1.0); 32];
+        let candidates: [&[f16]; 16] = std::array::from_fn(|_| query.as_slice());
+        let _ = dot_f16_batch_16(&query, &candidates, len);
+    }
+
+    /// The `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX` truth table, pinned in one place.
+    ///
+    /// Which spellings mean "off" is an operator-facing contract, and both ways
+    /// of getting it wrong are silent. A typo accepted as a kill switch —
+    /// `LANCE_DISABLE_AMX=disable` — would quietly change which algorithm an
+    /// index build uses, and the only visible trace would be a recall number
+    /// nobody was comparing. A deliberate `1` rejected would leave an operator
+    /// who needs the old path back believing they have it.
+    ///
+    /// The asymmetry with the enable direction is deliberate: an unrecognised
+    /// value leaves AMX **on**, because the default is on and an unparsable
+    /// request to deviate from it should not be honoured by halves.
+    #[test]
+    fn amx_disable_flag_accepts_only_explicit_on() {
+        for value in ["1", "true", "on", "TRUE", "On", " 1 ", "true\n"] {
+            assert!(is_amx_disable_value(value), "{value:?} should disable AMX");
+        }
+        for value in ["", " ", "0", "false", "off", "no", "yes", "2", "disable"] {
+            assert!(
+                !is_amx_disable_value(value),
+                "{value:?} should not disable AMX"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// With the kill switch unset, availability is exactly hardware support.
+    ///
+    /// This is the "on by default" contract itself: the assertion that would
+    /// fail if a Cargo feature or an opt-in variable ever crept back in front of
+    /// the dispatch decision. It is derived rather than hardcoded so it holds
+    /// identically on a host without AMX and in a build whose toolchain could
+    /// not compile the kernel.
+    #[test]
+    fn amx_is_available_by_default_wherever_it_is_supported() {
+        if std::env::var_os("LANCE_DISABLE_AMX").is_some() {
+            return; // the switch is under test elsewhere; respect it here
+        }
+        assert_eq!(amx_fp16_available(), amx_fp16_supported());
+    }
+
+    /// The length arithmetic guarding the GEMM's FFI boundary must reject a
+    /// shape it cannot represent, not wrap it into a small number.
+    ///
+    /// The first case is the one that made this necessary: unchecked,
+    /// `(32 - 1) * 595_056_260_442_243_601 + 32` wraps to **47**, so a
+    /// 47-element slice satisfied a check that meant to demand ~1.8e19
+    /// elements — and the kernel then strode `data + i * stride` far past the
+    /// end of it. A wrapped requirement is dangerous precisely because it comes
+    /// out *small* enough to pass.
+    ///
+    /// Deliberately a plain-function test: it runs on every host, including
+    /// those where `PackedCentroidsF16` cannot be constructed at all.
+    #[test]
+    fn strided_len_rejects_shapes_it_cannot_represent() {
+        assert_eq!(strided_len(32, 595_056_260_442_243_601, 32), None);
+        assert_eq!(strided_len(2, usize::MAX, 1), None);
+        assert_eq!(strided_len(usize::MAX, 2, 0), None);
+        // Representable shapes still come through, including the degenerate
+        // single-row case where the stride is never applied.
+        assert_eq!(strided_len(32, 768, 768), Some(31 * 768 + 768));
+        assert_eq!(strided_len(1, usize::MAX, 5), Some(5));
+        // Zero rows need zero elements, and must not underflow `m - 1`.
+        assert_eq!(strided_len(0, usize::MAX, usize::MAX), Some(0));
+    }
+
+    /// End to end: the safe `score` wrapper must panic on the overflowing
+    /// shape rather than hand the undersized slice to the C kernel.
+    ///
+    /// `strided_len_rejects_shapes_it_cannot_represent` pins the arithmetic;
+    /// this pins that `score` actually consults it before the `unsafe` block.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn score_rejects_overflowing_stride_before_ffi() {
+        use std::panic::{AssertUnwindSafe, catch_unwind};
+
+        let centroids = vec![f16::ONE; 32 * 32];
+        let Some(packed) = PackedCentroidsF16::new(&centroids, 32, 32) else {
+            return; // no AMX on this host; the arithmetic test above still ran
+        };
+        let data = vec![f16::ZERO; 47];
+        let mut out = vec![0f32; 32 * 32];
+
+        let hook = std::panic::take_hook();
+        std::panic::set_hook(Box::new(|_| {})); // the panic is the expected result
+        let result = catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
+            packed.score(&data, 32, 595_056_260_442_243_601, &mut out, 32);
+        }));
+        std::panic::set_hook(hook);
+
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "score accepted a 47-element slice for a stride whose row count overflows usize"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// On AMX-FP16 hardware, assert the AMX branch is actually selected (not a
+    /// silent fallback) and agrees with the f32 reference within tolerance.
+    /// Reaching the end without a SIGILL is itself proof the tile path executed.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn amx_path_is_active_and_close() {
+        if !crate::simd::amx_fp16::amx_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0xA11);
+        let mut worst = 0f32;
+        for &dim in BATCH_DIMS.iter().filter(|&&d| d >= 32) {
+            let (query, cands) = make_batch(dim, &mut rng);
+            let candidates: [&[f16]; 16] = std::array::from_fn(|i| cands[i].as_slice());
+            let amx =
+                unsafe { crate::simd::amx_fp16::dot_f16_batch_16_amx(&query, &candidates, 16) };
+            for i in 0..16 {
+                let want = ref_dot_f32(&query, &cands[i]);
+                assert_close(amx[i], want, &format!("amx dim={dim} i={i}"));
+                let rel = (amx[i] - want).abs() / (want.abs() + 1e-6);
+                worst = worst.max(rel);
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(worst <= REL_TOL, "worst AMX relative error: {worst:.2e}");
+    }
+
+    /// Another AMX user on this thread retiring the tile configuration must not
+    /// break the next kernel call.
+    ///
+    /// Regression for a stale-cache bug: the kernels used to remember which
+    /// configuration they had loaded and skip LDTILECFG when it matched, but that
+    /// record was private to Lance while LDTILECFG and TILERELEASE are
+    /// architectural per-logical-processor state. After a foreign TILERELEASE the
+    /// record still said "SEARCH is live" and the hardware was back in INIT, so
+    /// the kernel skipped the load and its first tile op raised #UD. Reloading on
+    /// every entry is the fix; this is what would fail if a cache came back.
+    ///
+    /// Both halves of that design are checked here, and only one of them has any
+    /// other symptom. The reload shows up as the kernel surviving a clobber; the
+    /// release on exit shows up nowhere but in the tile unit itself, read back at
+    /// the end.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn kernel_reconfigures_after_foreign_tile_release() {
+        use crate::simd::amx_fp16::{
+            amx_supported, clobber_tile_state_for_test, dot_f16_batch_16_amx,
+            tile_config_is_live_for_test,
+        };
+
+        if !amx_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0xC10B);
+        let (query, cands) = make_batch(256, &mut rng);
+        let candidates: [&[f16]; 16] = std::array::from_fn(|i| cands[i].as_slice());
+
+        let before = unsafe { dot_f16_batch_16_amx(&query, &candidates, 16) };
+        // SAFETY: the `amx_supported()` check above granted XTILEDATA, so
+        // TILERELEASE is legal here.
+        unsafe { clobber_tile_state_for_test() };
+        // Reaching the end of this call at all is the assertion that matters:
+        // under the bug it raised #UD and killed the test process. Comparing the
+        // results additionally catches the quieter variant, where a foreign
+        // configuration supplies the wrong shapes instead of none.
+        let after = unsafe { dot_f16_batch_16_amx(&query, &candidates, 16) };
+        assert_eq!(
+            before, after,
+            "kernel output changed after a foreign TILERELEASE"
+        );
+
+        // Everything above only asks "did it crash". That is too weak on its own:
+        // `lance_amx_tile_ensure` reloading on entry is by itself enough to keep
+        // results right, so deleting `lance_amx_tile_done`'s TILERELEASE would
+        // leave every assertion so far green while the tile unit stayed held
+        // against the next AMX user on this thread. Reading the hardware is what
+        // catches that.
+        assert!(
+            !tile_config_is_live_for_test(),
+            "a kernel left its tile configuration loaded after returning"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The batch-16 kernel's tile shape, pinned byte for byte.
+    ///
+    /// The shape is the one thing a refactor of `amx_fp16.c` can change with no
+    /// visible symptom until it runs on AMX hardware, where a wrong shape is a
+    /// #UD or wrong results rather than a clean failure. Reading the
+    /// configuration image back is a way to check it without executing a single
+    /// tile instruction.
+    ///
+    /// It still needs the `amx_supported()` guard, which is easy to mistake for
+    /// redundant: `lance_amx_tilecfg_image` only fills a 64-byte struct. But
+    /// `amx_fp16.c` is compiled as one translation unit with
+    /// `-march=sapphirerapids`, so the compiler may use instructions from that
+    /// baseline anywhere in the file — entering *any* function in it faults on
+    /// an older CPU. Under `qemu -cpu Nehalem` that is a SIGILL, which is
+    /// exactly what the `pre-Haswell SIGILL check` in CI runs.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn search_tile_config_image_is_pinned() {
+        use crate::simd::amx_fp16::{AMX_CFG_SEARCH, amx_supported, tilecfg_image};
+
+        if !amx_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Image layout per Intel SDM: palette_id, start_row, 14 reserved bytes,
+        // a u16 colsb[16] array, then a u8 rows[16] array.
+        const COLSB: usize = 16;
+        const ROWS: usize = 48;
+
+        let mut want = [0u8; 64];
+        want[0] = 1; // palette_id
+        // C = tmm0: 16 x 1 fp32, fed by three independent (A, B) pairs so three
+        // TDPFP16PS can be in flight at once: A = tmm1/3/5, each 16 x 32 fp16;
+        // B = tmm2/4/6, each 16 x 2 fp16. tmm7 is left unconfigured.
+        for (tmm, colsb) in [
+            (0usize, 4u16),
+            (1, 64),
+            (2, 4),
+            (3, 64),
+            (4, 4),
+            (5, 64),
+            (6, 4),
+        ] {
+            want[COLSB + tmm * 2..COLSB + tmm * 2 + 2].copy_from_slice(&colsb.to_le_bytes());
+            want[ROWS + tmm] = 16;
+        }
+
+        let got = tilecfg_image(AMX_CFG_SEARCH).expect("search config kind must be known");
+        assert_eq!(got, want, "batch-16 tile configuration changed");
+    }
+
+    /// An unknown config kind must be rejected rather than answered with a
+    /// zeroed image: an all-zero (unconfigured) shape #UDs on the first tile op.
+    ///
+    /// Guarded for the same reason as the test above: reaching the C side at
+    /// all requires a CPU that can run its `-march=sapphirerapids` code.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn unknown_tile_config_kind_is_rejected() {
+        if !crate::simd::amx_fp16::amx_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        assert!(crate::simd::amx_fp16::tilecfg_image(-1).is_none());
+    }
+
+    // -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+    // AMX-FP16 m x n GEMM
+    // -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+    /// `[m, dim]` vectors and `[n, dim]` centroids, both row-major and tightly
+    /// packed. Separate rngs per role would make a transposition bug harder to
+    /// spot, so both come off one stream.
+    fn make_gemm(m: usize, n: usize, dim: usize, rng: &mut StdRng) -> (Vec<f16>, Vec<f16>) {
+        let mut sample = |count: usize| -> Vec<f16> {
+            (0..count)
+                .map(|_| f16::from_f32(rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0)))
+                .collect()
+        };
+        (sample(m * dim), sample(n * dim))
+    }
+
+    /// f32-accumulated reference GEMM — the same semantic contract as
+    /// [`ref_dot_f32`], extended to every (vector, centroid) pair.
+    fn ref_gemm(
+        data: &[f16],
+        m: usize,
+        data_stride: usize,
+        centroids: &[f16],
+        n: usize,
+        dim: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<f32> {
+        let mut out = vec![0f32; m * n];
+        for i in 0..m {
+            let row = &data[i * data_stride..i * data_stride + dim];
+            for j in 0..n {
+                out[i * n + j] = ref_dot_f32(row, &centroids[j * dim..j * dim + dim]);
+            }
+        }
+        out
+    }
+
+    /// Pack + run the GEMM kernel, returning an `[m, out_stride]` buffer.
+    ///
+    /// The destination starts as NaN rather than 0 so a tile store that never
+    /// lands (wrong stride, wrong tile index) fails the comparison instead of
+    /// passing on a coincidentally-correct zero.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    fn run_gemm(
+        data: &[f16],
+        m: usize,
+        data_stride: usize,
+        centroids: &[f16],
+        n: usize,
+        dim: usize,
+        out_stride: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<f32> {
+        use crate::simd::amx_fp16::{dot_f16_gemm_amx, pack_centroids_vnni};
+        let mut packed = Vec::new();
+        pack_centroids_vnni(centroids, n, dim, &mut packed);
+        let mut out = vec![f32::NAN; m * out_stride];
+        unsafe {
+            dot_f16_gemm_amx(
+                data,
+                m,
+                data_stride,
+                &packed,
+                centroids,
+                n,
+                dim,
+                &mut out,
+                out_stride,
+            );
+        }
+        out
+    }
+
+    /// Compare a `[m, out_stride]` kernel result against a tightly-packed
+    /// `[m, n]` reference.
+    fn assert_gemm_close(
+        got: &[f32],
+        want: &[f32],
+        m: usize,
+        n: usize,
+        out_stride: usize,
+        ctx: &str,
+    ) {
+        for i in 0..m {
+            for j in 0..n {
+                assert_close(
+                    got[i * out_stride + j],
+                    want[i * n + j],
+                    &format!("{ctx} [{i}][{j}]"),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The VNNI interleave, checked against the identity it exists to satisfy.
+    ///
+    /// This is the one part of the GEMM with no cheap sanity signal: a wrong
+    /// permutation still produces plausible-looking finite numbers, and on a
+    /// host without AMX nothing else here can run at all. Asserting the
+    /// element-for-element mapping keeps the layout pinned everywhere.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn packed_centroid_layout_matches_tile_operand_order() {
+        use crate::simd::amx_fp16::{pack_centroids_vnni, packed_centroids_len};
+
+        // Reused across shapes to also pin that packing clears rather than
+        // appends — a stale prefix would silently offset every B tile.
+        let mut packed = Vec::new();
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0x9EC7);
+        for (n, dim) in [(16usize, 32usize), (32, 64), (48, 100), (32, 31), (32, 768)] {
+            let centroids: Vec<f16> = (0..n * dim)
+                .map(|_| f16::from_f32(rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0)))
+                .collect();
+            pack_centroids_vnni(&centroids, n, dim, &mut packed);
+            assert_eq!(
+                packed.len(),
+                packed_centroids_len(n, dim),
+                "n={n} dim={dim}"
+            );
+
+            for kb in 0..dim / 32 {
+                for jb in 0..n / 16 {
+                    for k in 0..16 {
+                        for nn in 0..16 {
+                            for p in 0..2 {
+                                let at = ((kb * (n / 16)) + jb) * 512 + k * 32 + nn * 2 + p;
+                                let from = (jb * 16 + nn) * dim + kb * 32 + 2 * k + p;
+                                assert_eq!(
+                                    packed[at], centroids[from],
+                                    "n={n} dim={dim} kb={kb} jb={jb} k={k} nn={nn} p={p}"
+                                );
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// GEMM results against the f32 reference across the shapes that exercise
+    /// each loop boundary: one vs. several 32-row/32-column register blocks,
+    /// one vs. many k-passes, dims with and without a scalar tail, dims too
+    /// short for any tile pass at all, and a case with padded row strides on
+    /// both the input and the output.
+    ///
+    /// Dims below 32 matter disproportionately: the kernel skips the tile loop
+    /// entirely, so `out` is never written by a tile store and the scalar tail
+    /// has to zero it first. Accumulating onto uninitialized memory instead
+    /// would still look plausible on a freshly-allocated buffer.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn gemm_matches_reference() {
+        if !crate::simd::amx_fp16::amx_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0x6E33);
+        for &m in &[32usize, 64] {
+            for &n in &[32usize, 64] {
+                for &dim in &[1usize, 16, 31, 32, 33, 64, 100, 768, 1000, 1536] {
+                    let (data, centroids) = make_gemm(m, n, dim, &mut rng);
+                    let want = ref_gemm(&data, m, dim, &centroids, n, dim);
+                    let got = run_gemm(&data, m, dim, &centroids, n, dim, n);
+                    assert_gemm_close(&got, &want, m, n, n, &format!("gemm m={m} n={n} dim={dim}"));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Padded strides: the kernel must address rows by the caller's stride,
+        // not by `dim` / `n`, so it can score a window of a larger buffer.
+        let (m, n, dim) = (64usize, 32usize, 100usize);
+        let (data_stride, out_stride) = (dim + 7, n + 5);
+        let mut data: Vec<f16> = vec![f16::from_f32(f32::MAX); m * data_stride];
+        let (tight, centroids) = make_gemm(m, n, dim, &mut rng);
+        for i in 0..m {
+            data[i * data_stride..i * data_stride + dim]
+                .copy_from_slice(&tight[i * dim..(i + 1) * dim]);
+        }
+        let want = ref_gemm(&data, m, data_stride, &centroids, n, dim);
+        let got = run_gemm(&data, m, data_stride, &centroids, n, dim, out_stride);
+        assert_gemm_close(&got, &want, m, n, out_stride, "gemm padded strides");
+    }
+
+    /// The safe wrapper, over centroid counts that do and do not divide 32.
+    ///
+    /// Padding is the part a caller cannot see and must still reason about: the
+    /// real centroids have to score exactly as they would unpadded, and the
+    /// columns beyond them have to be the zeros that make a caller's argmin
+    /// bound (`< n`) load-bearing rather than decorative.
+    #[test]
+    fn packed_centroids_pad_to_the_kernel_block() {
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0x9AD);
+        for (n, dim) in [(32usize, 64usize), (100, 100), (48, 768)] {
+            let m = 64;
+            let (data, centroids) = make_gemm(m, n, dim, &mut rng);
+            let Some(packed) = PackedCentroidsF16::new(&centroids, n, dim) else {
+                return; // no AMX-FP16 on this build or host
+            };
+            let n_padded = packed.num_centroids_padded();
+            assert_eq!(n_padded, n.next_multiple_of(32), "n={n}");
+
+            // A wider output stride than the padded width, so a row's tail is
+            // untouched memory rather than the next row's scores.
+            let out_stride = n_padded + 3;
+            let mut out = vec![f32::NAN; m * out_stride];
+            packed.score(&data, m, dim, &mut out, out_stride);
+
+            let want = ref_gemm(&data, m, dim, &centroids, n, dim);
+            assert_gemm_close(&out, &want, m, n, out_stride, &format!("packed n={n}"));
+            for i in 0..m {
+                for j in n..n_padded {
+                    assert_eq!(out[i * out_stride + j], 0.0, "padding n={n} [{i}][{j}]");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The GEMM kernel's tile shape, pinned byte for byte, for the same reason
+    /// as [`search_tile_config_image_is_pinned`].
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn gemm_tile_config_image_is_pinned() {
+        use crate::simd::amx_fp16::{AMX_CFG_GEMM, amx_supported, tilecfg_image};
+
+        if !amx_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        const COLSB: usize = 16;
+        const ROWS: usize = 48;
+
+        let mut want = [0u8; 64];
+        want[0] = 1; // palette_id
+        // All eight tiles at the architectural maximum 16 x 64 B: four fp32
+        // accumulators, two A panels, two VNNI-packed B panels.
+        for tmm in 0..8usize {
+            want[COLSB + tmm * 2..COLSB + tmm * 2 + 2].copy_from_slice(&64u16.to_le_bytes());
+            want[ROWS + tmm] = 16;
+        }
+
+        let got = tilecfg_image(AMX_CFG_GEMM).expect("gemm config kind must be known");
+        assert_eq!(got, want, "gemm tile configuration changed");
+    }
+
+    /// Alternate the two kernels on one thread and check both stay correct.
+    ///
+    /// They ask for incompatible tile shapes (7 tiles, four of them 16x4, vs. 8
+    /// tiles all 16x64), so each call has to install its own shape over the one
+    /// the previous call left. That is what this pins: a kernel running against
+    /// the other one's tile shape reads garbage or #UDs, and only alternating
+    /// the two shapes can expose it. It says nothing about how the configuration
+    /// got there — `kernel_reconfigures_after_foreign_tile_release` is the test
+    /// that pins the reload itself.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn interleaved_search_and_gemm_stay_correct() {
+        if !crate::simd::amx_fp16::amx_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0x11E12EA5);
+        let (m, n, dim) = (32usize, 32usize, 96usize);
+        for round in 0..20 {
+            let (query, cands) = make_batch(dim, &mut rng);
+            let candidates: [&[f16]; 16] = std::array::from_fn(|i| cands[i].as_slice());
+            let batch =
+                unsafe { crate::simd::amx_fp16::dot_f16_batch_16_amx(&query, &candidates, 16) };
+            for i in 0..16 {
+                assert_close(
+                    batch[i],
+                    ref_dot_f32(&query, &cands[i]),
+                    &format!("interleaved batch round={round} i={i}"),
+                );
+            }
+
+            let (data, centroids) = make_gemm(m, n, dim, &mut rng);
+            let want = ref_gemm(&data, m, dim, &centroids, n, dim);
+            let got = run_gemm(&data, m, dim, &centroids, n, dim, n);
+            assert_gemm_close(
+                &got,
+                &want,
+                m,
+                n,
+                n,
+                &format!("interleaved gemm round={round}"),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Both kernels running concurrently on different threads.
+    ///
+    /// LDTILECFG is per-logical-processor state, so correctness here rests on
+    /// each call building its configuration image on its own stack. A shared or
+    /// `static` image would let one thread's shape reach another's tile ops,
+    /// which this catches and a single-threaded test cannot.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        target_os = "linux"
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn concurrent_search_and_gemm_stay_correct() {
+        if !crate::simd::amx_fp16::amx_supported() {
+            return;
+        }
+        const THREADS: u64 = 8;
+        std::thread::scope(|scope| {
+            for t in 0..THREADS {
+                scope.spawn(move || {
+                    let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0xC0FFEE + t);
+                    let dim = 128;
+                    for round in 0..25 {
+                        if t % 2 == 0 {
+                            let (query, cands) = make_batch(dim, &mut rng);
+                            let candidates: [&[f16]; 16] =
+                                std::array::from_fn(|i| cands[i].as_slice());
+                            let batch = unsafe {
+                                crate::simd::amx_fp16::dot_f16_batch_16_amx(&query, &candidates, 16)
+                            };
+                            for i in 0..16 {
+                                assert_close(
+                                    batch[i],
+                                    ref_dot_f32(&query, &cands[i]),
+                                    &format!("concurrent batch t={t} round={round} i={i}"),
+                                );
+                            }
+                        } else {
+                            let (m, n) = (32usize, 32usize);
+                            let (data, centroids) = make_gemm(m, n, dim, &mut rng);
+                            let want = ref_gemm(&data, m, dim, &centroids, n, dim);
+                            let got = run_gemm(&data, m, dim, &centroids, n, dim, n);
+                            assert_gemm_close(
+                                &got,
+                                &want,
+                                m,
+                                n,
+                                n,
+                                &format!("concurrent gemm t={t} round={round}"),
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                });
+            }
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// The two costs a membership-level benchmark cannot separate: packing the
+    /// centroids, which happens once per call and is amortized over every block
+    /// of vectors, and the GEMM's throughput as a function of the block height
+    /// `m` its caller chooses.
+    ///
+    /// `m` sets how much f32 scratch one block writes (`m * n_padded * 4` bytes,
+    /// reported per row), which is what decides whether the reduction that
+    /// follows reads it out of L2 or out of memory. A caller sizing its blocks
+    /// from a scratch budget is making exactly this trade, so sweeping `m` here
+    /// says whether it lands on the right side of it. No knob is needed in the
+    /// production path for that — `score` takes `m` directly.
+    ///
+    /// `#[ignore]` -- run:
+    ///   cargo test -p lance-linalg --release \
+    ///     packed_centroids_gemm_shape_bench -- --ignored --nocapture
+    /// Tune with `BENCH_DIMS` / `BENCH_KS` (comma-separated) and `BENCH_SECONDS`
+    /// (the wall-clock budget each measured point gets).
+    #[test]
+    #[ignore]
+    #[allow(clippy::print_stderr)]
+    // Without the kernel `PackedCentroidsF16` is uninhabited, so the first
+    // `expect` below has type `!` and everything after it is provably dead. That
+    // is the property the type is designed to have; it is not a sign the bench is
+    // wrong.
+    #[allow(unreachable_code, unused_variables)]
+    fn packed_centroids_gemm_shape_bench() {
+        use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+        // Multiples of 32 (the kernel's `m` granularity) spanning scratch that
+        // fits a private L2 up to scratch that cannot.
+        const BLOCK_ROWS: &[usize] = &[32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048];
+
+        if !amx_fp16_supported() {
+            eprintln!("[gemm_shape_bench] skipped: amx_fp16_supported=false on this build or host");
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let env_list = |key: &str, default: &[usize]| -> Vec<usize> {
+            std::env::var(key)
+                .ok()
+                .map(|s| s.split(',').filter_map(|t| t.trim().parse().ok()).collect())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| default.to_vec())
+        };
+        let dims = env_list("BENCH_DIMS", &[768]);
+        let ks = env_list("BENCH_KS", &[256, 4096]);
+        let budget = Duration::from_secs_f64(
+            std::env::var("BENCH_SECONDS")
+                .ok()
+                .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+                .unwrap_or(3.0),
+        );
+
+        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0x6E33);
+        let mut random_f16 = |count: usize| -> Vec<f16> {
+            (0..count)
+                .map(|_| f16::from_f32(rng.random_range(-1.0f32..1.0)))
+                .collect()
+        };
+
+        eprintln!(
+            "[gemm_shape_bench] budget={:.1}s amx_fp16_supported=true",
+            budget.as_secs_f64()
+        );
+        for &dim in &dims {
+            for &k in &ks {
+                let centroids = random_f16(k * dim);
+
+                let mut packs = 0usize;
+                let t0 = Instant::now();
+                while t0.elapsed() < budget {
+                    let packed = PackedCentroidsF16::new(&centroids, k, dim);
+                    std::hint::black_box(&packed);
+                    packs += 1;
+                }
+                let pack_us = t0.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1e6 / packs as f64;
+
+                let packed = PackedCentroidsF16::new(&centroids, k, dim)
+                    .expect("availability was just checked");
+                let n_padded = packed.num_centroids_padded();
+                eprintln!(
+                    "[gemm_shape_bench] dim={dim} k={k} n_padded={n_padded} pack_calls={packs} pack_us={pack_us:.1}"
+                );
+
+                let mut best_vec_per_s = 0f64;
+                for &m in BLOCK_ROWS {
+                    let data = random_f16(m * dim);
+                    let mut out = vec![0f32; m * n_padded];
+                    packed.score(&data, m, dim, &mut out, n_padded); // untimed warm-up
+
+                    let t1 = Instant::now();
+                    let mut iters = 0usize;
+                    while t1.elapsed() < budget {
+                        packed.score(&data, m, dim, &mut out, n_padded);
+                        iters += 1;
+                    }
+                    let elapsed = t1.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+                    std::hint::black_box(&out);
+
+                    let vec_per_s = (iters * m) as f64 / elapsed;
+                    best_vec_per_s = best_vec_per_s.max(vec_per_s);
+                    eprintln!(
+                        // Pairs count the padding columns, since the kernel does
+                        // the work either way — this is its true rate, not the
+                        // caller's useful fraction of it.
+                        "[gemm_shape_bench]   m={m:>5} scratch_kb={:>7} iters={iters:>8} vec_per_s={vec_per_s:>12.0} us_per_vec={:>8.4} Gpair_per_s={:>8.2}",
+                        m * n_padded * 4 / 1024,
+                        1e6 / vec_per_s,
+                        vec_per_s * n_padded as f64 / 1e9,
+                    );
+                }
+                eprintln!(
+                    "[gemm_shape_bench]   pack_us={pack_us:.1} buys {:.0} vectors of scoring at the best m: packing is amortized above that",
+                    pack_us * 1e-6 * best_vec_per_s,
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot_u8.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot_u8.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..32033f336e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/dot_u8.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,312 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Unsigned int8 dot product with runtime-dispatched SIMD backends.
+//!
+//! Used by Scalar Quantization (SQ) distance computation. SQ stores each
+//! vector dimension as a u8 after linearly mapping [min, max] → [0, 255].
+//! Distance computation between SQ-encoded vectors reduces to a u8 × u8
+//! dot product plus precomputed per-vector scalar terms.
+//! The u32 entry points return the low 32 bits, while [`dot_u8_u64`] chunks
+//! those kernels to produce the full result used by SQ.
+//!
+//! Backends (selected at runtime, best available wins):
+//!   1. scalar     — portable reference, also used for tails
+//!   2. avx2       — VPMADDWD on u16-widened halves, 32 elements/iter
+//!   3. avx512vnni — VPDPBUSD with XOR-0x80 bias trick, 64 elements/iter
+//!
+//! ## The VNNI bias trick
+//!
+//! VPDPBUSD expects one unsigned and one signed operand, but SQ vectors
+//! are u8 × u8. We bias `b` into the signed domain via XOR 0x80 (equivalent
+//! to subtracting 128 when reinterpreted as i8), feed `a` directly as
+//! unsigned, and correct by adding 128·Σa at the end:
+//!
+//!   DPBUSD(a, b ⊕ 0x80) = Σ a·(b − 128) = Σ a·b − 128·Σa
+//!
+//! The Σa term uses VPSADBW, which dispatches to port 5 while VPDPBUSD
+//! runs on port 0 on Intel. The two instructions execute in parallel,
+//! making the correction effectively free.
+
+use std::sync::OnceLock;
+
+use super::{U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN, assert_equal_lengths};
+
+/// Portable scalar u8 dot product, also used for SIMD tail elements.
+///
+/// The result is the low 32 bits of the exact dot product. Use
+/// [`dot_u8_u64`] when the full result is required.
+#[inline]
+pub fn dot_u8_scalar(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u32 {
+    assert_equal_lengths(a.len(), b.len());
+    a.iter()
+        .zip(b.iter())
+        .fold(0, |sum, (&x, &y)| sum.wrapping_add(x as u32 * y as u32))
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    /// AVX2 path: zero-extend u8→u16, then VPMADDWD. 32 elements/iter.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    pub unsafe fn dot_u8_avx2(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u32 {
+        debug_assert_eq!(a.len(), b.len());
+        let n = a.len();
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+        let mut i = 0usize;
+
+        while i + 32 <= n {
+            let av = _mm256_loadu_si256(a.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m256i);
+            let bv = _mm256_loadu_si256(b.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m256i);
+
+            // Zero-extend each 128-bit half to 16 × u16. Values ≤ 255 fit
+            // in i16 as positive, so VPMADDWD gives correct results.
+            let a_lo = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi16(_mm256_castsi256_si128(av));
+            let a_hi = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi16(_mm256_extracti128_si256(av, 1));
+            let b_lo = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi16(_mm256_castsi256_si128(bv));
+            let b_hi = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi16(_mm256_extracti128_si256(bv, 1));
+
+            acc = _mm256_add_epi32(acc, _mm256_madd_epi16(a_lo, b_lo));
+            acc = _mm256_add_epi32(acc, _mm256_madd_epi16(a_hi, b_hi));
+            i += 32;
+        }
+
+        let lo128 = _mm256_castsi256_si128(acc);
+        let hi128 = _mm256_extracti128_si256(acc, 1);
+        let mut sum128 = _mm_add_epi32(lo128, hi128);
+        sum128 = _mm_hadd_epi32(sum128, sum128);
+        sum128 = _mm_hadd_epi32(sum128, sum128);
+        let mut result = _mm_cvtsi128_si32(sum128) as u32;
+
+        while i < n {
+            result = result.wrapping_add(a[i] as u32 * b[i] as u32);
+            i += 1;
+        }
+        result
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 VNNI path (Ice Lake+, Zen 4+). 64 elements/iter.
+    ///
+    /// VPDPBUSD expects (unsigned, signed) operands but SQ stores u8×u8.
+    /// We XOR b with 0x80 to map it to i8, then correct: result + 128·Σa.
+    /// The Σa term (VPSADBW, port 5) runs in parallel with VPDPBUSD (port 0).
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    pub unsafe fn dot_u8_avx512_vnni(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u32 {
+        debug_assert_eq!(a.len(), b.len());
+        let n = a.len();
+
+        let mut acc_dot = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let mut acc_suma = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let sign_flip = _mm512_set1_epi8(0x80u8 as i8);
+        let zeros = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let mut i = 0usize;
+
+        while i + 64 <= n {
+            let av = _mm512_loadu_si512(a.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m512i);
+            let bv = _mm512_loadu_si512(b.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m512i);
+            let b_biased = _mm512_xor_si512(bv, sign_flip);
+            acc_dot = _mm512_dpbusd_epi32(acc_dot, av, b_biased);
+            acc_suma = _mm512_add_epi64(acc_suma, _mm512_sad_epu8(av, zeros));
+            i += 64;
+        }
+
+        let biased_dot = _mm512_reduce_add_epi32(acc_dot);
+        let sum_a = _mm512_reduce_add_epi64(acc_suma);
+        let mut result = (biased_dot as i64 + 128 * sum_a) as u32;
+
+        while i < n {
+            result = result.wrapping_add(a[i] as u32 * b[i] as u32);
+            i += 1;
+        }
+        result
+    }
+}
+
+type DotU8Fn = fn(&[u8], &[u8]) -> u32;
+
+static DISPATCH: OnceLock<DotU8Fn> = OnceLock::new();
+
+fn select_backend() -> DotU8Fn {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vnni")
+        {
+            return |a, b| unsafe { x86::dot_u8_avx512_vnni(a, b) };
+        }
+
+        if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return |a, b| unsafe { x86::dot_u8_avx2(a, b) };
+        }
+        // AvxFma and Avx hosts (AMD Piledriver / Steamroller, Intel Sandy
+        // Bridge / Ivy Bridge) fall through to scalar: the AVX2 inner uses
+        // `vpmaddubsw` / `vpmaddwd` integer ops which neither AVX nor
+        // AVX+FMA provides.
+    }
+
+    dot_u8_scalar
+}
+
+/// Dispatched u8 dot product, selecting the best available SIMD backend.
+///
+/// The result is the low 32 bits of the exact dot product. Use
+/// [`dot_u8_u64`] when the full result is required.
+#[inline]
+pub fn dot_u8(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u32 {
+    assert_equal_lengths(a.len(), b.len());
+    (DISPATCH.get_or_init(select_backend))(a, b)
+}
+
+/// Calculates the exact u8 dot product with a u64 accumulator.
+///
+/// This retains the runtime-selected SIMD kernel and widens its result between
+/// chunks that are guaranteed to fit in a u32.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_linalg::distance::dot_u8::dot_u8_u64;
+///
+/// assert_eq!(dot_u8_u64(&[2, 3], &[4, 5]), 23);
+/// ```
+#[inline]
+pub fn dot_u8_u64(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u64 {
+    assert_equal_lengths(a.len(), b.len());
+    if a.len() <= U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN {
+        return dot_u8(a, b) as u64;
+    }
+    a.chunks(U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN)
+        .zip(b.chunks(U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN))
+        .map(|(a, b)| dot_u8(a, b) as u64)
+        .sum()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_mismatched_lengths() {
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| dot_u8_scalar(&[1, 2], &[1])).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| dot_u8(&[1, 2], &[1])).is_err());
+    }
+
+    fn fill_random(buf: &mut [u8], seed: &mut u32) {
+        for slot in buf.iter_mut() {
+            *seed = seed.wrapping_mul(1103515245).wrapping_add(12345);
+            *slot = (*seed >> 16) as u8;
+        }
+    }
+
+    const SIZES: &[usize] = &[
+        0, 1, 7, 15, 16, 31, 32, 33, 63, 64, 65, 127, 128, 255, 256, 1024, 4096, 4097,
+    ];
+
+    fn check_all_backends(a: &[u8], b: &[u8], case: &str) {
+        let reference = dot_u8_scalar(a, b);
+
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+                let got = unsafe { x86::dot_u8_avx2(a, b) };
+                assert_eq!(got, reference, "avx2 [{case}] n={}", a.len());
+            }
+
+            if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f")
+                && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw")
+                && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vnni")
+            {
+                let got = unsafe { x86::dot_u8_avx512_vnni(a, b) };
+                assert_eq!(got, reference, "avx512_vnni [{case}] n={}", a.len());
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(dot_u8(a, b), reference, "dispatch [{case}] n={}", a.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn random_inputs_across_sizes_and_seeds() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for seed_idx in 0..4u32 {
+            let mut seed = 0xC0FFEE_u32.wrapping_add(seed_idx.wrapping_mul(7919));
+            for &n in SIZES {
+                fill_random(&mut a[..n], &mut seed);
+                fill_random(&mut b[..n], &mut seed);
+                check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "random");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn boundary_values() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for &n in SIZES {
+            a[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            b[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "max*max");
+
+            a[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            b[..n].fill(0);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "max*0");
+
+            a[..n].fill(0);
+            b[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "0*max");
+
+            for i in 0..n {
+                a[i] = if i & 1 == 0 { 0 } else { u8::MAX };
+                b[i] = if i & 1 == 0 { u8::MAX } else { 0 };
+            }
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "alt 0/max");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn one_sided_zeros() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for &n in SIZES {
+            let mut seed = 0xDEAD_BEEF_u32;
+            fill_random(&mut a[..n], &mut seed);
+            b[..n].fill(0);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "b=0");
+
+            a[..n].fill(0);
+            fill_random(&mut b[..n], &mut seed);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "a=0");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn all_ones_pattern() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for &n in SIZES {
+            a[..n].fill(1);
+            b[..n].fill(1);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "1*1");
+            assert_eq!(dot_u8_scalar(&a[..n], &b[..n]), n as u32);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn overflow_is_backend_independent_and_wide_result_is_exact() {
+        let len = U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN + 1;
+        let a = vec![u8::MAX; len];
+        let b = vec![u8::MAX; len];
+        let exact = u8::MAX as u64 * u8::MAX as u64 * len as u64;
+
+        check_all_backends(&a, &b, "u32 overflow");
+        assert_eq!(dot_u8_scalar(&a, &b), exact as u32);
+        assert_eq!(dot_u8_u64(&a, &b), exact);
+        assert_eq!(crate::distance::dot::dot::<u8>(&a, &b), exact as f32);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/hamming.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/hamming.rs
index 03fda1467cc..b1debda9301 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/hamming.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/hamming.rs
@@ -2,14 +2,46 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 //! Hamming distance.
+//!
+//! This module provides hamming distance computation for binary vectors,
+//! including SIMD-accelerated pairwise hamming distance for binary hashes.
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
 
-use crate::{Error, Result};
+use arrow_array::builder::{ListBuilder, UInt64Builder};
 use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::types::UInt8Type;
-use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+    RecordBatchReader, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use rayon::prelude::*;
+
+use crate::distance::assert_batch_layout;
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Schema of a Hamming distance-pair batch.
+static DISTANCE_PAIR_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("row_id_a", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new("row_id_b", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new("distance", DataType::UInt32, false),
+    ]))
+});
+
+/// Schema of a Hamming clustering-result batch.
+static CLUSTER_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("representative", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new(
+            "duplicates",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt64, true))),
+            false,
+        ),
+    ]))
+});
 
 pub trait Hamming {
     /// Hamming distance between two vectors.
@@ -24,16 +56,16 @@ pub fn hamming(x: &[u8], y: &[u8]) -> f32 {
 
 #[inline]
 fn hamming_autovec<const L: usize>(x: &[u8], y: &[u8]) -> f32 {
-    let x_chunk = x.chunks_exact(L);
-    let y_chunk = y.chunks_exact(L);
-    let sum = x_chunk
-        .remainder()
+    let (x_chunks, x_remainder) = x.as_chunks::<L>();
+    let (y_chunks, y_remainder) = y.as_chunks::<L>();
+    let sum = x_remainder
         .iter()
-        .zip(y_chunk.remainder())
+        .zip(y_remainder)
         .map(|(&a, &b)| (a ^ b).count_ones())
         .sum::<u32>();
-    (sum + x_chunk
-        .zip(y_chunk)
+    (sum + x_chunks
+        .iter()
+        .zip(y_chunks)
         .map(|(x, y)| {
             x.iter()
                 .zip(y.iter())
@@ -52,13 +84,29 @@ pub fn hamming_scalar(x: &[u8], y: &[u8]) -> f32 {
         .sum::<u32>() as f32
 }
 
+/// Compute Hamming distances from one vector to a batch of vectors.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_linalg::distance::hamming::hamming_distance_batch;
+///
+/// let query = [0, u8::MAX];
+/// let targets = [0, u8::MAX, 1, u8::MAX - 1];
+/// let distances = hamming_distance_batch(&query, &targets, query.len()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+/// assert_eq!(distances, [0.0, 2.0]);
+/// ```
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// Panics if `dimension` is zero, `from.len()` differs from `dimension`, or
+/// `to` does not contain a whole number of vectors with that dimension.
 pub fn hamming_distance_batch<'a>(
     from: &'a [u8],
     to: &'a [u8],
     dimension: usize,
 ) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = f32> + 'a> {
-    debug_assert_eq!(from.len(), dimension);
-    debug_assert_eq!(to.len() % dimension, 0);
+    assert_batch_layout(from.len(), to.len(), dimension);
     Box::new(to.chunks_exact(dimension).map(|v| hamming(from, v)))
 }
 
@@ -76,7 +124,7 @@ pub fn hamming_distance_arrow_batch(
             return Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
                 "Unsupported data type: {:?}",
                 from.data_type()
-            )))
+            )));
         }
     };
 
@@ -86,20 +134,1982 @@ pub fn hamming_distance_arrow_batch(
     )))
 }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
+/// Compute hamming distance between two 64-bit values using POPCNT.
+#[inline(always)]
+pub fn hamming_u64(a: u64, b: u64) -> u32 {
+    (a ^ b).count_ones()
+}
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_hamming() {
-        let x = vec![0b1101_1010, 0b1010_1010, 0b1010_1010];
-        let y = vec![0b1101_1010, 0b1010_1010, 0b1010_1010];
-        assert_eq!(hamming(&x, &y), 0.0);
+/// Binary hash values stored as 64-bit lanes in lane-major order.
+///
+/// For a hash width of `N` bytes, `N` must be a positive multiple of 8 and the
+/// number of lanes is `N / 8`. Lane-major layout keeps each lane contiguous for
+/// all rows, which allows the pairwise path to reuse the SIMD `u64` batch
+/// implementation for wider hashes.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct BinaryHashValues {
+    lane_values: Vec<u64>,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    byte_width: usize,
+}
 
-        let y = vec![0b1101_1010, 0b1010_1010, 0b1010_1000];
-        assert_eq!(hamming(&x, &y), 1.0);
+impl BinaryHashValues {
+    /// Create hash values from lane-major `u64` values.
+    pub fn try_new(lane_values: Vec<u64>, num_rows: usize, byte_width: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        let num_lanes = validate_hash_byte_width(byte_width)?;
+        let expected_values = checked_lane_value_count(num_rows, num_lanes)?;
+        if lane_values.len() != expected_values {
+            return Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "Expected {} lane values for {} rows and {} byte hashes, got {}",
+                expected_values,
+                num_rows,
+                byte_width,
+                lane_values.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            lane_values,
+            num_rows,
+            byte_width,
+        })
+    }
 
-        let y = vec![0b1101_1010, 0b1010_1010, 0b1010_1001];
-        assert_eq!(hamming(&x, &y), 2.0);
+    /// Extract binary hash values from a `FixedSizeList<UInt8, N>` Arrow array.
+    pub fn from_fixed_size_list(array: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<Self> {
+        let byte_width = usize::try_from(array.value_length()).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "Expected FixedSizeList with a positive size that is a multiple of 8 bytes, got size {}",
+                array.value_length()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let num_lanes = validate_hash_byte_width(byte_width)?;
+
+        let values = array
+            .values()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt8Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::InvalidArgumentError(
+                    "Expected UInt8Array values in FixedSizeList".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+
+        let num_rows = array.len();
+        let value_count = checked_lane_value_count(num_rows, num_lanes)?;
+        let expected_bytes = checked_hash_byte_count(num_rows, byte_width)?;
+        let bytes = values.values();
+        if bytes.len() != expected_bytes {
+            return Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "Expected {} bytes for {} rows and {} byte hashes, got {}",
+                expected_bytes,
+                num_rows,
+                byte_width,
+                bytes.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut lane_values = vec![0u64; value_count];
+        for row in 0..num_rows {
+            let row_start = row * byte_width;
+            for lane in 0..num_lanes {
+                let start = row_start + lane * 8;
+                let mut arr = [0u8; 8];
+                arr.copy_from_slice(&bytes[start..start + 8]);
+                lane_values[lane * num_rows + row] = u64::from_le_bytes(arr);
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            lane_values,
+            num_rows,
+            byte_width,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Concatenate chunks with the same hash width into a single lane-major set.
+    pub fn concat(chunks: &[Self]) -> Result<Self> {
+        let Some(first) = chunks.first() else {
+            return Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(
+                "Cannot concatenate zero binary hash chunks".to_string(),
+            ));
+        };
+
+        let byte_width = first.byte_width;
+        let num_lanes = first.num_lanes();
+        let mut num_rows = 0usize;
+        for chunk in chunks {
+            if chunk.byte_width != byte_width {
+                return Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                    "Cannot concatenate binary hash chunks with different widths: {} and {} bytes",
+                    byte_width, chunk.byte_width
+                )));
+            }
+            num_rows = num_rows.checked_add(chunk.num_rows).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::InvalidArgumentError(
+                    "Binary hash row count overflowed while concatenating chunks".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        }
+
+        let value_count = checked_lane_value_count(num_rows, num_lanes)?;
+        let mut lane_values = vec![0u64; value_count];
+        let mut row_offset = 0;
+        for chunk in chunks {
+            for lane in 0..num_lanes {
+                let dest_start = lane * num_rows + row_offset;
+                let dest_end = dest_start + chunk.num_rows;
+                lane_values[dest_start..dest_end].copy_from_slice(chunk.lane(lane));
+            }
+            row_offset += chunk.num_rows;
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            lane_values,
+            num_rows,
+            byte_width,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.num_rows
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.num_rows == 0
+    }
+
+    pub fn byte_width(&self) -> usize {
+        self.byte_width
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_lanes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.byte_width / 8
+    }
+
+    pub fn lane(&self, lane: usize) -> &[u64] {
+        let start = lane * self.num_rows;
+        &self.lane_values[start..start + self.num_rows]
+    }
+
+    pub fn into_u64_values(self) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        if self.num_lanes() != 1 {
+            return Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+                "Expected 8-byte binary hashes, got {} byte hashes",
+                self.byte_width
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(self.lane_values)
+    }
+}
+
+fn checked_lane_value_count(num_rows: usize, num_lanes: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+    num_rows.checked_mul(num_lanes).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "Binary hash lane value count overflowed for {} rows and {} lanes",
+            num_rows, num_lanes
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn checked_hash_byte_count(num_rows: usize, byte_width: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+    num_rows.checked_mul(byte_width).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "Binary hash byte count overflowed for {} rows and {} byte hashes",
+            num_rows, byte_width
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn validate_hash_byte_width(byte_width: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+    if byte_width == 0 || !byte_width.is_multiple_of(8) {
+        return Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "Expected FixedSizeList with a positive size that is a multiple of 8 bytes, got size {}",
+            byte_width
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(byte_width / 8)
+}
+
+/// Result of pairwise hamming distance computation.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PairwiseResult {
+    pub row_id_a: Vec<u64>,
+    pub row_id_b: Vec<u64>,
+    pub distances: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl PairwiseResult {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            row_id_a: Vec::new(),
+            row_id_b: Vec::new(),
+            distances: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            row_id_a: Vec::with_capacity(capacity),
+            row_id_b: Vec::with_capacity(capacity),
+            distances: Vec::with_capacity(capacity),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn push(&mut self, a: u64, b: u64, dist: u32) {
+        self.row_id_a.push(a);
+        self.row_id_b.push(b);
+        self.distances.push(dist);
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.row_id_a.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.row_id_a.is_empty()
+    }
+
+    pub fn extend(&mut self, other: Self) {
+        self.row_id_a.extend(other.row_id_a);
+        self.row_id_b.extend(other.row_id_b);
+        self.distances.extend(other.distances);
+    }
+
+    /// Convert to Arrow RecordBatch, consuming self.
+    pub fn into_record_batch(self) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = DISTANCE_PAIR_SCHEMA.clone();
+
+        let row_id_a = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(self.row_id_a));
+        let row_id_b = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(self.row_id_b));
+        let distances = Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(self.distances));
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![row_id_a, row_id_b, distances])
+            .expect("Failed to create RecordBatch")
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for PairwiseResult {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compute hamming distances for a query against multiple targets.
+/// Uses SIMD acceleration when available.
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// Panics if `results` is not the same length as `targets`.
+#[inline]
+pub fn hamming_batch_u64(query: u64, targets: &[u64], results: &mut [u32]) {
+    // Rejected in either direction, and before the dispatch. A shorter `results` the
+    // dispatcher's reslice would refuse on its own, and that reslice is what keeps the
+    // kernels' raw stores in bounds; this check just gets there first, with a message
+    // that names both lengths. An over-long one the reslice would instead truncate,
+    // handing the surplus tail back unwritten for the caller to read as distances.
+    // That is wrong output rather than a crash, which is why this is an `assert_eq!`
+    // and not a `debug_assert_eq!`.
+    let num_targets = targets.len();
+    let num_slots = results.len();
+    assert_eq!(
+        num_targets, num_slots,
+        "hamming_batch_u64 needs one result slot per target, \
+         got {num_targets} target(s) and {num_slots} slot(s)"
+    );
+    hamming_batch_simd(query, targets, results);
+}
+
+/// SIMD-accelerated batch hamming distance computation.
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// Panics if `results` is shorter than `targets`. `results.len()` is required to equal
+/// `targets.len()`: an over-long `results` is truncated here rather than rejected, and
+/// the surplus tail goes back to the caller unwritten. `hamming_batch_u64` asserts the
+/// equality before dispatching.
+#[inline]
+fn hamming_batch_simd(query: u64, targets: &[u64], results: &mut [u32]) {
+    // Both x86 kernels store through raw pointers over a range bounded by
+    // `targets.len()`, and this reslice makes `results` exactly that long, so it has to
+    // stay above the dispatch.
+    let results = &mut results[..targets.len()];
+
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vpopcntdq") && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            // SAFETY: both required features were just detected, and the reslice
+            // above makes `results.len() == targets.len()`.
+            unsafe {
+                hamming_batch_avx512(query, targets, results);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            // SAFETY: AVX2 was just detected, and the reslice above makes
+            // `results.len() == targets.len()`.
+            unsafe {
+                hamming_batch_avx2(query, targets, results);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Scalar fallback (LLVM auto-vectorizes well on Apple Silicon)
+    hamming_batch_scalar(query, targets, results);
+}
+
+/// Scalar fallback using count_ones() which compiles to POPCNT.
+#[inline]
+fn hamming_batch_scalar(query: u64, targets: &[u64], results: &mut [u32]) {
+    // Unroll for better auto-vectorization
+    let n = targets.len();
+    let chunks = n / 8;
+    let mut i = 0;
+
+    for _ in 0..chunks {
+        results[i] = (query ^ targets[i]).count_ones();
+        results[i + 1] = (query ^ targets[i + 1]).count_ones();
+        results[i + 2] = (query ^ targets[i + 2]).count_ones();
+        results[i + 3] = (query ^ targets[i + 3]).count_ones();
+        results[i + 4] = (query ^ targets[i + 4]).count_ones();
+        results[i + 5] = (query ^ targets[i + 5]).count_ones();
+        results[i + 6] = (query ^ targets[i + 6]).count_ones();
+        results[i + 7] = (query ^ targets[i + 7]).count_ones();
+        i += 8;
+    }
+
+    // Handle remainder
+    while i < n {
+        results[i] = (query ^ targets[i]).count_ones();
+        i += 1;
+    }
+}
+
+/// AVX-512 VPOPCNTDQ: Process 8 x 64-bit values at once.
+///
+/// The chunk loop reaches only the first `targets.len() / 8 * 8` slots through a
+/// raw pointer, 8 x u32 per chunk with no bounds check; the trailing slots go
+/// through bounds-checked indexing.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support AVX-512F and AVX512VPOPCNTDQ, and `results.len()` must
+/// be at least `targets.len()`.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f", enable = "avx512vpopcntdq")]
+unsafe fn hamming_batch_avx512(query: u64, targets: &[u64], results: &mut [u32]) {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    let n = targets.len();
+    let query_vec = _mm512_set1_epi64(query as i64);
+
+    let chunks = n / 8;
+    let remainder = n % 8;
+
+    for i in 0..chunks {
+        let offset = i * 8;
+        let targets_ptr = targets.as_ptr().add(offset) as *const __m512i;
+        let target_vec = _mm512_loadu_si512(targets_ptr);
+
+        let xor_result = _mm512_xor_si512(query_vec, target_vec);
+        let popcount = _mm512_popcnt_epi64(xor_result);
+        let popcount_32 = _mm512_cvtepi64_epi32(popcount);
+
+        _mm256_storeu_si256(
+            results.as_mut_ptr().add(offset) as *mut __m256i,
+            popcount_32,
+        );
+    }
+
+    if remainder > 0 {
+        let offset = chunks * 8;
+        for j in 0..remainder {
+            results[offset + j] = (query ^ targets[offset + j]).count_ones();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// AVX2 popcount using a PSHUFB nibble lookup table.
+///
+/// The chunk loop reaches only the first `targets.len() / 4 * 4` slots through a
+/// raw pointer, 4 x u32 per chunk with no bounds check; the trailing slots go
+/// through bounds-checked indexing.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support AVX2, and `results.len()` must be at least
+/// `targets.len()`.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+unsafe fn hamming_batch_avx2(query: u64, targets: &[u64], results: &mut [u32]) {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    let n = targets.len();
+
+    let lookup = _mm256_setr_epi8(
+        0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3,
+        3, 4,
+    );
+    let low_mask = _mm256_set1_epi8(0x0f);
+    let query_vec = _mm256_set1_epi64x(query as i64);
+
+    let chunks = n / 4;
+    let remainder = n % 4;
+
+    for i in 0..chunks {
+        let offset = i * 4;
+        let targets_ptr = targets.as_ptr().add(offset) as *const __m256i;
+        let target_vec = _mm256_loadu_si256(targets_ptr);
+
+        let xor_result = _mm256_xor_si256(query_vec, target_vec);
+
+        // Popcount using nibble lookup
+        let lo = _mm256_and_si256(xor_result, low_mask);
+        let hi = _mm256_and_si256(_mm256_srli_epi16(xor_result, 4), low_mask);
+        let popcnt_lo = _mm256_shuffle_epi8(lookup, lo);
+        let popcnt_hi = _mm256_shuffle_epi8(lookup, hi);
+        let popcnt_bytes = _mm256_add_epi8(popcnt_lo, popcnt_hi);
+        let popcount = _mm256_sad_epu8(popcnt_bytes, _mm256_setzero_si256());
+
+        let results_ptr = results.as_mut_ptr().add(offset);
+        *results_ptr = _mm256_extract_epi32::<0>(popcount) as u32;
+        *results_ptr.add(1) = _mm256_extract_epi32::<2>(popcount) as u32;
+        *results_ptr.add(2) = _mm256_extract_epi32::<4>(popcount) as u32;
+        *results_ptr.add(3) = _mm256_extract_epi32::<6>(popcount) as u32;
+    }
+
+    if remainder > 0 {
+        let offset = chunks * 4;
+        for j in 0..remainder {
+            results[offset + j] = (query ^ targets[offset + j]).count_ones();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compute pairwise hamming distances for all pairs of hashes.
+///
+/// Returns pairs where distance <= threshold (if provided).
+///
+/// # Arguments
+/// * `hashes` - Vector of 64-bit hash values
+/// * `row_ids` - Optional row IDs (defaults to indices if None)
+/// * `threshold` - Optional maximum distance to include in results
+pub fn pairwise_hamming_distance(
+    hashes: &[u64],
+    row_ids: Option<&[u64]>,
+    threshold: Option<u32>,
+) -> PairwiseResult {
+    let n = hashes.len();
+    if n < 2 {
+        return PairwiseResult::new();
+    }
+
+    let threshold = threshold.unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+    let num_pairs = n * (n - 1) / 2;
+    let mut result = PairwiseResult::with_capacity(num_pairs.min(1_000_000));
+
+    for i in 0..n {
+        for j in (i + 1)..n {
+            let dist = hamming_u64(hashes[i], hashes[j]);
+            if dist <= threshold {
+                let id_a = row_ids.map_or(i as u64, |ids| ids[i]);
+                let id_b = row_ids.map_or(j as u64, |ids| ids[j]);
+                result.push(id_a, id_b, dist);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    result
+}
+
+/// Compute pairwise hamming distances in parallel using rayon + SIMD.
+///
+/// Uses chunked parallelization for balanced workload distribution.
+pub fn pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(
+    hashes: &[u64],
+    row_ids: Option<&[u64]>,
+    threshold: Option<u32>,
+) -> PairwiseResult {
+    let n = hashes.len();
+    if n < 2 {
+        return PairwiseResult::new();
+    }
+
+    let threshold = threshold.unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+    let total_pairs = n * (n - 1) / 2;
+
+    // For small datasets, use sequential to avoid thread overhead
+    if total_pairs < 10_000 {
+        return pairwise_hamming_distance(hashes, row_ids, Some(threshold));
+    }
+
+    let threads = rayon::current_num_threads();
+    let pairs_per_chunk = total_pairs.div_ceil(threads);
+    let chunks = compute_balanced_chunks(n, pairs_per_chunk);
+
+    let results: Vec<PairwiseResult> = chunks
+        .into_par_iter()
+        .map(|(start_row, end_row)| {
+            process_row_range(hashes, row_ids, threshold, start_row, end_row)
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut combined = PairwiseResult::new();
+    for r in results {
+        combined.extend(r);
+    }
+    combined
+}
+
+/// Compute pairwise hamming distances for all pairs of fixed-width binary hashes.
+///
+/// This supports any hash width that is a positive multiple of 8 bytes. For
+/// 8-byte hashes this delegates to the existing `u64` implementation.
+pub fn pairwise_hamming_distance_binary(
+    hashes: &BinaryHashValues,
+    row_ids: Option<&[u64]>,
+    threshold: Option<u32>,
+) -> PairwiseResult {
+    let n = hashes.len();
+    if n < 2 {
+        return PairwiseResult::new();
+    }
+
+    if hashes.num_lanes() == 1 {
+        return pairwise_hamming_distance(hashes.lane(0), row_ids, threshold);
+    }
+
+    let threshold = threshold.unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+    let num_pairs = n * (n - 1) / 2;
+    let mut result = PairwiseResult::with_capacity(num_pairs.min(1_000_000));
+
+    for i in 0..n {
+        for j in (i + 1)..n {
+            let mut dist = 0;
+            for lane in 0..hashes.num_lanes() {
+                let lane_values = hashes.lane(lane);
+                dist += hamming_u64(lane_values[i], lane_values[j]);
+            }
+            if dist <= threshold {
+                let id_a = row_ids.map_or(i as u64, |ids| ids[i]);
+                let id_b = row_ids.map_or(j as u64, |ids| ids[j]);
+                result.push(id_a, id_b, dist);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    result
+}
+
+/// Compute pairwise hamming distances in parallel for fixed-width binary hashes.
+///
+/// Wider hashes reuse the SIMD `u64` batch implementation lane-by-lane.
+pub fn pairwise_hamming_distance_binary_parallel(
+    hashes: &BinaryHashValues,
+    row_ids: Option<&[u64]>,
+    threshold: Option<u32>,
+) -> PairwiseResult {
+    let n = hashes.len();
+    if n < 2 {
+        return PairwiseResult::new();
+    }
+
+    if hashes.num_lanes() == 1 {
+        return pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(hashes.lane(0), row_ids, threshold);
+    }
+
+    let threshold = threshold.unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+    let total_pairs = n * (n - 1) / 2;
+
+    if total_pairs < 10_000 {
+        return pairwise_hamming_distance_binary(hashes, row_ids, Some(threshold));
+    }
+
+    let threads = rayon::current_num_threads();
+    let pairs_per_chunk = total_pairs.div_ceil(threads);
+    let chunks = compute_balanced_chunks(n, pairs_per_chunk);
+
+    let results: Vec<PairwiseResult> = chunks
+        .into_par_iter()
+        .map(|(start_row, end_row)| {
+            process_row_range_binary(hashes, row_ids, threshold, start_row, end_row)
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut combined = PairwiseResult::new();
+    for r in results {
+        combined.extend(r);
+    }
+    combined
+}
+
+/// Compute balanced chunks for parallel processing.
+fn compute_balanced_chunks(n: usize, target_pairs_per_chunk: usize) -> Vec<(usize, usize)> {
+    let mut chunks = Vec::new();
+    let mut current_start = 0;
+    let mut current_pairs = 0;
+
+    for i in 0..n {
+        let pairs_for_row = n - i - 1;
+        current_pairs += pairs_for_row;
+
+        if current_pairs >= target_pairs_per_chunk || i == n - 1 {
+            chunks.push((current_start, i + 1));
+            current_start = i + 1;
+            current_pairs = 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    chunks
+}
+
+/// Process a range of rows for pairwise comparison using SIMD.
+fn process_row_range(
+    hashes: &[u64],
+    row_ids: Option<&[u64]>,
+    threshold: u32,
+    start_row: usize,
+    end_row: usize,
+) -> PairwiseResult {
+    let n = hashes.len();
+    let mut result = PairwiseResult::new();
+
+    for i in start_row..end_row {
+        let remaining = n - i - 1;
+        if remaining == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let mut distances = vec![0u32; remaining];
+        hamming_batch_u64(hashes[i], &hashes[i + 1..], &mut distances);
+
+        let id_a = row_ids.map_or(i as u64, |ids| ids[i]);
+        for (j_offset, &dist) in distances.iter().enumerate() {
+            if dist <= threshold {
+                let j = i + 1 + j_offset;
+                let id_b = row_ids.map_or(j as u64, |ids| ids[j]);
+                result.push(id_a, id_b, dist);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    result
+}
+
+/// Process a range of rows for pairwise comparison of wider binary hashes.
+fn process_row_range_binary(
+    hashes: &BinaryHashValues,
+    row_ids: Option<&[u64]>,
+    threshold: u32,
+    start_row: usize,
+    end_row: usize,
+) -> PairwiseResult {
+    let n = hashes.len();
+    let mut result = PairwiseResult::new();
+    let mut distances = Vec::new();
+    let mut lane_distances = Vec::new();
+
+    for i in start_row..end_row {
+        let remaining = n - i - 1;
+        if remaining == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        distances.clear();
+        distances.resize(remaining, 0);
+
+        let first_lane = hashes.lane(0);
+        hamming_batch_u64(
+            first_lane[i],
+            &first_lane[i + 1..],
+            distances.as_mut_slice(),
+        );
+
+        for lane in 1..hashes.num_lanes() {
+            lane_distances.clear();
+            lane_distances.resize(remaining, 0);
+            let lane_values = hashes.lane(lane);
+            hamming_batch_u64(
+                lane_values[i],
+                &lane_values[i + 1..],
+                lane_distances.as_mut_slice(),
+            );
+            for (distance, lane_distance) in distances.iter_mut().zip(&lane_distances) {
+                *distance += *lane_distance;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let id_a = row_ids.map_or(i as u64, |ids| ids[i]);
+        for (j_offset, &dist) in distances.iter().enumerate() {
+            if dist <= threshold {
+                let j = i + 1 + j_offset;
+                let id_b = row_ids.map_or(j as u64, |ids| ids[j]);
+                result.push(id_a, id_b, dist);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    result
+}
+
+/// Extract u64 hashes from a FixedSizeList<UInt8, 8> Arrow array.
+pub fn extract_hashes_from_fixed_list(array: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    let hashes = extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list(array)?;
+    if hashes.byte_width() != 8 {
+        return Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
+            "Expected FixedSizeList with size 8, got size {}",
+            hashes.byte_width()
+        )));
+    }
+    hashes.into_u64_values()
+}
+
+/// Extract binary hashes from a `FixedSizeList<UInt8, N>` Arrow array where
+/// `N` is a positive multiple of 8 bytes.
+pub fn extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list(
+    array: &FixedSizeListArray,
+) -> Result<BinaryHashValues> {
+    BinaryHashValues::from_fixed_size_list(array)
+}
+
+/// Union-Find data structure with path compression for clustering.
+pub struct UnionFind {
+    parent: HashMap<u64, u64>,
+    rank: HashMap<u64, u32>,
+}
+
+impl UnionFind {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            parent: HashMap::new(),
+            rank: HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            parent: HashMap::with_capacity(capacity),
+            rank: HashMap::with_capacity(capacity),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Find the root of a node with path compression.
+    pub fn find(&mut self, x: u64) -> u64 {
+        if let std::collections::hash_map::Entry::Vacant(e) = self.parent.entry(x) {
+            e.insert(x);
+            self.rank.insert(x, 0);
+            return x;
+        }
+
+        let mut current = x;
+        let mut path = Vec::new();
+
+        while self.parent[&current] != current {
+            path.push(current);
+            current = self.parent[&current];
+        }
+        let root = current;
+
+        for node in path {
+            self.parent.insert(node, root);
+        }
+
+        root
+    }
+
+    /// Union two nodes, using union by rank.
+    pub fn union(&mut self, a: u64, b: u64) -> bool {
+        let root_a = self.find(a);
+        let root_b = self.find(b);
+
+        if root_a == root_b {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        let rank_a = self.rank[&root_a];
+        let rank_b = self.rank[&root_b];
+
+        if rank_a < rank_b {
+            self.parent.insert(root_a, root_b);
+        } else if rank_a > rank_b {
+            self.parent.insert(root_b, root_a);
+        } else if root_a < root_b {
+            self.parent.insert(root_b, root_a);
+            *self.rank.get_mut(&root_a).unwrap() += 1;
+        } else {
+            self.parent.insert(root_a, root_b);
+            *self.rank.get_mut(&root_b).unwrap() += 1;
+        }
+
+        true
+    }
+
+    pub fn nodes(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &u64> {
+        self.parent.keys()
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.parent.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.parent.is_empty()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for UnionFind {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A cluster with representative and duplicates.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct Cluster {
+    /// The representative row ID (smallest in the cluster).
+    pub representative: u64,
+    /// List of duplicate row IDs (excludes the representative).
+    pub duplicates: Vec<u64>,
+}
+
+impl Cluster {
+    pub fn size(&self) -> usize {
+        1 + self.duplicates.len()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Result of the clustering operation.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ClusteringResult {
+    /// List of clusters, each with a representative and duplicates.
+    pub clusters: Vec<Cluster>,
+}
+
+impl ClusteringResult {
+    pub fn num_clusters(&self) -> usize {
+        self.clusters.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_duplicates(&self) -> usize {
+        self.clusters.iter().map(|c| c.duplicates.len()).sum()
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_unique(&self) -> usize {
+        self.clusters.len()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the schema for clustering result batches.
+    pub fn schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        CLUSTER_SCHEMA.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Convert to Arrow RecordBatch with columns:
+    /// - `representative`: `UInt64`
+    /// - `duplicates`: `List<UInt64>`
+    pub fn to_record_batch(&self) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Self::schema();
+
+        let mut representatives = Vec::with_capacity(self.clusters.len());
+        let mut duplicates_builder = ListBuilder::new(UInt64Builder::new());
+
+        for cluster in &self.clusters {
+            representatives.push(cluster.representative);
+            for &dup in &cluster.duplicates {
+                duplicates_builder.values().append_value(dup);
+            }
+            duplicates_builder.append(true);
+        }
+
+        let representative_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(representatives));
+        let duplicates_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(duplicates_builder.finish());
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![representative_array, duplicates_array])
+            .expect("Failed to create RecordBatch")
+    }
+
+    /// Convert to a RecordBatchReader that yields batches of the specified size.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    /// * `batch_size` - Number of clusters per batch (default: 10000)
+    pub fn into_reader(self, batch_size: Option<usize>) -> Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> {
+        let batch_size = batch_size.unwrap_or(10_000);
+        let schema = Self::schema();
+
+        if self.clusters.is_empty() {
+            // Return empty reader
+            let batches: Vec<std::result::Result<RecordBatch, arrow_schema::ArrowError>> = vec![];
+            return Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema));
+        }
+
+        let batches: Vec<std::result::Result<RecordBatch, arrow_schema::ArrowError>> = self
+            .clusters
+            .chunks(batch_size)
+            .map(|chunk| {
+                let mut representatives = Vec::with_capacity(chunk.len());
+                let mut duplicates_builder = ListBuilder::new(UInt64Builder::new());
+
+                for cluster in chunk {
+                    representatives.push(cluster.representative);
+                    for &dup in &cluster.duplicates {
+                        duplicates_builder.values().append_value(dup);
+                    }
+                    duplicates_builder.append(true);
+                }
+
+                let representative_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(representatives));
+                let duplicates_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(duplicates_builder.finish());
+
+                RecordBatch::try_new(Self::schema(), vec![representative_array, duplicates_array])
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Cluster edges using union-find algorithm.
+///
+/// Takes a list of edges (row_id_a, row_id_b) and groups connected nodes
+/// into clusters. Each cluster has a representative (smallest row ID)
+/// and a list of duplicates.
+pub fn cluster_edges<I>(edges: I) -> ClusteringResult
+where
+    I: IntoIterator<Item = (u64, u64)>,
+{
+    let mut uf = UnionFind::new();
+
+    for (a, b) in edges {
+        uf.union(a, b);
+    }
+
+    let mut clusters_map: HashMap<u64, Vec<u64>> = HashMap::new();
+    let nodes: Vec<u64> = uf.nodes().copied().collect();
+
+    for node in nodes {
+        let root = uf.find(node);
+        clusters_map.entry(root).or_default().push(node);
+    }
+
+    let mut clusters = Vec::new();
+    for (_root, mut members) in clusters_map {
+        members.sort_unstable();
+
+        if members.len() > 1 {
+            let representative = *members.iter().min().unwrap();
+            let duplicates: Vec<u64> = members
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter(|&m| m != representative)
+                .collect();
+
+            clusters.push(Cluster {
+                representative,
+                duplicates,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    clusters.sort_by_key(|c| c.representative);
+
+    ClusteringResult { clusters }
+}
+
+/// Cluster edges from PairwiseResult.
+pub fn cluster_pairwise_result(result: &PairwiseResult) -> ClusteringResult {
+    let edges = result
+        .row_id_a
+        .iter()
+        .zip(result.row_id_b.iter())
+        .map(|(&a, &b)| (a, b));
+
+    cluster_edges(edges)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_result_schemas_are_initialized_once() {
+        // These schemas are handed out per call and per batch, so they are
+        // shared rather than rebuilt. Pointer equality is what distinguishes a
+        // shared schema from an equal-but-freshly-allocated one.
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &ClusteringResult::schema(),
+            &ClusteringResult::schema()
+        ));
+
+        let batch = PairwiseResult::default().into_record_batch();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&batch.schema(), &DISTANCE_PAIR_SCHEMA));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hamming() {
+        let x = vec![0b1101_1010, 0b1010_1010, 0b1010_1010];
+        let y = vec![0b1101_1010, 0b1010_1010, 0b1010_1010];
+        assert_eq!(hamming(&x, &y), 0.0);
+
+        let y = vec![0b1101_1010, 0b1010_1010, 0b1010_1000];
+        assert_eq!(hamming(&x, &y), 1.0);
+
+        let y = vec![0b1101_1010, 0b1010_1010, 0b1010_1001];
+        assert_eq!(hamming(&x, &y), 2.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(
+        expected = "distance batch length must be divisible by dimension: batch=5, dimension=2"
+    )]
+    fn test_hamming_distance_batch_rejects_partial_vector() {
+        let query = [0, 0];
+        let targets = [u8::MAX, u8::MAX, 0, 1, 0];
+
+        let _ = hamming_distance_batch(&query, &targets, query.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hamming_u64() {
+        assert_eq!(hamming_u64(0, 0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(hamming_u64(0, 1), 1);
+        assert_eq!(hamming_u64(0b1111, 0b0000), 4);
+        assert_eq!(hamming_u64(u64::MAX, 0), 64);
+        assert_eq!(hamming_u64(0xAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA, 0x5555555555555555), 64);
+    }
+
+    /// Runs `kernel` over `n` targets, with 8 guard slots past the output it is
+    /// handed, then checks every value and every guard.
+    ///
+    /// 8 is the widest unchecked chunk store in the file, so an unchecked chunk
+    /// store that overruns by one chunk lands inside this allocation instead of
+    /// past it. The remainder loops cannot trip the guards at all: all three
+    /// index through bounds-checked `results[..]` and would panic instead.
+    fn check_kernel_tail(n: usize, kernel: impl FnOnce(u64, &[u64], &mut [u32])) {
+        const GUARD: u32 = u32::MAX;
+        const GUARD_SLOTS: usize = 8;
+        let query = 0xDEAD_BEEF_CAFE_F00D_u64;
+        let targets: Vec<u64> = (0..n as u64)
+            .map(|i| i.wrapping_mul(0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15))
+            .collect();
+        let mut results = vec![GUARD; n + GUARD_SLOTS];
+
+        kernel(query, &targets, &mut results[..n]);
+
+        for (slot, &target) in targets.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                results[slot],
+                (query ^ target).count_ones(),
+                "n={n}, slot {slot}"
+            );
+        }
+        for (slot, &guard) in results.iter().enumerate().skip(n) {
+            assert_eq!(guard, GUARD, "n={n}: wrote past results, at {slot}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Each kernel behind `hamming_batch_u64` takes a fixed number of targets per
+    /// chunk and finishes the rest in a remainder loop: 4 for
+    /// `hamming_batch_avx2`, 8 for `hamming_batch_avx512` and for the unrolled
+    /// scalar fallback.
+    ///
+    /// The pairwise tests reach a remainder loop only when they are large enough
+    /// to take a parallel path. There the row ranges together pass every width
+    /// from one below the row count down to 1, so whichever kernel the host
+    /// dispatches has every residue covered incidentally, and a dropped or
+    /// out-of-bounds tail write surfaces somewhere in thousands of pairs, as a
+    /// mismatch or a panic. This asserts every slot at each width instead.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::one(1)]
+    #[case::two(2)]
+    #[case::three(3)]
+    #[case::four(4)]
+    #[case::five(5)]
+    #[case::six(6)]
+    #[case::seven(7)]
+    #[case::eight(8)]
+    #[case::nine(9)]
+    #[case::fifteen(15)]
+    #[case::sixteen(16)]
+    #[case::seventeen(17)]
+    #[case::one_hundred_twenty_eight(128)]
+    fn test_hamming_batch_u64(#[case] n: usize) {
+        check_kernel_tail(n, hamming_batch_u64);
+        // Also directly, because an x86_64 host with AVX2 takes an earlier branch
+        // and never reaches the scalar kernel through the dispatcher.
+        check_kernel_tail(n, hamming_batch_scalar);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    // Fewer slots than targets is the case that used to write out of bounds: on a
+    // host that takes the AVX2 path, `hamming_batch_avx2` wrote 28 bytes past a
+    // one-slot `results`.
+    #[case::eight_targets_one_slot(8, 1)]
+    // On the same path this one overran by 4 bytes instead of 28.
+    #[case::eight_targets_seven_slots(8, 7)]
+    // More slots than targets left the tail unwritten rather than overrunning, but
+    // the contract is one slot per target either way. This and the zero-target case
+    // below are the two that catch a guard weakened to a one-sided
+    // `results.len() >= targets.len()`.
+    #[case::eight_targets_nine_slots(8, 9)]
+    // The target count varies too, so that the two shortcuts most likely to appear
+    // here cannot slip past every case: an `if targets.is_empty() { return; }` above
+    // the check, or a `targets.len() < 8` fast path, would otherwise leave every
+    // eight-target case green. Four is the smallest target count that still reaches
+    // the AVX2 chunk loop.
+    #[case::four_targets_one_slot(4, 1)]
+    #[case::no_targets_one_slot(0, 1)]
+    // Zero slots is the case with no in-bounds slot at all, and the only one here
+    // that a `results.is_empty()` early return above the check would not survive.
+    // Its sentinel assertion is vacuous, so it pins the message and nothing else.
+    #[case::eight_targets_no_slots(8, 0)]
+    fn test_hamming_batch_u64_rejects_mismatched_lengths(
+        #[case] num_targets: usize,
+        #[case] num_slots: usize,
+    ) {
+        // No CPU feature gate: the length check precedes every kernel, so the panic
+        // happens on each host and no case reaches a kernel at all. Every case here is
+        // a mismatch; matching lengths are covered by `test_hamming_batch_u64` above,
+        // which calls `hamming_batch_u64` directly, and by
+        // `test_pairwise_correctness_1000_deterministic` below, which reaches it
+        // through `pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel`'s chunked path and checks the
+        // result against `reference_pairwise`.
+        //
+        // `catch_unwind` rather than `#[should_panic]`, because the property worth
+        // protecting is that the check runs before the dispatch, and
+        // `#[should_panic]` cannot observe order: a check moved below it can still
+        // panic with this same message, after a kernel has already written through
+        // `results`. The sentinel assertion at the end is what rules that out. It is
+        // also why the nine-slot case is here: a kernel's writes all land in bounds
+        // there, so nothing else would notice that it ran.
+        //
+        // A `debug_assert_eq!` carrying the same message still passes here when
+        // debug assertions are on, which is the profile `--profile ci` gives this
+        // crate; `cargo test --release -p lance-linalg --lib` (rust.yml) is what
+        // catches that revert.
+        const SENTINEL: u32 = 0xDEAD_BEEF;
+        let targets = vec![u64::MAX; num_targets];
+        let mut results = vec![SENTINEL; num_slots];
+
+        let payload = std::panic::catch_unwind(std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
+            hamming_batch_u64(0, &targets, &mut results);
+        }))
+        .expect_err("a length mismatch must panic");
+
+        let message = payload
+            .downcast_ref::<String>()
+            .map(String::as_str)
+            .or_else(|| payload.downcast_ref::<&'static str>().copied())
+            .expect("panic payload should be a string");
+        // Matching the whole message, not the two numbers separately, is deliberate:
+        // it pins the function name and the order the two lengths are reported in,
+        // which is what a message copied from a sibling guard would get wrong.
+        let expected = format!(
+            "hamming_batch_u64 needs one result slot per target, \
+             got {num_targets} target(s) and {num_slots} slot(s)"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(&expected),
+            "expected {expected:?} in panic message, got {message:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            results.iter().position(|&slot| slot != SENTINEL),
+            None,
+            "a kernel reached `results`, so the length check no longer precedes it"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_basic() {
+        let hashes = vec![0b0000u64, 0b0001, 0b0011, 0b0111];
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, None, None);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 6); // C(4,2) = 6 pairs
+        assert!(result.distances.iter().all(|&d| d <= 3));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_with_threshold() {
+        let hashes = vec![0b0000u64, 0b0001, 0b1111];
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, None, Some(1));
+
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.row_id_a[0], 0);
+        assert_eq!(result.row_id_b[0], 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.distances[0], 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_with_row_ids() {
+        let hashes = vec![0b0000u64, 0b0001];
+        let row_ids = vec![100u64, 200u64];
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, Some(&row_ids), None);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.row_id_a[0], 100);
+        assert_eq!(result.row_id_b[0], 200);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_parallel() {
+        let hashes: Vec<u64> = (0..100).collect();
+        let result_seq = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, None, None);
+        let result_par = pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(&hashes, None, None);
+
+        assert_eq!(result_seq.len(), result_par.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_find_basic() {
+        let mut uf = UnionFind::new();
+
+        assert_eq!(uf.find(1), 1);
+        assert_eq!(uf.find(2), 2);
+        assert_eq!(uf.find(3), 3);
+
+        assert!(uf.union(1, 2));
+        assert_eq!(uf.find(1), uf.find(2));
+
+        assert!(uf.union(2, 3));
+        assert_eq!(uf.find(1), uf.find(3));
+
+        assert!(!uf.union(1, 3));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_edges_simple() {
+        let edges = vec![(1, 2), (2, 3), (4, 5)];
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 2);
+
+        let c1 = result
+            .clusters
+            .iter()
+            .find(|c| c.representative == 1)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(c1.duplicates.len(), 2);
+        assert!(c1.duplicates.contains(&2));
+        assert!(c1.duplicates.contains(&3));
+
+        let c2 = result
+            .clusters
+            .iter()
+            .find(|c| c.representative == 4)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(c2.duplicates.len(), 1);
+        assert!(c2.duplicates.contains(&5));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_pairwise_result() {
+        let hashes = vec![0b0000u64, 0b0001, 0b0011]; // distances: (0,1)=1, (0,2)=2, (1,2)=1
+        let pairwise = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, None, Some(1)); // threshold 1
+
+        // Only pairs with distance <= 1: (0,1) and (1,2)
+        assert_eq!(pairwise.len(), 2);
+
+        let clustering = cluster_pairwise_result(&pairwise);
+        // All three should be in one cluster since 0-1-2 are connected
+        assert_eq!(clustering.num_clusters(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(clustering.clusters[0].representative, 0);
+        assert_eq!(clustering.clusters[0].duplicates.len(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_into_record_batch() {
+        let hashes = vec![0b0000u64, 0b0001, 0b0011];
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, None, None);
+        let batch = result.into_record_batch();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(batch.schema().field(0).name(), "row_id_a");
+        assert_eq!(batch.schema().field(1).name(), "row_id_b");
+        assert_eq!(batch.schema().field(2).name(), "distance");
+    }
+
+    // =========================================================================
+    // Additional tests from pairwise-hamming reference implementation
+    // =========================================================================
+
+    /// Reference implementation for validation - simple O(n²) nested loop
+    fn reference_pairwise(hashes: &[u64], threshold: Option<u32>) -> Vec<(usize, usize, u32)> {
+        let threshold = threshold.unwrap_or(u32::MAX);
+        let mut results = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..hashes.len() {
+            for j in (i + 1)..hashes.len() {
+                let dist = (hashes[i] ^ hashes[j]).count_ones();
+                if dist <= threshold {
+                    results.push((i, j, dist));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        results
+    }
+
+    /// Convert PairwiseResult to sorted vec for comparison
+    fn result_to_sorted_vec(result: &PairwiseResult) -> Vec<(u64, u64, u32)> {
+        let mut v: Vec<_> = result
+            .row_id_a
+            .iter()
+            .zip(result.row_id_b.iter())
+            .zip(result.distances.iter())
+            .map(|((&a, &b), &d)| (a, b, d))
+            .collect();
+        v.sort();
+        v
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list_128() {
+        use arrow_array::UInt8Array;
+
+        let rows = [
+            (0x0102_0304_0506_0708u64, 0x1112_1314_1516_1718u64),
+            (0x2122_2324_2526_2728u64, 0x3132_3334_3536_3738u64),
+        ];
+        let bytes: Vec<u8> = rows
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|(lo, hi)| lo.to_le_bytes().into_iter().chain(hi.to_le_bytes()))
+            .collect();
+        let array = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(bytes), 16).unwrap();
+
+        let hashes = extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list(&array).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(hashes.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(hashes.byte_width(), 16);
+        assert_eq!(hashes.num_lanes(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(hashes.lane(0), &[rows[0].0, rows[1].0]);
+        assert_eq!(hashes.lane(1), &[rows[0].1, rows[1].1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_binary_hashes_rejects_non_u64_multiple() {
+        use arrow_array::UInt8Array;
+
+        let array =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![0u8; 24]), 12).unwrap();
+        let err = extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list(&array).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("multiple of 8 bytes"), "{}", err);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_binary_hash_values_rejects_width_not_divisible_by_8() {
+        let err = BinaryHashValues::try_new(Vec::new(), 0, 12).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("multiple of 8 bytes"), "{}", err);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_binary_hashes_128() {
+        let hashes = BinaryHashValues::try_new(
+            vec![
+                0,
+                0,
+                1,
+                u64::MAX, // lane 0
+                0,
+                1,
+                1,
+                u64::MAX, // lane 1
+            ],
+            4,
+            16,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let seq = pairwise_hamming_distance_binary(&hashes, None, Some(1));
+        let par = pairwise_hamming_distance_binary_parallel(&hashes, None, Some(1));
+        let expected = vec![(0, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1)];
+        assert_eq!(result_to_sorted_vec(&seq), expected);
+        assert_eq!(result_to_sorted_vec(&par), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_binary_hashes_parallel_128_matches_sequential() {
+        let rows: Vec<(u64, u64)> = (0..80)
+            .flat_map(|i| {
+                let lo = (i as u64).wrapping_mul(0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15);
+                let hi = !lo.rotate_left(17);
+                [(lo, hi), (lo ^ 1, hi)]
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let mut lane_values = Vec::with_capacity(rows.len() * 2);
+        lane_values.extend(rows.iter().map(|(lo, _)| *lo));
+        lane_values.extend(rows.iter().map(|(_, hi)| *hi));
+        let hashes = BinaryHashValues::try_new(lane_values, rows.len(), 16).unwrap();
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..rows.len()).map(|i| 10_000 + i as u64).collect();
+
+        let seq = pairwise_hamming_distance_binary(&hashes, Some(&row_ids), Some(1));
+        let par = pairwise_hamming_distance_binary_parallel(&hashes, Some(&row_ids), Some(1));
+
+        assert_eq!(result_to_sorted_vec(&par), result_to_sorted_vec(&seq));
+        assert!(par.len() >= 80);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_binary_hashes_32_with_row_ids() {
+        let hashes = BinaryHashValues::try_new(
+            vec![
+                0,
+                0,
+                1, // lane 0
+                0,
+                1,
+                1, // lane 1
+                7,
+                7,
+                7, // lane 2
+                u64::MAX,
+                u64::MAX,
+                u64::MAX - 1, // lane 3
+            ],
+            3,
+            32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let row_ids = [10, 20, 30];
+
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance_binary_parallel(&hashes, Some(&row_ids), Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(
+            result_to_sorted_vec(&result),
+            vec![(10, 20, 1), (20, 30, 2)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_correctness_small() {
+        // Deterministic hashes with known distances
+        let hashes = vec![
+            0b0000_0000u64, // 0
+            0b0000_0001u64, // 1 bit from 0
+            0b0000_0011u64, // 2 bits from 0, 1 bit from 1
+            0b0000_0111u64, // 3 bits from 0, 2 bits from 1, 1 bit from 2
+            0b0000_1111u64, // 4 bits from 0, 3 bits from 1, 2 bits from 2, 1 bit from 3
+        ];
+
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, None, None);
+        let reference = reference_pairwise(&hashes, None);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), reference.len());
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 10); // C(5,2) = 10 pairs
+
+        // Verify specific distances
+        let result_vec = result_to_sorted_vec(&result);
+        for (i, j, expected_dist) in &reference {
+            let found = result_vec
+                .iter()
+                .find(|(a, b, _)| *a == *i as u64 && *b == *j as u64);
+            assert!(found.is_some(), "Missing pair ({}, {})", i, j);
+            assert_eq!(
+                found.unwrap().2,
+                *expected_dist,
+                "Wrong distance for pair ({}, {})",
+                i,
+                j
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_correctness_1000_deterministic() {
+        // Generate deterministic hashes using simple linear pattern
+        let hashes: Vec<u64> = (0u64..1000)
+            .map(|i| i.wrapping_mul(0x123456789ABCDEF))
+            .collect();
+
+        let result_seq = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, None, Some(10));
+        let result_par = pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(&hashes, None, Some(10));
+        let reference = reference_pairwise(&hashes, Some(10));
+
+        // Both implementations should match reference
+        assert_eq!(
+            result_seq.len(),
+            reference.len(),
+            "Sequential result count mismatch"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result_par.len(),
+            reference.len(),
+            "Parallel result count mismatch"
+        );
+
+        // Verify all pairs match
+        let seq_sorted = result_to_sorted_vec(&result_seq);
+        let par_sorted = result_to_sorted_vec(&result_par);
+
+        for (i, j, dist) in &reference {
+            let seq_found = seq_sorted
+                .iter()
+                .find(|(a, b, _)| *a == *i as u64 && *b == *j as u64);
+            let par_found = par_sorted
+                .iter()
+                .find(|(a, b, _)| *a == *i as u64 && *b == *j as u64);
+
+            assert!(
+                seq_found.is_some(),
+                "Sequential missing pair ({}, {})",
+                i,
+                j
+            );
+            assert!(par_found.is_some(), "Parallel missing pair ({}, {})", i, j);
+            assert_eq!(seq_found.unwrap().2, *dist);
+            assert_eq!(par_found.unwrap().2, *dist);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_correctness_10000_deterministic() {
+        // Larger test with 10K hashes
+        let hashes: Vec<u64> = (0u64..10_000)
+            .map(|i| {
+                // Mix bits using a simple hash-like transformation
+                let x = i.wrapping_mul(0xDEADBEEFCAFEBABE);
+                x ^ (x >> 17) ^ (x << 13)
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let result_seq = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, None, Some(5));
+        let result_par = pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(&hashes, None, Some(5));
+
+        // Both should find the same number of pairs
+        assert_eq!(
+            result_seq.len(),
+            result_par.len(),
+            "10K test: sequential found {} pairs, parallel found {} pairs",
+            result_seq.len(),
+            result_par.len()
+        );
+
+        // Verify they contain the same pairs (sorted comparison)
+        let seq_sorted = result_to_sorted_vec(&result_seq);
+        let par_sorted = result_to_sorted_vec(&result_par);
+        assert_eq!(seq_sorted, par_sorted, "10K test: pair contents differ");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_total_pairs_count() {
+        // Without threshold, should return exactly n*(n-1)/2 pairs
+        for n in [10, 50, 100, 500] {
+            let hashes: Vec<u64> = (0..n).map(|i| i as u64).collect();
+            let result = pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(&hashes, None, None);
+            let expected = n * (n - 1) / 2;
+            assert_eq!(
+                result.len(),
+                expected,
+                "n={}: expected {} pairs, got {}",
+                n,
+                expected,
+                result.len()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_threshold_filtering() {
+        // All identical hashes should have distance 0
+        let hashes = vec![0xABCDEF0123456789u64; 100];
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(&hashes, None, Some(0));
+
+        // All pairs should be included (distance 0)
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 100 * 99 / 2);
+        assert!(result.distances.iter().all(|&d| d == 0));
+
+        // With threshold 0 and all different hashes, should find fewer pairs
+        let different_hashes: Vec<u64> = (0u64..100).collect();
+        let result2 = pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(&different_hashes, None, Some(0));
+        // Only pairs with identical values should match (none in this case except 0^0)
+        assert!(result2.len() < 100 * 99 / 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_row_ids_preserved() {
+        let hashes: Vec<u64> = (0u64..100).collect();
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (1000u64..1100).collect(); // offset row IDs
+
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(&hashes, Some(&row_ids), Some(5));
+
+        // All row IDs should be in range [1000, 1100)
+        for &id in &result.row_id_a {
+            assert!((1000..1100).contains(&id), "row_id_a {} out of range", id);
+        }
+        for &id in &result.row_id_b {
+            assert!((1000..1100).contains(&id), "row_id_b {} out of range", id);
+        }
+        // row_id_a should always be less than row_id_b (upper triangular)
+        for (&a, &b) in result.row_id_a.iter().zip(result.row_id_b.iter()) {
+            assert!(a < b, "Expected row_id_a < row_id_b, got {} >= {}", a, b);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_distance_bounds() {
+        // All distances should be in [0, 64] for u64 hashes
+        let hashes: Vec<u64> = (0u64..1000).map(|i| i.wrapping_mul(0x123456789)).collect();
+
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(&hashes, None, None);
+
+        for &d in &result.distances {
+            assert!(d <= 64, "Distance {} exceeds maximum 64", d);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pairwise_symmetry() {
+        // Hamming distance is symmetric: d(a,b) = d(b,a)
+        let hashes: Vec<u64> = vec![
+            0x0000000000000000,
+            0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF,
+            0xAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA,
+            0x5555555555555555,
+            0x123456789ABCDEF0,
+        ];
+
+        let result = pairwise_hamming_distance(&hashes, None, None);
+
+        // For each pair (i,j), verify distance matches manual calculation
+        for idx in 0..result.len() {
+            let i = result.row_id_a[idx] as usize;
+            let j = result.row_id_b[idx] as usize;
+            let dist = result.distances[idx];
+
+            let expected = (hashes[i] ^ hashes[j]).count_ones();
+            assert_eq!(dist, expected, "Distance mismatch for pair ({}, {})", i, j);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_balanced_chunks() {
+        // Verify chunks are reasonably balanced
+        let n = 10000;
+        let total_pairs = n * (n - 1) / 2;
+        let target_per_chunk = total_pairs / 16;
+
+        let chunks = compute_balanced_chunks(n, target_per_chunk);
+
+        // Should have roughly 16 chunks
+        assert!(
+            chunks.len() >= 14 && chunks.len() <= 18,
+            "Expected ~16 chunks, got {}",
+            chunks.len()
+        );
+
+        // Each chunk should have roughly equal work
+        for (start, end) in &chunks {
+            let mut chunk_pairs = 0usize;
+            for i in *start..*end {
+                chunk_pairs += n - i - 1;
+            }
+            // Allow 20% deviation from target
+            let lower = target_per_chunk * 80 / 100;
+            // last chunk may be smaller
+            assert!(
+                chunk_pairs >= lower || *end == n,
+                "Chunk [{}, {}) has {} pairs, expected ~{}",
+                start,
+                end,
+                chunk_pairs,
+                target_per_chunk
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Chunks should cover all rows without gaps
+        assert_eq!(chunks[0].0, 0);
+        assert_eq!(chunks.last().unwrap().1, n);
+        for i in 1..chunks.len() {
+            assert_eq!(chunks[i].0, chunks[i - 1].1, "Gap between chunks");
+        }
+    }
+
+    // =========================================================================
+    // SIMD-specific tests
+    // =========================================================================
+
+    // `hamming_batch_simd` returns early on the AVX-512 branch when
+    // `avx512vpopcntdq` and `avx512f` are both present, so on a host with both
+    // nothing reaches `hamming_batch_avx2` through `hamming_batch_u64`. This
+    // calls it directly. The AVX-512 kernel needs no such test: it only runs
+    // where the dispatched test already drives it.
+
+    /// `hamming_batch_avx2` consumes 4 targets per chunk, so `n % 4` covers its
+    /// remainder loop.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[case::one(1)]
+    #[case::two(2)]
+    #[case::three(3)]
+    #[case::four(4)]
+    // Five, six and seven repeat remainders 1 through 3 with a chunk ahead of
+    // them, which one, two and three alone do not reach.
+    #[case::five(5)]
+    #[case::six(6)]
+    #[case::seven(7)]
+    fn test_avx2_covers_tail(#[case] n: usize) {
+        if !is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return;
+        }
+        check_kernel_tail(n, |query, targets, results| {
+            // SAFETY: AVX2 was just detected, and `check_kernel_tail` passes a
+            // `results` of exactly `targets.len()`.
+            unsafe { hamming_batch_avx2(query, targets, results) }
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    fn test_avx2_popcount() {
+        if !is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let query = 0u64;
+        let targets = vec![0u64, 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, 127];
+        let mut results = vec![0u32; 8];
+
+        unsafe {
+            hamming_batch_avx2(query, &targets, &mut results);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(results[0], 0); // 0 ^ 0 = 0 bits
+        assert_eq!(results[1], 1); // 0 ^ 1 = 1 bit
+        assert_eq!(results[2], 2); // 0 ^ 3 = 2 bits
+        assert_eq!(results[3], 3); // 0 ^ 7 = 3 bits
+        assert_eq!(results[4], 4); // 0 ^ 15 = 4 bits
+        assert_eq!(results[5], 5); // 0 ^ 31 = 5 bits
+        assert_eq!(results[6], 6); // 0 ^ 63 = 6 bits
+        assert_eq!(results[7], 7); // 0 ^ 127 = 7 bits
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    fn test_avx2_max_distance() {
+        if !is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let query = 0u64;
+        let targets = vec![u64::MAX; 4];
+        let mut results = vec![0u32; 4];
+
+        unsafe {
+            hamming_batch_avx2(query, &targets, &mut results);
+        }
+
+        for &r in &results {
+            assert_eq!(r, 64);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    fn test_avx512_popcount() {
+        if !is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vpopcntdq") || !is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let query = 0u64;
+        let targets = vec![0u64, 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, 127];
+        let mut results = vec![0u32; 8];
+
+        unsafe {
+            hamming_batch_avx512(query, &targets, &mut results);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(results[0], 0);
+        assert_eq!(results[1], 1);
+        assert_eq!(results[2], 2);
+        assert_eq!(results[3], 3);
+        assert_eq!(results[4], 4);
+        assert_eq!(results[5], 5);
+        assert_eq!(results[6], 6);
+        assert_eq!(results[7], 7);
+    }
+
+    // =========================================================================
+    // Additional clustering tests
+    // =========================================================================
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_find_path_compression() {
+        let mut uf = UnionFind::new();
+
+        // Create a chain: 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5
+        uf.union(4, 5);
+        uf.union(3, 4);
+        uf.union(2, 3);
+        uf.union(1, 2);
+
+        // All should have the same root
+        let root = uf.find(1);
+        assert_eq!(uf.find(2), root);
+        assert_eq!(uf.find(3), root);
+        assert_eq!(uf.find(4), root);
+        assert_eq!(uf.find(5), root);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_edges_single_cluster() {
+        // All connected: 1-2-3-4-5
+        let edges = vec![(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)];
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 1);
+        let cluster = &result.clusters[0];
+        assert_eq!(cluster.representative, 1);
+        assert_eq!(cluster.duplicates.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(cluster.size(), 5);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_edges_no_duplicates() {
+        // No edges means no clusters
+        let edges: Vec<(u64, u64)> = vec![];
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(result.num_duplicates(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_edges_self_loop() {
+        // Self-loop shouldn't create a cluster (size 1)
+        let edges = vec![(1, 1), (2, 3)];
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        // Only {2,3} should be a cluster
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.clusters[0].representative, 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_edges_duplicate_edges() {
+        // Duplicate edges should be handled correctly
+        let edges = vec![(1, 2), (1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 3), (3, 1)];
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.clusters[0].size(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_edges_large() {
+        // Create 100 clusters of size 10 each
+        let mut edges = Vec::new();
+        for cluster_id in 0..100u64 {
+            let base = cluster_id * 10;
+            for i in 0..9 {
+                edges.push((base + i, base + i + 1));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 100);
+        for cluster in &result.clusters {
+            assert_eq!(cluster.size(), 10);
+            assert_eq!(cluster.duplicates.len(), 9);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_edges_random_order() {
+        // Same edges in different order should produce same result
+        let edges1 = vec![(1, 2), (2, 3), (4, 5), (3, 4)];
+        let edges2 = vec![(4, 5), (1, 2), (3, 4), (2, 3)];
+        let edges3 = vec![(3, 4), (4, 5), (2, 3), (1, 2)];
+
+        let r1 = cluster_edges(edges1);
+        let r2 = cluster_edges(edges2);
+        let r3 = cluster_edges(edges3);
+
+        // All should produce the same single cluster
+        assert_eq!(r1.num_clusters(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(r2.num_clusters(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(r3.num_clusters(), 1);
+
+        assert_eq!(r1.clusters[0].representative, 1);
+        assert_eq!(r2.clusters[0].representative, 1);
+        assert_eq!(r3.clusters[0].representative, 1);
+
+        assert_eq!(r1.clusters[0].size(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(r2.clusters[0].size(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(r3.clusters[0].size(), 5);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_edges_non_contiguous_ids() {
+        // Row IDs don't need to be contiguous
+        let edges = vec![(100, 200), (200, 500), (1000, 2000)];
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 2);
+
+        let c1 = result
+            .clusters
+            .iter()
+            .find(|c| c.representative == 100)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(c1.duplicates, vec![200, 500]);
+
+        let c2 = result
+            .clusters
+            .iter()
+            .find(|c| c.representative == 1000)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(c2.duplicates, vec![2000]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_representative_is_minimum() {
+        // Representative should always be the minimum row ID in cluster
+        let edges = vec![
+            (5, 3),
+            (3, 7),
+            (7, 1), // 1 is minimum
+            (100, 50),
+            (50, 75), // 50 is minimum
+        ];
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 2);
+
+        let c1 = result
+            .clusters
+            .iter()
+            .find(|c| c.duplicates.contains(&7))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(c1.representative, 1);
+
+        let c2 = result
+            .clusters
+            .iter()
+            .find(|c| c.duplicates.contains(&100))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(c2.representative, 50);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cluster_duplicates_sorted() {
+        // Duplicates should be sorted
+        let edges = vec![(1, 5), (1, 3), (1, 7), (1, 2)];
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.clusters[0].representative, 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.clusters[0].duplicates, vec![2, 3, 5, 7]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_clustering_result_stats() {
+        let edges = vec![
+            (1, 2),
+            (2, 3), // cluster of 3
+            (10, 20),
+            (20, 30),
+            (30, 40), // cluster of 4
+        ];
+        let result = cluster_edges(edges);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_clusters(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(result.num_duplicates(), 5); // 2 + 3
+        assert_eq!(result.num_unique(), 2);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/l2.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/l2.rs
index f74b9b4536e..cd499cde10f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/l2.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/l2.rs
@@ -4,33 +4,72 @@
 //! L2 (Euclidean) distance.
 //!
 
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+use std::arch::x86_64::{_mm256_loadu_ps, _mm256_mul_ps, _mm256_sub_ps};
 use std::iter::Sum;
 use std::ops::AddAssign;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, Int8Type},
-    Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array,
 };
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use half::{bf16, f16};
 use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FixedSizeListArrayExt, FloatArray};
-use lance_core::assume_eq;
-#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
-use lance_core::utils::cpu::SimdSupport;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::utils::cpu::SIMD_SUPPORT;
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+use lance_core::utils::cpu::SimdSupport;
 use num_traits::{AsPrimitive, Num};
 
+#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
+use crate::distance::HalfBackend;
+use crate::distance::{
+    HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED, HalfType, U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN, assert_batch_layout,
+    assert_equal_lengths, half_backend, int8_query_to_f32, x86_half_features,
+};
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+use crate::distance::{BatchIter, BatchKernel, BatchKind, BatchOperation};
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+use crate::simd::x86::hsum256_ps;
+
 /// Calculate the L2 distance between two vectors.
 ///
 pub trait L2: Num {
     /// Calculate the L2 distance between two vectors.
     fn l2(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32;
 
-    fn l2_batch(x: &[Self], y: &[Self], dimension: usize) -> impl Iterator<Item = f32> {
-        y.chunks_exact(dimension).map(|v| Self::l2(x, v))
+    /// L2 distance from `x` to each `dimension`-sized vector in `y`.
+    ///
+    /// The default calls [`L2::l2`] per vector. `f32` overrides it so the SIMD
+    /// tier is chosen once for the whole batch instead of once per vector —
+    /// on a build whose baseline already implies AVX2, per-vector dispatch
+    /// costs more than the kernel it selects.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `impl Iterator` rather than a trait object: the k-means
+    /// assignment loop drives this one element at a time, so a
+    /// `Box<dyn Iterator>` would cost a virtual call per element and an
+    /// allocation per batch.
+    fn l2_batch<'a>(
+        x: &'a [Self],
+        y: &'a [Self],
+        dimension: usize,
+    ) -> impl Iterator<Item = f32> + 'a {
+        assert_batch_layout(x.len(), y.len(), dimension);
+        y.chunks_exact(dimension).map(move |v| Self::l2(x, v))
     }
 }
 
@@ -39,13 +78,41 @@ pub fn l2<T: L2>(from: &[T], to: &[T]) -> f32 {
     T::l2(from, to)
 }
 
+/// L2 distance between two f32 slices, dispatched to the widest SIMD backend
+/// available at runtime.
+///
+/// On x86_64 with AVX-512 this uses 16-wide f32 lanes; otherwise it falls back
+/// to [`l2`], whose x86_64 implementation selects the best runtime-supported
+/// kernel. This entry point gives hot-path callers such as the in-memory HNSW
+/// index an explicit f32 API.
+#[inline]
+pub fn l2_f32(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    f32::l2(x, y)
+}
+
 /// Calculate L2 distance between two uint8 slices.
 #[inline]
 pub fn l2_distance_uint_scalar(key: &[u8], target: &[u8]) -> f32 {
-    key.iter()
-        .zip(target.iter())
-        .map(|(&x, &y)| (x.abs_diff(y) as u32).pow(2))
-        .sum::<u32>() as f32
+    assert_equal_lengths(key.len(), target.len());
+    // Keep the common path on a u32 accumulator so LLVM can auto-vectorize it
+    // efficiently. Longer inputs are widened between overflow-safe chunks.
+    if key.len() <= U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN {
+        return key
+            .iter()
+            .zip(target.iter())
+            .map(|(&x, &y)| (x.abs_diff(y) as u32).pow(2))
+            .sum::<u32>() as f32;
+    }
+
+    key.chunks(U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN)
+        .zip(target.chunks(U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN))
+        .map(|(key, target)| {
+            key.iter()
+                .zip(target.iter())
+                .map(|(&x, &y)| (x.abs_diff(y) as u32).pow(2))
+                .sum::<u32>() as u64
+        })
+        .sum::<u64>() as f32
 }
 
 /// Calculate the L2 distance between two vectors, using scalar operations.
@@ -62,14 +129,14 @@ pub fn l2_scalar<
     from: &[T],
     to: &[T],
 ) -> Output {
-    let x_chunks = from.chunks_exact(LANES);
-    let y_chunks = to.chunks_exact(LANES);
+    assert_equal_lengths(from.len(), to.len());
+    let (x_chunks, x_remainder) = from.as_chunks::<LANES>();
+    let (y_chunks, y_remainder) = to.as_chunks::<LANES>();
 
-    let s = if !x_chunks.remainder().is_empty() {
-        x_chunks
-            .remainder()
+    let s = if !x_remainder.is_empty() {
+        x_remainder
             .iter()
-            .zip(y_chunks.remainder())
+            .zip(y_remainder)
             .map(|(&x, &y)| {
                 let diff = x.as_() - y.as_();
                 diff * diff
@@ -80,7 +147,7 @@ pub fn l2_scalar<
     };
 
     let mut sums = [Output::zero(); LANES];
-    for (x, y) in x_chunks.zip(y_chunks) {
+    for (x, y) in x_chunks.iter().zip(y_chunks) {
         for i in 0..LANES {
             let diff = x[i].as_() - y[i].as_();
             sums[i] += diff * diff;
@@ -93,15 +160,71 @@ pub fn l2_scalar<
 impl L2 for u8 {
     #[inline]
     fn l2(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        l2_distance_uint_scalar(x, y)
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        super::l2_u8::l2_u8_u64(x, y) as f32
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
+mod bf16_kernel {
+    use half::bf16;
+
+    // These are the `l2_bf16` function in bf16.c. Our build.rs script compiles
+    // a version of this file for each SIMD level with different suffixes.
+    unsafe extern "C" {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        pub fn l2_bf16_neon(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_bf16", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        pub fn l2_bf16_avx512(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        pub fn l2_bf16_avx2(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        pub fn l2_bf16_lsx(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        pub fn l2_bf16_lasx(ptr1: *const bf16, ptr2: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
     }
 }
 
 impl L2 for bf16 {
     #[inline]
     fn l2(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        // TODO: add SIMD support
-        l2_scalar::<Self, f32, 16>(x, y)
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        match half_backend(
+            *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+            HalfType::Bf16,
+            HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED,
+            cfg!(all(kernel_support = "avx512_bf16", target_arch = "x86_64")),
+            x86_half_features(),
+        ) {
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Neon => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::l2_bf16_neon(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(
+                feature = "fp16kernels",
+                kernel_support = "avx512_bf16",
+                target_arch = "x86_64"
+            ))]
+            HalfBackend::Avx512 => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::l2_bf16_avx512(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Avx2 => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::l2_bf16_avx2(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Lasx => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::l2_bf16_lasx(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Lsx => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::l2_bf16_lsx(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
+            },
+            // SimdSupport::AvxFma and SimdSupport::Avx fall through here:
+            // the bf16 C kernels are compiled with `-march=haswell` minimum
+            // (AVX2), so they cannot run on AVX-only or AVX+FMA hosts.
+            _ => l2_scalar::<Self, f32, 16>(x, y),
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -111,10 +234,10 @@ mod kernel {
 
     // These are the `l2_f16` function in f16.c. Our build.rs script compiles
     // a version of this file for each SIMD level with different suffixes.
-    extern "C" {
+    unsafe extern "C" {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         pub fn l2_f16_neon(ptr1: *const f16, ptr2: *const f16, len: u32) -> f32;
-        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_f16", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
         pub fn l2_f16_avx512(ptr1: *const f16, ptr2: *const f16, len: u32) -> f32;
         #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         pub fn l2_f16_avx2(ptr1: *const f16, ptr2: *const f16, len: u32) -> f32;
@@ -128,31 +251,41 @@ mod kernel {
 impl L2 for f16 {
     #[inline]
     fn l2(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        match half_backend(
+            *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+            HalfType::F16,
+            HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED,
+            cfg!(all(kernel_support = "avx512_f16", target_arch = "x86_64")),
+            x86_half_features(),
+        ) {
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Neon => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Neon => unsafe {
                 kernel::l2_f16_neon(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(
                 feature = "fp16kernels",
-                kernel_support = "avx512",
+                kernel_support = "avx512_f16",
                 target_arch = "x86_64"
             ))]
-            SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Avx512 => unsafe {
                 kernel::l2_f16_avx512(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Avx2 => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Avx2 => unsafe {
                 kernel::l2_f16_avx2(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Lasx => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Lasx => unsafe {
                 kernel::l2_f16_lasx(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Lsx => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Lsx => unsafe {
                 kernel::l2_f16_lsx(x.as_ptr(), y.as_ptr(), x.len() as u32)
             },
+            // SimdSupport::AvxFma and SimdSupport::Avx retain their scalar
+            // route; this fallback only extends the tiers the C kernel already
+            // served to Avx512FP16 after checking F16C and FMA.
             _ => l2_scalar::<Self, f32, 16>(x, y),
         }
     }
@@ -161,16 +294,645 @@ impl L2 for f16 {
 impl L2 for f32 {
     #[inline]
     fn l2(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        // 16 = 512 (avx512) / 8 bits / 4 (sizeof(f32))
-        // See https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/2450.
-        l2_scalar::<Self, Self, 16>(x, y)
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        // Trait methods cannot carry `#[target_feature]` attributes, so the body
+        // lives in a free function that runtime-dispatches via `*SIMD_SUPPORT`
+        // to an AVX2 or AVX-512 inner kernel on capable hosts, or a portable
+        // scalar fallback.
+        l2_f32_dispatched(x, y)
+    }
+
+    fn l2_batch<'a>(
+        x: &'a [Self],
+        y: &'a [Self],
+        dimension: usize,
+    ) -> impl Iterator<Item = Self> + 'a {
+        assert_batch_layout(x.len(), y.len(), dimension);
+        // Exactly one arm compiles; see `Dot::dot_batch` for f32.
+        #[cfg(all(
+            target_arch = "x86_64",
+            target_feature = "avx2",
+            target_feature = "fma"
+        ))]
+        {
+            // `l2_scalar::<_, _, 16>` chunks the vector by 16 lanes. At or below
+            // that width the chunking degenerates to its scalar remainder loop
+            // and vectorizes nothing, so the explicit AVX kernel is worth ~40%.
+            // Above it the autovectorizer already does well and the 8-wide
+            // kernel can lose, so keep the exact kernel the pre-dispatch code
+            // used and stay non-regressing by construction.
+            //
+            // SAFETY: the build baseline enables avx2+fma, which imply avx+fma,
+            // so the kernel's `#[target_feature]` contract is met statically.
+            let narrow = dimension <= 16;
+            y.chunks_exact(dimension).map(move |v| {
+                if narrow {
+                    unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx_fma(x, v) }
+                } else {
+                    l2_f32_scalar(x, v)
+                }
+            })
+        }
+        #[cfg(all(
+            target_arch = "x86_64",
+            not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+        ))]
+        {
+            l2_batch_f32_runtime_dispatch(x, y, dimension)
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        {
+            // `assert_batch_layout` proves every chunk has the same length as
+            // `x`, so call the private kernel directly instead of repeating
+            // the public `L2::l2` validation for every vector.
+            y.chunks_exact(dimension)
+                .map(move |v| l2_f32_dispatched(x, v))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sub-AVX2 builds: pick a `#[target_feature]` kernel once for the batch.
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+#[inline]
+fn l2_batch_f32_runtime_dispatch<'a>(
+    x: &'a [f32],
+    y: &'a [f32],
+    dimension: usize,
+) -> impl Iterator<Item = f32> + 'a {
+    let (kernel, kind): (BatchKernel, BatchKind) = match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+        // AVX-512 has no useful work for an eight-element vector. Retain the
+        // AVX/FMA kernel used by the former Haswell baseline for PQ dimensions.
+        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 if dimension > 16 => {
+            (x86::l2_batch_f32_avx512, BatchKind::Avx512)
+        }
+        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 if std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") => {
+            (x86::l2_batch_f32_avx_fma, BatchKind::AvxFma)
+        }
+        SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => (x86::l2_batch_f32_avx_fma, BatchKind::AvxFma),
+        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 | SimdSupport::Avx => {
+            (x86::l2_batch_f32_avx, BatchKind::Avx)
+        }
+        _ => (l2_batch_f32_scalar, BatchKind::Scalar),
+    };
+
+    // SAFETY: the runtime tier and the explicit FMA check above establish the
+    // selected kernel's target-feature contract.
+    unsafe { BatchIter::<L2Batch>::new(x, y, dimension, kernel, kind) }
+}
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+struct L2Batch;
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+impl BatchOperation for L2Batch {
+    #[inline]
+    fn fold_scalar<B, F>(key: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, init: B, mut f: F) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B,
+    {
+        batch
+            .chunks_exact(dimension)
+            .fold(init, |acc, vector| f(acc, l2_f32_scalar(key, vector)))
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    unsafe fn fold_avx<B, F>(key: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, init: B, mut f: F) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B,
+    {
+        if dimension == 8 {
+            let key_values = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(key.as_ptr()) };
+            return batch.as_chunks::<8>().0.iter().fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+                let vector_values = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(vector.as_ptr()) };
+                let difference = _mm256_sub_ps(key_values, vector_values);
+                let squared = _mm256_mul_ps(difference, difference);
+                f(acc, unsafe { hsum256_ps(squared) })
+            });
+        }
+        batch.chunks_exact(dimension).fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+            f(acc, unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx(key, vector) })
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    unsafe fn fold_avx_fma<B, F>(
+        key: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        init: B,
+        mut f: F,
+    ) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B,
+    {
+        if dimension == 8 {
+            let key_values = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(key.as_ptr()) };
+            return batch.as_chunks::<8>().0.iter().fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+                let vector_values = unsafe { _mm256_loadu_ps(vector.as_ptr()) };
+                let difference = _mm256_sub_ps(key_values, vector_values);
+                let squared = _mm256_mul_ps(difference, difference);
+                f(acc, unsafe { hsum256_ps(squared) })
+            });
+        }
+        batch.chunks_exact(dimension).fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+            f(acc, unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx_fma(key, vector) })
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    unsafe fn fold_avx512<B, F>(
+        key: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        init: B,
+        mut f: F,
+    ) -> B
+    where
+        F: FnMut(B, f32) -> B,
+    {
+        batch.chunks_exact(dimension).fold(init, |acc, vector| {
+            f(acc, unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx512(key, vector) })
+        })
     }
 }
 
+#[cfg(all(
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+))]
+unsafe fn l2_batch_f32_scalar(x: &[f32], batch: &[f32], dimension: usize, output: &mut [f32]) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+    for (distance, y) in output.iter_mut().zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension)) {
+        *distance = l2_f32_scalar(x, y);
+    }
+}
+
+/// L2 distance for f32, runtime-dispatched via `SIMD_SUPPORT` on x86_64
+/// (AVX-512 / AVX2+FMA / AVX+FMA / AVX / scalar). Non-x86 uses the
+/// auto-vectorised scalar loop.
+#[inline]
+fn l2_f32_dispatched(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+            SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx512(x, y) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx_fma(x, y) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx(x, y) },
+            _ => l2_f32_scalar(x, y),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        l2_f32_scalar(x, y)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Portable scalar L2 distance for f32. Used as the x86_64 fallback when no
+/// AVX2 is detected, and as the only path on non-x86 architectures. The
+/// `LANES = 16` chunking matches the explicit-SIMD inner kernels above.
+#[inline]
+fn l2_f32_scalar(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    // 16 = 512 (avx512) / 8 bits / 4 (sizeof(f32))
+    // See https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/2450.
+    l2_scalar::<f32, f32, 16>(x, y)
+}
+
 impl L2 for f64 {
     #[inline]
     fn l2(x: &[Self], y: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        l2_scalar::<Self, Self, 8>(x, y) as f32
+        assert_equal_lengths(x.len(), y.len());
+        l2_f64_simd(x, y)
+    }
+}
+
+/// L2 distance for f64, runtime-dispatched via `SIMD_SUPPORT` on x86_64
+/// (AVX-512 / AVX2+FMA / AVX+FMA / AVX / scalar). Non-x86 uses the SIMD
+/// primitives in `crate::simd::f64`, unconditionally backed by NEON / LSX-LASX.
+#[inline]
+fn l2_f64_simd(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+            SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe { x86::l2_f64_avx512(x, y) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe { x86::l2_f64_avx_fma(x, y) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { x86::l2_f64_avx(x, y) },
+            _ => l2_f64_scalar(x, y),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        l2_f64_simd_other(x, y)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Portable scalar L2 distance for f64. Used as the x86_64 fallback when no
+/// AVX2 is detected, and exposed for cross-backend parity testing.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[inline]
+fn l2_f64_scalar(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    x.iter()
+        .zip(y.iter())
+        .map(|(&a, &b)| {
+            let diff = a - b;
+            diff * diff
+        })
+        .sum::<f64>() as f32
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    use crate::simd::f64::{f64x4, f64x8};
+    use crate::simd::x86::hsum256_ps;
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    /// L2 distance from `x` to every `dimension`-sized vector in `batch`, with
+    /// the AVX-512 tier entered once for the whole batch rather than once per
+    /// vector.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The host must support AVX-512F.
+    ///
+    /// Only compiled for builds whose baseline is below avx2+fma; at or above
+    /// that baseline `l2_batch` inlines the kernel directly and never runtime-
+    /// dispatches, so this wrapper would be dead code (see `l2_batch`).
+    #[cfg(not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma")))]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn l2_batch_f32_avx512(
+        x: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+        for (distance, y) in output.iter_mut().zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension)) {
+            *distance = unsafe { l2_f32_avx512(x, y) };
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// As [`l2_batch_f32_avx512`], for the AVX+FMA and AVX2 tiers.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The host must support AVX and FMA.
+    #[cfg(not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma")))]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn l2_batch_f32_avx_fma(
+        x: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+        for (distance, y) in output.iter_mut().zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension)) {
+            *distance = unsafe { l2_f32_avx_fma(x, y) };
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// As [`l2_batch_f32_avx512`], for the AVX-without-FMA tier.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The host must support AVX.
+    #[cfg(not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma")))]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub(super) unsafe fn l2_batch_f32_avx(
+        x: &[f32],
+        batch: &[f32],
+        dimension: usize,
+        output: &mut [f32],
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(output.len(), batch.len() / dimension);
+        for (distance, y) in output.iter_mut().zip(batch.chunks_exact(dimension)) {
+            *distance = unsafe { l2_f32_avx(x, y) };
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 path for f64: 8-wide `__m512d` with `vsubpd` + `vfmadd231pd` per iteration.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub unsafe fn l2_f64_avx512(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm512_setzero_pd();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let a = _mm512_loadu_pd(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm512_loadu_pd(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let diff = _mm512_sub_pd(a, b);
+            acc = _mm512_fmadd_pd(diff, diff, acc);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f64 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| {
+                let diff = a - b;
+                diff * diff
+            })
+            .sum();
+
+        (_mm512_reduce_add_pd(acc) + tail) as f32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX + FMA path for f64. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub unsafe fn l2_f64_avx_fma(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc8 = f64x8::zeros();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let a = f64x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = f64x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let diff = a - b;
+            acc8.multiply_add(diff, diff);
+        }
+
+        let aligned_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+        let mut acc4 = f64x4::zeros();
+        for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(4) {
+            let a = f64x4::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = f64x4::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let diff = a - b;
+            acc4.multiply_add(diff, diff);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f64 = x[aligned_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[aligned_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| {
+                let diff = a - b;
+                diff * diff
+            })
+            .sum();
+
+        (acc8.reduce_sum() + acc4.reduce_sum() + tail) as f32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-only path for f64 (no FMA): squared diff via `_mm256_mul_pd` + `_mm256_add_pd` for Sandy/Ivy Bridge.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub unsafe fn l2_f64_avx(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_pd();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(4) {
+            let a = _mm256_loadu_pd(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm256_loadu_pd(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let diff = _mm256_sub_pd(a, b);
+            acc = _mm256_add_pd(acc, _mm256_mul_pd(diff, diff));
+        }
+
+        // Horizontal sum of __m256d -> f64.
+        let lo = _mm256_castpd256_pd128(acc);
+        let hi = _mm256_extractf128_pd(acc, 1);
+        let sum128 = _mm_add_pd(lo, hi);
+        let sum64 = _mm_add_pd(sum128, _mm_unpackhi_pd(sum128, sum128));
+        let acc_sum = _mm_cvtsd_f64(sum64);
+
+        let tail: f64 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| {
+                let diff = a - b;
+                diff * diff
+            })
+            .sum();
+
+        (acc_sum + tail) as f32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 path for f32: 16-wide `__m512` with `vsubps` + `vfmadd231ps` per iteration.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub unsafe fn l2_f32_avx512(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm512_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
+            let a = _mm512_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm512_loadu_ps(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let diff = _mm512_sub_ps(a, b);
+            acc = _mm512_fmadd_ps(diff, diff, acc);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f32 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| {
+                let diff = a - b;
+                diff * diff
+            })
+            .sum();
+
+        _mm512_reduce_add_ps(acc) + tail
+    }
+
+    /// AVX + FMA path for f32. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub unsafe fn l2_f32_avx_fma(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let a = _mm256_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm256_loadu_ps(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let diff = _mm256_sub_ps(a, b);
+            acc = _mm256_fmadd_ps(diff, diff, acc);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f32 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| {
+                let diff = a - b;
+                diff * diff
+            })
+            .sum();
+
+        hsum256_ps(acc) + tail
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-only path for f32 (no FMA): squared diff via `_mm256_mul_ps` + `_mm256_add_ps` for Sandy/Ivy Bridge.
+    #[inline]
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub unsafe fn l2_f32_avx(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = x.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let a = _mm256_loadu_ps(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = _mm256_loadu_ps(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let diff = _mm256_sub_ps(a, b);
+            acc = _mm256_add_ps(acc, _mm256_mul_ps(diff, diff));
+        }
+
+        let tail: f32 = x[unrolled_len..]
+            .iter()
+            .zip(y[unrolled_len..].iter())
+            .map(|(&a, &b)| {
+                let diff = a - b;
+                diff * diff
+            })
+            .sum();
+
+        hsum256_ps(acc) + tail
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+#[inline]
+fn l2_f64_simd_other(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    use crate::simd::f64::{f64x4, f64x8};
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    let dim = x.len();
+    let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+    let mut acc8 = f64x8::zeros();
+    for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+        unsafe {
+            let a = f64x8::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = f64x8::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let diff = a - b;
+            acc8.multiply_add(diff, diff);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let aligned_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+    let mut acc4 = f64x4::zeros();
+    for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(4) {
+        unsafe {
+            let a = f64x4::load_unaligned(x.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let b = f64x4::load_unaligned(y.as_ptr().add(i));
+            let diff = a - b;
+            acc4.multiply_add(diff, diff);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let tail: f64 = x[aligned_len..]
+        .iter()
+        .zip(y[aligned_len..].iter())
+        .map(|(&a, &b)| {
+            let diff = a - b;
+            diff * diff
+        })
+        .sum();
+
+    (acc8.reduce_sum() + acc4.reduce_sum() + tail) as f32
+}
+
+/// Accumulate squared differences for one dimension into per-target results.
+///
+/// Separated into its own function so that LLVM sees `row` and `result`
+/// as non-aliasing via the function signature (`&[f32]` vs `&mut [f32]`),
+/// enabling packed SIMD vectorization (vbroadcastss + vsubps + vfmadd231ps).
+#[inline(never)]
+fn accumulate_l2_dimension(q: f32, row: &[f32], result: &mut [f32]) {
+    for (dist, &target) in result.iter_mut().zip(row.iter()) {
+        let diff = q - target;
+        *dist += diff * diff;
+    }
+}
+
+/// Pre-transposed target vectors for batched L2 distance computation.
+///
+/// Stores targets in SoA layout `[dimension][num_targets]` so the inner
+/// distance loop iterates over targets contiguously. The AoS-to-SoA
+/// transpose is done once at construction; callers should reuse the
+/// struct across many queries to amortize that cost.
+///
+/// **Cache constraint**: this is designed for cases where
+/// `num_targets × dimension × 4` fits in L1 cache (~32 KB), such as PQ
+/// sub-vector codebooks (e.g. 256 centroids × 16 dims = 16 KB).
+/// For large target sets the SoA layout causes L1 thrashing and
+/// [`l2_distance_batch`] with its AoS per-target locality is faster.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct L2Prepared {
+    transposed: Vec<f32>,
+    dimension: usize,
+    num_targets: usize,
+}
+
+impl L2Prepared {
+    /// Transpose `targets` from AoS `[num_targets][dimension]` to SoA layout.
+    pub fn new(targets: &[f32], dimension: usize) -> Self {
+        let num_targets = targets.len() / dimension;
+        debug_assert_eq!(targets.len(), num_targets * dimension);
+
+        let mut transposed = vec![0.0f32; targets.len()];
+        for t in 0..num_targets {
+            for d in 0..dimension {
+                transposed[d * num_targets + t] = targets[t * dimension + d];
+            }
+        }
+
+        Self {
+            transposed,
+            dimension,
+            num_targets,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Compute L2 distances from `query` to every target, writing into `out`.
+    ///
+    /// `out` must have length `num_targets`. It will be zeroed before accumulation.
+    pub fn distances_into(&self, query: &[f32], out: &mut [f32]) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(query.len(), self.dimension);
+        debug_assert_eq!(out.len(), self.num_targets);
+
+        out.fill(0.0);
+        for (d, &q) in query.iter().enumerate() {
+            let row = &self.transposed[d * self.num_targets..][..self.num_targets];
+            accumulate_l2_dimension(q, row, out);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Compute L2 distances from `query` to every target.
+    pub fn distances(&self, query: &[f32]) -> Vec<f32> {
+        let mut result = vec![0.0f32; self.num_targets];
+        self.distances_into(query, &mut result);
+        result
+    }
+
+    /// Return the index of the nearest target to `query`, using `buf` as scratch space.
+    ///
+    /// `buf` must have length `num_targets`.
+    pub fn nearest_into(&self, query: &[f32], buf: &mut [f32]) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.distances_into(query, buf);
+        crate::kernels::argmin_value_float(buf.iter().copied()).map(|(idx, _)| idx)
+    }
+
+    /// Return the index of the nearest target to `query`.
+    pub fn nearest(&self, query: &[f32]) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.nearest_into(query, &mut vec![0.0f32; self.num_targets])
+    }
+
+    /// Number of targets in this set.
+    pub fn num_targets(&self) -> usize {
+        self.num_targets
+    }
+
+    /// Dimension of each target vector.
+    pub fn dimension(&self) -> usize {
+        self.dimension
+    }
+
+    /// Size of the internal buffer in bytes.
+    pub fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.transposed.len() * std::mem::size_of::<f32>()
     }
 }
 
@@ -196,9 +958,6 @@ pub fn l2_distance_batch<'a, T: L2>(
     to: &'a [T],
     dimension: usize,
 ) -> impl Iterator<Item = f32> + 'a {
-    assume_eq!(from.len(), dimension);
-    assume_eq!(to.len() % dimension, 0);
-
     T::l2_batch(from, to, dimension)
 }
 
@@ -239,6 +998,12 @@ where
 /// - `from`: the vector to compute distance from.
 /// - `to`: a list of vectors to compute distance to.
 ///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns an error if `from` is an `Int8` array containing nulls, since a null
+/// query element has no distance to compute. The unsupported-type and downcast
+/// paths return errors of their own; this list is not exhaustive.
+///
 /// # Panics
 ///
 /// Panics if the length of `from` is not equal to the dimension (value length) of `to`.
@@ -251,14 +1016,10 @@ pub fn l2_distance_arrow_batch(
         DataType::Float32 => do_l2_distance_arrow_batch::<Float32Type>(from.as_primitive(), to),
         DataType::Float64 => do_l2_distance_arrow_batch::<Float64Type>(from.as_primitive(), to),
         DataType::Int8 => do_l2_distance_arrow_batch::<Float32Type>(
-            &from
-                .as_primitive::<Int8Type>()
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|x| x.unwrap() as f32)
-                .collect(),
+            &int8_query_to_f32(from.as_primitive::<Int8Type>())?,
             &to.convert_to_floating_point()?,
         ),
-        _ => Err(Error::ComputeError(format!(
+        _ => Err(Error::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
             "Unsupported data type: {}",
             from.data_type()
         ))),
@@ -273,10 +1034,37 @@ mod tests {
     use num_traits::ToPrimitive;
     use proptest::prelude::*;
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_l2_rejects_mismatched_lengths() {
+        let short = [1.0_f32];
+        let long = [1.0_f32, 2.0];
+
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2(&short, &long)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2_f32(&short, &long)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| f32::l2(&short, &long)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2_distance(&short, &long)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2_distance_batch(&short, &long, 2)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2_distance_batch(&long, &[1.0_f32; 3], 2)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2_distance_batch::<f32>(&[], &[], 0)).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2_distance_uint_scalar(&[1, 2], &[1])).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2_scalar::<u8, f32, 16>(&[1, 2], &[1])).is_err());
+    }
+
     use crate::test_utils::{
         arbitrary_bf16, arbitrary_f16, arbitrary_f32, arbitrary_f64, arbitrary_vector_pair,
+        dimension_shard, run_vector_pair_proptest,
     };
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_l2_f32_dispatch_matches_scalar() {
+        // Covers tail handling for lengths around the 16-lane AVX-512 stride.
+        for dim in [1usize, 7, 15, 16, 17, 31, 33, 64, 100, 1024] {
+            let x: Vec<f32> = (0..dim).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.5 - 3.0).collect();
+            let y: Vec<f32> = (0..dim).map(|i| (i as f32) * -0.25 + 1.5).collect();
+            assert_relative_eq!(l2_f32(&x, &y), l2(&x, &y), max_relative = 1e-5);
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_euclidean_distance() {
         let mat = FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Float32Type, _, _>(
@@ -402,6 +1190,40 @@ mod tests {
         do_l2_test(&x, &y).unwrap();
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_l2_distance_f32(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f32, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            do_l2_test(&x, &y)
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_l2_distance_f64(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f64, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            do_l2_test(&x, &y)
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_l2_f32_scalar_simd_parity(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_pair_proptest(arbitrary_f32, dimension_shard(shard), |x, y| {
+            let scalar = x
+                .iter()
+                .zip(y.iter())
+                .map(|(&a, &b)| ((a as f64) - (b as f64)).powi(2))
+                .sum::<f64>() as f32;
+            let simd = <f32 as L2>::l2(&x, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, max_relative = 1e-3));
+            Ok(())
+        });
+    }
+
     // Test L2 distance over different types.
     // * L2 is valid over the entire range of f16.
     // * L2 is valid over f32 and bf16 in the range of +-1e12.
@@ -417,14 +1239,115 @@ mod tests {
             do_l2_test(&x, &y)?;
         }
 
+        /// Cross-backend parity: scalar fallback must match the dispatched
+        /// SIMD path within numerical tolerance. Exercises `l2_f64_scalar`
+        /// directly so the runtime fallback is exercised even on AVX2-capable
+        /// CI hosts.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         #[test]
-        fn test_l2_distance_f32((x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)){
-            do_l2_test(&x, &y)?;
+        fn test_l2_f64_scalar_simd_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            let scalar = l2_f64_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let simd = l2_f64_simd(&x, &y);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, max_relative = 1e-6));
         }
 
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity: explicitly compares the scalar fallback
+        /// against the native AVX-512 inner kernel on AVX-512F-capable hosts
+        /// (Skylake-X+, Ice Lake, Sapphire Rapids, Zen 4). Early-returns on
+        /// hosts without AVX-512F.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         #[test]
-        fn test_l2_distance_f64((x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)){
-            do_l2_test(&x, &y)?;
+        fn test_l2_f64_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = l2_f64_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx512 = unsafe { x86::l2_f64_avx512(&x, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, max_relative = 1e-6));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the f64 L2 kernel. Covers the AMD
+        /// Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier. Early-returns on hosts
+        /// without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_l2_f64_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = l2_f64_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx_fma = unsafe { x86::l2_f64_avx_fma(&x, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, max_relative = 1e-6));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the f64 L2 kernel. Covers the Intel
+        /// Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier. Early-returns on hosts without
+        /// AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_l2_f64_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f64, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = l2_f64_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx = unsafe { x86::l2_f64_avx(&x, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, max_relative = 1e-6));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity for f32: explicitly compares the scalar
+        /// fallback against the native f32 AVX-512 inner kernel on
+        /// AVX-512F-capable hosts.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_l2_f32_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = l2_f32_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx512 = unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx512(&x, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, max_relative = 1e-3));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the f32 L2 kernel. Covers the AMD
+        /// Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier. Early-returns on hosts
+        /// without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_l2_f32_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = l2_f32_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx_fma = unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx_fma(&x, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, max_relative = 1e-3));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the f32 L2 kernel. Covers the Intel
+        /// Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier. Early-returns on hosts without
+        /// AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_l2_f32_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            (x, y) in arbitrary_vector_pair(arbitrary_f32, 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = l2_f32_scalar(&x, &y);
+            let avx = unsafe { x86::l2_f32_avx(&x, &y) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, max_relative = 1e-3));
         }
     }
 
@@ -445,4 +1368,198 @@ mod tests {
             (255_u32.pow(2) * 2048) as f32
         );
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_l2_targets_matches_scalar() {
+        let cases = vec![
+            (16, 8),   // small target count
+            (16, 16),  // exact SIMD width
+            (16, 256), // PQ-like: 256 centroids, 16-dim sub-vectors
+            (16, 17),  // one remainder
+            (16, 31),  // 15 remainder
+            (1, 32),   // dim=1
+            (3, 20),   // odd dimension
+            (128, 64), // larger dimension
+        ];
+
+        for (dim, num_targets) in cases {
+            let query: Vec<f32> = (0..dim).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.1 + 0.05).collect();
+            let targets: Vec<f32> = (0..dim * num_targets)
+                .map(|i| ((i * 7 + 3) % 100) as f32 * 0.01)
+                .collect();
+
+            let expected: Vec<f32> = targets
+                .chunks_exact(dim)
+                .map(|v| l2_scalar::<f32, f32, 16>(&query, v))
+                .collect();
+
+            let prepared = L2Prepared::new(&targets, dim);
+            let actual = prepared.distances(&query);
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual.len(),
+                expected.len(),
+                "length mismatch for dim={dim}, num_targets={num_targets}"
+            );
+            for (i, (a, e)) in actual.iter().zip(expected.iter()).enumerate() {
+                assert!(
+                    approx::relative_eq!(a, e, max_relative = 1e-6),
+                    "mismatch at index {i} for dim={dim}, num_targets={num_targets}: \
+                     prepared={a}, scalar={e}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_l2_targets_zeros() {
+        let dim = 16;
+        let num_targets = 32;
+        let query = vec![0.0f32; dim];
+        let targets = vec![0.0f32; dim * num_targets];
+
+        let prepared = L2Prepared::new(&targets, dim);
+        let distances = prepared.distances(&query);
+        assert_eq!(distances.len(), num_targets);
+        for d in &distances {
+            assert_eq!(*d, 0.0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_l2_targets_known_values() {
+        let dim = 2;
+        let query = vec![1.0f32, 0.0];
+
+        // 16 targets: [1,0], [0,1], [2,0], [0,0], then 12x [0,0]
+        let mut targets = vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0];
+        for _ in 4..16 {
+            targets.extend_from_slice(&[0.0, 0.0]);
+        }
+
+        let prepared = L2Prepared::new(&targets, dim);
+        let distances = prepared.distances(&query);
+        assert_eq!(distances.len(), 16);
+        assert_relative_eq!(distances[0], 0.0);
+        assert_relative_eq!(distances[1], 2.0);
+        assert_relative_eq!(distances[2], 1.0);
+        assert_relative_eq!(distances[3], 1.0);
+        for d in &distances[4..] {
+            assert_relative_eq!(*d, 1.0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_l2_targets_reuse() {
+        // Verify that the same L2Prepared can be queried multiple times
+        let dim = 4;
+        let targets = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0];
+        let prepared = L2Prepared::new(&targets, dim);
+
+        let q1 = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0];
+        let q2 = vec![5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0];
+
+        let d1 = prepared.distances(&q1);
+        let d2 = prepared.distances(&q2);
+
+        assert_relative_eq!(d1[0], 0.0); // q1 == target[0]
+        assert_relative_eq!(d2[1], 0.0); // q2 == target[1]
+    }
+
+    /// `l2_batch` must agree with the per-vector `l2` it replaced, on every
+    /// build: the AVX2-baseline path, the hoisted-dispatch path, and the
+    /// portable fallback all funnel through here.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::dim_8(8)]
+    #[case::dim_16(16)]
+    #[case::dim_32(32)]
+    #[case::dim_1024(1024)]
+    fn test_l2_batch_f32_matches_per_vector_l2(#[case] dimension: usize) {
+        let num_vectors = 5;
+        let x: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension)
+            .map(|i| ((i % 13) as f32) * 0.25 + 1.0)
+            .collect();
+        let batch: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension * num_vectors)
+            .map(|i| ((i % 11) as f32) * 0.5 - 2.0)
+            .collect();
+
+        let got: Vec<f32> = f32::l2_batch(&x, &batch, dimension).collect();
+        let want: Vec<f32> = batch
+            .chunks_exact(dimension)
+            .map(|y| f32::l2(&x, y))
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(got.len(), num_vectors);
+        for (g, w) in got.iter().zip(want.iter()) {
+            assert!(
+                approx::relative_eq!(g, w, epsilon = 1e-4),
+                "dim {dimension}: batch {g} != per-vector {w}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The per-batch `#[target_feature]` kernels are only reached on sub-AVX2
+    /// builds or AVX-512 hosts, so call them directly to cover them.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+    ))]
+    fn check_l2_batch_kernel(kernel: BatchKernel) {
+        for dimension in [8_usize, 16, 40] {
+            let num_vectors = 3;
+            let x: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.5 + 1.0).collect();
+            let batch: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension * num_vectors)
+                .map(|i| ((i % 7) as f32) + 1.0)
+                .collect();
+
+            let mut got = vec![0.0; num_vectors];
+            unsafe { kernel(&x, &batch, dimension, &mut got) };
+            assert_eq!(got.len(), num_vectors);
+            for (chunk, &g) in batch.chunks_exact(dimension).zip(got.iter()) {
+                let want = l2_scalar::<f32, f32, 16>(&x, chunk);
+                assert!(
+                    approx::relative_eq!(g, want, epsilon = 1e-4),
+                    "dim {dimension}: kernel {g} != scalar {want}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // The runtime-dispatch batch kernels only exist in sub-avx2+fma builds
+    // (see `x86::l2_batch_f32_avx512`), so gate their tests the same way.
+    #[cfg(all(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_l2_batch_avx_fma_matches_scalar() {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") || !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") {
+            return;
+        }
+        check_l2_batch_kernel(x86::l2_batch_f32_avx_fma);
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_l2_batch_avx_matches_scalar() {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        check_l2_batch_kernel(x86::l2_batch_f32_avx);
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(
+        target_arch = "x86_64",
+        not(all(target_feature = "avx2", target_feature = "fma"))
+    ))]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_l2_batch_avx512_matches_scalar() {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+            return;
+        }
+        check_l2_batch_kernel(x86::l2_batch_f32_avx512);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/l2_u8.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/l2_u8.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..efcff21dcb4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/l2_u8.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,332 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Unsigned int8 squared L2 distance with runtime-dispatched SIMD backends.
+//!
+//! Computes `Σ(a[i] - b[i])²` for u8 slices. The u32 entry points return the
+//! low 32 bits, while [`l2_u8_u64`] chunks those kernels to produce the full
+//! result used by Scalar Quantization (SQ), where both L2 and Cosine metric
+//! types operate on quantized u8 codes.
+//!
+//! Backends (selected at runtime, best available wins):
+//!   1. scalar     — portable reference, also used for tails
+//!   2. avx2       — VPSADBW-style abs diff + VPMADDWD squaring, 32 elements/iter
+//!   3. avx512vnni — same approach with VPDPWSSD accumulation, 64 elements/iter
+//!
+//! ## Algorithm
+//!
+//! Each SIMD backend computes |a - b| per element using saturating
+//! subtraction: `max(a,b) - min(a,b) = (a ⊖ b) | (b ⊖ a)` where ⊖
+//! is unsigned saturating subtraction. The absolute differences are then
+//! zero-extended to i16 and squared via VPMADDWD (which also pairwise-
+//! accumulates adjacent products into i32).
+
+use std::sync::OnceLock;
+
+use super::{U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN, assert_equal_lengths};
+
+/// Portable scalar u8 squared L2 distance, also used for SIMD tail elements.
+///
+/// The result is the low 32 bits of the exact squared distance. Use
+/// [`l2_u8_u64`] when the full result is required.
+#[inline]
+pub fn l2_u8_scalar(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u32 {
+    assert_equal_lengths(a.len(), b.len());
+    a.iter().zip(b.iter()).fold(0, |sum, (&x, &y)| {
+        sum.wrapping_add((x.abs_diff(y) as u32).pow(2))
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    /// Horizontal sum of all 8 × i32 lanes in a __m256i.
+    #[inline(always)]
+    unsafe fn hsum_epi32_avx2(v: __m256i) -> u32 {
+        let lo128 = _mm256_castsi256_si128(v);
+        let hi128 = _mm256_extracti128_si256(v, 1);
+        let mut sum128 = _mm_add_epi32(lo128, hi128);
+        sum128 = _mm_hadd_epi32(sum128, sum128);
+        sum128 = _mm_hadd_epi32(sum128, sum128);
+        _mm_cvtsi128_si32(sum128) as u32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX2 path: saturating-sub abs diff, unpack to i16, VPMADDWD to square.
+    /// 32 elements/iter.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+    pub unsafe fn l2_u8_avx2(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u32 {
+        debug_assert_eq!(a.len(), b.len());
+        let n = a.len();
+        let zeros = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+        let mut i = 0usize;
+
+        while i + 32 <= n {
+            let av = _mm256_loadu_si256(a.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m256i);
+            let bv = _mm256_loadu_si256(b.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m256i);
+
+            // |a - b| via saturating subtraction: max(a-b, 0) | max(b-a, 0)
+            let abs_diff = _mm256_or_si256(_mm256_subs_epu8(av, bv), _mm256_subs_epu8(bv, av));
+
+            // Zero-extend u8→i16 via interleave with zeros.
+            // unpacklo/hi within each 128-bit lane.
+            let diff_lo = _mm256_unpacklo_epi8(abs_diff, zeros);
+            let diff_hi = _mm256_unpackhi_epi8(abs_diff, zeros);
+
+            // VPMADDWD squares adjacent i16 pairs and sums into i32.
+            acc = _mm256_add_epi32(acc, _mm256_madd_epi16(diff_lo, diff_lo));
+            acc = _mm256_add_epi32(acc, _mm256_madd_epi16(diff_hi, diff_hi));
+            i += 32;
+        }
+
+        let mut result = hsum_epi32_avx2(acc);
+
+        // Scalar tail
+        while i < n {
+            let d = a[i].abs_diff(b[i]) as u32;
+            result = result.wrapping_add(d * d);
+            i += 1;
+        }
+        result
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 VNNI path: abs diff + VPDPWSSD for fused square-accumulate.
+    /// 64 elements/iter.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw,avx512vnni")]
+    pub unsafe fn l2_u8_avx512_vnni(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u32 {
+        debug_assert_eq!(a.len(), b.len());
+        let n = a.len();
+        let zeros = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let mut acc = _mm512_setzero_si512();
+        let mut i = 0usize;
+
+        while i + 64 <= n {
+            let av = _mm512_loadu_si512(a.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m512i);
+            let bv = _mm512_loadu_si512(b.as_ptr().add(i) as *const __m512i);
+
+            // |a - b| via saturating subtraction
+            let abs_diff = _mm512_or_si512(_mm512_subs_epu8(av, bv), _mm512_subs_epu8(bv, av));
+
+            // Zero-extend u8→i16 via interleave with zeros
+            let diff_lo = _mm512_unpacklo_epi8(abs_diff, zeros);
+            let diff_hi = _mm512_unpackhi_epi8(abs_diff, zeros);
+
+            // VPDPWSSD: signed i16 pairwise multiply-add into i32 accumulator.
+            // diff values are 0..255, fitting in i16 as positive, so signed is fine.
+            acc = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(acc, diff_lo, diff_lo);
+            acc = _mm512_dpwssd_epi32(acc, diff_hi, diff_hi);
+            i += 64;
+        }
+
+        let mut result = _mm512_reduce_add_epi32(acc) as u32;
+
+        // Scalar tail
+        while i < n {
+            let d = a[i].abs_diff(b[i]) as u32;
+            result = result.wrapping_add(d * d);
+            i += 1;
+        }
+        result
+    }
+}
+
+type L2U8Fn = fn(&[u8], &[u8]) -> u32;
+
+static DISPATCH: OnceLock<L2U8Fn> = OnceLock::new();
+
+fn select_backend() -> L2U8Fn {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw")
+            && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vnni")
+        {
+            return |a, b| unsafe { x86::l2_u8_avx512_vnni(a, b) };
+        }
+
+        if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return |a, b| unsafe { x86::l2_u8_avx2(a, b) };
+        }
+        // AvxFma and Avx hosts (AMD Piledriver / Steamroller, Intel Sandy
+        // Bridge / Ivy Bridge) fall through to scalar: the AVX2 inner uses
+        // AVX2 integer ops (`vpsubusb` / `vpmaddwd`) which neither AVX nor
+        // AVX+FMA provides.
+    }
+
+    l2_u8_scalar
+}
+
+/// Dispatched u8 squared L2 distance, selecting the best available SIMD backend.
+///
+/// The result is the low 32 bits of the exact squared distance. Use
+/// [`l2_u8_u64`] when the full result is required.
+#[inline]
+pub fn l2_u8(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u32 {
+    assert_equal_lengths(a.len(), b.len());
+    (DISPATCH.get_or_init(select_backend))(a, b)
+}
+
+/// Calculates the exact u8 squared L2 distance with a u64 accumulator.
+///
+/// This retains the runtime-selected SIMD kernel and widens its result between
+/// chunks that are guaranteed to fit in a u32.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_linalg::distance::l2_u8::l2_u8_u64;
+///
+/// assert_eq!(l2_u8_u64(&[10, 20], &[7, 21]), 10);
+/// ```
+#[inline]
+pub fn l2_u8_u64(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> u64 {
+    assert_equal_lengths(a.len(), b.len());
+    if a.len() <= U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN {
+        return l2_u8(a, b) as u64;
+    }
+    a.chunks(U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN)
+        .zip(b.chunks(U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN))
+        .map(|(a, b)| l2_u8(a, b) as u64)
+        .sum()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_mismatched_lengths() {
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2_u8_scalar(&[1, 2], &[1])).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| l2_u8(&[1, 2], &[1])).is_err());
+    }
+
+    fn fill_random(buf: &mut [u8], seed: &mut u32) {
+        for slot in buf.iter_mut() {
+            *seed = seed.wrapping_mul(1103515245).wrapping_add(12345);
+            *slot = (*seed >> 16) as u8;
+        }
+    }
+
+    const SIZES: &[usize] = &[
+        0, 1, 7, 15, 16, 31, 32, 33, 63, 64, 65, 127, 128, 255, 256, 1024, 4096, 4097,
+    ];
+
+    fn check_all_backends(a: &[u8], b: &[u8], case: &str) {
+        let reference = l2_u8_scalar(a, b);
+
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+                let got = unsafe { x86::l2_u8_avx2(a, b) };
+                assert_eq!(got, reference, "avx2 [{case}] n={}", a.len());
+            }
+
+            if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f")
+                && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw")
+                && is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512vnni")
+            {
+                let got = unsafe { x86::l2_u8_avx512_vnni(a, b) };
+                assert_eq!(got, reference, "avx512_vnni [{case}] n={}", a.len());
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(l2_u8(a, b), reference, "dispatch [{case}] n={}", a.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn random_inputs_across_sizes_and_seeds() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for seed_idx in 0..4u32 {
+            let mut seed = 0xC0FFEE_u32.wrapping_add(seed_idx.wrapping_mul(7919));
+            for &n in SIZES {
+                fill_random(&mut a[..n], &mut seed);
+                fill_random(&mut b[..n], &mut seed);
+                check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "random");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn boundary_values() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for &n in SIZES {
+            // max diff: |255 - 0|² × n
+            a[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            b[..n].fill(0);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "max-0");
+
+            a[..n].fill(0);
+            b[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "0-max");
+
+            // identical vectors: distance = 0
+            a[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            b[..n].fill(u8::MAX);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "max-max");
+            assert_eq!(l2_u8_scalar(&a[..n], &b[..n]), 0);
+
+            // zeros
+            a[..n].fill(0);
+            b[..n].fill(0);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "0-0");
+            assert_eq!(l2_u8_scalar(&a[..n], &b[..n]), 0);
+
+            // alternating
+            for i in 0..n {
+                a[i] = if i & 1 == 0 { 0 } else { u8::MAX };
+                b[i] = if i & 1 == 0 { u8::MAX } else { 0 };
+            }
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "alt 0/max");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn one_sided_zeros() {
+        let mut a = vec![0u8; 4097];
+        let mut b = vec![0u8; 4097];
+
+        for &n in SIZES {
+            let mut seed = 0xDEAD_BEEF_u32;
+            fill_random(&mut a[..n], &mut seed);
+            b[..n].fill(0);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "b=0");
+
+            a[..n].fill(0);
+            fill_random(&mut b[..n], &mut seed);
+            check_all_backends(&a[..n], &b[..n], "a=0");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn known_values() {
+        // 3² + 1² = 10
+        assert_eq!(l2_u8_scalar(&[10, 20], &[7, 21]), 10);
+        assert_eq!(l2_u8(&[10, 20], &[7, 21]), 10);
+
+        // max single-element distance: 255² = 65025
+        assert_eq!(l2_u8(&[0], &[255]), 65025);
+        assert_eq!(l2_u8(&[255], &[0]), 65025);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn overflow_is_backend_independent_and_wide_result_is_exact() {
+        let len = U8_U32_ACCUMULATOR_MAX_LEN + 1;
+        let a = vec![u8::MAX; len];
+        let b = vec![0; len];
+        let exact = u8::MAX as u64 * u8::MAX as u64 * len as u64;
+
+        check_all_backends(&a, &b, "u32 overflow");
+        assert_eq!(l2_u8_scalar(&a, &b), exact as u32);
+        assert_eq!(l2_u8_u64(&a, &b), exact);
+        assert_eq!(
+            crate::distance::l2::l2_distance_uint_scalar(&a, &b),
+            exact as f32
+        );
+        assert_eq!(crate::distance::l2::l2::<u8>(&a, &b), exact as f32);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/norm_l2.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/norm_l2.rs
index 3609d5c39b6..1a853e17e4c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/norm_l2.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/distance/norm_l2.rs
@@ -5,15 +5,17 @@ use std::{iter::Sum, ops::AddAssign};
 
 use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::types::{Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type};
-use arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray;
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
 use half::{bf16, f16};
-#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
-use lance_core::utils::cpu::SimdSupport;
 #[allow(unused_imports)]
-use lance_core::utils::cpu::SIMD_SUPPORT;
+use lance_core::utils::cpu::{SIMD_SUPPORT, SimdSupport};
 use num_traits::{AsPrimitive, Float, Num};
 
+#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
+use super::HalfBackend;
+use super::{HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED, HalfType, half_backend, x86_half_features};
+
 /// L2 normalization
 pub trait Normalize: Num {
     /// L2 Normalization over a Vector.
@@ -26,10 +28,10 @@ mod kernel {
 
     // These are the `norm_l2_f16` function in f16.c. Our build.rs script compiles
     // a version of this file for each SIMD level with different suffixes.
-    extern "C" {
+    unsafe extern "C" {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         pub fn norm_l2_f16_neon(ptr: *const f16, len: u32) -> f32;
-        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_f16", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
         pub fn norm_l2_f16_avx512(ptr: *const f16, len: u32) -> f32;
         #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         pub fn norm_l2_f16_avx2(ptr: *const f16, len: u32) -> f32;
@@ -50,55 +52,334 @@ impl Normalize for u8 {
 impl Normalize for f16 {
     #[inline]
     fn norm_l2(vector: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+        match half_backend(
+            *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+            HalfType::F16,
+            HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED,
+            cfg!(all(kernel_support = "avx512_f16", target_arch = "x86_64")),
+            x86_half_features(),
+        ) {
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Neon => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Neon => unsafe {
                 kernel::norm_l2_f16_neon(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(
                 feature = "fp16kernels",
-                kernel_support = "avx512",
+                kernel_support = "avx512_f16",
                 target_arch = "x86_64"
             ))]
-            SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Avx512 => unsafe {
                 kernel::norm_l2_f16_avx512(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Avx2 => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Avx2 => unsafe {
                 kernel::norm_l2_f16_avx2(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Lasx => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Lasx => unsafe {
                 kernel::norm_l2_f16_lasx(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
             },
             #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
-            SimdSupport::Lsx => unsafe {
+            HalfBackend::Lsx => unsafe {
                 kernel::norm_l2_f16_lsx(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
             },
+            // SimdSupport::AvxFma and SimdSupport::Avx retain their scalar
+            // route; this fallback only extends the tiers the C kernel already
+            // served to Avx512FP16 after checking F16C and FMA.
             _ => norm_l2_impl::<Self, f32, 32>(vector),
         }
     }
 }
 
+#[cfg(feature = "fp16kernels")]
+mod bf16_kernel {
+    use half::bf16;
+
+    unsafe extern "C" {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        pub fn norm_l2_bf16_neon(ptr: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_bf16", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        pub fn norm_l2_bf16_avx512(ptr: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        pub fn norm_l2_bf16_avx2(ptr: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        pub fn norm_l2_bf16_lsx(ptr: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        pub fn norm_l2_bf16_lasx(ptr: *const bf16, len: u32) -> f32;
+    }
+}
+
 impl Normalize for bf16 {
     #[inline]
     fn norm_l2(vector: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        norm_l2_impl::<Self, f32, 32>(vector)
+        match half_backend(
+            *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+            HalfType::Bf16,
+            HALF_KERNELS_COMPILED,
+            cfg!(all(kernel_support = "avx512_bf16", target_arch = "x86_64")),
+            x86_half_features(),
+        ) {
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Neon => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::norm_l2_bf16_neon(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(
+                feature = "fp16kernels",
+                kernel_support = "avx512_bf16",
+                target_arch = "x86_64"
+            ))]
+            HalfBackend::Avx512 => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::norm_l2_bf16_avx512(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Avx2 => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::norm_l2_bf16_avx2(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Lasx => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::norm_l2_bf16_lasx(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
+            },
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "fp16kernels", target_arch = "loongarch64"))]
+            HalfBackend::Lsx => unsafe {
+                bf16_kernel::norm_l2_bf16_lsx(vector.as_ptr(), vector.len() as u32)
+            },
+            // SimdSupport::AvxFma and SimdSupport::Avx fall through here:
+            // the bf16 C kernels are compiled with `-march=haswell` minimum
+            // (AVX2), so they cannot run on AVX-only or AVX+FMA hosts.
+            _ => norm_l2_impl::<Self, f32, 32>(vector),
+        }
     }
 }
 
 impl Normalize for f32 {
     #[inline]
     fn norm_l2(vector: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        norm_l2_impl::<Self, Self, 16>(vector)
+        norm_l2_f32_dispatched(vector)
+    }
+}
+
+/// L2 norm for f32, runtime-dispatched via `SIMD_SUPPORT` on x86_64
+/// (AVX-512 / AVX2+FMA / AVX+FMA / AVX / scalar). Non-x86 uses the
+/// auto-vectorised scalar loop.
+#[inline]
+fn norm_l2_f32_dispatched(vector: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+            SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+                x86::norm_l2_f32_avx512(vector)
+            },
+            SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f32_avx_fma(vector) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f32_avx(vector) },
+            _ => norm_l2_f32_scalar(vector),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        norm_l2_f32_scalar(vector)
     }
 }
 
+/// Portable scalar L2 norm for f32. Used as the x86_64 fallback when no
+/// AVX2 is detected, and as the only path on non-x86 architectures. The
+/// `LANES = 16` chunking matches the explicit-SIMD inner kernels above.
+#[inline]
+fn norm_l2_f32_scalar(vector: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    norm_l2_impl::<f32, f32, 16>(vector)
+}
+
 impl Normalize for f64 {
     #[inline]
     fn norm_l2(vector: &[Self]) -> f32 {
-        norm_l2_impl::<Self, Self, 8>(vector) as f32
+        norm_l2_f64_simd(vector)
+    }
+}
+
+/// L2 norm for f64. Runtime-dispatched to the best available backend.
+///
+/// On x86_64, dispatches via `SIMD_SUPPORT` to a native AVX-512 inner kernel
+/// (Skylake-X+, Ice Lake, Sapphire Rapids, Zen 4), an AVX2 + FMA kernel
+/// (Haswell+), an AVX + FMA kernel (AMD Piledriver / Steamroller), an
+/// AVX-only kernel (Intel Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge), or a portable scalar
+/// fallback. The per-tier inner functions each carry their own
+/// `#[target_feature]` so they stay correct under any compile baseline.
+/// On aarch64 and loongarch64, the SIMD primitives in `crate::simd::f64`
+/// are unconditionally backed by NEON / LSX-LASX respectively, so no
+/// runtime gate is required.
+#[inline]
+pub fn norm_l2_f64_simd(vector: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
+            SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+                x86::norm_l2_f64_avx512(vector)
+            },
+            SimdSupport::Avx2 | SimdSupport::AvxFma => unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f64_avx_fma(vector) },
+            SimdSupport::Avx => unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f64_avx(vector) },
+            _ => norm_l2_f64_scalar(vector),
+        }
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        norm_l2_f64_simd_other(vector)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Portable scalar L2 norm. Used as the x86_64 fallback when no AVX2 is
+/// detected, and exposed for cross-backend parity testing.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[inline]
+fn norm_l2_f64_scalar(vector: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    vector.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum::<f64>().sqrt() as f32
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+mod x86 {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+    use crate::simd::f64::{f64x4, f64x8};
+    use crate::simd::x86::hsum256_ps;
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    /// AVX-512 path for f64: 8-wide `__m512d` with `vfmadd231pd` per iteration.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub unsafe fn norm_l2_f64_avx512(vector: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = vector.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm512_setzero_pd();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let v = _mm512_loadu_pd(vector.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm512_fmadd_pd(v, v, acc);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f64 = vector[unrolled_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+        (_mm512_reduce_add_pd(acc) + tail).sqrt() as f32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX + FMA path for f64. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub unsafe fn norm_l2_f64_avx_fma(vector: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = vector.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc8 = f64x8::zeros();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let v = f64x8::load_unaligned(vector.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc8.multiply_add(v, v);
+        }
+
+        let aligned_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+        let mut acc4 = f64x4::zeros();
+        for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(4) {
+            let v = f64x4::load_unaligned(vector.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc4.multiply_add(v, v);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f64 = vector[aligned_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+        (acc8.reduce_sum() + acc4.reduce_sum() + tail).sqrt() as f32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-only path for f64 (no FMA): `_mm256_mul_pd` + `_mm256_add_pd` per iteration for Sandy/Ivy Bridge.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub unsafe fn norm_l2_f64_avx(vector: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = vector.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_pd();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(4) {
+            let v = _mm256_loadu_pd(vector.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm256_add_pd(acc, _mm256_mul_pd(v, v));
+        }
+
+        // Horizontal sum of __m256d -> f64. Two pairwise adds across lanes.
+        let lo = _mm256_castpd256_pd128(acc);
+        let hi = _mm256_extractf128_pd(acc, 1);
+        let sum128 = _mm_add_pd(lo, hi);
+        let sum64 = _mm_add_pd(sum128, _mm_unpackhi_pd(sum128, sum128));
+        let acc_sum = _mm_cvtsd_f64(sum64);
+
+        let tail: f64 = vector[unrolled_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+        (acc_sum + tail).sqrt() as f32
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-512 path for f32: 16-wide `__m512` with `vfmadd231ps` per iteration.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+    pub unsafe fn norm_l2_f32_avx512(vector: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = vector.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 16 * 16;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm512_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(16) {
+            let v = _mm512_loadu_ps(vector.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm512_fmadd_ps(v, v, acc);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f32 = vector[unrolled_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+        (_mm512_reduce_add_ps(acc) + tail).sqrt()
+    }
+
+    /// AVX + FMA path for f32. Covers both AvxFma and AVX2 dispatch (body uses no AVX2-specific intrinsics).
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx,fma")]
+    pub unsafe fn norm_l2_f32_avx_fma(vector: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = vector.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let v = _mm256_loadu_ps(vector.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm256_fmadd_ps(v, v, acc);
+        }
+
+        let tail: f32 = vector[unrolled_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+        (hsum256_ps(acc) + tail).sqrt()
+    }
+
+    /// AVX-only path for f32 (no FMA): `_mm256_mul_ps` + `_mm256_add_ps` per iteration for Sandy/Ivy Bridge.
+    #[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+    pub unsafe fn norm_l2_f32_avx(vector: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+        let dim = vector.len();
+        let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+        let mut acc = _mm256_setzero_ps();
+        for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+            let v = _mm256_loadu_ps(vector.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc = _mm256_add_ps(acc, _mm256_mul_ps(v, v));
+        }
+
+        let tail: f32 = vector[unrolled_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+        (hsum256_ps(acc) + tail).sqrt()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+#[inline]
+fn norm_l2_f64_simd_other(vector: &[f64]) -> f32 {
+    use crate::simd::f64::{f64x4, f64x8};
+    use crate::simd::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+    let dim = vector.len();
+    let unrolled_len = dim / 8 * 8;
+
+    let mut acc8 = f64x8::zeros();
+    for i in (0..unrolled_len).step_by(8) {
+        unsafe {
+            let v = f64x8::load_unaligned(vector.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc8.multiply_add(v, v);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let aligned_len = dim / 4 * 4;
+    let mut acc4 = f64x4::zeros();
+    for i in (unrolled_len..aligned_len).step_by(4) {
+        unsafe {
+            let v = f64x4::load_unaligned(vector.as_ptr().add(i));
+            acc4.multiply_add(v, v);
+        }
     }
+
+    let tail: f64 = vector[aligned_len..].iter().map(|&v| v * v).sum();
+    (acc8.reduce_sum() + acc4.reduce_sum() + tail).sqrt() as f32
 }
 
 /// NOTE: this is only pub for benchmarking purposes
@@ -110,15 +391,11 @@ pub fn norm_l2_impl<
 >(
     vector: &[T],
 ) -> Output {
-    let chunks = vector.chunks_exact(LANES);
-    let sum = if chunks.remainder().is_empty() {
+    let (chunks, remainder) = vector.as_chunks::<LANES>();
+    let sum = if remainder.is_empty() {
         Output::zero()
     } else {
-        chunks
-            .remainder()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|&v| v.as_().powi(2))
-            .sum::<Output>()
+        remainder.iter().map(|&v| v.as_().powi(2)).sum::<Output>()
     };
     let mut sums = [Output::zero(); LANES];
     for chunk in chunks {
@@ -138,6 +415,47 @@ pub fn norm_l2<T: Normalize>(vector: &[T]) -> f32 {
     T::norm_l2(vector)
 }
 
+/// L2 norm of every vector in a [FixedSizeListArray], Returns one norm per row.
+pub fn norm_l2_fsl(fsl: &FixedSizeListArray) -> crate::Result<Float32Array> {
+    let dim = fsl.value_length() as usize;
+    if dim == 0 {
+        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
+            "cannot compute L2 norms of a FixedSizeListArray with value_length 0".into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let values = fsl.values();
+    Ok(match fsl.value_type() {
+        DataType::Float16 => values
+            .as_primitive::<Float16Type>()
+            .values()
+            .chunks_exact(dim)
+            .map(<f16 as Normalize>::norm_l2)
+            .collect(),
+        DataType::Float32 => values
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .chunks_exact(dim)
+            .map(<f32 as Normalize>::norm_l2)
+            .collect(),
+        DataType::Float64 => values
+            .as_primitive::<Float64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .chunks_exact(dim)
+            .map(<f64 as Normalize>::norm_l2)
+            .collect(),
+        value_type => {
+            return Err(ArrowError::SchemaError(format!(
+                "norm_l2_fsl only supports float16/float32/float64 vectors, got: {value_type}"
+            )));
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// Squared L2 norm of every vector in a [FixedSizeListArray].
+///
+/// Each square is accumulated in `f32` (or wider) rather than in the element
+/// type: squaring an `f16` saturates to `inf` at `|x| >= 256` and to zero at
+/// `|x| <= 1.726e-4`.
 pub fn norm_squared_fsl(fsl: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Vec<f32> {
     let dim = fsl.value_length() as usize;
     match fsl.value_type() {
@@ -146,7 +464,14 @@ pub fn norm_squared_fsl(fsl: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Vec<f32> {
             .as_primitive::<Float16Type>()
             .values()
             .chunks_exact(dim)
-            .map(|v| v.iter().map(|v| v * v).sum::<f16>().to_f32())
+            .map(|v| {
+                v.iter()
+                    .map(|v| {
+                        let v = v.to_f32();
+                        v * v
+                    })
+                    .sum::<f32>()
+            })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
         DataType::Float32 => fsl
             .values()
@@ -171,7 +496,12 @@ pub fn norm_squared_fsl(fsl: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Vec<f32> {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use crate::test_utils::{arbitrary_bf16, arbitrary_f16, arbitrary_f32, arbitrary_f64};
+    use crate::test_utils::{
+        arbitrary_bf16, arbitrary_f16, arbitrary_f32, arbitrary_f64, dimension_shard,
+        run_vector_proptest,
+    };
+    use arrow_array::{Float16Array, Float64Array, UInt8Array};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
     use num_traits::ToPrimitive;
     use proptest::prelude::*;
 
@@ -195,6 +525,36 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_l2_norm_f32(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_proptest(arbitrary_f32, dimension_shard(shard), |data| {
+            do_norm_l2_test(&data)
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_l2_norm_f64(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_proptest(arbitrary_f64, dimension_shard(shard), |data| {
+            do_norm_l2_test(&data)
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_l2_norm_f32_scalar_simd_parity(
+        #[values(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)] shard: usize,
+    ) {
+        run_vector_proptest(arbitrary_f32, dimension_shard(shard), |data| {
+            let scalar = data.iter().map(|&v| (v as f64).powi(2)).sum::<f64>().sqrt() as f32;
+            let simd = <f32 as Normalize>::norm_l2(&data);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, max_relative = 1e-3));
+            Ok(())
+        });
+    }
+
     proptest::proptest! {
         #[test]
         fn test_l2_norm_f16(data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f16(), 4..4048)) {
@@ -206,14 +566,212 @@ mod tests {
             do_norm_l2_test(&data)?;
         }
 
+        /// Cross-backend parity: scalar fallback must match the dispatched
+        /// SIMD path within numerical tolerance. Exercises `norm_l2_f64_scalar`
+        /// directly so the runtime fallback is exercised even on AVX2-capable
+        /// CI hosts.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         #[test]
-        fn test_l2_norm_f32(data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f32(), 4..4048)){
-            do_norm_l2_test(&data)?;
+        fn test_l2_norm_f64_scalar_simd_parity(
+            data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f64(), 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            let scalar = norm_l2_f64_scalar(&data);
+            let simd = norm_l2_f64_simd(&data);
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, simd, max_relative = 1e-6));
         }
 
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity: explicitly compares the scalar fallback
+        /// against the native AVX-512 inner kernel on AVX-512F-capable hosts
+        /// (Skylake-X+, Ice Lake, Sapphire Rapids, Zen 4). Early-returns on
+        /// hosts without AVX-512F so the test stays portable; CI runners with
+        /// AVX-512F exercise the `_mm512_*` path.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         #[test]
-        fn test_l2_norm_f64(data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f64(), 4..4048)){
-            do_norm_l2_test(&data)?;
+        fn test_l2_norm_f64_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f64(), 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = norm_l2_f64_scalar(&data);
+            let avx512 = unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f64_avx512(&data) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, max_relative = 1e-6));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the f64 L2-norm kernel. Covers the
+        /// AMD Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier. Early-returns on
+        /// hosts without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_l2_norm_f64_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f64(), 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = norm_l2_f64_scalar(&data);
+            let avx_fma = unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f64_avx_fma(&data) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, max_relative = 1e-6));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the f64 L2-norm kernel. Covers the
+        /// Intel Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier (AVX without FMA).
+        /// Early-returns on hosts without AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_l2_norm_f64_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f64(), 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = norm_l2_f64_scalar(&data);
+            let avx = unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f64_avx(&data) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, max_relative = 1e-6));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-512-direct parity for the f32 L2-norm kernel. Explicitly
+        /// compares the scalar fallback against the native AVX-512 inner
+        /// kernel on AVX-512F-capable hosts. Early-returns on hosts without
+        /// AVX-512F; CI runners with AVX-512F exercise the `_mm512_*` path.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_norm_l2_f32_scalar_vs_avx512_parity(
+            data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f32(), 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512f") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = norm_l2_f32_scalar(&data);
+            let avx512 = unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f32_avx512(&data) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx512, max_relative = 1e-3));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX + FMA-direct parity for the f32 L2-norm kernel. Covers the
+        /// AMD Piledriver / Steamroller / FX-7500 tier. Early-returns on
+        /// hosts without both AVX and FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_norm_l2_f32_scalar_vs_avx_fma_parity(
+            data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f32(), 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !(std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") && std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma")) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = norm_l2_f32_scalar(&data);
+            let avx_fma = unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f32_avx_fma(&data) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx_fma, max_relative = 1e-3));
+        }
+
+        /// AVX-only-direct parity for the f32 L2-norm kernel. Covers the
+        /// Intel Sandy Bridge / Ivy Bridge tier (AVX without FMA).
+        /// Early-returns on hosts without AVX.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        #[test]
+        fn test_norm_l2_f32_scalar_vs_avx_parity(
+            data in prop::collection::vec(arbitrary_f32(), 4..4048)
+        ) {
+            if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let scalar = norm_l2_f32_scalar(&data);
+            let avx = unsafe { x86::norm_l2_f32_avx(&data) };
+            prop_assert!(approx::relative_eq!(scalar, avx, max_relative = 1e-3));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_norm_l2_fsl_f32() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![3.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+
+        let norms = norm_l2_fsl(&fsl).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(norms.len(), 2);
+        assert!(approx::relative_eq!(
+            norms.value(0),
+            5.0,
+            max_relative = 1e-6
+        ));
+        assert!(approx::relative_eq!(
+            norms.value(1),
+            10.0,
+            max_relative = 1e-6
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_norm_l2_fsl_f16_and_f64_match_norm_l2() {
+        // The FSL helper must agree with the per-vector `norm_l2` kernel for
+        // every supported value type, since callers cache these norms and feed
+        // them to `cosine_with_norms`.
+        let f16_vals: Vec<f16> = [3.0f32, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&v| f16::from_f32(v))
+            .collect();
+        let f16_fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float16Array::from(f16_vals), 2).unwrap();
+        let f16_norms = norm_l2_fsl(&f16_fsl).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            f16_norms.value(0),
+            norm_l2(&[f16::from_f32(3.0), f16::from_f32(4.0)])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            f16_norms.value(1),
+            norm_l2(&[f16::from_f32(6.0), f16::from_f32(8.0)])
+        );
+
+        let f64_fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float64Array::from(vec![3.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0]),
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let f64_norms = norm_l2_fsl(&f64_fsl).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(f64_norms.value(0), norm_l2(&[3.0f64, 4.0]));
+        assert_eq!(f64_norms.value(1), norm_l2(&[6.0f64, 8.0]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_norm_l2_fsl_rejects_unsupported_value_type() {
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(vec![1u8, 2, 3, 4]), 2)
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = norm_l2_fsl(&fsl).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(err.contains("float16/float32/float64"), "got: {err}");
+    }
+
+    /// `norm_squared_fsl` must accumulate in a type wider than the element type.
+    /// `f16 * f16` rounds each square back to `f16`, which saturates to `inf` at
+    /// `|x| >= 256` and to zero at `|x| <= 1.726e-4`.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_norm_squared_fsl_f16_accumulates_wide() {
+        use arrow_array::Float16Array;
+        use arrow_schema::Field;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        // dim 2: row 0 overflows at the square, row 1 underflows at the square.
+        let raw = [256.0f32, 0.0, 1e-4, 1e-4];
+        let values = Float16Array::from_iter_values(raw.map(f16::from_f32));
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float16, true));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, 2, Arc::new(values), None).unwrap();
+
+        let got = norm_squared_fsl(&fsl);
+        // Independent reference: square and sum the same f16 inputs in f64.
+        let expected = raw
+            .chunks(2)
+            .map(|c| {
+                c.iter()
+                    .map(|&x| {
+                        let x = f16::from_f32(x).to_f64();
+                        x * x
+                    })
+                    .sum::<f64>()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        for (row, (&got, &want)) in got.iter().zip(expected.iter()).enumerate() {
+            assert!(
+                approx::relative_eq!(got as f64, want, max_relative = 1e-3),
+                "row {row}: got {got}, want {want}"
+            );
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/kernels.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/kernels.rs
index b9ee2507ae4..ad46b7bac4b 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/kernels.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/kernels.rs
@@ -7,17 +7,18 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::{collections::hash_map::DefaultHasher, hash::Hash, hash::Hasher};
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::{as_largestring_array, as_primitive_array, as_string_array, AsArray},
-    types::{
-        Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type, Int8Type,
-        UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type,
-    },
     Array, ArrayRef, ArrowNumericType, ArrowPrimitiveType, FixedSizeListArray, GenericStringArray,
     OffsetSizeTrait, PrimitiveArray, UInt64Array,
+    cast::{AsArray, as_largestring_array, as_primitive_array, as_string_array},
+    types::{
+        Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, Int8Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type,
+        UInt8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type,
+    },
 };
 use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
+use half::{bf16, f16};
 use num_traits::AsPrimitive;
-use num_traits::{bounds::Bounded, Float, Num};
+use num_traits::{Float, Num, bounds::Bounded};
 
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 
@@ -42,11 +43,11 @@ pub fn argmax_opt<T: Num + Bounded + PartialOrd>(
     let mut max_idx: Option<u32> = None;
     let mut max_value = T::min_value();
     for (idx, value) in iter.enumerate() {
-        if let Some(value) = value {
-            if let Some(Ordering::Greater) = value.partial_cmp(&max_value) {
-                max_value = value;
-                max_idx = Some(idx as u32);
-            }
+        if let Some(value) = value
+            && let Some(Ordering::Greater) = value.partial_cmp(&max_value)
+        {
+            max_value = value;
+            max_idx = Some(idx as u32);
         }
     }
     max_idx
@@ -116,11 +117,11 @@ pub fn argmin_value_opt<T: Num + Bounded + PartialOrd>(
     let mut min_idx: Option<u32> = None;
     let mut min_value = T::max_value();
     for (idx, value) in iter.enumerate() {
-        if let Some(value) = value {
-            if let Some(Ordering::Less) = value.partial_cmp(&min_value) {
-                min_value = value;
-                min_idx = Some(idx as u32);
-            }
+        if let Some(value) = value
+            && let Some(Ordering::Less) = value.partial_cmp(&min_value)
+        {
+            min_value = value;
+            min_idx = Some(idx as u32);
         }
     }
     min_idx.map(|idx| (idx, min_value))
@@ -135,19 +136,72 @@ pub fn argmin_opt<T: Num + Bounded + PartialOrd>(
     argmin_value_opt(iter).map(|(idx, _)| idx)
 }
 
+/// The accumulator used to sum squares when normalizing a `T` vector.
+///
+/// A type narrow enough that its squares leave its own range, and for which a
+/// wider float exists, accumulates in that wider type: squaring an `f16`
+/// saturates to `inf` at `|x| >= 256` and to zero at `|x| <= 1.726e-4`, so an
+/// ordinary `f16` vector would otherwise normalize to all-zero or all-`inf`.
+/// `f32` and `f64` accumulate in themselves — the same saturation still exists at
+/// the extremes of their own range (an `f32` square overflows above `1.8447e19`),
+/// but widening `f32` would perturb the output of existing f32 vectors by a few
+/// ulp (about 10 at dimension 768, growing as sqrt(dim)), so it is deliberately
+/// left alone; `f64` has nothing wider to widen to.
+///
+/// The width relation is a contract on the implementor, not something the bounds
+/// can express. Tying the accumulator to the element type here still buys two
+/// things over passing it in: the accumulator cannot drift between the three
+/// dispatch sites, and no call site can pick the wrong one.
+pub trait Normalizable: Float + AsPrimitive<Self::Acc> {
+    /// Must be at least as wide as `Self` in both exponent and mantissa.
+    type Acc: Float + Sum + AsPrimitive<Self> + AsPrimitive<f32>;
+}
+
+/// `f16` squares leave its own range, so it accumulates in `f32` — which has
+/// 2^96 of headroom over `f16::MAX` squared.
+impl Normalizable for f16 {
+    type Acc = f32;
+}
+
+/// `bf16` has the same exponent range as `f32` (both 8 bits), so widening to
+/// `f32` would buy no headroom for squaring — `bf16(1e20)` squared already
+/// overflows `f32`. It needs `f64`.
+impl Normalizable for bf16 {
+    type Acc = f64;
+}
+
+impl Normalizable for f32 {
+    type Acc = Self;
+}
+
+impl Normalizable for f64 {
+    type Acc = Self;
+}
+
 /// L2 normalize a vector.
 ///
-/// Returns an iterator of normalized values.
-pub fn normalize<T: Float + Sum + AsPrimitive<f32>>(
-    v: &[T],
-) -> (impl Iterator<Item = T> + '_, f32) {
-    let l2_norm = v.iter().map(|x| x.powi(2)).sum::<T>().sqrt();
-    (v.iter().map(move |&x| x / l2_norm), l2_norm.as_())
+/// Returns an iterator of normalized values, and the norm as `f32`.
+///
+/// The sum of squares is accumulated in [`Normalizable::Acc`], which is wider
+/// than `T` where `T` alone would overflow.
+pub fn normalize<T: Normalizable>(v: &[T]) -> (impl Iterator<Item = T> + '_, f32) {
+    let l2_norm = v
+        .iter()
+        .map(|x| {
+            let x: T::Acc = x.as_();
+            x * x
+        })
+        .sum::<T::Acc>()
+        .sqrt();
+    (
+        v.iter().map(move |&x| (x.as_() / l2_norm).as_()),
+        l2_norm.as_(),
+    )
 }
 
 fn do_normalize_arrow<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(arr: &dyn Array) -> Result<(ArrayRef, f32)>
 where
-    <T as ArrowPrimitiveType>::Native: Float + Sum + AsPrimitive<f32>,
+    T::Native: Normalizable,
 {
     let v = arr.as_primitive::<T>();
     let (iter, l2_norm) = normalize(v.values());
@@ -171,7 +225,7 @@ pub fn normalize_arrow(v: &dyn Array) -> Result<(ArrayRef, f32)> {
 
 fn do_normalize_fsl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(fsl: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray>
 where
-    T::Native: Float + Sum + AsPrimitive<f32>,
+    T::Native: Normalizable,
 {
     let dim = fsl.value_length() as usize;
     let norm_arr = PrimitiveArray::<T>::from_iter_values(
@@ -210,6 +264,68 @@ pub fn normalize_fsl(fsl: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
     }
 }
 
+fn do_normalize_fsl_inplace<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    fsl: FixedSizeListArray,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray>
+where
+    T::Native: Normalizable,
+{
+    let dim = fsl.value_length() as usize;
+    let (field, size, values_array, nulls) = fsl.into_parts();
+
+    // Clone the PrimitiveArray (shares the underlying buffer), then drop the
+    // Arc<dyn Array> so the buffer's refcount drops to 1.
+    let prim = values_array
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<T>>()
+        .expect("values must be PrimitiveArray")
+        .clone();
+    drop(values_array);
+
+    // into_builder gives mutable access when the buffer is uniquely owned,
+    // avoiding a full copy of the (potentially multi-GB) training data.
+    match prim.into_builder() {
+        Ok(mut builder) => {
+            for chunk in builder.values_slice_mut().chunks_mut(dim) {
+                // Accumulate in the wider type; see [`Normalizable`].
+                let l2_norm = chunk
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|x| {
+                        let x: <T::Native as Normalizable>::Acc = x.as_();
+                        x * x
+                    })
+                    .sum::<<T::Native as Normalizable>::Acc>()
+                    .sqrt();
+                for x in chunk.iter_mut() {
+                    *x = (x.as_() / l2_norm).as_();
+                }
+            }
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, size, Arc::new(builder.finish()), nulls)
+        }
+        Err(prim) => {
+            let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, size, Arc::new(prim), nulls)?;
+            do_normalize_fsl::<T>(&fsl)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// L2 normalize a [FixedSizeListArray] (of vectors), attempting in-place mutation.
+///
+/// If the underlying buffer is uniquely owned, normalization is performed in-place
+/// to avoid allocating a second copy. Otherwise falls back to the copy path used
+/// by [`normalize_fsl`].
+pub fn normalize_fsl_owned(fsl: FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    match fsl.value_type() {
+        DataType::Float16 => do_normalize_fsl_inplace::<Float16Type>(fsl),
+        DataType::Float32 => do_normalize_fsl_inplace::<Float32Type>(fsl),
+        DataType::Float64 => do_normalize_fsl_inplace::<Float64Type>(fsl),
+        _ => Err(ArrowError::SchemaError(format!(
+            "Normalize only supports float array, got: {}",
+            fsl.value_type()
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
 fn hash_numeric_type<T: ArrowNumericType>(array: &PrimitiveArray<T>) -> Result<UInt64Array>
 where
     T::Native: Hash,
@@ -269,10 +385,12 @@ mod tests {
 
     use approx::assert_relative_eq;
     use arrow_array::{
-        Float32Array, Int16Array, Int8Array, LargeStringArray, StringArray, UInt32Array, UInt8Array,
+        Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int8Array, Int16Array, LargeStringArray,
+        StringArray, UInt8Array, UInt32Array,
     };
     use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
     use arrow_schema::Field;
+    use half::f16;
 
     #[test]
     fn test_argmax() {
@@ -379,6 +497,204 @@ mod tests {
         assert_relative_eq!(1.0, normalized.iter().map(|&x| x.powi(2)).sum::<f32>());
     }
 
+    /// The accumulator must not be *narrower* than the element type either.
+    /// Accumulating f64 in f32 overflows above `|x| = 1.8447e19` (where f64 has
+    /// headroom to 1.34e154), collapses to a zero norm at or below `|x| = 2^-75`
+    /// (2.647e-23), and costs ~29 bits of mantissa on every ordinary vector.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_f64_accumulates_wide() {
+        // Range: each case is finite and correctly normalizable in f64, but
+        // overflows or underflows an f32 accumulator.
+        let range_cases: &[(&str, Vec<f64>)] = &[
+            ("square_overflows", vec![1e20, 0.0]),
+            ("sum_overflows", vec![1e19; 12]),
+            ("square_underflows", vec![1e-25, 1e-25]),
+            ("element_underflows", vec![1e-100, 1e-100]),
+        ];
+        for (name, v) in range_cases {
+            // Cover all three public entry points: each has its own `match` over
+            // the element type, so a dispatch cell could regress on its own.
+            for out in [
+                ("normalize_arrow", normalize_f64(v)),
+                ("normalize_fsl", normalize_f64_fsl(v, false)),
+                ("normalize_fsl_owned", normalize_f64_fsl(v, true)),
+            ] {
+                let (entry, out) = out;
+                let norm = out.iter().map(|x| x * x).sum::<f64>().sqrt();
+                assert!(
+                    approx::relative_eq!(norm, 1.0, max_relative = 1e-9),
+                    "{entry} / {name}: normalized norm {norm} != 1, output {out:?}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Precision: an f32 accumulator would round the output to f32, leaving
+        // a relative error around f32::EPSILON (~1.2e-7).
+        let v = vec![1.0_f64, 2.0, 3.0];
+        let expected_norm = 14.0_f64.sqrt();
+        let out = normalize_f64(&v);
+        for (i, (&got, &raw)) in out.iter().zip(v.iter()).enumerate() {
+            let want = raw / expected_norm;
+            assert!(
+                approx::relative_eq!(got, want, max_relative = 1e-15),
+                "element {i}: got {got:.17}, want {want:.17}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Normalize an `f64` slice through the public Arrow entry point, so the
+    /// test exercises the accumulator `normalize_arrow` actually selects.
+    fn normalize_f64(v: &[f64]) -> Vec<f64> {
+        let arr = Float64Array::from(v.to_vec());
+        let (out, _) = normalize_arrow(&arr).unwrap();
+        out.as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values().to_vec()
+    }
+
+    /// Same, through the FSL entry points. `owned` selects
+    /// [`normalize_fsl_owned`], whose freshly built array takes the in-place
+    /// branch of `do_normalize_fsl_inplace`.
+    fn normalize_f64_fsl(v: &[f64], owned: bool) -> Vec<f64> {
+        let values = Float64Array::from(v.to_vec());
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float64, true));
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, v.len() as i32, Arc::new(values), None).unwrap();
+        let out = if owned {
+            normalize_fsl_owned(fsl).unwrap()
+        } else {
+            normalize_fsl(&fsl).unwrap()
+        };
+        out.values().as_primitive::<Float64Type>().values().to_vec()
+    }
+
+    /// `normalize` must accumulate the sum of squares in a type wider than the
+    /// element type. `f16::powi` rounds each square back to `f16`, which
+    /// saturates to `inf` at `|x| >= 256` and to zero at `|x| <= 1.726e-4`, so an
+    /// ordinary vector normalizes to all-zero or all-`inf`.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_f16_accumulates_wide() {
+        let cases: &[(&str, &[f32])] = &[
+            // A single element whose square leaves the f16 range.
+            ("square_overflows", &[256.0, 0.0]),
+            // No element overflows, but the sum of squares does.
+            ("sum_overflows", &[100.0; 7]),
+            // Every square rounds to zero, so the norm is zero and x/0 is inf.
+            ("square_underflows", &[1e-4; 8]),
+        ];
+        for (name, input) in cases {
+            let v = input.iter().map(|&x| f16::from_f32(x)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            // Independent reference: accumulate the same f16 inputs in f64.
+            let expected = v
+                .iter()
+                .map(|x| x.to_f64() * x.to_f64())
+                .sum::<f64>()
+                .sqrt();
+            let (normalized, norm) = normalize(&v);
+            assert!(
+                approx::relative_eq!(norm, expected as f32, max_relative = 1e-3),
+                "{name}: norm {norm} != expected {expected}"
+            );
+            let normalized = normalized.collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert!(
+                normalized.iter().all(|x| x.is_finite()),
+                "{name}: non-finite output {normalized:?}"
+            );
+
+            // The output must be a unit vector. This is the assertion that pins
+            // the division: an independent f64 sum of the squares, not a
+            // comparison against another call into the same code.
+            let unit = normalized
+                .iter()
+                .map(|x| x.to_f64() * x.to_f64())
+                .sum::<f64>();
+            assert!(
+                approx::relative_eq!(unit, 1.0, max_relative = 1e-2),
+                "{name}: output is not a unit vector, sum of squares {unit}"
+            );
+
+            // Also drive the `normalize_arrow` Float16 arm, so the dispatch cell
+            // is covered. Equality against the generic path only proves the two
+            // agree — the unit-norm check above is what proves either is right.
+            let (out, arrow_norm) = normalize_arrow(&Float16Array::from(v)).unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                approx::relative_eq!(arrow_norm, expected as f32, max_relative = 1e-3),
+                "{name}: normalize_arrow norm {arrow_norm} != expected {expected}"
+            );
+            let out = out.as_primitive::<Float16Type>();
+            assert_eq!(
+                out.values().as_ref(),
+                normalized.as_slice(),
+                "{name}: normalize_arrow values differ from the generic path"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `bf16` shares f32's exponent range, so it needs an `f64` accumulator —
+    /// `f32` would leave the same overflow the f16 case exists to fix.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_bf16_accumulates_wide() {
+        let cases: &[(&str, &[f32])] = &[
+            ("square_overflows", &[1e20, 0.0]),
+            ("sum_overflows", &[1e19; 12]),
+            ("square_underflows", &[1e-25, 1e-25]),
+        ];
+        for (name, input) in cases {
+            let v = input.iter().map(|&x| bf16::from_f32(x)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let expected = v
+                .iter()
+                .map(|x| x.to_f64() * x.to_f64())
+                .sum::<f64>()
+                .sqrt();
+            let (normalized, norm) = normalize(&v);
+            let normalized = normalized.collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert!(
+                approx::relative_eq!(norm as f64, expected, max_relative = 1e-2),
+                "{name}: norm {norm} != expected {expected}"
+            );
+            let unit = normalized
+                .iter()
+                .map(|x| x.to_f64() * x.to_f64())
+                .sum::<f64>();
+            assert!(
+                approx::relative_eq!(unit, 1.0, max_relative = 1e-2),
+                "{name}: output is not a unit vector, sum of squares {unit}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Both FSL entry points share the defect, including the in-place path in
+    /// [`do_normalize_fsl_inplace`], which has its own copy of the expression.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_fsl_f16_accumulates_wide() {
+        // dim 2, row 0 overflows at the square, row 1 underflows at the square.
+        let make = || {
+            let values =
+                Float16Array::from_iter_values([256.0f32, 0.0, 1e-4, 1e-4].map(f16::from_f32));
+            let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float16, true));
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, 2, Arc::new(values), None).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // `normalize_fsl_owned` gets a freshly built array so the buffer is
+        // uniquely owned and the in-place branch is the one exercised.
+        let outputs = [
+            ("normalize_fsl", normalize_fsl(&make()).unwrap()),
+            ("normalize_fsl_owned", normalize_fsl_owned(make()).unwrap()),
+        ];
+        for (label, out) in outputs {
+            let got = out.values().as_primitive::<Float16Type>();
+            for (row, chunk) in got.values().chunks(2).enumerate() {
+                let norm = chunk
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|x| x.to_f64() * x.to_f64())
+                    .sum::<f64>()
+                    .sqrt();
+                assert!(
+                    approx::relative_eq!(norm, 1.0, max_relative = 1e-2),
+                    "{label} row {row}: normalized norm {norm} != 1, values {chunk:?}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_normalize_fsl_with_nulls() {
         // Create test data with nulls
@@ -451,4 +767,106 @@ mod tests {
         assert_relative_eq!(values.value(2), 0.0);
         assert_relative_eq!(values.value(3), 1.0);
     }
+
+    fn make_fsl(values: &[f32], dim: i32) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            field,
+            dim,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(values.iter().copied())),
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Assert FSL values match expected, where None means NaN.
+    fn assert_fsl_eq(actual: &FixedSizeListArray, expected: &[Option<f32>], label: &str) {
+        let vals = actual.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        assert_eq!(vals.len(), expected.len(), "{label}: length mismatch");
+        for (i, exp) in expected.iter().enumerate() {
+            match exp {
+                None => assert!(vals.value(i).is_nan(), "{label}[{i}]: expected NaN"),
+                Some(v) => assert_relative_eq!(vals.value(i), *v, epsilon = 1e-6),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// normalize_fsl_owned produces correct values and matches normalize_fsl.
+    /// Zero vectors yield NaN (cosine is undefined; downstream is_finite filters them).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_fsl_owned_values() {
+        #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
+        let cases: &[(&str, &[f32], &[Option<f32>])] = &[
+            (
+                "basic",
+                &[3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 12.0],
+                &[Some(0.6), Some(0.8), Some(5.0 / 13.0), Some(12.0 / 13.0)],
+            ),
+            (
+                "zero_vector",
+                &[3.0, 4.0, 0.0, 0.0, 5.0, 12.0],
+                &[
+                    Some(0.6),
+                    Some(0.8),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                    Some(5.0 / 13.0),
+                    Some(12.0 / 13.0),
+                ],
+            ),
+        ];
+        for (name, input, expected) in cases {
+            let fsl = make_fsl(input, 2);
+            assert_fsl_eq(&normalize_fsl(&fsl).unwrap(), expected, name);
+            assert_fsl_eq(&normalize_fsl_owned(fsl).unwrap(), expected, name);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Uniquely-owned buffer is mutated in-place (no copy).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_fsl_owned_inplace() {
+        let fsl = make_fsl(&[3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 12.0], 2);
+        let ptr = fsl.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().as_ptr();
+        let result = normalize_fsl_owned(fsl).unwrap();
+        let new_ptr = result
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .as_ptr();
+        assert_eq!(ptr, new_ptr, "expected in-place mutation");
+    }
+
+    /// Sliced inputs normalize correctly via the by-reference path.
+    /// (normalize_fsl_owned uses into_builder which does not support sliced
+    /// arrays; use normalize_fsl for sliced data.)
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_fsl_sliced_input() {
+        let sliced = {
+            let fsl = make_fsl(&[1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 3.0, 4.0], 2);
+            fsl.slice(1, 2)
+        };
+
+        let expected = &[Some(0.0), Some(1.0), Some(0.6), Some(0.8)];
+        assert_fsl_eq(&normalize_fsl(&sliced).unwrap(), expected, "sliced_ref");
+    }
+
+    /// Shared buffer falls back to copy path and still produces correct values.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_fsl_owned_shared_buffer_fallback() {
+        let fsl = make_fsl(&[3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 12.0], 2);
+        let _hold = fsl.clone(); // force shared buffer
+        let expected = &[Some(0.6), Some(0.8), Some(5.0 / 13.0), Some(12.0 / 13.0)];
+        assert_fsl_eq(&normalize_fsl_owned(fsl).unwrap(), expected, "fallback");
+    }
+
+    /// Null buffer is preserved through normalization.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_fsl_owned_preserves_nulls() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter_values([3.0, 4.0, 0.0, 0.0, 5.0, 12.0]);
+        let nulls = NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, true]);
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, 2, Arc::new(values), Some(nulls.clone())).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(normalize_fsl_owned(fsl).unwrap().nulls(), Some(&nulls));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd.rs
index 0526d531b8f..23298694f75 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd.rs
@@ -14,10 +14,14 @@
 
 use std::ops::{Add, AddAssign, Mul, Sub, SubAssign};
 
+pub mod amx_fp16;
 pub mod dist_table;
 pub mod f32;
+pub mod f64;
 pub mod i32;
 pub mod u8;
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+pub(crate) mod x86;
 
 use num_traits::{Float, Num};
 use u8::u8x16;
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/amx_fp16.c b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/amx_fp16.c
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7d97844d3f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/amx_fp16.c
@@ -0,0 +1,727 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+// AMX-FP16 tile kernels, and the tile-configuration plumbing they share.
+//
+// Every kernel here computes fp16 x fp16 dot products with TDPFP16PS
+// (fp16 x fp16 -> fp32 accumulate). The tile *shapes* differ per kernel and are
+// declared next to each one; the code that turns a shape into a loaded
+// LDTILECFG image is shared, because the one subtle step in it (the
+// dead-store barrier below) fails silently and only on some compilers, so it
+// must exist exactly once.
+//
+// Two kernels:
+//   * `lance_amx_dot_f16_batch_16` -- one query against 16 candidates, for
+//     choosing the IVF partitions a query probes (16 centroids per call).
+//     Ported in spirit from FAISS PR
+//     facebookresearch/faiss#5235's AMX-BF16 kernel: fp16 and bf16 are both
+//     2-byte tile elements consumed by the same `_tile_dp*ps` shape, so only the
+//     instruction (`_tile_dpbf16ps` -> `_tile_dpfp16ps`) and the element ->
+//     float conversion (bf16 bit-shift -> real IEEE fp16 via F16C `_cvtsh_ss`)
+//     differ. Its C tile is fed by three independent (A, B) tile pairs so three
+//     TDPFP16PS can be in flight at once; see the tile roles below.
+//   * `lance_amx_dot_f16_gemm` -- an m x n GEMM, for scoring many vectors
+//     against many centroids at once (k-means assignment). Uses all eight tiles
+//     as a 2x2 register-blocked accumulator.
+//
+// ## Tile configuration is reloaded on every call
+//
+// Each kernel has one compile-time tile shape (`SEARCH_TILES` / `GEMM_TILES`),
+// so caching its LDTILECFG is tempting: that reconfiguration costs a few
+// hundred cycles, against the ~64 cycles of useful tile work a dim-128 search
+// call performs. It is still wrong, because Lance does not own the tile unit:
+// LDTILECFG and TILERELEASE are architectural per-logical-processor state, so
+// another AMX user on the thread (oneDNN under PyTorch, ONNX Runtime, same
+// Python process) can retire or reshape a configuration Lance believes is live
+// -- a foreign TILERELEASE leaves the tiles in INIT and the next tile op raises
+// #UD, a foreign LDTILECFG silently substitutes wrong shapes. Neither is
+// observable from here, and a kernel reached from arbitrary Rust and C cannot
+// bound what runs between two of its own calls.
+//
+// So nothing is cached: every kernel configures the tiles on entry and releases
+// them on exit, and pays that per call. Against a GEMM over a whole block of
+// vectors it is noise; against a batch-16 search it is most of the call, and is
+// spent anyway, because the alternative is a configuration whose validity this
+// file has no way to establish.
+//
+// ## Thread safety
+//
+// LDTILECFG sets per-logical-processor state, and nothing here is shared
+// mutably: the spec tables are `static const` and the 64-byte config *image* is
+// built on the calling thread's stack, so one thread's shape can never reach
+// another's tile ops -- as with the XTILECFG it is loaded into, which rides in
+// the thread's own XSAVE area. That says nothing about what *other* libraries
+// on this thread have done to the tile unit, which is what reconfiguring on
+// every entry is for.
+//
+// SAFETY: executing any AMX tile instruction without first (a) confirming the
+// amx-tile + amx-fp16 CPUID bits and (b) obtaining XTILEDATA permission from
+// the kernel raises SIGILL. Both are the Rust caller's responsibility (see
+// `simd/amx_fp16.rs`); `lance_amx_fp16_request_perm` below performs (b).
+
+// Must precede all includes: exposes the glibc `syscall()` prototype from
+// <unistd.h>, which -std=c17 otherwise hides.
+#define _GNU_SOURCE
+
+#include <immintrin.h>
+#include <stddef.h>
+#include <stdint.h>
+#include <string.h>
+
+#ifdef __linux__
+#include <sys/syscall.h>
+#include <unistd.h>
+#endif
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// XTILEDATA permission
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+// Ask the kernel to enable AMX tile data state for this process, via
+// arch_prctl(ARCH_REQ_XCOMP_PERM, XFEATURE_XTILEDATA). Returns 0 on success,
+// non-zero otherwise. Requesting XTILEDATA (18) implicitly also grants
+// XTILECFG (17). Constants per Linux Documentation/arch/x86/xstate.rst.
+//
+// XTILEDATA is the single dynamically-enabled XSAVE state component backing the
+// physical TMM tile registers, shared by every AMX compute instruction
+// (TDPBUUD / TDPBF16PS / TDPFP16PS ...). The syscall is idempotent, so
+// requesting an already-granted permission is harmless.
+int lance_amx_fp16_request_perm(void) {
+#ifdef __linux__
+  const unsigned long ARCH_REQ_XCOMP_PERM = 0x1023;
+  const unsigned long XFEATURE_XTILEDATA = 18;
+  return (int)syscall(SYS_arch_prctl, ARCH_REQ_XCOMP_PERM, XFEATURE_XTILEDATA);
+#else
+  return -1;
+#endif
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Shared tile configuration
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+// Tile configuration kinds. One per distinct tile shape, and the selector
+// `lance_amx_tilecfg_image` exposes to the Rust tests so they can pin a shape
+// without executing a tile instruction. Kept in sync with the `AMX_CFG_*`
+// constants in `simd/amx_fp16.rs`.
+#define LANCE_AMX_CFG_SEARCH 0
+#define LANCE_AMX_CFG_GEMM 1
+
+// The 64-byte tile configuration image loaded by LDTILECFG
+// (`_tile_loadconfig`). Layout per Intel SDM: palette_id, start_row, 14
+// reserved bytes, then a u16 colsb[16] (bytes-per-row) array and a u8 rows[16]
+// array. Slots not named by a kernel's spec table stay zero.
+//
+// 64-byte aligned so the configuration load does not straddle a cache line.
+typedef struct __attribute__((packed, aligned(64))) {
+  uint8_t palette_id;
+  uint8_t start_row;
+  uint8_t reserved[14];
+  uint16_t colsb[16];
+  uint8_t rows[16];
+} lance_amx_tilecfg;
+
+// The image LDTILECFG reads is exactly 64 bytes; a layout change that altered
+// the size would silently feed the instruction garbage.
+_Static_assert(sizeof(lance_amx_tilecfg) == 64,
+               "LDTILECFG image must be exactly 64 bytes");
+
+// One tile register's shape. `tmm` is the register index (0..7), `colsb` its
+// bytes per row, `rows` its row count.
+typedef struct {
+  uint8_t tmm;
+  uint8_t rows;
+  uint16_t colsb;
+} lance_amx_tile_spec;
+
+#define LANCE_AMX_TILE_COUNT(specs) (sizeof(specs) / sizeof((specs)[0]))
+
+// Fill `cfg` with the LDTILECFG image described by `specs`, without loading it.
+// Split from the load so `lance_amx_tilecfg_image` can hand the Rust tests the
+// exact bytes a kernel would configure.
+static void lance_amx_tilecfg_build(lance_amx_tilecfg *cfg,
+                                    const lance_amx_tile_spec *specs,
+                                    size_t n) {
+  memset(cfg, 0, sizeof(*cfg));
+  cfg->palette_id = 1;
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+    cfg->rows[specs[i].tmm] = specs[i].rows;
+    cfg->colsb[specs[i].tmm] = specs[i].colsb;
+  }
+}
+
+// Load the tile configuration described by `specs`. Unconditional: see the file
+// header for why no state is kept about what is already loaded.
+//
+// The barrier is not optional: some GCC versions do not model
+// _tile_loadconfig as reading the 64-byte cfg image, dead-store-eliminate the
+// rows/colsb writes, and load an all-zero (unconfigured) tile shape -> #UD on
+// the first tile op (documented in FAISS #5235). Keeping it here, in the one
+// function that owns the image, is why kernels do not build configurations
+// themselves. Harmless under clang.
+static inline void lance_amx_tile_ensure(const lance_amx_tile_spec *specs,
+                                         size_t n) {
+  lance_amx_tilecfg cfg;
+  lance_amx_tilecfg_build(&cfg, specs, n);
+  __asm__ volatile("" : : "m"(cfg) : "memory");
+  _tile_loadconfig(&cfg);
+}
+
+// Hand the tile unit back at the end of a kernel. Pairs with
+// `lance_amx_tile_ensure`, and must run on every exit path of a kernel that
+// configured tiles.
+//
+// Not for Lance's own benefit -- `lance_amx_tile_ensure` reloads on every entry,
+// so a stale configuration could never reach one of these kernels either way. It
+// is for everyone else on the thread: a live tile configuration keeps 8 KB of
+// XTILEDATA in this thread's XSAVE area across every context switch, and leaves
+// a shape another AMX user did not ask for sitting on hardware it also uses.
+//
+// Because it is nobody's correctness but the neighbours', deleting it leaves
+// every result right and every "did it crash?" test green. Only
+// `lance_amx_tilecfg_current_for_test`, which reads the hardware, notices.
+static inline void lance_amx_tile_done(void) { _tile_release(); }
+
+// Test hook: retire the tile configuration the way a *foreign* AMX user on this
+// thread would, so a test can put the tile unit in INIT under a kernel that is
+// about to run and check the kernel reconfigures instead of assuming.
+//
+// Hidden visibility because this manufactures the state the rest of this file
+// exists to prevent: it is linked into the crate for its regression test, but is
+// not something a shipped shared object should offer to whatever else is in the
+// process.
+//
+// TILERELEASE needs no XTILEDATA grant of its own -- XFD traps only instructions
+// that touch a TMM register -- but a test calling this is about to call a kernel
+// that does, so it should have gone through `amx_supported()` anyway.
+__attribute__((visibility("hidden"))) void lance_amx_tile_clobber_for_test(void) {
+  _tile_release();
+}
+
+// Test hook: copy this logical processor's *live* tile configuration into the
+// 64 bytes at `out`, via STTILECFG. A `palette_id` of 0 means the tile unit is
+// in INIT state -- nothing configured.
+//
+// This reads the hardware rather than any record Lance keeps, which is what
+// makes it able to catch the half of this design that has no other symptom:
+// `lance_amx_tile_ensure` reloading on every entry is what keeps results
+// correct, so dropping `lance_amx_tile_done`'s release leaves behaviour right
+// and every "did it crash?" test passing, and only a live `palette_id` reported
+// back here says the tile unit was never handed over.
+//
+// STTILECFG does not touch a TMM register, so unlike the kernels it is legal
+// without the XTILEDATA grant. Hidden for the same reason as the clobber hook.
+__attribute__((visibility("hidden"))) void lance_amx_tilecfg_current_for_test(
+    uint8_t *out) {
+  lance_amx_tilecfg cfg;
+  _tile_storeconfig(&cfg);
+  memcpy(out, &cfg, sizeof(cfg));
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Kernel: batch-16 search (one query x 16 candidates)
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+// Tile roles. These are immediate operands of the tile intrinsics, so they must
+// be compile-time constants; `#define` rather than `enum` avoids relying on how
+// strictly a compiler treats enum constants as immediates.
+//
+// One TDPFP16PS pass covers K = 32 fp16 dims. With N = 1 the query needs no
+// VNNI repacking: B.row[k].fp16[i] = query[k*2 + i] is just the contiguous
+// query halfwords, obtained by loading with a 4-byte row stride. The candidates
+// form the A tile's rows; they live at unrelated addresses, so this kernel
+// stages them a few k-blocks at a time into a fixed-stride scratch buffer that
+// the tile load can read (see `lance_amx_stage_rows`).
+//
+// Three (A, B) pairs, not one. A single pair would make the loop strictly
+// serial -- every TDPFP16PS waiting on the two loads that just overwrote its
+// own operands -- so the tile unit would idle through each load's latency.
+// Three independent pairs let three k-blocks' loads issue before the first
+// TDPFP16PS needs its result, which is enough to keep the dp ops back to back.
+// Seven tiles is what that costs; tmm7 is left unconfigured.
+#define SEARCH_TMM_C 0   // 16 results x 1 fp32
+#define SEARCH_TMM_A0 1  // 16 candidate rows x 32 fp16, k-block 3t
+#define SEARCH_TMM_B0 2  // query, VNNI-packed at N = 1, k-block 3t
+#define SEARCH_TMM_A1 3  // k-block 3t + 1
+#define SEARCH_TMM_B1 4
+#define SEARCH_TMM_A2 5  // k-block 3t + 2
+#define SEARCH_TMM_B2 6
+
+static const lance_amx_tile_spec SEARCH_TILES[] = {
+    {SEARCH_TMM_C, 16, 4},   {SEARCH_TMM_A0, 16, 64}, {SEARCH_TMM_B0, 16, 4},
+    {SEARCH_TMM_A1, 16, 64}, {SEARCH_TMM_B1, 16, 4},  {SEARCH_TMM_A2, 16, 64},
+    {SEARCH_TMM_B2, 16, 4},
+};
+
+// Halfwords of one k-block: 32 fp16 dims, the K a single TDPFP16PS covers.
+#define SEARCH_K_BLOCK 32
+
+// Bytes one tile row spans in one k-block: 32 fp16, the A tile's full row width.
+#define SEARCH_ROW_BYTES (SEARCH_K_BLOCK * (int)sizeof(uint16_t))
+
+// K-blocks gathered per staging step. Three, so one staged buffer feeds exactly
+// the three (A, B) pairs the main loop issues together.
+#define SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS 3
+#define SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES (SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS * SEARCH_ROW_BYTES)
+
+// One staging buffer: the 16 rows a tile load always reads, whatever the batch
+// actually holds.
+#define SEARCH_STAGE_BYTES (16 * SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES)
+
+// The furthest-reaching tile load is A2: 64 bytes at offset 128 of the last of
+// 16 rows, so the last byte it touches is at 128 + 15*192 + 63 and the span it
+// covers is exactly SEARCH_STAGE_BYTES. Asserted because an overrun here would
+// be a stack smash with no other symptom.
+//
+// What this actually pins is that the three A tiles tile one staging row with
+// no gap and no overlap, i.e. SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS == 3; it does not check
+// SEARCH_K_BLOCK, nor the 64-byte A-tile width, which is hardcoded separately
+// in SEARCH_TILES.
+_Static_assert(2 * SEARCH_ROW_BYTES + 15 * SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES +
+                       SEARCH_ROW_BYTES ==
+                   SEARCH_STAGE_BYTES,
+               "the three A tiles must tile a staging row exactly");
+
+// Gather `row_bytes` starting at k-block `kb` out of each of the first `count`
+// candidates into `dst`, one candidate per row.
+//
+// Rows are SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES apart even when `row_bytes` is smaller: an A
+// tile only reads 64 bytes at its own offset within a row, so a wider stride
+// simply leaves the trailing bytes unread. Keeping the stride fixed across
+// every staging step is what lets rows [count, 16) be zeroed once per call --
+// each step then rewrites the same rows at the same addresses.
+//
+// The k-blocks a row covers are adjacent inside the candidate vector, so each
+// candidate costs exactly one straight-line copy no matter how many k-blocks the
+// step covers. `row_bytes` should stay a compile-time constant at every call
+// site: a constant size expands to inline wide moves, while a variable one
+// becomes a libc `memcpy` call that `-funroll-loops` then multiplies (five PLT
+// calls for the one remainder loop, measured under clang-16).
+//
+// Zeroing the padding rows is deliberately *not* routed through here: it writes
+// rows [count, 16) rather than [0, count), and when the rows are full width it
+// is one contiguous `memset` rather than a per-row loop.
+static inline void lance_amx_stage_rows(uint8_t *dst,
+                                        const uint16_t *const *candidates,
+                                        size_t count, size_t kb,
+                                        size_t row_bytes) {
+  for (size_t n = 0; n < count; n++) {
+    memcpy(dst + n * SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES,
+           candidates[n] + kb * SEARCH_K_BLOCK, row_bytes);
+  }
+}
+
+// out[i] = sum_{d in 0..dim} f32(query[d]) * f32(candidates[i][d]), i < count.
+//
+// `query`      -- IEEE-754 binary16 values as raw uint16_t bit patterns
+//                 (half::f16 has identical layout); `dim` valid halfwords.
+// `candidates` -- pointers to `dim` halfwords each; only the first `count` are
+//                 read. The vectors live wherever the storage put them; this
+//                 kernel owns the gather.
+// `count`      -- candidates carrying a real vector. **Precondition:
+//                 1 <= count <= 16**, rejected at the Rust boundary
+//                 (`dot_f16_batch_16`) rather than clamped here; a larger value
+//                 would run the gather off the end of a staging buffer.
+// `dim`        -- vector dimension.
+// `out`        -- destination for 16 fp32 dot products. Lanes [count, 16) are
+//                 written as 0, not left untouched.
+//
+// ## Why `count` rather than always 16
+//
+// The caller sweeps centroids 16 at a time, so when their count is not a
+// multiple of 16 the last group is short and it fills the spare slots by
+// repeating a row it already holds. Staging all 16 rows would copy that row an
+// extra 16 - count times; skipping them saves that much of a memcpy on at most
+// one group per sweep, so `count` buys far less here than it did for a caller
+// whose batches were usually partial. Only rows [0, count) are gathered, so the
+// copying scales with the vectors actually scored while the tile work stays one
+// fixed-cost pass. The padded rows still have to exist, since a tile load reads
+// 16 rows unconditionally; they are zeroed once per call, and an all-zero A row
+// yields a zero dot product.
+//
+// ## Why the gather is here and not in the caller
+//
+// A tile load reads 16 rows at one fixed stride from one base pointer, and no
+// stride is guaranteed between this kernel's 16 candidate pointers, so their
+// bytes have to be brought together somewhere. Doing it in the caller means
+// copying 16 * dim * 2 bytes -- 24 KB at dim 768, 32 KB at dim 1024 -- and every
+// one of those bytes has to land before the first TDPFP16PS can issue. Against a
+// 48 KB L1D that buffer alone is half the cache, and the copy is pure exposed
+// latency: nothing overlaps it.
+//
+// Staging inside the k-block loop instead keeps the working buffer at 3 KB and
+// lets the copies for one triple run underneath the tile ops of the previous
+// one. The bytes moved are identical; what changes is that they move while the
+// tile unit is busy rather than before it starts. (Measured on the caller-side
+// version at dim 1024: __memmove 3.7M cycles/query against 0.5M for the scalar
+// kernel, IPC 1.70 -> 1.17, and a critical path 18% longer even though total CPU
+// work per query was 6.5% lower. The same structure is what
+// epeshared/hnswlib-amx uses for its AMX-BF16 kernel.)
+//
+// For dim > 32 we accumulate across floor(dim/32) tile passes into the same C
+// tile, three k-blocks at a time. The tail (dim % 32 dims) is computed in
+// scalar fp32 afterwards. The result is NOT bit-exact against a sequential
+// scalar loop: floating-point tile-order accumulation rounds differently. It
+// matches an f32-accumulated reference dot product to within fp16 precision,
+// which is all the fp16 distance path requires (see amx_fp16.rs / the Rust-side
+// tests).
+void lance_amx_dot_f16_batch_16(const uint16_t *query,
+                                const uint16_t *const *candidates, size_t count,
+                                size_t dim, float *out) {
+  const size_t blocks = dim / SEARCH_K_BLOCK;   // whole 32-wide tile passes
+  const size_t full = blocks * SEARCH_K_BLOCK;  // dims they cover
+
+  if (blocks > 0) {
+    lance_amx_tile_ensure(SEARCH_TILES, LANCE_AMX_TILE_COUNT(SEARCH_TILES));
+
+    // Two staging buffers, 16 rows x 192 bytes each. Double buffered so a
+    // triple's gather can be issued a whole triple before the tile loads that
+    // read it: a tile load cannot take its data from the store buffer, so the
+    // gather's stores have to reach L1 first, and with one buffer there is
+    // nothing to overlap that drain with. 3 KB each, so both sit in L1D
+    // alongside the candidate rows streaming through it.
+    __attribute__((aligned(64))) uint8_t stage[2][SEARCH_STAGE_BYTES];
+
+    const size_t triples = blocks / SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS;
+    const size_t rem = blocks % SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS;
+
+    // Rows [count, 16) are padding that a tile load reads but no candidate
+    // fills, so they are zeroed here and an all-zero A row then contributes a
+    // zero dot product. Once per call is enough: every staging step below
+    // writes rows [0, count) only, always at the same row stride, so nothing
+    // disturbs the padding again.
+    //
+    // Only bytes some tile load actually reads are zeroed. This cost is the one
+    // part of the call that does not shrink with `dim`, so zeroing the full
+    // 2 x 15 x 192 bytes unconditionally would dominate short vectors:
+    //   * `stage[1]` is tile-loaded only if the main loop reaches a second
+    //     iteration, or the remainder lands on it (an odd `triples`). A single
+    //     triple with no remainder never reads it at all.
+    //   * A padding row is read to its full width only by the main loop. With
+    //     `triples == 0` the remainder is the only reader, and it loads A0 --
+    //     plus A1 when `rem == 2` -- so only the first `rem` k-block slots of
+    //     each row are ever seen.
+    if (count < 16) {
+      const size_t pad_off = count * SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES;
+      if (triples > 0) {
+        // Full-width padding rows are contiguous: one memset covers them all.
+        memset(stage[0] + pad_off, 0, SEARCH_STAGE_BYTES - pad_off);
+        if (triples > 1 || rem > 0) {
+          memset(stage[1] + pad_off, 0, SEARCH_STAGE_BYTES - pad_off);
+        }
+      } else {
+        for (size_t n = count; n < 16; n++) {
+          memset(stage[0] + n * SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES, 0,
+                 rem * (size_t)SEARCH_ROW_BYTES);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    _tile_zero(SEARCH_TMM_C);
+
+    // Take ownership of the destination line now (PREFETCHW), so the RFO
+    // overlaps the tile work instead of stalling TILESTORED at the end. The
+    // store is 64 bytes issued as one instruction, and waiting on the RFO there
+    // backs up the store queue: measured on the FAISS #5235 BF16 kernel as
+    // SQ_Full 28.9% of cycles, with XQ.FULL_CYCLES 56x an AVX-512 baseline.
+    _mm_prefetch((const char *)out, _MM_HINT_ET0);
+
+    // Prologue of the software pipeline below, and the one gather in the call
+    // with no tile work ahead of it to hide behind.
+    if (triples > 0) {
+      lance_amx_stage_rows(stage[0], candidates, count, 0,
+                           SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES);
+
+      // The in-loop prefetch below runs two triples ahead, so k-blocks
+      // [3, 6) -- read by the very first iteration's gather -- would otherwise
+      // be touched by nothing. Guarded on the address staying inside the
+      // vectors, which also covers a remainder that follows a single triple.
+      if (SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS < blocks) {
+        for (size_t n = 0; n < count; n++) {
+          _mm_prefetch(
+              (const char *)(candidates[n] +
+                             SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS * (size_t)SEARCH_K_BLOCK),
+              _MM_HINT_T0);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    size_t kb = 0;
+    for (size_t t = 0; t < triples; t++, kb += SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS) {
+      const uint8_t *st = stage[t & 1];
+
+      // Gather the *next* triple before issuing this one's tile ops, into the
+      // buffer the previous iteration's tile loads have already consumed. Those
+      // stores then have a full triple of tile work to commit to L1 under,
+      // instead of the tile load immediately below them waiting on the drain.
+      if (t + 1 < triples) {
+        // Open the candidate streams the iteration after this one will copy
+        // from, so that copy finds them resident. With the rows at 16 unrelated
+        // addresses there is no single stride for a hardware prefetcher to
+        // latch onto; what it can do is run each candidate forward once that
+        // candidate has been touched, and these touches are what start it.
+        // (Measured on the FAISS #5235 BF16 kernel without any prefetch: L1D MPI
+        // 2.6x and DTLB load MPI 14.6x an AVX-512 baseline.) Guarded so the last
+        // iterations stay inside the vectors.
+        if (kb + 2 * SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS < blocks) {
+          const size_t ahead = (kb + 2 * SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS) * SEARCH_K_BLOCK;
+          for (size_t n = 0; n < count; n++) {
+            _mm_prefetch((const char *)(candidates[n] + ahead), _MM_HINT_T0);
+          }
+        }
+        lance_amx_stage_rows(stage[(t + 1) & 1], candidates, count,
+                             kb + SEARCH_STAGE_BLOCKS, SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES);
+      }
+
+      // All six loads first: they are independent, so the three dp ops below
+      // issue back to back rather than each waiting on its own operands.
+      _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_A0, st + 0 * SEARCH_ROW_BYTES,
+                  SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES);
+      _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_B0, query + kb * SEARCH_K_BLOCK, 4);
+      _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_A1, st + 1 * SEARCH_ROW_BYTES,
+                  SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES);
+      _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_B1, query + (kb + 1) * SEARCH_K_BLOCK, 4);
+      _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_A2, st + 2 * SEARCH_ROW_BYTES,
+                  SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES);
+      _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_B2, query + (kb + 2) * SEARCH_K_BLOCK, 4);
+
+      // C += A * B  (fp16 x fp16 -> fp32)
+      _tile_dpfp16ps(SEARCH_TMM_C, SEARCH_TMM_A0, SEARCH_TMM_B0);
+      _tile_dpfp16ps(SEARCH_TMM_C, SEARCH_TMM_A1, SEARCH_TMM_B1);
+      _tile_dpfp16ps(SEARCH_TMM_C, SEARCH_TMM_A2, SEARCH_TMM_B2);
+    }
+
+    // The 1 or 2 k-blocks left over when `blocks` is not a multiple of three.
+    // `stage[triples & 1]` is the buffer the loop above neither wrote nor read
+    // last, so filling it now cannot collide with a tile load still in flight.
+    if (rem > 0) {
+      uint8_t *st = stage[triples & 1];
+      // Two constant-size cases rather than one `rem * 64` copy, because a
+      // variable-length memcpy here does not stay one instruction: clang-16
+      // emits a libc call and `-funroll-loops` then multiplies it, measured as
+      // five `memcpy@PLT` calls for this one loop (the pre-`count` kernel,
+      // whose loop ran to 16, paid sixteen). The main loop's gather is
+      // unaffected either way -- it keeps its inline wide moves -- so this is
+      // about the remainder alone. The branch costs one predictable compare.
+      if (rem == 2) {
+        lance_amx_stage_rows(st, candidates, count, kb, 2 * SEARCH_ROW_BYTES);
+      } else {
+        lance_amx_stage_rows(st, candidates, count, kb, SEARCH_ROW_BYTES);
+      }
+
+      // Loaded at the main loop's row stride even though only `rem` k-blocks are
+      // live: A0 and A1 read their own 64 bytes at offsets 0 and 64, which is
+      // what the staging step just filled, and the padding rows are already zero
+      // at exactly this stride.
+      _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_A0, st, SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES);
+      _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_B0, query + kb * SEARCH_K_BLOCK, 4);
+      if (rem == 2) {
+        _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_A1, st + SEARCH_ROW_BYTES,
+                    SEARCH_STAGE_ROW_BYTES);
+        _tile_loadd(SEARCH_TMM_B1, query + (kb + 1) * SEARCH_K_BLOCK, 4);
+      }
+      _tile_dpfp16ps(SEARCH_TMM_C, SEARCH_TMM_A0, SEARCH_TMM_B0);
+      if (rem == 2) {
+        _tile_dpfp16ps(SEARCH_TMM_C, SEARCH_TMM_A1, SEARCH_TMM_B1);
+      }
+    }
+
+    _tile_stored(SEARCH_TMM_C, out, 4);  // 16 fp32, row stride 4 bytes
+    // Last tile op in this call; the tail below is scalar. Hands the tile unit
+    // back so an interleaved AMX user on this thread cannot be surprised by a
+    // configuration it did not ask for.
+    lance_amx_tile_done();
+  } else {
+    for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) out[i] = 0.0f;
+  }
+
+  // Tail: the dims not covered by a full 32-wide tile, in scalar fp32. F16C
+  // `_cvtsh_ss` is an exact (lossless) binary16 -> binary32 widening. Lanes at
+  // or past `count` are skipped rather than accumulated onto: they are already
+  // 0 (zeroed staging rows, or the no-tile-pass branch above) and must stay so.
+  const size_t tail = dim - full;
+  if (tail > 0) {
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < count; i++) {
+      float acc = 0.0f;
+      const uint16_t *row = candidates[i];
+      for (size_t d = full; d < dim; d++) {
+        acc += _cvtsh_ss(row[d]) * _cvtsh_ss(query[d]);
+      }
+      out[i] += acc;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Kernel: M x N GEMM (many vectors x many centroids)
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+// Tile roles for the 2x2-register-blocked GEMM. Two A tiles (32 vectors) and
+// two B tiles (32 centroids) feed four C accumulators, so one k-pass issues 4
+// TDPFP16PS against 4 tile loads -- the highest compute-per-load ratio the 8
+// physical tiles allow, and the reason all 8 are claimed here.
+#define GEMM_TMM_C00 0  // 16 vectors x 16 centroids, fp32
+#define GEMM_TMM_C01 1
+#define GEMM_TMM_C10 2
+#define GEMM_TMM_C11 3
+#define GEMM_TMM_A0 4  // 16 vector rows x 32 fp16 dims
+#define GEMM_TMM_A1 5
+#define GEMM_TMM_B0 6  // 32 dims x 16 centroids, VNNI-interleaved
+#define GEMM_TMM_B1 7
+
+// All eight at the architectural maximum (16 rows x 64 bytes = 1 KB), which is
+// exactly the 8 KB of tile state AMX provides.
+static const lance_amx_tile_spec GEMM_TILES[] = {
+    {GEMM_TMM_C00, 16, 64}, {GEMM_TMM_C01, 16, 64}, {GEMM_TMM_C10, 16, 64},
+    {GEMM_TMM_C11, 16, 64}, {GEMM_TMM_A0, 16, 64},  {GEMM_TMM_A1, 16, 64},
+    {GEMM_TMM_B0, 16, 64},  {GEMM_TMM_B1, 16, 64},
+};
+
+// Halfwords per packed B block: 16 tile rows x 32 halfwords per row.
+#define GEMM_B_BLOCK 512
+
+// out[i*out_stride + j] = sum_{d in 0..dim} f32(data[i*data_stride + d]) *
+//                                           f32(centroids[j*dim + d]).
+//
+// `data`        -- [m, dim] row-major fp16 bit patterns, rows `data_stride`
+//                  halfwords apart (`data_stride >= dim`).
+// `m`           -- number of vectors; **must be a multiple of 32**.
+// `packed_b`    -- centroids pre-interleaved by `pack_centroids_vnni` (see
+//                  `amx_fp16.rs`), holding only the floor(dim/32) whole
+//                  32-dim k-blocks.
+// `centroids`   -- the same [n, dim] row-major centroids `packed_b` was built
+//                  from. Read only for the `dim % 32` tail dims, which are not
+//                  worth a tile pass and so are never packed; still required
+//                  when dim % 32 == 0, where it goes unread.
+// `n`           -- number of centroids; **must be a multiple of 32**.
+// `dim`         -- vector dimension; any value, the tail runs scalar.
+// `out`         -- [m, n] row-major fp32, rows `out_stride` floats apart
+//                  (`out_stride >= n`).
+//
+// The m and n multiple-of-32 requirements are preconditions, not something this
+// kernel checks or works around: they let the register-blocked loop run with no
+// edge cases, and the Rust caller is the layer that knows how to pad or split.
+//
+// The k dimension carries no such requirement. TDPFP16PS accumulation rounds
+// differently from a sequential scalar loop, so results match an f32-accumulated
+// reference to fp16 precision rather than bit-exactly -- same contract as
+// `lance_amx_dot_f16_batch_16`.
+//
+// B's VNNI interleave is what makes A loadable straight out of `data`: with
+//   packed_b[((kb*(n/16) + jb)*512) + k*32 + nn*2 + p]
+//       == centroids[(jb*16 + nn)*dim + kb*32 + 2*k + p]
+// TDPFP16PS's b.row[k].fp16[2*nn+p] lands on centroid (jb*16+nn) dim
+// (kb*32+2*k+p), pairing it with a.row[mm].fp16[2*k+p] = the same dim of vector
+// (i+mm). k-blocks are the outer index so one k-pass reads the two B tiles it
+// needs from adjacent memory.
+void lance_amx_dot_f16_gemm(const uint16_t *data, size_t m, size_t data_stride,
+                            const uint16_t *packed_b, const uint16_t *centroids,
+                            size_t n, size_t dim, float *out,
+                            size_t out_stride) {
+  const size_t full = (dim / 32) * 32;  // dims covered by full 32-wide passes
+
+  if (full > 0) {
+    lance_amx_tile_ensure(GEMM_TILES, LANCE_AMX_TILE_COUNT(GEMM_TILES));
+
+    const size_t a_stride_bytes = data_stride * sizeof(uint16_t);
+    const size_t c_stride_bytes = out_stride * sizeof(float);
+    const size_t b_blocks_per_k = n / 16;
+
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < m; i += 32) {
+      const uint16_t *a0 = data + i * data_stride;
+      const uint16_t *a1 = a0 + 16 * data_stride;
+      float *c0 = out + i * out_stride;
+      float *c1 = c0 + 16 * out_stride;
+
+      for (size_t j = 0; j < n; j += 32) {
+        _tile_zero(GEMM_TMM_C00);
+        _tile_zero(GEMM_TMM_C01);
+        _tile_zero(GEMM_TMM_C10);
+        _tile_zero(GEMM_TMM_C11);
+
+        for (size_t kbase = 0; kbase < full; kbase += 32) {
+          // The B tiles for centroid blocks j/16 and j/16+1 are adjacent
+          // because jb is the inner index of the packed layout.
+          const uint16_t *b =
+              packed_b + ((kbase / 32) * b_blocks_per_k + j / 16) * GEMM_B_BLOCK;
+          _tile_loadd(GEMM_TMM_A0, a0 + kbase, a_stride_bytes);
+          _tile_loadd(GEMM_TMM_A1, a1 + kbase, a_stride_bytes);
+          _tile_loadd(GEMM_TMM_B0, b, 64);
+          _tile_loadd(GEMM_TMM_B1, b + GEMM_B_BLOCK, 64);
+          _tile_dpfp16ps(GEMM_TMM_C00, GEMM_TMM_A0, GEMM_TMM_B0);
+          _tile_dpfp16ps(GEMM_TMM_C01, GEMM_TMM_A0, GEMM_TMM_B1);
+          _tile_dpfp16ps(GEMM_TMM_C10, GEMM_TMM_A1, GEMM_TMM_B0);
+          _tile_dpfp16ps(GEMM_TMM_C11, GEMM_TMM_A1, GEMM_TMM_B1);
+        }
+
+        _tile_stored(GEMM_TMM_C00, c0 + j, c_stride_bytes);
+        _tile_stored(GEMM_TMM_C01, c0 + j + 16, c_stride_bytes);
+        _tile_stored(GEMM_TMM_C10, c1 + j, c_stride_bytes);
+        _tile_stored(GEMM_TMM_C11, c1 + j + 16, c_stride_bytes);
+      }
+    }
+    // Last tile op in this call; the tail below is scalar. One LDTILECFG plus
+    // one TILERELEASE against an m x n GEMM is why the per-call reconfiguration
+    // the file header argues for costs this kernel nothing.
+    lance_amx_tile_done();
+  } else {
+    // dim < 32: no tile ever stores to `out`, so the scalar tail below has to
+    // accumulate onto a known-zero destination rather than whatever was there.
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < m; i++) {
+      memset(out + i * out_stride, 0, n * sizeof(float));
+    }
+  }
+
+  const size_t tail = dim - full;
+  if (tail > 0) {
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < m; i++) {
+      // Widen this vector's tail once per row instead of once per (row,
+      // centroid) pair; `tail` is at most 31 so the buffer is a fixed 32.
+      float vec_tail[32];
+      const uint16_t *row = data + i * data_stride + full;
+      for (size_t d = 0; d < tail; d++) vec_tail[d] = _cvtsh_ss(row[d]);
+
+      float *out_row = out + i * out_stride;
+      for (size_t j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+        const uint16_t *cent = centroids + j * dim + full;
+        float acc = 0.0f;
+        for (size_t d = 0; d < tail; d++) acc += vec_tail[d] * _cvtsh_ss(cent[d]);
+        out_row[j] += acc;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Configuration introspection
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+// Write the 64-byte LDTILECFG image for `cfg_kind` (a `LANCE_AMX_CFG_*`
+// constant) into `out`, without loading it. Returns 0 on success, -1 for an
+// unknown `cfg_kind`.
+//
+// Exposed so the Rust tests can pin each kernel's tile shape byte for byte. A
+// wrong shape does not fail cleanly — it is a #UD or silently wrong results —
+// so the shape is asserted directly rather than inferred from kernel output.
+int lance_amx_tilecfg_image(int cfg_kind, uint8_t *out) {
+  const lance_amx_tile_spec *specs;
+  size_t n;
+
+  switch (cfg_kind) {
+    case LANCE_AMX_CFG_SEARCH:
+      specs = SEARCH_TILES;
+      n = LANCE_AMX_TILE_COUNT(SEARCH_TILES);
+      break;
+    case LANCE_AMX_CFG_GEMM:
+      specs = GEMM_TILES;
+      n = LANCE_AMX_TILE_COUNT(GEMM_TILES);
+      break;
+    default:
+      return -1;
+  }
+
+  lance_amx_tilecfg cfg;
+  lance_amx_tilecfg_build(&cfg, specs, n);
+  memcpy(out, &cfg, sizeof(cfg));
+  return 0;
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/amx_fp16.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/amx_fp16.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..82a19e399b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/amx_fp16.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,454 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! AMX-FP16 accelerated f16 x f16 dot products.
+//!
+//! Two shapes: `dot_f16_batch_16_amx` (one query against 16 candidates, for
+//! choosing the partitions a query probes) and `dot_f16_gemm_amx` (an m x n
+//! GEMM, for scoring many vectors against many centroids). Both are named in
+//! plain code spans rather than intra-doc links: they are
+//! `kernel_support = "amx_fp16"`-gated, so a link from these unconditional
+//! module docs is unresolved — and hence a rustdoc error under `-D warnings` —
+//! on any build without the kernel.
+//!
+//! The tile math lives in `amx_fp16.c` (compiled by `build.rs` with a compiler
+//! new enough for `-mamx-fp16`, which sets `kernel_support = "amx_fp16"`). This
+//! module holds the FFI declarations, the B-operand packing the GEMM's tile
+//! layout requires, and the runtime safety gate. Everything here is
+//! crate-internal; the safe public entry points are
+//! [`crate::distance::dot_f16::dot_f16_batch_16`] for the batch-16 shape and
+//! `PackedCentroidsF16` for the GEMM (named, not linked, for the same reason as
+//! the kernels above). The latter owns what this layer deliberately does not:
+//! padding `n` up to a multiple of 32, holding the packed B operand across
+//! calls, and turning the absence of AMX into an `Option` its caller — k-means
+//! assignment, in another crate that cannot see `kernel_support` — can branch
+//! on. Every kernel here is guarded by
+//! [`crate::distance::dot_f16::amx_fp16_supported`], which is also what callers
+//! consult before routing work here: one gate, decided by run-time capability
+//! alone.
+//!
+//! ## Safety gate
+//!
+//! A set CPUID bit is not sufficient to run AMX tile instructions on Linux:
+//! the OS must first grant the extended (XTILEDATA)
+//! state via `arch_prctl(ARCH_REQ_XCOMP_PERM, XFEATURE_XTILEDATA)`; skipping
+//! that SIGILLs the first tile instruction. `amx_supported` requires, and
+//! caches process-wide, all of:
+//!   1. `target_arch = "x86_64"` and `target_os = "linux"` (compile-time cfg),
+//!   2. the amx-tile CPUID bit (leaf 7, sub-leaf 0, EDX bit 24) **and** the
+//!      amx-fp16 CPUID bit (leaf 7, sub-leaf 1, EAX bit 21),
+//!   3. a successful one-time `arch_prctl` permission request.
+//!
+//! On any failure the caller falls back to the existing AVX-512-FP16 / scalar
+//! `f16::dot` path, so results are unchanged (both accumulate in f32; only the
+//! summation order — hence fp16-level rounding — differs).
+//!
+//! ## XTILEDATA is a shared AMX state permission
+//!
+//! XTILEDATA (component 18) is the single dynamically-enabled XSAVE state
+//! backing the physical TMM tile registers; it is requested per-*state*, not
+//! per-*instruction*, so one grant covers every AMX compute instruction — see
+//! Linux `Documentation/arch/x86/xstate.rst` ("Dynamically Enabled XSAVE
+//! Features", AMX example) and Intel SDM Vol.1 §13.3. The syscall is
+//! idempotent, so requesting an already-granted permission again is harmless.
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+use crate::distance::dot_f16::strided_len;
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+use half::f16;
+
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+unsafe extern "C" {
+    /// arch_prctl(ARCH_REQ_XCOMP_PERM, XFEATURE_XTILEDATA); 0 on success.
+    fn lance_amx_fp16_request_perm() -> i32;
+
+    /// out[i] = sum_d f32(query[d]) * f32(candidates[i][d]), i in 0..count;
+    /// out[count..16] = 0. `query` is `dim` IEEE binary16 bit patterns;
+    /// `candidates` is 16 pointers to `dim` of them each, of which only the
+    /// first `count` (1..=16) are read; `out` holds 16 f32. The kernel gathers
+    /// the rows itself, k-block by k-block. See `amx_fp16.c`.
+    fn lance_amx_dot_f16_batch_16(
+        query: *const u16,
+        candidates: *const *const u16,
+        count: usize,
+        dim: usize,
+        out: *mut f32,
+    );
+
+    /// out[i*out_stride + j] = sum_d f32(data[i*data_stride + d]) *
+    /// f32(centroids[j*dim + d]), for i in 0..m, j in 0..n. `packed_b` is
+    /// [`pack_centroids_vnni`]'s output for the same centroids; `centroids`
+    /// itself is read only for the `dim % 32` unpacked tail dims. `m` and `n`
+    /// must both be multiples of 32. See `amx_fp16.c`.
+    fn lance_amx_dot_f16_gemm(
+        data: *const u16,
+        m: usize,
+        data_stride: usize,
+        packed_b: *const u16,
+        centroids: *const u16,
+        n: usize,
+        dim: usize,
+        out: *mut f32,
+        out_stride: usize,
+    );
+
+    /// Writes the 64-byte LDTILECFG image for `cfg_kind` into `out` without
+    /// loading it; 0 on success, -1 for an unknown kind. See `amx_fp16.c`.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn lance_amx_tilecfg_image(cfg_kind: i32, out: *mut u8) -> i32;
+
+    /// Retires the tile configuration the way a foreign AMX user sharing this
+    /// thread would. See `amx_fp16.c`.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn lance_amx_tile_clobber_for_test();
+
+    /// Writes this logical processor's live 64-byte tile configuration to `out`
+    /// via STTILECFG; `palette_id` (byte 0) is 0 when nothing is configured.
+    /// See `amx_fp16.c`.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn lance_amx_tilecfg_current_for_test(out: *mut u8);
+}
+
+/// Test-only: retire this thread's tile configuration the way another AMX user
+/// on the same thread would, leaving the tile unit in INIT under a kernel that
+/// is about to run.
+///
+/// # Safety
+/// Executes TILERELEASE, so [`amx_supported`] must have returned `true` first.
+#[cfg(all(
+    test,
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+pub(crate) unsafe fn clobber_tile_state_for_test() {
+    unsafe { lance_amx_tile_clobber_for_test() };
+}
+
+/// Test-only: `true` when a tile configuration is currently live on this logical
+/// processor, read straight off the hardware with STTILECFG.
+///
+/// This is what distinguishes a working release path from a deleted one.
+/// `lance_amx_tile_ensure` reloads on every kernel entry, so results stay right
+/// with `lance_amx_tile_done`'s TILERELEASE gone and no "did it crash?" test
+/// notices; what is lost is only the promise made to whoever shares the thread,
+/// and that is visible nowhere but here.
+#[cfg(all(
+    test,
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+pub(crate) fn tile_config_is_live_for_test() -> bool {
+    let mut image = [0u8; 64];
+    // SAFETY: the C side writes exactly 64 bytes, and STTILECFG touches no TMM
+    // register so it is legal without the XTILEDATA grant.
+    unsafe { lance_amx_tilecfg_current_for_test(image.as_mut_ptr()) };
+    image[0] != 0
+}
+
+/// Config kind for [`tilecfg_image`]: the batch-16 search kernel's tile shape.
+/// Must match `LANCE_AMX_CFG_SEARCH` in `amx_fp16.c`.
+#[cfg(all(
+    test,
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+pub(crate) const AMX_CFG_SEARCH: i32 = 0;
+
+/// Config kind for [`tilecfg_image`]: the GEMM kernel's tile shape.
+/// Must match `LANCE_AMX_CFG_GEMM` in `amx_fp16.c`.
+#[cfg(all(
+    test,
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+pub(crate) const AMX_CFG_GEMM: i32 = 1;
+
+/// The 64-byte LDTILECFG image a kernel would configure, without loading it.
+/// `None` if `cfg_kind` is not one of the `AMX_CFG_*` constants.
+///
+/// Exists for the tests: a wrong tile shape never surfaces as a clean error —
+/// it is a #UD or silently wrong results — so the shape is pinned directly
+/// rather than inferred from kernel output.
+#[cfg(all(
+    test,
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+pub(crate) fn tilecfg_image(cfg_kind: i32) -> Option<[u8; 64]> {
+    let mut image = [0u8; 64];
+    // SAFETY: the C side writes exactly `sizeof(lance_amx_tilecfg)` bytes, which
+    // a `_Static_assert` there pins to 64 — the length of `image`.
+    let rc = unsafe { lance_amx_tilecfg_image(cfg_kind, image.as_mut_ptr()) };
+    (rc == 0).then_some(image)
+}
+
+/// True iff AMX-FP16 tile instructions can be executed safely in this process.
+/// Evaluated once and cached; the `arch_prctl` permission request (a syscall)
+/// happens at most once, process-wide.
+///
+/// This is a hardware question only — a pure "would a tile instruction fault
+/// here?" — so that kernel-level tests can exercise the kernels on any host
+/// that can run them.
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+pub(crate) fn amx_supported() -> bool {
+    static SUPPORTED: std::sync::OnceLock<bool> = std::sync::OnceLock::new();
+    *SUPPORTED.get_or_init(|| {
+        if !detect_amx_fp16() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        // Request XTILEDATA permission; without a 0 return, any tile instruction
+        // would SIGILL, so treat anything else as unavailable.
+        unsafe { lance_amx_fp16_request_perm() == 0 }
+    })
+}
+
+/// AMX-TILE = CPUID leaf 7, sub-leaf 0, EDX bit 24. AMX-FP16 = CPUID leaf 7,
+/// sub-leaf 1, EAX bit 21. Both required.
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+fn detect_amx_fp16() -> bool {
+    use std::arch::x86_64::__cpuid_count;
+    // `__cpuid_count` is safe on nightly but `unsafe` on stable; allow both.
+    #[allow(unused_unsafe)]
+    let leaf7_0 = unsafe { __cpuid_count(7, 0) };
+    let amx_tile = (leaf7_0.edx & (1 << 24)) != 0;
+    #[allow(unused_unsafe)]
+    let leaf7_1 = unsafe { __cpuid_count(7, 1) };
+    let amx_fp16 = (leaf7_1.eax & (1 << 21)) != 0;
+    amx_tile && amx_fp16
+}
+
+/// Batched AMX-FP16 dot product: one query against the first `len` of 16
+/// candidates. Returns the 16 raw dot products (`Σ query·candidate`, no `1.0 -`
+/// distance wrapping); lanes `len..16` are 0.
+///
+/// Hands the kernel 16 pointers rather than a packed `16 x dim` buffer. The
+/// candidates still have to be brought together for a tile load, but the kernel
+/// does it one k-block at a time into 3 KB of stack, which overlaps the copies
+/// with the tile ops; packing all `16 * dim * 2` bytes here first could not
+/// overlap with anything, and at dim 1024 that is 32 KB against a 48 KB L1D.
+/// See the kernel comment in `amx_fp16.c` for the measurements behind this.
+///
+/// `len` is what keeps a partial batch cheap: the tile pass is a fixed cost for
+/// 16 lanes either way, but only `len` rows are gathered.
+///
+/// # Safety
+/// `amx_supported` must have returned `true`. `len` must be in `1..=16` — the
+/// kernel does not clamp it, and a larger value walks its staging buffer off the
+/// end; [`crate::distance::dot_f16::dot_f16_batch_16`] is where that is
+/// rejected. Every candidate slice must have length `query.len()`, and must
+/// outlive the call.
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+pub(crate) unsafe fn dot_f16_batch_16_amx(
+    query: &[f16],
+    candidates: &[&[f16]; 16],
+    len: usize,
+) -> [f32; 16] {
+    debug_assert!((1..=16).contains(&len), "len ({len}) must be in 1..=16");
+    let dim = query.len();
+    // half::f16 is #[repr(transparent)] over u16, so the casts below reinterpret
+    // the identical IEEE binary16 bit patterns the kernel expects. All 16 slots
+    // are filled even though the kernel reads only `len` of them: the caller
+    // already holds 16 valid slices, so there is nothing to gain from leaving
+    // the tail of the array undefined.
+    let mut rows = [std::ptr::null::<u16>(); 16];
+    for (i, cand) in candidates.iter().enumerate() {
+        debug_assert_eq!(
+            cand.len(),
+            dim,
+            "candidate {i} length must equal query length"
+        );
+        rows[i] = cand.as_ptr() as *const u16;
+    }
+    let mut out = [0f32; 16];
+    unsafe {
+        lance_amx_dot_f16_batch_16(
+            query.as_ptr() as *const u16,
+            rows.as_ptr(),
+            len,
+            dim,
+            out.as_mut_ptr(),
+        );
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+/// Halfwords in one packed B block: 16 tile rows x 32 halfwords per row.
+/// Mirrors `GEMM_B_BLOCK` in `amx_fp16.c`.
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+const GEMM_B_BLOCK: usize = 512;
+
+/// Number of `f16` [`pack_centroids_vnni`] writes for `n` centroids of `dim`
+/// dims. Only whole 32-dim k-blocks are packed; the `dim % 32` tail is left to
+/// the kernel's scalar cleanup, which reads the unpacked centroids directly.
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+pub(crate) fn packed_centroids_len(n: usize, dim: usize) -> usize {
+    (dim / 32) * (n / 16) * GEMM_B_BLOCK
+}
+
+/// Interleave `[n, dim]` row-major `centroids` into the VNNI order
+/// [`dot_f16_gemm_amx`]'s B tiles are loaded in, replacing `out`'s contents.
+///
+/// The layout is dictated by TDPFP16PS, which reads its B operand as
+/// `b.row[k].fp16[2*nn + p]` and pairs it with `a.row[mm].fp16[2*k + p]`. Since
+/// A is loaded straight out of the vector buffer — `a.row[mm].fp16[2*k+p]` is
+/// dim `kb*32 + 2*k + p` of vector `mm` — B must satisfy
+///
+/// ```text
+/// out[((kb * (n/16)) + jb) * 512 + k*32 + nn*2 + p]
+///     == centroids[(jb*16 + nn) * dim + kb*32 + 2*k + p]
+/// ```
+///
+/// with `kb` the 32-dim k-block and `jb` the 16-centroid block. `jb` is the
+/// inner index so that the two B tiles a single k-pass consumes are adjacent.
+///
+/// `n` must be a multiple of 16 (one B tile covers exactly 16 centroids);
+/// `centroids` must hold `n * dim` values.
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+pub(crate) fn pack_centroids_vnni(centroids: &[f16], n: usize, dim: usize, out: &mut Vec<f16>) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(n % 16, 0, "n ({n}) must be a multiple of 16");
+    debug_assert_eq!(
+        centroids.len(),
+        n * dim,
+        "centroids must hold n*dim = {} values",
+        n * dim
+    );
+    out.clear();
+    out.reserve(packed_centroids_len(n, dim));
+    for kb in 0..dim / 32 {
+        for jb in 0..n / 16 {
+            for k in 0..16 {
+                for nn in 0..16 {
+                    for p in 0..2 {
+                        out.push(centroids[(jb * 16 + nn) * dim + kb * 32 + 2 * k + p]);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// AMX-FP16 `[m, dim] x [n, dim]^T -> [m, n]` dot-product GEMM: scores every
+/// row of `data` against every centroid, writing raw dot products (no distance
+/// wrapping) into `out`.
+///
+/// `packed_b` must come from [`pack_centroids_vnni`] over the same `centroids`,
+/// `n` and `dim`; `centroids` is additionally passed through because the
+/// `dim % 32` tail dims are not packed and the kernel finishes them in scalar
+/// fp32. Rows of `data` are `data_stride` halfwords apart and rows of `out` are
+/// `out_stride` floats apart, so a caller can hand over a window of a larger
+/// buffer without copying.
+///
+/// Accuracy matches [`dot_f16_batch_16_amx`]'s contract: f32-accumulated to
+/// within fp16 precision, not bit-exact against a sequential scalar loop.
+///
+/// # Safety
+/// * [`crate::distance::dot_f16::amx_fp16_supported`] must have returned `true`.
+/// * `m % 32 == 0` and `n % 32 == 0`. The kernel has no edge-case path for
+///   partial tiles and would read and write past the ends of its buffers.
+/// * `data_stride >= dim` and `out_stride >= n`, and the slices must be long
+///   enough for the last row those strides reach.
+#[cfg(all(
+    kernel_support = "amx_fp16",
+    target_arch = "x86_64",
+    target_os = "linux"
+))]
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub(crate) unsafe fn dot_f16_gemm_amx(
+    data: &[f16],
+    m: usize,
+    data_stride: usize,
+    packed_b: &[f16],
+    centroids: &[f16],
+    n: usize,
+    dim: usize,
+    out: &mut [f32],
+    out_stride: usize,
+) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(m % 32, 0, "m ({m}) must be a multiple of 32");
+    debug_assert_eq!(n % 32, 0, "n ({n}) must be a multiple of 32");
+    debug_assert!(
+        data_stride >= dim,
+        "data_stride ({data_stride}) < dim ({dim})"
+    );
+    debug_assert!(out_stride >= n, "out_stride ({out_stride}) < n ({n})");
+    // Through `strided_len` rather than inline arithmetic, for the same reason
+    // the safe caller uses it: `(m - 1) * stride + row_len` wraps in release
+    // builds, and a wrapped requirement is small enough to satisfy the very
+    // check it was computed for. These are `debug_assert`s restating a contract
+    // the caller already enforced, but they should fail loudly on the
+    // overflowing shape rather than quietly agree with it.
+    debug_assert!(
+        strided_len(m, data_stride, dim).is_some_and(|need| data.len() >= need),
+        "data too short"
+    );
+    debug_assert!(
+        strided_len(m, out_stride, n).is_some_and(|need| out.len() >= need),
+        "out too short"
+    );
+    debug_assert_eq!(
+        Some(centroids.len()),
+        n.checked_mul(dim),
+        "centroids must hold n*dim values"
+    );
+    debug_assert_eq!(
+        packed_b.len(),
+        packed_centroids_len(n, dim),
+        "packed_b must be pack_centroids_vnni's output for this n and dim"
+    );
+    // half::f16 is #[repr(transparent)] over u16, so these casts reinterpret the
+    // identical IEEE binary16 bit patterns the kernel expects.
+    unsafe {
+        lance_amx_dot_f16_gemm(
+            data.as_ptr() as *const u16,
+            m,
+            data_stride,
+            packed_b.as_ptr() as *const u16,
+            centroids.as_ptr() as *const u16,
+            n,
+            dim,
+            out.as_mut_ptr(),
+            out_stride,
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/bf16.c b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/bf16.c
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cfbe5dee971
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/bf16.c
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+#include <stddef.h>
+#include <stdint.h>
+#include <math.h>
+#include <string.h>
+
+// Because we might be compiling this library multiple times, we need to
+// add a suffix to each of the function names.
+#define FUNC_CAT_INNER(A, B) A##B
+#define FUNC_CAT(A, B) FUNC_CAT_INNER(A, B)
+#define FUNC(N) FUNC_CAT(N, SUFFIX)
+
+// Convert a bf16 value (stored as uint16_t) to float32.
+// BF16 is the upper 16 bits of an IEEE 754 float32, so we just shift left.
+static inline float bf16_to_f32(uint16_t v) {
+  uint32_t bits = (uint32_t)v << 16;
+  float f;
+  memcpy(&f, &bits, sizeof(f));
+  return f;
+}
+
+float FUNC(norm_l2_bf16)(const uint16_t *data, uint32_t dimension) {
+  float sum = 0;
+
+#pragma clang loop unroll(enable) vectorize(enable) interleave(enable)
+  for (uint32_t i = 0; i < dimension; i++) {
+    float v = bf16_to_f32(data[i]);
+    sum += v * v;
+  }
+  return sqrtf(sum);
+}
+
+/// @brief Dot product of two bf16 vectors.
+/// @param x A bf16 vector (stored as uint16_t)
+/// @param y A bf16 vector (stored as uint16_t)
+/// @param dimension The dimension of the vectors
+/// @return The dot product of the two vectors.
+float FUNC(dot_bf16)(const uint16_t *x, const uint16_t *y, uint32_t dimension) {
+  float sum = 0;
+
+#pragma clang loop unroll(enable) interleave(enable) vectorize(enable)
+  for (uint32_t i = 0; i < dimension; i++) {
+    sum += bf16_to_f32(x[i]) * bf16_to_f32(y[i]);
+  }
+  return sum;
+}
+
+float FUNC(l2_bf16)(const uint16_t *x, const uint16_t *y, uint32_t dimension) {
+  float sum = 0.0;
+
+#pragma clang loop unroll(enable) interleave(enable) vectorize(enable)
+  for (uint32_t i = 0; i < dimension; i++) {
+    float s = bf16_to_f32(x[i]) - bf16_to_f32(y[i]);
+    sum += s * s;
+  }
+  return sum;
+}
+
+float FUNC(cosine_bf16)(const uint16_t *x, float x_norm, const uint16_t *y, uint32_t dimension) {
+  float dot = 0.0;
+  float l2_y = 0.0;
+
+  // Combine the loop to reduce overhead of the bf16 to fp32 conversion.
+#pragma clang loop unroll(enable) interleave(enable) vectorize(enable)
+  for (uint32_t i = 0; i < dimension; i++) {
+    float y_i = bf16_to_f32(y[i]);
+    dot += bf16_to_f32(x[i]) * y_i;
+    l2_y += y_i * y_i;
+  }
+
+  return 1.0 - dot / (x_norm * sqrtf(l2_y));
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/dist_table.c b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/dist_table.c
index 9e7fc2b2205..e8be8e52068 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/dist_table.c
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/dist_table.c
@@ -23,8 +23,15 @@ void sum_4bit_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx512(const uint8_t *codes,
   __m512i accu3 = _mm512_setzero_si512();
 
   for (size_t i = 0; i < code_length; i += 64) {
-    c = _mm512_loadu_si512(&codes[i]);
-    lut = _mm512_loadu_si512(&dist_table[i]);
+    const size_t remaining = code_length - i;
+    if (remaining >= 64) {
+      c = _mm512_loadu_si512(&codes[i]);
+      lut = _mm512_loadu_si512(&dist_table[i]);
+    } else {
+      const __mmask64 load_mask = (UINT64_C(1) << remaining) - 1;
+      c = _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi8(load_mask, &codes[i]);
+      lut = _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi8(load_mask, &dist_table[i]);
+    }
     lo = _mm512_and_si512(c, lo_mask);
     hi = _mm512_and_si512(_mm512_srli_epi16(c, 4), lo_mask);
 
@@ -50,4 +57,4 @@ void sum_4bit_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx512(const uint8_t *codes,
   ret = _mm512_add_epi16(ret, _mm512_shuffle_i64x2(ret1, ret2, 0xDD));
 
   _mm512_storeu_si512(dists, ret);
-}
\ No newline at end of file
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/dist_table.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/dist_table.rs
index f3708ab3a2c..ea330e6aa29 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/dist_table.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/dist_table.rs
@@ -1,15 +1,81 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+use std::arch::aarch64::*;
 #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
 use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+use std::mem::MaybeUninit;
 
 #[allow(unused_imports)]
-use lance_core::utils::cpu::{SimdSupport, SIMD_SUPPORT};
+use lance_core::utils::cpu::{SIMD_SUPPORT, SimdSupport};
 
 pub const PERM0: [usize; 16] = [0, 8, 1, 9, 2, 10, 3, 11, 4, 12, 5, 13, 6, 14, 7, 15];
-pub const PERM0_INVERSE: [usize; 16] = [0, 2, 4, 6, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 9, 11, 13, 15];
+pub const PERM0_INVERSE: [usize; 16] = [0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15];
 pub const BATCH_SIZE: usize = 32;
+/// A row sums `2 * code_len` table entries into a `u16`, so a full-range
+/// (`0..=u8::MAX`) table fits only up to here: `2 * 128 * u8::MAX == 65280`.
+/// Callers that cannot cap their table must use [`sum_4bit_dist_table_u32`].
+pub const SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN: usize = 128;
+
+/// Which kernel a `dist_table` entry point prefers on this host. An entry point
+/// with no arm for the chosen backend falls through to scalar.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum DistTableBackend {
+    Avx512,
+    Avx2,
+    Neon,
+    Scalar,
+}
+
+/// Picks the kernel from a tier and two feature bits passed in, reading neither
+/// `SIMD_SUPPORT` nor the CPU, so the consequences of the tier ladder are
+/// testable without a host of each kind.
+///
+/// `avx512_kernel` says whether the calling entry point has an AVX-512 kernel to
+/// offer: `sum_4bit_dist_table_uninit` has one behind
+/// `kernel_support = "avx512_dist_table"`, `sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed` and
+/// `filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed` have a Rust one on every x86_64 build
+/// with no `kernel_support` cfg, the exact `f32` entry points pass `true` on
+/// every build since only an x86_64 tier can select it, and the hacc entry
+/// point has none.
+fn dist_table_backend(
+    support: SimdSupport,
+    avx512_kernel: bool,
+    has_avx512bw: bool,
+    has_avx2: bool,
+) -> DistTableBackend {
+    match support {
+        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 if avx512_kernel && has_avx512bw => {
+            DistTableBackend::Avx512
+        }
+        // `SIMD_SUPPORT` is a single exclusive tier, so an AVX-512 host reports
+        // `Avx512` or `Avx512FP16` and never `Avx2`. Naming only `Avx2` here
+        // would send an AVX-512 host that missed the arm above down the scalar
+        // path while it has AVX2.
+        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 | SimdSupport::Avx2 if has_avx2 => {
+            DistTableBackend::Avx2
+        }
+        SimdSupport::Neon => DistTableBackend::Neon,
+        _ => DistTableBackend::Scalar,
+    }
+}
+
+/// The two feature bits [`dist_table_backend`] needs, or `false` off x86_64.
+#[inline]
+fn x86_dist_table_features() -> (bool, bool) {
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    {
+        (
+            std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw"),
+            std::arch::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2"),
+        )
+    }
+    #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    {
+        (false, false)
+    }
+}
 
 // This function is used to sum the distance table for 4-bit codes.
 // the distance table is a 2D array, that dist_table[i][j] is the distance between the i-th subvector and the code j,
@@ -24,6 +90,7 @@ pub const BATCH_SIZE: usize = 32;
 // | bits 4..7| 16 | 24 | 17 | 25 | 18 | 26 | 19 | 27 | 20 | 28 | 21 | 29 | 22 | 30 | 23 | 31 |
 // +----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
 // so that we can use SIMD instruction (especially _mm256_shuffle_epi8) to do the summation.
+// The accumulator is `u16`: see [`SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN`] for what that costs the caller.
 #[inline]
 pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table(
     n: usize,
@@ -31,24 +98,67 @@ pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table(
     codes: &[u8],
     dist_table: &[u8],
     dists: &mut [u16],
+) {
+    assert!(n.is_multiple_of(BATCH_SIZE));
+    assert!(dists.len() >= n);
+    assert!(codes.len() >= n * code_len);
+    assert!(dist_table.len() >= BATCH_SIZE * code_len);
+    // A `u16` slice is also a valid `MaybeUninit<u16>` slice. The dispatched
+    // kernels overwrite every output slot.
+    let dists = unsafe {
+        std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(dists.as_mut_ptr().cast::<MaybeUninit<u16>>(), dists.len())
+    };
+    unsafe { sum_4bit_dist_table_uninit(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists) };
+}
+
+/// Sum a 4-bit distance table into potentially uninitialized output storage.
+///
+/// Every element in `dists[..n]` is initialized before this function returns.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// `n` must be a multiple of [`BATCH_SIZE`], `codes` must contain at least
+/// `n * code_len` bytes, `dist_table` must contain at least
+/// `BATCH_SIZE * code_len` bytes, and `dists` must contain at least `n` slots.
+#[inline]
+pub unsafe fn sum_4bit_dist_table_uninit(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>],
 ) {
     debug_assert!(n.is_multiple_of(BATCH_SIZE));
+    debug_assert!(dists.len() >= n);
+    debug_assert!(codes.len() >= n * code_len);
+    debug_assert!(dist_table.len() >= BATCH_SIZE * code_len);
 
-    match *SIMD_SUPPORT {
-        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
-        SimdSupport::Avx512 | SimdSupport::Avx512FP16 => unsafe {
+    let (has_avx512bw, has_avx2) = x86_dist_table_features();
+    match dist_table_backend(
+        *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+        cfg!(all(
+            kernel_support = "avx512_dist_table",
+            target_arch = "x86_64"
+        )),
+        has_avx512bw,
+        has_avx2,
+    ) {
+        #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_dist_table", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx512 => {
             for i in (0..n).step_by(BATCH_SIZE) {
                 let codes = &codes[i * code_len..(i + BATCH_SIZE) * code_len];
-                sum_4bit_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx512(
-                    codes.as_ptr(),
-                    codes.len(),
-                    dist_table.as_ptr(),
-                    dists[i..i + BATCH_SIZE].as_mut_ptr(),
-                )
+                unsafe {
+                    sum_4bit_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx512(
+                        codes.as_ptr(),
+                        codes.len(),
+                        dist_table.as_ptr(),
+                        dists[i..i + BATCH_SIZE].as_mut_ptr().cast::<u16>(),
+                    )
+                }
             }
-        },
+        }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
-        SimdSupport::Avx2 => unsafe {
+        DistTableBackend::Avx2 => unsafe {
             for i in (0..n).step_by(BATCH_SIZE) {
                 sum_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx2(
                     &codes[i * code_len..(i + BATCH_SIZE) * code_len],
@@ -57,15 +167,40 @@ pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table(
                 )
             }
         },
-        _ => sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len, codes, dist_table, dists),
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Neon => unsafe {
+            for i in (0..n).step_by(BATCH_SIZE) {
+                sum_dist_table_32bytes_batch_neon(
+                    &codes[i * code_len..(i + BATCH_SIZE) * code_len],
+                    dist_table,
+                    &mut dists[i..i + BATCH_SIZE],
+                )
+            }
+        },
+        // `Scalar`.
+        _ => {
+            dists[..n].fill(MaybeUninit::new(0));
+            // Every slot was initialized immediately above.
+            let dists =
+                unsafe { std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(dists.as_mut_ptr().cast::<u16>(), n) };
+            sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len, &codes[..n * code_len], dist_table, dists);
+        }
     }
 }
 
 #[inline]
 #[allow(unused)]
-fn sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len: usize, codes: &[u8], dist_table: &[u8], dists: &mut [u16]) {
+pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u16],
+) {
+    let num_full_vectors = codes.len() / (BATCH_SIZE * code_len) * BATCH_SIZE;
+    dists[..num_full_vectors].fill(0);
+
     for (vec_block_idx, blocks) in codes.chunks_exact(BATCH_SIZE * code_len).enumerate() {
-        for (sub_vec_idx, block) in blocks.chunks_exact(BATCH_SIZE).enumerate() {
+        for (sub_vec_idx, block) in blocks.as_chunks::<BATCH_SIZE>().0.iter().enumerate() {
             let current_dist_table = &dist_table[sub_vec_idx * 2 * 16..(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 1) * 16];
             let next_dist_table =
                 &dist_table[(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 1) * 16..(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 2) * 16];
@@ -89,11 +224,423 @@ fn sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len: usize, codes: &[u8], dist_table: &[u8],
     }
 }
 
+/// [`sum_4bit_dist_table`] with an accumulator wide enough for any `code_len`:
+/// the codes are summed in chunks of [`SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN`] through the same
+/// `u16` kernels, and each chunk is widened into the output.
+#[inline]
+pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_u32(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u32],
+) {
+    assert!(n.is_multiple_of(BATCH_SIZE));
+    assert!(dists.len() >= n);
+    assert!(codes.len() >= n * code_len);
+    assert!(dist_table.len() >= BATCH_SIZE * code_len);
+    // A `u32` slice is also a valid `MaybeUninit<u32>` slice. The chunk loop
+    // overwrites every output slot.
+    let dists = unsafe {
+        std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(dists.as_mut_ptr().cast::<MaybeUninit<u32>>(), dists.len())
+    };
+    unsafe { sum_4bit_dist_table_u32_uninit(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists) };
+}
+
+/// Sum a 4-bit distance table into potentially uninitialized `u32` output.
+///
+/// Every element in `dists[..n]` is initialized before this function returns.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// `n` must be a multiple of [`BATCH_SIZE`], `codes` must contain at least
+/// `n * code_len` bytes, `dist_table` must contain at least
+/// `BATCH_SIZE * code_len` bytes, and `dists` must contain at least `n` slots.
+#[inline]
+pub unsafe fn sum_4bit_dist_table_u32_uninit(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [MaybeUninit<u32>],
+) {
+    debug_assert!(n.is_multiple_of(BATCH_SIZE));
+    debug_assert!(dists.len() >= n);
+    debug_assert!(codes.len() >= n * code_len);
+    debug_assert!(dist_table.len() >= BATCH_SIZE * code_len);
+
+    if code_len == 0 {
+        dists[..n].fill(MaybeUninit::new(0));
+        return;
+    }
+
+    for i in (0..n).step_by(BATCH_SIZE) {
+        let batch_codes = &codes[i * code_len..(i + BATCH_SIZE) * code_len];
+        let mut sums = [0u32; BATCH_SIZE];
+        for chunk_start in (0..code_len).step_by(SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN) {
+            let chunk_end = (chunk_start + SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN).min(code_len);
+            // Bytes are grouped by sub-vector, so one range slices both arrays.
+            let bytes = chunk_start * BATCH_SIZE..chunk_end * BATCH_SIZE;
+            let mut chunk_dists = [MaybeUninit::<u16>::uninit(); BATCH_SIZE];
+            unsafe {
+                sum_4bit_dist_table_uninit(
+                    BATCH_SIZE,
+                    chunk_end - chunk_start,
+                    &batch_codes[bytes.clone()],
+                    &dist_table[bytes],
+                    &mut chunk_dists,
+                );
+            }
+            // The dispatched kernel initialized every chunk output slot.
+            let chunk_dists = unsafe {
+                std::slice::from_raw_parts(chunk_dists.as_ptr().cast::<u16>(), BATCH_SIZE)
+            };
+            sums.iter_mut()
+                .zip(chunk_dists.iter())
+                .for_each(|(sum, chunk_dist)| *sum += *chunk_dist as u32);
+        }
+        dists[i..i + BATCH_SIZE]
+            .iter_mut()
+            .zip(sums.iter())
+            .for_each(|(dist, sum)| {
+                dist.write(*sum);
+            });
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+#[allow(unused)]
+pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_u16(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u16],
+    dists: &mut [u32],
+) {
+    debug_assert!(n.is_multiple_of(BATCH_SIZE));
+    debug_assert!(dists.len() >= n);
+    debug_assert!(codes.len() >= n * code_len);
+    sum_4bit_dist_table_u16_scalar(
+        code_len,
+        &codes[..n * code_len],
+        dist_table,
+        &mut dists[..n],
+    );
+}
+
+#[inline]
+pub fn transfer_4bit_dist_table_u16(dist_table: &[u16], hacc_dist_table: &mut Vec<u8>) {
+    debug_assert!(dist_table.len().is_multiple_of(32));
+
+    let num_tables = dist_table.len() / 16;
+    hacc_dist_table.clear();
+    hacc_dist_table.resize(dist_table.len() * 2, 0);
+
+    for table_idx in 0..num_tables {
+        let table = &dist_table[table_idx * 16..(table_idx + 1) * 16];
+        let low_offset = (table_idx / 2) * 64 + (table_idx % 2) * 16;
+        let high_offset = low_offset + 32;
+        for (code, value) in table.iter().enumerate() {
+            hacc_dist_table[low_offset + code] = *value as u8;
+            hacc_dist_table[high_offset + code] = (value >> 8) as u8;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+pub fn sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    hacc_dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u32],
+) {
+    assert!(n.is_multiple_of(BATCH_SIZE));
+    assert!(dists.len() >= n);
+    assert!(codes.len() >= n * code_len);
+    assert!(hacc_dist_table.len() >= code_len * 64);
+    // A `u32` slice is also a valid `MaybeUninit<u32>` slice. The dispatched
+    // kernels overwrite every output slot.
+    let dists = unsafe {
+        std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(dists.as_mut_ptr().cast::<MaybeUninit<u32>>(), dists.len())
+    };
+    unsafe { sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table_uninit(n, code_len, codes, hacc_dist_table, dists) };
+}
+
+/// Sum a high-accuracy 4-bit distance table into uninitialized output storage.
+///
+/// Every element in `dists[..n]` is initialized before this function returns.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// `n` must be a multiple of [`BATCH_SIZE`], `codes` must contain at least
+/// `n * code_len` bytes, `hacc_dist_table` must contain at least
+/// `code_len * 64` bytes, and `dists` must contain at least `n` slots.
+#[inline]
+pub unsafe fn sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table_uninit(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    hacc_dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [MaybeUninit<u32>],
+) {
+    debug_assert!(n.is_multiple_of(BATCH_SIZE));
+    debug_assert!(dists.len() >= n);
+    debug_assert!(codes.len() >= n * code_len);
+    debug_assert!(hacc_dist_table.len() >= code_len * 64);
+
+    // `false` for the AVX-512 kernel: this entry point has none, so an AVX-512
+    // host with AVX2 takes AVX2 here. It has no NEON kernel either, and an
+    // aarch64 tier is `Neon` or `None`, so the selector returns `Neon` or
+    // `Scalar` and both land on the scalar `_` arm.
+    let (has_avx512bw, has_avx2) = x86_dist_table_features();
+    match dist_table_backend(*SIMD_SUPPORT, false, has_avx512bw, has_avx2) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx2 => {
+            sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table_avx2(n, code_len, codes, hacc_dist_table, dists);
+        }
+        _ => {
+            dists[..n].fill(MaybeUninit::new(0));
+            // Every slot was initialized immediately above.
+            let dists =
+                unsafe { std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(dists.as_mut_ptr().cast::<u32>(), n) };
+            sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table_scalar(
+                code_len,
+                &codes[..n * code_len],
+                hacc_dist_table,
+                dists,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+#[allow(unused)]
+pub fn sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table_scalar(
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    hacc_dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u32],
+) {
+    let num_full_vectors = codes.len() / (BATCH_SIZE * code_len) * BATCH_SIZE;
+    dists[..num_full_vectors].fill(0);
+
+    for (vec_block_idx, blocks) in codes.chunks_exact(BATCH_SIZE * code_len).enumerate() {
+        for (sub_vec_idx, block) in blocks.as_chunks::<BATCH_SIZE>().0.iter().enumerate() {
+            let table_offset = sub_vec_idx * 64;
+            let current_low = &hacc_dist_table[table_offset..table_offset + 16];
+            let next_low = &hacc_dist_table[table_offset + 16..table_offset + 32];
+            let current_high = &hacc_dist_table[table_offset + 32..table_offset + 48];
+            let next_high = &hacc_dist_table[table_offset + 48..table_offset + 64];
+
+            for j in 0..16 {
+                let low_current_code = (block[j] & 0x0F) as usize;
+                let high_current_code = (block[j] >> 4) as usize;
+                let low_next_code = (block[j + 16] & 0x0F) as usize;
+                let high_next_code = (block[j + 16] >> 4) as usize;
+
+                let lower_id = vec_block_idx * BATCH_SIZE + PERM0[j];
+                let higher_id = lower_id + 16;
+                dists[lower_id] += ((current_high[low_current_code] as u32) << 8)
+                    + current_low[low_current_code] as u32
+                    + ((next_high[low_next_code] as u32) << 8)
+                    + next_low[low_next_code] as u32;
+                dists[higher_id] += ((current_high[high_current_code] as u32) << 8)
+                    + current_low[high_current_code] as u32
+                    + ((next_high[high_next_code] as u32) << 8)
+                    + next_low[high_next_code] as u32;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline]
+#[allow(unused)]
+pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_u16_scalar(
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u16],
+    dists: &mut [u32],
+) {
+    let num_full_vectors = codes.len() / (BATCH_SIZE * code_len) * BATCH_SIZE;
+    dists[..num_full_vectors].fill(0);
+
+    for (vec_block_idx, blocks) in codes.chunks_exact(BATCH_SIZE * code_len).enumerate() {
+        for (sub_vec_idx, block) in blocks.as_chunks::<BATCH_SIZE>().0.iter().enumerate() {
+            let current_dist_table = &dist_table[sub_vec_idx * 2 * 16..(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 1) * 16];
+            let next_dist_table =
+                &dist_table[(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 1) * 16..(sub_vec_idx * 2 + 2) * 16];
+
+            for j in 0..16 {
+                let low_current_code = (block[j] & 0x0F) as usize;
+                let high_current_code = (block[j] >> 4) as usize;
+                let low_next_code = (block[j + 16] & 0x0F) as usize;
+                let high_next_code = (block[j + 16] >> 4) as usize;
+
+                let lower_id = vec_block_idx * BATCH_SIZE + PERM0[j];
+                let higher_id = lower_id + 16;
+                dists[lower_id] += current_dist_table[low_current_code] as u32
+                    + next_dist_table[low_next_code] as u32;
+                dists[higher_id] += current_dist_table[high_current_code] as u32
+                    + next_dist_table[high_next_code] as u32;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[inline]
+fn sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table_avx2(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    hacc_dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [MaybeUninit<u32>],
+) {
+    for i in (0..n).step_by(BATCH_SIZE) {
+        let batch_codes = &codes[i * code_len..(i + BATCH_SIZE) * code_len];
+        let batch_dists = &mut dists[i..i + BATCH_SIZE];
+
+        if code_len == 0 {
+            batch_dists.fill(MaybeUninit::new(0));
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        for code_start in (0..code_len).step_by(SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN) {
+            let code_end = (code_start + SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN).min(code_len);
+            let code_range = code_start * BATCH_SIZE..code_end * BATCH_SIZE;
+            let table_range = code_start * 64..code_end * 64;
+            if code_start == 0 {
+                unsafe {
+                    sum_hacc_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx2(
+                        &batch_codes[code_range],
+                        &hacc_dist_table[table_range],
+                        batch_dists,
+                    );
+                }
+            } else {
+                let mut chunk_dists = [MaybeUninit::<u32>::uninit(); BATCH_SIZE];
+                unsafe {
+                    sum_hacc_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx2(
+                        &batch_codes[code_range],
+                        &hacc_dist_table[table_range],
+                        &mut chunk_dists,
+                    );
+                }
+                // The kernel above initializes every temporary output slot.
+                let chunk_dists = unsafe {
+                    std::slice::from_raw_parts(chunk_dists.as_ptr().cast::<u32>(), BATCH_SIZE)
+                };
+                // The first code chunk initialized every output slot.
+                let batch_dists = unsafe {
+                    std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(
+                        batch_dists.as_mut_ptr().cast::<u32>(),
+                        BATCH_SIZE,
+                    )
+                };
+                batch_dists
+                    .iter_mut()
+                    .zip(chunk_dists.iter())
+                    .for_each(|(dist, chunk_dist)| *dist += *chunk_dist);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+#[inline]
+#[allow(unused)]
+unsafe fn sum_hacc_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx2(
+    codes: &[u8],
+    hacc_dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [MaybeUninit<u32>],
+) {
+    let low_mask = _mm256_set1_epi8(0x0f);
+    let mut low_accu0 = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+    let mut low_accu1 = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+    let mut low_accu2 = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+    let mut low_accu3 = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+    let mut high_accu0 = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+    let mut high_accu1 = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+    let mut high_accu2 = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+    let mut high_accu3 = _mm256_setzero_si256();
+
+    for code_offset in (0..codes.len()).step_by(BATCH_SIZE) {
+        let table_offset = code_offset * 2;
+        let c = _mm256_loadu_si256(codes.as_ptr().add(code_offset) as *const __m256i);
+        let lo = _mm256_and_si256(c, low_mask);
+        let hi = _mm256_and_si256(_mm256_srli_epi16(c, 4), low_mask);
+
+        let low_lut =
+            _mm256_loadu_si256(hacc_dist_table.as_ptr().add(table_offset) as *const __m256i);
+        let low_res_lo = _mm256_shuffle_epi8(low_lut, lo);
+        let low_res_hi = _mm256_shuffle_epi8(low_lut, hi);
+        low_accu0 = _mm256_add_epi16(low_accu0, low_res_lo);
+        low_accu1 = _mm256_add_epi16(low_accu1, _mm256_srli_epi16(low_res_lo, 8));
+        low_accu2 = _mm256_add_epi16(low_accu2, low_res_hi);
+        low_accu3 = _mm256_add_epi16(low_accu3, _mm256_srli_epi16(low_res_hi, 8));
+
+        let high_lut =
+            _mm256_loadu_si256(hacc_dist_table.as_ptr().add(table_offset + 32) as *const __m256i);
+        let high_res_lo = _mm256_shuffle_epi8(high_lut, lo);
+        let high_res_hi = _mm256_shuffle_epi8(high_lut, hi);
+        high_accu0 = _mm256_add_epi16(high_accu0, high_res_lo);
+        high_accu1 = _mm256_add_epi16(high_accu1, _mm256_srli_epi16(high_res_lo, 8));
+        high_accu2 = _mm256_add_epi16(high_accu2, high_res_hi);
+        high_accu3 = _mm256_add_epi16(high_accu3, _mm256_srli_epi16(high_res_hi, 8));
+    }
+
+    low_accu0 = _mm256_sub_epi16(low_accu0, _mm256_slli_epi16(low_accu1, 8));
+    let low_dis0 = _mm256_add_epi16(
+        _mm256_permute2f128_si256(low_accu0, low_accu1, 0x21),
+        _mm256_blend_epi32(low_accu0, low_accu1, 0xF0),
+    );
+    low_accu2 = _mm256_sub_epi16(low_accu2, _mm256_slli_epi16(low_accu3, 8));
+    let low_dis1 = _mm256_add_epi16(
+        _mm256_permute2f128_si256(low_accu2, low_accu3, 0x21),
+        _mm256_blend_epi32(low_accu2, low_accu3, 0xF0),
+    );
+
+    high_accu0 = _mm256_sub_epi16(high_accu0, _mm256_slli_epi16(high_accu1, 8));
+    let high_dis0 = _mm256_add_epi16(
+        _mm256_permute2f128_si256(high_accu0, high_accu1, 0x21),
+        _mm256_blend_epi32(high_accu0, high_accu1, 0xF0),
+    );
+    high_accu2 = _mm256_sub_epi16(high_accu2, _mm256_slli_epi16(high_accu3, 8));
+    let high_dis1 = _mm256_add_epi16(
+        _mm256_permute2f128_si256(high_accu2, high_accu3, 0x21),
+        _mm256_blend_epi32(high_accu2, high_accu3, 0xF0),
+    );
+
+    let low0 = _mm256_cvtepu16_epi32(_mm256_castsi256_si128(low_dis0));
+    let low1 = _mm256_cvtepu16_epi32(_mm256_extracti128_si256(low_dis0, 1));
+    let high0 = _mm256_cvtepu16_epi32(_mm256_castsi256_si128(high_dis0));
+    let high1 = _mm256_cvtepu16_epi32(_mm256_extracti128_si256(high_dis0, 1));
+    let res0 = _mm256_add_epi32(low0, _mm256_slli_epi32(high0, 8));
+    let res1 = _mm256_add_epi32(low1, _mm256_slli_epi32(high1, 8));
+    _mm256_storeu_si256(dists.as_mut_ptr() as *mut __m256i, res0);
+    _mm256_storeu_si256(dists.as_mut_ptr().add(8) as *mut __m256i, res1);
+
+    let low2 = _mm256_cvtepu16_epi32(_mm256_castsi256_si128(low_dis1));
+    let low3 = _mm256_cvtepu16_epi32(_mm256_extracti128_si256(low_dis1, 1));
+    let high2 = _mm256_cvtepu16_epi32(_mm256_castsi256_si128(high_dis1));
+    let high3 = _mm256_cvtepu16_epi32(_mm256_extracti128_si256(high_dis1, 1));
+    let res2 = _mm256_add_epi32(low2, _mm256_slli_epi32(high2, 8));
+    let res3 = _mm256_add_epi32(low3, _mm256_slli_epi32(high3, 8));
+    _mm256_storeu_si256(dists.as_mut_ptr().add(16) as *mut __m256i, res2);
+    _mm256_storeu_si256(dists.as_mut_ptr().add(24) as *mut __m256i, res3);
+}
+
 #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
 #[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
 #[inline]
 #[allow(unused)]
-unsafe fn sum_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx2(codes: &[u8], dist_table: &[u8], dists: &mut [u16]) {
+unsafe fn sum_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx2(
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>],
+) {
     let mut c = _mm256_undefined_si256();
     let mut lo = _mm256_undefined_si256();
     let mut hi = _mm256_undefined_si256();
@@ -125,6 +672,10 @@ unsafe fn sum_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx2(codes: &[u8], dist_table: &[u8], dis
         accu2 = _mm256_add_epi16(accu2, res_hi);
         accu3 = _mm256_add_epi16(accu3, _mm256_srli_epi16(res_hi, 8));
 
+        if i + 32 >= codes.len() {
+            continue;
+        }
+
         // load the left 32 bytes of codes and lut
         c = _mm256_loadu_si256(codes.as_ptr().add(i + 32) as *const __m256i);
         lut_vec = _mm256_loadu_si256(dist_table.as_ptr().add(i + 32) as *const __m256i);
@@ -159,59 +710,2129 @@ unsafe fn sum_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx2(codes: &[u8], dist_table: &[u8], dis
     _mm256_storeu_si256(dists.as_mut_ptr().add(16) as *mut __m256i, dis1);
 }
 
-// We implement the AVX512 version in C because AVX512 is not stable yet in Rust,
-// implement it in Rust once we upgrade rust to 1.89.0.
-extern "C" {
-    #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
-    pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx512(
-        codes: *const u8,
-        code_length: usize,
-        dist_table: *const u8,
-        dists: *mut u16,
-    );
-}
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn sum_dist_table_32bytes_batch_neon(
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [MaybeUninit<u16>],
+) {
+    let low_mask = vdupq_n_u8(0x0f);
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
+    // 8 accumulators: 4 per 128-bit "lane" (lo = bytes 0..16, hi = bytes 16..32 of each block)
+    let mut accu0_lo = vdupq_n_u16(0);
+    let mut accu1_lo = vdupq_n_u16(0);
+    let mut accu2_lo = vdupq_n_u16(0);
+    let mut accu3_lo = vdupq_n_u16(0);
+    let mut accu0_hi = vdupq_n_u16(0);
+    let mut accu1_hi = vdupq_n_u16(0);
+    let mut accu2_hi = vdupq_n_u16(0);
+    let mut accu3_hi = vdupq_n_u16(0);
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_basic() {
-        // we have 32 vectors
-        let n = 32;
+    let codes_ptr = codes.as_ptr();
+    let dt_ptr = dist_table.as_ptr();
 
-        // each code is 2 bytes (16 dim), so code_len = 2
-        let code_len = 2;
+    for i in (0..codes.len()).step_by(32) {
+        // Process lo lane: bytes [i..i+16]
+        let c_lo = vld1q_u8(codes_ptr.add(i));
+        let lut_lo = vld1q_u8(dt_ptr.add(i));
 
-        let codes = [
-            0x12, 0x34, 0x56, 0x78, 0x9a, 0xbc, 0xde, 0xf0, // codes[0..8]
-            0x11, 0x22, 0x33, 0x44, 0x55, 0x66, 0x77, 0x88, // codes[8..16]
-            0x99, 0xaa, 0xbb, 0xcc, 0xdd, 0xee, 0xff, 0x00, // codes[16..24]
-            0x12, 0x34, 0x56, 0x78, 0x9a, 0xbc, 0xde, 0xf0, // codes[24..32]
-        ];
-        let codes = codes.repeat(n * code_len / codes.len());
+        let lo_lo = vandq_u8(c_lo, low_mask);
+        let hi_lo = vshrq_n_u8::<4>(c_lo);
 
-        let mut dist_table = vec![0u8; 16 * 4];
-        for (i, dist) in dist_table.iter_mut().enumerate() {
-            *dist = (i % 16 + 1) as u8;
-        }
+        let res_lo_lo = vqtbl1q_u8(lut_lo, lo_lo);
+        let res_hi_lo = vqtbl1q_u8(lut_lo, hi_lo);
 
-        // Test the function
-        let mut dists = vec![0u16; n];
-        sum_4bit_dist_table(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut dists);
+        accu0_lo = vaddq_u16(accu0_lo, vreinterpretq_u16_u8(res_lo_lo));
+        accu1_lo = vaddq_u16(accu1_lo, vshrq_n_u16::<8>(vreinterpretq_u16_u8(res_lo_lo)));
+        accu2_lo = vaddq_u16(accu2_lo, vreinterpretq_u16_u8(res_hi_lo));
+        accu3_lo = vaddq_u16(accu3_lo, vshrq_n_u16::<8>(vreinterpretq_u16_u8(res_hi_lo)));
 
-        // Compare with reference implementation
-        let mut expected_dists = vec![0u16; n];
-        sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut expected_dists);
+        // Process hi lane: bytes [i+16..i+32]
+        let c_hi = vld1q_u8(codes_ptr.add(i + 16));
+        let lut_hi = vld1q_u8(dt_ptr.add(i + 16));
 
-        assert_eq!(dists, expected_dists);
-        // the vector 1's code is the low 4bits of codes[PERM0_INVERSE[1]] = codes[2],
-        // the first 4 bits are the low 4 bits of codes[2], so it's 0x6,
-        // the second 4 bits are the low 4 bits of codes[2 + 16], so it's 0xb,
-        // the third 4 bits are the same as the first 4 bits, so it's 0x6,
-        // the fourth 4 bits are the same as the second 4 bits, so it's 0xb,
+        let lo_hi = vandq_u8(c_hi, low_mask);
+        let hi_hi = vshrq_n_u8::<4>(c_hi);
 
-        // so the distance is 2 * (dist_table[0x6] + dist_table[0xb + 16]) = 2*(7 + 12) = 38
-        assert_eq!(dists[1], 38);
+        let res_lo_hi = vqtbl1q_u8(lut_hi, lo_hi);
+        let res_hi_hi = vqtbl1q_u8(lut_hi, hi_hi);
+
+        accu0_hi = vaddq_u16(accu0_hi, vreinterpretq_u16_u8(res_lo_hi));
+        accu1_hi = vaddq_u16(accu1_hi, vshrq_n_u16::<8>(vreinterpretq_u16_u8(res_lo_hi)));
+        accu2_hi = vaddq_u16(accu2_hi, vreinterpretq_u16_u8(res_hi_hi));
+        accu3_hi = vaddq_u16(accu3_hi, vshrq_n_u16::<8>(vreinterpretq_u16_u8(res_hi_hi)));
+    }
+
+    // Merge: clean even bytes by subtracting the odd-byte bleed
+    accu0_lo = vsubq_u16(accu0_lo, vshlq_n_u16::<8>(accu1_lo));
+    accu0_hi = vsubq_u16(accu0_hi, vshlq_n_u16::<8>(accu1_hi));
+
+    // Cross-lane merge: add lo and hi lane accumulators
+    // This is the NEON equivalent of AVX2's permute2f128 + blend + add
+    let dis0_even = vaddq_u16(accu0_lo, accu0_hi);
+    let dis0_odd = vaddq_u16(accu1_lo, accu1_hi);
+    vst1q_u16(dists.as_mut_ptr().cast::<u16>(), dis0_even);
+    vst1q_u16(dists.as_mut_ptr().add(8).cast::<u16>(), dis0_odd);
+
+    // Same for hi-nibble accumulators (vectors 16..31)
+    accu2_lo = vsubq_u16(accu2_lo, vshlq_n_u16::<8>(accu3_lo));
+    accu2_hi = vsubq_u16(accu2_hi, vshlq_n_u16::<8>(accu3_hi));
+
+    let dis1_even = vaddq_u16(accu2_lo, accu2_hi);
+    let dis1_odd = vaddq_u16(accu3_lo, accu3_hi);
+    vst1q_u16(dists.as_mut_ptr().add(16).cast::<u16>(), dis1_even);
+    vst1q_u16(dists.as_mut_ptr().add(24).cast::<u16>(), dis1_odd);
+}
+
+/// Sum a quantized 4-bit PQ distance table over column-major codes.
+///
+/// `codes` holds `code_len` columns of `n` bytes: `codes[c * n + row]` packs
+/// the codes of table `2 * c` (low nibble) and table `2 * c + 1` (high nibble)
+/// for `row`, which is the layout PQ storage keeps its 4-bit codes in.
+/// `dist_table` holds the `2 * code_len` tables of 16 entries each.
+///
+/// Sums use wrapping `u16` arithmetic, so the caller must scale the table such
+/// that no row's sum exceeds `u16::MAX`.
+pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u16],
+) {
+    // Checked products: a wrapped one would let short slices past the
+    // unchecked pointer arithmetic of the kernels.
+    assert!(
+        n.checked_mul(code_len)
+            .is_some_and(|needed| codes.len() >= needed),
+        "codes has {} bytes, fewer than n * code_len = {n} * {code_len}",
+        codes.len()
+    );
+    assert!(
+        code_len
+            .checked_mul(32)
+            .is_some_and(|needed| dist_table.len() >= needed),
+        "dist_table has {} entries, fewer than 32 * code_len = 32 * {code_len}",
+        dist_table.len()
+    );
+    assert!(dists.len() >= n);
+    // The SIMD kernels offset the code pointer by the first row before the
+    // column loop, which with no columns would point past empty `codes`.
+    if code_len == 0 {
+        dists[..n].fill(0);
+        return;
+    }
+
+    let (has_avx512bw, has_avx2) = x86_dist_table_features();
+    let simd_len = match dist_table_backend(
+        *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+        cfg!(target_arch = "x86_64"),
+        has_avx512bw,
+        has_avx2,
+    ) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx512 => {
+            // The asserts above bound every full-width access; the tail is masked.
+            unsafe { sum_transposed_avx512(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists) };
+            n
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx2 => sum_transposed_in_batches(n, |start| {
+            // The asserts above bound every load and store of the batch.
+            unsafe { sum_transposed_batch_avx2(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists) }
+        }),
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Neon => sum_transposed_in_batches(n, |start| {
+            // The asserts above bound every load and store of the batch.
+            unsafe { sum_transposed_batch_neon(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists) }
+        }),
+        _ => 0,
+    };
+    sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed_scalar(simd_len, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists);
+}
+
+/// Rows summed per SIMD batch by [`sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed`], and rows
+/// per batch reported by [`filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed`].
+pub const TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE: usize = 64;
+
+/// Calls `batch(start)` on 64-row windows that cover all `n` rows and returns
+/// how many leading rows they cover: `n`, or 0 when `n < 64`.
+///
+/// When `n` is not a multiple of 64 the last window starts at `n - 64`. It
+/// overlaps rows an earlier window already stored, but a batch stores sums that
+/// depend only on the codes, so it rewrites them with identical values. That is
+/// cheaper than summing up to 63 rows in scalar code.
+#[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86_64", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
+fn sum_transposed_in_batches(n: usize, mut batch: impl FnMut(usize)) -> usize {
+    if n < TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE {
+        return 0;
+    }
+    let aligned_len = n - n % TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE;
+    for start in (0..aligned_len).step_by(TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE) {
+        batch(start);
+    }
+    if aligned_len < n {
+        batch(n - TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE);
+    }
+    n
+}
+
+/// Scalar [`sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed`] for rows `start..n`.
+fn sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed_scalar(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u16],
+) {
+    let dists = &mut dists[start..n];
+    dists.fill(0);
+    for (column, tables) in dist_table
+        .as_chunks::<32>()
+        .0
+        .iter()
+        .take(code_len)
+        .enumerate()
+    {
+        let (low_table, high_table) = tables.split_at(16);
+        let column = &codes[column * n + start..column * n + n];
+        for (dist, &code) in dists.iter_mut().zip(column) {
+            *dist = dist
+                .wrapping_add(low_table[(code & 0x0f) as usize] as u16)
+                .wrapping_add(high_table[(code >> 4) as usize] as u16);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Finds the rows of [`sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed`] whose sum is at most a
+/// threshold, without storing every sum.
+///
+/// Rows are visited in batches of 64 in ascending order. For each batch with at
+/// least one such row, `on_batch(start, mask, sums)` is called: bit `i` of
+/// `mask` is set when row `start + i` has a sum at most the threshold, and
+/// `sums[i]` holds that sum. Other entries of `sums` are unspecified. Every row
+/// is reported at most once and no bit is set for a row at or past `n`, though
+/// the last batch may start before a multiple of 64. The value `on_batch`
+/// returns is the threshold for the batches after it, so a caller can tighten
+/// it as candidates arrive.
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_linalg::simd::dist_table::filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed;
+///
+/// // One column: row 0 selects low entry 1 (sum 1), row 1 high entry 1 (sum 5).
+/// let codes = [0x01, 0x10];
+/// let mut dist_table = [0u8; 32];
+/// dist_table[1] = 1;
+/// dist_table[16 + 1] = 5;
+/// let mut rows = Vec::new();
+/// filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed(2, 1, &codes, &dist_table, 3, |start, mut mask, sums| {
+///     while mask != 0 {
+///         let i = mask.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+///         rows.push((start + i, sums[i]));
+///         mask &= mask - 1;
+///     }
+///     3
+/// });
+/// assert_eq!(rows, [(0, 1)]);
+/// ```
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// If `codes` holds fewer than `n * code_len` bytes or `dist_table` fewer than
+/// `32 * code_len` entries.
+pub fn filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    threshold: u16,
+    mut on_batch: impl FnMut(usize, u64, &[u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE]) -> u16,
+) {
+    let (has_avx512bw, has_avx2) = x86_dist_table_features();
+    let backend = dist_table_backend(
+        *SIMD_SUPPORT,
+        cfg!(target_arch = "x86_64"),
+        has_avx512bw,
+        has_avx2,
+    );
+    // `Avx512` needs `avx512bw`, which implies the `avx512f` its kernel also
+    // uses, and `Avx2` needs `avx2`.
+    unsafe {
+        filter_transposed_with_backend(
+            backend,
+            n,
+            code_len,
+            codes,
+            dist_table,
+            threshold,
+            &mut on_batch,
+        )
+    };
+}
+
+/// [`filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed`] on `backend`; a backend without a
+/// kernel here, or fewer than 64 rows for the AVX2 and NEON batches, runs the
+/// scalar path.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support `avx512f` and `avx512bw` when `backend` is `Avx512`
+/// and `avx2` when it is `Avx2`.
+unsafe fn filter_transposed_with_backend(
+    backend: DistTableBackend,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    threshold: u16,
+    on_batch: &mut impl FnMut(usize, u64, &[u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE]) -> u16,
+) {
+    // Checked products: a wrapped one would let short slices past the
+    // unchecked pointer arithmetic of the kernels.
+    assert!(
+        n.checked_mul(code_len)
+            .is_some_and(|needed| codes.len() >= needed),
+        "codes has {} bytes, fewer than n * code_len = {n} * {code_len}",
+        codes.len()
+    );
+    assert!(
+        code_len
+            .checked_mul(32)
+            .is_some_and(|needed| dist_table.len() >= needed),
+        "dist_table has {} entries, fewer than 32 * code_len = 32 * {code_len}",
+        dist_table.len()
+    );
+    match backend {
+        // The SIMD kernels offset the code pointer by the first row before the
+        // column loop, which with no columns would point past empty `codes`.
+        // Every row then sums to 0, which the scalar path reports.
+        _ if code_len == 0 => {
+            filter_transposed_scalar(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, threshold, on_batch)
+        }
+        // The asserts above bound every full-width access; the tail is masked.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx512 => {
+            filter_transposed_avx512(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, threshold, on_batch)
+        }
+        // The asserts above bound every load of a batch within `0..n`.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx2 if n >= TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE => {
+            filter_transposed_in_batches(n, threshold, on_batch, |start, threshold, sums| {
+                filter_transposed_batch_avx2(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, threshold, sums)
+            })
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Neon if n >= TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE => {
+            filter_transposed_in_batches(n, threshold, on_batch, |start, threshold, sums| {
+                filter_transposed_batch_neon(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, threshold, sums)
+            })
+        }
+        _ => filter_transposed_scalar(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, threshold, on_batch),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Drives `batch(start, threshold, sums)` over 64-row windows covering all `n`
+/// rows, `n >= 64`, as [`sum_transposed_in_batches`] does. The last window
+/// overlaps rows an earlier one already reported, so their bits are cleared
+/// before `on_batch` sees them.
+#[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86_64", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
+fn filter_transposed_in_batches(
+    n: usize,
+    mut threshold: u16,
+    on_batch: &mut impl FnMut(usize, u64, &[u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE]) -> u16,
+    mut batch: impl FnMut(usize, u16, &mut [u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE]) -> u64,
+) {
+    debug_assert!(n >= TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE);
+    let mut sums = [0u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE];
+    let aligned_len = n - n % TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE;
+    for start in (0..aligned_len).step_by(TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE) {
+        let mask = batch(start, threshold, &mut sums);
+        if mask != 0 {
+            threshold = on_batch(start, mask, &sums);
+        }
+    }
+    if aligned_len < n {
+        let start = n - TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE;
+        let mask = batch(start, threshold, &mut sums) & (u64::MAX << (aligned_len - start));
+        if mask != 0 {
+            on_batch(start, mask, &sums);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Scalar [`filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed`].
+fn filter_transposed_scalar(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    mut threshold: u16,
+    on_batch: &mut impl FnMut(usize, u64, &[u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE]) -> u16,
+) {
+    let mut sums = [0u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE];
+    for start in (0..n).step_by(TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE) {
+        let mask = filter_transposed_batch_scalar(
+            start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, threshold, &mut sums,
+        );
+        if mask != 0 {
+            threshold = on_batch(start, mask, &sums);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sums rows `start..min(start + 64, n)` into `sums` and returns the mask of
+/// those at most `threshold`.
+fn filter_transposed_batch_scalar(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    threshold: u16,
+    sums: &mut [u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE],
+) -> u64 {
+    let end = n.min(start + TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE);
+    let sums = &mut sums[..end - start];
+    sums.fill(0);
+    for (column, tables) in dist_table
+        .as_chunks::<32>()
+        .0
+        .iter()
+        .take(code_len)
+        .enumerate()
+    {
+        let (low_table, high_table) = tables.split_at(16);
+        let column = &codes[column * n + start..column * n + end];
+        for (sum, &code) in sums.iter_mut().zip(column) {
+            *sum = sum
+                .wrapping_add(low_table[(code & 0x0f) as usize] as u16)
+                .wrapping_add(high_table[(code >> 4) as usize] as u16);
+        }
+    }
+    sums.iter().enumerate().fold(0, |mask, (i, &sum)| {
+        mask | (u64::from(sum <= threshold) << i)
+    })
+}
+
+/// Stores the sums of rows `start..start + 64` to `dists`.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+unsafe fn sum_transposed_batch_avx2(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u16],
+) {
+    let rows = transposed_batch_sums_avx2(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table);
+    let out = dists.as_mut_ptr().add(start) as *mut __m256i;
+    for (i, row) in rows.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        _mm256_storeu_si256(out.add(i), row);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sums rows `start..start + 64` into four vectors of 16 rows each, in row
+/// order. Each `u16` lane first accumulates a pair of adjacent byte lookups
+/// (`even + 256 * odd`) plus a separate `odd` sum; the even sum is recovered at
+/// the end, as in faiss' fast-scan kernels.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn transposed_batch_sums_avx2(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+) -> [__m256i; 4] {
+    let low_mask = _mm256_set1_epi8(0x0f);
+    let mut pairs = [_mm256_setzero_si256(); 2];
+    let mut odds = [_mm256_setzero_si256(); 2];
+    let codes = codes.as_ptr().add(start);
+    for column in 0..code_len {
+        let tables = dist_table.as_ptr().add(column * 32);
+        let low_table = _mm256_broadcastsi128_si256(_mm_loadu_si128(tables as *const __m128i));
+        let high_table =
+            _mm256_broadcastsi128_si256(_mm_loadu_si128(tables.add(16) as *const __m128i));
+        let column = codes.add(column * n);
+        for half in 0..2 {
+            let code = _mm256_loadu_si256(column.add(half * 32) as *const __m256i);
+            let low = _mm256_shuffle_epi8(low_table, _mm256_and_si256(code, low_mask));
+            let high = _mm256_shuffle_epi8(
+                high_table,
+                _mm256_and_si256(_mm256_srli_epi16(code, 4), low_mask),
+            );
+            // A carry out of the even byte of `low + high` is exact `u16`
+            // arithmetic, so subtracting `256 * odds` still recovers the even sum.
+            pairs[half] = _mm256_add_epi16(pairs[half], _mm256_add_epi16(low, high));
+            odds[half] = _mm256_add_epi16(
+                odds[half],
+                _mm256_add_epi16(_mm256_srli_epi16(low, 8), _mm256_srli_epi16(high, 8)),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+    let mut rows = [_mm256_setzero_si256(); 4];
+    for half in 0..2 {
+        let evens = _mm256_sub_epi16(pairs[half], _mm256_slli_epi16(odds[half], 8));
+        // Within each 128-bit lane, even rows are in `evens` and odd rows in
+        // `odds`; interleave them back into row order.
+        let first = _mm256_unpacklo_epi16(evens, odds[half]);
+        let second = _mm256_unpackhi_epi16(evens, odds[half]);
+        rows[2 * half] = _mm256_permute2x128_si256(first, second, 0x20);
+        rows[2 * half + 1] = _mm256_permute2x128_si256(first, second, 0x31);
+    }
+    rows
+}
+
+/// Sums rows `start..start + 64` and returns the mask of those at most
+/// `threshold`, writing their sums to `sums` only when the mask is non-zero.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+unsafe fn filter_transposed_batch_avx2(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    threshold: u16,
+    sums: &mut [u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE],
+) -> u64 {
+    let rows = transposed_batch_sums_avx2(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table);
+    let limit = _mm256_set1_epi16(threshold as i16);
+    let mut at_most = [_mm256_setzero_si256(); 4];
+    for (flags, &row) in at_most.iter_mut().zip(rows.iter()) {
+        // AVX2 has no unsigned `u16` compare, but `min(row, limit) == row`
+        // holds exactly when `row <= limit`.
+        *flags = _mm256_cmpeq_epi16(_mm256_min_epu16(row, limit), row);
+    }
+    // Packing the all-ones or zero flags to bytes is exact, but it works per
+    // 128-bit lane and leaves the quadwords in row order 0, 2, 1, 3.
+    let low = _mm256_permute4x64_epi64(_mm256_packs_epi16(at_most[0], at_most[1]), 0xD8);
+    let high = _mm256_permute4x64_epi64(_mm256_packs_epi16(at_most[2], at_most[3]), 0xD8);
+    let mask = u64::from(_mm256_movemask_epi8(low) as u32)
+        | (u64::from(_mm256_movemask_epi8(high) as u32) << 32);
+    if mask != 0 {
+        let out = sums.as_mut_ptr() as *mut __m256i;
+        for (i, row) in rows.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            _mm256_storeu_si256(out.add(i), row);
+        }
+    }
+    mask
+}
+
+/// Sums all `n` rows of [`sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed`]. The last partial
+/// window uses masked loads and stores, so no row is left for scalar code.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support `avx512f` and `avx512bw`, and the slices must satisfy
+/// the bounds `sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed` asserts.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw")]
+unsafe fn sum_transposed_avx512(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u16],
+) {
+    let mut start = 0;
+    while start + 2 * TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE <= n {
+        sum_transposed_block_avx512::<2, false>(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists, 0);
+        start += 2 * TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE;
+    }
+    if start + TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE <= n {
+        sum_transposed_block_avx512::<1, false>(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists, 0);
+        start += TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE;
+    }
+    if start < n {
+        let row_mask = (1u64 << (n - start)) - 1;
+        sum_transposed_block_avx512::<1, true>(
+            start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists, row_mask,
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Stores the sums of rows `start..start + 64 * REGS`, or only of the rows set
+/// in `row_mask` when `MASKED`, to `dists`.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw")]
+#[inline]
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+unsafe fn sum_transposed_block_avx512<const REGS: usize, const MASKED: bool>(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u16],
+    row_mask: u64,
+) {
+    let rows = transposed_block_sums_avx512::<REGS, MASKED>(
+        start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, row_mask,
+    );
+    for (reg, [first, second]) in rows.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        let out = dists.as_mut_ptr().add(start + reg * 64);
+        if MASKED {
+            _mm512_mask_storeu_epi16(out.cast(), row_mask as u32, first);
+            // With 32 or fewer tail rows `out + 32` can point past `dists`, and
+            // forming that pointer is UB even when the store mask is empty.
+            let high_mask = (row_mask >> 32) as u32;
+            if high_mask != 0 {
+                _mm512_mask_storeu_epi16(out.add(32).cast(), high_mask, second);
+            }
+        } else {
+            _mm512_storeu_si512(out.cast(), first);
+            _mm512_storeu_si512(out.add(32).cast(), second);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sums rows `start..start + 64 * REGS`, or only the rows set in `row_mask`
+/// when `MASKED`, into two vectors of 32 rows each per 64 rows, in row order;
+/// masked-off rows sum as if their codes were zero. The even/odd `u16` split is
+/// the one [`transposed_batch_sums_avx2`] uses, on 64 rows per register.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn transposed_block_sums_avx512<const REGS: usize, const MASKED: bool>(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    row_mask: u64,
+) -> [[__m512i; 2]; REGS] {
+    const { assert!(!MASKED || REGS == 1) };
+    let low_mask = _mm512_set1_epi8(0x0f);
+    let mut pairs = [_mm512_setzero_si512(); REGS];
+    let mut odds = [_mm512_setzero_si512(); REGS];
+    let codes = codes.as_ptr().add(start);
+    for column in 0..code_len {
+        let tables = dist_table.as_ptr().add(column * 32);
+        let low_table = _mm512_broadcast_i32x4(_mm_loadu_si128(tables.cast()));
+        let high_table = _mm512_broadcast_i32x4(_mm_loadu_si128(tables.add(16).cast()));
+        let column = codes.add(column * n);
+        for reg in 0..REGS {
+            // A zeroing masked load costs an extra uop on Intel, so only the
+            // tail pays for it. Masked-off bytes are never read.
+            let code = if MASKED {
+                _mm512_maskz_loadu_epi8(row_mask, column.cast())
+            } else {
+                _mm512_loadu_si512(column.add(reg * 64).cast())
+            };
+            let low = _mm512_shuffle_epi8(low_table, _mm512_and_si512(code, low_mask));
+            let high = _mm512_shuffle_epi8(
+                high_table,
+                _mm512_and_si512(_mm512_srli_epi16::<4>(code), low_mask),
+            );
+            // A carry out of the even byte of `low + high` is exact `u16`
+            // arithmetic, so subtracting `256 * odds` still recovers the even sum.
+            pairs[reg] = _mm512_add_epi16(pairs[reg], _mm512_add_epi16(low, high));
+            odds[reg] = _mm512_add_epi16(
+                odds[reg],
+                _mm512_add_epi16(_mm512_srli_epi16::<8>(low), _mm512_srli_epi16::<8>(high)),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+    // Unpacking works within 128-bit lanes: lane `l` of `lo` holds rows
+    // `16l..16l + 8` and lane `l` of `hi` rows `16l + 8..16l + 16`. These qword
+    // indices (8 and up pick from `hi`) gather lanes 0-1 into `first` and lanes
+    // 2-3 into `second`, both in row order.
+    let first_half = _mm512_set_epi64(11, 10, 3, 2, 9, 8, 1, 0);
+    let second_half = _mm512_set_epi64(15, 14, 7, 6, 13, 12, 5, 4);
+    let mut rows = [[_mm512_setzero_si512(); 2]; REGS];
+    for (reg, rows) in rows.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+        let evens = _mm512_sub_epi16(pairs[reg], _mm512_slli_epi16::<8>(odds[reg]));
+        let lo = _mm512_unpacklo_epi16(evens, odds[reg]);
+        let hi = _mm512_unpackhi_epi16(evens, odds[reg]);
+        *rows = [
+            _mm512_permutex2var_epi64(lo, first_half, hi),
+            _mm512_permutex2var_epi64(lo, second_half, hi),
+        ];
+    }
+    rows
+}
+
+/// [`filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed`] over all `n` rows, two 64-row batches
+/// per pass; the last partial batch is masked, so no row is left for scalar
+/// code.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support `avx512f` and `avx512bw`, and the slices must satisfy
+/// the bounds `filter_4bit_dist_table_transposed` asserts.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw")]
+unsafe fn filter_transposed_avx512(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    mut threshold: u16,
+    on_batch: &mut impl FnMut(usize, u64, &[u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE]) -> u16,
+) {
+    let mut sums = [0u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE];
+    let mut start = 0;
+    while start + 2 * TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE <= n {
+        let rows =
+            transposed_block_sums_avx512::<2, false>(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, 0);
+        for (reg, [first, second]) in rows.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            // The second batch is compared only after the first one's callback,
+            // against the threshold that callback returned.
+            threshold = emit_rows_at_most_avx512(
+                start + reg * TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE,
+                first,
+                second,
+                u64::MAX,
+                threshold,
+                &mut sums,
+                on_batch,
+            );
+        }
+        start += 2 * TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE;
+    }
+    if start + TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE <= n {
+        let [[first, second]] =
+            transposed_block_sums_avx512::<1, false>(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, 0);
+        threshold = emit_rows_at_most_avx512(
+            start,
+            first,
+            second,
+            u64::MAX,
+            threshold,
+            &mut sums,
+            on_batch,
+        );
+        start += TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE;
+    }
+    if start < n {
+        let row_mask = (1u64 << (n - start)) - 1;
+        let [[first, second]] = transposed_block_sums_avx512::<1, true>(
+            start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, row_mask,
+        );
+        emit_rows_at_most_avx512(
+            start, first, second, row_mask, threshold, &mut sums, on_batch,
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Calls `on_batch` for the rows of the batch at `start` that are in
+/// `row_mask` and at most `threshold`, if any, and returns the threshold for
+/// the next batch.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f,avx512bw")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn emit_rows_at_most_avx512(
+    start: usize,
+    first: __m512i,
+    second: __m512i,
+    row_mask: u64,
+    threshold: u16,
+    sums: &mut [u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE],
+    on_batch: &mut impl FnMut(usize, u64, &[u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE]) -> u16,
+) -> u16 {
+    let limit = _mm512_set1_epi16(threshold as i16);
+    let mask = (u64::from(_mm512_cmple_epu16_mask(first, limit))
+        | (u64::from(_mm512_cmple_epu16_mask(second, limit)) << 32))
+        & row_mask;
+    if mask == 0 {
+        return threshold;
+    }
+    _mm512_storeu_si512(sums.as_mut_ptr().cast(), first);
+    _mm512_storeu_si512(sums.as_mut_ptr().add(32).cast(), second);
+    on_batch(start, mask, sums)
+}
+
+/// Stores the sums of rows `start..start + 64` to `dists`.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn sum_transposed_batch_neon(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    dists: &mut [u16],
+) {
+    let rows = transposed_batch_sums_neon(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table);
+    let out = dists.as_mut_ptr().add(start);
+    for (i, row) in rows.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        vst1q_u16(out.add(i * 8), row);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sums rows `start..start + 64` with widening adds into eight vectors of 8
+/// rows each, in row order.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn transposed_batch_sums_neon(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+) -> [uint16x8_t; 8] {
+    let low_mask = vdupq_n_u8(0x0f);
+    let mut sums = [vdupq_n_u16(0); 8];
+    let codes = codes.as_ptr().add(start);
+    for column in 0..code_len {
+        let tables = dist_table.as_ptr().add(column * 32);
+        let low_table = vld1q_u8(tables);
+        let high_table = vld1q_u8(tables.add(16));
+        let column = codes.add(column * n);
+        for quarter in 0..4 {
+            let code = vld1q_u8(column.add(quarter * 16));
+            let low = vqtbl1q_u8(low_table, vandq_u8(code, low_mask));
+            let high = vqtbl1q_u8(high_table, vshrq_n_u8::<4>(code));
+            let first = &mut sums[quarter * 2];
+            *first = vaddw_u8(*first, vget_low_u8(low));
+            *first = vaddw_u8(*first, vget_low_u8(high));
+            let second = &mut sums[quarter * 2 + 1];
+            *second = vaddw_high_u8(*second, low);
+            *second = vaddw_high_u8(*second, high);
+        }
+    }
+    sums
+}
+
+/// Sums rows `start..start + 64` and returns the mask of those at most
+/// `threshold`, writing their sums to `sums` only when the mask is non-zero.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+unsafe fn filter_transposed_batch_neon(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[u8],
+    threshold: u16,
+    sums: &mut [u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE],
+) -> u64 {
+    let rows = transposed_batch_sums_neon(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table);
+    let limit = vdupq_n_u16(threshold);
+    let mut at_most = [vdupq_n_u16(0); 8];
+    let mut any = vdupq_n_u16(0);
+    for (flags, &row) in at_most.iter_mut().zip(rows.iter()) {
+        *flags = vcleq_u16(row, limit);
+        any = vorrq_u16(any, *flags);
+    }
+    // Most batches have no row at or below the threshold once it is tight, so
+    // they skip building the mask.
+    if vmaxvq_u16(any) == 0 {
+        return 0;
+    }
+    let bits = [1u8, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128];
+    let bits = vld1_u8(bits.as_ptr());
+    let mut mask = 0u64;
+    for (i, (&flags, &row)) in at_most.iter().zip(rows.iter()).enumerate() {
+        vst1q_u16(sums.as_mut_ptr().add(i * 8), row);
+        let byte = vaddv_u8(vand_u8(vmovn_u16(flags), bits));
+        mask |= u64::from(byte) << (i * 8);
+    }
+    mask
+}
+
+/// Exact `f32` sum of one row of a 4-bit PQ distance table over column-major
+/// codes: the reference every exact `f32` kernel below reproduces.
+///
+/// `codes` and `dist_table` have the layout [`sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed`]
+/// describes, with `f32` entries. Starting from `-0.0`, each column adds the
+/// pair `low + high` its code byte selects, as one value and in column order:
+/// `(0..code_len).fold(-0.0, |acc, c| acc + (low(c) + high(c)))`. Rust never
+/// contracts or reassociates these adds.
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_linalg::simd::dist_table::sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_row;
+///
+/// // One column: row 0 selects low entry 1, row 1 selects high entry 2.
+/// let codes = [0x01, 0x20];
+/// let mut dist_table = [0.0f32; 32];
+/// dist_table[1] = 1.5;
+/// dist_table[16 + 2] = 2.5;
+/// assert_eq!(sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_row(2, 1, &codes, &dist_table, 1), 2.5);
+/// ```
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// If `row >= n`, `codes` holds fewer than `n * code_len` bytes or
+/// `dist_table` fewer than `32 * code_len` entries.
+// Inlined into per-row callers such as `PQDistCalculator::distance`, which the
+// workspace builds without LTO.
+#[inline]
+pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_row(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    row: usize,
+) -> f32 {
+    assert!(row < n, "row {row} is out of range for {n} rows");
+    assert_f32_table_bounds(n, code_len, codes, dist_table);
+    f32_row_sum(n, codes, f32_tables(dist_table, code_len), row)
+}
+
+/// Exact `f32` sums of all `n` rows of a 4-bit PQ distance table over
+/// column-major codes, writing row `r` to `dists[r]`.
+///
+/// Every backend performs, per row, the two IEEE-754 additions per column of
+/// [`sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_row`] in the same order, from the same `-0.0`
+/// start, so each sum is bit-identical to it. SIMD lanes each hold one row,
+/// table lookups are bit copies and vector adds (`vaddps`, NEON `fadd`) round
+/// like scalar ones (`addss`, `fadd`) under the same MXCSR or FPCR. The one
+/// exception is NaN, which only non-finite tables produce: both paths then
+/// return NaN, but not necessarily with the same sign or payload.
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_linalg::simd::dist_table::sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_transposed;
+///
+/// // One column: row 0 selects low entry 1, row 1 selects high entry 2.
+/// let codes = [0x01, 0x20];
+/// let mut dist_table = [0.0f32; 32];
+/// dist_table[1] = 1.5;
+/// dist_table[16 + 2] = 2.5;
+/// let mut dists = [0.0f32; 2];
+/// sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_transposed(2, 1, &codes, &dist_table, &mut dists);
+/// assert_eq!(dists, [1.5, 2.5]);
+/// ```
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// If `codes` holds fewer than `n * code_len` bytes, `dist_table` fewer than
+/// `32 * code_len` entries or `dists` fewer than `n` slots.
+pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_transposed(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    let (has_avx512bw, has_avx2) = x86_dist_table_features();
+    let backend = dist_table_backend(*SIMD_SUPPORT, true, has_avx512bw, has_avx2);
+    // `Avx512` needs `avx512bw`, which implies the `avx512f` its kernel uses,
+    // and `Avx2` needs `avx2`.
+    unsafe { sum_f32_transposed_with_backend(backend, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists) };
+}
+
+/// Exact `f32` sums of the selected `rows`, writing the sum of `rows[i]` to
+/// `dists[i]`; rows may repeat and come in any order.
+///
+/// Sums are bit-identical to [`sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_row`], for the reasons
+/// [`sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_transposed`] gives. The SIMD backends score 16
+/// rows at a time, so a caller rescoring candidates in order loses little by
+/// passing 16 per call.
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_linalg::simd::dist_table::sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_rows;
+///
+/// let codes = [0x01, 0x20];
+/// let mut dist_table = [0.0f32; 32];
+/// dist_table[1] = 1.5;
+/// dist_table[16 + 2] = 2.5;
+/// let mut dists = [0.0f32; 3];
+/// sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_rows(2, 1, &codes, &dist_table, &[1, 0, 1], &mut dists);
+/// assert_eq!(dists, [2.5, 1.5, 2.5]);
+/// ```
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// If any row is `>= n`, `codes` holds fewer than `n * code_len` bytes,
+/// `dist_table` fewer than `32 * code_len` entries or `dists` fewer than
+/// `rows.len()` slots.
+pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_rows(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    rows: &[u32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    let (has_avx512bw, has_avx2) = x86_dist_table_features();
+    let backend = dist_table_backend(*SIMD_SUPPORT, true, has_avx512bw, has_avx2);
+    // Same backend contract as `sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_transposed`.
+    unsafe { sum_f32_rows_with_backend(backend, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, rows, dists) };
+}
+
+/// Rows per `f32` lane group: one `zmm` register on AVX-512, two `ymm` on AVX2,
+/// four `q` registers on NEON.
+#[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86_64", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
+const F32_GROUP_ROWS: usize = 16;
+/// Rows per block of the scalar pair-table path, and the fewest rows it takes:
+/// building the 256 pairs of a column costs about as much as summing 256 rows.
+const F32_PAIR_TABLE_BLOCK_ROWS: usize = 256;
+
+/// Bounds the unchecked pointer arithmetic of the SIMD kernels, so the products
+/// are checked: a wrapped one would let short slices pass.
+#[inline]
+fn assert_f32_table_bounds(n: usize, code_len: usize, codes: &[u8], dist_table: &[f32]) {
+    let codes_needed = n.checked_mul(code_len);
+    assert!(
+        codes_needed.is_some_and(|needed| codes.len() >= needed),
+        "codes has {} bytes, fewer than n * code_len = {n} * {code_len}",
+        codes.len()
+    );
+    let table_needed = code_len.checked_mul(32);
+    assert!(
+        table_needed.is_some_and(|needed| dist_table.len() >= needed),
+        "dist_table has {} entries, fewer than 32 * code_len = 32 * {code_len}",
+        dist_table.len()
+    );
+}
+
+/// One 32-entry table per code column: 16 entries for the low nibble, then 16
+/// for the high one.
+#[inline]
+fn f32_tables(dist_table: &[f32], code_len: usize) -> &[[f32; 32]] {
+    dist_table[..32 * code_len].as_chunks::<32>().0
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn f32_row_sum(n: usize, codes: &[u8], tables: &[[f32; 32]], row: usize) -> f32 {
+    // An explicit fold rather than `Iterator::sum` pins the `-0.0` start.
+    tables
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .fold(-0.0f32, |acc, (column, table)| {
+            let code = codes[column * n + row];
+            acc + (table[(code & 0x0f) as usize] + table[16 + (code >> 4) as usize])
+        })
+}
+
+/// [`sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_transposed`] on `backend`; any other backend than
+/// `Avx512`, `Avx2` and `Neon` runs the scalar path.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support `avx512f` when `backend` is `Avx512` and `avx2` when
+/// it is `Avx2`.
+unsafe fn sum_f32_transposed_with_backend(
+    backend: DistTableBackend,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    assert_f32_table_bounds(n, code_len, codes, dist_table);
+    assert!(
+        dists.len() >= n,
+        "dists has {} slots, fewer than n = {n}",
+        dists.len()
+    );
+    match backend {
+        // The SIMD kernels offset the code pointer by the first row before the
+        // column loop, which with no columns would point past empty `codes`.
+        // Every sum is then `-0.0`, which the scalar path returns.
+        _ if code_len == 0 => {
+            sum_f32_transposed_scalar(n, codes, f32_tables(dist_table, code_len), dists)
+        }
+        // The asserts above bound every load and store of the kernels, which
+        // need at least one full lane group.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx512 if n >= F32_GROUP_ROWS => {
+            sum_f32_transposed_avx512(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx2 if n >= F32_GROUP_ROWS / 2 => {
+            sum_f32_transposed_avx2(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Neon if n >= F32_GROUP_ROWS => {
+            sum_f32_transposed_neon(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists)
+        }
+        _ => sum_f32_transposed_scalar(n, codes, f32_tables(dist_table, code_len), dists),
+    }
+}
+
+/// [`sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_rows`] on `backend`.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// As for [`sum_f32_transposed_with_backend`].
+unsafe fn sum_f32_rows_with_backend(
+    backend: DistTableBackend,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    rows: &[u32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    assert_f32_table_bounds(n, code_len, codes, dist_table);
+    assert!(
+        dists.len() >= rows.len(),
+        "dists has {} slots, fewer than the {} rows",
+        dists.len(),
+        rows.len()
+    );
+    let max_row = rows.iter().max();
+    assert!(
+        max_row.is_none_or(|&row| (row as usize) < n),
+        "row {max_row:?} is out of range for {n} rows"
+    );
+    let dists = &mut dists[..rows.len()];
+    match backend {
+        // The asserts above keep every gathered code byte, table load and store
+        // in bounds.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx512 => {
+            sum_f32_rows_avx512(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, rows, dists)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        DistTableBackend::Avx2 => sum_f32_rows_avx2(n, code_len, codes, dist_table, rows, dists),
+        // A NEON kernel measured no faster than scalar on Graviton3: per
+        // 16 rows it gathers the code bytes and deinterleaves every column's
+        // tables, which costs more than its lookups save.
+        _ => sum_f32_rows_scalar(n, codes, f32_tables(dist_table, code_len), rows, dists),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Scalar [`sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_transposed`].
+fn sum_f32_transposed_scalar(n: usize, codes: &[u8], tables: &[[f32; 32]], dists: &mut [f32]) {
+    let dists = &mut dists[..n];
+    if n < F32_PAIR_TABLE_BLOCK_ROWS {
+        for (row, dist) in dists.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            *dist = f32_row_sum(n, codes, tables, row);
+        }
+        return;
+    }
+    // Every byte of a column selects one of 256 pair sums `low + high`. The
+    // precomputed pair is the very value the per-row sum adds, so sums stay
+    // bit-identical while each row needs one lookup per byte instead of two.
+    let pair_tables = tables
+        .iter()
+        .map(|table| {
+            std::array::from_fn::<f32, 256, _>(|byte| table[byte & 0x0f] + table[16 + (byte >> 4)])
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    dists.fill(-0.0);
+    for block_start in (0..n).step_by(F32_PAIR_TABLE_BLOCK_ROWS) {
+        let block_end = (block_start + F32_PAIR_TABLE_BLOCK_ROWS).min(n);
+        // A block's sums stay in L1 while every code column is added to them.
+        let block = &mut dists[block_start..block_end];
+        for (column, pair_table) in pair_tables.iter().enumerate() {
+            let codes = &codes[column * n + block_start..column * n + block_end];
+            for (dist, &code) in block.iter_mut().zip(codes) {
+                *dist += pair_table[code as usize];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Scalar [`sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_rows`]. Eight rows at a time overlap their
+/// otherwise serial add chains.
+fn sum_f32_rows_scalar(
+    n: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    tables: &[[f32; 32]],
+    rows: &[u32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    const LANES: usize = 8;
+    let score = |rows: &[u32], dists: &mut [f32]| {
+        let mut acc = [-0.0f32; LANES];
+        for (column, table) in tables.iter().enumerate() {
+            let codes = &codes[column * n..(column + 1) * n];
+            for (acc, &row) in acc.iter_mut().zip(rows) {
+                let code = codes[row as usize];
+                *acc += table[(code & 0x0f) as usize] + table[16 + (code >> 4) as usize];
+            }
+        }
+        for (dist, acc) in dists.iter_mut().zip(acc) {
+            *dist = acc;
+        }
+    };
+    let (row_groups, row_tail) = rows.as_chunks::<LANES>();
+    let (dist_groups, dist_tail) = dists.as_chunks_mut::<LANES>();
+    for (rows, dists) in row_groups.iter().zip(dist_groups) {
+        score(rows, dists);
+    }
+    if !row_tail.is_empty() {
+        score(row_tail, dist_tail);
+    }
+}
+
+/// The code bytes of `rows` in the column starting at `column`, row `i` in
+/// byte `i`. Packing them in general-purpose registers avoids the failed
+/// store-to-load forwarding of 16 byte stores read back as one vector.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// `column.add(row)` must be readable for every row.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn gather_code_bytes(column: *const u8, rows: &[usize; F32_GROUP_ROWS]) -> __m128i {
+    let pack = |rows: &[usize]| {
+        rows.iter()
+            .rev()
+            .fold(0u64, |word, &row| (word << 8) | *column.add(row) as u64)
+    };
+    _mm_set_epi64x(pack(&rows[8..]) as i64, pack(&rows[..8]) as i64)
+}
+
+/// `rows` as offsets into a column, padded to a full group with `rows[0]`, a
+/// valid row whose extra sums are discarded.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+fn padded_group_rows(rows: &[u32]) -> [usize; F32_GROUP_ROWS] {
+    let mut group = [rows[0] as usize; F32_GROUP_ROWS];
+    for (slot, &row) in group.iter_mut().zip(rows) {
+        *slot = row as usize;
+    }
+    group
+}
+
+/// `low[code & 15] + high[code >> 4]` per lane of 32-bit codes below 256.
+/// `vpermps` reads only index bits 3:0, so the low nibble needs no mask and
+/// the shifted code is exactly the high nibble.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+#[inline]
+fn lookup_pair_avx512(code: __m512i, low_table: __m512, high_table: __m512) -> __m512 {
+    _mm512_add_ps(
+        _mm512_permutexvar_ps(code, low_table),
+        _mm512_permutexvar_ps(_mm512_srli_epi32::<4>(code), high_table),
+    )
+}
+
+/// Sums all `n` rows in 256-row blocks, then 16-row groups. A last partial
+/// group is summed as the 16 rows ending at `n`, rewriting some sums of the
+/// previous group with the same values.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support `avx512f`, `n >= 16`, and the slices must satisfy
+/// the bounds `sum_f32_transposed_with_backend` asserts.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+unsafe fn sum_f32_transposed_avx512(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    const BLOCK_GROUPS: usize = 16;
+    debug_assert!(n >= F32_GROUP_ROWS);
+    let mut start = 0;
+    while start + BLOCK_GROUPS * F32_GROUP_ROWS <= n {
+        sum_f32_transposed_block_avx512::<BLOCK_GROUPS>(
+            start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists,
+        );
+        start += BLOCK_GROUPS * F32_GROUP_ROWS;
+    }
+    while start + F32_GROUP_ROWS <= n {
+        sum_f32_transposed_block_avx512::<1>(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists);
+        start += F32_GROUP_ROWS;
+    }
+    if start < n {
+        sum_f32_transposed_block_avx512::<1>(
+            n - F32_GROUP_ROWS,
+            n,
+            code_len,
+            codes,
+            dist_table,
+            dists,
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sums rows `start..start + 16 * GROUPS`, one register of 16 rows per group,
+/// each an independent add chain.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn sum_f32_transposed_block_avx512<const GROUPS: usize>(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    let mut acc = [_mm512_set1_ps(-0.0); GROUPS];
+    let codes = codes.as_ptr().add(start);
+    for column in 0..code_len {
+        let tables = dist_table.as_ptr().add(column * 32);
+        let low_table = _mm512_loadu_ps(tables);
+        let high_table = _mm512_loadu_ps(tables.add(16));
+        let column = codes.add(column * n);
+        for (group, acc) in acc.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let code =
+                _mm512_cvtepu8_epi32(_mm_loadu_si128(column.add(group * F32_GROUP_ROWS).cast()));
+            *acc = _mm512_add_ps(*acc, lookup_pair_avx512(code, low_table, high_table));
+        }
+    }
+    let out = dists.as_mut_ptr().add(start);
+    for (group, acc) in acc.iter().enumerate() {
+        _mm512_storeu_ps(out.add(group * F32_GROUP_ROWS), *acc);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sums `rows` 16 at a time, gathering each column's code bytes first.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support `avx512f`, and the slices must satisfy the bounds
+/// `sum_f32_rows_with_backend` asserts, with `dists.len() == rows.len()`.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx512f")]
+unsafe fn sum_f32_rows_avx512(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    rows: &[u32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    for (rows, dists) in rows
+        .chunks(F32_GROUP_ROWS)
+        .zip(dists.chunks_mut(F32_GROUP_ROWS))
+    {
+        let rows = padded_group_rows(rows);
+        let mut acc = _mm512_set1_ps(-0.0);
+        for column in 0..code_len {
+            let tables = dist_table.as_ptr().add(column * 32);
+            let code =
+                _mm512_cvtepu8_epi32(gather_code_bytes(codes.as_ptr().add(column * n), &rows));
+            acc = _mm512_add_ps(
+                acc,
+                lookup_pair_avx512(
+                    code,
+                    _mm512_loadu_ps(tables),
+                    _mm512_loadu_ps(tables.add(16)),
+                ),
+            );
+        }
+        let mut sums = [0.0f32; F32_GROUP_ROWS];
+        _mm512_storeu_ps(sums.as_mut_ptr(), acc);
+        dists.copy_from_slice(&sums[..dists.len()]);
+    }
+}
+
+/// `low[code & 15] + high[code >> 4]` per lane of 32-bit codes below 256,
+/// with each 16-entry table split into two registers. `vpermps` reads index
+/// bits 2:0 and `blendv` picks the upper half by the sign bit, so bit 3 of the
+/// code (bit 7 for the high nibble) is shifted into it.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+#[inline]
+fn lookup_pair_avx2(code: __m256i, low_table: [__m256; 2], high_table: [__m256; 2]) -> __m256 {
+    let low = _mm256_blendv_ps(
+        _mm256_permutevar8x32_ps(low_table[0], code),
+        _mm256_permutevar8x32_ps(low_table[1], code),
+        _mm256_castsi256_ps(_mm256_slli_epi32::<28>(code)),
+    );
+    let high_code = _mm256_srli_epi32::<4>(code);
+    let high = _mm256_blendv_ps(
+        _mm256_permutevar8x32_ps(high_table[0], high_code),
+        _mm256_permutevar8x32_ps(high_table[1], high_code),
+        _mm256_castsi256_ps(_mm256_slli_epi32::<24>(code)),
+    );
+    _mm256_add_ps(low, high)
+}
+
+/// The two halves of each 16-entry table of `column`, low table first.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// `dist_table.add(32 * column)` must be readable for 32 entries.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn load_tables_avx2(dist_table: *const f32, column: usize) -> ([__m256; 2], [__m256; 2]) {
+    let tables = dist_table.add(column * 32);
+    (
+        [_mm256_loadu_ps(tables), _mm256_loadu_ps(tables.add(8))],
+        [
+            _mm256_loadu_ps(tables.add(16)),
+            _mm256_loadu_ps(tables.add(24)),
+        ],
+    )
+}
+
+/// Sums all `n` rows in 32-row blocks, then 8-row groups, ending with the 8
+/// rows that end at `n` like [`sum_f32_transposed_avx512`].
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support `avx2`, `n >= 8`, and the slices must satisfy the
+/// bounds `sum_f32_transposed_with_backend` asserts.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+unsafe fn sum_f32_transposed_avx2(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    const BLOCK_GROUPS: usize = 4;
+    const GROUP_ROWS: usize = F32_GROUP_ROWS / 2;
+    debug_assert!(n >= GROUP_ROWS);
+    let mut start = 0;
+    while start + BLOCK_GROUPS * GROUP_ROWS <= n {
+        sum_f32_transposed_block_avx2::<BLOCK_GROUPS>(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists);
+        start += BLOCK_GROUPS * GROUP_ROWS;
+    }
+    while start + GROUP_ROWS <= n {
+        sum_f32_transposed_block_avx2::<1>(start, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists);
+        start += GROUP_ROWS;
+    }
+    if start < n {
+        sum_f32_transposed_block_avx2::<1>(n - GROUP_ROWS, n, code_len, codes, dist_table, dists);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sums rows `start..start + 8 * GROUPS`, one register of 8 rows per group.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn sum_f32_transposed_block_avx2<const GROUPS: usize>(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    const GROUP_ROWS: usize = F32_GROUP_ROWS / 2;
+    let mut acc = [_mm256_set1_ps(-0.0); GROUPS];
+    let codes = codes.as_ptr().add(start);
+    for column in 0..code_len {
+        let (low_table, high_table) = load_tables_avx2(dist_table.as_ptr(), column);
+        let column = codes.add(column * n);
+        for (group, acc) in acc.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let code = _mm256_cvtepu8_epi32(_mm_loadl_epi64(column.add(group * GROUP_ROWS).cast()));
+            *acc = _mm256_add_ps(*acc, lookup_pair_avx2(code, low_table, high_table));
+        }
+    }
+    let out = dists.as_mut_ptr().add(start);
+    for (group, acc) in acc.iter().enumerate() {
+        _mm256_storeu_ps(out.add(group * GROUP_ROWS), *acc);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sums `rows` 16 at a time in two 8-row registers, gathering each column's
+/// code bytes first.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// As for [`sum_f32_rows_avx512`], with `avx2` in place of `avx512f`.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+unsafe fn sum_f32_rows_avx2(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    rows: &[u32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    for (rows, dists) in rows
+        .chunks(F32_GROUP_ROWS)
+        .zip(dists.chunks_mut(F32_GROUP_ROWS))
+    {
+        let rows = padded_group_rows(rows);
+        let mut acc = [_mm256_set1_ps(-0.0); 2];
+        for column in 0..code_len {
+            let (low_table, high_table) = load_tables_avx2(dist_table.as_ptr(), column);
+            let code = gather_code_bytes(codes.as_ptr().add(column * n), &rows);
+            let codes = [
+                _mm256_cvtepu8_epi32(code),
+                _mm256_cvtepu8_epi32(_mm_unpackhi_epi64(code, code)),
+            ];
+            for (acc, code) in acc.iter_mut().zip(codes) {
+                *acc = _mm256_add_ps(*acc, lookup_pair_avx2(code, low_table, high_table));
+            }
+        }
+        let mut sums = [0.0f32; F32_GROUP_ROWS];
+        _mm256_storeu_ps(sums.as_mut_ptr(), acc[0]);
+        _mm256_storeu_ps(sums.as_mut_ptr().add(F32_GROUP_ROWS / 2), acc[1]);
+        dists.copy_from_slice(&sums[..dists.len()]);
+    }
+}
+
+/// The entries of a 16-entry table that 16 nibbles select, as four vectors of
+/// 4 rows in row order. `planes` is the table as `vld4q_u8` loads it: plane `b`
+/// holds byte `b` of every little-endian entry, so one `tbl` per plane looks up
+/// that byte for all 16 nibbles, and two rounds of zips reassemble the four
+/// bytes of each row into one lane, bit for bit.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+#[inline]
+fn lookup_neon(planes: uint8x16x4_t, nibbles: uint8x16_t) -> [float32x4_t; 4] {
+    let byte0 = vqtbl1q_u8(planes.0, nibbles);
+    let byte1 = vqtbl1q_u8(planes.1, nibbles);
+    let byte2 = vqtbl1q_u8(planes.2, nibbles);
+    let byte3 = vqtbl1q_u8(planes.3, nibbles);
+    // Bytes 0 and 1, then 2 and 3, of rows 0..8 and 8..16 as `u16` lanes.
+    let low_halves = [
+        vreinterpretq_u16_u8(vzip1q_u8(byte0, byte1)),
+        vreinterpretq_u16_u8(vzip2q_u8(byte0, byte1)),
+    ];
+    let high_halves = [
+        vreinterpretq_u16_u8(vzip1q_u8(byte2, byte3)),
+        vreinterpretq_u16_u8(vzip2q_u8(byte2, byte3)),
+    ];
+    [
+        vreinterpretq_f32_u16(vzip1q_u16(low_halves[0], high_halves[0])),
+        vreinterpretq_f32_u16(vzip2q_u16(low_halves[0], high_halves[0])),
+        vreinterpretq_f32_u16(vzip1q_u16(low_halves[1], high_halves[1])),
+        vreinterpretq_f32_u16(vzip2q_u16(low_halves[1], high_halves[1])),
+    ]
+}
+
+/// `low[code & 15] + high[code >> 4]` for 16 code bytes, as four vectors of 4
+/// rows in row order.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+#[inline]
+fn lookup_pair_neon(
+    code: uint8x16_t,
+    low_table: uint8x16x4_t,
+    high_table: uint8x16x4_t,
+) -> [float32x4_t; 4] {
+    let low = lookup_neon(low_table, vandq_u8(code, vdupq_n_u8(0x0f)));
+    let high = lookup_neon(high_table, vshrq_n_u8::<4>(code));
+    [
+        vaddq_f32(low[0], high[0]),
+        vaddq_f32(low[1], high[1]),
+        vaddq_f32(low[2], high[2]),
+        vaddq_f32(low[3], high[3]),
+    ]
+}
+
+/// Sums all `n` rows in 32-row blocks, then 16-row groups, ending with the 16
+/// rows that end at `n` like the x86 kernels.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// `n >= 16`, and the slices must satisfy the bounds
+/// `sum_f32_transposed_with_backend` asserts.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+unsafe fn sum_f32_transposed_neon(
+    n: usize,
+    code_len: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    dist_table: &[f32],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    // Two groups hold 8 accumulators next to the 8 table planes and the
+    // lookup temporaries, within the 32 vector registers.
+    const BLOCK_GROUPS: usize = 2;
+    debug_assert!(n >= F32_GROUP_ROWS);
+    // Deinterleaving once here rather than per block and column: on Graviton3
+    // a `vld4q_u8` costs about as much as the lookups of a 16-row group.
+    let planes: Vec<[uint8x16x4_t; 2]> = (0..code_len)
+        .map(|column| {
+            let tables = dist_table.as_ptr().add(column * 32);
+            [vld4q_u8(tables.cast()), vld4q_u8(tables.add(16).cast())]
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let mut start = 0;
+    while start + BLOCK_GROUPS * F32_GROUP_ROWS <= n {
+        sum_f32_transposed_block_neon::<BLOCK_GROUPS>(start, n, codes, &planes, dists);
+        start += BLOCK_GROUPS * F32_GROUP_ROWS;
+    }
+    while start + F32_GROUP_ROWS <= n {
+        sum_f32_transposed_block_neon::<1>(start, n, codes, &planes, dists);
+        start += F32_GROUP_ROWS;
+    }
+    if start < n {
+        sum_f32_transposed_block_neon::<1>(n - F32_GROUP_ROWS, n, codes, &planes, dists);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sums rows `start..start + 16 * GROUPS` over the columns whose low and high
+/// table `planes` hold, four registers of 4 rows per group, each an
+/// independent add chain.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "neon")]
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn sum_f32_transposed_block_neon<const GROUPS: usize>(
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    codes: &[u8],
+    planes: &[[uint8x16x4_t; 2]],
+    dists: &mut [f32],
+) {
+    let mut acc = [[vdupq_n_f32(-0.0); 4]; GROUPS];
+    let codes = codes.as_ptr().add(start);
+    for (column, &[low_table, high_table]) in planes.iter().enumerate() {
+        let column = codes.add(column * n);
+        for (group, acc) in acc.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let code = vld1q_u8(column.add(group * F32_GROUP_ROWS));
+            let pairs = lookup_pair_neon(code, low_table, high_table);
+            for (acc, pair) in acc.iter_mut().zip(pairs) {
+                *acc = vaddq_f32(*acc, pair);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let out = dists.as_mut_ptr().add(start);
+    for (group, acc) in acc.iter().enumerate() {
+        for (quarter, acc) in acc.iter().enumerate() {
+            vst1q_f32(out.add(group * F32_GROUP_ROWS + quarter * 4), *acc);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// We implement the AVX512 version in C because AVX512 is not stable yet in Rust,
+// implement it in Rust once we upgrade rust to 1.89.0.
+unsafe extern "C" {
+    #[cfg(all(kernel_support = "avx512_dist_table", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+    pub fn sum_4bit_dist_table_32bytes_batch_avx512(
+        codes: *const u8,
+        code_length: usize,
+        dist_table: *const u8,
+        dists: *mut u16,
+    );
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    /// `avx512_kernel` false covers every caller that reaches it: the hacc entry
+    /// point, which has no AVX-512 kernel at all,
+    /// `sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed` on every non-x86_64 build, and
+    /// `sum_4bit_dist_table_uninit` wherever its
+    /// `cfg!(all(kernel_support = "avx512_dist_table", target_arch = "x86_64"))`
+    /// is false, which is every non-x86_64 build as well as an x86_64 one that
+    /// compiled no AVX-512 C.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    // An AVX-512 host whose entry point has an AVX-512 kernel and `avx512bw`
+    // present takes it.
+    #[case::avx512_ready(SimdSupport::Avx512, true, true, true, DistTableBackend::Avx512)]
+    #[case::avx512fp16_ready(SimdSupport::Avx512FP16, true, true, true, DistTableBackend::Avx512)]
+    // The two ways an AVX-512 host with AVX2 misses the AVX-512 arm. Both must
+    // reach AVX2 rather than scalar.
+    #[case::avx512_no_bw(SimdSupport::Avx512, true, false, true, DistTableBackend::Avx2)]
+    #[case::avx512_kernel_absent(SimdSupport::Avx512, false, true, true, DistTableBackend::Avx2)]
+    #[case::avx512fp16_no_bw(SimdSupport::Avx512FP16, true, false, true, DistTableBackend::Avx2)]
+    #[case::avx512fp16_kernel_absent(
+        SimdSupport::Avx512FP16,
+        false,
+        true,
+        true,
+        DistTableBackend::Avx2
+    )]
+    #[case::avx2_tier(SimdSupport::Avx2, true, false, true, DistTableBackend::Avx2)]
+    // The tier alone must not authorize the AVX2 kernel: it is
+    // `#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]`. No host produces this pair, since
+    // `cpu.rs` selects `Avx2` only when the same `avx2` detection returned true,
+    // so this row pins the selector's contract rather than a real configuration.
+    #[case::avx2_tier_without_the_feature(
+        SimdSupport::Avx2,
+        false,
+        false,
+        false,
+        DistTableBackend::Scalar
+    )]
+    // Without AVX2 there is nothing to fall back to; this row pins the selector.
+    #[case::avx512_no_avx2(SimdSupport::Avx512, false, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    #[case::avx_fma(SimdSupport::AvxFma, false, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    #[case::avx(SimdSupport::Avx, false, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    // An `Avx` tier that reports AVX2. `cpu.rs` notes that every shipping AVX2
+    // part has FMA, so no shipping part produces this pair, though a masked or
+    // feature-forced build can: the tier alone leaves it on scalar, even though
+    // the kernel needs no FMA.
+    #[case::avx_tier_with_avx2(SimdSupport::Avx, false, false, true, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    // `Sse` is a variant the x86 ladder never produces, so this row pins the
+    // selector rather than a real host.
+    #[case::sse(SimdSupport::Sse, false, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    #[case::none(SimdSupport::None, false, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    #[case::neon(SimdSupport::Neon, false, false, false, DistTableBackend::Neon)]
+    // loongarch64 has LSX and LASX kernels elsewhere in this crate but none for
+    // this table, so both tiers belong on the scalar route.
+    #[case::lsx(SimdSupport::Lsx, false, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    #[case::lasx(SimdSupport::Lasx, false, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    // The exact `f32` entry points pass `avx512_kernel = true` on every build,
+    // so a non-AVX-512 tier must ignore it and pick what it would without it.
+    #[case::f32_entry_neon(SimdSupport::Neon, true, false, false, DistTableBackend::Neon)]
+    #[case::f32_entry_avx2(SimdSupport::Avx2, true, false, true, DistTableBackend::Avx2)]
+    #[case::f32_entry_avx_fma(SimdSupport::AvxFma, true, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    #[case::f32_entry_lasx(SimdSupport::Lasx, true, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    #[case::f32_entry_none(SimdSupport::None, true, false, false, DistTableBackend::Scalar)]
+    fn dist_table_backend_follows_the_tier_ladder(
+        #[case] support: SimdSupport,
+        #[case] avx512_kernel: bool,
+        #[case] has_avx512bw: bool,
+        #[case] has_avx2: bool,
+        #[case] expected: DistTableBackend,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            dist_table_backend(support, avx512_kernel, has_avx512bw, has_avx2),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_perm0_inverse_matches_perm0() {
+        for (idx, &value) in PERM0.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(PERM0_INVERSE[value], idx);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_basic() {
+        // we have 32 vectors
+        let n = 32;
+
+        // each code is 2 bytes (16 dim), so code_len = 2
+        let code_len = 2;
+
+        let codes = [
+            0x12, 0x34, 0x56, 0x78, 0x9a, 0xbc, 0xde, 0xf0, // codes[0..8]
+            0x11, 0x22, 0x33, 0x44, 0x55, 0x66, 0x77, 0x88, // codes[8..16]
+            0x99, 0xaa, 0xbb, 0xcc, 0xdd, 0xee, 0xff, 0x00, // codes[16..24]
+            0x12, 0x34, 0x56, 0x78, 0x9a, 0xbc, 0xde, 0xf0, // codes[24..32]
+        ];
+        let codes = codes.repeat(n * code_len / codes.len());
+
+        let mut dist_table = vec![0u8; 16 * 4];
+        for (i, dist) in dist_table.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            *dist = (i % 16 + 1) as u8;
+        }
+
+        // Test the function
+        let mut dists = vec![0u16; n];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut dists);
+
+        // Compare with reference implementation
+        let mut expected_dists = vec![0u16; n];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut expected_dists);
+
+        assert_eq!(dists, expected_dists);
+        // the vector 1's code is the low 4bits of codes[PERM0_INVERSE[1]] = codes[2],
+        // the first 4 bits are the low 4 bits of codes[2], so it's 0x6,
+        // the second 4 bits are the low 4 bits of codes[2 + 16], so it's 0xb,
+        // the third 4 bits are the same as the first 4 bits, so it's 0x6,
+        // the fourth 4 bits are the same as the second 4 bits, so it's 0xb,
+
+        // so the distance is 2 * (dist_table[0x6] + dist_table[0xb + 16]) = 2*(7 + 12) = 38
+        assert_eq!(dists[1], 38);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_overwrites_output() {
+        let n = BATCH_SIZE;
+        let code_len = 16;
+        let codes = vec![0x12; n * code_len];
+        let dist_table = vec![1u8; BATCH_SIZE * code_len];
+
+        let mut expected = vec![u16::MAX; n];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut expected);
+
+        let mut actual = vec![u16::MAX; n];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut actual);
+
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+        assert!(actual.iter().all(|dist| *dist != u16::MAX));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_u16_basic() {
+        let n = BATCH_SIZE;
+        let code_len = 2;
+        let codes = [
+            0x12, 0x34, 0x56, 0x78, 0x9a, 0xbc, 0xde, 0xf0, 0x11, 0x22, 0x33, 0x44, 0x55, 0x66,
+            0x77, 0x88, 0x99, 0xaa, 0xbb, 0xcc, 0xdd, 0xee, 0xff, 0x00, 0x12, 0x34, 0x56, 0x78,
+            0x9a, 0xbc, 0xde, 0xf0,
+        ];
+        let codes = codes.repeat(n * code_len / codes.len());
+        let dist_table: Vec<u16> = (0..16 * 4).map(|idx| (idx % 16 + 1) as u16).collect();
+
+        let mut dists = vec![0u32; n];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table_u16(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut dists);
+
+        assert_eq!(dists[1], 38);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_transfer_4bit_dist_table_u16_layout() {
+        let dist_table: Vec<u16> = (0..32).map(|idx| 0x1200 + idx as u16).collect();
+        let mut hacc_dist_table = Vec::new();
+        transfer_4bit_dist_table_u16(&dist_table, &mut hacc_dist_table);
+
+        assert_eq!(hacc_dist_table.len(), 64);
+        for code in 0..16 {
+            assert_eq!(hacc_dist_table[code], dist_table[code] as u8);
+            assert_eq!(hacc_dist_table[16 + code], dist_table[16 + code] as u8);
+            assert_eq!(hacc_dist_table[32 + code], (dist_table[code] >> 8) as u8);
+            assert_eq!(
+                hacc_dist_table[48 + code],
+                (dist_table[16 + code] >> 8) as u8
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_u16_matches_reference_multi_batch() {
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+        let mut rng = rand::rngs::StdRng::seed_from_u64(99);
+
+        for code_len in [1, 3, 16, 191, 192, 1024] {
+            let n = BATCH_SIZE * 4;
+            let codes: Vec<u8> = (0..n * code_len).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>()).collect();
+            let dist_table: Vec<u16> = (0..BATCH_SIZE * code_len)
+                .map(|_| rng.random::<u16>())
+                .collect();
+
+            let mut expected = vec![0u32; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table_u16_scalar(code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut expected);
+
+            let mut actual = vec![u32::MAX; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table_u16(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut actual);
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual,
+                expected,
+                "u16 dist-table mismatch for code_len={} (DIM={})",
+                code_len,
+                code_len * 8,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table_matches_u16_reference_multi_batch() {
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+        let mut rng = rand::rngs::StdRng::seed_from_u64(101);
+
+        for code_len in [1, 3, 16, 191, 192, 1024] {
+            let n = BATCH_SIZE * 4;
+            let codes: Vec<u8> = (0..n * code_len).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>()).collect();
+            let dist_table: Vec<u16> = (0..BATCH_SIZE * code_len)
+                .map(|_| rng.random::<u16>())
+                .collect();
+
+            let mut hacc_dist_table = Vec::new();
+            transfer_4bit_dist_table_u16(&dist_table, &mut hacc_dist_table);
+
+            let mut expected = vec![0u32; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table_u16_scalar(code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut expected);
+
+            let mut actual = vec![u32::MAX; n];
+            sum_4bit_hacc_dist_table(n, code_len, &codes, &hacc_dist_table, &mut actual);
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual,
+                expected,
+                "hacc dist-table mismatch for code_len={} (DIM={})",
+                code_len,
+                code_len * 8,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// SIMD against scalar over the range the `u16` entry point is contracted
+    /// for; longer codes belong to [`sum_4bit_dist_table_u32`].
+    #[test]
+    fn test_simd_matches_scalar_varied_dimensions() {
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+        let mut rng = rand::rngs::StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
+
+        // code_len = dim / 8 for 1-bit quantization; 128 is DIM=1024.
+        for code_len in [1, 2, 3, 16, 95, 96, 128] {
+            let n = BATCH_SIZE;
+
+            let codes: Vec<u8> = (0..n * code_len).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>()).collect();
+            // `quantize_dist_table_into` spans the whole u8 range, so must this.
+            let dist_table: Vec<u8> = (0..BATCH_SIZE * code_len)
+                .map(|_| rng.random::<u8>())
+                .collect();
+
+            let mut expected = vec![0u16; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut expected);
+
+            let mut actual = vec![0u16; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut actual);
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual,
+                expected,
+                "SIMD and scalar mismatch for code_len={} (DIM={})",
+                code_len,
+                code_len * 8,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Test with multiple batches to verify accumulation across batch boundaries.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_simd_matches_scalar_multi_batch() {
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+        let mut rng = rand::rngs::StdRng::seed_from_u64(123);
+
+        for code_len in [1, 3, 16, 95, 96, 128] {
+            let n = BATCH_SIZE * 10; // 320 vectors = 10 batches
+
+            let codes: Vec<u8> = (0..n * code_len).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>()).collect();
+            let dist_table: Vec<u8> = (0..BATCH_SIZE * code_len)
+                .map(|_| rng.random::<u8>())
+                .collect();
+
+            let mut expected = vec![0u16; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut expected);
+
+            let mut actual = vec![0u16; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut actual);
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual,
+                expected,
+                "SIMD and scalar mismatch for multi-batch code_len={} (DIM={}, n={})",
+                code_len,
+                code_len * 8,
+                n,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+    /// Exact reference: the `u16`-table scalar kernel already sums into `u32`.
+    fn reference_u32_sums(n: usize, code_len: usize, codes: &[u8], dist_table: &[u8]) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let dist_table: Vec<u16> = dist_table.iter().map(|value| *value as u16).collect();
+        let mut expected = vec![0u32; n];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table_u16_scalar(
+            code_len,
+            &codes[..n * code_len],
+            &dist_table,
+            &mut expected,
+        );
+        expected
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_safe_u16_code_len_is_the_overflow_bound() {
+        assert!(2 * SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN * u8::MAX as usize <= u16::MAX as usize);
+        assert!(2 * (SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN + 1) * u8::MAX as usize > u16::MAX as usize);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_u32_matches_reference_full_range() {
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+        let mut rng = rand::rngs::StdRng::seed_from_u64(7157);
+
+        for code_len in [1, 3, 16, 128, 129, 191, 192, 300, 512, 1024] {
+            let n = BATCH_SIZE * 4;
+            let codes: Vec<u8> = (0..n * code_len).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>()).collect();
+            let dist_table: Vec<u8> = (0..BATCH_SIZE * code_len)
+                .map(|_| rng.random::<u8>())
+                .collect();
+
+            let expected = reference_u32_sums(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table);
+
+            let mut actual = vec![u32::MAX; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table_u32(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut actual);
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual,
+                expected,
+                "u32 dist-table mismatch for code_len={} (DIM={})",
+                code_len,
+                code_len * 8,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7157: at DIM=4096 a
+    /// full-range table sums to four times what a `u16` holds.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_u32_stays_exact_past_u16_range() {
+        let code_len = 512;
+        let n = BATCH_SIZE;
+        let codes = vec![0u8; n * code_len];
+        let dist_table = vec![u8::MAX; BATCH_SIZE * code_len];
+        let expected = 2 * code_len as u32 * u8::MAX as u32;
+        assert!(expected > u16::MAX as u32);
+
+        let mut wide = vec![0u32; n];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table_u32(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut wide);
+        assert!(wide.iter().all(|dist| *dist == expected));
+    }
+
+    /// The ex-code FastScan LUT runs codes far longer than
+    /// [`SAFE_U16_CODE_LEN`] through the `u16` kernels, staying in range by
+    /// capping the table instead. Model that cap so those lengths keep coverage.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_simd_matches_scalar_capped_table_long_code_len() {
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+        let mut rng = rand::rngs::StdRng::seed_from_u64(8192);
+
+        for code_len in [191, 192, 512, 1024, 8192] {
+            let n = BATCH_SIZE;
+            let max_val = (u16::MAX as usize / (2 * code_len)).min(u8::MAX as usize) as u8;
+            assert!(2 * code_len * max_val as usize <= u16::MAX as usize);
+
+            let codes: Vec<u8> = (0..n * code_len).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>()).collect();
+            let dist_table: Vec<u8> = (0..BATCH_SIZE * code_len)
+                .map(|_| rng.random_range(0..=max_val))
+                .collect();
+
+            let mut expected = vec![0u16; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table_scalar(code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut expected);
+
+            let mut actual = vec![0u16; n];
+            sum_4bit_dist_table(n, code_len, &codes, &dist_table, &mut actual);
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                actual,
+                expected,
+                "SIMD and scalar mismatch for capped code_len={} (DIM={})",
+                code_len,
+                code_len * 8,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_u32_zero_code_len() {
+        let n = BATCH_SIZE;
+        let mut dists = vec![u32::MAX; n];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table_u32(n, 0, &[], &[], &mut dists);
+        assert!(dists.iter().all(|dist| *dist == 0));
+    }
+    /// Whether this host can run `backend`'s column-major kernels.
+    fn transposed_backend_available(backend: DistTableBackend) -> bool {
+        match backend {
+            #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+            DistTableBackend::Avx512 => is_x86_feature_detected!("avx512bw"),
+            #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+            DistTableBackend::Avx2 => is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2"),
+            #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+            DistTableBackend::Neon => true,
+            DistTableBackend::Scalar => true,
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    const TRANSPOSED_BACKENDS: [DistTableBackend; 4] = [
+        DistTableBackend::Scalar,
+        DistTableBackend::Avx2,
+        DistTableBackend::Avx512,
+        DistTableBackend::Neon,
+    ];
+
+    /// Random column-major codes, a full-range `u8` table and an `f32` table.
+    fn transposed_case(n: usize, code_len: usize) -> (Vec<u8>, Vec<u8>, Vec<f32>) {
+        use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+        let mut rng = rand::rngs::StdRng::seed_from_u64((n * 1000 + code_len) as u64);
+        let codes = (0..n * code_len).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>()).collect();
+        let u8_table = (0..code_len * 32).map(|_| rng.random::<u8>()).collect();
+        let f32_table = (0..code_len * 32)
+            .map(|_| rng.random_range(-3.0f32..5.0))
+            .collect();
+        (codes, u8_table, f32_table)
+    }
+
+    /// Every backend of the `u16` store and filter kernels sums like the
+    /// reference, and the filter reports exactly the rows at most its threshold.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed_matches_reference(
+        #[values(0, 65, 1000)] n: usize,
+        #[values(0, 3, 48)] code_len: usize,
+    ) {
+        let (codes, table, _) = transposed_case(n, code_len);
+        let expected = (0..n)
+            .map(|row| {
+                (0..code_len)
+                    .map(|column| {
+                        let code = codes[column * n + row];
+                        table[column * 32 + (code & 0x0f) as usize] as u16
+                            + table[column * 32 + 16 + (code >> 4) as usize] as u16
+                    })
+                    .sum::<u16>()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut actual = vec![u16::MAX; n];
+        sum_4bit_dist_table_transposed(n, code_len, &codes, &table, &mut actual);
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+
+        let mut sorted = expected.clone();
+        sorted.sort_unstable();
+        let threshold = sorted.get(n / 2).copied().unwrap_or(0);
+        let wanted = expected
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(_, sum)| **sum <= threshold)
+            .map(|(row, sum)| (row, *sum))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        for backend in TRANSPOSED_BACKENDS {
+            if !transposed_backend_available(backend) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let mut found = Vec::new();
+            // The host supports `backend`, checked just above.
+            unsafe {
+                filter_transposed_with_backend(
+                    backend,
+                    n,
+                    code_len,
+                    &codes,
+                    &table,
+                    threshold,
+                    &mut |start, mut mask, sums: &[u16; TRANSPOSED_BATCH_SIZE]| {
+                        while mask != 0 {
+                            let i = mask.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+                            found.push((start + i, sums[i]));
+                            mask &= mask - 1;
+                        }
+                        threshold
+                    },
+                )
+            };
+            assert_eq!(found, wanted, "{backend:?}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Every backend of the exact `f32` kernels matches the per-row fold bit
+    /// for bit, over all rows and over selected rows.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    fn test_sum_4bit_dist_table_f32_matches_fold(
+        #[values(0, 17, 1000)] n: usize,
+        #[values(0, 3, 48)] code_len: usize,
+    ) {
+        let (codes, _, table) = transposed_case(n, code_len);
+        let fold = |row: usize| {
+            (0..code_len)
+                .map(|column| {
+                    let code = codes[column * n + row];
+                    table[column * 32 + (code & 0x0f) as usize]
+                        + table[column * 32 + 16 + (code >> 4) as usize]
+                })
+                .fold(-0.0f32, |acc, pair| acc + pair)
+                .to_bits()
+        };
+        let expected = (0..n).map(fold).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let rows = (0..n as u32).rev().step_by(3).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected_rows = rows
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&row| fold(row as usize))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let bits = |dists: &[f32]| dists.iter().map(|d| d.to_bits()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        for backend in TRANSPOSED_BACKENDS {
+            if !transposed_backend_available(backend) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let mut dists = vec![f32::NAN; n];
+            let mut row_dists = vec![f32::NAN; rows.len()];
+            // The host supports `backend`, checked just above.
+            unsafe {
+                sum_f32_transposed_with_backend(backend, n, code_len, &codes, &table, &mut dists);
+                sum_f32_rows_with_backend(
+                    backend,
+                    n,
+                    code_len,
+                    &codes,
+                    &table,
+                    &rows,
+                    &mut row_dists,
+                );
+            }
+            assert_eq!(bits(&dists), expected, "{backend:?}");
+            assert_eq!(bits(&row_dists), expected_rows, "{backend:?}");
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f16.c b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f16.c
index bc0356d87e9..b694d4e73c2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f16.c
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f16.c
@@ -22,7 +22,6 @@
 #define FUNC_CAT(A, B) FUNC_CAT_INNER(A, B)
 #define FUNC(N) FUNC_CAT(N, SUFFIX)
 
-// TODO: I wonder if we could re-purpose this macro to compile bf16 kernels?
 #if defined(__clang__)
 // Note: we use __fp16 instead of _Float16 because Clang < 15.0.0 does not
 // support it well for most targets. __fp16 works for our purposes here since
@@ -34,7 +33,38 @@
 #endif
 // Note: MSVC doesn't support _Float16 yet, so we can't use it here.
 
+// The AVX2 object uses the lane-partitioned reductions below to preserve the
+// Rust reference implementation's error bound while still vectorizing each
+// 16-element chunk. The AVX-512 object keeps its existing wider reduction.
+#define F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES 16
+
 float FUNC(norm_l2_f16)(const FP16 *data, uint32_t dimension) {
+#ifdef PRECISE_F16_REDUCTION
+  float sums[F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES] = {0};
+  uint32_t chunked_dimension =
+      dimension - dimension % F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES;
+
+  for (uint32_t i = 0; i < chunked_dimension;
+       i += F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES) {
+#pragma clang loop unroll(full)
+    for (uint32_t lane = 0; lane < F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES; lane++) {
+      float value = (float)data[i + lane];
+      sums[lane] += value * value;
+    }
+  }
+
+  float remainder_sum = 0;
+  for (uint32_t i = chunked_dimension; i < dimension; i++) {
+    float value = (float)data[i];
+    remainder_sum += value * value;
+  }
+
+  float lane_sum = 0;
+  for (uint32_t lane = 0; lane < F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES; lane++) {
+    lane_sum += sums[lane];
+  }
+  return sqrtf(remainder_sum + lane_sum);
+#else
   float sum = 0;
 
 #pragma clang loop unroll(enable) vectorize(enable) interleave(enable)
@@ -42,6 +72,7 @@ float FUNC(norm_l2_f16)(const FP16 *data, uint32_t dimension) {
     sum += (float) data[i] * (float) data[i];
   }
   return sqrtf(sum);
+#endif
 }
 
 /// @brief Dot product of two f16 vectors.
@@ -60,6 +91,32 @@ float FUNC(dot_f16)(const FP16 *x, const FP16 *y, uint32_t dimension) {
 }
 
 float FUNC(l2_f16)(const FP16 *x, const FP16 *y, uint32_t dimension) {
+#ifdef PRECISE_F16_REDUCTION
+  float sums[F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES] = {0};
+  uint32_t chunked_dimension =
+      dimension - dimension % F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES;
+
+  for (uint32_t i = 0; i < chunked_dimension;
+       i += F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES) {
+#pragma clang loop unroll(full)
+    for (uint32_t lane = 0; lane < F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES; lane++) {
+      float difference = (float)x[i + lane] - (float)y[i + lane];
+      sums[lane] += difference * difference;
+    }
+  }
+
+  float remainder_sum = 0;
+  for (uint32_t i = chunked_dimension; i < dimension; i++) {
+    float difference = (float)x[i] - (float)y[i];
+    remainder_sum += difference * difference;
+  }
+
+  float lane_sum = 0;
+  for (uint32_t lane = 0; lane < F16_ACCUMULATOR_LANES; lane++) {
+    lane_sum += sums[lane];
+  }
+  return remainder_sum + lane_sum;
+#else
   float sum = 0.0;
 
 #pragma clang loop unroll(enable) interleave(enable) vectorize(enable)
@@ -68,6 +125,7 @@ float FUNC(l2_f16)(const FP16 *x, const FP16 *y, uint32_t dimension) {
     sum += s * s;
   }
   return sum;
+#endif
 }
 
 float FUNC(cosine_f16)(const FP16 *x, float x_norm, const FP16 *y, uint32_t dimension) {
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f32.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f32.rs
index 8091bc83a10..dd8cebb6c67 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f32.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f32.rs
@@ -35,6 +35,11 @@ pub struct f32x8(float32x4x2_t);
 #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct f32x8(v8f32);
 
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f32x8([f32; 8]);
+
 impl std::fmt::Debug for f32x8 {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         let mut arr = [0.0_f32; 8];
@@ -46,14 +51,42 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for f32x8 {
 }
 
 impl f32x8 {
+    /// Gather 8 f32 values from `slice` at the offsets in `indices`.
+    ///
+    /// On x86_64 this uses the AVX2 `vgatherdps` instruction when the host
+    /// supports it (gated at runtime via `is_x86_feature_detected!`). On
+    /// other architectures (and on x86_64 hosts without AVX2) the function
+    /// falls back to a per-index scalar load followed by `Self::from(&out)`,
+    /// which goes through `load_unaligned` (NEON / LASX / `_mm256_loadu_ps`
+    /// depending on platform). Per-tier macro stamping (e.g., the
+    /// `multiversion` crate) was considered but doesn't fit here: the function
+    /// returns `Self` and `_mm256_i32gather_ps::<4>` requires the const-generic
+    /// stride to be a compile-time literal — neither composes with the macro.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// If any index is negative or lands outside `slice`.
     #[inline]
     pub fn gather(slice: &[f32], indices: &[i32; 8]) -> Self {
-        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
-        unsafe {
-            use super::i32::i32x8;
+        // Every backend below reads without bounds checking: `vgatherdps` does
+        // none, and the NEON / LASX arms offset a raw pointer. Check once here
+        // so an out-of-range index panics on every host rather than reading out
+        // of bounds on some and panicking on others.
+        for &i in indices {
+            assert!(
+                (i as usize) < slice.len(),
+                "gather index {i} is out of bounds for a slice of length {}",
+                slice.len()
+            );
+        }
 
-            let idx = i32x8::from(indices);
-            Self(_mm256_i32gather_ps::<4>(slice.as_ptr(), idx.0))
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        {
+            if is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+                unsafe { gather_avx2(slice, indices) }
+            } else {
+                gather_scalar_x86(slice, indices)
+            }
         }
 
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
@@ -91,11 +124,49 @@ impl f32x8 {
             ];
             Self::load_unaligned(values.as_ptr())
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(indices.map(|i| slice[i as usize]))
+        }
     }
 }
 
+/// AVX2 gather. Caller must ensure the host supports AVX2 (gated by
+/// the `is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2")` check in `f32x8::gather`).
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx2")]
+unsafe fn gather_avx2(slice: &[f32], indices: &[i32; 8]) -> f32x8 {
+    use super::i32::i32x8;
+
+    let idx = i32x8::from(indices);
+    f32x8(_mm256_i32gather_ps::<4>(slice.as_ptr(), idx.0))
+}
+
+/// Portable scalar gather for x86_64 hosts without AVX2.
+///
+/// Indexes the slice rather than offsetting a raw pointer: this is the slow
+/// path already, so an out-of-range index should panic instead of reading out
+/// of bounds.
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[inline]
+fn gather_scalar_x86(slice: &[f32], indices: &[i32; 8]) -> f32x8 {
+    let values = indices.map(|i| slice[i as usize]);
+    // SAFETY: `values` is eight contiguous, initialized `f32`.
+    unsafe { f32x8::load_unaligned(values.as_ptr()) }
+}
+
 impl From<&[f32]> for f32x8 {
+    /// Loads the first 8 values from `value`.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `value` contains fewer than 8 values.
     fn from(value: &[f32]) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            value.len() >= 8,
+            "f32x8 requires at least 8 values, got {}",
+            value.len()
+        );
         unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(value.as_ptr()) }
     }
 }
@@ -120,6 +191,10 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         unsafe {
             Self(transmute(lasx_xvreplgr2vr_w(transmute(val))))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self([val; 8])
+        }
     }
 
     fn zeros() -> Self {
@@ -135,6 +210,10 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         {
             Self::splat(0.0)
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self::splat(0.0)
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -151,6 +230,10 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         {
             Self(transmute(lasx_xvld::<0>(transmute(ptr))))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(ptr) }
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -167,6 +250,10 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         {
             Self(transmute(lasx_xvld::<0>(transmute(ptr))))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self(std::ptr::read_unaligned(ptr as *const [f32; 8])) }
+        }
     }
 
     unsafe fn store(&self, ptr: *mut f32) {
@@ -182,6 +269,10 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         unsafe {
             lasx_xvst::<0>(transmute(self.0), transmute(ptr));
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { self.store_unaligned(ptr) }
+        }
     }
 
     unsafe fn store_unaligned(&self, ptr: *mut f32) {
@@ -197,6 +288,10 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         unsafe {
             lasx_xvst::<0>(transmute(self.0), transmute(ptr));
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(ptr as *mut [f32; 8], self.0) }
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -218,13 +313,17 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            let sum = vaddq_f32(self.0 .0, self.0 .1);
+            let sum = vaddq_f32(self.0.0, self.0.1);
             vaddvq_f32(sum)
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         {
             self.as_array().iter().sum()
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().sum()
+        }
     }
 
     fn reduce_min(&self) -> f32 {
@@ -246,7 +345,7 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            let m = vminq_f32(self.0 .0, self.0 .1);
+            let m = vminq_f32(self.0.0, self.0.1);
             vminvq_f32(m)
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
@@ -259,6 +358,10 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
             let m2 = lasx_xvfmin_s(transmute(m1), transmute(m2));
             transmute(lasx_xvpickve2gr_w::<0>(transmute(m2)))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().copied().fold(f32::INFINITY, f32::min)
+        }
     }
 
     fn min(&self, rhs: &Self) -> Self {
@@ -269,14 +372,18 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(float32x4x2_t(
-                vminq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vminq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
+                vminq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vminq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvfmin_s(self.0, rhs.0))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i].min(rhs.0[i])))
+        }
     }
 
     fn find(&self, val: f32) -> Option<i32> {
@@ -292,8 +399,8 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         unsafe {
             let tgt = vdupq_n_f32(val);
             let mut arr = [0; 8];
-            let mask1 = vceqq_f32(self.0 .0, tgt);
-            let mask2 = vceqq_f32(self.0 .1, tgt);
+            let mask1 = vceqq_f32(self.0.0, tgt);
+            let mask2 = vceqq_f32(self.0.1, tgt);
             vst1q_u32(arr.as_mut_ptr(), mask1);
             vst1q_u32(arr.as_mut_ptr().add(4), mask2);
             for i in 0..8 {
@@ -310,6 +417,12 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
                 }
             }
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            if let Some(i) = self.0.iter().position(|&v| v == val) {
+                return Some(i as i32);
+            }
+        }
         None
     }
 }
@@ -322,13 +435,19 @@ impl FloatSimd<f32, 8> for f32x8 {
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            self.0 .0 = vfmaq_f32(self.0 .0, a.0 .0, b.0 .0);
-            self.0 .1 = vfmaq_f32(self.0 .1, a.0 .1, b.0 .1);
+            self.0.0 = vfmaq_f32(self.0.0, a.0.0, b.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vfmaq_f32(self.0.1, a.0.1, b.0.1);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = lasx_xvfmadd_s(a.0, b.0, self.0);
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..8 {
+                self.0[i] = a.0[i].mul_add(b.0[i], self.0[i]);
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -344,14 +463,18 @@ impl Add for f32x8 {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(float32x4x2_t(
-                vaddq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vaddq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
+                vaddq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vaddq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvfadd_s(self.0, rhs.0))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] + rhs.0[i]))
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -364,13 +487,19 @@ impl AddAssign for f32x8 {
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            self.0 .0 = vaddq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0);
-            self.0 .1 = vaddq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1);
+            self.0.0 = vaddq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vaddq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = lasx_xvfadd_s(self.0, rhs.0);
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..8 {
+                self.0[i] += rhs.0[i];
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -386,14 +515,18 @@ impl Sub for f32x8 {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(float32x4x2_t(
-                vsubq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vsubq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
+                vsubq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vsubq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvfsub_s(self.0, rhs.0))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] - rhs.0[i]))
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -406,13 +539,19 @@ impl SubAssign for f32x8 {
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            self.0 .0 = vsubq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0);
-            self.0 .1 = vsubq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1);
+            self.0.0 = vsubq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vsubq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = lasx_xvfsub_s(self.0, rhs.0);
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..8 {
+                self.0[i] -= rhs.0[i];
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -428,26 +567,33 @@ impl Mul for f32x8 {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(float32x4x2_t(
-                vmulq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vmulq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
+                vmulq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vmulq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvfmul_s(self.0, rhs.0))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] * rhs.0[i]))
+        }
     }
 }
 
-/// 16 of 32-bit `f32` values. Use 512-bit SIMD if possible.
+/// 16 of 32-bit `f32` values. Stored as a pair of 256-bit AVX vectors on
+/// x86_64. Originally there was a sibling AVX-512 variant gated on
+/// `target_feature = "avx512f"`, but no project CI configuration enables
+/// `+avx512f` globally (and one of the avx512 arms still contained `todo!()`),
+/// so the variant was dead code. Removed in the runtime-SIMD-dispatch
+/// retrofit; per-tier dispatch happens in the kernel functions in
+/// `crate::distance::*` via `match *SIMD_SUPPORT` + per-tier
+/// `#[target_feature(enable = "...")]` inner functions.
 #[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
-#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
 #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct f32x16(__m256, __m256);
-#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
-#[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
-pub struct f32x16(__m512);
 
 /// 16 of 32-bit `f32` values. Use 512-bit SIMD if possible.
 #[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
@@ -461,6 +607,11 @@ pub struct f32x16(float32x4x4_t);
 #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct f32x16(v8f32, v8f32);
 
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f32x16([f32; 16]);
+
 impl std::fmt::Debug for f32x16 {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         let mut arr = [0.0_f32; 16];
@@ -472,7 +623,17 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for f32x16 {
 }
 
 impl From<&[f32]> for f32x16 {
+    /// Loads the first 16 values from `value`.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `value` contains fewer than 16 values.
     fn from(value: &[f32]) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            value.len() >= 16,
+            "f32x16 requires at least 16 values, got {}",
+            value.len()
+        );
         unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(value.as_ptr()) }
     }
 }
@@ -486,11 +647,7 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a [f32; 16]> for f32x16 {
 impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
     #[inline]
     fn splat(val: f32) -> Self {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            Self(_mm512_set1_ps(val))
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(_mm256_set1_ps(val), _mm256_set1_ps(val))
         }
@@ -510,15 +667,15 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
                 transmute(lasx_xvreplgr2vr_w(transmute(val))),
             )
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self([val; 16])
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
     fn zeros() -> Self {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            Self(_mm512_setzero_ps())
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(_mm256_setzero_ps(), _mm256_setzero_ps())
         }
@@ -530,18 +687,18 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
         {
             Self::splat(0.0)
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self::splat(0.0)
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
     unsafe fn load(ptr: *const f32) -> Self {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(_mm256_load_ps(ptr), _mm256_load_ps(ptr.add(8)))
         }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            Self(_mm512_load_ps(ptr))
-        }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         {
             Self::load_unaligned(ptr)
@@ -553,18 +710,18 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
                 transmute(lasx_xvld::<32>(transmute(ptr))),
             )
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(ptr) }
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
     unsafe fn load_unaligned(ptr: *const f32) -> Self {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(_mm256_loadu_ps(ptr), _mm256_loadu_ps(ptr.add(8)))
         }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            Self(_mm512_loadu_ps(ptr))
-        }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         {
             Self(vld1q_f32_x4(ptr))
@@ -576,15 +733,15 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
                 transmute(lasx_xvld::<32>(transmute(ptr))),
             )
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self(std::ptr::read_unaligned(ptr as *const [f32; 16])) }
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
     unsafe fn store(&self, ptr: *mut f32) {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            _mm512_store_ps(ptr, self.0)
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             _mm256_store_ps(ptr, self.0);
             _mm256_store_ps(ptr.add(8), self.1);
@@ -598,15 +755,15 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
             lasx_xvst::<0>(transmute(self.0), transmute(ptr));
             lasx_xvst::<32>(transmute(self.1), transmute(ptr));
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { self.store_unaligned(ptr) }
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
     unsafe fn store_unaligned(&self, ptr: *mut f32) {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            _mm512_storeu_ps(ptr, self.0)
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             _mm256_storeu_ps(ptr, self.0);
             _mm256_storeu_ps(ptr.add(8), self.1);
@@ -620,14 +777,15 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
             lasx_xvst::<0>(transmute(self.0), transmute(ptr));
             lasx_xvst::<32>(transmute(self.1), transmute(ptr));
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(ptr as *mut [f32; 16], self.0) }
+        }
     }
 
+    #[inline]
     fn reduce_sum(&self) -> f32 {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            _mm512_mask_reduce_add_ps(0xFFFF, self.0)
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             let mut sum = _mm256_add_ps(self.0, self.1);
             // Shift and add vector, until only 1 value left.
@@ -644,8 +802,8 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            let mut sum1 = vaddq_f32(self.0 .0, self.0 .1);
-            let sum2 = vaddq_f32(self.0 .2, self.0 .3);
+            let mut sum1 = vaddq_f32(self.0.0, self.0.1);
+            let sum2 = vaddq_f32(self.0.2, self.0.3);
             sum1 = vaddq_f32(sum1, sum2);
             vaddvq_f32(sum1)
         }
@@ -653,15 +811,15 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
         {
             self.as_array().iter().sum()
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().sum()
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
     fn reduce_min(&self) -> f32 {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            _mm512_mask_reduce_min_ps(0xFFFF, self.0)
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             let mut m1 = _mm256_min_ps(self.0, self.1);
             let mut m2 = _mm256_permute2f128_ps(m1, m1, 1);
@@ -675,8 +833,8 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
 
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            let m1 = vminq_f32(self.0 .0, self.0 .1);
-            let m2 = vminq_f32(self.0 .2, self.0 .3);
+            let m1 = vminq_f32(self.0.0, self.0.1);
+            let m2 = vminq_f32(self.0.2, self.0.3);
             let m = vminq_f32(m1, m2);
             vminvq_f32(m)
         }
@@ -691,48 +849,46 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
             let m1 = lasx_xvfmin_s(transmute(m1), transmute(m2));
             transmute(lasx_xvpickve2gr_w::<0>(transmute(m1)))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().copied().fold(f32::INFINITY, f32::min)
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
     fn min(&self, rhs: &Self) -> Self {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            Self(_mm512_min_ps(self.0, rhs.0))
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(_mm256_min_ps(self.0, rhs.0), _mm256_min_ps(self.1, rhs.1))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(float32x4x4_t(
-                vminq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vminq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
-                vminq_f32(self.0 .2, rhs.0 .2),
-                vminq_f32(self.0 .3, rhs.0 .3),
+                vminq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vminq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
+                vminq_f32(self.0.2, rhs.0.2),
+                vminq_f32(self.0.3, rhs.0.3),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvfmin_s(self.0, rhs.0), lasx_xvfmin_s(self.1, rhs.1))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i].min(rhs.0[i])))
+        }
     }
 
+    #[inline]
     fn find(&self, val: f32) -> Option<i32> {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            // let tgt = _mm512_set1_ps(val);
-            // let mask = _mm512_cmpeq_ps_mask(self.0, tgt);
-            // if mask != 0 {
-            //     return Some(mask.trailing_zeros() as i32);
-            // }
-            todo!()
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
-            // _mm256_cmpeq_ps_mask requires "avx512l".
+            // _mm256_cmpeq_ps_mask requires AVX-512 (avx512f); use a scalar scan here
+            // since we only require AVX2.
+            let arr = self.as_array();
             for i in 0..16 {
-                if self.as_array().get_unchecked(i) == &val {
+                if arr.get_unchecked(i) == &val {
                     return Some(i as i32);
                 }
             }
@@ -742,10 +898,10 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
         unsafe {
             let tgt = vdupq_n_f32(val);
             let mut arr = [0; 16];
-            let mask1 = vceqq_f32(self.0 .0, tgt);
-            let mask2 = vceqq_f32(self.0 .1, tgt);
-            let mask3 = vceqq_f32(self.0 .2, tgt);
-            let mask4 = vceqq_f32(self.0 .3, tgt);
+            let mask1 = vceqq_f32(self.0.0, tgt);
+            let mask2 = vceqq_f32(self.0.1, tgt);
+            let mask3 = vceqq_f32(self.0.2, tgt);
+            let mask4 = vceqq_f32(self.0.3, tgt);
 
             vst1q_u32(arr.as_mut_ptr(), mask1);
             vst1q_u32(arr.as_mut_ptr().add(4), mask2);
@@ -768,33 +924,39 @@ impl SIMD<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
             }
             None
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().position(|&v| v == val).map(|i| i as i32)
+        }
     }
 }
 
 impl FloatSimd<f32, 16> for f32x16 {
     #[inline]
     fn multiply_add(&mut self, a: Self, b: Self) {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            self.0 = _mm512_fmadd_ps(a.0, b.0, self.0)
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = _mm256_fmadd_ps(a.0, b.0, self.0);
             self.1 = _mm256_fmadd_ps(a.1, b.1, self.1);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            self.0 .0 = vfmaq_f32(self.0 .0, a.0 .0, b.0 .0);
-            self.0 .1 = vfmaq_f32(self.0 .1, a.0 .1, b.0 .1);
-            self.0 .2 = vfmaq_f32(self.0 .2, a.0 .2, b.0 .2);
-            self.0 .3 = vfmaq_f32(self.0 .3, a.0 .3, b.0 .3);
+            self.0.0 = vfmaq_f32(self.0.0, a.0.0, b.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vfmaq_f32(self.0.1, a.0.1, b.0.1);
+            self.0.2 = vfmaq_f32(self.0.2, a.0.2, b.0.2);
+            self.0.3 = vfmaq_f32(self.0.3, a.0.3, b.0.3);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = lasx_xvfmadd_s(a.0, b.0, self.0);
             self.1 = lasx_xvfmadd_s(a.1, b.1, self.1);
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..16 {
+                self.0[i] = a.0[i].mul_add(b.0[i], self.0[i]);
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -803,54 +965,56 @@ impl Add for f32x16 {
 
     #[inline]
     fn add(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            Self(_mm512_add_ps(self.0, rhs.0))
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(_mm256_add_ps(self.0, rhs.0), _mm256_add_ps(self.1, rhs.1))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(float32x4x4_t(
-                vaddq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vaddq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
-                vaddq_f32(self.0 .2, rhs.0 .2),
-                vaddq_f32(self.0 .3, rhs.0 .3),
+                vaddq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vaddq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
+                vaddq_f32(self.0.2, rhs.0.2),
+                vaddq_f32(self.0.3, rhs.0.3),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvfadd_s(self.0, rhs.0), lasx_xvfadd_s(self.1, rhs.1))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] + rhs.0[i]))
+        }
     }
 }
 
 impl AddAssign for f32x16 {
     #[inline]
     fn add_assign(&mut self, rhs: Self) {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            self.0 = _mm512_add_ps(self.0, rhs.0)
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = _mm256_add_ps(self.0, rhs.0);
             self.1 = _mm256_add_ps(self.1, rhs.1);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            self.0 .0 = vaddq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0);
-            self.0 .1 = vaddq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1);
-            self.0 .2 = vaddq_f32(self.0 .2, rhs.0 .2);
-            self.0 .3 = vaddq_f32(self.0 .3, rhs.0 .3);
+            self.0.0 = vaddq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vaddq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
+            self.0.2 = vaddq_f32(self.0.2, rhs.0.2);
+            self.0.3 = vaddq_f32(self.0.3, rhs.0.3);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = lasx_xvfadd_s(self.0, rhs.0);
             self.1 = lasx_xvfadd_s(self.1, rhs.1);
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..16 {
+                self.0[i] += rhs.0[i];
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -859,27 +1023,27 @@ impl Mul for f32x16 {
 
     #[inline]
     fn mul(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            Self(_mm512_mul_ps(self.0, rhs.0))
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(_mm256_mul_ps(self.0, rhs.0), _mm256_mul_ps(self.1, rhs.1))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(float32x4x4_t(
-                vmulq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vmulq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
-                vmulq_f32(self.0 .2, rhs.0 .2),
-                vmulq_f32(self.0 .3, rhs.0 .3),
+                vmulq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vmulq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
+                vmulq_f32(self.0.2, rhs.0.2),
+                vmulq_f32(self.0.3, rhs.0.3),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvfmul_s(self.0, rhs.0), lasx_xvfmul_s(self.1, rhs.1))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] * rhs.0[i]))
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -888,54 +1052,56 @@ impl Sub for f32x16 {
 
     #[inline]
     fn sub(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            Self(_mm512_sub_ps(self.0, rhs.0))
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(_mm256_sub_ps(self.0, rhs.0), _mm256_sub_ps(self.1, rhs.1))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(float32x4x4_t(
-                vsubq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vsubq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
-                vsubq_f32(self.0 .2, rhs.0 .2),
-                vsubq_f32(self.0 .3, rhs.0 .3),
+                vsubq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vsubq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
+                vsubq_f32(self.0.2, rhs.0.2),
+                vsubq_f32(self.0.3, rhs.0.3),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvfsub_s(self.0, rhs.0), lasx_xvfsub_s(self.1, rhs.1))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] - rhs.0[i]))
+        }
     }
 }
 
 impl SubAssign for f32x16 {
     #[inline]
     fn sub_assign(&mut self, rhs: Self) {
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", target_feature = "avx512f"))]
-        unsafe {
-            self.0 = _mm512_sub_ps(self.0, rhs.0)
-        }
-        #[cfg(all(target_arch = "x86_64", not(target_feature = "avx512f")))]
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = _mm256_sub_ps(self.0, rhs.0);
             self.1 = _mm256_sub_ps(self.1, rhs.1);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            self.0 .0 = vsubq_f32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0);
-            self.0 .1 = vsubq_f32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1);
-            self.0 .2 = vsubq_f32(self.0 .2, rhs.0 .2);
-            self.0 .3 = vsubq_f32(self.0 .3, rhs.0 .3);
+            self.0.0 = vsubq_f32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vsubq_f32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
+            self.0.2 = vsubq_f32(self.0.2, rhs.0.2);
+            self.0.3 = vsubq_f32(self.0.3, rhs.0.3);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = lasx_xvfsub_s(self.0, rhs.0);
             self.1 = lasx_xvfsub_s(self.1, rhs.1);
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..16 {
+                self.0[i] -= rhs.0[i];
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -943,9 +1109,23 @@ impl SubAssign for f32x16 {
 mod tests {
 
     use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slice_conversion_rejects_short_input() {
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| f32x8::from(&[0.0; 7][..])).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| f32x16::from(&[0.0; 15][..])).is_err());
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_basic_ops() {
+        // Load / store / arithmetic on `f32x8` lower to AVX intrinsics, and
+        // `multiply_add` lowers to `_mm256_fmadd_ps`, which needs FMA. Both
+        // are present from the AvxFma tier up.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") || !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") {
+            return;
+        }
         let a = (0..8).map(|f| f as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let b = (10..18).map(|f| f as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
@@ -953,14 +1133,18 @@ mod tests {
         let simd_b = unsafe { f32x8::load_unaligned(b.as_ptr()) };
 
         let simd_add = simd_a + simd_b;
-        assert!((0..8)
-            .zip(simd_add.as_array().iter())
-            .all(|(x, &y)| (x + x + 10) as f32 == y));
+        assert!(
+            (0..8)
+                .zip(simd_add.as_array().iter())
+                .all(|(x, &y)| (x + x + 10) as f32 == y)
+        );
 
         let simd_mul = simd_a * simd_b;
-        assert!((0..8)
-            .zip(simd_mul.as_array().iter())
-            .all(|(x, &y)| (x * (x + 10)) as f32 == y));
+        assert!(
+            (0..8)
+                .zip(simd_mul.as_array().iter())
+                .all(|(x, &y)| (x * (x + 10)) as f32 == y)
+        );
 
         let simd_sub = simd_b - simd_a;
         assert!(simd_sub.as_array().iter().all(|&v| v == 10.0));
@@ -979,6 +1163,11 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_f32x8_cmp_ops() {
+        // `min` / `reduce_min` are AVX intrinsics; `find` is a scalar scan.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
         let a = [1.0_f32, 2.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0];
         let b = [2.0_f32, 1.0, 4.0, 5.0, 9.0, 5.0, 6.0, 2.0];
         let c = [2.0_f32, 1.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0];
@@ -1003,6 +1192,11 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_basic_f32x16_ops() {
+        // `f32x16` is a pair of `__m256`; `multiply_add` needs FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") || !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") {
+            return;
+        }
         let a = (0..16).map(|f| f as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let b = (10..26).map(|f| f as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
@@ -1010,14 +1204,18 @@ mod tests {
         let simd_b = unsafe { f32x16::load_unaligned(b.as_ptr()) };
 
         let simd_add = simd_a + simd_b;
-        assert!((0..16)
-            .zip(simd_add.as_array().iter())
-            .all(|(x, &y)| (x + x + 10) as f32 == y));
+        assert!(
+            (0..16)
+                .zip(simd_add.as_array().iter())
+                .all(|(x, &y)| (x + x + 10) as f32 == y)
+        );
 
         let simd_mul = simd_a * simd_b;
-        assert!((0..16)
-            .zip(simd_mul.as_array().iter())
-            .all(|(x, &y)| (x * (x + 10)) as f32 == y));
+        assert!(
+            (0..16)
+                .zip(simd_mul.as_array().iter())
+                .all(|(x, &y)| (x * (x + 10)) as f32 == y)
+        );
 
         simd_a -= simd_b;
         assert_eq!(simd_a.reduce_sum(), -160.0);
@@ -1033,6 +1231,11 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_f32x16_cmp_ops() {
+        // `min` / `reduce_min` are AVX intrinsics; `find` is a scalar scan.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
         let a = [
             1.0_f32, 2.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0, -0.5, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 1.0, 2.0,
         ];
@@ -1049,7 +1252,9 @@ mod tests {
         let min_simd = simd_a.min(&simd_b);
         assert_eq!(
             min_simd.as_array(),
-            [1.0, 1.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0, -0.5, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 1.0, 1.0]
+            [
+                1.0, 1.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0, -0.5, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 1.0, 1.0
+            ]
         );
         let min_val = min_simd.reduce_min();
         assert_eq!(min_val, -0.5);
@@ -1064,9 +1269,59 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_f32x8_gather() {
+        // `f32x8::gather` does its own runtime AVX2 detection and falls back
+        // to a scalar gather, so this test only needs whatever reading the
+        // `__m256`-backed result costs: AVX, for `reduce_sum`.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
         let a = (0..256).map(|f| f as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let idx = [0_i32, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 29];
         let v = f32x8::gather(&a, &idx);
         assert_eq!(v.reduce_sum(), 113.0);
     }
+
+    /// Directly exercises `gather_scalar_x86`, the per-index scalar fallback
+    /// `f32x8::gather` takes on x86_64 hosts without AVX2. Runtime AVX2 hosts
+    /// route through `gather_avx2` instead, so the fallback is otherwise never
+    /// hit under coverage. Reading the `__m256`-backed result needs AVX, so
+    /// skip on hosts without it.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_gather_scalar_x86() {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        let a = (0..256).map(|f| f as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let idx = [0_i32, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 29];
+        let v = gather_scalar_x86(&a, &idx);
+        let expected = idx.map(|i| a[i as usize]);
+        assert_eq!(v.as_array(), expected);
+    }
+
+    /// An index past the end of the slice panics rather than reading out of
+    /// bounds. The bounds check fires before any AVX instruction, so this
+    /// case runs on every x86_64 host.
+    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "index out of bounds")]
+    fn test_gather_scalar_x86_rejects_out_of_range_index() {
+        let a = (0..8).map(|f| f as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let idx = [0_i32, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 99];
+        let _ = gather_scalar_x86(&a, &idx);
+    }
+
+    /// `gather` validates before dispatching, so every backend — `vgatherdps`,
+    /// the x86 scalar fallback, and the NEON / LASX raw-pointer arms — rejects
+    /// a bad index identically instead of reading out of bounds.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::past_end(99)]
+    #[case::negative(-1)]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "out of bounds")]
+    fn test_gather_rejects_invalid_index(#[case] bad_index: i32) {
+        let a = (0..8).map(|f| f as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let idx = [0_i32, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, bad_index];
+        let _ = f32x8::gather(&a, &idx);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f64.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f64.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e3317d662d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/f64.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1028 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! `f64x4` and `f64x8` SIMD types for f64 distance computations.
+
+use std::fmt::Formatter;
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+use std::arch::aarch64::*;
+#[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+use std::arch::loongarch64::*;
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+#[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+use std::mem::transmute;
+use std::ops::{Add, AddAssign, Mul, Sub, SubAssign};
+
+use super::{FloatSimd, SIMD};
+
+/// 4 of 64-bit `f64` values. Uses 256-bit SIMD if possible.
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f64x4(std::arch::x86_64::__m256d);
+
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f64x4(float64x2x2_t);
+
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f64x4(v4f64);
+
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f64x4([f64; 4]);
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for f64x4 {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let mut arr = [0.0_f64; 4];
+        unsafe {
+            self.store_unaligned(arr.as_mut_ptr());
+        }
+        write!(f, "f64x4({:?})", arr)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&[f64]> for f64x4 {
+    /// Loads the first 4 values from `value`.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `value` contains fewer than 4 values.
+    fn from(value: &[f64]) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            value.len() >= 4,
+            "f64x4 requires at least 4 values, got {}",
+            value.len()
+        );
+        unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(value.as_ptr()) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> From<&'a [f64; 4]> for f64x4 {
+    fn from(value: &'a [f64; 4]) -> Self {
+        unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(value.as_ptr()) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl SIMD<f64, 4> for f64x4 {
+    fn splat(val: f64) -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_set1_pd(val))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(float64x2x2_t(vdupq_n_f64(val), vdupq_n_f64(val)))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(transmute(lasx_xvreplgr2vr_d(transmute(val))))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self([val; 4])
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn zeros() -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_setzero_pd())
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        {
+            Self::splat(0.0)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            Self::splat(0.0)
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self::splat(0.0)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn load(ptr: *const f64) -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_load_pd(ptr))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        {
+            Self::load_unaligned(ptr)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            Self(transmute(lasx_xvld::<0>(transmute(ptr))))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(ptr) }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn load_unaligned(ptr: *const f64) -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_loadu_pd(ptr))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        {
+            Self(vld1q_f64_x2(ptr))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            Self(transmute(lasx_xvld::<0>(transmute(ptr))))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self(std::ptr::read_unaligned(ptr as *const [f64; 4])) }
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn store(&self, ptr: *mut f64) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            _mm256_store_pd(ptr, self.0);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            vst1q_f64_x2(ptr, self.0);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            lasx_xvst::<0>(transmute(self.0), transmute(ptr));
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { self.store_unaligned(ptr) }
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn store_unaligned(&self, ptr: *mut f64) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            _mm256_storeu_pd(ptr, self.0);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            vst1q_f64_x2(ptr, self.0);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            lasx_xvst::<0>(transmute(self.0), transmute(ptr));
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(ptr as *mut [f64; 4], self.0) }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn reduce_sum(&self) -> f64 {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            // [a, b, c, d] -> hadd -> [a+b, a+b, c+d, c+d]
+            let sum = _mm256_hadd_pd(self.0, self.0);
+            // Extract low 128 and high 128, add them
+            let lo = _mm256_castpd256_pd128(sum);
+            let hi = _mm256_extractf128_pd(sum, 1);
+            let r = _mm_add_pd(lo, hi);
+            _mm_cvtsd_f64(r)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            let sum = vaddq_f64(self.0.0, self.0.1);
+            vaddvq_f64(sum)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            self.as_array().iter().sum()
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().sum()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn reduce_min(&self) -> f64 {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            // Swap high/low 128-bit lanes and min
+            let hi = _mm256_permute2f128_pd(self.0, self.0, 1);
+            let m = _mm256_min_pd(self.0, hi);
+            // Swap within 128-bit lane and min
+            let shuf = _mm256_permute_pd(m, 0b0101);
+            let m = _mm256_min_pd(m, shuf);
+            _mm256_cvtsd_f64(m)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            let m = vminq_f64(self.0.0, self.0.1);
+            vminvq_f64(m)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            self.as_array()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .fold(f64::INFINITY, f64::min)
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().copied().fold(f64::INFINITY, f64::min)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn min(&self, rhs: &Self) -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_min_pd(self.0, rhs.0))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(float64x2x2_t(
+                vminq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vminq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
+            ))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(lasx_xvfmin_d(self.0, rhs.0))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i].min(rhs.0[i])))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn find(&self, val: f64) -> Option<i32> {
+        unsafe {
+            for i in 0..4 {
+                if self.as_array().get_unchecked(i) == &val {
+                    return Some(i as i32);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+impl FloatSimd<f64, 4> for f64x4 {
+    fn multiply_add(&mut self, a: Self, b: Self) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = _mm256_fmadd_pd(a.0, b.0, self.0);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0.0 = vfmaq_f64(self.0.0, a.0.0, b.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vfmaq_f64(self.0.1, a.0.1, b.0.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = lasx_xvfmadd_d(a.0, b.0, self.0);
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..4 {
+                self.0[i] = a.0[i].mul_add(b.0[i], self.0[i]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Add for f64x4 {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn add(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_add_pd(self.0, rhs.0))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(float64x2x2_t(
+                vaddq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vaddq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
+            ))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(lasx_xvfadd_d(self.0, rhs.0))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] + rhs.0[i]))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AddAssign for f64x4 {
+    #[inline]
+    fn add_assign(&mut self, rhs: Self) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = _mm256_add_pd(self.0, rhs.0)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0.0 = vaddq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vaddq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = lasx_xvfadd_d(self.0, rhs.0);
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..4 {
+                self.0[i] += rhs.0[i];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Sub for f64x4 {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn sub(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_sub_pd(self.0, rhs.0))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(float64x2x2_t(
+                vsubq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vsubq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
+            ))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(lasx_xvfsub_d(self.0, rhs.0))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] - rhs.0[i]))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl SubAssign for f64x4 {
+    #[inline]
+    fn sub_assign(&mut self, rhs: Self) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = _mm256_sub_pd(self.0, rhs.0)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0.0 = vsubq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vsubq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = lasx_xvfsub_d(self.0, rhs.0);
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..4 {
+                self.0[i] -= rhs.0[i];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Mul for f64x4 {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn mul(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_mul_pd(self.0, rhs.0))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(float64x2x2_t(
+                vmulq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vmulq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
+            ))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(lasx_xvfmul_d(self.0, rhs.0))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] * rhs.0[i]))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// f64x8: 8 × f64 values (512-bit SIMD or 2 × 256-bit)
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// 8 of 64-bit `f64` values. Stored as a pair of 256-bit AVX vectors on
+/// x86_64. Originally there was a sibling AVX-512 variant gated on
+/// `target_feature = "avx512f"`, but no project CI configuration enables
+/// `+avx512f` globally, so the variant was dead code. Removed in the
+/// runtime-SIMD-dispatch retrofit; per-tier dispatch happens in the kernel
+/// functions in `crate::distance::*` via `match *SIMD_SUPPORT` + per-tier
+/// `#[target_feature(enable = "...")]` inner functions.
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f64x8(__m256d, __m256d);
+
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f64x8(float64x2x2_t, float64x2x2_t);
+
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f64x8(v4f64, v4f64);
+
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct f64x8([f64; 8]);
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for f64x8 {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let mut arr = [0.0_f64; 8];
+        unsafe {
+            self.store_unaligned(arr.as_mut_ptr());
+        }
+        write!(f, "f64x8({:?})", arr)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&[f64]> for f64x8 {
+    /// Loads the first 8 values from `value`.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `value` contains fewer than 8 values.
+    fn from(value: &[f64]) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            value.len() >= 8,
+            "f64x8 requires at least 8 values, got {}",
+            value.len()
+        );
+        unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(value.as_ptr()) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> From<&'a [f64; 8]> for f64x8 {
+    fn from(value: &'a [f64; 8]) -> Self {
+        unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(value.as_ptr()) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl SIMD<f64, 8> for f64x8 {
+    #[inline]
+    fn splat(val: f64) -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_set1_pd(val), _mm256_set1_pd(val))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            let v = vdupq_n_f64(val);
+            Self(float64x2x2_t(v, v), float64x2x2_t(v, v))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            let v = transmute(lasx_xvreplgr2vr_d(transmute(val)));
+            Self(v, v)
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self([val; 8])
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn zeros() -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_setzero_pd(), _mm256_setzero_pd())
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        {
+            Self::splat(0.0)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            Self::splat(0.0)
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self::splat(0.0)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn load(ptr: *const f64) -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_load_pd(ptr), _mm256_load_pd(ptr.add(4)))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        {
+            Self::load_unaligned(ptr)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            Self(
+                transmute(lasx_xvld::<0>(transmute(ptr))),
+                transmute(lasx_xvld::<32>(transmute(ptr))),
+            )
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(ptr) }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn load_unaligned(ptr: *const f64) -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_loadu_pd(ptr), _mm256_loadu_pd(ptr.add(4)))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(vld1q_f64_x2(ptr), vld1q_f64_x2(ptr.add(4)))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            Self(
+                transmute(lasx_xvld::<0>(transmute(ptr))),
+                transmute(lasx_xvld::<32>(transmute(ptr))),
+            )
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self(std::ptr::read_unaligned(ptr as *const [f64; 8])) }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn store(&self, ptr: *mut f64) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            _mm256_store_pd(ptr, self.0);
+            _mm256_store_pd(ptr.add(4), self.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            vst1q_f64_x2(ptr, self.0);
+            vst1q_f64_x2(ptr.add(4), self.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            lasx_xvst::<0>(transmute(self.0), transmute(ptr));
+            lasx_xvst::<32>(transmute(self.1), transmute(ptr));
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { self.store_unaligned(ptr) }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    unsafe fn store_unaligned(&self, ptr: *mut f64) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            _mm256_storeu_pd(ptr, self.0);
+            _mm256_storeu_pd(ptr.add(4), self.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            vst1q_f64_x2(ptr, self.0);
+            vst1q_f64_x2(ptr.add(4), self.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            lasx_xvst::<0>(transmute(self.0), transmute(ptr));
+            lasx_xvst::<32>(transmute(self.1), transmute(ptr));
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(ptr as *mut [f64; 8], self.0) }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn reduce_sum(&self) -> f64 {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            let sum = _mm256_add_pd(self.0, self.1);
+            let hi = _mm256_permute2f128_pd(sum, sum, 1);
+            let sum = _mm256_add_pd(sum, hi);
+            let sum = _mm256_hadd_pd(sum, sum);
+            _mm256_cvtsd_f64(sum)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            let sum0 = vaddq_f64(self.0.0, self.0.1);
+            let sum1 = vaddq_f64(self.1.0, self.1.1);
+            let sum = vaddq_f64(sum0, sum1);
+            vaddvq_f64(sum)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            self.as_array().iter().sum()
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().sum()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn reduce_min(&self) -> f64 {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            let m = _mm256_min_pd(self.0, self.1);
+            let hi = _mm256_permute2f128_pd(m, m, 1);
+            let m = _mm256_min_pd(m, hi);
+            let shuf = _mm256_permute_pd(m, 0b0101);
+            let m = _mm256_min_pd(m, shuf);
+            _mm256_cvtsd_f64(m)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            let m0 = vminq_f64(self.0.0, self.0.1);
+            let m1 = vminq_f64(self.1.0, self.1.1);
+            let m = vminq_f64(m0, m1);
+            vminvq_f64(m)
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        {
+            self.as_array()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .fold(f64::INFINITY, f64::min)
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().copied().fold(f64::INFINITY, f64::min)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn min(&self, rhs: &Self) -> Self {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_min_pd(self.0, rhs.0), _mm256_min_pd(self.1, rhs.1))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(
+                float64x2x2_t(vminq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0), vminq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1)),
+                float64x2x2_t(vminq_f64(self.1.0, rhs.1.0), vminq_f64(self.1.1, rhs.1.1)),
+            )
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(lasx_xvfmin_d(self.0, rhs.0), lasx_xvfmin_d(self.1, rhs.1))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i].min(rhs.0[i])))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn find(&self, val: f64) -> Option<i32> {
+        unsafe {
+            for i in 0..8 {
+                if self.as_array().get_unchecked(i) == &val {
+                    return Some(i as i32);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+impl FloatSimd<f64, 8> for f64x8 {
+    #[inline]
+    fn multiply_add(&mut self, a: Self, b: Self) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = _mm256_fmadd_pd(a.0, b.0, self.0);
+            self.1 = _mm256_fmadd_pd(a.1, b.1, self.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0.0 = vfmaq_f64(self.0.0, a.0.0, b.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vfmaq_f64(self.0.1, a.0.1, b.0.1);
+            self.1.0 = vfmaq_f64(self.1.0, a.1.0, b.1.0);
+            self.1.1 = vfmaq_f64(self.1.1, a.1.1, b.1.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = lasx_xvfmadd_d(a.0, b.0, self.0);
+            self.1 = lasx_xvfmadd_d(a.1, b.1, self.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..8 {
+                self.0[i] = a.0[i].mul_add(b.0[i], self.0[i]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Add for f64x8 {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn add(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_add_pd(self.0, rhs.0), _mm256_add_pd(self.1, rhs.1))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(
+                float64x2x2_t(vaddq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0), vaddq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1)),
+                float64x2x2_t(vaddq_f64(self.1.0, rhs.1.0), vaddq_f64(self.1.1, rhs.1.1)),
+            )
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(lasx_xvfadd_d(self.0, rhs.0), lasx_xvfadd_d(self.1, rhs.1))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] + rhs.0[i]))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AddAssign for f64x8 {
+    #[inline]
+    fn add_assign(&mut self, rhs: Self) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = _mm256_add_pd(self.0, rhs.0);
+            self.1 = _mm256_add_pd(self.1, rhs.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0.0 = vaddq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vaddq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
+            self.1.0 = vaddq_f64(self.1.0, rhs.1.0);
+            self.1.1 = vaddq_f64(self.1.1, rhs.1.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = lasx_xvfadd_d(self.0, rhs.0);
+            self.1 = lasx_xvfadd_d(self.1, rhs.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..8 {
+                self.0[i] += rhs.0[i];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Mul for f64x8 {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn mul(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_mul_pd(self.0, rhs.0), _mm256_mul_pd(self.1, rhs.1))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(
+                float64x2x2_t(vmulq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0), vmulq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1)),
+                float64x2x2_t(vmulq_f64(self.1.0, rhs.1.0), vmulq_f64(self.1.1, rhs.1.1)),
+            )
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(lasx_xvfmul_d(self.0, rhs.0), lasx_xvfmul_d(self.1, rhs.1))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] * rhs.0[i]))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Sub for f64x8 {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn sub(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(_mm256_sub_pd(self.0, rhs.0), _mm256_sub_pd(self.1, rhs.1))
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(
+                float64x2x2_t(vsubq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0), vsubq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1)),
+                float64x2x2_t(vsubq_f64(self.1.0, rhs.1.0), vsubq_f64(self.1.1, rhs.1.1)),
+            )
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            Self(lasx_xvfsub_d(self.0, rhs.0), lasx_xvfsub_d(self.1, rhs.1))
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i] - rhs.0[i]))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl SubAssign for f64x8 {
+    #[inline]
+    fn sub_assign(&mut self, rhs: Self) {
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = _mm256_sub_pd(self.0, rhs.0);
+            self.1 = _mm256_sub_pd(self.1, rhs.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0.0 = vsubq_f64(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vsubq_f64(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
+            self.1.0 = vsubq_f64(self.1.0, rhs.1.0);
+            self.1.1 = vsubq_f64(self.1.1, rhs.1.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
+        unsafe {
+            self.0 = lasx_xvfsub_d(self.0, rhs.0);
+            self.1 = lasx_xvfsub_d(self.1, rhs.1);
+        }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..8 {
+                self.0[i] -= rhs.0[i];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slice_conversion_rejects_short_input() {
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| f64x4::from(&[0.0; 3][..])).is_err());
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| f64x8::from(&[0.0; 7][..])).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f64x4_basic_ops() {
+        // The `f64x4` constructor / load / store / arithmetic paths all lower
+        // to AVX intrinsics on x86_64; none of them need AVX2.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        let a = [1.0_f64, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0];
+        let b = [5.0_f64, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0];
+
+        let simd_a: f64x4 = (&a).into();
+        let simd_b: f64x4 = (&b).into();
+
+        let sum = simd_a + simd_b;
+        assert_eq!(sum.as_array(), [6.0, 8.0, 10.0, 12.0]);
+
+        let product = simd_a * simd_b;
+        assert_eq!(product.as_array(), [5.0, 12.0, 21.0, 32.0]);
+
+        let diff = simd_b - simd_a;
+        assert_eq!(diff.as_array(), [4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0]);
+
+        assert_eq!(simd_a.reduce_sum(), 10.0);
+        assert_eq!(simd_a.reduce_min(), 1.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f64x4_fma() {
+        // `multiply_add` lowers to `_mm256_fmadd_pd`, which needs FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") || !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") {
+            return;
+        }
+        let a = [1.0_f64, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0];
+        let b = [2.0_f64, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0];
+
+        let simd_a: f64x4 = (&a).into();
+        let simd_b: f64x4 = (&b).into();
+        let mut acc = f64x4::zeros();
+        acc.multiply_add(simd_a, simd_b);
+        assert_eq!(acc.as_array(), [2.0, 6.0, 12.0, 20.0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f64x4_min() {
+        // `min` / `reduce_min` are AVX intrinsics.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        let a = [1.0_f64, 5.0, 2.0, 8.0];
+        let b = [3.0_f64, 2.0, 4.0, 1.0];
+        let simd_a: f64x4 = (&a).into();
+        let simd_b: f64x4 = (&b).into();
+
+        let m = simd_a.min(&simd_b);
+        assert_eq!(m.as_array(), [1.0, 2.0, 2.0, 1.0]);
+        assert_eq!(m.reduce_min(), 1.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f64x8_basic_ops() {
+        // `f64x8` is a pair of `__m256d`; add / reduce are AVX intrinsics.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        let a: [f64; 8] = [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0];
+        let b: [f64; 8] = [10.0, 20.0, 30.0, 40.0, 50.0, 60.0, 70.0, 80.0];
+
+        let simd_a: f64x8 = (&a).into();
+        let simd_b: f64x8 = (&b).into();
+
+        let sum = simd_a + simd_b;
+        assert_eq!(
+            sum.as_array(),
+            [11.0, 22.0, 33.0, 44.0, 55.0, 66.0, 77.0, 88.0]
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(simd_a.reduce_sum(), 36.0);
+        assert_eq!(simd_a.reduce_min(), 1.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f64x8_fma() {
+        // `multiply_add` lowers to `_mm256_fmadd_pd`, which needs FMA.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") || !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("fma") {
+            return;
+        }
+        let a: [f64; 8] = [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0];
+        let b: [f64; 8] = [1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0];
+
+        let simd_a: f64x8 = (&a).into();
+        let simd_b: f64x8 = (&b).into();
+        let mut acc = f64x8::zeros();
+        acc.multiply_add(simd_a, simd_b);
+        assert_eq!(acc.as_array(), a);
+        assert_eq!(acc.reduce_sum(), 36.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_f64x8_min() {
+        // `min` / `reduce_min` are AVX intrinsics.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        let a: [f64; 8] = [5.0, 1.0, 8.0, 3.0, 9.0, 2.0, 7.0, 4.0];
+        let b: [f64; 8] = [2.0, 6.0, 3.0, 7.0, 1.0, 8.0, 4.0, 9.0];
+        let simd_a: f64x8 = (&a).into();
+        let simd_b: f64x8 = (&b).into();
+
+        let m = simd_a.min(&simd_b);
+        assert_eq!(m.as_array(), [2.0, 1.0, 3.0, 3.0, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 4.0]);
+        assert_eq!(m.reduce_min(), 1.0);
+
+        // Test with negative values
+        let c: [f64; 8] = [-1.0, 5.0, 3.0, 7.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, -3.0];
+        let simd_c: f64x8 = (&c).into();
+        assert_eq!(simd_c.reduce_min(), -3.0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/i32.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/i32.rs
index e7ee93a94ea..5c152fc649e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/i32.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/i32.rs
@@ -15,21 +15,34 @@ use std::mem::transmute;
 
 use super::SIMD;
 
+/// 8 of 32-bit `i32` values. Use 256-bit SIMD if possible.
+///
+/// The x86_64 arm reaches AVX and AVX2 intrinsics with no `#[target_feature]`
+/// gate of its own, so callers must already be inside an AVX2-checked context.
+/// `x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu` is pinned to `target-cpu=x86-64-v2`
+/// (`.cargo/config.toml`), which is below AVX.
 #[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
 #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
 #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct i32x8(pub(crate) __m256i);
 
+/// 8 of 32-bit `i32` values. Use 256-bit SIMD if possible.
 #[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
 #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
 #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct i32x8(int32x4x2_t);
 
+/// 8 of 32-bit `i32` values. Use 256-bit SIMD if possible.
 #[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
 #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
 #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct i32x8(v8i32);
 
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
+#[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct i32x8([i32; 8]);
+
 impl std::fmt::Debug for i32x8 {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         let mut arr = [0; 8];
@@ -41,7 +54,17 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for i32x8 {
 }
 
 impl From<&[i32]> for i32x8 {
+    /// Loads the first 8 values from `value`.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `value` contains fewer than 8 values.
     fn from(value: &[i32]) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            value.len() >= 8,
+            "i32x8 requires at least 8 values, got {}",
+            value.len()
+        );
         unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(value.as_ptr()) }
     }
 }
@@ -67,6 +90,10 @@ impl SIMD<i32, 8> for i32x8 {
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvreplgr2vr_w(val))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self([val; 8])
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -83,6 +110,10 @@ impl SIMD<i32, 8> for i32x8 {
         {
             Self::splat(0)
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self::splat(0)
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -99,6 +130,10 @@ impl SIMD<i32, 8> for i32x8 {
         {
             Self(transmute(lasx_xvld::<0>(transmute(ptr))))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(ptr) }
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -115,6 +150,10 @@ impl SIMD<i32, 8> for i32x8 {
         {
             Self(transmute(lasx_xvld::<0>(transmute(ptr))))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { Self(std::ptr::read_unaligned(ptr as *const [i32; 8])) }
+        }
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -135,6 +174,10 @@ impl SIMD<i32, 8> for i32x8 {
         unsafe {
             lasx_xvst::<0>(transmute(self.0), transmute(ptr))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            unsafe { std::ptr::write_unaligned(ptr as *mut [i32; 8], self.0) }
+        }
     }
 
     fn reduce_sum(&self) -> i32 {
@@ -144,13 +187,17 @@ impl SIMD<i32, 8> for i32x8 {
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            let sum = vaddq_s32(self.0 .0, self.0 .1);
+            let sum = vaddq_s32(self.0.0, self.0.1);
             vaddvq_s32(sum)
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         {
             self.as_array().iter().sum()
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            self.0.iter().sum()
+        }
     }
 
     fn reduce_min(&self) -> i32 {
@@ -165,14 +212,18 @@ impl SIMD<i32, 8> for i32x8 {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(int32x4x2_t(
-                vminq_s32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vminq_s32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
+                vminq_s32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vminq_s32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvmin_w(self.0, rhs.0))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i].min(rhs.0[i])))
+        }
     }
 
     fn find(&self, val: i32) -> Option<i32> {
@@ -188,8 +239,8 @@ impl SIMD<i32, 8> for i32x8 {
         unsafe {
             let tgt = vdupq_n_s32(val);
             let mut arr = [0; 8];
-            let mask1 = vceqq_s32(self.0 .0, tgt);
-            let mask2 = vceqq_s32(self.0 .1, tgt);
+            let mask1 = vceqq_s32(self.0.0, tgt);
+            let mask2 = vceqq_s32(self.0.1, tgt);
             vst1q_u32(arr.as_mut_ptr(), mask1);
             vst1q_u32(arr.as_mut_ptr().add(4), mask2);
             for i in 0..8 {
@@ -206,6 +257,12 @@ impl SIMD<i32, 8> for i32x8 {
                 }
             }
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            if let Some(i) = self.0.iter().position(|&v| v == val) {
+                return Some(i as i32);
+            }
+        }
         None
     }
 }
@@ -222,14 +279,18 @@ impl Add for i32x8 {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(int32x4x2_t(
-                vaddq_s32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vaddq_s32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
+                vaddq_s32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vaddq_s32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvadd_w(self.0, rhs.0))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i].wrapping_add(rhs.0[i])))
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -242,13 +303,19 @@ impl AddAssign for i32x8 {
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            self.0 .0 = vaddq_s32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0);
-            self.0 .1 = vaddq_s32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1);
+            self.0.0 = vaddq_s32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vaddq_s32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = lasx_xvadd_w(self.0, rhs.0);
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..8 {
+                self.0[i] = self.0[i].wrapping_add(rhs.0[i]);
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -264,14 +331,18 @@ impl Sub for i32x8 {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(int32x4x2_t(
-                vsubq_s32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vsubq_s32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
+                vsubq_s32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vsubq_s32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvsub_w(self.0, rhs.0))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i].wrapping_sub(rhs.0[i])))
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -284,38 +355,94 @@ impl SubAssign for i32x8 {
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
-            self.0 .0 = vsubq_s32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0);
-            self.0 .1 = vsubq_s32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1);
+            self.0.0 = vsubq_s32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0);
+            self.0.1 = vsubq_s32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1);
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             self.0 = lasx_xvsub_w(self.0, rhs.0);
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            for i in 0..8 {
+                self.0[i] = self.0[i].wrapping_sub(rhs.0[i]);
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
 impl Mul for i32x8 {
     type Output = Self;
 
+    /// Lane-wise product, keeping the low 32 bits of each result.
+    ///
+    /// `mul` wraps on overflow rather than panicking the way scalar `i32 * i32`
+    /// does in a debug build, and every arm agrees on that: `vpmulld`,
+    /// `vmulq_s32`, `lasx_xvmul_w` and `wrapping_mul` each discard the high
+    /// half. This is a statement about `mul` alone — `reduce_sum` sums in scalar
+    /// `i32` outside aarch64 (so it panics on overflow in a debug build) but
+    /// reduces in-register on aarch64, where it wraps.
+    ///
+    /// Picking a widening variant here is a silent wrong answer, not a compile
+    /// error: `_mm256_mul_epi32` (`vpmuldq`) multiplies only the even 32-bit
+    /// lanes and writes four 64-bit results, so `[1, 2, ..., 8]` squared came
+    /// back as `[1, 0, 9, 0, 25, 0, 49, 0]`.
     #[inline]
     fn mul(self, rhs: Self) -> Self::Output {
         #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
         unsafe {
-            Self(_mm256_mul_epi32(self.0, rhs.0))
+            Self(_mm256_mullo_epi32(self.0, rhs.0))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(int32x4x2_t(
-                vmulq_s32(self.0 .0, rhs.0 .0),
-                vmulq_s32(self.0 .1, rhs.0 .1),
+                vmulq_s32(self.0.0, rhs.0.0),
+                vmulq_s32(self.0.1, rhs.0.1),
             ))
         }
         #[cfg(target_arch = "loongarch64")]
         unsafe {
             Self(lasx_xvmul_w(self.0, rhs.0))
         }
+        #[cfg(simd_fallback)]
+        {
+            Self(std::array::from_fn(|i| self.0[i].wrapping_mul(rhs.0[i])))
+        }
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {}
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slice_conversion_rejects_short_input() {
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| i32x8::from(&[0; 7][..])).is_err());
+    }
+
+    /// Lane-wise, low-32-bits multiplication is what every arm promises, so
+    /// this runs everywhere: only the x86 feature check is arch-gated, matching
+    /// `f32.rs`'s and `f64.rs`'s test modules.
+    ///
+    /// Every case below has to produce a different answer under the widening
+    /// `vpmuldq` this file used to call. All-zero *inputs* would not: `vpmuldq`
+    /// returns zeros for those too.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::squares([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8], [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8], [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64])]
+    #[case::mixed_signs([-3, 7, -3, 7, -3, 7, -3, 7], [7, -3, 7, -3, 7, -3, 7, -3], [-21; 8])]
+    #[case::wraps_to_low_32_bits([65536; 8], [65536; 8], [0; 8])]
+    fn mul_is_lane_wise(#[case] lhs: [i32; 8], #[case] rhs: [i32; 8], #[case] expected: [i32; 8]) {
+        // `load_unaligned` / `store_unaligned` are AVX and `mul` is AVX2, and
+        // none of them is `#[target_feature]`-gated, so a pre-Haswell host would
+        // SIGILL. The `qemu-pre-haswell` CI job runs exactly that.
+        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx2") {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let product = i32x8::from(&lhs) * i32x8::from(&rhs);
+
+        assert_eq!(product.as_array(), expected);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/u8.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/u8.rs
index aa1b3f3c677..b6cc28fe6b2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/u8.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/u8.rs
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ use std::arch::aarch64::*;
 use std::arch::x86_64::*;
 use std::ops::{Add, AddAssign, Mul, Sub, SubAssign};
 
-use super::{Shuffle, SIMD};
+use super::{SIMD, Shuffle};
 
 /// 16 of 8-bit `u8` values.
 #[allow(non_camel_case_types)]
@@ -42,9 +42,11 @@ impl u8x16 {
         }
         #[cfg(not(any(target_arch = "x86_64", target_arch = "aarch64")))]
         {
+            let mut result = self.0;
             for i in 0..16 {
-                self.0[i] &= mask;
+                result[i] &= mask;
             }
+            Self(result)
         }
     }
 
@@ -82,7 +84,17 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for u8x16 {
 }
 
 impl From<&[u8]> for u8x16 {
+    /// Loads the first 16 values from `value`.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `value` contains fewer than 16 values.
     fn from(value: &[u8]) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            value.len() >= 16,
+            "u8x16 requires at least 16 values, got {}",
+            value.len()
+        );
         unsafe { Self::load_unaligned(value.as_ptr()) }
     }
 }
@@ -401,6 +413,11 @@ mod tests {
 
     use super::*;
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_slice_conversion_rejects_short_input() {
+        assert!(std::panic::catch_unwind(|| u8x16::from(&[0; 15][..])).is_err());
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_basic_u8x16_ops() {
         let a = (0..16).map(|f| f as u8).collect::<Vec<_>>();
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/x86.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/x86.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..437018669e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/simd/x86.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Reduction helpers shared by the x86_64 AVX kernels in [`crate::distance`].
+//!
+//! Each distance kernel accumulates into a 256-bit register and folds it down
+//! to a scalar once, after the main loop. The fold is identical across
+//! `cosine`, `dot`, `l2` and `norm_l2`, so it lives here instead of being
+//! copied into each kernel's private `mod x86`.
+//!
+//! The module itself is `pub(crate)`, which is what keeps these helpers off the
+//! public API; the items are `pub` rather than `pub(crate)` only because
+//! `clippy::redundant_pub_crate` fires on the narrower visibility.
+
+use std::arch::x86_64::*;
+
+/// Horizontal sum of the eight `f32` lanes of an `__m256`.
+///
+/// Folds the upper 128-bit lane into the lower one, then reduces the
+/// remaining four lanes pairwise. Uses `movehl`/`shuffle` plus scalar adds
+/// rather than two `vhaddps`, which is one fewer uop on most cores.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support AVX. Callers are `#[target_feature]`-annotated
+/// kernels that the runtime dispatcher only selects after checking.
+#[inline]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+pub unsafe fn hsum256_ps(v: __m256) -> f32 {
+    let lo = _mm256_castps256_ps128(v);
+    let hi = _mm256_extractf128_ps(v, 1);
+    let sum128 = _mm_add_ps(lo, hi);
+    let sum64 = _mm_add_ps(sum128, _mm_movehl_ps(sum128, sum128));
+    // 0x55 broadcasts lane 1 into lane 0, so the scalar add below lands the
+    // last of the four partial sums.
+    let sum32 = _mm_add_ss(sum64, _mm_shuffle_ps(sum64, sum64, 0x55));
+    _mm_cvtss_f32(sum32)
+}
+
+/// Horizontal sum of the four `f64` lanes of an `__m256d`.
+///
+/// Folds the upper 128-bit lane into the lower one, then adds the remaining
+/// pair.
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// The host must support AVX. Callers are `#[target_feature]`-annotated
+/// kernels that the runtime dispatcher only selects after checking.
+#[inline]
+#[target_feature(enable = "avx")]
+pub unsafe fn hsum256_pd(v: __m256d) -> f64 {
+    let lo = _mm256_castpd256_pd128(v);
+    let hi = _mm256_extractf128_pd(v, 1);
+    let sum128 = _mm_add_pd(lo, hi);
+    let sum64 = _mm_add_pd(sum128, _mm_unpackhi_pd(sum128, sum128));
+    _mm_cvtsd_f64(sum64)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::ascending([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0], 36.0)]
+    #[case::negative_lanes([-1.5, 2.0, -3.0, 4.5, 0.0, -0.5, 1.0, 2.5], 5.0)]
+    #[case::zeros([0.0; 8], 0.0)]
+    #[case::cancelling([1.0, -1.0, 2.0, -2.0, 3.0, -3.0, 4.0, -4.0], 0.0)]
+    fn hsum256_ps_sums_every_lane(#[case] lanes: [f32; 8], #[case] expected: f32) {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        let sum = unsafe { hsum256_ps(_mm256_loadu_ps(lanes.as_ptr())) };
+        assert_eq!(sum, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::ascending([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], 10.0)]
+    #[case::negative_lanes([-1.5, 2.0, -3.0, 4.5], 2.0)]
+    #[case::zeros([0.0; 4], 0.0)]
+    #[case::cancelling([1.0, -1.0, 2.0, -2.0], 0.0)]
+    fn hsum256_pd_sums_every_lane(#[case] lanes: [f64; 4], #[case] expected: f64) {
+        if !std::is_x86_feature_detected!("avx") {
+            return;
+        }
+        let sum = unsafe { hsum256_pd(_mm256_loadu_pd(lanes.as_ptr())) };
+        assert_eq!(sum, expected);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/src/test_utils.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/src/test_utils.rs
index afe173010fc..3779c6743a3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-linalg/src/test_utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/src/test_utils.rs
@@ -3,6 +3,24 @@
 
 use half::{bf16, f16};
 use proptest::prelude::*;
+use proptest::test_runner::{Config, TestCaseResult, TestRunner};
+use std::ops::Range;
+
+const CASES_PER_DIMENSION_SHARD: u32 = 16;
+const MIN_TEST_DIMENSION: usize = 4;
+const MAX_TEST_DIMENSION: usize = 4048;
+const NUM_DIMENSION_SHARDS: usize = 16;
+
+pub fn dimension_shard(shard: usize) -> Range<usize> {
+    let dimensions_per_shard = (MAX_TEST_DIMENSION - MIN_TEST_DIMENSION) / NUM_DIMENSION_SHARDS;
+    let start = MIN_TEST_DIMENSION + shard * dimensions_per_shard;
+    let end = if shard + 1 == NUM_DIMENSION_SHARDS {
+        MAX_TEST_DIMENSION
+    } else {
+        start + dimensions_per_shard
+    };
+    start..end
+}
 
 /// Arbitrary finite f16 value.
 pub fn arbitrary_f16() -> impl Strategy<Value = f16> {
@@ -79,3 +97,31 @@ where
         (x, y)
     })
 }
+
+pub fn run_vector_pair_proptest<T, S, F>(values: fn() -> S, dim_range: Range<usize>, property: F)
+where
+    T: std::fmt::Debug,
+    S: Strategy<Value = T> + 'static,
+    F: Fn(Vec<T>, Vec<T>) -> TestCaseResult,
+{
+    let strategy = arbitrary_vector_pair(values, dim_range);
+    let mut runner = TestRunner::new(Config {
+        cases: CASES_PER_DIMENSION_SHARD,
+        ..Config::default()
+    });
+    runner.run(&strategy, |(x, y)| property(x, y)).unwrap();
+}
+
+pub fn run_vector_proptest<T, S, F>(values: fn() -> S, dim_range: Range<usize>, property: F)
+where
+    T: std::fmt::Debug,
+    S: Strategy<Value = T>,
+    F: Fn(Vec<T>) -> TestCaseResult,
+{
+    let strategy = prop::collection::vec(values(), dim_range);
+    let mut runner = TestRunner::new(Config {
+        cases: CASES_PER_DIMENSION_SHARD,
+        ..Config::default()
+    });
+    runner.run(&strategy, property).unwrap();
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-linalg/tests/panic_location.rs b/rust/lance-linalg/tests/panic_location.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bed9a8d759d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-linalg/tests/panic_location.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Where a length-contract panic reports itself.
+//!
+//! This lives in its own integration binary because it replaces the global
+//! panic hook. Any other test that panics while the hook is installed lands in
+//! this one's sink instead, and the lib test binary runs its tests on threads of
+//! one process.
+
+use std::ffi::OsStr;
+use std::path::Path;
+
+use lance_linalg::distance::{dot_u8::dot_u8, l2::l2_distance_batch};
+
+/// Runs `f`, which must panic, and returns where the panic was reported and
+/// what it said.
+fn panic_details(f: impl FnOnce() + std::panic::UnwindSafe) -> (String, u32, String) {
+    let captured = std::sync::Arc::new(std::sync::Mutex::new(None));
+    let sink = std::sync::Arc::clone(&captured);
+    let previous = std::panic::take_hook();
+    std::panic::set_hook(Box::new(move |info| {
+        // Both panics here come from `assert_eq!`, which always formats, so the
+        // payload is a `String`. A payload of any other type leaves this empty
+        // and the message assertions below fail rather than pass silently.
+        let message = info
+            .payload()
+            .downcast_ref::<String>()
+            .cloned()
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        *sink.lock().unwrap() = info
+            .location()
+            .map(|loc| (loc.file().to_owned(), loc.line(), message));
+    }));
+    let outcome = std::panic::catch_unwind(f);
+    std::panic::set_hook(previous);
+    assert!(outcome.is_err(), "expected a panic");
+    captured.lock().unwrap().take().expect("no panic location")
+}
+
+/// Without `#[track_caller]` on the two helpers in `distance.rs`, both of these
+/// panics report `distance.rs` and the reader cannot tell which metric fired.
+/// The message is asserted too, so an unrelated panic in the same file does not
+/// satisfy the test.
+#[test]
+fn length_contract_panics_name_the_distance_function() {
+    let (file, line, message) = panic_details(|| {
+        dot_u8(&[1, 2], &[1]);
+    });
+    assert_eq!(
+        Path::new(&file).file_name(),
+        Some(OsStr::new("dot_u8.rs")),
+        "expected dot_u8.rs, got {file}:{line}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        message.contains("equal lengths"),
+        "{file}:{line}: {message}"
+    );
+
+    let (file, line, message) = panic_details(|| {
+        l2_distance_batch(&[1.0f32, 2.0], &[1.0f32, 2.0, 3.0], 2).for_each(drop);
+    });
+    assert_eq!(
+        Path::new(&file).file_name(),
+        Some(OsStr::new("l2.rs")),
+        "expected l2.rs, got {file}:{line}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        message.contains("divisible by dimension"),
+        "{file}:{line}: {message}"
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/Cargo.toml
index a8d7987f4ec..2a98ce4ef63 100755
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/Cargo.toml
@@ -12,19 +12,17 @@ rust-version.workspace = true
 
 [dependencies]
 async-trait.workspace = true
-dashmap = "6"
+dashmap.workspace = true
 datafusion.workspace = true
 lance.workspace = true
 lance-namespace.workspace = true
-tokio.workspace = true
 
 [dev-dependencies]
-arrow.workspace = true
 arrow-array.workspace = true
 arrow-schema.workspace = true
-datafusion-sql.workspace = true
 lance-namespace-impls.workspace = true
 tempfile.workspace = true
+tokio.workspace = true
 
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/catalog.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/catalog.rs
index 03e11ef7f4c..ce699037ba0 100755
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/catalog.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/catalog.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::any::Any;
 use std::collections::HashSet;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
@@ -9,10 +8,10 @@ use dashmap::DashMap;
 use datafusion::catalog::{CatalogProvider, CatalogProviderList, SchemaProvider};
 use datafusion::error::Result;
 
-use crate::namespace_level::NamespaceLevel;
-use crate::schema::LanceSchemaProvider;
 #[allow(unused_imports)]
 use crate::SessionBuilder;
+use crate::namespace_level::NamespaceLevel;
+use crate::schema::LanceSchemaProvider;
 
 /// A dynamic [`CatalogProviderList`] that maps Lance namespaces to catalogs.
 ///
@@ -53,10 +52,6 @@ impl LanceCatalogProviderList {
 }
 
 impl CatalogProviderList for LanceCatalogProviderList {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     /// Adds a new catalog to this catalog list.
     /// If a catalog of the same name existed before, it is replaced in the list and returned.
     fn register_catalog(
@@ -116,10 +111,6 @@ impl LanceCatalogProvider {
 }
 
 impl CatalogProvider for LanceCatalogProvider {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema_names(&self) -> Vec<String> {
         self.schemas
             .iter()
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/namespace_level.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/namespace_level.rs
index 46f8df888e0..7048d02981d 100755
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/namespace_level.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/namespace_level.rs
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
 use lance::{Dataset, Result};
-use lance_namespace::models::{ListNamespacesRequest, ListTablesRequest};
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::models::{ListNamespacesRequest, ListTablesRequest};
 
 const DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_NAME: &str = "lance";
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/schema.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/schema.rs
index 9acf30a97bf..194346001c3 100755
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/schema.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/schema.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::any::Any;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
@@ -51,10 +50,6 @@ impl LanceSchemaProvider {
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl SchemaProvider for LanceSchemaProvider {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn table_names(&self) -> Vec<String> {
         self.tables
             .iter()
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/session_builder.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/session_builder.rs
index 802b13a43be..eba33b10461 100755
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/session_builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/src/session_builder.rs
@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ use datafusion::error::Result;
 use datafusion::execution::context::{SessionConfig, SessionContext};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use crate::LanceCatalogProvider;
 use crate::catalog::LanceCatalogProviderList;
 use crate::namespace_level::NamespaceLevel;
-use crate::LanceCatalogProvider;
 
 /// Builder for configuring a `SessionContext` with Lance namespaces.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
@@ -138,10 +138,10 @@ mod tests {
     use super::SessionBuilder;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
+    use arrow_array::record_batch;
     use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatch};
-    use datafusion::catalog::memory::{MemoryCatalogProvider, MemorySchemaProvider};
     use datafusion::catalog::SchemaProvider;
-    use datafusion::common::record_batch;
+    use datafusion::catalog::memory::{MemoryCatalogProvider, MemorySchemaProvider};
     use datafusion::datasource::MemTable;
     use datafusion::error::Result;
 
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/tests/sql.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/tests/sql.rs
index 3242f5ce233..25bd2fe6bdc 100755
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/tests/sql.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-datafusion/tests/sql.rs
@@ -3,15 +3,15 @@
 
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use arrow_array::record_batch;
 use arrow_array::{Int32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
 use arrow_schema::Schema;
-use datafusion::common::record_batch;
 use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DFResult};
 use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
-use lance::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use lance::Dataset;
-use lance_namespace::models::CreateNamespaceRequest;
+use lance::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::models::CreateNamespaceRequest;
 use lance_namespace_datafusion::{NamespaceLevel, SessionBuilder};
 use lance_namespace_impls::DirectoryNamespaceBuilder;
 use tempfile::TempDir;
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/BENCHMARK.md b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/BENCHMARK.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..074ec303347
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/BENCHMARK.md
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+# `__manifest` commit benchmark
+
+Measures how fast the copy-on-write directory catalog commits `__manifest` mutations as
+the manifest scales, with the inline scalar indices on or off.
+
+The catalog commits every mutation by rewriting the whole `__manifest` (copy-on-write)
+and atomically writing a new manifest version. This benchmark characterises:
+
+- **Continuous commit** — a single process commits `N` times into a manifest already
+  holding `rows` entries (per-commit latency + throughput).
+- **Concurrent commit** — `C` processes commit continuously for a fixed duration against
+  a manifest of `rows` entries (steady, contended TPS).
+
+## Binary: `examples/manifest_bench.rs`
+
+```
+manifest_bench seed-large --root <uri> --count <rows> --inline-optimization <true|false> \
+    [--storage-option aws_region=us-east-1]
+manifest_bench run --root <uri> --operation write-create-namespace \
+    --concurrency 1 --operations 100 --initial-entries <rows> --inline-optimization <bool>   # continuous
+manifest_bench run --root <uri> --operation write-create-namespace \
+    --concurrency 50 --duration-secs 30 --initial-entries <rows> --inline-optimization <bool> # concurrent
+```
+
+- `seed-large` bootstraps a manifest to `count` rows by writing the Lance dataset
+  directly (O(rows) once) and then triggering one CoW rewrite so the on-disk state
+  matches the steady catalog form (single fragment; inline indices when enabled).
+- `run` spawns `--concurrency` worker subprocesses. With `--operations` it runs a fixed
+  commit budget (continuous); with `--duration-secs` each worker commits until the
+  deadline (steady TPS). It prints one JSON `BenchResult` per concurrency level with
+  throughput and p50/p90/p99 latency.
+- The committed operation (`--operation`) defaults to `write-create-namespace`, the
+  cheapest pure-`__manifest` mutation (no table data). `write-create-table` /
+  `write-declare-table` are also available.
+
+S3 requires the default `dir-aws` feature (on by default) and AWS credentials in the
+environment; pass `--storage-option aws_region=<region>`.
+
+## Sweep panel: `benches/manifest_commit_sweep.sh`
+
+Runs the full panel — sizes × {inline index, no index} × {continuous, concurrent×C} —
+with per-run S3-copy isolation (each run starts at exactly the bootstrapped size),
+JSONL results, a `summary.csv`, and resume support.
+
+```bash
+cargo build --release --example manifest_bench -p lance-namespace-impls
+S3_BASE=s3://<bucket>/manifest-cow-bench/$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ) \
+  rust/lance-namespace-impls/benches/manifest_commit_sweep.sh
+```
+
+Default panel (override via env): `SIZES="1000 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000 100000 200000
+500000 1000000"`, `CONCURRENCY="10 20 50 100 120 150 200"`, `INLINE_VARIANTS="true false"`,
+`CONT_OPS=100`, `CONC_DURATION_SECS=30`. Results land in `$OUT_DIR` (default
+`~/manifest_cow_bench_<RUN_ID>`).
+
+## Representative results
+
+EC2 `c7i.48xlarge`, S3 `us-east-1`, op `write-create-namespace`. The catalog is a
+single-writer-throughput system: per-commit cost scales ~O(rows) and throughput does **not**
+scale with concurrency (every commit is a serialized `__manifest` version bump).
+
+Continuous (1 process, 100 commits), ops/s — inline index vs no index:
+
+| rows | inline | no index |
+|---:|---:|---:|
+| 1,000 | 2.0 | 3.5 |
+| 100,000 | 1.1 | 2.1 |
+| 1,000,000 | 0.34 | 0.53 |
+
+Concurrent steady TPS is flat across C=10..200 (e.g. inline @100k ≈ 1.4–1.5 ops/s at every C;
+@1M ≈ 0.3 ops/s). Conflicts that exceed the retry budget surface as errors and grow with C
+(≈0 at C≤20, climbing at C≥100) — the contention ceiling, not data loss. No-index commits run
+~1.5–2× faster (no per-commit index build) at the cost of unindexed reads.
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/Cargo.toml
index b41e7f44e01..4fb7feb1343 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/Cargo.toml
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ rust-version.workspace = true
 
 [features]
 default = ["dir-aws", "dir-azure", "dir-gcp", "dir-oss", "dir-huggingface"]
-rest = ["dep:reqwest", "dep:serde"]
+rest = ["dep:arc-swap", "dep:reqwest", "dep:serde"]
 rest-adapter = ["dep:axum", "dep:tower", "dep:tower-http", "dep:serde"]
 # Cloud storage features for directory implementation - align with lance-io
 dir-gcp = ["lance-io/gcp", "lance/gcp"]
@@ -21,18 +21,19 @@ dir-aws = ["lance-io/aws", "lance/aws"]
 dir-azure = ["lance-io/azure", "lance/azure"]
 dir-oss = ["lance-io/oss", "lance/oss"]
 dir-huggingface = ["lance-io/huggingface", "lance/huggingface"]
+dir-goosefs = ["lance-io/goosefs", "lance/goosefs"]
 # Credential vending features
-credential-vendor-aws = ["dep:aws-sdk-sts", "dep:aws-config", "dep:aws-credential-types", "dep:sha2", "dep:base64"]
-credential-vendor-gcp = ["dep:google-cloud-auth", "dep:reqwest", "dep:serde", "dep:sha2", "dep:base64"]
-credential-vendor-azure = ["dep:azure_core", "dep:azure_identity", "dep:azure_storage", "dep:azure_storage_blobs", "dep:time", "dep:sha2", "dep:base64", "dep:reqwest"]
+credential-vendor-aws = ["dep:aws-sdk-sts", "dep:aws-config", "dep:sha2", "dep:base64"]
+credential-vendor-gcp = ["dep:reqwest", "dep:serde", "dep:sha2", "dep:base64", "dep:ring", "dep:rustls-pki-types"]
+credential-vendor-azure = ["dep:reqwest", "dep:serde", "dep:sha2", "dep:base64", "dep:chrono", "dep:hmac", "dep:quick-xml"]
 
 [dependencies]
 lance-namespace.workspace = true
 lance-core.workspace = true
 
 # REST implementation dependencies (optional, enabled by "rest" feature)
-reqwest = { version = "0.12", optional = true, default-features = false, features = [
-    "json",
+arc-swap = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+reqwest = { workspace = true, optional = true, features = [
     "charset",
     "gzip",
     "http2",
@@ -43,11 +44,15 @@ reqwest = { version = "0.12", optional = true, default-features = false, feature
 url = { workspace = true }
 lance = { workspace = true }
 lance-index = { workspace = true }
+lance-linalg = { workspace = true }
 lance-io = { workspace = true }
+lance-table = { workspace = true }
 object_store = { workspace = true }
 arrow = { workspace = true }
 arrow-ipc = { workspace = true }
 arrow-schema = { workspace = true }
+datafusion-common = { workspace = true }
+datafusion-physical-plan = { workspace = true }
 
 # REST adapter implementation dependencies (optional, enabled by "rest-adapter" feature)
 axum = { workspace = true, optional = true }
@@ -58,38 +63,40 @@ serde = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 # Common dependencies
 async-trait.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
-snafu.workspace = true
 tokio = { workspace = true, features = ["sync", "full"] }
 serde_json = { workspace = true }
 futures.workspace = true
 log.workspace = true
 rand.workspace = true
-chrono.workspace = true
+roaring.workspace = true
+uuid.workspace = true
 
-# AWS credential vending dependencies (optional, enabled by "credential-vendor-aws" feature)
-aws-sdk-sts = { version = "1.38.0", optional = true }
-aws-config = { workspace = true, optional = true }
-aws-credential-types = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+# Shared credential vending dependencies
 sha2 = { version = "0.10", optional = true }
 base64 = { version = "0.22", optional = true }
 
-# GCP credential vending dependencies (optional, enabled by "dir-gcp" feature)
-google-cloud-auth = { version = "0.18", optional = true }
+# AWS credential vending dependencies (optional, enabled by "credential-vendor-aws" feature)
+aws-sdk-sts = { version = "1.38.0", optional = true, default-features = false, features = ["default-https-client", "rt-tokio"] }
+aws-config = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+
+# GCP credential vending dependencies (optional, enabled by "credential-vendor-gcp" feature)
+ring = { version = "0.17", optional = true }
+rustls-pki-types = { version = "1", optional = true }
 
-# Azure credential vending dependencies (optional, enabled by "dir-azure" feature)
-azure_core = { version = "0.21", optional = true }
-azure_identity = { version = "0.21", optional = true }
-azure_storage = { version = "0.21", optional = true }
-azure_storage_blobs = { version = "0.21", optional = true }
-time = { version = "0.3", optional = true }
+# Azure credential vending dependencies (optional, enabled by "credential-vendor-azure" feature)
+chrono = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+hmac = { version = "0.12", optional = true }
+quick-xml = { version = "0.40", optional = true }
 
 [dev-dependencies]
-tokio = { workspace = true, features = ["full"] }
 tempfile.workspace = true
 wiremock.workspace = true
-arrow = { workspace = true }
-arrow-ipc = { workspace = true }
 rstest.workspace = true
+serde = { workspace = true, features = ["derive"] }
+
+[[example]]
+name = "manifest_bench"
+path = "examples/manifest_bench.rs"
 
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/benches/manifest_commit_sweep.sh b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/benches/manifest_commit_sweep.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..7384ced4152
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/benches/manifest_commit_sweep.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+# Copy-on-write __manifest commit benchmark sweep panel.
+#
+# Drives `cargo run --release --example manifest_bench` across a panel of:
+#   - bootstrap manifest sizes (rows already in __manifest)
+#   - inline scalar indices on vs off
+#   - continuous commit (single process, N commits) and
+#     concurrent commit (C processes, steady TPS over a fixed duration)
+#
+# Each run is isolated: a "golden" manifest is bootstrapped once per (size, index)
+# and server-side-copied to a fresh S3 prefix per run, so every run starts at exactly
+# the bootstrapped size. Results are written as JSONL (one BenchResult per line) and
+# summarised to CSV. The sweep is resumable: completed runs are skipped.
+#
+# Usage:
+#   S3_BASE=s3://jack-devland-build/manifest-cow-bench/$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ) \
+#     ./manifest_commit_sweep.sh
+#
+# Env knobs (defaults match the requested panel):
+#   SIZES, CONCURRENCY, INLINE_VARIANTS, CONT_OPS, CONC_DURATION_SECS,
+#   AWS_REGION, OUT_DIR, BIN
+#
+# Resilient by design: a single failed run is logged and skipped rather than aborting
+# the sweep, and re-running fills the gaps (completed runs are detected and skipped).
+set -uo pipefail
+
+RUN_ID="${RUN_ID:-$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)}"
+S3_BASE="${S3_BASE:?set S3_BASE, e.g. s3://jack-devland-build/manifest-cow-bench/$RUN_ID}"
+AWS_REGION="${AWS_REGION:-us-east-1}"
+export AWS_REGION AWS_DEFAULT_REGION="$AWS_REGION"
+
+REPO_ROOT="${REPO_ROOT:-$HOME/oss/lance}"
+BIN="${BIN:-$REPO_ROOT/target/release/examples/manifest_bench}"
+OUT_DIR="${OUT_DIR:-$HOME/manifest_cow_bench_${RUN_ID}}"
+RESULTS="$OUT_DIR/results.jsonl"
+PROGRESS="$OUT_DIR/progress.log"
+mkdir -p "$OUT_DIR"
+
+SIZES=(${SIZES:-1000 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000 100000 200000 500000 1000000})
+CONCURRENCY=(${CONCURRENCY:-10 20 50 100 120 150 200})
+INLINE_VARIANTS=(${INLINE_VARIANTS:-true false})
+CONT_OPS="${CONT_OPS:-100}"
+CONC_DURATION_SECS="${CONC_DURATION_SECS:-30}"
+STORAGE_OPT=(--storage-option "aws_region=${AWS_REGION}")
+
+log() { printf '%s %s\n' "$(date -u +%H:%M:%S)" "$*" | tee -a "$PROGRESS"; }
+
+# Skip a run if its tag already appears in results.jsonl (resume support).
+done_already() { grep -q "\"bench_tag\":\"$1\"" "$RESULTS" 2>/dev/null; }
+
+# Append a result line, tagging it so reruns can resume and we can pivot later.
+record() {
+    local tag="$1"; shift
+    # shellcheck disable=SC2016
+    python3 -c 'import json,sys; d=json.load(sys.stdin); d["bench_tag"]=sys.argv[1]; print(json.dumps(d))' \
+        "$tag" >> "$RESULTS"
+}
+
+s3_copy() { aws s3 cp --recursive --quiet "$1" "$2" --region "$AWS_REGION"; }
+s3_rm()   { aws s3 rm --recursive --quiet "$1" --region "$AWS_REGION" || true; }
+
+# Backstops for unattended runs: cap any single run and clear leaked worker processes
+# (a killed coordinator can orphan its worker children) before the next run.
+RUN_TIMEOUT="${RUN_TIMEOUT:-1200}"
+clear_stragglers() { pkill -f 'examples/manifest_bench worker' 2>/dev/null || true; sleep 1; }
+
+for inline in "${INLINE_VARIANTS[@]}"; do
+  for rows in "${SIZES[@]}"; do
+    golden="${S3_BASE}/golden/inline_${inline}_rows_${rows}"
+    boot_tag="boot_inline_${inline}_rows_${rows}"
+
+    if ! done_already "$boot_tag"; then
+      log "BOOTSTRAP inline=$inline rows=$rows -> $golden"
+      s3_rm "$golden"
+      if "$BIN" seed-large --root "$golden" --count "$rows" \
+          --inline-optimization "$inline" "${STORAGE_OPT[@]}"; then
+        echo "{\"bench_tag\":\"$boot_tag\"}" >> "$RESULTS"
+      else
+        log "BOOTSTRAP FAILED inline=$inline rows=$rows (skipping this size)"
+        continue
+      fi
+    else
+      log "skip bootstrap $boot_tag (done)"
+    fi
+
+    # ---- Continuous: single process, CONT_OPS commits ----
+    cont_tag="cont_inline_${inline}_rows_${rows}"
+    if ! done_already "$cont_tag"; then
+      run_prefix="${S3_BASE}/run/${cont_tag}"
+      log "CONTINUOUS inline=$inline rows=$rows ops=$CONT_OPS"
+      clear_stragglers
+      s3_copy "$golden" "$run_prefix"
+      timeout "$RUN_TIMEOUT" "$BIN" run --root "$run_prefix" --operation write-create-namespace \
+        --concurrency 1 --operations "$CONT_OPS" --initial-entries "$rows" \
+        --inline-optimization "$inline" "${STORAGE_OPT[@]}" \
+        2>>"$PROGRESS" | while read -r line; do record "$cont_tag" <<<"$line"; done
+      s3_rm "$run_prefix"
+    else
+      log "skip continuous $cont_tag (done)"
+    fi
+
+    # ---- Concurrent: C processes, steady TPS over CONC_DURATION_SECS ----
+    for c in "${CONCURRENCY[@]}"; do
+      conc_tag="conc_inline_${inline}_rows_${rows}_c_${c}"
+      if done_already "$conc_tag"; then log "skip concurrent $conc_tag (done)"; continue; fi
+      run_prefix="${S3_BASE}/run/${conc_tag}"
+      log "CONCURRENT inline=$inline rows=$rows c=$c dur=${CONC_DURATION_SECS}s"
+      clear_stragglers
+      s3_copy "$golden" "$run_prefix"
+      timeout "$RUN_TIMEOUT" "$BIN" run --root "$run_prefix" --operation write-create-namespace \
+        --concurrency "$c" --duration-secs "$CONC_DURATION_SECS" --initial-entries "$rows" \
+        --inline-optimization "$inline" "${STORAGE_OPT[@]}" \
+        2>>"$PROGRESS" | while read -r line; do record "$conc_tag" <<<"$line"; done
+      s3_rm "$run_prefix"
+    done
+  done
+done
+
+# ---- Summarise to CSV ----
+CSV="$OUT_DIR/summary.csv"
+python3 - "$RESULTS" "$CSV" <<'PY'
+import json, sys, csv
+rows = []
+with open(sys.argv[1]) as f:
+    for line in f:
+        d = json.loads(line)
+        if "throughput_ops_per_sec" not in d:
+            continue  # bootstrap marker
+        mode = "continuous" if d["duration_secs"] == 0 else "concurrent"
+        rows.append({
+            "mode": mode, "variant": d["variant"], "initial_entries": d["initial_entries"],
+            "concurrency": d["concurrency"], "duration_secs": d["duration_secs"],
+            "ops": d["total_operations"], "errors": d["errors"],
+            "tps": round(d["throughput_ops_per_sec"], 3),
+            "avg_ms": round(d["avg_latency_ms"], 2), "p50_ms": round(d["p50_latency_ms"], 2),
+            "p90_ms": round(d["p90_latency_ms"], 2), "p99_ms": round(d["p99_latency_ms"], 2),
+        })
+rows.sort(key=lambda r: (r["mode"], r["variant"], r["initial_entries"], r["concurrency"]))
+with open(sys.argv[2], "w", newline="") as f:
+    w = csv.DictWriter(f, fieldnames=list(rows[0].keys()) if rows else [])
+    w.writeheader(); w.writerows(rows)
+print(f"wrote {len(rows)} rows to {sys.argv[2]}")
+PY
+
+log "SWEEP COMPLETE. Results: $RESULTS  Summary: $CSV"
+s3_rm "${S3_BASE}/golden" "${S3_BASE}/run" 2>/dev/null || true
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/examples/manifest_bench.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/examples/manifest_bench.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4841f2471d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/examples/manifest_bench.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,714 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Copy-on-write `__manifest` directory-catalog commit benchmark (S3 capable).
+//!
+//! Measures how fast the directory catalog commits `__manifest` mutations as the
+//! manifest scales, with the inline scalar indices on or off.
+//!
+//! Modes:
+//!   seed-large — bootstrap a `__manifest` with N rows (direct dataset write + one
+//!                CoW rewrite to build indices)
+//!   run        — coordinator: spawn `--concurrency` worker processes committing for
+//!                either a fixed op count (continuous) or a fixed duration (steady TPS)
+//!   worker     — (internal) a single committing process spawned by `run`
+//!
+//! Examples:
+//!   # Bootstrap 100k rows with inline indices
+//!   manifest_bench seed-large --root s3://bucket/bench/p --count 100000 \
+//!     --inline-optimization true --storage-option aws_region=us-east-1
+//!
+//!   # Continuous: 100 commits, single process
+//!   manifest_bench run --root s3://bucket/bench/p --operation write-create-namespace \
+//!     --concurrency 1 --operations 100 --initial-entries 100000 --inline-optimization true
+//!
+//!   # Concurrent steady TPS: 50 processes committing for 30s
+//!   manifest_bench run --root s3://bucket/bench/p --operation write-create-namespace \
+//!     --concurrency 50 --duration-secs 30 --initial-entries 100000 --inline-optimization true
+
+// A CLI benchmark tool: workers emit JSON latency records on stdout and progress on
+// stderr, so stdout/stderr printing is intentional here.
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::io::{BufRead, BufReader};
+use std::process::{Command, Stdio};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow::array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+use arrow::array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION;
+use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::models::{
+    CreateNamespaceRequest, CreateTableRequest, DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest,
+    ListNamespacesRequest, ListTablesRequest,
+};
+use lance_namespace_impls::DirectoryNamespaceBuilder;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone)]
+struct LatencyRecord {
+    operation: String,
+    latency_ms: f64,
+    error: bool,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize)]
+struct BenchResult {
+    variant: String,
+    operation: String,
+    concurrency: usize,
+    initial_entries: usize,
+    duration_secs: u64,
+    total_operations: usize,
+    total_duration_ms: f64,
+    throughput_ops_per_sec: f64,
+    avg_latency_ms: f64,
+    p50_latency_ms: f64,
+    p90_latency_ms: f64,
+    p99_latency_ms: f64,
+    min_latency_ms: f64,
+    max_latency_ms: f64,
+    errors: usize,
+}
+
+fn percentile(sorted: &[f64], p: f64) -> f64 {
+    if sorted.is_empty() {
+        return 0.0;
+    }
+    let idx = ((sorted.len() as f64 - 1.0) * p).round() as usize;
+    sorted[idx.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn compute_result(
+    variant: &str,
+    operation: &str,
+    concurrency: usize,
+    initial_entries: usize,
+    duration_secs: u64,
+    wall_duration: Duration,
+    mut latencies: Vec<f64>,
+    errors: usize,
+) -> BenchResult {
+    latencies.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap());
+    let total = latencies.len();
+    let total_ms = wall_duration.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0;
+    let throughput = if total_ms > 0.0 {
+        total as f64 / (total_ms / 1000.0)
+    } else {
+        0.0
+    };
+    BenchResult {
+        variant: variant.to_string(),
+        operation: operation.to_string(),
+        concurrency,
+        initial_entries,
+        duration_secs,
+        total_operations: total,
+        total_duration_ms: total_ms,
+        throughput_ops_per_sec: throughput,
+        avg_latency_ms: if total > 0 {
+            latencies.iter().sum::<f64>() / total as f64
+        } else {
+            0.0
+        },
+        p50_latency_ms: percentile(&latencies, 0.50),
+        p90_latency_ms: percentile(&latencies, 0.90),
+        p99_latency_ms: percentile(&latencies, 0.99),
+        min_latency_ms: latencies.first().copied().unwrap_or(0.0),
+        max_latency_ms: latencies.last().copied().unwrap_or(0.0),
+        errors,
+    }
+}
+
+fn create_test_ipc_data() -> Vec<u8> {
+    use arrow::array::Int32Array;
+    use arrow_ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+    {
+        let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &schema).unwrap();
+        writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+        writer.finish().unwrap();
+    }
+    buffer
+}
+
+/// The `__manifest` schema used by the copy-on-write directory catalog:
+/// `object_id`, `object_type`, `location`, `metadata` (Utf8), `base_objects` (List<Utf8>).
+fn manifest_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("object_id", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(
+            [(
+                LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION.to_string(),
+                "0".to_string(),
+            )]
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect(),
+        ),
+        Field::new("object_type", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        Field::new("location", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        Field::new("metadata", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        Field::new(
+            "base_objects",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("object_id", DataType::Utf8, true))),
+            true,
+        ),
+    ]))
+}
+
+async fn build_namespace(
+    root: &str,
+    inline_optimization: bool,
+    storage_options: &HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> Box<dyn LanceNamespace> {
+    let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+    properties.insert("root".to_string(), root.to_string());
+    properties.insert("dir_listing_enabled".to_string(), "false".to_string());
+    properties.insert(
+        "inline_optimization_enabled".to_string(),
+        inline_optimization.to_string(),
+    );
+    for (k, v) in storage_options {
+        properties.insert(format!("storage.{}", k), v.clone());
+    }
+    let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties, None)
+        .expect("Failed to create namespace builder from properties");
+    Box::new(builder.build().await.expect("Failed to build namespace"))
+}
+
+// ──────────────────── seed-large mode ────────────────────
+// Bootstrap a `__manifest` with N rows by writing the Lance dataset directly (fast,
+// O(N) once), then trigger a single CoW rewrite via the namespace so the on-disk state
+// matches what the catalog produces (single fragment + inline indices when enabled).
+
+const SEED_LARGE_BATCH_SIZE: usize = 50_000;
+
+fn generate_manifest_batch(start_idx: usize, batch_size: usize, total_count: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let ns_count = total_count / 3;
+    let actual_size = batch_size.min(total_count - start_idx);
+
+    let mut object_ids = Vec::with_capacity(actual_size);
+    let mut object_types = Vec::with_capacity(actual_size);
+    let mut locations: Vec<Option<String>> = Vec::with_capacity(actual_size);
+    let mut metadatas: Vec<Option<String>> = Vec::with_capacity(actual_size);
+
+    for i in start_idx..start_idx + actual_size {
+        if i < ns_count {
+            object_ids.push(format!("ns_{}", i));
+            object_types.push("namespace".to_string());
+            locations.push(None);
+            metadatas.push(None);
+        } else {
+            let table_idx = i - ns_count;
+            object_ids.push(format!("table_{}", table_idx));
+            object_types.push("table".to_string());
+            locations.push(Some(format!("table_{}", table_idx)));
+            metadatas.push(Some(r#"{"bench":"true"}"#.to_string()));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // base_objects is null for every bootstrapped row.
+    let mut base_objects_builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new())
+        .with_field(Arc::new(Field::new("object_id", DataType::Utf8, true)));
+    for _ in 0..actual_size {
+        base_objects_builder.append_null();
+    }
+
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        manifest_schema(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(object_ids)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(object_types)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                locations.iter().map(|l| l.as_deref()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                metadatas.iter().map(|m| m.as_deref()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )),
+            Arc::new(base_objects_builder.finish()),
+        ],
+    )
+    .expect("Failed to create manifest batch")
+}
+
+async fn seed_large(
+    root: &str,
+    count: usize,
+    inline_optimization: bool,
+    storage_options: &HashMap<String, String>,
+) {
+    let manifest_uri = format!("{}/{}", root, "__manifest");
+    eprintln!("Seed-large: writing {} rows to {}", count, manifest_uri);
+
+    let schema = manifest_schema();
+    let mut batches = Vec::new();
+    let mut offset = 0;
+    while offset < count {
+        let batch_size = SEED_LARGE_BATCH_SIZE.min(count - offset);
+        batches.push(generate_manifest_batch(offset, batch_size, count));
+        offset += batch_size;
+    }
+    eprintln!("  generated {} batches", batches.len());
+
+    let mut write_params = WriteParams {
+        mode: WriteMode::Create,
+        ..WriteParams::default()
+    };
+    if !storage_options.is_empty() {
+        let accessor = Arc::new(
+            lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                storage_options.clone(),
+            ),
+        );
+        write_params.store_params = Some(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(accessor),
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+    }
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    InsertBuilder::new(manifest_uri.as_str())
+        .with_params(&write_params)
+        .execute_stream(reader)
+        .await
+        .expect("Failed to write manifest dataset");
+    eprintln!("  wrote Lance dataset");
+
+    // Trigger one CoW rewrite so the manifest is in steady catalog form (single
+    // fragment; inline indices when enabled). For the no-index variant the first real
+    // commit performs this rewrite instead.
+    if inline_optimization {
+        eprintln!("  triggering initial CoW rewrite to build indices...");
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let ns = build_namespace(root, true, storage_options).await;
+        let mut req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        req.id = Some(vec!["__seed_trigger__".to_string()]);
+        ns.create_namespace(req)
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to trigger CoW rewrite");
+        eprintln!(
+            "  CoW rewrite with index build took {:.1}s",
+            start.elapsed().as_secs_f64()
+        );
+    }
+
+    let ns_count = count / 3;
+    eprintln!(
+        "Seed-large complete: {} rows ({} namespaces, {} tables)",
+        count,
+        ns_count,
+        count - ns_count
+    );
+}
+
+// ──────────────────── worker mode ────────────────────
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn worker(
+    root: &str,
+    operation: &str,
+    operations: usize,
+    duration_secs: u64,
+    warmup: usize,
+    worker_id: usize,
+    table_count: usize,
+    inline_optimization: bool,
+    storage_options: &HashMap<String, String>,
+) {
+    let ns = build_namespace(root, inline_optimization, storage_options).await;
+    let ipc_data = Bytes::from(create_test_ipc_data());
+
+    if operation.starts_with("warm-read") {
+        for _ in 0..warmup {
+            let _ =
+                run_operation(ns.as_ref(), operation, worker_id, 0, table_count, &ipc_data).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    let emit = |op_idx: usize, start: Instant, err: bool| {
+        let record = LatencyRecord {
+            operation: operation.to_string(),
+            latency_ms: start.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0,
+            error: err,
+        };
+        let _ = op_idx;
+        println!("{}", serde_json::to_string(&record).unwrap());
+    };
+
+    if duration_secs > 0 {
+        // Steady-TPS mode: commit continuously until the deadline.
+        let deadline = Instant::now() + Duration::from_secs(duration_secs);
+        let mut op_idx = 0;
+        while Instant::now() < deadline {
+            let start = Instant::now();
+            let err = run_operation(
+                ns.as_ref(),
+                operation,
+                worker_id,
+                op_idx,
+                table_count,
+                &ipc_data,
+            )
+            .await
+            .is_err();
+            emit(op_idx, start, err);
+            op_idx += 1;
+        }
+    } else {
+        for op_idx in 0..operations {
+            let start = Instant::now();
+            let err = run_operation(
+                ns.as_ref(),
+                operation,
+                worker_id,
+                op_idx,
+                table_count,
+                &ipc_data,
+            )
+            .await
+            .is_err();
+            emit(op_idx, start, err);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+async fn run_operation(
+    ns: &dyn LanceNamespace,
+    operation: &str,
+    worker_id: usize,
+    op_idx: usize,
+    table_count: usize,
+    ipc_data: &Bytes,
+) -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync>> {
+    match operation {
+        "cold-read-list-namespaces" | "warm-read-list-namespaces" => {
+            let mut req = ListNamespacesRequest::new();
+            req.id = Some(vec![]);
+            ns.list_namespaces(req).await?;
+        }
+        "cold-read-list-tables" | "warm-read-list-tables" => {
+            let mut req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+            req.id = Some(vec![]);
+            ns.list_tables(req).await?;
+        }
+        "cold-read-describe-table" | "warm-read-describe-table" => {
+            let table_idx = (worker_id * 1_000_000 + op_idx) % table_count.max(1);
+            let req = DescribeTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![format!("table_{}", table_idx)]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            ns.describe_table(req).await?;
+        }
+        "write-create-namespace" => {
+            let mut req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+            req.id = Some(vec![format!("bench_w{}_{}", worker_id, op_idx)]);
+            ns.create_namespace(req).await?;
+        }
+        "write-create-table" => {
+            let mut req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+            req.id = Some(vec![format!("bench_t{}_{}", worker_id, op_idx)]);
+            ns.create_table(req, ipc_data.clone()).await?;
+        }
+        "write-declare-table" => {
+            let req = DeclareTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![format!("bench_d{}_{}", worker_id, op_idx)]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            ns.declare_table(req).await?;
+        }
+        _ => {
+            return Err(format!("unknown operation: {}", operation).into());
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+// ──────────────────── run mode (coordinator) ────────────────────
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn run_workers(
+    self_exe: &str,
+    root: &str,
+    operation: &str,
+    concurrency: usize,
+    operations: usize,
+    duration_secs: u64,
+    warmup: usize,
+    table_count: usize,
+    initial_entries: usize,
+    inline_optimization: bool,
+    variant: &str,
+    storage_options: &HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> BenchResult {
+    // Continuous mode splits a fixed op budget across workers; steady-TPS mode lets each
+    // worker run for the full duration.
+    let ops_per_worker = if duration_secs > 0 {
+        0
+    } else {
+        operations / concurrency.max(1)
+    };
+    if duration_secs == 0 && ops_per_worker == 0 {
+        return compute_result(
+            variant,
+            operation,
+            concurrency,
+            initial_entries,
+            duration_secs,
+            Duration::ZERO,
+            vec![],
+            0,
+        );
+    }
+
+    let wall_start = Instant::now();
+    let children: Vec<_> = (0..concurrency)
+        .map(|worker_id| {
+            let mut cmd = Command::new(self_exe);
+            cmd.arg("worker")
+                .arg("--root")
+                .arg(root)
+                .arg("--operation")
+                .arg(operation)
+                .arg("--operations")
+                .arg(ops_per_worker.to_string())
+                .arg("--duration-secs")
+                .arg(duration_secs.to_string())
+                .arg("--warmup")
+                .arg(warmup.to_string())
+                .arg("--worker-id")
+                .arg(worker_id.to_string())
+                .arg("--table-count")
+                .arg(table_count.to_string())
+                .arg("--inline-optimization")
+                .arg(inline_optimization.to_string());
+            for (k, v) in storage_options {
+                cmd.arg("--storage-option").arg(format!("{}={}", k, v));
+            }
+            cmd.stdout(Stdio::piped())
+                .stderr(Stdio::inherit())
+                .spawn()
+                .expect("Failed to spawn worker")
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut all_latencies = Vec::new();
+    let mut total_errors = 0;
+    for mut child in children {
+        let stdout = child.stdout.take().unwrap();
+        for line in BufReader::new(stdout).lines() {
+            let line = line.expect("failed to read worker output");
+            if let Ok(record) = serde_json::from_str::<LatencyRecord>(&line) {
+                if record.error {
+                    total_errors += 1;
+                } else {
+                    all_latencies.push(record.latency_ms);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let status = child.wait().expect("failed to wait for worker");
+        if !status.success() {
+            eprintln!("Worker exited with status: {}", status);
+        }
+    }
+
+    compute_result(
+        variant,
+        operation,
+        concurrency,
+        initial_entries,
+        duration_secs,
+        wall_start.elapsed(),
+        all_latencies,
+        total_errors,
+    )
+}
+
+fn parse_concurrency_list(s: &str) -> Vec<usize> {
+    s.split(',')
+        .filter_map(|v| v.trim().parse::<usize>().ok())
+        .filter(|v| *v > 0)
+        .collect()
+}
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() {
+    let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect();
+    if args.len() < 2 {
+        eprintln!("Usage: manifest_bench <seed-large|run|worker> [options]");
+        std::process::exit(1);
+    }
+
+    let mode = args[1].as_str();
+    let mut root = String::new();
+    let mut operation = String::new();
+    let mut operations: usize = 100;
+    let mut duration_secs: u64 = 0;
+    let mut warmup: usize = 0;
+    let mut concurrency_list = vec![1];
+    let mut count: usize = 1000;
+    let mut worker_id: usize = 0;
+    let mut table_count: usize = 667;
+    let mut initial_entries: usize = 0;
+    let mut inline_optimization = true;
+    let mut variant = String::new();
+    let mut storage_options: HashMap<String, String> = HashMap::new();
+
+    let mut i = 2;
+    while i < args.len() {
+        match args[i].as_str() {
+            "--root" => {
+                root = args[i + 1].clone();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--operation" => {
+                operation = args[i + 1].clone();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--operations" => {
+                operations = args[i + 1].parse().unwrap();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--duration-secs" => {
+                duration_secs = args[i + 1].parse().unwrap();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--warmup" => {
+                warmup = args[i + 1].parse().unwrap();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--concurrency" => {
+                concurrency_list = parse_concurrency_list(&args[i + 1]);
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--count" => {
+                count = args[i + 1].parse().unwrap();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--worker-id" => {
+                worker_id = args[i + 1].parse().unwrap();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--table-count" => {
+                table_count = args[i + 1].parse().unwrap();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--initial-entries" => {
+                initial_entries = args[i + 1].parse().unwrap();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--inline-optimization" => {
+                inline_optimization = args[i + 1].parse().unwrap();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--variant" => {
+                variant = args[i + 1].clone();
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            "--storage-option" => {
+                if let Some((k, v)) = args[i + 1].split_once('=') {
+                    storage_options.insert(k.to_string(), v.to_string());
+                }
+                i += 2;
+            }
+            other => {
+                eprintln!("Unknown argument: {}", other);
+                std::process::exit(1);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if variant.is_empty() {
+        variant = if inline_optimization {
+            "inline_index".to_string()
+        } else {
+            "no_index".to_string()
+        };
+    }
+
+    match mode {
+        "seed-large" => {
+            seed_large(&root, count, inline_optimization, &storage_options).await;
+        }
+        "worker" => {
+            worker(
+                &root,
+                &operation,
+                operations,
+                duration_secs,
+                warmup,
+                worker_id,
+                table_count,
+                inline_optimization,
+                &storage_options,
+            )
+            .await;
+        }
+        "run" => {
+            let self_exe = std::env::current_exe()
+                .expect("failed to get self exe path")
+                .to_string_lossy()
+                .to_string();
+            let op = if operation.is_empty() {
+                "write-create-namespace"
+            } else {
+                operation.as_str()
+            };
+
+            eprintln!("=== Manifest commit benchmark ===");
+            eprintln!(
+                "variant={} op={} root={} initial_entries={} concurrency={:?} operations={} duration_secs={}",
+                variant, op, root, initial_entries, concurrency_list, operations, duration_secs
+            );
+
+            for &concurrency in &concurrency_list {
+                let result = run_workers(
+                    &self_exe,
+                    &root,
+                    op,
+                    concurrency,
+                    operations,
+                    duration_secs,
+                    warmup,
+                    table_count,
+                    initial_entries,
+                    inline_optimization,
+                    &variant,
+                    &storage_options,
+                );
+                eprintln!(
+                    "  c={} -> {:.2} ops/s ({} ops, {} errors, p50={:.0}ms p99={:.0}ms)",
+                    concurrency,
+                    result.throughput_ops_per_sec,
+                    result.total_operations,
+                    result.errors,
+                    result.p50_latency_ms,
+                    result.p99_latency_ms
+                );
+                println!("{}", serde_json::to_string(&result).unwrap());
+            }
+            eprintln!("=== complete ===");
+        }
+        _ => {
+            eprintln!("Unknown mode: {}. Use seed-large, run, or worker.", mode);
+            std::process::exit(1);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/connect.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/connect.rs
index ba26fda3643..c44eb2de219 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/connect.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/connect.rs
@@ -7,8 +7,9 @@ use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use lance::session::Session;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_core::Result;
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 
 use crate::context::DynamicContextProvider;
 
@@ -186,11 +187,11 @@ impl ConnectBuilder {
                 Ok(Arc::new(builder.build()) as Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>)
             }
             #[cfg(not(feature = "rest"))]
-            "rest" => Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: "REST namespace implementation requires 'rest' feature to be enabled"
-                    .into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            }),
+            "rest" => Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: "REST namespace implementation requires 'rest' feature to be enabled"
+                    .to_string(),
+            }
+            .into()),
             "dir" => {
                 // Create directory implementation (always available)
                 let mut builder = crate::dir::DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(
@@ -205,15 +206,14 @@ impl ConnectBuilder {
                     .await
                     .map(|ns| Arc::new(ns) as Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>)
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!(
+            _ => Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: format!(
                     "Implementation '{}' is not available. Supported: dir{}",
                     self.impl_name,
                     if cfg!(feature = "rest") { ", rest" } else { "" }
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            }),
+                ),
+            }
+            .into()),
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials.rs
index f9f7ecc7950..900745ceb3a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials.rs
@@ -40,10 +40,13 @@
 //! # Note: GCP token duration cannot be configured; it's determined by the STS endpoint
 //! # To use a service account key file, set GOOGLE_APPLICATION_CREDENTIALS env var before starting
 //! credential_vendor.gcp_service_account = "my-sa@project.iam.gserviceaccount.com"
+//! credential_vendor.gcp_workload_identity_provider = "projects/123456/locations/global/workloadIdentityPools/pool/providers/provider"
+//! credential_vendor.gcp_impersonation_service_account = "my-sa@project.iam.gserviceaccount.com"
 //!
 //! # Azure-specific properties (for az:// locations)
 //! credential_vendor.azure_account_name = "mystorageaccount"  # required for Azure
 //! credential_vendor.azure_tenant_id = "my-tenant-id"
+//! credential_vendor.azure_federated_client_id = "my-app-client-id"
 //! credential_vendor.azure_duration_millis = "3600000"  # 1 hour (default, up to 7 days)
 //! ```
 //!
@@ -220,6 +223,14 @@ pub mod aws_props {
     /// AWS credential duration in milliseconds.
     /// Default: 3600000 (1 hour). Range: 900000 (15 min) to 43200000 (12 hours).
     pub const DURATION_MILLIS: &str = "aws_duration_millis";
+
+    /// When "true", the scoped assume is performed via `AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity`
+    /// using the pod's projected service-account OIDC token
+    pub const ASSUME_VIA_POD_WEB_IDENTITY: &str = "aws_assume_via_pod_web_identity";
+
+    /// Explicit path to the pod's projected SA OIDC token file. Overrides
+    /// `AWS_WEB_IDENTITY_TOKEN_FILE` when set.
+    pub const POD_WEB_IDENTITY_TOKEN_FILE: &str = "aws_pod_web_identity_token_file";
 }
 
 /// GCP-specific property keys (short form, without prefix)
@@ -353,7 +364,7 @@ pub fn detect_provider_from_uri(uri: &str) -> &'static str {
     match url.scheme() {
         "s3" => "aws",
         "gs" => "gcp",
-        "az" => "azure",
+        "az" | "abfss" => "azure",
         _ => "unknown",
     }
 }
@@ -440,7 +451,12 @@ pub async fn create_credential_vendor_for_location(
 }
 
 /// Parse permission from properties, defaulting to Read
-#[allow(dead_code)]
+#[cfg(any(
+    test,
+    feature = "credential-vendor-aws",
+    feature = "credential-vendor-azure",
+    feature = "credential-vendor-gcp"
+))]
 fn parse_permission(properties: &HashMap<String, String>) -> VendedPermission {
     properties
         .get(PERMISSION)
@@ -449,7 +465,12 @@ fn parse_permission(properties: &HashMap<String, String>) -> VendedPermission {
 }
 
 /// Parse duration from properties using a vendor-specific key, defaulting to DEFAULT_CREDENTIAL_DURATION_MILLIS
-#[allow(dead_code)]
+#[cfg(any(
+    test,
+    feature = "credential-vendor-aws",
+    feature = "credential-vendor-azure",
+    feature = "credential-vendor-gcp"
+))]
 fn parse_duration_millis(properties: &HashMap<String, String>, key: &str) -> u64 {
     properties
         .get(key)
@@ -462,16 +483,16 @@ async fn create_aws_vendor(
     properties: &HashMap<String, String>,
 ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn CredentialVendor>>> {
     use aws::{AwsCredentialVendor, AwsCredentialVendorConfig};
-    use lance_core::Error;
+    use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
+    use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 
     // AWS requires role_arn to be configured
-    let role_arn = properties
-        .get(aws_props::ROLE_ARN)
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "AWS credential vending requires 'credential_vendor.aws_role_arn' to be set"
-                .into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })?;
+    let role_arn = properties.get(aws_props::ROLE_ARN).ok_or_else(|| {
+        lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+            message: "AWS credential vending requires 'credential_vendor.aws_role_arn' to be set"
+                .to_string(),
+        })
+    })?;
 
     let duration_millis = parse_duration_millis(properties, aws_props::DURATION_MILLIS);
 
@@ -491,6 +512,43 @@ async fn create_aws_vendor(
         config = config.with_role_session_name(session_name);
     }
 
+    // Direct (non-chained) web-identity assume for the pod, when enabled. An
+    // explicit token-file path wins; otherwise, if opted in, resolve the
+    // EKS-injected `AWS_WEB_IDENTITY_TOKEN_FILE`. Falling back to the chained
+    // AssumeRole path when neither is present keeps existing behavior.
+    let assume_via_pod = properties
+        .get(aws_props::ASSUME_VIA_POD_WEB_IDENTITY)
+        .map(|v| str_is_truthy(v))
+        .unwrap_or(false);
+    let pod_token_file = properties
+        .get(aws_props::POD_WEB_IDENTITY_TOKEN_FILE)
+        .cloned()
+        .or_else(|| {
+            assume_via_pod
+                .then(|| std::env::var("AWS_WEB_IDENTITY_TOKEN_FILE").ok())
+                .flatten()
+        });
+    // Log the resolved assume path once at vendor init so a deployment can
+    // confirm at runtime which branch `assume_scoped` will take.
+    match &pod_token_file {
+        Some(path) => log::info!(
+            "AWS credential vendor (role {role_arn}): direct AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity \
+             via pod token file '{path}'"
+        ),
+        None if assume_via_pod => log::warn!(
+            "AWS credential vendor (role {role_arn}): aws_assume_via_pod_web_identity=true \
+             but no token file resolved (aws_pod_web_identity_token_file unset and \
+             AWS_WEB_IDENTITY_TOKEN_FILE not in env); falling back to chained AssumeRole"
+        ),
+        None => log::info!(
+            "AWS credential vendor (role {role_arn}): chained AssumeRole \
+             (pod web-identity not enabled)"
+        ),
+    }
+    if let Some(path) = pod_token_file {
+        config = config.with_pod_web_identity_token_file(path);
+    }
+
     let vendor = AwsCredentialVendor::new(config).await?;
     Ok(Some(Box::new(vendor)))
 }
@@ -508,8 +566,14 @@ async fn create_gcp_vendor(
     if let Some(sa) = properties.get(gcp_props::SERVICE_ACCOUNT) {
         config = config.with_service_account(sa);
     }
+    if let Some(provider) = properties.get(gcp_props::WORKLOAD_IDENTITY_PROVIDER) {
+        config = config.with_workload_identity_provider(provider);
+    }
+    if let Some(service_account) = properties.get(gcp_props::IMPERSONATION_SERVICE_ACCOUNT) {
+        config = config.with_impersonation_service_account(service_account);
+    }
 
-    let vendor = GcpCredentialVendor::new(config).await?;
+    let vendor = GcpCredentialVendor::new(config)?;
     Ok(Some(Box::new(vendor)))
 }
 
@@ -518,20 +582,16 @@ fn create_azure_vendor(
     properties: &HashMap<String, String>,
 ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn CredentialVendor>>> {
     use azure::{AzureCredentialVendor, AzureCredentialVendorConfig};
-    use lance_core::Error;
+    use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 
     // Azure requires account_name to be configured
-    let account_name =
-        properties
-            .get(azure_props::ACCOUNT_NAME)
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::InvalidInput {
-            source:
+    let account_name = properties.get(azure_props::ACCOUNT_NAME).ok_or_else(|| {
+        lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+            message:
                 "Azure credential vending requires 'credential_vendor.azure_account_name' to be set"
-                    .into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        }
-            })?;
+                    .to_string(),
+        })
+    })?;
 
     let duration_millis = parse_duration_millis(properties, azure_props::DURATION_MILLIS);
     let permission = parse_permission(properties);
@@ -544,6 +604,9 @@ fn create_azure_vendor(
     if let Some(tenant_id) = properties.get(azure_props::TENANT_ID) {
         config = config.with_tenant_id(tenant_id);
     }
+    if let Some(client_id) = properties.get(azure_props::FEDERATED_CLIENT_ID) {
+        config = config.with_federated_client_id(client_id);
+    }
 
     let vendor = AzureCredentialVendor::new(config);
     Ok(Some(Box::new(vendor)))
@@ -563,8 +626,16 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(detect_provider_from_uri("gs://bucket/path"), "gcp");
         assert_eq!(detect_provider_from_uri("GS://bucket/path"), "gcp");
 
-        // Azure (supported scheme: az://)
+        // Azure (supported schemes: az:// and abfss://)
         assert_eq!(detect_provider_from_uri("az://container/path"), "azure");
+        assert_eq!(
+            detect_provider_from_uri("az://container@account.blob.core.windows.net/path"),
+            "azure"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            detect_provider_from_uri("abfss://container@account.dfs.core.windows.net/path"),
+            "azure"
+        );
 
         // Unknown (unsupported schemes)
         assert_eq!(detect_provider_from_uri("/local/path"), "unknown");
@@ -572,10 +643,6 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(detect_provider_from_uri("memory://test"), "unknown");
         // Hadoop-style schemes not supported by lance-io
         assert_eq!(detect_provider_from_uri("s3a://bucket/path"), "unknown");
-        assert_eq!(
-            detect_provider_from_uri("abfss://container@account.dfs.core.windows.net/path"),
-            "unknown"
-        );
         assert_eq!(
             detect_provider_from_uri("wasbs://container@account.blob.core.windows.net/path"),
             "unknown"
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/aws.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/aws.rs
index d9b363e37e0..56dc9a54c2c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/aws.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/aws.rs
@@ -11,18 +11,31 @@ use std::collections::HashMap;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use aws_config::BehaviorVersion;
 use aws_sdk_sts::Client as StsClient;
-use base64::{engine::general_purpose::URL_SAFE_NO_PAD, Engine};
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use base64::{Engine, engine::general_purpose::URL_SAFE_NO_PAD};
+use lance_core::Result;
 use lance_io::object_store::uri_to_url;
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 use lance_namespace::models::Identity;
 use log::{debug, info, warn};
 use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
 
 use super::{
-    redact_credential, CredentialVendor, VendedCredentials, VendedPermission,
-    DEFAULT_CREDENTIAL_DURATION_MILLIS,
+    CredentialVendor, DEFAULT_CREDENTIAL_DURATION_MILLIS, VendedCredentials, VendedPermission,
+    redact_credential,
 };
 
+/// Render an error together with its full `source()` chain.
+fn full_error_chain(err: &dyn std::error::Error) -> String {
+    let mut out = err.to_string();
+    let mut source = err.source();
+    while let Some(cause) = source {
+        out.push_str(": ");
+        out.push_str(&cause.to_string());
+        source = cause.source();
+    }
+    out
+}
+
 /// Configuration for AWS credential vending.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct AwsCredentialVendorConfig {
@@ -59,6 +72,17 @@ pub struct AwsCredentialVendorConfig {
     /// When an API key is provided, its hash is looked up in this map.
     /// If found, the mapped permission is used instead of the default permission.
     pub api_key_hash_permissions: HashMap<String, VendedPermission>,
+
+    /// Optional path to the pod's projected service-account OIDC token file (typically the
+    /// EKS-injected `AWS_WEB_IDENTITY_TOKEN_FILE`).
+    /// This is the recommended method when running in Kubernetes.
+    /// When set, the scoped assume is performed with `AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity`
+    /// using this token instead of a role-chained `AssumeRole` from the process's
+    /// ambient credentials. A web-identity assumption is *not* role chaining, so
+    /// STS honors the role's `MaxSessionDuration` (up to 12h) and the returned
+    /// expiration is accurate. When `None`, the `AssumeRole` path
+    /// is used and `duration_millis` is subject to the source role duration and may be invalid
+    pub pod_web_identity_token_file: Option<String>,
 }
 
 impl AwsCredentialVendorConfig {
@@ -73,6 +97,7 @@ impl AwsCredentialVendorConfig {
             permission: VendedPermission::default(),
             api_key_salt: None,
             api_key_hash_permissions: HashMap::new(),
+            pod_web_identity_token_file: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -100,6 +125,14 @@ impl AwsCredentialVendorConfig {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set the pod web-identity token file, enabling direct (non-chained)
+    /// `AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity` for the scoped assume. See
+    /// [`AwsCredentialVendorConfig::pod_web_identity_token_file`].
+    pub fn with_pod_web_identity_token_file(mut self, path: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        self.pod_web_identity_token_file = Some(path.into());
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set the permission level for vended credentials.
     pub fn with_permission(mut self, permission: VendedPermission) -> Self {
         self.permission = permission;
@@ -143,14 +176,24 @@ pub struct AwsCredentialVendor {
 impl AwsCredentialVendor {
     /// Create a new AWS credential vendor with the specified configuration.
     pub async fn new(config: AwsCredentialVendorConfig) -> Result<Self> {
-        let mut aws_config_loader = aws_config::defaults(BehaviorVersion::latest());
-
-        if let Some(ref region) = config.region {
-            aws_config_loader = aws_config_loader.region(aws_config::Region::new(region.clone()));
-        }
-
-        let aws_config = aws_config_loader.load().await;
-        let sts_client = StsClient::new(&aws_config);
+        // Load AWS config in a spawn_blocking context to avoid "Cannot drop a runtime"
+        // panic. aws_config::load() may internally create a nested tokio runtime for
+        // credential resolution (e.g., IMDS, SSO), which panics if dropped inside
+        // an existing async context.
+        let region = config.region.clone();
+        let sts_client = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
+            let rt = tokio::runtime::Handle::current();
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                let mut aws_config_loader = aws_config::defaults(BehaviorVersion::latest());
+                if let Some(region) = region {
+                    aws_config_loader = aws_config_loader.region(aws_config::Region::new(region));
+                }
+                let aws_config = aws_config_loader.load().await;
+                StsClient::new(&aws_config)
+            })
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("Failed to initialize AWS config: {:?}", e)))?;
 
         Ok(Self { config, sts_client })
     }
@@ -166,9 +209,10 @@ impl AwsCredentialVendor {
 
         let bucket = url
             .host_str()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("S3 URI '{}' missing bucket", uri).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("S3 URI '{}' missing bucket", uri),
+                })
             })?
             .to_string();
 
@@ -325,9 +369,10 @@ impl AwsCredentialVendor {
         prefix: &str,
         permission: VendedPermission,
     ) -> Result<VendedCredentials> {
-        let credentials = credentials.ok_or_else(|| Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other("STS response missing credentials")),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let credentials = credentials.ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: "STS response missing credentials".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         let access_key_id = credentials.access_key_id().to_string();
@@ -340,7 +385,11 @@ impl AwsCredentialVendor {
 
         info!(
             "AWS credentials vended: bucket={}, prefix={}, permission={}, expires_at={}, access_key_id={}",
-            bucket, prefix, permission, expires_at_millis, redact_credential(&access_key_id)
+            bucket,
+            prefix,
+            permission,
+            expires_at_millis,
+            redact_credential(&access_key_id)
         );
 
         let mut storage_options = HashMap::new();
@@ -386,12 +435,14 @@ impl AwsCredentialVendor {
             .duration_seconds(duration_secs)
             .send()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity failed for role '{}': {}",
-                    self.config.role_arn, e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity failed for role '{}': {}",
+                        self.config.role_arn,
+                        full_error_chain(&e)
+                    ),
+                })
             })?;
 
         self.extract_credentials(
@@ -403,20 +454,107 @@ impl AwsCredentialVendor {
     }
 
     /// Vend credentials using AssumeRole with API key validation.
+    /// Perform the scoped assume for `(bucket, prefix, permission)`, attaching the
+    /// per-table session policy.
+    ///
+    /// When [`AwsCredentialVendorConfig::pod_web_identity_token_file`] is set this
+    /// uses `AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity` with the pod's projected SA OIDC token -- a
+    /// *direct*, non-chained assumption that honors the role's `MaxSessionDuration`
+    /// (so `expires_at_millis` is accurate). Otherwise it falls back to the legacy
+    /// role-chained `AssumeRole` from ambient credentials (STS-capped at 1h).
+    ///
+    /// `external_id` is only applied on the chained `AssumeRole` path;
+    /// `AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity` has no external-id parameter (the OIDC
+    /// `sub`/`aud` trust condition is the binding instead).
+    async fn assume_scoped(
+        &self,
+        bucket: &str,
+        prefix: &str,
+        permission: VendedPermission,
+        session_name: &str,
+        external_id: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> Result<VendedCredentials> {
+        let policy = Self::build_policy(bucket, prefix, permission);
+        let duration_secs = self.config.duration_millis.div_ceil(1000).clamp(900, 43200) as i32;
+
+        let credentials = if let Some(token_file) = &self.config.pod_web_identity_token_file {
+            // DIRECT (non-chained): AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity with the pod's SA
+            // OIDC token. Re-read the file every vend -- kubelet rotates it.
+            let token = tokio::fs::read_to_string(token_file).await.map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "failed to read pod web identity token '{}': {}",
+                        token_file, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+            debug!(
+                "AWS AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity (pod): role={}, session={}, permission={}",
+                self.config.role_arn, session_name, permission
+            );
+            let response = self
+                .sts_client
+                .assume_role_with_web_identity()
+                .role_arn(&self.config.role_arn)
+                .web_identity_token(token.trim())
+                .role_session_name(session_name)
+                .policy(&policy)
+                .duration_seconds(duration_secs)
+                .send()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity (pod) failed for role '{}': {}",
+                            self.config.role_arn,
+                            full_error_chain(&e)
+                        ),
+                    })
+                })?;
+            response.credentials().cloned()
+        } else {
+            // LEGACY chained path: AssumeRole from ambient credentials (1h cap).
+            debug!(
+                "AWS AssumeRole (chained): role={}, session={}, permission={}",
+                self.config.role_arn, session_name, permission
+            );
+            let mut request = self
+                .sts_client
+                .assume_role()
+                .role_arn(&self.config.role_arn)
+                .role_session_name(session_name)
+                .policy(&policy)
+                .duration_seconds(duration_secs);
+            if let Some(external_id) = external_id {
+                request = request.external_id(external_id);
+            }
+            let response = request.send().await.map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "AssumeRole failed for role '{}': {}",
+                        self.config.role_arn,
+                        full_error_chain(&e)
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+            response.credentials().cloned()
+        };
+
+        self.extract_credentials(credentials.as_ref(), bucket, prefix, permission)
+    }
+
     async fn vend_with_api_key(
         &self,
         bucket: &str,
         prefix: &str,
         api_key: &str,
     ) -> Result<VendedCredentials> {
-        let salt = self
-            .config
-            .api_key_salt
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "api_key_salt must be configured to use API key authentication".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let salt = self.config.api_key_salt.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "api_key_salt must be configured to use API key authentication"
+                    .to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
 
         let key_hash = Self::hash_api_key(api_key, salt);
 
@@ -431,47 +569,24 @@ impl AwsCredentialVendor {
                     "Invalid API key: hash {} not found in permissions map",
                     &key_hash[..8]
                 );
-                Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Invalid API key".into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                }
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: "Invalid API key".to_string(),
+                })
             })?;
 
-        let policy = Self::build_policy(bucket, prefix, permission);
+        // The api_key authorizes the client and picks the permission; the AWS
+        // assume itself goes through `assume_scoped` (pod web-identity when
+        // configured, else chained AssumeRole with the key hash as external_id).
         let session_name = Self::cap_session_name(&format!("lance-api-{}", &key_hash[..16]));
-        let duration_secs = self.config.duration_millis.div_ceil(1000).clamp(900, 43200) as i32;
-
-        debug!(
-            "AWS AssumeRole with API key: role={}, session={}, permission={}",
-            self.config.role_arn, session_name, permission
-        );
-
-        let request = self
-            .sts_client
-            .assume_role()
-            .role_arn(&self.config.role_arn)
-            .role_session_name(&session_name)
-            .policy(&policy)
-            .duration_seconds(duration_secs)
-            .external_id(&key_hash); // Use hash as external_id
-
-        let response = request.send().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "AssumeRole with API key failed for role '{}': {}",
-                self.config.role_arn, e
-            ))),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })?;
-
-        self.extract_credentials(response.credentials(), bucket, prefix, permission)
+        self.assume_scoped(bucket, prefix, permission, &session_name, Some(&key_hash))
+            .await
     }
 
-    /// Vend credentials using AssumeRole with static configuration.
+    /// Vend credentials using the vendor's static (default) permission.
     async fn vend_with_static_config(
         &self,
         bucket: &str,
         prefix: &str,
-        policy: &str,
     ) -> Result<VendedCredentials> {
         let role_session_name = self
             .config
@@ -480,39 +595,14 @@ impl AwsCredentialVendor {
             .unwrap_or_else(|| "lance-credential-vending".to_string());
         let role_session_name = Self::cap_session_name(&role_session_name);
 
-        let duration_secs = self.config.duration_millis.div_ceil(1000).clamp(900, 43200) as i32;
-
-        debug!(
-            "AWS AssumeRole (static): role={}, session={}, permission={}",
-            self.config.role_arn, role_session_name, self.config.permission
-        );
-
-        let mut request = self
-            .sts_client
-            .assume_role()
-            .role_arn(&self.config.role_arn)
-            .role_session_name(&role_session_name)
-            .policy(policy)
-            .duration_seconds(duration_secs);
-
-        if let Some(ref external_id) = self.config.external_id {
-            request = request.external_id(external_id);
-        }
-
-        let response = request.send().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "AssumeRole failed for role '{}': {}",
-                self.config.role_arn, e
-            ))),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })?;
-
-        self.extract_credentials(
-            response.credentials(),
+        self.assume_scoped(
             bucket,
             prefix,
             self.config.permission,
+            &role_session_name,
+            self.config.external_id.as_deref(),
         )
+        .await
     }
 }
 
@@ -551,16 +641,15 @@ impl CredentialVendor for AwsCredentialVendor {
             }
             Some(_) => {
                 // Identity provided but neither api_key nor auth_token set
-                Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Identity provided but neither api_key nor auth_token is set".into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })
+                Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: "Identity provided but neither api_key nor auth_token is set"
+                        .to_string(),
+                }
+                .into())
             }
             None => {
-                // Use AssumeRole with static configuration
-                let policy = Self::build_policy(&bucket, &prefix, self.config.permission);
-                self.vend_with_static_config(&bucket, &prefix, &policy)
-                    .await
+                // Use the vendor's static (default) permission
+                self.vend_with_static_config(&bucket, &prefix).await
             }
         }
     }
@@ -725,6 +814,41 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(config.duration_millis, 7200000);
         assert_eq!(config.role_session_name, Some("my-session".to_string()));
         assert_eq!(config.region, Some("us-west-2".to_string()));
+        // Defaults to the legacy chained AssumeRole path.
+        assert_eq!(config.pod_web_identity_token_file, None);
+
+        let pod_config = AwsCredentialVendorConfig::new("arn:aws:iam::123456789012:role/MyRole")
+            .with_pod_web_identity_token_file("/var/run/secrets/.../token");
+        assert_eq!(
+            pod_config.pod_web_identity_token_file,
+            Some("/var/run/secrets/.../token".to_string())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_pod_web_identity_path_reads_token_file() {
+        // When pod_web_identity_token_file is set, the scoped assume takes the
+        // AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity branch and reads the token file first. Point
+        // it at a missing file so we deterministically hit the read error without
+        // needing a live STS -- this proves the branch selection + file read.
+        let sdk_config = aws_config::SdkConfig::builder()
+            .behavior_version(aws_config::BehaviorVersion::latest())
+            .region(aws_config::Region::new("us-east-2"))
+            .build();
+        let sts_client = StsClient::new(&sdk_config);
+        let config = AwsCredentialVendorConfig::new("arn:aws:iam::123456789012:role/MyRole")
+            .with_pod_web_identity_token_file("/nonexistent/pod/web-identity-token");
+        let vendor = AwsCredentialVendor::with_sts_client(config, sts_client);
+
+        let err = vendor
+            .vend_credentials("s3://bucket/prefix", None)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("missing token file must fail before any STS call");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("failed to read pod web identity token"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
     }
 
     // ============================================================================
@@ -749,8 +873,8 @@ mod tests {
         use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
         use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
         use bytes::Bytes;
-        use lance_namespace::models::*;
         use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+        use lance_namespace::models::*;
         use std::sync::Arc;
 
         const TEST_BUCKET: &str = "jack-lancedb-devland-us-east-1";
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/azure.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/azure.rs
index 75a711b7448..a8edf60e25b 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/azure.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/azure.rs
@@ -7,26 +7,40 @@
 //! SAS (Shared Access Signature) tokens with user delegation keys.
 
 use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::env;
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use azure_core::auth::TokenCredential;
-use azure_identity::DefaultAzureCredential;
-use azure_storage::prelude::*;
-use azure_storage::shared_access_signature::service_sas::{BlobSharedAccessSignature, SasKey};
-use azure_storage_blobs::prelude::*;
-use base64::{engine::general_purpose::URL_SAFE_NO_PAD, Engine};
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use base64::Engine;
+use base64::engine::general_purpose::STANDARD;
+use chrono::{DateTime, Duration, SecondsFormat, Utc};
+use hmac::{Hmac, Mac};
+use lance_core::Result;
 use lance_io::object_store::uri_to_url;
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 use lance_namespace::models::Identity;
 use log::{debug, info, warn};
+use quick_xml::events::Event;
+use quick_xml::reader::Reader;
+use reqwest::header::{AUTHORIZATION, CONTENT_TYPE};
+use serde::Deserialize;
 use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
+use url::{Url, form_urlencoded};
 
 use super::{
-    redact_credential, CredentialVendor, VendedCredentials, VendedPermission,
-    DEFAULT_CREDENTIAL_DURATION_MILLIS,
+    CredentialVendor, DEFAULT_CREDENTIAL_DURATION_MILLIS, VendedCredentials, VendedPermission,
+    redact_credential,
 };
 
+const AZURE_STORAGE_SCOPE: &str = "https://storage.azure.com/.default";
+const AZURE_STORAGE_RESOURCE: &str = "https://storage.azure.com";
+const DEFAULT_AUTHORITY_HOST: &str = "https://login.microsoftonline.com";
+const DEFAULT_MANAGED_IDENTITY_ENDPOINT: &str =
+    "http://169.254.169.254/metadata/identity/oauth2/token";
+const MANAGED_IDENTITY_API_VERSION: &str = "2019-08-01";
+const SAS_VERSION: &str = "2022-11-02";
+const MAX_SAS_DURATION_DAYS: i64 = 7;
+const USER_DELEGATION_SKEW_BUFFER_SECONDS: i64 = 60;
+
 /// Configuration for Azure credential vending.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct AzureCredentialVendorConfig {
@@ -127,7 +141,7 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendorConfig {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set the entire API key hash permissions map.
+    /// Replace all API key hash mappings.
     pub fn with_api_key_hash_permissions(
         mut self,
         permissions: HashMap<String, VendedPermission>,
@@ -137,6 +151,71 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendorConfig {
     }
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct AzureTokenResponse {
+    access_token: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct AzureSasPermissions {
+    read: bool,
+    add: bool,
+    create: bool,
+    write: bool,
+    delete: bool,
+    list: bool,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for AzureSasPermissions {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        if self.read {
+            write!(f, "r")?;
+        }
+        if self.add {
+            write!(f, "a")?;
+        }
+        if self.create {
+            write!(f, "c")?;
+        }
+        if self.write {
+            write!(f, "w")?;
+        }
+        if self.delete {
+            write!(f, "d")?;
+        }
+        if self.list {
+            write!(f, "l")?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum AzureSignedResource {
+    Container,
+    Directory,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for AzureSignedResource {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Container => write!(f, "c"),
+            Self::Directory => write!(f, "d"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct AzureUserDelegationKey {
+    signed_oid: String,
+    signed_tid: String,
+    signed_start: String,
+    signed_expiry: String,
+    signed_service: String,
+    signed_version: String,
+    value: String,
+}
+
 /// Azure credential vendor that generates SAS tokens.
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct AzureCredentialVendor {
@@ -161,411 +240,468 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendor {
         format!("{:x}", hasher.finalize())
     }
 
-    /// Extract a session name from a JWT token (best effort, no validation).
-    /// Decodes the payload and extracts 'sub' or 'email' claim.
-    /// Falls back to "lance-azure-identity" if parsing fails.
-    fn derive_session_name_from_token(token: &str) -> String {
-        // JWT format: header.payload.signature
-        let parts: Vec<&str> = token.split('.').collect();
-        if parts.len() != 3 {
-            return "lance-azure-identity".to_string();
+    fn build_sas_permissions(permission: VendedPermission) -> AzureSasPermissions {
+        AzureSasPermissions {
+            read: true,
+            add: permission.can_write(),
+            create: permission.can_write(),
+            write: permission.can_write(),
+            delete: permission.can_delete(),
+            list: true,
         }
+    }
 
-        // Decode the payload (second part)
-        let payload = match URL_SAFE_NO_PAD.decode(parts[1]) {
-            Ok(bytes) => bytes,
-            Err(_) => {
-                // Try standard base64 as fallback
-                match base64::engine::general_purpose::STANDARD_NO_PAD.decode(parts[1]) {
-                    Ok(bytes) => bytes,
-                    Err(_) => return "lance-azure-identity".to_string(),
-                }
-            }
-        };
+    fn authority_host() -> String {
+        env::var("AZURE_AUTHORITY_HOST").unwrap_or_else(|_| DEFAULT_AUTHORITY_HOST.to_string())
+    }
 
-        // Parse as JSON and extract 'sub' or 'email'
-        let json: serde_json::Value = match serde_json::from_slice(&payload) {
-            Ok(v) => v,
-            Err(_) => return "lance-azure-identity".to_string(),
-        };
+    fn tenant_id_for_static_auth(&self) -> Option<String> {
+        self.config
+            .tenant_id
+            .clone()
+            .or_else(|| env::var("AZURE_TENANT_ID").ok())
+    }
 
-        let subject = json
-            .get("sub")
-            .or_else(|| json.get("email"))
-            .and_then(|v| v.as_str())
-            .unwrap_or("unknown");
-
-        // Sanitize: keep only alphanumeric, @, -, .
-        let sanitized: String = subject
-            .chars()
-            .filter(|c| c.is_alphanumeric() || *c == '@' || *c == '-' || *c == '.')
-            .collect();
-
-        format!("lance-{}", sanitized)
-    }
-
-    /// Build SAS permissions based on the VendedPermission level.
-    ///
-    /// - Read: read + list
-    /// - Write: read + list + write + add + create
-    /// - Admin: read + list + write + add + create + delete
-    #[allow(clippy::field_reassign_with_default)]
-    fn build_sas_permissions(permission: VendedPermission) -> BlobSasPermissions {
-        let mut p = BlobSasPermissions::default();
-
-        // All permission levels have read access
-        p.read = true;
-        p.list = true;
-
-        // Write and Admin have write access
-        if permission.can_write() {
-            p.write = true;
-            p.add = true;
-            p.create = true;
-        }
+    /// Resolve the federated client ID from config or `AZURE_CLIENT_ID` env var.
+    /// Note: `AZURE_CLIENT_ID` is also used in the client-secret flow. The precedence
+    /// in `fetch_static_access_token` ensures the federated token file flow is checked
+    /// first, so when both `AZURE_CLIENT_SECRET` and `AZURE_FEDERATED_TOKEN_FILE` are
+    /// set, the federated flow wins.
+    fn federated_client_id_for_static_auth(&self) -> Option<String> {
+        self.config
+            .federated_client_id
+            .clone()
+            .or_else(|| env::var("AZURE_CLIENT_ID").ok())
+    }
 
-        // Admin has delete access
-        if permission.can_delete() {
-            p.delete = true;
-        }
+    fn effective_expiry(&self, now: DateTime<Utc>) -> Result<DateTime<Utc>> {
+        let requested = now
+            .checked_add_signed(Duration::milliseconds(self.config.duration_millis as i64))
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "azure_duration_millis value '{}' overflows expiration time calculation",
+                        self.config.duration_millis
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+        let max_expiry = now
+            .checked_add_signed(Duration::days(MAX_SAS_DURATION_DAYS))
+            .and_then(|value| {
+                value.checked_sub_signed(Duration::seconds(USER_DELEGATION_SKEW_BUFFER_SECONDS))
+            })
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: "Failed to calculate maximum Azure SAS expiration time".to_string(),
+                })
+            })?;
+        Ok(requested.min(max_expiry))
+    }
 
-        p
+    fn format_azure_time(value: DateTime<Utc>) -> String {
+        value.to_rfc3339_opts(SecondsFormat::Secs, true)
     }
 
-    /// Generate a SAS token for the specified container.
-    async fn generate_sas_token(&self, account: &str, container: &str) -> Result<(String, u64)> {
-        let credential =
-            DefaultAzureCredential::create(azure_identity::TokenCredentialOptions::default())
-                .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to create Azure credentials: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
+    /// Resolve a static Azure access token using the following precedence
+    /// (matches object_store's credential resolution order):
+    /// 1. Workload Identity Federation (AZURE_FEDERATED_TOKEN_FILE + tenant + client ID)
+    /// 2. Client Secret OAuth (AZURE_CLIENT_ID + AZURE_CLIENT_SECRET + tenant)
+    /// 3. Managed Identity (IMDS)
+    async fn fetch_static_access_token(&self) -> Result<String> {
+        if let (Some(tenant_id), Some(client_id), Ok(federated_token_file)) = (
+            self.tenant_id_for_static_auth(),
+            self.federated_client_id_for_static_auth(),
+            env::var("AZURE_FEDERATED_TOKEN_FILE"),
+        ) {
+            debug!(
+                "Azure static auth: using federated token file flow with '{}'",
+                federated_token_file
+            );
+            let federated_token =
+                std::fs::read_to_string(&federated_token_file).map_err(|err| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to read Azure federated token file '{}': {}",
+                            federated_token_file, err
+                        ),
+                    })
                 })?;
 
-        let credential: Arc<dyn TokenCredential> = Arc::new(credential);
-
-        let blob_service_client = BlobServiceClient::new(account, credential.clone());
+            return self
+                .exchange_federated_token_for_azure_token(
+                    &tenant_id,
+                    &client_id,
+                    federated_token.trim(),
+                )
+                .await;
+        }
 
-        // Calculate times using time crate (which Azure SDK uses)
-        let now = time::OffsetDateTime::now_utc();
-        let duration_millis = self.config.duration_millis as i64;
-        let end_time = now + time::Duration::milliseconds(duration_millis);
+        if let (Some(tenant_id), Ok(client_id), Ok(client_secret)) = (
+            self.tenant_id_for_static_auth(),
+            env::var("AZURE_CLIENT_ID"),
+            env::var("AZURE_CLIENT_SECRET"),
+        ) {
+            debug!("Azure static auth: using client secret flow");
+            return self
+                .exchange_client_secret_for_azure_token(&tenant_id, &client_id, &client_secret)
+                .await;
+        }
 
-        // Azure limits user delegation key to 7 days
-        let max_key_end = now + time::Duration::days(7) - time::Duration::seconds(60);
-        let key_end_time = if end_time > max_key_end {
-            max_key_end
-        } else {
-            end_time
-        };
+        debug!("Azure static auth: falling back to managed identity flow");
+        self.fetch_managed_identity_token().await
+    }
 
-        // Get user delegation key (note: typo in the library method name)
-        let user_delegation_key = blob_service_client
-            .get_user_deligation_key(now, key_end_time)
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to get user delegation key for account '{}': {}",
-                    account, e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+    async fn exchange_client_secret_for_azure_token(
+        &self,
+        tenant_id: &str,
+        client_id: &str,
+        client_secret: &str,
+    ) -> Result<String> {
+        let params = [
+            ("client_id", client_id),
+            ("client_secret", client_secret),
+            ("scope", AZURE_STORAGE_SCOPE),
+            ("grant_type", "client_credentials"),
+        ];
+        self.exchange_for_azure_token(tenant_id, &params).await
+    }
 
-        let permissions = Self::build_sas_permissions(self.config.permission);
+    async fn exchange_federated_token_for_azure_token(
+        &self,
+        tenant_id: &str,
+        client_id: &str,
+        federated_token: &str,
+    ) -> Result<String> {
+        let params = [
+            ("client_id", client_id),
+            (
+                "client_assertion_type",
+                "urn:ietf:params:oauth:client-assertion-type:jwt-bearer",
+            ),
+            ("client_assertion", federated_token),
+            ("scope", AZURE_STORAGE_SCOPE),
+            ("grant_type", "client_credentials"),
+        ];
+        self.exchange_for_azure_token(tenant_id, &params).await
+    }
 
-        // Generate SAS token for the container
-        let container_client = blob_service_client.container_client(container);
+    async fn exchange_for_azure_token(
+        &self,
+        tenant_id: &str,
+        params: &[(&str, &str)],
+    ) -> Result<String> {
+        let token_url = format!(
+            "{}/{}/oauth2/v2.0/token",
+            Self::authority_host().trim_end_matches('/'),
+            tenant_id
+        );
 
-        let sas_token = container_client
-            .user_delegation_shared_access_signature(
-                permissions,
-                &user_delegation_key.user_deligation_key,
-            )
+        let response = self
+            .http_client
+            .post(&token_url)
+            .form(params)
+            .send()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to generate SAS token for container '{}': {}",
-                    container, e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to fetch Azure AD token from '{}': {}",
+                        token_url, err
+                    ),
+                })
             })?;
 
-        let expires_at_millis =
-            (end_time.unix_timestamp() * 1000 + end_time.millisecond() as i64) as u64;
+        if !response.status().is_success() {
+            let status = response.status();
+            let body = response.text().await.unwrap_or_default();
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Azure AD token request to '{}' failed with status {}: {}",
+                    token_url, status, body
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
 
-        let token = sas_token.token().map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to get SAS token: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let token_response: AzureTokenResponse = response.json().await.map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to parse Azure AD token response: {}", err),
+            })
         })?;
 
-        Ok((token, expires_at_millis))
+        Ok(token_response.access_token)
     }
 
-    /// Generate a SAS token with a specific permission level.
-    async fn generate_sas_token_with_permission(
-        &self,
-        account: &str,
-        container: &str,
-        permission: VendedPermission,
-    ) -> Result<(String, u64)> {
-        let credential =
-            DefaultAzureCredential::create(azure_identity::TokenCredentialOptions::default())
-                .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to create Azure credentials: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })?;
+    async fn fetch_managed_identity_token(&self) -> Result<String> {
+        let endpoint = env::var("IDENTITY_ENDPOINT")
+            .or_else(|_| env::var("MSI_ENDPOINT"))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|_| DEFAULT_MANAGED_IDENTITY_ENDPOINT.to_string());
 
-        let credential: Arc<dyn TokenCredential> = Arc::new(credential);
-        let blob_service_client = BlobServiceClient::new(account, credential.clone());
+        let client_id = self.federated_client_id_for_static_auth();
 
-        let now = time::OffsetDateTime::now_utc();
-        let duration_millis = self.config.duration_millis as i64;
-        let end_time = now + time::Duration::milliseconds(duration_millis);
-
-        let max_key_end = now + time::Duration::days(7) - time::Duration::seconds(60);
-        let key_end_time = if end_time > max_key_end {
-            max_key_end
-        } else {
-            end_time
-        };
+        let mut query = vec![
+            ("api-version", MANAGED_IDENTITY_API_VERSION.to_string()),
+            ("resource", AZURE_STORAGE_RESOURCE.to_string()),
+        ];
+        if let Some(client_id) = client_id {
+            query.push(("client_id", client_id));
+        }
 
-        let user_delegation_key = blob_service_client
-            .get_user_deligation_key(now, key_end_time)
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to get user delegation key for account '{}': {}",
-                    account, e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let mut request = self
+            .http_client
+            .get(&endpoint)
+            .header("metadata", "true")
+            .query(&query);
 
-        let permissions = Self::build_sas_permissions(permission);
-        let container_client = blob_service_client.container_client(container);
+        if let Ok(identity_header) = env::var("IDENTITY_HEADER") {
+            request = request.header("x-identity-header", identity_header);
+        }
 
-        let sas_token = container_client
-            .user_delegation_shared_access_signature(
-                permissions,
-                &user_delegation_key.user_deligation_key,
-            )
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to generate SAS token for container '{}': {}",
-                    container, e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let response = request.send().await.map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to fetch Azure managed identity token from '{}': {}",
+                    endpoint, err
+                ),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-        let expires_at_millis =
-            (end_time.unix_timestamp() * 1000 + end_time.millisecond() as i64) as u64;
+        if !response.status().is_success() {
+            let status = response.status();
+            let body = response.text().await.unwrap_or_default();
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Azure managed identity token request to '{}' failed with status {}: {}",
+                    endpoint, status, body
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
 
-        let token = sas_token.token().map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to get SAS token: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let token_response: AzureTokenResponse = response.json().await.map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to parse Azure managed identity token response: {}",
+                    err
+                ),
+            })
         })?;
 
-        Ok((token, expires_at_millis))
+        Ok(token_response.access_token)
     }
 
-    /// Generate a directory-scoped SAS token.
-    ///
-    /// Unlike container-level SAS tokens, this restricts access to a specific directory
-    /// path within the container. This is more secure for multi-tenant scenarios.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    /// * `account` - Storage account name
-    /// * `container` - Container name
-    /// * `path` - Directory path within the container (e.g., "tenant-a/tables/my-table")
-    /// * `permission` - Permission level for the SAS token
-    async fn generate_directory_sas_token(
+    async fn get_user_delegation_key(
         &self,
+        access_token: &str,
         account: &str,
-        container: &str,
-        path: &str,
-        permission: VendedPermission,
-    ) -> Result<(String, u64)> {
-        let credential =
-            DefaultAzureCredential::create(azure_identity::TokenCredentialOptions::default())
-                .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to create Azure credentials: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })?;
-
-        let credential: Arc<dyn TokenCredential> = Arc::new(credential);
-        let blob_service_client = BlobServiceClient::new(account, credential.clone());
-
-        let now = time::OffsetDateTime::now_utc();
-        let duration_millis = self.config.duration_millis as i64;
-        let end_time = now + time::Duration::milliseconds(duration_millis);
-
-        let max_key_end = now + time::Duration::days(7) - time::Duration::seconds(60);
-        let key_end_time = if end_time > max_key_end {
-            max_key_end
-        } else {
-            end_time
-        };
+    ) -> Result<(AzureUserDelegationKey, DateTime<Utc>)> {
+        let now = Utc::now();
+        let expiry = self.effective_expiry(now)?;
+        let start = Self::format_azure_time(now);
+        let expiry_string = Self::format_azure_time(expiry);
+        let body = format!(
+            "<?xml version=\"1.0\" encoding=\"utf-8\"?>\n<KeyInfo>\n    <Start>{}</Start>\n    <Expiry>{}</Expiry>\n</KeyInfo>",
+            start, expiry_string
+        );
 
-        let user_delegation_key = blob_service_client
-            .get_user_deligation_key(now, key_end_time)
+        let endpoint = format!("https://{}.blob.core.windows.net/", account);
+        let response = self
+            .http_client
+            .post(&endpoint)
+            .query(&[("restype", "service"), ("comp", "userdelegationkey")])
+            .header(AUTHORIZATION, format!("Bearer {}", access_token))
+            .header("x-ms-version", SAS_VERSION)
+            .header(CONTENT_TYPE, "application/xml")
+            .body(body)
+            .send()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to get user delegation key for account '{}': {}",
-                    account, e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to request Azure user delegation key for account '{}': {}",
+                        account, err
+                    ),
+                })
             })?;
 
-        // Normalize path: remove leading/trailing slashes
-        let normalized_path = path.trim_matches('/');
-        let depth = if normalized_path.is_empty() {
-            0
-        } else {
-            normalized_path.split('/').count()
-        };
-
-        // Build canonical resource path for directory-level SAS
-        let canonical_resource = format!("/blob/{}/{}/{}", account, container, normalized_path);
-
-        // Convert user delegation key to SasKey
-        let sas_key = SasKey::UserDelegationKey(user_delegation_key.user_deligation_key);
-
-        let permissions = Self::build_sas_permissions(permission);
+        if !response.status().is_success() {
+            let status = response.status();
+            let body = response.text().await.unwrap_or_default();
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Azure user delegation key request for account '{}' failed with status {}: {}",
+                    account, status, body
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
 
-        // Create directory-scoped SAS signature
-        let sas = BlobSharedAccessSignature::new(
-            sas_key,
-            canonical_resource,
-            permissions,
-            end_time,
-            BlobSignedResource::Directory,
-        )
-        .signed_directory_depth(depth as u8);
-
-        let token = sas.token().map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to generate directory SAS token: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let body = response.text().await.map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to read Azure user delegation key response for account '{}': {}",
+                    account, err
+                ),
+            })
         })?;
 
-        let expires_at_millis =
-            (end_time.unix_timestamp() * 1000 + end_time.millisecond() as i64) as u64;
+        let delegation_key = Self::parse_user_delegation_key_xml(&body)?;
+        Ok((delegation_key, expiry))
+    }
 
-        info!(
-            "Azure directory-scoped SAS generated: account={}, container={}, path={}, depth={}, permission={}",
-            account, container, normalized_path, depth, permission
-        );
+    fn parse_user_delegation_key_xml(xml: &str) -> Result<AzureUserDelegationKey> {
+        let mut reader = Reader::from_str(xml);
+        let mut fields: HashMap<String, String> = HashMap::new();
+        let mut current_tag: Option<String> = None;
 
-        Ok((token, expires_at_millis))
-    }
+        loop {
+            match reader.read_event() {
+                Ok(Event::Start(e)) => {
+                    current_tag =
+                        Some(String::from_utf8_lossy(e.local_name().as_ref()).to_string());
+                }
+                Ok(Event::Text(e)) => {
+                    if let Some(ref tag) = current_tag {
+                        let text = String::from_utf8_lossy(&e).trim().to_string();
+                        fields.insert(tag.clone(), text);
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(Event::End(_)) => {
+                    current_tag = None;
+                }
+                Ok(Event::Eof) => break,
+                Err(err) => {
+                    return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to parse Azure user delegation key XML response: {}",
+                            err
+                        ),
+                    }
+                    .into());
+                }
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
 
-    /// Exchange an OIDC token for Azure AD access token using Workload Identity Federation.
-    ///
-    /// This requires:
-    /// 1. An Azure AD App Registration with Federated Credentials configured
-    /// 2. The OIDC token's issuer and subject to match the Federated Credential configuration
-    async fn exchange_oidc_for_azure_token(&self, oidc_token: &str) -> Result<String> {
-        let tenant_id = self
-            .config
-            .tenant_id
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "azure_tenant_id must be configured for OIDC token exchange".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let mut get_field = |name: &str| -> Result<String> {
+            fields.remove(name).ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Azure user delegation key response missing '{}'", name),
+                })
+            })
+        };
 
-        let client_id =
-            self.config
-                .federated_client_id
-                .as_ref()
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "azure_federated_client_id must be configured for OIDC token exchange"
-                        .into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })?;
+        Ok(AzureUserDelegationKey {
+            signed_oid: get_field("SignedOid")?,
+            signed_tid: get_field("SignedTid")?,
+            signed_start: get_field("SignedStart")?,
+            signed_expiry: get_field("SignedExpiry")?,
+            signed_service: get_field("SignedService")?,
+            signed_version: get_field("SignedVersion")?,
+            value: get_field("Value")?,
+        })
+    }
 
-        let token_url = format!(
-            "https://login.microsoftonline.com/{}/oauth2/v2.0/token",
-            tenant_id
-        );
+    fn base64_hmac_sha256(secret: &str, message: &str) -> Result<String> {
+        let key = STANDARD.decode(secret).map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to decode Azure user delegation key: {}", err),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-        let params = [
-            ("grant_type", "client_credentials"),
-            (
-                "client_assertion_type",
-                "urn:ietf:params:oauth:client-assertion-type:jwt-bearer",
-            ),
-            ("client_assertion", oidc_token),
-            ("client_id", client_id),
-            ("scope", "https://storage.azure.com/.default"),
-        ];
+        let mut mac = Hmac::<Sha256>::new_from_slice(&key).map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to create HMAC key for Azure SAS signing: {}", err),
+            })
+        })?;
+        mac.update(message.as_bytes());
 
-        let response = self
-            .http_client
-            .post(&token_url)
-            .form(&params)
-            .send()
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to exchange OIDC token for Azure AD token: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        Ok(STANDARD.encode(mac.finalize().into_bytes()))
+    }
 
-        if !response.status().is_success() {
-            let status = response.status();
-            let body = response.text().await.unwrap_or_default();
-            return Err(Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Azure AD token exchange failed with status {}: {}",
-                    status, body
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+    fn build_sas_query(
+        delegation_key: &AzureUserDelegationKey,
+        canonicalized_resource: &str,
+        permissions: &AzureSasPermissions,
+        expiry: &str,
+        resource: AzureSignedResource,
+        signed_directory_depth: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<String> {
+        // User delegation SAS string-to-sign fields (version 2020-12-06+):
+        // https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/rest/api/storageservices/create-user-delegation-sas
+        let sp = permissions.to_string();
+        let se = expiry.to_string();
+        let sv = SAS_VERSION.to_string();
+        let sr = resource.to_string();
+        let string_to_sign = [
+            sp.as_str(), // sp  (signed permissions)
+            "",          // st  (signed start — empty = immediate)
+            se.as_str(), // se  (signed expiry)
+            canonicalized_resource,
+            &delegation_key.signed_oid,     // skoid
+            &delegation_key.signed_tid,     // sktid
+            &delegation_key.signed_start,   // skt
+            &delegation_key.signed_expiry,  // ske
+            &delegation_key.signed_service, // sks
+            &delegation_key.signed_version, // skv
+            "",                             // saoid (signed authorized OID)
+            "",                             // suoid (signed unauthorized OID)
+            "",                             // scid  (signed correlation ID)
+            "",                             // sip   (signed IP)
+            "",                             // spr   (signed protocol)
+            sv.as_str(),                    // sv    (signed version)
+            sr.as_str(),                    // sr    (signed resource)
+            "",                             // snapshot time
+            "",                             // ses   (signed encryption scope)
+            "",                             // rscc  (response cache-control)
+            "",                             // rscd  (response content-disposition)
+            "",                             // rsce  (response content-encoding)
+            "",                             // rscl  (response content-language)
+            "",                             // rsct  (response content-type)
+        ]
+        .join("\n");
+
+        let signature = Self::base64_hmac_sha256(&delegation_key.value, &string_to_sign)?;
+
+        let mut serializer = form_urlencoded::Serializer::new(String::new());
+        serializer.append_pair("skoid", &delegation_key.signed_oid);
+        serializer.append_pair("sktid", &delegation_key.signed_tid);
+        serializer.append_pair("skt", &delegation_key.signed_start);
+        serializer.append_pair("ske", &delegation_key.signed_expiry);
+        serializer.append_pair("sks", &delegation_key.signed_service);
+        serializer.append_pair("skv", &delegation_key.signed_version);
+        serializer.append_pair("sv", SAS_VERSION);
+        serializer.append_pair("sp", &permissions.to_string());
+        serializer.append_pair("sr", &resource.to_string());
+        serializer.append_pair("se", expiry);
+        if let Some(depth) = signed_directory_depth {
+            serializer.append_pair("sdd", &depth.to_string());
         }
+        serializer.append_pair("sig", &signature);
+        Ok(serializer.finish())
+    }
 
-        let token_response: serde_json::Value = response.json().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to parse Azure AD token response: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })?;
+    fn parse_container_and_path(url: &Url, table_location: &str) -> Result<(String, String)> {
+        let container = if !url.username().is_empty() {
+            url.username().to_string()
+        } else {
+            url.host_str()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!("Azure URI '{}' missing container", table_location),
+                    })
+                })?
+                .to_string()
+        };
 
-        token_response
-            .get("access_token")
-            .and_then(|v| v.as_str())
-            .map(|s| s.to_string())
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(
-                    "Azure AD token response missing access_token",
-                )),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })
+        let path = url
+            .path()
+            .trim_start_matches('/')
+            .trim_end_matches('/')
+            .to_string();
+        Ok((container, path))
     }
 
-    /// Generate a SAS token using a federated Azure AD token.
-    ///
-    /// Uses directory-scoped SAS when path is provided, container-level otherwise.
     async fn generate_sas_with_azure_token(
         &self,
         azure_token: &str,
@@ -574,90 +710,70 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendor {
         path: &str,
         permission: VendedPermission,
     ) -> Result<(String, u64)> {
-        // Create a custom TokenCredential that uses our Azure AD token
-        let credential = FederatedTokenCredential::new(azure_token.to_string());
-        let credential: Arc<dyn TokenCredential> = Arc::new(credential);
-
-        let blob_service_client = BlobServiceClient::new(account, credential.clone());
-
-        let now = time::OffsetDateTime::now_utc();
-        let duration_millis = self.config.duration_millis as i64;
-        let end_time = now + time::Duration::milliseconds(duration_millis);
+        let (delegation_key, expiry_time) =
+            self.get_user_delegation_key(azure_token, account).await?;
+        let expires_at_millis = expiry_time.timestamp_millis() as u64;
+        let expiry = Self::format_azure_time(expiry_time);
+        let permissions = Self::build_sas_permissions(permission);
+        let normalized_path = path.trim_matches('/');
 
-        let max_key_end = now + time::Duration::days(7) - time::Duration::seconds(60);
-        let key_end_time = if end_time > max_key_end {
-            max_key_end
-        } else {
-            end_time
-        };
+        let (canonicalized_resource, resource, signed_directory_depth) =
+            if normalized_path.is_empty() {
+                (
+                    format!("/blob/{}/{}", account, container),
+                    AzureSignedResource::Container,
+                    None,
+                )
+            } else {
+                (
+                    format!("/blob/{}/{}/{}", account, container, normalized_path),
+                    AzureSignedResource::Directory,
+                    Some(normalized_path.split('/').count()),
+                )
+            };
+
+        let sas_token = Self::build_sas_query(
+            &delegation_key,
+            &canonicalized_resource,
+            &permissions,
+            &expiry,
+            resource,
+            signed_directory_depth,
+        )?;
+
+        Ok((sas_token, expires_at_millis))
+    }
 
-        let user_delegation_key = blob_service_client
-            .get_user_deligation_key(now, key_end_time)
+    /// Fetch a static access token and generate a SAS token.
+    async fn generate_sas_with_static_token(
+        &self,
+        account: &str,
+        container: &str,
+        path: &str,
+        permission: VendedPermission,
+    ) -> Result<(String, u64)> {
+        let access_token = self.fetch_static_access_token().await?;
+        self.generate_sas_with_azure_token(&access_token, account, container, path, permission)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to get user delegation key with federated token: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
-
-        let permissions = Self::build_sas_permissions(permission);
-
-        let expires_at_millis =
-            (end_time.unix_timestamp() * 1000 + end_time.millisecond() as i64) as u64;
+    }
 
-        // Use directory-scoped SAS when path is provided
-        let normalized_path = path.trim_matches('/');
-        let token = if normalized_path.is_empty() {
-            // Container-level SAS
-            let container_client = blob_service_client.container_client(container);
-            let sas_token = container_client
-                .user_delegation_shared_access_signature(
-                    permissions,
-                    &user_delegation_key.user_deligation_key,
-                )
-                .await
-                .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to generate SAS token with federated token: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })?;
+    /// Exchange an OIDC token for Azure AD access token using Workload Identity Federation.
+    async fn exchange_oidc_for_azure_token(&self, oidc_token: &str) -> Result<String> {
+        let tenant_id = self.config.tenant_id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "azure_tenant_id must be configured for OIDC token exchange".to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-            sas_token.token().map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to get SAS token: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?
-        } else {
-            // Directory-scoped SAS
-            let depth = normalized_path.split('/').count();
-            let canonical_resource = format!("/blob/{}/{}/{}", account, container, normalized_path);
-            let sas_key = SasKey::UserDelegationKey(user_delegation_key.user_deligation_key);
-
-            let sas = BlobSharedAccessSignature::new(
-                sas_key,
-                canonical_resource,
-                permissions,
-                end_time,
-                BlobSignedResource::Directory,
-            )
-            .signed_directory_depth(depth as u8);
-
-            sas.token().map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to generate directory SAS token with federated token: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?
-        };
+        let client_id = self.config.federated_client_id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "azure_federated_client_id must be configured for OIDC token exchange"
+                    .to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-        Ok((token, expires_at_millis))
+        self.exchange_federated_token_for_azure_token(tenant_id, client_id, oidc_token)
+            .await
     }
 
     /// Vend credentials using Workload Identity Federation (for auth_token).
@@ -668,17 +784,12 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendor {
         path: &str,
         auth_token: &str,
     ) -> Result<VendedCredentials> {
-        let session_name = Self::derive_session_name_from_token(auth_token);
         debug!(
-            "Azure vend_with_web_identity: account={}, container={}, path={}, session={}",
-            account, container, path, session_name
+            "Azure vend_with_web_identity: account={}, container={}, path={}",
+            account, container, path
         );
 
-        // Exchange OIDC token for Azure AD token
         let azure_token = self.exchange_oidc_for_azure_token(auth_token).await?;
-
-        // Generate SAS token using the Azure AD token
-        // Use directory-scoped SAS when path is provided
         let (sas_token, expires_at_millis) = self
             .generate_sas_with_azure_token(
                 &azure_token,
@@ -702,7 +813,12 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendor {
 
         info!(
             "Azure credentials vended (web identity): account={}, container={}, path={}, permission={}, expires_at={}, sas_token={}",
-            account, container, path, self.config.permission, expires_at_millis, redact_credential(&sas_token)
+            account,
+            container,
+            path,
+            self.config.permission,
+            expires_at_millis,
+            redact_credential(&sas_token)
         );
 
         Ok(VendedCredentials::new(storage_options, expires_at_millis))
@@ -716,18 +832,15 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendor {
         path: &str,
         api_key: &str,
     ) -> Result<VendedCredentials> {
-        let salt = self
-            .config
-            .api_key_salt
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "api_key_salt must be configured to use API key authentication".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let salt = self.config.api_key_salt.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "api_key_salt must be configured to use API key authentication"
+                    .to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
 
         let key_hash = Self::hash_api_key(api_key, salt);
 
-        // Look up permission from hash mapping
         let permission = self
             .config
             .api_key_hash_permissions
@@ -738,10 +851,9 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendor {
                     "Invalid API key: hash {} not found in permissions map",
                     &key_hash[..8]
                 );
-                Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Invalid API key".into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                }
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: "Invalid API key".to_string(),
+                })
             })?;
 
         debug!(
@@ -749,14 +861,9 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendor {
             account, container, path, permission
         );
 
-        // Use directory-scoped SAS when path is provided, container-level otherwise
-        let (sas_token, expires_at_millis) = if path.is_empty() {
-            self.generate_sas_token_with_permission(account, container, permission)
-                .await?
-        } else {
-            self.generate_directory_sas_token(account, container, path, permission)
-                .await?
-        };
+        let (sas_token, expires_at_millis) = self
+            .generate_sas_with_static_token(account, container, path, permission)
+            .await?;
 
         let mut storage_options = HashMap::new();
         storage_options.insert("azure_storage_sas_token".to_string(), sas_token.clone());
@@ -771,44 +878,18 @@ impl AzureCredentialVendor {
 
         info!(
             "Azure credentials vended (api_key): account={}, container={}, path={}, permission={}, expires_at={}, sas_token={}",
-            account, container, path, permission, expires_at_millis, redact_credential(&sas_token)
+            account,
+            container,
+            path,
+            permission,
+            expires_at_millis,
+            redact_credential(&sas_token)
         );
 
         Ok(VendedCredentials::new(storage_options, expires_at_millis))
     }
 }
 
-/// A custom TokenCredential that wraps a pre-obtained Azure AD access token.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct FederatedTokenCredential {
-    token: String,
-}
-
-impl FederatedTokenCredential {
-    fn new(token: String) -> Self {
-        Self { token }
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait]
-impl TokenCredential for FederatedTokenCredential {
-    async fn get_token(
-        &self,
-        _scopes: &[&str],
-    ) -> std::result::Result<azure_core::auth::AccessToken, azure_core::Error> {
-        // Return the pre-obtained token with a 1-hour expiry (conservative estimate)
-        let expires_on = time::OffsetDateTime::now_utc() + time::Duration::hours(1);
-        Ok(azure_core::auth::AccessToken::new(
-            azure_core::auth::Secret::new(self.token.clone()),
-            expires_on,
-        ))
-    }
-
-    async fn clear_cache(&self) -> std::result::Result<(), azure_core::Error> {
-        Ok(())
-    }
-}
-
 #[async_trait]
 impl CredentialVendor for AzureCredentialVendor {
     async fn vend_credentials(
@@ -828,54 +909,41 @@ impl CredentialVendor for AzureCredentialVendor {
         );
 
         let url = uri_to_url(table_location)?;
+        let (container, path) = Self::parse_container_and_path(&url, table_location)?;
 
-        let container = url.host_str().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!("Azure URI '{}' missing container", table_location).into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let account = self.config.account_name.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Azure credential vending requires 'credential_vendor.azure_account_name' to be set in configuration".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
-        // Extract path for directory-scoped SAS
-        let path = url.path().trim_start_matches('/');
-
-        let account =
-            self.config
-                .account_name
-                .as_ref()
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Azure credential vending requires 'credential_vendor.azure_account_name' to be set in configuration".into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                })?;
-
-        // Dispatch based on identity
         match identity {
             Some(id) if id.auth_token.is_some() => {
-                let auth_token = id.auth_token.as_ref().unwrap();
-                self.vend_with_web_identity(account, container, path, auth_token)
-                    .await
+                self.vend_with_web_identity(
+                    account,
+                    &container,
+                    &path,
+                    id.auth_token.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                )
+                .await
             }
             Some(id) if id.api_key.is_some() => {
-                let api_key = id.api_key.as_ref().unwrap();
-                self.vend_with_api_key(account, container, path, api_key)
+                self.vend_with_api_key(account, &container, &path, id.api_key.as_ref().unwrap())
                     .await
             }
-            Some(_) => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Identity provided but neither auth_token nor api_key is set".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            }),
+            Some(_) => Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Identity provided but neither auth_token nor api_key is set".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into()),
             None => {
-                // Static credential vending using DefaultAzureCredential
-                // Use directory-scoped SAS when path is provided, container-level otherwise
-                let (sas_token, expires_at_millis) = if path.is_empty() {
-                    self.generate_sas_token(account, container).await?
-                } else {
-                    self.generate_directory_sas_token(
+                let (sas_token, expires_at_millis) = self
+                    .generate_sas_with_static_token(
                         account,
-                        container,
-                        path,
+                        &container,
+                        &path,
                         self.config.permission,
                     )
-                    .await?
-                };
+                    .await?;
 
                 let mut storage_options = HashMap::new();
                 storage_options.insert("azure_storage_sas_token".to_string(), sas_token.clone());
@@ -887,7 +955,12 @@ impl CredentialVendor for AzureCredentialVendor {
 
                 info!(
                     "Azure credentials vended (static): account={}, container={}, path={}, permission={}, expires_at={}, sas_token={}",
-                    account, container, path, self.config.permission, expires_at_millis, redact_credential(&sas_token)
+                    account,
+                    container,
+                    path,
+                    self.config.permission,
+                    expires_at_millis,
+                    redact_credential(&sas_token)
                 );
 
                 Ok(VendedCredentials::new(storage_options, expires_at_millis))
@@ -939,6 +1012,7 @@ mod tests {
             !permissions.delete,
             "Read permission should have delete=false"
         );
+        assert_eq!(permissions.to_string(), "rl");
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -957,6 +1031,7 @@ mod tests {
             !permissions.delete,
             "Write permission should have delete=false"
         );
+        assert_eq!(permissions.to_string(), "racwl");
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -975,5 +1050,289 @@ mod tests {
             permissions.delete,
             "Admin permission should have delete=true"
         );
+        assert_eq!(permissions.to_string(), "racwdl");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_user_delegation_key_xml() {
+        let xml = r#"<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
+<UserDelegationKey>
+    <SignedOid>11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111</SignedOid>
+    <SignedTid>22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222</SignedTid>
+    <SignedStart>2024-01-01T00:00:00Z</SignedStart>
+    <SignedExpiry>2024-01-02T00:00:00Z</SignedExpiry>
+    <SignedService>b</SignedService>
+    <SignedVersion>2022-11-02</SignedVersion>
+    <Value>YmFzZTY0LXNlY3JldA==</Value>
+</UserDelegationKey>"#;
+
+        let key = AzureCredentialVendor::parse_user_delegation_key_xml(xml).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(key.signed_oid, "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111");
+        assert_eq!(key.signed_tid, "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222");
+        assert_eq!(key.signed_start, "2024-01-01T00:00:00Z");
+        assert_eq!(key.signed_expiry, "2024-01-02T00:00:00Z");
+        assert_eq!(key.signed_service, "b");
+        assert_eq!(key.signed_version, "2022-11-02");
+        assert_eq!(key.value, "YmFzZTY0LXNlY3JldA==");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_directory_sas_query() {
+        let key = AzureUserDelegationKey {
+            signed_oid: "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111".to_string(),
+            signed_tid: "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222".to_string(),
+            signed_start: "2024-01-01T00:00:00Z".to_string(),
+            signed_expiry: "2024-01-08T00:00:00Z".to_string(),
+            signed_service: "b".to_string(),
+            signed_version: "2022-11-02".to_string(),
+            value: "c2VjcmV0LWtleS1mb3ItdGVzdHM=".to_string(),
+        };
+
+        let token = AzureCredentialVendor::build_sas_query(
+            &key,
+            "/blob/account/container/path/to/table",
+            &AzureCredentialVendor::build_sas_permissions(VendedPermission::Read),
+            "2024-01-08T00:00:00Z",
+            AzureSignedResource::Directory,
+            Some(3),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            token,
+            "skoid=11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111&sktid=22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222&skt=2024-01-01T00%3A00%3A00Z&ske=2024-01-08T00%3A00%3A00Z&sks=b&skv=2022-11-02&sv=2022-11-02&sp=rl&sr=d&se=2024-01-08T00%3A00%3A00Z&sdd=3&sig=EjSMl8%2FGXSZ7qPkykdtXiog9DtWdqnec%2Bzrh%2FkU70v0%3D"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_container_and_path_from_userinfo_uri() {
+        let url = Url::parse("az://container@account.blob.core.windows.net/path/to/table").unwrap();
+        let (container, path) =
+            AzureCredentialVendor::parse_container_and_path(&url, "unused").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(container, "container");
+        assert_eq!(path, "path/to/table");
+    }
+
+    mod integration_tests {
+        use super::*;
+
+        fn integration_test_enabled() -> bool {
+            matches!(
+                env::var("AZURE_CREDENTIALS_VENDING_INTEG_TEST_ENABLED").as_deref(),
+                Ok("1")
+            )
+        }
+
+        fn maybe_account_name() -> Result<Option<String>> {
+            if !integration_test_enabled() {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+
+            let account_name = env::var("AZURE_STORAGE_ACCOUNT_NAME").map_err(|err| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "AZURE_STORAGE_ACCOUNT_NAME must be set for Azure credentials vending integration tests: {}",
+                        err
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+
+            Ok(Some(account_name))
+        }
+
+        const TEST_CONTAINER: &str = "lance-integ-test";
+        const TEST_PREFIX: &str = "cv-test";
+
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_fetch_static_access_token() -> Result<()> {
+            let Some(account_name) = maybe_account_name()? else {
+                return Ok(());
+            };
+
+            let vendor = AzureCredentialVendor::new(
+                AzureCredentialVendorConfig::new().with_account_name(account_name),
+            );
+
+            let token = vendor.fetch_static_access_token().await?;
+            assert!(!token.is_empty(), "Azure access token should not be empty");
+            assert!(
+                token.len() > 100,
+                "Azure access token should look like a JWT"
+            );
+
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_vend_directory_scoped_sas() -> Result<()> {
+            let Some(account_name) = maybe_account_name()? else {
+                return Ok(());
+            };
+
+            let vendor = AzureCredentialVendor::new(
+                AzureCredentialVendorConfig::new()
+                    .with_account_name(account_name.clone())
+                    .with_duration_millis(5 * 60 * 1000),
+            );
+
+            let location = format!("az://{}/{}", TEST_CONTAINER, TEST_PREFIX);
+            let credentials = vendor.vend_credentials(&location, None).await?;
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                credentials
+                    .storage_options
+                    .get("azure_storage_account_name"),
+                Some(&account_name)
+            );
+
+            let sas_token = credentials
+                .storage_options
+                .get("azure_storage_sas_token")
+                .expect("Azure SAS token should be present");
+            assert!(sas_token.contains("sig="));
+            assert!(sas_token.contains("sr=d"), "Expected directory-scoped SAS");
+            assert!(credentials.expires_at_millis > 0);
+
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_vend_container_scoped_sas() -> Result<()> {
+            let Some(account_name) = maybe_account_name()? else {
+                return Ok(());
+            };
+
+            let vendor = AzureCredentialVendor::new(
+                AzureCredentialVendorConfig::new()
+                    .with_account_name(account_name.clone())
+                    .with_duration_millis(5 * 60 * 1000),
+            );
+
+            let location = format!("az://{}", TEST_CONTAINER);
+            let credentials = vendor.vend_credentials(&location, None).await?;
+
+            let sas_token = credentials
+                .storage_options
+                .get("azure_storage_sas_token")
+                .expect("Azure SAS token should be present");
+            assert!(sas_token.contains("sr=c"), "Expected container-scoped SAS");
+
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_vended_sas_can_write_read_delete() -> Result<()> {
+            let Some(account_name) = maybe_account_name()? else {
+                return Ok(());
+            };
+
+            let vendor = AzureCredentialVendor::new(
+                AzureCredentialVendorConfig::new()
+                    .with_account_name(account_name.clone())
+                    .with_permission(VendedPermission::Admin)
+                    .with_duration_millis(5 * 60 * 1000),
+            );
+
+            let location = format!("az://{}/{}", TEST_CONTAINER, TEST_PREFIX);
+            let credentials = vendor.vend_credentials(&location, None).await?;
+
+            let sas_token = credentials
+                .storage_options
+                .get("azure_storage_sas_token")
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let blob_url = format!(
+                "https://{}.blob.core.windows.net/{}/{}/e2e-test.txt?{}",
+                account_name, TEST_CONTAINER, TEST_PREFIX, sas_token
+            );
+
+            let client = reqwest::Client::new();
+            let test_content = format!("lance-integ-{}", chrono::Utc::now().timestamp());
+
+            // Write
+            let put_resp = client
+                .put(&blob_url)
+                .header("x-ms-blob-type", "BlockBlob")
+                .header("x-ms-version", SAS_VERSION)
+                .body(test_content.clone())
+                .send()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                put_resp.status().is_success(),
+                "PUT failed: {}",
+                put_resp.text().await.unwrap_or_default()
+            );
+
+            // Read
+            let get_resp = client
+                .get(&blob_url)
+                .header("x-ms-version", SAS_VERSION)
+                .send()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(get_resp.status().is_success(), "GET failed");
+            assert_eq!(get_resp.text().await.unwrap(), test_content);
+
+            // Delete
+            let del_resp = client
+                .delete(&blob_url)
+                .header("x-ms-version", SAS_VERSION)
+                .send()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(del_resp.status().is_success(), "DELETE failed");
+
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_read_only_sas_cannot_write() -> Result<()> {
+            let Some(account_name) = maybe_account_name()? else {
+                return Ok(());
+            };
+
+            let vendor = AzureCredentialVendor::new(
+                AzureCredentialVendorConfig::new()
+                    .with_account_name(account_name.clone())
+                    .with_permission(VendedPermission::Read)
+                    .with_duration_millis(5 * 60 * 1000),
+            );
+
+            let location = format!("az://{}/{}", TEST_CONTAINER, TEST_PREFIX);
+            let credentials = vendor.vend_credentials(&location, None).await?;
+
+            let sas_token = credentials
+                .storage_options
+                .get("azure_storage_sas_token")
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let blob_url = format!(
+                "https://{}.blob.core.windows.net/{}/{}/should-not-exist.txt?{}",
+                account_name, TEST_CONTAINER, TEST_PREFIX, sas_token
+            );
+
+            let client = reqwest::Client::new();
+            let put_resp = client
+                .put(&blob_url)
+                .header("x-ms-blob-type", "BlockBlob")
+                .header("x-ms-version", SAS_VERSION)
+                .body("should fail")
+                .send()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|err| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!("Failed to send PUT request: {}", err),
+                    })
+                })?;
+
+            assert!(
+                put_resp.status().is_client_error(),
+                "Read-only SAS should not allow writes, got status {}",
+                put_resp.status()
+            );
+
+            Ok(())
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/cache.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/cache.rs
index 6e7c6c4dcf7..04fd96904b3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/cache.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/cache.rs
@@ -190,15 +190,16 @@ impl CredentialVendor for CachingCredentialVendor {
         // Try to get from cache first
         {
             let cache = self.cache.read().await;
-            if let Some(entry) = cache.get(&cache_key) {
-                if !entry.is_stale() && !entry.credentials.is_expired() {
-                    debug!(
-                        "Credential cache hit for location={}, provider={}",
-                        table_location,
-                        self.inner.provider_name()
-                    );
-                    return Ok(entry.credentials.clone());
-                }
+            if let Some(entry) = cache.get(&cache_key)
+                && !entry.is_stale()
+                && !entry.credentials.is_expired()
+            {
+                debug!(
+                    "Credential cache hit for location={}, provider={}",
+                    table_location,
+                    self.inner.provider_name()
+                );
+                return Ok(entry.credentials.clone());
             }
         }
 
@@ -333,6 +334,21 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_calculate_cache_ttl() {
+        const CLOCK_SKEW_TOLERANCE_SECS: u64 = 2;
+
+        fn assert_ttl_close_to(ttl: Option<Duration>, expected_secs: u64) {
+            let actual_secs = ttl.map(|duration| duration.as_secs());
+            assert!(
+                matches!(
+                    actual_secs,
+                    Some(actual)
+                        if actual <= expected_secs
+                            && expected_secs.saturating_sub(actual) <= CLOCK_SKEW_TOLERANCE_SECS
+                ),
+                "expected ttl close to {expected_secs}s, got {actual_secs:?}"
+            );
+        }
+
         let now_millis = std::time::SystemTime::now()
             .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
             .unwrap()
@@ -341,12 +357,12 @@ mod tests {
         // Credentials with 1 hour remaining -> TTL should be 30 minutes (capped)
         let creds_1h = VendedCredentials::new(HashMap::new(), now_millis + 3600 * 1000);
         let ttl = CachingCredentialVendor::calculate_cache_ttl(&creds_1h);
-        assert_eq!(ttl, Some(Duration::from_secs(MAX_CACHE_TTL_SECS)));
+        assert_ttl_close_to(ttl, MAX_CACHE_TTL_SECS);
 
         // Credentials with 10 minutes remaining -> TTL should be 5 minutes
         let creds_10m = VendedCredentials::new(HashMap::new(), now_millis + 10 * 60 * 1000);
         let ttl = CachingCredentialVendor::calculate_cache_ttl(&creds_10m);
-        assert_eq!(ttl, Some(Duration::from_secs(5 * 60)));
+        assert_ttl_close_to(ttl, 5 * 60);
 
         // Credentials with 1 minute remaining -> TTL should be None (too short)
         let creds_1m = VendedCredentials::new(HashMap::new(), now_millis + 60 * 1000);
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/gcp.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/gcp.rs
index 0749bdb1b97..4166525809d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/gcp.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/credentials/gcp.rs
@@ -5,59 +5,40 @@
 //!
 //! This module provides credential vending for GCP Cloud Storage by obtaining
 //! OAuth2 access tokens and downscoping them using Credential Access Boundaries (CAB).
-//!
-//! ## Authentication
-//!
-//! This module uses [Application Default Credentials (ADC)][adc] for authentication.
-//! ADC automatically finds credentials based on the environment:
-//!
-//! 1. **`GOOGLE_APPLICATION_CREDENTIALS` environment variable**: Set this to the path
-//!    of a service account key file (JSON format) before starting the application.
-//! 2. **Well-known file locations**: `~/.config/gcloud/application_default_credentials.json`
-//!    on Linux/macOS, or the equivalent on Windows.
-//! 3. **Metadata server**: When running on GCP (Compute Engine, Cloud Run, GKE, etc.),
-//!    credentials are automatically obtained from the metadata server.
-//!
-//! For production deployments on GCP, using the metadata server (option 3) is recommended
-//! as it doesn't require managing key files.
-//!
-//! [adc]: https://cloud.google.com/docs/authentication/application-default-credentials
-//!
-//! ## Service Account Impersonation
-//!
-//! For multi-tenant scenarios, you can configure `service_account` to impersonate a
-//! different service account. The base credentials (from ADC) must have the
-//! `roles/iam.serviceAccountTokenCreator` role on the target service account.
-//!
-//! ## Permission Scoping
-//!
-//! Permissions are enforced using GCP's Credential Access Boundaries:
-//! - **Read**: `roles/storage.legacyObjectReader` + `roles/storage.objectViewer` (read and list)
-//! - **Write**: Read permissions + `roles/storage.legacyBucketWriter` + `roles/storage.objectCreator`
-//! - **Admin**: Write permissions + `roles/storage.objectAdmin` (includes delete)
-//!
-//! The downscoped token is restricted to the specific bucket and path prefix.
-//!
-//! Note: Legacy roles are used because modern roles like `storage.objectCreator` lack
-//! `storage.buckets.get` which many client libraries require.
 
 use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::env;
+use std::fs::File;
+use std::io::BufReader;
+use std::path::Path;
+use std::time::{Duration, SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use base64::{engine::general_purpose::URL_SAFE_NO_PAD, Engine};
-use google_cloud_auth::credentials;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use base64::Engine;
+use base64::engine::general_purpose::URL_SAFE_NO_PAD;
+use lance_core::Result;
 use lance_io::object_store::uri_to_url;
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 use lance_namespace::models::Identity;
 use log::{debug, info, warn};
 use reqwest::Client;
+use ring::signature::RsaKeyPair;
+use rustls_pki_types::PrivateKeyDer;
+use rustls_pki_types::pem::PemObject;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
 use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
 
-use super::{redact_credential, CredentialVendor, VendedCredentials, VendedPermission};
+use super::{CredentialVendor, VendedCredentials, VendedPermission, redact_credential};
 
 /// GCP STS token exchange endpoint for downscoping credentials.
 const STS_TOKEN_EXCHANGE_URL: &str = "https://sts.googleapis.com/v1/token";
+const IAM_GENERATE_ACCESS_TOKEN_URL: &str =
+    "https://iamcredentials.googleapis.com/v1/projects/-/serviceAccounts";
+const DEFAULT_GOOGLE_TOKEN_URI: &str = "https://oauth2.googleapis.com/token";
+const DEFAULT_METADATA_HOST: &str = "metadata.google.internal";
+const DEFAULT_METADATA_IP: &str = "169.254.169.254";
+const METADATA_REQUEST_TIMEOUT: Duration = Duration::from_secs(5);
+const GOOGLE_CLOUD_PLATFORM_SCOPE: &str = "https://www.googleapis.com/auth/cloud-platform";
 
 /// Configuration for GCP credential vending.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
@@ -66,36 +47,20 @@ pub struct GcpCredentialVendorConfig {
     ///
     /// When set, the vendor will impersonate this service account using the
     /// IAM Credentials API's generateAccessToken endpoint before downscoping.
-    /// This is useful for multi-tenant scenarios where you want to issue tokens
-    /// on behalf of different service accounts.
-    ///
-    /// The base credentials (from ADC) must have the `roles/iam.serviceAccountTokenCreator`
-    /// role on this service account.
-    ///
-    /// Format: `my-sa@project.iam.gserviceaccount.com`
     pub service_account: Option<String>,
 
     /// Permission level for vended credentials.
     /// Default: Read
     /// Permissions are enforced via Credential Access Boundaries (CAB).
-    ///
-    /// Note: GCP token duration cannot be configured; the token lifetime
-    /// is determined by the STS endpoint (typically 1 hour).
     pub permission: VendedPermission,
 
     /// Workload Identity Provider resource name for OIDC token exchange.
     /// Required when using auth_token identity for Workload Identity Federation.
-    ///
-    /// Format: `projects/{project_number}/locations/global/workloadIdentityPools/{pool_id}/providers/{provider_id}`
-    ///
-    /// The OIDC token's issuer must match the provider's configuration.
     pub workload_identity_provider: Option<String>,
 
     /// Service account to impersonate after Workload Identity Federation.
     /// Optional - if set, the exchanged token will be used to generate an
     /// access token for this service account.
-    ///
-    /// Format: `my-sa@project.iam.gserviceaccount.com`
     pub impersonation_service_account: Option<String>,
 
     /// Salt for API key hashing.
@@ -116,12 +81,6 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendorConfig {
     }
 
     /// Set the service account to impersonate.
-    ///
-    /// When set, the vendor uses the IAM Credentials API to generate an access
-    /// token for this service account, then downscopes it with CAB.
-    ///
-    /// The base credentials (from ADC) must have the `roles/iam.serviceAccountTokenCreator`
-    /// role on this service account.
     pub fn with_service_account(mut self, service_account: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
         self.service_account = Some(service_account.into());
         self
@@ -165,7 +124,7 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendorConfig {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set the entire API key hash permissions map.
+    /// Replace all API key hash mappings.
     pub fn with_api_key_hash_permissions(
         mut self,
         permissions: HashMap<String, VendedPermission>,
@@ -175,7 +134,17 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendorConfig {
     }
 }
 
-/// Access boundary rule for a single resource.
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
+struct CredentialAccessBoundary {
+    access_boundary: AccessBoundaryInner,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "camelCase")]
+struct AccessBoundaryInner {
+    access_boundary_rules: Vec<AccessBoundaryRule>,
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
 #[serde(rename_all = "camelCase")]
 struct AccessBoundaryRule {
@@ -185,25 +154,11 @@ struct AccessBoundaryRule {
     availability_condition: Option<AvailabilityCondition>,
 }
 
-/// Condition for access boundary rule.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize)]
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize, Clone)]
 struct AvailabilityCondition {
     expression: String,
 }
 
-/// Credential Access Boundary structure.
-#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
-#[serde(rename_all = "camelCase")]
-struct CredentialAccessBoundary {
-    access_boundary: AccessBoundaryInner,
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
-#[serde(rename_all = "camelCase")]
-struct AccessBoundaryInner {
-    access_boundary_rules: Vec<AccessBoundaryRule>,
-}
-
 /// Response from STS token exchange.
 #[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
 struct TokenExchangeResponse {
@@ -212,6 +167,21 @@ struct TokenExchangeResponse {
     expires_in: Option<u64>,
 }
 
+/// Response from refresh-token and service-account OAuth flows.
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct OAuthAccessTokenResponse {
+    access_token: String,
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    #[serde(default)]
+    expires_in: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+/// Response from metadata server.
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct MetadataAccessTokenResponse {
+    access_token: String,
+}
+
 /// Response from IAM generateAccessToken API.
 #[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
 #[serde(rename_all = "camelCase")]
@@ -221,45 +191,341 @@ struct GenerateAccessTokenResponse {
     expire_time: String,
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
+struct ServiceAccountClaims<'a> {
+    iss: &'a str,
+    scope: &'a str,
+    aud: &'a str,
+    exp: u64,
+    iat: u64,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default, Serialize)]
+struct JwtHeader<'a> {
+    alg: &'a str,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    typ: Option<&'a str>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    kid: Option<&'a str>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(tag = "type")]
+enum ApplicationDefaultCredentials {
+    #[serde(rename = "service_account")]
+    ServiceAccount(ServiceAccountCredentials),
+    #[serde(rename = "authorized_user")]
+    AuthorizedUser(AuthorizedUserCredentials),
+}
+
+impl ApplicationDefaultCredentials {
+    const CREDENTIALS_PATH: &'static str = if cfg!(windows) {
+        "gcloud/application_default_credentials.json"
+    } else {
+        ".config/gcloud/application_default_credentials.json"
+    };
+
+    fn read(path: Option<&str>) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        if let Some(path) = path {
+            return Ok(Some(read_credentials_file(path)?));
+        }
+
+        let home_var = if cfg!(windows) { "APPDATA" } else { "HOME" };
+        if let Some(home) = env::var_os(home_var) {
+            let path = Path::new(&home).join(Self::CREDENTIALS_PATH);
+            if path.exists() {
+                return Ok(Some(read_credentials_file(path)?));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct AuthorizedUserCredentials {
+    client_id: String,
+    client_secret: String,
+    refresh_token: String,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    token_uri: Option<String>,
+}
+
+impl AuthorizedUserCredentials {
+    fn token_uri(&self) -> &str {
+        self.token_uri
+            .as_deref()
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_GOOGLE_TOKEN_URI)
+    }
+
+    async fn fetch_access_token(&self, http_client: &Client) -> Result<String> {
+        let response = http_client
+            .post(self.token_uri())
+            .form(&[
+                ("grant_type", "refresh_token"),
+                ("client_id", self.client_id.as_str()),
+                ("client_secret", self.client_secret.as_str()),
+                ("refresh_token", self.refresh_token.as_str()),
+            ])
+            .send()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to refresh GCP authorized user token from '{}': {}",
+                        self.token_uri(),
+                        err
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+
+        if !response.status().is_success() {
+            let status = response.status();
+            let body = response.text().await.unwrap_or_default();
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "GCP authorized user token request to '{}' failed with status {}: {}",
+                    self.token_uri(),
+                    status,
+                    body
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let token_response: OAuthAccessTokenResponse = response.json().await.map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to parse GCP authorized user token response: {}",
+                    err
+                ),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(token_response.access_token)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct ServiceAccountCredentials {
+    client_email: String,
+    private_key: String,
+    private_key_id: String,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    token_uri: Option<String>,
+}
+
+struct ServiceAccountKey(RsaKeyPair);
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for ServiceAccountKey {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.write_str("ServiceAccountKey([redacted])")
+    }
+}
+
+impl ServiceAccountKey {
+    fn from_pem(encoded: &[u8]) -> Result<Self> {
+        match PrivateKeyDer::from_pem_slice(encoded).map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to parse GCP service account PEM key: {}", err),
+            })
+        })? {
+            PrivateKeyDer::Pkcs8(key) => Self::from_pkcs8(key.secret_pkcs8_der()),
+            PrivateKeyDer::Pkcs1(key) => Self::from_der(key.secret_pkcs1_der()),
+            _ => Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: "Unsupported GCP service account private key encoding".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn from_pkcs8(key: &[u8]) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self(RsaKeyPair::from_pkcs8(key).map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Invalid PKCS#8 GCP service account key: {}", err),
+            })
+        })?))
+    }
+
+    fn from_der(key: &[u8]) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self(RsaKeyPair::from_der(key).map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Invalid RSA GCP service account key: {}", err),
+            })
+        })?))
+    }
+
+    fn sign(&self, message: &str) -> Result<String> {
+        let mut signature = vec![0; self.0.public().modulus_len()];
+        self.0
+            .sign(
+                &ring::signature::RSA_PKCS1_SHA256,
+                &ring::rand::SystemRandom::new(),
+                message.as_bytes(),
+                &mut signature,
+            )
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to sign GCP service account JWT assertion: {}", err),
+                })
+            })?;
+        Ok(URL_SAFE_NO_PAD.encode(signature))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ServiceAccountAuth {
+    client_email: String,
+    private_key_id: String,
+    private_key: ServiceAccountKey,
+    token_uri: String,
+}
+
+impl ServiceAccountAuth {
+    fn from_credentials(credentials: ServiceAccountCredentials) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            client_email: credentials.client_email,
+            private_key_id: credentials.private_key_id,
+            private_key: ServiceAccountKey::from_pem(credentials.private_key.as_bytes())?,
+            token_uri: credentials
+                .token_uri
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| DEFAULT_GOOGLE_TOKEN_URI.to_string()),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn build_jwt_assertion(&self) -> Result<String> {
+        let now = current_unix_epoch_seconds()?;
+        let claims = ServiceAccountClaims {
+            iss: &self.client_email,
+            scope: GOOGLE_CLOUD_PLATFORM_SCOPE,
+            aud: &self.token_uri,
+            iat: now,
+            exp: now + 3600,
+        };
+
+        let header = JwtHeader {
+            alg: "RS256",
+            typ: Some("JWT"),
+            kid: Some(&self.private_key_id),
+        };
+
+        let encoded_header = encode_json_to_base64(&header)?;
+        let encoded_claims = encode_json_to_base64(&claims)?;
+        let message = format!("{}.{}", encoded_header, encoded_claims);
+        let signature = self.private_key.sign(&message)?;
+
+        Ok(format!("{}.{}", message, signature))
+    }
+
+    async fn fetch_access_token(&self, http_client: &Client) -> Result<String> {
+        let assertion = self.build_jwt_assertion()?;
+        let response = http_client
+            .post(&self.token_uri)
+            .form(&[
+                ("grant_type", "urn:ietf:params:oauth:grant-type:jwt-bearer"),
+                ("assertion", assertion.as_str()),
+            ])
+            .send()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to exchange GCP service account JWT at '{}': {}",
+                        self.token_uri, err
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+
+        if !response.status().is_success() {
+            let status = response.status();
+            let body = response.text().await.unwrap_or_default();
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "GCP service account token request to '{}' failed with status {}: {}",
+                    self.token_uri, status, body
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let token_response: OAuthAccessTokenResponse = response.json().await.map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to parse GCP service account token response: {}",
+                    err
+                ),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(token_response.access_token)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum GcpAuthSource {
+    ServiceAccount(Box<ServiceAccountAuth>),
+    AuthorizedUser(AuthorizedUserCredentials),
+    MetadataServer,
+}
+
+impl GcpAuthSource {
+    fn name(&self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::ServiceAccount(_) => "service_account",
+            Self::AuthorizedUser(_) => "authorized_user",
+            Self::MetadataServer => "metadata_server",
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn load() -> Result<Self> {
+        let adc_path = env::var("GOOGLE_APPLICATION_CREDENTIALS").ok();
+        if let Some(credentials) = ApplicationDefaultCredentials::read(adc_path.as_deref())? {
+            return match credentials {
+                ApplicationDefaultCredentials::ServiceAccount(credentials) => {
+                    Ok(Self::ServiceAccount(Box::new(
+                        ServiceAccountAuth::from_credentials(credentials)?,
+                    )))
+                }
+                ApplicationDefaultCredentials::AuthorizedUser(credentials) => {
+                    Ok(Self::AuthorizedUser(credentials))
+                }
+            };
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self::MetadataServer)
+    }
+
+    async fn fetch_access_token(&self, http_client: &Client) -> Result<String> {
+        match self {
+            Self::ServiceAccount(credentials) => credentials.fetch_access_token(http_client).await,
+            Self::AuthorizedUser(credentials) => credentials.fetch_access_token(http_client).await,
+            Self::MetadataServer => fetch_metadata_access_token(http_client).await,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// GCP credential vendor that provides downscoped OAuth2 tokens.
 pub struct GcpCredentialVendor {
     config: GcpCredentialVendorConfig,
     http_client: Client,
-    credential: credentials::Credential,
+    auth_source: GcpAuthSource,
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for GcpCredentialVendor {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         f.debug_struct("GcpCredentialVendor")
             .field("config", &self.config)
-            .field("credential", &"[credential]")
+            .field("auth_source", &self.auth_source.name())
             .finish()
     }
 }
 
 impl GcpCredentialVendor {
     /// Create a new GCP credential vendor with the specified configuration.
-    ///
-    /// Uses [Application Default Credentials (ADC)][adc] for authentication.
-    /// To use a service account key file, set the `GOOGLE_APPLICATION_CREDENTIALS`
-    /// environment variable to the file path before starting the application.
-    ///
-    /// [adc]: https://cloud.google.com/docs/authentication/application-default-credentials
-    pub async fn new(config: GcpCredentialVendorConfig) -> Result<Self> {
-        let credential = credentials::create_access_token_credential()
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to create GCP credentials: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
-
+    pub fn new(config: GcpCredentialVendorConfig) -> Result<Self> {
         Ok(Self {
             config,
             http_client: Client::new(),
-            credential,
+            auth_source: GcpAuthSource::load()?,
         })
     }
 
@@ -268,21 +534,21 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
         let url = uri_to_url(uri)?;
 
         if url.scheme() != "gs" {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
                     "Unsupported GCS URI scheme '{}', expected 'gs'",
                     url.scheme()
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let bucket = url
             .host_str()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("GCS URI '{}' missing bucket", uri).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("GCS URI '{}' missing bucket", uri),
+                })
             })?
             .to_string();
 
@@ -292,45 +558,34 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
     }
 
     /// Get a source token for downscoping.
-    ///
-    /// If service_account is configured, impersonates that service account
-    /// using the IAM Credentials API. Otherwise, uses the configured credential
-    /// directly.
     async fn get_source_token(&self) -> Result<String> {
-        let base_token = self.credential.get_token().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to get GCP token: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })?;
+        let base_token = self
+            .auth_source
+            .fetch_access_token(&self.http_client)
+            .await?;
 
-        // If service account impersonation is configured, use generateAccessToken API
         if let Some(ref service_account) = self.config.service_account {
             return self
-                .impersonate_service_account(&base_token.token, service_account)
+                .impersonate_service_account(&base_token, service_account)
                 .await;
         }
 
-        Ok(base_token.token)
+        Ok(base_token)
     }
 
     /// Impersonate a service account using the IAM Credentials API.
-    ///
-    /// Uses the base token to call generateAccessToken for the target service account.
     async fn impersonate_service_account(
         &self,
         base_token: &str,
         service_account: &str,
     ) -> Result<String> {
         let url = format!(
-            "https://iamcredentials.googleapis.com/v1/projects/-/serviceAccounts/{}:generateAccessToken",
-            service_account
+            "{}/{}:generateAccessToken",
+            IAM_GENERATE_ACCESS_TOKEN_URL, service_account
         );
 
-        // Request body with cloud-platform scope (required for GCS access)
         let body = serde_json::json!({
-            "scope": ["https://www.googleapis.com/auth/cloud-platform"]
+            "scope": [GOOGLE_CLOUD_PLATFORM_SCOPE]
         });
 
         let response = self
@@ -340,12 +595,10 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
             .json(&body)
             .send()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to call IAM generateAccessToken: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to call IAM generateAccessToken: {}", err),
+                })
             })?;
 
         if !response.status().is_success() {
@@ -354,23 +607,20 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
                 .text()
                 .await
                 .unwrap_or_else(|_| "unknown error".to_string());
-            return Err(Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
                     "IAM generateAccessToken failed for '{}' with status {}: {}",
                     service_account, status, body
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
-        let token_response: GenerateAccessTokenResponse =
-            response.json().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to parse generateAccessToken response: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let token_response: GenerateAccessTokenResponse = response.json().await.map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to parse generateAccessToken response: {}", err),
+            })
+        })?;
 
         Ok(token_response.access_token)
     }
@@ -385,17 +635,10 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
 
         let mut rules = vec![];
 
-        // Build condition expression for path restriction
         let condition = if prefix.is_empty() {
             None
         } else {
             let prefix_trimmed = prefix.trim_end_matches('/');
-            // CEL expression to restrict access to the specific path prefix.
-            // We append '/' to ensure exact prefix matching - without it, prefix "data"
-            // would incorrectly match "data-other/file.txt".
-            //
-            // For object access: resource.name must start with "prefix/"
-            // For list operations: listPrefix must equal "prefix" OR start with "prefix/"
             let list_prefix_attr =
                 "api.getAttribute('storage.googleapis.com/objectListPrefix', '')";
             let expr = format!(
@@ -409,8 +652,6 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
             Some(AvailabilityCondition { expression: expr })
         };
 
-        // Read permissions: legacyObjectReader for read + objectViewer for list
-        // Using legacy roles because modern roles lack storage.buckets.get
         rules.push(AccessBoundaryRule {
             available_resource: bucket_resource.clone(),
             available_permissions: vec![
@@ -420,7 +661,6 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
             availability_condition: condition.clone(),
         });
 
-        // Write permission: legacyBucketWriter + objectCreator for create/update
         if permission.can_write() {
             rules.push(AccessBoundaryRule {
                 available_resource: bucket_resource.clone(),
@@ -432,7 +672,6 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
             });
         }
 
-        // Admin permission: objectAdmin for delete
         if permission.can_delete() {
             rules.push(AccessBoundaryRule {
                 available_resource: bucket_resource,
@@ -454,12 +693,10 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
         source_token: &str,
         access_boundary: &CredentialAccessBoundary,
     ) -> Result<(String, u64)> {
-        let options_json = serde_json::to_string(access_boundary).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to serialize access boundary: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let options_json = serde_json::to_string(access_boundary).map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to serialize access boundary: {}", err),
+            })
         })?;
 
         let params = [
@@ -485,12 +722,10 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
             .form(&params)
             .send()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to call STS token exchange: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to call STS token exchange: {}", err),
+                })
             })?;
 
         if !response.status().is_success() {
@@ -499,32 +734,20 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
                 .text()
                 .await
                 .unwrap_or_else(|_| "unknown error".to_string());
-            return Err(Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "STS token exchange failed with status {}: {}",
-                    status, body
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("STS token exchange failed with status {}: {}", status, body),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
-        let token_response: TokenExchangeResponse =
-            response.json().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to parse STS response: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let token_response: TokenExchangeResponse = response.json().await.map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to parse STS response: {}", err),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-        // Calculate expiration time
-        // Use expires_in from response if available, otherwise default to 1 hour
         let expires_in_secs = token_response.expires_in.unwrap_or(3600);
-        let expires_at_millis = std::time::SystemTime::now()
-            .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
-            .expect("time went backwards")
-            .as_millis() as u64
-            + expires_in_secs * 1000;
+        let expires_at_millis = current_unix_epoch_millis()? + expires_in_secs * 1000;
 
         Ok((token_response.access_token, expires_at_millis))
     }
@@ -537,57 +760,6 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
         format!("{:x}", hasher.finalize())
     }
 
-    /// Extract a session name from a JWT token (best effort, no validation).
-    /// Decodes the payload and extracts 'sub' or 'email' claim.
-    /// Falls back to "lance-gcp-identity" if parsing fails.
-    fn derive_session_name_from_token(token: &str) -> String {
-        // JWT format: header.payload.signature
-        let parts: Vec<&str> = token.split('.').collect();
-        if parts.len() != 3 {
-            return "lance-gcp-identity".to_string();
-        }
-
-        // Decode the payload (second part)
-        let payload = match URL_SAFE_NO_PAD.decode(parts[1]) {
-            Ok(bytes) => bytes,
-            Err(_) => {
-                // Try standard base64 as fallback
-                match base64::engine::general_purpose::STANDARD_NO_PAD.decode(parts[1]) {
-                    Ok(bytes) => bytes,
-                    Err(_) => return "lance-gcp-identity".to_string(),
-                }
-            }
-        };
-
-        // Parse as JSON and extract 'sub' or 'email'
-        let json: serde_json::Value = match serde_json::from_slice(&payload) {
-            Ok(v) => v,
-            Err(_) => return "lance-gcp-identity".to_string(),
-        };
-
-        let subject = json
-            .get("sub")
-            .or_else(|| json.get("email"))
-            .and_then(|v| v.as_str())
-            .unwrap_or("unknown");
-
-        // Sanitize: keep only alphanumeric, @, -, .
-        let sanitized: String = subject
-            .chars()
-            .filter(|c| c.is_alphanumeric() || *c == '@' || *c == '-' || *c == '.')
-            .collect();
-
-        format!("lance-{}", sanitized)
-    }
-
-    /// Normalize the Workload Identity Provider to the full audience format expected by GCP STS.
-    ///
-    /// GCP STS expects audience in the format:
-    /// `//iam.googleapis.com/projects/{project}/locations/global/workloadIdentityPools/{pool}/providers/{provider}`
-    ///
-    /// This function accepts either:
-    /// - Full format: `//iam.googleapis.com/projects/...`
-    /// - Short format: `projects/...` (will be prefixed with `//iam.googleapis.com/`)
     fn normalize_workload_identity_audience(provider: &str) -> String {
         const IAM_PREFIX: &str = "//iam.googleapis.com/";
         if provider.starts_with(IAM_PREFIX) {
@@ -598,26 +770,21 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
     }
 
     /// Exchange an OIDC token for GCP access token using Workload Identity Federation.
-    ///
-    /// This requires:
-    /// 1. A Workload Identity Pool and Provider configured in GCP
-    /// 2. The OIDC token's issuer to match the provider's configuration
-    /// 3. Optionally, a service account to impersonate after token exchange
     async fn exchange_oidc_for_gcp_token(&self, oidc_token: &str) -> Result<String> {
         let workload_identity_provider = self
             .config
             .workload_identity_provider
             .as_ref()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "gcp_workload_identity_provider must be configured for OIDC token exchange"
-                    .into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message:
+                        "gcp_workload_identity_provider must be configured for OIDC token exchange"
+                            .to_string(),
+                })
             })?;
 
-        // Normalize audience to full format expected by GCP STS
         let audience = Self::normalize_workload_identity_audience(workload_identity_provider);
 
-        // Exchange OIDC token for GCP federated token via STS
         let params = [
             (
                 "grant_type",
@@ -630,7 +797,7 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
             ),
             ("subject_token", oidc_token),
             ("audience", audience.as_str()),
-            ("scope", "https://www.googleapis.com/auth/cloud-platform"),
+            ("scope", GOOGLE_CLOUD_PLATFORM_SCOPE),
         ];
 
         let response = self
@@ -639,38 +806,32 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
             .form(&params)
             .send()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to exchange OIDC token for GCP token: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to exchange OIDC token for GCP token: {}", err),
+                })
             })?;
 
         if !response.status().is_success() {
             let status = response.status();
             let body = response.text().await.unwrap_or_default();
-            return Err(Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
                     "GCP STS token exchange failed with status {}: {}",
                     status, body
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
-        let token_response: TokenExchangeResponse =
-            response.json().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to parse GCP STS token response: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let token_response: TokenExchangeResponse = response.json().await.map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to parse GCP STS token response: {}", err),
+            })
+        })?;
 
         let federated_token = token_response.access_token;
 
-        // If impersonation is configured, use the federated token to get an impersonated token
         if let Some(ref service_account) = self.config.impersonation_service_account {
             return self
                 .impersonate_service_account(&federated_token, service_account)
@@ -687,16 +848,13 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
         prefix: &str,
         auth_token: &str,
     ) -> Result<VendedCredentials> {
-        let session_name = Self::derive_session_name_from_token(auth_token);
         debug!(
-            "GCP vend_with_web_identity: bucket={}, prefix={}, session={}",
-            bucket, prefix, session_name
+            "GCP vend_with_web_identity: bucket={}, prefix={}",
+            bucket, prefix
         );
 
-        // Exchange OIDC token for GCP token
         let gcp_token = self.exchange_oidc_for_gcp_token(auth_token).await?;
 
-        // Build access boundary and downscope
         let access_boundary = Self::build_access_boundary(bucket, prefix, self.config.permission);
         let (downscoped_token, expires_at_millis) =
             self.downscope_token(&gcp_token, &access_boundary).await?;
@@ -710,7 +868,11 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
 
         info!(
             "GCP credentials vended (web identity): bucket={}, prefix={}, permission={}, expires_at={}, token={}",
-            bucket, prefix, self.config.permission, expires_at_millis, redact_credential(&downscoped_token)
+            bucket,
+            prefix,
+            self.config.permission,
+            expires_at_millis,
+            redact_credential(&downscoped_token)
         );
 
         Ok(VendedCredentials::new(storage_options, expires_at_millis))
@@ -723,18 +885,15 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
         prefix: &str,
         api_key: &str,
     ) -> Result<VendedCredentials> {
-        let salt = self
-            .config
-            .api_key_salt
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "api_key_salt must be configured to use API key authentication".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let salt = self.config.api_key_salt.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "api_key_salt must be configured to use API key authentication"
+                    .to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
 
         let key_hash = Self::hash_api_key(api_key, salt);
 
-        // Look up permission from hash mapping
         let permission = self
             .config
             .api_key_hash_permissions
@@ -745,10 +904,9 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
                     "Invalid API key: hash {} not found in permissions map",
                     &key_hash[..8]
                 );
-                Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Invalid API key".into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                }
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: "Invalid API key".to_string(),
+                })
             })?;
 
         debug!(
@@ -756,7 +914,6 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
             bucket, prefix, permission
         );
 
-        // Get source token using ADC and downscope with the API key's permission
         let source_token = self.get_source_token().await?;
         let access_boundary = Self::build_access_boundary(bucket, prefix, permission);
         let (downscoped_token, expires_at_millis) = self
@@ -772,7 +929,11 @@ impl GcpCredentialVendor {
 
         info!(
             "GCP credentials vended (api_key): bucket={}, prefix={}, permission={}, expires_at={}, token={}",
-            bucket, prefix, permission, expires_at_millis, redact_credential(&downscoped_token)
+            bucket,
+            prefix,
+            permission,
+            expires_at_millis,
+            redact_credential(&downscoped_token)
         );
 
         Ok(VendedCredentials::new(storage_options, expires_at_millis))
@@ -799,7 +960,6 @@ impl CredentialVendor for GcpCredentialVendor {
 
         let (bucket, prefix) = Self::parse_gcs_uri(table_location)?;
 
-        // Dispatch based on identity
         match identity {
             Some(id) if id.auth_token.is_some() => {
                 let auth_token = id.auth_token.as_ref().unwrap();
@@ -810,12 +970,11 @@ impl CredentialVendor for GcpCredentialVendor {
                 let api_key = id.api_key.as_ref().unwrap();
                 self.vend_with_api_key(&bucket, &prefix, api_key).await
             }
-            Some(_) => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Identity provided but neither auth_token nor api_key is set".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            }),
+            Some(_) => Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Identity provided but neither auth_token nor api_key is set".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into()),
             None => {
-                // Static credential vending using ADC
                 let source_token = self.get_source_token().await?;
                 let access_boundary =
                     Self::build_access_boundary(&bucket, &prefix, self.config.permission);
@@ -833,7 +992,11 @@ impl CredentialVendor for GcpCredentialVendor {
 
                 info!(
                     "GCP credentials vended (static): bucket={}, prefix={}, permission={}, expires_at={}, token={}",
-                    bucket, prefix, self.config.permission, expires_at_millis, redact_credential(&downscoped_token)
+                    bucket,
+                    prefix,
+                    self.config.permission,
+                    expires_at_millis,
+                    redact_credential(&downscoped_token)
                 );
 
                 Ok(VendedCredentials::new(storage_options, expires_at_millis))
@@ -850,9 +1013,160 @@ impl CredentialVendor for GcpCredentialVendor {
     }
 }
 
+fn read_credentials_file<T>(path: impl AsRef<Path>) -> Result<T>
+where
+    T: serde::de::DeserializeOwned,
+{
+    let path = path.as_ref().to_owned();
+    let file = File::open(&path).map_err(|err| {
+        lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+            message: format!(
+                "Failed to open GCP credentials file '{}': {}",
+                path.display(),
+                err
+            ),
+        })
+    })?;
+
+    serde_json::from_reader(BufReader::new(file)).map_err(|err| {
+        lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+            message: format!(
+                "Failed to deserialize GCP credentials file '{}': {}",
+                path.display(),
+                err
+            ),
+        })
+    })
+}
+
+fn encode_json_to_base64<T: Serialize>(value: &T) -> Result<String> {
+    let json = serde_json::to_vec(value).map_err(|err| {
+        lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+            message: format!("Failed to serialize GCP JWT payload: {}", err),
+        })
+    })?;
+    Ok(URL_SAFE_NO_PAD.encode(json))
+}
+
+fn current_unix_epoch_seconds() -> Result<u64> {
+    Ok(SystemTime::now()
+        .duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH)
+        .map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("System clock is before Unix epoch: {}", err),
+            })
+        })?
+        .as_secs())
+}
+
+fn current_unix_epoch_millis() -> Result<u64> {
+    Ok(SystemTime::now()
+        .duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH)
+        .map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("System clock is before Unix epoch: {}", err),
+            })
+        })?
+        .as_millis() as u64)
+}
+
+async fn fetch_metadata_access_token(http_client: &Client) -> Result<String> {
+    let metadata_host = env::var("GCE_METADATA_HOST")
+        .or_else(|_| env::var("GCE_METADATA_ROOT"))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| DEFAULT_METADATA_HOST.to_string());
+    let metadata_ip =
+        env::var("GCE_METADATA_IP").unwrap_or_else(|_| DEFAULT_METADATA_IP.to_string());
+
+    let host_error = match request_metadata_access_token(http_client, &metadata_host).await {
+        Ok(token) => return Ok(token),
+        Err(err) => err,
+    };
+
+    request_metadata_access_token(http_client, &metadata_ip)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|fallback_err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to fetch GCP metadata token from '{}' ({}) and fallback '{}' ({})",
+                    metadata_host, host_error, metadata_ip, fallback_err
+                ),
+            })
+        })
+}
+
+async fn request_metadata_access_token(http_client: &Client, hostname: &str) -> Result<String> {
+    let url = format!(
+        "http://{}/computeMetadata/v1/instance/service-accounts/default/token",
+        hostname
+    );
+    let response = http_client
+        .get(&url)
+        .header("Metadata-Flavor", "Google")
+        .timeout(METADATA_REQUEST_TIMEOUT)
+        .send()
+        .await
+        .map_err(|err| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to call GCP metadata server '{}': {}", url, err),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+    if !response.status().is_success() {
+        let status = response.status();
+        let body = response.text().await.unwrap_or_default();
+        return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+            message: format!(
+                "GCP metadata server request to '{}' failed with status {}: {}",
+                url, status, body
+            ),
+        }
+        .into());
+    }
+
+    let token_response: MetadataAccessTokenResponse = response.json().await.map_err(|err| {
+        lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+            message: format!("Failed to parse GCP metadata token response: {}", err),
+        })
+    })?;
+
+    Ok(token_response.access_token)
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use tempfile::tempdir;
+    use wiremock::matchers::{body_string_contains, method, path};
+    use wiremock::{Mock, MockServer, ResponseTemplate};
+
+    const TEST_RSA_PRIVATE_KEY: &str = r#"-----BEGIN PRIVATE KEY-----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+-----END PRIVATE KEY-----"#;
 
     #[test]
     fn test_parse_gcs_uri() {
@@ -874,19 +1188,15 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_parse_gcs_uri_invalid() {
-        // Wrong scheme - should fail
         let result = GcpCredentialVendor::parse_gcs_uri("s3://bucket/path");
         assert!(result.is_err());
 
-        // Missing bucket
         let result = GcpCredentialVendor::parse_gcs_uri("gs:///path");
         assert!(result.is_err());
 
-        // Invalid URI format
         let result = GcpCredentialVendor::parse_gcs_uri("not-a-uri");
         assert!(result.is_err());
 
-        // Empty string
         let result = GcpCredentialVendor::parse_gcs_uri("");
         assert!(result.is_err());
     }
@@ -934,7 +1244,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let permissions: Vec<_> = rules
             .iter()
-            .flat_map(|r| r.available_permissions.iter())
+            .flat_map(|rule| rule.available_permissions.iter())
             .collect();
         assert!(permissions.contains(&&"inRole:roles/storage.legacyObjectReader".to_string()));
         assert!(permissions.contains(&&"inRole:roles/storage.objectViewer".to_string()));
@@ -952,32 +1262,25 @@ mod tests {
 
         let rules = &boundary.access_boundary.access_boundary_rules;
         assert_eq!(rules.len(), 3, "Admin should have 3 rules");
-
-        let permissions: Vec<_> = rules
-            .iter()
-            .flat_map(|r| r.available_permissions.iter())
-            .collect();
-        assert!(permissions.contains(&&"inRole:roles/storage.legacyObjectReader".to_string()));
-        assert!(permissions.contains(&&"inRole:roles/storage.objectViewer".to_string()));
-        assert!(permissions.contains(&&"inRole:roles/storage.legacyBucketWriter".to_string()));
-        assert!(permissions.contains(&&"inRole:roles/storage.objectCreator".to_string()));
-        assert!(permissions.contains(&&"inRole:roles/storage.objectAdmin".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(
+            rules[2].available_permissions,
+            vec!["inRole:roles/storage.objectAdmin".to_string()]
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_build_access_boundary_no_prefix() {
         let boundary =
             GcpCredentialVendor::build_access_boundary("my-bucket", "", VendedPermission::Read);
-
-        let rules = &boundary.access_boundary.access_boundary_rules;
-        assert_eq!(rules.len(), 1);
-        // No condition when prefix is empty (full bucket access)
-        assert!(rules[0].availability_condition.is_none());
+        assert!(
+            boundary.access_boundary.access_boundary_rules[0]
+                .availability_condition
+                .is_none()
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_normalize_workload_identity_audience() {
-        // Short format should be prefixed
         let short =
             "projects/123456/locations/global/workloadIdentityPools/my-pool/providers/my-provider";
         let normalized = GcpCredentialVendor::normalize_workload_identity_audience(short);
@@ -986,14 +1289,113 @@ mod tests {
             "//iam.googleapis.com/projects/123456/locations/global/workloadIdentityPools/my-pool/providers/my-provider"
         );
 
-        // Full format should be unchanged
         let full = "//iam.googleapis.com/projects/123456/locations/global/workloadIdentityPools/my-pool/providers/my-provider";
         let normalized = GcpCredentialVendor::normalize_workload_identity_audience(full);
         assert_eq!(normalized, full);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_application_default_credentials_read_from_explicit_path() {
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let credentials_path = temp_dir.path().join("application_default_credentials.json");
+        std::fs::write(
+            &credentials_path,
+            r#"{
+                "type": "authorized_user",
+                "client_id": "client-id",
+                "client_secret": "client-secret",
+                "refresh_token": "refresh-token"
+            }"#,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let credentials =
+            ApplicationDefaultCredentials::read(Some(credentials_path.to_str().unwrap())).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            credentials,
+            Some(ApplicationDefaultCredentials::AuthorizedUser(_))
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_service_account_build_jwt_assertion() {
+        let auth = ServiceAccountAuth::from_credentials(ServiceAccountCredentials {
+            client_email: "svc@example.iam.gserviceaccount.com".to_string(),
+            private_key: TEST_RSA_PRIVATE_KEY.to_string(),
+            private_key_id: "key-id-123".to_string(),
+            token_uri: Some("https://oauth2.googleapis.com/token".to_string()),
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let assertion = auth.build_jwt_assertion().unwrap();
+        let parts: Vec<&str> = assertion.split('.').collect();
+        assert_eq!(parts.len(), 3);
+
+        let header = String::from_utf8(URL_SAFE_NO_PAD.decode(parts[0]).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert!(header.contains("\"alg\":\"RS256\""));
+        assert!(header.contains("\"kid\":\"key-id-123\""));
+
+        let claims = String::from_utf8(URL_SAFE_NO_PAD.decode(parts[1]).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert!(claims.contains("\"iss\":\"svc@example.iam.gserviceaccount.com\""));
+        assert!(claims.contains(&format!("\"aud\":\"{}\"", DEFAULT_GOOGLE_TOKEN_URI)));
+        assert!(claims.contains("\"scope\":\"https://www.googleapis.com/auth/cloud-platform\""));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_authorized_user_fetch_access_token_uses_reqwest_form_flow() {
+        let server = MockServer::start().await;
+        Mock::given(method("POST"))
+            .and(path("/token"))
+            .and(body_string_contains("grant_type=refresh_token"))
+            .and(body_string_contains("client_id=client-id"))
+            .and(body_string_contains("client_secret=client-secret"))
+            .and(body_string_contains("refresh_token=refresh-token"))
+            .respond_with(ResponseTemplate::new(200).set_body_json(serde_json::json!({
+                "access_token": "ya29.authorized-user-token",
+                "expires_in": 3600
+            })))
+            .mount(&server)
+            .await;
+
+        let credentials = AuthorizedUserCredentials {
+            client_id: "client-id".to_string(),
+            client_secret: "client-secret".to_string(),
+            refresh_token: "refresh-token".to_string(),
+            token_uri: Some(format!("{}/token", server.uri())),
+        };
+
+        let token = credentials
+            .fetch_access_token(&Client::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(token, "ya29.authorized-user-token");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_service_account_fetch_access_token_uses_jwt_bearer_flow() {
+        let server = MockServer::start().await;
+        Mock::given(method("POST"))
+            .and(path("/token"))
+            .and(body_string_contains(
+                "grant_type=urn%3Aietf%3Aparams%3Aoauth%3Agrant-type%3Ajwt-bearer",
+            ))
+            .and(body_string_contains("assertion="))
+            .respond_with(ResponseTemplate::new(200).set_body_json(serde_json::json!({
+                "access_token": "ya29.service-account-token",
+                "expires_in": 3600
+            })))
+            .mount(&server)
+            .await;
+
+        let auth = ServiceAccountAuth::from_credentials(ServiceAccountCredentials {
+            client_email: "svc@example.iam.gserviceaccount.com".to_string(),
+            private_key: TEST_RSA_PRIVATE_KEY.to_string(),
+            private_key_id: "key-id-123".to_string(),
+            token_uri: Some(format!("{}/token", server.uri())),
+        })
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Edge case: already has prefix (idempotent)
-        let normalized_again =
-            GcpCredentialVendor::normalize_workload_identity_audience(&normalized);
-        assert_eq!(normalized_again, full);
+        let token = auth.fetch_access_token(&Client::new()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(token, "ya29.service-account-token");
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir.rs
index 875df33e580..2e658ddc6f8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir.rs
@@ -7,38 +7,190 @@
 //! that stores tables as Lance datasets in a filesystem directory structure.
 
 pub mod manifest;
+pub mod manifest_feature_flags;
 
+use arrow::array::Float32Array;
 use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatchIterator;
 use arrow_ipc::reader::StreamReader;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use lance::dataset::refs::check_valid_branch;
+use lance::dataset::scanner::Scanner;
+use lance::dataset::statistics::DatasetStatisticsExt;
+use lance::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+use lance::dataset::{
+    Dataset, MergeInsertBuilder, UpdateBuilder, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched,
+    WhenNotMatchedBySource, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+};
+use lance::index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexParams, vector::VectorIndexParams};
 use lance::session::Session;
-use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
+use lance_index::scalar::{
+    BuiltinIndexType, FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams,
+};
+use lance_index::vector::{
+    bq::{RABIT_MAX_NUM_BITS, RABIT_MIN_NUM_BITS, RQBuildParams, validate_supported_rq_num_bits},
+    hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams,
+    ivf::IvfBuildParams,
+    pq::PQBuildParams,
+    sq::builder::SQBuildParams,
+};
+use lance_index::{IndexType, is_system_index};
+use lance_io::object_store::throttle::is_throttle_error;
+use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry, ReadDirOptions};
+use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+use lance_table::io::commit::{ManifestNamingScheme, VERSIONS_DIR};
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use object_store::{Error as ObjectStoreError, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, PutMode, PutOptions};
+use object_store::{
+    Error as ObjectStoreError, ObjectMeta, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, PutMode, PutOptions,
+};
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::io::Cursor;
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+use tokio::sync::OnceCell;
 
 use crate::context::DynamicContextProvider;
+use crate::merge_insert_on_columns;
 use lance_namespace::models::{
-    CreateEmptyTableRequest, CreateEmptyTableResponse, CreateNamespaceRequest,
-    CreateNamespaceResponse, CreateTableRequest, CreateTableResponse, DeclareTableRequest,
-    DeclareTableResponse, DescribeNamespaceRequest, DescribeNamespaceResponse,
-    DescribeTableRequest, DescribeTableResponse, DropNamespaceRequest, DropNamespaceResponse,
-    DropTableRequest, DropTableResponse, Identity, ListNamespacesRequest, ListNamespacesResponse,
-    ListTablesRequest, ListTablesResponse, NamespaceExistsRequest, TableExistsRequest,
+    AlterTableAddColumnsRequest, AlterTableAddColumnsResponse, AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
+    AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse, AlterTableDropColumnsRequest, AlterTableDropColumnsResponse,
+    AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionResponse, AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest,
+    BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest, BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse,
+    BranchContents as ModelBranchContents, CountTableRowsRequest, CreateNamespaceRequest,
+    CreateNamespaceResponse, CreateTableBranchRequest, CreateTableBranchResponse,
+    CreateTableIndexRequest, CreateTableIndexResponse, CreateTableRequest, CreateTableResponse,
+    CreateTableScalarIndexResponse, CreateTableTagRequest, CreateTableTagResponse,
+    CreateTableVersionRequest, CreateTableVersionResponse, DeclareTableRequest,
+    DeclareTableResponse, DeleteFromTableRequest, DeleteFromTableResponse,
+    DeleteTableBranchRequest, DeleteTableBranchResponse, DeleteTableTagRequest,
+    DeleteTableTagResponse, DescribeNamespaceRequest, DescribeNamespaceResponse,
+    DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest, DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse, DescribeTableRequest,
+    DescribeTableResponse, DescribeTableVersionRequest, DescribeTableVersionResponse,
+    DescribeTransactionRequest, DescribeTransactionResponse, DropNamespaceRequest,
+    DropNamespaceResponse, DropTableIndexRequest, DropTableIndexResponse, DropTableRequest,
+    DropTableResponse, ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest, FragmentStats, FragmentSummary,
+    GetTableStatsRequest, GetTableStatsResponse, GetTableTagVersionRequest,
+    GetTableTagVersionResponse, Identity, IndexContent, InsertIntoTableRequest,
+    InsertIntoTableResponse, ListNamespacesRequest, ListNamespacesResponse,
+    ListTableBranchesRequest, ListTableBranchesResponse, ListTableIndicesRequest,
+    ListTableIndicesResponse, ListTableTagsRequest, ListTableTagsResponse,
+    ListTableVersionsRequest, ListTableVersionsResponse, ListTablesRequest, ListTablesResponse,
+    MergeInsertIntoTableRequest, MergeInsertIntoTableResponse, NamespaceExistsRequest,
+    QueryTableRequest, QueryTableRequestColumns, QueryTableRequestVector, RestoreTableRequest,
+    RestoreTableResponse, TableExistsRequest, TableVersion, TagContents as ModelTagContents,
+    UpdateTableRequest, UpdateTableResponse, UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest,
+    UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse, UpdateTableTagRequest, UpdateTableTagResponse,
 };
 
-use lance_core::{box_error, Error, Result};
-use lance_namespace::schema::arrow_schema_to_json;
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_to_bool;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, box_error};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+    BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, FtsQuery, MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Occur, Operator, PhraseQuery,
+};
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
+use lance_namespace::schema::arrow_schema_to_json;
 
 use crate::credentials::{
-    create_credential_vendor_for_location, has_credential_vendor_config, CredentialVendor,
+    CredentialVendor, create_credential_vendor_for_location, has_credential_vendor_config,
 };
 
+/// Thread-safe metrics tracker for namespace operations.
+///
+/// Tracks the count of each API operation when `ops_metrics_enabled` is true.
+/// Use `retrieve()` to get a snapshot of all operation counts.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct OpsMetrics {
+    counters: Mutex<HashMap<String, u64>>,
+}
+
+impl OpsMetrics {
+    /// Increment the counter for an operation.
+    pub fn increment(&self, operation: &str) {
+        if let Ok(mut counters) = self.counters.lock() {
+            *counters.entry(operation.to_string()).or_insert(0) += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get a snapshot of all operation counts.
+    pub fn retrieve(&self) -> HashMap<String, u64> {
+        self.counters.lock().map(|c| c.clone()).unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
+    /// Reset all counters to zero.
+    pub fn reset(&self) {
+        if let Ok(mut counters) = self.counters.lock() {
+            counters.clear();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build SQL expression list for the add_columns operation.
+/// Returns an explicit error when the expression is missing, instead of silently using an empty string.
+pub(crate) fn build_sql_expressions(
+    new_columns: &[lance_namespace::models::AddColumnsEntry],
+) -> Result<Vec<(String, String)>> {
+    new_columns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|col| {
+            // expression is Option<Option<String>>: outer Option means whether the
+            // field is present, inner Option means whether the value is JSON null.
+            let expression = col.expression.clone().and_then(|opt| opt).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Expression is required for new column '{}'",
+                    col.name
+                ))
+            })?;
+            Ok((col.name.clone(), expression))
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Build column alteration list for the alter_columns operation.
+/// Returns an explicit error when data_type conversion fails, instead of silently ignoring it.
+pub(crate) fn build_column_alterations(
+    alterations: &[lance_namespace::models::AlterColumnsEntry],
+) -> Result<Vec<lance::dataset::ColumnAlteration>> {
+    alterations
+        .iter()
+        .map(|entry| {
+            let mut alteration = lance::dataset::ColumnAlteration::new(entry.path.clone());
+            // rename is Option<Option<String>>: flatten to get the actual rename value.
+            if let Some(Some(rename)) = &entry.rename {
+                alteration = alteration.rename(rename.clone());
+            }
+            // nullable is Option<Option<bool>>: flatten to get the actual nullable value.
+            if let Some(Some(nullable)) = entry.nullable {
+                alteration = alteration.set_nullable(nullable);
+            }
+            // data_type is Option<serde_json::Value>: only process when present and not null.
+            if let Some(data_type) = &entry.data_type
+                && !data_type.is_null()
+            {
+                let type_str = data_type.as_str().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "data_type for column '{}' must be a JSON string, got: {}",
+                        entry.path, data_type
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let json_type =
+                    lance_namespace::models::JsonArrowDataType::new(type_str.to_string());
+                let dt =
+                    lance_namespace::schema::convert_json_arrow_type(&json_type).map_err(|e| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Failed to parse data_type '{}' for column '{}': {}",
+                            type_str, entry.path, e
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                alteration = alteration.cast_to(dt);
+            }
+            Ok(alteration)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
 /// Result of checking table status atomically.
 ///
 /// This struct captures the state of a table directory in a single snapshot,
@@ -52,6 +204,35 @@ pub(crate) struct TableStatus {
     pub(crate) has_reserved_file: bool,
 }
 
+enum DirectoryIndexParams {
+    Scalar {
+        index_type: IndexType,
+        params: ScalarIndexParams,
+    },
+    Inverted(InvertedIndexParams),
+    Vector {
+        index_type: IndexType,
+        params: VectorIndexParams,
+    },
+}
+
+impl DirectoryIndexParams {
+    fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
+        match self {
+            Self::Scalar { index_type, .. } | Self::Vector { index_type, .. } => *index_type,
+            Self::Inverted(_) => IndexType::Inverted,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn params(&self) -> &dyn IndexParams {
+        match self {
+            Self::Scalar { params, .. } => params,
+            Self::Inverted(params) => params,
+            Self::Vector { params, .. } => params,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// Builder for creating a DirectoryNamespace.
 ///
 /// This builder provides a fluent API for configuring and establishing
@@ -94,8 +275,25 @@ pub struct DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
     manifest_enabled: bool,
     dir_listing_enabled: bool,
     inline_optimization_enabled: bool,
+    table_version_tracking_enabled: bool,
+    /// When true, enables migration mode where the namespace checks the manifest first
+    /// before falling back to directory listing for root-level tables. When false (default),
+    /// root-level tables use directory listing directly without checking the manifest,
+    /// avoiding extra object store calls.
+    dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled: bool,
     credential_vendor_properties: HashMap<String, String>,
     context_provider: Option<Arc<dyn DynamicContextProvider>>,
+    commit_retries: Option<u32>,
+    /// When true, returns input storage options in describe_table/declare_table responses
+    /// when no credential vendor is configured. Useful for testing. Default: false.
+    vend_input_storage_options: bool,
+    /// When set, adds expires_at_millis to vended storage options. The value is calculated
+    /// as current_time_millis + this interval. This allows clients to know when to refresh
+    /// credentials by calling describe_table again. Only effective when vend_input_storage_options
+    /// is true.
+    vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis: Option<u64>,
+    /// When true, tracks operation metrics. Default: false.
+    ops_metrics_enabled: bool,
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
@@ -109,10 +307,27 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
                 "inline_optimization_enabled",
                 &self.inline_optimization_enabled,
             )
+            .field(
+                "table_version_tracking_enabled",
+                &self.table_version_tracking_enabled,
+            )
+            .field(
+                "dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled",
+                &self.dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled,
+            )
             .field(
                 "context_provider",
                 &self.context_provider.as_ref().map(|_| "Some(...)"),
             )
+            .field(
+                "vend_input_storage_options",
+                &self.vend_input_storage_options,
+            )
+            .field(
+                "vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis",
+                &self.vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis,
+            )
+            .field("ops_metrics_enabled", &self.ops_metrics_enabled)
             .finish()
     }
 }
@@ -130,9 +345,15 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
             session: None,
             manifest_enabled: true,
             dir_listing_enabled: true, // Default to enabled for backwards compatibility
-            inline_optimization_enabled: true,
+            inline_optimization_enabled: false,
+            table_version_tracking_enabled: false, // Default to disabled
+            dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled: false, // Default to disabled
             credential_vendor_properties: HashMap::new(),
             context_provider: None,
+            commit_retries: None,
+            vend_input_storage_options: false,
+            vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis: None,
+            ops_metrics_enabled: false,
         }
     }
 
@@ -154,16 +375,38 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Enable or disable inline optimization of the __manifest table.
+    /// Enable or disable migration mode from directory listing to manifest.
+    ///
+    /// When enabled, root-level table operations check the manifest first before
+    /// falling back to directory listing. When disabled (default), root-level tables
+    /// use directory listing directly, avoiding extra object store calls.
+    /// Only relevant when both `manifest_enabled` and `dir_listing_enabled` are true.
+    pub fn dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled(mut self, enabled: bool) -> Self {
+        self.dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled = enabled;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Enable or disable replacement index maintenance for the __manifest table.
     ///
-    /// When enabled (default), performs compaction and indexing on the __manifest table
-    /// after every write operation to maintain optimal performance.
-    /// When disabled, manual optimization must be performed separately.
+    /// When enabled, copy-on-write manifest rewrites build replacement indices for fast
+    /// reads. This is disabled by default so rewrites only replace data files.
     pub fn inline_optimization_enabled(mut self, enabled: bool) -> Self {
         self.inline_optimization_enabled = enabled;
         self
     }
 
+    /// Enable or disable table version tracking through the namespace.
+    ///
+    /// When enabled, `describe_table` returns `managed_versioning: true` to indicate
+    /// that commits should go through the namespace's table version APIs rather than
+    /// direct object store operations.
+    ///
+    /// When disabled (default), `managed_versioning` is not set.
+    pub fn table_version_tracking_enabled(mut self, enabled: bool) -> Self {
+        self.table_version_tracking_enabled = enabled;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Create a DirectoryNamespaceBuilder from properties HashMap.
     ///
     /// This method parses a properties map into builder configuration.
@@ -171,7 +414,7 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
     /// - `root`: The root directory path (required)
     /// - `manifest_enabled`: Enable manifest-based table tracking (optional, default: true)
     /// - `dir_listing_enabled`: Enable directory listing for table discovery (optional, default: true)
-    /// - `inline_optimization_enabled`: Enable inline optimization of __manifest table (optional, default: true)
+    /// - `inline_optimization_enabled`: Enable replacement indices on __manifest rewrites (optional, default: false)
     /// - `storage.*`: Storage options (optional, prefix will be stripped)
     ///
     /// Credential vendor properties (prefixed with `credential_vendor.`, prefix is stripped):
@@ -187,6 +430,8 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
     ///
     /// GCP-specific properties (for gs:// locations):
     /// - `credential_vendor.gcp_service_account`: Service account to impersonate (optional)
+    /// - `credential_vendor.gcp_workload_identity_provider`: Workload Identity Provider for OIDC token exchange (optional)
+    /// - `credential_vendor.gcp_impersonation_service_account`: Service account to impersonate after workload identity exchange (optional)
     ///
     /// Note: GCP uses Application Default Credentials (ADC). To use a service account key file,
     /// set the `GOOGLE_APPLICATION_CREDENTIALS` environment variable before starting.
@@ -195,6 +440,7 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
     /// Azure-specific properties (for az:// locations):
     /// - `credential_vendor.azure_account_name`: Azure storage account name (required for Azure)
     /// - `credential_vendor.azure_tenant_id`: Azure tenant ID (optional)
+    /// - `credential_vendor.azure_federated_client_id`: Client ID used for workload identity federation (optional)
     /// - `credential_vendor.azure_duration_millis`: Credential duration in ms (default: 3600000, up to 7 days)
     ///
     /// # Arguments
@@ -233,13 +479,11 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
         session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         // Extract root from properties (required)
-        let root = properties
-            .get("root")
-            .cloned()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Namespace {
-                source: "Missing required property 'root' for directory namespace".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let root = properties.get("root").cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Missing required property 'root' for directory namespace".to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
 
         // Extract storage options (properties prefixed with "storage.")
         let storage_options: HashMap<String, String> = properties
@@ -259,20 +503,32 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
         // Extract manifest_enabled (default: true)
         let manifest_enabled = properties
             .get("manifest_enabled")
-            .and_then(|v| v.parse::<bool>().ok())
+            .and_then(|v| str_to_bool(v))
             .unwrap_or(true);
 
         // Extract dir_listing_enabled (default: true)
         let dir_listing_enabled = properties
             .get("dir_listing_enabled")
-            .and_then(|v| v.parse::<bool>().ok())
+            .and_then(|v| str_to_bool(v))
             .unwrap_or(true);
 
-        // Extract inline_optimization_enabled (default: true)
+        // Extract inline_optimization_enabled (default: false)
         let inline_optimization_enabled = properties
             .get("inline_optimization_enabled")
-            .and_then(|v| v.parse::<bool>().ok())
-            .unwrap_or(true);
+            .and_then(|v| str_to_bool(v))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+
+        // Extract table_version_tracking_enabled (default: false)
+        let table_version_tracking_enabled = properties
+            .get("table_version_tracking_enabled")
+            .and_then(|v| str_to_bool(v))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+
+        // Extract dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled (default: false)
+        let dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled = properties
+            .get("dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled")
+            .and_then(|v| str_to_bool(v))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
 
         // Extract credential vendor properties (properties prefixed with "credential_vendor.")
         // The prefix is stripped to get short property names
@@ -285,6 +541,27 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
             })
             .collect();
 
+        let commit_retries = properties
+            .get("commit_retries")
+            .and_then(|v| v.parse::<u32>().ok());
+
+        // Extract vend_input_storage_options (default: false)
+        let vend_input_storage_options = properties
+            .get("vend_input_storage_options")
+            .and_then(|v| str_to_bool(v))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+
+        // Extract vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis (optional)
+        let vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis = properties
+            .get("vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis")
+            .and_then(|v| v.parse::<u64>().ok());
+
+        // Extract ops_metrics_enabled (default: false)
+        let ops_metrics_enabled = properties
+            .get("ops_metrics_enabled")
+            .and_then(|v| str_to_bool(v))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+
         Ok(Self {
             root: root.trim_end_matches('/').to_string(),
             storage_options,
@@ -292,8 +569,14 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
             manifest_enabled,
             dir_listing_enabled,
             inline_optimization_enabled,
+            table_version_tracking_enabled,
+            dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled,
             credential_vendor_properties,
             context_provider: None,
+            commit_retries,
+            vend_input_storage_options,
+            vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis,
+            ops_metrics_enabled,
         })
     }
 
@@ -336,13 +619,20 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set the number of retries for commit operations on the manifest table.
+    /// If not set, defaults to [`lance_table::io::commit::CommitConfig`] default (20).
+    pub fn commit_retries(mut self, retries: u32) -> Self {
+        self.commit_retries = Some(retries);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Add a credential vendor property.
     ///
     /// Use short property names without the `credential_vendor.` prefix.
     /// Common properties: `enabled`, `permission`.
     /// AWS properties: `aws_role_arn`, `aws_external_id`, `aws_region`, `aws_role_session_name`, `aws_duration_millis`.
-    /// GCP properties: `gcp_service_account`.
-    /// Azure properties: `azure_account_name`, `azure_tenant_id`, `azure_duration_millis`.
+    /// GCP properties: `gcp_service_account`, `gcp_workload_identity_provider`, `gcp_impersonation_service_account`.
+    /// Azure properties: `azure_account_name`, `azure_tenant_id`, `azure_federated_client_id`, `azure_duration_millis`.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
@@ -399,6 +689,50 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Enable or disable returning input storage options in responses.
+    ///
+    /// When enabled, `describe_table` and `declare_table` will return the storage
+    /// options passed to the builder when no credential vendor is configured.
+    /// This is useful for testing scenarios where you want to pass storage options
+    /// through to clients.
+    ///
+    /// Default is false (storage options are not returned unless credential vending is configured).
+    pub fn vend_input_storage_options(mut self, enabled: bool) -> Self {
+        self.vend_input_storage_options = enabled;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the refresh interval for vended input storage options.
+    ///
+    /// When set, vended storage options will include an `expires_at_millis` field
+    /// calculated as `current_time_millis + interval_millis`. This allows clients
+    /// to know when to refresh credentials by calling `describe_table` again.
+    ///
+    /// This only has effect when `vend_input_storage_options` is enabled.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `interval_millis` - The refresh interval in milliseconds
+    pub fn vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis(
+        mut self,
+        interval_millis: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis = Some(interval_millis);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Enable or disable operation metrics tracking.
+    ///
+    /// When enabled, the namespace will track how many times each API operation
+    /// is called. Use `retrieve_ops_metrics()` on the built namespace to get
+    /// the current counts.
+    ///
+    /// Default is false.
+    pub fn ops_metrics_enabled(mut self, enabled: bool) -> Self {
+        self.ops_metrics_enabled = enabled;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Build the DirectoryNamespace.
     ///
     /// # Returns
@@ -416,7 +750,7 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
             Self::initialize_object_store(&self.root, &self.storage_options, &self.session).await?;
 
         let manifest_ns = if self.manifest_enabled {
-            match manifest::ManifestNamespace::from_directory(
+            match manifest::ManifestNamespace::open_from_directory(
                 self.root.clone(),
                 self.storage_options.clone(),
                 self.session.clone(),
@@ -424,22 +758,30 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
                 base_path.clone(),
                 self.dir_listing_enabled,
                 self.inline_optimization_enabled,
+                self.commit_retries,
             )
             .await
             {
                 Ok(ns) => Some(Arc::new(ns)),
-                Err(e) => {
-                    // Failed to initialize manifest namespace, fall back to directory listing only
-                    log::warn!(
-                        "Failed to initialize manifest namespace, falling back to directory listing only: {}",
-                        e
-                    );
+                Err(e) if manifest_feature_flags::is_incompatible_manifest_error(&e) => {
+                    // The manifest exists but was written with a feature flag this
+                    // build does not understand. Refuse rather than silently
+                    // degrading to a directory-listing view that ignores it.
+                    return Err(e);
+                }
+                Err(e) if manifest::ManifestNamespace::is_not_found_load_error(&e) => {
+                    log::debug!("Manifest namespace does not exist yet: {}", e);
                     None
                 }
+                Err(e) => return Err(e),
             }
         } else {
             None
         };
+        let manifest_cell = OnceCell::new();
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = manifest_ns {
+            let _ = manifest_cell.set(manifest_ns);
+        }
 
         // Create credential vendor once during initialization if enabled
         let credential_vendor = if has_credential_vendor_config(&self.credential_vendor_properties)
@@ -451,16 +793,33 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
             None
         };
 
+        let ops_metrics = if self.ops_metrics_enabled {
+            Some(Arc::new(OpsMetrics::default()))
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
         Ok(DirectoryNamespace {
             root: self.root,
             storage_options: self.storage_options,
             session: self.session,
             object_store,
             base_path,
-            manifest_ns,
+            manifest_ns: manifest_cell,
+            write_manifest_ns: OnceCell::new(),
+            manifest_enabled: self.manifest_enabled,
             dir_listing_enabled: self.dir_listing_enabled,
+            inline_optimization_enabled: self.inline_optimization_enabled,
+            commit_retries: self.commit_retries,
+            dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled: self
+                .dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled,
+            table_version_tracking_enabled: self.table_version_tracking_enabled,
             credential_vendor,
             context_provider: self.context_provider,
+            vend_input_storage_options: self.vend_input_storage_options,
+            vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis: self
+                .vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis,
+            ops_metrics,
         })
     }
 
@@ -489,9 +848,10 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
         // Use Lance's object store factory to create from URI
         let (object_store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, root, &params)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Failed to create object store: {}", e).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to create object store: {:?}", e),
+                })
             })?;
 
         Ok((object_store, base_path))
@@ -524,12 +884,22 @@ impl DirectoryNamespaceBuilder {
 pub struct DirectoryNamespace {
     root: String,
     storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     base_path: Path,
-    manifest_ns: Option<Arc<manifest::ManifestNamespace>>,
+    manifest_ns: OnceCell<Arc<manifest::ManifestNamespace>>,
+    write_manifest_ns: OnceCell<Arc<manifest::ManifestNamespace>>,
+    manifest_enabled: bool,
     dir_listing_enabled: bool,
+    inline_optimization_enabled: bool,
+    commit_retries: Option<u32>,
+    /// When true, root-level table operations check the manifest first before
+    /// falling back to directory listing. When false, root-level tables skip
+    /// the manifest check and use directory listing directly.
+    dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled: bool,
+    /// When true, `describe_table` returns `managed_versioning: true` to indicate
+    /// commits should go through namespace table version APIs.
+    table_version_tracking_enabled: bool,
     /// Credential vendor created once during initialization.
     /// Used to vend temporary credentials for table access.
     credential_vendor: Option<Arc<dyn CredentialVendor>>,
@@ -537,6 +907,13 @@ pub struct DirectoryNamespace {
     /// Stored but not directly used in operations (available for future extensions).
     #[allow(dead_code)]
     context_provider: Option<Arc<dyn DynamicContextProvider>>,
+    /// When true, returns input storage options in responses when no credential vendor is configured.
+    vend_input_storage_options: bool,
+    /// Refresh interval in milliseconds for vended input storage options.
+    /// When set, expires_at_millis is added to storage options.
+    vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis: Option<u64>,
+    /// Operation metrics tracker, created when ops_metrics_enabled is true.
+    ops_metrics: Option<Arc<OpsMetrics>>,
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for DirectoryNamespace {
@@ -551,7 +928,207 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for DirectoryNamespace {
     }
 }
 
+/// Inputs for resolving an already-published `create_table_version` target.
+struct ExistingTableVersionResolve<'a> {
+    staging_path: &'a Path,
+    final_path: &'a Path,
+    version: u64,
+    table_uri: &'a str,
+    final_meta: &'a ObjectMeta,
+    request_manifest_size: Option<i64>,
+}
+
+/// Describes the version ranges to delete for a single table.
+/// Used by `batch_delete_table_versions` and `delete_physical_version_files`.
+struct TableDeleteEntry {
+    table_id: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ranges: Vec<(i64, i64)>,
+}
+
+/// Persistent record of `alter_transaction` outcomes for a single transaction.
+///
+/// Lance's transaction file is immutable once written, so we record any
+/// modifications (status transitions, extra properties, tombstoned properties)
+/// in a namespace-owned sidecar file. The sidecar is then merged into the
+/// response of subsequent `describe_transaction` / `alter_transaction` calls.
+///
+/// Serialization is implemented manually via `serde_json::Value` to avoid
+/// pulling in `serde`'s `derive` feature for this crate.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+struct TransactionAlteration {
+    /// The most recently applied status, if any.
+    status: Option<String>,
+    /// User-defined properties layered on top of the immutable transaction
+    /// properties. Values here take precedence over the transaction's own
+    /// properties when both are present.
+    properties: HashMap<String, String>,
+    /// Names of transaction properties that have been tombstoned via
+    /// `unset_property_action`. A tombstoned key is hidden from the response
+    /// even when the immutable transaction still carries it.
+    removed_properties: std::collections::HashSet<String>,
+}
+
+impl TransactionAlteration {
+    /// JSON field names used for the sidecar on-disk representation.
+    const F_STATUS: &'static str = "status";
+    const F_PROPERTIES: &'static str = "properties";
+    const F_REMOVED_PROPERTIES: &'static str = "removed_properties";
+
+    /// Serialize this alteration to a JSON byte vector.
+    ///
+    /// Uses the same pattern as `dir/manifest.rs`: rely on the built-in
+    /// `Serialize` impls for `Option<String>`, `HashMap<String, String>` and
+    /// `HashSet<String>` provided by the `serde` crate (transitively pulled in
+    /// by `serde_json`), so no `serde` derive nor extra dependency is needed.
+    fn to_json_bytes(&self) -> serde_json::Result<Vec<u8>> {
+        serde_json::to_vec(&serde_json::json!({
+            Self::F_STATUS: self.status,
+            Self::F_PROPERTIES: self.properties,
+            Self::F_REMOVED_PROPERTIES: self.removed_properties,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize an alteration from JSON bytes, mirroring the
+    /// `serde_json::from_slice::<HashMap<String, String>>(...)` idiom already
+    /// used in `dir/manifest.rs`. Missing / null fields fall back to defaults
+    /// so that the sidecar format stays forward-compatible.
+    fn from_json_slice(bytes: &[u8]) -> serde_json::Result<Self> {
+        let mut obj: serde_json::Map<String, serde_json::Value> = serde_json::from_slice(bytes)?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            status: serde_json::from_value(
+                obj.remove(Self::F_STATUS)
+                    .unwrap_or(serde_json::Value::Null),
+            )?,
+            properties: serde_json::from_value(
+                obj.remove(Self::F_PROPERTIES)
+                    .unwrap_or(serde_json::Value::Null),
+            )
+            .unwrap_or_default(),
+            removed_properties: serde_json::from_value(
+                obj.remove(Self::F_REMOVED_PROPERTIES)
+                    .unwrap_or(serde_json::Value::Null),
+            )
+            .unwrap_or_default(),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+fn apply_probe_bounds(
+    scanner: &mut Scanner,
+    nprobes: Option<i32>,
+    minimum_nprobes: Option<i32>,
+    maximum_nprobes: Option<i32>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let parse_probe_count = |name: &str, value: i32| {
+        usize::try_from(value)
+            .map_err(|_| Error::invalid_input(format!("{name} must be non-negative")))
+    };
+
+    if let Some(nprobes) = nprobes {
+        scanner.nprobes(parse_probe_count("nprobes", nprobes)?);
+    }
+    if let Some(minimum_nprobes) = minimum_nprobes {
+        scanner.minimum_nprobes(parse_probe_count("minimum_nprobes", minimum_nprobes)?);
+    }
+    if let Some(maximum_nprobes) = maximum_nprobes {
+        scanner.maximum_nprobes(parse_probe_count("maximum_nprobes", maximum_nprobes)?);
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 impl DirectoryNamespace {
+    fn manifest_ns_for_read(&self) -> Option<&Arc<manifest::ManifestNamespace>> {
+        self.write_manifest_ns
+            .get()
+            .or_else(|| self.manifest_ns.get())
+    }
+
+    async fn manifest_ns_for_write(&self) -> Result<Option<Arc<manifest::ManifestNamespace>>> {
+        if !self.manifest_enabled {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let manifest_ns = self
+            .write_manifest_ns
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                manifest::ManifestNamespace::from_directory(
+                    self.root.clone(),
+                    self.storage_options.clone(),
+                    self.session.clone(),
+                    self.object_store.clone(),
+                    self.base_path.clone(),
+                    self.dir_listing_enabled,
+                    self.inline_optimization_enabled,
+                    self.commit_retries,
+                )
+                .await
+                .map(Arc::new)
+            })
+            .await?;
+        Ok(Some(manifest_ns.clone()))
+    }
+
+    /// Lazily open the `__manifest` dataset (read-only) into the read cell.
+    ///
+    /// `manifest_ns` is populated at construction only if `__manifest` already
+    /// existed then. A manifest created afterwards -- e.g. by another
+    /// connection's write, since Phalanx caches a connection per db and the
+    /// first op on a fresh db is usually a read -- would otherwise stay
+    /// invisible to this connection's reads forever, so describe/list/exists
+    /// report "not found" for a table that is in fact registered. Re-open on
+    /// demand so reads self-heal once the manifest exists. Idempotent and cheap
+    /// once the cell is populated; unlike `manifest_ns_for_write` it never
+    /// creates the manifest.
+    async fn ensure_read_manifest(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.manifest_enabled
+            || self.manifest_ns.get().is_some()
+            || self.write_manifest_ns.get().is_some()
+        {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        match self
+            .manifest_ns
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                manifest::ManifestNamespace::open_from_directory(
+                    self.root.clone(),
+                    self.storage_options.clone(),
+                    self.session.clone(),
+                    self.object_store.clone(),
+                    self.base_path.clone(),
+                    self.dir_listing_enabled,
+                    self.inline_optimization_enabled,
+                    self.commit_retries,
+                )
+                .await
+                .map(Arc::new)
+            })
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(_) => Ok(()),
+            // Manifest still doesn't exist: leave the cell empty so a later read
+            // retries once it does. A genuinely absent table is still reported
+            // not-found by the callers' existing `manifest_ns_for_read() == None`
+            // branch, exactly as before.
+            Err(e) if manifest::ManifestNamespace::is_not_found_load_error(&e) => Ok(()),
+            Err(e) => Err(e),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn child_namespace_requires_manifest_error(&self) -> Error {
+        if self.manifest_enabled {
+            NamespaceError::NamespaceNotFound {
+                message: "Child namespace reads require an existing __manifest dataset".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into()
+        } else {
+            NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: "Child namespaces are only supported when manifest mode is enabled"
+                    .to_string(),
+            }
+            .into()
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Apply pagination to a list of table names
     ///
     /// Sorts the list alphabetically and applies pagination using page_token (start_after) and limit.
@@ -560,7 +1137,15 @@ impl DirectoryNamespace {
     /// * `names` - The vector of table names to paginate
     /// * `page_token` - Skip items until finding one greater than this value (start_after semantics)
     /// * `limit` - Maximum number of items to keep
-    fn apply_pagination(names: &mut Vec<String>, page_token: Option<String>, limit: Option<i32>) {
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    /// The next page token (last item in this page) if more results exist beyond the limit,
+    /// or `None` if this is the last page.
+    fn apply_pagination(
+        names: &mut Vec<String>,
+        page_token: Option<String>,
+        limit: Option<i32>,
+    ) -> Option<String> {
         // Sort alphabetically for consistent ordering
         names.sort();
 
@@ -576,44 +1161,93 @@ impl DirectoryNamespace {
             }
         }
 
-        // Apply limit
-        if let Some(limit) = limit {
-            if limit >= 0 {
-                names.truncate(limit as usize);
+        // Apply limit and compute next page token
+        if let Some(limit) = limit
+            && limit >= 0
+        {
+            let limit = limit as usize;
+            if names.len() > limit {
+                let next_page_token = if limit > 0 {
+                    Some(names[limit - 1].clone())
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+                names.truncate(limit);
+                return next_page_token;
             }
         }
+
+        None
     }
 
+    /// Page size requested from [`ObjectStore::read_dir_page`] while scanning the namespace
+    /// directory for tables. Only bounds the cost of one backend request on stores that push
+    /// pagination down (S3, GCS, Azure); `list_directory_tables` always walks every page.
+    const LIST_DIRECTORY_PAGE_SIZE: usize = 1000;
+
     /// List tables using directory scanning (fallback method)
     async fn list_directory_tables(&self) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
         let mut tables = Vec::new();
-        let entries = self
-            .object_store
-            .read_dir(self.base_path.clone())
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to list directory: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let mut page_token = None;
+
+        loop {
+            let page = self
+                .object_store
+                .read_dir_page(
+                    self.base_path.clone(),
+                    ReadDirOptions {
+                        page_token,
+                        // Only a hint to backends with a paginated list API (S3, GCS, Azure):
+                        // it bounds the cost of one request, not the number of tables returned.
+                        // Every other backend still lists (and pages through) the whole
+                        // directory here regardless, same as `read_dir` always did.
+                        limit: Some(Self::LIST_DIRECTORY_PAGE_SIZE),
+                    },
+                )
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!("Failed to list directory: {:?}", e),
+                    })
+                })?;
 
-        for entry in entries {
-            let path = entry.trim_end_matches('/');
-            if !path.ends_with(".lance") {
-                continue;
+            let candidates: Vec<String> = page
+                .result
+                .common_prefixes
+                .iter()
+                .chain(page.result.objects.iter().map(|o| &o.location))
+                .filter_map(|p| {
+                    p.filename()?
+                        .trim_end_matches('/')
+                        .strip_suffix(".lance")
+                        .map(|name| name.to_string())
+                })
+                .collect();
+
+            // Each candidate needs its own `check_table_status` round trip (a `read_dir` probe
+            // for a deregistration marker), so this is linear in the number of listed entries;
+            // run a bounded number concurrently rather than one at a time.
+            let mut stream =
+                futures::stream::iter(candidates.into_iter().map(|table_name| async move {
+                    let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await?;
+                    Ok::<Option<String>, Error>((!status.is_deregistered).then_some(table_name))
+                }))
+                .buffered(manifest::DECLARED_FILTER_CONCURRENCY);
+
+            while let Some(result) = stream.next().await {
+                if let Some(table_name) = result? {
+                    tables.push(table_name);
+                }
             }
 
-            let table_name = &path[..path.len() - 6];
-
-            // Use atomic check to skip deregistered tables and declared-but-not-written tables
-            let status = self.check_table_status(table_name).await;
-            if status.is_deregistered || status.has_reserved_file {
-                continue;
+            // A page can come back holding fewer children than the requested limit and still
+            // be followed by more (a backend can spend its page budget on keys a delimiter
+            // collapses away, or cap a page on its own besides) — walk until the token is
+            // `None`, not until a page comes back short.
+            page_token = page.page_token;
+            if page_token.is_none() {
+                break;
             }
-
-            tables.push(table_name.to_string());
         }
 
         Ok(tables)
@@ -621,453 +1255,965 @@ impl DirectoryNamespace {
 
     /// Validate that the namespace ID represents the root namespace
     fn validate_root_namespace_id(id: &Option<Vec<String>>) -> Result<()> {
-        if let Some(id) = id {
-            if !id.is_empty() {
-                return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                    source: format!(
-                        "Directory namespace only supports root namespace operations, but got namespace ID: {:?}. Expected empty ID.",
-                        id
-                    ).into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                });
+        if let Some(id) = id
+            && !id.is_empty()
+        {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Directory namespace only supports root namespace operations, but got namespace ID: {:?}. Expected empty ID.",
+                    id
+                ),
             }
+            .into());
         }
         Ok(())
     }
 
     /// Extract table name from table ID
     fn table_name_from_id(id: &Option<Vec<String>>) -> Result<String> {
-        let id = id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::Namespace {
-            source: "Directory namespace table ID cannot be empty".into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let id = id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Directory namespace table ID cannot be empty".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if id.len() != 1 {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: format!(
                     "Multi-level table IDs are only supported when manifest mode is enabled, but got: {:?}",
                     id
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         Ok(id[0].clone())
     }
 
-    /// Get the full URI path for a table (for returning in responses)
-    fn table_full_uri(&self, table_name: &str) -> String {
-        format!("{}/{}.lance", &self.root, table_name)
+    fn format_table_id(table_id: &[String]) -> String {
+        format!(
+            "table id '{}'",
+            manifest::ManifestNamespace::str_object_id(table_id)
+        )
     }
 
-    /// Get the object store path for a table (relative to base_path)
-    fn table_path(&self, table_name: &str) -> Path {
-        self.base_path
-            .child(format!("{}.lance", table_name).as_str())
+    fn format_table_id_from_request(id: &Option<Vec<String>>) -> String {
+        id.as_ref()
+            .map(|table_id| Self::format_table_id(table_id))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| "table id '<unknown>'".to_string())
     }
 
-    /// Get the reserved file path for a table
-    fn table_reserved_file_path(&self, table_name: &str) -> Path {
-        self.base_path
-            .child(format!("{}.lance", table_name).as_str())
-            .child(".lance-reserved")
+    async fn resolve_table_location(&self, id: &Option<Vec<String>>) -> Result<String> {
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = id.clone();
+        describe_req.load_detailed_metadata = Some(false);
+
+        // Use internal impl to avoid counting this as an external API call
+        let describe_resp = self.describe_table_impl(describe_req).await?;
+
+        describe_resp.location.ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: format!("Table location not found for: {:?}", id),
+            })
+        })
     }
 
-    /// Get the deregistered marker file path for a table
-    fn table_deregistered_file_path(&self, table_name: &str) -> Path {
-        self.base_path
-            .child(format!("{}.lance", table_name).as_str())
-            .child(".lance-deregistered")
+    /// Map a Lance ref-related error returned by `Dataset::tags()` operations into
+    /// the appropriate `NamespaceError` for tag APIs (create/get/update/delete).
+    fn map_tag_error(err: lance_core::Error, tag: &str, table_uri: &str) -> lance_core::Error {
+        match err {
+            lance_core::Error::RefNotFound { .. } => NamespaceError::TableTagNotFound {
+                message: format!("tag '{}' for table at '{}'", tag, table_uri),
+            }
+            .into(),
+            lance_core::Error::RefConflict { .. } => NamespaceError::TableTagAlreadyExists {
+                message: format!("tag '{}' for table at '{}'", tag, table_uri),
+            }
+            .into(),
+            lance_core::Error::InvalidRef { message } => NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!("invalid tag '{}': {}", tag, message),
+            }
+            .into(),
+            lance_core::Error::VersionNotFound { message } => {
+                NamespaceError::TableVersionNotFound {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "version referenced by tag '{}' not found for table at '{}': {}",
+                        tag, table_uri, message
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into()
+            }
+            other => NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "tag operation failed for tag '{}' on table at '{}': {}",
+                    tag, table_uri, other
+                ),
+            }
+            .into(),
+        }
     }
 
-    /// Atomically check table existence and deregistration status.
+    /// Map lance-core ref errors from branch operations to namespace errors.
     ///
-    /// This performs a single directory listing to get a consistent snapshot of the
-    /// table's state, avoiding race conditions between checking existence and
-    /// checking deregistration status.
-    pub(crate) async fn check_table_status(&self, table_name: &str) -> TableStatus {
-        let table_path = self.table_path(table_name);
-        match self.object_store.read_dir(table_path).await {
-            Ok(entries) => {
-                let exists = !entries.is_empty();
-                let is_deregistered = entries.iter().any(|e| e.ends_with(".lance-deregistered"));
-                let has_reserved_file = entries.iter().any(|e| e.ends_with(".lance-reserved"));
-                TableStatus {
-                    exists,
-                    is_deregistered,
-                    has_reserved_file,
+    /// `RefConflict` is intentionally not handled here: create-time duplicates are rejected by
+    /// the existence pre-check before `create_branch` runs, and delete maps its own `RefConflict`
+    /// (branch still has dependents) inline.
+    fn map_branch_error(
+        err: lance_core::Error,
+        branch: &str,
+        table_uri: &str,
+    ) -> lance_core::Error {
+        match err {
+            lance_core::Error::RefNotFound { .. } => NamespaceError::TableBranchNotFound {
+                message: format!("branch '{}' for table at '{}'", branch, table_uri),
+            }
+            .into(),
+            lance_core::Error::InvalidRef { message } => NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!("invalid branch '{}': {}", branch, message),
+            }
+            .into(),
+            lance_core::Error::VersionNotFound { message } => {
+                NamespaceError::TableVersionNotFound {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "source version for branch '{}' not found for table at '{}': {}",
+                        branch, table_uri, message
+                    ),
                 }
+                .into()
             }
-            Err(_) => TableStatus {
-                exists: false,
-                is_deregistered: false,
-                has_reserved_file: false,
-            },
+            other => NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "branch operation failed for branch '{}' on table at '{}': {}",
+                    branch, table_uri, other
+                ),
+            }
+            .into(),
         }
     }
 
-    /// Atomically create a marker file using put_if_not_exists semantics.
+    /// Map a Lance error from a table mutation (update / delete / merge-insert) into the most
+    /// specific `NamespaceError` we can determine from the underlying variant.
     ///
-    /// This uses `PutMode::Create` which will fail if the file already exists,
-    /// providing atomic creation semantics to avoid race conditions.
+    /// Collapsing every failure into `InvalidInput`/`Internal` hides the real cause from callers;
+    /// mapping per variant lets them branch on a meaningful error code (e.g. retry on
+    /// `ConcurrentModification`, surface `TableNotFound` to the user).
     ///
-    /// Returns Ok(()) if the file was created successfully.
-    /// Returns Err with appropriate message if the file already exists or other error.
-    async fn put_marker_file_atomic(
-        &self,
-        path: &Path,
-        file_description: &str,
-    ) -> std::result::Result<(), String> {
-        let put_opts = PutOptions {
-            mode: PutMode::Create,
-            ..Default::default()
+    /// Commit-conflict variants are mapped consistently with `convert_lance_commit_error` in
+    /// `manifest.rs`: `CommitConflict` (retries exhausted, safe to retry) -> `Throttling`, while
+    /// semantic conflicts (`TooMuchWriteContention` / `RetryableCommitConflict` /
+    /// `IncompatibleTransaction` / `VersionConflict`) -> `ConcurrentModification`.
+    fn map_mutation_error(
+        err: lance_core::Error,
+        operation: &str,
+        table_uri: &str,
+    ) -> lance_core::Error {
+        let detail = err.to_string();
+        let ns_err = match &err {
+            lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }
+            | lance_core::Error::Unprocessable { .. }
+            | lance_core::Error::InvalidRef { .. } => NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Invalid input for {} on table at '{}': {}",
+                    operation, table_uri, detail
+                ),
+            },
+            lance_core::Error::NotFound { .. } | lance_core::Error::DatasetNotFound { .. } => {
+                NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Table at '{}' not found while running {}: {}",
+                        table_uri, operation, detail
+                    ),
+                }
+            }
+            lance_core::Error::SchemaMismatch { .. } | lance_core::Error::Schema { .. } => {
+                NamespaceError::TableSchemaValidationError {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Schema validation failed for {} on table at '{}': {}",
+                        operation, table_uri, detail
+                    ),
+                }
+            }
+            // `CommitConflict` means the version-collision retries were exhausted; the operation
+            // is safe to retry as-is, so surface it as `Throttling` (kept aligned with
+            // `convert_lance_commit_error` in manifest.rs).
+            lance_core::Error::CommitConflict { .. } => NamespaceError::Throttling {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Too many concurrent writes for {} on table at '{}', please retry later: {}",
+                    operation, table_uri, detail
+                ),
+            },
+            // Semantic conflicts: a concurrent change is incompatible with this one and retrying
+            // as-is would not help, so surface them as `ConcurrentModification` (kept aligned with
+            // `convert_lance_commit_error` in manifest.rs).
+            lance_core::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. }
+            | lance_core::Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }
+            | lance_core::Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. }
+            | lance_core::Error::VersionConflict { .. } => NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Concurrent modification detected for {} on table at '{}': {}",
+                    operation, table_uri, detail
+                ),
+            },
+            lance_core::Error::NotSupported { .. } => NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: format!(
+                    "{} is not supported on table at '{}': {}",
+                    operation, table_uri, detail
+                ),
+            },
+            _ => NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to run {} on table at '{}': {}",
+                    operation, table_uri, detail
+                ),
+            },
         };
+        ns_err.into()
+    }
 
-        match self
-            .object_store
-            .inner
-            .put_opts(path, bytes::Bytes::new().into(), put_opts)
-            .await
-        {
-            Ok(_) => Ok(()),
-            Err(ObjectStoreError::AlreadyExists { .. })
-            | Err(ObjectStoreError::Precondition { .. }) => {
-                Err(format!("{} already exists", file_description))
-            }
-            Err(e) => Err(format!("Failed to create {}: {}", file_description, e)),
-        }
+    async fn table_has_actual_manifests(&self, table_name: &str) -> Result<bool> {
+        manifest::ManifestNamespace::path_has_actual_manifests(
+            &self.object_store,
+            &self.table_path(table_name),
+        )
+        .await
     }
 
-    /// Get storage options for a table, using credential vending if configured.
-    ///
-    /// If credential vendor properties are configured and the table location matches
-    /// a supported cloud provider, this will create an appropriate vendor and vend
-    /// temporary credentials scoped to the table location. Otherwise, returns the
-    /// static storage options.
-    ///
-    /// The vendor type is auto-selected based on the table URI:
-    /// - `s3://` locations use AWS STS AssumeRole
-    /// - `gs://` locations use GCP OAuth2 tokens
-    /// - `az://` locations use Azure SAS tokens
-    ///
-    /// The permission level (Read, Write, Admin) is configured at namespace
-    /// initialization time via the `credential_vendor_permission` property.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `table_uri` - The full URI of the table
-    /// * `identity` - Optional identity from the request for identity-based credential vending
-    async fn get_storage_options_for_table(
+    async fn filter_declared_tables(
         &self,
-        table_uri: &str,
-        identity: Option<&Identity>,
-    ) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
-        if let Some(ref vendor) = self.credential_vendor {
-            let vended = vendor.vend_credentials(table_uri, identity).await?;
-            return Ok(Some(vended.storage_options));
+        tables: Vec<String>,
+        include_declared: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+        if include_declared {
+            return Ok(tables);
+        }
+
+        let mut stream = futures::stream::iter(tables.into_iter().map(|table_name| async move {
+            // `include_declared=false` is an explicit opt-in. We still pay one `_versions/` probe
+            // per table here so declared-state is derived from actual manifests. This is linear in
+            // the total number of listed tables, but we probe a bounded number concurrently.
+            if self.table_has_actual_manifests(&table_name).await? {
+                Ok::<Option<String>, Error>(Some(table_name))
+            } else {
+                Ok::<Option<String>, Error>(None)
+            }
+        }))
+        .buffered(manifest::DECLARED_FILTER_CONCURRENCY);
+
+        let mut filtered = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(result) = stream.next().await {
+            if let Some(table_name) = result? {
+                filtered.push(table_name);
+            }
         }
-        Ok(self.storage_options.clone())
+        Ok(filtered)
     }
 
-    /// Migrate directory-based tables to the manifest.
-    ///
-    /// This is a one-time migration operation that:
-    /// 1. Scans the directory for existing `.lance` tables
-    /// 2. Registers any unmigrated tables in the manifest
-    /// 3. Returns the count of tables that were migrated
-    ///
-    /// This method is safe to run multiple times - it will skip tables that are already
-    /// registered in the manifest.
-    ///
-    /// # Usage
-    ///
-    /// After creating tables in directory-only mode or dual mode, you can migrate them
-    /// to the manifest to enable manifest-only mode:
-    ///
-    /// ```no_run
-    /// # use lance_namespace_impls::DirectoryNamespaceBuilder;
-    /// # async fn example() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
-    /// // Create namespace with dual mode (manifest + directory listing)
-    /// let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new("/path/to/data")
-    ///     .manifest_enabled(true)
-    ///     .dir_listing_enabled(true)
-    ///     .build()
-    ///     .await?;
-    ///
-    /// // ... tables are created and used ...
-    ///
-    /// // Migrate existing directory tables to manifest
-    /// let migrated_count = namespace.migrate().await?;
-    /// println!("Migrated {} tables", migrated_count);
-    ///
-    /// // Now you can disable directory listing for better performance:
-    /// // (requires rebuilding the namespace)
-    /// let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new("/path/to/data")
-    ///     .manifest_enabled(true)
-    ///     .dir_listing_enabled(false)  // All tables now in manifest
-    ///     .build()
-    ///     .await?;
-    /// # Ok(())
-    /// # }
-    /// ```
-    ///
-    /// # Returns
-    ///
-    /// Returns the number of tables that were migrated to the manifest.
-    ///
-    /// # Errors
-    ///
-    /// Returns an error if:
-    /// - Manifest is not enabled
-    /// - Directory listing fails
-    /// - Manifest registration fails
-    pub async fn migrate(&self) -> Result<usize> {
-        // We only care about tables in the root namespace
-        let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns else {
-            return Ok(0); // No manifest, nothing to migrate
+    fn ipc_reader_from_request_data(
+        request_data: &Bytes,
+        operation: &str,
+    ) -> Result<(
+        Box<dyn arrow::record_batch::RecordBatchReader + Send>,
+        usize,
+    )> {
+        if request_data.is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Request data (Arrow IPC stream) is required for {}",
+                    operation
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let cursor = Cursor::new(request_data.as_ref());
+        let stream_reader =
+            StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None).map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!("Invalid Arrow IPC stream: {}", e),
+            })?;
+        let arrow_schema = stream_reader.schema();
+
+        let mut num_rows = 0usize;
+        let mut batches = Vec::new();
+        for batch_result in stream_reader {
+            let batch = batch_result.map_err(|e| NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to read batch from IPC stream: {}", e),
+            })?;
+            num_rows += batch.num_rows();
+            batches.push(batch);
+        }
+
+        let reader: Box<dyn arrow::record_batch::RecordBatchReader + Send> = if batches.is_empty() {
+            let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::new_empty(arrow_schema.clone());
+            Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], arrow_schema))
+        } else {
+            let batch_results: Vec<_> = batches.into_iter().map(Ok).collect();
+            Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(batch_results, arrow_schema))
         };
 
-        // Get all table locations already in the manifest
-        let manifest_locations = manifest_ns.list_manifest_table_locations().await?;
+        Ok((reader, num_rows))
+    }
 
-        // Get all tables from directory
-        let dir_tables = self.list_directory_tables().await?;
+    async fn table_uri_has_actual_manifests(&self, table_uri: &str) -> Result<bool> {
+        let table_path = self.object_store_path_from_uri(table_uri)?;
+        manifest::ManifestNamespace::path_has_actual_manifests(&self.object_store, &table_path)
+            .await
+    }
 
-        // Register each directory table that doesn't have an overlapping location
-        // If a directory name already exists in the manifest,
-        // that means the table must have already been migrated or created
-        // in the manifest, so we can skip it.
-        let mut migrated_count = 0;
-        for table_name in dir_tables {
-            // For root namespace tables, the directory name is "table_name.lance"
-            let dir_name = format!("{}.lance", table_name);
-            if !manifest_locations.contains(&dir_name) {
-                manifest_ns.register_table(&table_name, dir_name).await?;
-                migrated_count += 1;
+    fn object_store_path_from_uri(&self, uri: &str) -> Result<Path> {
+        let registry = self
+            .session
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|session| session.store_registry())
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()));
+        ObjectStore::extract_path_from_uri(registry, uri)
+    }
+
+    /// Normalize and validate a branch selector: `None`, empty, and `main` mean
+    /// the main branch; any other name is validated with lance's
+    /// `check_valid_branch` (lance skips this on the open path) so it cannot
+    /// escape the table root via `..`.
+    fn normalized_branch(branch: Option<&str>) -> Result<Option<&str>> {
+        match branch.filter(|b| !b.is_empty() && *b != "main") {
+            Some(branch) => {
+                check_valid_branch(branch).map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!("invalid branch name '{}': {}", branch, e),
+                    })
+                })?;
+                Ok(Some(branch))
             }
+            None => Ok(None),
         }
+    }
 
-        Ok(migrated_count)
+    async fn open_validated_branch(&self, table_uri: &str, branch: &str) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        let dataset = self
+            .configured_builder(table_uri)
+            .with_branch(branch, None)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                let message = format!(
+                    "branch '{}' not found for table at '{}': {}",
+                    branch, table_uri, e
+                );
+                Self::map_open_error(e, NamespaceError::TableNotFound { message })
+            })?;
+        dataset.branches().get(branch).await.map_err(|e| {
+            Self::map_open_error(
+                e,
+                NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                    message: format!("branch '{}' not found for table at '{}'", branch, table_uri),
+                },
+            )
+        })?;
+        Ok(dataset)
     }
-}
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl LanceNamespace for DirectoryNamespace {
-    async fn list_namespaces(
+    async fn resolve_branch_location(&self, table_uri: &str, branch: &str) -> Result<String> {
+        Ok(self
+            .open_validated_branch(table_uri, branch)
+            .await?
+            .branch_location()
+            .uri)
+    }
+
+    /// Resolves a branch to its `(uri, object-store path, parent_version)` for
+    /// `create_table_version`.
+    ///
+    /// `BranchContents` is the source of truth, so check the ref first: a
+    /// registered branch commits directly and returns its `parent_version` for
+    /// empty-chain CAS. With no ref, accept the commit only on an empty chain
+    /// (the `create_branch` bootstrap, whose first commit precedes its ref) and
+    /// return `parent_version = None`; reject a chain that already holds
+    /// committed versions as a zombie.
+    async fn resolve_branch_for_commit(
         &self,
-        request: ListNamespacesRequest,
-    ) -> Result<ListNamespacesResponse> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            return manifest_ns.list_namespaces(request).await;
+        table_uri: &str,
+        branch: &str,
+    ) -> Result<(String, Path, Option<u64>)> {
+        let main = self
+            .configured_builder(table_uri)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                let message = format!("table at '{}' not found: {}", table_uri, e);
+                Self::map_open_error(e, NamespaceError::TableNotFound { message })
+            })?;
+        let branch_location = main.branch_location().find_branch(Some(branch))?;
+        match main.branches().get(branch).await {
+            Ok(contents) => Ok((
+                branch_location.uri,
+                branch_location.path,
+                Some(contents.parent_version),
+            )),
+            Err(lance_core::Error::RefNotFound { .. }) => {
+                if self
+                    .branch_has_committed_versions(&branch_location.path)
+                    .await?
+                {
+                    return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "branch '{}' not found for table at '{}'",
+                            branch, table_uri
+                        ),
+                    }
+                    .into());
+                }
+                Ok((branch_location.uri, branch_location.path, None))
+            }
+            Err(e) => Err(e),
         }
+    }
 
-        Self::validate_root_namespace_id(&request.id)?;
-        Ok(ListNamespacesResponse::new(vec![]))
+    async fn branch_has_committed_versions(&self, branch_path: &Path) -> Result<bool> {
+        Ok(!self
+            .list_versions_under(branch_path, false, Some(1))
+            .await?
+            .is_empty())
     }
 
-    async fn describe_namespace(
-        &self,
-        request: DescribeNamespaceRequest,
-    ) -> Result<DescribeNamespaceResponse> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            return manifest_ns.describe_namespace(request).await;
+    fn validate_dir_only_properties(
+        properties: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+        operation: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // Dir-only mode has no metadata catalog, so non-empty table properties would be accepted
+        // and then lost. Reject them instead. Request-level storage options are different: they
+        // directly affect the current write and remain supported in dir-only mode.
+        if properties.is_some_and(|properties| !properties.is_empty()) {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: format!(
+                    "{} with non-empty table properties requires manifest_enabled=true",
+                    operation
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
-
-        Self::validate_root_namespace_id(&request.id)?;
-        #[allow(clippy::needless_update)]
-        Ok(DescribeNamespaceResponse {
-            properties: Some(HashMap::new()),
-            ..Default::default()
-        })
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    async fn create_namespace(
+    async fn write_reader_to_table(
         &self,
-        request: CreateNamespaceRequest,
-    ) -> Result<CreateNamespaceResponse> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            return manifest_ns.create_namespace(request).await;
+        table_uri: &str,
+        reader: Box<dyn arrow::record_batch::RecordBatchReader + Send>,
+        mode: WriteMode,
+        extra_storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+    ) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        // Insert and merge-insert request models do not carry request-level storage options,
+        // so these writes intentionally use the namespace-level storage options only.
+        let mut merged_storage_options = self.storage_options.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+        if let Some(extra_storage_options) = extra_storage_options {
+            merged_storage_options.extend(extra_storage_options);
         }
+        let store_params = (!merged_storage_options.is_empty()).then(|| ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
+                lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                    merged_storage_options,
+                ),
+            )),
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
 
-        if request.id.is_none() || request.id.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: "Root namespace already exists and cannot be created".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
-        }
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            mode,
+            store_params,
+            session: self.session.clone(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
 
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "Child namespaces are only supported when manifest mode is enabled".into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, table_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to write table at '{}': {}", table_uri, e),
+            })?;
+
+        Ok(dataset)
     }
 
-    async fn drop_namespace(&self, request: DropNamespaceRequest) -> Result<DropNamespaceResponse> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            return manifest_ns.drop_namespace(request).await;
-        }
+    /// Logical table version parsed from a manifest filename, or `None` for
+    /// non-manifest / detached entries. Delegates to lance's scheme detection so
+    /// version listing and deletion stay consistent with the on-disk format.
+    fn manifest_version_from_filename(filename: &str) -> Option<u64> {
+        ManifestNamingScheme::detect_scheme(filename)?.parse_version(filename)
+    }
 
-        if request.id.is_none() || request.id.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: "Root namespace cannot be dropped".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+    /// Build a successful `CreateTableVersionResponse` from an existing final manifest.
+    fn create_table_version_response(
+        version: u64,
+        final_path: &Path,
+        final_meta: &ObjectMeta,
+    ) -> CreateTableVersionResponse {
+        CreateTableVersionResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            version: Some(Box::new(TableVersion {
+                version: version as i64,
+                manifest_path: final_path.to_string(),
+                manifest_size: Some(final_meta.size as i64),
+                e_tag: final_meta.e_tag.clone(),
+                timestamp_millis: None,
+                metadata: None,
+            })),
+            ..Default::default()
         }
-
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "Child namespaces are only supported when manifest mode is enabled".into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })
     }
 
-    async fn namespace_exists(&self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            return manifest_ns.namespace_exists(request).await;
+    /// Whether the staging blob matches the already-published version blob.
+    ///
+    /// Used for idempotent retries of `create_table_version`. Object-store
+    /// `e_tag` is opaque metadata (not a validated content hash) and may also
+    /// change across Create/rename materialize, so it is never used for
+    /// identity. Size mismatch is a cheap negative check; byte equality is the
+    /// durable success condition.
+    async fn staging_matches_final_manifest(
+        &self,
+        staging_path: &Path,
+        final_path: &Path,
+        final_meta: &ObjectMeta,
+        request_manifest_size: Option<i64>,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        if let Some(size) = request_manifest_size
+            && size != final_meta.size as i64
+        {
+            return Ok(false);
         }
 
-        if request.id.is_none() || request.id.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty() {
-            return Ok(());
-        }
+        let staging_bytes = match self.object_store.inner.get(staging_path).await {
+            Ok(r) => r.bytes().await.map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to read staging manifest at '{}': {}",
+                        staging_path, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?,
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => return Ok(false),
+            Err(e) => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to read staging manifest at '{}': {}",
+                        staging_path, e
+                    ),
+                }));
+            }
+        };
 
-        Err(Error::Namespace {
-            source: "Child namespaces are only supported when manifest mode is enabled".into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })
+        let final_bytes = self
+            .object_store
+            .inner
+            .get(final_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to read existing version manifest at '{}': {}",
+                        final_path, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to read existing version manifest bytes at '{}': {}",
+                        final_path, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+
+        Ok(staging_bytes.as_ref() == final_bytes.as_ref())
     }
 
-    async fn list_tables(&self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> Result<ListTablesResponse> {
-        // Validate that namespace ID is provided
-        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Namespace ID is required".into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })?;
+    /// Idempotent success or conflict when the target version path already exists.
+    async fn resolve_existing_table_version(
+        &self,
+        args: ExistingTableVersionResolve<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableVersionResponse> {
+        if self
+            .staging_matches_final_manifest(
+                args.staging_path,
+                args.final_path,
+                args.final_meta,
+                args.request_manifest_size,
+            )
+            .await?
+        {
+            // Best-effort cleanup of a retry's staging blob.
+            if let Err(e) = self.object_store.inner.delete(args.staging_path).await {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Failed to delete staging manifest at '{}': {:?}",
+                    args.staging_path,
+                    e
+                );
+            }
+            return Ok(Self::create_table_version_response(
+                args.version,
+                args.final_path,
+                args.final_meta,
+            ));
+        }
 
-        // For child namespaces, always delegate to manifest (if enabled)
-        if !namespace_id.is_empty() {
-            if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-                return manifest_ns.list_tables(request).await;
+        Err(lance_core::Error::from(
+            NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Version {} already exists for table at '{}' with different content",
+                    args.version, args.table_uri
+                ),
+            },
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Enforce version CAS: requested version must be `latest + 1` (or bootstrap).
+    ///
+    /// Empty-chain bootstrap:
+    /// - main must start at v1
+    /// - a registered branch must start at `BranchContents.parent_version` (the
+    ///   shallow-clone fork version, which may be > 1)
+    /// - an unregistered branch (create_branch phase-1, ref not written yet)
+    ///   accepts the requested version because `parent_version` is not known yet
+    async fn enforce_create_table_version_cas(
+        &self,
+        table_path: &Path,
+        version: u64,
+        table_uri: &str,
+        is_branch: bool,
+        branch_parent_version: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let latest = self.list_versions_under(table_path, true, Some(1)).await?;
+        let expected = match latest.first() {
+            Some(v) => (v.version as u64).checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Version overflow computing next version for table at '{}': \
+                             latest version {} cannot advance",
+                        table_uri, v.version
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?,
+            None => {
+                if is_branch {
+                    // Prefer BranchContents.parent_version when the ref exists so a
+                    // branch forked at v5 cannot bootstrap at an arbitrary version.
+                    match branch_parent_version {
+                        Some(parent_version) => parent_version,
+                        None => version,
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    1
+                }
             }
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "Child namespaces are only supported when manifest mode is enabled".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+        };
+        if version != expected {
+            let latest_display = latest
+                .first()
+                .map(|v| v.version.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| "none".to_string());
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::from(
+                NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Version CAS failed for table at '{}': requested {}, expected {} (latest {})",
+                        table_uri, version, expected, latest_display
+                    ),
+                },
+            ));
         }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-        // When only manifest is enabled (no directory listing), delegate directly to manifest
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            if !self.dir_listing_enabled {
-                return manifest_ns.list_tables(request).await;
+    /// Materialize staging → final with Create semantics only (never overwrite).
+    async fn materialize_version_manifest_create(
+        &self,
+        staging_path: &Path,
+        final_path: &Path,
+        staging_manifest_path: &str,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<(), ObjectStoreError> {
+        match self
+            .object_store
+            .inner
+            .copy_if_not_exists(staging_path, final_path)
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(()) => Ok(()),
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotImplemented { .. })
+            | Err(ObjectStoreError::NotSupported { .. }) => {
+                let manifest_data = self
+                    .object_store
+                    .inner
+                    .get(staging_path)
+                    .await?
+                    .bytes()
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+                        store: "DirectoryNamespace",
+                        source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                            "Failed to read staging manifest bytes at '{}': {}",
+                            staging_manifest_path, e
+                        ))),
+                    })?;
+                self.object_store
+                    .inner
+                    .put_opts(
+                        final_path,
+                        manifest_data.into(),
+                        PutOptions {
+                            mode: PutMode::Create,
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        },
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .map(|_| ())
             }
+            Err(e) => Err(e),
         }
+    }
 
-        // When both manifest and directory listing are enabled, we need to merge and deduplicate
-        let mut tables = if self.manifest_ns.is_some() && self.dir_listing_enabled {
-            // Get all manifest table locations (for deduplication)
-            let manifest_locations = if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-                manifest_ns.list_manifest_table_locations().await?
-            } else {
-                std::collections::HashSet::new()
-            };
+    async fn list_table_versions_from_storage(
+        &self,
+        table_uri: &str,
+        descending: bool,
+        limit: Option<i32>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<TableVersion>> {
+        let table_path = self.object_store_path_from_uri(table_uri)?;
+        self.list_versions_under(&table_path, descending, limit)
+            .await
+    }
 
-            // Get all manifest tables (without pagination for merging)
-            let mut manifest_request = request.clone();
-            manifest_request.limit = None;
-            manifest_request.page_token = None;
-            let manifest_tables = if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-                let manifest_response = manifest_ns.list_tables(manifest_request).await?;
-                manifest_response.tables
+    /// List committed manifest versions under `table_path/_versions/`.
+    /// `table_path` must be an object-store `Path`; converting a URI to a path
+    /// can miss manifests on Windows.
+    async fn list_versions_under(
+        &self,
+        table_path: &Path,
+        descending: bool,
+        limit: Option<i32>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<TableVersion>> {
+        let versions_dir = table_path.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR);
+        let mut stream = self.object_store.read_dir_all(&versions_dir, None);
+        let list_err = |e: lance_core::Error| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to list manifest files under '{}': {}",
+                    versions_dir, e
+                ),
+            })
+        };
+
+        let limit = limit
+            .filter(|limit| *limit >= 0)
+            .map(|limit| limit as usize);
+
+        let mut table_versions: Vec<TableVersion> = Vec::new();
+        let push_meta = |meta: ObjectMeta, out: &mut Vec<TableVersion>| -> bool {
+            let Some(filename) = meta.location.filename() else {
+                return false;
+            };
+            let Some(actual_version) = Self::manifest_version_from_filename(filename) else {
+                return false;
+            };
+            out.push(TableVersion {
+                version: actual_version as i64,
+                manifest_path: meta.location.to_string(),
+                manifest_size: Some(meta.size as i64),
+                e_tag: meta.e_tag,
+                timestamp_millis: Some(meta.last_modified.timestamp_millis()),
+                metadata: None,
+            });
+            true
+        };
+
+        // Detect the naming scheme from the first committed manifest, not the
+        // first raw entry: retained staging blobs (`{manifest}-<uuid>`) sort
+        // ahead of it and would misclassify the stream as non-V2. V2 filenames
+        // are a fixed 29 chars (`{u64::MAX - version:020}.manifest`).
+        let mut first_manifest_filename_len = None;
+        while first_manifest_filename_len.is_none() {
+            match stream.try_next().await.map_err(list_err)? {
+                Some(meta) => {
+                    let filename_len = meta.location.filename().map(|f| f.len());
+                    if push_meta(meta, &mut table_versions) {
+                        first_manifest_filename_len = filename_len;
+                    }
+                }
+                None => break,
+            }
+        }
+        let is_v2_naming = first_manifest_filename_len == Some(29);
+
+        // V2 filenames invert the version, so a lexically-ordered stream
+        // arrives newest-first; when that matches the requested order, stop
+        // after `limit` manifests instead of paginating the whole directory
+        // (the `get_latest_version` hot path: descending, limit 1).
+        let list_is_ordered = self.object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered;
+        let stream_matches_request = list_is_ordered
+            && if is_v2_naming {
+                descending
             } else {
-                vec![]
+                !descending
             };
+        let early_stop_at = limit.filter(|_| stream_matches_request);
 
-            // Start with all manifest table names
-            // Add directory tables that aren't already in the manifest (by location)
-            let mut all_tables: Vec<String> = manifest_tables;
-            let dir_tables = self.list_directory_tables().await?;
-            for table_name in dir_tables {
-                // Check if this table's location is already in the manifest
-                // Manifest stores full URIs, so we need to check both formats
-                let full_location = format!("{}/{}.lance", self.root, table_name);
-                let relative_location = format!("{}.lance", table_name);
-                if !manifest_locations.contains(&full_location)
-                    && !manifest_locations.contains(&relative_location)
-                {
-                    all_tables.push(table_name);
+        while early_stop_at.is_none_or(|n| table_versions.len() < n) {
+            match stream.try_next().await.map_err(list_err)? {
+                Some(meta) => {
+                    push_meta(meta, &mut table_versions);
                 }
+                None => break,
             }
+        }
 
-            all_tables
+        // Scheme detection pushes the first manifest regardless of the limit,
+        // so re-enforce the limit on both paths (covers limit=0).
+        if let Some(n) = early_stop_at {
+            table_versions.truncate(n);
         } else {
-            self.list_directory_tables().await?
-        };
+            if descending {
+                table_versions.sort_by_key(|v| std::cmp::Reverse(v.version));
+            } else {
+                table_versions.sort_by_key(|v| v.version);
+            }
+            if let Some(limit) = limit {
+                table_versions.truncate(limit);
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Apply sorting and pagination
-        Self::apply_pagination(&mut tables, request.page_token, request.limit);
-        let response = ListTablesResponse::new(tables);
-        Ok(response)
+        Ok(table_versions)
     }
 
-    async fn describe_table(&self, request: DescribeTableRequest) -> Result<DescribeTableResponse> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
+    /// Internal describe_table implementation that doesn't record metrics.
+    /// Used by both the public describe_table (which records metrics) and
+    /// internal callers like resolve_table_location (which shouldn't).
+    async fn describe_table_impl(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTableRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DescribeTableResponse> {
+        let is_root_level = request.id.as_ref().is_some_and(|id| id.len() == 1);
+        let is_child_table = request.id.as_ref().is_some_and(|id| id.len() > 1);
+        let skip_manifest_for_root = self.dir_listing_enabled
+            && is_root_level
+            && !self.dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled;
+        // Self-heal the manifest wherever it can be authoritative: a child table
+        // (no dir-listing fallback), a manifest-only namespace, or migration mode
+        // (manifest-first -- it can hold registered_table -> external .lance
+        // aliases that dir-listing cannot resolve, so a reader built before
+        // __manifest must re-probe to see them). The bypass -- skipping the probe
+        // -- applies ONLY to migration-disabled directory-backed root reads,
+        // which are served entirely from the directory listing.
+        if is_child_table
+            || !self.dir_listing_enabled
+            || self.dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled
+        {
+            self.ensure_read_manifest().await?;
+        }
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_read()
+            && !skip_manifest_for_root
+        {
             match manifest_ns.describe_table(request.clone()).await {
                 Ok(mut response) => {
-                    // Only apply identity-based credential vending when explicitly requested
-                    if request.vend_credentials == Some(true) && self.credential_vendor.is_some() {
-                        if let Some(ref table_uri) = response.table_uri {
-                            let identity = request.identity.as_deref();
-                            response.storage_options = self
-                                .get_storage_options_for_table(table_uri, identity)
-                                .await?;
-                        }
-                    } else if request.vend_credentials == Some(false) {
-                        response.storage_options = None;
+                    if let Some(ref table_uri) = response.table_uri {
+                        // For backwards compatibility, only skip vending credentials when explicitly set to false
+                        let vend = request.vend_credentials.unwrap_or(true);
+                        let identity = request.identity.as_deref();
+                        response.storage_options = self
+                            .get_storage_options_for_table(table_uri, vend, identity)
+                            .await?;
+                    }
+                    // Set managed_versioning flag when table_version_tracking_enabled
+                    if self.table_version_tracking_enabled {
+                        response.managed_versioning = Some(true);
                     }
                     return Ok(response);
                 }
-                Err(_)
-                    if self.dir_listing_enabled
-                        && request.id.as_ref().is_some_and(|id| id.len() == 1) =>
-                {
-                    // Fall through to directory check only for single-level IDs
+                Err(e) if manifest_feature_flags::is_incompatible_manifest_error(&e) => {
+                    // An incompatible manifest must surface "please upgrade"
+                    // rather than degrading to a directory-listing view.
+                    return Err(e);
+                }
+                Err(e) if self.dir_listing_enabled && is_root_level => {
+                    // Only a genuinely-absent table (e.g. an unmigrated on-disk
+                    // table) may fall through to the directory check; any other
+                    // manifest error must propagate rather than be read as missing.
+                    if !Self::is_manifest_table_absent_error(&e) {
+                        return Err(Self::classify_storage_error(e));
+                    }
                 }
                 Err(e) => return Err(e),
             }
         }
+        if is_child_table {
+            return Err(self.child_namespace_requires_manifest_error());
+        }
 
         let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let table_id = Self::format_table_id_from_request(&request.id);
+        if !self.dir_listing_enabled {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound { message: table_id }.into());
+        }
+
         let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
 
         // Atomically check table existence and deregistration status
-        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await;
+        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await?;
 
         if !status.exists {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table does not exist: {}", table_name).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: table_id.clone(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         if status.is_deregistered {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table is deregistered: {}", table_name).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: format!("Table is deregistered: {}", table_id),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let load_detailed_metadata = request.load_detailed_metadata.unwrap_or(false);
+        let should_check_declared =
+            load_detailed_metadata || request.check_declared.unwrap_or(false);
         // For backwards compatibility, only skip vending credentials when explicitly set to false
         let vend_credentials = request.vend_credentials.unwrap_or(true);
         let identity = request.identity.as_deref();
+        let is_only_declared = if should_check_declared {
+            if status.has_reserved_file {
+                Some(!self.table_has_actual_manifests(&table_name).await?)
+            } else {
+                Some(false)
+            }
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
 
-        // If not loading detailed metadata, return minimal response with just location
         if !load_detailed_metadata {
-            let storage_options = if vend_credentials {
-                self.get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, identity)
-                    .await?
-            } else {
-                None
-            };
+            let storage_options = self
+                .get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, vend_credentials, identity)
+                .await?;
+            return Ok(DescribeTableResponse {
+                table: Some(table_name),
+                namespace: request.id.as_ref().map(|id| {
+                    if id.len() > 1 {
+                        id[..id.len() - 1].to_vec()
+                    } else {
+                        vec![]
+                    }
+                }),
+                location: Some(table_uri.clone()),
+                table_uri: Some(table_uri),
+                storage_options,
+                is_only_declared,
+                managed_versioning: if self.table_version_tracking_enabled {
+                    Some(true)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                },
+                ..Default::default()
+            });
+        }
+
+        if is_only_declared == Some(true) {
+            let storage_options = self
+                .get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, vend_credentials, identity)
+                .await?;
             return Ok(DescribeTableResponse {
                 table: Some(table_name),
                 namespace: request.id.as_ref().map(|id| {
@@ -1080,28 +2226,51 @@ impl LanceNamespace for DirectoryNamespace {
                 location: Some(table_uri.clone()),
                 table_uri: Some(table_uri),
                 storage_options,
+                is_only_declared,
+                managed_versioning: if self.table_version_tracking_enabled {
+                    Some(true)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                },
                 ..Default::default()
             });
         }
 
         // Try to load the dataset to get real information
-        match Dataset::open(&table_uri).await {
+        // Use DatasetBuilder with storage options to support S3 with custom endpoints
+        let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&table_uri);
+        if let Some(opts) = &self.storage_options {
+            builder = builder.with_storage_options(opts.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(sess) = &self.session {
+            builder = builder.with_session(sess.clone());
+        }
+        match builder.load().await {
             Ok(mut dataset) => {
                 // If a specific version is requested, checkout that version
                 if let Some(requested_version) = request.version {
-                    dataset = dataset.checkout_version(requested_version as u64).await?;
+                    dataset = dataset
+                        .checkout_version(requested_version as u64)
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            let message = format!(
+                                "Version {} not found for table '{}': {}",
+                                requested_version, table_name, e
+                            );
+                            Self::map_open_error(
+                                e,
+                                NamespaceError::TableVersionNotFound { message },
+                            )
+                        })?;
                 }
 
                 let version_info = dataset.version();
                 let lance_schema = dataset.schema();
                 let arrow_schema: arrow_schema::Schema = lance_schema.into();
                 let json_schema = arrow_schema_to_json(&arrow_schema)?;
-                let storage_options = if vend_credentials {
-                    self.get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, identity)
-                        .await?
-                } else {
-                    None
-                };
+                let storage_options = self
+                    .get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, vend_credentials, identity)
+                    .await?;
 
                 // Convert BTreeMap to HashMap for the response
                 let metadata: std::collections::HashMap<String, String> =
@@ -1122,18 +2291,22 @@ impl LanceNamespace for DirectoryNamespace {
                     schema: Some(Box::new(json_schema)),
                     storage_options,
                     metadata: Some(metadata),
+                    is_only_declared,
+                    managed_versioning: if self.table_version_tracking_enabled {
+                        Some(true)
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    },
                     ..Default::default()
                 })
             }
             Err(err) => {
-                // Use the reserved file status from the atomic check
-                if status.has_reserved_file {
-                    let storage_options = if vend_credentials {
-                        self.get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, identity)
-                            .await?
-                    } else {
-                        None
-                    };
+                if manifest::ManifestNamespace::is_not_found_load_error(&err)
+                    && is_only_declared == Some(true)
+                {
+                    let storage_options = self
+                        .get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, vend_credentials, identity)
+                        .await?;
                     Ok(DescribeTableResponse {
                         table: Some(table_name),
                         namespace: request.id.as_ref().map(|id| {
@@ -1146,2411 +2319,14146 @@ impl LanceNamespace for DirectoryNamespace {
                         location: Some(table_uri.clone()),
                         table_uri: Some(table_uri),
                         storage_options,
+                        is_only_declared,
+                        managed_versioning: if self.table_version_tracking_enabled {
+                            Some(true)
+                        } else {
+                            None
+                        },
                         ..Default::default()
                     })
                 } else {
-                    Err(Error::Namespace {
-                        source: format!(
+                    Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
                             "Table directory exists but cannot load dataset {}: {:?}",
                             table_name, err
-                        )
-                        .into(),
-                        location: snafu::location!(),
-                    })
+                        ),
+                    }
+                    .into())
                 }
             }
         }
     }
 
-    async fn table_exists(&self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            match manifest_ns.table_exists(request.clone()).await {
-                Ok(()) => return Ok(()),
-                Err(_) if self.dir_listing_enabled => {
-                    // Fall through to directory check
-                }
-                Err(e) => return Err(e),
+    /// Build a `DatasetBuilder` for `table_uri` with this namespace's storage
+    /// options and session applied. Callers add version/branch scoping.
+    fn configured_builder(&self, table_uri: &str) -> DatasetBuilder {
+        let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(table_uri);
+        if let Some(opts) = &self.storage_options {
+            builder = builder.with_storage_options(opts.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(sess) = &self.session {
+            builder = builder.with_session(sess.clone());
+        }
+        builder
+    }
+
+    async fn load_dataset(
+        &self,
+        table_uri: &str,
+        version: Option<i64>,
+        operation: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        if let Some(version) = version
+            && version < 0
+        {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Table version for {} must be non-negative, got {}",
+                    operation, version
+                ),
             }
+            .into());
         }
 
-        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let builder = self.configured_builder(table_uri);
 
-        // Atomically check table existence and deregistration status
-        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await;
+        let dataset = builder.load().await.map_err(|e| {
+            let message = format!(
+                "Failed to open table at '{}' for {}: {}",
+                table_uri, operation, e
+            );
+            Self::map_open_error(e, NamespaceError::TableNotFound { message })
+        })?;
 
-        if !status.exists {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table does not exist: {}", table_name).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+        if let Some(version) = version {
+            return dataset.checkout_version(version as u64).await.map_err(|e| {
+                let message = format!(
+                    "Failed to checkout version {} for table at '{}' during {}: {}",
+                    version, table_uri, operation, e
+                );
+                Self::map_open_error(e, NamespaceError::TableVersionNotFound { message })
             });
         }
 
-        if status.is_deregistered {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table is deregistered: {}", table_name).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+        Ok(dataset)
+    }
+
+    fn parse_index_type(index_type: &str) -> Result<IndexType> {
+        match index_type.trim().to_ascii_uppercase().as_str() {
+            "SCALAR" | "BTREE" => Ok(IndexType::BTree),
+            "BITMAP" => Ok(IndexType::Bitmap),
+            "LABEL_LIST" | "LABELLIST" => Ok(IndexType::LabelList),
+            "INVERTED" | "FTS" => Ok(IndexType::Inverted),
+            "NGRAM" => Ok(IndexType::NGram),
+            "ZONEMAP" | "ZONE_MAP" => Ok(IndexType::ZoneMap),
+            "BLOOMFILTER" | "BLOOM_FILTER" => Ok(IndexType::BloomFilter),
+            "RTREE" | "R_TREE" => Ok(IndexType::RTree),
+            "VECTOR" | "IVF_PQ" => Ok(IndexType::IvfPq),
+            "IVF_FLAT" => Ok(IndexType::IvfFlat),
+            "IVF_SQ" => Ok(IndexType::IvfSq),
+            "IVF_RQ" => Ok(IndexType::IvfRq),
+            "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => Ok(IndexType::IvfHnswFlat),
+            "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => Ok(IndexType::IvfHnswSq),
+            "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => Ok(IndexType::IvfHnswPq),
+            other => Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!("Unsupported index_type '{}'", other),
+            }
+            .into()),
         }
+    }
 
-        Ok(())
+    fn parse_metric_type(distance_type: Option<&str>) -> Result<MetricType> {
+        let distance_type = distance_type.unwrap_or("l2");
+        MetricType::try_from(distance_type).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Unsupported distance_type '{}' for vector index: {}",
+                    distance_type, e
+                ),
+            })
+        })
     }
 
-    async fn drop_table(&self, request: DropTableRequest) -> Result<DropTableResponse> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            return manifest_ns.drop_table(request).await;
-        }
+    fn build_index_params(request: &CreateTableIndexRequest) -> Result<DirectoryIndexParams> {
+        let index_type = Self::parse_index_type(&request.index_type)?;
+        Ok(match index_type {
+            IndexType::BTree => DirectoryIndexParams::Scalar {
+                index_type,
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+            },
+            IndexType::Bitmap => DirectoryIndexParams::Scalar {
+                index_type,
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+            },
+            IndexType::LabelList => DirectoryIndexParams::Scalar {
+                index_type,
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::LabelList),
+            },
+            IndexType::NGram => DirectoryIndexParams::Scalar {
+                index_type,
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::NGram),
+            },
+            IndexType::ZoneMap => DirectoryIndexParams::Scalar {
+                index_type,
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+            },
+            IndexType::BloomFilter => DirectoryIndexParams::Scalar {
+                index_type,
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BloomFilter),
+            },
+            IndexType::RTree => DirectoryIndexParams::Scalar {
+                index_type,
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::RTree),
+            },
+            IndexType::Inverted => {
+                let mut params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+                if let Some(with_position) = request.with_position {
+                    params = params.with_position(with_position);
+                }
+                if let Some(base_tokenizer) = &request.base_tokenizer {
+                    params = params.base_tokenizer(base_tokenizer.clone());
+                }
+                if let Some(language) = &request.language {
+                    params = params.language(language)?;
+                }
+                if let Some(max_token_length) = request.max_token_length {
+                    if max_token_length < 0 {
+                        return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                            message: format!(
+                                "FTS max_token_length must be non-negative, got {}",
+                                max_token_length
+                            ),
+                        }
+                        .into());
+                    }
+                    params = params.max_token_length(Some(max_token_length as usize));
+                }
+                if let Some(lower_case) = request.lower_case {
+                    params = params.lower_case(lower_case);
+                }
+                if let Some(stem) = request.stem {
+                    params = params.stem(stem);
+                }
+                if let Some(remove_stop_words) = request.remove_stop_words {
+                    params = params.remove_stop_words(remove_stop_words);
+                }
+                if let Some(ascii_folding) = request.ascii_folding {
+                    params = params.ascii_folding(ascii_folding);
+                }
+                DirectoryIndexParams::Inverted(params)
+            }
+            IndexType::IvfFlat => DirectoryIndexParams::Vector {
+                index_type,
+                params: VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+                    Self::parse_metric_type(request.distance_type.as_deref())?,
+                    IvfBuildParams::default(),
+                ),
+            },
+            IndexType::IvfPq => DirectoryIndexParams::Vector {
+                index_type,
+                params: VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+                    Self::parse_metric_type(request.distance_type.as_deref())?,
+                    IvfBuildParams::default(),
+                    PQBuildParams::default(),
+                ),
+            },
+            IndexType::IvfSq => DirectoryIndexParams::Vector {
+                index_type,
+                params: VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(
+                    Self::parse_metric_type(request.distance_type.as_deref())?,
+                    IvfBuildParams::default(),
+                    SQBuildParams::default(),
+                ),
+            },
+            IndexType::IvfRq => {
+                let rq_params = if let Some(requested_num_bits) = request.num_bits {
+                    let invalid_num_bits = || NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "IVF_RQ num_bits must be in {}..={}, got {}",
+                            RABIT_MIN_NUM_BITS, RABIT_MAX_NUM_BITS, requested_num_bits
+                        ),
+                    };
+                    let num_bits =
+                        u8::try_from(requested_num_bits).map_err(|_| invalid_num_bits())?;
+                    validate_supported_rq_num_bits(num_bits).map_err(|_| invalid_num_bits())?;
+                    RQBuildParams::new(num_bits)
+                } else {
+                    RQBuildParams::default()
+                };
+                DirectoryIndexParams::Vector {
+                    index_type,
+                    params: VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+                        Self::parse_metric_type(request.distance_type.as_deref())?,
+                        IvfBuildParams::default(),
+                        rq_params,
+                    ),
+                }
+            }
+            IndexType::IvfHnswFlat => DirectoryIndexParams::Vector {
+                index_type,
+                params: VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+                    Self::parse_metric_type(request.distance_type.as_deref())?,
+                    IvfBuildParams::default(),
+                    HnswBuildParams::default(),
+                ),
+            },
+            IndexType::IvfHnswSq => DirectoryIndexParams::Vector {
+                index_type,
+                params: VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+                    Self::parse_metric_type(request.distance_type.as_deref())?,
+                    IvfBuildParams::default(),
+                    HnswBuildParams::default(),
+                    SQBuildParams::default(),
+                ),
+            },
+            IndexType::IvfHnswPq => DirectoryIndexParams::Vector {
+                index_type,
+                params: VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+                    Self::parse_metric_type(request.distance_type.as_deref())?,
+                    IvfBuildParams::default(),
+                    HnswBuildParams::default(),
+                    PQBuildParams::default(),
+                ),
+            },
+            other => {
+                return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("Unsupported index type for namespace API: {}", other),
+                }
+                .into());
+            }
+        })
+    }
 
-        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
-        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
-        let table_path = self.table_path(&table_name);
+    fn paginate_indices(
+        indices: &mut Vec<IndexContent>,
+        page_token: Option<String>,
+        limit: Option<i32>,
+    ) -> Option<String> {
+        indices.sort_by(|a, b| a.index_name.cmp(&b.index_name));
 
-        self.object_store
-            .remove_dir_all(table_path)
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Failed to drop table {}: {}", table_name, e).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        if let Some(start_after) = page_token {
+            if let Some(index) = indices
+                .iter()
+                .position(|index| index.index_name.as_str() > start_after.as_str())
+            {
+                indices.drain(0..index);
+            } else {
+                indices.clear();
+            }
+        }
 
-        Ok(DropTableResponse {
-            id: request.id,
-            location: Some(table_uri),
-            ..Default::default()
-        })
+        let mut next_page_token = None;
+        if let Some(limit) = limit
+            && limit >= 0
+        {
+            let limit = limit as usize;
+            if limit > 0 && indices.len() > limit {
+                next_page_token = Some(indices[limit - 1].index_name.clone());
+            }
+            indices.truncate(limit);
+        }
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            next_page_token
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn create_table(
-        &self,
-        request: CreateTableRequest,
-        request_data: Bytes,
-    ) -> Result<CreateTableResponse> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            return manifest_ns.create_table(request, request_data).await;
+    fn transaction_operation_name(transaction: &Transaction) -> String {
+        match &transaction.operation {
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices,
+                ..
+            } if new_indices.is_empty() && !removed_indices.is_empty() => "DropIndex".to_string(),
+            _ => transaction.operation.to_string(),
         }
+    }
 
-        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
-        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
-        if request_data.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: "Request data (Arrow IPC stream) is required for create_table".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
+    fn transaction_response(
+        version: u64,
+        transaction: &Transaction,
+        alteration: Option<TransactionAlteration>,
+    ) -> DescribeTransactionResponse {
+        let mut properties = transaction
+            .transaction_properties
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|properties| (**properties).clone())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        // Apply persisted alterations on top of the immutable transaction
+        // properties so callers see the current effective state.
+        let mut effective_status = "SUCCEEDED".to_string();
+        if let Some(alteration) = alteration {
+            for key in &alteration.removed_properties {
+                properties.remove(key);
+            }
+            for (key, value) in alteration.properties {
+                properties.insert(key, value);
+            }
+            if let Some(status) = alteration.status {
+                effective_status = status;
+            }
         }
 
-        // Parse the Arrow IPC stream from request_data
-        let cursor = Cursor::new(request_data.to_vec());
-        let stream_reader = StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None).map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-            source: format!("Invalid Arrow IPC stream: {}", e).into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })?;
-        let arrow_schema = stream_reader.schema();
+        properties.insert("uuid".to_string(), transaction.uuid.clone());
+        properties.insert("version".to_string(), version.to_string());
+        properties.insert(
+            "read_version".to_string(),
+            transaction.read_version.to_string(),
+        );
+        properties.insert(
+            "operation".to_string(),
+            Self::transaction_operation_name(transaction),
+        );
+        if let Some(tag) = &transaction.tag {
+            properties.insert("tag".to_string(), tag.clone());
+        }
 
-        // Collect all batches from the stream
-        let mut batches = Vec::new();
-        for batch_result in stream_reader {
-            batches.push(batch_result.map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Failed to read batch from IPC stream: {}", e).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?);
+        DescribeTransactionResponse {
+            status: effective_status,
+            properties: Some(properties),
+            ..Default::default()
         }
+    }
 
-        // Create RecordBatchReader from the batches
-        let reader = if batches.is_empty() {
-            let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::new_empty(arrow_schema.clone());
-            let batches = vec![Ok(batch)];
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, arrow_schema.clone())
-        } else {
-            let batch_results: Vec<_> = batches.into_iter().map(Ok).collect();
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(batch_results, arrow_schema)
+    fn describe_table_index_stats_response(
+        stats: &serde_json::Value,
+    ) -> DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse {
+        let get_i64 = |key: &str| {
+            stats.get(key).and_then(|value| {
+                value
+                    .as_i64()
+                    .or_else(|| value.as_u64().and_then(|v| i64::try_from(v).ok()))
+            })
         };
 
-        let store_params = self.storage_options.as_ref().map(|opts| ObjectStoreParams {
-            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
-                lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(opts.clone()),
-            )),
+        DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse {
+            distance_type: stats
+                .get("distance_type")
+                .and_then(|value| value.as_str())
+                .map(str::to_string),
+            index_type: stats
+                .get("index_type")
+                .and_then(|value| value.as_str())
+                .map(str::to_string),
+            num_indexed_rows: get_i64("num_indexed_rows"),
+            num_unindexed_rows: get_i64("num_unindexed_rows"),
+            num_indices: get_i64("num_indices").and_then(|value| i32::try_from(value).ok()),
             ..Default::default()
-        });
+        }
+    }
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            mode: lance::dataset::WriteMode::Create,
-            store_params,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+    /// When transaction_id is not parseable as a version number (i.e. it's a UUID),
+    /// find_transaction iterates through every version in reverse, reading each
+    /// transaction file from storage. For tables with many versions this will
+    /// be extremely slow — each iteration is a separate I/O call.
+    async fn find_transaction(&self, dataset: &Dataset, id: &str) -> Result<(u64, Transaction)> {
+        if let Ok(version) = id.parse::<u64>() {
+            let transaction = dataset
+                .read_transaction_by_version(version)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TransactionNotFound {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to read transaction for version {}: {}",
+                            version, e
+                        ),
+                    })
+                })?
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TransactionNotFound {
+                        message: format!("version {}", version),
+                    })
+                })?;
+            return Ok((version, transaction));
+        }
 
-        // Create the Lance dataset using the actual Lance API
-        Dataset::write(reader, &table_uri, Some(write_params))
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Failed to create Lance dataset: {}", e).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let versions = dataset.versions().await.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to list table versions while resolving transaction '{}': {}",
+                    id, e
+                ),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-        Ok(CreateTableResponse {
-            version: Some(1),
-            location: Some(table_uri),
-            storage_options: self.storage_options.clone(),
-            ..Default::default()
-        })
+        for version in versions.into_iter().rev() {
+            if let Some(transaction) = dataset
+                .read_transaction_by_version(version.version)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to read transaction for version {} while resolving '{}': {}",
+                            version.version, id, e
+                        ),
+                    })
+                })?
+                && transaction.uuid == id
+            {
+                return Ok((version.version, transaction));
+            }
+        }
+
+        Err(NamespaceError::TransactionNotFound {
+            message: id.to_string(),
+        }
+        .into())
+    }
+
+    /// Relative directory (under a table's Lance root) used to persist
+    /// alter_transaction outcomes. The Lance transaction file itself is
+    /// immutable, so we keep alterations in a namespace-owned sidecar.
+    const TRANSACTION_ALTERATIONS_DIR: &'static str = "_alter_transactions";
+
+    fn transaction_alteration_path(&self, table_uri: &str, txn_uuid: &str) -> Result<Path> {
+        let table_path = self.object_store_path_from_uri(table_uri)?;
+        Ok(table_path
+            .join(Self::TRANSACTION_ALTERATIONS_DIR)
+            .join(format!("{}.json", txn_uuid).as_str()))
     }
 
-    async fn create_empty_table(
-        &self,
-        request: CreateEmptyTableRequest,
-    ) -> Result<CreateEmptyTableResponse> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            #[allow(deprecated)]
-            let mut response = manifest_ns.create_empty_table(request.clone()).await?;
-            // Only apply identity-based credential vending when explicitly requested
-            if request.vend_credentials == Some(true) && self.credential_vendor.is_some() {
-                if let Some(ref location) = response.location {
-                    let identity = request.identity.as_deref();
-                    response.storage_options = self
-                        .get_storage_options_for_table(location, identity)
-                        .await?;
-                }
-            } else if request.vend_credentials == Some(false) {
-                response.storage_options = None;
+    async fn load_transaction_alteration(
+        &self,
+        table_uri: &str,
+        txn_uuid: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Option<TransactionAlteration>> {
+        let path = self.transaction_alteration_path(table_uri, txn_uuid)?;
+        match self.object_store.inner.get(&path).await {
+            Ok(get_result) => {
+                let bytes = get_result.bytes().await.map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to read alter_transaction sidecar for '{}': {}",
+                            txn_uuid, e
+                        ),
+                    })
+                })?;
+                let alteration = TransactionAlteration::from_json_slice(&bytes).map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to parse alter_transaction sidecar for '{}': {}",
+                            txn_uuid, e
+                        ),
+                    })
+                })?;
+                Ok(Some(alteration))
+            }
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => Ok(None),
+            Err(e) => Err(lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to load alter_transaction sidecar for '{}': {}",
+                    txn_uuid, e
+                ),
+            })),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn save_transaction_alteration(
+        &self,
+        table_uri: &str,
+        txn_uuid: &str,
+        alteration: &TransactionAlteration,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let path = self.transaction_alteration_path(table_uri, txn_uuid)?;
+        let bytes = alteration.to_json_bytes().map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to serialize alter_transaction sidecar for '{}': {}",
+                    txn_uuid, e
+                ),
+            })
+        })?;
+        self.object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&path, bytes.into())
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to persist alter_transaction sidecar for '{}': {}",
+                        txn_uuid, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn table_full_uri(&self, table_name: &str) -> String {
+        format!("{}/{}.lance", self.root, table_name)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the object store path for a table (relative to base_path)
+    fn table_path(&self, table_name: &str) -> Path {
+        self.base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(format!("{}.lance", table_name).as_str())
+    }
+
+    /// Get the reserved file path for a table
+    fn table_reserved_file_path(&self, table_name: &str) -> Path {
+        self.base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(format!("{}.lance", table_name).as_str())
+            .join(".lance-reserved")
+    }
+
+    /// Get the deregistered marker file path for a table
+    fn table_deregistered_file_path(&self, table_name: &str) -> Path {
+        self.base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(format!("{}.lance", table_name).as_str())
+            .join(".lance-deregistered")
+    }
+
+    /// Atomically check table existence and deregistration status.
+    ///
+    /// This performs a single directory listing to get a consistent snapshot of the
+    /// table's state, avoiding race conditions between checking existence and
+    /// checking deregistration status.
+    pub(crate) async fn check_table_status(&self, table_name: &str) -> Result<TableStatus> {
+        let table_path = self.table_path(table_name);
+        match self.object_store.read_dir(table_path).await {
+            Ok(entries) => {
+                let exists = !entries.is_empty();
+                let is_deregistered = entries.iter().any(|e| e.ends_with(".lance-deregistered"));
+                let has_reserved_file = entries.iter().any(|e| e.ends_with(".lance-reserved"));
+                Ok(TableStatus {
+                    exists,
+                    is_deregistered,
+                    has_reserved_file,
+                })
+            }
+            // Local filesystems error on a missing directory where object stores
+            // return an empty listing; both mean the table does not exist.
+            Err(e) if manifest::ManifestNamespace::is_not_found_load_error(&e) => Ok(TableStatus {
+                exists: false,
+                is_deregistered: false,
+                has_reserved_file: false,
+            }),
+            // Any other failure must propagate: collapsing it to "does not exist"
+            // lets a transient error overwrite a live table via create/exist-ok
+            // callers and destroys the retry evidence classifiers depend on.
+            Err(e) => Err(Self::classify_storage_error(e)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Classify a storage error into a typed [`NamespaceError`]. The full source
+    /// text is embedded in the message because the pyo3 layer flattens namespace
+    /// errors to message-only (no `__cause__`), so that is the only place the
+    /// 429/503 evidence survives to Python.
+    fn classify_storage_error(err: Error) -> Error {
+        if matches!(&err, Error::Namespace { .. }) {
+            return err;
+        }
+        let detail = err.to_string();
+        if let Error::IO { source, .. } = &err
+            && let Some(os_err) = source.downcast_ref::<ObjectStoreError>()
+        {
+            if is_throttle_error(os_err) {
+                return NamespaceError::Throttling {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Storage request was throttled while resolving table: {detail}"
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into();
+            }
+            if Self::is_service_unavailable_error(os_err) {
+                return NamespaceError::ServiceUnavailable {
+                    message: format!("Storage service unavailable while resolving table: {detail}"),
+                }
+                .into();
+            }
+        }
+        NamespaceError::Internal {
+            message: format!("Storage error while resolving table: {detail}"),
+        }
+        .into()
+    }
+
+    /// Detect a clearly-transient 5xx not already caught by [`is_throttle_error`].
+    /// `object_store` does not expose HTTP status codes, so match the (deliberately
+    /// narrow) canonical status phrases in the message.
+    fn is_service_unavailable_error(err: &ObjectStoreError) -> bool {
+        if let ObjectStoreError::Generic { source, .. } = err {
+            let message = source.to_string().to_ascii_lowercase();
+            message.contains("503 service unavailable")
+                || message.contains("502 bad gateway")
+                || message.contains("504 gateway timeout")
+        } else {
+            false
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether a manifest error means the table is genuinely absent (rather than a
+    /// storage failure while consulting the manifest). Only such errors may fall
+    /// through to the directory listing; anything else must propagate.
+    fn is_manifest_table_absent_error(err: &Error) -> bool {
+        if manifest::ManifestNamespace::is_not_found_load_error(err) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if let Error::Namespace { source, .. } = err
+            && let Some(ns_err) = source.downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>()
+        {
+            return matches!(ns_err, NamespaceError::TableNotFound { .. });
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Map a dataset/version/branch open error: a transient IO error propagates
+    /// typed via [`classify_storage_error`], while a genuine not-found (missing
+    /// dataset, version, or ref) keeps the caller's `not_found` variant.
+    fn map_open_error(err: Error, not_found: NamespaceError) -> Error {
+        if matches!(&err, Error::IO { .. })
+            && !manifest::ManifestNamespace::is_not_found_load_error(&err)
+        {
+            return Self::classify_storage_error(err);
+        }
+        not_found.into()
+    }
+
+    /// Get storage options for a table, using credential vending if configured.
+    ///
+    /// If credential vendor properties are configured and the table location matches
+    /// a supported cloud provider, this will create an appropriate vendor and vend
+    /// temporary credentials scoped to the table location. Otherwise, returns the
+    /// static storage options.
+    ///
+    /// The vendor type is auto-selected based on the table URI:
+    /// - `s3://` locations use AWS STS AssumeRole
+    /// - `gs://` locations use GCP OAuth2 tokens
+    /// - `az://` locations use Azure SAS tokens
+    ///
+    /// The permission level (Read, Write, Admin) is configured at namespace
+    /// initialization time via the `credential_vendor_permission` property.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `table_uri` - The full URI of the table
+    /// * `identity` - Optional identity from the request for identity-based credential vending
+    async fn get_storage_options_for_table(
+        &self,
+        table_uri: &str,
+        vend_credentials: bool,
+        identity: Option<&Identity>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
+        if vend_credentials && let Some(ref vendor) = self.credential_vendor {
+            let vended = vendor.vend_credentials(table_uri, identity).await?;
+            return Ok(Some(vended.storage_options));
+        }
+        // When vend_input_storage_options is enabled and no credential vendor is configured,
+        // return the input storage options. This is useful for testing.
+        if self.vend_input_storage_options {
+            let mut options = self.storage_options.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+            // Add expires_at_millis if refresh interval is configured
+            if let Some(refresh_interval_millis) =
+                self.vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis
+            {
+                let now_millis = std::time::SystemTime::now()
+                    .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_millis() as u64;
+                let expires_at_millis = now_millis + refresh_interval_millis;
+                options.insert(
+                    "expires_at_millis".to_string(),
+                    expires_at_millis.to_string(),
+                );
+            }
+            return Ok(Some(options));
+        }
+        // When no credential vendor is configured, return None to avoid
+        // leaking the namespace's own static credentials to clients.
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Migrate directory-based tables to the manifest.
+    ///
+    /// This is a one-time migration operation that:
+    /// 1. Scans the directory for existing `.lance` tables
+    /// 2. Registers any unmigrated tables in the manifest
+    /// 3. Returns the count of tables that were migrated
+    ///
+    /// This method is safe to run multiple times - it will skip tables that are already
+    /// registered in the manifest.
+    ///
+    /// # Usage
+    ///
+    /// After creating tables in directory-only mode or dual mode, you can migrate them
+    /// to the manifest to enable manifest-only mode:
+    ///
+    /// ```no_run
+    /// #![recursion_limit = "256"]
+    /// # use lance_namespace_impls::DirectoryNamespaceBuilder;
+    /// # async fn example() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+    /// // Create namespace with dual mode (manifest + directory listing)
+    /// let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new("/path/to/data")
+    ///     .manifest_enabled(true)
+    ///     .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+    ///     .build()
+    ///     .await?;
+    ///
+    /// // ... tables are created and used ...
+    ///
+    /// // Migrate existing directory tables to manifest
+    /// let migrated_count = namespace.migrate().await?;
+    /// println!("Migrated {} tables", migrated_count);
+    ///
+    /// // Now you can disable directory listing for better performance:
+    /// // (requires rebuilding the namespace)
+    /// let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new("/path/to/data")
+    ///     .manifest_enabled(true)
+    ///     .dir_listing_enabled(false)  // All tables now in manifest
+    ///     .build()
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// Returns the number of tables that were migrated to the manifest.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if:
+    /// - Manifest is not enabled
+    /// - Directory listing fails
+    /// - Manifest registration fails
+    pub async fn migrate(&self) -> Result<usize> {
+        // We only care about tables in the root namespace
+        let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? else {
+            return Ok(0); // No manifest, nothing to migrate
+        };
+
+        // Get all table locations already in the manifest
+        let manifest_locations = manifest_ns.list_manifest_table_locations().await?;
+
+        // Get all tables from directory and skip declared-only tables that have not
+        // written any actual version manifests yet.
+        let dir_tables = self
+            .filter_declared_tables(self.list_directory_tables().await?, false)
+            .await?;
+
+        // Register each directory table that doesn't have an overlapping location
+        // If a directory name already exists in the manifest,
+        // that means the table must have already been migrated or created
+        // in the manifest, so we can skip it.
+        let mut migrated_count = 0;
+        for table_name in dir_tables {
+            // For root namespace tables, the directory name is "table_name.lance"
+            let dir_name = format!("{}.lance", table_name);
+            if !manifest_locations.contains(&dir_name) {
+                manifest_ns.register_table(&table_name, dir_name).await?;
+                migrated_count += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(migrated_count)
+    }
+
+    /// Delete physical manifest files for the given table version ranges.
+    ///
+    /// This helper backs `batch_delete_table_versions`. It resolves each table's storage
+    /// location, computes the version file paths, and deletes them, returning an error on
+    /// the first failure.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the number of files successfully deleted.
+    async fn delete_physical_version_files(
+        &self,
+        table_entries: &[TableDeleteEntry],
+        branch: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> Result<i64> {
+        let mut deleted_count = 0i64;
+        for te in table_entries {
+            let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&te.table_id).await?;
+            let table_uri = match branch {
+                Some(b) => self.resolve_branch_location(&table_uri, b).await?,
+                None => table_uri,
+            };
+            let table_path = self.object_store_path_from_uri(&table_uri)?;
+            let versions_dir_path = table_path.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR);
+
+            // Match listed files, not constructed names (`{version}.manifest` misses V2).
+            let manifest_metas: Vec<_> = self
+                .object_store
+                .read_dir_all(&versions_dir_path, None)
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to list manifest files for table at '{}': {}",
+                            table_uri, e
+                        ),
+                    })
+                })?;
+            let location_by_version: HashMap<u64, Path> = manifest_metas
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter_map(|meta| {
+                    let version = Self::manifest_version_from_filename(meta.location.filename()?)?;
+                    Some((version, meta.location))
+                })
+                .collect();
+
+            for (&v, version_path) in &location_by_version {
+                let vi = v as i64;
+                if !te.ranges.iter().any(|&(s, e)| vi >= s && (e < 0 || vi < e)) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                match self.object_store.inner.delete(version_path).await {
+                    Ok(_) => {
+                        deleted_count += 1;
+                    }
+                    Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. }) => {}
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                            message: format!(
+                                "Failed to delete version {} for table at '{}': {}",
+                                v, table_uri, e
+                            ),
+                        }
+                        .into());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(deleted_count)
+    }
+
+    /// Apply all query parameters from a `QueryTableRequest`-like source onto a `Scanner`.
+    ///
+    /// This covers vector search, filters, column projection, limits, and ANN tuning knobs so
+    /// that `explain_table_query_plan` / `analyze_table_query_plan` produce an accurate plan.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn apply_query_params_to_scanner(
+        scanner: &mut Scanner,
+        filter: Option<&str>,
+        columns: Option<&QueryTableRequestColumns>,
+        vector_column: Option<&str>,
+        vector: &QueryTableRequestVector,
+        k: i32,
+        offset: Option<i32>,
+        prefilter: Option<bool>,
+        bypass_vector_index: Option<bool>,
+        nprobes: Option<i32>,
+        minimum_nprobes: Option<i32>,
+        maximum_nprobes: Option<i32>,
+        ef: Option<i32>,
+        refine_factor: Option<i32>,
+        distance_type: Option<&str>,
+        fast_search_flag: Option<bool>,
+        with_row_id: Option<bool>,
+        lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+        upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+        operation: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // prefilter must be set before nearest() so the fragment-scan guard sees it.
+        if let Some(pf) = prefilter {
+            scanner.prefilter(pf);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(filter) = filter {
+            scanner.filter(filter).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!("Invalid filter expression for {}: {}", operation, e).into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        }
+
+        if let Some(cols) = columns {
+            if let Some(ref names) = cols.column_names {
+                scanner.project(names.as_slice()).map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Invalid column projection for {}: {}", operation, e).into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            } else if let Some(ref aliases) = cols.column_aliases {
+                // aliases maps output_alias -> source_column
+                let pairs: Vec<(&str, &str)> = aliases
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(alias, src)| (alias.as_str(), src.as_str()))
+                    .collect();
+                scanner.project_with_transform(&pairs).map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Invalid column aliases for {}: {}", operation, e).into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Resolve query vector: prefer single_vector, fall back to first row of multi_vector.
+        let query_vec: Option<Vec<f32>> = vector
+            .single_vector
+            .as_ref()
+            .filter(|v| !v.is_empty())
+            .cloned()
+            .or_else(|| {
+                vector
+                    .multi_vector
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|mv| mv.first())
+                    .filter(|v| !v.is_empty())
+                    .cloned()
+            });
+
+        if let Some(q_vec) = query_vec {
+            let col = vector_column.unwrap_or("vector");
+            let q = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(q_vec));
+            scanner
+                .nearest(col, q.as_ref(), k.max(1) as usize)
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Invalid vector query for {}: {}", operation, e).into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+
+            // ANN parameters — must be applied after nearest().
+            apply_probe_bounds(scanner, nprobes, minimum_nprobes, maximum_nprobes)?;
+            if let Some(e) = ef {
+                scanner.ef(e.max(1) as usize);
+            }
+            if let Some(rf) = refine_factor {
+                scanner.refine(rf.max(0) as u32);
+            }
+            // bypass_vector_index and fast_search are mutually exclusive; apply in order.
+            if let Some(true) = bypass_vector_index {
+                scanner.use_index(false);
+            }
+            if let Some(true) = fast_search_flag {
+                scanner.fast_search();
+            }
+            if lower_bound.is_some() || upper_bound.is_some() {
+                scanner.distance_range(lower_bound, upper_bound);
+            }
+            if let Some(dt) = distance_type {
+                let metric = Self::parse_metric_type(Some(dt))?;
+                scanner.distance_metric(metric);
+            }
+            // Apply offset on top of the k nearest results.
+            if let Some(off) = offset.filter(|&o| o > 0) {
+                scanner.limit(None, Some(off as i64)).map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Invalid offset for {}: {}", operation, e).into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            }
+        } else {
+            // Scalar (non-vector) query: treat k as a row LIMIT.
+            let limit = if k > 0 { Some(k as i64) } else { None };
+            scanner
+                .limit(limit, offset.map(|o| o as i64))
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("Invalid limit/offset for {}: {}", operation, e).into(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+        }
+
+        if let Some(true) = with_row_id {
+            scanner.with_row_id();
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieve a snapshot of operation metrics.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a HashMap where keys are operation names (e.g., "list_tables", "describe_table")
+    /// and values are the number of times each operation was called.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an empty HashMap if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when building the namespace.
+    pub fn retrieve_ops_metrics(&self) -> HashMap<String, u64> {
+        self.ops_metrics
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|m| m.retrieve())
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
+    /// Reset all operation metrics counters to zero.
+    ///
+    /// Does nothing if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when building the namespace.
+    pub fn reset_ops_metrics(&self) {
+        if let Some(ref metrics) = self.ops_metrics {
+            metrics.reset();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Increment the counter for an operation.
+    fn record_op(&self, operation: &str) {
+        if let Some(ref metrics) = self.ops_metrics {
+            metrics.increment(operation);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl LanceNamespace for DirectoryNamespace {
+    async fn list_namespaces(
+        &self,
+        request: ListNamespacesRequest,
+    ) -> Result<ListNamespacesResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_namespaces");
+        self.ensure_read_manifest().await?;
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_read() {
+            return manifest_ns.list_namespaces(request).await;
+        }
+
+        if request.id.as_ref().is_some_and(|id| !id.is_empty()) {
+            return Err(self.child_namespace_requires_manifest_error());
+        }
+        Self::validate_root_namespace_id(&request.id)?;
+        Ok(ListNamespacesResponse::new(vec![]))
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_namespace(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeNamespaceRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DescribeNamespaceResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_namespace");
+        self.ensure_read_manifest().await?;
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_read() {
+            return manifest_ns.describe_namespace(request).await;
+        }
+
+        if request.id.as_ref().is_some_and(|id| !id.is_empty()) {
+            return Err(self.child_namespace_requires_manifest_error());
+        }
+        Self::validate_root_namespace_id(&request.id)?;
+        #[allow(clippy::needless_update)]
+        Ok(DescribeNamespaceResponse {
+            properties: Some(HashMap::new()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn create_namespace(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateNamespaceRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateNamespaceResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_namespace");
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            return manifest_ns.create_namespace(request).await;
+        }
+
+        if request.id.is_none() || request.id.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::NamespaceAlreadyExists {
+                message: "root namespace".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+            message: "Child namespaces are only supported when manifest mode is enabled"
+                .to_string(),
+        }
+        .into())
+    }
+
+    async fn drop_namespace(&self, request: DropNamespaceRequest) -> Result<DropNamespaceResponse> {
+        self.record_op("drop_namespace");
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            return manifest_ns.drop_namespace(request).await;
+        }
+
+        if request.id.is_none() || request.id.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Root namespace cannot be dropped".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+            message: "Child namespaces are only supported when manifest mode is enabled"
+                .to_string(),
+        }
+        .into())
+    }
+
+    async fn namespace_exists(&self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
+        self.record_op("namespace_exists");
+        self.ensure_read_manifest().await?;
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_read() {
+            return manifest_ns.namespace_exists(request).await;
+        }
+
+        if request.id.is_none() || request.id.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        Err(self.child_namespace_requires_manifest_error())
+    }
+
+    async fn list_tables(&self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> Result<ListTablesResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_tables");
+        // Validate that namespace ID is provided
+        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Namespace ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+        // Self-heal the manifest wherever it can be authoritative: a child
+        // namespace, a manifest-only namespace, or migration mode (which merges
+        // manifest entries -- including registered aliases -- into the root
+        // listing). The bypass applies only to migration-disabled directory-backed
+        // root lists.
+        if !namespace_id.is_empty()
+            || !self.dir_listing_enabled
+            || self.dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled
+        {
+            self.ensure_read_manifest().await?;
+        }
+
+        // For child namespaces, always delegate to manifest (if enabled)
+        if !namespace_id.is_empty() {
+            if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_read() {
+                return manifest_ns.list_tables(request).await;
+            }
+            return Err(self.child_namespace_requires_manifest_error());
+        }
+
+        // When only manifest is enabled (no directory listing), delegate directly to manifest
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_read()
+            && !self.dir_listing_enabled
+        {
+            return manifest_ns.list_tables(request).await;
+        }
+        if !self.dir_listing_enabled {
+            return Ok(ListTablesResponse::new(vec![]));
+        }
+
+        // When both manifest and directory listing are enabled with migration mode,
+        // we need to merge and deduplicate
+        let mut tables = if self.manifest_ns_for_read().is_some()
+            && self.dir_listing_enabled
+            && self.dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled
+        {
+            // Get all manifest table locations (for deduplication)
+            let manifest_locations = if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_read() {
+                manifest_ns.list_manifest_table_locations().await?
+            } else {
+                std::collections::HashSet::new()
+            };
+
+            // Get all manifest tables (without pagination for merging)
+            let mut manifest_request = request.clone();
+            manifest_request.limit = None;
+            manifest_request.page_token = None;
+            let manifest_tables = if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_read() {
+                let manifest_response = manifest_ns.list_tables(manifest_request).await?;
+                manifest_response.tables
+            } else {
+                vec![]
+            };
+
+            // Start with all manifest table names
+            // Add directory tables that aren't already in the manifest (by location)
+            let mut all_tables: Vec<String> = manifest_tables;
+            let dir_tables = self.list_directory_tables().await?;
+            for table_name in dir_tables {
+                // Check if this table's location is already in the manifest
+                // Manifest stores full URIs, so we need to check both formats
+                let full_location = format!("{}/{}.lance", self.root, table_name);
+                let relative_location = format!("{}.lance", table_name);
+                if !manifest_locations.contains(&full_location)
+                    && !manifest_locations.contains(&relative_location)
+                {
+                    all_tables.push(table_name);
+                }
+            }
+
+            all_tables
+        } else {
+            self.list_directory_tables().await?
+        };
+
+        tables = self
+            .filter_declared_tables(tables, request.include_declared.unwrap_or(true))
+            .await?;
+
+        // Apply sorting and pagination
+        let next_page_token =
+            Self::apply_pagination(&mut tables, request.page_token, request.limit);
+        let mut response = ListTablesResponse::new(tables);
+        response.page_token = next_page_token;
+        Ok(response)
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_table(&self, request: DescribeTableRequest) -> Result<DescribeTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_table");
+        self.describe_table_impl(request).await
+    }
+
+    async fn table_exists(&self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
+        self.record_op("table_exists");
+        let is_root_level = request.id.as_ref().is_some_and(|id| id.len() == 1);
+        let is_child_table = request.id.as_ref().is_some_and(|id| id.len() > 1);
+        let skip_manifest_for_root = self.dir_listing_enabled
+            && is_root_level
+            && !self.dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled;
+        // Child table, manifest-only, or migration mode (see describe_table_impl).
+        // Only a migration-disabled directory-backed root read bypasses the probe.
+        if is_child_table
+            || !self.dir_listing_enabled
+            || self.dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled
+        {
+            self.ensure_read_manifest().await?;
+        }
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_read()
+            && !skip_manifest_for_root
+        {
+            match manifest_ns.table_exists(request.clone()).await {
+                Ok(()) => return Ok(()),
+                Err(e) if manifest_feature_flags::is_incompatible_manifest_error(&e) => {
+                    // An incompatible manifest must surface "please upgrade"
+                    // rather than degrading to a directory-listing view.
+                    return Err(e);
+                }
+                Err(e) if self.dir_listing_enabled && is_root_level => {
+                    // Only a genuinely-absent table (e.g. an unmigrated on-disk
+                    // table) may fall through to the directory check; any other
+                    // manifest error must propagate rather than be read as missing.
+                    if !Self::is_manifest_table_absent_error(&e) {
+                        return Err(Self::classify_storage_error(e));
+                    }
+                }
+                Err(e) => return Err(e),
+            }
+        }
+        if is_child_table {
+            return Err(self.child_namespace_requires_manifest_error());
+        }
+
+        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let table_id = Self::format_table_id_from_request(&request.id);
+        if !self.dir_listing_enabled {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound { message: table_id }.into());
+        }
+
+        // Atomically check table existence and deregistration status
+        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await?;
+
+        if !status.exists {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: table_id.clone(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        if status.is_deregistered {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: format!("Table is deregistered: {}", table_id),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn drop_table(&self, request: DropTableRequest) -> Result<DropTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("drop_table");
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            return manifest_ns.drop_table(request).await;
+        }
+
+        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
+        let table_path = self.table_path(&table_name);
+
+        self.object_store
+            .remove_dir_all(table_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to drop table {}: {:?}", table_name, e),
+                })
+            })?;
+
+        Ok(DropTableResponse {
+            id: request.id,
+            location: Some(table_uri),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableRequest,
+        request_data: Bytes,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table");
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            return manifest_ns.create_table(request, request_data).await;
+        }
+
+        Self::validate_dir_only_properties(request.properties.as_ref(), "create_table")?;
+
+        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
+        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await?;
+        let (reader, _num_rows) =
+            Self::ipc_reader_from_request_data(&request_data, "create_table")?;
+
+        if status.exists && self.table_has_actual_manifests(&table_name).await? {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableAlreadyExists {
+                message: table_name,
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let write_result = self
+            .write_reader_to_table(
+                &table_uri,
+                reader,
+                WriteMode::Create,
+                request.storage_options.clone(),
+            )
+            .await;
+        if let Err(err) = write_result {
+            if self.table_uri_has_actual_manifests(&table_uri).await? {
+                return Err(NamespaceError::TableAlreadyExists {
+                    message: table_name,
+                }
+                .into());
+            }
+            return Err(err);
+        }
+        Ok(CreateTableResponse {
+            version: Some(1),
+            location: Some(table_uri),
+            storage_options: self.storage_options.clone(),
+            properties: request.properties,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn declare_table(&self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> Result<DeclareTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("declare_table");
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            let mut response = manifest_ns.declare_table(request.clone()).await?;
+            if let Some(ref location) = response.location {
+                // For backwards compatibility, only skip vending credentials when explicitly set to false
+                let vend = request.vend_credentials.unwrap_or(true);
+                let identity = request.identity.as_deref();
+                response.storage_options = self
+                    .get_storage_options_for_table(location, vend, identity)
+                    .await?;
+            }
+            // Set managed_versioning when table_version_tracking_enabled
+            if self.table_version_tracking_enabled {
+                response.managed_versioning = Some(true);
+            }
+            return Ok(response);
+        }
+
+        Self::validate_dir_only_properties(request.properties.as_ref(), "declare_table")?;
+
+        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
+
+        // Validate location if provided
+        if let Some(location) = &request.location {
+            let location = location.trim_end_matches('/');
+            if location != table_uri {
+                return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Cannot declare table {} at location {}, must be at location {}",
+                        table_name, location, table_uri
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Check if table already has data (created via create_table).
+        // The atomic put only prevents races between concurrent declare_table calls,
+        // not between declare_table and existing data.
+        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await?;
+        if status.exists && !status.has_reserved_file {
+            // Table has data but no reserved file - it was created with data
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableAlreadyExists {
+                message: table_name.to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        // Atomically create the .lance-reserved file to mark the table as declared.
+        // This uses put_if_not_exists semantics to avoid race conditions between
+        // concurrent declare_table calls.
+        let reserved_file_path = self.table_reserved_file_path(&table_name);
+
+        put_marker_file_atomic(
+            &self.object_store,
+            &reserved_file_path,
+            &format!("table {}", table_name),
+        )
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| match e {
+            MarkerFileError::AlreadyExists { .. } => {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TableAlreadyExists {
+                    message: table_name.to_string(),
+                })
+            }
+            MarkerFileError::Other { message } => {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal { message })
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        // For backwards compatibility, only skip vending credentials when explicitly set to false
+        let vend_credentials = request.vend_credentials.unwrap_or(true);
+        let identity = request.identity.as_deref();
+        let storage_options = self
+            .get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, vend_credentials, identity)
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(DeclareTableResponse {
+            location: Some(table_uri),
+            storage_options,
+            properties: request.properties,
+            managed_versioning: if self.table_version_tracking_enabled {
+                Some(true)
+            } else {
+                None
+            },
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn register_table(
+        &self,
+        request: lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest,
+    ) -> Result<lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("register_table");
+        // If manifest is enabled, delegate to manifest namespace
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            return LanceNamespace::register_table(manifest_ns.as_ref(), request).await;
+        }
+
+        // Without manifest, register_table is not supported
+        Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+            message: "register_table is only supported when manifest mode is enabled".to_string(),
+        }
+        .into())
+    }
+
+    async fn deregister_table(
+        &self,
+        request: lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableRequest,
+    ) -> Result<lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("deregister_table");
+        // If manifest is enabled, delegate to manifest namespace
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            return LanceNamespace::deregister_table(manifest_ns.as_ref(), request).await;
+        }
+
+        // V1 mode: create a .lance-deregistered marker file in the table directory
+        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
+
+        // Check table existence and deregistration status.
+        // This provides better error messages for common cases.
+        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await?;
+
+        if !status.exists {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: table_name.to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        if status.is_deregistered {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: format!("Table is already deregistered: {}", table_name),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        // Atomically create the .lance-deregistered marker file.
+        // This uses put_if_not_exists semantics to prevent race conditions
+        // when multiple processes try to deregister the same table concurrently.
+        // If a race occurs and another process already created the file,
+        // we'll get an AlreadyExists error which we convert to a proper message.
+        let deregistered_path = self.table_deregistered_file_path(&table_name);
+        put_marker_file_atomic(
+            &self.object_store,
+            &deregistered_path,
+            &format!("deregistration marker for table {}", table_name),
+        )
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| match e {
+            MarkerFileError::AlreadyExists { .. } => {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidTableState {
+                    message: format!("Table is already deregistered: {}", table_name),
+                })
+            }
+            MarkerFileError::Other { message } => {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal { message })
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableResponse {
+            id: request.id,
+            location: Some(table_uri),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn alter_table_add_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableAddColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<AlterTableAddColumnsResponse> {
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            return manifest_ns.alter_table_add_columns(request).await;
+        }
+
+        // Non-manifest mode: open Dataset directly via table URI and perform the operation
+        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
+
+        // Check table existence and deregistration status before opening the dataset
+        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await?;
+        if !status.exists {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: table_name,
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+        if status.is_deregistered {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: format!("Table is deregistered: {}", table_name),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let mut dataset = self
+            .configured_builder(&table_uri)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io_source(box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to open dataset: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+        let sql_expressions = build_sql_expressions(&request.new_columns)?;
+
+        dataset
+            .add_columns(
+                lance::dataset::NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(sql_expressions),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io_source(box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to add columns: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+        let version = dataset.version().version as i64;
+        Ok(AlterTableAddColumnsResponse::new(version))
+    }
+
+    async fn alter_table_alter_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse> {
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            return manifest_ns.alter_table_alter_columns(request).await;
+        }
+
+        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
+
+        // Check table existence and deregistration status before opening the dataset
+        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await?;
+        if !status.exists {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: table_name,
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+        if status.is_deregistered {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: format!("Table is deregistered: {}", table_name),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let mut dataset = self
+            .configured_builder(&table_uri)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io_source(box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to open dataset: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+        let alterations = build_column_alterations(&request.alterations)?;
+
+        dataset.alter_columns(&alterations).await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::io_source(box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to alter columns: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?;
+
+        let version = dataset.version().version as i64;
+        Ok(AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse::new(version))
+    }
+
+    async fn alter_table_drop_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableDropColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<AlterTableDropColumnsResponse> {
+        if let Some(manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns_for_write().await? {
+            return manifest_ns.alter_table_drop_columns(request).await;
+        }
+
+        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
+        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
+
+        // Check table existence and deregistration status before opening the dataset
+        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await?;
+        if !status.exists {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: table_name,
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+        if status.is_deregistered {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: format!("Table is deregistered: {}", table_name),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let mut dataset = self
+            .configured_builder(&table_uri)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io_source(box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                    "Failed to open dataset: {}",
+                    e
+                ))))
+            })?;
+
+        let columns: Vec<&str> = request.columns.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+        dataset.drop_columns(&columns).await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::io_source(box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                "Failed to drop columns: {}",
+                e
+            ))))
+        })?;
+
+        let version = dataset.version().version as i64;
+        Ok(AlterTableDropColumnsResponse::new(version))
+    }
+
+    async fn list_table_versions(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTableVersionsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<ListTableVersionsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_table_versions");
+        let branch = Self::normalized_branch(request.branch.as_deref())?;
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let table_uri = match branch {
+            Some(b) => self.resolve_branch_location(&table_uri, b).await?,
+            None => table_uri,
+        };
+        let want_descending = request.descending == Some(true);
+        let table_versions = self
+            .list_table_versions_from_storage(&table_uri, want_descending, request.limit)
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(ListTableVersionsResponse {
+            versions: table_versions,
+            page_token: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_version(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableVersionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_version");
+        let branch = Self::normalized_branch(request.branch.as_deref())?;
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let (table_uri, table_path, branch_parent_version) = match branch {
+            Some(b) => self.resolve_branch_for_commit(&table_uri, b).await?,
+            None => {
+                let table_path = self.object_store_path_from_uri(&table_uri)?;
+                (table_uri, table_path, None)
+            }
+        };
+
+        let staging_manifest_path = &request.manifest_path;
+        let version = request.version as u64;
+
+        // Determine naming scheme from request, default to V2
+        let naming_scheme = match request.naming_scheme.as_deref() {
+            Some("V1") => ManifestNamingScheme::V1,
+            _ => ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+        };
+
+        // Compute final path using the naming scheme
+        let final_path = naming_scheme.manifest_path(&table_path, version);
+
+        let staging_path = Path::parse(staging_manifest_path).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Invalid staging manifest path '{}': {}",
+                    staging_manifest_path, e
+                ),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+        // Idempotent retry: version path already published with the same content.
+        match self.object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await {
+            Ok(existing_meta) => {
+                return self
+                    .resolve_existing_table_version(ExistingTableVersionResolve {
+                        staging_path: &staging_path,
+                        final_path: &final_path,
+                        version,
+                        table_uri: &table_uri,
+                        final_meta: &existing_meta,
+                        request_manifest_size: request.manifest_size,
+                    })
+                    .await;
+            }
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {}
+            Err(e) => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to stat version {} for table at '{}': {}",
+                        version, table_uri, e
+                    ),
+                }));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Strict CAS: only allow appending latest+1 (or the empty-chain bootstrap
+        // version: v1 on main, BranchContents.parent_version on a registered branch).
+        let is_branch = branch.is_some();
+        self.enforce_create_table_version_cas(
+            &table_path,
+            version,
+            &table_uri,
+            is_branch,
+            branch_parent_version,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // Materialize with Create / copy_if_not_exists only — never overwrite.
+        let copy_result = self
+            .materialize_version_manifest_create(&staging_path, &final_path, staging_manifest_path)
+            .await;
+
+        match copy_result {
+            Ok(()) => {}
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::AlreadyExists { .. })
+            | Err(ObjectStoreError::Precondition { .. }) => {
+                // Lost a Create race: succeed only if the winner published identical bytes.
+                let existing_meta = self.object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Version {} conflict for table at '{}' but failed to stat winner: {}",
+                            version, table_uri, e
+                        ),
+                    })
+                })?;
+                return self
+                    .resolve_existing_table_version(ExistingTableVersionResolve {
+                        staging_path: &staging_path,
+                        final_path: &final_path,
+                        version,
+                        table_uri: &table_uri,
+                        final_meta: &existing_meta,
+                        request_manifest_size: request.manifest_size,
+                    })
+                    .await;
+            }
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Staging manifest not found at '{}' for version {} of table at '{}'",
+                        staging_manifest_path, version, table_uri
+                    ),
+                }));
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to create version {} for table at '{}': {}",
+                        version, table_uri, e
+                    ),
+                }));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let final_meta = self
+            .object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&final_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to stat created version {} for table at '{}': {}",
+                        version, table_uri, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+
+        // Delete the staging manifest after successful copy
+        if let Err(e) = self.object_store.inner.delete(&staging_path).await {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Failed to delete staging manifest at '{}': {:?}",
+                staging_path,
+                e
+            );
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self::create_table_version_response(
+            version,
+            &final_path,
+            &final_meta,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_table_version(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DescribeTableVersionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_table_version");
+        let branch = Self::normalized_branch(request.branch.as_deref())?;
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let table_uri = match branch {
+            Some(b) => self.resolve_branch_location(&table_uri, b).await?,
+            None => table_uri,
+        };
+        let versions = self
+            .list_table_versions_from_storage(&table_uri, true, None)
+            .await?;
+        let table_version = if let Some(requested_version) = request.version {
+            versions
+                .into_iter()
+                .find(|version| version.version == requested_version)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TableVersionNotFound {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "version {} for table {}",
+                            requested_version,
+                            Self::format_table_id_from_request(&request.id)
+                        ),
+                    })
+                })?
+        } else {
+            versions.into_iter().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TableVersionNotFound {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "latest version for table {}",
+                        Self::format_table_id_from_request(&request.id)
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?
+        };
+
+        Ok(DescribeTableVersionResponse {
+            version: Box::new(table_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn batch_delete_table_versions(
+        &self,
+        request: BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("batch_delete_table_versions");
+        let branch = Self::normalized_branch(request.branch.as_deref())?;
+        // Single-table mode: use `id` (from path parameter) + `ranges` to delete
+        // versions from one table.
+        let ranges: Vec<(i64, i64)> = request
+            .ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|r| (r.start_version, r.end_version))
+            .collect();
+
+        // Reject pathological bounded ranges up front: an explicit huge bounded
+        // range like (0, i64::MAX) is almost certainly a mistake. A through-latest
+        // range (end < 0) is bounded by the manifests that actually exist on storage.
+        const MAX_VERSIONS_PER_REQUEST: i128 = 1_000_000;
+        let requested: i128 = ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(s, e)| {
+                if *e < 0 {
+                    0
+                } else {
+                    (*e as i128 - *s as i128).max(0)
+                }
+            })
+            .sum();
+        if requested > MAX_VERSIONS_PER_REQUEST {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "batch_delete requested {} versions; limit is {}",
+                    requested, MAX_VERSIONS_PER_REQUEST
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let table_entries = vec![TableDeleteEntry {
+            table_id: request.id.clone(),
+            ranges,
+        }];
+
+        let total_deleted_count = self
+            .delete_physical_version_files(&table_entries, branch)
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse {
+            deleted_count: Some(total_deleted_count),
+            transaction_id: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_index(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableIndexRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableIndexResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_index");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let mut dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "create_table_index")
+            .await?;
+        let index_request = Self::build_index_params(&request)?;
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[request.column.as_str()],
+                index_request.index_type(),
+                request.name.clone(),
+                index_request.params(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                let err_msg = format!("{}", e);
+                let ns_err = if err_msg.contains("already exists") {
+                    NamespaceError::TableIndexAlreadyExists {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Index '{}' already exists on table '{}': {:?}",
+                            request.name.as_deref().unwrap_or("<auto-generated>"),
+                            table_uri,
+                            e
+                        ),
+                    }
+                } else if err_msg.contains("not found") || err_msg.contains("does not exist") {
+                    NamespaceError::TableColumnNotFound {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Column '{}' not found for table '{}': {:?}",
+                            request.column, table_uri, e
+                        ),
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to create {} index '{}' on column '{}' for table '{}': {:?}",
+                            request.index_type,
+                            request.name.as_deref().unwrap_or("<auto-generated>"),
+                            request.column,
+                            table_uri,
+                            e
+                        ),
+                    }
+                };
+                lance_core::Error::from(ns_err)
+            })?;
+
+        let transaction_id = dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to read committed transaction after creating index on '{}': {}",
+                        table_uri, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?
+            .map(|transaction| transaction.uuid);
+
+        Ok(CreateTableIndexResponse {
+            transaction_id,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn list_table_indices(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTableIndicesRequest,
+    ) -> Result<ListTableIndicesResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_table_indices");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, request.version, "list_table_indices")
+            .await?;
+        let total_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to count rows for table '{}': {:?}", table_uri, e),
+            })
+        })? as u64;
+        let mut indices = dataset
+            .describe_indices(None)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to describe table indices for '{}': {:?}", table_uri, e),
+                })
+            })?
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|description| {
+                description
+                    .metadata()
+                    .first()
+                    .map(|metadata| !is_system_index(metadata))
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            })
+            .map(|description| {
+                let columns = description
+                    .field_ids()
+                    .iter()
+                        .map(|field_id| {
+                        dataset
+                            .schema()
+                            .field_path_minimal(i32::try_from(*field_id).map_err(|e| {
+                                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                                    message: format!(
+                                        "Field id {} does not fit in i32 for table '{}': {}",
+                                        field_id, table_uri, e
+                                    ),
+                                })
+                            })?)
+                            .map_err(|e| {
+                            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                                message: format!(
+                                    "Failed to resolve field path for field_id {} in table '{}': {}",
+                                    field_id, table_uri, e
+                                ),
+                            })
+                        })
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+                let segments = description.segments();
+                let created_at = segments
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter_map(|segment| segment.created_at)
+                    .min()
+                    .map(|ts| ts.to_rfc3339());
+
+                // `..Default::default()` keeps this tolerant of additive reqwest
+                // client model changes (see #7212).
+                #[allow(clippy::needless_update)]
+                let content = IndexContent {
+                    index_name: description.name().to_string(),
+                    index_uuid: description.metadata()[0].uuid.to_string(),
+                    columns,
+                    status: "SUCCEEDED".to_string(),
+                    index_type: Some(description.index_type().to_string()),
+                    type_url: Some(description.type_url().to_string()),
+                    num_indexed_rows: Some(description.rows_indexed() as i64),
+                    num_unindexed_rows: Some(
+                        total_rows.saturating_sub(description.rows_indexed()) as i64,
+                    ),
+                    size_bytes: description.total_size_bytes().map(|size| size as i64),
+                    num_segments: Some(segments.len() as i32),
+                    created_at,
+                    index_version: segments.first().map(|segment| segment.index_version),
+                    index_details: description.details().ok(),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                };
+                Ok(content)
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        let page_token = Self::paginate_indices(&mut indices, request.page_token, request.limit);
+        Ok(ListTableIndicesResponse {
+            indexes: indices,
+            page_token,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_table_index_stats(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_table_index_stats");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, request.version, "describe_table_index_stats")
+            .await?;
+        let index_name = request.index_name.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Index name is required for describe_table_index_stats".to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
+        let metadatas = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name(index_name)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TableIndexNotFound {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to load index '{}' metadata for table '{}': {}",
+                        index_name, table_uri, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+        if metadatas.first().is_some_and(is_system_index) {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: format!("System index '{}' is not exposed by this API", index_name),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let stats = <Dataset as DatasetIndexExt>::index_statistics(&dataset, index_name)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TableIndexNotFound {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to describe index statistics for '{}' on table '{}': {}",
+                        index_name, table_uri, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to parse index statistics for '{}' on table '{}': {}",
+                    index_name, table_uri, e
+                ),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(Self::describe_table_index_stats_response(&stats))
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_transaction(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTransactionRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DescribeTransactionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_transaction");
+        let mut request_id = request.id.ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Transaction id must include table id and transaction identifier"
+                    .to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
+        if request_id.len() < 2 {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Transaction request id must include table id and transaction identifier, got {:?}",
+                    request_id
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let id = request_id.pop().expect("request_id len checked above");
+        let table_id = Some(request_id);
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&table_id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "describe_transaction")
+            .await?;
+        let (version, transaction) = self.find_transaction(&dataset, &id).await?;
+
+        // Merge any persisted alter_transaction changes stored in the sidecar
+        // so that describe_transaction reflects the latest altered state.
+        let sidecar = self
+            .load_transaction_alteration(&table_uri, &transaction.uuid)
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(Self::transaction_response(version, &transaction, sidecar))
+    }
+
+    async fn alter_transaction(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTransactionRequest,
+    ) -> Result<AlterTransactionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("alter_transaction");
+
+        // Parse the request ID: must include table id and transaction identifier
+        let mut request_id = request.id.ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Transaction id must include table id and transaction identifier"
+                    .to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
+        if request_id.len() < 2 {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Transaction request id must include table id and transaction identifier, got {:?}",
+                    request_id
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let txn_id = request_id.pop().expect("request_id len checked above");
+        let table_id = Some(request_id);
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&table_id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "alter_transaction")
+            .await?;
+        let (version, transaction) = self.find_transaction(&dataset, &txn_id).await?;
+
+        // Reserved keys are derived from the immutable Transaction metadata and
+        // must not be modified via alter_transaction. They are only surfaced in
+        // the response for the caller's convenience.
+        const RESERVED_KEYS: &[&str] = &["uuid", "version", "read_version", "operation", "tag"];
+        let is_reserved = |key: &str| RESERVED_KEYS.contains(&key);
+
+        // Load the existing sidecar (if any) so alterations accumulate across
+        // successive alter_transaction calls.
+        let mut sidecar = self
+            .load_transaction_alteration(&table_uri, &transaction.uuid)
+            .await?
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        for action in &request.actions {
+            if let Some(ref set_status) = action.set_status_action
+                && let Some(ref status) = set_status.status
+            {
+                // Validate the status value (case-insensitive)
+                let normalized = status.to_lowercase().replace('_', "");
+                match normalized.as_str() {
+                    "queued" | "running" | "succeeded" | "failed" | "canceled" => {
+                        sidecar.status = Some(status.clone());
+                    }
+                    _ => {
+                        return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                            message: format!(
+                                "Invalid transaction status '{}'. Valid values are: Queued, Running, Succeeded, Failed, Canceled",
+                                status
+                            ),
+                        }
+                        .into());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            if let Some(ref set_property) = action.set_property_action
+                && let (Some(key), Some(value)) = (&set_property.key, &set_property.value)
+            {
+                if is_reserved(key) {
+                    return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!("Property '{}' is reserved and cannot be modified", key),
+                    }
+                    .into());
+                }
+                let mode = set_property
+                    .mode
+                    .as_deref()
+                    .unwrap_or("Overwrite")
+                    .to_lowercase();
+                match mode.as_str() {
+                    "overwrite" => {
+                        sidecar.properties.insert(key.clone(), value.clone());
+                    }
+                    "fail" => {
+                        // Consider both the immutable transaction properties
+                        // and any values previously written to the sidecar.
+                        let exists = sidecar.properties.contains_key(key)
+                            || transaction
+                                .transaction_properties
+                                .as_ref()
+                                .is_some_and(|props| props.contains_key(key));
+                        if exists {
+                            return Err(NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification {
+                                message: format!(
+                                    "Property '{}' already exists and mode is 'Fail'",
+                                    key
+                                ),
+                            }
+                            .into());
+                        }
+                        sidecar.properties.insert(key.clone(), value.clone());
+                    }
+                    "skip" => {
+                        let exists = sidecar.properties.contains_key(key)
+                            || transaction
+                                .transaction_properties
+                                .as_ref()
+                                .is_some_and(|props| props.contains_key(key));
+                        if !exists {
+                            sidecar.properties.insert(key.clone(), value.clone());
+                        }
+                    }
+                    _ => {
+                        return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                            message: format!(
+                                "Invalid set_property mode '{}'. Valid values are: Overwrite, Fail, Skip",
+                                mode
+                            ),
+                        }
+                        .into());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            if let Some(ref unset_property) = action.unset_property_action
+                && let Some(ref key) = unset_property.key
+            {
+                if is_reserved(key) {
+                    return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!("Property '{}' is reserved and cannot be modified", key),
+                    }
+                    .into());
+                }
+                let mode = unset_property
+                    .mode
+                    .as_deref()
+                    .unwrap_or("Skip")
+                    .to_lowercase();
+                let exists_in_transaction = transaction
+                    .transaction_properties
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|props| props.contains_key(key));
+                match mode.as_str() {
+                    "skip" => {
+                        sidecar.properties.remove(key);
+                        if exists_in_transaction {
+                            // Track a tombstone so describe_transaction can
+                            // hide the immutable property from the response.
+                            sidecar.removed_properties.insert(key.clone());
+                        }
+                    }
+                    "fail" => {
+                        if !sidecar.properties.contains_key(key) && !exists_in_transaction {
+                            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                                message: format!(
+                                    "Property '{}' does not exist and mode is 'Fail'",
+                                    key
+                                ),
+                            }
+                            .into());
+                        }
+                        sidecar.properties.remove(key);
+                        if exists_in_transaction {
+                            sidecar.removed_properties.insert(key.clone());
+                        }
+                    }
+                    _ => {
+                        return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                            message: format!(
+                                "Invalid unset_property mode '{}'. Valid values are: Skip, Fail",
+                                mode
+                            ),
+                        }
+                        .into());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Persist the accumulated alterations so subsequent calls observe
+        // them. The transaction file itself is immutable in Lance, so we
+        // record alter_transaction outcomes in a namespace-owned sidecar.
+        self.save_transaction_alteration(&table_uri, &transaction.uuid, &sidecar)
+            .await?;
+
+        // Assemble the response by merging the immutable transaction metadata
+        // with the persisted alterations.
+        let final_status = sidecar
+            .status
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| "SUCCEEDED".to_string());
+        let response = Self::transaction_response(version, &transaction, Some(sidecar));
+        Ok(AlterTransactionResponse {
+            status: final_status,
+            properties: response.properties,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_scalar_index(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableIndexRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableScalarIndexResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_scalar_index");
+        let index_type = Self::parse_index_type(&request.index_type)?;
+        if !index_type.is_scalar() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "create_table_scalar_index only supports scalar index types, got {}",
+                    request.index_type
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let response = self.create_table_index(request).await?;
+        Ok(CreateTableScalarIndexResponse {
+            transaction_id: response.transaction_id,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn drop_table_index(
+        &self,
+        request: DropTableIndexRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DropTableIndexResponse> {
+        self.record_op("drop_table_index");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let index_name = request.index_name.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Index name is required for drop_table_index".to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
+        let mut dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "drop_table_index")
+            .await?;
+        let metadatas = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name(index_name)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TableIndexNotFound {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to load index '{}' before dropping it from table '{}': {}",
+                        index_name, table_uri, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+        if metadatas.first().is_some_and(is_system_index) {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: format!(
+                    "System index '{}' cannot be dropped via this API",
+                    index_name
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        dataset.drop_index(index_name).await.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TableIndexNotFound {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to drop index '{}' from table '{}': {}",
+                    index_name, table_uri, e
+                ),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+        let transaction_id = dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to read committed transaction after dropping index '{}' from '{}': {}",
+                        index_name, table_uri, e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?
+            .map(|transaction| transaction.uuid);
+
+        Ok(DropTableIndexResponse {
+            transaction_id,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn list_all_tables(&self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> Result<ListTablesResponse> {
+        // In dir-only mode there are no child namespaces, so all tables live in the
+        // root directory. This is equivalent to listing the root namespace.
+        let mut tables = self.list_directory_tables().await?;
+        tables = self
+            .filter_declared_tables(tables, request.include_declared.unwrap_or(true))
+            .await?;
+        Self::apply_pagination(&mut tables, request.page_token, request.limit);
+        Ok(ListTablesResponse::new(tables))
+    }
+
+    async fn restore_table(&self, request: RestoreTableRequest) -> Result<RestoreTableResponse> {
+        let version = request.version;
+        if version < 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Table version for restore_table must be non-negative, got {}",
+                    version
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let branch = Self::normalized_branch(request.branch.as_deref())?;
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let mut dataset = match branch {
+            Some(branch) => self.open_validated_branch(&table_uri, branch).await?,
+            None => self.load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "restore_table").await?,
+        };
+
+        dataset = dataset
+            .checkout_version(version as u64)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::namespace_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Failed to checkout version {} for restore at '{}': {}",
+                        version, table_uri, e
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+
+        dataset.restore().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::namespace_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Failed to restore table at '{}' to version {}: {}",
+                    table_uri, version, e
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+
+        let transaction_id = dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::namespace_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Failed to read transaction after restoring '{}': {}",
+                        table_uri, e
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?
+            .map(|t| t.uuid);
+
+        Ok(RestoreTableResponse {
+            transaction_id,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn update_table_schema_metadata(
+        &self,
+        request: UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest,
+    ) -> Result<UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse> {
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let mut dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "update_table_schema_metadata")
+            .await?;
+
+        let new_metadata = request.metadata.unwrap_or_default();
+        let updated_metadata = dataset
+            .update_schema_metadata(new_metadata.iter().map(|(k, v)| (k.as_str(), v.as_str())))
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::namespace_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Failed to update schema metadata for table at '{}': {}",
+                        table_uri, e
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+
+        let transaction_id = dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::namespace_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Failed to read transaction after updating metadata for '{}': {}",
+                        table_uri, e
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?
+            .map(|t| t.uuid);
+
+        Ok(UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse {
+            metadata: Some(updated_metadata),
+            transaction_id,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn get_table_stats(
+        &self,
+        request: GetTableStatsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<GetTableStatsResponse> {
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            self.load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "get_table_stats")
+                .await?,
+        );
+
+        // Compute total bytes on disk using field-level statistics
+        let data_stats = dataset.calculate_data_stats().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::namespace_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Failed to calculate data statistics for table at '{}': {}",
+                    table_uri, e
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let total_bytes: i64 = data_stats
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.bytes_on_disk as i64)
+            .sum();
+
+        // Collect per-fragment row counts
+        let fragment_row_futures: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|f| async move { f.physical_rows().await })
+            .collect();
+        let fragment_row_results = futures::future::join_all(fragment_row_futures).await;
+        let mut fragment_row_counts: Vec<i64> = fragment_row_results
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter_map(|r| r.ok())
+            .map(|r| r as i64)
+            .collect();
+
+        let num_fragments = fragment_row_counts.len() as i64;
+        let num_rows: i64 = fragment_row_counts.iter().sum();
+
+        // Fragments with fewer rows than the compaction target are considered "small",
+        // consistent with CompactionOptions::target_rows_per_fragment default.
+        const SMALL_FRAGMENT_THRESHOLD: i64 = 1024 * 1024;
+        let num_small_fragments = fragment_row_counts
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|&&r| r < SMALL_FRAGMENT_THRESHOLD)
+            .count() as i64;
+
+        // Compute length summary statistics
+        fragment_row_counts.sort_unstable();
+        let lengths = if fragment_row_counts.is_empty() {
+            FragmentSummary::new(0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
+        } else {
+            let len = fragment_row_counts.len();
+            let min = fragment_row_counts[0];
+            let max = fragment_row_counts[len - 1];
+            let mean = num_rows / num_fragments;
+            let pct = |p: f64| fragment_row_counts[((len - 1) as f64 * p) as usize];
+            FragmentSummary::new(min, max, mean, pct(0.25), pct(0.50), pct(0.75), pct(0.99))
+        };
+
+        // Count non-system indices
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::namespace_source(
+                format!("Failed to load indices for table at '{}': {}", table_uri, e).into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        let num_indices = indices.iter().filter(|m| !is_system_index(m)).count() as i64;
+
+        let fragment_stats = FragmentStats::new(num_fragments, num_small_fragments, lengths);
+        Ok(GetTableStatsResponse::new(
+            total_bytes,
+            num_rows,
+            num_indices,
+            fragment_stats,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn explain_table_query_plan(
+        &self,
+        request: ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest,
+    ) -> Result<String> {
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(
+                &table_uri,
+                request.query.version,
+                "explain_table_query_plan",
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let verbose = request.verbose.unwrap_or(false);
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        Self::apply_query_params_to_scanner(
+            &mut scanner,
+            request.query.filter.as_deref(),
+            request.query.columns.as_deref(),
+            request.query.vector_column.as_deref(),
+            &request.query.vector,
+            request.query.k,
+            request.query.offset,
+            request.query.prefilter,
+            request.query.bypass_vector_index,
+            request.query.nprobes,
+            request.query.minimum_nprobes,
+            request.query.maximum_nprobes,
+            request.query.ef,
+            request.query.refine_factor,
+            request.query.distance_type.as_deref(),
+            request.query.fast_search,
+            request.query.with_row_id,
+            request.query.lower_bound,
+            request.query.upper_bound,
+            "explain_table_query_plan",
+        )?;
+
+        scanner.explain_plan(verbose).await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::namespace_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Failed to explain query plan for table at '{}': {}",
+                    table_uri, e
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn analyze_table_query_plan(
+        &self,
+        request: AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest,
+    ) -> Result<String> {
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, request.version, "analyze_table_query_plan")
+            .await?;
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        Self::apply_query_params_to_scanner(
+            &mut scanner,
+            request.filter.as_deref(),
+            request.columns.as_deref(),
+            request.vector_column.as_deref(),
+            &request.vector,
+            request.k,
+            request.offset,
+            request.prefilter,
+            request.bypass_vector_index,
+            request.nprobes,
+            request.minimum_nprobes,
+            request.maximum_nprobes,
+            request.ef,
+            request.refine_factor,
+            request.distance_type.as_deref(),
+            request.fast_search,
+            request.with_row_id,
+            request.lower_bound,
+            request.upper_bound,
+            "analyze_table_query_plan",
+        )?;
+
+        scanner.analyze_plan().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::namespace_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Failed to analyze query plan for table at '{}': {}",
+                    table_uri, e
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn count_table_rows(&self, request: CountTableRowsRequest) -> Result<i64> {
+        self.record_op("count_table_rows");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, request.version, "count_table_rows")
+            .await?;
+
+        let count =
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(request.predicate)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to count rows for table at '{}': {:?}", table_uri, e),
+                })?;
+
+        Ok(count as i64)
+    }
+
+    async fn insert_into_table(
+        &self,
+        request: InsertIntoTableRequest,
+        request_data: Bytes,
+    ) -> Result<InsertIntoTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("insert_into_table");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let (reader, _num_rows) =
+            Self::ipc_reader_from_request_data(&request_data, "insert_into_table")?;
+
+        let mode = match request.mode.as_deref() {
+            Some(m) if m.eq_ignore_ascii_case("overwrite") => WriteMode::Overwrite,
+            Some(m) if m.eq_ignore_ascii_case("append") => WriteMode::Append,
+            None => WriteMode::Append,
+            Some(m) => {
+                return Err(lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Unsupported write mode '{}'. Supported modes are: 'append', 'overwrite'",
+                        m
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into());
+            }
+        };
+
+        if !self.table_uri_has_actual_manifests(&table_uri).await? {
+            self.write_reader_to_table(&table_uri, reader, WriteMode::Create, None)
+                .await?;
+        } else {
+            self.write_reader_to_table(&table_uri, reader, mode, None)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(InsertIntoTableResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn merge_insert_into_table(
+        &self,
+        request: MergeInsertIntoTableRequest,
+        request_data: Bytes,
+    ) -> Result<MergeInsertIntoTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("merge_insert_into_table");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let on = merge_insert_on_columns(request.on.as_deref(), "merge_insert_into_table")?;
+
+        let table_has_manifests = self.table_uri_has_actual_manifests(&table_uri).await?;
+        let (reader, num_rows) =
+            Self::ipc_reader_from_request_data(&request_data, "merge_insert_into_table")?;
+
+        if !table_has_manifests {
+            let dataset = self
+                .write_reader_to_table(&table_uri, reader, WriteMode::Create, None)
+                .await?;
+            let version = dataset.version().version as i64;
+            return Ok(MergeInsertIntoTableResponse {
+                transaction_id: None,
+                num_updated_rows: Some(0),
+                num_inserted_rows: Some(num_rows as i64),
+                num_deleted_rows: Some(0),
+                version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            });
+        }
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            self.load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "merge_insert_into_table")
+                .await?,
+        );
+
+        let mut merge_builder =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), on.to_vec()).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("Failed to create merge_insert_into_table builder: {}", e),
+                })
+            })?;
+
+        if let Some(filter) = request.when_matched_update_all_filt.as_deref() {
+            let behavior = WhenMatched::update_if(dataset.as_ref(), filter).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Invalid when_matched_update_all_filt for merge_insert_into_table: {}",
+                        e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+            merge_builder.when_matched(behavior);
+        } else if request.when_matched_update_all.unwrap_or(false) {
+            merge_builder.when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll);
+        }
+
+        if matches!(request.when_not_matched_insert_all, Some(false)) {
+            merge_builder.when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing);
+        } else {
+            merge_builder.when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(filter) = request.when_not_matched_by_source_delete_filt.as_deref() {
+            let behavior = WhenNotMatchedBySource::delete_if(dataset.as_ref(), filter).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Invalid when_not_matched_by_source_delete_filt for merge_insert_into_table: {}",
+                        e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+            merge_builder.when_not_matched_by_source(behavior);
+        } else if request.when_not_matched_by_source_delete.unwrap_or(false) {
+            merge_builder.when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(use_index) = request.use_index {
+            merge_builder.use_index(use_index);
+        }
+
+        let (dataset, stats) = merge_builder
+            .try_build()
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("Failed to build merge_insert_into_table job: {}", e),
+                })
+            })?
+            .execute_reader(reader)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Self::map_mutation_error(e, "merge_insert_into_table", &table_uri))?;
+
+        Ok(MergeInsertIntoTableResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            num_updated_rows: Some(stats.num_updated_rows as i64),
+            num_inserted_rows: Some(stats.num_inserted_rows as i64),
+            num_deleted_rows: Some(stats.num_deleted_rows as i64),
+            version: Some(dataset.version().version as i64),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn update_table(&self, request: UpdateTableRequest) -> Result<UpdateTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("update_table");
+
+        if request.updates.is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "update_table requires at least one [column, expression] pair".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        // Validate every update pair shape and detect duplicate columns up front so we
+        // surface a clean error instead of failing deep inside the planner.
+        let mut seen_columns: HashMap<String, ()> = HashMap::with_capacity(request.updates.len());
+        for (idx, pair) in request.updates.iter().enumerate() {
+            if pair.len() != 2 {
+                return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "update_table updates[{}] must be a [column, expression] pair, got {} elements",
+                        idx,
+                        pair.len()
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into());
+            }
+            let column = &pair[0];
+            if column.trim().is_empty() {
+                return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("update_table updates[{}] has an empty column name", idx),
+                }
+                .into());
+            }
+            if seen_columns.insert(column.clone(), ()).is_some() {
+                return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "update_table cannot update column '{}' more than once",
+                        column
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into());
+            }
+        }
+
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = Arc::new(self.load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "update_table").await?);
+
+        let mut builder = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset);
+        for pair in &request.updates {
+            // Indexing by 0/1 is safe due to the length check above.
+            builder = builder.set(&pair[0], &pair[1]).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("Invalid update expression for column '{}': {}", pair[0], e),
+                })
+            })?;
+        }
+        if let Some(predicate) = request.predicate.as_deref()
+            && !predicate.trim().is_empty()
+        {
+            builder = builder.update_where(predicate).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("Invalid update_table predicate '{}': {}", predicate, e),
+                })
+            })?;
+        }
+
+        let job = builder.build().map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!("Failed to build update_table job: {}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+        let result = job
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Self::map_mutation_error(e, "update_table", &table_uri))?;
+
+        let version = result.new_dataset.version().version as i64;
+        Ok(UpdateTableResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            updated_rows: result.rows_updated as i64,
+            version,
+            properties: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn delete_from_table(
+        &self,
+        request: DeleteFromTableRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DeleteFromTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("delete_from_table");
+
+        if request.predicate.trim().is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "delete_from_table requires a non-empty predicate".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let mut dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "delete_from_table")
+            .await?;
+
+        let result = dataset
+            .delete(&request.predicate)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Self::map_mutation_error(e, "delete_from_table", &table_uri))?;
+
+        Ok(DeleteFromTableResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            version: Some(result.new_dataset.version().version as i64),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn query_table(&self, request: QueryTableRequest) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        use arrow::ipc::writer::FileWriter;
+
+        self.record_op("query_table");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, request.version, "query_table")
+            .await?;
+
+        // Build scanner
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+
+        // Check if this is a vector search query
+        // vector is Box<QueryTableRequestVector>, not Option
+        let has_vector_query = request
+            .vector
+            .single_vector
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|sv| !sv.is_empty())
+            .unwrap_or(false)
+            || request
+                .vector
+                .multi_vector
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|mv| !mv.is_empty())
+                .unwrap_or(false);
+
+        // Apply prefilter setting (must be set before nearest)
+        if let Some(prefilter) = request.prefilter {
+            scanner.prefilter(prefilter);
+        }
+
+        // Apply vector search if query vector is provided
+        if has_vector_query {
+            let vector_column = request.vector_column.as_deref().unwrap_or("vector");
+
+            // Get the query vector(s)
+            let query_vector: Vec<f32> = request
+                .vector
+                .single_vector
+                .clone()
+                .or_else(|| {
+                    request
+                        .vector
+                        .multi_vector
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .and_then(|mv| mv.first().cloned())
+                })
+                .unwrap_or_default();
+
+            if !query_vector.is_empty() {
+                let k = if request.k > 0 {
+                    request.k as usize
+                } else {
+                    10
+                };
+                let query_array = Float32Array::from(query_vector);
+                scanner
+                    .nearest(vector_column, &query_array, k)
+                    .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!("Invalid vector search: {:?}", e),
+                    })?;
+
+                // Apply distance type if specified
+                if let Some(ref distance_type) = request.distance_type {
+                    let metric = match distance_type.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+                        "l2" | "euclidean" => MetricType::L2,
+                        "cosine" => MetricType::Cosine,
+                        "dot" | "inner_product" => MetricType::Dot,
+                        "hamming" => MetricType::Hamming,
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                                message: format!("Unknown distance type: {}", distance_type),
+                            }
+                            .into());
+                        }
+                    };
+                    scanner.distance_metric(metric);
+                }
+
+                apply_probe_bounds(
+                    &mut scanner,
+                    request.nprobes,
+                    request.minimum_nprobes,
+                    request.maximum_nprobes,
+                )?;
+
+                // Apply ef (HNSW search effort) if specified
+                if let Some(ef) = request.ef {
+                    scanner.ef(ef as usize);
+                }
+
+                // Apply refine_factor if specified
+                if let Some(refine_factor) = request.refine_factor {
+                    scanner.refine(refine_factor as u32);
+                }
+
+                // Apply distance bounds if specified
+                if request.lower_bound.is_some() || request.upper_bound.is_some() {
+                    scanner.distance_range(request.lower_bound, request.upper_bound);
+                }
+
+                // Apply use_index (inverse of bypass_vector_index)
+                if let Some(bypass) = request.bypass_vector_index {
+                    scanner.use_index(!bypass);
+                }
+
+                // Apply fast_search if specified
+                if request.fast_search == Some(true) {
+                    scanner.fast_search();
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Apply full text search if specified
+        if let Some(ref fts_query) = request.full_text_query {
+            // Handle string_query (simple string FTS)
+            if let Some(ref string_query) = fts_query.string_query {
+                let mut fts = FullTextSearchQuery::new(string_query.query.clone());
+
+                // Apply column filter if specified
+                if let Some(ref columns) = string_query.columns
+                    && !columns.is_empty()
+                {
+                    fts = fts
+                        .with_columns(columns)
+                        .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                            message: format!("Invalid FTS columns: {:?}", e),
+                        })?;
+                }
+
+                scanner
+                    .full_text_search(fts)
+                    .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!("Invalid full text search: {:?}", e),
+                    })?;
+            } else if let Some(ref structured_query) = fts_query.structured_query {
+                // Structured FTS: map the namespace query model into the engine FtsQuery.
+                let engine_query = build_engine_fts_query(&structured_query.query)?;
+                let fts = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(engine_query);
+                scanner
+                    .full_text_search(fts)
+                    .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!("Invalid full text search: {:?}", e),
+                    })?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Apply column projection if specified
+        if let Some(ref columns) = request.columns {
+            if let Some(ref column_names) = columns.column_names
+                && !column_names.is_empty()
+            {
+                scanner
+                    .project(column_names)
+                    .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!("Invalid column projection: {:?}", e),
+                    })?;
+            } else if let Some(ref column_aliases) = columns.column_aliases
+                && !column_aliases.is_empty()
+            {
+                // column_aliases is HashMap<String, String> where key is alias, value is SQL expression
+                let transform_pairs: Vec<(String, String)> = column_aliases
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(alias, sql)| (alias.clone(), sql.clone()))
+                    .collect();
+                scanner
+                    .project_with_transform(
+                        &transform_pairs
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|(a, s)| (a.as_str(), s.as_str()))
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )
+                    .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!("Invalid column alias expression: {:?}", e),
+                    })?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Apply filter if specified
+        if let Some(ref filter) = request.filter
+            && !filter.is_empty()
+        {
+            scanner
+                .filter(filter)
+                .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("Invalid filter expression: {:?}", e),
+                })?;
+        }
+
+        // Apply with_row_id if requested
+        if request.with_row_id == Some(true) {
+            scanner.with_row_id();
+        }
+
+        // Apply limit if specified (k is the number of results to return)
+        // k == 0 means no limit
+        // Note: For vector search, limit is already applied via nearest()
+        if !has_vector_query && request.k > 0 {
+            let offset = request.offset.map(|o| o as i64);
+            scanner.limit(Some(request.k as i64), offset).map_err(|e| {
+                NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("Invalid limit/offset: {:?}", e),
+                }
+            })?;
+        } else if has_vector_query && request.offset.is_some() {
+            // For vector search, offset is handled separately
+            let offset = request.offset.map(|o| o as i64);
+            scanner
+                .limit(None, offset)
+                .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("Invalid offset: {:?}", e),
+                })?;
+        }
+
+        // Execute the scan and collect results
+        let batch = scanner
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to execute query: {:?}", e),
+            })?;
+
+        // Serialize to Arrow IPC file format
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+        {
+            let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &schema).map_err(|e| {
+                NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to create IPC writer: {:?}", e),
+                }
+            })?;
+            writer.write(&batch).map_err(|e| NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to write batch to IPC: {:?}", e),
+            })?;
+            writer.finish().map_err(|e| NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to finish IPC writer: {:?}", e),
+            })?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(Bytes::from(buffer))
+    }
+
+    async fn list_table_tags(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTableTagsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<ListTableTagsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_table_tags");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "list_table_tags")
+            .await?;
+
+        let raw_tags = dataset.tags().list().await.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to list tags for table at '{}': {}", table_uri, e),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+        let tags = raw_tags
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(name, contents)| {
+                let mut tag_model =
+                    ModelTagContents::new(contents.version as i64, contents.manifest_size as i64);
+                tag_model.branch = contents.branch;
+                (name, tag_model)
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        Ok(ListTableTagsResponse {
+            tags,
+            page_token: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn get_table_tag_version(
+        &self,
+        request: GetTableTagVersionRequest,
+    ) -> Result<GetTableTagVersionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("get_table_tag_version");
+        if request.tag.is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "tag name must not be empty for get_table_tag_version".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "get_table_tag_version")
+            .await?;
+
+        let contents = dataset
+            .tags()
+            .get(&request.tag)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Self::map_tag_error(e, &request.tag, &table_uri))?;
+
+        Ok(GetTableTagVersionResponse {
+            version: contents.version as i64,
+            branch: contents.branch,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_tag(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableTagRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableTagResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_tag");
+        if request.tag.is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "tag name must not be empty for create_table_tag".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+        if request.version <= 0 {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "tag version must be a positive integer, got {} for create_table_tag",
+                    request.version
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "create_table_tag")
+            .await?;
+
+        dataset
+            .tags()
+            .create(&request.tag, request.version as u64)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Self::map_tag_error(e, &request.tag, &table_uri))?;
+
+        Ok(CreateTableTagResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn delete_table_tag(
+        &self,
+        request: DeleteTableTagRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DeleteTableTagResponse> {
+        self.record_op("delete_table_tag");
+        if request.tag.is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "tag name must not be empty for delete_table_tag".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "delete_table_tag")
+            .await?;
+
+        dataset
+            .tags()
+            .delete(&request.tag)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Self::map_tag_error(e, &request.tag, &table_uri))?;
+
+        Ok(DeleteTableTagResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn update_table_tag(
+        &self,
+        request: UpdateTableTagRequest,
+    ) -> Result<UpdateTableTagResponse> {
+        self.record_op("update_table_tag");
+        if request.tag.is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "tag name must not be empty for update_table_tag".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+        if request.version <= 0 {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "tag version must be a positive integer, got {} for update_table_tag",
+                    request.version
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "update_table_tag")
+            .await?;
+
+        dataset
+            .tags()
+            .update(&request.tag, request.version as u64)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Self::map_tag_error(e, &request.tag, &table_uri))?;
+
+        Ok(UpdateTableTagResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_branch(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableBranchRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableBranchResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_branch");
+        if request.name.is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "branch name must not be empty for create_table_branch".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+        let from_version = match request.from_version {
+            Some(v) if v <= 0 => {
+                return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "from_version must be a positive integer, got {} for create_table_branch",
+                        v
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into());
+            }
+            Some(v) => Some(v as u64),
+            None => None,
+        };
+
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let mut dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "create_table_branch")
+            .await?;
+
+        // Best-effort pre-check: a duplicate returns a clean TableBranchAlreadyExists conflict
+        // instead of the opaque Internal error create_branch raises on a pre-existing branch. A
+        // concurrent create can still race past this window. Remove once lance-core create_branch
+        // returns RefConflict up front.
+        if dataset.branches().get(&request.name).await.is_ok() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableBranchAlreadyExists {
+                message: format!("branch '{}' for table at '{}'", request.name, table_uri),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .create_branch(
+                &request.name,
+                (request.from_branch.as_deref(), from_version),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                // After load_dataset + the dup pre-check, a DatasetNotFound from create_branch
+                // means the requested fork source (from_branch/from_version) doesn't exist.
+                if matches!(e, lance_core::Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }) {
+                    NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "from_branch/from_version for branch '{}' refers to a source that does not exist: {}",
+                            request.name, e
+                        ),
+                    }
+                    .into()
+                } else {
+                    Self::map_branch_error(e, &request.name, &table_uri)
+                }
+            })?;
+
+        Ok(CreateTableBranchResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn list_table_branches(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTableBranchesRequest,
+    ) -> Result<ListTableBranchesResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_table_branches");
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "list_table_branches")
+            .await?;
+
+        let raw_branches = dataset.list_branches().await.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to list branches for table at '{}': {}",
+                    table_uri, e
+                ),
+            })
+        })?;
+
+        let branches = raw_branches
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(name, contents)| {
+                // The namespace `BranchContents` model has no `identifier` field, so the
+                // lance-core branch identifier is intentionally dropped here.
+                let mut branch_model = ModelBranchContents::new(
+                    contents.parent_version as i64,
+                    contents.create_at as i64,
+                    contents.manifest_size as i64,
+                );
+                branch_model.parent_branch = contents.parent_branch;
+                branch_model.metadata = if contents.metadata.is_empty() {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(contents.metadata)
+                };
+                (name, branch_model)
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        Ok(ListTableBranchesResponse {
+            branches,
+            page_token: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn delete_table_branch(
+        &self,
+        request: DeleteTableBranchRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DeleteTableBranchResponse> {
+        self.record_op("delete_table_branch");
+        if request.name.is_empty() {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "branch name must not be empty for delete_table_branch".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+
+        let table_uri = self.resolve_table_location(&request.id).await?;
+        let mut dataset = self
+            .load_dataset(&table_uri, None, "delete_table_branch")
+            .await?;
+
+        dataset
+            .delete_branch(&request.name)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| match e {
+                lance_core::Error::RefConflict { message } => NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "branch '{}' for table at '{}': {}",
+                        request.name, table_uri, message
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into(),
+                other => Self::map_branch_error(other, &request.name, &table_uri),
+            })?;
+
+        Ok(DeleteTableBranchResponse {
+            transaction_id: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
+        format!("DirectoryNamespace {{ root: {:?} }}", self.root)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Error from [`put_marker_file_atomic`].
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) enum MarkerFileError {
+    /// The final marker path is already present (Create / rename race).
+    AlreadyExists { description: String },
+    /// Staging or publish failed for a non-conflict reason.
+    Other { message: String },
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for MarkerFileError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::AlreadyExists { description } => {
+                write!(f, "{} already exists", description)
+            }
+            Self::Other { message } => write!(f, "{}", message),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Atomically create a marker file (e.g. `.lance-reserved`) with Create semantics.
+///
+/// Some object stores implement `PutMode::Create` via temp+rename that reuses the
+/// final basename. Dotfile targets such as `.lance-reserved` therefore produce
+/// temp names containing `..`, which these stores reject. Stage under a non-dot
+/// sibling, then claim the final path with `rename_if_not_exists`.
+///
+/// When `rename_if_not_exists` is unavailable, fall back to
+/// `copy_if_not_exists(staging → target)`, then `PutMode::Create` on the target.
+/// That Create path is only for stores whose Create is a true conditional PUT
+/// (not basename-derived temp+rename); such stores are exactly the ones that
+/// typically omit rename/copy conditionals.
+///
+/// Some object stores also fail to flush empty objects, so the conditional rename
+/// can fail with NotFound. Use a tiny non-empty payload.
+///
+/// Staging cleanup is best-effort with a few short retries. A delete that still
+/// fails after retries leaves a tiny `lance-marker.staging.*` orphan. Async Drop
+/// cannot await object-store I/O, so RAII is not used here. Each call uses a
+/// unique staging UUID, so concurrent callers never contend on the same cleanup.
+pub(crate) async fn put_marker_file_atomic(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    path: &Path,
+    file_description: &str,
+) -> std::result::Result<(), MarkerFileError> {
+    let staging_name = format!("lance-marker.staging.{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4().simple());
+    let path_str = path.as_ref();
+    let staging_path = match path_str.rfind('/') {
+        Some(idx) => Path::from(format!("{}/{}", &path_str[..idx], staging_name)),
+        None => Path::from(staging_name.as_str()),
+    };
+
+    object_store
+        .inner
+        .put(&staging_path, bytes::Bytes::from_static(b"reserved").into())
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| MarkerFileError::Other {
+            message: format!("Failed to stage {}: {:?}", file_description, e),
+        })?;
+
+    // Successful rename consumes the staging object; every other path must
+    // delete it (best-effort) so conflict/fallback races do not accumulate.
+    let mut staging_consumed = false;
+    let publish_result = match object_store
+        .inner
+        .rename_if_not_exists(&staging_path, path)
+        .await
+    {
+        Ok(()) => {
+            staging_consumed = true;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Err(ObjectStoreError::NotImplemented { .. })
+        | Err(ObjectStoreError::NotSupported { .. }) => {
+            match object_store
+                .inner
+                .copy_if_not_exists(&staging_path, path)
+                .await
+            {
+                Ok(()) => Ok(()),
+                Err(ObjectStoreError::NotImplemented { .. })
+                | Err(ObjectStoreError::NotSupported { .. }) => object_store
+                    .inner
+                    .put_opts(
+                        path,
+                        bytes::Bytes::from_static(b"reserved").into(),
+                        PutOptions {
+                            mode: PutMode::Create,
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        },
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .map(|_| ()),
+                Err(e) => Err(e),
+            }
+        }
+        Err(e) => Err(e),
+    };
+
+    if !staging_consumed {
+        delete_staging_marker_best_effort(object_store, &staging_path).await;
+    }
+
+    match publish_result {
+        Ok(()) => Ok(()),
+        Err(ObjectStoreError::AlreadyExists { .. })
+        | Err(ObjectStoreError::Precondition { .. }) => Err(MarkerFileError::AlreadyExists {
+            description: file_description.to_string(),
+        }),
+        Err(e) => Err(MarkerFileError::Other {
+            message: format!("Failed to create {}: {:?}", file_description, e),
+        }),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Best-effort delete of a per-call staging marker, with short retries for
+/// transient store errors. `NotFound` is treated as success (delete may have
+/// succeeded despite an earlier ambiguous failure).
+async fn delete_staging_marker_best_effort(object_store: &ObjectStore, staging_path: &Path) {
+    const MAX_ATTEMPTS: u32 = 3;
+    const BACKOFF_MS: [u64; 2] = [20, 50];
+
+    let mut last_err: Option<ObjectStoreError> = None;
+    for attempt in 0..MAX_ATTEMPTS {
+        match object_store.inner.delete(staging_path).await {
+            Ok(()) => return,
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => return,
+            Err(e) => {
+                last_err = Some(e);
+                if let Some(&delay_ms) = BACKOFF_MS.get(attempt as usize) {
+                    tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(delay_ms)).await;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if let Some(del_err) = last_err {
+        log::warn!(
+            "Failed to delete staging marker at '{}' after {} attempts: {:?}",
+            staging_path,
+            MAX_ATTEMPTS,
+            del_err
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Maps a namespace structured `FtsQuery` model into the engine `FtsQuery`. Mirrors the mapping the
+/// JNI scanner performs, so the local `queryTable` path honors `structured_query` the same way a
+/// `fragment.newScan(fullTextQuery)` does.
+fn build_engine_fts_query(
+    query: &lance_namespace::models::FtsQuery,
+) -> std::result::Result<FtsQuery, NamespaceError> {
+    if let Some(ref m) = query.r#match {
+        Ok(FtsQuery::Match(build_engine_match_query(m)?))
+    } else if let Some(ref p) = query.phrase {
+        let mut phrase = PhraseQuery::new(p.terms.clone());
+        if let Some(ref column) = p.column {
+            phrase = phrase.with_column(Some(column.clone()));
+        }
+        if let Some(slop) = p.slop {
+            phrase = phrase.with_slop(slop as u32);
+        }
+        Ok(FtsQuery::Phrase(phrase))
+    } else if let Some(ref mm) = query.multi_match {
+        let match_queries = mm
+            .match_queries
+            .iter()
+            .map(build_engine_match_query)
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+        Ok(FtsQuery::MultiMatch(MultiMatchQuery { match_queries }))
+    } else if let Some(ref b) = query.boolean {
+        let mut clauses: Vec<(Occur, FtsQuery)> = Vec::new();
+        for clause in &b.must {
+            clauses.push((Occur::Must, build_engine_fts_query(clause)?));
+        }
+        for clause in &b.should {
+            clauses.push((Occur::Should, build_engine_fts_query(clause)?));
+        }
+        for clause in &b.must_not {
+            clauses.push((Occur::MustNot, build_engine_fts_query(clause)?));
+        }
+        Ok(FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(clauses)))
+    } else if let Some(ref boost) = query.boost {
+        let positive = build_engine_fts_query(&boost.positive)?;
+        let negative = build_engine_fts_query(&boost.negative)?;
+        Ok(FtsQuery::Boost(BoostQuery::new(
+            positive,
+            negative,
+            boost.negative_boost,
+        )))
+    } else {
+        Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+            message: "structured_query.query must set exactly one of match, phrase, multi_match, \
+                      boolean, or boost"
+                .to_string(),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+fn build_engine_match_query(
+    m: &lance_namespace::models::MatchQuery,
+) -> std::result::Result<MatchQuery, NamespaceError> {
+    let mut match_query = MatchQuery::new(m.terms.clone());
+    if let Some(ref column) = m.column {
+        match_query = match_query.with_column(Some(column.clone()));
+    }
+    if let Some(boost) = m.boost {
+        match_query = match_query.with_boost(boost);
+    }
+    if let Some(fuzziness) = m.fuzziness {
+        match_query = match_query.with_fuzziness(Some(fuzziness as u32));
+    }
+    if let Some(max_expansions) = m.max_expansions {
+        match_query = match_query.with_max_expansions(max_expansions as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(ref operator) = m.operator {
+        let op =
+            Operator::try_from(operator.as_str()).map_err(|e| NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!("Invalid FTS operator: {:?}", e),
+            })?;
+        match_query = match_query.with_operator(op);
+    }
+    if let Some(prefix_length) = m.prefix_length {
+        match_query = match_query.with_prefix_length(prefix_length as u32);
+    }
+    Ok(match_query)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_ipc::reader::{FileReader, StreamReader};
+    use lance::index::vector::StageParams;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn build_ivf_rq_num_bits(num_bits: Option<i32>) -> Result<u8> {
+        let mut request = CreateTableIndexRequest::new("vector".to_string(), "IVF_RQ".to_string());
+        request.num_bits = num_bits;
+
+        let DirectoryIndexParams::Vector {
+            index_type: IndexType::IvfRq,
+            params,
+        } = DirectoryNamespace::build_index_params(&request)?
+        else {
+            panic!("expected IVF_RQ vector index params");
+        };
+        match params.stages.as_slice() {
+            [StageParams::Ivf(_), StageParams::RQ(rq)] => Ok(rq.num_bits),
+            stages => panic!("expected IVF and RQ stages, got {stages:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::omitted(None, 5)]
+    #[case::explicit_one(Some(1), 1)]
+    #[case::explicit_max(Some(9), 9)]
+    fn test_build_index_params_ivf_rq_num_bits(
+        #[case] requested: Option<i32>,
+        #[case] expected: u8,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(build_ivf_rq_num_bits(requested).unwrap(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::negative(-1)]
+    #[case::zero(0)]
+    #[case::above_max(10)]
+    #[case::conversion_overflow(i32::MAX)]
+    fn test_build_index_params_rejects_invalid_ivf_rq_num_bits(#[case] requested: i32) {
+        let error = build_ivf_rq_num_bits(Some(requested))
+            .expect_err("invalid IVF_RQ num_bits should fail");
+        let message = error.to_string();
+
+        assert_eq!(mutation_error_code(error), ErrorCode::InvalidInput);
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(&format!(
+                "IVF_RQ num_bits must be in 1..=9, got {requested}"
+            )),
+            "unexpected error message: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_engine_fts_query_match() {
+        let mut ns_match = lance_namespace::models::MatchQuery::new("hello world".to_string());
+        ns_match.column = Some("body".to_string());
+        ns_match.operator = Some("AND".to_string());
+        ns_match.fuzziness = Some(1);
+        ns_match.max_expansions = Some(30);
+        ns_match.boost = Some(2.0);
+        ns_match.prefix_length = Some(2);
+
+        let mut ns_query = lance_namespace::models::FtsQuery::new();
+        ns_query.r#match = Some(Box::new(ns_match));
+
+        match build_engine_fts_query(&ns_query).unwrap() {
+            FtsQuery::Match(m) => {
+                assert_eq!(m.terms, "hello world");
+                assert_eq!(m.column, Some("body".to_string()));
+                assert_eq!(m.operator, Operator::And);
+                assert_eq!(m.fuzziness, Some(1));
+                assert_eq!(m.max_expansions, 30);
+                assert_eq!(m.boost, 2.0);
+                assert_eq!(m.prefix_length, 2);
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected Match, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Wraps a namespace `MatchQuery` (with a column) as an `FtsQuery` for use as a clause in
+    /// compound queries (boolean / boost).
+    fn ns_match_query(terms: &str, column: &str) -> lance_namespace::models::FtsQuery {
+        let mut m = lance_namespace::models::MatchQuery::new(terms.to_string());
+        m.column = Some(column.to_string());
+        let mut q = lance_namespace::models::FtsQuery::new();
+        q.r#match = Some(Box::new(m));
+        q
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_engine_fts_query_phrase() {
+        let mut ns_phrase = lance_namespace::models::PhraseQuery::new("hello world".to_string());
+        ns_phrase.column = Some("body".to_string());
+        ns_phrase.slop = Some(2);
+
+        let mut ns_query = lance_namespace::models::FtsQuery::new();
+        ns_query.phrase = Some(Box::new(ns_phrase));
+
+        match build_engine_fts_query(&ns_query).unwrap() {
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(p) => {
+                assert_eq!(p.terms, "hello world");
+                assert_eq!(p.column, Some("body".to_string()));
+                assert_eq!(p.slop, 2);
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected Phrase, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_engine_fts_query_multi_match() {
+        let mut m1 = lance_namespace::models::MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string());
+        m1.column = Some("title".to_string());
+        let mut m2 = lance_namespace::models::MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string());
+        m2.column = Some("body".to_string());
+        m2.boost = Some(2.0);
+
+        let ns_multi = lance_namespace::models::MultiMatchQuery::new(vec![m1, m2]);
+        let mut ns_query = lance_namespace::models::FtsQuery::new();
+        ns_query.multi_match = Some(Box::new(ns_multi));
+
+        match build_engine_fts_query(&ns_query).unwrap() {
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(mm) => {
+                assert_eq!(mm.match_queries.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(mm.match_queries[0].terms, "hello");
+                assert_eq!(mm.match_queries[0].column, Some("title".to_string()));
+                assert_eq!(mm.match_queries[1].column, Some("body".to_string()));
+                assert_eq!(mm.match_queries[1].boost, 2.0);
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected MultiMatch, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_engine_fts_query_boolean() {
+        // BooleanQuery::new(must, must_not, should)
+        let ns_boolean = lance_namespace::models::BooleanQuery::new(
+            vec![ns_match_query("must-term", "body")],
+            vec![ns_match_query("must-not-term", "body")],
+            vec![ns_match_query("should-term", "body")],
+        );
+        let mut ns_query = lance_namespace::models::FtsQuery::new();
+        ns_query.boolean = Some(Box::new(ns_boolean));
+
+        match build_engine_fts_query(&ns_query).unwrap() {
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(b) => {
+                assert!(matches!(&b.must[..], [FtsQuery::Match(m)] if m.terms == "must-term"));
+                assert!(
+                    matches!(&b.must_not[..], [FtsQuery::Match(m)] if m.terms == "must-not-term")
+                );
+                assert!(matches!(&b.should[..], [FtsQuery::Match(m)] if m.terms == "should-term"));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected Boolean, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_engine_fts_query_boost() {
+        let mut ns_boost = lance_namespace::models::BoostQuery::new(
+            ns_match_query("positive-term", "body"),
+            ns_match_query("negative-term", "body"),
+        );
+        ns_boost.negative_boost = Some(0.25);
+
+        let mut ns_query = lance_namespace::models::FtsQuery::new();
+        ns_query.boost = Some(Box::new(ns_boost));
+
+        match build_engine_fts_query(&ns_query).unwrap() {
+            FtsQuery::Boost(b) => {
+                assert!(
+                    matches!(b.positive.as_ref(), FtsQuery::Match(m) if m.terms == "positive-term")
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    matches!(b.negative.as_ref(), FtsQuery::Match(m) if m.terms == "negative-term")
+                );
+                assert_eq!(b.negative_boost, 0.25);
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected Boost, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_engine_fts_query_requires_a_variant() {
+        // An FtsQuery with no variant set is rejected rather than silently ignored.
+        let empty = lance_namespace::models::FtsQuery::new();
+        assert!(build_engine_fts_query(&empty).is_err());
+    }
+    use lance::dataset::Dataset;
+    use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempStdDir, TempStrDir};
+    use lance_core::utils::testing::CountingObjectStore;
+    use lance_io::object_store::{providers::local::FileStoreProvider, uri_to_url};
+    use lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode;
+    use lance_namespace::models::{
+        CreateTableRequest, JsonArrowDataType, JsonArrowField, JsonArrowSchema, ListTablesRequest,
+        QueryTableRequestColumns,
+    };
+    use lance_namespace::schema::convert_json_arrow_schema;
+    use std::io::Cursor;
+    use std::sync::{
+        Arc,
+        atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+    };
+    use url::Url;
+
+    fn assert_plan_contains_all(plan: &str, expected_fragments: &[&str], context: &str) {
+        for expected_fragment in expected_fragments {
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains(expected_fragment),
+                "{}. Missing fragment: '{}'. Plan:\n{}",
+                context,
+                expected_fragment,
+                plan
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn mutation_error_code(err: lance_core::Error) -> ErrorCode {
+        match err {
+            lance_core::Error::Namespace { source, .. } => source
+                .downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>()
+                .expect("mutation error should wrap a NamespaceError")
+                .code(),
+            other => panic!("expected Namespace error, got: {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `map_mutation_error` must classify commit-conflict variants the same way as
+    /// `convert_lance_commit_error` in `manifest.rs`: `CommitConflict` is a retries-exhausted
+    /// version collision that is safe to retry (`Throttling`), while the semantic-conflict variants
+    /// map to `ConcurrentModification`.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_map_mutation_error_commit_conflict_alignment() {
+        let boxed = || -> Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static> {
+            Box::<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync>::from("inner conflict")
+        };
+
+        let throttling_cases = vec![lance_core::Error::commit_conflict_source(1, boxed())];
+        for err in throttling_cases {
+            let code = mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::map_mutation_error(
+                err,
+                "update",
+                "memory://t",
+            ));
+            assert_eq!(code, ErrorCode::Throttling);
+        }
+
+        let concurrent_cases = vec![
+            lance_core::Error::too_much_write_contention("contention"),
+            lance_core::Error::retryable_commit_conflict_source(1, boxed()),
+            lance_core::Error::incompatible_transaction_source(boxed()),
+            lance_core::Error::version_conflict("conflict", 0, 3),
+        ];
+        for err in concurrent_cases {
+            let code = mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::map_mutation_error(
+                err,
+                "update",
+                "memory://t",
+            ));
+            assert_eq!(code, ErrorCode::ConcurrentModification);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Helper to create a test DirectoryNamespace with a temporary directory
+    async fn create_test_namespace() -> (DirectoryNamespace, TempStdDir) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        (namespace, temp_dir)
+    }
+
+    /// The early-stop path (ordered stores) and the collect-then-sort path
+    /// must return the same results for every descending/limit combination.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_versions_under_ordering_and_limit() {
+        use lance_table::io::commit::ManifestNamingScheme;
+
+        async fn seed_and_check(ns: &DirectoryNamespace) {
+            let table_path = ns.base_path.clone().join("lv_test.lance");
+            for v in 1..=7u64 {
+                let p = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&table_path, v);
+                ns.object_store.put(&p, b"m".as_slice()).await.unwrap();
+            }
+            // A retained staging blob (sorts ahead of every committed
+            // manifest) and a detached manifest (sorts after) must be excluded
+            // without breaking naming-scheme detection.
+            let staging = Path::parse(format!(
+                "{}-cee4fbbb-eb19-4ea3-8ca7-54f5ec33dedc",
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&table_path, 8)
+            ))
+            .unwrap();
+            ns.object_store
+                .put(&staging, b"s".as_slice())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let detached = table_path.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR).join("d123.manifest");
+            ns.object_store
+                .put(&detached, b"d".as_slice())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            fn versions(r: &[TableVersion]) -> Vec<i64> {
+                r.iter().map(|t| t.version).collect()
+            }
+
+            let got = ns
+                .list_versions_under(&table_path, true, Some(1))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(versions(&got), vec![7]);
+            let got = ns
+                .list_versions_under(&table_path, true, Some(3))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(versions(&got), vec![7, 6, 5]);
+
+            let got = ns
+                .list_versions_under(&table_path, false, Some(2))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(versions(&got), vec![1, 2]);
+
+            let got = ns
+                .list_versions_under(&table_path, true, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(versions(&got), vec![7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]);
+            let got = ns
+                .list_versions_under(&table_path, false, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(versions(&got), vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]);
+
+            let got = ns
+                .list_versions_under(&table_path, true, Some(0))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(got.is_empty());
+            let got = ns
+                .list_versions_under(&table_path, true, Some(100))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(versions(&got), vec![7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]);
+
+            // Negative limits are ignored, matching `apply_pagination`.
+            let got = ns
+                .list_versions_under(&table_path, true, Some(-1))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(versions(&got), vec![7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]);
+        }
+
+        let ns_mem = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new("memory://lv-test")
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(ns_mem.object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered);
+        seed_and_check(&ns_mem).await;
+
+        let (ns_fs, _tmp) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        assert!(!ns_fs.object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered);
+        seed_and_check(&ns_fs).await;
+    }
+
+    /// A retained staging blob sorts ahead of the newest committed manifest;
+    /// if scheme detection reads it, the `descending, limit=1` hot path falls
+    /// back to consuming the whole directory. Asserts the consumption bound.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_versions_under_early_stop_bounded_consumption() {
+        use lance_io::object_store::providers::memory::MemoryStoreProvider;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::ManifestNamingScheme;
+
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct EntryCountingStore {
+            target: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+            entries_listed: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        }
+
+        impl std::fmt::Display for EntryCountingStore {
+            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+                write!(f, "EntryCountingStore({})", self.target)
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl OSObjectStore for EntryCountingStore {
+            async fn put_opts(
+                &self,
+                location: &Path,
+                bytes: PutPayload,
+                opts: PutOptions,
+            ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+                self.target.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+            }
+
+            async fn put_multipart_opts(
+                &self,
+                location: &Path,
+                opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+            ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+                self.target.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+            }
+
+            async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+                self.target.get_opts(location, options).await
+            }
+
+            fn delete_stream(
+                &self,
+                locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+            ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+                self.target.delete_stream(locations)
+            }
+
+            fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+                let entries_listed = self.entries_listed.clone();
+                self.target
+                    .list(prefix)
+                    .inspect(move |_| {
+                        entries_listed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    })
+                    .boxed()
+            }
+
+            async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+                self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+            }
+
+            async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+                self.target.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct EntryCountingMemoryProvider {
+            entries_listed: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreProvider for EntryCountingMemoryProvider {
+            async fn new_store(
+                &self,
+                base_path: Url,
+                params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+            ) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
+                let mut store = MemoryStoreProvider.new_store(base_path, params).await?;
+                store.inner = Arc::new(EntryCountingStore {
+                    target: store.inner.clone(),
+                    entries_listed: self.entries_listed.clone(),
+                });
+                Ok(store)
+            }
+
+            fn extract_path(&self, url: &Url) -> Result<Path> {
+                MemoryStoreProvider.extract_path(url)
+            }
+
+            fn calculate_object_store_prefix(
+                &self,
+                url: &Url,
+                storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+            ) -> Result<String> {
+                MemoryStoreProvider.calculate_object_store_prefix(url, storage_options)
+            }
+        }
+
+        let entries_listed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        registry.insert(
+            "memory-object-store",
+            Arc::new(EntryCountingMemoryProvider {
+                entries_listed: entries_listed.clone(),
+            }),
+        );
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::new(0, 0, registry));
+        let ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new("memory-object-store://lv-count")
+            .session(session)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(ns.object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered);
+
+        let table_path = ns.base_path.clone().join("lv_count.lance");
+        for v in 1..=100u64 {
+            let p = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&table_path, v);
+            ns.object_store.put(&p, b"m".as_slice()).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        // Sorts ahead of every committed manifest: the first raw entry.
+        let staging = Path::parse(format!(
+            "{}-cee4fbbb-eb19-4ea3-8ca7-54f5ec33dedc",
+            ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&table_path, 101)
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        ns.object_store
+            .put(&staging, b"s".as_slice())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let consumed_before = entries_listed.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
+        let got = ns
+            .list_versions_under(&table_path, true, Some(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let consumed = entries_listed.load(Ordering::SeqCst) - consumed_before;
+
+        assert_eq!(got.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(got[0].version, 100);
+        assert_eq!(
+            consumed, 2,
+            "latest-version query must consume only the staging entry plus the \
+             first committed manifest, not the whole directory (consumed {} of \
+             101 entries)",
+            consumed
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    struct CountingFileStoreProvider {
+        listing_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreProvider for CountingFileStoreProvider {
+        async fn new_store(
+            &self,
+            base_path: Url,
+            params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+        ) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
+            let provider = FileStoreProvider;
+            let mut store = provider.new_store(base_path, params).await?;
+            store.inner = Arc::new(CountingObjectStore::new(
+                store.inner.clone(),
+                self.listing_count.clone(),
+            ));
+            Ok(store)
+        }
+
+        fn extract_path(&self, url: &Url) -> Result<Path> {
+            let provider = FileStoreProvider;
+            provider.extract_path(url)
+        }
+
+        fn calculate_object_store_prefix(
+            &self,
+            url: &Url,
+            storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+        ) -> Result<String> {
+            let provider = FileStoreProvider;
+            provider.calculate_object_store_prefix(url, storage_options)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    fn file_object_store_uri(path: &str) -> String {
+        let file_url = uri_to_url(path).unwrap();
+        let mut url = Url::parse("file-object-store:///").unwrap();
+        url.set_path(file_url.path());
+        url.to_string()
+    }
+
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    fn build_listing_counting_session(listing_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>) -> Arc<Session> {
+        let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        registry.insert(
+            "file-object-store",
+            Arc::new(CountingFileStoreProvider { listing_count }),
+        );
+        Arc::new(Session::new(0, 0, registry))
+    }
+
+    // Fault-injection store: returns a runtime-toggleable result from
+    // `list_with_delimiter` (the call `check_table_status` makes) and delegates
+    // everything else, so a table can be created before failures are injected.
+    use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+    use object_store::{
+        CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+        PutMultipartOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, Result as OSResult,
+    };
+    use std::ops::Range;
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+    enum ListBehavior {
+        Throttle,
+        ServiceUnavailable,
+        Internal,
+        NotFound,
+        EmptyListing,
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingListStore {
+        target: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+        behavior: Arc<Mutex<Option<ListBehavior>>>,
+    }
+
+    impl std::fmt::Display for FailingListStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "FailingListStore({})", self.target)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl OSObjectStore for FailingListStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.target.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.target.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            self.target.get_opts(location, options).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.target.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.target.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.target.list(prefix)
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            let behavior = *self.behavior.lock().unwrap();
+            match behavior {
+                None => self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await,
+                Some(ListBehavior::EmptyListing) => Ok(ListResult {
+                    common_prefixes: Vec::new(),
+                    objects: Vec::new(),
+                }),
+                // Mirrors the object_store retry-exhaustion message shape for an
+                // Azure ServerBusy response, which is what the incident produced.
+                Some(ListBehavior::Throttle) => Err(ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+                    store: "test",
+                    source: "Error performing list request: response error, after 3 retries, \
+                             max_retries: 3, retry_timeout: 180s - HTTP status server error \
+                             (503 Service Unavailable): ServerBusy: The server is busy"
+                        .into(),
+                }),
+                Some(ListBehavior::ServiceUnavailable) => Err(ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+                    store: "test",
+                    source: "Error performing list request: 503 Service Unavailable".into(),
+                }),
+                Some(ListBehavior::Internal) => Err(ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+                    store: "test",
+                    source: "Error performing list request: catastrophic unclassified failure"
+                        .into(),
+                }),
+                Some(ListBehavior::NotFound) => Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound {
+                    path: "test_table.lance".to_string(),
+                    source: "entity not found".into(),
+                }),
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.target.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingListStoreProvider {
+        behavior: Arc<Mutex<Option<ListBehavior>>>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreProvider for FailingListStoreProvider {
+        async fn new_store(
+            &self,
+            base_path: Url,
+            params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+        ) -> Result<ObjectStore> {
+            let mut store = FileStoreProvider.new_store(base_path, params).await?;
+            store.inner = Arc::new(FailingListStore {
+                target: store.inner.clone(),
+                behavior: self.behavior.clone(),
+            });
+            Ok(store)
+        }
+
+        fn extract_path(&self, url: &Url) -> Result<Path> {
+            FileStoreProvider.extract_path(url)
+        }
+
+        fn calculate_object_store_prefix(
+            &self,
+            url: &Url,
+            storage_options: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+        ) -> Result<String> {
+            FileStoreProvider.calculate_object_store_prefix(url, storage_options)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn build_failing_list_session(behavior: Arc<Mutex<Option<ListBehavior>>>) -> Arc<Session> {
+        let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        registry.insert(
+            "file-object-store",
+            Arc::new(FailingListStoreProvider { behavior }),
+        );
+        Arc::new(Session::new(0, 0, registry))
+    }
+
+    /// Build a dir-listing namespace whose object store's listing calls follow a
+    /// shared, runtime-toggleable behavior. Returns the namespace, the temp dir
+    /// (kept alive for the store), and the behavior toggle.
+    async fn failing_list_namespace() -> (
+        DirectoryNamespace,
+        TempStdDir,
+        Arc<Mutex<Option<ListBehavior>>>,
+    ) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let root_uri = file_object_store_uri(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap());
+        let behavior = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let session = build_failing_list_session(behavior.clone());
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root_uri)
+            .session(session)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        (namespace, temp_dir, behavior)
+    }
+
+    async fn create_named_dir_table(namespace: &DirectoryNamespace, name: &str) {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec![name.to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for the throttling-induced TableNotFound bug: a storage
+    /// error while resolving a table must surface as a typed storage error
+    /// (Throttling / ServiceUnavailable / Internal) carrying the underlying
+    /// evidence in its message — never as TableNotFound.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_resolution_propagates_storage_errors_not_table_not_found() {
+        for (behavior, expected_code, evidence) in [
+            (ListBehavior::Throttle, ErrorCode::Throttling, "serverbusy"),
+            (
+                ListBehavior::ServiceUnavailable,
+                ErrorCode::ServiceUnavailable,
+                "503 service unavailable",
+            ),
+            (ListBehavior::Internal, ErrorCode::Internal, "catastrophic"),
+        ] {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, toggle) = failing_list_namespace().await;
+            create_named_dir_table(&namespace, "checkpoint").await;
+            *toggle.lock().unwrap() = Some(behavior);
+
+            let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+            describe_req.id = Some(vec!["checkpoint".to_string()]);
+            let err = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap_err();
+            let msg = err.to_string();
+            assert_eq!(
+                mutation_error_code(err),
+                expected_code,
+                "describe_table under {behavior:?}; msg: {msg}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                msg.to_ascii_lowercase().contains(evidence),
+                "describe_table message must carry storage evidence '{evidence}', got: {msg}"
+            );
+
+            let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+            exists_req.id = Some(vec!["checkpoint".to_string()]);
+            let err = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.unwrap_err();
+            let msg = err.to_string();
+            assert_eq!(
+                mutation_error_code(err),
+                expected_code,
+                "table_exists under {behavior:?}; msg: {msg}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                msg.to_ascii_lowercase().contains(evidence),
+                "table_exists message must carry storage evidence '{evidence}', got: {msg}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A genuine not-found error and an empty listing must both still resolve to
+    /// TableNotFound (the local-FS and object-store representations of "missing").
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_resolution_missing_table_yields_table_not_found() {
+        for behavior in [ListBehavior::NotFound, ListBehavior::EmptyListing] {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, toggle) = failing_list_namespace().await;
+            *toggle.lock().unwrap() = Some(behavior);
+
+            let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+            describe_req.id = Some(vec!["missing".to_string()]);
+            let err = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap_err();
+            assert_eq!(
+                mutation_error_code(err),
+                ErrorCode::TableNotFound,
+                "describe_table under {behavior:?} should be TableNotFound"
+            );
+
+            let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+            exists_req.id = Some(vec!["missing".to_string()]);
+            let err = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.unwrap_err();
+            assert_eq!(
+                mutation_error_code(err),
+                ErrorCode::TableNotFound,
+                "table_exists under {behavior:?} should be TableNotFound"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Hybrid (manifest + directory) resolution must exercise the
+    /// manifest→directory fall-through for a table that exists on disk but is not
+    /// registered in the manifest: the fall-through must succeed normally, and
+    /// must not degrade a storage error into TableNotFound.
+    ///
+    /// A `__manifest` table must actually exist for the manifest branch to run;
+    /// otherwise `manifest_ns_for_read()` is None and the manifest branch (and its
+    /// fall-through arm) is skipped entirely. We therefore create a *separate*
+    /// table through a manifest-enabled namespace first so `__manifest` exists.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hybrid_resolution_falls_through_and_does_not_mask_throttle() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let root_uri = file_object_store_uri(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap());
+        let behavior = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let session = build_failing_list_session(behavior.clone());
+
+        // Seed table via a manifest-enabled namespace so `__manifest` exists.
+        let manifest_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root_uri.clone())
+            .session(session.clone())
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        create_named_dir_table(&manifest_ns, "seed").await;
+
+        // The table under test: on disk but never registered in the manifest.
+        let dir_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root_uri.clone())
+            .session(session.clone())
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        create_named_dir_table(&dir_ns, "checkpoint").await;
+
+        // Migration enabled so root-level reads consult the manifest and fall
+        // through to the directory check on a manifest miss.
+        let hybrid_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root_uri)
+            .session(session)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // (a) Healthy fall-through: the manifest reports "checkpoint" absent and it
+        // resolves via the directory listing (guards the migration lookup).
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["checkpoint".to_string()]);
+        hybrid_ns
+            .describe_table(describe_req)
+            .await
+            .expect("unregistered on-disk table should resolve via the manifest fall-through");
+
+        // (b) The throttle here surfaces from the directory check after the manifest
+        // reports absent; the fall-through arm's own storage-error guard is covered
+        // by the classify_storage_error / is_manifest_table_absent_error unit tests.
+        *behavior.lock().unwrap() = Some(ListBehavior::Throttle);
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["checkpoint".to_string()]);
+        let err = hybrid_ns.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        let code = mutation_error_code(err);
+        assert_ne!(
+            code,
+            ErrorCode::TableNotFound,
+            "hybrid resolution masked a throttle as TableNotFound"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                code,
+                ErrorCode::Throttling | ErrorCode::ServiceUnavailable | ErrorCode::Internal
+            ),
+            "hybrid resolution should surface a storage error, got {code:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_classify_storage_error_maps_variants_and_preserves_evidence() {
+        let throttle: Error = ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+            store: "test",
+            source: "list request failed, after 3 retries, max_retries: 3 - 503 ServerBusy".into(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert!(matches!(throttle, Error::IO { .. }));
+        let classified = DirectoryNamespace::classify_storage_error(throttle);
+        let msg = classified.to_string();
+        assert_eq!(mutation_error_code(classified), ErrorCode::Throttling);
+        assert!(
+            msg.to_ascii_lowercase().contains("serverbusy"),
+            "throttle evidence lost: {msg}"
+        );
+
+        let service: Error = ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+            store: "test",
+            source: "504 Gateway Timeout".into(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::classify_storage_error(service)),
+            ErrorCode::ServiceUnavailable
+        );
+
+        let internal: Error = ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+            store: "test",
+            source: "disk caught fire".into(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::classify_storage_error(internal)),
+            ErrorCode::Internal
+        );
+
+        // A pre-existing namespace error keeps its own code rather than being reclassified.
+        let preexisting: Error = NamespaceError::TableAlreadyExists {
+            message: "t".to_string(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::classify_storage_error(preexisting)),
+            ErrorCode::TableAlreadyExists
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_is_manifest_table_absent_error() {
+        let table_not_found: Error = NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+            message: "t".to_string(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert!(DirectoryNamespace::is_manifest_table_absent_error(
+            &table_not_found
+        ));
+        let raw_not_found: Error = ObjectStoreError::NotFound {
+            path: "t".to_string(),
+            source: "x".into(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert!(DirectoryNamespace::is_manifest_table_absent_error(
+            &raw_not_found
+        ));
+
+        let throttle: Error = ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+            store: "test",
+            source: "after 3 retries, max_retries: 3 ServerBusy".into(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert!(!DirectoryNamespace::is_manifest_table_absent_error(
+            &throttle
+        ));
+        let internal: Error = NamespaceError::Internal {
+            message: "boom".to_string(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert!(!DirectoryNamespace::is_manifest_table_absent_error(
+            &internal
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_map_open_error() {
+        let not_found = || NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+            message: "table at 'x' not found: ...".to_string(),
+        };
+
+        let throttle: Error = ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+            store: "test",
+            source: "after 3 retries, max_retries: 3 - 503 ServerBusy".into(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::map_open_error(throttle, not_found())),
+            ErrorCode::Throttling
+        );
+
+        let generic_io: Error = ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+            store: "test",
+            source: "connection reset".into(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::map_open_error(generic_io, not_found())),
+            ErrorCode::Internal
+        );
+
+        let io_not_found: Error = ObjectStoreError::NotFound {
+            path: "x".to_string(),
+            source: "missing".into(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::map_open_error(
+                io_not_found,
+                not_found()
+            )),
+            ErrorCode::TableNotFound
+        );
+
+        let dataset_not_found = Error::dataset_not_found("x".to_string(), "missing".into());
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::map_open_error(
+                dataset_not_found,
+                not_found()
+            )),
+            ErrorCode::TableNotFound
+        );
+
+        // RefNotFound is not an IO error, so it is not reclassified as a storage error.
+        let ref_not_found = Error::RefNotFound {
+            message: "branch 'b' does not exist".to_string(),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::map_open_error(
+                ref_not_found,
+                not_found()
+            )),
+            ErrorCode::TableNotFound
+        );
+
+        // The caller's not-found variant is honored, but a throttle still propagates.
+        let version_miss = Error::RefNotFound {
+            message: "version 5 does not exist".to_string(),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::map_open_error(
+                version_miss,
+                NamespaceError::TableVersionNotFound {
+                    message: "version 5 not found".to_string(),
+                },
+            )),
+            ErrorCode::TableVersionNotFound
+        );
+        let version_throttle: Error = ObjectStoreError::Generic {
+            store: "test",
+            source: "after 3 retries, max_retries: 3 - 503 ServerBusy".into(),
+        }
+        .into();
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(DirectoryNamespace::map_open_error(
+                version_throttle,
+                NamespaceError::TableVersionNotFound {
+                    message: "version 5 not found".to_string(),
+                },
+            )),
+            ErrorCode::Throttling
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Helper to create test IPC data from a schema
+    fn create_test_ipc_data(schema: &JsonArrowSchema) -> Vec<u8> {
+        use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
+
+        let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(schema).unwrap();
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
+        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::new_empty(arrow_schema.clone());
+        let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+        {
+            let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
+            writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+            writer.finish().unwrap();
+        }
+        buffer
+    }
+
+    fn create_ipc_data_from_batches(
+        schema: Arc<arrow_schema::Schema>,
+        batches: Vec<arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Vec<u8> {
+        use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
+
+        let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+        {
+            let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &schema).unwrap();
+            for batch in &batches {
+                writer.write(batch).unwrap();
+            }
+            writer.finish().unwrap();
+        }
+        buffer
+    }
+
+    fn create_non_empty_test_ipc_data() -> Vec<u8> {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+        use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(convert_json_arrow_schema(&create_test_schema()).unwrap());
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("alice"), Some("bob")])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        create_ipc_data_from_batches(schema, vec![batch])
+    }
+
+    fn create_single_row_test_ipc_data() -> Vec<u8> {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+        use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(convert_json_arrow_schema(&create_test_schema()).unwrap());
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("carol")])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        create_ipc_data_from_batches(schema, vec![batch])
+    }
+
+    /// Helper to create a simple test schema
+    fn create_test_schema() -> JsonArrowSchema {
+        let int_type = JsonArrowDataType::new("int32".to_string());
+        let string_type = JsonArrowDataType::new("utf8".to_string());
+
+        let id_field = JsonArrowField {
+            name: "id".to_string(),
+            r#type: Box::new(int_type),
+            nullable: false,
+            metadata: None,
+        };
+
+        let name_field = JsonArrowField {
+            name: "name".to_string(),
+            r#type: Box::new(string_type),
+            nullable: true,
+            metadata: None,
+        };
+
+        JsonArrowSchema {
+            fields: vec![id_field, name_field],
+            metadata: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn create_scalar_table_ipc_data() -> Vec<u8> {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["alice", "bob", "cory"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        create_ipc_data_from_batches(schema, vec![batch])
+    }
+
+    async fn create_legacy_manifest_without_primary_key_metadata(root: &str) {
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use arrow::record_batch::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("object_id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("object_type", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("location", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("metadata", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(
+                "base_objects",
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("object_id", DataType::Utf8, true))),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        Dataset::write(Box::new(reader), &format!("{}/__manifest", root), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    async fn manifest_has_primary_key_metadata(root: &str) -> bool {
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&format!("{}/__manifest", root))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .schema()
+            .field("object_id")
+            .map(|field| {
+                field
+                    .metadata
+                    .contains_key(lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION)
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(false)
+    }
+
+    fn create_vector_table_ipc_data() -> Vec<u8> {
+        use arrow::array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array};
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let vector_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            vector_field,
+            2,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6])),
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])), Arc::new(vectors)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        create_ipc_data_from_batches(schema, vec![batch])
+    }
+
+    async fn create_scalar_table(namespace: &DirectoryNamespace, table_name: &str) {
+        let mut create_table_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_request.id = Some(vec![table_name.to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_table_request,
+                Bytes::from(create_scalar_table_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    async fn create_vector_table(namespace: &DirectoryNamespace, table_name: &str) {
+        let mut create_table_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_request.id = Some(vec![table_name.to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_table_request,
+                Bytes::from(create_vector_table_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    async fn open_dataset(namespace: &DirectoryNamespace, table_name: &str) -> Dataset {
+        let mut describe_request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_request.id = Some(vec![table_name.to_string()]);
+        let table_uri = namespace
+            .describe_table(describe_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .location
+            .expect("table location should exist");
+        Dataset::open(&table_uri).await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn create_scalar_index(
+        namespace: &DirectoryNamespace,
+        table_name: &str,
+        index_name: &str,
+    ) -> Option<String> {
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableIndexRequest;
+
+        let mut create_index_request =
+            CreateTableIndexRequest::new("id".to_string(), "BTREE".to_string());
+        create_index_request.id = Some(vec![table_name.to_string()]);
+        create_index_request.name = Some(index_name.to_string());
+        namespace
+            .create_table_scalar_index(create_index_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .transaction_id
+    }
+
+    /// Fork `branch_name` from the table's current version and append
+    /// `extra_versions` commits to it (each a new version on the branch, written
+    /// with the default V2 naming). The main branch is left untouched. Returns
+    /// the branch's storage URI (`<root>/tree/<branch>`).
+    async fn create_branch_with_commits(
+        namespace: &DirectoryNamespace,
+        table_name: &str,
+        branch_name: &str,
+        extra_versions: usize,
+    ) -> String {
+        let mut main = open_dataset(namespace, table_name).await;
+        let fork_version = main.version().version;
+        let branch = main
+            .create_branch(branch_name, fork_version, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let branch_uri = branch.uri().to_string();
+        for i in 0..extra_versions {
+            append_scalar_version(&branch_uri, (i as i32 + 1) * 100).await;
+        }
+        branch_uri
+    }
+
+    /// Append one scalar-schema batch to the dataset at `uri`, creating a new
+    /// version (default V2 naming). Shared by branch and main chain setup.
+    async fn append_scalar_version(uri: &str, seed: i32) {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![seed, seed + 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("x"), Some("y")])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// List a table's versions on `branch` (None == main) via the namespace.
+    async fn list_versions(
+        namespace: &DirectoryNamespace,
+        table_name: &str,
+        branch: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<TableVersion>> {
+        let req = ListTableVersionsRequest {
+            id: Some(vec![table_name.to_string()]),
+            branch: branch.map(|b| b.to_string()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        namespace.list_table_versions(req).await.map(|r| r.versions)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_table_versions_on_branch() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        create_branch_with_commits(&namespace, "users", "exp", 2).await;
+
+        // The branch lists its own chain, and every version resolves to a
+        // manifest under the branch's tree path.
+        let branch_versions = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("exp"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(branch_versions.len() >= 2);
+        assert!(
+            branch_versions
+                .iter()
+                .all(|v| v.manifest_path.contains("tree/exp")),
+            "branch versions must resolve to branch manifests: {:?}",
+            branch_versions
+        );
+
+        // Unset and "main" behave identically and never see the tree path.
+        let main_versions = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None).await.unwrap();
+        let main_explicit = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("main"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(main_versions.len(), main_explicit.len());
+        assert!(
+            main_versions
+                .iter()
+                .all(|v| !v.manifest_path.contains("tree/"))
+        );
+
+        // A non-existent branch is a clean not-found, not an empty list.
+        let missing = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("does-not-exist")).await;
+        assert!(missing.is_err());
+        assert!(missing.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("not found"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_table_version_on_branch() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        create_branch_with_commits(&namespace, "users", "exp", 2).await;
+
+        let branch_versions = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("exp"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let latest = branch_versions.iter().map(|v| v.version).max().unwrap();
+
+        // Describe latest on the branch returns the branch's manifest_path.
+        let req = DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            branch: Some("exp".to_string()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let resp = namespace.describe_table_version(req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resp.version.version, latest);
+        assert!(resp.version.manifest_path.contains("tree/exp"));
+
+        // A specific existing branch version resolves.
+        let req = DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            version: Some(latest),
+            branch: Some("exp".to_string()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(namespace.describe_table_version(req).await.is_ok());
+
+        // A version absent on the branch is not found.
+        let req = DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            version: Some(999_999),
+            branch: Some("exp".to_string()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(namespace.describe_table_version(req).await.is_err());
+
+        // A non-existent branch is not found.
+        let req = DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            branch: Some("nope".to_string()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let err = namespace.describe_table_version(req).await;
+        assert!(err.is_err() && err.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("not found"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_restore_table_on_branch() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::RestoreTableRequest;
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        create_branch_with_commits(&namespace, "users", "exp", 2).await;
+
+        let before = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("exp"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let branch_latest = before.iter().map(|v| v.version).max().unwrap();
+        let earliest = before.iter().map(|v| v.version).min().unwrap();
+        let main_before = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .len();
+
+        // Restoring the branch to an earlier version commits a NEW version on
+        // the branch (restore is itself a commit), and must not touch main.
+        let req = RestoreTableRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            version: earliest,
+            branch: Some("exp".to_string()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let resp = namespace.restore_table(req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(resp.transaction_id.is_some());
+
+        let after = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("exp"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let new_latest = after.iter().map(|v| v.version).max().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            new_latest > branch_latest,
+            "restore should add a branch version"
+        );
+
+        let main_after = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .len();
+        assert_eq!(main_after, main_before, "main must be unaffected");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_delete_table_versions_on_branch() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest, VersionRange};
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        create_branch_with_commits(&namespace, "users", "exp", 2).await;
+
+        let before = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("exp"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let main_before = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Delete the branch's whole history with a through-latest range (end = -1).
+        // The branch manifests use V2 naming (inverted, zero-padded), so a nonzero
+        // deleted_count proves the V2 fix: the old code constructed
+        // "{version}.manifest" and silently matched nothing.
+        let req = BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            branch: Some("exp".to_string()),
+            ranges: vec![VersionRange::new(0, -1)],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let resp = namespace.batch_delete_table_versions(req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resp.deleted_count,
+            Some(before.len() as i64),
+            "every branch manifest should be physically deleted"
+        );
+
+        // The emptied branch now reads as not-found, and main is untouched.
+        assert!(
+            list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("exp"))
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+        let main_after = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            main_after.len(),
+            main_before.len(),
+            "main must be untouched"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_version_on_branch() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableVersionRequest;
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let branch_uri = create_branch_with_commits(&namespace, "users", "exp", 1).await;
+
+        // Stage a manifest by copying one of the branch's existing manifests.
+        let branch_ds = Dataset::open(&branch_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let versions_dir = branch_ds.versions_dir();
+        let store = branch_ds.object_store(None).await.unwrap();
+        let existing = store
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&versions_dir))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .map(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            })
+            .expect("a branch manifest");
+        let bytes = store
+            .inner
+            .get(&existing.location)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let staging = versions_dir.join("staging_manifest");
+        store.inner.put(&staging, bytes.into()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let main_before = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .len();
+        let new_version = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("exp"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|v| v.version)
+            .max()
+            .unwrap()
+            + 1;
+
+        let req = CreateTableVersionRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            version: new_version,
+            manifest_path: staging.to_string(),
+            naming_scheme: Some("V2".to_string()),
+            branch: Some("exp".to_string()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let resp = namespace.create_table_version(req).await.unwrap();
+        let info = resp.version.expect("version info");
+        // The new manifest must land under the branch's tree path.
+        assert!(
+            info.manifest_path.contains("tree/exp"),
+            "got {}",
+            info.manifest_path
+        );
+
+        // It is visible on the branch, and main did not gain a version.
+        let after = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("exp"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(after.iter().any(|v| v.version == new_version));
+        let main_after = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .len();
+        assert_eq!(main_after, main_before, "main must be unaffected");
+    }
+
+    /// The namespace-managed commit store derives the branch a request targets
+    /// from the base path it is handed, so a single store serves every branch of
+    /// the table: a branch-qualified base resolves and commits against the
+    /// branch chain while the table root targets main.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_external_manifest_store_resolves_branch_from_base_path() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance::io::commit::namespace_manifest::LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestStore;
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await; // main: version 1
+        let branch_uri = create_branch_with_commits(&namespace, "users", "exp", 2).await;
+
+        let namespace = Arc::new(namespace);
+        let table_id = vec!["users".to_string()];
+        let branch_ds = Dataset::open(&branch_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let branch_base = branch_ds.branch_location().path;
+        let root_base = branch_ds.branch_location().find_main().unwrap().path;
+        let store = LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::new(
+            namespace.clone(),
+            table_id.clone(),
+            root_base.clone(),
+        );
+
+        // The branch-qualified base resolves the branch chain, the root base
+        // resolves main: proof the base path reaches list_table_versions.
+        let (branch_latest, branch_path) = store
+            .get_latest_version(branch_base.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("branch has versions");
+        let (_main_latest, main_path) = store
+            .get_latest_version(root_base.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("main has versions");
+        assert!(
+            branch_path.contains("tree/exp"),
+            "branch latest must resolve to the branch tree: {}",
+            branch_path
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !main_path.contains("tree/exp"),
+            "main latest must not resolve to a branch tree: {}",
+            main_path
+        );
+
+        // describe (get) with the branch base also resolves to the branch tree.
+        let described = store
+            .get(branch_base.as_ref(), branch_latest)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            described.contains("tree/exp"),
+            "describe on the branch must resolve to the branch tree: {}",
+            described
+        );
+
+        // A base that is neither the root nor a branch chain is rejected.
+        assert!(store.get_latest_version("somewhere/else").await.is_err());
+
+        // Commit (put) with the branch base: the new version must land on the
+        // branch chain. Stage a manifest by copying an existing branch manifest.
+        let versions_dir = branch_ds.versions_dir();
+        let obj = branch_ds.object_store(None).await.unwrap();
+        let existing = obj
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&versions_dir))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .map(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            })
+            .expect("a branch manifest");
+        let bytes = obj
+            .inner
+            .get(&existing.location)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let size = bytes.len() as u64;
+        let staging = versions_dir.clone().join("staging_manifest");
+        obj.inner.put(&staging, bytes.into()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let committed = store
+            .put(
+                &branch_base,
+                branch_latest + 1,
+                &staging,
+                size,
+                None,
+                obj.inner.as_ref(),
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            committed.path.to_string().contains("tree/exp"),
+            "a commit through a branch-qualified base must land on the branch tree: {}",
+            committed.path
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// write_into_namespace_on_branch must append against the branch chain
+    /// THROUGH the managed commit handler: the version is registered with the
+    /// namespace (create_table_version), lands on the branch tree, and main's
+    /// catalog is untouched. The ops-metrics assertions exist because a
+    /// physical-only commit is invisible to DirectoryNamespace branch listing
+    /// (it lists storage), while a catalog-authoritative namespace would
+    /// silently lose the version.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_into_namespace_on_branch_appends_to_branch() {
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableBranchRequest;
+
+        let temp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let namespace = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp.to_str().unwrap())
+                .manifest_enabled(true)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .ops_metrics_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let ns: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = namespace.clone();
+        let table_id = vec!["t".to_string()];
+        create_managed_table(&ns, &table_id).await; // main: v1 (id=1), v2 (id=2)
+        ns.create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+            id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+            name: "exp".to_string(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let main_chain_len = |ns: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>, table_id: Vec<String>| async move {
+            ns.list_table_versions(ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .versions
+            .len()
+        };
+        let main_before = main_chain_len(ns.clone(), table_id.clone()).await;
+        let commits_before = namespace
+            .retrieve_ops_metrics()
+            .get("create_table_version")
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+
+        let branch_ds = Dataset::write_into_namespace_on_branch(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(single_int_batch(3))], single_int_schema()),
+            ns.clone(),
+            table_id.clone(),
+            "exp",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(branch_ds.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&branch_ds).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+        // The append must commit through the namespace, not just write a
+        // physical manifest under the branch tree.
+        let commits_after = namespace
+            .retrieve_ops_metrics()
+            .get("create_table_version")
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            commits_after,
+            commits_before + 1,
+            "the branch append must register its version via create_table_version"
+        );
+        let exp_versions = ns
+            .list_table_versions(ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                branch: Some("exp".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .versions;
+        assert!(
+            exp_versions
+                .iter()
+                .all(|v| v.manifest_path.contains("tree/exp")),
+            "branch versions must resolve to the branch tree: {:?}",
+            exp_versions
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            main_chain_len(ns.clone(), table_id.clone()).await,
+            main_before,
+            "main's catalog must be untouched by the branch append"
+        );
+
+        // A managed main append through the same entry point must register in
+        // the catalog too, so a fresh managed open resolves the new latest.
+        Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(single_int_batch(100))], single_int_schema()),
+            ns.clone(),
+            table_id.clone(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            main_chain_len(ns.clone(), table_id.clone()).await,
+            main_before + 1,
+            "a managed main append must register its version in the catalog"
+        );
+        let fresh = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan_id_column(&fresh).await,
+            vec![1, 2, 100],
+            "a fresh managed open must resolve the appended version, not a stale latest"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// CREATE on a branch is rejected: a branch forks from an existing version.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_into_namespace_on_branch_rejects_create() {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        let namespace = Arc::new(namespace);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("a")])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let result = Dataset::write_into_namespace_on_branch(
+            reader,
+            namespace.clone(),
+            vec!["new_table".to_string()],
+            "exp",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "create on a branch must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("branch"),
+            "error should mention the branch restriction"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_branch_name_validation_rejects_traversal() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+
+        // A traversal-style branch name is rejected as invalid input before any
+        // storage path is built from it.
+        let err = list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("../evil")).await;
+        assert!(err.is_err());
+        assert!(err.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("invalid branch name"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_branch_ops_reject_zombie_branch() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest, CreateTableVersionRequest, RestoreTableRequest,
+            VersionRange,
+        };
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+
+        let dataset = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let store = dataset.object_store(None).await.unwrap();
+        let manifest = store
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&dataset.versions_dir()))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .map(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            })
+            .expect("a manifest");
+        let bytes = store
+            .inner
+            .get(&manifest.location)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let zombie = dataset
+            .branch_location()
+            .find_branch(Some("ghost"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .path
+            .join(VERSIONS_DIR)
+            .join(manifest.location.filename().unwrap());
+        store.inner.put(&zombie, bytes.into()).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(dataset.branches().get("ghost").await.is_err());
+
+        fn rejected<T: std::fmt::Debug>(label: &str, r: Result<T>) {
+            match r {
+                Ok(v) => panic!("{label} must reject the zombie branch, got Ok({v:?})"),
+                Err(e) => assert!(e.to_string().contains("not found"), "{label}: {e}"),
+            }
+        }
+
+        rejected(
+            "list",
+            list_versions(&namespace, "users", Some("ghost")).await,
+        );
+        rejected(
+            "describe",
+            namespace
+                .describe_table_version(DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+                    id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                    branch: Some("ghost".to_string()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await,
+        );
+        rejected(
+            "create",
+            namespace
+                .create_table_version(CreateTableVersionRequest {
+                    id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                    version: 2,
+                    manifest_path: zombie.to_string(),
+                    branch: Some("ghost".to_string()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await,
+        );
+        rejected(
+            "restore",
+            namespace
+                .restore_table(RestoreTableRequest {
+                    id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                    version: 1,
+                    branch: Some("ghost".to_string()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await,
+        );
+        rejected(
+            "batch_delete",
+            namespace
+                .batch_delete_table_versions(BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest {
+                    id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                    branch: Some("ghost".to_string()),
+                    ranges: vec![VersionRange::new(1, 1)],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await,
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// V2 is the default naming scheme, and the pre-rewrite delete path
+    /// constructed `{version}.manifest` (a V1 name) and silently matched nothing
+    /// on a V2 table, returning deleted_count 0. This pins the fix on the main
+    /// chain (branch=None), which previously had no batch_delete coverage at all.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_delete_table_versions_main_v2() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest, VersionRange};
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await; // version 1
+        let main_uri = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await.uri().to_string();
+        append_scalar_version(&main_uri, 100).await; // version 2
+        append_scalar_version(&main_uri, 200).await; // version 3
+
+        let before = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(before.len() >= 3);
+        // Confirm these really are V2-named manifests (20-digit inverted version
+        // + ".manifest" == 29 chars), i.e. the case the old code skipped.
+        assert!(
+            before
+                .iter()
+                .all(|v| v.manifest_path.rsplit('/').next().unwrap().len() == 29),
+            "expected V2-named manifests: {:?}",
+            before
+        );
+        let min_v = before.iter().map(|v| v.version).min().unwrap();
+        let max_v = before.iter().map(|v| v.version).max().unwrap();
+
+        // Delete everything except the latest version. end is exclusive, so
+        // [min_v, max_v) keeps max_v.
+        let req = BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            ranges: vec![VersionRange::new(min_v, max_v)],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let resp = namespace.batch_delete_table_versions(req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resp.deleted_count,
+            Some((before.len() - 1) as i64),
+            "V2 manifests must actually be deleted (was 0 before the fix)"
+        );
+
+        let after = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(after.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(after[0].version, max_v);
+    }
+
+    /// Pins the exclusive end of VersionRange: [v, v+1) must match only v.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_delete_end_is_exclusive() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest, VersionRange};
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await; // version 1
+        let main_uri = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await.uri().to_string();
+        append_scalar_version(&main_uri, 100).await; // version 2
+        append_scalar_version(&main_uri, 200).await; // version 3
+
+        let before = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None).await.unwrap();
+        let min_v = before.iter().map(|v| v.version).min().unwrap();
+
+        let req = BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            ranges: vec![VersionRange::new(min_v, min_v + 1)],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let resp = namespace.batch_delete_table_versions(req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resp.deleted_count,
+            Some(1),
+            "only min_v is in [min_v, min_v+1)"
+        );
+
+        let after = list_versions(&namespace, "users", None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !after.iter().any(|v| v.version == min_v),
+            "min_v must be deleted"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(after.len(), before.len() - 1, "exactly one version removed");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_delete_rejects_unbounded_range() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest, VersionRange};
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+
+        // An unbounded range must be rejected up front, not turned into ~10^19
+        // iterations / an unbounded id list.
+        let req = BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+            ranges: vec![VersionRange::new(0, i64::MAX)],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let err = namespace.batch_delete_table_versions(req).await;
+        assert!(err.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            err.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("limit"),
+            "expected a range-too-large error"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Build a managed (manifest-tracked) namespace over `path`.
+    async fn create_managed_namespace(path: &str) -> Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> {
+        Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(path)
+                .manifest_enabled(true)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn single_int_schema() -> Arc<arrow::datatypes::Schema> {
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]))
+    }
+
+    fn single_int_batch(seed: i32) -> arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch {
+        use arrow::array::Int32Array;
+        arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+            single_int_schema(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![seed]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Create a managed table with versions v1 (id=1) and v2 (id=2) on main and
+    /// return the main dataset handle.
+    async fn create_managed_table(ns: &Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>, table_id: &[String]) -> Dataset {
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(single_int_batch(1))], single_int_schema()),
+            ns.clone(),
+            table_id.to_vec(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        ds.append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(single_int_batch(2))], single_int_schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        ds
+    }
+
+    /// Sorted values of the `id` column across a full scan.
+    async fn scan_id_column(ds: &Dataset) -> Vec<i32> {
+        use arrow::array::Int32Array;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        let batches: Vec<arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch> = ds
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column(0)
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort();
+        ids
+    }
+
+    /// E2e for the managed branch path through the builder: create a branch via the
+    /// namespace op, open it with `from_namespace(managed).with_branch`, commit on
+    /// it, and confirm the dataset is rooted at the branch chain (manifest, base
+    /// path and data placement) while main's catalog is untouched.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_managed_branch_open_and_commit() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableBranchRequest;
+
+        let temp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let ns = create_managed_namespace(temp.to_str().unwrap()).await;
+        let table_id = vec!["t".to_string()];
+        create_managed_table(&ns, &table_id).await;
+        let main_before = ns
+            .list_table_versions(ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .versions
+            .len();
+
+        // Create a branch via the namespace op (the FS-handler path, which succeeds
+        // on a managed table).
+        ns.create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+            id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+            name: "exp".to_string(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Open the managed table on the branch: the base path is qualified up
+        // front and the manifest store derives the branch from it.
+        let mut branch_ds = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_branch("exp", None)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            branch_ds.manifest.branch.as_deref(),
+            Some("exp"),
+            "with_branch on a managed table must open the branch chain"
+        );
+        let branch_base = branch_ds.branch_location().path;
+        assert!(
+            branch_base.as_ref().ends_with("tree/exp"),
+            "the branch dataset must be rooted at the branch chain: {}",
+            branch_base
+        );
+        let branch_v_before = branch_ds.version().version;
+
+        // Commit on the branch.
+        branch_ds
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(single_int_batch(3))], single_int_schema()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            branch_ds.manifest.branch.as_deref(),
+            Some("exp"),
+            "the commit must stay on the branch"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            branch_ds.version().version > branch_v_before,
+            "the branch version must advance after the commit"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&branch_ds).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+        // The committed data files live under the branch chain, not main's data
+        // dir, so unmanaged readers of the branch and main's cleanup see a
+        // consistent layout.
+        let store = branch_ds.object_store(None).await.unwrap();
+        let branch_data = branch_base.clone().join("data");
+        let branch_files = store
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&branch_data))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !branch_files.is_empty(),
+            "the branch commit must place data files under the branch chain"
+        );
+
+        // The same branch is readable through the unmanaged (path-based) open.
+        let table_uri = ns
+            .describe_table(DescribeTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .location
+            .unwrap();
+        let fs_branch_ds = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&table_uri)
+            .with_branch("exp", None)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fs_branch_ds.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&fs_branch_ds).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+        // Main's catalog is untouched (branches are not tracked in __manifest),
+        // and main still reads its own data.
+        let main_after = ns
+            .list_table_versions(ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .versions
+            .len();
+        assert_eq!(
+            main_after, main_before,
+            "committing on the branch must not change main's chain"
+        );
+        let main_ds = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(main_ds.manifest.branch, None);
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&main_ds).await, vec![1, 2]);
+    }
+
+    /// Branch-pointing tags on a managed table: create them through the normal
+    /// API (from both the main and the branch handle), open the table at the
+    /// tag, and check the tag out from an already-open dataset. All of these
+    /// must resolve the branch chain, never main's chain.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_managed_branch_tags() {
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance::dataset::refs::Ref;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableBranchRequest;
+
+        let temp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let ns = create_managed_namespace(temp.to_str().unwrap()).await;
+        let table_id = vec!["t".to_string()];
+        let main_ds = create_managed_table(&ns, &table_id).await;
+        ns.create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+            id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+            name: "exp".to_string(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut branch_ds = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_branch("exp", None)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        branch_ds
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(single_int_batch(3))], single_int_schema()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let branch_version = branch_ds.version().version;
+
+        // A branch-pointing tag created from the main handle must validate
+        // against the branch chain (the version does not exist on main).
+        main_ds
+            .tags()
+            .create("exp-tag", ("exp", Some(branch_version)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let tag = main_ds.tags().get("exp-tag").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(tag.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+        assert_eq!(tag.version, branch_version);
+
+        // A tag created from the branch handle resolves the branch implicitly.
+        branch_ds
+            .tags()
+            .create("exp-tag2", branch_version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let tag2 = branch_ds.tags().get("exp-tag2").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(tag2.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+
+        // Opening the managed table at the branch-pointing tag checks out the
+        // branch chain.
+        let tag_open = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_tag("exp-tag")
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(tag_open.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+        assert_eq!(tag_open.version().version, branch_version);
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&tag_open).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+        // So does checking the tag out from an already-open main dataset.
+        let tag_checkout = main_ds
+            .checkout_version(Ref::Tag("exp-tag".to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(tag_checkout.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&tag_checkout).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+        // A missing tag on a managed table errors at open.
+        let err = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_tag("no-such-tag")
+            .load()
+            .await;
+        assert!(err.is_err(), "a missing tag must error");
+    }
+
+    /// Cross-branch checkout on a managed table, including version numbers that
+    /// exist on both chains (branch numbering continues from the fork point, so
+    /// overlap is the common case). Every checkout must land on the requested
+    /// chain and read that chain's data.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_managed_cross_branch_checkout() {
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance::dataset::refs::Ref;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableBranchRequest;
+
+        let temp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let ns = create_managed_namespace(temp.to_str().unwrap()).await;
+        let table_id = vec!["t".to_string()];
+        let mut main_ds = create_managed_table(&ns, &table_id).await;
+        ns.create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+            id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+            name: "exp".to_string(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // exp gets id=3 at its tip; main gets id=100 at the same version number.
+        let mut branch_ds = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_branch("exp", None)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        branch_ds
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(single_int_batch(3))], single_int_schema()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let overlap_version = branch_ds.version().version;
+        while main_ds.version().version < overlap_version {
+            main_ds
+                .append(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(single_int_batch(100))], single_int_schema()),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // main -> branch at the overlapping version number: must read the
+        // branch's data, not main's same-numbered version.
+        let on_branch = main_ds
+            .checkout_version(Ref::Version(Some("exp".to_string()), Some(overlap_version)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(on_branch.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&on_branch).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+        // main -> branch latest.
+        let mut on_branch_latest = main_ds.checkout_branch("exp").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(on_branch_latest.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+        assert_eq!(on_branch_latest.version().version, overlap_version);
+
+        // A commit through the checked-out handle (which shares main's commit
+        // handler) must land on the branch chain, not main's.
+        let main_chain_len = |ns: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>, table_id: Vec<String>| async move {
+            ns.list_table_versions(ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .versions
+            .len()
+        };
+        let main_before = main_chain_len(ns.clone(), table_id.clone()).await;
+        on_branch_latest
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(single_int_batch(4))], single_int_schema()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(on_branch_latest.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&on_branch_latest).await, vec![1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            main_chain_len(ns.clone(), table_id.clone()).await,
+            main_before,
+            "a commit on the checked-out branch must not advance main's chain"
+        );
+
+        // branch -> main at a specific version.
+        let on_main = branch_ds
+            .checkout_version(Ref::Version(None, Some(1)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(on_main.manifest.branch, None);
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&on_main).await, vec![1]);
+
+        // branch -> another branch.
+        ns.create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+            id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+            name: "exp2".to_string(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let on_branch2 = branch_ds.checkout_branch("exp2").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(on_branch2.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp2"));
+
+        // A version missing from the branch chain errors loudly.
+        let err = main_ds
+            .checkout_version(Ref::Version(Some("exp".to_string()), Some(999)))
+            .await;
+        assert!(err.is_err(), "a version missing from the branch must error");
+    }
+
+    /// CommitBuilder must honor an explicitly supplied commit handler for a
+    /// Dataset destination: a managed-versioning commit through a dataset that
+    /// was opened without the namespace handler (as the Java and Python commit
+    /// APIs allow) must still register with the catalog instead of silently
+    /// writing a physical manifest the catalog never sees.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_builder_honors_explicit_handler_for_dataset_dest() {
+        use lance::dataset::write::{CommitBuilder, InsertBuilder};
+        use lance::dataset::{WriteDestination, builder::DatasetBuilder};
+        use lance::io::commit::namespace_manifest::LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestCommitHandler;
+
+        let temp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let namespace = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp.to_str().unwrap())
+                .manifest_enabled(true)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .ops_metrics_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let ns: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = namespace.clone();
+        let table_id = vec!["t".to_string()];
+        create_managed_table(&ns, &table_id).await; // main: v1 (id=1), v2 (id=2)
+
+        // Open WITHOUT the namespace handler, the way a binding caller can.
+        let table_uri = ns
+            .describe_table(DescribeTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .location
+            .unwrap();
+        let plain_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&table_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(plain_ds.clone()))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![single_int_batch(3)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let handler = Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(
+                LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::for_table_uri(
+                    ns.clone(),
+                    table_id.clone(),
+                    &table_uri,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ),
+        });
+        let commits_before = namespace
+            .retrieve_ops_metrics()
+            .get("create_table_version")
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        let committed = CommitBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(plain_ds))
+            .with_commit_handler(handler)
+            .execute(transaction)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&committed).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+        let commits_after = namespace
+            .retrieve_ops_metrics()
+            .get("create_table_version")
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            commits_after,
+            commits_before + 1,
+            "the explicit handler must route the commit through create_table_version"
+        );
+        let fresh = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan_id_column(&fresh).await,
+            vec![1, 2, 3],
+            "a fresh managed open must resolve the committed version"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A branch forked from a non-latest version opens on its own chain.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_managed_branch_from_non_latest_fork() {
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableBranchRequest;
+
+        let temp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let ns = create_managed_namespace(temp.to_str().unwrap()).await;
+        let table_id = vec!["t".to_string()];
+        create_managed_table(&ns, &table_id).await; // main: v1 (id=1), v2 (id=2)
+
+        ns.create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+            id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+            name: "old".to_string(),
+            from_version: Some(1),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let old_ds = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_branch("old", None)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(old_ds.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("old"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan_id_column(&old_ds).await,
+            vec![1],
+            "the fork must contain only the fork-point data"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The shared parser must decode both naming schemes; this is the cheap
+    /// V1 no-regression guard (creating a real V1 table is not exposed here).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_manifest_version_from_filename() {
+        // V1: the plain version number.
+        assert_eq!(
+            DirectoryNamespace::manifest_version_from_filename("5.manifest"),
+            Some(5)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            DirectoryNamespace::manifest_version_from_filename("0.manifest"),
+            Some(0)
+        );
+        // V2: version stored as u64::MAX - version, zero-padded to 20 digits.
+        let v2_five = format!("{:020}.manifest", u64::MAX - 5);
+        assert_eq!(
+            DirectoryNamespace::manifest_version_from_filename(&v2_five),
+            Some(5)
+        );
+        let v2_zero = format!("{:020}.manifest", u64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(
+            DirectoryNamespace::manifest_version_from_filename(&v2_zero),
+            Some(0)
+        );
+        // Non-manifest and detached (`d`-prefixed) entries are ignored.
+        assert_eq!(
+            DirectoryNamespace::manifest_version_from_filename("data.lance"),
+            None
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            DirectoryNamespace::manifest_version_from_filename("d5.manifest"),
+            None
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create test IPC data
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+        assert!(response.location.unwrap().ends_with("test_table.lance"));
+        assert_eq!(response.version, Some(1));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_without_data() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let result = namespace.create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::new()).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Arrow IPC stream) is required")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_with_invalid_id() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create test IPC data
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        // Test with empty ID
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+
+        let result = namespace
+            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+
+        // Test with multi-level ID - should now work with manifest enabled
+        // First create the parent namespace
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Now create table in the namespace
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "table".to_string()]);
+
+        let result = namespace
+            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await;
+        // Should succeed with manifest enabled
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Multi-level table IDs should work with manifest enabled"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_tables() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Initially, no tables
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
+
+        // Create test IPC data
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        // Create a table
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["table1".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create another table
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["table2".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // List tables should return both
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        let tables = response.tables;
+        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 2);
+        assert!(tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
+        assert!(tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_tables_pagination() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        for name in ["alpha", "bravo", "charlie"] {
+            let mut req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+            req.id = Some(vec![name.to_string()]);
+            namespace
+                .create_table(req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // First page: limit=2, no page_token
+        let first_page = namespace
+            .list_tables(ListTablesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![]),
+                limit: Some(2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(first_page.tables, vec!["alpha", "bravo"]);
+        assert_eq!(first_page.page_token.as_deref(), Some("bravo"));
+
+        // Second page: use page_token from first response
+        let second_page = namespace
+            .list_tables(ListTablesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![]),
+                limit: Some(2),
+                page_token: first_page.page_token.clone(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(second_page.tables, vec!["charlie"]);
+        assert!(second_page.page_token.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_tables_pagination_limit_zero() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        req.id = Some(vec!["alpha".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .list_tables(ListTablesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![]),
+                limit: Some(0),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(response.tables.is_empty());
+        assert!(response.page_token.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_tables_with_namespace_id() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // First create a child namespace
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Now list tables in the child namespace
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string()]);
+
+        let result = namespace.list_tables(request).await;
+        // Should succeed (with manifest enabled) and return empty list (no tables yet)
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "list_tables should work with child namespace when manifest is enabled"
+        );
+        let response = result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            response.tables.len(),
+            0,
+            "Namespace should have no tables yet"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_scalar_index() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+
+        let transaction_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx").await;
+        let dataset = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let expected_transaction_id = dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|transaction| transaction.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(transaction_id, expected_transaction_id);
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|index| index.name == "users_id_idx"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_vector_index() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableIndexRequest;
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_vector_table(&namespace, "vectors").await;
+
+        let mut create_index_request =
+            CreateTableIndexRequest::new("vector".to_string(), "IVF_FLAT".to_string());
+        create_index_request.id = Some(vec!["vectors".to_string()]);
+        create_index_request.name = Some("vector_idx".to_string());
+        create_index_request.distance_type = Some("l2".to_string());
+        let transaction_id = namespace
+            .create_table_index(create_index_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .transaction_id;
+
+        let dataset = open_dataset(&namespace, "vectors").await;
+        let expected_transaction_id = dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|transaction| transaction.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(transaction_id, expected_transaction_id);
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|index| index.name == "vector_idx"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_table_indices() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateTableIndexRequest, ListTableIndicesRequest};
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "a_idx").await;
+        create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "b_idx").await;
+        let transaction_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx").await;
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .list_table_indices(ListTableIndicesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(response.indexes.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(response.indexes[0].index_name, "a_idx");
+        assert_eq!(response.indexes[1].index_name, "b_idx");
+        assert_eq!(response.indexes[2].index_name, "users_id_idx");
+        assert!(response.page_token.is_none());
+        let users_id_idx = response
+            .indexes
+            .iter()
+            .find(|index| index.index_name == "users_id_idx")
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(users_id_idx.columns, vec!["id"]);
+        assert_eq!(users_id_idx.status, "SUCCEEDED");
+
+        // Enriched fields populated from the index metadata for a scalar index.
+        assert_eq!(users_id_idx.index_type.as_deref(), Some("BTree"));
+        assert!(
+            users_id_idx
+                .type_url
+                .as_deref()
+                .is_some_and(|s| !s.is_empty())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(users_id_idx.num_indexed_rows, Some(3));
+        assert_eq!(users_id_idx.num_unindexed_rows, Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(users_id_idx.num_segments, Some(1));
+        assert!(users_id_idx.size_bytes.is_some_and(|size| size > 0));
+        assert!(users_id_idx.created_at.is_some());
+        assert!(users_id_idx.index_version.is_some());
+        assert!(users_id_idx.index_details.is_some());
+
+        let dataset = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let expected_transaction_id = dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|transaction| transaction.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(transaction_id, expected_transaction_id);
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|index| index.name == "users_id_idx")
+                .count(),
+            1
+        );
+
+        let first_page = namespace
+            .list_table_indices(ListTableIndicesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                limit: Some(2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(first_page.indexes.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(first_page.indexes[0].index_name, "a_idx");
+        assert_eq!(first_page.indexes[1].index_name, "b_idx");
+        assert_eq!(first_page.page_token.as_deref(), Some("b_idx"));
+
+        let second_page = namespace
+            .list_table_indices(ListTableIndicesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                page_token: first_page.page_token.clone(),
+                limit: Some(2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(second_page.indexes.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(second_page.indexes[0].index_name, "users_id_idx");
+        assert!(second_page.page_token.is_none());
+
+        // A vector index exercises a different type_url, index_type, and details payload.
+        create_vector_table(&namespace, "vectors").await;
+        let mut create_index_request =
+            CreateTableIndexRequest::new("vector".to_string(), "IVF_FLAT".to_string());
+        create_index_request.id = Some(vec!["vectors".to_string()]);
+        create_index_request.name = Some("vector_idx".to_string());
+        create_index_request.distance_type = Some("l2".to_string());
+        namespace
+            .create_table_index(create_index_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let vector_response = namespace
+            .list_table_indices(ListTableIndicesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["vectors".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(vector_response.indexes.len(), 1);
+        let vector_idx = &vector_response.indexes[0];
+        assert_eq!(vector_idx.index_name, "vector_idx");
+        assert_eq!(vector_idx.columns, vec!["vector"]);
+        assert_eq!(vector_idx.index_type.as_deref(), Some("IVF_FLAT"));
+        assert!(
+            vector_idx
+                .type_url
+                .as_deref()
+                .is_some_and(|s| !s.is_empty())
+        );
+        assert!(vector_idx.num_indexed_rows.is_some());
+        assert!(vector_idx.num_unindexed_rows.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(vector_idx.num_segments, Some(1));
+        assert!(vector_idx.created_at.is_some());
+        assert!(vector_idx.index_version.is_some());
+        assert!(vector_idx.index_details.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_table_index_stats() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest;
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let transaction_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx").await;
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .describe_table_index_stats(DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                index_name: Some("users_id_idx".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.index_type, Some("BTree".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(response.num_indices, Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(response.num_indexed_rows, Some(3));
+        assert_eq!(response.num_unindexed_rows, Some(0));
+
+        let dataset = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let expected_transaction_id = dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|transaction| transaction.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(transaction_id, expected_transaction_id);
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("users_id_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["index_type"], "BTree");
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 3);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_transaction() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::DescribeTransactionRequest;
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let transaction_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx").await;
+        let dataset = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let latest_transaction = dataset.read_transaction().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            transaction_id,
+            latest_transaction
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|transaction| transaction.uuid.clone())
+        );
+
+        if let Some(transaction_id) = transaction_id {
+            let response = namespace
+                .describe_transaction(DescribeTransactionRequest {
+                    id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), transaction_id.clone()]),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(response.status, "SUCCEEDED");
+            assert_eq!(
+                response
+                    .properties
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|props| props.get("operation")),
+                Some(&"CreateIndex".to_string())
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                response
+                    .properties
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|props| props.get("uuid")),
+                Some(&transaction_id)
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert!(latest_transaction.is_none());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_table_index() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{DropTableIndexRequest, ListTableIndicesRequest};
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let create_transaction_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx").await;
+
+        let drop_transaction_id = namespace
+            .drop_table_index(DropTableIndexRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                index_name: Some("users_id_idx".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .transaction_id;
+
+        let dataset = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let previous_dataset = dataset
+            .checkout_version(dataset.version().version - 1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let previous_transaction_id = previous_dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|transaction| transaction.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(create_transaction_id, previous_transaction_id);
+        let expected_drop_transaction_id = dataset
+            .read_transaction()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|transaction| transaction.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(drop_transaction_id, expected_drop_transaction_id);
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!indices.iter().any(|index| index.name == "users_id_idx"));
+
+        let list_response = namespace
+            .list_table_indices(ListTableIndicesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(list_response.indexes.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_table() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create a table first
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Describe the table
+        let mut request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace.describe_table(request).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+        assert!(response.location.unwrap().ends_with("test_table.lance"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_nonexistent_table() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        let mut request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+
+        let result = namespace.describe_table(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("Table not found"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_exists() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["existing_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Check existing table
+        let mut request = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["existing_table".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.table_exists(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+
+        // Check non-existent table
+        let mut request = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.table_exists(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("Table not found"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_table() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["table_to_drop".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify it exists
+        let mut exists_request = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_request.id = Some(vec!["table_to_drop".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_request.clone()).await.is_ok());
+
+        // Drop the table
+        let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
+        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["table_to_drop".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace.drop_table(drop_request).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+
+        // Verify it no longer exists
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_request).await.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_nonexistent_table() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        let mut request = DropTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+
+        // Should not fail when dropping non-existent table (idempotent)
+        let result = namespace.drop_table(request).await;
+        // The operation might succeed or fail depending on implementation
+        // But it should not panic
+        let _ = result;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_root_namespace_operations() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Test list_namespaces - should return empty list for root
+        let mut request = ListNamespacesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let result = namespace.list_namespaces(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        assert_eq!(result.unwrap().namespaces.len(), 0);
+
+        // Test describe_namespace - should succeed for root
+        let mut request = DescribeNamespaceRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let result = namespace.describe_namespace(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+
+        // Test namespace_exists - root always exists
+        let mut request = NamespaceExistsRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let result = namespace.namespace_exists(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+
+        // Test create_namespace - root cannot be created
+        let mut request = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let result = namespace.create_namespace(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("already exists"));
+
+        // Test drop_namespace - root cannot be dropped
+        let mut request = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let result = namespace.drop_namespace(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("cannot be dropped")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_non_root_namespace_operations() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // With manifest enabled (default), child namespaces are now supported
+        // Test create_namespace for non-root - should succeed with manifest
+        let mut request = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["child".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.create_namespace(request).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Child namespace creation should succeed with manifest enabled"
+        );
+
+        // Test namespace_exists for non-root - should exist after creation
+        let mut request = NamespaceExistsRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["child".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.namespace_exists(request).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Child namespace should exist after creation"
+        );
+
+        // Test drop_namespace for non-root - should succeed
+        let mut request = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["child".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.drop_namespace(request).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Child namespace drop should succeed with manifest enabled"
+        );
+
+        // Verify namespace no longer exists
+        let mut request = NamespaceExistsRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["child".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.namespace_exists(request).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Child namespace should not exist after drop"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_config_custom_root() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let custom_path = temp_dir.join("custom");
+        std::fs::create_dir(&custom_path).unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(custom_path.to_string_lossy().to_string())
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create test IPC data
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        // Create a table and verify location
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(response.location.unwrap().contains("custom"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_config_storage_options() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+            .storage_option("option1", "value1")
+            .storage_option("option2", "value2")
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create test IPC data
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        // Create a table and check storage options are included
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let storage_options = response.storage_options.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(storage_options.get("option1"), Some(&"value1".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(storage_options.get("option2"), Some(&"value2".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    /// When no credential vendor is configured, `describe_table` and
+    /// `declare_table` must strip credential keys from storage options
+    /// while preserving non-credential config (region, endpoint, etc.).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_no_storage_options_without_vendor() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::DeclareTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        // No manifest, no credential vendor, but storage options with credentials
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .storage_option("aws_access_key_id", "AKID")
+            .storage_option("aws_secret_access_key", "SECRET")
+            .storage_option("region", "us-east-1")
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        // create_table
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["t1".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // describe_table should not return storage options without a vendor
+        let mut desc_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        desc_req.id = Some(vec!["t1".to_string()]);
+        let resp = namespace.describe_table(desc_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(resp.storage_options.is_none());
+
+        // declare_table should not return storage options without a vendor
+        let mut decl_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        decl_req.id = Some(vec!["t2".to_string()]);
+        let resp = namespace.declare_table(decl_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(resp.storage_options.is_none());
+    }
+
+    /// Same test with manifest mode enabled.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_no_storage_options_without_vendor_manifest() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+            .storage_option("aws_access_key_id", "AKID")
+            .storage_option("aws_secret_access_key", "SECRET")
+            .storage_option("region", "us-east-1")
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["t1".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // describe_table through manifest should not return storage options without a vendor
+        let mut desc_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        desc_req.id = Some(vec!["t1".to_string()]);
+        let resp = namespace.describe_table(desc_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(resp.storage_options.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_from_properties_manifest_enabled() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("root".to_string(), temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string());
+        properties.insert("manifest_enabled".to_string(), "true".to_string());
+        properties.insert("dir_listing_enabled".to_string(), "false".to_string());
+
+        let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties, None).unwrap();
+        assert!(builder.manifest_enabled);
+        assert!(!builder.dir_listing_enabled);
+
+        let namespace = builder.build().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create test IPC data
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        // Create a table
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_from_properties_dir_listing_enabled() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("root".to_string(), temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string());
+        properties.insert("manifest_enabled".to_string(), "false".to_string());
+        properties.insert("dir_listing_enabled".to_string(), "true".to_string());
+
+        let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties, None).unwrap();
+        assert!(!builder.manifest_enabled);
+        assert!(builder.dir_listing_enabled);
+
+        let namespace = builder.build().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create test IPC data
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        // Create a table
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_from_properties_defaults() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("root".to_string(), temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string());
+
+        let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties, None).unwrap();
+        assert!(builder.manifest_enabled);
+        assert!(builder.dir_listing_enabled);
+        assert!(!builder.inline_optimization_enabled);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_builder_disables_inline_optimization_by_default() {
+        let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new("memory://");
+        assert!(!builder.inline_optimization_enabled);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_from_properties_with_storage_options() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("root".to_string(), temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string());
+        properties.insert("manifest_enabled".to_string(), "true".to_string());
+        properties.insert("storage.region".to_string(), "us-west-2".to_string());
+        properties.insert("storage.bucket".to_string(), "my-bucket".to_string());
+
+        let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties, None).unwrap();
+        assert!(builder.manifest_enabled);
+        assert!(builder.storage_options.is_some());
+
+        let storage_options = builder.storage_options.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            storage_options.get("region"),
+            Some(&"us-west-2".to_string())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            storage_options.get("bucket"),
+            Some(&"my-bucket".to_string())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_various_arrow_types() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create schema with various types
+        let fields = vec![
+            JsonArrowField {
+                name: "bool_col".to_string(),
+                r#type: Box::new(JsonArrowDataType::new("bool".to_string())),
+                nullable: true,
+                metadata: None,
+            },
+            JsonArrowField {
+                name: "int8_col".to_string(),
+                r#type: Box::new(JsonArrowDataType::new("int8".to_string())),
+                nullable: true,
+                metadata: None,
+            },
+            JsonArrowField {
+                name: "float64_col".to_string(),
+                r#type: Box::new(JsonArrowDataType::new("float64".to_string())),
+                nullable: true,
+                metadata: None,
+            },
+            JsonArrowField {
+                name: "binary_col".to_string(),
+                r#type: Box::new(JsonArrowDataType::new("binary".to_string())),
+                nullable: true,
+                metadata: None,
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let schema = JsonArrowSchema {
+            fields,
+            metadata: None,
+        };
+
+        // Create IPC data
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["complex_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_connect_dir() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test basic operation through the concrete type
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_with_ipc_data() {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+        use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create a schema with some fields
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // Create some test data that matches the schema
+        let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
+
+        // Create a RecordBatch with actual data
+        let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let name_array = StringArray::from(vec!["Alice", "Bob", "Charlie"]);
+        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(name_array)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Write the batch to an IPC stream
+        let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+        {
+            let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
+            writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+            writer.finish().unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Create table with the IPC data
+        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table_with_data".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(response.version, Some(1));
+        assert!(
+            response
+                .location
+                .unwrap()
+                .contains("test_table_with_data.lance")
+        );
+
+        // Verify table exists
+        let mut exists_request = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table_with_data".to_string()]);
+        namespace.table_exists(exists_request).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_child_namespace_create_and_list() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create multiple child namespaces
+        for i in 1..=3 {
+            let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+            create_req.id = Some(vec![format!("ns{}", i)]);
+            let result = namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await;
+            assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to create child namespace ns{}", i);
+        }
+
+        // List child namespaces
+        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec![]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let namespaces = result.unwrap().namespaces;
+        assert_eq!(namespaces.len(), 3);
+        assert!(namespaces.contains(&"ns1".to_string()));
+        assert!(namespaces.contains(&"ns2".to_string()));
+        assert!(namespaces.contains(&"ns3".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nested_namespace_hierarchy() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create parent namespace
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create nested children
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child1".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child2".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // List children of parent
+        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let children = result.unwrap().namespaces;
+        assert_eq!(children.len(), 2);
+        assert!(children.contains(&"child1".to_string()));
+        assert!(children.contains(&"child2".to_string()));
+
+        // List root should only show parent
+        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec![]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let root_namespaces = result.unwrap().namespaces;
+        assert_eq!(root_namespaces.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(root_namespaces[0], "parent");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_in_child_namespace() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create child namespace
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create table in child namespace
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace
+            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to create table in child namespace");
+
+        // List tables in child namespace
+        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let tables = result.unwrap().tables;
+        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(tables[0], "table1");
+
+        // Verify table exists
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+
+        // Describe table in child namespace
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let response = result.unwrap();
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+    }
+
+    /// Regression: a connection built before `__manifest` exists must still
+    /// resolve a child-namespaced table that a *different* connection registers
+    /// afterwards. Phalanx caches one DirectoryNamespace per db and the first op
+    /// on a fresh db is usually a read, so without a self-healing read path the
+    /// cached reader pins an empty manifest cell and every describe/exists/list
+    /// on the table reports "not found" forever -- even though `create_table`
+    /// reports it already exists. This is the geneva `__system$geneva_jobs`
+    /// open->create->open livelock.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_self_heals_after_manifest_created_by_other_connection() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let root = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Reader is built while no `__manifest` exists yet -> its read cell is
+        // empty and, before the fix, stays empty forever.
+        let reader = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root).build().await.unwrap();
+
+        // A *separate* connection creates the child namespace + table, which
+        // lazily creates `__manifest` and registers the entry.
+        let writer = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root).build().await.unwrap();
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        writer.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&create_test_schema());
+        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        writer
+            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The reader, though built before the manifest existed, must now resolve
+        // the table on every read path (was TableNotFound before the fix).
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        let resp = reader
+            .describe_table(describe_req)
+            .await
+            .expect("describe_table must resolve a table registered after build");
+        assert!(resp.location.is_some());
+
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        reader
+            .table_exists(exists_req)
+            .await
+            .expect("table_exists must resolve a table registered after build");
+
+        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let tables = reader.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables;
+        assert_eq!(tables, vec!["table1".to_string()]);
+    }
+
+    /// Migration mode promises manifest-first lookup even at the root, so a
+    /// reader built before `__manifest` existed must still resolve a
+    /// manifest-only alias (`registered_table` -> `external_table.lance`) that
+    /// dir-listing cannot produce. Before the read path self-healed in migration
+    /// mode, the root gate bypassed the manifest probe and fell back to
+    /// dir-listing, which sees `external_table` but never `registered_table` ->
+    /// permanent TableNotFound for every registration made after build.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_migration_root_read_self_heals_registered_alias() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Reader built while the root is empty -> no `__manifest`, read cell
+        // empty (and, before the fix, frozen empty forever).
+        let reader = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // A separate connection writes an external dataset and registers it in
+        // the manifest under a *different* logical name -- an alias dir-listing
+        // cannot resolve. This is what lazily creates `__manifest`.
+        let writer = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&create_test_schema());
+        let table_uri = format!("{}/external_table.lance", temp_path);
+        let cursor = Cursor::new(ipc_data);
+        let stream_reader = StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream_reader
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let batch_results: Vec<_> = batches.into_iter().map(Ok).collect();
+        let batch_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batch_results, schema);
+        Dataset::write(Box::new(batch_reader), &table_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("external_table.lance".to_string());
+        register_req.id = Some(vec!["registered_table".to_string()]);
+        writer.register_table(register_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The reader, built before `__manifest` existed, must now resolve the
+        // manifest-only alias on every read path.
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["registered_table".to_string()]);
+        reader
+            .describe_table(describe_req)
+            .await
+            .expect("describe_table must resolve a manifest alias registered after build");
+
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["registered_table".to_string()]);
+        reader
+            .table_exists(exists_req)
+            .await
+            .expect("table_exists must resolve a manifest alias registered after build");
+
+        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec![]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let tables = reader.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables;
+        assert!(
+            tables.contains(&"registered_table".to_string()),
+            "list_tables must include the manifest alias registered after build, got {:?}",
+            tables
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_multiple_tables_in_child_namespace() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create child namespace
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create multiple tables
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        for i in 1..=3 {
+            let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+            create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), format!("table{}", i)]);
+            namespace
+                .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // List tables
+        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let tables = result.unwrap().tables;
+        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 3);
+        assert!(tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
+        assert!(tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
+        assert!(tables.contains(&"table3".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_table_in_child_namespace() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create child namespace
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Drop table
+        let mut drop_req = DropTableRequest::new();
+        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.drop_table(drop_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to drop table in child namespace");
+
+        // Verify table no longer exists
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deeply_nested_namespace() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create deeply nested namespace hierarchy
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["level1".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["level1".to_string(), "level2".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec![
+            "level1".to_string(),
+            "level2".to_string(),
+            "level3".to_string(),
+        ]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create table in deeply nested namespace
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_req.id = Some(vec![
+            "level1".to_string(),
+            "level2".to_string(),
+            "level3".to_string(),
+            "table1".to_string(),
+        ]);
+        let result = namespace
+            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Failed to create table in deeply nested namespace"
+        );
+
+        // Verify table exists
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec![
+            "level1".to_string(),
+            "level2".to_string(),
+            "level3".to_string(),
+            "table1".to_string(),
+        ]);
+        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_namespace_with_properties() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create namespace with properties
+        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("owner".to_string(), "test_user".to_string());
+        properties.insert("description".to_string(), "Test namespace".to_string());
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        create_req.properties = Some(properties.clone());
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Describe namespace and verify properties
+        let describe_req = DescribeNamespaceRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = namespace.describe_namespace(describe_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let response = result.unwrap();
+        assert!(response.properties.is_some());
+        let props = response.properties.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(props.get("owner"), Some(&"test_user".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(
+            props.get("description"),
+            Some(&"Test namespace".to_string())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cannot_drop_namespace_with_tables() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create namespace
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create table in namespace
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to drop namespace - should fail
+        let mut drop_req = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
+        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.drop_namespace(drop_req).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Should not be able to drop namespace with tables"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_isolation_between_namespaces() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create two namespaces
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns2".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create table with same name in both namespaces
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["ns2".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // List tables in each namespace
+        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
+            page_token: None,
+            limit: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.tables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.tables[0], "table1");
+
+        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["ns2".to_string()]),
+            page_token: None,
+            limit: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.tables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.tables[0], "table1");
+
+        // Drop table in ns1 shouldn't affect ns2
+        let mut drop_req = DropTableRequest::new();
+        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        namespace.drop_table(drop_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify ns1 table is gone but ns2 table still exists
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_err());
+
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["ns2".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_migrate_directory_tables() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Step 1: Create tables in directory-only mode
+        let dir_only_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create some tables
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        for i in 1..=3 {
+            let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+            create_req.id = Some(vec![format!("table{}", i)]);
+            dir_only_ns
+                .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        drop(dir_only_ns);
+
+        // Step 2: Create namespace with dual mode (manifest + directory listing)
+        let dual_mode_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Before migration, tables should be visible (via directory listing fallback)
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let tables = dual_mode_ns.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables;
+        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 3);
+
+        // Run migration
+        let migrated_count = dual_mode_ns.migrate().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(migrated_count, 3, "Should migrate all 3 tables");
+
+        // Verify tables are now in manifest
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let tables = dual_mode_ns.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables;
+        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 3);
+
+        // Run migration again - should be idempotent
+        let migrated_count = dual_mode_ns.migrate().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            migrated_count, 0,
+            "Should not migrate already-migrated tables"
+        );
+
+        drop(dual_mode_ns);
+
+        // Step 3: Create namespace with manifest-only mode
+        let manifest_only_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Tables should still be accessible (now from manifest only)
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let tables = manifest_only_ns.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables;
+        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 3);
+        assert!(tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
+        assert!(tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
+        assert!(tables.contains(&"table3".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_migrate_without_manifest() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create namespace without manifest
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // migrate() should return 0 when manifest is not enabled
+        let migrated_count = namespace.migrate().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(migrated_count, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_register_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{RegisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a physical table first using lance directly
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let table_uri = format!("{}/external_table.lance", temp_path);
+        let cursor = Cursor::new(ipc_data);
+        let stream_reader = StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream_reader
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let batch_results: Vec<_> = batches.into_iter().map(Ok).collect();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batch_results, schema);
+        Dataset::write(Box::new(reader), &table_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Register the table
+        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("external_table.lance".to_string());
+        register_req.id = Some(vec!["registered_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = namespace.register_table(register_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.location, Some("external_table.lance".to_string()));
+
+        // Verify table exists in namespace
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["registered_table".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_ok());
+
+        // Verify we can list the table
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let tables = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(tables.tables.contains(&"registered_table".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_register_table_duplicate_fails() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Register a table
+        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("test_table.lance".to_string());
+        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        namespace
+            .register_table(register_req.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to register again - should fail
+        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("already exists"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deregister_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{DeregisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create namespace with manifest-only mode (no directory listing fallback)
+        // This ensures deregistered tables are truly invisible
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify table exists
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req.clone()).await.is_ok());
+
+        // Deregister the table
+        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
+        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should return location and id
+        assert!(
+            response.location.is_some(),
+            "Deregister should return location"
+        );
+        let location = response.location.as_ref().unwrap();
+        // Location should be a proper file:// URI with the temp path
+        // Use uri_to_url to normalize the temp path to a URL for comparison
+        let expected_url = lance_io::object_store::uri_to_url(temp_path)
+            .expect("Failed to convert temp path to URL");
+        let expected_prefix = expected_url.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            location.starts_with(&expected_prefix),
+            "Location should start with '{}', got: {}",
+            expected_prefix,
+            location
+        );
+        assert!(
+            location.contains("test_table"),
+            "Location should contain table name: {}",
+            location
+        );
+        assert_eq!(response.id, Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]));
+
+        // Verify table no longer exists in namespace (removed from manifest)
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_err());
+
+        // Verify physical data still exists at the returned location
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(location).await;
+        assert!(
+            dataset.is_ok(),
+            "Physical table data should still exist at {}",
+            location
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deregister_table_in_child_namespace() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            CreateNamespaceRequest, DeregisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create child namespace
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table in the child namespace
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Deregister the table
+        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
+        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should return location and id in child namespace
+        assert!(
+            response.location.is_some(),
+            "Deregister should return location"
+        );
+        let location = response.location.as_ref().unwrap();
+        // Location should be a proper file:// URI with the temp path
+        // Use uri_to_url to normalize the temp path to a URL for comparison
+        let expected_url = lance_io::object_store::uri_to_url(temp_path)
+            .expect("Failed to convert temp path to URL");
+        let expected_prefix = expected_url.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            location.starts_with(&expected_prefix),
+            "Location should start with '{}', got: {}",
+            expected_prefix,
+            location
+        );
+        assert!(
+            location.contains("test_ns") && location.contains("test_table"),
+            "Location should contain namespace and table name: {}",
+            location
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            response.id,
+            Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()])
+        );
+
+        // Verify table no longer exists
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_register_without_manifest_fails() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create namespace without manifest
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to register - should fail (register requires manifest)
+        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("test_table.lance".to_string());
+        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("manifest mode is enabled")
+        );
+
+        // Note: deregister_table now works in V1 mode via .lance-deregistered marker files
+        // See test_deregister_table_v1_mode for that test case
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_register_table_rejects_absolute_uri() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to register with absolute URI - should fail
+        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("s3://bucket/table.lance".to_string());
+        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("Absolute URIs are not allowed"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_register_table_rejects_absolute_path() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to register with absolute path - should fail
+        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("/tmp/table.lance".to_string());
+        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("Absolute paths are not allowed"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_register_table_rejects_path_traversal() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to register with path traversal - should fail
+        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("../outside/table.lance".to_string());
+        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("Path traversal is not allowed"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_namespace_write() {
+        use arrow::array::Int32Array;
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use arrow::record_batch::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+        use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        let namespace = Arc::new(namespace) as Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>;
+
+        // Use child namespace instead of root
+        let table_id = vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()];
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+
+        // Test 1: CREATE mode
+        let data1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader1 = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data1].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let dataset =
+            Dataset::write_into_namespace(reader1, namespace.clone(), table_id.clone(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 1);
+
+        // Test 2: APPEND mode
+        let data2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![40, 50])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params_append = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let reader2 = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data2].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+            reader2,
+            namespace.clone(),
+            table_id.clone(),
+            Some(params_append),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 2);
+
+        // Test 3: OVERWRITE mode
+        let data3 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1000, 2000])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params_overwrite = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let reader3 = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data3].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+            reader3,
+            namespace.clone(),
+            table_id.clone(),
+            Some(params_overwrite),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 3);
+
+        // Verify old data was replaced
+        let result = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let a_col = result
+            .column_by_name("a")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(a_col.values(), &[100, 200]);
+    }
+
+    // ============================================================
+    // Tests for declare_table
+    // ============================================================
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_declare_table_v1_mode() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, ListTablesRequest, TableExistsRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create namespace in V1 mode (no manifest)
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Declare a table
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should return location
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+        let location = response.location.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(location.ends_with("test_table.lance"));
+
+        // Table should exist (via reserved file)
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_ok());
+
+        // Describe should work but return no version/schema (not written yet)
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(describe_response.location.is_some());
+        assert!(describe_response.version.is_none()); // Not written yet
+        assert!(describe_response.schema.is_none()); // Not written yet
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, None);
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_req.check_declared = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, Some(true));
+
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let list_response = namespace.list_tables(list_req.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(list_response.tables, vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        list_req.include_declared = Some(false);
+        let list_response = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(list_response.tables.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_insert_into_declared_table_promotes_it_from_declared_state() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, InsertIntoTableRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut insert_req = InsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+        insert_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .insert_into_table(insert_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_req.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, Some(false));
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.version, Some(1));
+        assert!(describe_response.schema.is_some());
+
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        list_req.include_declared = Some(false);
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables,
+            vec!["test_table".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_after_declare_table_v1_mode_creates_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, ListTablesRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_non_empty_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(response.version, Some(1));
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_req.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, Some(false));
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.version, Some(1));
+
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        list_req.include_declared = Some(false);
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables,
+            vec!["test_table".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_insert_into_declared_table_with_manifest_promotes_it() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, InsertIntoTableRequest, ListTablesRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut insert_req = InsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+        insert_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .insert_into_table(
+                insert_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_non_empty_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_req.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, Some(false));
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.version, Some(1));
+
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        list_req.include_declared = Some(false);
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables,
+            vec!["test_table".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_after_declare_table_with_manifest_creates_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            CreateTableRequest, DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, ListTablesRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        declare_req.properties = Some(HashMap::from([("owner".to_string(), "alice".to_string())]));
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        create_req.mode = Some("Overwrite".to_string());
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_non_empty_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(response.version, Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(
+            response
+                .properties
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|properties| properties.get("owner")),
+            Some(&"alice".to_string())
+        );
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_req.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, Some(false));
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.version, Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(
+            describe_response
+                .properties
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|properties| properties.get("owner")),
+            Some(&"alice".to_string())
+        );
+
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        list_req.include_declared = Some(false);
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables,
+            vec!["test_table".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_after_declare_table_with_manifest_rejects_new_properties() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateTableRequest, DeclareTableRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        declare_req.properties = Some(HashMap::from([("owner".to_string(), "alice".to_string())]));
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        create_req.properties = Some(HashMap::from([("owner".to_string(), "bob".to_string())]));
+
+        let result = namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_non_empty_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await;
+
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("cannot set properties for already declared table")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_with_manifest_exist_ok_keeps_existing_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        create_req.properties = Some(HashMap::from([("owner".to_string(), "alice".to_string())]));
+        namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_non_empty_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        create_req.mode = Some("ExistOk".to_string());
+        create_req.properties = Some(HashMap::from([("owner".to_string(), "bob".to_string())]));
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_single_row_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            response
+                .properties
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|properties| properties.get("owner")),
+            Some(&"alice".to_string())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            open_dataset(&namespace, "test_table")
+                .await
+                .count_rows(None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            2
+        );
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            describe_response
+                .properties
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|properties| properties.get("owner")),
+            Some(&"alice".to_string())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_with_manifest_overwrite_replaces_existing_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        create_req.properties = Some(HashMap::from([("owner".to_string(), "alice".to_string())]));
+        namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_non_empty_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        create_req.mode = Some("overwrite".to_string());
+        create_req.properties = Some(HashMap::from([("owner".to_string(), "bob".to_string())]));
+        let response = namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_single_row_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(response.version, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(
+            response
+                .properties
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|properties| properties.get("owner")),
+            Some(&"bob".to_string())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            open_dataset(&namespace, "test_table")
+                .await
+                .count_rows(None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            1
+        );
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            describe_response
+                .properties
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|properties| properties.get("owner")),
+            Some(&"bob".to_string())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_with_manifest_invalid_mode_rejected() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        create_req.mode = Some("append".to_string());
+        let result = namespace
+            .create_table(
+                create_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_non_empty_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await;
+
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Unsupported create_table mode")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_into_declared_table_v1_mode_creates_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, ListTablesRequest,
+            MergeInsertIntoTableRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut merge_req = MergeInsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+        merge_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        merge_req.on = Some(vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace
+            .merge_insert_into_table(
+                merge_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_non_empty_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(response.num_inserted_rows, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(response.num_updated_rows, Some(0));
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_req.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, Some(false));
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.version, Some(1));
+
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        list_req.include_declared = Some(false);
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables,
+            vec!["test_table".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_into_declared_table_with_manifest_creates_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, ListTablesRequest,
+            MergeInsertIntoTableRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut merge_req = MergeInsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+        merge_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        merge_req.on = Some(vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace
+            .merge_insert_into_table(
+                merge_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_non_empty_test_ipc_data()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(response.num_inserted_rows, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(response.num_updated_rows, Some(0));
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_req.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, Some(false));
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.version, Some(1));
+
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        list_req.include_declared = Some(false);
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables,
+            vec!["test_table".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `(region, id, value)` rows, for merge inserts keyed on `region` + `id`.
+    ///
+    /// `region` is nullable so tests can cover a NULL in one half of the key.
+    fn create_composite_key_ipc_data(rows: &[(Option<&str>, i32, &str)]) -> Vec<u8> {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("region", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter(
+                    rows.iter().map(|(region, _, _)| *region),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    rows.iter().map(|(_, id, _)| *id),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    rows.iter().map(|(_, _, value)| *value),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        create_ipc_data_from_batches(schema, vec![batch])
+    }
+
+    /// `test_table`'s rows as `(region, id, value)`, sorted for a stable comparison.
+    async fn read_composite_key_rows(root: &str) -> Vec<(Option<String>, i32, String)> {
+        use arrow::array::Array;
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&format!("{}/test_table.lance", root))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let regions = batch["region"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow::array::StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["id"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow::array::Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let values = batch["value"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow::array::StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut rows: Vec<_> = (0..batch.num_rows())
+            .map(|row| {
+                (
+                    regions
+                        .is_valid(row)
+                        .then(|| regions.value(row).to_string()),
+                    ids.value(row),
+                    values.value(row).to_string(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+        rows.sort_unstable();
+        rows
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_matches_on_every_column_of_a_composite_key() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{DeclareTableRequest, MergeInsertIntoTableRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let seed = create_composite_key_ipc_data(&[
+            (Some("us"), 1, "a"),
+            (Some("us"), 2, "b"),
+            (Some("eu"), 1, "c"),
+        ]);
+        let mut merge_req = MergeInsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+        merge_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        merge_req.on = Some(vec!["region".to_string(), "id".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .merge_insert_into_table(merge_req, bytes::Bytes::from(seed))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // ("us", 1) matches an existing row; ("eu", 2) matches nothing even though a row
+        // with region "eu" and a row with id 2 both exist.
+        let mut merge_req = MergeInsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+        merge_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        merge_req.on = Some(vec!["region".to_string(), "id".to_string()]);
+        merge_req.when_matched_update_all = Some(true);
+        let response = namespace
+            .merge_insert_into_table(
+                merge_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_composite_key_ipc_data(&[
+                    (Some("us"), 1, "updated"),
+                    (Some("eu"), 2, "inserted"),
+                ])),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(response.num_updated_rows, Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(response.num_inserted_rows, Some(1));
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_composite_key_rows(temp_path).await,
+            vec![
+                // ("eu", 1) keeps its value: matching on `id` alone would have clobbered it.
+                (Some("eu".into()), 1, "c".into()),
+                (Some("eu".into()), 2, "inserted".into()),
+                (Some("us".into()), 1, "updated".into()),
+                (Some("us".into()), 2, "b".into()),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Core switches NULL join semantics on the arity of the match key
+    /// (`merge_insert.rs`, `NullEquality`): a single-column key treats NULL as equal to
+    /// NULL, while a composite key uses standard SQL equality, under which it is not. So
+    /// adding a second key column changes whether NULL-keyed rows match at all.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_composite_key_never_matches_a_null_key_column() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{DeclareTableRequest, MergeInsertIntoTableRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut merge_req = MergeInsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+        merge_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        merge_req.on = Some(vec!["region".to_string(), "id".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .merge_insert_into_table(
+                merge_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_composite_key_ipc_data(&[
+                    (None, 1, "seeded"),
+                    (Some("us"), 1, "us-seeded"),
+                ])),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut merge_req = MergeInsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+        merge_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        merge_req.on = Some(vec!["region".to_string(), "id".to_string()]);
+        merge_req.when_matched_update_all = Some(true);
+        let response = namespace
+            .merge_insert_into_table(
+                merge_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_composite_key_ipc_data(&[(None, 1, "not-a-match")])),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The incoming row is byte-identical to the seeded one, and still does not match.
+        assert_eq!(response.num_updated_rows, Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(response.num_inserted_rows, Some(1));
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_composite_key_rows(temp_path).await,
+            vec![
+                (None, 1, "not-a-match".into()),
+                (None, 1, "seeded".into()),
+                (Some("us".into()), 1, "us-seeded".into()),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::missing(None, "'on' field is required")]
+    #[case::empty(Some(vec![]), "must name at least one column")]
+    #[case::duplicate(
+        Some(vec!["region".to_string(), "region".to_string()]),
+        "names column 'region' more than once"
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_rejects_an_invalid_on_key(
+        #[case] on: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{DeclareTableRequest, MergeInsertIntoTableRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut merge_req = MergeInsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+        merge_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        merge_req.on = on;
+        let error = namespace
+            .merge_insert_into_table(
+                merge_req,
+                bytes::Bytes::from(create_composite_key_ipc_data(&[(Some("us"), 1, "a")])),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        let lance_core::Error::Namespace { source, .. } = &error else {
+            panic!("expected a Namespace error, got: {}", error);
+        };
+        let ns_err = source
+            .downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>()
+            .expect("expected a NamespaceError source");
+        assert_eq!(ns_err.code(), lance_namespace::ErrorCode::InvalidInput);
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(expected_message),
+            "unexpected error message: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_declare_table_with_manifest() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, ListTablesRequest, TableExistsRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create namespace with manifest
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Declare a table
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        declare_req.properties = Some(HashMap::from([("owner".to_string(), "alice".to_string())]));
+        let response = namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should return location
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(
+            response
+                .properties
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|properties| properties.get("owner")),
+            Some(&"alice".to_string())
+        );
+
+        // Table should exist in manifest
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_ok());
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, None);
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_req.check_declared = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, Some(true));
+        assert_eq!(
+            describe_response
+                .properties
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|properties| properties.get("owner")),
+            Some(&"alice".to_string())
+        );
+
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace
+                .list_tables(list_req.clone())
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .tables,
+            vec!["test_table".to_string()]
+        );
+        list_req.include_declared = Some(false);
+        assert!(
+            namespace
+                .list_tables(list_req)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .tables
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_declare_table_with_manifest_marker_already_exists() {
+        // Pre-existing .lance-reserved (concurrent/incomplete declare) must map to
+        // TableAlreadyExists, not Internal.
+        use lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode;
+        use lance_namespace::models::DeclareTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let table_dir = temp_dir.join("test_table.lance");
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(&table_dir).unwrap();
+        std::fs::write(table_dir.join(".lance-reserved"), b"reserved").unwrap();
+
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let err = namespace
+            .declare_table(declare_req)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("declare with existing marker must fail");
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("already exists") || msg.contains("TableAlreadyExists"),
+            "expected TableAlreadyExists, got: {msg}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            mutation_error_code(err),
+            ErrorCode::TableAlreadyExists,
+            "expected TableAlreadyExists error code"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_declare_table_when_table_exists() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::DeclareTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // First create a table with actual data
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to declare the same table - should fail because it already has data
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
+
+    // ============================================================
+    // Tests for deregister_table in V1 mode
+    // ============================================================
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deregister_table_v1_mode() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{DeregisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create namespace in V1 mode (no manifest, with dir listing)
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table with data
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify table exists
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req.clone()).await.is_ok());
+
+        // Deregister the table
+        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
+        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should return location
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+        let location = response.location.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(location.contains("test_table"));
+
+        // Table should no longer exist (deregistered)
+        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("deregistered"));
+
+        // Physical data should still exist
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(location).await;
+        assert!(dataset.is_ok(), "Physical table data should still exist");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deregister_table_v1_already_deregistered() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Deregister once
+        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
+        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .deregister_table(deregister_req.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to deregister again - should fail
+        let result = namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("already deregistered")
+        );
+    }
+
+    // ============================================================
+    // Tests for list_tables skipping deregistered tables
+    // ============================================================
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_tables_skips_deregistered_v1() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create two tables
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+
+        let mut create_req1 = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req1.id = Some(vec!["table1".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req1, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req2 = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req2.id = Some(vec!["table2".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req2, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // List tables - should see both (root namespace = empty vec)
+        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let list_response = namespace.list_tables(list_req.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(list_response.tables.len(), 2);
+
+        // Deregister table1
+        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
+        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["table1".to_string()]);
+        namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // List tables - should only see table2
+        let list_response = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(list_response.tables.len(), 1);
+        assert!(list_response.tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
+        assert!(!list_response.tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    // ============================================================
+    // Tests for describe_table and table_exists with deregistered tables
+    // ============================================================
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_table_fails_for_deregistered_v1() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{DeregisterTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Describe should work before deregistration
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.describe_table(describe_req.clone()).await.is_ok());
+
+        // Deregister
+        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
+        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Describe should fail after deregistration
+        let result = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let err = result.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::Namespace { .. }));
+        let err_msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("deregistered"));
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("table id 'test_table'"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_exists_fails_for_deregistered_v1() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{DeregisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Table exists should work before deregistration
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req.clone()).await.is_ok());
+
+        // Deregister
+        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
+        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Table exists should fail after deregistration
+        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let err = result.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::Namespace { .. }));
+        let err_msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("deregistered"));
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("table id 'test_table'"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_atomic_table_status_check() {
+        // This test verifies that the TableStatus check is atomic
+        // by ensuring a single directory listing is used
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Table status should show exists=true, is_deregistered=false
+        let status = namespace.check_table_status("test_table").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(status.exists);
+        assert!(!status.is_deregistered);
+        assert!(!status.has_reserved_file);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_version_tracking_enabled_managed_versioning() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::DescribeTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create namespace with table_version_tracking_enabled=true
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Describe table should return managed_versioning=true
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let describe_resp = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // managed_versioning should be true
+        assert_eq!(
+            describe_resp.managed_versioning,
+            Some(true),
+            "managed_versioning should be true when table_version_tracking_enabled=true"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_version_tracking_disabled_no_managed_versioning() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::DescribeTableRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create namespace with table_version_tracking_enabled=false (default)
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .table_version_tracking_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Describe table should not have managed_versioning set
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let describe_resp = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // managed_versioning should be None when table_version_tracking_enabled=false
+        assert!(
+            describe_resp.managed_versioning.is_none(),
+            "managed_versioning should be None when table_version_tracking_enabled=false, got: {:?}",
+            describe_resp.managed_versioning
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_table_versions() {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+        use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateNamespaceRequest, ListTableVersionsRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let temp_path: &str = &temp_dir;
+
+        let namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Create parent namespace first
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table using write_into_namespace (version 1)
+        let table_id = vec!["workspace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()];
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], arrow_schema.clone());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Create,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+            batches,
+            namespace.clone(),
+            table_id.clone(),
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Append to create version 2
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch2)], arrow_schema.clone());
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Append to create version 3
+        let batch3 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![300, 400]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch3)], arrow_schema);
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // List versions - should have versions 1, 2, and 3
+        let mut list_req = ListTableVersionsRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        let list_resp = namespace.list_table_versions(list_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            list_resp.versions.len(),
+            3,
+            "Should have 3 versions, got: {:?}",
+            list_resp.versions
+        );
+
+        // Verify each version
+        for expected_version in 1..=3 {
+            let version = list_resp
+                .versions
+                .iter()
+                .find(|v| v.version == expected_version)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("Expected version {}", expected_version));
+
+            assert!(
+                !version.manifest_path.is_empty(),
+                "manifest_path should be set for version {}",
+                expected_version
+            );
+            assert!(
+                version.manifest_path.contains(".manifest"),
+                "manifest_path should contain .manifest for version {}",
+                expected_version
+            );
+            assert!(
+                version.manifest_size.is_some(),
+                "manifest_size should be set for version {}",
+                expected_version
+            );
+            assert!(
+                version.manifest_size.unwrap() > 0,
+                "manifest_size should be > 0 for version {}",
+                expected_version
+            );
+            assert!(
+                version.timestamp_millis.is_some(),
+                "timestamp_millis should be set for version {}",
+                expected_version
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_table_version() {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+        use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateNamespaceRequest, DescribeTableVersionRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let temp_path: &str = &temp_dir;
+
+        let namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Create parent namespace first
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table using write_into_namespace (version 1)
+        let table_id = vec!["workspace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()];
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], arrow_schema.clone());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Create,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+            batches,
+            namespace.clone(),
+            table_id.clone(),
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Append data to create version 2
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch2)], arrow_schema);
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Describe version 1
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableVersionRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        describe_req.version = Some(1);
+        let describe_resp = namespace
+            .describe_table_version(describe_req)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let version = &describe_resp.version;
+        assert_eq!(version.version, 1);
+        assert!(version.timestamp_millis.is_some());
+        assert!(
+            !version.manifest_path.is_empty(),
+            "manifest_path should be set"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            version.manifest_path.contains(".manifest"),
+            "manifest_path should contain .manifest"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            version.manifest_size.is_some(),
+            "manifest_size should be set"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            version.manifest_size.unwrap() > 0,
+            "manifest_size should be > 0"
+        );
+
+        // Describe version 2
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableVersionRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        describe_req.version = Some(2);
+        let describe_resp = namespace
+            .describe_table_version(describe_req)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let version = &describe_resp.version;
+        assert_eq!(version.version, 2);
+        assert!(version.timestamp_millis.is_some());
+        assert!(
+            !version.manifest_path.is_empty(),
+            "manifest_path should be set"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            version.manifest_size.is_some(),
+            "manifest_size should be set"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            version.manifest_size.unwrap() > 0,
+            "manifest_size should be > 0"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_table_version_latest() {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+        use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateNamespaceRequest, DescribeTableVersionRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let temp_path: &str = &temp_dir;
+
+        let namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Create parent namespace first
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table using write_into_namespace (version 1)
+        let table_id = vec!["workspace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()];
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], arrow_schema.clone());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Create,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+            batches,
+            namespace.clone(),
+            table_id.clone(),
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Append to create version 2
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch2)], arrow_schema.clone());
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Append to create version 3
+        let batch3 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![300, 400]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch3)], arrow_schema);
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Describe latest version (no version specified)
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableVersionRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        describe_req.version = None;
+        let describe_resp = namespace
+            .describe_table_version(describe_req)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Should return version 3 as it's the latest
+        assert_eq!(describe_resp.version.version, 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_version() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableVersionRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let temp_path: &str = &temp_dir;
+
+        let namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Open the dataset using from_namespace to get proper object_store and paths
+        let table_id = vec!["test_table".to_string()];
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(namespace.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Use dataset's object_store to find and copy the manifest
+        let versions_path = dataset.versions_dir();
+        let manifest_metas: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&versions_path))
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let manifest_meta = manifest_metas
+            .iter()
+            .find(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .map(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            })
+            .expect("No manifest file found");
+
+        // Read the existing manifest data
+        let manifest_data = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .get(&manifest_meta.location)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Write to a staging location using the dataset's object_store
+        let staging_path = dataset.versions_dir().join("staging_manifest");
+        dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .put(&staging_path, manifest_data.into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create version 2 from staging manifest
+        // Use the same naming scheme as the existing dataset (V2)
+        let mut create_version_req = CreateTableVersionRequest::new(2, staging_path.to_string());
+        create_version_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        create_version_req.naming_scheme = Some("V2".to_string());
+
+        let result = namespace.create_table_version(create_version_req).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "create_table_version should succeed: {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+
+        // Verify version 2 was created at the path returned in the response
+        let response = result.unwrap();
+        let version_info = response
+            .version
+            .expect("response should contain version info");
+        let version_2_path = Path::parse(&version_info.manifest_path).unwrap();
+        let head_result = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .head(&version_2_path)
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            head_result.is_ok(),
+            "Version 2 manifest should exist at {}",
+            version_2_path
+        );
+
+        // Verify the staging file has been deleted
+        let staging_head_result = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .head(&staging_path)
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            staging_head_result.is_err(),
+            "Staging manifest should have been deleted after create_table_version"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_version_idempotent() {
+        // A network retry of create_table_version with the same staging content
+        // must succeed (not ConcurrentModification) once the version is published.
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableVersionRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let temp_path: &str = &temp_dir;
+
+        let namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let table_id = vec!["test_table".to_string()];
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(namespace.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let versions_path = dataset.versions_dir();
+        let manifest_metas: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&versions_path))
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let manifest_meta = manifest_metas
+            .iter()
+            .find(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .map(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            })
+            .expect("No manifest file found");
+
+        let manifest_data = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .get(&manifest_meta.location)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let staging_path = dataset.versions_dir().join("staging_manifest");
+        dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .put(&staging_path, manifest_data.clone().into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_version_req = CreateTableVersionRequest::new(2, staging_path.to_string());
+        create_version_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        create_version_req.naming_scheme = Some("V2".to_string());
+        let first = namespace
+            .create_table_version(create_version_req)
+            .await
+            .expect("first create_table_version should succeed");
+
+        // Re-stage identical bytes (simulates Lance commit retry rewriting staging).
+        let retry_staging = dataset.versions_dir().join("staging_manifest_retry");
+        dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .put(&retry_staging, manifest_data.into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut retry_req = CreateTableVersionRequest::new(2, retry_staging.to_string());
+        retry_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        retry_req.naming_scheme = Some("V2".to_string());
+        let second = namespace
+            .create_table_version(retry_req)
+            .await
+            .expect("idempotent retry must succeed");
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            first.version.as_ref().map(|v| v.version),
+            second.version.as_ref().map(|v| v.version)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            first.version.as_ref().map(|v| &v.manifest_path),
+            second.version.as_ref().map(|v| &v.manifest_path)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_version_conflict() {
+        // Same version with different content must fail ConcurrentModification.
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableVersionRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let temp_path: &str = &temp_dir;
+
+        let namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Create a table
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Open the dataset using from_namespace to get proper object_store and paths
+        let table_id = vec!["test_table".to_string()];
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(namespace.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Use dataset's object_store to find and copy the manifest
+        let versions_path = dataset.versions_dir();
+        let manifest_metas: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&versions_path))
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let manifest_meta = manifest_metas
+            .iter()
+            .find(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .map(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            })
+            .expect("No manifest file found");
+
+        // Read the existing manifest data
+        let manifest_data = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .get(&manifest_meta.location)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Write to a staging location using the dataset's object_store
+        let staging_path = dataset.versions_dir().join("staging_manifest");
+        dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .put(&staging_path, manifest_data.into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // First create version 2 (should succeed)
+        let mut create_version_req = CreateTableVersionRequest::new(2, staging_path.to_string());
+        create_version_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        create_version_req.naming_scheme = Some("V2".to_string());
+        let first_result = namespace.create_table_version(create_version_req).await;
+        assert!(
+            first_result.is_ok(),
+            "First create_table_version for version 2 should succeed: {:?}",
+            first_result
+        );
+
+        // Get the path from the response for verification
+        let version_2_path = Path::parse(
+            &first_result
+                .unwrap()
+                .version
+                .expect("response should contain version info")
+                .manifest_path,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Different content for the same version number must conflict.
+        let conflict_staging = dataset.versions_dir().join("staging_manifest_conflict");
+        dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .put(
+                &conflict_staging,
+                bytes::Bytes::from_static(b"not-a-real-manifest").into(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_version_req =
+            CreateTableVersionRequest::new(2, conflict_staging.to_string());
+        create_version_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        create_version_req.naming_scheme = Some("V2".to_string());
+
+        let result = namespace.create_table_version(create_version_req).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "create_table_version should fail for existing version with different content"
+        );
+        let err = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            err.contains("already exists") || err.contains("ConcurrentModification"),
+            "expected ConcurrentModification, got: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // Verify version 2 still exists using the dataset's object_store
+        let head_result = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .head(&version_2_path)
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            head_result.is_ok(),
+            "Version 2 manifest should still exist at {}",
+            version_2_path
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_version_cas_rejects_gap() {
+        // Strict CAS: version must be latest+1; skipping ahead is ConcurrentModification.
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableVersionRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let temp_path: &str = &temp_dir;
+
+        let namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let table_id = vec!["test_table".to_string()];
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(namespace.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let versions_path = dataset.versions_dir();
+        let manifest_metas: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&versions_path))
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let manifest_meta = manifest_metas
+            .iter()
+            .find(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .map(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            })
+            .expect("No manifest file found");
+        let manifest_data = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .get(&manifest_meta.location)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let staging_path = dataset.versions_dir().join("staging_gap");
+        dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .inner
+            .put(&staging_path, manifest_data.into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // After create_table, latest is 1; requesting 5 must fail CAS.
+        let mut req = CreateTableVersionRequest::new(5, staging_path.to_string());
+        req.id = Some(table_id);
+        req.naming_scheme = Some("V2".to_string());
+        let err = namespace
+            .create_table_version(req)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("gap create must fail CAS");
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("CAS") || msg.contains("ConcurrentModification"),
+            "expected CAS ConcurrentModification, got: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_version_branch_cas_requires_parent_version() {
+        // Empty branch chain with BranchContents must bootstrap at parent_version,
+        // not an arbitrary version (e.g. 1 when forked from v2).
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableVersionRequest;
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let main_uri = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await.uri().to_string();
+        append_scalar_version(&main_uri, 10).await; // main -> v2
+
+        let mut main = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let fork_version = main.version().version;
+        assert_eq!(fork_version, 2);
+        let branch_uri = main
+            .create_branch("exp", fork_version, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .uri()
+            .to_string();
+
+        let branch_ds = Dataset::open(&branch_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let versions_dir = branch_ds.versions_dir();
+        let store = branch_ds.object_store(None).await.unwrap();
+        let manifests: Vec<_> = store
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&versions_dir))
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for meta in &manifests {
+            if meta
+                .location
+                .filename()
+                .is_some_and(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+            {
+                store.inner.delete(&meta.location).await.unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+        // Confirm the branch object-store chain is empty (do not open the dataset:
+        // with no manifests, Dataset::open would fail).
+        let remaining_manifests = store
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&versions_dir))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .is_some_and(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+            })
+            .count();
+        assert_eq!(
+            remaining_manifests, 0,
+            "branch version chain should be empty after deleting manifests"
+        );
+
+        // Stage bytes from a main manifest.
+        let main_ds = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let main_versions = main_ds.versions_dir();
+        let main_store = main_ds.object_store(None).await.unwrap();
+        let source_meta = main_store
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&main_versions))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .is_some_and(|f| f.ends_with(".manifest"))
+            })
+            .expect("main should have a manifest");
+        let source_bytes = main_store
+            .inner
+            .get(&source_meta.location)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let staging_wrong = versions_dir.clone().join("staging_wrong");
+        store
+            .inner
+            .put(&staging_wrong, source_bytes.clone().into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = namespace
+            .create_table_version(CreateTableVersionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                version: 1,
+                manifest_path: staging_wrong.to_string(),
+                naming_scheme: Some("V2".to_string()),
+                branch: Some("exp".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .expect_err("bootstrap at v1 must fail when parent_version is 2");
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("CAS") || msg.contains("ConcurrentModification"),
+            "expected CAS ConcurrentModification, got: {msg}"
+        );
+
+        let staging_ok = versions_dir.join("staging_ok");
+        store
+            .inner
+            .put(&staging_ok, source_bytes.into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let resp = namespace
+            .create_table_version(CreateTableVersionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                version: 2,
+                manifest_path: staging_ok.to_string(),
+                naming_scheme: Some("V2".to_string()),
+                branch: Some("exp".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .expect("bootstrap at parent_version must succeed");
+        assert_eq!(resp.version.as_ref().map(|v| v.version), Some(2));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_version_table_not_found() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateTableVersionRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to create version for non-existent table
+        let mut create_version_req =
+            CreateTableVersionRequest::new(1, "/some/staging/path".to_string());
+        create_version_req.id = Some(vec!["non_existent_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let result = namespace.create_table_version(create_version_req).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "create_table_version should fail for non-existent table"
+        );
+        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            err_msg.contains("Table not found"),
+            "Error should mention table not found, got: {}",
+            err_msg
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// End-to-end integration test module for table version tracking.
+    mod e2e_table_version_tracking {
+        use super::*;
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+        /// Tracking wrapper around a namespace that counts method invocations.
+        struct TrackingNamespace {
+            inner: DirectoryNamespace,
+            create_table_version_count: AtomicUsize,
+            describe_table_version_count: AtomicUsize,
+            list_table_versions_count: AtomicUsize,
+        }
+
+        impl TrackingNamespace {
+            fn new(inner: DirectoryNamespace) -> Self {
+                Self {
+                    inner,
+                    create_table_version_count: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                    describe_table_version_count: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                    list_table_versions_count: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn create_table_version_calls(&self) -> usize {
+                self.create_table_version_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+            }
+
+            fn describe_table_version_calls(&self) -> usize {
+                self.describe_table_version_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+            }
+
+            fn list_table_versions_calls(&self) -> usize {
+                self.list_table_versions_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
             }
-            return Ok(response);
         }
 
-        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
-        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
-
-        // Validate location if provided
-        if let Some(location) = &request.location {
-            let location = location.trim_end_matches('/');
-            if location != table_uri {
-                return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                    source: format!(
-                        "Cannot create table {} at location {}, must be at location {}",
-                        table_name, location, table_uri
+        impl std::fmt::Debug for TrackingNamespace {
+            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+                f.debug_struct("TrackingNamespace")
+                    .field(
+                        "create_table_version_calls",
+                        &self.create_table_version_calls(),
                     )
-                    .into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                });
+                    .finish()
             }
         }
 
-        // Atomically create the .lance-reserved file to mark the table as existing.
-        // This uses put_if_not_exists semantics to avoid race conditions.
-        let reserved_file_path = self.table_reserved_file_path(&table_name);
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl LanceNamespace for TrackingNamespace {
+            async fn create_namespace(
+                &self,
+                request: CreateNamespaceRequest,
+            ) -> Result<CreateNamespaceResponse> {
+                self.inner.create_namespace(request).await
+            }
 
-        self.put_marker_file_atomic(&reserved_file_path, &format!("table {}", table_name))
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: e.into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+            async fn describe_namespace(
+                &self,
+                request: DescribeNamespaceRequest,
+            ) -> Result<DescribeNamespaceResponse> {
+                self.inner.describe_namespace(request).await
+            }
 
-        // For backwards compatibility, only skip vending credentials when explicitly set to false
-        let vend_credentials = request.vend_credentials.unwrap_or(true);
-        let identity = request.identity.as_deref();
-        let storage_options = if vend_credentials {
-            self.get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, identity)
-                .await?
-        } else {
-            None
-        };
+            async fn namespace_exists(&self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
+                self.inner.namespace_exists(request).await
+            }
 
-        Ok(CreateEmptyTableResponse {
-            location: Some(table_uri),
-            storage_options,
-            ..Default::default()
-        })
-    }
+            async fn list_namespaces(
+                &self,
+                request: ListNamespacesRequest,
+            ) -> Result<ListNamespacesResponse> {
+                self.inner.list_namespaces(request).await
+            }
 
-    async fn declare_table(&self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> Result<DeclareTableResponse> {
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            let mut response = manifest_ns.declare_table(request.clone()).await?;
-            // Only apply identity-based credential vending when explicitly requested
-            if request.vend_credentials == Some(true) && self.credential_vendor.is_some() {
-                if let Some(ref location) = response.location {
-                    let identity = request.identity.as_deref();
-                    response.storage_options = self
-                        .get_storage_options_for_table(location, identity)
-                        .await?;
-                }
-            } else if request.vend_credentials == Some(false) {
-                response.storage_options = None;
+            async fn drop_namespace(
+                &self,
+                request: DropNamespaceRequest,
+            ) -> Result<DropNamespaceResponse> {
+                self.inner.drop_namespace(request).await
             }
-            return Ok(response);
-        }
 
-        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
-        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
+            async fn list_tables(&self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> Result<ListTablesResponse> {
+                self.inner.list_tables(request).await
+            }
 
-        // Validate location if provided
-        if let Some(location) = &request.location {
-            let location = location.trim_end_matches('/');
-            if location != table_uri {
-                return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                    source: format!(
-                        "Cannot declare table {} at location {}, must be at location {}",
-                        table_name, location, table_uri
-                    )
-                    .into(),
-                    location: snafu::location!(),
-                });
+            async fn describe_table(
+                &self,
+                request: DescribeTableRequest,
+            ) -> Result<DescribeTableResponse> {
+                self.inner.describe_table(request).await
             }
-        }
 
-        // Check if table already has data (created via create_table).
-        // The atomic put only prevents races between concurrent declare_table calls,
-        // not between declare_table and existing data.
-        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await;
-        if status.exists && !status.has_reserved_file {
-            // Table has data but no reserved file - it was created with data
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table already exists: {}", table_name).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
-        }
+            async fn table_exists(&self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
+                self.inner.table_exists(request).await
+            }
 
-        // Atomically create the .lance-reserved file to mark the table as declared.
-        // This uses put_if_not_exists semantics to avoid race conditions between
-        // concurrent declare_table calls.
-        let reserved_file_path = self.table_reserved_file_path(&table_name);
+            async fn drop_table(&self, request: DropTableRequest) -> Result<DropTableResponse> {
+                self.inner.drop_table(request).await
+            }
 
-        self.put_marker_file_atomic(&reserved_file_path, &format!("table {}", table_name))
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: e.into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+            async fn create_table(
+                &self,
+                request: CreateTableRequest,
+                request_data: Bytes,
+            ) -> Result<CreateTableResponse> {
+                self.inner.create_table(request, request_data).await
+            }
 
-        // For backwards compatibility, only skip vending credentials when explicitly set to false
-        let vend_credentials = request.vend_credentials.unwrap_or(true);
-        let identity = request.identity.as_deref();
-        let storage_options = if vend_credentials {
-            self.get_storage_options_for_table(&table_uri, identity)
-                .await?
-        } else {
-            None
-        };
+            async fn declare_table(
+                &self,
+                request: DeclareTableRequest,
+            ) -> Result<DeclareTableResponse> {
+                self.inner.declare_table(request).await
+            }
 
-        Ok(DeclareTableResponse {
-            location: Some(table_uri),
-            storage_options,
-            ..Default::default()
-        })
-    }
+            async fn list_table_versions(
+                &self,
+                request: ListTableVersionsRequest,
+            ) -> Result<ListTableVersionsResponse> {
+                self.list_table_versions_count
+                    .fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                self.inner.list_table_versions(request).await
+            }
 
-    async fn register_table(
-        &self,
-        request: lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest,
-    ) -> Result<lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableResponse> {
-        // If manifest is enabled, delegate to manifest namespace
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            return LanceNamespace::register_table(manifest_ns.as_ref(), request).await;
-        }
+            async fn create_table_version(
+                &self,
+                request: CreateTableVersionRequest,
+            ) -> Result<CreateTableVersionResponse> {
+                self.create_table_version_count
+                    .fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                self.inner.create_table_version(request).await
+            }
 
-        // Without manifest, register_table is not supported
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "register_table is only supported when manifest mode is enabled".into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })
-    }
+            async fn describe_table_version(
+                &self,
+                request: DescribeTableVersionRequest,
+            ) -> Result<DescribeTableVersionResponse> {
+                self.describe_table_version_count
+                    .fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                self.inner.describe_table_version(request).await
+            }
 
-    async fn deregister_table(
-        &self,
-        request: lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableRequest,
-    ) -> Result<lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableResponse> {
-        // If manifest is enabled, delegate to manifest namespace
-        if let Some(ref manifest_ns) = self.manifest_ns {
-            return LanceNamespace::deregister_table(manifest_ns.as_ref(), request).await;
-        }
+            async fn batch_delete_table_versions(
+                &self,
+                request: BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest,
+            ) -> Result<BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse> {
+                self.inner.batch_delete_table_versions(request).await
+            }
 
-        // V1 mode: create a .lance-deregistered marker file in the table directory
-        let table_name = Self::table_name_from_id(&request.id)?;
-        let table_uri = self.table_full_uri(&table_name);
+            fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
+                self.inner.namespace_id()
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Check table existence and deregistration status.
-        // This provides better error messages for common cases.
-        let status = self.check_table_status(&table_name).await;
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_describe_table_returns_managed_versioning() {
+            use lance_namespace::models::{CreateNamespaceRequest, DescribeTableRequest};
 
-        if !status.exists {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table does not exist: {}", table_name).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
-        }
+            let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
 
-        if status.is_deregistered {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table is already deregistered: {}", table_name).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            });
-        }
+            // Create namespace with table_version_tracking_enabled and manifest_enabled
+            let ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .manifest_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        // Atomically create the .lance-deregistered marker file.
-        // This uses put_if_not_exists semantics to prevent race conditions
-        // when multiple processes try to deregister the same table concurrently.
-        // If a race occurs and another process already created the file,
-        // we'll get an AlreadyExists error which we convert to a proper message.
-        let deregistered_path = self.table_deregistered_file_path(&table_name);
-        self.put_marker_file_atomic(
-            &deregistered_path,
-            &format!("deregistration marker for table {}", table_name),
-        )
-        .await
-        .map_err(|e| {
-            // Convert "already exists" to "already deregistered" for better UX
-            let message = if e.contains("already exists") {
-                format!("Table is already deregistered: {}", table_name)
-            } else {
-                e
-            };
-            Error::Namespace {
-                source: message.into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            }
-        })?;
+            // Create parent namespace
+            let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+            create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]);
+            ns.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
 
-        Ok(lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableResponse {
-            id: request.id,
-            location: Some(table_uri),
-            ..Default::default()
-        })
-    }
+            // Create a table with multi-level ID (namespace + table)
+            let schema = create_test_schema();
+            let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+            create_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
+            ns.create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-    fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
-        format!("DirectoryNamespace {{ root: {:?} }}", self.root)
-    }
-}
+            // Describe table should return managed_versioning=true
+            let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+            describe_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
+            let describe_resp = ns.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+
+            // managed_versioning should be true
+            assert_eq!(
+                describe_resp.managed_versioning,
+                Some(true),
+                "managed_versioning should be true when table_version_tracking_enabled=true"
+            );
+        }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use arrow_ipc::reader::StreamReader;
-    use lance::dataset::Dataset;
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir;
-    use lance_namespace::models::{
-        CreateTableRequest, JsonArrowDataType, JsonArrowField, JsonArrowSchema, ListTablesRequest,
-    };
-    use lance_namespace::schema::convert_json_arrow_schema;
-    use std::io::Cursor;
-    use std::sync::Arc;
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_external_manifest_store_invokes_namespace_apis() {
+            use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+            use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+            use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+            use lance::Dataset;
+            use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+            use lance::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+            use lance_namespace::models::CreateNamespaceRequest;
+
+            let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+            // Create namespace with table_version_tracking_enabled and manifest_enabled
+            let inner_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .manifest_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-    /// Helper to create a test DirectoryNamespace with a temporary directory
-    async fn create_test_namespace() -> (DirectoryNamespace, TempStdDir) {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let tracking_ns = Arc::new(TrackingNamespace::new(inner_ns));
+            let ns: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = tracking_ns.clone();
+
+            // Create parent namespace
+            let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+            create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]);
+            ns.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+            // Create a table with multi-level ID (namespace + table)
+            let table_id = vec!["workspace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()];
+
+            // Create some initial data
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap())
-            .build()
+            // Create a table using write_into_namespace
+            let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], arrow_schema.clone());
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+                batches,
+                ns.clone(),
+                table_id.clone(),
+                Some(write_params),
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        (namespace, temp_dir)
-    }
-
-    /// Helper to create test IPC data from a schema
-    fn create_test_ipc_data(schema: &JsonArrowSchema) -> Vec<u8> {
-        use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
-
-        let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(schema).unwrap();
-        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
-        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::new_empty(arrow_schema.clone());
-        let mut buffer = Vec::new();
-        {
-            let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
-            writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
-            writer.finish().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 1);
+
+            // Verify create_table_version was called once during initial write_into_namespace
+            assert_eq!(
+                tracking_ns.create_table_version_calls(),
+                1,
+                "create_table_version should have been called once during initial write_into_namespace"
+            );
+
+            // Append data - this should call create_table_version again
+            let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["d", "e", "f"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let append_batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_batch)], arrow_schema);
+            dataset.append(append_batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                tracking_ns.create_table_version_calls(),
+                2,
+                "create_table_version should have been called twice (once for create, once for append)"
+            );
+
+            // checkout_latest should call list_table_versions exactly once
+            let initial_list_calls = tracking_ns.list_table_versions_calls();
+            let latest_dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .load()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(latest_dataset.version().version, 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                tracking_ns.list_table_versions_calls(),
+                initial_list_calls + 1,
+                "list_table_versions should have been called exactly once during checkout_latest"
+            );
+
+            // checkout to specific version should call describe_table_version exactly once
+            let initial_describe_calls = tracking_ns.describe_table_version_calls();
+            let v1_dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_version(1)
+                .load()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(v1_dataset.version().version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                tracking_ns.describe_table_version_calls(),
+                initial_describe_calls + 1,
+                "describe_table_version should have been called exactly once during checkout to version 1"
+            );
         }
-        buffer
-    }
-
-    /// Helper to create a simple test schema
-    fn create_test_schema() -> JsonArrowSchema {
-        let int_type = JsonArrowDataType::new("int32".to_string());
-        let string_type = JsonArrowDataType::new("utf8".to_string());
 
-        let id_field = JsonArrowField {
-            name: "id".to_string(),
-            r#type: Box::new(int_type),
-            nullable: false,
-            metadata: None,
-        };
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_dataset_commit_with_external_manifest_store() {
+            use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+            use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+            use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+            use futures::TryStreamExt;
+            use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+            use lance_namespace::models::CreateNamespaceRequest;
+            use lance_table::io::commit::ManifestNamingScheme;
+
+            let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+            // Create namespace with table_version_tracking_enabled and manifest_enabled
+            let inner_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .table_version_tracking_enabled(true)
+                .manifest_enabled(true)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let name_field = JsonArrowField {
-            name: "name".to_string(),
-            r#type: Box::new(string_type),
-            nullable: true,
-            metadata: None,
-        };
+            let tracking_ns: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace> = Arc::new(TrackingNamespace::new(inner_ns));
+
+            // Create parent namespace
+            let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+            create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]);
+            tracking_ns.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+            // Create a table using write_into_namespace
+            let table_id = vec!["workspace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()];
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], arrow_schema.clone());
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+                batches,
+                tracking_ns.clone(),
+                table_id.clone(),
+                Some(write_params),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 1);
+
+            // Append data using write_into_namespace (APPEND mode)
+            let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["d", "e", "f"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch2)], arrow_schema);
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+                batches,
+                tracking_ns.clone(),
+                table_id.clone(),
+                Some(write_params),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        JsonArrowSchema {
-            fields: vec![id_field, name_field],
-            metadata: None,
+            // Verify version 2 was created using the dataset's object_store
+            // List manifests in the versions directory to find the V2 named manifest
+            let manifest_metas: Vec<_> = dataset
+                .object_store(None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .inner
+                .list(Some(&dataset.versions_dir()))
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let version_2_found = manifest_metas.iter().any(|m| {
+                m.location
+                    .filename()
+                    .map(|f| {
+                        f.ends_with(".manifest")
+                            && ManifestNamingScheme::V2.parse_version(f) == Some(2)
+                    })
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            });
+            assert!(
+                version_2_found,
+                "Version 2 manifest should exist in versions directory"
+            );
         }
-    }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_table() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        /// Helper: create a namespace and a table with some rows, returning (namespace, table_id)
+        async fn create_ns_with_table() -> (DirectoryNamespace, TempStdDir, Vec<String>) {
+            use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+            use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
 
-        // Create test IPC data
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let (namespace, temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+            let schema = create_test_schema();
+            let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
 
-        let response = namespace
-            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
+            let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+            let name_array = StringArray::from(vec!["Alice", "Bob", "Charlie"]);
+            let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(name_array)],
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
-        assert!(response.location.unwrap().ends_with("test_table.lance"));
-        assert_eq!(response.version, Some(1));
-    }
+            let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            {
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
+                writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+                writer.finish().unwrap();
+            }
+
+            let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+            let table_id = vec!["test_ops_table".to_string()];
+            request.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+
+            namespace
+                .create_table(request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_table_without_data() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            (namespace, temp_dir, table_id)
+        }
 
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_count_table_rows_basic() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        let result = namespace.create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::new()).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Arrow IPC stream) is required"));
-    }
+            let request = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_table_with_invalid_id() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let count = namespace.count_table_rows(request).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(count, 3);
+        }
 
-        // Create test IPC data
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_count_table_rows_with_predicate() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        // Test with empty ID
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+            let request = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: Some("id > 1".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        let result = namespace
-            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
-            .await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
+            let count = namespace.count_table_rows(request).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(count, 2);
+        }
 
-        // Test with multi-level ID - should now work with manifest enabled
-        // First create the parent namespace
-        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_invalid_distance_type() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_vector_table().await;
 
-        // Now create table in the namespace
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "table".to_string()]);
+            let vector = Box::new(lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector {
+                single_vector: Some(vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0]),
+                multi_vector: None,
+            });
 
-        let result = namespace
-            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await;
-        // Should succeed with manifest enabled
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Multi-level table IDs should work with manifest enabled"
-        );
-    }
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 2,
+                vector,
+                vector_column: Some("vector".to_string()),
+                distance_type: Some("invalid_metric".to_string()),
+                filter: None,
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_list_tables() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let result = namespace.query_table(request).await;
+            assert!(result.is_err());
+            let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+            assert!(
+                err_msg.contains("Unknown distance type"),
+                "Expected error about unknown distance type, got: {}",
+                err_msg
+            );
+        }
 
-        // Initially, no tables
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_insert_into_table_append() {
+            use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+            use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
 
-        // Create test IPC data
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        // Create a table
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["table1".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            // Prepare new data to insert
+            let schema = create_test_schema();
+            let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
 
-        // Create another table
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["table2".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
+            let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5]);
+            let name_array = StringArray::from(vec!["Dave", "Eve"]);
+            let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(name_array)],
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
-        // List tables should return both
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        let tables = response.tables;
-        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 2);
-        assert!(tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
-        assert!(tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
-    }
+            let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            {
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
+                writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+                writer.finish().unwrap();
+            }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_list_tables_with_namespace_id() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let request = InsertIntoTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                mode: Some("append".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // First create a child namespace
-        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+            let response = namespace
+                .insert_into_table(request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(response.transaction_id.is_none());
 
-        // Now list tables in the child namespace
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string()]);
+            // Verify total rows
+            let count_req = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let count = namespace.count_table_rows(count_req).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(count, 5);
+        }
 
-        let result = namespace.list_tables(request).await;
-        // Should succeed (with manifest enabled) and return empty list (no tables yet)
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "list_tables should work with child namespace when manifest is enabled"
-        );
-        let response = result.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            response.tables.len(),
-            0,
-            "Namespace should have no tables yet"
-        );
-    }
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_insert_into_table_overwrite() {
+            use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+            use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_describe_table() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        // Create a table first
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let schema = create_test_schema();
+            let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
 
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
+            let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20]);
+            let name_array = StringArray::from(vec!["X", "Y"]);
+            let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(name_array)],
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Describe the table
-        let mut request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let response = namespace.describe_table(request).await.unwrap();
+            let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            {
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
+                writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+                writer.finish().unwrap();
+            }
 
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
-        assert!(response.location.unwrap().ends_with("test_table.lance"));
-    }
+            let request = InsertIntoTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                mode: Some("overwrite".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_describe_nonexistent_table() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            namespace
+                .insert_into_table(request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let mut request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+            // Verify overwrite: only 2 rows remain
+            let count_req = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let count = namespace.count_table_rows(count_req).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(count, 2);
+        }
 
-        let result = namespace.describe_table(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Table does not exist"));
-    }
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_insert_into_table_empty_data() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_table_exists() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let request = InsertIntoTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                mode: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // Create a table
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let result = namespace.insert_into_table(request, Bytes::new()).await;
+            assert!(result.is_err());
+            assert!(
+                result
+                    .unwrap_err()
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains("Arrow IPC stream) is required")
+            );
+        }
 
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["existing_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_insert_into_table_with_storage_options() {
+            use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+            use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
 
-        // Check existing table
-        let mut request = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["existing_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.table_exists(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
+            let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
 
-        // Check non-existent table
-        let mut request = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.table_exists(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Table does not exist"));
-    }
+            // Build namespace with a (no-op) storage option so self.storage_options is Some
+            let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+                .storage_option("allow_http", "true")
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_drop_table() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            // Create a table first
+            let schema = create_test_schema();
+            let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+            let table_id = vec!["so_table".to_string()];
+            create_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+            namespace
+                .create_table(create_req, Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a table
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            // Insert with storage_options present — covers store_params closure
+            let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
 
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["table_to_drop".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
+            let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20]);
+            let name_array = StringArray::from(vec!["X", "Y"]);
+            let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(name_array)],
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify it exists
-        let mut exists_request = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_request.id = Some(vec!["table_to_drop".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_request.clone()).await.is_ok());
+            let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            {
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
+                writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+                writer.finish().unwrap();
+            }
 
-        // Drop the table
-        let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
-        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["table_to_drop".to_string()]);
-        let response = namespace.drop_table(drop_request).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+            let request = InsertIntoTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                mode: Some("append".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // Verify it no longer exists
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_request).await.is_err());
-    }
+            let response = namespace
+                .insert_into_table(request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(response.transaction_id.is_none());
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_drop_nonexistent_table() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            // Verify rows were inserted
+            let count_req = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let count = namespace.count_table_rows(count_req).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(count, 2);
+        }
 
-        let mut request = DropTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_basic() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        // Should not fail when dropping non-existent table (idempotent)
-        let result = namespace.drop_table(request).await;
-        // The operation might succeed or fail depending on implementation
-        // But it should not panic
-        let _ = result;
-    }
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 10,
+                filter: None,
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_root_namespace_operations() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Test list_namespaces - should return empty list for root
-        let mut request = ListNamespacesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let result = namespace.list_namespaces(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        assert_eq!(result.unwrap().namespaces.len(), 0);
+            // Decode IPC and verify
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 3);
+        }
 
-        // Test describe_namespace - should succeed for root
-        let mut request = DescribeNamespaceRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let result = namespace.describe_namespace(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_with_filter() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        // Test namespace_exists - root always exists
-        let mut request = NamespaceExistsRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let result = namespace.namespace_exists(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 10,
+                filter: Some("id <= 2".to_string()),
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
+
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 2);
+        }
 
-        // Test create_namespace - root cannot be created
-        let mut request = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let result = namespace.create_namespace(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("already exists"));
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_with_limit_and_offset() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        // Test drop_namespace - root cannot be dropped
-        let mut request = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let result = namespace.drop_namespace(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("cannot be dropped"));
-    }
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 2,
+                filter: None,
+                offset: Some(1),
+                version: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_non_root_namespace_operations() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
 
-        // With manifest enabled (default), child namespaces are now supported
-        // Test create_namespace for non-root - should succeed with manifest
-        let mut request = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["child".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.create_namespace(request).await;
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Child namespace creation should succeed with manifest enabled"
-        );
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 2);
+        }
 
-        // Test namespace_exists for non-root - should exist after creation
-        let mut request = NamespaceExistsRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["child".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.namespace_exists(request).await;
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Child namespace should exist after creation"
-        );
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_no_limit() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
+
+            // k=0 means no limit
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 0,
+                filter: None,
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // Test drop_namespace for non-root - should succeed
-        let mut request = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["child".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.drop_namespace(request).await;
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Child namespace drop should succeed with manifest enabled"
-        );
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify namespace no longer exists
-        let mut request = NamespaceExistsRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["child".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.namespace_exists(request).await;
-        assert!(
-            result.is_err(),
-            "Child namespace should not exist after drop"
-        );
-    }
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 3);
+        }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_config_custom_root() {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let custom_path = temp_dir.join("custom");
-        std::fs::create_dir(&custom_path).unwrap();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_with_columns() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(custom_path.to_string_lossy().to_string())
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            let columns = Box::new(lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestColumns {
+                column_names: Some(vec!["id".to_string()]),
+                column_aliases: None,
+            });
 
-        // Create test IPC data
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 10,
+                filter: None,
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                columns: Some(columns),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // Create a table and verify location
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
 
-        let response = namespace
-            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let schema = reader.schema();
+            assert_eq!(schema.fields().len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(schema.field(0).name(), "id");
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 3);
+        }
 
-        assert!(response.location.unwrap().contains("custom"));
-    }
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_count_table_rows_with_version() {
+            use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+            use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_config_storage_options() {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap())
-            .storage_option("option1", "value1")
-            .storage_option("option2", "value2")
-            .build()
-            .await
+            // Insert more data to create version 2
+            let schema = create_test_schema();
+            let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
+
+            let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5]);
+            let name_array = StringArray::from(vec!["Dave", "Eve"]);
+            let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(name_array)],
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create test IPC data
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            {
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
+                writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+                writer.finish().unwrap();
+            }
 
-        // Create a table and check storage options are included
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+            let request = InsertIntoTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                mode: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            namespace
+                .insert_into_table(request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let response = namespace
-            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            // Version 1 should have 3 rows
+            let count_req = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                version: Some(1),
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let count = namespace.count_table_rows(count_req).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(count, 3);
+
+            // Latest version should have 5 rows
+            let count_req = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let count = namespace.count_table_rows(count_req).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(count, 5);
+        }
 
-        let storage_options = response.storage_options.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(storage_options.get("option1"), Some(&"value1".to_string()));
-        assert_eq!(storage_options.get("option2"), Some(&"value2".to_string()));
-    }
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_with_version() {
+            use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+            use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_from_properties_manifest_enabled() {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
-        properties.insert("root".to_string(), temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string());
-        properties.insert("manifest_enabled".to_string(), "true".to_string());
-        properties.insert("dir_listing_enabled".to_string(), "false".to_string());
+            // Insert more data to create version 2
+            let schema = create_test_schema();
+            let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
 
-        let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties, None).unwrap();
-        assert!(builder.manifest_enabled);
-        assert!(!builder.dir_listing_enabled);
+            let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5]);
+            let name_array = StringArray::from(vec!["Dave", "Eve"]);
+            let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(name_array)],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let namespace = builder.build().await.unwrap();
+            let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            {
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
+                writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+                writer.finish().unwrap();
+            }
 
-        // Create test IPC data
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let request = InsertIntoTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                mode: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            namespace
+                .insert_into_table(request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a table
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+            // Query version 1 should return 3 rows
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                k: 100,
+                filter: None,
+                offset: None,
+                version: Some(1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        let response = namespace
-            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 3);
+
+            // Query latest version should return 5 rows
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 100,
+                filter: None,
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 5);
+        }
+
+        /// Helper to create a namespace with a table that has a vector column for
+        /// vector search tests.
+        async fn create_ns_with_vector_table() -> (DirectoryNamespace, TempStdDir, Vec<String>) {
+            use arrow::array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array};
+            use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
+
+            let (namespace, temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+            // Build schema: id (int32), vector (fixed_size_list<float32>[4])
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow::datatypes::Schema::new(vec![
+                arrow::datatypes::Field::new("id", arrow::datatypes::DataType::Int32, false),
+                arrow::datatypes::Field::new(
+                    "vector",
+                    arrow::datatypes::DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(arrow::datatypes::Field::new(
+                            "item",
+                            arrow::datatypes::DataType::Float32,
+                            true,
+                        )),
+                        4,
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+            ]));
+
+            let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+            let values = Float32Array::from(vec![
+                1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, // vector for id=1
+                0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0, // vector for id=2
+                0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, // vector for id=3
+            ]);
+            let vector_array = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(arrow::datatypes::Field::new(
+                    "item",
+                    arrow::datatypes::DataType::Float32,
+                    true,
+                )),
+                4,
+                Arc::new(values),
+                None,
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
-    }
+            let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(vector_array)],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_from_properties_dir_listing_enabled() {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            {
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
+                writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+                writer.finish().unwrap();
+            }
 
-        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
-        properties.insert("root".to_string(), temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string());
-        properties.insert("manifest_enabled".to_string(), "false".to_string());
-        properties.insert("dir_listing_enabled".to_string(), "true".to_string());
+            // Write as a Lance dataset directly
+            let table_name = "vector_table";
+            let table_uri = format!("{}/{}.lance", temp_dir.to_str().unwrap(), table_name);
+            let reader = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(batch)],
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+            );
+            Dataset::write(reader, &table_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+            let table_id = vec![table_name.to_string()];
+            (namespace, temp_dir, table_id)
+        }
 
-        let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties, None).unwrap();
-        assert!(!builder.manifest_enabled);
-        assert!(builder.dir_listing_enabled);
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_vector_search() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_vector_table().await;
 
-        let namespace = builder.build().await.unwrap();
+            let vector = Box::new(lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector {
+                single_vector: Some(vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0]),
+                multi_vector: None,
+            });
 
-        // Create test IPC data
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 2,
+                vector,
+                filter: None,
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // Create a table
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
 
-        let response = namespace
-            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 2);
+        }
 
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
-    }
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_vector_search_with_distance_type() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_vector_table().await;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_from_properties_defaults() {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let vector = Box::new(lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector {
+                single_vector: Some(vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0]),
+                multi_vector: None,
+            });
 
-        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
-        properties.insert("root".to_string(), temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string());
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 3,
+                vector,
+                filter: None,
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                distance_type: Some("cosine".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties, None).unwrap();
-        // Both should default to true
-        assert!(builder.manifest_enabled);
-        assert!(builder.dir_listing_enabled);
-    }
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_from_properties_with_storage_options() {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 3);
+        }
 
-        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
-        properties.insert("root".to_string(), temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string());
-        properties.insert("manifest_enabled".to_string(), "true".to_string());
-        properties.insert("storage.region".to_string(), "us-west-2".to_string());
-        properties.insert("storage.bucket".to_string(), "my-bucket".to_string());
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_vector_search_with_filter() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_vector_table().await;
 
-        let builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties, None).unwrap();
-        assert!(builder.manifest_enabled);
-        assert!(builder.storage_options.is_some());
+            let vector = Box::new(lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector {
+                single_vector: Some(vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0]),
+                multi_vector: None,
+            });
 
-        let storage_options = builder.storage_options.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            storage_options.get("region"),
-            Some(&"us-west-2".to_string())
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            storage_options.get("bucket"),
-            Some(&"my-bucket".to_string())
-        );
-    }
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 10,
+                vector,
+                filter: Some("id <= 2".to_string()),
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_various_arrow_types() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Create schema with various types
-        let fields = vec![
-            JsonArrowField {
-                name: "bool_col".to_string(),
-                r#type: Box::new(JsonArrowDataType::new("bool".to_string())),
-                nullable: true,
-                metadata: None,
-            },
-            JsonArrowField {
-                name: "int8_col".to_string(),
-                r#type: Box::new(JsonArrowDataType::new("int8".to_string())),
-                nullable: true,
-                metadata: None,
-            },
-            JsonArrowField {
-                name: "float64_col".to_string(),
-                r#type: Box::new(JsonArrowDataType::new("float64".to_string())),
-                nullable: true,
-                metadata: None,
-            },
-            JsonArrowField {
-                name: "binary_col".to_string(),
-                r#type: Box::new(JsonArrowDataType::new("binary".to_string())),
-                nullable: true,
-                metadata: None,
-            },
-        ];
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert!(total_rows <= 2);
+        }
 
-        let schema = JsonArrowSchema {
-            fields,
-            metadata: None,
-        };
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_vector_search_with_nprobes_and_refine() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_vector_table().await;
 
-        // Create IPC data
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let vector = Box::new(lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector {
+                single_vector: Some(vec![0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0]),
+                multi_vector: None,
+            });
 
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["complex_table".to_string()]);
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 2,
+                vector,
+                filter: None,
+                offset: None,
+                version: None,
+                nprobes: Some(1),
+                refine_factor: Some(1),
+                prefilter: Some(true),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        let response = namespace
-            .create_table(request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
 
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
-    }
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 2);
+        }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_connect_dir() {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_explain_vector_probe_fields_are_applied_independently() {
+            use lance_namespace::models::ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest;
+
+            let (namespace, temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_vector_table().await;
+            let table_uri = format!("{}/vector_table.lance", temp_dir.to_str().unwrap());
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&table_uri).await.unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["vector"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                    &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let vector = || {
+                Box::new(lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector {
+                    single_vector: Some(vec![0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0]),
+                    multi_vector: None,
+                })
+            };
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap())
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            let query = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: None,
+                k: 2,
+                vector: vector(),
+                nprobes: Some(20),
+                minimum_nprobes: Some(3),
+                maximum_nprobes: Some(10),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let mut request = ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest::new(query);
+            request.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+
+            let plan = namespace.explain_table_query_plan(request).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("minimum_nprobes=3"), "{plan}");
+            assert!(plan.contains("maximum_nprobes=Some(10)"), "{plan}");
+
+            let query = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: None,
+                k: 2,
+                vector: vector(),
+                nprobes: Some(20),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let mut request = ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest::new(query);
+            request.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+
+            let plan = namespace.explain_table_query_plan(request).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("minimum_nprobes=20"), "{plan}");
+            assert!(plan.contains("maximum_nprobes=Some(20)"), "{plan}");
+
+            let query = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: None,
+                k: 2,
+                vector: vector(),
+                nprobes: Some(-1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let mut request = ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest::new(query);
+            request.id = Some(table_id);
 
-        // Test basic operation through the concrete type
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
-    }
+            let err = namespace
+                .explain_table_query_plan(request)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(err.to_string().contains("nprobes must be non-negative"));
+        }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_table_with_ipc_data() {
-        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
-        use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_namespace_id() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let id = namespace.namespace_id();
+            assert!(id.contains("DirectoryNamespace"));
+            assert!(id.contains("root"));
+        }
 
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_empty_table() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        // Create a schema with some fields
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
+            // Create table with empty IPC data (schema only, no rows)
+            let schema = create_test_schema();
+            let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+            let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+            create_request.id = Some(vec!["empty_table".to_string()]);
+            namespace
+                .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        // Create some test data that matches the schema
-        let arrow_schema = convert_json_arrow_schema(&schema).unwrap();
-        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
+            // Query the empty table — should hit the "no batches" else branch
+            let vector = Box::new(lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector {
+                single_vector: None,
+                multi_vector: None,
+            });
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["empty_table".to_string()]),
+                k: 10,
+                vector,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Create a RecordBatch with actual data
-        let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
-        let name_array = StringArray::from(vec!["Alice", "Bob", "Charlie"]);
-        let batch = arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch::try_new(
-            arrow_schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(name_array)],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>().unwrap();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(total_rows, 0, "empty table should yield no rows");
+        }
 
-        // Write the batch to an IPC stream
-        let mut buffer = Vec::new();
-        {
-            let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &arrow_schema).unwrap();
-            writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
-            writer.finish().unwrap();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_query_table_with_plain_filter_no_vector() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
+
+            // Query with filter but no vector (plain scan path + filter)
+            let vector = Box::new(lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector {
+                single_vector: None,
+                multi_vector: None,
+            });
+            let request = QueryTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                k: 0,
+                vector,
+                filter: Some("id > 1".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let bytes = namespace.query_table(request).await.unwrap();
+
+            let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes.to_vec());
+            let reader = FileReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<_> = reader.into_iter().map(|b| b.unwrap()).collect();
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert!(total_rows > 0);
+            assert!(total_rows < 3);
         }
 
-        // Create table with the IPC data
-        let mut request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table_with_data".to_string()]);
+        // ---------------------- update_table / delete_from_table ----------------------
 
-        let response = namespace
-            .create_table(request, Bytes::from(buffer))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_update_full_table() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        assert_eq!(response.version, Some(1));
-        assert!(response
-            .location
-            .unwrap()
-            .contains("test_table_with_data.lance"));
+            // Capture base version so we can assert the update bumped it.
+            let base_version = open_dataset(&namespace, &table_id[0])
+                .await
+                .version()
+                .version;
 
-        // Verify table exists
-        let mut exists_request = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table_with_data".to_string()]);
-        namespace.table_exists(exists_request).await.unwrap();
-    }
+            let request = UpdateTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                updates: vec![vec!["name".to_string(), "'updated'".to_string()]],
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    #[allow(deprecated)]
-    async fn test_create_empty_table() {
-        let (namespace, temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let response = namespace.update_table(request).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(response.updated_rows, 3);
+            assert!(response.version as u64 > base_version);
 
-        let mut request = CreateEmptyTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["empty_table".to_string()]);
+            // Validate that all rows now carry the new value.
+            let count_req = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: Some("name = 'updated'".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            assert_eq!(namespace.count_table_rows(count_req).await.unwrap(), 3);
+        }
 
-        let response = namespace.create_empty_table(request).await.unwrap();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_update_with_predicate() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
-        assert!(response.location.unwrap().ends_with("empty_table.lance"));
+            let request = UpdateTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                updates: vec![vec!["name".to_string(), "'matched'".to_string()]],
+                predicate: Some("id > 1".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // Verify the .lance-reserved file was created in the correct location
-        let table_dir = temp_dir.join("empty_table.lance");
-        assert!(table_dir.exists());
-        assert!(table_dir.is_dir());
+            let response = namespace.update_table(request).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(response.updated_rows, 2);
 
-        let reserved_file = table_dir.join(".lance-reserved");
-        assert!(reserved_file.exists());
-        assert!(reserved_file.is_file());
+            // Rows that did not match the predicate must remain unchanged.
+            let untouched = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: Some("name = 'Alice'".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            assert_eq!(namespace.count_table_rows(untouched).await.unwrap(), 1);
 
-        // Verify file is empty
-        let metadata = std::fs::metadata(&reserved_file).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(metadata.len(), 0);
+            let touched = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: Some("name = 'matched'".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            assert_eq!(namespace.count_table_rows(touched).await.unwrap(), 2);
+        }
 
-        // Verify table exists by checking for .lance-reserved file
-        let mut exists_request = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_request.id = Some(vec!["empty_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace.table_exists(exists_request).await.unwrap();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_update_invalid_expression_returns_invalid_input() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        // List tables should include the empty table
-        let mut list_request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        list_request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let list_response = namespace.list_tables(list_request).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(list_response.tables.contains(&"empty_table".to_string()));
+            let request = UpdateTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                // Reference an unknown column on the right-hand side.
+                updates: vec![vec!["name".to_string(), "no_such_column + 1".to_string()]],
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // Verify describe table works for empty table
-        let mut describe_request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
-        describe_request.id = Some(vec!["empty_table".to_string()]);
-        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_request).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(describe_response.location.is_some());
-        assert!(describe_response.location.unwrap().contains("empty_table"));
-    }
+            let err = namespace.update_table(request).await.unwrap_err();
+            let msg = err.to_string();
+            assert!(
+                msg.contains("Invalid input"),
+                "expected Invalid input error, got: {}",
+                msg
+            );
+        }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    #[allow(deprecated)]
-    async fn test_create_empty_table_with_wrong_location() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_update_rejects_duplicate_columns() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
+
+            let request = UpdateTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                updates: vec![
+                    vec!["name".to_string(), "'a'".to_string()],
+                    vec!["name".to_string(), "'b'".to_string()],
+                ],
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        let mut request = CreateEmptyTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        request.location = Some("/wrong/path/table.lance".to_string());
+            let err = namespace.update_table(request).await.unwrap_err();
+            let msg = err.to_string();
+            assert!(
+                msg.contains("Invalid input") && msg.contains("more than once"),
+                "expected duplicate column InvalidInput error, got: {}",
+                msg
+            );
+        }
 
-        let result = namespace.create_empty_table(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("must be at location"));
-    }
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_delete_with_predicate() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    #[allow(deprecated)]
-    async fn test_create_empty_table_then_drop() {
-        let (namespace, temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+            let request = DeleteFromTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                predicate: "id > 1".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // Create an empty table
-        let mut create_request = CreateEmptyTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["empty_table_to_drop".to_string()]);
+            let response = namespace.delete_from_table(request).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(response.version.is_some());
 
-        let create_response = namespace.create_empty_table(create_request).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(create_response.location.is_some());
+            let count_req = CountTableRowsRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                version: None,
+                predicate: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            // Original rows = 3; after deleting `id > 1` only row id=1 remains.
+            assert_eq!(namespace.count_table_rows(count_req).await.unwrap(), 1);
+        }
 
-        // Verify it exists
-        let table_dir = temp_dir.join("empty_table_to_drop.lance");
-        assert!(table_dir.exists());
-        let reserved_file = table_dir.join(".lance-reserved");
-        assert!(reserved_file.exists());
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_delete_empty_predicate_returns_invalid_input() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
 
-        // Drop the table
-        let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
-        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["empty_table_to_drop".to_string()]);
-        let drop_response = namespace.drop_table(drop_request).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(drop_response.location.is_some());
+            let request = DeleteFromTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                predicate: "   ".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-        // Verify table directory was removed
-        assert!(!table_dir.exists());
-        assert!(!reserved_file.exists());
+            let err = namespace.delete_from_table(request).await.unwrap_err();
+            let msg = err.to_string();
+            assert!(
+                msg.contains("Invalid input") && msg.contains("non-empty predicate"),
+                "expected non-empty predicate InvalidInput error, got: {}",
+                msg
+            );
+        }
 
-        // Verify table no longer exists
-        let mut exists_request = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_request.id = Some(vec!["empty_table_to_drop".to_string()]);
-        let exists_result = namespace.table_exists(exists_request).await;
-        assert!(exists_result.is_err());
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_delete_table_not_found() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+            let request = DeleteFromTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["does_not_exist".to_string()]),
+                predicate: "id = 1".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+
+            let err = namespace.delete_from_table(request).await.unwrap_err();
+            let msg = err.to_string();
+            assert!(
+                msg.contains("Table not found"),
+                "expected TableNotFound for missing table, got: {}",
+                msg
+            );
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_delete_invalid_predicate_returns_invalid_input() {
+            let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_ns_with_table().await;
+
+            // A predicate referencing a column that does not exist reaches `Dataset::delete`
+            // and surfaces as `Error::InvalidInput`, which must map to `InvalidInput` rather
+            // than a generic `Internal`.
+            let request = DeleteFromTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                predicate: "no_such_column = 1".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+
+            let err = namespace.delete_from_table(request).await.unwrap_err();
+            let lance_core::Error::Namespace { source, .. } = &err else {
+                panic!("expected a Namespace error, got: {}", err);
+            };
+            let ns_err = source
+                .downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>()
+                .expect("expected a NamespaceError source");
+            assert_eq!(
+                ns_err.code(),
+                lance_namespace::ErrorCode::InvalidInput,
+                "expected InvalidInput for an invalid delete predicate, got: {}",
+                err
+            );
+        }
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_child_namespace_create_and_list() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+    async fn test_list_all_tables() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::ListTablesRequest;
 
-        // Create multiple child namespaces
-        for i in 1..=3 {
-            let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-            create_req.id = Some(vec![format!("ns{}", i)]);
-            let result = namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await;
-            assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to create child namespace ns{}", i);
-        }
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "alpha").await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "beta").await;
 
-        // List child namespaces
-        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
+        let request = ListTablesRequest {
             id: Some(vec![]),
+            page_token: None,
+            limit: None,
             ..Default::default()
         };
-        let result = namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let namespaces = result.unwrap().namespaces;
-        assert_eq!(namespaces.len(), 3);
-        assert!(namespaces.contains(&"ns1".to_string()));
-        assert!(namespaces.contains(&"ns2".to_string()));
-        assert!(namespaces.contains(&"ns3".to_string()));
+        let response = namespace.list_all_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        let mut tables = response.tables;
+        tables.sort();
+        assert_eq!(tables, vec!["alpha", "beta"]);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_nested_namespace_hierarchy() {
+    async fn test_restore_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::RestoreTableRequest;
+
         let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
 
-        // Create parent namespace
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+        // Create a second version by creating a scalar index (this adds a new version)
+        create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx").await;
 
-        // Create nested children
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child1".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let current_version = dataset.version().version;
+        assert!(current_version >= 2, "Should have at least 2 versions");
 
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child2".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+        // Restore to version 1
+        let mut restore_req = RestoreTableRequest::new(1);
+        restore_req.id = Some(vec!["users".to_string()]);
+        let response = namespace.restore_table(restore_req).await.unwrap();
 
-        // List children of parent
-        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let children = result.unwrap().namespaces;
-        assert_eq!(children.len(), 2);
-        assert!(children.contains(&"child1".to_string()));
-        assert!(children.contains(&"child2".to_string()));
+        // transaction_id should be present (the restore operation)
+        assert!(
+            response.transaction_id.is_some(),
+            "restore_table should return a transaction_id"
+        );
 
-        // List root should only show parent
-        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
-            id: Some(vec![]),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let root_namespaces = result.unwrap().namespaces;
-        assert_eq!(root_namespaces.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(root_namespaces[0], "parent");
+        // Verify the dataset now has a new version (restore creates a new version)
+        let dataset_after = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        assert!(
+            dataset_after.version().version > current_version,
+            "Restore should create a new version"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_table_in_child_namespace() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+    async fn test_alter_table_add_columns() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AddColumnsEntry, AlterTableAddColumnsRequest, DescribeTableRequest,
+        };
 
-        // Create child namespace
-        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        // Create table in child namespace
+        // Create a table
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace
-            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to create table in child namespace");
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // List tables in child namespace
-        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let tables = result.unwrap().tables;
-        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(tables[0], "table1");
+        // Add a new column
+        let mut new_col = AddColumnsEntry::new("doubled_id".to_string());
+        new_col.expression = Some(Some("id * 2".to_string()));
+        let mut add_request = AlterTableAddColumnsRequest::new(vec![new_col]);
+        add_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
 
-        // Verify table exists
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let response = namespace
+            .alter_table_add_columns(add_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            response.version > 1,
+            "Version should increment after adding columns"
+        );
+
+        // Verify via describe_table
+        let mut describe_request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_request.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_request).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(describe_response.schema.is_some());
 
-        // Describe table in child namespace
-        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
-        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let response = result.unwrap();
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+        let resp_schema = describe_response.schema.unwrap();
+        let field_names: Vec<&str> = resp_schema.fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
+        assert!(
+            field_names.contains(&"doubled_id"),
+            "Column 'doubled_id' should exist, got: {:?}",
+            field_names
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_multiple_tables_in_child_namespace() {
+    async fn test_update_table_schema_metadata() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest;
+
         let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "products").await;
 
-        // Create child namespace
-        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert("owner".to_string(), "team_a".to_string());
+        metadata.insert("version".to_string(), "1.0".to_string());
 
-        // Create multiple tables
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        for i in 1..=3 {
-            let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-            create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), format!("table{}", i)]);
-            namespace
-                .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-        }
+        let mut req = UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest::new();
+        req.id = Some(vec!["products".to_string()]);
+        req.metadata = Some(metadata.clone());
 
-        // List tables
-        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let tables = result.unwrap().tables;
-        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 3);
-        assert!(tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
-        assert!(tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
-        assert!(tables.contains(&"table3".to_string()));
+        let response = namespace.update_table_schema_metadata(req).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(response.metadata.is_some());
+        let returned = response.metadata.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(returned.get("owner"), Some(&"team_a".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(returned.get("version"), Some(&"1.0".to_string()));
+        assert!(
+            response.transaction_id.is_some(),
+            "update_table_schema_metadata should return a transaction_id"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_drop_table_in_child_namespace() {
+    async fn test_alter_table_add_columns_missing_id() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{AddColumnsEntry, AlterTableAddColumnsRequest};
+
         let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        // Create child namespace
-        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+        let new_col = AddColumnsEntry::new("col".to_string());
+        let request = AlterTableAddColumnsRequest::new(vec![new_col]);
+        let result = namespace.alter_table_add_columns(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when table ID is missing");
+    }
 
-        // Create table
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_alter_table_alter_columns_rename() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AlterColumnsEntry, AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest, DescribeTableRequest,
+        };
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+
+        // Create a table
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
         namespace
-            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Drop table
-        let mut drop_req = DropTableRequest::new();
-        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.drop_table(drop_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to drop table in child namespace");
+        // Rename "name" to "full_name"
+        let mut entry = AlterColumnsEntry::new("name".to_string());
+        entry.rename = Some(Some("full_name".to_string()));
+        let mut alter_request = AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest::new(vec![entry]);
+        alter_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
 
-        // Verify table no longer exists
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let response = namespace
+            .alter_table_alter_columns(alter_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            response.version > 1,
+            "Version should increment after altering columns"
+        );
+
+        // Verify the rename
+        let mut describe_request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_request.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_request).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(describe_response.schema.is_some());
+
+        let resp_schema = describe_response.schema.unwrap();
+        let field_names: Vec<&str> = resp_schema.fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
+        assert!(
+            field_names.contains(&"full_name"),
+            "Column should be renamed to 'full_name', got: {:?}",
+            field_names
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !field_names.contains(&"name"),
+            "Old column 'name' should not exist, got: {:?}",
+            field_names
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    #[allow(deprecated)]
-    async fn test_empty_table_in_child_namespace() {
+    async fn test_get_table_stats() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::GetTableStatsRequest;
+
         let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "items").await;
+        create_scalar_index(&namespace, "items", "items_id_idx").await;
 
-        // Create child namespace
-        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+        let mut req = GetTableStatsRequest::new();
+        req.id = Some(vec!["items".to_string()]);
 
-        // Create empty table
-        let mut create_empty_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest::new();
-        create_empty_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "empty_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.create_empty_table(create_empty_req).await;
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Failed to create empty table in child namespace"
-        );
+        let response = namespace.get_table_stats(req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.num_rows, 3);
+        assert_eq!(response.num_indices, 1);
+    }
 
-        // Verify table exists
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "empty_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explain_table_query_plan() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector;
+        use lance_namespace::models::{ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest, QueryTableRequest};
+
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "catalog").await;
+
+        let mut query = QueryTableRequest::new(1, QueryTableRequestVector::new());
+        query.filter = Some("id > 1".to_string());
+        query.columns = Some(Box::new(QueryTableRequestColumns {
+            column_names: Some(vec!["id".to_string(), "name".to_string()]),
+            column_aliases: None,
+        }));
+        query.with_row_id = Some(true);
+
+        let mut req = ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest::new(query);
+        req.id = Some(vec!["catalog".to_string()]);
+
+        let plan_str = namespace.explain_table_query_plan(req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_plan_contains_all(
+            &plan_str,
+            &[
+                "ProjectionExec: expr=[id@0 as id, name@2 as name",
+                "projection=[name], source=stream(_rowid)",
+                "LanceRead: uri=",
+                "projection=[id]",
+                "row_id=true, row_addr=false",
+                "full_filter=id > Int32(1)",
+                "refine_filter=id > Int32(1)",
+            ],
+            "Filtered explain plan should preserve late materialization and filter pushdown",
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_deeply_nested_namespace() {
+    async fn test_alter_table_alter_columns_missing_id() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{AlterColumnsEntry, AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest};
+
         let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        // Create deeply nested namespace hierarchy
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["level1".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = AlterColumnsEntry::new("name".to_string());
+        let request = AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest::new(vec![entry]);
+        let result = namespace.alter_table_alter_columns(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when table ID is missing");
+    }
 
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["level1".to_string(), "level2".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_alter_table_drop_columns() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{AlterTableDropColumnsRequest, DescribeTableRequest};
 
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec![
-            "level1".to_string(),
-            "level2".to_string(),
-            "level3".to_string(),
-        ]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        // Create table in deeply nested namespace
+        // Create a table
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_table_req.id = Some(vec![
-            "level1".to_string(),
-            "level2".to_string(),
-            "level3".to_string(),
-            "table1".to_string(),
-        ]);
-        let result = namespace
-            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await;
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Drop the "name" column
+        let mut drop_request = AlterTableDropColumnsRequest::new(vec!["name".to_string()]);
+        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = namespace
+            .alter_table_drop_columns(drop_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
         assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Failed to create table in deeply nested namespace"
+            response.version > 1,
+            "Version should increment after dropping columns"
         );
 
-        // Verify table exists
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec![
-            "level1".to_string(),
-            "level2".to_string(),
-            "level3".to_string(),
-            "table1".to_string(),
-        ]);
-        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        // Verify column was dropped
+        let mut describe_request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_request.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_request).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(describe_response.schema.is_some());
+
+        let resp_schema = describe_response.schema.unwrap();
+        let field_names: Vec<&str> = resp_schema.fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
+        assert!(
+            !field_names.contains(&"name"),
+            "Column 'name' should be dropped, got: {:?}",
+            field_names
+        );
+        assert!(
+            field_names.contains(&"id"),
+            "Column 'id' should still exist, got: {:?}",
+            field_names
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_namespace_with_properties() {
+    async fn test_analyze_table_query_plan() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest;
+        use lance_namespace::models::QueryTableRequestVector;
+
         let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "catalog").await;
+
+        let mut req = AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest::new(1, QueryTableRequestVector::new());
+        req.id = Some(vec!["catalog".to_string()]);
+        req.filter = Some("id > 0".to_string());
+        req.columns = Some(Box::new(QueryTableRequestColumns {
+            column_names: Some(vec!["id".to_string(), "name".to_string()]),
+            column_aliases: None,
+        }));
+        req.with_row_id = Some(true);
+
+        let analysis_str = namespace.analyze_table_query_plan(req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_plan_contains_all(
+            &analysis_str,
+            &[
+                "AnalyzeExec verbose=true",
+                "ProjectionExec: elapsed=",
+                "expr=[id@0 as id, name@2 as name",
+                "projection=[name], source=stream(_rowid)",
+                "LanceRead: elapsed=",
+                "projection=[id]",
+                "row_id=true, row_addr=false",
+                "full_filter=id > Int32(0)",
+                "refine_filter=id > Int32(0)",
+                "metrics=[output_rows=",
+            ],
+            "Filtered analyze plan should preserve late materialization and filter pushdown",
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Create namespace with properties
-        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
-        properties.insert("owner".to_string(), "test_user".to_string());
-        properties.insert("description".to_string(), "Test namespace".to_string());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dir_listing_no_extra_calls_without_migration() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let root_uri = file_object_store_uri(temp_path);
+        let listing_count = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let session = build_listing_counting_session(listing_count.clone());
 
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
-        create_req.properties = Some(properties.clone());
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+        // Create a table using dir-listing-only namespace
+        let dir_only_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root_uri.clone())
+            .session(session.clone())
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Describe namespace and verify properties
-        let describe_req = DescribeNamespaceRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = namespace.describe_namespace(describe_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let response = result.unwrap();
-        assert!(response.properties.is_some());
-        let props = response.properties.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(props.get("owner"), Some(&"test_user".to_string()));
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        dir_only_ns
+            .create_table(create_req, Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Build a namespace with both enabled but migration disabled (default)
+        let hybrid_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root_uri)
+            .session(session)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reset counter before the operation we want to measure
+        listing_count.store(0, Ordering::SeqCst);
+
+        // table_exists should use dir listing directly, making only 1 listing call
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        hybrid_ns.table_exists(exists_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let count = listing_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
         assert_eq!(
-            props.get("description"),
-            Some(&"Test namespace".to_string())
+            count, 1,
+            "Expected exactly 1 listing call for table_exists \
+             without migration mode, but got {}",
+            count
+        );
+
+        // Reset and test describe_table
+        listing_count.store(0, Ordering::SeqCst);
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        hybrid_ns.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let count = listing_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
+        assert_eq!(
+            count, 1,
+            "Expected exactly 1 listing call for describe_table \
+             without migration mode, but got {}",
+            count
         );
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cannot_drop_namespace_with_tables() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_and_root_reads_do_not_create_manifest() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let manifest_path = std::path::Path::new(temp_path).join("__manifest");
+
+        let dir_only_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        create_scalar_table(&dir_only_ns, "catalog").await;
+        assert!(!manifest_path.exists());
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(!manifest_path.exists());
+
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["catalog".to_string()]);
+        namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!manifest_path.exists());
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["catalog".to_string()]);
+        namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!manifest_path.exists());
+
+        let list_response = namespace
+            .list_tables(ListTablesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(list_response.tables, vec!["catalog".to_string()]);
+        assert!(!manifest_path.exists());
+
+        let mut list_namespaces_req = ListNamespacesRequest::new();
+        list_namespaces_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]);
+        let err = namespace
+            .list_namespaces(list_namespaces_req)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("__manifest"));
+        assert!(!manifest_path.exists());
+
+        let err = namespace
+            .list_tables(ListTablesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("__manifest"));
+        assert!(!manifest_path.exists());
+
+        let mut child_describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        child_describe_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string(), "catalog".to_string()]);
+        let err = namespace
+            .describe_table(child_describe_req)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("__manifest"));
+        assert!(!manifest_path.exists());
+
+        let mut child_exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        child_exists_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string(), "catalog".to_string()]);
+        let err = namespace.table_exists(child_exists_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("__manifest"));
+        assert!(!manifest_path.exists());
 
-        // Create namespace
         let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]);
         namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(manifest_path.exists());
+    }
 
-        // Create table in namespace
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_migrate_updates_read_opened_legacy_manifest() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        create_legacy_manifest_without_primary_key_metadata(temp_path).await;
+        assert!(!manifest_has_primary_key_metadata(temp_path).await);
+
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert!(!manifest_has_primary_key_metadata(temp_path).await);
 
-        // Try to drop namespace - should fail
-        let mut drop_req = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
-        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.drop_namespace(drop_req).await;
-        assert!(
-            result.is_err(),
-            "Should not be able to drop namespace with tables"
-        );
+        let migrated = namespace.migrate().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(migrated, 0);
+        assert!(manifest_has_primary_key_metadata(temp_path).await);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_isolation_between_namespaces() {
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
-
-        // Create two namespaces
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns2".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Create table with same name in both namespaces
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+    async fn test_describe_declared_table_checks_versions_only_when_requested() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let root_uri = file_object_store_uri(temp_path);
+        let listing_count = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let session = build_listing_counting_session(listing_count.clone());
 
-        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
+        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root_uri)
+            .session(session)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .build()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["ns2".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_table_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
 
-        // List tables in each namespace
-        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
-            page_token: None,
-            limit: None,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result.tables.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(result.tables[0], "table1");
+        listing_count.store(0, Ordering::SeqCst);
 
-        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["ns2".to_string()]),
-            page_token: None,
-            limit: None,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result.tables.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(result.tables[0], "table1");
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Drop table in ns1 shouldn't affect ns2
-        let mut drop_req = DropTableRequest::new();
-        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        namespace.drop_table(drop_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            listing_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            1,
+            "Default describe_table should only list the table directory"
+        );
 
-        // Verify ns1 table is gone but ns2 table still exists
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_err());
+        listing_count.store(0, Ordering::SeqCst);
 
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["ns2".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_ok());
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_req.check_declared = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(describe_response.is_only_declared, Some(true));
+        assert_eq!(
+            listing_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            2,
+            "check_declared describe_table should list the table directory and _versions"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_migrate_directory_tables() {
+    async fn test_dir_listing_extra_calls_with_migration() {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let root_uri = file_object_store_uri(temp_path);
+        let listing_count = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let session = build_listing_counting_session(listing_count.clone());
 
-        // Step 1: Create tables in directory-only mode
-        let dir_only_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+        // Create a table using dir-listing-only namespace so it exists physically but is absent from __manifest.
+        let dir_only_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root_uri.clone())
+            .session(session.clone())
             .manifest_enabled(false)
             .dir_listing_enabled(true)
             .build()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create some tables
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        dir_only_ns
+            .create_table(create_req, Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        for i in 1..=3 {
-            let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-            create_req.id = Some(vec![format!("table{}", i)]);
-            dir_only_ns
-                .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-        }
-
-        drop(dir_only_ns);
-
-        // Step 2: Create namespace with dual mode (manifest + directory listing)
-        let dual_mode_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+        let hybrid_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(root_uri)
+            .session(session)
             .manifest_enabled(true)
             .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled(true)
             .build()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Before migration, tables should be visible (via directory listing fallback)
-        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let tables = dual_mode_ns.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables;
-        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 3);
+        // In migration mode the manifest is authoritative, so table_exists first
+        // probes __manifest via ensure_read_manifest() to self-heal any
+        // manifest-registered aliases (why the gate now admits this mode). Here
+        // the table is dir-only and __manifest does not exist yet, so that probe
+        // costs one list to confirm absence; the table-directory fallback is the
+        // second. (When __manifest exists the probe uses the version hint and
+        // adds no list, so a real self-heal is free.)
+        listing_count.store(0, Ordering::SeqCst);
 
-        // Run migration
-        let migrated_count = dual_mode_ns.migrate().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(migrated_count, 3, "Should migrate all 3 tables");
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        hybrid_ns.table_exists(exists_req).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify tables are now in manifest
-        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let tables = dual_mode_ns.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables;
-        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 3);
+        let count = listing_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
+        assert_eq!(
+            count, 2,
+            "Expected 2 listing calls for table_exists with migration mode \
+             (absent-__manifest probe + table directory fallback), but got {}",
+            count
+        );
 
-        // Run migration again - should be idempotent
-        let migrated_count = dual_mode_ns.migrate().await.unwrap();
+        // describe_table follows the same path: an ensure_read_manifest() probe
+        // of the (absent) __manifest, then the table-directory fallback.
+        listing_count.store(0, Ordering::SeqCst);
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        hybrid_ns.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let count = listing_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
         assert_eq!(
-            migrated_count, 0,
-            "Should not migrate already-migrated tables"
+            count, 2,
+            "Expected 2 listing calls for describe_table with migration mode \
+             (absent-__manifest probe + table directory fallback), but got {}",
+            count
         );
+    }
 
-        drop(dual_mode_ns);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_reload_observes_new_version_from_other_namespace() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
 
-        // Step 3: Create namespace with manifest-only mode
-        let manifest_only_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+        let namespace_a = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
             .manifest_enabled(true)
             .dir_listing_enabled(false)
             .build()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace_a, "alpha").await;
 
-        // Tables should still be accessible (now from manifest only)
-        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let tables = manifest_only_ns.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap().tables;
-        assert_eq!(tables.len(), 3);
-        assert!(tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
-        assert!(tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
-        assert!(tables.contains(&"table3".to_string()));
+        let namespace_b = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace_b, "beta").await;
+
+        let response = namespace_a
+            .list_tables(ListTablesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut tables = response.tables;
+        tables.sort();
+        assert_eq!(tables, vec!["alpha", "beta"]);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_migrate_without_manifest() {
+    async fn test_migration_not_found_errors_include_table_id() {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
 
-        // Create namespace without manifest
         let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
             .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_to_manifest_migration_enabled(true)
             .build()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // migrate() should return 0 when manifest is not enabled
-        let migrated_count = namespace.migrate().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(migrated_count, 0);
+        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["missing_table".to_string()]);
+        let err = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::Namespace { .. }));
+        let err_msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("Table not found"));
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("table id 'missing_table'"));
+
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["missing_table".to_string()]);
+        let err = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::Namespace { .. }));
+        let err_msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("Table not found"));
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("table id 'missing_table'"));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_register_table() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{RegisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest};
+    async fn test_manifest_not_found_errors_include_full_table_id() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateNamespaceRequest;
 
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
 
         let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
             .build()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a physical table first using lance directly
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-
-        let table_uri = format!("{}/external_table.lance", temp_path);
-        let cursor = Cursor::new(ipc_data);
-        let stream_reader = StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None).unwrap();
-        let batches: Vec<_> = stream_reader
-            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
-            .unwrap();
-        let schema = batches[0].schema();
-        let batch_results: Vec<_> = batches.into_iter().map(Ok).collect();
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batch_results, schema);
-        Dataset::write(Box::new(reader), &table_uri, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Register the table
-        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("external_table.lance".to_string());
-        register_req.id = Some(vec!["registered_table".to_string()]);
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["workspace".to_string()]);
+        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
 
-        let response = namespace.register_table(register_req).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.location, Some("external_table.lance".to_string()));
+        let missing_table_id = vec!["workspace".to_string(), "missing_table".to_string()];
 
-        // Verify table exists in namespace
         let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["registered_table".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_ok());
+        exists_req.id = Some(missing_table_id.clone());
+        let err = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::Namespace { .. }));
+        let err_msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("Table not found"));
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("table id 'workspace$missing_table'"));
 
-        // Verify we can list the table
-        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let tables = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(tables.tables.contains(&"registered_table".to_string()));
+        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_req.id = Some(missing_table_id);
+        let err = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::Namespace { .. }));
+        let err_msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("Table not found"));
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("table id 'workspace$missing_table'"));
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_register_table_duplicate_fails() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
+    /// Helper used by tag tests: creates a table with `versions` total versions
+    /// (1 create + N-1 appends) and returns the namespace plus the table id.
+    async fn create_tagged_test_table(
+        versions: u32,
+    ) -> (Arc<DirectoryNamespace>, TempStdDir, Vec<String>) {
+        use arrow::array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+        use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+
+        assert!(versions >= 1, "versions must be at least 1");
 
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .build()
+        let namespace = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let table_id = vec!["tag_table".to_string()];
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], arrow_schema.clone());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Create,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+            batches,
+            namespace.clone() as Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
+            table_id.clone(),
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        for i in 1..versions {
+            let value_start = (i as i32) * 10;
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                arrow_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+                    value_start,
+                    value_start + 1,
+                ]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], arrow_schema.clone());
+            dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        (namespace, temp_dir, table_id)
+    }
+
+    /// Downcast a lance-core error to its NamespaceError code for precise assertions.
+    fn namespace_code(err: &Error) -> Option<ErrorCode> {
+        match err {
+            Error::Namespace { source, .. } => {
+                source.downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>().map(|e| e.code())
+            }
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_and_list_branches() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(3).await;
+
+        namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                name: "dev".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                name: "staging".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Register a table
-        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("test_table.lance".to_string());
-        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let resp = namespace
+            .list_table_branches(ListTableBranchesRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resp.branches.len(),
+            2,
+            "expected 2 branches, got: {:?}",
+            resp.branches
+        );
+        assert!(resp.branches.contains_key("dev"));
+        assert!(resp.branches.contains_key("staging"));
+        assert!(resp.page_token.is_none());
 
+        // Deleting one branch is reflected in a subsequent list.
         namespace
-            .register_table(register_req.clone())
+            .delete_table_branch(DeleteTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                name: "dev".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Try to register again - should fail
-        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("already exists"));
+        let resp = namespace
+            .list_table_branches(ListTableBranchesRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resp.branches.len(), 1, "expected 1 branch after delete");
+        assert!(!resp.branches.contains_key("dev"));
+        assert!(resp.branches.contains_key("staging"));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_deregister_table() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{DeregisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest};
-
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    async fn test_create_branch_from_version() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(3).await;
 
-        // Create namespace with manifest-only mode (no directory listing fallback)
-        // This ensures deregistered tables are truly invisible
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(true)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
-            .build()
+        // Fork explicitly from version 1 of main.
+        namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                name: "from-v1".to_string(),
+                from_version: Some(1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a table
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-
-        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+        let resp = namespace
+            .list_table_branches(ListTableBranchesRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Verify table exists
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req.clone()).await.is_ok());
-
-        // Deregister the table
-        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
-        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let response = namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Should return location and id
-        assert!(
-            response.location.is_some(),
-            "Deregister should return location"
-        );
-        let location = response.location.as_ref().unwrap();
-        // Location should be a proper file:// URI with the temp path
-        // Use uri_to_url to normalize the temp path to a URL for comparison
-        let expected_url = lance_io::object_store::uri_to_url(temp_path)
-            .expect("Failed to convert temp path to URL");
-        let expected_prefix = expected_url.to_string();
-        assert!(
-            location.starts_with(&expected_prefix),
-            "Location should start with '{}', got: {}",
-            expected_prefix,
-            location
-        );
-        assert!(
-            location.contains("test_table"),
-            "Location should contain table name: {}",
-            location
+        let branch = resp
+            .branches
+            .get("from-v1")
+            .expect("forked branch should be listed");
+        assert_eq!(
+            branch.parent_version, 1,
+            "branch should fork from version 1"
         );
-        assert_eq!(response.id, Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]));
-
-        // Verify table no longer exists in namespace (removed from manifest)
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_err());
-
-        // Verify physical data still exists at the returned location
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(location).await;
         assert!(
-            dataset.is_ok(),
-            "Physical table data should still exist at {}",
-            location
+            branch.parent_branch.is_none(),
+            "a branch forked from main has no parent branch"
         );
     }
 
+    /// Forking from a NON-main source branch must clone that branch's chain.
+    /// Both chains are given a version 2 with diverged content, so a clone that
+    /// wrongly resolves the version under main succeeds silently with main's
+    /// data instead of erroring.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_deregister_table_in_child_namespace() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{
-            CreateNamespaceRequest, DeregisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest,
-        };
+    async fn test_create_branch_from_other_branch() {
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
 
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await; // main v1: ids [1, 2, 3]
+        // dev: forked at v1, one append (ids 100, 101) -> dev v2
+        create_branch_with_commits(&namespace, "users", "dev", 1).await;
+        // Diverge main to the same version number with different content.
+        let main_ds = open_dataset(&namespace, "users").await;
+        append_scalar_version(main_ds.uri(), 500).await; // main v2: + ids [500, 501]
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .build()
+        namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                name: "child".to_string(),
+                from_branch: Some("dev".to_string()),
+                from_version: Some(2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create child namespace
-        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
-        namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Create a table in the child namespace
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-
-        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+        let child_ds = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(main_ds.uri())
+            .with_branch("child", None)
+            .load()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Deregister the table
-        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
-        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
-        let response = namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Should return location and id in child namespace
-        assert!(
-            response.location.is_some(),
-            "Deregister should return location"
-        );
-        let location = response.location.as_ref().unwrap();
-        // Location should be a proper file:// URI with the temp path
-        // Use uri_to_url to normalize the temp path to a URL for comparison
-        let expected_url = lance_io::object_store::uri_to_url(temp_path)
-            .expect("Failed to convert temp path to URL");
-        let expected_prefix = expected_url.to_string();
+        let ids = scan_id_column(&child_ds).await;
         assert!(
-            location.starts_with(&expected_prefix),
-            "Location should start with '{}', got: {}",
-            expected_prefix,
-            location
+            ids.contains(&100) && ids.contains(&101),
+            "child must contain dev's appended rows, got: {:?}",
+            ids
         );
         assert!(
-            location.contains("test_ns") && location.contains("test_table"),
-            "Location should contain namespace and table name: {}",
-            location
+            !ids.contains(&500),
+            "child must not contain main's diverged rows, got: {:?}",
+            ids
         );
+
+        // The recorded metadata and the cloned data must agree on the parent.
+        let listed = namespace
+            .list_table_branches(ListTableBranchesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            response.id,
-            Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()])
+            listed
+                .branches
+                .get("child")
+                .unwrap()
+                .parent_branch
+                .as_deref(),
+            Some("dev")
         );
-
-        // Verify table no longer exists
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_err());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_register_without_manifest_fails() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
-
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    async fn test_create_existing_branch_conflict() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
 
-        // Create namespace without manifest
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .build()
+        namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                name: "dev".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Try to register - should fail (register requires manifest)
-        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("test_table.lance".to_string());
-        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("manifest mode is enabled"));
+        let err = namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                name: "dev".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace_code(&err),
+            Some(ErrorCode::TableBranchAlreadyExists),
+            "expected TableBranchAlreadyExists, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("already exists"),
+            "expected already-exists message, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Note: deregister_table now works in V1 mode via .lance-deregistered marker files
-        // See test_deregister_table_v1_mode for that test case
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_delete_unknown_branch() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
+
+        let err = namespace
+            .delete_table_branch(DeleteTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                name: "does-not-exist".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace_code(&err),
+            Some(ErrorCode::TableBranchNotFound),
+            "expected TableBranchNotFound, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("not found"),
+            "expected not-found message, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_register_table_rejects_absolute_uri() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
+    async fn test_delete_referenced_branch_conflict() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
 
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        // A child forked from `parent` (via from_branch) makes `parent` a referenced branch.
+        namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                name: "parent".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                name: "child".to_string(),
+                from_branch: Some("parent".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .build()
+        // from_branch resolution: the child records its parent branch as its fork point.
+        let listed = namespace
+            .list_table_branches(ListTableBranchesRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let child = listed
+            .branches
+            .get("child")
+            .expect("child branch should be listed");
+        assert_eq!(
+            child.parent_branch.as_deref(),
+            Some("parent"),
+            "child should record parent branch as its fork point"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            child.parent_version >= 1,
+            "child should record the parent version it forked from, got {}",
+            child.parent_version
+        );
 
-        // Try to register with absolute URI - should fail
-        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("s3://bucket/table.lance".to_string());
-        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
-        assert!(err_msg.contains("Absolute URIs are not allowed"));
+        // Deleting a branch that still has dependents is refused. The delete spec has no 409,
+        // so it surfaces as a documented InvalidInput (400), not a conflict status.
+        let err = namespace
+            .delete_table_branch(DeleteTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                name: "parent".to_string(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace_code(&err),
+            Some(ErrorCode::InvalidInput),
+            "expected InvalidInput for deleting a referenced branch, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("referenced"),
+            "error should explain the branch is still referenced, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_register_table_rejects_absolute_path() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
-
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    async fn test_branch_name_required() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .build()
+        let create_err = namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                name: String::new(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace_code(&create_err),
+            Some(ErrorCode::InvalidInput),
+            "empty name on create should be InvalidInput, got: {}",
+            create_err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            create_err
+                .to_string()
+                .to_lowercase()
+                .contains("must not be empty")
+        );
 
-        // Try to register with absolute path - should fail
-        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("/tmp/table.lance".to_string());
-        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
-        assert!(err_msg.contains("Absolute paths are not allowed"));
+        let delete_err = namespace
+            .delete_table_branch(DeleteTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                name: String::new(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace_code(&delete_err),
+            Some(ErrorCode::InvalidInput),
+            "empty name on delete should be InvalidInput, got: {}",
+            delete_err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            delete_err
+                .to_string()
+                .to_lowercase()
+                .contains("must not be empty")
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_register_table_rejects_path_traversal() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::RegisterTableRequest;
-
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
-
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .build()
+    async fn test_create_branch_rejects_negative_from_version() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
+
+        let err = namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                name: "dev".to_string(),
+                from_version: Some(-1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Try to register with path traversal - should fail
-        let mut register_req = RegisterTableRequest::new("../outside/table.lance".to_string());
-        register_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.register_table(register_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
-        assert!(err_msg.contains("Path traversal is not allowed"));
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace_code(&err),
+            Some(ErrorCode::InvalidInput),
+            "negative from_version should be InvalidInput, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("from_version"));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_namespace_write() {
-        use arrow::array::Int32Array;
-        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-        use arrow::record_batch::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
-        use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
-        use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
-
-        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
-        let namespace = Arc::new(namespace) as Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>;
-
-        // Use child namespace instead of root
-        let table_id = vec!["test_ns".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()];
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
-        ]));
-
-        // Test 1: CREATE mode
-        let data1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+    async fn test_create_branch_nonexistent_from_version() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
+
+        // Version 999 does not exist (the table has 2 versions). create_branch's clone phase
+        // raises DatasetNotFound, which we map to a documented InvalidInput (400).
+        let err = namespace
+            .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id),
+                name: "dev".to_string(),
+                from_version: Some(999),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace_code(&err),
+            Some(ErrorCode::InvalidInput),
+            "non-existent from_version should map to InvalidInput, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("does not exist"),
+            "error should name the missing source, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
 
-        let reader1 = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data1].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let dataset =
-            Dataset::write_into_namespace(reader1, namespace.clone(), table_id.clone(), None)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_and_list_tags() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(3).await;
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
-        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 1);
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new("v1".to_string(), 1);
+        req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Test 2: APPEND mode
-        let data2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5])),
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![40, 50])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new("v2".to_string(), 2);
+        req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap();
 
-        let params_append = WriteParams {
-            mode: WriteMode::Append,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+        let mut list_req = ListTableTagsRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(table_id);
+        let resp = namespace.list_table_tags(list_req).await.unwrap();
 
-        let reader2 = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data2].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
-            reader2,
-            namespace.clone(),
-            table_id.clone(),
-            Some(params_append),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resp.tags.len(), 2, "expected 2 tags, got: {:?}", resp.tags);
+        assert_eq!(resp.tags.get("v1").unwrap().version, 1);
+        assert_eq!(resp.tags.get("v2").unwrap().version, 2);
+        assert!(resp.page_token.is_none());
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 5);
-        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 2);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_existing_tag_conflict() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
 
-        // Test 3: OVERWRITE mode
-        let data3 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200])),
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1000, 2000])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new("v1".to_string(), 1);
+        req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap();
 
-        let params_overwrite = WriteParams {
-            mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new("v1".to_string(), 2);
+        req.id = Some(table_id);
+        let err = namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("already exists"),
+            "expected already-exists error, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
 
-        let reader3 = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data3].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let dataset = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
-            reader3,
-            namespace.clone(),
-            table_id.clone(),
-            Some(params_overwrite),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_get_tag_version() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(3).await;
+
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new("release".to_string(), 2);
+        req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut get_req = GetTableTagVersionRequest::new("release".to_string());
+        get_req.id = Some(table_id);
+        let resp = namespace.get_table_tag_version(get_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resp.version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(resp.branch, None);
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 3);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_get_unknown_tag() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
 
-        // Verify old data was replaced
-        let result = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        let a_col = result
-            .column_by_name("a")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(a_col.values(), &[100, 200]);
+        let mut get_req = GetTableTagVersionRequest::new("does-not-exist".to_string());
+        get_req.id = Some(table_id);
+        let err = namespace.get_table_tag_version(get_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("not found"),
+            "expected not-found error, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
     }
 
-    // ============================================================
-    // Tests for declare_table
-    // ============================================================
-
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_declare_table_v1_mode() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{
-            DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, TableExistsRequest,
-        };
-
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    async fn test_update_tag_to_new_version() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(3).await;
 
-        // Create namespace in V1 mode (no manifest)
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new("rolling".to_string(), 1);
+        req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Declare a table
-        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
-        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let response = namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+        let mut update_req = UpdateTableTagRequest::new("rolling".to_string(), 3);
+        update_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        namespace.update_table_tag(update_req).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Should return location
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
-        let location = response.location.as_ref().unwrap();
-        assert!(location.ends_with("test_table.lance"));
+        let mut get_req = GetTableTagVersionRequest::new("rolling".to_string());
+        get_req.id = Some(table_id);
+        let resp = namespace.get_table_tag_version(get_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resp.version, 3);
+    }
 
-        // Table should exist (via reserved file)
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_ok());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_unknown_tag() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
 
-        // Describe should work but return no version/schema (not written yet)
-        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
-        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let describe_response = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(describe_response.location.is_some());
-        assert!(describe_response.version.is_none()); // Not written yet
-        assert!(describe_response.schema.is_none()); // Not written yet
+        let mut update_req = UpdateTableTagRequest::new("ghost".to_string(), 1);
+        update_req.id = Some(table_id);
+        let err = namespace.update_table_tag(update_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("not found"),
+            "expected not-found error, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_declare_table_with_manifest() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{DeclareTableRequest, TableExistsRequest};
+    async fn test_delete_tag() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
+
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new("doomed".to_string(), 1);
+        req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut delete_req = DeleteTableTagRequest::new("doomed".to_string());
+        delete_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        namespace.delete_table_tag(delete_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut list_req = ListTableTagsRequest::new();
+        list_req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        let resp = namespace.list_table_tags(list_req).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(resp.tags.is_empty(), "tag should be removed after delete");
+
+        // A second get should return NotFound.
+        let mut get_req = GetTableTagVersionRequest::new("doomed".to_string());
+        get_req.id = Some(table_id);
+        let err = namespace.get_table_tag_version(get_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("not found"));
+    }
 
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_delete_unknown_tag() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
 
-        // Create namespace with manifest
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(true)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let mut delete_req = DeleteTableTagRequest::new("nope".to_string());
+        delete_req.id = Some(table_id);
+        let err = namespace.delete_table_tag(delete_req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("not found"),
+            "expected not-found error, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Declare a table
-        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
-        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let response = namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_tag_invalid_version() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir, table_id) = create_tagged_test_table(2).await;
 
-        // Should return location
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+        // version 0 should be rejected as InvalidInput before reaching the dataset.
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new("v0".to_string(), 0);
+        req.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+        let err = namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("positive"),
+            "expected positive-version error, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
 
-        // Table should exist in manifest
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await.is_ok());
+        // empty tag name should also be rejected.
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new(String::new(), 1);
+        req.id = Some(table_id);
+        let err = namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("must not be empty"),
+            "expected empty-tag-name error, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_declare_table_when_table_exists() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::DeclareTableRequest;
-
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    async fn test_create_tag_table_not_found() {
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let mut req = CreateTableTagRequest::new("v1".to_string(), 1);
+        req.id = Some(vec!["does_not_exist".to_string()]);
+        let err = namespace.create_table_tag(req).await.unwrap_err();
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("Table") && msg.to_lowercase().contains("not found"),
+            "expected TableNotFound error, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_alter_table_drop_columns_missing_id() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::AlterTableDropColumnsRequest;
 
-        // First create a table with actual data
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        // Try to declare the same table - should fail because it already has data
-        let mut declare_req = DeclareTableRequest::new();
-        declare_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let request = AlterTableDropColumnsRequest::new(vec!["col".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.alter_table_drop_columns(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when table ID is missing");
     }
 
-    // ============================================================
-    // Tests for deregister_table in V1 mode
-    // ============================================================
-
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_deregister_table_v1_mode() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{DeregisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest};
-
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
-
-        // Create namespace in V1 mode (no manifest, with dir listing)
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    async fn test_alter_table_drop_columns_nonexistent_table() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::AlterTableDropColumnsRequest;
 
-        // Create a table with data
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        // Verify table exists
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req.clone()).await.is_ok());
+        let mut request = AlterTableDropColumnsRequest::new(vec!["col".to_string()]);
+        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+        let result = namespace.alter_table_drop_columns(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when table does not exist");
+    }
 
-        // Deregister the table
-        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
-        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let response = namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_branch_on_managed_dataset_succeeds() {
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
 
-        // Should return location
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
-        let location = response.location.as_ref().unwrap();
-        assert!(location.contains("test_table"));
+        let temp = TempStdDir::default();
+        let ns = create_managed_namespace(temp.to_str().unwrap()).await;
+        let table_id = vec!["t".to_string()];
+        let mut main = create_managed_table(&ns, &table_id).await;
 
-        // Table should no longer exist (deregistered)
-        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("deregistered"));
+        let fork_version = main.version().version;
+        let branch = main
+            .create_branch("exp", fork_version, None)
+            .await
+            .expect("create_branch failed");
+        assert_eq!(branch.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&branch).await, vec![1, 2]);
 
-        // Physical data should still exist
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(location).await;
-        assert!(dataset.is_ok(), "Physical table data should still exist");
+        let reopened = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(ns.clone(), table_id.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_branch("exp", None)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .expect("reopen branch failed");
+        assert_eq!(scan_id_column(&reopened).await, vec![1, 2]);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_deregister_table_v1_already_deregistered() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableRequest;
-
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    async fn test_alter_transaction_set_status() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AlterTransactionAction, AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionSetStatus,
+            DescribeTransactionRequest,
+        };
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
-            .build()
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let txn_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx")
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .expect("create_scalar_index should return a transaction id");
 
-        // Create a table
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+        // First verify the transaction exists
+        let describe_resp = namespace
+            .describe_transaction(DescribeTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(describe_resp.status, "SUCCEEDED");
 
-        // Deregister once
-        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
-        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .deregister_table(deregister_req.clone())
+        // Alter the transaction status
+        let response = namespace
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                actions: vec![AlterTransactionAction {
+                    set_status_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetStatus {
+                        status: Some("Canceled".to_string()),
+                    })),
+                    set_property_action: None,
+                    unset_property_action: None,
+                }],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Try to deregister again - should fail
-        let result = namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("already deregistered"));
+        assert_eq!(response.status, "Canceled");
+        assert!(response.properties.is_some());
+        let props = response.properties.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(props.get("uuid"), Some(&txn_id));
+        assert_eq!(props.get("operation"), Some(&"CreateIndex".to_string()));
     }
 
-    // ============================================================
-    // Tests for list_tables skipping deregistered tables
-    // ============================================================
-
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_list_tables_skips_deregistered_v1() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::DeregisterTableRequest;
+    async fn test_alter_transaction_set_property() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AlterTransactionAction, AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionSetProperty,
+        };
 
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let txn_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx")
+            .await
+            .expect("create_scalar_index should return a transaction id");
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
-            .build()
+        let response = namespace
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                actions: vec![AlterTransactionAction {
+                    set_status_action: None,
+                    set_property_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetProperty {
+                        key: Some("custom_key".to_string()),
+                        value: Some("custom_value".to_string()),
+                        mode: None,
+                    })),
+                    unset_property_action: None,
+                }],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.status, "SUCCEEDED");
+        let props = response.properties.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(props.get("custom_key"), Some(&"custom_value".to_string()));
+    }
 
-        // Create two tables
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_alter_transaction_set_property_fail_mode() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AlterTransactionAction, AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionSetProperty,
+        };
 
-        let mut create_req1 = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req1.id = Some(vec!["table1".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_req1, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data.clone()))
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let txn_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx")
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .expect("create_scalar_index should return a transaction id");
 
-        let mut create_req2 = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req2.id = Some(vec!["table2".to_string()]);
+        // First, set a non-reserved property so it exists in the sidecar.
         namespace
-            .create_table(create_req2, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                actions: vec![AlterTransactionAction {
+                    set_status_action: None,
+                    set_property_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetProperty {
+                        key: Some("custom_key".to_string()),
+                        value: Some("initial_value".to_string()),
+                        mode: None,
+                    })),
+                    unset_property_action: None,
+                }],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // List tables - should see both (root namespace = empty vec)
-        let mut list_req = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        list_req.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let list_response = namespace.list_tables(list_req.clone()).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(list_response.tables.len(), 2);
-
-        // Deregister table1
-        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
-        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["table1".to_string()]);
-        namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        // List tables - should only see table2
-        let list_response = namespace.list_tables(list_req).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(list_response.tables.len(), 1);
-        assert!(list_response.tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
-        assert!(!list_response.tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
+        // Now try to set the same property again with Fail mode, which must
+        // exercise the mode='Fail' branch (not the reserved-key guard).
+        let result = namespace
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                actions: vec![AlterTransactionAction {
+                    set_status_action: None,
+                    set_property_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetProperty {
+                        key: Some("custom_key".to_string()),
+                        value: Some("new_value".to_string()),
+                        mode: Some("Fail".to_string()),
+                    })),
+                    unset_property_action: None,
+                }],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
     }
 
-    // ============================================================
-    // Tests for describe_table and table_exists with deregistered tables
-    // ============================================================
-
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_describe_table_fails_for_deregistered_v1() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{DeregisterTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest};
-
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    async fn test_alter_transaction_unset_property() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AlterTransactionAction, AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionSetProperty,
+            AlterTransactionUnsetProperty,
+        };
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
-            .build()
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let txn_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx")
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .expect("create_scalar_index should return a transaction id");
 
-        // Create a table
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+        // First set a custom property, then unset it
+        let response = namespace
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                actions: vec![
+                    AlterTransactionAction {
+                        set_status_action: None,
+                        set_property_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetProperty {
+                            key: Some("temp_key".to_string()),
+                            value: Some("temp_value".to_string()),
+                            mode: None,
+                        })),
+                        unset_property_action: None,
+                    },
+                    AlterTransactionAction {
+                        set_status_action: None,
+                        set_property_action: None,
+                        unset_property_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionUnsetProperty {
+                            key: Some("temp_key".to_string()),
+                            mode: None,
+                        })),
+                    },
+                ],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.status, "SUCCEEDED");
+        let props = response.properties.unwrap();
+        assert!(!props.contains_key("temp_key"));
+    }
 
-        // Describe should work before deregistration
-        let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
-        describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.describe_table(describe_req.clone()).await.is_ok());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_alter_transaction_invalid_status() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AlterTransactionAction, AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionSetStatus,
+        };
 
-        // Deregister
-        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
-        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let txn_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx")
+            .await
+            .expect("create_scalar_index should return a transaction id");
 
-        // Describe should fail after deregistration
-        let result = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await;
+        let result = namespace
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                actions: vec![AlterTransactionAction {
+                    set_status_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetStatus {
+                        status: Some("InvalidStatus".to_string()),
+                    })),
+                    set_property_action: None,
+                    unset_property_action: None,
+                }],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await;
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("deregistered"));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_table_exists_fails_for_deregistered_v1() {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{DeregisterTableRequest, TableExistsRequest};
+    async fn test_alter_transaction_not_found() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AlterTransactionAction, AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionSetStatus,
+        };
 
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Try to alter a non-existent transaction
+        let result = namespace
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), "non_existent_txn".to_string()]),
+                actions: vec![AlterTransactionAction {
+                    set_status_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetStatus {
+                        status: Some("Canceled".to_string()),
+                    })),
+                    set_property_action: None,
+                    unset_property_action: None,
+                }],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
 
-        // Create a table
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace
-            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_alter_transaction_missing_id() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AlterTransactionAction, AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionSetStatus,
+        };
 
-        // Table exists should work before deregistration
-        let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        assert!(namespace.table_exists(exists_req.clone()).await.is_ok());
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
 
-        // Deregister
-        let mut deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest::new();
-        deregister_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        namespace.deregister_table(deregister_req).await.unwrap();
+        // Try with missing id
+        let result = namespace
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: None,
+                actions: vec![AlterTransactionAction {
+                    set_status_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetStatus {
+                        status: Some("Canceled".to_string()),
+                    })),
+                    set_property_action: None,
+                    unset_property_action: None,
+                }],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
 
-        // Table exists should fail after deregistration
-        let result = namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
+        // Try with insufficient id parts
+        let result = namespace
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string()]),
+                actions: vec![AlterTransactionAction {
+                    set_status_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetStatus {
+                        status: Some("Canceled".to_string()),
+                    })),
+                    set_property_action: None,
+                    unset_property_action: None,
+                }],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await;
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("deregistered"));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_atomic_table_status_check() {
-        // This test verifies that the TableStatus check is atomic
-        // by ensuring a single directory listing is used
+    async fn test_alter_transaction_persists_changes() {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            AlterTransactionAction, AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionSetProperty,
+            AlterTransactionSetStatus, DescribeTransactionRequest,
+        };
 
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let (namespace, _temp_dir) = create_test_namespace().await;
+        create_scalar_table(&namespace, "users").await;
+        let transaction_id = create_scalar_index(&namespace, "users", "users_id_idx").await;
 
-        let namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let txn_id = transaction_id.expect("scalar index should produce a transaction id");
 
-        // Create a table
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let ipc_data = create_test_ipc_data(&schema);
-        let mut create_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        // Alter status and set a custom property.
         namespace
-            .create_table(create_req, bytes::Bytes::from(ipc_data))
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                actions: vec![
+                    AlterTransactionAction {
+                        set_status_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetStatus {
+                            status: Some("Canceled".to_string()),
+                        })),
+                        set_property_action: None,
+                        unset_property_action: None,
+                    },
+                    AlterTransactionAction {
+                        set_status_action: None,
+                        set_property_action: Some(Box::new(AlterTransactionSetProperty {
+                            key: Some("owner".to_string()),
+                            value: Some("alice".to_string()),
+                            mode: None,
+                        })),
+                        unset_property_action: None,
+                    },
+                ],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Table status should show exists=true, is_deregistered=false
-        let status = namespace.check_table_status("test_table").await;
-        assert!(status.exists);
-        assert!(!status.is_deregistered);
-        assert!(!status.has_reserved_file);
+        // The changes must survive across a fresh describe_transaction call,
+        // proving the alteration was persisted to the transaction file.
+        let describe_resp = namespace
+            .describe_transaction(DescribeTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let props = describe_resp.properties.expect("properties should be set");
+        assert_eq!(props.get("owner"), Some(&"alice".to_string()));
+        // The internal `_status` marker should not leak into the response but
+        // must be present on disk so subsequent alter_transaction calls can
+        // observe the previously set status.
+        assert!(!props.contains_key("_status"));
+
+        let follow_up = namespace
+            .alter_transaction(AlterTransactionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["users".to_string(), txn_id.clone()]),
+                actions: vec![],
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(follow_up.status, "Canceled");
+        let follow_up_props = follow_up.properties.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(follow_up_props.get("owner"), Some(&"alice".to_string()));
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir/manifest.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir/manifest.rs
index af0e4d9bb4b..5ca1ab036e6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir/manifest.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir/manifest.rs
@@ -6,26 +6,48 @@
 //! This module provides a namespace implementation that uses a manifest table
 //! to track tables and nested namespaces.
 
-use arrow::array::{Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
-use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use super::manifest_feature_flags::{ensure_readable, ensure_writable};
+use arrow::array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+use arrow::array::{Array, ListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, UInt64Array};
+use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef};
 use arrow_ipc::reader::StreamReader;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::{stream::StreamExt, FutureExt};
-use lance::dataset::optimize::{compact_files, CompactionOptions};
-use lance::dataset::{builder::DatasetBuilder, WriteParams};
+use datafusion_common::DataFusionError;
+use datafusion_physical_plan::{
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter as DatafusionRecordBatchStreamAdapter,
+};
+use futures::{
+    FutureExt, TryStreamExt,
+    stream::{self, StreamExt},
+};
+use lance::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
+use lance::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+use lance::dataset::{
+    InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WhenMatched, WriteMode, WriteParams, builder::DatasetBuilder,
+};
 use lance::session::Session;
-use lance::{dataset::scanner::Scanner, Dataset};
-use lance_core::{box_error, Error, Result};
-use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
-use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
-use lance_index::traits::DatasetIndexExt;
-use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance::{Dataset, dataset::scanner::Scanner};
+use lance_core::Error as LanceError;
+use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result, box_error};
+use lance_index::progress::noop_progress;
+use lance_index::registry::IndexPluginRegistry;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
+use lance_index::scalar::{
+    BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, ScalarIndexParams, index_files_to_table,
+};
 use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams};
+use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream as LanceRecordBatchStream;
+use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 use lance_namespace::models::{
-    CreateEmptyTableRequest, CreateEmptyTableResponse, CreateNamespaceRequest,
-    CreateNamespaceResponse, CreateTableRequest, CreateTableResponse, DeclareTableRequest,
-    DeclareTableResponse, DeregisterTableRequest, DeregisterTableResponse,
+    AlterTableAddColumnsRequest, AlterTableAddColumnsResponse, AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
+    AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse, AlterTableDropColumnsRequest, AlterTableDropColumnsResponse,
+    CreateNamespaceRequest, CreateNamespaceResponse, CreateTableRequest, CreateTableResponse,
+    DeclareTableRequest, DeclareTableResponse, DeregisterTableRequest, DeregisterTableResponse,
     DescribeNamespaceRequest, DescribeNamespaceResponse, DescribeTableRequest,
     DescribeTableResponse, DropNamespaceRequest, DropNamespaceResponse, DropTableRequest,
     DropTableResponse, ListNamespacesRequest, ListNamespacesResponse, ListTablesRequest,
@@ -33,20 +55,31 @@ use lance_namespace::models::{
     TableExistsRequest,
 };
 use lance_namespace::schema::arrow_schema_to_json;
-use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
-use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_table::feature_flags::{apply_feature_flags, ensure_can_write_manifest};
+use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata, Manifest};
+use lance_table::io::commit::{
+    CommitError, CommitHandler, commit_handler_from_url, write_manifest_file_to_path,
+};
+use object_store::{Error as ObjectStoreError, path::Path};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use std::io::Cursor;
+use std::time::{SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
 use std::{
-    collections::HashMap,
+    collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap, HashSet},
     hash::{DefaultHasher, Hash, Hasher},
     ops::{Deref, DerefMut},
-    sync::Arc,
+    sync::{Arc, LazyLock, Mutex as StdMutex, MutexGuard as StdMutexGuard},
 };
-use tokio::sync::{RwLock, RwLockReadGuard, RwLockWriteGuard};
+use tokio::sync::{Mutex, RwLock, RwLockReadGuard, RwLockWriteGuard};
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
 const MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME: &str = "__manifest";
+const LANCE_DATA_DIR: &str = "data";
+const LANCE_INDICES_DIR: &str = "_indices";
 const DELIMITER: &str = "$";
+/// Bounded concurrency for per-table `_versions/` probes when filtering declared tables.
+/// Higher values reduce latency but increase burst load against the object store.
+pub(crate) const DECLARED_FILTER_CONCURRENCY: usize = 16;
 
 // Index names for the __manifest table
 /// BTREE index on the object_id column for fast lookups
@@ -55,6 +88,30 @@ const OBJECT_ID_INDEX_NAME: &str = "object_id_btree";
 const OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX_NAME: &str = "object_type_bitmap";
 /// LabelList index on the base_objects column for view dependencies
 const BASE_OBJECTS_INDEX_NAME: &str = "base_objects_label_list";
+/// Value field of the base_objects index, whose nested `List` type would
+/// otherwise allocate an inner field per use.
+static BASE_OBJECTS_VALUE_FIELD: LazyLock<Field> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Field::new(
+        VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+        DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))),
+        true,
+    )
+});
+// Each retry reloads and rewrites the full manifest. Match the regular Lance
+// commit retry budget so multi-process namespace writes can make progress.
+const DEFAULT_MANIFEST_REWRITE_COMMIT_RETRIES: u32 = 20;
+const MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE: usize = 8192;
+// Dataset config keys of Lance's automatic old-version cleanup policy. Lance
+// releases before 7.0 wrote this policy into every new dataset by default, so
+// directory manifests created by those releases still carry it.
+const AUTO_CLEANUP_CONFIG_PREFIX: &str = "lance.auto_cleanup.";
+
+fn has_auto_cleanup_config(manifest: &Manifest) -> bool {
+    manifest
+        .config
+        .keys()
+        .any(|key| key.starts_with(AUTO_CLEANUP_CONFIG_PREFIX))
+}
 
 /// Object types that can be stored in the manifest
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
@@ -64,7 +121,7 @@ pub enum ObjectType {
 }
 
 impl ObjectType {
-    pub fn as_str(&self) -> &str {
+    pub fn as_str(&self) -> &'static str {
         match self {
             Self::Namespace => "namespace",
             Self::Table => "table",
@@ -75,10 +132,47 @@ impl ObjectType {
         match s {
             "namespace" => Ok(Self::Namespace),
             "table" => Ok(Self::Table),
-            _ => Err(Error::io(
-                format!("Invalid object type: {}", s),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Invalid object type: {}", s),
+            }
+            .into()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum CreateTableMode {
+    Create,
+    ExistOk,
+    Overwrite,
+}
+
+impl CreateTableMode {
+    fn parse(mode: Option<&str>) -> Result<Self> {
+        match mode {
+            None => Ok(Self::Create),
+            Some(mode) if mode.eq_ignore_ascii_case("create") => Ok(Self::Create),
+            Some(mode)
+                if mode.eq_ignore_ascii_case("existok")
+                    || mode.eq_ignore_ascii_case("exist_ok") =>
+            {
+                Ok(Self::ExistOk)
+            }
+            Some(mode) if mode.eq_ignore_ascii_case("overwrite") => Ok(Self::Overwrite),
+            Some(mode) => Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Unsupported create_table mode '{}'. Supported modes are: 'Create', 'ExistOk', 'Overwrite'",
+                    mode
+                ),
+            }
+            .into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn write_mode(self) -> WriteMode {
+        match self {
+            Self::Overwrite => WriteMode::Overwrite,
+            Self::Create | Self::ExistOk => WriteMode::Create,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -89,6 +183,418 @@ pub struct TableInfo {
     pub namespace: Vec<String>,
     pub name: String,
     pub location: String,
+    pub metadata: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+}
+
+/// An entry to be inserted into the manifest table.
+///
+/// This struct makes the meaning of each field explicit, replacing the
+/// previous tuple-based API `(String, ObjectType, Option<String>, Option<String>)`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ManifestEntry {
+    /// The unique object identifier (e.g., table name or version object_id)
+    pub object_id: String,
+    /// The type of the object (Namespace or Table)
+    pub object_type: ObjectType,
+    /// The storage location (e.g., directory name for tables)
+    pub location: Option<String>,
+    /// Additional metadata serialized as JSON
+    pub metadata: Option<String>,
+}
+
+struct CopyOnWriteMutation<T> {
+    result: T,
+    has_changes: bool,
+}
+
+impl<T> CopyOnWriteMutation<T> {
+    fn updated(result: T) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            result,
+            has_changes: true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn unchanged(result: T) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            result,
+            has_changes: false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct ManifestIndexBuildInput {
+    index_name: &'static str,
+    column_name: &'static str,
+    params: ScalarIndexParams,
+    field: Field,
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+}
+
+struct ManifestTrainedIndex {
+    index_name: &'static str,
+    column_name: &'static str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
+    created_index: CreatedIndex,
+}
+
+struct ManifestRowValue {
+    object_id: String,
+    object_type: ObjectType,
+    location: Option<String>,
+    metadata: Option<String>,
+    base_objects: Option<Vec<String>>,
+}
+
+struct ManifestOutputRow<'a> {
+    object_id: &'a str,
+    object_type: ObjectType,
+    location: Option<&'a str>,
+    metadata: Option<&'a str>,
+    base_objects: Option<&'a [String]>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct ManifestIndexAccumulator {
+    object_ids: BTreeMap<Arc<str>, u64>,
+    object_types: BTreeMap<&'static str, RoaringBitmap>,
+    base_objects_values: Vec<Option<Vec<String>>>,
+    base_objects_row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    row_count: u64,
+}
+
+impl ManifestIndexAccumulator {
+    fn next_row_id(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        if self.row_count >= u64::from(u32::MAX) {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Manifest rewrite exceeded maximum single-fragment row count: {}",
+                    self.row_count
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+        Ok(self.row_count)
+    }
+
+    fn push(&mut self, row: &ManifestOutputRow<'_>) -> Result<u64> {
+        let row_id = self.next_row_id()?;
+        if self
+            .object_ids
+            .insert(Arc::<str>::from(row.object_id), row_id)
+            .is_some()
+        {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Manifest contains duplicate object_id '{}'", row.object_id),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+        self.object_types
+            .entry(row.object_type.as_str())
+            .or_default()
+            .insert(row_id as u32);
+        self.base_objects_values
+            .push(row.base_objects.map(|objects| objects.to_vec()));
+        self.base_objects_row_ids.push(row_id);
+        self.row_count += 1;
+        Ok(row_id)
+    }
+}
+
+struct ManifestBatchBuilder {
+    object_ids: Vec<String>,
+    object_types: Vec<&'static str>,
+    locations: Vec<Option<String>>,
+    metadatas: Vec<Option<String>>,
+    base_objects: Vec<Option<Vec<String>>>,
+}
+
+impl ManifestBatchBuilder {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            object_ids: Vec::new(),
+            object_types: Vec::new(),
+            locations: Vec::new(),
+            metadatas: Vec::new(),
+            base_objects: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.object_ids.is_empty()
+    }
+
+    fn append(
+        &mut self,
+        index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+        row: ManifestOutputRow<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        index_data.push(&row)?;
+        self.object_ids.push(row.object_id.to_string());
+        self.object_types.push(row.object_type.as_str());
+        self.locations.push(row.location.map(ToString::to_string));
+        self.metadatas.push(row.metadata.map(ToString::to_string));
+        self.base_objects
+            .push(row.base_objects.map(|objects| objects.to_vec()));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn finish(self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let base_objects_array = ManifestNamespace::base_objects_array(&self.base_objects);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            ManifestNamespace::manifest_schema(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(self.object_ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(self.object_types)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(self.locations)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(self.metadatas)),
+                Arc::new(base_objects_array),
+            ],
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to create manifest snapshot batch: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// How to resolve a storage commit conflict (or an ambiguous commit error that did
+/// not land) against the latest catalog state, without re-staging the full rewrite.
+enum ConflictResolution<O> {
+    /// Re-read the latest manifest and re-apply the mutation (upserts, version-range
+    /// deletes). The staged data/index files are discarded and a new rewrite is attempted.
+    Retry,
+    /// Creating these object ids with fail-on-conflict semantics. If any of them now
+    /// exists in the latest manifest, the create lost the race and must fail with a
+    /// concurrent-modification error; otherwise retry the rewrite.
+    FailIfExists(Vec<String>),
+    /// Deleting `object_id`. If it is already absent from the latest manifest the delete
+    /// has effectively happened, so return `output` as success; otherwise retry.
+    SucceedIfAbsent { object_id: String, output: O },
+}
+
+trait ManifestStreamMutation: Send {
+    type Output: Clone + Send + 'static;
+
+    fn process_existing_row(
+        &mut self,
+        row: ManifestRowValue,
+        output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+        index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+    ) -> Result<()>;
+
+    fn append_rows(
+        &mut self,
+        output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+        index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+    ) -> Result<()>;
+
+    fn finish(&self) -> CopyOnWriteMutation<Self::Output>;
+
+    /// Declares how a storage commit conflict should be resolved against the latest
+    /// committed catalog state. Defaults to re-reading and re-applying.
+    fn conflict_resolution(&self) -> ConflictResolution<Self::Output> {
+        ConflictResolution::Retry
+    }
+}
+
+struct ManifestRewriteShared<M: ManifestStreamMutation> {
+    mutation: M,
+    index_data: Option<ManifestIndexAccumulator>,
+    result: Option<CopyOnWriteMutation<M::Output>>,
+    error: Option<LanceError>,
+}
+
+impl<M: ManifestStreamMutation> ManifestRewriteShared<M> {
+    fn new(mutation: M) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            mutation,
+            index_data: Some(ManifestIndexAccumulator::default()),
+            result: None,
+            error: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct UpsertManifestMutation {
+    entries: Vec<ManifestEntry>,
+    base_objects: Vec<Option<Vec<String>>>,
+    entry_positions: HashMap<String, usize>,
+    matched: Vec<bool>,
+    when_matched: WhenMatched,
+}
+
+impl UpsertManifestMutation {
+    fn new(
+        entries: Vec<ManifestEntry>,
+        base_objects: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        when_matched: WhenMatched,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let entry_positions = entries
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(index, entry)| (entry.object_id.clone(), index))
+            .collect();
+        let matched = vec![false; entries.len()];
+        let mut entry_base_objects = vec![None; entries.len()];
+        if !entry_base_objects.is_empty() {
+            entry_base_objects[0] = base_objects;
+        }
+        Self {
+            entries,
+            base_objects: entry_base_objects,
+            entry_positions,
+            matched,
+            when_matched,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn entry_row(&self, index: usize) -> ManifestOutputRow<'_> {
+        let entry = &self.entries[index];
+        ManifestOutputRow {
+            object_id: &entry.object_id,
+            object_type: entry.object_type,
+            location: entry.location.as_deref(),
+            metadata: entry.metadata.as_deref(),
+            base_objects: self.base_objects[index].as_deref(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ManifestStreamMutation for UpsertManifestMutation {
+    type Output = ();
+
+    fn process_existing_row(
+        &mut self,
+        row: ManifestRowValue,
+        output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+        index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(index) = self.entry_positions.get(&row.object_id).copied() {
+            match self.when_matched {
+                WhenMatched::Fail => {
+                    return Err(NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Object '{}' was concurrently created by another operation",
+                            row.object_id
+                        ),
+                    }
+                    .into());
+                }
+                WhenMatched::UpdateAll => {
+                    self.matched[index] = true;
+                    output.append(index_data, self.entry_row(index))?;
+                    return Ok(());
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Unsupported manifest rewrite matched action: {:?}",
+                            self.when_matched
+                        ),
+                    }
+                    .into());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        output.append(
+            index_data,
+            ManifestOutputRow {
+                object_id: &row.object_id,
+                object_type: row.object_type,
+                location: row.location.as_deref(),
+                metadata: row.metadata.as_deref(),
+                base_objects: row.base_objects.as_deref(),
+            },
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn append_rows(
+        &mut self,
+        output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+        index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        for index in 0..self.entries.len() {
+            if !self.matched[index] {
+                output.append(index_data, self.entry_row(index))?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn finish(&self) -> CopyOnWriteMutation<Self::Output> {
+        CopyOnWriteMutation::updated(())
+    }
+
+    fn conflict_resolution(&self) -> ConflictResolution<Self::Output> {
+        match self.when_matched {
+            // Fail-on-conflict create: a concurrent writer may have created one of these
+            // ids. Re-applying would still fail, so check directly instead of re-staging.
+            WhenMatched::Fail => ConflictResolution::FailIfExists(
+                self.entries.iter().map(|e| e.object_id.clone()).collect(),
+            ),
+            // Metadata upsert is last-writer-wins: re-read and re-apply.
+            _ => ConflictResolution::Retry,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct DeleteObjectMutation {
+    object_id: String,
+    deleted: bool,
+}
+
+impl ManifestStreamMutation for DeleteObjectMutation {
+    type Output = ();
+
+    fn process_existing_row(
+        &mut self,
+        row: ManifestRowValue,
+        output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+        index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if row.object_id == self.object_id {
+            self.deleted = true;
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        output.append(
+            index_data,
+            ManifestOutputRow {
+                object_id: &row.object_id,
+                object_type: row.object_type,
+                location: row.location.as_deref(),
+                metadata: row.metadata.as_deref(),
+                base_objects: row.base_objects.as_deref(),
+            },
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn append_rows(
+        &mut self,
+        _output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+        _index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn finish(&self) -> CopyOnWriteMutation<Self::Output> {
+        if self.deleted {
+            CopyOnWriteMutation::updated(())
+        } else {
+            CopyOnWriteMutation::unchanged(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn conflict_resolution(&self) -> ConflictResolution<Self::Output> {
+        // If a concurrent writer already removed the object, the delete is satisfied.
+        ConflictResolution::SucceedIfAbsent {
+            object_id: self.object_id.clone(),
+            output: (),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 /// Information about a namespace stored in the manifest
@@ -102,7 +608,14 @@ pub struct NamespaceInfo {
 /// A wrapper around a Dataset that provides concurrent access.
 ///
 /// This can be cloned cheaply. It supports concurrent reads or exclusive writes.
-/// The manifest dataset is always kept strongly consistent by reloading on each read.
+///
+/// Manifest rewrites never run old-version cleanup or add an auto-cleanup
+/// policy. Policy-free manifests therefore keep contiguous attached versions,
+/// so reloads only need to probe the immediate successor manifest. A manifest
+/// created by an older Lance release can still carry an auto-cleanup policy,
+/// and older writers act on it by removing old versions, which leaves gaps
+/// after the held version. While that version carries the policy, reloads
+/// resolve the latest version instead.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct DatasetConsistencyWrapper(Arc<RwLock<Dataset>>);
 
@@ -116,18 +629,37 @@ impl DatasetConsistencyWrapper {
     /// Always reloads to ensure strong consistency.
     pub async fn get(&self) -> Result<DatasetReadGuard<'_>> {
         self.reload().await?;
-        Ok(DatasetReadGuard {
+        let guard = DatasetReadGuard {
             guard: self.0.read().await,
-        })
+        };
+        // Refuse manifests written with a reader feature flag this build does
+        // not understand instead of misreading them.
+        ensure_readable(guard.metadata())?;
+        Ok(guard)
+    }
+
+    /// Reload the dataset and return a reference.
+    pub async fn get_refreshed(&self) -> Result<DatasetReadGuard<'_>> {
+        self.reload().await?;
+        let guard = DatasetReadGuard {
+            guard: self.0.read().await,
+        };
+        ensure_readable(guard.metadata())?;
+        Ok(guard)
     }
 
     /// Get a mutable reference to the dataset.
     /// Always reloads to ensure strong consistency.
+    ///
+    /// Acquires the write lock before reloading so that tokio's write-fairness
+    /// prevents reader starvation of the writer.
     pub async fn get_mut(&self) -> Result<DatasetWriteGuard<'_>> {
-        self.reload().await?;
-        Ok(DatasetWriteGuard {
-            guard: self.0.write().await,
-        })
+        let mut write_guard = self.0.write().await;
+        Self::reload_under_write_lock(&mut write_guard).await?;
+        let guard = DatasetWriteGuard { guard: write_guard };
+        ensure_readable(guard.metadata())?;
+        ensure_writable(guard.metadata())?;
+        Ok(guard)
     }
 
     /// Provide a known latest version of the dataset.
@@ -141,7 +673,10 @@ impl DatasetConsistencyWrapper {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Reload the dataset to the latest version.
+    /// Reload the dataset to the latest version (for the read path).
+    ///
+    /// Takes a read lock first to check if a reload is needed, then upgrades
+    /// to a write lock only if necessary.
     async fn reload(&self) -> Result<()> {
         // First check if we need to reload (with read lock)
         let read_guard = self.0.read().await;
@@ -152,57 +687,67 @@ impl DatasetConsistencyWrapper {
             dataset_uri,
             current_version
         );
-        let latest_version = read_guard
-            .latest_version_id()
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to get latest version: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let has_newer_version = Self::has_newer_version(&read_guard).await?;
         log::debug!(
-            "Reload got latest_version={} for uri={}, current_version={}",
-            latest_version,
+            "Reload checked has_newer_version={} for uri={}, current_version={}",
+            has_newer_version,
             dataset_uri,
             current_version
         );
         drop(read_guard);
 
         // If already up-to-date, return early
-        if latest_version == current_version {
+        if !has_newer_version {
             log::debug!("Already up-to-date for uri={}", dataset_uri);
             return Ok(());
         }
 
         // Need to reload, acquire write lock
         let mut write_guard = self.0.write().await;
+        Self::reload_under_write_lock(&mut write_guard).await
+    }
 
-        // Double-check after acquiring write lock (someone else might have reloaded)
-        let latest_version = write_guard
-            .latest_version_id()
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to get latest version: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+    /// Reload the dataset while already holding the write lock.
+    async fn reload_under_write_lock(
+        dataset: &mut tokio::sync::RwLockWriteGuard<'_, Dataset>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let dataset_uri = dataset.uri().to_string();
+        let current_version = dataset.version().version;
+        log::debug!(
+            "Reload (under write lock) for uri={}, current_version={}",
+            dataset_uri,
+            current_version
+        );
 
-        if latest_version != write_guard.version().version {
-            write_guard.checkout_latest().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to checkout latest: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: location!(),
+        if Self::has_newer_version(dataset).await? {
+            dataset.checkout_latest().await.map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to checkout latest: {:?}", e),
+                })
             })?;
         }
 
         Ok(())
     }
+
+    /// Return whether a version newer than the held one has been committed.
+    ///
+    /// Probing the immediate successor avoids resolving the latest manifest on
+    /// every namespace read, but misses newer versions once cleanup has removed
+    /// the successor. A held version with an auto-cleanup policy can have such
+    /// gaps after it, so it resolves the latest version instead.
+    async fn has_newer_version(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<bool> {
+        let has_newer_version = if has_auto_cleanup_config(dataset.manifest()) {
+            dataset.is_stale().await
+        } else {
+            dataset.has_successor_version().await
+        };
+        has_newer_version.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to check dataset staleness: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 pub struct DatasetReadGuard<'a> {
@@ -238,28 +783,103 @@ impl DerefMut for DatasetWriteGuard<'_> {
 /// Manifest-based namespace implementation
 ///
 /// Uses a special `__manifest` Lance table to track tables and nested namespaces.
-#[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct ManifestNamespace {
     root: String,
     storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     base_path: Path,
     manifest_dataset: DatasetConsistencyWrapper,
     /// Whether directory listing is enabled in dual mode
     /// If true, root namespace tables use {table_name}.lance naming
     /// If false, they use namespace-prefixed names
     dir_listing_enabled: bool,
-    /// Whether to perform inline optimization (compaction and indexing) on the __manifest table
-    /// after every write. Defaults to true.
+    /// Whether copy-on-write manifest rewrites should build replacement indices.
+    /// Defaults to true.
     inline_optimization_enabled: bool,
+    /// Number of retries for commit operations on the manifest table.
+    /// If None, defaults to [`lance_table::io::commit::CommitConfig`] default (20).
+    commit_retries: Option<u32>,
+    /// Serialize manifest mutations within a single namespace instance so concurrent
+    /// create/drop calls do not compete with each other on the same in-memory snapshot.
+    manifest_mutation_lock: Arc<Mutex<()>>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for ManifestNamespace {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("ManifestNamespace")
+            .field("root", &self.root)
+            .field("storage_options", &self.storage_options)
+            .field("dir_listing_enabled", &self.dir_listing_enabled)
+            .field(
+                "inline_optimization_enabled",
+                &self.inline_optimization_enabled,
+            )
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert a Lance commit error to an appropriate namespace error.
+///
+/// Maps lance commit errors to namespace errors:
+/// - `CommitConflict`: version collision retries exhausted -> Throttling (safe to retry)
+/// - `TooMuchWriteContention`: RetryableCommitConflict (semantic conflict) retries exhausted -> ConcurrentModification
+/// - `IncompatibleTransaction`: incompatible concurrent change -> ConcurrentModification
+/// - Errors containing "matched/duplicate/already exists": ConcurrentModification (from WhenMatched::Fail)
+/// - Other errors: IO error with the operation description
+fn convert_lance_commit_error(e: &LanceError, operation: &str, object_id: Option<&str>) -> Error {
+    match e {
+        // CommitConflict: version collision retries exhausted -> Throttling (safe to retry)
+        LanceError::CommitConflict { .. } => NamespaceError::Throttling {
+            message: format!("Too many concurrent writes, please retry later: {:?}", e),
+        }
+        .into(),
+        // TooMuchWriteContention: RetryableCommitConflict (semantic conflict) retries exhausted -> ConcurrentModification
+        // IncompatibleTransaction: incompatible concurrent change -> ConcurrentModification
+        LanceError::TooMuchWriteContention { .. } | LanceError::IncompatibleTransaction { .. } => {
+            let message = if let Some(id) = object_id {
+                format!(
+                    "Object '{}' was concurrently modified by another operation: {:?}",
+                    id, e
+                )
+            } else {
+                format!(
+                    "Object was concurrently modified by another operation: {:?}",
+                    e
+                )
+            };
+            NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification { message }.into()
+        }
+        // Other errors: check message for semantic conflicts (matched/duplicate from WhenMatched::Fail)
+        _ => {
+            let error_msg = e.to_string();
+            if error_msg.contains("matched")
+                || error_msg.contains("duplicate")
+                || error_msg.contains("already exists")
+            {
+                let message = if let Some(id) = object_id {
+                    format!(
+                        "Object '{}' was concurrently created by another operation: {:?}",
+                        id, e
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    format!(
+                        "Object was concurrently created by another operation: {:?}",
+                        e
+                    )
+                };
+                return NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification { message }.into();
+            }
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("{}: {:?}", operation, e),
+            })
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 impl ManifestNamespace {
     /// Create a new ManifestNamespace from an existing DirectoryNamespace
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub async fn from_directory(
         root: String,
         storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
@@ -268,11 +888,13 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
         base_path: Path,
         dir_listing_enabled: bool,
         inline_optimization_enabled: bool,
+        commit_retries: Option<u32>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let manifest_dataset =
-            Self::create_or_get_manifest(&root, &storage_options, session.clone()).await?;
+            Self::ensure_manifest_table_up_to_date(&root, &storage_options, session.clone())
+                .await?;
 
-        Ok(Self {
+        Ok(Self::new(
             root,
             storage_options,
             session,
@@ -281,7 +903,62 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
             manifest_dataset,
             dir_listing_enabled,
             inline_optimization_enabled,
-        })
+            commit_retries,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Open an existing manifest dataset without creating or migrating it.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub async fn open_from_directory(
+        root: String,
+        storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+        session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        base_path: Path,
+        dir_listing_enabled: bool,
+        inline_optimization_enabled: bool,
+        commit_retries: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let manifest_dataset =
+            Self::open_manifest_table(&root, &storage_options, session.clone()).await?;
+
+        Ok(Self::new(
+            root,
+            storage_options,
+            session,
+            object_store,
+            base_path,
+            manifest_dataset,
+            dir_listing_enabled,
+            inline_optimization_enabled,
+            commit_retries,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn new(
+        root: String,
+        storage_options: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+        session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        base_path: Path,
+        manifest_dataset: DatasetConsistencyWrapper,
+        dir_listing_enabled: bool,
+        inline_optimization_enabled: bool,
+        commit_retries: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            root,
+            storage_options,
+            session,
+            object_store,
+            base_path,
+            manifest_dataset,
+            dir_listing_enabled,
+            inline_optimization_enabled,
+            commit_retries,
+            manifest_mutation_lock: Arc::new(Mutex::new(())),
+        }
     }
 
     /// Build object ID from namespace path and name
@@ -311,30 +988,34 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Split an object ID (table_id as vec of strings) into namespace and table name
-    fn split_object_id(table_id: &[String]) -> (Vec<String>, String) {
-        if table_id.len() == 1 {
-            (vec![], table_id[0].clone())
+    /// Split an object ID (vec of strings) into namespace and table name
+    pub fn split_object_id(object_id: &[String]) -> (Vec<String>, String) {
+        if object_id.len() == 1 {
+            (vec![], object_id[0].clone())
         } else {
             (
-                table_id[..table_id.len() - 1].to_vec(),
-                table_id[table_id.len() - 1].clone(),
+                object_id[..object_id.len() - 1].to_vec(),
+                object_id[object_id.len() - 1].clone(),
             )
         }
     }
 
-    /// Convert a table ID (vec of strings) to an object_id string
-    fn str_object_id(table_id: &[String]) -> String {
-        table_id.join(DELIMITER)
+    /// Convert an ID (vec of strings) to an object_id string
+    pub fn str_object_id(object_id: &[String]) -> String {
+        object_id.join(DELIMITER)
     }
 
-    /// Generate a new directory name in format: <hash>_<object_id>
-    /// The hash is used to (1) optimize object store throughput,
+    fn format_table_id(table_id: &[String]) -> String {
+        format!("table id '{}'", Self::str_object_id(table_id))
+    }
+
+    /// Generate a new directory name in format: `<hash>_<object_id>`
+    /// The hash is used to (1) optimize object store throughput,
     /// (2) have high enough entropy in a short period of time to prevent issues like
     /// failed table creation, delete and create new table of the same name, etc.
     /// The object_id is added after the hash to ensure
     /// dir name uniqueness and make debugging easier.
-    fn generate_dir_name(object_id: &str) -> String {
+    pub fn generate_dir_name(object_id: &str) -> String {
         // Generate a random number for uniqueness
         let random_num: u64 = rand::random();
 
@@ -352,174 +1033,444 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
     pub(crate) fn construct_full_uri(root: &str, relative_location: &str) -> Result<String> {
         let mut base_url = lance_io::object_store::uri_to_url(root)?;
 
-        // Ensure the base URL has a trailing slash so that URL.join() appends
-        // rather than replaces the last path segment.
-        // Without this fix, "s3://bucket/path/subdir".join("table.lance")
+        // Ensure the base URL has a trailing slash so that path segment mutation
+        // appends rather than replaces the last path segment.
+        // Without this fix, appending "table.lance" to "s3://bucket/path/subdir"
         // would incorrectly produce "s3://bucket/path/table.lance" (missing subdir).
         if !base_url.path().ends_with('/') {
             base_url.set_path(&format!("{}/", base_url.path()));
         }
 
-        let full_url = base_url
-            .join(relative_location)
-            .map_err(|e| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Failed to join URI '{}' with '{}': {:?}",
-                    root, relative_location, e
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let mut full_url = base_url.clone();
+        full_url
+            .path_segments_mut()
+            .map_err(|_| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!("Cannot modify path segments for URI '{}'", root),
+                })
+            })?
+            .pop_if_empty()
+            .extend(
+                relative_location
+                    .split('/')
+                    .filter(|segment| !segment.is_empty()),
+            );
+
+        // Clear any query string to avoid trailing "?" in the URL.
+        // Use set_query(None) instead of set_query("") because the latter
+        // would still add a trailing '?' to the URL when serialized.
+        full_url.set_query(None);
 
         Ok(full_url.to_string())
     }
 
-    /// Perform inline optimization on the __manifest table.
-    ///
-    /// This method:
-    /// 1. Creates three indexes on the manifest table:
-    ///    - BTREE index on object_id for fast lookups
-    ///    - Bitmap index on object_type for filtering by type
-    ///    - LabelList index on base_objects for view dependencies
-    /// 2. Runs file compaction to merge small files
-    /// 3. Optimizes existing indices
-    ///
-    /// This is called automatically after writes when inline_optimization_enabled is true.
-    async fn run_inline_optimization(&self) -> Result<()> {
-        if !self.inline_optimization_enabled {
-            return Ok(());
+    fn string_list_array(values: &[Option<Vec<String>>], child_name: &str) -> ListArray {
+        let string_builder = StringBuilder::new();
+        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(string_builder).with_field(Arc::new(Field::new(
+            child_name,
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            true,
+        )));
+        for value in values {
+            match value {
+                Some(objects) => {
+                    for object in objects {
+                        list_builder.values().append_value(object);
+                    }
+                    list_builder.append(true);
+                }
+                None => list_builder.append_null(),
+            }
         }
+        list_builder.finish()
+    }
 
-        // Get a mutable reference to the dataset to perform optimization
-        let mut dataset_guard = self.manifest_dataset.get_mut().await?;
-        let dataset: &mut Dataset = &mut dataset_guard;
+    fn base_objects_array(values: &[Option<Vec<String>>]) -> ListArray {
+        Self::string_list_array(values, "object_id")
+    }
 
-        // Step 1: Create indexes if they don't already exist
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+    fn value_row_id_schema(value_field: Field) -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            value_field,
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]))
+    }
 
-        // Check which indexes already exist
-        let has_object_id_index = indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == OBJECT_ID_INDEX_NAME);
-        let has_object_type_index = indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX_NAME);
-        let has_base_objects_index = indices
-            .iter()
-            .any(|idx| idx.name == BASE_OBJECTS_INDEX_NAME);
+    fn string_row_id_batch(
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        values: Vec<String>,
+        row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(values)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .map_err(Into::into)
+    }
 
-        // Create BTREE index on object_id
-        if !has_object_id_index {
-            log::debug!(
-                "Creating BTREE index '{}' on object_id for __manifest table",
-                OBJECT_ID_INDEX_NAME
-            );
-            let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
-            if let Err(e) = dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["object_id"],
-                    IndexType::BTree,
-                    Some(OBJECT_ID_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
-                    &params,
-                    true,
-                )
-                .await
-            {
-                log::warn!("Failed to create BTREE index on object_id for __manifest table: {:?}. Query performance may be impacted.", e);
-            } else {
-                log::info!(
-                    "Created BTREE index '{}' on object_id for __manifest table",
-                    OBJECT_ID_INDEX_NAME
-                );
-            }
-        }
+    fn list_row_id_batch(
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        values: Vec<Option<Vec<String>>>,
+        row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Self::string_list_array(&values, "item")),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .map_err(Into::into)
+    }
 
-        // Create Bitmap index on object_type
-        if !has_object_type_index {
-            log::debug!(
-                "Creating Bitmap index '{}' on object_type for __manifest table",
-                OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX_NAME
-            );
-            let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-            if let Err(e) = dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["object_type"],
-                    IndexType::Bitmap,
-                    Some(OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
-                    &params,
-                    true,
+    fn object_id_index_stream(object_ids: BTreeMap<Arc<str>, u64>) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        let schema =
+            Self::value_row_id_schema(Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, false));
+        let stream_schema = schema.clone();
+        let stream = stream::unfold(
+            (object_ids.into_iter(), false, schema),
+            |(mut iter, emitted, schema)| async move {
+                let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE);
+                let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE);
+                for _ in 0..MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE {
+                    let Some((value, row_id)) = iter.next() else {
+                        break;
+                    };
+                    values.push(value.to_string());
+                    row_ids.push(row_id);
+                }
+                if values.is_empty() {
+                    if emitted {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        let batch = Self::string_row_id_batch(schema.clone(), values, row_ids)
+                            .map_err(|err| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(err)));
+                        Some((batch, (iter, true, schema)))
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    let batch = Self::string_row_id_batch(schema.clone(), values, row_ids)
+                        .map_err(|err| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(err)));
+                    Some((batch, (iter, true, schema)))
+                }
+            },
+        );
+        Box::pin(DatafusionRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            stream_schema,
+            stream.fuse(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn object_type_index_stream(
+        object_types: BTreeMap<&'static str, RoaringBitmap>,
+    ) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        let schema =
+            Self::value_row_id_schema(Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, false));
+        let stream_schema = schema.clone();
+        let entries = object_types
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(value, bitmap)| {
+                (
+                    value,
+                    Box::new(bitmap.into_iter()) as Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32> + Send>,
                 )
-                .await
-            {
-                log::warn!("Failed to create Bitmap index on object_type for __manifest table: {:?}. Query performance may be impacted.", e);
-            } else {
-                log::info!(
-                    "Created Bitmap index '{}' on object_type for __manifest table",
-                    OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX_NAME
-                );
-            }
-        }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .into_iter();
+        let stream = stream::unfold(
+            (entries, None, false, schema),
+            |(mut entries, mut current, emitted, schema)| async move {
+                let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE);
+                let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE);
+                while values.len() < MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE {
+                    if current.is_none() {
+                        current = entries.next();
+                    }
+                    let Some((value, iter)) = current.as_mut() else {
+                        break;
+                    };
+                    if let Some(row_id) = iter.next() {
+                        values.push((*value).to_string());
+                        row_ids.push(u64::from(row_id));
+                    } else {
+                        current = None;
+                    }
+                }
 
-        // Create LabelList index on base_objects
-        if !has_base_objects_index {
-            log::debug!(
-                "Creating LabelList index '{}' on base_objects for __manifest table",
-                BASE_OBJECTS_INDEX_NAME
-            );
-            let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-            if let Err(e) = dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["base_objects"],
-                    IndexType::LabelList,
-                    Some(BASE_OBJECTS_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
-                    &params,
-                    true,
+                if values.is_empty() {
+                    if emitted {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        let batch = Self::string_row_id_batch(schema.clone(), values, row_ids)
+                            .map_err(|err| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(err)));
+                        Some((batch, (entries, current, true, schema)))
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    let batch = Self::string_row_id_batch(schema.clone(), values, row_ids)
+                        .map_err(|err| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(err)));
+                    Some((batch, (entries, current, true, schema)))
+                }
+            },
+        );
+        Box::pin(DatafusionRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            stream_schema,
+            stream.fuse(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn base_objects_index_stream(
+        base_objects_values: Vec<Option<Vec<String>>>,
+        base_objects_row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    ) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        let schema = Self::value_row_id_schema(BASE_OBJECTS_VALUE_FIELD.clone());
+        let stream_schema = schema.clone();
+        let stream = stream::unfold(
+            (
+                base_objects_values.into_iter().zip(base_objects_row_ids),
+                false,
+                schema,
+            ),
+            |(mut iter, emitted, schema)| async move {
+                let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE);
+                let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE);
+                for _ in 0..MANIFEST_INDEX_BATCH_SIZE {
+                    let Some((value, row_id)) = iter.next() else {
+                        break;
+                    };
+                    values.push(value);
+                    row_ids.push(row_id);
+                }
+                if values.is_empty() {
+                    if emitted {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        let batch = Self::list_row_id_batch(schema.clone(), values, row_ids)
+                            .map_err(|err| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(err)));
+                        Some((batch, (iter, true, schema)))
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    let batch = Self::list_row_id_batch(schema.clone(), values, row_ids)
+                        .map_err(|err| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(err)));
+                    Some((batch, (iter, true, schema)))
+                }
+            },
+        );
+        Box::pin(DatafusionRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            stream_schema,
+            stream.fuse(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn train_manifest_index(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        registry: Arc<IndexPluginRegistry>,
+        input: ManifestIndexBuildInput,
+        index_uuid: Uuid,
+    ) -> Result<ManifestTrainedIndex> {
+        let index_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &index_uuid)?;
+        let trainer = registry
+            .get_plugin_by_name(&input.params.index_type)?
+            .basic_trainer()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "The '{}' index type does not support basic training, please refer to the index's documentation for more details on how to create this index.",
+                        input.params.index_type
+                    )
+                    .into(),
                 )
-                .await
-            {
-                log::warn!("Failed to create LabelList index on base_objects for __manifest table: {:?}. Query performance may be impacted.", e);
-            } else {
-                log::info!(
-                    "Created LabelList index '{}' on base_objects for __manifest table",
-                    BASE_OBJECTS_INDEX_NAME
-                );
-            }
+            })?;
+        let training_request = trainer
+            .new_training_request(input.params.params.as_deref().unwrap_or("{}"), &input.field)?;
+        let created_index = trainer
+            .train_index(
+                input.stream,
+                &index_store,
+                training_request,
+                None,
+                noop_progress(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        Ok(ManifestTrainedIndex {
+            index_name: input.index_name,
+            column_name: input.column_name,
+            uuid: index_uuid,
+            created_index,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn manifest_index_metadata(
+        lance_schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+        fragment_bitmap: &RoaringBitmap,
+        dataset_version: u64,
+        trained_index: ManifestTrainedIndex,
+    ) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+        Ok(IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: trained_index.uuid,
+            fields: vec![lance_schema.field_id(trained_index.column_name)?],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: trained_index.index_name.to_string(),
+            dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap.clone()),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(trained_index.created_index.index_details)),
+            index_version: trained_index.created_index.index_version as i32,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: Some(index_files_to_table(trained_index.created_index.files)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn manifest_fragment_bitmap(manifest: &Manifest) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        let mut bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for fragment in manifest.fragments.iter() {
+            let fragment_id = u32::try_from(fragment.id).map_err(|_| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Manifest fragment id {} exceeds u32", fragment.id),
+                })
+            })?;
+            bitmap.insert(fragment_id);
         }
+        Ok(bitmap)
+    }
 
-        // Step 2: Run file compaction
-        log::debug!("Running file compaction on __manifest table");
-        match compact_files(dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None).await {
-            Ok(compaction_metrics) => {
-                if compaction_metrics.fragments_removed > 0 {
-                    log::info!(
-                        "Compacted __manifest table: removed {} fragments, added {} fragments",
-                        compaction_metrics.fragments_removed,
-                        compaction_metrics.fragments_added
-                    );
+    fn manifest_from_overwrite_transaction(
+        previous: &Manifest,
+        schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+        fragments: &[Fragment],
+    ) -> Manifest {
+        let mut next_fragment_id = 0;
+        let mut fragments = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .map(|mut fragment| {
+                if fragment.id == 0 {
+                    fragment.id = next_fragment_id;
+                    next_fragment_id += 1;
                 }
-            }
-            Err(e) => {
-                log::warn!("Failed to compact files for __manifest table: {:?}. Continuing with optimization.", e);
-            }
-        }
+                fragment
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        fragments.sort_by_key(|fragment| fragment.id);
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new_from_previous(previous, schema, Arc::new(fragments));
+        // Drop a legacy auto-cleanup policy so later commits, including those of
+        // older writers that inherit this config, stop removing old versions.
+        manifest
+            .config
+            .retain(|key, _| !key.starts_with(AUTO_CLEANUP_CONFIG_PREFIX));
+        manifest
+    }
 
-        // Step 3: Optimize indices
-        log::debug!("Optimizing indices on __manifest table");
-        match dataset.optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default()).await {
-            Ok(_) => {
-                log::info!("Successfully optimized indices on __manifest table");
-            }
-            Err(e) => {
-                log::warn!(
-                    "Failed to optimize indices on __manifest table: {:?}. Continuing anyway.",
-                    e
-                );
-            }
-        }
+    async fn build_manifest_indices(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        manifest: &Manifest,
+        index_data: ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+        index_uuids: [Uuid; 3],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+        let fragment_bitmap = Self::manifest_fragment_bitmap(manifest)?;
+        let schema = &manifest.schema;
+        let ManifestIndexAccumulator {
+            object_ids,
+            object_types,
+            base_objects_values,
+            base_objects_row_ids,
+            ..
+        } = index_data;
+        let [object_id_uuid, object_type_uuid, base_objects_uuid] = index_uuids;
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+
+        let dataset_version = manifest.version;
+        let object_id_index_fut = Self::build_manifest_index(
+            dataset,
+            registry.clone(),
+            schema,
+            ManifestIndexBuildInput {
+                index_name: OBJECT_ID_INDEX_NAME,
+                column_name: "object_id",
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                field: Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, false),
+                stream: Self::object_id_index_stream(object_ids),
+            },
+            &fragment_bitmap,
+            dataset_version,
+            object_id_uuid,
+        );
+        let object_type_index_fut = Self::build_manifest_index(
+            dataset,
+            registry.clone(),
+            schema,
+            ManifestIndexBuildInput {
+                index_name: OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX_NAME,
+                column_name: "object_type",
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+                field: Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, false),
+                stream: Self::object_type_index_stream(object_types),
+            },
+            &fragment_bitmap,
+            dataset_version,
+            object_type_uuid,
+        );
+        let base_objects_index_fut = Self::build_manifest_index(
+            dataset,
+            registry,
+            schema,
+            ManifestIndexBuildInput {
+                index_name: BASE_OBJECTS_INDEX_NAME,
+                column_name: "base_objects",
+                params: ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::LabelList),
+                field: BASE_OBJECTS_VALUE_FIELD.clone(),
+                stream: Self::base_objects_index_stream(base_objects_values, base_objects_row_ids),
+            },
+            &fragment_bitmap,
+            dataset_version,
+            base_objects_uuid,
+        );
 
-        Ok(())
+        let (object_id_index, object_type_index, base_objects_index) = futures::join!(
+            object_id_index_fut,
+            object_type_index_fut,
+            base_objects_index_fut
+        );
+
+        Ok(vec![
+            object_id_index?,
+            object_type_index?,
+            base_objects_index?,
+        ])
+    }
+
+    async fn build_manifest_index(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        registry: Arc<IndexPluginRegistry>,
+        lance_schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+        input: ManifestIndexBuildInput,
+        fragment_bitmap: &RoaringBitmap,
+        dataset_version: u64,
+        index_uuid: Uuid,
+    ) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+        let trained_index =
+            Self::train_manifest_index(dataset, registry, input, index_uuid).await?;
+        Self::manifest_index_metadata(
+            lance_schema,
+            fragment_bitmap,
+            dataset_version,
+            trained_index,
+        )
     }
 
     /// Get the manifest schema
     fn manifest_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
         Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("object_id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            // Set unenforced primary key on object_id for bloom filter conflict detection
+            Field::new("object_id", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(
+                [(
+                    LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION.to_string(),
+                    "0".to_string(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+            ),
             Field::new("object_type", DataType::Utf8, false),
             Field::new("location", DataType::Utf8, true),
             Field::new("metadata", DataType::Utf8, true),
@@ -539,22 +1490,18 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
 
     /// Helper to execute a scanner and collect results into a Vec
     async fn execute_scanner(scanner: Scanner) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
-        let mut stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to create stream: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: location!(),
+        let mut stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to create stream: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
 
         let mut batches = Vec::new();
         while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
-            batches.push(batch.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to read batch: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: location!(),
+            batches.push(batch.map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to read batch: {:?}", e),
+                })
             })?);
         }
 
@@ -563,306 +1510,916 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
 
     /// Helper to get a string column from a record batch
     fn get_string_column<'a>(batch: &'a RecordBatch, column_name: &str) -> Result<&'a StringArray> {
-        let column = batch
-            .column_by_name(column_name)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io(format!("Column '{}' not found", column_name), location!()))?;
+        let column = batch.column_by_name(column_name).ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Column '{}' not found", column_name),
+            })
+        })?;
         column
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::io(
-                    format!("Column '{}' is not a string array", column_name),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Column '{}' is not a string array", column_name),
+                })
             })
     }
 
-    /// Check if the manifest contains an object with the given ID
-    async fn manifest_contains_object(&self, object_id: &str) -> Result<bool> {
-        let filter = format!("object_id = '{}'", object_id);
-
-        let dataset_guard = self.manifest_dataset.get().await?;
-        let mut scanner = dataset_guard.scan();
-
-        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to filter: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-
-        // Project no columns and enable row IDs for count_rows to work
-        scanner.project::<&str>(&[]).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to project: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+    fn required_string_value<'a>(
+        array: &'a StringArray,
+        row: usize,
+        column_name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<&'a str> {
+        if array.is_null(row) {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Manifest column '{}' has null at row {}", column_name, row),
+            }
+            .into());
+        }
+        Ok(array.value(row))
+    }
 
-        scanner.with_row_id();
+    fn optional_string_value(array: &StringArray, row: usize) -> Option<String> {
+        (!array.is_null(row)).then(|| array.value(row).to_string())
+    }
 
-        let count = scanner.count_rows().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to count rows: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: location!(),
+    fn base_objects_column_values(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Vec<Option<Vec<String>>>> {
+        let Some(column) = batch.column_by_name("base_objects") else {
+            return Ok(vec![None; batch.num_rows()]);
+        };
+        let array = column.as_any().downcast_ref::<ListArray>().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Column 'base_objects' is not a list array: {:?}",
+                    column.data_type()
+                ),
+            })
         })?;
 
-        Ok(count > 0)
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
+        for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            if array.is_null(row) {
+                values.push(None);
+                continue;
+            }
+            let row_values = array.value(row);
+            let row_values = row_values
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: "Column 'base_objects' values are not strings".to_string(),
+                    })
+                })?;
+            let mut objects = Vec::with_capacity(row_values.len());
+            for value_index in 0..row_values.len() {
+                if row_values.is_null(value_index) {
+                    return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Manifest column 'base_objects' has null item at row {} item {}",
+                            row, value_index
+                        ),
+                    }
+                    .into());
+                }
+                objects.push(row_values.value(value_index).to_string());
+            }
+            values.push(Some(objects));
+        }
+        Ok(values)
     }
 
-    /// Query the manifest for a table with the given object ID
-    async fn query_manifest_for_table(&self, object_id: &str) -> Result<Option<TableInfo>> {
-        let filter = format!("object_id = '{}' AND object_type = 'table'", object_id);
-        let mut scanner = self.manifest_scanner().await?;
-        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to filter: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+    async fn manifest_projected_stream(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
         scanner
-            .project(&["object_id", "location"])
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to project: {}", e))),
-                location: location!(),
+            .project(&[
+                "object_id",
+                "object_type",
+                "location",
+                "metadata",
+                "base_objects",
+            ])
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to project manifest columns: {:?}", e),
+                })
             })?;
-        let batches = Self::execute_scanner(scanner).await?;
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to create manifest stream: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let stream = stream.map_err(|err| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(err)));
+        Ok(Box::pin(DatafusionRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream.fuse(),
+        )))
+    }
 
-        let mut found_result: Option<TableInfo> = None;
-        let mut total_rows = 0;
+    fn manifest_rewrite_commit_retries(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.commit_retries
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_MANIFEST_REWRITE_COMMIT_RETRIES)
+    }
 
-        for batch in batches {
-            if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-                continue;
-            }
+    fn lock_manifest_rewrite_shared<M: ManifestStreamMutation>(
+        shared: &Arc<StdMutex<ManifestRewriteShared<M>>>,
+    ) -> Result<StdMutexGuard<'_, ManifestRewriteShared<M>>> {
+        shared.lock().map_err(|_| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: "Manifest rewrite state mutex was poisoned".to_string(),
+            })
+        })
+    }
 
-            total_rows += batch.num_rows();
-            if total_rows > 1 {
-                return Err(Error::io(
-                    format!(
-                        "Expected exactly 1 table with id '{}', found {}",
-                        object_id, total_rows
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+    fn set_manifest_rewrite_error<M: ManifestStreamMutation>(
+        shared: &Arc<StdMutex<ManifestRewriteShared<M>>>,
+        err: LanceError,
+    ) {
+        match shared.lock() {
+            Ok(mut guard) => {
+                guard.error = Some(err);
+            }
+            Err(poisoned) => {
+                let mut guard = poisoned.into_inner();
+                guard.error = Some(err);
             }
-
-            let object_id_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "object_id")?;
-            let location_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "location")?;
-            let location = location_array.value(0).to_string();
-            let (namespace, name) = Self::parse_object_id(object_id_array.value(0));
-            found_result = Some(TableInfo {
-                namespace,
-                name,
-                location,
-            });
         }
+    }
 
-        Ok(found_result)
+    fn take_manifest_rewrite_error<M: ManifestStreamMutation>(
+        shared: &Arc<StdMutex<ManifestRewriteShared<M>>>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<LanceError>> {
+        let mut guard = Self::lock_manifest_rewrite_shared(shared)?;
+        Ok(guard.error.take())
     }
 
-    /// List all table locations in the manifest (for root namespace only)
-    /// Returns a set of table locations (e.g., "table_name.lance")
-    pub async fn list_manifest_table_locations(&self) -> Result<std::collections::HashSet<String>> {
-        let filter = "object_type = 'table' AND NOT contains(object_id, '$')";
-        let mut scanner = self.manifest_scanner().await?;
-        scanner.filter(filter).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to filter: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
+    fn process_manifest_rewrite_batch<M: ManifestStreamMutation>(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        shared: &Arc<StdMutex<ManifestRewriteShared<M>>>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+        let object_ids = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "object_id")?;
+        let object_types = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "object_type")?;
+        let locations = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "location")?;
+        let metadatas = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "metadata")?;
+        let base_objects = Self::base_objects_column_values(&batch)?;
+        let mut output = ManifestBatchBuilder::new();
+        let mut guard = Self::lock_manifest_rewrite_shared(shared)?;
+        let mut index_data = guard.index_data.take().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: "Manifest rewrite index state is unavailable".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
-        scanner.project(&["location"]).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to project: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
+        for (row, base_objects) in base_objects.into_iter().enumerate().take(batch.num_rows()) {
+            let row_value = ManifestRowValue {
+                object_id: Self::required_string_value(object_ids, row, "object_id")?.to_string(),
+                object_type: ObjectType::parse(Self::required_string_value(
+                    object_types,
+                    row,
+                    "object_type",
+                )?)?,
+                location: Self::optional_string_value(locations, row),
+                metadata: Self::optional_string_value(metadatas, row),
+                base_objects,
+            };
+            guard
+                .mutation
+                .process_existing_row(row_value, &mut output, &mut index_data)?;
+        }
+        guard.index_data = Some(index_data);
+        if output.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        Ok(Some(output.finish()?))
+    }
+
+    fn finish_manifest_rewrite_stream<M: ManifestStreamMutation>(
+        shared: &Arc<StdMutex<ManifestRewriteShared<M>>>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+        let mut output = ManifestBatchBuilder::new();
+        let mut guard = Self::lock_manifest_rewrite_shared(shared)?;
+        let mut index_data = guard.index_data.take().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: "Manifest rewrite index state is unavailable".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
+        guard.mutation.append_rows(&mut output, &mut index_data)?;
+        let result = guard.mutation.finish();
+        let force_empty_batch = index_data.row_count == 0;
+        guard.result = Some(result);
+        guard.index_data = Some(index_data);
+        if output.is_empty() && !force_empty_batch {
+            Ok(None)
+        } else {
+            Ok(Some(output.finish()?))
+        }
+    }
 
-        let batches = Self::execute_scanner(scanner).await?;
-        let mut locations = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+    fn manifest_rewrite_output_stream<M: ManifestStreamMutation + 'static>(
+        source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        shared: Arc<StdMutex<ManifestRewriteShared<M>>>,
+    ) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        enum Phase {
+            Source,
+            Finish,
+            Done,
+        }
 
-        for batch in batches {
-            if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-                continue;
+        let schema = Self::manifest_schema();
+        let stream = stream::unfold(
+            (source, shared, Phase::Source),
+            |(mut source, shared, mut phase)| async move {
+                loop {
+                    match phase {
+                        Phase::Source => match source.next().await {
+                            Some(Ok(batch)) => {
+                                match Self::process_manifest_rewrite_batch(batch, &shared) {
+                                    Ok(Some(batch)) => {
+                                        return Some((Ok(batch), (source, shared, phase)));
+                                    }
+                                    Ok(None) => continue,
+                                    Err(err) => {
+                                        let message = err.to_string();
+                                        Self::set_manifest_rewrite_error(&shared, err);
+                                        return Some((
+                                            Err(DataFusionError::External(Box::new(
+                                                std::io::Error::other(message),
+                                            ))),
+                                            (source, shared, Phase::Done),
+                                        ));
+                                    }
+                                }
+                            }
+                            Some(Err(err)) => {
+                                return Some((Err(err), (source, shared, Phase::Done)));
+                            }
+                            None => phase = Phase::Finish,
+                        },
+                        Phase::Finish => {
+                            phase = Phase::Done;
+                            match Self::finish_manifest_rewrite_stream(&shared) {
+                                Ok(Some(batch)) => {
+                                    return Some((Ok(batch), (source, shared, phase)));
+                                }
+                                Ok(None) => continue,
+                                Err(err) => {
+                                    let message = err.to_string();
+                                    Self::set_manifest_rewrite_error(&shared, err);
+                                    return Some((
+                                        Err(DataFusionError::External(Box::new(
+                                            std::io::Error::other(message),
+                                        ))),
+                                        (source, shared, Phase::Done),
+                                    ));
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                        Phase::Done => return None,
+                    }
+                }
+            },
+        );
+        Box::pin(DatafusionRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream.fuse(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn take_manifest_rewrite_result<M: ManifestStreamMutation>(
+        shared: &Arc<StdMutex<ManifestRewriteShared<M>>>,
+    ) -> Result<(CopyOnWriteMutation<M::Output>, ManifestIndexAccumulator)> {
+        let mut guard = Self::lock_manifest_rewrite_shared(shared)?;
+        let result = guard.result.take().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: "Manifest rewrite stream did not finish".to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
+        let index_data = guard.index_data.take().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: "Manifest rewrite index state is unavailable".to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
+        Ok((result, index_data))
+    }
+
+    /// Delete the staged (uncommitted) data files and index directories for a rewrite.
+    /// Only call this once the rewrite is known *not* to have landed (a put-if-not-exists
+    /// conflict, or an ambiguous error whose target version does not reference our data
+    /// file) — otherwise it would orphan files a committed manifest still references.
+    async fn cleanup_staged_manifest_files(
+        &self,
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        data_files: &HashSet<String>,
+        index_uuids: &[Uuid],
+    ) {
+        let data_dir = self
+            .base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME)
+            .join(LANCE_DATA_DIR);
+        for path in data_files {
+            let data_path = data_dir.clone().join(path.as_str());
+            if let Err(err) = object_store.delete(&data_path).await {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Failed to clean up uncommitted manifest rewrite data file '{}': {}",
+                    data_path,
+                    err
+                );
             }
-            let location_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "location")?;
-            for i in 0..location_array.len() {
-                locations.insert(location_array.value(i).to_string());
+        }
+        self.cleanup_uncommitted_manifest_index_dirs(object_store, index_uuids.iter().copied())
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    async fn cleanup_uncommitted_manifest_index_dirs(
+        &self,
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        index_uuids: impl IntoIterator<Item = Uuid>,
+    ) {
+        for index_uuid in index_uuids {
+            let index_dir = self
+                .base_path
+                .clone()
+                .join(MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME)
+                .join(LANCE_INDICES_DIR)
+                .join(index_uuid.to_string());
+            if let Err(err) = object_store.remove_dir_all(index_dir.clone()).await
+                && !matches!(err, LanceError::NotFound { .. })
+            {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Failed to clean up uncommitted manifest rewrite index directory '{}': {}",
+                    index_dir,
+                    err
+                );
             }
         }
+    }
 
-        Ok(locations)
+    /// Resolve the commit handler for the `__manifest` dataset's storage backend.
+    async fn manifest_commit_handler(&self) -> Result<Arc<dyn CommitHandler>> {
+        commit_handler_from_url(&self.root, &None)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to resolve manifest commit handler: {:?}", e),
+                })
+            })
     }
 
-    /// Insert an entry into the manifest table
-    async fn insert_into_manifest(
+    /// Directly write the rewritten `__manifest` as a new version using the storage
+    /// backend's atomic put-if-not-exists. The overwrite transaction is embedded inline
+    /// (no separate transaction file) and the commit handler writes the version hint.
+    async fn commit_manifest_overwrite(
         &self,
-        object_id: String,
-        object_type: ObjectType,
-        location: Option<String>,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        self.insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(object_id, object_type, location, None, None)
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        commit_handler: &dyn CommitHandler,
+        manifest: &mut Manifest,
+        indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+        transaction: Transaction,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<(), CommitError> {
+        ensure_can_write_manifest(manifest).map_err(CommitError::from)?;
+        apply_feature_flags(manifest, false, false).map_err(CommitError::from)?;
+        let timestamp_nanos = SystemTime::now()
+            .duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH)
+            .map(|d| d.as_nanos())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        manifest.set_timestamp(timestamp_nanos);
+        manifest.update_max_fragment_id();
+
+        // Commit through the dataset's own object store, not `self.object_store`: for
+        // stores like `memory://` the namespace and the dataset can hold different
+        // instances, and a commit written to the wrong one is invisible to reads.
+        let object_store = dataset
+            .object_store(None)
+            .await
+            .map_err(CommitError::from)?;
+        let base_path = self.base_path.clone().join(MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME);
+        let naming_scheme = dataset.manifest_location().naming_scheme;
+        let inline_transaction =
+            lance_table::format::Transaction::try_from(&transaction).map_err(CommitError::from)?;
+        commit_handler
+            .commit(
+                manifest,
+                indices,
+                &base_path,
+                &object_store,
+                write_manifest_file_to_path,
+                naming_scheme,
+                Some(inline_transaction),
+            )
             .await
+            .map(|_location| ())
     }
 
-    /// Insert an entry into the manifest table with metadata and base_objects
-    async fn insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+    /// After an ambiguous commit error, determine whether our overwrite actually landed at
+    /// `target_version`. A network failure can leave the manifest committed even though the
+    /// client observed an error; in that case the committed version references one of our
+    /// staged data files, and deleting them would corrupt the catalog.
+    async fn manifest_commit_landed(
         &self,
-        object_id: String,
-        object_type: ObjectType,
-        location: Option<String>,
-        metadata: Option<String>,
-        base_objects: Option<Vec<String>>,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        use arrow::array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        target_version: u64,
+        data_files: &HashSet<String>,
+    ) -> bool {
+        let Ok(committed) = dataset.checkout_version(target_version).await else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        committed.manifest().fragments.iter().any(|fragment| {
+            fragment
+                .files
+                .iter()
+                .any(|file| data_files.contains(file.path.as_str()))
+        })
+    }
 
-        let schema = Self::manifest_schema();
+    /// Resolve a storage commit conflict against the latest committed catalog state.
+    /// Returns `Some(output)` when the mutation's intent is already satisfied (no retry
+    /// needed), `Ok(None)` to retry the rewrite, or an error for a terminal conflict.
+    async fn resolve_manifest_conflict<O: Clone>(
+        &self,
+        resolution: &ConflictResolution<O>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<O>> {
+        match resolution {
+            ConflictResolution::Retry => Ok(None),
+            ConflictResolution::FailIfExists(object_ids) => {
+                for object_id in object_ids {
+                    if self.manifest_contains_object(object_id).await? {
+                        return Err(NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification {
+                            message: format!(
+                                "Object '{}' was concurrently created by another operation",
+                                object_id
+                            ),
+                        }
+                        .into());
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(None)
+            }
+            ConflictResolution::SucceedIfAbsent { object_id, output } => {
+                if self.manifest_contains_object(object_id).await? {
+                    Ok(None)
+                } else {
+                    Ok(Some(output.clone()))
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Create base_objects array from the provided list
-        let string_builder = StringBuilder::new();
-        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(string_builder).with_field(Arc::new(Field::new(
-            "object_id",
-            DataType::Utf8,
-            true,
-        )));
+    /// Validate that this build can write the current `__manifest` before a
+    /// mutating operation performs any side effect (e.g. writing table data), so
+    /// a refused write leaves nothing orphaned behind. The eventual
+    /// `rewrite_manifest` commit re-checks `ensure_writable` on each retry, so a
+    /// concurrent upgrade in between is still caught.
+    async fn ensure_manifest_writable(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let dataset_guard = self.manifest_dataset.get().await?;
+        ensure_can_write_manifest(dataset_guard.manifest())?;
+        ensure_writable(dataset_guard.metadata())
+    }
+
+    async fn rewrite_manifest<M, F>(
+        &self,
+        operation: &str,
+        mut make_mutation: F,
+    ) -> Result<M::Output>
+    where
+        M: ManifestStreamMutation + 'static,
+        F: FnMut() -> M,
+    {
+        let _mutation_guard = self.manifest_mutation_lock.lock().await;
+        let max_retries = self.manifest_rewrite_commit_retries();
+        let mut retries = 0;
+        let build_indices = self.inline_optimization_enabled;
+        let commit_handler = self.manifest_commit_handler().await?;
+
+        loop {
+            let dataset_guard = self.manifest_dataset.get_refreshed().await?;
+            ensure_can_write_manifest(dataset_guard.manifest())?;
+            let dataset = Arc::new(dataset_guard.clone());
+            drop(dataset_guard);
+            // The namespace format has its own capabilities in table metadata,
+            // separate from the Lance manifest capabilities checked above.
+            ensure_writable(dataset.metadata())?;
+            // Staged files, indices, the commit, and cleanup must all use the dataset's
+            // own object store (see `commit_manifest_overwrite`).
+            let object_store = dataset.object_store(None).await?;
+
+            let source = Self::manifest_projected_stream(&dataset).await?;
+            let resolution = make_mutation().conflict_resolution();
+            let shared = Arc::new(StdMutex::new(ManifestRewriteShared::new(make_mutation())));
+            let output_stream = Self::manifest_rewrite_output_stream(source, shared.clone());
+            // Pin both limits so the overwrite never splits into multiple fragments: the
+            // replacement indices map each row to address `(0 << 32) | offset`, valid only
+            // for a single fragment with id 0. The row count is bounded below u32::MAX by
+            // `ManifestIndexAccumulator::next_row_id`.
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                session: self.session.clone(),
+                max_rows_per_file: u32::MAX as usize,
+                max_bytes_per_file: usize::MAX,
+                skip_auto_cleanup: true,
+                ..WriteParams::default()
+            };
 
-        match base_objects {
-            Some(objects) => {
-                for obj in objects {
-                    list_builder.values().append_value(obj);
+            let transaction = match InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+                .with_params(&write_params)
+                .execute_uncommitted_stream(output_stream)
+                .await
+            {
+                Ok(transaction) => transaction,
+                Err(err) => {
+                    if let Some(stream_err) = Self::take_manifest_rewrite_error(&shared)? {
+                        return Err(stream_err);
+                    }
+                    return Err(convert_lance_commit_error(&err, operation, None));
+                }
+            };
+
+            let (mutation, index_data) = Self::take_manifest_rewrite_result(&shared)?;
+
+            let Operation::Overwrite {
+                fragments, schema, ..
+            } = &transaction.operation
+            else {
+                return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: "Manifest rewrite transaction is not an overwrite".to_string(),
                 }
-                list_builder.append(true);
+                .into());
+            };
+            // Unique data files this attempt staged. Used to clean up orphans and to
+            // attribute an ambiguous commit error back to us.
+            let staged_data_files = fragments
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|fragment| fragment.files.iter())
+                .filter(|file| file.base_id.is_none())
+                .map(|file| file.path.clone())
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+
+            if !mutation.has_changes {
+                self.cleanup_staged_manifest_files(&object_store, &staged_data_files, &[])
+                    .await;
+                return Ok(mutation.result);
             }
-            None => {
-                list_builder.append_null();
+
+            let mut manifest = Self::manifest_from_overwrite_transaction(
+                dataset.manifest(),
+                schema.clone(),
+                fragments,
+            );
+            let target_version = manifest.version;
+
+            let index_uuids = [Uuid::new_v4(), Uuid::new_v4(), Uuid::new_v4()];
+            let indices = if build_indices {
+                match Self::build_manifest_indices(&dataset, &manifest, index_data, index_uuids)
+                    .await
+                {
+                    Ok(indices) => Some(indices),
+                    Err(err) => {
+                        self.cleanup_staged_manifest_files(
+                            &object_store,
+                            &staged_data_files,
+                            &index_uuids,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                        return Err(err);
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+            let staged_index_uuids: &[Uuid] = if build_indices { &index_uuids } else { &[] };
+
+            let commit_result = self
+                .commit_manifest_overwrite(
+                    &dataset,
+                    commit_handler.as_ref(),
+                    &mut manifest,
+                    indices,
+                    transaction,
+                )
+                .await;
+
+            match commit_result {
+                Ok(()) => {
+                    let _ = self.manifest_dataset.get_refreshed().await;
+                    return Ok(mutation.result);
+                }
+                Err(err) => {
+                    // The put may have landed even though the client saw an error (lost
+                    // ack). Verify before deleting anything so we never orphan files that a
+                    // committed manifest still references.
+                    if self
+                        .manifest_commit_landed(&dataset, target_version, &staged_data_files)
+                        .await
+                    {
+                        let _ = self.manifest_dataset.get_refreshed().await;
+                        return Ok(mutation.result);
+                    }
+                    self.cleanup_staged_manifest_files(
+                        &object_store,
+                        &staged_data_files,
+                        staged_index_uuids,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                    match err {
+                        CommitError::CommitConflict => {
+                            if let Some(output) =
+                                self.resolve_manifest_conflict(&resolution).await?
+                            {
+                                return Ok(output);
+                            }
+                            if retries >= max_retries {
+                                return Err(NamespaceError::ConcurrentModification {
+                                    message: format!(
+                                        "{}: still conflicting after {} retries",
+                                        operation, max_retries
+                                    ),
+                                }
+                                .into());
+                            }
+                            retries += 1;
+                            tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(
+                                10 * u64::from(retries),
+                            ))
+                            .await;
+                        }
+                        CommitError::OtherError(err) => {
+                            return Err(convert_lance_commit_error(&err, operation, None));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
             }
         }
+    }
 
-        let base_objects_array = list_builder.finish();
+    /// Check if the manifest contains an object with the given ID
+    async fn manifest_contains_object(&self, object_id: &str) -> Result<bool> {
+        let escaped_id = object_id.replace('\'', "''");
+        let filter = format!("object_id = '{}'", escaped_id);
 
-        // Create arrays with optional values
-        let location_array = match location {
-            Some(loc) => Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some(loc)])),
-            None => Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![None::<String>])),
-        };
+        let dataset_guard = self.manifest_dataset.get().await?;
+        let mut scanner = dataset_guard.scan();
 
-        let metadata_array = match metadata {
-            Some(meta) => Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some(meta)])),
-            None => Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![None::<String>])),
-        };
+        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to filter: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![object_id.as_str()])),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![object_type.as_str()])),
-                location_array,
-                metadata_array,
-                Arc::new(base_objects_array),
-            ],
-        )
-        .map_err(|e| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!("Failed to create manifest entry: {}", e),
-                location!(),
-            )
+        // Project no columns and enable row IDs for count_rows to work
+        scanner.project::<&str>(&[]).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to project: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        scanner.with_row_id();
 
-        // Use MergeInsert to ensure uniqueness on object_id
-        let dataset_guard = self.manifest_dataset.get().await?;
-        let dataset_arc = Arc::new(dataset_guard.clone());
-        drop(dataset_guard); // Drop read guard before merge insert
-
-        let mut merge_builder =
-            lance::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset_arc, vec!["object_id".to_string()])
-                .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                    source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to create merge builder: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+        let count = scanner.count_rows().await.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to count rows: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-        merge_builder.when_matched(lance::dataset::WhenMatched::Fail);
-        merge_builder.when_not_matched(lance::dataset::WhenNotMatched::InsertAll);
+        Ok(count > 0)
+    }
 
-        let (new_dataset_arc, _merge_stats) = merge_builder
-            .try_build()
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to build merge: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
-            .execute_reader(Box::new(reader))
-            .await
+    /// Query the manifest for a table with the given object ID
+    async fn query_manifest_for_table(&self, object_id: &str) -> Result<Option<TableInfo>> {
+        let escaped_id = object_id.replace('\'', "''");
+        let filter = format!("object_id = '{}' AND object_type = 'table'", escaped_id);
+        let mut scanner = self.manifest_scanner().await?;
+        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to filter: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
+        scanner
+            .project(&["object_id", "location", "metadata"])
             .map_err(|e| {
-                // Check if this is a "matched row" error from WhenMatched::Fail
-                let error_msg = e.to_string();
-                if error_msg.contains("matched")
-                    || error_msg.contains("duplicate")
-                    || error_msg.contains("already exists")
-                {
-                    Error::io(
-                        format!("Object with id '{}' already exists in manifest", object_id),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                } else {
-                    Error::IO {
-                        source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                            "Failed to execute merge: {}",
-                            e
-                        ))),
-                        location: location!(),
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to project: {:?}", e),
+                })
+            })?;
+        let batches = Self::execute_scanner(scanner).await?;
+
+        let mut found_result: Option<TableInfo> = None;
+        let mut total_rows = 0;
+
+        for batch in batches {
+            if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            total_rows += batch.num_rows();
+            if total_rows > 1 {
+                return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Expected exactly 1 table with id '{}', found {}",
+                        object_id, total_rows
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into());
+            }
+
+            let object_id_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "object_id")?;
+            let location_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "location")?;
+            let metadata_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "metadata")?;
+            let location = location_array.value(0).to_string();
+            let metadata = if !metadata_array.is_null(0) {
+                let metadata_str = metadata_array.value(0);
+                match serde_json::from_str::<HashMap<String, String>>(metadata_str) {
+                    Ok(map) => Some(map),
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                            message: format!(
+                                "Failed to deserialize metadata for table '{}': {}",
+                                object_id, e
+                            ),
+                        }
+                        .into());
                     }
                 }
-            })?;
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+            let (namespace, name) = Self::parse_object_id(object_id_array.value(0));
+            found_result = Some(TableInfo {
+                namespace,
+                name,
+                location,
+                metadata,
+            });
+        }
 
-        let new_dataset = Arc::try_unwrap(new_dataset_arc).unwrap_or_else(|arc| (*arc).clone());
-        self.manifest_dataset.set_latest(new_dataset).await;
+        Ok(found_result)
+    }
 
-        // Run inline optimization after write
-        if let Err(e) = self.run_inline_optimization().await {
-            log::warn!(
-                "Unexpected failure when running inline optimization: {:?}",
-                e
-            );
+    fn serialize_metadata(
+        properties: Option<&HashMap<String, String>>,
+        object_type: &str,
+        object_id: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+        match properties {
+            Some(properties) if !properties.is_empty() => {
+                serde_json::to_string(properties).map(Some).map_err(|e| {
+                    LanceError::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to serialize {} metadata for '{}': {}",
+                            object_type, object_id, e
+                        ),
+                    })
+                })
+            }
+            _ => Ok(None),
         }
+    }
 
-        Ok(())
+    pub(crate) async fn path_has_actual_manifests(
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        table_path: &Path,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        let versions_path = table_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(lance_table::io::commit::VERSIONS_DIR);
+        // `_versions/` should only contain manifest files, so probing the first entry is enough
+        // to distinguish declared-only tables (empty `_versions/`) from created tables.
+        Ok(object_store
+            .list(Some(versions_path))
+            .try_next()
+            .await?
+            .is_some())
     }
 
-    /// Delete an entry from the manifest table
-    pub async fn delete_from_manifest(&self, object_id: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        {
-            let predicate = format!("object_id = '{}'", object_id);
-            let mut dataset_guard = self.manifest_dataset.get_mut().await?;
-            dataset_guard
-                .delete(&predicate)
-                .await
-                .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                    source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to delete: {}", e))),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-        } // Drop the guard here
+    async fn location_has_actual_manifests(&self, location: &str) -> Result<bool> {
+        Self::path_has_actual_manifests(&self.object_store, &self.base_path.clone().join(location))
+            .await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn is_not_found_load_error(err: &LanceError) -> bool {
+        match err {
+            LanceError::NotFound { .. } => true,
+            LanceError::IO { source, .. } => source
+                .downcast_ref::<ObjectStoreError>()
+                .is_some_and(|source| matches!(source, ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. })),
+            LanceError::DatasetNotFound { source, .. } => {
+                source
+                    .downcast_ref::<LanceError>()
+                    .is_some_and(|source| matches!(source, LanceError::NotFound { .. }))
+                    || source
+                        .downcast_ref::<ObjectStoreError>()
+                        .is_some_and(|source| matches!(source, ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }))
+            }
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// List all table locations in the manifest (for root namespace only)
+    /// Returns a set of table locations (e.g., "table_name.lance")
+    pub async fn list_manifest_table_locations(&self) -> Result<std::collections::HashSet<String>> {
+        let filter = "object_type = 'table' AND NOT contains(object_id, '$')";
+        let mut scanner = self.manifest_scanner().await?;
+        scanner.filter(filter).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to filter: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
+        scanner.project(&["location"]).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to project: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-        self.manifest_dataset.reload().await?;
+        let batches = Self::execute_scanner(scanner).await?;
+        let mut locations = std::collections::HashSet::new();
 
-        // Run inline optimization after delete
-        if let Err(e) = self.run_inline_optimization().await {
-            log::warn!(
-                "Unexpected failure when running inline optimization: {:?}",
-                e
-            );
+        for batch in batches {
+            if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let location_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "location")?;
+            for i in 0..location_array.len() {
+                locations.insert(location_array.value(i).to_string());
+            }
         }
 
-        Ok(())
+        Ok(locations)
+    }
+
+    /// Insert an entry into the manifest table
+    async fn insert_into_manifest(
+        &self,
+        object_id: String,
+        object_type: ObjectType,
+        location: Option<String>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+            vec![ManifestEntry {
+                object_id,
+                object_type,
+                location,
+                metadata: None,
+            }],
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Insert one or more entries into the manifest table with metadata and base_objects.
+    ///
+    /// This is the unified entry point for both single and batch inserts.
+    /// If any entry already exists (matching object_id), the entire batch fails.
+    pub async fn insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+        &self,
+        entries: Vec<ManifestEntry>,
+        base_objects: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.merge_into_manifest_with_metadata(entries, base_objects, WhenMatched::Fail)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn upsert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+        &self,
+        entries: Vec<ManifestEntry>,
+        base_objects: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.merge_into_manifest_with_metadata(entries, base_objects, WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn merge_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+        &self,
+        entries: Vec<ManifestEntry>,
+        base_objects: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        when_matched: WhenMatched,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if entries.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        self.rewrite_manifest("Failed to overwrite manifest", || {
+            UpsertManifestMutation::new(entries.clone(), base_objects.clone(), when_matched.clone())
+        })
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Delete an entry from the manifest table
+    pub async fn delete_from_manifest(&self, object_id: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        let object_id = object_id.to_string();
+        self.rewrite_manifest("Failed to delete from manifest", || DeleteObjectMutation {
+            object_id: object_id.clone(),
+            deleted: false,
+        })
+        .await
     }
 
     /// Register a table in the manifest without creating the physical table (internal helper for migration)
     pub async fn register_table(&self, name: &str, location: String) -> Result<()> {
         let object_id = Self::build_object_id(&[], name);
         if self.manifest_contains_object(&object_id).await? {
-            return Err(Error::io(
-                format!("Table '{}' already exists", name),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Table '{}' already exists", name),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         self.insert_into_manifest(object_id, ObjectType::Table, Some(location))
@@ -875,10 +2432,10 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
             let partial_path = &namespace_path[..i];
             let object_id = partial_path.join(DELIMITER);
             if !self.manifest_contains_object(&object_id).await? {
-                return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                    source: format!("Parent namespace '{}' does not exist", object_id).into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(NamespaceError::NamespaceNotFound {
+                    message: format!("parent namespace '{}'", object_id),
+                }
+                .into());
             }
         }
         Ok(())
@@ -886,18 +2443,19 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
 
     /// Query the manifest for a namespace with the given object ID
     async fn query_manifest_for_namespace(&self, object_id: &str) -> Result<Option<NamespaceInfo>> {
-        let filter = format!("object_id = '{}' AND object_type = 'namespace'", object_id);
+        let escaped_id = object_id.replace('\'', "''");
+        let filter = format!("object_id = '{}' AND object_type = 'namespace'", escaped_id);
         let mut scanner = self.manifest_scanner().await?;
-        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to filter: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
+        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to filter: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
+        scanner.project(&["object_id", "metadata"]).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to project: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
-        scanner
-            .project(&["object_id", "metadata"])
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to project: {}", e))),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
         let batches = Self::execute_scanner(scanner).await?;
 
         let mut found_result: Option<NamespaceInfo> = None;
@@ -910,13 +2468,13 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
 
             total_rows += batch.num_rows();
             if total_rows > 1 {
-                return Err(Error::io(
-                    format!(
+                return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!(
                         "Expected exactly 1 namespace with id '{}', found {}",
                         object_id, total_rows
                     ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                }
+                .into());
             }
 
             let object_id_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "object_id")?;
@@ -928,13 +2486,13 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
                 match serde_json::from_str::<HashMap<String, String>>(metadata_str) {
                     Ok(map) => Some(map),
                     Err(e) => {
-                        return Err(Error::io(
-                            format!(
+                        return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                            message: format!(
                                 "Failed to deserialize metadata for namespace '{}': {}",
                                 object_id, e
                             ),
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        }
+                        .into());
                     }
                 }
             } else {
@@ -952,64 +2510,239 @@ impl ManifestNamespace {
         Ok(found_result)
     }
 
-    /// Create or get the manifest dataset
-    async fn create_or_get_manifest(
+    /// Load an existing manifest dataset without creating or migrating it.
+    async fn open_manifest_table(
         root: &str,
         storage_options: &Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
         session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
     ) -> Result<DatasetConsistencyWrapper> {
         let manifest_path = format!("{}/{}", root, MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME);
         log::debug!("Attempting to load manifest from {}", manifest_path);
-        let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&manifest_path);
-
-        if let Some(sess) = session.clone() {
-            builder = builder.with_session(sess);
-        }
-
-        if let Some(opts) = storage_options {
-            builder = builder.with_storage_options(opts.clone());
-        }
-
-        let dataset_result = builder.load().await;
-        if let Ok(dataset) = dataset_result {
-            Ok(DatasetConsistencyWrapper::new(dataset))
-        } else {
-            log::info!("Creating new manifest table at {}", manifest_path);
-            let schema = Self::manifest_schema();
-            let empty_batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
-            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(empty_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let store_options = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: storage_options.as_ref().map(|opts| {
+                Arc::new(
+                    lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                        opts.clone(),
+                    ),
+                )
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let read_params = ReadParams {
+            session,
+            store_options: Some(store_options),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&manifest_path)
+            .with_read_params(read_params)
+            .load()
+            .await?;
+        ensure_readable(dataset.metadata())?;
+        Ok(DatasetConsistencyWrapper::new(dataset))
+    }
 
-            let write_params = WriteParams {
-                session,
-                store_params: storage_options.as_ref().map(|opts| ObjectStoreParams {
-                    storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
-                        lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
-                            opts.clone(),
-                        ),
-                    )),
+    /// Create or load the manifest dataset, ensuring it has the latest schema setup.
+    ///
+    /// This function will:
+    /// 1. Try to load an existing manifest table
+    /// 2. If it exists, check and migrate the schema if needed (e.g., add primary key metadata)
+    /// 3. If it doesn't exist, create a new manifest table with the current schema
+    async fn ensure_manifest_table_up_to_date(
+        root: &str,
+        storage_options: &Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+        session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+    ) -> Result<DatasetConsistencyWrapper> {
+        let manifest_path = format!("{}/{}", root, MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME);
+        log::debug!("Attempting to load manifest from {}", manifest_path);
+        let store_options = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: storage_options.as_ref().map(|opts| {
+                Arc::new(
+                    lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                        opts.clone(),
+                    ),
+                )
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let read_params = ReadParams {
+            session: session.clone(),
+            store_options: Some(store_options.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset_result = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&manifest_path)
+            .with_read_params(read_params)
+            .load()
+            .await;
+        match dataset_result {
+            Ok(mut dataset) => {
+                // Reject a manifest written with a reader feature flag this build
+                // does not understand before touching it.
+                ensure_readable(dataset.metadata())?;
+
+                // Check if the object_id field has primary key metadata, migrate if not
+                let needs_pk_migration = dataset
+                    .schema()
+                    .field("object_id")
+                    .map(|f| {
+                        !f.metadata
+                            .contains_key(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION)
+                    })
+                    .unwrap_or(false);
+
+                if needs_pk_migration {
+                    // This legacy migration writes to the manifest, so confirm this
+                    // build is allowed to write the current format first.
+                    ensure_writable(dataset.metadata())?;
+                    log::info!(
+                        "Migrating __manifest table to add primary key metadata on object_id"
+                    );
+                    dataset
+                        .update_field_metadata()
+                        .update("object_id", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION, "0")])
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                                message: format!(
+                                    "Failed to find object_id field for migration: {:?}",
+                                    e
+                                ),
+                            })
+                        })?
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                                message: format!("Failed to migrate primary key metadata: {:?}", e),
+                            })
+                        })?;
+                }
+
+                Ok(DatasetConsistencyWrapper::new(dataset))
+            }
+            Err(err) if Self::is_not_found_load_error(&err) => {
+                log::info!("Creating new manifest table at {}", manifest_path);
+                let schema = Self::manifest_schema();
+                let empty_batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
+                let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(empty_batch)], schema.clone());
+
+                let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+                    storage_options_accessor: storage_options.as_ref().map(|opts| {
+                        Arc::new(
+                            lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                                opts.clone(),
+                            ),
+                        )
+                    }),
                     ..Default::default()
-                }),
-                ..Default::default()
-            };
+                };
+                let write_params = WriteParams {
+                    session: session.clone(),
+                    store_params: Some(store_params),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                };
 
-            let dataset = Dataset::write(Box::new(reader), &manifest_path, Some(write_params))
-                .await
-                .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                    source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                        "Failed to create manifest dataset: {}",
-                        e
-                    ))),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+                let dataset =
+                    Dataset::write(Box::new(reader), &manifest_path, Some(write_params)).await;
+
+                // Handle race condition where another process created the manifest concurrently
+                match dataset {
+                    Ok(dataset) => {
+                        log::info!(
+                            "Successfully created manifest table at {}, version={}, uri={}",
+                            manifest_path,
+                            dataset.version().version,
+                            dataset.uri()
+                        );
+                        Ok(DatasetConsistencyWrapper::new(dataset))
+                    }
+                    Err(ref e)
+                        if matches!(
+                            e,
+                            LanceError::DatasetAlreadyExists { .. }
+                                | LanceError::CommitConflict { .. }
+                                | LanceError::IncompatibleTransaction { .. }
+                                | LanceError::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }
+                        ) =>
+                    {
+                        // Another process created the manifest concurrently, try to load it
+                        log::info!(
+                            "Manifest table was created by another process, loading it: {}",
+                            manifest_path
+                        );
+                        let recovery_store_options = ObjectStoreParams {
+                            storage_options_accessor: storage_options.as_ref().map(|opts| {
+                                Arc::new(
+                                    lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                                        opts.clone(),
+                                    ),
+                                )
+                            }),
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        };
+                        let recovery_read_params = ReadParams {
+                            session,
+                            store_options: Some(recovery_store_options),
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        };
+                        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&manifest_path)
+                            .with_read_params(recovery_read_params)
+                            .load()
+                            .await
+                            .map_err(|e| {
+                                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                                    message: format!(
+                                        "Failed to load manifest dataset after creation conflict: {}",
+                                        e
+                                    ),
+                                })
+                            })?;
+                        Ok(DatasetConsistencyWrapper::new(dataset))
+                    }
+                    Err(e) => Err(lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!("Failed to create manifest dataset: {:?}", e),
+                    })),
+                }
+            }
+            Err(err) => Err(err),
+        }
+    }
 
-            log::info!(
-                "Successfully created manifest table at {}, version={}, uri={}",
-                manifest_path,
-                dataset.version().version,
-                dataset.uri()
-            );
-            Ok(DatasetConsistencyWrapper::new(dataset))
+    /// Sorts names alphabetically and applies pagination using page_token (start_after) and limit.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the next page token (last item in this page) if more results exist beyond the limit,
+    /// or `None` if this is the last page.
+    fn apply_pagination(
+        names: &mut Vec<String>,
+        page_token: Option<String>,
+        limit: Option<i32>,
+    ) -> Option<String> {
+        names.sort();
+
+        if let Some(start_after) = page_token {
+            if let Some(index) = names
+                .iter()
+                .position(|name| name.as_str() > start_after.as_str())
+            {
+                names.drain(0..index);
+            } else {
+                names.clear();
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let Some(limit) = limit
+            && limit >= 0
+        {
+            let limit = limit as usize;
+            if names.len() > limit {
+                let next_page_token = if limit > 0 {
+                    Some(names[limit - 1].clone())
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+                names.truncate(limit);
+                return next_page_token;
+            }
         }
+
+        None
     }
 }
 
@@ -1020,9 +2753,10 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn list_tables(&self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> Result<ListTablesResponse> {
-        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Namespace ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Namespace ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         // Build filter to find tables in this namespace
@@ -1034,50 +2768,88 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
             let prefix = namespace_id.join(DELIMITER);
             format!(
                 "object_type = 'table' AND starts_with(object_id, '{}{}') AND NOT contains(substring(object_id, {}), '$')",
-                prefix, DELIMITER, prefix.len() + 2
+                prefix,
+                DELIMITER,
+                prefix.len() + 2
             )
         };
 
         let mut scanner = self.manifest_scanner().await?;
-        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to filter: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
+        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to filter: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
-        scanner.project(&["object_id"]).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to project: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
+        scanner.project(&["object_id", "location"]).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to project: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
 
         let batches = Self::execute_scanner(scanner).await?;
 
-        let mut tables = Vec::new();
+        let mut table_entries = Vec::new();
         for batch in batches {
             if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
                 continue;
             }
 
             let object_id_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "object_id")?;
+            let location_array = Self::get_string_column(&batch, "location")?;
             for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
                 let object_id = object_id_array.value(i);
+                let location = location_array.value(i);
                 let (_namespace, name) = Self::parse_object_id(object_id);
-                tables.push(name);
+                table_entries.push((name, location.to_string()));
             }
         }
 
-        Ok(ListTablesResponse::new(tables))
+        let mut tables: Vec<String> = if request.include_declared.unwrap_or(true) {
+            table_entries.into_iter().map(|(name, _)| name).collect()
+        } else {
+            let mut stream = futures::stream::iter(table_entries.into_iter().map(
+                |(name, location)| async move {
+                    // `include_declared=false` is an explicit opt-in. We still pay one
+                    // `_versions/` probe per table so declared-state is derived from actual
+                    // manifests. This is linear in the total number of listed tables, and we do
+                    // the probes with bounded concurrency before pagination.
+                    if self.location_has_actual_manifests(&location).await? {
+                        Ok::<Option<String>, Error>(Some(name))
+                    } else {
+                        Ok::<Option<String>, Error>(None)
+                    }
+                },
+            ))
+            .buffered(DECLARED_FILTER_CONCURRENCY);
+
+            let mut filtered = Vec::new();
+            while let Some(result) = stream.next().await {
+                if let Some(name) = result? {
+                    filtered.push(name);
+                }
+            }
+            filtered
+        };
+
+        let next_page_token =
+            Self::apply_pagination(&mut tables, request.page_token, request.limit);
+        let mut response = ListTablesResponse::new(tables);
+        response.page_token = next_page_token;
+        Ok(response)
     }
 
     async fn describe_table(&self, request: DescribeTableRequest) -> Result<DescribeTableResponse> {
-        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Table ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if table_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID cannot be empty".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let object_id = Self::str_object_id(table_id);
@@ -1092,6 +2864,8 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
         };
 
         let load_detailed_metadata = request.load_detailed_metadata.unwrap_or(false);
+        let should_check_declared =
+            load_detailed_metadata || request.check_declared.unwrap_or(false);
         // For backwards compatibility, only skip vending credentials when explicitly set to false
         let vend_credentials = request.vend_credentials.unwrap_or(true);
 
@@ -1105,8 +2879,12 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
                 } else {
                     None
                 };
+                let is_only_declared = if should_check_declared {
+                    Some(!self.location_has_actual_manifests(&info.location).await?)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
 
-                // If not loading detailed metadata, return minimal response with just location
                 if !load_detailed_metadata {
                     return Ok(DescribeTableResponse {
                         table: Some(table_name),
@@ -1114,12 +2892,34 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
                         location: Some(table_uri.clone()),
                         table_uri: Some(table_uri),
                         storage_options,
+                        properties: info.metadata,
+                        is_only_declared,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    });
+                }
+
+                if is_only_declared == Some(true) {
+                    return Ok(DescribeTableResponse {
+                        table: Some(table_name),
+                        namespace: Some(namespace_id),
+                        location: Some(table_uri.clone()),
+                        table_uri: Some(table_uri),
+                        storage_options,
+                        properties: info.metadata,
+                        is_only_declared,
                         ..Default::default()
                     });
                 }
 
-                // Try to open the dataset to get version and schema
-                match Dataset::open(&table_uri).await {
+                let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&table_uri);
+                if let Some(opts) = &self.storage_options {
+                    builder = builder.with_storage_options(opts.clone());
+                }
+                if let Some(session) = &self.session {
+                    builder = builder.with_session(session.clone());
+                }
+
+                match builder.load().await {
                     Ok(mut dataset) => {
                         // If a specific version is requested, checkout that version
                         if let Some(requested_version) = request.version {
@@ -1139,52 +2939,50 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
                             table_uri: Some(table_uri),
                             schema: Some(Box::new(json_schema)),
                             storage_options,
+                            properties: info.metadata.clone(),
+                            is_only_declared,
                             ..Default::default()
                         })
                     }
-                    Err(_) => {
-                        // If dataset can't be opened (e.g., empty table), return minimal info
-                        Ok(DescribeTableResponse {
-                            table: Some(table_name),
-                            namespace: Some(namespace_id),
-                            location: Some(table_uri.clone()),
-                            table_uri: Some(table_uri),
-                            storage_options,
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        })
+                    Err(err) => Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Table exists in manifest but failed to load dataset '{}': {}",
+                            object_id, err
+                        ),
                     }
+                    .into()),
                 }
             }
-            None => Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table '{}' not found", object_id).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            None => Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: Self::format_table_id(table_id),
+            }
+            .into()),
         }
     }
 
     async fn table_exists(&self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
-        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Table ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if table_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID cannot be empty".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
-        let (namespace, table_name) = Self::split_object_id(table_id);
-        let object_id = Self::build_object_id(&namespace, &table_name);
+        let object_id = Self::str_object_id(table_id);
         let exists = self.manifest_contains_object(&object_id).await?;
         if exists {
             Ok(())
         } else {
-            Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table '{}' not found", table_name).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: Self::format_table_id(table_id),
+            }
+            .into())
         }
     }
 
@@ -1193,64 +2991,119 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
         request: CreateTableRequest,
         data: Bytes,
     ) -> Result<CreateTableResponse> {
-        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Table ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if table_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID cannot be empty".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let (namespace, table_name) = Self::split_object_id(table_id);
         let object_id = Self::build_object_id(&namespace, &table_name);
 
-        // Check if table already exists in manifest
-        if self.manifest_contains_object(&object_id).await? {
-            return Err(Error::io(
-                format!("Table '{}' already exists", table_name),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+        // Refuse before writing any table data if this build cannot write the
+        // manifest, so a refused create leaves no orphaned dataset behind.
+        self.ensure_manifest_writable().await?;
+
+        let existing_table = self.query_manifest_for_table(&object_id).await?;
+        let existing_has_manifests = if let Some(existing_table) = &existing_table {
+            Some(
+                self.location_has_actual_manifests(&existing_table.location)
+                    .await?,
+            )
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        if existing_has_manifests == Some(false)
+            && request
+                .properties
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|properties| !properties.is_empty())
+        {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "create_table cannot set properties for already declared table '{}'",
+                    object_id
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
-        // Create the physical table location with hash-based naming
-        // When dir_listing_enabled is true and it's a root table, use directory-style naming: {table_name}.lance
-        // Otherwise, use hash-based naming: {hash}_{object_id}
-        let dir_name = if namespace.is_empty() && self.dir_listing_enabled {
-            // Root table with directory listing enabled: use {table_name}.lance
+        let create_mode = if existing_has_manifests == Some(false) {
+            CreateTableMode::Create
+        } else {
+            CreateTableMode::parse(request.mode.as_deref())?
+        };
+        let dir_name = if let Some(existing_table) = &existing_table {
+            existing_table.location.clone()
+        } else if namespace.is_empty() && self.dir_listing_enabled {
             format!("{}.lance", table_name)
         } else {
-            // Child namespace table or dir listing disabled: use hash-based naming
             Self::generate_dir_name(&object_id)
         };
         let table_uri = Self::construct_full_uri(&self.root, &dir_name)?;
+        let overwriting_existing_table =
+            existing_has_manifests == Some(true) && create_mode == CreateTableMode::Overwrite;
+
+        if existing_has_manifests == Some(true) {
+            match create_mode {
+                CreateTableMode::Create => {
+                    return Err(NamespaceError::TableAlreadyExists {
+                        message: table_name.clone(),
+                    }
+                    .into());
+                }
+                CreateTableMode::ExistOk => {
+                    let properties = existing_table
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .and_then(|table| table.metadata.clone());
+                    return Ok(CreateTableResponse {
+                        location: Some(table_uri),
+                        storage_options: self.storage_options.clone(),
+                        properties,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    });
+                }
+                CreateTableMode::Overwrite => {}
+            }
+        }
 
         // Validate that request_data is provided
         if data.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: "Request data (Arrow IPC stream) is required for create_table".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Request data (Arrow IPC stream) is required for create_table".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         // Write the data using Lance Dataset
         let cursor = Cursor::new(data.to_vec());
-        let stream_reader = StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None)
-            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to read IPC stream: {}", e), location!()))?;
+        let stream_reader = StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to read IPC stream: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
 
-        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> =
-            stream_reader
-                .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
-                .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to collect batches: {}", e), location!()))?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream_reader
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
+            .map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to collect batches: {:?}", e),
+            })
+        })?;
 
         if batches.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::io(
-                "No data provided for table creation",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: "No data provided for table creation".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let schema = batches[0].schema();
@@ -1258,40 +3111,105 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
             batches.into_iter().map(Ok).collect();
         let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batch_results, schema);
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams::default();
-        let _dataset = Dataset::write(Box::new(reader), &table_uri, Some(write_params))
+        let mut write_storage_options = self.storage_options.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+        if let Some(request_storage_options) = request.storage_options.as_ref() {
+            write_storage_options.extend(request_storage_options.clone());
+        }
+
+        let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: (!write_storage_options.is_empty()).then(|| {
+                Arc::new(
+                    lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                        write_storage_options,
+                    ),
+                )
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: create_mode.write_mode(),
+            session: self.session.clone(),
+            store_params: Some(store_params),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(Box::new(reader), &table_uri, Some(write_params))
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                    "Failed to write dataset: {}",
-                    e
-                ))),
-                location: location!(),
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to write dataset: {:?}", e),
+                })
             })?;
-
-        // Register in manifest (store dir_name, not full URI)
-        self.insert_into_manifest(object_id, ObjectType::Table, Some(dir_name))
+        let version = dataset.version().version as i64;
+
+        if overwriting_existing_table {
+            let metadata =
+                Self::serialize_metadata(request.properties.as_ref(), "table", &object_id)?;
+            self.upsert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id,
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some(dir_name),
+                    metadata,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
             .await?;
 
-        Ok(CreateTableResponse {
-            version: Some(1),
-            location: Some(table_uri),
-            storage_options: self.storage_options.clone(),
-            ..Default::default()
-        })
+            Ok(CreateTableResponse {
+                version: Some(version),
+                location: Some(table_uri),
+                storage_options: self.storage_options.clone(),
+                properties: request.properties,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+        } else {
+            match existing_table {
+                Some(existing_table) => Ok(CreateTableResponse {
+                    version: Some(version),
+                    location: Some(table_uri),
+                    storage_options: self.storage_options.clone(),
+                    properties: existing_table.metadata,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                None => {
+                    let metadata =
+                        Self::serialize_metadata(request.properties.as_ref(), "table", &object_id)?;
+                    // Register in manifest (store dir_name, not full URI)
+                    self.insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                        vec![ManifestEntry {
+                            object_id,
+                            object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                            location: Some(dir_name.clone()),
+                            metadata,
+                        }],
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+
+                    Ok(CreateTableResponse {
+                        version: Some(version),
+                        location: Some(table_uri),
+                        storage_options: self.storage_options.clone(),
+                        properties: request.properties,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    })
+                }
+            }
+        }
     }
 
     async fn drop_table(&self, request: DropTableRequest) -> Result<DropTableResponse> {
-        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Table ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if table_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID cannot be empty".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let (namespace, table_name) = Self::split_object_id(table_id);
@@ -1306,7 +3224,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
                 self.delete_from_manifest(&object_id).boxed().await?;
 
                 // Delete physical data directory using the dir_name from manifest
-                let table_path = self.base_path.child(info.location.as_str());
+                let table_path = self.base_path.clone().join(info.location.as_str());
                 let table_uri = Self::construct_full_uri(&self.root, &info.location)?;
 
                 // Remove the table directory
@@ -1314,9 +3232,10 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
                     .remove_dir_all(table_path)
                     .boxed()
                     .await
-                    .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                        source: format!("Failed to delete table directory: {}", e).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                            message: format!("Failed to delete table directory: {:?}", e),
+                        })
                     })?;
 
                 Ok(DropTableResponse {
@@ -1325,10 +3244,10 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
                     ..Default::default()
                 })
             }
-            None => Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table '{}' not found", table_name).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            None => Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                message: table_name.to_string(),
+            }
+            .into()),
         }
     }
 
@@ -1336,9 +3255,10 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: ListNamespacesRequest,
     ) -> Result<ListNamespacesResponse> {
-        let parent_namespace = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Namespace ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let parent_namespace = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Namespace ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         // Build filter to find direct child namespaces
@@ -1350,18 +3270,22 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
             let prefix = parent_namespace.join(DELIMITER);
             format!(
                 "object_type = 'namespace' AND starts_with(object_id, '{}{}') AND NOT contains(substring(object_id, {}), '$')",
-                prefix, DELIMITER, prefix.len() + 2
+                prefix,
+                DELIMITER,
+                prefix.len() + 2
             )
         };
 
         let mut scanner = self.manifest_scanner().await?;
-        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to filter: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
+        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to filter: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
-        scanner.project(&["object_id"]).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to project: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
+        scanner.project(&["object_id"]).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to project: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
 
         let batches = Self::execute_scanner(scanner).await?;
@@ -1380,16 +3304,21 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
             }
         }
 
-        Ok(ListNamespacesResponse::new(namespaces))
+        let next_page_token =
+            Self::apply_pagination(&mut namespaces, request.page_token, request.limit);
+        let mut response = ListNamespacesResponse::new(namespaces);
+        response.page_token = next_page_token;
+        Ok(response)
     }
 
     async fn describe_namespace(
         &self,
         request: DescribeNamespaceRequest,
     ) -> Result<DescribeNamespaceResponse> {
-        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Namespace ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Namespace ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         // Root namespace always exists
@@ -1411,10 +3340,10 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
                 properties: info.metadata,
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
-            None => Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Namespace '{}' not found", object_id).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            None => Err(NamespaceError::NamespaceNotFound {
+                message: object_id.to_string(),
+            }
+            .into()),
         }
     }
 
@@ -1422,17 +3351,18 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: CreateNamespaceRequest,
     ) -> Result<CreateNamespaceResponse> {
-        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Namespace ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Namespace ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         // Root namespace always exists and cannot be created
         if namespace_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: "Root namespace already exists and cannot be created".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::NamespaceAlreadyExists {
+                message: "root namespace".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         // Validate parent namespaces exist (but not the namespace being created)
@@ -1443,26 +3373,22 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
 
         let object_id = namespace_id.join(DELIMITER);
         if self.manifest_contains_object(&object_id).await? {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Namespace '{}' already exists", object_id).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::NamespaceAlreadyExists {
+                message: object_id.to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
-        // Serialize properties if provided
-        let metadata = request.properties.as_ref().and_then(|props| {
-            if props.is_empty() {
-                None
-            } else {
-                Some(serde_json::to_string(props).ok()?)
-            }
-        });
+        let metadata =
+            Self::serialize_metadata(request.properties.as_ref(), "namespace", &object_id)?;
 
         self.insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
-            object_id,
-            ObjectType::Namespace,
-            None,
-            metadata,
+            vec![ManifestEntry {
+                object_id,
+                object_type: ObjectType::Namespace,
+                location: None,
+                metadata,
+            }],
             None,
         )
         .await?;
@@ -1474,59 +3400,57 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn drop_namespace(&self, request: DropNamespaceRequest) -> Result<DropNamespaceResponse> {
-        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Namespace ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Namespace ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         // Root namespace always exists and cannot be dropped
         if namespace_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: "Root namespace cannot be dropped".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Root namespace cannot be dropped".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let object_id = namespace_id.join(DELIMITER);
 
         // Check if namespace exists
         if !self.manifest_contains_object(&object_id).boxed().await? {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Namespace '{}' not found", object_id).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::NamespaceNotFound {
+                message: object_id.to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         // Check for child namespaces
-        let prefix = format!("{}{}", object_id, DELIMITER);
+        let escaped_id = object_id.replace('\'', "''");
+        let prefix = format!("{}{}", escaped_id, DELIMITER);
         let filter = format!("starts_with(object_id, '{}')", prefix);
         let mut scanner = self.manifest_scanner().boxed().await?;
-        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to filter: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
+        scanner.filter(&filter).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to filter: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
-        scanner.project::<&str>(&[]).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!("Failed to project: {}", e))),
-            location: location!(),
+        scanner.project::<&str>(&[]).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to project: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
         scanner.with_row_id();
-        let count = scanner.count_rows().boxed().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
-                "Failed to count rows: {}",
-                e
-            ))),
-            location: location!(),
+        let count = scanner.count_rows().boxed().await.map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to count rows: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if count > 0 {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Namespace '{}' is not empty (contains {} child objects)",
-                    object_id, count
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::NamespaceNotEmpty {
+                message: format!("'{}' (contains {} child objects)", object_id, count),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         self.delete_from_manifest(&object_id).boxed().await?;
@@ -1535,9 +3459,10 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn namespace_exists(&self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
-        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Namespace ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let namespace_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Namespace ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         // Root namespace always exists
@@ -1549,27 +3474,25 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
         if self.manifest_contains_object(&object_id).await? {
             Ok(())
         } else {
-            Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Namespace '{}' not found", object_id).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            Err(NamespaceError::NamespaceNotFound {
+                message: object_id.to_string(),
+            }
+            .into())
         }
     }
 
-    async fn create_empty_table(
-        &self,
-        request: CreateEmptyTableRequest,
-    ) -> Result<CreateEmptyTableResponse> {
-        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Table ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+    async fn declare_table(&self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> Result<DeclareTableResponse> {
+        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if table_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID cannot be empty".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let (namespace, table_name) = Self::split_object_id(table_id);
@@ -1578,10 +3501,10 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
         // Check if table already exists in manifest
         let existing = self.query_manifest_for_table(&object_id).await?;
         if existing.is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table '{}' already exists", table_name).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableAlreadyExists {
+                message: table_name.to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         // Create table location path with hash-based naming
@@ -1594,55 +3517,62 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
             // Child namespace table or dir listing disabled: use hash-based naming
             Self::generate_dir_name(&object_id)
         };
-        let table_path = self.base_path.child(dir_name.as_str());
+        let table_path = self.base_path.clone().join(dir_name.as_str());
         let table_uri = Self::construct_full_uri(&self.root, &dir_name)?;
 
         // Validate location if provided
         if let Some(req_location) = &request.location {
             let req_location = req_location.trim_end_matches('/');
             if req_location != table_uri {
-                return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                    source: format!(
-                        "Cannot create table {} at location {}, must be at location {}",
+                return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Cannot declare table {} at location {}, must be at location {}",
                         table_name, req_location, table_uri
-                    )
-                    .into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                    ),
+                }
+                .into());
             }
         }
 
-        // Create the .lance-reserved file to mark the table as existing
-        let reserved_file_path = table_path.child(".lance-reserved");
+        self.ensure_manifest_writable().await?;
 
-        self.object_store
-            .create(&reserved_file_path)
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Failed to create .lance-reserved file for table {}: {}",
-                    table_name, e
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
-            .shutdown()
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Failed to finalize .lance-reserved file for table {}: {}",
-                    table_name, e
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        // Atomically create the .lance-reserved file to mark the table as declared.
+        // Shared with DirectoryNamespace via put_marker_file_atomic (dotfile-safe
+        // staging + MarkerFileError::AlreadyExists → TableAlreadyExists).
+        let reserved_file_path = table_path.clone().join(".lance-reserved");
+        super::put_marker_file_atomic(
+            &self.object_store,
+            &reserved_file_path,
+            &format!("table {}", table_name),
+        )
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| match e {
+            super::MarkerFileError::AlreadyExists { .. } => {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::TableAlreadyExists {
+                    message: table_name.to_string(),
+                })
+            }
+            super::MarkerFileError::Other { message } => {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal { message })
+            }
+        })?;
 
-        // Add entry to manifest marking this as an empty table (store dir_name, not full path)
-        self.insert_into_manifest(object_id, ObjectType::Table, Some(dir_name))
-            .await?;
+        let metadata = Self::serialize_metadata(request.properties.as_ref(), "table", &object_id)?;
+
+        // Add entry to manifest marking this as a declared table (store dir_name, not full path)
+        self.insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+            vec![ManifestEntry {
+                object_id,
+                object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                location: Some(dir_name),
+                metadata,
+            }],
+            None,
+        )
+        .await?;
 
         log::info!(
-            "Created empty table '{}' in manifest at {}",
+            "Declared table '{}' in manifest at {}",
             table_name,
             table_uri
         );
@@ -1655,162 +3585,61 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
             None
         };
 
-        Ok(CreateEmptyTableResponse {
+        Ok(DeclareTableResponse {
             location: Some(table_uri),
             storage_options,
+            properties: request.properties,
             ..Default::default()
         })
     }
 
-    async fn declare_table(&self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> Result<DeclareTableResponse> {
-        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Table ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+    async fn register_table(&self, request: RegisterTableRequest) -> Result<RegisterTableResponse> {
+        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if table_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID cannot be empty".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
-        let (namespace, table_name) = Self::split_object_id(table_id);
-        let object_id = Self::build_object_id(&namespace, &table_name);
+        let location = request.location.clone();
 
-        // Check if table already exists in manifest
-        let existing = self.query_manifest_for_table(&object_id).await?;
-        if existing.is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table '{}' already exists", table_name).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
-        // Create table location path with hash-based naming
-        // When dir_listing_enabled is true and it's a root table, use directory-style naming: {table_name}.lance
-        // Otherwise, use hash-based naming: {hash}_{object_id}
-        let dir_name = if namespace.is_empty() && self.dir_listing_enabled {
-            // Root table with directory listing enabled: use {table_name}.lance
-            format!("{}.lance", table_name)
-        } else {
-            // Child namespace table or dir listing disabled: use hash-based naming
-            Self::generate_dir_name(&object_id)
-        };
-        let table_path = self.base_path.child(dir_name.as_str());
-        let table_uri = Self::construct_full_uri(&self.root, &dir_name)?;
-
-        // Validate location if provided
-        if let Some(req_location) = &request.location {
-            let req_location = req_location.trim_end_matches('/');
-            if req_location != table_uri {
-                return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                    source: format!(
-                        "Cannot declare table {} at location {}, must be at location {}",
-                        table_name, req_location, table_uri
-                    )
-                    .into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Create the .lance-reserved file to mark the table as existing
-        let reserved_file_path = table_path.child(".lance-reserved");
-
-        self.object_store
-            .create(&reserved_file_path)
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Failed to create .lance-reserved file for table {}: {}",
-                    table_name, e
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
-            .shutdown()
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Failed to finalize .lance-reserved file for table {}: {}",
-                    table_name, e
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-
-        // Add entry to manifest marking this as a declared table (store dir_name, not full path)
-        self.insert_into_manifest(object_id, ObjectType::Table, Some(dir_name))
-            .await?;
-
-        log::info!(
-            "Declared table '{}' in manifest at {}",
-            table_name,
-            table_uri
-        );
-
-        // For backwards compatibility, only skip vending credentials when explicitly set to false
-        let vend_credentials = request.vend_credentials.unwrap_or(true);
-        let storage_options = if vend_credentials {
-            self.storage_options.clone()
-        } else {
-            None
-        };
-
-        Ok(DeclareTableResponse {
-            location: Some(table_uri),
-            storage_options,
-            ..Default::default()
-        })
-    }
-
-    async fn register_table(&self, request: RegisterTableRequest) -> Result<RegisterTableResponse> {
-        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Table ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-
-        if table_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
-        let location = request.location.clone();
-
-        // Validate that location is a relative path within the root directory
-        // We don't allow absolute URIs or paths that escape the root
-        if location.contains("://") {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Absolute URIs are not allowed for register_table. Location must be a relative path within the root directory: {}",
-                    location
-                ).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+        // Validate that location is a relative path within the root directory
+        // We don't allow absolute URIs or paths that escape the root
+        if location.contains("://") {
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Absolute URIs are not allowed for register_table. Location must be a relative path within the root directory: {}",
+                    location
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         if location.starts_with('/') {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
                     "Absolute paths are not allowed for register_table. Location must be a relative path within the root directory: {}",
                     location
-                ).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         // Check for path traversal attempts
         if location.contains("..") {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: format!(
                     "Path traversal is not allowed. Location must be a relative path within the root directory: {}",
                     location
-                ).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+                ),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let (namespace, table_name) = Self::split_object_id(table_id);
@@ -1823,10 +3652,10 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
 
         // Check if table already exists
         if self.manifest_contains_object(&object_id).await? {
-            return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Table '{}' already exists", object_id).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::TableAlreadyExists {
+                message: object_id.to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         // Register the table with its location in the manifest
@@ -1843,16 +3672,17 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: DeregisterTableRequest,
     ) -> Result<DeregisterTableResponse> {
-        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Table ID is required".into(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let table_id = request.id.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID is required".to_string(),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if table_id.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Table ID cannot be empty".to_string(),
+            }
+            .into());
         }
 
         let (namespace, table_name) = Self::split_object_id(table_id);
@@ -1868,10 +3698,10 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
                 Self::construct_full_uri(&self.root, &info.location)?
             }
             None => {
-                return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                    source: format!("Table '{}' not found", object_id).into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                    message: object_id.to_string(),
+                }
+                .into());
             }
         };
 
@@ -1881,19 +3711,407 @@ impl LanceNamespace for ManifestNamespace {
             ..Default::default()
         })
     }
+
+    /// Add columns to a table.
+    ///
+    /// Converts the API `AddColumnsEntry` (SQL expressions) into Lance's
+    /// `NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions` and delegates to `Dataset::add_columns`.
+    async fn alter_table_add_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableAddColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<AlterTableAddColumnsResponse> {
+        let table_id = request
+            .id
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Table ID is required".into()))?;
+
+        if table_id.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let object_id = Self::str_object_id(table_id);
+        let table_info = self.query_manifest_for_table(&object_id).boxed().await?;
+
+        match table_info {
+            Some(info) => {
+                let table_uri = Self::construct_full_uri(&self.root, &info.location)?;
+                // Use DatasetBuilder with storage options to align with describe_table
+                // and to support custom storage backends (e.g. S3 with custom endpoints).
+                let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&table_uri);
+                if let Some(opts) = &self.storage_options {
+                    builder = builder.with_storage_options(opts.clone());
+                }
+                if let Some(session) = &self.session {
+                    builder = builder.with_session(session.clone());
+                }
+                let mut dataset = builder.load().await.map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::io_source(box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to open dataset: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+                // Use shared helper to build SQL expressions, ensuring a clear error when expression is missing
+                let sql_expressions = super::build_sql_expressions(&request.new_columns)?;
+
+                dataset
+                    .add_columns(
+                        lance::dataset::NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(sql_expressions),
+                        None,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        // Surface specific commit/conflict errors (CommitConflict,
+                        // RetryableCommitConflict, IncompatibleTransaction, ...) rather than
+                        // collapsing every failure into a generic IO error.
+                        convert_lance_commit_error(&e, "add_columns", Some(&object_id))
+                    })?;
+
+                let version = dataset.version().version as i64;
+                Ok(AlterTableAddColumnsResponse::new(version))
+            }
+            None => Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound { message: object_id }.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Alter columns in a table (rename, change type, change nullability).
+    ///
+    /// Converts the API `AlterColumnsEntry` into Lance's `ColumnAlteration`
+    /// and delegates to `Dataset::alter_columns`.
+    async fn alter_table_alter_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse> {
+        let table_id = request
+            .id
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Table ID is required".into()))?;
+
+        if table_id.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let object_id = Self::str_object_id(table_id);
+        let table_info = self.query_manifest_for_table(&object_id).boxed().await?;
+
+        match table_info {
+            Some(info) => {
+                let table_uri = Self::construct_full_uri(&self.root, &info.location)?;
+                let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&table_uri);
+                if let Some(opts) = &self.storage_options {
+                    builder = builder.with_storage_options(opts.clone());
+                }
+                if let Some(session) = &self.session {
+                    builder = builder.with_session(session.clone());
+                }
+                let mut dataset = builder.load().await.map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::io_source(box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to open dataset: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+                // Use shared helper to build column alterations, ensuring a clear error when data_type conversion fails
+                let alterations = super::build_column_alterations(&request.alterations)?;
+
+                dataset.alter_columns(&alterations).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    convert_lance_commit_error(&e, "alter_columns", Some(&object_id))
+                })?;
+
+                let version = dataset.version().version as i64;
+                Ok(AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse::new(version))
+            }
+            None => Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound { message: object_id }.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Drop columns from a table.
+    ///
+    /// Delegates to `Dataset::drop_columns` with the column names from the request.
+    async fn alter_table_drop_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableDropColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<AlterTableDropColumnsResponse> {
+        let table_id = request
+            .id
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Table ID is required".into()))?;
+
+        if table_id.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Table ID cannot be empty".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let object_id = Self::str_object_id(table_id);
+        let table_info = self.query_manifest_for_table(&object_id).boxed().await?;
+
+        match table_info {
+            Some(info) => {
+                let table_uri = Self::construct_full_uri(&self.root, &info.location)?;
+                let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&table_uri);
+                if let Some(opts) = &self.storage_options {
+                    builder = builder.with_storage_options(opts.clone());
+                }
+                if let Some(session) = &self.session {
+                    builder = builder.with_session(session.clone());
+                }
+                let mut dataset = builder.load().await.map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::io_source(box_error(std::io::Error::other(format!(
+                        "Failed to open dataset: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))))
+                })?;
+
+                let columns: Vec<&str> = request.columns.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+                dataset.drop_columns(&columns).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    convert_lance_commit_error(&e, "drop_columns", Some(&object_id))
+                })?;
+
+                let version = dataset.version().version as i64;
+                Ok(AlterTableDropColumnsResponse::new(version))
+            }
+            None => Err(NamespaceError::TableNotFound { message: object_id }.into()),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use crate::{DirectoryNamespaceBuilder, ManifestNamespace};
+    use super::{
+        BASE_OBJECTS_INDEX_NAME, ConflictResolution, CopyOnWriteMutation,
+        DatasetConsistencyWrapper, DeleteObjectMutation, LANCE_DATA_DIR, LANCE_INDICES_DIR,
+        MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME, ManifestBatchBuilder, ManifestEntry, ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+        ManifestNamespace, ManifestOutputRow, ManifestRowValue, ManifestStreamMutation,
+        OBJECT_ID_INDEX_NAME, OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX_NAME, ObjectType, has_auto_cleanup_config,
+    };
+    use crate::{DirectoryNamespace, DirectoryNamespaceBuilder};
+    use arrow::datatypes::DataType;
     use bytes::Bytes;
+    use futures::StreamExt;
+    use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+    use lance::dataset::cleanup::CleanupPolicyBuilder;
+    use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir;
+    use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
+    use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
     use lance_namespace::models::{
-        CreateTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest, DropTableRequest, ListTablesRequest,
-        TableExistsRequest,
+        CreateNamespaceRequest, CreateTableRequest, DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest,
+        DropTableRequest, ListTablesRequest, TableExistsRequest,
     };
-    use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+    use lance_table::format::Fragment;
     use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::time::Duration;
+    use tokio::sync::oneshot;
+    use tokio::time::timeout;
+
+    async fn create_manifest_namespace(
+        root: &str,
+        inline_optimization_enabled: bool,
+    ) -> ManifestNamespace {
+        create_manifest_namespace_with_retries(root, inline_optimization_enabled, None).await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_manifest_namespace_with_retries(
+        root: &str,
+        inline_optimization_enabled: bool,
+        commit_retries: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> ManifestNamespace {
+        let (object_store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            root,
+            &ObjectStoreParams::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        ManifestNamespace::from_directory(
+            root.to_string(),
+            None,
+            None,
+            object_store,
+            base_path,
+            true,
+            inline_optimization_enabled,
+            commit_retries,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    struct CommitConflictAfterRewriteMutation {
+        root: String,
+        conflict_object_id: String,
+    }
+
+    impl ManifestStreamMutation for CommitConflictAfterRewriteMutation {
+        type Output = ();
+
+        fn process_existing_row(
+            &mut self,
+            row: ManifestRowValue,
+            output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+            index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+        ) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+            output.append(
+                index_data,
+                ManifestOutputRow {
+                    object_id: &row.object_id,
+                    object_type: row.object_type,
+                    location: row.location.as_deref(),
+                    metadata: row.metadata.as_deref(),
+                    base_objects: row.base_objects.as_deref(),
+                },
+            )
+        }
+
+        fn append_rows(
+            &mut self,
+            output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+            index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+        ) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+            output.append(
+                index_data,
+                ManifestOutputRow {
+                    object_id: "attempted_table",
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("attempted_table.lance"),
+                    metadata: None,
+                    base_objects: None,
+                },
+            )
+        }
+
+        fn finish(&self) -> CopyOnWriteMutation<Self::Output> {
+            let root = self.root.clone();
+            let object_id = self.conflict_object_id.clone();
+            std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                let runtime = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+                runtime.block_on(async move {
+                    let writer = create_manifest_namespace(&root, false).await;
+                    writer
+                        .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                            vec![ManifestEntry {
+                                object_id,
+                                object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                                location: Some("conflicting_table.lance".to_string()),
+                                metadata: None,
+                            }],
+                            None,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap();
+                });
+            })
+            .join()
+            .unwrap();
+            CopyOnWriteMutation::updated(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A delete mutation that, during staging, has a concurrent writer delete the same
+    /// object and commit first, so our own commit hits a conflict while the object is
+    /// already gone — exercising `ConflictResolution::SucceedIfAbsent`.
+    struct ConcurrentDeleteBeforeCommitMutation {
+        inner: DeleteObjectMutation,
+        root: String,
+        target: String,
+    }
+
+    impl ManifestStreamMutation for ConcurrentDeleteBeforeCommitMutation {
+        type Output = ();
+
+        fn process_existing_row(
+            &mut self,
+            row: ManifestRowValue,
+            output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+            index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+        ) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+            self.inner.process_existing_row(row, output, index_data)
+        }
+
+        fn append_rows(
+            &mut self,
+            output: &mut ManifestBatchBuilder,
+            index_data: &mut ManifestIndexAccumulator,
+        ) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+            self.inner.append_rows(output, index_data)
+        }
+
+        fn finish(&self) -> CopyOnWriteMutation<Self::Output> {
+            let root = self.root.clone();
+            let target = self.target.clone();
+            std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                let runtime = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+                runtime.block_on(async move {
+                    let writer = create_manifest_namespace(&root, false).await;
+                    writer.delete_from_manifest(&target).await.unwrap();
+                });
+            })
+            .join()
+            .unwrap();
+            self.inner.finish()
+        }
+
+        fn conflict_resolution(&self) -> ConflictResolution<Self::Output> {
+            ConflictResolution::SucceedIfAbsent {
+                object_id: self.target.clone(),
+                output: (),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn manifest_base_objects(
+        manifest_ns: &ManifestNamespace,
+    ) -> HashMap<String, Option<Vec<String>>> {
+        let mut scanner = manifest_ns.manifest_scanner().await.unwrap();
+        scanner.project(&["object_id", "base_objects"]).unwrap();
+        let batches = ManifestNamespace::execute_scanner(scanner).await.unwrap();
+        let mut rows = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let object_ids = ManifestNamespace::get_string_column(&batch, "object_id").unwrap();
+            let base_objects = ManifestNamespace::base_objects_column_values(&batch).unwrap();
+            for (row, value) in base_objects.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                rows.insert(object_ids.value(row).to_string(), value);
+            }
+        }
+        rows
+    }
+
+    async fn manifest_data_paths(manifest_ns: &ManifestNamespace) -> HashSet<String> {
+        let data_dir = manifest_ns
+            .base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME)
+            .join(LANCE_DATA_DIR);
+        let mut stream = manifest_ns.object_store.read_dir_all(&data_dir, None);
+        let mut paths = HashSet::new();
+        while let Some(meta) = stream.next().await.transpose().unwrap() {
+            paths.insert(meta.location.to_string());
+        }
+        paths
+    }
+
+    async fn manifest_index_paths(manifest_ns: &ManifestNamespace) -> HashSet<String> {
+        let index_dir = manifest_ns
+            .base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME)
+            .join(LANCE_INDICES_DIR);
+        let mut stream = manifest_ns.object_store.read_dir_all(&index_dir, None);
+        let mut paths = HashSet::new();
+        while let Some(meta) = stream.next().await.transpose().unwrap() {
+            paths.insert(meta.location.to_string());
+        }
+        paths
+    }
 
     fn create_test_ipc_data() -> Vec<u8> {
         use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
@@ -1925,365 +4143,912 @@ mod tests {
         buffer
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
-    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_manifest_namespace_basic_create_and_list(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    /// Open the `__manifest` dataset directly and set a table-metadata key,
+    /// simulating a future Lance client that persisted a feature flag.
+    async fn set_manifest_table_metadata(temp_path: &str, key: &str, value: &str) {
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        let mut ds = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(format!("{}/{}", temp_path, MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME))
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.update_metadata([(key, value)]).await.unwrap();
+    }
 
-        // Create a DirectoryNamespace with manifest enabled (default)
-        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+    async fn create_namespace_with_one_table(temp_path: &str) {
+        let ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
             .build()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Verify we can list tables (should be empty)
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
-
-        // Create a test table
-        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
         let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-
-        let _response = dir_namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["t1".to_string()]);
+        ns.create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(create_test_ipc_data()))
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // List tables again - should see our new table
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(response.tables[0], "test_table");
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
-    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    /// This is a forward-compatibility checker only: it must not set any feature
+    /// flag, so existing clients keep treating the manifest as compatible.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_manifest_namespace_table_exists(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+    async fn test_manifest_has_no_feature_flags_by_default() {
+        use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        create_namespace_with_one_table(temp_path).await;
 
-        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Check non-existent table
-        let mut request = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace.table_exists(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-
-        // Create table
-        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+        let ds = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(format!("{}/{}", temp_path, MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME))
+            .load()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Check existing table
-        let mut request = TableExistsRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace.table_exists(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        assert!(
+            !ds.metadata()
+                .contains_key(crate::dir::manifest_feature_flags::READER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !ds.metadata()
+                .contains_key(crate::dir::manifest_feature_flags::WRITER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY)
+        );
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
-    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    /// An unknown reader feature flag must block opening the catalog with a clear
+    /// "please upgrade" error rather than silently degrading to directory listing.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_manifest_namespace_describe_table(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+    async fn test_unknown_reader_flag_blocks_access() {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        create_namespace_with_one_table(temp_path).await;
+        set_manifest_table_metadata(
+            temp_path,
+            crate::dir::manifest_feature_flags::READER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY,
+            "1",
+        )
+        .await;
 
-        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+        let err = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
             .build()
             .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Describe non-existent table
-        let mut request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace.describe_table(request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-
-        // Create table
-        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Describe existing table
-        let mut request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.describe_table(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(response.location.is_some());
-        assert!(response.location.unwrap().contains("test_table"));
+            .expect_err("opening a manifest with an unknown reader flag should fail");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+            "expected an upgrade error, got: {err}"
+        );
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
-    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    /// An unknown writer feature flag must still allow reads but block writes.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_manifest_namespace_drop_table(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+    async fn test_unknown_writer_flag_blocks_writes_but_allows_reads() {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        create_namespace_with_one_table(temp_path).await;
+        set_manifest_table_metadata(
+            temp_path,
+            crate::dir::manifest_feature_flags::WRITER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY,
+            "1",
+        )
+        .await;
 
-        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+        let ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
             .build()
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .expect("reads should still be allowed with only a writer flag set");
+        let mut list_request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        assert_eq!(ns.list_tables(list_request).await.unwrap().tables.len(), 1);
 
-        // Create table
-        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        // A refused write must not leave an orphaned table dataset behind.
+        let entries_before = dir_entry_names(temp_path);
         let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["t2".to_string()]);
+        let err = ns
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(create_test_ipc_data()))
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .expect_err("writing through an unknown writer flag should fail");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+            "expected an upgrade error, got: {err}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries_before,
+            dir_entry_names(temp_path),
+            "a refused create_table must not create an orphaned table directory"
+        );
 
-        // Verify table exists
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
+        // Mutations that go straight through rewrite_manifest (no early
+        // create_table check) must also be refused: an insert (create_namespace)
+        // and a delete (drop_table). This proves the writer check is enforced at
+        // the single copy-on-write chokepoint, not just on the create_table path.
+        let mut create_ns = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
+        let err = ns
+            .create_namespace(create_ns)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("create_namespace through an unknown writer flag should fail");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+            "expected an upgrade error, got: {err}"
+        );
 
-        // Drop table
         let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
-        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let _response = dir_namespace.drop_table(drop_request).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Verify table is gone
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
+        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["t1".to_string()]);
+        let err = ns
+            .drop_table(drop_request)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("drop_table through an unknown writer flag should fail");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+            "expected an upgrade error, got: {err}"
+        );
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
-    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_manifest_namespace_multiple_tables(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    fn dir_entry_names(path: &str) -> std::collections::BTreeSet<String> {
+        std::fs::read_dir(path)
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|e| e.unwrap().file_name().to_string_lossy().into_owned())
+            .collect()
+    }
 
-        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
-            .build()
+    async fn create_manifest_only_table(ns: &DirectoryNamespace, name: &str) {
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec![name.to_string()]);
+        ns.create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(create_test_ipc_data()))
             .await
             .unwrap();
+    }
 
-        // Create multiple tables
-        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
-        for i in 1..=3 {
-            let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-            create_request.id = Some(vec![format!("table{}", i)]);
-            dir_namespace
-                .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer.clone()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    fn copy_test_data_to_tmp(table_path: &str) -> std::io::Result<TempStdDir> {
+        let source = std::path::Path::new(env!("CARGO_MANIFEST_DIR"))
+            .join("../../test_data")
+            .join(table_path);
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let mut directories = vec![(source, temp_dir.to_path_buf())];
+        while let Some((source, destination)) = directories.pop() {
+            std::fs::create_dir_all(&destination)?;
+            for entry in std::fs::read_dir(source)? {
+                let entry = entry?;
+                let target = destination.join(entry.file_name());
+                if entry.file_type()?.is_dir() {
+                    directories.push((entry.path(), target));
+                } else {
+                    std::fs::copy(entry.path(), target)?;
+                }
+            }
         }
+        Ok(temp_dir)
+    }
 
-        // List all tables
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 3);
-        assert!(response.tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
-        assert!(response.tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
-        assert!(response.tables.contains(&"table3".to_string()));
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    enum ManifestAccess {
+        Get,
+        GetRefreshed,
+        GetMut,
     }
 
+    /// Readers and writers holding a manifest created by a released old writer
+    /// must observe newer commits after cleanup removes the immediate successor.
     #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
-    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[case::get(ManifestAccess::Get)]
+    #[case::get_refreshed(ManifestAccess::GetRefreshed)]
+    #[case::get_mut(ManifestAccess::GetMut)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_directory_only_mode(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
-        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    async fn test_legacy_auto_cleanup_manifest_reload_skips_removed_versions(
+        #[case] access: ManifestAccess,
+    ) {
+        let temp_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace").unwrap();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let manifest_uri = format!("{}/{}", temp_path, MANIFEST_TABLE_NAME);
+        // Directory listing would surface tables the manifest misses, so the
+        // namespaces read only the manifest.
+        let build_namespace = || {
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .manifest_enabled(true)
+                .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+                .build()
+        };
 
-        // Create a DirectoryNamespace with manifest disabled
-        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(false)
-            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
-            .build()
+        let manifest_ds = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&manifest_uri)
+            .load()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Verify we can list tables (should be empty)
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
-
-        // Create a test table
-        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-
-        // Create table - this should use directory-only mode
-        let _response = dir_namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+        assert!(has_auto_cleanup_config(manifest_ds.manifest()));
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_ds.manifest().config["lance.auto_cleanup.interval"],
+            "20"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_ds.manifest().config["lance.auto_cleanup.older_than"],
+            "14days"
+        );
+        let legacy_version = manifest_ds.version().version;
+        let wrapper = DatasetConsistencyWrapper::new(manifest_ds);
+        let reader = build_namespace().await.unwrap();
+        let writer = build_namespace().await.unwrap();
+        create_manifest_only_table(&writer, "t2").await;
+        create_manifest_only_table(&writer, "t3").await;
+
+        let latest = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&manifest_uri)
+            .load()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let latest_version = latest.version().version;
+        assert_eq!(latest_version, legacy_version + 2);
+        assert!(!has_auto_cleanup_config(latest.manifest()));
+        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .retain_n_versions(&latest, 1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .delete_unverified(true)
+            .build();
+        latest.cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+        let error = latest
+            .checkout_version(legacy_version + 1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, lance_core::Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }),
+            "unexpected missing-version error: {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("not found"));
 
-        // List tables - should see our new table
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(response.tables[0], "test_table");
+        let reloaded_version = match access {
+            ManifestAccess::Get => wrapper.get().await.unwrap().version().version,
+            ManifestAccess::GetRefreshed => {
+                wrapper.get_refreshed().await.unwrap().version().version
+            }
+            ManifestAccess::GetMut => wrapper.get_mut().await.unwrap().version().version,
+        };
+        assert_eq!(reloaded_version, latest_version);
+        assert!(!has_auto_cleanup_config(
+            wrapper.get().await.unwrap().manifest()
+        ));
+
+        let mut list_request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let mut tables = reader
+            .list_tables(list_request.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .tables;
+        tables.sort();
+        assert_eq!(tables, vec!["t1", "t2", "t3"]);
+
+        // Once refreshed to a policy-free version, the successor fast path must
+        // still observe subsequent writes.
+        create_manifest_only_table(&writer, "t4").await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            wrapper.get().await.unwrap().version().version,
+            latest_version + 1
+        );
+        let mut tables = reader.list_tables(list_request).await.unwrap().tables;
+        tables.sort();
+        assert_eq!(tables, vec!["t1", "t2", "t3", "t4"]);
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
-    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_dual_mode_merge(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+    async fn test_manifest_rewrite_preserves_utf8_metadata_and_base_objects() {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
-
-        // Create a DirectoryNamespace with both manifest and directory enabled
-        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(true)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
-            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
-            .build()
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, true).await;
+
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "view".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("view.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: Some(r#"{"kind":"view"}"#.to_string()),
+                }],
+                Some(vec!["base_a".to_string(), "base_b".to_string()]),
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Create tables through manifest
-        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["table1".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "other".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Namespace,
+                    location: None,
+                    metadata: Some(r#"{"kind":"namespace"}"#.to_string()),
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // List tables - should see table from both manifest and directory
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(response.tables[0], "table1");
+        let dataset_guard = manifest_ns.manifest_dataset.get().await.unwrap();
+        let metadata_field = dataset_guard.schema().field("metadata").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metadata_field.data_type(), DataType::Utf8);
+        drop(dataset_guard);
+
+        let base_objects = manifest_base_objects(&manifest_ns).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            base_objects.get("view").cloned().unwrap(),
+            Some(vec!["base_a".to_string(), "base_b".to_string()])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(base_objects.get("other").cloned().unwrap(), None);
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
-    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_manifest_only_mode(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+    async fn test_manifest_rewrite_replacement_indices_are_versioned() {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
-
-        // Create a DirectoryNamespace with only manifest enabled
-        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .manifest_enabled(true)
-            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
-            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
-            .build()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Create table
-        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
-        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, true).await;
+
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                Some(vec!["base".to_string()]),
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // List tables - should only use manifest
-        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
-        request.id = Some(vec![]);
-        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(response.tables[0], "test_table");
+        let dataset_guard = manifest_ns.manifest_dataset.get().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset_version = dataset_guard.version().version;
+        let indices = dataset_guard.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let names = indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| index.name.as_str())
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert!(names.contains(OBJECT_ID_INDEX_NAME));
+        assert!(names.contains(OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX_NAME));
+        assert!(names.contains(BASE_OBJECTS_INDEX_NAME));
+        for index in indices.iter() {
+            assert_eq!(index.dataset_version, dataset_version);
+            assert!(!index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+        }
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
-    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_drop_nonexistent_table(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+    async fn test_manifest_rewrite_empty_manifest_keeps_replacement_indices_valid() {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
-
-        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
-            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
-            .build()
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, true).await;
+
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        manifest_ns.delete_from_manifest("table").await.unwrap();
 
-        // Try to drop non-existent table
-        let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
-        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace.drop_table(drop_request).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(!manifest_ns.manifest_contains_object("table").await.unwrap());
+        let mut scanner = manifest_ns.manifest_scanner().await.unwrap();
+        scanner.project(&["object_id"]).unwrap();
+        let rows = ManifestNamespace::execute_scanner(scanner)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|batch| batch.num_rows())
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        assert_eq!(rows, 0);
+
+        let dataset_guard = manifest_ns.manifest_dataset.get().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset_version = dataset_guard.version().version;
+        let indices = dataset_guard.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let names = indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| index.name.as_str())
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert!(names.contains(OBJECT_ID_INDEX_NAME));
+        assert!(names.contains(OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX_NAME));
+        assert!(names.contains(BASE_OBJECTS_INDEX_NAME));
+        for index in indices.iter() {
+            assert_eq!(index.dataset_version, dataset_version);
+        }
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_rewrite_fragment_bitmap_uses_overwrite_fragment_ids() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, false).await;
+        let dataset_guard = manifest_ns.manifest_dataset.get().await.unwrap();
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(0), Fragment::new(0), Fragment::new(7)];
+
+        let manifest = ManifestNamespace::manifest_from_overwrite_transaction(
+            dataset_guard.manifest(),
+            dataset_guard.manifest().schema.clone(),
+            &fragments,
+        );
+
+        let fragment_ids = manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(fragment_ids, vec![0, 1, 7]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            ManifestNamespace::manifest_fragment_bitmap(&manifest)
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 1, 7]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_writes_reject_unknown_writer_flag_before_staging() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, false).await;
+        let data_paths_before = manifest_data_paths(&manifest_ns).await;
+        let original_version = {
+            let mut dataset = manifest_ns.manifest_dataset.get_mut().await.unwrap();
+            let mut manifest = dataset.manifest().clone();
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNKNOWN << 1;
+            let version = manifest.version;
+            dataset.manifest = Arc::new(manifest);
+            version
+        };
+
+        let entries_before = dir_entry_names(temp_path);
+        let mut declare_request = DeclareTableRequest::new();
+        declare_request.id = Some(vec!["declared_table".to_string()]);
+        let error = manifest_ns
+            .declare_table(declare_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+            "expected an upgrade error, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dir_entry_names(temp_path), entries_before);
+
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["new_table".to_string()]);
+        let error = manifest_ns
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(create_test_ipc_data()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+            "expected an upgrade error, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dir_entry_names(temp_path), entries_before);
+
+        let error = manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+            "expected an upgrade error, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_ns
+                .manifest_dataset
+                .get()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .version()
+                .version,
+            original_version
+        );
+        assert_eq!(manifest_data_paths(&manifest_ns).await, data_paths_before);
+    }
+
+    /// A reader that arrives after a waiting `get_mut()` must be served after
+    /// it. tokio's `RwLock` guarantees that only once the writer is queued on
+    /// the write lock: if `get_mut()` first queued as a reader to reload, the
+    /// later reader would be admitted alongside it, and a reader that holds
+    /// its permit until the writer is done would then block the write lock
+    /// forever.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_get_mut_is_served_before_later_readers() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_dir.to_str().unwrap(), false).await;
+        let wrapper = manifest_ns.manifest_dataset.clone();
+
+        // Hold the lock exclusively so both tasks below park on their first
+        // lock request, in spawn order. The current-thread test runtime polls
+        // each spawned task before this task resumes from `yield_now`.
+        let blocker = wrapper.0.write().await;
+        let writer = {
+            let wrapper = wrapper.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                wrapper.get_mut().await.unwrap();
+            })
+        };
+        tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+
+        // The late reader takes a single read permit and keeps it until told
+        // to let go. A raw lock rather than `get()` so that it never releases
+        // and re-acquires the permit around a reload probe, which would leave
+        // a window for the writer's request to slip in ahead of it.
+        let (release_tx, release_rx) = oneshot::channel::<()>();
+        let late_reader = {
+            let wrapper = wrapper.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                let guard = wrapper.0.read().await;
+                release_rx.await.unwrap();
+                drop(guard);
+            })
+        };
+        tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+
+        drop(blocker);
+        timeout(Duration::from_secs(10), writer)
+            .await
+            .expect("get_mut() waited on a reader that arrived after it")
+            .unwrap();
+        release_tx.send(()).unwrap();
+        timeout(Duration::from_secs(10), late_reader)
+            .await
+            .expect("the late reader did not finish after the writer released the lock")
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_noop_delete_uses_latest_snapshot() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let stale_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, false).await;
+        let writer_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, false).await;
+
+        writer_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "late_table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("late_table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        stale_ns.delete_from_manifest("late_table").await.unwrap();
+
+        let check_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, false).await;
+        assert!(
+            !check_ns
+                .manifest_contains_object("late_table")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_noop_delete_cleans_uncommitted_data_file() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, false).await;
+
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let before = manifest_data_paths(&manifest_ns).await;
+        assert!(!before.is_empty());
+
+        manifest_ns
+            .delete_from_manifest("missing_table")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let after = manifest_data_paths(&manifest_ns).await;
+        assert_eq!(after, before);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_final_commit_failure_cleans_uncommitted_rewrite_files() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace_with_retries(temp_path, true, Some(0)).await;
+
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let before_data_paths = manifest_data_paths(&manifest_ns).await;
+        let before_index_paths = manifest_index_paths(&manifest_ns).await;
+
+        let result = manifest_ns
+            .rewrite_manifest("Failed to test manifest cleanup", || {
+                CommitConflictAfterRewriteMutation {
+                    root: temp_path.to_string(),
+                    conflict_object_id: "conflicting_table".to_string(),
+                }
+            })
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+
+        let after_data_paths = manifest_data_paths(&manifest_ns).await;
+        assert!(before_data_paths.is_subset(&after_data_paths));
+        assert_eq!(after_data_paths.len(), before_data_paths.len() + 1);
+        assert_eq!(manifest_index_paths(&manifest_ns).await, before_index_paths);
+        assert!(
+            manifest_ns
+                .manifest_contains_object("conflicting_table")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !manifest_ns
+                .manifest_contains_object("attempted_table")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_commit_visible_on_memory_store() {
+        // Regression: the commit must use the same object store the manifest dataset reads
+        // from. On `memory://` the namespace store and the dataset store can be different
+        // in-memory instances, so a commit written to the wrong one is invisible to reads
+        // (manifests as stale version -> endless conflict / "not found").
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace("memory://test_commit_visible", false).await;
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(manifest_ns.manifest_contains_object("table").await.unwrap());
+        // A second sequential commit must not falsely conflict.
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table2".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table2.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            manifest_ns
+                .manifest_contains_object("table2")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_commit_uses_inline_transaction() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, false).await;
+
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset_guard = manifest_ns.manifest_dataset.get().await.unwrap();
+        let manifest = dataset_guard.manifest();
+        // The overwrite transaction is embedded inline in the manifest, never written as a
+        // separate _transactions/*.txn file.
+        assert!(manifest.transaction_section.is_some());
+        assert!(manifest.transaction_file.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_commit_landed_attributes_data_file() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace(temp_path, false).await;
+
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(manifest_ns.manifest_dataset.get().await.unwrap().clone());
+        let version = dataset.manifest().version;
+        let our_files = dataset
+            .manifest()
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|fragment| fragment.files.iter())
+            .map(|file| file.path.clone())
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert!(!our_files.is_empty());
+
+        // The committed version references our data file => attributed to us (a lost-ack
+        // commit must be treated as success, not cleaned up).
+        assert!(
+            manifest_ns
+                .manifest_commit_landed(&dataset, version, &our_files)
+                .await
+        );
+        // A different file set is not attributed to us.
+        let other = HashSet::from(["missing.lance".to_string()]);
+        assert!(
+            !manifest_ns
+                .manifest_commit_landed(&dataset, version, &other)
+                .await
+        );
+        // A version that does not exist did not land.
+        assert!(
+            !manifest_ns
+                .manifest_commit_landed(&dataset, version + 100, &our_files)
+                .await
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_delete_conflict_with_concurrent_delete_succeeds() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+        let manifest_ns = create_manifest_namespace_with_retries(temp_path, false, Some(0)).await;
+
+        manifest_ns
+            .insert_into_manifest_with_metadata(
+                vec![ManifestEntry {
+                    object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                    object_type: ObjectType::Table,
+                    location: Some("table.lance".to_string()),
+                    metadata: None,
+                }],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(manifest_ns.manifest_contains_object("table").await.unwrap());
+
+        // A concurrent writer deletes "table" and commits first, so our own delete commit
+        // conflicts while "table" is already gone. Native resolution treats the goal as
+        // achieved and succeeds instead of erroring or retrying forever.
+        let result = manifest_ns
+            .rewrite_manifest("Failed to delete from manifest", || {
+                ConcurrentDeleteBeforeCommitMutation {
+                    inner: DeleteObjectMutation {
+                        object_id: "table".to_string(),
+                        deleted: false,
+                    },
+                    root: temp_path.to_string(),
+                    target: "table".to_string(),
+                }
+            })
+            .await;
+
+        assert!(result.is_ok(), "delete should succeed: {result:?}");
+        assert!(!manifest_ns.manifest_contains_object("table").await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
     #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_duplicate_table_fails(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+    async fn test_manifest_namespace_basic_create_and_list(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
 
+        // Create a DirectoryNamespace with manifest enabled (default)
         let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
             .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
             .build()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create table
+        // Verify we can list tables (should be empty)
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
+
+        // Create a test table
         let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
         let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
         create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace
-            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer.clone()))
+
+        let _response = dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Try to create table with same name - should fail
+        // List tables again - should see our new table
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(response.tables[0], "test_table");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_namespace_table_exists(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Check non-existent table
+        let mut request = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.table_exists(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+
+        // Create table
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
         let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
         create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace
+        dir_namespace
             .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
-            .await;
-        assert!(result.is_err());
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Check existing table
+        let mut request = TableExistsRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.table_exists(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[case::with_optimization(true)]
     #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_child_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{
-            CreateNamespaceRequest, ListNamespacesRequest, NamespaceExistsRequest,
-        };
-
+    async fn test_manifest_namespace_describe_table(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
 
@@ -2293,45 +5058,1088 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a child namespace
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await;
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Failed to create child namespace: {:?}",
-            result.err()
-        );
+        // Describe non-existent table
+        let mut request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.describe_table(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
 
-        // Verify namespace exists
-        let exists_req = NamespaceExistsRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = dir_namespace.namespace_exists(exists_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Namespace should exist");
+        // Create table
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // List child namespaces of root
-        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
-            id: Some(vec![]),
-            page_token: None,
-            limit: None,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = dir_namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let namespaces = result.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(namespaces.namespaces.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(namespaces.namespaces[0], "ns1");
+        // Describe existing table
+        let mut request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.describe_table(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(response.location.is_some());
+        assert!(response.location.unwrap().contains("test_table"));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_namespace_drop_table(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create table
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify table exists
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
+
+        // Drop table
+        let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
+        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let _response = dir_namespace.drop_table(drop_request).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify table is gone
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_tables_pagination_limit_zero() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["alpha".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let response = dir_namespace
+            .list_tables(ListTablesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![]),
+                limit: Some(0),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(response.tables.is_empty());
+        assert!(response.page_token.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_namespace_multiple_tables(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create multiple tables
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        for i in 1..=3 {
+            let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+            create_request.id = Some(vec![format!("table{}", i)]);
+            dir_namespace
+                .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer.clone()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // List all tables
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 3);
+        assert!(response.tables.contains(&"table1".to_string()));
+        assert!(response.tables.contains(&"table2".to_string()));
+        assert!(response.tables.contains(&"table3".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_directory_only_mode(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create a DirectoryNamespace with manifest disabled
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(false)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify we can list tables (should be empty)
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0);
+
+        // Create a test table
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        // Create table - this should use directory-only mode
+        let _response = dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // List tables - should see our new table
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(response.tables[0], "test_table");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dual_mode_merge(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create a DirectoryNamespace with both manifest and directory enabled
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(true)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create tables through manifest
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["table1".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // List tables - should see table from both manifest and directory
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(response.tables[0], "table1");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_manifest_only_mode(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create a DirectoryNamespace with only manifest enabled
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .manifest_enabled(true)
+            .dir_listing_enabled(false)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create table
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // List tables - should only use manifest
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(response.tables[0], "test_table");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_nonexistent_table(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to drop non-existent table
+        let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
+        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.drop_table(drop_request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_duplicate_table_fails(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create table
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer.clone()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to create table with same name - should fail
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_child_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            CreateNamespaceRequest, ListNamespacesRequest, NamespaceExistsRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a child namespace
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Failed to create child namespace: {:?}",
+            result.err()
+        );
+
+        // Verify namespace exists
+        let exists_req = NamespaceExistsRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = dir_namespace.namespace_exists(exists_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Namespace should exist");
+
+        // List child namespaces of root
+        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec![]),
+            page_token: None,
+            limit: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = dir_namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let namespaces = result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(namespaces.namespaces.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(namespaces.namespaces[0], "ns1");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_nested_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            CreateNamespaceRequest, ListNamespacesRequest, NamespaceExistsRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create parent namespace
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create nested child namespace
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Failed to create nested namespace: {:?}",
+            result.err()
+        );
+
+        // Verify nested namespace exists
+        let exists_req = NamespaceExistsRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child".to_string()]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = dir_namespace.namespace_exists(exists_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Nested namespace should exist");
+
+        // List child namespaces of parent
+        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]),
+            page_token: None,
+            limit: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = dir_namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let namespaces = result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(namespaces.namespaces.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(namespaces.namespaces[0], "child");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_namespace_without_parent_fails(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::CreateNamespaceRequest;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Try to create nested namespace without parent
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent_parent".to_string(), "child".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when parent doesn't exist");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_child_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            CreateNamespaceRequest, DropNamespaceRequest, NamespaceExistsRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a child namespace
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Drop the namespace
+        let mut drop_req = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
+        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.drop_namespace(drop_req).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Failed to drop namespace: {:?}",
+            result.err()
+        );
+
+        // Verify namespace no longer exists
+        let exists_req = NamespaceExistsRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = dir_namespace.namespace_exists(exists_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Namespace should not exist after drop");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_namespace_with_children_fails(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateNamespaceRequest, DropNamespaceRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create parent and child namespaces
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Try to drop parent namespace - should fail because it has children
+        let mut drop_req = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
+        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.drop_namespace(drop_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when namespace has children");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_in_child_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{
+            CreateNamespaceRequest, CreateTableRequest, ListTablesRequest,
+        };
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a child namespace
+        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create a table in the child namespace
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_table_req, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Failed to create table in child namespace: {:?}",
+            result.err()
+        );
+
+        // List tables in the namespace
+        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
+            page_token: None,
+            limit: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = dir_namespace.list_tables(list_req).await;
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        let tables = result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(tables.tables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(tables.tables[0], "table1");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_child_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateNamespaceRequest, DescribeNamespaceRequest};
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a child namespace with properties
+        let mut properties = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("key1".to_string(), "value1".to_string());
+
+        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
+        create_req.properties = Some(properties.clone());
+        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Describe the namespace
+        let describe_req = DescribeNamespaceRequest {
+            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = dir_namespace.describe_namespace(describe_req).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Failed to describe namespace: {:?}",
+            result.err()
+        );
+        let response = result.unwrap();
+        assert!(response.properties.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(
+            response.properties.unwrap().get("key1"),
+            Some(&"value1".to_string())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_create_and_drop_single_instance(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use futures::future::join_all;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = Arc::new(
+            DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+                .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Initialize namespace first - create parent namespace to ensure __manifest table
+        // is created before concurrent operations
+        let mut create_ns_request = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_request.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_namespace(create_ns_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let num_tables = 10;
+        let mut handles = Vec::new();
+
+        for i in 0..num_tables {
+            let ns = dir_namespace.clone();
+            let handle = async move {
+                let table_name = format!("concurrent_table_{}", i);
+                let table_id = vec!["test_ns".to_string(), table_name.clone()];
+                let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+
+                // Create table
+                let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+                create_request.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+                ns.create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("Failed to create table {}: {}", table_name, e));
+
+                // Drop table
+                let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
+                drop_request.id = Some(table_id);
+                ns.drop_table(drop_request)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("Failed to drop table {}: {}", table_name, e));
+
+                Ok::<_, lance_core::Error>(())
+            };
+            handles.push(handle);
+        }
+
+        let results = join_all(handles).await;
+        for result in results {
+            assert!(result.is_ok(), "All concurrent operations should succeed");
+        }
+
+        // Verify all tables are dropped
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        let response = dir_namespace.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0, "All tables should be dropped");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_create_and_drop_multiple_instances(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use futures::future::join_all;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+
+        // Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+        // table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+        let init_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(&temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut create_ns_request = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_request.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        init_ns.create_namespace(create_ns_request).await.unwrap();
+
+        let num_tables = 10;
+        let mut handles = Vec::new();
+
+        for i in 0..num_tables {
+            let path = temp_path.clone();
+            let handle = async move {
+                // Each task creates its own namespace instance
+                let ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(&path)
+                    .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+                    .build()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                let table_name = format!("multi_ns_table_{}", i);
+                let table_id = vec!["test_ns".to_string(), table_name.clone()];
+                let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+
+                // Create table
+                let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+                create_request.id = Some(table_id.clone());
+                ns.create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("Failed to create table {}: {}", table_name, e));
+
+                // Drop table
+                let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
+                drop_request.id = Some(table_id);
+                ns.drop_table(drop_request)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("Failed to drop table {}: {}", table_name, e));
+
+                Ok::<_, lance_core::Error>(())
+            };
+            handles.push(handle);
+        }
+
+        let results = join_all(handles).await;
+        for result in results {
+            assert!(result.is_ok(), "All concurrent operations should succeed");
+        }
+
+        // Verify with a fresh namespace instance
+        let verify_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(&temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        let response = verify_ns.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0, "All tables should be dropped");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_create_then_drop_from_different_instance(
+        #[case] inline_optimization: bool,
+    ) {
+        use futures::future::join_all;
+
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+
+        // Initialize namespace first with a single instance to ensure __manifest
+        // table is created and parent namespace exists before concurrent operations
+        let init_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(&temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut create_ns_request = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+        create_ns_request.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        init_ns.create_namespace(create_ns_request).await.unwrap();
+
+        let num_tables = 10;
+
+        // Phase 1: Create all tables concurrently using separate namespace instances
+        let mut create_handles = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..num_tables {
+            let path = temp_path.clone();
+            let handle = async move {
+                let ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(&path)
+                    .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+                    .build()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                let table_name = format!("cross_instance_table_{}", i);
+                let table_id = vec!["test_ns".to_string(), table_name.clone()];
+                let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+
+                let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+                create_request.id = Some(table_id);
+                ns.create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("Failed to create table {}: {}", table_name, e));
+
+                Ok::<_, lance_core::Error>(())
+            };
+            create_handles.push(handle);
+        }
+
+        let create_results = join_all(create_handles).await;
+        for result in create_results {
+            assert!(result.is_ok(), "All create operations should succeed");
+        }
+
+        // Phase 2: Drop all tables concurrently using NEW namespace instances
+        let mut drop_handles = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..num_tables {
+            let path = temp_path.clone();
+            let handle = async move {
+                let ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(&path)
+                    .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+                    .build()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                let table_name = format!("cross_instance_table_{}", i);
+                let table_id = vec!["test_ns".to_string(), table_name.clone()];
+
+                let mut drop_request = DropTableRequest::new();
+                drop_request.id = Some(table_id);
+                ns.drop_table(drop_request)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("Failed to drop table {}: {}", table_name, e));
+
+                Ok::<_, lance_core::Error>(())
+            };
+            drop_handles.push(handle);
+        }
+
+        let drop_results = join_all(drop_handles).await;
+        for result in drop_results {
+            assert!(result.is_ok(), "All drop operations should succeed");
+        }
+
+        // Verify all tables are dropped
+        let verify_ns = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(&temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        request.id = Some(vec!["test_ns".to_string()]);
+        let response = verify_ns.list_tables(request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(response.tables.len(), 0, "All tables should be dropped");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_construct_full_uri_with_cloud_urls() {
+        // Test S3-style URL with nested path (no trailing slash)
+        let s3_result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket/path/subdir", "table.lance")
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            s3_result, "s3://bucket/path/subdir/table.lance",
+            "S3 URL should correctly append table name to nested path"
+        );
+
+        // Test Azure-style URL with nested path (no trailing slash)
+        let az_result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("az://container/path/subdir", "table.lance")
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            az_result, "az://container/path/subdir/table.lance",
+            "Azure URL should correctly append table name to nested path"
+        );
+
+        // Test GCS-style URL with nested path (no trailing slash)
+        let gs_result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("gs://bucket/path/subdir", "table.lance")
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            gs_result, "gs://bucket/path/subdir/table.lance",
+            "GCS URL should correctly append table name to nested path"
+        );
+
+        // Test with deeper nesting
+        let deep_result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket/a/b/c/d", "my_table.lance").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            deep_result, "s3://bucket/a/b/c/d/my_table.lance",
+            "Deeply nested path should work correctly"
+        );
+
+        // Test with root-level path (single segment after bucket)
+        let shallow_result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket", "table.lance").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            shallow_result, "s3://bucket/table.lance",
+            "Single-level nested path should work correctly"
+        );
+
+        // Test that URLs with trailing slash already work (no regression)
+        let trailing_slash_result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket/path/subdir/", "table.lance")
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            trailing_slash_result, "s3://bucket/path/subdir/table.lance",
+            "URL with existing trailing slash should still work"
+        );
+
+        // Test that URLs with empty query string don't include trailing "?"
+        // This is important because URL::to_string() can add "?" for empty queries
+        let empty_query_result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket/path?", "table.lance").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            empty_query_result, "s3://bucket/path/table.lance",
+            "URL with empty query string should not include trailing '?'"
+        );
+
+        // Test that URLs with actual query parameters have them stripped
+        // (query parameters are not meaningful for storage paths)
+        let query_param_result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket/path?param=value", "table.lance")
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            query_param_result, "s3://bucket/path/table.lance",
+            "URL with query parameters should have them stripped"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_construct_full_uri_with_dollar_sign() {
+        let result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("/tmp/root", "hash_workspace$test_table")
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            result.ends_with("/tmp/root/hash_workspace$test_table"),
+            "local file URI should preserve dollar signs without adding empty path segments: {}",
+            result
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !result.contains("//hash_workspace$test_table"),
+            "local file URI should not add a double slash before table directory: {}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_construct_full_uri_with_nested_relative_location() {
+        let result =
+            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("/tmp/root", "workspace/physical_table.lance")
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            result.ends_with("/tmp/root/workspace/physical_table.lance"),
+            "nested relative location should preserve path separators: {}",
+            result
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !result.contains("%2Fphysical_table.lance"),
+            "nested relative location should not encode path separators: {}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Test that concurrent create_table calls for the same table name don't
+    /// create duplicate entries in the manifest. Uses two independent
+    /// ManifestNamespace instances pointing at the same directory to simulate
+    /// two separate OS processes racing on table creation. Copy-on-write rewrite
+    /// retries ensure the second operation detects the duplicate after retrying
+    /// against the latest data.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_create_table_no_duplicates() {
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Two independent namespace instances = two separate "processes"
+        // sharing the same underlying filesystem directory.
+        let ns1 = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ns2 = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+
+        let mut req1 = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        req1.id = Some(vec!["race_table".to_string()]);
+        let mut req2 = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        req2.id = Some(vec!["race_table".to_string()]);
+
+        // Launch both create_table calls concurrently
+        let (result1, result2) = tokio::join!(
+            ns1.create_table(req1, Bytes::from(buffer.clone())),
+            ns2.create_table(req2, Bytes::from(buffer.clone())),
+        );
+
+        // Exactly one should succeed and one should fail
+        let success_count = [&result1, &result2].iter().filter(|r| r.is_ok()).count();
+        let failure_count = [&result1, &result2].iter().filter(|r| r.is_err()).count();
+        assert_eq!(
+            success_count, 1,
+            "Exactly one create should succeed, got: result1={:?}, result2={:?}",
+            result1, result2
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            failure_count, 1,
+            "Exactly one create should fail, got: result1={:?}, result2={:?}",
+            result1, result2
+        );
+
+        // Verify only one table entry exists in the manifest
+        let ns_check = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(false)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut list_request = ListTablesRequest::new();
+        list_request.id = Some(vec![]);
+        let response = ns_check.list_tables(list_request).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            response.tables.len(),
+            1,
+            "Should have exactly 1 table, found: {:?}",
+            response.tables
+        );
+        assert_eq!(response.tables[0], "race_table");
+
+        // Also verify describe_table works (no "found 2" error)
+        let mut describe_request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_request.id = Some(vec!["race_table".to_string()]);
+        let describe_result = ns_check.describe_table(describe_request).await;
+        assert!(
+            describe_result.is_ok(),
+            "describe_table should not fail with duplicate entries: {:?}",
+            describe_result
+        );
+    }
+
+    // --- apply_pagination unit tests ---
+
+    fn names(v: &[&str]) -> Vec<String> {
+        v.iter().map(|s| s.to_string()).collect()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_pagination_no_token_no_limit() {
+        let mut n = names(&["b", "a", "c"]);
+        let next = ManifestNamespace::apply_pagination(&mut n, None, None);
+        assert_eq!(n, names(&["a", "b", "c"]));
+        assert_eq!(next, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_pagination_limit_truncates_and_returns_token() {
+        let mut n = names(&["c", "a", "b"]);
+        let next = ManifestNamespace::apply_pagination(&mut n, None, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(n, names(&["a", "b"]));
+        assert_eq!(next, Some("b".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_pagination_limit_zero_returns_empty_no_token() {
+        let mut n = names(&["a", "b", "c"]);
+        let next = ManifestNamespace::apply_pagination(&mut n, None, Some(0));
+        assert!(n.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(next, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_pagination_page_token_in_list() {
+        // "b" is in the list; should start from "c" (strict >)
+        let mut n = names(&["a", "b", "c", "d"]);
+        let next = ManifestNamespace::apply_pagination(&mut n, Some("b".to_string()), None);
+        assert_eq!(n, names(&["c", "d"]));
+        assert_eq!(next, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_pagination_page_token_past_all_items() {
+        let mut n = names(&["a", "b", "c"]);
+        let next = ManifestNamespace::apply_pagination(&mut n, Some("z".to_string()), None);
+        assert!(n.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(next, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_pagination_token_and_limit_combined() {
+        let mut n = names(&["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"]);
+        let next = ManifestNamespace::apply_pagination(&mut n, Some("b".to_string()), Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(n, names(&["c", "d"]));
+        assert_eq!(next, Some("d".to_string()));
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[case::with_optimization(true)]
     #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_nested_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+    async fn test_alter_table_add_columns(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
         use lance_namespace::models::{
-            CreateNamespaceRequest, ListNamespacesRequest, NamespaceExistsRequest,
+            AddColumnsEntry, AlterTableAddColumnsRequest, DescribeTableRequest,
         };
 
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
@@ -2343,49 +6151,76 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create parent namespace
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+        // Create a table with id and name columns
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create nested child namespace
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await;
+        // Add a new column using SQL expression
+        let mut new_col = AddColumnsEntry::new("doubled_id".to_string());
+        new_col.expression = Some(Some("id * 2".to_string()));
+        let mut add_request = AlterTableAddColumnsRequest::new(vec![new_col]);
+        add_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = dir_namespace
+            .alter_table_add_columns(add_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Version should have incremented
+        assert!(response.version > 1);
+
+        // Verify the column was added by describing the table with detailed metadata
+        let mut describe_request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_request.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = dir_namespace
+            .describe_table(describe_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(describe_response.schema.is_some());
+
+        let schema = describe_response.schema.unwrap();
+        let field_names: Vec<&str> = schema.fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
         assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Failed to create nested namespace: {:?}",
-            result.err()
+            field_names.contains(&"doubled_id"),
+            "Column 'doubled_id' should exist after add_columns, got: {:?}",
+            field_names
         );
+    }
 
-        // Verify nested namespace exists
-        let exists_req = NamespaceExistsRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child".to_string()]),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = dir_namespace.namespace_exists(exists_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Nested namespace should exist");
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_alter_table_add_columns_missing_id(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{AddColumnsEntry, AlterTableAddColumnsRequest};
 
-        // List child namespaces of parent
-        let list_req = ListNamespacesRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]),
-            page_token: None,
-            limit: None,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = dir_namespace.list_namespaces(list_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let namespaces = result.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(namespaces.namespaces.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(namespaces.namespaces[0], "child");
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Request without ID should fail
+        let new_col = AddColumnsEntry::new("col".to_string());
+        let request = AlterTableAddColumnsRequest::new(vec![new_col]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.alter_table_add_columns(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when table ID is missing");
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[case::with_optimization(true)]
     #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_namespace_without_parent_fails(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
-        use lance_namespace::models::CreateNamespaceRequest;
+    async fn test_alter_table_add_columns_nonexistent_table(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{AddColumnsEntry, AlterTableAddColumnsRequest};
 
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
@@ -2396,20 +6231,21 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Try to create nested namespace without parent
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent_parent".to_string(), "child".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when parent doesn't exist");
+        // Request with non-existent table should fail
+        let new_col = AddColumnsEntry::new("col".to_string());
+        let mut request = AlterTableAddColumnsRequest::new(vec![new_col]);
+        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.alter_table_add_columns(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when table does not exist");
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[case::with_optimization(true)]
     #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_drop_child_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+    async fn test_alter_table_alter_columns_rename(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
         use lance_namespace::models::{
-            CreateNamespaceRequest, DropNamespaceRequest, NamespaceExistsRequest,
+            AlterColumnsEntry, AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest, DescribeTableRequest,
         };
 
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
@@ -2421,36 +6257,57 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a child namespace
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
+        // Create a table
+        let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Drop the namespace
-        let mut drop_req = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
-        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace.drop_namespace(drop_req).await;
+        // Rename the "name" column to "full_name"
+        let mut entry = AlterColumnsEntry::new("name".to_string());
+        entry.rename = Some(Some("full_name".to_string()));
+        let mut alter_request = AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest::new(vec![entry]);
+        alter_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = dir_namespace
+            .alter_table_alter_columns(alter_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(response.version > 1);
+
+        // Verify the column was renamed
+        let mut describe_request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_request.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = dir_namespace
+            .describe_table(describe_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(describe_response.schema.is_some());
+
+        let schema = describe_response.schema.unwrap();
+        let field_names: Vec<&str> = schema.fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
         assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Failed to drop namespace: {:?}",
-            result.err()
+            field_names.contains(&"full_name"),
+            "Column should be renamed to 'full_name', got: {:?}",
+            field_names
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !field_names.contains(&"name"),
+            "Old column name 'name' should no longer exist, got: {:?}",
+            field_names
         );
-
-        // Verify namespace no longer exists
-        let exists_req = NamespaceExistsRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = dir_namespace.namespace_exists(exists_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err(), "Namespace should not exist after drop");
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[case::with_optimization(true)]
     #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_drop_namespace_with_children_fails(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateNamespaceRequest, DropNamespaceRequest};
+    async fn test_alter_table_alter_columns_missing_id(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{AlterColumnsEntry, AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest};
 
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
@@ -2461,30 +6318,18 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create parent and child namespaces
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string(), "child".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Try to drop parent namespace - should fail because it has children
-        let mut drop_req = DropNamespaceRequest::new();
-        drop_req.id = Some(vec!["parent".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace.drop_namespace(drop_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when namespace has children");
+        let entry = AlterColumnsEntry::new("name".to_string());
+        let request = AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest::new(vec![entry]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.alter_table_alter_columns(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when table ID is missing");
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[case::with_optimization(true)]
     #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_table_in_child_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{
-            CreateNamespaceRequest, CreateTableRequest, ListTablesRequest,
-        };
+    async fn test_alter_table_drop_columns(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::{AlterTableDropColumnsRequest, DescribeTableRequest};
 
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
@@ -2495,44 +6340,55 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a child namespace
-        let mut create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_ns_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
-        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_ns_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Create a table in the child namespace
+        // Create a table with id and name columns
         let buffer = create_test_ipc_data();
-        let mut create_table_req = CreateTableRequest::new();
-        create_table_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string(), "table1".to_string()]);
-        let result = dir_namespace
-            .create_table(create_table_req, Bytes::from(buffer))
-            .await;
+        let mut create_request = CreateTableRequest::new();
+        create_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        dir_namespace
+            .create_table(create_request, Bytes::from(buffer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Drop the "name" column
+        let mut drop_request = AlterTableDropColumnsRequest::new(vec!["name".to_string()]);
+        drop_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+
+        let response = dir_namespace
+            .alter_table_drop_columns(drop_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(response.version > 1);
+
+        // Verify the column was dropped
+        let mut describe_request = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+        describe_request.id = Some(vec!["test_table".to_string()]);
+        describe_request.load_detailed_metadata = Some(true);
+        let describe_response = dir_namespace
+            .describe_table(describe_request)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(describe_response.schema.is_some());
+
+        let schema = describe_response.schema.unwrap();
+        let field_names: Vec<&str> = schema.fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
         assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Failed to create table in child namespace: {:?}",
-            result.err()
+            !field_names.contains(&"name"),
+            "Column 'name' should have been dropped, got: {:?}",
+            field_names
+        );
+        assert!(
+            field_names.contains(&"id"),
+            "Column 'id' should still exist, got: {:?}",
+            field_names
         );
-
-        // List tables in the namespace
-        let list_req = ListTablesRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
-            page_token: None,
-            limit: None,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = dir_namespace.list_tables(list_req).await;
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        let tables = result.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(tables.tables.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(tables.tables[0], "table1");
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[case::with_optimization(true)]
     #[case::without_optimization(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_describe_child_namespace(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
-        use lance_namespace::models::{CreateNamespaceRequest, DescribeNamespaceRequest};
+    async fn test_alter_table_drop_columns_missing_id(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::AlterTableDropColumnsRequest;
 
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
@@ -2543,86 +6399,30 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a child namespace with properties
-        let mut properties = std::collections::HashMap::new();
-        properties.insert("key1".to_string(), "value1".to_string());
-
-        let mut create_req = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
-        create_req.id = Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]);
-        create_req.properties = Some(properties.clone());
-        dir_namespace.create_namespace(create_req).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Describe the namespace
-        let describe_req = DescribeNamespaceRequest {
-            id: Some(vec!["ns1".to_string()]),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let result = dir_namespace.describe_namespace(describe_req).await;
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Failed to describe namespace: {:?}",
-            result.err()
-        );
-        let response = result.unwrap();
-        assert!(response.properties.is_some());
-        assert_eq!(
-            response.properties.unwrap().get("key1"),
-            Some(&"value1".to_string())
-        );
+        let request = AlterTableDropColumnsRequest::new(vec!["col".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.alter_table_drop_columns(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when table ID is missing");
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_construct_full_uri_with_cloud_urls() {
-        // Test S3-style URL with nested path (no trailing slash)
-        let s3_result =
-            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket/path/subdir", "table.lance")
-                .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            s3_result, "s3://bucket/path/subdir/table.lance",
-            "S3 URL should correctly append table name to nested path"
-        );
-
-        // Test Azure-style URL with nested path (no trailing slash)
-        let az_result =
-            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("az://container/path/subdir", "table.lance")
-                .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            az_result, "az://container/path/subdir/table.lance",
-            "Azure URL should correctly append table name to nested path"
-        );
-
-        // Test GCS-style URL with nested path (no trailing slash)
-        let gs_result =
-            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("gs://bucket/path/subdir", "table.lance")
-                .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            gs_result, "gs://bucket/path/subdir/table.lance",
-            "GCS URL should correctly append table name to nested path"
-        );
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::with_optimization(true)]
+    #[case::without_optimization(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_alter_table_drop_columns_nonexistent_table(#[case] inline_optimization: bool) {
+        use lance_namespace::models::AlterTableDropColumnsRequest;
 
-        // Test with deeper nesting
-        let deep_result =
-            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket/a/b/c/d", "my_table.lance").unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            deep_result, "s3://bucket/a/b/c/d/my_table.lance",
-            "Deeply nested path should work correctly"
-        );
+        let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.to_str().unwrap();
 
-        // Test with root-level path (single segment after bucket)
-        let shallow_result =
-            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket", "table.lance").unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            shallow_result, "s3://bucket/table.lance",
-            "Single-level nested path should work correctly"
-        );
+        let dir_namespace = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(temp_path)
+            .inline_optimization_enabled(inline_optimization)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Test that URLs with trailing slash already work (no regression)
-        let trailing_slash_result =
-            ManifestNamespace::construct_full_uri("s3://bucket/path/subdir/", "table.lance")
-                .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            trailing_slash_result, "s3://bucket/path/subdir/table.lance",
-            "URL with existing trailing slash should still work"
-        );
+        let mut request = AlterTableDropColumnsRequest::new(vec!["col".to_string()]);
+        request.id = Some(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()]);
+        let result = dir_namespace.alter_table_drop_columns(request).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should fail when table does not exist");
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir/manifest_feature_flags.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir/manifest_feature_flags.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d0849ceda4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/dir/manifest_feature_flags.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Reader/writer feature flags for the directory-catalog `__manifest` dataset.
+//!
+//! Forward-compatibility infrastructure for the `__manifest` Lance dataset,
+//! analogous to the Lance table format's `reader_feature_flags` /
+//! `writer_feature_flags` but describing the *catalog manifest* format (schema
+//! and semantics) rather than the underlying Lance file format. The flags are
+//! persisted in the `__manifest` dataset's `table_metadata` map.
+//!
+//! Each manifest feature owns one bit in a `u64` bitmask. A build may read a
+//! `__manifest` only if it understands every set reader-flag bit, and may write
+//! it only if it understands every set writer-flag bit; otherwise it fails fast
+//! with a clear "please upgrade" error instead of silently misreading data. The
+//! set of bits a build understands is `READER_KNOWN_FLAGS` / `WRITER_KNOWN_FLAGS`.
+//!
+//! This is the mechanism only: no manifest feature is defined yet, so the known
+//! masks are `0` and nothing is ever set — every current manifest reads and
+//! writes unchanged. The first format change that needs forward-compatibility
+//! protection adds its bit to the known masks and stamps it on write; from then
+//! on, builds without that bit refuse the new format rather than misreading it.
+//! Manifests written before this mechanism carry no flag keys, which parse as
+//! `0` and stay compatible with every build.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
+
+/// `table_metadata` key holding the reader feature-flag bitmask (decimal `u64`).
+pub const READER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY: &str = "lance.namespace.manifest.reader_feature_flags";
+/// `table_metadata` key holding the writer feature-flag bitmask (decimal `u64`).
+pub const WRITER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY: &str = "lance.namespace.manifest.writer_feature_flags";
+
+/// Reader feature-flag bits this build understands. No manifest feature is
+/// defined yet, so this build understands none and refuses any non-zero reader
+/// flag. A future format change adds its bit here.
+const READER_KNOWN_FLAGS: u64 = 0;
+/// Writer feature-flag bits this build understands.
+const WRITER_KNOWN_FLAGS: u64 = 0;
+
+/// Whether this build can read a `__manifest` whose persisted reader feature
+/// flags are `reader_flags` — i.e. it understands every set bit.
+pub fn can_read_manifest(reader_flags: u64) -> bool {
+    (reader_flags & !READER_KNOWN_FLAGS) == 0
+}
+
+/// Whether this build can write a `__manifest` whose persisted writer feature
+/// flags are `writer_flags` — i.e. it understands every set bit.
+pub fn can_write_manifest(writer_flags: u64) -> bool {
+    (writer_flags & !WRITER_KNOWN_FLAGS) == 0
+}
+
+fn parse_flags(table_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>, key: &str) -> Result<u64> {
+    match table_metadata.get(key) {
+        None => Ok(0),
+        Some(raw) => raw.parse::<u64>().map_err(|e| {
+            Error::from(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+                message: format!(
+                    "The __manifest dataset has an unparsable feature-flag value '{raw}' for \
+                     '{key}': {e}. This likely means it was written by a newer, incompatible \
+                     version of Lance; please upgrade Lance to use this catalog."
+                ),
+            })
+        }),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Reader feature flags persisted in the `__manifest` `table_metadata` (`0` if absent).
+pub fn reader_flags(table_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<u64> {
+    parse_flags(table_metadata, READER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY)
+}
+
+/// Writer feature flags persisted in the `__manifest` `table_metadata` (`0` if absent).
+pub fn writer_flags(table_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<u64> {
+    parse_flags(table_metadata, WRITER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY)
+}
+
+/// Validate that this build can READ the `__manifest` described by `table_metadata`,
+/// returning a clear "please upgrade" error otherwise.
+pub fn ensure_readable(table_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()> {
+    let flags = reader_flags(table_metadata)?;
+    if !can_read_manifest(flags) {
+        return Err(Error::from(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+            message: format!(
+                "The __manifest dataset was written with reader feature flags {flags}, which this \
+                 version of Lance does not understand (known reader flags: {READER_KNOWN_FLAGS}). \
+                 Please upgrade Lance to read this catalog."
+            ),
+        }));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Validate that this build can WRITE the `__manifest` described by `table_metadata`,
+/// returning a clear "please upgrade" error otherwise.
+pub fn ensure_writable(table_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()> {
+    let flags = writer_flags(table_metadata)?;
+    if !can_write_manifest(flags) {
+        return Err(Error::from(NamespaceError::Unsupported {
+            message: format!(
+                "The __manifest dataset was written with writer feature flags {flags}, which this \
+                 version of Lance does not understand (known writer flags: {WRITER_KNOWN_FLAGS}). \
+                 Please upgrade Lance to modify this catalog."
+            ),
+        }));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Whether `err` indicates the `__manifest` is in a format this build cannot
+/// handle — i.e. it carries an unknown reader/writer feature flag, surfaced by
+/// [`ensure_readable`] / [`ensure_writable`] as a [`NamespaceError::Unsupported`].
+///
+/// Catalog initialization uses this to refuse opening such a manifest rather
+/// than silently degrading to a directory-listing view that ignores it. The
+/// `__manifest` open path raises no other `Unsupported` error, so matching the
+/// code is sufficient and avoids brittle message matching.
+pub fn is_incompatible_manifest_error(err: &Error) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        err,
+        Error::Namespace { source, .. }
+            if source
+                .downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>()
+                .is_some_and(|e| matches!(e, NamespaceError::Unsupported { .. }))
+    )
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn meta(pairs: &[(&str, &str)]) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+        pairs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(k, v)| (k.to_string(), v.to_string()))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unflagged_is_compatible() {
+        assert!(can_read_manifest(0));
+        assert!(can_write_manifest(0));
+        let empty = HashMap::new();
+        assert!(ensure_readable(&empty).is_ok());
+        assert!(ensure_writable(&empty).is_ok());
+        assert_eq!(reader_flags(&empty).unwrap(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(writer_flags(&empty).unwrap(), 0);
+        // Explicit zeroes are also compatible.
+        let zeroed = meta(&[
+            (READER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY, "0"),
+            (WRITER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY, "0"),
+        ]);
+        assert!(ensure_readable(&zeroed).is_ok());
+        assert!(ensure_writable(&zeroed).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn any_unknown_flag_is_refused() {
+        // This build understands no feature flags, so any non-zero bit is refused.
+        assert!(!can_read_manifest(1));
+        assert!(!can_write_manifest(1));
+        assert!(!can_read_manifest(1 << 30));
+        assert!(!can_write_manifest(1 << 63));
+
+        let reader = meta(&[(READER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY, "1")]);
+        let err = ensure_readable(&reader).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"));
+        assert!(is_incompatible_manifest_error(&err));
+        // A reader flag does not block writers that the writer mask allows.
+        assert!(ensure_writable(&reader).is_ok());
+
+        let writer = meta(&[(WRITER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY, "2")]);
+        let err = ensure_writable(&writer).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"));
+        assert!(is_incompatible_manifest_error(&err));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unparsable_value_is_refused() {
+        let m = meta(&[(READER_FEATURE_FLAGS_KEY, "not-a-number")]);
+        assert!(reader_flags(&m).is_err());
+        assert!(ensure_readable(&m).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unrelated_error_is_not_an_incompatibility() {
+        let other = Error::from(NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+            message: "x".to_string(),
+        });
+        assert!(!is_incompatible_manifest_error(&other));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/lib.rs
index 83fb93ddc0e..2fbfc5fe452 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/lib.rs
@@ -46,10 +46,13 @@
 //! # Note: GCP uses ADC; set GOOGLE_APPLICATION_CREDENTIALS env var for service account key
 //! # Note: GCP token duration cannot be configured; it's determined by the STS endpoint
 //! credential_vendor.gcp_service_account = "my-sa@project.iam.gserviceaccount.com"
+//! credential_vendor.gcp_workload_identity_provider = "projects/123456/locations/global/workloadIdentityPools/pool/providers/provider"
+//! credential_vendor.gcp_impersonation_service_account = "my-sa@project.iam.gserviceaccount.com"
 //!
 //! # Azure-specific properties (for az:// locations)
 //! credential_vendor.azure_account_name = "mystorageaccount"  # required for Azure
 //! credential_vendor.azure_tenant_id = "my-tenant-id"
+//! credential_vendor.azure_federated_client_id = "my-app-client-id"
 //! credential_vendor.azure_duration_millis = "3600000"  # 1 hour (default, up to 7 days)
 //! ```
 //!
@@ -68,6 +71,10 @@
 //! # }
 //! ```
 
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+use lance_namespace::NamespaceError;
+
 pub mod connect;
 pub mod context;
 pub mod credentials;
@@ -82,12 +89,15 @@ pub mod rest_adapter;
 // Re-export connect builder
 pub use connect::ConnectBuilder;
 pub use context::{DynamicContextProvider, OperationInfo};
-pub use dir::{manifest::ManifestNamespace, DirectoryNamespace, DirectoryNamespaceBuilder};
+pub use dir::{
+    DirectoryNamespace, DirectoryNamespaceBuilder, OpsMetrics, manifest::ManifestNamespace,
+};
 
 // Re-export credential vending
 pub use credentials::{
+    CredentialVendor, DEFAULT_CREDENTIAL_DURATION_MILLIS, VendedCredentials,
     create_credential_vendor_for_location, detect_provider_from_uri, has_credential_vendor_config,
-    redact_credential, CredentialVendor, VendedCredentials, DEFAULT_CREDENTIAL_DURATION_MILLIS,
+    redact_credential,
 };
 
 #[cfg(feature = "credential-vendor-aws")]
@@ -110,3 +120,38 @@ pub use rest::{RestNamespace, RestNamespaceBuilder};
 
 #[cfg(feature = "rest-adapter")]
 pub use rest_adapter::{RestAdapter, RestAdapterConfig, RestAdapterHandle};
+
+/// Validate the `on` match key of a merge insert request.
+///
+/// The columns form a composite key, so an empty list matches nothing and a repeated
+/// column adds a redundant equality to the join.
+pub(crate) fn merge_insert_on_columns<'a>(
+    on: Option<&'a [String]>,
+    operation: &str,
+) -> lance_core::Result<&'a [String]> {
+    let on = on.ok_or_else(|| {
+        lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+            message: format!("'on' field is required for {}", operation),
+        })
+    })?;
+
+    if on.is_empty() {
+        return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+            message: format!("'on' field must name at least one column for {}", operation),
+        }
+        .into());
+    }
+
+    let mut seen = HashSet::with_capacity(on.len());
+    if let Some(duplicate) = on.iter().find(|column| !seen.insert(*column)) {
+        return Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+            message: format!(
+                "'on' field for {} names column '{}' more than once: {:?}",
+                operation, duplicate, on
+            ),
+        }
+        .into());
+    }
+
+    Ok(on)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest.rs
index 0eae07e4ce2..651debaf7ef 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest.rs
@@ -3,9 +3,16 @@
 
 //! REST implementation of Lance Namespace
 
+mod tls;
+
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::str::FromStr;
 use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use crate::OpsMetrics;
+use crate::merge_insert_on_columns;
+use tls::{ReloadableClient, TlsConfig};
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
@@ -16,46 +23,58 @@ use crate::context::{DynamicContextProvider, OperationInfo};
 use lance_namespace::apis::urlencode;
 use lance_namespace::models::{
     AlterTableAddColumnsRequest, AlterTableAddColumnsResponse, AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
-    AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse, AlterTableDropColumnsRequest, AlterTableDropColumnsResponse,
+    AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse, AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest,
+    AlterTableBackfillColumnsResponse, AlterTableDropColumnsRequest, AlterTableDropColumnsResponse,
     AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionResponse, AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest,
-    CountTableRowsRequest, CreateEmptyTableRequest, CreateEmptyTableResponse,
-    CreateNamespaceRequest, CreateNamespaceResponse, CreateTableIndexRequest,
-    CreateTableIndexResponse, CreateTableRequest, CreateTableResponse,
+    BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest, BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse, CountTableRowsRequest,
+    CreateMaterializedViewRequest, CreateMaterializedViewResponse, CreateNamespaceRequest,
+    CreateNamespaceResponse, CreateTableBranchRequest, CreateTableBranchResponse,
+    CreateTableIndexRequest, CreateTableIndexResponse, CreateTableRequest, CreateTableResponse,
     CreateTableScalarIndexResponse, CreateTableTagRequest, CreateTableTagResponse,
-    DeclareTableRequest, DeclareTableResponse, DeleteFromTableRequest, DeleteFromTableResponse,
-    DeleteTableTagRequest, DeleteTableTagResponse, DeregisterTableRequest, DeregisterTableResponse,
+    CreateTableVersionRequest, CreateTableVersionResponse, DeclareTableRequest,
+    DeclareTableResponse, DeleteFromTableRequest, DeleteFromTableResponse,
+    DeleteTableBranchRequest, DeleteTableBranchResponse, DeleteTableTagRequest,
+    DeleteTableTagResponse, DeregisterTableRequest, DeregisterTableResponse,
     DescribeNamespaceRequest, DescribeNamespaceResponse, DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest,
     DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse, DescribeTableRequest, DescribeTableResponse,
-    DescribeTransactionRequest, DescribeTransactionResponse, DropNamespaceRequest,
-    DropNamespaceResponse, DropTableIndexRequest, DropTableIndexResponse, DropTableRequest,
-    DropTableResponse, ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest, GetTableStatsRequest, GetTableStatsResponse,
+    DescribeTableVersionRequest, DescribeTableVersionResponse, DescribeTransactionRequest,
+    DescribeTransactionResponse, DropNamespaceRequest, DropNamespaceResponse,
+    DropTableIndexRequest, DropTableIndexResponse, DropTableRequest, DropTableResponse,
+    ErrorResponse, ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest, GetTableStatsRequest, GetTableStatsResponse,
     GetTableTagVersionRequest, GetTableTagVersionResponse, InsertIntoTableRequest,
     InsertIntoTableResponse, ListNamespacesRequest, ListNamespacesResponse,
-    ListTableIndicesRequest, ListTableIndicesResponse, ListTableTagsRequest, ListTableTagsResponse,
+    ListTableBranchesRequest, ListTableBranchesResponse, ListTableIndicesRequest,
+    ListTableIndicesResponse, ListTableTagsRequest, ListTableTagsResponse,
     ListTableVersionsRequest, ListTableVersionsResponse, ListTablesRequest, ListTablesResponse,
     MergeInsertIntoTableRequest, MergeInsertIntoTableResponse, NamespaceExistsRequest,
-    QueryTableRequest, RegisterTableRequest, RegisterTableResponse, RenameTableRequest,
-    RenameTableResponse, RestoreTableRequest, RestoreTableResponse, TableExistsRequest,
-    UpdateTableRequest, UpdateTableResponse, UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest,
-    UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse, UpdateTableTagRequest, UpdateTableTagResponse,
+    QueryTableRequest, RefreshMaterializedViewRequest, RefreshMaterializedViewResponse,
+    RegisterTableRequest, RegisterTableResponse, RenameTableRequest, RenameTableResponse,
+    RestoreTableRequest, RestoreTableResponse, TableExistsRequest, UpdateTableRequest,
+    UpdateTableResponse, UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest, UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse,
+    UpdateTableTagRequest, UpdateTableTagResponse,
 };
-use serde::{de::DeserializeOwned, Serialize};
+use serde::{Serialize, de::DeserializeOwned};
 
-use lance_core::{box_error, Error, Result};
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_to_bool;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
 
 /// HTTP client wrapper that supports per-request header injection.
 ///
-/// This client wraps a single `reqwest::Client` and applies dynamic headers
-/// to each request without recreating the client. This is more efficient than
-/// creating a new client per request when using a `DynamicContextProvider`.
+/// This client applies dynamic headers to each request without recreating the
+/// client. This is more efficient than creating a new client per request when
+/// using a `DynamicContextProvider`.
 ///
 /// The design follows lancedb's `RestfulLanceDbClient` pattern where headers
 /// are applied to the built request using `headers_mut()` before execution.
+///
+/// The underlying `reqwest::Client` is only recreated when the TLS material it
+/// presents is rotated on disk, see [`ReloadableClient`].
 #[derive(Clone)]
 struct RestClient {
-    client: reqwest::Client,
+    client: Arc<ReloadableClient>,
     base_path: String,
     base_headers: HashMap<String, String>,
     context_provider: Option<Arc<dyn DynamicContextProvider>>,
@@ -98,13 +117,13 @@ impl RestClient {
 
             const HEADERS_PREFIX: &str = "headers.";
             for (key, value) in context {
-                if let Some(header_name) = key.strip_prefix(HEADERS_PREFIX) {
-                    if let (Ok(header_name), Ok(header_value)) = (
+                if let Some(header_name) = key.strip_prefix(HEADERS_PREFIX)
+                    && let (Ok(header_name), Ok(header_value)) = (
                         HeaderName::from_str(header_name),
                         HeaderValue::from_str(&value),
-                    ) {
-                        request_headers.insert(header_name, header_value);
-                    }
+                    )
+                {
+                    request_headers.insert(header_name, header_value);
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -121,7 +140,7 @@ impl RestClient {
     ) -> std::result::Result<reqwest::Response, reqwest::Error> {
         let mut request = req_builder.build()?;
         self.apply_headers(&mut request, operation, object_id);
-        self.client.execute(request).await
+        self.client().execute(request).await
     }
 
     /// Get the base path URL
@@ -129,9 +148,12 @@ impl RestClient {
         &self.base_path
     }
 
-    /// Get a reference to the underlying reqwest client
-    fn client(&self) -> &reqwest::Client {
-        &self.client
+    /// Get the reqwest client to use for the next request.
+    ///
+    /// Returned by value because the client is replaced when the TLS material it presents
+    /// is rotated on disk. Cloning it is cheap: `reqwest::Client` is a handle around an `Arc`.
+    fn client(&self) -> reqwest::Client {
+        self.client.current()
     }
 }
 
@@ -162,7 +184,11 @@ pub struct RestNamespaceBuilder {
     key_file: Option<String>,
     ssl_ca_cert: Option<String>,
     assert_hostname: bool,
+    /// How often the TLS files are checked for rotation, in seconds. 0 disables reloading.
+    reload_interval_seconds: u64,
     context_provider: Option<Arc<dyn DynamicContextProvider>>,
+    /// When true, tracks operation metrics. Default: false.
+    ops_metrics_enabled: bool,
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for RestNamespaceBuilder {
@@ -175,10 +201,12 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for RestNamespaceBuilder {
             .field("key_file", &self.key_file)
             .field("ssl_ca_cert", &self.ssl_ca_cert)
             .field("assert_hostname", &self.assert_hostname)
+            .field("reload_interval_seconds", &self.reload_interval_seconds)
             .field(
                 "context_provider",
                 &self.context_provider.as_ref().map(|_| "Some(...)"),
             )
+            .field("ops_metrics_enabled", &self.ops_metrics_enabled)
             .finish()
     }
 }
@@ -187,6 +215,12 @@ impl RestNamespaceBuilder {
     /// Default delimiter for object identifiers
     const DEFAULT_DELIMITER: &'static str = "$";
 
+    /// Default interval between two checks for rotated TLS material, in seconds.
+    ///
+    /// Certificate agents typically re-mint short-lived certificates hours before they expire,
+    /// so a few minutes of staleness is harmless while keeping the cost of the check negligible.
+    const DEFAULT_RELOAD_INTERVAL_SECONDS: u64 = 300;
+
     /// Create a new RestNamespaceBuilder with the specified URI.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
@@ -201,7 +235,9 @@ impl RestNamespaceBuilder {
             key_file: None,
             ssl_ca_cert: None,
             assert_hostname: true,
+            reload_interval_seconds: Self::DEFAULT_RELOAD_INTERVAL_SECONDS,
             context_provider: None,
+            ops_metrics_enabled: false,
         }
     }
 
@@ -211,11 +247,13 @@ impl RestNamespaceBuilder {
     /// It expects:
     /// - `uri`: The base URI for the REST API (required)
     /// - `delimiter`: Delimiter for object identifiers (optional, defaults to ".")
-    /// - `header.*`: Additional headers (optional, prefix will be stripped)
+    /// - `header.*` / `headers.*`: Additional headers (optional, prefix will be stripped)
     /// - `tls.cert_file`: Path to client certificate file (optional)
     /// - `tls.key_file`: Path to client private key file (optional)
     /// - `tls.ssl_ca_cert`: Path to CA certificate file (optional)
     /// - `tls.assert_hostname`: Whether to verify hostname (optional, defaults to true)
+    /// - `tls.reload_interval_seconds`: How often the TLS files above are checked for rotation
+    ///   (optional, defaults to 300, `0` disables reloading)
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
@@ -247,13 +285,11 @@ impl RestNamespaceBuilder {
     /// ```
     pub fn from_properties(properties: HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<Self> {
         // Extract URI (required)
-        let uri = properties
-            .get("uri")
-            .cloned()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Namespace {
-                source: "Missing required property 'uri' for REST namespace".into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+        let uri = properties.get("uri").cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                message: "Missing required property 'uri' for REST namespace".to_string(),
+            })
+        })?;
 
         // Extract delimiter (optional)
         let delimiter = properties
@@ -261,10 +297,13 @@ impl RestNamespaceBuilder {
             .cloned()
             .unwrap_or_else(|| Self::DEFAULT_DELIMITER.to_string());
 
-        // Extract headers (properties prefixed with "header.")
+        // Extract headers (properties prefixed with "header." or "headers.")
         let mut headers = HashMap::new();
         for (key, value) in &properties {
-            if let Some(header_name) = key.strip_prefix("header.") {
+            if let Some(header_name) = key
+                .strip_prefix("header.")
+                .or_else(|| key.strip_prefix("headers."))
+            {
                 headers.insert(header_name.to_string(), value.clone());
             }
         }
@@ -275,8 +314,25 @@ impl RestNamespaceBuilder {
         let ssl_ca_cert = properties.get("tls.ssl_ca_cert").cloned();
         let assert_hostname = properties
             .get("tls.assert_hostname")
-            .and_then(|v| v.parse::<bool>().ok())
+            .and_then(|v| str_to_bool(v))
             .unwrap_or(true);
+        let reload_interval_seconds = match properties.get("tls.reload_interval_seconds") {
+            Some(value) => value.parse::<u64>().map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Invalid value '{value}' for property 'tls.reload_interval_seconds', \
+                         expected a number of seconds: {e}"
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?,
+            None => Self::DEFAULT_RELOAD_INTERVAL_SECONDS,
+        };
+
+        // Extract ops_metrics_enabled (default: false)
+        let ops_metrics_enabled = properties
+            .get("ops_metrics_enabled")
+            .and_then(|v| str_to_bool(v))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
 
         Ok(Self {
             uri,
@@ -286,7 +342,9 @@ impl RestNamespaceBuilder {
             key_file,
             ssl_ca_cert,
             assert_hostname,
+            reload_interval_seconds,
             context_provider: None,
+            ops_metrics_enabled,
         })
     }
 
@@ -361,6 +419,23 @@ impl RestNamespaceBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set how often the TLS files are checked for rotation.
+    ///
+    /// Client certificates are commonly short-lived and re-minted onto the same paths while the
+    /// process runs. Once the interval has elapsed, the next request re-reads the configured
+    /// certificate, key and CA files, and rebuilds the HTTP client if their content changed.
+    /// Unchanged content leaves the client, and therefore its connection pool, untouched.
+    ///
+    /// Defaults to 300 seconds.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `reload_interval_seconds` - Interval between checks in seconds, `0` to never reload
+    pub fn reload_interval_seconds(mut self, reload_interval_seconds: u64) -> Self {
+        self.reload_interval_seconds = reload_interval_seconds;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set a dynamic context provider for per-request context.
     ///
     /// The provider will be called before each HTTP request to generate
@@ -399,6 +474,18 @@ impl RestNamespaceBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Enable or disable operation metrics tracking.
+    ///
+    /// When enabled, the namespace will track how many times each API operation
+    /// is called. Use `retrieve_ops_metrics()` on the built namespace to get
+    /// the current counts.
+    ///
+    /// Default is false.
+    pub fn ops_metrics_enabled(mut self, enabled: bool) -> Self {
+        self.ops_metrics_enabled = enabled;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Build the RestNamespace.
     ///
     /// # Returns
@@ -414,10 +501,10 @@ fn object_id_str(id: &Option<Vec<String>>, delimiter: &str) -> Result<String> {
     match id {
         Some(id_parts) if !id_parts.is_empty() => Ok(id_parts.join(delimiter)),
         Some(_) => Ok(delimiter.to_string()),
-        None => Err(Error::Namespace {
-            source: "Object ID is required".into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        }),
+        None => Err(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+            message: "Object ID is required".to_string(),
+        }
+        .into()),
     }
 }
 
@@ -439,6 +526,8 @@ pub struct RestNamespace {
     delimiter: String,
     /// REST client that handles per-request header injection efficiently.
     rest_client: RestClient,
+    /// Operation metrics tracker, created when ops_metrics_enabled is true.
+    ops_metrics: Option<Arc<OpsMetrics>>,
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for RestNamespace {
@@ -456,45 +545,68 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for RestNamespace {
 impl RestNamespace {
     /// Create a new REST namespace from builder
     pub(crate) fn from_builder(builder: RestNamespaceBuilder) -> Self {
-        // Build reqwest client WITHOUT default headers - we'll apply headers per-request
-        let mut client_builder = reqwest::Client::builder();
-
-        // Configure mTLS if certificate and key files are provided
-        if let (Some(cert_file), Some(key_file)) = (&builder.cert_file, &builder.key_file) {
-            if let (Ok(cert), Ok(key)) = (std::fs::read(cert_file), std::fs::read(key_file)) {
-                if let Ok(identity) = reqwest::Identity::from_pem(&[&cert[..], &key[..]].concat()) {
-                    client_builder = client_builder.identity(identity);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Load CA certificate for server verification
-        if let Some(ca_cert_file) = &builder.ssl_ca_cert {
-            if let Ok(ca_cert) = std::fs::read(ca_cert_file) {
-                if let Ok(ca_cert) = reqwest::Certificate::from_pem(&ca_cert) {
-                    client_builder = client_builder.add_root_certificate(ca_cert);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Configure hostname verification
-        client_builder = client_builder.danger_accept_invalid_hostnames(!builder.assert_hostname);
-
-        let client = client_builder
-            .build()
-            .unwrap_or_else(|_| reqwest::Client::new());
+        let tls = TlsConfig {
+            cert_file: builder.cert_file,
+            key_file: builder.key_file,
+            ssl_ca_cert: builder.ssl_ca_cert,
+            assert_hostname: builder.assert_hostname,
+        };
+        let reload_interval = (builder.reload_interval_seconds > 0)
+            .then(|| Duration::from_secs(builder.reload_interval_seconds));
 
         // Create the RestClient that handles per-request header injection
         let rest_client = RestClient {
-            client,
+            client: Arc::new(ReloadableClient::new(tls, reload_interval)),
             base_path: builder.uri,
             base_headers: builder.headers,
             context_provider: builder.context_provider,
         };
 
+        let ops_metrics = if builder.ops_metrics_enabled {
+            Some(Arc::new(OpsMetrics::default()))
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
         Self {
             delimiter: builder.delimiter,
             rest_client,
+            ops_metrics,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Map a reqwest::Error to the appropriate NamespaceError variant.
+    ///
+    /// Timeout and connection errors are mapped to `ServiceUnavailable`,
+    /// while other errors are mapped to `Internal`.
+    fn request_error(e: reqwest::Error) -> lance_core::Error {
+        let message = format!("Failed to execute request: {:?}", e);
+        if e.is_timeout() || e.is_connect() {
+            NamespaceError::ServiceUnavailable { message }.into()
+        } else {
+            NamespaceError::Internal { message }.into()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Parse an error response body and return the appropriate NamespaceError.
+    ///
+    /// Deserializes the response as an `ErrorResponse` model (the spec-defined
+    /// flat JSON format with a required numeric `code` field). The error code is
+    /// the sole source of truth for error classification. When deserialization
+    /// fails, returns Internal with the raw response as context.
+    fn parse_error_response(status: reqwest::StatusCode, content: &str) -> lance_core::Error {
+        match serde_json::from_str::<ErrorResponse>(content) {
+            Ok(err_resp) => {
+                let message = err_resp.error.as_deref().unwrap_or(content);
+                NamespaceError::from_code(err_resp.code as u32, message).into()
+            }
+            Err(e) => NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to parse error response: status={}, body={}, error={:?}",
+                    status, content, e
+                ),
+            }
+            .into(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -513,27 +625,24 @@ impl RestNamespace {
             .rest_client
             .execute(req_builder, operation, object_id)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+            .map_err(Self::request_error)?;
 
         let status = resp.status();
-        let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to read response body: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if status.is_success() {
-            serde_json::from_str(&content).map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Failed to parse response: {}", e).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            serde_json::from_str(&content).map_err(|e| {
+                NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to parse response: {:?}", e),
+                }
+                .into()
             })
         } else {
-            Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Response error: status={}, content={}", status, content).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Self::parse_error_response(status, &content))
         }
     }
 
@@ -553,27 +662,24 @@ impl RestNamespace {
             .rest_client
             .execute(req_builder, operation, object_id)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+            .map_err(Self::request_error)?;
 
         let status = resp.status();
-        let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to read response body: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if status.is_success() {
-            serde_json::from_str(&content).map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Failed to parse response: {}", e).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            serde_json::from_str(&content).map_err(|e| {
+                NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to parse response: {:?}", e),
+                }
+                .into()
             })
         } else {
-            Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Response error: status={}, content={}", status, content).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Self::parse_error_response(status, &content))
         }
     }
 
@@ -593,23 +699,18 @@ impl RestNamespace {
             .rest_client
             .execute(req_builder, operation, object_id)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+            .map_err(Self::request_error)?;
 
         let status = resp.status();
         if status.is_success() {
             Ok(())
         } else {
-            let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| {
+                Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to read response body: {:?}", e),
+                })
             })?;
-            Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Response error: status={}, content={}", status, content).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Self::parse_error_response(status, &content))
         }
     }
 
@@ -629,73 +730,59 @@ impl RestNamespace {
             .rest_client
             .execute(req_builder, operation, object_id)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+            .map_err(Self::request_error)?;
 
         let status = resp.status();
-        let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
+        let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to read response body: {:?}", e),
+            })
         })?;
 
         if status.is_success() {
-            serde_json::from_str(&content).map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Failed to parse response: {}", e).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            serde_json::from_str(&content).map_err(|e| {
+                NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to parse response: {:?}", e),
+                }
+                .into()
             })
         } else {
-            Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Response error: status={}, content={}", status, content).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Self::parse_error_response(status, &content))
         }
     }
 
-    /// Execute a POST request with JSON body and get binary response.
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
-    async fn post_json_binary<T: Serialize>(
-        &self,
-        path: &str,
-        query: &[(&str, &str)],
-        body: &T,
-        operation: &str,
-        object_id: &str,
-    ) -> Result<Bytes> {
-        let url = format!("{}{}", self.rest_client.base_path(), path);
-        let req_builder = self.rest_client.client().post(&url).query(query).json(body);
+    /// Get the base endpoint URL for this namespace
+    pub fn endpoint(&self) -> &str {
+        self.rest_client.base_path()
+    }
 
-        let resp = self
-            .rest_client
-            .execute(req_builder, operation, object_id)
-            .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+    /// Retrieve a snapshot of operation metrics.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a HashMap where keys are operation names (e.g., "list_tables", "describe_table")
+    /// and values are the number of times each operation was called.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an empty HashMap if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when building the namespace.
+    pub fn retrieve_ops_metrics(&self) -> HashMap<String, u64> {
+        self.ops_metrics
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|m| m.retrieve())
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
 
-        let status = resp.status();
-        if status.is_success() {
-            resp.bytes().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })
-        } else {
-            let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
-            Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Response error: status={}, content={}", status, content).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })
+    /// Reset all operation metrics counters to zero.
+    ///
+    /// Does nothing if `ops_metrics_enabled` was false when building the namespace.
+    pub fn reset_ops_metrics(&self) {
+        if let Some(ref metrics) = self.ops_metrics {
+            metrics.reset();
         }
     }
 
-    /// Get the base endpoint URL for this namespace
-    pub fn endpoint(&self) -> &str {
-        self.rest_client.base_path()
+    /// Increment the counter for an operation.
+    fn record_op(&self, operation: &str) {
+        if let Some(ref metrics) = self.ops_metrics {
+            metrics.increment(operation);
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -705,6 +792,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: ListNamespacesRequest,
     ) -> Result<ListNamespacesResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_namespaces");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/namespace/{}/list", encoded_id);
@@ -726,6 +814,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: DescribeNamespaceRequest,
     ) -> Result<DescribeNamespaceResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_namespace");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/namespace/{}/describe", encoded_id);
@@ -738,6 +827,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: CreateNamespaceRequest,
     ) -> Result<CreateNamespaceResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_namespace");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/namespace/{}/create", encoded_id);
@@ -747,6 +837,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn drop_namespace(&self, request: DropNamespaceRequest) -> Result<DropNamespaceResponse> {
+        self.record_op("drop_namespace");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/namespace/{}/drop", encoded_id);
@@ -756,6 +847,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn namespace_exists(&self, request: NamespaceExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
+        self.record_op("namespace_exists");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/namespace/{}/exists", encoded_id);
@@ -765,6 +857,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn list_tables(&self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> Result<ListTablesResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_tables");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/namespace/{}/table/list", encoded_id);
@@ -779,10 +872,16 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
             limit_str = limit.to_string();
             query.push(("limit", limit_str.as_str()));
         }
+        let include_declared_str;
+        if let Some(include_declared) = request.include_declared {
+            include_declared_str = include_declared.to_string();
+            query.push(("include_declared", include_declared_str.as_str()));
+        }
         self.get_json(&path, &query, "list_tables", &id).await
     }
 
     async fn describe_table(&self, request: DescribeTableRequest) -> Result<DescribeTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/describe", encoded_id);
@@ -797,11 +896,17 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
             detailed_str = detailed.to_string();
             query.push(("load_detailed_metadata", detailed_str.as_str()));
         }
+        let check_declared_str;
+        if let Some(check_declared) = request.check_declared {
+            check_declared_str = check_declared.to_string();
+            query.push(("check_declared", check_declared_str.as_str()));
+        }
         self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "describe_table", &id)
             .await
     }
 
     async fn register_table(&self, request: RegisterTableRequest) -> Result<RegisterTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("register_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/register", encoded_id);
@@ -811,6 +916,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn table_exists(&self, request: TableExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
+        self.record_op("table_exists");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/exists", encoded_id);
@@ -820,6 +926,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn drop_table(&self, request: DropTableRequest) -> Result<DropTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("drop_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/drop", encoded_id);
@@ -832,6 +939,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: DeregisterTableRequest,
     ) -> Result<DeregisterTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("deregister_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/deregister", encoded_id);
@@ -841,6 +949,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn count_table_rows(&self, request: CountTableRowsRequest) -> Result<i64> {
+        self.record_op("count_table_rows");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/count_rows", encoded_id);
@@ -853,6 +962,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         request: CreateTableRequest,
         request_data: Bytes,
     ) -> Result<CreateTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/create", encoded_id);
@@ -862,23 +972,38 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
             mode_str = mode.clone();
             query.push(("mode", mode_str.as_str()));
         }
+        // The REST spec maps create_table metadata onto query parameters because the request body
+        // is already reserved for the Arrow IPC stream.
+        let properties_str;
+        if let Some(ref properties) = request.properties {
+            properties_str = serde_json::to_string(properties).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to serialize create_table properties as JSON query parameter: {}",
+                        e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+            query.push(("properties", properties_str.as_str()));
+        }
+        let storage_options_str;
+        if let Some(ref storage_options) = request.storage_options {
+            storage_options_str = serde_json::to_string(storage_options).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::from(NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to serialize create_table storage_options as JSON query parameter: {}",
+                        e
+                    ),
+                })
+            })?;
+            query.push(("storage_options", storage_options_str.as_str()));
+        }
         self.post_binary_json(&path, &query, request_data.to_vec(), "create_table", &id)
             .await
     }
 
-    async fn create_empty_table(
-        &self,
-        request: CreateEmptyTableRequest,
-    ) -> Result<CreateEmptyTableResponse> {
-        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
-        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
-        let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/create-empty", encoded_id);
-        let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
-        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "create_empty_table", &id)
-            .await
-    }
-
     async fn declare_table(&self, request: DeclareTableRequest) -> Result<DeclareTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("declare_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/declare", encoded_id);
@@ -892,6 +1017,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         request: InsertIntoTableRequest,
         request_data: Bytes,
     ) -> Result<InsertIntoTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("insert_into_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/insert", encoded_id);
@@ -916,16 +1042,17 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         request: MergeInsertIntoTableRequest,
         request_data: Bytes,
     ) -> Result<MergeInsertIntoTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("merge_insert_into_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
 
-        let on = request.on.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| Error::Namespace {
-            source: "'on' field is required for merge insert".into(),
-            location: snafu::location!(),
-        })?;
+        let on = merge_insert_on_columns(request.on.as_deref(), "merge_insert_into_table")?;
 
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/merge_insert", encoded_id);
-        let mut query = vec![("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str()), ("on", on)];
+        // The `on` query parameter uses `style: form, explode: true`, so a composite key
+        // repeats the parameter once per column.
+        let mut query = vec![("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        query.extend(on.iter().map(|column| ("on", column.as_str())));
 
         let when_matched_update_all_str;
         if let Some(v) = request.when_matched_update_all {
@@ -977,6 +1104,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn update_table(&self, request: UpdateTableRequest) -> Result<UpdateTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("update_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/update", encoded_id);
@@ -989,6 +1117,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: DeleteFromTableRequest,
     ) -> Result<DeleteFromTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("delete_from_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/delete", encoded_id);
@@ -998,10 +1127,12 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn query_table(&self, request: QueryTableRequest) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        self.record_op("query_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/query", encoded_id);
         let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        let operation = "query_table";
 
         let url = format!("{}{}", self.rest_client.base_path(), path);
         let req_builder = self
@@ -1013,28 +1144,24 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
 
         let resp = self
             .rest_client
-            .execute(req_builder, "query_table", &id)
+            .execute(req_builder, operation, &id)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })?;
+            .map_err(Self::request_error)?;
 
         let status = resp.status();
         if status.is_success() {
-            resp.bytes().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            resp.bytes().await.map_err(|e| {
+                Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to read response bytes: {:?}", e),
+                })
             })
         } else {
-            let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
+            let content = resp.text().await.map_err(|e| {
+                Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: format!("Failed to read response body: {:?}", e),
+                })
             })?;
-            Err(Error::Namespace {
-                source: format!("Response error: status={}, content={}", status, content).into(),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Self::parse_error_response(status, &content))
         }
     }
 
@@ -1042,6 +1169,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: CreateTableIndexRequest,
     ) -> Result<CreateTableIndexResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_index");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/create_index", encoded_id);
@@ -1054,6 +1182,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: ListTableIndicesRequest,
     ) -> Result<ListTableIndicesResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_table_indices");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/index/list", encoded_id);
@@ -1066,6 +1195,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest,
     ) -> Result<DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_table_index_stats");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let index_name = request.index_name.as_deref().unwrap_or("");
@@ -1083,6 +1213,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: DescribeTransactionRequest,
     ) -> Result<DescribeTransactionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_transaction");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/transaction/{}/describe", encoded_id);
@@ -1095,6 +1226,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: AlterTransactionRequest,
     ) -> Result<AlterTransactionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("alter_transaction");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/transaction/{}/alter", encoded_id);
@@ -1107,6 +1239,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: CreateTableIndexRequest,
     ) -> Result<CreateTableScalarIndexResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_scalar_index");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/create_scalar_index", encoded_id);
@@ -1119,6 +1252,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: DropTableIndexRequest,
     ) -> Result<DropTableIndexResponse> {
+        self.record_op("drop_table_index");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let index_name = request.index_name.as_deref().unwrap_or("");
@@ -1133,6 +1267,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn list_all_tables(&self, request: ListTablesRequest) -> Result<ListTablesResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_all_tables");
         let path = "/v1/table";
         let mut query = vec![("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
         let page_token_str;
@@ -1145,10 +1280,16 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
             limit_str = limit.to_string();
             query.push(("limit", limit_str.as_str()));
         }
+        let include_declared_str;
+        if let Some(include_declared) = request.include_declared {
+            include_declared_str = include_declared.to_string();
+            query.push(("include_declared", include_declared_str.as_str()));
+        }
         self.get_json(path, &query, "list_all_tables", "").await
     }
 
     async fn restore_table(&self, request: RestoreTableRequest) -> Result<RestoreTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("restore_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/restore", encoded_id);
@@ -1158,6 +1299,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
     }
 
     async fn rename_table(&self, request: RenameTableRequest) -> Result<RenameTableResponse> {
+        self.record_op("rename_table");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/rename", encoded_id);
@@ -1170,6 +1312,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: ListTableVersionsRequest,
     ) -> Result<ListTableVersionsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_table_versions");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/version/list", encoded_id);
@@ -1184,7 +1327,58 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
             limit_str = limit.to_string();
             query.push(("limit", limit_str.as_str()));
         }
-        self.get_json(&path, &query, "list_table_versions", &id)
+        let descending_str;
+        if let Some(descending) = request.descending {
+            descending_str = descending.to_string();
+            query.push(("descending", descending_str.as_str()));
+        }
+        // Forward branch as a query param (this op sends no body).
+        // describe_table_version differs: branch rides its body, already serialized.
+        let branch_str;
+        if let Some(ref branch) = request.branch {
+            branch_str = branch.clone();
+            query.push(("branch", branch_str.as_str()));
+        }
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &(), "list_table_versions", &id)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_table_version(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableVersionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_version");
+        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
+        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
+        let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/version/create", encoded_id);
+        let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "create_table_version", &id)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn describe_table_version(
+        &self,
+        request: DescribeTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DescribeTableVersionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("describe_table_version");
+        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
+        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
+        let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/version/describe", encoded_id);
+        let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "describe_table_version", &id)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn batch_delete_table_versions(
+        &self,
+        request: BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("batch_delete_table_versions");
+        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
+        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
+        let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/version/delete", encoded_id);
+        let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "batch_delete_table_versions", &id)
             .await
     }
 
@@ -1192,6 +1386,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest,
     ) -> Result<UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse> {
+        self.record_op("update_table_schema_metadata");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/schema_metadata/update", encoded_id);
@@ -1216,6 +1411,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: GetTableStatsRequest,
     ) -> Result<GetTableStatsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("get_table_stats");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/stats", encoded_id);
@@ -1228,6 +1424,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest,
     ) -> Result<String> {
+        self.record_op("explain_table_query_plan");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/explain_plan", encoded_id);
@@ -1240,6 +1437,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest,
     ) -> Result<String> {
+        self.record_op("analyze_table_query_plan");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/analyze_plan", encoded_id);
@@ -1252,6 +1450,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: AlterTableAddColumnsRequest,
     ) -> Result<AlterTableAddColumnsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("alter_table_add_columns");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/add_columns", encoded_id);
@@ -1264,6 +1463,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
     ) -> Result<AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("alter_table_alter_columns");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/alter_columns", encoded_id);
@@ -1276,6 +1476,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: AlterTableDropColumnsRequest,
     ) -> Result<AlterTableDropColumnsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("alter_table_drop_columns");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/drop_columns", encoded_id);
@@ -1284,10 +1485,50 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
             .await
     }
 
+    async fn alter_table_backfill_columns(
+        &self,
+        request: AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<AlterTableBackfillColumnsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("alter_table_backfill_columns");
+        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
+        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
+        let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/backfill_column", encoded_id);
+        let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "alter_table_backfill_columns", &id)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn refresh_materialized_view(
+        &self,
+        request: RefreshMaterializedViewRequest,
+    ) -> Result<RefreshMaterializedViewResponse> {
+        self.record_op("refresh_materialized_view");
+        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
+        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
+        let path = format!("/v1/materialized_view/{}/refresh", encoded_id);
+        let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "refresh_materialized_view", &id)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn create_materialized_view(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateMaterializedViewRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateMaterializedViewResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_materialized_view");
+        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
+        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
+        let path = format!("/v1/materialized_view/{}/create", encoded_id);
+        let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "create_materialized_view", &id)
+            .await
+    }
+
     async fn list_table_tags(
         &self,
         request: ListTableTagsRequest,
     ) -> Result<ListTableTagsResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_table_tags");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/tags/list", encoded_id);
@@ -1309,6 +1550,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: GetTableTagVersionRequest,
     ) -> Result<GetTableTagVersionResponse> {
+        self.record_op("get_table_tag_version");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/tags/version", encoded_id);
@@ -1321,6 +1563,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: CreateTableTagRequest,
     ) -> Result<CreateTableTagResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_tag");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/tags/create", encoded_id);
@@ -1333,6 +1576,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: DeleteTableTagRequest,
     ) -> Result<DeleteTableTagResponse> {
+        self.record_op("delete_table_tag");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/tags/delete", encoded_id);
@@ -1345,6 +1589,7 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
         &self,
         request: UpdateTableTagRequest,
     ) -> Result<UpdateTableTagResponse> {
+        self.record_op("update_table_tag");
         let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
         let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
         let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/tags/update", encoded_id);
@@ -1353,6 +1598,55 @@ impl LanceNamespace for RestNamespace {
             .await
     }
 
+    async fn create_table_branch(
+        &self,
+        request: CreateTableBranchRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableBranchResponse> {
+        self.record_op("create_table_branch");
+        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
+        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
+        let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/branches/create", encoded_id);
+        let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "create_table_branch", &id)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn list_table_branches(
+        &self,
+        request: ListTableBranchesRequest,
+    ) -> Result<ListTableBranchesResponse> {
+        self.record_op("list_table_branches");
+        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
+        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
+        let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/branches/list", encoded_id);
+        let mut query = vec![("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        let page_token_str;
+        if let Some(ref pt) = request.page_token {
+            page_token_str = pt.clone();
+            query.push(("page_token", page_token_str.as_str()));
+        }
+        let limit_str;
+        if let Some(limit) = request.limit {
+            limit_str = limit.to_string();
+            query.push(("limit", limit_str.as_str()));
+        }
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "list_table_branches", &id)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn delete_table_branch(
+        &self,
+        request: DeleteTableBranchRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DeleteTableBranchResponse> {
+        self.record_op("delete_table_branch");
+        let id = object_id_str(&request.id, &self.delimiter)?;
+        let encoded_id = urlencode(&id);
+        let path = format!("/v1/table/{}/branches/delete", encoded_id);
+        let query = [("delimiter", self.delimiter.as_str())];
+        self.post_json(&path, &query, &request, "delete_table_branch", &id)
+            .await
+    }
+
     fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
         format!(
             "RestNamespace {{ endpoint: {:?}, delimiter: {:?} }}",
@@ -1387,6 +1681,21 @@ mod tests {
         // Successfully created the namespace - test passes if no panic
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rest_namespace_creation_with_headers_prefix() {
+        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("uri".to_string(), "http://example.com".to_string());
+        properties.insert(
+            "headers.Authorization".to_string(),
+            "Bearer token".to_string(),
+        );
+        properties.insert("headers.X-Custom".to_string(), "value".to_string());
+
+        let _namespace = RestNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties)
+            .expect("Failed to create namespace builder")
+            .build();
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_custom_headers_are_sent() {
         // Start a mock server
@@ -1473,6 +1782,75 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(builder.key_file, Some("/path/to/key.pem".to_string()));
         assert_eq!(builder.ssl_ca_cert, Some("/path/to/ca.pem".to_string()));
         assert!(builder.assert_hostname);
+        assert_eq!(
+            builder.reload_interval_seconds,
+            RestNamespaceBuilder::DEFAULT_RELOAD_INTERVAL_SECONDS
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tls_reload_interval_parsing() {
+        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("uri".to_string(), "https://api.example.com".to_string());
+        properties.insert("tls.reload_interval_seconds".to_string(), "60".to_string());
+
+        let builder = RestNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties)
+            .expect("Failed to create namespace builder");
+        assert_eq!(builder.reload_interval_seconds, 60);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tls_reload_disabled_by_zero_interval() {
+        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("uri".to_string(), "https://api.example.com".to_string());
+        properties.insert("tls.reload_interval_seconds".to_string(), "0".to_string());
+
+        let builder = RestNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties)
+            .expect("Failed to create namespace builder");
+        assert_eq!(builder.reload_interval_seconds, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tls_reload_interval_reaches_the_client() {
+        let namespace = RestNamespaceBuilder::new("https://api.example.com")
+            .cert_file("/path/to/cert.pem")
+            .key_file("/path/to/key.pem")
+            .build();
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace.rest_client.client.reload_interval(),
+            Some(Duration::from_secs(
+                RestNamespaceBuilder::DEFAULT_RELOAD_INTERVAL_SECONDS
+            ))
+        );
+
+        let namespace = RestNamespaceBuilder::new("https://api.example.com")
+            .cert_file("/path/to/cert.pem")
+            .key_file("/path/to/key.pem")
+            .reload_interval_seconds(0)
+            .build();
+        assert_eq!(
+            namespace.rest_client.client.reload_interval(),
+            None,
+            "an interval of 0 should disable reloading"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tls_reload_interval_rejects_invalid_value() {
+        let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+        properties.insert("uri".to_string(), "https://api.example.com".to_string());
+        properties.insert(
+            "tls.reload_interval_seconds".to_string(),
+            "5 minutes".to_string(),
+        );
+
+        let error = RestNamespaceBuilder::from_properties(properties)
+            .expect_err("an unparsable interval should be rejected")
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(
+            error.contains("tls.reload_interval_seconds") && error.contains("5 minutes"),
+            "the error should name the property and its value: {error}"
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1663,6 +2041,75 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(result.is_ok());
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_table_sends_properties_and_storage_options_query_params() {
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        let mock_server = MockServer::start().await;
+
+        let path_str = "/v1/table/test$namespace$table/create".replace("$", "%24");
+        Mock::given(method("POST"))
+            .and(path(path_str.as_str()))
+            .respond_with(ResponseTemplate::new(201).set_body_json(serde_json::json!({
+                "location": "/path/to/table",
+                "version": 1,
+                "properties": {
+                    "owner": "alice",
+                    "team": "eng"
+                }
+            })))
+            .mount(&mock_server)
+            .await;
+
+        let namespace = RestNamespaceBuilder::new(mock_server.uri()).build();
+
+        let request = CreateTableRequest {
+            id: Some(vec![
+                "test".to_string(),
+                "namespace".to_string(),
+                "table".to_string(),
+            ]),
+            mode: Some("Create".to_string()),
+            properties: Some(HashMap::from([
+                ("owner".to_string(), "alice".to_string()),
+                ("team".to_string(), "eng".to_string()),
+            ])),
+            storage_options: Some(HashMap::from([
+                ("aws_region".to_string(), "us-east-1".to_string()),
+                ("timeout".to_string(), "30s".to_string()),
+            ])),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let result = namespace
+            .create_table(request, Bytes::from("arrow data here"))
+            .await;
+
+        assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed: {:?}", result.err());
+
+        let requests = mock_server.received_requests().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(requests.len(), 1);
+        let request = &requests[0];
+
+        let query_params: HashMap<String, String> =
+            request.url.query_pairs().into_owned().collect();
+        assert_eq!(query_params.get("mode"), Some(&"Create".to_string()));
+
+        let properties: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(query_params.get("properties").unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            properties,
+            serde_json::json!({"owner": "alice", "team": "eng"})
+        );
+
+        let storage_options: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(query_params.get("storage_options").unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            storage_options,
+            serde_json::json!({"aws_region": "us-east-1", "timeout": "30s"})
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_insert_into_table_success() {
         // Start a mock server
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest/tls.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest/tls.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..76203a9b30c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest/tls.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,597 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! TLS configuration for the REST namespace client.
+//!
+//! Client certificates are usually short-lived - SPIFFE/Istio, Vault PKI and cert-manager all
+//! re-mint them onto disk long before the process using them restarts - and a
+//! `reqwest::Identity` cannot be swapped inside a live `reqwest::Client`. [`ReloadableClient`]
+//! therefore re-reads the configured PEM files on the request path and publishes a rebuilt
+//! client when their content changes.
+
+use std::hash::{DefaultHasher, Hash, Hasher};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arc_swap::ArcSwap;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
+
+/// TLS options of the REST client, including the paths its material is loaded from.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub(super) struct TlsConfig {
+    pub(super) cert_file: Option<String>,
+    pub(super) key_file: Option<String>,
+    pub(super) ssl_ca_cert: Option<String>,
+    /// When false, the hostname in the server certificate is not verified.
+    pub(super) assert_hostname: bool,
+}
+
+impl TlsConfig {
+    /// Whether any PEM file is configured, i.e. whether there is anything to reload.
+    fn watches_files(&self) -> bool {
+        (self.cert_file.is_some() && self.key_file.is_some()) || self.ssl_ca_cert.is_some()
+    }
+
+    fn load_identity(&self) -> Result<Option<(reqwest::Identity, u64)>> {
+        // mTLS needs both halves of the identity; a certificate without a key is ignored.
+        let (Some(cert_file), Some(key_file)) = (&self.cert_file, &self.key_file) else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let cert = read_pem_file("certificate", cert_file)?;
+        let key = read_pem_file("private key", key_file)?;
+        let pem = [cert, key].concat();
+
+        let identity = reqwest::Identity::from_pem(&pem).map_err(|e| {
+            tls_config_error(format!(
+                "Failed to load the client identity from certificate '{cert_file}' \
+                 and key '{key_file}': {e}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(Some((identity, digest(&pem))))
+    }
+
+    fn load_root_cert(&self) -> Result<Option<(reqwest::Certificate, u64)>> {
+        let Some(ca_cert_file) = &self.ssl_ca_cert else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let pem = read_pem_file("CA certificate", ca_cert_file)?;
+        let root_cert = reqwest::Certificate::from_pem(&pem).map_err(|e| {
+            tls_config_error(format!(
+                "Failed to load the CA certificate '{ca_cert_file}': {e}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(Some((root_cert, digest(&pem))))
+    }
+
+    fn build_client(&self, material: TlsMaterial) -> Result<reqwest::Client> {
+        // Build the client WITHOUT default headers - they are applied per-request.
+        //
+        // `Identity::from_pem` produces a rustls identity, so the client must use rustls.
+        // reqwest prefers native-tls whenever another crate in the build enables its
+        // `default-tls` feature, and would then reject the identity.
+        let mut client_builder = reqwest::Client::builder()
+            .use_rustls_tls()
+            .danger_accept_invalid_hostnames(!self.assert_hostname);
+
+        if let Some(identity) = material.identity {
+            client_builder = client_builder.identity(identity);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(root_cert) = material.root_cert {
+            client_builder = client_builder.add_root_certificate(root_cert);
+        }
+
+        client_builder
+            .build()
+            .map_err(|e| tls_config_error(format!("Failed to build the HTTP client: {e}")))
+    }
+
+    /// Build the initial client, dropping only the material it cannot use.
+    ///
+    /// With rustls alone, a CA certificate is parsed when the client is built rather than when
+    /// it is read, so it can still fail here, and construction has no working client to fall
+    /// back to - drop it on
+    /// its own rather than with the client identity. The digest survives only a build that used
+    /// everything that loaded, so whatever was dropped is retried on the next check.
+    fn build_best_effort(&self, material: TlsMaterial) -> (reqwest::Client, Option<u64>) {
+        let digest = material.digest;
+        let identity = material.identity.clone();
+
+        let error = match self.build_client(material) {
+            Ok(client) => return (client, digest),
+            Err(e) => e,
+        };
+        log::warn!(
+            "Failed to build the HTTP client of the REST namespace with the configured TLS \
+             material, continuing without the CA certificate: {error}"
+        );
+
+        let client = self
+            .build_client(TlsMaterial {
+                identity,
+                root_cert: None,
+                digest: None,
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_else(|e| {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Failed to build the HTTP client of the REST namespace, continuing without \
+                     any TLS configuration: {e}"
+                );
+                reqwest::Client::new()
+            });
+
+        (client, None)
+    }
+}
+
+/// One generation of the TLS material on disk, parsed and ready to apply to a client.
+struct TlsMaterial {
+    identity: Option<reqwest::Identity>,
+    root_cert: Option<reqwest::Certificate>,
+    /// Digest of the PEM bytes the pieces were parsed from, used to detect rotation.
+    ///
+    /// Content, not modification time: rotation is commonly an atomic rename or a symlink swap.
+    /// `None` when a configured piece failed to load, so that the next check retries it even if
+    /// the files did not change again in the meantime.
+    digest: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+impl TlsMaterial {
+    fn new(
+        identity: Option<(reqwest::Identity, u64)>,
+        root_cert: Option<(reqwest::Certificate, u64)>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // The fixed order keeps the identity and the CA certificate from being interchangeable.
+        let mut hasher = DefaultHasher::new();
+        identity
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|(_, digest)| digest)
+            .hash(&mut hasher);
+        root_cert
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|(_, digest)| digest)
+            .hash(&mut hasher);
+
+        Self {
+            identity: identity.map(|(identity, _)| identity),
+            root_cert: root_cert.map(|(root_cert, _)| root_cert),
+            digest: Some(hasher.finish()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Load every configured piece, failing unless all of them load: half of a rotated
+    /// generation is material the peer never issued together.
+    fn load(tls: &TlsConfig) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::new(tls.load_identity()?, tls.load_root_cert()?))
+    }
+
+    /// Load every configured piece, skipping the ones that fail.
+    ///
+    /// Construction has no client in use to fall back to, so one unusable file must not drop the
+    /// pieces that work. The missing digest makes the next check retry what was skipped.
+    fn load_best_effort(tls: &TlsConfig) -> Self {
+        let identity = tls.load_identity();
+        let root_cert = tls.load_root_cert();
+        let complete = identity.is_ok() && root_cert.is_ok();
+
+        let mut material = Self::new(skip_unloadable(identity), skip_unloadable(root_cert));
+        if !complete {
+            material.digest = None;
+        }
+        material
+    }
+}
+
+/// Digest of the material the current client was built from, and when disk was last read.
+struct ReloadState {
+    digest: Option<u64>,
+    last_checked: Instant,
+}
+
+/// A `reqwest::Client` that is rebuilt when the TLS material it presents changes on disk.
+pub(super) struct ReloadableClient {
+    client: ArcSwap<reqwest::Client>,
+    tls: TlsConfig,
+    /// Minimum delay between two disk checks. `None` disables reloading entirely;
+    /// `Some(Duration::ZERO)` checks on every request.
+    reload_interval: Option<Duration>,
+    state: Mutex<ReloadState>,
+}
+
+impl ReloadableClient {
+    /// Build the initial client from the material currently on disk.
+    ///
+    /// Material that fails to load is logged and skipped, which keeps
+    /// `RestNamespaceBuilder::build` infallible as it has always been.
+    pub(super) fn new(tls: TlsConfig, reload_interval: Option<Duration>) -> Self {
+        let (client, digest) = tls.build_best_effort(TlsMaterial::load_best_effort(&tls));
+
+        // Without any PEM file configured there is nothing on disk to watch.
+        let reload_interval = reload_interval.filter(|_| tls.watches_files());
+
+        Self {
+            client: ArcSwap::from_pointee(client),
+            tls,
+            reload_interval,
+            state: Mutex::new(ReloadState {
+                digest,
+                last_checked: Instant::now(),
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The client to use for the next request, cloned because a reload can replace it at any
+    /// point. Cloning is cheap: `reqwest::Client` is a handle around an `Arc`.
+    pub(super) fn current(&self) -> reqwest::Client {
+        self.reload_if_due();
+        let client = self.client.load();
+        reqwest::Client::clone(&client)
+    }
+
+    /// The interval reloading actually runs at, `None` when the client never reloads.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn reload_interval(&self) -> Option<Duration> {
+        self.reload_interval
+    }
+
+    /// Re-read the PEM files if the check interval has elapsed, and replace the client if their
+    /// content changed.
+    ///
+    /// Replacing the client drops its connection pool, which is correct - pooled connections
+    /// were authenticated with the previous certificate - and is why it is gated on a real change.
+    fn reload_if_due(&self) {
+        let Some(interval) = self.reload_interval else {
+            return;
+        };
+
+        // Another request is already checking; whoever loses the race is one interval behind.
+        let Ok(mut state) = self.state.try_lock() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        if state.last_checked.elapsed() < interval {
+            return;
+        }
+        state.last_checked = Instant::now();
+
+        let material = match TlsMaterial::load(&self.tls) {
+            Ok(material) => material,
+            Err(e) => {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Failed to load the TLS material of the REST namespace client from disk, \
+                     keeping the current client: {e}"
+                );
+                return;
+            }
+        };
+
+        let digest = material.digest;
+        if state.digest == digest {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        match self.tls.build_client(material) {
+            Ok(client) => {
+                self.client.store(Arc::new(client));
+                state.digest = digest;
+                log::info!("Reloaded the TLS material of the REST namespace client from disk");
+            }
+            Err(e) => log::warn!(
+                "Rotated TLS material of the REST namespace client is unusable, \
+                 keeping the current client: {e}"
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Read a PEM file, reporting failures with the path and the role the file plays.
+fn read_pem_file(role: &str, path: &str) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    std::fs::read(path)
+        .map_err(|e| tls_config_error(format!("Failed to read the TLS {role} '{path}': {e}")))
+}
+
+fn digest(pem: &[u8]) -> u64 {
+    let mut hasher = DefaultHasher::new();
+    pem.hash(&mut hasher);
+    hasher.finish()
+}
+
+/// Report a piece of TLS material that could not be loaded and continue without it.
+fn skip_unloadable<T>(loaded: Result<Option<T>>) -> Option<T> {
+    loaded.unwrap_or_else(|e| {
+        log::warn!(
+            "Failed to load part of the TLS configuration of the REST namespace client, \
+             continuing without it: {e}"
+        );
+        None
+    })
+}
+
+fn tls_config_error(message: String) -> Error {
+    NamespaceError::InvalidInput { message }.into()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use std::path::Path;
+
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+    /// Self-signed certificate and matching key, only ever used to exercise PEM loading.
+    const CERT_A: &str = r#"-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----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+-----END CERTIFICATE-----
+"#;
+
+    const KEY_A: &str = r#"-----BEGIN PRIVATE KEY-----
+MIGHAgEAMBMGByqGSM49AgEGCCqGSM49AwEHBG0wawIBAQQge8mgs5FZcchWUNkr
+JrJWhDOe7eOmgB03AFrpsQo1I5uhRANCAATBBAzMgIrkusG3gOZuyboh+RKancco
+6xC03O2mMyykqq52JRQnzlZm37BomXPtFlHW9mU7su1KcIBEKgRZfLnP
+-----END PRIVATE KEY-----
+"#;
+
+    /// A second self-signed pair, standing in for a re-minted certificate.
+    const CERT_B: &str = r#"-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----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+-----END CERTIFICATE-----
+"#;
+
+    const KEY_B: &str = r#"-----BEGIN PRIVATE KEY-----
+MIGHAgEAMBMGByqGSM49AgEGCCqGSM49AwEHBG0wawIBAQQguOhONlmNsse91H8r
+XYris7tqFIImbS16joxzji/SDT2hRANCAARdbZsJo7FrzCRTFQQkGUNw3mllD0D2
+vlUSTstZkV9DqFsqGgtQZsdPpD/ndAKCeILH618omGtfieRWbNEfmLnD
+-----END PRIVATE KEY-----
+"#;
+
+    /// Write `cert` and `key` to the fixed paths a client is configured with, the way a
+    /// certificate agent re-mints them in place.
+    fn write_identity(dir: &Path, cert: &str, key: &str) -> TlsConfig {
+        let cert_file = dir.join("cert.pem");
+        let key_file = dir.join("key.pem");
+        std::fs::write(&cert_file, cert).unwrap();
+        std::fs::write(&key_file, key).unwrap();
+
+        TlsConfig {
+            cert_file: Some(cert_file.to_str().unwrap().to_string()),
+            key_file: Some(key_file.to_str().unwrap().to_string()),
+            ssl_ca_cert: None,
+            assert_hostname: true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Point `tls` at a CA certificate in `dir`, writing `contents` there when there are any.
+    fn with_ca_cert(dir: &Path, tls: &mut TlsConfig, contents: Option<&str>) {
+        let ca_cert_file = dir.join("ca.pem");
+        if let Some(contents) = contents {
+            std::fs::write(&ca_cert_file, contents).unwrap();
+        }
+        tls.ssl_ca_cert = Some(ca_cert_file.to_str().unwrap().to_string());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::interval_elapsed(Some(Duration::ZERO), true)]
+    #[case::within_the_interval(Some(Duration::from_secs(300)), false)]
+    #[case::reloading_disabled(None, false)]
+    fn test_rotation_is_picked_up_once_the_interval_elapses(
+        #[case] reload_interval: Option<Duration>,
+        #[case] expected: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let tls = write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_A, KEY_A);
+
+        let reloadable = ReloadableClient::new(tls, reload_interval);
+        let initial = reloadable.client.load_full();
+
+        write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_B, KEY_B);
+        reloadable.current();
+
+        let rebuilt = !Arc::ptr_eq(&initial, &reloadable.client.load_full());
+        assert_eq!(rebuilt, expected, "the client was rebuilt: {rebuilt}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_unchanged_certificate_keeps_client() {
+        let dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let tls = write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_A, KEY_A);
+
+        let reloadable = ReloadableClient::new(tls, Some(Duration::ZERO));
+        let initial = reloadable.client.load_full();
+
+        // Rewriting the same bytes changes modification times but not the identity, so the
+        // client - and its connection pool - must survive.
+        write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_A, KEY_A);
+        reloadable.current();
+        reloadable.current();
+
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&initial, &reloadable.client.load_full()),
+            "unchanged material should not rebuild the client"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reload_disabled_without_files_to_watch() {
+        let tls = TlsConfig {
+            cert_file: None,
+            key_file: None,
+            ssl_ca_cert: None,
+            assert_hostname: true,
+        };
+
+        let reloadable = ReloadableClient::new(tls, Some(Duration::ZERO));
+        assert!(reloadable.reload_interval.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_unusable_rotated_material_keeps_client() {
+        let dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let tls = write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_A, KEY_A);
+
+        let reloadable = ReloadableClient::new(tls, Some(Duration::ZERO));
+        let initial = reloadable.client.load_full();
+
+        // A truncated read, as can happen when a certificate is written in place, must not
+        // replace a working identity with one the server would reject.
+        write_identity(dir.path(), &CERT_B[..CERT_B.len() / 2], KEY_B);
+        reloadable.current();
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&initial, &reloadable.client.load_full()),
+            "unusable material should not replace the client"
+        );
+
+        // Once the complete material lands, the next check picks it up.
+        write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_B, KEY_B);
+        reloadable.current();
+        assert!(
+            !Arc::ptr_eq(&initial, &reloadable.client.load_full()),
+            "the retry should pick up the complete material"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// One unusable file must not drop the piece that loaded: a stale `ssl_ca_cert` would
+    /// otherwise turn into a rejected mTLS handshake.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::unreadable_ca("ca.pem", None)]
+    #[case::unreadable_key("key.pem", None)]
+    #[case::malformed_key("key.pem", Some("-----BEGIN PRIVATE KEY-----\nnot a key\n"))]
+    fn test_an_unloadable_file_keeps_the_other_piece(
+        #[case] broken: &str,
+        #[case] contents: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut tls = write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_A, KEY_A);
+        with_ca_cert(dir.path(), &mut tls, Some(CERT_B));
+
+        let broken_file = dir.path().join(broken);
+        match contents {
+            Some(contents) => std::fs::write(&broken_file, contents).unwrap(),
+            None => std::fs::remove_file(&broken_file).unwrap(),
+        }
+
+        let material = TlsMaterial::load_best_effort(&tls);
+        let ca_is_broken = broken == "ca.pem";
+        assert_eq!(material.identity.is_some(), ca_is_broken);
+        assert_eq!(material.root_cert.is_some(), !ca_is_broken);
+        assert!(
+            material.digest.is_none(),
+            "an incomplete load must be retried"
+        );
+
+        // Reloading holds the generation to a higher bar: it has a working client to keep.
+        let Err(error) = TlsMaterial::load(&tls) else {
+            panic!("an unloadable file should fail the atomic load");
+        };
+        let error = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            error.contains(broken),
+            "the error should name the file: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A CA certificate is only parsed when the client is built, so an unusable one survives the
+    /// load and fails later. Construction drops it without the client identity.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_malformed_ca_certificate_is_dropped_on_its_own() {
+        let dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut tls = write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_A, KEY_A);
+        with_ca_cert(
+            dir.path(),
+            &mut tls,
+            Some("-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----\nnot a certificate\n"),
+        );
+
+        // reqwest parses a CA certificate when it is read if native-tls is compiled in, and
+        // otherwise only when the client is built. Either way the identity must survive.
+        let material = TlsMaterial::load_best_effort(&tls);
+        let identity = material.identity.clone();
+        assert!(identity.is_some());
+        if material.root_cert.is_some() {
+            assert!(tls.build_client(material).is_err());
+
+            // What the retry falls back to.
+            assert!(
+                tls.build_client(TlsMaterial {
+                    identity,
+                    root_cert: None,
+                    digest: None,
+                })
+                .is_ok()
+            );
+        }
+
+        let (_, digest) = tls.build_best_effort(TlsMaterial::load_best_effort(&tls));
+        assert!(
+            digest.is_none(),
+            "material dropped at build time must be retried"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_incomplete_initial_load_is_retried() {
+        let dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut tls = write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_A, KEY_A);
+        with_ca_cert(dir.path(), &mut tls, None);
+        let ca_cert_file = tls.ssl_ca_cert.clone().unwrap();
+
+        let reloadable = ReloadableClient::new(tls, Some(Duration::ZERO));
+        let initial = reloadable.client.load_full();
+        assert!(reloadable.state.lock().unwrap().digest.is_none());
+
+        reloadable.current();
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&initial, &reloadable.client.load_full()),
+            "the CA certificate is still missing, there is nothing to load"
+        );
+
+        // A piece missing at startup is not permanent: once the file lands, the next check
+        // upgrades to a client built from the complete material.
+        std::fs::write(&ca_cert_file, CERT_B).unwrap();
+        reloadable.current();
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&initial, &reloadable.client.load_full()));
+        assert!(reloadable.state.lock().unwrap().digest.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_digest_tracks_content() {
+        let dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let tls = write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_A, KEY_A);
+
+        let initial = TlsMaterial::load(&tls).unwrap().digest;
+        assert_eq!(initial, TlsMaterial::load(&tls).unwrap().digest);
+
+        write_identity(dir.path(), CERT_B, KEY_B);
+        assert_ne!(initial, TlsMaterial::load(&tls).unwrap().digest);
+
+        // The same bytes are different material in the two roles, so swapping one for the other
+        // has to register as a change.
+        let identity = reqwest::Identity::from_pem(&[CERT_A, KEY_A].concat().into_bytes()).unwrap();
+        let root_cert = reqwest::Certificate::from_pem(CERT_A.as_bytes()).unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(
+            TlsMaterial::new(Some((identity, 1)), None).digest,
+            TlsMaterial::new(None, Some((root_cert, 1))).digest,
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest_adapter.rs b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest_adapter.rs
index b63331c8a66..10dcdf0a925 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest_adapter.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace-impls/src/rest_adapter.rs
@@ -10,22 +10,24 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use axum::{
+    Json, Router, ServiceExt,
     body::Bytes,
-    extract::{Path, Query, Request, State},
+    extract::{FromRequest, Path, Query, RawQuery, Request, State},
     http::{HeaderMap, StatusCode},
     response::{IntoResponse, Response},
     routing::{get, post},
-    Json, Router, ServiceExt,
 };
-use serde::Deserialize;
+use serde::{Deserialize, de::DeserializeOwned};
 use tokio::sync::watch;
 use tower::Layer;
 use tower_http::normalize_path::NormalizePathLayer;
 use tower_http::trace::TraceLayer;
+use url::form_urlencoded;
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_namespace::models::*;
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
+use lance_namespace::models::*;
 
 /// Configuration for the REST server
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -75,11 +77,19 @@ impl RestAdapter {
             .route("/v1/table/:id/deregister", post(deregister_table))
             .route("/v1/table/:id/rename", post(rename_table))
             .route("/v1/table/:id/restore", post(restore_table))
-            .route("/v1/table/:id/version/list", get(list_table_versions))
+            .route("/v1/table/:id/version/list", post(list_table_versions))
+            .route("/v1/table/:id/version/create", post(create_table_version))
+            .route(
+                "/v1/table/:id/version/describe",
+                post(describe_table_version),
+            )
+            .route(
+                "/v1/table/:id/version/delete",
+                post(batch_delete_table_versions),
+            )
             .route("/v1/table/:id/stats", get(get_table_stats))
             // Table data operations
             .route("/v1/table/:id/create", post(create_table))
-            .route("/v1/table/:id/create-empty", post(create_empty_table))
             .route("/v1/table/:id/declare", post(declare_table))
             .route("/v1/table/:id/insert", post(insert_into_table))
             .route("/v1/table/:id/merge_insert", post(merge_insert_into_table))
@@ -93,7 +103,7 @@ impl RestAdapter {
                 "/v1/table/:id/create_scalar_index",
                 post(create_table_scalar_index),
             )
-            .route("/v1/table/:id/index/list", get(list_table_indices))
+            .route("/v1/table/:id/index/list", post(list_table_indices))
             .route(
                 "/v1/table/:id/index/:index_name/stats",
                 get(describe_table_index_stats),
@@ -109,6 +119,19 @@ impl RestAdapter {
                 post(alter_table_alter_columns),
             )
             .route("/v1/table/:id/drop_columns", post(alter_table_drop_columns))
+            .route(
+                "/v1/table/:id/backfill_column",
+                post(alter_table_backfill_columns),
+            )
+            .route("/v1/table/:id/refresh", post(refresh_materialized_view))
+            .route(
+                "/v1/materialized_view/:id/refresh",
+                post(refresh_materialized_view),
+            )
+            .route(
+                "/v1/materialized_view/:id/create",
+                post(create_materialized_view),
+            )
             .route(
                 "/v1/table/:id/schema_metadata/update",
                 post(update_table_schema_metadata),
@@ -119,6 +142,10 @@ impl RestAdapter {
             .route("/v1/table/:id/tags/create", post(create_table_tag))
             .route("/v1/table/:id/tags/delete", post(delete_table_tag))
             .route("/v1/table/:id/tags/update", post(update_table_tag))
+            // Branch operations
+            .route("/v1/table/:id/branches/create", post(create_table_branch))
+            .route("/v1/table/:id/branches/list", post(list_table_branches))
+            .route("/v1/table/:id/branches/delete", post(delete_table_branch))
             // Query plan operations
             .route("/v1/table/:id/explain_plan", post(explain_table_query_plan))
             .route("/v1/table/:id/analyze_plan", post(analyze_table_query_plan))
@@ -145,10 +172,9 @@ impl RestAdapter {
 
         let listener = tokio::net::TcpListener::bind(&addr).await.map_err(|e| {
             log::error!("RestAdapter::start() failed to bind to {}: {}", addr, e);
-            Error::IO {
-                source: Box::new(e),
-                location: snafu::location!(),
-            }
+            Error::from(NamespaceError::Internal {
+                message: format!("Failed to bind to {}: {:?}", addr, e),
+            })
         })?;
 
         // Get the actual port (important when port 0 was specified)
@@ -224,9 +250,51 @@ impl RestAdapterHandle {
 }
 
 // ============================================================================
-// Query Parameters
+// Query Parameters and Extractors
 // ============================================================================
 
+/// Optional JSON body extractor that allows empty request bodies.
+/// Similar to sophon's MaybeJson - returns None if body is empty.
+struct MaybeJson<T>(Option<T>);
+
+impl<S, T> FromRequest<S> for MaybeJson<T>
+where
+    S: Send + Sync,
+    T: DeserializeOwned + Send + 'static,
+{
+    type Rejection = Response;
+
+    fn from_request<'life0, 'async_trait>(
+        req: Request,
+        state: &'life0 S,
+    ) -> std::pin::Pin<
+        Box<
+            dyn std::future::Future<Output = std::result::Result<Self, Self::Rejection>>
+                + Send
+                + 'async_trait,
+        >,
+    >
+    where
+        'life0: 'async_trait,
+        Self: 'async_trait,
+    {
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            let bytes = Bytes::from_request(req, state)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| (StatusCode::BAD_REQUEST, e.to_string()).into_response())?;
+
+            if bytes.is_empty() {
+                return Ok(Self(None));
+            }
+
+            match serde_json::from_slice(&bytes) {
+                Ok(value) => Ok(Self(Some(value))),
+                Err(e) => Err((StatusCode::BAD_REQUEST, e.to_string()).into_response()),
+            }
+        })
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
 struct DelimiterQuery {
     delimiter: Option<String>,
@@ -237,72 +305,80 @@ struct PaginationQuery {
     delimiter: Option<String>,
     page_token: Option<String>,
     limit: Option<i32>,
+    include_declared: Option<bool>,
+    descending: Option<bool>,
+    branch: Option<String>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct DescribeTableQuery {
+    delimiter: Option<String>,
+    with_table_uri: Option<bool>,
+    load_detailed_metadata: Option<bool>,
+    check_declared: Option<bool>,
 }
 
 // ============================================================================
 // Error Conversion
 // ============================================================================
 
-/// Convert Lance errors to HTTP responses
+/// Map a NamespaceError error code to an HTTP status code.
+fn error_code_to_status(code: u32) -> StatusCode {
+    match lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::from_u32(code) {
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::NamespaceNotFound)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableNotFound)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableIndexNotFound)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableTagNotFound)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TransactionNotFound)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableVersionNotFound)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableColumnNotFound)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableBranchNotFound) => StatusCode::NOT_FOUND,
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::NamespaceAlreadyExists)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableAlreadyExists)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableIndexAlreadyExists)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableTagAlreadyExists)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableBranchAlreadyExists)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::ConcurrentModification) => StatusCode::CONFLICT,
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::NamespaceNotEmpty)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::InvalidTableState) => StatusCode::CONFLICT,
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::InvalidInput)
+        | Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::TableSchemaValidationError) => {
+            StatusCode::BAD_REQUEST
+        }
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::Unsupported) => StatusCode::NOT_ACCEPTABLE,
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::PermissionDenied) => StatusCode::FORBIDDEN,
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::Unauthenticated) => StatusCode::UNAUTHORIZED,
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::ServiceUnavailable) => {
+            StatusCode::SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE
+        }
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::Throttling) => StatusCode::TOO_MANY_REQUESTS,
+        Some(lance_namespace::error::ErrorCode::Internal) | None => {
+            StatusCode::INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert Lance errors to HTTP responses using the spec's `ErrorResponse` model.
 fn error_to_response(err: Error) -> Response {
     match err {
         Error::Namespace { source, .. } => {
-            let error_msg = source.to_string();
-            if error_msg.contains("not found") || error_msg.contains("does not exist") {
-                (
-                    StatusCode::NOT_FOUND,
-                    Json(serde_json::json!({
-                        "error": {
-                            "message": error_msg,
-                            "type": "NamespaceNotFoundException"
-                        }
-                    })),
-                )
-                    .into_response()
-            } else if error_msg.contains("already exists") {
-                (
-                    StatusCode::BAD_REQUEST,
-                    Json(serde_json::json!({
-                        "error": {
-                            "message": error_msg,
-                            "type": "TableAlreadyExistsException"
-                        }
-                    })),
-                )
-                    .into_response()
+            if let Some(ns_err) = source.downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>() {
+                let code = ns_err.code().as_u32();
+                let status = error_code_to_status(code);
+                let mut resp = ErrorResponse::new(code as i32);
+                resp.error = Some(ns_err.message().to_string());
+                (status, Json(resp)).into_response()
             } else {
-                (
-                    StatusCode::BAD_REQUEST,
-                    Json(serde_json::json!({
-                        "error": {
-                            "message": error_msg,
-                            "type": "NamespaceException"
-                        }
-                    })),
-                )
-                    .into_response()
+                let mut resp = ErrorResponse::new(18);
+                resp.error = Some(source.to_string());
+                (StatusCode::INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR, Json(resp)).into_response()
             }
         }
-        Error::IO { source, .. } => (
-            StatusCode::INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR,
-            Json(serde_json::json!({
-                "error": {
-                    "message": source.to_string(),
-                    "type": "InternalServerError"
-                }
-            })),
-        )
-            .into_response(),
-        _ => (
-            StatusCode::INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR,
-            Json(serde_json::json!({
-                "error": {
-                    "message": err.to_string(),
-                    "type": "InternalServerError"
-                }
-            })),
-        )
-            .into_response(),
+        _ => {
+            let mut resp = ErrorResponse::new(18);
+            resp.error = Some(err.to_string());
+            (StatusCode::INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR, Json(resp)).into_response()
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -408,6 +484,7 @@ async fn list_tables(
         id: Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref())),
         page_token: params.page_token,
         limit: params.limit,
+        include_declared: params.include_declared,
         identity: extract_identity(&headers),
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -438,11 +515,20 @@ async fn describe_table(
     State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
     headers: HeaderMap,
     Path(id): Path<String>,
-    Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    Query(params): Query<DescribeTableQuery>,
     Json(mut request): Json<DescribeTableRequest>,
 ) -> Response {
     request.id = Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref()));
     request.identity = extract_identity(&headers);
+    if params.with_table_uri.is_some() {
+        request.with_table_uri = params.with_table_uri;
+    }
+    if params.load_detailed_metadata.is_some() {
+        request.load_detailed_metadata = params.load_detailed_metadata;
+    }
+    if params.check_declared.is_some() {
+        request.check_declared = params.check_declared;
+    }
 
     match backend.describe_table(request).await {
         Ok(response) => (StatusCode::OK, Json(response)).into_response(),
@@ -508,6 +594,33 @@ async fn deregister_table(
 struct CreateTableQuery {
     delimiter: Option<String>,
     mode: Option<String>,
+    properties: Option<String>,
+    storage_options: Option<String>,
+}
+
+fn parse_json_query_param<T: serde::de::DeserializeOwned>(
+    raw: Option<&str>,
+    operation: &str,
+    param_name: &str,
+) -> std::result::Result<Option<T>, Box<Response>> {
+    match raw {
+        Some(raw) => serde_json::from_str(raw).map(Some).map_err(|e| {
+            let response = (
+                StatusCode::BAD_REQUEST,
+                Json(serde_json::json!({
+                    "error": {
+                        "message": format!(
+                            "Failed to parse {} {} query parameter as JSON: {}",
+                            operation, param_name, e
+                        )
+                    }
+                })),
+            )
+                .into_response();
+            Box::new(response)
+        }),
+        None => Ok(None),
+    }
 }
 
 async fn create_table(
@@ -517,9 +630,24 @@ async fn create_table(
     Query(params): Query<CreateTableQuery>,
     body: Bytes,
 ) -> Response {
+    let properties =
+        match parse_json_query_param(params.properties.as_deref(), "create_table", "properties") {
+            Ok(properties) => properties,
+            Err(response) => return *response,
+        };
+    let storage_options = match parse_json_query_param(
+        params.storage_options.as_deref(),
+        "create_table",
+        "storage_options",
+    ) {
+        Ok(storage_options) => storage_options,
+        Err(response) => return *response,
+    };
     let request = CreateTableRequest {
         id: Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref())),
         mode: params.mode.clone(),
+        properties,
+        storage_options,
         identity: extract_identity(&headers),
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -530,23 +658,6 @@ async fn create_table(
     }
 }
 
-#[allow(deprecated)]
-async fn create_empty_table(
-    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
-    headers: HeaderMap,
-    Path(id): Path<String>,
-    Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
-    Json(mut request): Json<CreateEmptyTableRequest>,
-) -> Response {
-    request.id = Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref()));
-    request.identity = extract_identity(&headers);
-
-    match backend.create_empty_table(request).await {
-        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::CREATED, Json(response)).into_response(),
-        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
-    }
-}
-
 async fn declare_table(
     State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
     headers: HeaderMap,
@@ -589,10 +700,12 @@ async fn insert_into_table(
     }
 }
 
+/// `on` is absent here on purpose: it repeats once per column of a composite match key,
+/// and `serde_urlencoded` (what axum's `Query` is built on) cannot deserialize a sequence.
+/// It is collected from the raw query string by [`merge_insert_on_params`] instead.
 #[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
 struct MergeInsertQuery {
     delimiter: Option<String>,
-    on: Option<String>,
     when_matched_update_all: Option<bool>,
     when_matched_update_all_filt: Option<String>,
     when_not_matched_insert_all: Option<bool>,
@@ -602,16 +715,25 @@ struct MergeInsertQuery {
     use_index: Option<bool>,
 }
 
+fn merge_insert_on_params(raw_query: Option<&str>) -> Option<Vec<String>> {
+    let on: Vec<String> = form_urlencoded::parse(raw_query?.as_bytes())
+        .filter(|(key, _)| key == "on")
+        .map(|(_, value)| value.into_owned())
+        .collect();
+    (!on.is_empty()).then_some(on)
+}
+
 async fn merge_insert_into_table(
     State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
     headers: HeaderMap,
     Path(id): Path<String>,
     Query(params): Query<MergeInsertQuery>,
+    RawQuery(raw_query): RawQuery,
     body: Bytes,
 ) -> Response {
     let request = MergeInsertIntoTableRequest {
         id: Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref())),
-        on: params.on,
+        on: merge_insert_on_params(raw_query.as_deref()),
         when_matched_update_all: params.when_matched_update_all,
         when_matched_update_all_filt: params.when_matched_update_all_filt,
         when_not_matched_insert_all: params.when_not_matched_insert_all,
@@ -743,6 +865,8 @@ async fn list_table_versions(
         id: Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref())),
         page_token: params.page_token,
         limit: params.limit,
+        descending: params.descending,
+        branch: params.branch,
         identity: extract_identity(&headers),
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -753,6 +877,73 @@ async fn list_table_versions(
     }
 }
 
+async fn create_table_version(
+    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+    headers: HeaderMap,
+    Path(id): Path<String>,
+    Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    Json(body): Json<CreateTableVersionRequest>,
+) -> Response {
+    let request = CreateTableVersionRequest {
+        id: Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref())),
+        identity: extract_identity(&headers),
+        version: body.version,
+        manifest_path: body.manifest_path,
+        manifest_size: body.manifest_size,
+        e_tag: body.e_tag,
+        metadata: body.metadata,
+        branch: body.branch,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    match backend.create_table_version(request).await {
+        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::OK, Json(response)).into_response(),
+        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn describe_table_version(
+    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+    headers: HeaderMap,
+    Path(id): Path<String>,
+    Query(query): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    Json(body): Json<DescribeTableVersionRequest>,
+) -> Response {
+    let request = DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+        id: Some(parse_id(&id, query.delimiter.as_deref())),
+        version: body.version,
+        branch: body.branch,
+        identity: extract_identity(&headers),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    match backend.describe_table_version(request).await {
+        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::OK, Json(response)).into_response(),
+        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn batch_delete_table_versions(
+    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+    headers: HeaderMap,
+    Path(id): Path<String>,
+    Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    Json(body): Json<BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest>,
+) -> Response {
+    let request = BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest {
+        id: Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref())),
+        identity: extract_identity(&headers),
+        ranges: body.ranges,
+        branch: body.branch,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    match backend.batch_delete_table_versions(request).await {
+        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::OK, Json(response)).into_response(),
+        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
+    }
+}
+
 async fn get_table_stats(
     State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
     headers: HeaderMap,
@@ -780,6 +971,7 @@ async fn list_all_tables(
         id: None,
         page_token: params.page_token,
         limit: params.limit,
+        include_declared: params.include_declared,
         identity: extract_identity(&headers),
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -831,15 +1023,11 @@ async fn list_table_indices(
     headers: HeaderMap,
     Path(id): Path<String>,
     Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    MaybeJson(body): MaybeJson<ListTableIndicesRequest>,
 ) -> Response {
-    let request = ListTableIndicesRequest {
-        id: Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref())),
-        version: None,
-        page_token: None,
-        limit: None,
-        identity: extract_identity(&headers),
-        ..Default::default()
-    };
+    let mut request = body.unwrap_or_default();
+    request.id = Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref()));
+    request.identity = extract_identity(&headers);
 
     match backend.list_table_indices(request).await {
         Ok(response) => (StatusCode::OK, Json(response)).into_response(),
@@ -928,6 +1116,54 @@ async fn alter_table_alter_columns(
     }
 }
 
+async fn alter_table_backfill_columns(
+    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+    headers: HeaderMap,
+    Path(id): Path<String>,
+    Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    Json(mut request): Json<AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest>,
+) -> Response {
+    request.id = Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref()));
+    request.identity = extract_identity(&headers);
+
+    match backend.alter_table_backfill_columns(request).await {
+        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::ACCEPTED, Json(response)).into_response(),
+        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn refresh_materialized_view(
+    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+    headers: HeaderMap,
+    Path(id): Path<String>,
+    Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    Json(mut request): Json<RefreshMaterializedViewRequest>,
+) -> Response {
+    request.id = Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref()));
+    request.identity = extract_identity(&headers);
+
+    match backend.refresh_materialized_view(request).await {
+        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::ACCEPTED, Json(response)).into_response(),
+        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn create_materialized_view(
+    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+    headers: HeaderMap,
+    Path(id): Path<String>,
+    Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    Json(mut request): Json<CreateMaterializedViewRequest>,
+) -> Response {
+    request.id = Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref()));
+    request.identity = extract_identity(&headers);
+
+    match backend.create_materialized_view(request).await {
+        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::CREATED, Json(response)).into_response(),
+        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
+    }
+}
+
 async fn alter_table_drop_columns(
     State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
     headers: HeaderMap,
@@ -1048,6 +1284,62 @@ async fn update_table_tag(
     }
 }
 
+// ============================================================================
+// Branch Operation Handlers
+// ============================================================================
+
+async fn create_table_branch(
+    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+    headers: HeaderMap,
+    Path(id): Path<String>,
+    Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    Json(mut request): Json<CreateTableBranchRequest>,
+) -> Response {
+    request.id = Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref()));
+    request.identity = extract_identity(&headers);
+
+    match backend.create_table_branch(request).await {
+        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::CREATED, Json(response)).into_response(),
+        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn list_table_branches(
+    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+    headers: HeaderMap,
+    Path(id): Path<String>,
+    Query(params): Query<PaginationQuery>,
+) -> Response {
+    let request = ListTableBranchesRequest {
+        id: Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref())),
+        page_token: params.page_token,
+        limit: params.limit,
+        identity: extract_identity(&headers),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    match backend.list_table_branches(request).await {
+        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::OK, Json(response)).into_response(),
+        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn delete_table_branch(
+    State(backend): State<Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>>,
+    headers: HeaderMap,
+    Path(id): Path<String>,
+    Query(params): Query<DelimiterQuery>,
+    Json(mut request): Json<DeleteTableBranchRequest>,
+) -> Response {
+    request.id = Some(parse_id(&id, params.delimiter.as_deref()));
+    request.identity = extract_identity(&headers);
+
+    match backend.delete_table_branch(request).await {
+        Ok(response) => (StatusCode::OK, Json(response)).into_response(),
+        Err(e) => error_to_response(e),
+    }
+}
+
 // ============================================================================
 // Query Plan Operation Handlers
 // ============================================================================
@@ -1223,6 +1515,25 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(id, vec!["table"]);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_insert_on_params() {
+        assert_eq!(merge_insert_on_params(None), None);
+        assert_eq!(merge_insert_on_params(Some("delimiter=%24")), None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            merge_insert_on_params(Some("on=id&use_index=true")),
+            Some(vec!["id".to_string()])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merge_insert_on_params(Some("on=region&use_index=true&on=id")),
+            Some(vec!["region".to_string(), "id".to_string()])
+        );
+        // A backtick-quoted field path arrives percent-encoded.
+        assert_eq!(
+            merge_insert_on_params(Some("on=%60a.b%60&on=nested.leaf")),
+            Some(vec!["`a.b`".to_string(), "nested.leaf".to_string()])
+        );
+    }
+
     // ============================================================================
     // Integration Tests
     // ============================================================================
@@ -1243,15 +1554,25 @@ mod tests {
 
         impl RestServerFixture {
             async fn new() -> Self {
+                Self::build(false).await
+            }
+
+            /// Like [`Self::new`], with managed versioning (table version
+            /// tracking) enabled on the backend.
+            async fn new_managed() -> Self {
+                Self::build(true).await
+            }
+
+            async fn build(managed_versioning: bool) -> Self {
                 let temp_dir = TempDir::new().unwrap();
                 let temp_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap().to_string();
 
                 // Create DirectoryNamespace backend with manifest enabled
-                let backend = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(&temp_path)
-                    .manifest_enabled(true)
-                    .build()
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
+                let mut builder = DirectoryNamespaceBuilder::new(&temp_path).manifest_enabled(true);
+                if managed_versioning {
+                    builder = builder.table_version_tracking_enabled(true);
+                }
+                let backend = builder.build().await.unwrap();
                 let backend = Arc::new(backend);
 
                 // Start REST server with port 0 (OS assigns available port)
@@ -1317,6 +1638,55 @@ mod tests {
             Bytes::from(buffer)
         }
 
+        /// Helper to create Arrow IPC data with vector column for testing vector index
+        fn create_test_vector_data(num_rows: usize, dim: i32) -> Bytes {
+            use arrow::array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array};
+            use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+            use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
+            use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new(
+                    "vector",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                        dim,
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+            ]));
+
+            let ids: Vec<i32> = (0..num_rows as i32).collect();
+            let vector_values: Vec<f32> = (0..(num_rows * dim as usize))
+                .map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.01)
+                .collect();
+
+            let vector_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+            let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                vector_field,
+                dim,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vector_values)),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)), Arc::new(vectors)],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            {
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &schema).unwrap();
+                writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+                writer.finish().unwrap();
+            }
+
+            Bytes::from(buffer)
+        }
+
         #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
         async fn test_trailing_slash_handling() {
             let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
@@ -1600,8 +1970,7 @@ mod tests {
         }
 
         #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
-        #[allow(deprecated)]
-        async fn test_empty_table_exists_in_child_namespace() {
+        async fn test_declared_table_exists_in_child_namespace() {
             let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
 
             // Create child namespace
@@ -1617,14 +1986,12 @@ mod tests {
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
 
-            // Create empty table
-            let mut create_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest::new();
-            create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
-            fixture
-                .namespace
-                .create_empty_table(create_req)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+            // Declare table
+            let declare_req = DeclareTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture.namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
 
             // Check table exists
             let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
@@ -1632,7 +1999,7 @@ mod tests {
             let result = fixture.namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
             assert!(
                 result.is_ok(),
-                "Empty table should exist in child namespace"
+                "Declared table should exist in child namespace"
             );
         }
 
@@ -1778,8 +2145,7 @@ mod tests {
         }
 
         #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
-        #[allow(deprecated)]
-        async fn test_create_empty_table_in_child_namespace() {
+        async fn test_describe_declared_table_in_child_namespace() {
             let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
 
             // Create child namespace
@@ -1795,104 +2161,56 @@ mod tests {
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
 
-            // Create empty table
-            let mut create_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest::new();
-            create_req.id = Some(vec![
-                "test_namespace".to_string(),
-                "empty_table".to_string(),
-            ]);
+            // Declare table
+            let declare_req = DeclareTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture.namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
+
+            // Describe the declared table
+            let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
+            describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
+            let result = fixture.namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await;
 
-            let result = fixture.namespace.create_empty_table(create_req).await;
             assert!(
                 result.is_ok(),
-                "Failed to create empty table in child namespace: {:?}",
+                "Failed to describe declared table in child namespace: {:?}",
                 result.err()
             );
-
-            // Check response details
             let response = result.unwrap();
+
+            // Check location
             assert!(
                 response.location.is_some(),
                 "Response should include location"
             );
+            let location = response.location.unwrap();
             assert!(
-                response.location.unwrap().contains("empty_table"),
+                location.contains("test_table"),
                 "Location should contain table name"
             );
+            assert_eq!(response.is_only_declared, None);
 
-            // Verify the empty table exists
-            let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
-            exists_req.id = Some(vec![
-                "test_namespace".to_string(),
-                "empty_table".to_string(),
-            ]);
-            let exists_result = fixture.namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
-            assert!(
-                exists_result.is_ok(),
-                "Empty table should exist in child namespace"
-            );
-        }
-
-        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
-        #[allow(deprecated)]
-        async fn test_describe_empty_table_in_child_namespace() {
-            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
-
-            // Create child namespace
-            let create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest {
-                id: Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string()]),
-                properties: None,
-                mode: None,
-                ..Default::default()
-            };
-            fixture
-                .namespace
-                .create_namespace(create_ns_req)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-
-            // Create empty table
-            let mut create_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest::new();
-            create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
-            fixture
-                .namespace
-                .create_empty_table(create_req)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-
-            // Describe the empty table
             let mut describe_req = DescribeTableRequest::new();
             describe_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
-            let result = fixture.namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await;
-
-            assert!(
-                result.is_ok(),
-                "Failed to describe empty table in child namespace: {:?}",
-                result.err()
-            );
-            let response = result.unwrap();
-
-            // Check location
-            assert!(
-                response.location.is_some(),
-                "Response should include location"
-            );
-            let location = response.location.unwrap();
-            assert!(
-                location.contains("test_table"),
-                "Location should contain table name"
-            );
+            describe_req.check_declared = Some(true);
+            let response = fixture
+                .namespace
+                .describe_table(describe_req)
+                .await
+                .expect("Should describe declared table with check_declared");
+            assert_eq!(response.is_only_declared, Some(true));
 
-            // Empty tables don't have a version until data is written
-            // (version is None for empty tables)
+            // Declared tables don't have a version until data is written
+            // (version is None for declared tables)
 
-            // Empty tables don't have a schema initially
+            // Declared tables don't have a schema initially
             // (schema is None until data is added)
         }
 
         #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
-        #[allow(deprecated)]
-        async fn test_drop_empty_table_in_child_namespace() {
+        async fn test_drop_declared_table_in_child_namespace() {
             let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
 
             // Create child namespace
@@ -1908,14 +2226,12 @@ mod tests {
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
 
-            // Create empty table
-            let mut create_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest::new();
-            create_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
-            fixture
-                .namespace
-                .create_empty_table(create_req)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+            // Declare table
+            let declare_req = DeclareTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture.namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await.unwrap();
 
             // Drop the empty table
             let drop_req = DropTableRequest {
@@ -1933,14 +2249,16 @@ mod tests {
             let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
             exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
             let result = fixture.namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
-            assert!(result.is_err(), "Empty table should not exist after drop");
+            assert!(
+                result.is_err(),
+                "Declared table should not exist after drop"
+            );
             // After drop, accessing the table should fail
             // (error message varies depending on implementation details)
         }
 
         #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
-        #[allow(deprecated)]
-        async fn test_deeply_nested_namespace_with_empty_table() {
+        async fn test_deeply_nested_namespace_with_declared_table() {
             let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
 
             // Create deeply nested namespace hierarchy
@@ -1984,20 +2302,22 @@ mod tests {
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
 
-            // Create empty table in deeply nested namespace
-            let mut create_req = CreateEmptyTableRequest::new();
-            create_req.id = Some(vec![
-                "level1".to_string(),
-                "level2".to_string(),
-                "level3".to_string(),
-                "deep_table".to_string(),
-            ]);
+            // Declare table in deeply nested namespace
+            let declare_req = DeclareTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "level1".to_string(),
+                    "level2".to_string(),
+                    "level3".to_string(),
+                    "deep_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
 
-            let result = fixture.namespace.create_empty_table(create_req).await;
+            let result = fixture.namespace.declare_table(declare_req).await;
 
             assert!(
                 result.is_ok(),
-                "Failed to create empty table in deeply nested namespace"
+                "Failed to declare table in deeply nested namespace"
             );
 
             // Verify table exists
@@ -2011,7 +2331,7 @@ mod tests {
             let result = fixture.namespace.table_exists(exists_req).await;
             assert!(
                 result.is_ok(),
-                "Empty table should exist in deeply nested namespace"
+                "Declared table should exist in deeply nested namespace"
             );
         }
 
@@ -2214,8 +2534,8 @@ mod tests {
             );
             let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
             assert!(
-                err_msg.contains("is not empty"),
-                "Error should be 'is not empty', got: {}",
+                err_msg.contains("not empty"),
+                "Error should contain 'not empty', got: {}",
                 err_msg
             );
         }
@@ -2315,8 +2635,8 @@ mod tests {
             assert!(result.is_err(), "Cannot create root namespace");
             let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
             assert!(
-                err_msg.contains("Root namespace already exists and cannot be created"),
-                "Error should be 'Root namespace already exists and cannot be created', got: {}",
+                err_msg.contains("already exists") && err_msg.contains("root namespace"),
+                "Error should contain 'already exists' and 'root namespace', got: {}",
                 err_msg
             );
 
@@ -2506,11 +2826,13 @@ mod tests {
             // Verify table exists
             let mut exists_req = TableExistsRequest::new();
             exists_req.id = Some(vec!["test_namespace".to_string(), "test_table".to_string()]);
-            assert!(fixture
-                .namespace
-                .table_exists(exists_req.clone())
-                .await
-                .is_ok());
+            assert!(
+                fixture
+                    .namespace
+                    .table_exists(exists_req.clone())
+                    .await
+                    .is_ok()
+            );
 
             // Deregister the table
             let deregister_req = DeregisterTableRequest {
@@ -2770,6 +3092,92 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(a_col.values(), &[100, 200]);
         }
 
+        /// `(region, id, value)` rows, for merge inserts keyed on `region` + `id`.
+        fn create_composite_key_arrow_data(rows: &[(&str, i32, &str)]) -> Bytes {
+            use arrow::array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+            use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+            use arrow::ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
+            use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatch;
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("region", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("value", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                        rows.iter().map(|(region, _, _)| *region),
+                    )),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                        rows.iter().map(|(_, id, _)| *id),
+                    )),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                        rows.iter().map(|(_, _, value)| *value),
+                    )),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            {
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &schema).unwrap();
+                writer.write(&batch).unwrap();
+                writer.finish().unwrap();
+            }
+            Bytes::from(buffer)
+        }
+
+        /// A composite match key survives the round trip through the REST client and the
+        /// adapter's query string, which repeats `on` once per column.
+        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_composite_key_round_trip() {
+            use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+
+            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
+            let table_id = vec!["merge_ns".to_string(), "merge_table".to_string()];
+            let on = vec!["region".to_string(), "id".to_string()];
+
+            let mut create_ns = CreateNamespaceRequest::new();
+            create_ns.id = Some(vec!["merge_ns".to_string()]);
+            fixture.namespace.create_namespace(create_ns).await.unwrap();
+
+            let create_table_req = CreateTableRequest {
+                id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                mode: Some("Create".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table(
+                    create_table_req,
+                    create_composite_key_arrow_data(&[
+                        ("us", 1, "a"),
+                        ("us", 2, "b"),
+                        ("eu", 1, "c"),
+                    ]),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let mut merge_req = MergeInsertIntoTableRequest::new();
+            merge_req.id = Some(table_id);
+            merge_req.on = Some(on);
+            merge_req.when_matched_update_all = Some(true);
+            let response = fixture
+                .namespace
+                .merge_insert_into_table(
+                    merge_req,
+                    create_composite_key_arrow_data(&[("us", 1, "updated"), ("eu", 2, "inserted")]),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(response.num_updated_rows, Some(1));
+            assert_eq!(response.num_inserted_rows, Some(1));
+        }
+
         // ============================================================================
         // DynamicContextProvider Integration Test
         // ============================================================================
@@ -2870,8 +3278,7 @@ mod tests {
                     "test_table".to_string(),
                 ]),
                 mode: Some("create".to_string()),
-                identity: None,
-                context: None,
+                ..Default::default()
             };
             let result = namespace.create_table(create_table_req, table_data).await;
             assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to create table: {:?}", result);
@@ -2882,12 +3289,7 @@ mod tests {
                     "context_test_ns".to_string(),
                     "test_table".to_string(),
                 ]),
-                with_table_uri: None,
-                load_detailed_metadata: None,
-                vend_credentials: None,
-                version: None,
-                identity: None,
-                context: None,
+                ..Default::default()
             };
             let result = namespace.describe_table(describe_req).await;
             assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to describe table: {:?}", result);
@@ -2895,5 +3297,749 @@ mod tests {
             // Cleanup
             server_handle.shutdown();
         }
+
+        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+        async fn test_list_table_versions_with_descending() {
+            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
+            let table_data = create_test_arrow_data();
+
+            // Create namespace
+            let create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["version_test_ns".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Create table
+            let create_table_req = CreateTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "version_test_ns".to_string(),
+                    "version_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                mode: Some("create".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table(create_table_req, table_data)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // List table versions (ascending by default)
+            let list_req = ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "version_test_ns".to_string(),
+                    "version_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                descending: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let result = fixture.namespace.list_table_versions(list_req).await;
+            assert!(
+                result.is_ok(),
+                "Failed to list table versions: {:?}",
+                result
+            );
+            let versions = result.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                !versions.versions.is_empty(),
+                "Should have at least one version"
+            );
+
+            // List table versions with descending=true
+            let list_req = ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "version_test_ns".to_string(),
+                    "version_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                descending: Some(true),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let result = fixture.namespace.list_table_versions(list_req).await;
+            assert!(
+                result.is_ok(),
+                "Failed to list table versions with descending: {:?}",
+                result
+            );
+
+            // List table versions with descending=false
+            let list_req = ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "version_test_ns".to_string(),
+                    "version_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                descending: Some(false),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let result = fixture.namespace.list_table_versions(list_req).await;
+            assert!(
+                result.is_ok(),
+                "Failed to list table versions with ascending: {:?}",
+                result
+            );
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+        async fn test_branch_param_forwarded_end_to_end() {
+            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
+
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest {
+                    id: Some(vec!["branch_fwd_ns".to_string()]),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table(
+                    CreateTableRequest {
+                        id: Some(vec![
+                            "branch_fwd_ns".to_string(),
+                            "branch_fwd_table".to_string(),
+                        ]),
+                        mode: Some("create".to_string()),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    },
+                    create_test_arrow_data(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let id = vec!["branch_fwd_ns".to_string(), "branch_fwd_table".to_string()];
+
+            // Control: no branch succeeds (resolves the main chain).
+            assert!(
+                fixture
+                    .namespace
+                    .list_table_versions(ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                        id: Some(id.clone()),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    })
+                    .await
+                    .is_ok()
+            );
+
+            // list forwards branch as a query param; a bogus branch 404s at the backend.
+            assert!(
+                fixture
+                    .namespace
+                    .list_table_versions(ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                        id: Some(id.clone()),
+                        branch: Some("ghost".to_string()),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    })
+                    .await
+                    .is_err(),
+                "branch must be forwarded as a query param and honored by the backend"
+            );
+
+            // describe carries branch in the request body; a bogus branch likewise 404s.
+            assert!(
+                fixture
+                    .namespace
+                    .describe_table_version(DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+                        id: Some(id.clone()),
+                        branch: Some("ghost".to_string()),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    })
+                    .await
+                    .is_err(),
+                "branch must be forwarded in the request body and honored by the backend"
+            );
+
+            fixture.server_handle.shutdown();
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+        async fn test_branch_crud_end_to_end() {
+            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
+
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest {
+                    id: Some(vec!["branch_crud_ns".to_string()]),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table(
+                    CreateTableRequest {
+                        id: Some(vec![
+                            "branch_crud_ns".to_string(),
+                            "branch_crud_table".to_string(),
+                        ]),
+                        mode: Some("create".to_string()),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    },
+                    create_test_arrow_data(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let id = vec![
+                "branch_crud_ns".to_string(),
+                "branch_crud_table".to_string(),
+            ];
+
+            // create -> list shows it (client -> server -> directory backend)
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                    id: Some(id.clone()),
+                    name: "dev".to_string(),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let listed = fixture
+                .namespace
+                .list_table_branches(ListTableBranchesRequest {
+                    id: Some(id.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                listed.branches.contains_key("dev"),
+                "created branch should appear in list: {:?}",
+                listed.branches
+            );
+
+            // duplicate create -> 409 Conflict
+            let port = fixture.server_handle.port();
+            let client = reqwest::Client::new();
+            let table_path = "branch_crud_ns%24branch_crud_table";
+            let resp = client
+                .post(format!(
+                    "http://127.0.0.1:{}/v1/table/{}/branches/create",
+                    port, table_path
+                ))
+                .query(&[("delimiter", "$")])
+                .json(&serde_json::json!({ "name": "dev" }))
+                .send()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                resp.status(),
+                409,
+                "duplicate branch create should map to 409, got {}",
+                resp.status()
+            );
+
+            // delete -> list no longer shows it
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .delete_table_branch(DeleteTableBranchRequest {
+                    id: Some(id.clone()),
+                    name: "dev".to_string(),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let listed = fixture
+                .namespace
+                .list_table_branches(ListTableBranchesRequest {
+                    id: Some(id.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                !listed.branches.contains_key("dev"),
+                "deleted branch must not appear in list: {:?}",
+                listed.branches
+            );
+
+            // delete missing -> 404 Not Found (raw HTTP validates TableBranchNotFound -> 404).
+            let resp = client
+                .post(format!(
+                    "http://127.0.0.1:{}/v1/table/{}/branches/delete",
+                    port, table_path
+                ))
+                .query(&[("delimiter", "$")])
+                .json(&serde_json::json!({ "name": "dev" }))
+                .send()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                resp.status(),
+                404,
+                "deleting a missing branch should map to 404, got {}",
+                resp.status()
+            );
+
+            fixture.server_handle.shutdown();
+        }
+
+        /// The managed (manifest-tracked) branch flow over REST: create a
+        /// managed table and a branch through the RestNamespace client, open
+        /// the branch via `from_namespace(...).with_branch`, commit on it,
+        /// check out across branches at an overlapping version number, and
+        /// round-trip a branch-pointing tag. Mirrors the DirectoryNamespace
+        /// e2e to prove the REST layer forwards everything the managed commit
+        /// store needs.
+        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+        async fn test_namespace_managed_branch_e2e() {
+            use arrow::array::Int32Array;
+            use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+            use arrow::record_batch::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+            use futures::TryStreamExt;
+            use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+            use lance::dataset::refs::Ref;
+            use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+            use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+
+            async fn scan_ids(ds: &Dataset) -> Vec<i32> {
+                let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = ds
+                    .scan()
+                    .try_into_stream()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_collect()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|b| {
+                        b.column(0)
+                            .as_any()
+                            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .values()
+                            .to_vec()
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                ids.sort();
+                ids
+            }
+
+            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new_managed().await;
+            let namespace = Arc::new(fixture.namespace.clone()) as Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>;
+            let table_id = vec!["mb_table".to_string()];
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "id",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                false,
+            )]));
+            let batch = |seed: i32| {
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![seed]))])
+                    .unwrap()
+            };
+
+            // Managed main: v1 (id=1), v2 (id=2).
+            let mut main_ds = Dataset::write_into_namespace(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch(1))], schema.clone()),
+                namespace.clone(),
+                table_id.clone(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            main_ds
+                .append(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch(2))], schema.clone()),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // The REST layer must surface managed versioning for the deferred
+            // commit handler to engage.
+            let described = namespace
+                .describe_table(DescribeTableRequest {
+                    id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                described.managed_versioning,
+                Some(true),
+                "managed_versioning must survive the REST round trip"
+            );
+            let main_chain_len = |ns: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>, table_id: Vec<String>| async move {
+                ns.list_table_versions(ListTableVersionsRequest {
+                    id: Some(table_id),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .versions
+                .len()
+            };
+            assert_eq!(main_chain_len(namespace.clone(), table_id.clone()).await, 2);
+
+            // Branch via the REST client, then open and commit on it.
+            namespace
+                .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                    id: Some(table_id.clone()),
+                    name: "exp".to_string(),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut branch_ds = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(namespace.clone(), table_id.clone())
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_branch("exp", None)
+                .load()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(branch_ds.manifest().branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+            assert!(
+                branch_ds
+                    .branch_location()
+                    .path
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .ends_with("tree/exp"),
+                "the branch dataset must be rooted at the branch chain"
+            );
+            branch_ds
+                .append(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch(3))], schema.clone()),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(branch_ds.manifest().branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+            assert_eq!(scan_ids(&branch_ds).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                main_chain_len(namespace.clone(), table_id.clone()).await,
+                2,
+                "a branch commit must not advance main's chain"
+            );
+
+            // Cross-branch checkout at an overlapping version number must land
+            // on the branch chain (branch numbering continues from the fork
+            // point, so both chains have this version).
+            let overlap_version = branch_ds.version().version;
+            while main_ds.version().version < overlap_version {
+                main_ds
+                    .append(
+                        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch(100))], schema.clone()),
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            let on_branch = main_ds
+                .checkout_version(Ref::Version(Some("exp".to_string()), Some(overlap_version)))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(on_branch.manifest().branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+            assert_eq!(scan_ids(&on_branch).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+            let on_branch_latest = main_ds.checkout_branch("exp").await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(on_branch_latest.manifest().branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+
+            // Branch-pointing tag round trip through the builder.
+            main_ds
+                .tags()
+                .create("exp-tag", ("exp", Some(overlap_version)))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let tag_open = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(namespace.clone(), table_id.clone())
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_tag("exp-tag")
+                .load()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(tag_open.manifest().branch.as_deref(), Some("exp"));
+            assert_eq!(tag_open.version().version, overlap_version);
+            assert_eq!(scan_ids(&tag_open).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+
+            fixture.server_handle.shutdown();
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+        async fn test_list_branches_bodyless_post() {
+            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
+
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_namespace(CreateNamespaceRequest {
+                    id: Some(vec!["list_post_ns".to_string()]),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table(
+                    CreateTableRequest {
+                        id: Some(vec![
+                            "list_post_ns".to_string(),
+                            "list_post_table".to_string(),
+                        ]),
+                        mode: Some("create".to_string()),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    },
+                    create_test_arrow_data(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table_branch(CreateTableBranchRequest {
+                    id: Some(vec![
+                        "list_post_ns".to_string(),
+                        "list_post_table".to_string(),
+                    ]),
+                    name: "dev".to_string(),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let port = fixture.server_handle.port();
+            let client = reqwest::Client::new();
+            let resp = client
+                .post(format!(
+                    "http://127.0.0.1:{}/v1/table/list_post_ns%24list_post_table/branches/list",
+                    port
+                ))
+                .query(&[("delimiter", "$")])
+                .send()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                resp.status(),
+                200,
+                "bodyless list POST should succeed, got {}",
+                resp.status()
+            );
+            let body: ListTableBranchesResponse = resp.json().await.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                body.branches.contains_key("dev"),
+                "bodyless list should return the branch, got: {:?}",
+                body.branches
+            );
+
+            fixture.server_handle.shutdown();
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+        async fn test_describe_table_version() {
+            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
+            let table_data = create_test_arrow_data();
+
+            // Create namespace
+            let create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["describe_version_ns".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Create table
+            let create_table_req = CreateTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "describe_version_ns".to_string(),
+                    "describe_version_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                mode: Some("create".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table(create_table_req, table_data)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Describe table version with specific version number
+            let describe_req = DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "describe_version_ns".to_string(),
+                    "describe_version_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                version: Some(1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let result = fixture.namespace.describe_table_version(describe_req).await;
+            assert!(
+                result.is_ok(),
+                "Failed to describe table version 1: {:?}",
+                result
+            );
+            let version_info = result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(version_info.version.version, 1);
+
+            // Describe table version with None (latest)
+            let describe_req = DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "describe_version_ns".to_string(),
+                    "describe_version_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                version: None,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let result = fixture.namespace.describe_table_version(describe_req).await;
+            assert!(
+                result.is_ok(),
+                "Failed to describe latest table version: {:?}",
+                result
+            );
+            let version_info = result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                version_info.version.version, 1,
+                "Latest version should be 1"
+            );
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+        async fn test_create_and_list_table_index() {
+            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
+            let table_data = create_test_arrow_data();
+
+            // Create namespace
+            let create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["index_test_ns".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Create table
+            let create_table_req = CreateTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "index_test_ns".to_string(),
+                    "index_test_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                mode: Some("Create".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table(create_table_req, table_data)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Create scalar index on 'id' column
+            let create_index_req = CreateTableIndexRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "index_test_ns".to_string(),
+                    "index_test_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                column: "id".to_string(),
+                index_type: "BTREE".to_string(),
+                name: Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let result = fixture.namespace.create_table_index(create_index_req).await;
+            assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to create index: {:?}", result.err());
+
+            // List indices
+            let list_indices_req = ListTableIndicesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "index_test_ns".to_string(),
+                    "index_test_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let result = fixture.namespace.list_table_indices(list_indices_req).await;
+            assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to list indices: {:?}", result.err());
+            let indices = result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(indices.indexes.len(), 1, "Should have exactly one index");
+            assert_eq!(
+                indices.indexes[0].index_name, "id_idx",
+                "Index name should match"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                indices.indexes[0].columns,
+                vec!["id"],
+                "Index column should be 'id'"
+            );
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+        async fn test_create_vector_index() {
+            let fixture = RestServerFixture::new().await;
+            // Create 256 rows with 8-dimensional vectors for vector index
+            let table_data = create_test_vector_data(256, 8);
+
+            // Create namespace
+            let create_ns_req = CreateNamespaceRequest {
+                id: Some(vec!["vector_index_ns".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_namespace(create_ns_req)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Create table with vector data
+            let create_table_req = CreateTableRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "vector_index_ns".to_string(),
+                    "vector_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                mode: Some("Create".to_string()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            fixture
+                .namespace
+                .create_table(create_table_req, table_data)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Create vector index on 'vector' column using IVF_FLAT
+            let mut create_index_req =
+                CreateTableIndexRequest::new("vector".to_string(), "IVF_FLAT".to_string());
+            create_index_req.id = Some(vec![
+                "vector_index_ns".to_string(),
+                "vector_table".to_string(),
+            ]);
+            create_index_req.name = Some("vector_idx".to_string());
+            create_index_req.distance_type = Some("l2".to_string());
+            let result = fixture.namespace.create_table_index(create_index_req).await;
+            assert!(
+                result.is_ok(),
+                "Failed to create vector index: {:?}",
+                result.err()
+            );
+
+            // List indices to verify
+            let list_indices_req = ListTableIndicesRequest {
+                id: Some(vec![
+                    "vector_index_ns".to_string(),
+                    "vector_table".to_string(),
+                ]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let result = fixture.namespace.list_table_indices(list_indices_req).await;
+            assert!(result.is_ok(), "Failed to list indices: {:?}", result.err());
+            let indices = result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(indices.indexes.len(), 1, "Should have exactly one index");
+            assert_eq!(
+                indices.indexes[0].index_name, "vector_idx",
+                "Index name should match"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                indices.indexes[0].columns,
+                vec!["vector"],
+                "Index column should be 'vector'"
+            );
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-namespace/Cargo.toml
index f0aa59c91b8..ceac8ffa501 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace/Cargo.toml
@@ -16,12 +16,10 @@ async-trait.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
 arrow.workspace = true
 lance-core.workspace = true
+serde.workspace = true
+serde_json.workspace = true
 snafu.workspace = true
 lance-namespace-reqwest-client.workspace = true
 
-[dev-dependencies]
-tokio.workspace = true
-tempfile.workspace = true
-
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace/src/compat.rs b/rust/lance-namespace/src/compat.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..57c381831f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace/src/compat.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Deserialization shims that keep older SDK builds working against current native code.
+
+use crate::error::NamespaceError;
+use crate::models::MergeInsertIntoTableRequest;
+
+/// Deserialize a [`MergeInsertIntoTableRequest`] whose `on` field may be a bare string.
+///
+/// Java and Python SDK requests reach the Rust implementations as JSON across JNI and
+/// pyo3, so a jar or wheel built against lance-namespace 0.11 or earlier sends
+/// `"on": "id"` where the current model expects `"on": ["id"]`. A scalar is promoted to
+/// a one-element list so those callers keep working.
+///
+/// This is inbound only. A Java namespace implementation called *from* Rust still needs
+/// a jar matching the current model.
+pub fn merge_insert_request_from_json(
+    mut value: serde_json::Value,
+) -> crate::Result<MergeInsertIntoTableRequest> {
+    if let Some(on) = value.get_mut("on")
+        && let Some(column) = on.as_str()
+    {
+        *on = serde_json::json!([column]);
+    }
+
+    serde_json::from_value(value).map_err(|e| {
+        NamespaceError::InvalidInput {
+            message: format!("Failed to parse merge_insert_into_table request: {}", e),
+        }
+        .into()
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn parse(json: &str) -> MergeInsertIntoTableRequest {
+        merge_insert_request_from_json(serde_json::from_str(json).unwrap()).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scalar_on_is_promoted_to_a_single_column_key() {
+        let request = parse(r#"{"id": ["t"], "on": "id"}"#);
+        assert_eq!(request.on, Some(vec!["id".to_string()]));
+        assert_eq!(request.id, Some(vec!["t".to_string()]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn list_on_is_preserved() {
+        let request = parse(r#"{"id": ["t"], "on": ["a", "b"], "use_index": true}"#);
+        assert_eq!(request.on, Some(vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()]));
+        assert_eq!(request.use_index, Some(true));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn absent_and_null_on_stay_absent() {
+        assert_eq!(parse(r#"{"id": ["t"]}"#).on, None);
+        assert_eq!(parse(r#"{"id": ["t"], "on": null}"#).on, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_non_string_non_list_on_is_still_rejected() {
+        let error =
+            merge_insert_request_from_json(serde_json::json!({"id": ["t"], "on": 7})).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("invalid type"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace/src/error.rs b/rust/lance-namespace/src/error.rs
index 71fb7c12c31..5ed05541be3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace/src/error.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace/src/error.rs
@@ -25,7 +25,6 @@
 //! let lance_err: lance_core::Error = err.into();
 //! ```
 
-use lance_core::error::ToSnafuLocation;
 use snafu::Snafu;
 
 /// Lance Namespace error codes.
@@ -77,6 +76,12 @@ pub enum ErrorCode {
     InvalidTableState = 19,
     /// Table schema validation failed
     TableSchemaValidationError = 20,
+    /// Request was throttled due to rate limiting or too many concurrent operations
+    Throttling = 21,
+    /// The specified table branch does not exist
+    TableBranchNotFound = 22,
+    /// A table branch with this name already exists
+    TableBranchAlreadyExists = 23,
 }
 
 impl ErrorCode {
@@ -111,6 +116,9 @@ impl ErrorCode {
             18 => Some(Self::Internal),
             19 => Some(Self::InvalidTableState),
             20 => Some(Self::TableSchemaValidationError),
+            21 => Some(Self::Throttling),
+            22 => Some(Self::TableBranchNotFound),
+            23 => Some(Self::TableBranchAlreadyExists),
             _ => None,
         }
     }
@@ -140,6 +148,9 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for ErrorCode {
             Self::Internal => "Internal",
             Self::InvalidTableState => "InvalidTableState",
             Self::TableSchemaValidationError => "TableSchemaValidationError",
+            Self::Throttling => "Throttling",
+            Self::TableBranchNotFound => "TableBranchNotFound",
+            Self::TableBranchAlreadyExists => "TableBranchAlreadyExists",
         };
         write!(f, "{}", name)
     }
@@ -253,9 +264,55 @@ pub enum NamespaceError {
     /// Table schema validation failed.
     #[snafu(display("Table schema validation error: {message}"))]
     TableSchemaValidationError { message: String },
+
+    /// Request was throttled due to rate limiting or too many concurrent operations.
+    #[snafu(display("Throttling: {message}"))]
+    Throttling { message: String },
+
+    /// The specified table branch does not exist.
+    #[snafu(display("Table branch not found: {message}"))]
+    TableBranchNotFound { message: String },
+
+    /// A table branch with this name already exists.
+    #[snafu(display("Table branch already exists: {message}"))]
+    TableBranchAlreadyExists { message: String },
 }
 
 impl NamespaceError {
+    /// Returns the inner message without the Display prefix.
+    ///
+    /// Useful when serializing across boundaries (e.g. REST) where
+    /// the receiver will reconstruct the variant from the error code
+    /// and re-apply its own Display formatting.
+    pub fn message(&self) -> &str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Unsupported { message }
+            | Self::NamespaceNotFound { message }
+            | Self::NamespaceAlreadyExists { message }
+            | Self::NamespaceNotEmpty { message }
+            | Self::TableNotFound { message }
+            | Self::TableAlreadyExists { message }
+            | Self::TableIndexNotFound { message }
+            | Self::TableIndexAlreadyExists { message }
+            | Self::TableTagNotFound { message }
+            | Self::TableTagAlreadyExists { message }
+            | Self::TransactionNotFound { message }
+            | Self::TableVersionNotFound { message }
+            | Self::TableColumnNotFound { message }
+            | Self::InvalidInput { message }
+            | Self::ConcurrentModification { message }
+            | Self::PermissionDenied { message }
+            | Self::Unauthenticated { message }
+            | Self::ServiceUnavailable { message }
+            | Self::Internal { message }
+            | Self::InvalidTableState { message }
+            | Self::TableSchemaValidationError { message }
+            | Self::Throttling { message }
+            | Self::TableBranchNotFound { message }
+            | Self::TableBranchAlreadyExists { message } => message,
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Returns the error code for this error.
     ///
     /// Use this for programmatic error handling across language boundaries.
@@ -282,6 +339,9 @@ impl NamespaceError {
             Self::Internal { .. } => ErrorCode::Internal,
             Self::InvalidTableState { .. } => ErrorCode::InvalidTableState,
             Self::TableSchemaValidationError { .. } => ErrorCode::TableSchemaValidationError,
+            Self::Throttling { .. } => ErrorCode::Throttling,
+            Self::TableBranchNotFound { .. } => ErrorCode::TableBranchNotFound,
+            Self::TableBranchAlreadyExists { .. } => ErrorCode::TableBranchAlreadyExists,
         }
     }
 
@@ -314,6 +374,9 @@ impl NamespaceError {
             Some(ErrorCode::TableSchemaValidationError) => {
                 Self::TableSchemaValidationError { message }
             }
+            Some(ErrorCode::Throttling) => Self::Throttling { message },
+            Some(ErrorCode::TableBranchNotFound) => Self::TableBranchNotFound { message },
+            Some(ErrorCode::TableBranchAlreadyExists) => Self::TableBranchAlreadyExists { message },
             None => Self::Internal { message },
         }
     }
@@ -326,10 +389,7 @@ impl NamespaceError {
 impl From<NamespaceError> for lance_core::Error {
     #[track_caller]
     fn from(err: NamespaceError) -> Self {
-        Self::Namespace {
-            source: Box::new(err),
-            location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-        }
+        Self::namespace_source(Box::new(err))
     }
 }
 
@@ -342,7 +402,7 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_error_code_roundtrip() {
-        for code in 0..=20 {
+        for code in 0..=23 {
             let error_code = ErrorCode::from_u32(code).unwrap();
             assert_eq!(error_code.as_u32(), code);
         }
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-namespace/src/lib.rs
index 6fd9a9b7ab2..2fc34e03549 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace/src/lib.rs
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 //! See [`error::ErrorCode`] for the list of error codes and
 //! [`error::NamespaceError`] for the error types.
 
+pub mod compat;
 pub mod error;
 pub mod namespace;
 pub mod schema;
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace/src/namespace.rs b/rust/lance-namespace/src/namespace.rs
index 3e27df15ba7..faa7ec57367 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace/src/namespace.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace/src/namespace.rs
@@ -6,32 +6,38 @@
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use bytes::Bytes;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::Location;
 
 use lance_namespace_reqwest_client::models::{
     AlterTableAddColumnsRequest, AlterTableAddColumnsResponse, AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
-    AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse, AlterTableDropColumnsRequest, AlterTableDropColumnsResponse,
+    AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse, AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest,
+    AlterTableBackfillColumnsResponse, AlterTableDropColumnsRequest, AlterTableDropColumnsResponse,
     AlterTransactionRequest, AlterTransactionResponse, AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest,
-    CountTableRowsRequest, CreateEmptyTableRequest, CreateEmptyTableResponse,
-    CreateNamespaceRequest, CreateNamespaceResponse, CreateTableIndexRequest,
-    CreateTableIndexResponse, CreateTableRequest, CreateTableResponse,
+    BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest, BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse, CountTableRowsRequest,
+    CreateMaterializedViewRequest, CreateMaterializedViewResponse, CreateNamespaceRequest,
+    CreateNamespaceResponse, CreateTableBranchRequest, CreateTableBranchResponse,
+    CreateTableIndexRequest, CreateTableIndexResponse, CreateTableRequest, CreateTableResponse,
     CreateTableScalarIndexResponse, CreateTableTagRequest, CreateTableTagResponse,
-    DeclareTableRequest, DeclareTableResponse, DeleteFromTableRequest, DeleteFromTableResponse,
-    DeleteTableTagRequest, DeleteTableTagResponse, DeregisterTableRequest, DeregisterTableResponse,
+    CreateTableVersionRequest, CreateTableVersionResponse, DeclareTableRequest,
+    DeclareTableResponse, DeleteFromTableRequest, DeleteFromTableResponse,
+    DeleteTableBranchRequest, DeleteTableBranchResponse, DeleteTableTagRequest,
+    DeleteTableTagResponse, DeregisterTableRequest, DeregisterTableResponse,
     DescribeNamespaceRequest, DescribeNamespaceResponse, DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest,
     DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse, DescribeTableRequest, DescribeTableResponse,
-    DescribeTransactionRequest, DescribeTransactionResponse, DropNamespaceRequest,
-    DropNamespaceResponse, DropTableIndexRequest, DropTableIndexResponse, DropTableRequest,
-    DropTableResponse, ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest, GetTableStatsRequest, GetTableStatsResponse,
+    DescribeTableVersionRequest, DescribeTableVersionResponse, DescribeTransactionRequest,
+    DescribeTransactionResponse, DropNamespaceRequest, DropNamespaceResponse,
+    DropTableIndexRequest, DropTableIndexResponse, DropTableRequest, DropTableResponse,
+    ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest, GetTableStatsRequest, GetTableStatsResponse,
     GetTableTagVersionRequest, GetTableTagVersionResponse, InsertIntoTableRequest,
     InsertIntoTableResponse, ListNamespacesRequest, ListNamespacesResponse,
-    ListTableIndicesRequest, ListTableIndicesResponse, ListTableTagsRequest, ListTableTagsResponse,
+    ListTableBranchesRequest, ListTableBranchesResponse, ListTableIndicesRequest,
+    ListTableIndicesResponse, ListTableTagsRequest, ListTableTagsResponse,
     ListTableVersionsRequest, ListTableVersionsResponse, ListTablesRequest, ListTablesResponse,
     MergeInsertIntoTableRequest, MergeInsertIntoTableResponse, NamespaceExistsRequest,
-    QueryTableRequest, RegisterTableRequest, RegisterTableResponse, RenameTableRequest,
-    RenameTableResponse, RestoreTableRequest, RestoreTableResponse, TableExistsRequest,
-    UpdateTableRequest, UpdateTableResponse, UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest,
-    UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse, UpdateTableTagRequest, UpdateTableTagResponse,
+    QueryTableRequest, RefreshMaterializedViewRequest, RefreshMaterializedViewResponse,
+    RegisterTableRequest, RegisterTableResponse, RenameTableRequest, RenameTableResponse,
+    RestoreTableRequest, RestoreTableResponse, TableExistsRequest, UpdateTableRequest,
+    UpdateTableResponse, UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest, UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse,
+    UpdateTableTagRequest, UpdateTableTagResponse,
 };
 
 /// Base trait for Lance Namespace implementations.
@@ -63,10 +69,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: ListNamespacesRequest,
     ) -> Result<ListNamespacesResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "list_namespaces not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("list_namespaces not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Describe a namespace.
@@ -78,10 +81,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: DescribeNamespaceRequest,
     ) -> Result<DescribeNamespaceResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "describe_namespace not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("describe_namespace not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Create a new namespace.
@@ -93,10 +93,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: CreateNamespaceRequest,
     ) -> Result<CreateNamespaceResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "create_namespace not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("create_namespace not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Drop a namespace.
@@ -109,10 +106,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: DropNamespaceRequest,
     ) -> Result<DropNamespaceResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "drop_namespace not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("drop_namespace not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Check if a namespace exists.
@@ -121,18 +115,12 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
     ///
     /// Returns [`crate::ErrorCode::NamespaceNotFound`] if the namespace does not exist.
     async fn namespace_exists(&self, _request: NamespaceExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "namespace_exists not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("namespace_exists not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// List tables in a namespace.
     async fn list_tables(&self, _request: ListTablesRequest) -> Result<ListTablesResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "list_tables not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("list_tables not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Describe a table.
@@ -140,10 +128,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: DescribeTableRequest,
     ) -> Result<DescribeTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "describe_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("describe_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Register a table.
@@ -151,26 +136,17 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: RegisterTableRequest,
     ) -> Result<RegisterTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "register_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("register_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Check if a table exists.
     async fn table_exists(&self, _request: TableExistsRequest) -> Result<()> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "table_exists not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("table_exists not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Drop a table.
     async fn drop_table(&self, _request: DropTableRequest) -> Result<DropTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "drop_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("drop_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Deregister a table.
@@ -178,18 +154,12 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: DeregisterTableRequest,
     ) -> Result<DeregisterTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "deregister_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("deregister_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Count rows in a table.
     async fn count_table_rows(&self, _request: CountTableRowsRequest) -> Result<i64> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "count_table_rows not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("count_table_rows not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Create a new table with data from Arrow IPC stream.
@@ -198,37 +168,12 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         _request: CreateTableRequest,
         _request_data: Bytes,
     ) -> Result<CreateTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "create_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("create_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Declare a table (metadata only operation).
     async fn declare_table(&self, _request: DeclareTableRequest) -> Result<DeclareTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "declare_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
-    }
-
-    /// Create an empty table (metadata only operation).
-    ///
-    /// # Deprecated
-    ///
-    /// Use [`declare_table`](Self::declare_table) instead. Support will be removed in 3.0.0.
-    #[deprecated(
-        since = "2.0.0",
-        note = "Use declare_table instead. Support will be removed in 3.0.0."
-    )]
-    async fn create_empty_table(
-        &self,
-        _request: CreateEmptyTableRequest,
-    ) -> Result<CreateEmptyTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "create_empty_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("declare_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Insert data into a table.
@@ -237,10 +182,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         _request: InsertIntoTableRequest,
         _request_data: Bytes,
     ) -> Result<InsertIntoTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "insert_into_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("insert_into_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Merge insert data into a table.
@@ -249,18 +191,14 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         _request: MergeInsertIntoTableRequest,
         _request_data: Bytes,
     ) -> Result<MergeInsertIntoTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "merge_insert_into_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "merge_insert_into_table not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Update a table.
     async fn update_table(&self, _request: UpdateTableRequest) -> Result<UpdateTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "update_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("update_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Delete from a table.
@@ -268,18 +206,12 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: DeleteFromTableRequest,
     ) -> Result<DeleteFromTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "delete_from_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("delete_from_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Query a table.
     async fn query_table(&self, _request: QueryTableRequest) -> Result<Bytes> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "query_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("query_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Create a table index.
@@ -287,10 +219,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: CreateTableIndexRequest,
     ) -> Result<CreateTableIndexResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "create_table_index not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("create_table_index not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// List table indices.
@@ -298,10 +227,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: ListTableIndicesRequest,
     ) -> Result<ListTableIndicesResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "list_table_indices not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("list_table_indices not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Describe table index statistics.
@@ -309,10 +235,9 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: DescribeTableIndexStatsRequest,
     ) -> Result<DescribeTableIndexStatsResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "describe_table_index_stats not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "describe_table_index_stats not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Describe a transaction.
@@ -320,10 +245,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: DescribeTransactionRequest,
     ) -> Result<DescribeTransactionResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "describe_transaction not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("describe_transaction not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Alter a transaction.
@@ -331,10 +253,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: AlterTransactionRequest,
     ) -> Result<AlterTransactionResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "alter_transaction not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("alter_transaction not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Create a scalar index on a table.
@@ -342,10 +261,9 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: CreateTableIndexRequest,
     ) -> Result<CreateTableScalarIndexResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "create_table_scalar_index not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "create_table_scalar_index not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Drop a table index.
@@ -353,34 +271,22 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: DropTableIndexRequest,
     ) -> Result<DropTableIndexResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "drop_table_index not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("drop_table_index not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// List all tables across all namespaces.
     async fn list_all_tables(&self, _request: ListTablesRequest) -> Result<ListTablesResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "list_all_tables not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("list_all_tables not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Restore a table to a specific version.
     async fn restore_table(&self, _request: RestoreTableRequest) -> Result<RestoreTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "restore_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("restore_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Rename a table.
     async fn rename_table(&self, _request: RenameTableRequest) -> Result<RenameTableResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "rename_table not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("rename_table not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// List all versions of a table.
@@ -388,10 +294,72 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: ListTableVersionsRequest,
     ) -> Result<ListTableVersionsResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "list_table_versions not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("list_table_versions not implemented"))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new table version entry.
+    ///
+    /// This operation supports `put_if_not_exists` semantics, where the operation
+    /// fails if the version already exists. This is used to coordinate concurrent
+    /// writes to a table through an external manifest store.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `request` - Contains the table identifier, version number, manifest path,
+    ///   and optional metadata like size and ETag.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// - Returns an error if the version already exists (conflict).
+    /// - Returns [`crate::ErrorCode::TableNotFound`] if the table does not exist.
+    async fn create_table_version(
+        &self,
+        _request: CreateTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableVersionResponse> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported("create_table_version not implemented"))
+    }
+
+    /// Describe a specific table version.
+    ///
+    /// Returns metadata about a specific version of a table, including the
+    /// manifest path, size, ETag, and timestamp.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `request` - Contains the table identifier and optionally the version
+    ///   number. If version is not specified, returns the latest version.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// - Returns [`crate::ErrorCode::TableNotFound`] if the table does not exist.
+    /// - Returns an error if the specified version does not exist.
+    async fn describe_table_version(
+        &self,
+        _request: DescribeTableVersionRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DescribeTableVersionResponse> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "describe_table_version not implemented",
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Batch delete table versions.
+    ///
+    /// Deletes version records for a single table using `request.id` + `request.ranges`.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `request` - Contains the table identifier and version ranges to delete.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// - Returns [`crate::ErrorCode::TableNotFound`] if the table does not exist.
+    async fn batch_delete_table_versions(
+        &self,
+        _request: BatchDeleteTableVersionsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<BatchDeleteTableVersionsResponse> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "batch_delete_table_versions not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Update table schema metadata.
@@ -399,10 +367,9 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: UpdateTableSchemaMetadataRequest,
     ) -> Result<UpdateTableSchemaMetadataResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "update_table_schema_metadata not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "update_table_schema_metadata not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Get table statistics.
@@ -410,10 +377,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: GetTableStatsRequest,
     ) -> Result<GetTableStatsResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "get_table_stats not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("get_table_stats not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Explain a table query plan.
@@ -421,10 +385,9 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: ExplainTableQueryPlanRequest,
     ) -> Result<String> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "explain_table_query_plan not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "explain_table_query_plan not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Analyze a table query plan.
@@ -432,10 +395,9 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: AnalyzeTableQueryPlanRequest,
     ) -> Result<String> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "analyze_table_query_plan not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "analyze_table_query_plan not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Add columns to a table.
@@ -443,10 +405,9 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: AlterTableAddColumnsRequest,
     ) -> Result<AlterTableAddColumnsResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "alter_table_add_columns not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "alter_table_add_columns not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Alter columns in a table.
@@ -454,10 +415,9 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: AlterTableAlterColumnsRequest,
     ) -> Result<AlterTableAlterColumnsResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "alter_table_alter_columns not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "alter_table_alter_columns not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Drop columns from a table.
@@ -465,10 +425,40 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: AlterTableDropColumnsRequest,
     ) -> Result<AlterTableDropColumnsResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "alter_table_drop_columns not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "alter_table_drop_columns not implemented",
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Trigger an async backfill job for a computed column.
+    async fn alter_table_backfill_columns(
+        &self,
+        _request: AlterTableBackfillColumnsRequest,
+    ) -> Result<AlterTableBackfillColumnsResponse> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "alter_table_backfill_columns not implemented",
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Trigger an async materialized view refresh.
+    async fn refresh_materialized_view(
+        &self,
+        _request: RefreshMaterializedViewRequest,
+    ) -> Result<RefreshMaterializedViewResponse> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "refresh_materialized_view not implemented",
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a materialized view (query / UDTF / chunker) backed by a
+    /// stored UDTF/chunker spec and an optional initial refresh.
+    async fn create_materialized_view(
+        &self,
+        _request: CreateMaterializedViewRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateMaterializedViewResponse> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "create_materialized_view not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// List all tags for a table.
@@ -476,10 +466,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: ListTableTagsRequest,
     ) -> Result<ListTableTagsResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "list_table_tags not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("list_table_tags not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Get the version for a specific tag.
@@ -487,10 +474,9 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: GetTableTagVersionRequest,
     ) -> Result<GetTableTagVersionResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "get_table_tag_version not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "get_table_tag_version not implemented",
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Create a tag for a table.
@@ -498,10 +484,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: CreateTableTagRequest,
     ) -> Result<CreateTableTagResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "create_table_tag not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("create_table_tag not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Delete a tag from a table.
@@ -509,10 +492,7 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: DeleteTableTagRequest,
     ) -> Result<DeleteTableTagResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "delete_table_tag not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("delete_table_tag not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Update a tag for a table.
@@ -520,10 +500,45 @@ pub trait LanceNamespace: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
         &self,
         _request: UpdateTableTagRequest,
     ) -> Result<UpdateTableTagResponse> {
-        Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "update_table_tag not implemented".into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        })
+        Err(Error::not_supported("update_table_tag not implemented"))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a branch for a table.
+    ///
+    /// The new branch forks from the source ref selected by `from_branch` and
+    /// `from_version`, defaulting to the latest version of the main branch when
+    /// both are omitted.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// - Returns [`crate::ErrorCode::TableBranchAlreadyExists`] if a branch with the same name already exists.
+    /// - Returns [`crate::ErrorCode::TableNotFound`] if the table does not exist.
+    /// - Returns [`crate::ErrorCode::InvalidInput`] if `from_branch` or `from_version` references a source that does not exist.
+    async fn create_table_branch(
+        &self,
+        _request: CreateTableBranchRequest,
+    ) -> Result<CreateTableBranchResponse> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported("create_table_branch not implemented"))
+    }
+
+    /// List all branches for a table.
+    async fn list_table_branches(
+        &self,
+        _request: ListTableBranchesRequest,
+    ) -> Result<ListTableBranchesResponse> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported("list_table_branches not implemented"))
+    }
+
+    /// Delete a branch from a table.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`crate::ErrorCode::TableBranchNotFound`] if the branch does not exist.
+    async fn delete_table_branch(
+        &self,
+        _request: DeleteTableBranchRequest,
+    ) -> Result<DeleteTableBranchResponse> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported("delete_table_branch not implemented"))
     }
 
     /// Return a human-readable unique identifier for this namespace instance.
diff --git a/rust/lance-namespace/src/schema.rs b/rust/lance-namespace/src/schema.rs
index eac3920fef2..69aa59a51e9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-namespace/src/schema.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-namespace/src/schema.rs
@@ -9,7 +9,6 @@
 use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_namespace_reqwest_client::models::{JsonArrowDataType, JsonArrowField, JsonArrowSchema};
-use snafu::Location;
 
 /// Convert Arrow Schema to JsonArrowSchema
 pub fn arrow_schema_to_json(arrow_schema: &ArrowSchema) -> Result<JsonArrowSchema> {
@@ -183,14 +182,10 @@ fn arrow_type_to_json(data_type: &DataType) -> Result<JsonArrowDataType> {
 
         DataType::Map(entries_field, keys_sorted) => {
             if *keys_sorted {
-                return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                    source: format!(
-                        "Map types with keys_sorted=true are not yet supported for JSON conversion: {:?}",
-                        data_type
-                    )
-                        .into(),
-                    location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::namespace(format!(
+                    "Map types with keys_sorted=true are not yet supported for JSON conversion: {:?}",
+                    data_type
+                )));
             }
             let inner_type = arrow_type_to_json(entries_field.data_type())?;
             let inner_field = JsonArrowField {
@@ -211,30 +206,18 @@ fn arrow_type_to_json(data_type: &DataType) -> Result<JsonArrowDataType> {
         }
 
         // Unsupported types
-        DataType::RunEndEncoded(_, _) => Err(Error::Namespace {
-            source: format!(
-                "RunEndEncoded type is not yet supported for JSON conversion: {:?}",
-                data_type
-            )
-            .into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        }),
-        DataType::ListView(_) | DataType::LargeListView(_) => Err(Error::Namespace {
-            source: format!(
-                "ListView types are not yet supported for JSON conversion: {:?}",
-                data_type
-            )
-            .into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        }),
-        DataType::Utf8View | DataType::BinaryView => Err(Error::Namespace {
-            source: format!(
-                "View types are not yet supported for JSON conversion: {:?}",
-                data_type
-            )
-            .into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        }),
+        DataType::RunEndEncoded(_, _) => Err(Error::namespace(format!(
+            "RunEndEncoded type is not yet supported for JSON conversion: {:?}",
+            data_type
+        ))),
+        DataType::ListView(_) | DataType::LargeListView(_) => Err(Error::namespace(format!(
+            "ListView types are not yet supported for JSON conversion: {:?}",
+            data_type
+        ))),
+        DataType::Utf8View | DataType::BinaryView => Err(Error::namespace(format!(
+            "View types are not yet supported for JSON conversion: {:?}",
+            data_type
+        ))),
     }
 }
 
@@ -265,9 +248,12 @@ pub fn convert_json_arrow_field(json_field: &JsonArrowField) -> Result<Field> {
 
 /// Convert JsonArrowDataType to Arrow DataType
 pub fn convert_json_arrow_type(json_type: &JsonArrowDataType) -> Result<DataType> {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
     let type_name = json_type.r#type.to_lowercase();
 
     match type_name.as_str() {
+        // Primitive types
         "null" => Ok(DataType::Null),
         "bool" | "boolean" => Ok(DataType::Boolean),
         "int8" => Ok(DataType::Int8),
@@ -278,14 +264,112 @@ pub fn convert_json_arrow_type(json_type: &JsonArrowDataType) -> Result<DataType
         "uint32" => Ok(DataType::UInt32),
         "int64" => Ok(DataType::Int64),
         "uint64" => Ok(DataType::UInt64),
+        "float16" => Ok(DataType::Float16),
         "float32" => Ok(DataType::Float32),
         "float64" => Ok(DataType::Float64),
+
+        // Decimal types - encoding: precision * 1000 + scale
+        // Decoding must handle negative scale: precision = ((encoded + 128) / 1000)
+        "decimal32" => {
+            let encoded = json_type.length.unwrap_or(0);
+            let precision = ((encoded + 128) / 1000) as u8;
+            let scale = (encoded - precision as i64 * 1000) as i8;
+            Ok(DataType::Decimal32(precision, scale))
+        }
+        "decimal64" => {
+            let encoded = json_type.length.unwrap_or(0);
+            let precision = ((encoded + 128) / 1000) as u8;
+            let scale = (encoded - precision as i64 * 1000) as i8;
+            Ok(DataType::Decimal64(precision, scale))
+        }
+        "decimal128" => {
+            let encoded = json_type.length.unwrap_or(0);
+            let precision = ((encoded + 128) / 1000) as u8;
+            let scale = (encoded - precision as i64 * 1000) as i8;
+            Ok(DataType::Decimal128(precision, scale))
+        }
+        "decimal256" => {
+            let encoded = json_type.length.unwrap_or(0);
+            let precision = ((encoded + 128) / 1000) as u8;
+            let scale = (encoded - precision as i64 * 1000) as i8;
+            Ok(DataType::Decimal256(precision, scale))
+        }
+
+        // Date/Time types
+        "date32" => Ok(DataType::Date32),
+        "date64" => Ok(DataType::Date64),
+        "timestamp" => Ok(DataType::Timestamp(
+            arrow::datatypes::TimeUnit::Microsecond,
+            None,
+        )),
+        "duration" => Ok(DataType::Duration(arrow::datatypes::TimeUnit::Microsecond)),
+
+        // String and Binary types
         "utf8" => Ok(DataType::Utf8),
+        "large_utf8" => Ok(DataType::LargeUtf8),
         "binary" => Ok(DataType::Binary),
-        _ => Err(Error::Namespace {
-            source: format!("Unsupported Arrow type: {}", type_name).into(),
-            location: Location::new(file!(), line!(), column!()),
-        }),
+        "large_binary" => Ok(DataType::LargeBinary),
+        "fixed_size_binary" => {
+            let size = json_type.length.unwrap_or(0) as i32;
+            Ok(DataType::FixedSizeBinary(size))
+        }
+
+        // Nested types
+        "list" => {
+            let inner = json_type
+                .fields
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|f| f.first())
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::namespace("list type missing inner field"))?;
+            Ok(DataType::List(Arc::new(convert_json_arrow_field(inner)?)))
+        }
+        "large_list" => {
+            let inner = json_type
+                .fields
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|f| f.first())
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::namespace("large_list type missing inner field"))?;
+            Ok(DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(convert_json_arrow_field(
+                inner,
+            )?)))
+        }
+        "fixed_size_list" => {
+            let inner = json_type
+                .fields
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|f| f.first())
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::namespace("fixed_size_list type missing inner field"))?;
+            let size = json_type.length.unwrap_or(0) as i32;
+            Ok(DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(convert_json_arrow_field(inner)?),
+                size,
+            ))
+        }
+        "struct" => {
+            let fields = json_type
+                .fields
+                .as_ref()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::namespace("struct type missing fields"))?;
+            let arrow_fields: Result<Vec<Field>> =
+                fields.iter().map(convert_json_arrow_field).collect();
+            Ok(DataType::Struct(arrow_fields?.into()))
+        }
+        "map" => {
+            let entries = json_type
+                .fields
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|f| f.first())
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::namespace("map type missing entries field"))?;
+            Ok(DataType::Map(
+                Arc::new(convert_json_arrow_field(entries)?),
+                false,
+            ))
+        }
+
+        _ => Err(Error::namespace(format!(
+            "Unsupported Arrow type: {}",
+            type_name
+        ))),
     }
 }
 
@@ -314,11 +398,13 @@ mod tests {
             .iter()
             .find(|f| f.name == "meta")
             .unwrap();
-        assert!(meta_json_field
-            .metadata
-            .as_ref()
-            .unwrap()
-            .contains_key(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY));
+        assert!(
+            meta_json_field
+                .metadata
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .contains_key(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY)
+        );
 
         let roundtrip = convert_json_arrow_schema(&json_schema).unwrap();
         let meta_field = roundtrip.field_with_name("meta").unwrap();
@@ -406,10 +492,12 @@ mod tests {
         let unsupported_type = JsonArrowDataType::new("unsupported".to_string());
         let result = convert_json_arrow_type(&unsupported_type);
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Unsupported Arrow type"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Unsupported Arrow type")
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -537,4 +625,205 @@ mod tests {
         let float16 = arrow_type_to_json(&DataType::Float16).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(float16.r#type, "float16");
     }
+
+    /// Verify that convert_json_arrow_type (deserialization) is the inverse of
+    /// arrow_type_to_json (serialization) for all supported types.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_arrow_type_roundtrip() {
+        use arrow::datatypes::Field;
+
+        let cases: Vec<DataType> = vec![
+            // Scalars
+            DataType::Null,
+            DataType::Boolean,
+            DataType::Int8,
+            DataType::UInt8,
+            DataType::Int16,
+            DataType::UInt16,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            DataType::UInt32,
+            DataType::Int64,
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            DataType::Float16,
+            DataType::Float32,
+            DataType::Float64,
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            DataType::LargeUtf8,
+            DataType::Binary,
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            DataType::Date32,
+            DataType::Date64,
+            DataType::FixedSizeBinary(16),
+            // Decimal types with positive and negative scales
+            DataType::Decimal32(10, -2),
+            DataType::Decimal32(9, 3),
+            DataType::Decimal64(18, -5),
+            DataType::Decimal64(10, 4),
+            DataType::Decimal128(9, -2),
+            DataType::Decimal128(38, 10),
+            DataType::Decimal256(38, 10),
+            DataType::Decimal256(76, -10),
+            // Timestamp and Duration
+            DataType::Timestamp(arrow::datatypes::TimeUnit::Microsecond, None),
+            DataType::Duration(arrow::datatypes::TimeUnit::Microsecond),
+            // Nested
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+            DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))),
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, false)), 128),
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, false),
+                    Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            // Map
+            DataType::Map(
+                Arc::new(Field::new(
+                    "entries",
+                    DataType::Struct(
+                        vec![
+                            Field::new("keys", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                            Field::new("values", DataType::Int32, true),
+                        ]
+                        .into(),
+                    ),
+                    false,
+                )),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        for dt in &cases {
+            let json = arrow_type_to_json(dt)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("arrow_type_to_json failed for {:?}: {}", dt, e));
+            let back = convert_json_arrow_type(&json)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("convert_json_arrow_type failed for {:?}: {}", dt, e));
+            assert_eq!(&back, dt, "Roundtrip mismatch for {:?}: got {:?}", dt, back);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_decimal_negative_scale_roundtrip() {
+        // Explicitly test the cases requested by reviewer
+        let cases = vec![
+            DataType::Decimal32(10, -2),
+            DataType::Decimal128(9, -2),
+            DataType::Decimal256(38, 10),
+        ];
+        for dt in &cases {
+            let json = arrow_type_to_json(dt).unwrap();
+            let back = convert_json_arrow_type(&json).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(&back, dt, "Decimal roundtrip failed for {:?}", dt);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_schema_with_metadata_roundtrip() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert("key1".to_string(), "value1".to_string());
+        metadata.insert("key2".to_string(), "value2".to_string());
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ],
+            metadata.clone(),
+        );
+
+        let json_schema = arrow_schema_to_json(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(json_schema.metadata.as_ref().unwrap(), &metadata);
+
+        let roundtrip = convert_json_arrow_schema(&json_schema).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(roundtrip.metadata(), &metadata);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dictionary_type_unwraps_to_value_type() {
+        let dict_type = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8));
+        let json = arrow_type_to_json(&dict_type).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(json.r#type, "utf8");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_map_keys_sorted_unsupported() {
+        let map_type = DataType::Map(
+            Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "entries",
+                DataType::Struct(
+                    vec![
+                        Field::new("keys", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                        Field::new("values", DataType::Int32, true),
+                    ]
+                    .into(),
+                ),
+                false,
+            )),
+            true, // keys_sorted = true
+        );
+        let result = arrow_type_to_json(&map_type);
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("keys_sorted=true"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_unsupported_types_error() {
+        // RunEndEncoded
+        let ree = DataType::RunEndEncoded(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("run_ends", DataType::Int32, false)),
+            Arc::new(Field::new("values", DataType::Utf8, true)),
+        );
+        assert!(arrow_type_to_json(&ree).is_err());
+
+        // ListView
+        let lv = DataType::ListView(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)));
+        assert!(arrow_type_to_json(&lv).is_err());
+
+        // LargeListView
+        let llv = DataType::LargeListView(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true)));
+        assert!(arrow_type_to_json(&llv).is_err());
+
+        // Utf8View / BinaryView
+        assert!(arrow_type_to_json(&DataType::Utf8View).is_err());
+        assert!(arrow_type_to_json(&DataType::BinaryView).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_large_list_roundtrip() {
+        let inner_field = Field::new("item", DataType::Float64, true);
+        let large_list = DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(inner_field));
+
+        let json = arrow_type_to_json(&large_list).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(json.r#type, "large_list");
+
+        let back = convert_json_arrow_type(&json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(back, large_list);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_field_with_metadata_roundtrip() {
+        let mut field_meta = HashMap::new();
+        field_meta.insert("custom_key".to_string(), "custom_val".to_string());
+
+        let field = Field::new("col", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(field_meta.clone());
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![field]);
+
+        let json_schema = arrow_schema_to_json(&schema).unwrap();
+        let roundtrip = convert_json_arrow_schema(&json_schema).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(roundtrip.field(0).metadata(), &field_meta);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_nested_list_with_field_metadata() {
+        let mut meta = HashMap::new();
+        meta.insert("encoding".to_string(), "delta".to_string());
+
+        let inner = Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true).with_metadata(meta.clone());
+        let list_type = DataType::List(Arc::new(inner));
+
+        let json = arrow_type_to_json(&list_type).unwrap();
+        let fields = json.fields.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fields[0].metadata.as_ref().unwrap(), &meta);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-select/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-select/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..678521dfd12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-select/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+[package]
+name = "lance-select"
+version.workspace = true
+edition.workspace = true
+authors.workspace = true
+license.workspace = true
+repository.workspace = true
+readme.workspace = true
+keywords.workspace = true
+categories.workspace = true
+rust-version.workspace = true
+description = "Row-selection masks and index-result algebra for Lance"
+
+[dependencies]
+arrow-array = { workspace = true }
+arrow-buffer = { workspace = true }
+arrow-schema = { workspace = true }
+byteorder = { workspace = true }
+tracing = { workspace = true }
+itertools = { workspace = true }
+lance-core = { workspace = true }
+roaring = { workspace = true }
+
+[dev-dependencies]
+criterion = { workspace = true }
+proptest = { workspace = true }
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "index_expr_result"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "row_addr_mask"
+harness = false
+
+[lints]
+workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-select/benches/index_expr_result.rs b/rust/lance-select/benches/index_expr_result.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8d9a86c12ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-select/benches/index_expr_result.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,148 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmarks for the `NullableIndexExprResult` boolean algebra
+//! (`Not` / `BitAnd` / `BitOr`).
+//!
+//! Captures a baseline of the current 3-variant `Exact`/`AtMost`/`AtLeast`
+//! representation before we convert it to a 2-mask `{lower, upper}` form.
+//! After the conversion every binary op will do two `NullableRowAddrMask`
+//! operations instead of zero or one, so we expect a 2x slowdown on
+//! same-variant micro-ops in exchange for richer results (Refined-style
+//! interval bounds).
+//!
+//! Each variant is constructed from a fragment with a single contiguous
+//! run of selected rows (the shape produced by zone-map / bloom-filter
+//! IsNull searches and by `mask_to_offset_ranges` on contiguous segments).
+//! We sweep N across 10K..10M to expose mask-size scaling.
+
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_select::{
+    NullableIndexExprResult, NullableRowAddrMask, NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap,
+};
+
+const ROW_COUNTS: &[u64] = &[10_000, 100_000, 1_000_000, 10_000_000];
+
+/// Build a `NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList` covering `0..n` in fragment 0
+/// with no NULL bits set. This is the shape an index search produces
+/// when it identifies a contiguous run as a match.
+fn allow_run(n: u64) -> NullableRowAddrMask {
+    let mut tree = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+    tree.insert_range(0..n);
+    NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(NullableRowAddrSet::new(tree, RowAddrTreeMap::new()))
+}
+
+/// Build an overlapping mask: covers `n/4..3n/4` (the middle half of an
+/// equivalent `allow_run(n)`), so `&` / `|` against `allow_run(n)`
+/// produces a non-trivial output that still has roaring-internal runs.
+fn allow_middle(n: u64) -> NullableRowAddrMask {
+    let mut tree = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+    tree.insert_range((n / 4)..(3 * n / 4));
+    NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(NullableRowAddrSet::new(tree, RowAddrTreeMap::new()))
+}
+
+// --- NOT ---------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn bench_not(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("not");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        for label in ["Exact", "AtMost", "AtLeast"] {
+            let id = BenchmarkId::new(label, n);
+            let make = move || match label {
+                "Exact" => NullableIndexExprResult::exact(allow_run(n)),
+                "AtMost" => NullableIndexExprResult::at_most(allow_run(n)),
+                "AtLeast" => NullableIndexExprResult::at_least(allow_run(n)),
+                _ => unreachable!(),
+            };
+            group.bench_function(id, |b| {
+                b.iter_batched(make, |r| black_box(!r), criterion::BatchSize::SmallInput);
+            });
+        }
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+// --- AND / OR ----------------------------------------------------------
+
+type PairFn = Box<dyn Fn() -> (NullableIndexExprResult, NullableIndexExprResult)>;
+
+/// Helper that builds `(lhs, rhs)` for every combination we want to bench.
+/// Returns `(label, build_fn)` pairs. We test the same-variant cases
+/// (Exact/Exact, AtMost/AtMost, AtLeast/AtLeast) plus the cross-variant
+/// cases that today drop information (Exact/AtMost, Exact/AtLeast,
+/// AtMost/AtLeast).
+fn pair_cases(n: u64) -> Vec<(&'static str, PairFn)> {
+    let lhs = move || allow_run(n);
+    let rhs = move || allow_middle(n);
+    let exact = |m| NullableIndexExprResult::exact(m);
+    let at_most = |m| NullableIndexExprResult::at_most(m);
+    let at_least = |m| NullableIndexExprResult::at_least(m);
+    vec![
+        (
+            "Exact_Exact",
+            Box::new(move || (exact(lhs()), exact(rhs()))),
+        ),
+        (
+            "AtMost_AtMost",
+            Box::new(move || (at_most(lhs()), at_most(rhs()))),
+        ),
+        (
+            "AtLeast_AtLeast",
+            Box::new(move || (at_least(lhs()), at_least(rhs()))),
+        ),
+        (
+            "Exact_AtMost",
+            Box::new(move || (exact(lhs()), at_most(rhs()))),
+        ),
+        (
+            "Exact_AtLeast",
+            Box::new(move || (exact(lhs()), at_least(rhs()))),
+        ),
+        (
+            "AtMost_AtLeast",
+            Box::new(move || (at_most(lhs()), at_least(rhs()))),
+        ),
+    ]
+}
+
+fn bench_and(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("and");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        for (label, make) in pair_cases(n) {
+            let id = BenchmarkId::new(label, n);
+            group.bench_function(id, |b| {
+                b.iter_batched(
+                    &make,
+                    |(l, r)| black_box(l & r),
+                    criterion::BatchSize::SmallInput,
+                );
+            });
+        }
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_or(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("or");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        for (label, make) in pair_cases(n) {
+            let id = BenchmarkId::new(label, n);
+            group.bench_function(id, |b| {
+                b.iter_batched(
+                    &make,
+                    |(l, r)| black_box(l | r),
+                    criterion::BatchSize::SmallInput,
+                );
+            });
+        }
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(benches, bench_not, bench_and, bench_or);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-select/benches/row_addr_mask.rs b/rust/lance-select/benches/row_addr_mask.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..850a0bd084f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-select/benches/row_addr_mask.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,264 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmarks for `RowAddrMask` / `RowAddrTreeMap`.
+//!
+//! These benchmarks are deliberately structured to expose the row-cardinality
+//! scaling weakness of the current per-row bitmap representation. Producers
+//! (e.g. scalar-index `search` implementations) and consumers (e.g.
+//! `mask_to_offset_ranges`) are frequently range-shaped, but every operation
+//! must round-trip through `Partial(RoaringBitmap)` and therefore costs O(N)
+//! in the number of rows, not O(R) in the number of distinct ranges.
+//!
+//! Each benchmark varies the number of rows while keeping the number of
+//! ranges fixed at 1. A range-aware representation should make these
+//! near-constant time; today they are linear in N.
+//!
+//! Run with `cargo bench -p lance-select --bench row_addr_mask`.
+
+use std::ops::Range;
+
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+/// Row counts we sweep across. Chosen to cover the realistic range of
+/// matches a zonemap produces for an `IS NULL`-like predicate on a single
+/// fragment: a few thousand rows up through tens of millions.
+const ROW_COUNTS: &[u64] = &[10_000, 100_000, 1_000_000, 10_000_000];
+
+fn make_range_mask(num_rows: u64) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+    // Build a mask covering a single contiguous run in fragment 0.
+    // This is the exact shape a scalar-index search produces when it
+    // determines a contiguous chunk of zones matches.
+    let mut map = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+    map.insert_range(0..num_rows);
+    map
+}
+
+/// Producer cost: building a mask from one contiguous Range.
+///
+/// Today this is O(N) — every bit gets inserted into a roaring bitmap.
+/// With a range-aware representation it would be O(1) (push a single run).
+fn bench_insert_range(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("insert_range_single_run");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(n), &n, |b, &n| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let mut map = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+                map.insert_range(0..n);
+                std::hint::black_box(map);
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Consumer cost: iterating every row address in a dense mask.
+///
+/// `into_addr_iter` walks set bits one at a time. For a contiguous run
+/// of N rows this is O(N) — even though the rows are trivially
+/// representable as a single Range. This is what `mask_to_offset_ranges`
+/// does after intersecting with a source segment: it pays per-row
+/// iteration cost only to immediately collapse the addresses back into
+/// ranges via `GroupingIterator`.
+fn bench_iter_addrs(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("into_addr_iter_single_run");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        let map = make_range_mask(n);
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(n), &n, |b, _| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let count: u64 = map.clone().into_addr_iter().count() as u64;
+                std::hint::black_box(count);
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Best-achievable iteration over the same data.
+///
+/// `Iter::next_range` walks the bitmap's run containers in O(num_runs).
+/// For a single contiguous run this should be ~constant time — the
+/// public `RowAddrMask` API gives no way to surface that today, so the
+/// performance is currently inaccessible to callers. Comparing this to
+/// `into_addr_iter_single_run` quantifies the speedup a range-aware
+/// representation could deliver to consumers.
+fn bench_iter_runs(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("next_range_iter_single_run");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        // Use the same underlying roaring bitmap shape that `make_range_mask`
+        // produces internally (one fragment, one contiguous run).
+        let mut bitmap = roaring::RoaringBitmap::new();
+        bitmap.insert_range(0..(n as u32));
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(n), &n, |b, _| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let mut iter = bitmap.iter();
+                let mut runs: u64 = 0;
+                while iter.next_range().is_some() {
+                    runs += 1;
+                }
+                std::hint::black_box(runs);
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Range-aware consumer cost via the public `RowAddrTreeMap::iter_runs`
+/// API. The map is built the ordinary way (`insert_range` → Partial
+/// bitmap); `iter_runs` walks the bitmap's run containers via
+/// `Iter::next_range`. Compare against `into_addr_iter_single_run` to see
+/// the consumer-side speedup callers get without changing the underlying
+/// representation.
+fn bench_iter_runs_partial(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("iter_runs_partial_single_run");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        let map = make_range_mask(n);
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(n), &n, |b, _| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let mut runs: u64 = 0;
+                for _ in map.iter_runs() {
+                    runs += 1;
+                }
+                std::hint::black_box(runs);
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Set intersection of two range-shaped masks.
+///
+/// Both inputs are single contiguous runs that overlap in their middle
+/// half (so the output is itself a single contiguous run). With per-row
+/// bitmaps this is O(N) — the entire bitmap participates in the AND.
+/// With ranges it would be O(1).
+fn bench_intersect_ranges(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("intersect_two_runs");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        let lhs = make_range_mask(n);
+        let rhs_range = (n / 4)..(3 * n / 4);
+        let mut rhs = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        rhs.insert_range(rhs_range);
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(n), &n, |b, _| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let mut tmp = lhs.clone();
+                tmp &= &rhs;
+                std::hint::black_box(tmp);
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Full round trip: build a source range bitmap, AND with a mask, iterate
+/// each surviving bit. This is the exact slow path of
+/// `mask_to_offset_ranges` in `lance-table/src/rowids.rs:387`. Profiling
+/// a 10M-row zonemap `IS NULL` query showed this consuming ~55% of the
+/// hot-loop time (~495 ms of 889 ms). The benchmark separates the
+/// per-row producer/consumer cost from the rest of the scan pipeline so
+/// it can be tracked in isolation.
+fn bench_range_to_ranges_round_trip(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("mask_to_offset_ranges_inner_loop");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        // The mask selects the back half of a 2N-row fragment.
+        let mask_range = n..(2 * n);
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::AllowList(RowAddrTreeMap::from(mask_range));
+        // The source segment covers the whole fragment.
+        let src: Range<u64> = 0..(2 * n);
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(n), &n, |b, _| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                // Mimic the slow path: materialize source range, AND with mask,
+                // iterate to count survivors (a stand-in for whatever the
+                // consumer actually does — e.g. GroupingIterator).
+                let mut ids = RowAddrTreeMap::from(src.clone());
+                ids.mask(&mask);
+                let count = ids.into_addr_iter().count();
+                std::hint::black_box(count);
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Same end-to-end shape as `mask_to_offset_ranges_inner_loop`, but the
+/// final per-bit walk is replaced by `iter_runs`. Quantifies the speedup
+/// the consumer side gets purely from switching iteration APIs — no
+/// representation change.
+fn bench_range_to_ranges_round_trip_runs(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("mask_to_offset_ranges_inner_loop_runs");
+    for &n in ROW_COUNTS {
+        let mask_range = n..(2 * n);
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::AllowList(RowAddrTreeMap::from(mask_range));
+        let src: Range<u64> = 0..(2 * n);
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(n));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(n), &n, |b, _| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let mut ids = RowAddrTreeMap::from(src.clone());
+                ids.mask(&mask);
+                let count: u64 = ids
+                    .iter_runs()
+                    .map(|(_, r)| (*r.end() as u64) - (*r.start() as u64) + 1)
+                    .sum();
+                std::hint::black_box(count);
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Many small runs vs one big run with the same total cardinality.
+///
+/// A range-aware representation should be O(num_runs), so the
+/// `single_run` case should be ~K times faster than the `K_runs` case.
+/// Today they are essentially equal: the cost is dictated by the number
+/// of rows, not the number of runs.
+fn bench_runs_vs_rows(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let total_rows: u64 = 1_000_000;
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("insert_runs_constant_cardinality");
+
+    group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(total_rows));
+    group.bench_function("single_run_1M", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            let mut map = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+            map.insert_range(0..total_rows);
+            std::hint::black_box(map);
+        });
+    });
+
+    for k in [10u64, 100, 1_000, 10_000] {
+        let run_size = total_rows / k;
+        // Stride between runs is 2 * run_size so the bitmap is half full.
+        let stride = run_size * 2;
+        group.bench_function(format!("{k}_runs_1M_total"), |b| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let mut map = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+                for i in 0..k {
+                    let start = i * stride;
+                    map.insert_range(start..(start + run_size));
+                }
+                std::hint::black_box(map);
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    benches,
+    bench_insert_range,
+    bench_iter_addrs,
+    bench_iter_runs,
+    bench_iter_runs_partial,
+    bench_intersect_ranges,
+    bench_range_to_ranges_round_trip,
+    bench_range_to_ranges_round_trip_runs,
+    bench_runs_vs_rows,
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-select/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-select/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ed13a94707d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-select/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Row-selection primitives shared across Lance.
+//!
+//! This crate contains:
+//!
+//! * [`mask`] — `RowAddrMask` / `NullableRowAddrMask` and their underlying
+//!   set types. These describe which rows survive a filter and are produced
+//!   by scalar-index searches, prefilters, and the read planner.
+//! * [`result`] — `IndexExprResult` / `NullableIndexExprResult`: the
+//!   certainty-tagged wrappers around a `RowAddrMask` returned by a scalar-
+//!   index expression evaluation, plus their boolean algebra
+//!   (`Not`/`BitAnd`/`BitOr`).
+//!
+//! These types were extracted from `lance-core` and `lance-index` so that
+//! consumers (benchmarks, downstream filtering code) can depend on the
+//! mask substrate without pulling in either of those larger crates.
+
+pub mod mask;
+pub mod result;
+
+pub use mask::{
+    NullableRowAddrMask, NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrMask, RowAddrSelection, RowAddrTreeMap,
+    RowIdMask, RowIdSet, RowSetOps, bitmap_to_ranges, ranges_to_bitmap,
+};
+pub use result::{IndexExprResult, NullableIndexExprResult};
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/mask.rs b/rust/lance-select/src/mask.rs
similarity index 62%
rename from rust/lance-core/src/utils/mask.rs
rename to rust/lance-select/src/mask.rs
index be4934ac55d..f6f55655dc2 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/mask.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-select/src/mask.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::io::Write;
 use std::ops::{Range, RangeBounds, RangeInclusive};
 use std::{collections::BTreeMap, io::Read};
@@ -9,14 +9,13 @@ use std::{collections::BTreeMap, io::Read};
 use arrow_array::{Array, BinaryArray, GenericBinaryArray};
 use arrow_buffer::{Buffer, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer};
 use byteorder::{ReadBytesExt, WriteBytesExt};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use itertools::Itertools;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use roaring::{MultiOps, RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
 
-use crate::error::ToSnafuLocation;
-use crate::{Error, Result};
-
-use super::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
 mod nullable;
 
@@ -79,6 +78,21 @@ impl RowAddrMask {
         }
     }
 
+    /// True if every row_id is selected. Lets callers (e.g. the FTS wand
+    /// loop) skip per-row mask checks entirely, which in turn lets the
+    /// deferred-row_id scoring path skip loading the row_id column.
+    pub fn is_select_all(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::BlockList(b) if b.is_empty())
+    }
+
+    /// Returns whether this mask selects every row in `rows`.
+    pub fn selects_all(&self, rows: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::AllowList(allow_list) => (rows.clone() - allow_list).is_empty(),
+            Self::BlockList(block_list) => (rows.clone() & block_list).is_empty(),
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Return the indices of the input row ids that were valid
     pub fn selected_indices<'a>(&self, row_ids: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u64> + 'a) -> Vec<u64> {
         row_ids
@@ -101,6 +115,51 @@ impl RowAddrMask {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Build a mask from serialized [`RowAddrTreeMap`] payloads.
+    ///
+    /// `allow` selects rows, `block` excludes them; each is the output of
+    /// [`RowAddrTreeMap::serialize_into`]. Returns `None` when neither is given,
+    /// which callers read as "no mask" rather than "select nothing".
+    ///
+    /// Bytes rather than treemaps on purpose: a caller living in a different
+    /// dynamically-linked extension module has its own copy of these Rust types
+    /// and cannot hand one over, but both sides agree on this encoding.
+    pub fn from_serialized_parts(
+        allow: Option<&[u8]>,
+        block: Option<&[u8]>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        // Name the offending side: the underlying failure is a bare "failed to
+        // fill whole buffer", which tells a caller holding two blobs nothing.
+        fn decode(bytes: &[u8], which: &str) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+            RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(bytes).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "row address {which} is not a serialized RowAddrTreeMap: {e}"
+                ))
+            })
+        }
+        let allow = allow.map(|b| decode(b, "allowlist")).transpose()?;
+        let block = block.map(|b| decode(b, "blocklist")).transpose()?;
+        Ok(match (allow, block) {
+            (Some(allow), Some(block)) => Some(Self::from_allowed(allow).also_block(block)),
+            (Some(allow), None) => Some(Self::from_allowed(allow)),
+            (None, Some(block)) => Some(Self::from_block(block)),
+            (None, None) => None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Intersect two masks: a row survives only if both select it.
+    ///
+    /// Lets a planner apply a caller-supplied mask at one boundary rather than
+    /// at every branch that produces rows, which is how branches get missed.
+    pub fn intersect(self, other: Self) -> Self {
+        match (self, other) {
+            (Self::AllowList(a), Self::AllowList(b)) => Self::AllowList(a & b),
+            (Self::AllowList(a), Self::BlockList(b)) => Self::AllowList(a).also_block(b),
+            (Self::BlockList(a), Self::AllowList(b)) => Self::AllowList(b).also_block(a),
+            (Self::BlockList(a), Self::BlockList(b)) => Self::BlockList(a | b),
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Also allow the given addrs
     pub fn also_allow(self, allow_list: RowAddrTreeMap) -> Self {
         match self {
@@ -302,7 +361,7 @@ pub enum RowAddrSelection {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for RowAddrSelection {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         match self {
             Self::Full => 0,
             Self::Partial(bitmap) => bitmap.serialized_size(),
@@ -327,11 +386,7 @@ impl RowAddrSelection {
                 .union(),
         );
 
-        if is_full {
-            Self::Full
-        } else {
-            res
-        }
+        if is_full { Self::Full } else { res }
     }
 }
 
@@ -418,12 +473,9 @@ impl RowSetOps for RowAddrTreeMap {
                 .peeking_take_while(|row_id| (row_id >> 32) as u32 == fragment_id)
                 .map(|row_id| row_id as u32);
             let Ok(bitmap) = RoaringBitmap::from_sorted_iter(next_bitmap_iter) else {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_iter called with non-sorted input"
-                        .to_string(),
-                    // Use the caller location since we aren't the one that got it out of order
-                    location: std::panic::Location::caller().to_snafu_location(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_iter called with non-sorted input",
+                ));
             };
             inner.insert(fragment_id, RowAddrSelection::Partial(bitmap));
         }
@@ -467,7 +519,7 @@ impl RowAddrTreeMap {
     /// Returns true if the value was not already in the set.
     ///
     /// ```rust
-    /// use lance_core::utils::mask::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
+    /// use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
     ///
     /// let mut set = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
     /// assert_eq!(set.insert(10), true);
@@ -538,6 +590,62 @@ impl RowAddrTreeMap {
         count
     }
 
+    /// Build a set from many independently sorted runs of row addresses.
+    ///
+    /// Each run must be sorted ascending; the runs may interleave arbitrarily
+    /// and may repeat addresses (the result is a set). This is the cheap way
+    /// to assemble the output of a scan that produced one sorted chunk per
+    /// page or partition: building one map per run and unioning them costs
+    /// O(runs x fragments) tiny bitmaps, whereas here every address is
+    /// bucketed by fragment in a single pass, a bucket is sorted only if the
+    /// runs that fed it actually interleaved, and exactly one bitmap is built
+    /// per fragment.
+    ///
+    /// Cost is O(N) plus O(n log n) for each bucket whose runs interleaved,
+    /// where N is the total number of addresses and n the bucket size.
+    pub fn from_sorted_runs<'a, I>(runs: I) -> Self
+    where
+        I: IntoIterator<Item = &'a [u64]>,
+    {
+        // fragment -> (low 32 bits of every address seen, still sorted?)
+        let mut buckets: HashMap<u32, (Vec<u32>, bool)> = HashMap::new();
+        for run in runs {
+            let mut rest = run;
+            while let Some(&first) = rest.first() {
+                let fragment = (first >> 32) as u32;
+                // A sorted run keeps each fragment's addresses contiguous, so
+                // the segment for `fragment` is a prefix of `rest`.
+                let end = rest
+                    .iter()
+                    .position(|addr| (addr >> 32) as u32 != fragment)
+                    .unwrap_or(rest.len());
+                let (segment, tail) = rest.split_at(end);
+                let (offsets, sorted) = buckets
+                    .entry(fragment)
+                    .or_insert_with(|| (Vec::new(), true));
+                if *sorted && offsets.last().is_some_and(|&last| last > first as u32) {
+                    *sorted = false;
+                }
+                offsets.extend(segment.iter().map(|addr| *addr as u32));
+                rest = tail;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let inner = buckets
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(fragment, (mut offsets, sorted))| {
+                if !sorted {
+                    offsets.sort_unstable();
+                }
+                offsets.dedup();
+                let bitmap = RoaringBitmap::from_sorted_iter(offsets)
+                    .expect("offsets were sorted and deduplicated");
+                (fragment, RowAddrSelection::Partial(bitmap))
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Self { inner }
+    }
+
     /// Add a bitmap for a single fragment
     pub fn insert_bitmap(&mut self, fragment: u32, bitmap: RoaringBitmap) {
         self.inner
@@ -624,8 +732,21 @@ impl RowAddrTreeMap {
             if bitmap_size == 0 {
                 inner.insert(fragment, RowAddrSelection::Full);
             } else {
-                let mut buffer = vec![0; bitmap_size as usize];
-                reader.read_exact(&mut buffer)?;
+                // Grow with the bytes that actually arrive instead of trusting the
+                // declared size. This is reachable from a public byte boundary, so
+                // a 12-byte payload could otherwise declare 4 GiB and abort the
+                // process on the allocation before any read fails.
+                let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+                let read = reader
+                    .by_ref()
+                    .take(u64::from(bitmap_size))
+                    .read_to_end(&mut buffer)?;
+                if read != bitmap_size as usize {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "row addr treemap declares a {bitmap_size} byte bitmap for \
+                         fragment {fragment} but only {read} bytes remain"
+                    )));
+                }
                 let set = RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(&buffer[..])?;
                 inner.insert(fragment, RowAddrSelection::Partial(set));
             }
@@ -650,12 +771,10 @@ impl RowAddrTreeMap {
 
     /// Convert the set into an iterator of row addrs
     ///
-    /// # Safety
+    /// # Panics
     ///
-    /// This is unsafe because if any of the inner RowAddrSelection elements
-    /// is not a Partial then the iterator will panic because we don't know
-    /// the size of the bitmap.
-    pub unsafe fn into_addr_iter(self) -> impl Iterator<Item = u64> {
+    /// Panics if any selection is `Full` because the fragment size is unknown.
+    pub fn into_addr_iter(self) -> impl Iterator<Item = u64> {
         self.inner
             .into_iter()
             .flat_map(|(fragment, selection)| match selection {
@@ -667,6 +786,44 @@ impl RowAddrTreeMap {
                 }),
             })
     }
+
+    /// Iterate the selected row addresses as `(fragment_id, run)` pairs.
+    ///
+    /// Range-shaped counterpart to [`Self::into_addr_iter`]. A contiguous
+    /// run of N selected rows yields one item, not N. Uses roaring's
+    /// `Iter::next_range`, which walks each underlying container's runs
+    /// rather than its individual bits, so dense ranges cost
+    /// O(num_containers) (roughly num_rows / 65536) instead of O(num_rows).
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if any selection is `Full` because the fragment size is unknown.
+    pub fn iter_runs(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (u32, RangeInclusive<u32>)> + '_ {
+        self.inner
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|(&fragment, selection)| match selection {
+                RowAddrSelection::Full => panic!("Size of full fragment is unknown"),
+                RowAddrSelection::Partial(bitmap) => {
+                    let mut iter = bitmap.iter();
+                    std::iter::from_fn(move || iter.next_range().map(|r| (fragment, r)))
+                }
+            })
+    }
+}
+
+impl CacheCodecImpl for RowAddrTreeMap {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.RowAddrTreeMap";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        // A roaring bitmap has its own stable, portable serialization; it is
+        // the whole body, so write it raw rather than length-prefixed.
+        self.serialize_into(w.raw_writer())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::deserialize_from(r.body().as_ref())
+    }
 }
 
 impl std::ops::BitOr<Self> for RowAddrTreeMap {
@@ -934,38 +1091,220 @@ impl Extend<Self> for RowAddrTreeMap {
     }
 }
 
-/// Convert a RoaringBitmap to a vector of contiguous ranges.
-///
-/// This is more efficient than iterating over individual bits and coalescing,
-/// as it builds ranges directly in a single pass.
 pub fn bitmap_to_ranges(bitmap: &RoaringBitmap) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
-    if bitmap.is_empty() {
-        return vec![];
-    }
-
     let mut ranges = Vec::new();
     let mut iter = bitmap.iter();
-    let first = iter.next().unwrap();
-    let mut start = first;
-    let mut end = first;
+    while let Some(r) = iter.next_range() {
+        ranges.push(*r.start() as u64..(*r.end() as u64 + 1));
+    }
+    ranges
+}
 
-    for val in iter {
-        if val == end + 1 {
-            end = val;
-        } else {
-            ranges.push(start as u64..(end + 1) as u64);
-            start = val;
-            end = val;
+pub fn ranges_to_bitmap(ranges: &[Range<u64>], sorted: bool) -> RoaringBitmap {
+    if ranges.is_empty() {
+        return RoaringBitmap::new();
+    }
+    if sorted {
+        let sample_size = ranges.len().min(10);
+        let avg_len: u64 = ranges
+            .iter()
+            .take(sample_size)
+            .map(|r| r.end - r.start)
+            .sum::<u64>()
+            / sample_size as u64;
+        // from_sorted_iter appends each value in O(1) but must visit every u32.
+        // insert_range bulk-fills containers but does a binary search per call.
+        // Crossover is ~6: below that, iterating all values is cheaper.
+        if avg_len <= 6 {
+            return RoaringBitmap::from_sorted_iter(
+                ranges.iter().flat_map(|r| r.start as u32..r.end as u32),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+    }
+    let mut bm = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for r in ranges {
+        bm.insert_range(r.start as u32..r.end as u32);
+    }
+    bm
+}
+
+/// A set of stable row ids backed by a 64-bit Roaring bitmap.
+///
+/// This is a thin wrapper around [`RoaringTreemap`]. It represents a
+/// collection of unique row ids and provides the common row-set
+/// operations defined by [`RowSetOps`].
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, PartialEq)]
+pub struct RowIdSet {
+    inner: RoaringTreemap,
+}
+
+impl RowIdSet {
+    /// Creates an empty set of row ids.
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::default()
+    }
+    /// Returns an iterator over the contained row ids in ascending order.
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = u64> + '_ {
+        self.inner.iter()
+    }
+    /// Returns the union of `self` and `other`.
+    pub fn union(mut self, other: &Self) -> Self {
+        self.inner |= &other.inner;
+        self
+    }
+    /// Returns the set difference `self \\ other`.
+    pub fn difference(mut self, other: &Self) -> Self {
+        self.inner -= &other.inner;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+impl RowSetOps for RowIdSet {
+    type Row = u64;
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.inner.is_empty()
+    }
+    fn len(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        Some(self.inner.len())
+    }
+    fn remove(&mut self, row: Self::Row) -> bool {
+        self.inner.remove(row)
+    }
+    fn contains(&self, row: Self::Row) -> bool {
+        self.inner.contains(row)
+    }
+    fn union_all(other: &[&Self]) -> Self {
+        let mut result = other
+            .first()
+            .map_or(Self::default(), |&first| first.clone());
+        for set in other {
+            result.inner |= &set.inner;
+        }
+        result
+    }
+    #[track_caller]
+    fn from_sorted_iter<I>(iter: I) -> Result<Self>
+    where
+        I: IntoIterator<Item = Self::Row>,
+    {
+        let mut inner = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        let mut last: Option<u64> = None;
+        for value in iter {
+            if let Some(prev) = last
+                && value < prev
+            {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "RowIdSet::from_sorted_iter called with non-sorted input",
+                ));
+            }
+            inner.insert(value);
+            last = Some(value);
+        }
+        Ok(Self { inner })
+    }
+}
+
+/// A mask over stable row ids based on an allow-list or block-list.
+///
+/// The semantics mirror [`RowAddrMask`], but operate on stable
+/// row ids instead of physical row addresses.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub enum RowIdMask {
+    /// Only the ids in the set are selected.
+    AllowList(RowIdSet),
+    /// All ids are selected except those in the set.
+    BlockList(RowIdSet),
+}
+
+impl Default for RowIdMask {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        // Empty block list means all rows are allowed
+        Self::BlockList(RowIdSet::default())
+    }
+}
+impl RowIdMask {
+    /// Create a mask allowing all rows, this is an alias for [`Default`].
+    pub fn all_rows() -> Self {
+        Self::default()
+    }
+    /// Create a mask that doesn't allow any row id.
+    pub fn allow_nothing() -> Self {
+        Self::AllowList(RowIdSet::default())
+    }
+    /// Create a mask from an allow list.
+    pub fn from_allowed(allow_list: RowIdSet) -> Self {
+        Self::AllowList(allow_list)
+    }
+    /// Create a mask from a block list.
+    pub fn from_block(block_list: RowIdSet) -> Self {
+        Self::BlockList(block_list)
+    }
+    /// True if the row id is selected by the mask, false otherwise.
+    pub fn selected(&self, row_id: u64) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::AllowList(allow_list) => allow_list.contains(row_id),
+            Self::BlockList(block_list) => !block_list.contains(row_id),
+        }
+    }
+    /// Return the indices of the input row ids that are selected by the mask.
+    pub fn selected_indices<'a>(&self, row_ids: impl Iterator<Item = &'a u64> + 'a) -> Vec<u64> {
+        row_ids
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter_map(|(idx, row_id)| {
+                if self.selected(*row_id) {
+                    Some(idx as u64)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+    /// Also block the given ids.
+    ///
+    /// * `AllowList(a)` -> `AllowList(a \\ block_list)`
+    /// * `BlockList(b)` -> `BlockList(b union block_list)`
+    pub fn also_block(self, block_list: RowIdSet) -> Self {
+        match self {
+            Self::AllowList(allow_list) => Self::AllowList(allow_list.difference(&block_list)),
+            Self::BlockList(existing) => Self::BlockList(existing.union(&block_list)),
+        }
+    }
+    /// Also allow the given ids.
+    ///
+    /// * `AllowList(a)` -> `AllowList(a union allow_list)`
+    /// * `BlockList(b)` -> `BlockList(b \\ allow_list)`
+    pub fn also_allow(self, allow_list: RowIdSet) -> Self {
+        match self {
+            Self::AllowList(existing) => Self::AllowList(existing.union(&allow_list)),
+            Self::BlockList(block_list) => Self::BlockList(block_list.difference(&allow_list)),
+        }
+    }
+    /// Return the maximum number of row ids that could be selected by this mask.
+    ///
+    /// Will be `None` if this is a `BlockList` (unbounded).
+    pub fn max_len(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        match self {
+            Self::AllowList(selection) => selection.len(),
+            Self::BlockList(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+    /// Iterate over the row ids that are selected by the mask.
+    ///
+    /// This is only possible if this is an `AllowList`. For a `BlockList`
+    /// the domain of possible row ids is unbounded.
+    pub fn iter_ids(&self) -> Option<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u64> + '_>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::AllowList(allow_list) => Some(Box::new(allow_list.iter())),
+            Self::BlockList(_) => None,
         }
     }
-    ranges.push(start as u64..(end + 1) as u64);
-    ranges
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use proptest::prop_assert_eq;
+    use proptest::{prop_assert, prop_assert_eq};
 
     fn rows(ids: &[u64]) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
         RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(ids)
@@ -984,6 +1323,57 @@ mod tests {
         range.filter(|val| mask.selected(*val)).collect()
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_sorted_runs() {
+        let addr = |frag: u64, off: u64| frag << 32 | off;
+
+        // No runs, and runs that are all empty, give an empty set.
+        assert_eq!(RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_runs([]), RowAddrTreeMap::new());
+        assert_eq!(
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_runs([&[][..], &[][..]]),
+            RowAddrTreeMap::new()
+        );
+
+        // A single run is taken as-is (no sort needed) and spans fragments.
+        let single = [addr(0, 3), addr(0, 9), addr(2, 1), addr(7, 0)];
+        assert_eq!(
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_runs([&single[..]]),
+            rows(&single)
+        );
+
+        // Interleaved runs whose fragments overlap: every bucket must be
+        // re-sorted and the union must match the naive construction.
+        let run_a = [addr(0, 5), addr(1, 2), addr(1, 8), addr(3, 4)];
+        let run_b = [addr(0, 1), addr(0, 6), addr(1, 3), addr(2, 0)];
+        let run_c = [addr(1, 0), addr(3, 4), addr(3, 5)]; // repeats addr(3, 4)
+        let expected: Vec<u64> = run_a
+            .iter()
+            .chain(run_b.iter())
+            .chain(run_c.iter())
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        let actual = RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_runs([&run_a[..], &run_b[..], &run_c[..]]);
+        assert_eq!(actual, rows(&expected));
+        assert_eq!(actual.len(), Some(10));
+
+        // Runs that touch disjoint fragment ranges never need a sort, and a
+        // later run that continues a bucket in order keeps it sorted too.
+        let lo = [addr(0, 0), addr(0, 1)];
+        let hi = [addr(0, 2), addr(5, 0)];
+        assert_eq!(
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_runs([&lo[..], &hi[..]]),
+            rows(&[addr(0, 0), addr(0, 1), addr(0, 2), addr(5, 0)])
+        );
+
+        // Bare stable row ids (no fragment bits) all land in bucket 0.
+        let ids_a = [1_u64, 4, 9];
+        let ids_b = [2_u64, 4, 10];
+        assert_eq!(
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_sorted_runs([&ids_a[..], &ids_b[..]]),
+            rows(&[1, 2, 4, 9, 10])
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_row_addr_mask_construction() {
         let full_mask = RowAddrMask::all_rows();
@@ -1020,6 +1410,23 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(allow_list.iter_addrs().is_none());
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_addr_mask_selects_all_known_rows() {
+        let partition_rows = rows(&[10, 20, 2_u64 << 32 | 3]);
+
+        assert!(RowAddrMask::all_rows().selects_all(&partition_rows));
+        assert!(
+            RowAddrMask::from_allowed(rows(&[10, 20, 30, 2_u64 << 32 | 3]))
+                .selects_all(&partition_rows)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !RowAddrMask::from_allowed(rows(&[10, 2_u64 << 32 | 3])).selects_all(&partition_rows)
+        );
+        assert!(RowAddrMask::from_block(rows(&[30])).selects_all(&partition_rows));
+        assert!(!RowAddrMask::from_block(rows(&[20, 30])).selects_all(&partition_rows));
+        assert!(RowAddrMask::allow_nothing().selects_all(&RowAddrTreeMap::new()));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_selected_indices() {
         // Allow list
@@ -1077,6 +1484,102 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(mask.iter_addrs().is_none());
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_addr_mask_intersect() {
+        let a = rows(&[1, 2, 3]);
+        let b = rows(&[3, 4]);
+
+        // allow & allow -> only rows in both
+        assert_mask_selects(
+            &RowAddrMask::from_allowed(a.clone()).intersect(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(b.clone())),
+            &[3],
+            &[1, 2, 4, 100],
+        );
+        // allow & block -> allowed minus blocked
+        assert_mask_selects(
+            &RowAddrMask::from_allowed(a.clone()).intersect(RowAddrMask::from_block(b.clone())),
+            &[1, 2],
+            &[3, 4, 100],
+        );
+        // block & allow -> same, order independent
+        assert_mask_selects(
+            &RowAddrMask::from_block(b.clone()).intersect(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(a.clone())),
+            &[1, 2],
+            &[3, 4, 100],
+        );
+        // block & block -> both exclusions apply
+        assert_mask_selects(
+            &RowAddrMask::from_block(a.clone()).intersect(RowAddrMask::from_block(b)),
+            &[100],
+            &[1, 2, 3, 4],
+        );
+        // all_rows is the identity, and intersecting with itself changes nothing
+        let allow_a = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(a.clone());
+        assert_eq!(allow_a.clone().intersect(RowAddrMask::all_rows()), allow_a);
+        assert_eq!(allow_a.clone().intersect(allow_a.clone()), allow_a);
+        // allow_nothing absorbs
+        assert_mask_selects(
+            &RowAddrMask::allow_nothing().intersect(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(a)),
+            &[],
+            &[1, 2, 3, 100],
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_addr_mask_from_serialized_parts() {
+        fn ser(tm: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> Vec<u8> {
+            let mut buf = Vec::new();
+            tm.serialize_into(&mut buf).unwrap();
+            buf
+        }
+        let allow = ser(&rows(&[1, 2, 3]));
+        let block = ser(&rows(&[3, 4]));
+
+        // Neither part means "no mask", which is not the same as "select nothing".
+        assert!(
+            RowAddrMask::from_serialized_parts(None, None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+
+        let m = RowAddrMask::from_serialized_parts(Some(&allow), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_mask_selects(&m, &[1, 2, 3], &[4, 100]);
+
+        let m = RowAddrMask::from_serialized_parts(None, Some(&block))
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_mask_selects(&m, &[1, 2, 100], &[3, 4]);
+
+        // Block wins on the overlap.
+        let m = RowAddrMask::from_serialized_parts(Some(&allow), Some(&block))
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_mask_selects(&m, &[1, 2], &[3, 4, 100]);
+
+        // Round trips through the same encoding the caller used.
+        let again = RowAddrMask::from_serialized_parts(Some(&ser(m.allow_list().unwrap())), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_mask_selects(&again, &[1, 2], &[3, 4]);
+
+        assert!(RowAddrMask::from_serialized_parts(Some(b"not a treemap"), None).is_err());
+
+        // A declared bitmap size must not be allocated before the bytes are
+        // known to exist: this 12-byte payload claims ~4 GiB.
+        let bomb = [
+            1u8, 0, 0, 0, // one entry
+            0, 0, 0, 0, // fragment zero
+            0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, // declared bitmap size
+        ];
+        let err = RowAddrMask::from_serialized_parts(Some(&bomb), None).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("only 0 bytes remain"),
+            "expected a length complaint, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_row_addr_mask_not() {
         let allow_list = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(rows(&[1, 2, 3]));
@@ -1363,9 +1866,7 @@ mod tests {
         let mut mask = RowAddrTreeMap::default();
         mask.insert_fragment(0);
 
-        unsafe {
-            let _ = mask.into_addr_iter().collect::<Vec<u64>>();
-        }
+        let _ = mask.into_addr_iter().collect::<Vec<u64>>();
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1377,10 +1878,42 @@ mod tests {
         mask.insert(2 << 32 | 10);
 
         let expected = vec![0u64, 1, 1 << 32 | 5, 2 << 32 | 10];
-        let actual: Vec<u64> = unsafe { mask.into_addr_iter().collect() };
+        let actual: Vec<u64> = mask.into_addr_iter().collect();
         assert_eq!(actual, expected);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_map_iter_runs() {
+        // Three contiguous regions across two fragments.
+        let mut mask = RowAddrTreeMap::default();
+        mask.insert_range(0..3);
+        mask.insert_range(10..15);
+        mask.insert_range((1u64 << 32) + 100..(1u64 << 32) + 103);
+
+        let runs: Vec<(u32, RangeInclusive<u32>)> = mask.iter_runs().collect();
+        assert_eq!(runs, vec![(0, 0..=2), (0, 10..=14), (1, 100..=102)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_map_iter_runs_matches_into_addr_iter() {
+        // Confirm iter_runs and into_addr_iter agree on a non-trivial shape.
+        let mut mask = RowAddrTreeMap::default();
+        mask.insert_range(5..7);
+        mask.insert_range(11..12);
+        mask.insert_range(20..25);
+        mask.insert_range((1u64 << 32)..(1u64 << 32) + 3);
+
+        let from_runs: Vec<u64> = mask
+            .iter_runs()
+            .flat_map(|(frag, run)| {
+                let frag = u64::from(frag);
+                (*run.start()..=*run.end()).map(move |v| (frag << 32) | u64::from(v))
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let from_bits: Vec<u64> = mask.clone().into_addr_iter().collect();
+        assert_eq!(from_runs, from_bits);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_map_from() {
         let map = RowAddrTreeMap::from(10..12);
@@ -1620,7 +2153,7 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_row_addr_selection_deep_size_of() {
-        use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+        use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 
         // Test Full variant - should have minimal size (just the enum discriminant)
         let full = RowAddrSelection::Full;
@@ -1860,4 +2393,437 @@ mod tests {
             assert!(map.contains(id));
         }
     }
+
+    // ============================================================================
+    // Tests for bitmap_to_ranges / ranges_to_bitmap
+    // ============================================================================
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_to_ranges_empty() {
+        let bm = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        assert!(bitmap_to_ranges(&bm).is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_to_ranges_single() {
+        let bm = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([5]);
+        assert_eq!(bitmap_to_ranges(&bm), vec![5..6]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_to_ranges_contiguous() {
+        let mut bm = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        bm.insert_range(10..20);
+        assert_eq!(bitmap_to_ranges(&bm), vec![10..20]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_to_ranges_multiple() {
+        let mut bm = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        bm.insert_range(0..3);
+        bm.insert_range(10..15);
+        bm.insert(100);
+        assert_eq!(bitmap_to_ranges(&bm), vec![0..3, 10..15, 100..101]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ranges_to_bitmap_empty() {
+        let bm = ranges_to_bitmap(&[], true);
+        assert!(bm.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ranges_to_bitmap_sorted_short_ranges() {
+        // avg len = 1, uses from_sorted_iter path
+        let ranges = vec![0..1, 5..6, 10..11];
+        let bm = ranges_to_bitmap(&ranges, true);
+        assert!(bm.contains(0) && bm.contains(5) && bm.contains(10));
+        assert_eq!(bm.len(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ranges_to_bitmap_sorted_long_ranges() {
+        // avg len = 100, uses insert_range path
+        let ranges = vec![0..100, 200..300];
+        let bm = ranges_to_bitmap(&ranges, true);
+        assert_eq!(bm.len(), 200);
+        assert!(bm.contains(0) && bm.contains(99));
+        assert!(!bm.contains(100));
+        assert!(bm.contains(200) && bm.contains(299));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ranges_to_bitmap_unsorted() {
+        let ranges = vec![200..300, 0..100];
+        let bm = ranges_to_bitmap(&ranges, false);
+        assert_eq!(bm.len(), 200);
+        assert!(bm.contains(0) && bm.contains(250));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_ranges_roundtrip() {
+        let mut original = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        original.insert_range(0..50);
+        original.insert_range(100..200);
+        original.insert(500);
+        original.insert_range(1000..1010);
+
+        let ranges = bitmap_to_ranges(&original);
+        let reconstructed = ranges_to_bitmap(&ranges, true);
+        assert_eq!(original, reconstructed);
+    }
+
+    // ============================================================================
+    // Tests for RowIdSet
+    // ============================================================================
+
+    fn row_ids(ids: &[u64]) -> RowIdSet {
+        let mut set = RowIdSet::new();
+        for &id in ids {
+            set.inner.insert(id);
+        }
+        set
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_set_construction() {
+        let set = RowIdSet::new();
+        assert!(set.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(0));
+
+        let set = row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]);
+        assert!(!set.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(3));
+        assert!(set.contains(10));
+        assert!(set.contains(20));
+        assert!(set.contains(30));
+        assert!(!set.contains(15));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_set_remove() {
+        let mut set = row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]);
+
+        assert!(!set.remove(15)); // Not present
+        assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(3));
+
+        assert!(set.remove(20)); // Present
+        assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(2));
+        assert!(!set.contains(20));
+        assert!(set.contains(10));
+        assert!(set.contains(30));
+
+        assert!(!set.remove(20)); // Already removed
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_set_union() {
+        let set1 = row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]);
+        let set2 = row_ids(&[20, 30, 40]);
+
+        let result = set1.union(&set2);
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), Some(4));
+        for id in [10, 20, 30, 40] {
+            assert!(result.contains(id));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_set_difference() {
+        let set1 = row_ids(&[10, 20, 30, 40]);
+        let set2 = row_ids(&[20, 40]);
+
+        let result = set1.difference(&set2);
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), Some(2));
+        assert!(result.contains(10));
+        assert!(result.contains(30));
+        assert!(!result.contains(20));
+        assert!(!result.contains(40));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_set_union_all() {
+        let set1 = row_ids(&[10, 20]);
+        let set2 = row_ids(&[20, 30]);
+        let set3 = row_ids(&[30, 40]);
+
+        let result = RowIdSet::union_all(&[&set1, &set2, &set3]);
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), Some(4));
+        for id in [10, 20, 30, 40] {
+            assert!(result.contains(id));
+        }
+
+        // Empty slice should return empty set
+        let result = RowIdSet::union_all(&[]);
+        assert!(result.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_set_iter() {
+        let set = row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]);
+        let collected: Vec<u64> = set.iter().collect();
+        assert_eq!(collected, vec![10, 20, 30]);
+
+        let empty = RowIdSet::new();
+        assert_eq!(empty.iter().count(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_set_from_sorted_iter() {
+        // Valid sorted input
+        let set = RowIdSet::from_sorted_iter([10, 20, 30, 40]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(4));
+        for id in [10, 20, 30, 40] {
+            assert!(set.contains(id));
+        }
+
+        // Empty iterator
+        let set = RowIdSet::from_sorted_iter(std::iter::empty()).unwrap();
+        assert!(set.is_empty());
+
+        // Single element
+        let set = RowIdSet::from_sorted_iter([42]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(1));
+        assert!(set.contains(42));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_set_from_sorted_iter_unsorted() {
+        // Non-sorted input should return error
+        let result = RowIdSet::from_sorted_iter([30, 10, 20]);
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("non-sorted"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_set_large_values() {
+        // Test with large u64 values
+        let large_ids = [u64::MAX - 10, u64::MAX - 5, u64::MAX - 1];
+        let set = row_ids(&large_ids);
+
+        for &id in &large_ids {
+            assert!(set.contains(id));
+        }
+        assert!(!set.contains(u64::MAX));
+        assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(3));
+    }
+
+    // ============================================================================
+    // Tests for RowIdMask
+    // ============================================================================
+
+    fn assert_row_id_mask_selects(mask: &RowIdMask, selected: &[u64], not_selected: &[u64]) {
+        for &id in selected {
+            assert!(mask.selected(id), "Expected row id {} to be selected", id);
+        }
+        for &id in not_selected {
+            assert!(
+                !mask.selected(id),
+                "Expected row id {} to NOT be selected",
+                id
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_mask_construction() {
+        let full_mask = RowIdMask::all_rows();
+        assert_eq!(full_mask.max_len(), None);
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&full_mask, &[0, 1, 100, u64::MAX - 1], &[]);
+
+        let empty_mask = RowIdMask::allow_nothing();
+        assert_eq!(empty_mask.max_len(), Some(0));
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&empty_mask, &[], &[0, 1, 100]);
+
+        let allow_list = RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]));
+        assert_eq!(allow_list.max_len(), Some(3));
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&allow_list, &[10, 20, 30], &[0, 15, 25, 40]);
+
+        let block_list = RowIdMask::from_block(row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]));
+        assert_eq!(block_list.max_len(), None);
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&block_list, &[0, 15, 25, 40], &[10, 20, 30]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_mask_selected_indices() {
+        // Allow list
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&[10, 20, 40]));
+        assert!(mask.selected_indices(std::iter::empty()).is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(mask.selected_indices([25, 20, 14, 10].iter()), &[1, 3]);
+
+        // Block list
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_block(row_ids(&[10, 20, 40]));
+        assert!(mask.selected_indices(std::iter::empty()).is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(mask.selected_indices([25, 20, 14, 10].iter()), &[0, 2]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_mask_also_allow() {
+        // Allow list
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&[10, 20]));
+        let new_mask = mask.also_allow(row_ids(&[20, 30, 40]));
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_mask,
+            RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&[10, 20, 30, 40]))
+        );
+
+        // Block list
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_block(row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]));
+        let new_mask = mask.also_allow(row_ids(&[20, 40]));
+        assert_eq!(new_mask, RowIdMask::from_block(row_ids(&[10, 30])));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_mask_also_block() {
+        // Allow list
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]));
+        let new_mask = mask.also_block(row_ids(&[20, 40]));
+        assert_eq!(new_mask, RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&[10, 30])));
+
+        // Block list
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_block(row_ids(&[10, 20]));
+        let new_mask = mask.also_block(row_ids(&[20, 30, 40]));
+        assert_eq!(new_mask, RowIdMask::from_block(row_ids(&[10, 20, 30, 40])));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_mask_iter_ids() {
+        // Allow list
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]));
+        let ids: Vec<u64> = mask.iter_ids().unwrap().collect();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![10, 20, 30]);
+
+        // Empty allow list
+        let mask = RowIdMask::allow_nothing();
+        let iter = mask.iter_ids();
+        assert!(iter.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(iter.unwrap().count(), 0);
+
+        // Block list
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_block(row_ids(&[10, 20, 30]));
+        assert!(mask.iter_ids().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_mask_default() {
+        let mask = RowIdMask::default();
+        // Default should be BlockList with empty set (all rows allowed)
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&mask, &[0, 1, 100, 1000], &[]);
+        assert_eq!(mask.max_len(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_mask_ops() {
+        let mask = RowIdMask::default();
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&mask, &[1, 5, 100], &[]);
+
+        let block_list = mask.also_block(row_ids(&[0, 5, 15]));
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&block_list, &[1, 100], &[5]);
+
+        let allow_list = RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&[0, 2, 5]));
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&allow_list, &[5], &[1, 100]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_mask_combined_ops() {
+        // Test combining allow and block operations
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&[10, 20, 30, 40, 50]));
+        let mask = mask.also_block(row_ids(&[20, 40]));
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&mask, &[10, 30, 50], &[20, 40]);
+
+        let mask = mask.also_allow(row_ids(&[20, 60]));
+        assert_row_id_mask_selects(&mask, &[10, 20, 30, 50, 60], &[40]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_mask_with_large_values() {
+        let large_ids = [u64::MAX - 10, u64::MAX - 5, u64::MAX - 1];
+
+        // Allow list with large values
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&large_ids));
+        for &id in &large_ids {
+            assert!(mask.selected(id));
+        }
+        assert!(!mask.selected(u64::MAX));
+        assert!(!mask.selected(0));
+
+        // Block list with large values
+        let mask = RowIdMask::from_block(row_ids(&large_ids));
+        for &id in &large_ids {
+            assert!(!mask.selected(id));
+        }
+        assert!(mask.selected(u64::MAX));
+        assert!(mask.selected(0));
+    }
+
+    proptest::proptest! {
+        #[test]
+        fn test_row_id_set_from_sorted_iter_proptest(
+            mut row_ids in proptest::collection::vec(0..u64::MAX, 0..1000)
+        ) {
+            row_ids.sort();
+            row_ids.dedup();
+            let num_rows = row_ids.len();
+            let set = RowIdSet::from_sorted_iter(row_ids.clone()).unwrap();
+            prop_assert_eq!(set.len(), Some(num_rows as u64));
+            for id in row_ids {
+                prop_assert!(set.contains(id));
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_row_id_set_union_proptest(
+            ids1 in proptest::collection::vec(0..u64::MAX, 0..500),
+            ids2 in proptest::collection::vec(0..u64::MAX, 0..500),
+        ) {
+            let set1 = row_ids(&ids1);
+            let set2 = row_ids(&ids2);
+
+            let result = set1.union(&set2);
+
+            // All ids from both sets should be in result
+            for id in ids1.iter().chain(ids2.iter()) {
+                prop_assert!(result.contains(*id));
+            }
+
+            // Result size should be union size
+            let expected_size = ids1.iter().chain(ids2.iter()).collect::<std::collections::HashSet<_>>().len();
+            prop_assert_eq!(result.len(), Some(expected_size as u64));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_row_id_set_difference_proptest(
+            ids1 in proptest::collection::vec(0..u64::MAX, 0..500),
+            ids2 in proptest::collection::vec(0..u64::MAX, 0..500),
+        ) {
+            let set1 = row_ids(&ids1);
+            let set2 = row_ids(&ids2);
+
+            let result = set1.difference(&set2);
+
+            // Items in ids1 but not in ids2 should be in result
+            for id in &ids1 {
+                if !ids2.contains(id) {
+                    prop_assert!(result.contains(*id));
+                } else {
+                    prop_assert!(!result.contains(*id));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_row_id_mask_allow_block_proptest(
+            allow_ids in proptest::collection::vec(0..10000u64, 0..100),
+            block_ids in proptest::collection::vec(0..10000u64, 0..100),
+            test_ids in proptest::collection::vec(0..10000u64, 0..50),
+        ) {
+            let mask = RowIdMask::from_allowed(row_ids(&allow_ids))
+                .also_block(row_ids(&block_ids));
+
+            for id in test_ids {
+                let expected = allow_ids.contains(&id) && !block_ids.contains(&id);
+                prop_assert_eq!(mask.selected(id), expected);
+            }
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/mask/nullable.rs b/rust/lance-select/src/mask/nullable.rs
similarity index 71%
rename from rust/lance-core/src/utils/mask/nullable.rs
rename to rust/lance-select/src/mask/nullable.rs
index 1f4b5b7dad3..dd9eb341e6a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-core/src/utils/mask/nullable.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-select/src/mask/nullable.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 
 use super::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 
@@ -62,32 +62,52 @@ impl NullableRowAddrSet {
         &self.nulls
     }
 
+    /// Get the raw `selected` bitmap.
+    ///
+    /// This is the backing field, **not** a semantic "TRUE ∪ NULL" set: a NULL
+    /// row may be stored only in `nulls` without appearing in `selected`. Use
+    /// this when you want a zero-copy view of the raw representation (e.g.
+    /// wire serialization that sends `selected` and `nulls` as separate sets).
+    /// For "TRUE rows only", use [`Self::true_rows`].
+    pub fn selected_rows(&self) -> &RowAddrTreeMap {
+        &self.selected
+    }
+
     /// Get the TRUE rows (selected but not null)
     pub fn true_rows(&self) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
         self.selected.clone() - self.nulls.clone()
     }
 
     pub fn union_all(selections: &[Self]) -> Self {
-        let true_rows = selections
-            .iter()
-            .map(|s| s.true_rows())
-            .collect::<Vec<RowAddrTreeMap>>();
-        let true_rows_refs = true_rows.iter().collect::<Vec<&RowAddrTreeMap>>();
-        let selected = RowAddrTreeMap::union_all(&true_rows_refs);
+        let selected = RowAddrTreeMap::union_all(
+            &selections
+                .iter()
+                .map(|s| &s.selected)
+                .collect::<Vec<&RowAddrTreeMap>>(),
+        );
         let nulls = RowAddrTreeMap::union_all(
             &selections
                 .iter()
                 .map(|s| &s.nulls)
                 .collect::<Vec<&RowAddrTreeMap>>(),
         );
-        // TRUE | NULL = TRUE, so remove any TRUE rows from nulls
-        let nulls = nulls - &selected;
+        // TRUE | NULL = TRUE, so remove any TRUE rows from nulls.
+        // A row is TRUE in some input iff it's in that input's (selected - nulls).
+        let any_true = selections
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.selected.clone() - &s.nulls)
+            .fold(RowAddrTreeMap::new(), |acc, t| acc | t);
+        let nulls = nulls - &any_true;
         Self { selected, nulls }
     }
 }
 
 impl PartialEq for NullableRowAddrSet {
     fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        // Semantic equality: two sets are equal iff they decode to the same
+        // Kleene state on every row. Comparing raw `selected` would be wrong
+        // because a NULL row can be represented either inside or outside the
+        // `selected` bitmap.
         self.true_rows() == other.true_rows() && self.nulls == other.nulls
     }
 }
@@ -126,13 +146,23 @@ impl std::ops::BitOrAssign<&Self> for NullableRowAddrSet {
 /// This mask handles three-valued logic for SQL expressions, where a filter can
 /// evaluate to TRUE, FALSE, or NULL. The `selected` set includes rows that are
 /// TRUE or NULL. The `nulls` set includes rows that are NULL.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub enum NullableRowAddrMask {
     AllowList(NullableRowAddrSet),
     BlockList(NullableRowAddrSet),
 }
 
 impl NullableRowAddrMask {
+    /// A mask that matches no rows (TRUE = ∅, NULL = ∅).
+    pub fn allow_nothing() -> Self {
+        Self::AllowList(NullableRowAddrSet::empty())
+    }
+
+    /// A mask that matches every row (TRUE = universe, NULL = ∅).
+    pub fn all_rows() -> Self {
+        Self::BlockList(NullableRowAddrSet::empty())
+    }
+
     pub fn selected(&self, row_id: u64) -> bool {
         match self {
             Self::AllowList(NullableRowAddrSet { selected, nulls }) => {
@@ -237,26 +267,31 @@ impl std::ops::BitOr for NullableRowAddrMask {
             }
             (Self::AllowList(allow), Self::BlockList(block))
             | (Self::BlockList(block), Self::AllowList(allow)) => {
+                let allow_true = allow.selected.clone() - &allow.nulls;
+                let block_false = block.selected.clone() - &block.nulls;
+
                 let nulls = if allow.nulls.is_empty() && block.nulls.is_empty() {
                     RowAddrTreeMap::new() // Fast path
                 } else {
-                    // null or null -> null (excluding rows that are true in either)
-                    let allow_true = allow.selected.clone() - &allow.nulls;
-                    ((allow.nulls | block.nulls) & block.selected.clone()) - allow_true
+                    // NULL|FALSE=NULL, FALSE|NULL=NULL, NULL|NULL=NULL, TRUE|NULL=TRUE.
+                    // So NULL rows are: (allow NULL & block FALSE) or (block NULL & allow not TRUE).
+                    (allow.nulls & &block_false) | (block.nulls - &allow_true)
                 };
-                let selected = (block.selected - allow.selected) | &nulls;
+                let selected = (block_false - &allow_true) | &nulls;
                 Self::BlockList(NullableRowAddrSet { selected, nulls })
             }
             (Self::BlockList(a), Self::BlockList(b)) => {
+                let a_false = a.selected.clone() - &a.nulls;
+                let b_false = b.selected.clone() - &b.nulls;
                 let nulls = if a.nulls.is_empty() && b.nulls.is_empty() {
                     RowAddrTreeMap::new() // Fast path
                 } else {
-                    // null or null -> null (excluding rows that are true in either)
-                    let false_rows =
-                        (a.selected.clone() - &a.nulls) & (b.selected.clone() - &b.nulls);
-                    (a.nulls | &b.nulls) - false_rows
+                    // NULL if: (A NULL & B FALSE) or (A FALSE & B NULL) or (A NULL & B NULL).
+                    (a.nulls.clone() & &b_false)
+                        | (b.nulls.clone() & &a_false)
+                        | (a.nulls & &b.nulls)
                 };
-                let selected = (a.selected & b.selected) | &nulls;
+                let selected = (a_false & b_false) | &nulls;
                 Self::BlockList(NullableRowAddrSet { selected, nulls })
             }
         }
@@ -363,6 +398,41 @@ mod tests {
         assert_mask_selects(&result, &[], &[0, 1, 2, 3]);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_or_allow_block_keeps_block_nulls() {
+        // Allow|Block OR must preserve NULLs from block even when block.selected is empty.
+        // allow: TRUE=[1], NULL=[0]; block: FALSE=[], NULL=[0]
+        let allow_mask = allow(&[1], &[0]);
+        let block_mask = block(&[], &[0]);
+        let result = allow_mask | block_mask;
+
+        // Row 1 is TRUE; row 0 remains NULL (not selected)
+        assert_mask_selects(&result, &[1], &[0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_or_allow_block_keeps_block_nulls_with_false_rows() {
+        // Ensure FALSE stays FALSE and NULL stays NULL when both appear on the block side.
+        // allow: TRUE=[2], NULL=[]; block: FALSE=[1], NULL=[0]
+        let allow_mask = allow(&[2], &[]);
+        let block_mask = block(&[1], &[0]);
+        let result = allow_mask | block_mask;
+
+        // Row 2 is TRUE; row 1 is FALSE; row 0 remains NULL (not selected)
+        assert_mask_selects(&result, &[2], &[0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_or_block_block_true_overrides_null() {
+        // TRUE OR NULL should be TRUE, even when both sides are BlockList.
+        let true_mask = block(&[], &[]);
+        let null_mask = block(&[], &[0]);
+        let result = true_mask | null_mask;
+
+        // Row 0 should be TRUE.
+        assert_mask_selects(&result, &[0], &[]);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_row_selection_bit_or() {
         // [T, N, T, N, F, F, F]
@@ -423,6 +493,135 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(result.null_rows(), &rows(&[5, 6, 8]));
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_partial_eq_semantic_equivalence() {
+        // Two representations of "row 5 is NULL, nothing is TRUE":
+        //   a: selected={5}, nulls={5}  (NULL row also in selected)
+        //   b: selected={},  nulls={5}  (NULL row only in nulls)
+        // Both decode to the same Kleene state on every row, so they must
+        // compare equal under semantic PartialEq.
+        let a = NullableRowAddrSet::new(rows(&[5]), rows(&[5]));
+        let b = NullableRowAddrSet::new(rows(&[]), rows(&[5]));
+        assert_eq!(a, b);
+        assert_eq!(a.true_rows(), b.true_rows());
+        assert_eq!(a.null_rows(), b.null_rows());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_all_true_overrides_null() {
+        // Critical conflict case: row 5 is TRUE in set1 but NULL in set2.
+        // Kleene: TRUE ∨ NULL = TRUE → row 5 must end up TRUE, not NULL.
+        let set1 = nullable_set(&[5], &[]);
+        let set2 = nullable_set(&[5], &[5]);
+
+        let result = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&[set1, set2]);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.true_rows(), rows(&[5]));
+        assert!(result.null_rows().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_all_null_only_input() {
+        // Input where a row is NULL but NOT in `selected` (the type allows
+        // `selected` to be a strict subset of TRUE ∪ NULL).
+        let set1 = NullableRowAddrSet::new(rows(&[]), rows(&[5]));
+        let set2 = NullableRowAddrSet::new(rows(&[1]), rows(&[]));
+
+        let result = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&[set1, set2]);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.true_rows(), rows(&[1]));
+        assert_eq!(result.null_rows(), &rows(&[5]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_all_all_null_for_a_row() {
+        // Every input marks row 7 as NULL; nothing makes it TRUE.
+        let set1 = nullable_set(&[7], &[7]);
+        let set2 = nullable_set(&[7], &[7]);
+        let set3 = NullableRowAddrSet::new(rows(&[]), rows(&[7]));
+
+        let result = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&[set1, set2, set3]);
+
+        assert!(result.true_rows().is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(result.null_rows(), &rows(&[7]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_all_empty_inputs() {
+        let result = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&[]);
+        assert!(result.true_rows().is_empty());
+        assert!(result.null_rows().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_all_single_input() {
+        // One input → state of every row preserved.
+        let set = nullable_set(&[1, 2, 3, 4], &[2, 4]);
+        let result = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(std::slice::from_ref(&set));
+
+        assert_eq!(result.true_rows(), rows(&[1, 3]));
+        assert_eq!(result.null_rows(), &rows(&[2, 4]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_all_all_empty_inputs() {
+        let inputs = [
+            NullableRowAddrSet::empty(),
+            NullableRowAddrSet::empty(),
+            NullableRowAddrSet::empty(),
+        ];
+        let result = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&inputs);
+        assert!(result.true_rows().is_empty());
+        assert!(result.null_rows().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_all_disjoint_inputs() {
+        // No row appears in more than one input.
+        let set1 = nullable_set(&[1, 2], &[2]);
+        let set2 = nullable_set(&[10, 11], &[11]);
+        let set3 = nullable_set(&[20], &[]);
+
+        let result = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&[set1, set2, set3]);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.true_rows(), rows(&[1, 10, 20]));
+        assert_eq!(result.null_rows(), &rows(&[2, 11]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_all_three_state_row() {
+        // Same row 42 across three inputs in three different states:
+        //   set1: TRUE   set2: NULL   set3: FALSE
+        // Kleene OR: TRUE ∨ NULL ∨ FALSE = TRUE.
+        let set1 = nullable_set(&[42], &[]);
+        let set2 = nullable_set(&[42], &[42]);
+        let set3 = NullableRowAddrSet::empty();
+
+        let result = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&[set1, set2, set3]);
+
+        assert_eq!(result.true_rows(), rows(&[42]));
+        assert!(result.null_rows().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_union_all_matches_repeated_bitor() {
+        // union_all(a, b, c) must equal ((a | b) | c) — same Kleene operator,
+        // applied pairwise via the independently-implemented BitOrAssign.
+        let set1 = nullable_set(&[1, 2, 3, 4], &[4, 5, 6]);
+        let set2 = nullable_set(&[1, 4, 7, 8], &[2, 5, 8]);
+        let set3 = nullable_set(&[2, 6, 10], &[6, 10]);
+
+        let via_union_all =
+            NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&[set1.clone(), set2.clone(), set3.clone()]);
+
+        let mut via_bitor = set1;
+        via_bitor |= &set2;
+        via_bitor |= &set3;
+
+        assert_eq!(via_union_all.true_rows(), via_bitor.true_rows());
+        assert_eq!(via_union_all.null_rows(), via_bitor.null_rows());
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_nullable_row_addr_set_with_nulls() {
         let set = NullableRowAddrSet::new(rows(&[1, 2, 3]), RowAddrTreeMap::new());
diff --git a/rust/lance-select/src/result.rs b/rust/lance-select/src/result.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..25119cdb42f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-select/src/result.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,536 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Interval-shaped wrappers around a row-address mask returned by a
+//! scalar-index expression evaluation.
+//!
+//! Each result describes a closed interval `[lower, upper]` in the
+//! lattice of subsets:
+//!
+//! * `lower` — rows the index *guarantees* are in the answer.
+//! * `upper` — rows that *might* be in the answer; rows outside `upper`
+//!   are guaranteed not in the answer.
+//!
+//! The three pre-existing "shapes" map onto degenerate intervals:
+//!
+//! | Old variant | Interval form                          |
+//! |-------------|----------------------------------------|
+//! | `Exact(m)`  | `{lower: m, upper: m}`                 |
+//! | `AtMost(m)` | `{lower: allow_nothing(), upper: m}`   |
+//! | `AtLeast(m)`| `{lower: m, upper: all_rows()}`        |
+//!
+//! Use [`IndexExprResult::exact`] / [`IndexExprResult::at_most`] /
+//! [`IndexExprResult::at_least`] to construct those shapes, and the
+//! matching [`IndexExprResult::is_exact`] etc. predicates to inspect
+//! them. Intervals that are neither (the "Refined" case — a non-empty
+//! `lower` strictly inside a non-universe `upper`) arise from indices
+//! that can distinguish guaranteed-match from candidate-match rows
+//! within a single search (e.g. a zone map answering `IS NOT NULL`).
+//!
+//! The boolean algebra (`Not` / `BitAnd` / `BitOr`) is elementwise on
+//! the endpoints:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! !{l, u}                = {!u, !l}
+//! {l1, u1} & {l2, u2}    = {l1 & l2, u1 & u2}
+//! {l1, u1} | {l2, u2}    = {l1 | l2, u1 | u2}
+//! ```
+//!
+//! This works for both the post-`drop_nulls` form ([`IndexExprResult`],
+//! backed by [`RowAddrMask`]) and the during-evaluation form
+//! ([`NullableIndexExprResult`], backed by [`NullableRowAddrMask`]) —
+//! the per-endpoint algebra already implements two-valued and SQL
+//! three-valued logic correctly inside each mask type.
+
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, builder::BinaryBuilder};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+use crate::mask::{NullableRowAddrMask, RowAddrMask, RowSetOps};
+
+/// Result of an index search before NULL rows are dropped. Each endpoint
+/// is a [`NullableRowAddrMask`] carrying SQL three-valued logic info.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct NullableIndexExprResult {
+    /// Rows the index *guarantees* are TRUE.
+    pub lower: NullableRowAddrMask,
+    /// Rows that may be TRUE. Rows outside `upper` are guaranteed to be
+    /// FALSE / NULL (and so not in a `WHERE` answer set).
+    pub upper: NullableRowAddrMask,
+    // O(1) cache for is_exact(). Set by constructors and propagated
+    // elementwise through the boolean algebra.
+    exact: bool,
+}
+
+impl NullableIndexExprResult {
+    /// Precise result — every row in `mask` is in the answer and every
+    /// row outside is not. Equivalent to the old `Exact` variant.
+    pub fn exact(mask: NullableRowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: mask.clone(),
+            upper: mask,
+            exact: true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Upper-bound-only result — rows outside `mask` are guaranteed not
+    /// to match; rows inside may match and require a recheck.
+    /// Equivalent to the old `AtMost` variant.
+    pub fn at_most(mask: NullableRowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: NullableRowAddrMask::allow_nothing(),
+            upper: mask,
+            exact: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Lower-bound-only result — rows in `mask` are guaranteed to match;
+    /// rows outside may match too and require a recheck. Equivalent to
+    /// the old `AtLeast` variant.
+    pub fn at_least(mask: NullableRowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: mask,
+            upper: NullableRowAddrMask::all_rows(),
+            exact: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Construct an interval result from lower/upper bounds.
+    ///
+    /// `lower` rows are guaranteed TRUE and `upper` rows may be TRUE, with
+    /// NULL state preserved at both endpoints. Equal endpoints are canonicalized
+    /// to [`Self::exact`] so `is_exact()` remains structural.
+    pub fn new(lower: NullableRowAddrMask, upper: NullableRowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        if lower == upper {
+            Self::exact(lower)
+        } else {
+            Self {
+                lower,
+                upper,
+                exact: false,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// True if the result is exact — the answer is precisely the lower
+    /// (== upper) mask.
+    ///
+    /// This is a **structural** check on the canonical form produced by
+    /// the constructors / algebra: an `Exact(m)` built with
+    /// [`Self::exact`] holds equal masks, and elementwise `&` / `|` / `!`
+    /// preserve that. It is not a semantic emptiness test — a
+    /// hand-constructed `IndexExprResult` whose endpoints are
+    /// representationally distinct but semantically equal (e.g.
+    /// `AllowList(universe)` vs `BlockList(empty)`) will report
+    /// `is_exact() == false`. All in-tree code paths construct results
+    /// through the canonical builders, so this is sound in practice.
+    ///
+    /// The three shape predicates are not mutually exclusive — see the
+    /// note on [`Self::is_at_least`] for the precedence convention.
+    pub fn is_exact(&self) -> bool {
+        self.exact
+    }
+
+    /// True if `lower` matches no rows (canonical `AllowList(∅)`) — the
+    /// index gives only an upper bound on the answer.
+    ///
+    /// Like [`Self::is_exact`], this is a structural check on the
+    /// canonical form. See that doc for the caveat.
+    pub fn is_at_most(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(&self.lower, NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(set) if set.is_empty())
+    }
+
+    /// True if `upper` covers every row (canonical `BlockList(∅)`) — the
+    /// index gives only a lower bound on the answer.
+    ///
+    /// **Precedence convention** for consumers branching on shape: check
+    /// [`Self::is_exact`] *first* (Exact-of-empty satisfies both
+    /// `is_exact` and `is_at_most`; Exact-of-universe satisfies both
+    /// `is_exact` and `is_at_least`); then `is_at_least`; finally treat
+    /// the residual as `is_at_most` or Refined. The branches in
+    /// `filtered_read::apply_index_to_fragment` follow this order.
+    pub fn is_at_least(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(&self.upper, NullableRowAddrMask::BlockList(set) if set.is_empty())
+    }
+
+    /// Project NULL rows out of the result.
+    ///
+    /// Under a `WHERE` clause NULL is treated as FALSE, so `drop_nulls`
+    /// folds NULL rows out of the answer at each endpoint.
+    pub fn drop_nulls(self) -> IndexExprResult {
+        IndexExprResult {
+            lower: self.lower.drop_nulls(),
+            upper: self.upper.drop_nulls(),
+            exact: self.exact,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::ops::Not for NullableIndexExprResult {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    fn not(self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: !self.upper,
+            upper: !self.lower,
+            exact: self.exact,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::ops::BitAnd<Self> for NullableIndexExprResult {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    fn bitand(self, rhs: Self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: self.lower & rhs.lower,
+            upper: self.upper & rhs.upper,
+            exact: self.exact && rhs.exact,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::ops::BitOr<Self> for NullableIndexExprResult {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    fn bitor(self, rhs: Self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: self.lower | rhs.lower,
+            upper: self.upper | rhs.upper,
+            exact: self.exact && rhs.exact,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Result of an index search after NULL rows have been dropped. This is
+/// what the read planner consumes.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct IndexExprResult {
+    /// Rows the index *guarantees* are in the answer.
+    pub lower: RowAddrMask,
+    /// Rows that may be in the answer. Rows outside `upper` are
+    /// guaranteed not in the answer.
+    pub upper: RowAddrMask,
+    // O(1) cache for is_exact(). Set by constructors and propagated
+    // elementwise through the boolean algebra.
+    exact: bool,
+}
+
+impl IndexExprResult {
+    /// Precise result — every row in `mask` is in the answer and every
+    /// row outside is not. Equivalent to the old `Exact` variant.
+    pub fn exact(mask: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: mask.clone(),
+            upper: mask,
+            exact: true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Upper-bound-only result. Equivalent to the old `AtMost` variant.
+    pub fn at_most(mask: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: RowAddrMask::allow_nothing(),
+            upper: mask,
+            exact: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Lower-bound-only result. Equivalent to the old `AtLeast` variant.
+    pub fn at_least(mask: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: mask,
+            upper: RowAddrMask::all_rows(),
+            exact: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Construct a refined interval result — `lower` rows are guaranteed
+    /// matches and `upper` rows are candidates, with `lower ⊆ upper`.
+    ///
+    /// Use [`Self::exact`] / [`Self::at_most`] / [`Self::at_least`] for
+    /// the three degenerate shapes; this constructor is only needed when
+    /// both endpoints are non-trivial.
+    pub fn new(lower: RowAddrMask, upper: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower,
+            upper,
+            exact: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// True if the result is exact — the answer is precisely the lower
+    /// (== upper) mask. See [`NullableIndexExprResult::is_exact`] for the
+    /// structural-form caveat and the precedence convention shared with
+    /// [`Self::is_at_most`] / [`Self::is_at_least`].
+    pub fn is_exact(&self) -> bool {
+        self.exact
+    }
+
+    /// True if `lower` matches no rows (canonical `AllowList(∅)`) — the
+    /// index gives only an upper bound on the answer. See
+    /// [`NullableIndexExprResult::is_exact`] for caveats.
+    pub fn is_at_most(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(&self.lower, RowAddrMask::AllowList(set) if set.is_empty())
+    }
+
+    /// True if `upper` covers every row (canonical `BlockList(∅)`) — the
+    /// index gives only a lower bound on the answer. See
+    /// [`NullableIndexExprResult::is_at_least`] for the precedence
+    /// convention consumers should follow.
+    pub fn is_at_least(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(&self.upper, RowAddrMask::BlockList(set) if set.is_empty())
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::{NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+    fn allow(rows: &[u64]) -> NullableRowAddrMask {
+        NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(NullableRowAddrSet::new(
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(rows.iter().copied()),
+            RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn nullable_index_expr_result_new_canonicalizes_exact() {
+        let lower = allow(&[1, 2]);
+        let result = NullableIndexExprResult::new(lower.clone(), lower.clone());
+
+        assert!(result.is_exact());
+        assert_eq!(result.lower, lower);
+        assert_eq!(result.upper, lower);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn nullable_index_expr_result_new_preserves_interval() {
+        let lower = allow(&[1, 2]);
+        let upper = allow(&[1, 2, 3]);
+        let result = NullableIndexExprResult::new(lower.clone(), upper.clone());
+
+        assert!(!result.is_exact());
+        assert_eq!(result.lower, lower);
+        assert_eq!(result.upper, upper);
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::ops::Not for IndexExprResult {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    fn not(self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: !self.upper,
+            upper: !self.lower,
+            exact: self.exact,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::ops::BitAnd<Self> for IndexExprResult {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    fn bitand(self, rhs: Self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: self.lower & rhs.lower,
+            upper: self.upper & rhs.upper,
+            exact: self.exact && rhs.exact,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::ops::BitOr<Self> for IndexExprResult {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    fn bitor(self, rhs: Self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            lower: self.lower | rhs.lower,
+            upper: self.upper | rhs.upper,
+            exact: self.exact && rhs.exact,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+static TWO_MASK_RESULT_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("lower", DataType::Binary, true),
+        Field::new("upper", DataType::Binary, true),
+        Field::new("fragments_covered", DataType::Binary, true),
+    ]))
+});
+
+static THREE_VARIANT_RESULT_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("result".to_string(), DataType::Binary, true),
+        Field::new("discriminant".to_string(), DataType::UInt32, true),
+        Field::new("fragments_covered".to_string(), DataType::Binary, true),
+    ]))
+});
+
+#[derive(Default, Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum IndexExprResultWireFormat {
+    ThreeVariant, // A legacy format that used AtMost/AtLeast/Exact variants
+    #[default]
+    TwoMask, // The two-mask format with upper and lower
+}
+
+impl IndexExprResultWireFormat {
+    pub fn schema(&self) -> &SchemaRef {
+        match self {
+            Self::ThreeVariant => &THREE_VARIANT_RESULT_SCHEMA,
+            Self::TwoMask => &TWO_MASK_RESULT_SCHEMA,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl IndexExprResult {
+    /// Serialize into the `INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA` record-batch layout used to
+    /// hand scalar-index results to the read planner.
+    #[tracing::instrument(skip_all)]
+    fn serialize_standard(&self, fragments_covered: &RoaringBitmap) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let lower_arr = self.lower.into_arrow()?;
+        let upper_arr = if self.is_exact() {
+            let mut b = BinaryBuilder::new();
+            b.append_null();
+            b.append_null();
+            b.finish()
+        } else {
+            self.upper.into_arrow()?
+        };
+        let mut frags_builder = BinaryBuilder::new();
+        let mut frags_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(fragments_covered.serialized_size());
+        fragments_covered.serialize_into(&mut frags_bytes)?;
+        frags_builder.append_value(frags_bytes);
+        frags_builder.append_null();
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            TWO_MASK_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(lower_arr),
+                Arc::new(upper_arr),
+                Arc::new(frags_builder.finish()) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize into the legacy three-variant record-batch layout.
+    ///
+    /// Refined intervals (a non-empty `lower` strictly inside a non-universe `upper`)
+    /// cannot be represented in the legacy encoding and are degraded to `AtMost(upper)`.
+    fn serialize_three_variant(&self, fragments_covered: &RoaringBitmap) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let (mask, discriminant) = if self.is_exact() {
+            (&self.lower, 0u32)
+        } else if self.is_at_most() {
+            (&self.upper, 1)
+        } else if self.is_at_least() {
+            (&self.lower, 2)
+        } else {
+            tracing::warn!(
+                "Legacy serialization of refined index-expr result: degrading to AtMost(upper); \
+                 answer will remain correct but query will be more expensive"
+            );
+            (&self.upper, 1)
+        };
+        let mask_arr = mask.into_arrow()?;
+        let discriminant_arr =
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![discriminant, discriminant])) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        let mut frags_builder = BinaryBuilder::new();
+        let mut frags_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(fragments_covered.serialized_size());
+        fragments_covered.serialize_into(&mut frags_bytes)?;
+        frags_builder.append_value(frags_bytes);
+        frags_builder.append_null();
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            THREE_VARIANT_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(mask_arr),
+                discriminant_arr,
+                Arc::new(frags_builder.finish()) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+
+    pub fn serialize(
+        &self,
+        fragments_covered: &RoaringBitmap,
+        format: IndexExprResultWireFormat,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        match format {
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::ThreeVariant => {
+                self.serialize_three_variant(fragments_covered)
+            }
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask => self.serialize_standard(fragments_covered),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize from a record batch produced by [`Self::serialize`].
+    pub fn deserialize(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<(Self, RoaringBitmap)> {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+
+        if batch.num_rows() != 2 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Expected a batch with exactly 2 rows but there are {} rows",
+                    batch.num_rows()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if batch.num_columns() != 3 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Expected a batch with exactly three columns but there are {} columns",
+                    batch.num_columns()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let first_col_name = batch.schema().field(0).name().clone();
+        let index_result = if first_col_name == "lower" {
+            let lower = RowAddrMask::from_arrow(batch.column(0).as_binary())?;
+            let upper_col = batch.column(1).as_binary::<i32>();
+            if upper_col.is_null(0) && upper_col.is_null(1) {
+                // Null upper column is the serialized form of an exact result.
+                Self::exact(lower)
+            } else {
+                let upper = RowAddrMask::from_arrow(upper_col)?;
+                Self {
+                    lower,
+                    upper,
+                    exact: false,
+                }
+            }
+        } else if first_col_name == "result" {
+            let row_addr_mask = RowAddrMask::from_arrow(batch.column(0).as_binary())?;
+            let match_type = batch
+                .column(1)
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt32Type>()
+                .values()[0];
+            if match_type == 0 {
+                Self::exact(row_addr_mask)
+            } else if match_type == 1 {
+                Self::at_most(row_addr_mask)
+            } else if match_type == 2 {
+                Self::at_least(row_addr_mask)
+            } else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Unexpected match type: {match_type}"
+                )));
+            }
+        } else {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Unexpected column name: {first_col_name}"
+            )));
+        };
+
+        let frags_col = batch.column(2).as_binary::<i32>();
+        let fragments = RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(frags_col.value(0))?;
+
+        Ok((index_result, fragments))
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-table/Cargo.toml
index 961e11d45c3..2afe8ae50e9 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-table/Cargo.toml
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ rust-version.workspace = true
 lance-arrow.workspace = true
 lance-core.workspace = true
 lance-file.workspace = true
+lance-select.workspace = true
 lance-io.workspace = true
 arrow.workspace = true
 arrow-array.workspace = true
@@ -23,11 +24,11 @@ arrow-ipc.workspace = true
 arrow-schema.workspace = true
 async-trait.workspace = true
 aws-credential-types = { workspace = true, optional = true }
-aws-sdk-dynamodb = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+blake3.workspace = true
+aws-sdk-dynamodb = { workspace = true, optional = true, default-features = false, features = ["default-https-client", "rt-tokio"] }
 byteorder.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
 chrono.workspace = true
-deepsize.workspace = true
 futures.workspace = true
 log.workspace = true
 object_store.workspace = true
@@ -47,18 +48,16 @@ uuid.workspace = true
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 lance-datagen.workspace = true
+lance-testing.workspace = true
 arrow-schema.workspace = true
 criterion.workspace = true
 pretty_assertions.workspace = true
 proptest.workspace = true
 rstest.workspace = true
 
-[target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dev-dependencies]
-pprof = { workspace = true }
-
 [build-dependencies]
 prost-build.workspace = true
-protobuf-src = { version = "2.1", optional = true }
+protobuf-src = { workspace = true, optional = true }
 
 [features]
 dynamodb = ["dep:aws-sdk-dynamodb", "dep:aws-credential-types", "lance-io/aws"]
@@ -72,5 +71,17 @@ features = ["protoc"]
 name = "row_id_index"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "manifest_intern"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "system_columns"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "version_columns"
+harness = false
+
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/benches/manifest_intern.rs b/rust/lance-table/benches/manifest_intern.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..81bd57c1a22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/benches/manifest_intern.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,263 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+// Benchmarks use eprintln! to report memory stats alongside criterion output.
+#![allow(clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+//! Benchmark for manifest fragment interning.
+//!
+//! Measures memory savings and deserialization throughput when interning
+//! `DataFile.fields`, `DataFile.column_indices`, and
+//! `RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline` bytes across many fragments.
+
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use prost::Message;
+
+use lance_table::format::pb;
+use lance_table::format::{DataFileFieldInterner, Fragment};
+
+fn num_fragments() -> u64 {
+    std::env::var("BENCH_NUM_FRAGMENTS")
+        .map(|s| s.parse().unwrap())
+        .unwrap_or(100_000)
+}
+
+/// Build a vector of protobuf DataFragment messages that simulate a
+/// homogeneous, post-compaction table: every fragment has the same field
+/// list, column indices, and version metadata bytes.
+fn make_uniform_pb_fragments(n: u64, num_fields: usize) -> Vec<pb::DataFragment> {
+    let fields: Vec<i32> = (0..num_fields as i32).collect();
+    let column_indices: Vec<i32> = (0..num_fields as i32).collect();
+
+    // Simulate version metadata: a small protobuf-encoded payload
+    // (identical across all fragments post-compaction)
+    let version_bytes: Vec<u8> = {
+        let seq = pb::RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![pb::RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: Some(pb::U64Segment {
+                    segment: Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::Range(pb::u64_segment::Range {
+                        start: 0,
+                        end: 1000,
+                    })),
+                }),
+                version: 42,
+            }],
+        };
+        seq.encode_to_vec()
+    };
+
+    (0..n)
+        .map(|i| pb::DataFragment {
+            id: i,
+            files: vec![pb::DataFile {
+                path: format!("data/{i}.lance"),
+                fields: fields.clone(),
+                column_indices: column_indices.clone(),
+                file_major_version: 2,
+                file_minor_version: 0,
+                file_size_bytes: 0,
+                base_id: None,
+            }],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_sequence: None,
+            physical_rows: 1000,
+            last_updated_at_version_sequence: Some(
+                pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::InlineLastUpdatedAtVersions(
+                    version_bytes.clone(),
+                ),
+            ),
+            created_at_version_sequence: Some(
+                pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::InlineCreatedAtVersions(
+                    version_bytes.clone(),
+                ),
+            ),
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Deserialize protobuf fragments WITHOUT interning (baseline).
+fn deserialize_without_interning(protos: &[pb::DataFragment]) -> Vec<Fragment> {
+    protos
+        .iter()
+        .map(|p| Fragment::try_from(p.clone()).unwrap())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Deserialize protobuf fragments WITH interning.
+fn deserialize_with_interning(protos: &[pb::DataFragment]) -> Vec<Fragment> {
+    let mut interner = DataFileFieldInterner::default();
+    protos
+        .iter()
+        .map(|p| interner.intern_fragment(p.clone()).unwrap())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Build fragments where each group shares the same version metadata,
+/// simulating many small appends without compaction.
+fn make_diverse_pb_fragments(
+    n: u64,
+    num_fields: usize,
+    unique_versions: u64,
+) -> Vec<pb::DataFragment> {
+    let fields: Vec<i32> = (0..num_fields as i32).collect();
+    let column_indices: Vec<i32> = (0..num_fields as i32).collect();
+    let group_size = n / unique_versions;
+
+    let version_payloads: Vec<Vec<u8>> = (0..unique_versions)
+        .map(|v| {
+            let seq = pb::RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+                runs: vec![pb::RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: Some(pb::U64Segment {
+                        segment: Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::Range(pb::u64_segment::Range {
+                            start: 0,
+                            end: 1000,
+                        })),
+                    }),
+                    version: v,
+                }],
+            };
+            seq.encode_to_vec()
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    (0..n)
+        .map(|i| {
+            let version_idx = (i / group_size).min(unique_versions - 1) as usize;
+            pb::DataFragment {
+                id: i,
+                files: vec![pb::DataFile {
+                    path: format!("data/{i}.lance"),
+                    fields: fields.clone(),
+                    column_indices: column_indices.clone(),
+                    file_major_version: 2,
+                    file_minor_version: 0,
+                    file_size_bytes: 0,
+                    base_id: None,
+                }],
+                overlays: vec![],
+                deletion_file: None,
+                row_id_sequence: None,
+                physical_rows: 1000,
+                last_updated_at_version_sequence: Some(
+                    pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::InlineLastUpdatedAtVersions(
+                        version_payloads[version_idx].clone(),
+                    ),
+                ),
+                created_at_version_sequence: Some(
+                    pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::InlineCreatedAtVersions(
+                        version_payloads[version_idx].clone(),
+                    ),
+                ),
+            }
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn bench_deserialization(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("manifest_intern");
+    let n = num_fragments();
+
+    for num_fields in [10, 50] {
+        let protos = make_uniform_pb_fragments(n, num_fields);
+
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("deserialize_no_intern", num_fields),
+            &num_fields,
+            |b, _| {
+                b.iter(|| deserialize_without_interning(&protos));
+            },
+        );
+
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("deserialize_with_intern", num_fields),
+            &num_fields,
+            |b, _| {
+                b.iter(|| deserialize_with_interning(&protos));
+            },
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Benchmark with many unique version payloads
+    for unique_versions in [10, 100, 500] {
+        let protos = make_diverse_pb_fragments(n, 10, unique_versions);
+
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("deserialize_no_intern_diverse", unique_versions),
+            &unique_versions,
+            |b, _| {
+                b.iter(|| deserialize_without_interning(&protos));
+            },
+        );
+
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("deserialize_with_intern_diverse", unique_versions),
+            &unique_versions,
+            |b, _| {
+                b.iter(|| deserialize_with_interning(&protos));
+            },
+        );
+    }
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_memory(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("manifest_memory");
+    let n = num_fragments();
+
+    for num_fields in [10, 50] {
+        let protos = make_uniform_pb_fragments(n, num_fields);
+
+        let no_intern = deserialize_without_interning(&protos);
+        let with_intern = deserialize_with_interning(&protos);
+
+        let size_no_intern = no_intern.deep_size_of();
+        let size_with_intern = with_intern.deep_size_of();
+
+        eprintln!(
+            "\n[{} fragments, {} fields] Memory without interning: {:.2} MB",
+            n,
+            num_fields,
+            size_no_intern as f64 / 1_048_576.0
+        );
+        eprintln!(
+            "[{} fragments, {} fields] Memory with interning:    {:.2} MB",
+            n,
+            num_fields,
+            size_with_intern as f64 / 1_048_576.0
+        );
+        eprintln!(
+            "[{} fragments, {} fields] Savings:                  {:.2} MB ({:.1}%)",
+            n,
+            num_fields,
+            (size_no_intern - size_with_intern) as f64 / 1_048_576.0,
+            (1.0 - size_with_intern as f64 / size_no_intern as f64) * 100.0
+        );
+
+        // Benchmark deep_size_of measurement itself (sanity check)
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("deep_size_of_interned", num_fields),
+            &num_fields,
+            |b, _| {
+                b.iter(|| with_intern.deep_size_of());
+            },
+        );
+
+        drop(no_intern);
+        drop(with_intern);
+    }
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().with_profiler(lance_testing::pprof::PProfProfiler::new(100, lance_testing::pprof::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+    targets = bench_deserialization, bench_memory
+);
+#[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
+criterion_group!(benches, bench_deserialization, bench_memory);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/benches/row_id_index.rs b/rust/lance-table/benches/row_id_index.rs
index e1bb601972b..81e11c9b852 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/benches/row_id_index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/benches/row_id_index.rs
@@ -20,16 +20,22 @@ use std::{collections::HashMap, io::Write, ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, BenchmarkId, Criterion};
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
 use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+use lance_table::format::pb;
 use lance_table::rowids::FragmentRowIdIndex;
 use lance_table::{
-    rowids::{write_row_ids, RowIdIndex, RowIdSequence},
-    utils::stream::{apply_row_id_and_deletes, RowIdAndDeletesConfig},
+    rowids::{RowIdIndex, RowIdSequence, read_row_ids, write_row_ids},
+    utils::stream::{RowIdAndDeletesConfig, apply_row_id_and_deletes},
 };
+use prost::Message;
+use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+use rand::seq::SliceRandom;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
 
 fn make_sequence(row_id_range: Range<u64>, deletions: usize) -> RowIdSequence {
     let mut sequence = RowIdSequence::from(row_id_range);
@@ -308,16 +314,313 @@ fn bench_apply_row_id(c: &mut Criterion) {
     group.finish();
 }
 
+/// A fragment count large enough for the probe gate, small enough to build in
+/// seconds. `BENCH_SHOT_FRAGMENTS=19960` reproduces the real table.
+fn shot_fragments() -> usize {
+    std::env::var("BENCH_SHOT_FRAGMENTS")
+        .map(|s| s.parse().unwrap())
+        .unwrap_or(2000)
+}
+
+/// Rows per fragment of the shot table (17.4B rows over 19,960 fragments).
+const SHOT_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: u64 = 870_000;
+
+/// Mixes a position into a pseudo-random byte cheaply enough to fill gigabits.
+fn hash_byte(position: u64, seed: u64) -> u8 {
+    (position ^ seed)
+        .wrapping_mul(0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15)
+        .rotate_left(23)
+        .wrapping_mul(0xD1B5_4A32_D192_ED03)
+        .to_le_bytes()[7]
+}
+
+/// `start..end` as a bitmap segment keeping about `density_pct` of its slots.
+fn bitmap_segment(start: u64, end: u64, density_pct: u8, seed: u64) -> pb::U64Segment {
+    let len = (end - start) as usize;
+    let mut data = vec![0u8; len.div_ceil(8)];
+    for (byte_index, byte) in data.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+        let mut bits = 0u8;
+        for bit in 0..8 {
+            if hash_byte((byte_index * 8 + bit) as u64, seed) % 100 < density_pct {
+                bits |= 1 << bit;
+            }
+        }
+        *byte = bits;
+    }
+    if !len.is_multiple_of(8) {
+        data[len / 8] &= (1u8 << (len % 8)) - 1;
+    }
+    pb::U64Segment {
+        segment: Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(
+            pb::u64_segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                start,
+                end,
+                bitmap: data,
+            },
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+/// `start..end` minus about `holes_pct` percent of its slots, as sorted holes.
+fn holes_segment(start: u64, end: u64, holes_pct: u8, seed: u64) -> pb::U64Segment {
+    let holes: Vec<u32> = (0..(end - start))
+        .filter(|offset| hash_byte(*offset, seed) % 100 < holes_pct)
+        .map(|offset| offset as u32)
+        .collect();
+    let offsets = holes.iter().flat_map(|hole| hole.to_le_bytes()).collect();
+    pb::U64Segment {
+        segment: Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithHoles(
+            pb::u64_segment::RangeWithHoles {
+                start,
+                end,
+                holes: Some(pb::EncodedU64Array {
+                    array: Some(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U32Array(
+                        pb::encoded_u64_array::U32Array {
+                            base: start,
+                            offsets,
+                        },
+                    )),
+                }),
+            },
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn range_segment(start: u64, end: u64) -> pb::U64Segment {
+    pb::U64Segment {
+        segment: Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::Range(pb::u64_segment::Range {
+            start,
+            end,
+        })),
+    }
+}
+
+/// A live row id from `segment`, or `None` when the sampled slot is a hole.
+fn sample_segment(segment: &pb::U64Segment, rng: &mut SmallRng) -> Option<u64> {
+    use pb::u64_segment::Segment::*;
+    match segment.segment.as_ref().unwrap() {
+        Range(range) => Some(rng.random_range(range.start..range.end)),
+        RangeWithBitmap(bitmap) => {
+            let offset = rng.random_range(0..(bitmap.end - bitmap.start)) as usize;
+            (bitmap.bitmap[offset / 8] & (1 << (offset % 8)) != 0)
+                .then_some(bitmap.start + offset as u64)
+        }
+        RangeWithHoles(holes) => {
+            let offset = rng.random_range(0..(holes.end - holes.start)) as u32;
+            let Some(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U32Array(array)) =
+                holes.holes.as_ref().unwrap().array.as_ref()
+            else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            let is_hole = array
+                .offsets
+                .as_chunks::<4>()
+                .0
+                .iter()
+                .any(|hole| u32::from_le_bytes(*hole) == offset);
+            (!is_hole).then_some(holes.start + offset as u64)
+        }
+        _ => unreachable!(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fragments shaped like the shot table after deletes and compaction: about
+/// half keep one `Range`; the rest were compacted in groups of 16, and each
+/// output fragment holds two dense (82%) slices taken from different source
+/// fragments, so spans interleave and one id sits under up to 16 fragments.
+/// One compacted slice in three carries only 1% holes instead of a bitmap.
+/// Returns the fragments and a pool of live row ids to query.
+fn shot_table_like(
+    num_fragments: usize,
+    rows_per_fragment: u64,
+    seed: u64,
+) -> (Vec<FragmentRowIdIndex>, Vec<u64>) {
+    const GROUP: usize = 16;
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
+    let mut sequences: Vec<Vec<pb::U64Segment>> = Vec::with_capacity(num_fragments);
+    for group_start in (0..num_fragments).step_by(GROUP) {
+        let group_end = (group_start + GROUP).min(num_fragments);
+        let is_compacted = rng.random_range(0..100) < 44;
+        if !is_compacted || group_end - group_start < 2 {
+            for fragment in group_start..group_end {
+                let start = fragment as u64 * rows_per_fragment;
+                sequences.push(vec![range_segment(start, start + rows_per_fragment)]);
+            }
+            continue;
+        }
+        let half = rows_per_fragment / 2;
+        let mut slices: Vec<(u64, u64)> = (group_start..group_end)
+            .flat_map(|fragment| {
+                let start = fragment as u64 * rows_per_fragment;
+                [
+                    (start, start + half),
+                    (start + half, start + rows_per_fragment),
+                ]
+            })
+            .collect();
+        slices.shuffle(&mut rng);
+        for pair in slices.as_chunks::<2>().0 {
+            let mut pair = *pair;
+            pair.sort_unstable();
+            let segments = pair
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(start, end)| {
+                    let seed = rng.random();
+                    if rng.random_range(0..3) == 0 {
+                        holes_segment(*start, *end, 1, seed)
+                    } else {
+                        bitmap_segment(*start, *end, 82, seed)
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect();
+            sequences.push(segments);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut pool = Vec::with_capacity(100_000);
+    while pool.len() < 100_000 {
+        let segments = &sequences[rng.random_range(0..sequences.len())];
+        let segment = &segments[rng.random_range(0..segments.len())];
+        if let Some(id) = sample_segment(segment, &mut rng) {
+            pool.push(id);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let fragments = sequences
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(fragment_id, segments)| {
+            let bytes = pb::RowIdSequence { segments }.encode_to_vec();
+            FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                fragment_id: fragment_id as u32,
+                row_id_sequence: Arc::new(read_row_ids(&bytes).unwrap()),
+                deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+    (fragments, pool)
+}
+
+fn bench_shot_table(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("row_id_index_shot_table");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+    let (fragments, pool) = shot_table_like(shot_fragments(), SHOT_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, 7);
+
+    group.bench_function("build", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| RowIdIndex::new(&fragments).unwrap());
+    });
+
+    let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragments).unwrap();
+    for n in [1usize, 1000, 100_000] {
+        let ids = &pool[..n];
+        group.throughput(criterion::Throughput::Elements(n as u64));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::new("get_many", n), &ids, |b, ids| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let out = index.get_many(ids).unwrap();
+                assert!(out.iter().all(Option::is_some));
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.throughput(criterion::Throughput::Elements(1));
+    let mut next = 0usize;
+    group.bench_function("get", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            next = (next + 1) % pool.len();
+            assert!(index.get(pool[next]).unwrap().is_some());
+        });
+    });
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_bitmap_mask_density(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let span = 1_000_000_u64;
+    let live: Vec<u64> = (0..span).filter(|id| id % 17 != 0).collect();
+    let sequence = RowIdSequence::from(live.as_slice());
+    assert!(matches!(
+        sequence.segments(),
+        [lance_table::rowids::segment::U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { .. }]
+    ));
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("bitmap_mask_density");
+    group.sample_size(15);
+    group.warm_up_time(std::time::Duration::from_millis(250));
+    group.measurement_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(1));
+    for hits in [
+        1_usize,
+        1_000,
+        10_000,
+        20_000,
+        50_000,
+        100_000,
+        200_000,
+        400_000,
+        800_000,
+        live.len(),
+    ] {
+        let ids: Vec<u64> = if hits == live.len() {
+            live.clone()
+        } else {
+            (0..hits)
+                .map(|index| live[(index + 1) * (live.len() - 1) / hits])
+                .collect()
+        };
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(ids.as_slice()));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(hits), &mask, |b, mask| {
+            b.iter(|| std::hint::black_box(sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(mask)));
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_broad_dataset_wide_mask(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    // Regression scenario: a dataset-wide allow-list applied to one
+    // small-span fragment. The selection is far broader than the span, so
+    // the call must keep the old range-based path instead of scanning ~10M
+    // selected ids for a 100k-span segment.
+    let frag_start = 5_000_000_u64;
+    let span = 100_000_u64;
+    let live: Vec<u64> = (frag_start..frag_start + span)
+        .filter(|id| id % 17 != 0)
+        .collect();
+    let sequence = RowIdSequence::from(live.as_slice());
+    assert!(matches!(
+        sequence.segments(),
+        [lance_table::rowids::segment::U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { .. }]
+    ));
+
+    let mut wide: Vec<u64> = (0..10_000_000)
+        .filter(|id| id % 17 != 0 && (*id < frag_start || *id >= frag_start + span))
+        .collect();
+    wide.extend(live.iter().copied());
+    let wide_mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(wide.as_slice()));
+    let local_mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(live.as_slice()));
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("broad_mask_fragment");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+    group.warm_up_time(std::time::Duration::from_millis(300));
+    group.measurement_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(2));
+    group.bench_function("fragment-only", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| std::hint::black_box(sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&local_mask)));
+    });
+    group.bench_function("dataset-wide", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| std::hint::black_box(sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&wide_mask)));
+    });
+    group.finish();
+}
+
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 criterion_group!(
     name = benches;
-    config=Criterion::default().with_profiler(pprof::criterion::PProfProfiler::new(100, pprof::criterion::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
-    targets=bench_creation, bench_get_single, bench_apply_row_id);
+    config=Criterion::default().with_profiler(lance_testing::pprof::PProfProfiler::new(100, lance_testing::pprof::Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+    targets=bench_creation, bench_get_single, bench_apply_row_id, bench_shot_table, bench_bitmap_mask_density, bench_broad_dataset_wide_mask);
 #[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
 criterion_group!(
     benches,
     bench_creation,
     bench_get_single,
-    bench_apply_row_id
+    bench_apply_row_id,
+    bench_shot_table,
+    bench_bitmap_mask_density,
+    bench_broad_dataset_wide_mask
 );
 criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/benches/system_columns.rs b/rust/lance-table/benches/system_columns.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..022fc32aa95
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/benches/system_columns.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{hint::black_box, sync::Arc, time::Duration};
+
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchOptions, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use criterion::{BatchSize, BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, future, stream};
+use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+use lance_table::{
+    rowids::RowIdSequence,
+    utils::stream::{
+        ReadBatchTask, ReadBatchTaskStream, RowIdAndDeletesConfig, wrap_with_row_id_and_delete,
+    },
+};
+
+fn make_batch(batch_size: usize, has_payload: bool) -> RecordBatch {
+    if has_payload {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "value",
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0; batch_size]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    } else {
+        RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+            Arc::new(Schema::empty()),
+            Vec::new(),
+            &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(batch_size)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+fn make_tasks(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    total_rows: usize,
+    batch_size: usize,
+    variable_batches: bool,
+) -> ReadBatchTaskStream {
+    let mut offset = 0;
+    let mut use_short_batch = true;
+    let tasks = std::iter::from_fn(move || {
+        if offset == total_rows {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let requested = if variable_batches && use_short_batch {
+            batch_size.saturating_sub(1).max(1)
+        } else {
+            batch_size
+        };
+        use_short_batch = !use_short_batch;
+        let num_rows = requested.min(total_rows - offset);
+        offset += num_rows;
+        let batch = if num_rows == batch.num_rows() {
+            batch.clone()
+        } else {
+            batch.slice(0, num_rows)
+        };
+        Some(ReadBatchTask {
+            task: future::ready(Ok(batch)).boxed(),
+            num_rows: num_rows as u32,
+        })
+    });
+    stream::iter(tasks).boxed()
+}
+
+fn make_config(
+    total_rows: usize,
+    sequence: Arc<RowIdSequence>,
+    with_all_system_columns: bool,
+) -> RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+    RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+        params: ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+        with_row_id: true,
+        with_row_addr: with_all_system_columns,
+        with_row_last_updated_at_version: with_all_system_columns,
+        with_row_created_at_version: with_all_system_columns,
+        deletion_vector: None,
+        row_id_sequence: Some(sequence),
+        last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+        created_at_sequence: None,
+        make_deletions_null: false,
+        total_num_rows: total_rows as u32,
+    }
+}
+
+fn bench_stream_row_ids(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let total_rows = std::env::var("BENCH_SYSTEM_ROWS")
+        .map(|value| value.parse().unwrap())
+        .unwrap_or(100_000_usize);
+    let batch_size = std::env::var("BENCH_SYSTEM_BATCH_SIZE")
+        .map(|value| value.parse().unwrap())
+        .unwrap_or(1_024_usize)
+        .min(total_rows);
+    let variable_batches = std::env::var("BENCH_SYSTEM_VARIABLE_BATCHES")
+        .map(|value| value == "1")
+        .unwrap_or(false);
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("stream_row_ids");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+    group.warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs(1));
+    group.measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(3));
+    for hole_stride in [2_u64, 17] {
+        let sequence = Arc::new(
+            RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(
+                (0_u64..)
+                    .filter(|value| value % hole_stride != 0)
+                    .take(total_rows),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        for has_payload in [false, true] {
+            for with_all_system_columns in [false, true] {
+                let batch = make_batch(batch_size, has_payload);
+                let system_columns = if with_all_system_columns {
+                    "all"
+                } else {
+                    "row_id"
+                };
+                let parameter = format!(
+                    "holes_{hole_stride}/payload_{has_payload}/system_{system_columns}/variable_{variable_batches}"
+                );
+                group.bench_with_input(
+                    BenchmarkId::new("shape", parameter),
+                    &has_payload,
+                    |b, _| {
+                        b.iter_batched(
+                            || {
+                                (
+                                    make_tasks(
+                                        batch.clone(),
+                                        total_rows,
+                                        batch_size,
+                                        variable_batches,
+                                    ),
+                                    make_config(
+                                        total_rows,
+                                        sequence.clone(),
+                                        with_all_system_columns,
+                                    ),
+                                )
+                            },
+                            |(tasks, config)| {
+                                let batches = runtime
+                                    .block_on(
+                                        wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(tasks, 0, config)
+                                            .buffered(8)
+                                            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                                    )
+                                    .unwrap();
+                                black_box(batches);
+                            },
+                            BatchSize::SmallInput,
+                        );
+                    },
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(benches, bench_stream_row_ids);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/benches/version_columns.rs b/rust/lance-table/benches/version_columns.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1d41da19ae1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/benches/version_columns.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,160 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{hint::black_box, sync::Arc, time::Duration};
+
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use criterion::{BatchSize, BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, future, stream};
+use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+use lance_table::{
+    rowids::{
+        segment::U64Segment,
+        version::{RowDatasetVersionRun, RowDatasetVersionSequence},
+    },
+    utils::stream::{
+        ReadBatchTask, ReadBatchTaskStream, RowIdAndDeletesConfig, apply_row_id_and_deletes,
+        wrap_with_row_id_and_delete,
+    },
+};
+
+fn make_version_sequence(total_rows: u64, run_length: u64) -> RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+    let runs = (0..total_rows)
+        .step_by(run_length as usize)
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(run_index, start)| RowDatasetVersionRun {
+            span: U64Segment::Range(start..(start + run_length).min(total_rows)),
+            version: run_index as u64 + 1,
+        })
+        .collect();
+    RowDatasetVersionSequence { runs }
+}
+
+fn make_batch(batch_size: u64) -> RecordBatch {
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "value",
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )])),
+        vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0; batch_size as usize]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn make_config(total_rows: u64, sequence: Arc<RowDatasetVersionSequence>) -> RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+    RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+        params: ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+        with_row_id: false,
+        with_row_addr: false,
+        with_row_last_updated_at_version: true,
+        with_row_created_at_version: false,
+        deletion_vector: None,
+        row_id_sequence: None,
+        last_updated_at_sequence: Some(sequence),
+        created_at_sequence: None,
+        make_deletions_null: false,
+        total_num_rows: total_rows as u32,
+    }
+}
+
+fn make_tasks(batch: RecordBatch, total_rows: u64, batch_size: u64) -> ReadBatchTaskStream {
+    let tasks = (0..total_rows)
+        .step_by(batch_size as usize)
+        .map(move |offset| {
+            let num_rows = batch_size.min(total_rows - offset) as usize;
+            let batch = if num_rows == batch.num_rows() {
+                batch.clone()
+            } else {
+                batch.slice(0, num_rows)
+            };
+            ReadBatchTask {
+                task: future::ready(Ok(batch)).boxed(),
+                num_rows: num_rows as u32,
+            }
+        });
+    stream::iter(tasks).boxed()
+}
+
+fn bench_apply_versions(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let total_rows = std::env::var("BENCH_VERSION_ROWS")
+        .map(|value| value.parse().unwrap())
+        .unwrap_or(100_000_u64);
+    let batch_size = std::env::var("BENCH_VERSION_BATCH_SIZE")
+        .map(|value| value.parse().unwrap())
+        .unwrap_or(1_024_u64)
+        .min(total_rows);
+    let batch = make_batch(batch_size);
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("apply_version_columns");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+    group.warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs(1));
+    group.measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(3));
+    for run_length in [total_rows, 1_024, 32, 1] {
+        let sequence = Arc::new(make_version_sequence(total_rows, run_length));
+        let run_count = sequence.runs.len();
+        let config = make_config(total_rows, sequence);
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::new("runs", run_count), &run_count, |b, _| {
+            let mut batch_offset = 0_u32;
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let result =
+                    apply_row_id_and_deletes(batch.clone(), batch_offset, 0, &config).unwrap();
+                black_box(result);
+                batch_offset += batch_size as u32;
+                if u64::from(batch_offset) + batch_size > total_rows {
+                    batch_offset = 0;
+                }
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_stream_versions(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let total_rows = std::env::var("BENCH_VERSION_ROWS")
+        .map(|value| value.parse().unwrap())
+        .unwrap_or(100_000_u64);
+    let batch_size = std::env::var("BENCH_VERSION_BATCH_SIZE")
+        .map(|value| value.parse().unwrap())
+        .unwrap_or(1_024_u64)
+        .min(total_rows);
+    let batch = make_batch(batch_size);
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("stream_version_columns");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+    group.warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs(1));
+    group.measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(3));
+    for run_length in [total_rows, 1_024, 32, 1] {
+        let sequence = Arc::new(make_version_sequence(total_rows, run_length));
+        let run_count = sequence.runs.len();
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::new("runs", run_count), &run_count, |b, _| {
+            b.iter_batched(
+                || {
+                    (
+                        make_tasks(batch.clone(), total_rows, batch_size),
+                        make_config(total_rows, sequence.clone()),
+                    )
+                },
+                |(tasks, config)| {
+                    let batches = runtime
+                        .block_on(
+                            wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(tasks, 0, config)
+                                .buffered(8)
+                                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                        )
+                        .unwrap();
+                    black_box(batches);
+                },
+                BatchSize::SmallInput,
+            );
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(benches, bench_apply_versions, bench_stream_versions);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/build.rs b/rust/lance-table/build.rs
index c4b2cc52dc5..60beb46fdab 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/build.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/build.rs
@@ -8,12 +8,17 @@ fn main() -> Result<()> {
 
     #[cfg(feature = "protoc")]
     // Use vendored protobuf compiler if requested.
-    std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    unsafe {
+        std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    }
 
     let mut prost_build = prost_build::Config::new();
     prost_build.extern_path(".lance.file", "::lance_file::format::pb");
     prost_build.protoc_arg("--experimental_allow_proto3_optional");
     prost_build.enable_type_names();
+    // Inline row id sequences are ~98% of a large manifest. Decoding them as
+    // `Bytes` slices the fetched buffer instead of copying into a `Vec<u8>`.
+    prost_build.bytes([".lance.table.DataFragment.inline_row_ids"]);
     prost_build.compile_protos(
         &[
             "./protos/table.proto",
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/feature_flags.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/feature_flags.rs
index 1f066a387aa..c1b4fa10110 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/feature_flags.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/feature_flags.rs
@@ -3,27 +3,133 @@
 
 //! Feature flags
 
-use snafu::location;
-
 use crate::format::Manifest;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
 /// Fragments may contain deletion files, which record the tombstones of
 /// soft-deleted rows.
-pub const FLAG_DELETION_FILES: u64 = 1;
+pub const FLAG_DELETION_FILES: u64 = 1 << 0;
 /// Row ids are stable for both moves and updates. Fragments contain an index
 /// mapping row ids to row addresses.
-pub const FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS: u64 = 2;
+pub const FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS: u64 = 1 << 1;
 /// Files are written with the new v2 format (this flag is no longer used)
-pub const FLAG_USE_V2_FORMAT_DEPRECATED: u64 = 4;
+pub const FLAG_USE_V2_FORMAT_DEPRECATED: u64 = 1 << 2;
 /// Table config is present
-pub const FLAG_TABLE_CONFIG: u64 = 8;
+pub const FLAG_TABLE_CONFIG: u64 = 1 << 3;
 /// Dataset uses multiple base paths (for shallow clones or multi-base datasets)
-pub const FLAG_BASE_PATHS: u64 = 16;
+pub const FLAG_BASE_PATHS: u64 = 1 << 4;
 /// Disable writing transaction file under _transaction/, this flag is set when we only want to write inline transaction in manifest
-pub const FLAG_DISABLE_TRANSACTION_FILE: u64 = 32;
+pub const FLAG_DISABLE_TRANSACTION_FILE: u64 = 1 << 5;
+/// Fragments contain data overlay files, which supply new values for a subset of
+/// cells without rewriting base data files. A reader that does not understand
+/// overlays must refuse the dataset, since ignoring an overlay would silently
+/// return stale base values.
+///
+/// Data overlay files are not yet a released feature: in release builds this flag
+/// is treated as unknown (so a release reader/writer refuses an overlay dataset)
+/// unless [`ENABLE_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES_ENV`] is set, which lets benchmarks opt in.
+/// Debug builds always understand it so tests exercise the path.
+pub const FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES: u64 = 1 << 6;
+/// Some index declares covering columns: `IndexMetadata.covering_fields` names
+/// columns the index carries values for, whether or not it is also keyed on
+/// them.
+///
+/// Without [`FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS`], the carried columns form the
+/// trailing suffix of `fields` in emission order. A reader without this bit still selects
+/// a vector index by testing membership of `fields`, so it would answer a query
+/// on a merely-carried column with an index keyed on a different column and
+/// return wrong neighbours with no error. A writer without it would maintain the
+/// index as though every entry of `fields` were keyed. Both must refuse the table.
+///
+/// This takes the bit reclaimed from the retired MemWAL index-catchup flag
+/// (<https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/8680>), which is the boundary the
+/// current released build treats as unknown -- so that build refuses a covering
+/// dataset without needing a change of its own. Builds from the window where the
+/// bit was allocated to index catch-up (v11.0.0-beta.4 through beta.17) still
+/// count it as supported and will open a covering dataset rather than refuse it;
+/// that exposure comes with the reclamation and is inherited by whichever flag
+/// takes the bit.
+pub const FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA: u64 = 1 << 7;
+/// A dataset may reference recognized V2 data files with different exact
+/// versions. Readers and writers must both understand the per-file version
+/// contract before either can safely access the dataset.
+pub const FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS: u64 = 1 << 8;
+/// The table uses stable row ids and carries a fragment reuse index.
+///
+/// Understood only by debug builds until support is released (see
+/// [`frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_enabled`]).
+pub const FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS: u64 = 1 << 9;
+/// Tagged FRI requires a reader that interprets its mappings and a writer that
+/// preserves them during maintenance. Legacy-only FRI does not set this bit.
+/// Bit 9 is taken by the stable-row-id FRI compatibility flag.
+pub const FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX: u64 = 1 << 10;
+/// Some fragment stores a row lineage sequence -- its row ids, or its
+/// created-at or last-updated-at versions -- as a hidden column of a data file
+/// rather than inline in the manifest (`RowIdMeta::Column`,
+/// `RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column`).
+///
+/// A reader without this bit sees an unset `row_id_sequence` oneof and would
+/// take the fragment to have no row ids at all, on a table whose manifest says
+/// every fragment has them; a writer without it would carry the fragment
+/// forward and drop the sequence. Both must refuse the table.
+///
+/// Every earlier build has its unknown boundary at or below this bit, so each
+/// already refuses such a dataset without a change of its own. Spilled row
+/// lineage is not yet a released feature: this build understands the bit only
+/// in debug builds or when [`ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE_ENV`] is set,
+/// mirroring [`FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES`].
+pub const FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE: u64 = 1 << 11;
+/// Reserved for fragment trees. Readers and writers reject it until implemented.
+///
+/// Bit 11 is spilled row lineage, so this takes the next free bit.
+pub const FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE: u64 = 1 << 12;
+/// Index key fields and covering fields are declared independently.
+///
+/// When this flag is set, `IndexMetadata.fields` contains only the columns the
+/// index is keyed on and `IndexMetadata.covering_fields` separately contains
+/// the columns whose values the index carries. A field may occur in both lists.
+/// The flag requires [`FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA`] in both feature words, and
+/// the two are retained together while the independent bit is set.
+///
+/// Reserved ahead of its implementation. This build masks the bit out in
+/// `supported_flags_when`, so it cannot open a table and apply the legacy
+/// suffix contract to independent declarations.
+pub const FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS: u64 = 1 << 13;
+/// Blob v2 descriptors may independently address Lance-owned objects. Readers
+/// must resolve their explicit bases and writers/GC must preserve those references.
+/// This capability is sticky, including across restore, and requires both words.
+pub const FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS: u64 = 1 << 14;
+
 /// The first bit that is unknown as a feature flag
-pub const FLAG_UNKNOWN: u64 = 64;
+pub const FLAG_UNKNOWN: u64 = 1 << 15;
+
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA < FLAG_UNKNOWN);
+// The fence needs a bit the current released build already refuses, which means
+// at or above the boundary that build shipped with (bit 7).
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA >= 1 << 7);
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS < FLAG_UNKNOWN);
+// Same fence for this bit: v12.0.0 refuses bit 9 and up.
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS >= 1 << 9);
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS < FLAG_UNKNOWN);
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX < FLAG_UNKNOWN);
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE < FLAG_UNKNOWN);
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE < FLAG_UNKNOWN);
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS < FLAG_UNKNOWN);
+
+const _: () = assert!(FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS < FLAG_UNKNOWN);
+
+pub(crate) const STICKY_PAIRED_FLAGS: u64 =
+    FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS | FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX | FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS;
+
+/// Environment variable that opts a release build into reading and writing data
+/// overlay files before the feature is generally released.
+pub const ENABLE_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES_ENV: &str = "LANCE_ENABLE_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES";
+
+/// Environment variable that opts a release build into reading and writing row
+/// lineage sequences spilled to hidden data file columns before the feature is
+/// generally released.
+pub const ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE_ENV: &str =
+    "LANCE_ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE";
 
 /// Set the reader and writer feature flags in the manifest based on the contents of the manifest.
 pub fn apply_feature_flags(
@@ -31,6 +137,15 @@ pub fn apply_feature_flags(
     enable_stable_row_id: bool,
     disable_transaction_file: bool,
 ) -> Result<()> {
+    // Carried across the reset: a `Manifest` only points at its index section,
+    // so whether any index declares covering columns is not visible here. `build_manifest` decides it from the index list it is
+    // committing and sets the bit after calling this; without the carry the
+    // second call, from `write_manifest_file`, would clear that decision
+    // immediately before the write.
+    let covered_index_metadata = (manifest.reader_feature_flags | manifest.writer_feature_flags)
+        & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA;
+    let sticky_paired_flags = validated_sticky_paired_flags(manifest)?;
+
     // Reset flags
     manifest.reader_feature_flags = 0;
     manifest.writer_feature_flags = 0;
@@ -56,10 +171,7 @@ pub fn apply_feature_flags(
             .iter()
             .all(|frag| frag.row_id_meta.is_some())
         {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "All fragments must have row ids",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("All fragments must have row ids"));
         }
         manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
         manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
@@ -76,29 +188,293 @@ pub fn apply_feature_flags(
         manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_BASE_PATHS;
     }
 
+    // Overlay files change cell values on read, so a reader that ignores them
+    // would return stale base values. Both readers and writers must understand
+    // them.
+    let has_overlays = manifest
+        .fragments
+        .iter()
+        .any(|frag| !frag.overlays.is_empty());
+    if has_overlays {
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES;
+    }
+
+    let has_spilled_row_lineage = manifest
+        .fragments
+        .iter()
+        .any(|frag| frag.has_spilled_row_lineage());
+    if has_spilled_row_lineage {
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE;
+    }
+
     if disable_transaction_file {
         manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_DISABLE_TRANSACTION_FILE;
     }
+
+    manifest.reader_feature_flags |= covered_index_metadata;
+    manifest.writer_feature_flags |= covered_index_metadata;
+    manifest.reader_feature_flags |= sticky_paired_flags;
+    manifest.writer_feature_flags |= sticky_paired_flags;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Carry sticky paired capabilities from the manifest a new one is derived
+/// from.
+///
+/// [`apply_feature_flags`] carries these bits across its own reset, but it only
+/// ever sees one manifest. Constructors preserve these flags, and this helper
+/// also validates that the source is not half-set before a derived manifest is
+/// committed.
+///
+/// A half-set state is refused rather than normalized: one bit set means a
+/// legacy reader or a legacy writer is still permitted, which is neither mode.
+pub fn inherit_sticky_feature_flags(destination: &mut Manifest, source: &Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    let sticky_flags = validated_sticky_paired_flags(source)?;
+    destination.reader_feature_flags |= sticky_flags;
+    destination.writer_feature_flags |= sticky_flags;
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Whether this build understands data overlay files: always in debug builds,
+/// and in release builds only when [`ENABLE_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES_ENV`] is set.
+fn data_overlay_files_enabled() -> bool {
+    cfg!(debug_assertions) || std::env::var_os(ENABLE_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES_ENV).is_some()
+}
+
+/// Whether this build understands row lineage sequences spilled to data file
+/// columns: always in debug builds, and in release builds only when
+/// [`ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE_ENV`] is set, like data overlay files.
+pub fn spilled_row_lineage_enabled() -> bool {
+    cfg!(debug_assertions) || std::env::var_os(ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE_ENV).is_some()
+}
+
+/// Debug builds only, with no environment override, until continuous recording
+/// and retention land. Hidden because it is removed then.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub fn frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_enabled() -> bool {
+    cfg!(debug_assertions)
+}
+
+/// Clear `flag` from `flags` when its gating feature is not enabled in this
+/// build; leave it set otherwise. One call per unstable flag, so support for
+/// several unstable features chains cleanly.
+fn mark_supported(flags: &mut u64, flag: u64, feature_enabled: bool) {
+    if !feature_enabled {
+        *flags &= !flag;
+    }
+}
+
+/// The feature-flag bits this build understands, given which unstable features
+/// are enabled. Split out from [`supported_flags`] so the policy is testable
+/// without toggling the build profile or environment.
+fn supported_flags_when(
+    overlay_enabled: bool,
+    spilled_row_lineage_enabled: bool,
+    frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_enabled: bool,
+) -> u64 {
+    let mut supported = FLAG_UNKNOWN - 1;
+    mark_supported(
+        &mut supported,
+        FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES,
+        overlay_enabled,
+    );
+    mark_supported(
+        &mut supported,
+        FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS,
+        frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_enabled,
+    );
+    mark_supported(
+        &mut supported,
+        FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE,
+        spilled_row_lineage_enabled,
+    );
+    // Reserved, not implemented: see the flag's doc comment.
+    mark_supported(&mut supported, FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE, false);
+    mark_supported(&mut supported, FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS, false);
+    supported
+}
+
+fn supported_flags() -> u64 {
+    supported_flags_when(
+        data_overlay_files_enabled(),
+        spilled_row_lineage_enabled(),
+        frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_enabled(),
+    )
+}
+
 pub fn can_read_dataset(reader_flags: u64) -> bool {
-    reader_flags < FLAG_UNKNOWN
+    reader_flags & !supported_flags() == 0
 }
 
 pub fn can_write_dataset(writer_flags: u64) -> bool {
-    writer_flags < FLAG_UNKNOWN
+    writer_flags & !supported_flags() == 0
+}
+
+/// Refuse reads from manifests whose required reader features this build does
+/// not support or whose paired capabilities are inconsistent.
+pub fn ensure_can_read_manifest(manifest: &Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    validate_paired_feature_flags(manifest)?;
+    if !can_read_dataset(manifest.reader_feature_flags) {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "This dataset cannot be read by this version of Lance. Please upgrade \
+                 Lance to read this dataset. Flags: {}",
+                manifest.reader_feature_flags
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Refuse writes to manifests whose required writer features this build does
+/// not support or whose paired capabilities are inconsistent.
+pub fn ensure_can_write_manifest(manifest: &Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    validate_paired_feature_flags(manifest)?;
+    if !can_write_dataset(manifest.writer_feature_flags) {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!(
+                "This dataset cannot be written by this version of Lance. Please upgrade \
+                 Lance to write this dataset. Flags: {}",
+                manifest.writer_feature_flags
+            )
+            .into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(())
 }
 
 pub fn has_deprecated_v2_feature_flag(writer_flags: u64) -> bool {
     writer_flags & FLAG_USE_V2_FORMAT_DEPRECATED != 0
 }
 
+/// Refuse a manifest whose paired reader and writer capability bits disagree.
+///
+/// One word set and the other not is neither mode: it would let a legacy reader
+/// or a legacy writer through on a table where the other half is enforcing. The
+/// commit path refuses to *produce* this, so seeing it on read means the
+/// manifest was written by something that did not.
+pub fn validate_paired_feature_flags(manifest: &Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    if (manifest.reader_feature_flags ^ manifest.writer_feature_flags) & FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX
+        != 0
+    {
+        return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            "manifest",
+            "FRI requires both reader and writer feature flags",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    for (flag, name) in [
+        (FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS, "mixed data-file-version"),
+        (FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS, "Managed Blob"),
+    ] {
+        let reader = manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag != 0;
+        let writer = manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag != 0;
+        if reader != writer {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "manifest",
+                format!(
+                    "Manifest has only one of the {name} reader and writer feature bits set, so its semantics are undefined"
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validated_sticky_paired_flags(manifest: &Manifest) -> Result<u64> {
+    validate_paired_feature_flags(manifest)?;
+    Ok(manifest.reader_feature_flags & STICKY_PAIRED_FLAGS)
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_fri_flag_is_supported_and_sticky() {
+        let flag = super::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        assert!(super::can_read_dataset(flag));
+        assert!(super::can_write_dataset(flag));
+        let mut manifest = empty_manifest();
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags = flag;
+        assert!(super::ensure_can_read_manifest(&manifest).is_err());
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags = flag;
+        super::apply_feature_flags(&mut manifest, false, false).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        assert_eq!(manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+    }
+
+    /// The covering fence only works if the bit is one the current released
+    /// build already rejects. That build's unknown boundary is 128, so the bit
+    /// has to be 128 and this build has to have moved its own boundary past it
+    /// -- otherwise either that build accepts a covering dataset, or we refuse
+    /// our own.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_covered_index_metadata_fences_older_builds_only() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA, 128,
+            "the fence must sit on the boundary the released build shipped with"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            can_read_dataset(FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA),
+            "this build implements covering, so it must accept its own datasets"
+        );
+        assert!(can_write_dataset(FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA));
+        // A build whose boundary is still 128 refuses the bit, which is the fence;
+        // the module-level `const _` assertion keeps it at or above that boundary.
+    }
+
     use super::*;
     use crate::format::BasePath;
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fragment_tree_flag_is_reserved_not_supported() {
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE, 4096);
+        assert_eq!(
+            FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE & (FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS | FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX),
+            0
+        );
+        assert!(!can_read_dataset(FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE));
+        assert!(!can_write_dataset(FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_flag_release_gating() {
+        // v12.0.0's unknown boundary, so every released client refuses it.
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS, 512);
+        let without_support = supported_flags_when(true, true, false);
+        assert_ne!(FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS & !without_support, 0);
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS & !without_support, 0);
+        let enabled = supported_flags_when(false, false, true);
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS & !enabled, 0);
+        for unrelated in [
+            FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES,
+            FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE,
+            FLAG_FRAGMENT_TREE,
+            FLAG_UNKNOWN,
+        ] {
+            assert_ne!(unrelated & !enabled, 0);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            can_read_dataset(FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS),
+            frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_enabled()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            can_write_dataset(FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS),
+            frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_enabled()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_independent_covering_fields_flag_is_reserved() {
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS, 8192);
+        let flags = FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA | FLAG_INDEPENDENT_COVERING_FIELDS;
+        assert!(!can_read_dataset(flags));
+        assert!(!can_write_dataset(flags));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_read_check() {
         assert!(can_read_dataset(0));
@@ -108,6 +484,13 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(can_read_dataset(super::FLAG_TABLE_CONFIG));
         assert!(can_read_dataset(super::FLAG_BASE_PATHS));
         assert!(can_read_dataset(super::FLAG_DISABLE_TRANSACTION_FILE));
+        // Overlay support is gated on the build profile / env opt-in, so the
+        // flag is readable exactly when overlays are enabled (see
+        // test_data_overlay_flag_release_gating for the full policy).
+        assert_eq!(
+            can_read_dataset(super::FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES),
+            data_overlay_files_enabled()
+        );
         assert!(can_read_dataset(
             super::FLAG_DELETION_FILES
                 | super::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS
@@ -116,6 +499,141 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(!can_read_dataset(super::FLAG_UNKNOWN));
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_flag_release_gating() {
+        // Release default (overlays disabled): the overlay flag is treated as
+        // unknown so the dataset is refused, while other known flags still pass.
+        let supported = supported_flags_when(false, false, false);
+        assert_eq!(supported & FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES, 0);
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_DELETION_FILES & !supported, 0);
+        assert_ne!(FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES & !supported, 0);
+        // Enabled (debug or env opt-in): the overlay flag is understood.
+        let supported = supported_flags_when(true, false, false);
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES & !supported, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_spilled_row_lineage_flag_release_gating() {
+        // Every earlier build has its unknown boundary at or below this bit
+        // (256 for v11, 512 for the v12 and v13 pre-releases, 2048 on main
+        // before this flag), so each refuses the dataset without a change of
+        // its own.
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE, 2048);
+        // A build that has not opted in refuses the dataset; one that has
+        // understands it, and either way the other known flags still pass.
+        let supported = supported_flags_when(true, false, false);
+        assert_ne!(FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE & !supported, 0);
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS & !supported, 0);
+        let supported = supported_flags_when(true, true, false);
+        assert_eq!(FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE & !supported, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_feature_flags_sets_overlay_flag() {
+        use crate::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use crate::format::{DataFile, DataStorageFormat, Fragment};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+        use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Int64,
+            false,
+        )]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.overlays = vec![DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("o.lance", vec![0], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+            committed_version: 1,
+        }];
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        apply_feature_flags(&mut manifest, false, false).unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES,
+            0
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_feature_flags_sets_spilled_row_lineage_flag() {
+        use crate::format::{DataFile, DataStorageFormat, Fragment, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID, RowIdMeta};
+        use crate::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionMeta;
+        use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Int64,
+            false,
+        )]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let spilled =
+            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("lineage.lance", vec![ROW_ID_FIELD_ID], None);
+        // Each of the three sequences on its own is enough to require the flag.
+        let mut spilled_fragments = Vec::new();
+        for kind in 0..3 {
+            let mut fragment = Fragment::new(kind);
+            fragment.files.push(spilled.clone());
+            // Every fragment of a stable-row-id table carries row ids; the
+            // version-only cases keep theirs inline.
+            fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(vec![].into()));
+            match kind {
+                0 => fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Column),
+                1 => fragment.created_at_version_meta = Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column),
+                _ => fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column),
+            }
+            spilled_fragments.push(fragment);
+        }
+        for fragment in spilled_fragments {
+            let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+                DataStorageFormat::default(),
+                HashMap::new(),
+            );
+            apply_feature_flags(&mut manifest, true, false).unwrap();
+            assert_ne!(
+                manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE,
+                0
+            );
+            assert_ne!(
+                manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE,
+                0
+            );
+        }
+
+        // An inline sequence does not, so a table whose sequences all fit in
+        // the manifest stays readable by builds without the flag.
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(vec![].into()));
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        apply_feature_flags(&mut manifest, true, false).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_write_check() {
         assert!(can_write_dataset(0));
@@ -125,6 +643,13 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(can_write_dataset(super::FLAG_TABLE_CONFIG));
         assert!(can_write_dataset(super::FLAG_BASE_PATHS));
         assert!(can_write_dataset(super::FLAG_DISABLE_TRANSACTION_FILE));
+        // Overlay support is gated on the build profile / env opt-in, so the
+        // flag is writable exactly when overlays are enabled (see
+        // test_data_overlay_flag_release_gating for the full policy).
+        assert_eq!(
+            can_write_dataset(super::FLAG_UNSTABLE_DATA_OVERLAY_FILES),
+            data_overlay_files_enabled()
+        );
         assert!(can_write_dataset(
             super::FLAG_DELETION_FILES
                 | super::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS
@@ -186,4 +711,158 @@ mod tests {
             0
         );
     }
+    #[test]
+    fn inheriting_carries_sticky_paired_bits_from_the_source() {
+        let mut source = empty_manifest();
+        source.reader_feature_flags = FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+        source.writer_feature_flags = FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+        // A fresh destination models any derived manifest before inheritance.
+        let mut destination = empty_manifest();
+
+        inherit_sticky_feature_flags(&mut destination, &source).unwrap();
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            destination.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            destination.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn inheriting_refuses_a_half_set_source() {
+        for (reader, writer) in [
+            (FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS, 0),
+            (0, FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS),
+        ] {
+            let mut source = empty_manifest();
+            source.reader_feature_flags = reader;
+            source.writer_feature_flags = writer;
+            let mut destination = empty_manifest();
+
+            let err = inherit_sticky_feature_flags(&mut destination, &source).unwrap_err();
+
+            assert!(err.to_string().contains("only one of"), "{err}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn apply_feature_flags_carries_sticky_paired_bits_across_its_reset() {
+        let mut manifest = empty_manifest();
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags = FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags = FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+
+        apply_feature_flags(&mut manifest, false, false).unwrap();
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn apply_feature_flags_rejects_half_set_sticky_bits() {
+        let mut manifest = empty_manifest();
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags = FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+
+        let err = apply_feature_flags(&mut manifest, false, false).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("only one of"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn paired_validation_rejects_half_set_mixed_version_capability() {
+        for (reader, writer) in [
+            (FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS, 0),
+            (0, FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS),
+        ] {
+            let mut manifest = empty_manifest();
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags = reader;
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags = writer;
+
+            let err = validate_paired_feature_flags(&manifest).unwrap_err();
+
+            assert!(err.to_string().contains("mixed data-file-version"), "{err}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn writer_gate_accepts_mixed_capability_and_rejects_unknown_flags() {
+        let mut manifest = empty_manifest();
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags = FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags = FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+        ensure_can_write_manifest(&manifest).unwrap();
+
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+        let err = ensure_can_write_manifest(&manifest).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("cannot be written"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::reader_only(true, false)]
+    #[case::writer_only(false, true)]
+    #[case::paired(true, true)]
+    fn managed_capability_is_paired_and_sticky(#[case] reader: bool, #[case] writer: bool) {
+        let mut source = empty_manifest();
+        source.reader_feature_flags = if reader { FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS } else { 0 };
+        source.writer_feature_flags = if writer { FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS } else { 0 };
+        if reader != writer {
+            for error in [
+                ensure_can_read_manifest(&source).unwrap_err(),
+                ensure_can_write_manifest(&source).unwrap_err(),
+            ] {
+                assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+                assert!(error.to_string().contains("Managed Blob"));
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        ensure_can_read_manifest(&source).unwrap();
+        ensure_can_write_manifest(&source).unwrap();
+        let mut destination = empty_manifest();
+        inherit_sticky_feature_flags(&mut destination, &source).unwrap();
+        apply_feature_flags(&mut destination, false, false).unwrap();
+        assert!(destination.has_managed_blobs());
+        assert_eq!(
+            destination.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS,
+            FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS
+        );
+        // The released v11.0.0 client only accepts bits below 128.
+        assert_ne!(destination.reader_feature_flags & !(128 - 1), 0);
+    }
+
+    fn empty_manifest() -> Manifest {
+        use crate::format::DataStorageFormat;
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        Manifest::new(
+            Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(vec![]),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn paired_capabilities_are_below_the_unknown_boundary() {
+        assert!(can_read_dataset(FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA));
+        assert!(can_write_dataset(FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA));
+        assert!(can_read_dataset(FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS));
+        assert!(can_write_dataset(FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS));
+        assert!(can_read_dataset(FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS));
+        assert!(can_write_dataset(FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS));
+        assert!(!can_read_dataset(FLAG_UNKNOWN));
+        assert!(!can_write_dataset(FLAG_UNKNOWN));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/format.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/format.rs
index ee58a736ba1..23959a0cb61 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/format.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/format.rs
@@ -2,25 +2,32 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use arrow_buffer::ToByteSlice;
-use snafu::location;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
 mod fragment;
 mod index;
+pub mod key_existence;
 mod manifest;
+pub mod overlay;
+mod row_ids;
 mod transaction;
 
 pub use crate::rowids::version::{
     RowDatasetVersionMeta, RowDatasetVersionRun, RowDatasetVersionSequence,
 };
 pub use fragment::*;
-pub use index::IndexMetadata;
+pub use index::{IndexFile, IndexMetadata, index_metadata_codec, list_index_files_with_sizes};
 
 pub use manifest::{
-    is_detached_version, BasePath, DataStorageFormat, Manifest, SelfDescribingFileReader,
-    WriterVersion, DETACHED_VERSION_MASK,
+    BasePath, DETACHED_VERSION_MASK, DataStorageFormat, Manifest, ManifestBuildConfig,
+    SelfDescribingFileReader, WriterVersion, is_detached_version,
+    populate_manifest_schema_dictionaries,
 };
-pub use transaction::Transaction;
+pub use row_ids::{
+    ExternalFile, InlineRowIds, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+    ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, RowIdMeta,
+};
+pub use transaction::{Transaction, operation_may_change_schema};
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
@@ -54,7 +61,6 @@ impl TryFrom<&pb::Uuid> for Uuid {
         if p.uuid.len() != 16 {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Protobuf UUID is malformed".to_string(),
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
         let mut buf: [u8; 16] = [0; 16];
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/format/fragment.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/format/fragment.rs
index c039279b55f..b2fd3a850c6 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/format/fragment.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/format/fragment.rs
@@ -1,21 +1,26 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::num::NonZero;
+use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::Error;
-use lance_file::format::{MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION};
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Deserializer, Serialize, Serializer};
 
+use super::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID, sort_overlays_newest_last};
+use super::row_ids::{
+    ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+    RowIdMeta,
+};
 use crate::format::pb;
 
 use crate::rowids::version::{
-    created_at_version_meta_to_pb, last_updated_at_version_meta_to_pb, RowDatasetVersionMeta,
+    RowDatasetVersionMeta, created_at_version_meta_to_pb, last_updated_at_version_meta_to_pb,
 };
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::error::Result;
@@ -23,28 +28,29 @@ use lance_core::error::Result;
 /// Lance Data File
 ///
 /// A data file is one piece of file storing data.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct DataFile {
     /// Relative path of the data file to dataset root.
     pub path: String,
     /// The ids of fields in this file.
-    pub fields: Vec<i32>,
+    ///
+    /// When identical across many fragments (common case), multiple `DataFile`
+    /// instances share a single heap allocation via `Arc`, significantly
+    /// reducing manifest memory for large tables.
+    pub fields: Arc<[i32]>,
     /// The offsets of the fields listed in `fields`, empty in v1 files
     ///
-    /// Note that -1 is a possibility and it indices that the field has
+    /// Note that -1 is a possibility and it indicates that the field has
     /// no top-level column in the file.
     ///
     /// Columns that lack a field id may still exist as extra entries in
     /// `column_indices`; such columns are ignored by field-id–based projection.
     /// For example, some fields, such as blob fields, occupy multiple
     /// columns in the file but only have a single field id.
-    #[serde(default)]
-    pub column_indices: Vec<i32>,
+    pub column_indices: Arc<[i32]>,
     /// The major version of the file format used to write this file.
-    #[serde(default)]
     pub file_major_version: u32,
     /// The minor version of the file format used to write this file.
-    #[serde(default)]
     pub file_minor_version: u32,
 
     /// The size of the file in bytes, if known.
@@ -54,20 +60,67 @@ pub struct DataFile {
     pub base_id: Option<u32>,
 }
 
+// Custom Serialize: convert Arc<[i32]> to slice for transparent JSON output
+impl Serialize for DataFile {
+    fn serialize<S: Serializer>(&self, serializer: S) -> std::result::Result<S::Ok, S::Error> {
+        use serde::ser::SerializeStruct;
+        let mut s = serializer.serialize_struct("DataFile", 7)?;
+        s.serialize_field("path", &self.path)?;
+        s.serialize_field("fields", self.fields.as_ref())?;
+        s.serialize_field("column_indices", self.column_indices.as_ref())?;
+        s.serialize_field("file_major_version", &self.file_major_version)?;
+        s.serialize_field("file_minor_version", &self.file_minor_version)?;
+        s.serialize_field("file_size_bytes", &self.file_size_bytes)?;
+        s.serialize_field("base_id", &self.base_id)?;
+        s.end()
+    }
+}
+
+// Custom Deserialize: read Vec<i32> and convert to Arc<[i32]>
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for DataFile {
+    fn deserialize<D: Deserializer<'de>>(deserializer: D) -> std::result::Result<Self, D::Error> {
+        #[derive(Deserialize)]
+        struct DataFileHelper {
+            path: String,
+            fields: Vec<i32>,
+            #[serde(default)]
+            column_indices: Vec<i32>,
+            #[serde(default)]
+            file_major_version: u32,
+            #[serde(default)]
+            file_minor_version: u32,
+            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize,
+            base_id: Option<u32>,
+        }
+
+        let helper = DataFileHelper::deserialize(deserializer)?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            path: helper.path,
+            fields: Arc::from(helper.fields),
+            column_indices: Arc::from(helper.column_indices),
+            file_major_version: helper.file_major_version,
+            file_minor_version: helper.file_minor_version,
+            file_size_bytes: helper.file_size_bytes,
+            base_id: helper.base_id,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
 impl DataFile {
+    /// Create a `DataFile` and encode its exact format version for manifest storage.
     pub fn new(
         path: impl Into<String>,
         fields: Vec<i32>,
         column_indices: Vec<i32>,
-        file_major_version: u32,
-        file_minor_version: u32,
+        file_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
         file_size_bytes: Option<NonZero<u64>>,
         base_id: Option<u32>,
     ) -> Self {
+        let (file_major_version, file_minor_version) = file_version.to_data_file_numbers();
         Self {
             path: path.into(),
-            fields,
-            column_indices,
+            fields: Arc::from(fields),
+            column_indices: Arc::from(column_indices),
             file_major_version,
             file_minor_version,
             file_size_bytes: file_size_bytes.into(),
@@ -75,16 +128,13 @@ impl DataFile {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a new `DataFile` with the expectation that fields and column_indices will be set later
-    pub fn new_unstarted(
-        path: impl Into<String>,
-        file_major_version: u32,
-        file_minor_version: u32,
-    ) -> Self {
+    /// Create a new `DataFile` whose fields and column indices will be set later.
+    pub fn new_unstarted(path: impl Into<String>, file_version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Self {
+        let (file_major_version, file_minor_version) = file_version.to_data_file_numbers();
         Self {
             path: path.into(),
-            fields: vec![],
-            column_indices: vec![],
+            fields: Arc::from([]),
+            column_indices: Arc::from([]),
             file_major_version,
             file_minor_version,
             file_size_bytes: Default::default(),
@@ -97,15 +147,7 @@ impl DataFile {
         fields: Vec<i32>,
         base_id: Option<u32>,
     ) -> Self {
-        Self::new(
-            path,
-            fields,
-            vec![],
-            MAJOR_VERSION as u32,
-            MINOR_VERSION as u32,
-            None,
-            base_id,
-        )
+        Self::new(path, fields, vec![], ConcreteFileVersion::V1, None, base_id)
     }
 
     pub fn new_legacy(
@@ -120,37 +162,117 @@ impl DataFile {
             path,
             field_ids,
             vec![],
-            MAJOR_VERSION as u32,
-            MINOR_VERSION as u32,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
             file_size_bytes,
             base_id,
         )
     }
 
     pub fn schema(&self, full_schema: &Schema) -> Schema {
-        full_schema.project_by_ids(&self.fields, false)
+        // Structural field IDs describe physical headers in V2.0 and may also
+        // appear with column_index=-1 in older V2.1+ manifests. They do not, by
+        // themselves, mean that every child in the current dataset schema is
+        // present in this file. In particular, a struct can retain its ID while
+        // schema evolution replaces its last old child with a new one.
+        fn project_field(
+            field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+            mapped_columns: &HashMap<i32, i32>,
+            is_v2_0: bool,
+        ) -> Option<lance_core::datatypes::Field> {
+            if field.is_blob() || field.is_packed_struct() {
+                return mapped_columns
+                    .contains_key(&field.id)
+                    .then(|| field.clone());
+            }
+
+            let children = field
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|child| project_field(child, mapped_columns, is_v2_0))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            if !children.is_empty() {
+                return Some(lance_core::datatypes::Field {
+                    children,
+                    ..field.clone()
+                });
+            }
+
+            if field.children.is_empty() && mapped_columns.contains_key(&field.id) {
+                return Some(field.clone());
+            }
+
+            // V2.0 stores a physical header for structural fields. Keep that
+            // header to preserve the parent's row count and validity, but leave
+            // its children empty so missing descendants are null-filled by the
+            // fragment reader instead of being added to this file's projection.
+            if is_v2_0 && mapped_columns.contains_key(&field.id) {
+                return Some(lance_core::datatypes::Field {
+                    children: Vec::new(),
+                    ..field.clone()
+                });
+            }
+            None
+        }
+
+        if self.uses_v1_data_file_encoding() {
+            return full_schema.project_by_ids(&self.fields, false);
+        }
+        let mapped_columns = self
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .zip(self.column_indices.iter().copied())
+            .filter(|(_, column_index)| *column_index >= 0)
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let is_v2_0 = matches!(
+            (self.file_major_version, self.file_minor_version),
+            (0, 3) | (2, 0)
+        );
+        Schema {
+            fields: full_schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|field| project_field(field, &mapped_columns, is_v2_0))
+                .collect(),
+            metadata: full_schema.metadata.clone(),
+        }
     }
 
-    pub fn is_legacy_file(&self) -> bool {
+    fn uses_v1_data_file_encoding(&self) -> bool {
         self.file_major_version == 0 && self.file_minor_version < 3
     }
 
+    /// Decode the exact file version stored in this `DataFile` metadata.
+    pub fn file_version(&self) -> Result<ConcreteFileVersion> {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::from_data_file_numbers(
+            self.file_major_version,
+            self.file_minor_version,
+        )
+    }
+
     pub fn validate(&self, base_path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
-        if self.is_legacy_file() {
-            if !self.fields.windows(2).all(|w| w[0] < w[1]) {
+        if self.uses_v1_data_file_encoding() {
+            // A tombstone marks a field superseded by a later data file. It is
+            // not a field id, so it carries no ordering; the live ids around it
+            // must still be sorted and distinct.
+            let live: Vec<i32> = self
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .filter(|field| *field != TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID)
+                .collect();
+            if !live.windows(2).all(|w| w[0] < w[1]) {
                 return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
-                    base_path.child(self.path.clone()),
+                    base_path.clone().join(self.path.clone()),
                     "contained unsorted or duplicate field ids",
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
         } else if self.column_indices.len() < self.fields.len() {
             // Every recorded field id must have a column index, but not every column needs
             // to be associated with a field id (extra columns are allowed).
             return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
-                base_path.child(self.path.clone()),
+                base_path.clone().join(self.path.clone()),
                 "contained fewer column_indices than fields",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
         Ok(())
@@ -161,8 +283,8 @@ impl From<&DataFile> for pb::DataFile {
     fn from(df: &DataFile) -> Self {
         Self {
             path: df.path.clone(),
-            fields: df.fields.clone(),
-            column_indices: df.column_indices.clone(),
+            fields: df.fields.to_vec(),
+            column_indices: df.column_indices.to_vec(),
             file_major_version: df.file_major_version,
             file_minor_version: df.file_minor_version,
             file_size_bytes: df.file_size_bytes.get().map_or(0, |v| v.get()),
@@ -177,14 +299,166 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::DataFile> for DataFile {
     fn try_from(proto: pb::DataFile) -> Result<Self> {
         Ok(Self {
             path: proto.path,
-            fields: proto.fields,
-            column_indices: proto.column_indices,
+            fields: Arc::from(proto.fields),
+            column_indices: Arc::from(proto.column_indices),
+            file_major_version: proto.file_major_version,
+            file_minor_version: proto.file_minor_version,
+            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(proto.file_size_bytes),
+            base_id: proto.base_id,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Interns repeated data so that fragments with identical content share a
+/// single heap allocation via `Arc`.
+///
+/// At 20M fragments the deduplication typically saves multiple GB of heap
+/// because every fragment in a homogeneous table carries the same field list,
+/// and post-compaction fragments share identical version metadata bytes.
+///
+/// Uses a `Vec`-based linear scan when the cache is small (<=16 entries)
+/// and upgrades to `HashMap` for larger caches. In the common homogeneous
+/// case (1-3 unique values), linear scan avoids per-fragment hashing overhead.
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub struct DataFileFieldInterner {
+    fields: InternCache<i32>,
+    column_indices: InternCache<i32>,
+    inline_bytes: InternCache<u8>,
+}
+
+/// A cache that uses linear scan for small sizes and HashMap for large.
+/// The threshold is chosen so that scan + compare is cheaper than hash for
+/// typical payload sizes (20-200 bytes).
+enum InternCache<T: Eq + std::hash::Hash + Clone> {
+    Small(Vec<Arc<[T]>>),
+    Large(HashMap<Arc<[T]>, ()>),
+}
+
+const INTERN_CACHE_UPGRADE_THRESHOLD: usize = 16;
+
+impl<T: Eq + std::hash::Hash + Clone> Default for InternCache<T> {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::Small(Vec::new())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: Eq + std::hash::Hash + Clone> InternCache<T> {
+    fn intern(&mut self, v: Vec<T>) -> Arc<[T]> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Small(entries) => {
+                for existing in entries.iter() {
+                    if existing.as_ref() == v.as_slice() {
+                        return existing.clone();
+                    }
+                }
+                let arc: Arc<[T]> = Arc::from(v);
+                entries.push(arc.clone());
+                if entries.len() > INTERN_CACHE_UPGRADE_THRESHOLD {
+                    let mut map = HashMap::with_capacity(entries.len());
+                    for e in entries.drain(..) {
+                        map.insert(e, ());
+                    }
+                    *self = Self::Large(map);
+                }
+                arc
+            }
+            Self::Large(map) => {
+                if let Some((existing, _)) = map.get_key_value(v.as_slice()) {
+                    existing.clone()
+                } else {
+                    let arc: Arc<[T]> = Arc::from(v);
+                    map.insert(arc.clone(), ());
+                    arc
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DataFileFieldInterner {
+    /// Intern a `RowDatasetVersionMeta`, deduplicating inline byte payloads.
+    /// Accepts the protobuf oneof value directly to avoid an intermediate
+    /// `Arc<[u8]>` allocation that would need to be `.to_vec()`'d for the key lookup.
+    fn intern_last_updated_version_meta(
+        cache: &mut InternCache<u8>,
+        pb: pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence,
+    ) -> Result<RowDatasetVersionMeta> {
+        match pb {
+            pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::InlineLastUpdatedAtVersions(data) => {
+                Ok(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(cache.intern(data)))
+            }
+            pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::ColumnLastUpdatedAtVersions(_) => {
+                Ok(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Intern a `RowDatasetVersionMeta`, deduplicating inline byte payloads.
+    fn intern_created_version_meta(
+        cache: &mut InternCache<u8>,
+        pb: pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence,
+    ) -> Result<RowDatasetVersionMeta> {
+        match pb {
+            pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::InlineCreatedAtVersions(data) => {
+                Ok(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(cache.intern(data)))
+            }
+            pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::ColumnCreatedAtVersions(_) => {
+                Ok(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Convert a protobuf `DataFile`, interning `fields` and `column_indices`.
+    pub fn intern_data_file(&mut self, proto: pb::DataFile) -> Result<DataFile> {
+        Ok(DataFile {
+            path: proto.path,
+            fields: self.fields.intern(proto.fields),
+            column_indices: self.column_indices.intern(proto.column_indices),
             file_major_version: proto.file_major_version,
             file_minor_version: proto.file_minor_version,
             file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(proto.file_size_bytes),
             base_id: proto.base_id,
         })
     }
+
+    /// Convert a protobuf `DataFragment`, interning fields and version metadata.
+    pub fn intern_fragment(&mut self, p: pb::DataFragment) -> Result<Fragment> {
+        let physical_rows = if p.physical_rows > 0 {
+            Some(p.physical_rows as usize)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let last_updated_at_version_meta = p
+            .last_updated_at_version_sequence
+            .map(|pb| Self::intern_last_updated_version_meta(&mut self.inline_bytes, pb))
+            .transpose()?;
+        let created_at_version_meta = p
+            .created_at_version_sequence
+            .map(|pb| Self::intern_created_version_meta(&mut self.inline_bytes, pb))
+            .transpose()?;
+        Ok(Fragment {
+            id: p.id,
+            files: p
+                .files
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|f| self.intern_data_file(f))
+                .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+            overlays: {
+                let mut overlays = p
+                    .overlays
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(DataOverlayFile::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                sort_overlays_newest_last(&mut overlays);
+                overlays
+            },
+            deletion_file: p.deletion_file.map(DeletionFile::try_from).transpose()?,
+            row_id_meta: p.row_id_sequence.map(RowIdMeta::try_from).transpose()?,
+            physical_rows,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta,
+            created_at_version_meta,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
@@ -222,10 +496,9 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::DeletionFile> for DeletionFile {
             0 => DeletionFileType::Array,
             1 => DeletionFileType::Bitmap,
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                    source: "Unknown deletion file type".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "Unknown deletion file type".into(),
+                ));
             }
         };
         let num_deleted_rows = if value.num_deleted_rows == 0 {
@@ -243,38 +516,6 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::DeletionFile> for DeletionFile {
     }
 }
 
-/// A reference to a part of a file.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct ExternalFile {
-    pub path: String,
-    pub offset: u64,
-    pub size: u64,
-}
-
-/// Metadata about location of the row id sequence.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub enum RowIdMeta {
-    Inline(Vec<u8>),
-    External(ExternalFile),
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence> for RowIdMeta {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(value: pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence) -> Result<Self> {
-        match value {
-            pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence::InlineRowIds(data) => Ok(Self::Inline(data)),
-            pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence::ExternalRowIds(file) => {
-                Ok(Self::External(ExternalFile {
-                    path: file.path.clone(),
-                    offset: file.offset,
-                    size: file.size,
-                }))
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
 /// Data fragment.
 ///
 /// A fragment is a set of files which represent the different columns of the same rows.
@@ -287,6 +528,12 @@ pub struct Fragment {
     /// Files within the fragment.
     pub files: Vec<DataFile>,
 
+    /// Overlay files supplying new values for a subset of cells without
+    /// rewriting the base data files. Order is significant: a later entry is
+    /// newer than an earlier one. See [`DataOverlayFile`] for resolution rules.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub overlays: Vec<DataOverlayFile>,
+
     /// Optional file with deleted local row offsets.
     #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub deletion_file: Option<DeletionFile>,
@@ -314,6 +561,7 @@ impl Fragment {
         Self {
             id,
             files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
             deletion_file: None,
             row_id_meta: None,
             physical_rows: None,
@@ -338,6 +586,144 @@ impl Fragment {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Every Lance-format file this fragment references: the base data files
+    /// plus the data file of each overlay. The fragment's other referenced
+    /// files are not in this format: a deletion file is `.arrow` or `.bin`, and
+    /// external row-id or row-version metadata is a raw byte range.
+    ///
+    /// Prefer this over `files`, which is the base data files only and so omits
+    /// overlays.
+    pub fn referenced_lance_files(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &DataFile> + '_ {
+        // Destructured on purpose: a new field here fails to compile until
+        // someone decides whether it references files.
+        let Self {
+            id: _,
+            files,
+            overlays,
+            deletion_file: _,
+            row_id_meta: _,
+            physical_rows: _,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: _,
+            created_at_version_meta: _,
+        } = self;
+        files
+            .iter()
+            .chain(overlays.iter().map(|overlay| &overlay.data_file))
+    }
+
+    /// Mutable counterpart of [`Self::referenced_lance_files`], for rewriting
+    /// the fields a clone has to normalize (`base_id`) across base and overlay
+    /// files alike.
+    pub fn referenced_lance_files_mut(&mut self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &mut DataFile> + '_ {
+        // Destructured for the same reason as `referenced_lance_files`, and so
+        // the two disjoint field borrows are visible to the borrow checker.
+        let Self {
+            id: _,
+            files,
+            overlays,
+            deletion_file: _,
+            row_id_meta: _,
+            physical_rows: _,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: _,
+            created_at_version_meta: _,
+        } = self;
+        files
+            .iter_mut()
+            .chain(overlays.iter_mut().map(|overlay| &mut overlay.data_file))
+    }
+
+    /// Whether any of this fragment's row lineage sequences lives in a data
+    /// file column rather than inline.
+    pub fn has_spilled_row_lineage(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column))
+            || matches!(
+                self.created_at_version_meta,
+                Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+            )
+            || matches!(
+                self.last_updated_at_version_meta,
+                Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+            )
+    }
+
+    /// The data file holding the row lineage column with the reserved
+    /// `field_id`, which is the one entry of [`Self::files`] whose fields carry
+    /// it. `None` when no file does, which for a sequence whose metadata says
+    /// it is spilled is corruption; so is more than one file carrying the id,
+    /// which this reports as an error.
+    pub fn row_lineage_file(&self, field_id: i32) -> Result<Option<&DataFile>> {
+        let mut carriers = self
+            .files
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|file| file.fields.contains(&field_id));
+        let file = carriers.next();
+        if let Some(extra) = carriers.next() {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                &extra.path,
+                format!(
+                    "fragment {} has more than one data file carrying row lineage field {}",
+                    self.id, field_id
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(file)
+    }
+
+    /// The reserved field ids of the row lineage sequences this fragment
+    /// marks as spilled: [`ROW_ID_FIELD_ID`] when its row ids are, and
+    /// likewise [`ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID`] and
+    /// [`ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID`] for its versions.
+    ///
+    /// These ids are never in the dataset schema, so code that decides whether
+    /// a data file is still needed by its schema fields has to keep a file
+    /// carrying one of them as well: that file is the sequence's only copy.
+    pub fn spilled_row_lineage_field_ids(&self) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut field_ids = Vec::new();
+        if matches!(self.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column)) {
+            field_ids.push(ROW_ID_FIELD_ID);
+        }
+        if matches!(
+            self.created_at_version_meta,
+            Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+        ) {
+            field_ids.push(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID);
+        }
+        if matches!(
+            self.last_updated_at_version_meta,
+            Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+        ) {
+            field_ids.push(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID);
+        }
+        field_ids
+    }
+
+    /// Check that every sequence this fragment marks as spilled has exactly
+    /// one carrier among [`Self::files`], and that the carrier is a v2 file,
+    /// the only version that can hold the columns.
+    ///
+    /// This reads metadata only. Committing a fragment that fails it would
+    /// publish lineage no reader can load, and once cleanup removed the
+    /// unreferenced carrier that lineage would be lost for good.
+    pub(crate) fn validate_row_lineage_carriers(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        for field_id in self.spilled_row_lineage_field_ids() {
+            let Some(file) = self.row_lineage_file(field_id)? else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "cannot commit fragment {}: it marks row lineage field {} as spilled but \
+                     none of its data files carries it",
+                    self.id, field_id
+                )));
+            };
+            if file.file_version()? == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "cannot commit fragment {}: its spilled row lineage field {} is carried by \
+                     legacy v1 data file {}, which cannot hold row lineage columns",
+                    self.id, field_id, file.path
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     pub fn from_json(json: &str) -> Result<Self> {
         let fragment: Self = serde_json::from_str(json)?;
         Ok(fragment)
@@ -353,6 +739,7 @@ impl Fragment {
         Self {
             id,
             files: vec![DataFile::new_legacy(path, schema, None, None)],
+            overlays: vec![],
             deletion_file: None,
             physical_rows,
             row_id_meta: None,
@@ -366,16 +753,14 @@ impl Fragment {
         path: impl Into<String>,
         field_ids: Vec<i32>,
         column_indices: Vec<i32>,
-        version: &LanceFileVersion,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
         file_size_bytes: Option<NonZero<u64>>,
     ) -> Self {
-        let (major, minor) = version.to_numbers();
         let data_file = DataFile::new(
             path,
             field_ids,
             column_indices,
-            major,
-            minor,
+            version,
             file_size_bytes,
             None,
         );
@@ -393,16 +778,14 @@ impl Fragment {
         path: impl Into<String>,
         field_ids: Vec<i32>,
         column_indices: Vec<i32>,
-        version: &LanceFileVersion,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
         file_size_bytes: Option<NonZero<u64>>,
     ) {
-        let (major, minor) = version.to_numbers();
         self.files.push(DataFile::new(
             path,
             field_ids,
             column_indices,
-            major,
-            minor,
+            version,
             file_size_bytes,
             None,
         ));
@@ -414,45 +797,30 @@ impl Fragment {
             .push(DataFile::new_legacy(path, schema, None, None));
     }
 
-    // True if this fragment is made up of legacy v1 files, false otherwise
-    pub fn has_legacy_files(&self) -> bool {
-        // If any file in a fragment is legacy then all files in the fragment must be
-        self.files[0].is_legacy_file()
-    }
-
     // Helper method to infer the Lance version from a set of fragments
     //
     // Returns None if there are no data files
     // Returns an error if the data files have different versions
-    pub fn try_infer_version(fragments: &[Self]) -> Result<Option<LanceFileVersion>> {
+    pub fn try_infer_version(fragments: &[Self]) -> Result<Option<ConcreteFileVersion>> {
         // Otherwise we need to check the actual file versions
         // Determine version from first file
         let Some(sample_file) = fragments
             .iter()
-            .find(|f| !f.files.is_empty())
-            .map(|f| &f.files[0])
+            .flat_map(Self::referenced_lance_files)
+            .next()
         else {
             return Ok(None);
         };
-        let file_version = LanceFileVersion::try_from_major_minor(
-            sample_file.file_major_version,
-            sample_file.file_minor_version,
-        )?;
+        let file_version = sample_file.file_version()?;
         // Ensure all files match
         for frag in fragments {
-            for file in &frag.files {
-                let this_file_version = LanceFileVersion::try_from_major_minor(
-                    file.file_major_version,
-                    file.file_minor_version,
-                )?;
+            for file in frag.referenced_lance_files() {
+                let this_file_version = file.file_version()?;
                 if file_version != this_file_version {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "All data files must have the same version.  Detected both {} and {}",
-                            file_version, this_file_version
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "All data files must have the same version.  Detected both {} and {}",
+                        file_version, this_file_version
+                    )));
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -476,6 +844,15 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::DataFragment> for Fragment {
                 .into_iter()
                 .map(DataFile::try_from)
                 .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+            overlays: {
+                let mut overlays = p
+                    .overlays
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(DataOverlayFile::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                sort_overlays_newest_last(&mut overlays);
+                overlays
+            },
             deletion_file: p.deletion_file.map(DeletionFile::try_from).transpose()?,
             row_id_meta: p.row_id_sequence.map(RowIdMeta::try_from).transpose()?,
             physical_rows,
@@ -508,13 +885,11 @@ impl From<&Fragment> for pb::DataFragment {
         });
 
         let row_id_sequence = f.row_id_meta.as_ref().map(|m| match m {
-            RowIdMeta::Inline(data) => pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence::InlineRowIds(data.clone()),
-            RowIdMeta::External(file) => {
-                pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence::ExternalRowIds(pb::ExternalFile {
-                    path: file.path.clone(),
-                    offset: file.offset,
-                    size: file.size,
-                })
+            RowIdMeta::Inline(data) => {
+                pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence::InlineRowIds(data.bytes().clone())
+            }
+            RowIdMeta::Column => {
+                pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence::ColumnRowIds(pb::RowLineageColumn {})
             }
         });
         let last_updated_at_version_sequence =
@@ -523,6 +898,7 @@ impl From<&Fragment> for pb::DataFragment {
         Self {
             id: f.id,
             files: f.files.iter().map(pb::DataFile::from).collect(),
+            overlays: f.overlays.iter().map(pb::DataOverlayFile::from).collect(),
             deletion_file,
             row_id_sequence,
             physical_rows: f.physical_rows.unwrap_or_default() as u64,
@@ -535,11 +911,108 @@ impl From<&Fragment> for pb::DataFragment {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use crate::format::overlay::OverlayCoverage;
     use arrow_schema::{
         DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields as ArrowFields, Schema as ArrowSchema,
     };
+    use lance_file::format::{MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION};
     use object_store::path::Path;
-    use serde_json::{json, Value};
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+    use serde_json::{Value, json};
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_roundtrip() {
+        // A fragment carrying a dense overlay round-trips through protobuf and
+        // back, and the parsed coverage bitmap is recovered per field.
+        let mut bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        bitmap.insert(1);
+        bitmap.insert(3);
+
+        let overlay = DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay-0.lance", vec![3], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap.clone()),
+            committed_version: 7,
+        };
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.files = vec![DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields(
+            "base.lance",
+            vec![1, 3],
+            None,
+        )];
+        fragment.overlays = vec![overlay];
+
+        let proto = pb::DataFragment::from(&fragment);
+        assert_eq!(proto.overlays.len(), 1);
+        let round_tripped = Fragment::try_from(proto).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(round_tripped, fragment);
+
+        // Dense coverage applies to every field.
+        let recovered = round_tripped.overlays[0].coverage_for_field(0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*recovered, bitmap);
+        assert_eq!(
+            *round_tripped.overlays[0].coverage_for_field(5).unwrap(),
+            bitmap
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_sparse_per_field_coverage() {
+        // A sparse overlay carries one bitmap per field, recovered by position.
+        let name_coverage = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 3]);
+        let embedding_coverage = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]);
+        let overlay = DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay-1.lance", vec![2, 4], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![
+                name_coverage.clone(),
+                embedding_coverage.clone(),
+            ]),
+            committed_version: 3,
+        };
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(1);
+        fragment.overlays = vec![overlay];
+
+        let round_tripped = Fragment::try_from(pb::DataFragment::from(&fragment)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *round_tripped.overlays[0].coverage_for_field(0).unwrap(),
+            name_coverage
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            *round_tripped.overlays[0].coverage_for_field(1).unwrap(),
+            embedding_coverage
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_overlays_sorted_newest_last_on_load() {
+        // Overlays load stable-sorted by committed_version (newest last), with
+        // list position preserved as the tiebreak for equal versions.
+        let mk = |version: u64, field: i32| DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("o.lance", vec![field], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+            committed_version: version,
+        };
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        // Written out of order: v5, v2, v2 (second), v3.
+        fragment.overlays = vec![mk(5, 1), mk(2, 2), mk(2, 3), mk(3, 4)];
+
+        let loaded = Fragment::try_from(pb::DataFragment::from(&fragment)).unwrap();
+        let versions: Vec<u64> = loaded
+            .overlays
+            .iter()
+            .map(|o| o.committed_version)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(versions, vec![2, 2, 3, 5]);
+        // Stable: the two v2 overlays keep their original relative order (field 2
+        // before field 3).
+        assert_eq!(
+            loaded.overlays[0].data_file.fields.as_ref(),
+            [2i32].as_slice()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            loaded.overlays[1].data_file.fields.as_ref(),
+            [3i32].as_slice()
+        );
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_new_fragment() {
@@ -593,6 +1066,137 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(fragment, fragment2);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn infer_exact_file_version_and_reject_mixed_fragments() {
+        assert_eq!(Fragment::try_infer_version(&[]).unwrap(), None);
+
+        let v2_0 = Fragment::new(0).with_file(
+            "v2_0.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            (
+                v2_0.files[0].file_major_version,
+                v2_0.files[0].file_minor_version
+            ),
+            (2, 0)
+        );
+        let unstarted = DataFile::new_unstarted("unstarted.lance", ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            (unstarted.file_major_version, unstarted.file_minor_version),
+            (2, 0)
+        );
+        let v2_0_second = Fragment::new(1).with_file(
+            "v2_0_second.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            Fragment::try_infer_version(&[v2_0.clone(), v2_0_second]).unwrap(),
+            Some(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)
+        );
+
+        let mut mixed_overlay = v2_0.clone();
+        mixed_overlay.overlays.push(DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new(
+                "overlay-v2_1.lance",
+                vec![0],
+                vec![0],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+                None,
+                None,
+            ),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0])),
+            committed_version: 1,
+        });
+        let error = Fragment::try_infer_version(&[mixed_overlay]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("2.0"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("2.1"));
+
+        let v2_1 = Fragment::new(2).with_file(
+            "v2_1.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = Fragment::try_infer_version(&[v2_0, v2_1]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("All data files must have the same version"));
+        assert!(message.contains("2.0"));
+        assert!(message.contains("2.1"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn data_file_schema_does_not_substitute_evolved_struct_children() {
+        let mut schema = Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "values",
+                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    "later",
+                    DataType::Int32,
+                    true,
+                )])),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]))
+        .unwrap();
+        schema.set_field_id(None);
+        let parent_id = schema.fields[0].id;
+        let later_id = schema.fields[0].children[0].id;
+        let id_field_id = schema.fields[1].id;
+        schema.fields[0].children[0].id = later_id + 2;
+
+        let stale_file = DataFile::new(
+            "stale.lance",
+            vec![parent_id, later_id, id_field_id],
+            vec![0, 1, 2],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let stale_schema = stale_file.schema(&schema);
+        assert_eq!(
+            stale_schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec!["values", "id"]
+        );
+        assert!(stale_schema.fields[0].children.is_empty());
+
+        let stale_v2_1_file = DataFile::new(
+            "stale-v2-1.lance",
+            vec![parent_id, later_id, id_field_id],
+            vec![-1, 0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stale_v2_1_file.schema(&schema).fields,
+            vec![schema.fields[1].clone()]
+        );
+
+        let current_file = DataFile::new(
+            "current.lance",
+            vec![parent_id, later_id + 2, id_field_id],
+            vec![0, 1, 2],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(current_file.schema(&schema), schema);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_to_json() {
         let mut fragment = Fragment::new(123);
@@ -631,9 +1235,9 @@ mod tests {
     fn data_file_validate_allows_extra_columns() {
         let data_file = DataFile {
             path: "foo.lance".to_string(),
-            fields: vec![1, 2],
+            fields: Arc::from([1, 2]),
             // One extra column without a field id mapping
-            column_indices: vec![0, 1, 2],
+            column_indices: Arc::from([0, 1, 2]),
             file_major_version: MAJOR_VERSION as u32,
             file_minor_version: MINOR_VERSION as u32,
             file_size_bytes: Default::default(),
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/format/index.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/format/index.rs
index bf1201fe129..74303ab247b 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/format/index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/format/index.rs
@@ -3,17 +3,30 @@
 
 //! Metadata for index
 
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use futures::StreamExt;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use object_store::path::Path;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
 use super::pb;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
+/// Metadata about a single file within an index segment.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct IndexFile {
+    /// Path relative to the index directory (e.g., "index.idx", "auxiliary.idx")
+    pub path: String,
+    /// Size of the file in bytes
+    pub size_bytes: u64,
+}
+
 /// Index metadata
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub struct IndexMetadata {
@@ -21,8 +34,22 @@ pub struct IndexMetadata {
     pub uuid: Uuid,
 
     /// Fields to build the index.
+    ///
+    /// `fields[0]` is always a column the index is keyed on. Trailing entries
+    /// may instead be merely carried, not keyed on -- see [`Self::covering_fields`].
     pub fields: Vec<i32>,
 
+    /// Fields whose values this index carries but is not keyed on.
+    ///
+    /// Always a suffix of [`Self::fields`], and never all of it, so
+    /// `fields[0]` is always a column the index is keyed on. Empty for an
+    /// index that carries no extra columns.
+    ///
+    /// These ids also appear in [`Self::fields`]. That is deliberate: every
+    /// consumer that reads `fields` as the index's dependency set then covers
+    /// them with no change.
+    pub covering_fields: Vec<i32>,
+
     /// Human readable index name
     pub name: String,
 
@@ -57,6 +84,13 @@ pub struct IndexMetadata {
     /// The base path index of the index files. Used when the index is imported or referred from another dataset.
     /// Lance uses it as key of the base_paths field in Manifest to determine the actual base path of the index files.
     pub base_id: Option<u32>,
+
+    /// List of files and their sizes for this index segment.
+    /// This enables skipping HEAD calls when opening indices and provides
+    /// visibility into index storage size via describe_indices().
+    /// This is None if the file sizes are unknown. This happens for indices created
+    /// before this field was added.
+    pub files: Option<Vec<IndexFile>>,
 }
 
 impl IndexMetadata {
@@ -67,12 +101,156 @@ impl IndexMetadata {
         let fragment_bitmap = self.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()?;
         Some(fragment_bitmap & existing_fragments)
     }
+
+    /// Returns a map of relative file paths to their sizes.
+    /// Returns an empty map if file information is not available.
+    pub fn file_size_map(&self) -> HashMap<String, u64> {
+        self.files
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|files| {
+                files
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| (f.path.clone(), f.size_bytes))
+                    .collect()
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the total size of all files in this index segment in bytes.
+    /// Returns None if file information is not available.
+    pub fn total_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.files
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|files| files.iter().map(|f| f.size_bytes).sum())
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the set of fragments which are part of the fragment bitmap
+    /// but no longer in the dataset.
+    pub fn deleted_fragment_bitmap(
+        &self,
+        existing_fragments: &RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        let fragment_bitmap = self.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()?;
+        Some(fragment_bitmap - existing_fragments)
+    }
+
+    /// True when the index reports matches as physical row addresses rather than row ids
+    /// (`ScalarIndex::results_are_row_addresses`).
+    ///
+    /// Such an index cannot follow its data through a rewrite: the addresses it stores
+    /// name fragments and offsets, and neither kind supports remap.
+    ///
+    /// Currently this is a rather short list.  We will soon be migrating the remaining
+    /// row-id-domain indexes to use row addresses.  At that point this list will grow and
+    /// likely turn from an allow-list into a block-list.
+    pub fn results_are_row_addrs(&self) -> bool {
+        self.index_details.as_ref().is_some_and(|details| {
+            let is_fm = details
+                .type_url
+                .rsplit_once('/')
+                .is_some_and(|(_, details_type_name)| {
+                    details_type_name.eq_ignore_ascii_case("lance.index.pb.FMIndexDetails")
+                });
+            details.type_url.ends_with("ZoneMapIndexDetails")
+                || details.type_url.ends_with("BloomFilterIndexDetails")
+                || is_fm
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// The prefix of [`Self::fields`] this index is keyed on, with the carried
+    /// columns of [`Self::covering_fields`] removed.
+    ///
+    /// Only this prefix decides which column an index answers for; the full
+    /// `fields` vector answers what invalidates it. Empty for a system index
+    /// that declares no fields, and empty for a declaration longer than
+    /// `fields`: decoding validates, but metadata built by a caller this build
+    /// never validated does not, and failing closed beats an underflow.
+    pub fn keyed_fields(&self) -> &[i32] {
+        let keyed = self.fields.len().saturating_sub(self.covering_fields.len());
+        &self.fields[..keyed]
+    }
+
+    /// The single column this index is keyed on, or `None` when it is keyed on
+    /// several -- a genuinely composite index -- or on none at all.
+    ///
+    /// Most selection paths are only defined for one keyed column, so they can
+    /// compare this against the column they are resolving.
+    pub fn keyed_field(&self) -> Option<i32> {
+        match self.keyed_fields() {
+            [only] => Some(*only),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Check the covering declaration against [`Self::fields`].
+    ///
+    /// Carried columns must be a suffix of `fields` and must not consume all of
+    /// it, so `fields[0]` is always a column the index is keyed on. An empty
+    /// declaration is always valid, which is what keeps the system indices --
+    /// `mem_wal` and `frag_reuse`, both of which commit no fields at all --
+    /// passing this check.
+    ///
+    /// The rules are checked from most to least specific, because one bad
+    /// declaration usually trips several: an id that is not a field at all is
+    /// reported ahead of the length and ordering rules, which would otherwise
+    /// name a consequence instead of the cause.
+    pub fn validate_covering_fields(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.covering_fields.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let missing: Vec<i32> = self
+            .covering_fields
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .filter(|f| !self.fields.contains(f))
+            .collect();
+        if !missing.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "index '{}' declares covering fields {:?} but {:?} are not \
+                 among its fields {:?}",
+                self.name, self.covering_fields, missing, self.fields,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // A column carried twice would be projected twice. The suffix check
+        // below cannot stand in for this, because `fields` may repeat the id in
+        // the same positions -- `fields = [7, 11, 11]` has `[11, 11]` as a
+        // genuine tail.
+        let mut seen = HashSet::with_capacity(self.covering_fields.len());
+        if let Some(duplicate) = self.covering_fields.iter().find(|f| !seen.insert(**f)) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "index '{}' declares covering field {} more than once in {:?}",
+                self.name, duplicate, self.covering_fields,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        if self.covering_fields.len() >= self.fields.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "index '{}' declares covering fields {:?} but its fields are {:?}; \
+                 at least one field must remain indexed",
+                self.name, self.covering_fields, self.fields,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let suffix_start = self.fields.len() - self.covering_fields.len();
+        if self.fields[suffix_start..] != self.covering_fields[..] {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "index '{}' declares covering fields {:?} which are not the trailing \
+                 entries of {:?}; covering fields must come last",
+                self.name, self.covering_fields, self.fields,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for IndexMetadata {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.uuid.as_bytes().deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.fields.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.covering_fields.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.name.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.dataset_version.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self
@@ -80,6 +258,7 @@ impl DeepSizeOf for IndexMetadata {
                 .as_ref()
                 .map(|fragment_bitmap| fragment_bitmap.serialized_size())
                 .unwrap_or(0)
+            + self.files.deep_size_of_children(context)
     }
 }
 
@@ -95,15 +274,28 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::IndexMetadata> for IndexMetadata {
             )?)
         };
 
-        Ok(Self {
+        let files = if proto.files.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(
+                proto
+                    .files
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|f| IndexFile {
+                        path: f.path,
+                        size_bytes: f.size_bytes,
+                    })
+                    .collect(),
+            )
+        };
+
+        let metadata = Self {
             uuid: proto.uuid.as_ref().map(Uuid::try_from).ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "uuid field does not exist in Index metadata".to_string(),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("uuid field does not exist in Index metadata".to_string())
             })??,
             name: proto.name,
             fields: proto.fields,
+            covering_fields: proto.covering_fields,
             dataset_version: proto.dataset_version,
             fragment_bitmap,
             index_details: proto.index_details.map(Arc::new),
@@ -113,7 +305,18 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::IndexMetadata> for IndexMetadata {
                     .expect("Invalid timestamp in index metadata")
             }),
             base_id: proto.base_id,
-        })
+            files,
+        };
+
+        // This is the single boundary between manifest bytes and
+        // `IndexMetadata`, so validating once here is what lets every reader
+        // treat the declaration as a trailing slice of `fields`. A manifest
+        // that fails this was written by something that did not follow the
+        // format contract; refuse it rather than let each use site quietly
+        // ignore the index.
+        metadata.validate_covering_fields()?;
+
+        Ok(metadata)
     }
 }
 
@@ -121,6 +324,13 @@ impl From<&IndexMetadata> for pb::IndexMetadata {
     fn from(idx: &IndexMetadata) -> Self {
         let mut fragment_bitmap = Vec::new();
         if let Some(bitmap) = &idx.fragment_bitmap {
+            // Fragment ids are allocated monotonically, so index coverage is
+            // highly contiguous. Run containers are part of the standard
+            // roaring serialization format, so converting eligible containers
+            // to runs before writing shrinks the bitmap from O(fragments) to
+            // O(runs) bytes.
+            let mut bitmap = bitmap.clone();
+            bitmap.optimize();
             if let Err(e) = bitmap.serialize_into(&mut fragment_bitmap) {
                 // In theory, this should never error. But if we do, just
                 // recover gracefully.
@@ -129,10 +339,25 @@ impl From<&IndexMetadata> for pb::IndexMetadata {
             }
         }
 
+        let files = idx
+            .files
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|files| {
+                files
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| pb::IndexFile {
+                        path: f.path.clone(),
+                        size_bytes: f.size_bytes,
+                    })
+                    .collect()
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
         Self {
             uuid: Some((&idx.uuid).into()),
             name: idx.name.clone(),
             fields: idx.fields.clone(),
+            covering_fields: idx.covering_fields.clone(),
             dataset_version: idx.dataset_version,
             fragment_bitmap,
             index_details: idx
@@ -142,6 +367,345 @@ impl From<&IndexMetadata> for pb::IndexMetadata {
             index_version: Some(idx.index_version),
             created_at: idx.created_at.map(|dt| dt.timestamp_millis() as u64),
             base_id: idx.base_id,
+            files,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Returns a [`CacheCodec`](lance_core::cache::CacheCodec) for `Vec<IndexMetadata>`.
+///
+/// Uses `pb::IndexSection` (which wraps `repeated IndexMetadata`) as the wire
+/// format, reusing the existing `TryFrom`/`From` conversions.
+///
+/// Uses [`CacheCodec::new`](lance_core::cache::CacheCodec::new) because the
+/// orphan rule prevents `impl CacheCodecImpl for Vec<IndexMetadata>`.
+type ArcAny = Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync>;
+
+/// Stable type identifier for the `Vec<IndexMetadata>` cache entry.
+const INDEX_METADATA_TYPE_ID: &str = "lance.table.IndexMetadataList";
+/// Body schema version written by this build.
+const INDEX_METADATA_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+fn serialize_index_metadata(
+    any: &ArcAny,
+    writer: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    let vec = any
+        .downcast_ref::<Vec<IndexMetadata>>()
+        .expect("index_metadata_codec: wrong type (this is a bug in the cache layer)");
+    let section = pb::IndexSection {
+        indices: vec.iter().map(pb::IndexMetadata::from).collect(),
+    };
+    writer.write_header(&section)
+}
+
+fn deserialize_index_metadata(reader: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> lance_core::Result<ArcAny> {
+    let section: pb::IndexSection = reader.read_header()?;
+    let indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = section
+        .indices
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(IndexMetadata::try_from)
+        .collect::<lance_core::Result<_>>()?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(indices))
+}
+
+pub fn index_metadata_codec() -> lance_core::cache::CacheCodec {
+    lance_core::cache::CacheCodec::new(
+        INDEX_METADATA_TYPE_ID,
+        INDEX_METADATA_VERSION,
+        serialize_index_metadata,
+        deserialize_index_metadata,
+    )
+}
+
+/// List all files in an index directory with their sizes.
+///
+/// Returns a list of `IndexFile` structs containing relative paths and sizes.
+/// This is used to capture file metadata after index creation/modification.
+pub async fn list_index_files_with_sizes(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    index_dir: &Path,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    let mut files = Vec::new();
+    let mut stream = object_store.read_dir_all(index_dir, None);
+    while let Some(meta) = stream.next().await {
+        let meta = meta?;
+        // Get relative path by stripping the index_dir prefix
+        let relative_path = meta
+            .location
+            .as_ref()
+            .strip_prefix(index_dir.as_ref())
+            .map(|s| s.trim_start_matches('/').to_string())
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| meta.location.filename().unwrap_or("").to_string());
+        files.push(IndexFile {
+            path: relative_path,
+            size_bytes: meta.size,
+        });
+    }
+    Ok(files)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fragment_bitmap_serialized_run_optimized() {
+        let bitmap = RoaringBitmap::from_sorted_iter(0..1_000_000).unwrap();
+        let unoptimized_size = bitmap.serialized_size();
+
+        let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "my_index".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(bitmap.clone()),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let proto = pb::IndexMetadata::from(&metadata);
+        assert!(
+            proto.fragment_bitmap.len() < unoptimized_size / 100,
+            "expected run-optimized bitmap ({} bytes) to be <1% of the \
+             unoptimized serialization ({} bytes)",
+            proto.fragment_bitmap.len(),
+            unoptimized_size
+        );
+
+        let recovered = IndexMetadata::try_from(proto).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(recovered.fragment_bitmap, Some(bitmap));
+    }
+
+    /// Demonstrates the pattern a disk-backed cache backend would use:
+    /// serialize entries to bytes, store in a key-value map, then
+    /// deserialize on retrieval.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_metadata_codec_roundtrip() {
+        let codec = index_metadata_codec();
+
+        let original = vec![
+            IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                name: "my_index".to_string(),
+                fields: vec![0, 1],
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                dataset_version: 42,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 3])),
+                index_details: None,
+                index_version: 1,
+                created_at: None,
+                base_id: None,
+                files: Some(vec![IndexFile {
+                    path: "index.idx".to_string(),
+                    size_bytes: 1024,
+                }]),
+            },
+            IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                name: "second_index".to_string(),
+                fields: vec![2],
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                dataset_version: 43,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+                index_details: None,
+                index_version: 2,
+                created_at: None,
+                base_id: Some(7),
+                files: None,
+            },
+        ];
+
+        // Simulate a disk-backed store: HashMap<String, Vec<u8>>
+        let mut store: HashMap<String, Vec<u8>> = HashMap::new();
+
+        // Serialize into the store
+        let key = "dataset/v42/Vec<IndexMetadata>".to_string();
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        let entry: Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync> = Arc::new(original.clone());
+        codec.serialize(&entry, &mut buf).unwrap();
+        store.insert(key.clone(), buf);
+
+        // Deserialize from the store
+        let bytes = store.get(&key).unwrap();
+        let recovered = codec
+            .deserialize(&bytes::Bytes::copy_from_slice(bytes))
+            .hit()
+            .expect("entry should decode as a hit");
+        let recovered = recovered
+            .downcast::<Vec<IndexMetadata>>()
+            .expect("downcast should succeed");
+
+        assert_eq!(original.len(), recovered.len());
+        for (orig, rec) in original.iter().zip(recovered.iter()) {
+            assert_eq!(orig.uuid, rec.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(orig.name, rec.name);
+            assert_eq!(orig.fields, rec.fields);
+            assert_eq!(orig.dataset_version, rec.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(orig.fragment_bitmap, rec.fragment_bitmap);
+            assert_eq!(orig.index_version, rec.index_version);
+            assert_eq!(orig.base_id, rec.base_id);
+            assert_eq!(orig.files, rec.files);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The covering declaration must survive both conversion directions.
+    /// A dropped `covering_fields` would leave index files holding carried
+    /// columns the manifest no longer names.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_covering_fields_survives_proto_roundtrip() {
+        let original = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "covered".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![7, 11, 13],
+            covering_fields: vec![11, 13],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let proto = pb::IndexMetadata::from(&original);
+        assert_eq!(proto.covering_fields, vec![11, 13]);
+
+        let recovered = IndexMetadata::try_from(proto).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(recovered, original);
+    }
+
+    /// `TryFrom<pb::IndexMetadata>` is the only path from manifest bytes to
+    /// `IndexMetadata`, so validating here is what lets every reader downstream
+    /// assume the declaration really is a trailing slice of `fields`. Without
+    /// it, a malformed declaration reaches each use site instead, where the
+    /// keyed count saturates to zero and the index is silently ignored.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_from_proto_rejects_a_malformed_covering_declaration() {
+        let mut proto = pb::IndexMetadata::from(&index_metadata_with(vec![7, 11], vec![11]));
+        // The leading entry, not the trailing one: claims the keyed column is
+        // carried.
+        proto.covering_fields = vec![7];
+
+        let err = IndexMetadata::try_from(proto)
+            .expect_err("a malformed covering declaration must not decode");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {:?}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("must come last"),
+            "unexpected message: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Only the keyed prefix decides which column an index answers for, and
+    /// nearly every selection path needs exactly one such column. Metadata read
+    /// from a manifest this build never wrote can still be malformed, so both
+    /// accessors must fail closed -- no keyed field -- rather than underflow.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::not_covered(vec![7], vec![], vec![7], Some(7))]
+    #[case::covered(vec![7, 11], vec![11], vec![7], Some(7))]
+    #[case::covered_multi(vec![7, 11, 13], vec![11, 13], vec![7], Some(7))]
+    #[case::covered_composite(vec![7, 11, 13], vec![13], vec![7, 11], None)]
+    #[case::composite(vec![7, 11], vec![], vec![7, 11], None)]
+    #[case::system_index_no_fields(vec![], vec![], vec![], None)]
+    #[case::malformed_longer_than_fields(vec![7], vec![11, 13], vec![], None)]
+    fn test_keyed_fields(
+        #[case] fields: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] covering_fields: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] expected_keyed: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] expected_single: Option<i32>,
+    ) {
+        let metadata = index_metadata_with(fields, covering_fields);
+
+        assert_eq!(metadata.keyed_fields(), expected_keyed.as_slice());
+        assert_eq!(metadata.keyed_field(), expected_single);
+    }
+
+    fn index_metadata_with(fields: Vec<i32>, covering_fields: Vec<i32>) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "idx".to_string(),
+            fields,
+            covering_fields,
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::zone_map("type.googleapis.com/lance.table.ZoneMapIndexDetails", true)]
+    #[case::bloom_filter("type.googleapis.com/lance.index.pb.BloomFilterIndexDetails", true)]
+    #[case::fm("type.googleapis.com/lance.index.pb.FMIndexDetails", true)]
+    #[case::fm_case_insensitive("type.googleapis.com/LANCE.INDEX.PB.FMINDEXDETAILS", true)]
+    #[case::foreign_fm_terminal_name("type.googleapis.com/example.FMIndexDetails", false)]
+    #[case::btree("type.googleapis.com/lance.table.BTreeIndexDetails", false)]
+    fn test_results_are_row_addrs(#[case] type_url: &str, #[case] expected: bool) {
+        let mut metadata = index_metadata_with(vec![0], vec![]);
+        metadata.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: type_url.to_string(),
+            value: Vec::new(),
+        }));
+
+        assert_eq!(metadata.results_are_row_addrs(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::empty_is_valid(vec![7], vec![], None)]
+    // mem_wal and frag_reuse both commit no fields at all; a bare
+    // `covering_fields.len() < fields.len()` check would reject them.
+    #[case::system_index_no_fields(vec![], vec![], None)]
+    #[case::valid_single_covered(vec![7, 11], vec![11], None)]
+    #[case::valid_suffix(vec![7, 11, 13], vec![11, 13], None)]
+    #[case::not_a_suffix(vec![7, 11, 13], vec![11], Some("must come last"))]
+    #[case::not_a_subset(vec![7, 11], vec![99], Some("are not among its fields"))]
+    #[case::wrong_order(vec![7, 11, 13], vec![13, 11], Some("must come last"))]
+    #[case::all_fields_covered(vec![7], vec![7], Some("at least one field must remain indexed"))]
+    #[case::covers_the_search_key(vec![7, 11], vec![7, 11], Some("at least one field must remain indexed"))]
+    // `fields` repeats the id in the same positions, so `[11, 11]` is a genuine
+    // tail of it -- only the duplicate check rejects this.
+    #[case::duplicate_covered(vec![7, 11, 11], vec![11, 11], Some("more than once"))]
+    // Both over-long and naming an unknown id: the unknown id is the cause, so
+    // it must be reported ahead of "at least one field must remain indexed".
+    #[case::unknown_id_reported_before_length(vec![7, 11], vec![99, 11], Some("are not among its fields"))]
+    fn test_validate_covering_fields(
+        #[case] fields: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] covering_fields: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] expected_error: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let metadata = index_metadata_with(fields, covering_fields);
+        let result = metadata.validate_covering_fields();
+
+        match expected_error {
+            None => assert!(result.is_ok(), "expected valid, got {:?}", result),
+            Some(fragment) => {
+                let err = result.expect_err("expected a validation error");
+                assert!(
+                    matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+                    "expected InvalidInput, got {:?}",
+                    err
+                );
+                let message = err.to_string();
+                assert!(
+                    message.contains(fragment),
+                    "expected message to contain {:?}, got {:?}",
+                    fragment,
+                    message
+                );
+            }
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/format/key_existence.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/format/key_existence.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..210ef5f3836
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/format/key_existence.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,718 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Key existence tracking for merge insert conflict detection.
+//!
+//! A merge insert records the join keys it inserted into a bloom filter, which
+//! is carried in the transaction so a concurrent commit can detect whether it
+//! inserted any of the same keys. The filter is serialized into the transaction
+//! protobuf, so it lives at the table layer next to [`crate::format::pb`].
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::collections::hash_map::DefaultHasher;
+use std::hash::{Hash, Hasher};
+
+use crate::format::pb;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, BinaryArray, LargeBinaryArray, LargeListArray, LargeStringArray, ListArray, RecordBatch,
+    StringArray, StructArray,
+};
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::bloomfilter::sbbf::{Sbbf, SbbfBuilder};
+
+// Default bloom filter config: 8192 items @ 0.00057 fpp -> 16KiB filter
+pub const BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS: u64 = 8192;
+pub const BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY: f64 = 0.00057;
+
+/// Key value for conflict detection.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub enum KeyValue {
+    String(String),
+    Int64(i64),
+    UInt64(u64),
+    Binary(Vec<u8>),
+    List(Vec<Self>),
+    Struct(Vec<Self>),
+    Composite(Vec<Self>),
+}
+
+impl KeyValue {
+    pub fn to_bytes(&self) -> Vec<u8> {
+        match self {
+            Self::String(s) => s.as_bytes().to_vec(),
+            Self::Int64(i) => i.to_le_bytes().to_vec(),
+            Self::UInt64(u) => u.to_le_bytes().to_vec(),
+            Self::Binary(b) => b.clone(),
+            Self::List(values) | Self::Struct(values) | Self::Composite(values) => {
+                let mut result = Vec::new();
+                for value in values {
+                    result.extend_from_slice(&value.to_bytes());
+                    result.push(0);
+                }
+                result
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn hash_value(&self) -> u64 {
+        let mut hasher = DefaultHasher::new();
+        self.to_bytes().hash(&mut hasher);
+        hasher.finish()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Builder for KeyExistenceFilter using Split Block Bloom Filter.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct KeyExistenceFilterBuilder {
+    sbbf: Sbbf,
+    field_ids: Vec<i32>,
+    item_count: usize,
+}
+
+impl KeyExistenceFilterBuilder {
+    pub fn new(field_ids: Vec<i32>) -> Self {
+        let sbbf = SbbfBuilder::new()
+            .expected_items(BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS)
+            .false_positive_probability(BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY)
+            .build()
+            .expect("Failed to build SBBF");
+        Self {
+            sbbf,
+            field_ids,
+            item_count: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn insert(&mut self, key: KeyValue) -> Result<()> {
+        self.sbbf.insert(&key.to_bytes()[..]);
+        self.item_count += 1;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn contains(&self, key: &KeyValue) -> bool {
+        self.sbbf.check(&key.to_bytes()[..])
+    }
+
+    pub fn might_intersect(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<bool> {
+        self.sbbf
+            .might_intersect(&other.sbbf)
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    pub fn field_ids(&self) -> &[i32] {
+        &self.field_ids
+    }
+
+    pub fn estimated_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.sbbf.size_bytes()
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.item_count
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.item_count == 0
+    }
+
+    pub fn build(&self) -> KeyExistenceFilter {
+        KeyExistenceFilter {
+            field_ids: self.field_ids.clone(),
+            filter: FilterType::Bloom {
+                bitmap: self.sbbf.to_bytes(),
+                num_bits: (self.sbbf.size_bytes() as u32) * 8,
+                number_of_items: BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS,
+                probability: BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&KeyExistenceFilterBuilder> for pb::transaction::KeyExistenceFilter {
+    fn from(builder: &KeyExistenceFilterBuilder) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            field_ids: builder.field_ids.clone(),
+            data: Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Bloom(
+                pb::transaction::BloomFilter {
+                    bitmap: builder.sbbf.to_bytes(),
+                    num_bits: (builder.sbbf.size_bytes() as u32) * 8,
+                    number_of_items: BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS,
+                    probability: BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY,
+                },
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Filter type for key existence data.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
+pub enum FilterType {
+    ExactSet(HashSet<u64>),
+    Bloom {
+        bitmap: Vec<u8>,
+        num_bits: u32,
+        number_of_items: u64,
+        probability: f64,
+    },
+}
+
+/// Tracks keys of inserted rows for conflict detection.
+/// Only created when ON columns match the schema's unenforced primary key.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
+pub struct KeyExistenceFilter {
+    pub field_ids: Vec<i32>,
+    pub filter: FilterType,
+}
+
+impl KeyExistenceFilter {
+    pub fn from_bloom_filter(bloom: &KeyExistenceFilterBuilder) -> Self {
+        bloom.build()
+    }
+
+    /// Check if two filters intersect. Returns (has_intersection, might_be_false_positive).
+    /// Errors if bloom filter configs don't match.
+    pub fn intersects(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<(bool, bool)> {
+        match (&self.filter, &other.filter) {
+            (FilterType::ExactSet(a), FilterType::ExactSet(b)) => {
+                Ok((a.iter().any(|h| b.contains(h)), false))
+            }
+            (FilterType::ExactSet(_), FilterType::Bloom { .. })
+            | (FilterType::Bloom { .. }, FilterType::ExactSet(_)) => {
+                // Can't compare different hash schemes, assume intersection
+                Ok((true, true))
+            }
+            (
+                FilterType::Bloom {
+                    bitmap: a_bits,
+                    number_of_items: a_num_items,
+                    probability: a_prob,
+                    ..
+                },
+                FilterType::Bloom {
+                    bitmap: b_bits,
+                    number_of_items: b_num_items,
+                    probability: b_prob,
+                    ..
+                },
+            ) => {
+                if a_num_items != b_num_items || (a_prob - b_prob).abs() > f64::EPSILON {
+                    return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Bloom filter config mismatch: ({}, {}) vs ({}, {})",
+                        a_num_items, a_prob, b_num_items, b_prob
+                    )));
+                }
+                let has = Sbbf::bytes_might_intersect(a_bits, b_bits)
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+                Ok((has, has))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&KeyExistenceFilter> for pb::transaction::KeyExistenceFilter {
+    fn from(filter: &KeyExistenceFilter) -> Self {
+        match &filter.filter {
+            FilterType::ExactSet(hashes) => Self {
+                field_ids: filter.field_ids.clone(),
+                data: Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Exact(
+                    pb::transaction::ExactKeySetFilter {
+                        key_hashes: hashes.iter().copied().collect(),
+                    },
+                )),
+            },
+            FilterType::Bloom {
+                bitmap,
+                num_bits,
+                number_of_items,
+                probability,
+            } => Self {
+                field_ids: filter.field_ids.clone(),
+                data: Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Bloom(
+                    pb::transaction::BloomFilter {
+                        bitmap: bitmap.clone(),
+                        num_bits: *num_bits,
+                        number_of_items: *number_of_items,
+                        probability: *probability,
+                    },
+                )),
+            },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&pb::transaction::KeyExistenceFilter> for KeyExistenceFilter {
+    type Error = lance_core::Error;
+
+    fn try_from(message: &pb::transaction::KeyExistenceFilter) -> Result<Self> {
+        let filter = match message.data.as_ref() {
+            Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Exact(exact)) => {
+                FilterType::ExactSet(exact.key_hashes.iter().copied().collect())
+            }
+            Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Bloom(b)) => {
+                // Use defaults for backwards compatibility
+                let number_of_items = if b.number_of_items == 0 {
+                    BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS
+                } else {
+                    b.number_of_items
+                };
+                let probability = if b.probability == 0.0 {
+                    BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY
+                } else {
+                    b.probability
+                };
+                FilterType::Bloom {
+                    bitmap: b.bitmap.clone(),
+                    num_bits: b.num_bits,
+                    number_of_items,
+                    probability,
+                }
+            }
+            None => FilterType::ExactSet(HashSet::new()),
+        };
+        Ok(Self {
+            field_ids: message.field_ids.clone(),
+            filter,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extract key value from a batch row. Returns None if null or unsupported type.
+pub fn extract_key_value_from_batch(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    row_idx: usize,
+    on_columns: &[String],
+) -> Option<KeyValue> {
+    let mut parts: Vec<KeyValue> = Vec::with_capacity(on_columns.len());
+
+    for col_name in on_columns {
+        let (col_idx, _) = batch.schema().column_with_name(col_name)?;
+        let column = batch.column(col_idx);
+
+        if column.is_null(row_idx) {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let key_part = extract_key_value(column, row_idx)?;
+        parts.push(key_part);
+    }
+
+    if parts.is_empty() {
+        None
+    } else if parts.len() == 1 {
+        Some(parts.into_iter().next().unwrap())
+    } else {
+        Some(KeyValue::Composite(parts))
+    }
+}
+
+fn extract_key_value(array: &dyn Array, row_idx: usize) -> Option<KeyValue> {
+    let v = match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Utf8 => {
+            let arr = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>()?;
+            KeyValue::String(arr.value(row_idx).to_string())
+        }
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
+            let arr = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>()?;
+            KeyValue::String(arr.value(row_idx).to_string())
+        }
+        DataType::UInt64 => {
+            let arr = array.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+            KeyValue::UInt64(arr.value(row_idx))
+        }
+        DataType::Int64 => {
+            let arr = array.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>();
+            KeyValue::Int64(arr.value(row_idx))
+        }
+        DataType::UInt32 => {
+            let arr = array.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt32Type>();
+            KeyValue::UInt64(arr.value(row_idx) as u64)
+        }
+        DataType::Int32 => {
+            let arr = array.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+            KeyValue::Int64(arr.value(row_idx) as i64)
+        }
+        DataType::Binary => {
+            let arr = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>()?;
+            KeyValue::Binary(arr.value(row_idx).to_vec())
+        }
+        DataType::LargeBinary => {
+            let arr = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()?;
+            KeyValue::Binary(arr.value(row_idx).to_vec())
+        }
+        DataType::List(_) => {
+            let list_array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<ListArray>().unwrap();
+            let values = list_array.value(row_idx);
+
+            let mut elements = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+            for i in 0..values.len() {
+                if values.is_null(i) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let element = extract_key_value(&values, i)?;
+                elements.push(element);
+            }
+            KeyValue::List(elements)
+        }
+        DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+            let list_array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeListArray>().unwrap();
+            let values = list_array.value(row_idx);
+
+            let mut elements = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+            for i in 0..values.len() {
+                if values.is_null(i) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let element = extract_key_value(&values, i)?;
+                elements.push(element);
+            }
+            KeyValue::List(elements)
+        }
+        DataType::Struct(_) => {
+            let struct_array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>()?;
+            let mut elements = Vec::with_capacity(struct_array.num_columns());
+            for i in 0..struct_array.num_columns() {
+                let child = struct_array.column(i);
+                if child.is_null(row_idx) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let field_value = extract_key_value(child.as_ref(), row_idx)?;
+                elements.push(field_value);
+            }
+            KeyValue::Struct(elements)
+        }
+        _ => return None,
+    };
+    Some(v)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, StringArray, StructArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_list_int() {
+        let values_builder = Int32Builder::new();
+        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(values_builder);
+
+        list_builder.append_value([Some(1), Some(2)]);
+        list_builder.append_value([Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)]);
+
+        let list_array = list_builder.finish();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            list_array.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list_array)])
+            .expect("batch should be valid");
+
+        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("first row should produce a key");
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("second row should produce a key");
+
+        match &key0 {
+            KeyValue::List(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(1));
+                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(2));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        match &key1 {
+            KeyValue::List(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 3);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(3));
+                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(4));
+                assert_eq!(values[2], KeyValue::Int64(5));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            key0.hash_value(),
+            key1.hash_value(),
+            "different list values should hash differently",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_empty_list() {
+        let values_builder = Int32Builder::new();
+        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(values_builder);
+
+        list_builder.append_value(std::iter::empty::<Option<i32>>());
+
+        let list_array = list_builder.finish();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            list_array.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list_array)])
+            .expect("batch should be valid");
+
+        let key = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("empty list should still produce a key");
+
+        match key {
+            KeyValue::List(values) => {
+                assert!(values.is_empty(), "expected empty list");
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_list_utf8() {
+        let values_builder = StringBuilder::new();
+        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(values_builder);
+
+        list_builder.append_value([Some("a"), Some("bc")]);
+        list_builder.append_value([Some("de")]);
+
+        let list_array = list_builder.finish();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            list_array.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list_array)])
+            .expect("batch should be valid");
+
+        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("first row should produce a key");
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("second row should produce a key");
+
+        match &key0 {
+            KeyValue::List(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::String("a".to_string()));
+                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::String("bc".to_string()));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        match &key1 {
+            KeyValue::List(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 1);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::String("de".to_string()));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            key0.hash_value(),
+            key1.hash_value(),
+            "different list values should hash differently",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_list_with_null_child() {
+        let values_builder = Int32Builder::new();
+        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(values_builder);
+
+        list_builder.append_value([Some(1), Some(2)]);
+        list_builder.append_value([Some(3), None]);
+
+        let list_array = list_builder.finish();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            list_array.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list_array)])
+            .expect("batch should be valid");
+
+        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("first row should produce a key");
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")]);
+
+        match &key0 {
+            KeyValue::List(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(1));
+                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(2));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            key1.is_none(),
+            "list row with a null child should not produce a key",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_struct_int() {
+        let a_values = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 3]);
+        let b_values = Int32Array::from(vec![2, 4]);
+
+        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("a", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false)),
+                Arc::new(a_values) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("b", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false)),
+                Arc::new(b_values) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            struct_array.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array)])
+            .expect("batch should be valid");
+
+        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("first row should produce a key");
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("second row should produce a key");
+
+        match &key0 {
+            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(1));
+                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(2));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        match &key1 {
+            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(3));
+                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(4));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            key0.hash_value(),
+            key1.hash_value(),
+            "different struct values should hash differently",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_struct_utf8() {
+        let first_names = StringArray::from(vec!["alice", "bob"]);
+        let last_names = StringArray::from(vec!["smith", "jones"]);
+
+        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("first", arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(first_names) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("last", arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(last_names) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            struct_array.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array)])
+            .expect("batch should be valid");
+
+        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("first row should produce a key");
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("second row should produce a key");
+
+        match &key0 {
+            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::String("alice".to_string()));
+                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::String("smith".to_string()));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        match &key1 {
+            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::String("bob".to_string()));
+                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::String("jones".to_string()));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            key0.hash_value(),
+            key1.hash_value(),
+            "different struct values should hash differently",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_struct_with_null_child() {
+        let a_values = Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None]);
+        let b_values = Int32Array::from(vec![Some(2), Some(3)]);
+
+        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("a", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, true)),
+                Arc::new(a_values) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("b", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, true)),
+                Arc::new(b_values) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            struct_array.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array)])
+            .expect("batch should be valid");
+
+        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
+            .expect("first row should produce a key");
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")]);
+
+        match &key0 {
+            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
+                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(1));
+                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(2));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            key1.is_none(),
+            "struct row with a null child should not produce a key",
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/format/manifest.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/format/manifest.rs
index d50e59d1bc7..9862d242f57 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/format/manifest.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/format/manifest.rs
@@ -2,11 +2,14 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
 use chrono::prelude::*;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_file::datatypes::{populate_schema_dictionary, Fields, FieldsWithMeta};
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
-use lance_file::version::{LanceFileVersion, LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_file::datatypes::{Fields, FieldsWithMeta};
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, stable_file_version};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::{
+    encoding::populate_schema_dictionaries, reader::FileReader as V1FileReader,
+};
 use lance_io::traits::{ProtoStruct, Reader};
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
@@ -15,15 +18,16 @@ use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap};
 use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use super::Fragment;
-use crate::feature_flags::{has_deprecated_v2_feature_flag, FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS};
+use super::{Fragment, InlineRowIds, RowIdMeta};
+use crate::feature_flags::{FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA, STICKY_PAIRED_FLAGS};
+use crate::feature_flags::{FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS, has_deprecated_v2_feature_flag};
+use crate::format::fragment::DataFileFieldInterner;
 use crate::format::pb;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreRegistry};
 use lance_io::utils::read_struct;
-use snafu::location;
 
 /// Manifest of a dataset
 ///
@@ -167,6 +171,11 @@ impl From<ManifestSummary> for BTreeMap<String, String> {
 }
 
 impl Manifest {
+    /// Whether this table requires independently addressed Managed Blob support.
+    pub fn has_managed_blobs(&self) -> bool {
+        self.reader_feature_flags & crate::feature_flags::FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS != 0
+    }
+
     pub fn new(
         schema: Schema,
         fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
@@ -185,8 +194,8 @@ impl Manifest {
             index_section: None,
             timestamp_nanos: 0,
             tag: None,
-            reader_feature_flags: 0,
-            writer_feature_flags: 0,
+            reader_feature_flags: 0, // These will be set on commit
+            writer_feature_flags: 0, // These will be set on commit
             max_fragment_id: None,
             transaction_file: None,
             transaction_section: None,
@@ -216,8 +225,8 @@ impl Manifest {
             index_section: None, // Caller should update index if they want to keep them.
             timestamp_nanos: 0,  // This will be set on commit
             tag: None,
-            reader_feature_flags: 0, // These will be set on commit
-            writer_feature_flags: 0, // These will be set on commit
+            reader_feature_flags: previous.reader_feature_flags & STICKY_PAIRED_FLAGS,
+            writer_feature_flags: previous.writer_feature_flags & STICKY_PAIRED_FLAGS,
             max_fragment_id: previous.max_fragment_id,
             transaction_file: None,
             transaction_section: None,
@@ -248,16 +257,16 @@ impl Manifest {
             .iter()
             .map(|fragment| {
                 let mut cloned_fragment = fragment.clone();
-                for file in &mut cloned_fragment.files {
+                for file in cloned_fragment.referenced_lance_files_mut() {
                     if file.base_id.is_none() {
                         file.base_id = Some(ref_base_id);
                     }
                 }
 
-                if let Some(deletion) = &mut cloned_fragment.deletion_file {
-                    if deletion.base_id.is_none() {
-                        deletion.base_id = Some(ref_base_id);
-                    }
+                if let Some(deletion) = &mut cloned_fragment.deletion_file
+                    && deletion.base_id.is_none()
+                {
+                    deletion.base_id = Some(ref_base_id);
                 }
                 cloned_fragment
             })
@@ -273,8 +282,19 @@ impl Manifest {
             index_section: None, // These will be set on commit
             timestamp_nanos: self.timestamp_nanos,
             tag: None,
-            reader_feature_flags: 0, // These will be set on commit
-            writer_feature_flags: 0, // These will be set on commit
+            // Not derivable from the manifest, so it would be lost like any other
+            // zeroed word: a clone of a table with covering indexes would come
+            // back unfenced, and since the clone copies the index metadata
+            // wholesale -- `covering_fields` included -- a build that predates
+            // covering could then open it and read carried columns as keyed ones.
+            // Kept unconditionally rather than derived from the cloned indexes:
+            // over-fencing a clone is harmless, under-fencing one is not.
+            // Sticky capabilities are also retained because the clone keeps the
+            // source file identities that require them.
+            reader_feature_flags: self.reader_feature_flags
+                & (FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA | STICKY_PAIRED_FLAGS),
+            writer_feature_flags: self.writer_feature_flags
+                & (FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA | STICKY_PAIRED_FLAGS),
             max_fragment_id: self.max_fragment_id,
             transaction_file: Some(transaction_file),
             transaction_section: None,
@@ -366,13 +386,40 @@ impl Manifest {
             field.metadata = new_metadata;
             Ok(())
         } else {
-            Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Field with id {} does not exist for replace_field_metadata",
-                    field_id
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ))
+            Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Field with id {} does not exist for replace_field_metadata",
+                field_id
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Copy inline row ids out of the manifest buffer they were decoded from
+    /// when they are a small share of it.
+    ///
+    /// Inline row ids decoded from a `Bytes` buffer are slices of that buffer
+    /// (see [`InlineRowIds`]), and a slice keeps the whole allocation alive.
+    /// That is the right trade when the row ids are most of the manifest, as
+    /// they are for a compacted stable-row-id table, but a manifest whose row
+    /// ids are a few percent of its bytes would pin the rest for nothing.
+    /// `buffer_len` is the size of the decoded buffer.
+    pub fn detach_sparse_inline_row_ids(&mut self, buffer_len: usize) {
+        let inline_bytes: usize = self
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|fragment| match &fragment.row_id_meta {
+                Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => Some(data.len()),
+                _ => None,
+            })
+            .sum();
+        // Keep the slices while the row ids are at least a quarter of the buffer.
+        if inline_bytes == 0 || inline_bytes.saturating_mul(4) >= buffer_len {
+            return;
+        }
+        for fragment in Arc::make_mut(&mut self.fragments) {
+            if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragment.row_id_meta {
+                let copied = InlineRowIds::from(Bytes::copy_from_slice(data));
+                fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(copied));
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -424,16 +471,21 @@ impl Manifest {
     /// Get the max used field id
     ///
     /// This is different than [Schema::max_field_id] because it also considers
-    /// the field ids in the data files that have been dropped from the schema.
+    /// the field ids in the data files that have been dropped from the schema,
+    /// including overlay files referenced by fragments.
     pub fn max_field_id(&self) -> i32 {
         let schema_max_id = self.schema.max_field_id().unwrap_or(-1);
         let fragment_max_id = self
             .fragments
             .iter()
-            .flat_map(|f| f.files.iter().flat_map(|file| file.fields.as_slice()))
+            .flat_map(|fragment| {
+                fragment
+                    .referenced_lance_files()
+                    .flat_map(|file| file.fields.iter())
+            })
+            .copied()
             .max()
-            .copied();
-        let fragment_max_id = fragment_max_id.unwrap_or(-1);
+            .unwrap_or(-1);
         schema_max_id.max(fragment_max_id)
     }
 
@@ -441,13 +493,10 @@ impl Manifest {
     /// Note this does not support recycling of fragment ids.
     pub fn fragments_since(&self, since: &Self) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
         if since.version >= self.version {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "fragments_since: given version {} is newer than manifest version {}",
-                    since.version, self.version
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "fragments_since: given version {} is newer than manifest version {}",
+                since.version, self.version
+            )));
         }
         let start = since.max_fragment_id();
         Ok(self
@@ -507,10 +556,6 @@ impl Manifest {
         pb_manifest.encode_to_vec()
     }
 
-    pub fn should_use_legacy_format(&self) -> bool {
-        self.data_storage_format.version == LEGACY_FORMAT_VERSION
-    }
-
     /// Get the summary information of a manifest.
     ///
     /// This function calculates various statistics about the manifest, including:
@@ -544,10 +589,10 @@ impl Manifest {
                         summary.total_deletion_files += 1;
                     }
                     // Sum the number of deleted rows from the deletion file (if available)
-                    if let Some(deletion_file) = &f.deletion_file {
-                        if let Some(num_deleted) = deletion_file.num_deleted_rows {
-                            summary.total_deletion_file_rows += num_deleted as u64;
-                        }
+                    if let Some(deletion_file) = &f.deletion_file
+                        && let Some(num_deleted) = deletion_file.num_deleted_rows
+                    {
+                        summary.total_deletion_file_rows += num_deleted as u64;
                     }
                     summary
                 });
@@ -558,6 +603,40 @@ impl Manifest {
     }
 }
 
+/// Populate dictionary values stored outside a V1 manifest.
+///
+/// Other exact file versions store their schema dictionaries inline, so this
+/// is a no-op for those manifests.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use lance_core::Result;
+/// # use lance_io::traits::Reader;
+/// # use lance_table::format::{Manifest, populate_manifest_schema_dictionaries};
+/// # async fn hydrate_v1_manifest(
+/// #     manifest: &mut Manifest,
+/// #     reader: &dyn Reader,
+/// # ) -> Result<()> {
+/// populate_manifest_schema_dictionaries(manifest, reader).await
+/// # }
+/// ```
+pub async fn populate_manifest_schema_dictionaries(
+    manifest: &mut Manifest,
+    reader: &dyn Reader,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match manifest.data_storage_format.version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {
+            populate_schema_dictionaries(&mut manifest.schema, reader).await?;
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {}
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub struct BasePath {
     pub id: u32,
@@ -568,6 +647,25 @@ pub struct BasePath {
 }
 
 impl BasePath {
+    /// Choose an unused exact base ID without reserving zero or overflowing at
+    /// `u32::MAX`. The caller must publish the binding with its references and
+    /// reject a concurrent attempt to bind the chosen ID to another location.
+    pub fn unused_id(bases: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>) -> Result<u32> {
+        let mut ids = bases.into_iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids.dedup();
+        let mut candidate = 0u32;
+        for id in ids {
+            if id != candidate {
+                break;
+            }
+            candidate = candidate
+                .checked_add(1)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("All u32 base IDs are already registered"))?;
+        }
+        Ok(candidate)
+    }
+
     /// Create a new BasePath
     ///
     /// # Arguments
@@ -594,7 +692,7 @@ impl BasePath {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for BasePath {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.name.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.path.deep_size_of_children(context) * 2
             + size_of::<bool>()
@@ -612,39 +710,79 @@ pub struct WriterVersion {
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct DataStorageFormat {
     pub file_format: String,
-    pub version: String,
+    pub version: ConcreteFileVersion,
 }
 
 const LANCE_FORMAT_NAME: &str = "lance";
 
 impl DataStorageFormat {
-    pub fn new(version: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Self {
         Self {
             file_format: LANCE_FORMAT_NAME.to_string(),
-            version: version.resolve().to_string(),
+            version,
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn lance_file_version(&self) -> Result<LanceFileVersion> {
-        self.version.parse::<LanceFileVersion>()
+    /// Return the exact file format version persisted by this manifest.
+    pub fn lance_file_format(&self) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+        self.version
     }
 }
 
 impl Default for DataStorageFormat {
     fn default() -> Self {
-        Self::new(LanceFileVersion::default())
+        Self::new(stable_file_version())
     }
 }
 
-impl From<pb::manifest::DataStorageFormat> for DataStorageFormat {
-    fn from(pb: pb::manifest::DataStorageFormat) -> Self {
-        Self {
+impl TryFrom<pb::manifest::DataStorageFormat> for DataStorageFormat {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(pb: pb::manifest::DataStorageFormat) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
             file_format: pb.file_format,
-            version: pb.version,
-        }
+            version: ConcreteFileVersion::from_manifest_string(&pb.version)?,
+        })
     }
 }
 
+/// Options controlling how a new [`Manifest`] is assembled from a transaction.
+///
+/// The timestamp arrives already resolved to nanoseconds since the Unix epoch.
+/// Callers own the clock so that a caller wanting a mockable one keeps it: the
+/// `lance` crate mocks `SystemTime` under `cfg(test)`, which only takes effect in
+/// that crate.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ManifestBuildConfig {
+    /// Recompute the manifest's feature flags from the fragments and settings
+    /// below. False leaves whatever flags the previous manifest carried.
+    pub auto_set_feature_flags: bool,
+    /// Value for the new manifest's timestamp, in nanoseconds since the Unix epoch.
+    pub timestamp_nanos: u128,
+    /// Request the stable row id feature. The flag is also inherited from the
+    /// previous manifest, so false does not turn it off for a dataset that has it.
+    pub use_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    /// Overwrite only: force the legacy (true) or v2 (false) file format. `None`
+    /// keeps the format the dataset already had.
+    pub use_legacy_format: Option<bool>,
+    /// Overwrite only: force this storage format, taking precedence over
+    /// `use_legacy_format`. `None` keeps the format the dataset already had.
+    pub storage_format: Option<DataStorageFormat>,
+    /// Skip writing a detached transaction file for this commit.
+    pub disable_transaction_file: bool,
+    /// When `Some`, this commit is the second step of `migrate_to_stable_row_ids`.
+    /// It bypasses the "cannot enable stable row ids on existing dataset" guard and
+    /// sets `manifest.next_row_id` to the provided value before activating the flag.
+    pub migration_next_row_id: Option<u64>,
+    /// Row lineage sequences of the current manifest's fragments that live
+    /// outside the manifest, read ahead of the build. An update that rewrites
+    /// rows needs the existing row ids and created-at versions to carry each
+    /// row's lineage over, and a partial column rewrite needs the existing
+    /// last-updated-at versions; the build cannot read a data file itself. Only
+    /// consulted for fragments whose sequences are spilled.
+    pub spilled_row_lineage: std::sync::Arc<crate::rowids::version::SpilledRowLineage>,
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
 pub enum VersionPart {
     Major,
@@ -870,10 +1008,11 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::Manifest> for Manifest {
             }),
             _ => None,
         };
+        let mut interner = DataFileFieldInterner::default();
         let fragments = Arc::new(
             p.fragments
                 .into_iter()
-                .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                .map(|f| interner.intern_fragment(f))
                 .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
         );
         let fragment_offsets = compute_fragment_offsets(fragments.as_slice());
@@ -885,10 +1024,7 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::Manifest> for Manifest {
         if FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS & p.reader_feature_flags != 0
             && !fragments.iter().all(|frag| frag.row_id_meta.is_some())
         {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "All fragments must have row ids".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal("All fragments must have row ids"));
         }
 
         let data_storage_format = match p.data_format {
@@ -899,16 +1035,16 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::Manifest> for Manifest {
                 } else {
                     // No fragments to inspect, best we can do is look at writer flags
                     if has_deprecated_v2_feature_flag(p.writer_feature_flags) {
-                        DataStorageFormat::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable)
+                        DataStorageFormat::new(stable_file_version())
                     } else {
-                        DataStorageFormat::new(LanceFileVersion::Legacy)
+                        DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V1)
                     }
                 }
             }
-            Some(format) => DataStorageFormat::from(format),
+            Some(format) => DataStorageFormat::try_from(format)?,
         };
 
-        let schema = Schema::from(fields_with_meta);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(fields_with_meta)?;
 
         Ok(Self {
             schema,
@@ -928,7 +1064,10 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::Manifest> for Manifest {
             } else {
                 Some(p.transaction_file)
             },
-            transaction_section: p.transaction_section.map(|i| i as usize),
+            transaction_section: p
+                .transaction_section
+                .or(p.transaction_section_deprecated)
+                .map(|i| i as usize),
             fragment_offsets,
             next_row_id: p.next_row_id,
             data_storage_format,
@@ -976,6 +1115,7 @@ impl From<&Manifest> for pb::Manifest {
                     build_metadata: wv.build_metadata.clone(),
                 }),
             fragments: m.fragments.iter().map(pb::DataFragment::from).collect(),
+            fragment_tree: None,
             table_metadata: m.table_metadata.clone(),
             version_aux_data: m.version_aux_data as u64,
             index_section: m.index_section.map(|i| i as u64),
@@ -988,7 +1128,11 @@ impl From<&Manifest> for pb::Manifest {
             next_row_id: m.next_row_id,
             data_format: Some(pb::manifest::DataStorageFormat {
                 file_format: m.data_storage_format.file_format.clone(),
-                version: m.data_storage_format.version.clone(),
+                version: m
+                    .data_storage_format
+                    .version
+                    .to_manifest_string()
+                    .to_string(),
             }),
             config: m.config.clone(),
             base_paths: m
@@ -1002,6 +1146,7 @@ impl From<&Manifest> for pb::Manifest {
                 })
                 .collect(),
             transaction_section: m.transaction_section.map(|i| i as u64),
+            transaction_section_deprecated: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -1036,23 +1181,18 @@ pub trait SelfDescribingFileReader {
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl SelfDescribingFileReader for PreviousFileReader {
+impl SelfDescribingFileReader for V1FileReader {
     async fn try_new_self_described_from_reader(
         reader: Arc<dyn Reader>,
         cache: Option<&LanceCache>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let metadata = Self::read_metadata(reader.as_ref(), cache).await?;
-        let manifest_position = metadata.manifest_position.ok_or(Error::Internal {
-            message: format!(
-                "Attempt to open file at {} as self-describing but it did not contain a manifest",
-                reader.path(),
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let manifest_position = metadata.manifest_position.ok_or(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Attempt to open file at {} as self-describing but it did not contain a manifest",
+            reader.path(),
+        )))?;
         let mut manifest: Manifest = read_struct(reader.as_ref(), manifest_position).await?;
-        if manifest.should_use_legacy_format() {
-            populate_schema_dictionary(&mut manifest.schema, reader.as_ref()).await?;
-        }
+        populate_manifest_schema_dictionaries(&mut manifest, reader.as_ref()).await?;
         let schema = manifest.schema;
         let max_field_id = schema.max_field_id().unwrap_or_default();
         Self::try_new_from_reader(
@@ -1071,13 +1211,188 @@ impl SelfDescribingFileReader for PreviousFileReader {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use crate::feature_flags::FLAG_USE_V2_FORMAT_DEPRECATED;
+    use crate::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
     use crate::format::{DataFile, DeletionFile, DeletionFileType};
     use std::num::NonZero;
 
     use super::*;
 
-    use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
     use lance_core::datatypes::Field;
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+    /// A shallow clone points every local file at the parent through `base_id`.
+    /// An overlay's data file lives in the parent too, so it needs the same
+    /// stamp; without it the clone looks for the overlay under its own root.
+    #[test]
+    fn shallow_clone_stamps_base_id_on_overlay_files() {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "a",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Int64,
+            false,
+        )]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::with_file_legacy(0, "base.lance", &schema, Some(10));
+        fragment.overlays = vec![DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay.lance", vec![0], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0_u32]))),
+            committed_version: 1,
+        }];
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+
+        let cloned = manifest.shallow_clone(
+            Some("parent".to_string()),
+            "memory://parent".to_string(),
+            7,
+            None,
+            String::new(),
+        );
+
+        let fragment = &cloned.fragments[0];
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].base_id, Some(7));
+        assert_eq!(
+            fragment.overlays[0].data_file.base_id,
+            Some(7),
+            "the overlay's data file resolves against the parent as well"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn old_empty_manifest_recovers_v1_or_current_stable() {
+        let old_manifest = pb::Manifest {
+            data_format: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let recovered_v1 = Manifest::try_from(old_manifest.clone()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            recovered_v1.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+        );
+
+        let recovered_stable = Manifest::try_from(pb::Manifest {
+            writer_feature_flags: FLAG_USE_V2_FORMAT_DEPRECATED,
+            ..old_manifest
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            recovered_stable.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            stable_file_version()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn manifest_persistence_rejects_selectors_and_public_aliases() {
+        for version in ["stable", "next", "legacy", "0.3"] {
+            let manifest = pb::Manifest {
+                data_format: Some(pb::manifest::DataStorageFormat {
+                    file_format: LANCE_FORMAT_NAME.to_string(),
+                    version: version.to_string(),
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            assert!(Manifest::try_from(manifest).is_err(), "accepted {version}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn manifest_codec_writes_canonical_exact_string() {
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            Schema::default(),
+            Arc::new(Vec::new()),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        let encoded = pb::Manifest::from(&manifest);
+        assert_eq!(encoded.data_format.unwrap().version, "2.0");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn missing_format_infers_exact_version_and_rejects_mixed_files() {
+        let v2_0 = Fragment::new(0).with_file(
+            "v2_0.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+        );
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            Schema::default(),
+            Arc::new(vec![v2_0.clone()]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V1),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        let mut encoded = pb::Manifest::from(&manifest);
+        encoded.data_format = None;
+        let recovered = Manifest::try_from(encoded).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            recovered.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        );
+
+        let v2_1 = Fragment::new(1).with_file(
+            "v2_1.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+        );
+        let mixed_manifest = Manifest::new(
+            Schema::default(),
+            Arc::new(vec![v2_0, v2_1]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        let mut encoded = pb::Manifest::from(&mixed_manifest);
+        encoded.data_format = None;
+        let error = Manifest::try_from(encoded).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("All data files must have the same version")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_detach_sparse_inline_row_ids_copies_only_small_shares() {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        // Two 10 byte row id sequences sliced out of one buffer.
+        let buffer = Bytes::from(vec![7u8; 64]);
+        let fragments = [0..10, 20..30].into_iter().enumerate().map(|(id, range)| {
+            let mut fragment = Fragment::new(id as u64);
+            fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(InlineRowIds::from(buffer.slice(range))));
+            fragment
+        });
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(fragments.collect()),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        let ptr = |manifest: &Manifest, i: usize| match &manifest.fragments[i].row_id_meta {
+            Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => data.bytes().as_ptr(),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        };
+        let in_buffer = |p: *const u8| buffer.as_ptr_range().contains(&p);
+
+        // 20 of 80 bytes is a quarter: the slices stay.
+        manifest.detach_sparse_inline_row_ids(80);
+        assert!(in_buffer(ptr(&manifest, 0)) && in_buffer(ptr(&manifest, 1)));
+
+        // 20 of 81 bytes is below a quarter: copied out, contents intact.
+        manifest.detach_sparse_inline_row_ids(81);
+        assert!(!in_buffer(ptr(&manifest, 0)) && !in_buffer(ptr(&manifest, 1)));
+        let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(copied)) = &manifest.fragments[1].row_id_meta else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(&**copied, &buffer[20..30]);
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_writer_version() {
@@ -1327,6 +1642,7 @@ mod tests {
                     vec![0, 1, 2],
                     None,
                 )],
+                overlays: vec![],
                 deletion_file: None,
                 row_id_meta: None,
                 physical_rows: None,
@@ -1339,6 +1655,7 @@ mod tests {
                     DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path2", vec![0, 1, 43], None),
                     DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path3", vec![2], None),
                 ],
+                overlays: vec![],
                 deletion_file: None,
                 row_id_meta: None,
                 physical_rows: None,
@@ -1357,6 +1674,42 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(manifest.max_field_id(), 43);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_max_field_id_includes_overlay_files() {
+        let mut field0 =
+            Field::try_from(ArrowField::new("a", arrow_schema::DataType::Int64, false)).unwrap();
+        field0.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![field0],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        let mut fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path1", vec![0], None)],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+        fragment.overlays = vec![DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay.lance", vec![43], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0_u32]))),
+            committed_version: 1,
+        }];
+
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(manifest.max_field_id(), 43);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_config() {
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
@@ -1389,6 +1742,36 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(manifest.config, config);
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::only_current(Some(22), None, Some(22))]
+    #[case::only_deprecated(None, Some(21), Some(21))]
+    #[case::current_wins_over_deprecated(Some(22), Some(21), Some(22))]
+    #[case::neither(None, None, None)]
+    fn test_transaction_section_field_precedence(
+        #[case] current: Option<u64>,
+        #[case] deprecated: Option<u64>,
+        #[case] expected: Option<usize>,
+    ) {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int64, false)]);
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(vec![]),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        let mut pb_manifest = pb::Manifest::from(&manifest);
+        pb_manifest.transaction_section = current;
+        pb_manifest.transaction_section_deprecated = deprecated;
+
+        let manifest = Manifest::try_from(pb_manifest).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(manifest.transaction_section, expected);
+
+        // Whatever was read, only the current field is ever written back.
+        let pb_manifest = pb::Manifest::from(&manifest);
+        assert_eq!(pb_manifest.transaction_section, expected.map(|p| p as u64));
+        assert_eq!(pb_manifest.transaction_section_deprecated, None);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_manifest_summary() {
         // Step 1: test empty manifest summary
@@ -1459,14 +1842,13 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(real_data_summary.total_data_file_rows, 425);
         assert_eq!(real_data_summary.total_deletion_files, 0);
 
-        let file_version = LanceFileVersion::default();
         // Step 4: write deletion files and verify summary
         let mut fragment_with_deletion = Fragment::new(0)
             .with_file(
                 "data_with_deletion.lance",
                 vec![0, 1],
                 vec![0, 1],
-                &file_version,
+                stable_file_version(),
                 NonZero::new(1000),
             )
             .with_physical_rows(50);
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/format/overlay.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/format/overlay.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..38014534a25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/format/overlay.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,475 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Data overlay files.
+//!
+//! An overlay file supplies new values for a subset of `(physical offset, field)`
+//! cells within a fragment, without rewriting the fragment's base data files. See
+//! the Data Overlay Files specification for the full rules; the invariants this
+//! module relies on are:
+//!
+//! - **Physical-offset coverage.** Coverage bitmaps index *physical* row offsets
+//!   (positions in the base data files, counting deleted rows), so they are stable
+//!   across deletions, like deletion vectors.
+//! - **Rank-based values.** The overlay's `data_file` stores one value column per
+//!   field, with no row-offset key column. Within a value column, a covered
+//!   offset's value sits at its **rank** — the 0-based count of set bits below it
+//!   in that field's coverage bitmap.
+//! - **Dense vs. sparse coverage.** A dense overlay shares one bitmap across every
+//!   field ([`OverlayCoverage::Shared`]); a sparse overlay carries one bitmap per
+//!   field ([`OverlayCoverage::PerField`]).
+//! - **Parse once.** Bitmaps are parsed from their 32-bit Roaring encoding a single
+//!   time when the fragment loads and held behind an `Arc`, so cloning a fragment
+//!   is cheap.
+//! - **Newest-last ordering.** A fragment's overlays are stored newest-last and
+//!   stable-sorted by `committed_version` on load (see [`sort_overlays_newest_last`]),
+//!   with list position breaking ties for equal versions. When two overlays cover
+//!   the same `(offset, field)`, the higher `committed_version` wins.
+//! - **Field tombstones.** When new base values are written for a field (a
+//!   DataReplacement, or an in-place column rewrite), any overlay value for that
+//!   field is stale and must stop shadowing the fresh base. The field is marked
+//!   obsolete in the overlay's `data_file.fields` with [`TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID`]
+//!   (the same sentinel used for obsolete base columns) rather than physically
+//!   removed, so the overlay's other fields — and its coverage positions — stay
+//!   intact (see [`tombstone_overlay_fields`]).
+
+pub mod staleness;
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::Error;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::error::Result;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+use object_store::path::Path;
+
+use super::DataFile;
+use crate::format::pb;
+
+/// Field-id sentinel marking a tombstoned (obsolete) field within an overlay's
+/// `data_file.fields`. Matches the tombstone convention for obsolete columns in
+/// base data files; a tombstoned field's values are ignored on read.
+pub const TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID: i32 = -2;
+
+/// Which `(physical offset, field)` cells a [`DataOverlayFile`] provides values
+/// for.
+///
+/// Bitmaps are parsed from their 32-bit Roaring encoding once when the fragment
+/// is loaded and held behind an `Arc` so cloning a fragment is cheap; use
+/// [`DataOverlayFile::coverage_for_field`] to obtain the one that applies to a
+/// given field.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(into = "OverlayCoverageBytes", try_from = "OverlayCoverageBytes")]
+pub enum OverlayCoverage {
+    /// A single bitmap that applies to every field in the overlay's
+    /// `data_file.fields` (a dense / rectangular overlay): every covered offset
+    /// has a value for every field.
+    Shared(Arc<RoaringBitmap>),
+    /// One bitmap per field, in the same order as the overlay's
+    /// `data_file.fields` (a sparse overlay): different fields may cover
+    /// different offset sets.
+    PerField(Vec<Arc<RoaringBitmap>>),
+}
+
+/// Serialized form of [`OverlayCoverage`] — each bitmap as its 32-bit Roaring
+/// byte encoding. The in-memory form parses these once at load.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+enum OverlayCoverageBytes {
+    Shared(Vec<u8>),
+    PerField(Vec<Vec<u8>>),
+}
+
+// The bytes come from a persisted overlay (the protobuf manifest or a
+// serialized fragment), so a decode failure is on-disk corruption, not caller
+// input. `path` locates the overlay's data file when known (empty on the serde
+// path, which deserializes coverage in isolation).
+fn deserialize_roaring(bytes: &[u8], path: &Path) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+    RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(bytes).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::corrupt_file(
+            path.clone(),
+            format!("failed to deserialize overlay coverage bitmap: {e}"),
+        )
+    })
+}
+
+fn serialize_roaring(bitmap: &RoaringBitmap) -> Vec<u8> {
+    let mut bitmap = bitmap.clone();
+    bitmap.optimize();
+    let mut bytes = Vec::with_capacity(bitmap.serialized_size());
+    // Writing to a Vec is infallible.
+    bitmap.serialize_into(&mut bytes).unwrap();
+    bytes
+}
+
+impl From<OverlayCoverage> for OverlayCoverageBytes {
+    fn from(coverage: OverlayCoverage) -> Self {
+        match coverage {
+            OverlayCoverage::Shared(bitmap) => Self::Shared(serialize_roaring(&bitmap)),
+            OverlayCoverage::PerField(bitmaps) => {
+                Self::PerField(bitmaps.iter().map(|b| serialize_roaring(b)).collect())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<OverlayCoverageBytes> for OverlayCoverage {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(bytes: OverlayCoverageBytes) -> Result<Self> {
+        // Serde deserializes the coverage in isolation, so the owning data
+        // file's path is not available here.
+        let path = Path::default();
+        Ok(match bytes {
+            OverlayCoverageBytes::Shared(b) => {
+                Self::Shared(Arc::new(deserialize_roaring(&b, &path)?))
+            }
+            OverlayCoverageBytes::PerField(bs) => Self::PerField(
+                bs.iter()
+                    .map(|b| deserialize_roaring(b, &path).map(Arc::new))
+                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+            ),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for OverlayCoverage {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // The same `Arc<RoaringBitmap>` is shared across every clone of a
+        // fragment, so mark each Arc's pointer and count its heap only the first
+        // time it is seen — otherwise walking many fragments double-counts the
+        // shared bitmaps. RoaringBitmap does not expose its allocation size; its
+        // serialized size is a cheap, close proxy for the heap it holds.
+        let bitmap_heap = |bitmap: &Arc<RoaringBitmap>,
+                           context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context| {
+            if context.mark_seen(Arc::as_ptr(bitmap) as usize) {
+                std::mem::size_of::<RoaringBitmap>() + bitmap.serialized_size()
+            } else {
+                0
+            }
+        };
+        match self {
+            Self::Shared(bitmap) => bitmap_heap(bitmap, context),
+            Self::PerField(bitmaps) => {
+                bitmaps.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<Arc<RoaringBitmap>>()
+                    + bitmaps
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|b| bitmap_heap(b, context))
+                        .sum::<usize>()
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl OverlayCoverage {
+    /// Build a dense coverage from a single bitmap shared across every field.
+    pub fn dense(bitmap: RoaringBitmap) -> Self {
+        Self::Shared(Arc::new(bitmap))
+    }
+
+    /// Build a sparse coverage from one bitmap per field.
+    pub fn sparse(bitmaps: Vec<RoaringBitmap>) -> Self {
+        Self::PerField(bitmaps.into_iter().map(Arc::new).collect())
+    }
+}
+
+/// An overlay file supplies new values for a subset of `(physical offset, field)`
+/// cells within a fragment, without rewriting the fragment's base data files. See
+/// the [module documentation](self) for the coverage, rank, and versioning rules.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct DataOverlayFile {
+    /// The data file storing the overlay's new cell values.
+    pub data_file: DataFile,
+    /// Which cells this overlay provides values for.
+    pub coverage: OverlayCoverage,
+    /// The dataset version at which this overlay became effective (the version of
+    /// the commit that introduced it, stamped at commit time and re-stamped on
+    /// retry). Higher wins when two overlays cover the same `(offset, field)`.
+    pub committed_version: u64,
+}
+
+impl DataOverlayFile {
+    /// The parsed coverage bitmap that applies to the field stored at
+    /// `field_pos` within `data_file.fields`.
+    ///
+    /// For a dense overlay the same shared bitmap is returned for every field;
+    /// for a sparse overlay the per-field bitmap at `field_pos` is returned. The
+    /// bitmap is already parsed, so this is a cheap `Arc` clone.
+    pub fn coverage_for_field(&self, field_pos: usize) -> Result<Arc<RoaringBitmap>> {
+        match &self.coverage {
+            OverlayCoverage::Shared(bitmap) => Ok(bitmap.clone()),
+            OverlayCoverage::PerField(bitmaps) => {
+                bitmaps.get(field_pos).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "overlay per-field coverage has {} bitmaps but field position {} was requested",
+                        bitmaps.len(),
+                        field_pos
+                    ))
+                })
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Stable-sort a fragment's overlays newest-last by `committed_version`. The
+/// stable sort preserves list position as the tiebreak for equal versions, so
+/// resolution can rely on the ordering without re-checking. See the [module
+/// documentation](self) for the ordering invariant.
+pub fn sort_overlays_newest_last(overlays: &mut [DataOverlayFile]) {
+    overlays.sort_by_key(|overlay| overlay.committed_version);
+}
+
+/// Verify a fragment's overlays are stored newest-last (non-decreasing
+/// `committed_version`), the ordering invariant readers rely on for
+/// resolution. Returns an error identifying the first out-of-order pair.
+///
+/// [`sort_overlays_newest_last`] normalizes on load; this is the write-side
+/// guard that rejects any commit path that assembled overlays out of order. See
+/// the [module documentation](self) for the ordering invariant.
+pub fn verify_overlays_newest_last(overlays: &[DataOverlayFile]) -> Result<()> {
+    for pair in overlays.windows(2) {
+        if pair[0].committed_version > pair[1].committed_version {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "overlay files must be stored newest-last, but committed_version {} precedes {}",
+                pair[0].committed_version, pair[1].committed_version
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Tombstone `fields` across a fragment's `overlays`, dropping any overlay left
+/// with no live fields.
+///
+/// Called when new base values are written for those fields (a DataReplacement,
+/// or an in-place column rewrite): the stale overlay values must stop shadowing
+/// the fresh base. Each matching field id is replaced with [`TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID`]
+/// in place, preserving the overlay's remaining fields and its coverage positions
+/// (a per-field coverage bitmap stays aligned with `data_file.fields`). An overlay
+/// whose fields are now all tombstoned is removed entirely. See the [module
+/// documentation](self) for the tombstone invariant.
+pub fn tombstone_overlay_fields(overlays: &mut Vec<DataOverlayFile>, fields: &[u32]) {
+    for overlay in overlays.iter_mut() {
+        let tombstoned: Vec<i32> = overlay
+            .data_file
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&field| {
+                if field >= 0 && fields.contains(&(field as u32)) {
+                    TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID
+                } else {
+                    field
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        overlay.data_file.fields = tombstoned.into();
+    }
+    overlays.retain(|overlay| {
+        overlay
+            .data_file
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .any(|&field| field != TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID)
+    });
+}
+
+impl From<&DataOverlayFile> for pb::DataOverlayFile {
+    fn from(overlay: &DataOverlayFile) -> Self {
+        let coverage = match &overlay.coverage {
+            OverlayCoverage::Shared(bitmap) => {
+                pb::data_overlay_file::Coverage::SharedOffsetBitmap(serialize_roaring(bitmap))
+            }
+            OverlayCoverage::PerField(bitmaps) => {
+                pb::data_overlay_file::Coverage::FieldCoverage(pb::FieldCoverage {
+                    offset_bitmaps: bitmaps.iter().map(|b| serialize_roaring(b)).collect(),
+                })
+            }
+        };
+        Self {
+            data_file: Some(pb::DataFile::from(&overlay.data_file)),
+            coverage: Some(coverage),
+            committed_version: overlay.committed_version,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::DataOverlayFile> for DataOverlayFile {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(proto: pb::DataOverlayFile) -> Result<Self> {
+        let data_file = proto
+            .data_file
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("DataOverlayFile is missing its data_file"))?;
+        let path = Path::from(data_file.path.as_str());
+        let coverage = match proto.coverage {
+            Some(pb::data_overlay_file::Coverage::SharedOffsetBitmap(bytes)) => {
+                OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(deserialize_roaring(&bytes, &path)?))
+            }
+            Some(pb::data_overlay_file::Coverage::FieldCoverage(fc)) => OverlayCoverage::PerField(
+                fc.offset_bitmaps
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|b| deserialize_roaring(b, &path).map(Arc::new))
+                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+            ),
+            None => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "DataOverlayFile is missing its coverage",
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Self {
+            data_file: DataFile::try_from(data_file)?,
+            coverage,
+            committed_version: proto.committed_version,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_missing_fields_error() {
+        // A DataOverlayFile proto missing its coverage or data_file is rejected.
+        let no_coverage = pb::DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: Some(pb::DataFile::from(&DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields(
+                "overlay.lance",
+                vec![3],
+                None,
+            ))),
+            coverage: None,
+            committed_version: 1,
+        };
+        let err = DataOverlayFile::try_from(no_coverage).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("missing its coverage"), "{err}");
+
+        let no_data_file = pb::DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: None,
+            coverage: Some(pb::data_overlay_file::Coverage::SharedOffsetBitmap(
+                serialize_roaring(&RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+            )),
+            committed_version: 1,
+        };
+        let err = DataOverlayFile::try_from(no_data_file).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("missing its data_file"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_coverage_bitmap_serialized_run_optimized() {
+        let bitmap = RoaringBitmap::from_sorted_iter(0..1_000_000).unwrap();
+        let unoptimized_size = bitmap.serialized_size();
+
+        let overlay = DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay.lance", vec![3], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap.clone()),
+            committed_version: 1,
+        };
+
+        let proto = pb::DataOverlayFile::from(&overlay);
+        let Some(pb::data_overlay_file::Coverage::SharedOffsetBitmap(bytes)) = &proto.coverage
+        else {
+            panic!("dense coverage must serialize as a shared offset bitmap");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            bytes.len() < unoptimized_size / 100,
+            "expected run-optimized coverage ({} bytes) to be <1% of the \
+             unoptimized serialization ({} bytes)",
+            bytes.len(),
+            unoptimized_size
+        );
+
+        let recovered = DataOverlayFile::try_from(proto).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(recovered.coverage, OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_overlay_coverage_serde_json_roundtrip() {
+        // The custom serde impl round-trips through JSON for dense/sparse,
+        // including empty bitmaps and a zero-bitmap sparse coverage.
+        for coverage in [
+            OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32, 5, 100])),
+            OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::new()),
+            OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 3]),
+                RoaringBitmap::new(),
+            ]),
+            OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![]),
+        ] {
+            let json = serde_json::to_string(&coverage).unwrap();
+            let back: OverlayCoverage = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(back, coverage);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tombstone_overlay_fields() {
+        // An overlay covering fields [3, 5]: replacing field 5 tombstones just
+        // field 5's slot and keeps field 3. An overlay covering only field 5 is
+        // dropped entirely. An overlay touching no replaced field is untouched.
+        let mut overlays = vec![
+            DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("a.lance", vec![3, 5], None),
+                coverage: OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![
+                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]),
+                ]),
+                committed_version: 1,
+            },
+            DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("b.lance", vec![5], None),
+                coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                committed_version: 1,
+            },
+            DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("c.lance", vec![7], None),
+                coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                committed_version: 1,
+            },
+        ];
+
+        tombstone_overlay_fields(&mut overlays, &[5]);
+
+        // The single-field overlay on field 5 is gone; the others remain.
+        assert_eq!(overlays.len(), 2);
+        // Field 3 preserved, field 5 tombstoned in place (coverage stays aligned).
+        assert_eq!(
+            overlays[0].data_file.fields.as_ref(),
+            &[3, TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID]
+        );
+        // The untouched overlay keeps its field.
+        assert_eq!(overlays[1].data_file.fields.as_ref(), &[7]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_verify_overlays_newest_last() {
+        let mk = |version: u64| DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("o.lance", vec![3], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+            committed_version: version,
+        };
+        // Non-decreasing (including equal versions) is accepted.
+        assert!(verify_overlays_newest_last(&[]).is_ok());
+        assert!(verify_overlays_newest_last(&[mk(1), mk(2), mk(2), mk(5)]).is_ok());
+        // A newer version before an older one is rejected.
+        let err = verify_overlays_newest_last(&[mk(2), mk(1)]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("newest-last"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_coverage_for_field_out_of_bounds() {
+        let overlay = DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("o.lance", vec![2, 4], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32]),
+            ]),
+            committed_version: 1,
+        };
+        assert!(overlay.coverage_for_field(0).is_ok());
+        assert!(overlay.coverage_for_field(1).is_ok());
+        let err = overlay.coverage_for_field(5).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("field position"), "{err}");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/format/overlay/staleness.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/format/overlay/staleness.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a6eebe61254
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/format/overlay/staleness.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,415 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Which rows an overlay makes stale with respect to an index.
+//!
+//! An overlay supplies replacement values for some `(row, field)` cells without
+//! rewriting the base data. An index built before that overlay was committed still
+//! reflects the old values, so those rows must be excluded from the index's results
+//! and re-evaluated against current values on the flat path.
+//!
+//! Deciding which rows are affected needs only fragment and index metadata — the
+//! overlay coverage bitmaps, the overlay `committed_version`, and the indexed field
+//! ids — so it lives here rather than in the read path that consumes it.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+use crate::format::overlay::DataOverlayFile;
+use crate::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata};
+
+/// The physical offsets within a fragment whose value for an indexed field may be
+/// stale relative to an index built at `index_version`, and so must be excluded
+/// from that index's results and re-evaluated against current values on the flat
+/// path.
+///
+/// The set is the union, over every overlay whose `committed_version` is newer
+/// than `index_version`, of that overlay's coverage **restricted to the indexed
+/// fields**. The restriction makes exclusion field-aware: an overlay that touches
+/// only non-indexed fields contributes nothing. An overlay whose
+/// `committed_version <= index_version` is already incorporated by the index and
+/// is ignored.
+pub fn overlay_exclusion_offsets(
+    overlays: &[DataOverlayFile],
+    indexed_field_ids: &[i32],
+    index_version: u64,
+    schema: &Schema,
+) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+    let mut excluded = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for overlay in overlays {
+        if overlay.committed_version <= index_version {
+            continue;
+        }
+        for (field_pos, field_id) in overlay.data_file.fields.iter().enumerate() {
+            let overlay_ancestry = schema.field_ancestry_by_id(*field_id);
+            let affects_index = indexed_field_ids.iter().any(|indexed_field_id| {
+                indexed_field_id == field_id
+                    || overlay_ancestry.as_ref().is_some_and(|ancestry| {
+                        ancestry
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|ancestor| ancestor.id == *indexed_field_id)
+                    })
+                    || schema
+                        .field_ancestry_by_id(*indexed_field_id)
+                        .is_some_and(|ancestry| {
+                            ancestry.iter().any(|ancestor| ancestor.id == *field_id)
+                        })
+            });
+            if affects_index {
+                excluded |= &*overlay.coverage_for_field(field_pos)?;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(excluded)
+}
+
+// Stale row offsets contributed by one fragment's overlays for a given index version.
+// Applies a cheap version gate first: if every overlay predates the segment it is already
+// incorporated by the index, so there is nothing stale and the field/bitmap work is skipped.
+fn stale_offsets_for_fragment(
+    fragment: &Fragment,
+    fields: &[i32],
+    index_version: u64,
+    schema: &Schema,
+) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+    if fragment
+        .overlays
+        .iter()
+        .all(|o| o.committed_version <= index_version)
+    {
+        return Ok(RoaringBitmap::new());
+    }
+    overlay_exclusion_offsets(&fragment.overlays, fields, index_version, schema)
+}
+
+// A missing `fragment_bitmap` means the index predates fragment-bitmap tracking; treat it as
+// covering every fragment (matching `lance::index::prefilter::DatasetPreFilter::new`) so
+// overlay-stale rows can't slip through unmasked. Only skip fragments explicitly absent from a
+// present bitmap.
+fn covers_fragment(coverage: Option<&RoaringBitmap>, frag_id: u32) -> bool {
+    coverage.is_none_or(|c| c.contains(frag_id))
+}
+
+/// Index by fragment id the fragments that carry at least one overlay. Overlays are rare, so
+/// this is empty on the common path, letting callers skip index loading entirely; when non-empty
+/// it bounds the stale-collection loops to `O(overlaid fragments)`.
+pub fn overlaid_fragments(fragments: &[Fragment]) -> HashMap<u32, &Fragment> {
+    fragments
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| !f.overlays.is_empty())
+        .map(|f| (f.id as u32, f))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Insert into `stale` the ids of fragments covered by `segment` whose index entries may be
+/// stale because an overlay committed after the segment was built touches a field the segment
+/// indexes. Field-aware and version-gated via [`overlay_exclusion_offsets`].
+///
+/// `overlaid_frags` holds only the fragments that actually carry overlays (rare), so the loop is
+/// `O(overlaid_frags)` rather than `O(fragments the segment covers)`.
+pub fn collect_overlay_stale_frags(
+    segment: &IndexMetadata,
+    overlaid_frags: &HashMap<u32, &Fragment>,
+    stale: &mut RoaringBitmap,
+    schema: &Schema,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let coverage = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+    for (&frag_id, fragment) in overlaid_frags {
+        if stale.contains(frag_id) || !covers_fragment(coverage, frag_id) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if !stale_offsets_for_fragment(fragment, &segment.fields, segment.dataset_version, schema)?
+            .is_empty()
+        {
+            stale.insert(frag_id);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Like [`collect_overlay_stale_frags`] but with row-level granularity: instead of marking the
+/// whole fragment stale, it computes exactly which row offsets within each covered fragment are
+/// stale and accumulates them into `stale` (fragment_id → stale row offsets).
+///
+/// Used by the scalar and vector paths to block only the affected rows from index results and
+/// re-evaluate only those rows on the flat path, keeping overhead proportional to the number of
+/// overlaid rows rather than the whole fragment size.
+pub fn collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment(
+    segment: &IndexMetadata,
+    overlaid_frags: &HashMap<u32, &Fragment>,
+    stale: &mut HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+    schema: &Schema,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let coverage = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+    for (&frag_id, fragment) in overlaid_frags {
+        if !covers_fragment(coverage, frag_id) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let excluded =
+            stale_offsets_for_fragment(fragment, &segment.fields, segment.dataset_version, schema)?;
+        if !excluded.is_empty() {
+            *stale.entry(frag_id).or_default() |= &excluded;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::format::DataFile;
+    use crate::format::overlay::OverlayCoverage;
+
+    fn bitmap(offsets: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter(offsets)
+    }
+
+    fn flat_test_schema() -> Schema {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+
+        let mut schema = Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(
+            (0..5)
+                .map(|id| ArrowField::new(format!("field_{id}"), DataType::Int32, true))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        schema.set_field_id(None);
+        schema
+    }
+
+    /// `outer: struct<middle: struct<a: i32, b: i32>>`, for the ancestry checks.
+    fn nested_struct_schema() -> Schema {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+
+        let mid = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        let outer_fields =
+            Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("middle", DataType::Struct(mid), true)]);
+        let mut schema = Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "outer",
+            DataType::Struct(outer_fields),
+            true,
+        )]))
+        .unwrap();
+        schema.set_field_id(None);
+        schema
+    }
+
+    /// A dense overlay covering `offsets` for `field_ids`, committed at `version`.
+    fn dense_overlay(
+        field_ids: Vec<i32>,
+        offsets: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>,
+        version: u64,
+    ) -> DataOverlayFile {
+        DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("o.lance", field_ids, None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap(offsets)),
+            committed_version: version,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_exclusion_offsets_version_gate() {
+        let schema = flat_test_schema();
+        // index built at version 5; only overlays committed > 5 are excluded.
+        let overlays = vec![
+            dense_overlay(vec![3], [0, 1], 4),
+            dense_overlay(vec![3], [2, 7], 6),
+        ];
+        let excluded = overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[3], 5, &schema).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(excluded, bitmap([2, 7]));
+        // An overlay exactly at the index version is already incorporated.
+        let overlays = vec![dense_overlay(vec![3], [9], 5)];
+        assert!(
+            overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[3], 5, &schema)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_exclusion_offsets_is_field_aware() {
+        let schema = flat_test_schema();
+        // An overlay touching only an unrelated field excludes nothing.
+        let overlays = vec![dense_overlay(vec![2], [0, 1, 2], 9)];
+        assert!(
+            overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[3], 1, &schema)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        // The union spans only the indexed fields the overlay actually carries.
+        let overlays = vec![dense_overlay(vec![2, 3], [4], 9)];
+        assert_eq!(
+            overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[3], 1, &schema).unwrap(),
+            bitmap([4])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_exclusion_offsets_matches_nested_fields() {
+        let schema = nested_struct_schema();
+        let outer = &schema.fields[0];
+        let middle = &outer.children[0];
+        let a = &middle.children[0];
+        let b = &middle.children[1];
+
+        let overlays = vec![dense_overlay(vec![a.id], [1], 9)];
+        assert_eq!(
+            overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[outer.id], 1, &schema).unwrap(),
+            bitmap([1])
+        );
+        assert!(
+            overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[b.id], 1, &schema)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        let overlays = vec![dense_overlay(vec![middle.id], [2], 9)];
+        assert_eq!(
+            overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[a.id], 1, &schema).unwrap(),
+            bitmap([2])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_exclusion_offsets_sparse_per_field() {
+        let schema = flat_test_schema();
+        // Sparse overlay: field 2 covers {2,3}, field 4 covers {1}.
+        let overlay = DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("o.lance", vec![2, 4], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![bitmap([2, 3]), bitmap([1])]),
+            committed_version: 9,
+        };
+        let overlays = vec![overlay];
+        // Only the bitmap for the indexed field (4) contributes.
+        assert_eq!(
+            overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[4], 1, &schema).unwrap(),
+            bitmap([1])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[2], 1, &schema).unwrap(),
+            bitmap([2, 3])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_exclusion_offsets_unions_multiple_overlays() {
+        let schema = flat_test_schema();
+        let overlays = vec![
+            dense_overlay(vec![3], [1], 6),
+            dense_overlay(vec![3], [4, 5], 7),
+        ];
+        assert_eq!(
+            overlay_exclusion_offsets(&overlays, &[3], 1, &schema).unwrap(),
+            bitmap([1, 4, 5])
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An index segment covering `fields`, built at `dataset_version`, with the given
+    /// fragment coverage (`None` = legacy index predating fragment-bitmap tracking).
+    fn segment(
+        fields: Vec<i32>,
+        dataset_version: u64,
+        fragment_bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+    ) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "idx".into(),
+            fields,
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn fragment_with_overlay(id: u64, overlay: DataOverlayFile) -> Fragment {
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(id);
+        fragment.overlays.push(overlay);
+        fragment
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_frags_missing_bitmap_covers_all() {
+        let schema = flat_test_schema();
+        // A segment with no fragment_bitmap (legacy index predating bitmap tracking) must treat
+        // every overlaid fragment as covered so stale rows can't leak past the index unmasked.
+        let fragment = fragment_with_overlay(3, dense_overlay(vec![3], [1, 2], 9));
+        let overlaid: HashMap<u32, &Fragment> = HashMap::from([(3u32, &fragment)]);
+
+        let mut stale = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        collect_overlay_stale_frags(&segment(vec![3], 1, None), &overlaid, &mut stale, &schema)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stale, bitmap([3]), "missing bitmap must cover fragment 3");
+
+        // A present bitmap that excludes fragment 3 leaves it untouched.
+        let mut stale = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        collect_overlay_stale_frags(
+            &segment(vec![3], 1, Some(bitmap([0]))),
+            &overlaid,
+            &mut stale,
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stale.is_empty(),
+            "fragment absent from bitmap is not covered"
+        );
+
+        // A present bitmap that includes fragment 3 marks it stale.
+        let mut stale = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        collect_overlay_stale_frags(
+            &segment(vec![3], 1, Some(bitmap([3]))),
+            &overlaid,
+            &mut stale,
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stale, bitmap([3]));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_rows_missing_bitmap_covers_all() {
+        let schema = flat_test_schema();
+        // Same covers-all guarantee at row-level granularity.
+        let fragment = fragment_with_overlay(3, dense_overlay(vec![3], [1, 2], 9));
+        let overlaid: HashMap<u32, &Fragment> = HashMap::from([(3u32, &fragment)]);
+
+        let mut stale = HashMap::new();
+        collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment(
+            &segment(vec![3], 1, None),
+            &overlaid,
+            &mut stale,
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stale.get(&3),
+            Some(&bitmap([1, 2])),
+            "missing bitmap must cover fragment 3"
+        );
+
+        // A present bitmap that excludes fragment 3 yields no stale rows.
+        let mut stale = HashMap::new();
+        collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment(
+            &segment(vec![3], 1, Some(bitmap([0]))),
+            &overlaid,
+            &mut stale,
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stale.is_empty(),
+            "fragment absent from bitmap contributes no rows"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/format/row_ids.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/format/row_ids.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1b749643f02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/format/row_ids.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,244 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::ops::Deref;
+use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Deserializer, Serialize, Serializer};
+
+use super::pb;
+
+pub use lance_core::{
+    ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+};
+
+/// A reference to a part of a file, used by the fragment reuse index details.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct ExternalFile {
+    pub path: String,
+    pub offset: u64,
+    pub size: u64,
+}
+
+/// A fragment's row id sequence, encoded inline in the manifest.
+///
+/// Carries a memoized [`digest`](Self::digest) of the encoded bytes. The digest
+/// identifies *which* sequence these bytes are, which is what the row id
+/// sequence cache keys on: a fragment id alone does not identify a sequence,
+/// because fragment ids are reused across dataset generations.
+///
+/// The digest is memoized because computing it is proportional to the encoded
+/// size. A run-encoded sequence is a handful of bytes per run, but a heavily
+/// fragmented one is array-encoded at 8 bytes per row, and the cache is
+/// consulted on every scan, count, prefilter and index load.
+///
+/// Bytes and memo share one immutable allocation, so cloning shares both. That
+/// is what makes the memo worth having: callers clone `Fragment` before loading
+/// its sequence (see `count_from_mask`), and a memo held per clone would be
+/// filled and dropped by each scan, rehashing the whole sequence every time.
+/// Sharing also keeps a cloned fragment from duplicating the encoded bytes.
+///
+/// The digest lives *with* the bytes rather than beside them so the two cannot
+/// drift: several write paths replace a fragment's `row_id_meta` after the
+/// fragment is built, and a digest that outlived its bytes would silently
+/// resolve to another generation's sequence.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct InlineRowIds {
+    inner: Arc<InlineRowIdsInner>,
+}
+
+struct InlineRowIdsInner {
+    /// `Bytes` rather than `Vec<u8>`: when the manifest is decoded from the
+    /// fetched buffer this is a slice of that buffer, not a copy of it.
+    data: Bytes,
+    digest: OnceLock<[u8; 32]>,
+}
+
+impl InlineRowIds {
+    /// Digest of the encoded bytes, computed on first use and shared by clones.
+    pub fn digest(&self) -> &[u8; 32] {
+        self.inner
+            .digest
+            .get_or_init(|| blake3::hash(&self.inner.data).into())
+    }
+
+    /// The encoded bytes, sharing the underlying allocation.
+    pub fn bytes(&self) -> &Bytes {
+        &self.inner.data
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<Bytes> for InlineRowIds {
+    fn from(data: Bytes) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(InlineRowIdsInner {
+                data,
+                digest: OnceLock::new(),
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<Vec<u8>> for InlineRowIds {
+    fn from(data: Vec<u8>) -> Self {
+        Self::from(Bytes::from(data))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Deref for InlineRowIds {
+    type Target = [u8];
+
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        &self.inner.data
+    }
+}
+
+// Debug, equality and serialization all present the bytes alone: the memo is a
+// derived value and must not show up in output, comparisons or the manifest.
+impl std::fmt::Debug for InlineRowIds {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        self.inner.data.fmt(f)
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for InlineRowIds {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        Arc::ptr_eq(&self.inner, &other.inner) || self.inner.data == other.inner.data
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for InlineRowIds {}
+
+impl Serialize for InlineRowIds {
+    fn serialize<S: Serializer>(&self, serializer: S) -> std::result::Result<S::Ok, S::Error> {
+        self.inner.data.serialize(serializer)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for InlineRowIds {
+    fn deserialize<D: Deserializer<'de>>(deserializer: D) -> std::result::Result<Self, D::Error> {
+        Vec::<u8>::deserialize(deserializer).map(Self::from)
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for InlineRowIds {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        // Delegate to the `Arc` so clones sharing one allocation are counted once.
+        self.inner.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for InlineRowIdsInner {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.data.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Metadata about location of the row id sequence.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub enum RowIdMeta {
+    Inline(InlineRowIds),
+    /// The sequence is spilled to a hidden [`ROW_ID_FIELD_ID`] column of one of
+    /// the fragment's data files, one row id per physical row, in offset order.
+    /// The file is the entry of [`Fragment::files`](super::Fragment::files)
+    /// whose fields carry that id; see
+    /// [`Fragment::row_lineage_file`](super::Fragment::row_lineage_file).
+    ///
+    /// An ordinary column rather than an opaque byte range: it carries the
+    /// file's encodings and page layout, so it can be read back a page at a
+    /// time instead of whole.
+    Column,
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence> for RowIdMeta {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value {
+            pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence::InlineRowIds(data) => Ok(Self::Inline(data.into())),
+            pb::data_fragment::RowIdSequence::ColumnRowIds(_) => Ok(Self::Column),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::format::Fragment;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn inline_row_ids_digest_identifies_contents() {
+        let first = InlineRowIds::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let same = InlineRowIds::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let other = InlineRowIds::from(vec![1, 2, 4]);
+
+        // The digest is what the row id sequence cache keys on, so it must
+        // follow the bytes exactly: same bytes, same key; any change, new key.
+        assert_eq!(first.digest(), same.digest());
+        assert_ne!(first.digest(), other.digest());
+        assert_eq!(first, same);
+        assert_ne!(first, other);
+
+        // Memoized on first use, so repeat use must return the same digest.
+        let memoized = *first.digest();
+        assert_eq!(first.digest(), &memoized);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn inline_row_ids_clones_share_bytes_and_memo() {
+        let first = InlineRowIds::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let cloned = first.clone();
+
+        // Callers clone `Fragment` before loading its row id sequence, so a memo
+        // held per clone would be filled and dropped by each scan and rehash the
+        // whole sequence every time. Sharing one allocation is what makes the
+        // memo pay off, and it keeps clones from duplicating the bytes.
+        assert!(std::ptr::eq(first.as_ptr(), cloned.as_ptr()));
+        assert!(std::ptr::eq(first.digest(), cloned.digest()));
+
+        // Guard against the assertions above passing vacuously: only clones
+        // share storage, equal bytes built separately do not.
+        let separate = InlineRowIds::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(first, separate);
+        assert!(!std::ptr::eq(first.as_ptr(), separate.as_ptr()));
+
+        // Computing through one clone must be visible from the other.
+        let fresh = InlineRowIds::from(vec![4, 5, 6]);
+        let fresh_clone = fresh.clone();
+        let via_clone = *fresh_clone.digest();
+        assert_eq!(fresh.digest(), &via_clone);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn inline_row_ids_from_bytes_shares_the_allocation() {
+        let buffer = Bytes::from((0..64u8).collect::<Vec<u8>>());
+        let slice = buffer.slice(16..48);
+        let inline = InlineRowIds::from(slice.clone());
+        assert_eq!(&*inline, &buffer[16..48]);
+        assert_eq!(inline.bytes().as_ptr(), slice.as_ptr());
+        // The bytes are charged by length, whatever buffer they slice.
+        let shorter = InlineRowIds::from(buffer.slice(0..8));
+        assert_eq!(inline.deep_size_of() - shorter.deep_size_of(), 32 - 8);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn inline_row_ids_serializes_as_bare_bytes() {
+        // The manifest is a stable format: the memo must not reach the wire.
+        let meta = RowIdMeta::Inline(InlineRowIds::from(vec![7, 8, 9]));
+        let json = serde_json::to_string(&meta).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(json, r#"{"Inline":[7,8,9]}"#);
+        assert_eq!(serde_json::from_str::<RowIdMeta>(&json).unwrap(), meta);
+
+        // ...and round-trips through protobuf unchanged.
+        let fragment = Fragment {
+            row_id_meta: Some(meta.clone()),
+            ..Fragment::new(0)
+        };
+        let restored = Fragment::try_from(pb::DataFragment::from(&fragment)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(restored.row_id_meta, Some(meta));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/format/transaction.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/format/transaction.rs
index e9d0bf42129..ad28f9e169c 100755
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/format/transaction.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/format/transaction.rs
@@ -26,6 +26,46 @@ impl Transaction {
     pub fn as_pb(&self) -> &pb::Transaction {
         &self.inner
     }
+
+    /// Whether this transaction can change the schema, and so can introduce or
+    /// worsen an invalid primary key.
+    ///
+    /// The rest leave the key exactly as they found it, so a table that already
+    /// carries an invalid one stays writable through them -- including the
+    /// deletes needed to repair it. An unrecognized operation counts as
+    /// schema-changing: an unknown write is not a safe one to exempt.
+    pub fn may_change_schema(&self) -> bool {
+        operation_may_change_schema(&self.inner)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The same classification for a protobuf that has not been wrapped yet.
+///
+/// The commit path has to classify the operation before it knows whether the
+/// encoded bytes are small enough to inline into the manifest. Reading the
+/// disposition off the inline copy instead would tie it to the payload size,
+/// so the identical operation would be classified one way under the inline
+/// limit and the other way above it.
+pub fn operation_may_change_schema(transaction: &pb::Transaction) -> bool {
+    use pb::transaction::Operation;
+    match transaction.operation.as_ref() {
+        Some(Operation::UpdateConfig(update)) => {
+            !update.field_metadata_updates.is_empty() || !update.field_metadata.is_empty()
+        }
+        Some(
+            Operation::Append(_)
+            | Operation::Delete(_)
+            | Operation::CreateIndex(_)
+            | Operation::Rewrite(_)
+            | Operation::DataReplacement(_)
+            | Operation::ReserveFragments(_)
+            | Operation::Update(_)
+            | Operation::UpdateMemWalState(_)
+            | Operation::UpdateBases(_)
+            | Operation::DataOverlay(_),
+        ) => false,
+        _ => true,
+    }
 }
 
 /// Write-boundary conversion: serialize using protobuf at the last step.
@@ -40,3 +80,84 @@ impl From<pb::Transaction> for Transaction {
         Self { inner: pb_tx }
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use prost::Message;
+
+    /// The classification that must never depend on payload size. A MemWAL
+    /// table's transactions carry mem-table state and routinely outgrow the
+    /// inline limit, so an exempt operation has to stay exempt while large --
+    /// otherwise the deletes that repair an invalid key are blocked on exactly
+    /// the tables most likely to have one.
+    #[test]
+    fn an_exempt_operation_is_classified_the_same_at_any_size() {
+        let small = pb::Transaction {
+            operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Delete(
+                pb::transaction::Delete::default(),
+            )),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut large = small.clone();
+        large.tag = "x".repeat(4 * 1024 * 1024);
+
+        assert!(large.encoded_len() > small.encoded_len() * 100);
+        assert!(!operation_may_change_schema(&small));
+        assert!(!operation_may_change_schema(&large));
+    }
+
+    /// An overlay attaches files to existing fragments and supplies new cell
+    /// values; it carries no schema. Omitting it left a legacy nullable-key
+    /// dataset unable to commit one, which is the upgrade path this exemption
+    /// exists to keep open.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_data_overlay_is_exempt() {
+        let overlay = pb::Transaction {
+            operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::DataOverlay(
+                pb::transaction::DataOverlay::default(),
+            )),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(!operation_may_change_schema(&overlay));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn field_metadata_updates_change_schema() {
+        let mut update = pb::transaction::UpdateConfig {
+            config_updates: Some(pb::transaction::UpdateMap::default()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let config_only = pb::Transaction {
+            operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateConfig(update.clone())),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(!operation_may_change_schema(&config_only));
+
+        update
+            .field_metadata_updates
+            .insert(0, pb::transaction::UpdateMap::default());
+        let field_update = pb::Transaction {
+            operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateConfig(update)),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(operation_may_change_schema(&field_update));
+    }
+
+    /// And the converse, so the exemption cannot silently widen to everything.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_schema_carrying_operation_is_never_exempt() {
+        let overwrite = pb::Transaction {
+            operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Overwrite(
+                pb::transaction::Overwrite::default(),
+            )),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(operation_may_change_schema(&overwrite));
+
+        // An operation this build does not recognise must not be exempt
+        // either: an unknown write is not a safe one to skip.
+        let unknown = pb::Transaction::default();
+        assert!(operation_may_change_schema(&unknown));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit.rs
index bf18cce4907..6bf4c76fecc 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit.rs
@@ -24,24 +24,24 @@
 
 use std::io;
 use std::pin::Pin;
-use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
 use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
 use std::{fmt::Debug, fs::DirEntry};
 
 use super::manifest::write_manifest;
-use futures::future::Either;
 use futures::Stream;
+use futures::future::Either;
 use futures::{
+    StreamExt, TryStreamExt,
     future::{self, BoxFuture},
     stream::BoxStream,
-    StreamExt, TryStreamExt,
 };
 use lance_file::format::{MAGIC, MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION};
-use lance_io::object_writer::{ObjectWriter, WriteResult};
+use lance_io::object_writer::{ObjectWriter, WriteResult, get_etag};
 use log::warn;
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt as OSObjectStoreExt;
 use object_store::PutOptions;
-use object_store::{path::Path, Error as ObjectStoreError, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore};
-use snafu::location;
+use object_store::{Error as ObjectStoreError, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, path::Path};
 use tracing::info;
 use url::Url;
 
@@ -51,16 +51,16 @@ pub mod external_manifest;
 
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreExt, ObjectStoreParams};
-use lance_io::traits::WriteExt;
+use lance_io::traits::{WriteExt, Writer};
 
-use crate::format::{is_detached_version, IndexMetadata, Manifest, Transaction};
+use crate::format::{IndexMetadata, Manifest, Transaction, is_detached_version};
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, TRACE_FILE_AUDIT};
 #[cfg(feature = "dynamodb")]
 use {
     self::external_manifest::{ExternalManifestCommitHandler, ExternalManifestStore},
-    aws_credential_types::provider::error::CredentialsError,
     aws_credential_types::provider::ProvideCredentials,
-    lance_io::object_store::{providers::aws::build_aws_credential, StorageOptions},
+    aws_credential_types::provider::error::CredentialsError,
+    lance_io::object_store::{StorageOptions, providers::aws::build_aws_credential},
     object_store::aws::AmazonS3ConfigKey,
     object_store::aws::AwsCredentialProvider,
     std::borrow::Cow,
@@ -70,6 +70,13 @@ use {
 pub const VERSIONS_DIR: &str = "_versions";
 const MANIFEST_EXTENSION: &str = "manifest";
 const DETACHED_VERSION_PREFIX: &str = "d";
+/// File name for the JSON version hint file, stored under `_versions/`.
+///
+/// The file contains `{"version":N}` where `N` is the latest committed version
+/// at the time of writing. It enables O(1)/O(k) latest-version lookup via HEAD
+/// requests on object stores where listing is not lexicographically ordered
+/// (e.g. S3 Express, local filesystem) instead of an O(n) listing.
+const VERSION_HINT_FILE: &str = "latest_version_hint.json";
 
 /// How manifest files should be named.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
@@ -84,22 +91,21 @@ pub enum ManifestNamingScheme {
 
 impl ManifestNamingScheme {
     pub fn manifest_path(&self, base: &Path, version: u64) -> Path {
-        let directory = base.child(VERSIONS_DIR);
         if is_detached_version(version) {
             // Detached versions should never show up first in a list operation which
             // means it needs to come lexicographically after all attached manifest
             // files and so we add the prefix `d`.  There is no need to invert the
             // version number since detached versions are not part of the version
-            let directory = base.child(VERSIONS_DIR);
-            directory.child(format!(
+            base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR).join(format!(
                 "{DETACHED_VERSION_PREFIX}{version}.{MANIFEST_EXTENSION}"
             ))
         } else {
+            let directory = base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR);
             match self {
-                Self::V1 => directory.child(format!("{version}.{MANIFEST_EXTENSION}")),
+                Self::V1 => directory.join(format!("{version}.{MANIFEST_EXTENSION}")),
                 Self::V2 => {
                     let inverted_version = u64::MAX - version;
-                    directory.child(format!("{inverted_version:020}.{MANIFEST_EXTENSION}"))
+                    directory.join(format!("{inverted_version:020}.{MANIFEST_EXTENSION}"))
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -116,6 +122,19 @@ impl ManifestNamingScheme {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Parse a detached version from a filename like `d123456.manifest`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the full version number with the detached mask bit set.
+    pub fn parse_detached_version(filename: &str) -> Option<u64> {
+        if !filename.starts_with(DETACHED_VERSION_PREFIX) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let without_prefix = &filename[DETACHED_VERSION_PREFIX.len()..];
+        without_prefix
+            .split_once('.')
+            .and_then(|(version_str, _)| version_str.parse::<u64>().ok())
+    }
+
     pub fn detect_scheme(filename: &str) -> Option<Self> {
         if filename.starts_with(DETACHED_VERSION_PREFIX) {
             // Currently, detached versions must imply V2
@@ -156,7 +175,7 @@ impl ManifestNamingScheme {
 pub async fn migrate_scheme_to_v2(object_store: &ObjectStore, dataset_base: &Path) -> Result<()> {
     object_store
         .inner
-        .list(Some(&dataset_base.child(VERSIONS_DIR)))
+        .list(Some(&dataset_base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR)))
         .try_filter(|res| {
             let res = if let Some(filename) = res.location.filename() {
                 ManifestNamingScheme::detect_scheme(filename) == Some(ManifestNamingScheme::V1)
@@ -204,7 +223,7 @@ pub fn write_manifest_file_to_path<'a>(
         object_writer
             .write_magics(pos, MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION, MAGIC)
             .await?;
-        let res = object_writer.shutdown().await?;
+        let res = Writer::shutdown(&mut object_writer).await?;
         info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, path = path.to_string());
         Ok(res)
     })
@@ -220,58 +239,353 @@ pub struct ManifestLocation {
     pub size: Option<u64>,
     /// Naming scheme of the manifest file.
     pub naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
-    /// Optional e-tag, used for integrity checks. Manifests should be immutable, so
-    /// if we detect a change in the e-tag, it means the manifest was tampered with.
-    /// This might happen if the dataset was deleted and then re-created.
+    /// Optional opaque object generation token observed at `path`.
+    ///
+    /// An ETag is not necessarily a content checksum and may change when an
+    /// object is rewritten with identical bytes. In particular, S3 Express
+    /// returns an object-specific opaque value. Callers must not treat it as a
+    /// content checksum, logical manifest identity, or dataset-incarnation
+    /// identity. The generic
+    /// [`ExternalManifestStore`](crate::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestStore)
+    /// workflow therefore neither persists nor validates it: COPY and external
+    /// index publication are not atomic, so an otherwise correct equivalent
+    /// materialization can make a stored token stale before it is published.
+    ///
+    /// When present, the token still distinguishes the physical object
+    /// generation observed by this caller and can prevent reuse of an older
+    /// cached Dataset at the same URI and version. Conversely, `None` must not
+    /// be interpreted as proof that two observations belong to the same dataset
+    /// incarnation.
     pub e_tag: Option<String>,
+    /// A token unique to this manifest record in the commit handler's store,
+    /// where it keeps one (`ExternalManifestStore::get_identity`). A dataset
+    /// recreated at the same version has a different one.
+    pub identity: Option<String>,
 }
 
 impl TryFrom<object_store::ObjectMeta> for ManifestLocation {
     type Error = Error;
 
     fn try_from(meta: object_store::ObjectMeta) -> Result<Self> {
-        let filename = meta.location.filename().ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-            message: "ObjectMeta location does not have a filename".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
+        let filename = meta.location.filename().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("ObjectMeta location does not have a filename".to_string())
         })?;
-        let scheme =
-            ManifestNamingScheme::detect_scheme(filename).ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Invalid manifest filename: '{}'", filename),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let scheme = ManifestNamingScheme::detect_scheme(filename)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal(format!("Invalid manifest filename: '{}'", filename)))?;
         let version = scheme
             .parse_version(filename)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Invalid manifest filename: '{}'", filename),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal(format!("Invalid manifest filename: '{}'", filename)))?;
         Ok(Self {
             version,
             path: meta.location,
             size: Some(meta.size),
             naming_scheme: scheme,
             e_tag: meta.e_tag,
+            identity: None,
         })
     }
 }
 
-/// Get the latest manifest path
+/// Get the latest manifest path.
+///
+/// - Local filesystem: a single directory read.
+/// - Stores where listing is not lexicographically ordered (e.g. S3 Express):
+///   the version hint (read the hint file, then probe higher versions with
+///   HEADs), falling back to a listing if the hint is missing or stale. A full
+///   listing on these stores is O(n) in the number of versions.
+/// - Lexicographically ordered stores (e.g. S3 Standard, GCS): the listing
+///   already resolves the latest version in roughly one request.
 async fn current_manifest_path(
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
     base: &Path,
 ) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
-    if object_store.is_local() {
+    if object_store.has_direct_local_paths() {
         if let Ok(Some(location)) = current_manifest_local(base) {
             return Ok(location);
         }
+    } else if uses_version_hint(object_store)
+        && let Some(location) = read_version_hint_and_probe(object_store, base).await
+    {
+        return Ok(location);
     }
 
-    let manifest_files = object_store.list(Some(base.child(VERSIONS_DIR)));
+    resolve_version_from_listing(object_store, base).await
+}
 
-    let mut valid_manifests = manifest_files.try_filter_map(|res| {
-        if let Some(scheme) = ManifestNamingScheme::detect_scheme(res.location.filename().unwrap())
+/// JSON body of the version hint file: `{"version":N}`.
+#[derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize)]
+struct VersionHint {
+    version: u64,
+}
+
+/// Set `LANCE_USE_VERSION_HINT=0` (or `false`) to globally disable the version
+/// hint — writers stop emitting the hint file and readers stop consulting it,
+/// falling back to plain listing. Intended as a benchmark/escape-hatch knob;
+/// the hint is on by default.
+const VERSION_HINT_ENV: &str = "LANCE_USE_VERSION_HINT";
+
+fn version_hint_globally_enabled() -> bool {
+    static ENABLED: std::sync::OnceLock<bool> = std::sync::OnceLock::new();
+    *ENABLED.get_or_init(|| match std::env::var(VERSION_HINT_ENV) {
+        Ok(v) => !matches!(
+            v.trim().to_ascii_lowercase().as_str(),
+            "0" | "false" | "off"
+        ),
+        Err(_) => true,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Whether this object store benefits from a version hint.
+///
+/// On stores where listing is lexicographically ordered (S3 Standard, GCS,
+/// Azure, ...) the latest version is already resolved in roughly one request,
+/// so the hint would only add a write per commit for nothing. We write (and
+/// read) it only on stores where listing is not lexicographically ordered —
+/// S3 Express and the local filesystem. Can be force-disabled with the
+/// `LANCE_USE_VERSION_HINT=0` environment variable.
+pub fn uses_version_hint(object_store: &ObjectStore) -> bool {
+    version_hint_globally_enabled() && !object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered
+}
+
+/// Path to the JSON version hint file for a dataset.
+fn version_hint_path(base: &Path) -> Path {
+    base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR).join(VERSION_HINT_FILE)
+}
+
+/// Write the version hint file after a successful commit.
+///
+/// The hint is stored as JSON: `{"version":N}`. This write is best-effort —
+/// failures are logged and ignored, since the hint only accelerates reads and
+/// never affects correctness (readers verify the hinted version and probe
+/// upward from there). It is a no-op for detached versions and for stores that
+/// do not benefit from a hint (see [`uses_version_hint`]).
+pub async fn write_version_hint(object_store: &ObjectStore, base: &Path, version: u64) {
+    if is_detached_version(version) || !uses_version_hint(object_store) {
+        return;
+    }
+    let hint_path = version_hint_path(base);
+    let content = serde_json::to_vec(&VersionHint { version }).expect("serialize version hint");
+    if let Err(e) = object_store.put(&hint_path, content.as_slice()).await {
+        warn!("Failed to write version hint file for version {version}: {e}");
+    }
+}
+
+/// Read the latest version from the hint file, or `None` if it does not exist
+/// or cannot be parsed.
+async fn read_version_from_hint(object_store: &ObjectStore, base: &Path) -> Option<u64> {
+    let bytes = object_store
+        .inner
+        .get(&version_hint_path(base))
+        .await
+        .ok()?
+        .bytes()
+        .await
+        .ok()?;
+    Some(serde_json::from_slice::<VersionHint>(&bytes).ok()?.version)
+}
+
+/// Read the version hint and probe upward to find the true latest manifest.
+///
+/// Returns `None` if the hint file is missing, the hinted version no longer
+/// exists, or any error occurred — callers should fall back to listing.
+async fn read_version_hint_and_probe(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    base: &Path,
+) -> Option<ManifestLocation> {
+    let hint_version = read_version_from_hint(object_store, base).await?;
+    let (version, scheme, mut probed) = probe_versions_upward(object_store, base, hint_version)
+        .await
+        .ok()
+        .flatten()?;
+    // `probed` is non-empty and its last entry is the highest version found.
+    let (_, meta) = probed.pop()?;
+    Some(ManifestLocation {
+        version,
+        path: scheme.manifest_path(base, version),
+        size: Some(meta.size),
+        naming_scheme: scheme,
+        e_tag: meta.e_tag,
+        identity: None,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Maximum version gap between the hint and the read version for which we use
+/// the hint-based parallel-HEAD path; beyond this a single (paginated) listing
+/// is cheaper, so callers fall back to it.
+const MAX_HINT_PROBE_GAP: u64 = 1000;
+
+/// Probe `from_version`, then `from_version + 1`, `+ 2`, ... with HEAD requests
+/// until one is not found.
+///
+/// Assumes attached versions are contiguous above `from_version` (true in
+/// practice: every commit increments by one, and cleanup only removes *old*
+/// versions, never ones newer than the latest). A `NotFound` therefore marks
+/// the end of the history.
+///
+/// - `Ok(Some((true_latest_version, naming_scheme, [(version, meta), ...])))`:
+///   the vec covers every version from `from_version` through the true latest
+///   in ascending order.
+/// - `Ok(None)`: `from_version` itself does not exist (a `NotFound` for both
+///   naming schemes) — i.e. the hint pointed past the end.
+/// - `Err(_)`: a transient object-store error was hit, so the probed range may
+///   be incomplete; callers should fall back to a full listing rather than
+///   trust a possibly-stale result.
+async fn probe_versions_upward(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    base: &Path,
+    from_version: u64,
+) -> Result<
+    Option<(
+        u64,
+        ManifestNamingScheme,
+        Vec<(u64, object_store::ObjectMeta)>,
+    )>,
+> {
+    // Newer datasets use V2; fall back to V1 if the V2 path is not found.
+    let mut scheme = ManifestNamingScheme::V2;
+    let meta = match object_store
+        .inner
+        .head(&scheme.manifest_path(base, from_version))
+        .await
+    {
+        Ok(meta) => meta,
+        Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {
+            scheme = ManifestNamingScheme::V1;
+            match object_store
+                .inner
+                .head(&scheme.manifest_path(base, from_version))
+                .await
+            {
+                Ok(meta) => meta,
+                Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => return Ok(None),
+                Err(e) => return Err(e.into()),
+            }
+        }
+        Err(e) => return Err(e.into()),
+    };
+
+    let mut probed = vec![(from_version, meta)];
+    let mut version = from_version;
+    loop {
+        let next = version + 1;
+        match object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&scheme.manifest_path(base, next))
+            .await
         {
-            future::ready(Ok(Some((scheme, res))))
+            Ok(meta) => {
+                probed.push((next, meta));
+                version = next;
+            }
+            // NotFound means we found the latest version.
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => break,
+            // A transient error means a newer version might exist that we
+            // failed to observe — surface it so callers fall back to listing.
+            Err(e) => return Err(e.into()),
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(Some((version, scheme, probed)))
+}
+
+/// List manifest locations with version `> since_version` using the version
+/// hint, in descending order of version.
+///
+/// Returns `None` if the hint is missing or stale enough that this is not
+/// usable — callers should fall back to a full listing. `Some(vec![])` is the
+/// fast path where the hint confirms there are no new versions.
+async fn list_manifests_since_version_with_hint(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    base: &Path,
+    since_version: u64,
+) -> Option<Vec<ManifestLocation>> {
+    let hint_version = read_version_from_hint(object_store, base).await?;
+
+    // A reader that is very far behind is cheaper to serve with one paginated
+    // listing than with thousands of HEADs.
+    if hint_version.saturating_sub(since_version) > MAX_HINT_PROBE_GAP {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    // If the hint is not newer than the read version, the only versions that
+    // could exist are right above it; otherwise start at the hint.
+    let probe_from = if hint_version > since_version {
+        hint_version
+    } else {
+        since_version + 1
+    };
+
+    let (scheme, probed) = match probe_versions_upward(object_store, base, probe_from).await {
+        Ok(Some((_true_latest, scheme, probed))) => (scheme, probed),
+        // Nothing at `probe_from`. If we were probing from the hint, the hint
+        // is stale — bail to a full listing. If we were probing from
+        // `since_version + 1`, there are simply no new versions.
+        Ok(None) if hint_version > since_version => return None,
+        Ok(None) => return Some(Vec::new()),
+        // Transient error: don't trust the hint path, fall back to listing.
+        Err(_) => return None,
+    };
+
+    let mut locations: Vec<ManifestLocation> = probed
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|(v, _)| *v > since_version)
+        .map(|(version, meta)| ManifestLocation {
+            version,
+            path: scheme.manifest_path(base, version),
+            size: Some(meta.size),
+            naming_scheme: scheme,
+            e_tag: meta.e_tag,
+            identity: None,
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    // Fill the gap between `since_version` and the hint with HEADs (the probe
+    // above already covered `hint_version` and up). The range is contiguous, so
+    // any error here (including a `NotFound`) means we can't trust the hint path
+    // — fall back to a full listing.
+    if hint_version > since_version + 1 {
+        let gap_locations: Vec<ManifestLocation> =
+            futures::stream::iter((since_version + 1)..hint_version)
+                .map(|version| async move {
+                    object_store
+                        .inner
+                        .head(&scheme.manifest_path(base, version))
+                        .await
+                        .map(|meta| ManifestLocation {
+                            version,
+                            path: scheme.manifest_path(base, version),
+                            size: Some(meta.size),
+                            naming_scheme: scheme,
+                            e_tag: meta.e_tag,
+                            identity: None,
+                        })
+                })
+                .buffer_unordered(object_store.io_parallelism())
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .ok()?;
+        locations.extend(gap_locations);
+    }
+
+    locations.sort_by_key(|loc| std::cmp::Reverse(loc.version));
+    Some(locations)
+}
+
+/// Resolve the latest manifest by listing the versions directory.
+async fn resolve_version_from_listing(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    base: &Path,
+) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+    let manifest_files = object_store.list(Some(base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR)));
+
+    let mut valid_manifests = manifest_files.try_filter_map(|res| {
+        let filename = res.location.filename().unwrap();
+        if let Some(scheme) = ManifestNamingScheme::detect_scheme(filename) {
+            // Only include if we can parse a version (skip detached versions)
+            if scheme.parse_version(filename).is_some() {
+                future::ready(Ok(Some((scheme, res))))
+            } else {
+                future::ready(Ok(None))
+            }
         } else {
             future::ready(Ok(None))
         }
@@ -281,41 +595,25 @@ async fn current_manifest_path(
     match (first, object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered) {
         // If the first valid manifest we see is V2, we can assume that we are using
         // V2 naming scheme for all manifests.
+        //
+        // V2 filenames are `u64::MAX - version` zero-padded to 20 digits, so on a
+        // lexically ordered store the first entry is the newest version and nothing
+        // after it can change the answer. We stop there rather than validating the
+        // entries behind it: that check was bounded in *valid manifests*, not keys,
+        // so a directory holding anything the filter drops made it spill into
+        // further listing pages on every open.
         (Some((scheme @ ManifestNamingScheme::V2, meta)), true) => {
             let version = scheme
                 .parse_version(meta.location.filename().unwrap())
                 .unwrap();
 
-            // Sanity check: verify at least for the first 1k files that they are all V2
-            // and that the version numbers are decreasing. We use the first 1k because
-            // this is the typical size of an object store list endpoint response page.
-            for (scheme, meta) in valid_manifests.take(999).try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await? {
-                if scheme != ManifestNamingScheme::V2 {
-                    warn!(
-                        "Found V1 Manifest in a V2 directory. Use `migrate_manifest_paths_v2` \
-                         to migrate the directory."
-                    );
-                    break;
-                }
-                let next_version = scheme
-                    .parse_version(meta.location.filename().unwrap())
-                    .unwrap();
-                if next_version >= version {
-                    warn!(
-                        "List operation was expected to be lexically ordered, but was not. This \
-                         could mean a corrupt read. Please make a bug report on the lance-format/lance \
-                         GitHub repository."
-                    );
-                    break;
-                }
-            }
-
             Ok(ManifestLocation {
                 version,
                 path: meta.location,
                 size: Some(meta.size),
                 naming_scheme: scheme,
                 e_tag: meta.e_tag,
+                identity: None,
             })
         }
         // If the list is not lexically ordered, we need to iterate all manifests
@@ -329,14 +627,11 @@ async fn current_manifest_path(
 
             while let Some((entry_scheme, meta)) = valid_manifests.next().await.transpose()? {
                 if entry_scheme != scheme {
-                    return Err(Error::Internal {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Found multiple manifest naming schemes in the same directory: {:?} and {:?}. \
-                             Use `migrate_manifest_paths_v2` to migrate the directory.",
-                            scheme, entry_scheme
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Found multiple manifest naming schemes in the same directory: {:?} and {:?}. \
+                         Use `migrate_manifest_paths_v2` to migrate the directory.",
+                        scheme, entry_scheme
+                    )));
                 }
                 let version = entry_scheme
                     .parse_version(meta.location.filename().unwrap())
@@ -352,12 +647,12 @@ async fn current_manifest_path(
                 size: Some(current_meta.size),
                 naming_scheme: scheme,
                 e_tag: current_meta.e_tag,
+                identity: None,
             })
         }
-        (None, _) => Err(Error::NotFound {
-            uri: base.child(VERSIONS_DIR).to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        (None, _) => Err(Error::not_found(
+            base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR).to_string(),
+        )),
     }
 }
 
@@ -365,10 +660,10 @@ async fn current_manifest_path(
 // object_store, list operations lookup metadata for each file listed. This
 // method only gets the metadata for the found latest manifest.
 fn current_manifest_local(base: &Path) -> std::io::Result<Option<ManifestLocation>> {
-    let path = lance_io::local::to_local_path(&base.child(VERSIONS_DIR));
+    let path = lance_io::local::to_local_path(&base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR));
     let entries = std::fs::read_dir(path)?;
 
-    let mut latest_entry: Option<(u64, DirEntry)> = None;
+    let mut latest_entry: Option<(u64, DirEntry, ManifestNamingScheme)> = None;
 
     let mut scheme: Option<ManifestNamingScheme> = None;
 
@@ -401,88 +696,175 @@ fn current_manifest_local(base: &Path) -> std::io::Result<Option<ManifestLocatio
             continue;
         };
 
-        if let Some((latest_version, _)) = &latest_entry {
+        if let Some((latest_version, _, _)) = &latest_entry {
             if version > *latest_version {
-                latest_entry = Some((version, entry));
+                latest_entry = Some((version, entry, entry_scheme));
             }
         } else {
-            latest_entry = Some((version, entry));
+            latest_entry = Some((version, entry, entry_scheme));
         }
     }
 
-    if let Some((version, entry)) = latest_entry {
-        let path = Path::from_filesystem_path(entry.path())
-            .map_err(|err| io::Error::new(io::ErrorKind::InvalidData, err.to_string()))?;
+    if let Some((version, entry, naming_scheme)) = latest_entry {
         let metadata = entry.metadata()?;
         Ok(Some(ManifestLocation {
             version,
-            path,
+            path: naming_scheme.manifest_path(base, version),
             size: Some(metadata.len()),
-            naming_scheme: scheme.unwrap(),
+            naming_scheme,
             e_tag: Some(get_etag(&metadata)),
+            identity: None,
         }))
     } else {
         Ok(None)
     }
 }
 
-// Based on object store's implementation.
-fn get_etag(metadata: &std::fs::Metadata) -> String {
-    let inode = get_inode(metadata);
-    let size = metadata.len();
-    let mtime = metadata
-        .modified()
-        .ok()
-        .and_then(|mtime| mtime.duration_since(std::time::SystemTime::UNIX_EPOCH).ok())
-        .unwrap_or_default()
-        .as_micros();
-
-    // Use an ETag scheme based on that used by many popular HTTP servers
-    // <https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/core.html#fileetag>
-    // <https://stackoverflow.com/questions/47512043/how-etags-are-generated-and-configured>
-    format!("{inode:x}-{mtime:x}-{size:x}")
-}
-
-#[cfg(unix)]
-/// We include the inode when available to yield an ETag more resistant to collisions
-/// and as used by popular web servers such as [Apache](https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/core.html#fileetag)
-fn get_inode(metadata: &std::fs::Metadata) -> u64 {
-    std::os::unix::fs::MetadataExt::ino(metadata)
+fn list_manifests<'a>(
+    base_path: &Path,
+    object_store: &'a dyn OSObjectStore,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<ManifestLocation>> + 'a {
+    object_store
+        .read_dir_all(&base_path.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR), None)
+        .filter_map(|obj_meta| {
+            futures::future::ready(
+                obj_meta
+                    .map(|m| ManifestLocation::try_from(m).ok())
+                    .transpose(),
+            )
+        })
+        .boxed()
 }
 
-#[cfg(not(unix))]
-/// On platforms where an inode isn't available, fallback to just relying on size and mtime
-fn get_inode(_metadata: &std::fs::Metadata) -> u64 {
-    0
+/// Convert object metadata to ManifestLocation for detached manifests.
+fn detached_manifest_location_from_meta(
+    meta: object_store::ObjectMeta,
+) -> Option<ManifestLocation> {
+    let filename = meta.location.filename()?;
+    let version = ManifestNamingScheme::parse_detached_version(filename)?;
+    Some(ManifestLocation {
+        version,
+        path: meta.location,
+        size: Some(meta.size),
+        naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+        e_tag: meta.e_tag,
+        identity: None,
+    })
 }
 
-fn list_manifests<'a>(
+/// List all detached manifest files in the versions directory.
+pub fn list_detached_manifests<'a>(
     base_path: &Path,
     object_store: &'a dyn OSObjectStore,
 ) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<ManifestLocation>> + 'a {
     object_store
-        .read_dir_all(&base_path.child(VERSIONS_DIR), None)
+        .read_dir_all(&base_path.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR), None)
         .filter_map(|obj_meta| {
             futures::future::ready(
                 obj_meta
-                    .map(|m| ManifestLocation::try_from(m).ok())
+                    .map(detached_manifest_location_from_meta)
                     .transpose(),
             )
         })
         .boxed()
 }
 
-fn make_staging_manifest_path(base: &Path) -> Result<Path> {
+pub(crate) fn make_staging_manifest_path(base: &Path) -> Result<Path> {
     let id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
-    Path::parse(format!("{base}-{id}")).map_err(|e| Error::IO {
-        source: Box::new(e),
-        location: location!(),
-    })
+    Path::parse(format!("{base}-{id}")).map_err(|e| Error::io_source(Box::new(e)))
 }
 
 #[cfg(feature = "dynamodb")]
 const DDB_URL_QUERY_KEY: &str = "ddbTableName";
 
+/// Object-store listing of `_versions/`; the `CommitHandler` defaults.
+pub(crate) fn default_list_manifest_locations<'a>(
+    base_path: &Path,
+    object_store: &'a ObjectStore,
+    sorted_descending: bool,
+) -> BoxStream<'a, Result<ManifestLocation>> {
+    let underlying_stream = list_manifests(base_path, &object_store.inner);
+
+    if !sorted_descending {
+        return underlying_stream.boxed();
+    }
+
+    async fn sort_stream(
+        input_stream: impl futures::Stream<Item = Result<ManifestLocation>> + Unpin,
+    ) -> Result<impl Stream<Item = Result<ManifestLocation>> + Unpin> {
+        let mut locations = input_stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
+        locations.sort_by_key(|m| std::cmp::Reverse(m.version));
+        Ok(futures::stream::iter(locations.into_iter().map(Ok)))
+    }
+
+    // If the object store supports lexicographically ordered lists and
+    // the naming scheme is V2, we can use an optimized list operation.
+    if object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered {
+        // We don't know the naming scheme until we see the first manifest.
+        let mut peekable = underlying_stream.peekable();
+
+        futures::stream::once(async move {
+            let naming_scheme = match Pin::new(&mut peekable).peek().await {
+                Some(Ok(m)) => m.naming_scheme,
+                // If we get an error or no manifests are found, we default
+                // to V2 naming scheme, since it doesn't matter.
+                Some(Err(_)) => ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                None => ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+            };
+
+            if naming_scheme == ManifestNamingScheme::V2 {
+                // If the first manifest is V2, we can use the optimized list operation.
+                Ok(Either::Left(peekable))
+            } else {
+                sort_stream(peekable).await.map(Either::Right)
+            }
+        })
+        .try_flatten()
+        .boxed()
+    } else {
+        // If the object store does not support lexicographically ordered lists,
+        // we need to sort the manifests in memory. Systems where this isn't
+        // supported (local fs, S3 express) are typically fast enough
+        // that this is not a problem.
+        futures::stream::once(sort_stream(underlying_stream))
+            .try_flatten()
+            .boxed()
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn default_list_manifest_locations_since<'a>(
+    base_path: &Path,
+    object_store: &'a ObjectStore,
+    since_version: u64,
+) -> BoxStream<'a, Result<ManifestLocation>> {
+    if !uses_version_hint(object_store) {
+        return default_list_manifest_locations(base_path, object_store, true)
+            .try_take_while(move |loc| future::ready(Ok(loc.version > since_version)))
+            .boxed();
+    }
+
+    let base_path = base_path.clone();
+    futures::stream::once(async move {
+        let locations =
+            match list_manifests_since_version_with_hint(object_store, &base_path, since_version)
+                .await
+            {
+                Some(locations) => locations,
+                None => {
+                    let mut locations = list_manifests(&base_path, &object_store.inner)
+                        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        .await?;
+                    locations.retain(|loc| loc.version > since_version);
+                    locations.sort_by_key(|loc| std::cmp::Reverse(loc.version));
+                    locations
+                }
+            };
+        Ok::<_, Error>(futures::stream::iter(locations.into_iter().map(Ok)))
+    })
+    .try_flatten()
+    .boxed()
+}
+
 /// Handle commits that prevent conflicting writes.
 ///
 /// Commit implementations ensure that if there are multiple concurrent writers
@@ -494,6 +876,27 @@ const DDB_URL_QUERY_KEY: &str = "ddbTableName";
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub trait CommitHandler: Debug + Send + Sync {
+    /// Whether a not-found result from [`Self::resolve_version_location`] is
+    /// definitive immediately after a commit attempt.
+    ///
+    /// Handlers backed by an eventually consistent or external source of
+    /// truth should keep the conservative default. This prevents callers from
+    /// deleting files that a newly committed manifest may reference while the
+    /// manifest is not yet visible through the resolver.
+    fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// Whether an error should still be returned after readback proves that
+    /// the manifest from the current commit attempt landed.
+    ///
+    /// The conservative default preserves errors from custom handlers. Built-in
+    /// object-store handlers override this because their commit errors may be
+    /// ambiguous transport failures whose successful outcome is authoritative.
+    fn propagate_commit_error_after_success(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
     async fn resolve_latest_location(
         &self,
         base_path: &Path,
@@ -511,6 +914,37 @@ pub trait CommitHandler: Debug + Send + Sync {
         default_resolve_version(base_path, version, object_store).await
     }
 
+    /// Check whether an attached manifest version exists without loading it.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation probes the deterministic manifest path for
+    /// the given naming scheme. Commit handlers with an external source of
+    /// truth should override this method.
+    async fn version_exists(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        version: u64,
+        object_store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+        naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        let path = naming_scheme.manifest_path(base_path, version);
+        match object_store.head(&path).await {
+            Ok(_) => Ok(true),
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => Ok(false),
+            Err(e) => Err(e.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// List detached manifest locations.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a stream of detached manifest locations in arbitrary order.
+    fn list_detached_manifest_locations<'a>(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        object_store: &'a ObjectStore,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'a, Result<ManifestLocation>> {
+        list_detached_manifests(base_path, &object_store.inner).boxed()
+    }
+
     /// If `sorted_descending` is `true`, the stream will yield manifests in descending
     /// order of version. When the object store has a lexicographically
     /// ordered list and the naming scheme is V2, this will use an optimized
@@ -523,53 +957,23 @@ pub trait CommitHandler: Debug + Send + Sync {
         object_store: &'a ObjectStore,
         sorted_descending: bool,
     ) -> BoxStream<'a, Result<ManifestLocation>> {
-        let underlying_stream = list_manifests(base_path, &object_store.inner);
-
-        if !sorted_descending {
-            return underlying_stream.boxed();
-        }
-
-        async fn sort_stream(
-            input_stream: impl futures::Stream<Item = Result<ManifestLocation>> + Unpin,
-        ) -> Result<impl Stream<Item = Result<ManifestLocation>> + Unpin> {
-            let mut locations = input_stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
-            locations.sort_by_key(|m| std::cmp::Reverse(m.version));
-            Ok(futures::stream::iter(locations.into_iter().map(Ok)))
-        }
+        default_list_manifest_locations(base_path, object_store, sorted_descending)
+    }
 
-        // If the object store supports lexicographically ordered lists and
-        // the naming scheme is V2, we can use an optimized list operation.
-        if object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered {
-            // We don't know the naming scheme until we see the first manifest.
-            let mut peekable = underlying_stream.peekable();
-
-            futures::stream::once(async move {
-                let naming_scheme = match Pin::new(&mut peekable).peek().await {
-                    Some(Ok(m)) => m.naming_scheme,
-                    // If we get an error or no manifests are found, we default
-                    // to V2 naming scheme, since it doesn't matter.
-                    Some(Err(_)) => ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
-                    None => ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
-                };
-
-                if naming_scheme == ManifestNamingScheme::V2 {
-                    // If the first manifest is V2, we can use the optimized list operation.
-                    Ok(Either::Left(peekable))
-                } else {
-                    sort_stream(peekable).await.map(Either::Right)
-                }
-            })
-            .try_flatten()
-            .boxed()
-        } else {
-            // If the object store does not support lexicographically ordered lists,
-            // we need to sort the manifests in memory. Systems where this isn't
-            // supported (local fs, S3 express) are typically fast enough
-            // that this is not a problem.
-            futures::stream::once(sort_stream(underlying_stream))
-                .try_flatten()
-                .boxed()
-        }
+    /// List manifest locations with version `> since_version`, in descending
+    /// order of version.
+    ///
+    /// On lexically-ordered stores this is the standard listing with early
+    /// termination. On non-lexically-ordered stores (e.g. S3 Express) it uses
+    /// the version hint to avoid an O(n) listing, falling back to a full
+    /// listing if the hint is missing or stale.
+    fn list_manifest_locations_since<'a>(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        object_store: &'a ObjectStore,
+        since_version: u64,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'a, Result<ManifestLocation>> {
+        default_list_manifest_locations_since(base_path, object_store, since_version)
     }
 
     /// Commit a manifest.
@@ -587,6 +991,63 @@ pub trait CommitHandler: Debug + Send + Sync {
         transaction: Option<Transaction>,
     ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError>;
 
+    /// Whether [`Self::commit_after`] is available.
+    fn supports_predecessor_condition(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// The identity of the latest manifest, for [`Self::commit_after`].
+    /// `None` where the handler cannot condition on it.
+    async fn resolve_latest_identity(
+        &self,
+        _base_path: &Path,
+        _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    ) -> Result<Option<PredecessorIdentity>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// The identity of the manifest at `version` as the handler's store
+    /// records it now; `None` where it keeps none or has no record.
+    async fn resolve_identity(
+        &self,
+        _base_path: &Path,
+        _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        _version: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Option<PredecessorIdentity>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Commit only if `predecessor` is still the manifest at its version,
+    /// decided with the reservation; otherwise [`Error::PrerequisiteFailed`],
+    /// never a conflict.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn commit_after(
+        &self,
+        _manifest: &mut Manifest,
+        _indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+        _base_path: &Path,
+        _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        _manifest_writer: ManifestWriter,
+        _naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+        _transaction: Option<Transaction>,
+        _predecessor: &PredecessorIdentity,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+        Err(CommitError::OtherError(Error::not_supported(
+            "this commit handler cannot condition publication on the predecessor manifest",
+        )))
+    }
+
+    /// Retire the record for `version` after its manifest was removed, only
+    /// while the record still carries `identity`; a no-op otherwise.
+    async fn forget_version(
+        &self,
+        _base_path: &Path,
+        _version: u64,
+        _identity: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// Delete the recorded manifest information for a dataset at the base_path
     async fn delete(&self, _base_path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
         Ok(())
@@ -608,6 +1069,7 @@ async fn default_resolve_version(
             path: ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(base_path, version),
             size: None,
             e_tag: None,
+            identity: None,
         });
     }
 
@@ -621,6 +1083,7 @@ async fn default_resolve_version(
             size: Some(meta.size),
             naming_scheme: scheme,
             e_tag: meta.e_tag,
+            identity: None,
         }),
         Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {
             // fallback to V1
@@ -631,6 +1094,7 @@ async fn default_resolve_version(
                 size: None,
                 naming_scheme: scheme,
                 e_tag: None,
+                identity: None,
             })
         }
         Err(e) => Err(e.into()),
@@ -682,8 +1146,8 @@ async fn build_dynamodb_external_store(
 ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExternalManifestStore>> {
     use super::commit::dynamodb::DynamoDBExternalManifestStore;
     use aws_sdk_dynamodb::{
-        config::{retry::RetryConfig, IdentityCache, Region},
         Client,
+        config::{IdentityCache, Region, retry::RetryConfig},
     };
 
     let mut dynamodb_config = aws_sdk_dynamodb::config::Builder::new()
@@ -728,40 +1192,36 @@ pub async fn commit_handler_from_url(
 
     match url.scheme() {
         "file" | "file-object-store" => Ok(local_handler),
-        "s3" | "gs" | "az" | "memory" | "oss" | "cos" => Ok(Arc::new(ConditionalPutCommitHandler)),
+        "s3" | "gs" | "az" | "abfss" | "memory" | "oss" | "tos" | "shared-memory" | "goosefs" => {
+            Ok(Arc::new(ConditionalPutCommitHandler))
+        }
+        "cos" => Ok(Arc::new(TencentCosCommitHandler)),
         #[cfg(not(feature = "dynamodb"))]
-        "s3+ddb" => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "`s3+ddb://` scheme requires `dynamodb` feature to be enabled".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        "s3+ddb" => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "`s3+ddb://` scheme requires `dynamodb` feature to be enabled".into(),
+        )),
         #[cfg(feature = "dynamodb")]
         "s3+ddb" => {
             if url.query_pairs().count() != 1 {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "`s3+ddb://` scheme and expects exactly one query `ddbTableName`"
-                        .into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "`s3+ddb://` scheme and expects exactly one query `ddbTableName`".into(),
+                ));
             }
             let table_name = match url.query_pairs().next() {
                 Some((Cow::Borrowed(key), Cow::Borrowed(table_name)))
                     if key == DDB_URL_QUERY_KEY =>
                 {
                     if table_name.is_empty() {
-                        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                            source: "`s3+ddb://` scheme requires non empty dynamodb table name"
-                                .into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            "`s3+ddb://` scheme requires non empty dynamodb table name".into(),
+                        ));
                     }
                     table_name
                 }
                 _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: "`s3+ddb://` scheme and expects exactly one query `ddbTableName`"
-                            .into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "`s3+ddb://` scheme and expects exactly one query `ddbTableName`".into(),
+                    ));
                 }
             };
             let options = options.clone().unwrap_or_default();
@@ -775,12 +1235,15 @@ pub async fn commit_handler_from_url(
             // Get accessor from the options
             let accessor = options.get_accessor();
 
+            let provider_scheme = storage_options_raw.aws_provider_scheme()?;
+
             let (aws_creds, region) = build_aws_credential(
                 options.s3_credentials_refresh_offset,
                 options.aws_credentials.clone(),
                 Some(&storage_options),
                 region,
                 accessor,
+                provider_scheme,
             )
             .await?;
 
@@ -826,10 +1289,7 @@ impl From<Error> for CommitError {
 impl From<CommitError> for Error {
     fn from(e: CommitError) -> Self {
         match e {
-            CommitError::CommitConflict => Self::Internal {
-                message: "Commit conflict".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            },
+            CommitError::CommitConflict => Self::internal("Commit conflict".to_string()),
             CommitError::OtherError(e) => e,
         }
     }
@@ -846,6 +1306,14 @@ pub struct UnsafeCommitHandler;
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 impl CommitHandler for UnsafeCommitHandler {
+    fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn propagate_commit_error_after_success(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
     async fn commit(
         &self,
         manifest: &mut Manifest,
@@ -869,12 +1337,15 @@ impl CommitHandler for UnsafeCommitHandler {
         let res =
             manifest_writer(object_store, manifest, indices, &version_path, transaction).await?;
 
+        write_version_hint(object_store, base_path, manifest.version).await;
+
         Ok(ManifestLocation {
             version: manifest.version,
             size: Some(res.size as u64),
             naming_scheme,
             path: version_path,
             e_tag: res.e_tag,
+            identity: None,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -908,11 +1379,73 @@ pub trait CommitLock: Debug {
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 pub trait CommitLease: Send + Sync {
     /// Return the lease, indicating whether the commit was successful.
+    ///
+    /// Implementations should tolerate being called more than once: if a commit
+    /// is cancelled (e.g. by a timeout) while `release` is in flight, a
+    /// best-effort `release(false)` may be issued afterwards from the drop path.
     async fn release(&self, success: bool) -> std::result::Result<(), CommitError>;
 }
 
+/// Guards a [CommitLease] so the lock is released even if the commit future is
+/// dropped (e.g. cancelled by a commit timeout) before reaching an explicit
+/// release.
+///
+/// [CommitLease::release] is async and cannot be awaited from `Drop`, so on the
+/// drop path we spawn a best-effort background task that releases the lock with
+/// `success = false`. Without this, a cancelled commit would leak the lock until
+/// the lease's own TTL expired, blocking other writers in the meantime.
+struct LeaseGuard<L: CommitLease + 'static> {
+    lease: Option<L>,
+}
+
+impl<L: CommitLease + 'static> LeaseGuard<L> {
+    fn new(lease: L) -> Self {
+        Self { lease: Some(lease) }
+    }
+
+    /// Explicitly release the lease, consuming the guard so `Drop` is a no-op.
+    async fn release(mut self, success: bool) -> std::result::Result<(), CommitError> {
+        // Keep the lease inside the guard across the await so that, if this
+        // future is cancelled mid-release (e.g. the release call itself hangs
+        // and the commit timeout fires), `Drop` still issues a best-effort
+        // release. Only clear it once the release has fully completed.
+        let result = {
+            let lease = self
+                .lease
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("LeaseGuard released more than once");
+            lease.release(success).await
+        };
+        self.lease = None;
+        result
+    }
+}
+
+impl<L: CommitLease + 'static> Drop for LeaseGuard<L> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        if let Some(lease) = self.lease.take() {
+            // The guard was dropped without an explicit release, meaning the
+            // commit future was cancelled while holding the lock. We can't await
+            // in `Drop`, so spawn a best-effort release. If there is no runtime,
+            // leave the lease for its TTL to reclaim.
+            if let Ok(handle) = tokio::runtime::Handle::try_current() {
+                handle.spawn(async move {
+                    let _ = lease.release(false).await;
+                });
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl<T: CommitLock + Send + Sync> CommitHandler for T {
+impl<T: CommitLock + Send + Sync> CommitHandler for T
+where
+    T::Lease: 'static,
+{
+    fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
     async fn commit(
         &self,
         manifest: &mut Manifest,
@@ -924,9 +1457,11 @@ impl<T: CommitLock + Send + Sync> CommitHandler for T {
         transaction: Option<Transaction>,
     ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
         let path = naming_scheme.manifest_path(base_path, manifest.version);
-        // NOTE: once we have the lease we cannot use ? to return errors, since
-        // we must release the lease before returning.
-        let lease = self.lock(manifest.version).await?;
+        // Hold the lease in a guard so the lock is released even if this future
+        // is cancelled before we reach an explicit release below. The explicit
+        // releases are still preferred since they report the correct success
+        // flag and surface release errors; the guard only covers cancellation.
+        let lease = LeaseGuard::new(self.lock(manifest.version).await?);
 
         // Head the location and make sure it's not already committed
         match object_store.inner.head(&path).await {
@@ -952,18 +1487,33 @@ impl<T: CommitLock + Send + Sync> CommitHandler for T {
         lease.release(res.is_ok()).await?;
 
         let res = res?;
+
+        write_version_hint(object_store, base_path, manifest.version).await;
+
         Ok(ManifestLocation {
             version: manifest.version,
             size: Some(res.size as u64),
             naming_scheme,
             path,
             e_tag: res.e_tag,
+            identity: None,
         })
     }
 }
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl<T: CommitLock + Send + Sync> CommitHandler for Arc<T> {
+impl<T: CommitLock + Send + Sync> CommitHandler for Arc<T>
+where
+    T::Lease: 'static,
+{
+    fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+        self.as_ref().is_version_not_found_definitive()
+    }
+
+    fn propagate_commit_error_after_success(&self) -> bool {
+        self.as_ref().propagate_commit_error_after_success()
+    }
+
     async fn commit(
         &self,
         manifest: &mut Manifest,
@@ -995,6 +1545,14 @@ pub struct RenameCommitHandler;
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl CommitHandler for RenameCommitHandler {
+    fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn propagate_commit_error_after_success(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
     async fn commit(
         &self,
         manifest: &mut Manifest,
@@ -1020,12 +1578,14 @@ impl CommitHandler for RenameCommitHandler {
         {
             Ok(_) => {
                 // Successfully committed
+                write_version_hint(object_store, base_path, manifest.version).await;
                 Ok(ManifestLocation {
                     version: manifest.version,
                     path,
                     size: Some(res.size as u64),
                     naming_scheme,
-                    e_tag: None, // Re-name can change e-tag.
+                    e_tag: None, // Re-name can change e-tag.,
+                    identity: None,
                 })
             }
             Err(ObjectStoreError::AlreadyExists { .. }) => {
@@ -1053,6 +1613,14 @@ pub struct ConditionalPutCommitHandler;
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl CommitHandler for ConditionalPutCommitHandler {
+    fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn propagate_commit_error_after_success(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
     async fn commit(
         &self,
         manifest: &mut Manifest,
@@ -1095,12 +1663,15 @@ impl CommitHandler for ConditionalPutCommitHandler {
                 _ => CommitError::OtherError(err.into()),
             })?;
 
+        write_version_hint(object_store, base_path, manifest.version).await;
+
         Ok(ManifestLocation {
             version: manifest.version,
             path,
             size: Some(size),
             naming_scheme,
             e_tag: res.e_tag,
+            identity: None,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -1111,6 +1682,54 @@ impl Debug for ConditionalPutCommitHandler {
     }
 }
 
+/// A read-capable handler that prevents unsafe default commits to Tencent COS.
+///
+/// COS silently ignores its put-if-not-exists header on buckets that have ever
+/// had versioning enabled. Since that bucket history cannot be inferred from
+/// the URI or storage options, using [`ConditionalPutCommitHandler`] here can
+/// let concurrent writers overwrite the same manifest without reporting a
+/// conflict.
+struct TencentCosCommitHandler;
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl CommitHandler for TencentCosCommitHandler {
+    fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn commit(
+        &self,
+        _manifest: &mut Manifest,
+        _indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+        _base_path: &Path,
+        _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        _manifest_writer: ManifestWriter,
+        _naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+        _transaction: Option<Transaction>,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+        Err(CommitError::OtherError(Error::not_supported(
+            "Default writes to Tencent COS are disabled because COS does not reliably enforce \
+             put-if-not-exists after bucket versioning has ever been enabled. Provide a \
+             distributed commit_lock in Python or a custom CommitHandler in Rust.",
+        )))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Debug for TencentCosCommitHandler {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("TencentCosCommitHandler").finish()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A manifest as a commit handler identifies it: its version and a token
+/// unique to that physical manifest, so a dataset recreated at the same
+/// version is told apart.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct PredecessorIdentity {
+    pub version: u64,
+    pub identity: String,
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct CommitConfig {
     pub num_retries: u32,
@@ -1129,7 +1748,11 @@ impl Default for CommitConfig {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Mutex;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempObjDir;
+    use lance_core::utils::testing::{ProxyObjectStore, ProxyObjectStorePolicy};
 
     use super::*;
 
@@ -1182,11 +1805,11 @@ mod tests {
     async fn test_manifest_naming_migration() {
         let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
         let base = Path::from("base");
-        let versions_dir = base.child(VERSIONS_DIR);
+        let versions_dir = base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR);
 
         // Write two v1 files and one v1
         let original_files = vec![
-            versions_dir.child("irrelevant"),
+            versions_dir.clone().join("irrelevant"),
             ManifestNamingScheme::V1.manifest_path(&base, 0),
             ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base, 1),
         ];
@@ -1199,7 +1822,7 @@ mod tests {
         let expected_files = vec![
             ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base, 1),
             ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base, 0),
-            versions_dir.child("irrelevant"),
+            versions_dir.clone().join("irrelevant"),
         ];
         let actual_files = object_store
             .inner
@@ -1223,7 +1846,7 @@ mod tests {
             (Box::new(ObjectStore::memory()), Path::from("base"))
         } else {
             tempdir = TempObjDir::default();
-            let path = tempdir.child("base");
+            let path = tempdir.clone().join("base");
             let store = Box::new(ObjectStore::local());
             assert!(!store.list_is_lexically_ordered);
             (store, path)
@@ -1273,4 +1896,595 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(location.naming_scheme, naming_scheme);
         assert_eq!(location.path, naming_scheme.manifest_path(&base, 11));
     }
+
+    /// A memory store that reports `list_is_lexically_ordered == false`, like
+    /// S3 Express, so the version-hint paths are exercised.
+    fn non_lexical_memory_store() -> Box<ObjectStore> {
+        let mut object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered = false;
+        Box::new(object_store)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_version_hint() {
+        let base = Path::from("base");
+
+        // No hint is written on lexically-ordered stores (it would not be read).
+        let lexical = ObjectStore::memory();
+        write_version_hint(&lexical, &base, 42).await;
+        assert_eq!(read_version_from_hint(&lexical, &base).await, None);
+
+        let object_store = non_lexical_memory_store();
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 42).await;
+        assert_eq!(read_version_from_hint(&object_store, &base).await, Some(42));
+
+        // A later commit overwrites the hint.
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 100).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_version_from_hint(&object_store, &base).await,
+            Some(100)
+        );
+
+        // Detached versions are never written to the hint.
+        write_version_hint(
+            &object_store,
+            &base,
+            crate::format::DETACHED_VERSION_MASK | 7,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_version_from_hint(&object_store, &base).await,
+            Some(100)
+        );
+
+        // A corrupt / non-JSON hint file is treated as missing.
+        let hint_path = version_hint_path(&base);
+        object_store
+            .put(&hint_path, b"not json".as_slice())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(read_version_from_hint(&object_store, &base).await, None);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    async fn test_read_version_hint_and_probe(
+        #[values(ManifestNamingScheme::V1, ManifestNamingScheme::V2)]
+        naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+    ) {
+        let object_store = non_lexical_memory_store();
+        let base = Path::from("base");
+
+        // No hint file yet.
+        assert!(
+            read_version_hint_and_probe(&object_store, &base)
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+
+        for version in 1..=5 {
+            object_store
+                .put(&naming_scheme.manifest_path(&base, version), b"".as_slice())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Stale hint: should probe forward and find version 5.
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 3).await;
+        let location = read_version_hint_and_probe(&object_store, &base)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(location.version, 5);
+        assert_eq!(location.naming_scheme, naming_scheme);
+
+        // Up-to-date hint: returns version 5 directly.
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 5).await;
+        let location = read_version_hint_and_probe(&object_store, &base)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(location.version, 5);
+
+        // Hint points past the latest version: not usable.
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 10).await;
+        assert!(
+            read_version_hint_and_probe(&object_store, &base)
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_manifests_since_version_with_hint() {
+        let object_store = non_lexical_memory_store();
+        let base = Path::from("base");
+        let scheme = ManifestNamingScheme::V2;
+
+        for version in 1..=10 {
+            object_store
+                .put(&scheme.manifest_path(&base, version), b"".as_slice())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // No hint yet -> not usable, caller must fall back.
+        assert!(
+            list_manifests_since_version_with_hint(&object_store, &base, 7)
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+
+        // Hint exactly at the read version -> fast path, nothing new.
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 10).await;
+        assert!(matches!(
+            list_manifests_since_version_with_hint(&object_store, &base, 10).await,
+            Some(v) if v.is_empty()
+        ));
+
+        // Hint ahead of the read version, with a gap to fill (8, 9) plus probing
+        // from the hint (10). Results are descending by version.
+        let locations = list_manifests_since_version_with_hint(&object_store, &base, 7)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            locations.iter().map(|l| l.version).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![10, 9, 8]
+        );
+
+        // Slightly stale hint (points at 8) still probes up to the true latest.
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 8).await;
+        let locations = list_manifests_since_version_with_hint(&object_store, &base, 7)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            locations.iter().map(|l| l.version).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![10, 9, 8]
+        );
+
+        // Hint points past the latest -> not usable, caller falls back.
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 20).await;
+        assert!(
+            list_manifests_since_version_with_hint(&object_store, &base, 7)
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_current_manifest_path_with_hint_non_lexical() {
+        // Simulate S3 Express (non-lexically ordered list) with many versions.
+        let object_store = non_lexical_memory_store();
+        let base = Path::from("base");
+        let naming_scheme = ManifestNamingScheme::V2;
+
+        for version in 1..=100 {
+            object_store
+                .put(&naming_scheme.manifest_path(&base, version), b"".as_slice())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Slightly stale hint: probing from 98 still resolves the true latest.
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 98).await;
+        let location = current_manifest_path(&object_store, &base).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(location.version, 100);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_current_manifest_path_with_stale_hint_falls_back_to_listing() {
+        let object_store = non_lexical_memory_store();
+        let base = Path::from("base");
+        let naming_scheme = ManifestNamingScheme::V2;
+
+        // Only version 5 exists, but the hint claims version 10.
+        object_store
+            .put(&naming_scheme.manifest_path(&base, 5), b"".as_slice())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        write_version_hint(&object_store, &base, 10).await;
+
+        // The stale hint is ignored; listing finds version 5.
+        let location = current_manifest_path(&object_store, &base).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(location.version, 5);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_detached_version() {
+        // Valid detached version filenames
+        assert_eq!(
+            ManifestNamingScheme::parse_detached_version("d12345.manifest"),
+            Some(12345)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            ManifestNamingScheme::parse_detached_version("d9223372036854775808.manifest"),
+            Some(9223372036854775808)
+        );
+
+        // Invalid: not starting with 'd' prefix
+        assert_eq!(
+            ManifestNamingScheme::parse_detached_version("12345.manifest"),
+            None
+        );
+
+        // Invalid: regular V2 manifest
+        assert_eq!(
+            ManifestNamingScheme::parse_detached_version("18446744073709551615.manifest"),
+            None
+        );
+
+        // Invalid: no extension
+        assert_eq!(ManifestNamingScheme::parse_detached_version("d12345"), None);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_detached_manifests() {
+        use crate::format::DETACHED_VERSION_MASK;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base = Path::from("base");
+        let versions_dir = base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR);
+
+        // Create some regular manifests
+        for version in [1, 2, 3] {
+            let path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base, version);
+            object_store.put(&path, b"".as_slice()).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Create some detached manifests
+        let detached_versions: Vec<u64> = vec![
+            100 | DETACHED_VERSION_MASK,
+            200 | DETACHED_VERSION_MASK,
+            300 | DETACHED_VERSION_MASK,
+        ];
+        for version in &detached_versions {
+            let path = versions_dir.clone().join(format!("d{}.manifest", version));
+            object_store.put(&path, b"".as_slice()).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // List detached manifests
+        let detached_locations: Vec<ManifestLocation> =
+            list_detached_manifests(&base, &object_store.inner)
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(detached_locations.len(), 3);
+        for loc in &detached_locations {
+            assert_eq!(loc.naming_scheme, ManifestNamingScheme::V2);
+        }
+
+        let mut found_versions: Vec<u64> = detached_locations.iter().map(|l| l.version).collect();
+        found_versions.sort();
+        let mut expected_versions = detached_versions.clone();
+        expected_versions.sort();
+        assert_eq!(found_versions, expected_versions);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::memory("memory://bucket-a/ds")]
+    #[case::shared_memory("shared-memory://bucket-a/ds")]
+    #[case::s3("s3://bucket-a/ds")]
+    #[case::gs("gs://bucket-a/ds")]
+    #[case::az("az://bucket-a/ds")]
+    #[case::abfss("abfss://bucket-a/ds")]
+    #[case::oss("oss://bucket-a/ds")]
+    #[case::tos("tos://bucket-a/ds")]
+    #[case::goosefs("goosefs://bucket-a/ds")]
+    async fn test_commit_handler_from_url_conditional_put_schemes(#[case] url: &str) {
+        // Every scheme whose store supports atomic put-if-not-exists must
+        // route to ConditionalPutCommitHandler — otherwise concurrent writers
+        // fall through to UnsafeCommitHandler and silently clobber each
+        // other's manifests.
+        let handler = commit_handler_from_url(url, &None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            format!("{:?}", handler),
+            "ConditionalPutCommitHandler",
+            "{url} should route to ConditionalPutCommitHandler",
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A [CommitLock] whose lease records whether it was released, so we can
+    /// assert the lock does not leak when the commit future is cancelled.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct TrackingLock {
+        released: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    }
+
+    struct TrackingLease {
+        released: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl CommitLock for TrackingLock {
+        type Lease = TrackingLease;
+        async fn lock(&self, _version: u64) -> std::result::Result<Self::Lease, CommitError> {
+            Ok(TrackingLease {
+                released: self.released.clone(),
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl CommitLease for TrackingLease {
+        async fn release(&self, _success: bool) -> std::result::Result<(), CommitError> {
+            self.released
+                .store(true, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A [CommitLock] whose lease hangs on its first `release` call but completes
+    /// on subsequent ones, so we can assert the drop-path best-effort release
+    /// fires when a commit is cancelled *during* the explicit release.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct HangingReleaseLock {
+        release_calls: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        released: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    }
+
+    struct HangingReleaseLease {
+        release_calls: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        released: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl CommitLock for HangingReleaseLock {
+        type Lease = HangingReleaseLease;
+        async fn lock(&self, _version: u64) -> std::result::Result<Self::Lease, CommitError> {
+            Ok(HangingReleaseLease {
+                release_calls: self.release_calls.clone(),
+                released: self.released.clone(),
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl CommitLease for HangingReleaseLease {
+        async fn release(&self, _success: bool) -> std::result::Result<(), CommitError> {
+            // The first release (the explicit one) hangs, simulating a release
+            // call that stalls long enough for the commit timeout to fire. The
+            // best-effort release issued from `Drop` is the second call and
+            // succeeds.
+            if self
+                .release_calls
+                .fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst)
+                == 0
+            {
+                future::pending::<()>().await;
+                unreachable!()
+            }
+            self.released
+                .store(true, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A manifest writer that succeeds immediately, so the commit reaches the
+    /// explicit lease release.
+    fn succeeding_manifest_writer<'a>(
+        _object_store: &'a ObjectStore,
+        _manifest: &'a mut Manifest,
+        _indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+        _path: &'a Path,
+        _transaction: Option<Transaction>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<WriteResult>> {
+        Box::pin(async move { Ok(WriteResult::default()) })
+    }
+
+    fn test_manifest() -> Manifest {
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+        use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+        use crate::format::DataStorageFormat;
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        Manifest::new(
+            Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(vec![]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve()),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cos_commit_requires_custom_handler() {
+        let handler = commit_handler_from_url("cos://bucket-a/ds", &None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(format!("{:?}", handler), "TencentCosCommitHandler");
+
+        let mut manifest = test_manifest();
+        let error = handler
+            .commit(
+                &mut manifest,
+                None,
+                &Path::from("test"),
+                &ObjectStore::memory(),
+                succeeding_manifest_writer,
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        let CommitError::OtherError(error) = error else {
+            panic!("expected a not-supported commit error");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("distributed commit_lock"));
+    }
+
+    /// A manifest writer that never completes, simulating a hung object store.
+    fn hanging_manifest_writer<'a>(
+        _object_store: &'a ObjectStore,
+        _manifest: &'a mut Manifest,
+        _indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+        _path: &'a Path,
+        _transaction: Option<Transaction>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<WriteResult>> {
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            future::pending::<()>().await;
+            unreachable!()
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Cancelling a commit (as a commit timeout does) while the lock is held must
+    /// still release the lock; otherwise it leaks until the lease's TTL expires.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_lock_released_on_cancellation() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::Ordering;
+        use std::time::Duration;
+
+        let released = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let lock = TrackingLock {
+            released: released.clone(),
+        };
+
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("test");
+        let mut manifest = test_manifest();
+
+        // The commit will hang on the manifest writer while holding the lock.
+        // Cancel it the same way a commit timeout would: drop the future.
+        let commit_fut = lock.commit(
+            &mut manifest,
+            None,
+            &base_path,
+            &object_store,
+            hanging_manifest_writer,
+            ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+            None,
+        );
+        let timed_out = tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(50), commit_fut).await;
+        assert!(timed_out.is_err(), "commit should not have completed");
+
+        // The drop guard releases the lock on a background task; wait for it.
+        for _ in 0..100 {
+            if released.load(Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                break;
+            }
+            tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(10)).await;
+        }
+        assert!(
+            released.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            "lock must be released after the commit future is cancelled"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Cancelling a commit *during* the explicit lease release (e.g. the release
+    /// call itself hangs and the commit timeout fires) must still release the
+    /// lock via the drop-path best-effort release.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_lock_released_on_cancellation_during_release() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::Ordering;
+        use std::time::Duration;
+
+        let release_calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let released = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let lock = HangingReleaseLock {
+            release_calls: release_calls.clone(),
+            released: released.clone(),
+        };
+
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("test");
+        let mut manifest = test_manifest();
+
+        // The manifest writer succeeds, so the commit reaches the explicit
+        // release, which hangs. Cancel it the same way a commit timeout would.
+        let commit_fut = lock.commit(
+            &mut manifest,
+            None,
+            &base_path,
+            &object_store,
+            succeeding_manifest_writer,
+            ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+            None,
+        );
+        let timed_out = tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(50), commit_fut).await;
+        assert!(timed_out.is_err(), "commit should not have completed");
+
+        // The drop guard issues a best-effort release on a background task; wait
+        // for it. This is the second release call (the first one hung).
+        for _ in 0..100 {
+            if released.load(Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                break;
+            }
+            tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(10)).await;
+        }
+        assert!(
+            released.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            "lock must be released even when cancelled during the explicit release"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            release_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            2,
+            "expected the hung explicit release plus one best-effort drop release"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The V2 naming scheme sorts the latest version first, so on a lexically
+    /// ordered store the resolver should stop at the first *valid* manifest.
+    /// Anything the filter drops sorts where its name sorts, so junk ahead of the
+    /// answer costs exactly itself and nothing behind the answer is read at all.
+    ///
+    /// Listing streams are lazy, so the entries the resolver pulls are exactly the
+    /// entries a real object store would be billed for.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::clean(false, 1)]
+    #[case::leftover_staging_manifest(true, 2)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_resolve_latest_version_stops_at_first_valid_manifest(
+        #[case] leftover_staging: bool,
+        #[case] expected_entries_listed: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        object_store.list_is_lexically_ordered = true;
+
+        let base = Path::from("base");
+        for version in 0..10u64 {
+            let path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base, version);
+            object_store.put(&path, b"".as_slice()).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        if leftover_staging {
+            // A staging manifest orphaned by an interrupted commit of version 10.
+            // Its inverted version is smaller than version 9's, so it sorts ahead
+            // of the answer, and `detect_scheme` drops it for the `-{uuid}` suffix.
+            let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base, 10);
+            let staging_path = make_staging_manifest_path(&final_path).unwrap();
+            object_store
+                .put(&staging_path, b"".as_slice())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let entries_listed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let policy = Arc::new(Mutex::new(ProxyObjectStorePolicy::new()));
+        policy.lock().unwrap().set_obj_meta_policy(
+            "count_listed_entries",
+            Arc::new({
+                let entries_listed = entries_listed.clone();
+                move |op: &str, meta: object_store::ObjectMeta| {
+                    if op == "list" {
+                        entries_listed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    }
+                    Ok(meta)
+                }
+            }),
+        );
+        object_store.inner = Arc::new(ProxyObjectStore::new(object_store.inner.clone(), policy));
+
+        let location = current_manifest_path(&object_store, &base).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(location.version, 9);
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries_listed.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            expected_entries_listed,
+            "the resolver must stop at the first valid manifest: the check that \
+             used to follow it drained up to a thousand more, spilling into \
+             further listing pages"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit/dynamodb.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit/dynamodb.rs
index c4c0614e7d6..e90cc26b13e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit/dynamodb.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit/dynamodb.rs
@@ -4,32 +4,31 @@
 //! DynamoDB based external manifest store
 //!
 
-use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
+use aws_sdk_dynamodb::Client;
 use aws_sdk_dynamodb::error::SdkError;
-use aws_sdk_dynamodb::operation::delete_item::builders::DeleteItemFluentBuilder;
 use aws_sdk_dynamodb::operation::RequestId;
+use aws_sdk_dynamodb::operation::delete_item::builders::DeleteItemFluentBuilder;
 use aws_sdk_dynamodb::operation::{
     get_item::builders::GetItemFluentBuilder, put_item::builders::PutItemFluentBuilder,
     query::builders::QueryFluentBuilder,
 };
 use aws_sdk_dynamodb::types::{AttributeValue, KeyType};
-use aws_sdk_dynamodb::Client;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 use snafu::OptionExt;
 use tokio::sync::RwLock;
 use tracing::warn;
 
 use crate::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestStore;
-use lance_core::error::box_error;
 use lance_core::error::NotFoundSnafu;
+use lance_core::error::box_error;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 
-use super::external_manifest::detect_naming_scheme_from_path;
 use super::ManifestLocation;
+use super::external_manifest::detect_naming_scheme_from_path;
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
 struct WrappedSdkError<E>(SdkError<E>);
@@ -39,10 +38,7 @@ where
     E: std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static,
 {
     fn from(e: WrappedSdkError<E>) -> Self {
-        Self::IO {
-            source: box_error(e),
-            location: location!(),
-        }
+        Self::io_source(box_error(e))
     }
 }
 
@@ -140,6 +136,29 @@ macro_rules! committer {
     };
 }
 
+/// Read the `size` attribute of a manifest row.
+///
+/// Rows written before the column existed omit it, so an absent attribute is not
+/// an error: the reader falls back to a `HEAD` request for the manifest length.
+/// A present value is a different case - both writers store it as
+/// [`AttributeValue::N`] alongside `path` - so report a malformed one instead of
+/// dropping the hint and paying for that `HEAD` on every read of the row.
+fn parse_size_attribute(item: &HashMap<String, AttributeValue>) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+    let Some(attribute) = item.get("size") else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    let AttributeValue::N(size) = attribute else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "dynamodb error: the size column is {attribute:?}, expected a number"
+        )));
+    };
+    size.parse().map(Some).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "dynamodb error: could not parse the size returned {size}, error: {e}"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
 impl DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
     pub async fn new_external_store(
         client: Arc<Client>,
@@ -169,17 +188,13 @@ impl DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
             .send()
             .await
             .wrap_err()?;
-        let table = describe_result.table.ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!("dynamodb table: {table_name} does not exist"),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })?;
+        let table = describe_result
+            .table
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io(format!("dynamodb table: {table_name} does not exist")))?;
         let mut schema = table.key_schema.ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!("dynamodb table: {table_name} does not have a key schema"),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "dynamodb table: {table_name} does not have a key schema"
+            ))
         })?;
 
         let mut has_hash_key = false;
@@ -188,10 +203,9 @@ impl DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
         // there should be two keys, HASH(base_uri) and RANGE(version)
         for _ in 0..2 {
             let key = schema.pop().ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::io(
-                    format!("dynamodb table: {table_name} must have HASH and RANGE keys"),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "dynamodb table: {table_name} must have HASH and RANGE keys"
+                ))
             })?;
             match (key.key_type, key.attribute_name.as_str()) {
                 (KeyType::Hash, base_uri!()) => {
@@ -201,25 +215,22 @@ impl DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
                     has_range_key = true;
                 }
                 _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::io(
-                        format!(
-                            "dynamodb table: {} unknown key type encountered name:{}",
-                            table_name, key.attribute_name
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                        "dynamodb table: {} unknown key type encountered name:{}",
+                        table_name, key.attribute_name
+                    )));
                 }
             }
         }
 
         // Both keys must be present
         if !(has_hash_key && has_range_key) {
-            return Err(
-                Error::io(
-                    format!("dynamodb table: {} must have HASH and RANGE keys, named `{}` and `{}` respectively", table_name, base_uri!(), version!()),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            );
+            return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "dynamodb table: {} must have HASH and RANGE keys, named `{}` and `{}` respectively",
+                table_name,
+                base_uri!(),
+                version!()
+            )));
         }
 
         SANITY_CHECK_CACHE
@@ -270,7 +281,6 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
                 "dynamodb not found: base_uri: {}; version: {}",
                 base_uri, version
             ),
-            location: location!(),
         })?;
 
         let path = item
@@ -279,10 +289,10 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
 
         match path {
             AttributeValue::S(path) => Ok(path.clone()),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("key {} is not a string", path!()),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "key {} is not a string",
+                path!()
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -304,24 +314,17 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
                 "dynamodb not found: base_uri: {}; version: {}",
                 base_uri, version
             ),
-            location: location!(),
         })?;
 
         let path = item
             .get(path!())
             .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("key {} is not present", path!())))?
             .as_s()
-            .map_err(|_| {
-                Error::invalid_input(format!("key {} is not a string", path!()), location!())
-            })?
+            .map_err(|_| Error::invalid_input(format!("key {} is not a string", path!())))?
             .as_str();
         let path = Path::from(path);
 
-        let size = item
-            .get("size")
-            .and_then(|attr| attr.as_n().ok().and_then(|v| v.parse().ok()));
-
-        let e_tag = item.get("e_tag").and_then(|attr| attr.as_s().ok().cloned());
+        let size = parse_size_attribute(&item)?;
 
         let naming_scheme = detect_naming_scheme_from_path(&path)?;
 
@@ -330,7 +333,12 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
             path,
             size,
             naming_scheme,
-            e_tag,
+            // DynamoDB coordinates the logical version but does not own an
+            // object generation. Older rows may still contain `e_tag`; ignore
+            // it and let the commit handler obtain the current token from the
+            // authoritative object store when it validates the final path.
+            e_tag: None,
+            identity: None,
         })
     }
 
@@ -364,13 +372,10 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
                     return Ok(None);
                 }
                 if items.len() > 1 {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "dynamodb table: {} returned unexpected number of items",
-                            self.table_name
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "dynamodb table: {} returned unexpected number of items",
+                        self.table_name
+                    )));
                 }
 
                 let item = items.pop().expect("length checked");
@@ -386,19 +391,11 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
                         format!("dynamodb error: found entries for {} but the returned data does not contain {} column", base_uri, path!())
                     ))?;
 
-                let size = item.get("size").and_then(|attr| match attr {
-                    AttributeValue::N(size) => size.parse().ok(),
-                    _ => None,
-                });
-
-                let e_tag = item.get("e_tag").and_then(|attr| attr.as_s().ok().cloned());
+                let size = parse_size_attribute(&item)?;
 
                 match (version_attribute, path_attribute) {
                     (AttributeValue::N(version), AttributeValue::S(path)) => {
-                        let version = version.parse().map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!("dynamodb error: could not parse the version number returned {}, error: {}", version, e),
-                            location!(),
-                        ))?;
+                        let version = version.parse().map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("dynamodb error: could not parse the version number returned {}, error: {}", version, e)))?;
                         let path = Path::from(path.as_str());
                         let naming_scheme = detect_naming_scheme_from_path(&path)?;
                         let location = ManifestLocation {
@@ -406,14 +403,17 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
                             path,
                             size,
                             naming_scheme,
-                            e_tag,
+                            // See `get_manifest_location`: legacy DDB ETags
+                            // are physical-generation observations, not
+                            // version identity, and are intentionally ignored.
+                            e_tag: None,
+                            identity: None,
                         };
                         Ok(Some(location))
-                    },
-                    _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("dynamodb error: found entries for {base_uri} but the returned data is not number type"),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    }
+                    _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "dynamodb error: found entries for {base_uri} but the returned data is not number type"
+                    ))),
                 }
             }
             _ => Ok(None),
@@ -427,21 +427,20 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
         version: u64,
         path: &str,
         size: u64,
-        e_tag: Option<String>,
+        _e_tag: Option<String>,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut put_item = self
-            .ddb_put()
+        // Do not persist an object-store ETag. Staging paths are immutable and
+        // uniquely selected by this conditional write; finalized paths are
+        // validated against object storage. Persisting an ETag adds no DDB
+        // concurrency or content-integrity guarantee and can make the row stale
+        // after an identical copy. The commit handler returns the destination
+        // ETag separately as an ephemeral runtime cache discriminator.
+        self.ddb_put()
             .item(base_uri!(), AttributeValue::S(base_uri.into()))
             .item(version!(), AttributeValue::N(version.to_string()))
             .item(path!(), AttributeValue::S(path.to_string()))
             .item(committer!(), AttributeValue::S(self.committer_name.clone()))
-            .item("size", AttributeValue::N(size.to_string()));
-
-        if let Some(e_tag) = e_tag {
-            put_item = put_item.item("e_tag", AttributeValue::S(e_tag));
-        }
-
-        put_item
+            .item("size", AttributeValue::N(size.to_string()))
             .condition_expression(format!(
                 "attribute_not_exists({}) AND attribute_not_exists({})",
                 base_uri!(),
@@ -461,21 +460,17 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
         version: u64,
         path: &str,
         size: u64,
-        e_tag: Option<String>,
+        _e_tag: Option<String>,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut put_item = self
-            .ddb_put()
+        // Replacing the staging pointer with the canonical path publishes the
+        // same generation-independent `(path, size)` tuple from every helper.
+        // Each helper still returns the canonical ETag it observed to its caller.
+        self.ddb_put()
             .item(base_uri!(), AttributeValue::S(base_uri.into()))
             .item(version!(), AttributeValue::N(version.to_string()))
             .item(path!(), AttributeValue::S(path.to_string()))
             .item(committer!(), AttributeValue::S(self.committer_name.clone()))
-            .item("size", AttributeValue::N(size.to_string()));
-
-        if let Some(e_tag) = e_tag {
-            put_item = put_item.item("e_tag", AttributeValue::S(e_tag));
-        }
-
-        put_item
+            .item("size", AttributeValue::N(size.to_string()))
             .condition_expression(format!(
                 "attribute_exists({}) AND attribute_exists({})",
                 base_uri!(),
@@ -516,3 +511,76 @@ impl ExternalManifestStore for DynamoDBExternalManifestStore {
         Ok(())
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn item(size: Option<AttributeValue>) -> HashMap<String, AttributeValue> {
+        let mut item = HashMap::from([
+            (
+                base_uri!().to_string(),
+                AttributeValue::S("s3://bucket/table".into()),
+            ),
+            (version!().to_string(), AttributeValue::N("7".into())),
+            (
+                path!().to_string(),
+                AttributeValue::S("_versions/7.manifest".into()),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        if let Some(size) = size {
+            item.insert("size".to_string(), size);
+        }
+        item
+    }
+
+    /// Rows predate the column, so an absent value keeps the `HEAD` fallback
+    /// rather than becoming an error.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_absent_size_is_not_an_error() {
+        assert_eq!(parse_size_attribute(&item(None)).unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_size_roundtrips_through_the_attribute() {
+        for size in [0u64, 1, 4096, u64::MAX] {
+            let attribute = AttributeValue::N(size.to_string());
+            assert_eq!(
+                parse_size_attribute(&item(Some(attribute))).unwrap(),
+                Some(size),
+                "size {size}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A present value is written by both put helpers, so a malformed one means a
+    /// corrupt row: report it instead of silently dropping the length hint.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_unreadable_size_is_reported() {
+        for raw in ["", "abc", "-1", "1.5", "99999999999999999999999"] {
+            let attribute = AttributeValue::N(raw.to_string());
+            let err = parse_size_attribute(&item(Some(attribute)))
+                .expect_err(&format!("size {raw:?} should be rejected"));
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string().contains("could not parse the size"),
+                "size {raw:?}: unexpected message {err}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_non_numeric_size_attribute_is_reported() {
+        for attribute in [
+            AttributeValue::S("4096".into()),
+            AttributeValue::Bool(true),
+            AttributeValue::Null(true),
+        ] {
+            let err = parse_size_attribute(&item(Some(attribute.clone())))
+                .expect_err(&format!("{attribute:?} should be rejected"));
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string().contains("expected a number"),
+                "{attribute:?}: unexpected message {err}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit/external_manifest.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit/external_manifest.rs
index 3d08809dfe8..20ec3a619b8 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit/external_manifest.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/io/commit/external_manifest.rs
@@ -8,6 +8,9 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{
     AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, TRACE_FILE_AUDIT,
 };
@@ -15,29 +18,147 @@ use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use log::warn;
 use object_store::ObjectMeta;
-use object_store::{path::Path, Error as ObjectStoreError, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore};
-use snafu::location;
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+use object_store::{Error as ObjectStoreError, ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, path::Path};
 use tracing::info;
 
 use super::{
-    current_manifest_path, default_resolve_version, make_staging_manifest_path, ManifestLocation,
-    ManifestNamingScheme, MANIFEST_EXTENSION,
+    MANIFEST_EXTENSION, ManifestLocation, ManifestNamingScheme, current_manifest_path,
+    default_resolve_version, make_staging_manifest_path, write_version_hint,
 };
 use crate::format::{IndexMetadata, Manifest, Transaction};
-use crate::io::commit::{CommitError, CommitHandler};
+use crate::io::commit::{
+    CommitError, CommitHandler, PredecessorIdentity, default_list_manifest_locations,
+    default_list_manifest_locations_since,
+};
+
+/// Copy `staging_path` to the canonical manifest path for `version`, point
+/// the store's record at it, and drop the staging object.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub async fn finalize_staged<S: ExternalManifestStore + ?Sized>(
+    store: &S,
+    base_path: &Path,
+    version: u64,
+    staging_path: &Path,
+    size: u64,
+    object_store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+    naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+    // Step 2: Copy staging to final path
+    let final_path = naming_scheme.manifest_path(base_path, version);
+    let final_e_tag =
+        copy_or_verify_final_manifest(object_store, staging_path, &final_path, version, size)
+            .await?;
+
+    let location = ManifestLocation {
+        version,
+        path: final_path.clone(),
+        size: Some(size),
+        naming_scheme,
+        e_tag: final_e_tag,
+        identity: None,
+    };
+
+    // Step 3: Update the external index to the final path.
+    //
+    // Publish only generation-independent metadata. COPY and this update
+    // are not one atomic operation, so an ETag observed above can already
+    // be stale when this call linearizes. `location` still carries that
+    // observation to the current caller for cache separation.
+    let published = store
+        .put_if_exists(base_path.as_ref(), version, final_path.as_ref(), size, None)
+        .await;
+
+    if let Err(error) = published {
+        // The canonical object is already durable and is the commit point.
+        // Keep staging so an old or new reader that still observes the
+        // reservation can retry this cache/index update. A DDB failure must
+        // not turn an S3-committed transaction into a reported conflict.
+        warn!(
+            "Final manifest '{}' is committed, but the external manifest index could not be updated; retaining staging manifest '{}' for repair: {}",
+            final_path, staging_path, error
+        );
+        return Ok(location);
+    }
+
+    // Step 4: Delete staging manifest
+    match object_store.delete(staging_path).await {
+        Ok(_) => {}
+        Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {}
+        Err(error) => {
+            // Staging is no longer authoritative after the canonical
+            // object and final index entry exist. Its deletion is garbage
+            // collection and cannot roll back the commit.
+            warn!(
+                "Failed to delete finalized staging manifest '{}': {}",
+                staging_path, error
+            );
+            return Ok(location);
+        }
+    }
+    info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, path = staging_path.as_ref());
+
+    Ok(location)
+}
+
+/// Outcome of [`ExternalManifestStore::put_if_predecessor`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum Reservation {
+    /// The version is recorded at the given path, under the identity the
+    /// store minted for it.
+    Reserved { identity: String },
+    /// The version was already recorded; nothing was written.
+    Taken,
+    /// The predecessor is no longer the manifest it was judged as; nothing
+    /// was written.
+    PredecessorChanged,
+}
 
 /// External manifest store
 ///
-/// This trait abstracts an external storage for source of truth for manifests.
-/// The storage is expected to remember (uri, version) -> manifest_path
-/// and able to run transactions on the manifest_path.
+/// This trait abstracts a concurrency coordinator and lookup index for
+/// manifests. The store is expected to remember
+/// `(uri, version) -> manifest_path` and to atomically select one staging path
+/// for each version. The manifest bytes in object storage remain authoritative.
 ///
 /// This trait is called an **External** manifest store because the store is
 /// expected to work in tandem with the object store. We are only leveraging
 /// the external store for concurrent commit. Any manifest committed thru this
 /// trait should ultimately be materialized in the object store.
+///
+/// # Correctness model
+///
+/// 1. Writers first upload immutable manifests to unique staging paths.
+/// 2. `put_if_not_exists` linearizes `(dataset, version)` and records exactly
+///    one winning staging path. A writer that loses this operation must never
+///    materialize its own staging object at the final path.
+/// 3. The winner, or any helping reader, copies the recorded staging object to
+///    the deterministic final path. Successful final-path materialization is
+///    the durable commit point. Repeating this step is content-idempotent
+///    because every helper reads the same immutable source selected in step 2.
+/// 4. The external row is then compacted from staging to final path and staging
+///    is deleted. These are repair and garbage-collection operations: failures
+///    leave enough information for another helper and cannot undo step 3.
+///
+/// Object-store overwrites can assign a new ETag to identical bytes. An ETag is
+/// therefore neither logical manifest identity nor dataset-incarnation identity.
+/// The generic protocol never persists or validates ETags in the external index:
+/// a finalizer can observe generation E1, another finalizer can replace it with
+/// the same selected bytes as E2, and then the first finalizer can publish after
+/// the second. Persisting E1 would make a correct canonical object look corrupt.
+///
+/// A canonical HEAD still returns the generation observed by the current caller
+/// in [`ManifestLocation`]. That ephemeral token keeps runtime caches from
+/// treating a newly materialized object as the same observation as an older
+/// object at the same `(uri, version)`, without turning the external index into
+/// a second authority for physical object generations. The generic external
+/// index stores only stable `(path, size)` metadata and readers ignore any legacy
+/// stored ETag. This protocol assumes one dataset incarnation owns the physical
+/// prefix; a separate incarnation identity is required to make arbitrary prefix
+/// reuse unconditionally safe.
 /// For a visual explanation of the commit loop see
 /// <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/assets/12615154/b0822312-0826-432a-b554-3965f8d48d04>
+
 #[async_trait]
 pub trait ExternalManifestStore: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
     /// Get the manifest path for a given base_uri and version
@@ -49,7 +170,7 @@ pub trait ExternalManifestStore: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
         version: u64,
     ) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
         let path = self.get(base_uri, version).await?;
-        let path = Path::from(path);
+        let path = Path::parse(&path).map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
         let naming_scheme = detect_naming_scheme_from_path(&path)?;
         Ok(ManifestLocation {
             version,
@@ -57,6 +178,7 @@ pub trait ExternalManifestStore: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
             size: None,
             naming_scheme,
             e_tag: None,
+            identity: None,
         })
     }
 
@@ -76,7 +198,7 @@ pub trait ExternalManifestStore: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
     ) -> Result<Option<ManifestLocation>> {
         self.get_latest_version(base_uri).await.and_then(|res| {
             res.map(|(version, uri)| {
-                let path = Path::from(uri);
+                let path = Path::parse(&uri).map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
                 let naming_scheme = detect_naming_scheme_from_path(&path)?;
                 Ok(ManifestLocation {
                     version,
@@ -84,13 +206,140 @@ pub trait ExternalManifestStore: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
                     size: None,
                     naming_scheme,
                     e_tag: None,
+                    identity: None,
                 })
             })
             .transpose()
         })
     }
 
-    /// Put the manifest path for a given base_uri and version, should fail if the version already exists
+    /// Put the manifest to the external store.
+    ///
+    /// The staging manifest has been written to `staging_path` on the object store.
+    /// This method should atomically claim the version and return the final manifest location.
+    ///
+    /// The default implementation uses put_if_not_exists and put_if_exists to
+    /// implement a staging-based workflow. Implementations that can write directly
+    /// (e.g., namespace-backed stores) should override this method.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn put(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        version: u64,
+        staging_path: &Path,
+        size: u64,
+        _e_tag: Option<String>,
+        object_store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+        naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+    ) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+        // Default implementation: staging-based workflow
+
+        // Step 1: Record staging path atomically
+        // The external index owns version reservation, not object identity.
+        // Staging paths are immutable and unique, so path and size are enough
+        // to identify the selected source. Keeping ETags out of every generic
+        // write also makes rolling upgrades converge naturally: new readers
+        // ignore legacy values and every new publication removes them.
+        self.put_if_not_exists(
+            base_path.as_ref(),
+            version,
+            staging_path.as_ref(),
+            size,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        self.finalize(
+            base_path,
+            version,
+            staging_path,
+            size,
+            object_store,
+            naming_scheme,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Steps 2-4 of [`Self::put`], once `version` is recorded at
+    /// `staging_path`; see [`finalize_staged`].
+    async fn finalize(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        version: u64,
+        staging_path: &Path,
+        size: u64,
+        object_store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+        naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+    ) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+        finalize_staged(
+            self,
+            base_path,
+            version,
+            staging_path,
+            size,
+            object_store,
+            naming_scheme,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Whether [`Self::put_if_predecessor`] is implemented. Such a store also
+    /// fills [`ManifestLocation::identity`] on every location it returns.
+    fn supports_predecessor_condition(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    /// A token unique to the record at `version`, minted when the record is
+    /// first written and never reused, so a recreated dataset's record at the
+    /// same version is told apart. `None` where the store keeps none.
+    async fn get_identity(&self, _base_uri: &str, _version: u64) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Every committed record with version `> since` (all of them for `None`),
+    /// each a final location carrying its identity. A store that supports
+    /// predecessor conditions must implement this: its conditioned manifests
+    /// are not discoverable by listing the object store. `None` otherwise.
+    async fn list_versions(
+        &self,
+        _base_uri: &str,
+        _since: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Vec<ManifestLocation>>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Remove the record for `version` if it still carries `identity`, so a
+    /// recreated dataset's record at that version is left alone. Idempotent.
+    /// Only identity-bearing records are ever retired, so a store that mints
+    /// identities must implement this; the default refuses.
+    async fn forget_version(&self, _base_uri: &str, _version: u64, _identity: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "this external manifest store cannot retire a version record",
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::put_if_not_exists`], applied only if the record at
+    /// `predecessor.version` still carries `predecessor.identity`, decided
+    /// atomically with the version reservation.
+    async fn put_if_predecessor(
+        &self,
+        _base_uri: &str,
+        _version: u64,
+        _path: &str,
+        _size: u64,
+        _predecessor: &PredecessorIdentity,
+    ) -> Result<Reservation> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "this external manifest store cannot condition a reservation on its predecessor",
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Put the manifest path for a given base_uri and version, should fail if the version already exists.
+    ///
+    /// The generic staging workflow always passes `None` for `e_tag`. The
+    /// parameter remains part of the trait for compatibility with stores that
+    /// override the full [`Self::put`] protocol. Generic implementations must
+    /// not retain a previous ETag when `None` is supplied.
     async fn put_if_not_exists(
         &self,
         base_uri: &str,
@@ -100,7 +349,9 @@ pub trait ExternalManifestStore: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
         e_tag: Option<String>,
     ) -> Result<()>;
 
-    /// Put the manifest path for a given base_uri and version, should fail if the version **does not** already exist
+    /// Put the manifest path for a given base_uri and version, should fail if the version **does not** already exist.
+    ///
+    /// See [`Self::put_if_not_exists`] for the `e_tag` contract.
     async fn put_if_exists(
         &self,
         base_uri: &str,
@@ -126,11 +377,185 @@ pub(crate) fn detect_naming_scheme_from_path(path: &Path) -> Result<ManifestNami
             Error::corrupt_file(
                 path.clone(),
                 "Path does not follow known manifest naming convention.",
-                location!(),
             )
         })
 }
 
+/// The most conservative server-side-copy size limit across the object
+/// stores we support. This is not S3-specific: S3's `CopyObject` and GCS's
+/// single-shot `Objects: copy` both reject sources above ~5 GiB, so we use
+/// 5 GiB as a backend-agnostic threshold. Above it we stream the source
+/// through the client and re-upload via multipart instead of relying on a
+/// server-side copy. Stores that have no such cap (e.g. local filesystem)
+/// also take the fallback above this size — correctness is preserved; only
+/// the rare >5 GiB copy is slower than a native copy would be.
+const MAX_SERVER_SIDE_COPY_BYTES: u64 = 5 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Part size for the read+rewrite fallback. Multipart-capable stores
+/// (S3, GCS) require every part except the last to be ≥5 MB and allow up to
+/// 10,000 parts. 100 MB sits comfortably inside both bounds and keeps the
+/// part count low (~140 parts for a 14 GB manifest) without large per-part
+/// RAM.
+const COPY_REWRITE_PART_SIZE: usize = 100 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Copy `from` to `to`, falling back to a multipart-equivalent read+rewrite
+/// when the source exceeds the server-side-copy size limit
+/// (`MAX_SERVER_SIDE_COPY_BYTES`).
+///
+/// For sources below the limit, this is the same fast server-side
+/// `store.copy()` as before. For larger sources, the source is streamed
+/// through the client and re-uploaded as a multipart upload at `to`. This
+/// doubles bytes-on-the-wire for the rare large case while preserving the
+/// cheap fast path for the common small case.
+///
+/// `size` is the known source size. It is required: the only caller already
+/// has it, and the alternative (an extra `head(from)` round-trip) is work
+/// the caller can avoid by passing what it already knows.
+///
+/// `NotFound` errors on `from` propagate unchanged so callers can keep
+/// existing `Err(NotFound { .. })` arms.
+///
+/// This is a workaround for the missing `UploadPartCopy` primitive in the
+/// upstream `object_store` crate. Once that lands, this helper can be
+/// deleted and the call sites can go back to plain `store.copy()`.
+async fn copy_size_aware(
+    store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+    from: &Path,
+    to: &Path,
+    size: u64,
+) -> std::result::Result<(), ObjectStoreError> {
+    if size < MAX_SERVER_SIDE_COPY_BYTES {
+        store.copy(from, to).await
+    } else {
+        copy_via_read_rewrite(store, from, to).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Copy the selected staging manifest to its canonical path.
+///
+/// A successful copy is the object store's acknowledgement that the known
+/// immutable bytes were materialized. We then HEAD the destination for two
+/// separate reasons: validate that the materialized size matches the selected
+/// staging object, and return the physical-generation token observed by this
+/// caller. The token is not content identity, but downstream caches currently
+/// use it to avoid reusing an older object at the same `(uri, version)`.
+///
+/// `NotFound` is different: the selected staging object may have disappeared
+/// because another helper finalized and deleted it, or because the commit is
+/// unrecoverable. Only in that ambiguous recovery path do we HEAD the canonical
+/// object and require its size to match the external-store-selected staging
+/// manifest. Any ETag returned by that required HEAD is merely the current
+/// object's opaque generation metadata.
+async fn copy_or_verify_final_manifest(
+    object_store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+    staging_path: &Path,
+    final_path: &Path,
+    version: u64,
+    selected_size: u64,
+) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+    match copy_size_aware(object_store, staging_path, final_path, selected_size).await {
+        Ok(()) => {
+            info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, path = final_path.as_ref());
+            let final_meta = object_store.head(final_path).await?;
+            if final_meta.size != selected_size {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                    final_path.clone(),
+                    format!(
+                        "Manifest size mismatch for version {}: selected staging manifest had {}, object store returned {}",
+                        version, selected_size, final_meta.size
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+            Ok(final_meta.e_tag)
+        }
+        Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => match object_store.head(final_path).await {
+            Ok(final_meta) if final_meta.size == selected_size => Ok(final_meta.e_tag),
+            Ok(final_meta) => Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                final_path.clone(),
+                format!(
+                    "Manifest size mismatch for version {}: selected staging manifest had {}, object store returned {}",
+                    version, selected_size, final_meta.size
+                ),
+            )),
+            Err(error) => Err(error.into()),
+        },
+        Err(error) => Err(error.into()),
+    }
+}
+
+// NOTE: parts are uploaded sequentially. This could be parallelized (a
+// bounded JoinSet, like lance-io/src/object_writer.rs's
+// LANCE_UPLOAD_CONCURRENCY) or sidestepped entirely by switching to
+// `object_store::WriteMultipart` (which also handles abort-on-drop). Left
+// sequential here: this is a cold path (only >5 GiB manifests) and the
+// helper is itself a stopgap until `object_store` exposes UploadPartCopy.
+async fn copy_via_read_rewrite(
+    store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+    from: &Path,
+    to: &Path,
+) -> std::result::Result<(), ObjectStoreError> {
+    // NotFound here propagates upward unchanged.
+    let mut stream = store.get(from).await?.into_stream();
+
+    // From here on, errors must `abort()` the upload to avoid leaving an
+    // orphan multipart upload on stores that support them (e.g. S3, GCS),
+    // which would otherwise incur storage charges until the bucket's
+    // lifecycle policy cleans it up.
+    //
+    // Note: this does NOT cover task cancellation — `MultipartUpload`'s
+    // upstream Drop is documented as a no-op for S3/GCS. Callers that
+    // need cancellation cleanliness should run this with a guard or
+    // switch to `object_store::WriteMultipart` (planned follow-up).
+    let mut upload = store.put_multipart(to).await?;
+    let mut part_buf: Vec<u8> = Vec::with_capacity(COPY_REWRITE_PART_SIZE);
+
+    while let Some(chunk) = stream.next().await {
+        let chunk = match chunk {
+            Ok(b) => b,
+            Err(e) => {
+                let _ = upload.abort().await;
+                return Err(e);
+            }
+        };
+        // Append the chunk in COPY_REWRITE_PART_SIZE-bounded slices so a
+        // single oversized chunk (e.g., LocalFileSystem returning a whole
+        // file) cannot push part_buf past the backend's per-part size limit
+        // (5 GiB on S3/GCS). COPY_REWRITE_PART_SIZE is well under every
+        // backend's cap, so each flushed part is always valid.
+        let mut offset = 0;
+        while offset < chunk.len() {
+            let want = COPY_REWRITE_PART_SIZE - part_buf.len();
+            let take = want.min(chunk.len() - offset);
+            part_buf.extend_from_slice(&chunk[offset..offset + take]);
+            offset += take;
+
+            if part_buf.len() >= COPY_REWRITE_PART_SIZE {
+                let payload =
+                    std::mem::replace(&mut part_buf, Vec::with_capacity(COPY_REWRITE_PART_SIZE));
+                if let Err(e) = upload.put_part(Bytes::from(payload).into()).await {
+                    let _ = upload.abort().await;
+                    return Err(e);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Flush the final (possibly-short) part. The last part of a multipart
+    // upload is exempt from the per-part minimum on S3/GCS.
+    if !part_buf.is_empty()
+        && let Err(e) = upload.put_part(Bytes::from(part_buf).into()).await
+    {
+        let _ = upload.abort().await;
+        return Err(e);
+    }
+
+    if let Err(e) = upload.complete().await {
+        let _ = upload.abort().await;
+        return Err(e);
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 /// External manifest commit handler
 /// This handler is used to commit a manifest to an external store
 /// for detailed design, see <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/1183>
@@ -140,15 +565,68 @@ pub struct ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
 }
 
 impl ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
-    /// The manifest is considered committed once the staging manifest is written
-    /// to object store and that path is committed to the external store.
-    ///
-    /// However, to fully complete this, the staging manifest should be materialized
-    /// into the final path, the final path should be committed to the external store
-    /// and the staging manifest should be deleted. These steps may be completed
-    /// by any number of readers or writers, so care should be taken to ensure
-    /// that the manifest is not lost nor any errors occur due to duplicate
-    /// operations.
+    async fn verify_finalized_manifest_location(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        location: ManifestLocation,
+        object_store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, Error> {
+        match object_store.head(&location.path).await {
+            Ok(ObjectMeta { size, e_tag, .. }) => {
+                let ManifestLocation {
+                    version,
+                    path,
+                    size: expected_size,
+                    naming_scheme,
+                    e_tag: _,
+                    identity,
+                } = location;
+
+                let size = match expected_size {
+                    Some(expected_size) if expected_size != size => {
+                        return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                            path,
+                            format!(
+                                "Manifest size mismatch for version {}: external store expected {}, object store returned {}",
+                                version, expected_size, size
+                            ),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    Some(expected_size) => Some(expected_size),
+                    None => Some(size),
+                };
+
+                // Ignore any ETag returned by the external index. It may be a
+                // legacy value published after a later equivalent COPY and is
+                // therefore neither a safe generation fence nor content proof.
+                // The HEAD result is the canonical object's current generation
+                // and is returned only as an ephemeral cache discriminator.
+
+                Ok(ManifestLocation {
+                    version,
+                    path,
+                    size,
+                    naming_scheme,
+                    e_tag,
+                    identity,
+                })
+            }
+            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {
+                // The external store may hold a stale finalized V2 path while
+                // the object store still has the manifest at the V1 location.
+                default_resolve_version(base_path, location.version, object_store).await
+            }
+            Err(e) => Err(e.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Recording the staging path in the external store reserves the version
+    /// for one immutable manifest. The commit becomes authoritative when those
+    /// bytes are materialized at the deterministic final object-store path.
+    /// Updating the external row to that final path and deleting staging are
+    /// repair and garbage-collection steps. They may be completed by any number
+    /// of readers or writers and must not roll back an already materialized
+    /// canonical manifest.
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     async fn finalize_manifest(
         &self,
@@ -156,66 +634,69 @@ impl ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
         staging_manifest_path: &Path,
         version: u64,
         size: u64,
-        e_tag: Option<String>,
         store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
         naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
     ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, Error> {
         // step 1: copy the manifest to the final location
         let final_manifest_path = naming_scheme.manifest_path(base_path, version);
 
-        let copied = match store
-            .copy(staging_manifest_path, &final_manifest_path)
-            .await
-        {
-            Ok(_) => true,
-            Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => false, // Another writer beat us to it.
-            Err(e) => return Err(e.into()),
-        };
-        if copied {
-            info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, path = final_manifest_path.as_ref());
-        }
-
-        // On S3, the etag can change if originally was MultipartUpload and later was Copy
-        // https://docs.aws.amazon.com/AmazonS3/latest/API/API_Object.html#AmazonS3-Type-Object-ETag
-        // We only do MultipartUpload for > 5MB files, so we can skip this check
-        // if size < 5MB. However, we need to double check the final_manifest_path
-        // exists before we change the external store, otherwise we may point to a
-        // non-existing manifest.
-        let e_tag = if copied && size < 5 * 1024 * 1024 {
-            e_tag
-        } else {
-            let meta = store.head(&final_manifest_path).await?;
-            meta.e_tag
-        };
+        let final_e_tag = copy_or_verify_final_manifest(
+            store,
+            staging_manifest_path,
+            &final_manifest_path,
+            version,
+            size,
+        )
+        .await?;
 
         let location = ManifestLocation {
             version,
             path: final_manifest_path,
             size: Some(size),
             naming_scheme,
-            e_tag,
+            e_tag: final_e_tag,
+            identity: None,
         };
 
-        if !copied {
-            return Ok(location);
-        }
-
-        // step 2: flip the external store to point to the final location
-        self.external_manifest_store
+        // Step 2: point the external index at the final location without an
+        // ETag. A direct writer and any number of helping readers can perform
+        // the same immutable COPY concurrently. Since COPY and index update
+        // are not atomic, persisting a helper's observed generation would let
+        // an older helper overwrite a newer token. `location` retains the
+        // current helper's observation for runtime cache separation only.
+        let published = self
+            .external_manifest_store
             .put_if_exists(
                 base_path.as_ref(),
                 version,
                 location.path.as_ref(),
                 size,
-                location.e_tag.clone(),
+                None,
             )
-            .await?;
+            .await;
+
+        if let Err(error) = published {
+            // The canonical object is the data authority. Retaining staging
+            // lets another helper repair the external index without making
+            // this successfully materialized commit appear to have failed.
+            warn!(
+                "Final manifest '{}' is committed, but the external manifest index could not be updated; retaining staging manifest '{}' for repair: {}",
+                location.path, staging_manifest_path, error
+            );
+            return Ok(location);
+        }
 
         // step 3: delete the staging manifest
         match store.delete(staging_manifest_path).await {
             Ok(_) => {}
             Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {}
-            Err(e) => return Err(e.into()),
+            Err(error) => {
+                warn!(
+                    "Failed to delete finalized staging manifest '{}': {}",
+                    staging_manifest_path, error
+                );
+                return Ok(location);
+            }
         }
         info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, path = staging_manifest_path.as_ref());
 
@@ -225,6 +706,31 @@ impl ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl CommitHandler for ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+    async fn version_exists(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        version: u64,
+        object_store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+        naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        match self
+            .external_manifest_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(_) => Ok(true),
+            Err(Error::NotFound { .. }) => {
+                let path = naming_scheme.manifest_path(base_path, version);
+                match object_store.head(&path).await {
+                    Ok(_) => Ok(true),
+                    Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => Ok(false),
+                    Err(e) => Err(e.into()),
+                }
+            }
+            Err(e) => Err(e),
+        }
+    }
+
     async fn resolve_latest_location(
         &self,
         base_path: &Path,
@@ -236,29 +742,34 @@ impl CommitHandler for ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
             .await?;
 
         match location {
-            Some(ManifestLocation {
-                version,
-                path,
-                size,
-                naming_scheme,
-                e_tag,
-            }) => {
-                // The path is finalized, no need to check object store
-                if path.extension() == Some(MANIFEST_EXTENSION) {
-                    return Ok(ManifestLocation {
-                        version,
-                        path,
-                        size,
-                        naming_scheme,
-                        e_tag,
-                    });
+            Some(location) => {
+                if location.identity.is_some() {
+                    return recorded_as_final(location, object_store.inner.as_ref()).await;
+                }
+                if location.path.extension() == Some(MANIFEST_EXTENSION) {
+                    return self
+                        .verify_finalized_manifest_location(
+                            base_path,
+                            location,
+                            object_store.inner.as_ref(),
+                        )
+                        .await;
                 }
 
-                let (size, e_tag) = if let Some(size) = size {
-                    (size, e_tag)
+                let ManifestLocation {
+                    version,
+                    path,
+                    size,
+                    naming_scheme,
+                    e_tag: _,
+                    identity,
+                } = location;
+
+                let size = if let Some(size) = size {
+                    size
                 } else {
                     match object_store.inner.head(&path).await {
-                        Ok(meta) => (meta.size, meta.e_tag),
+                        Ok(meta) => meta.size,
                         Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {
                             // there may be other threads that have finished executing finalize_manifest.
                             let new_location = self
@@ -271,18 +782,17 @@ impl CommitHandler for ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
                     }
                 };
 
-                let final_location = self
+                let mut final_location = self
                     .finalize_manifest(
                         base_path,
                         &path,
                         version,
                         size,
-                        e_tag.clone(),
                         &object_store.inner,
                         naming_scheme,
                     )
                     .await?;
-
+                final_location.identity = identity;
                 Ok(final_location)
             }
             // Dataset not found in the external store, this could be because the dataset did not
@@ -308,10 +818,7 @@ impl CommitHandler for ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
             Err(Error::NotFound { .. }) => {
                 let path = default_resolve_version(base_path, version, object_store)
                     .await
-                    .map_err(|_| Error::NotFound {
-                        uri: format!("{}@{}", base_path, version),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::not_found(format!("{}@{}", base_path, version)))?
                     .path;
                 match object_store.head(&path).await {
                     Ok(ObjectMeta { size, e_tag, .. }) => {
@@ -322,7 +829,7 @@ impl CommitHandler for ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
                                 version,
                                 path.as_ref(),
                                 size,
-                                e_tag.clone(),
+                                None,
                             )
                             .await;
                         if let Err(e) = res {
@@ -339,13 +846,11 @@ impl CommitHandler for ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
                             size: Some(size),
                             naming_scheme,
                             e_tag,
+                            identity: None,
                         });
                     }
                     Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {
-                        return Err(Error::NotFound {
-                            uri: path.to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::not_found(path.to_string()));
                     }
                     Err(e) => return Err(e.into()),
                 }
@@ -353,31 +858,106 @@ impl CommitHandler for ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
             Err(e) => return Err(e),
         };
 
-        // finalized path, just return
+        if location.identity.is_some() {
+            return recorded_as_final(location, object_store).await;
+        }
         if location.path.extension() == Some(MANIFEST_EXTENSION) {
-            return Ok(location);
+            return self
+                .verify_finalized_manifest_location(base_path, location, object_store)
+                .await;
         }
 
         let naming_scheme =
             ManifestNamingScheme::detect_scheme_staging(location.path.filename().unwrap());
 
-        let (size, e_tag) = if let Some(size) = location.size {
-            (size, location.e_tag.clone())
+        let size = if let Some(size) = location.size {
+            size
         } else {
             let meta = object_store.head(&location.path).await?;
-            (meta.size as u64, meta.e_tag)
+            meta.size
         };
 
-        self.finalize_manifest(
-            base_path,
-            &location.path,
-            version,
-            size,
-            e_tag,
-            object_store,
-            naming_scheme,
-        )
-        .await
+        let mut final_location = self
+            .finalize_manifest(
+                base_path,
+                &location.path,
+                version,
+                size,
+                object_store,
+                naming_scheme,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        final_location.identity = location.identity;
+        Ok(final_location)
+    }
+
+    async fn resolve_identity(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        version: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Option<PredecessorIdentity>> {
+        Ok(self
+            .external_manifest_store
+            .get_identity(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await?
+            .map(|identity| PredecessorIdentity { version, identity }))
+    }
+
+    fn list_manifest_locations<'a>(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        object_store: &'a ObjectStore,
+        sorted_descending: bool,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'a, Result<ManifestLocation>> {
+        let store = self.external_manifest_store.clone();
+        let base_path = base_path.clone();
+        futures::stream::once(async move {
+            match store.list_versions(base_path.as_ref(), None).await? {
+                Some(mut locations) => {
+                    if sorted_descending {
+                        locations.sort_by_key(|l| std::cmp::Reverse(l.version));
+                    }
+                    Ok::<_, Error>(futures::stream::iter(locations.into_iter().map(Ok)).boxed())
+                }
+                None => Ok(default_list_manifest_locations(
+                    &base_path,
+                    object_store,
+                    sorted_descending,
+                )),
+            }
+        })
+        .try_flatten()
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    fn list_manifest_locations_since<'a>(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        object_store: &'a ObjectStore,
+        since_version: u64,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'a, Result<ManifestLocation>> {
+        let store = self.external_manifest_store.clone();
+        let base_path = base_path.clone();
+        futures::stream::once(async move {
+            match store
+                .list_versions(base_path.as_ref(), Some(since_version))
+                .await?
+            {
+                Some(mut locations) => {
+                    locations.retain(|l| l.version > since_version);
+                    locations.sort_by_key(|l| std::cmp::Reverse(l.version));
+                    Ok::<_, Error>(futures::stream::iter(locations.into_iter().map(Ok)).boxed())
+                }
+                None => Ok(default_list_manifest_locations_since(
+                    &base_path,
+                    object_store,
+                    since_version,
+                )),
+            }
+        })
+        .try_flatten()
+        .boxed()
     }
 
     async fn commit(
@@ -399,41 +979,35 @@ impl CommitHandler for ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
         let write_res =
             manifest_writer(object_store, manifest, indices, &staging_path, transaction).await?;
 
-        // step 2 & 3: Try to commit this version to external store, return err on failure
-        let res = self
+        // step 2 & 3: Put the manifest to external store
+        let result = self
             .external_manifest_store
-            .put_if_not_exists(
-                base_path.as_ref(),
-                manifest.version,
-                staging_path.as_ref(),
-                write_res.size as u64,
-                write_res.e_tag.clone(),
-            )
-            .await
-            .map_err(|_| CommitError::CommitConflict {});
-
-        if let Err(err) = res {
-            // delete the staging manifest
-            match object_store.inner.delete(&staging_path).await {
-                Ok(_) => {}
-                Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {}
-                Err(e) => return Err(CommitError::OtherError(e.into())),
-            }
-            info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, path = staging_path.as_ref());
-            return Err(err);
-        }
-
-        Ok(self
-            .finalize_manifest(
+            .put(
                 base_path,
-                &staging_path,
                 manifest.version,
+                &staging_path,
                 write_res.size as u64,
                 write_res.e_tag,
                 &object_store.inner,
                 naming_scheme,
             )
-            .await?)
+            .await;
+
+        match result {
+            Ok(location) => {
+                write_version_hint(object_store, base_path, manifest.version).await;
+                Ok(location)
+            }
+            Err(error) => Err(self
+                .lose_or_retain(
+                    base_path,
+                    manifest.version,
+                    &staging_path,
+                    object_store,
+                    error,
+                )
+                .await),
+        }
     }
 
     async fn delete(&self, base_path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
@@ -441,4 +1015,1539 @@ impl CommitHandler for ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
             .delete(base_path.as_ref())
             .await
     }
+
+    async fn forget_version(&self, base_path: &Path, version: u64, identity: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        self.external_manifest_store
+            .forget_version(base_path.as_ref(), version, identity)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    fn supports_predecessor_condition(&self) -> bool {
+        self.external_manifest_store
+            .supports_predecessor_condition()
+    }
+
+    async fn resolve_latest_identity(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    ) -> Result<Option<PredecessorIdentity>> {
+        let Some((version, _)) = self
+            .external_manifest_store
+            .get_latest_version(base_path.as_ref())
+            .await?
+        else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        Ok(self
+            .external_manifest_store
+            .get_identity(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await?
+            .map(|identity| PredecessorIdentity { version, identity }))
+    }
+
+    async fn commit_after(
+        &self,
+        manifest: &mut Manifest,
+        indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        manifest_writer: super::ManifestWriter,
+        naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+        transaction: Option<Transaction>,
+        predecessor: &PredecessorIdentity,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+        // Written once at a staging path, which listing never discovers, and
+        // recorded as final by the reservation itself; the canonical path a
+        // recreated dataset would share is never written.
+        let path =
+            make_staging_manifest_path(&naming_scheme.manifest_path(base_path, manifest.version))?;
+        let write_res =
+            manifest_writer(object_store, manifest, indices, &path, transaction).await?;
+        let size = write_res.size as u64;
+
+        let reserved = self
+            .external_manifest_store
+            .put_if_predecessor(
+                base_path.as_ref(),
+                manifest.version,
+                path.as_ref(),
+                size,
+                predecessor,
+            )
+            .await;
+        match reserved {
+            Ok(Reservation::Reserved { identity }) => {
+                write_version_hint(object_store, base_path, manifest.version).await;
+                Ok(ManifestLocation {
+                    version: manifest.version,
+                    path,
+                    size: Some(size),
+                    naming_scheme,
+                    e_tag: write_res.e_tag,
+                    identity: Some(identity),
+                })
+            }
+            Ok(Reservation::PredecessorChanged) => {
+                // Nothing was recorded, so the object is ours to drop.
+                delete_staging(object_store, &path, "refused").await;
+                Err(CommitError::OtherError(
+                    lance_core::error::PrerequisiteFailedSnafu {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "manifest {} is no longer the predecessor this commit was judged against",
+                            predecessor.version
+                        ),
+                    }
+                    .build(),
+                ))
+            }
+            Ok(Reservation::Taken) => Err(self
+                .lose_or_retain(
+                    base_path,
+                    manifest.version,
+                    &path,
+                    object_store,
+                    Error::commit_conflict_source(
+                        manifest.version,
+                        "manifest already exists".into(),
+                    ),
+                )
+                .await),
+            Err(error) => Err(self
+                .lose_or_retain(base_path, manifest.version, &path, object_store, error)
+                .await),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+    /// A different recorded path proves the staging manifest lost, so it is
+    /// removed; otherwise it is retained for outcome verification.
+    async fn lose_or_retain(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        version: u64,
+        staging_path: &Path,
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        error: Error,
+    ) -> CommitError {
+        let recorded_location = self
+            .external_manifest_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await;
+        if matches!(&recorded_location, Ok(location) if location.path != *staging_path) {
+            delete_staging(object_store, staging_path, "losing").await;
+            return CommitError::CommitConflict;
+        }
+        warn!(
+            "External manifest commit for version {} failed; retaining staging manifest \
+             '{}' until the commit outcome is resolved: {}",
+            version, staging_path, error
+        );
+        CommitError::CommitConflict
+    }
+}
+
+/// A record from a store that keeps identities is final as recorded and is
+/// never repaired onto the canonical path.
+async fn recorded_as_final(
+    mut location: ManifestLocation,
+    object_store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+    if location.size.is_none() {
+        location.size = Some(object_store.head(&location.path).await?.size);
+    }
+    Ok(location)
+}
+
+async fn delete_staging(object_store: &ObjectStore, staging_path: &Path, why: &str) {
+    match object_store.inner.delete(staging_path).await {
+        Ok(()) => {
+            info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, path = staging_path.as_ref());
+        }
+        Err(ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }) => {}
+        Err(delete_error) => {
+            warn!(
+                "Failed to delete {} staging manifest '{}': {}",
+                why, staging_path, delete_error
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Mutex;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+    use lance_core::utils::testing::{ProxyObjectStore, ProxyObjectStorePolicy};
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use tokio::sync::Notify;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::format::DataStorageFormat;
+    use crate::io::commit::{VERSIONS_DIR, write_manifest_file_to_path};
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+    struct StoredManifest {
+        path: String,
+        size: u64,
+        e_tag: Option<String>,
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct TestExternalManifestStore {
+        manifests: Mutex<HashMap<(String, u64), StoredManifest>>,
+        fail_next_put_response: AtomicBool,
+        fail_next_final_publish: AtomicBool,
+        block_first_final_publish: bool,
+        final_publish_calls: AtomicUsize,
+        first_final_publish_started: Notify,
+        release_first_final_publish: Notify,
+    }
+
+    impl TestExternalManifestStore {
+        fn new(fail_next_put_response: bool) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                manifests: Mutex::new(HashMap::new()),
+                fail_next_put_response: AtomicBool::new(fail_next_put_response),
+                fail_next_final_publish: AtomicBool::new(false),
+                block_first_final_publish: false,
+                final_publish_calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                first_final_publish_started: Notify::new(),
+                release_first_final_publish: Notify::new(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn failing_final_publish_once() -> Self {
+            Self {
+                fail_next_final_publish: AtomicBool::new(true),
+                ..Self::new(false)
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn blocking_first_final_publish() -> Self {
+            Self {
+                block_first_final_publish: true,
+                ..Self::new(false)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ExternalManifestStore for TestExternalManifestStore {
+        async fn get(&self, base_uri: &str, version: u64) -> Result<String> {
+            self.manifests
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .get(&(base_uri.to_string(), version))
+                .map(|manifest| manifest.path.clone())
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("{base_uri}@{version}")))
+        }
+
+        async fn get_manifest_location(
+            &self,
+            base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+        ) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+            let stored = self
+                .manifests
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .get(&(base_uri.to_string(), version))
+                .cloned()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("{base_uri}@{version}")))?;
+            let path = Path::from(stored.path);
+            Ok(ManifestLocation {
+                version,
+                naming_scheme: detect_naming_scheme_from_path(&path)?,
+                path,
+                size: Some(stored.size),
+                e_tag: stored.e_tag,
+                identity: None,
+            })
+        }
+
+        async fn get_latest_version(&self, base_uri: &str) -> Result<Option<(u64, String)>> {
+            Ok(self
+                .manifests
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|((stored_base, _), _)| stored_base == base_uri)
+                .max_by_key(|((_, version), _)| *version)
+                .map(|((_, version), manifest)| (*version, manifest.path.clone())))
+        }
+
+        async fn put_if_not_exists(
+            &self,
+            base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+            path: &str,
+            size: u64,
+            e_tag: Option<String>,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            let key = (base_uri.to_string(), version);
+            let mut manifests = self.manifests.lock().unwrap();
+            if manifests.contains_key(&key) {
+                return Err(Error::commit_conflict_source(
+                    version,
+                    "manifest already exists".to_string().into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            manifests.insert(
+                key,
+                StoredManifest {
+                    path: path.to_string(),
+                    size,
+                    e_tag,
+                },
+            );
+            drop(manifests);
+            if self.fail_next_put_response.swap(false, Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                Err(Error::io("simulated lost external-store response"))
+            } else {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn put_if_exists(
+            &self,
+            base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+            path: &str,
+            size: u64,
+            e_tag: Option<String>,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            if self.block_first_final_publish
+                && self.final_publish_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst) == 0
+            {
+                self.first_final_publish_started.notify_one();
+                self.release_first_final_publish.notified().await;
+            }
+            if self.fail_next_final_publish.swap(false, Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                return Err(Error::io("simulated final index update failure"));
+            }
+            let key = (base_uri.to_string(), version);
+            let mut manifests = self.manifests.lock().unwrap();
+            let manifest = manifests
+                .get_mut(&key)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("{base_uri}@{version}")))?;
+            *manifest = StoredManifest {
+                path: path.to_string(),
+                size,
+                e_tag,
+            };
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn test_manifest() -> Manifest {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        Manifest::new(
+            Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(vec![]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve()),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_finalized_manifest_ignores_legacy_external_store_etag() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::new(false));
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, 1);
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(
+                &final_path,
+                object_store::PutPayload::from_static(b"manifest"),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let final_meta = object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.unwrap();
+
+        external_store
+            .put_if_not_exists(
+                base_path.as_ref(),
+                1,
+                final_path.as_ref(),
+                final_meta.size,
+                Some("expected-generation".to_string()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let resolved = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, 1, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("a legacy external-store ETag must not override object storage");
+        assert_eq!(resolved.path, final_path);
+        assert_eq!(resolved.size, Some(final_meta.size));
+        assert_eq!(resolved.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_finalized_manifest_without_external_store_etag_uses_current_etag() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::new(false));
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, 1);
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(
+                &final_path,
+                object_store::PutPayload::from_static(b"manifest"),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let final_meta = object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.unwrap();
+        external_store
+            .put_if_not_exists(
+                base_path.as_ref(),
+                1,
+                final_path.as_ref(),
+                final_meta.size,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let resolved = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, 1, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("an absent external-store ETag must opt out of comparison");
+        assert_eq!(resolved.path, final_path);
+        assert_eq!(resolved.size, Some(final_meta.size));
+        assert_eq!(resolved.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_default_store_returns_but_does_not_persist_etag() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::new(false));
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let mut manifest = test_manifest();
+
+        let committed = handler
+            .commit(
+                &mut manifest,
+                None,
+                &base_path,
+                &object_store,
+                write_manifest_file_to_path,
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("the default store should finalize the selected manifest");
+        let original = object_store.inner.head(&committed.path).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.e_tag, original.e_tag);
+
+        let indexed = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), committed.version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indexed.e_tag, None);
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(
+                &committed.path,
+                object_store::PutPayload::from(vec![0_u8; original.size as usize]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let replacement = object_store.inner.head(&committed.path).await.unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(replacement.e_tag, original.e_tag);
+
+        let resolved = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, committed.version, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("the external index must not reject a new physical generation");
+        assert_eq!(resolved.e_tag, replacement.e_tag);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_helping_finalizer_returns_but_does_not_persist_etag() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::new(false));
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let version = 1;
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+        let staging_path = make_staging_manifest_path(&final_path).unwrap();
+        let manifest_bytes = Bytes::from_static(b"immutable manifest bytes");
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&staging_path, manifest_bytes.clone().into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let staging_meta = object_store.inner.head(&staging_path).await.unwrap();
+        external_store
+            .put_if_not_exists(
+                base_path.as_ref(),
+                version,
+                staging_path.as_ref(),
+                staging_meta.size,
+                staging_meta.e_tag,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let finalized = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, version, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("a reader should finalize the selected staging manifest");
+        let final_meta = object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(finalized.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag);
+
+        let indexed = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indexed.e_tag, None);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_onboarding_returns_but_does_not_persist_etag() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::new(false));
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let version = 1;
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(
+                &final_path,
+                object_store::PutPayload::from_static(b"manifest"),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let final_meta = object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.unwrap();
+
+        let resolved = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, version, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("an existing manifest should be indexed during onboarding");
+        assert_eq!(resolved.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag);
+
+        let indexed = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indexed.e_tag, None);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_finalized_manifest_size_mismatch_remains_corruption() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::new(false));
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, 1);
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(
+                &final_path,
+                object_store::PutPayload::from_static(b"manifest"),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let final_meta = object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.unwrap();
+        external_store
+            .put_if_not_exists(
+                base_path.as_ref(),
+                1,
+                final_path.as_ref(),
+                final_meta.size + 1,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, 1, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect_err("copies of the selected staging object must preserve its size");
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Manifest size mismatch"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_canonical_manifest_commits_before_index_repair() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::failing_final_publish_once());
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let mut manifest = test_manifest();
+        let version = manifest.version;
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+
+        let committed = handler
+            .commit(
+                &mut manifest,
+                None,
+                &base_path,
+                &object_store,
+                write_manifest_file_to_path,
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("a failed index update must not overturn a canonical S3 commit");
+        assert_eq!(committed.path, final_path);
+        assert!(
+            committed.e_tag.is_some(),
+            "the caller must retain the canonical generation even when index repair fails"
+        );
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&final_path)
+            .await
+            .expect("the canonical manifest is the durable commit point");
+
+        let pending = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(pending.path, final_path);
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&pending.path)
+            .await
+            .expect("staging must remain until the external index is repaired");
+
+        let repaired = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, version, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("a reader must be able to repair the pending external index");
+        assert_eq!(repaired.path, final_path);
+        assert!(
+            repaired.e_tag.is_some(),
+            "a helping reader must receive the generation it observed"
+        );
+        let indexed = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indexed.path, final_path);
+        assert_eq!(indexed.size, repaired.size);
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed.e_tag, None,
+            "the repaired index must not retain a physical object generation"
+        );
+        let staging_error = object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&pending.path)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("repair should garbage-collect the retained staging object");
+        assert!(matches!(staging_error, ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_finalizers_return_but_do_not_persist_generations() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::blocking_first_final_publish());
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let version = 1;
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+        let staging_path = make_staging_manifest_path(&final_path).unwrap();
+        let manifest_bytes = Bytes::from_static(b"immutable manifest bytes");
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&staging_path, manifest_bytes.clone().into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let staging_meta = object_store.inner.head(&staging_path).await.unwrap();
+
+        let writer_store = object_store.inner.clone();
+        let writer_external_store = external_store.clone();
+        let writer_base_path = base_path.clone();
+        let writer_staging_path = staging_path.clone();
+        let writer_e_tag = staging_meta.e_tag.clone();
+        let writer = tokio::spawn(async move {
+            writer_external_store
+                .put(
+                    &writer_base_path,
+                    version,
+                    &writer_staging_path,
+                    staging_meta.size,
+                    writer_e_tag,
+                    writer_store.as_ref(),
+                    ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                )
+                .await
+        });
+
+        tokio::time::timeout(
+            std::time::Duration::from_secs(5),
+            external_store.first_final_publish_started.notified(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("the direct finalizer should pause after COPY");
+
+        let first_generation = object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.unwrap();
+        let reservation = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reservation.path, staging_path);
+        assert_eq!(reservation.e_tag, None);
+
+        // The writer created generation E1. While its final index update is
+        // paused, a reader observes the DDB-selected staging path and performs
+        // the same immutable copy, producing generation E2. Each helper HEADs
+        // the canonical object after its copy and returns the generation it
+        // observed, but neither persists that race-prone token in the external
+        // index. Both copies have exactly the same bytes; only their physical
+        // object generations differ.
+        let reader_location = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, version, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        external_store.release_first_final_publish.notify_one();
+        let writer_location = writer.await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let final_meta = object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.unwrap();
+        let final_bytes = object_store
+            .inner
+            .get(&final_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexed = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(final_bytes, manifest_bytes);
+        assert_ne!(
+            first_generation.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag,
+            "the deterministic race must create a new physical generation"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(writer_location.e_tag, first_generation.e_tag);
+        assert_eq!(reader_location.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag);
+        assert_eq!(indexed.path, final_path);
+        assert_eq!(indexed.size, Some(final_meta.size));
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed.e_tag, None,
+            "all finalizers must publish the same generation-independent tuple"
+        );
+
+        let resolved = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, version, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("the finalized manifest must remain readable after the race");
+        assert_eq!(resolved.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lost_external_store_response_retains_staging_manifest() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::new(true));
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let mut manifest = test_manifest();
+
+        let commit_error = handler
+            .commit(
+                &mut manifest,
+                None,
+                &base_path,
+                &object_store,
+                write_manifest_file_to_path,
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect_err("the simulated response loss must be surfaced");
+        assert!(matches!(commit_error, CommitError::CommitConflict));
+
+        let staging_path = Path::from(external_store.get("dataset", 1).await.unwrap());
+        object_store.inner.head(&staging_path).await.unwrap();
+
+        let resolved = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, 1, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("the retained staging manifest must allow finalization");
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolved.path,
+            ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, 1)
+        );
+        object_store.inner.head(&resolved.path).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_finalization_returns_etag_without_persisting_it() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::new(false));
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let mut manifest = test_manifest();
+        let version = manifest.version;
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+
+        let committed = handler
+            .commit(
+                &mut manifest,
+                None,
+                &base_path,
+                &object_store,
+                write_manifest_file_to_path,
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("the generic workflow should commit the canonical manifest");
+        assert_eq!(committed.path, final_path);
+        let final_meta = object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            committed.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag,
+            "the freshly committed Dataset needs the observed generation for cache separation"
+        );
+
+        let indexed = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+            .expect("the external index must advance after the canonical copy");
+        assert_eq!(indexed.path, final_path);
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed.e_tag, None,
+            "the external index must remain independent of physical generations"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_missing_staging_verifies_existing_final_manifest() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let staging_path = Path::from("dataset/_versions/1.manifest-missing");
+        let final_path = Path::from("dataset/_versions/1.manifest");
+        let manifest_bytes = Bytes::from_static(b"immutable manifest bytes");
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&final_path, manifest_bytes.clone().into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let final_meta = object_store.inner.head(&final_path).await.unwrap();
+
+        let recovered_e_tag = copy_or_verify_final_manifest(
+            object_store.inner.as_ref(),
+            &staging_path,
+            &final_path,
+            1,
+            manifest_bytes.len() as u64,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("an existing canonical manifest should prove another helper finalized it");
+
+        assert_eq!(recovered_e_tag, final_meta.e_tag);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_missing_staging_rejects_missing_final_manifest() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let staging_path = Path::from("dataset/_versions/1.manifest-missing");
+        let final_path = Path::from("dataset/_versions/1.manifest");
+
+        let error = copy_or_verify_final_manifest(
+            object_store.inner.as_ref(),
+            &staging_path,
+            &final_path,
+            1,
+            42,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("missing staging and canonical objects cannot establish a commit");
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotFound { .. }), "{error:?}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(final_path.as_ref()), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_missing_staging_rejects_wrong_final_size() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let staging_path = Path::from("dataset/_versions/1.manifest-missing");
+        let final_path = Path::from("dataset/_versions/1.manifest");
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&final_path, Bytes::from_static(b"wrong size").into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = copy_or_verify_final_manifest(
+            object_store.inner.as_ref(),
+            &staging_path,
+            &final_path,
+            1,
+            42,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("a same-path object with the wrong size is not the selected manifest");
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{error:?}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("Manifest size mismatch"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_copy_failure_after_external_store_commit_retains_staging_manifest() {
+        let external_store = Arc::new(TestExternalManifestStore::new(false));
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: external_store.clone(),
+        };
+
+        let mut object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let fail_next_copy = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(true));
+        let failed_copy_source = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let mut policy = ProxyObjectStorePolicy::new();
+        let policy_fail_next_copy = fail_next_copy.clone();
+        let policy_failed_copy_source = failed_copy_source.clone();
+        policy.set_before_policy(
+            "fail-copy-once",
+            Arc::new(move |method, location| {
+                if method == "copy" && policy_fail_next_copy.swap(false, Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                    *policy_failed_copy_source.lock().unwrap() = Some(location.clone());
+                    return Err(Error::io("simulated copy failure"));
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }),
+        );
+        let policy = Arc::new(Mutex::new(policy));
+        object_store.inner = Arc::new(ProxyObjectStore::new(
+            object_store.inner.clone(),
+            policy.clone(),
+        ));
+
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let mut manifest = test_manifest();
+        let version = manifest.version;
+        let canonical_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+
+        let commit_error = handler
+            .commit(
+                &mut manifest,
+                None,
+                &base_path,
+                &object_store,
+                write_manifest_file_to_path,
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect_err("the simulated copy failure must be surfaced");
+        assert!(matches!(commit_error, CommitError::CommitConflict));
+        assert!(
+            !fail_next_copy.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            "the one-shot copy failure must be consumed"
+        );
+
+        let recorded_location = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+            .expect("the external store must retain the committed staging location");
+        let staging_path = failed_copy_source
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone()
+            .expect("the failure must be injected at copy(staging, canonical)");
+        assert_eq!(recorded_location.path, staging_path);
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&staging_path)
+            .await
+            .expect("the winning staging manifest must be retained");
+
+        let canonical_error = object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&canonical_path)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("copy failed before creating the canonical manifest");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(canonical_error, ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }),
+            "unexpected canonical manifest error: {canonical_error}"
+        );
+
+        policy.lock().unwrap().clear_before_policy("fail-copy-once");
+        let resolved = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, version, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("the retained staging manifest must allow finalization");
+        assert_eq!(resolved.path, canonical_path);
+
+        let finalized_location = external_store
+            .get_manifest_location(base_path.as_ref(), version)
+            .await
+            .expect("the external store must publish the canonical location");
+        assert_eq!(finalized_location.path, canonical_path);
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&canonical_path)
+            .await
+            .expect("the canonical manifest must exist after finalization");
+
+        let staging_error = object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&staging_path)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("successful finalization must clean up the staging manifest");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(staging_error, ObjectStoreError::NotFound { .. }),
+            "unexpected staging manifest error: {staging_error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `(path, size, identity)` per version; identities are minted per record
+    /// and never reused.
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct IdentifiedStore {
+        rows: Mutex<HashMap<u64, (String, u64, String)>>,
+        next_identity: AtomicUsize,
+        hold_next_reservation: AtomicBool,
+        reservation_held: Notify,
+        release_reservation: Notify,
+    }
+
+    impl IdentifiedStore {
+        fn mint(&self) -> String {
+            format!(
+                "identity-{}",
+                self.next_identity.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst)
+            )
+        }
+
+        fn handler(self: &Arc<Self>) -> ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                external_manifest_store: self.clone(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Drop every record and write a replacement dataset's records at the
+        /// same versions.
+        fn recreate(&self) {
+            let mut rows = self.rows.lock().unwrap();
+            let versions: Vec<u64> = rows.keys().copied().collect();
+            rows.clear();
+            for version in versions {
+                rows.insert(version, (v2_path(version), 1, self.mint()));
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn identity_of(&self, version: u64) -> Option<String> {
+            self.rows
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .get(&version)
+                .map(|row| row.2.clone())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ExternalManifestStore for IdentifiedStore {
+        async fn get(&self, _base_uri: &str, version: u64) -> Result<String> {
+            self.rows
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .get(&version)
+                .map(|row| row.0.clone())
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("@{version}")))
+        }
+
+        async fn get_manifest_location(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+        ) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+            let row = self
+                .rows
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .get(&version)
+                .cloned()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("@{version}")))?;
+            let path = Path::parse(&row.0).unwrap();
+            Ok(ManifestLocation {
+                version,
+                naming_scheme: detect_naming_scheme_from_path(&path)?,
+                path,
+                size: Some(row.1),
+                e_tag: None,
+                identity: Some(row.2),
+            })
+        }
+
+        async fn get_latest_version(&self, _base_uri: &str) -> Result<Option<(u64, String)>> {
+            Ok(self
+                .rows
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .max_by_key(|(version, _)| **version)
+                .map(|(version, row)| (*version, row.0.clone())))
+        }
+
+        async fn get_latest_manifest_location(
+            &self,
+            base_uri: &str,
+        ) -> Result<Option<ManifestLocation>> {
+            match self.get_latest_version(base_uri).await? {
+                Some((version, _)) => self
+                    .get_manifest_location(base_uri, version)
+                    .await
+                    .map(Some),
+                None => Ok(None),
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn put_if_not_exists(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+            path: &str,
+            size: u64,
+            _e_tag: Option<String>,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            let identity = self.mint();
+            let mut rows = self.rows.lock().unwrap();
+            if rows.contains_key(&version) {
+                return Err(Error::commit_conflict_source(version, "exists".into()));
+            }
+            rows.insert(version, (path.to_string(), size, identity));
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn put_if_exists(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+            path: &str,
+            size: u64,
+            _e_tag: Option<String>,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            let mut rows = self.rows.lock().unwrap();
+            let row = rows
+                .get_mut(&version)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("@{version}")))?;
+            row.0 = path.to_string();
+            row.1 = size;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        fn supports_predecessor_condition(&self) -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+
+        async fn get_identity(&self, _base_uri: &str, version: u64) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+            Ok(self.identity_of(version))
+        }
+
+        async fn forget_version(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+            identity: &str,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            let mut rows = self.rows.lock().unwrap();
+            if rows.get(&version).is_some_and(|row| row.2 == identity) {
+                rows.remove(&version);
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn list_versions(
+            &self,
+            base_uri: &str,
+            since: Option<u64>,
+        ) -> Result<Option<Vec<ManifestLocation>>> {
+            let versions: Vec<u64> = self.rows.lock().unwrap().keys().copied().collect();
+            let mut locations = Vec::new();
+            for version in versions {
+                if since.is_none_or(|since| version > since) {
+                    locations.push(self.get_manifest_location(base_uri, version).await?);
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(Some(locations))
+        }
+
+        async fn put_if_predecessor(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+            path: &str,
+            size: u64,
+            predecessor: &PredecessorIdentity,
+        ) -> Result<Reservation> {
+            if self.hold_next_reservation.swap(false, Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                self.reservation_held.notify_one();
+                self.release_reservation.notified().await;
+            }
+            let identity = self.mint();
+            let mut rows = self.rows.lock().unwrap();
+            let held = rows
+                .get(&predecessor.version)
+                .is_some_and(|row| row.2 == predecessor.identity);
+            if !held {
+                return Ok(Reservation::PredecessorChanged);
+            }
+            if rows.contains_key(&version) {
+                return Ok(Reservation::Taken);
+            }
+            rows.insert(version, (path.to_string(), size, identity.clone()));
+            Ok(Reservation::Reserved { identity })
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn v2_path(version: u64) -> String {
+        ManifestNamingScheme::V2
+            .manifest_path(&Path::from("dataset"), version)
+            .to_string()
+    }
+
+    fn v2_names(versions: &[u64]) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut names: Vec<String> = versions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|v| Path::from(v2_path(*v)).filename().unwrap().to_string())
+            .collect();
+        names.sort();
+        names
+    }
+
+    /// Version 1 committed through `store`, plus what a conditioned commit of
+    /// version 2 needs.
+    async fn identified_fixture(
+        store: &Arc<IdentifiedStore>,
+    ) -> (
+        ExternalManifestCommitHandler,
+        ObjectStore,
+        Path,
+        PredecessorIdentity,
+    ) {
+        let handler = store.handler();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        handler
+            .commit(
+                &mut test_manifest(),
+                None,
+                &base_path,
+                &object_store,
+                write_manifest_file_to_path,
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let predecessor = handler
+            .resolve_latest_identity(&base_path, &object_store)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(predecessor.version, 1);
+        (handler, object_store, base_path, predecessor)
+    }
+
+    async fn commit_after_v2(
+        handler: &ExternalManifestCommitHandler,
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        predecessor: &PredecessorIdentity,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+        let mut manifest = test_manifest();
+        manifest.version = 2;
+        handler
+            .commit_after(
+                &mut manifest,
+                None,
+                base_path,
+                object_store,
+                write_manifest_file_to_path,
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                None,
+                predecessor,
+            )
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn versions_dir_files(object_store: &ObjectStore, base_path: &Path) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut files: Vec<String> = object_store
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(&base_path.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR)))
+            .map_ok(|meta| meta.location.filename().unwrap().to_string())
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        files.sort();
+        files
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_conditioned_commit_lands_under_its_minted_identity() {
+        let store = Arc::new(IdentifiedStore::default());
+        let (handler, object_store, base_path, predecessor) = identified_fixture(&store).await;
+        let location = commit_after_v2(&handler, &object_store, &base_path, &predecessor)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Published at a staging name: invisible to object-store listing,
+        // final only through the store's record.
+        let name = location.path.filename().unwrap();
+        assert!(name.contains(".manifest-"), "{name}");
+        assert_eq!(ManifestNamingScheme::detect_scheme(name), None);
+
+        assert!(location.identity.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(location.identity, store.identity_of(2));
+        let resolved = handler
+            .resolve_latest_location(&base_path, &object_store)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resolved.path, location.path);
+        assert_eq!(resolved.identity, location.identity);
+        // The store, not the object store, is the history.
+        assert_eq!(
+            listed_versions(&handler, &object_store, &base_path).await,
+            vec![2, 1]
+        );
+        let since: Vec<u64> = handler
+            .list_manifest_locations_since(&base_path, &object_store, 1)
+            .map_ok(|l| l.version)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(since, vec![2]);
+        assert_eq!(versions_dir_files(&object_store, &base_path).await.len(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_changed_predecessor_is_refused_without_publishing() {
+        let store = Arc::new(IdentifiedStore::default());
+        let (handler, object_store, base_path, _) = identified_fixture(&store).await;
+        let stale = PredecessorIdentity {
+            version: 1,
+            identity: "identity-from-a-dropped-dataset".to_string(),
+        };
+        let err = commit_after_v2(&handler, &object_store, &base_path, &stale)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                err,
+                CommitError::OtherError(Error::PrerequisiteFailed { .. })
+            ),
+            "{err:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(store.identity_of(2).is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            versions_dir_files(&object_store, &base_path).await,
+            v2_names(&[1])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_taken_version_is_a_conflict() {
+        let store = Arc::new(IdentifiedStore::default());
+        let (handler, object_store, base_path, predecessor) = identified_fixture(&store).await;
+        store
+            .put_if_not_exists("dataset", 2, &v2_path(2), 1, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = commit_after_v2(&handler, &object_store, &base_path, &predecessor)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, CommitError::CommitConflict), "{err:?}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            versions_dir_files(&object_store, &base_path).await,
+            v2_names(&[1])
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A recreated dataset's records never carry the observed identity, so
+    /// the reservation refuses and nothing is published.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_recreation_before_publication_is_refused() {
+        let store = Arc::new(IdentifiedStore::default());
+        let (handler, object_store, base_path, predecessor) = identified_fixture(&store).await;
+        store.recreate();
+        let err = commit_after_v2(&handler, &object_store, &base_path, &predecessor)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                err,
+                CommitError::OtherError(Error::PrerequisiteFailed { .. })
+            ),
+            "{err:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            versions_dir_files(&object_store, &base_path).await,
+            v2_names(&[1])
+        );
+    }
+    async fn listed_versions(
+        handler: &ExternalManifestCommitHandler,
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        base_path: &Path,
+    ) -> Vec<u64> {
+        handler
+            .list_manifest_locations(base_path, object_store, true)
+            .map_ok(|l| l.version)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// A commit cancelled after its write but before the reservation leaves
+    /// an object nothing discovers: no record, and no listed version.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_a_cancelled_reservation_publishes_nothing() {
+        let store = Arc::new(IdentifiedStore::default());
+        let (handler, object_store, base_path, predecessor) = identified_fixture(&store).await;
+        store.hold_next_reservation.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        let task = {
+            let (handler, object_store, base_path) =
+                (store.handler(), object_store.clone(), base_path.clone());
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                commit_after_v2(&handler, &object_store, &base_path, &predecessor).await
+            })
+        };
+        tokio::time::timeout(
+            std::time::Duration::from_secs(30),
+            store.reservation_held.notified(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("the commit never reached its reservation");
+        task.abort();
+        assert!(task.await.unwrap_err().is_cancelled());
+
+        assert!(store.identity_of(2).is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            listed_versions(&handler, &object_store, &base_path).await,
+            vec![1]
+        );
+        // The orphaned object is on the object store, but not as a version.
+        assert_eq!(versions_dir_files(&object_store, &base_path).await.len(), 2);
+        let raw: Vec<u64> = default_list_manifest_locations(&base_path, &object_store, true)
+            .map_ok(|l| l.version)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(raw, vec![1]);
+    }
+    /// Forgetting retires exactly the record cleanup removed: a stale identity
+    /// leaves a recreated dataset's record alone, and repeats are no-ops.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_forgetting_a_version_retires_only_that_record() {
+        let store = Arc::new(IdentifiedStore::default());
+        let (handler, object_store, base_path, predecessor) = identified_fixture(&store).await;
+        commit_after_v2(&handler, &object_store, &base_path, &predecessor)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        handler
+            .forget_version(&base_path, 1, "identity-from-a-dropped-dataset")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            listed_versions(&handler, &object_store, &base_path).await,
+            vec![2, 1]
+        );
+        let identity = store.identity_of(1).unwrap();
+        handler
+            .forget_version(&base_path, 1, &identity)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        handler
+            .forget_version(&base_path, 1, &identity)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            listed_versions(&handler, &object_store, &base_path).await,
+            vec![2]
+        );
+    }
+    /// A store that mints identities but cannot retire records fails cleanup
+    /// loudly instead of leaving rows behind.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_retirement_is_refused_where_the_store_cannot_forget() {
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct NoForget(Arc<IdentifiedStore>);
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl ExternalManifestStore for NoForget {
+            async fn get(&self, b: &str, v: u64) -> Result<String> {
+                self.0.get(b, v).await
+            }
+            async fn get_latest_version(&self, b: &str) -> Result<Option<(u64, String)>> {
+                self.0.get_latest_version(b).await
+            }
+            async fn put_if_not_exists(
+                &self,
+                b: &str,
+                v: u64,
+                p: &str,
+                s: u64,
+                e: Option<String>,
+            ) -> Result<()> {
+                self.0.put_if_not_exists(b, v, p, s, e).await
+            }
+            async fn put_if_exists(
+                &self,
+                b: &str,
+                v: u64,
+                p: &str,
+                s: u64,
+                e: Option<String>,
+            ) -> Result<()> {
+                self.0.put_if_exists(b, v, p, s, e).await
+            }
+            fn supports_predecessor_condition(&self) -> bool {
+                true
+            }
+        }
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(NoForget(Arc::new(IdentifiedStore::default()))),
+        };
+        let err = handler
+            .forget_version(&Path::from("dataset"), 1, "identity-0")
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{err}");
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/io/deletion.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/io/deletion.rs
index 5dd0028bfd7..a26a8ddd7ad 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/io/deletion.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/io/deletion.rs
@@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{collections::HashSet, sync::Arc};
+use std::{collections::HashSet, sync::Arc, sync::LazyLock};
 
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_ipc::CompressionType;
 use arrow_ipc::reader::FileReader as ArrowFileReader;
 use arrow_ipc::writer::{FileWriter as ArrowFileWriter, IpcWriteOptions};
-use arrow_ipc::CompressionType;
-use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field, Schema};
+use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
 use bytes::Buf;
-use lance_core::error::{box_error, CorruptFileSnafu};
+use lance_core::error::{CorruptFileSnafu, box_error};
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, AUDIT_TYPE_DELETION, TRACE_FILE_AUDIT};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
@@ -17,21 +17,21 @@ use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use rand::Rng;
 use roaring::bitmap::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::{location, ResultExt};
+use snafu::ResultExt;
 use tracing::{info, instrument};
 
 use crate::format::{DeletionFile, DeletionFileType};
 
 pub const DELETIONS_DIR: &str = "_deletions";
 
-/// Get the Arrow schema for an Arrow deletion file.
-fn deletion_arrow_schema() -> Arc<Schema> {
+/// The Arrow schema for an Arrow deletion file.
+static DELETION_ARROW_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
         "row_id",
         DataType::UInt32,
         false,
     )]))
-}
+});
 
 /// Get the file path for a deletion file. This is relative to the dataset root.
 pub fn deletion_file_path(base: &Path, fragment_id: u64, deletion_file: &DeletionFile) -> Path {
@@ -42,8 +42,9 @@ pub fn deletion_file_path(base: &Path, fragment_id: u64, deletion_file: &Deletio
         ..
     } = deletion_file;
     let suffix = file_type.suffix();
-    base.child(DELETIONS_DIR)
-        .child(format!("{fragment_id}-{read_version}-{id}.{suffix}"))
+    base.clone()
+        .join(DELETIONS_DIR)
+        .join(format!("{fragment_id}-{read_version}-{id}.{suffix}"))
 }
 
 pub fn relative_deletion_file_path(fragment_id: u64, deletion_file: &DeletionFile) -> String {
@@ -84,7 +85,7 @@ pub async fn write_deletion_file(
             let array = UInt32Array::from_iter(set.iter().copied());
             let array = Arc::new(array);
 
-            let schema = deletion_arrow_schema();
+            let schema = DELETION_ARROW_SCHEMA.clone();
             let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![array])?;
 
             let mut out: Vec<u8> = Vec::new();
@@ -156,10 +157,7 @@ pub async fn read_deletion_file(
             let mut batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = ArrowFileReader::try_new(data, None)?
                 .collect::<std::result::Result<_, ArrowError>>()
                 .map_err(box_error)
-                .context(CorruptFileSnafu {
-                    path: path.clone(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+                .context(CorruptFileSnafu { path: path.clone() })?;
 
             if batches.len() != 1 {
                 return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
@@ -168,20 +166,18 @@ pub async fn read_deletion_file(
                         "Expected exactly one batch in deletion file, got {}",
                         batches.len()
                     ),
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
 
             let batch = batches.pop().unwrap();
-            if batch.schema() != deletion_arrow_schema() {
+            if batch.schema().as_ref() != DELETION_ARROW_SCHEMA.as_ref() {
                 return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
                     path,
                     format!(
                         "Expected schema {:?} in deletion file, got {:?}",
-                        deletion_arrow_schema(),
+                        DELETION_ARROW_SCHEMA.as_ref(),
                         batch.schema()
                     ),
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
 
@@ -198,7 +194,6 @@ pub async fn read_deletion_file(
                     return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
                         path,
                         "Null values are not allowed in deletion files",
-                        location!(),
                     ));
                 }
             }
@@ -213,10 +208,7 @@ pub async fn read_deletion_file(
             let reader = data.reader();
             let bitmap = RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(reader)
                 .map_err(box_error)
-                .context(CorruptFileSnafu {
-                    path,
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+                .context(CorruptFileSnafu { path })?;
 
             Ok(DeletionVector::Bitmap(bitmap))
         }
@@ -227,6 +219,7 @@ pub async fn read_deletion_file(
 mod test {
 
     use super::*;
+    use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_write_no_deletions() {
@@ -286,7 +279,7 @@ mod test {
 
         assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
         let batch = batches.pop().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(batch.schema(), deletion_arrow_schema());
+        assert_eq!(batch.schema(), *DELETION_ARROW_SCHEMA);
         let array = batch["row_id"]
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/io/manifest.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/io/manifest.rs
index 2f938d19ece..82f60d7c16c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/io/manifest.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/io/manifest.rs
@@ -3,28 +3,29 @@
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian};
-use bytes::{Bytes, BytesMut};
-use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
+use bytes::{Buf, Bytes};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use lance_file::{
-    previous::writer::ManifestProvider as PreviousManifestProvider, version::LanceFileVersion,
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+    versions::v1::{
+        encoding::write_schema_dictionaries, writer::ManifestProvider as V1ManifestProvider,
+    },
 };
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
 use tracing::instrument;
 
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Schema, Error, Result};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
 use lance_io::{
-    encodings::{binary::BinaryEncoder, plain::PlainEncoder, Encoder},
     object_store::ObjectStore,
-    object_writer::ObjectWriter,
     traits::{WriteExt, Writer},
-    utils::read_message,
+    utils::{ChunkedBuf, METADATA_READ_CHUNK_SIZE, read_message, read_range_in_chunks},
 };
 
-use crate::format::{pb, DataStorageFormat, IndexMetadata, Manifest, Transaction, MAGIC};
+use crate::format::{DataStorageFormat, IndexMetadata, MAGIC, Manifest, Transaction, pb};
 
 use super::commit::ManifestLocation;
 
@@ -60,14 +61,12 @@ pub async fn read_manifest(
         return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
             path.clone(),
             "Invalid format: file size is smaller than 16 bytes".to_string(),
-            location!(),
         ));
     }
     if !buf.ends_with(MAGIC) {
         return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
             path.clone(),
             "Invalid format: magic number does not match".to_string(),
-            location!(),
         ));
     }
     let manifest_pos = LittleEndian::read_i64(&buf[buf.len() - 16..buf.len() - 8]) as usize;
@@ -77,41 +76,55 @@ pub async fn read_manifest(
         // The prefetch captured the entire manifest. We just need to trim the buffer.
         buf.slice(buf.len() - manifest_len..buf.len())
     } else {
-        // The prefetch only captured part of the manifest. We need to make an
-        // additional range request to read the remainder.
-        let mut buf2: BytesMut = object_store
-            .inner
-            .get_range(
-                path,
-                Range {
-                    start: manifest_pos as u64,
-                    end: file_size - PREFETCH_SIZE,
-                },
-            )
-            .await?
-            .into_iter()
-            .collect();
-        buf2.extend_from_slice(&buf);
-        buf2.freeze()
+        // The prefetch only captured part of the manifest. Fetch the remainder
+        // as concurrent chunked range requests: a single GET is limited to one
+        // connection's throughput, which dominates load time for manifests of
+        // datasets with many fragments.
+        let reader = object_store
+            .open_with_size(path, file_size as usize)
+            .await?;
+        let mut chunks = read_range_in_chunks(
+            reader.as_ref(),
+            manifest_pos..(file_size - PREFETCH_SIZE) as usize,
+            METADATA_READ_CHUNK_SIZE,
+        );
+        // Decode straight from the chunks rather than re-copying ~all of the
+        // file into one buffer; see `ChunkedBuf`.
+        let mut chunked = ChunkedBuf::default();
+        while let Some(chunk) = chunks.try_next().await? {
+            chunked.push(chunk);
+        }
+        chunked.push(buf);
+        // A u32 length prefix in front, the 16 byte footer behind.
+        if chunked.remaining() < 20 {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                path.clone(),
+                "Invalid format: manifest shorter than its length prefix and footer".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let recorded_length = chunked.get_u32_le() as usize;
+        chunked.truncate(chunked.remaining() - 16);
+        return decode_manifest(chunked, recorded_length);
     };
 
     let recorded_length = LittleEndian::read_u32(&buf[0..4]) as usize;
     // Need to trim the magic number at end and message length at beginning
     let buf = buf.slice(4..buf.len() - 16);
+    decode_manifest(buf, recorded_length)
+}
 
-    if buf.len() != recorded_length {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Invalid format: manifest length does not match. Expected {}, got {}",
-                recorded_length,
-                buf.len()
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ));
+fn decode_manifest(buf: impl Buf, recorded_length: usize) -> Result<Manifest> {
+    if buf.remaining() != recorded_length {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Invalid format: manifest length does not match. Expected {}, got {}",
+            recorded_length,
+            buf.remaining()
+        )));
     }
-
     let proto = pb::Manifest::decode(buf)?;
-    Manifest::try_from(proto)
+    let mut manifest = Manifest::try_from(proto)?;
+    manifest.detach_sparse_inline_row_ids(recorded_length);
+    Ok(manifest)
 }
 
 #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(object_store, manifest))]
@@ -121,14 +134,18 @@ pub async fn read_manifest_indexes(
     manifest: &Manifest,
 ) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
     if let Some(pos) = manifest.index_section.as_ref() {
-        let reader = if let Some(size) = location.size {
-            object_store
-                .open_with_size(&location.path, size as usize)
-                .await?
-        } else {
-            object_store.open(&location.path).await?
+        let result = read_index_section(object_store, &location.path, location.size, *pos).await;
+        // A stale cached size makes the index offset fall outside the sized view,
+        // so the read fails as "file size is too small". Retry once with the true
+        // size; surface any other error unchanged.
+        let section = match result {
+            Err(e)
+                if location.size.is_some() && e.to_string().contains("file size is too small") =>
+            {
+                read_index_section(object_store, &location.path, None, *pos).await?
+            }
+            other => other?,
         };
-        let section: pb::IndexSection = read_message(reader.as_ref(), *pos).await?;
 
         let indices = section
             .indices
@@ -141,6 +158,22 @@ pub async fn read_manifest_indexes(
     }
 }
 
+/// Read the index section message at `pos`, opening the manifest with a known
+/// size when one is provided.
+async fn read_index_section(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    path: &Path,
+    size: Option<u64>,
+    pos: usize,
+) -> Result<pb::IndexSection> {
+    let reader = if let Some(size) = size {
+        object_store.open_with_size(path, size as usize).await?
+    } else {
+        object_store.open(path).await?
+    };
+    read_message(reader.as_ref(), pos).await
+}
+
 async fn do_write_manifest(
     writer: &mut dyn Writer,
     manifest: &mut Manifest,
@@ -154,6 +187,10 @@ async fn do_write_manifest(
         };
         let pos = writer.write_protobuf(&section).await?;
         manifest.index_section = Some(pos);
+    } else {
+        // No index section is written to this file, so an inherited offset
+        // would point at unrelated bytes in the new manifest file.
+        manifest.index_section = None;
     }
 
     // Write inline transaction if presented.
@@ -162,6 +199,11 @@ async fn do_write_manifest(
         let pb_tx: pb::Transaction = tx.into();
         let pos = writer.write_protobuf(&pb_tx).await?;
         manifest.transaction_section = Some(pos);
+    } else {
+        // No inline copy is written to this file. Clear any offset inherited
+        // from a previous manifest (e.g. via restore or clone), which would
+        // otherwise point at arbitrary bytes of the file being written.
+        manifest.transaction_section = None;
     }
 
     writer.write_struct(manifest).await
@@ -174,53 +216,14 @@ pub async fn write_manifest(
     indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
     transaction: Option<Transaction>,
 ) -> Result<usize> {
-    // Write dictionary values.
-    let max_field_id = manifest.schema.max_field_id().unwrap_or(-1);
-    let is_legacy_storage = manifest.should_use_legacy_format();
-    for field_id in 0..max_field_id + 1 {
-        if let Some(field) = manifest.schema.mut_field_by_id(field_id) {
-            if field.data_type().is_dictionary() && is_legacy_storage {
-                let dict_info = field.dictionary.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::io(
-                        format!("Lance field {} misses dictionary info", field.name),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })?;
-
-                let value_arr = dict_info.values.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::io(
-                        format!(
-                        "Lance field {} is dictionary type, but misses the dictionary value array",
-                        field.name
-                    ),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })?;
-
-                let data_type = value_arr.data_type();
-                let pos = match data_type {
-                    dt if dt.is_numeric() => {
-                        let mut encoder = PlainEncoder::new(writer, dt);
-                        encoder.encode(&[value_arr]).await?
-                    }
-                    dt if dt.is_binary_like() => {
-                        let mut encoder = BinaryEncoder::new(writer);
-                        encoder.encode(&[value_arr]).await?
-                    }
-                    _ => {
-                        return Err(Error::schema(
-                            format!(
-                                "Does not support {} as dictionary value type",
-                                value_arr.data_type()
-                            ),
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
-                    }
-                };
-                dict_info.offset = pos;
-                dict_info.length = value_arr.len();
-            }
+    match manifest.data_storage_format.version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {
+            write_schema_dictionaries(writer, &mut manifest.schema).await?;
         }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {}
     }
 
     do_write_manifest(writer, manifest, indices, transaction).await
@@ -231,15 +234,15 @@ pub async fn write_manifest(
 pub struct ManifestDescribing {}
 
 #[async_trait]
-impl PreviousManifestProvider for ManifestDescribing {
+impl V1ManifestProvider for ManifestDescribing {
     async fn store_schema(
-        object_writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
+        object_writer: &mut dyn Writer,
         schema: &Schema,
     ) -> Result<Option<usize>> {
         let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
             schema.clone(),
             Arc::new(vec![]),
-            DataStorageFormat::new(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V1),
             HashMap::new(),
         );
         let pos = do_write_manifest(object_writer, &mut manifest, None, None).await?;
@@ -255,10 +258,10 @@ mod test {
     use crate::format::SelfDescribingFileReader;
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
     use lance_file::format::{MAGIC, MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION};
-    use lance_file::previous::{
-        reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader, writer::FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter,
+    use lance_file::versions::v1::{
+        reader::FileReader as V1FileReader, writer::FileWriter as V1FileWriter,
     };
-    use rand::{distr::Alphanumeric, Rng};
+    use rand::{Rng, distr::Alphanumeric};
     use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 
     use super::*;
@@ -276,11 +279,8 @@ mod test {
             .collect();
         writer.write_all(&prefix).await.unwrap();
 
-        let long_name: String = rand::rng()
-            .sample_iter(&Alphanumeric)
-            .take(manifest_min_size)
-            .map(char::from)
-            .collect();
+        // A cheap deterministic filler; only the size matters for these tests.
+        let long_name: String = "a".repeat(manifest_min_size);
 
         let arrow_schema =
             ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(long_name, DataType::Int64, false)]);
@@ -295,14 +295,14 @@ mod test {
             DataStorageFormat::default(),
             HashMap::new(),
         );
-        let pos = write_manifest(&mut writer, &mut manifest, None, None)
+        let pos = write_manifest(writer.as_mut(), &mut manifest, None, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         writer
             .write_magics(pos, MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION, MAGIC)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+        Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await.unwrap();
 
         let roundtripped_manifest = read_manifest(&store, &path, None).await.unwrap();
 
@@ -318,6 +318,40 @@ mod test {
         test_roundtrip_manifest(1000, 1000).await;
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_manifest_larger_than_read_chunk() {
+        // Crosses METADATA_READ_CHUNK_SIZE so the manifest body is fetched as
+        // multiple concurrent chunks and reassembled with the prefetched tail.
+        test_roundtrip_manifest(1000, METADATA_READ_CHUNK_SIZE + 4 * 1024 * 1024).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_manifest_clears_unwritten_index_section() {
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let path = Path::from("/clear_unwritten_index_section");
+        let mut writer = store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            Schema::default(),
+            Arc::new(vec![]),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        manifest.index_section = Some(42);
+
+        let pos = write_manifest(writer.as_mut(), &mut manifest, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_magics(pos, MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION, MAGIC)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(manifest.index_section.is_none());
+        let roundtripped_manifest = read_manifest(&store, &path, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(roundtripped_manifest.index_section.is_none());
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_update_schema_metadata() {
         let store = ObjectStore::memory();
@@ -329,7 +363,7 @@ mod test {
             false,
         )]));
         let schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
-        let mut file_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
+        let mut file_writer = V1FileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
             &store,
             &path,
             schema.clone(),
@@ -349,7 +383,7 @@ mod test {
         file_writer.finish_with_metadata(&metadata).await.unwrap();
 
         let reader = store.open(&path).await.unwrap();
-        let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(reader.into(), None)
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(reader.into(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let schema = ArrowSchema::from(reader.schema());
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/lib.rs
index ebe892ba534..1a008740439 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/lib.rs
@@ -5,4 +5,6 @@ pub mod feature_flags;
 pub mod format;
 pub mod io;
 pub mod rowids;
+pub mod system_index;
+pub mod transaction;
 pub mod utils;
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids.rs
index 74b0e224bb9..94fdfd3051a 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids.rs
@@ -11,33 +11,29 @@
 //! metadata. Use [read_row_ids] and [write_row_ids] to read and write these
 //! sequences. The on-disk format is designed to align well with the in-memory
 //! representation, to avoid unnecessary deserialization.
-use std::ops::Range;
+use std::ops::{Range, RangeInclusive};
 // TODO: replace this with Arrow BooleanBuffer.
 
 // These are all internal data structures, and are private.
 mod bitmap;
 mod encoded_array;
 mod index;
+mod runs;
 pub mod segment;
 mod serde;
 pub mod version;
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 // These are the public API.
 pub use index::FragmentRowIdIndex;
 pub use index::RowIdIndex;
-use lance_core::{
-    utils::mask::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap},
-    Error, Result,
-};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 pub use serde::{read_row_ids, write_row_ids};
 
-use snafu::location;
-
 use crate::utils::LanceIteratorExtension;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowSetOps;
-use segment::U64Segment;
+use segment::{SegmentCursorState, U64Segment};
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 /// A sequence of row ids.
@@ -55,6 +51,125 @@ use tracing::instrument;
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]
 pub struct RowIdSequence(Vec<U64Segment>);
 
+/// Stateful reader for selections that usually advance through a sequence.
+///
+/// Streaming readers reuse this cursor across record batches. If a later
+/// selection moves backwards then the cursor rewinds before continuing.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub(crate) struct RowIdSequenceCursor {
+    segment_idx: usize,
+    rows_passed: usize,
+    segment_len: Option<usize>,
+    segment_cursor: SegmentCursorState,
+    last_index: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl RowIdSequenceCursor {
+    fn advance_segment(&mut self) {
+        self.rows_passed += self.segment_len.unwrap_or_default();
+        self.segment_idx += 1;
+        self.segment_len = None;
+        self.segment_cursor = SegmentCursorState::default();
+    }
+
+    fn get(&mut self, sequence: &RowIdSequence, index: usize) -> Option<u64> {
+        if index < self.rows_passed || self.last_index.is_some_and(|last| index < last) {
+            *self = Self::default();
+        }
+        self.last_index = Some(index);
+
+        loop {
+            let segment = sequence.0.get(self.segment_idx)?;
+            let segment_len = *self.segment_len.get_or_insert_with(|| segment.len());
+            let local_index = index - self.rows_passed;
+            if local_index < segment_len {
+                return self.segment_cursor.get(segment, local_index);
+            }
+            self.advance_segment();
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn extend_range(
+        &mut self,
+        sequence: &RowIdSequence,
+        selection: Range<usize>,
+        row_ids: &mut Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        if selection.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        if selection.start < self.rows_passed
+            || self.last_index.is_some_and(|last| selection.start < last)
+        {
+            *self = Self::default();
+        }
+        self.last_index = Some(selection.end - 1);
+
+        let mut index = selection.start;
+        while index < selection.end {
+            let Some(segment) = sequence.0.get(self.segment_idx) else {
+                break;
+            };
+            let segment_len = *self.segment_len.get_or_insert_with(|| segment.len());
+            let local_start = index - self.rows_passed;
+            if local_start >= segment_len {
+                self.advance_segment();
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let count = (selection.end - index).min(segment_len - local_start);
+            let local_end = local_start + count;
+            self.segment_cursor
+                .extend_range(segment, local_start..local_end, row_ids);
+            index += count;
+            if local_end == segment_len {
+                self.advance_segment();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Keep the sparse loop in `extend_range` unchanged. Sharing this loop with
+    // the dense decoder measurably slows sparse system-only scans.
+    fn extend_dense_range(
+        &mut self,
+        sequence: &RowIdSequence,
+        selection: Range<usize>,
+        row_ids: &mut Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        if selection.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        if selection.start < self.rows_passed
+            || self.last_index.is_some_and(|last| selection.start < last)
+        {
+            *self = Self::default();
+        }
+        self.last_index = Some(selection.end - 1);
+
+        let mut index = selection.start;
+        while index < selection.end {
+            let Some(segment) = sequence.0.get(self.segment_idx) else {
+                break;
+            };
+            let segment_len = *self.segment_len.get_or_insert_with(|| segment.len());
+            let local_start = index - self.rows_passed;
+            if local_start >= segment_len {
+                self.advance_segment();
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let count = (selection.end - index).min(segment_len - local_start);
+            let local_end = local_start + count;
+            self.segment_cursor
+                .extend_dense_range(segment, local_start..local_end, row_ids);
+            index += count;
+            if local_end == segment_len {
+                self.advance_segment();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 impl std::fmt::Display for RowIdSequence {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         let mut iter = self.iter();
@@ -103,11 +218,52 @@ impl From<&[u64]> for RowIdSequence {
     }
 }
 
+/// Return some value that appears more than once in `row_ids`, if any.
+///
+/// The already-sorted case is the common one for row id sequences, and is
+/// checked in a single pass without allocating.
+fn find_duplicate(row_ids: &[u64]) -> Option<u64> {
+    if row_ids.windows(2).all(|pair| pair[0] < pair[1]) {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let mut sorted = row_ids.to_vec();
+    sorted.sort_unstable();
+    sorted
+        .windows(2)
+        .find(|pair| pair[0] == pair[1])
+        .map(|pair| pair[0])
+}
+
 impl RowIdSequence {
     pub fn new() -> Self {
         Self::default()
     }
 
+    /// Build a sequence from row ids, rejecting duplicates within the sequence.
+    ///
+    /// The segment encodings represent a sorted run as a range plus its holes,
+    /// so a repeated value would be silently encoded as a shorter sequence with
+    /// a spurious hole. Callers assembling a sequence from untrusted input
+    /// should use this instead of the infallible `From` conversions, which
+    /// assume uniqueness.
+    ///
+    /// Row ids must also be unique across the dataset. That is not checked
+    /// here, and commit does not re-check it either.
+    pub fn try_from_iter(row_ids: impl IntoIterator<Item = u64>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = row_ids.into_iter().collect();
+        if row_ids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Self::new());
+        }
+        if let Some(duplicate) = find_duplicate(&row_ids) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Row ids must be unique, but row id {} appears more than once in the sequence of {} row ids",
+                duplicate,
+                row_ids.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self(vec![U64Segment::from_iter(row_ids)]))
+    }
+
     pub fn iter(&self) -> impl DoubleEndedIterator<Item = u64> + '_ {
         self.0.iter().flat_map(|segment| segment.iter())
     }
@@ -120,6 +276,29 @@ impl RowIdSequence {
         self.0.is_empty()
     }
 
+    /// Returns the bounding range `[min, max]` across all row IDs in this sequence,
+    /// or `None` if the sequence contains no values.
+    ///
+    /// This is a conservative bounding box: a value falling within the returned range
+    /// is not guaranteed to exist in the sequence (segments may be sparse), but any
+    /// value that *does* exist is guaranteed to fall within the range.  This makes
+    /// the result suitable as a cheap pre-filter before a full scan.
+    pub fn row_id_range(&self) -> Option<RangeInclusive<u64>> {
+        let min = self
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|s| s.range())
+            .map(|r| *r.start())
+            .min()?;
+        let max = self
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|s| s.range())
+            .map(|r| *r.end())
+            .max()?;
+        Some(min..=max)
+    }
+
     /// Combines this row id sequence with another row id sequence.
     pub fn extend(&mut self, other: Self) {
         // If the last element of this sequence and the first element of next
@@ -127,19 +306,37 @@ impl RowIdSequence {
         // range.
         if let (Some(U64Segment::Range(range1)), Some(U64Segment::Range(range2))) =
             (self.0.last(), other.0.first())
+            && range1.end == range2.start
         {
-            if range1.end == range2.start {
-                let new_range = U64Segment::Range(range1.start..range2.end);
-                self.0.pop();
-                self.0.push(new_range);
-                self.0.extend(other.0.into_iter().skip(1));
-                return;
-            }
+            let new_range = U64Segment::Range(range1.start..range2.end);
+            self.0.pop();
+            self.0.push(new_range);
+            self.0.extend(other.0.into_iter().skip(1));
+            return;
         }
         // TODO: add other optimizations, such as combining two RangeWithHoles.
         self.0.extend(other.0);
     }
 
+    /// Re-encode every segment that is smaller as a run of `Range` segments
+    /// than as it is stored now (see [`U64Segment::as_ranges`]). Returns
+    /// whether anything changed.
+    ///
+    /// The result is written as plain `Range` segments, which every reader
+    /// understands, but a reader without the compact in-memory form handles
+    /// thousands of segments per fragment slowly, so this is only called for
+    /// tables that opted in.
+    pub fn use_range_segments(&mut self) -> bool {
+        let mut changed = false;
+        for segment in &mut self.0 {
+            if let Some(ranges) = segment.as_ranges() {
+                *segment = ranges;
+                changed = true;
+            }
+        }
+        changed
+    }
+
     /// Remove a set of row ids from the sequence.
     pub fn delete(&mut self, row_ids: impl IntoIterator<Item = u64>) {
         // Order the row ids by position in which they appear in the sequence.
@@ -219,10 +416,10 @@ impl RowIdSequence {
             // If we've cycled through all segments, we know the row id is not in the sequence.
             while i < self.0.len() {
                 let (segment_idx, segment) = segment_iter.next().unwrap();
-                if segment.range().is_some_and(|range| range.contains(&row_id)) {
-                    if let Some(offset) = segment.position(row_id) {
-                        segment_matches.get_mut(segment_idx).unwrap().push(offset);
-                    }
+                if segment.range().is_some_and(|range| range.contains(&row_id))
+                    && let Some(offset) = segment.position(row_id)
+                {
+                    segment_matches.get_mut(segment_idx).unwrap().push(offset);
                     // The row id was not found it the segment. It might be in a later segment.
                 }
                 i += 1;
@@ -299,6 +496,11 @@ impl RowIdSequence {
     /// Get the row id at the given index.
     ///
     /// If the index is out of bounds, this will return None.
+    /// The segments backing the sequence, in offset order.
+    pub fn segments(&self) -> &[U64Segment] {
+        &self.0
+    }
+
     pub fn get(&self, index: usize) -> Option<u64> {
         let mut offset = 0;
         for segment in &self.0 {
@@ -322,31 +524,71 @@ impl RowIdSequence {
         &'a self,
         selection: impl Iterator<Item = usize> + 'a,
     ) -> impl Iterator<Item = u64> + 'a {
-        let mut seg_iter = self.0.iter();
-        let mut cur_seg = seg_iter.next();
-        let mut rows_passed = 0;
-        let mut cur_seg_len = cur_seg.map(|seg| seg.len()).unwrap_or(0);
-        let mut last_index = 0;
+        let mut cursor = RowIdSequenceCursor::default();
+        let mut last_index = None;
         selection.filter_map(move |index| {
-            if index < last_index {
+            if last_index.is_some_and(|last| index < last) {
                 panic!("Selection is not sorted");
             }
-            last_index = index;
+            last_index = Some(index);
+            cursor.get(self, index)
+        })
+    }
 
-            cur_seg?;
+    pub(crate) fn cursor(&self) -> RowIdSequenceCursor {
+        RowIdSequenceCursor::default()
+    }
 
-            while (index - rows_passed) >= cur_seg_len {
-                rows_passed += cur_seg_len;
-                cur_seg = seg_iter.next();
-                if let Some(cur_seg) = cur_seg {
-                    cur_seg_len = cur_seg.len();
-                } else {
-                    return None;
-                }
-            }
+    /// Choose the dense decoder once for a stream and reuse its cardinality.
+    ///
+    /// A stream uses one decoder for its lifetime, so multi-segment sequences
+    /// conservatively retain the sparse path. For a single bitmap segment, the
+    /// cardinality computed for the density decision seeds the cursor instead
+    /// of scanning the bitmap again on the first batch.
+    pub(crate) fn cursor_with_dense_range_expansion(&self) -> (RowIdSequenceCursor, bool) {
+        let mut cursor = self.cursor();
+        let [segment @ U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { .. }] = self.0.as_slice() else {
+            return (cursor, false);
+        };
+        let segment_len = segment.len();
+        cursor.segment_len = Some(segment_len);
+        let use_dense_range_expansion = segment.use_dense_range_expansion(segment_len);
+        (cursor, use_dense_range_expansion)
+    }
 
-            Some(cur_seg.unwrap().get(index - rows_passed).unwrap())
-        })
+    /// Get a contiguous range of row ids while preserving scan state from a
+    /// previous call.
+    pub(crate) fn select_range_with_cursor(
+        &self,
+        cursor: &mut RowIdSequenceCursor,
+        selection: Range<usize>,
+    ) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(selection.len());
+        cursor.extend_range(self, selection, &mut row_ids);
+        row_ids
+    }
+
+    /// Get a contiguous range from a sequence whose bitmap segments are dense.
+    pub(crate) fn select_dense_range_with_cursor(
+        &self,
+        cursor: &mut RowIdSequenceCursor,
+        selection: Range<usize>,
+    ) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(selection.len());
+        cursor.extend_dense_range(self, selection, &mut row_ids);
+        row_ids
+    }
+
+    /// Get row ids while preserving scan state from a previous call.
+    ///
+    /// Decreasing offsets are supported by rewinding the cursor. This matters
+    /// for take requests, whose indices are not required to be sorted.
+    pub(crate) fn select_with_cursor<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        cursor: &'a mut RowIdSequenceCursor,
+        selection: impl Iterator<Item = usize> + 'a,
+    ) -> impl Iterator<Item = u64> + 'a {
+        selection.filter_map(move |index| cursor.get(self, index))
     }
 
     /// Given a mask of row ids, calculate the offset ranges of the row ids that are present
@@ -367,14 +609,39 @@ impl RowIdSequence {
     pub fn mask_to_offset_ranges(&self, mask: &RowAddrMask) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
         let mut offset = 0;
         let mut ranges = Vec::new();
+        let finite_allow_list = mask
+            .allow_list()
+            .and_then(|allow_list| allow_list.len().map(|len| (allow_list, len)));
+        // Bitmap segment count/span and the shared selection below are
+        // computed lazily on the first bitmap segment: masks and sequences
+        // that never reach the per-id path pay nothing extra.
+        let mut bitmap_info: Option<(u64, u64)> = None;
+        let mut shared_cache: Option<Option<Vec<u64>>> = None;
         for segment in &self.0 {
             match segment {
                 U64Segment::Range(range) => {
                     let mut ids = RowAddrTreeMap::from(range.clone());
                     ids.mask(mask);
-                    ranges.extend(GroupingIterator::new(
-                        unsafe { ids.into_addr_iter() }.map(|addr| addr - range.start + offset),
-                    ));
+                    // Range-aware path: walk the bitmap's runs directly via
+                    // iter_runs so the per-row cost collapses to per-run cost.
+                    let mut cur: Option<Range<u64>> = None;
+                    for (fragment, run) in ids.iter_runs() {
+                        let frag = u64::from(fragment);
+                        let run_start = (frag << 32) | u64::from(*run.start());
+                        let run_end_excl = (frag << 32) | (u64::from(*run.end()) + 1);
+                        let start = run_start - range.start + offset;
+                        let end = run_end_excl - range.start + offset;
+                        match cur.as_mut() {
+                            Some(c) if c.end == start => c.end = end,
+                            Some(c) => {
+                                ranges.push(std::mem::replace(c, start..end));
+                            }
+                            None => cur = Some(start..end),
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if let Some(c) = cur {
+                        ranges.push(c);
+                    }
                     offset += range.end - range.start;
                 }
                 U64Segment::RangeWithHoles { range, holes } => {
@@ -393,21 +660,84 @@ impl RowIdSequence {
                     sorted_holes.sort_unstable();
                     let mut next_holes_iter = sorted_holes.into_iter().peekable();
                     let mut holes_passed = 0;
-                    ranges.extend(GroupingIterator::new(unsafe { ids.into_addr_iter() }.map(
-                        |addr| {
-                            while let Some(next_hole) = next_holes_iter.peek() {
-                                if *next_hole < addr {
-                                    next_holes_iter.next();
-                                    holes_passed += 1;
-                                } else {
-                                    break;
-                                }
+                    ranges.extend(GroupingIterator::new(ids.into_addr_iter().map(|addr| {
+                        while let Some(next_hole) = next_holes_iter.peek() {
+                            if *next_hole < addr {
+                                next_holes_iter.next();
+                                holes_passed += 1;
+                            } else {
+                                break;
                             }
-                            addr - range.start + offset_start - holes_passed
-                        },
-                    )));
+                        }
+                        addr - range.start + offset_start - holes_passed
+                    })));
                 }
                 U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } => {
+                    // When the mask is a finite allow-list, walk the selected
+                    // ids directly instead of materializing the whole range.
+                    // `row_addrs()` yields addresses in sorted order, so bitmap
+                    // prefix counts accumulate incrementally. Per-id work grows
+                    // with the selection size while the range path grows with
+                    // the bitmap span, so selections broader than the span keep
+                    // the old range-based path below (a heuristic holding each
+                    // call near the old cost), as do masks without finite
+                    // cardinality (e.g. full-fragment markers).
+                    if let Some((allow_list, num_selected)) = finite_allow_list {
+                        // Count/span computed once, on first use, so masks and
+                        // sequences that never take this path pay nothing extra.
+                        let (bitmap_segments, bitmap_span) =
+                            *bitmap_info.get_or_insert_with(|| {
+                                let mut info = (0u64, 0u64);
+                                for segment in &self.0 {
+                                    if let U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { range, .. } = segment {
+                                        info.0 += 1;
+                                        info.1 += range.end - range.start;
+                                    }
+                                }
+                                info
+                            });
+                        if num_selected <= bitmap_span {
+                            // Rescanning the whole selection in every bitmap
+                            // segment would cost O(segments x selected). With
+                            // more than one bitmap segment, the sorted selection
+                            // is materialized once so each segment only visits
+                            // its own id range (binary search); a single bitmap
+                            // segment streams the selection directly with no copy.
+                            let offset_start = offset;
+                            if bitmap_segments > 1 {
+                                let cached = shared_cache.get_or_insert_with(|| {
+                                    allow_list
+                                        .row_addrs()
+                                        .map(|selected| selected.map(u64::from).collect())
+                                });
+                                if let Some(ids) = cached {
+                                    offset += bitmap.count_ones() as u64;
+                                    let start = ids.partition_point(|id| *id < range.start);
+                                    let end = ids.partition_point(|id| *id < range.end);
+                                    ranges.extend(bitmap_selected_offsets(
+                                        ids[start..end].iter().copied(),
+                                        range,
+                                        bitmap,
+                                        offset_start,
+                                    ));
+                                    continue;
+                                }
+                            } else if let Some(selected) = allow_list.row_addrs() {
+                                offset += bitmap.count_ones() as u64;
+                                let in_range = selected.filter_map(|address| {
+                                    let row_id = u64::from(address);
+                                    range.contains(&row_id).then_some(row_id)
+                                });
+                                ranges.extend(bitmap_selected_offsets(
+                                    in_range,
+                                    range,
+                                    bitmap,
+                                    offset_start,
+                                ));
+                                continue;
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
                     let mut ids = RowAddrTreeMap::from(range.clone());
                     let offset_start = offset;
                     offset += range.end - range.start;
@@ -420,18 +750,34 @@ impl RowIdSequence {
                     let mut bitmap_iter = bitmap.iter();
                     let mut bitmap_iter_pos = 0;
                     let mut holes_passed = 0;
-                    ranges.extend(GroupingIterator::new(unsafe { ids.into_addr_iter() }.map(
-                        |addr| {
-                            let offset_no_holes = addr - range.start + offset_start;
-                            while bitmap_iter_pos < offset_no_holes {
-                                if !bitmap_iter.next().unwrap() {
-                                    holes_passed += 1;
-                                }
-                                bitmap_iter_pos += 1;
+                    ranges.extend(GroupingIterator::new(ids.into_addr_iter().map(|addr| {
+                        let position_in_range = addr - range.start;
+                        while bitmap_iter_pos < position_in_range {
+                            if !bitmap_iter.next().unwrap() {
+                                holes_passed += 1;
                             }
-                            offset_no_holes - holes_passed
-                        },
-                    )));
+                            bitmap_iter_pos += 1;
+                        }
+                        offset_start + position_in_range - holes_passed
+                    })));
+                }
+                U64Segment::Ranges { range, runs } => {
+                    let offset_start = offset;
+                    offset += runs.present_len() as u64;
+                    let mut ids = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+                    for present in runs.present_ranges() {
+                        ids.insert_range(
+                            (range.start + present.start as u64)
+                                ..(range.start + present.end as u64),
+                        );
+                    }
+                    ids.mask(mask);
+                    ranges.extend(GroupingIterator::new(ids.into_addr_iter().map(|addr| {
+                        let position = runs
+                            .position((addr - range.start) as u32)
+                            .expect("addresses were inserted from the present ranges");
+                        offset_start + position as u64
+                    })));
                 }
                 U64Segment::SortedArray(array) | U64Segment::Array(array) => {
                     // TODO: Could probably optimize the sorted array case to be O(N) instead of O(N log N)
@@ -491,34 +837,69 @@ impl<I: Iterator<Item = u64>> Iterator for GroupingIterator<I> {
     }
 }
 
+/// Offsets of sorted `ids` (all within `range`) via incremental bitmap
+/// prefix counts, grouped into ranges. Every id is visited once; the bitmap
+/// slice between consecutive ids is popcounted exactly once overall.
+fn bitmap_selected_offsets(
+    ids: impl Iterator<Item = u64>,
+    range: &Range<u64>,
+    bitmap: &bitmap::Bitmap,
+    offset_start: u64,
+) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+    let mut previous_position = 0;
+    let mut live_before = 0;
+    let selected_offsets = ids.filter_map(|row_id| {
+        let position = (row_id - range.start) as usize;
+        if !bitmap.get(position) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        live_before += bitmap
+            .slice(previous_position, position - previous_position)
+            .count_ones();
+        previous_position = position;
+        Some(offset_start + live_before as u64)
+    });
+    GroupingIterator::new(selected_offsets).collect()
+}
+
 impl From<&RowIdSequence> for RowAddrTreeMap {
     fn from(row_ids: &RowIdSequence) -> Self {
         let mut tree_map = Self::new();
         for segment in &row_ids.0 {
+            let mut seg = Self::new();
             match segment {
                 U64Segment::Range(range) => {
-                    tree_map.insert_range(range.clone());
+                    seg.insert_range(range.clone());
                 }
                 U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } => {
-                    tree_map.insert_range(range.clone());
+                    seg.insert_range(range.clone());
                     for (i, val) in range.clone().enumerate() {
                         if !bitmap.get(i) {
-                            tree_map.remove(val);
+                            seg.remove(val);
                         }
                     }
                 }
                 U64Segment::RangeWithHoles { range, holes } => {
-                    tree_map.insert_range(range.clone());
+                    seg.insert_range(range.clone());
                     for hole in holes.iter() {
-                        tree_map.remove(hole);
+                        seg.remove(hole);
+                    }
+                }
+                U64Segment::Ranges { range, runs } => {
+                    for present in runs.present_ranges() {
+                        seg.insert_range(
+                            (range.start + present.start as u64)
+                                ..(range.start + present.end as u64),
+                        );
                     }
                 }
                 U64Segment::SortedArray(array) | U64Segment::Array(array) => {
                     for val in array.iter() {
-                        tree_map.insert(val);
+                        seg.insert(val);
                     }
                 }
             }
+            tree_map |= seg;
         }
         tree_map
     }
@@ -590,23 +971,17 @@ pub fn rechunk_sequences(
         .peekable();
 
     let too_few_segments_error = |chunk_index: usize, expected_chunk_size: u64, remaining: u64| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Got too few segments for chunk {}. Expected chunk size: {}, remaining needed: {}",
-                chunk_index, expected_chunk_size, remaining
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        )
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Got too few segments for chunk {}. Expected chunk size: {}, remaining needed: {}",
+            chunk_index, expected_chunk_size, remaining
+        ))
     };
 
     let too_many_segments_error = |processed_chunks: usize, total_chunk_sizes: usize| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Got too many segments for the provided chunk lengths. Processed {} chunks out of {} expected",
-                processed_chunks, total_chunk_sizes
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        )
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Got too many segments for the provided chunk lengths. Processed {} chunks out of {} expected",
+            processed_chunks, total_chunk_sizes
+        ))
     };
 
     let mut segment_offset = 0_u64;
@@ -682,27 +1057,36 @@ pub fn select_row_ids<'a>(
     offsets: &'a ReadBatchParams,
 ) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
     let out_of_bounds_err = |offset: u32| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Index out of bounds: {} for sequence of length {}",
-                offset,
-                sequence.len()
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        )
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Index out of bounds: {} for sequence of length {}",
+            offset,
+            sequence.len()
+        ))
     };
 
     match offsets {
-        // TODO: Optimize this if indices are sorted, which is a common case.
-        ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => indices
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|index| {
-                sequence
-                    .get(*index as usize)
-                    .ok_or_else(|| out_of_bounds_err(*index))
-            })
-            .collect(),
+        ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => {
+            let indices = indices.values();
+            if indices.windows(2).all(|pair| pair[0] <= pair[1]) {
+                // `select` drops out-of-bounds indices instead of erroring.
+                if let Some(&last) = indices.last()
+                    && last as u64 >= sequence.len()
+                {
+                    return Err(out_of_bounds_err(last));
+                }
+                return Ok(sequence
+                    .select(indices.iter().map(|&index| index as usize))
+                    .collect());
+            }
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .map(|index| {
+                    sequence
+                        .get(*index as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| out_of_bounds_err(*index))
+                })
+                .collect()
+        }
         ReadBatchParams::Range(range) => {
             if range.end > sequence.len() as usize {
                 return Err(out_of_bounds_err(range.end as u32));
@@ -760,6 +1144,50 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(iter.collect::<Vec<_>>(), (0..10).collect::<Vec<_>>());
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::sorted_contiguous(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])]
+    #[case::sorted_with_gaps(vec![0, 2, 4])]
+    #[case::sparse(vec![0, 1_000_000])]
+    #[case::unsorted(vec![12, 11, 10])]
+    fn test_row_id_sequence_try_from_iter(#[case] row_ids: Vec<u64>) {
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(row_ids.clone()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sequence.len(), row_ids.len() as u64);
+        assert_eq!(sequence.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), row_ids);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_sequence_try_from_iter_contiguous_is_a_range() {
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(0..10).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sequence.0, vec![U64Segment::Range(0..10)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_sequence_try_from_iter_empty() {
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(std::iter::empty()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 0);
+        assert!(sequence.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::adjacent(vec![1, 1, 2])]
+    #[case::separated(vec![1, 2, 3, 1])]
+    #[case::unsorted(vec![5, 3, 5])]
+    fn test_row_id_sequence_try_from_iter_rejects_duplicates(#[case] row_ids: Vec<u64>) {
+        // Without validation these encode to a shorter sequence with a spurious
+        // hole rather than failing, so assert the error rather than the output.
+        let error = RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(row_ids).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {:?}",
+            error
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("must be unique"),
+            "unexpected message: {}",
+            error
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_row_id_sequence_extend() {
         let mut sequence = RowIdSequence::from(0..10);
@@ -909,6 +1337,7 @@ mod test {
         // All forms of offsets
         let offsets = [
             ReadBatchParams::Indices(vec![1, 3, 9, 5, 7, 6].into()),
+            ReadBatchParams::Indices(vec![1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9].into()),
             ReadBatchParams::Range(2..8),
             ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
             ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(..5),
@@ -974,6 +1403,7 @@ mod test {
     fn test_select_row_ids_out_of_bounds() {
         let offsets = [
             ReadBatchParams::Indices(vec![1, 1000, 4].into()),
+            ReadBatchParams::Indices(vec![1, 4, 1000].into()),
             ReadBatchParams::Range(2..1000),
             ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(..1000),
         ];
@@ -1014,6 +1444,27 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(tree_map, expected);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_sequence_to_treemap_overlapping_segments() {
+        // Compaction can concatenate segments whose ranges overlap but whose
+        // selected ids are disjoint (here: even ids, then odd ids over 0..6).
+        // The tree map must contain every id the sequence yields.
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![
+            U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                range: 0..6,
+                bitmap: [true, false, true, false, true, false].as_slice().into(),
+            },
+            U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                range: 0..6,
+                bitmap: [false, true, false, true, false, true].as_slice().into(),
+            },
+        ]);
+
+        let expected = sequence.iter().collect::<RowAddrTreeMap>();
+        assert_eq!(expected, (0..6).collect::<RowAddrTreeMap>());
+        assert_eq!(RowAddrTreeMap::from(&sequence), expected);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_row_addr_mask() {
         // 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
@@ -1085,15 +1536,187 @@ mod test {
     fn test_selection() {
         let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![
             U64Segment::Range(0..5),
-            U64Segment::Range(10..15),
-            U64Segment::Range(20..25),
+            U64Segment::RangeWithHoles {
+                range: 10..16,
+                holes: vec![12].into(),
+            },
+            U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                range: 20..28,
+                bitmap: [true, false, true, true, false, true, false, true]
+                    .as_slice()
+                    .into(),
+            },
+            U64Segment::SortedArray(vec![40, 42, 45].into()),
+            U64Segment::Array(vec![60, 50, 70].into()),
         ]);
+        let live = sequence.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let selection = sequence.select(vec![2, 4, 13, 14, 57].into_iter());
-        assert_eq!(selection.collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![2, 4, 23, 24]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            selection.collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![live[2], live[4], live[13], live[14]]
+        );
+
+        for chunk_size in [1, 3, 7, 16] {
+            let mut cursor = sequence.cursor();
+            let mut chunked = Vec::new();
+            for start in (0..live.len()).step_by(chunk_size) {
+                let end = (start + chunk_size).min(live.len());
+                chunked.extend(sequence.select_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, start..end));
+            }
+            assert_eq!(chunked, live);
+        }
+
+        let mut cursor = sequence.cursor();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.select_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, 6..19),
+            live[6..19]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.select_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, 1..8),
+            live[1..8]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.select_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, live.len() - 2..live.len() + 5),
+            live[live.len() - 2..]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_selection_over_bitmap_segments() {
+        let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_full(40);
+        for hole in [3, 4, 17, 39] {
+            bitmap.clear(hole);
+        }
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![
+            U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                range: 100..140,
+                bitmap,
+            },
+            U64Segment::Range(200..205),
+        ]);
+        let live: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
+        assert_eq!(live.len(), 41);
+
+        // Every index, one cursor pass.
+        let all = sequence.select(0..live.len()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(all, live);
+        // Sparse, repeated, and past-the-end indices agree with the full pass.
+        let picks = vec![0, 2, 3, 3, 15, 16, 35, 36, 40, 99];
+        let got = sequence.select(picks.iter().copied()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let want: Vec<u64> = picks.iter().filter_map(|&i| live.get(i).copied()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(got, want);
+
+        let mut cursor = sequence.cursor();
+        let mut chunked = Vec::new();
+        for range in [0..7, 7..30, 30..live.len()] {
+            chunked.extend(sequence.select_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, range));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(chunked, live);
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.select_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, 2..6),
+            live[2..6]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dense_range_cursor_selection() {
+        let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_full(40);
+        for hole in [3, 4, 17, 39] {
+            bitmap.clear(hole);
+        }
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+            range: 100..140,
+            bitmap,
+        }]);
+        let expected = sequence.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let (mut cursor, use_dense_range_expansion) = sequence.cursor_with_dense_range_expansion();
+        assert!(use_dense_range_expansion);
+        assert_eq!(cursor.segment_len, Some(expected.len()));
+
+        let mut actual = Vec::new();
+        for selection in [0..7, 7..8, 8..31, 31..expected.len() + 5] {
+            actual.extend(sequence.select_dense_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, selection));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.select_dense_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, 2..9),
+            expected[2..9]
+        );
+
+        let mut sparse_bitmap = Bitmap::new_empty(40);
+        for value in (0..40).step_by(2) {
+            sparse_bitmap.set(value);
+        }
+        let sparse = RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+            range: 0..40,
+            bitmap: sparse_bitmap,
+        }]);
+        let (sparse_cursor, use_dense_range_expansion) = sparse.cursor_with_dense_range_expansion();
+        assert!(!use_dense_range_expansion);
+        assert_eq!(sparse_cursor.segment_len, Some(20));
+
+        let mut multiple_segments = sequence.clone();
+        multiple_segments.extend(RowIdSequence::from(200..205));
+        let (multiple_cursor, use_dense_range_expansion) =
+            multiple_segments.cursor_with_dense_range_expansion();
+        assert!(!use_dense_range_expansion);
+        assert_eq!(multiple_cursor.segment_len, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_selection_over_a_large_bitmap_segment() {
+        // A restart-per-index scan of this segment takes tens of seconds, so a
+        // regression to that shows up as a test that no longer finishes quickly.
+        const ROWS: usize = 1_000_000;
+        let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_full(ROWS);
+        for hole in (0..ROWS).step_by(17) {
+            bitmap.clear(hole);
+        }
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![
+            U64Segment::Range(0..8),
+            U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                range: 1_000..(1_000 + ROWS as u64),
+                bitmap,
+            },
+        ]);
+        let live: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
+
+        let all = sequence.select(0..live.len()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(all, live);
+
+        // Byte-boundary and tail indices, read through one cursor.
+        let mut picks: Vec<usize> = [0, 7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 63, 64, 65]
+            .into_iter()
+            .chain((0..live.len()).step_by(9973))
+            .chain([live.len() - 1, live.len()])
+            .collect();
+        picks.sort_unstable();
+        let got = sequence.select(picks.iter().copied()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let want: Vec<u64> = picks.iter().filter_map(|&i| live.get(i).copied()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(got, want);
+
+        let tail_start = live.len() - 100_000;
+        let mut cursor = sequence.cursor();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.select_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, tail_start..live.len()),
+            live[tail_start..]
+        );
+
+        for chunk_size in [1, 7, 8, 9, 1_024, 4_097] {
+            let mut cursor = sequence.cursor();
+            let mut chunked = Vec::with_capacity(live.len() - tail_start);
+            let mut start = tail_start;
+            while start < live.len() {
+                let end = (start + chunk_size).min(live.len());
+                chunked.extend(sequence.select_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, start..end));
+                start = end;
+            }
+            assert_eq!(chunked, live[tail_start..]);
+        }
     }
 
     #[test]
-    #[should_panic]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "Selection is not sorted")]
     fn test_selection_unsorted() {
         let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![
             U64Segment::Range(0..5),
@@ -1179,6 +1802,41 @@ mod test {
         let ranges = sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&mask);
         assert_eq!(ranges, vec![0..2]);
 
+        // Sparse selections across bitmap bytes must count earlier live ids,
+        // skip holes, and include the preceding segment's offset.
+        let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_full(1_024);
+        for hole in [3, 7, 64, 1_000] {
+            bitmap.clear(hole);
+        }
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![
+            U64Segment::Range(0..5),
+            U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                range: 1_000..2_024,
+                bitmap,
+            },
+        ]);
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[
+            999, 1_002, 1_003, 1_063, 1_064, 1_065, 2_000, 2_023, 2_024,
+        ]));
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&mask),
+            vec![7..8, 66..68, 1_024..1_025]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            sequence
+                .mask_to_offset_ranges(&RowAddrMask::allow_nothing())
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        let missing = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[999, 2_024]));
+        assert!(sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&missing).is_empty());
+
+        // A full-fragment allow-list has no finite cardinality and uses the
+        // range-based path.
+        let mut full_fragment = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        full_fragment.insert_fragment(0);
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(full_fragment);
+        assert_eq!(sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&mask), vec![0..5, 5..1_025]);
+
         // Test with a sorted array segment
         let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::SortedArray(vec![0, 2, 4, 6, 8].into())]);
         let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[0, 6, 8]));
@@ -1219,6 +1877,245 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(ranges, vec![]);
     }
 
+    /// Brute-force oracle for `mask_to_offset_ranges`: expand every live id
+    /// in order and keep the offsets selected by the mask. It shares no logic
+    /// with the optimized paths, so agreement proves semantic equivalence.
+    /// Like the implementation, offsets are grouped per segment, so ranges
+    /// adjacent across a segment boundary stay split (e.g. `0..5, 5..1025`).
+    fn oracle_mask_to_offset_ranges(
+        sequence: &RowIdSequence,
+        mask: &RowAddrMask,
+    ) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+        let mut ranges = Vec::new();
+        let mut offset = 0u64;
+        for segment in &sequence.0 {
+            let selected = segment
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .filter_map(|(i, row_id)| mask.selected(row_id).then_some(offset + i as u64));
+            ranges.extend(GroupingIterator::new(selected));
+            offset += segment.len() as u64;
+        }
+        ranges
+    }
+
+    /// Deterministic xorshift64* generator; keeps randomized tests free of new
+    /// dev-dependencies.
+    struct TestRng(u64);
+
+    impl TestRng {
+        fn next(&mut self) -> u64 {
+            let mut x = self.0.max(1);
+            x ^= x >> 12;
+            x ^= x << 25;
+            x ^= x >> 27;
+            self.0 = x;
+            x.wrapping_mul(0x2545_F491_4F6C_DD1D)
+        }
+
+        fn below(&mut self, bound: u64) -> u64 {
+            debug_assert!(bound > 0);
+            self.next() % bound
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Random multi-segment sequence over disjoint id ranges. Returns the
+    /// sequence, every hole id (in-span but absent), and the first id past
+    /// the end, for mask generation.
+    fn random_sequence(rng: &mut TestRng) -> (RowIdSequence, Vec<u64>, u64) {
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        let mut holes = Vec::new();
+        let mut cursor = rng.below(1_000);
+        for _ in 0..(1 + rng.below(4)) {
+            match rng.below(5) {
+                // Contiguous range.
+                0 => {
+                    let span = 1 + rng.below(300);
+                    segments.push(U64Segment::Range(cursor..cursor + span));
+                    cursor += span;
+                }
+                // Bitmap with 10%-90% holes; first slot stays live so the
+                // segment is never empty.
+                1 | 2 => {
+                    let span = (50 + rng.below(1_950)) as usize;
+                    let hole_pct = 10 + rng.below(81);
+                    let present: Vec<bool> = (0..span)
+                        .map(|i| i == 0 || rng.next() % 100 >= hole_pct)
+                        .collect();
+                    for (i, live) in present.iter().enumerate() {
+                        if !live {
+                            holes.push(cursor + i as u64);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    segments.push(U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                        range: cursor..cursor + span as u64,
+                        bitmap: present.as_slice().into(),
+                    });
+                    cursor += span as u64;
+                }
+                // Range with a few holes.
+                3 => {
+                    let span = 20 + rng.below(180);
+                    let mut hole_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..1 + rng.below(5).min(span - 1))
+                        .map(|_| cursor + rng.below(span))
+                        .collect();
+                    hole_ids.sort_unstable();
+                    hole_ids.dedup();
+                    if hole_ids.len() as u64 == span {
+                        hole_ids.pop();
+                    }
+                    holes.extend(hole_ids.clone());
+                    segments.push(U64Segment::RangeWithHoles {
+                        range: cursor..cursor + span,
+                        holes: hole_ids.into(),
+                    });
+                    cursor += span;
+                }
+                // Sorted or unsorted array of a few ids.
+                _ => {
+                    let count = 1 + rng.below(8);
+                    let span = count * 3 + 1;
+                    let mut ids: Vec<u64> = (0..count).map(|_| cursor + rng.below(span)).collect();
+                    ids.sort_unstable();
+                    ids.dedup();
+                    if rng.below(2) == 0 {
+                        // Fisher-Yates shuffle for the unsorted encoding.
+                        for i in (1..ids.len()).rev() {
+                            ids.swap(i, rng.below(i as u64 + 1) as usize);
+                        }
+                        segments.push(U64Segment::Array(ids.into()));
+                    } else {
+                        segments.push(U64Segment::SortedArray(ids.into()));
+                    }
+                    cursor += span;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        (RowIdSequence(segments), holes, cursor)
+    }
+
+    /// Random allow-list mixing live ids, hole ids, and ids outside every
+    /// segment.
+    fn random_allow_mask(
+        rng: &mut TestRng,
+        live: &[u64],
+        holes: &[u64],
+        past_end: u64,
+        count: usize,
+    ) -> RowAddrMask {
+        let mut ids = Vec::with_capacity(count);
+        for _ in 0..count {
+            match rng.below(10) {
+                0..=5 => ids.push(live[rng.below(live.len() as u64) as usize]),
+                6..=7 if !holes.is_empty() => {
+                    ids.push(holes[rng.below(holes.len() as u64) as usize])
+                }
+                8 if live[0] > 0 => ids.push(live[0] - 1 - rng.below(live[0].min(500))),
+                _ => ids.push(past_end + rng.below(500)),
+            }
+        }
+        RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(ids.as_slice()))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_mask_to_offset_ranges_matches_brute_force() {
+        for seed in 0..50u64 {
+            let mut rng = TestRng(seed);
+            let (sequence, holes, past_end) = random_sequence(&mut rng);
+            let live: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
+            assert!(!live.is_empty(), "seed {seed} generated no live ids");
+
+            let blocked: Vec<u64> = (0..30.min(live.len()))
+                .map(|_| live[rng.below(live.len() as u64) as usize])
+                .collect();
+            let mut masks = vec![
+                RowAddrMask::allow_nothing(),
+                RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(live.as_slice())),
+                RowAddrMask::default(),
+                RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::new()),
+                RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(blocked.as_slice())),
+            ];
+            for _ in 0..3 {
+                let count = 1 + rng.below(20) as usize;
+                masks.push(random_allow_mask(&mut rng, &live, &holes, past_end, count));
+            }
+            let medium = live.len().clamp(1, 1_000);
+            masks.push(random_allow_mask(&mut rng, &live, &holes, past_end, medium));
+            // Broader than the bitmap span: keeps the old range-based path.
+            let min_live = live.iter().min().copied().unwrap_or(0);
+            let cover = past_end.saturating_sub(min_live).max(1);
+            let mut broad: Vec<u64> = live.clone();
+            broad.extend(past_end..past_end + 2 * cover + 50);
+            masks.push(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+                broad.as_slice(),
+            )));
+            // Only missing ids: holes plus ids outside every segment.
+            if holes.is_empty() {
+                let beyond: Vec<u64> = (0..50).map(|i| past_end + i).collect();
+                masks.push(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+                    beyond.as_slice(),
+                )));
+            } else {
+                masks.push(random_allow_mask(&mut rng, &holes, &holes, past_end, 50));
+            }
+
+            for (i, mask) in masks.iter().enumerate() {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(mask),
+                    oracle_mask_to_offset_ranges(&sequence, mask),
+                    "seed {seed} mask {i}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_mask_to_offset_ranges_multiple_bitmap_segments() {
+        // Live ids and their offsets:
+        // seg0 Range(0..5):                0..5      -> offsets 0..5
+        // seg1 bitmap 100..110, holes
+        //   102, 107: 100,101,103,104,105,106,108,109 -> offsets 5..13
+        // seg2 bitmap 200..205, hole 200: 201,202,203,204 -> offsets 13..17
+        let bitmap_a: Vec<bool> = (0..10).map(|i| i != 2 && i != 7).collect();
+        let bitmap_b: Vec<bool> = (0..5).map(|i| i != 0).collect();
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![
+            U64Segment::Range(0..5),
+            U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                range: 100..110,
+                bitmap: bitmap_a.as_slice().into(),
+            },
+            U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                range: 200..205,
+                bitmap: bitmap_b.as_slice().into(),
+            },
+        ]);
+        // Hits in every segment plus hole ids (102, 107, 200) and ids
+        // outside every segment (50, 1_000).
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[
+            0, 4, 100, 103, 109, 201, 204, 102, 107, 200, 50, 1_000,
+        ]));
+        let ranges = sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&mask);
+        // Offsets 0, 4, 5, 7, 12, 13, 16. Ranges stay split at the segment
+        // boundaries (4..5 vs 5..6, 12..13 vs 13..14), matching the old path.
+        assert_eq!(ranges, vec![0..1, 4..5, 5..6, 7..8, 12..13, 13..14, 16..17]);
+        assert_eq!(ranges, oracle_mask_to_offset_ranges(&sequence, &mask));
+        // A mask with no live ids selects nothing even across segments.
+        let missing = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[102, 200, 50, 1_000]));
+        assert!(sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&missing).is_empty());
+
+        // A selection broader than the bitmap span (17 live + 100 beyond
+        // every segment) keeps the old range-based path; results must match.
+        let mut broad: Vec<u64> = (0..5).collect();
+        broad.extend((100..110).filter(|id| *id != 102 && *id != 107));
+        broad.extend(201..205);
+        broad.extend(10_000..10_100);
+        let broad_mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(broad.as_slice()));
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&broad_mask),
+            oracle_mask_to_offset_ranges(&sequence, &broad_mask)
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_row_id_sequence_rechunk_with_empty_segments() {
         // equal case (segment exactly fills remaining space)
@@ -1319,4 +2216,94 @@ mod test {
         let elements: Vec<u64> = result[0].iter().collect();
         assert_eq!(elements, vec![0, 1]);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_range_empty() {
+        let seq = RowIdSequence::from(0u64..0);
+        assert_eq!(seq.row_id_range(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_range_single_contiguous() {
+        let seq = RowIdSequence::from(10u64..20);
+        assert_eq!(seq.row_id_range(), Some(10..=19));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_range_unsorted_array() {
+        // Array variant: range() returns min..=max as bounding box
+        let seq = RowIdSequence::from([50u64, 10, 30].as_slice());
+        let r = seq.row_id_range().unwrap();
+        assert!(*r.start() <= 10);
+        assert!(*r.end() >= 50);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_id_range_multi_segment() {
+        // Two disjoint ranges; bounding box should span both
+        let mut seq = RowIdSequence::from(0u64..5);
+        seq.extend(RowIdSequence::from(100u64..105));
+        let r = seq.row_id_range().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*r.start(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(*r.end(), 104);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_range_segments_sequence_matches_bitmap_sequence() {
+        let live: Vec<u64> = (0..600u64)
+            .filter(|v| !(50..250).contains(v) && !(300..310).contains(v))
+            .collect();
+        let bitmap_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(live.as_slice());
+        assert!(matches!(
+            bitmap_sequence.0.as_slice(),
+            [U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { .. }]
+        ));
+        let mut runs_sequence = bitmap_sequence.clone();
+        assert!(runs_sequence.use_range_segments());
+        assert!(matches!(
+            runs_sequence.0.as_slice(),
+            [U64Segment::Ranges { .. }]
+        ));
+        // Idempotent: a second pass has nothing left to convert.
+        let again = runs_sequence.clone();
+        assert!(!runs_sequence.use_range_segments());
+        assert_eq!(runs_sequence, again);
+
+        assert_eq!(runs_sequence.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), live);
+        assert_eq!(runs_sequence.len(), bitmap_sequence.len());
+        let mut cursor = runs_sequence.cursor();
+        let mut chunked = Vec::new();
+        for start in (0..live.len()).step_by(37) {
+            let end = (start + 37).min(live.len());
+            chunked.extend(runs_sequence.select_range_with_cursor(&mut cursor, start..end));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(chunked, live);
+        let picks = [0usize, 5, 49, 50, 300];
+        assert_eq!(
+            runs_sequence
+                .select(picks.iter().copied())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            bitmap_sequence
+                .select(picks.iter().copied())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+
+        for mask in [
+            RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[0, 49, 50, 100, 250, 251, 599])),
+            RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(&[0, 250, 305, 599])),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                runs_sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&mask),
+                bitmap_sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&mask)
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from(&runs_sequence),
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from(&bitmap_sequence)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_row_ids(write_row_ids(&runs_sequence).as_slice()).unwrap(),
+            runs_sequence
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/bitmap.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/bitmap.rs
index 9001c04c3a0..180f648fd2c 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/bitmap.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/bitmap.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub struct Bitmap {
@@ -9,6 +9,17 @@ pub struct Bitmap {
     pub len: usize,
 }
 
+/// Set bits in `data`, counted a word at a time.
+pub(super) fn count_ones(data: &[u8]) -> usize {
+    let (words, tail) = data.as_chunks::<8>();
+    let full: usize = words
+        .iter()
+        .map(|word| u64::from_le_bytes(*word).count_ones() as usize)
+        .sum();
+    let tail: usize = tail.iter().map(|byte| byte.count_ones() as usize).sum();
+    full + tail
+}
+
 impl std::fmt::Debug for Bitmap {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
         write!(f, "Bitmap {{ data: ")?;
@@ -22,7 +33,7 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for Bitmap {
 impl Bitmap {
     pub fn new_empty(len: usize) -> Self {
         let data = vec![0; len.div_ceil(8)];
-        Self { data, len }
+        Self::from_parts(data, len)
     }
 
     pub fn new_full(len: usize) -> Self {
@@ -37,9 +48,22 @@ impl Bitmap {
                 *last_byte &= !(1 << i);
             }
         }
+        Self::from_parts(data, len)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn from_parts(data: Vec<u8>, len: usize) -> Self {
         Self { data, len }
     }
 
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn bytes(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        &self.data
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn into_bytes(self) -> Vec<u8> {
+        self.data
+    }
+
     pub fn set(&mut self, i: usize) {
         self.data[i / 8] |= 1 << (i % 8);
     }
@@ -65,7 +89,7 @@ impl Bitmap {
     }
 
     pub fn count_ones(&self) -> usize {
-        self.data.iter().map(|&x| x.count_ones() as usize).sum()
+        count_ones(&self.data)
     }
 
     pub fn count_zeros(&self) -> usize {
@@ -132,10 +156,7 @@ impl BitmapSlice<'_> {
             }
 
             // Middle bytes can just use count_ones
-            count += self.bitmap.data[first_byte + 1..last_byte]
-                .iter()
-                .map(|&x| x.count_ones() as usize)
-                .sum::<usize>();
+            count += count_ones(&self.bitmap.data[first_byte + 1..last_byte]);
             count
         }
     }
@@ -191,6 +212,29 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(bitmap_slice.count_ones(), 2);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_count_ones_spans_words_and_tail() {
+        for len in [1_usize, 7, 8, 63, 64, 65, 130] {
+            let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_empty(len);
+            for i in (0..len).step_by(3) {
+                bitmap.set(i);
+            }
+            assert_eq!(bitmap.count_ones(), len.div_ceil(3), "len {len}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_count_ones_tracks_direct_data_mutation() {
+        let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_empty(16);
+        assert_eq!(bitmap.count_ones(), 0);
+
+        bitmap.data[0] = 0b1010_0101;
+        assert_eq!(bitmap.count_ones(), 4);
+
+        bitmap.data[1] = 0xff;
+        assert_eq!(bitmap.count_ones(), 12);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_equality() {
         for len in 48..56 {
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/encoded_array.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/encoded_array.rs
index 06614765af1..7564cb6bb21 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/encoded_array.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/encoded_array.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 use std::ops::Range;
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 
 /// Encoded array of u64 values.
 ///
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/index.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/index.rs
index 736296bca30..c4d7b8f3771 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/index.rs
@@ -4,13 +4,28 @@
 use std::ops::RangeInclusive;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use super::bitmap::{Bitmap, count_ones};
 use super::{RowIdSequence, U64Segment};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
-use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use rangemap::RangeInclusiveMap;
 
+/// Fragments one lookup may have to probe before the merged map is worth its
+/// build, whatever that build costs. A compacted table interleaves its
+/// fragments, and one measured at 46.
+const MAX_PROBE_DEPTH: u64 = 64;
+
+/// Row ids the merged build may read before probing is worth its per-lookup
+/// cost instead.
+const MERGE_ROWS_BUDGET: u64 = 1 << 20;
+
+/// Bitmap bytes summarized by one entry of a bitmap rank directory. A lookup
+/// counts at most this many bytes; the directory costs one `u32` per block,
+/// 1/64 of the bitmap.
+const RANK_BLOCK_BYTES: usize = 256;
+
 /// An index of row ids
 ///
 /// This index is used to map row ids to their corresponding addresses. These
@@ -20,11 +35,23 @@ use rangemap::RangeInclusiveMap;
 /// map to addresses that have been tombstoned. A separate tombstone index is
 /// used to track tombstoned rows.
 // (Implementation)
-// Disjoint ranges of row ids are stored as the keys of the map. The values are
-// a pair of segments. The first segment is the row ids, and the second segment
-// is the addresses.
+// Two representations answer the same lookups, chosen once by `new`. The merged
+// map keys disjoint ranges of row ids to a pair of segments, the row ids and
+// the addresses, and reads every row id to build. A probe instead reads each
+// segment's bounds and asks the covering segment for the position of the id;
+// `new` takes that when few fragments cover one id and the merged build would
+// read a lot of them.
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct RowIdIndex(RangeInclusiveMap<u64, (U64Segment, U64Segment)>);
+pub struct RowIdIndex {
+    /// Fragments that hold at least one row id, sorted by their lowest row id.
+    fragments: Vec<FragmentEntry>,
+    /// Max-`end` heap over `fragments`: `end_tree[1]` is the root and leaf `i`
+    /// sits at `end_tree[len() / 2 + i]`.
+    end_tree: Vec<u64>,
+    merged: Option<MergedIndex>,
+}
+
+type MergedIndex = RangeInclusiveMap<u64, (U64Segment, U64Segment)>;
 
 pub struct FragmentRowIdIndex {
     pub fragment_id: u32,
@@ -35,7 +62,34 @@ pub struct FragmentRowIdIndex {
 impl RowIdIndex {
     /// Create a new index from a list of fragment ids and their corresponding row id sequences.
     pub fn new(fragment_indices: &[FragmentRowIdIndex]) -> Result<Self> {
-        let chunks = fragment_indices
+        let mut fragments: Vec<FragmentEntry> = fragment_indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(FragmentEntry::new)
+            .collect();
+        fragments.sort_unstable_by_key(|entry| entry.start);
+
+        let mut index = Self {
+            end_tree: build_end_tree(&fragments),
+            fragments,
+            merged: None,
+        };
+        if !probing_beats_merging(&index.fragments) {
+            index.merged = Some(index.build_merged()?);
+        }
+        Ok(index)
+    }
+
+    fn build_merged(&self) -> Result<MergedIndex> {
+        let sources: Vec<FragmentRowIdIndex> = self
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|entry| FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                fragment_id: entry.fragment_id,
+                row_id_sequence: entry.sequence.clone(),
+                deletion_vector: entry.deletion_vector.clone(),
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let chunks = sources
             .iter()
             .flat_map(decompose_sequence)
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
@@ -46,49 +100,402 @@ impl RowIdIndex {
                 RawIndexChunk::NonOverlapping(chunk) => {
                     final_chunks.push(chunk);
                 }
-                RawIndexChunk::Overlapping(range, overlapping_chunks) => {
-                    debug_assert_eq!(
-                        range.end() - range.start() + 1,
-                        overlapping_chunks
-                            .iter()
-                            .map(|(_, (seq, _))| seq.len() as u64)
-                            .sum::<u64>(),
-                        "Wrong range for {:?}, chunks: {:?}",
-                        range,
-                        overlapping_chunks,
-                    );
-                    // Merge overlapping chunks.
+                RawIndexChunk::Overlapping(_range, overlapping_chunks) => {
+                    // Intersecting row-id ranges don't imply intersecting id sets;
+                    // sparse ids and deletion holes leave the union short of the span.
+                    // The real invariant (no id in two fragments) is checked in the merge.
                     let merged_chunk = merge_overlapping_chunks(overlapping_chunks)?;
                     final_chunks.push(merged_chunk);
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        Ok(Self(RangeInclusiveMap::from_iter(final_chunks)))
+        Ok(RangeInclusiveMap::from_iter(final_chunks))
     }
 
     /// Get the address for a given row id.
     ///
     /// Will return None if the row id does not exist in the index.
-    pub fn get(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<RowAddress> {
-        let (row_id_segment, address_segment) = self.0.get(&row_id)?;
-        let pos = row_id_segment.position(row_id)?;
-        let address = address_segment.get(pos)?;
-        Some(RowAddress::from(address))
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if the row id is live in more than one fragment,
+    /// which means the stable row ids are corrupt.
+    pub fn get(&self, row_id: u64) -> Result<Option<RowAddress>> {
+        if let Some(merged) = &self.merged {
+            return Ok(merged_get(merged, row_id));
+        }
+        self.probe(row_id)
+    }
+
+    /// Get addresses for many row ids in one pass over the index.
+    ///
+    /// Returns one entry per input id, in input order (`None` for missing).
+    /// Sorts a working copy of the input internally so the chunk iterator
+    /// is advanced at most once per chunk, amortizing the per-id tree walk
+    /// from O(N · log F) to O(F + N).
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if any requested row id is live in more than one
+    /// fragment, which means the stable row ids are corrupt.
+    pub fn get_many(&self, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<RowAddress>>> {
+        let n = row_ids.len();
+        let mut out = vec![None; n];
+        if n == 0 {
+            return Ok(out);
+        }
+
+        let mut sorted: Vec<(u64, usize)> = row_ids.iter().copied().zip(0..n).collect();
+        sorted.sort_unstable_by_key(|&(id, _)| id);
+
+        let Some(merged) = &self.merged else {
+            // Sorted ids keep one fragment and its segments warm across the run.
+            for (id, orig_idx) in sorted {
+                out[orig_idx] = self.probe(id)?;
+            }
+            return Ok(out);
+        };
+
+        let mut chunks = merged.iter().peekable();
+        for (id, orig_idx) in sorted {
+            // Advance past chunks that end before this id.
+            while let Some((range, _)) = chunks.peek() {
+                if *range.end() < id {
+                    chunks.next();
+                } else {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            let Some((range, (row_id_seg, addr_seg))) = chunks.peek() else {
+                break;
+            };
+            if id < *range.start() {
+                continue; // falls in a gap between chunks
+            }
+            if let Some(pos) = row_id_seg.position(id)
+                && let Some(addr) = addr_seg.get(pos)
+            {
+                out[orig_idx] = Some(RowAddress::from(addr));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+
+    /// Address of `row_id`, from the fragment that holds it live. Descends the
+    /// max-`end` tree, so a fragment out of reach of the id costs nothing.
+    ///
+    /// Visits every candidate rather than stopping at the first hit, and
+    /// errors when a second fragment holds the id live.
+    fn probe(&self, row_id: u64) -> Result<Option<RowAddress>> {
+        let fragments = self.fragments.len();
+        if fragments == 0 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        // Only a fragment that starts at or below the id can hold it.
+        let upper = self
+            .fragments
+            .partition_point(|entry| entry.start <= row_id);
+        if upper == 0 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let mut found: Option<RowAddress> = None;
+        // Depth-first, left to right, without a stack: `node` covers `width`
+        // slots from `lo`. A pruned subtree or a visited leaf moves on to the
+        // next subtree: up while `node` is a right child, then over to the
+        // sibling.
+        let (mut node, mut lo, mut width) = (1usize, 0usize, self.end_tree.len() / 2);
+        loop {
+            if lo >= upper {
+                // Every slot from here on starts above the id.
+                break;
+            }
+            if self.end_tree[node] >= row_id {
+                if width > 1 {
+                    node *= 2;
+                    width /= 2;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if lo < fragments
+                    && let Some(candidate) = self.fragments[lo].resolve(row_id)
+                {
+                    if found.is_some() {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "row id index corrupt: stable row id {row_id} is \
+                             live in multiple fragments",
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    found = Some(candidate);
+                }
+            }
+            while node & 1 == 1 {
+                if node == 1 {
+                    return Ok(found);
+                }
+                node /= 2;
+                lo -= width;
+                width *= 2;
+            }
+            node += 1;
+            lo += width;
+        }
+        Ok(found)
+    }
+}
+
+fn merged_get(merged: &MergedIndex, row_id: u64) -> Option<RowAddress> {
+    let (row_id_segment, address_segment) = merged.get(&row_id)?;
+    let pos = row_id_segment.position(row_id)?;
+    let address = address_segment.get(pos)?;
+    Some(RowAddress::from(address))
+}
+
+/// One segment of a sequence, and the offset its first row sits at.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SegmentEntry {
+    seq_idx: usize,
+    range: RangeInclusive<u64>,
+    start_offset: u32,
+    lookup: SegmentLookup,
+}
+
+/// How a [`SegmentEntry`] finds the position of a row id.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum SegmentLookup {
+    /// The encoding searches itself in logarithmic or constant time.
+    Native,
+    /// Row id to position for an unsorted [`U64Segment::Array`], whose own
+    /// `position` scans.
+    Positions(Vec<(u64, u32)>),
+    /// Set bits before each [`RANK_BLOCK_BYTES`] block of a
+    /// [`U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap`] bitmap, whose own `position` counts
+    /// the whole prefix.
+    BitmapRank(Vec<u32>),
+}
+
+impl SegmentEntry {
+    /// Position of `row_id` in this segment, or `None` if it holds no such id.
+    fn position(&self, sequence: &RowIdSequence, row_id: u64) -> Option<usize> {
+        let segment = &sequence.0[self.seq_idx];
+        match &self.lookup {
+            SegmentLookup::Native => segment.position(row_id),
+            SegmentLookup::Positions(positions) => positions
+                .binary_search_by_key(&row_id, |(id, _)| *id)
+                .ok()
+                .map(|found| positions[found].1 as usize),
+            SegmentLookup::BitmapRank(rank) => {
+                let U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } = segment else {
+                    return None;
+                };
+                if !range.contains(&row_id) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let offset = (row_id - range.start) as usize;
+                if !bitmap.get(offset) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let block_start = offset / (RANK_BLOCK_BYTES * 8) * (RANK_BLOCK_BYTES * 8);
+                let ones_before = rank[offset / (RANK_BLOCK_BYTES * 8)] as usize
+                    + bitmap.slice(block_start, offset - block_start).count_ones();
+                Some(ones_before)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The lookup structure for `segment`, and the ids it holds. A bitmap's rank
+/// directory counts its ones on the way, so the segment is read once.
+fn build_lookup(segment: &U64Segment) -> (SegmentLookup, usize) {
+    match segment {
+        U64Segment::Array(_) => {
+            let mut positions: Vec<(u64, u32)> = segment
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(position, row_id)| (row_id, position as u32))
+                .collect();
+            positions.sort_unstable();
+            // The first position of a repeated id wins, as `position` does.
+            positions.dedup_by_key(|(row_id, _)| *row_id);
+            (SegmentLookup::Positions(positions), segment.len())
+        }
+        U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { bitmap, .. } => {
+            let (rank, ones) = build_bitmap_rank(bitmap);
+            (SegmentLookup::BitmapRank(rank), ones)
+        }
+        _ => (SegmentLookup::Native, segment.len()),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Set bits before each [`RANK_BLOCK_BYTES`] block of `bitmap`, and in total.
+fn build_bitmap_rank(bitmap: &Bitmap) -> (Vec<u32>, usize) {
+    let mut rank = Vec::with_capacity(bitmap.data.len().div_ceil(RANK_BLOCK_BYTES));
+    let mut ones = 0usize;
+    for block in bitmap.data.chunks(RANK_BLOCK_BYTES) {
+        rank.push(ones as u32);
+        ones += count_ones(block);
+    }
+    (rank, ones)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FragmentEntry {
+    fragment_id: u32,
+    sequence: Arc<RowIdSequence>,
+    deletion_vector: Arc<DeletionVector>,
+    segments: Vec<SegmentEntry>,
+    start: u64,
+    end: u64,
+    /// Row ids the merged build reads one by one.
+    merge_rows: u64,
+}
+
+impl FragmentEntry {
+    fn new(source: &FragmentRowIdIndex) -> Option<Self> {
+        let mut segments: Vec<SegmentEntry> = Vec::new();
+        let mut start_offset: u32 = 0;
+        let mut merge_rows: u64 = 0;
+        let deleted = !source.deletion_vector.is_empty();
+        for (seq_idx, segment) in source.row_id_sequence.0.iter().enumerate() {
+            let (lookup, len) = build_lookup(segment);
+            // A `Range` without deletions decomposes in constant time.
+            if deleted || !matches!(segment, U64Segment::Range(_)) {
+                merge_rows += len as u64;
+            }
+            // `range()` reports the span of a holed encoding, so ask `len` which
+            // ids the segment actually holds before trusting those bounds.
+            if len > 0
+                && let Some(range) = segment.range()
+            {
+                segments.push(SegmentEntry {
+                    seq_idx,
+                    range,
+                    start_offset,
+                    lookup,
+                });
+            }
+            start_offset += len as u32;
+        }
+        let start = segments.iter().map(|entry| *entry.range.start()).min()?;
+        let end = segments.iter().map(|entry| *entry.range.end()).max()?;
+        Some(Self {
+            fragment_id: source.fragment_id,
+            sequence: source.row_id_sequence.clone(),
+            deletion_vector: source.deletion_vector.clone(),
+            segments,
+            start,
+            end,
+            merge_rows,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Address of `row_id` here, or `None` when the fragment lacks it or holds
+    /// it deleted.
+    fn resolve(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<RowAddress> {
+        for entry in &self.segments {
+            if !entry.range.contains(&row_id) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(position) = entry.position(&self.sequence, row_id) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let row_offset = entry.start_offset + position as u32;
+            if self.deletion_vector.contains(row_offset) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            return Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(self.fragment_id, row_offset));
+        }
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether to answer lookups by probing the fragments rather than by merging
+/// every row id.
+///
+/// Probing costs the fragments that cover one id, per lookup; merging costs the
+/// row ids it reads, once. So probe only when both stay on the right side of
+/// [`MAX_PROBE_DEPTH`] and [`MERGE_ROWS_BUDGET`].
+fn probing_beats_merging(fragments: &[FragmentEntry]) -> bool {
+    let merge_rows: u64 = fragments.iter().map(|entry| entry.merge_rows).sum();
+    merge_rows > MERGE_ROWS_BUDGET && max_overlap_depth(fragments) <= MAX_PROBE_DEPTH
+}
+
+/// Most fragments that cover any one row id.
+fn max_overlap_depth(fragments: &[FragmentEntry]) -> u64 {
+    let mut ends: Vec<u64> = fragments.iter().map(|entry| entry.end).collect();
+    ends.sort_unstable();
+    let mut closed = 0;
+    let mut depth: u64 = 0;
+    for (opened, entry) in fragments.iter().enumerate() {
+        while closed < ends.len() && ends[closed] < entry.start {
+            closed += 1;
+        }
+        depth = depth.max((opened + 1 - closed) as u64);
+    }
+    depth
+}
+
+/// Implicit max-`end` heap over `fragments`, padded to a power of two. Padding
+/// leaves hold 0, which prunes for every id above 0 and is filtered by slot.
+fn build_end_tree(fragments: &[FragmentEntry]) -> Vec<u64> {
+    if fragments.is_empty() {
+        return Vec::new();
     }
+    let leaves = fragments.len().next_power_of_two();
+    let mut tree = vec![0_u64; 2 * leaves];
+    for (slot, entry) in fragments.iter().enumerate() {
+        tree[leaves + slot] = entry.end;
+    }
+    for node in (1..leaves).rev() {
+        tree[node] = tree[2 * node].max(tree[2 * node + 1]);
+    }
+    tree
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for RowIdIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.0
+    /// Charges the sequences and deletion vectors the `Arc`s keep alive, which
+    /// a sequence cached under its own key is charged for as well.
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        let fragment_bytes: usize = self
+            .fragments
             .iter()
-            .map(|(_, (row_id_segment, address_segment))| {
-                (2 * std::mem::size_of::<u64>())
-                    + std::mem::size_of::<(U64Segment, U64Segment)>()
-                    + row_id_segment.deep_size_of_children(context)
-                    + address_segment.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            .map(|entry| {
+                entry.sequence.deep_size_of_children(context)
+                    + entry.deletion_vector.deep_size_of_children(context)
+                    + entry.segments.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<SegmentEntry>()
+                    + entry
+                        .segments
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|segment| match &segment.lookup {
+                            SegmentLookup::Native => 0,
+                            SegmentLookup::Positions(positions) => {
+                                positions.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<(u64, u32)>()
+                            }
+                            SegmentLookup::BitmapRank(rank) => {
+                                rank.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>()
+                            }
+                        })
+                        .sum::<usize>()
+            })
+            .sum();
+        let merged_bytes: usize = self
+            .merged
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|merged| {
+                merged
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(_, (row_id_segment, address_segment))| {
+                        (2 * std::mem::size_of::<u64>())
+                            + std::mem::size_of::<(U64Segment, U64Segment)>()
+                            + row_id_segment.deep_size_of_children(context)
+                            + address_segment.deep_size_of_children(context)
+                    })
+                    .sum()
             })
-            .sum()
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        fragment_bytes
+            + merged_bytes
+            + self.fragments.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<FragmentEntry>()
+            + self.end_tree.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
     }
 }
 
@@ -97,6 +504,7 @@ fn decompose_sequence(
 ) -> Vec<(RangeInclusive<u64>, (U64Segment, U64Segment))> {
     let mut start_address: u64 = RowAddress::first_row(frag_index.fragment_id).into();
     let mut current_offset = 0u32;
+    let no_deletions = frag_index.deletion_vector.is_empty();
 
     frag_index
         .row_id_sequence
@@ -105,38 +513,83 @@ fn decompose_sequence(
         .filter_map(|segment| {
             let segment_len = segment.len();
 
-            let active_pairs: Vec<(u64, u64)> = segment
-                .iter()
-                .enumerate()
-                .filter_map(|(i, row_id)| {
-                    let row_offset = current_offset + i as u32;
-                    if !frag_index.deletion_vector.contains(row_offset) {
-                        let address = start_address + i as u64;
-                        Some((row_id, address))
-                    } else {
-                        None
-                    }
-                })
-                .collect();
+            let result = if no_deletions {
+                decompose_segment_no_deletions(segment, start_address)
+            } else {
+                decompose_segment_with_deletions(
+                    segment,
+                    start_address,
+                    current_offset,
+                    &frag_index.deletion_vector,
+                )
+            };
 
             current_offset += segment_len as u32;
             start_address += segment_len as u64;
 
-            if active_pairs.is_empty() {
-                return None;
-            }
-
-            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = active_pairs.iter().map(|(rid, _)| *rid).collect();
-            let addresses: Vec<u64> = active_pairs.iter().map(|(_, addr)| *addr).collect();
-
-            let row_id_segment = U64Segment::from_iter(row_ids.iter().copied());
-            let address_segment = U64Segment::from_iter(addresses.iter().copied());
+            result
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
 
-            let coverage = row_id_segment.range()?;
+/// Build an IndexChunk from a list of (row_id, address) pairs.
+fn build_chunk_from_pairs(mut pairs: Vec<(u64, u64)>) -> Option<IndexChunk> {
+    if pairs.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    // Sorted, so the row id segment encodes as one a lookup can search rather
+    // than an `Array` it has to scan. The address segment follows the pairing.
+    pairs.sort_unstable_by_key(|(row_id, _)| *row_id);
+    let (row_ids, addresses): (Vec<u64>, Vec<u64>) = pairs.into_iter().unzip();
+    let row_id_segment = U64Segment::from_iter(row_ids);
+    let address_segment = U64Segment::from_iter(addresses);
+    let coverage = row_id_segment.range()?;
+    Some((coverage, (row_id_segment, address_segment)))
+}
 
+/// Fast path: no deletions. O(1) for Range segments.
+fn decompose_segment_no_deletions(segment: &U64Segment, start_address: u64) -> Option<IndexChunk> {
+    match segment {
+        U64Segment::Range(range) if !range.is_empty() => {
+            let len = range.end - range.start;
+            let row_id_segment = U64Segment::Range(range.clone());
+            let address_segment = U64Segment::Range(start_address..start_address + len);
+            let coverage = range.start..=range.end - 1;
             Some((coverage, (row_id_segment, address_segment)))
+        }
+        _ if segment.is_empty() => None,
+        _ => {
+            // Non-Range segments: must iterate to build address mapping.
+            let pairs: Vec<(u64, u64)> = segment
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(i, row_id)| (row_id, start_address + i as u64))
+                .collect();
+            build_chunk_from_pairs(pairs)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Slow path: has deletions, must check each row.
+fn decompose_segment_with_deletions(
+    segment: &U64Segment,
+    start_address: u64,
+    current_offset: u32,
+    deletion_vector: &DeletionVector,
+) -> Option<IndexChunk> {
+    let pairs: Vec<(u64, u64)> = segment
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter_map(|(i, row_id)| {
+            let row_offset = current_offset + i as u32;
+            if !deletion_vector.contains(row_offset) {
+                Some((row_id, start_address + i as u64))
+            } else {
+                None
+            }
         })
-        .collect()
+        .collect();
+    build_chunk_from_pairs(pairs)
 }
 
 type IndexChunk = (RangeInclusive<u64>, (U64Segment, U64Segment));
@@ -273,6 +726,14 @@ fn merge_overlapping_chunks(overlapping_chunks: Vec<IndexChunk>) -> Result<Index
         values.extend(row_ids.iter().zip(row_addrs.iter()));
     }
     values.sort_by_key(|(row_id, _)| *row_id);
+    // A duplicate row id here means two fragments claim the same live id: a
+    // corrupt index, not a resolvable sparse-coverage case.
+    if let Some(w) = values.windows(2).find(|w| w[0].0 == w[1].0) {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "row id index corrupt: stable row id {} is live in multiple fragments",
+            w[0].0
+        )));
+    }
     let row_id_segment = U64Segment::from_iter(values.iter().map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id));
     let address_segment = U64Segment::from_iter(values.iter().map(|(_, row_addr)| *row_addr));
 
@@ -281,10 +742,163 @@ fn merge_overlapping_chunks(overlapping_chunks: Vec<IndexChunk>) -> Result<Index
     Ok((range, (row_id_segment, address_segment)))
 }
 
+#[cfg(test)]
+impl RowIdIndex {
+    /// Index that answers from the probe path, whatever the gate decided.
+    fn probing(fragment_indices: &[FragmentRowIdIndex]) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut fragments: Vec<FragmentEntry> = fragment_indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(FragmentEntry::new)
+            .collect();
+        fragments.sort_unstable_by_key(|entry| entry.start);
+        Ok(Self {
+            end_tree: build_end_tree(&fragments),
+            fragments,
+            merged: None,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use proptest::{prelude::Strategy, prop_assert_eq};
+    use proptest::{
+        prelude::{Just, Strategy, any},
+        prop_assert, prop_assert_eq,
+    };
+
+    /// Sequence of `len` even row ids, held as a sorted array.
+    fn sparse_sequence(len: u64) -> RowIdSequence {
+        RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::SortedArray(
+            (0..len).map(|value| value * 2).collect::<Vec<u64>>().into(),
+        )])
+    }
+
+    fn fragment(fragment_id: u32, sequence: RowIdSequence) -> FragmentRowIdIndex {
+        FragmentRowIdIndex {
+            fragment_id,
+            row_id_sequence: Arc::new(sequence),
+            deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_new_builds_the_merged_map_unless_probing_wins() {
+        // Ranges decompose in constant time, and a small sequence is cheap to
+        // read whatever its encoding.
+        let ranges = fragment(1, RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::Range(0..1_000_000)]));
+        assert!(RowIdIndex::new(&[ranges]).unwrap().merged.is_some());
+        let small = fragment(1, sparse_sequence(16));
+        assert!(RowIdIndex::new(&[small]).unwrap().merged.is_some());
+
+        // Past the row budget, with one fragment covering any id.
+        let wide = fragment(1, sparse_sequence(MERGE_ROWS_BUDGET + 1));
+        let index = RowIdIndex::new(&[wide]).unwrap();
+        assert!(index.merged.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(6).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 3))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_deep_overlap_merges_however_many_rows_it_reads() {
+        // Just past the row budget in total, interleaved so every fragment
+        // covers every id: the depth alone forces the merged build.
+        let fragments = MAX_PROBE_DEPTH + 1;
+        let rows_per_fragment = MERGE_ROWS_BUDGET / fragments + 1;
+        let deep: Vec<FragmentRowIdIndex> = (0..fragments as u32)
+            .map(|id| {
+                let ids: Vec<u64> = (0..rows_per_fragment)
+                    .map(|value| value * fragments + id as u64)
+                    .collect();
+                fragment(id, RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::SortedArray(ids.into())]))
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        assert!(RowIdIndex::new(&deep).unwrap().merged.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_probe_resolves_a_row_id_the_merged_map_rejects() {
+        let sources = [
+            fragment(1, RowIdSequence::from(&[0, 2][..])),
+            fragment(2, RowIdSequence::from(&[1, 2][..])),
+        ];
+        assert!(RowIdIndex::new(&sources).is_err());
+
+        let index = RowIdIndex::probing(&sources[..1]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(2).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 1))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_probe_errors_when_two_fragments_hold_an_id_live() {
+        let sources = [
+            fragment(1, RowIdSequence::from(&[0, 2][..])),
+            fragment(2, RowIdSequence::from(&[1, 2][..])),
+        ];
+        let index = RowIdIndex::probing(&sources).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(0).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0))
+        );
+
+        let error = index.get(2).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("stable row id 2 is live in multiple fragments")
+        );
+
+        let error = index.get_many(&[0, 2]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_probe_ranks_a_bitmap_wider_than_one_block() {
+        // Three rank blocks and a partial fourth, with every third slot a hole,
+        // so each lookup combines a directory entry with a partial popcount.
+        let span = (RANK_BLOCK_BYTES * 8 * 3 + 17) as u64;
+        let present: Vec<bool> = (0..span).map(|slot| slot % 3 != 1).collect();
+        let segment = U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+            range: 1000..1000 + span,
+            bitmap: present.as_slice().into(),
+        };
+        let index = RowIdIndex::probing(&[fragment(7, RowIdSequence(vec![segment]))]).unwrap();
+        let mut position = 0;
+        for slot in 0..span {
+            let found = index.get(1000 + slot).unwrap();
+            if slot % 3 == 1 {
+                assert_eq!(found, None);
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(found, Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(7, position)));
+                position += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(index.get(999).unwrap(), None);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(1000 + span).unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_probe_finds_every_position_of_an_unsorted_array() {
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..2048).map(|value| (value * 7919) % 2048).collect();
+        let index = RowIdIndex::probing(&[fragment(
+            3,
+            RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::Array(row_ids.clone().into())]),
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        for (offset, row_id) in row_ids.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                index.get(*row_id).unwrap(),
+                Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, offset as u32))
+            );
+        }
+        assert!(index.merged.is_none());
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_new_index() {
@@ -317,14 +931,32 @@ mod tests {
         let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
 
         // Check various queries.
-        assert_eq!(index.get(0), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(15), None);
-        assert_eq!(index.get(16), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 14)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(17), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(25), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 16)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(40), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 2)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(60), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 4)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(61), None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(0).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(index.get(15).unwrap(), None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(16).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 14))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(17).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(25).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 16))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(40).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 2))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(60).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 4))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(index.get(61).unwrap(), None);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -356,15 +988,42 @@ mod tests {
         let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
 
         // Check various queries.
-        assert_eq!(index.get(1), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(2), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(42, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(3), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(23, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(4), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 1)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(5), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(42, 1)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(6), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(23, 1)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(7), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 2)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(8), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(42, 2)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(9), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(23, 2)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(1).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(2).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(42, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(3).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(23, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(4).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(5).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(42, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(6).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(23, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(7).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 2))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(8).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(42, 2))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(9).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(23, 2))
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -397,19 +1056,46 @@ mod tests {
         let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
 
         // Check that all row ids can be found regardless of their order in the segments
-        assert_eq!(index.get(1), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 1)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(2), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 1)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(3), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 1)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(4), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 2)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(5), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 2)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(6), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 2)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(7), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(8), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(9), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(1).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(2).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(3).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(4).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 2))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(5).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 2))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(6).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 2))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(7).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(8).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(9).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0))
+        );
 
         // Check that non-existent row ids return None
-        assert_eq!(index.get(0), None);
-        assert_eq!(index.get(10), None);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(0).unwrap(), None);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(10).unwrap(), None);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -433,11 +1119,82 @@ mod tests {
         let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
 
         // Check various queries.
-        assert_eq!(index.get(0), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(49), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 49)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(50), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(51), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 50)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(99), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 98)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(0).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(49).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 49))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(50).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(51).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 50))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(99).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 98))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_overlapping_chunks_sparse_with_deletions() {
+        // Interleaved (overlapping) id ranges plus a deletion that leaves a hole,
+        // so the union doesn't tile the span. Every live id must still resolve.
+        let fragment_indices = vec![
+            FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                fragment_id: 10,
+                row_id_sequence: Arc::new(RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::SortedArray(
+                    vec![1, 3, 5, 7, 9].into(),
+                )])),
+                deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
+            },
+            FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                fragment_id: 20,
+                row_id_sequence: Arc::new(RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::SortedArray(
+                    vec![0, 2, 4, 6, 8].into(),
+                )])),
+                // Delete offset 2 (id 4) -> a hole in the span.
+                deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::from_iter(vec![2])),
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(0).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(1).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(2).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(3).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(index.get(4).unwrap(), None);
+        // Surviving ids keep their original offsets (the hole is not compacted).
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(6).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 3))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(8).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 4))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(9).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 4))
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -452,13 +1209,25 @@ mod tests {
 
         let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(index.get(0), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(1), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 1)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(4), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 4)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(5), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 5)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(0).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(1).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(4).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 4))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(5).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 5))
+        );
 
-        assert_eq!(index.get(2), None);
-        assert_eq!(index.get(3), None);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(2).unwrap(), None);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(3).unwrap(), None);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -478,9 +1247,15 @@ mod tests {
 
         let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(index.get(5), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(7), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 2)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(4), None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(5).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(7).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 2))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(index.get(4).unwrap(), None);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -488,8 +1263,8 @@ mod tests {
         let fragment_indices = vec![];
         let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(index.get(0), None);
-        assert_eq!(index.get(100), None);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(0).unwrap(), None);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(100).unwrap(), None);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -514,12 +1289,30 @@ mod tests {
 
         let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(index.get(0), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(4), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 4)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(5), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(9), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 4)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(10), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 0)));
-        assert_eq!(index.get(14), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 4)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(0).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(4).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 4))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(5).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(9).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(20, 4))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(10).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(14).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(30, 4))
+        );
     }
 
     fn arbitrary_row_ids(
@@ -547,31 +1340,302 @@ mod tests {
         })
     }
 
+    fn arbitrary_row_ids_with_deletions(
+        num_fragments_range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+        frag_size_range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+    ) -> impl Strategy<Value = Vec<(u32, Arc<RowIdSequence>, Arc<DeletionVector>)>> {
+        arbitrary_row_ids(num_fragments_range, frag_size_range)
+            .prop_flat_map(|row_ids| {
+                let num_rows = row_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(_, sequence)| sequence.len() as usize)
+                    .sum::<usize>();
+                (
+                    Just(row_ids),
+                    proptest::collection::vec(any::<bool>(), num_rows),
+                )
+            })
+            .prop_map(|(row_ids, deleted_rows)| {
+                let mut deleted_rows = deleted_rows.into_iter();
+                row_ids
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|(fragment_id, sequence)| {
+                        let mut deletion_bitmap = roaring::RoaringBitmap::new();
+                        for offset in 0..sequence.len() as u32 {
+                            if deleted_rows.next().unwrap() {
+                                deletion_bitmap.insert(offset);
+                            }
+                        }
+                        (
+                            fragment_id,
+                            sequence,
+                            Arc::new(DeletionVector::Bitmap(deletion_bitmap)),
+                        )
+                    })
+                    .collect()
+            })
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_large_range_segments_no_deletions() {
+        // Simulates a real-world scenario: many fragments with large Range segments
+        // and no deletions. Before optimization, this would iterate over all rows
+        // (O(total_rows)). After optimization, it's O(num_fragments).
+        let rows_per_fragment = 250_000u64;
+        let num_fragments = 100u32;
+        let mut offset = 0u64;
+
+        let fragment_indices: Vec<FragmentRowIdIndex> = (0..num_fragments)
+            .map(|frag_id| {
+                let start = offset;
+                offset += rows_per_fragment;
+                FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                    fragment_id: frag_id,
+                    row_id_sequence: Arc::new(RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::Range(
+                        start..start + rows_per_fragment,
+                    )])),
+                    deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
+        let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+
+        // Verify correctness at boundaries
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(0).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 0))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(rows_per_fragment - 1).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, rows_per_fragment as u32 - 1))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(rows_per_fragment).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0))
+        );
+        let last_row = num_fragments as u64 * rows_per_fragment - 1;
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(last_row).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(
+                num_fragments - 1,
+                rows_per_fragment as u32 - 1
+            ))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(index.get(last_row + 1).unwrap(), None);
+
+        // With the optimization, building an index for 25M rows across 100 fragments
+        // should complete in well under 1 second (typically < 1ms).
+        assert!(
+            elapsed.as_secs() < 1,
+            "Index build took {:?} for {} fragments x {} rows = {} total rows. \
+             This suggests the O(rows) -> O(fragments) optimization is not working.",
+            elapsed,
+            num_fragments,
+            rows_per_fragment,
+            num_fragments as u64 * rows_per_fragment,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_large_range_segments_with_deletions() {
+        let rows_per_fragment = 1_000u64;
+        let num_fragments = 10u32;
+        let mut offset = 0u64;
+
+        let fragment_indices: Vec<FragmentRowIdIndex> = (0..num_fragments)
+            .map(|frag_id| {
+                let start = offset;
+                offset += rows_per_fragment;
+
+                // Delete every 3rd row (offsets 0, 3, 6, ...) within each fragment.
+                let mut deleted = roaring::RoaringBitmap::new();
+                for i in (0..rows_per_fragment as u32).step_by(3) {
+                    deleted.insert(i);
+                }
+
+                FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                    fragment_id: frag_id,
+                    row_id_sequence: Arc::new(RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::Range(
+                        start..start + rows_per_fragment,
+                    )])),
+                    deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::Bitmap(deleted)),
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
+
+        // Deleted rows (offset 0, 3, 6, ...) should not be found.
+        // Row ID 0 has offset 0 in fragment 0 -> deleted.
+        assert_eq!(index.get(0).unwrap(), None);
+        // Row ID 3 has offset 3 in fragment 0 -> deleted.
+        assert_eq!(index.get(3).unwrap(), None);
+
+        // Non-deleted rows should resolve correctly.
+        // Row ID 1 has offset 1 in fragment 0 -> address (frag=0, row=1).
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(1).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 1))
+        );
+        // Row ID 2 has offset 2 in fragment 0 -> address (frag=0, row=2).
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(2).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 2))
+        );
+        // Row ID 4 has offset 4 in fragment 0 -> address (frag=0, row=4).
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(4).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 4))
+        );
+
+        // Check second fragment: row IDs start at 1000.
+        // Row ID 1000 has offset 0 in fragment 1 -> deleted.
+        assert_eq!(index.get(rows_per_fragment).unwrap(), None);
+        // Row ID 1001 has offset 1 in fragment 1 -> address (frag=1, row=1).
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(rows_per_fragment + 1).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 1))
+        );
+
+        // Last fragment, last non-deleted row.
+        // Row ID 9999 has offset 999 in fragment 9 -> 999 % 3 == 0 -> deleted.
+        let last_row = num_fragments as u64 * rows_per_fragment - 1;
+        assert_eq!(index.get(last_row).unwrap(), None);
+        // Row ID 9998 has offset 998 -> 998 % 3 == 2 -> not deleted.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(last_row - 1).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(num_fragments - 1, 998))
+        );
+
+        // Out of range.
+        assert_eq!(index.get(last_row + 1).unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
     proptest::proptest! {
         #[test]
-        fn test_new_index_robustness(row_ids in arbitrary_row_ids(0..5, 0..32)) {
+        fn test_new_index_robustness(
+            row_ids in arbitrary_row_ids_with_deletions(0..5, 0..32)
+        ) {
             let fragment_indices: Vec<FragmentRowIdIndex> = row_ids
                 .iter()
-                .map(|(frag_id, sequence)| FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                .map(|(frag_id, sequence, deletion_vector)| FragmentRowIdIndex {
                     fragment_id: *frag_id,
                     row_id_sequence: sequence.clone(),
-                    deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
+                    deletion_vector: deletion_vector.clone(),
                 })
                 .collect();
 
-            let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
-            for (frag_id, sequence) in row_ids.iter() {
-                for (local_offset, row_id) in sequence.iter().enumerate() {
-                    prop_assert_eq!(
-                        index.get(row_id),
-                        Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(*frag_id, local_offset as u32)),
-                        "Row id {} in sequence {:?} not found in index {:?}",
-                        row_id,
-                        sequence,
-                        index
-                    );
+            let merged = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
+            let probing = RowIdIndex::probing(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
+            for index in [&merged, &probing] {
+                for (frag_id, sequence, deletion_vector) in row_ids.iter() {
+                    for (local_offset, row_id) in sequence.iter().enumerate() {
+                        let expected = if deletion_vector.contains(local_offset as u32) {
+                            None
+                        } else {
+                            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(*frag_id, local_offset as u32))
+                        };
+                        prop_assert_eq!(
+                            index.get(row_id).unwrap(),
+                            expected,
+                            "Row id {} in sequence {:?} not found in index {:?}",
+                            row_id,
+                            sequence,
+                            index
+                        );
+                    }
                 }
             }
         }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_new_index_moved_row_id(
+            row_id in any::<u64>(),
+            source_fragment in 0u32..1024,
+            fragment_delta in 1u32..1024,
+        ) {
+            let target_fragment = source_fragment + fragment_delta;
+            let fragment_indices = [
+                FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                    fragment_id: source_fragment,
+                    row_id_sequence: Arc::new(RowIdSequence::from(&[row_id][..])),
+                    deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::Bitmap(
+                        roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0]),
+                    )),
+                },
+                FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                    fragment_id: target_fragment,
+                    row_id_sequence: Arc::new(RowIdSequence::from(&[row_id][..])),
+                    deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
+                },
+            ];
+
+            let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap();
+            prop_assert_eq!(
+                index.get(row_id).unwrap(),
+                Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(target_fragment, 0))
+            );
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_new_index_rejects_duplicate_live_row_id(
+            row_id in any::<u64>(),
+            first_fragment in 0u32..1024,
+            fragment_delta in 1u32..1024,
+        ) {
+            let second_fragment = first_fragment + fragment_delta;
+            let fragment_indices = [
+                FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                    fragment_id: first_fragment,
+                    row_id_sequence: Arc::new(RowIdSequence::from(&[row_id][..])),
+                    deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
+                },
+                FragmentRowIdIndex {
+                    fragment_id: second_fragment,
+                    row_id_sequence: Arc::new(RowIdSequence::from(&[row_id][..])),
+                    deletion_vector: Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
+                },
+            ];
+
+            let error = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices).unwrap_err();
+            let is_internal = matches!(&error, Error::Internal { .. });
+            let expected_message =
+                format!("stable row id {row_id} is live in multiple fragments");
+            let error_message = error.to_string();
+            prop_assert!(is_internal);
+            prop_assert!(error_message.contains(&expected_message));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_resolves_range_segments() {
+        let live: Vec<u64> = (1000..3000u64)
+            .filter(|v| !(1200..1900).contains(v))
+            .collect();
+        let mut runs_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(live.as_slice());
+        assert!(runs_sequence.use_range_segments());
+        let index = RowIdIndex::new(&[fragment(7, runs_sequence)]).unwrap();
+        for (position, &row_id) in live.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                index.get(row_id).unwrap(),
+                Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(7, position as u32)),
+                "row id {row_id}"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(index.get(1500).unwrap(), None);
+        let addr = |position: u32| Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(7, position));
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_many(&[2999, 1000, 1199, 1900, 1500]).unwrap(),
+            vec![
+                addr(live.len() as u32 - 1),
+                addr(0),
+                addr(199),
+                addr(200),
+                None
+            ]
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/runs.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/runs.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7a8a99814f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/runs.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Run-length encoded holes of a [`U64Segment::Ranges`](super::U64Segment).
+
+use std::ops::Range;
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+
+use super::bitmap::Bitmap;
+use super::serde::corrupt_row_id_metadata;
+
+/// The missing offsets of a range, as maximal runs.
+///
+/// Offsets are relative to the range start and fit `u32`, which bounds the span
+/// of a range this encoding can describe to `u32::MAX`; a fragment never holds
+/// more rows than that, and writers fall back to another encoding for wider
+/// spans. Compared to a bitmap this costs 8 bytes per run rather than one bit
+/// per offset, so it pays off exactly when deletions cluster, as they do after
+/// compaction of fragments with deleted rows.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct HoleRuns {
+    /// Length of the range the runs live in (offsets are below this).
+    span: u32,
+    /// First missing offset of each run, strictly increasing.
+    starts: Vec<u32>,
+    /// `present_before[k]` is the number of present offsets before run `k`;
+    /// the final entry (index `num_runs`) is the number present in total. Run
+    /// ends follow from it: the offsets missing before run `k` are
+    /// `starts[k] - present_before[k]`, and a run is as long as the missing
+    /// count grows across it.
+    present_before: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl HoleRuns {
+    /// Build from run bounds. Rejects runs that are empty, out of order,
+    /// overlapping, adjacent (a maximal run never touches the next) or beyond
+    /// `span`.
+    pub fn try_new(span: u32, starts: Vec<u32>, ends: Vec<u32>) -> Result<Self> {
+        if starts.len() != ends.len() {
+            return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                "Ranges has {} run starts but {} run ends",
+                starts.len(),
+                ends.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut present_before = Vec::with_capacity(starts.len() + 1);
+        let mut missing: u32 = 0;
+        let mut previous_end: Option<u32> = None;
+        for (i, (&start, &end)) in starts.iter().zip(&ends).enumerate() {
+            if start >= end {
+                return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                    "Ranges run {i} is empty or reversed: {start}..{end}"
+                )));
+            }
+            if end > span {
+                return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                    "Ranges run {i} ({start}..{end}) ends beyond the span {span}"
+                )));
+            }
+            if let Some(previous_end) = previous_end
+                && previous_end >= start
+            {
+                return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                    "Ranges run {i} starts at {start}, but the previous run ends at \
+                     {previous_end}: runs must be sorted, disjoint and non-adjacent"
+                )));
+            }
+            present_before.push(start - missing);
+            // Disjoint runs below `span` cannot miss more than `span` offsets.
+            missing += end - start;
+            previous_end = Some(end);
+        }
+        present_before.push(span - missing);
+        Ok(Self {
+            span,
+            starts,
+            present_before,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// The runs of cleared bits of `bitmap`, whose length must fit `u32`.
+    ///
+    /// Walks bytes rather than bits: on a compacted table almost every byte is
+    /// all-present or all-missing, and the bit loop only runs at run edges.
+    pub fn from_bitmap(bitmap: &Bitmap) -> Self {
+        let span = bitmap.len();
+        let mut starts = Vec::new();
+        let mut ends = Vec::new();
+        let mut open_run: Option<u32> = None;
+        let mut offset: usize = 0;
+        for &byte in bitmap.bytes() {
+            let valid_bits = (span - offset).min(8);
+            // Bits past `span` read as present so they never open a run.
+            let mut present = byte | (u8::MAX.checked_shl(valid_bits as u32).unwrap_or(0));
+            if present == u8::MAX {
+                if let Some(start) = open_run.take() {
+                    starts.push(start);
+                    ends.push(offset as u32);
+                }
+            } else if present == 0 {
+                open_run.get_or_insert(offset as u32);
+            } else {
+                for bit in 0..valid_bits {
+                    let is_present = present & 1 != 0;
+                    present >>= 1;
+                    let here = (offset + bit) as u32;
+                    match (is_present, open_run) {
+                        (false, None) => open_run = Some(here),
+                        (true, Some(start)) => {
+                            starts.push(start);
+                            ends.push(here);
+                            open_run = None;
+                        }
+                        _ => {}
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            offset += 8;
+            if offset >= span {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(start) = open_run {
+            starts.push(start);
+            ends.push(span as u32);
+        }
+        Self::try_new(span as u32, starts, ends).expect("runs derived from a bitmap are valid")
+    }
+
+    pub fn num_runs(&self) -> usize {
+        self.starts.len()
+    }
+
+    /// Offsets present over the whole span.
+    pub fn present_len(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.present_before[self.starts.len()]
+    }
+
+    /// Start of run `k`, or the span end once the runs are exhausted.
+    fn start_or_span(&self, k: usize) -> u32 {
+        self.starts.get(k).copied().unwrap_or(self.span)
+    }
+
+    /// Offsets missing in runs `0..k`.
+    fn missing_before(&self, k: usize) -> u32 {
+        self.start_or_span(k) - self.present_before[k]
+    }
+
+    /// First offset after run `k`.
+    fn end(&self, k: usize) -> u32 {
+        self.starts[k] + (self.missing_before(k + 1) - self.missing_before(k))
+    }
+
+    /// Position of the present `offset`, or `None` when it is missing or out of range.
+    pub fn position(&self, offset: u32) -> Option<u32> {
+        if offset >= self.span {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let k = self.starts.partition_point(|&start| start <= offset);
+        if k > 0 && offset < self.end(k - 1) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(offset - self.missing_before(k))
+    }
+
+    /// Runs entirely before the present value at `position`.
+    fn runs_before_position(&self, position: u32) -> usize {
+        self.present_before[..self.starts.len()].partition_point(|&present| present <= position)
+    }
+
+    /// Offset of the present value at `position`.
+    pub fn offset_at(&self, position: u32) -> Option<u32> {
+        if position >= self.present_len() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let k = self.runs_before_position(position);
+        Some(position + self.missing_before(k))
+    }
+
+    /// The present offsets, as the maximal ranges between runs.
+    pub fn present_ranges(&self) -> impl DoubleEndedIterator<Item = Range<u32>> + '_ {
+        (0..=self.starts.len())
+            .map(move |k| {
+                let start = if k == 0 { 0 } else { self.end(k - 1) };
+                start..self.start_or_span(k)
+            })
+            .filter(|range| !range.is_empty())
+    }
+
+    /// Append `base + offset` for the present offsets at `positions`.
+    ///
+    /// Streaming readers materialize `_rowid` a batch at a time through this;
+    /// walking the present ranges keeps that linear instead of a binary search
+    /// per row.
+    pub fn extend_values(&self, base: u64, positions: Range<u32>, values: &mut Vec<u64>) {
+        let end = positions.end.min(self.present_len());
+        let mut position = positions.start;
+        let mut k = self.runs_before_position(position);
+        while position < end && k <= self.starts.len() {
+            // Present range between run k - 1 and run k, in offsets and positions.
+            let gap_start = if k == 0 { 0 } else { self.end(k - 1) };
+            let gap_end = self.start_or_span(k);
+            let first_position = gap_start - self.missing_before(k);
+            let gap_positions = first_position..first_position + (gap_end - gap_start);
+            let take = position.max(gap_positions.start)..end.min(gap_positions.end);
+            if !take.is_empty() {
+                let offset = gap_start + (take.start - gap_positions.start);
+                values.extend((base + offset as u64)..(base + offset as u64 + take.len() as u64));
+                position = take.end;
+            }
+            k += 1;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn runs() -> HoleRuns {
+        // span 20: present 0..3, missing 3..7, present 7..8, missing 8..15, present 15..20
+        HoleRuns::try_new(20, vec![3, 8], vec![7, 15]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_counts_and_ranges() {
+        let runs = runs();
+        assert_eq!(runs.span - runs.present_len(), 11);
+        assert_eq!(runs.present_len(), 9);
+        assert_eq!((0..2).map(|k| runs.end(k)).collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![7, 15]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            runs.present_ranges().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0..3, 7..8, 15..20]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            runs.present_ranges().rev().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![15..20, 7..8, 0..3]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_position_and_offset_round_trip() {
+        let runs = runs();
+        let present: Vec<u32> = runs.present_ranges().flatten().collect();
+        assert_eq!(present, vec![0, 1, 2, 7, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]);
+        for (position, &offset) in present.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                runs.position(offset),
+                Some(position as u32),
+                "offset {offset}"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                runs.offset_at(position as u32),
+                Some(offset),
+                "position {position}"
+            );
+        }
+        for missing in [3, 4, 6, 8, 14, 20, 100] {
+            assert_eq!(runs.position(missing), None, "offset {missing}");
+        }
+        assert_eq!(runs.offset_at(9), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extend_values_crosses_runs() {
+        let runs = runs();
+        let mut values = Vec::new();
+        runs.extend_values(100, 1..7, &mut values);
+        assert_eq!(values, vec![101, 102, 107, 115, 116, 117]);
+        values.clear();
+        runs.extend_values(100, 4..40, &mut values);
+        assert_eq!(values, vec![115, 116, 117, 118, 119]);
+        values.clear();
+        runs.extend_values(100, 9..12, &mut values);
+        assert!(values.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_bitmap_matches_cleared_bits() {
+        for (len, cleared) in [
+            (20usize, vec![3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]),
+            (1, vec![0]),
+            (9, vec![]),
+            (17, vec![0, 16]),
+            (64, (8..56).collect()),
+            (70, vec![7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69]),
+        ] {
+            let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_full(len);
+            for &offset in &cleared {
+                bitmap.clear(offset);
+            }
+            let runs = HoleRuns::from_bitmap(&bitmap);
+            let missing: Vec<u32> = (0..len as u32)
+                .filter(|offset| runs.position(*offset).is_none())
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(
+                missing,
+                cleared.iter().map(|&c| c as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                "len {len}"
+            );
+            assert_eq!((runs.span - runs.present_len()) as usize, cleared.len());
+            // Runs are maximal: each ends strictly before the next starts.
+            for k in 1..runs.starts.len() {
+                assert!(runs.end(k - 1) < runs.starts[k]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_try_new_rejects_malformed_runs() {
+        let cases: [(&str, Vec<u32>, Vec<u32>); 5] = [
+            ("length mismatch", vec![1], vec![]),
+            ("empty run", vec![3], vec![3]),
+            ("beyond span", vec![3], vec![21]),
+            ("overlapping", vec![3, 5], vec![7, 9]),
+            ("adjacent", vec![3, 7], vec![7, 9]),
+        ];
+        for (name, starts, ends) in cases {
+            let error = HoleRuns::try_new(20, starts, ends).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("Ranges"), "{name}: {error}");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/segment.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/segment.rs
index 5448502c704..604a708328d 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/segment.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/segment.rs
@@ -3,9 +3,15 @@
 
 use std::ops::{Range, RangeInclusive};
 
-use super::{bitmap::Bitmap, encoded_array::EncodedU64Array};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use snafu::location;
+use super::{bitmap::Bitmap, encoded_array::EncodedU64Array, runs::HoleRuns};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+
+/// Convert an estimated serialized byte cost from `u128` to `usize`, saturating
+/// at [`usize::MAX`] when the value does not fit (infeasible encodings).
+#[inline]
+fn u128_byte_cost_to_usize(v: u128) -> usize {
+    usize::try_from(v).unwrap_or(usize::MAX)
+}
 
 /// Different ways to represent a sequence of distinct u64s.
 ///
@@ -55,6 +61,18 @@ pub enum U64Segment {
     /// Total size: 24 bytes + ceil((max - min) / 8) bytes
     /// Use when: max - min > 16 * len
     RangeWithBitmap { range: Range<u64>, bitmap: Bitmap },
+    /// Two or more sorted, disjoint ranges of row ids, held compactly.
+    ///
+    /// This is how a run of consecutive `Range` segments is kept in memory:
+    /// on the wire it is exactly those `Range` segments, so it needs no format
+    /// support (see `read_row_ids` in `serde`). In memory it is two
+    /// `u32` per range plus prefix sums, and lookups are a binary search,
+    /// where separate segments would cost a heap enum each and linear scans.
+    ///
+    /// Total size on the wire: ~16 bytes per range.
+    /// Use when: fewer than one range per 128 slots, and only for tables that
+    /// opted in (see [`Self::as_ranges`]); `from_slice` never picks it.
+    Ranges { range: Range<u64>, runs: HoleRuns },
     /// A sorted array of row ids, that is sparse.
     ///
     /// Total size: 24 bytes + 2 * n_values bytes
@@ -64,11 +82,12 @@ pub enum U64Segment {
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for U64Segment {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         match self {
             Self::Range(_) => 0,
             Self::RangeWithHoles { holes, .. } => holes.deep_size_of_children(context),
             Self::RangeWithBitmap { bitmap, .. } => bitmap.deep_size_of_children(context),
+            Self::Ranges { runs, .. } => runs.deep_size_of_children(context),
             Self::SortedArray(array) => array.deep_size_of_children(context),
             Self::Array(array) => array.deep_size_of_children(context),
         }
@@ -89,13 +108,17 @@ struct SegmentStats {
 }
 
 impl SegmentStats {
-    fn n_holes(&self) -> u64 {
+    /// Number of missing values ("holes") in the range `[min, max]`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `u128` because the total slot count `max - min + 1` can be up
+    /// to `2^64` (when `min = 0, max = u64::MAX`), which exceeds `u64::MAX`.
+    fn n_holes(&self) -> u128 {
         debug_assert!(self.sorted);
         if self.count == 0 {
             0
         } else {
-            let total_slots = self.max - self.min + 1;
-            total_slots - self.count
+            let total_slots = self.max as u128 - self.min as u128 + 1;
+            total_slots - self.count as u128
         }
     }
 }
@@ -108,11 +131,11 @@ impl U64Segment {
     ) -> impl Iterator<Item = u64> + 'a {
         let mut existing = existing.into_iter().peekable();
         range.filter(move |val| {
-            if let Some(&existing_val) = existing.peek() {
-                if existing_val == *val {
-                    existing.next();
-                    return false;
-                }
+            if let Some(&existing_val) = existing.peek()
+                && existing_val == *val
+            {
+                existing.next();
+                return false;
             }
             true
         })
@@ -150,15 +173,24 @@ impl U64Segment {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Estimate the serialized byte size of each sorted encoding variant.
+    ///
+    /// All arithmetic is performed in `u128` to avoid overflow when the range
+    /// span `max - min + 1` approaches or exceeds `2^64`. Infeasible sizes
+    /// saturate to `usize::MAX` so they always lose the `min()` comparison.
     fn sorted_sequence_sizes(stats: &SegmentStats) -> [usize; 3] {
         let n_holes = stats.n_holes();
-        let total_slots = stats.max - stats.min + 1;
+        let total_slots = stats.max as u128 - stats.min as u128 + 1;
 
-        let range_with_holes = 24 + 4 * n_holes as usize;
-        let range_with_bitmap = 24 + (total_slots as f64 / 8.0).ceil() as usize;
-        let sorted_array = 24 + 2 * stats.count as usize;
+        let range_with_holes = 24u128.saturating_add(4u128.saturating_mul(n_holes));
+        let range_with_bitmap = 24u128.saturating_add(total_slots.div_ceil(8));
+        let sorted_array = 24u128.saturating_add(2u128.saturating_mul(stats.count as u128));
 
-        [range_with_holes, range_with_bitmap, sorted_array]
+        [
+            u128_byte_cost_to_usize(range_with_holes),
+            u128_byte_cost_to_usize(range_with_bitmap),
+            u128_byte_cost_to_usize(sorted_array),
+        ]
     }
 
     fn from_stats_and_sequence(
@@ -167,38 +199,41 @@ impl U64Segment {
     ) -> Self {
         if stats.sorted {
             let n_holes = stats.n_holes();
+            // Range-backed encodings store an exclusive end as `Range<u64>`,
+            // which cannot represent `u64::MAX + 1`. Compute the end once and
+            // gate all range-backed branches on its representability.
+            let exclusive_end = stats.max.checked_add(1);
             if stats.count == 0 {
                 Self::Range(0..0)
-            } else if n_holes == 0 {
-                Self::Range(stats.min..(stats.max + 1))
-            } else {
+            } else if n_holes == 0 && exclusive_end.is_some() {
+                Self::Range(stats.min..exclusive_end.unwrap())
+            } else if let Some(end) = exclusive_end {
                 let sizes = Self::sorted_sequence_sizes(&stats);
                 let min_size = sizes.iter().min().unwrap();
                 if min_size == &sizes[0] {
-                    let range = stats.min..(stats.max + 1);
+                    let range = stats.min..end;
                     let mut holes =
                         Self::holes_in_slice(stats.min..=stats.max, sequence).collect::<Vec<_>>();
                     holes.sort_unstable();
                     let holes = EncodedU64Array::from(holes);
-
                     Self::RangeWithHoles { range, holes }
                 } else if min_size == &sizes[1] {
-                    let range = stats.min..(stats.max + 1);
+                    let range = stats.min..end;
                     let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_full((stats.max - stats.min) as usize + 1);
-
                     for hole in Self::holes_in_slice(stats.min..=stats.max, sequence) {
                         let offset = (hole - stats.min) as usize;
                         bitmap.clear(offset);
                     }
-
                     Self::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap }
                 } else {
-                    // Must use array, but at least it's sorted
                     Self::SortedArray(EncodedU64Array::from_iter(sequence))
                 }
+            } else {
+                // max == u64::MAX: exclusive end is unrepresentable in Range<u64>,
+                // so no range-backed encoding can be used.
+                Self::SortedArray(EncodedU64Array::from_iter(sequence))
             }
         } else {
-            // Must use array
             Self::Array(EncodedU64Array::from_iter(sequence))
         }
     }
@@ -206,6 +241,53 @@ impl U64Segment {
     pub fn from_slice(slice: &[u64]) -> Self {
         Self::from_iter(slice.iter().copied())
     }
+
+    /// Two or more sorted, disjoint, non-adjacent ranges as one [`Self::Ranges`]
+    /// segment; `None` for fewer ranges or a span that does not fit `u32`.
+    pub fn from_sorted_ranges(ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> Option<Self> {
+        let [first, .., last] = ranges else {
+            return None;
+        };
+        let base = first.start;
+        let span = u32::try_from(last.end - base).ok()?;
+        let hole_starts = ranges[..ranges.len() - 1]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|range| (range.end - base) as u32)
+            .collect();
+        let hole_ends = ranges[1..]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|range| (range.start - base) as u32)
+            .collect();
+        let runs = HoleRuns::try_new(span, hole_starts, hole_ends).ok()?;
+        Some(Self::Ranges {
+            range: base..last.end,
+            runs,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// The same values as a run of ranges, when writing them as `Range`
+    /// segments is smaller than the current encoding; `None` when it is not
+    /// (or the span does not fit the compact form's 32-bit offsets).
+    ///
+    /// A `Range` segment costs about 16 bytes on the wire, so ranges beat a
+    /// bitmap when there is less than one range per 128 slots. Hole arrays
+    /// are small by construction and are left alone.
+    pub fn as_ranges(&self) -> Option<Self> {
+        const RANGE_BYTES: usize = 16;
+        match self {
+            Self::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } => {
+                if bitmap.len() > u32::MAX as usize {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let runs = HoleRuns::from_bitmap(bitmap);
+                ((runs.num_runs() + 1) * RANGE_BYTES < bitmap.bytes().len()).then(|| Self::Ranges {
+                    range: range.clone(),
+                    runs,
+                })
+            }
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 impl FromIterator<u64> for U64Segment {
@@ -234,6 +316,12 @@ impl U64Segment {
                     bitmap.get(offset)
                 }))
             }
+            Self::Ranges { range, runs } => {
+                let start = range.start;
+                Box::new(runs.present_ranges().flat_map(move |offsets| {
+                    (start + offsets.start as u64)..(start + offsets.end as u64)
+                }))
+            }
             Self::SortedArray(array) => Box::new(array.iter()),
             Self::Array(array) => Box::new(array.iter()),
         }
@@ -243,40 +331,47 @@ impl U64Segment {
         match self {
             Self::Range(range) => (range.end - range.start) as usize,
             Self::RangeWithHoles { range, holes } => {
-                let holes = holes.iter().count();
-                (range.end - range.start) as usize - holes
+                (range.end - range.start) as usize - holes.len()
             }
             Self::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } => {
                 let holes = bitmap.count_zeros();
                 (range.end - range.start) as usize - holes
             }
+            Self::Ranges { runs, .. } => runs.present_len() as usize,
             Self::SortedArray(array) => array.len(),
             Self::Array(array) => array.len(),
         }
     }
 
+    pub(crate) fn use_dense_range_expansion(&self, segment_len: usize) -> bool {
+        let Self::RangeWithBitmap { bitmap, .. } = self else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        // Keep sparse segments on the compact per-bit decoder. Contiguous-run
+        // expansion pays off when dense bytes dominate the segment.
+        let dense_threshold = bitmap.len().saturating_sub(bitmap.len() / 4);
+        segment_len >= dense_threshold
+    }
+
     pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
         self.len() == 0
     }
 
     /// Get the min and max value of the segment, excluding tombstones.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` for an empty segment, which has no extrema. Decoding accepts an
+    /// empty encoding of every variant, so no arm here may assume it holds a value.
     pub fn range(&self) -> Option<RangeInclusive<u64>> {
         match self {
-            Self::Range(range) if range.is_empty() => None,
             Self::Range(range)
             | Self::RangeWithBitmap { range, .. }
-            | Self::RangeWithHoles { range, .. } => Some(range.start..=(range.end - 1)),
-            Self::SortedArray(array) => {
-                // We can assume that the array is sorted.
-                let min_value = array.first().unwrap();
-                let max_value = array.last().unwrap();
-                Some(min_value..=max_value)
-            }
-            Self::Array(array) => {
-                let min_value = array.min().unwrap();
-                let max_value = array.max().unwrap();
-                Some(min_value..=max_value)
+            | Self::Ranges { range, .. }
+            | Self::RangeWithHoles { range, .. } => {
+                (!range.is_empty()).then(|| range.start..=(range.end - 1))
             }
+            // We can assume that the array is sorted.
+            Self::SortedArray(array) => Some(array.first()?..=array.last()?),
+            Self::Array(array) => Some(array.min()?..=array.max()?),
         }
     }
 
@@ -301,14 +396,26 @@ impl U64Segment {
                 }
             }
             Self::RangeWithHoles { range, holes } => {
-                if range.contains(&val) && holes.binary_search(val).is_err() {
-                    let offset = (val - range.start) as usize;
-                    let holes = holes.iter().take_while(|&hole| hole < val).count();
-                    Some(offset - holes)
-                } else {
-                    None
+                if !range.contains(&val) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                // binary_search returns Err(idx) where idx is the count of holes
+                // strictly less than val (holes are unique and sorted).
+                match holes.binary_search(val) {
+                    Ok(_) => None,
+                    Err(num_holes_before) => {
+                        let offset = (val - range.start) as usize;
+                        Some(offset - num_holes_before)
+                    }
                 }
             }
+            Self::Ranges { range, runs } => {
+                if !range.contains(&val) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                runs.position((val - range.start) as u32)
+                    .map(|position| position as usize)
+            }
             Self::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } => {
                 if range.contains(&val) && bitmap.get((val - range.start) as usize) {
                     let offset = (val - range.start) as usize;
@@ -329,23 +436,47 @@ impl U64Segment {
                 Some(val) if val < range.end => Some(val),
                 _ => None,
             },
-            Self::RangeWithHoles { range, .. } => {
-                if i >= (range.end - range.start) as usize {
+            Self::RangeWithHoles { range, holes } => {
+                let len = (range.end - range.start) as usize - holes.len();
+                if i >= len {
                     return None;
                 }
-                self.iter().nth(i)
-            }
-            Self::RangeWithBitmap { range, .. } => {
-                if i >= (range.end - range.start) as usize {
-                    return None;
+                // The i-th surviving value v satisfies v = range.start + i + k,
+                // where k = |{h ∈ holes : h < v}|. holes[k] - k is monotone
+                // non-decreasing in k (holes are sorted and unique), so binary
+                // search for the smallest k such that holes[k] - k > range.start + i.
+                let target = range.start + i as u64;
+                let mut lo = 0usize;
+                let mut hi = holes.len();
+                while lo < hi {
+                    let mid = (lo + hi) / 2;
+                    let h = holes.get(mid).unwrap();
+                    if h.saturating_sub(mid as u64) > target {
+                        hi = mid;
+                    } else {
+                        lo = mid + 1;
+                    }
                 }
-                self.iter().nth(i)
+                Some(range.start + i as u64 + lo as u64)
             }
+            Self::RangeWithBitmap { .. } => self.cursor().get(i),
+            Self::Ranges { range, runs } => u32::try_from(i)
+                .ok()
+                .and_then(|position| runs.offset_at(position))
+                .map(|offset| range.start + offset as u64),
             Self::SortedArray(array) => array.get(i),
             Self::Array(array) => array.get(i),
         }
     }
 
+    /// Reads values at non-decreasing indices in one pass.
+    pub fn cursor(&self) -> SegmentCursor<'_> {
+        SegmentCursor {
+            segment: self,
+            state: SegmentCursorState::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Check if a value is contained in the segment
     pub fn contains(&self, val: u64) -> bool {
         match self {
@@ -365,6 +496,9 @@ impl U64Segment {
                 let idx = (val - range.start) as usize;
                 bitmap.get(idx)
             }
+            Self::Ranges { range, runs } => {
+                range.contains(&val) && runs.position((val - range.start) as u32).is_some()
+            }
             Self::SortedArray(array) => array.binary_search(val).is_ok(),
             Self::Array(array) => array.iter().any(|v| v == val),
         }
@@ -373,17 +507,14 @@ impl U64Segment {
     /// Produce a new segment that has `val` as the new highest value in the segment
     pub fn with_new_high(self, val: u64) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
         // Check that the new value is higher than the current maximum
-        if let Some(range) = self.range() {
-            if val <= *range.end() {
-                return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "New value {} must be higher than current maximum {}",
-                        val,
-                        range.end()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
+        if let Some(range) = self.range()
+            && val <= *range.end()
+        {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "New value {} must be higher than current maximum {}",
+                val,
+                range.end()
+            )));
         }
 
         Ok(match self {
@@ -447,6 +578,14 @@ impl U64Segment {
                     bitmap: Bitmap::from(new_bitmap.as_slice()),
                 }
             }
+            Self::Ranges { range, runs } => {
+                // Rare on the append path; rebuild from the values and let
+                // `from_slice` pick an encoding (the commit re-encodes runs).
+                let current = Self::Ranges { range, runs };
+                let mut values: Vec<u64> = current.iter().collect();
+                values.push(val);
+                Self::from_slice(&values)
+            }
             Self::SortedArray(array) => match array {
                 EncodedU64Array::U64(mut vec) => {
                     vec.push(val);
@@ -474,11 +613,11 @@ impl U64Segment {
                     Self::SortedArray(EncodedU64Array::from(new_array))
                 }
                 EncodedU64Array::U32 { base, mut offsets } => {
-                    if let Some(offset) = val.checked_sub(base) {
-                        if offset <= u32::MAX as u64 {
-                            offsets.push(offset as u32);
-                            return Ok(Self::SortedArray(EncodedU64Array::U32 { base, offsets }));
-                        }
+                    if let Some(offset) = val.checked_sub(base)
+                        && offset <= u32::MAX as u64
+                    {
+                        offsets.push(offset as u32);
+                        return Ok(Self::SortedArray(EncodedU64Array::U32 { base, offsets }));
                     }
                     let mut new_array: Vec<u64> =
                         offsets.into_iter().map(|o| base + o as u64).collect();
@@ -513,11 +652,11 @@ impl U64Segment {
                     Self::Array(EncodedU64Array::from(new_array))
                 }
                 EncodedU64Array::U32 { base, mut offsets } => {
-                    if let Some(offset) = val.checked_sub(base) {
-                        if offset <= u32::MAX as u64 {
-                            offsets.push(offset as u32);
-                            return Ok(Self::Array(EncodedU64Array::U32 { base, offsets }));
-                        }
+                    if let Some(offset) = val.checked_sub(base)
+                        && offset <= u32::MAX as u64
+                    {
+                        offsets.push(offset as u32);
+                        return Ok(Self::Array(EncodedU64Array::U32 { base, offsets }));
                     }
                     let mut new_array: Vec<u64> =
                         offsets.into_iter().map(|o| base + o as u64).collect();
@@ -539,11 +678,11 @@ impl U64Segment {
         let make_new_iter = || {
             let mut vals_iter = vals.iter().copied().peekable();
             self.iter().filter(move |val| {
-                if let Some(&next_val) = vals_iter.peek() {
-                    if next_val == *val {
-                        vals_iter.next();
-                        return false;
-                    }
+                if let Some(&next_val) = vals_iter.peek()
+                    && next_val == *val
+                {
+                    vals_iter.next();
+                    return false;
                 }
                 true
             })
@@ -565,6 +704,7 @@ impl U64Segment {
             Self::Range(_) => true,
             Self::RangeWithHoles { .. } => true,
             Self::RangeWithBitmap { .. } => true,
+            Self::Ranges { .. } => true,
             Self::SortedArray(_) => true,
             Self::Array(_) => false,
         };
@@ -594,11 +734,11 @@ impl U64Segment {
 
         let mut positions = positions.iter().copied().peekable();
         let sequence = self.iter().enumerate().filter_map(move |(i, val)| {
-            if let Some(next_pos) = positions.peek() {
-                if *next_pos == i as u32 {
-                    positions.next();
-                    return None;
-                }
+            if let Some(next_pos) = positions.peek()
+                && *next_pos == i as u32
+            {
+                positions.next();
+                return None;
             }
             Some(val)
         });
@@ -606,10 +746,269 @@ impl U64Segment {
     }
 }
 
+/// Segment reader that keeps its scan position across calls.
+pub struct SegmentCursor<'a> {
+    segment: &'a U64Segment,
+    state: SegmentCursorState,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub(crate) struct SegmentCursorState {
+    /// Byte the next select1 scan resumes at.
+    byte_idx: usize,
+    /// Set bits in the bitmap bytes before `byte_idx`.
+    ones_before: usize,
+}
+
+impl SegmentCursor<'_> {
+    /// The value at index `i`. A decreasing index rewinds the scan.
+    pub fn get(&mut self, i: usize) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.state.get(self.segment, i)
+    }
+}
+
+impl SegmentCursorState {
+    /// Append a contiguous range of values while preserving the bitmap scan
+    /// position for the next call.
+    pub(crate) fn extend_range(
+        &mut self,
+        segment: &U64Segment,
+        selection: Range<usize>,
+        values: &mut Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        let U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } = segment else {
+            match segment {
+                U64Segment::Range(range) => {
+                    let segment_len = (range.end - range.start) as usize;
+                    let end = selection.end.min(segment_len);
+                    if selection.start < end {
+                        values.extend(
+                            (range.start + selection.start as u64)..(range.start + end as u64),
+                        );
+                    }
+                }
+                U64Segment::Ranges { range, runs } => {
+                    // Positions are below the span, which fits u32.
+                    let clamp = |position: usize| position.min(u32::MAX as usize) as u32;
+                    runs.extend_values(
+                        range.start,
+                        clamp(selection.start)..clamp(selection.end),
+                        values,
+                    );
+                }
+                _ => values.extend(selection.filter_map(|index| segment.get(index))),
+            }
+            return;
+        };
+
+        if selection.start < self.ones_before {
+            self.byte_idx = 0;
+            self.ones_before = 0;
+        }
+
+        while let Some(&byte) = bitmap.data.get(self.byte_idx) {
+            let ones = byte.count_ones() as usize;
+            let ones_after_byte = self.ones_before + ones;
+            if selection.start >= ones_after_byte {
+                self.ones_before = ones_after_byte;
+                self.byte_idx += 1;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let mut remaining_bits = byte;
+            let mut rank = self.ones_before;
+            while remaining_bits != 0 {
+                if rank >= selection.end {
+                    return;
+                }
+                let bit = remaining_bits.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+                if rank >= selection.start {
+                    values.push(range.start + (self.byte_idx * 8 + bit) as u64);
+                }
+                remaining_bits &= remaining_bits - 1;
+                rank += 1;
+            }
+
+            self.ones_before = ones_after_byte;
+            self.byte_idx += 1;
+            if self.ones_before >= selection.end {
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn extend_dense_range(
+        &mut self,
+        segment: &U64Segment,
+        selection: Range<usize>,
+        values: &mut Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        let U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } = segment else {
+            self.extend_range(segment, selection, values);
+            return;
+        };
+        if selection.start < self.ones_before {
+            self.byte_idx = 0;
+            self.ones_before = 0;
+        }
+        self.extend_dense_bitmap_range(range.start, bitmap.bytes(), selection, values);
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn extend_dense_bitmap_range(
+        &mut self,
+        range_start: u64,
+        bitmap_bytes: &[u8],
+        selection: Range<usize>,
+        values: &mut Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        while let Some(&byte) = bitmap_bytes.get(self.byte_idx) {
+            let ones = byte.count_ones() as usize;
+            let ones_after_byte = self.ones_before + ones;
+            if selection.start >= ones_after_byte {
+                self.ones_before = ones_after_byte;
+                self.byte_idx += 1;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let includes_entire_byte =
+                selection.start <= self.ones_before && selection.end >= ones_after_byte;
+            if includes_entire_byte && ones >= 6 {
+                let byte_start = range_start + (self.byte_idx * 8) as u64;
+                if byte == u8::MAX {
+                    values.extend(byte_start..byte_start + 8);
+                } else {
+                    let mut remaining_bits = byte;
+                    let mut bit_offset = 0_u64;
+                    while remaining_bits != 0 {
+                        let zeros = remaining_bits.trailing_zeros();
+                        remaining_bits >>= zeros;
+                        bit_offset += u64::from(zeros);
+                        let run = remaining_bits.trailing_ones();
+                        values.extend(
+                            (byte_start + bit_offset)..(byte_start + bit_offset + u64::from(run)),
+                        );
+                        remaining_bits >>= run;
+                        bit_offset += u64::from(run);
+                    }
+                }
+                self.ones_before = ones_after_byte;
+                self.byte_idx += 1;
+                if self.ones_before >= selection.end {
+                    return;
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let mut remaining_bits = byte;
+            let mut rank = self.ones_before;
+            while remaining_bits != 0 {
+                if rank >= selection.end {
+                    return;
+                }
+                let bit = remaining_bits.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+                if rank >= selection.start {
+                    values.push(range_start + (self.byte_idx * 8 + bit) as u64);
+                }
+                remaining_bits &= remaining_bits - 1;
+                rank += 1;
+            }
+
+            self.ones_before = ones_after_byte;
+            self.byte_idx += 1;
+            if self.ones_before >= selection.end {
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The value at index `i`. A decreasing index rewinds the scan.
+    pub(crate) fn get(&mut self, segment: &U64Segment, i: usize) -> Option<u64> {
+        let U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } = segment else {
+            return segment.get(i);
+        };
+        if i < self.ones_before {
+            self.byte_idx = 0;
+            self.ones_before = 0;
+        }
+        // Deserialization rejects a bitmap whose padding bits are set, so
+        // popcount counts only valid positions.
+        let mut remaining = i - self.ones_before;
+        let range_start = range.start;
+        let bitmap_bytes = bitmap.bytes();
+        while let Some(&byte) = bitmap_bytes.get(self.byte_idx) {
+            let ones = byte.count_ones() as usize;
+            if remaining < ones {
+                let mut b = byte;
+                for _ in 0..remaining {
+                    b &= b - 1; // clear lowest set bit
+                }
+                let bit = b.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+                return Some(range_start + (self.byte_idx * 8 + bit) as u64);
+            }
+            remaining -= ones;
+            self.ones_before += ones;
+            self.byte_idx += 1;
+        }
+        None
+    }
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
     use super::*;
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_range_with_bitmap_data_remains_publicly_mutable() {
+        let mut segment = U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+            range: 0..8,
+            bitmap: Bitmap::new_empty(8),
+        };
+        let U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { bitmap, .. } = &mut segment else {
+            unreachable!();
+        };
+
+        bitmap.data[0] = 0b1010_0101;
+        assert_eq!(bitmap.len, 8);
+        assert_eq!(bitmap.count_ones(), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_extend_range_over_full_and_near_dense_bitmap_bytes() {
+        let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_full(24);
+        bitmap.clear(10);
+        bitmap.clear(17);
+        bitmap.clear(22);
+        let segment = U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+            range: 100..124,
+            bitmap,
+        };
+        assert!(segment.use_dense_range_expansion(segment.len()));
+
+        let mut sparse_bitmap = Bitmap::new_empty(24);
+        for i in [0, 8, 16] {
+            sparse_bitmap.set(i);
+        }
+        let sparse_segment = U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+            range: 0..24,
+            bitmap: sparse_bitmap,
+        };
+        assert!(!sparse_segment.use_dense_range_expansion(sparse_segment.len()));
+        let expected = segment.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let mut state = SegmentCursorState::default();
+        let mut actual = Vec::new();
+        for selection in [0..8, 8..15, 15..21] {
+            state.extend_dense_range(&segment, selection, &mut actual);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+
+        let mut state = SegmentCursorState::default();
+        let mut partial = Vec::new();
+        state.extend_dense_range(&segment, 9..20, &mut partial);
+        assert_eq!(partial, expected[9..20]);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_segments() {
         fn check_segment(values: &[u64], expected: &U64Segment) {
@@ -711,6 +1110,189 @@ mod test {
         );
     }
 
+    /// Decoding accepts an empty encoding of every variant, so `range()` must report the
+    /// absence of extrema for all of them rather than unwrapping a value or computing
+    /// `end - 1` on a zero-length range.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_empty_segments_have_no_range() {
+        let empty: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+        let segments = [
+            U64Segment::Range(5..5),
+            U64Segment::RangeWithHoles {
+                range: 0..0,
+                holes: empty.clone().into(),
+            },
+            U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                range: 0..0,
+                bitmap: Bitmap::new_empty(0),
+            },
+            U64Segment::SortedArray(empty.clone().into()),
+            U64Segment::Array(empty.into()),
+        ];
+        for segment in segments {
+            assert_eq!(segment.range(), None, "{segment:?} should have no range");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_segment_overflow_boundary() {
+        // Sparse range spanning i64::MAX — the original overflow reproducer.
+        // n_holes ≈ 2^63, which overflows `4 * n_holes as usize` without u128 arithmetic.
+        let values: Vec<u64> = vec![0, 1, 2, 100, i64::MAX as u64];
+        let segment = U64Segment::from_slice(&values);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(segment, U64Segment::SortedArray(_)),
+            "sparse range spanning i64::MAX should be SortedArray, got {:?}",
+            std::mem::discriminant(&segment)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(segment.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), values);
+
+        // Two values at u64 extremes — triggers n_holes() total_slots overflow
+        // (u64::MAX - 0 + 1 wraps to 0 without u128).
+        let values: Vec<u64> = vec![0, u64::MAX];
+        let segment = U64Segment::from_slice(&values);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(segment, U64Segment::SortedArray(_)),
+            "full u64 span should be SortedArray, got {:?}",
+            std::mem::discriminant(&segment)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(segment.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), values);
+
+        // Small dense set near u64::MAX — cost estimation correctly prefers a
+        // range-backed encoding, but Range<u64> cannot represent u64::MAX + 1
+        // as the exclusive end. Must fall back to SortedArray.
+        let values: Vec<u64> = vec![u64::MAX - 3, u64::MAX - 1, u64::MAX];
+        let segment = U64Segment::from_slice(&values);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(segment, U64Segment::SortedArray(_)),
+            "dense set near u64::MAX should be SortedArray (exclusive end unrepresentable), got {:?}",
+            std::mem::discriminant(&segment)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(segment.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), values);
+
+        // Single value at u64::MAX — contiguous range with n_holes == 0, but
+        // exclusive end u64::MAX + 1 overflows.
+        let values: Vec<u64> = vec![u64::MAX];
+        let segment = U64Segment::from_slice(&values);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(segment, U64Segment::SortedArray(_)),
+            "single u64::MAX should be SortedArray, got {:?}",
+            std::mem::discriminant(&segment)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(segment.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), values);
+
+        // Contiguous range ending just below u64::MAX — exclusive end is
+        // representable, so Range encoding should still be used.
+        let values: Vec<u64> = vec![u64::MAX - 3, u64::MAX - 2, u64::MAX - 1];
+        let segment = U64Segment::from_slice(&values);
+        assert_eq!(segment, U64Segment::Range((u64::MAX - 3)..u64::MAX));
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(segment.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), values);
+
+        // Regression: normal dense range with few holes still picks RangeWithHoles.
+        // Needs total_slots > 32 * n_holes for RangeWithHoles to beat RangeWithBitmap.
+        let values: Vec<u64> = (100..1100).filter(|&x| x != 500).collect();
+        let segment = U64Segment::from_slice(&values);
+        assert_eq!(
+            segment,
+            U64Segment::RangeWithHoles {
+                range: 100..1100,
+                holes: vec![500].into(),
+            }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), 999);
+        assert_eq!(segment.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), values);
+
+        // Regression: small dense range with hole picks RangeWithBitmap.
+        let values: Vec<u64> = vec![100, 101, 102, 103, 105];
+        let segment = U64Segment::from_slice(&values);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(segment, U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { .. }),
+            "small dense range with hole should be RangeWithBitmap, got {:?}",
+            std::mem::discriminant(&segment)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(segment.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), values);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_range_with_holes_len_counts_holes_without_iterating() {
+        // Many holes: `len` must equal the range span minus the hole count and
+        // agree with the iterator, for every hole encoding width.
+        let holes: Vec<u64> = (0..50_000_u64).map(|i| 3 * i + 1).collect();
+        let segment = U64Segment::RangeWithHoles {
+            range: 0..150_000,
+            holes: holes.clone().into(),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), 150_000 - holes.len());
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), segment.iter().count());
+
+        let wide_holes: Vec<u64> = vec![1 << 40, (1 << 40) + 7];
+        let wide = U64Segment::RangeWithHoles {
+            range: (1 << 40)..((1 << 40) + 10),
+            holes: wide_holes.into(),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(wide.len(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(wide.len(), wide.iter().count());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_u128_byte_cost_to_usize() {
+        assert_eq!(super::u128_byte_cost_to_usize(0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(super::u128_byte_cost_to_usize(42), 42);
+        assert_eq!(
+            super::u128_byte_cost_to_usize(usize::MAX as u128),
+            usize::MAX
+        );
+        assert_eq!(super::u128_byte_cost_to_usize(u128::MAX), usize::MAX);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sorted_sequence_sizes_sparse_span_saturates_range_with_holes_cost() {
+        let stats = super::SegmentStats {
+            min: 0,
+            max: i64::MAX as u64,
+            count: 5,
+            sorted: true,
+        };
+        let sizes = U64Segment::sorted_sequence_sizes(&stats);
+        assert_eq!(sizes[0], usize::MAX);
+        assert!(sizes[2] < sizes[0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sorted_sequence_sizes_sorted_array_cost_saturates() {
+        // Nearly full [0, u64::MAX] with one hole: count = u64::MAX, n_holes = 1.
+        // SortedArray cost 24 + 2 * u64::MAX does not fit in usize on 64-bit.
+        let stats = super::SegmentStats {
+            min: 0,
+            max: u64::MAX,
+            count: u64::MAX,
+            sorted: true,
+        };
+        let sizes = U64Segment::sorted_sequence_sizes(&stats);
+        assert_eq!(sizes[2], usize::MAX);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sorted_sequence_sizes_full_span_bitmap_cost() {
+        // Synthetic stats: full [0, u64::MAX] slot space; exercises `range_with_bitmap`
+        // cost path (always fits in `usize` on 64-bit targets).
+        let stats = super::SegmentStats {
+            min: 0,
+            max: u64::MAX,
+            count: 1,
+            sorted: true,
+        };
+        let sizes = U64Segment::sorted_sequence_sizes(&stats);
+        assert!(sizes[1] < sizes[0]);
+        assert!(sizes[1] < usize::MAX);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_with_new_high() {
         // Test Range: contiguous sequence
@@ -787,7 +1369,7 @@ mod test {
             let mut b = Bitmap::new_full(16);
             b.clear(3); // Clear position 3 (value 13)
             b.clear(7); // Clear position 7 (value 17)
-                        // Clear positions 10-14 (values 20-24)
+            // Clear positions 10-14 (values 20-24)
             for i in 10..15 {
                 b.clear(i);
             }
@@ -844,9 +1426,11 @@ mod test {
         let result = segment.with_new_high(15);
         assert!(result.is_err());
         let error = result.unwrap_err();
-        assert!(error
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("New value 15 must be higher than current maximum 19"));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("New value 15 must be higher than current maximum 19")
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -856,9 +1440,11 @@ mod test {
         let result = segment.with_new_high(5);
         assert!(result.is_err());
         let error = result.unwrap_err();
-        assert!(error
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("New value 5 must be higher than current maximum 5"));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("New value 5 must be higher than current maximum 5")
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -942,4 +1528,97 @@ mod test {
             "Empty segment should not contain anything"
         );
     }
+
+    /// Row ids 1000..2000 minus three clusters of holes: dense enough that
+    /// `from_slice` picks a bitmap, clustered enough that runs are smaller.
+    fn clustered_values() -> Vec<u64> {
+        (1000..2000u64)
+            .filter(|v| !(1100..1300).contains(v) && !(1500..1650).contains(v) && *v != 1999)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ranges_segment_matches_bitmap_semantics() {
+        let values = clustered_values();
+        let bitmap = U64Segment::from_slice(&values);
+        assert!(matches!(bitmap, U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { .. }));
+        let runs = bitmap
+            .as_ranges()
+            .expect("three runs are smaller than a 125 byte bitmap");
+        let U64Segment::Ranges { runs: holes, .. } = &runs else {
+            panic!("expected a run-length segment");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(holes.num_runs(), 2);
+
+        assert_eq!(runs.len(), bitmap.len());
+        assert_eq!(runs.range(), bitmap.range());
+        assert_eq!(runs.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), values);
+        assert_eq!(
+            runs.iter().rev().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            values.iter().rev().copied().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        for (position, &value) in values.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(runs.position(value), Some(position), "value {value}");
+            assert_eq!(runs.get(position), Some(value), "position {position}");
+            assert!(runs.contains(value));
+        }
+        for missing in [999, 1100, 1250, 1299, 1500, 1649, 1999, 2000, 5000] {
+            assert_eq!(runs.position(missing), None, "missing {missing}");
+            assert!(!runs.contains(missing));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(runs.get(values.len()), None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            runs.slice(95, 20).iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            values[95..115].to_vec()
+        );
+
+        let deleted = [1000, 1050, 1400];
+        assert_eq!(
+            runs.delete(&deleted).iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            bitmap.delete(&deleted).iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        let (mut masked_runs, mut masked_bitmap) = (runs.clone(), bitmap);
+        masked_runs.mask(&[0, 1, 7]);
+        masked_bitmap.mask(&[0, 1, 7]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            masked_runs.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            masked_bitmap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+
+        // The cursor path streaming readers use.
+        let mut cursor = SegmentCursorState::default();
+        let mut got = Vec::new();
+        cursor.extend_range(&runs, 90..110, &mut got);
+        assert_eq!(got, values[90..110].to_vec());
+        got.clear();
+        cursor.extend_range(&runs, 300..values.len() + 10, &mut got);
+        assert_eq!(got, values[300..].to_vec());
+        assert_eq!(runs.cursor().get(400), Some(values[400]));
+
+        let higher = runs.clone().with_new_high(2500).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(higher.iter().last(), Some(2500));
+        assert_eq!(higher.len(), values.len() + 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_as_ranges_only_when_smaller() {
+        // Alternating holes: one run per two slots, far more than one per 64.
+        let alternating: Vec<u64> = (0..1024u64).filter(|v| v % 2 == 0).collect();
+        let bitmap = U64Segment::from_slice(&alternating);
+        assert!(matches!(bitmap, U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { .. }));
+        assert_eq!(bitmap.as_ranges(), None);
+
+        assert_eq!(U64Segment::Range(0..10).as_ranges(), None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            U64Segment::SortedArray(vec![1, 1000, 1_000_000].into()).as_ranges(),
+            None
+        );
+
+        // Hole arrays are already small; only bitmaps convert.
+        let holes = U64Segment::RangeWithHoles {
+            range: 0..1000,
+            holes: vec![3, 77, 500].into(),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(holes.as_ranges(), None);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/serde.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/serde.rs
index 75c4c45278e..28a628f997f 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/serde.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/serde.rs
@@ -3,21 +3,95 @@
 
 use crate::{format::pb, rowids::bitmap::Bitmap};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
-use super::{encoded_array::EncodedU64Array, RowIdSequence, U64Segment};
+use super::{RowIdSequence, U64Segment, encoded_array::EncodedU64Array};
+use std::ops::Range;
+
 use prost::Message;
+use prost::encoding::{WireType, decode_key, decode_varint};
+
+const ROW_ID_METADATA: &str = "row ID metadata";
+
+pub(super) fn corrupt_row_id_metadata(message: impl Into<String>) -> Error {
+    Error::corrupt_file_named(ROW_ID_METADATA, message)
+}
+
+fn validate_range(segment_type: &str, start: u64, end: u64) -> Result<usize> {
+    let len = end.checked_sub(start).ok_or_else(|| {
+        corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+            "{segment_type} range start {start} exceeds end {end}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    usize::try_from(len).map_err(|_| {
+        corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+            "{segment_type} range length {len} for start {start} and end {end} exceeds usize::MAX"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn validate_packed_array_length(array_type: &str, byte_len: usize, width: usize) -> Result<()> {
+    if !byte_len.is_multiple_of(width) {
+        return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+            "encoded {array_type} array byte length {byte_len} is not a multiple of element width {width}"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Find the first pair of neighbours that is not strictly increasing.
+///
+/// Both `RangeWithHoles` holes and `SortedArray` values are documented as
+/// strictly increasing, so equal neighbours are as corrupt as descending ones:
+/// `SegmentStats::n_holes` derives the hole count by subtracting the value
+/// count from the slot span, which underflows once a value is repeated.
+fn first_non_increasing_pair(array: &EncodedU64Array) -> Option<(usize, u64, u64)> {
+    let mut values = array.iter();
+    let previous = values.next()?;
+    values
+        .scan(previous, |previous, value| {
+            let pair = (*previous, value);
+            *previous = value;
+            Some(pair)
+        })
+        .enumerate()
+        .find_map(|(index, (previous, next))| (previous >= next).then_some((index, previous, next)))
+}
+
+/// Add a non-empty range to the run of consecutive, sorted, disjoint `Range`
+/// segments being folded into one [`U64Segment::Ranges`], merging an adjacent
+/// one and flushing the run first when `range` does not continue it.
+///
+/// A table whose deletions cluster is written as many small `Range` segments
+/// (see `RowIdSequence::use_range_segments`). Kept as separate segments they
+/// would cost a heap-allocated enum each and linear scans in every lookup;
+/// folded, they are two `u32` per range and a binary search.
+fn push_range(pending: &mut Vec<Range<u64>>, out: &mut Vec<U64Segment>, range: Range<u64>) {
+    match pending.last_mut() {
+        Some(last) if last.end == range.start => last.end = range.end,
+        Some(last) if last.end > range.start => {
+            flush_ranges(pending, out);
+            pending.push(range);
+        }
+        _ => pending.push(range),
+    }
+}
+
+fn flush_ranges(pending: &mut Vec<Range<u64>>, out: &mut Vec<U64Segment>) {
+    match U64Segment::from_sorted_ranges(pending.as_slice()) {
+        Some(segment) => out.push(segment),
+        // A single range, or a run wider than the compact form can index.
+        None => out.extend(pending.iter().cloned().map(U64Segment::Range)),
+    }
+    pending.clear();
+}
 
 impl TryFrom<pb::RowIdSequence> for RowIdSequence {
     type Error = Error;
 
+    /// Goes through [`read_row_ids`] so the proto and wire paths fold `Range`
+    /// runs the same way.
     fn try_from(pb: pb::RowIdSequence) -> Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self(
-            pb.segments
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(U64Segment::try_from)
-                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-        ))
+        read_row_ids(&pb.encode_to_vec())
     }
 }
 
@@ -28,30 +102,71 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::U64Segment> for U64Segment {
         use pb::u64_segment as pb_seg;
         use pb::u64_segment::Segment::*;
         match pb.segment {
-            Some(Range(pb_seg::Range { start, end })) => Ok(Self::Range(start..end)),
+            Some(Range(pb_seg::Range { start, end })) => {
+                validate_range("Range", start, end)?;
+                Ok(Self::Range(start..end))
+            }
             Some(RangeWithHoles(pb_seg::RangeWithHoles { start, end, holes })) => {
+                validate_range("RangeWithHoles", start, end)?;
                 let holes = holes
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("missing hole", location!()))?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        corrupt_row_id_metadata("RangeWithHoles is missing its holes array")
+                    })?
                     .try_into()?;
+                if let Some((index, previous, next)) = first_non_increasing_pair(&holes) {
+                    return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                        "RangeWithHoles values are not strictly increasing at indices {index} and {}: {previous} is not less than {next}",
+                        index + 1
+                    )));
+                }
+                if let Some(hole) = holes.iter().find(|hole| *hole < start || *hole >= end) {
+                    return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                        "RangeWithHoles hole {hole} is outside the range {start}..{end}"
+                    )));
+                }
                 Ok(Self::RangeWithHoles {
                     range: start..end,
                     holes,
                 })
             }
             Some(RangeWithBitmap(pb_seg::RangeWithBitmap { start, end, bitmap })) => {
+                let range_len = validate_range("RangeWithBitmap", start, end)?;
+                let expected_bitmap_len = range_len.div_ceil(8);
+                if bitmap.len() != expected_bitmap_len {
+                    return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                        "RangeWithBitmap byte length {} does not match expected {expected_bitmap_len} for range start {start}, end {end}, and length {range_len}",
+                        bitmap.len()
+                    )));
+                }
+                let remainder = range_len % 8;
+                if remainder != 0 {
+                    let padding_mask = !((1_u8 << remainder) - 1);
+                    let last_byte = bitmap[expected_bitmap_len - 1];
+                    if last_byte & padding_mask != 0 {
+                        return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                            "RangeWithBitmap padding bits must be zero for range start {start}, end {end}, and length {range_len}: last byte {last_byte:#04x} has padding mask {padding_mask:#04x} set"
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
                 Ok(Self::RangeWithBitmap {
                     range: start..end,
-                    bitmap: Bitmap {
-                        data: bitmap,
-                        len: (end - start) as usize,
-                    },
+                    bitmap: Bitmap::from_parts(bitmap, range_len),
                 })
             }
-            Some(SortedArray(array)) => Ok(Self::SortedArray(EncodedU64Array::try_from(array)?)),
+            Some(SortedArray(array)) => {
+                let array = EncodedU64Array::try_from(array)?;
+                if let Some((index, previous, next)) = first_non_increasing_pair(&array) {
+                    return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                        "SortedArray values are not strictly increasing at indices {index} and {}: {previous} is not less than {next}",
+                        index + 1
+                    )));
+                }
+                Ok(Self::SortedArray(array))
+            }
             Some(Array(array)) => Ok(Self::Array(EncodedU64Array::try_from(array)?)),
             // TODO: why non-exhaustive?
-            // Some(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input("unknown segment type", location!())),
-            None => Err(Error::invalid_input("missing segment type", location!())),
+            // Some(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input("unknown segment type")),
+            None => Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata("missing row ID segment type")),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -64,55 +179,78 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::EncodedU64Array> for EncodedU64Array {
         use pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::*;
         match pb.array {
             Some(U16Array(pb_arr::U16Array { base, offsets })) => {
-                assert!(
-                    offsets.len() % 2 == 0,
-                    "Must have even number of bytes to store u16 array"
-                );
+                validate_packed_array_length("u16", offsets.len(), 2)?;
                 let offsets = offsets
-                    .chunks_exact(2)
-                    .map(|chunk| u16::from_le_bytes([chunk[0], chunk[1]]))
-                    .collect();
+                    .as_chunks::<2>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|chunk| u16::from_le_bytes(*chunk))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                if let Some(max_offset) = offsets.iter().copied().max()
+                    && base.checked_add(u64::from(max_offset)).is_none()
+                {
+                    return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                        "U16Array base {base} plus maximum offset {max_offset} overflows u64"
+                    )));
+                }
                 Ok(Self::U16 { base, offsets })
             }
             Some(U32Array(pb_arr::U32Array { base, offsets })) => {
-                assert!(
-                    offsets.len() % 4 == 0,
-                    "Must have even number of bytes to store u32 array"
-                );
+                validate_packed_array_length("u32", offsets.len(), 4)?;
                 let offsets = offsets
-                    .chunks_exact(4)
-                    .map(|chunk| u32::from_le_bytes([chunk[0], chunk[1], chunk[2], chunk[3]]))
-                    .collect();
+                    .as_chunks::<4>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|chunk| u32::from_le_bytes(*chunk))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                if let Some(max_offset) = offsets.iter().copied().max()
+                    && base.checked_add(u64::from(max_offset)).is_none()
+                {
+                    return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                        "U32Array base {base} plus maximum offset {max_offset} overflows u64"
+                    )));
+                }
                 Ok(Self::U32 { base, offsets })
             }
             Some(U64Array(pb_arr::U64Array { values })) => {
-                assert!(
-                    values.len() % 8 == 0,
-                    "Must have even number of bytes to store u64 array"
-                );
+                validate_packed_array_length("u64", values.len(), 8)?;
                 let values = values
-                    .chunks_exact(8)
-                    .map(|chunk| {
-                        u64::from_le_bytes([
-                            chunk[0], chunk[1], chunk[2], chunk[3], chunk[4], chunk[5], chunk[6],
-                            chunk[7],
-                        ])
-                    })
+                    .as_chunks::<8>()
+                    .0
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|chunk| u64::from_le_bytes(*chunk))
                     .collect();
                 Ok(Self::U64(values))
             }
             // TODO: shouldn't this enum be non-exhaustive?
-            // Some(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input("unknown array type", location!())),
-            None => Err(Error::invalid_input("missing array type", location!())),
+            // Some(_) => Err(Error::invalid_input("unknown array type")),
+            None => Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata("missing encoded row ID array type")),
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl From<RowIdSequence> for pb::RowIdSequence {
     fn from(sequence: RowIdSequence) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            segments: sequence.0.into_iter().map(pb::U64Segment::from).collect(),
-        }
+        let segments = sequence
+            .0
+            .into_iter()
+            .flat_map(|segment| match segment {
+                // On the wire a run of ranges is just its `Range` segments, which
+                // every reader understands; `read_row_ids` folds them back
+                // together.
+                U64Segment::Ranges { range, runs } => runs
+                    .present_ranges()
+                    .map(|present| {
+                        U64Segment::Range(
+                            range.start + present.start as u64..range.start + present.end as u64,
+                        )
+                    })
+                    .map(pb::U64Segment::from)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                other => vec![pb::U64Segment::from(other)],
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Self { segments }
     }
 }
 
@@ -139,10 +277,17 @@ impl From<U64Segment> for pb::U64Segment {
                     pb::u64_segment::RangeWithBitmap {
                         start: range.start,
                         end: range.end,
-                        bitmap: bitmap.data,
+                        bitmap: bitmap.into_bytes(),
                     },
                 )),
             },
+            // A run of ranges has no message of its own: `pb::RowIdSequence`
+            // writes it as its `Range` segments. Nothing else produces this
+            // variant (`from_slice`, `mask` and `slice` never pick it), so a
+            // standalone conversion is a caller bug rather than an encoding.
+            U64Segment::Ranges { .. } => {
+                unreachable!("U64Segment::Ranges is only serialized as part of a RowIdSequence")
+            }
             U64Segment::SortedArray(array) => Self {
                 segment: Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::SortedArray(array.into())),
             },
@@ -199,15 +344,154 @@ pub fn write_row_ids(sequence: &RowIdSequence) -> Vec<u8> {
 }
 
 /// Deserialize a rowid sequence from some bytes.
-pub fn read_row_ids(reader: &[u8]) -> Result<RowIdSequence> {
-    let pb_sequence = pb::RowIdSequence::decode(reader)?;
-    RowIdSequence::try_from(pb_sequence)
+///
+/// Walks the `RowIdSequence` wire format directly: a sequence written as
+/// `Range` segments can hold tens of millions of them, and decoding through
+/// `pb::RowIdSequence` would materialize a proto message per segment before
+/// folding. Plain `Range` segments are read straight into the fold, everything
+/// else goes through prost.
+pub fn read_row_ids(mut buf: &[u8]) -> Result<RowIdSequence> {
+    let corrupt = |error: prost::DecodeError| {
+        corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!("failed to decode row ID sequence: {error}"))
+    };
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    let mut pending: Vec<Range<u64>> = Vec::new();
+    while !buf.is_empty() {
+        let (field, wire_type) = decode_key(&mut buf).map_err(corrupt)?;
+        if field != 1 || wire_type != WireType::LengthDelimited {
+            return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                "unexpected field {field} with wire type {wire_type:?} in row ID sequence"
+            )));
+        }
+        let len = decode_varint(&mut buf).map_err(corrupt)? as usize;
+        if len > buf.len() {
+            return Err(corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                "row ID segment of {len} bytes exceeds the {} remaining",
+                buf.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let (segment, rest) = buf.split_at(len);
+        buf = rest;
+        match plain_range(segment) {
+            Some(range) => push_range(&mut pending, &mut segments, range),
+            None => {
+                flush_ranges(&mut pending, &mut segments);
+                let segment = pb::U64Segment::decode(segment).map_err(corrupt)?;
+                segments.push(U64Segment::try_from(segment)?);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    flush_ranges(&mut pending, &mut segments);
+    // Each segment length fits a usize on its own, but the total need not fit a u64.
+    // Reject that here so `RowIdSequence::len()` stays total for anything decoded.
+    segments
+        .iter()
+        .try_fold(0_u64, |total, segment| {
+            total.checked_add(segment.len() as u64)
+        })
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            corrupt_row_id_metadata(format!(
+                "row ID sequence of {} segments has a total length exceeding u64::MAX",
+                segments.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+    Ok(RowIdSequence(segments))
+}
+
+/// The non-empty range of a serialized `U64Segment` that holds nothing but a
+/// `Range`; `None` for any other shape, which prost decodes instead.
+fn plain_range(mut bytes: &[u8]) -> Option<Range<u64>> {
+    let (field, wire_type) = decode_key(&mut bytes).ok()?;
+    if field != 1 || wire_type != WireType::LengthDelimited {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let len = decode_varint(&mut bytes).ok()? as usize;
+    if len != bytes.len() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let (mut start, mut end) = (0_u64, 0_u64);
+    while !bytes.is_empty() {
+        let (field, wire_type) = decode_key(&mut bytes).ok()?;
+        if wire_type != WireType::Varint {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let value = decode_varint(&mut bytes).ok()?;
+        match field {
+            1 => start = value,
+            2 => end = value,
+            _ => return None,
+        }
+    }
+    (start < end).then_some(start..end)
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
-    use super::*;
     use pretty_assertions::assert_eq;
+    use proptest::prelude::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_serialization_is_byte_exact() {
+        let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_full(10);
+        bitmap.clear(2);
+        let segment = U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+            range: 100..110,
+            bitmap,
+        };
+        assert_eq!(segment.len(), 9);
+
+        let serialized = pb::U64Segment::from(segment.clone());
+        let Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(encoded)) = &serialized.segment else {
+            panic!("expected bitmap segment");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(encoded.bitmap, vec![0xfb, 0x03]);
+        assert_eq!(U64Segment::try_from(serialized).unwrap(), segment);
+    }
+    fn read_segment(segment: pb::u64_segment::Segment) -> Result<RowIdSequence> {
+        let sequence = pb::RowIdSequence {
+            segments: vec![pb::U64Segment {
+                segment: Some(segment),
+            }],
+        };
+        read_row_ids(&sequence.encode_to_vec())
+    }
+
+    fn assert_corrupt_segment(segment: pb::u64_segment::Segment, expected_message: &str) {
+        let error = read_segment(segment).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(expected_message),
+            "expected error containing {expected_message:?}, got {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Each segment length fits a usize, but the aggregate does not fit a u64. Accepting
+    /// this would leave `RowIdSequence::len()` overflowing for callers such as
+    /// `Dataset::validate()`.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_reject_sequence_length_overflow() {
+        let segment = || pb::U64Segment {
+            segment: Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::Range(pb::u64_segment::Range {
+                start: 0,
+                end: u64::MAX,
+            })),
+        };
+        let sequence = pb::RowIdSequence {
+            segments: vec![segment(), segment()],
+        };
+
+        let error = read_row_ids(&sequence.encode_to_vec()).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("total length exceeding u64::MAX"),
+            "got {error}"
+        );
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_write_read_row_ids() {
@@ -217,9 +501,11 @@ mod test {
             range: 100..200,
             holes: EncodedU64Array::U64(vec![104, 108, 150]),
         });
+        let mut bitmap = Bitmap::new_empty(100);
+        bitmap.set(99);
         sequence.0.push(U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap {
             range: 200..300,
-            bitmap: Bitmap::new_empty(100),
+            bitmap,
         });
         sequence
             .0
@@ -229,12 +515,370 @@ mod test {
             }));
         sequence
             .0
-            .push(U64Segment::Array(EncodedU64Array::U64(vec![1, 2, 3])));
+            .push(U64Segment::Array(EncodedU64Array::U64(vec![3, 1, 2])));
 
         let serialized = write_row_ids(&sequence);
 
         let sequence2 = read_row_ids(&serialized).unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(sequence.0, sequence2.0);
+        // Decoding folds the two leading `Range` segments into one `Ranges`
+        // segment; everything else round-trips unchanged.
+        assert!(matches!(sequence2.0[0], U64Segment::Ranges { .. }));
+        assert_eq!(&sequence2.0[1..], &sequence.0[2..]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence2.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            sequence.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    proptest! {
+        #[test]
+        fn test_row_id_sequence_len_round_trips(
+            values in proptest::collection::btree_set(any::<u64>(), 0..128)
+        ) {
+            let values = values.into_iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let sequence = RowIdSequence::from(values.as_slice());
+            let deserialized = read_row_ids(&write_row_ids(&sequence)).unwrap();
+
+            prop_assert_eq!(deserialized.len(), sequence.len());
+            prop_assert_eq!(deserialized.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(), values);
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_rejects_wrong_range_with_bitmap_length(
+            range_len in 1usize..512,
+        ) {
+            let expected_len = range_len.div_ceil(8);
+            for actual_len in [expected_len - 1, expected_len + 1] {
+                let segment = pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(
+                    pb::u64_segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                        start: 0,
+                        end: range_len as u64,
+                        bitmap: vec![0; actual_len],
+                    },
+                );
+
+                let error = read_segment(segment).unwrap_err();
+                let is_corrupt_file = matches!(&error, Error::CorruptFile { .. });
+                prop_assert!(is_corrupt_file);
+                prop_assert!(error.to_string().contains("byte length"));
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_rejects_range_with_bitmap_padding_bits(
+            full_bytes in 0usize..64,
+            valid_bits in 1usize..8,
+        ) {
+            let range_len = full_bytes * 8 + valid_bits;
+            let mut bitmap = vec![0; full_bytes + 1];
+            bitmap[full_bytes] = 1 << valid_bits;
+            let segment = pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(
+                pb::u64_segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                    start: 0,
+                    end: range_len as u64,
+                    bitmap,
+                },
+            );
+
+            let error = read_segment(segment).unwrap_err();
+            let is_corrupt_file = matches!(&error, Error::CorruptFile { .. });
+            prop_assert!(is_corrupt_file);
+            prop_assert!(error.to_string().contains("padding bits must be zero"));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_rejects_reversed_range_with_bitmap(
+            start in 1u64..u64::MAX,
+        ) {
+            let segment = pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(
+                pb::u64_segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                    start,
+                    end: start - 1,
+                    bitmap: Vec::new(),
+                },
+            );
+
+            let error = read_segment(segment).unwrap_err();
+            let is_corrupt_file = matches!(&error, Error::CorruptFile { .. });
+            prop_assert!(is_corrupt_file);
+            prop_assert!(error.to_string().contains("range start"));
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn test_rejects_misaligned_encoded_array_bytes(
+            encoding in 0u8..3,
+            element_count in 0usize..16,
+        ) {
+            let width = match encoding {
+                0 => 2,
+                1 => 4,
+                _ => 8,
+            };
+            let bytes = vec![0; element_count * width + 1];
+            let array = match encoding {
+                0 => pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U16Array(
+                    pb::encoded_u64_array::U16Array { base: 0, offsets: bytes },
+                ),
+                1 => pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U32Array(
+                    pb::encoded_u64_array::U32Array { base: 0, offsets: bytes },
+                ),
+                _ => pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U64Array(
+                    pb::encoded_u64_array::U64Array { values: bytes },
+                ),
+            };
+            let segment = pb::u64_segment::Segment::Array(pb::EncodedU64Array {
+                array: Some(array),
+            });
+
+            let error = read_segment(segment).unwrap_err();
+            let is_corrupt_file = matches!(&error, Error::CorruptFile { .. });
+            prop_assert!(is_corrupt_file);
+            prop_assert!(error.to_string().contains("byte length"));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rejects_encoded_offset_overflow() {
+        use pb::encoded_u64_array as pb_array;
+
+        let arrays = [
+            pb_array::Array::U16Array(pb_array::U16Array {
+                base: u64::MAX,
+                offsets: 1u16.to_le_bytes().to_vec(),
+            }),
+            pb_array::Array::U32Array(pb_array::U32Array {
+                base: u64::MAX,
+                offsets: 1u32.to_le_bytes().to_vec(),
+            }),
+        ];
+        for array in arrays {
+            assert_corrupt_segment(
+                pb::u64_segment::Segment::Array(pb::EncodedU64Array { array: Some(array) }),
+                "overflows u64",
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::descending(vec![6, 5], "not strictly increasing")]
+    #[case::duplicate(vec![5, 5], "not strictly increasing")]
+    #[case::below_range(vec![4], "outside the range")]
+    #[case::at_end(vec![7], "outside the range")]
+    fn test_rejects_invalid_range_with_holes(#[case] values: Vec<u64>, #[case] message: &str) {
+        let values = values.into_iter().flat_map(u64::to_le_bytes).collect();
+        assert_corrupt_segment(
+            pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithHoles(pb::u64_segment::RangeWithHoles {
+                start: 5,
+                end: 7,
+                holes: Some(pb::EncodedU64Array {
+                    array: Some(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U64Array(
+                        pb::encoded_u64_array::U64Array { values },
+                    )),
+                }),
+            }),
+            message,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rejects_missing_range_with_holes_array() {
+        assert_corrupt_segment(
+            pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithHoles(pb::u64_segment::RangeWithHoles {
+                start: 5,
+                end: 7,
+                holes: None,
+            }),
+            "missing its holes array",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::u16(
+        pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U16Array(pb::encoded_u64_array::U16Array {
+            base: 0,
+            offsets: vec![1],
+        }),
+        "encoded u16 array byte length 1 is not a multiple of element width 2"
+    )]
+    #[case::u32(
+        pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U32Array(pb::encoded_u64_array::U32Array {
+            base: 0,
+            offsets: vec![1, 2, 3],
+        }),
+        "encoded u32 array byte length 3 is not a multiple of element width 4"
+    )]
+    #[case::u64(
+        pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U64Array(pb::encoded_u64_array::U64Array {
+            values: vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7],
+        }),
+        "encoded u64 array byte length 7 is not a multiple of element width 8"
+    )]
+    fn test_rejects_misaligned_encoded_array(
+        #[case] array: pb::encoded_u64_array::Array,
+        #[case] message: &str,
+    ) {
+        assert_corrupt_segment(
+            pb::u64_segment::Segment::Array(pb::EncodedU64Array { array: Some(array) }),
+            message,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::range(pb::u64_segment::Segment::Range(pb::u64_segment::Range {
+        start: 10,
+        end: 9,
+    }))]
+    #[case::range_with_holes(pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithHoles(
+        pb::u64_segment::RangeWithHoles {
+            start: 10,
+            end: 9,
+            holes: Some(pb::EncodedU64Array {
+                array: Some(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U64Array(
+                    pb::encoded_u64_array::U64Array { values: Vec::new() },
+                )),
+            }),
+        }
+    ))]
+    #[case::range_with_bitmap(pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(
+        pb::u64_segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+            start: 10,
+            end: 9,
+            bitmap: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    ))]
+    fn test_rejects_reversed_range(#[case] segment: pb::u64_segment::Segment) {
+        assert_corrupt_segment(segment, "range start 10 exceeds end 9");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::short(vec![0])]
+    #[case::long(vec![0, 0, 0])]
+    fn test_rejects_incorrect_bitmap_length(#[case] bitmap: Vec<u8>) {
+        assert_corrupt_segment(
+            pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(pb::u64_segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                start: 5,
+                end: 14,
+                bitmap,
+            }),
+            "does not match expected 2 for range start 5, end 14, and length 9",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rejects_set_bitmap_padding_bits() {
+        assert_corrupt_segment(
+            pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(pb::u64_segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+                start: 5,
+                end: 14,
+                bitmap: vec![0xff, 0x03],
+            }),
+            "padding bits must be zero",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::u16_descending(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U16Array(
+        pb::encoded_u64_array::U16Array {
+            base: 100,
+            offsets: vec![2, 0, 1, 0],
+        }
+    ))]
+    #[case::u32_descending(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U32Array(
+        pb::encoded_u64_array::U32Array {
+            base: 100,
+            offsets: vec![2, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0],
+        }
+    ))]
+    #[case::u64_descending(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U64Array(
+        pb::encoded_u64_array::U64Array {
+            values: vec![2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
+        }
+    ))]
+    #[case::u16_duplicate(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U16Array(
+        pb::encoded_u64_array::U16Array {
+            base: 100,
+            offsets: vec![5, 0, 5, 0],
+        }
+    ))]
+    #[case::u32_duplicate(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U32Array(
+        pb::encoded_u64_array::U32Array {
+            base: 100,
+            offsets: vec![5, 0, 0, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0],
+        }
+    ))]
+    #[case::u64_duplicate(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U64Array(
+        pb::encoded_u64_array::U64Array {
+            values: vec![5, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
+        }
+    ))]
+    fn test_rejects_unsorted_sorted_array(#[case] array: pb::encoded_u64_array::Array) {
+        assert_corrupt_segment(
+            pb::u64_segment::Segment::SortedArray(pb::EncodedU64Array { array: Some(array) }),
+            "SortedArray values are not strictly increasing at indices 0 and 1",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ranges_are_written_as_range_segments_and_folded_back() {
+        // 1000..1100, 1300..1500, 1650..2000 as one compact segment.
+        let ranges = vec![1000..1100, 1300..1500, 1650..2000];
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence(vec![U64Segment::from_sorted_ranges(&ranges).unwrap()]);
+        let encoded = write_row_ids(&sequence);
+
+        // On the wire: three plain `Range` segments, readable by any version.
+        let wire = pb::RowIdSequence::decode(encoded.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        let wire_ranges: Vec<Range<u64>> = wire
+            .segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| match &segment.segment {
+                Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::Range(range)) => range.start..range.end,
+                other => panic!("expected a Range segment, got {other:?}"),
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(wire_ranges, ranges);
+
+        // Decoding folds them back into the compact segment.
+        let decoded = read_row_ids(encoded.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded, sequence);
+        assert_eq!(
+            decoded.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            sequence.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+
+        // A lone range, adjacent ranges and non-range neighbours: adjacent
+        // ranges merge, a single range stays a `Range`, others are untouched.
+        let mixed = pb::RowIdSequence {
+            segments: vec![
+                U64Segment::Range(0..10),
+                U64Segment::Range(10..20),
+                U64Segment::SortedArray(vec![100, 200].into()),
+                U64Segment::Range(300..310),
+                U64Segment::Range(320..330),
+                U64Segment::Range(340..350),
+            ]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(pb::U64Segment::from)
+            .collect(),
+        };
+        let folded = RowIdSequence::try_from(mixed).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            folded.0.as_slice(),
+            [
+                U64Segment::Range(_),
+                U64Segment::SortedArray(_),
+                U64Segment::Ranges { .. }
+            ]
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(folded.0[0], U64Segment::Range(0..20));
+        assert_eq!(
+            folded.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            (0..20)
+                .chain([100, 200])
+                .chain(300..310)
+                .chain(320..330)
+                .chain(340..350)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/version.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/version.rs
index 150a8111267..a269b1cc7f3 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/version.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/rowids/version.rs
@@ -7,16 +7,39 @@
 //! update version for each row in a Lance dataset, enabling efficient
 //! cross-version diff operations.
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+
 use lance_core::Error;
 use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use prost::Message;
+use serde::de::Deserializer;
+use serde::ser::Serializer;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 
-use crate::format::{pb, ExternalFile, Fragment};
+use crate::format::{Fragment, pb};
 use crate::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
-use crate::rowids::{read_row_ids, RowIdSequence};
+use crate::rowids::{RowIdSequence, read_row_ids};
+
+/// One fragment's row lineage sequences that live outside the manifest, read
+/// ahead of a commit by the caller.
+///
+/// Building a manifest is synchronous and has no object store, so it cannot
+/// read a sequence spilled to a data file column (`RowIdMeta::Column`,
+/// `RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column`). A caller that can do IO loads them first
+/// and hands them over in [`ManifestBuildConfig`](crate::format::ManifestBuildConfig).
+/// Only the spilled sequences need to be present; inline ones are decoded on
+/// the spot.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct LoadedRowLineage {
+    pub row_ids: Option<Arc<RowIdSequence>>,
+    pub created_at: Option<Arc<RowDatasetVersionSequence>>,
+    pub last_updated_at: Option<Arc<RowDatasetVersionSequence>>,
+}
+
+/// [`LoadedRowLineage`] per fragment id.
+pub type SpilledRowLineage = HashMap<u64, LoadedRowLineage>;
 
 /// A run of identical versions over a contiguous span of row positions.
 ///
@@ -56,6 +79,136 @@ pub struct RowDatasetVersionSequence {
     pub runs: Vec<RowDatasetVersionRun>,
 }
 
+/// A reusable cursor for reading ranges from a version sequence in one pass.
+///
+/// The cursor caches the current run length. Readers normally request adjacent
+/// batches, so this avoids rebuilding all run offsets and rescanning the run
+/// prefix for every batch. A backwards selection lazily builds a run-offset
+/// index. Once built, non-adjacent selections use it in either direction.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub(crate) struct RowDatasetVersionCursor {
+    run_index: usize,
+    offset_in_run: usize,
+    position: usize,
+    run_len: Option<usize>,
+    run_offsets: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+    indexed_total_len: usize,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    indexed_seek_count: usize,
+}
+
+impl RowDatasetVersionCursor {
+    fn seek_indexed(
+        &mut self,
+        sequence: &RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+        position: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.run_offsets.is_none() {
+            let mut total_len = 0;
+            let run_offsets = sequence
+                .runs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|run| {
+                    let offset = total_len;
+                    total_len += run.len();
+                    offset
+                })
+                .collect();
+            self.run_offsets = Some(run_offsets);
+            self.indexed_total_len = total_len;
+        }
+
+        if position >= self.indexed_total_len {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "version column position {} out of range (total_len={})",
+                position, self.indexed_total_len
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let run_offsets = self.run_offsets.as_ref().unwrap();
+        let mut run_index = match run_offsets.binary_search(&position) {
+            Ok(run_index) => run_index,
+            Err(run_index) => run_index - 1,
+        };
+        while run_index + 1 < run_offsets.len() && run_offsets[run_index + 1] <= position {
+            run_index += 1;
+        }
+        self.run_index = run_index;
+        self.offset_in_run = position - run_offsets[run_index];
+        self.position = position;
+        self.run_len = None;
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            self.indexed_seek_count += 1;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn current_run<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        sequence: &'a RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+    ) -> Option<(&'a RowDatasetVersionRun, usize)> {
+        loop {
+            let run = sequence.runs.get(self.run_index)?;
+            let run_len = *self.run_len.get_or_insert_with(|| match &run.span {
+                // Version runs are normally positional ranges. Keep this hot
+                // path local instead of using the general segment length path.
+                U64Segment::Range(range) => (range.end - range.start) as usize,
+                span => span.len(),
+            });
+            if self.offset_in_run < run_len {
+                return Some((run, run_len));
+            }
+            self.run_index += 1;
+            self.offset_in_run = 0;
+            self.run_len = None;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Append the versions in `selection` to `versions`.
+    pub(crate) fn extend_range(
+        &mut self,
+        sequence: &RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+        selection: Range<usize>,
+        versions: &mut Vec<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if selection.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        if selection.start < self.position
+            || (self.run_offsets.is_some() && selection.start != self.position)
+        {
+            self.seek_indexed(sequence, selection.start)?;
+        }
+
+        while self.position < selection.start {
+            let Some((_, run_len)) = self.current_run(sequence) else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "version column position {} out of range (total_len={})",
+                    selection.start, self.position
+                )));
+            };
+            let advance = (selection.start - self.position).min(run_len - self.offset_in_run);
+            self.offset_in_run += advance;
+            self.position += advance;
+        }
+
+        while self.position < selection.end {
+            let Some((run, run_len)) = self.current_run(sequence) else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "version column position {} out of range (total_len={})",
+                    self.position, self.position
+                )));
+            };
+            let count = (selection.end - self.position).min(run_len - self.offset_in_run);
+            versions.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(run.version(), count));
+            self.offset_in_run += count;
+            self.position += count;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
 impl RowDatasetVersionSequence {
     /// Create a new empty version sequence
     pub fn new() -> Self {
@@ -74,6 +227,28 @@ impl RowDatasetVersionSequence {
         Self { runs: vec![run] }
     }
 
+    /// Run-length encode one version per row, in row offset order.
+    pub fn from_versions(versions: &[u64]) -> Self {
+        let mut runs = Vec::new();
+        let mut run_start = 0u64;
+        for (i, window) in versions.windows(2).enumerate() {
+            if window[0] != window[1] {
+                runs.push(RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(run_start..i as u64 + 1),
+                    version: window[0],
+                });
+                run_start = i as u64 + 1;
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(last) = versions.last() {
+            runs.push(RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(run_start..versions.len() as u64),
+                version: *last,
+            });
+        }
+        Self { runs }
+    }
+
     /// Number of rows tracked by this sequence (sum of run lengths).
     pub fn len(&self) -> u64 {
         self.runs.iter().map(|s| s.len() as u64).sum()
@@ -89,6 +264,11 @@ impl RowDatasetVersionSequence {
         VersionsIter::new(&self.runs)
     }
 
+    /// Create a reusable cursor for sequential range reads.
+    pub(crate) fn cursor(&self) -> RowDatasetVersionCursor {
+        RowDatasetVersionCursor::default()
+    }
+
     /// Random access: get the version at global row position `index`.
     pub fn version_at(&self, index: usize) -> Option<u64> {
         let mut offset = 0usize;
@@ -108,10 +288,10 @@ impl RowDatasetVersionSequence {
     pub fn get_version_for_row_id(&self, row_ids: &RowIdSequence, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
         let mut offset = 0usize;
         for seg in &row_ids.0 {
-            if seg.range().is_some_and(|r| r.contains(&row_id)) {
-                if let Some(local) = seg.position(row_id) {
-                    return self.version_at(offset + local);
-                }
+            if seg.range().is_some_and(|r| r.contains(&row_id))
+                && let Some(local) = seg.position(row_id)
+            {
+                return self.version_at(offset + local);
             }
             offset += seg.len();
         }
@@ -211,33 +391,94 @@ impl<'a> Iterator for VersionsIter<'a> {
 
 /// Metadata about the location of dataset version sequence data
 /// Following the same pattern as RowIdMeta
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+///
+/// When stored inline, identical byte sequences are shared across fragments
+/// via `Arc<[u8]>` to reduce manifest memory for large tables.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, DeepSizeOf)]
 pub enum RowDatasetVersionMeta {
     /// Small sequences stored inline in the fragment metadata
-    Inline(Vec<u8>),
-    /// Large sequences stored in external files
-    External(ExternalFile),
+    Inline(Arc<[u8]>),
+    /// The sequence is spilled to a hidden column of one of the fragment's
+    /// data files, one version per physical row in offset order, at
+    /// [`ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID`](crate::format::ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID)
+    /// or
+    /// [`ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID`](crate::format::ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID)
+    /// depending on which sequence this is; see
+    /// [`Fragment::row_lineage_file`](crate::format::Fragment::row_lineage_file).
+    /// Reading it needs IO, so it goes through the dataset's loader rather
+    /// than [`Self::load_sequence`].
+    Column,
+}
+
+/// The JSON form of [`RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column`]: `{"column": {}}`, an
+/// empty object under the arm's name, mirroring the empty `RowLineageColumn`
+/// protobuf message. The name alone tells the arms apart; there is nothing to
+/// carry.
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+struct ColumnMarker {}
+
+// Custom Serialize: convert Arc<[u8]> to slice for transparent JSON output
+impl Serialize for RowDatasetVersionMeta {
+    fn serialize<S: Serializer>(&self, serializer: S) -> std::result::Result<S::Ok, S::Error> {
+        #[derive(Serialize)]
+        #[serde(untagged)]
+        enum Helper<'a> {
+            Inline { inline: &'a [u8] },
+            Column { column: ColumnMarker },
+        }
+
+        match self {
+            Self::Inline(data) => Helper::Inline {
+                inline: data.as_ref(),
+            }
+            .serialize(serializer),
+            Self::Column => Helper::Column {
+                column: ColumnMarker {},
+            }
+            .serialize(serializer),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// Custom Deserialize: read Vec<u8> and convert to Arc<[u8]>
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for RowDatasetVersionMeta {
+    fn deserialize<D: Deserializer<'de>>(deserializer: D) -> std::result::Result<Self, D::Error> {
+        #[derive(Deserialize)]
+        #[serde(untagged)]
+        enum Helper {
+            Inline { inline: Vec<u8> },
+            Column { column: ColumnMarker },
+        }
+
+        match Helper::deserialize(deserializer)? {
+            Helper::Inline { inline } => Ok(Self::Inline(Arc::from(inline))),
+            Helper::Column { column } => {
+                let ColumnMarker {} = column;
+                Ok(Self::Column)
+            }
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 impl RowDatasetVersionMeta {
     /// Create inline metadata from a version sequence
     pub fn from_sequence(sequence: &RowDatasetVersionSequence) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
         let bytes = write_dataset_versions(sequence);
-        Ok(Self::Inline(bytes))
-    }
-
-    /// Create external metadata reference
-    pub fn from_external_file(path: String, offset: u64, size: u64) -> Self {
-        Self::External(ExternalFile { path, offset, size })
+        Ok(Self::Inline(Arc::from(bytes)))
     }
 
-    /// Load the version sequence from this metadata
+    /// Decode the version sequence stored inline in this metadata.
+    ///
+    /// A sequence stored outside the manifest needs IO to read, which this
+    /// synchronous accessor cannot do; it is an error here and is loaded
+    /// through the dataset instead.
     pub fn load_sequence(&self) -> lance_core::Result<RowDatasetVersionSequence> {
         match self {
             Self::Inline(data) => read_dataset_versions(data),
-            Self::External(_file) => {
-                todo!("External file loading not yet implemented")
-            }
+            Self::Column => Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "row version sequence spilled to a data file column cannot be decoded from \
+                 fragment metadata alone",
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -249,16 +490,12 @@ pub fn last_updated_at_version_meta_to_pb(
     meta.as_ref().map(|m| match m {
         RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(data) => {
             pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::InlineLastUpdatedAtVersions(
-                data.clone(),
+                data.to_vec(),
             )
         }
-        RowDatasetVersionMeta::External(file) => {
-            pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::ExternalLastUpdatedAtVersions(
-                pb::ExternalFile {
-                    path: file.path.clone(),
-                    offset: file.offset,
-                    size: file.size,
-                },
+        RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column => {
+            pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::ColumnLastUpdatedAtVersions(
+                pb::RowLineageColumn {},
             )
         }
     })
@@ -270,15 +507,11 @@ pub fn created_at_version_meta_to_pb(
 ) -> Option<pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence> {
     meta.as_ref().map(|m| match m {
         RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(data) => {
-            pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::InlineCreatedAtVersions(data.clone())
-        }
-        RowDatasetVersionMeta::External(file) => {
-            pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::ExternalCreatedAtVersions(
-                pb::ExternalFile {
-                    path: file.path.clone(),
-                    offset: file.offset,
-                    size: file.size,
-                },
+            pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::InlineCreatedAtVersions(data.to_vec())
+        }
+        RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column => {
+            pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::ColumnCreatedAtVersions(
+                pb::RowLineageColumn {},
             )
         }
     })
@@ -303,18 +536,16 @@ pub fn write_dataset_versions(sequence: &RowDatasetVersionSequence) -> Vec<u8> {
 
 /// Deserialize a dataset version sequence from bytes (following RowIdSequence pattern)
 pub fn read_dataset_versions(data: &[u8]) -> lance_core::Result<RowDatasetVersionSequence> {
-    let pb_sequence = pb::RowDatasetVersionSequence::decode(data).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-        message: format!("Failed to decode RowDatasetVersionSequence: {}", e),
-        location: location!(),
+    let pb_sequence = pb::RowDatasetVersionSequence::decode(data).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::internal(format!("Failed to decode RowDatasetVersionSequence: {}", e))
     })?;
 
     let segments = pb_sequence
         .runs
         .into_iter()
         .map(|pb_run| {
-            let positions_pb = pb_run.span.ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Missing positions in RowDatasetVersionRun".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
+            let positions_pb = pb_run.span.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Missing positions in RowDatasetVersionRun".to_string())
             })?;
             let segment = U64Segment::try_from(positions_pb)?;
             Ok(RowDatasetVersionRun {
@@ -343,23 +574,17 @@ pub fn rechunk_version_sequences(
         .peekable();
 
     let too_few_segments_error = |chunk_index: usize, expected_chunk_size: u64, remaining: u64| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Got too few version runs for chunk {}. Expected chunk size: {}, remaining needed: {}",
-                chunk_index, expected_chunk_size, remaining
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        )
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Got too few version runs for chunk {}. Expected chunk size: {}, remaining needed: {}",
+            chunk_index, expected_chunk_size, remaining
+        ))
     };
 
     let too_many_segments_error = |processed_chunks: usize, total_chunk_sizes: usize| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Got too many version runs for the provided chunk lengths. Processed {} chunks out of {} expected",
-                processed_chunks, total_chunk_sizes
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        )
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Got too many version runs for the provided chunk lengths. Processed {} chunks out of {} expected",
+            processed_chunks, total_chunk_sizes
+        ))
     };
 
     let mut segment_offset = 0_u64;
@@ -431,23 +656,23 @@ pub fn build_version_meta(
     fragment: &Fragment,
     current_version: u64,
 ) -> Option<RowDatasetVersionMeta> {
-    if let Some(physical_rows) = fragment.physical_rows {
-        if physical_rows > 0 {
-            // Verify row_id_meta exists (sanity check for stable row IDs)
-            if fragment.row_id_meta.is_none() {
-                panic!("Can not find row id meta, please make sure you have enabled stable row id.")
-            }
+    if let Some(physical_rows) = fragment.physical_rows
+        && physical_rows > 0
+    {
+        // Verify row_id_meta exists (sanity check for stable row IDs)
+        if fragment.row_id_meta.is_none() {
+            panic!("Can not find row id meta, please make sure you have enabled stable row id.")
+        }
 
-            // Use physical_rows directly as the authoritative row count
-            // This is correct even for compacted fragments where row_id_meta might
-            // have been partially copied
-            let version_sequence = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(
-                physical_rows as u64,
-                current_version,
-            );
+        // Use physical_rows directly as the authoritative row count
+        // This is correct even for compacted fragments where row_id_meta might
+        // have been partially copied
+        let version_sequence = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(
+            physical_rows as u64,
+            current_version,
+        );
 
-            return Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&version_sequence).unwrap());
-        }
+        return Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&version_sequence).unwrap());
     }
     None
 }
@@ -467,8 +692,9 @@ pub fn refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_full_frag_rewrite_cols(
                 let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
                 sequence.len()
             }
-            // Follow existing behavior: external sequence not yet supported here
-            crate::format::RowIdMeta::External(_file) => 0,
+            // Follow existing behavior: a sequence that is not inline needs IO
+            // to read, which this synchronous path cannot do.
+            crate::format::RowIdMeta::Column => 0,
         }
     } else {
         0
@@ -489,11 +715,15 @@ pub fn refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_full_frag_rewrite_cols(
 /// `updated_offsets` are local row offsets (within the fragment) that have been updated.
 /// Existing version metadata is preserved and only the updated positions are set to `current_version`.
 /// If no existing metadata is present, positions default to `prev_version`.
+///
+/// A fragment whose existing versions are spilled has them read from
+/// `spilled`; the refreshed sequence is placed inline.
 pub fn refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_partial_frag_rewrite_cols(
     fragment: &mut Fragment,
     updated_offsets: &[usize],
     current_version: u64,
     prev_version: u64,
+    spilled: &SpilledRowLineage,
 ) -> Result<()> {
     // Determine row count for fragment
     let row_count_u64: u64 = if let Some(pr) = fragment.physical_rows {
@@ -504,9 +734,13 @@ pub fn refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_partial_frag_rewrite_cols(
                 let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
                 sequence.len()
             }
-            crate::format::RowIdMeta::External(_file) => {
-                // Preserve original behavior for external sequences
-                todo!("External file loading not yet implemented")
+            // Reading these needs IO, which this synchronous path cannot do.
+            // Reachable only for a fragment that also has no `physical_rows`.
+            crate::format::RowIdMeta::Column => {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                    "refreshing row update versions for a fragment whose row id \
+                     sequence is stored outside the manifest",
+                ));
             }
         }
     } else {
@@ -517,10 +751,28 @@ pub fn refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_partial_frag_rewrite_cols(
         // Build base version vector from existing meta or previous dataset version
         let mut base_versions: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(row_count_u64 as usize);
         if let Some(meta) = fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta.as_ref() {
-            if let Ok(base_seq) = meta.load_sequence() {
-                for pos in 0..(row_count_u64 as usize) {
-                    base_versions.push(base_seq.version_at(pos).unwrap_or(prev_version));
-                }
+            let base_seq = if matches!(meta, RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column) {
+                // The existing versions of the rows this update leaves alone
+                // live in a data file, which this path cannot read. Defaulting
+                // them would silently rewrite their lineage, so the caller has
+                // to have read them ahead of time.
+                let loaded = spilled
+                    .get(&fragment.id)
+                    .and_then(|lineage| lineage.last_updated_at.clone())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::not_supported(format!(
+                            "fragment {} stores its last-updated-at versions outside the \
+                             manifest and they were not loaded ahead of the commit",
+                            fragment.id
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                Some(loaded.as_ref().clone())
+            } else {
+                meta.load_sequence().ok()
+            };
+            if let Some(base_seq) = base_seq {
+                base_versions.extend(base_seq.versions().take(row_count_u64 as usize));
+                base_versions.resize(row_count_u64 as usize, prev_version);
             } else {
                 base_versions.resize(row_count_u64 as usize, prev_version);
             }
@@ -570,15 +822,11 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence> for RowDatasetVers
     fn try_from(value: pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence) -> Result<Self> {
         match value {
             pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::InlineLastUpdatedAtVersions(data) => {
-                Ok(Self::Inline(data))
+                Ok(Self::Inline(Arc::from(data)))
+            }
+            pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::ColumnLastUpdatedAtVersions(_) => {
+                Ok(Self::Column)
             }
-            pb::data_fragment::LastUpdatedAtVersionSequence::ExternalLastUpdatedAtVersions(
-                file,
-            ) => Ok(Self::External(ExternalFile {
-                path: file.path,
-                offset: file.offset,
-                size: file.size,
-            })),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -589,14 +837,10 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence> for RowDatasetVersionM
     fn try_from(value: pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence) -> Result<Self> {
         match value {
             pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::InlineCreatedAtVersions(data) => {
-                Ok(Self::Inline(data))
+                Ok(Self::Inline(Arc::from(data)))
             }
-            pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::ExternalCreatedAtVersions(file) => {
-                Ok(Self::External(ExternalFile {
-                    path: file.path,
-                    offset: file.offset,
-                    size: file.size,
-                }))
+            pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence::ColumnCreatedAtVersions(_) => {
+                Ok(Self::Column)
             }
         }
     }
@@ -606,6 +850,43 @@ impl TryFrom<pb::data_fragment::CreatedAtVersionSequence> for RowDatasetVersionM
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
+    #[test]
+    fn column_meta_json_is_an_empty_object_under_the_arm_name() {
+        let json = serde_json::to_string(&RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(json, r#"{"column":{}}"#);
+        let parsed: RowDatasetVersionMeta = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(parsed, RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column);
+        let inline = RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(Arc::from(vec![1u8, 2, 3]));
+        let parsed: RowDatasetVersionMeta =
+            serde_json::from_str(&serde_json::to_string(&inline).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(parsed, inline);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn from_versions_run_length_encodes() {
+        assert!(
+            RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&[])
+                .runs
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        let single = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&[3, 3, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(single.runs.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(single.runs[0].version, 3);
+        assert_eq!(single.len(), 3);
+
+        let alternating = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&[1, 2, 1, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            alternating
+                .runs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|run| run.version)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            [1, 2, 1, 2]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(alternating.versions().collect::<Vec<_>>(), [1, 2, 1, 2]);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_version_random_access() {
         let seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
@@ -632,6 +913,43 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(seq.version_at(6), None);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_partial_refresh_streams_many_lineage_runs() {
+        const ROWS: usize = 10_000;
+        let prior_sequence = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: (0..ROWS)
+                .map(|position| RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(position as u64..position as u64 + 1),
+                    version: (position % 2 + 1) as u64,
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        };
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(1);
+        fragment.physical_rows = Some(ROWS);
+        fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta =
+            Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&prior_sequence).unwrap());
+
+        refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_partial_frag_rewrite_cols(
+            &mut fragment,
+            &[ROWS - 1],
+            3,
+            1,
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let refreshed = fragment
+            .last_updated_at_version_meta
+            .unwrap()
+            .load_sequence()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(refreshed.len(), ROWS as u64);
+        assert_eq!(refreshed.version_at(0), Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(refreshed.version_at(1), Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(refreshed.version_at(ROWS - 2), Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(refreshed.version_at(ROWS - 1), Some(3));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_serialization_round_trip() {
         let seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
@@ -675,4 +993,142 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(seq.get_version_for_row_id(&rows, 13), Some(9));
         assert_eq!(seq.get_version_for_row_id(&rows, 99), None);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_version_cursor_ranges_gaps_and_rewind() {
+        let seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(0..3),
+                    version: 10,
+                },
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(3..3),
+                    version: 99,
+                },
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(3..5),
+                    version: 20,
+                },
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(5..9),
+                    version: 30,
+                },
+            ],
+        };
+        let expected = [10, 10, 10, 20, 20, 30, 30, 30, 30];
+        let mut cursor = seq.cursor();
+        let mut actual = Vec::new();
+
+        cursor.extend_range(&seq, 0..2, &mut actual).unwrap();
+        cursor.extend_range(&seq, 2..5, &mut actual).unwrap();
+        cursor.extend_range(&seq, 7..9, &mut actual).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, [10, 10, 10, 20, 20, 30, 30]);
+
+        actual.clear();
+        cursor.extend_range(&seq, 1..6, &mut actual).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected[1..6]);
+
+        cursor.extend_range(&seq, 6..6, &mut actual).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected[1..6]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_version_cursor_descending_ranges_use_indexed_seek() {
+        const RUNS: usize = 10_000;
+        let seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: (0..RUNS)
+                .map(|position| RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(position as u64..position as u64 + 1),
+                    version: position as u64,
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        };
+        let mut cursor = seq.cursor();
+        let mut actual = Vec::with_capacity(RUNS);
+
+        for position in (0..RUNS).rev() {
+            cursor
+                .extend_range(&seq, position..position + 1, &mut actual)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(actual, (0..RUNS as u64).rev().collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        assert_eq!(cursor.run_offsets.as_ref().unwrap().len(), RUNS);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_version_cursor_alternating_ranges_use_indexed_seek_both_directions() {
+        const RUNS: usize = 10_000;
+        let seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: (0..RUNS)
+                .map(|position| RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(position as u64..position as u64 + 1),
+                    version: position as u64,
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        };
+        let mut cursor = seq.cursor();
+        let mut actual = Vec::with_capacity(RUNS);
+
+        for selection_index in 0..RUNS {
+            let position = if selection_index % 2 == 0 {
+                RUNS - 1
+            } else {
+                0
+            };
+            cursor
+                .extend_range(&seq, position..position + 1, &mut actual)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let expected = (0..RUNS)
+            .map(|selection_index| {
+                if selection_index % 2 == 0 {
+                    (RUNS - 1) as u64
+                } else {
+                    0
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+        assert_eq!(cursor.run_offsets.as_ref().unwrap().len(), RUNS);
+        assert_eq!(cursor.indexed_seek_count, RUNS - 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_version_cursor_reports_out_of_bounds() {
+        let seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(4, 7);
+        let mut cursor = seq.cursor();
+        let mut actual = Vec::new();
+        let error = cursor.extend_range(&seq, 4..5, &mut actual).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("position 4 out of range (total_len=4)")
+        );
+        assert!(actual.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_version_cursor_non_range_span() {
+        let non_range_span = U64Segment::from_slice(&[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]);
+        assert!(!matches!(non_range_span, U64Segment::Range(_)));
+        let seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: non_range_span,
+                    version: 4,
+                },
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(0..3),
+                    version: 8,
+                },
+            ],
+        };
+        let mut actual = Vec::new();
+        seq.cursor().extend_range(&seq, 0..8, &mut actual).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, [4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 8, 8, 8]);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/system_index.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c315b1af326
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! System indices: table-level structure persisted as indices.
+//!
+//! Unlike normal indices, whose internals stay opaque behind
+//! [`crate::format::IndexMetadata::index_details`], the table format genuinely
+//! interprets the contents of these indices (fragment remapping, row
+//! visibility). They therefore live at the table layer.
+//!
+//! The `Index`-trait adapters for these structs live in `lance-index`, which
+//! re-exports the structs defined here.
+
+pub mod frag_reuse;
+pub mod mem_wal;
+
+use crate::format::IndexMetadata;
+use frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+use mem_wal::MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME;
+
+/// Whether `index_meta` describes one of the system indices defined in this module.
+pub fn is_system_index(index_meta: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    index_meta.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME || index_meta.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9b8c384245f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,856 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+pub mod gate;
+pub mod ledger;
+pub mod lineage;
+pub mod metadata;
+
+use std::{collections::HashMap, io::Cursor, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::{GroupInputWithLayout, RowAddrRemap};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use prost::Name;
+use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::InlineContent;
+use crate::format::{ExternalFile, Fragment, IndexMetadata, pb};
+
+pub const FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME: &str = "__lance_frag_reuse";
+pub const FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME: &str = "details.binpb";
+
+/// Whether `index` is the fragment reuse index itself, not a user index that
+/// borrows its name.
+pub fn is_frag_reuse_index_entry(index: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME
+        && index.index_details.as_ref().is_some_and(|details| {
+            details
+                .type_url
+                .rsplit_once('/')
+                .is_some_and(|(_, type_name)| {
+                    type_name.eq_ignore_ascii_case(&pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails::full_name())
+                })
+        })
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct FragDigest {
+    pub id: u64,
+    pub physical_rows: usize,
+    pub num_deleted_rows: usize,
+}
+
+impl From<&FragDigest> for pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::FragmentDigest {
+    fn from(digest: &FragDigest) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            id: digest.id,
+            physical_rows: digest.physical_rows as u64,
+            num_deleted_rows: digest.num_deleted_rows as u64,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&Fragment> for FragDigest {
+    fn from(fragment: &Fragment) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            id: fragment.id,
+            physical_rows: fragment
+                .physical_rows
+                .expect("Fragment doesn't have physical rows recorded"),
+            num_deleted_rows: fragment
+                .deletion_file
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|d| d.num_deleted_rows)
+                .unwrap_or(0),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::FragmentDigest> for FragDigest {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(digest: pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::FragmentDigest) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            id: digest.id,
+            physical_rows: digest.physical_rows as usize,
+            num_deleted_rows: digest.num_deleted_rows as usize,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct FragReuseGroup {
+    pub changed_row_addrs: Vec<u8>,
+    pub old_frags: Vec<FragDigest>,
+    pub new_frags: Vec<FragDigest>,
+}
+
+impl From<&FragReuseGroup> for pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Group {
+    fn from(group: &FragReuseGroup) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            changed_row_addrs: group.changed_row_addrs.clone(),
+            old_fragments: group.old_frags.iter().map(|f| f.into()).collect(),
+            new_fragments: group.new_frags.iter().map(|f| f.into()).collect(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Group> for FragReuseGroup {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(group: pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Group) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            changed_row_addrs: group.changed_row_addrs,
+            old_frags: group
+                .old_fragments
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(FragDigest::try_from)
+                .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+            new_frags: group
+                .new_fragments
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(FragDigest::try_from)
+                .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct FragReuseVersion {
+    pub dataset_version: u64,
+    pub groups: Vec<FragReuseGroup>,
+}
+
+impl From<&FragReuseVersion> for pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version {
+    fn from(version: &FragReuseVersion) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset_version: version.dataset_version,
+            groups: version.groups.iter().map(|g| g.into()).collect(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version> for FragReuseVersion {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(version: pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            dataset_version: version.dataset_version,
+            groups: version
+                .groups
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(FragReuseGroup::try_from)
+                .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl FragReuseVersion {
+    pub fn old_frag_ids(&self) -> Vec<u64> {
+        self.groups
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|g| g.old_frags.iter().map(|f| f.id))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_frag_ids(&self) -> Vec<u64> {
+        self.groups
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|g| g.new_frags.iter().map(|f| f.id))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_frag_bitmap(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter(self.new_frag_ids().iter().map(|&id| id as u32))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub enum FragReuseIndexDetailsContentType {
+    Inline(FragReuseIndexDetails),
+    External(ExternalFile),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct FragReuseIndexDetails {
+    pub versions: Vec<FragReuseVersion>,
+}
+
+impl From<&FragReuseIndexDetails> for InlineContent {
+    fn from(details: &FragReuseIndexDetails) -> Self {
+        let mut versions: Vec<pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version> =
+            details.versions.iter().map(|m| m.into()).collect();
+        // sort from oldest to latest version
+        versions.sort_by_key(|v| v.dataset_version);
+        Self {
+            legacy_versions: versions,
+            transitions: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<InlineContent> for FragReuseIndexDetails {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(content: InlineContent) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            versions: content
+                .legacy_versions
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|m| m.try_into())
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl FragReuseIndexDetails {
+    pub fn new_frag_bitmap(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter(
+            self.versions
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|v| v.new_frag_ids().into_iter().map(|id| id as u32)),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+/// An index that stores materialized row ID maps.
+///
+/// This type is retained for API and serde compatibility. Dataset loading uses
+/// [`CompactFragReuseIndex`] so persisted FRI details are not expanded into a
+/// hash-map entry for every affected row.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct FragReuseIndex {
+    pub uuid: Uuid,
+    pub row_id_maps: Vec<HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>>,
+    pub details: FragReuseIndexDetails,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for FragReuseIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, cx: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.row_id_maps.deep_size_of_children(cx) + self.details.deep_size_of_children(cx)
+    }
+}
+
+impl FragReuseIndex {
+    pub fn new(
+        uuid: Uuid,
+        row_id_maps: Vec<HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>>,
+        details: FragReuseIndexDetails,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            uuid,
+            row_id_maps,
+            details,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.row_id_maps.iter().all(HashMap::is_empty)
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        let mut mapped = Some(row_id);
+        for row_id_map in &self.row_id_maps {
+            if let Some(current) = mapped {
+                mapped = row_id_map.get(&current).copied().unwrap_or(mapped);
+            }
+        }
+        mapped
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_ids_in_place(&self, row_ids: &mut [Option<u64>]) {
+        for row_id_map in &self.row_id_maps {
+            for row_id in row_ids.iter_mut() {
+                if let Some(current) = *row_id
+                    && let Some(mapped) = row_id_map.get(&current)
+                {
+                    *row_id = *mapped;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, row_addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+        RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            row_addrs
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .filter_map(|addr| self.remap_row_id(u64::from(addr))),
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&self, row_ids: &RoaringTreemap) -> RoaringTreemap {
+        RoaringTreemap::from_iter(row_ids.iter().filter_map(|addr| self.remap_row_id(addr)))
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
+        &self,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        row_id_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        remap_row_ids_record_batch(batch, row_id_idx, |row_ids| {
+            self.remap_row_ids_in_place(row_ids)
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_ids_array(&self, array: ArrayRef) -> PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type> {
+        remap_row_ids_array(array, |row_ids| self.remap_row_ids_in_place(row_ids))
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_fragment_bitmap(&self, fragment_bitmap: &mut RoaringBitmap) -> Result<()> {
+        remap_fragment_bitmap(&self.details, fragment_bitmap)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A compact row-address remap chain for deferred compactions.
+///
+/// Each FRI version retains rewritten-row bitmaps and fragment layouts. Queries
+/// use bitmap rank plus the ordered new-fragment ranges instead of storing one
+/// hash-map entry per affected row.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct CompactFragReuseIndex {
+    pub uuid: Uuid,
+    row_addr_remap: RowAddrRemap,
+    pub details: FragReuseIndexDetails,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CompactFragReuseIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, cx: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.row_addr_remap.deep_size_of_children(cx) + self.details.deep_size_of_children(cx)
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompactFragReuseIndex {
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn from_row_id_maps(
+        uuid: Uuid,
+        row_id_maps: Vec<HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>>,
+        details: FragReuseIndexDetails,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            uuid,
+            row_addr_remap: RowAddrRemap::chained(
+                row_id_maps.into_iter().map(RowAddrRemap::direct),
+            ),
+            details,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build a queryable index directly from serialized FRI details without
+    /// expanding each affected row into a hash map.
+    pub fn try_new(uuid: Uuid, details: FragReuseIndexDetails) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut version_remaps = Vec::with_capacity(details.versions.len());
+        for (version_idx, version) in details.versions.iter().enumerate() {
+            let mut groups = Vec::with_capacity(version.groups.len());
+            for (group_idx, group) in version.groups.iter().enumerate() {
+                let changed_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(Cursor::new(
+                    &group.changed_row_addrs,
+                ))
+                .map_err(|error| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "failed to deserialize changed row addresses for FRI version {version_idx}, group {group_idx}: {error}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let old_frags = group
+                    .old_frags
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|frag| fragment_layout(frag, "old", version_idx, group_idx))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                let new_frags = group
+                    .new_frags
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|frag| fragment_layout(frag, "new", version_idx, group_idx))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                groups.push(GroupInputWithLayout {
+                    rewritten_old_row_addrs: changed_row_addrs,
+                    old_frags,
+                    new_frags,
+                });
+            }
+            let remap = RowAddrRemap::compact_with_layout(groups).map_err(|error| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "failed to build compact remap for FRI version {version_idx}: {error}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            version_remaps.push(remap);
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            uuid,
+            row_addr_remap: RowAddrRemap::chained(version_remaps),
+            details,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// The ordered remap chain used by index and transaction remapping paths.
+    pub fn row_addr_remap(&self) -> &RowAddrRemap {
+        &self.row_addr_remap
+    }
+
+    /// Returns whether the index contains no row-address remapping.
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.row_addr_remap.is_empty()
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.row_addr_remap.get(row_id).unwrap_or(Some(row_id))
+    }
+
+    /// Apply all FRI versions to row addresses in place. `None` values remain
+    /// deleted and missing mappings pass through unchanged.
+    pub fn remap_row_ids_in_place(&self, row_ids: &mut [Option<u64>]) {
+        self.row_addr_remap.remap_in_place(row_ids);
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_addrs_tree_map(&self, row_addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> RowAddrTreeMap {
+        RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(row_addrs.row_addrs().unwrap().filter_map(|addr| {
+            let addr_as_u64 = u64::from(addr);
+            self.remap_row_id(addr_as_u64)
+        }))
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_ids_roaring_tree_map(&self, row_ids: &RoaringTreemap) -> RoaringTreemap {
+        RoaringTreemap::from_iter(row_ids.iter().filter_map(|addr| self.remap_row_id(addr)))
+    }
+
+    /// Remap a record batch that contains a row_id column at index `row_id_idx`
+    /// Currently this assumes there are only 2 columns in the schema,
+    /// which is the case for all indexes.
+    /// For example, for btree, the schema is (value, row_id).
+    /// For vector index storage, the schema is (row_id, vector).
+    pub fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
+        &self,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        row_id_idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        remap_row_ids_record_batch(batch, row_id_idx, |row_ids| {
+            self.remap_row_ids_in_place(row_ids)
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_row_ids_array(&self, array: ArrayRef) -> PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type> {
+        remap_row_ids_array(array, |row_ids| self.remap_row_ids_in_place(row_ids))
+    }
+
+    pub fn remap_fragment_bitmap(&self, fragment_bitmap: &mut RoaringBitmap) -> Result<()> {
+        remap_fragment_bitmap(&self.details, fragment_bitmap)
+    }
+}
+
+fn remap_row_ids_record_batch(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    row_id_idx: usize,
+    remap: impl FnOnce(&mut [Option<u64>]),
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    assert_eq!(batch.schema().fields().len(), 2);
+    let other_column_idx = 1 - row_id_idx;
+    let row_ids = batch.column(row_id_idx).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let mut remapped_row_ids = row_ids
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .map(Some)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    remap(&mut remapped_row_ids);
+    let (val_indices, new_row_ids): (Vec<u64>, Vec<u64>) = remapped_row_ids
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter_map(|(idx, new_id)| new_id.map(|new_id| (idx as u64, new_id)))
+        .unzip();
+    let new_val_indices = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(val_indices);
+    let new_vals = arrow::compute::take(batch.column(other_column_idx), &new_val_indices, None)?;
+
+    let mut batch_data: Vec<(usize, ArrayRef)> = vec![
+        (
+            row_id_idx,
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(new_row_ids)) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        (other_column_idx, Arc::new(new_vals)),
+    ];
+    batch_data.sort_by_key(|(i, _)| *i);
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+        batch.schema(),
+        batch_data.into_iter().map(|(_, item)| item).collect(),
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn remap_row_ids_array(
+    array: ArrayRef,
+    remap: impl FnOnce(&mut [Option<u64>]),
+) -> PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type> {
+    let primitive_array = array
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>>()
+        .expect("expected row IDs to be uint64 array");
+    let mut remapped = (0..primitive_array.len())
+        .map(|i| {
+            if primitive_array.is_null(i) {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(primitive_array.value(i))
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    remap(&mut remapped);
+    PrimitiveArray::from(remapped)
+}
+
+fn remap_fragment_bitmap(
+    details: &FragReuseIndexDetails,
+    fragment_bitmap: &mut RoaringBitmap,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    for version in details.versions.iter() {
+        for group in version.groups.iter() {
+            let mut removed = 0;
+            for old_frag in group.old_frags.iter() {
+                if fragment_bitmap.remove(old_frag.id as u32) {
+                    removed += 1;
+                }
+            }
+
+            if removed > 0 {
+                if removed != group.old_frags.len() {
+                    // Straddle: the index covered only part of this rewrite
+                    // group. Caused by the bug fixed in
+                    // <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/6610>.
+                    // We've already removed the indexed old_frags from the
+                    // bitmap above; deliberately do NOT insert new_frags,
+                    // since the merged fragment also contains rows that
+                    // were never indexed. Affected rows fall through to
+                    // flat scan until the next optimize_indices. The fix
+                    // is persisted on the next write via build_manifest.
+                    tracing::warn!(
+                        "Healing straddling fragment-reuse rewrite group in index bitmap: \
+                             group {:?} was only partially indexed ({} of {} old fragments). \
+                             Affected rows will use flat scan until the next optimize_indices.",
+                        group.old_frags,
+                        removed,
+                        group.old_frags.len(),
+                    );
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                for new_frag in group.new_frags.iter() {
+                    fragment_bitmap.insert(new_frag.id as u32);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn fragment_layout(
+    frag: &FragDigest,
+    role: &str,
+    version_idx: usize,
+    group_idx: usize,
+) -> Result<(u32, u32)> {
+    let fragment_id = u32::try_from(frag.id).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "FRI version {version_idx}, group {group_idx} has {role} fragment id {} outside the row-address range",
+            frag.id
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let physical_rows = u32::try_from(frag.physical_rows).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "FRI version {version_idx}, group {group_idx} has {role} fragment {fragment_id} with physical_rows={} outside the row-address range",
+            frag.physical_rows
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok((fragment_id, physical_rows))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn addr(fragment_id: u32, offset: u32) -> u64 {
+        u64::from(lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress::new_from_parts(
+            fragment_id,
+            offset,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn serialize_changed(addrs: impl IntoIterator<Item = u64>) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let changed = RoaringTreemap::from_iter(addrs);
+        let mut bytes = Vec::with_capacity(changed.serialized_size());
+        changed.serialize_into(&mut bytes).unwrap();
+        bytes
+    }
+
+    fn digest(id: u64, physical_rows: usize) -> FragDigest {
+        FragDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compact_fri_tristate_one_to_many_and_chain() {
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![
+                FragReuseVersion {
+                    dataset_version: 1,
+                    groups: vec![
+                        // One old fragment is split into two new fragments.
+                        FragReuseGroup {
+                            changed_row_addrs: serialize_changed([
+                                addr(1, 0),
+                                addr(1, 2),
+                                addr(1, 3),
+                            ]),
+                            old_frags: vec![digest(1, 4)],
+                            new_frags: vec![digest(10, 1), digest(11, 2)],
+                        },
+                        // A separate rewrite group deletes an entire fragment.
+                        FragReuseGroup {
+                            changed_row_addrs: serialize_changed([]),
+                            old_frags: vec![digest(3, 2)],
+                            new_frags: vec![],
+                        },
+                    ],
+                },
+                FragReuseVersion {
+                    dataset_version: 2,
+                    groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                        changed_row_addrs: serialize_changed([addr(10, 0), addr(11, 1)]),
+                        old_frags: vec![digest(10, 1), digest(11, 2)],
+                        new_frags: vec![digest(20, 2)],
+                    }],
+                },
+            ],
+        };
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails::try_from(InlineContent::from(&details)).unwrap();
+        let fri = CompactFragReuseIndex::try_new(Uuid::new_v4(), details).unwrap();
+
+        // Surviving rows follow both versions in oldest-to-newest order.
+        assert_eq!(fri.remap_row_id(addr(1, 0)), Some(addr(20, 0)));
+        assert_eq!(fri.remap_row_id(addr(1, 3)), Some(addr(20, 1)));
+        // Deletes can happen in either the first or a later version.
+        assert_eq!(fri.remap_row_id(addr(1, 1)), None);
+        assert_eq!(fri.remap_row_id(addr(1, 2)), None);
+        assert_eq!(fri.remap_row_id(addr(3, 0)), None);
+        // Uncovered fragments and out-of-range offsets retain the existing
+        // missing-map pass-through semantics.
+        assert_eq!(fri.remap_row_id(addr(2, 0)), Some(addr(2, 0)));
+        assert_eq!(fri.remap_row_id(addr(1, 4)), Some(addr(1, 4)));
+
+        let mut batch = vec![
+            Some(addr(1, 0)),
+            Some(addr(1, 1)),
+            Some(addr(1, 2)),
+            Some(addr(1, 3)),
+            Some(addr(2, 0)),
+            None,
+        ];
+        fri.remap_row_ids_in_place(&mut batch);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch,
+            vec![
+                Some(addr(20, 0)),
+                None,
+                None,
+                Some(addr(20, 1)),
+                Some(addr(2, 0)),
+                None,
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compact_fri_rejects_invalid_changed_row_bitmap() {
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: 1,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs: vec![1, 2, 3],
+                    old_frags: vec![digest(1, 1)],
+                    new_frags: vec![digest(2, 1)],
+                }],
+            }],
+        };
+        let error = CompactFragReuseIndex::try_new(Uuid::new_v4(), details).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Index { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("failed to deserialize changed row addresses for FRI version 0, group 0"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::unknown_fragment(
+        vec![addr(2, 0)],
+        vec![digest(1, 1)],
+        "from fragments [2] not in its old fragments"
+    )]
+    #[case::offset_out_of_range(
+        vec![addr(1, 1)],
+        vec![digest(1, 1)],
+        "row offset outside old fragment 1 with physical_rows=1"
+    )]
+    #[case::duplicate_old_fragment(
+        vec![addr(1, 0)],
+        vec![digest(1, 1), digest(1, 1)],
+        "old fragment 1 more than once"
+    )]
+    fn test_compact_fri_preserves_layout_validation(
+        #[case] changed_addrs: Vec<u64>,
+        #[case] old_frags: Vec<FragDigest>,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: 1,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs: serialize_changed(changed_addrs),
+                    old_frags,
+                    new_frags: vec![digest(10, 1)],
+                }],
+            }],
+        };
+
+        let error = CompactFragReuseIndex::try_new(Uuid::new_v4(), details).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Index { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("FRI version 0"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("rewrite group 0"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains(expected_message), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_serialize_deserialize_index_details() {
+        // Create sample FragReuseVersions with different dataset versions
+        let version1 = FragReuseVersion {
+            dataset_version: 2,
+            groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                changed_row_addrs: vec![1, 2, 3],
+                old_frags: vec![FragDigest {
+                    id: 1,
+                    physical_rows: 1,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                }],
+                new_frags: vec![
+                    FragDigest {
+                        id: 2,
+                        physical_rows: 1,
+                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                    },
+                    FragDigest {
+                        id: 3,
+                        physical_rows: 1,
+                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                    },
+                ],
+            }],
+        };
+
+        let version2 = FragReuseVersion {
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                changed_row_addrs: vec![4, 5, 6],
+                old_frags: vec![FragDigest {
+                    id: 2,
+                    physical_rows: 1,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                }],
+                new_frags: vec![
+                    FragDigest {
+                        id: 4,
+                        physical_rows: 1,
+                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                    },
+                    FragDigest {
+                        id: 5,
+                        physical_rows: 1,
+                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                    },
+                ],
+            }],
+        };
+
+        // Create FragReuseIndexDetails with versions in reverse order
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![version1, version2],
+        };
+
+        // Convert to protobuf format
+        let inline_content: InlineContent = (&details).into();
+
+        // Convert back to FragReuseIndexDetails
+        let roundtrip_details = FragReuseIndexDetails::try_from(inline_content).unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the roundtrip
+        assert_eq!(roundtrip_details.versions.len(), 2);
+
+        // Verify versions are sorted by dataset_version (oldest to latest)
+        assert_eq!(roundtrip_details.versions[0].dataset_version, 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            roundtrip_details.versions[0].groups[0].changed_row_addrs,
+            vec![4, 5, 6]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            roundtrip_details.versions[0].groups[0].new_frags,
+            vec![
+                FragDigest {
+                    id: 4,
+                    physical_rows: 1,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                },
+                FragDigest {
+                    id: 5,
+                    physical_rows: 1,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                }
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            roundtrip_details.versions[0].groups[0].old_frags,
+            vec![FragDigest {
+                id: 2,
+                physical_rows: 1,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }]
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(roundtrip_details.versions[1].dataset_version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            roundtrip_details.versions[1].groups[0].changed_row_addrs,
+            vec![1, 2, 3]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            roundtrip_details.versions[1].groups[0].new_frags,
+            vec![
+                FragDigest {
+                    id: 2,
+                    physical_rows: 1,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                },
+                FragDigest {
+                    id: 3,
+                    physical_rows: 1,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                }
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            roundtrip_details.versions[1].groups[0].old_frags,
+            vec![FragDigest {
+                id: 1,
+                physical_rows: 1,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }]
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/gate.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/gate.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3243d6b04b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/gate.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,887 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! The write gate of a table carrying a tagged fragment reuse history.
+//!
+//! Every commit entrance (`CommitBuilder`, `apply_commit`, detached commits,
+//! retries) funnels through `Transaction::prepare_indices`, which runs
+//! [`classify`] once per attempt before anything is derived from the index
+//! list (and the builder runs it again as its own chokepoint). The
+//! classifier names why an operation is admitted, so that every `Operation`
+//! variant has a stated verdict for every table state, and refuses with a
+//! reason that says what to do instead.
+
+use super::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+use super::metadata::{is_tagged, uses_tagged_fri};
+use crate::format::{IndexMetadata, Manifest};
+use crate::system_index::mem_wal::MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME;
+use crate::transaction::{FragReuseUpdate, Operation};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+/// Why the gate lets an operation through.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum Admission {
+    /// No tagged entry: the operation is the table's ordinary business.
+    Untagged,
+    /// A rewrite appending transitions: the history's own maintenance.
+    AppendsTransitions,
+    /// A bare rewrite of fragments no index, the entry included, covers.
+    RewritesUncoveredFragments,
+    /// Moves no row and rewrites no column: deletion vectors, new
+    /// fragments, the schema, the config, or the whole table.
+    MovesNoRows,
+    /// Restore copies an earlier manifest whole; it never reaches
+    /// `build_manifest`, classified here so the table is complete.
+    RestoresManifest,
+    /// The trim `cleanup_frag_reuse_index` derives against the current
+    /// entry at commit time: exactly the entry replaced or removed.
+    TrimsEntry,
+    /// Creates, replaces or drops user indices; the entry is untouched.
+    MaintainsUserIndices,
+    /// Records MemWAL compaction progress: replaces the MemWAL system
+    /// index's own entry and nothing else (no fragment, no user segment,
+    /// not the history).
+    MaintainsMemWalState,
+}
+
+/// Classify `operation` against the table's current state.
+///
+/// `frag_reuse` is what the commit path settled about the entry for this
+/// attempt; `migration_next_row_id` marks the stable row id migration.
+/// `Err` refuses the commit: `InvalidInput` for a malformed intent, or
+/// `NotSupported` for a shape a tagged table does not admit.
+pub fn classify(
+    operation: &Operation,
+    current_manifest: Option<&Manifest>,
+    current_indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    frag_reuse: &FragReuseUpdate,
+    migration_next_row_id: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<Admission> {
+    // A tagged entry may only reach the manifest through the commit path's
+    // assembly, which merges the records the operation's entry adds onto
+    // the CURRENT entry at every attempt and validates them; the assembly
+    // rides in `FragReuseUpdate::Rewrite`. A tagged `frag_reuse_index`
+    // arriving without one is a pre-assembled snapshot: it has bypassed
+    // binding, conservation, folding and ledger validation, may be stale,
+    // and splicing it would silently drop records a concurrent writer
+    // appended.
+    let appends_transitions = matches!(operation, Operation::Rewrite { .. })
+        && matches!(frag_reuse, FragReuseUpdate::Rewrite(_));
+    if let Operation::Rewrite {
+        frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+        ..
+    } = operation
+        && is_tagged(entry)
+        && !appends_transitions
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "tagged fragment reuse entries must be assembled by the commit path, which \
+             merges the records the entry adds onto the current entry; a pre-assembled \
+             tagged snapshot bypasses validation and may splice away concurrent records",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // A `CreateIndex` touching a tagged entry is only safe in one shape:
+    // the trim the maintenance path derives against the CURRENT entry at
+    // commit time, exactly the FRI entry replaced (or removed outright),
+    // nothing else mixed in, and the removed identity matching the entry
+    // this manifest actually carries. The in-memory intent
+    // (`config.tagged_frag_reuse_trim`) distinguishes that derivation from
+    // a hand-built entry, whose snapshot may be stale: splicing it would
+    // silently drop records a concurrent writer appended.
+    let trims_tagged_entry = if let Operation::CreateIndex {
+        new_indices,
+        removed_indices,
+        ..
+    } = operation
+    {
+        let touches_fri = new_indices
+            .iter()
+            .chain(removed_indices.iter())
+            .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        let tagged_involved = new_indices.iter().any(is_tagged)
+            || removed_indices.iter().any(is_tagged)
+            || (touches_fri && current_indices.iter().any(is_tagged));
+        if tagged_involved {
+            if !matches!(frag_reuse, FragReuseUpdate::Trim) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "a tagged fragment reuse entry may only be replaced or removed by \
+                     the trim `cleanup_frag_reuse_index` derives against the current \
+                     entry at commit time; a hand-built entry may splice away \
+                     concurrent records",
+                ));
+            }
+            let current_entry = current_indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+            let removed_matches_current = matches!(
+                (removed_indices.as_slice(), current_entry),
+                ([removed], Some(current))
+                    if removed.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME && removed.uuid == current.uuid
+            );
+            let new_is_tagged_entry_or_empty = match new_indices.as_slice() {
+                [] => true,
+                [entry] => is_tagged(entry),
+                _ => false,
+            };
+            if !removed_matches_current || !new_is_tagged_entry_or_empty {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "a tagged fragment reuse trim must replace or remove exactly the \
+                     current FRI entry and carry nothing else; the entry it removes \
+                     no longer matches the current manifest, so it was derived \
+                     against a stale version",
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        tagged_involved
+    } else {
+        false
+    };
+
+    let replaces_entry = matches!(
+        operation,
+        Operation::Rewrite {
+            frag_reuse_index: Some(_),
+            ..
+        }
+    ) && !appends_transitions;
+    if !current_indices.iter().any(is_tagged) {
+        // The sticky flag is the final authority on the record form
+        // (`uses_tagged_fri`): once a manifest carries
+        // FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX every fragment reuse write is tagged,
+        // even after a trim removed a fully drained entry. A v0 snapshot
+        // would silently downgrade the table back to whole-history
+        // replacement; the commit path converts a stale v0 intent into
+        // transitions before this point (`finish_rewrite`), so only a
+        // writer that skipped that conversion arrives here.
+        if replaces_entry
+            && current_manifest.is_some_and(|manifest| {
+                uses_tagged_fri(
+                    manifest,
+                    current_indices
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME),
+                )
+            })
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "a v0 fragment reuse snapshot cannot be published onto a table using \
+                 the tagged fragment reuse format: the sticky feature flag makes the \
+                 tagged format permanent, even after a drained entry is trimmed away, \
+                 so the rewrite must append transitions instead",
+            ));
+        }
+        return Ok(Admission::Untagged);
+    }
+
+    // The history's own maintenance operation.
+    if appends_transitions {
+        return Ok(Admission::AppendsTransitions);
+    }
+    if trims_tagged_entry {
+        return Ok(Admission::TrimsEntry);
+    }
+    // Creating, replacing or dropping user indices leaves the tagged entry
+    // untouched (it is carried through unchanged), and draining index
+    // coverage onto a rewrite's destinations is exactly how tagged
+    // histories become trimmable, so this shape is safe and necessary.
+    // Only a `CreateIndex` touching the FRI entry needs the trim rules
+    // above.
+    if let Operation::CreateIndex {
+        new_indices,
+        removed_indices,
+        ..
+    } = operation
+        && new_indices
+            .iter()
+            .chain(removed_indices.iter())
+            .all(|idx| idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+    {
+        return Ok(Admission::MaintainsUserIndices);
+    }
+
+    // A rewrite that carries neither an entry nor transition intent is still
+    // safe when no current index, the entry included (its bitmap holds the
+    // recorded lineage), covers any rewritten fragment: it cannot invalidate
+    // stored provenance or the lineage, and bitmap maintenance is a no-op for
+    // fragments no bitmap contains. Deferred compaction of never-covered data
+    // commits this shape instead of growing the history with untrimmable
+    // transitions. Fragment ids beyond the row-address range can never appear
+    // in an index bitmap, so they are uncovered by definition. Only histories
+    // this writer understands (index_version 1) qualify: a future entry
+    // version may change what its bitmap means. Empty rewrites stay refused.
+    if let Operation::Rewrite {
+        frag_reuse_index: None,
+        rewritten_indices,
+        groups,
+    } = operation
+        && rewritten_indices.is_empty()
+        && !groups.is_empty()
+        && current_indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .all(|index| matches!(index.index_version, 0 | 1))
+    {
+        let rewritten: RoaringBitmap = groups
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|group| group.old_fragments.iter())
+            .filter_map(|fragment| u32::try_from(fragment.id).ok())
+            .collect();
+        let fragments = || {
+            groups
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|group| group.old_fragments.iter().map(|fragment| fragment.id))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        return match covered_bare_rewrite(&rewritten, current_indices) {
+            None => Ok(Admission::RewritesUncoveredFragments),
+            Some(BareRewriteRefusal::Covered { index, overlap }) => {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "rewrite of fragments {:?} carries no fragment reuse transition but index \
+                     {index} covers fragments {:?} of it; record a transition for the group or \
+                     rebuild the index before the rewrite",
+                    fragments(),
+                    overlap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                )))
+            }
+            Some(BareRewriteRefusal::UnknownCoverage { index }) => {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "rewrite of fragments {:?} carries no fragment reuse transition and index \
+                     {index} has no fragment bitmap, so its coverage is unknown; record a \
+                     transition for the group or rebuild the index before the rewrite",
+                    fragments(),
+                )))
+            }
+        };
+    }
+
+    // A tagged history translates row ADDRESSES; stable row ids replace
+    // them, so the migration (a `Merge` committed with
+    // `migration_next_row_id`) is refused while an entry exists. The other
+    // direction is refused where a transition is recorded.
+    if migration_next_row_id.is_some() {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "stable row id migration is not supported on a table with a tagged fragment \
+             reuse history: tagged histories translate row addresses, which stable row ids \
+             replace. Trim the history first",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // An in-place column rewrite (an update with `fields_modified`, that is
+    // `MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns`; a merge that swaps a column's
+    // data file, as `alter_columns` does; a data replacement) is admitted:
+    // the commit preparation withdraws every affected segment's
+    // contribution (`Transaction::withdraw_in_place_rewrites`, fed by
+    // `Transaction::rewritten_physical_columns`), a whole transition's
+    // sources for a translating segment, so the reader scans those rows
+    // until `optimize_indices` rebuilds them.
+    // Creating, replacing or dropping user indices leaves the tagged entry
+    // untouched (it is carried through unchanged). An index built on a
+    // tagged table covers live fragments directly; one built before a
+    // rewrite and rebased across it by the conflict resolver lands with its
+    // provenance and translates. Only a `CreateIndex` touching the entry
+    // itself has no tagged semantics here.
+    if let Operation::CreateIndex {
+        new_indices,
+        removed_indices,
+        ..
+    } = operation
+        && new_indices
+            .iter()
+            .chain(removed_indices.iter())
+            .all(|idx| idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+    {
+        return Ok(Admission::MaintainsUserIndices);
+    }
+
+    match operation {
+        // Deletion vectors, new fragments, the config, the schema
+        // (`retain_relevant_indices` still drops an index on a removed
+        // field) or the whole table (Overwrite discards every index, the
+        // entry included; the sticky flag keeps the tagged record form).
+        Operation::Append { .. }
+        | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
+        | Operation::Delete { .. }
+        | Operation::Update { .. }
+        | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
+        | Operation::Overwrite { .. }
+        | Operation::Project { .. }
+        | Operation::Merge { .. }
+        | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+        | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(Admission::MovesNoRows),
+        Operation::Restore { .. } => Ok(Admission::RestoresManifest),
+        // Replaces only the MemWAL entry; fragments, user segments and the
+        // history are carried through unchanged.
+        Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => Ok(Admission::MaintainsMemWalState),
+        // A bare rewrite beside an entry of a newer version or carrying
+        // rewritten indices, or a v0 snapshot, would misinterpret the
+        // history; overlays, clones and base changes have no tagged
+        // semantics yet. A CreateIndex reaching here touches the entry
+        // without being its trim.
+        Operation::Rewrite { .. }
+        | Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
+        | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
+        | Operation::Clone { .. }
+        | Operation::Unknown { .. } => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Tagged FRI history maintenance is not implemented for this operation; upgrade to a writer supporting tagged histories",
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Why a rewrite recording no transition for `rewritten` is refused.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum BareRewriteRefusal {
+    /// `index`'s bitmap contains `overlap`, a subset of the rewritten fragments.
+    Covered {
+        index: String,
+        overlap: RoaringBitmap,
+    },
+    /// `index` carries no bitmap; unknown coverage is not empty coverage.
+    UnknownCoverage { index: String },
+}
+
+/// The bare-rewrite rule shared by the gate and the per-group check of a
+/// transition-carrying rewrite: every current index bitmap, the fragment
+/// reuse entry's included, must be disjoint from `rewritten`, and an index
+/// without a bitmap refuses. The MemWAL entry carries no bitmap by design
+/// and covers no fragment, so it is skipped. The first offending index is
+/// returned.
+pub fn covered_bare_rewrite(
+    rewritten: &RoaringBitmap,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+) -> Option<BareRewriteRefusal> {
+    indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|index| index.name != MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+        .find_map(|index| match index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() {
+            Some(bitmap) if bitmap.is_disjoint(rewritten) => None,
+            Some(bitmap) => Some(BareRewriteRefusal::Covered {
+                index: index.name.clone(),
+                overlap: bitmap & rewritten,
+            }),
+            None => Some(BareRewriteRefusal::UnknownCoverage {
+                index: index.name.clone(),
+            }),
+        })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+    use crate::format::{BasePath, DataFile, Fragment};
+    use crate::transaction::test_support::{
+        overlay_with_field, sample_index_metadata, sample_manifest,
+    };
+    use crate::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, DataReplacementGroup, RewriteGroup};
+    use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    /// What the table looks like: fragment 0 carries field 0 in `a.lance`;
+    /// a tagged table also has the entry (lineage {0, 5}: fragment 5 was
+    /// rewritten into fragment 0) and, optionally, a user index on field 0.
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+    enum Table {
+        Untagged,
+        Tagged,
+        /// A segment built from fragment 5, translating to fragment 0.
+        TaggedWithTranslatingIndex,
+        /// A segment built on fragment 0 directly.
+        TaggedWithDirectIndex,
+    }
+
+    fn table(state: Table) -> (Manifest, Vec<IndexMetadata>) {
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest();
+        manifest.fragments = Arc::new(vec![Fragment::new(0).with_file(
+            "a.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+        )]);
+        let mut indices = Vec::new();
+        if state != Table::Untagged {
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+            let mut entry = sample_index_metadata(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+            entry.fields.clear();
+            entry.fragment_bitmap = Some([0u32, 5].into_iter().collect());
+            indices.push(entry);
+        }
+        match state {
+            Table::TaggedWithTranslatingIndex => {
+                let mut segment = sample_index_metadata("id_idx");
+                segment.fragment_bitmap = Some([5u32].into_iter().collect());
+                indices.push(segment);
+            }
+            Table::TaggedWithDirectIndex => indices.push(sample_index_metadata("id_idx")),
+            _ => {}
+        }
+        (manifest, indices)
+    }
+
+    fn update(fields_modified: Vec<u32>) -> Operation {
+        let mut update = crate::transaction::test_support::update_txn(vec![]);
+        let Operation::Update {
+            updated_fragments,
+            fields_modified: modified,
+            ..
+        } = &mut update.operation
+        else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        *updated_fragments = vec![Fragment::new(0)];
+        *modified = fields_modified;
+        update.operation
+    }
+
+    fn rewrite(old: u64, frag_reuse_index: Option<IndexMetadata>) -> Operation {
+        Operation::Rewrite {
+            groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(old)],
+                new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(10)],
+            }],
+            rewritten_indices: vec![],
+            frag_reuse_index,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The tagged entry a rewrite appending transitions carries: the same
+    /// entry the commit path's assembly puts in the config for that case.
+    fn appended_entry() -> IndexMetadata {
+        let mut entry = sample_index_metadata(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        entry.fields.clear();
+        entry
+    }
+
+    /// What the commit path settled for the attempt:
+    /// `rewrite_appends_transitions` is the one shape whose verdict depends
+    /// on the commit path having assembled the entry.
+    fn frag_reuse_for(kind: &str) -> FragReuseUpdate {
+        if kind == "rewrite_appends_transitions" {
+            FragReuseUpdate::Rewrite(std::sync::Arc::new(
+                crate::transaction::TaggedRewriteAssembly {
+                    entry: appended_entry(),
+                    base_entry_version: None,
+                    reordered_sources: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                },
+            ))
+        } else {
+            FragReuseUpdate::None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// One sample per `Operation` variant (several for the variants whose
+    /// verdict depends on their payload).
+    fn sample(kind: &str, manifest: &Manifest) -> Operation {
+        match kind {
+            "append" => Operation::Append {
+                fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1)],
+            },
+            "delete" => Operation::Delete {
+                updated_fragments: vec![],
+                deleted_fragment_ids: vec![0],
+                predicate: "true".into(),
+            },
+            "overwrite" => Operation::Overwrite {
+                fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                config_upsert_values: None,
+                initial_bases: None,
+            },
+            "create_index" => Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![sample_index_metadata("new_idx")],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            // Replaces the current entry by a hand-built tagged one: only the
+            // trim intent may do that.
+            "create_index_replacing_entry" => {
+                let mut entry = sample_index_metadata(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+                entry.fields.clear();
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![entry],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                }
+            }
+            "rewrite_bare_covered" => rewrite(0, None),
+            "rewrite_bare_uncovered" => rewrite(7, None),
+            "rewrite_appends_transitions" => rewrite(0, Some(appended_entry())),
+            "rewrite_v0_snapshot" => {
+                let mut entry = appended_entry();
+                entry.index_version = 0;
+                rewrite(0, Some(entry))
+            }
+            "rewrite_tagged_snapshot" => rewrite(0, Some(appended_entry())),
+            "data_replacement" => Operation::DataReplacement {
+                replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(
+                    0,
+                    DataFile::new(
+                        "b.lance",
+                        vec![0],
+                        vec![0],
+                        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                        None,
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                )],
+            },
+            "data_overlay" => Operation::DataOverlay {
+                groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                    fragment_id: 0,
+                    overlays: vec![overlay_with_field(0, 1)],
+                }],
+            },
+            "merge_new_column" => Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone(),
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            "merge_rewrites_column" => Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0).with_file(
+                    "b.lance",
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![0],
+                    ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                    None,
+                )],
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            "restore" => Operation::Restore { version: 1 },
+            "reserve_fragments" => Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments: 2 },
+            "update_rewrites_rows" => update(vec![]),
+            "update_rewrites_column" => update(vec![0]),
+            "update_rewrites_unindexed_column" => update(vec![1]),
+            "project" => Operation::Project {
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            "update_config" => Operation::UpdateConfig {
+                config_updates: None,
+                table_metadata_updates: None,
+                schema_metadata_updates: None,
+                field_metadata_updates: HashMap::new(),
+            },
+            "update_mem_wal_state" => Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![],
+            },
+            "clone" => Operation::Clone {
+                is_shallow: true,
+                ref_name: None,
+                ref_version: 1,
+                ref_path: "memory://source".into(),
+                branch_name: None,
+            },
+            "update_bases" => Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    name: None,
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                    path: "memory://base".into(),
+                }],
+            },
+            _ => unreachable!("{kind}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+    enum Verdict {
+        Admit(Admission),
+        NotSupported,
+        InvalidInput,
+    }
+
+    fn verdict(result: Result<Admission>) -> Verdict {
+        match result {
+            Ok(admission) => Verdict::Admit(admission),
+            Err(Error::NotSupported { .. }) => Verdict::NotSupported,
+            Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. }) => Verdict::InvalidInput,
+            Err(other) => panic!("unexpected error kind: {other}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Every `Operation` variant against every table state. A new variant
+    /// must add its rows here; a new state must add its column.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    // Untagged tables: everything is ordinary business, except a tagged
+    // snapshot, which is malformed anywhere.
+    #[case("append", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    #[case("delete", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    #[case("overwrite", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    #[case("create_index", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    #[case("create_index_replacing_entry", Table::Untagged, Verdict::InvalidInput)]
+    #[case(
+        "rewrite_bare_covered",
+        Table::Untagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "rewrite_v0_snapshot",
+        Table::Untagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged)
+    )]
+    #[case("rewrite_tagged_snapshot", Table::Untagged, Verdict::InvalidInput)]
+    #[case(
+        "data_replacement",
+        Table::Untagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged)
+    )]
+    #[case("data_overlay", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    #[case(
+        "merge_rewrites_column",
+        Table::Untagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged)
+    )]
+    #[case("restore", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    #[case(
+        "reserve_fragments",
+        Table::Untagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "update_rewrites_column",
+        Table::Untagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged)
+    )]
+    #[case("project", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    #[case("update_config", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    #[case(
+        "update_mem_wal_state",
+        Table::Untagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged)
+    )]
+    #[case("clone", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    #[case("update_bases", Table::Untagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::Untagged))]
+    // Tagged tables.
+    #[case("append", Table::Tagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows))]
+    #[case("delete", Table::Tagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows))]
+    #[case("overwrite", Table::Tagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows))]
+    #[case(
+        "create_index",
+        Table::Tagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MaintainsUserIndices)
+    )]
+    #[case("create_index_replacing_entry", Table::Tagged, Verdict::InvalidInput)]
+    #[case("rewrite_bare_covered", Table::Tagged, Verdict::InvalidInput)]
+    #[case(
+        "rewrite_bare_uncovered",
+        Table::Tagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::RewritesUncoveredFragments)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "rewrite_appends_transitions",
+        Table::Tagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::AppendsTransitions)
+    )]
+    #[case("rewrite_v0_snapshot", Table::Tagged, Verdict::NotSupported)]
+    #[case("rewrite_tagged_snapshot", Table::Tagged, Verdict::InvalidInput)]
+    #[case(
+        "data_replacement",
+        Table::Tagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "data_replacement",
+        Table::TaggedWithDirectIndex,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "data_replacement",
+        Table::TaggedWithTranslatingIndex,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case("data_overlay", Table::Tagged, Verdict::NotSupported)]
+    #[case(
+        "merge_new_column",
+        Table::Tagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "merge_rewrites_column",
+        Table::TaggedWithDirectIndex,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "merge_rewrites_column",
+        Table::TaggedWithTranslatingIndex,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case("restore", Table::Tagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::RestoresManifest))]
+    #[case(
+        "reserve_fragments",
+        Table::Tagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "update_rewrites_rows",
+        Table::TaggedWithTranslatingIndex,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "update_rewrites_column",
+        Table::TaggedWithDirectIndex,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "update_rewrites_column",
+        Table::TaggedWithTranslatingIndex,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case(
+        "update_rewrites_unindexed_column",
+        Table::TaggedWithTranslatingIndex,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows)
+    )]
+    #[case("project", Table::Tagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows))]
+    #[case("update_config", Table::Tagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows))]
+    #[case(
+        "update_mem_wal_state",
+        Table::Tagged,
+        Verdict::Admit(Admission::MaintainsMemWalState)
+    )]
+    #[case("clone", Table::Tagged, Verdict::NotSupported)]
+    #[case("update_bases", Table::Tagged, Verdict::Admit(Admission::MovesNoRows))]
+    fn every_operation_has_a_verdict(
+        #[case] kind: &str,
+        #[case] state: Table,
+        #[case] expected: Verdict,
+    ) {
+        let (manifest, indices) = table(state);
+        let operation = sample(kind, &manifest);
+        let got = verdict(classify(
+            &operation,
+            Some(&manifest),
+            &indices,
+            &frag_reuse_for(kind),
+            None,
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(got, expected, "{kind} on {state:?}");
+    }
+
+    /// Admitting MemWAL state updates does not widen the gate: an overlay
+    /// and a clone are still refused on every tagged table state.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case(Table::Tagged)]
+    #[case(Table::TaggedWithDirectIndex)]
+    #[case(Table::TaggedWithTranslatingIndex)]
+    fn overlay_and_clone_stay_refused_on_a_tagged_table(#[case] state: Table) {
+        let (manifest, indices) = table(state);
+        for kind in ["data_overlay", "clone"] {
+            let got = verdict(classify(
+                &sample(kind, &manifest),
+                Some(&manifest),
+                &indices,
+                &frag_reuse_for(kind),
+                None,
+            ));
+            assert_eq!(got, Verdict::NotSupported, "{kind} on {state:?}");
+        }
+        let got = verdict(classify(
+            &sample("update_mem_wal_state", &manifest),
+            Some(&manifest),
+            &indices,
+            &frag_reuse_for("update_mem_wal_state"),
+            None,
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(
+            got,
+            Verdict::Admit(Admission::MaintainsMemWalState),
+            "update_mem_wal_state on {state:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The trim intent may replace exactly the current entry, and nothing
+    /// else.
+    #[test]
+    fn trim_replaces_exactly_the_current_entry() {
+        let (manifest, indices) = table(Table::Tagged);
+        let mut replacement = sample_index_metadata(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        replacement.fields.clear();
+        let trim = Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![replacement.clone()],
+            removed_indices: vec![indices[0].clone()],
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify(
+                &trim,
+                Some(&manifest),
+                &indices,
+                &FragReuseUpdate::Trim,
+                None
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            Admission::TrimsEntry
+        );
+        let stale = Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![replacement],
+            removed_indices: vec![sample_index_metadata(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)],
+        };
+        let error = classify(
+            &stale,
+            Some(&manifest),
+            &indices,
+            &FragReuseUpdate::Trim,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("no longer matches"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// The stable row id migration is a `Merge` with the activation marker.
+    /// The MemWAL entry carries no fragment bitmap by design; it is not
+    /// unknown coverage, so a bare rewrite of uncovered fragments is still
+    /// admitted beside it, and a covered one still refused. A user index
+    /// without a bitmap remains unknown coverage.
+    #[test]
+    fn mem_wal_entry_without_a_bitmap_does_not_block_a_bare_rewrite() {
+        let (manifest, mut indices) = table(Table::Tagged);
+        let mut mem_wal = sample_index_metadata(MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME);
+        mem_wal.fields.clear();
+        mem_wal.fragment_bitmap = None;
+        indices.push(mem_wal);
+        let classify_bare = |old: u64, indices: &[IndexMetadata]| {
+            classify(
+                &rewrite(old, None),
+                Some(&manifest),
+                indices,
+                &FragReuseUpdate::None,
+                None,
+            )
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify_bare(7, &indices).unwrap(),
+            Admission::RewritesUncoveredFragments
+        );
+        let error = classify_bare(0, &indices).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME), "{error}");
+
+        let mut without_bitmap = sample_index_metadata("id_idx");
+        without_bitmap.fragment_bitmap = None;
+        indices.push(without_bitmap);
+        let error = classify_bare(7, &indices).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("id_idx"), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("no fragment bitmap"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn migration_is_refused_on_a_tagged_table() {
+        let (manifest, indices) = table(Table::Tagged);
+        let error = classify(
+            &sample("merge_new_column", &manifest),
+            Some(&manifest),
+            &indices,
+            &FragReuseUpdate::None,
+            Some(100),
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("stable row id migration"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/ledger.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/ledger.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b187820cd26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/ledger.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1090 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Metadata-only reader for the unified fragment reuse history.
+//!
+//! Decoding validates lineage without opening row-map files. Unsupported index
+//! versions are rejected before interpreting their content.
+//! Operations that carry an index forward keep its original `Any` separately.
+//!
+//! ```
+//! use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger;
+//! use prost::Message;
+//! use lance_table::format::pb;
+//!
+//! # async fn example() -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+//! let details = prost_types::Any {
+//!     type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+//!     value: pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails {
+//!         content: Some(pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Content::Inline(Default::default())),
+//!     }.encode_to_vec(),
+//! };
+//! let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode(1, &details, |_| async {
+//!     Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported("external content is unavailable"))
+//! }).await?;
+//! assert!(ledger.transitions().is_empty());
+//! # Ok(())
+//! # }
+//! ```
+
+use std::collections::{HashMap, VecDeque};
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::io::Cursor;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use bytes::{Buf, Bytes};
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::{GroupInputWithLayout, RowAddrRemap};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use prost::Message;
+use prost::encoding::{DecodeContext, WireType, decode_key, decode_varint, skip_field};
+use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::{self as pb, transition};
+
+/// A decoded mapping. External labels remain unopened until address resolution.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub enum Mapping {
+    /// Bitmap/rank translation, including lifted legacy compaction groups.
+    OrderedCompaction(Arc<RowAddrRemap>),
+    /// Immutable row-map reference, with the base selected by its optional base ID.
+    StablePartition(pb::StablePartition),
+}
+
+/// One whole-fragment rewrite, with fragment lists in mapping order.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct Transition {
+    fingerprint: [u8; 32],
+    sources: Vec<pb::FragmentDigest>,
+    destinations: Vec<pb::FragmentDigest>,
+    mapping: Mapping,
+    legacy_dataset_version: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+impl Transition {
+    /// Content identity for sharing an unchanged mapping across FRI histories.
+    /// Derived in memory from the canonical protobuf; it is not a persisted field.
+    pub fn fingerprint(&self) -> &[u8; 32] {
+        &self.fingerprint
+    }
+
+    /// Source digests at rewrite time, including deleted physical positions.
+    pub fn sources(&self) -> &[pb::FragmentDigest] {
+        &self.sources
+    }
+
+    /// Destination digests at creation time.
+    pub fn destinations(&self) -> &[pb::FragmentDigest] {
+        &self.destinations
+    }
+
+    /// Mapping semantics for a supported index version.
+    pub fn mapping(&self) -> &Mapping {
+        &self.mapping
+    }
+
+    /// Some for a transition lifted from a v0 `Version` (wire field 1): that
+    /// version's `dataset_version`, the stamp the v0 `data_predates_version`
+    /// rule compares a segment against. None for a tagged transition, whose
+    /// provenance is never swapped.
+    pub fn legacy_dataset_version(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.legacy_dataset_version
+    }
+}
+
+/// Supported transitions in fragment-lineage order, independent of serialization order.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FragReuseLedger {
+    transitions: Vec<Transition>,
+    consumers: HashMap<u32, usize>,
+    producers: HashMap<u32, usize>,
+    has_unsupported_transitions: bool,
+}
+
+/// The single content field of FRI details: `(1, inline history)` or
+/// `(2, external file reference)`, as raw bytes.
+fn content_field(details: &prost_types::Any) -> Result<(u32, Bytes)> {
+    if details.type_url.rsplit('/').next() != Some("lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails") {
+        return Err(corrupt(format!(
+            "unexpected FRI details type {:?}",
+            details.type_url
+        )));
+    }
+    let mut wire = Bytes::copy_from_slice(&details.value);
+    let mut content = None;
+    while wire.has_remaining() {
+        let (tag, payload) = next_field(&mut wire)?;
+        if matches!(tag, 1 | 2) {
+            let payload = require_message(tag, payload)?;
+            if content.replace((tag, payload)).is_some() {
+                return Err(corrupt("multiple FRI content fields"));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    content.ok_or_else(|| corrupt("missing FRI content"))
+}
+
+impl FragReuseLedger {
+    /// Decode FRI details, resolving external history through `read_external`.
+    /// The callback reads the exact byte range described by the external reference;
+    /// it is never used for inline history or stable-partition row maps.
+    /// Index versions 0 and 1 are supported. Unsupported versions require an upgrade.
+    pub async fn decode<F, Fut>(
+        index_version: i32,
+        details: &prost_types::Any,
+        read_external: F,
+    ) -> Result<Self>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(crate::format::pb::ExternalFile) -> Fut,
+        Fut: Future<Output = Result<Bytes>>,
+    {
+        validate_index_version(index_version)?;
+        let (tag, content) = content_field(details)?;
+        let content = if tag == 1 {
+            content
+        } else {
+            let file = crate::format::pb::ExternalFile::decode(content)
+                .map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+            file.offset
+                .checked_add(file.size)
+                .and_then(|end| usize::try_from(end).ok())
+                .ok_or_else(|| corrupt("external FRI range overflow"))?;
+            let expected = file.size;
+            let bytes = read_external(file).await?;
+            if bytes.len() as u64 != expected {
+                return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                    "external FRI size mismatch: expected {expected}, received {}",
+                    bytes.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            bytes
+        };
+        Self::decode_content(index_version, content)
+    }
+
+    /// Decode FRI details whose history is stored inline, without any I/O.
+    /// `Ok(None)` when the history lives in an external file, which only
+    /// [`Self::decode`] can resolve.
+    pub fn decode_inline(index_version: i32, details: &prost_types::Any) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        validate_index_version(index_version)?;
+        let (tag, content) = content_field(details)?;
+        if tag == 1 {
+            Self::decode_content(index_version, content).map(Some)
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Each legacy group owns a compaction remap. Address resolution follows its
+    // fragment lineage, rather than searching every group in a legacy version.
+    fn decode_content(index_version: i32, content: Bytes) -> Result<Self> {
+        validate_index_version(index_version)?;
+        let mut remaining = content;
+        let mut transitions = Vec::new();
+        let mut has_unsupported_transitions = false;
+        while remaining.has_remaining() {
+            let (tag, payload) = next_field(&mut remaining)?;
+            match tag {
+                1 => {
+                    let version = pb::Version::decode(require_message(tag, payload)?)
+                        .map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+                    for group in version.groups {
+                        transitions.push(decode_transition(
+                            pb::Transition {
+                                sources: group.old_fragments,
+                                destinations: group.new_fragments,
+                                mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                                    pb::OrderedCompaction {
+                                        changed_row_addrs: group.changed_row_addrs,
+                                    },
+                                )),
+                            },
+                            Some(version.dataset_version),
+                        )?);
+                    }
+                }
+                2 => {
+                    if index_version == 0 {
+                        return Err(corrupt("tagged transitions require FRI index_version 1"));
+                    }
+                    let raw = require_message(tag, payload)?;
+                    let mut fields = raw.clone();
+                    let mut has_mapping = false;
+                    let mut has_unknown_fields = false;
+                    while fields.has_remaining() {
+                        let (tag, payload) = next_field(&mut fields)?;
+                        if matches!(tag, ORDERED_COMPACTION_FIELD | STABLE_PARTITION_FIELD) {
+                            require_message(tag, payload)?;
+                            if has_mapping {
+                                return Err(corrupt(
+                                    "transition contains multiple mapping alternatives",
+                                ));
+                            }
+                            has_mapping = true;
+                        } else if !matches!(tag, 1 | 2) {
+                            has_unknown_fields = true;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if has_unknown_fields {
+                        // The field number does not tell us whether this is metadata
+                        // or a mapping. Neither is safe to partially interpret.
+                        has_unsupported_transitions = true;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    if !has_mapping {
+                        return Err(corrupt("transition has no mapping"));
+                    }
+                    let decoded =
+                        pb::Transition::decode(raw).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+                    transitions.push(decode_transition(decoded, None)?);
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    // An unknown envelope record does not participate in
+                    // address resolution here, but it may carry lineage or
+                    // row-map references this build cannot see, so the ledger
+                    // is not fully interpretable: maintenance (trim, remap,
+                    // row-map collection) and writers extending the history
+                    // must refuse, exactly as they do for a transition with
+                    // an unknown mapping. Reads are unaffected (the reader
+                    // only logs this flag).
+                    has_unsupported_transitions = true;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let transitions = order_lineage(transitions)?;
+        let consumers = transitions
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .flat_map(|(position, transition)| {
+                transition
+                    .sources()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(move |source| (source.id as u32, position))
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let producers = transitions
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .flat_map(|(position, transition)| {
+                transition
+                    .destinations()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(move |destination| (destination.id as u32, position))
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Ok(Self {
+            transitions,
+            consumers,
+            producers,
+            has_unsupported_transitions,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Whether decoding omitted content this implementation cannot interpret:
+    /// a transition with unknown fields or an unknown mapping, or an unknown
+    /// envelope-level record. Such a ledger is insufficient for maintenance
+    /// (and for writers extending the history); carrying the original
+    /// serialized details forward without interpreting them is still possible.
+    pub fn has_unsupported_transitions(&self) -> bool {
+        self.has_unsupported_transitions
+    }
+
+    /// Find the transition consuming a fragment in expected constant time.
+    /// The returned position indexes [`Self::transitions`]. Unaffected fragments return `None`.
+    pub fn consumer(&self, fragment_id: u32) -> Option<usize> {
+        self.consumers.get(&fragment_id).copied()
+    }
+
+    /// Find the transition producing a fragment in expected constant time.
+    /// The returned position indexes [`Self::transitions`]. Original fragments return `None`.
+    pub fn producer(&self, fragment_id: u32) -> Option<usize> {
+        self.producers.get(&fragment_id).copied()
+    }
+
+    /// Whether a fragment occurs anywhere in the retained lineage.
+    /// Destination coverage can still describe an index storing source addresses.
+    pub fn contains_fragment(&self, fragment_id: u32) -> bool {
+        self.consumers.contains_key(&fragment_id) || self.producers.contains_key(&fragment_id)
+    }
+
+    /// Rewrites ordered so every producer precedes its consumers.
+    pub fn transitions(&self) -> &[Transition] {
+        &self.transitions
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for FragReuseLedger {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.consumers.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.producers.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.transitions.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<Transition>()
+            + self
+                .transitions
+                .iter()
+                .map(|transition| {
+                    (transition.sources.capacity() + transition.destinations.capacity())
+                        * std::mem::size_of::<pb::FragmentDigest>()
+                        + match &transition.mapping {
+                            Mapping::OrderedCompaction(remap) => {
+                                remap.deep_size_of_children(context)
+                            }
+                            Mapping::StablePartition(reference) => reference.map_id.capacity(),
+                        }
+                })
+                .sum::<usize>()
+    }
+}
+
+// Exact protobuf alternatives, not the start of a reserved field-number range.
+const ORDERED_COMPACTION_FIELD: u32 = 3;
+const STABLE_PARTITION_FIELD: u32 = 4;
+
+fn validate_index_version(index_version: i32) -> Result<()> {
+    if !matches!(index_version, 0 | 1) {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "Unsupported FRI index_version {index_version}; supported versions are 0 and 1. Please upgrade to a newer version of Lance."
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn corrupt(message: impl Into<String>) -> Error {
+    Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI details", message)
+}
+
+// Keep length-delimited payloads as zero-copy slices of the original history.
+fn next_field(input: &mut Bytes) -> Result<(u32, Option<Bytes>)> {
+    let (tag, wire) = decode_key(input).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+    let payload = if wire == WireType::LengthDelimited {
+        let length = decode_varint(input).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+        if length > input.remaining() as u64 {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "field {tag} length {length} exceeds remaining {} bytes",
+                input.remaining()
+            )));
+        }
+        Some(input.split_to(length as usize))
+    } else {
+        skip_field(wire, tag, input, DecodeContext::default())
+            .map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+        None
+    };
+    Ok((tag, payload))
+}
+
+fn require_message(tag: u32, payload: Option<Bytes>) -> Result<Bytes> {
+    payload.ok_or_else(|| corrupt(format!("field {tag} must be length-delimited")))
+}
+
+fn validate_digests(digests: &[pb::FragmentDigest], is_destination: bool) -> Result<u64> {
+    let mut ids = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let mut live_rows = 0_u64;
+    for digest in digests {
+        if digest.id >= u64::from(RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_FRAG)
+            || digest.physical_rows > u32::MAX as u64
+            || digest.num_deleted_rows > digest.physical_rows
+        {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!("invalid fragment digest {digest:?}")));
+        }
+        if !ids.insert(digest.id as u32) {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "duplicate fragment {} in transition",
+                digest.id
+            )));
+        }
+        if is_destination && digest.num_deleted_rows != 0 {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "destination fragment {} has creation-time deletions",
+                digest.id
+            )));
+        }
+        live_rows = live_rows
+            .checked_add(digest.physical_rows - digest.num_deleted_rows)
+            .ok_or_else(|| corrupt("fragment row count overflow"))?;
+    }
+    Ok(live_rows)
+}
+
+fn decode_transition(
+    value: pb::Transition,
+    legacy_dataset_version: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<Transition> {
+    if value.sources.is_empty() {
+        return Err(corrupt("transition has no source fragments"));
+    }
+    let source_rows = validate_digests(&value.sources, false)?;
+    let destination_rows = validate_digests(&value.destinations, true)?;
+    if source_rows != destination_rows {
+        return Err(corrupt(format!(
+            "transition row counts differ: {source_rows} source rows, {destination_rows} destination rows"
+        )));
+    }
+    let fingerprint = *blake3::hash(&value.encode_to_vec()).as_bytes();
+    let mapping = match value.mapping {
+        Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(ordered)) => {
+            let mut cursor = Cursor::new(&ordered.changed_row_addrs);
+            let bitmap = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(&mut cursor)
+                .map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+            if cursor.position() != ordered.changed_row_addrs.len() as u64 {
+                return Err(corrupt("trailing bytes in ordered compaction bitmap"));
+            }
+            for source in &value.sources {
+                let survivors =
+                    bitmap.range_cardinality(RowAddress::address_range(source.id as u32));
+                if survivors != source.physical_rows - source.num_deleted_rows {
+                    return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                        "fragment {} bitmap has {survivors} survivors inconsistent with its digest",
+                        source.id
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+            let layout = |fragments: &[pb::FragmentDigest]| {
+                fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| (f.id as u32, f.physical_rows as u32))
+                    .collect()
+            };
+            let remap = RowAddrRemap::compact_with_layout([GroupInputWithLayout {
+                rewritten_old_row_addrs: bitmap,
+                old_frags: layout(&value.sources),
+                new_frags: layout(&value.destinations),
+            }])
+            .map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+            Mapping::OrderedCompaction(Arc::new(remap))
+        }
+        Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(partition)) => {
+            Uuid::parse_str(&partition.map_id).map_err(|e| {
+                corrupt(format!(
+                    "invalid stable partition map_id {:?}: {e}",
+                    partition.map_id
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if partition.map_size_bytes == 0 {
+                return Err(corrupt("stable partition map_size_bytes must be positive"));
+            }
+            Mapping::StablePartition(partition)
+        }
+        None => return Err(corrupt("transition has no mapping")),
+    };
+    Ok(Transition {
+        fingerprint,
+        sources: value.sources,
+        destinations: value.destinations,
+        mapping,
+        legacy_dataset_version,
+    })
+}
+
+fn order_lineage(transitions: Vec<Transition>) -> Result<Vec<Transition>> {
+    let mut producers = HashMap::new();
+    let mut consumers = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for (index, transition) in transitions.iter().enumerate() {
+        for destination in &transition.destinations {
+            if producers
+                .insert(destination.id, (index, destination.physical_rows))
+                .is_some()
+            {
+                return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                    "duplicate producer for fragment {}",
+                    destination.id
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        for source in &transition.sources {
+            if !consumers.insert(source.id as u32) {
+                return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                    "duplicate consumer for fragment {}",
+                    source.id
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let mut incoming = vec![0; transitions.len()];
+    let mut outgoing = vec![Vec::new(); transitions.len()];
+    for (consumer, transition) in transitions.iter().enumerate() {
+        for source in &transition.sources {
+            if let Some(&(producer, physical_rows)) = producers.get(&source.id) {
+                if source.physical_rows != physical_rows {
+                    return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                        "inconsistent physical_rows for fragment {}",
+                        source.id
+                    )));
+                }
+                incoming[consumer] += 1;
+                outgoing[producer].push(consumer);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let mut ready: VecDeque<_> = incoming
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter_map(|(i, &n)| (n == 0).then_some(i))
+        .collect();
+    let mut ordered = Vec::with_capacity(transitions.len());
+    let mut transitions: Vec<_> = transitions.into_iter().map(Some).collect();
+    while let Some(index) = ready.pop_front() {
+        // Each transition is queued once, when its incoming count reaches zero.
+        let transition = transitions[index]
+            .take()
+            .ok_or_else(|| corrupt("lineage visited a transition twice"))?;
+        ordered.push(transition);
+        for &consumer in &outgoing[index] {
+            incoming[consumer] -= 1;
+            if incoming[consumer] == 0 {
+                ready.push_back(consumer);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if ordered.len() != transitions.len() {
+        return Err(corrupt("fragment lineage contains a cycle"));
+    }
+    Ok(ordered)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::system_index::frag_reuse::{
+        CompactFragReuseIndex, FragReuseGroup, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion,
+    };
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn digest(id: u64, rows: u64, deleted: u64) -> pb::FragmentDigest {
+        pb::FragmentDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: rows,
+            num_deleted_rows: deleted,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn partition(source: u64, destination: u64) -> pb::Transition {
+        pb::Transition {
+            sources: vec![digest(source, 2, 0)],
+            destinations: vec![digest(destination, 2, 0)],
+            mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(pb::StablePartition {
+                map_id: Uuid::nil().to_string(),
+                map_size_bytes: 100,
+                base_id: Some(7),
+            })),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn history(transitions: Vec<pb::Transition>) -> Bytes {
+        pb::InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions,
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec()
+        .into()
+    }
+
+    fn message_field(tag: u32, payload: &[u8], output: &mut Vec<u8>) {
+        prost::encoding::encode_key(tag, WireType::LengthDelimited, output);
+        prost::encoding::encode_varint(payload.len() as u64, output);
+        output.extend_from_slice(payload);
+    }
+
+    fn ordered(
+        sources: Vec<pb::FragmentDigest>,
+        destinations: Vec<pb::FragmentDigest>,
+        addresses: &[u64],
+    ) -> pb::Transition {
+        let bitmap: RoaringTreemap = addresses.iter().copied().collect();
+        let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+        bitmap.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+        pb::Transition {
+            sources,
+            destinations,
+            mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                pb::OrderedCompaction { changed_row_addrs },
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn address(fragment: u32, offset: u32) -> u64 {
+        RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment, offset).into()
+    }
+
+    fn assert_corrupt(result: Result<FragReuseLedger>, message: &str) {
+        let error = result.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(message), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn mapping_identity_survives_legacy_lifting_and_tracks_content() {
+        let mapping = ordered(
+            vec![digest(1, 3, 1)],
+            vec![digest(2, 2, 0)],
+            &[address(1, 0), address(1, 2)],
+        );
+        let Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(ordered_mapping)) = &mapping.mapping else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        let legacy = pb::InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![pb::Version {
+                dataset_version: 7,
+                groups: vec![pb::Group {
+                    changed_row_addrs: ordered_mapping.changed_row_addrs.clone(),
+                    old_fragments: mapping.sources.clone(),
+                    new_fragments: mapping.destinations.clone(),
+                }],
+            }],
+            transitions: vec![],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let legacy = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(0, legacy.into()).unwrap();
+        let tagged = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(vec![mapping])).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            legacy.transitions()[0].fingerprint(),
+            tagged.transitions()[0].fingerprint()
+        );
+        let different = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(
+            1,
+            history(vec![ordered(
+                vec![digest(1, 3, 1)],
+                vec![digest(2, 2, 0)],
+                &[address(1, 0), address(1, 1)],
+            )]),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(
+            tagged.transitions()[0].fingerprint(),
+            different.transitions()[0].fingerprint()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn mixed_history_uses_lineage_and_preserves_source_order() {
+        let old = ordered(
+            vec![digest(2, 3, 1), digest(1, 1, 0)],
+            vec![digest(3, 3, 0)],
+            &[address(2, 0), address(2, 2), address(1, 0)],
+        );
+        let Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(mapping)) = old.mapping else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        let mut next = partition(3, 4);
+        next.sources[0].physical_rows = 3;
+        next.destinations[0].physical_rows = 3;
+        let content: Bytes = pb::InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![pb::Version {
+                dataset_version: 100,
+                groups: vec![pb::Group {
+                    old_fragments: old.sources,
+                    new_fragments: old.destinations,
+                    changed_row_addrs: mapping.changed_row_addrs,
+                }],
+            }],
+            transitions: vec![next],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec()
+        .into();
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, content).unwrap();
+        for (position, transition) in ledger.transitions().iter().enumerate() {
+            for source in transition.sources() {
+                assert_eq!(ledger.consumer(source.id as u32), Some(position));
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(ledger.consumer(u32::MAX), None);
+        assert_eq!(ledger.producer(u32::MAX), None);
+        assert!(!ledger.contains_fragment(u32::MAX));
+        for (position, transition) in ledger.transitions().iter().enumerate() {
+            for destination in transition.destinations() {
+                assert_eq!(ledger.producer(destination.id as u32), Some(position));
+                assert!(ledger.contains_fragment(destination.id as u32));
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 2);
+        assert!(!ledger.has_unsupported_transitions());
+        let Mapping::OrderedCompaction(remap) = ledger.transitions()[0].mapping() else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(address(2, 0)), Some(Some(address(3, 0))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(address(2, 1)), Some(None));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(address(2, 2)), Some(Some(address(3, 1))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(address(1, 0)), Some(Some(address(3, 2))));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(address(9, 0)), None);
+        let Mapping::StablePartition(reference) = ledger.transitions()[1].mapping() else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(reference.base_id, Some(7));
+        assert_eq!(reference.map_size_bytes, 100);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unknown_fields_do_not_partially_apply_a_known_mapping() {
+        let mut raw = partition(1, 2).encode_to_vec();
+        message_field(17, b"future metadata", &mut raw);
+        prost::encoding::encode_key(7, WireType::Varint, &mut raw);
+        prost::encoding::encode_varint(100, &mut raw);
+        let mut content = Vec::new();
+        message_field(2, &raw, &mut content);
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, content.into()).unwrap();
+        assert!(ledger.transitions().is_empty());
+        assert!(ledger.has_unsupported_transitions());
+    }
+
+    /// An unknown envelope-level record may carry lineage or row-map
+    /// references this build cannot see: the known transitions still decode
+    /// (reads proceed), but the ledger reports itself uninterpretable so
+    /// maintenance and history-extending writers refuse.
+    #[test]
+    fn unknown_envelope_record_marks_ledger_unsupported() {
+        let mut content = history(vec![partition(1, 2)]).to_vec();
+        message_field(9, b"future envelope record", &mut content);
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, content.into()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+        assert!(ledger.has_unsupported_transitions());
+
+        // Non-message unknown envelope fields flag too.
+        let mut content = history(vec![partition(1, 2)]).to_vec();
+        prost::encoding::encode_key(9, WireType::Varint, &mut content);
+        prost::encoding::encode_varint(7, &mut content);
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, content.into()).unwrap();
+        assert!(ledger.has_unsupported_transitions());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unknown_mapping_is_omitted_without_discarding_supported_transitions() {
+        let mut unknown = partition(2, 3);
+        unknown.mapping = None;
+        let mut raw = unknown.encode_to_vec();
+        message_field(17, b"future mapping", &mut raw);
+        let mut content =
+            history(vec![partition(3, 4), partition(1, 2), partition(10, 11)]).to_vec();
+        message_field(2, &raw, &mut content);
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, content.into()).unwrap();
+        assert!(ledger.has_unsupported_transitions());
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 3);
+        assert!(ledger.consumer(1).is_some());
+        assert_eq!(ledger.consumer(2), None);
+        assert!(ledger.consumer(3).is_some());
+        assert!(ledger.consumer(10).is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::duplicate_producer(vec![partition(1, 3), partition(2, 3)], "duplicate producer")]
+    #[case::duplicate_consumer(vec![partition(1, 2), partition(1, 3)], "duplicate consumer")]
+    #[case::cycle(vec![partition(1, 2), partition(2, 1)], "cycle")]
+    #[case::self_cycle(vec![partition(1, 1)], "cycle")]
+    fn rejects_invalid_lineage(#[case] transitions: Vec<pb::Transition>, #[case] message: &str) {
+        assert_corrupt(
+            FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(transitions)),
+            message,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn multi_fragment_edges_and_intervening_deletes() {
+        let mut first = partition(1, 2);
+        first.sources = vec![digest(1, 4, 0)];
+        first.destinations = vec![digest(2, 2, 0), digest(3, 2, 0)];
+        let second = ordered(
+            vec![digest(3, 2, 1), digest(2, 2, 0)],
+            vec![digest(4, 3, 0)],
+            &[address(3, 1), address(2, 0), address(2, 1)],
+        );
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(vec![second, first])).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions()[0].sources()[0].id, 1);
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions()[1].sources()[0].id, 3);
+        let Mapping::OrderedCompaction(remap) = ledger.transitions()[1].mapping() else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(address(3, 0)), Some(None));
+        for (source, destination) in [(address(3, 1), 0), (address(2, 0), 1), (address(2, 1), 2)] {
+            assert_eq!(remap.get(source), Some(Some(address(4, destination))));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::missing(vec![], "no mapping")]
+    #[case::duplicate_known(vec![4, 4], "multiple mapping")]
+    #[case::conflicting_known(vec![3, 4], "multiple mapping")]
+    fn rejects_ambiguous_mapping(#[case] tags: Vec<u32>, #[case] message: &str) {
+        let mut transition = partition(1, 2);
+        transition.mapping = None;
+        let mut raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+        for tag in tags {
+            message_field(tag, &[], &mut raw);
+        }
+        let mut content = Vec::new();
+        message_field(2, &raw, &mut content);
+        assert_corrupt(FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, content.into()), message);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::truncated(vec![0x12, 10, 0], "exceeds remaining")]
+    #[case::wrong_transition_wire(vec![0x10, 0], "length-delimited")]
+    #[case::wrong_mapping_wire(vec![0x12, 2, 0x20, 0], "length-delimited")]
+    #[case::invalid_key(vec![0], "invalid tag")]
+    fn rejects_malformed_wire(#[case] content: Vec<u8>, #[case] message: &str) {
+        assert_corrupt(FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, content.into()), message);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::invalid_id(digest(u32::MAX as u64, 2, 0), "invalid fragment digest")]
+    #[case::invalid_rows(digest(1, u32::MAX as u64 + 1, 0), "invalid fragment digest")]
+    #[case::invalid_deletions(digest(1, 2, 3), "invalid fragment digest")]
+    #[case::row_conservation(digest(1, 3, 0), "row counts differ")]
+    fn rejects_invalid_digests(#[case] source: pb::FragmentDigest, #[case] message: &str) {
+        let mut transition = partition(1, 2);
+        transition.sources = vec![source];
+        assert_corrupt(
+            FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(vec![transition])),
+            message,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_inconsistent_lineage_counts() {
+        let mut second = partition(2, 3);
+        second.sources[0] = digest(2, 3, 1);
+        assert_corrupt(
+            FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(vec![partition(1, 2), second])),
+            "inconsistent physical_rows",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_bad_bitmap_and_reference() {
+        let transition = ordered(
+            vec![digest(1, 2, 1)],
+            vec![digest(2, 1, 0)],
+            &[address(1, 2)],
+        );
+        assert_corrupt(
+            FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(vec![transition])),
+            "outside",
+        );
+        let transition = ordered(
+            vec![digest(1, 2, 1)],
+            vec![digest(2, 1, 0)],
+            &[address(9, 0)],
+        );
+        assert_corrupt(
+            FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(vec![transition])),
+            "survivors",
+        );
+        let mut transition = partition(1, 2);
+        let Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(reference)) = &mut transition.mapping else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        reference.map_id = "../escape".into();
+        assert_corrupt(
+            FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(vec![transition])),
+            "map_id",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn all_deleted_source_has_no_destinations() {
+        let transition = ordered(vec![digest(1, 2, 2)], vec![], &[]);
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(vec![transition])).unwrap();
+        let Mapping::OrderedCompaction(remap) = ledger.transitions()[0].mapping() else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(address(1, 0)), Some(None));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn version_gate() {
+        assert!(
+            FragReuseLedger::decode_content(0, Bytes::new())
+                .unwrap()
+                .transitions()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        let error = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(2, Bytes::new()).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("index_version 2"));
+        assert_corrupt(
+            FragReuseLedger::decode_content(0, history(vec![partition(1, 2)])),
+            "index_version 1",
+        );
+    }
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::inline(false)]
+    #[case::external(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn legacy_writer_round_trip_and_remap_equivalence(#[case] external: bool) {
+        let group = |sources, destinations, addresses: &[u64]| {
+            let transition = ordered(sources, destinations, addresses);
+            let Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(mapping)) = transition.mapping else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            FragReuseGroup::try_from(pb::Group {
+                old_fragments: transition.sources,
+                new_fragments: transition.destinations,
+                changed_row_addrs: mapping.changed_row_addrs,
+            })
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![
+                FragReuseVersion {
+                    dataset_version: 10,
+                    groups: vec![
+                        group(
+                            vec![digest(2, 3, 1), digest(1, 1, 0)],
+                            vec![digest(3, 3, 0)],
+                            &[address(2, 0), address(2, 2), address(1, 0)],
+                        ),
+                        group(
+                            vec![digest(10, 1, 0)],
+                            vec![digest(11, 1, 0)],
+                            &[address(10, 0)],
+                        ),
+                    ],
+                },
+                FragReuseVersion {
+                    dataset_version: 11,
+                    groups: vec![group(
+                        vec![digest(3, 3, 1)],
+                        vec![digest(4, 2, 0)],
+                        &[address(3, 0), address(3, 2)],
+                    )],
+                },
+            ],
+        };
+        // Use the same serializer as the index-version-0 writer.
+        let content = pb::InlineContent::from(&details).encode_to_vec();
+        let old = CompactFragReuseIndex::try_new(Uuid::nil(), details).unwrap();
+        let file = crate::format::pb::ExternalFile {
+            path: "details.binpb".into(),
+            offset: 7,
+            size: content.len() as u64,
+        };
+        let mut envelope = Vec::new();
+        if external {
+            message_field(2, &file.encode_to_vec(), &mut envelope);
+        } else {
+            message_field(1, &content, &mut envelope);
+        }
+        let any = prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value: envelope,
+        };
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode(1, &any, |actual| async move {
+            assert!(external);
+            assert_eq!(actual, file);
+            Ok(content.into())
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 3);
+        for source in [
+            address(2, 0),
+            address(2, 1),
+            address(2, 2),
+            address(1, 0),
+            address(10, 0),
+            address(99, 0),
+        ] {
+            let mut translated = Some(source);
+            while let Some(current) = translated {
+                let fragment = RowAddress::from(current).fragment_id();
+                let Some(index) = ledger.consumer(fragment) else {
+                    break;
+                };
+                let Mapping::OrderedCompaction(remap) = ledger.transitions()[index].mapping()
+                else {
+                    unreachable!()
+                };
+                translated = remap.get(current).unwrap();
+            }
+            assert_eq!(translated, old.remap_row_id(source), "address {source}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn independent_transitions_keep_serialized_order() {
+        let ledger =
+            FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, history(vec![partition(10, 11), partition(1, 2)]))
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ledger
+                .transitions()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|t| t.sources()[0].id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![10, 1]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::missing(vec![], "missing FRI content")]
+    #[case::duplicate(vec![0x0a, 0, 0x0a, 0], "multiple FRI content")]
+    #[case::conflicting(vec![0x0a, 0, 0x12, 0], "multiple FRI content")]
+    #[case::truncated(vec![0x0a, 10, 0], "exceeds remaining")]
+    #[case::oversized(vec![0x0a, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0x01], "exceeds remaining")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_invalid_envelope(#[case] value: Vec<u8>, #[case] message: &str) {
+        let any = prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value,
+        };
+        let result = FragReuseLedger::decode(1, &any, |_| async {
+            panic!("invalid envelope must not read external content")
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert_corrupt(result, message);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn version_gate_precedes_envelope_and_io() {
+        let error = FragReuseLedger::decode(2, &prost_types::Any::default(), |_| async {
+            panic!("unsupported version must not read external content")
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Please upgrade"));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::overflow(u64::MAX, 1, "range overflow")]
+    #[case::short_read(0, 2, "size mismatch")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_invalid_external_range(
+        #[case] offset: u64,
+        #[case] size: u64,
+        #[case] message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let file = crate::format::pb::ExternalFile {
+            path: "details.binpb".into(),
+            offset,
+            size,
+        };
+        let mut value = Vec::new();
+        message_field(2, &file.encode_to_vec(), &mut value);
+        let details = prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value,
+        };
+        let result = FragReuseLedger::decode(1, &details, |_| async move {
+            assert_ne!(offset, u64::MAX, "overflow must be rejected before IO");
+            Ok(Bytes::from_static(&[0]))
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert_corrupt(result, message);
+    }
+
+    proptest::proptest! {
+        #[test]
+        fn arbitrary_inline_bytes_do_not_panic(raw in proptest::collection::vec(proptest::prelude::any::<u8>(), 0..4096)) {
+            let _ = FragReuseLedger::decode_content(1, raw.into());
+        }
+
+        #[test]
+        fn arbitrary_envelopes_do_not_panic(raw in proptest::collection::vec(proptest::prelude::any::<u8>(), 0..4096)) {
+            let any = prost_types::Any { type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(), value: raw };
+            let _ = futures::executor::block_on(FragReuseLedger::decode(1, &any, |_| async {
+                Err(Error::not_supported("no external data in parser property test"))
+            }));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/lineage.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/lineage.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9be20d47c62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/lineage.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,140 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! The lineage a tagged fragment reuse entry records, and the one question
+//! every write path asks of it: may a segment keep the provenance it stores?
+//!
+//! A translating segment's bitmap names the fragments it was built from,
+//! retired by later rewrites; its rows reach the live destinations by
+//! following the recorded transitions. Three places must agree on which of
+//! that provenance an in-place column rewrite invalidates: the manifest
+//! build pruning committed indices, the conflict resolver rebasing a new
+//! index over committed writes, and the replay that validates staged
+//! segments. They all walk this type (`withdraw_rewritten_coverage`).
+
+use super::ledger::FragReuseLedger;
+use super::metadata::is_tagged;
+use crate::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+/// The tagged entry's recorded lineage plus, when it can be walked, the
+/// transitions themselves.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct TaggedLineage {
+    /// The entry's bitmap: every source and destination of every transition
+    /// plus the coverage it inherited. `None` is unknown, not empty.
+    fragments: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+    /// The decoded history; `None` only when a caller built the lineage
+    /// without one (records this build cannot interpret count as none).
+    /// Without it every answer is the conservative one.
+    ledger: Option<Arc<FragReuseLedger>>,
+}
+
+impl TaggedLineage {
+    /// The lineage of `entry`, walked through `ledger` when one is given.
+    pub fn new(entry: &IndexMetadata, ledger: Option<Arc<FragReuseLedger>>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            fragments: entry.fragment_bitmap.clone(),
+            ledger: ledger.filter(|ledger| !ledger.has_unsupported_transitions()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The lineage of the tagged entry among `indices`, or `None` on a table
+    /// without one. The history is `ledger` when the caller supplied it (the
+    /// commit path decodes it once per attempt), else decoded from the
+    /// entry's inline details. An undecodable history is an error, and so is
+    /// an external one nobody read: a commit must not guess at the lineage.
+    pub fn from_indices_with_ledger(
+        indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+        ledger: Option<Arc<FragReuseLedger>>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        let Some(entry) = indices.iter().find(|index| is_tagged(index)) else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let ledger = match ledger {
+            Some(ledger) => ledger,
+            None => {
+                let details = entry.index_details.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(
+                        "the tagged fragment reuse entry carries no details; its history \
+                         cannot be read",
+                    )
+                })?;
+                FragReuseLedger::decode_inline(entry.index_version, details)?
+                    .map(Arc::new)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(
+                            "the tagged fragment reuse history is stored externally and was \
+                             not supplied to the manifest build; commit through the dataset \
+                             so the history is decoded first",
+                        )
+                    })?
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Some(Self::new(entry, Some(ledger))))
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the transitions can be walked (`destinations_of` answers).
+    pub fn has_ledger(&self) -> bool {
+        self.ledger.is_some()
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the walkable history mentions `fragment` as a source or a
+    /// destination of some transition: the reader translates a segment
+    /// whose bitmap names such a fragment instead of loading it as it is.
+    /// `None` when the history cannot be walked.
+    pub fn mentions(&self, fragment: u32) -> Option<bool> {
+        self.ledger
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|ledger| ledger.contains_fragment(fragment))
+    }
+
+    /// Whether `fragment` is on the recorded lineage. Unknown lineage is not
+    /// empty lineage: without a bitmap every fragment may be on it.
+    pub fn contains(&self, fragment: u32) -> bool {
+        self.fragments
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_none_or(|fragments| fragments.contains(fragment))
+    }
+
+    /// The fragments the transition consuming `source` produced: one hop.
+    /// `None` when the history cannot be walked; empty when no transition
+    /// consumed `source`.
+    pub fn immediate_destinations_of(&self, source: u32) -> Option<Vec<u32>> {
+        let ledger = self.ledger.as_ref()?;
+        let Some(position) = ledger.consumer(source) else {
+            return Some(Vec::new());
+        };
+        ledger.transitions()[position]
+            .destinations()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|digest| u32::try_from(digest.id).ok())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Every fragment the rows of `source` were moved into, following the
+    /// transitions transitively (retired intermediates included, in walk
+    /// order). `None` when the history cannot be walked.
+    pub fn destinations_of(&self, source: u32) -> Option<Vec<u32>> {
+        let ledger = self.ledger.as_ref()?;
+        let mut reached = Vec::new();
+        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+        let mut pending = vec![source];
+        while let Some(fragment) = pending.pop() {
+            let Some(position) = ledger.consumer(fragment) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            for digest in ledger.transitions()[position].destinations() {
+                let destination = u32::try_from(digest.id).ok()?;
+                if seen.insert(destination) {
+                    reached.push(destination);
+                    pending.push(destination);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Some(reached)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/metadata.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/metadata.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9906f6aa380
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/frag_reuse/metadata.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Metadata guards for tagged fragment reuse histories.
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+
+use super::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+use crate::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+use crate::format::{IndexMetadata, Manifest};
+use crate::io::commit::ManifestLocation;
+use crate::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes;
+
+/// Whether an index entry requires the tagged FRI format contract.
+pub fn is_tagged(index: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME && index.index_version != 0
+}
+
+/// Whether the table's fragment reuse history is governed by the tagged
+/// format contract, which decides the record form every FRI write must
+/// take: append transitions, never a v0 snapshot replacement.
+///
+/// The sticky [`FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX`] is the final authority: the
+/// first tagged commit sets it and nothing ever clears it -- a trim may
+/// delete a fully drained entry, but the flag survives -- so a
+/// flag-carrying manifest stays tagged even when no entry currently
+/// exists. The entry arm keeps the decision correct for a tagged entry
+/// observed before the flag is stamped on (a manifest assembled
+/// mid-commit); a v0 entry under the flag does NOT make the table v0: the
+/// next tagged commit lifts it byte-verbatim instead.
+pub fn uses_tagged_fri(manifest: &Manifest, existing_fri_entry: Option<&IndexMetadata>) -> bool {
+    manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX != 0
+        || existing_fri_entry.is_some_and(is_tagged)
+}
+
+/// Refuse publication of tagged history without both manifest capability bits.
+pub fn validate_flags(manifest: &Manifest, indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> Result<()> {
+    if indices.iter().any(is_tagged)
+        && (manifest.reader_feature_flags & manifest.writer_feature_flags)
+            & FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX
+            == 0
+    {
+        return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            "manifest",
+            "tagged FRI metadata requires both reader and writer feature flags",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Guard for a clone workflow that cannot relocate fragment reuse mapping
+/// references: refuses to clone a manifest whose fragment reuse history is
+/// tagged, because its mapping references would still point at the source
+/// dataset after the copy.
+///
+/// The dataset clone APIs (`Dataset::shallow_clone` and `Dataset::deep_clone`
+/// in the `lance` crate) relocate those references as part of the clone and
+/// do not call this guard. It is kept, unchanged, for external callers that
+/// still copy a dataset through a path that cannot relocate references; such
+/// a path must keep rejecting tagged history, so this is not an unconditional
+/// success.
+///
+/// A sticky [`FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX`] alone need not mean that a mapping
+/// still exists, so the index section is consulted before rejecting.
+#[deprecated(
+    since = "13.0.0-beta.17",
+    note = "guards the legacy clone workflow; use the dataset clone APIs, which relocate fragment reuse mapping references"
+)]
+pub async fn ensure_clone_supported(
+    store: &ObjectStore,
+    location: &ManifestLocation,
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX == 0 {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let indices = read_manifest_indexes(store, location, manifest).await?;
+    if indices.iter().any(is_tagged) {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Cloning tagged FRI requires row-map reference relocation. Please upgrade to a version supporting FRI clone",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::io::commit::{ManifestNamingScheme, write_manifest_file_to_path};
+    use crate::transaction::test_support::sample_manifest;
+    use object_store::path::Path;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    fn entry(name: &str, index_version: i32) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::nil(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: name.into(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_requires_the_reserved_name_and_a_nonzero_version() {
+        assert!(!is_tagged(&entry(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 0)));
+        assert!(is_tagged(&entry(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 1)));
+        assert!(is_tagged(&entry(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 2)));
+        assert!(!is_tagged(&entry("user_idx", 0)));
+        assert!(!is_tagged(&entry("user_idx", 1)));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn sticky_flag_or_tagged_entry_makes_the_table_tagged() {
+        let mut flagged = crate::transaction::test_support::sample_manifest();
+        flagged.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let unflagged = crate::transaction::test_support::sample_manifest();
+        // The flag alone decides, entry present or not, v0 entry included.
+        assert!(uses_tagged_fri(&flagged, None));
+        assert!(uses_tagged_fri(
+            &flagged,
+            Some(&entry(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 0))
+        ));
+        // Without the flag, only a tagged entry does.
+        assert!(uses_tagged_fri(
+            &unflagged,
+            Some(&entry(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 1))
+        ));
+        assert!(!uses_tagged_fri(
+            &unflagged,
+            Some(&entry(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 0))
+        ));
+        assert!(!uses_tagged_fri(&unflagged, None));
+    }
+
+    /// Writes `manifest` with the given index section into `store` and
+    /// returns the location the deprecated guard reads it back from.
+    async fn write_located(
+        store: &ObjectStore,
+        manifest: &mut Manifest,
+        indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> ManifestLocation {
+        let path = Path::from("_versions/1.manifest");
+        let written = write_manifest_file_to_path(store, manifest, Some(indices), &path, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ManifestLocation {
+            version: 1,
+            path,
+            size: Some(written.size as u64),
+            naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme::V1,
+            e_tag: written.e_tag,
+            identity: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    async fn ensure_clone_supported_accepts_history_without_tagged_entries() {
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+
+        // Without the sticky flag the guard answers without reading anything:
+        // the location points at a manifest that was never written.
+        let unflagged = sample_manifest();
+        let missing = ManifestLocation {
+            version: 1,
+            path: Path::from("_versions/missing.manifest"),
+            size: None,
+            naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme::V1,
+            e_tag: None,
+            identity: None,
+        };
+        ensure_clone_supported(&store, &missing, &unflagged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The sticky flag alone is not a rejection: a v0 entry and a user
+        // index carry no mapping references to relocate.
+        let mut flagged = sample_manifest();
+        flagged.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        flagged.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let location = write_located(
+            &store,
+            &mut flagged,
+            vec![entry(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 0), entry("user_idx", 1)],
+        )
+        .await;
+        ensure_clone_supported(&store, &location, &flagged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    async fn ensure_clone_supported_rejects_tagged_history() {
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let mut flagged = sample_manifest();
+        flagged.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        flagged.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let location =
+            write_located(&store, &mut flagged, vec![entry(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 1)]).await;
+
+        let err = ensure_clone_supported(&store, &location, &flagged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }),
+            "expected NotSupported, got {err:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Cloning tagged FRI requires row-map reference relocation"),
+            "unexpected message: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/mem_wal.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/mem_wal.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8abc45cbb39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/system_index/mem_wal.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,660 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! MemWAL index data structures and metadata helpers.
+//!
+//! The MemWAL Index stores:
+//! - Configuration (sharding_specs, maintained_indexes)
+//! - SSTable compaction progress
+//! - Shard state snapshots (eventually consistent)
+//!
+//! Writers no longer update the index on every write. Instead, they update
+//! shard manifests directly. This module provides functions to:
+//! - Load the MemWAL index
+//! - Update compacted SSTables (called during merge-insert commits)
+
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::format::{IndexMetadata, pb};
+
+pub const MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME: &str = "__lance_mem_wal";
+
+/// Type alias for shard identifier (UUID v4).
+pub type ShardId = Uuid;
+
+/// An SSTable: the immutable result of flushing a MemTable, stored as a Lance dataset.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct SsTable {
+    pub generation: u64,
+    pub path: String,
+    /// Payload size of the rows, as the writer's MemTable accounted for them.
+    ///
+    /// An estimate of the payload, not a bound on what reading the SSTable
+    /// costs: it excludes the per-array structure a reader materializes, so a
+    /// consumer budgeting memory from it must add its own headroom.
+    ///
+    /// `None` on an SSTable written before these fields existed, which a reader
+    /// must carry as unmeasured rather than as zero. The same applies to the two
+    /// below.
+    pub in_memory_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    /// Rows held, counting the older duplicates of a primary key that the
+    /// generation's deletion vector masks.
+    pub physical_rows: Option<u64>,
+    /// Total payload size of the primary-key columns over every row in
+    /// [`Self::physical_rows`] -- not a per-row size, which varies for a
+    /// variable-length key. Carries the same estimate caveat as
+    /// [`Self::in_memory_bytes`], and is also `None` on a table with no primary
+    /// key.
+    pub primary_key_bytes: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+impl SsTable {
+    /// An SSTable whose contents were not measured at flush.
+    pub fn unmeasured(generation: u64, path: String) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            generation,
+            path,
+            in_memory_bytes: None,
+            physical_rows: None,
+            primary_key_bytes: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&SsTable> for pb::SsTable {
+    fn from(sstable: &SsTable) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            generation: sstable.generation,
+            path: sstable.path.clone(),
+            in_memory_bytes: sstable.in_memory_bytes,
+            physical_rows: sstable.physical_rows,
+            primary_key_bytes: sstable.primary_key_bytes,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<pb::SsTable> for SsTable {
+    fn from(sstable: pb::SsTable) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            generation: sstable.generation,
+            path: sstable.path,
+            in_memory_bytes: sstable.in_memory_bytes,
+            physical_rows: sstable.physical_rows,
+            primary_key_bytes: sstable.primary_key_bytes,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A pointer to the latest SSTable compacted for a shard.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Hash, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct CompactedSsTable {
+    pub shard_id: Uuid,
+    pub generation: u64,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CompactedSsTable {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        0 // UUID is 16 bytes fixed size, no heap allocations
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompactedSsTable {
+    pub fn new(shard_id: Uuid, generation: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            shard_id,
+            generation,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&CompactedSsTable> for pb::CompactedSsTable {
+    fn from(sstable: &CompactedSsTable) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            shard_id: Some((&sstable.shard_id).into()),
+            generation: sstable.generation,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::CompactedSsTable> for CompactedSsTable {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(sstable: pb::CompactedSsTable) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
+        let shard_id = sstable
+            .shard_id
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(Uuid::try_from)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Missing shard_id in CompactedSsTable"))??;
+        Ok(Self {
+            shard_id,
+            generation: sstable.generation,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Tracks which compacted SSTable generation a base table index covers.
+/// Used to determine whether to read from SSTable indexes or base table.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct IndexCatchupProgress {
+    pub index_name: String,
+    pub caught_up_generations: Vec<CompactedSsTable>,
+}
+
+impl IndexCatchupProgress {
+    pub fn new(index_name: String, caught_up_generations: Vec<CompactedSsTable>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_name,
+            caught_up_generations,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the caught up generation for a specific shard.
+    /// Returns None if the shard is not present (assumed fully caught up).
+    pub fn caught_up_generation_for_shard(&self, shard_id: &Uuid) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.caught_up_generations
+            .iter()
+            .find(|sstable| &sstable.shard_id == shard_id)
+            .map(|sstable| sstable.generation)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&IndexCatchupProgress> for pb::IndexCatchupProgress {
+    fn from(icp: &IndexCatchupProgress) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_name: icp.index_name.clone(),
+            caught_up_generations: icp
+                .caught_up_generations
+                .iter()
+                .map(|sstable| sstable.into())
+                .collect(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::IndexCatchupProgress> for IndexCatchupProgress {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(icp: pb::IndexCatchupProgress) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            index_name: icp.index_name,
+            caught_up_generations: icp
+                .caught_up_generations
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(CompactedSsTable::try_from)
+                .collect::<lance_core::Result<_>>()?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Lifecycle status of a WAL shard, persisted in [`ShardManifest`].
+///
+/// `Sealed` is the durable in-doubt record for drop-table two-phase
+/// commit: a sealed shard refuses new writer claims (enforced in
+/// `claim_epoch`) but is reversible back to `Active` on rollback.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub enum ShardStatus {
+    /// Normal: the shard accepts writer claims.
+    #[default]
+    Active,
+    /// A drop is in flight: claims are refused. Reversible.
+    Sealed,
+}
+
+impl ShardStatus {
+    /// Map to the protobuf enum discriminant (`pb::ShardStatus`).
+    fn to_i32(self) -> i32 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Active => 0,
+            Self::Sealed => 1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Map from the protobuf enum discriminant; unknown values decode as
+    /// `Active` (forward-compatible default).
+    fn from_i32(v: i32) -> Self {
+        match v {
+            1 => Self::Sealed,
+            _ => Self::Active,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Shard manifest containing epoch-based fencing and WAL state.
+/// Each shard has exactly one active writer at any time.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct ShardManifest {
+    pub shard_id: Uuid,
+    pub version: u64,
+    pub shard_spec_id: u32,
+    /// Computed shard field values as raw Arrow scalar bytes, keyed by field id.
+    /// The byte encoding follows Arrow's little-endian convention: int32 is 4 LE
+    /// bytes, utf8 is raw UTF-8 bytes, etc. The result_type in the corresponding
+    /// ShardingField from the ShardingSpec determines how to interpret each value.
+    pub shard_field_values: HashMap<String, Vec<u8>>,
+    pub writer_epoch: u64,
+    /// The most recent WAL entry position flushed to a MemTable.
+    /// Recovery replays from `replay_after_wal_entry_position + 1`. The
+    /// default value 0 means "no flush has ever stamped this shard" — WAL
+    /// positions themselves are 1-based, so 0 is never a valid covered
+    /// position.
+    pub replay_after_wal_entry_position: u64,
+    /// The most recent WAL entry position observed at manifest write time.
+    /// Default 0 means "no entry has been written yet"; WAL positions are
+    /// 1-based.
+    pub wal_entry_position_last_seen: u64,
+    pub current_generation: u64,
+    pub sstables: Vec<SsTable>,
+    /// Lifecycle status (drop-table 2PC). Defaults to `Active`; preserved
+    /// across claims via `..base` so only fresh constructions set it.
+    pub status: ShardStatus,
+}
+
+impl ShardManifest {
+    /// The version a manifest built on this one must carry.
+    ///
+    /// Manifest versions are CAS-allocated and must stay gap-free: a reader
+    /// scans forward and stops at the first version it cannot find, so a gap
+    /// hides everything past it.
+    pub fn next_version(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.version + 1
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for ShardManifest {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.shard_field_values.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.sstables.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&ShardManifest> for pb::ShardManifest {
+    fn from(rm: &ShardManifest) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            shard_id: Some((&rm.shard_id).into()),
+            version: rm.version,
+            shard_spec_id: rm.shard_spec_id,
+            shard_field_entries: rm
+                .shard_field_values
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(k, v)| pb::ShardFieldEntry {
+                    field_id: k.clone(),
+                    value: v.clone(),
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            writer_epoch: rm.writer_epoch,
+            replay_after_wal_entry_position: rm.replay_after_wal_entry_position,
+            wal_entry_position_last_seen: rm.wal_entry_position_last_seen,
+            current_generation: rm.current_generation,
+            sstables: rm.sstables.iter().map(|sstable| sstable.into()).collect(),
+            status: rm.status.to_i32(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::ShardManifest> for ShardManifest {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(rm: pb::ShardManifest) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
+        let shard_id = rm
+            .shard_id
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(Uuid::try_from)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Missing shard_id in ShardManifest"))??;
+        let shard_field_values = rm
+            .shard_field_entries
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|e| (e.field_id, e.value))
+            .collect();
+        Ok(Self {
+            shard_id,
+            version: rm.version,
+            shard_spec_id: rm.shard_spec_id,
+            shard_field_values,
+            writer_epoch: rm.writer_epoch,
+            replay_after_wal_entry_position: rm.replay_after_wal_entry_position,
+            wal_entry_position_last_seen: rm.wal_entry_position_last_seen,
+            current_generation: rm.current_generation,
+            sstables: rm.sstables.into_iter().map(SsTable::from).collect(),
+            status: ShardStatus::from_i32(rm.status),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sharding field definition.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct ShardingField {
+    pub field_id: String,
+    pub source_ids: Vec<i32>,
+    pub transform: Option<String>,
+    pub expression: Option<String>,
+    pub result_type: String,
+    pub parameters: HashMap<String, String>,
+}
+
+impl From<&ShardingField> for pb::ShardingField {
+    fn from(rf: &ShardingField) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            field_id: rf.field_id.clone(),
+            source_ids: rf.source_ids.clone(),
+            transform: rf.transform.clone(),
+            expression: rf.expression.clone(),
+            result_type: rf.result_type.clone(),
+            parameters: rf.parameters.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<pb::ShardingField> for ShardingField {
+    fn from(rf: pb::ShardingField) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            field_id: rf.field_id,
+            source_ids: rf.source_ids,
+            transform: rf.transform,
+            expression: rf.expression,
+            result_type: rf.result_type,
+            parameters: rf.parameters,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sharding spec definition.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct ShardingSpec {
+    pub spec_id: u32,
+    pub fields: Vec<ShardingField>,
+}
+
+impl From<&ShardingSpec> for pb::ShardingSpec {
+    fn from(rs: &ShardingSpec) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            spec_id: rs.spec_id,
+            fields: rs.fields.iter().map(|f| f.into()).collect(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<pb::ShardingSpec> for ShardingSpec {
+    fn from(rs: pb::ShardingSpec) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            spec_id: rs.spec_id,
+            fields: rs.fields.into_iter().map(ShardingField::from).collect(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Index details for MemWAL Index, stored in IndexMetadata.index_details.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct MemWalIndexDetails {
+    pub snapshot_ts_millis: i64,
+    pub num_shards: u32,
+    pub inline_snapshots: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+    pub sharding_specs: Vec<ShardingSpec>,
+    pub maintained_indexes: Vec<String>,
+    pub maintain_all_indexes: bool,
+    pub compacted_sstables: Vec<CompactedSsTable>,
+    pub index_catchup: Vec<IndexCatchupProgress>,
+    /// Default `ShardWriter` configuration values for this MemWAL index.
+    ///
+    /// Persisted so every writer — across processes and restarts — starts
+    /// from the same default writer configuration. These are defaults only;
+    /// an individual writer may still override any value at runtime in its
+    /// own (non-persisted) `ShardWriterConfig`.
+    pub writer_config_defaults: HashMap<String, String>,
+}
+
+impl From<&MemWalIndexDetails> for pb::MemWalIndexDetails {
+    fn from(details: &MemWalIndexDetails) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            snapshot_ts_millis: details.snapshot_ts_millis,
+            num_shards: details.num_shards,
+            inline_snapshots: details.inline_snapshots.clone(),
+            sharding_specs: details.sharding_specs.iter().map(|rs| rs.into()).collect(),
+            maintained_indexes: details.maintained_indexes.clone(),
+            maintain_all_indexes: Some(details.maintain_all_indexes),
+            compacted_sstables: details
+                .compacted_sstables
+                .iter()
+                .map(|sstable| sstable.into())
+                .collect(),
+            index_catchup: details.index_catchup.iter().map(|icp| icp.into()).collect(),
+            writer_config_defaults: details.writer_config_defaults.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::MemWalIndexDetails> for MemWalIndexDetails {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(details: pb::MemWalIndexDetails) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            snapshot_ts_millis: details.snapshot_ts_millis,
+            num_shards: details.num_shards,
+            inline_snapshots: details.inline_snapshots,
+            sharding_specs: details
+                .sharding_specs
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(ShardingSpec::from)
+                .collect(),
+            maintained_indexes: details.maintained_indexes,
+            maintain_all_indexes: details.maintain_all_indexes.unwrap_or(false),
+            compacted_sstables: details
+                .compacted_sstables
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(CompactedSsTable::try_from)
+                .collect::<lance_core::Result<_>>()?,
+            index_catchup: details
+                .index_catchup
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(IndexCatchupProgress::try_from)
+                .collect::<lance_core::Result<_>>()?,
+            writer_config_defaults: details.writer_config_defaults,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// MemWAL Index provides access to MemWAL configuration and state.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct MemWalIndex {
+    pub details: MemWalIndexDetails,
+}
+
+impl MemWalIndex {
+    pub fn new(details: MemWalIndexDetails) -> Self {
+        Self { details }
+    }
+
+    pub fn compacted_generation_for_shard(&self, shard_id: &Uuid) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.details
+            .compacted_sstables
+            .iter()
+            .find(|sstable| &sstable.shard_id == shard_id)
+            .map(|sstable| sstable.generation)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the caught up generation for a specific index and shard.
+    /// Returns None if the index is not tracked (assumed fully caught up).
+    pub fn index_caught_up_generation(&self, index_name: &str, shard_id: &Uuid) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.details
+            .index_catchup
+            .iter()
+            .find(|icp| icp.index_name == index_name)
+            .and_then(|icp| icp.caught_up_generation_for_shard(shard_id))
+    }
+}
+
+// Reading and updating the `IndexMetadata` entry that carries the details above.
+
+/// Load MemWalIndexDetails from an IndexMetadata.
+pub fn load_mem_wal_index_details(index: IndexMetadata) -> Result<MemWalIndexDetails> {
+    if let Some(details_any) = index.index_details.as_ref() {
+        if !details_any.type_url.ends_with("MemWalIndexDetails") {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index details is not for the MemWAL index, but {}",
+                details_any.type_url
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(MemWalIndexDetails::try_from(
+            details_any.to_msg::<pb::MemWalIndexDetails>()?,
+        )?)
+    } else {
+        Err(Error::index("Index details not found for the MemWAL index"))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Open the MemWAL index from its metadata.
+pub fn open_mem_wal_index(index: IndexMetadata) -> Result<Arc<MemWalIndex>> {
+    Ok(Arc::new(MemWalIndex::new(load_mem_wal_index_details(
+        index,
+    )?)))
+}
+
+/// Update `compacted_sstables` in the MemWAL index.
+///
+/// Called from the final data-changing merge-insert commit for a compaction
+/// target, so the rows and the generation that describes them publish
+/// together.
+///
+/// A proposed generation must be **strictly greater** than the one the latest
+/// state records for that shard, and a stale one fails the whole transaction.
+/// Accepting it while keeping the larger marker would publish that worker's row
+/// mutations under a generation it did not produce, and anything reading only
+/// the marker could then stop serving SSTables whose rows were never inserted.
+///
+/// Every other `MemWalIndexDetails` field is carried through untouched.
+pub fn update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
+    indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
+    dataset_version: u64,
+    new_compacted_sstables: Vec<CompactedSsTable>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if new_compacted_sstables.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let mut seen_shards = HashSet::with_capacity(new_compacted_sstables.len());
+    for sstable in &new_compacted_sstables {
+        if !seen_shards.insert(sstable.shard_id) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Duplicate shard {} in one SSTable compaction update; each shard \
+                 may advance at most once per transaction",
+                sstable.shard_id
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Default details would describe a table with no MemWAL shards at all, so
+    // the recorded generation would name a shard nothing can corroborate.
+    // Refuse instead of inventing metadata.
+    let pos = indices
+        .iter()
+        .position(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Cannot record SSTable compaction progress: the {} system index \
+                 does not exist on this table",
+                MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+    // Validated against a copy so a rejected update leaves `indices` exactly as
+    // the caller passed it.
+    let mut details = load_mem_wal_index_details(indices[pos].clone())?;
+
+    for new_sstable in new_compacted_sstables {
+        match details
+            .compacted_sstables
+            .iter_mut()
+            .find(|sstable| sstable.shard_id == new_sstable.shard_id)
+        {
+            Some(existing) if new_sstable.generation <= existing.generation => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Stale SSTable compaction for shard {}: proposed generation {} \
+                     is not greater than the recorded generation {}",
+                    new_sstable.shard_id, new_sstable.generation, existing.generation
+                )));
+            }
+            Some(existing) => existing.generation = new_sstable.generation,
+            None => details.compacted_sstables.push(new_sstable),
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Replaced in place so the index list keeps its order.
+    indices[pos] = new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset_version, details)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Create a new MemWAL index metadata entry.
+///
+/// A fresh UUID is minted on every rewrite, including metadata-only updates.
+/// The decoded-details cache is keyed on that UUID, so the change of identity
+/// is what invalidates it; holding the UUID steady would leave a warmed reader
+/// answering with the state from before the update.
+pub fn new_mem_wal_index_meta(
+    dataset_version: u64,
+    details: MemWalIndexDetails,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+        name: MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+        fields: vec![],
+        covering_fields: vec![],
+        dataset_version,
+        fragment_bitmap: None,
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any::from_msg(
+            &pb::MemWalIndexDetails::from(&details),
+        )?)),
+        index_version: 0,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        // Memory WAL index is inline (no files)
+        files: None,
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    /// An SSTable written before the size fields existed decodes as
+    /// unmeasured, not as zero. A reader that saw zero would treat a full
+    /// generation as costing nothing.
+    #[test]
+    fn an_sstable_without_the_size_fields_decodes_as_unmeasured() {
+        let legacy = pb::SsTable {
+            generation: 7,
+            path: "aaa_gen_7".to_string(),
+            in_memory_bytes: None,
+            physical_rows: None,
+            primary_key_bytes: None,
+        };
+        let decoded = SsTable::from(legacy);
+        assert_eq!(decoded.generation, 7);
+        assert_eq!(decoded.in_memory_bytes, None);
+        assert_eq!(decoded.physical_rows, None);
+        assert_eq!(decoded.primary_key_bytes, None);
+    }
+
+    /// All three survive the round trip, so a reader sees what the flush
+    /// measured rather than a default.
+    #[test]
+    fn the_recorded_size_survives_the_round_trip() {
+        let recorded = SsTable {
+            generation: 7,
+            path: "aaa_gen_7".to_string(),
+            in_memory_bytes: Some(4_096),
+            physical_rows: Some(10),
+            primary_key_bytes: Some(80),
+        };
+        let encoded = pb::SsTable::from(&recorded);
+        assert_eq!(encoded.in_memory_bytes, Some(4_096));
+        assert_eq!(encoded.physical_rows, Some(10));
+        assert_eq!(encoded.primary_key_bytes, Some(80));
+        assert_eq!(SsTable::from(encoded), recorded);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9a000afb8d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Transaction definitions for updating datasets
+//!
+//! Prior to creating a new manifest, a transaction must be created representing
+//! the changes being made to the dataset. By representing them as incremental
+//! changes, we can detect whether concurrent operations are compatible with
+//! one another. We can also rebuild manifests when retrying committing a
+//! manifest.
+//!
+//! For more details please refer to the
+//! [Transaction Specification](https://lance.org/format/table/transaction/#transaction-types).
+//!
+//! The work splits along these lines:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! builder            Transaction: an operation plus the version it was based on
+//! operation          the vocabulary of changes an operation can describe
+//! update_map         incremental edits to the manifest's string maps
+//! validate           pre-commit checks against the manifest being replaced
+//! prepare            what a commit attempt settles about the index list first
+//! manifest_build     applying an operation to produce the next manifest
+//! index_maintenance  how that narrows or drops index metadata
+//! row_version        how it assigns row ids and per-row version metadata
+//! conflicts          whether two operations collide, for the commit retry path
+//! proto              the persisted protobuf encoding of all of the above
+//! ```
+
+mod builder;
+mod conflicts;
+mod index_maintenance;
+mod manifest_build;
+mod operation;
+mod prepare;
+mod proto;
+mod row_version;
+mod update_map;
+mod validate;
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(crate) mod test_support;
+
+pub use builder::{Transaction, TransactionBuilder};
+pub use manifest_build::RANGE_SEGMENTS_CONFIG_KEY;
+pub use operation::{
+    DataOverlayGroup, DataReplacementGroup, Operation, RewriteGroup, RewrittenIndex,
+    TaggedRewriteAssembly, UpdateMode, UpdatedFragmentOffsets, reordered_sources,
+};
+pub use prepare::{FragReuseUpdate, PreparedIndices};
+pub use row_version::has_writer_placed_lineage;
+pub use update_map::{
+    UpdateMap, UpdateMapEntry, translate_config_updates, translate_schema_metadata_updates,
+};
+pub use validate::validate_operation;
+
+use crate::format::{IndexMetadata, Manifest};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+/// Non-system logical index name -> its physical segments, ordered by UUID.
+///
+/// Whole segment metadata rather than UUIDs alone: operations such as `Rewrite`
+/// prune a segment's fragment bitmap while keeping its UUID, so a UUID-only
+/// comparison would keep coverage for an index that no longer spans the same
+/// base fragments.
+pub type LogicalIndexSegments = BTreeMap<String, Vec<CoverageIdentity>>;
+
+/// What one physical index segment contributes to coverage.
+///
+/// Deliberately not the whole [`IndexMetadata`]. It rests on one contract:
+/// changing an index's physical contents mints a new UUID. Of the mutations
+/// sanctioned under an existing UUID, only the fragment bitmap changes which
+/// rows the index answers for -- an `Update` prunes it in place, and
+/// `migrate_indices` recalculates it -- so the UUID alone is not enough and the
+/// bitmap has to be compared too. The rest of the metadata, file lists and
+/// timestamps and inferred details, is filled in by migrations routinely;
+/// comparing it would withdraw coverage for no reason.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct CoverageIdentity {
+    uuid: Uuid,
+    fragment_bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+}
+
+/// The version a transaction read, as the coverage derivation needs it.
+///
+/// An index covering every fragment live at this version holds every row
+/// compaction had copied into the base table by then, so it is caught up to
+/// that version's `compacted_sstables`. That is the only proof available:
+/// nothing maps a compaction generation to the fragments its rows landed in.
+///
+/// `read_version` is fixed for the life of a transaction and survives rebase,
+/// so the credit a commit can prove is stable across attempts. The recorded
+/// result may still differ between attempts, because a rebased attempt sees a
+/// different head: other commits move the compacted generations and the
+/// positions already recorded.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct ReadVersionState<'a> {
+    pub manifest: &'a Manifest,
+    pub indices: &'a [IndexMetadata],
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/builder.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/builder.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1240de4d882
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/builder.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! The transaction itself: an operation plus the version it was based on.
+
+use crate::transaction::Operation;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+/// A change to a dataset that can be retried
+///
+/// This contains enough information to be able to build the next manifest,
+/// given the current manifest.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
+pub struct Transaction {
+    /// The version of the table this transaction is based off of. If this is
+    /// the first transaction, this should be 0.
+    pub read_version: u64,
+    pub uuid: String,
+    pub operation: Operation,
+    pub tag: Option<String>,
+    pub transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
+}
+
+/// Add TransactionBuilder for flexibly setting option without using `mut`
+pub struct TransactionBuilder {
+    read_version: u64,
+    // uuid is optional for builder since it can autogenerate
+    uuid: Option<String>,
+    operation: Operation,
+    tag: Option<String>,
+    transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
+}
+
+impl TransactionBuilder {
+    pub fn new(read_version: u64, operation: Operation) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            read_version,
+            uuid: None,
+            operation,
+            tag: None,
+            transaction_properties: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn uuid(mut self, uuid: String) -> Self {
+        self.uuid = Some(uuid);
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn tag(mut self, tag: Option<String>) -> Self {
+        self.tag = tag;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn transaction_properties(
+        mut self,
+        transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.transaction_properties = transaction_properties;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn build(self) -> Transaction {
+        let uuid = self
+            .uuid
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| Uuid::new_v4().hyphenated().to_string());
+        Transaction {
+            read_version: self.read_version,
+            uuid,
+            operation: self.operation,
+            tag: self.tag,
+            transaction_properties: self.transaction_properties,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Transaction {
+    pub fn new_from_version(read_version: u64, operation: Operation) -> Self {
+        TransactionBuilder::new(read_version, operation).build()
+    }
+
+    pub fn new(read_version: u64, operation: Operation, tag: Option<String>) -> Self {
+        TransactionBuilder::new(read_version, operation)
+            .tag(tag)
+            .build()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/conflicts.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/conflicts.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3e2c95f123d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/conflicts.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1044 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Deciding whether two operations describe the same change or touch the same
+//! metadata.
+//!
+//! The commit path uses these when it retries against a newer version: equality
+//! tells it whether the operation it is holding is the one already committed, and
+//! the metadata checks tell it whether a concurrent operation wrote keys it
+//! depends on.
+//!
+//! `PartialEq` is hand-written rather than derived because several operations
+//! carry `Vec<T>` fields whose order is not meaningful.
+
+use crate::transaction::{Operation, UpdateMap};
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+impl PartialEq for Operation {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        // Many of the operations contain `Vec<T>` where the order of the
+        // elements don't matter. So we need to compare them in a way that
+        // ignores the order of the elements.
+        // TODO: we can make it so the vecs are always constructed in order.
+        // Then we can use `==` instead of `compare_vec`.
+        fn compare_vec<T: PartialEq>(a: &[T], b: &[T]) -> bool {
+            a.len() == b.len() && a.iter().all(|f| b.contains(f))
+        }
+        match (self, other) {
+            (Self::Append { fragments: a }, Self::Append { fragments: b }) => compare_vec(a, b),
+            (
+                Self::Clone {
+                    is_shallow: a_is_shallow,
+                    ref_name: a_ref_name,
+                    ref_version: a_ref_version,
+                    ref_path: a_source_path,
+                    branch_name: a_branch_name,
+                },
+                Self::Clone {
+                    is_shallow: b_is_shallow,
+                    ref_name: b_ref_name,
+                    ref_version: b_ref_version,
+                    ref_path: b_source_path,
+                    branch_name: b_branch_name,
+                },
+            ) => {
+                a_is_shallow == b_is_shallow
+                    && a_ref_name == b_ref_name
+                    && a_ref_version == b_ref_version
+                    && a_source_path == b_source_path
+                    && a_branch_name == b_branch_name
+            }
+            (
+                Self::Delete {
+                    updated_fragments: a_updated,
+                    deleted_fragment_ids: a_deleted,
+                    predicate: a_predicate,
+                },
+                Self::Delete {
+                    updated_fragments: b_updated,
+                    deleted_fragment_ids: b_deleted,
+                    predicate: b_predicate,
+                },
+            ) => {
+                compare_vec(a_updated, b_updated)
+                    && compare_vec(a_deleted, b_deleted)
+                    && a_predicate == b_predicate
+            }
+            (
+                Self::Overwrite {
+                    fragments: a_fragments,
+                    schema: a_schema,
+                    config_upsert_values: a_config,
+                    initial_bases: a_initial,
+                },
+                Self::Overwrite {
+                    fragments: b_fragments,
+                    schema: b_schema,
+                    config_upsert_values: b_config,
+                    initial_bases: b_initial,
+                },
+            ) => {
+                compare_vec(a_fragments, b_fragments)
+                    && a_schema == b_schema
+                    && a_config == b_config
+                    && a_initial == b_initial
+            }
+            (
+                Self::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: a_new,
+                    removed_indices: a_removed,
+                },
+                Self::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: b_new,
+                    removed_indices: b_removed,
+                },
+            ) => compare_vec(a_new, b_new) && compare_vec(a_removed, b_removed),
+            (
+                Self::Rewrite {
+                    groups: a_groups,
+                    rewritten_indices: a_indices,
+                    frag_reuse_index: a_frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                Self::Rewrite {
+                    groups: b_groups,
+                    rewritten_indices: b_indices,
+                    frag_reuse_index: b_frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+            ) => {
+                compare_vec(a_groups, b_groups)
+                    && compare_vec(a_indices, b_indices)
+                    && a_frag_reuse_index == b_frag_reuse_index
+            }
+            (
+                Self::Merge {
+                    fragments: a_fragments,
+                    schema: a_schema,
+                    preserves_nullability: a_preserves,
+                },
+                Self::Merge {
+                    fragments: b_fragments,
+                    schema: b_schema,
+                    preserves_nullability: b_preserves,
+                },
+            ) => {
+                compare_vec(a_fragments, b_fragments)
+                    && a_schema == b_schema
+                    && a_preserves == b_preserves
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { version: a }, Self::Restore { version: b }) => a == b,
+            (
+                Self::ReserveFragments { num_fragments: a },
+                Self::ReserveFragments { num_fragments: b },
+            ) => a == b,
+            (
+                Self::Update {
+                    removed_fragment_ids: a_removed,
+                    updated_fragments: a_updated,
+                    new_fragments: a_new,
+                    fields_modified: a_fields,
+                    compacted_sstables: a_compacted_sstables,
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: a_fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
+                    update_mode: a_update_mode,
+                    inserted_rows_filter: a_inserted_rows_filter,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: a_updated_fragment_offsets,
+                },
+                Self::Update {
+                    removed_fragment_ids: b_removed,
+                    updated_fragments: b_updated,
+                    new_fragments: b_new,
+                    fields_modified: b_fields,
+                    compacted_sstables: b_compacted_sstables,
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: b_fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
+                    update_mode: b_update_mode,
+                    inserted_rows_filter: b_inserted_rows_filter,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: b_updated_fragment_offsets,
+                },
+            ) => {
+                compare_vec(a_removed, b_removed)
+                    && compare_vec(a_updated, b_updated)
+                    && compare_vec(a_new, b_new)
+                    && compare_vec(a_fields, b_fields)
+                    && compare_vec(a_compacted_sstables, b_compacted_sstables)
+                    && compare_vec(
+                        a_fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
+                        b_fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
+                    )
+                    && a_update_mode == b_update_mode
+                    && a_inserted_rows_filter == b_inserted_rows_filter
+                    && a_updated_fragment_offsets == b_updated_fragment_offsets
+            }
+            (
+                Self::Project {
+                    schema: a,
+                    preserves_nullability: a_preserves,
+                },
+                Self::Project {
+                    schema: b,
+                    preserves_nullability: b_preserves,
+                },
+            ) => a == b && a_preserves == b_preserves,
+            (
+                Self::UpdateConfig {
+                    config_updates: a_config,
+                    table_metadata_updates: a_table_metadata,
+                    schema_metadata_updates: a_schema,
+                    field_metadata_updates: a_field,
+                },
+                Self::UpdateConfig {
+                    config_updates: b_config,
+                    table_metadata_updates: b_table_metadata,
+                    schema_metadata_updates: b_schema,
+                    field_metadata_updates: b_field,
+                },
+            ) => {
+                a_config == b_config
+                    && a_table_metadata == b_table_metadata
+                    && a_schema == b_schema
+                    && a_field == b_field
+            }
+            (
+                Self::DataReplacement { replacements: a },
+                Self::DataReplacement { replacements: b },
+            ) => a.len() == b.len() && a.iter().all(|r| b.contains(r)),
+            // Handle all remaining combinations.
+            // We spell out all combinations explicitly to prevent
+            // us accidentally handling a new case in the wrong way.
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (
+                Self::UpdateMemWalState {
+                    compacted_sstables: a_compacted,
+                },
+                Self::UpdateMemWalState {
+                    compacted_sstables: b_compacted,
+                },
+            ) => compare_vec(a_compacted, b_compacted),
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::UpdateBases { new_bases: a }, Self::UpdateBases { new_bases: b }) => {
+                compare_vec(a, b)
+            }
+
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+
+            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
+                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
+            }
+            (Self::DataOverlay { groups: a }, Self::DataOverlay { groups: b }) => compare_vec(a, b),
+            (Self::DataOverlay { .. }, _) | (_, Self::DataOverlay { .. }) => false,
+            (Self::Unknown {}, Self::Unknown {}) => true,
+            (Self::Unknown {}, _) | (_, Self::Unknown {}) => false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Operation {
+    /// Returns the config keys that have been upserted by this operation.
+    fn get_upsert_config_keys(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Overwrite {
+                config_upsert_values: Some(upsert_values),
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let vec: Vec<String> = upsert_values.keys().cloned().collect();
+                vec
+            }
+            Self::UpdateConfig {
+                config_updates: Some(config_updates),
+                ..
+            } => config_updates
+                .update_entries
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|entry| {
+                    if entry.value.is_some() {
+                        Some(entry.key.clone())
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            _ => Vec::<String>::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the config keys that have been deleted by this operation.
+    fn get_delete_config_keys(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        match self {
+            Self::UpdateConfig {
+                config_updates: Some(config_updates),
+                ..
+            } => config_updates
+                .update_entries
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|entry| {
+                    if entry.value.is_none() {
+                        Some(entry.key.clone())
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            _ => Vec::<String>::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn modifies_same_metadata(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        match (self, other) {
+            (
+                Self::UpdateConfig {
+                    table_metadata_updates,
+                    schema_metadata_updates,
+                    field_metadata_updates,
+                    ..
+                },
+                Self::UpdateConfig {
+                    table_metadata_updates: other_table_metadata,
+                    schema_metadata_updates: other_schema_metadata,
+                    field_metadata_updates: other_field_metadata,
+                    ..
+                },
+            ) => {
+                if Self::update_maps_conflict(
+                    table_metadata_updates.as_ref(),
+                    other_table_metadata.as_ref(),
+                ) {
+                    return true;
+                }
+                if schema_metadata_updates.is_some() && other_schema_metadata.is_some() {
+                    return true;
+                }
+                if !field_metadata_updates.is_empty() && !other_field_metadata.is_empty() {
+                    for field in field_metadata_updates.keys() {
+                        if other_field_metadata.contains_key(field) {
+                            return true;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                false
+            }
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn update_maps_conflict(left: Option<&UpdateMap>, right: Option<&UpdateMap>) -> bool {
+        let (Some(left), Some(right)) = (left, right) else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        if left.replace || right.replace {
+            return true;
+        }
+        let left_keys = left
+            .update_entries
+            .iter()
+            .map(|entry| entry.key.as_str())
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        right
+            .update_entries
+            .iter()
+            .any(|entry| left_keys.contains(entry.key.as_str()))
+    }
+
+    /// Check whether another operation upserts a key that is referenced by another operation
+    pub fn upsert_key_conflict(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        let self_upsert_keys = self.get_upsert_config_keys();
+        let other_upsert_keys = other.get_upsert_config_keys();
+
+        let self_delete_keys = self.get_delete_config_keys();
+        let other_delete_keys = other.get_delete_config_keys();
+
+        self_upsert_keys
+            .iter()
+            .any(|x| other_upsert_keys.contains(x) || other_delete_keys.contains(x))
+            || other_upsert_keys
+                .iter()
+                .any(|x| self_upsert_keys.contains(x) || self_delete_keys.contains(x))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::transaction::test_support::overlay_with_field;
+    use crate::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, UpdateMapEntry};
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    fn table_metadata_update(entries: Vec<(&str, Option<&str>)>, replace: bool) -> Operation {
+        Operation::UpdateConfig {
+            config_updates: None,
+            table_metadata_updates: Some(UpdateMap {
+                update_entries: entries.into_iter().map(UpdateMapEntry::from).collect(),
+                replace,
+            }),
+            schema_metadata_updates: None,
+            field_metadata_updates: HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_table_metadata_conflicts_on_same_key() {
+        let left = table_metadata_update(vec![("key", Some("1"))], false);
+        let same_key = table_metadata_update(vec![("key", Some("2"))], false);
+        let different_key = table_metadata_update(vec![("other", Some("2"))], false);
+        let replace = table_metadata_update(vec![("other", Some("2"))], true);
+
+        assert!(left.modifies_same_metadata(&same_key));
+        assert!(!left.modifies_same_metadata(&different_key));
+        assert!(left.modifies_same_metadata(&replace));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_operation_eq() {
+        let overlay = |field: i32| Operation::DataOverlay {
+            groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                fragment_id: 0,
+                overlays: vec![overlay_with_field(field, 1)],
+            }],
+        };
+        // Reflexive and value-based (the arm previously returned false for self).
+        assert_eq!(overlay(1), overlay(1));
+        assert_ne!(overlay(1), overlay(2));
+        // Not equal to a different operation kind (previously returned true vs Rewrite).
+        let rewrite = Operation::Rewrite {
+            groups: vec![],
+            rewritten_indices: vec![],
+            frag_reuse_index: None,
+        };
+        assert_ne!(overlay(1), rewrite);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/index_maintenance.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/index_maintenance.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d9b2a2973b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/index_maintenance.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1646 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Keeping index metadata honest about what the new fragment list contains.
+//!
+//! An index entry claims coverage of a set of fragments and fields. Any operation
+//! that rewrites data can invalidate part of that claim, so a commit has to either
+//! narrow the entry's fragment bitmap, drop the fields it no longer describes, or
+//! drop the index. Getting this wrong does not fail the commit -- it silently
+//! returns stale rows from the index -- so each rule here is paired with a test.
+
+use crate::format::overlay::staleness::collect_overlay_stale_frags;
+use crate::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata};
+use crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+use crate::system_index::frag_reuse::lineage::TaggedLineage;
+use crate::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged;
+use crate::system_index::is_system_index;
+use crate::transaction::{
+    DataReplacementGroup, Operation, RewriteGroup, RewrittenIndex, Transaction,
+};
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+impl Transaction {
+    pub(super) fn register_pure_rewrite_rows_update_frags_in_indices(
+        indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
+        pure_update_frag_ids: &[u64],
+        original_fragment_ids: &[u64],
+        fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: &[u32],
+        original_overlaid_frags: &HashMap<u32, &Fragment>,
+        schema: &Schema,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if pure_update_frag_ids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let value_updated_field_set = fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap
+            .iter()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+
+        for index in indices.iter_mut() {
+            // Physical row addresses cannot follow moved rows into a new fragment.
+            // Leave that fragment uncovered so the scanner reads it directly.
+            if index.results_are_row_addrs() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let index_covers_modified_field = index.fields.iter().any(|field_id| {
+                value_updated_field_set.contains(&u32::try_from(*field_id).unwrap())
+            });
+            if index_covers_modified_field {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(fragment_bitmap) = index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() else {
+                continue;
+            };
+
+            // Check that all the original fragments containing the updated rows are covered by
+            // the index. If not, some updated rows were not indexed, so we cannot index them.
+            let index_covers_all_original_fragments = original_fragment_ids
+                .iter()
+                .all(|&fragment_id| fragment_bitmap.contains(fragment_id as u32));
+            if !index_covers_all_original_fragments {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // A rewrite materializes overlays.  If any of those overlays touched the
+            // column being indexed then the rewrite will modify that column.  As a
+            // result, that index will no longer cover the fragment and it does not
+            // count as a pure rewrite and we must exclude it from the index's fragment
+            // bitmap.
+            let mut overlay_stale = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            collect_overlay_stale_frags(
+                index,
+                original_overlaid_frags,
+                &mut overlay_stale,
+                schema,
+            )?;
+            if !overlay_stale.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = index.fragment_bitmap.as_mut() {
+                for fragment_id in pure_update_frag_ids.iter().map(|f| *f as u32) {
+                    fragment_bitmap.insert(fragment_id);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Withdraw what an in-place column rewrite invalidates from every index
+    /// on a table with a tagged fragment reuse history.
+    ///
+    /// The physical columns `operation` rewrites in place, per live fragment
+    /// id, unexpanded: an update with `fields_modified` rewrites those
+    /// fields in every updated fragment; a merge rewrites, in each fragment
+    /// present in `previous_fragments`, the fields whose backing data file
+    /// changed (`merge_rewritten_fields`); a data replacement rewrites the
+    /// fields its new files carry, read through `schema`. Any other
+    /// operation rewrites nothing. `previous_fragments` is the caller's
+    /// "before" list: the current manifest's for a commit, the read
+    /// version's for a rebase.
+    pub fn rewritten_physical_columns(
+        operation: &Operation,
+        schema: &Schema,
+        previous_fragments: &[Fragment],
+    ) -> Vec<(u64, Vec<u32>)> {
+        match operation {
+            Operation::Update {
+                updated_fragments,
+                fields_modified,
+                ..
+            } if !fields_modified.is_empty() => updated_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| (fragment.id, fields_modified.clone()))
+                .collect(),
+            Operation::Merge { fragments, .. } => {
+                Self::merge_rewritten_fields(previous_fragments, fragments)
+            }
+            Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => replacements
+                .iter()
+                .map(|DataReplacementGroup(fragment_id, new_file)| {
+                    let mut fields: Vec<u32> = new_file
+                        .schema(schema)
+                        .field_ids()
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .chain(new_file.fields.iter().copied())
+                        .filter_map(|id| u32::try_from(id).ok())
+                        .collect();
+                    fields.sort_unstable();
+                    fields.dedup();
+                    (*fragment_id, fields)
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            _ => Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The one implementation of an in-place column rewrite's effect on
+    /// index coverage, shared by the commit preparation (on the list read
+    /// from the current manifest) and by the conflict resolver rebasing a
+    /// new index over a committed rewrite (on the index being created).
+    ///
+    /// `rewrites` comes from [`Self::rewritten_physical_columns`]. With a
+    /// walkable tagged history (`lineage`), every rewritten field id is
+    /// expanded to its descendants through `schema` (a packed struct is one
+    /// physical column while an index on `s.x` records the child's id) and
+    /// the coverage is withdrawn along the lineage
+    /// ([`Self::withdraw_rewritten_coverage`]). Without a tagged history the
+    /// rewritten fragments are pruned from the covering indices by id, the
+    /// ordinary rule, exactly as before.
+    pub fn withdraw_in_place_rewrites(
+        indices: &mut Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        rewrites: Vec<(u64, Vec<u32>)>,
+        schema: &Schema,
+        live: &RoaringBitmap,
+        lineage: Option<&TaggedLineage>,
+    ) {
+        if rewrites.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        match lineage {
+            Some(lineage) => {
+                let rewrites = Self::expand_rewritten_fields(schema, rewrites);
+                Self::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(indices, Some(lineage), live, &rewrites);
+            }
+            None => {
+                for (fragment, fields) in rewrites {
+                    Self::prune_updated_fields_from_indices(
+                        indices,
+                        &[Fragment::new(fragment)],
+                        &fields,
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Expand every rewritten field id in `rewrites` to the field and all
+    /// its descendants through `schema`, the form
+    /// `withdraw_rewritten_coverage` compares against index fields.
+    fn expand_rewritten_fields(
+        schema: &Schema,
+        rewrites: Vec<(u64, Vec<u32>)>,
+    ) -> Vec<(u64, Vec<u32>)> {
+        rewrites
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(fragment, fields)| (fragment, Self::with_descendants(schema, fields)))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// `fields` plus every field nested under them, deduplicated.
+    fn with_descendants(schema: &Schema, fields: Vec<u32>) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let mut expanded = Vec::with_capacity(fields.len());
+        for id in fields {
+            expanded.push(id);
+            let Ok(field_id) = i32::try_from(id) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let mut pending: Vec<&lance_core::datatypes::Field> = schema
+                .field_by_id(field_id)
+                .map(|field| field.children.iter().collect())
+                .unwrap_or_default();
+            while let Some(child) = pending.pop() {
+                if let Ok(child_id) = u32::try_from(child.id) {
+                    expanded.push(child_id);
+                }
+                pending.extend(child.children.iter());
+            }
+        }
+        expanded.sort_unstable();
+        expanded.dedup();
+        expanded
+    }
+
+    /// `rewrites` lists each rewritten live fragment with the fields
+    /// rewritten in it (expanded to their descendants, see
+    /// [`Self::withdraw_in_place_rewrites`]). For every
+    /// non-system segment that indexes one of those fields (keyed or
+    /// carried), with bitmap `B`:
+    /// - a rewritten fragment named in `B` is removed, as on an untagged
+    ///   table;
+    /// - every retired fragment `r` of `B` (not in `live`) whose rows the
+    ///   history moves into the rewritten fragment (`destinations_of`,
+    ///   transitively, so mixed provenance holding intermediates is
+    ///   covered) is removed. The sources of one transition all reach the
+    ///   same destinations, so the transition's sources go whole: the
+    ///   segment derives no coverage of its destinations and those rows are
+    ///   scanned until `optimize_indices` rebuilds them;
+    /// - without a walkable history every retired fragment of `B` goes;
+    /// - a segment without a bitmap is untouched: its coverage is unknown,
+    ///   not empty, and the reader already excludes it.
+    ///
+    /// What a withdrawal leaves is then settled per logical index name:
+    /// - coverage partly left: the segment stays and serves what is left,
+    ///   provided the reader will still translate it. The file keeps the
+    ///   withdrawn rows; the translating load drops them (they resolve
+    ///   outside the derived coverage), but a segment whose remaining
+    ///   bitmap is live-only and disjoint from the history is loaded as it
+    ///   is, and would serve the withdrawn retired rows raw. So when a
+    ///   RETIRED fragment was withdrawn and the remainder would be loaded
+    ///   as it is, the remainder is withdrawn too (the segment empties and
+    ///   is rebuilt). Withdrawing only live fragments leaves the remainder
+    ///   alone: rows of fragments that still exist are masked by the
+    ///   ordinary per-segment ownership filter;
+    /// - coverage emptied while a same-name sibling still has coverage (or
+    ///   an unknown one): the segment's metadata leaves the manifest in this
+    ///   commit; its files are reclaimed by the ordinary index cleanup once
+    ///   no retained version references them;
+    /// - coverage emptied and it is the last segment of its name: it stays
+    ///   as the record of what index to build (queries never use it, since
+    ///   the reader lists nothing for it; maintenance rebuilds it from the
+    ///   live fragments).
+    ///
+    /// Every withdrawal is logged at warn level.
+    pub fn withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+        indices: &mut Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        lineage: Option<&TaggedLineage>,
+        live: &RoaringBitmap,
+        rewrites: &[(u64, Vec<u32>)],
+    ) {
+        let mut emptied = Vec::new();
+        for index in indices.iter_mut().filter(|index| !is_system_index(index)) {
+            let indexed: HashSet<u32> = index
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|field| u32::try_from(*field).ok())
+                .collect();
+            let Some(bitmap) = index.fragment_bitmap.as_mut() else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let retired = &*bitmap - live;
+            let mut withdrawn = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            for (fragment, fields) in rewrites {
+                if !fields.iter().any(|field| indexed.contains(field)) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let Ok(rewritten) = u32::try_from(*fragment) else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                if bitmap.contains(rewritten) {
+                    withdrawn.insert(rewritten);
+                }
+                // Every retired source whose rows reach the rewritten
+                // fragment goes; the sources of one transition all reach the
+                // same destinations, so the transition is withdrawn whole.
+                for source in retired.iter() {
+                    match lineage.and_then(|lineage| lineage.destinations_of(source)) {
+                        Some(destinations) if destinations.contains(&rewritten) => {
+                            withdrawn.insert(source);
+                        }
+                        Some(_) => {}
+                        None => {
+                            withdrawn.insert(source);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if withdrawn.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            *bitmap -= &withdrawn;
+            let withdrew_retired = !(&withdrawn & &retired).is_empty();
+            if withdrew_retired && !bitmap.is_empty() {
+                // Would the reader still translate what is left? Only a
+                // bitmap naming a retired fragment or one the history
+                // mentions is translated (and filtered to its derived
+                // coverage); a live-only remainder the history does not
+                // mention is loaded as it is, which would serve the
+                // withdrawn rows the file still holds. A history that
+                // cannot be walked holds transitions this build cannot
+                // read, and the reader then translates every segment, so
+                // the remainder is safe in that case.
+                let reader_translates = !bitmap.is_subset(live)
+                    || bitmap.iter().any(|fragment| {
+                        lineage
+                            .and_then(|lineage| lineage.mentions(fragment))
+                            .unwrap_or(true)
+                    });
+                if !reader_translates {
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "index {} (segment {}): its remaining coverage {:?} would be loaded \
+                         as it is while its file still holds rows of the withdrawn retired \
+                         fragments; withdrawing it whole so the segment is rebuilt",
+                        index.name,
+                        index.uuid,
+                        bitmap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    );
+                    withdrawn |= &*bitmap;
+                    bitmap.clear();
+                }
+            }
+            if bitmap.is_empty() {
+                emptied.push(index.uuid);
+            }
+            log::warn!(
+                "index {} (segment {}): withdrew {} fragment(s) of coverage after an in-place \
+                 rewrite of an indexed column; the rows they covered are scanned until the index \
+                 is optimized",
+                index.name,
+                index.uuid,
+                withdrawn.len()
+            );
+        }
+        Self::retire_emptied_segments(indices, &emptied);
+    }
+
+    /// Drop the metadata of every segment in `emptied` whose logical index
+    /// still has another segment with coverage (or with unknown coverage).
+    /// The last segment of a name is kept, empty, as the record of what to
+    /// rebuild.
+    fn retire_emptied_segments(indices: &mut Vec<IndexMetadata>, emptied: &[Uuid]) {
+        let removable: Vec<Uuid> = emptied
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .filter(|uuid| {
+                let Some(name) = indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|index| index.uuid == *uuid)
+                    .map(|index| index.name.as_str())
+                else {
+                    return false;
+                };
+                indices.iter().any(|sibling| {
+                    sibling.name == name
+                        && sibling.uuid != *uuid
+                        && sibling
+                            .fragment_bitmap
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .is_none_or(|bitmap| !bitmap.is_empty())
+                })
+            })
+            .collect();
+        if removable.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        indices.retain(|index| {
+            let retired = removable.contains(&index.uuid);
+            if retired {
+                log::info!(
+                    "index {} (segment {}): every fragment of its coverage was withdrawn and a \
+                     sibling segment still serves the index; the segment leaves the manifest and \
+                     its files are reclaimed by index cleanup",
+                    index.name,
+                    index.uuid
+                );
+            }
+            !retired
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// If an operation modifies one or more fields in a fragment then we need to remove
+    /// that fragment from any indices that cover one of the modified fields.
+    pub fn prune_updated_fields_from_indices(
+        indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
+        updated_fragments: &[Fragment],
+        fields_modified: &[u32],
+    ) {
+        if fields_modified.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // If we modified any fields in the fragments then we need to remove those fragments
+        // from the index if the index covers one of those modified fields.
+        let fields_modified_set = fields_modified.iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        for index in indices.iter_mut() {
+            if index
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .any(|field_id| fields_modified_set.contains(&u32::try_from(*field_id).unwrap()))
+                && let Some(fragment_bitmap) = &mut index.fragment_bitmap
+            {
+                for fragment_id in updated_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32) {
+                    fragment_bitmap.remove(fragment_id);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Map each (non-tombstoned) field id in a fragment to the path of the data
+    /// file that backs it.
+    fn fragment_field_paths(frag: &Fragment) -> HashMap<i32, &str> {
+        let mut map = HashMap::new();
+        for file in &frag.files {
+            for &field_id in file.fields.iter() {
+                if field_id >= 0 {
+                    map.insert(field_id, file.path.as_str());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        map
+    }
+
+    /// The columns a `Merge` rewrote in place: for each fragment present in
+    /// both lists, the fields still present whose backing data file path
+    /// changed. Brand-new fragments carry nothing stale.
+    pub fn merge_rewritten_fields(
+        prev_fragments: &[Fragment],
+        new_fragments: &[Fragment],
+    ) -> Vec<(u64, Vec<u32>)> {
+        let prev_by_id: HashMap<u64, &Fragment> =
+            prev_fragments.iter().map(|f| (f.id, f)).collect();
+        // Only the first occurrence of a previous id is that fragment's merged
+        // version; later ones are staged fragments still carrying placeholder
+        // id 0, which must not be mistaken for a rewrite of fragment 0.
+        let mut seen_prev_ids = HashSet::new();
+        new_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|new_frag| {
+                let prev = prev_by_id.get(&new_frag.id)?;
+                if !seen_prev_ids.insert(new_frag.id) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let prev_paths = Self::fragment_field_paths(prev);
+                let new_paths = Self::fragment_field_paths(new_frag);
+                let mut changed: Vec<u32> = prev_paths
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|(field_id, prev_path)| {
+                        new_paths
+                            .get(*field_id)
+                            .is_some_and(|new_path| new_path != *prev_path)
+                    })
+                    .map(|(field_id, _)| *field_id as u32)
+                    .collect();
+                changed.sort_unstable();
+                (!changed.is_empty()).then_some((new_frag.id, changed))
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// After a `Rewrite` fully compacts a fragment, its data overlays are baked
+    /// into the new fragment's base data. An index built *before* one of those
+    /// overlays (`overlay.committed_version > index.dataset_version`) indexed the
+    /// stale pre-overlay values -- and unlike a live overlay, the compacted
+    /// fragment no longer signals that staleness to the query path. Drop each
+    /// rewritten (new) fragment from the coverage of any index covering a field
+    /// such an overlay supplied, so those rows fall back to a flat scan.
+    pub(super) fn prune_overlay_stale_fields_from_indices(
+        indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
+        groups: &[RewriteGroup],
+    ) {
+        for group in groups {
+            // field id -> newest overlay committed_version supplying that field
+            let mut overlaid_field_versions: HashMap<i32, u64> = HashMap::new();
+            for old_frag in &group.old_fragments {
+                for overlay in &old_frag.overlays {
+                    for &field_id in overlay.data_file.fields.iter() {
+                        if field_id < 0 {
+                            // Tombstoned (obsolete) overlay field: supplies nothing.
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        let entry = overlaid_field_versions.entry(field_id).or_insert(0);
+                        *entry = (*entry).max(overlay.committed_version);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if overlaid_field_versions.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let new_fragment_ids = group
+                .new_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            for index in indices.iter_mut() {
+                let is_stale = index.fields.iter().any(|field_id| {
+                    overlaid_field_versions
+                        .get(field_id)
+                        .is_some_and(|&overlay_version| overlay_version > index.dataset_version)
+                });
+                if is_stale && let Some(fragment_bitmap) = &mut index.fragment_bitmap {
+                    for new_id in &new_fragment_ids {
+                        fragment_bitmap.remove(*new_id);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn retain_relevant_indices(
+        indices: &mut Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        schema: &Schema,
+        fragments: &[Fragment],
+    ) {
+        let field_ids = schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .map(|f| f.id)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+
+        // Remove indices for fields no longer in schema
+        indices.retain(|existing_index| {
+            existing_index
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .all(|field_id| field_ids.contains(field_id))
+                || is_system_index(existing_index)
+        });
+
+        let mut indices_by_name: std::collections::HashMap<String, Vec<&IndexMetadata>> =
+            std::collections::HashMap::new();
+
+        for index in indices.iter() {
+            if index.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME {
+                indices_by_name
+                    .entry(index.name.clone())
+                    .or_default()
+                    .push(index);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut uuids_to_keep = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+
+        let existing_fragments = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+
+        // Under a tagged fragment reuse history a segment's stored bitmap is
+        // its provenance (the retired source fragments it was built from),
+        // not the fragments it serves: its live coverage is derived at query
+        // time by translating through the history, and is empty against the
+        // live fragments by construction once its sources were rewritten.
+        // Measuring such a segment here would drop it. Every segment is kept
+        // instead; superseded segments are pruned by the tagged maintenance
+        // path, which reasons on derived coverage.
+        let tagged = indices.iter().any(is_tagged);
+
+        for (_, same_name_indices) in indices_by_name {
+            if tagged {
+                for index in same_name_indices {
+                    uuids_to_keep.insert(index.uuid);
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            // Unknown coverage is not empty coverage: a segment whose bitmap is
+            // missing has never been measured, and dropping it deletes an index
+            // that migration could not open yet.
+            let (unknown_coverage, same_name_indices): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = same_name_indices
+                .into_iter()
+                .partition(|index| index.fragment_bitmap.is_none());
+            for index in unknown_coverage {
+                uuids_to_keep.insert(index.uuid);
+            }
+
+            if same_name_indices.len() > 1 {
+                let (empty_indices, non_empty_indices): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =
+                    same_name_indices.iter().partition(|index| {
+                        index
+                            .effective_fragment_bitmap(&existing_fragments)
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .is_none_or(|bitmap| bitmap.is_empty())
+                    });
+
+                if non_empty_indices.is_empty() {
+                    // All indices are empty -- keep only the oldest definition.
+                    //
+                    // An empty index definition is still correct: the scanner
+                    // falls back to scanning unindexed fragments, and normal
+                    // index maintenance rebuilds coverage once rows accrue.
+                    // Dropping the definition instead would silently lose the
+                    // index whenever an operation replaces every fragment it
+                    // covered (e.g. a full table rewrite), leaving the dataset
+                    // without its declared index.
+                    let mut sorted_indices = empty_indices;
+                    sorted_indices.sort_by_key(|index: &&IndexMetadata| index.dataset_version);
+
+                    if let Some(oldest) = sorted_indices.first() {
+                        uuids_to_keep.insert(oldest.uuid);
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    for index in non_empty_indices {
+                        uuids_to_keep.insert(index.uuid);
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                // Single index whose column is still in schema: keep it, even
+                // when its coverage is empty (see the all-empty note above).
+                if let Some(index) = same_name_indices.first() {
+                    uuids_to_keep.insert(index.uuid);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        indices.retain(|index| {
+            index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME || uuids_to_keep.contains(&index.uuid)
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// The rewrite groups whose index bitmaps follow the rewrite (source ids
+    /// swapped for destination ids). Groups covered by the stable-partition
+    /// transitions' sources are excluded: they redistribute rows, so their
+    /// bitmaps keep the retired source ids as provenance and the tagged
+    /// fragment reuse index entry records the row-level translation. A group
+    /// must be entirely reordered or entirely order-preserving.
+    pub(super) fn ordered_rewrite_groups(
+        groups: &[RewriteGroup],
+        reordered_sources: Option<&RoaringBitmap>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RewriteGroup>> {
+        let Some(sources) = reordered_sources else {
+            return Ok(groups.to_vec());
+        };
+        let mut ordered = Vec::new();
+        for group in groups {
+            let covered = group
+                .old_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|frag| sources.contains(frag.id as u32))
+                .count();
+            if covered == 0 {
+                ordered.push(group.clone());
+            } else if covered != group.old_fragments.len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "a rewrite group mixes transition-covered and order-preserving source fragments",
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(ordered)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn recalculate_fragment_bitmap(
+        old: &RoaringBitmap,
+        groups: &[RewriteGroup],
+    ) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        let mut new_bitmap = old.clone();
+        for group in groups {
+            let any_in_index = group
+                .old_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .any(|frag| old.contains(frag.id as u32));
+            let all_in_index = group
+                .old_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .all(|frag| old.contains(frag.id as u32));
+            // Any rewrite group may or may not be covered by the index.  However, if any fragment
+            // in a rewrite group was previously covered by the index then all fragments in the rewrite
+            // group must have been previously covered by the index.  plan_compaction takes care of
+            // this for us so this should be safe to assume.
+            if any_in_index {
+                if all_in_index {
+                    for frag_id in group.old_fragments.iter().map(|frag| frag.id as u32) {
+                        new_bitmap.remove(frag_id);
+                    }
+                    new_bitmap.extend(group.new_fragments.iter().map(|frag| frag.id as u32));
+                } else {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "The compaction plan included a rewrite group that was a split of indexed and non-indexed data",
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(new_bitmap)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn handle_rewrite_indices(
+        indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
+        rewritten_indices: &[RewrittenIndex],
+        groups: &[RewriteGroup],
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut modified_indices = HashSet::new();
+
+        for rewritten_index in rewritten_indices {
+            if !modified_indices.insert(rewritten_index.old_id) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "An invalid compaction plan must have been generated because multiple tasks modified the same index: {}",
+                    rewritten_index.old_id
+                )));
+            }
+
+            // Skip indices that no longer exist (may have been removed by concurrent operation)
+            let Some(index) = indices
+                .iter_mut()
+                .find(|idx| idx.uuid == rewritten_index.old_id)
+            else {
+                continue;
+            };
+
+            index.fragment_bitmap = Some(Self::recalculate_fragment_bitmap(
+                index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Cannot rewrite index {} which did not store fragment bitmap",
+                        index.uuid
+                    ))
+                })?,
+                groups,
+            )?);
+            index.uuid = rewritten_index.new_id;
+            // Update file sizes to match the new index files. When not available
+            // (e.g., from older writers), clear the old file sizes to avoid
+            // using stale sizes from the pre-remap index.
+            index.files = rewritten_index.new_index_files.clone();
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn handle_rewrite_fragments(
+        final_fragments: &mut Vec<Fragment>,
+        groups: &[RewriteGroup],
+        fragment_id: &mut u64,
+        version: u64,
+        _next_row_id: Option<&u64>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        for group in groups {
+            // If the old fragments are contiguous, find the range
+            let replace_range = {
+                let start = final_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .find(|(_, f)| f.id == group.old_fragments[0].id)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::commit_conflict_source(
+                            version,
+                            format!(
+                                "dataset does not contain a fragment a rewrite operation wants to replace: id={}",
+                                group.old_fragments[0].id
+                            )
+                            .into(),
+                        )
+                    })?
+                    .0;
+
+                // Verify old_fragments matches contiguous range
+                let mut i = 1;
+                loop {
+                    if i == group.old_fragments.len() {
+                        break Some(start..start + i);
+                    }
+                    if final_fragments[start + i].id != group.old_fragments[i].id {
+                        break None;
+                    }
+                    i += 1;
+                }
+            };
+
+            let new_fragments = Self::fragments_with_ids(group.new_fragments.clone(), fragment_id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            // Version metadata for rewritten fragments is handled by the compaction code
+            // (recalc_versions_for_rewritten_fragments) which preserves version information
+            // from the original fragments. We don't modify it here.
+
+            if let Some(replace_range) = replace_range {
+                // Efficiently path using slice
+                final_fragments.splice(replace_range, new_fragments);
+            } else {
+                // Slower path for non-contiguous ranges
+                for fragment in group.old_fragments.iter() {
+                    final_fragments.retain(|f| f.id != fragment.id);
+                }
+                final_fragments.extend(new_fragments);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::transaction::test_support::overlay_with_field;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ordered_rewrite_groups_split_and_mixed() {
+        use crate::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details as pb_fri;
+        let group = |old_ids: &[u64], new_ids: &[u64]| RewriteGroup {
+            old_fragments: old_ids.iter().map(|&id| Fragment::new(id)).collect(),
+            new_fragments: new_ids.iter().map(|&id| Fragment::new(id)).collect(),
+        };
+        let groups = vec![group(&[0, 1], &[10]), group(&[2], &[11])];
+
+        // No stable partition: every group takes part in bitmap maintenance.
+        assert_eq!(
+            Transaction::ordered_rewrite_groups(&groups, None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            2
+        );
+
+        // Group [0, 1] is reordered: only group [2] remains ordered.
+        let digest = |id: u64| pb_fri::FragmentDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: 4,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let reordered = crate::transaction::reordered_sources(&[pb_fri::Transition {
+            sources: vec![digest(0), digest(1)],
+            destinations: vec![digest(10), digest(10)],
+            mapping: None,
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+        let ordered = Transaction::ordered_rewrite_groups(&groups, Some(&reordered)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ordered.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(ordered[0].old_fragments[0].id, 2);
+
+        // A group straddling reordered and order-preserving sources is
+        // rejected.
+        let mixed = vec![group(&[1, 2], &[10])];
+        assert!(Transaction::ordered_rewrite_groups(&mixed, Some(&reordered)).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rewrite_fragments() {
+        let existing_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = (0..10).map(Fragment::new).collect();
+
+        let mut final_fragments = existing_fragments;
+        let rewrite_groups = vec![
+            // Since these are contiguous, they will be put in the same location
+            // as 1 and 2.
+            RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2)],
+                // These two fragments were previously reserved
+                new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(15), Fragment::new(16)],
+            },
+            // These are not contiguous, so they will be inserted at the end.
+            RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(5), Fragment::new(8)],
+                // We pretend this id was not reserved.  Does not happen in practice today
+                // but we want to leave the door open.
+                new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let mut fragment_id = 20;
+        let version = 0;
+
+        Transaction::handle_rewrite_fragments(
+            &mut final_fragments,
+            &rewrite_groups,
+            &mut fragment_id,
+            version,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(fragment_id, 21);
+
+        let expected_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = vec![
+            Fragment::new(0),
+            Fragment::new(15),
+            Fragment::new(16),
+            Fragment::new(3),
+            Fragment::new(4),
+            Fragment::new(6),
+            Fragment::new(7),
+            Fragment::new(9),
+            Fragment::new(20),
+        ];
+
+        assert_eq!(final_fragments, expected_fragments);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_indices_removes_missing_fields() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1, 2]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            create_test_index("idx1", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false),
+            create_test_index("idx2", 2, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false),
+            create_test_index("idx3", 99, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Field doesn't exist
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+        assert!(indices.iter().all(|idx| idx.fields[0] != 99));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_indices_keeps_system_indices() {
+        use crate::system_index::mem_wal::MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME;
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1, 2]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            legacy_frag_reuse_index(99), // Field doesn't exist but should be kept
+            create_system_index(MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, 99), // Field doesn't exist but should be kept
+            create_test_index("regular_idx", 99, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Should be removed
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME));
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_indices_keeps_fragment_reuse_index() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            legacy_frag_reuse_index(1),
+            create_test_index("other_idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Fragment reuse index should always be kept
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_single_empty_scalar_index() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![create_test_index(
+            "scalar_idx",
+            1,
+            1,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), // Empty bitmap
+            false,
+        )];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Single empty scalar index should be kept
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_single_empty_vector_index_is_kept() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![create_test_index(
+            "vector_idx",
+            1,
+            1,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), // Empty bitmap
+            true,
+        )];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // The empty definition is retained: coverage is empty but the index
+        // declaration must survive operations that replace every fragment.
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_single_nonempty_index() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut scalar_indices = vec![create_test_index(
+            "scalar_idx",
+            1,
+            1,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+            false,
+        )];
+
+        let mut vector_indices = vec![create_test_index(
+            "vector_idx",
+            1,
+            1,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+            true,
+        )];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut scalar_indices, &schema, &fragments);
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut vector_indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Both should be kept
+        assert_eq!(scalar_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(vector_indices.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_single_index_with_none_bitmap() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut scalar_indices = vec![create_test_index("scalar_idx", 1, 1, None, false)];
+        let mut vector_indices = vec![create_test_index("vector_idx", 1, 1, None, true)];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut scalar_indices, &schema, &fragments);
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut vector_indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Both kept: a None bitmap is unknown coverage, not empty coverage, and
+        // an unmeasured segment is retained regardless of index type.
+        assert_eq!(scalar_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(vector_indices.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_unknown_coverage_alongside_nonempty_sibling() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            create_test_index("idx", 1, 1, None, false), // Coverage never measured
+            create_test_index("idx", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2])), false),
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // The unmeasured segment must survive its non-empty sibling: its bitmap
+        // is missing because migration could not open the index, and deleting
+        // the segment would take the only record of it with it.
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.is_none()));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_multiple_empty_scalar_indices_keeps_oldest() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            create_test_index("idx", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
+            create_test_index("idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Oldest
+            create_test_index("idx", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Should keep only the oldest (dataset_version = 1)
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].dataset_version, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_multiple_empty_vector_indices_keeps_oldest() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
+            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
+            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Same as the scalar case: all deltas are empty, so only the oldest
+        // definition survives.
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].dataset_version, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_mixed_empty_nonempty_keeps_nonempty() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            create_test_index("idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Empty
+            create_test_index("idx", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Non-empty
+            create_test_index("idx", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Empty
+            create_test_index("idx", 1, 4, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Non-empty
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Should keep only non-empty indices
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .all(|idx| idx.dataset_version == 2 || idx.dataset_version == 4)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_mixed_empty_nonempty_vector_keeps_nonempty() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true), // Empty
+            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), true), // Non-empty
+            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),          // Empty
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Should keep only non-empty index
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].dataset_version, 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_fragment_bitmap_with_nonexistent_fragments() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2)]; // Only fragments 1 and 2 exist
+
+        let mut indices = vec![create_test_index(
+            "idx",
+            1,
+            1,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 3, 4])), // References non-existent fragments 3, 4
+            false,
+        )];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Should still keep the index (effective bitmap will be intersection with existing)
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        // Original bitmap should be unchanged
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 3, 4])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_effective_empty_bitmap_single_index() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(5), Fragment::new(6)];
+
+        // Bitmap references fragments that don't exist, so effective bitmap is empty
+        let mut scalar_indices = vec![create_test_index(
+            "scalar_idx",
+            1,
+            1,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 3])),
+            false,
+        )];
+
+        let mut vector_indices = vec![create_test_index(
+            "vector_idx",
+            1,
+            1,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 3])),
+            true,
+        )];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut scalar_indices, &schema, &fragments);
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut vector_indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Both kept: a single index whose column is still in schema is
+        // retained even when its effective coverage is empty.
+        assert_eq!(scalar_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(vector_indices.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_different_index_names() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
+            create_test_index("idx_b", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
+            create_test_index("idx_c", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false),
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // All three kept: empty definitions are retained for scalar and
+        // vector indexes alike.
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 3);
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_a"));
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_b"));
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_c"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_empty_indices_vec() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = vec![];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_all_indices_removed() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            create_test_index("vec1", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
+            create_test_index("vec2", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
+            create_test_index("idx3", 99, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Bad field
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Only the bad-field index is dropped; the empty vector definitions
+        // are retained.
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+        assert!(!indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx3"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_complex_scenario() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1, 2]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2)];
+
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            // System index - should always be kept
+            legacy_frag_reuse_index(1),
+            // Group "idx_a" - all empty scalars, keep oldest
+            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
+            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Oldest
+            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
+            // Group "vec_b" - all empty vectors, keep oldest definition
+            create_test_index("vec_b", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
+            create_test_index("vec_b", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
+            // Group "idx_c" - mixed empty/non-empty, keep non-empty
+            create_test_index("idx_c", 2, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
+            create_test_index("idx_c", 2, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Keep
+            create_test_index("idx_c", 2, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2])), false), // Keep
+            // Single non-empty - keep
+            create_test_index("idx_d", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2])), false),
+            // Index with bad field - remove
+            create_test_index("idx_e", 99, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false),
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        // Expected: frag_reuse, idx_a (oldest), vec_b (oldest), idx_c (2
+        // non-empty), idx_d = 6 total
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 6);
+
+        // Verify system index kept
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME));
+
+        // Verify idx_a kept oldest only
+        let idx_a_indices: Vec<_> = indices.iter().filter(|idx| idx.name == "idx_a").collect();
+        assert_eq!(idx_a_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(idx_a_indices[0].dataset_version, 1);
+
+        // Verify vec_b kept oldest definition only
+        let vec_b_indices: Vec<_> = indices.iter().filter(|idx| idx.name == "vec_b").collect();
+        assert_eq!(vec_b_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(vec_b_indices[0].dataset_version, 1);
+
+        // Verify idx_c kept non-empty only
+        let idx_c_indices: Vec<_> = indices.iter().filter(|idx| idx.name == "idx_c").collect();
+        assert_eq!(idx_c_indices.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            idx_c_indices
+                .iter()
+                .all(|idx| idx.dataset_version == 2 || idx.dataset_version == 3)
+        );
+
+        // Verify idx_d kept
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_d"));
+
+        // Verify idx_e removed (bad field)
+        assert!(!indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_e"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_handle_rewrite_indices_skips_missing_index() {
+        // Create an empty indices list
+        let mut indices = vec![];
+
+        // Create rewritten_indices referring to a non-existent index
+        let rewritten_indices = vec![RewrittenIndex {
+            old_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            new_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            new_index_details: prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: String::new(),
+                value: vec![],
+            },
+            new_index_version: 1,
+            new_index_files: None,
+        }];
+
+        // Should succeed (skip missing index) instead of error
+        let result = Transaction::handle_rewrite_indices(&mut indices, &rewritten_indices, &[]);
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+        assert!(indices.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prune_overlay_stale_fields_from_indices() {
+        // Fragment 0 carried an overlay on field 1 committed at v5, and was
+        // fully compacted into new fragment 7.
+        let mut old_frag = Fragment::new(0);
+        old_frag.overlays = vec![overlay_with_field(1, 5)];
+        let groups = vec![RewriteGroup {
+            old_fragments: vec![old_frag],
+            new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(7)],
+        }];
+
+        // Post-remap state: every index already covers the new fragment (7).
+        let covering = || Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([7u32]));
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            // Stale: covers the overlaid field 1, built (v2) before the overlay.
+            create_test_index("stale", 1, 2, covering(), false),
+            // Not stale: covers field 1 but built at the overlay's version (v5);
+            // `committed_version > dataset_version` is false at equality.
+            create_test_index("fresh", 1, 5, covering(), false),
+            // Unrelated: covers field 2, which the overlay never touched.
+            create_test_index("unrelated", 2, 2, covering(), false),
+        ];
+
+        Transaction::prune_overlay_stale_fields_from_indices(&mut indices, &groups);
+
+        assert!(
+            !indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(7),
+            "stale index must drop the rewritten fragment from its coverage"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            indices[1].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(7),
+            "an index built at/after the overlay is not stale"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            indices[2].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(7),
+            "an index on an un-overlaid field is unaffected"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Helper functions for retain_relevant_indices tests
+    fn create_test_index(
+        name: &str,
+        field_id: i32,
+        dataset_version: u64,
+        fragment_bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+        is_vector: bool,
+    ) -> IndexMetadata {
+        use prost_types::Any;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        let index_details = if is_vector {
+            Some(Arc::new(Any {
+                type_url: "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.VectorIndexDetails".to_string(),
+                value: vec![],
+            }))
+        } else {
+            Some(Arc::new(Any {
+                type_url: "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.ScalarIndexDetails".to_string(),
+                value: vec![],
+            }))
+        };
+
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: name.to_string(),
+            dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap,
+            index_details,
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A version-0 fragment reuse entry: the pre-tagged history whose
+    /// presence leaves coverage-based retention as it always was.
+    fn legacy_frag_reuse_index(field_id: i32) -> IndexMetadata {
+        let mut index = create_system_index(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, field_id);
+        index.index_version = 0;
+        index
+    }
+
+    /// Under a tagged history a translating segment's stored bitmap is its
+    /// retired provenance, empty against the live fragments by construction,
+    /// so retention must keep every segment: only a segment on a field that
+    /// left the schema is dropped.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retain_keeps_every_segment_under_tagged_history() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1, 2]);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(10), Fragment::new(11)];
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            create_system_index(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 1),
+            // Two translating segments: provenance {0} and {1} are both dead.
+            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0])), false),
+            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false),
+            // A rebuilt sibling directly covering a live destination.
+            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10])), false),
+            // An all-dead group and an all-empty group: every member kept.
+            create_test_index("vec_b", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0])), true),
+            create_test_index("vec_b", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), true),
+            create_test_index("idx_c", 2, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
+            create_test_index("idx_c", 2, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
+            // Field left the schema: dropped as always.
+            create_test_index("idx_e", 99, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10])), false),
+        ];
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(is_tagged));
+
+        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
+
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 8);
+        assert!(!indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_e"));
+        assert_eq!(indices.iter().filter(|idx| idx.name == "idx_a").count(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(indices.iter().filter(|idx| idx.name == "vec_b").count(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(indices.iter().filter(|idx| idx.name == "idx_c").count(), 2);
+    }
+
+    fn create_system_index(name: &str, field_id: i32) -> IndexMetadata {
+        use prost_types::Any;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: name.to_string(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2])),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(Any {
+                type_url: "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.SystemIndexDetails".to_string(),
+                value: vec![],
+            })),
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_schema(field_ids: &[i32]) -> Schema {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+
+        let fields: Vec<ArrowField> = field_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| ArrowField::new(format!("field_{}", id), DataType::Int32, false))
+            .collect();
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(fields);
+        let mut lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        // Assign field IDs
+        for (i, field_id) in field_ids.iter().enumerate() {
+            lance_schema.mut_field_by_id(i as i32).unwrap().id = *field_id;
+        }
+
+        lance_schema
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod withdrawal_tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::transaction::test_support::{sample_index_metadata, tagged_entry};
+
+    fn segment(bitmap: Option<&[u32]>, fields: Vec<i32>) -> IndexMetadata {
+        let mut segment = sample_index_metadata("idx");
+        segment.fields = fields;
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = bitmap.map(|ids| ids.iter().copied().collect());
+        segment
+    }
+
+    fn lineage(entry: &IndexMetadata) -> TaggedLineage {
+        TaggedLineage::from_indices_with_ledger(std::slice::from_ref(entry), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// F1, F2 -> F3 then F3 -> F4 (F4 live), plus an unrelated F6 -> F8.
+    fn history() -> IndexMetadata {
+        tagged_entry(&[(&[1, 2], &[3]), (&[3], &[4]), (&[6], &[8])])
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn withdraws_the_whole_transition_reaching_the_rewritten_fragment() {
+        let entry = history();
+        let live: RoaringBitmap = [4u32, 8, 9].into_iter().collect();
+        // Provenance {1, 2} reaches F4 through F3; F6 (retired, on the
+        // unrelated F6 -> F8 lineage) is untouched and keeps the segment on
+        // the translating path, so it survives with {6}.
+        let mut indices = vec![segment(Some(&[1, 2, 6]), vec![0]), entry.clone()];
+        Transaction::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+            &mut indices,
+            Some(&lineage(&entry)),
+            &live,
+            &[(4, vec![0])],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([6u32])
+        );
+        // The entry itself is never touched.
+        assert_eq!(indices[1].fragment_bitmap, entry.fragment_bitmap);
+    }
+
+    /// The file of a segment whose retired sources were withdrawn still
+    /// holds their rows. A remainder that is live-only and unknown to the
+    /// history would be loaded as it is and serve those rows raw, so it is
+    /// withdrawn whole (the segment empties and is rebuilt).
+    #[test]
+    fn live_only_remainder_after_withdrawing_retired_sources_goes_whole() {
+        let entry = history();
+        let live: RoaringBitmap = [4u32, 8, 9].into_iter().collect();
+        let mut indices = vec![segment(Some(&[1, 2, 9]), vec![0]), entry.clone()];
+        Transaction::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+            &mut indices,
+            Some(&lineage(&entry)),
+            &live,
+            &[(4, vec![0])],
+        );
+        assert!(
+            indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "{:?}",
+            indices[0].fragment_bitmap
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A remainder the history mentions (F8 is a destination) is translated
+    /// and filtered by the reader, so partial survival is safe there.
+    #[test]
+    fn remainder_the_history_mentions_survives() {
+        let entry = history();
+        let live: RoaringBitmap = [4u32, 8, 9].into_iter().collect();
+        let mut indices = vec![segment(Some(&[1, 2, 8]), vec![0])];
+        Transaction::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+            &mut indices,
+            Some(&lineage(&entry)),
+            &live,
+            &[(4, vec![0])],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([8u32])
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Withdrawing only a live fragment (an index built after the rewrite
+    /// that produced F4) leaves the remainder alone: rows of fragments that
+    /// still exist are masked by the ordinary per-segment ownership filter.
+    #[test]
+    fn withdrawing_only_a_live_fragment_keeps_the_remainder() {
+        let entry = history();
+        let live: RoaringBitmap = [4u32, 8, 9].into_iter().collect();
+        let mut indices = vec![segment(Some(&[4, 9]), vec![0])];
+        Transaction::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+            &mut indices,
+            Some(&lineage(&entry)),
+            &live,
+            &[(4, vec![0])],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([9u32])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn mixed_provenance_loses_the_direct_id_and_the_sources() {
+        let entry = history();
+        let live: RoaringBitmap = [4u32, 8].into_iter().collect();
+        // {3} is an intermediate the merge kept beside the live F4.
+        let mut indices = vec![segment(Some(&[3, 4]), vec![0])];
+        Transaction::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+            &mut indices,
+            Some(&lineage(&entry)),
+            &live,
+            &[(4, vec![0])],
+        );
+        assert!(indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unrelated_lineage_unindexed_field_and_missing_bitmap_are_untouched() {
+        let entry = history();
+        let live: RoaringBitmap = [4u32, 8].into_iter().collect();
+        let mut indices = vec![
+            segment(Some(&[6]), vec![0]),
+            segment(Some(&[1, 2]), vec![1]),
+            segment(None, vec![0]),
+        ];
+        Transaction::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+            &mut indices,
+            Some(&lineage(&entry)),
+            &live,
+            &[(4, vec![0])],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([6u32])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices[1].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32, 2])
+        );
+        assert!(indices[2].fragment_bitmap.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn without_a_walkable_history_every_retired_fragment_goes() {
+        let entry = history();
+        let live: RoaringBitmap = [4u32, 8, 9].into_iter().collect();
+        let mut indices = vec![segment(Some(&[6, 9]), vec![0])];
+        Transaction::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+            &mut indices,
+            Some(&TaggedLineage::new(&entry, None)),
+            &live,
+            &[(4, vec![0])],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([9u32])
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/manifest_build.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/manifest_build.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5c262965304
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/manifest_build.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,6089 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Applying an operation to produce the next manifest.
+//!
+//! [`Transaction::build_manifest`] is the centre of this module and of the
+//! transaction machinery generally: given the current manifest and index list, it
+//! decides the new fragment list, the surviving indices and the next row id, then
+//! assembles the manifest. Everything else in `super` exists to serve it -- the
+//! operation vocabulary it matches on, the index rules it applies, the row version
+//! metadata it stamps, the validation that runs before it.
+
+use crate::feature_flags::{
+    FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA, FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX, FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS,
+    FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS, apply_feature_flags, ensure_can_read_manifest, ensure_can_write_manifest,
+    inherit_sticky_feature_flags,
+};
+use crate::format::overlay::{OverlayCoverage, TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID};
+use crate::format::{
+    DataFile, DataStorageFormat, Fragment, IndexMetadata, Manifest, ManifestBuildConfig, RowIdMeta,
+    overlay::DataOverlayFile,
+};
+use crate::io::{
+    commit::CommitHandler,
+    manifest::{read_manifest, read_manifest_indexes},
+};
+use crate::rowids::version::build_version_meta;
+use crate::rowids::{read_row_ids, write_row_ids};
+use crate::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::{is_tagged, validate_flags};
+use crate::system_index::frag_reuse::{FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, is_frag_reuse_index_entry};
+use crate::system_index::is_system_index;
+use crate::system_index::mem_wal::{
+    CompactedSsTable, IndexCatchupProgress, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, load_mem_wal_index_details,
+    new_mem_wal_index_meta, update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables,
+};
+use crate::transaction::UpdateMode::{RewriteColumns, RewriteRows};
+use crate::transaction::prepare::{FragReuseUpdate, PreparedIndices};
+use crate::transaction::row_version::resolve_update_version_metadata;
+use crate::transaction::update_map::apply_update_map;
+use crate::transaction::validate::merge_fragment_physically_rewritten;
+use crate::transaction::{
+    CoverageIdentity, DataReplacementGroup, LogicalIndexSegments, Operation, ReadVersionState,
+    RewriteGroup, Transaction, UpdatedFragmentOffsets,
+};
+use lance_core::datatypes::{
+    LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION, LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY,
+    LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION,
+};
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+/// Table config key that opts a table into writing clustered deletions as
+/// `Range` segments (`U64Segment::Ranges`). Set it to `true` with
+/// `update_config`.
+///
+/// Manifests written afterwards re-encode bitmap row id segments as runs of
+/// `Range` segments where that is smaller. That is the
+/// existing wire format, so any version reads the result, but a reader without
+/// the compact in-memory form handles thousands of segments per fragment
+/// slowly. That is why it is opt-in rather than the default.
+///
+/// Setting the key back to `false` only stops further conversions. Fragments
+/// already written as `Range` segments keep that encoding until something else
+/// rewrites their row ids (compaction, for example), so coordinate reader
+/// upgrades before enabling it.
+pub const RANGE_SEGMENTS_CONFIG_KEY: &str = "lance.row_ids.range_segments";
+
+fn range_segments_enabled(manifest: &Manifest) -> bool {
+    manifest
+        .config
+        .get(RANGE_SEGMENTS_CONFIG_KEY)
+        .is_some_and(|value| str_is_truthy(value))
+}
+
+/// Re-encode inline row id sequences as runs of `Range` segments when the
+/// table has opted in.
+///
+/// Fragments that the previous manifest already re-encoded are left alone
+/// (their inline bytes are the very same allocation), so a commit pays only
+/// for the fragments it changed; enabling the key re-encodes every fragment
+/// once.
+fn apply_range_segments(
+    manifest: &mut Manifest,
+    current_manifest: Option<&Manifest>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if !range_segments_enabled(manifest) {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let unchanged: HashMap<u64, *const u8> = current_manifest
+        .filter(|current| range_segments_enabled(current))
+        .map(|current| {
+            current
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|fragment| match &fragment.row_id_meta {
+                    Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => Some((fragment.id, data.as_ptr())),
+                    _ => None,
+                })
+                .collect()
+        })
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+    let fragments = Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments);
+    for fragment in fragments.iter_mut() {
+        let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragment.row_id_meta else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        if unchanged.get(&fragment.id) == Some(&data.as_ptr()) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let mut sequence = read_row_ids(&data[..])?;
+        if sequence.use_range_segments() {
+            fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&sequence).into()));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+impl Transaction {
+    pub(super) fn fragments_with_ids<'a, T>(
+        new_fragments: T,
+        fragment_id: &'a mut u64,
+    ) -> impl Iterator<Item = Fragment> + 'a
+    where
+        T: IntoIterator<Item = Fragment> + 'a,
+    {
+        new_fragments.into_iter().map(move |mut f| {
+            if f.id == 0 {
+                f.id = *fragment_id;
+                *fragment_id += 1;
+            }
+            f
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn data_storage_format_from_files(
+        fragments: &[Fragment],
+        user_requested: Option<ConcreteFileVersion>,
+    ) -> Result<DataStorageFormat> {
+        // Mixed prewritten files cannot imply a default. An explicit default
+        // takes precedence; finalization validates the referenced file versions.
+        let version = match user_requested {
+            Some(ConcreteFileVersion::V1) => {
+                // Preserve legacy creation's homogeneous-file contract.
+                if let Some(actual) = Fragment::try_infer_version(fragments)?
+                    && actual != ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "User requested data storage version ({}) does not match version in data files ({actual})",
+                        ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+                    )));
+                }
+                Some(ConcreteFileVersion::V1)
+            }
+            Some(version) => Some(version),
+            None => Fragment::try_infer_version(fragments)?,
+        };
+        Ok(version.map(DataStorageFormat::new).unwrap_or_default())
+    }
+
+    pub async fn restore_old_manifest(
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        commit_handler: &dyn CommitHandler,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        version: u64,
+        config: &ManifestBuildConfig,
+        tx_path: &str,
+        current_manifest: &Manifest,
+    ) -> Result<(Manifest, Vec<IndexMetadata>)> {
+        let location = commit_handler
+            .resolve_version_location(base_path, version, &object_store.inner)
+            .await?;
+        let mut manifest = read_manifest(object_store, &location.path, location.size).await?;
+        // This read bypasses Dataset's feature gates. Refuse unsupported target
+        // manifests before apply_feature_flags can clear their unknown bits and
+        // republish the referenced files as legacy-compatible.
+        ensure_can_read_manifest(&manifest)?;
+        ensure_can_write_manifest(&manifest)?;
+        manifest.set_timestamp(config.timestamp_nanos);
+        manifest.transaction_file = Some(tx_path.to_string());
+        let indices = read_manifest_indexes(object_store, &location, &manifest).await?;
+        validate_flags(&manifest, &indices)?;
+        manifest.max_fragment_id = manifest
+            .max_fragment_id
+            .max(current_manifest.max_fragment_id);
+        // Row ids are a high-water mark like fragment ids: rewinding hands old ids to new rows.
+        manifest.next_row_id = manifest.next_row_id.max(current_manifest.next_row_id);
+        // Turning stable row ids off would revert `_rowid` to row addresses, whose
+        // namespace overlaps the ids this table has already handed out.
+        if current_manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() && !manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Cannot restore version {version}: stable row ids were enabled \
+                 after it, and turning them back off would let row addresses \
+                 collide with ids this table has already used"
+            )));
+        }
+        inherit_sticky_feature_flags(&mut manifest, current_manifest)?;
+        Ok((manifest, indices))
+    }
+
+    /// Every non-system logical index, mapped to what determines its coverage.
+    ///
+    /// A logical index may be backed by several physical segments, so "did this
+    /// index change" is a question about the whole set. Sorted by UUID so the
+    /// two sides compare positionally.
+    pub fn logical_index_segments(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> LogicalIndexSegments {
+        let mut by_name: LogicalIndexSegments = BTreeMap::new();
+        for idx in indices.iter().filter(|idx| !is_system_index(idx)) {
+            by_name
+                .entry(idx.name.clone())
+                .or_default()
+                .push(CoverageIdentity {
+                    uuid: idx.uuid,
+                    fragment_bitmap: idx.fragment_bitmap.clone(),
+                });
+        }
+        for segments in by_name.values_mut() {
+            segments.sort_unstable_by_key(|segment| segment.uuid);
+        }
+        by_name
+    }
+
+    /// Apply MemWAL index-coverage rules once the final index list is known.
+    ///
+    /// Coverage records that a base-table index contains the rows a compaction
+    /// copied in, and the WAL pod retires SSTables against it.
+    ///
+    /// It is derived, not reported. An index covering every fragment live at the
+    /// transaction's read version holds every row compaction had copied in by
+    /// then, so it is caught up to that version's `compacted_sstables`. That is
+    /// the only proof available: nothing maps a generation to the fragments its
+    /// rows landed in, so covering the table as the transaction read it is how
+    /// an index shows it covered those rows. Fragments appended since are a
+    /// later gap.
+    ///
+    /// Deriving rather than transmitting means no claim can go stale between
+    /// inspection and commit, the answer survives rebase (`read_version` is
+    /// fixed for a transaction's life), and any operation can earn coverage --
+    /// an ordinary reindex that fully covers no longer has to throw its work
+    /// away and wait for a repair.
+    ///
+    /// Only meaningful once catch-up is required, where a missing entry means
+    /// "not caught up" and the SSTables stay. A legacy table reads a missing
+    /// entry as "fully caught up", so this leaves it untouched rather than
+    /// making the table look more covered than it is.
+    pub fn apply_mem_wal_index_coverage(
+        final_indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
+        segments_before: &LogicalIndexSegments,
+        read_version_state: Option<ReadVersionState<'_>>,
+        new_version: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let Some(pos) = final_indices
+            .iter()
+            .position(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+        else {
+            // The system index went away with this transaction (MemWAL disable,
+            // or an overwrite). There is no coverage left to maintain.
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+
+        let mut details = load_mem_wal_index_details(final_indices[pos].clone())?;
+
+        // Nothing has ever been compacted, so no index can be behind and there
+        // is no coverage to invalidate.
+        if details.compacted_sstables.is_empty() && details.index_catchup.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let segments_after = Self::logical_index_segments(final_indices);
+        let catchup_before = std::mem::take(&mut details.index_catchup);
+
+        // Per shard: what this commit records as compacted, and the most the
+        // read version may credit. Generations compacted after that read landed
+        // in fragments no index under consideration has seen; the committed
+        // value caps it in turn, so a read version since rolled back cannot
+        // retire SSTables no live commit copied in.
+        let read_details = read_version_state
+            .map(|state| {
+                state
+                    .indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .cloned()
+                    .map(load_mem_wal_index_details)
+                    .transpose()
+            })
+            .transpose()?
+            .flatten();
+        let shards: Vec<(Uuid, u64, u64)> = details
+            .compacted_sstables
+            .iter()
+            .map(|committed| {
+                let at_read = read_details
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|read| {
+                        read.compacted_sstables
+                            .iter()
+                            .find(|s| s.shard_id == committed.shard_id)
+                    })
+                    .map_or(0, |s| s.generation);
+                (
+                    committed.shard_id,
+                    committed.generation,
+                    at_read.min(committed.generation),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // Every fragment live when the transaction read the table. An index
+        // spanning all of them holds every row compacted by then.
+        let read_fragments: Option<RoaringBitmap> = read_version_state.map(|state| {
+            state
+                .manifest
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+                .collect()
+        });
+
+        let covers_read_version = |segments: &[CoverageIdentity]| -> bool {
+            let Some(required) = read_fragments.as_ref() else {
+                return false;
+            };
+            if required.is_empty() {
+                // Subset-of-empty is trivially true, so this would credit every
+                // index on a table with no fragments. Refused because an empty
+                // fragment list is not only what an emptied table looks like:
+                // it is also what a manifest written before #8438 looks like,
+                // where UpdateMemWalState published no fragments at all. On
+                // such a table the SSTables are the last copy of those rows,
+                // and crediting coverage would retire them. The cost is that a
+                // genuinely emptied table keeps its SSTables.
+                return false;
+            }
+            let mut covered = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            for segment in segments {
+                match segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() {
+                    Some(bitmap) => covered |= bitmap,
+                    // An unknown bitmap cannot be shown to cover anything.
+                    None => return false,
+                }
+            }
+            required.is_subset(&covered)
+        };
+
+        let mut rebuilt: Vec<IndexCatchupProgress> = Vec::new();
+        for (name, after) in segments_after.iter() {
+            // Compared by [`CoverageIdentity`], not segment UUID: an Update
+            // that touches an indexed field prunes a segment's fragment bitmap
+            // in place while keeping its UUID, so a UUID-only comparison would
+            // carry a position forward that the index no longer earns.
+            let unchanged = segments_before.get(name) == Some(after);
+            let carried = unchanged
+                .then(|| catchup_before.iter().find(|e| e.index_name == *name))
+                .flatten();
+            let proven = covers_read_version(after);
+
+            if carried.is_none() && !proven {
+                // Changed, and nothing shows the new index covers the read
+                // version. No entry: a missing one reads as "not caught up".
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let generations = shards
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&(shard_id, committed, creditable)| {
+                    let prior = carried
+                        .and_then(|entry| entry.caught_up_generation_for_shard(&shard_id))
+                        .unwrap_or(0);
+                    let credited = if proven { creditable } else { 0 };
+                    // Takes the better of what this commit proves and what an
+                    // unchanged index already held, so a commit reading an older
+                    // version does not lower a position it cannot re-prove. The
+                    // clamp is the exception: a position above what this commit
+                    // records as compacted describes rows no live commit copied
+                    // in.
+                    CompactedSsTable::new(shard_id, prior.max(credited).min(committed))
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            if generations.iter().all(|g| g.generation == 0) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            rebuilt.push(IndexCatchupProgress::new(name.clone(), generations));
+        }
+        rebuilt.sort_by(|a, b| a.index_name.cmp(&b.index_name));
+
+        let mut before_sorted = catchup_before;
+        before_sorted.sort_by(|a, b| a.index_name.cmp(&b.index_name));
+        if rebuilt == before_sorted {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let dropped: Vec<&str> = before_sorted
+            .iter()
+            .map(|e| e.index_name.as_str())
+            .filter(|name| !rebuilt.iter().any(|kept| kept.index_name == *name))
+            .collect();
+        if !dropped.is_empty() {
+            // The first thing to check when SSTables stop becoming trimmable.
+            log::info!(
+                "MemWAL index catch-up invalidated at version {new_version} for {dropped:?}: \
+                 these indices changed and no longer cover the version this commit read"
+            );
+        }
+
+        details.index_catchup = rebuilt;
+        final_indices[pos] = new_mem_wal_index_meta(new_version, details)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Drop coverage for indices a post-`build_manifest` step narrowed.
+    ///
+    /// The derivation runs while the manifest is being built, but the index list
+    /// is not final there: `migrate_indices` can recalculate a segment's
+    /// fragment bitmap and keep its UUID, so an index can narrow after its
+    /// position was decided. It reports which ones it touched rather than the
+    /// caller re-snapshotting every bitmap to find out. Only ever removes.
+    pub fn withdraw_coverage_invalidated_after_build(
+        indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
+        changed: &[String],
+        new_version: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if changed.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let Some(pos) = indices
+            .iter()
+            .position(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+        else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let mut details = load_mem_wal_index_details(indices[pos].clone())?;
+        let before = details.index_catchup.len();
+        details
+            .index_catchup
+            .retain(|entry| !changed.contains(&entry.index_name));
+        if details.index_catchup.len() == before {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        log::info!(
+            "MemWAL index catch-up withdrawn at version {new_version} for {changed:?}: \
+             these indices were recalculated after their coverage was derived"
+        );
+        indices[pos] = new_mem_wal_index_meta(new_version, details)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Step one of a commit attempt: what the operation settles about the
+    /// index list, computed against the manifest current at the attempt.
+    ///
+    /// Runs the tagged-table write gate (`system_index::frag_reuse::gate`)
+    /// before anything is derived, keeps `current_indices` as the original
+    /// list, and derives the prepared list: on an in-place column rewrite
+    /// (an update with `fields_modified`, a merge swapping a column's data
+    /// file, a data replacement) the coverage it invalidates is withdrawn
+    /// along a tagged fragment reuse history or pruned by fragment id on any
+    /// other table (`withdraw_in_place_rewrites`). Every other operation
+    /// prepares the list unchanged; `Restore` never reaches the builder and
+    /// restores its snapshot's list whole.
+    ///
+    /// `frag_reuse_ledger` is the decoded history of the current entry when
+    /// the caller read it (the commit path decodes it once per attempt for
+    /// the operations above); without it an inline history is decoded from
+    /// the entry and an external one is refused, so a commit never guesses
+    /// at the lineage. A history that does not decode is an error, never
+    /// treated as "no lineage". `frag_reuse` is what the commit path settled
+    /// about the entry itself.
+    pub fn prepare_indices(
+        &self,
+        current_manifest: Option<&Manifest>,
+        current_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        config: &ManifestBuildConfig,
+        frag_reuse_ledger: Option<Arc<crate::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger>>,
+        frag_reuse: FragReuseUpdate,
+    ) -> Result<PreparedIndices> {
+        crate::system_index::frag_reuse::gate::classify(
+            &self.operation,
+            current_manifest,
+            &current_indices,
+            &frag_reuse,
+            config.migration_next_row_id,
+        )?;
+        let mut prepared = current_indices.clone();
+        if let Some(manifest) = current_manifest {
+            let rewrites = Self::rewritten_physical_columns(
+                &self.operation,
+                &manifest.schema,
+                &manifest.fragments,
+            );
+            if !rewrites.is_empty() {
+                let lineage =
+                    crate::system_index::frag_reuse::lineage::TaggedLineage::from_indices_with_ledger(
+                        &current_indices,
+                        frag_reuse_ledger,
+                    )?;
+                let live: RoaringBitmap = manifest
+                    .fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter_map(|fragment| u32::try_from(fragment.id).ok())
+                    .collect();
+                Self::withdraw_in_place_rewrites(
+                    &mut prepared,
+                    rewrites,
+                    &manifest.schema,
+                    &live,
+                    lineage.as_ref(),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(PreparedIndices::new(
+            current_manifest.map(|manifest| manifest.version),
+            current_indices,
+            prepared,
+            frag_reuse,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new manifest from the current manifest and the transaction.
+    ///
+    /// `current_manifest` should only be None if the dataset does not yet exist.
+    pub fn build_manifest(
+        &self,
+        current_manifest: Option<&Manifest>,
+        current_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        transaction_file_path: &str,
+        config: &ManifestBuildConfig,
+    ) -> Result<(Manifest, Vec<IndexMetadata>)> {
+        self.build_manifest_with_read_version(
+            current_manifest,
+            current_indices,
+            transaction_file_path,
+            config,
+            None,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::build_manifest`] with the version this transaction read.
+    ///
+    /// Supplied by the commit path, which already materializes that version.
+    /// `None` where there is none to read -- dataset creation and detached
+    /// commits -- in which case no index can be shown to cover it and coverage
+    /// is left as the invalidation rules put it.
+    ///
+    /// Prepares the index list itself with nothing settled about the
+    /// fragment reuse entry and no history read, so it stays safe on its
+    /// own: a tagged entry on a `Rewrite` or a `CreateIndex` touching a
+    /// tagged entry is refused, an inline history is decoded from the entry
+    /// and an external one is refused. The commit path prepares first
+    /// (`prepare_indices`) and builds with `build_manifest_prepared`.
+    pub fn build_manifest_with_read_version(
+        &self,
+        current_manifest: Option<&Manifest>,
+        current_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        transaction_file_path: &str,
+        config: &ManifestBuildConfig,
+        read_version_state: Option<ReadVersionState<'_>>,
+    ) -> Result<(Manifest, Vec<IndexMetadata>)> {
+        let prepared = self.prepare_indices(
+            current_manifest,
+            current_indices,
+            config,
+            None,
+            FragReuseUpdate::None,
+        )?;
+        self.build_manifest_prepared(
+            current_manifest,
+            prepared,
+            transaction_file_path,
+            config,
+            read_version_state,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Build the next manifest from a prepared index list
+    /// (`prepare_indices`): the builder applies the operation to the
+    /// prepared list and publishes only the final list; the original list
+    /// is what MemWAL coverage is compared against. The prepared result must
+    /// have been derived against `current_manifest`.
+    pub fn build_manifest_prepared(
+        &self,
+        current_manifest: Option<&Manifest>,
+        prepared: PreparedIndices,
+        transaction_file_path: &str,
+        config: &ManifestBuildConfig,
+        read_version_state: Option<ReadVersionState<'_>>,
+    ) -> Result<(Manifest, Vec<IndexMetadata>)> {
+        if prepared.manifest_version() != current_manifest.map(|manifest| manifest.version) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "the index list was prepared against manifest version {:?} but the manifest \
+                 being built on is at version {:?}; every commit attempt prepares against the \
+                 manifest it builds on",
+                prepared.manifest_version(),
+                current_manifest.map(|manifest| manifest.version)
+            )));
+        }
+        // The tagged-table write gate, run again at this chokepoint (it is
+        // pure) so a build cannot skip it whatever prepared the list.
+        crate::system_index::frag_reuse::gate::classify(
+            &self.operation,
+            current_manifest,
+            prepared.original(),
+            prepared.frag_reuse_update(),
+            config.migration_next_row_id,
+        )?;
+        let (original_indices, prepared_indices, frag_reuse) = prepared.into_parts();
+        if config.use_stable_row_ids
+            && config.migration_next_row_id.is_none()
+            && current_manifest
+                .map(|m| !m.uses_stable_row_ids())
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "This dataset was not created with the stable row ids feature.  Please run `migrate_to_stable_row_ids` before attempting to use stable row ids".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // The fragment-reuse index is internal bookkeeping registered by
+        // compaction with deferred index remap, not something a user can
+        // meaningfully drop and recreate, so it must not gate the migration.
+        // It is dropped from the migrated manifest below, which is what makes
+        // ignoring it here safe. Every other index, including the MemWAL
+        // index, still blocks: only the fragment-reuse index is known to be
+        // discardable.
+        let blocking_indices: Vec<&str> = original_indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .map(|idx| idx.name.as_str())
+            .collect();
+        if config.migration_next_row_id.is_some() && !blocking_indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Cannot migrate to stable row IDs while indexes exist on the dataset. \
+                 Drop the following indexes first, then re-run the migration, and \
+                 recreate them afterwards: {}",
+                blocking_indices.join(", ")
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut reference_paths = match current_manifest {
+            Some(m) => m.base_paths.clone(),
+            None => HashMap::new(),
+        };
+
+        if let Operation::Overwrite {
+            initial_bases: Some(initial_bases),
+            ..
+        } = &self.operation
+        {
+            if current_manifest.is_none() {
+                // CREATE mode: registering base paths
+                // Base IDs should have been assigned during write operation
+                // Validate uniqueness and insert them into the manifest
+                for base_path in initial_bases.iter() {
+                    if reference_paths.contains_key(&base_path.id) {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Duplicate base path ID {} detected. Base path IDs must be unique.",
+                            base_path.id
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    reference_paths.insert(base_path.id, base_path.clone());
+                }
+            } else {
+                // OVERWRITE mode with initial_bases should have been rejected by validation
+                // This branch should never be reached
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "OVERWRITE mode cannot register new bases. This should have been caught by validation.",
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Get the schema and the final fragment list
+        let mut schema = match self.operation {
+            Operation::Overwrite { ref schema, .. } => schema.clone(),
+            Operation::Merge { ref schema, .. } => schema.clone(),
+            Operation::Project { ref schema, .. } => schema.clone(),
+            _ => {
+                if let Some(current_manifest) = current_manifest {
+                    current_manifest.schema.clone()
+                } else {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(
+                        "Cannot create a new dataset without a schema".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Fragment ids are a high water mark for the whole dataset history: an id
+        // must never name two different sets of rows, or per-fragment state keyed
+        // by id (caches, deletion files, row addresses) can be attributed to the
+        // wrong rows.
+        let mut fragment_id = current_manifest
+            .and_then(|m| m.max_fragment_id())
+            .map(|id| id + 1)
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        let mut final_fragments = Vec::new();
+        let mut final_indices = prepared_indices;
+
+        // Release builds refuse to publish a stable-row-id dataset with a fragment
+        // reuse index, and nothing needs it: compaction rejects deferred index
+        // remap there.
+        if config.migration_next_row_id.is_some() {
+            final_indices.retain(|idx| idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        }
+
+        // The original list, as read from the current manifest and before
+        // any preparation, so coverage can be compared against what each
+        // logical index looked like going in. Only tables with a MemWAL
+        // index maintain coverage, so every other commit -- and the segment
+        // clones this costs -- pays nothing.
+        let mem_wal_segments_before = original_indices
+            .iter()
+            .any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+            .then(|| Self::logical_index_segments(&original_indices));
+        drop(original_indices);
+
+        let mut next_row_id = {
+            // Only use row ids if the feature flag is set already, or this is
+            // a migration activation that explicitly provides the next_row_id.
+            match (current_manifest, config.use_stable_row_ids) {
+                (Some(manifest), _) if manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS != 0 => {
+                    Some(manifest.next_row_id)
+                }
+                (None, true) => Some(0),
+                (_, false) => None,
+                (Some(_), true) => {
+                    // Migration activation: use the provided next_row_id.
+                    if let Some(migration_nri) = config.migration_next_row_id {
+                        Some(migration_nri)
+                    } else {
+                        return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                            "This dataset was not created with the stable row ids feature.  Please run `migrate_to_stable_row_ids` before attempting to use stable row ids".into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        };
+
+        let maybe_existing_fragments =
+            current_manifest
+                .map(|m| m.fragments.as_ref())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "No current manifest was provided while building manifest for operation {}",
+                        self.operation.name()
+                    ))
+                });
+
+        let new_version = current_manifest.map_or(1, |m| m.version + 1);
+
+        match &self.operation {
+            Operation::Clone { .. } => {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "Clone operation should not enter build_manifest.".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "Transaction {} has an operation written by a newer version of Lance \
+                     and cannot be committed by this version",
+                    self.uuid
+                )));
+            }
+            Operation::Append { fragments } => {
+                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
+                let mut new_fragments =
+                    Self::fragments_with_ids(fragments.clone(), &mut fragment_id)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                if let Some(next_row_id) = &mut next_row_id {
+                    Self::assign_row_ids(next_row_id, new_fragments.as_mut_slice())?;
+                    // Add version metadata for all new fragments
+                    for fragment in new_fragments.iter_mut() {
+                        let version_meta = build_version_meta(fragment, new_version);
+                        fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = version_meta.clone();
+                        fragment.created_at_version_meta = version_meta;
+                    }
+                }
+                final_fragments.extend(new_fragments);
+            }
+            Operation::Delete {
+                updated_fragments,
+                deleted_fragment_ids,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                // Remove the deleted fragments
+                // Hash lookups keep this linear on tables with many fragments.
+                let deleted_ids: HashSet<u64> = deleted_fragment_ids.iter().copied().collect();
+                let updated_by_id: HashMap<u64, &Fragment> =
+                    updated_fragments.iter().map(|f| (f.id, f)).collect();
+                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
+                final_fragments.retain(|f| !deleted_ids.contains(&f.id));
+                final_fragments.iter_mut().for_each(|f| {
+                    if let Some(updated) = updated_by_id.get(&f.id) {
+                        // The post-image was built at the transaction's read
+                        // version. Only its deletion file is new; retain all
+                        // other state from the current fragment when rebasing.
+                        f.deletion_file = updated.deletion_file.clone();
+                    }
+                });
+                Self::retain_relevant_indices(&mut final_indices, &schema, &final_fragments)
+            }
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids,
+                updated_fragments,
+                new_fragments,
+                fields_modified,
+                compacted_sstables,
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
+                update_mode,
+                updated_fragment_offsets,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                // Extract existing fragments once for reuse
+                let existing_fragments = maybe_existing_fragments?;
+
+                // Apply updates to existing fragments
+                // Hash lookups keep this linear on tables with many fragments.
+                let removed_ids: HashSet<u64> = removed_fragment_ids.iter().copied().collect();
+                let mut updated_by_id: HashMap<u64, &Fragment> =
+                    HashMap::with_capacity(updated_fragments.len());
+                for fragment in updated_fragments {
+                    updated_by_id.entry(fragment.id).or_insert(fragment);
+                }
+                let live_field_ids = schema
+                    .fields_pre_order()
+                    .map(|field| field.id)
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                let updated_frags: Vec<Fragment> = existing_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter_map(|f| {
+                        if removed_ids.contains(&f.id) {
+                            return None;
+                        }
+                        if let Some(&updated) = updated_by_id.get(&f.id) {
+                            let mut updated = updated.clone();
+                            // Carry forward the fragment's current overlays (which
+                            // may include ones added by a concurrent commit). An
+                            // in-place column rewrite then tombstones the overlaid
+                            // fields it rewrote, since the fresh base values
+                            // supersede them.
+                            updated.overlays = f.overlays.clone();
+                            // A concurrent Project may have pruned files from the
+                            // current fragment after this post-image was staged.
+                            // Spilled lineage fields are absent from the schema,
+                            // but their carriers must survive just as in Project.
+                            let spilled = updated.spilled_row_lineage_field_ids();
+                            updated.files.retain(|file| {
+                                file.fields.iter().any(|field_id| {
+                                    live_field_ids.contains(field_id) || spilled.contains(field_id)
+                                })
+                            });
+                            if matches!(update_mode, Some(RewriteColumns)) {
+                                crate::format::overlay::tombstone_overlay_fields(
+                                    &mut updated.overlays,
+                                    fields_modified,
+                                );
+                            }
+                            Some(updated)
+                        } else {
+                            Some(f.clone())
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+
+                // Update version metadata for updated fragments if stable row IDs are enabled
+                // Note: We don't update version metadata for fragments with deletion vectors
+                // because the version sequences are indexed by physical row position, not logical position.
+                // Version metadata for deleted rows will be filtered out during scan using the deletion vector.
+                if next_row_id.is_some() {
+                    // Version metadata will be properly set during compaction when deletions are materialized
+                }
+
+                final_fragments.extend(updated_frags);
+
+                if next_row_id.is_some()
+                    && matches!(update_mode, Some(RewriteColumns))
+                    && let Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(off_map)) = updated_fragment_offsets
+                    && !off_map.is_empty()
+                {
+                    let prev_version = current_manifest.map(|m| m.version).unwrap_or(0);
+                    for fragment in final_fragments.iter_mut() {
+                        let Some(bitmap) = off_map.get(&fragment.id) else {
+                            continue;
+                        };
+                        // Defense-in-depth: only stamp fragments that were actually
+                        // rewritten. validate_operation enforces this invariant before
+                        // build_manifest is called; this guard catches any path that
+                        // bypasses validation.
+                        if !updated_by_id.contains_key(&fragment.id) {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        if bitmap.is_empty() {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        // Skip fragments with no existing version metadata: the helper
+                        // would fill unmatched rows with prev_version, fabricating a
+                        // last_updated stamp for rows that never had one.
+                        if fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta.is_none() {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        let max_allowed = existing_fragments
+                            .iter()
+                            .find(|f| f.id == fragment.id)
+                            .and_then(|f| f.physical_rows)
+                            .unwrap_or(1 << 24);
+                        if bitmap.len() as usize > max_allowed {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "updatedFragmentOffsets cardinality {} exceeds fragment {} limit {}",
+                                bitmap.len(),
+                                fragment.id,
+                                max_allowed
+                            )));
+                        }
+                        if let Some(max_off) = bitmap.max()
+                            && max_off as usize >= max_allowed
+                        {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "updatedFragmentOffsets max offset {} exceeds fragment {} limit {}",
+                                max_off, fragment.id, max_allowed
+                            )));
+                        }
+                        let offsets: Vec<usize> = bitmap.iter().map(|o| o as usize).collect();
+                        crate::rowids::version::refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_partial_frag_rewrite_cols(
+                            fragment,
+                            &offsets,
+                            new_version,
+                            prev_version,
+                            &config.spilled_row_lineage,
+                        )?;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // The fragments whose indexed fields were rewritten were
+                // withdrawn from their indices by `prepare_indices`.
+
+                let mut new_fragments =
+                    Self::fragments_with_ids(new_fragments.clone(), &mut fragment_id)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                // New fragments were staged against the same pre-Project schema.
+                for fragment in &mut new_fragments {
+                    let spilled = fragment.spilled_row_lineage_field_ids();
+                    fragment.files.retain(|file| {
+                        file.fields.iter().any(|field_id| {
+                            live_field_ids.contains(field_id) || spilled.contains(field_id)
+                        })
+                    });
+                }
+
+                // Assign row IDs to any fragments that don't have them yet
+                // (e.g., inserted rows from merge_insert operations)
+                if let Some(next_row_id) = &mut next_row_id {
+                    Self::assign_row_ids(next_row_id, new_fragments.as_mut_slice())?;
+                }
+
+                if next_row_id.is_some() {
+                    resolve_update_version_metadata(
+                        existing_fragments,
+                        new_fragments.as_mut_slice(),
+                        new_version,
+                        &config.spilled_row_lineage,
+                    )?;
+                }
+
+                if config.use_stable_row_ids
+                    && update_mode.is_some()
+                    && *update_mode == Some(RewriteRows)
+                {
+                    let pure_updated_frag_ids =
+                        Self::collect_pure_rewrite_row_update_frags_ids(&new_fragments)?;
+
+                    // collect all the original frag ids that contains the updated rows
+                    let original_fragment_ids: Vec<u64> = removed_fragment_ids
+                        .iter()
+                        .chain(updated_fragments.iter().map(|f| &f.id))
+                        .copied()
+                        .collect();
+
+                    // The original fragments that carried an overlay: their moved rows may have a
+                    // stale index entry (see `register_pure_rewrite_rows_update_frags_in_indices`).
+                    // Reuse the hash lookups built above instead of scanning
+                    // `original_fragment_ids` per fragment.
+                    let original_overlaid_frags: HashMap<u32, &Fragment> = existing_fragments
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter(|f| {
+                            (removed_ids.contains(&f.id) || updated_by_id.contains_key(&f.id))
+                                && !f.overlays.is_empty()
+                        })
+                        .map(|f| (f.id as u32, f))
+                        .collect();
+
+                    Self::register_pure_rewrite_rows_update_frags_in_indices(
+                        &mut final_indices,
+                        &pure_updated_frag_ids,
+                        &original_fragment_ids,
+                        fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
+                        &original_overlaid_frags,
+                        &schema,
+                    )?;
+                }
+
+                if let Some(next_row_id) = &mut next_row_id {
+                    Self::assign_row_ids(next_row_id, new_fragments.as_mut_slice())?;
+                    // Note: Version metadata is already set above (lines 1627-1755)
+                    // for Update operations, preserving created_at from original fragments.
+                    // Don't overwrite it here.
+                }
+                // Identify fragments that were updated or newly created in this update
+                let mut target_ids: HashSet<u64> = HashSet::new();
+                target_ids.extend(new_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id));
+                final_fragments.extend(new_fragments);
+                Self::retain_relevant_indices(&mut final_indices, &schema, &final_fragments);
+
+                if !compacted_sstables.is_empty() {
+                    update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
+                        &mut final_indices,
+                        new_version,
+                        compacted_sstables.clone(),
+                    )?;
+                }
+            }
+            Operation::Overwrite { fragments, .. } => {
+                // Every fragment in an overwrite is newly written, so all of them
+                // take fresh ids regardless of the id they arrive with. Fragments
+                // carried over from the dataset being replaced are rejected by
+                // `validate_operation`, which is what makes ignoring the incoming
+                // id safe here.
+                let mut new_fragments = fragments.clone();
+                for fragment in new_fragments.iter_mut() {
+                    fragment.id = fragment_id;
+                    fragment_id += 1;
+                }
+                if let Some(next_row_id) = &mut next_row_id {
+                    Self::assign_row_ids(next_row_id, new_fragments.as_mut_slice())?;
+                    // Add version metadata for all new fragments
+                    for fragment in new_fragments.iter_mut() {
+                        let version_meta = build_version_meta(fragment, new_version);
+                        fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = version_meta.clone();
+                        fragment.created_at_version_meta = version_meta;
+                    }
+                }
+                final_fragments.extend(new_fragments);
+                final_indices = Vec::new();
+            }
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups,
+                rewritten_indices,
+                frag_reuse_index,
+            } => {
+                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
+                let current_version = current_manifest.map(|m| m.version).unwrap_or_default();
+                Self::handle_rewrite_fragments(
+                    &mut final_fragments,
+                    groups,
+                    &mut fragment_id,
+                    current_version,
+                    next_row_id.as_ref(),
+                )?;
+
+                // Groups covered by the stable-partition transitions
+                // redistribute rows across their destinations, so index
+                // bitmaps must not follow them: the retired source ids stay
+                // in the bitmaps as provenance and the tagged fragment reuse
+                // entry records the row-level translation. Only the
+                // order-preserving groups take part in bitmap maintenance
+                // below.
+                let assembly = match &frag_reuse {
+                    FragReuseUpdate::Rewrite(assembly) => Some(assembly.as_ref()),
+                    _ => None,
+                };
+                let ordered_groups = Self::ordered_rewrite_groups(
+                    groups,
+                    assembly.map(|assembly| &assembly.reordered_sources),
+                )?;
+
+                if next_row_id.is_some() {
+                    // We can re-use indices, but need to rewrite the fragment bitmaps
+                    debug_assert!(rewritten_indices.is_empty());
+                    // If there is an FRI and the index uses addresses then we can
+                    // migrate fragment support.
+                    //
+                    // If there is an FRI and the index uses row ids (this is getting phased
+                    // out) then we can migrate fragment support without need for remap.
+                    let deferred_remap = frag_reuse_index.is_some();
+                    for index in final_indices.iter_mut() {
+                        // Its bitmap is lineage, not coverage, and a straddling
+                        // group would fail the recalculation.
+                        if is_frag_reuse_index_entry(index) {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        let results_are_row_addrs = index.results_are_row_addrs();
+                        if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = &mut index.fragment_bitmap {
+                            *fragment_bitmap = if results_are_row_addrs && !deferred_remap {
+                                // Stable row ids survive a rewrite, so a row-id-domain index
+                                // can simply follow its data to the new fragments. An
+                                // address-domain index cannot: its stored addresses point into
+                                // the fragments the rewrite dropped. Claiming coverage of the
+                                // new fragments would make it answer queries with addresses
+                                // that no longer resolve, so drop the rewritten fragments from
+                                // its coverage instead and let the scanner fall back to a full
+                                // scan for them.
+                                Self::drop_rewritten_fragments(fragment_bitmap, &ordered_groups)
+                            } else {
+                                Self::recalculate_fragment_bitmap(fragment_bitmap, &ordered_groups)?
+                            };
+                        }
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    Self::handle_rewrite_indices(
+                        &mut final_indices,
+                        rewritten_indices,
+                        &ordered_groups,
+                    )?;
+                }
+
+                // A full compaction materializes a fragment's overlays into fresh
+                // base data. Any index older than one of those overlays was built on
+                // the pre-overlay values, so drop the rewritten fragment from its
+                // coverage to keep it from serving stale values.
+                Self::prune_overlay_stale_fields_from_indices(&mut final_indices, groups);
+
+                match (frag_reuse_index, assembly) {
+                    // Tagged history: splice the entry the commit path
+                    // assembled against the current manifest, never the
+                    // operation's own entry (the caller's intent, which the
+                    // assembly merged and validated).
+                    (_, Some(assembly)) => {
+                        // A consistency check on the assembly, not the
+                        // concurrency protection. Concurrent rewrites are
+                        // handled by the commit path, which re-assembles the
+                        // entry against the latest manifest on every attempt
+                        // and commits with compare-and-swap, so an assembly
+                        // built on a stale entry never reaches this splice
+                        // through that path. What this refuses is an
+                        // assembled entry whose recorded base is not the
+                        // entry in the manifest being built (an entry
+                        // assembled by hand, or carried over from another
+                        // base): splicing it would replace the transitions
+                        // that entry already holds.
+                        let existing_version = final_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                            .map(|idx| idx.dataset_version);
+                        if existing_version != assembly.base_entry_version {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "the {} index entry in this manifest is at version {:?} but the \
+                                 rewrite's entry was assembled against version {:?}; rebuild it \
+                                 through the lance commit path, which assembles the entry against \
+                                 the manifest it commits to",
+                                FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME,
+                                existing_version,
+                                assembly.base_entry_version,
+                            )));
+                        }
+                        final_indices.retain(|idx| idx.name != assembly.entry.name);
+                        final_indices.push(assembly.entry.clone());
+                    }
+                    // v0 snapshot: splice verbatim, byte-identical to the
+                    // historical behavior. The chokepoint above already
+                    // rejected tagged snapshots.
+                    (Some(entry), None) => {
+                        final_indices.retain(|idx| idx.name != entry.name);
+                        final_indices.push(entry.clone());
+                    }
+                    (None, None) => {}
+                }
+            }
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
+                let removed_uuids = removed_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|old_index| old_index.uuid)
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                let new_uuids = new_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|new_index| new_index.uuid)
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                final_indices.retain(|existing_index| {
+                    !removed_uuids.contains(&existing_index.uuid)
+                        && !new_uuids.contains(&existing_index.uuid)
+                });
+                for new_index in new_indices {
+                    new_index.validate_covering_fields()?;
+                }
+                final_indices.extend(new_indices.clone());
+            }
+            Operation::ReserveFragments { .. } | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. } => {
+                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
+            }
+            Operation::Merge { fragments, .. } => {
+                let existing_fragments = maybe_existing_fragments?;
+                let mut merged_fragments = fragments.clone();
+
+                // For each previous id, the first occurrence in the list is the
+                // merged existing fragment; everything else is new (staged
+                // write_fragments output arrives with placeholder id 0, colliding
+                // with real fragment 0). merge_fragments_valid enforces this rule.
+                let prev_by_id: HashMap<u64, &Fragment> =
+                    existing_fragments.iter().map(|f| (f.id, f)).collect();
+                let mut seen_prev_ids = HashSet::new();
+                let is_new = merged_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| !prev_by_id.contains_key(&f.id) || !seen_prev_ids.insert(f.id))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+                // New fragments get Append's treatment: id assignment (0 means
+                // unassigned, non-zero pre-reserved) and, with stable row ids,
+                // row ids plus fresh version metadata.
+                for (fragment, is_new) in merged_fragments.iter_mut().zip(is_new.iter()) {
+                    if !*is_new {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    // Caller-supplied row ids are never checked against live
+                    // fragments or next_row_id, so keeping them could commit
+                    // duplicate or unallocated stable row ids.
+                    if fragment.row_id_meta.is_some() {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Merge operation includes new fragment (id {}) with row id \
+                             metadata. New fragments must not carry row ids; they are \
+                             assigned at commit time.",
+                            fragment.id
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    if fragment.id == 0 {
+                        fragment.id = fragment_id;
+                        fragment_id += 1;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                if let Some(next_row_id) = &mut next_row_id {
+                    for (fragment, is_new) in merged_fragments.iter_mut().zip(is_new.iter()) {
+                        if *is_new {
+                            Self::assign_row_ids(next_row_id, std::slice::from_mut(fragment))?;
+                            let version_meta = build_version_meta(fragment, new_version);
+                            fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = version_meta.clone();
+                            fragment.created_at_version_meta = version_meta;
+                        } else if let Some(prev) = prev_by_id.get(&fragment.id)
+                            && merge_fragment_physically_rewritten(prev, fragment)
+                        {
+                            crate::rowids::version::refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_full_frag_rewrite_cols(
+                                fragment,
+                                new_version,
+                            )?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                let remaining_field_ids = schema.field_ids().into_iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                Self::retain_relevant_overlays(&mut merged_fragments, &remaining_field_ids);
+                final_fragments.extend(merged_fragments);
+
+                // A Merge can rewrite a column's data file in place; the field stays
+                // in the schema, so the index is retained. Its now-stale coverage of
+                // the rewritten fragments was withdrawn by `prepare_indices`.
+
+                // Some fields that have indices may have been removed, so we should
+                // remove those indices as well.
+                Self::retain_relevant_indices(&mut final_indices, &schema, &final_fragments)
+            }
+            Operation::Project { .. } => {
+                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
+
+                // We might have removed all fields for certain data files, so
+                // we should remove the data files that are no longer relevant.
+                // A file carrying a spilled row lineage sequence stays: its
+                // reserved ids are never in the schema, and it is the only copy.
+                let remaining_field_ids = schema
+                    .fields_pre_order()
+                    .map(|f| f.id)
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                for fragment in final_fragments.iter_mut() {
+                    let spilled = fragment.spilled_row_lineage_field_ids();
+                    fragment.files.retain(|file| {
+                        file.fields.iter().any(|field_id| {
+                            remaining_field_ids.contains(field_id) || spilled.contains(field_id)
+                        })
+                    });
+                }
+                Self::retain_relevant_overlays(&mut final_fragments, &remaining_field_ids);
+
+                // Some fields that have indices may have been removed, so we should
+                // remove those indices as well.
+                Self::retain_relevant_indices(&mut final_indices, &schema, &final_fragments)
+            }
+            Operation::Restore { .. } => {
+                unreachable!()
+            }
+            Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Building manifest with DataReplacement operation. This operation is not stable yet, please use with caution."
+                );
+
+                let (old_fragment_ids, new_datafiles): (Vec<&u64>, Vec<&DataFile>) = replacements
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|DataReplacementGroup(fragment_id, new_file)| (fragment_id, new_file))
+                    .unzip();
+
+                // 1. make sure the new files all have the same fields / or empty
+                // NOTE: arguably this requirement could be relaxed in the future
+                // for the sake of simplicity, we require the new files to have the same fields
+                if new_datafiles
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.fields.clone())
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>()
+                    .len()
+                    > 1
+                {
+                    let field_info = new_datafiles
+                        .iter()
+                        .enumerate()
+                        .map(|(id, f)| (id, f.fields.clone()))
+                        .fold("".to_string(), |acc, (id, fields)| {
+                            format!("{}File {}: {:?}\n", acc, id, fields)
+                        });
+
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "All new data files must have the same fields, but found different fields:\n{field_info}"
+                    )));
+                }
+
+                let existing_fragments = maybe_existing_fragments?;
+
+                // Collect replaced field IDs before consuming new_datafiles
+                let replaced_fields: Vec<u32> = new_datafiles
+                    .first()
+                    .map(|f| {
+                        f.schema(&schema)
+                            .field_ids()
+                            .iter()
+                            .chain(f.fields.iter())
+                            .filter(|&&id| id >= 0)
+                            .map(|&id| id as u32)
+                            .collect()
+                    })
+                    .unwrap_or_default();
+
+                // 2. check that the fragments being modified have isomorphic layouts along the columns being replaced
+                // 3. add modified fragments to final_fragments
+                for (frag_id, new_file) in old_fragment_ids.iter().zip(new_datafiles) {
+                    let frag = existing_fragments
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|f| f.id == **frag_id)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input(
+                                "Fragment being replaced not found in existing fragments",
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                    let mut new_frag = frag.clone();
+
+                    // Physical mappings differ across V2 encodings (a nested
+                    // parent may have no column of its own). Replacement and
+                    // tombstoning operate on the logical field coverage.
+                    let replacement_ids = new_file
+                        .schema(&schema)
+                        .field_ids()
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .chain(new_file.fields.iter().copied())
+                        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+
+                    // TODO(rmeng): check new file and fragment are the same length
+
+                    let mut columns_covered = HashSet::new();
+                    // Set when an existing file covers exactly the replaced
+                    // fields, so the whole file swaps rather than part of it.
+                    let mut replaced_in_place = false;
+                    for file in &mut new_frag.files {
+                        if file.fields == new_file.fields
+                            && file.file_major_version == new_file.file_major_version
+                            && file.file_minor_version == new_file.file_minor_version
+                        {
+                            // assign the new file path / size / base to the fragment
+                            file.path = new_file.path.clone();
+                            file.file_size_bytes = new_file.file_size_bytes.clone();
+                            file.base_id = new_file.base_id;
+                            replaced_in_place = true;
+                        }
+                        columns_covered.extend(file.schema(&schema).field_ids());
+                        columns_covered.extend(file.fields.iter().copied());
+                    }
+                    // Reject a file whose version does not decode before any
+                    // arm publishes it.
+                    new_file.file_version()?;
+
+                    // SPECIAL CASE: if the column(s) being replaced are not covered by the fragment
+                    // Then it means it's a all-NULL column that is being replaced with real data
+                    // just add it to the final fragments. Push the DataFile as
+                    // given so every field (including base_id) is preserved.
+                    if columns_covered.is_disjoint(&replacement_ids) {
+                        new_frag.files.push(new_file.clone());
+                    } else if !replaced_in_place
+                        && replacement_ids.is_subset(&columns_covered)
+                        && new_frag.files.iter().all(|file| {
+                            file.file_version()
+                                .is_ok_and(|version| version != ConcreteFileVersion::V1)
+                                || file
+                                    .fields
+                                    .iter()
+                                    .all(|field| !replacement_ids.contains(field))
+                        })
+                    {
+                        // Tombstone the replaced fields where they live and
+                        // append the new file to answer for them, the idiom
+                        // `update_columns` uses. Compaction decides that layout,
+                        // so the fields may sit in one wider file or span
+                        // several.
+                        //
+                        // Legacy V1 is excluded: its reader derives the page table
+                        // offset from the first field in the metadata, so
+                        // tombstoning one field leaves its siblings decoding from
+                        // the wrong pages. A field a V1 file covers keeps
+                        // exact-match replacement.
+                        for file in &mut new_frag.files {
+                            // Same reason as the guard above.
+                            if file.file_version()? == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+                                continue;
+                            }
+                            file.fields = file
+                                .fields
+                                .iter()
+                                .map(|field| {
+                                    if replacement_ids.contains(field) {
+                                        TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID
+                                    } else {
+                                        *field
+                                    }
+                                })
+                                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                                .into();
+                        }
+                        // Every data file must share at least one field with
+                        // the dataset schema: a file kept alive only by
+                        // tombstones or by ids the schema no longer defines is
+                        // unreachable to readers, uncollectable by cleanup,
+                        // and reported corrupt by validate(). The exception is
+                        // a file carrying one of the fragment's spilled row
+                        // lineage sequences: their reserved ids are never in
+                        // the schema, the file holds their only copy, and the
+                        // replaced user columns in it are dead space until
+                        // compaction.
+                        let live_ids = schema
+                            .fields_pre_order()
+                            .map(|field| field.id)
+                            .collect::<HashSet<i32>>();
+                        let spilled = new_frag.spilled_row_lineage_field_ids();
+                        new_frag.files.retain(|file| {
+                            file.fields
+                                .iter()
+                                .any(|f| live_ids.contains(f) || spilled.contains(f))
+                        });
+                        new_frag.files.push(new_file.clone());
+                    }
+
+                    // Nothing changed in the current fragment, which is not expected -- error out
+                    if &new_frag == frag {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "Expected to modify the fragment but no changes were made. This means the new data files does not align with any exiting datafiles. Please check if the schema of the new data files matches the schema of the old data files including the file major and minor versions",
+                        ));
+                    }
+
+                    // New base values supersede any overlay still shadowing
+                    // them, so tombstone the overlaid fields. An overlay
+                    // committed after this transaction's snapshot is the newer
+                    // value though -- the conflict resolver rebases these two
+                    // precisely because the overlay wins -- so it stays, and
+                    // being newer it stays last, preserving the ordering.
+                    let (mut superseded, newer): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = new_frag
+                        .overlays
+                        .drain(..)
+                        .partition(|overlay| overlay.committed_version <= self.read_version);
+                    crate::format::overlay::tombstone_overlay_fields(
+                        &mut superseded,
+                        &replaced_fields,
+                    );
+                    superseded.extend(newer);
+                    new_frag.overlays = superseded;
+
+                    final_fragments.push(new_frag);
+                }
+
+                let fragments_changed = old_fragment_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .cloned()
+                    .cloned()
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+
+                // 4. push fragments that didn't change back to final_fragments
+                let unmodified_fragments = existing_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|f| !fragments_changed.contains(&f.id))
+                    .cloned()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+                final_fragments.extend(unmodified_fragments);
+
+                // A replacement changes what its rows read as, so stamp them
+                // updated. Without this, get_updated_rows never reports them and
+                // an incremental consumer skips them for good.
+                if next_row_id.is_some() {
+                    let new_version = current_manifest.map_or(1, |m| m.version + 1);
+                    for fragment in final_fragments
+                        .iter_mut()
+                        .filter(|f| fragments_changed.contains(&f.id))
+                    {
+                        crate::rowids::version::refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_full_frag_rewrite_cols(
+                            fragment,
+                            new_version,
+                        )?;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // The replaced fields' coverage of the modified fragments was
+                // withdrawn by `prepare_indices`.
+            }
+            Operation::DataOverlay { groups } => {
+                // Stamp each overlay with the version this commit is producing.
+                // build_manifest re-runs on every retry with an updated
+                // current_manifest, so this is naturally re-stamped on retry.
+                let new_version = current_manifest.map_or(1, |m| m.version + 1);
+
+                let existing_fragments = maybe_existing_fragments?;
+                // Multiple groups may target the same fragment; merge them in
+                // order rather than letting a HashMap collapse drop all but the
+                // last group's overlays.
+                let mut overlays_by_fragment: HashMap<u64, Vec<&DataOverlayFile>> = HashMap::new();
+                for group in groups {
+                    overlays_by_fragment
+                        .entry(group.fragment_id)
+                        .or_default()
+                        .extend(group.overlays.iter());
+                }
+
+                // Every group must target an existing fragment. Build a set of
+                // existing ids once so this is O(groups + fragments) rather than
+                // O(groups * fragments).
+                let existing_fragment_ids: HashSet<u64> =
+                    existing_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+                for fragment_id in overlays_by_fragment.keys() {
+                    if !existing_fragment_ids.contains(fragment_id) {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "DataOverlay targets fragment {fragment_id}, which does not exist"
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                for fragment in existing_fragments {
+                    let mut fragment = fragment.clone();
+                    if let Some(new_overlays) = overlays_by_fragment.get(&fragment.id) {
+                        if next_row_id.is_some() {
+                            let mut covered_offsets = RoaringBitmap::new();
+                            for overlay in new_overlays {
+                                match &overlay.coverage {
+                                    OverlayCoverage::Shared(bitmap) => {
+                                        covered_offsets |= bitmap.as_ref();
+                                    }
+                                    OverlayCoverage::PerField(bitmaps) => {
+                                        for bitmap in bitmaps {
+                                            covered_offsets |= bitmap.as_ref();
+                                        }
+                                    }
+                                }
+                            }
+                            if !covered_offsets.is_empty() {
+                                let covered_offsets: Vec<usize> = covered_offsets
+                                    .iter()
+                                    .map(|offset| offset as usize)
+                                    .collect();
+                                // Scans interpret missing lineage metadata as version 1,
+                                // so using 1 as the fallback preserves the observable
+                                // version of every uncovered row.
+                                crate::rowids::version::refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_partial_frag_rewrite_cols(
+                                    &mut fragment,
+                                    &covered_offsets,
+                                    new_version,
+                                    1,
+                                    &config.spilled_row_lineage,
+                                )?;
+                            }
+                        }
+                        // Appended (not replaced) so concurrently-written overlays
+                        // survive; later entries are newer.
+                        fragment
+                            .overlays
+                            .extend(new_overlays.iter().map(|&overlay| {
+                                let mut overlay = overlay.clone();
+                                overlay.committed_version = new_version;
+                                overlay
+                            }));
+                    }
+                    final_fragments.push(fragment);
+                }
+            }
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables, ..
+            } => {
+                // Updates the MemWAL index only; the fragments are unchanged.
+                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
+                update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
+                    &mut final_indices,
+                    new_version,
+                    compacted_sstables.clone(),
+                )?;
+            }
+            Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => {
+                // UpdateBases operation doesn't modify fragments or indices
+                // Base paths are handled in the manifest creation section below
+                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
+            }
+        };
+
+        // If a fragment was reserved then it may not belong at the end of the fragments list.
+        final_fragments.sort_by_key(|frag| frag.id);
+
+        // Clean up data files that only contain tombstoned fields
+        Self::remove_tombstoned_data_files(&mut final_fragments);
+
+        // Enforce the newest-last overlay ordering invariant at the write
+        // boundary. Load normalizes with a sort; this rejects any commit path
+        // that assembled a fragment's overlays out of order.
+        for fragment in &final_fragments {
+            if !fragment.overlays.is_empty() {
+                crate::format::overlay::verify_overlays_newest_last(&fragment.overlays)?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // A spilled row lineage sequence lives only in its carrier file. An
+        // operation that dropped or duplicated that file would otherwise go
+        // unnoticed until the next read, by which time cleanup may have
+        // deleted the only copy. Every fragment is checked, not only the ones
+        // this operation touched: the check reads metadata only, skips
+        // fragments that spill nothing, and also refuses to build on a
+        // manifest that already lost a carrier.
+        for fragment in &final_fragments {
+            fragment.validate_row_lineage_carriers()?;
+        }
+
+        let user_requested_version = match (&config.storage_format, config.use_legacy_format) {
+            (Some(storage_format), _) => Some(storage_format.lance_file_format()),
+            (None, Some(true)) => Some(ConcreteFileVersion::V1),
+            (None, Some(false)) => Some(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            (None, None) => None,
+        };
+
+        // Applied once the final index list is known, so it sees exactly the
+        // indices this commit publishes rather than what any one operation arm
+        // intended.
+        if let Some(segments_before) = mem_wal_segments_before.as_ref() {
+            Self::apply_mem_wal_index_coverage(
+                &mut final_indices,
+                segments_before,
+                read_version_state,
+                new_version,
+            )?;
+        }
+
+        // Blob is one logical column across file versions. Publishing its first
+        // 2.2+ file also publishes the logical v2 view, without replacing older files.
+        // Blob children are not independent physical columns; retain the root ID
+        // and allocate logical child IDs against the current manifest on commit.
+        let legacy_blob_ids = schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .filter(|field| field.is_blob() && !field.is_blob_v2())
+            .map(|field| field.id)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        if !legacy_blob_ids.is_empty() {
+            let mut blob_v2_fields = std::collections::BTreeSet::new();
+            for file in final_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|fragment| fragment.referenced_lance_files())
+            {
+                if matches!(
+                    file.file_version()?,
+                    ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+                ) {
+                    blob_v2_fields.extend(
+                        file.fields
+                            .iter()
+                            .copied()
+                            .filter(|id| legacy_blob_ids.contains(id)),
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+            let mut next_field_id = current_manifest
+                .map(|manifest| manifest.max_field_id())
+                .unwrap_or(-1)
+                .max(schema.max_field_id().unwrap_or(-1))
+                + 1;
+            for id in blob_v2_fields {
+                if let Some(field) = schema.mut_field_by_id(id) {
+                    field.promote_blob_v2()?;
+                    field.set_id(field.parent_id, &mut next_field_id);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut manifest = if let Some(current_manifest) = current_manifest {
+            // OVERWRITE with initial_bases on existing dataset is not allowed (caught by validation)
+            // So we always use new_from_previous which preserves base_paths
+            let mut prev_manifest =
+                Manifest::new_from_previous(current_manifest, schema, Arc::new(final_fragments));
+
+            if let (Some(user_requested_version), Operation::Overwrite { .. }) =
+                (user_requested_version, &self.operation)
+            {
+                // If this is an overwrite operation and the user has requested a specific version
+                // then overwrite with that version.  Otherwise, if the user didn't request a specific
+                // version, then overwrite with whatever version we had before.
+                prev_manifest.data_storage_format = DataStorageFormat::new(user_requested_version);
+            }
+
+            prev_manifest
+        } else {
+            let data_storage_format =
+                Self::data_storage_format_from_files(&final_fragments, user_requested_version)?;
+            Manifest::new(
+                schema,
+                Arc::new(final_fragments),
+                data_storage_format,
+                reference_paths,
+            )
+        };
+
+        // Only newly published Blob data files activate the capability. Comparing
+        // physical files also covers column rewrites and overlays while leaving
+        // metadata-only changes and deletion vectors on old tables alone.
+        let blob_fields: Vec<_> = manifest
+            .schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .filter(|field| field.is_blob_v2())
+            .map(|field| field.id)
+            .collect();
+        if !blob_fields.is_empty() {
+            let old_files: HashSet<_> = current_manifest
+                .into_iter()
+                .flat_map(|manifest| manifest.fragments.iter())
+                .flat_map(|fragment| fragment.referenced_lance_files())
+                .map(|file| (file.base_id, file.path.as_str()))
+                .collect();
+            if manifest
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|fragment| fragment.referenced_lance_files())
+                .any(|file| {
+                    !old_files.contains(&(file.base_id, file.path.as_str()))
+                        && file.fields.iter().any(|id| blob_fields.contains(id))
+                })
+            {
+                manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS;
+                manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS;
+            }
+        }
+
+        manifest.tag.clone_from(&self.tag);
+
+        if config.auto_set_feature_flags {
+            // Internal operations (e.g. CreateIndex) build with the default config,
+            // which has use_stable_row_ids = false. Without inheriting from the previous
+            // manifest, apply_feature_flags would clear FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS.
+            let inherited = current_manifest
+                .map(|m| m.uses_stable_row_ids())
+                .unwrap_or(false);
+            let use_stable_row_ids = config.use_stable_row_ids || inherited;
+            apply_feature_flags(
+                &mut manifest,
+                use_stable_row_ids,
+                config.disable_transaction_file,
+            )?;
+        }
+        // Set after apply_feature_flags, which resets both flag words -- and a
+        // `Manifest` only points at its index section, so the flag cannot be
+        // derived there.
+        //
+        // Derived fresh from `final_indices` on every commit, never inherited.
+        // Every manifest this reaches starts without the covering bit, so there
+        // is no stale bit to clear. Dropping the last covering index lifts the
+        // fence by simply not setting it again. Inheriting it from the previous
+        // manifest instead would make the fence permanent.
+        //
+        // Both words: a reader that selects a vector index by membership of
+        // `fields` would answer a query on a merely-carried column with an index
+        // keyed on another one, and a writer that treats every entry of `fields`
+        // as keyed would mismaintain it.
+        if final_indices
+            .iter()
+            .any(|index| !index.covering_fields.is_empty())
+        {
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA;
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA;
+        }
+
+        if let Some(current_manifest) = current_manifest {
+            inherit_sticky_feature_flags(&mut manifest, current_manifest)?;
+        }
+
+        manifest.set_timestamp(config.timestamp_nanos);
+
+        manifest.update_max_fragment_id();
+
+        match &self.operation {
+            Operation::Overwrite {
+                config_upsert_values: Some(tm),
+                ..
+            } => {
+                manifest.config_mut().extend(tm.clone());
+            }
+            Operation::UpdateConfig {
+                config_updates,
+                table_metadata_updates,
+                schema_metadata_updates,
+                field_metadata_updates,
+            } => {
+                if let Some(config_updates) = config_updates {
+                    let mut config = manifest.config.clone();
+                    apply_update_map(&mut config, config_updates);
+                    manifest.config = config;
+                }
+                if let Some(table_metadata_updates) = table_metadata_updates {
+                    let mut table_metadata = manifest.table_metadata.clone();
+                    apply_update_map(&mut table_metadata, table_metadata_updates);
+                    manifest.table_metadata = table_metadata;
+                }
+                if let Some(schema_metadata_updates) = schema_metadata_updates {
+                    let mut schema_metadata = manifest.schema.metadata.clone();
+                    apply_update_map(&mut schema_metadata, schema_metadata_updates);
+                    manifest.schema.metadata = schema_metadata;
+                }
+                // The unenforced primary and clustering keys are reserved
+                // schema properties: each is immutable once set, and its
+                // reserved metadata keys cannot be written with an invalid
+                // value. Capture the prior keys, and whether this transaction
+                // writes a reserved key, before applying the updates so
+                // violations can be rejected below. This runs on every apply,
+                // including conflict-rebase, so it also rejects the
+                // concurrent-writer race.
+                let primary_key_before: Vec<i32> = manifest
+                    .schema
+                    .unenforced_primary_key()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|field| field.id)
+                    .collect();
+                let writes_primary_key = field_metadata_updates.values().any(|update| {
+                    update.update_entries.iter().any(|entry| {
+                        entry.key == LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY
+                            || entry.key == LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION
+                    })
+                });
+                let clustering_key_before: Vec<i32> = manifest
+                    .schema
+                    .unenforced_clustering_key()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|field| field.id)
+                    .collect();
+                let writes_clustering_key = field_metadata_updates.values().any(|update| {
+                    update
+                        .update_entries
+                        .iter()
+                        .any(|entry| entry.key == LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION)
+                });
+                for (field_id, field_metadata_update) in field_metadata_updates {
+                    if let Some(field) = manifest.schema.field_by_id_mut(*field_id) {
+                        apply_update_map(&mut field.metadata, field_metadata_update);
+                        // Also set unenforced primary key based on updated field metadata.
+                        field.unenforced_primary_key_position = field
+                            .metadata
+                            .get(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION)
+                            .and_then(|s| s.parse::<u32>().ok())
+                            .or_else(|| {
+                                field
+                                    .metadata
+                                    .get(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY)
+                                    .filter(|s| str_is_truthy(s))
+                                    .map(|_| 0)
+                            });
+                        // Also set unenforced clustering key based on updated
+                        // field metadata.
+                        field.unenforced_clustering_key_position = field
+                            .metadata
+                            .get(LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION)
+                            .and_then(|s| s.parse::<u32>().ok());
+                    } else {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!("Field with id {} does not exist", field_id).into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+                let primary_key_after: Vec<i32> = manifest
+                    .schema
+                    .unenforced_primary_key()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|field| field.id)
+                    .collect();
+                if !primary_key_before.is_empty() {
+                    // The primary key is already set: reject any change to it,
+                    // and any write that touches a reserved primary key.
+                    if writes_primary_key || primary_key_after != primary_key_before {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "the unenforced primary key is a reserved key and cannot be changed once set",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                } else if writes_primary_key && primary_key_after.is_empty() {
+                    // A reserved primary key was written but did not install a
+                    // valid primary key (e.g. a non-marker flag value or a
+                    // non-numeric position).
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "the unenforced primary key is a reserved key and cannot be set to an invalid value",
+                    ));
+                }
+                if writes_primary_key {
+                    // Installing by field metadata skips the Arrow-schema
+                    // conversion that would otherwise validate the key.
+                    manifest.schema.verify_primary_key()?;
+                }
+                let clustering_key_after: Vec<i32> = manifest
+                    .schema
+                    .unenforced_clustering_key()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|field| field.id)
+                    .collect();
+                if !clustering_key_before.is_empty() {
+                    // The clustering key is already set: reject any change to
+                    // it, and any write that touches the reserved key.
+                    if writes_clustering_key || clustering_key_after != clustering_key_before {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "the unenforced clustering key is a reserved key and cannot be changed once set",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                } else if writes_clustering_key && clustering_key_after.is_empty() {
+                    // The reserved clustering key was written but did not
+                    // install a valid clustering key (e.g. a non-numeric
+                    // position value).
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "the unenforced clustering key is a reserved key and cannot be set to an invalid value",
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            _ => {}
+        }
+
+        apply_range_segments(&mut manifest, current_manifest)?;
+
+        // Handle UpdateBases operation to update manifest base_paths
+        if let Operation::UpdateBases { new_bases } = &self.operation {
+            // Validate and add new base paths to the manifest
+            for new_base in new_bases {
+                // Check for conflicts with existing base paths
+                if let Some(existing_base) = manifest
+                    .base_paths
+                    .values()
+                    .find(|bp| bp.name == new_base.name || bp.path == new_base.path)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Conflict detected: Base path with name '{:?}' or path '{}' already exists. Existing: name='{:?}', path='{}'",
+                        new_base.name, new_base.path, existing_base.name, existing_base.path
+                    )));
+                }
+
+                // Assign a new ID if not already assigned
+                let mut base_to_add = new_base.clone();
+                if base_to_add.id == 0 {
+                    base_to_add.id = crate::format::BasePath::unused_id(
+                        manifest
+                            .base_paths
+                            .keys()
+                            .copied()
+                            .chain(std::iter::once(0)),
+                    )?;
+                } else if manifest.has_managed_blobs()
+                    && let Some(existing) = manifest.base_paths.get(&base_to_add.id)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Cannot replace base ID {} bound to {:?} with {:?}",
+                        base_to_add.id, existing.path, base_to_add.path
+                    )));
+                }
+
+                manifest.base_paths.insert(base_to_add.id, base_to_add);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments } = self.operation {
+            manifest.max_fragment_id = Some(manifest.max_fragment_id.unwrap_or(0) + num_fragments);
+        }
+
+        manifest.transaction_file = Some(transaction_file_path.to_string());
+
+        if let Some(next_row_id) = next_row_id {
+            manifest.next_row_id = next_row_id;
+        }
+
+        if final_indices.iter().any(is_tagged) {
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        }
+
+        Ok((manifest, final_indices))
+    }
+
+    /// Remove data files that only contain tombstoned fields (-2)
+    /// These files no longer contain any live data and can be safely dropped
+    fn remove_tombstoned_data_files(fragments: &mut [Fragment]) {
+        for fragment in fragments {
+            fragment.files.retain(|file| {
+                // Keep file if it has at least one non-tombstoned field
+                file.fields.iter().any(|&field_id| field_id != -2)
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Remove overlays that no longer supply any field in the schema.
+    fn retain_relevant_overlays(fragments: &mut [Fragment], remaining_field_ids: &HashSet<i32>) {
+        for fragment in fragments {
+            fragment.overlays.retain(|overlay| {
+                overlay
+                    .data_file
+                    .fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|field_id| remaining_field_ids.contains(field_id))
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Coverage of an index that a rewrite invalidates: the rewritten fragments are
+    /// removed and the fragments they became are *not* added.
+    fn drop_rewritten_fragments(old: &RoaringBitmap, groups: &[RewriteGroup]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        let mut new_bitmap = old.clone();
+        for group in groups {
+            for old_fragment in &group.old_fragments {
+                new_bitmap.remove(old_fragment.id as u32);
+            }
+        }
+        new_bitmap
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::format::overlay::OverlayCoverage;
+    use crate::format::pb;
+    use crate::format::{
+        DeletionFile, DeletionFileType, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+        ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, RowDatasetVersionMeta, RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+        RowIdMeta,
+    };
+    use crate::rowids::{RowIdSequence, write_row_ids};
+    use crate::transaction::test_support::{
+        created_at_versions, default_build_config, last_updated_at_versions,
+        make_stable_row_id_manifest, overlay_with_field, sample_index_metadata, sample_manifest,
+        tagged_entry,
+    };
+    use crate::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, UpdateMode, validate_operation};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+    use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+    use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    /// Fragment 0 is the live destination of a rewrite that retired
+    /// fragment 5; the entry carries that one transition inline.
+    fn tagged_sample_manifest() -> (Manifest, IndexMetadata) {
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest();
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        (manifest, tagged_entry(&[(&[5], &[0])]))
+    }
+
+    fn row_mutation(kind: &str) -> Operation {
+        match kind {
+            "delete" => Operation::Delete {
+                updated_fragments: vec![],
+                deleted_fragment_ids: vec![0],
+                predicate: "true".into(),
+            },
+            "update" => crate::transaction::test_support::update_txn(vec![]).operation,
+            "config" => Operation::UpdateConfig {
+                config_updates: None,
+                table_metadata_updates: None,
+                schema_metadata_updates: None,
+                field_metadata_updates: HashMap::new(),
+            },
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Deletes, row-rewriting updates, config updates, projections and merges
+    /// that rewrite no column touch deletion vectors, new fragments, the
+    /// schema or the manifest config only: the tagged entry is carried
+    /// through unchanged and the mutation commits.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::delete("delete")]
+    #[case::update("update")]
+    #[case::config("config")]
+    #[case::project("project")]
+    #[case::merge("merge")]
+    fn tagged_history_allows_row_mutations(#[case] kind: &str) {
+        let (manifest, fri) = tagged_sample_manifest();
+        let operation = match kind {
+            "project" => Operation::Project {
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            "merge" => Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone(),
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            _ => row_mutation(kind),
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(manifest.version, operation, None);
+        let (_, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![fri.clone()],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let carried = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .expect("the tagged entry is carried through");
+        assert_eq!(carried.uuid, fri.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(carried.index_version, fri.index_version);
+    }
+
+    /// An overwrite replaces every fragment and drops every index, the tagged
+    /// entry included; the sticky flag keeps the tagged record form.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_overwrite_discards_the_entry() {
+        let (manifest, fri) = tagged_sample_manifest();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Overwrite {
+                fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                config_upsert_values: None,
+                initial_bases: None,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let (new_manifest, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![fri], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(indices.is_empty(), "{indices:?}");
+        assert_ne!(
+            new_manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The stable row id migration commits a `Merge` with the activation
+    /// marker; it is refused while a tagged entry exists.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_refuses_stable_row_id_migration() {
+        let (manifest, fri) = tagged_sample_manifest();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone(),
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let config = ManifestBuildConfig {
+            migration_next_row_id: Some(100),
+            ..default_build_config()
+        };
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![fri], "txn", &config)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("stable row id migration"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The manifest's only fragment, 0, carries field 0 in `path`.
+    fn manifest_with_file(path: &str) -> Manifest {
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest();
+        manifest.fragments = Arc::new(vec![Fragment::new(0).with_file(
+            path,
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+        )]);
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest
+    }
+
+    /// A user segment on field 0 built from fragment 5, which the rewrite
+    /// that produced fragment 0 retired: the entry's history says so, and
+    /// the segment covers fragment 0 only through it.
+    fn translating_segment_and_entry() -> (IndexMetadata, IndexMetadata) {
+        let mut segment = sample_index_metadata("id_idx");
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = Some([5u32].into_iter().collect());
+        (segment, tagged_entry(&[(&[5], &[0])]))
+    }
+
+    fn user_bitmap(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "id_idx")
+            .unwrap()
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The three in-place column rewrites of field 0 on fragment 0.
+    fn in_place_rewrite(kind: &str, manifest: &Manifest, fields: Vec<u32>) -> Operation {
+        match kind {
+            "update" => {
+                let mut update = crate::transaction::test_support::update_txn(vec![]);
+                let Operation::Update {
+                    updated_fragments,
+                    fields_modified,
+                    ..
+                } = &mut update.operation
+                else {
+                    unreachable!()
+                };
+                *updated_fragments = vec![Fragment::new(0)];
+                *fields_modified = fields;
+                update.operation
+            }
+            "merge" => Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0).with_file(
+                    "b.lance",
+                    fields.iter().map(|f| *f as i32).collect(),
+                    vec![0],
+                    ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                    None,
+                )],
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            "data_replacement" => Operation::DataReplacement {
+                replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(
+                    0,
+                    DataFile::new(
+                        "b.lance",
+                        fields.iter().map(|f| *f as i32).collect(),
+                        vec![0],
+                        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                        None,
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                )],
+            },
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// An in-place rewrite of a column that a translating segment indexes,
+    /// on a fragment the segment reaches only through the history, is
+    /// admitted; the segment cannot withdraw that fragment from its bitmap,
+    /// so the whole transition's sources are withdrawn instead and the
+    /// segment claims nothing for its destinations (the reader scans them).
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::update("update")]
+    #[case::merge("merge")]
+    #[case::data_replacement("data_replacement")]
+    fn tagged_history_withdraws_in_place_rewrite_covered_only_by_translation(#[case] kind: &str) {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (segment, fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite(kind, &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+        let (_, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment, fri.clone()],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.uuid == fri.uuid),
+            "entry carried"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            user_bitmap(&indices).is_empty(),
+            "{:?}",
+            user_bitmap(&indices)
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Naming the fragment directly is no way out: a merged segment's bitmap
+    /// is the union of its sources' provenance, and pruning the direct id
+    /// alone would let the retired sources re-derive the same destination
+    /// with the pre-rewrite values inside. Both go.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::update("update")]
+    #[case::merge("merge")]
+    #[case::data_replacement("data_replacement")]
+    fn tagged_history_withdraws_mixed_provenance_whole(#[case] kind: &str) {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (mut segment, fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = Some([0u32, 5].into_iter().collect());
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite(kind, &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+        let (_, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment, fri],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            user_bitmap(&indices).is_empty(),
+            "{:?}",
+            user_bitmap(&indices)
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Without a walkable history (a ledger this writer cannot read, or none
+    /// at hand) the withdrawal is conservative: every retired fragment of a
+    /// segment indexing the rewritten column goes, on the rewritten lineage
+    /// or not, and only the live fragments stay. The same rewrite with the
+    /// history walkable withdraws just the transition reaching the rewritten
+    /// fragment.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_without_a_walkable_lineage_withdraws_every_retired_source() {
+        use crate::system_index::frag_reuse::lineage::TaggedLineage;
+        let entry = tagged_entry(&[(&[5], &[0]), (&[6], &[8])]);
+        let mut segment = sample_index_metadata("id_idx");
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = Some([0u32, 5, 6, 7].into_iter().collect());
+        let live: RoaringBitmap = [0u32, 7, 8].into_iter().collect();
+
+        let unwalkable = TaggedLineage::new(&entry, None);
+        assert!(!unwalkable.has_ledger());
+        let mut indices = vec![segment.clone()];
+        Transaction::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+            &mut indices,
+            Some(&unwalkable),
+            &live,
+            &[(0, vec![0])],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            user_bitmap(&indices),
+            [7u32].into_iter().collect::<RoaringBitmap>(),
+            "the rewritten fragment and every retired fragment go"
+        );
+
+        let walkable = TaggedLineage::from_indices_with_ledger(&[entry], None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut indices = vec![segment];
+        Transaction::withdraw_rewritten_coverage(
+            &mut indices,
+            Some(&walkable),
+            &live,
+            &[(0, vec![0])],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            user_bitmap(&indices),
+            [6u32, 7].into_iter().collect::<RoaringBitmap>(),
+            "only the transition reaching fragment 0 is withdrawn"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// What a withdrawal leaves, per logical index name: a segment emptied
+    /// while a same-name sibling still has coverage leaves the manifest in
+    /// the commit; the last segment of a name stays, empty, as the record of
+    /// what to rebuild; a segment without a bitmap has unknown coverage and
+    /// is neither withdrawn from nor counted as empty.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_retires_an_emptied_segment_only_beside_a_serving_sibling() {
+        let mut manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        manifest.fragments = Arc::new(vec![
+            Fragment::new(0).with_file(
+                "a.lance",
+                vec![0],
+                vec![0],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                None,
+            ),
+            Fragment::new(1).with_file(
+                "c.lance",
+                vec![0],
+                vec![0],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                None,
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let (translating, fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        let mut sibling = sample_index_metadata("id_idx");
+        sibling.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        sibling.fragment_bitmap = Some([1u32].into_iter().collect());
+        let mut unknown = sample_index_metadata("other_idx");
+        unknown.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        unknown.fragment_bitmap = None;
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite("update", &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        // Beside a serving sibling the emptied segment leaves the manifest.
+        let (_, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![
+                    translating.clone(),
+                    sibling.clone(),
+                    unknown.clone(),
+                    fri.clone(),
+                ],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<(String, Uuid)> = indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|idx| (idx.name.clone(), idx.uuid))
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            !names.contains(&("id_idx".to_string(), translating.uuid)),
+            "{names:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.uuid == sibling.uuid)
+                .unwrap()
+                .fragment_bitmap,
+            sibling.fragment_bitmap,
+            "the sibling is untouched"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.uuid == unknown.uuid)
+                .unwrap()
+                .fragment_bitmap,
+            None,
+            "unknown coverage is neither withdrawn nor emptied"
+        );
+
+        // As the last segment of its name it stays, empty.
+        let (_, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![translating.clone(), fri],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let kept = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.uuid == translating.uuid)
+            .expect("the last segment stays");
+        assert!(kept.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// A segment on an unrelated lineage (fragment 6 rewritten into 8) is
+    /// untouched by a rewrite of fragment 0: the history is walked, not
+    /// guessed at.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_leaves_unrelated_lineage_alone() {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let fri = tagged_entry(&[(&[5], &[0]), (&[6], &[8])]);
+        let mut segment = sample_index_metadata("id_idx");
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = Some([6u32].into_iter().collect());
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite("update", &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+        let (_, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment, fri],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(user_bitmap(&indices), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([6u32]));
+    }
+
+    /// Without a supplied ledger an entry whose history is not inline cannot
+    /// be walked, and the build refuses rather than guess.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_without_readable_history_is_an_error() {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (segment, mut fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        fri.index_details = None;
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite("update", &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment, fri],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("history"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// A segment whose bitmap is entirely live has the fragment pruned as on
+    /// an untagged table; a translating segment that does not index the
+    /// rewritten field, or whose rows the history moves elsewhere, is
+    /// untouched. The entry is carried through in every case.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::update_direct("update", "direct")]
+    #[case::merge_direct("merge", "direct")]
+    #[case::data_replacement_direct("data_replacement", "direct")]
+    #[case::update_unindexed_field("update", "unindexed_field")]
+    #[case::merge_unindexed_field("merge", "unindexed_field")]
+    #[case::update_off_lineage("update", "off_lineage")]
+    fn tagged_history_prunes_or_keeps_what_the_history_says(
+        #[case] kind: &str,
+        #[case] shape: &str,
+    ) {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (mut segment, mut fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        let mut fields = vec![0];
+        match shape {
+            "direct" => segment.fragment_bitmap = Some([0u32].into_iter().collect()),
+            "unindexed_field" => fields = vec![1],
+            // Fragment 5 was rewritten into 7, not into the rewritten 0.
+            "off_lineage" => fri = tagged_entry(&[(&[5], &[7])]),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        }
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite(kind, &manifest, fields),
+            None,
+        );
+        let (_, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment.clone(), fri.clone()],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let carried = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .expect("the tagged entry is carried through");
+        assert_eq!(carried.uuid, fri.uuid);
+        let user = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "id_idx").unwrap();
+        let expected: RoaringBitmap = if shape == "direct" {
+            // Fragment 0 was rewritten: withdrawn from the segment.
+            RoaringBitmap::new()
+        } else {
+            segment.fragment_bitmap.unwrap()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(user.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(), &expected, "{shape}");
+    }
+
+    /// A user index is created, replaced or dropped on a tagged table like on
+    /// any other: the entry is carried through untouched.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_allows_user_index_create_index() {
+        let (manifest, fri) = tagged_sample_manifest();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![sample_index_metadata("id_idx")],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let (_, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![fri.clone()],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "id_idx"));
+        let carried = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.uuid == fri.uuid).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(carried.index_details, fri.index_details);
+        assert_eq!(carried.fragment_bitmap, fri.fragment_bitmap);
+    }
+
+    /// Recording MemWAL compaction progress on a tagged table replaces the
+    /// MemWAL entry and carries the history and the user segment through
+    /// unchanged.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_allows_mem_wal_state_update() {
+        let (manifest, fri) = tagged_sample_manifest();
+        let user = sample_index_metadata("id_idx");
+        let mem_wal = new_mem_wal_index_meta(manifest.version, Default::default()).unwrap();
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 3)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let (built, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![fri.clone(), user.clone(), mem_wal.clone()],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(built.fragments.len(), manifest.fragments.len());
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 3);
+        let carried_fri = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.uuid == fri.uuid).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(carried_fri.index_details, fri.index_details);
+        assert_eq!(carried_fri.fragment_bitmap, fri.fragment_bitmap);
+        assert_eq!(carried_fri.index_version, fri.index_version);
+        let carried_user = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.uuid == user.uuid).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(carried_user.fragment_bitmap, user.fragment_bitmap);
+        assert_eq!(carried_user.dataset_version, user.dataset_version);
+        let updated = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(updated.uuid, mem_wal.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(updated.dataset_version, built.version);
+        let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(updated.clone()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.compacted_sstables,
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 3)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::bare_rewrite("bare_rewrite")]
+    #[case::rewrite_with_v0_entry("rewrite_with_v0_entry")]
+    fn tagged_history_rejects_unsupported_transactions(#[case] kind: &str) {
+        let (manifest, fri) = tagged_sample_manifest();
+        let operation = match kind {
+            // A rewrite carrying no entry, or a v0 entry, would splice away
+            // the tagged history; only a tagged entry may replace one. The
+            // bare rewrite touches fragment 0, which the entry's bitmap
+            // covers (a bare rewrite of only uncovered fragments is allowed,
+            // see `tagged_history_allows_rewrite_of_uncovered_fragments`).
+            "bare_rewrite" => Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                    old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                    new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(10)],
+                }],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: None,
+            },
+            "rewrite_with_v0_entry" => {
+                let mut v0_entry = fri.clone();
+                v0_entry.index_version = 0;
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(v0_entry),
+                }
+            }
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(manifest.version, operation, None);
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![fri], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap_err();
+        if kind == "bare_rewrite" {
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                error
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains("carries no fragment reuse transition"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains("Tagged FRI history maintenance"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::untagged_table(false)]
+    #[case::tagged_table(true)]
+    fn tagged_snapshot_replace_rejected(#[case] table_is_tagged: bool) {
+        // A pre-assembled tagged entry that did not come from the commit
+        // path's assembly (a `ReplaceEntry` snapshot) has bypassed
+        // validation and may be stale; it must be rejected at the manifest
+        // chokepoint regardless of the table's current state.
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest();
+        let mut current_indices = vec![];
+        if table_is_tagged {
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+            let mut current =
+                sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+            current.fields.clear();
+            current_indices.push(current);
+        }
+        let mut entry =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        entry.fields.clear();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                current_indices,
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("must be assembled"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn v0_snapshot_replace_rejected_on_flag_carrying_manifest_without_entry() {
+        // The sticky flag alone forbids a v0 snapshot: a trim may have
+        // deleted the fully drained tagged entry, but the flag survives and
+        // remains the final authority on the record form. Publishing the
+        // snapshot would silently downgrade the table to v0.
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest();
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let mut entry =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        entry.fields.clear();
+        entry.index_version = 0;
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("sticky feature flag"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_allows_rewrite_of_uncovered_fragments() {
+        // Deferred compaction of never-covered fragments commits a plain
+        // rewrite (no entry, no intent): it cannot invalidate provenance or
+        // the recorded lineage, so the tagged gate admits it.
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest_with_fragments(0..6);
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let mut fri = sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        fri.fields.clear();
+        assert_eq!(
+            fri.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])
+        );
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                    old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(5)],
+                    new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(10)],
+                }],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: None,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let (_, final_indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![fri.clone()],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        // The tagged entry rides through untouched.
+        assert!(final_indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.uuid == fri.uuid));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn out_of_range_transition_source_id_rejected() {
+        // Fragment ids in the reuse domain are bounded by the row-address
+        // fragment space; an oversized id must error instead of silently
+        // truncating into an alias of another fragment.
+        let error = crate::transaction::reordered_sources(&[
+            crate::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Transition {
+                sources: vec![
+                    crate::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::FragmentDigest {
+                        id: u64::from(u32::MAX) + 1,
+                        physical_rows: 4,
+                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                    },
+                ],
+                destinations: vec![],
+                mapping: None,
+            },
+        ])
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("row-address range"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_history_allows_rewrite_appending_tagged_entry() {
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest();
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let mut current =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        current.fields.clear();
+        current.dataset_version = 7;
+        let mut appended =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        appended.fields.clear();
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(appended.clone()),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let config = default_build_config();
+        let prepared = transaction
+            .prepare_indices(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![current.clone()],
+                &config,
+                None,
+                FragReuseUpdate::Rewrite(Arc::new(crate::transaction::TaggedRewriteAssembly {
+                    entry: appended.clone(),
+                    base_entry_version: Some(7),
+                    reordered_sources: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                })),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let (new_manifest, final_indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest_prepared(Some(&manifest), prepared, "txn", &config, None)
+            .unwrap();
+        // The assembled entry replaced the previous one by name.
+        let entries: Vec<_> = final_indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(entries[0].uuid, appended.uuid);
+        assert_ne!(
+            new_manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A tagged-table fixture for the CreateIndex gate: the manifest carries
+    /// the FRI flags and one tagged entry.
+    fn tagged_table_fixture() -> (Manifest, IndexMetadata) {
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest();
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let mut current =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        current.fields.clear();
+        (manifest, current)
+    }
+
+    /// Build with the trim intent the maintenance path settles
+    /// (`FragReuseUpdate::Trim`), through the prepared entry.
+    fn build_trimmed(
+        transaction: &Transaction,
+        manifest: &Manifest,
+        indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Result<(Manifest, Vec<IndexMetadata>)> {
+        let config = default_build_config();
+        let prepared = transaction.prepare_indices(
+            Some(manifest),
+            indices,
+            &config,
+            None,
+            FragReuseUpdate::Trim,
+        )?;
+        transaction.build_manifest_prepared(Some(manifest), prepared, "txn", &config, None)
+    }
+
+    /// A CreateIndex replacing a tagged entry without the maintenance path's
+    /// derivation intent is a hand-built (possibly stale) trim: rejected.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_trim_without_intent_rejected() {
+        let (manifest, current) = tagged_table_fixture();
+        let mut replacement =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        replacement.fields.clear();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![replacement],
+                removed_indices: vec![current.clone()],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![current],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("cleanup_frag_reuse_index"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// With the intent, exactly two shapes pass: the entry replaced, or the
+    /// entry removed outright (everything trimmed away; flags stay sticky).
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::replace(true)]
+    #[case::remove(false)]
+    fn tagged_trim_with_intent_accepts_the_safe_shapes(#[case] replace: bool) {
+        let (manifest, current) = tagged_table_fixture();
+        let new_indices = if replace {
+            let mut replacement =
+                sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+            replacement.fields.clear();
+            vec![replacement]
+        } else {
+            vec![]
+        };
+        let expected_uuid = new_indices.first().map(|idx| idx.uuid);
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices: vec![current.clone()],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let (new_manifest, final_indices) =
+            build_trimmed(&transaction, &manifest, vec![current]).unwrap();
+        let entries: Vec<_> = final_indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(entries.first().map(|idx| idx.uuid), expected_uuid);
+        // Sticky bits survive even full removal.
+        assert_ne!(
+            new_manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Even with the intent, a trim whose removed identity no longer matches
+    /// the current entry was derived against a stale version: rejected, so a
+    /// replay cannot splice away a concurrent append.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_trim_with_stale_identity_rejected() {
+        let (manifest, current) = tagged_table_fixture();
+        let mut stale = current.clone();
+        stale.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let mut replacement =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        replacement.fields.clear();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![replacement],
+                removed_indices: vec![stale],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = build_trimmed(&transaction, &manifest, vec![current]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("stale"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// A trim mixing user indices into the same commit is not a shape the
+    /// maintenance path produces; rejected even with the intent.
+    #[test]
+    fn tagged_trim_mixed_with_user_indices_rejected() {
+        let (manifest, current) = tagged_table_fixture();
+        let mut replacement =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        replacement.fields.clear();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![replacement, sample_index_metadata("id_idx")],
+                removed_indices: vec![current.clone()],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = build_trimmed(&transaction, &manifest, vec![current]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn frag_reuse_rewrite_guards_base_entry_version() {
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest();
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let mut current =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        current.fields.clear();
+        current.dataset_version = 7;
+        let mut appended =
+            sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        appended.fields.clear();
+
+        // Assembled against a different entry (base None while the manifest
+        // holds version 7): splicing would replace that entry's transitions.
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(appended.clone()),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let config = default_build_config();
+        let prepared = transaction
+            .prepare_indices(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![current],
+                &config,
+                None,
+                FragReuseUpdate::Rewrite(Arc::new(crate::transaction::TaggedRewriteAssembly {
+                    entry: appended.clone(),
+                    base_entry_version: None,
+                    reordered_sources: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                })),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest_prepared(Some(&manifest), prepared, "txn", &config, None)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("rebuild"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// The preparation keeps the original list as read and withdraws on the
+    /// prepared list only; the build publishes exactly the prepared list.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::update("update")]
+    #[case::merge("merge")]
+    #[case::data_replacement("data_replacement")]
+    fn prepare_indices_keeps_original_and_withdraws_prepared(#[case] kind: &str) {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (segment, fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        // A segment on the unrelated F6 -> F8 lineage is untouched.
+        let fri = {
+            let mut merged = fri;
+            merged.index_details = tagged_entry(&[(&[5], &[0]), (&[6], &[8])]).index_details;
+            merged.fragment_bitmap = Some([0u32, 5, 6, 8].into_iter().collect());
+            merged
+        };
+        let mut unrelated = sample_index_metadata("other_idx");
+        unrelated.fragment_bitmap = Some([6u32].into_iter().collect());
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite(kind, &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+        let config = default_build_config();
+        let prepared = transaction
+            .prepare_indices(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment.clone(), unrelated.clone(), fri.clone()],
+                &config,
+                None,
+                FragReuseUpdate::None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(prepared.manifest_version(), Some(manifest.version));
+        assert_eq!(
+            prepared.original(),
+            &[segment.clone(), unrelated.clone(), fri],
+            "the original list is what was read"
+        );
+        let prepared_user = prepared
+            .prepared()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.uuid == segment.uuid)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(prepared_user.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+        let prepared_unrelated = prepared
+            .prepared()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.uuid == unrelated.uuid)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            prepared_unrelated.fragment_bitmap,
+            unrelated.fragment_bitmap
+        );
+        let (_, indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest_prepared(Some(&manifest), prepared.clone(), "txn", &config, None)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices, prepared.prepared());
+    }
+
+    /// An ordinary table prepares the same way, pruning by fragment id.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::update("update")]
+    #[case::merge("merge")]
+    #[case::data_replacement("data_replacement")]
+    fn prepare_indices_prunes_by_id_on_an_untagged_table(#[case] kind: &str) {
+        let mut manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags &= !FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags &= !FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let mut segment = sample_index_metadata("id_idx");
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = Some([0u32, 3].into_iter().collect());
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite(kind, &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+        let prepared = transaction
+            .prepare_indices(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment.clone()],
+                &default_build_config(),
+                None,
+                FragReuseUpdate::None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(prepared.original(), &[segment]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            prepared.prepared()[0].fragment_bitmap,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3u32]))
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Operations that rewrite no column in place, `Restore` included,
+    /// prepare the list unchanged.
+    #[test]
+    fn prepare_indices_restore_and_non_rewrites_are_identity() {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (segment, fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        for operation in [
+            Operation::Restore { version: 1 },
+            Operation::Append { fragments: vec![] },
+            Operation::Delete {
+                updated_fragments: vec![],
+                deleted_fragment_ids: vec![0],
+                predicate: "true".into(),
+            },
+            in_place_rewrite("update", &manifest, vec![]),
+        ] {
+            let transaction = Transaction::new(manifest.version, operation, None);
+            let prepared = transaction
+                .prepare_indices(
+                    Some(&manifest),
+                    vec![segment.clone(), fri.clone()],
+                    &default_build_config(),
+                    None,
+                    FragReuseUpdate::None,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(prepared.prepared(), prepared.original());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A history stored externally is walked only when the commit path
+    /// supplied the decoded ledger; without it the preparation refuses.
+    #[test]
+    fn prepare_indices_external_history_needs_the_supplied_ledger() {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (segment, fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        let ledger = crate::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger::decode_inline(
+            fri.index_version,
+            fri.index_details.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut external = fri;
+        external.index_details = None;
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite("update", &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = transaction
+            .prepare_indices(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment.clone(), external.clone()],
+                &default_build_config(),
+                None,
+                FragReuseUpdate::None,
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        let prepared = transaction
+            .prepare_indices(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment, external],
+                &default_build_config(),
+                Some(Arc::new(ledger)),
+                FragReuseUpdate::None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(user_bitmap(prepared.prepared()).is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// Corrupt inline details are an error of their own kind, never
+    /// "no lineage" and never a successful build.
+    #[test]
+    fn prepare_indices_corrupt_inline_details_is_an_error() {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (segment, mut fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        let mut details = fri.index_details.as_ref().unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+        details.value = vec![0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff];
+        fri.index_details = Some(Arc::new(details));
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite("update", &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = transaction
+            .prepare_indices(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment.clone(), fri.clone()],
+                &default_build_config(),
+                None,
+                FragReuseUpdate::None,
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "corrupt history must surface as corruption: {error:?}"
+        );
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment, fri],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{error:?}");
+    }
+
+    /// A result prepared against one manifest cannot build on another:
+    /// every attempt prepares against the manifest it builds on.
+    #[test]
+    fn build_manifest_prepared_refuses_a_result_prepared_against_another_manifest() {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (segment, fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            in_place_rewrite("update", &manifest, vec![0]),
+            None,
+        );
+        let prepared = transaction
+            .prepare_indices(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![segment, fri],
+                &default_build_config(),
+                None,
+                FragReuseUpdate::None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut later = manifest;
+        later.version += 1;
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest_prepared(Some(&later), prepared, "txn", &default_build_config(), None)
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("prepared against"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// The low-level entry cannot skip what the commit path settles: a
+    /// tagged rewrite entry is refused without the assembled update, whoever
+    /// prepared the list.
+    #[test]
+    fn build_manifest_prepared_still_runs_the_gate() {
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file("a.lance");
+        let (_, fri) = translating_segment_and_entry();
+        let mut appended = fri.clone();
+        appended.uuid = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(appended),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let error = transaction
+            .prepare_indices(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![fri.clone()],
+                &default_build_config(),
+                None,
+                FragReuseUpdate::None,
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("assembled by the commit path"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        let error = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![fri], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("assembled by the commit path"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn sample_manifest_with_fragments(ids: std::ops::Range<u64>) -> Manifest {
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        Manifest::new(
+            LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(ids.map(Fragment::new).collect()),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::project(false)]
+    #[case::merge(true)]
+    fn test_schema_change_prunes_irrelevant_overlays(#[case] is_merge: bool) {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]);
+        let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let mut projected_schema = schema.clone();
+        projected_schema.fields.retain(|field| field.name != "c");
+
+        let overlay = |path: &str, fields: Vec<i32>| DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields(path, fields, None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+            committed_version: 1,
+        };
+        let mut fragment0 = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment0.overlays = vec![
+            overlay("dropped-0.lance", vec![2]),
+            overlay("kept-mixed.lance", vec![0, 2]),
+        ];
+        let mut fragment1 = Fragment::new(1);
+        fragment1.overlays = vec![
+            overlay("dropped-1.lance", vec![2]),
+            overlay("kept-live.lance", vec![1]),
+        ];
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment0, fragment1]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+
+        let operation = if is_merge {
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone(),
+                schema: projected_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            }
+        } else {
+            Operation::Project {
+                schema: projected_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            }
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(manifest.version, operation, None);
+        let (result, _) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let overlay_paths = result
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|fragment| &fragment.overlays)
+            .map(|overlay| overlay.data_file.path.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(overlay_paths, ["kept-mixed.lance", "kept-live.lance"]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_create_index_build_manifest_keeps_unremoved_same_name_indices() {
+        let manifest = sample_manifest();
+        let first_index = sample_index_metadata("vector_idx");
+        let second_index = sample_index_metadata("vector_idx");
+        let third_index = sample_index_metadata("vector_idx");
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![third_index.clone()],
+                removed_indices: vec![second_index.clone()],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (_, final_indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![first_index.clone(), second_index.clone()],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(final_indices.len(), 2);
+        assert!(final_indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.uuid == first_index.uuid));
+        assert!(final_indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.uuid == third_index.uuid));
+        assert!(
+            !final_indices
+                .iter()
+                .any(|idx| idx.uuid == second_index.uuid)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_create_index_build_manifest_deduplicates_relisted_indices_by_uuid() {
+        let manifest = sample_manifest();
+        let first_index = sample_index_metadata("vector_idx");
+        let second_index = sample_index_metadata("vector_idx");
+        let third_index = sample_index_metadata("vector_idx");
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![first_index.clone(), third_index.clone()],
+                removed_indices: vec![second_index.clone()],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (_, final_indices) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(
+                Some(&manifest),
+                vec![first_index.clone(), second_index.clone()],
+                "txn",
+                &default_build_config(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(final_indices.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            final_indices
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|idx| idx.uuid == first_index.uuid)
+                .count(),
+            1
+        );
+        assert!(final_indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.uuid == third_index.uuid));
+        assert!(
+            !final_indices
+                .iter()
+                .any(|idx| idx.uuid == second_index.uuid)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_build_manifest_replaces_and_removes_fragments() {
+        let manifest = sample_manifest_with_fragments(0..5);
+
+        let mut updated2 = Fragment::new(2);
+        updated2.physical_rows = Some(42);
+        let mut updated4 = Fragment::new(4);
+        updated4.physical_rows = Some(43);
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![1],
+                // Fragment 99 does not exist in the dataset; it must be ignored,
+                // not appended.
+                updated_fragments: vec![updated2, updated4, Fragment::new(99)],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: None,
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (new_manifest, _) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ids: Vec<u64> = new_manifest.fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![0, 2, 3, 4]);
+        let rows: Vec<Option<usize>> = new_manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.physical_rows)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(rows, vec![None, Some(42), None, Some(43)]);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::unspecified(None)]
+    #[case::rewrite_rows(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows))]
+    #[case::rewrite_columns(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns))]
+    fn test_update_build_manifest_does_not_restore_projected_files(
+        #[case] update_mode: Option<UpdateMode>,
+        #[values(false, true)] with_spilled_lineage: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest_with_fragments(0..3);
+        if with_spilled_lineage {
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags = FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags = FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+            manifest.next_row_id = 126;
+            for fragment in Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments) {
+                let start = fragment.id * 42;
+                fragment.physical_rows = Some(42);
+                fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(
+                    write_row_ids(&RowIdSequence::from(start..start + 42)).into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        let projected_file = DataFile::new(
+            "projected.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments)[1].files = vec![projected_file.clone()];
+
+        // Model an update staged before a projection removed field 1's file.
+        let mut updated = manifest.fragments[1].clone();
+        updated.files.push(DataFile::new(
+            "dropped.lance",
+            vec![1],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            None,
+        ));
+        updated.physical_rows = Some(42);
+        let inserted_projected_file = DataFile::new(
+            "inserted-projected.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let mut inserted = Fragment::new(0);
+        inserted.physical_rows = Some(42);
+        inserted.files = vec![
+            inserted_projected_file.clone(),
+            DataFile::new(
+                "inserted-dropped.lance",
+                vec![1],
+                vec![0],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                None,
+                None,
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut expected_updated_files = vec![projected_file];
+        let mut expected_inserted_files = vec![inserted_projected_file];
+        if with_spilled_lineage {
+            // Separate carriers ensure each lineage kind is retained even when
+            // the file has no field from the live schema.
+            for (fragment, expected_files) in [
+                (&mut updated, &mut expected_updated_files),
+                (&mut inserted, &mut expected_inserted_files),
+            ] {
+                fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Column);
+                fragment.created_at_version_meta = Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column);
+                fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column);
+                for field_id in [
+                    ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+                    ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+                    ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+                ] {
+                    let file = DataFile::new(
+                        format!("lineage-{field_id}.lance"),
+                        vec![field_id],
+                        vec![0],
+                        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                        None,
+                        None,
+                    );
+                    fragment.files.push(file.clone());
+                    expected_files.push(file);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                updated_fragments: vec![updated],
+                new_fragments: vec![inserted],
+                fields_modified: vec![1],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode,
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (new_manifest, _) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragment = &new_manifest.fragments[1];
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files, expected_updated_files);
+        assert_eq!(fragment.physical_rows, Some(42));
+        assert_eq!(new_manifest.fragments[3].files, expected_inserted_files);
+        assert_eq!(new_manifest.max_field_id(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_delete_build_manifest_applies_deletion_to_current_fragment() {
+        let mut manifest = sample_manifest_with_fragments(0..5);
+        manifest.version = 2;
+        let projected_file = DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("projected.lance", vec![0], None);
+        let current_fragment = &mut Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments)[2];
+        current_fragment.files = vec![projected_file.clone()];
+        current_fragment.physical_rows = Some(42);
+        current_fragment.overlays = vec![overlay_with_field(0, 2)];
+        current_fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = Some(
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(
+                &RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(42, 2),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Model a delete staged before a projection removed field 1's file.
+        let mut updated2 = Fragment::new(2);
+        updated2.physical_rows = Some(42);
+        updated2.files = vec![
+            projected_file.clone(),
+            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("dropped.lance", vec![1], None),
+        ];
+        let deletion_file = DeletionFile {
+            read_version: 1,
+            id: 10,
+            file_type: DeletionFileType::Array,
+            num_deleted_rows: Some(1),
+            base_id: None,
+        };
+        updated2.deletion_file = Some(deletion_file.clone());
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            1,
+            Operation::Delete {
+                updated_fragments: vec![updated2],
+                deleted_fragment_ids: vec![1, 3],
+                predicate: "id > 0".to_string(),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (new_manifest, _) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ids: Vec<u64> = new_manifest.fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![0, 2, 4]);
+        let fragment2 = new_manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .find(|fragment| fragment.id == 2)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fragment2.files, vec![projected_file]);
+        assert_eq!(fragment2.deletion_file, Some(deletion_file));
+        assert_eq!(fragment2.overlays.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(fragment2.overlays[0].committed_version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(fragment2.physical_rows, Some(42));
+        assert_eq!(new_manifest.max_field_id(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&new_manifest, 2), vec![2; 42]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remove_tombstoned_data_files() {
+        // Create a fragment with mixed data files: some normal, some fully tombstoned
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(1);
+
+        // Add a normal data file with valid field IDs
+        fragment.files.push(DataFile {
+            path: "normal.lance".to_string(),
+            fields: Arc::from([1, 2, 3]),
+            column_indices: Arc::from([]),
+            file_major_version: 2,
+            file_minor_version: 0,
+            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(1000),
+            base_id: None,
+        });
+
+        // Add a data file with all fields tombstoned
+        fragment.files.push(DataFile {
+            path: "all_tombstoned.lance".to_string(),
+            fields: Arc::from([-2, -2, -2]),
+            column_indices: Arc::from([]),
+            file_major_version: 2,
+            file_minor_version: 0,
+            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(500),
+            base_id: None,
+        });
+
+        // Add a data file with mixed tombstoned and valid fields
+        fragment.files.push(DataFile {
+            path: "mixed.lance".to_string(),
+            fields: Arc::from([4, -2, 5]),
+            column_indices: Arc::from([]),
+            file_major_version: 2,
+            file_minor_version: 0,
+            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(750),
+            base_id: None,
+        });
+
+        // Add another fully tombstoned file
+        fragment.files.push(DataFile {
+            path: "another_tombstoned.lance".to_string(),
+            fields: Arc::from([-2_i32]),
+            column_indices: Arc::from([]),
+            file_major_version: 2,
+            file_minor_version: 0,
+            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(250),
+            base_id: None,
+        });
+
+        let mut fragments = vec![fragment];
+
+        // Apply the cleanup
+        Transaction::remove_tombstoned_data_files(&mut fragments);
+
+        // Should have removed the two fully tombstoned files
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[0].path, "normal.lance");
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[1].path, "mixed.lance");
+    }
+
+    /// When a fragment has no existing last_updated_at_version_meta (None), a
+    /// partial RewriteColumns refresh must leave it as None rather than fabricating
+    /// prev_version for unmatched rows.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_partial_rewrite_skips_fragment_with_no_version_meta() {
+        let row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11, 12, 13, 14].as_slice());
+        let row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids).into()));
+
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![data_file],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta,
+            physical_rows: Some(5),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![fragment.clone()]);
+
+        // Simulate a RewriteColumns update that matched offsets 1 and 3
+        let off_map = HashMap::from([(1u64, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32, 3]))]);
+        let tx = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                updated_fragments: vec![fragment],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(off_map)),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (out, _) = tx
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            out.fragments[0].last_updated_at_version_meta.is_none(),
+            "fragment with no prior version metadata must not have fabricated prev_version stamped on unmatched rows"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_cardinality_exceeds_physical_rows() {
+        let row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11, 12, 13, 14].as_slice());
+        let row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids).into()));
+
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let version_seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(5, 1);
+        let version_meta = RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&version_seq).unwrap();
+
+        let fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![data_file],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta,
+            physical_rows: Some(5),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(version_meta.clone()),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(version_meta),
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![fragment.clone()]);
+
+        // Bitmap with 10 offsets but fragment only has 5 physical rows.
+        let off_map = HashMap::from([(1u64, RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0u32..10))]);
+        let tx = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                updated_fragments: vec![fragment],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(off_map)),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let result = tx.build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config());
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("cardinality"),
+            "expected cardinality error, got: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_max_offset_exceeds_physical_rows() {
+        let row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11, 12, 13, 14].as_slice());
+        let row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids).into()));
+
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let version_seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(5, 1);
+        let version_meta = RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&version_seq).unwrap();
+
+        let fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![data_file],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta,
+            physical_rows: Some(5),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(version_meta.clone()),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(version_meta),
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![fragment.clone()]);
+
+        // Only 2 offsets (within cardinality) but max offset 100 exceeds physical_rows 5.
+        let off_map = HashMap::from([(1u64, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 100]))]);
+        let tx = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                updated_fragments: vec![fragment],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(off_map)),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let result = tx.build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config());
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("max offset"),
+            "expected max offset error, got: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitmap_at_exact_physical_rows_boundary_succeeds() {
+        let row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11, 12, 13, 14].as_slice());
+        let row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids).into()));
+
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let version_seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(5, 1);
+        let version_meta = RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&version_seq).unwrap();
+
+        let fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![data_file],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta,
+            physical_rows: Some(5),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(version_meta.clone()),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(version_meta),
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![fragment.clone()]);
+
+        // All 5 offsets on a 5-row fragment — exactly at the boundary, should succeed.
+        let off_map = HashMap::from([(1u64, RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0u32..5))]);
+        let tx = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                updated_fragments: vec![fragment],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(off_map)),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        tx.build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .expect("bitmap at exact physical_rows boundary should succeed");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_updated_fragment_offsets_key_not_in_updated_fragments_is_rejected() {
+        // Fragment A is being rewritten; fragment B exists in the manifest but is
+        // NOT in updated_fragments. Supplying an offset key for B must be rejected
+        // so that B's version metadata cannot be stamped by an unrelated commit.
+        let make_fragment = |id: u64| {
+            let row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([id * 10].as_slice());
+            let row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids).into()));
+            Fragment {
+                id,
+                files: vec![DataFile::new(
+                    format!("{id}.lance"),
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![0],
+                    LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                )],
+                overlays: vec![],
+                deletion_file: None,
+                row_id_meta,
+                physical_rows: Some(5),
+                last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+                created_at_version_meta: None,
+            }
+        };
+
+        let frag_a = make_fragment(1);
+        let frag_b = make_fragment(2);
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![frag_a.clone(), frag_b.clone()]);
+
+        // updated_fragments contains only A; offsets are keyed to B — must fail.
+        let off_map = HashMap::from([(frag_b.id, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 2]))]);
+        let operation = Operation::Update {
+            removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+            updated_fragments: vec![frag_a],
+            new_fragments: vec![],
+            fields_modified: vec![],
+            compacted_sstables: vec![],
+            fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+            update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+            inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(off_map)),
+        };
+
+        let err = validate_operation(Some(&manifest), &operation).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("not in updated_fragments"),
+            "expected key-presence error, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_proto_round_trip_field_10() {
+        let off_map = HashMap::from([
+            (1u64, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32, 3, 5])),
+            (2u64, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 2, 4, 6])),
+        ]);
+        let tx = Transaction::new(
+            1,
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                updated_fragments: vec![],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(off_map.clone())),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let pb_tx: pb::Transaction = pb::Transaction::try_from(&tx).unwrap();
+
+        // Field 9 must be empty; field 10 must be populated.
+        if let Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Update(ref update)) = pb_tx.operation {
+            assert!(
+                update.updated_fragment_offsets.is_empty(),
+                "field 9 should be empty"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(update.updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps.len(), 2);
+        } else {
+            panic!("expected Update operation");
+        }
+
+        let tx2 = Transaction::try_from(pb_tx).unwrap();
+        if let Operation::Update {
+            updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(m)),
+            ..
+        } = &tx2.operation
+        {
+            assert_eq!(m.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(*m.get(&1).unwrap(), off_map[&1]);
+            assert_eq!(*m.get(&2).unwrap(), off_map[&2]);
+        } else {
+            panic!("expected Update with offsets");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_proto_legacy_field_9_read() {
+        // Simulate a manifest written by old Lance: only field 9, no field 10.
+        let pb_tx = pb::Transaction {
+            read_version: 1,
+            uuid: "test".to_string(),
+            tag: String::new(),
+            transaction_properties: HashMap::new(),
+            operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Update(
+                pb::transaction::Update {
+                    removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                    updated_fragments: vec![],
+                    new_fragments: vec![],
+                    fields_modified: vec![],
+                    compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                    update_mode: 1,
+                    inserted_rows: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: HashMap::from([(
+                        1u64,
+                        pb::transaction::UInt32List {
+                            values: vec![1, 3, 5],
+                        },
+                    )]),
+                    updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps: HashMap::new(),
+                },
+            )),
+        };
+
+        let tx = Transaction::try_from(pb_tx).unwrap();
+        if let Operation::Update {
+            updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(m)),
+            ..
+        } = &tx.operation
+        {
+            assert_eq!(m.len(), 1);
+            let bitmap = m.get(&1).unwrap();
+            let offsets: Vec<u32> = bitmap.iter().collect();
+            assert_eq!(offsets, vec![1, 3, 5]);
+        } else {
+            panic!("expected Update with offsets from legacy field 9");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_proto_field_10_takes_precedence_over_field_9() {
+        // When both fields present, field 10 wins.
+        let mut bitmap_bytes = Vec::new();
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 20, 30])
+            .serialize_into(&mut bitmap_bytes)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let pb_tx = pb::Transaction {
+            read_version: 1,
+            uuid: "test".to_string(),
+            tag: String::new(),
+            transaction_properties: HashMap::new(),
+            operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Update(
+                pb::transaction::Update {
+                    removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                    updated_fragments: vec![],
+                    new_fragments: vec![],
+                    fields_modified: vec![],
+                    compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                    update_mode: 1,
+                    inserted_rows: None,
+                    // Field 9 has different values than field 10.
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: HashMap::from([(
+                        1u64,
+                        pb::transaction::UInt32List {
+                            values: vec![99, 100],
+                        },
+                    )]),
+                    updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps: HashMap::from([(1u64, bitmap_bytes)]),
+                },
+            )),
+        };
+
+        let tx = Transaction::try_from(pb_tx).unwrap();
+        if let Operation::Update {
+            updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(m)),
+            ..
+        } = &tx.operation
+        {
+            let offsets: Vec<u32> = m.get(&1).unwrap().iter().collect();
+            assert_eq!(offsets, vec![10, 20, 30], "field 10 should take precedence");
+        } else {
+            panic!("expected Update with offsets from field 10");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_build_manifest_refreshes_last_updated_when_data_files_change_stable_row_ids() {
+        use crate::feature_flags::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+        let mk_file = |path: &str| {
+            DataFile::new(
+                path,
+                vec![0],
+                vec![0],
+                LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([100u64, 101, 102, 103, 104].as_slice());
+        let row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids).into()));
+
+        let prev_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![mk_file("before.lance")],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta,
+            physical_rows: Some(5),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            Arc::new(vec![prev_fragment.clone()]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        manifest.next_row_id = 100;
+
+        let merged_fragment = Fragment {
+            files: vec![mk_file("after.lance")],
+            ..prev_fragment
+        };
+
+        let tx = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: vec![merged_fragment],
+                schema: lance_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (out, _) = tx
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(out.version, 2);
+        let frag = &out.fragments[0];
+        let seq = frag
+            .last_updated_at_version_meta
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .load_sequence()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(seq.version_at(0).unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(seq.version_at(4).unwrap(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_build_manifest_skips_refresh_when_carry_forward_stable_row_ids() {
+        use crate::feature_flags::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        use crate::rowids::version::{RowDatasetVersionMeta, RowDatasetVersionSequence};
+        use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "same.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([200u64, 201, 202, 203, 204].as_slice());
+        let row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids).into()));
+
+        let uniform_v1 = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(5, 1);
+        let meta_v1 = RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&uniform_v1).unwrap();
+
+        let prev_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![data_file.clone()],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: row_id_meta.clone(),
+            physical_rows: Some(5),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(meta_v1.clone()),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            Arc::new(vec![prev_fragment]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        manifest.next_row_id = 100;
+
+        let merged_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![data_file],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta,
+            physical_rows: Some(5),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(meta_v1),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let tx = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: vec![merged_fragment],
+                schema: lance_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (out, _) = tx
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let seq = out.fragments[0]
+            .last_updated_at_version_meta
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .load_sequence()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(seq.version_at(0).unwrap(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(seq.version_at(4).unwrap(), 1);
+    }
+
+    fn merge_test_file(path: &str) -> DataFile {
+        DataFile::new(
+            path,
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0],
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Committed fragment carrying `row_ids`.
+    fn frag_with_row_ids(id: u64, path: &str, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Fragment {
+        Fragment {
+            id,
+            files: vec![merge_test_file(path)],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(
+                write_row_ids(&RowIdSequence::from(row_ids)).into(),
+            )),
+            physical_rows: Some(row_ids.len()),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Fragment without row id metadata: staged write_fragments output, or a
+    /// committed fragment of a non-stable dataset.
+    fn frag_without_row_ids(id: u64, path: &str, physical_rows: usize) -> Fragment {
+        Fragment {
+            id,
+            files: vec![merge_test_file(path)],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(physical_rows),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Single-column manifest over `existing`; stable datasets get row id
+    /// flags and `next_row_id` = 100.
+    fn merge_test_manifest(existing: Vec<Fragment>, stable: bool) -> (Manifest, LanceSchema) {
+        use crate::feature_flags::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            Arc::new(existing),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        if stable {
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+            manifest.next_row_id = 100;
+        }
+        (manifest, lance_schema)
+    }
+
+    /// Validate and build a Merge of `fragments` against `manifest`.
+    fn build_merge(
+        manifest: &Manifest,
+        schema: LanceSchema,
+        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+    ) -> Result<Manifest> {
+        let operation = Operation::Merge {
+            fragments,
+            schema,
+            preserves_nullability: true,
+        };
+        validate_operation(Some(manifest), &operation)?;
+        let tx = Transaction::new(manifest.version, operation, None);
+        let (out, _) = tx.build_manifest(Some(manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())?;
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::placeholder_id_0(0, vec![0, 1, 2], 2)]
+    #[case::pre_reserved_id_7(7, vec![0, 1, 7], 7)]
+    fn merge_build_manifest_assigns_ids_and_row_ids_to_staged_fragments(
+        #[case] staged_id: u64,
+        #[case] expected_ids: Vec<u64>,
+        #[case] new_id: u64,
+    ) {
+        // A placeholder id 0 gets a fresh fragment id; a pre-reserved id is
+        // kept. Either way the staged fragment's row ids come from
+        // next_row_id at commit time.
+        let existing = vec![
+            frag_with_row_ids(0, "frag0.lance", &[0, 1, 2]),
+            frag_with_row_ids(1, "frag1.lance", &[3, 4]),
+        ];
+        let (manifest, schema) = merge_test_manifest(existing.clone(), true);
+
+        let mut merge_list = existing.clone();
+        merge_list.push(frag_without_row_ids(staged_id, "staged.lance", 4));
+        let out = build_merge(&manifest, schema, merge_list).unwrap();
+
+        let ids: Vec<u64> = out.fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(ids, expected_ids);
+        assert_eq!(out.max_fragment_id, Some(new_id.max(1) as u32));
+
+        // Existing fragments keep their row id sequences byte-identical.
+        for prev in &existing {
+            let frag = out.fragments.iter().find(|f| f.id == prev.id).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(frag.row_id_meta, prev.row_id_meta);
+        }
+
+        // The staged fragment was allocated row ids from next_row_id.
+        let new_frag = out.fragments.iter().find(|f| f.id == new_id).unwrap();
+        let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &new_frag.row_id_meta else {
+            panic!("staged fragment must have inline row id metadata");
+        };
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = crate::rowids::read_row_ids(data).unwrap().iter().collect();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100, 101, 102, 103]);
+        assert_eq!(out.next_row_id, 104);
+
+        // Version metadata is stamped like Append.
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&out, new_id), vec![2, 2, 2, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&out, new_id), vec![2, 2, 2, 2]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_build_manifest_assigns_unique_ids_to_staged_fragments_non_stable() {
+        // Regression for the duplicate fragment id corruption: a staged
+        // fragment with placeholder id 0 must not be committed as-is.
+        let existing = vec![
+            frag_without_row_ids(0, "frag0.lance", 2),
+            frag_without_row_ids(1, "frag1.lance", 2),
+        ];
+        let (manifest, schema) = merge_test_manifest(existing.clone(), false);
+
+        let mut merge_list = existing;
+        merge_list.push(frag_without_row_ids(0, "staged.lance", 2));
+        let out = build_merge(&manifest, schema, merge_list).unwrap();
+
+        let ids: Vec<u64> = out.fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![0, 1, 2]);
+        assert!(out.fragments.iter().all(|f| f.row_id_meta.is_none()));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_staged_fragment_is_not_a_rewrite_of_fragment_0() {
+        // The staged fragment's placeholder id 0 collides with fragment 0;
+        // it must not withdraw fragment 0 from index coverage.
+        let existing = vec![
+            frag_without_row_ids(0, "frag0.lance", 2),
+            frag_without_row_ids(1, "frag1.lance", 2),
+        ];
+        let mut merge_list = existing.clone();
+        merge_list.push(frag_without_row_ids(0, "staged.lance", 2));
+
+        assert!(Transaction::merge_rewritten_fields(&existing, &merge_list).is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::complete_stable(&[0, 1], true)]
+    #[case::partial_stable(&[0], true)]
+    #[case::complete_non_stable(&[0, 1], false)]
+    fn merge_build_manifest_rejects_row_ids_on_new_fragments(
+        #[case] supplied_row_ids: &[u64],
+        #[case] stable: bool,
+    ) {
+        // Supplied row ids duplicate the existing fragment's live ids; keeping
+        // them (or filling a partial prefix) would corrupt the row id index.
+        let existing = if stable {
+            frag_with_row_ids(0, "frag0.lance", &[0, 1])
+        } else {
+            frag_without_row_ids(0, "frag0.lance", 2)
+        };
+        let (mut manifest, schema) = merge_test_manifest(vec![existing.clone()], stable);
+        if stable {
+            manifest.next_row_id = 2;
+        }
+
+        let mut staged = frag_with_row_ids(0, "staged.lance", supplied_row_ids);
+        staged.physical_rows = Some(2);
+        let err = build_merge(&manifest, schema, vec![existing, staged]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error variant: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("new fragment (id 0) with row id metadata"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_validate_rejects_duplicate_nonzero_fragment_ids() {
+        let existing = vec![frag_without_row_ids(1, "frag1.lance", 2)];
+        let (manifest, schema) = merge_test_manifest(existing.clone(), false);
+
+        let mut merge_list = existing;
+        merge_list.push(frag_without_row_ids(1, "other.lance", 2));
+        let err = build_merge(&manifest, schema, merge_list).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error variant: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("duplicate fragment id 1"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_validate_rejects_staged_fragment_listed_before_existing_non_stable() {
+        // With equal row counts and no row id metadata, a misordered staged
+        // fragment is indistinguishable by content from the fragment whose id
+        // it collides with; the order check must reject it on non-stable
+        // datasets too.
+        let existing = vec![
+            frag_without_row_ids(0, "frag0.lance", 2),
+            frag_without_row_ids(1, "frag1.lance", 2),
+        ];
+        let (manifest, schema) = merge_test_manifest(existing.clone(), false);
+
+        let mut merge_list = vec![frag_without_row_ids(0, "staged.lance", 2)];
+        merge_list.extend(existing);
+        let err = build_merge(&manifest, schema, merge_list).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error variant: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("after a new fragment"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_validate_rejects_staged_fragment_listed_before_existing_stable() {
+        // A staged id-0 fragment listed before the real fragment 0 would be
+        // taken as the existing one; validation must reject the swap.
+        let existing = frag_with_row_ids(0, "frag0.lance", &[0, 1]);
+        let (manifest, schema) = merge_test_manifest(vec![existing.clone()], true);
+
+        let staged = frag_without_row_ids(0, "staged.lance", 2);
+        let err = build_merge(&manifest, schema, vec![staged, existing]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error variant: {}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("dropped row id metadata for existing fragment 0"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_build_manifest_no_last_updated_refresh_without_stable_row_ids() {
+        use crate::feature_flags::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+        let mk_file = |path: &str| {
+            DataFile::new(
+                path,
+                vec![0],
+                vec![0],
+                LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let prev_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![mk_file("before.lance")],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(5),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            Arc::new(vec![prev_fragment.clone()]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS,
+            0,
+            "manifest must not use stable row IDs for this guard test"
+        );
+
+        let merged_fragment = Fragment {
+            files: vec![mk_file("after.lance")],
+            ..prev_fragment
+        };
+
+        let tx = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: vec![merged_fragment],
+                schema: lance_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (out, _) = tx
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            out.fragments[0].last_updated_at_version_meta.is_none(),
+            "without stable row IDs, Merge must not populate per-row last_updated metadata"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn merge_build_manifest_sets_both_version_meta_for_new_fragment_id_stable_row_ids() {
+        use crate::feature_flags::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+        let mk_file = |path: &str| {
+            DataFile::new(
+                path,
+                vec![0],
+                vec![0],
+                LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        // Existing fragment (id=0) with stable row IDs
+        let row_ids_0 = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11, 12].as_slice());
+        let existing_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![mk_file("existing.lance")],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids_0).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(3),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            lance_schema.clone(),
+            Arc::new(vec![existing_fragment.clone()]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        manifest.next_row_id = 100;
+        manifest.version = 1;
+
+        // New fragment (id=1) not present in prev manifest; row ids are
+        // allocated at commit time.
+        let new_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![mk_file("new.lance")],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(4),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let tx = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: vec![existing_fragment, new_fragment],
+                schema: lance_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (out, _) = tx
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(out.version, 2);
+
+        let new_frag = out.fragments.iter().find(|f| f.id == 1).unwrap();
+        let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &new_frag.row_id_meta else {
+            panic!("new fragment must have inline row id metadata");
+        };
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = crate::rowids::read_row_ids(data).unwrap().iter().collect();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![100, 101, 102, 103]);
+        assert_eq!(out.next_row_id, 104);
+
+        // last_updated_at_version must be set to the commit version
+        let last_updated_seq = new_frag
+            .last_updated_at_version_meta
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("new fragment must have last_updated_at_version_meta")
+            .load_sequence()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_seq.version_at(0).unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_seq.version_at(3).unwrap(), 2);
+
+        // created_at_version must also be set — must not be None
+        let created_seq = new_frag
+            .created_at_version_meta
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("new fragment must have created_at_version_meta")
+            .load_sequence()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(created_seq.version_at(0).unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(created_seq.version_at(3).unwrap(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_build_manifest_multi_fragment() {
+        // Overlays targeting two distinct fragments are each applied and stamped.
+        // A targeted fragment already carrying an overlay (committed at v3) gets
+        // the new overlay appended and stamped while its existing overlay is
+        // preserved, and a fragment the operation does not target is passed
+        // through with its existing overlays untouched.
+        let mut frag0 = Fragment::new(0);
+        frag0.overlays = vec![overlay_with_field(5, 3)]; // targeted, pre-existing at v3
+        let frag1 = Fragment::new(1);
+        let mut frag2 = Fragment::new(2);
+        frag2.overlays = vec![overlay_with_field(9, 3)]; // untargeted, committed at v3
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(vec![frag0, frag1, frag2]),
+            crate::format::DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        // The pre-existing overlays were committed at v3, so the current
+        // manifest must be at least that version; the new commit then stamps
+        // its overlay at v4, keeping the fragment's overlays newest-last.
+        manifest.version = 3;
+
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::DataOverlay {
+                groups: vec![
+                    DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id: 0,
+                        overlays: vec![overlay_with_field(1, 0)],
+                    },
+                    DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id: 1,
+                        overlays: vec![overlay_with_field(2, 0)],
+                    },
+                ],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (result, _) = txn
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let frag = |id: u64| {
+            result
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .find(|f| f.id == id)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("fragment {id} missing from result"))
+        };
+        // The already-overlaid target keeps its v3 overlay and appends the new
+        // one, stamped to the new version.
+        assert_eq!(frag(0).overlays.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(frag(0).overlays[0].committed_version, 3);
+        assert_eq!(frag(0).overlays[1].committed_version, result.version);
+        // The fresh target gets its overlay, stamped to the new version.
+        assert_eq!(frag(1).overlays.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(frag(1).overlays[0].committed_version, result.version);
+        // The untargeted fragment is unchanged: same overlay, original version.
+        assert_eq!(frag(2).overlays.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(frag(2).overlays[0].committed_version, 3);
+        assert!(result.version > manifest.version);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_build_manifest_updates_row_lineage() {
+        let row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11, 12, 13].as_slice());
+        let version_meta = RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(
+            &RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(4, 1),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(4),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(version_meta.clone()),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(version_meta),
+        };
+        // Stable-row-id migrations can leave old fragments without explicit
+        // lineage metadata; scans expose those rows as version 1.
+        let untracked_row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([20u64, 21].as_slice());
+        let untracked_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 2,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&untracked_row_ids).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![fragment, untracked_fragment]);
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::DataOverlay {
+                groups: vec![
+                    DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id: 1,
+                        overlays: vec![
+                            DataOverlayFile {
+                                data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields(
+                                    "dense.lance",
+                                    vec![1],
+                                    None,
+                                ),
+                                coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                                committed_version: 0,
+                            },
+                            DataOverlayFile {
+                                data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields(
+                                    "sparse.lance",
+                                    vec![1, 2],
+                                    None,
+                                ),
+                                coverage: OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![
+                                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32]),
+                                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3u32]),
+                                ]),
+                                committed_version: 0,
+                            },
+                        ],
+                    },
+                    DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id: 2,
+                        overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields(
+                                "migrated.lance",
+                                vec![1],
+                                None,
+                            ),
+                            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32])),
+                            committed_version: 0,
+                        }],
+                    },
+                ],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (result, _) = txn
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 1), vec![5, 1, 5, 5]);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 2), vec![1, 5]);
+        assert!(
+            result.fragments[0]
+                .overlays
+                .iter()
+                .all(|overlay| overlay.committed_version == result.version)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_replacement_tombstones_overlaid_fields() {
+        // A DataReplacement writing new base values for field 5 must stop any
+        // overlay already shadowing those cells: field 5 is tombstoned in place
+        // (preserving the overlay's field 3), and an overlay covering only field
+        // 5 is dropped entirely. Both overlays predate the transaction's read
+        // version, which is what makes the replacement the newer value.
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.files = vec![
+            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("f3.lance", vec![3], None),
+            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("f5.lance", vec![5], None),
+        ];
+        fragment.overlays = vec![
+            DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("o35.lance", vec![3, 5], None),
+                coverage: OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![
+                    roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+                    roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+                ]),
+                committed_version: 1,
+            },
+            DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("o5.lance", vec![5], None),
+                coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                committed_version: 1,
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            crate::format::DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::DataReplacement {
+                replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(
+                    0,
+                    DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("f5-new.lance", vec![5], None),
+                )],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (result, _) = txn
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let frag = &result.fragments[0];
+        // The base data file for field 5 was swapped in.
+        assert!(frag.files.iter().any(|f| f.path == "f5-new.lance"));
+        // The [3, 5] overlay keeps field 3 and tombstones field 5; the [5]-only
+        // overlay is dropped.
+        assert_eq!(frag.overlays.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(frag.overlays[0].data_file.fields.as_ref(), &[3, -2]);
+    }
+
+    /// Replace `fields` in `fragment` at `read_version`, against a manifest
+    /// at `manifest_version` whose schema declares field ids 3 ("x"), 4 ("a"),
+    /// 5 ("v") and 6 ("y").
+    fn replace_fields(
+        fragment: Fragment,
+        fields: Vec<i32>,
+        manifest_version: u64,
+        read_version: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Fragment> {
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("v", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        let mut lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).unwrap();
+        lance_schema.fields[0].id = 3;
+        lance_schema.fields[1].id = 4;
+        lance_schema.fields[2].id = 5;
+        lance_schema.fields[3].id = 6;
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            lance_schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            crate::format::DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        manifest.version = manifest_version;
+
+        let column_indices = (0..fields.len() as i32).collect();
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::DataReplacement {
+                replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(
+                    0,
+                    DataFile::new(
+                        "v-new.lance",
+                        fields,
+                        column_indices,
+                        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                        None,
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                )],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        txn.build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .map(|(manifest, _)| manifest.fragments[0].clone())
+    }
+
+    /// Replace field 5 in `fragment` at `read_version`, against a manifest at
+    /// `manifest_version`.
+    fn replace_field_5(
+        fragment: Fragment,
+        manifest_version: u64,
+        read_version: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Fragment> {
+        replace_fields(fragment, vec![5], manifest_version, read_version)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_replacement_rejects_subset_of_legacy_file() {
+        // The V1 reader derives its page table offset from the first field in
+        // the file metadata, so turning `[4, 5]` into `[-2, 5]` would leave
+        // field 4 decoding from field 5's pages. With no exact match to swap,
+        // the replacement must be rejected rather than corrupting the sibling.
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.files = vec![DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields(
+            "wide.lance",
+            vec![4, 5],
+            None,
+        )];
+
+        let result = replace_field_5(fragment, 1, 1);
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "legacy subset replacement must be rejected, got: {:?}",
+            result.map(|fragment| fragment.files)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_replacement_tombstones_fields_spanning_files() {
+        // The replaced fields sit in two different wider files. Each file is
+        // tombstoned for the field it holds and survives on its remaining
+        // live one, with the new file answering for both.
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.files = vec![
+            DataFile::new(
+                "ab.lance",
+                vec![3, 4],
+                vec![0, 1],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                None,
+                None,
+            ),
+            DataFile::new(
+                "cd.lance",
+                vec![5, 6],
+                vec![0, 1],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                None,
+                None,
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let fragment = replace_fields(fragment, vec![4, 5], 1, 1).unwrap();
+        let file = |path| {
+            fragment
+                .files
+                .iter()
+                .find(|file| file.path == path)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("{path} survives on its live field"))
+        };
+        assert_eq!(file("ab.lance").fields.as_ref(), &[3, TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID]);
+        assert_eq!(file("cd.lance").fields.as_ref(), &[TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID, 6]);
+        assert!(fragment.files.iter().any(|file| file.path == "v-new.lance"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_replacement_rejects_fields_spanning_a_legacy_file() {
+        // Spanning is only resolvable while every covering file can be
+        // tombstoned. A V1 file holding one of the replaced fields cannot,
+        // so the replacement must be rejected rather than half applied.
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.files = vec![
+            DataFile::new(
+                "ab.lance",
+                vec![3, 4],
+                vec![0, 1],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                None,
+                None,
+            ),
+            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("cd.lance", vec![5, 6], None),
+        ];
+
+        let result = replace_fields(fragment, vec![4, 5], 1, 1);
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "spanning a legacy file must be rejected, got: {:?}",
+            result.map(|fragment| fragment.files)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_replacement_retombstones_wider_file() {
+        // A wider file carrying a tombstone from an earlier round is
+        // tombstoned again for the newly replaced field and survives on its
+        // remaining live field.
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.files = vec![DataFile::new(
+            "wide.lance",
+            vec![4, TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID, 5],
+            vec![0, 1, 2],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            None,
+        )];
+
+        let fragment = replace_fields(fragment, vec![5], 1, 1).unwrap();
+        let wide = fragment
+            .files
+            .iter()
+            .find(|file| file.path == "wide.lance")
+            .expect("wider file survives on its live field");
+        assert_eq!(
+            wide.fields.as_ref(),
+            &[4, TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID, TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID]
+        );
+        assert!(fragment.files.iter().any(|file| file.path == "v-new.lance"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_replacement_preserves_overlay_newer_than_snapshot() {
+        // An overlay committed after this transaction read its snapshot holds
+        // the newer value; the conflict resolver rebases the two precisely
+        // because the overlay wins. Tombstoning it would discard a committed
+        // write, so only overlays the transaction could have seen are superseded.
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        // One wider file, so the replacement takes the tombstone-and-append path.
+        fragment.files = vec![DataFile::new(
+            "wide.lance",
+            vec![4, 5],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            None,
+        )];
+        fragment.overlays = vec![DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new(
+                "newer.lance",
+                vec![5],
+                vec![0],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                None,
+                None,
+            ),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+            committed_version: 7,
+        }];
+
+        // Staged against version 6, i.e. before the overlay landed.
+        let fragment = replace_field_5(fragment, 7, 6).unwrap();
+        assert!(fragment.files.iter().any(|f| f.path == "v-new.lance"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            fragment.overlays.len(),
+            1,
+            "overlay committed after the snapshot must survive"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(fragment.overlays[0].data_file.fields.as_ref(), &[5]);
+    }
+
+    /// A projection keeps only the data files that still share a field with
+    /// the schema. The reserved ids of spilled row lineage are never in it, so
+    /// without an exception the file carrying them, their only copy, would go.
+    #[test]
+    fn project_keeps_file_carrying_spilled_row_lineage() {
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.physical_rows = Some(4);
+        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Column);
+        fragment.created_at_version_meta = Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column);
+        fragment.files = vec![
+            DataFile::new(
+                "d.lance",
+                vec![0, 1],
+                vec![0, 1],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                None,
+                None,
+            ),
+            DataFile::new(
+                "l.lance",
+                vec![ROW_ID_FIELD_ID, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID],
+                vec![0, 1],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                None,
+                None,
+            ),
+        ];
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]);
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags = FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags = FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+
+        // Drop field 1, as `drop_columns(["b"])` would.
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Project {
+                schema: manifest.schema.project_by_ids(&[0], true),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let (result, _) = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragment = &result.fragments[0];
+        let paths = fragment
+            .files
+            .iter()
+            .map(|file| file.path.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(paths, ["d.lance", "l.lance"]);
+        for field_id in [ROW_ID_FIELD_ID, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                fragment
+                    .row_lineage_file(field_id)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .map(|file| file.path.as_str()),
+                Some("l.lance"),
+                "field {field_id}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Replacing part of a wider file tombstones the replaced fields where
+    /// they live and drops any file left without a schema field. The file
+    /// carrying the fragment's spilled row ids may have none, yet it is their
+    /// only copy and must stay next to the new file that answers for the user
+    /// fields. The carrier is either a file of its own, as an update writes
+    /// it, or a file that also holds user columns, all of which are replaced.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::lineage_only_file(
+        vec![("v.lance", vec![3, 4, 5, 6]), ("l.lance", vec![ROW_ID_FIELD_ID])],
+        vec![3, 4],
+        vec![
+            ("v.lance", vec![TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID, TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID, 5, 6]),
+            ("l.lance", vec![ROW_ID_FIELD_ID]),
+            ("v-new.lance", vec![3, 4]),
+        ],
+        "l.lance"
+    )]
+    #[case::in_file_carrier(
+        vec![("v.lance", vec![3, 4, 5, 6, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID])],
+        vec![3, 4, 5, 6],
+        vec![
+            (
+                "v.lance",
+                vec![
+                    TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID,
+                    TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID,
+                    TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID,
+                    TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID,
+                    ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+                ],
+            ),
+            ("v-new.lance", vec![3, 4, 5, 6]),
+        ],
+        "v.lance"
+    )]
+    fn data_replacement_keeps_lineage_carrier(
+        #[case] files: Vec<(&str, Vec<i32>)>,
+        #[case] replaced_fields: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] expected_files: Vec<(&str, Vec<i32>)>,
+        #[case] carrier: &str,
+    ) {
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Column);
+        fragment.files = files
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(path, fields)| {
+                let column_indices = (0..fields.len() as i32).collect();
+                DataFile::new(
+                    path,
+                    fields,
+                    column_indices,
+                    ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let fragment = replace_fields(fragment, replaced_fields, 1, 1).unwrap();
+        let files = fragment
+            .files
+            .iter()
+            .map(|file| (file.path.as_str(), file.fields.to_vec()))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(files, expected_files);
+        assert_eq!(
+            fragment
+                .row_lineage_file(ROW_ID_FIELD_ID)
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|file| file.path.as_str()),
+            Some(carrier)
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Whatever hands the commit a fragment whose spilled row ids have no v2
+    /// carrier -- an operation that dropped the file, or a writer that never
+    /// attached it -- the commit refuses it rather than publish lineage that
+    /// no reader can load.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::no_carrier(vec![0], ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)]
+    #[case::v1_carrier(vec![0, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID], ConcreteFileVersion::V1)]
+    fn build_manifest_rejects_spilled_arm_without_carrier(
+        #[case] fields: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let manifest = sample_manifest();
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.physical_rows = Some(4);
+        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Column);
+        // Column indices do not matter to the commit, only ids and version.
+        let data_file = DataFile::new("d.lance", fields, vec![], version, None, None);
+        fragment.files = vec![data_file];
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: vec![fragment],
+                schema: manifest.schema.clone(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let err = transaction
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::Internal { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("fragment 0") && message.contains(&ROW_ID_FIELD_ID.to_string()),
+            "{message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_build_manifest_merges_duplicate_groups() {
+        // Two groups targeting the same fragment must both survive (a HashMap
+        // collapse would have dropped the first).
+        let manifest = sample_manifest();
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::DataOverlay {
+                groups: vec![
+                    DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id: 0,
+                        overlays: vec![overlay_with_field(1, 0)],
+                    },
+                    DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id: 0,
+                        overlays: vec![overlay_with_field(2, 0)],
+                    },
+                ],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let (result, _) = txn
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let overlays = &result.fragments[0].overlays;
+        assert_eq!(overlays.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(overlays[0].data_file.fields.as_ref(), [1i32].as_slice());
+        assert_eq!(overlays[1].data_file.fields.as_ref(), [2i32].as_slice());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_build_manifest_rejects_unknown_fragment() {
+        let manifest = sample_manifest();
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            manifest.version,
+            Operation::DataOverlay {
+                groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                    fragment_id: 99,
+                    overlays: vec![overlay_with_field(1, 0)],
+                }],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let err = txn
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("does not exist"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_nullability_assertion_defaults_conservative() {
+        // A writer that predates the field encodes nothing, which decodes as
+        // false: no assertion, so a legacy tightening or required-field merge
+        // still conflicts. Only an explicit true skips the barrier.
+        for encoded in [false, true] {
+            let txn = Transaction::try_from(pb::Transaction {
+                read_version: 1,
+                uuid: "test".to_string(),
+                operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Project(
+                    pb::transaction::Project {
+                        schema: vec![],
+                        preserves_nullability: encoded,
+                    },
+                )),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(txn.operation, Operation::Project { preserves_nullability, .. } if preserves_nullability == encoded),
+                "encoded={encoded:?}"
+            );
+
+            let txn = Transaction::try_from(pb::Transaction {
+                read_version: 1,
+                uuid: "test".to_string(),
+                operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Merge(pb::transaction::Merge {
+                    fragments: vec![],
+                    schema: vec![],
+                    schema_metadata: Default::default(),
+                    preserves_nullability: encoded,
+                })),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(txn.operation, Operation::Merge { preserves_nullability, .. } if preserves_nullability == encoded),
+                "encoded={encoded:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    mod mem_wal_index_coverage {
+        use super::*;
+        use crate::system_index::mem_wal::{
+            CompactedSsTable, IndexCatchupProgress, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, MemWalIndexDetails,
+        };
+
+        fn user_index(name: &str, uuid: Uuid, frags: &[u32]) -> IndexMetadata {
+            IndexMetadata {
+                uuid,
+                name: name.to_string(),
+                fields: vec![0],
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                dataset_version: 1,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(frags.iter().copied())),
+                index_details: None,
+                index_version: 0,
+                created_at: None,
+                base_id: None,
+                files: None,
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn mem_wal_index(details: MemWalIndexDetails) -> IndexMetadata {
+            crate::system_index::mem_wal::new_mem_wal_index_meta(1, details).unwrap()
+        }
+
+        fn coverage_for(indices: &[IndexMetadata], name: &str) -> Option<Vec<CompactedSsTable>> {
+            let meta = indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+                .expect("mem wal index present");
+            load_mem_wal_index_details(meta.clone())
+                .unwrap()
+                .index_catchup
+                .into_iter()
+                .find(|entry| entry.index_name == name)
+                .map(|entry| entry.caught_up_generations)
+        }
+
+        fn compacted(shard: Uuid, generation: u64) -> Vec<CompactedSsTable> {
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, generation)]
+        }
+
+        /// A manifest carrying exactly `frags`, standing in for the version a
+        /// transaction read.
+        fn manifest_with(frags: &[u32]) -> Manifest {
+            let fragments: Vec<Fragment> =
+                frags.iter().map(|id| Fragment::new(*id as u64)).collect();
+            Manifest::new(
+                LanceSchema::default(),
+                Arc::new(fragments),
+                DataStorageFormat::default(),
+                Default::default(),
+            )
+        }
+
+        /// Drives the production path, so these exercise the real derivation.
+        fn apply(
+            after: &mut [IndexMetadata],
+            before: &[IndexMetadata],
+            read_frags: &[u32],
+            read_indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            let manifest = manifest_with(read_frags);
+            let segments_before = Transaction::logical_index_segments(before);
+            Transaction::apply_mem_wal_index_coverage(
+                after,
+                &segments_before,
+                Some(ReadVersionState {
+                    manifest: &manifest,
+                    indices: read_indices,
+                }),
+                2,
+            )
+        }
+
+        fn table(idx_frags: &[u32], uuid: Uuid, details: MemWalIndexDetails) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+            vec![user_index("idx", uuid, idx_frags), mem_wal_index(details)]
+        }
+
+        fn progress(shard: Uuid, generation: u64) -> MemWalIndexDetails {
+            MemWalIndexDetails {
+                compacted_sstables: compacted(shard, generation),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn progress_with_catchup(shard: Uuid, generation: u64, caught: u64) -> MemWalIndexDetails {
+            MemWalIndexDetails {
+                compacted_sstables: compacted(shard, generation),
+                index_catchup: vec![IndexCatchupProgress::new(
+                    "idx".to_string(),
+                    compacted(shard, caught),
+                )],
+                ..Default::default()
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Through the builder, the "before" side of the coverage comparison
+        /// is the original list as read from the manifest, never the
+        /// prepared one: an in-place rewrite that narrows an index's
+        /// coverage in preparation withdraws its catch-up record instead of
+        /// carrying it over as if nothing changed.
+        #[test]
+        fn a_withdrawal_in_preparation_withdraws_the_catch_up_record() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let read = table(&[0, 1], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            // A schema with field 0, so the index on it is retained.
+            let mut manifest = crate::transaction::test_support::sample_manifest();
+            manifest.fragments = Arc::new(vec![Fragment::new(0), Fragment::new(1)]);
+            let mut update = crate::transaction::test_support::update_txn(vec![]);
+            let Operation::Update {
+                updated_fragments,
+                fields_modified,
+                ..
+            } = &mut update.operation
+            else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            *updated_fragments = vec![Fragment::new(0)];
+            *fields_modified = vec![0];
+            let transaction = Transaction::new(manifest.version, update.operation, None);
+            let (_, after) = transaction
+                .build_manifest_with_read_version(
+                    Some(&manifest),
+                    read.clone(),
+                    "txn",
+                    &default_build_config(),
+                    Some(ReadVersionState {
+                        manifest: &manifest,
+                        indices: &read,
+                    }),
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            let idx = after.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "idx").unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                idx.fragment_bitmap,
+                Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32])),
+                "the rewritten fragment left the coverage in preparation"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                coverage_for(&after, "idx"),
+                None,
+                "a record derived over the original coverage is not carried"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// An index spanning every fragment the transaction read is credited
+        /// with what that version had compacted.
+        #[test]
+        fn an_index_covering_the_read_version_is_credited() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let read = table(&[0, 1], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 5));
+            let mut after = table(&[0, 1], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 5));
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0, 1], &read).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 5)));
+        }
+
+        /// An index short of the read version proves nothing, so it gets no
+        /// entry -- absence reads as "not caught up".
+        #[test]
+        fn an_index_short_of_the_read_version_is_not_credited() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let read = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 5));
+            let mut after = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 5));
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0, 1], &read).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), None);
+        }
+
+        /// The hazard that makes the comparison use whole metadata.
+        ///
+        /// `Operation::Update` prunes a segment's fragment bitmap in place when
+        /// it touches an indexed field, keeping the same UUID. A UUID-only
+        /// "unchanged" test carries the old position forward while the index
+        /// covers fewer fragments, and the WAL pod then trims on a position the
+        /// index no longer earns. Reachable from the ordinary SSTable merge.
+        #[test]
+        fn a_bitmap_pruned_in_place_does_not_keep_its_position() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0, 1], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            // Same UUID, fragment 1 pruned away.
+            let mut after = table(&[0], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0, 1], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                coverage_for(&after, "idx"),
+                None,
+                "a shrunken index kept a position it no longer earns"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Carrying a position forward is not the same as extending it. An
+        /// index that has not moved still only holds the generations it caught
+        /// up to; the compaction that has landed since is in fragments it does
+        /// not span.
+        #[test]
+        fn an_unchanged_index_is_not_raised_beyond_what_it_proves() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            // Recorded at generation 2; generation 5 has since been folded in.
+            let before = table(&[0], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 2));
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            // Fragment 1 arrived with that compaction and this index lacks it.
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0, 1], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 2)));
+        }
+
+        /// A recorded position above what this commit says was compacted is
+        /// clamped down. Nothing should produce one, but a position the base
+        /// table cannot back would retire SSTables whose rows are nowhere.
+        #[test]
+        fn a_carried_position_cannot_exceed_the_committed_progress() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 3, 9));
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 3)));
+        }
+
+        /// An unchanged index keeps what it recorded even when this commit's
+        /// own snapshot cannot prove as much.
+        #[test]
+        fn an_unchanged_index_is_never_lowered() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 9, 9));
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0, 1], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 9)));
+        }
+
+        /// Credit never exceeds what this commit records as compacted, so a
+        /// read version since rolled back cannot retire SSTables no live commit
+        /// copied in.
+        #[test]
+        fn credit_is_capped_by_the_committed_progress() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let read = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 9));
+            let mut after = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 3));
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0], &read).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 3)));
+        }
+
+        /// The cap is the read version's progress, not this commit's. A
+        /// compaction that landed while the index was being built put its rows
+        /// in fragments this transaction never inspected, so covering
+        /// everything it *did* read earns only what had been folded in by then.
+        #[test]
+        fn credit_never_reaches_past_the_read_version() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            // Read at generation 2; generation 5 landed while this ran.
+            let read = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 2));
+            let mut after = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 5));
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0], &read).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 2)));
+        }
+
+        /// One segment with an unknown bitmap makes the whole index unproven,
+        /// even when its siblings happen to span everything. Coverage that
+        /// cannot be read is not coverage that can be relied on.
+        #[test]
+        fn an_index_with_an_unknown_segment_is_not_credited() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let mut unknown = user_index("idx", Uuid::new_v4(), &[]);
+            unknown.fragment_bitmap = None;
+            let read = vec![
+                user_index("idx", Uuid::new_v4(), &[0, 1]),
+                unknown,
+                mem_wal_index(progress(shard, 5)),
+            ];
+            let mut after = read.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0, 1], &read).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), None);
+        }
+
+        /// A dropped index has no coverage left to gate anything.
+        #[test]
+        fn a_dropped_index_loses_its_entry() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            let mut after = vec![mem_wal_index(progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5))];
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), None);
+        }
+
+        /// An index created by this commit is credited if it spans the read
+        /// version -- it was built over those fragments, so it holds their
+        /// rows. This is what the advance model could not express: an ordinary
+        /// build that fully covers had to throw its work away and wait.
+        #[test]
+        fn a_new_index_covering_the_read_version_is_credited() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = vec![mem_wal_index(progress(shard, 5))];
+            let mut after = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 5));
+            // Covers the read version, but was not there when it was read.
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 5)));
+        }
+
+        /// A table carrying compaction progress but no catch-up entry earns one
+        /// from an ordinary commit. This is how a table written before catch-up
+        /// was maintained heals itself: nothing has to be run against it.
+        #[test]
+        fn a_table_with_no_catchup_entry_earns_one() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 5));
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 5)));
+        }
+
+        /// Two shards, only one of them compacted.
+        #[test]
+        fn each_shard_is_credited_independently() {
+            let merged = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let idle = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![
+                    CompactedSsTable::new(merged, 4),
+                    CompactedSsTable::new(idle, 0),
+                ],
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let read = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), details.clone());
+            let mut after = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), details);
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0], &read).unwrap();
+            let coverage = coverage_for(&after, "idx").expect("credited");
+            assert_eq!(
+                coverage
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|g| g.shard_id == merged)
+                    .map(|g| g.generation),
+                Some(4)
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                coverage
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|g| g.shard_id == idle)
+                    .map(|g| g.generation),
+                Some(0)
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Two indexes advance independently: one covering, one behind.
+        #[test]
+        fn indexes_are_credited_independently() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let read = vec![
+                user_index("fast", Uuid::new_v4(), &[0, 1]),
+                user_index("slow", Uuid::new_v4(), &[0]),
+                mem_wal_index(progress(shard, 6)),
+            ];
+            let mut after = read.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0, 1], &read).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "fast"), Some(compacted(shard, 6)));
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "slow"), None);
+        }
+
+        /// An index whose coverage is unknown cannot be shown to cover anything.
+        #[test]
+        fn an_index_without_a_bitmap_is_not_credited() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let mut idx = user_index("idx", Uuid::new_v4(), &[0]);
+            idx.fragment_bitmap = None;
+            let read = vec![idx, mem_wal_index(progress(shard, 5))];
+            let mut after = read.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0], &read).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), None);
+        }
+
+        /// Nothing compacted means nothing to be behind on.
+        #[test]
+        fn no_compaction_progress_writes_no_entries() {
+            let before = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), MemWalIndexDetails::default());
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            let untouched = after.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(after, untouched);
+        }
+
+        /// No MemWAL system index: nothing to maintain, and no error.
+        #[test]
+        fn a_table_without_mem_wal_is_a_no_op() {
+            let before = vec![user_index("idx", Uuid::new_v4(), &[0])];
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            let untouched = after.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(after, untouched);
+        }
+
+        /// No read version -- dataset creation, detached commits -- credits
+        /// nothing and lowers nothing.
+        #[test]
+        fn without_a_read_version_nothing_changes() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            let segments_before = Transaction::logical_index_segments(&before);
+            Transaction::apply_mem_wal_index_coverage(&mut after, &segments_before, None, 2)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 5)));
+        }
+
+        /// An untrained index covers nothing that exists, so a sibling's work
+        /// is no evidence for it.
+        #[test]
+        fn an_untrained_index_earns_nothing() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let read = vec![
+                user_index("untrained", Uuid::new_v4(), &[]),
+                user_index("trained", Uuid::new_v4(), &[0]),
+                mem_wal_index(progress(shard, 10)),
+            ];
+            let mut after = read.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0], &read).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "untrained"), None);
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "trained"), Some(compacted(shard, 10)));
+        }
+
+        /// Shards move independently within one index: one advances on this
+        /// commit's proof while another keeps the position it already had.
+        #[test]
+        fn a_shard_keeps_its_position_while_another_advances() {
+            let (advancing, quiet) = (Uuid::new_v4(), Uuid::new_v4());
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let details = |advancing_gen: u64| MemWalIndexDetails {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![
+                    CompactedSsTable::new(advancing, advancing_gen),
+                    CompactedSsTable::new(quiet, 10),
+                ],
+                index_catchup: vec![IndexCatchupProgress::new(
+                    "idx".to_string(),
+                    vec![CompactedSsTable::new(quiet, 7)],
+                )],
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            // The quiet shard was never compacted as of the read, so nothing
+            // this commit proves reaches it -- it keeps its recorded 7.
+            let read = vec![
+                user_index("idx", uuid, &[0]),
+                mem_wal_index(MemWalIndexDetails {
+                    compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(advancing, 9)],
+                    ..details(9)
+                }),
+            ];
+            let mut after = vec![user_index("idx", uuid, &[0]), mem_wal_index(details(10))];
+            apply(&mut after, &read, &[0], &read).unwrap();
+
+            let mut coverage = coverage_for(&after, "idx").expect("credited");
+            coverage.sort_unstable_by_key(|sstable| sstable.shard_id);
+            let mut expected = vec![
+                CompactedSsTable::new(advancing, 9),
+                CompactedSsTable::new(quiet, 7),
+            ];
+            expected.sort_unstable_by_key(|sstable| sstable.shard_id);
+            assert_eq!(coverage, expected);
+        }
+
+        /// The derivation drops coverage an index no longer earns, but it never
+        /// rejects the commit -- an ordinary index job must not be blocked by
+        /// a protocol it knows nothing about.
+        #[test]
+        fn an_ordinary_index_job_is_never_blocked() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0, 1], Uuid::new_v4(), progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            // Rebuilt over a subset -- the shape a partial reindex leaves.
+            let mut after = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0, 1], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), None);
+        }
+
+        /// A reader's rule is that a missing entry means "not caught up", so an
+        /// index caught up to nothing must be absent rather than present at
+        /// generation zero -- otherwise it reads as known-and-covered.
+        #[test]
+        fn an_index_caught_up_to_nothing_gets_no_entry() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 0));
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            // Does not span the read version, so nothing lifts it off zero.
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0, 1], &before).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), None);
+        }
+
+        /// Each shard carries its own position. Collapsing them to one value
+        /// would credit a lagging shard with a busier shard's progress.
+        #[test]
+        fn carried_positions_do_not_leak_between_shards() {
+            let (ahead, behind) = (Uuid::new_v4(), Uuid::new_v4());
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![
+                    CompactedSsTable::new(ahead, 10),
+                    CompactedSsTable::new(behind, 10),
+                ],
+                index_catchup: vec![IndexCatchupProgress::new(
+                    "idx".to_string(),
+                    vec![
+                        CompactedSsTable::new(ahead, 8),
+                        CompactedSsTable::new(behind, 2),
+                    ],
+                )],
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let before = vec![user_index("idx", uuid, &[0]), mem_wal_index(details)];
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            // Unchanged and unproven: both shards keep exactly what they had.
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0, 1], &before).unwrap();
+
+            let mut coverage = coverage_for(&after, "idx").expect("carried");
+            coverage.sort_unstable_by_key(|sstable| sstable.shard_id);
+            let mut expected = vec![
+                CompactedSsTable::new(ahead, 8),
+                CompactedSsTable::new(behind, 2),
+            ];
+            expected.sort_unstable_by_key(|sstable| sstable.shard_id);
+            assert_eq!(coverage, expected);
+        }
+
+        /// The derivation runs while the manifest is being built, but the
+        /// index list is not final there: `migrate_indices` recalculates a
+        /// segment's fragment bitmap and keeps its UUID. A position decided
+        /// before that must not survive the narrowing, or the WAL pod trims
+        /// against an index that no longer covers those rows.
+        #[test]
+        fn a_bitmap_narrowed_after_the_build_loses_its_position() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            // What migrate_indices leaves behind: same UUID, fewer fragments,
+            // and it says so.
+            let mut migrated = table(&[0], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+
+            Transaction::withdraw_coverage_invalidated_after_build(
+                &mut migrated,
+                &["idx".to_string()],
+                3,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&migrated, "idx"), None);
+        }
+
+        /// Migration routinely fills in file lists and inferred details. Those
+        /// do not change which rows an index answers for, so withdrawing on
+        /// them would drop coverage every commit for no reason.
+        #[test]
+        fn metadata_migration_that_does_not_narrow_keeps_its_position() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let mut migrated = table(&[0, 1], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            migrated[0].files = Some(Vec::new());
+            migrated[0].created_at = Some(chrono::Utc::now());
+
+            // Nothing narrowed, so migration reports nothing.
+            Transaction::withdraw_coverage_invalidated_after_build(&mut migrated, &[], 3).unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&migrated, "idx"), Some(compacted(shard, 5)));
+        }
+
+        /// A commit that changes nothing must not churn the system index: a new
+        /// UUID on every append would invalidate its cache entry fleet-wide.
+        #[test]
+        fn an_unchanged_commit_does_not_rewrite_the_system_index() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0], uuid, progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            let mut after = before.clone();
+            apply(&mut after, &before, &[0], &before).unwrap();
+
+            let system_uuid = |indices: &[IndexMetadata]| {
+                indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .uuid
+            };
+            assert_eq!(system_uuid(&after), system_uuid(&before));
+        }
+
+        /// A commit with no read version still withdraws. It can prove nothing,
+        /// so an index it changed keeps no position -- the alternative leaves a
+        /// position describing an index that no longer exists.
+        #[test]
+        fn without_a_read_version_a_changed_index_still_loses_its_position() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let before = table(&[0, 1], Uuid::new_v4(), progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            let mut after = table(&[0], Uuid::new_v4(), progress_with_catchup(shard, 5, 5));
+            let segments_before = Transaction::logical_index_segments(&before);
+            Transaction::apply_mem_wal_index_coverage(&mut after, &segments_before, None, 2)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&after, "idx"), None);
+        }
+
+        /// Two attempts against the same read version agree, which is what makes
+        /// a rebase safe: `read_version` is fixed for a transaction's life.
+        #[test]
+        fn the_derivation_is_stable_across_attempts() {
+            let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let read = table(&[0, 1], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 5));
+            let mut first = table(&[0, 1], Uuid::new_v4(), progress(shard, 5));
+            let mut second = first.clone();
+            apply(&mut first, &read, &[0, 1], &read).unwrap();
+            apply(&mut second, &read, &[0, 1], &read).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(coverage_for(&first, "idx"), coverage_for(&second, "idx"));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/operation.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/operation.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3d83ce49e21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/operation.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,436 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! The vocabulary of changes a transaction can describe.
+//!
+//! Each [`Operation`] variant names one kind of change and carries exactly the
+//! inputs needed to apply it: the fragments to add, the fields that were
+//! rewritten, the indices that were rebuilt. Applying them is
+//! [`super::manifest_build`]; deciding whether two of them collide is
+//! [`super::conflicts`].
+
+use crate::format::key_existence::KeyExistenceFilter;
+use crate::format::overlay::DataOverlayFile;
+use crate::format::{BasePath, DataFile, Fragment, IndexFile, IndexMetadata};
+use crate::system_index::mem_wal::CompactedSsTable;
+use crate::transaction::UpdateMap;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
+pub struct DataReplacementGroup(pub u64, pub DataFile);
+
+/// Overlay files to append to a single fragment, in order (the last entry is
+/// newest). The overlays are appended to the fragment's existing `overlays`
+/// list rather than replacing it, so overlays written by concurrent commits are
+/// preserved. Each overlay's `committed_version` is stamped to the new dataset
+/// version at commit time (re-stamped on retry).
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
+pub struct DataOverlayGroup {
+    pub fragment_id: u64,
+    pub overlays: Vec<DataOverlayFile>,
+}
+
+/// An operation on a dataset.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub enum Operation {
+    /// Adding new fragments to the dataset. The fragments contained within
+    /// haven't yet been assigned a final ID.
+    Append { fragments: Vec<Fragment> },
+    /// Updated fragments contain those that have been modified with new deletion
+    /// files. The deleted fragment IDs are those that should be removed from
+    /// the manifest.
+    Delete {
+        updated_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        deleted_fragment_ids: Vec<u64>,
+        predicate: String,
+    },
+    /// Overwrite the entire dataset with the given fragments. This is also
+    /// used when initially creating a table.
+    ///
+    /// The fragments are newly written ones and are assigned fresh ids at commit
+    /// time, continuing from the dataset's highest id ever used; the ids they
+    /// arrive with are ignored.
+    ///
+    /// A fragment carrying a deletion file is rejected. A deletion file's path
+    /// embeds the fragment id, so it cannot follow its fragment to the new id:
+    /// minting a fragment and giving it a deletion file are mutually exclusive in
+    /// one transaction. Use [`Self::Delete`] to commit deletions against existing
+    /// fragments, or [`Self::Merge`] to change their schema.
+    Overwrite {
+        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        schema: Schema,
+        config_upsert_values: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+        initial_bases: Option<Vec<BasePath>>,
+    },
+    /// A new index has been created.
+    CreateIndex {
+        /// The new secondary indices,
+        /// any existing indices with the same name will be replaced.
+        new_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        /// The indices that have been modified.
+        removed_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    },
+    /// Data is rewritten but *not* modified. This is used for things like
+    /// compaction or re-ordering. Contains the old fragments and the new
+    /// ones that have been replaced.
+    ///
+    /// This operation will modify the row addresses of existing rows and
+    /// so any existing index covering a rewritten fragment will need to be
+    /// remapped.
+    Rewrite {
+        /// Groups of fragments that have been modified
+        groups: Vec<RewriteGroup>,
+        /// Indices that have been updated with the new row addresses
+        rewritten_indices: Vec<RewrittenIndex>,
+        /// The fragment reuse index entry to be created or updated to: the
+        /// complete entry the caller wants installed, that is a base entry
+        /// plus this rewrite's own records.
+        ///
+        /// On a v0 history (`index_version` 0) it must be the entry of the dataset
+        /// the rewrite is committed through plus one version; a latest entry that
+        /// is neither that entry nor a trim of it is a retryable conflict.
+        ///
+        /// On a tagged history (`index_version` 1) the commit path does not
+        /// splice this entry as it is. It works out which records the entry
+        /// adds relative to the entry at the transaction's read version, so
+        /// the entry must be built from that same snapshot (its
+        /// `dataset_version` is the read version; an entry built from a
+        /// later snapshot is refused, since it would fold other writers'
+        /// records in between into this rewrite's additions). It then
+        /// validates them against `groups` (binding, row conservation,
+        /// deletion folding, the ledger), and merges them onto the entry
+        /// current at commit, so a rewrite never overwrites history another
+        /// writer recorded concurrently. A rewrite only appends: an entry
+        /// that drops a recorded transition, or carries a recorded transition
+        /// with different content, is refused; history is retired through
+        /// the reuse index cleanup instead.
+        ///
+        /// In-memory only, never serialized into the transaction file: other
+        /// writers' conflict decisions only need the fragment sets in
+        /// `groups`, and the manifest is the durable record of the history.
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<IndexMetadata>,
+    },
+    /// Replace data in a column in the dataset with new data. This is used for
+    /// null column population where we replace an entirely null column with a
+    /// new column that has data.
+    ///
+    /// This operation will only allow replacing files that contain the same schema
+    /// e.g. if the original files contain columns A, B, C and the new files contain
+    /// only columns A, B then the operation is not allowed. As we would need to split
+    /// the original files into two files, one with column A, B and the other with column C.
+    ///
+    /// Corollary to the above: the operation will also not allow replacing files unless the
+    /// affected columns all have the same datafile layout across the fragments being replaced.
+    ///
+    /// e.g. if fragments being replaced contain files with different schema layouts on
+    /// the column being replaced, the operation is not allowed.
+    /// say `frag_1: [A] [B, C]` and `frag_2: [A, B] [C]` and we are trying to replace column A
+    /// with a new column A, the operation is not allowed.
+    DataReplacement {
+        replacements: Vec<DataReplacementGroup>,
+    },
+    /// Attach overlay files to fragments, supplying new values for a subset of
+    /// `(physical offset, field)` cells without rewriting the fragments' base
+    /// data files. See [`DataOverlayFile`] and the Data Overlay Files
+    /// specification for resolution, coverage, and versioning rules.
+    DataOverlay { groups: Vec<DataOverlayGroup> },
+    /// Merge a new column in
+    /// 'fragments' is the final fragment list: the merged version of every existing
+    /// fragment (aligned with the old one at rows) and, optionally, brand-new fragments
+    /// listed after them. New fragments use id 0 (assigned a fresh id at commit time) or
+    /// a pre-reserved id; either way, on stable row id datasets they are also assigned
+    /// row ids at commit time, like Append. New fragments must not carry row id metadata.
+    /// 'schema' is not forced to include existed columns, which means we could use Merge to drop column data
+    Merge {
+        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        schema: Schema,
+        /// Set when this merge makes no nullability-affecting schema change:
+        /// it introduces no field that data staged against an earlier schema
+        /// could not safely omit. Without the assertion the merge conflicts
+        /// with concurrent appends in either commit order, since a stale
+        /// append omits new columns entirely and its rows read as null.
+        preserves_nullability: bool,
+    },
+    /// Restore an old version of the database
+    Restore { version: u64 },
+    /// Reserves fragment ids for future use
+    /// This can be used when row ids need to be known before a transaction
+    /// has been committed.  It is used during a rewrite operation to allow
+    /// indices to be remapped to the new row ids as part of the operation.
+    ReserveFragments { num_fragments: u32 },
+
+    /// Update values in the dataset.
+    ///
+    /// Updates are generally vertical or horizontal.
+    ///
+    /// A vertical update adds new rows.  In this case, the updated_fragments
+    /// will only have existing rows deleted and will not have any new fields added.
+    /// All new data will be contained in new_fragments.
+    /// This is what is used by a merge_insert that matches the whole schema and what
+    /// is used by the dataset updater.
+    ///
+    /// A horizontal update adds new columns.  In this case, the updated fragments
+    /// may have fields removed or added.  It is even possible for a field to be tombstoned
+    /// and then added back in the same update. (which is a field modification).  If any
+    /// fields are modified in this way then they need to be added to the fields_modified list.
+    /// This way we can correctly update the indices.
+    /// This is what is used by a merge insert that does not match the whole schema.
+    Update {
+        /// Ids of fragments that have been moved
+        removed_fragment_ids: Vec<u64>,
+        /// Fragments that have been updated
+        updated_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        /// Fragments that have been added
+        new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        /// The fields that have been modified
+        fields_modified: Vec<u32>,
+        /// MemWAL SSTables to mark as compacted after this transaction.
+        compacted_sstables: Vec<CompactedSsTable>,
+        /// The fields that used to judge whether to preserve the new frag's id into
+        /// the frag bitmap of the specified indices.
+        fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: Vec<u32>,
+        /// The mode of update
+        update_mode: Option<UpdateMode>,
+        /// Optional filter for detecting conflicts on inserted row keys.
+        /// Only tracks keys from INSERT operations during merge insert, not updates.
+        inserted_rows_filter: Option<KeyExistenceFilter>,
+        /// Physical row offsets (per fragment) that matched `update_columns` for RewriteColumns.
+        /// `None` means callers did not supply offsets; `build_manifest` skips partial refresh then.
+        updated_fragment_offsets: Option<UpdatedFragmentOffsets>,
+    },
+
+    /// Project to a new schema.
+    Project {
+        schema: Schema,
+        /// Set when this projection makes no nullability-affecting schema
+        /// change, as a rename or a drop does not. A nullability tightening
+        /// must not set this: its producer proved the claim by scanning at its
+        /// read version, so a concurrent write can falsify it and the
+        /// projection conflicts with value-writes in either commit order.
+        preserves_nullability: bool,
+    },
+
+    /// Update the dataset configuration and metadata.
+    ///
+    /// Schema or field metadata updates conflict with a concurrent
+    /// [`Self::Merge`] in either commit order. A merge carries complete schema
+    /// state from its read version, so rebasing the operations could discard
+    /// metadata installed by the other transaction.
+    UpdateConfig {
+        config_updates: Option<UpdateMap>,
+        table_metadata_updates: Option<UpdateMap>,
+        schema_metadata_updates: Option<UpdateMap>,
+        field_metadata_updates: HashMap<i32, UpdateMap>,
+    },
+    /// Update SSTable compaction progress in the MemWAL index.
+    ///
+    /// This is used during merge-insert to atomically record which
+    /// SSTables have been compacted into the base table.
+    UpdateMemWalState {
+        compacted_sstables: Vec<CompactedSsTable>,
+    },
+
+    /// Clone a dataset.
+    ///
+    /// Only a shallow clone can be committed through `CommitBuilder`. A deep
+    /// clone (`is_shallow = false`) must copy the source files first, so
+    /// committing one returns an invalid input error; use
+    /// `Dataset::deep_clone` instead.
+    Clone {
+        is_shallow: bool,
+        ref_name: Option<String>,
+        ref_version: u64,
+        ref_path: String,
+        branch_name: Option<String>,
+    },
+
+    // Update base paths in the dataset (currently only supports adding new bases).
+    UpdateBases {
+        /// The new base paths to add to the manifest.
+        new_bases: Vec<BasePath>,
+    },
+
+    /// An operation written by a newer version of Lance that this version does
+    /// not recognize. It can be read but never re-encoded or committed, and it
+    /// is assumed to conflict with everything.
+    #[non_exhaustive]
+    Unknown {},
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub enum UpdateMode {
+    /// rows are deleted in current fragments and rewritten in new fragments.
+    /// This is most optimal when the majority of columns are being rewritten
+    /// or only a few rows are being updated.
+    RewriteRows,
+
+    /// within each fragment, columns are fully rewritten and inserted as new data files.
+    /// Old versions of columns are tombstoned. This is most optimal when most rows are affected
+    /// but a small subset of columns are affected.
+    RewriteColumns,
+}
+
+/// Matched physical row offsets per fragment for a partial [`UpdateMode::RewriteColumns`] update.
+///
+/// Used with stable row IDs so `build_manifest` can refresh row-level version
+/// metadata only for rows that were rewritten.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]
+pub struct UpdatedFragmentOffsets(pub HashMap<u64, RoaringBitmap>);
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for UpdatedFragmentOffsets {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.0.iter().fold(0_usize, |acc, (frag_id, bitmap)| {
+            acc + frag_id.deep_size_of_children(context)
+                + (bitmap.len() as usize).saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<u32>())
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for Operation {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Append { .. } => write!(f, "Append"),
+            Self::Delete { .. } => write!(f, "Delete"),
+            Self::Overwrite { .. } => write!(f, "Overwrite"),
+            Self::CreateIndex { .. } => write!(f, "CreateIndex"),
+            Self::Rewrite { .. } => write!(f, "Rewrite"),
+            Self::Merge { .. } => write!(f, "Merge"),
+            Self::Restore { .. } => write!(f, "Restore"),
+            Self::ReserveFragments { .. } => write!(f, "ReserveFragments"),
+            Self::Update { .. } => write!(f, "Update"),
+            Self::Project { .. } => write!(f, "Project"),
+            Self::UpdateConfig { .. } => write!(f, "UpdateConfig"),
+            Self::DataReplacement { .. } => write!(f, "DataReplacement"),
+            Self::DataOverlay { .. } => write!(f, "DataOverlay"),
+            Self::Unknown { .. } => write!(f, "Unknown"),
+            Self::Clone { .. } => write!(f, "Clone"),
+            Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => write!(f, "UpdateMemWalState"),
+            Self::UpdateBases { .. } => write!(f, "UpdateBases"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// What the commit path assembled for a rewrite on a tagged fragment reuse
+/// history: the complete entry to install, merged against the manifest the
+/// commit attempt builds on. Supplied through
+/// [`FragReuseUpdate::Rewrite`](crate::transaction::FragReuseUpdate) on the
+/// prepared index list once per attempt, while the operation's
+/// `frag_reuse_index` stays what the caller supplied, so every retry works
+/// from the same intent.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct TaggedRewriteAssembly {
+    /// The entry to install, assembled against the manifest being built.
+    pub entry: IndexMetadata,
+    /// `dataset_version` of the entry the assembly appended onto (`None`
+    /// when this rewrite creates the entry). The manifest build refuses the
+    /// splice when the manifest's entry is a different one.
+    pub base_entry_version: Option<u64>,
+    /// The source fragments of the transitions this rewrite appended. Their
+    /// rewrite groups redistribute rows, so index bitmaps keep the retired
+    /// source ids as provenance instead of following the rewrite.
+    pub reordered_sources: RoaringBitmap,
+}
+
+impl TaggedRewriteAssembly {
+    /// Bundle an assembled entry with the transitions it appended.
+    pub fn new(
+        entry: IndexMetadata,
+        base_entry_version: Option<u64>,
+        transitions: &[crate::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Transition],
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            entry,
+            base_entry_version,
+            reordered_sources: reordered_sources(transitions)?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// The union of `transitions`' source fragment ids. Rewrite groups covered
+/// by this set skip index-bitmap maintenance: their bitmaps keep the retired
+/// source ids as provenance.
+///
+/// Fragment ids in the reuse domain are bounded by the row-address fragment
+/// space (u32); the ledger's digest validation is the authoritative
+/// enforcement, but it only runs during entry assembly, so an out-of-range
+/// id is rejected here too rather than silently truncated into an alias of
+/// another fragment.
+pub fn reordered_sources(
+    transitions: &[crate::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Transition],
+) -> lance_core::Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+    transitions
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|transition| transition.sources.iter().map(|source| source.id))
+        .map(|id| {
+            u32::try_from(id).map_err(|_| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "transition source fragment id {id} is outside the row-address range"
+                ))
+            })
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct RewrittenIndex {
+    pub old_id: Uuid,
+    pub new_id: Uuid,
+    pub new_index_details: prost_types::Any,
+    pub new_index_version: u32,
+    /// Files in the new index with their sizes.
+    /// Empty list from older writers that didn't persist this field.
+    pub new_index_files: Option<Vec<IndexFile>>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for RewrittenIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.new_index_details
+            .type_url
+            .deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.new_index_details.value.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
+pub struct RewriteGroup {
+    pub old_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+    pub new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for RewriteGroup {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        fn compare_vec<T: PartialEq>(a: &[T], b: &[T]) -> bool {
+            a.len() == b.len() && a.iter().all(|f| b.contains(f))
+        }
+        compare_vec(&self.old_fragments, &other.old_fragments)
+            && compare_vec(&self.new_fragments, &other.new_fragments)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Operation {
+    pub fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Append { .. } => "Append",
+            Self::Delete { .. } => "Delete",
+            Self::Overwrite { .. } => "Overwrite",
+            Self::CreateIndex { .. } => "CreateIndex",
+            Self::Rewrite { .. } => "Rewrite",
+            Self::Merge { .. } => "Merge",
+            Self::ReserveFragments { .. } => "ReserveFragments",
+            Self::Restore { .. } => "Restore",
+            Self::Update { .. } => "Update",
+            Self::Project { .. } => "Project",
+            Self::UpdateConfig { .. } => "UpdateConfig",
+            Self::DataReplacement { .. } => "DataReplacement",
+            Self::DataOverlay { .. } => "DataOverlay",
+            Self::Unknown { .. } => "Unknown",
+            Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => "UpdateMemWalState",
+            Self::Clone { .. } => "Clone",
+            Self::UpdateBases { .. } => "UpdateBases",
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/prepare.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/prepare.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3add2d7ee34
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/prepare.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! What a commit attempt settles about the index list before the manifest
+//! is built.
+//!
+//! The commit layer decides index validity; the manifest builder assembles.
+//! Once per attempt, against the manifest current at that attempt,
+//! [`Transaction::prepare_indices`](crate::transaction::Transaction::prepare_indices)
+//! reads the index list as it is, keeps that original list untouched, and
+//! derives a prepared list on which an in-place column rewrite has already
+//! withdrawn or pruned the coverage it invalidates (on a table with a tagged
+//! fragment reuse history along the lineage, on any other table by fragment
+//! id). The builder then applies the operation to the prepared list and
+//! publishes only the final list; the original list is what MemWAL coverage
+//! is compared against. Both lists are in-memory metadata of one attempt:
+//! nothing is copied on disk and a retry prepares afresh from the list it
+//! reads then.
+
+use crate::format::IndexMetadata;
+use crate::transaction::TaggedRewriteAssembly;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+/// What the commit path settled about the fragment reuse entry for one
+/// attempt. In-memory only, like the rewrite intent it carries.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+#[non_exhaustive]
+pub enum FragReuseUpdate {
+    /// Nothing was prepared for the entry. A tagged entry arriving on a
+    /// `Rewrite`, or a `CreateIndex` touching a tagged entry, is refused:
+    /// without the commit path's derivation such a shape is a pre-assembled
+    /// snapshot that may splice away records a concurrent writer appended.
+    #[default]
+    None,
+    /// A `Rewrite` on a tagged history: the entry the commit path assembled
+    /// for THIS manifest, merging the records the operation's entry adds
+    /// onto the current entry and validating them.
+    Rewrite(Arc<TaggedRewriteAssembly>),
+    /// A trim of the tagged entry derived by the reuse index cleanup against
+    /// the current entry at commit time.
+    Trim,
+}
+
+/// The index lists of one commit attempt: the list as read from the
+/// manifest current at the attempt, the prepared list the builder starts
+/// from, and what was settled about the fragment reuse entry.
+///
+/// Only [`Transaction::prepare_indices`](crate::transaction::Transaction::prepare_indices)
+/// builds one, so a value always went through the tagged-table write gate
+/// and the unified withdrawal step; the manifest it was prepared against is
+/// recorded so the builder refuses a result carried over to another attempt.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PreparedIndices {
+    manifest_version: Option<u64>,
+    original: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    prepared: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    frag_reuse: FragReuseUpdate,
+}
+
+impl PreparedIndices {
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        manifest_version: Option<u64>,
+        original: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        prepared: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        frag_reuse: FragReuseUpdate,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            manifest_version,
+            original,
+            prepared,
+            frag_reuse,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The version of the manifest the lists were prepared against; `None`
+    /// when the dataset is being created.
+    pub fn manifest_version(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.manifest_version
+    }
+
+    /// The index list as read from the current manifest, never mutated.
+    pub fn original(&self) -> &[IndexMetadata] {
+        &self.original
+    }
+
+    /// The original list with the in-place rewrite step applied: the list
+    /// the manifest builder starts from.
+    pub fn prepared(&self) -> &[IndexMetadata] {
+        &self.prepared
+    }
+
+    /// What the commit path settled about the fragment reuse entry.
+    pub fn frag_reuse_update(&self) -> &FragReuseUpdate {
+        &self.frag_reuse
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn into_parts(self) -> (Vec<IndexMetadata>, Vec<IndexMetadata>, FragReuseUpdate) {
+        (self.original, self.prepared, self.frag_reuse)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/proto.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/proto.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9f8159bc062
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/proto.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,894 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Conversions between the transaction types and their protobuf encoding.
+//!
+//! A transaction is persisted as a `pb::Transaction` alongside the manifest it
+//! produced, so these conversions are the format contract for everything in this
+//! module: a field added to an `Operation` is only durable once it round-trips
+//! here.
+
+use crate::format::key_existence::KeyExistenceFilter;
+use crate::format::pb;
+use crate::format::{BasePath, Fragment, IndexFile, IndexMetadata, overlay::DataOverlayFile};
+use crate::system_index::mem_wal::CompactedSsTable;
+use crate::transaction::{
+    DataOverlayGroup, DataReplacementGroup, Operation, RewriteGroup, RewrittenIndex, Transaction,
+    UpdateMap, UpdateMapEntry, UpdateMode, UpdatedFragmentOffsets, translate_config_updates,
+    translate_schema_metadata_updates,
+};
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_file::datatypes::Fields;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+impl From<&DataReplacementGroup> for pb::transaction::DataReplacementGroup {
+    fn from(DataReplacementGroup(fragment_id, new_file): &DataReplacementGroup) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            fragment_id: *fragment_id,
+            new_file: Some(new_file.into()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert a protobug DataReplacementGroup to a rust native DataReplacementGroup
+/// this is unfortunately TryFrom instead of From because of the Option in the pb::DataReplacementGroup
+impl TryFrom<pb::transaction::DataReplacementGroup> for DataReplacementGroup {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(message: pb::transaction::DataReplacementGroup) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self(
+            message.fragment_id,
+            message
+                .new_file
+                .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "DataReplacementGroup must have a new_file",
+                ))?
+                .try_into()?,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&DataOverlayGroup> for pb::transaction::DataOverlayGroup {
+    fn from(group: &DataOverlayGroup) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            fragment_id: group.fragment_id,
+            overlays: group
+                .overlays
+                .iter()
+                .map(pb::DataOverlayFile::from)
+                .collect(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::transaction::DataOverlayGroup> for DataOverlayGroup {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(message: pb::transaction::DataOverlayGroup) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            fragment_id: message.fragment_id,
+            overlays: message
+                .overlays
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(DataOverlayFile::try_from)
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::Transaction> for Transaction {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(message: pb::Transaction) -> Result<Self> {
+        let operation = match message.operation {
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Append(pb::transaction::Append { fragments })) => {
+                Operation::Append {
+                    fragments: fragments
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                }
+            }
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Clone(pb::transaction::Clone {
+                is_shallow,
+                ref_name,
+                ref_version,
+                ref_path,
+                branch_name,
+            })) => Operation::Clone {
+                is_shallow,
+                ref_name,
+                ref_version,
+                ref_path,
+                branch_name,
+            },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Delete(pb::transaction::Delete {
+                updated_fragments,
+                deleted_fragment_ids,
+                predicate,
+            })) => Operation::Delete {
+                updated_fragments: updated_fragments
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                deleted_fragment_ids,
+                predicate,
+            },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Overwrite(pb::transaction::Overwrite {
+                fragments,
+                schema,
+                schema_metadata: _schema_metadata, // TODO: handle metadata
+                config_upsert_values,
+                initial_bases,
+            })) => {
+                let config_upsert_option = if config_upsert_values.is_empty() {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(config_upsert_values)
+                };
+
+                Operation::Overwrite {
+                    fragments: fragments
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                    schema: Schema::try_from(&Fields(schema))?,
+                    config_upsert_values: config_upsert_option,
+                    initial_bases: if initial_bases.is_empty() {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        Some(initial_bases.into_iter().map(BasePath::from).collect())
+                    },
+                }
+            }
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::ReserveFragments(
+                pb::transaction::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
+            )) => Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Rewrite(pb::transaction::Rewrite {
+                old_fragments,
+                new_fragments,
+                groups,
+                rewritten_indices,
+            })) => {
+                let groups = if !groups.is_empty() {
+                    groups
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(RewriteGroup::try_from)
+                        .collect::<Result<_>>()?
+                } else {
+                    vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: old_fragments
+                            .into_iter()
+                            .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                        new_fragments: new_fragments
+                            .into_iter()
+                            .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                    }]
+                };
+                let rewritten_indices = rewritten_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(RewrittenIndex::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups,
+                    rewritten_indices,
+                    frag_reuse_index: None,
+                }
+            }
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::CreateIndex(pb::transaction::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices,
+            })) => Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: new_indices
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(IndexMetadata::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+                removed_indices: removed_indices
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(IndexMetadata::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+            },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Merge(pb::transaction::Merge {
+                fragments,
+                schema,
+                schema_metadata: _schema_metadata, // TODO: handle metadata
+                preserves_nullability,
+            })) => Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: fragments
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                schema: Schema::try_from(&Fields(schema))?,
+                // False for a writer that predates the field: no assertion, so
+                // a legacy required-field merge still conflicts and a legacy
+                // nullable merge over-conflicts, which only retries.
+                preserves_nullability,
+            },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Restore(pb::transaction::Restore { version })) => {
+                Operation::Restore { version }
+            }
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Update(pb::transaction::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids,
+                updated_fragments,
+                new_fragments,
+                fields_modified,
+                compacted_sstables,
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
+                update_mode,
+                inserted_rows,
+                updated_fragment_offsets,
+                updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps,
+            })) => Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids,
+                updated_fragments: updated_fragments
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                new_fragments: new_fragments
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                fields_modified,
+                compacted_sstables: compacted_sstables
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|m| CompactedSsTable::try_from(m).unwrap())
+                    .collect(),
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
+                update_mode: match update_mode {
+                    0 => Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows),
+                    1 => Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+                    _ => Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows),
+                },
+                inserted_rows_filter: inserted_rows
+                    .map(|ik| KeyExistenceFilter::try_from(&ik))
+                    .transpose()?,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: {
+                    // Prefer field 10 (RoaringBitmap bytes); fall back to field 9 (UInt32List)
+                    // for manifests written before this change.
+                    let m: HashMap<u64, RoaringBitmap> =
+                        if !updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps.is_empty() {
+                            updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps
+                                .into_iter()
+                                .filter(|(_, bytes)| !bytes.is_empty())
+                                .map(|(id, bytes)| {
+                                    let bitmap = RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(bytes.as_slice())
+                                        .map_err(|e| {
+                                            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                                "invalid updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps \
+                                                     for fragment {id}: {e}"
+                                            ))
+                                        })?;
+                                    Ok((id, bitmap))
+                                })
+                                .collect::<Result<HashMap<_, _>>>()?
+                        } else {
+                            updated_fragment_offsets
+                                .into_iter()
+                                .filter(|(_, list)| !list.values.is_empty())
+                                .map(|(id, list)| (id, RoaringBitmap::from_iter(list.values)))
+                                .collect()
+                        };
+                    if m.is_empty() {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(m))
+                    }
+                },
+            },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Project(pb::transaction::Project {
+                schema,
+                preserves_nullability,
+            })) => Operation::Project {
+                schema: Schema::try_from(&Fields(schema))?,
+                // False for a writer that predates the field: no assertion, so
+                // a legacy tightening still conflicts and a legacy rename
+                // over-conflicts, which only retries.
+                preserves_nullability,
+            },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateConfig(update_config)) => {
+                // Check if new-style fields are present
+                let has_new_fields = update_config.config_updates.is_some()
+                    || update_config.table_metadata_updates.is_some()
+                    || update_config.schema_metadata_updates.is_some()
+                    || !update_config.field_metadata_updates.is_empty();
+
+                // Check if old-style fields are present
+                let has_old_fields = !update_config.upsert_values.is_empty()
+                    || !update_config.delete_keys.is_empty()
+                    || !update_config.schema_metadata.is_empty()
+                    || !update_config.field_metadata.is_empty();
+
+                // Error if both are present
+                if has_new_fields && has_old_fields {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        "Cannot mix old and new style UpdateConfig fields".into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+
+                if has_old_fields {
+                    // Translate old-style to new-style
+                    let config_updates = if !update_config.upsert_values.is_empty()
+                        || !update_config.delete_keys.is_empty()
+                    {
+                        Some(translate_config_updates(
+                            &update_config.upsert_values,
+                            &update_config.delete_keys,
+                        ))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+
+                    let schema_metadata_updates = if !update_config.schema_metadata.is_empty() {
+                        Some(translate_schema_metadata_updates(
+                            &update_config.schema_metadata,
+                        ))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+
+                    let field_metadata_updates = update_config
+                        .field_metadata
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|(field_id, field_meta_update)| {
+                            (
+                                field_id as i32,
+                                translate_schema_metadata_updates(&field_meta_update.metadata),
+                            )
+                        })
+                        .collect();
+
+                    Operation::UpdateConfig {
+                        config_updates,
+                        table_metadata_updates: None,
+                        schema_metadata_updates,
+                        field_metadata_updates,
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    // Use new-style fields directly (convert from protobuf)
+                    Operation::UpdateConfig {
+                        config_updates: update_config.config_updates.as_ref().map(UpdateMap::from),
+                        table_metadata_updates: update_config
+                            .table_metadata_updates
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .map(UpdateMap::from),
+                        schema_metadata_updates: update_config
+                            .schema_metadata_updates
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .map(UpdateMap::from),
+                        field_metadata_updates: update_config
+                            .field_metadata_updates
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|(field_id, pb_update_map)| {
+                                (*field_id, UpdateMap::from(pb_update_map))
+                            })
+                            .collect(),
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::DataReplacement(
+                pb::transaction::DataReplacement { replacements },
+            )) => Operation::DataReplacement {
+                replacements: replacements
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(DataReplacementGroup::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+            },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateMemWalState(
+                pb::transaction::UpdateMemWalState { compacted_sstables },
+            )) => Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: compacted_sstables
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(CompactedSsTable::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+            },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateBases(pb::transaction::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases,
+            })) => Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: new_bases.into_iter().map(BasePath::from).collect(),
+            },
+            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::DataOverlay(pb::transaction::DataOverlay {
+                groups,
+            })) => Operation::DataOverlay {
+                groups: groups
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(DataOverlayGroup::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+            },
+            // prost drops unrecognized oneof fields, so an operation from a
+            // newer writer is indistinguishable from a missing one.
+            None => Operation::Unknown {},
+        };
+        Ok(Self {
+            read_version: message.read_version,
+            uuid: message.uuid.clone(),
+            operation,
+            tag: if message.tag.is_empty() {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(message.tag.clone())
+            },
+            transaction_properties: if message.transaction_properties.is_empty() {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(Arc::new(message.transaction_properties))
+            },
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&pb::transaction::rewrite::RewrittenIndex> for RewrittenIndex {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(message: &pb::transaction::rewrite::RewrittenIndex) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            old_id: message
+                .old_id
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(Uuid::try_from)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input("required field (old_id) missing from message".to_string())
+                })??,
+            new_id: message
+                .new_id
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(Uuid::try_from)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input("required field (new_id) missing from message".to_string())
+                })??,
+            new_index_details: message
+                .new_index_details
+                .as_ref()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input("new_index_details is a required field".to_string())
+                })?
+                .clone(),
+            new_index_version: message.new_index_version,
+            new_index_files: if message.new_index_files.is_empty() {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(
+                    message
+                        .new_index_files
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|f| IndexFile {
+                            path: f.path.clone(),
+                            size_bytes: f.size_bytes,
+                        })
+                        .collect(),
+                )
+            },
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<pb::transaction::rewrite::RewriteGroup> for RewriteGroup {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(message: pb::transaction::rewrite::RewriteGroup) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            old_fragments: message
+                .old_fragments
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+            new_fragments: message
+                .new_fragments
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(Fragment::try_from)
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&Transaction> for pb::Transaction {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: &Transaction) -> Result<Self> {
+        let operation = match &value.operation {
+            Operation::Append { fragments } => {
+                pb::transaction::Operation::Append(pb::transaction::Append {
+                    fragments: fragments.iter().map(pb::DataFragment::from).collect(),
+                })
+            }
+            Operation::Clone {
+                is_shallow,
+                ref_name,
+                ref_version,
+                ref_path,
+                branch_name,
+            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Clone(pb::transaction::Clone {
+                is_shallow: *is_shallow,
+                ref_name: ref_name.clone(),
+                ref_version: *ref_version,
+                ref_path: ref_path.clone(),
+                branch_name: branch_name.clone(),
+            }),
+            Operation::Delete {
+                updated_fragments,
+                deleted_fragment_ids,
+                predicate,
+            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Delete(pb::transaction::Delete {
+                updated_fragments: updated_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(pb::DataFragment::from)
+                    .collect(),
+                deleted_fragment_ids: deleted_fragment_ids.clone(),
+                predicate: predicate.clone(),
+            }),
+            Operation::Overwrite {
+                fragments,
+                schema,
+                config_upsert_values,
+                initial_bases,
+            } => {
+                pb::transaction::Operation::Overwrite(pb::transaction::Overwrite {
+                    fragments: fragments.iter().map(pb::DataFragment::from).collect(),
+                    schema: Fields::from(schema).0,
+                    schema_metadata: Default::default(), // TODO: handle metadata
+                    config_upsert_values: config_upsert_values
+                        .clone()
+                        .unwrap_or(Default::default()),
+                    initial_bases: initial_bases
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|paths| {
+                            paths
+                                .iter()
+                                .cloned()
+                                .map(|bp: BasePath| -> pb::BasePath { bp.into() })
+                                .collect::<Vec<pb::BasePath>>()
+                        })
+                        .unwrap_or_default(),
+                })
+            }
+            Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments } => {
+                pb::transaction::Operation::ReserveFragments(pb::transaction::ReserveFragments {
+                    num_fragments: *num_fragments,
+                })
+            }
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups,
+                rewritten_indices,
+                frag_reuse_index: _,
+            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Rewrite(pb::transaction::Rewrite {
+                groups: groups
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(pb::transaction::rewrite::RewriteGroup::from)
+                    .collect(),
+                rewritten_indices: rewritten_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|rewritten| rewritten.into())
+                    .collect(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices,
+            } => pb::transaction::Operation::CreateIndex(pb::transaction::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: new_indices.iter().map(pb::IndexMetadata::from).collect(),
+                removed_indices: removed_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(pb::IndexMetadata::from)
+                    .collect(),
+            }),
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments,
+                schema,
+                preserves_nullability,
+            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Merge(pb::transaction::Merge {
+                fragments: fragments.iter().map(pb::DataFragment::from).collect(),
+                schema: Fields::from(schema).0,
+                schema_metadata: Default::default(), // TODO: handle metadata
+                preserves_nullability: *preserves_nullability,
+            }),
+            Operation::Restore { version } => {
+                pb::transaction::Operation::Restore(pb::transaction::Restore { version: *version })
+            }
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids,
+                updated_fragments,
+                new_fragments,
+                fields_modified,
+                compacted_sstables,
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
+                update_mode,
+                inserted_rows_filter,
+                updated_fragment_offsets,
+            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Update(pb::transaction::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: removed_fragment_ids.clone(),
+                updated_fragments: updated_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(pb::DataFragment::from)
+                    .collect(),
+                new_fragments: new_fragments.iter().map(pb::DataFragment::from).collect(),
+                fields_modified: fields_modified.clone(),
+                compacted_sstables: compacted_sstables
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(pb::CompactedSsTable::from)
+                    .collect(),
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap.clone(),
+                update_mode: update_mode
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|mode| match mode {
+                        UpdateMode::RewriteRows => 0,
+                        UpdateMode::RewriteColumns => 1,
+                    })
+                    .unwrap_or(0),
+                inserted_rows: inserted_rows_filter.as_ref().map(|ik| ik.into()),
+                // Field 9: no longer written; kept empty for forward compat.
+                updated_fragment_offsets: HashMap::new(),
+                // Field 10: RoaringBitmap bytes.
+                updated_fragment_offset_bitmaps: updated_fragment_offsets
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|UpdatedFragmentOffsets(m)| {
+                        m.iter()
+                            .filter(|(_, b)| !b.is_empty())
+                            .map(|(frag_id, b)| {
+                                let mut buf = Vec::new();
+                                b.serialize_into(&mut buf)
+                                    .expect("RoaringBitmap serialization cannot fail");
+                                (*frag_id, buf)
+                            })
+                            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>()
+                    })
+                    .unwrap_or_default(),
+            }),
+            Operation::Project {
+                schema,
+                preserves_nullability,
+            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Project(pb::transaction::Project {
+                schema: Fields::from(schema).0,
+                preserves_nullability: *preserves_nullability,
+            }),
+            Operation::UpdateConfig {
+                config_updates,
+                table_metadata_updates,
+                schema_metadata_updates,
+                field_metadata_updates,
+            } => pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateConfig(pb::transaction::UpdateConfig {
+                config_updates: config_updates
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(pb::transaction::UpdateMap::from),
+                table_metadata_updates: table_metadata_updates
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(pb::transaction::UpdateMap::from),
+                schema_metadata_updates: schema_metadata_updates
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(pb::transaction::UpdateMap::from),
+                field_metadata_updates: field_metadata_updates
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(field_id, update_map)| {
+                        (*field_id, pb::transaction::UpdateMap::from(update_map))
+                    })
+                    .collect(),
+                // Leave old fields empty - we only write new-style fields
+                upsert_values: Default::default(),
+                delete_keys: Default::default(),
+                schema_metadata: Default::default(),
+                field_metadata: Default::default(),
+            }),
+            Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => {
+                pb::transaction::Operation::DataReplacement(pb::transaction::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: replacements
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(pb::transaction::DataReplacementGroup::from)
+                        .collect(),
+                })
+            }
+            Operation::DataOverlay { groups } => {
+                pb::transaction::Operation::DataOverlay(pb::transaction::DataOverlay {
+                    groups: groups
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(pb::transaction::DataOverlayGroup::from)
+                        .collect(),
+                })
+            }
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState { compacted_sstables } => {
+                pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateMemWalState(pb::transaction::UpdateMemWalState {
+                    compacted_sstables: compacted_sstables
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(pb::CompactedSsTable::from)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                })
+            }
+            Operation::UpdateBases { new_bases } => {
+                pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateBases(pb::transaction::UpdateBases {
+                    new_bases: new_bases
+                        .iter()
+                        .cloned()
+                        .map(|bp: BasePath| -> pb::BasePath { bp.into() })
+                        .collect::<Vec<pb::BasePath>>(),
+                })
+            }
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "Transaction {} has an operation written by a newer version of Lance \
+                     and cannot be re-encoded by this version",
+                    value.uuid
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+
+        let transaction_properties = value
+            .transaction_properties
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|arc| arc.as_ref().clone())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        Ok(Self {
+            read_version: value.read_version,
+            uuid: value.uuid.clone(),
+            operation: Some(operation),
+            tag: value.tag.clone().unwrap_or("".to_string()),
+            transaction_properties,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&RewrittenIndex> for pb::transaction::rewrite::RewrittenIndex {
+    fn from(value: &RewrittenIndex) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            old_id: Some((&value.old_id).into()),
+            new_id: Some((&value.new_id).into()),
+            new_index_details: Some(value.new_index_details.clone()),
+            new_index_version: value.new_index_version,
+            new_index_files: value
+                .new_index_files
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|files| {
+                    files
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|f| pb::IndexFile {
+                            path: f.path.clone(),
+                            size_bytes: f.size_bytes,
+                        })
+                        .collect()
+                })
+                .unwrap_or_default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&RewriteGroup> for pb::transaction::rewrite::RewriteGroup {
+    fn from(value: &RewriteGroup) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            old_fragments: value
+                .old_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(pb::DataFragment::from)
+                .collect(),
+            new_fragments: value
+                .new_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(pb::DataFragment::from)
+                .collect(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&UpdateMap> for pb::transaction::UpdateMap {
+    fn from(update_map: &UpdateMap) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            update_entries: update_map
+                .update_entries
+                .iter()
+                .map(|entry| pb::transaction::UpdateMapEntry {
+                    key: entry.key.clone(),
+                    value: entry.value.clone(),
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            replace: update_map.replace,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&pb::transaction::UpdateMap> for UpdateMap {
+    fn from(pb_update_map: &pb::transaction::UpdateMap) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            update_entries: pb_update_map
+                .update_entries
+                .iter()
+                .map(|entry| UpdateMapEntry {
+                    key: entry.key.clone(),
+                    value: entry.value.clone(),
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            replace: pb_update_map.replace,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&Transaction> for crate::format::Transaction {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: &Transaction) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: pb::Transaction::try_from(value)?,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::format::DataFile;
+    use crate::format::overlay::OverlayCoverage;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rewrite_frag_reuse_update_stays_in_memory() {
+        // The fragment reuse update never enters the transaction file:
+        // other writers' conflict decisions only need the fragment sets in
+        // `groups`.
+        let entry = crate::transaction::test_support::sample_index_metadata(
+            crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME,
+        );
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            1,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let decoded =
+            Transaction::try_from(pb::Transaction::try_from(&transaction).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        match decoded.operation {
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                frag_reuse_index, ..
+            } => {
+                assert!(frag_reuse_index.is_none());
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected Rewrite, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_operation_roundtrips() {
+        // A DataOverlay operation survives the protobuf round-trip, preserving
+        // the target fragment, the overlay's coverage, and its committed_version.
+        let mut bitmap = roaring::RoaringBitmap::new();
+        bitmap.insert(1);
+        bitmap.insert(4);
+        let overlay = DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay-0.lance", vec![3], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap.clone()),
+            committed_version: 6,
+        };
+        let pb_overlay = pb::DataOverlayFile::from(&overlay);
+
+        let message = pb::Transaction {
+            read_version: 1,
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+            operation: Some(pb::transaction::Operation::DataOverlay(
+                pb::transaction::DataOverlay {
+                    groups: vec![pb::transaction::DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id: 7,
+                        overlays: vec![pb_overlay],
+                    }],
+                },
+            )),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let txn = Transaction::try_from(message).unwrap();
+        match txn.operation {
+            Operation::DataOverlay { groups } => {
+                assert_eq!(groups.len(), 1);
+                assert_eq!(groups[0].fragment_id, 7);
+                assert_eq!(groups[0].overlays.len(), 1);
+                assert_eq!(groups[0].overlays[0].committed_version, 6);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    *groups[0].overlays[0].coverage_for_field(0).unwrap(),
+                    bitmap
+                );
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected DataOverlay, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/row_version.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/row_version.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6524e4a0709
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/row_version.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1461 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Row ids and the per-row version metadata that travels with them.
+//!
+//! Under stable row ids each fragment carries two run-length encoded sequences:
+//! `created_at_version`, stamped once when a row first appears, and
+//! `last_updated_at_version`, refreshed whenever a row's values change. Keeping
+//! `created_at` correct across an update means tracing each new row back to the
+//! fragment and offset it came from, which is what most of this module does.
+
+use crate::format::{Fragment, RowDatasetVersionMeta, RowDatasetVersionSequence, RowIdMeta};
+use crate::rowids::version::{SpilledRowLineage, build_version_meta};
+use crate::rowids::{RowIdSequence, read_row_ids, write_row_ids};
+use crate::transaction::Transaction;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::cmp::Ordering;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+
+/// Fallback version for rows whose original creation version cannot be determined.
+/// Version 1 is the initial dataset version in the Lance format.
+const UNKNOWN_CREATED_AT_VERSION: u64 = 1;
+
+/// Look up the `created_at` version for a single UPDATE-branch row ID.
+///
+/// Callers must only call this for row IDs that are confirmed to be present in
+/// `row_id_to_source` (i.e. UPDATE branch rows whose source exists in an existing
+/// fragment).  INSERT branch rows (no source) must use `new_version` directly and
+/// must not call this function.
+///
+/// Uses `row_id_to_source` to find the originating fragment and row offset, then
+/// performs a O(K) random-access lookup via [`RowDatasetVersionSequence::version_at`]
+/// on the pre-decoded sequence in `version_cache` (keyed by fragment ID).
+///
+/// Returns [`UNKNOWN_CREATED_AT_VERSION`] if the source fragment has no
+/// `created_at_version_meta` (missing or failed to decode) or the offset is
+/// out of range.
+fn resolve_created_at_version(
+    row_id: u64,
+    row_id_to_source: &HashMap<u64, (&Fragment, usize)>,
+    version_cache: &HashMap<u64, RowDatasetVersionSequence>,
+) -> u64 {
+    let Some((orig_frag, row_offset)) = row_id_to_source.get(&row_id) else {
+        return UNKNOWN_CREATED_AT_VERSION;
+    };
+    let Some(seq) = version_cache.get(&orig_frag.id) else {
+        return UNKNOWN_CREATED_AT_VERSION;
+    };
+    seq.version_at(*row_offset)
+        .unwrap_or(UNKNOWN_CREATED_AT_VERSION)
+}
+
+/// Whether an update's new `fragment` carries row lineage its writer placed
+/// outside the manifest, which the commit keeps instead of resolving.
+///
+/// That is spilled row ids or spilled created-at versions. The commit cannot
+/// read either back, and only a writer carrying the lineage of rows it read
+/// over into the fragment produces them. Inline created-at versions next to
+/// inline row ids do not count: the commit resolves those again from the row
+/// ids, whatever the caller supplied, so a hand-built transaction cannot
+/// commit stale ones.
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_table::format::{Fragment, RowIdMeta};
+/// use lance_table::transaction::has_writer_placed_lineage;
+///
+/// let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+/// assert!(!has_writer_placed_lineage(&fragment));
+/// fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Column);
+/// assert!(has_writer_placed_lineage(&fragment));
+/// ```
+pub fn has_writer_placed_lineage(fragment: &Fragment) -> bool {
+    matches!(fragment.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column))
+        || matches!(
+            fragment.created_at_version_meta,
+            Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+        )
+}
+
+/// For each new fragment produced by an update, set `created_at_version_meta`
+/// (preserved from the original rows) and `last_updated_at_version_meta`.
+///
+/// A fragment with writer-placed lineage (see [`has_writer_placed_lineage`])
+/// keeps its created-at versions and only has its last-updated-at versions
+/// stamped.
+///
+/// `spilled` supplies the row ids and created-at versions of existing
+/// fragments that keep them outside the manifest; see
+/// [`SpilledRowLineage`].
+pub(super) fn resolve_update_version_metadata(
+    existing_fragments: &[Fragment],
+    new_fragments: &mut [Fragment],
+    new_version: u64,
+    spilled: &SpilledRowLineage,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    // Collect only the row IDs we actually need to resolve, those appearing in new_fragments
+    // with inline metadata. This bounds the lookup map to O(updated rows) instead of O(all dataset rows)
+    // A fragment with writer-placed lineage needs no lookup; when every new
+    // fragment has it, the set stays empty and the existing fragments are not
+    // scanned at all.
+    let needed_row_ids: HashSet<u64> = new_fragments
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| !has_writer_placed_lineage(f))
+        .filter_map(|f| match &f.row_id_meta {
+            Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => read_row_ids(data).ok(),
+            _ => None,
+        })
+        .flat_map(|seq| seq.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut row_id_to_source: HashMap<u64, (&Fragment, usize)> = HashMap::new();
+
+    if !needed_row_ids.is_empty() {
+        // Compute the bounding range of the needed set once.  Any fragment whose
+        // entire row-id range lies outside [needed_min, needed_max] cannot contain
+        // any needed ID and can be skipped before the inner per-row loop.
+        let needed_min = *needed_row_ids.iter().min().unwrap();
+        let needed_max = *needed_row_ids.iter().max().unwrap();
+
+        // Stable row IDs must be globally unique among *live* rows, but after a rewrite-style
+        // update the same stable ID can appear twice in `existing_fragments`: once in an older
+        // fragment's inline `row_id_meta` at the original row offset (rows may be soft-deleted
+        // via a deletion vector) and again in a newer fragment holding rewritten data. For
+        // `created_at` we need the mapping from the original fragment/offset; that is always the
+        // first occurrence when fragments are processed in ascending `id` order.
+        let mut sorted_frags: Vec<&Fragment> = existing_fragments.iter().collect();
+        sorted_frags.sort_by_key(|f| f.id);
+        for frag in sorted_frags {
+            // Finding which existing row each rewritten row came from means
+            // scanning every existing fragment's row ids, and a spilled sequence
+            // cannot be read here. Skipping such a fragment would make its rows
+            // look freshly inserted and stamp them with a new created-at version.
+            let seq = match &frag.row_id_meta {
+                Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => read_row_ids(data).ok().map(Cow::Owned),
+                Some(RowIdMeta::Column) => Some(Cow::Borrowed(
+                    spilled
+                        .get(&frag.id)
+                        .and_then(|lineage| lineage.row_ids.as_deref())
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::not_supported(format!(
+                                "fragment {} stores its row ids outside the manifest and they \
+                                 were not loaded ahead of the commit; cannot resolve which rows \
+                                 this update rewrote",
+                                frag.id
+                            ))
+                        })?,
+                )),
+                None => None,
+            };
+            if let Some(seq) = seq {
+                // Range pre-filter: skip the per-row inner loop when the fragment's
+                // bounding row-id range has no overlap with [needed_min, needed_max].
+                // row_id_range() returns None for empty sequences, which are also skipped.
+                // This is a conservative check (may produce false positives for sparse
+                // segments) but never skips a fragment that actually contains a needed ID.
+                if seq
+                    .row_id_range()
+                    .is_none_or(|r| *r.end() < needed_min || *r.start() > needed_max)
+                {
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                for (offset, rid) in seq.iter().enumerate() {
+                    if needed_row_ids.contains(&rid) {
+                        row_id_to_source.entry(rid).or_insert((frag, offset));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Pre-decode the `created_at` version sequence for each source fragment exactly
+    // once.  Without this cache, resolve_created_at_version would call load_sequence()
+    // (a protobuf decode) for every single updated row, even when many rows originate
+    // from the same fragment.
+    let source_frag_ids: HashSet<u64> = row_id_to_source.values().map(|(f, _)| f.id).collect();
+    let mut version_cache: HashMap<u64, RowDatasetVersionSequence> = HashMap::new();
+    for frag in existing_fragments
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| source_frag_ids.contains(&f.id))
+    {
+        let Some(meta) = &frag.created_at_version_meta else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        if matches!(meta, RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column) {
+            // The rewritten rows' original created-at versions live in a data
+            // file, which this path cannot read. Defaulting them would silently
+            // rewrite their lineage, so the caller has to have read them.
+            let loaded = spilled
+                .get(&frag.id)
+                .and_then(|lineage| lineage.created_at.clone())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::not_supported(format!(
+                        "fragment {} stores its created-at versions outside the manifest \
+                         and they were not loaded ahead of the commit",
+                        frag.id
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            version_cache.insert(frag.id, loaded.as_ref().clone());
+        } else if let Ok(seq) = meta.load_sequence() {
+            version_cache.insert(frag.id, seq);
+        }
+    }
+
+    for fragment in new_fragments.iter_mut() {
+        let row_ids = match (&fragment.row_id_meta, &fragment.created_at_version_meta) {
+            // Writer-placed lineage (see `has_writer_placed_lineage`): the
+            // writer read the rewritten rows and placed their created-at
+            // versions itself. The last-updated-at version is this commit's,
+            // which only the commit knows (a conflict retry moves it), so it
+            // is stamped here whatever the writer left.
+            (_, Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)) => {
+                fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = build_version_meta(fragment, new_version);
+                continue;
+            }
+            (Some(RowIdMeta::Column), Some(created_at)) => {
+                // Unlike a spilled sequence, an inline one can be checked
+                // against the fragment here without IO.
+                let placed_rows = created_at
+                    .load_sequence()
+                    .map_err(|error| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "fragment {} carries created-at version metadata that does not \
+                             decode: {error}",
+                            fragment.id
+                        ))
+                    })?
+                    .len();
+                let physical_rows = fragment.physical_rows.unwrap_or(0) as u64;
+                if placed_rows != physical_rows {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "fragment {} carries {placed_rows} created-at versions for \
+                         {physical_rows} physical rows",
+                        fragment.id
+                    )));
+                }
+                fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = build_version_meta(fragment, new_version);
+                continue;
+            }
+            (Some(RowIdMeta::Column), None) => {
+                // Resolving the versions needs the row ids, which this
+                // commit-time path cannot read back from a data file; a writer
+                // that spills them has to place the created-at versions too.
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "fragment {} stores its row ids outside the manifest but carries no \
+                     created-at version metadata; a writer that spills row ids must place \
+                     the created-at versions with them",
+                    fragment.id
+                )));
+            }
+            // Inline created-at versions next to inline row ids are resolved
+            // again below, overwriting whatever the caller supplied.
+            (Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)), _) => read_row_ids(data).ok(),
+            (None, _) => None,
+        };
+
+        if let Some(row_ids) = row_ids {
+            let physical_rows = fragment.physical_rows.unwrap_or(0);
+            let created_at_versions: Vec<u64> = row_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|rid| {
+                    if row_id_to_source.contains_key(&rid) {
+                        // UPDATE branch: stable row ID resolves to a source row in an
+                        // existing fragment.  Copy created_at from the original row so
+                        // the row's first-appearance version is preserved across rewrites.
+                        resolve_created_at_version(rid, &row_id_to_source, &version_cache)
+                    } else {
+                        // INSERT branch: stable row ID has no source in existing fragments
+                        // (e.g. NOT MATCHED arm of MERGE INTO).  The row first appears in
+                        // this commit, so created_at equals the new commit version.
+                        new_version
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect();
+            debug_assert_eq!(created_at_versions.len(), physical_rows);
+
+            let created_at_seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&created_at_versions);
+            fragment.created_at_version_meta = Some(
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&created_at_seq).map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Failed to create created_at version metadata: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))
+                })?,
+            );
+
+            fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = build_version_meta(fragment, new_version);
+        } else {
+            let version_meta = build_version_meta(fragment, new_version);
+            fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = version_meta.clone();
+            fragment.created_at_version_meta = version_meta;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+impl Transaction {
+    /// collect the pure(the num of row IDs are equal to the physical rows) "rewrite rows" updated fragment ids
+    pub(super) fn collect_pure_rewrite_row_update_frags_ids(
+        fragments: &[Fragment],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        let mut pure_update_frag_ids = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in fragments {
+            let physical_rows = fragment
+                .physical_rows
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Fragment does not have physical rows"))?
+                as u64;
+
+            if let Some(row_id_meta) = &fragment.row_id_meta {
+                let existing_row_count = match row_id_meta {
+                    RowIdMeta::Inline(data) => {
+                        let sequence = read_row_ids(data)?;
+                        sequence.len() as u64
+                    }
+                    // A spilled sequence always covers every physical row.
+                    RowIdMeta::Column => physical_rows,
+                };
+
+                // only filter the fragments that match: all the rows have row id,
+                // which means it does not contain inserted rows in this fragment
+                if existing_row_count == physical_rows {
+                    pure_update_frag_ids.push(fragment.id);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(pure_update_frag_ids)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn assign_row_ids(next_row_id: &mut u64, fragments: &mut [Fragment]) -> Result<()> {
+        for fragment in fragments {
+            let physical_rows = fragment
+                .physical_rows
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Fragment does not have physical rows"))?
+                as u64;
+
+            if fragment.row_id_meta.is_some() {
+                // we may meet merge insert case, it only has partial row ids.
+                // so here, we need to check if the row ids match the physical rows
+                // if yes, continue
+                // if not, fill the remaining row ids to the physical rows, then update row_id_meta
+
+                // Check if existing row IDs match the physical rows count
+                let existing_row_count = match &fragment.row_id_meta {
+                    Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => {
+                        // Parse the serialized row ID sequence to get the count
+                        let sequence = read_row_ids(data)?;
+                        sequence.len() as u64
+                    }
+                    // A spilled sequence always covers every physical row.
+                    Some(RowIdMeta::Column) => physical_rows,
+                    _ => 0,
+                };
+
+                match existing_row_count.cmp(&physical_rows) {
+                    Ordering::Equal => {
+                        // Row IDs already match physical rows, continue to next fragment
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    Ordering::Less => {
+                        // Partial row IDs - need to fill the remaining ones
+                        let remaining_rows = physical_rows - existing_row_count;
+                        let new_row_ids = *next_row_id..(*next_row_id + remaining_rows);
+
+                        // Merge existing and new row IDs
+                        let combined_sequence = match &fragment.row_id_meta {
+                            Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => read_row_ids(data)?,
+                            _ => {
+                                return Err(Error::internal(
+                                    "Failed to deserialize existing row ID sequence",
+                                ));
+                            }
+                        };
+
+                        let mut row_ids: Vec<u64> = combined_sequence.iter().collect();
+                        for row_id in new_row_ids {
+                            row_ids.push(row_id);
+                        }
+                        let combined_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(row_ids.as_slice());
+
+                        let serialized = write_row_ids(&combined_sequence);
+                        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized.into()));
+                        *next_row_id += remaining_rows;
+                    }
+                    Ordering::Greater => {
+                        // More row IDs than physical rows - this shouldn't happen
+                        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Fragment has more row IDs ({}) than physical rows ({})",
+                            existing_row_count, physical_rows
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                let row_ids = *next_row_id..(*next_row_id + physical_rows);
+                let sequence = RowIdSequence::from(row_ids);
+                // TODO: write to a separate file if large. Possibly share a file with other fragments.
+                let serialized = write_row_ids(&sequence);
+                fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized.into()));
+                *next_row_id += physical_rows;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::format::RowDatasetVersionRun;
+    use crate::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
+    use crate::transaction::test_support::{
+        created_at_versions, default_build_config, last_updated_at_versions,
+        make_stable_row_id_manifest, update_txn,
+    };
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assign_row_ids_new_fragment() {
+        // Test assigning row IDs to a fragment without existing row IDs
+        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(100),
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        }];
+        let mut next_row_id = 0;
+
+        Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(next_row_id, 100);
+        assert!(fragments[0].row_id_meta.is_some());
+
+        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[0].row_id_meta {
+            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 100);
+            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
+            assert_eq!(row_ids, (0..100).collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata");
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn inline_versions(rows: u64, version: u64) -> RowDatasetVersionMeta {
+        RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(
+            rows, version,
+        ))
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assign_row_ids_spilled_is_complete() {
+        // A spilled sequence covers every physical row, so the commit must not
+        // top it up with fresh ids the way it does for a partial inline one.
+        let spilled = RowIdMeta::Column;
+        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(50),
+            row_id_meta: Some(spilled.clone()),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        }];
+        let mut next_row_id = 100;
+
+        Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(next_row_id, 100);
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].row_id_meta, Some(spilled));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_update_versions_keeps_writer_placed_created_at() {
+        // A writer that placed a new fragment's lineage outside the manifest
+        // keeps its created-at versions; the commit only stamps
+        // last-updated-at with its own version, which the writer could not
+        // know.
+        let mut new_fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(50),
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Column),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(inline_versions(50, 7)),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column),
+        }];
+
+        resolve_update_version_metadata(&[], &mut new_fragments, 9, &Default::default()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_fragments[0].created_at_version_meta,
+            Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_fragments[0].last_updated_at_version_meta,
+            Some(inline_versions(50, 9))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_update_versions_skips_source_scan_for_spilled_new_fragments() {
+        // A new fragment whose writer spilled its created-at versions needs no
+        // lookup, so the commit does not scan the existing fragments' row ids
+        // at all: a spilled source that was not loaded ahead is no obstacle.
+        let existing = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(50),
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Column),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(inline_versions(50, 2)),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column),
+        }];
+        let mut new_fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 2,
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(
+                write_row_ids(&RowIdSequence::from(10..12)).into(),
+            )),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column),
+        }];
+
+        resolve_update_version_metadata(&existing, &mut new_fragments, 9, &Default::default())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_fragments[0].created_at_version_meta,
+            Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_fragments[0].last_updated_at_version_meta,
+            Some(inline_versions(2, 9))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_update_versions_recomputes_inline_created_at() {
+        // Inline created-at versions next to inline row ids are not
+        // writer-placed: the commit resolves them from the row ids again, so a
+        // hand-built transaction cannot commit stale ones.
+        let row_ids = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(
+            write_row_ids(&RowIdSequence::from(0..10)).into(),
+        ));
+        let existing = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(10),
+            row_id_meta: row_ids.clone(),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(inline_versions(10, 3)),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(inline_versions(10, 3)),
+        }];
+        let mut new_fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 2,
+            physical_rows: Some(10),
+            row_id_meta: row_ids,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(inline_versions(10, 7)),
+        }];
+
+        resolve_update_version_metadata(&existing, &mut new_fragments, 9, &Default::default())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_fragments[0].created_at_version_meta,
+            Some(inline_versions(10, 3))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_fragments[0].last_updated_at_version_meta,
+            Some(inline_versions(10, 9))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::covers_every_row(50)]
+    #[case::too_short(40)]
+    fn test_resolve_update_versions_checks_placed_inline_created_at(#[case] placed_rows: u64) {
+        // Inline created-at versions next to spilled row ids are writer-placed
+        // and kept as they are, so they have to cover every row.
+        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(50),
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Column),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(inline_versions(placed_rows, 3)),
+        }];
+
+        let result = resolve_update_version_metadata(&[], &mut fragments, 9, &Default::default());
+        if placed_rows == 50 {
+            result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                fragments[0].created_at_version_meta,
+                Some(inline_versions(50, 3))
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                fragments[0].last_updated_at_version_meta,
+                Some(inline_versions(50, 9))
+            );
+        } else {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error:?}");
+            assert!(
+                error
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains("40 created-at versions for 50 physical rows"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_update_versions_reads_spilled_source_lineage_from_config() {
+        // The rewritten rows' sources are found by scanning existing row ids,
+        // which a spilled fragment does not expose here: the commit's caller
+        // reads them ahead of time. Without that, skipping the fragment would
+        // make its rows look freshly inserted, so it is an error instead.
+        let existing = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(50),
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Column),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: Some(inline_versions(50, 2)),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column),
+        }];
+        let new_fragment = |ids: std::ops::Range<u64>| Fragment {
+            id: 2,
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(
+                write_row_ids(&RowIdSequence::from(ids)).into(),
+            )),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let mut new_fragments = vec![new_fragment(10..12)];
+        let error =
+            resolve_update_version_metadata(&existing, &mut new_fragments, 9, &Default::default())
+                .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error:?}");
+
+        // A new fragment whose own row ids are spilled cannot be resolved.
+        let mut spilled_new = vec![Fragment {
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Column),
+            ..new_fragment(0..2)
+        }];
+        let error = resolve_update_version_metadata(&[], &mut spilled_new, 9, &Default::default())
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error:?}");
+
+        // Fragment 1 holds ids 100..150 and rows 10 and 11 were created at
+        // versions 3 and 4 respectively; that is what the rewrite must keep.
+        let mut created_at_versions = vec![2; 50];
+        created_at_versions[10] = 3;
+        created_at_versions[11] = 4;
+        let spilled = SpilledRowLineage::from([(
+            1,
+            crate::rowids::version::LoadedRowLineage {
+                row_ids: Some(Arc::new(RowIdSequence::from(100..150))),
+                created_at: Some(Arc::new(RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(
+                    &created_at_versions,
+                ))),
+                last_updated_at: None,
+            },
+        )]);
+        let mut new_fragments = vec![new_fragment(110..112)];
+        resolve_update_version_metadata(&existing, &mut new_fragments, 9, &spilled).unwrap();
+        let versions = |meta: &Option<RowDatasetVersionMeta>| {
+            meta.as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .load_sequence()
+                .unwrap()
+                .versions()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(versions(&new_fragments[0].created_at_version_meta), [3, 4]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            versions(&new_fragments[0].last_updated_at_version_meta),
+            [9, 9]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assign_row_ids_existing_complete() {
+        // Test with fragment that already has complete row IDs
+        let existing_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(0..50);
+        let serialized = write_row_ids(&existing_sequence);
+
+        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(50),
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized.into())),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        }];
+        let mut next_row_id = 100;
+
+        Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments).unwrap();
+
+        // next_row_id should not change
+        assert_eq!(next_row_id, 100);
+
+        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[0].row_id_meta {
+            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 50);
+            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
+            assert_eq!(row_ids, (0..50).collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assign_row_ids_partial_existing() {
+        // Test with fragment that has partial row IDs (merge insert case)
+        let existing_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(0..30);
+        let serialized = write_row_ids(&existing_sequence);
+
+        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(50), // More physical rows than existing row IDs
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized.into())),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        }];
+        let mut next_row_id = 100;
+
+        Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments).unwrap();
+
+        // next_row_id should advance by 20 (50 - 30)
+        assert_eq!(next_row_id, 120);
+
+        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[0].row_id_meta {
+            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 50);
+            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
+            // Should contain original 0-29 plus new 100-119
+            let mut expected = (0..30).collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+            expected.extend(100..120);
+            assert_eq!(row_ids, expected);
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assign_row_ids_excess_row_ids() {
+        // Test error case where fragment has more row IDs than physical rows
+        let existing_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(0..60);
+        let serialized = write_row_ids(&existing_sequence);
+
+        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: Some(50), // Less physical rows than existing row IDs
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized.into())),
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        }];
+        let mut next_row_id = 100;
+
+        let result = Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments);
+
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        if let Err(Error::Internal { message, .. }) = result {
+            assert!(message.contains("more row IDs (60) than physical rows (50)"));
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected Internal error about excess row IDs");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assign_row_ids_multiple_fragments() {
+        // Test with multiple fragments, some with existing row IDs, some without
+        let existing_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(500..520);
+        let serialized = write_row_ids(&existing_sequence);
+
+        let mut fragments = vec![
+            Fragment {
+                id: 1,
+                physical_rows: Some(30), // No existing row IDs
+                row_id_meta: None,
+                files: vec![],
+                overlays: vec![],
+                deletion_file: None,
+                last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+                created_at_version_meta: None,
+            },
+            Fragment {
+                id: 2,
+                physical_rows: Some(25), // Partial existing row IDs
+                row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized.into())),
+                files: vec![],
+                overlays: vec![],
+                deletion_file: None,
+                last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+                created_at_version_meta: None,
+            },
+        ];
+        let mut next_row_id = 1000;
+
+        Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments).unwrap();
+
+        // Should advance by 30 (first fragment) + 5 (second fragment partial)
+        assert_eq!(next_row_id, 1035);
+
+        // Check first fragment
+        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[0].row_id_meta {
+            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 30);
+            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
+            assert_eq!(row_ids, (1000..1030).collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata for first fragment");
+        }
+
+        // Check second fragment
+        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[1].row_id_meta {
+            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 25);
+            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
+            // Should contain original 500-519 plus new 1030-1034
+            let mut expected = (500..520).collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+            expected.extend(1030..1035);
+            assert_eq!(row_ids, expected);
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata for second fragment");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assign_row_ids_missing_physical_rows() {
+        // Test error case where fragment doesn't have physical_rows set
+        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            physical_rows: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        }];
+        let mut next_row_id = 0;
+
+        let result = Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments);
+
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        if let Err(Error::Internal { message, .. }) = result {
+            assert!(message.contains("Fragment does not have physical rows"));
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected Internal error about missing physical rows");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_preserves_created_at() {
+        let existing_seq = RowIdSequence::from([100u64, 101, 102].as_slice());
+        let created_at_seq = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..3),
+                version: 5,
+            }],
+        };
+        let existing_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&existing_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(3),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&created_at_seq).unwrap(),
+            ),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from([100u64, 102].as_slice());
+        let new_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![existing_fragment]);
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_fragment])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5, 5]);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5, 5]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_mixed_origins() {
+        let frag_a_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11].as_slice());
+        let frag_a_created = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..2),
+                version: 2,
+            }],
+        };
+        let frag_b_seq = RowIdSequence::from([20u64, 21, 22].as_slice());
+        let frag_b_created = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..3),
+                version: 3,
+            }],
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![
+            Fragment {
+                id: 1,
+                files: vec![],
+                overlays: vec![],
+                deletion_file: None,
+                row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&frag_a_seq).into())),
+                physical_rows: Some(2),
+                created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                    RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&frag_a_created).unwrap(),
+                ),
+                last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            },
+            Fragment {
+                id: 2,
+                files: vec![],
+                overlays: vec![],
+                deletion_file: None,
+                row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&frag_b_seq).into())),
+                physical_rows: Some(3),
+                created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                    RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&frag_b_created).unwrap(),
+                ),
+                last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            },
+        ]);
+
+        // New fragment has rows from both original fragments: row 11 from frag_a, row 20 from frag_b
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from([11u64, 20].as_slice());
+        let new_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_fragment])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Row 11 came from frag_a (offset 1, version 2), row 20 came from frag_b (offset 0, version 3)
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![2, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5, 5]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_insert_branch_gets_new_version() {
+        // Simulates the INSERT branch (NOT MATCHED) of a MERGE INTO commit:
+        // the new fragment contains a mix of rewritten rows (UPDATE branch, row ID
+        // present in existing fragments) and freshly inserted rows (INSERT branch,
+        // row ID not present in any existing fragment).
+        //
+        // UPDATE branch row (10): created_at must be copied from the source fragment.
+        // INSERT branch row (999): created_at must equal new_version (the merge commit
+        // version), because the row first appeared in this commit.
+        let existing_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11].as_slice());
+        let existing_created = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..2),
+                version: 5,
+            }],
+        };
+        let existing_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&existing_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&existing_created).unwrap(),
+            ),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        // New fragment has row 10 (UPDATE branch) and row 999 (INSERT branch)
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 999].as_slice());
+        let new_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        // update_txn uses read_version 4 → new_version is 5
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![existing_fragment]);
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_fragment])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Row 10 (UPDATE branch): created_at copied from source (version 5).
+        // Row 999 (INSERT branch): created_at == new_version (5).
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5, 5]);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5, 5]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_merge_into_distinguishes_insert_and_update_branch() {
+        // Verifies the MERGE INTO correctness contract when UPDATE branch rows and INSERT
+        // branch rows have *different* source created_at values, so we can distinguish
+        // which row got which value.
+        //
+        // Existing fragment (id=1): row IDs [10, 11], created_at = version 3.
+        // New fragment (id=20): row IDs [10, 500, 11, 501].
+        //   - Rows 10 and 11: UPDATE branch (present in existing fragment) → created_at = 3.
+        //   - Rows 500 and 501: INSERT branch (no source) → created_at = new_version = 5.
+        let existing_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11].as_slice());
+        let existing_created = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..2),
+                version: 3,
+            }],
+        };
+        let existing_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&existing_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&existing_created).unwrap(),
+            ),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 500, 11, 501].as_slice());
+        let new_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 20,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(4),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        // update_txn uses read_version 4 → new_version is 5
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![existing_fragment]);
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_fragment])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // UPDATE branch rows (10, 11): created_at preserved from source (version 3).
+        // INSERT branch rows (500, 501): created_at == new_version (5).
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 20), vec![3, 5, 3, 5]);
+        // All rows in the new fragment get last_updated == new_version.
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 20), vec![5, 5, 5, 5]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_source_fragment_no_created_at_defaults_to_1() {
+        // Source fragment has row_id_meta but no created_at_version_meta.
+        // The row IS found in the lookup, but the version defaults to 1.
+        let existing_seq = RowIdSequence::from([50u64, 51].as_slice());
+        let existing_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&existing_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from([50u64].as_slice());
+        let new_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(1),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![existing_fragment]);
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_fragment])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Row 50 is found in source but source has no created_at_version_meta → default 1
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![1]);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_no_row_id_meta_fallback() {
+        let existing_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11].as_slice());
+        let existing_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&existing_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let new_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(3),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![existing_fragment]);
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_fragment])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Fragment starts with no row_id_meta → assign_row_ids gives it fresh IDs →
+        // those IDs have no source in existing fragments (INSERT branch) →
+        // created_at == new_version (5) for each row.
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5, 5, 5]);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5, 5, 5]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_corrupt_created_at_defaults_to_1() {
+        let existing_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11].as_slice());
+        let existing_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&existing_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(Arc::from(
+                vec![0xFFu8; 8].as_slice(),
+            ))),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64].as_slice());
+        let new_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(1),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![existing_fragment]);
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_fragment])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Corrupt metadata causes decode to fail → falls back to UNKNOWN_CREATED_AT_VERSION (1)
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![1]);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5]);
+    }
+
+    /// Fragments whose row-ID range lies entirely outside the needed set must not
+    /// affect the result.  Here fragment 1 has IDs [1000, 1001] which are far above
+    /// the needed range [10, 11]; it is skipped by the range pre-filter and its
+    /// created_at version (version 99) must never appear in the output.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_range_filter_skips_non_overlapping_fragment() {
+        // Fragment in range – IDs [10, 11], created_at = 5
+        let in_range_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11].as_slice());
+        let in_range_created = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..2),
+                version: 5,
+            }],
+        };
+        let in_range_frag = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&in_range_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&in_range_created).unwrap(),
+            ),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        // Fragment outside range – IDs [1000, 1001], created_at = 99 (must never appear)
+        let out_of_range_seq = RowIdSequence::from([1000u64, 1001].as_slice());
+        let out_of_range_created = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..2),
+                version: 99,
+            }],
+        };
+        let out_of_range_frag = Fragment {
+            id: 2,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&out_of_range_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&out_of_range_created).unwrap(),
+            ),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        // New fragment rewrites both rows from the in-range fragment
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11].as_slice());
+        let new_frag = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![in_range_frag, out_of_range_frag]);
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_frag])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Both rows originate from the in-range fragment (version 5).
+        // The out-of-range fragment's version 99 must not appear.
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5, 5]);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![5, 5]);
+    }
+
+    /// When the needed row IDs fall exactly at the boundary of a fragment's range,
+    /// the range pre-filter must NOT skip the fragment (boundary values are inclusive).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_range_filter_boundary_inclusive() {
+        // Fragment IDs [10, 11, 12], created_at = 7
+        let seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11, 12].as_slice());
+        let created = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..3),
+                version: 7,
+            }],
+        };
+        let existing = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(3),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&created).unwrap()),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        // New fragment takes the boundary IDs: 10 (min) and 12 (max)
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 12].as_slice());
+        let new_frag = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![existing]);
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_frag])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Boundary IDs must be found and resolved correctly
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![7, 7]);
+    }
+
+    /// When multiple updated rows all originate from the same source fragment,
+    /// the created_at version sequence for that fragment must be decoded exactly
+    /// once (not once per row).  The observable correctness requirement is that
+    /// all rows get the right version regardless of how many there are.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_many_rows_same_source_fragment() {
+        // Source fragment: 100 rows with IDs 0..100, mixed versions (2 runs).
+        // First 50 rows at version 3, next 50 rows at version 4.
+        let src_ids: Vec<u64> = (0u64..100).collect();
+        let src_seq = RowIdSequence::from(src_ids.as_slice());
+        let src_created = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(0..50),
+                    version: 3,
+                },
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(0..50),
+                    version: 4,
+                },
+            ],
+        };
+        let src_frag = Fragment {
+            id: 1,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&src_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(100),
+            created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&src_created).unwrap(),
+            ),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        // New fragment rewrites all 100 rows preserving their stable IDs.
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from(src_ids.as_slice());
+        let new_frag = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(100),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![src_frag]);
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_frag])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let versions = created_at_versions(&result, 10);
+        assert_eq!(versions.len(), 100);
+        // First 50 rows came from version 3, next 50 from version 4
+        assert!(versions[..50].iter().all(|&v| v == 3));
+        assert!(versions[50..].iter().all(|&v| v == 4));
+    }
+
+    /// Rows originating from multiple distinct source fragments must each get
+    /// the version from their own source, even when all cached together.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_version_tracking_cache_multiple_source_fragments() {
+        let seq_a = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11, 12].as_slice());
+        let created_a = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..3),
+                version: 2,
+            }],
+        };
+        let seq_b = RowIdSequence::from([20u64, 21, 22].as_slice());
+        let created_b = RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..3),
+                version: 8,
+            }],
+        };
+
+        let manifest = make_stable_row_id_manifest(vec![
+            Fragment {
+                id: 1,
+                files: vec![],
+                overlays: vec![],
+                deletion_file: None,
+                row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&seq_a).into())),
+                physical_rows: Some(3),
+                created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                    RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&created_a).unwrap(),
+                ),
+                last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            },
+            Fragment {
+                id: 2,
+                files: vec![],
+                overlays: vec![],
+                deletion_file: None,
+                row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&seq_b).into())),
+                physical_rows: Some(3),
+                created_at_version_meta: Some(
+                    RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&created_b).unwrap(),
+                ),
+                last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            },
+        ]);
+
+        // New fragment takes rows from both sources: 12 (frag A, offset 2) and 20 (frag B, offset 0)
+        let new_seq = RowIdSequence::from([12u64, 20].as_slice());
+        let new_frag = Fragment {
+            id: 10,
+            files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&new_seq).into())),
+            physical_rows: Some(2),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let (result, _) = update_txn(vec![new_frag])
+            .build_manifest(Some(&manifest), vec![], "txn", &default_build_config())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Row 12 → frag A offset 2 → version 2; row 20 → frag B offset 0 → version 8
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions(&result, 10), vec![2, 8]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/test_support.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/test_support.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e14260066fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/test_support.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,199 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Fixtures shared between the tests of several submodules.
+
+use crate::feature_flags::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+use crate::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+use crate::format::{
+    DataFile, DataStorageFormat, Fragment, IndexMetadata, Manifest, ManifestBuildConfig,
+};
+use crate::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use chrono::Utc;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+/// The build config that `lance`'s `ManifestWriteConfig::default()` resolves to.
+pub fn default_build_config() -> ManifestBuildConfig {
+    ManifestBuildConfig {
+        auto_set_feature_flags: true,
+        timestamp_nanos: std::time::SystemTime::now()
+            .duration_since(std::time::SystemTime::UNIX_EPOCH)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_nanos(),
+        use_stable_row_ids: false,
+        use_legacy_format: None,
+        storage_format: None,
+        disable_transaction_file: false,
+        migration_next_row_id: None,
+        spilled_row_lineage: Default::default(),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn sample_manifest() -> Manifest {
+    let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+    Manifest::new(
+        LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).unwrap(),
+        Arc::new(vec![Fragment::new(0)]),
+        DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+        HashMap::new(),
+    )
+}
+
+pub fn sample_index_metadata(name: &str) -> IndexMetadata {
+    IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+        fields: vec![0],
+        covering_fields: vec![],
+        name: name.to_string(),
+        dataset_version: 0,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some([0].into_iter().collect()),
+        index_details: None,
+        index_version: 1,
+        created_at: Some(Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: None,
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn overlay_with_field(field: i32, committed_version: u64) -> DataOverlayFile {
+    DataOverlayFile {
+        data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("o.lance", vec![field], None),
+        coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+        committed_version,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Existing fragments use id >= 1 to avoid collision with `Fragment::new(0)`
+/// used by `sample_manifest`. New (updated) fragments use id = 10.
+pub fn make_stable_row_id_manifest(fragments: Vec<Fragment>) -> Manifest {
+    let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+    let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+        LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).unwrap(),
+        Arc::new(fragments),
+        DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+        HashMap::new(),
+    );
+    manifest.reader_feature_flags = FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+    manifest.next_row_id = 1000;
+    manifest.version = 4;
+    manifest
+}
+
+pub fn update_txn(new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>) -> Transaction {
+    Transaction::new(
+        4,
+        Operation::Update {
+            removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+            updated_fragments: vec![],
+            new_fragments,
+            fields_modified: vec![],
+            compacted_sstables: vec![],
+            fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+            update_mode: None,
+            inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+}
+
+pub fn created_at_versions(manifest: &Manifest, frag_id: u64) -> Vec<u64> {
+    let frag = manifest.fragments.iter().find(|f| f.id == frag_id).unwrap();
+    let seq = frag
+        .created_at_version_meta
+        .as_ref()
+        .unwrap()
+        .load_sequence()
+        .unwrap();
+    seq.versions().collect()
+}
+
+pub fn last_updated_at_versions(manifest: &Manifest, frag_id: u64) -> Vec<u64> {
+    let frag = manifest.fragments.iter().find(|f| f.id == frag_id).unwrap();
+    let seq = frag
+        .last_updated_at_version_meta
+        .as_ref()
+        .unwrap()
+        .load_sequence()
+        .unwrap();
+    seq.versions().collect()
+}
+
+/// A tagged fragment reuse entry whose inline history records
+/// `transitions` (each `(sources, destinations)`, as ordered compactions
+/// that move every row and delete none; original sources hold 4 rows, a
+/// destination the rows its sources held, split evenly), with the lineage
+/// bitmap the commit path would write: every source and destination.
+pub fn tagged_entry(transitions: &[(&[u64], &[u64])]) -> IndexMetadata {
+    use crate::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::{
+        Content, FragmentDigest, InlineContent, OrderedCompaction, Transition, transition,
+    };
+    use prost::Message;
+
+    let mut rows: HashMap<u64, u64> = HashMap::new();
+    let mut encoded = Vec::new();
+    for (sources, destinations) in transitions {
+        let mut moved = roaring::RoaringTreemap::new();
+        let mut total = 0u64;
+        for source in sources.iter() {
+            let physical_rows = *rows.entry(*source).or_insert(4);
+            for offset in 0..physical_rows {
+                moved.insert((*source << 32) | offset);
+            }
+            total += physical_rows;
+        }
+        let per_destination = total / destinations.len() as u64;
+        let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+        moved.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+        encoded.push(Transition {
+            sources: sources
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| FragmentDigest {
+                    id: *id,
+                    physical_rows: rows[id],
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            destinations: destinations
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| {
+                    rows.insert(*id, per_destination);
+                    FragmentDigest {
+                        id: *id,
+                        physical_rows: per_destination,
+                        num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(OrderedCompaction {
+                changed_row_addrs,
+            })),
+        });
+    }
+    let details = crate::format::pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails {
+        content: Some(Content::Inline(InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: encoded,
+        })),
+    };
+    let mut entry = sample_index_metadata(crate::system_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+    entry.fields.clear();
+    entry.fragment_bitmap = Some(
+        transitions
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|(sources, destinations)| sources.iter().chain(destinations.iter()))
+            .map(|id| *id as u32)
+            .collect(),
+    );
+    entry.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+        type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+        value: details.encode_to_vec(),
+    }));
+    entry.index_version = 1;
+    entry
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/update_map.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/update_map.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b7d09609bc4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/update_map.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Incremental edits to the string maps a manifest carries.
+//!
+//! Dataset config, table metadata, schema metadata and per-field metadata are all
+//! `HashMap<String, String>`, and all four are updated the same way: a list of
+//! entries where a `None` value means delete the key, plus a flag choosing between
+//! merging into the existing map and replacing it outright.
+
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+
+/// An entry for a map update. If value is None, the key will be removed from the map.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
+pub struct UpdateMapEntry {
+    /// The key of the map entry to update.
+    pub key: String,
+    /// The value to set for the key.
+    pub value: Option<String>,
+}
+
+impl From<(String, Option<String>)> for UpdateMapEntry {
+    fn from((key, value): (String, Option<String>)) -> Self {
+        Self { key, value }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<(String, String)> for UpdateMapEntry {
+    fn from((key, value): (String, String)) -> Self {
+        Self::from((key, Some(value)))
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<(&str, Option<&str>)> for UpdateMapEntry {
+    fn from((key, value): (&str, Option<&str>)) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            key: key.to_string(),
+            value: value.map(str::to_owned),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<(&str, &str)> for UpdateMapEntry {
+    fn from((key, value): (&str, &str)) -> Self {
+        Self::from((key, Some(value)))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents updates to a map (either incremental or replacement)
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
+pub struct UpdateMap {
+    pub update_entries: Vec<UpdateMapEntry>,
+    /// If true, the map will be replaced entirely with the new entries.
+    /// If false, the new entries will be merged with the existing map.
+    pub replace: bool,
+}
+
+/// Helper function to apply UpdateMap changes to a HashMap<String, String>
+pub(super) fn apply_update_map(
+    target: &mut std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
+    update_map: &UpdateMap,
+) {
+    if update_map.replace {
+        // Full replacement - clear existing and replace with new entries that have values
+        target.clear();
+        for entry in &update_map.update_entries {
+            if let Some(value) = &entry.value {
+                target.insert(entry.key.clone(), value.clone());
+            }
+        }
+    } else {
+        // Incremental update - merge entries
+        for entry in &update_map.update_entries {
+            if let Some(value) = &entry.value {
+                target.insert(entry.key.clone(), value.clone());
+            } else {
+                target.remove(&entry.key);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Helper function to translate old-style config updates to new UpdateMap format
+pub fn translate_config_updates(
+    upsert_values: &std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
+    delete_keys: &[String],
+) -> UpdateMap {
+    let mut update_entries = Vec::new();
+
+    // Add upsert entries (with values)
+    for (key, value) in upsert_values {
+        update_entries.push(UpdateMapEntry {
+            key: key.clone(),
+            value: Some(value.clone()),
+        });
+    }
+
+    // Add delete entries (without values)
+    for key in delete_keys {
+        update_entries.push(UpdateMapEntry {
+            key: key.clone(),
+            value: None,
+        });
+    }
+
+    UpdateMap {
+        update_entries,
+        replace: false, // Old style was always incremental
+    }
+}
+
+/// Helper function to translate old-style schema metadata to new UpdateMap format
+pub fn translate_schema_metadata_updates(
+    schema_metadata: &std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> UpdateMap {
+    let update_entries = schema_metadata
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(key, value)| UpdateMapEntry {
+            key: key.clone(),
+            value: Some(value.clone()),
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    UpdateMap {
+        update_entries,
+        replace: true, // Old style schema metadata was full replacement
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/validate.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/validate.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0e223095732
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/transaction/validate.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,801 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Pre-commit validation of an operation against the manifest it applies to.
+//!
+//! These checks reject transactions that could not produce a coherent manifest —
+//! a fragment list that disagrees with the schema, a merge that silently dropped
+//! or rewrote data files — before any manifest is written.
+
+use crate::format::{Fragment, Manifest};
+use crate::io::deletion::relative_deletion_file_path;
+use crate::transaction::{Operation, UpdateMode, UpdatedFragmentOffsets};
+use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+
+/// Validate the operation is valid for the given manifest.
+pub fn validate_operation(manifest: Option<&Manifest>, operation: &Operation) -> Result<()> {
+    let manifest = match (manifest, operation) {
+        (
+            None,
+            Operation::Overwrite {
+                fragments, schema, ..
+            },
+        ) => {
+            // Validate here because we are going to return early.
+            overwrite_fragments_valid(fragments)?;
+            schema_fragments_valid(None, schema, fragments)?;
+
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        (None, Operation::Clone { .. }) => return Ok(()),
+        (Some(manifest), _) => manifest,
+        (None, _) => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Cannot apply operation {} to non-existent dataset",
+                operation.name()
+            )));
+        }
+    };
+
+    match operation {
+        Operation::Append { fragments } => {
+            // Fragments must contain all fields in the schema
+            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), &manifest.schema, fragments)
+        }
+        Operation::Project { schema, .. } => {
+            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), schema, manifest.fragments.as_ref())
+        }
+        Operation::Merge {
+            fragments, schema, ..
+        } => {
+            merge_fragments_valid(manifest, fragments)?;
+            merge_schema_valid(manifest, schema, fragments)?;
+            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), schema, fragments)
+        }
+        Operation::Overwrite {
+            fragments, schema, ..
+        } => {
+            overwrite_fragments_valid(fragments)?;
+            // Pass None for manifest because Overwrite replaces all fragments.
+            // The old manifest's storage format is irrelevant for validating
+            // the new fragments (e.g., LEGACY→STABLE transitions).
+            schema_fragments_valid(None, schema, fragments)
+        }
+        Operation::Update {
+            updated_fragments,
+            new_fragments,
+            updated_fragment_offsets,
+            update_mode,
+            ..
+        } => {
+            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), &manifest.schema, updated_fragments)?;
+            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), &manifest.schema, new_fragments)?;
+            // Key-presence check only applies to RewriteColumns: that is the only
+            // mode where build_manifest stamps version metadata using off_map keys,
+            // so a stray key can corrupt an unrelated fragment's metadata.
+            // Other modes (e.g. rewrite_rows) may supply offsets for fragments
+            // outside updated_fragments for their own purposes.
+            if matches!(update_mode, Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns))
+                && let Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(off_map)) = updated_fragment_offsets
+            {
+                let updated_ids: HashSet<u64> = updated_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+                for &frag_id in off_map.keys() {
+                    if !updated_ids.contains(&frag_id) {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "updatedFragmentOffsets key {} is not in updated_fragments; \
+                             offsets must reference only fragments being rewritten",
+                            frag_id
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        _ => Ok(()),
+    }
+}
+
+// An overwrite's fragments are newly written, so they are given fresh ids at
+// commit time. A deletion file cannot come along for that ride: its path embeds
+// the fragment id, so renumbering the fragment would orphan the deletion vector
+// and silently resurrect deleted rows.
+fn overwrite_fragments_valid(fragments: &[Fragment]) -> Result<()> {
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        if let Some(deletion_file) = &fragment.deletion_file {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Overwrite fragments must be newly written, but fragment {} carries \
+                 deletion file {}. Use Delete to commit deletions against existing \
+                 fragments, or Merge to change their schema.",
+                fragment.id,
+                relative_deletion_file_path(fragment.id, deletion_file)
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn schema_fragments_valid(
+    manifest: Option<&Manifest>,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if let Some(manifest) = manifest {
+        return match manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format() {
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => schema_fragments_legacy_valid(schema, fragments),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => schema_fragments_modern_valid(schema, fragments),
+        };
+    }
+    schema_fragments_modern_valid(schema, fragments)
+}
+
+pub fn schema_fragments_modern_valid(_schema: &Schema, fragments: &[Fragment]) -> Result<()> {
+    // validate that each data file at least contains one field.
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        for data_file in &fragment.files {
+            if data_file.fields.iter().len() == 0 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Datafile {} does not contain any fields",
+                    data_file.path
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Check that each fragment contains all fields in the schema.
+/// It is not required that the schema contains all fields in the fragment.
+/// There may be masked fields.
+pub fn schema_fragments_legacy_valid(schema: &Schema, fragments: &[Fragment]) -> Result<()> {
+    // TODO: add additional validation. Consider consolidating with various
+    // validate() methods in the codebase.
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        for field in schema.fields_pre_order() {
+            if !fragment
+                .files
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|f| f.fields.iter())
+                .any(|f_id| f_id == &field.id)
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Fragment {} does not contain field {:?}",
+                    fragment.id, field
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Returns true if Operation::Merge rewrote this fragment's column data files (Fragment::files
+/// changed versus the previous manifest). Used to bump last_updated_at_version_meta only when
+/// new column values were materialized to disk.
+///
+/// Deletion file changes alone are not treated as rewrites: tombstones remove rows but
+/// survivors did not receive new column bytes; stamping last_updated for those rows would be
+/// incorrect for CDF.
+#[inline]
+pub(super) fn merge_fragment_physically_rewritten(prev: &Fragment, merged: &Fragment) -> bool {
+    debug_assert_eq!(prev.id, merged.id);
+    if prev.files.len() != merged.files.len() {
+        return true;
+    }
+    // Compare identity fields only. file_size_bytes is an AtomicU64 cache that
+    // concurrent scans can populate in place on the manifest's DataFile, so it
+    // must not be part of the rewrite check.
+    prev.files.iter().zip(merged.files.iter()).any(|(p, m)| {
+        p.path != m.path
+            || p.fields != m.fields
+            || p.column_indices != m.column_indices
+            || p.file_major_version != m.file_major_version
+            || p.file_minor_version != m.file_minor_version
+            || p.base_id != m.base_id
+    })
+}
+
+/// Validate that Merge operations preserve all original fragments.
+/// Merge operations should only add columns or rows, not reduce fragments.
+/// This ensures fragments correspond at one-to-one with the original fragment list.
+fn merge_fragments_valid(manifest: &Manifest, new_fragments: &[Fragment]) -> Result<()> {
+    let original_fragments = manifest.fragments.as_ref();
+
+    // Additional validation: ensure we're not accidentally reducing the fragment count
+    if new_fragments.len() < original_fragments.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Merge operation reduced fragment count from {} to {}. \
+             Merge operations should only add columns, not reduce fragments.",
+            original_fragments.len(),
+            new_fragments.len()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    // Id 0 means unassigned (assigned at commit, like Append); a non-zero id
+    // unknown to the manifest was pre-reserved. The first occurrence of each
+    // previous id is the existing fragment (mirrors build_manifest), so staged
+    // id-0 fragments must follow the existing ones.
+    let mut new_fragment_map: HashMap<u64, &Fragment> = HashMap::new();
+    for fragment in new_fragments {
+        if fragment.id != 0 && new_fragment_map.contains_key(&fragment.id) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Merge operation contains duplicate fragment id {}. \
+                 New fragments must use id 0 (assigned at commit time) or a unique reserved id.",
+                fragment.id
+            )));
+        }
+        new_fragment_map.entry(fragment.id).or_insert(fragment);
+    }
+
+    // build_manifest treats the FIRST occurrence of each previous id as the
+    // merged existing fragment, so a staged id-0 fragment listed before the
+    // fragment it collides with would silently take that fragment's place.
+    // The row-count and row-id-metadata checks below only catch that swap
+    // when the two fragments differ; enforce the order structurally instead:
+    // every fragment classified as existing must precede every new one.
+    let previous_ids: HashSet<u64> = original_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+    let mut seen_previous: HashSet<u64> = HashSet::new();
+    let mut first_new_id: Option<u64> = None;
+    for fragment in new_fragments {
+        let is_existing = previous_ids.contains(&fragment.id) && seen_previous.insert(fragment.id);
+        if !is_existing {
+            first_new_id.get_or_insert(fragment.id);
+        } else if let Some(new_id) = first_new_id {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Merge operation lists existing fragment {} after a new fragment \
+                 (id {}). New fragments must be listed after every existing fragment.",
+                fragment.id, new_id
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Check that all original fragments are preserved in the new fragments list
+    // Validate that each original fragment's metadata is preserved
+    let mut missing_fragments: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+    for original_fragment in original_fragments {
+        if let Some(new_fragment) = new_fragment_map.get(&original_fragment.id) {
+            // Validate physical_rows (row count) hasn't changed
+            if original_fragment.physical_rows != new_fragment.physical_rows {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Merge operation changed row count for fragment {}. \
+                     Original: {:?}, New: {:?}. \
+                     Merge operations should preserve fragment row counts and only add new columns.",
+                    original_fragment.id,
+                    original_fragment.physical_rows,
+                    new_fragment.physical_rows
+                )));
+            }
+            // A previous-id fragment without row id metadata on a stable
+            // dataset is most likely a staged fragment listed too early.
+            if manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() && new_fragment.row_id_meta.is_none() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Merge operation dropped row id metadata for existing fragment {}. \
+                     New fragments (id 0) must be listed after the existing fragments; \
+                     they are assigned row ids at commit time.",
+                    original_fragment.id
+                )));
+            }
+        } else {
+            missing_fragments.push(original_fragment.id);
+        }
+    }
+
+    if !missing_fragments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Merge operation is missing original fragments: {:?}. \
+             Merge operations should preserve all original fragments and only add new columns. \
+             Expected fragments: {:?}, but got: {:?}",
+            missing_fragments,
+            original_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            new_fragment_map.keys().copied().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Validate that a Merge schema preserves the dataset's field id bindings.
+///
+/// Readers resolve columns by field id (name -> schema id -> DataFile::fields
+/// position), so renumbered ids silently rebind live columns to other columns'
+/// bytes. Shared ids must keep their field path. Their logical type,
+/// nullability, storage encoding, and dictionary may change only when every
+/// existing base or overlay file carrying the id is replaced and every
+/// proposed fragment materializes the id in a base data file. New ids must
+/// exceed the manifest's max so a dropped field's id is never reused. An
+/// existing path may move to a fresh id only when every proposed fragment
+/// materializes that id in a base data file (the `alter_columns` cast path).
+/// Omitting a field (dropping it) and updating field metadata remain legal.
+fn merge_schema_valid(
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    new_schema: &Schema,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let prior_schema = &manifest.schema;
+    // First occurrence wins: a later staged fragment with placeholder id 0 is
+    // not fragment 0's merged version.
+    let mut new_fragment_map: HashMap<u64, &Fragment> = HashMap::new();
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        new_fragment_map.entry(fragment.id).or_insert(fragment);
+    }
+
+    // Remap and semantic errors first: a renumbered schema usually violates
+    // both the shared-id and new-id clauses.
+    for field in new_schema.fields_pre_order() {
+        let Some(prior_field) = prior_schema.field_by_id(field.id) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let prior_path = prior_schema.field_path(field.id)?;
+        let new_path = new_schema.field_path(field.id)?;
+        if prior_path != new_path {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Merge operation remaps field id {} from \"{}\" to \"{}\". \
+                 Merge must preserve the dataset's field ids: derive the new schema \
+                 from the dataset's current schema instead of renumbering fields.",
+                field.id, prior_path, new_path
+            )));
+        }
+        if let Some(changes) = shared_field_binding_changes(prior_field, field)
+            && !is_field_binding_fully_rewritten(manifest, &new_fragment_map, field.id)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Merge operation changes field id {} (\"{}\") without rewriting it in \
+                 every existing fragment: {}. Merge must preserve each existing field's \
+                 logical type, nullability, storage encoding, and dictionary unless all \
+                 existing base and overlay files carrying that field are replaced.",
+                field.id, new_path, changes
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let max_field_id = manifest.max_field_id();
+    for field in new_schema.fields_pre_order() {
+        if prior_schema.field_by_id(field.id).is_none() && field.id <= max_field_id {
+            let next_id_msg = match max_field_id.checked_add(1) {
+                Some(next_id) => format!("New fields must use ids of at least {}.", next_id),
+                None => {
+                    "No further field id can be allocated because ids are exhausted.".to_string()
+                }
+            };
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Merge operation assigns id {} to new field \"{}\", but ids up to {} are \
+                 already used by current or dropped fields. {}",
+                field.id,
+                new_schema.field_path(field.id)?,
+                max_field_id,
+                next_id_msg
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut prior_paths = HashMap::with_capacity(prior_schema.fields_pre_order().count());
+    for field in prior_schema.fields_pre_order() {
+        prior_paths.insert(prior_schema.field_path(field.id)?, field);
+    }
+    for field in new_schema.fields_pre_order() {
+        if prior_schema.field_by_id(field.id).is_some() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let new_path = new_schema.field_path(field.id)?;
+        let Some(prior_field) = prior_paths.get(&new_path) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let materialized = fragments.iter().all(|fragment| {
+            fragment
+                .files
+                .iter()
+                .any(|file| file.fields.contains(&field.id))
+        });
+        if !materialized {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Merge operation remaps existing field \"{}\" from id {} to id {} without \
+                 rewriting its data. Every proposed fragment must materialize the new field \
+                 id in a base data file.",
+                new_path, prior_field.id, field.id
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn is_field_binding_fully_rewritten(
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    new_fragment_map: &HashMap<u64, &Fragment>,
+    field_id: i32,
+) -> bool {
+    manifest.fragments.iter().all(|prior_fragment| {
+        let Some(new_fragment) = new_fragment_map.get(&prior_fragment.id) else {
+            return false;
+        };
+
+        let is_materialized = new_fragment
+            .files
+            .iter()
+            .any(|file| file.fields.contains(&field_id));
+        if !is_materialized {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        prior_fragment
+            .referenced_lance_files()
+            .filter(|file| file.fields.contains(&field_id))
+            .all(|prior_file| {
+                !new_fragment.referenced_lance_files().any(|new_file| {
+                    new_file.fields.contains(&field_id)
+                        && new_file.base_id == prior_file.base_id
+                        && new_file.path == prior_file.path
+                })
+            })
+    })
+}
+
+fn shared_field_binding_changes(prior: &Field, new: &Field) -> Option<String> {
+    let mut changes = Vec::with_capacity(4);
+    if prior.logical_type != new.logical_type {
+        changes.push(format!(
+            "logical type {} -> {}",
+            prior.logical_type, new.logical_type
+        ));
+    }
+    if prior.nullable != new.nullable {
+        changes.push(format!("nullable {} -> {}", prior.nullable, new.nullable));
+    }
+    if prior.encoding != new.encoding {
+        changes.push(format!(
+            "storage encoding {:?} -> {:?}",
+            prior.encoding, new.encoding
+        ));
+    }
+    if prior.dictionary != new.dictionary {
+        changes.push("dictionary".to_string());
+    }
+    if changes.is_empty() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(changes.join(", "))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+    use crate::format::{DataFile, DataStorageFormat};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_core::datatypes::{Field as LanceCoreField, LogicalType, Schema as LanceSchema};
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_fragments_valid() {
+        // Create a simple schema for testing
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]);
+
+        // Create original fragments
+        let original_fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2), Fragment::new(3)];
+
+        // Create a manifest with original fragments
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(original_fragments),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+
+        // Test 1: Empty fragments should fail
+        let empty_fragments = vec![];
+        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &empty_fragments);
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("reduced fragment count")
+        );
+
+        // Test 2: Missing original fragments should fail
+        let missing_fragments = vec![
+            Fragment::new(1),
+            Fragment::new(2),
+            // Fragment 3 is missing
+            Fragment::new(4), // New fragment
+        ];
+        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &missing_fragments);
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("missing original fragments")
+        );
+
+        // Test 3: Reduced fragment count should fail
+        let reduced_fragments = vec![
+            Fragment::new(1),
+            Fragment::new(2),
+            // Fragment 3 is missing, no new fragments added
+        ];
+        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &reduced_fragments);
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("reduced fragment count")
+        );
+
+        // Test 4: Valid merge with all original fragments plus new ones should succeed
+        let valid_fragments = vec![
+            Fragment::new(1),
+            Fragment::new(2),
+            Fragment::new(3),
+            Fragment::new(4), // New fragment
+            Fragment::new(5), // Another new fragment
+        ];
+        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &valid_fragments);
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+
+        // Test 5: Same fragments (no new ones) should succeed
+        let same_fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2), Fragment::new(3)];
+        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &same_fragments);
+        assert!(result.is_ok());
+    }
+
+    fn one_field_schema() -> LanceSchema {
+        LanceSchema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "a",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )]))
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn fragment_with_file_fields(id: u64, path: &str, fields: Vec<i32>) -> Fragment {
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(id);
+        fragment
+            .files
+            .push(DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields(path, fields, None));
+        fragment
+    }
+
+    fn manifest_with_file_fields(schema: LanceSchema, fields: Vec<i32>) -> Manifest {
+        Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment_with_file_fields(0, "f.lance", fields)]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::logical_type(DataType::Float32, true)]
+    #[case::nullability(DataType::Int32, false)]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_shared_id_change_requires_full_rewrite(
+        #[case] data_type: DataType,
+        #[case] nullable: bool,
+    ) {
+        let schema = one_field_schema();
+        let prior_fragments = vec![
+            fragment_with_file_fields(0, "old-0.lance", vec![0]),
+            fragment_with_file_fields(1, "old-1.lance", vec![0]),
+        ];
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            Arc::new(prior_fragments.clone()),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        let mut new_schema = schema;
+        new_schema.fields[0].logical_type = LogicalType::try_from(&data_type).unwrap();
+        new_schema.fields[0].nullable = nullable;
+
+        let rewritten_fragments = vec![
+            fragment_with_file_fields(0, "new-0.lance", vec![0]),
+            fragment_with_file_fields(1, "new-1.lance", vec![0]),
+        ];
+        merge_schema_valid(&manifest, &new_schema, &rewritten_fragments).unwrap();
+
+        let partially_rewritten = vec![rewritten_fragments[0].clone(), prior_fragments[1].clone()];
+        let err = merge_schema_valid(&manifest, &new_schema, &partially_rewritten).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("without rewriting it in every existing fragment"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_preserved_dictionary_not_flagged() {
+        // The manifest schema stores a dictionary as offset/length with no
+        // attached values, so an unchanged dictionary must not count as a field
+        // change (which would demand a full rewrite). The moved-offset half
+        // passes under the old comparison too, where every dictionary looked
+        // changed; it is here to pin that offset stays part of the identity.
+        let dictionary = lance_core::datatypes::Dictionary {
+            offset: 100,
+            length: 5,
+            values: None,
+        };
+        let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "d",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::UInt32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            true,
+        )]))
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut prior_schema = schema.clone();
+        prior_schema.fields[0].dictionary = Some(dictionary.clone());
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            prior_schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment_with_file_fields(0, "old.lance", vec![0])]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+
+        let mut unchanged = schema.clone();
+        unchanged.fields[0].dictionary = Some(dictionary);
+        let retained = vec![fragment_with_file_fields(0, "old.lance", vec![0])];
+        assert_eq!(
+            shared_field_binding_changes(&manifest.schema.fields[0], &unchanged.fields[0]),
+            None
+        );
+        merge_schema_valid(&manifest, &unchanged, &retained).unwrap();
+
+        let mut moved = schema;
+        moved.fields[0].dictionary = Some(lance_core::datatypes::Dictionary {
+            offset: 200,
+            length: 5,
+            values: None,
+        });
+        assert_eq!(
+            shared_field_binding_changes(&manifest.schema.fields[0], &moved.fields[0]),
+            Some("dictionary".to_string())
+        );
+        let err = merge_schema_valid(&manifest, &moved, &retained).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {err:?}");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains(r#"changes field id 0 ("d") without rewriting it in every existing fragment: dictionary."#),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_shared_id_change_rejects_retained_overlay() {
+        let schema = one_field_schema();
+        let mut prior_fragment = fragment_with_file_fields(0, "old.lance", vec![0]);
+        prior_fragment.overlays.push(DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("old-overlay.lance", vec![0], None),
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0_u32]))),
+            committed_version: 1,
+        });
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            Arc::new(vec![prior_fragment.clone()]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        let mut new_schema = schema;
+        new_schema.fields[0].nullable = false;
+
+        let mut rewritten = fragment_with_file_fields(0, "new.lance", vec![0]);
+        rewritten.overlays = prior_fragment.overlays.clone();
+        let err = merge_schema_valid(&manifest, &new_schema, &[rewritten]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("without rewriting it in every existing fragment"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_allows_rewritten_fresh_field_id() {
+        let schema = one_field_schema();
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file_fields(schema.clone(), vec![0]);
+        let mut rewritten_schema = schema;
+        rewritten_schema.fields[0].id = 1;
+        let mut rewritten = manifest.fragments[0].clone();
+        rewritten.files[0] = DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("rewritten.lance", vec![1], None);
+        merge_schema_valid(&manifest, &rewritten_schema, &[rewritten]).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_rejects_max_field_id_overflow() {
+        let schema = one_field_schema();
+        let manifest = manifest_with_file_fields(schema.clone(), vec![0, i32::MAX]);
+        assert_eq!(manifest.max_field_id(), i32::MAX);
+
+        let mut new_schema = schema;
+        let mut extra =
+            LanceCoreField::try_from(&ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true)).unwrap();
+        extra.id = 1;
+        new_schema.fields.push(extra);
+
+        let err = merge_schema_valid(&manifest, &new_schema, &manifest.fragments).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("assigns id 1 to new field \"b\"") && message.contains("exhausted"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            message
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/6417
+    ///
+    /// When overwriting a LEGACY dataset with STABLE-format fragments, the
+    /// validation should not use the old manifest's format. STABLE fragments
+    /// omit struct parent fields, which the strict legacy check rejects.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_overwrite_legacy_to_stable_with_struct_fields() {
+        use arrow_schema::Fields;
+
+        // Schema: id (field 0), name (field 1), address (field 2, struct parent),
+        //   city (field 3), country (field 4)
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "address",
+                DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("city", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    ArrowField::new("country", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ])),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        // Old manifest is LEGACY format
+        let legacy_manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            Arc::new(vec![Fragment::new(0)]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V1),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+
+        // New fragments in STABLE format omit struct parent field (id=2),
+        // only including leaf fields: id=0, name=1, city=3, country=4
+        let stable_fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![DataFile::new(
+                "data.lance",
+                vec![0, 1, 3, 4], // no field 2 (struct parent)
+                vec![0, 1, 2, 3],
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
+                None,
+                None,
+            )],
+            physical_rows: Some(10),
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let operation = Operation::Overwrite {
+            fragments: vec![stable_fragment],
+            schema,
+            config_upsert_values: None,
+            initial_bases: None,
+        };
+
+        // This should succeed — the old manifest's LEGACY format should not
+        // cause strict validation of the new STABLE fragments.
+        validate_operation(Some(&legacy_manifest), &operation).unwrap();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/utils.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/utils.rs
index 01c64f78710..0c37ef1e001 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/utils.rs
@@ -45,3 +45,5 @@ impl<I: Iterator> Iterator for ExactSize<I> {
         (self.size, Some(self.size))
     }
 }
+
+impl<T: Iterator> ExactSizeIterator for ExactSize<T> {}
diff --git a/rust/lance-table/src/utils/stream.rs b/rust/lance-table/src/utils/stream.rs
index e0ee403749c..a45d0f3c139 100644
--- a/rust/lance-table/src/utils/stream.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-table/src/utils/stream.rs
@@ -1,25 +1,31 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::{
+    fmt,
+    sync::{Arc, OnceLock},
+};
 
-use arrow_array::{make_array, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchOptions, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchOptions, UInt64Array, make_array,
+};
 use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
 use futures::{
-    future::BoxFuture,
-    stream::{BoxStream, FuturesOrdered},
     FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt,
+    future::{BoxFuture, Shared},
+    stream::{BoxStream, FuturesOrdered},
 };
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use lance_core::{
+    Error, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD,
+    ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD, Result,
     utils::{address::RowAddress, deletion::DeletionVector},
-    Result, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD,
-    ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD,
 };
 use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
-use crate::rowids::RowIdSequence;
+use crate::rowids::{RowIdSequence, RowIdSequenceCursor};
 
 pub type ReadBatchFut = BoxFuture<'static, Result<RecordBatch>>;
 /// A task, emitted by a file reader, that will produce a batch (of the
@@ -31,27 +37,124 @@ pub struct ReadBatchTask {
 pub type ReadBatchTaskStream = BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchTask>;
 pub type ReadBatchFutStream = BoxStream<'static, ReadBatchFut>;
 
+type SharedReadBatchFut = Shared<BoxFuture<'static, std::result::Result<RecordBatch, Arc<Error>>>>;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SharedReadError(Arc<Error>);
+
+impl fmt::Display for SharedReadError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        self.0.fmt(f)
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for SharedReadError {
+    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn std::error::Error + 'static)> {
+        Some(self.0.as_ref())
+    }
+}
+
+struct PendingReadBatch {
+    task: Option<ReadBatchFut>,
+    shared_task: Option<SharedReadBatchFut>,
+    offset: u32,
+    num_rows: u32,
+}
+
+impl PendingReadBatch {
+    fn new(task: ReadBatchTask) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            task: Some(task.task),
+            shared_task: None,
+            offset: 0,
+            num_rows: task.num_rows,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn take(&mut self, num_rows: u32) -> ReadBatchFut {
+        debug_assert!(num_rows <= self.num_rows);
+
+        if self.offset == 0 && num_rows == self.num_rows && self.shared_task.is_none() {
+            self.num_rows = 0;
+            let Some(task) = self.task.take() else {
+                return async {
+                    Err(Error::internal(
+                        "missing read task while merging aligned streams".to_string(),
+                    ))
+                }
+                .boxed();
+            };
+            return task;
+        }
+
+        let shared_task = self
+            .shared_task
+            .get_or_insert_with(|| {
+                let task = self.task.take();
+                async move {
+                    let Some(task) = task else {
+                        return Err(Arc::new(Error::internal(
+                            "missing read task while splitting a merged stream".to_string(),
+                        )));
+                    };
+                    task.await.map_err(Arc::new)
+                }
+                .boxed()
+                .shared()
+            })
+            .clone();
+        let offset = self.offset;
+        self.offset += num_rows;
+        self.num_rows -= num_rows;
+
+        async move {
+            match shared_task.await {
+                Ok(batch) => Ok(batch.slice(offset as usize, num_rows as usize)),
+                Err(error) => Err(Error::wrapped(Box::new(SharedReadError(error)))),
+            }
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+}
+
 struct MergeStream {
     streams: Vec<ReadBatchTaskStream>,
-    next_batch: FuturesOrdered<ReadBatchFut>,
-    next_num_rows: u32,
+    pending: Vec<Option<PendingReadBatch>>,
     index: usize,
 }
 
 impl MergeStream {
     fn emit(&mut self) -> ReadBatchTask {
-        let mut iter = std::mem::take(&mut self.next_batch);
+        let num_rows = self
+            .pending
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|pending| pending.as_ref().map(|pending| pending.num_rows))
+            .min()
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let mut batches = FuturesOrdered::new();
+        for pending in &mut self.pending {
+            let Some(pending_batch) = pending.as_mut() else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            batches.push_back(pending_batch.take(num_rows));
+            if pending_batch.num_rows == 0 {
+                *pending = None;
+            }
+        }
         let task = async move {
-            let mut batch = iter.next().await.unwrap()?;
-            while let Some(next) = iter.next().await {
+            let Some(first) = batches.next().await else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "cannot merge an empty set of read batches".to_string(),
+                ));
+            };
+            let mut batch = first?;
+            while let Some(next) = batches.next().await {
                 let next = next?;
                 batch = batch.merge(&next)?;
             }
             Ok(batch)
         }
         .boxed();
-        let num_rows = self.next_num_rows;
-        self.next_num_rows = 0;
         ReadBatchTask { task, num_rows }
     }
 }
@@ -64,21 +167,19 @@ impl Stream for MergeStream {
         cx: &mut std::task::Context<'_>,
     ) -> std::task::Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
         loop {
+            if self.pending.iter().all(Option::is_some) {
+                return std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(self.emit()));
+            }
+
             let index = self.index;
+            if self.pending[index].is_some() {
+                self.index = (index + 1) % self.streams.len();
+                continue;
+            }
             match self.streams[index].poll_next_unpin(cx) {
                 std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(batch_task)) => {
-                    if self.index == 0 {
-                        self.next_num_rows = batch_task.num_rows;
-                    } else {
-                        debug_assert_eq!(self.next_num_rows, batch_task.num_rows);
-                    }
-                    self.next_batch.push_back(batch_task.task);
-                    self.index += 1;
-                    if self.index == self.streams.len() {
-                        self.index = 0;
-                        let next_batch = self.emit();
-                        return std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(next_batch));
-                    }
+                    self.pending[index] = Some(PendingReadBatch::new(batch_task));
+                    self.index = (index + 1) % self.streams.len();
                 }
                 std::task::Poll::Ready(None) => {
                     return std::task::Poll::Ready(None);
@@ -95,19 +196,20 @@ impl Stream for MergeStream {
 ///
 /// This pulls one batch from each stream and then combines the columns from
 /// all of the batches into a single batch.  The order of the batches in the
-/// streams is maintained and the merged batch columns will be in order from
-/// first to last stream.
+/// streams is maintained and the merged batch columns will be in order from first
+/// to last stream. If the streams use different batch boundaries then batches are
+/// sliced so each merged output remains row-aligned.
 ///
 /// This stream ends as soon as any of the input streams ends (we do not
 /// verify that the other input streams are finished as well)
-///
-/// This will panic if any of the input streams return a batch with a different
-/// number of rows than the first stream.
 pub fn merge_streams(streams: Vec<ReadBatchTaskStream>) -> ReadBatchTaskStream {
+    if streams.is_empty() {
+        return futures::stream::empty().boxed();
+    }
+    let pending = (0..streams.len()).map(|_| None).collect();
     MergeStream {
         streams,
-        next_batch: FuturesOrdered::new(),
-        next_num_rows: 0,
+        pending,
         index: 0,
     }
     .boxed()
@@ -161,6 +263,57 @@ fn apply_deletions_as_nulls(batch: RecordBatch, mask: &BooleanArray) -> Result<R
     )?)
 }
 
+/// Extract version values for a batch selection with a reusable RLE cursor.
+/// Single-run fragments (the common case) take the O(1) fast path.
+fn version_values_for_selection_with_cursor(
+    sequence: &crate::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+    cursor: &mut crate::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionCursor,
+    params: &ReadBatchParams,
+    batch_offset: u32,
+    num_rows: u32,
+) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    let selection = params
+        .slice(batch_offset as usize, num_rows as usize)
+        .unwrap()
+        .to_ranges()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    if sequence.runs.len() == 1 {
+        return Ok(vec![sequence.runs[0].version(); num_rows as usize]);
+    }
+
+    let mut versions = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows as usize);
+    for r in &selection {
+        cursor.extend_range(sequence, r.start as usize..r.end as usize, &mut versions)?;
+    }
+    Ok(versions)
+}
+
+fn version_values_for_selection(
+    sequence: &crate::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+    params: &ReadBatchParams,
+    batch_offset: u32,
+    num_rows: u32,
+) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    // Preserve the common direct-call path without constructing a cursor.
+    // Keep the selection validation in the same order as the general path.
+    let _selection = params
+        .slice(batch_offset as usize, num_rows as usize)
+        .unwrap()
+        .to_ranges()
+        .unwrap();
+    if sequence.runs.len() == 1 {
+        return Ok(vec![sequence.runs[0].version(); num_rows as usize]);
+    }
+    version_values_for_selection_with_cursor(
+        sequence,
+        &mut sequence.cursor(),
+        params,
+        batch_offset,
+        num_rows,
+    )
+}
+
 /// Configuration needed to apply row ids and deletions to a batch
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
@@ -199,19 +352,136 @@ impl RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
     }
 }
 
-#[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
 pub fn apply_row_id_and_deletes(
     batch: RecordBatch,
     batch_offset: u32,
     fragment_id: u32,
     config: &RowIdAndDeletesConfig,
 ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    apply_row_id_and_deletes_with_system_columns(
+        batch,
+        batch_offset,
+        fragment_id,
+        config,
+        PrecomputedSystemColumns::default(),
+        None,
+    )
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct PrecomputedSystemColumns {
+    row_ids: Option<Result<Arc<UInt64Array>>>,
+    last_updated_versions: Option<Result<Arc<UInt64Array>>>,
+    created_versions: Option<Result<Arc<UInt64Array>>>,
+}
+
+const ROW_ID_READ_AHEAD_ROWS: usize = 64 * 1024;
+
+struct PrecomputedRowIdChunk {
+    logical_offset: usize,
+    values: Arc<UInt64Array>,
+}
+
+struct CachedOutputSchema {
+    input: SchemaRef,
+    output: SchemaRef,
+}
+
+impl PrecomputedRowIdChunk {
+    fn end_offset(&self) -> usize {
+        self.logical_offset + self.values.len()
+    }
+
+    fn slice(&self, logical_offset: usize, num_rows: usize) -> Option<Arc<UInt64Array>> {
+        let offset_in_chunk = logical_offset.checked_sub(self.logical_offset)?;
+        if offset_in_chunk + num_rows > self.values.len() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        if offset_in_chunk == 0 && num_rows == self.values.len() {
+            return Some(self.values.clone());
+        }
+        Some(Arc::new(self.values.slice(offset_in_chunk, num_rows)))
+    }
+}
+
+fn decode_row_id_chunk<const USE_DENSE_ROW_ID_EXPANSION: bool>(
+    sequence: &RowIdSequence,
+    cursor: &mut RowIdSequenceCursor,
+    params: &ReadBatchParams,
+    logical_offset: usize,
+    chunk_len: usize,
+) -> Result<PrecomputedRowIdChunk> {
+    let selection = params
+        .slice(logical_offset, chunk_len)
+        .unwrap()
+        .to_ranges()
+        .unwrap();
+    let values = match selection.as_slice() {
+        [range] if USE_DENSE_ROW_ID_EXPANSION => UInt64Array::from(
+            sequence
+                .select_dense_range_with_cursor(cursor, range.start as usize..range.end as usize),
+        ),
+        [range] => UInt64Array::from(
+            sequence.select_range_with_cursor(cursor, range.start as usize..range.end as usize),
+        ),
+        _ => sequence
+            .select_with_cursor(
+                cursor,
+                selection
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|range| range.start as usize..range.end as usize),
+            )
+            .collect::<UInt64Array>(),
+    };
+    if values.len() != chunk_len {
+        return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            "row ID metadata",
+            format!(
+                "decoded row ID chunk at selected offset {logical_offset} contains {} rows, but the selection requires {chunk_len} rows",
+                values.len()
+            ),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(PrecomputedRowIdChunk {
+        logical_offset,
+        values: Arc::new(values),
+    })
+}
+
+fn selected_row_count(params: &ReadBatchParams, total_num_rows: usize) -> usize {
+    match params {
+        ReadBatchParams::Range(range) => range.len(),
+        ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges) => ranges
+            .iter()
+            .map(|range| (range.end - range.start) as usize)
+            .sum(),
+        ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => total_num_rows,
+        ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(range) => range.end,
+        ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(range) => total_num_rows.saturating_sub(range.start),
+        ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => indices.len(),
+    }
+}
+
+#[instrument(name = "apply_row_id_and_deletes", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+fn apply_row_id_and_deletes_with_system_columns(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    batch_offset: u32,
+    fragment_id: u32,
+    config: &RowIdAndDeletesConfig,
+    precomputed: PrecomputedSystemColumns,
+    output_schema_cache: Option<&OnceLock<CachedOutputSchema>>,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let PrecomputedSystemColumns {
+        row_ids: precomputed_row_ids,
+        last_updated_versions,
+        created_versions,
+    } = precomputed;
     let mut deletion_vector = config.deletion_vector.as_ref();
     // Convert Some(NoDeletions) into None to simplify logic below
-    if let Some(deletion_vector_inner) = deletion_vector {
-        if matches!(deletion_vector_inner.as_ref(), DeletionVector::NoDeletions) {
-            deletion_vector = None;
-        }
+    if let Some(deletion_vector_inner) = deletion_vector
+        && matches!(deletion_vector_inner.as_ref(), DeletionVector::NoDeletions)
+    {
+        deletion_vector = None;
     }
     let has_deletions = deletion_vector.is_some();
     debug_assert!(batch.num_columns() > 0 || config.has_system_cols() || has_deletions);
@@ -245,7 +515,11 @@ pub fn apply_row_id_and_deletes(
 
     let row_ids = if config.with_row_id {
         let _rowids = tracing::span!(tracing::Level::DEBUG, "fetch_row_ids").entered();
-        if let Some(row_id_sequence) = &config.row_id_sequence {
+        if let Some(row_ids) = precomputed_row_ids {
+            let row_ids = row_ids?;
+            debug_assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), num_rows as usize);
+            Some(row_ids)
+        } else if let Some(row_id_sequence) = &config.row_id_sequence {
             let selection = config
                 .params
                 .slice(batch_offset as usize, num_rows as usize)
@@ -276,82 +550,87 @@ pub fn apply_row_id_and_deletes(
         v.build_predicate(row_addrs.iter())
     });
 
-    let batch = if config.with_row_id {
-        let row_id_arr = row_ids.unwrap();
-        batch.try_with_column(ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(), row_id_arr)?
-    } else {
-        batch
-    };
-
-    let batch = if config.with_row_addr {
-        let row_addr_arr = row_addrs.unwrap();
-        batch.try_with_column(ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone(), row_addr_arr)?
-    } else {
-        batch
-    };
-
-    // Add version columns if requested
-    let batch = if config.with_row_last_updated_at_version || config.with_row_created_at_version {
-        let mut batch = batch;
-
-        if config.with_row_last_updated_at_version {
-            let version_arr = if let Some(sequence) = &config.last_updated_at_sequence {
-                // Get the range of rows for this batch
-                let selection = config
-                    .params
-                    .slice(batch_offset as usize, num_rows as usize)
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .to_ranges()
-                    .unwrap();
-                // Extract version values for the selected ranges
-                let versions: Vec<u64> = selection
-                    .iter()
-                    .flat_map(|r| {
-                        sequence
-                            .versions()
-                            .skip(r.start as usize)
-                            .take((r.end - r.start) as usize)
-                    })
-                    .collect();
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(versions))
-            } else {
-                // Default to version 1 if sequence not provided
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64; num_rows as usize]))
-            };
-            batch =
-                batch.try_with_column(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD.clone(), version_arr)?;
-        }
-
-        if config.with_row_created_at_version {
-            let version_arr = if let Some(sequence) = &config.created_at_sequence {
-                // Get the range of rows for this batch
-                let selection = config
-                    .params
-                    .slice(batch_offset as usize, num_rows as usize)
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .to_ranges()
-                    .unwrap();
-                // Extract version values for the selected ranges
-                let versions: Vec<u64> = selection
-                    .iter()
-                    .flat_map(|r| {
-                        sequence
-                            .versions()
-                            .skip(r.start as usize)
-                            .take((r.end - r.start) as usize)
-                    })
-                    .collect();
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(versions))
-            } else {
-                // Default to version 1 if sequence not provided
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64; num_rows as usize]))
-            };
-            batch = batch.try_with_column(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD.clone(), version_arr)?;
-        }
+    let mut system_columns: Vec<(Field, ArrayRef)> = Vec::with_capacity(4);
+    if config.with_row_id {
+        system_columns.push((ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(), row_ids.unwrap()));
+    }
+    if config.with_row_addr {
+        system_columns.push((ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone(), row_addrs.unwrap()));
+    }
+    if config.with_row_last_updated_at_version {
+        let version_arr = if let Some(version_arr) = last_updated_versions {
+            version_arr?
+        } else if let Some(sequence) = &config.last_updated_at_sequence {
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(version_values_for_selection(
+                sequence,
+                &config.params,
+                batch_offset,
+                num_rows,
+            )?))
+        } else {
+            // Default to version 1 if sequence not provided
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64; num_rows as usize]))
+        };
+        system_columns.push((ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD.clone(), version_arr));
+    }
+    if config.with_row_created_at_version {
+        let version_arr = if let Some(version_arr) = created_versions {
+            version_arr?
+        } else if let Some(sequence) = &config.created_at_sequence {
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(version_values_for_selection(
+                sequence,
+                &config.params,
+                batch_offset,
+                num_rows,
+            )?))
+        } else {
+            // Default to version 1 if sequence not provided
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64; num_rows as usize]))
+        };
+        system_columns.push((ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD.clone(), version_arr));
+    }
 
+    let batch = if system_columns.is_empty() {
         batch
+    } else if let Some(output_schema_cache) = output_schema_cache {
+        let input_schema = batch.schema();
+        let make_output_schema = || {
+            let mut fields = input_schema
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| field.as_ref().clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            fields.extend(system_columns.iter().map(|(field, _)| field.clone()));
+            Arc::new(Schema::new_with_metadata(
+                fields,
+                input_schema.metadata().clone(),
+            ))
+        };
+        let cached = output_schema_cache.get_or_init(|| CachedOutputSchema {
+            input: input_schema.clone(),
+            output: make_output_schema(),
+        });
+        let output_schema = if Arc::ptr_eq(&cached.input, &input_schema)
+            || cached.input.as_ref() == input_schema.as_ref()
+        {
+            cached.output.clone()
+        } else {
+            make_output_schema()
+        };
+        let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_columns() + system_columns.len());
+        columns.extend_from_slice(batch.columns());
+        columns.extend(system_columns.into_iter().map(|(_, array)| array));
+        RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+            output_schema,
+            columns,
+            &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(batch.num_rows())),
+        )?
     } else {
-        batch
+        system_columns
+            .into_iter()
+            .try_fold(batch, |batch, (field, array)| {
+                batch.try_with_column(field, array)
+            })?
     };
 
     match (deletion_mask, config.make_deletions_null) {
@@ -370,8 +649,45 @@ pub fn wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(
     stream: ReadBatchTaskStream,
     fragment_id: u32,
     config: RowIdAndDeletesConfig,
+) -> ReadBatchFutStream {
+    let (row_id_cursor, use_dense_row_id_expansion) = config
+        .row_id_sequence
+        .as_ref()
+        .filter(|_| config.with_row_id)
+        .map(|sequence| {
+            let (cursor, use_dense_range_expansion) = sequence.cursor_with_dense_range_expansion();
+            (Some(cursor), use_dense_range_expansion)
+        })
+        .unwrap_or((None, false));
+    if use_dense_row_id_expansion {
+        wrap_with_row_id_and_delete_impl::<true>(stream, fragment_id, config, row_id_cursor)
+    } else {
+        wrap_with_row_id_and_delete_impl::<false>(stream, fragment_id, config, row_id_cursor)
+    }
+}
+
+fn wrap_with_row_id_and_delete_impl<const USE_DENSE_ROW_ID_EXPANSION: bool>(
+    stream: ReadBatchTaskStream,
+    fragment_id: u32,
+    config: RowIdAndDeletesConfig,
+    mut row_id_cursor: Option<RowIdSequenceCursor>,
 ) -> ReadBatchFutStream {
     let config = Arc::new(config);
+    let output_schema_cache = Arc::new(OnceLock::new());
+    let mut row_id_chunk: Option<PrecomputedRowIdChunk> = None;
+    let mut uniform_batch_size = None;
+    let mut use_uniform_batch_fast_paths = true;
+    let selected_rows = selected_row_count(&config.params, config.total_num_rows as usize);
+    let mut last_updated_cursor = config
+        .last_updated_at_sequence
+        .as_ref()
+        .filter(|sequence| config.with_row_last_updated_at_version && sequence.runs.len() > 1)
+        .map(|sequence| sequence.cursor());
+    let mut created_cursor = config
+        .created_at_sequence
+        .as_ref()
+        .filter(|sequence| config.with_row_created_at_version && sequence.runs.len() > 1)
+        .map(|sequence| sequence.cursor());
     let mut offset = 0;
     stream
         .map(move |batch_task| {
@@ -379,10 +695,152 @@ pub fn wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(
             let this_offset = offset;
             let num_rows = batch_task.num_rows;
             offset += num_rows;
+            let logical_offset = this_offset as usize;
+            let num_rows_usize = num_rows as usize;
+            if num_rows_usize != 0 && use_uniform_batch_fast_paths {
+                if let Some(batch_size) = uniform_batch_size {
+                    // A shorter final batch is expected. Any other task-size change can
+                    // repeatedly straddle read-ahead boundaries. Drain the current row-ID
+                    // cache, then use exact per-task decoding and the original incremental
+                    // system-column assembly from this point forward.
+                    if num_rows_usize != batch_size
+                        && logical_offset + num_rows_usize < selected_rows
+                    {
+                        use_uniform_batch_fast_paths = false;
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    uniform_batch_size = Some(num_rows_usize);
+                }
+            }
+            let output_schema_cache = use_uniform_batch_fast_paths
+                .then(|| output_schema_cache.clone());
+            // Build row ids while pulling the ordered task stream, before the
+            // batch futures can run concurrently. Adjacent batches share a
+            // bounded chunk and take zero-copy Arrow slices from it.
+            let row_ids = config.row_id_sequence.as_ref().and_then(|sequence| {
+                row_id_cursor.as_mut().map(|cursor| {
+                    if num_rows_usize == 0 {
+                        return Ok(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(Vec::<u64>::new())));
+                    }
+                    if !use_uniform_batch_fast_paths
+                        && row_id_chunk
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .is_none_or(|chunk| chunk.end_offset() <= logical_offset)
+                    {
+                        row_id_chunk = None;
+                        return decode_row_id_chunk::<USE_DENSE_ROW_ID_EXPANSION>(
+                            sequence,
+                            cursor,
+                            &config.params,
+                            logical_offset,
+                            num_rows_usize,
+                        )
+                        .map(|chunk| chunk.values);
+                    }
+                    if let Some(row_ids) = row_id_chunk
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .and_then(|chunk| chunk.slice(logical_offset, num_rows_usize))
+                    {
+                        return Ok(row_ids);
+                    }
+
+                    let prefix = row_id_chunk.as_ref().and_then(|chunk| {
+                        let prefix_len = chunk.end_offset().checked_sub(logical_offset)?;
+                        if prefix_len == 0 {
+                            None
+                        } else {
+                            chunk.slice(logical_offset, prefix_len)
+                        }
+                    });
+                    let decode_offset = logical_offset
+                        + prefix
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .map(|row_ids| row_ids.len())
+                            .unwrap_or_default();
+                    let required_end = logical_offset + num_rows_usize;
+                    let missing_rows = required_end.saturating_sub(decode_offset);
+                    let chunk_len = if use_uniform_batch_fast_paths {
+                        let batch_size = uniform_batch_size.unwrap_or(num_rows_usize);
+                        let batches_per_chunk = (ROW_ID_READ_AHEAD_ROWS / batch_size).max(1);
+                        let chunk_rows = batch_size.saturating_mul(batches_per_chunk);
+                        missing_rows.max(chunk_rows)
+                    } else {
+                        missing_rows
+                    }
+                    .min(selected_rows.saturating_sub(decode_offset));
+                    let chunk = decode_row_id_chunk::<USE_DENSE_ROW_ID_EXPANSION>(
+                        sequence,
+                        cursor,
+                        &config.params,
+                        decode_offset,
+                        chunk_len,
+                    )?;
+                    let suffix = chunk.slice(decode_offset, missing_rows).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                            "row ID metadata",
+                            format!(
+                                "decoded row ID chunk at selected offset {decode_offset} contains {} rows, but the current batch requires {missing_rows} more rows",
+                                chunk.values.len()
+                            ),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    let row_ids = if let Some(prefix) = prefix {
+                        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows_usize);
+                        values.extend_from_slice(prefix.values());
+                        values.extend_from_slice(suffix.values());
+                        Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(values))
+                    } else {
+                        suffix
+                    };
+                    row_id_chunk = Some(chunk);
+                    Ok(row_ids)
+                })
+            });
+            let last_updated_versions =
+                config
+                    .last_updated_at_sequence
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|sequence| {
+                        last_updated_cursor.as_mut().map(|cursor| {
+                            version_values_for_selection_with_cursor(
+                                sequence,
+                                cursor,
+                                &config.params,
+                                this_offset,
+                                num_rows,
+                            )
+                            .map(UInt64Array::from)
+                            .map(Arc::new)
+                        })
+                    });
+            let created_versions = config.created_at_sequence.as_ref().and_then(|sequence| {
+                created_cursor.as_mut().map(|cursor| {
+                    version_values_for_selection_with_cursor(
+                        sequence,
+                        cursor,
+                        &config.params,
+                        this_offset,
+                        num_rows,
+                    )
+                    .map(UInt64Array::from)
+                    .map(Arc::new)
+                })
+            });
             batch_task
                 .task
                 .map(move |batch| {
-                    apply_row_id_and_deletes(batch?, this_offset, fragment_id, config.as_ref())
+                    apply_row_id_and_deletes_with_system_columns(
+                        batch?,
+                        this_offset,
+                        fragment_id,
+                        config.as_ref(),
+                        PrecomputedSystemColumns {
+                            row_ids,
+                            last_updated_versions,
+                            created_versions,
+                        },
+                        output_schema_cache.as_deref(),
+                    )
                 })
                 .boxed()
         })
@@ -394,18 +852,21 @@ mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     use arrow::{array::AsArray, datatypes::UInt64Type};
-    use arrow_array::{types::Int32Type, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+    use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt32Array, types::Int32Type};
     use arrow_schema::ArrowError;
-    use futures::{stream::BoxStream, FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+    use futures::{
+        FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt,
+        stream::{self, BoxStream},
+    };
     use lance_core::{
-        utils::{address::RowAddress, deletion::DeletionVector},
         ROW_ID,
+        utils::{address::RowAddress, deletion::DeletionVector},
     };
     use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount};
-    use lance_io::{stream::arrow_stream_to_lance_stream, ReadBatchParams};
+    use lance_io::{ReadBatchParams, stream::arrow_stream_to_lance_stream};
     use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 
-    use crate::utils::stream::ReadBatchTask;
+    use crate::{rowids::RowIdSequence, utils::stream::ReadBatchTask};
 
     use super::RowIdAndDeletesConfig;
 
@@ -451,6 +912,515 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(merged, expected);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_stable_row_ids_across_concurrent_batches_and_deletes() {
+        let expected = (10_000..120_000)
+            .filter(|row_id| row_id % 13 != 0)
+            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+        let row_id_sequence = Arc::new(RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(expected.clone()).unwrap());
+        let deletion_offsets = (0..expected.len() as u32).step_by(997).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let deletion_vector = Some(Arc::new(DeletionVector::Bitmap(
+            deletion_offsets.iter().copied().collect(),
+        )));
+
+        let batches = expected
+            .chunks(257)
+            .map(|chunk| arrow_array::record_batch!(("x", Int32, vec![0; chunk.len()])).unwrap())
+            .map(Ok)
+            .collect::<Vec<std::result::Result<RecordBatch, ArrowError>>>();
+        let data = batch_task_stream(stream::iter(batches).boxed());
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: true,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector,
+            row_id_sequence: Some(row_id_sequence),
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: expected.len() as u32,
+        };
+
+        let batches = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(data, 7, config)
+            .buffered(8)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let actual_row_ids = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values())
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let actual_row_addrs = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch[lance_core::ROW_ADDR]
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+            })
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected_survivors = expected
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(offset, _)| deletion_offsets.binary_search(&(*offset as u32)).is_err())
+            .map(|(offset, row_id)| {
+                (
+                    *row_id,
+                    u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(7, offset as u32)),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual_row_ids,
+            expected_survivors
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual_row_addrs,
+            expected_survivors
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(_, row_addr)| *row_addr)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_stable_row_ids_with_unsorted_indices() {
+        let expected = (100..140)
+            .filter(|row_id| row_id % 3 != 0)
+            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+        let indices = UInt32Array::from(vec![8, 2, 9, 1, 6]);
+        let batches = [2, 2, 1].into_iter().map(|num_rows| ReadBatchTask {
+            num_rows,
+            task: std::future::ready(Ok(arrow_array::record_batch!((
+                "x",
+                Int32,
+                vec![0; num_rows as usize]
+            ))
+            .unwrap()))
+            .boxed(),
+        });
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices.clone()),
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: Some(Arc::new(
+                RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(expected.clone()).unwrap(),
+            )),
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: expected.len() as u32,
+        };
+
+        let actual = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(stream::iter(batches).boxed(), 7, config)
+            .buffered(3)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values())
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected = indices
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| expected[*index as usize])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_repeated_row_id_after_bulk_segment_boundary() {
+        let mut row_ids = RowIdSequence::from(0..5);
+        row_ids.extend(RowIdSequence::from(10..20));
+        let batches = [1_u32, 2].into_iter().map(|num_rows| ReadBatchTask {
+            num_rows,
+            task: std::future::ready(Ok(arrow_array::record_batch!((
+                "x",
+                Int32,
+                vec![0; num_rows as usize]
+            ))
+            .unwrap()))
+            .boxed(),
+        });
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::Indices(UInt32Array::from(vec![4, 4, 5])),
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: Some(Arc::new(row_ids)),
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: 15,
+        };
+
+        let actual = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(stream::iter(batches).boxed(), 0, config)
+            .buffered(1)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values())
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual, vec![4, 4, 10]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_stable_row_id_read_ahead_range_boundary_and_tail() {
+        let all_row_ids = (10_000..120_000)
+            .filter(|row_id| row_id % 11 != 0)
+            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+        let selection = 1_234..71_237;
+        let selected_len = selection.len();
+        let mut remaining = selected_len;
+        let tasks = std::iter::from_fn(move || {
+            if remaining == 0 {
+                return None;
+            }
+            let num_rows = remaining.min(1_025);
+            remaining -= num_rows;
+            Some(ReadBatchTask {
+                num_rows: num_rows as u32,
+                task: std::future::ready(Ok(arrow_array::record_batch!((
+                    "x",
+                    Int32,
+                    vec![0; num_rows]
+                ))
+                .unwrap()))
+                .boxed(),
+            })
+        });
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::Range(selection.clone()),
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: Some(Arc::new(
+                RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(all_row_ids.clone()).unwrap(),
+            )),
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: all_row_ids.len() as u32,
+        };
+
+        let batches = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(stream::iter(tasks).boxed(), 3, config)
+            .buffered(8)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 69);
+        assert_eq!(batches.last().unwrap().num_rows(), 303);
+
+        fn row_ids(batch: &RecordBatch) -> &arrow_array::UInt64Array {
+            batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids(&batches[62]).values().as_ptr(),
+            row_ids(&batches[0])
+                .values()
+                .as_ptr()
+                .wrapping_add(62 * 1_025)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids(&batches[68]).values().as_ptr(),
+            row_ids(&batches[64])
+                .values()
+                .as_ptr()
+                .wrapping_add(4 * 1_025)
+        );
+
+        let actual = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| row_ids(batch).values())
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual, all_row_ids[selection]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_stable_row_id_read_ahead_empty_task() {
+        let tasks = [0_u32, 1].into_iter().map(|num_rows| ReadBatchTask {
+            num_rows,
+            task: std::future::ready(Ok(arrow_array::record_batch!((
+                "x",
+                Int32,
+                vec![0; num_rows as usize]
+            ))
+            .unwrap()))
+            .boxed(),
+        });
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: Some(Arc::new(RowIdSequence::try_from_iter([42]).unwrap())),
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: 1,
+        };
+
+        let batches = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(stream::iter(tasks).boxed(), 0, config)
+            .buffered(2)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batches[1][ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values(),
+            &[42]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_truncated_stable_row_ids_returns_error() {
+        let task = ReadBatchTask {
+            num_rows: 10,
+            task: std::future::ready(Ok(
+                arrow_array::record_batch!(("x", Int32, vec![0; 10])).unwrap()
+            ))
+            .boxed(),
+        };
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: Some(Arc::new(RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(0_u64..5).unwrap())),
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: 10,
+        };
+
+        let error = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(stream::iter([task]).boxed(), 0, config)
+            .buffered(1)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(
+            "decoded row ID chunk at selected offset 0 contains 5 rows, but the selection requires 10 rows"
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_truncated_stable_row_ids_with_unsorted_indices_returns_error() {
+        let tasks = (0..4).map(|_| ReadBatchTask {
+            num_rows: 1,
+            task: std::future::ready(Ok(
+                arrow_array::record_batch!(("x", Int32, vec![0])).unwrap()
+            ))
+            .boxed(),
+        });
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::Indices(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 5, 1, 2])),
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: Some(Arc::new(RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(0_u64..5).unwrap())),
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: 6,
+        };
+
+        let error = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(stream::iter(tasks).boxed(), 0, config)
+            .buffered(1)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_stable_row_id_read_ahead_with_variable_task_boundaries() {
+        let total_rows = super::ROW_ID_READ_AHEAD_ROWS * 3 + 41;
+        let expected = (0_u64..)
+            .filter(|row_id| row_id % 17 != 0)
+            .take(total_rows)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut remaining = total_rows;
+        let mut use_short_task = true;
+        let tasks = std::iter::from_fn(move || {
+            if remaining == 0 {
+                return None;
+            }
+            let requested = if use_short_task { 32_768 } else { 32_769 };
+            use_short_task = !use_short_task;
+            let num_rows = remaining.min(requested);
+            remaining -= num_rows;
+            Some(ReadBatchTask {
+                num_rows: num_rows as u32,
+                task: std::future::ready(Ok(arrow_array::record_batch!((
+                    "x",
+                    Int32,
+                    vec![0; num_rows]
+                ))
+                .unwrap()))
+                .boxed(),
+            })
+        });
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: Some(Arc::new(
+                RowIdSequence::try_from_iter(expected.clone()).unwrap(),
+            )),
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: total_rows as u32,
+        };
+
+        let batches = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(stream::iter(tasks).boxed(), 0, config)
+            .buffered(3)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let second_schema = batches[1].schema();
+        let third_schema = batches[2].schema();
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&second_schema, &third_schema));
+
+        let actual = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values())
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_system_columns_share_schema_for_equivalent_payload_batches() {
+        let batches = (0..3)
+            .map(|batch_index| {
+                arrow_array::record_batch!((
+                    "payload",
+                    Int32,
+                    (batch_index * 10..(batch_index + 1) * 10).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                ))
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&batches[0].schema(), &batches[1].schema()));
+        let tasks = batches.into_iter().map(|batch| ReadBatchTask {
+            num_rows: batch.num_rows() as u32,
+            task: std::future::ready(Ok(batch)).boxed(),
+        });
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: true,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: true,
+            with_row_created_at_version: true,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: Some(Arc::new(
+                RowIdSequence::try_from_iter((0..30).map(|row_id| 100 + row_id + row_id / 7))
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )),
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: 30,
+        };
+
+        let batches = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(stream::iter(tasks).boxed(), 7, config)
+            .buffered(3)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected_fields = [
+            "payload",
+            lance_core::ROW_ID,
+            lance_core::ROW_ADDR,
+            lance_core::ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
+            lance_core::ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+        ];
+        assert_eq!(
+            batches[0]
+                .schema()
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| field.name().as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected_fields
+        );
+        assert!(
+            batches
+                .windows(2)
+                .all(|pair| Arc::ptr_eq(&pair[0].schema(), &pair[1].schema()))
+        );
+        assert!(batches.iter().all(|batch| batch.num_columns() == 5));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zip_with_different_batch_boundaries() {
+        let left_batch =
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(("x", Int32, (0..10).collect::<Vec<_>>())).unwrap();
+        let right_batch =
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(("y", Int32, (10..20).collect::<Vec<_>>())).unwrap();
+        let left = batch_task_stream(
+            stream::iter([Ok(left_batch.slice(0, 6)), Ok(left_batch.slice(6, 4))]).boxed(),
+        );
+        let right = batch_task_stream(
+            stream::iter([Ok(right_batch.slice(0, 4)), Ok(right_batch.slice(4, 6))]).boxed(),
+        );
+
+        let merged = super::merge_streams(vec![left, right])
+            .map(|batch_task| batch_task.task)
+            .buffered(3)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let expected = vec![
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(
+                ("x", Int32, (0..4).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+                ("y", Int32, (10..14).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(
+                ("x", Int32, (4..6).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+                ("y", Int32, (14..16).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(
+                ("x", Int32, (6..10).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+                ("y", Int32, (16..20).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        assert_eq!(merged, expected);
+    }
+
     async fn check_row_id(params: ReadBatchParams, expected: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>) {
         let expected = Vec::from_iter(expected);
 
@@ -647,4 +1617,271 @@ mod tests {
             }
         }
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_version_column_with_deletions() {
+        use crate::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
+        use crate::rowids::version::{RowDatasetVersionRun, RowDatasetVersionSequence};
+
+        let seq = Arc::new(RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(0..100),
+                version: 42,
+            }],
+        });
+
+        let data = batch_task_stream(
+            lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("x", lance_datagen::array::rand::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_reader_stream(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(10))
+                .0,
+        );
+
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+            with_row_created_at_version: true,
+            deletion_vector: Some(Arc::new(DeletionVector::Bitmap(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(
+                0..35,
+            )))),
+            row_id_sequence: None,
+            last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+            created_at_sequence: Some(seq),
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: 100,
+        };
+        let stream = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(data, 0, config);
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream
+            .buffered(1)
+            .try_filter(|b| std::future::ready(b.num_rows() > 0))
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 65);
+
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let versions = batch
+                .column_by_name("_row_created_at_version")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                .values();
+            assert!(versions.iter().all(|&v| v == 42));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_version_column_multi_run() {
+        use crate::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
+        use crate::rowids::version::{RowDatasetVersionRun, RowDatasetVersionSequence};
+
+        // Exercise the worst-case created-at shape: one run per row.
+        let created_seq = Arc::new(RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: (0..100)
+                .map(|position| RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(position..position + 1),
+                    version: 1_000 + position,
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        });
+        // Also exercise irregular boundaries for last-updated-at.
+        let last_updated_seq = Arc::new(RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: vec![
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(0..7),
+                    version: 11,
+                },
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(7..20),
+                    version: 22,
+                },
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(20..21),
+                    version: 33,
+                },
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(21..50),
+                    version: 44,
+                },
+                RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(50..100),
+                    version: 55,
+                },
+            ],
+        });
+
+        // Delete 0..20 and 60..80 (spans run boundary).
+        // Survivors: 20..40 (v1), 40..60 (v2), 80..100 (v3) = 60 rows
+        let mut deletions = RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0..20);
+        deletions.extend(60..80);
+
+        let data = batch_task_stream(
+            lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("x", lance_datagen::array::rand::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_reader_stream(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(10))
+                .0,
+        );
+
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            with_row_id: true,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: true,
+            with_row_created_at_version: true,
+            deletion_vector: Some(Arc::new(DeletionVector::Bitmap(deletions))),
+            row_id_sequence: None,
+            last_updated_at_sequence: Some(last_updated_seq),
+            created_at_sequence: Some(created_seq),
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: 100,
+        };
+        let stream = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(data, 0, config);
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream
+            .buffered(8)
+            .try_filter(|b| std::future::ready(b.num_rows() > 0))
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 60);
+
+        let created_versions: Vec<u64> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("_row_created_at_version")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let last_updated_versions: Vec<u64> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("_row_last_updated_at_version")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let surviving_positions: Vec<u64> = (20..60).chain(80..100).collect();
+        let expected_created: Vec<u64> = surviving_positions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|position| 1_000 + position)
+            .collect();
+        let expected_last_updated: Vec<u64> = surviving_positions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|position| match position {
+                0..=6 => 11,
+                7..=19 => 22,
+                20 => 33,
+                21..=49 => 44,
+                _ => 55,
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(created_versions, expected_created);
+        assert_eq!(last_updated_versions, expected_last_updated);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_version_column_with_unsorted_indices_across_batches() {
+        use crate::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
+        use crate::rowids::version::{RowDatasetVersionRun, RowDatasetVersionSequence};
+
+        let sequence = Arc::new(RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: (0..10)
+                .map(|position| RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(position..position + 1),
+                    version: 100 + position,
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        });
+        let indices = UInt32Array::from(vec![8, 2, 9, 1, 6]);
+        let batches = [2, 2, 1].into_iter().map(|num_rows| ReadBatchTask {
+            num_rows,
+            task: std::future::ready(Ok(arrow_array::record_batch!((
+                "x",
+                Int32,
+                vec![0; num_rows as usize]
+            ))
+            .unwrap()))
+            .boxed(),
+        });
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices.clone()),
+            with_row_id: false,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: true,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: None,
+            last_updated_at_sequence: Some(sequence),
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: 10,
+        };
+
+        let actual = super::wrap_with_row_id_and_delete(stream::iter(batches).boxed(), 0, config)
+            .buffered(3)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch["_row_last_updated_at_version"]
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+            })
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected = indices
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|position| 100 + u64::from(*position))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_version_column_direct_call_fallback() {
+        use crate::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
+        use crate::rowids::version::{RowDatasetVersionRun, RowDatasetVersionSequence};
+
+        let sequence = Arc::new(RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+            runs: (0..5)
+                .map(|position| RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(position..position + 1),
+                    version: 10 + position,
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        });
+        let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+            params: ReadBatchParams::Indices(UInt32Array::from(vec![4, 1, 3])),
+            with_row_id: false,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version: true,
+            with_row_created_at_version: false,
+            deletion_vector: None,
+            row_id_sequence: None,
+            last_updated_at_sequence: Some(sequence),
+            created_at_sequence: None,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+            total_num_rows: 5,
+        };
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("x", Int32, vec![0; 3])).unwrap();
+
+        let actual = super::apply_row_id_and_deletes(batch, 0, 0, &config).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual["_row_last_updated_at_version"]
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                .values(),
+            &[14, 11, 13]
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-test-macros/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-test-macros/Cargo.toml
index e63be927765..028b824ef47 100644
--- a/rust/lance-test-macros/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-test-macros/Cargo.toml
@@ -14,9 +14,9 @@ categories.workspace = true
 proc-macro = true
 
 [dependencies]
-proc-macro2 = "1.0.67"
-quote = "1.0.33"
-syn = { version = "2.0.37", features = ["full"] }
+proc-macro2.workspace = true
+quote.workspace = true
+syn.workspace = true
 
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-test-macros/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-test-macros/src/lib.rs
index 6b03da380a5..98e0e11af25 100644
--- a/rust/lance-test-macros/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-test-macros/src/lib.rs
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ use proc_macro::TokenStream;
 use proc_macro2::TokenStream as Tokens;
 
 use quote::quote;
-use syn::{parse_macro_input, punctuated::Punctuated, FnArg, ItemFn, ReturnType, Token};
+use syn::{FnArg, ItemFn, ReturnType, Token, parse_macro_input, punctuated::Punctuated};
 
 // The tracing initialization
 //
diff --git a/rust/lance-testing/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-testing/Cargo.toml
index c582ec2b2c2..0a4de092c16 100644
--- a/rust/lance-testing/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-testing/Cargo.toml
@@ -16,6 +16,10 @@ arrow-schema = { workspace = true }
 rand = { workspace = true }
 num-traits = { workspace = true }
 lance-arrow = { workspace = true }
+criterion = { workspace = true }
+
+[target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dependencies]
+pprof = { workspace = true }
 
 [lints]
 workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-testing/src/datagen.rs b/rust/lance-testing/src/datagen.rs
index 40204e4a73b..e51c8ffac10 100644
--- a/rust/lance-testing/src/datagen.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-testing/src/datagen.rs
@@ -9,15 +9,15 @@ use std::{iter::repeat_with, ops::Range};
 
 use arrow_array::types::ArrowPrimitiveType;
 use arrow_array::{
-    Float32Array, Int32Array, Int8Array, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+    Float32Array, Int8Array, Int32Array, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
     RecordBatchReader,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-use lance_arrow::{fixed_size_list_type, ArrowFloatType, FixedSizeListArrayExt};
-use num_traits::{real::Real, FromPrimitive};
+use lance_arrow::{ArrowFloatType, FixedSizeListArrayExt, fixed_size_list_type};
+use num_traits::{FromPrimitive, real::Real};
 use rand::distr::uniform::SampleUniform;
 use rand::{
-    distr::Uniform, prelude::Distribution, rngs::StdRng, seq::SliceRandom, Rng, SeedableRng,
+    Rng, SeedableRng, distr::Uniform, prelude::Distribution, rngs::StdRng, seq::SliceRandom,
 };
 
 pub trait ArrayGenerator {
@@ -165,13 +165,17 @@ impl BatchGenerator {
         RecordBatch::try_new(schema, arrays).unwrap()
     }
 
-    pub fn batch(&mut self, num_rows: i32) -> impl RecordBatchReader {
+    pub fn batch(&mut self, num_rows: i32) -> impl RecordBatchReader + use<> {
         let batch = self.gen_batch(num_rows as u32);
         let schema = batch.schema();
         RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema)
     }
 
-    pub fn batches(&mut self, num_batches: u32, rows_per_batch: u32) -> impl RecordBatchReader {
+    pub fn batches(
+        &mut self,
+        num_batches: u32,
+        rows_per_batch: u32,
+    ) -> impl RecordBatchReader + use<> {
         let batches = (0..num_batches)
             .map(|_| self.gen_batch(rows_per_batch))
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
diff --git a/rust/lance-testing/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-testing/src/lib.rs
index 135530b317b..ac64295989e 100644
--- a/rust/lance-testing/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-testing/src/lib.rs
@@ -2,3 +2,6 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 pub mod datagen;
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+pub mod pprof;
+pub mod progress;
diff --git a/rust/lance-testing/src/pprof.rs b/rust/lance-testing/src/pprof.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..98104221126
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-testing/src/pprof.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{fs::File, os::raw::c_int, path::Path};
+
+use ::pprof::{ProfilerGuard, flamegraph::Options as FlamegraphOptions};
+use criterion::profiler::Profiler;
+
+#[allow(clippy::large_enum_variant)]
+pub enum Output<'a> {
+    Flamegraph(Option<FlamegraphOptions<'a>>),
+}
+
+pub struct PProfProfiler<'a, 'b> {
+    frequency: c_int,
+    output: Output<'b>,
+    active_profiler: Option<ProfilerGuard<'a>>,
+}
+
+impl<'a, 'b> PProfProfiler<'a, 'b> {
+    pub fn new(frequency: c_int, output: Output<'b>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            frequency,
+            output,
+            active_profiler: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a, 'b> Profiler for PProfProfiler<'a, 'b> {
+    fn start_profiling(&mut self, _benchmark_id: &str, _benchmark_dir: &Path) {
+        self.active_profiler = Some(ProfilerGuard::new(self.frequency).unwrap());
+    }
+
+    fn stop_profiling(&mut self, _benchmark_id: &str, benchmark_dir: &Path) {
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(benchmark_dir).unwrap();
+
+        let Output::Flamegraph(options) = &mut self.output;
+
+        let output_path = benchmark_dir.join("flamegraph.svg");
+        let output_file = File::create(&output_path).unwrap_or_else(|_| {
+            panic!("File system error while creating {}", output_path.display())
+        });
+
+        if let Some(profiler) = self.active_profiler.take() {
+            let default_options = &mut FlamegraphOptions::default();
+            let options = options.as_mut().unwrap_or(default_options);
+
+            profiler
+                .report()
+                .build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .flamegraph_with_options(output_file, options)
+                .expect("Error while writing flamegraph");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-testing/src/progress.rs b/rust/lance-testing/src/progress.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9b7f91281e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-testing/src/progress.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+/// Define a test-only progress recorder that captures stage events in memory.
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! define_stage_event_progress {
+    ($name:ident, $progress_trait:path, $result:ty) => {
+        #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+        struct $name {
+            events: ::std::sync::Mutex<Vec<(String, String, u64)>>,
+        }
+
+        impl $name {
+            fn recorded_events(&self) -> Vec<(String, String, u64)> {
+                self.events
+                    .lock()
+                    .expect("recording progress mutex poisoned")
+                    .clone()
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[::async_trait::async_trait]
+        impl $progress_trait for $name {
+            async fn stage_start(&self, stage: &str, total: Option<u64>, _unit: &str) -> $result {
+                self.events
+                    .lock()
+                    .expect("recording progress mutex poisoned")
+                    .push(("start".to_string(), stage.to_string(), total.unwrap_or(0)));
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            async fn stage_progress(&self, stage: &str, completed: u64) -> $result {
+                self.events
+                    .lock()
+                    .expect("recording progress mutex poisoned")
+                    .push(("progress".to_string(), stage.to_string(), completed));
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            async fn stage_complete(&self, stage: &str) -> $result {
+                self.events
+                    .lock()
+                    .expect("recording progress mutex poisoned")
+                    .push(("complete".to_string(), stage.to_string(), 0));
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-tokenizer/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ebb7b0060f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+[package]
+name = "lance-tokenizer"
+version.workspace = true
+edition.workspace = true
+authors.workspace = true
+license.workspace = true
+repository.workspace = true
+readme = "README.md"
+description = "Tokenizer abstractions and implementations for Lance"
+keywords.workspace = true
+categories.workspace = true
+rust-version.workspace = true
+
+[dependencies]
+icu_segmenter = { workspace = true }
+jieba-rs = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+lindera = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+frostem = { version = "1.20260804.0", default-features = false, features = [
+    "arabic",
+    "danish",
+    "dutch",
+    "english",
+    "finnish",
+    "french",
+    "german",
+    "greek",
+    "hungarian",
+    "italian",
+    "norwegian",
+    "portuguese",
+    "romanian",
+    "russian",
+    "spanish",
+    "swedish",
+    "tamil",
+    "turkish",
+] }
+serde = { workspace = true, features = ["derive"] }
+stop-words = { version = "0.10.0", default-features = false, features = ["iso", "nltk"] }
+unicode-normalization = "0.1.25"
+
+[features]
+jieba-rs = ["dep:jieba-rs"]
+lindera = ["dep:lindera"]
+tokenizer-jieba = ["jieba-rs"]
+tokenizer-lindera = ["lindera"]
+
+[lints]
+workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/README.md b/rust/lance-tokenizer/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..99541efd133
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+# lance-tokenizer
+
+Internal tokenizer abstractions and implementations used by Lance.
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/alphanum_only.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/alphanum_only.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6c83db1b412
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/alphanum_only.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 alphanum-only filter.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenFilter, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct AlphaNumOnlyFilter;
+
+pub struct AlphaNumOnlyFilterStream<T> {
+    tail: T,
+}
+
+impl<T> AlphaNumOnlyFilterStream<T> {
+    fn predicate(&self, token: &Token) -> bool {
+        token.text.chars().all(|ch| ch.is_ascii_alphanumeric())
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenFilter for AlphaNumOnlyFilter {
+    type Tokenizer<T: Tokenizer> = AlphaNumOnlyFilterWrapper<T>;
+
+    fn transform<T: Tokenizer>(self, tokenizer: T) -> Self::Tokenizer<T> {
+        AlphaNumOnlyFilterWrapper(tokenizer)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct AlphaNumOnlyFilterWrapper<T>(T);
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer> Tokenizer for AlphaNumOnlyFilterWrapper<T> {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = AlphaNumOnlyFilterStream<T::TokenStream<'a>>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        AlphaNumOnlyFilterStream {
+            tail: self.0.token_stream(text),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: TokenStream> TokenStream for AlphaNumOnlyFilterStream<T> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        while self.tail.advance() {
+            if self.predicate(self.tail.token()) {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.tail.token()
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.tail.token_mut()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/analyzer.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/analyzer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6d119d47871
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/analyzer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 tokenizer analyzer.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use crate::{BoxTokenStream, TokenFilter, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct TextAnalyzer {
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn BoxableTokenizer>,
+}
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer + Clone> From<T> for TextAnalyzer {
+    fn from(tokenizer: T) -> Self {
+        Self::builder(tokenizer).build()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for TextAnalyzer {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::from(crate::RawTokenizer::default())
+    }
+}
+
+impl TextAnalyzer {
+    pub fn builder<T: Tokenizer>(tokenizer: T) -> TextAnalyzerBuilder<T> {
+        TextAnalyzerBuilder { tokenizer }
+    }
+
+    pub fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> BoxTokenStream<'a> {
+        self.tokenizer.token_stream(text)
+    }
+}
+
+pub trait BoxableTokenizer: 'static + Send + Sync {
+    fn box_token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> BoxTokenStream<'a>;
+
+    fn box_clone(&self) -> Box<dyn BoxableTokenizer>;
+}
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer> BoxableTokenizer for T {
+    fn box_token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> BoxTokenStream<'a> {
+        BoxTokenStream::new(self.token_stream(text))
+    }
+
+    fn box_clone(&self) -> Box<dyn BoxableTokenizer> {
+        Box::new(self.clone())
+    }
+}
+
+impl Clone for Box<dyn BoxableTokenizer> {
+    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
+        (**self).box_clone()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Tokenizer for Box<dyn BoxableTokenizer> {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = BoxTokenStream<'a>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        (**self).box_token_stream(text)
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct TextAnalyzerBuilder<T = Box<dyn BoxableTokenizer>> {
+    tokenizer: T,
+}
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer> TextAnalyzerBuilder<T> {
+    pub fn filter<F: TokenFilter>(self, token_filter: F) -> TextAnalyzerBuilder<F::Tokenizer<T>> {
+        TextAnalyzerBuilder {
+            tokenizer: token_filter.transform(self.tokenizer),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn dynamic(self) -> TextAnalyzerBuilder {
+        TextAnalyzerBuilder {
+            tokenizer: Box::new(self.tokenizer),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn filter_dynamic<F: TokenFilter>(self, token_filter: F) -> TextAnalyzerBuilder {
+        self.filter(token_filter).dynamic()
+    }
+
+    pub fn build(self) -> TextAnalyzer {
+        TextAnalyzer {
+            tokenizer: Box::new(self.tokenizer),
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/ascii_folding_filter.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/ascii_folding_filter.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8800545f1fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/ascii_folding_filter.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,160 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::mem;
+
+use unicode_normalization::{UnicodeNormalization, char::is_combining_mark};
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenFilter, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct AsciiFoldingFilter;
+
+impl TokenFilter for AsciiFoldingFilter {
+    type Tokenizer<T: Tokenizer> = AsciiFoldingFilterWrapper<T>;
+
+    fn transform<T: Tokenizer>(self, tokenizer: T) -> Self::Tokenizer<T> {
+        AsciiFoldingFilterWrapper {
+            tokenizer,
+            buffer: String::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct AsciiFoldingFilterWrapper<T> {
+    tokenizer: T,
+    buffer: String,
+}
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer> Tokenizer for AsciiFoldingFilterWrapper<T> {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = AsciiFoldingFilterTokenStream<'a, T::TokenStream<'a>>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        self.buffer.clear();
+        AsciiFoldingFilterTokenStream {
+            buffer: &mut self.buffer,
+            tail: self.tokenizer.token_stream(text),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct AsciiFoldingFilterTokenStream<'a, T> {
+    buffer: &'a mut String,
+    tail: T,
+}
+
+impl<T: TokenStream> TokenStream for AsciiFoldingFilterTokenStream<'_, T> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        if !self.tail.advance() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        let token = self.tail.token_mut();
+        if !token.text.is_ascii() {
+            to_ascii(&token.text, self.buffer);
+            mem::swap(&mut token.text, self.buffer);
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.tail.token()
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.tail.token_mut()
+    }
+}
+
+fn to_ascii(text: &str, output: &mut String) {
+    output.clear();
+    output.reserve(text.len());
+    for ch in text.chars() {
+        if ch.is_ascii() {
+            output.push(ch);
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        if let Some(mapped) = fold_char(ch) {
+            output.push_str(mapped);
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let original_len = output.len();
+        for decomposed in ch.nfkd() {
+            if decomposed.is_ascii() {
+                output.push(decomposed);
+            } else if is_combining_mark(decomposed) {
+                continue;
+            } else if let Some(mapped) = fold_char(decomposed) {
+                output.push_str(mapped);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if output.len() == original_len {
+            output.push(ch);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn fold_char(ch: char) -> Option<&'static str> {
+    match ch {
+        'ß' => Some("ss"),
+        'ẞ' => Some("SS"),
+        'Æ' => Some("AE"),
+        'æ' => Some("ae"),
+        'Œ' => Some("OE"),
+        'œ' => Some("oe"),
+        'Ø' => Some("O"),
+        'ø' => Some("o"),
+        'Ł' => Some("L"),
+        'ł' => Some("l"),
+        'Đ' | 'Ð' => Some("D"),
+        'đ' | 'ð' => Some("d"),
+        'Þ' => Some("TH"),
+        'þ' => Some("th"),
+        'Ħ' => Some("H"),
+        'ħ' => Some("h"),
+        'Ŧ' => Some("T"),
+        'ŧ' => Some("t"),
+        'Ŋ' => Some("N"),
+        'ŋ' => Some("n"),
+        'ı' => Some("i"),
+        'ĸ' => Some("k"),
+        'ſ' => Some("s"),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use crate::{AsciiFoldingFilter, RawTokenizer, TextAnalyzer, Token};
+
+    fn collect_tokens(text: &str) -> Vec<Token> {
+        let mut analyzer = TextAnalyzer::builder(RawTokenizer::default())
+            .filter(AsciiFoldingFilter)
+            .build();
+        let mut stream = analyzer.token_stream(text);
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        stream.process(&mut |token| tokens.push(token.clone()));
+        tokens
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ascii_folding_accents() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("café");
+        assert_eq!(tokens[0].text, "cafe");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ascii_folding_sharp_s() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("straße");
+        assert_eq!(tokens[0].text, "strasse");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ascii_folding_cjk_unchanged() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("こんにちは世界");
+        assert_eq!(tokens[0].text, "こんにちは世界");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/code_tokenizer.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/code_tokenizer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0d00aa2b94c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/code_tokenizer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,191 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{iter::Peekable, str::CharIndices};
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+/// Tokenizer for code-like text.
+///
+/// Identifiers are Unicode alphanumeric characters plus `_`. Other characters
+/// are lexical boundaries. When operator indexing is enabled, recognized
+/// multi-character operators use longest-match tokenization and remaining
+/// operator characters are emitted individually.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_tokenizer::{CodeLexTokenizer, TextAnalyzer, TokenStream};
+///
+/// let mut analyzer = TextAnalyzer::builder(CodeLexTokenizer::new(true)).build();
+/// let mut stream = analyzer.token_stream("a::b");
+///
+/// assert!(stream.advance());
+/// assert_eq!(stream.token().text, "a");
+/// assert!(stream.advance());
+/// assert_eq!(stream.token().text, "::");
+/// ```
+#[derive(Clone, Default)]
+pub struct CodeLexTokenizer {
+    index_operators: bool,
+    token: Token,
+}
+
+impl CodeLexTokenizer {
+    pub fn new(index_operators: bool) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_operators,
+            token: Token::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Token stream produced by [`CodeLexTokenizer`].
+pub struct CodeLexTokenStream<'a> {
+    text: &'a str,
+    chars: Peekable<CharIndices<'a>>,
+    token: &'a mut Token,
+    index_operators: bool,
+}
+
+impl Tokenizer for CodeLexTokenizer {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = CodeLexTokenStream<'a>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        self.token.reset();
+        CodeLexTokenStream {
+            text,
+            chars: text.char_indices().peekable(),
+            token: &mut self.token,
+            index_operators: self.index_operators,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn is_identifier_char(ch: char) -> bool {
+    ch == '_' || ch.is_alphanumeric()
+}
+
+fn is_operator_char(ch: char) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        ch,
+        '!' | '%' | '&' | '*' | '+' | '-' | '/' | ':' | '<' | '=' | '>' | '?' | '^' | '|' | '~'
+    )
+}
+
+const MULTI_CHAR_OPERATORS: &[&str] = &[
+    ">>>=", "<<=", ">>=", "&&=", "||=", "??=", "**=", "//=", "===", "!==", ">>>", "<=>", "::",
+    "->", "=>", "==", "!=", "<=", ">=", "&&", "||", "++", "--", "+=", "-=", "*=", "/=", "%=", "&=",
+    "|=", "^=", "<<", ">>", "**", "//", "??", ":=", "<-", "|>", "~=",
+];
+
+impl CodeLexTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn search_token_end(&mut self, predicate: impl Fn(char) -> bool) -> usize {
+        while let Some((_, ch)) = self.chars.peek() {
+            if !predicate(*ch) {
+                break;
+            }
+            self.chars.next();
+        }
+        self.chars
+            .peek()
+            .map(|(offset, _)| *offset)
+            .unwrap_or(self.text.len())
+    }
+
+    fn operator_token_end(&mut self, offset_from: usize) -> usize {
+        let remaining = &self.text[offset_from..];
+        let operator_len = MULTI_CHAR_OPERATORS
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|operator| remaining.starts_with(**operator))
+            .map(|operator| operator.len())
+            .max()
+            .unwrap_or(1);
+        let token_end = offset_from + operator_len;
+        while self
+            .chars
+            .peek()
+            .is_some_and(|(offset, _)| *offset < token_end)
+        {
+            self.chars.next();
+        }
+        token_end
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenStream for CodeLexTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        self.token.text.clear();
+        while let Some((offset_from, ch)) = self.chars.next() {
+            let token_end = if is_identifier_char(ch) {
+                self.search_token_end(is_identifier_char)
+            } else if self.index_operators && is_operator_char(ch) {
+                self.operator_token_end(offset_from)
+            } else {
+                continue;
+            };
+
+            self.token.position = self.token.position.wrapping_add(1);
+            self.token.position_length = 1;
+            self.token.offset_from = offset_from;
+            self.token.offset_to = token_end;
+            self.token.text.push_str(&self.text[offset_from..token_end]);
+            return true;
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use crate::{CodeLexTokenizer, TextAnalyzer, Token};
+
+    fn collect_tokens(text: &str, index_operators: bool) -> Vec<Token> {
+        let mut analyzer = TextAnalyzer::builder(CodeLexTokenizer::new(index_operators)).build();
+        let mut stream = analyzer.token_stream(text);
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        stream.process(&mut |token| tokens.push(token.clone()));
+        tokens
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_code_lex_tokenizer_identifiers() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("std::vector user-name parse.HTML2JSON", false);
+        let texts = tokens
+            .iter()
+            .map(|token| token.text.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            texts,
+            vec!["std", "vector", "user", "name", "parse", "HTML2JSON"]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_code_lex_tokenizer_operators() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("a::b != c->d", true);
+        let texts = tokens
+            .iter()
+            .map(|token| token.text.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(texts, vec!["a", "::", "b", "!=", "c", "->", "d"]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_code_lex_tokenizer_splits_adjacent_operators() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("value.parse::<usize>()", true);
+        let texts = tokens
+            .iter()
+            .map(|token| token.text.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(texts, vec!["value", "parse", "::", "<", "usize", ">"]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/icu.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/icu.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..eb9cd874c76
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/icu.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,204 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use icu_segmenter::{WordSegmenter, WordSegmenterBorrowed, options::WordBreakInvariantOptions};
+
+use crate::{TextAnalyzer, TextAnalyzerBuilder, Token, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct IcuTokenizer {
+    segmenter: WordSegmenterBorrowed<'static>,
+    split_on_non_alphanumeric: bool,
+}
+
+impl Default for IcuTokenizer {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            segmenter: WordSegmenter::new_dictionary(WordBreakInvariantOptions::default()),
+            split_on_non_alphanumeric: false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl IcuTokenizer {
+    /// Split ICU word segments again on simple-tokenizer delimiters.
+    pub fn with_simple_split(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.split_on_non_alphanumeric = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn analyzer(self) -> TextAnalyzer {
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(self).build()
+    }
+
+    pub fn analyzer_builder(self) -> TextAnalyzerBuilder {
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(self).dynamic()
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct IcuTokenStream {
+    tokens: Vec<Token>,
+    index: usize,
+}
+
+fn push_token(tokens: &mut Vec<Token>, text: &str, offset_from: usize, offset_to: usize) {
+    if offset_from == offset_to {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    let token_text = &text[offset_from..offset_to];
+    if token_text.chars().any(char::is_alphanumeric) {
+        tokens.push(Token {
+            offset_from,
+            offset_to,
+            position: tokens.len(),
+            text: token_text.to_owned(),
+            position_length: 1,
+        });
+    }
+}
+
+fn push_tokens_split_on_non_alphanumeric(
+    tokens: &mut Vec<Token>,
+    text: &str,
+    offset_from: usize,
+    offset_to: usize,
+) {
+    let mut part_start = offset_from;
+    for (relative_offset, c) in text[offset_from..offset_to].char_indices() {
+        if !c.is_alphanumeric() {
+            let delimiter_offset = offset_from + relative_offset;
+            push_token(tokens, text, part_start, delimiter_offset);
+            part_start = delimiter_offset + c.len_utf8();
+        }
+    }
+    push_token(tokens, text, part_start, offset_to);
+}
+
+impl TokenStream for IcuTokenStream {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        if self.index < self.tokens.len() {
+            self.index += 1;
+            true
+        } else {
+            false
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        &self.tokens[self.index - 1]
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        &mut self.tokens[self.index - 1]
+    }
+}
+
+impl Tokenizer for IcuTokenizer {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = IcuTokenStream;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        let mut boundaries = self.segmenter.segment_str(text);
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        let Some(mut offset_from) = boundaries.next() else {
+            return IcuTokenStream { tokens, index: 0 };
+        };
+
+        for offset_to in boundaries {
+            if self.split_on_non_alphanumeric {
+                push_tokens_split_on_non_alphanumeric(&mut tokens, text, offset_from, offset_to);
+            } else {
+                push_token(&mut tokens, text, offset_from, offset_to);
+            }
+            offset_from = offset_to;
+        }
+
+        IcuTokenStream { tokens, index: 0 }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use crate::{IcuTokenizer, Token, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+    fn collect_tokens_with_split(text: &str, split_on_non_alphanumeric: bool) -> Vec<Token> {
+        let mut tokenizer = IcuTokenizer::default();
+        if split_on_non_alphanumeric {
+            tokenizer = tokenizer.with_simple_split();
+        }
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream(text);
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        stream.process(&mut |token| tokens.push(token.clone()));
+        tokens
+    }
+
+    fn collect_tokens(text: &str) -> Vec<Token> {
+        collect_tokens_with_split(text, false)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_icu_tokenizer_segments_mixed_text() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("Hello, こんにちは世界!");
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens
+                .iter()
+                .map(|token| token.text.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec!["Hello", "こんにちは", "世界"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens
+                .iter()
+                .map(|token| (token.offset_from, token.offset_to, token.position))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![(0, 5, 0), (7, 22, 1), (22, 28, 2)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_icu_tokenizer_skips_non_word_segments() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("Mark'd ye his words?");
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens
+                .iter()
+                .map(|token| token.text.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec!["Mark'd", "ye", "his", "words"]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_icu_tokenizer_splits_on_non_alphanumeric_when_enabled() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens_with_split("foo_bar__baz-alpha.beta", true);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens
+                .iter()
+                .map(|token| token.text.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec!["foo", "bar", "baz", "alpha", "beta"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens
+                .iter()
+                .map(|token| (token.offset_from, token.offset_to, token.position))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![(0, 3, 0), (4, 7, 1), (9, 12, 2), (13, 18, 3), (19, 23, 4)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_icu_tokenizer_split_control_keeps_icu_segmentation() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens_with_split("hello_world こんにちは世界", true);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            tokens
+                .iter()
+                .map(|token| token.text.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec!["hello", "world", "こんにちは", "世界"]
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/jieba.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/jieba.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5ba51bf6a06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/jieba.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use crate::{TextAnalyzer, TextAnalyzerBuilder, Token, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct JiebaTokenizer {
+    jieba: jieba_rs::Jieba,
+}
+
+impl JiebaTokenizer {
+    pub fn new(jieba: jieba_rs::Jieba) -> Self {
+        Self { jieba }
+    }
+
+    pub fn analyzer(self) -> TextAnalyzer {
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(self).build()
+    }
+
+    pub fn analyzer_builder(self) -> TextAnalyzerBuilder {
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(self).dynamic()
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct JiebaTokenStream {
+    tokens: Vec<Token>,
+    index: usize,
+}
+
+impl TokenStream for JiebaTokenStream {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        if self.index < self.tokens.len() {
+            self.index += 1;
+            true
+        } else {
+            false
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        &self.tokens[self.index - 1]
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        &mut self.tokens[self.index - 1]
+    }
+}
+
+impl Tokenizer for JiebaTokenizer {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = JiebaTokenStream;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        let mut indices = text.char_indices().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        indices.push((text.len(), '\0'));
+        let orig_tokens = self
+            .jieba
+            .tokenize(text, jieba_rs::TokenizeMode::Search, true);
+        let tokens = orig_tokens
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|token| Token {
+                offset_from: indices[token.start].0,
+                offset_to: indices[token.end].0,
+                position: token.start,
+                text: text[indices[token.start].0..indices[token.end].0].to_owned(),
+                position_length: token.end - token.start,
+            })
+            .collect();
+        JiebaTokenStream { tokens, index: 0 }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..fc1d9512cfd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+mod alphanum_only;
+mod analyzer;
+mod ascii_folding_filter;
+mod code_tokenizer;
+mod icu;
+#[cfg(feature = "tokenizer-jieba")]
+mod jieba;
+mod lower_caser;
+mod ngram_tokenizer;
+mod raw_tokenizer;
+mod remove_long;
+mod simple_tokenizer;
+mod stemmer;
+mod stop_word_filter;
+mod tokenizer_api;
+mod whitespace_tokenizer;
+mod word_delimiter_filter;
+
+#[cfg(feature = "tokenizer-lindera")]
+mod lindera;
+
+pub use alphanum_only::AlphaNumOnlyFilter;
+pub use analyzer::{TextAnalyzer, TextAnalyzerBuilder};
+pub use ascii_folding_filter::AsciiFoldingFilter;
+pub use code_tokenizer::CodeLexTokenizer;
+pub use icu::IcuTokenizer;
+#[cfg(feature = "tokenizer-jieba")]
+pub use jieba::JiebaTokenizer;
+#[cfg(feature = "tokenizer-lindera")]
+pub use lindera::LinderaTokenizer;
+pub use lower_caser::LowerCaser;
+pub use ngram_tokenizer::NgramTokenizer;
+pub use raw_tokenizer::RawTokenizer;
+pub use remove_long::RemoveLongFilter;
+pub use simple_tokenizer::{SimpleTokenStream, SimpleTokenizer};
+pub use stemmer::{Language, Stemmer};
+pub use stop_word_filter::StopWordFilter;
+pub use tokenizer_api::{BoxTokenStream, Token, TokenFilter, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+pub use whitespace_tokenizer::WhitespaceTokenizer;
+pub use word_delimiter_filter::WordDelimiterFilter;
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/lindera.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/lindera.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..39582eb48c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/lindera.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from lindera-tantivy v2.0.0.
+// Copyright (c) lindera-tantivy contributors.
+
+use std::path::Path;
+
+use lindera::token::Token as LinderaToken;
+use lindera::tokenizer::{Tokenizer as LinderaCoreTokenizer, TokenizerBuilder};
+
+use crate::{TextAnalyzer, TextAnalyzerBuilder, Token, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct LinderaTokenizer {
+    tokenizer: LinderaCoreTokenizer,
+    token: Token,
+}
+
+impl LinderaTokenizer {
+    pub fn new() -> std::io::Result<Self> {
+        let builder = TokenizerBuilder::new().map_err(invalid_data)?;
+        let tokenizer = builder.build().map_err(invalid_data)?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            tokenizer,
+            token: Token::default(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_file(file_path: &Path) -> std::io::Result<Self> {
+        let builder = TokenizerBuilder::from_file(file_path).map_err(invalid_data)?;
+        let tokenizer = builder.build().map_err(invalid_data)?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            tokenizer,
+            token: Token::default(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_segmenter(segmenter: lindera::segmenter::Segmenter) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            tokenizer: LinderaCoreTokenizer::new(segmenter),
+            token: Token::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn analyzer(self) -> TextAnalyzer {
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(self).build()
+    }
+
+    pub fn analyzer_builder(self) -> TextAnalyzerBuilder {
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(self).dynamic()
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct LinderaTokenStream<'a> {
+    tokens: Vec<LinderaToken<'a>>,
+    token: &'a mut Token,
+}
+
+impl<'a> TokenStream for LinderaTokenStream<'a> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        if self.tokens.is_empty() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        let token = self.tokens.remove(0);
+        self.token.text = token.surface.to_string();
+        self.token.offset_from = token.byte_start;
+        self.token.offset_to = token.byte_end;
+        self.token.position = token.position;
+        self.token.position_length = token.position_length;
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+}
+
+impl Tokenizer for LinderaTokenizer {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = LinderaTokenStream<'a>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        self.token.reset();
+        LinderaTokenStream {
+            tokens: self.tokenizer.tokenize(text).unwrap_or_default(),
+            token: &mut self.token,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn invalid_data(err: impl std::fmt::Debug) -> std::io::Error {
+    std::io::Error::new(std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidData, format!("{err:?}"))
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/lower_caser.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/lower_caser.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3ad430f2f5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/lower_caser.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 lower caser.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use std::mem;
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenFilter, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct LowerCaser;
+
+impl TokenFilter for LowerCaser {
+    type Tokenizer<T: Tokenizer> = LowerCaserFilter<T>;
+
+    fn transform<T: Tokenizer>(self, tokenizer: T) -> Self::Tokenizer<T> {
+        LowerCaserFilter {
+            tokenizer,
+            buffer: String::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct LowerCaserFilter<T> {
+    tokenizer: T,
+    buffer: String,
+}
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer> Tokenizer for LowerCaserFilter<T> {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = LowerCaserTokenStream<'a, T::TokenStream<'a>>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        self.buffer.clear();
+        LowerCaserTokenStream {
+            buffer: &mut self.buffer,
+            tail: self.tokenizer.token_stream(text),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct LowerCaserTokenStream<'a, T> {
+    buffer: &'a mut String,
+    tail: T,
+}
+
+fn to_lowercase_unicode(text: &str, output: &mut String) {
+    output.clear();
+    output.reserve(text.len());
+    for ch in text.chars() {
+        output.extend(ch.to_lowercase());
+    }
+}
+
+fn is_lowercase_stable(text: &str) -> bool {
+    text.chars().all(|ch| {
+        let mut lower = ch.to_lowercase();
+        lower.next() == Some(ch) && lower.next().is_none()
+    })
+}
+
+impl<T: TokenStream> TokenStream for LowerCaserTokenStream<'_, T> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        if !self.tail.advance() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        let token = self.tail.token_mut();
+        if token.text.is_ascii() {
+            token.text.make_ascii_lowercase();
+        } else if !is_lowercase_stable(&token.text) {
+            to_lowercase_unicode(&token.text, self.buffer);
+            mem::swap(&mut token.text, self.buffer);
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.tail.token()
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.tail.token_mut()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use crate::{LowerCaser, RawTokenizer, TextAnalyzer, Token};
+
+    fn collect_tokens(text: &str) -> Vec<Token> {
+        let mut analyzer = TextAnalyzer::builder(RawTokenizer::default())
+            .filter(LowerCaser)
+            .build();
+        let mut stream = analyzer.token_stream(text);
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        stream.process(&mut |token| tokens.push(token.clone()));
+        tokens
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_lower_caser_unicode_changed() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("İSTANBUL");
+        assert_eq!(tokens[0].text, "i\u{307}stanbul");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_lower_caser_unicode_unchanged() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("こんにちは世界");
+        assert_eq!(tokens[0].text, "こんにちは世界");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/ngram_tokenizer.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/ngram_tokenizer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1cfdd052977
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/ngram_tokenizer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,221 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 ngram tokenizer.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use std::fmt::{Display, Formatter};
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct NgramError {
+    message: String,
+}
+
+impl NgramError {
+    fn invalid_argument(message: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            message: message.into(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Display for NgramError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.write_str(&self.message)
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for NgramError {}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct NgramTokenizer {
+    min_gram: usize,
+    max_gram: usize,
+    prefix_only: bool,
+    token: Token,
+}
+
+impl NgramTokenizer {
+    pub fn new(min_gram: usize, max_gram: usize, prefix_only: bool) -> Result<Self, NgramError> {
+        if min_gram == 0 {
+            return Err(NgramError::invalid_argument(
+                "min_gram must be greater than 0",
+            ));
+        }
+        if min_gram > max_gram {
+            return Err(NgramError::invalid_argument(
+                "min_gram must not be greater than max_gram",
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            min_gram,
+            max_gram,
+            prefix_only,
+            token: Token::default(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn all_ngrams(min_gram: usize, max_gram: usize) -> Result<Self, NgramError> {
+        Self::new(min_gram, max_gram, false)
+    }
+
+    pub fn prefix_only(min_gram: usize, max_gram: usize) -> Result<Self, NgramError> {
+        Self::new(min_gram, max_gram, true)
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct NgramTokenStream<'a> {
+    ngram_charidx_iterator: StutteringIterator<CodepointFrontiers<'a>>,
+    prefix_only: bool,
+    text: &'a str,
+    token: &'a mut Token,
+}
+
+impl Tokenizer for NgramTokenizer {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = NgramTokenStream<'a>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        self.token.reset();
+        NgramTokenStream {
+            ngram_charidx_iterator: StutteringIterator::new(
+                CodepointFrontiers::for_str(text),
+                self.min_gram,
+                self.max_gram,
+            ),
+            prefix_only: self.prefix_only,
+            text,
+            token: &mut self.token,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenStream for NgramTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        if let Some((offset_from, offset_to)) = self.ngram_charidx_iterator.next() {
+            if self.prefix_only && offset_from > 0 {
+                return false;
+            }
+            self.token.position = 0;
+            self.token.offset_from = offset_from;
+            self.token.offset_to = offset_to;
+            self.token.text.clear();
+            self.token.text.push_str(&self.text[offset_from..offset_to]);
+            true
+        } else {
+            false
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+}
+
+struct StutteringIterator<T> {
+    underlying: T,
+    min_gram: usize,
+    max_gram: usize,
+    memory: Vec<usize>,
+    cursor: usize,
+    gram_len: usize,
+}
+
+impl<T> StutteringIterator<T>
+where
+    T: Iterator<Item = usize>,
+{
+    fn new(mut underlying: T, min_gram: usize, max_gram: usize) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(min_gram > 0, "min_gram must be positive");
+        let memory: Vec<usize> = (&mut underlying).take(max_gram + 1).collect();
+        if memory.len() <= min_gram {
+            Self {
+                underlying,
+                min_gram: 1,
+                max_gram: 0,
+                memory,
+                cursor: 0,
+                gram_len: 0,
+            }
+        } else {
+            Self {
+                underlying,
+                min_gram,
+                max_gram: memory.len() - 1,
+                memory,
+                cursor: 0,
+                gram_len: min_gram,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> Iterator for StutteringIterator<T>
+where
+    T: Iterator<Item = usize>,
+{
+    type Item = (usize, usize);
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        if self.gram_len > self.max_gram {
+            self.gram_len = self.min_gram;
+            if let Some(next_val) = self.underlying.next() {
+                self.memory[self.cursor] = next_val;
+            } else {
+                self.max_gram -= 1;
+            }
+            self.cursor += 1;
+            if self.cursor >= self.memory.len() {
+                self.cursor = 0;
+            }
+        }
+        if self.max_gram < self.min_gram {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let start = self.memory[self.cursor % self.memory.len()];
+        let stop = self.memory[(self.cursor + self.gram_len) % self.memory.len()];
+        self.gram_len += 1;
+        Some((start, stop))
+    }
+}
+
+struct CodepointFrontiers<'a> {
+    text: &'a str,
+    next_offset: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> CodepointFrontiers<'a> {
+    fn for_str(text: &'a str) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            text,
+            next_offset: Some(0),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Iterator for CodepointFrontiers<'_> {
+    type Item = usize;
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        let offset = self.next_offset?;
+        if self.text.is_empty() {
+            self.next_offset = None;
+        } else {
+            let width = utf8_codepoint_width(self.text.as_bytes()[0]);
+            self.text = &self.text[width..];
+            self.next_offset = Some(offset + width);
+        }
+        Some(offset)
+    }
+}
+
+const CODEPOINT_UTF8_WIDTH: [u8; 16] = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4];
+
+fn utf8_codepoint_width(byte: u8) -> usize {
+    CODEPOINT_UTF8_WIDTH[(byte as usize) >> 4] as usize
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/raw_tokenizer.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/raw_tokenizer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..31a684e2a84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/raw_tokenizer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 raw tokenizer.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone, Default)]
+pub struct RawTokenizer {
+    token: Token,
+}
+
+pub struct RawTokenStream<'a> {
+    token: &'a mut Token,
+    has_token: bool,
+}
+
+impl Tokenizer for RawTokenizer {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = RawTokenStream<'a>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        self.token.reset();
+        self.token.position = 0;
+        self.token.position_length = 1;
+        self.token.offset_from = 0;
+        self.token.offset_to = text.len();
+        self.token.text.clear();
+        self.token.text.push_str(text);
+        RawTokenStream {
+            token: &mut self.token,
+            has_token: true,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenStream for RawTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        let has_token = self.has_token;
+        self.has_token = false;
+        has_token
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/remove_long.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/remove_long.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4bc6e5e7887
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/remove_long.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 remove-long filter.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenFilter, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct RemoveLongFilter {
+    length_limit: usize,
+}
+
+impl RemoveLongFilter {
+    pub fn limit(length_limit: usize) -> Self {
+        Self { length_limit }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenFilter for RemoveLongFilter {
+    type Tokenizer<T: Tokenizer> = RemoveLongFilterWrapper<T>;
+
+    fn transform<T: Tokenizer>(self, tokenizer: T) -> Self::Tokenizer<T> {
+        RemoveLongFilterWrapper {
+            length_limit: self.length_limit,
+            inner: tokenizer,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct RemoveLongFilterWrapper<T: Tokenizer> {
+    length_limit: usize,
+    inner: T,
+}
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer> Tokenizer for RemoveLongFilterWrapper<T> {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = RemoveLongFilterStream<T::TokenStream<'a>>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        RemoveLongFilterStream {
+            token_length_limit: self.length_limit,
+            tail: self.inner.token_stream(text),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct RemoveLongFilterStream<T> {
+    token_length_limit: usize,
+    tail: T,
+}
+
+impl<T> RemoveLongFilterStream<T> {
+    fn predicate(&self, token: &Token) -> bool {
+        token.text.len() < self.token_length_limit
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: TokenStream> TokenStream for RemoveLongFilterStream<T> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        while self.tail.advance() {
+            if self.predicate(self.tail.token()) {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.tail.token()
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.tail.token_mut()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/simple_tokenizer.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/simple_tokenizer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e2be3dc5dbd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/simple_tokenizer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 simple tokenizer.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use std::str::CharIndices;
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone, Default)]
+pub struct SimpleTokenizer {
+    token: Token,
+}
+
+pub struct SimpleTokenStream<'a> {
+    text: &'a str,
+    chars: CharIndices<'a>,
+    token: &'a mut Token,
+}
+
+impl Tokenizer for SimpleTokenizer {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = SimpleTokenStream<'a>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        self.token.reset();
+        SimpleTokenStream {
+            text,
+            chars: text.char_indices(),
+            token: &mut self.token,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl SimpleTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn search_token_end(&mut self) -> usize {
+        (&mut self.chars)
+            .filter(|(_, c)| !c.is_alphanumeric())
+            .map(|(offset, _)| offset)
+            .next()
+            .unwrap_or(self.text.len())
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenStream for SimpleTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        self.token.text.clear();
+        self.token.position = self.token.position.wrapping_add(1);
+        while let Some((offset_from, c)) = self.chars.next() {
+            if c.is_alphanumeric() {
+                let offset_to = self.search_token_end();
+                self.token.offset_from = offset_from;
+                self.token.offset_to = offset_to;
+                self.token.text.push_str(&self.text[offset_from..offset_to]);
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stemmer.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stemmer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a79dd20d5f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stemmer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 stemmer filter.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::mem;
+
+use frostem::Algorithm;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenFilter, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize, Deserialize, Eq, PartialEq, Copy, Clone)]
+pub enum Language {
+    Arabic,
+    Danish,
+    Dutch,
+    English,
+    Finnish,
+    French,
+    German,
+    Greek,
+    Hungarian,
+    Italian,
+    Norwegian,
+    Portuguese,
+    Romanian,
+    Russian,
+    Spanish,
+    Swedish,
+    Tamil,
+    Turkish,
+}
+
+impl Language {
+    fn algorithm(self) -> Algorithm {
+        match self {
+            Self::Arabic => Algorithm::Arabic,
+            Self::Danish => Algorithm::Danish,
+            Self::Dutch => Algorithm::Dutch,
+            Self::English => Algorithm::English,
+            Self::Finnish => Algorithm::Finnish,
+            Self::French => Algorithm::French,
+            Self::German => Algorithm::German,
+            Self::Greek => Algorithm::Greek,
+            Self::Hungarian => Algorithm::Hungarian,
+            Self::Italian => Algorithm::Italian,
+            Self::Norwegian => Algorithm::Norwegian,
+            Self::Portuguese => Algorithm::Portuguese,
+            Self::Romanian => Algorithm::Romanian,
+            Self::Russian => Algorithm::Russian,
+            Self::Spanish => Algorithm::Spanish,
+            Self::Swedish => Algorithm::Swedish,
+            Self::Tamil => Algorithm::Tamil,
+            Self::Turkish => Algorithm::Turkish,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct Stemmer {
+    stemmer_algorithm: Algorithm,
+}
+
+impl Stemmer {
+    pub fn new(language: Language) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            stemmer_algorithm: language.algorithm(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for Stemmer {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new(Language::English)
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenFilter for Stemmer {
+    type Tokenizer<T: Tokenizer> = StemmerFilter<T>;
+
+    fn transform<T: Tokenizer>(self, tokenizer: T) -> Self::Tokenizer<T> {
+        StemmerFilter {
+            stemmer_algorithm: self.stemmer_algorithm,
+            inner: tokenizer,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct StemmerFilter<T> {
+    stemmer_algorithm: Algorithm,
+    inner: T,
+}
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer> Tokenizer for StemmerFilter<T> {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = StemmerTokenStream<T::TokenStream<'a>>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        StemmerTokenStream {
+            tail: self.inner.token_stream(text),
+            stemmer: frostem::Stemmer::new(self.stemmer_algorithm),
+            buffer: String::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct StemmerTokenStream<T> {
+    tail: T,
+    stemmer: frostem::Stemmer,
+    buffer: String,
+}
+
+impl<T: TokenStream> TokenStream for StemmerTokenStream<T> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        if !self.tail.advance() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        let token = self.tail.token_mut();
+        let stemmed = self.stemmer.stem(&token.text);
+        match stemmed {
+            Cow::Owned(stemmed) => token.text = stemmed,
+            Cow::Borrowed(stemmed) => {
+                self.buffer.clear();
+                self.buffer.push_str(stemmed);
+                mem::swap(&mut token.text, &mut self.buffer);
+            }
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.tail.token()
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.tail.token_mut()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use crate::{Language, RawTokenizer, Stemmer, TextAnalyzer, TokenStream};
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_greek_stemmer_handles_multibyte_suffixes() {
+        let mut analyzer = TextAnalyzer::builder(RawTokenizer::default())
+            .filter(Stemmer::new(Language::Greek))
+            .build();
+        let mut stream = analyzer.token_stream("αντιθετε");
+
+        assert!(stream.advance());
+        assert_eq!(stream.token().text, "ανετ");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stop_word_filter.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stop_word_filter.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9a690b0ec06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stop_word_filter.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,185 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 stop-word filter.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+#[path = "stop_word_filter/stopwords.rs"]
+mod stopwords;
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use crate::{Language, Token, TokenFilter, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+fn all_stop_words() -> impl Iterator<Item = &'static str> {
+    [
+        stop_words::get("ar"),
+        stopwords::DANISH,
+        stopwords::DUTCH,
+        // Use the fuller `stop-words` crate English list (~198 words) rather
+        // than the local Tantivy-style list (~33 words), which omits extremely
+        // common pronouns/function words (you, my, your, we, she, what, ...).
+        // Those omissions let the highest-frequency English tokens through the
+        // ICU stop-word path and build pathologically large posting lists.
+        stop_words::get("en"),
+        stopwords::FINNISH,
+        stopwords::FRENCH,
+        stopwords::GERMAN,
+        stop_words::get("el"),
+        stopwords::HUNGARIAN,
+        stopwords::ITALIAN,
+        stopwords::NORWEGIAN,
+        stopwords::PORTUGUESE,
+        stop_words::get("ro"),
+        stopwords::RUSSIAN,
+        stopwords::SPANISH,
+        stopwords::SWEDISH,
+        stop_words::get("ta"),
+        stop_words::get("tr"),
+        stop_words::get("zh"),
+        stop_words::get("ja"),
+        stop_words::get("ko"),
+    ]
+    .into_iter()
+    .flat_map(|words| words.iter().copied())
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct StopWordFilter {
+    words: Arc<HashSet<String>>,
+}
+
+impl StopWordFilter {
+    pub fn new(language: Language) -> Option<Self> {
+        let words = match language {
+            Language::Arabic => stop_words::get("ar"),
+            Language::Danish => stopwords::DANISH,
+            Language::Dutch => stopwords::DUTCH,
+            // Use the fuller `stop-words` crate English list (~198 words); the
+            // local Tantivy-style list (~33 words) omits common pronouns/function
+            // words (you, my, your, we, ...) that would otherwise leak through
+            // stop-word removal and build pathologically large posting lists.
+            Language::English => stop_words::get("en"),
+            Language::Finnish => stopwords::FINNISH,
+            Language::French => stopwords::FRENCH,
+            Language::German => stopwords::GERMAN,
+            Language::Greek => stop_words::get("el"),
+            Language::Hungarian => stopwords::HUNGARIAN,
+            Language::Italian => stopwords::ITALIAN,
+            Language::Norwegian => stopwords::NORWEGIAN,
+            Language::Portuguese => stopwords::PORTUGUESE,
+            Language::Romanian => stop_words::get("ro"),
+            Language::Russian => stopwords::RUSSIAN,
+            Language::Spanish => stopwords::SPANISH,
+            Language::Swedish => stopwords::SWEDISH,
+            Language::Tamil => stop_words::get("ta"),
+            Language::Turkish => stop_words::get("tr"),
+        };
+        Some(Self::remove(words.iter().map(|word| (*word).to_owned())))
+    }
+
+    pub fn all() -> Self {
+        Self::remove(all_stop_words().map(str::to_owned))
+    }
+
+    pub fn remove<W: IntoIterator<Item = String>>(words: W) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            words: Arc::new(words.into_iter().collect()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::all_stop_words;
+    use crate::StopWordFilter;
+    use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_external_stop_word_lists_are_available() {
+        let words = all_stop_words().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        for word in ["إلى", "και", "acesta", "அவர்", "ama", "的", "ある", "그리고"]
+        {
+            assert!(
+                words.contains(word),
+                "built-in stop words should contain {word}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_language_stop_word_lists_are_available() {
+        for (language, word) in [
+            (crate::Language::Arabic, "إلى"),
+            (crate::Language::Greek, "και"),
+            (crate::Language::Romanian, "acesta"),
+            (crate::Language::Tamil, "அவர்"),
+            (crate::Language::Turkish, "ama"),
+        ] {
+            let filter = StopWordFilter::new(language).unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                filter.words.contains(word),
+                "{language:?} should contain {word}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenFilter for StopWordFilter {
+    type Tokenizer<T: Tokenizer> = StopWordFilterWrapper<T>;
+
+    fn transform<T: Tokenizer>(self, tokenizer: T) -> Self::Tokenizer<T> {
+        StopWordFilterWrapper {
+            words: self.words,
+            inner: tokenizer,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct StopWordFilterWrapper<T> {
+    words: Arc<HashSet<String>>,
+    inner: T,
+}
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer> Tokenizer for StopWordFilterWrapper<T> {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = StopWordFilterStream<T::TokenStream<'a>>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        StopWordFilterStream {
+            words: self.words.clone(),
+            tail: self.inner.token_stream(text),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct StopWordFilterStream<T> {
+    words: Arc<HashSet<String>>,
+    tail: T,
+}
+
+impl<T> StopWordFilterStream<T> {
+    fn predicate(&self, token: &Token) -> bool {
+        !self.words.contains(&token.text)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: TokenStream> TokenStream for StopWordFilterStream<T> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        while self.tail.advance() {
+            if self.predicate(self.tail.token()) {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.tail.token()
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.tail.token_mut()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stop_word_filter/stopwords.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stop_word_filter/stopwords.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2ac3f4a28aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/stop_word_filter/stopwords.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1900 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: BSD-3-Clause
+// Vendored stop-word lists from Tantivy v0.24.2 / Snowball.
+/*
+These stop word lists are from the Snowball project (https://snowballstem.org/)
+which carries the following copyright and license:
+
+Copyright (c) 2001, Dr Martin Porter
+Copyright (c) 2004,2005, Richard Boulton
+Copyright (c) 2013, Yoshiki Shibukawa
+Copyright (c) 2006,2007,2009,2010,2011,2014-2019, Olly Betts
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+
+  1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice,
+     this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+  2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
+     this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
+     and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+  3. Neither the name of the Snowball project nor the names of its contributors
+     may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+     without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
+ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
+DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
+(INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;
+LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON
+ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
+(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+*/
+
+pub const DANISH: &[&str] = &[
+    "og", "i", "jeg", "det", "at", "en", "den", "til", "er", "som", "på", "de", "med", "han", "af",
+    "for", "ikke", "der", "var", "mig", "sig", "men", "et", "har", "om", "vi", "min", "havde",
+    "ham", "hun", "nu", "over", "da", "fra", "du", "ud", "sin", "dem", "os", "op", "man", "hans",
+    "hvor", "eller", "hvad", "skal", "selv", "her", "alle", "vil", "blev", "kunne", "ind", "når",
+    "være", "dog", "noget", "ville", "jo", "deres", "efter", "ned", "skulle", "denne", "end",
+    "dette", "mit", "også", "under", "have", "dig", "anden", "hende", "mine", "alt", "meget",
+    "sit", "sine", "vor", "mod", "disse", "hvis", "din", "nogle", "hos", "blive", "mange", "ad",
+    "bliver", "hendes", "været", "thi", "jer", "sådan",
+];
+
+pub const DUTCH: &[&str] = &[
+    "de", "en", "van", "ik", "te", "dat", "die", "in", "een", "hij", "het", "niet", "zijn", "is",
+    "was", "op", "aan", "met", "als", "voor", "had", "er", "maar", "om", "hem", "dan", "zou", "of",
+    "wat", "mijn", "men", "dit", "zo", "door", "over", "ze", "zich", "bij", "ook", "tot", "je",
+    "mij", "uit", "der", "daar", "haar", "naar", "heb", "hoe", "heeft", "hebben", "deze", "u",
+    "want", "nog", "zal", "me", "zij", "nu", "ge", "geen", "omdat", "iets", "worden", "toch", "al",
+    "waren", "veel", "meer", "doen", "toen", "moet", "ben", "zonder", "kan", "hun", "dus", "alles",
+    "onder", "ja", "eens", "hier", "wie", "werd", "altijd", "doch", "wordt", "wezen", "kunnen",
+    "ons", "zelf", "tegen", "na", "reeds", "wil", "kon", "niets", "uw", "iemand", "geweest",
+    "andere",
+];
+
+pub const FINNISH: &[&str] = &[
+    "olla",
+    "olen",
+    "olet",
+    "on",
+    "olemme",
+    "olette",
+    "ovat",
+    "ole",
+    "oli",
+    "olisi",
+    "olisit",
+    "olisin",
+    "olisimme",
+    "olisitte",
+    "olisivat",
+    "olit",
+    "olin",
+    "olimme",
+    "olitte",
+    "olivat",
+    "ollut",
+    "olleet",
+    "en",
+    "et",
+    "ei",
+    "emme",
+    "ette",
+    "eivät",
+    "minä",
+    "minun",
+    "minut",
+    "minua",
+    "minussa",
+    "minusta",
+    "minuun",
+    "minulla",
+    "minulta",
+    "minulle",
+    "sinä",
+    "sinun",
+    "sinut",
+    "sinua",
+    "sinussa",
+    "sinusta",
+    "sinuun",
+    "sinulla",
+    "sinulta",
+    "sinulle",
+    "hän",
+    "hänen",
+    "hänet",
+    "häntä",
+    "hänessä",
+    "hänestä",
+    "häneen",
+    "hänellä",
+    "häneltä",
+    "hänelle",
+    "me",
+    "meidän",
+    "meidät",
+    "meitä",
+    "meissä",
+    "meistä",
+    "meihin",
+    "meillä",
+    "meiltä",
+    "meille",
+    "te",
+    "teidän",
+    "teidät",
+    "teitä",
+    "teissä",
+    "teistä",
+    "teihin",
+    "teillä",
+    "teiltä",
+    "teille",
+    "he",
+    "heidän",
+    "heidät",
+    "heitä",
+    "heissä",
+    "heistä",
+    "heihin",
+    "heillä",
+    "heiltä",
+    "heille",
+    "tämä",
+    "tämän",
+    "tätä",
+    "tässä",
+    "tästä",
+    "tähän",
+    "tällä",
+    "tältä",
+    "tälle",
+    "tänä",
+    "täksi",
+    "tuo",
+    "tuon",
+    "tuota",
+    "tuossa",
+    "tuosta",
+    "tuohon",
+    "tuolla",
+    "tuolta",
+    "tuolle",
+    "tuona",
+    "tuoksi",
+    "se",
+    "sen",
+    "sitä",
+    "siinä",
+    "siitä",
+    "siihen",
+    "sillä",
+    "siltä",
+    "sille",
+    "sinä",
+    "siksi",
+    "nämä",
+    "näiden",
+    "näitä",
+    "näissä",
+    "näistä",
+    "näihin",
+    "näillä",
+    "näiltä",
+    "näille",
+    "näinä",
+    "näiksi",
+    "nuo",
+    "noiden",
+    "noita",
+    "noissa",
+    "noista",
+    "noihin",
+    "noilla",
+    "noilta",
+    "noille",
+    "noina",
+    "noiksi",
+    "ne",
+    "niiden",
+    "niitä",
+    "niissä",
+    "niistä",
+    "niihin",
+    "niillä",
+    "niiltä",
+    "niille",
+    "niinä",
+    "niiksi",
+    "kuka",
+    "kenen",
+    "kenet",
+    "ketä",
+    "kenessä",
+    "kenestä",
+    "keneen",
+    "kenellä",
+    "keneltä",
+    "kenelle",
+    "kenenä",
+    "keneksi",
+    "ketkä",
+    "keiden",
+    "ketkä",
+    "keitä",
+    "keissä",
+    "keistä",
+    "keihin",
+    "keillä",
+    "keiltä",
+    "keille",
+    "keinä",
+    "keiksi",
+    "mikä",
+    "minkä",
+    "minkä",
+    "mitä",
+    "missä",
+    "mistä",
+    "mihin",
+    "millä",
+    "miltä",
+    "mille",
+    "minä",
+    "miksi",
+    "mitkä",
+    "joka",
+    "jonka",
+    "jota",
+    "jossa",
+    "josta",
+    "johon",
+    "jolla",
+    "jolta",
+    "jolle",
+    "jona",
+    "joksi",
+    "jotka",
+    "joiden",
+    "joita",
+    "joissa",
+    "joista",
+    "joihin",
+    "joilla",
+    "joilta",
+    "joille",
+    "joina",
+    "joiksi",
+    "että",
+    "ja",
+    "jos",
+    "koska",
+    "kuin",
+    "mutta",
+    "niin",
+    "sekä",
+    "sillä",
+    "tai",
+    "vaan",
+    "vai",
+    "vaikka",
+    "kanssa",
+    "mukaan",
+    "noin",
+    "poikki",
+    "yli",
+    "kun",
+    "nyt",
+    "itse",
+];
+
+pub const FRENCH: &[&str] = &[
+    "au", "aux", "avec", "ce", "ces", "dans", "de", "des", "du", "elle", "en", "et", "eux", "il",
+    "je", "la", "le", "leur", "lui", "ma", "mais", "me", "même", "mes", "moi", "mon", "ne", "nos",
+    "notre", "nous", "on", "ou", "par", "pas", "pour", "qu", "que", "qui", "sa", "se", "ses",
+    "sur", "ta", "te", "tes", "toi", "ton", "tu", "un", "une", "vos", "votre", "vous", "c", "d",
+    "j", "l", "à", "m", "n", "s", "t", "y", "étée", "étées", "étant", "suis", "es", "êtes", "sont",
+    "serai", "seras", "sera", "serons", "serez", "seront", "serais", "serait", "serions", "seriez",
+    "seraient", "étais", "était", "étions", "étiez", "étaient", "fus", "fut", "fûmes", "fûtes",
+    "furent", "sois", "soit", "soyons", "soyez", "soient", "fusse", "fusses", "fussions",
+    "fussiez", "fussent", "ayant", "eu", "eue", "eues", "eus", "ai", "avons", "avez", "ont",
+    "aurai", "aurons", "aurez", "auront", "aurais", "aurait", "aurions", "auriez", "auraient",
+    "avais", "avait", "aviez", "avaient", "eut", "eûmes", "eûtes", "eurent", "aie", "aies", "ait",
+    "ayons", "ayez", "aient", "eusse", "eusses", "eût", "eussions", "eussiez", "eussent", "ceci",
+    "cela", "celà", "cet", "cette", "ici", "ils", "les", "leurs", "quel", "quels", "quelle",
+    "quelles", "sans", "soi",
+];
+
+pub const GERMAN: &[&str] = &[
+    "aber",
+    "alle",
+    "allem",
+    "allen",
+    "aller",
+    "alles",
+    "als",
+    "also",
+    "am",
+    "an",
+    "ander",
+    "andere",
+    "anderem",
+    "anderen",
+    "anderer",
+    "anderes",
+    "anderm",
+    "andern",
+    "anderr",
+    "anders",
+    "auch",
+    "auf",
+    "aus",
+    "bei",
+    "bin",
+    "bis",
+    "bist",
+    "da",
+    "damit",
+    "dann",
+    "der",
+    "den",
+    "des",
+    "dem",
+    "die",
+    "das",
+    "daß",
+    "derselbe",
+    "derselben",
+    "denselben",
+    "desselben",
+    "demselben",
+    "dieselbe",
+    "dieselben",
+    "dasselbe",
+    "dazu",
+    "dein",
+    "deine",
+    "deinem",
+    "deinen",
+    "deiner",
+    "deines",
+    "denn",
+    "derer",
+    "dessen",
+    "dich",
+    "dir",
+    "du",
+    "dies",
+    "diese",
+    "diesem",
+    "diesen",
+    "dieser",
+    "dieses",
+    "doch",
+    "dort",
+    "durch",
+    "ein",
+    "eine",
+    "einem",
+    "einen",
+    "einer",
+    "eines",
+    "einig",
+    "einige",
+    "einigem",
+    "einigen",
+    "einiger",
+    "einiges",
+    "einmal",
+    "er",
+    "ihn",
+    "ihm",
+    "es",
+    "etwas",
+    "euer",
+    "eure",
+    "eurem",
+    "euren",
+    "eurer",
+    "eures",
+    "für",
+    "gegen",
+    "gewesen",
+    "hab",
+    "habe",
+    "haben",
+    "hat",
+    "hatte",
+    "hatten",
+    "hier",
+    "hin",
+    "hinter",
+    "ich",
+    "mich",
+    "mir",
+    "ihr",
+    "ihre",
+    "ihrem",
+    "ihren",
+    "ihrer",
+    "ihres",
+    "euch",
+    "im",
+    "in",
+    "indem",
+    "ins",
+    "ist",
+    "jede",
+    "jedem",
+    "jeden",
+    "jeder",
+    "jedes",
+    "jene",
+    "jenem",
+    "jenen",
+    "jener",
+    "jenes",
+    "jetzt",
+    "kann",
+    "kein",
+    "keine",
+    "keinem",
+    "keinen",
+    "keiner",
+    "keines",
+    "können",
+    "könnte",
+    "machen",
+    "man",
+    "manche",
+    "manchem",
+    "manchen",
+    "mancher",
+    "manches",
+    "mein",
+    "meine",
+    "meinem",
+    "meinen",
+    "meiner",
+    "meines",
+    "mit",
+    "muss",
+    "musste",
+    "nach",
+    "nicht",
+    "nichts",
+    "noch",
+    "nun",
+    "nur",
+    "ob",
+    "oder",
+    "ohne",
+    "sehr",
+    "sein",
+    "seine",
+    "seinem",
+    "seinen",
+    "seiner",
+    "seines",
+    "selbst",
+    "sich",
+    "sie",
+    "ihnen",
+    "sind",
+    "so",
+    "solche",
+    "solchem",
+    "solchen",
+    "solcher",
+    "solches",
+    "soll",
+    "sollte",
+    "sondern",
+    "sonst",
+    "über",
+    "um",
+    "und",
+    "uns",
+    "unse",
+    "unsem",
+    "unsen",
+    "unser",
+    "unses",
+    "unter",
+    "viel",
+    "vom",
+    "von",
+    "vor",
+    "während",
+    "war",
+    "waren",
+    "warst",
+    "was",
+    "weg",
+    "weil",
+    "weiter",
+    "welche",
+    "welchem",
+    "welchen",
+    "welcher",
+    "welches",
+    "wenn",
+    "werde",
+    "werden",
+    "wie",
+    "wieder",
+    "will",
+    "wir",
+    "wird",
+    "wirst",
+    "wo",
+    "wollen",
+    "wollte",
+    "würde",
+    "würden",
+    "zu",
+    "zum",
+    "zur",
+    "zwar",
+    "zwischen",
+];
+
+pub const HUNGARIAN: &[&str] = &[
+    "a",
+    "ahogy",
+    "ahol",
+    "aki",
+    "akik",
+    "akkor",
+    "alatt",
+    "által",
+    "általában",
+    "amely",
+    "amelyek",
+    "amelyekben",
+    "amelyeket",
+    "amelyet",
+    "amelynek",
+    "ami",
+    "amit",
+    "amolyan",
+    "amíg",
+    "amikor",
+    "át",
+    "abban",
+    "ahhoz",
+    "annak",
+    "arra",
+    "arról",
+    "az",
+    "azok",
+    "azon",
+    "azt",
+    "azzal",
+    "azért",
+    "aztán",
+    "azután",
+    "azonban",
+    "bár",
+    "be",
+    "belül",
+    "benne",
+    "cikk",
+    "cikkek",
+    "cikkeket",
+    "csak",
+    "de",
+    "e",
+    "eddig",
+    "egész",
+    "egy",
+    "egyes",
+    "egyetlen",
+    "egyéb",
+    "egyik",
+    "egyre",
+    "ekkor",
+    "el",
+    "elég",
+    "ellen",
+    "elő",
+    "először",
+    "előtt",
+    "első",
+    "én",
+    "éppen",
+    "ebben",
+    "ehhez",
+    "emilyen",
+    "ennek",
+    "erre",
+    "ez",
+    "ezt",
+    "ezek",
+    "ezen",
+    "ezzel",
+    "ezért",
+    "és",
+    "fel",
+    "felé",
+    "hanem",
+    "hiszen",
+    "hogy",
+    "hogyan",
+    "igen",
+    "így",
+    "illetve",
+    "ill.",
+    "ill",
+    "ilyen",
+    "ilyenkor",
+    "ison",
+    "ismét",
+    "itt",
+    "jó",
+    "jól",
+    "jobban",
+    "kell",
+    "kellett",
+    "keresztül",
+    "keressünk",
+    "ki",
+    "kívül",
+    "között",
+    "közül",
+    "legalább",
+    "lehet",
+    "lehetett",
+    "legyen",
+    "lenne",
+    "lenni",
+    "lesz",
+    "lett",
+    "maga",
+    "magát",
+    "majd",
+    "majd",
+    "már",
+    "más",
+    "másik",
+    "meg",
+    "még",
+    "mellett",
+    "mert",
+    "mely",
+    "melyek",
+    "mi",
+    "mit",
+    "míg",
+    "miért",
+    "milyen",
+    "mikor",
+    "minden",
+    "mindent",
+    "mindenki",
+    "mindig",
+    "mint",
+    "mintha",
+    "mivel",
+    "most",
+    "nagy",
+    "nagyobb",
+    "nagyon",
+    "ne",
+    "néha",
+    "nekem",
+    "neki",
+    "nem",
+    "néhány",
+    "nélkül",
+    "nincs",
+    "olyan",
+    "ott",
+    "össze",
+    "ő",
+    "ők",
+    "őket",
+    "pedig",
+    "persze",
+    "rá",
+    "s",
+    "saját",
+    "sem",
+    "semmi",
+    "sok",
+    "sokat",
+    "sokkal",
+    "számára",
+    "szemben",
+    "szerint",
+    "szinte",
+    "talán",
+    "tehát",
+    "teljes",
+    "tovább",
+    "továbbá",
+    "több",
+    "úgy",
+    "ugyanis",
+    "új",
+    "újabb",
+    "újra",
+    "után",
+    "utána",
+    "utolsó",
+    "vagy",
+    "vagyis",
+    "valaki",
+    "valami",
+    "valamint",
+    "való",
+    "vagyok",
+    "van",
+    "vannak",
+    "volt",
+    "voltam",
+    "voltak",
+    "voltunk",
+    "vissza",
+    "vele",
+    "viszont",
+    "volna",
+];
+
+pub const ITALIAN: &[&str] = &[
+    "ad",
+    "al",
+    "allo",
+    "ai",
+    "agli",
+    "all",
+    "agl",
+    "alla",
+    "alle",
+    "con",
+    "col",
+    "coi",
+    "da",
+    "dal",
+    "dallo",
+    "dai",
+    "dagli",
+    "dall",
+    "dagl",
+    "dalla",
+    "dalle",
+    "di",
+    "del",
+    "dello",
+    "dei",
+    "degli",
+    "dell",
+    "degl",
+    "della",
+    "delle",
+    "in",
+    "nel",
+    "nello",
+    "nei",
+    "negli",
+    "nell",
+    "negl",
+    "nella",
+    "nelle",
+    "su",
+    "sul",
+    "sullo",
+    "sui",
+    "sugli",
+    "sull",
+    "sugl",
+    "sulla",
+    "sulle",
+    "per",
+    "tra",
+    "contro",
+    "io",
+    "tu",
+    "lui",
+    "lei",
+    "noi",
+    "voi",
+    "loro",
+    "mio",
+    "mia",
+    "miei",
+    "mie",
+    "tuo",
+    "tua",
+    "tuoi",
+    "tue",
+    "suo",
+    "sua",
+    "suoi",
+    "sue",
+    "nostro",
+    "nostra",
+    "nostri",
+    "nostre",
+    "vostro",
+    "vostra",
+    "vostri",
+    "vostre",
+    "mi",
+    "ti",
+    "ci",
+    "vi",
+    "lo",
+    "la",
+    "li",
+    "le",
+    "gli",
+    "ne",
+    "il",
+    "un",
+    "uno",
+    "una",
+    "ma",
+    "ed",
+    "se",
+    "perché",
+    "anche",
+    "come",
+    "dov",
+    "dove",
+    "che",
+    "chi",
+    "cui",
+    "non",
+    "più",
+    "quale",
+    "quanto",
+    "quanti",
+    "quanta",
+    "quante",
+    "quello",
+    "quelli",
+    "quella",
+    "quelle",
+    "questo",
+    "questi",
+    "questa",
+    "queste",
+    "si",
+    "tutto",
+    "tutti",
+    "a",
+    "c",
+    "e",
+    "i",
+    "l",
+    "o",
+    "ho",
+    "hai",
+    "ha",
+    "abbiamo",
+    "avete",
+    "hanno",
+    "abbia",
+    "abbiate",
+    "abbiano",
+    "avrò",
+    "avrai",
+    "avrà",
+    "avremo",
+    "avrete",
+    "avranno",
+    "avrei",
+    "avresti",
+    "avrebbe",
+    "avremmo",
+    "avreste",
+    "avrebbero",
+    "avevo",
+    "avevi",
+    "aveva",
+    "avevamo",
+    "avevate",
+    "avevano",
+    "ebbi",
+    "avesti",
+    "ebbe",
+    "avemmo",
+    "aveste",
+    "ebbero",
+    "avessi",
+    "avesse",
+    "avessimo",
+    "avessero",
+    "avendo",
+    "avuto",
+    "avuta",
+    "avuti",
+    "avute",
+    "sono",
+    "sei",
+    "è",
+    "siamo",
+    "siete",
+    "sia",
+    "siate",
+    "siano",
+    "sarò",
+    "sarai",
+    "sarà",
+    "saremo",
+    "sarete",
+    "saranno",
+    "sarei",
+    "saresti",
+    "sarebbe",
+    "saremmo",
+    "sareste",
+    "sarebbero",
+    "ero",
+    "eri",
+    "era",
+    "eravamo",
+    "eravate",
+    "erano",
+    "fui",
+    "fosti",
+    "fu",
+    "fummo",
+    "foste",
+    "furono",
+    "fossi",
+    "fosse",
+    "fossimo",
+    "fossero",
+    "essendo",
+    "faccio",
+    "fai",
+    "facciamo",
+    "fanno",
+    "faccia",
+    "facciate",
+    "facciano",
+    "farò",
+    "farai",
+    "farà",
+    "faremo",
+    "farete",
+    "faranno",
+    "farei",
+    "faresti",
+    "farebbe",
+    "faremmo",
+    "fareste",
+    "farebbero",
+    "facevo",
+    "facevi",
+    "faceva",
+    "facevamo",
+    "facevate",
+    "facevano",
+    "feci",
+    "facesti",
+    "fece",
+    "facemmo",
+    "faceste",
+    "fecero",
+    "facessi",
+    "facesse",
+    "facessimo",
+    "facessero",
+    "facendo",
+    "sto",
+    "stai",
+    "sta",
+    "stiamo",
+    "stanno",
+    "stia",
+    "stiate",
+    "stiano",
+    "starò",
+    "starai",
+    "starà",
+    "staremo",
+    "starete",
+    "staranno",
+    "starei",
+    "staresti",
+    "starebbe",
+    "staremmo",
+    "stareste",
+    "starebbero",
+    "stavo",
+    "stavi",
+    "stava",
+    "stavamo",
+    "stavate",
+    "stavano",
+    "stetti",
+    "stesti",
+    "stette",
+    "stemmo",
+    "steste",
+    "stettero",
+    "stessi",
+    "stesse",
+    "stessimo",
+    "stessero",
+    "stando",
+];
+
+pub const NORWEGIAN: &[&str] = &[
+    "og",
+    "i",
+    "jeg",
+    "det",
+    "at",
+    "en",
+    "et",
+    "den",
+    "til",
+    "er",
+    "som",
+    "på",
+    "de",
+    "med",
+    "han",
+    "av",
+    "ikke",
+    "ikkje",
+    "der",
+    "så",
+    "var",
+    "meg",
+    "seg",
+    "men",
+    "ett",
+    "har",
+    "om",
+    "vi",
+    "min",
+    "mitt",
+    "ha",
+    "hadde",
+    "hun",
+    "nå",
+    "over",
+    "da",
+    "ved",
+    "fra",
+    "du",
+    "ut",
+    "sin",
+    "dem",
+    "oss",
+    "opp",
+    "man",
+    "kan",
+    "hans",
+    "hvor",
+    "eller",
+    "hva",
+    "skal",
+    "selv",
+    "sjøl",
+    "her",
+    "alle",
+    "vil",
+    "bli",
+    "ble",
+    "blei",
+    "blitt",
+    "kunne",
+    "inn",
+    "når",
+    "være",
+    "kom",
+    "noen",
+    "noe",
+    "ville",
+    "dere",
+    "deres",
+    "kun",
+    "ja",
+    "etter",
+    "ned",
+    "skulle",
+    "denne",
+    "for",
+    "deg",
+    "si",
+    "sine",
+    "sitt",
+    "mot",
+    "å",
+    "meget",
+    "hvorfor",
+    "dette",
+    "disse",
+    "uten",
+    "hvordan",
+    "ingen",
+    "din",
+    "ditt",
+    "blir",
+    "samme",
+    "hvilken",
+    "hvilke",
+    "sånn",
+    "inni",
+    "mellom",
+    "vår",
+    "hver",
+    "hvem",
+    "vors",
+    "hvis",
+    "både",
+    "bare",
+    "enn",
+    "fordi",
+    "før",
+    "mange",
+    "også",
+    "slik",
+    "vært",
+    "båe",
+    "begge",
+    "siden",
+    "dykk",
+    "dykkar",
+    "dei",
+    "deira",
+    "deires",
+    "deim",
+    "di",
+    "då",
+    "eg",
+    "ein",
+    "eit",
+    "eitt",
+    "elles",
+    "honom",
+    "hjå",
+    "ho",
+    "hoe",
+    "henne",
+    "hennar",
+    "hennes",
+    "hoss",
+    "hossen",
+    "ingi",
+    "inkje",
+    "korleis",
+    "korso",
+    "kva",
+    "kvar",
+    "kvarhelst",
+    "kven",
+    "kvi",
+    "kvifor",
+    "me",
+    "medan",
+    "mi",
+    "mine",
+    "mykje",
+    "no",
+    "nokon",
+    "noka",
+    "nokor",
+    "noko",
+    "nokre",
+    "sia",
+    "sidan",
+    "so",
+    "somt",
+    "somme",
+    "um",
+    "upp",
+    "vere",
+    "vore",
+    "verte",
+    "vort",
+    "varte",
+    "vart",
+];
+
+pub const PORTUGUESE: &[&str] = &[
+    "de",
+    "a",
+    "o",
+    "que",
+    "e",
+    "do",
+    "da",
+    "em",
+    "um",
+    "para",
+    "com",
+    "não",
+    "uma",
+    "os",
+    "no",
+    "se",
+    "na",
+    "por",
+    "mais",
+    "as",
+    "dos",
+    "como",
+    "mas",
+    "ao",
+    "ele",
+    "das",
+    "à",
+    "seu",
+    "sua",
+    "ou",
+    "quando",
+    "muito",
+    "nos",
+    "já",
+    "eu",
+    "também",
+    "só",
+    "pelo",
+    "pela",
+    "até",
+    "isso",
+    "ela",
+    "entre",
+    "depois",
+    "sem",
+    "mesmo",
+    "aos",
+    "seus",
+    "quem",
+    "nas",
+    "me",
+    "esse",
+    "eles",
+    "você",
+    "essa",
+    "num",
+    "nem",
+    "suas",
+    "meu",
+    "às",
+    "minha",
+    "numa",
+    "pelos",
+    "elas",
+    "qual",
+    "nós",
+    "lhe",
+    "deles",
+    "essas",
+    "esses",
+    "pelas",
+    "este",
+    "dele",
+    "tu",
+    "te",
+    "vocês",
+    "vos",
+    "lhes",
+    "meus",
+    "minhas",
+    "teu",
+    "tua",
+    "teus",
+    "tuas",
+    "nosso",
+    "nossa",
+    "nossos",
+    "nossas",
+    "dela",
+    "delas",
+    "esta",
+    "estes",
+    "estas",
+    "aquele",
+    "aquela",
+    "aqueles",
+    "aquelas",
+    "isto",
+    "aquilo",
+    "estou",
+    "está",
+    "estamos",
+    "estão",
+    "estive",
+    "esteve",
+    "estivemos",
+    "estiveram",
+    "estava",
+    "estávamos",
+    "estavam",
+    "estivera",
+    "estivéramos",
+    "esteja",
+    "estejamos",
+    "estejam",
+    "estivesse",
+    "estivéssemos",
+    "estivessem",
+    "estiver",
+    "estivermos",
+    "estiverem",
+    "hei",
+    "há",
+    "havemos",
+    "hão",
+    "houve",
+    "houvemos",
+    "houveram",
+    "houvera",
+    "houvéramos",
+    "haja",
+    "hajamos",
+    "hajam",
+    "houvesse",
+    "houvéssemos",
+    "houvessem",
+    "houver",
+    "houvermos",
+    "houverem",
+    "houverei",
+    "houverá",
+    "houveremos",
+    "houverão",
+    "houveria",
+    "houveríamos",
+    "houveriam",
+    "sou",
+    "somos",
+    "são",
+    "era",
+    "éramos",
+    "eram",
+    "fui",
+    "foi",
+    "fomos",
+    "foram",
+    "fora",
+    "fôramos",
+    "seja",
+    "sejamos",
+    "sejam",
+    "fosse",
+    "fôssemos",
+    "fossem",
+    "for",
+    "formos",
+    "forem",
+    "serei",
+    "será",
+    "seremos",
+    "serão",
+    "seria",
+    "seríamos",
+    "seriam",
+    "tenho",
+    "tem",
+    "temos",
+    "tém",
+    "tinha",
+    "tínhamos",
+    "tinham",
+    "tive",
+    "teve",
+    "tivemos",
+    "tiveram",
+    "tivera",
+    "tivéramos",
+    "tenha",
+    "tenhamos",
+    "tenham",
+    "tivesse",
+    "tivéssemos",
+    "tivessem",
+    "tiver",
+    "tivermos",
+    "tiverem",
+    "terei",
+    "terá",
+    "teremos",
+    "terão",
+    "teria",
+    "teríamos",
+    "teriam",
+];
+
+pub const RUSSIAN: &[&str] = &[
+    "и",
+    "в",
+    "во",
+    "не",
+    "что",
+    "он",
+    "на",
+    "я",
+    "с",
+    "со",
+    "как",
+    "а",
+    "то",
+    "все",
+    "она",
+    "так",
+    "его",
+    "но",
+    "да",
+    "ты",
+    "к",
+    "у",
+    "же",
+    "вы",
+    "за",
+    "бы",
+    "по",
+    "только",
+    "ее",
+    "мне",
+    "было",
+    "вот",
+    "от",
+    "меня",
+    "еще",
+    "нет",
+    "о",
+    "из",
+    "ему",
+    "теперь",
+    "когда",
+    "даже",
+    "ну",
+    "вдруг",
+    "ли",
+    "если",
+    "уже",
+    "или",
+    "ни",
+    "быть",
+    "был",
+    "него",
+    "до",
+    "вас",
+    "нибудь",
+    "опять",
+    "уж",
+    "вам",
+    "сказал",
+    "ведь",
+    "там",
+    "потом",
+    "себя",
+    "ничего",
+    "ей",
+    "может",
+    "они",
+    "тут",
+    "где",
+    "есть",
+    "надо",
+    "ней",
+    "для",
+    "мы",
+    "тебя",
+    "их",
+    "чем",
+    "была",
+    "сам",
+    "чтоб",
+    "без",
+    "будто",
+    "человек",
+    "чего",
+    "раз",
+    "тоже",
+    "себе",
+    "под",
+    "жизнь",
+    "будет",
+    "ж",
+    "тогда",
+    "кто",
+    "этот",
+    "говорил",
+    "того",
+    "потому",
+    "этого",
+    "какой",
+    "совсем",
+    "ним",
+    "здесь",
+    "этом",
+    "один",
+    "почти",
+    "мой",
+    "тем",
+    "чтобы",
+    "нее",
+    "кажется",
+    "сейчас",
+    "были",
+    "куда",
+    "зачем",
+    "сказать",
+    "всех",
+    "никогда",
+    "сегодня",
+    "можно",
+    "при",
+    "наконец",
+    "два",
+    "об",
+    "другой",
+    "хоть",
+    "после",
+    "над",
+    "больше",
+    "тот",
+    "через",
+    "эти",
+    "нас",
+    "про",
+    "всего",
+    "них",
+    "какая",
+    "много",
+    "разве",
+    "сказала",
+    "три",
+    "эту",
+    "моя",
+    "впрочем",
+    "хорошо",
+    "свою",
+    "этой",
+    "перед",
+    "иногда",
+    "лучше",
+    "чуть",
+    "том",
+    "нельзя",
+    "такой",
+    "им",
+    "более",
+    "всегда",
+    "конечно",
+    "всю",
+    "между",
+];
+
+pub const SPANISH: &[&str] = &[
+    "de",
+    "la",
+    "que",
+    "el",
+    "en",
+    "y",
+    "a",
+    "los",
+    "del",
+    "se",
+    "las",
+    "por",
+    "un",
+    "para",
+    "con",
+    "no",
+    "una",
+    "su",
+    "al",
+    "lo",
+    "como",
+    "más",
+    "pero",
+    "sus",
+    "le",
+    "ya",
+    "o",
+    "este",
+    "sí",
+    "porque",
+    "esta",
+    "entre",
+    "cuando",
+    "muy",
+    "sin",
+    "sobre",
+    "también",
+    "me",
+    "hasta",
+    "hay",
+    "donde",
+    "quien",
+    "desde",
+    "todo",
+    "nos",
+    "durante",
+    "todos",
+    "uno",
+    "les",
+    "ni",
+    "contra",
+    "otros",
+    "ese",
+    "eso",
+    "ante",
+    "ellos",
+    "e",
+    "esto",
+    "mí",
+    "antes",
+    "algunos",
+    "qué",
+    "unos",
+    "yo",
+    "otro",
+    "otras",
+    "otra",
+    "él",
+    "tanto",
+    "esa",
+    "estos",
+    "mucho",
+    "quienes",
+    "nada",
+    "muchos",
+    "cual",
+    "poco",
+    "ella",
+    "estar",
+    "estas",
+    "algunas",
+    "algo",
+    "nosotros",
+    "mi",
+    "mis",
+    "tú",
+    "te",
+    "ti",
+    "tu",
+    "tus",
+    "ellas",
+    "nosotras",
+    "vosotros",
+    "vosotras",
+    "os",
+    "mío",
+    "mía",
+    "míos",
+    "mías",
+    "tuyo",
+    "tuya",
+    "tuyos",
+    "tuyas",
+    "suyo",
+    "suya",
+    "suyos",
+    "suyas",
+    "nuestro",
+    "nuestra",
+    "nuestros",
+    "nuestras",
+    "vuestro",
+    "vuestra",
+    "vuestros",
+    "vuestras",
+    "esos",
+    "esas",
+    "estoy",
+    "estás",
+    "está",
+    "estamos",
+    "estáis",
+    "están",
+    "esté",
+    "estés",
+    "estemos",
+    "estéis",
+    "estén",
+    "estaré",
+    "estarás",
+    "estará",
+    "estaremos",
+    "estaréis",
+    "estarán",
+    "estaría",
+    "estarías",
+    "estaríamos",
+    "estaríais",
+    "estarían",
+    "estaba",
+    "estabas",
+    "estábamos",
+    "estabais",
+    "estaban",
+    "estuve",
+    "estuviste",
+    "estuvo",
+    "estuvimos",
+    "estuvisteis",
+    "estuvieron",
+    "estuviera",
+    "estuvieras",
+    "estuviéramos",
+    "estuvierais",
+    "estuvieran",
+    "estuviese",
+    "estuvieses",
+    "estuviésemos",
+    "estuvieseis",
+    "estuviesen",
+    "estando",
+    "estado",
+    "estada",
+    "estados",
+    "estadas",
+    "estad",
+    "he",
+    "has",
+    "ha",
+    "hemos",
+    "habéis",
+    "han",
+    "haya",
+    "hayas",
+    "hayamos",
+    "hayáis",
+    "hayan",
+    "habré",
+    "habrás",
+    "habrá",
+    "habremos",
+    "habréis",
+    "habrán",
+    "habría",
+    "habrías",
+    "habríamos",
+    "habríais",
+    "habrían",
+    "había",
+    "habías",
+    "habíamos",
+    "habíais",
+    "habían",
+    "hube",
+    "hubiste",
+    "hubo",
+    "hubimos",
+    "hubisteis",
+    "hubieron",
+    "hubiera",
+    "hubieras",
+    "hubiéramos",
+    "hubierais",
+    "hubieran",
+    "hubiese",
+    "hubieses",
+    "hubiésemos",
+    "hubieseis",
+    "hubiesen",
+    "habiendo",
+    "habido",
+    "habida",
+    "habidos",
+    "habidas",
+    "soy",
+    "eres",
+    "es",
+    "somos",
+    "sois",
+    "son",
+    "sea",
+    "seas",
+    "seamos",
+    "seáis",
+    "sean",
+    "seré",
+    "serás",
+    "será",
+    "seremos",
+    "seréis",
+    "serán",
+    "sería",
+    "serías",
+    "seríamos",
+    "seríais",
+    "serían",
+    "era",
+    "eras",
+    "éramos",
+    "erais",
+    "eran",
+    "fui",
+    "fuiste",
+    "fue",
+    "fuimos",
+    "fuisteis",
+    "fueron",
+    "fuera",
+    "fueras",
+    "fuéramos",
+    "fuerais",
+    "fueran",
+    "fuese",
+    "fueses",
+    "fuésemos",
+    "fueseis",
+    "fuesen",
+    "siendo",
+    "sido",
+    "tengo",
+    "tienes",
+    "tiene",
+    "tenemos",
+    "tenéis",
+    "tienen",
+    "tenga",
+    "tengas",
+    "tengamos",
+    "tengáis",
+    "tengan",
+    "tendré",
+    "tendrás",
+    "tendrá",
+    "tendremos",
+    "tendréis",
+    "tendrán",
+    "tendría",
+    "tendrías",
+    "tendríamos",
+    "tendríais",
+    "tendrían",
+    "tenía",
+    "tenías",
+    "teníamos",
+    "teníais",
+    "tenían",
+    "tuve",
+    "tuviste",
+    "tuvo",
+    "tuvimos",
+    "tuvisteis",
+    "tuvieron",
+    "tuviera",
+    "tuvieras",
+    "tuviéramos",
+    "tuvierais",
+    "tuvieran",
+    "tuviese",
+    "tuvieses",
+    "tuviésemos",
+    "tuvieseis",
+    "tuviesen",
+    "teniendo",
+    "tenido",
+    "tenida",
+    "tenidos",
+    "tenidas",
+    "tened",
+];
+
+pub const SWEDISH: &[&str] = &[
+    "och", "det", "att", "i", "en", "jag", "hon", "som", "han", "på", "den", "med", "var", "sig",
+    "för", "så", "till", "är", "men", "ett", "om", "hade", "de", "av", "icke", "mig", "du",
+    "henne", "då", "sin", "nu", "har", "inte", "hans", "honom", "skulle", "hennes", "där", "min",
+    "man", "ej", "vid", "kunde", "något", "från", "ut", "när", "efter", "upp", "vi", "dem", "vara",
+    "vad", "över", "än", "dig", "kan", "sina", "här", "ha", "mot", "alla", "under", "någon",
+    "eller", "allt", "mycket", "sedan", "ju", "denna", "själv", "detta", "åt", "utan", "varit",
+    "hur", "ingen", "mitt", "ni", "bli", "blev", "oss", "din", "dessa", "några", "deras", "blir",
+    "mina", "samma", "vilken", "er", "sådan", "vår", "blivit", "dess", "inom", "mellan", "sådant",
+    "varför", "varje", "vilka", "ditt", "vem", "vilket", "sitt", "sådana", "vart", "dina", "vars",
+    "vårt", "våra", "ert", "era", "vilkas",
+];
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/tokenizer_api.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/tokenizer_api.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..fbf76ed4eb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/tokenizer_api.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 tokenizer API.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use std::borrow::{Borrow, BorrowMut};
+use std::ops::{Deref, DerefMut};
+
+/// Token emitted by a tokenizer.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub struct Token {
+    /// Byte offset of the first character.
+    pub offset_from: usize,
+    /// Byte offset after the last character.
+    pub offset_to: usize,
+    /// Logical token position.
+    pub position: usize,
+    /// Token text.
+    pub text: String,
+    /// Position length measured in original tokens.
+    pub position_length: usize,
+}
+
+impl Default for Token {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            offset_from: 0,
+            offset_to: 0,
+            position: usize::MAX,
+            text: String::new(),
+            position_length: 1,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Token {
+    /// Reset the token to its default state.
+    pub fn reset(&mut self) {
+        self.offset_from = 0;
+        self.offset_to = 0;
+        self.position = usize::MAX;
+        self.text.clear();
+        self.position_length = 1;
+    }
+}
+
+/// Tokenizer splits text into a token stream.
+pub trait Tokenizer: 'static + Clone + Send + Sync {
+    /// Stream type emitted by the tokenizer.
+    type TokenStream<'a>: TokenStream;
+
+    /// Create a token stream for the provided text.
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a>;
+}
+
+/// Token stream object-safe wrapper.
+pub struct BoxTokenStream<'a> {
+    token_stream: Box<dyn TokenStream + 'a>,
+    error: Option<String>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> BoxTokenStream<'a> {
+    /// Wrap a token stream.
+    pub fn new<T: TokenStream + 'a>(token_stream: T) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            token_stream: Box::new(token_stream),
+            error: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Attach an error that is returned before the first token.
+    pub fn with_error(mut self, error: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        self.error = Some(error.into());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Return the next token or the deferred stream error.
+    pub fn try_next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<&Token>, String> {
+        if let Some(error) = self.error.take() {
+            return Err(error);
+        }
+        Ok(self.token_stream.next())
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenStream for BoxTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        self.token_stream.advance()
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.token_stream.token()
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.token_stream.token_mut()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> Deref for BoxTokenStream<'a> {
+    type Target = dyn TokenStream + 'a;
+
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        &*self.token_stream
+    }
+}
+
+impl DerefMut for BoxTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn deref_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Self::Target {
+        &mut *self.token_stream
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> TokenStream for Box<dyn TokenStream + 'a> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        let token_stream: &mut dyn TokenStream = self.borrow_mut();
+        token_stream.advance()
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        let token_stream: &(dyn TokenStream + 'a) = self.borrow();
+        token_stream.token()
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        let token_stream: &mut (dyn TokenStream + 'a) = self.borrow_mut();
+        token_stream.token_mut()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Consumable token stream.
+pub trait TokenStream {
+    /// Advance to the next token.
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool;
+
+    /// Access the current token.
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token;
+
+    /// Mutate the current token.
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token;
+
+    /// Iterate to the next token and return it.
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<&Token> {
+        if self.advance() {
+            Some(self.token())
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Consume the remaining stream into the provided sink.
+    fn process(&mut self, sink: &mut dyn FnMut(&Token)) {
+        while self.advance() {
+            sink(self.token());
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Filter that wraps a tokenizer with additional token-processing behavior.
+pub trait TokenFilter: 'static + Send + Sync {
+    /// Tokenizer produced by this filter.
+    type Tokenizer<T: Tokenizer>: Tokenizer;
+
+    /// Wrap the tokenizer.
+    fn transform<T: Tokenizer>(self, tokenizer: T) -> Self::Tokenizer<T>;
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/whitespace_tokenizer.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/whitespace_tokenizer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..80b793f2ed4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/whitespace_tokenizer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// Adapted from Tantivy v0.24.2 whitespace tokenizer.
+// Copyright (c) 2017-present Tantivy contributors.
+
+use std::str::CharIndices;
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+#[derive(Clone, Default)]
+pub struct WhitespaceTokenizer {
+    token: Token,
+}
+
+pub struct WhitespaceTokenStream<'a> {
+    text: &'a str,
+    chars: CharIndices<'a>,
+    token: &'a mut Token,
+}
+
+impl Tokenizer for WhitespaceTokenizer {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = WhitespaceTokenStream<'a>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        self.token.reset();
+        WhitespaceTokenStream {
+            text,
+            chars: text.char_indices(),
+            token: &mut self.token,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl WhitespaceTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn search_token_end(&mut self) -> usize {
+        (&mut self.chars)
+            .filter(|(_, c)| c.is_ascii_whitespace())
+            .map(|(offset, _)| offset)
+            .next()
+            .unwrap_or(self.text.len())
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenStream for WhitespaceTokenStream<'_> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        self.token.text.clear();
+        self.token.position = self.token.position.wrapping_add(1);
+        while let Some((offset_from, c)) = self.chars.next() {
+            if !c.is_ascii_whitespace() {
+                let offset_to = self.search_token_end();
+                self.token.offset_from = offset_from;
+                self.token.offset_to = offset_to;
+                self.token.text.push_str(&self.text[offset_from..offset_to]);
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        self.token
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/word_delimiter_filter.rs b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/word_delimiter_filter.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..70138529efe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance-tokenizer/src/word_delimiter_filter.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,297 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::VecDeque;
+
+use crate::{Token, TokenFilter, TokenStream, Tokenizer};
+
+/// Splits code identifiers into subword tokens.
+///
+/// The original identifier can be preserved at the first subword position. If
+/// a token is not a compound identifier then it is passed through unchanged.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance_tokenizer::{CodeLexTokenizer, TextAnalyzer, TokenStream, WordDelimiterFilter};
+///
+/// let mut analyzer = TextAnalyzer::builder(CodeLexTokenizer::new(false))
+///     .filter(WordDelimiterFilter::new(true, true))
+///     .build();
+/// let mut stream = analyzer.token_stream("parseHTML2JSON");
+///
+/// let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+/// stream.process(&mut |token| tokens.push(token.text.clone()));
+/// assert_eq!(tokens, vec!["parseHTML2JSON", "parse", "HTML", "2", "JSON"]);
+/// ```
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct WordDelimiterFilter {
+    preserve_original: bool,
+    split_on_numerics: bool,
+}
+
+impl WordDelimiterFilter {
+    pub fn new(preserve_original: bool, split_on_numerics: bool) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            preserve_original,
+            split_on_numerics,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TokenFilter for WordDelimiterFilter {
+    type Tokenizer<T: Tokenizer> = WordDelimiterFilterWrapper<T>;
+
+    fn transform<T: Tokenizer>(self, tokenizer: T) -> Self::Tokenizer<T> {
+        WordDelimiterFilterWrapper {
+            tokenizer,
+            preserve_original: self.preserve_original,
+            split_on_numerics: self.split_on_numerics,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+/// Tokenizer wrapper produced by [`WordDelimiterFilter`].
+pub struct WordDelimiterFilterWrapper<T> {
+    tokenizer: T,
+    preserve_original: bool,
+    split_on_numerics: bool,
+}
+
+impl<T: Tokenizer> Tokenizer for WordDelimiterFilterWrapper<T> {
+    type TokenStream<'a> = WordDelimiterTokenStream<T::TokenStream<'a>>;
+
+    fn token_stream<'a>(&'a mut self, text: &'a str) -> Self::TokenStream<'a> {
+        WordDelimiterTokenStream {
+            tail: self.tokenizer.token_stream(text),
+            current: Token::default(),
+            pending: VecDeque::new(),
+            preserve_original: self.preserve_original,
+            split_on_numerics: self.split_on_numerics,
+            position_offset: 0,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Token stream produced by [`WordDelimiterFilterWrapper`].
+pub struct WordDelimiterTokenStream<T> {
+    tail: T,
+    current: Token,
+    pending: VecDeque<Token>,
+    preserve_original: bool,
+    split_on_numerics: bool,
+    position_offset: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct CharInfo {
+    offset: usize,
+    ch: char,
+}
+
+fn is_identifier_text(text: &str) -> bool {
+    text.chars().any(|ch| ch == '_' || ch.is_alphanumeric())
+}
+
+fn split_identifier(text: &str, split_on_numerics: bool) -> Vec<(usize, usize)> {
+    let mut pieces = Vec::new();
+    let mut segment_start = None;
+    for (offset, ch) in text.char_indices() {
+        if ch == '_' {
+            if let Some(start) = segment_start.take() {
+                split_segment(text, start, offset, split_on_numerics, &mut pieces);
+            }
+        } else if segment_start.is_none() {
+            segment_start = Some(offset);
+        }
+    }
+    if let Some(start) = segment_start {
+        split_segment(text, start, text.len(), split_on_numerics, &mut pieces);
+    }
+    pieces
+}
+
+fn split_segment(
+    text: &str,
+    start: usize,
+    end: usize,
+    split_on_numerics: bool,
+    pieces: &mut Vec<(usize, usize)>,
+) {
+    if start == end {
+        return;
+    }
+    let chars = text[start..end]
+        .char_indices()
+        .map(|(offset, ch)| CharInfo {
+            offset: start + offset,
+            ch,
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut piece_start = start;
+    for idx in 1..chars.len() {
+        if is_boundary(&chars, idx, split_on_numerics) {
+            pieces.push((piece_start, chars[idx].offset));
+            piece_start = chars[idx].offset;
+        }
+    }
+    pieces.push((piece_start, end));
+}
+
+fn is_boundary(chars: &[CharInfo], idx: usize, split_on_numerics: bool) -> bool {
+    let prev = chars[idx - 1].ch;
+    let cur = chars[idx].ch;
+    if split_on_numerics && prev.is_ascii_digit() != cur.is_ascii_digit() {
+        return true;
+    }
+    if prev.is_lowercase() && cur.is_uppercase() {
+        return true;
+    }
+    if prev.is_uppercase()
+        && cur.is_uppercase()
+        && chars
+            .get(idx + 1)
+            .is_some_and(|next| next.ch.is_lowercase())
+    {
+        return true;
+    }
+    false
+}
+
+impl<T: TokenStream> WordDelimiterTokenStream<T> {
+    fn refill(&mut self) -> bool {
+        while self.pending.is_empty() {
+            if !self.tail.advance() {
+                return false;
+            }
+            self.enqueue_current_tail_token();
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn enqueue_current_tail_token(&mut self) {
+        let token = self.tail.token();
+        let adjusted_position = token.position.saturating_add(self.position_offset);
+        if !is_identifier_text(&token.text) {
+            let mut token = token.clone();
+            token.position = adjusted_position;
+            self.pending.push_back(token);
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let parts = split_identifier(&token.text, self.split_on_numerics);
+        if parts.len() <= 1 {
+            let mut token = token.clone();
+            token.position = adjusted_position;
+            self.pending.push_back(token);
+            return;
+        }
+
+        if self.preserve_original {
+            let mut original = token.clone();
+            original.position = adjusted_position;
+            original.position_length = parts.len();
+            self.pending.push_back(original);
+        }
+
+        for (part_idx, (start, end)) in parts.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+            let mut part = token.clone();
+            part.offset_from = token.offset_from + start;
+            part.offset_to = token.offset_from + end;
+            part.position = adjusted_position + part_idx;
+            part.position_length = 1;
+            part.text.clear();
+            part.text.push_str(&token.text[start..end]);
+            self.pending.push_back(part);
+        }
+        self.position_offset += parts.len() - 1;
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: TokenStream> TokenStream for WordDelimiterTokenStream<T> {
+    fn advance(&mut self) -> bool {
+        if !self.refill() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        let Some(token) = self.pending.pop_front() else {
+            debug_assert!(false, "pending token should be available after refill");
+            return false;
+        };
+        self.current = token;
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn token(&self) -> &Token {
+        &self.current
+    }
+
+    fn token_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Token {
+        &mut self.current
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use crate::{CodeLexTokenizer, TextAnalyzer, Token, WordDelimiterFilter};
+
+    fn collect_tokens(text: &str) -> Vec<Token> {
+        let mut analyzer = TextAnalyzer::builder(CodeLexTokenizer::new(false))
+            .filter(WordDelimiterFilter::new(true, true))
+            .build();
+        let mut stream = analyzer.token_stream(text);
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        stream.process(&mut |token| tokens.push(token.clone()));
+        tokens
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_word_delimiter_code_identifiers() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("getUserName XMLHttpRequest parseHTML2JSON utf8_reader");
+        let texts = tokens
+            .iter()
+            .map(|token| token.text.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            texts,
+            vec![
+                "getUserName",
+                "get",
+                "User",
+                "Name",
+                "XMLHttpRequest",
+                "XML",
+                "Http",
+                "Request",
+                "parseHTML2JSON",
+                "parse",
+                "HTML",
+                "2",
+                "JSON",
+                "utf8_reader",
+                "utf",
+                "8",
+                "reader",
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_word_delimiter_positions_span_compounds() {
+        let tokens = collect_tokens("getUserName next");
+        let positions = tokens
+            .iter()
+            .map(|token| (token.text.as_str(), token.position, token.position_length))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            positions,
+            vec![
+                ("getUserName", 0, 3),
+                ("get", 0, 1),
+                ("User", 1, 1),
+                ("Name", 2, 1),
+                ("next", 3, 1),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance-tools/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance-tools/Cargo.toml
index b284e4a795c..440416ce8e7 100644
--- a/rust/lance-tools/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance-tools/Cargo.toml
@@ -21,6 +21,5 @@ lance-core.workspace = true
 lance-file.workspace = true
 lance-io.workspace = true
 object_store.workspace = true
-snafu.workspace = true
 tokio.workspace = true
 url.workspace = true
diff --git a/rust/lance-tools/src/main.rs b/rust/lance-tools/src/main.rs
index 4f599157cbf..c162f3ec805 100644
--- a/rust/lance-tools/src/main.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-tools/src/main.rs
@@ -50,13 +50,13 @@ fn install_panic_handler() {
         eprintln!("\n\x1b[31mPANIC{}: {}\x1b[0m", location, msg);
 
         // Print backtrace if available
-        if let Ok(var) = std::env::var("RUST_BACKTRACE") {
-            if var != "0" {
-                eprintln!(
-                    "\nBacktrace:\n{:?}",
-                    std::backtrace::Backtrace::force_capture()
-                );
-            }
+        if let Ok(var) = std::env::var("RUST_BACKTRACE")
+            && var != "0"
+        {
+            eprintln!(
+                "\nBacktrace:\n{:?}",
+                std::backtrace::Backtrace::force_capture()
+            );
         }
     }));
 }
@@ -64,7 +64,6 @@ fn install_panic_handler() {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use snafu::location;
 
     #[test]
     fn test_ok_lance_result_to_ok_std_result() {
@@ -73,9 +72,11 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_error_lance_result_to_error_std_result() {
-        assert!(lance_result_to_std_result::<()>(lance_core::Result::Err(
-            lance_core::Error::invalid_input("bad input", location!())
-        ))
-        .is_err());
+        assert!(
+            lance_result_to_std_result::<()>(lance_core::Result::Err(
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input("bad input")
+            ))
+            .is_err()
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance-tools/src/util.rs b/rust/lance-tools/src/util.rs
index 78bc5b2997c..b62b2e196e4 100644
--- a/rust/lance-tools/src/util.rs
+++ b/rust/lance-tools/src/util.rs
@@ -4,17 +4,16 @@
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use url::Url;
 
 fn path_to_parent(path: &Path) -> Result<(Path, String)> {
     let mut parts = path.parts().collect::<Vec<_>>();
     if parts.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!("Path {} is not a valid path to a file", path),
-            location!(),
-        ));
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Path {} is not a valid path to a file",
+            path
+        )));
     }
     let filename = parts.pop().unwrap().as_ref().to_owned();
     Ok((Path::from_iter(parts), filename))
@@ -22,22 +21,22 @@ fn path_to_parent(path: &Path) -> Result<(Path, String)> {
 
 /// Get an object store and a path from a source string.
 pub(crate) async fn get_object_store_and_path(source: &String) -> Result<(Arc<ObjectStore>, Path)> {
-    if let Ok(mut url) = Url::parse(source) {
-        if url.scheme().len() > 1 {
-            let path = object_store::path::Path::parse(url.path()).map_err(Error::from)?;
-            let (parent_path, filename) = path_to_parent(&path)?;
-            url.set_path(parent_path.as_ref());
-            let object_store_registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
-            let object_store_params = ObjectStoreParams::default();
-            let (object_store, dir_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
-                object_store_registry,
-                url.as_str(),
-                &object_store_params,
-            )
-            .await?;
-            let child_path = dir_path.child(filename);
-            return Ok((object_store, child_path));
-        }
+    if let Ok(mut url) = Url::parse(source)
+        && url.scheme().len() > 1
+    {
+        let path = object_store::path::Path::parse(url.path()).map_err(Error::from)?;
+        let (parent_path, filename) = path_to_parent(&path)?;
+        url.set_path(parent_path.as_ref());
+        let object_store_registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        let object_store_params = ObjectStoreParams::default();
+        let (object_store, dir_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            object_store_registry,
+            url.as_str(),
+            &object_store_params,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let child_path = dir_path.clone().join(filename);
+        return Ok((object_store, child_path));
     }
     let path = Path::from_filesystem_path(source)?;
     let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
diff --git a/rust/lance/Cargo.toml b/rust/lance/Cargo.toml
index 805906abcc2..5efb0547be9 100644
--- a/rust/lance/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/lance/Cargo.toml
@@ -12,10 +12,15 @@ keywords.workspace = true
 categories.workspace = true
 
 [package.metadata.docs.rs]
-features = []
+# Publish the feature-gated metrics catalogue; keep cloud backends off.
+features = ["metrics"]
 no-default-features = true
 
+[package.metadata.cargo-machete]
+ignored = ["tracing-chrome"]
+
 [dependencies]
+arc-swap = { workspace = true }
 lance-arrow = { workspace = true }
 lance-core = { workspace = true }
 lance-datafusion = { workspace = true }
@@ -25,11 +30,15 @@ lance-io = { workspace = true }
 lance-linalg = { workspace = true }
 lance-index = { workspace = true }
 lance-namespace = { workspace = true }
+lance-select = { workspace = true }
+lance-tokenizer = { workspace = true }
 lance-table = { workspace = true }
-lance-geo = { workspace = true }
+lance-bitpacking = { workspace = true }
+blake3 = { workspace = true }
 arrow-arith = { workspace = true }
 arrow-array = { workspace = true }
 arrow-buffer = { workspace = true }
+arrow-cast = { workspace = true }
 arrow-ipc = { workspace = true }
 arrow-ord = { workspace = true }
 arrow-row = { workspace = true }
@@ -40,17 +49,22 @@ async-trait.workspace = true
 byteorder.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
 chrono.workspace = true
-clap = { version = "4.1.1", features = ["derive"], optional = true }
+clap = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+# Only used by the (disabled) `mem_wal_kv_point_lookup` benchmark's RocksDB arm.
+# Commented out so CI's all-features build never compiles the bundled librocksdb
+# C++ sources (needs libclang). Uncomment with the bench target + feature to run.
+# rocksdb = { version = "0.23", optional = true, default-features = false }
+crossbeam-queue = { workspace = true }
 crossbeam-skiplist.workspace = true
 # This is already used by datafusion
-dashmap = "6"
-deepsize.workspace = true
-# matches arrow-rs use
-half.workspace = true
+dashmap.workspace = true
+# Fast non-cryptographic hasher for the hot FTS mem-index insert path.
+rustc-hash = "2.1"
+# Compact FST term dictionary for the FTS mem-index partitions.
+fst.workspace = true
 itertools.workspace = true
+moka.workspace = true
 object_store = { workspace = true }
-aws-credential-types.workspace = true
-aws-credential-types.optional = true
 pin-project.workspace = true
 prost.workspace = true
 prost-types.workspace = true
@@ -58,6 +72,7 @@ roaring.workspace = true
 tokio.workspace = true
 url.workspace = true
 rand.workspace = true
+rayon.workspace = true
 futures.workspace = true
 uuid.workspace = true
 arrow.workspace = true
@@ -68,15 +83,12 @@ datafusion-physical-expr.workspace = true
 datafusion-physical-plan.workspace = true
 datafusion-expr.workspace = true
 either.workspace = true
-lapack = { version = "0.19.0", optional = true }
 snafu = { workspace = true }
 log = { workspace = true }
 serde_json = { workspace = true }
 serde = { workspace = true }
-moka.workspace = true
 permutation = { version = "0.4.0" }
-tantivy.workspace = true
-aws-sdk-dynamodb = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+aws-sdk-dynamodb = { workspace = true, optional = true, default-features = false, features = ["default-https-client", "rt-tokio"] }
 tracing.workspace = true
 humantime = { workspace = true }
 async_cell = "0.2.2"
@@ -84,6 +96,10 @@ semver.workspace = true
 tokio-stream = { workspace = true }
 tokio-util = { workspace = true }
 
+[build-dependencies]
+prost-build.workspace = true
+protobuf-src = { workspace = true, optional = true }
+
 [target.'cfg(target_os = "linux")'.dev-dependencies]
 pprof.workspace = true
 # Need this so we can prevent dynamic linking in binaries (see cli feature)
@@ -92,33 +108,40 @@ lzma-sys = { version = "0.1" }
 [dev-dependencies]
 lance-test-macros = { workspace = true }
 lance-datagen = { workspace = true }
+lance-datafusion = { workspace = true, features = ["datagen"] }
 pretty_assertions = { workspace = true }
 libc = { workspace = true }
 clap = { workspace = true, features = ["derive"] }
 criterion = { workspace = true }
 approx.workspace = true
-dirs = "5.0.0"
-all_asserts = "2.3.1"
+all_asserts.workspace = true
 mock_instant.workspace = true
 lance-testing = { workspace = true }
 lance-io = { workspace = true, features = ["test-util"] }
+lance-index = { workspace = true, features = ["test-oracle"] }
 tracing-subscriber = { version = "0.3.17", features = ["env-filter"] }
-env_logger = "0.11.7"
+env_logger.workspace = true
 tempfile.workspace = true
 test-log.workspace = true
 tracing-chrome = "0.7.1"
 rstest = { workspace = true }
+serial_test = { workspace = true }
 tracking-allocator = { version = "0.4", features = ["tracing-compat"] }
-paste = "1.0"
 # For S3 / DynamoDB tests
 aws-config = { workspace = true }
-aws-sdk-s3 = { workspace = true }
+aws-credential-types = { workspace = true }
+aws-sdk-s3 = { workspace = true, default-features = false, features = ["default-https-client", "http-1x", "rt-tokio"] }
+half.workspace = true
 geoarrow-array = { workspace = true }
 geoarrow-schema = { workspace = true }
 geo-types = { workspace = true }
+datafusion-substrait = { workspace = true }
+parquet = { workspace = true }
+reqwest = { workspace = true, features = ["rustls-tls"] }
 
 [features]
-default = ["aws", "azure", "gcp", "oss", "huggingface", "tencent"]
+default = ["aws", "azure", "gcp", "oss", "huggingface", "tencent", "tos", "goosefs", "geo"]
+backtrace = ["lance-core/backtrace"]
 fp16kernels = ["lance-linalg/fp16kernels"]
 # Prevent dynamic linking of lzma, which comes from datafusion
 cli = ["dep:clap", "lzma-sys/static"]
@@ -126,32 +149,69 @@ dynamodb = ["lance-table/dynamodb", "dep:aws-sdk-dynamodb"]
 dynamodb_tests = ["dynamodb"]
 substrait = ["lance-datafusion/substrait"]
 protoc = [
+    "dep:protobuf-src",
     "lance-encoding/protoc",
     "lance-file/protoc",
     "lance-index/protoc",
     "lance-table/protoc",
 ]
-aws = ["lance-io/aws", "dep:aws-credential-types"]
+aws = ["lance-io/aws"]
 gcp = ["lance-io/gcp"]
 azure = ["lance-io/azure"]
 oss = ["lance-io/oss"]
 tencent = ["lance-io/tencent"]
+goosefs = ["lance-io/goosefs"]
+tos = ["lance-io/tos"]
 huggingface = ["lance-io/huggingface"]
+# Publish object store metrics via the `metrics` crate.
+metrics = ["lance-io/metrics"]
+geo = ["lance-datafusion/geo", "lance-index/geo"]
 # Enable slow integration tests (disabled by default in CI)
 slow_tests = []
+# Compile the RocksDB comparison arm of the (disabled) mem_wal_kv_point_lookup
+# bench. Commented out so it stays out of CI's all-features build.
+# bench-rocksdb = ["dep:rocksdb"]
 
 [[bin]]
 name = "lq"
 required-features = ["cli"]
 
+[[bin]]
+name = "fm_contains_bench"
+required-features = ["cli"]
+
+[[bin]]
+name = "fm_index_tool"
+required-features = ["cli"]
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "scalar_index"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "regex_ngram"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "merge_insert"
+harness = false
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "scan"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "s3_file_reader_diagnostics"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "count_pushdown"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "stable_row_id_limit"
+harness = false
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "vector_index"
 harness = false
@@ -160,10 +220,22 @@ harness = false
 name = "ivf_pq"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "nullable_vector_training"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "streaming_ivf_training"
+harness = false
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "take"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "take_blob"
+harness = false
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "random_access"
 harness = false
@@ -176,12 +248,97 @@ harness = false
 name = "vector_throughput"
 harness = false
 
+[[bench]]
+name = "distributed_vector_build"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "frag_reuse"
+harness = false
+
 [[bench]]
 name = "mem_wal_write"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_write.rs"
 harness = false
 
 [[bench]]
 name = "memtable_read"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/read/memtable_read.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_point_lookup_bench"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/point_lookup/mem_wal_point_lookup_bench.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_vector_bench"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/vector/mem_wal_vector_bench.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_replay"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_replay.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_index_micro"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/vector/mem_wal_index_micro.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_recall_hnsw"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_recall_hnsw.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_hnsw_bench"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_hnsw_bench.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_fineweb_fts"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fineweb_fts.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_fts_bench"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fts_bench.rs"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "mem_wal_fts_read_bench"
+path = "benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fts_read_bench.rs"
+harness = false
+
+# MemTable KV point-lookup benchmark (Lance vs RocksDB). Disabled as a build
+# target: it needs the optional `rocksdb` dep (bundled librocksdb C++, needs
+# libclang) which CI's all-features build can't compile. To run it, uncomment
+# this entry plus the `rocksdb` dependency and the `bench-rocksdb` feature.
+# [[bench]]
+# name = "mem_wal_kv_point_lookup"
+# path = "benches/mem_wal/kv/mem_wal_kv_point_lookup.rs"
+# harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "manifest_commit"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "rowid_spill"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "concurrent_append"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "hamming"
 harness = false
 
 [lints]
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/concurrent_append.rs b/rust/lance/benches/concurrent_append.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f0103626739
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/concurrent_append.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,453 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmark for concurrent-append throughput against S3 / S3 Express.
+//!
+//! Many writers append to the same dataset at once. The output measures how
+//! the version-hint optimization affects conflict resolution and overall
+//! commit rate as the version count grows. Designed to be run on a single
+//! large EC2 instance so the writer count itself isn't the bottleneck.
+//!
+//! ## Running against S3 Standard
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! export AWS_REGION=us-east-1
+//! export DATASET_URI=s3://jack-devland-build/bench/concurrent_append
+//! export NUM_WRITERS=64
+//! export APPENDS_PER_WRITER=200
+//! cargo bench --bench concurrent_append --release
+//! ```
+//!
+//! ## Running against S3 Express
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! export AWS_REGION=us-east-1
+//! export DATASET_URI=s3://jack-lancedb-devland--use1-az24--x-s3/bench/concurrent_append
+//! export NUM_WRITERS=64
+//! export APPENDS_PER_WRITER=200
+//! cargo bench --bench concurrent_append --release
+//! ```
+//!
+//! ## Configuration
+//!
+//! - `DATASET_URI`: base URI under which a uniquely-named dataset is created.
+//!   Required.
+//! - `NUM_WRITERS`: number of concurrent writers (default 64).
+//! - `APPENDS_PER_WRITER`: appends each writer attempts (default 200).
+//! - `ROWS_PER_APPEND`: rows per appended batch (default 100).
+//! - `BASE_ROWS`: rows in the initial table before concurrent writes begin
+//!   (default 100_000).
+//! - `KEEP_DATASET`: when set to `true`, leaves the dataset in place after
+//!   the run (default: deleted on S3, kept on local).
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams, builder::DatasetBuilder};
+use lance::session::Session;
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
+use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry, StorageOptionsAccessor};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::env;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const DEFAULT_NUM_WRITERS: usize = 64;
+const DEFAULT_APPENDS_PER_WRITER: usize = 200;
+const DEFAULT_ROWS_PER_APPEND: usize = 100;
+const DEFAULT_BASE_ROWS: usize = 100_000;
+
+fn env_usize(key: &str, default: usize) -> usize {
+    env::var(key)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(default)
+}
+
+fn env_bool(key: &str) -> bool {
+    env::var(key).map(|s| str_is_truthy(&s)).unwrap_or(false)
+}
+
+fn storage_label(uri: &str) -> &'static str {
+    if uri.contains("--x-s3") {
+        "s3express"
+    } else if uri.starts_with("s3://") {
+        "s3"
+    } else if uri.starts_with("gs://") {
+        "gcs"
+    } else if uri.starts_with("az://") {
+        "azure"
+    } else {
+        "local"
+    }
+}
+
+fn schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+        Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn batch(start_id: usize, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let ids = Int64Array::from_iter_values((start_id as i64)..((start_id + num_rows) as i64));
+    let names = StringArray::from_iter_values(
+        (start_id..(start_id + num_rows)).map(|i| format!("name_{i}")),
+    );
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(names)]).expect("build batch")
+}
+
+/// Storage options that turn on S3 Express when the URI advertises it.
+///
+/// S3 Express directory buckets don't support GetBucketLocation, so we also
+/// require the caller to set `AWS_REGION` and forward it explicitly.
+fn store_params_for(uri: &str) -> Option<ObjectStoreParams> {
+    if !uri.contains("--x-s3") {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let region = env::var("AWS_REGION")
+        .or_else(|_| env::var("AWS_DEFAULT_REGION"))
+        .expect("AWS_REGION is required when DATASET_URI points at S3 Express");
+    let storage_options: HashMap<String, String> =
+        [("s3_express", "true"), ("region", region.as_str())]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(k, v)| (k.to_string(), v.to_string()))
+            .collect();
+    Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+        storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+            storage_options,
+        ))),
+        ..Default::default()
+    })
+}
+
+fn write_params(session: Arc<Session>, store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>) -> WriteParams {
+    WriteParams {
+        mode: WriteMode::Append,
+        session: Some(session),
+        store_params,
+        skip_auto_cleanup: true,
+        ..Default::default()
+    }
+}
+
+async fn create_base_dataset(
+    uri: &str,
+    base_rows: usize,
+    rows_per_append: usize,
+    session: Arc<Session>,
+    store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+) -> Dataset {
+    // When `base_rows == 0` the dataset starts empty: one create commit with a
+    // zero-row batch so the writers begin at version 1 with no data.
+    let initial_rows = if base_rows == 0 {
+        0
+    } else {
+        rows_per_append.min(base_rows)
+    };
+    let initial = batch(0, initial_rows);
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial)], schema());
+    let create_params = WriteParams {
+        mode: WriteMode::Create,
+        session: Some(session.clone()),
+        store_params: store_params.clone(),
+        skip_auto_cleanup: true,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(create_params))
+        .await
+        .expect("create base dataset");
+
+    // Top up to BASE_ROWS in chunks so we don't allocate one huge batch.
+    let chunk = 10_000.min(base_rows);
+    let mut written = initial_rows;
+    while written < base_rows {
+        let to_write = chunk.min(base_rows - written);
+        let batch = batch(written, to_write);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema());
+        let params = write_params(session.clone(), store_params.clone());
+        dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params))
+            .await
+            .expect("seed appends");
+        written += to_write;
+    }
+    dataset
+}
+
+struct WriterStats {
+    successes: usize,
+    failures: usize,
+    latencies: Vec<Duration>,
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn run_writer(
+    writer_id: usize,
+    uri: String,
+    appends: usize,
+    rows_per_append: usize,
+    deadline: Option<Instant>,
+    per_attempt_timeout: Option<Duration>,
+    session: Arc<Session>,
+    store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+) -> WriterStats {
+    // Each writer keeps its own dataset handle; CommitBuilder rebases on
+    // conflict so we don't need to manually reload between appends.
+    let mut dataset = Arc::new(
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+            .with_session(session.clone())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .expect("writer load"),
+    );
+
+    let mut stats = WriterStats {
+        successes: 0,
+        failures: 0,
+        latencies: Vec::with_capacity(appends),
+    };
+
+    // Disjoint id ranges per writer so the data inserted is identifiable.
+    let id_base = 1_000_000 + writer_id * appends * rows_per_append;
+    for i in 0..appends {
+        if let Some(d) = deadline
+            && Instant::now() >= d
+        {
+            break;
+        }
+        let batch = batch(id_base + i * rows_per_append, rows_per_append);
+        let params = write_params(session.clone(), store_params.clone());
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        // Per-attempt cap keeps the slow-tail commits from extending the run
+        // far past the writer-side deadline at high concurrency.
+        let result = match per_attempt_timeout {
+            Some(t) => {
+                let ds = dataset.clone();
+                let params_ref = &params;
+                match tokio::time::timeout(t, async move {
+                    InsertBuilder::new(ds)
+                        .with_params(params_ref)
+                        .execute(vec![batch])
+                        .await
+                })
+                .await
+                {
+                    Ok(r) => r,
+                    Err(_) => Err(lance_core::Error::io_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::new(
+                        std::io::ErrorKind::TimedOut,
+                        "per-attempt timeout",
+                    )))),
+                }
+            }
+            None => {
+                InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+                    .with_params(&params)
+                    .execute(vec![batch])
+                    .await
+            }
+        };
+        let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+        match result {
+            Ok(new_ds) => {
+                stats.successes += 1;
+                stats.latencies.push(elapsed);
+                dataset = Arc::new(new_ds);
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                stats.failures += 1;
+                eprintln!("writer {writer_id} append {i} failed after {elapsed:?}: {e}");
+                // Reload and keep going so a single failure doesn't end the run.
+                dataset = Arc::new(
+                    DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+                        .with_session(session.clone())
+                        .load()
+                        .await
+                        .expect("writer reload after error"),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    stats
+}
+
+fn percentile(sorted: &[Duration], p: f64) -> Duration {
+    if sorted.is_empty() {
+        return Duration::ZERO;
+    }
+    let idx = ((sorted.len() as f64 - 1.0) * p).round() as usize;
+    sorted[idx.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+fn ms(d: Duration) -> f64 {
+    d.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0
+}
+
+fn bench_concurrent_append(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let dataset_base =
+        env::var("DATASET_URI").expect("DATASET_URI is required for concurrent_append bench");
+    let num_writers = env_usize("NUM_WRITERS", DEFAULT_NUM_WRITERS);
+    let appends_per_writer = env_usize("APPENDS_PER_WRITER", DEFAULT_APPENDS_PER_WRITER);
+    let rows_per_append = env_usize("ROWS_PER_APPEND", DEFAULT_ROWS_PER_APPEND);
+    let base_rows = env_usize("BASE_ROWS", DEFAULT_BASE_ROWS);
+    let keep_dataset = env_bool("KEEP_DATASET");
+    // Per-writer wall-clock budget. When non-zero, each writer stops looping
+    // once this many seconds have elapsed since the run started, even if it
+    // hasn't issued `APPENDS_PER_WRITER` commits yet. Lets us bound run time
+    // at high concurrency where conflict retries make commits arbitrarily slow.
+    let max_wall_secs = env_usize("MAX_WALL_SECS", 0);
+    // Per-attempt timeout. Caps any single commit attempt (including its
+    // internal retries) so the slow-tail of an under-contention commit doesn't
+    // extend the run past the writer deadline. 0 disables it.
+    let per_attempt_timeout_secs = env_usize("PER_ATTEMPT_TIMEOUT_SECS", 0);
+
+    let uri = format!(
+        "{}/concurrent_append_{}",
+        dataset_base.trim_end_matches('/'),
+        &Uuid::new_v4().to_string()[..8]
+    );
+    let label = storage_label(&uri);
+    let store_params = store_params_for(&uri);
+
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .expect("build tokio runtime");
+
+    println!("=== Concurrent Append Benchmark ===");
+    println!("Storage: {uri} ({label})");
+    println!(
+        "Writers: {num_writers}, appends/writer: {appends_per_writer}, rows/append: {rows_per_append}"
+    );
+    println!("Base rows: {base_rows}, keep_dataset: {keep_dataset}");
+    println!();
+
+    // Share one ObjectStoreRegistry so all writers reuse warm TCP/TLS sessions.
+    let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::new(0, 0, registry));
+
+    println!("Seeding base dataset ({base_rows} rows)...");
+    let seed_start = Instant::now();
+    let base_dataset = runtime.block_on(create_base_dataset(
+        &uri,
+        base_rows,
+        rows_per_append,
+        session.clone(),
+        store_params.clone(),
+    ));
+    let starting_version = base_dataset.manifest().version;
+    println!(
+        "Base dataset ready in {:.2}s at version {starting_version}",
+        seed_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64()
+    );
+
+    println!("Starting {num_writers} concurrent writers...");
+    let wall_start = Instant::now();
+    let deadline =
+        (max_wall_secs > 0).then(|| wall_start + Duration::from_secs(max_wall_secs as u64));
+    if let Some(d) = deadline {
+        println!(
+            "Per-writer wall budget: {max_wall_secs}s (deadline {:?} from now)",
+            d.duration_since(wall_start)
+        );
+    }
+    let per_attempt_timeout = (per_attempt_timeout_secs > 0)
+        .then(|| Duration::from_secs(per_attempt_timeout_secs as u64));
+    if let Some(t) = per_attempt_timeout {
+        println!("Per-attempt timeout: {:?}", t);
+    }
+    let all_stats: Vec<WriterStats> = runtime.block_on(async {
+        let mut tasks = Vec::with_capacity(num_writers);
+        for writer_id in 0..num_writers {
+            let uri = uri.clone();
+            let session = session.clone();
+            let store_params = store_params.clone();
+            tasks.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                run_writer(
+                    writer_id,
+                    uri,
+                    appends_per_writer,
+                    rows_per_append,
+                    deadline,
+                    per_attempt_timeout,
+                    session,
+                    store_params,
+                )
+                .await
+            }));
+        }
+        let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(num_writers);
+        for t in tasks {
+            out.push(t.await.expect("writer task panicked"));
+        }
+        out
+    });
+    let wall = wall_start.elapsed();
+
+    let total_attempts = all_stats
+        .iter()
+        .map(|s| s.successes + s.failures)
+        .sum::<usize>();
+    let total_success = all_stats.iter().map(|s| s.successes).sum::<usize>();
+    let total_failed = all_stats.iter().map(|s| s.failures).sum::<usize>();
+    let mut latencies: Vec<Duration> = all_stats
+        .into_iter()
+        .flat_map(|s| s.latencies.into_iter())
+        .collect();
+    latencies.sort();
+
+    let throughput = total_success as f64 / wall.as_secs_f64();
+
+    println!();
+    println!("=== Results ===");
+    println!("Wall time: {:.2}s", wall.as_secs_f64());
+    println!(
+        "Commits: {total_success} succeeded, {total_failed} failed out of {total_attempts} attempts"
+    );
+    println!("Throughput: {throughput:.2} commits/sec");
+    if !latencies.is_empty() {
+        let mean = latencies.iter().map(|d| d.as_secs_f64()).sum::<f64>() / latencies.len() as f64;
+        println!(
+            "Commit latency (per writer, includes any retries): \
+             p50={:.2}ms p90={:.2}ms p95={:.2}ms p99={:.2}ms max={:.2}ms mean={:.2}ms",
+            ms(percentile(&latencies, 0.50)),
+            ms(percentile(&latencies, 0.90)),
+            ms(percentile(&latencies, 0.95)),
+            ms(percentile(&latencies, 0.99)),
+            ms(*latencies.last().unwrap()),
+            mean * 1000.0,
+        );
+    }
+
+    let final_dataset = runtime.block_on(async {
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+            .with_session(session.clone())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .expect("final load")
+    });
+    println!(
+        "Final dataset version: {} (started at {})",
+        final_dataset.manifest().version,
+        starting_version
+    );
+
+    // Pin the numbers into criterion so they show up in regression tracking.
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group(format!("concurrent_append_{label}"));
+    group.bench_function("commits_per_sec", |b| b.iter(|| throughput));
+    group.bench_function("p50_ms", |b| b.iter(|| ms(percentile(&latencies, 0.50))));
+    group.bench_function("p99_ms", |b| b.iter(|| ms(percentile(&latencies, 0.99))));
+    group.finish();
+
+    if !keep_dataset && label == "local" {
+        let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&uri);
+        println!("Local dataset removed: {uri}");
+    } else {
+        println!("Dataset preserved: {uri}");
+    }
+}
+
+criterion_group!(benches, bench_concurrent_append);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/count_pushdown.rs b/rust/lance/benches/count_pushdown.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4f633d489dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/count_pushdown.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmarks for `COUNT(*)` via the scanner aggregate plan (the path the
+//! `count_pushdown` rule rewrites into `CountFromMaskExec`).
+//!
+//! The dataset uses stable row ids, multiple fragments, and scattered
+//! cross-fragment deletions, with a BTree scalar index on the filter column.
+//! Run on two revisions to compare (e.g. before/after a change to the rule):
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench count_pushdown
+//! ```
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::types::UInt32Type;
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::dataset::WriteParams;
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+
+const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 100_000;
+const NUM_FRAGMENTS: usize = 50;
+const TOTAL_ROWS: u32 = (ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT * NUM_FRAGMENTS) as u32; // 5,000,000
+
+struct Fixture {
+    _datadir: TempStrDir,
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+}
+
+impl Fixture {
+    async fn open() -> Self {
+        let datadir = TempStrDir::default();
+        // `value` steps 0..TOTAL_ROWS, so `value < k` selects exactly k rows
+        // (before deletions) and gives precise control over selectivity.
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                RowCount::from(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as u64),
+                BatchCount::from(NUM_FRAGMENTS as u32),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            datadir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Scatter deletions across every fragment (~1%) to exercise the
+        // deletion mask in stable-id space.
+        dataset.delete("value % 100 = 0").await.unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["value"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        Self {
+            _datadir: datadir,
+            dataset: Arc::new(dataset),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+async fn count_unfiltered(dataset: &Dataset) -> u64 {
+    dataset.scan().count_rows().await.unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn count_filtered(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str) -> u64 {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
+    scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap()
+}
+
+fn bench_count(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let fixture = rt.block_on(Fixture::open());
+    let ds = &fixture.dataset;
+
+    c.bench_function("count_unfiltered", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| rt.block_on(count_unfiltered(ds)))
+    });
+
+    // ~1% of rows match.
+    let filter_1pct = format!("value < {}", TOTAL_ROWS / 100);
+    c.bench_function("count_filtered_1pct", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| rt.block_on(count_filtered(ds, &filter_1pct)))
+    });
+
+    // ~50% of rows match.
+    let filter_50pct = format!("value < {}", TOTAL_ROWS / 2);
+    c.bench_function("count_filtered_50pct", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| rt.block_on(count_filtered(ds, &filter_50pct)))
+    });
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10)
+        .with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+    targets = bench_count);
+
+#[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
+    targets = bench_count);
+
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/distributed_vector_build.rs b/rust/lance/benches/distributed_vector_build.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1e66537c8b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/distributed_vector_build.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,452 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::fs;
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, types::Float32Type};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, FieldRef, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use criterion::{BatchSize, BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use serde::Serialize;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::{DatasetIndexExt, vector::VectorIndexParams};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_index::progress::noop_progress;
+use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{KMeansParams, train_kmeans};
+use lance_index::{
+    IndexType,
+    vector::{ivf::IvfBuildParams, pq::PQBuildParams},
+};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+use tokio::runtime::Runtime;
+
+const NUM_FRAGMENTS: usize = 128;
+const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 1024;
+const DIM: i32 = 128;
+const NUM_SUB_VECTORS: usize = 16;
+const NUM_BITS: usize = 8;
+const MAX_ITERS: usize = 20;
+const SAMPLE_RATE: usize = 8;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+struct BenchCase {
+    num_shards: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+}
+
+impl BenchCase {
+    fn label(&self) -> String {
+        format!(
+            "pq_shards_{}_partitions_{}",
+            self.num_shards, self.num_partitions
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+struct MergeFixture {
+    index_dir: PathBuf,
+    partial_aux_bytes: u64,
+    partial_dir_count: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
+struct CaseMetadata {
+    label: String,
+    num_shards: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    partial_dir_count: usize,
+    partial_aux_bytes: u64,
+    partial_aux_bytes_per_shard: u64,
+    total_rows: usize,
+    rows_per_shard: usize,
+}
+
+fn dataset_root() -> PathBuf {
+    std::env::temp_dir().join(format!(
+        "lance_bench_distributed_build_{}_{}_{}",
+        NUM_FRAGMENTS, ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, DIM
+    ))
+}
+
+fn dataset_uri() -> String {
+    format!("file://{}", dataset_root().display())
+}
+
+fn workspace_root() -> PathBuf {
+    PathBuf::from(env!("CARGO_MANIFEST_DIR"))
+        .ancestors()
+        .nth(2)
+        .unwrap()
+        .to_path_buf()
+}
+
+fn criterion_group_root() -> PathBuf {
+    workspace_root()
+        .join("target")
+        .join("criterion")
+        .join("distributed_merge_only_ivf_pq")
+}
+
+fn bench_cases() -> [BenchCase; 6] {
+    [
+        BenchCase {
+            num_shards: 8,
+            num_partitions: 256,
+        },
+        BenchCase {
+            num_shards: 32,
+            num_partitions: 256,
+        },
+        BenchCase {
+            num_shards: 128,
+            num_partitions: 256,
+        },
+        BenchCase {
+            num_shards: 8,
+            num_partitions: 1024,
+        },
+        BenchCase {
+            num_shards: 32,
+            num_partitions: 1024,
+        },
+        BenchCase {
+            num_shards: 128,
+            num_partitions: 1024,
+        },
+    ]
+}
+
+fn fixture_uuid(bench_case: BenchCase) -> Uuid {
+    Uuid::from_u128(
+        0x733a_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000
+            | ((bench_case.num_shards as u128) << 64)
+            | bench_case.num_partitions as u128,
+    )
+}
+
+fn working_uuid(bench_case: BenchCase) -> Uuid {
+    Uuid::from_u128(
+        0x733b_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000
+            | ((bench_case.num_shards as u128) << 64)
+            | bench_case.num_partitions as u128,
+    )
+}
+
+fn create_batches() -> (Arc<ArrowSchema>, Vec<RecordBatch>) {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "vector",
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            FieldRef::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            DIM,
+        ),
+        false,
+    )]));
+
+    let batches = (0..NUM_FRAGMENTS)
+        .map(|_| {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        generate_random_array(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT * DIM as usize),
+                        DIM,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                )],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    (schema, batches)
+}
+
+async fn create_or_open_dataset() -> Dataset {
+    let uri = dataset_uri();
+    if let Ok(dataset) = Dataset::open(&uri).await
+        && dataset.get_fragments().len() == NUM_FRAGMENTS
+    {
+        return dataset;
+    }
+
+    let dataset_path = dataset_root();
+    if dataset_path.exists() {
+        fs::remove_dir_all(&dataset_path).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let (schema, batches) = create_batches();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        max_rows_per_group: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), NUM_FRAGMENTS);
+    dataset
+}
+
+async fn train_shared_ivf_pq(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+) -> (IvfBuildParams, PQBuildParams) {
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["vector".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let vectors = batch.column_by_name("vector").unwrap().as_fixed_size_list();
+    let dim = vectors.value_length() as usize;
+    let values = vectors.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+
+    let kmeans = train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(
+        values,
+        KMeansParams::new(None, MAX_ITERS as u32, 1, DistanceType::L2),
+        dim,
+        num_partitions,
+        SAMPLE_RATE,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let centroids = Arc::new(
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone(),
+            dim as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    let mut ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(num_partitions, centroids).unwrap();
+    ivf_params.max_iters = MAX_ITERS;
+    ivf_params.sample_rate = SAMPLE_RATE;
+
+    let mut pq_train_params = PQBuildParams::new(NUM_SUB_VECTORS, NUM_BITS);
+    pq_train_params.max_iters = MAX_ITERS;
+    pq_train_params.sample_rate = SAMPLE_RATE;
+
+    let pq = pq_train_params.build(vectors, DistanceType::L2).unwrap();
+    let codebook: ArrayRef = Arc::new(pq.codebook.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone());
+
+    let mut pq_params = PQBuildParams::with_codebook(NUM_SUB_VECTORS, NUM_BITS, codebook);
+    pq_params.max_iters = MAX_ITERS;
+    pq_params.sample_rate = SAMPLE_RATE;
+
+    (ivf_params, pq_params)
+}
+
+fn contiguous_fragment_groups(dataset: &Dataset, num_shards: usize) -> Vec<Vec<u32>> {
+    assert_eq!(NUM_FRAGMENTS % num_shards, 0);
+    let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+    let group_size = fragments.len() / num_shards;
+    fragments
+        .chunks(group_size)
+        .map(|group| {
+            group
+                .iter()
+                .map(|frag| frag.id() as u32)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+async fn build_partial_fixture(dataset: &mut Dataset, bench_case: BenchCase) -> MergeFixture {
+    let fixture_uuid = fixture_uuid(bench_case);
+    let index_dir = dataset_root()
+        .join("_indices")
+        .join(fixture_uuid.to_string());
+
+    if has_partial_dirs(&index_dir) {
+        return MergeFixture {
+            partial_aux_bytes: sum_partial_auxiliary_bytes(&index_dir),
+            partial_dir_count: count_partial_dirs(&index_dir),
+            index_dir,
+        };
+    }
+
+    if index_dir.exists() {
+        fs::remove_dir_all(&index_dir).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let fragment_groups = contiguous_fragment_groups(dataset, bench_case.num_shards);
+    let (ivf_params, pq_params) =
+        Box::pin(train_shared_ivf_pq(dataset, bench_case.num_partitions)).await;
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params);
+
+    for fragments in fragment_groups {
+        let mut builder = dataset.create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params);
+        builder = builder
+            .name("distributed_merge_only".to_string())
+            .fragments(fragments)
+            .index_uuid(fixture_uuid);
+        Box::pin(builder.execute_uncommitted()).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    MergeFixture {
+        partial_aux_bytes: sum_partial_auxiliary_bytes(&index_dir),
+        partial_dir_count: count_partial_dirs(&index_dir),
+        index_dir,
+    }
+}
+
+fn has_partial_dirs(index_dir: &Path) -> bool {
+    fs::read_dir(index_dir)
+        .ok()
+        .into_iter()
+        .flatten()
+        .flatten()
+        .any(|entry| {
+            entry.file_type().map(|t| t.is_dir()).unwrap_or(false)
+                && entry.file_name().to_string_lossy().starts_with("partial_")
+        })
+}
+
+fn count_partial_dirs(index_dir: &Path) -> usize {
+    fs::read_dir(index_dir)
+        .unwrap()
+        .flatten()
+        .filter(|entry| {
+            entry.file_type().map(|t| t.is_dir()).unwrap_or(false)
+                && entry.file_name().to_string_lossy().starts_with("partial_")
+        })
+        .count()
+}
+
+fn sum_partial_auxiliary_bytes(index_dir: &Path) -> u64 {
+    fs::read_dir(index_dir)
+        .unwrap()
+        .flatten()
+        .filter(|entry| {
+            entry.file_type().map(|t| t.is_dir()).unwrap_or(false)
+                && entry.file_name().to_string_lossy().starts_with("partial_")
+        })
+        .map(|entry| entry.path().join("auxiliary.idx"))
+        .filter_map(|path| fs::metadata(path).ok())
+        .map(|metadata| metadata.len())
+        .sum()
+}
+
+fn copy_dir_recursive(source: &Path, target: &Path) {
+    fs::create_dir_all(target).unwrap();
+    for entry in fs::read_dir(source).unwrap().flatten() {
+        let source_path = entry.path();
+        let target_path = target.join(entry.file_name());
+        let file_type = entry.file_type().unwrap();
+        if file_type.is_dir() {
+            copy_dir_recursive(&source_path, &target_path);
+        } else {
+            fs::copy(&source_path, &target_path).unwrap();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn prepare_iteration_target(source: &Path, target: &Path) {
+    if target.exists() {
+        fs::remove_dir_all(target).unwrap();
+    }
+    copy_dir_recursive(source, target);
+}
+
+fn write_case_metadata(fixtures: &[(BenchCase, MergeFixture)]) {
+    let output_dir = criterion_group_root();
+    fs::create_dir_all(&output_dir).unwrap();
+    let metadata = fixtures
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(bench_case, fixture)| CaseMetadata {
+            label: bench_case.label(),
+            num_shards: bench_case.num_shards,
+            num_partitions: bench_case.num_partitions,
+            partial_dir_count: fixture.partial_dir_count,
+            partial_aux_bytes: fixture.partial_aux_bytes,
+            partial_aux_bytes_per_shard: fixture.partial_aux_bytes
+                / fixture.partial_dir_count as u64,
+            total_rows: NUM_FRAGMENTS * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+            rows_per_shard: (NUM_FRAGMENTS * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT) / bench_case.num_shards,
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let payload = serde_json::to_vec_pretty(&metadata).unwrap();
+    fs::write(output_dir.join("case_metadata.json"), payload).unwrap();
+}
+
+fn bench_distributed_merge_only(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = rt.block_on(create_or_open_dataset());
+    let mut fixtures = Vec::new();
+
+    for bench_case in bench_cases() {
+        fixtures.push((
+            bench_case,
+            rt.block_on(build_partial_fixture(&mut dataset, bench_case)),
+        ));
+    }
+    write_case_metadata(&fixtures);
+
+    let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("distributed_merge_only_ivf_pq");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+
+    for (bench_case, fixture) in fixtures {
+        let target_uuid = working_uuid(bench_case);
+        let target_index_dir_fs = dataset_root()
+            .join("_indices")
+            .join(target_uuid.to_string());
+        let source_index_dir_fs = fixture.index_dir.clone();
+
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Bytes(fixture.partial_aux_bytes));
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("finalize_only", bench_case.label()),
+            &bench_case,
+            |b, _| {
+                let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                let target_index_dir_fs = target_index_dir_fs.clone();
+                let source_index_dir_fs = source_index_dir_fs.clone();
+                b.iter_batched(
+                    || prepare_iteration_target(&source_index_dir_fs, &target_index_dir_fs),
+                    |_| {
+                        rt.block_on(dataset.merge_index_metadata(
+                            &target_uuid,
+                            IndexType::IvfPq,
+                            None,
+                            noop_progress(),
+                        ))
+                        .unwrap();
+                    },
+                    BatchSize::PerIteration,
+                );
+            },
+        );
+    }
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default()
+        .significance_level(0.1)
+        .sample_size(10)
+        .with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+    targets = bench_distributed_merge_only
+);
+
+#[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
+    targets = bench_distributed_merge_only
+);
+
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/frag_reuse.rs b/rust/lance/benches/frag_reuse.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..de4adc01c01
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/frag_reuse.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,826 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Reproducible comparison of the legacy per-row FRI maps and the compact
+//! bitmap/rank representation.
+//!
+//! This benchmark starts from the same decoded `FragReuseIndexDetails` for
+//! both implementations. The open measurement includes Roaring deserialization
+//! and construction of the queryable runtime representation, but excludes
+//! object-store I/O and protobuf decoding. Pass `--storage-uri` to additionally
+//! measure external FRI detail fetch, protobuf decode, and runtime open on local
+//! storage or an object store such as S3.
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::io::Cursor;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use lance::dataset::optimize::remapping::transpose_row_ids_from_digest;
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::{
+    CompactFragReuseIndex, FragDigest, FragReuseGroup, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion,
+};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore as LanceObjectStore;
+use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::InlineContent;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use prost::Message;
+use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+use serde_json::json;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const EXTERNAL_DETAILS_THRESHOLD: usize = 204_800;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct Case {
+    name: &'static str,
+    rows: usize,
+    changed_basis_points: u32,
+    chain_len: usize,
+    old_fragment_count: usize,
+    groups_per_version: usize,
+}
+
+struct Config {
+    repeats: usize,
+    lookups: usize,
+    batch_size: usize,
+    storage_repeats: usize,
+    storage_uri: Option<String>,
+    quick: bool,
+}
+
+struct StorageTarget {
+    kind: &'static str,
+    store: Arc<LanceObjectStore>,
+    base_path: Path,
+}
+
+struct LegacyFragReuseIndex {
+    row_id_maps: Vec<HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>>,
+    details: FragReuseIndexDetails,
+}
+
+impl LegacyFragReuseIndex {
+    fn open(details: &FragReuseIndexDetails) -> Self {
+        let mut row_id_maps = Vec::with_capacity(details.versions.len());
+        for version in &details.versions {
+            let mut row_id_map = HashMap::new();
+            for group in &version.groups {
+                let changed_row_addrs =
+                    RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(Cursor::new(&group.changed_row_addrs))
+                        .unwrap();
+                row_id_map.extend(transpose_row_ids_from_digest(
+                    changed_row_addrs,
+                    &group.old_frags,
+                    &group.new_frags,
+                ));
+            }
+            row_id_maps.push(row_id_map);
+        }
+        Self {
+            row_id_maps,
+            details: details.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Option<u64> {
+        let mut mapped = Some(row_id);
+        for row_id_map in &self.row_id_maps {
+            if let Some(current) = mapped {
+                mapped = row_id_map.get(&current).copied().unwrap_or(mapped);
+            }
+        }
+        mapped
+    }
+
+    fn remap_row_ids_in_place(&self, row_ids: &mut [Option<u64>]) {
+        for row_id in row_ids {
+            if let Some(current) = *row_id {
+                *row_id = self.remap_row_id(current);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for LegacyFragReuseIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.row_id_maps.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.details.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() {
+    let config = parse_config();
+    let cases = if config.quick {
+        vec![Case {
+            name: "quick",
+            rows: 100_000,
+            changed_basis_points: 5_000,
+            chain_len: 2,
+            old_fragment_count: 16,
+            groups_per_version: 2,
+        }]
+    } else {
+        vec![
+            Case {
+                name: "small_very_sparse",
+                rows: 100_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 10,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 16,
+                groups_per_version: 1,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "small_sparse",
+                rows: 100_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 100,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 16,
+                groups_per_version: 1,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "medium_density_5",
+                rows: 1_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 500,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 64,
+                groups_per_version: 8,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "medium_sparse_chain",
+                rows: 1_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 1_000,
+                chain_len: 4,
+                old_fragment_count: 64,
+                groups_per_version: 8,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "medium_density_25",
+                rows: 1_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 2_500,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 64,
+                groups_per_version: 8,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "medium_balanced",
+                rows: 1_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 5_000,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 64,
+                groups_per_version: 8,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "medium_density_75",
+                rows: 1_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 7_500,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 64,
+                groups_per_version: 8,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "medium_dense",
+                rows: 1_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 9_000,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 64,
+                groups_per_version: 8,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "medium_density_99",
+                rows: 1_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 9_900,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 64,
+                groups_per_version: 8,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "fragmented_sparse",
+                rows: 1_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 100,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 4_096,
+                groups_per_version: 256,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "fragmented_dense_chain",
+                rows: 500_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 9_000,
+                chain_len: 4,
+                old_fragment_count: 1_024,
+                groups_per_version: 128,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "long_dense_chain",
+                rows: 250_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 9_000,
+                chain_len: 8,
+                old_fragment_count: 128,
+                groups_per_version: 16,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "large_sparse",
+                rows: 10_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 100,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 128,
+                groups_per_version: 16,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "large_balanced_chain",
+                rows: 5_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 5_000,
+                chain_len: 4,
+                old_fragment_count: 256,
+                groups_per_version: 32,
+            },
+            Case {
+                name: "large_dense",
+                rows: 5_000_000,
+                changed_basis_points: 9_000,
+                chain_len: 1,
+                old_fragment_count: 128,
+                groups_per_version: 16,
+            },
+        ]
+    };
+
+    let storage = match config.storage_uri.as_deref() {
+        Some(uri) => Some(StorageTarget::open(uri).await),
+        None => None,
+    };
+
+    println!(
+        "{}",
+        json!({
+            "type": "environment",
+            "os": std::env::consts::OS,
+            "arch": std::env::consts::ARCH,
+            "repeats": config.repeats,
+            "lookups": config.lookups,
+            "batch_size": config.batch_size,
+            "storage_repeats": config.storage_repeats,
+            "storage_kind": storage.as_ref().map(|target| target.kind),
+            "unaffected_query_percent": 10,
+            "profile": "cargo bench (release)",
+            "memory_metric": "DeepSizeOf retained-bytes proxy; retained Roaring containers use serialized_size",
+        })
+    );
+
+    for case in cases {
+        run_case(case, &config, storage.as_ref()).await;
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_config() -> Config {
+    let mut config = Config {
+        repeats: 30,
+        lookups: 200_000,
+        batch_size: 65_536,
+        storage_repeats: 10,
+        storage_uri: None,
+        quick: false,
+    };
+    let mut args = std::env::args().skip(1);
+    while let Some(arg) = args.next() {
+        match arg.as_str() {
+            // `cargo bench` passes this libtest-compatible marker even for a
+            // custom harness.
+            "--bench" => {}
+            "--quick" => {
+                config.quick = true;
+                config.repeats = 5;
+                config.lookups = 20_000;
+                config.batch_size = 8_192;
+                config.storage_repeats = 3;
+            }
+            "--repeats" => config.repeats = parse_value(&mut args, "--repeats"),
+            "--lookups" => config.lookups = parse_value(&mut args, "--lookups"),
+            "--batch-size" => config.batch_size = parse_value(&mut args, "--batch-size"),
+            "--storage-repeats" => {
+                config.storage_repeats = parse_value(&mut args, "--storage-repeats")
+            }
+            "--storage-uri" => {
+                config.storage_uri = Some(
+                    args.next()
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("--storage-uri requires a URI")),
+                )
+            }
+            other => panic!("unknown argument: {other}"),
+        }
+    }
+    assert!(config.repeats > 0, "--repeats must be greater than zero");
+    assert!(config.lookups > 0, "--lookups must be greater than zero");
+    assert!(
+        config.batch_size > 0,
+        "--batch-size must be greater than zero"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        config.storage_repeats > 0,
+        "--storage-repeats must be greater than zero"
+    );
+    config
+}
+
+fn parse_value(args: &mut impl Iterator<Item = String>, name: &str) -> usize {
+    args.next()
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("{name} requires a value"))
+        .parse()
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| panic!("{name} requires a positive integer"))
+}
+
+async fn run_case(case: Case, config: &Config, storage: Option<&StorageTarget>) {
+    let (details, baseline_frags) = generate_details(case);
+    let queries = sample_queries(&baseline_frags, config.lookups);
+    let random_batch = queries
+        .iter()
+        .take(config.batch_size)
+        .copied()
+        .map(Some)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut fragment_grouped_batch = random_batch.clone();
+    fragment_grouped_batch.sort_by_key(|row_id| row_id.map(|row_id| row_id >> 32));
+    let mut monotonic_batch = random_batch.clone();
+    monotonic_batch.sort_unstable();
+
+    let legacy = LegacyFragReuseIndex::open(&details);
+    let compact =
+        CompactFragReuseIndex::try_new(Uuid::nil(), details.clone()).expect("valid benchmark FRI");
+    for row_id in &queries {
+        assert_eq!(
+            legacy.remap_row_id(*row_id),
+            compact.remap_row_id(*row_id),
+            "legacy and compact semantics differ for case {} at row address {}",
+            case.name,
+            row_id
+        );
+    }
+
+    emit_memory(case, "legacy_hash_map", legacy.deep_size_of());
+    emit_memory(case, "compact_rank", compact.deep_size_of());
+
+    // Warm allocator and code paths before collecting samples.
+    black_box(LegacyFragReuseIndex::open(&details));
+    black_box(CompactFragReuseIndex::try_new(Uuid::nil(), details.clone()).unwrap());
+
+    let legacy_open = measure(config.repeats, || {
+        black_box(LegacyFragReuseIndex::open(black_box(&details)));
+    });
+    let compact_open = measure(config.repeats, || {
+        black_box(CompactFragReuseIndex::try_new(Uuid::nil(), black_box(details.clone())).unwrap());
+    });
+    emit_timing(case, "open_ns", "legacy_hash_map", 1, legacy_open);
+    emit_timing(case, "open_ns", "compact_rank", 1, compact_open);
+
+    let legacy_lookup = measure(config.repeats, || {
+        for row_id in &queries {
+            black_box(legacy.remap_row_id(black_box(*row_id)));
+        }
+    });
+    let compact_lookup = measure(config.repeats, || {
+        for row_id in &queries {
+            black_box(compact.remap_row_id(black_box(*row_id)));
+        }
+    });
+    emit_timing(
+        case,
+        "single_lookup_ns_per_row",
+        "legacy_hash_map",
+        queries.len(),
+        legacy_lookup,
+    );
+    emit_timing(
+        case,
+        "single_lookup_ns_per_row",
+        "compact_rank",
+        queries.len(),
+        compact_lookup,
+    );
+
+    measure_batch_order(
+        case,
+        config.repeats,
+        "batch_random_ns_per_row",
+        &random_batch,
+        &legacy,
+        &compact,
+    );
+    measure_batch_order(
+        case,
+        config.repeats,
+        "batch_fragment_grouped_ns_per_row",
+        &fragment_grouped_batch,
+        &legacy,
+        &compact,
+    );
+    measure_batch_order(
+        case,
+        config.repeats,
+        "batch_monotonic_ns_per_row",
+        &monotonic_batch,
+        &legacy,
+        &compact,
+    );
+
+    if let Some(storage) = storage {
+        storage
+            .benchmark_external_open(case, &details, config.storage_repeats)
+            .await;
+    }
+}
+
+fn measure_batch_order(
+    case: Case,
+    repeats: usize,
+    metric: &str,
+    batch_source: &[Option<u64>],
+    legacy: &LegacyFragReuseIndex,
+    compact: &CompactFragReuseIndex,
+) {
+    let legacy_batch = measure(repeats, || {
+        let mut batch = batch_source.to_vec();
+        legacy.remap_row_ids_in_place(black_box(&mut batch));
+        black_box(batch);
+    });
+    let compact_batch = measure(repeats, || {
+        let mut batch = batch_source.to_vec();
+        compact.remap_row_ids_in_place(black_box(&mut batch));
+        black_box(batch);
+    });
+    emit_timing(
+        case,
+        metric,
+        "legacy_hash_map",
+        batch_source.len(),
+        legacy_batch,
+    );
+    emit_timing(
+        case,
+        metric,
+        "compact_rank",
+        batch_source.len(),
+        compact_batch,
+    );
+}
+
+impl StorageTarget {
+    async fn open(uri: &str) -> Self {
+        let (store, base_path) = LanceObjectStore::from_uri(uri)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_or_else(|error| panic!("failed to open benchmark storage URI {uri}: {error}"));
+        let kind = if uri.starts_with("s3://") {
+            "s3"
+        } else if uri.starts_with("file://") || !uri.contains("://") {
+            "local"
+        } else {
+            "object_store"
+        };
+        Self {
+            kind,
+            store,
+            base_path,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn benchmark_external_open(
+        &self,
+        case: Case,
+        details: &FragReuseIndexDetails,
+        repeats: usize,
+    ) {
+        let encoded = InlineContent::from(details).encode_to_vec();
+        if encoded.len() <= EXTERNAL_DETAILS_THRESHOLD {
+            println!(
+                "{}",
+                json!({
+                    "type": "storage_skip",
+                    "case": case.name,
+                    "storage": self.kind,
+                    "encoded_bytes": encoded.len(),
+                    "reason": "FRI details remain inline at the production external-file threshold",
+                })
+            );
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let path = self
+            .base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(format!("{}.details.binpb", case.name));
+        let mut writer = self.store.create(&path).await.unwrap_or_else(|error| {
+            panic!(
+                "failed to create {} benchmark object {}: {error}",
+                self.kind, path
+            )
+        });
+        writer.write_all(&encoded).await.unwrap_or_else(|error| {
+            panic!(
+                "failed to write {} benchmark object {}: {error}",
+                self.kind, path
+            )
+        });
+        writer.shutdown().await.unwrap_or_else(|error| {
+            panic!(
+                "failed to finish {} benchmark object {}: {error}",
+                self.kind, path
+            )
+        });
+
+        let loaded = self.load_details(&path, encoded.len()).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            &loaded, details,
+            "{} storage roundtrip changed FRI details for case {}",
+            self.kind, case.name
+        );
+
+        let mut legacy_samples = Vec::with_capacity(repeats);
+        let mut compact_samples = Vec::with_capacity(repeats);
+        for repeat in 0..repeats {
+            if repeat % 2 == 0 {
+                legacy_samples.push(self.measure_legacy_open(&path, encoded.len()).await);
+                compact_samples.push(self.measure_compact_open(&path, encoded.len()).await);
+            } else {
+                compact_samples.push(self.measure_compact_open(&path, encoded.len()).await);
+                legacy_samples.push(self.measure_legacy_open(&path, encoded.len()).await);
+            }
+        }
+        emit_storage_timing(
+            case,
+            self.kind,
+            encoded.len(),
+            "legacy_hash_map",
+            legacy_samples,
+        );
+        emit_storage_timing(
+            case,
+            self.kind,
+            encoded.len(),
+            "compact_rank",
+            compact_samples,
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn load_details(&self, path: &Path, encoded_len: usize) -> FragReuseIndexDetails {
+        let data = self
+            .store
+            .open(path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_or_else(|error| panic!("failed to open {} object {path}: {error}", self.kind))
+            .get_range(0..encoded_len)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_or_else(|error| panic!("failed to read {} object {path}: {error}", self.kind));
+        let content = InlineContent::decode(data).unwrap_or_else(|error| {
+            panic!("failed to decode {} FRI details {path}: {error}", self.kind)
+        });
+        FragReuseIndexDetails::try_from(content).unwrap_or_else(|error| {
+            panic!(
+                "failed to convert {} FRI details {path}: {error}",
+                self.kind
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn measure_legacy_open(&self, path: &Path, encoded_len: usize) -> u128 {
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let details = self.load_details(path, encoded_len).await;
+        black_box(LegacyFragReuseIndex::open(&details));
+        start.elapsed().as_nanos()
+    }
+
+    async fn measure_compact_open(&self, path: &Path, encoded_len: usize) -> u128 {
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let details = self.load_details(path, encoded_len).await;
+        black_box(
+            CompactFragReuseIndex::try_new(Uuid::nil(), details)
+                .expect("valid stored benchmark FRI"),
+        );
+        start.elapsed().as_nanos()
+    }
+}
+
+fn measure(mut repeats: usize, mut operation: impl FnMut()) -> Vec<u128> {
+    let mut samples = Vec::with_capacity(repeats);
+    while repeats > 0 {
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        operation();
+        samples.push(start.elapsed().as_nanos());
+        repeats -= 1;
+    }
+    samples
+}
+
+fn emit_memory(case: Case, implementation: &str, bytes: usize) {
+    println!(
+        "{}",
+        json!({
+            "type": "memory",
+            "case": case.name,
+            "rows": case.rows,
+            "changed_basis_points": case.changed_basis_points,
+            "chain_len": case.chain_len,
+            "old_fragment_count": case.old_fragment_count,
+            "groups_per_version": case.groups_per_version,
+            "implementation": implementation,
+            "retained_bytes_proxy": bytes,
+        })
+    );
+}
+
+fn emit_timing(
+    case: Case,
+    metric: &str,
+    implementation: &str,
+    operations: usize,
+    samples_ns: Vec<u128>,
+) {
+    let mut normalized = samples_ns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|sample| *sample as f64 / operations as f64)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    normalized.sort_by(f64::total_cmp);
+    println!(
+        "{}",
+        json!({
+            "type": "timing",
+            "case": case.name,
+            "rows": case.rows,
+            "changed_basis_points": case.changed_basis_points,
+            "chain_len": case.chain_len,
+            "old_fragment_count": case.old_fragment_count,
+            "groups_per_version": case.groups_per_version,
+            "implementation": implementation,
+            "metric": metric,
+            "operations_per_sample": operations,
+            "repeats": samples_ns.len(),
+            "p50": percentile(&normalized, 0.50),
+            "p99": percentile(&normalized, 0.99),
+            "raw_total_ns": samples_ns,
+        })
+    );
+}
+
+fn emit_storage_timing(
+    case: Case,
+    storage: &str,
+    encoded_bytes: usize,
+    implementation: &str,
+    samples_ns: Vec<u128>,
+) {
+    let mut normalized = samples_ns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|sample| *sample as f64)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    normalized.sort_by(f64::total_cmp);
+    println!(
+        "{}",
+        json!({
+            "type": "storage_timing",
+            "case": case.name,
+            "rows": case.rows,
+            "changed_basis_points": case.changed_basis_points,
+            "chain_len": case.chain_len,
+            "old_fragment_count": case.old_fragment_count,
+            "groups_per_version": case.groups_per_version,
+            "storage": storage,
+            "encoded_bytes": encoded_bytes,
+            "implementation": implementation,
+            "metric": "external_details_fetch_decode_open_ns",
+            "operations_per_sample": 1,
+            "repeats": samples_ns.len(),
+            "p50": percentile(&normalized, 0.50),
+            "p99": percentile(&normalized, 0.99),
+            "raw_total_ns": samples_ns,
+        })
+    );
+}
+
+fn percentile(sorted: &[f64], percentile: f64) -> f64 {
+    let index = ((sorted.len() as f64 * percentile).ceil() as usize)
+        .saturating_sub(1)
+        .min(sorted.len() - 1);
+    sorted[index]
+}
+
+fn generate_details(case: Case) -> (FragReuseIndexDetails, Vec<FragDigest>) {
+    let mut next_fragment_id = 1u64;
+    let mut old_frags = distribute_rows(case.rows, case.old_fragment_count, &mut next_fragment_id);
+    let baseline_frags = old_frags.clone();
+    let mut versions = Vec::with_capacity(case.chain_len);
+
+    for version_idx in 0..case.chain_len {
+        let mut groups = Vec::new();
+        let mut next_old_frags = Vec::new();
+        let mut ordinal = 0u64;
+        let group_size = old_frags.len().div_ceil(case.groups_per_version).max(1);
+        for old_group in old_frags.chunks(group_size) {
+            let mut changed = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            let mut old_with_deletions = Vec::with_capacity(old_group.len());
+            for frag in old_group {
+                let mut num_changed = 0usize;
+                for offset in 0..frag.physical_rows as u32 {
+                    let hash = ordinal
+                        .wrapping_mul(6_364_136_223_846_793_005)
+                        .wrapping_add((version_idx as u64 + 1) * 1_442_695_040_888_963_407);
+                    if (hash >> 32) % 10_000 < case.changed_basis_points as u64 {
+                        changed.insert(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(
+                            frag.id as u32,
+                            offset,
+                        )));
+                        num_changed += 1;
+                    }
+                    ordinal += 1;
+                }
+                old_with_deletions.push(FragDigest {
+                    id: frag.id,
+                    physical_rows: frag.physical_rows,
+                    num_deleted_rows: frag.physical_rows - num_changed,
+                });
+            }
+
+            let num_changed = changed.len() as usize;
+            let new_fragment_count = if num_changed == 0 {
+                0
+            } else {
+                (old_group.len() + old_group.len() / 2)
+                    .max(1)
+                    .min(num_changed)
+            };
+            let new_frags = distribute_rows(num_changed, new_fragment_count, &mut next_fragment_id);
+            let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::with_capacity(changed.serialized_size());
+            changed.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+            groups.push(FragReuseGroup {
+                changed_row_addrs,
+                old_frags: old_with_deletions,
+                new_frags: new_frags.clone(),
+            });
+            next_old_frags.extend(new_frags);
+        }
+
+        versions.push(FragReuseVersion {
+            dataset_version: version_idx as u64 + 1,
+            groups,
+        });
+        old_frags = next_old_frags;
+    }
+
+    (FragReuseIndexDetails { versions }, baseline_frags)
+}
+
+fn distribute_rows(total_rows: usize, count: usize, next_id: &mut u64) -> Vec<FragDigest> {
+    if count == 0 {
+        return Vec::new();
+    }
+    let base = total_rows / count;
+    let remainder = total_rows % count;
+    (0..count)
+        .map(|index| {
+            let digest = FragDigest {
+                id: *next_id,
+                physical_rows: base + usize::from(index < remainder),
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            };
+            *next_id += 1;
+            digest
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn sample_queries(fragments: &[FragDigest], count: usize) -> Vec<u64> {
+    let total_rows = fragments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|frag| frag.physical_rows)
+        .sum::<usize>();
+    let unaffected_fragment = u32::MAX - 1;
+    let mut state = 0x4d595df4d0f33173u64;
+    (0..count)
+        .map(|index| {
+            state = state
+                .wrapping_mul(6_364_136_223_846_793_005)
+                .wrapping_add(1_442_695_040_888_963_407);
+            if index % 10 == 0 {
+                return u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(
+                    unaffected_fragment,
+                    state as u32,
+                ));
+            }
+            let mut logical_row = state as usize % total_rows;
+            for frag in fragments {
+                if logical_row < frag.physical_rows {
+                    return u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(
+                        frag.id as u32,
+                        logical_row as u32,
+                    ));
+                }
+                logical_row -= frag.physical_rows;
+            }
+            unreachable!("logical row is bounded by total_rows")
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/fts_search.rs b/rust/lance/benches/fts_search.rs
index 3832d6cd40b..161e7a135f0 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/fts_search.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/fts_search.rs
@@ -9,15 +9,30 @@
 ///
 /// This benchmark is primarily intended for developers to use for profiling and debugging.  The python
 /// benchmark is more comprehensive and will cover regression testing.
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, BenchmarkId, Criterion};
+use std::{collections::BTreeSet, env, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
-use lance::Dataset;
-use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance::{Dataset, dataset::WriteParams, index::DatasetIndexExt};
+use lance_index::{
+    IndexType,
+    scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams},
+};
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
-use std::env;
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use tempfile::TempDir;
 
 const WIKIPEDIA_DATASET_ENV_VAR: &str = "LANCE_WIKIPEDIA_DATASET_PATH";
+const INDEX_NAME: &str = "segmented_fts";
+const PARTITION_COMPARE_INDEX_NAME: &str = "partition_shape_fts";
+const INDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT: usize = 12;
+const UNINDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT: usize = 1;
+const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 64;
+const PARTITION_COMPARE_INDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT: usize = 64;
+const PARTITION_COMPARE_UNINDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT: usize = 1;
+const PARTITION_COMPARE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 512;
+const PARTITION_COMPARE_TOKEN_REPEAT: usize = 1024;
 
 /// Get the Wikipedia dataset path from environment variable.
 /// Panics if the environment variable is not set.
@@ -30,6 +45,247 @@ fn get_wikipedia_dataset_path() -> String {
     })
 }
 
+struct BenchDataset {
+    _tmpdir: TempDir,
+    dataset: Dataset,
+}
+
+fn create_fragment_batch(fragment_id: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let start = (fragment_id * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT) as i32;
+    let ids = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+        start..start + ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as i32,
+    ));
+    let texts = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values((0..ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT).map(
+        |row| {
+            let term = match (fragment_id + row) % 4 {
+                0 => "alpha",
+                1 => "beta",
+                2 => "gamma",
+                _ => "delta",
+            };
+            format!("shared {term} fragment-{fragment_id} row-{row}")
+        },
+    )));
+    RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("id", ids as ArrayRef), ("text", texts as ArrayRef)]).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn create_partition_compare_fragment_batch(fragment_id: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let start = (fragment_id * PARTITION_COMPARE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT) as i32;
+    let ids = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+        start..start + PARTITION_COMPARE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as i32,
+    ));
+    let texts = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+        (0..PARTITION_COMPARE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT).map(|row| {
+            let term = match (fragment_id + row) % 4 {
+                0 => "alpha",
+                1 => "beta",
+                2 => "gamma",
+                _ => "delta",
+            };
+            let unique = format!("fragment-{fragment_id} row-{row}");
+            let repeated = std::iter::repeat_n(
+                format!("shared {term} {unique}"),
+                PARTITION_COMPARE_TOKEN_REPEAT,
+            )
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(" ");
+            format!("{repeated} tail-{term}")
+        }),
+    ));
+    RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("id", ids as ArrayRef), ("text", texts as ArrayRef)]).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn grouped_fragment_ids(total_fragments: usize, segment_count: usize) -> Vec<Vec<u32>> {
+    let fragments_per_segment = total_fragments / segment_count;
+    (0..segment_count)
+        .map(|segment_idx| {
+            let start = segment_idx * fragments_per_segment;
+            let end = start + fragments_per_segment;
+            (start..end).map(|fragment_id| fragment_id as u32).collect()
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+async fn build_segmented_fts_dataset(segment_count: usize) -> BenchDataset {
+    let tmpdir = TempDir::new().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.path().display());
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        (0..(INDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT + UNINDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT))
+            .map(|fragment_id| Ok(create_fragment_batch(fragment_id)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        create_fragment_batch(0).schema(),
+    );
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        batches,
+        &uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.get_fragments().len(),
+        INDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT + UNINDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT
+    );
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    let mut staged_segments = Vec::with_capacity(segment_count);
+    for fragment_ids in grouped_fragment_ids(INDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT, segment_count) {
+        let segment = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name(INDEX_NAME.to_string())
+            .fragments(fragment_ids)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        staged_segments.push(segment);
+    }
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments(INDEX_NAME, "text", staged_segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    BenchDataset {
+        _tmpdir: tmpdir,
+        dataset,
+    }
+}
+
+fn count_partitions(segment: &lance_table::format::IndexMetadata) -> usize {
+    segment
+        .files
+        .as_ref()
+        .map(|files| {
+            files
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|file| {
+                    file.path
+                        .strip_prefix("part_")
+                        .and_then(|path| path.split_once('_'))
+                        .map(|(partition_id, _)| partition_id.to_string())
+                })
+                .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>()
+                .len()
+        })
+        .unwrap_or(0)
+}
+
+async fn build_partition_compare_dataset_with_memory_limit(
+    partition_count: usize,
+    segmented: bool,
+    memory_limit_mb: u64,
+) -> BenchDataset {
+    let tmpdir = TempDir::new().unwrap();
+    let uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.path().display());
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        (0..(PARTITION_COMPARE_INDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT
+            + PARTITION_COMPARE_UNINDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT))
+            .map(|fragment_id| Ok(create_partition_compare_fragment_batch(fragment_id)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        create_partition_compare_fragment_batch(0).schema(),
+    );
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        batches,
+        &uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: PARTITION_COMPARE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let fragment_groups = if segmented {
+        grouped_fragment_ids(PARTITION_COMPARE_INDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT, partition_count)
+    } else {
+        vec![(0..PARTITION_COMPARE_INDEXED_FRAGMENT_COUNT as u32).collect()]
+    };
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .with_position(true)
+        .num_workers(1)
+        .memory_limit_mb(memory_limit_mb);
+
+    let mut staged_segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_groups.len());
+    for fragment_ids in fragment_groups {
+        let segment = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name(PARTITION_COMPARE_INDEX_NAME.to_string())
+            .fragments(fragment_ids)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        staged_segments.push(segment);
+    }
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments(PARTITION_COMPARE_INDEX_NAME, "text", staged_segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let committed_segments = dataset
+        .load_indices_by_name(PARTITION_COMPARE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    if segmented {
+        assert_eq!(committed_segments.len(), partition_count);
+        for segment in &committed_segments {
+            assert_eq!(
+                count_partitions(segment),
+                1,
+                "expected each segmented FTS segment to have exactly one partition"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    BenchDataset {
+        _tmpdir: tmpdir,
+        dataset,
+    }
+}
+
+async fn build_partition_compare_dataset(partition_count: usize, segmented: bool) -> BenchDataset {
+    if segmented {
+        return build_partition_compare_dataset_with_memory_limit(partition_count, true, 512).await;
+    }
+
+    let mut observed = Vec::new();
+    for memory_limit_mb in [
+        512, 256, 192, 160, 128, 96, 80, 64, 56, 48, 40, 36, 32, 28, 24, 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10, 9,
+        8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,
+    ] {
+        let bench_dataset = build_partition_compare_dataset_with_memory_limit(
+            partition_count,
+            false,
+            memory_limit_mb,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let committed_segments = bench_dataset
+            .dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name(PARTITION_COMPARE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let actual_partition_count = if committed_segments.len() == 1 {
+            count_partitions(&committed_segments[0])
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        observed.push((
+            memory_limit_mb,
+            committed_segments.len(),
+            actual_partition_count,
+        ));
+        if committed_segments.len() == 1 && actual_partition_count == partition_count {
+            return bench_dataset;
+        }
+    }
+
+    panic!(
+        "failed to build 1 segment x {partition_count} partitions for partition-shape benchmark: {observed:?}"
+    );
+}
+
 /// Benchmark full text search on Wikipedia dataset with different K values
 fn bench_fts_search(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
@@ -86,19 +342,117 @@ fn bench_fts_search(c: &mut Criterion) {
     group.finish();
 }
 
+fn bench_segmented_fts_search(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let bench_datasets = [1_usize, 2, 4, 6]
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|segment_count| {
+            (
+                segment_count,
+                rt.block_on(build_segmented_fts_dataset(segment_count)),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("fts_search_segment_count");
+    for (segment_count, bench_dataset) in &bench_datasets {
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::from_parameter(segment_count),
+            segment_count,
+            |b, _| {
+                b.iter(|| {
+                    rt.block_on(async {
+                        let mut scanner = bench_dataset.dataset.scan();
+                        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new("shared alpha".to_string())
+                            .with_column("text".to_string())
+                            .unwrap();
+                        let mut stream = scanner
+                            .full_text_search(query)
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .limit(Some(20), None)
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .project(&["_rowid"])
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .try_into_stream()
+                            .await
+                            .unwrap();
+
+                        let mut num_rows = 0;
+                        while let Some(batch) = stream.try_next().await.unwrap() {
+                            num_rows += batch.num_rows();
+                        }
+                        assert!(num_rows <= 20);
+                    })
+                });
+            },
+        );
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_fts_segment_vs_partition_shape(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let bench_datasets = [16_usize]
+        .into_iter()
+        .flat_map(|count| {
+            [
+                (
+                    format!("{count}_segments_x_1_partition"),
+                    rt.block_on(build_partition_compare_dataset(count, true)),
+                ),
+                (
+                    format!("1_segment_x_{count}_partitions"),
+                    rt.block_on(build_partition_compare_dataset(count, false)),
+                ),
+            ]
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("fts_search_segment_vs_partition_shape");
+    for (shape, bench_dataset) in &bench_datasets {
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::from_parameter(shape), shape, |b, _| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                rt.block_on(async {
+                    let mut scanner = bench_dataset.dataset.scan();
+                    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new("shared alpha".to_string())
+                        .with_column("text".to_string())
+                        .unwrap();
+                    let mut stream = scanner
+                        .full_text_search(query)
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .limit(Some(20), None)
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .project(&["_rowid"])
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .try_into_stream()
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap();
+
+                    let mut num_rows = 0;
+                    while let Some(batch) = stream.try_next().await.unwrap() {
+                        num_rows += batch.num_rows();
+                    }
+                    assert!(num_rows <= 20);
+                })
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10)
         .with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
-    targets = bench_fts_search
+    targets = bench_fts_search, bench_segmented_fts_search, bench_fts_segment_vs_partition_shape
 );
 
 #[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
-    targets = bench_fts_search
+    targets = bench_fts_search, bench_segmented_fts_search, bench_fts_segment_vs_partition_shape
 );
 
 criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/hamming.rs b/rust/lance/benches/hamming.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7e926a795db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/hamming.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmark for hamming distance clustering.
+//!
+//! This benchmark tests the pairwise hamming distance computation and clustering
+//! performance at various scales.
+//!
+//! Run with: cargo bench -p lance --bench hamming
+//!
+//! Environment variables:
+//!   - DATASET_URI: Path to a dataset with a hash column (optional, generates random if not set)
+//!   - HASH_COLUMN: Name of the hash column (default: "hash")
+//!   - SAMPLE_SIZE: Number of rows to sample (default: 10000)
+//!   - THRESHOLD: Hamming distance threshold (default: 10)
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::env;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt8Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, FieldRef, Schema};
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use rand::Rng;
+
+use lance::index::vector::hamming::{
+    hamming_clustering_for_sample, hamming_clustering_from_hashes,
+};
+use lance::{Dataset, dataset::WriteParams};
+use lance_linalg::distance::pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel;
+
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+
+/// Generate random 64-bit hashes.
+fn generate_random_hashes(n: usize) -> Vec<u64> {
+    let mut rng = rand::rng();
+    (0..n).map(|_| rng.random()).collect()
+}
+
+/// Generate random hash dataset as Arrow arrays.
+fn generate_hash_batch(num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let mut rng = rand::rng();
+
+    // Generate random bytes for the hashes (8 bytes per hash)
+    let bytes: Vec<u8> = (0..num_rows * 8).map(|_| rng.random()).collect();
+    let values = UInt8Array::from(bytes);
+
+    let hash_array = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 8).unwrap();
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "hash",
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(FieldRef::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)), 8),
+        false,
+    )]));
+
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(hash_array)]).unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Create a test dataset with random hashes.
+async fn create_hash_dataset(path: &std::path::Path, num_rows: usize) {
+    let batch = generate_hash_batch(num_rows);
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: num_rows,
+        max_rows_per_group: 10_000,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    Dataset::write(reader, path.to_str().unwrap(), Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Benchmark pure pairwise hamming computation (no I/O).
+fn bench_pairwise_compute(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("hamming_pairwise_compute");
+
+    for size in [1_000, 5_000, 10_000, 20_000] {
+        let hashes = generate_random_hashes(size);
+        let total_pairs = (size as u64) * (size as u64 - 1) / 2;
+
+        group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(total_pairs));
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::new("parallel", size), &hashes, |b, hashes| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(hashes, None, Some(10));
+            });
+        });
+    }
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Benchmark full clustering pipeline (compute + cluster).
+fn bench_cluster_hashes(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("hamming_cluster");
+
+    for size in [1_000, 5_000, 10_000] {
+        let hashes = generate_random_hashes(size);
+
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("full_pipeline", size),
+            &hashes,
+            |b, hashes| {
+                b.iter(|| {
+                    hamming_clustering_from_hashes(hashes, None, 10);
+                });
+            },
+        );
+    }
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Benchmark with dataset I/O (if DATASET_URI is set).
+fn bench_dataset_cluster(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+
+    // Check if we should use an external dataset
+    let dataset_uri = env::var("DATASET_URI").ok();
+    let hash_column = env::var("HASH_COLUMN").unwrap_or_else(|_| "hash".to_string());
+    let sample_size: usize = env::var("SAMPLE_SIZE")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(10_000);
+    let threshold: u32 = env::var("THRESHOLD")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(10);
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("hamming_dataset");
+
+    if let Some(uri) = dataset_uri {
+        // Use external dataset
+        println!("Using external dataset: {}", uri);
+        println!(
+            "Column: {}, Sample: {}, Threshold: {}",
+            hash_column, sample_size, threshold
+        );
+
+        let dataset = rt.block_on(async { Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap() });
+
+        group.bench_function(format!("external_sample_{}", sample_size), |b| {
+            b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
+                hamming_clustering_for_sample(&dataset, &hash_column, Some(sample_size), threshold)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            });
+        });
+    } else {
+        // Create temporary dataset with random hashes
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = temp_dir.path().join("bench_hashes.lance");
+
+        rt.block_on(async {
+            create_hash_dataset(&uri, 100_000).await;
+        });
+
+        let dataset = rt.block_on(async { Dataset::open(uri.to_str().unwrap()).await.unwrap() });
+
+        for sample in [1_000, 5_000, 10_000] {
+            group.bench_function(format!("generated_sample_{}", sample), |b| {
+                let ds = dataset.clone();
+                b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| {
+                    let ds = ds.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        hamming_clustering_for_sample(&ds, "hash", Some(sample), 10)
+                            .await
+                            .unwrap()
+                    }
+                });
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+/// Quick standalone benchmark that prints results (for quick testing).
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+fn run_quick_bench() {
+    println!("=== Hamming Distance Clustering Benchmark ===\n");
+
+    let sizes = [1_000, 5_000, 10_000, 20_000];
+
+    for &size in &sizes {
+        let hashes = generate_random_hashes(size);
+        let total_pairs = (size as u64) * (size as u64 - 1) / 2;
+
+        println!("Size: {} rows, {} pairs", size, total_pairs);
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let reader = hamming_clustering_from_hashes(&hashes, None, 10);
+        // Consume the reader to count clusters
+        let cluster_count: usize = reader.map(|b| b.unwrap().num_rows()).sum();
+        let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+
+        let pairs_per_sec = total_pairs as f64 / elapsed.as_secs_f64();
+        println!(
+            "  Total time: {:?} ({:.2}M pairs/sec)",
+            elapsed,
+            pairs_per_sec / 1_000_000.0
+        );
+        println!("  Total clusters: {}", cluster_count);
+        println!();
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+criterion_group! {
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+    targets = bench_pairwise_compute, bench_cluster_hashes, bench_dataset_cluster
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
+criterion_group!(
+    benches,
+    bench_pairwise_compute,
+    bench_cluster_hashes,
+    bench_dataset_cluster
+);
+
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/ivf_pq.rs b/rust/lance/benches/ivf_pq.rs
index a00a5327288..b3580ad3196 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/ivf_pq.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/ivf_pq.rs
@@ -7,19 +7,20 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, FieldRef, Schema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use lance::{
+    Dataset,
     dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams},
     index::vector::VectorIndexParams,
-    Dataset,
 };
 use lance_arrow::*;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 async fn create_dataset(path: &std::path::Path, dim: usize, mode: WriteMode) {
     let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/manifest_commit.rs b/rust/lance/benches/manifest_commit.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f657f81dc95
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/manifest_commit.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,372 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmark for manifest commit performance with many small fragments.
+//!
+//! This benchmark tests how performance degrades as the number of small fragments
+//! grows. Each fragment contains only 10 rows, and we measure both:
+//! - Commit time (manifest write only, excludes fragment data writing)
+//! - Load time (manifest read from storage, using checkout_latest)
+//!
+//! Key optimizations:
+//! - Uses shared ObjectStoreRegistry to reuse TCP/TLS connections
+//! - Disables auto-cleanup to avoid background cleanup overhead
+//! - Separates fragment writing from commit measurement
+//!
+//! ## Running against S3 Express
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! export AWS_REGION=us-east-1
+//! export DATASET_PREFIX=s3://your-bucket--use1-az4--x-s3/bench/manifest_commit
+//! export NUM_ITERATIONS=100
+//! cargo bench --bench manifest_commit
+//! ```
+//!
+//! ## Running against local filesystem (with temp directory)
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! cargo bench --bench manifest_commit
+//! ```
+//!
+//! ## Configuration
+//!
+//! - `DATASET_PREFIX`: Base URI for datasets (e.g. s3://bucket/prefix or /tmp/bench).
+//!   If not set, uses a temporary directory.
+//! - `NUM_ITERATIONS`: Number of small fragment writes to perform (default: 100).
+//! - `ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT`: Number of rows per fragment (default: 10).
+//! - `DELETE_DATASET`: When "true", delete the dataset after benchmark completes.
+//! - `ENABLE_CACHE`: When "true", enable manifest caching for load measurements.
+//!   Default is "false" to measure actual storage read latency.
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use lance::dataset::{CommitBuilder, Dataset, InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use lance::session::Session;
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Instant;
+use tokio::runtime::Runtime;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const DEFAULT_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 10;
+const DEFAULT_NUM_ITERATIONS: usize = 100;
+
+fn get_rows_per_fragment() -> usize {
+    std::env::var("ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT)
+}
+
+fn get_num_iterations() -> usize {
+    std::env::var("NUM_ITERATIONS")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_NUM_ITERATIONS)
+}
+
+fn get_delete_dataset() -> bool {
+    std::env::var("DELETE_DATASET")
+        .map(|s| str_is_truthy(&s))
+        .unwrap_or(false)
+}
+
+fn get_enable_cache() -> bool {
+    std::env::var("ENABLE_CACHE")
+        .map(|s| str_is_truthy(&s))
+        .unwrap_or(false)
+}
+
+fn get_dataset_prefix() -> String {
+    std::env::var("DATASET_PREFIX").unwrap_or_else(|_| {
+        let temp_dir = std::env::temp_dir().join(format!("lance_bench_{}", Uuid::new_v4()));
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(&temp_dir).expect("Failed to create temp directory");
+        temp_dir.to_string_lossy().to_string()
+    })
+}
+
+fn get_storage_label(prefix: &str) -> &'static str {
+    if prefix.starts_with("s3://") {
+        "s3"
+    } else if prefix.starts_with("gs://") {
+        "gcs"
+    } else if prefix.starts_with("az://") {
+        "azure"
+    } else if prefix.starts_with("memory://") {
+        "memory"
+    } else {
+        "local"
+    }
+}
+
+async fn create_initial_dataset(
+    uri: &str,
+    rows_per_fragment: usize,
+    session: Arc<Session>,
+) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+        Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+
+    let batch = create_batch(schema.clone(), 0, rows_per_fragment);
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(uri).ok();
+
+    let params = WriteParams {
+        session: Some(session),
+        skip_auto_cleanup: true,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params))
+        .await
+        .expect("failed to create initial dataset")
+}
+
+fn create_batch(schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>, start_id: usize, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let ids = Int64Array::from_iter_values((start_id as i64)..((start_id + num_rows) as i64));
+    let names = StringArray::from_iter_values(
+        (start_id..(start_id + num_rows)).map(|i| format!("name_{}", i)),
+    );
+
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(names)])
+        .expect("failed to create batch")
+}
+
+fn bench_manifest_commit(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let runtime = Runtime::new().expect("failed to build tokio runtime");
+
+    let dataset_prefix = get_dataset_prefix();
+    let num_iterations = get_num_iterations();
+    let rows_per_fragment = get_rows_per_fragment();
+    let delete_dataset = get_delete_dataset();
+    let enable_cache = get_enable_cache();
+    let storage_label = get_storage_label(&dataset_prefix);
+
+    let short_id = &Uuid::new_v4().to_string()[..8];
+    let uri = format!(
+        "{}/manifest_commit_{}",
+        dataset_prefix.trim_end_matches('/'),
+        short_id
+    );
+
+    println!("=== Manifest Commit Benchmark Setup ===");
+    println!("Storage: {} ({})", uri, storage_label);
+    println!("Rows per fragment: {}", rows_per_fragment);
+    println!("Number of iterations: {}", num_iterations);
+    println!(
+        "Total fragments (including initial): {}",
+        num_iterations + 1
+    );
+    println!("Delete dataset: {}", delete_dataset);
+    println!(
+        "Cache enabled: {} ({})",
+        enable_cache,
+        if enable_cache {
+            "using default cache size"
+        } else {
+            "zero cache size - measures actual storage read"
+        }
+    );
+    println!();
+
+    // Create a shared session for both commit and load operations
+    // When cache is disabled, use zero cache size to measure actual storage read latency
+    // When cache is enabled, use default cache sizes (6GB index, 1GB metadata)
+    let shared_store_registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+    let session = if enable_cache {
+        Arc::new(Session::default())
+    } else {
+        Arc::new(Session::new(0, 0, shared_store_registry))
+    };
+
+    let initial_dataset = runtime.block_on(create_initial_dataset(
+        &uri,
+        rows_per_fragment,
+        session.clone(),
+    ));
+
+    let uri_clone = uri.clone();
+    let mut load_dataset = runtime.block_on(async {
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri_clone)
+            .with_session(session.clone())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .expect("failed to load dataset for load measurements")
+    });
+
+    let mut current_dataset = Arc::new(initial_dataset);
+
+    let mut commit_latencies = Vec::with_capacity(num_iterations);
+    let mut load_latencies = Vec::with_capacity(num_iterations);
+
+    println!("Running commit and load benchmarks...");
+    println!("fragments,commit_ms,load_ms");
+
+    for i in 1..=num_iterations {
+        let num_fragments = i + 1;
+
+        let (commit_time, new_dataset) = {
+            let dataset = current_dataset.clone();
+            let session_clone = session.clone();
+            runtime.block_on(async move {
+                let schema: Arc<ArrowSchema> = Arc::new((&dataset.schema().clone()).into());
+                let start_id = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap() as usize;
+                let batch = create_batch(schema.clone(), start_id, rows_per_fragment);
+
+                let write_params = WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    session: Some(session_clone.clone()),
+                    skip_auto_cleanup: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                };
+
+                let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+                    .with_params(&write_params)
+                    .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+                    .await
+                    .expect("failed to write fragment");
+
+                let start = Instant::now();
+                let new_ds = CommitBuilder::new(dataset)
+                    .with_session(session_clone)
+                    .with_skip_auto_cleanup(true)
+                    .execute(transaction)
+                    .await
+                    .expect("failed to commit");
+                (start.elapsed(), Arc::new(new_ds))
+            })
+        };
+
+        let load_time = runtime.block_on(async {
+            let start = Instant::now();
+            load_dataset
+                .checkout_latest()
+                .await
+                .expect("failed to checkout latest");
+            let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                load_dataset.manifest().fragments.len(),
+                num_fragments,
+                "Expected {} fragments",
+                num_fragments
+            );
+            elapsed
+        });
+
+        current_dataset = new_dataset;
+
+        commit_latencies.push(commit_time);
+        load_latencies.push(load_time);
+
+        println!(
+            "{},{:.2},{:.2}",
+            num_fragments,
+            commit_time.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0,
+            load_time.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0
+        );
+    }
+
+    println!();
+    println!("=== Summary Statistics ===");
+
+    let avg_commit: f64 = commit_latencies
+        .iter()
+        .map(|d| d.as_secs_f64())
+        .sum::<f64>()
+        / commit_latencies.len() as f64;
+    let avg_load: f64 =
+        load_latencies.iter().map(|d| d.as_secs_f64()).sum::<f64>() / load_latencies.len() as f64;
+
+    let min_commit = commit_latencies.iter().min().unwrap();
+    let max_commit = commit_latencies.iter().max().unwrap();
+    let min_load = load_latencies.iter().min().unwrap();
+    let max_load = load_latencies.iter().max().unwrap();
+
+    println!(
+        "Commit latency: avg={:.2}ms, min={:.2}ms, max={:.2}ms",
+        avg_commit * 1000.0,
+        min_commit.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0,
+        max_commit.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0
+    );
+    println!(
+        "Load latency:   avg={:.2}ms, min={:.2}ms, max={:.2}ms",
+        avg_load * 1000.0,
+        min_load.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0,
+        max_load.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0
+    );
+
+    let first_10_avg_commit = commit_latencies
+        .iter()
+        .take(10)
+        .map(|d| d.as_secs_f64())
+        .sum::<f64>()
+        / 10.0;
+    let last_10_avg_commit = commit_latencies
+        .iter()
+        .rev()
+        .take(10)
+        .map(|d| d.as_secs_f64())
+        .sum::<f64>()
+        / 10.0;
+    let first_10_avg_load = load_latencies
+        .iter()
+        .take(10)
+        .map(|d| d.as_secs_f64())
+        .sum::<f64>()
+        / 10.0;
+    let last_10_avg_load = load_latencies
+        .iter()
+        .rev()
+        .take(10)
+        .map(|d| d.as_secs_f64())
+        .sum::<f64>()
+        / 10.0;
+
+    println!();
+    println!(
+        "First 10 iterations avg: commit={:.2}ms, load={:.2}ms",
+        first_10_avg_commit * 1000.0,
+        first_10_avg_load * 1000.0
+    );
+    println!(
+        "Last 10 iterations avg:  commit={:.2}ms, load={:.2}ms",
+        last_10_avg_commit * 1000.0,
+        last_10_avg_load * 1000.0
+    );
+    println!(
+        "Degradation ratio: commit={:.2}x, load={:.2}x",
+        last_10_avg_commit / first_10_avg_commit,
+        last_10_avg_load / first_10_avg_load
+    );
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("manifest_commit");
+
+    group.bench_function("avg_commit_latency", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| std::time::Duration::from_secs_f64(avg_commit))
+    });
+
+    group.bench_function("avg_load_latency", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| std::time::Duration::from_secs_f64(avg_load))
+    });
+
+    group.finish();
+
+    if delete_dataset {
+        std::fs::remove_dir_all(&uri).ok();
+        println!("Dataset deleted: {}", uri);
+    } else {
+        println!("Dataset preserved: {}", uri);
+    }
+}
+
+criterion_group!(benches, bench_manifest_commit);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/LuceneFtsBench.java b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/LuceneFtsBench.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bd007ed104b
Binary files /dev/null and b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/LuceneFtsBench.java differ
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fineweb_fts.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fineweb_fts.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5de2e6c034a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fineweb_fts.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,982 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! MemWAL FTS benchmark on real FineWeb text.
+//!
+//! FTS-specialized sibling of `mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure`: same
+//! CLI-arg shape, same `Mode` matrix (async/sync × index/no-index), same
+//! `ShardWriter` wiring and JSON output, but the payload is real
+//! HuggingFace FineWeb `text` and the maintained index is the in-memory
+//! FTS index instead of IVF/PQ.
+//!
+//! Two phases, selected with `--phase`; each invocation does exactly one
+//! phase so a process never holds two `ShardWriter` lifecycles (that is
+//! what deadlocked the first iteration of this bench):
+//!
+//!   --phase write   throughput panel: ingest `calls × batch-rows` rows
+//!                   through `ShardWriter`, report rows/s + latency
+//!                   percentiles.
+//!   --phase read    MemTable FTS read panel: ingest `read-rows` rows into
+//!                   an auto-flush-disabled MemTable, time the FTS queries
+//!                   against the live MemTable, force a flush, replay the
+//!                   queries against the on-disk FTS index, and report the
+//!                   per-query top-K overlap ("consistency").
+//!
+//! Example:
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_fineweb_fts -- \
+//!   --phase write --mode async_idx \
+//!   --uri /tmp/mem-fts-fineweb/run1/w_async_idx_mt100k \
+//!   --seed-rows 1000000 --batch-rows 1000 --calls 1000 \
+//!   --max-memtable-rows 100000 \
+//!   --cache-dir /tmp/fineweb-cache --output result.json
+//! ```
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, MemTableScanner, ShardWriterConfig};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+use lance_tokenizer::TokenStream;
+use parquet::arrow::async_reader::ParquetRecordBatchStreamBuilder;
+use serde_json::json;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const TEXT_COL: &str = "text";
+const FTS_INDEX_NAME: &str = "text_fts";
+/// Seed-row count for the read phase. Kept tiny so the on-disk corpus is
+/// effectively just the ingested rows: the MemTable FTS index covers only
+/// the ingested rows, so the on-disk `full_text_search` it is compared
+/// against must too. The on-disk query is additionally prefiltered to
+/// `id >= READ_SEED_ROWS` to drop these few seed rows entirely.
+const READ_SEED_ROWS: usize = 1000;
+const HF_API_LISTING: &str =
+    "https://huggingface.co/api/datasets/HuggingFaceFW/fineweb/tree/main/sample/10BT";
+const HF_FILE_BASE: &str = "https://huggingface.co/datasets/HuggingFaceFW/fineweb/resolve/main/";
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Mode / Phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum Mode {
+    AsyncNoIndex,
+    AsyncIndexed,
+    SyncNoIndex,
+    SyncIndexed,
+}
+
+impl Mode {
+    fn parse(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match value {
+            "async_noidx" => Ok(Self::AsyncNoIndex),
+            "async_idx" => Ok(Self::AsyncIndexed),
+            "sync_noidx" => Ok(Self::SyncNoIndex),
+            "sync_idx" => Ok(Self::SyncIndexed),
+            _ => Err(format!(
+                "unknown mode '{value}', expected async_noidx|async_idx|sync_noidx|sync_idx"
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::AsyncNoIndex => "async_noidx",
+            Self::AsyncIndexed => "async_idx",
+            Self::SyncNoIndex => "sync_noidx",
+            Self::SyncIndexed => "sync_idx",
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// FTS index maintained in the MemTable.
+    fn indexed(self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::AsyncIndexed | Self::SyncIndexed)
+    }
+
+    /// Each `put` waits for WAL durability before returning.
+    fn durable_write(self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::SyncNoIndex | Self::SyncIndexed)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum Phase {
+    Write,
+    Read,
+}
+
+impl Phase {
+    fn parse(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match value {
+            "write" => Ok(Self::Write),
+            "read" => Ok(Self::Read),
+            _ => Err(format!("unknown phase '{value}', expected write|read")),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Write => "write",
+            Self::Read => "read",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Args
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct Args {
+    phase: Phase,
+    mode: Mode,
+    uri: Option<String>,
+    seed_rows: usize,
+    batch_rows: usize,
+    calls: usize,
+    read_rows: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: Option<usize>,
+    max_memtable_size: usize,
+    max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: usize,
+    max_wal_flush_interval_ms: u64,
+    /// Paced ingest target for the write phase. `None` = unpaced (puts
+    /// issued as fast as possible). Used for the backpressure sweep.
+    target_rows_per_sec: Option<f64>,
+    cache_dir: PathBuf,
+    num_token_queries: usize,
+    num_phrase_queries: usize,
+    top_k: usize,
+    tokio_threads: usize,
+    output: Option<PathBuf>,
+}
+
+impl Default for Args {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        let threads = std::thread::available_parallelism().map_or(1, usize::from);
+        Self {
+            phase: Phase::Write,
+            mode: Mode::AsyncIndexed,
+            uri: None,
+            seed_rows: 1_000_000,
+            batch_rows: 1_000,
+            calls: 1_000,
+            read_rows: 100_000,
+            max_memtable_rows: None,
+            max_memtable_size: 16 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: 8 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval_ms: 100,
+            target_rows_per_sec: None,
+            cache_dir: std::env::temp_dir().join("mem_wal_fineweb_fts_cache"),
+            num_token_queries: 100,
+            num_phrase_queries: 50,
+            top_k: 10,
+            tokio_threads: threads,
+            output: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// HuggingFace FineWeb loading
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(serde::Deserialize)]
+struct HfTreeEntry {
+    #[serde(rename = "type")]
+    kind: String,
+    path: String,
+}
+
+async fn list_shard_paths() -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let entries: Vec<HfTreeEntry> = reqwest::get(HF_API_LISTING)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("listing HTTP: {e}")))?
+        .json()
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("listing JSON: {e}")))?;
+    let mut shards: Vec<String> = entries
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|e| e.kind == "file" && e.path.ends_with(".parquet"))
+        .map(|e| e.path)
+        .collect();
+    shards.sort();
+    Ok(shards)
+}
+
+async fn download_shard(rel_path: &str, dest: &std::path::Path) -> Result<()> {
+    if dest.exists() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let url = format!("{HF_FILE_BASE}{rel_path}");
+    let tmp = dest.with_extension("part");
+    for attempt in 1..=5u32 {
+        println!("downloading {rel_path} (attempt {attempt}/5) ...");
+        let result: Result<bytes::Bytes> = async {
+            let resp = reqwest::get(&url)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("download HTTP: {e}")))?;
+            if !resp.status().is_success() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+                    "download {url} -> status {}",
+                    resp.status()
+                )));
+            }
+            resp.bytes()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("read body: {e}")))
+        }
+        .await;
+        match result {
+            Ok(bytes) => {
+                std::fs::write(&tmp, &bytes)
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write: {e}")))?;
+                std::fs::rename(&tmp, dest)
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("rename: {e}")))?;
+                println!(
+                    "  wrote {:.1} MB to {}",
+                    bytes.len() as f64 / 1024.0 / 1024.0,
+                    dest.display()
+                );
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            Err(e) if attempt < 5 => {
+                eprintln!("  attempt {attempt} failed: {e}; retrying");
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_secs(2u64.pow(attempt))).await;
+            }
+            Err(e) => return Err(e),
+        }
+    }
+    unreachable!()
+}
+
+async fn read_shard_text(
+    path: &std::path::Path,
+    out: &mut Vec<String>,
+    max_rows: usize,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let file = tokio::fs::File::open(path)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("open parquet: {e}")))?;
+    let builder = ParquetRecordBatchStreamBuilder::new(file)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet builder: {e}")))?;
+    let mut stream = builder
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet stream: {e}")))?;
+    let mut taken = 0usize;
+    while taken < max_rows {
+        let Some(rb) = stream
+            .try_next()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet read: {e}")))?
+        else {
+            break;
+        };
+        let col = rb
+            .column_by_name("text")
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("text column missing".to_string()))?;
+        let strs = col
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("text not StringArray".to_string()))?;
+        for i in 0..strs.len() {
+            if taken >= max_rows {
+                break;
+            }
+            if strs.is_null(i) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            out.push(strs.value(i).to_string());
+            taken += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(taken)
+}
+
+/// Load `needed_rows` text rows from cached FineWeb shards, downloading
+/// shards on demand.
+async fn load_corpus(needed_rows: usize, cache_dir: &std::path::Path) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(cache_dir)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("mkdir cache: {e}")))?;
+    let shards = list_shard_paths().await?;
+    println!("fineweb sample/10BT: {} shards", shards.len());
+    let mut buf: Vec<String> = Vec::with_capacity(needed_rows);
+    for rel in &shards {
+        if buf.len() >= needed_rows {
+            break;
+        }
+        let name = rel.rsplit('/').next().unwrap_or(rel);
+        let local = cache_dir.join(name);
+        download_shard(rel, &local).await?;
+        let want = needed_rows - buf.len();
+        let got = read_shard_text(&local, &mut buf, want).await?;
+        println!("  shard {name} -> {got} rows (cumulative {})", buf.len());
+    }
+    if buf.len() < needed_rows {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+            "fineweb yielded only {} rows, need {needed_rows}",
+            buf.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(buf)
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Schema / batches
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn make_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+    id_meta.insert(
+        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+        "true".to_string(),
+    );
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+        Field::new(TEXT_COL, DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn make_batch(schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>, start_id: i64, texts: &[&str]) -> RecordBatch {
+    let ids: Vec<i64> = (start_id..start_id + texts.len() as i64).collect();
+    let id_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids));
+    let text_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(texts.iter().copied()));
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![id_arr, text_arr]).unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Write a seed dataset of `seed_texts.len()` rows, optionally create the
+/// base FTS index, and initialize MemWAL.
+async fn build_seed_dataset(
+    uri: &str,
+    schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    seed_texts: &[String],
+    batch_rows: usize,
+    indexed: bool,
+) -> Result<f64> {
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(seed_texts.len().div_ceil(batch_rows));
+    let mut lo = 0usize;
+    while lo < seed_texts.len() {
+        let hi = (lo + batch_rows).min(seed_texts.len());
+        let slice: Vec<&str> = seed_texts[lo..hi].iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+        batches.push(Ok(make_batch(schema.clone(), lo as i64, &slice)));
+        lo = hi;
+    }
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter(), schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    if indexed {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[TEXT_COL],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some(FTS_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await?;
+    }
+    dataset
+        .initialize_mem_wal()
+        .maintained_indexes(if indexed {
+            vec![FTS_INDEX_NAME.to_string()]
+        } else {
+            vec![]
+        })
+        .execute()
+        .await?;
+    Ok(start.elapsed().as_secs_f64())
+}
+
+fn shard_writer_config(args: &Args, shard_id: Uuid, disable_auto_flush: bool) -> ShardWriterConfig {
+    let max_rows = if disable_auto_flush {
+        args.read_rows.saturating_mul(4).max(4_000_000)
+    } else {
+        // When no explicit row cap is given, derive a generous but
+        // BOUNDED cap from the byte budget. `usize::MAX/2` here would make
+        // `max_memtable_batches` (computed below) astronomically large and
+        // the writer would try to preallocate a petabyte-scale Vec.
+        args.max_memtable_rows.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            (args.max_memtable_size / 2048).clamp(args.batch_rows.max(1), 16_000_000)
+        })
+    };
+    let mut config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id)
+        .with_durable_write(args.mode.durable_write())
+        .with_max_memtable_size(args.max_memtable_size)
+        .with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(args.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes)
+        .with_max_memtable_rows(max_rows)
+        .with_max_memtable_batches(max_rows.div_ceil(args.batch_rows).saturating_add(64));
+    if args.max_wal_flush_interval_ms == 0 {
+        config.max_wal_flush_interval = None;
+    } else {
+        config = config
+            .with_max_wal_flush_interval(Duration::from_millis(args.max_wal_flush_interval_ms));
+    }
+    config
+}
+
+fn percentile(values: &[f64], pct: f64) -> f64 {
+    if values.is_empty() {
+        return f64::NAN;
+    }
+    let mut sorted = values.to_vec();
+    sorted.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    let idx = ((pct / 100.0) * (sorted.len().saturating_sub(1)) as f64).round() as usize;
+    sorted[idx.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Query set
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+struct QuerySet {
+    tokens: Vec<String>,
+    phrases: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+const STOPWORDS: &[&str] = &[
+    "the", "a", "an", "and", "or", "of", "to", "in", "on", "for", "with", "as", "by", "is", "was",
+    "are", "were", "be", "been", "being", "this", "that", "these", "those", "it", "its", "but",
+    "not", "no", "if", "then", "than", "so", "do", "does", "did", "have", "has", "had", "will",
+    "would", "should", "could", "can", "may", "might", "must", "i", "you", "he", "she", "we",
+    "they", "them", "his", "her", "their", "our", "us", "me", "my", "your", "him", "at", "from",
+];
+
+fn build_query_set(sample: &[&str], args: &Args) -> QuerySet {
+    let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .build()
+        .expect("default tokenizer builds");
+    let mut freq: HashMap<String, u64> = HashMap::new();
+    for t in sample.iter().take(50_000) {
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(t);
+        while let Some(tok) = stream.next() {
+            if tok.text.len() < 3 || tok.text.len() > 24 || STOPWORDS.contains(&tok.text.as_str()) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            *freq.entry(tok.text.clone()).or_default() += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    let mut by_freq: Vec<(String, u64)> = freq.into_iter().collect();
+    by_freq.sort_by(|a, b| b.1.cmp(&a.1).then(a.0.cmp(&b.0)));
+    // Skip the most-frequent tokens: terms like "all"/"one"/"time" appear
+    // in a huge fraction of docs, so thousands of documents tie on BM25
+    // and the top-10 is an unstable near-tie that does not meaningfully
+    // exercise FTS correctness. Mid-frequency terms have a well-determined
+    // top-10. The skip is capped so a small vocabulary still yields queries.
+    let skip = (by_freq.len() / 4).min(300);
+    let tokens: Vec<String> = by_freq
+        .into_iter()
+        .skip(skip)
+        .map(|(t, _)| t)
+        .take(args.num_token_queries)
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut phrases = Vec::with_capacity(args.num_phrase_queries);
+    let stride = (sample.len().max(1) / args.num_phrase_queries.max(1)).max(1);
+    let mut idx = 0usize;
+    while phrases.len() < args.num_phrase_queries && idx < sample.len() {
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(sample[idx]);
+        let mut acc: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(tok) = stream.next() {
+            if tok.text.len() < 3 || tok.text.len() > 24 || STOPWORDS.contains(&tok.text.as_str()) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            acc.push(tok.text.clone());
+            if acc.len() == 2 {
+                phrases.push(format!("{} {}", acc[0], acc[1]));
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        idx += stride;
+    }
+    QuerySet { tokens, phrases }
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Write phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run_write(args: &Args, uri: &str, corpus: &[String]) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+    let schema = make_schema();
+    let indexed = args.mode.indexed();
+
+    let seed = &corpus[..args.seed_rows.min(corpus.len())];
+    let setup_s = build_seed_dataset(uri, schema.clone(), seed, args.batch_rows, indexed).await?;
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await?;
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let config = shard_writer_config(args, shard_id, false);
+    let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await?;
+
+    // Ingest rows come from the corpus after the seed, cycled if needed.
+    let ingest_pool = &corpus[args.seed_rows.min(corpus.len())..];
+    let pool_len = ingest_pool.len().max(1);
+    let mut latencies_ms = Vec::with_capacity(args.calls);
+    let id_base = args.seed_rows as i64;
+
+    let puts_start = Instant::now();
+    for call in 0..args.calls {
+        let lo = (call * args.batch_rows) % pool_len;
+        let mut slice: Vec<&str> = Vec::with_capacity(args.batch_rows);
+        for j in 0..args.batch_rows {
+            slice.push(ingest_pool[(lo + j) % pool_len].as_str());
+        }
+        let batch = make_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            id_base + (call * args.batch_rows) as i64,
+            &slice,
+        );
+        let put_start = Instant::now();
+        writer.put(vec![batch]).await?;
+        latencies_ms.push(put_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0);
+        if (call + 1) % 100 == 0 {
+            let rate = ((call + 1) * args.batch_rows) as f64 / puts_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+            println!("  put {}/{} ({rate:.0} rows/s)", call + 1, args.calls);
+        }
+        // Pace the ingest to `target_rows_per_sec` for the backpressure
+        // sweep: sleep so the (call+1)-th put completes no earlier than
+        // its scheduled time. The MemWAL writer's own backpressure can
+        // still delay a put past schedule — that delay is what the sweep
+        // is looking for.
+        if let Some(target) = args.target_rows_per_sec
+            && target > 0.0
+        {
+            let scheduled = ((call + 1) * args.batch_rows) as f64 / target;
+            let actual = puts_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+            if scheduled > actual {
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_secs_f64(scheduled - actual)).await;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let elapsed_puts_s = puts_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+
+    // Backlog still buffered when the put loop ends: if the writer kept
+    // up with the ingest rate this is small; a large backlog means the
+    // flush/index pipeline fell behind (accumulating backpressure).
+    let backlog = writer.memtable_stats().await.ok();
+
+    let close_start = Instant::now();
+    writer.close().await?;
+    let elapsed_close_s = close_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let elapsed_total_s = puts_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+
+    let slow_puts_1s = latencies_ms.iter().filter(|ms| **ms >= 1_000.0).count();
+    let slow_puts_10s = latencies_ms.iter().filter(|ms| **ms >= 10_000.0).count();
+    let rows = args.calls * args.batch_rows;
+    Ok(json!({
+        "phase": "write",
+        "mode": args.mode.as_str(),
+        "uri": uri,
+        "seed_rows": args.seed_rows,
+        "batch_rows": args.batch_rows,
+        "calls": args.calls,
+        "ingested_rows": rows,
+        "max_memtable_rows": args.max_memtable_rows,
+        "target_rows_per_sec": args.target_rows_per_sec,
+        "setup_seconds": setup_s,
+        "elapsed_puts_seconds": elapsed_puts_s,
+        "elapsed_close_seconds": elapsed_close_s,
+        "elapsed_total_seconds": elapsed_total_s,
+        "slow_puts_ge_1s": slow_puts_1s,
+        "slow_puts_ge_10s": slow_puts_10s,
+        "backlog_memtable_rows": backlog.as_ref().map(|s| s.row_count),
+        "backlog_pending_wal_rows": backlog.as_ref().map(|s| s.pending_wal_row_count),
+        "backlog_pending_wal_mb":
+            backlog.as_ref().map(|s| s.pending_wal_estimated_bytes as f64 / 1.0e6),
+        // Throughput including the final close()/flush — comparable across
+        // configs with different flush cadences.
+        "throughput_rows_per_sec": rows as f64 / elapsed_total_s,
+        // Loop-only throughput (puts returned, flush may be outstanding).
+        "throughput_puts_rows_per_sec": rows as f64 / elapsed_puts_s,
+        "put_p50_ms": percentile(&latencies_ms, 50.0),
+        "put_p90_ms": percentile(&latencies_ms, 90.0),
+        "put_p99_ms": percentile(&latencies_ms, 99.0),
+        "put_max_ms": latencies_ms.iter().copied().fold(0.0_f64, f64::max),
+    }))
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Read phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run_read(args: &Args, uri: &str, corpus: &[String]) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+    let schema = make_schema();
+
+    // Tiny seed dataset with an FTS base index (read phase is FTS-only).
+    // See READ_SEED_ROWS for why the seed is kept small.
+    let read_seed = READ_SEED_ROWS.min(corpus.len());
+    let seed = &corpus[..read_seed];
+    let setup_s = build_seed_dataset(uri, schema.clone(), seed, args.batch_rows, true).await?;
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await?;
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    // Auto-flush disabled so the MemTable holds the full read_rows.
+    // durable_write is forced on: the read
+    // panel measures FTS read latency and consistency, which are
+    // properties of the *fully visible* MemTable. The MemTableScanner
+    // respects the visibility watermark, and that watermark only advances
+    // as the WAL becomes durable — so without durable_write the scanner
+    // would query a partially-visible MemTable and report garbage. Both
+    // are properties of ingestion, not of the read path, so forcing them
+    // does not bias the latency/consistency measurement.
+    let config = shard_writer_config(args, shard_id, true).with_durable_write(true);
+    let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await?;
+
+    let ingest_pool = &corpus[read_seed..];
+    let n = args.read_rows.min(ingest_pool.len());
+    let id_base = read_seed as i64;
+    let total_batches = n.div_ceil(args.batch_rows);
+    let ingest_start = Instant::now();
+    for b in 0..total_batches {
+        let lo = b * args.batch_rows;
+        let hi = (lo + args.batch_rows).min(n);
+        let slice: Vec<&str> = ingest_pool[lo..hi].iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![make_batch(
+                schema.clone(),
+                id_base + lo as i64,
+                &slice,
+            )])
+            .await?;
+    }
+    let ingest_s = ingest_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    println!("  read phase: ingested {n} rows in {ingest_s:.1}s");
+
+    // Build the query set from the ingested slice. Each query is a
+    // (is_phrase, query_string) pair so the same set drives both the
+    // MemTableScanner and the reference Dataset scanner.
+    let sample: Vec<&str> = ingest_pool[..n].iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+    let queries = build_query_set(&sample, args);
+    let num_token_queries = queries.tokens.len();
+    let num_phrase_queries = queries.phrases.len();
+    let all_queries: Vec<(bool, String)> = queries
+        .tokens
+        .iter()
+        .map(|t| (false, t.clone()))
+        .chain(queries.phrases.iter().map(|p| (true, p.clone())))
+        .collect();
+    println!("  query set: {num_token_queries} tokens + {num_phrase_queries} phrases");
+
+    // ---- MemTable read phase: query through the production MemTableScanner ----
+    // The scanner returns RecordBatches projected to `id`, so there is no
+    // need to map FtsMemIndex row positions back to ids by hand.
+    let active = writer.active_memtable_ref().await?;
+    let mt_batch_store = active.batch_store.clone();
+    let mt_index_store = active.index_store.clone();
+    let mt_schema = active.schema.clone();
+    drop(active);
+
+    let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(all_queries.len());
+    let mut mt_top: Vec<HashSet<i64>> = Vec::with_capacity(all_queries.len());
+    for (qi, (is_phrase, q)) in all_queries.iter().enumerate() {
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(
+            mt_batch_store.clone(),
+            mt_index_store.clone(),
+            mt_schema.clone(),
+        );
+        if *is_phrase {
+            scanner.full_text_phrase(TEXT_COL, q, 0);
+        } else {
+            scanner.full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new(q.to_string())
+                    .with_column(TEXT_COL.to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )?;
+        }
+        scanner.project(&["id"])?;
+        scanner.limit(Some(args.top_k as i64), None)?;
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await?;
+        latencies_us.push(t0.elapsed().as_micros() as f64);
+        let ids = collect_ids(&batches)?;
+        if qi < 5 {
+            println!(
+                "  [debug mt q{qi}] phrase={is_phrase} '{q}' -> {} ids {:?}",
+                ids.len(),
+                ids.iter().take(5).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+        }
+        mt_top.push(ids);
+    }
+    let lat_ms: Vec<f64> = latencies_us.iter().map(|us| us / 1000.0).collect();
+    let mt_avg_ms = lat_ms.iter().sum::<f64>() / lat_ms.len().max(1) as f64;
+
+    // ---- Reference: a plain on-disk dataset over the identical ingested
+    // rows + a normal FTS index. The MemTable FTS results are validated
+    // against this. No MemWAL flush is involved: the flushed data lives in
+    // the MemWAL LSM structure which a plain `Dataset::scan` does not see,
+    // so a separate reference dataset is the apples-to-apples comparison.
+    drop(writer);
+    let ref_uri = format!("{uri}_ref");
+    let ref_build_s =
+        build_reference_dataset(&ref_uri, schema.clone(), &sample, id_base, args.batch_rows)
+            .await?;
+    let ref_ds = Dataset::open(&ref_uri).await?;
+
+    let mut consistencies = Vec::with_capacity(all_queries.len());
+    for (qi, ((is_phrase, q), mt_ids)) in all_queries.iter().zip(mt_top.iter()).enumerate() {
+        let query_str = if *is_phrase {
+            format!("\"{q}\"")
+        } else {
+            q.clone()
+        };
+        let mut scanner = ref_ds.scan();
+        scanner.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(query_str.clone()))?;
+        scanner.limit(Some(args.top_k as i64), None)?;
+        scanner.project(&["id"])?;
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await?;
+        let disk_ids = collect_ids(&batches)?;
+        let inter: usize = mt_ids.intersection(&disk_ids).count();
+        let denom = mt_ids.len().max(disk_ids.len()).max(1);
+        if qi < 5 {
+            println!(
+                "  [debug ref q{qi}] '{query_str}' -> ref={} mt={} inter={inter}",
+                disk_ids.len(),
+                mt_ids.len()
+            );
+        }
+        consistencies.push(inter as f64 / denom as f64);
+    }
+    let cons_mean = consistencies.iter().sum::<f64>() / consistencies.len().max(1) as f64;
+    let cons_min = consistencies.iter().copied().fold(1.0_f64, f64::min);
+
+    Ok(json!({
+        "phase": "read",
+        "mode": args.mode.as_str(),
+        "uri": uri,
+        "read_rows": n,
+        "max_memtable_rows": args.max_memtable_rows,
+        "setup_seconds": setup_s,
+        "ingest_seconds": ingest_s,
+        "ref_build_seconds": ref_build_s,
+        "num_queries": all_queries.len(),
+        "num_token_queries": num_token_queries,
+        "num_phrase_queries": num_phrase_queries,
+        "mt_latency_avg_ms": mt_avg_ms,
+        "mt_latency_p50_ms": percentile(&lat_ms, 50.0),
+        "mt_latency_p95_ms": percentile(&lat_ms, 95.0),
+        "mt_latency_p99_ms": percentile(&lat_ms, 99.0),
+        "consistency_mean": cons_mean,
+        "consistency_min": cons_min,
+    }))
+}
+
+/// Extract the `id` column values from a list of result batches.
+fn collect_ids(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Result<HashSet<i64>> {
+    let mut ids = HashSet::new();
+    for b in batches {
+        let id_arr = b
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .and_then(|c| c.as_any().downcast_ref::<Int64Array>())
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input("id column missing in result"))?;
+        for i in 0..id_arr.len() {
+            ids.insert(id_arr.value(i));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(ids)
+}
+
+/// Build a plain Lance dataset (no MemWAL) over `texts` with ids starting
+/// at `id_base`, plus a normal FTS index. Used as the read-phase
+/// comparison reference.
+async fn build_reference_dataset(
+    ref_uri: &str,
+    schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    texts: &[&str],
+    id_base: i64,
+    batch_rows: usize,
+) -> Result<f64> {
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(texts.len().div_ceil(batch_rows));
+    let mut lo = 0usize;
+    while lo < texts.len() {
+        let hi = (lo + batch_rows).min(texts.len());
+        batches.push(Ok(make_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            id_base + lo as i64,
+            &texts[lo..hi],
+        )));
+        lo = hi;
+    }
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter(), schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        ref_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[TEXT_COL],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some(FTS_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    Ok(start.elapsed().as_secs_f64())
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CLI
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn parse<T>(flag: &str, value: &str) -> Result<T>
+where
+    T: std::str::FromStr,
+    T::Err: std::fmt::Display,
+{
+    value
+        .parse()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid {flag}: {value} ({e})")))
+}
+
+fn parse_args() -> Result<Args> {
+    let mut args = Args::default();
+    let mut iter = std::env::args().skip(1);
+    while let Some(flag) = iter.next() {
+        if flag == "--bench" {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let value = iter
+            .next()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("missing value for {flag}")))?;
+        match flag.as_str() {
+            "--phase" => {
+                args.phase = Phase::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?
+            }
+            "--mode" => {
+                args.mode = Mode::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?
+            }
+            "--uri" => args.uri = Some(value),
+            "--seed-rows" => args.seed_rows = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--batch-rows" => args.batch_rows = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--calls" => args.calls = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--read-rows" => args.read_rows = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--max-memtable-rows" => {
+                let v: usize = parse(&flag, &value)?;
+                args.max_memtable_rows = (v != 0).then_some(v);
+            }
+            "--max-memtable-size" => args.max_memtable_size = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--max-unflushed-memtable-bytes" => {
+                args.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes = parse(&flag, &value)?
+            }
+            "--max-wal-flush-interval-ms" => args.max_wal_flush_interval_ms = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--target-rows-per-sec" => {
+                let v: f64 = parse(&flag, &value)?;
+                args.target_rows_per_sec = (v > 0.0).then_some(v);
+            }
+            "--cache-dir" => args.cache_dir = PathBuf::from(value),
+            "--num-token-queries" => args.num_token_queries = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--num-phrase-queries" => args.num_phrase_queries = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--top-k" => args.top_k = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--tokio-threads" => args.tokio_threads = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--output" => args.output = Some(PathBuf::from(value)),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "unknown argument: {flag}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if args.batch_rows == 0 || args.calls == 0 || args.seed_rows == 0 {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "seed-rows, batch-rows, calls must be > 0",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(args)
+}
+
+async fn run(args: Args) -> Result<()> {
+    let temp = if args.uri.is_none() {
+        Some(tempfile::tempdir().map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("tempdir: {e}")))?)
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    let uri = match &args.uri {
+        Some(u) => u.clone(),
+        None => temp
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .path()
+            .join("fineweb_fts.lance")
+            .display()
+            .to_string(),
+    };
+
+    println!(
+        "bench=mem_wal_fineweb_fts phase={} mode={} uri={} seed_rows={} batch_rows={} calls={} read_rows={} max_memtable_rows={:?}",
+        args.phase.as_str(),
+        args.mode.as_str(),
+        uri,
+        args.seed_rows,
+        args.batch_rows,
+        args.calls,
+        args.read_rows,
+        args.max_memtable_rows,
+    );
+
+    // Corpus size differs by phase: the write phase seeds with
+    // `seed_rows` and cycles the ingest pool; the read phase uses only a
+    // tiny `READ_SEED_ROWS` seed plus `read_rows` ingested rows.
+    let corpus_rows = match args.phase {
+        Phase::Write => (args.seed_rows + args.calls * args.batch_rows).min(2_000_000),
+        Phase::Read => (READ_SEED_ROWS + args.read_rows).min(2_000_000),
+    };
+    let corpus = load_corpus(corpus_rows, &args.cache_dir).await?;
+
+    let result = match args.phase {
+        Phase::Write => run_write(&args, &uri, &corpus).await?,
+        Phase::Read => run_read(&args, &uri, &corpus).await?,
+    };
+
+    let text = serde_json::to_string_pretty(&result)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("serialize: {e}")))?;
+    println!("{text}");
+    if let Some(path) = &args.output {
+        if let Some(parent) = path.parent()
+            && !parent.as_os_str().is_empty()
+        {
+            std::fs::create_dir_all(parent).ok();
+        }
+        std::fs::write(path, text.as_bytes())
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write {}: {e}", path.display())))?;
+    }
+    println!("=== DONE ===");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let args = parse_args()?;
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+        .worker_threads(args.tokio_threads.max(1))
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("build runtime: {e}")))?;
+    runtime.block_on(run(args))
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fts_bench.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fts_bench.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f4b5b93a80c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fts_bench.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,836 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Lance `FtsMemIndex` microbenchmark — the Lance side of the FTS-vs-Lucene
+//! comparison (sibling of `mem_wal_hnsw_bench` for the HNSW-vs-hnswlib one).
+//!
+//! Two sub-commands:
+//!
+//!   gen   — slice a FineWeb corpus and write the shared comparison inputs:
+//!             corpus.txt        one raw document per line
+//!             corpus_tok.txt    one canonically-tokenized document per line
+//!             queries.txt       <type>\t<raw>\t<tok> per line (term|phrase)
+//!             truth.txt         exact-BM25 top-k doc ids per query (Run A)
+//!           Both this bench and the Lucene bench consume these files, so the
+//!           inputs are bit-identical.
+//!
+//!   bench — build a `FtsMemIndex` over the corpus and measure build
+//!           throughput, term/phrase query latency + QPS, recall@k, memory.
+//!           --run a  pre-tokenized: corpus_tok.txt + a whitespace tokenizer
+//!                    (isolates the inverted index + BM25 scorer).
+//!           --run b  native: corpus.txt + the default Lance tokenizer.
+//!
+//! Emits one `result ...` human line and one JSON line tagged
+//! `impl=lance_fts`, matching the `mem_wal_hnsw_bench` output convention.
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::io::{BufRead, BufWriter, Write};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, Int64Array, RecordBatch, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::index::{FtsMemIndex, FtsQueryExpr, SearchOptions};
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+use lance_tokenizer::TokenStream;
+use parquet::arrow::async_reader::ParquetRecordBatchStreamBuilder;
+use rayon::prelude::*;
+
+const TEXT_COL: &str = "text";
+const HF_API_LISTING: &str =
+    "https://huggingface.co/api/datasets/HuggingFaceFW/fineweb/tree/main/sample/10BT";
+const HF_FILE_BASE: &str = "https://huggingface.co/datasets/HuggingFaceFW/fineweb/resolve/main/";
+const BM25_K1: f64 = 1.2;
+const BM25_B: f64 = 0.75;
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// HuggingFace FineWeb loading (gen mode only)
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(serde::Deserialize)]
+struct HfTreeEntry {
+    #[serde(rename = "type")]
+    kind: String,
+    path: String,
+}
+
+async fn list_shard_paths() -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let entries: Vec<HfTreeEntry> = reqwest::get(HF_API_LISTING)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("listing HTTP: {e}")))?
+        .json()
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("listing JSON: {e}")))?;
+    let mut shards: Vec<String> = entries
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|e| e.kind == "file" && e.path.ends_with(".parquet"))
+        .map(|e| e.path)
+        .collect();
+    shards.sort();
+    Ok(shards)
+}
+
+async fn download_shard(rel_path: &str, dest: &std::path::Path) -> Result<()> {
+    if dest.exists() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let url = format!("{HF_FILE_BASE}{rel_path}");
+    let tmp = dest.with_extension("part");
+    for attempt in 1..=5u32 {
+        println!("downloading {rel_path} (attempt {attempt}/5) ...");
+        let r: Result<bytes::Bytes> = async {
+            let resp = reqwest::get(&url)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("HTTP: {e}")))?;
+            if !resp.status().is_success() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io(format!("status {}", resp.status())));
+            }
+            resp.bytes()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("body: {e}")))
+        }
+        .await;
+        match r {
+            Ok(bytes) => {
+                std::fs::write(&tmp, &bytes)
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write: {e}")))?;
+                std::fs::rename(&tmp, dest)
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("rename: {e}")))?;
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            Err(e) if attempt < 5 => {
+                eprintln!("  retry: {e}");
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_secs(2u64.pow(attempt))).await;
+            }
+            Err(e) => return Err(e),
+        }
+    }
+    unreachable!()
+}
+
+async fn read_shard_text(
+    path: &std::path::Path,
+    out: &mut Vec<String>,
+    max_rows: usize,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let file = tokio::fs::File::open(path)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("open parquet: {e}")))?;
+    let mut stream = ParquetRecordBatchStreamBuilder::new(file)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet builder: {e}")))?
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet stream: {e}")))?;
+    let mut taken = 0usize;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    while taken < max_rows {
+        let Some(rb) = stream
+            .try_next()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet read: {e}")))?
+        else {
+            break;
+        };
+        let col = rb
+            .column_by_name("text")
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("text column missing".to_string()))?;
+        let strs = col
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("text not StringArray".to_string()))?;
+        for i in 0..strs.len() {
+            if taken >= max_rows {
+                break;
+            }
+            if !strs.is_null(i) {
+                out.push(strs.value(i).to_string());
+                taken += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(taken)
+}
+
+async fn load_fineweb(docs: usize, cache_dir: &std::path::Path) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(cache_dir)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("mkdir cache: {e}")))?;
+    let shards = list_shard_paths().await?;
+    let mut buf: Vec<String> = Vec::with_capacity(docs);
+    for rel in &shards {
+        if buf.len() >= docs {
+            break;
+        }
+        let name = rel.rsplit('/').next().unwrap_or(rel);
+        let local = cache_dir.join(name);
+        download_shard(rel, &local).await?;
+        let want = docs - buf.len();
+        let got = read_shard_text(&local, &mut buf, want).await?;
+        println!("  shard {name}: {got} docs (total {})", buf.len());
+    }
+    if buf.len() < docs {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+            "fineweb yielded {} docs, need {docs}",
+            buf.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(buf)
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// gen
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn one_line(s: &str) -> String {
+    s.replace(['\n', '\r', '\t'], " ")
+}
+
+/// Canonical tokenizer used to produce `corpus_tok.txt` and the `tok` query
+/// field. Both the Lance Run-A and Lucene Run-A indexes consume its output
+/// verbatim (via a whitespace analyzer), so the choice does not bias either
+/// side — it only fixes a single shared token stream.
+fn canonical_tokenize(
+    tokenizer: &mut dyn lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer,
+    text: &str,
+) -> Vec<String> {
+    let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(text);
+    let mut out = Vec::new();
+    while let Some(t) = stream.next() {
+        out.push(t.text.clone());
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+async fn run_gen(args: &GenArgs) -> Result<()> {
+    let raw = load_fineweb(args.docs, &args.cache_dir).await?;
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&args.out_dir)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("mkdir out: {e}")))?;
+
+    let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .build()
+        .expect("default tokenizer builds");
+
+    // corpus.txt + corpus_tok.txt
+    let corpus_path = args.out_dir.join("corpus.txt");
+    let tok_path = args.out_dir.join("corpus_tok.txt");
+    let mut corpus_w = BufWriter::new(
+        std::fs::File::create(&corpus_path)
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("create corpus.txt: {e}")))?,
+    );
+    let mut tok_w = BufWriter::new(
+        std::fs::File::create(&tok_path)
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("create corpus_tok.txt: {e}")))?,
+    );
+    let mut tok_docs: Vec<Vec<String>> = Vec::with_capacity(raw.len());
+    for doc in &raw {
+        writeln!(corpus_w, "{}", one_line(doc)).ok();
+        let toks = canonical_tokenize(tokenizer.as_mut(), doc);
+        writeln!(tok_w, "{}", toks.join(" ")).ok();
+        tok_docs.push(toks);
+    }
+    corpus_w.flush().ok();
+    tok_w.flush().ok();
+    println!("wrote {} docs to corpus.txt / corpus_tok.txt", raw.len());
+
+    // Term + phrase queries sampled from the canonical token stream.
+    let queries = build_query_set(&tok_docs, args);
+    let q_path = args.out_dir.join("queries.txt");
+    let mut q_w = BufWriter::new(
+        std::fs::File::create(&q_path)
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("create queries.txt: {e}")))?,
+    );
+    for q in &queries {
+        // raw == tok here: queries are sampled from canonical tokens. The
+        // column is kept for format stability with the Lucene bench.
+        writeln!(q_w, "{}\t{}\t{}", q.kind, q.text, q.text).ok();
+    }
+    q_w.flush().ok();
+    println!("wrote {} queries to queries.txt", queries.len());
+
+    // Exact-BM25 ground truth over the pre-tokenized corpus (Run A).
+    let truth = exact_bm25_truth(&tok_docs, &queries, args.k);
+    let t_path = args.out_dir.join("truth.txt");
+    let mut t_w = BufWriter::new(
+        std::fs::File::create(&t_path)
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("create truth.txt: {e}")))?,
+    );
+    for ids in &truth {
+        let line: Vec<String> = ids.iter().map(|i| i.to_string()).collect();
+        writeln!(t_w, "{}", line.join(" ")).ok();
+    }
+    t_w.flush().ok();
+    println!(
+        "wrote exact-BM25 truth for {} queries to truth.txt",
+        truth.len()
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+struct Query {
+    kind: &'static str, // "term" | "phrase" | "or"
+    text: String,       // term: one token; phrase/or: space-joined tokens
+}
+
+const STOPWORDS: &[&str] = &[
+    "the", "a", "an", "and", "or", "of", "to", "in", "on", "for", "with", "as", "by", "is", "was",
+    "are", "were", "be", "this", "that", "it", "its", "but", "not", "no", "if", "from", "at",
+];
+
+fn build_query_set(tok_docs: &[Vec<String>], args: &GenArgs) -> Vec<Query> {
+    // Term queries: mid-frequency tokens (skip the most common — their
+    // top-k is an unstable near-tie, as the FineWeb panel showed).
+    let mut freq: HashMap<&str, u64> = HashMap::new();
+    for d in tok_docs {
+        for t in d {
+            if t.len() >= 3 && !STOPWORDS.contains(&t.as_str()) {
+                *freq.entry(t.as_str()).or_default() += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let mut by_freq: Vec<(&str, u64)> = freq.into_iter().collect();
+    by_freq.sort_by(|a, b| b.1.cmp(&a.1).then(a.0.cmp(b.0)));
+    let skip = (by_freq.len() / 4).min(300);
+    let mut queries: Vec<Query> = by_freq
+        .iter()
+        .skip(skip)
+        .take(args.num_term_queries)
+        .map(|(t, _)| Query {
+            kind: "term",
+            text: (*t).to_string(),
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    // Phrase queries: two adjacent non-stopword tokens, sampled on a stride.
+    let stride = (tok_docs.len().max(1) / args.num_phrase_queries.max(1)).max(1);
+    let mut idx = 0usize;
+    while queries.iter().filter(|q| q.kind == "phrase").count() < args.num_phrase_queries
+        && idx < tok_docs.len()
+    {
+        let d = &tok_docs[idx];
+        for w in d.windows(2) {
+            if w[0].len() >= 3
+                && w[1].len() >= 3
+                && !STOPWORDS.contains(&w[0].as_str())
+                && !STOPWORDS.contains(&w[1].as_str())
+            {
+                queries.push(Query {
+                    kind: "phrase",
+                    text: format!("{} {}", w[0], w[1]),
+                });
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        idx += stride;
+    }
+
+    // OR (multi-term) queries: 3 mid-frequency tokens joined, matched as a
+    // SHOULD/OR — exercises the multi-term block-max WAND. Use tokens past the
+    // term-query slice so they are distinct from the single-term set.
+    let mid: Vec<&str> = by_freq.iter().skip(skip).map(|(t, _)| *t).collect();
+    let mut oi = args.num_term_queries;
+    for _ in 0..args.num_or_queries {
+        if oi + 3 > mid.len() {
+            break;
+        }
+        queries.push(Query {
+            kind: "or",
+            text: format!("{} {} {}", mid[oi], mid[oi + 1], mid[oi + 2]),
+        });
+        oi += 3;
+    }
+    queries
+}
+
+/// Brute-force exact BM25 top-k over the pre-tokenized corpus.
+fn exact_bm25_truth(tok_docs: &[Vec<String>], queries: &[Query], k: usize) -> Vec<Vec<usize>> {
+    let n = tok_docs.len() as f64;
+    let dl: Vec<f64> = tok_docs.iter().map(|d| d.len() as f64).collect();
+    let avgdl = dl.iter().sum::<f64>() / n.max(1.0);
+    // postings: token -> Vec<(doc, tf)>
+    let mut postings: HashMap<&str, Vec<(usize, u32)>> = HashMap::new();
+    for (doc, toks) in tok_docs.iter().enumerate() {
+        let mut tf: HashMap<&str, u32> = HashMap::new();
+        for t in toks {
+            *tf.entry(t.as_str()).or_default() += 1;
+        }
+        for (t, c) in tf {
+            postings.entry(t).or_default().push((doc, c));
+        }
+    }
+    let term_score = |tf: f64, df: f64, d: f64| -> f64 {
+        let idf = ((n - df + 0.5) / (df + 0.5) + 1.0).ln();
+        let num = tf * (BM25_K1 + 1.0);
+        let den = tf + BM25_K1 * (1.0 - BM25_B + BM25_B * (d / avgdl));
+        idf * (num / den)
+    };
+    queries
+        .iter()
+        .map(|q| {
+            let mut scores: HashMap<usize, f64> = HashMap::new();
+            if q.kind != "phrase" {
+                // term (1 token) or or (multi-token): sum each token's BM25.
+                for word in q.text.split(' ') {
+                    if let Some(pl) = postings.get(word) {
+                        let df = pl.len() as f64;
+                        for &(doc, tf) in pl {
+                            *scores.entry(doc).or_default() += term_score(tf as f64, df, dl[doc]);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                let words: Vec<&str> = q.text.split(' ').collect();
+                // Phrase: docs where the two tokens occur adjacently.
+                for (doc, toks) in tok_docs.iter().enumerate() {
+                    let adjacent = toks
+                        .windows(2)
+                        .any(|w| w[0] == words[0] && w[1] == words[1]);
+                    if !adjacent {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let mut s = 0.0;
+                    for w in &words {
+                        if let Some(pl) = postings.get(*w) {
+                            let df = pl.len() as f64;
+                            if let Some(&(_, tf)) = pl.iter().find(|&&(d, _)| d == doc) {
+                                s += term_score(tf as f64, df, dl[doc]);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    scores.insert(doc, s);
+                }
+            }
+            let mut ranked: Vec<(usize, f64)> = scores.into_iter().collect();
+            ranked.sort_by(|a, b| b.1.partial_cmp(&a.1).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+            ranked.truncate(k);
+            ranked.into_iter().map(|(d, _)| d).collect()
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// bench
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn read_lines(path: &std::path::Path) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let f = std::fs::File::open(path)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("open {}: {e}", path.display())))?;
+    std::io::BufReader::new(f)
+        .lines()
+        .collect::<std::io::Result<Vec<_>>>()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("read {}: {e}", path.display())))
+}
+
+fn schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+        Field::new(TEXT_COL, DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn percentile(sorted: &[f64], pct: f64) -> f64 {
+    if sorted.is_empty() {
+        return f64::NAN;
+    }
+    let idx = ((pct / 100.0) * (sorted.len() - 1) as f64).round() as usize;
+    sorted[idx.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+fn run_bench(args: &BenchArgs) -> Result<()> {
+    let corpus_file = match args.run {
+        'a' => "corpus_tok.txt",
+        _ => "corpus.txt",
+    };
+    let docs = read_lines(&args.in_dir.join(corpus_file))?;
+    let query_lines = read_lines(&args.in_dir.join("queries.txt"))?;
+    let truth_lines = read_lines(&args.in_dir.join("truth.txt"))?;
+
+    // Run A indexes the already-tokenized text with a whitespace tokenizer;
+    // Run B indexes raw text with the default Lance tokenizer.
+    let params = if args.run == 'a' {
+        InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .base_tokenizer("whitespace".to_string())
+            .lower_case(false)
+            .stem(false)
+            .remove_stop_words(false)
+            .with_position(args.with_position)
+    } else {
+        InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(args.with_position)
+    };
+    let mut index = FtsMemIndex::with_params(0, TEXT_COL.to_string(), params);
+    if let Some(rows) = args.freeze_threshold {
+        index = index.with_freeze_threshold_rows(rows);
+    }
+    let sch = schema();
+
+    // Build: insert in batches of 1000, doc id == line number == row position.
+    let build_start = Instant::now();
+    let batch_size = 1000;
+    let mut row = 0usize;
+    while row < docs.len() {
+        let end = (row + batch_size).min(docs.len());
+        let ids: Vec<i64> = (row as i64..end as i64).collect();
+        let texts: Vec<&str> = docs[row..end].iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            sch.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("batch: {e}")))?;
+        index.insert(&batch, row as u64)?;
+        row = end;
+    }
+    // Immutable-read mode flushes the tail into a segment (Lucene-commit
+    // analogue) so an `include_tail = false` query sees every row; counted in
+    // build time as Lucene counts its final commit.
+    if args.immutable {
+        index.flush();
+    }
+    let build_s = build_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+
+    let (nparts, t_terms, t_post, t_blk, t_df, t_pos, t_docs, t_tail) = index.memory_breakdown();
+    let mb = |b: usize| b as f64 / 1.0e6;
+    eprintln!(
+        "mem_breakdown parts={nparts} term_str={:.1} postings={:.1} block_meta={:.1} \
+         doc_freq={:.1} pos={:.1} docs={:.1} tail={:.1} (MB)",
+        mb(t_terms),
+        mb(t_post),
+        mb(t_blk),
+        mb(t_df),
+        mb(t_pos),
+        mb(t_docs),
+        mb(t_tail),
+    );
+
+    // Parse queries.
+    struct Q {
+        kind: String,
+        raw: String,
+        tok: String,
+    }
+    let queries: Vec<Q> = query_lines
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|l| {
+            let mut p = l.splitn(3, '\t');
+            Some(Q {
+                kind: p.next()?.to_string(),
+                raw: p.next()?.to_string(),
+                tok: p.next()?.to_string(),
+            })
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let truth: Vec<Vec<usize>> = truth_lines
+        .iter()
+        .map(|l| {
+            l.split_whitespace()
+                .filter_map(|s| s.parse().ok())
+                .collect()
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    // Without positions, phrase search is unsupported — drop phrase queries so
+    // both sides measure the same (term-only) workload apples-to-apples.
+    let (queries, truth): (Vec<Q>, Vec<Vec<usize>>) = if args.with_position {
+        (queries, truth)
+    } else {
+        queries
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(truth)
+            .filter(|(q, _)| q.kind != "phrase")
+            .unzip()
+    };
+
+    let opts = SearchOptions::new()
+        .with_limit(args.k)
+        .with_include_tail(!args.immutable)
+        .with_tail_skip(!args.no_tail_skip);
+    let make_query = |q: &Q| -> FtsQueryExpr {
+        let text = if args.run == 'a' { &q.tok } else { &q.raw };
+        if q.kind == "phrase" {
+            FtsQueryExpr::phrase(text.clone())
+        } else {
+            FtsQueryExpr::match_query(text.clone())
+        }
+    };
+
+    // Warm-up.
+    for q in &queries {
+        let _ = index.search_with_options(&make_query(q), opts.clone());
+    }
+
+    // Single-thread latency + collect top-k.
+    let mut latencies_us: Vec<f64> = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+    let mut topk: Vec<Vec<usize>> = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+    let st_start = Instant::now();
+    for q in &queries {
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        let hits = index.search_with_options(&make_query(q), opts.clone());
+        latencies_us.push(t0.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1.0e6);
+        let mut ids: Vec<(usize, f32)> = hits
+            .iter()
+            .map(|e| (e.row_position as usize, e.score))
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort_by(|a, b| b.1.partial_cmp(&a.1).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+        ids.truncate(args.k);
+        topk.push(ids.into_iter().map(|(d, _)| d).collect());
+    }
+    let st_s = st_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let qps_1t = queries.len() as f64 / st_s;
+
+    // Multi-thread QPS.
+    let reps = 4usize;
+    let mt_start = Instant::now();
+    let _: usize = (0..reps)
+        .into_par_iter()
+        .map(|_| {
+            queries
+                .par_iter()
+                .map(|q| {
+                    index
+                        .search_with_options(&make_query(q), opts.clone())
+                        .len()
+                })
+                .sum::<usize>()
+        })
+        .sum();
+    let mt_s = mt_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let qps_nt = (queries.len() * reps) as f64 / mt_s;
+
+    // recall@k vs exact BM25 (Run A only — truth is over the canonical corpus).
+    let (mut term_recall, mut term_n) = (0.0f64, 0usize);
+    let (mut phrase_recall, mut phrase_n) = (0.0f64, 0usize);
+    let (mut or_recall, mut or_n) = (0.0f64, 0usize);
+    if args.run == 'a' {
+        for (i, q) in queries.iter().enumerate() {
+            let t: std::collections::HashSet<usize> = truth
+                .get(i)
+                .map(|v| v.iter().copied().collect())
+                .unwrap_or_default();
+            if t.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let hit = topk[i].iter().filter(|d| t.contains(d)).count() as f64;
+            let r = hit / args.k as f64;
+            match q.kind.as_str() {
+                "phrase" => {
+                    phrase_recall += r;
+                    phrase_n += 1;
+                }
+                "or" => {
+                    or_recall += r;
+                    or_n += 1;
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    term_recall += r;
+                    term_n += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Write this impl's top-k for the driver's mutual-overlap computation.
+    let topk_path = args
+        .in_dir
+        .join(format!("lance_fts_run{}_topk.txt", args.run));
+    let mut tw = BufWriter::new(
+        std::fs::File::create(&topk_path)
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("create topk: {e}")))?,
+    );
+    for ids in &topk {
+        let s: Vec<String> = ids.iter().map(|i| i.to_string()).collect();
+        writeln!(tw, "{}", s.join(" ")).ok();
+    }
+    tw.flush().ok();
+
+    latencies_us.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    let term_recall_v = if term_n > 0 {
+        term_recall / term_n as f64
+    } else {
+        f64::NAN
+    };
+    let phrase_recall_v = if phrase_n > 0 {
+        phrase_recall / phrase_n as f64
+    } else {
+        f64::NAN
+    };
+    let or_recall_v = if or_n > 0 {
+        or_recall / or_n as f64
+    } else {
+        f64::NAN
+    };
+
+    // Per-query-type latency split via a second timing pass, bucketed by kind
+    // (`latencies_us` was sorted above for the overall percentile, so it can no
+    // longer be zipped with `queries` in query order).
+    let mut term_lat: Vec<f64> = Vec::new();
+    let mut phrase_lat: Vec<f64> = Vec::new();
+    let mut or_lat: Vec<f64> = Vec::new();
+    for q in &queries {
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        let _ = index.search_with_options(&make_query(q), opts.clone());
+        let lat = t0.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1.0e6;
+        match q.kind.as_str() {
+            "phrase" => phrase_lat.push(lat),
+            "or" => or_lat.push(lat),
+            _ => term_lat.push(lat),
+        }
+    }
+    term_lat.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap());
+    phrase_lat.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap());
+    or_lat.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap());
+    let pct = |v: &[f64], p: f64| {
+        if v.is_empty() {
+            f64::NAN
+        } else {
+            percentile(v, p)
+        }
+    };
+    println!(
+        "result split: term_p50={:.1} term_p95={:.1} ({} q) | phrase_p50={:.1} phrase_p95={:.1} ({} q) | or_p50={:.1} or_p95={:.1} ({} q)",
+        pct(&term_lat, 50.0),
+        pct(&term_lat, 95.0),
+        term_lat.len(),
+        pct(&phrase_lat, 50.0),
+        pct(&phrase_lat, 95.0),
+        phrase_lat.len(),
+        pct(&or_lat, 50.0),
+        pct(&or_lat, 95.0),
+        or_lat.len(),
+    );
+
+    println!(
+        "result impl=lance_fts run={} docs={} queries={} build_s={:.3} build_docs_per_s={:.0} \
+         q_p50_us={:.1} q_p95_us={:.1} qps_1t={:.0} qps_{}t={:.0} \
+         term_recall={:.4} phrase_recall={:.4} mem_mb={:.1}",
+        args.run,
+        docs.len(),
+        queries.len(),
+        build_s,
+        docs.len() as f64 / build_s,
+        percentile(&latencies_us, 50.0),
+        percentile(&latencies_us, 95.0),
+        qps_1t,
+        rayon::current_num_threads(),
+        qps_nt,
+        term_recall_v,
+        phrase_recall_v,
+        index.resident_bytes_exact() as f64 / 1.0e6,
+    );
+    println!(
+        "{{\"impl\":\"lance_fts\",\"run\":\"{}\",\"docs\":{},\"queries\":{},\"k\":{},\
+         \"build_s\":{:.4},\"build_docs_per_s\":{:.1},\
+         \"q_p50_us\":{:.2},\"q_p95_us\":{:.2},\"qps_1t\":{:.1},\"qps_nt\":{:.1},\
+         \"term_recall_at_k\":{:.4},\"phrase_recall_at_k\":{:.4},\"or_recall_at_k\":{:.4},\"mem_bytes\":{}}}",
+        args.run,
+        docs.len(),
+        queries.len(),
+        args.k,
+        build_s,
+        docs.len() as f64 / build_s,
+        percentile(&latencies_us, 50.0),
+        percentile(&latencies_us, 95.0),
+        qps_1t,
+        qps_nt,
+        term_recall_v,
+        phrase_recall_v,
+        or_recall_v,
+        index.resident_bytes_exact(),
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CLI
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+struct GenArgs {
+    docs: usize,
+    out_dir: std::path::PathBuf,
+    cache_dir: std::path::PathBuf,
+    num_term_queries: usize,
+    num_phrase_queries: usize,
+    num_or_queries: usize,
+    k: usize,
+}
+
+struct BenchArgs {
+    in_dir: std::path::PathBuf,
+    run: char,
+    k: usize,
+    /// Read only immutable segments (flush the tail, `include_tail = false`) —
+    /// the Lucene model. Default false keeps read-your-writes (tail included).
+    immutable: bool,
+    /// Override the tail freeze threshold (docs); large values keep a big
+    /// mutable tail to expose tail-read cost. None = index default.
+    freeze_threshold: Option<usize>,
+    /// Index token positions (enables phrase). `--no-positions` turns this off
+    /// for an apples-to-apples term-only comparison against Lucene
+    /// `DOCS_AND_FREQS`. Default true.
+    with_position: bool,
+    /// Disable block-max tail pruning (`--no-tail-skip`) to A/B the tail-skip
+    /// optimization: forces a full visible-tail scan on every top-k query.
+    /// Default false (pruning on).
+    no_tail_skip: bool,
+}
+
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let argv: Vec<String> = std::env::args().skip(1).collect();
+    let argv: Vec<&str> = argv
+        .iter()
+        .map(|s| s.as_str())
+        .filter(|s| *s != "--bench")
+        .collect();
+    let mode = argv.first().copied().unwrap_or("");
+    let get = |flag: &str, def: &str| -> String {
+        argv.iter()
+            .position(|a| *a == flag)
+            .and_then(|i| argv.get(i + 1))
+            .map(|s| s.to_string())
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| def.to_string())
+    };
+
+    match mode {
+        "gen" => {
+            let args = GenArgs {
+                docs: get("--docs", "1000000").parse().unwrap(),
+                out_dir: get("--out-dir", "/tmp/fts_compare").into(),
+                cache_dir: get("--cache-dir", "/tmp/fineweb_cache").into(),
+                num_term_queries: get("--num-term-queries", "100").parse().unwrap(),
+                num_phrase_queries: get("--num-phrase-queries", "50").parse().unwrap(),
+                num_or_queries: get("--num-or-queries", "50").parse().unwrap(),
+                k: get("--k", "10").parse().unwrap(),
+            };
+            let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new()
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("runtime: {e}")))?;
+            rt.block_on(run_gen(&args))
+        }
+        "bench" => {
+            let threads: usize = get("--threads", "0").parse().unwrap();
+            if threads > 0 {
+                let _ = rayon::ThreadPoolBuilder::new()
+                    .num_threads(threads)
+                    .build_global();
+            }
+            let args = BenchArgs {
+                in_dir: get("--in-dir", "/tmp/fts_compare").into(),
+                run: get("--run", "a").chars().next().unwrap_or('a'),
+                k: get("--k", "10").parse().unwrap(),
+                immutable: argv.contains(&"--immutable"),
+                freeze_threshold: argv
+                    .iter()
+                    .position(|a| *a == "--freeze-threshold")
+                    .and_then(|i| argv.get(i + 1))
+                    .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok()),
+                with_position: !argv.contains(&"--no-positions"),
+                no_tail_skip: argv.contains(&"--no-tail-skip"),
+            };
+            run_bench(&args)
+        }
+        other => Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "usage: mem_wal_fts_bench (gen|bench) [...]; got '{other}'"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fts_read_bench.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fts_read_bench.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a90b5666356
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/mem_wal_fts_read_bench.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,883 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Standalone CLI benchmark for FTS read across LSM levels.
+//!
+//! Sibling of `mem_wal_vector_bench.rs` / `mem_wal_point_lookup_bench.rs`:
+//! same `--phase prepare|search` shape, same `ShardWriter`-based ingestion
+//! of SSTables + an active memtable, same `--uri` cloud/local
+//! detection, and the same JSON output contract. The payload is real
+//! HuggingFace FineWeb `text` and the query path is
+//! [`LsmFtsSearchPlanner`] (local scoring) over the base table + SSTables
+//! + active memtable.
+//!
+//! Each `search` invocation times a query set against the LSM hierarchy
+//! and reports latency percentiles. With `--with-baseline`, it also builds
+//! a single-merged-index ground truth (all rows in one Lance dataset with
+//! one FTS index, queried via `scanner.full_text_search`) and reports the
+//! top-k Jaccard between local-LSM scoring and the merged index — i.e. how
+//! far per-source local BM25 drifts from a globally-consistent ranking.
+//! The merged baseline is always built on local disk under `--cache-dir`,
+//! independent of the LSM `--uri` storage tier.
+//!
+//! Two phases, selected with `--phase`:
+//!
+//!   --phase prepare   Load FineWeb text, write the base dataset, create an
+//!                     inverted (FTS) index, and initialize MemWAL with the
+//!                     index maintained.
+//!   --phase search    Ingest rows across LSM levels via ShardWriter, then run
+//!                     the local-scoring FTS query panel (+ optional baseline).
+//!
+//! Example:
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_fts_read_bench -- \
+//!   --phase prepare --uri /tmp/fts_read_bench \
+//!   --base-rows 1000000 --cache-dir /tmp/fineweb-cache
+//!
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_fts_read_bench -- \
+//!   --phase search --uri /tmp/fts_read_bench \
+//!   --base-rows 1000000 --max-memtable-rows 100000 \
+//!   --queries 200 --k 10 --with-baseline \
+//!   --cache-dir /tmp/fineweb-cache --output result.json
+//! ```
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{
+    LsmDataSourceCollector, LsmFtsSearchPlanner, ShardSnapshot,
+};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, ShardWriterConfig};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+use lance_tokenizer::TokenStream;
+use parquet::arrow::async_reader::ParquetRecordBatchStreamBuilder;
+use serde_json::json;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const TEXT_COL: &str = "text";
+const FTS_INDEX_NAME: &str = "text_fts";
+const HF_API_LISTING: &str =
+    "https://huggingface.co/api/datasets/HuggingFaceFW/fineweb/tree/main/sample/10BT";
+const HF_FILE_BASE: &str = "https://huggingface.co/datasets/HuggingFaceFW/fineweb/resolve/main/";
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Phase / Args
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum Phase {
+    Prepare,
+    Search,
+}
+
+impl Phase {
+    fn parse(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match value {
+            "prepare" => Ok(Self::Prepare),
+            "search" => Ok(Self::Search),
+            _ => Err(format!("unknown phase '{value}', expected prepare|search")),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Prepare => "prepare",
+            Self::Search => "search",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct Args {
+    phase: Phase,
+    uri: String,
+    base_rows: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: usize,
+    sstables: usize,
+    batch_rows: usize,
+    queries: usize,
+    k: usize,
+    /// Build a single-merged-index ground truth and report the top-k
+    /// Jaccard between local-LSM scoring and the merged index.
+    with_baseline: bool,
+    cache_dir: PathBuf,
+    output: Option<PathBuf>,
+}
+
+impl Default for Args {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            phase: Phase::Search,
+            uri: String::new(),
+            base_rows: 1_000_000,
+            max_memtable_rows: 100_000,
+            sstables: 2,
+            batch_rows: 1_000,
+            queries: 200,
+            k: 10,
+            with_baseline: false,
+            cache_dir: std::env::temp_dir().join("mem_wal_fineweb_fts_cache"),
+            output: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_val<T>(flag: &str, value: &str) -> Result<T>
+where
+    T: std::str::FromStr,
+    T::Err: std::fmt::Display,
+{
+    value
+        .parse()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid {flag}: {value} ({e})")))
+}
+
+fn parse_args() -> Result<Args> {
+    let mut args = Args::default();
+    let mut iter = std::env::args().skip(1);
+    let mut has_phase = false;
+    let mut has_uri = false;
+    while let Some(flag) = iter.next() {
+        if flag == "--bench" {
+            continue;
+        }
+        // Value-less boolean flags handled before consuming a value.
+        if flag == "--with-baseline" {
+            args.with_baseline = true;
+            continue;
+        }
+        let value = iter
+            .next()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("missing value for {flag}")))?;
+        match flag.as_str() {
+            "--phase" => {
+                args.phase = Phase::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?;
+                has_phase = true;
+            }
+            "--uri" => {
+                args.uri = value;
+                has_uri = true;
+            }
+            "--base-rows" => args.base_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--max-memtable-rows" => args.max_memtable_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--sstables" => args.sstables = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--batch-rows" => args.batch_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--queries" => args.queries = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--k" => args.k = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--cache-dir" => args.cache_dir = PathBuf::from(value),
+            "--output" => args.output = Some(PathBuf::from(value)),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "unknown argument: {flag}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if !has_phase {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "--phase is required (prepare|search)",
+        ));
+    }
+    if !has_uri {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input("--uri is required"));
+    }
+    if args.batch_rows == 0 || args.base_rows == 0 || args.max_memtable_rows == 0 {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "base-rows, max-memtable-rows, batch-rows must be > 0",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(args)
+}
+
+fn is_cloud_uri(uri: &str) -> bool {
+    uri.starts_with("s3://") || uri.starts_with("gs://") || uri.starts_with("az://")
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// FineWeb loading (mirrors mem_wal_fineweb_fts.rs)
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(serde::Deserialize)]
+struct HfTreeEntry {
+    #[serde(rename = "type")]
+    kind: String,
+    path: String,
+}
+
+async fn list_shard_paths() -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let entries: Vec<HfTreeEntry> = reqwest::get(HF_API_LISTING)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("listing HTTP: {e}")))?
+        .json()
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("listing JSON: {e}")))?;
+    let mut shards: Vec<String> = entries
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|e| e.kind == "file" && e.path.ends_with(".parquet"))
+        .map(|e| e.path)
+        .collect();
+    shards.sort();
+    Ok(shards)
+}
+
+async fn download_shard(rel_path: &str, dest: &std::path::Path) -> Result<()> {
+    if dest.exists() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let url = format!("{HF_FILE_BASE}{rel_path}");
+    let tmp = dest.with_extension("part");
+    for attempt in 1..=5u32 {
+        println!("downloading {rel_path} (attempt {attempt}/5) ...");
+        let result: Result<bytes::Bytes> = async {
+            let resp = reqwest::get(&url)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("download HTTP: {e}")))?;
+            if !resp.status().is_success() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+                    "download {url} -> status {}",
+                    resp.status()
+                )));
+            }
+            resp.bytes()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("read body: {e}")))
+        }
+        .await;
+        match result {
+            Ok(bytes) => {
+                std::fs::write(&tmp, &bytes)
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write: {e}")))?;
+                std::fs::rename(&tmp, dest)
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("rename: {e}")))?;
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            Err(e) if attempt < 5 => {
+                eprintln!("  attempt {attempt} failed: {e}; retrying");
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_secs(2u64.pow(attempt))).await;
+            }
+            Err(e) => return Err(e),
+        }
+    }
+    unreachable!()
+}
+
+async fn read_shard_text(
+    path: &std::path::Path,
+    out: &mut Vec<String>,
+    max_rows: usize,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let file = tokio::fs::File::open(path)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("open parquet: {e}")))?;
+    let builder = ParquetRecordBatchStreamBuilder::new(file)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet builder: {e}")))?;
+    let mut stream = builder
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet stream: {e}")))?;
+    let mut taken = 0usize;
+    while taken < max_rows {
+        let Some(rb) = stream
+            .try_next()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet read: {e}")))?
+        else {
+            break;
+        };
+        let col = rb
+            .column_by_name(TEXT_COL)
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("text column missing".to_string()))?;
+        let strs = col
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("text not StringArray".to_string()))?;
+        for i in 0..strs.len() {
+            if taken >= max_rows {
+                break;
+            }
+            if strs.is_null(i) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            out.push(strs.value(i).to_string());
+            taken += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(taken)
+}
+
+async fn load_corpus(needed_rows: usize, cache_dir: &std::path::Path) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(cache_dir)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("mkdir cache: {e}")))?;
+    let shards = list_shard_paths().await?;
+    println!("fineweb sample/10BT: {} shards", shards.len());
+    let mut buf: Vec<String> = Vec::with_capacity(needed_rows);
+    for rel in &shards {
+        if buf.len() >= needed_rows {
+            break;
+        }
+        let name = rel.rsplit('/').next().unwrap_or(rel);
+        let local = cache_dir.join(name);
+        download_shard(rel, &local).await?;
+        let want = needed_rows - buf.len();
+        let got = read_shard_text(&local, &mut buf, want).await?;
+        println!("  shard {name} -> {got} rows (cumulative {})", buf.len());
+    }
+    if buf.len() < needed_rows {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+            "fineweb yielded only {} rows, need {needed_rows}",
+            buf.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(buf)
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Schema / batch helpers
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn make_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+    id_meta.insert(
+        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+        "true".to_string(),
+    );
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+        Field::new(TEXT_COL, DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn make_batch(schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>, start_id: i64, texts: &[String]) -> RecordBatch {
+    let ids = Int64Array::from_iter_values(start_id..start_id + texts.len() as i64);
+    let text = StringArray::from_iter_values(texts.iter().map(String::as_str));
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(text)]).unwrap()
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Latency stats
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn percentile(sorted: &[f64], pct: f64) -> f64 {
+    if sorted.is_empty() {
+        return f64::NAN;
+    }
+    let idx = ((pct / 100.0) * (sorted.len().saturating_sub(1)) as f64).round() as usize;
+    sorted[idx.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+struct LatencyStats {
+    p50_us: u64,
+    p95_us: u64,
+    p99_us: u64,
+    mean_us: f64,
+    qps: f64,
+}
+
+fn compute_stats(mut latencies_us: Vec<f64>) -> LatencyStats {
+    latencies_us.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    let mean = latencies_us.iter().sum::<f64>() / latencies_us.len().max(1) as f64;
+    let total_s = latencies_us.iter().sum::<f64>() / 1_000_000.0;
+    let qps = if total_s > 0.0 {
+        latencies_us.len() as f64 / total_s
+    } else {
+        0.0
+    };
+    LatencyStats {
+        p50_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 50.0) as u64,
+        p95_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 95.0) as u64,
+        p99_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 99.0) as u64,
+        mean_us: mean,
+        qps,
+    }
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Query set: mid-frequency single terms from the corpus
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+const STOPWORDS: &[&str] = &[
+    "the", "a", "an", "and", "or", "of", "to", "in", "on", "for", "with", "as", "by", "is", "was",
+    "are", "were", "be", "been", "being", "this", "that", "these", "those", "it", "its", "but",
+    "not", "no", "if", "then", "than", "so", "do", "does", "did", "have", "has", "had", "will",
+    "would", "should", "could", "can", "may", "might", "must", "i", "you", "he", "she", "we",
+    "they", "them", "his", "her", "their", "our", "us", "me", "my", "your", "him", "at", "from",
+];
+
+fn build_query_terms(sample: &[String], n: usize) -> Vec<String> {
+    let mut tokenizer = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .build()
+        .expect("default tokenizer builds");
+    let mut freq: HashMap<String, u64> = HashMap::new();
+    for t in sample.iter().take(50_000) {
+        let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(t);
+        while let Some(tok) = stream.next() {
+            if tok.text.len() < 3 || tok.text.len() > 24 || STOPWORDS.contains(&tok.text.as_str()) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            *freq.entry(tok.text.clone()).or_default() += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    let mut by_freq: Vec<(String, u64)> = freq.into_iter().collect();
+    by_freq.sort_by(|a, b| b.1.cmp(&a.1).then(a.0.cmp(&b.0)));
+    // Skip the most-frequent tokens (near-ties in BM25), keep mid-frequency.
+    let skip = (by_freq.len() / 4).min(300);
+    by_freq
+        .into_iter()
+        .skip(skip)
+        .map(|(t, _)| t)
+        .take(n)
+        .collect()
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Prepare phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run_prepare(args: &Args) -> Result<()> {
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let corpus = load_corpus(args.base_rows, &args.cache_dir).await?;
+    let schema = make_schema();
+
+    let total_batches = corpus.len().div_ceil(args.batch_rows);
+    let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(total_batches);
+    let mut lo = 0usize;
+    while lo < corpus.len() {
+        let hi = (lo + args.batch_rows).min(corpus.len());
+        batches.push(Ok(make_batch(schema.clone(), lo as i64, &corpus[lo..hi])));
+        lo = hi;
+    }
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter(), schema.clone());
+    let write_start = Instant::now();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &args.uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    println!(
+        "wrote {} base rows in {:.1}s",
+        args.base_rows,
+        write_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64()
+    );
+
+    let index_start = Instant::now();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[TEXT_COL],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some(FTS_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    println!(
+        "created FTS index in {:.1}s",
+        index_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64()
+    );
+
+    dataset
+        .initialize_mem_wal()
+        .maintained_indexes([FTS_INDEX_NAME])
+        .execute()
+        .await?;
+    println!(
+        "prepare complete in {:.1}s: uri={}",
+        start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+        args.uri
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Search phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Per-query top-k row-id sets + the latency distribution.
+struct ModeRun {
+    top_ids: Vec<HashSet<i64>>,
+    latencies_us: Vec<f64>,
+}
+
+/// Run the local-scoring FTS panel through the LSM planner.
+async fn run_local(planner: &LsmFtsSearchPlanner, queries: &[String], k: usize) -> Result<ModeRun> {
+    let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+    let mut top_ids = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+    let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+    for q in queries {
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new(q.clone()).with_column(TEXT_COL.to_string())?,
+                Some(k),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await?;
+        latencies_us.push(t0.elapsed().as_micros() as f64);
+        top_ids.push(collect_ids(&batches));
+    }
+    Ok(ModeRun {
+        top_ids,
+        latencies_us,
+    })
+}
+
+fn collect_ids(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> HashSet<i64> {
+    let mut ids: HashSet<i64> = HashSet::new();
+    for b in batches {
+        if let Some(col) = b
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .and_then(|c| c.as_any().downcast_ref::<Int64Array>())
+        {
+            for i in 0..col.len() {
+                ids.insert(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    ids
+}
+
+/// Build a single-merged-index ground truth on local disk and return the
+/// top-k row-id set per query.
+///
+/// The merged dataset is the union of every LSM row — base-table rows
+/// (scanned back from `base_dataset`) plus the memtable rows (ids
+/// `id_base..`, text `mt_text`) — written into one Lance dataset with one
+/// FTS index, then queried via the standard `scanner.full_text_search`.
+/// Always built on local disk under `cache_dir` regardless of the LSM
+/// storage tier, since this measures ranking accuracy, not storage perf.
+async fn build_and_query_baseline(
+    base_dataset: &Dataset,
+    mt_text: &[String],
+    id_base: i64,
+    queries: &[String],
+    k: usize,
+    cache_dir: &std::path::Path,
+    batch_rows: usize,
+) -> Result<Vec<HashSet<i64>>> {
+    let schema = make_schema();
+
+    // 1. Pull base rows (id, text) back out of the base dataset.
+    let mut base_scanner = base_dataset.scan();
+    base_scanner.project(&["id", TEXT_COL])?;
+    let base_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> =
+        base_scanner.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await?;
+
+    let merged_uri = cache_dir
+        .join(format!("merged_baseline_{}", Uuid::new_v4()))
+        .to_string_lossy()
+        .to_string();
+
+    // 2. Write base rows + memtable rows into one dataset.
+    let mut batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = base_batches;
+    let mut lo = 0usize;
+    while lo < mt_text.len() {
+        let hi = (lo + batch_rows).min(mt_text.len());
+        batches.push(make_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            id_base + lo as i64,
+            &mt_text[lo..hi],
+        ));
+        lo = hi;
+    }
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut merged = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &merged_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    merged
+        .create_index(
+            &[TEXT_COL],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some(FTS_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+    // 3. Query the merged index with the same query set.
+    let mut top_ids = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+    for q in queries {
+        let mut scanner = merged.scan();
+        scanner.project(&["id", TEXT_COL])?;
+        scanner.full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new(q.clone())
+                .with_column(TEXT_COL.to_string())?
+                .limit(Some(k as i64)),
+        )?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await?;
+        top_ids.push(collect_ids(&batches));
+    }
+    Ok(top_ids)
+}
+
+fn mean_jaccard(a: &[HashSet<i64>], b: &[HashSet<i64>]) -> f64 {
+    let pairs: Vec<f64> = a
+        .iter()
+        .zip(b.iter())
+        .filter_map(|(x, y)| {
+            if x.is_empty() && y.is_empty() {
+                None
+            } else {
+                let inter = x.intersection(y).count() as f64;
+                let union = x.union(y).count() as f64;
+                Some(inter / union)
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+    if pairs.is_empty() {
+        0.0
+    } else {
+        pairs.iter().sum::<f64>() / pairs.len() as f64
+    }
+}
+
+async fn run_search(args: &Args) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&args.uri).await?);
+    let arrow_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema> = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+    let schema = make_schema();
+
+    // Memtable text is drawn from FineWeb; row *ids* are assigned past the
+    // base slice (via `id_base`) so they don't collide with base-table ids,
+    // but the *text content* can reuse FineWeb rows freely — BM25 latency
+    // doesn't depend on content novelty. Load just enough rows once,
+    // covering both the memtable payload and the query-term sample, instead
+    // of re-reading the whole base corpus from parquet.
+    let active_rows = args.max_memtable_rows / 2;
+    let total_memtable_rows = args.sstables * args.max_memtable_rows + active_rows;
+    let sample_rows = args.base_rows.min(50_000);
+    let load_rows = total_memtable_rows.max(sample_rows);
+    println!("loading {load_rows} FineWeb rows for memtable payload + query sample ...");
+    let mt_corpus = load_corpus(load_rows, &args.cache_dir).await?;
+    let mt_text = &mt_corpus[..total_memtable_rows];
+
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let row_bytes = 2048; // rough FineWeb text row size
+    // The memtable seals at `max_memtable_rows`, giving one generation per cap.
+    // `max_memtable_batches` is sized to that same boundary, and
+    // `max_memtable_size` kept high so the byte threshold never pre-empts it.
+    let batches_per_gen = (args.max_memtable_rows / args.batch_rows).max(1);
+    let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+        shard_id,
+        max_wal_persist_retries: 3,
+        wal_persist_retry_base_delay: std::time::Duration::from_millis(50),
+        shard_spec_id: 0,
+        durable_write: false,
+        max_memtable_size: args.max_memtable_rows * row_bytes * 100,
+        max_memtable_rows: args.max_memtable_rows,
+        max_memtable_batches: batches_per_gen,
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: args.max_memtable_rows * row_bytes * 20,
+        max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_secs(60)),
+        ..ShardWriterConfig::default()
+    };
+    let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await?;
+
+    let flush_wait = if is_cloud_uri(&args.uri) {
+        Duration::from_secs(5)
+    } else {
+        Duration::from_millis(500)
+    };
+
+    // Ingest SSTables + 1 active (50% full).
+    let mut gen_sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..args.sstables).map(|_| args.max_memtable_rows).collect();
+    gen_sizes.push(active_rows);
+
+    let id_base = args.base_rows as i64;
+    let mut cursor = 0usize;
+    let ingest_start = Instant::now();
+    for (gen_idx, &gen_rows) in gen_sizes.iter().enumerate() {
+        let mut written = 0usize;
+        while written < gen_rows {
+            let chunk = args.batch_rows.min(gen_rows - written);
+            let start = id_base + (cursor) as i64;
+            let slice = &mt_text[cursor..cursor + chunk];
+            let batch = make_batch(schema.clone(), start, slice);
+            writer.put(vec![batch]).await?;
+            cursor += chunk;
+            written += chunk;
+        }
+        let is_sstable = gen_idx < args.sstables;
+        println!(
+            "  gen {}: wrote {} rows ({})",
+            gen_idx + 1,
+            gen_rows,
+            if is_sstable { "sstable" } else { "active" }
+        );
+        if is_sstable {
+            tokio::time::sleep(flush_wait).await;
+        }
+    }
+    // Wait for any triggered (sealed) memtable flushes to commit to the
+    // manifest before we snapshot it — otherwise the SSTables
+    // race the read and may not all be visible yet.
+    writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await?;
+    println!(
+        "ingested {} memtable rows in {:.1}s",
+        cursor,
+        ingest_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64()
+    );
+
+    let manifest = writer.manifest().await?;
+    let in_memory_refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await?;
+    let mut shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id);
+    if let Some(ref m) = manifest {
+        shard_snapshot = shard_snapshot.with_current_generation(m.current_generation);
+        for sstable in &m.sstables {
+            shard_snapshot = shard_snapshot.with_sstable(sstable.generation, sstable.path.clone());
+        }
+    }
+    let num_sstables = manifest.as_ref().map(|m| m.sstables.len()).unwrap_or(0);
+    println!("manifest: {num_sstables} SSTables");
+
+    // SSTables carry the same maintained secondary indexes as
+    // the active memtable: the flush handler builds them during flush
+    // (lance #6901), so each generation already has the FTS index and
+    // both scoring modes use the fast indexed path. No manual indexing
+    // step is needed here. (The index-less flat fallback in the rescore
+    // planner is still exercised by unit tests for the no-maintained-index
+    // case.)
+
+    let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(dataset.clone(), vec![shard_snapshot])
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, in_memory_refs);
+    let pk_columns = vec!["id".to_string()];
+    let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, pk_columns, arrow_schema);
+
+    // Query set: mid-frequency terms from a sample of the loaded corpus.
+    println!("building query set ...");
+    let sample_end = mt_corpus
+        .len()
+        .min(sample_rows.max(total_memtable_rows.min(50_000)));
+    let queries = build_query_terms(&mt_corpus[..sample_end], args.queries);
+    println!("picked {} query terms", queries.len());
+
+    // Run the local-scoring panel.
+    println!(
+        "running Local mode ({} queries, k={}) ...",
+        queries.len(),
+        args.k
+    );
+    let local = run_local(&planner, &queries, args.k).await?;
+    let local_stats = compute_stats(local.latencies_us.clone());
+    println!(
+        "local:   p50={}us p95={}us p99={}us mean={:.0}us qps={:.0}",
+        local_stats.p50_us,
+        local_stats.p95_us,
+        local_stats.p99_us,
+        local_stats.mean_us,
+        local_stats.qps
+    );
+
+    // Optional accuracy: top-k Jaccard vs a single-merged-index ground truth.
+    let baseline_jaccard = if args.with_baseline {
+        println!("building merged-index baseline (local disk) ...");
+        let baseline_ids = build_and_query_baseline(
+            &dataset,
+            mt_text,
+            id_base,
+            &queries,
+            args.k,
+            &args.cache_dir,
+            args.batch_rows,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let j = mean_jaccard(&local.top_ids, &baseline_ids);
+        println!("top-{} jaccard local-vs-merged = {:.4}", args.k, j);
+        Some(j)
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    // Keep writer alive so the active memtable stays reachable.
+    std::mem::forget(writer);
+
+    Ok(json!({
+        "bench": "mem_wal_fts_read",
+        "phase": "search",
+        "uri_kind": if is_cloud_uri(&args.uri) { "cloud" } else { "local" },
+        "base_rows": args.base_rows,
+        "max_memtable_rows": args.max_memtable_rows,
+        "sstables": num_sstables,
+        "active_rows": active_rows,
+        "k": args.k,
+        "queries": queries.len(),
+        "jaccard_local_vs_merged": baseline_jaccard,
+        "local": {
+            "p50_us": local_stats.p50_us,
+            "p95_us": local_stats.p95_us,
+            "p99_us": local_stats.p99_us,
+            "mean_us": local_stats.mean_us as u64,
+            "qps": local_stats.qps as u64,
+        },
+    }))
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Entrypoint
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run(args: Args) -> Result<()> {
+    println!(
+        "bench=mem_wal_fts_read phase={} uri={} base_rows={} max_memtable_rows={} sstables={} queries={} k={} with_baseline={}",
+        args.phase.as_str(),
+        args.uri,
+        args.base_rows,
+        args.max_memtable_rows,
+        args.sstables,
+        args.queries,
+        args.k,
+        args.with_baseline,
+    );
+
+    match args.phase {
+        Phase::Prepare => run_prepare(&args).await?,
+        Phase::Search => {
+            let result = run_search(&args).await?;
+            let text = serde_json::to_string_pretty(&result)
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("serialize: {e}")))?;
+            println!("{text}");
+            if let Some(path) = &args.output {
+                if let Some(parent) = path.parent()
+                    && !parent.as_os_str().is_empty()
+                {
+                    std::fs::create_dir_all(parent).ok();
+                }
+                std::fs::write(path, text.as_bytes())
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write {}: {e}", path.display())))?;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    println!("=== DONE ===");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let args = parse_args()?;
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("build runtime: {e}")))?;
+    runtime.block_on(run(args))
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fineweb_fts.sh b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fineweb_fts.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..8956ecb91eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fineweb_fts.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+# Driver for the FineWeb FTS benchmark panel.
+#
+# Write panel : 12 configs = 4 modes (async/sync × idx/no-idx) × 3 memtable
+#               sizes (100k / 500k / 1M). Each config ingests 1M rows.
+# Read panel  : 6 configs  = 2 indexed modes × 3 memtable sizes. Each
+#               ingests `size` rows into an auto-flush-disabled MemTable,
+#               times the FTS queries, flushes, and replays on disk.
+#
+# Every config runs as its own process under a `timeout` watchdog, so a
+# hang costs one timeout window, not days. When DATASET_PREFIX points at
+# object storage, each result.json is also uploaded there.
+#
+# Usage: rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fineweb_fts.sh [run_id]
+#
+# Env:
+#   DATASET_PREFIX  scratch dataset location (default <tmpdir>/mem-fts-fineweb)
+#   CACHE_DIR       FineWeb shard download cache (default <tmpdir>/lance-fineweb-cache)
+
+set -uo pipefail
+
+SCRIPT_DIR="$(cd "$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")" && pwd -P)"
+REPO_ROOT="$(git -C "$SCRIPT_DIR" rev-parse --show-toplevel)"
+cd "$REPO_ROOT"
+
+RUN_ID="${1:-$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)}"
+DATASET_PREFIX="${DATASET_PREFIX:-${TMPDIR:-/tmp}/mem-fts-fineweb}"
+SEED_ROWS="${SEED_ROWS:-1000000}"
+BATCH_ROWS="${BATCH_ROWS:-1000}"
+CALLS="${CALLS:-1000}"
+CACHE_DIR="${CACHE_DIR:-${TMPDIR:-/tmp}/lance-fineweb-cache}"
+CONFIG_TIMEOUT="${CONFIG_TIMEOUT:-3600}"
+
+LOCAL_DIR="$REPO_ROOT/target/fineweb-fts-results/${RUN_ID}"
+mkdir -p "$LOCAL_DIR" "$CACHE_DIR"
+
+BIN="$(find target/release/deps -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 -name 'mem_wal_fineweb_fts-*' ! -name '*.d' -printf '%T@ %p\n' 2>/dev/null | sort -nr | head -1 | cut -d' ' -f2-)"
+if [ -z "$BIN" ]; then
+    echo "building bench binary..."
+    cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_fineweb_fts --no-run
+    BIN="$(find target/release/deps -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 -name 'mem_wal_fineweb_fts-*' ! -name '*.d' -printf '%T@ %p\n' 2>/dev/null | sort -nr | head -1 | cut -d' ' -f2-)"
+fi
+echo "bench binary: $BIN"
+echo "run id:       $RUN_ID"
+echo ""
+
+run_one() {
+    local name="$1"; shift
+    local out="$LOCAL_DIR/${name}.json"
+    local log="$LOCAL_DIR/${name}.log"
+    echo ">>> $name"
+    if [ -f "$out" ]; then
+        echo "    already done, skipping"
+        return
+    fi
+    timeout "$CONFIG_TIMEOUT" "$BIN" --bench "$@" --output "$out" > "$log" 2>&1
+    local rc=$?
+    if [ "$rc" -eq 124 ]; then
+        echo "    !!! TIMED OUT after ${CONFIG_TIMEOUT}s"
+    elif [ "$rc" -ne 0 ]; then
+        echo "    !!! failed rc=$rc (see $log)"
+    else
+        echo "    ok"
+    fi
+    [ -f "$out" ] && aws s3 cp "$out" "$DATASET_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/results/${name}.json" >/dev/null 2>&1
+    aws s3 cp "$log" "$DATASET_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/results/${name}.log" >/dev/null 2>&1
+}
+
+# ---- write panel: 4 modes × 3 sizes ----
+for mode in async_noidx async_idx sync_noidx sync_idx; do
+    for sz in 100000 500000 1000000; do
+        case "$sz" in
+            1000000) tag=1M ;;
+            500000)  tag=500k ;;
+            *)       tag=100k ;;
+        esac
+        run_one "write_${mode}_mt${tag}" \
+            --phase write --mode "$mode" \
+            --uri "$DATASET_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/w_${mode}_mt${tag}" \
+            --seed-rows "$SEED_ROWS" --batch-rows "$BATCH_ROWS" --calls "$CALLS" \
+            --max-memtable-rows "$sz" --cache-dir "$CACHE_DIR"
+    done
+done
+
+# ---- read panel: 2 indexed modes × 3 sizes ----
+for mode in async_idx sync_idx; do
+    for sz in 100000 500000 1000000; do
+        case "$sz" in
+            1000000) tag=1M ;;
+            500000)  tag=500k ;;
+            *)       tag=100k ;;
+        esac
+        run_one "read_${mode}_mt${tag}" \
+            --phase read --mode "$mode" \
+            --uri "$DATASET_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/r_${mode}_mt${tag}" \
+            --seed-rows "$SEED_ROWS" --batch-rows "$BATCH_ROWS" \
+            --read-rows "$sz" --cache-dir "$CACHE_DIR"
+    done
+done
+
+echo ""
+echo "=== summary ==="
+python3 - "$LOCAL_DIR" <<'PY'
+import glob, json, os, sys
+d = sys.argv[1]
+print(f"{'config':28s} {'rows/s':>10} {'put_p99_ms':>11} {'mt_p95_ms':>10} {'cons_mean':>10}")
+for p in sorted(glob.glob(os.path.join(d, "*.json"))):
+    try:
+        r = json.load(open(p))
+    except Exception as e:
+        print(f"  bad {p}: {e}"); continue
+    name = os.path.basename(p)[:-5]
+    if r.get("phase") == "write":
+        print(f"{name:28s} {r['throughput_rows_per_sec']:>10.0f} {r['put_p99_ms']:>11.2f} {'-':>10} {'-':>10}")
+    else:
+        print(f"{name:28s} {'-':>10} {'-':>11} {r['mt_latency_p95_ms']:>10.3f} {r['consistency_mean']:>10.3f}")
+PY
+echo ""
+echo "results: $LOCAL_DIR  +  $DATASET_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/results/"
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fts_compare.sh b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fts_compare.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..98d504ae7c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fts_compare.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+# FTS comparison driver — Lance FtsMemIndex vs Apache Lucene.
+# Sibling of run_mem_wal_hnsw_compare.sh (Lance HNSW vs hnswlib).
+#
+# Builds both benches, generates one shared FineWeb corpus + query set per
+# size, runs each impl in Run A (pre-tokenized) and Run B (native
+# analyzers), and prints build/query/recall side by side.
+#
+# Usage: rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fts_compare.sh [run_id]
+#
+# Env:
+#   SIZES        doc-count sweep (default "100000 500000 1000000")
+#   K            top-k (default 10)
+#   THREADS      query threads for the multi-thread QPS run
+#   LUCENE_CP    pre-built Lucene classpath; if set, the Lucene build is skipped
+#   LUCENE_DIR   Lucene source checkout — built when LUCENE_CP is unset
+#   JAVA_HOME    JDK 25 home; if unset the script searches common locations
+#   CACHE_DIR    FineWeb shard download cache (default <tmpdir>/lance-fineweb-cache)
+
+set -uo pipefail
+SCRIPT_DIR="$(cd "$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")" && pwd -P)"
+REPO_ROOT="$(git -C "$SCRIPT_DIR" rev-parse --show-toplevel)"
+cd "$REPO_ROOT"
+
+RUN_ID="${1:-fts-compare-$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)}"
+SIZES="${SIZES:-100000 500000 1000000}"
+K="${K:-10}"
+THREADS="${THREADS:-$(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN 2>/dev/null || echo 8)}"
+CACHE_DIR="${CACHE_DIR:-${TMPDIR:-/tmp}/lance-fineweb-cache}"
+WORK="${WORK:-${TMPDIR:-/tmp}/fts_compare/$RUN_ID}"
+RESULT_DIR="$REPO_ROOT/target/fts-compare-results/$RUN_ID"
+mkdir -p "$WORK" "$RESULT_DIR" "$CACHE_DIR"
+
+# ---- locate JDK 25 ----
+if [ -z "${JAVA_HOME:-}" ]; then
+    for cand in /usr/lib/jvm/java-25-* /usr/lib/jvm/jdk-25* /opt/jdk-25* \
+                "$HOME/.sdkman/candidates/java/25"*; do
+        [ -x "$cand/bin/java" ] && JAVA_HOME="$cand" && break
+    done
+fi
+if [ -z "${JAVA_HOME:-}" ] || [ ! -x "$JAVA_HOME/bin/java" ]; then
+    echo "ERROR: JDK 25 not found; set JAVA_HOME" >&2; exit 1
+fi
+JAVA="$JAVA_HOME/bin/java"
+JAVAC="$JAVA_HOME/bin/javac"
+echo "JDK: $($JAVA -version 2>&1 | head -1)"
+
+# ---- build Lucene classpath ----
+if [ -z "${LUCENE_CP:-}" ]; then
+    if [ -z "${LUCENE_DIR:-}" ]; then
+        echo "ERROR: set LUCENE_CP (prebuilt jars) or LUCENE_DIR (source checkout)" >&2
+        exit 1
+    fi
+    echo "=== Building Lucene jars ($LUCENE_DIR) ==="
+    ( cd "$LUCENE_DIR" && JAVA_HOME="$JAVA_HOME" ./gradlew -q \
+        :lucene:core:jar :lucene:analysis:common:jar ) || {
+        echo "ERROR: Lucene build failed" >&2; exit 1; }
+    CORE_JAR="$(find "$LUCENE_DIR/lucene/core/build/libs" -name 'lucene-core-*.jar' | head -1)"
+    ANALYSIS_JAR="$(find "$LUCENE_DIR/lucene/analysis/common/build/libs" -name 'lucene-analysis-common-*.jar' | head -1)"
+    LUCENE_CP="$CORE_JAR:$ANALYSIS_JAR"
+fi
+echo "Lucene classpath: $LUCENE_CP"
+
+# ---- build the Lance bench ----
+echo "=== Building Lance FTS bench ==="
+# Drop stale binaries so the freshest build is unambiguous, then pick the
+# most-recently-modified one — a lexical sort by build hash can otherwise
+# pick a stale binary after a dependency change rotates the hash.
+rm -f "$REPO_ROOT"/target/release/deps/mem_wal_fts_bench-*
+cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_fts_bench --no-run
+LANCE_BIN="$(find "$REPO_ROOT/target/release/deps" -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 \
+    -name 'mem_wal_fts_bench-*' ! -name '*.d' -printf '%T@ %p\n' \
+    | sort -nr | head -1 | cut -d' ' -f2-)"
+echo "Lance bench: $LANCE_BIN"
+
+# ---- compile the Lucene bench ----
+echo "=== Compiling Lucene FTS bench ==="
+"$JAVAC" -cp "$LUCENE_CP" -d "$WORK" \
+    "$SCRIPT_DIR/LuceneFtsBench.java" \
+    || { echo "ERROR: javac failed" >&2; exit 1; }
+
+mutual_overlap() {  # $1=topk file A  $2=topk file B  $3=k
+    python3 - "$1" "$2" "$3" <<'PY'
+import sys
+a, b, k = sys.argv[1], sys.argv[2], int(sys.argv[3])
+la = [set(l.split()) for l in open(a)]
+lb = [set(l.split()) for l in open(b)]
+n = min(len(la), len(lb))
+if n == 0:
+    print("nan"); sys.exit()
+tot = sum(len(la[i] & lb[i]) / max(len(la[i] | lb[i]), 1) for i in range(n))
+print(f"{tot / n:.4f}")
+PY
+}
+
+# Optional apples-to-apples toggles:
+#   POSITIONS=0        index without token positions on BOTH sides (term-only,
+#                      no phrase) — Lance with_position=false vs Lucene
+#                      DOCS_AND_FREQS.
+#   IMMUTABLE=1        Lance reads only immutable frozen segments (Lucene model).
+#   FREEZE_THRESHOLD=n keep a large mutable tail (n docs per freeze) so the
+#                      tail-read path is exercised — needed to measure tail-skip.
+#   NO_TAIL_SKIP=1     disable Lance's block-max tail pruning (A/B the optimization).
+LANCE_FLAGS=""
+LUCENE_FLAGS=""
+if [ "${POSITIONS:-1}" = "0" ]; then
+    LANCE_FLAGS="$LANCE_FLAGS --no-positions"
+    LUCENE_FLAGS="$LUCENE_FLAGS --no-positions"
+fi
+if [ "${IMMUTABLE:-0}" = "1" ]; then
+    LANCE_FLAGS="$LANCE_FLAGS --immutable"
+fi
+if [ -n "${FREEZE_THRESHOLD:-}" ]; then
+    LANCE_FLAGS="$LANCE_FLAGS --freeze-threshold $FREEZE_THRESHOLD"
+fi
+if [ "${NO_TAIL_SKIP:-0}" = "1" ]; then
+    LANCE_FLAGS="$LANCE_FLAGS --no-tail-skip"
+fi
+echo "lance flags:'$LANCE_FLAGS'  lucene flags:'$LUCENE_FLAGS'"
+
+echo ""
+for SIZE in $SIZES; do
+    DIR="$WORK/n$SIZE"
+    mkdir -p "$DIR"
+    echo "############ corpus size = $SIZE ############"
+    echo "--- generating shared corpus + queries ---"
+    "$LANCE_BIN" --bench gen --docs "$SIZE" --out-dir "$DIR" \
+        --cache-dir "$CACHE_DIR" --k "$K" > "$RESULT_DIR/gen_n$SIZE.log" 2>&1 || {
+        echo "  !!! gen failed (see gen_n$SIZE.log)"; continue; }
+
+    for RUN in a b; do
+        echo "--- run $RUN: lance ---"
+        "$LANCE_BIN" --bench bench --in-dir "$DIR" --run "$RUN" --k "$K" \
+            --threads "$THREADS" $LANCE_FLAGS | tee "$RESULT_DIR/lance_n${SIZE}_run${RUN}.txt" \
+            | grep '^{' > "$RESULT_DIR/lance_n${SIZE}_run${RUN}.json"
+        echo "--- run $RUN: lucene ---"
+        "$JAVA" -cp "$LUCENE_CP:$WORK" LuceneFtsBench --in-dir "$DIR" --run "$RUN" \
+            --k "$K" --threads "$THREADS" $LUCENE_FLAGS | tee "$RESULT_DIR/lucene_n${SIZE}_run${RUN}.txt" \
+            | grep '^{' > "$RESULT_DIR/lucene_n${SIZE}_run${RUN}.json"
+        ov="$(mutual_overlap "$DIR/lance_fts_run${RUN}_topk.txt" \
+                             "$DIR/lucene_run${RUN}_topk.txt" "$K")"
+        echo "    lance<->lucene mutual top-$K overlap (run $RUN) = $ov"
+        echo "$ov" > "$RESULT_DIR/overlap_n${SIZE}_run${RUN}.txt"
+    done
+    echo ""
+done
+
+echo "=== summary ==="
+python3 - "$RESULT_DIR" "$K" <<'PY'
+import glob, json, os, sys
+d, k = sys.argv[1], sys.argv[2]
+print(f"{'size':>9} {'run':>4} {'impl':>10} {'build_dps':>11} {'q_p50_us':>10} "
+      f"{'q_p95_us':>10} {'qps_1t':>9} {'qps_nt':>10} {'term_rec':>9} {'phr_rec':>9} {'or_rec':>9}")
+for p in sorted(glob.glob(os.path.join(d, "*_n*_run*.json"))):
+    try: r = json.load(open(p))
+    except Exception: continue
+    print(f"{r['docs']:>9} {r['run']:>4} {r['impl']:>10} {r['build_docs_per_s']:>11.0f} "
+          f"{r['q_p50_us']:>10.1f} {r['q_p95_us']:>10.1f} {r['qps_1t']:>9.0f} "
+          f"{r['qps_nt']:>10.0f} {r['term_recall_at_k']:>9.3f} {r['phrase_recall_at_k']:>9.3f} "
+          f"{r.get('or_recall_at_k', float('nan')):>9.3f}")
+for p in sorted(glob.glob(os.path.join(d, "overlap_*.txt"))):
+    name = os.path.basename(p)[:-4]
+    print(f"  {name} = {open(p).read().strip()}")
+PY
+echo ""
+echo "results: $RESULT_DIR"
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fts_read_sweep.sh b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fts_read_sweep.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..31ededa04e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fts_read_sweep.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+# Driver for the LSM FTS read benchmark panel across storage backends.
+#
+# Sweeps the `mem_wal_fts_read_bench` over:
+#   - storage backend : local NVMe path and an s3:// prefix
+#   - base table size  : configurable list (default 100k, 1M)
+#   - top-k            : configurable list (default 10, 100)
+#
+# For each (backend, base_rows) the bench's `prepare` phase runs once to
+# write the base dataset + FTS index + MemWAL; then for each k the `search`
+# phase ingests SSTables + an active memtable through ShardWriter
+# and times the FTS query panel under both Local and LocalWithGlobalRescore
+# scoring modes.
+#
+# Each config runs under a `timeout` watchdog so a hang costs one window.
+#
+# Usage:
+#   rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/fts/run_fts_read_sweep.sh [run_id]
+#
+# Env:
+#   NVME_PREFIX     local scratch dir on fast disk (default <tmpdir>/lsm-fts-nvme)
+#   S3_PREFIX       s3:// dataset prefix (default s3://jack-devland-build/lsm-fts)
+#   CACHE_DIR       FineWeb shard download cache (default <tmpdir>/lance-fineweb-cache)
+#   BASE_ROWS_LIST  space-separated base sizes (default "100000 1000000")
+#   K_LIST          space-separated top-k values (default "10 100")
+#   MAX_MEMTABLE_ROWS  active/SSTable cap (default 100000)
+#   GENS_LIST       space-separated SSTable counts (default "1 2 5")
+#   QUERIES         queries per config (default 200)
+#   WITH_BASELINE   "1" to also build the merged-index accuracy baseline
+#                   and report local-vs-merged Jaccard (default off)
+#   BACKENDS        space-separated subset of "nvme s3 s3express" (default all)
+#   S3EXPRESS_PREFIX  s3:// directory-bucket prefix (must be in instance AZ)
+#   BASELINE_BACKEND  only build the merged accuracy baseline on this backend
+#   CONFIG_TIMEOUT  per-config seconds (default 5400)
+
+set -uo pipefail
+
+SCRIPT_DIR="$(cd "$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")" && pwd -P)"
+REPO_ROOT="$(git -C "$SCRIPT_DIR" rev-parse --show-toplevel)"
+cd "$REPO_ROOT"
+
+RUN_ID="${1:-$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)}"
+NVME_PREFIX="${NVME_PREFIX:-${TMPDIR:-/tmp}/lsm-fts-nvme}"
+S3_PREFIX="${S3_PREFIX:-s3://jack-devland-build/lsm-fts}"
+# S3 Express One Zone directory bucket (must be in the instance's AZ to get
+# the latency benefit). Auto-detected as S3 Express by lance via the
+# `--x-s3` suffix.
+S3EXPRESS_PREFIX="${S3EXPRESS_PREFIX:-s3://jack-lancedb-devland--use1-az4--x-s3/lsm-fts}"
+CACHE_DIR="${CACHE_DIR:-${TMPDIR:-/tmp}/lance-fineweb-cache}"
+BASE_ROWS_LIST="${BASE_ROWS_LIST:-100000 1000000}"
+K_LIST="${K_LIST:-10 100}"
+MAX_MEMTABLE_ROWS="${MAX_MEMTABLE_ROWS:-100000}"
+GENS_LIST="${GENS_LIST:-1 2 5}"
+QUERIES="${QUERIES:-200}"
+WITH_BASELINE="${WITH_BASELINE:-}"
+# Accuracy (merged baseline) is storage-independent, so only build it on
+# this backend to avoid redundant rebuilds across the storage tiers.
+BASELINE_BACKEND="${BASELINE_BACKEND:-nvme}"
+BACKENDS="${BACKENDS:-nvme s3 s3express}"
+CONFIG_TIMEOUT="${CONFIG_TIMEOUT:-5400}"
+
+LOCAL_DIR="$REPO_ROOT/target/lsm-fts-read-results/${RUN_ID}"
+mkdir -p "$LOCAL_DIR" "$CACHE_DIR" "$NVME_PREFIX"
+
+BENCH=mem_wal_fts_read_bench
+BIN="$(find target/release/deps -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 -name "${BENCH}-*" ! -name '*.d' -printf '%T@ %p\n' 2>/dev/null | sort -nr | head -1 | cut -d' ' -f2-)"
+if [ -z "$BIN" ]; then
+    echo "building bench binary..."
+    cargo bench -p lance --bench "$BENCH" --no-run
+    BIN="$(find target/release/deps -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 -name "${BENCH}-*" ! -name '*.d' -printf '%T@ %p\n' 2>/dev/null | sort -nr | head -1 | cut -d' ' -f2-)"
+fi
+echo "bench binary: $BIN"
+echo "run id:       $RUN_ID"
+echo "backends:     $BACKENDS"
+echo ""
+
+backend_prefix() {
+    case "$1" in
+        nvme)      echo "$NVME_PREFIX/$RUN_ID" ;;
+        s3)        echo "$S3_PREFIX/$RUN_ID" ;;
+        s3express) echo "$S3EXPRESS_PREFIX/$RUN_ID" ;;
+        *)         echo "ERROR unknown backend $1" >&2; exit 1 ;;
+    esac
+}
+
+run_phase() {
+    local name="$1"; shift
+    local log="$LOCAL_DIR/${name}.log"
+    echo ">>> $name"
+    timeout "$CONFIG_TIMEOUT" "$BIN" --bench "$@" > "$log" 2>&1
+    local rc=$?
+    if [ "$rc" -eq 124 ]; then
+        echo "    !!! TIMED OUT after ${CONFIG_TIMEOUT}s (see $log)"
+        return 1
+    elif [ "$rc" -ne 0 ]; then
+        echo "    !!! failed rc=$rc (see $log)"
+        return 1
+    fi
+    echo "    ok"
+    return 0
+}
+
+for backend in $BACKENDS; do
+    prefix="$(backend_prefix "$backend")"
+    for base_rows in $BASE_ROWS_LIST; do
+        case "$base_rows" in
+            1000000) btag=1M ;;
+            100000)  btag=100k ;;
+            *)       btag="${base_rows}" ;;
+        esac
+        uri="$prefix/base_${btag}"
+
+        # prepare once per (backend, base_rows); reused across gens/k since
+        # each search ingests into its own fresh shard under _mem_wal.
+        run_phase "prepare_${backend}_${btag}" \
+            --phase prepare --uri "$uri" \
+            --base-rows "$base_rows" --batch-rows 1000 \
+            --cache-dir "$CACHE_DIR" || continue
+
+        # search for each (SSTables, k)
+        for gens in $GENS_LIST; do
+            for k in $K_LIST; do
+                name="search_${backend}_${btag}_g${gens}_k${k}"
+                out="$LOCAL_DIR/${name}.json"
+                if [ -f "$out" ]; then
+                    echo ">>> $name (already done, skipping)"
+                    continue
+                fi
+                # Accuracy is storage-independent → only build the merged
+                # baseline on BASELINE_BACKEND to avoid redundant rebuilds.
+                baseline_flag=()
+                if [ -n "$WITH_BASELINE" ] && [ "$backend" = "$BASELINE_BACKEND" ]; then
+                    baseline_flag=(--with-baseline)
+                fi
+                run_phase "$name" \
+                    --phase search --uri "$uri" \
+                    --base-rows "$base_rows" \
+                    --max-memtable-rows "$MAX_MEMTABLE_ROWS" \
+                    --sstables "$gens" \
+                    --batch-rows 1000 \
+                    --queries "$QUERIES" --k "$k" \
+                    "${baseline_flag[@]}" \
+                    --cache-dir "$CACHE_DIR" \
+                    --output "$out"
+                # mirror result to s3 for durability regardless of backend
+                [ -f "$out" ] && aws s3 cp "$out" "$S3_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/results/${name}.json" >/dev/null 2>&1
+            done
+        done
+    done
+done
+
+echo ""
+echo "=== summary ==="
+python3 - "$LOCAL_DIR" <<'PY'
+import glob, json, os, sys
+d = sys.argv[1]
+hdr = f"{'config':32s} {'local_p50_us':>13} {'local_p99_us':>13} {'local_qps':>10} {'jaccard_vs_merged':>18}"
+print(hdr)
+for p in sorted(glob.glob(os.path.join(d, "*.json"))):
+    try:
+        r = json.load(open(p))
+    except Exception as e:
+        print(f"  bad {p}: {e}"); continue
+    name = os.path.basename(p)[:-5]
+    lo = r.get("local", {})
+    j = r.get("jaccard_local_vs_merged")
+    j_str = f"{j:.4f}" if isinstance(j, (int, float)) else "-"
+    print(f"{name:32s} {lo.get('p50_us','-'):>13} {lo.get('p99_us','-'):>13} "
+          f"{lo.get('qps','-'):>10} {j_str:>18}")
+PY
+echo ""
+echo "results: $LOCAL_DIR  +  $S3_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/results/"
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/kv/mem_wal_kv_point_lookup.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/kv/mem_wal_kv_point_lookup.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..eb09486b954
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/kv/mem_wal_kv_point_lookup.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1992 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Head-to-head KV point-lookup benchmark: Lance MemTable vs RocksDB.
+//!
+//! One binary times **both** engines with identical key/value/query sets and
+//! identical timing code, so the comparison is apples-to-apples. The RocksDB
+//! arm is compiled only with `--features bench-rocksdb` (bundled librocksdb);
+//! without it the bench runs the Lance arm alone.
+//!
+//! Both engines hold all `--rows` rows in a **single in-memory write buffer**
+//! (Lance: one active MemTable, ShardWriter configured to never flush;
+//! RocksDB: one skiplist memtable, `write_buffer_size` above the dataset so no
+//! SST flush). The table has a **BTree index on the key column**; the Lance
+//! MemTable maintains it. We measure:
+//!
+//!   - **write throughput** (rows/sec) for a fixed shuffled insert order
+//!   - **read latency** (p50/p95/p99/mean, single-thread) and **QPS**
+//!     (single- and N-thread) for a query set mixing hits and guaranteed
+//!     misses (`--miss-ratio`)
+//!   - **CPU** (getrusage user+sys per phase) and **peak RSS** (sampled from
+//!     `/proc/self/statm` on Linux)
+//!
+//! Example:
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_kv_point_lookup --features bench-rocksdb -- \
+//!   --rows 1000000 --value-size 100 --queries 5000 --miss-ratio 0.5 \
+//!   --threads 8 --engine both --uri /tmp/kv_bench --output result.json
+//! ```
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{
+    InMemoryMemTableRef, LsmDataSourceCollector, LsmPointLookupPlanner, ShardSnapshot, SsTableCache,
+};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, ShardWriterConfig};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+use serde_json::json;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const KEY_COL: &str = "id";
+const VALUE_COL: &str = "value";
+const BTREE_INDEX_NAME: &str = "id_btree";
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Deterministic PRNG (SplitMix64) — no external rand dependency, identical
+// key/query streams across engines and across runs given the same seed.
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+struct SplitMix64(u64);
+
+impl SplitMix64 {
+    fn new(seed: u64) -> Self {
+        Self(seed)
+    }
+    fn next_u64(&mut self) -> u64 {
+        self.0 = self.0.wrapping_add(0x9E3779B97F4A7C15);
+        let mut z = self.0;
+        z = (z ^ (z >> 30)).wrapping_mul(0xBF58476D1CE4E5B9);
+        z = (z ^ (z >> 27)).wrapping_mul(0x94D049BB133111EB);
+        z ^ (z >> 31)
+    }
+    /// Uniform in `[0, n)`.
+    fn next_below(&mut self, n: u64) -> u64 {
+        if n == 0 {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        self.next_u64() % n
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fisher-Yates shuffle of `0..n` driven by the deterministic PRNG.
+fn shuffled_keys(n: usize, seed: u64) -> Vec<i64> {
+    let mut rng = SplitMix64::new(seed);
+    let mut v: Vec<i64> = (0..n as i64).collect();
+    for i in (1..n).rev() {
+        let j = rng.next_below(i as u64 + 1) as usize;
+        v.swap(i, j);
+    }
+    v
+}
+
+/// Fixed-size ASCII payload derived from the key (valid UTF-8 so it can be
+/// stored in both a Lance `Utf8` column and a RocksDB byte value unchanged).
+fn make_value(key: i64, value_size: usize) -> Vec<u8> {
+    let mut buf = vec![0u8; value_size];
+    let base = key as u64;
+    for (i, b) in buf.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+        *b = b'a' + ((base.wrapping_add(i as u64)) % 26) as u8;
+    }
+    buf
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Query set: a mix of guaranteed hits (existing keys) and guaranteed misses
+// (keys in [rows, 2*rows)). Same set fed to both engines.
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn build_queries(rows: usize, queries: usize, miss_ratio: f64, seed: u64) -> Vec<(i64, bool)> {
+    let mut rng = SplitMix64::new(seed ^ 0xD1B54A32D192ED03);
+    let misses = ((queries as f64) * miss_ratio).round() as usize;
+    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(queries);
+    for i in 0..queries {
+        if i < misses {
+            // Guaranteed absent: [rows, 2*rows)
+            let k = rows as i64 + rng.next_below(rows.max(1) as u64) as i64;
+            out.push((k, false));
+        } else {
+            let k = rng.next_below(rows.max(1) as u64) as i64;
+            out.push((k, true));
+        }
+    }
+    // Interleave so hits and misses aren't phase-separated.
+    for i in (1..out.len()).rev() {
+        let j = rng.next_below(i as u64 + 1) as usize;
+        out.swap(i, j);
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Lance direct BTree fast-path (bypasses DataFusion)
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Resolve a single key against the active MemTable's BTree index without
+/// building a DataFusion plan: probe the index, honor the MVCC visibility
+/// watermark, pick the newest matching row position, and slice that one row
+/// out of the BatchStore. Returns `None` if the key isn't present/visible.
+///
+/// This mirrors what `BTreeIndexExec` does internally, minus the plan/stream
+/// machinery — it is the lower bound on how fast the current MemTable index
+/// can answer a point lookup. Single-active-memtable only (the bench never
+/// flushes), `KEY_COL` BTree assumed present.
+fn fast_lookup(active: &InMemoryMemTableRef, key: i64, key_type: KeyType) -> Option<RecordBatch> {
+    use arrow_array::Array;
+
+    let btree = active.index_store.get_btree_by_column(KEY_COL)?;
+    let max_vbp = active.index_store.max_visible_batch_position();
+
+    // Highest visible row (exclusive end) across batches whose position is
+    // within the watermark. Batch position == iteration index for a
+    // never-flushed store.
+    let mut visible_end: u64 = 0;
+    for (bp, sb) in active.batch_store.iter().enumerate() {
+        if bp <= max_vbp {
+            visible_end += sb.num_rows as u64;
+        } else {
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+    if visible_end == 0 {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let max_visible_row = visible_end - 1;
+
+    // Newest visible row position for this key — seek-and-stop on the skiplist.
+    let pos = btree.get_newest_visible(&key_scalar(key, key_type), max_visible_row)?;
+
+    // Map the global position to (batch, row) and slice one row.
+    let mut start: u64 = 0;
+    for sb in active.batch_store.iter() {
+        let end = start + sb.num_rows as u64;
+        if pos >= start && pos < end {
+            let row = (pos - start) as usize;
+            let cols: Vec<_> = sb.data.columns().iter().map(|c| c.slice(row, 1)).collect();
+            return RecordBatch::try_new(sb.data.schema(), cols).ok();
+        }
+        start = end;
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+/// Batch get: resolve many keys against the active MemTable BTree in one pass,
+/// gathering all matching rows per source batch with a single vectorized
+/// `take`, then concatenating into one RecordBatch. This amortizes per-call
+/// overhead across the whole batch and uses Arrow's columnar gather — the
+/// shape where the batch system should beat row-at-a-time point lookups.
+/// Returns the found rows (missing keys omitted).
+fn fast_lookup_batch(active: &InMemoryMemTableRef, keys: &[i64], key_type: KeyType) -> RecordBatch {
+    use arrow_array::UInt32Array;
+    use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
+    use arrow_select::take::take;
+
+    let schema = active.schema.clone();
+    let Some(btree) = active.index_store.get_btree_by_column(KEY_COL) else {
+        return RecordBatch::new_empty(schema);
+    };
+    let len = active.batch_store.len();
+    if len == 0 {
+        return RecordBatch::new_empty(schema);
+    }
+    let max_vbp = active.index_store.max_visible_batch_position();
+    let last_visible_idx = max_vbp.min(len - 1);
+    let last = active.batch_store.get(last_visible_idx).unwrap();
+    let visible_end = last.row_offset + last.num_rows as u64;
+
+    // Group target rows by their owning batch so each batch is gathered once.
+    let mut by_batch: HashMap<usize, Vec<u32>> = HashMap::new();
+    for &k in keys {
+        let Some(pos) = btree.get_newest_visible(&key_scalar(k, key_type), visible_end - 1) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let (mut lo, mut hi) = (0usize, last_visible_idx);
+        while lo < hi {
+            let mid = lo + (hi - lo).div_ceil(2);
+            if active.batch_store.get(mid).unwrap().row_offset <= pos {
+                lo = mid;
+            } else {
+                hi = mid - 1;
+            }
+        }
+        let stored = active.batch_store.get(lo).unwrap();
+        by_batch
+            .entry(lo)
+            .or_default()
+            .push((pos - stored.row_offset) as u32);
+    }
+
+    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(by_batch.len());
+    for (bid, rows) in by_batch {
+        let stored = active.batch_store.get(bid).unwrap();
+        let idx = UInt32Array::from(rows);
+        let cols: Vec<_> = stored
+            .data
+            .columns()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|c| take(c.as_ref(), &idx, None).unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        out.push(RecordBatch::try_new(stored.data.schema(), cols).unwrap());
+    }
+    if out.is_empty() {
+        return RecordBatch::new_empty(schema);
+    }
+    concat_batches(&out[0].schema(), &out).unwrap()
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Latency stats
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn percentile(sorted: &[f64], pct: f64) -> f64 {
+    if sorted.is_empty() {
+        return f64::NAN;
+    }
+    let idx = ((pct / 100.0) * (sorted.len().saturating_sub(1)) as f64).round() as usize;
+    sorted[idx.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+struct LatencyStats {
+    p50_us: f64,
+    p95_us: f64,
+    p99_us: f64,
+    mean_us: f64,
+}
+
+/// `latencies_us` carries sub-microsecond precision (nanoseconds / 1000), so
+/// RocksDB's sub-µs point gets don't collapse to 0.
+fn compute_stats(mut latencies_us: Vec<f64>) -> LatencyStats {
+    latencies_us.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    let mean = latencies_us.iter().sum::<f64>() / latencies_us.len().max(1) as f64;
+    LatencyStats {
+        p50_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 50.0),
+        p95_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 95.0),
+        p99_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 99.0),
+        mean_us: mean,
+    }
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Profiling: CPU (getrusage) + peak RSS (/proc/self/statm sampler)
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// User+sys CPU seconds consumed by the whole process so far.
+fn process_cpu_secs() -> f64 {
+    // SAFETY: getrusage with a zeroed rusage out-param is always sound.
+    unsafe {
+        let mut ru: libc::rusage = std::mem::zeroed();
+        if libc::getrusage(libc::RUSAGE_SELF, &mut ru) != 0 {
+            return 0.0;
+        }
+        let u = ru.ru_utime.tv_sec as f64 + ru.ru_utime.tv_usec as f64 / 1e6;
+        let s = ru.ru_stime.tv_sec as f64 + ru.ru_stime.tv_usec as f64 / 1e6;
+        u + s
+    }
+}
+
+/// Current resident set size in bytes (0 if unavailable, e.g. non-Linux).
+fn current_rss_bytes() -> u64 {
+    // /proc/self/statm: field 2 is resident pages.
+    let Ok(statm) = std::fs::read_to_string("/proc/self/statm") else {
+        return 0;
+    };
+    let mut it = statm.split_whitespace();
+    let _total = it.next();
+    let Some(resident) = it.next().and_then(|s| s.parse::<u64>().ok()) else {
+        return 0;
+    };
+    let page = 4096u64; // Linux default page size
+    resident * page
+}
+
+/// Background thread sampling peak RSS until stopped.
+struct RssSampler {
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    peak: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+    handle: Option<std::thread::JoinHandle<()>>,
+}
+
+impl RssSampler {
+    fn start() -> Self {
+        let stop = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let peak = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(current_rss_bytes()));
+        let stop_c = stop.clone();
+        let peak_c = peak.clone();
+        let handle = std::thread::spawn(move || {
+            while !stop_c.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+                let rss = current_rss_bytes();
+                peak_c.fetch_max(rss, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                std::thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(2));
+            }
+        });
+        Self {
+            stop,
+            peak,
+            handle: Some(handle),
+        }
+    }
+    fn peak_mb(&self) -> f64 {
+        self.peak.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as f64 / (1024.0 * 1024.0)
+    }
+    fn stop(mut self) -> f64 {
+        self.stop.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        if let Some(h) = self.handle.take() {
+            let _ = h.join();
+        }
+        self.peak_mb()
+    }
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Engine result
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct EngineResult {
+    engine: &'static str,
+    write_rows_per_s: f64,
+    write_cpu_s: f64,
+    read_p50_us: f64,
+    read_p95_us: f64,
+    read_p99_us: f64,
+    read_mean_us: f64,
+    read_qps_1t: f64,
+    read_qps_nt: f64,
+    read_cpu_s: f64,
+    hits: usize,
+    misses_resolved: usize,
+    peak_rss_mb: f64,
+    rss_after_load_mb: f64,
+}
+
+impl EngineResult {
+    fn to_json(&self, args: &Args) -> serde_json::Value {
+        json!({
+            "engine": self.engine,
+            "rows": args.rows,
+            "value_size": args.value_size,
+            "queries": args.queries,
+            "miss_ratio": args.miss_ratio,
+            "threads": args.threads,
+            "write_rows_per_s": self.write_rows_per_s as u64,
+            "write_cpu_s": format!("{:.3}", self.write_cpu_s),
+            "read_p50_us": (self.read_p50_us * 1000.0).round() / 1000.0,
+            "read_p95_us": (self.read_p95_us * 1000.0).round() / 1000.0,
+            "read_p99_us": (self.read_p99_us * 1000.0).round() / 1000.0,
+            "read_mean_us": (self.read_mean_us * 1000.0).round() / 1000.0,
+            "read_qps_1t": self.read_qps_1t as u64,
+            "read_qps_nt": self.read_qps_nt as u64,
+            "read_cpu_s": format!("{:.3}", self.read_cpu_s),
+            "hits": self.hits,
+            "misses_resolved": self.misses_resolved,
+            "peak_rss_mb": self.peak_rss_mb as u64,
+            "rss_after_load_mb": self.rss_after_load_mb as u64,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CLI args
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum Engine {
+    Lance,
+    Rocksdb,
+    Both,
+}
+
+/// How the Lance arm resolves a point lookup.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum LanceReadMode {
+    /// Build + execute a DataFusion `ExecutionPlan` per lookup (production
+    /// `LsmPointLookupPlanner::plan_lookup` path).
+    Plan,
+    /// Probe the active MemTable's BTree index directly and materialize the
+    /// row from the BatchStore, bypassing DataFusion. Single-active-memtable
+    /// fast path (no SSTables); misses fall through as "not found".
+    Fast,
+    /// Call the production `LsmPointLookupPlanner::lookup` API, which uses the
+    /// direct BTree fast path internally and falls back to the plan path for
+    /// on-disk sources. Measures the real shipped point-lookup latency.
+    Api,
+}
+
+impl LanceReadMode {
+    fn parse(v: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match v {
+            "plan" => Ok(Self::Plan),
+            "fast" => Ok(Self::Fast),
+            "api" => Ok(Self::Api),
+            _ => Err(format!(
+                "unknown lance-read-mode '{v}', expected plan|fast|api"
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Plan => "plan",
+            Self::Fast => "fast",
+            Self::Api => "api",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Engine {
+    fn parse(v: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match v {
+            "lance" => Ok(Self::Lance),
+            "rocksdb" => Ok(Self::Rocksdb),
+            "both" => Ok(Self::Both),
+            _ => Err(format!("unknown engine '{v}', expected lance|rocksdb|both")),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Key column type. `Int` exercises the Lance `FixedKey` backend (8-byte key);
+/// `Uuid` stores `FixedSizeBinary(16)` and exercises the `BytesKey` backend.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+enum KeyType {
+    Int,
+    Uuid,
+}
+
+impl KeyType {
+    fn parse(v: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match v {
+            "int" | "i64" => Ok(Self::Int),
+            "uuid" => Ok(Self::Uuid),
+            _ => Err(format!("unknown key-type '{v}', expected int|uuid")),
+        }
+    }
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Int => "int",
+            Self::Uuid => "uuid",
+        }
+    }
+    fn arrow_type(self) -> DataType {
+        match self {
+            Self::Int => DataType::Int64,
+            Self::Uuid => DataType::FixedSizeBinary(16),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Where the data under test lives. `Active` = the in-memory active MemTable
+/// (never flushed). `SsTable` = an on-disk SSTable (a Lance data
+/// file + on-disk BTree index, read via the indexed-scan path) vs a single
+/// RocksDB SST on disk.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+enum Storage {
+    Active,
+    SsTable,
+}
+
+impl Storage {
+    fn parse(v: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match v {
+            "active" => Ok(Self::Active),
+            "sstable" => Ok(Self::SsTable),
+            _ => Err(format!("unknown storage '{v}', expected active|sstable")),
+        }
+    }
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Active => "active",
+            Self::SsTable => "sstable",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Deterministic 16-byte UUID for a logical key: a scrambled high half (so keys
+/// scatter across the byte space like real UUIDs) plus the key in the low half
+/// (so distinct keys never collide). Same key → same bytes, so lookups resolve.
+fn uuid_bytes(key: i64) -> [u8; 16] {
+    let mut rng = SplitMix64::new((key as u64) ^ 0xA5A5_5A5A_DEAD_BEEF);
+    *Uuid::from_u64_pair(rng.next_u64(), key as u64).as_bytes()
+}
+
+/// The Lance lookup key (`ScalarValue`) for a logical key under `key_type`.
+fn key_scalar(key: i64, key_type: KeyType) -> ScalarValue {
+    match key_type {
+        KeyType::Int => ScalarValue::Int64(Some(key)),
+        KeyType::Uuid => ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(16, Some(uuid_bytes(key).to_vec())),
+    }
+}
+
+/// The RocksDB key bytes for a logical key under `key_type`.
+#[cfg(feature = "bench-rocksdb")]
+fn rocks_key(key: i64, key_type: KeyType) -> Vec<u8> {
+    match key_type {
+        KeyType::Int => key.to_be_bytes().to_vec(),
+        KeyType::Uuid => uuid_bytes(key).to_vec(),
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct Args {
+    rows: usize,
+    value_size: usize,
+    queries: usize,
+    miss_ratio: f64,
+    threads: usize,
+    batch_rows: usize,
+    engine: Engine,
+    key_type: KeyType,
+    storage: Storage,
+    /// Number of SSTables below the single active MemTable (Lance) /
+    /// immutable SSTs below the active memtable (RocksDB). 0 = the existing
+    /// single-tier behavior. >0 builds a full LSM: rows are split into
+    /// `generations+1` parts, the first `generations` are flushed to on-disk
+    /// generations/SSTs and the last stays active; lookups traverse the tiers.
+    generations: usize,
+    lance_read_mode: LanceReadMode,
+    /// When > 0, the read phase measures **batch get** of this many keys per
+    /// call (Lance: one vectorized BTree gather; RocksDB: `multi_get`) instead
+    /// of single-key point lookups, reporting keys/sec. Sync on both sides
+    /// (std threads) to compare the engines' batch primitives directly.
+    batch_get: usize,
+    uri: String,
+    seed: u64,
+    /// Skip the RocksDB WAL on writes. Off by default so RocksDB writes a WAL
+    /// like Lance's durable MemTable path, keeping the write comparison fair.
+    rocksdb_disable_wal: bool,
+    /// Cold-storage mode: assume the dataset is larger than RAM so reads miss
+    /// the caches and hit NVMe. Caps the RocksDB write buffer + uses a small
+    /// block cache + compacts to one SST, and drops the OS page cache before
+    /// the read phase (both engines). Use with a `--rows`×`--value-size` larger
+    /// than RAM. Only affects the `--storage sstable` path.
+    cold: bool,
+    /// Prewarm all SSTables (open + warm indexes) into the dataset
+    /// session before the read phase, via `DatasetMemWalExt::prewarm_mem_wal`.
+    /// Default on. `--prewarm false` disables it to measure the lazy-warm
+    /// baseline (the SSTable cache is still set, so each generation is opened
+    /// on its first gen-key lookup instead of up front). Only affects the Lance
+    /// `--storage active` LSM path.
+    prewarm: bool,
+    output: Option<PathBuf>,
+}
+
+impl Default for Args {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            rows: 1_000_000,
+            value_size: 100,
+            queries: 5_000,
+            miss_ratio: 0.5,
+            threads: 8,
+            batch_rows: 1_000,
+            engine: Engine::Both,
+            key_type: KeyType::Int,
+            storage: Storage::Active,
+            generations: 0,
+            lance_read_mode: LanceReadMode::Plan,
+            batch_get: 0,
+            uri: String::new(),
+            seed: 0x5EED,
+            rocksdb_disable_wal: false,
+            cold: false,
+            prewarm: true,
+            output: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_val<T>(flag: &str, value: &str) -> Result<T>
+where
+    T: std::str::FromStr,
+    T::Err: std::fmt::Display,
+{
+    value
+        .parse()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid {flag}: {value} ({e})")))
+}
+
+fn parse_args() -> Result<Args> {
+    let mut args = Args::default();
+    let mut iter = std::env::args().skip(1);
+    let mut has_uri = false;
+    while let Some(flag) = iter.next() {
+        if flag == "--bench" {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if flag == "--rocksdb-disable-wal" {
+            args.rocksdb_disable_wal = true;
+            continue;
+        }
+        if flag == "--cold" {
+            args.cold = true;
+            continue;
+        }
+        let value = iter
+            .next()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("missing value for {flag}")))?;
+        match flag.as_str() {
+            "--rows" => args.rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--value-size" => args.value_size = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--queries" => args.queries = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--miss-ratio" => args.miss_ratio = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--threads" => args.threads = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--batch-rows" => args.batch_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--batch-get" => args.batch_get = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--engine" => {
+                args.engine = Engine::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?
+            }
+            "--key-type" => {
+                args.key_type = KeyType::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?
+            }
+            "--storage" => {
+                args.storage = Storage::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?
+            }
+            "--generations" => args.generations = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--prewarm" => args.prewarm = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--lance-read-mode" => {
+                args.lance_read_mode =
+                    LanceReadMode::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?
+            }
+            "--uri" => {
+                args.uri = value;
+                has_uri = true;
+            }
+            "--seed" => args.seed = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--output" => args.output = Some(PathBuf::from(value)),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "unknown argument: {flag}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if !has_uri {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input("--uri is required"));
+    }
+    if args.rows == 0 || args.batch_rows == 0 || args.value_size == 0 || args.queries == 0 {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "rows, batch-rows, value-size, queries must be > 0",
+        ));
+    }
+    if !(0.0..=1.0).contains(&args.miss_ratio) {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "miss-ratio must be in [0, 1]",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(args)
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Schema / batch helpers (Lance)
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn make_schema(key_type: KeyType) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+    id_meta.insert(
+        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+        "true".to_string(),
+    );
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(KEY_COL, key_type.arrow_type(), false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+        Field::new(VALUE_COL, DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn make_batch(
+    schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    keys: &[i64],
+    value_size: usize,
+    key_type: KeyType,
+) -> RecordBatch {
+    use arrow_array::Array;
+    let id_arr: Arc<dyn Array> = match key_type {
+        KeyType::Int => Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(keys.iter().copied())),
+        KeyType::Uuid => Arc::new(
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_iter(keys.iter().map(|k| uuid_bytes(*k)))
+                .unwrap(),
+        ),
+    };
+    let values: Vec<String> = keys
+        .iter()
+        .map(|k| {
+            // make_value is valid ASCII, so from_utf8 never fails.
+            String::from_utf8(make_value(*k, value_size)).unwrap()
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let value_arr = StringArray::from_iter_values(values);
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![id_arr, Arc::new(value_arr)]).unwrap()
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Lance engine
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run_lance(
+    args: &Args,
+    insert_order: &[i64],
+    queries: &[(i64, bool)],
+) -> Result<EngineResult> {
+    let sampler = RssSampler::start();
+    let key_type = args.key_type;
+    let schema = make_schema(key_type);
+
+    // 1-row sentinel base dataset (id = -1) so the lookup path is effectively
+    // MemTable-only: query keys are 0..rows, never in the base table. The
+    // base only ever contributes a 1-row scan on the miss path.
+    let base_uri = format!("{}/base", args.uri.trim_end_matches('/'));
+    let sentinel = make_batch(schema.clone(), &[-1], args.value_size, key_type);
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(sentinel)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &base_uri, Some(WriteParams::default())).await?;
+
+    // BTree index on the key column, maintained by the MemTable.
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[KEY_COL],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some(BTREE_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    dataset
+        .initialize_mem_wal()
+        .maintained_indexes([BTREE_INDEX_NAME])
+        .execute()
+        .await?;
+
+    let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+    let arrow_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema> = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+
+    // No-flush config: every *memtable*-flush threshold is set above the
+    // dataset so the single active MemTable holds all rows (no generation is
+    // sealed to disk). Read visibility is gated on the WAL durability
+    // watermark (`max_visible_batch_position`), which only advances on a WAL
+    // flush — so we use `durable_write=true`: each put flushes its batch to
+    // the WAL and awaits, which both populates the maintained BTree and
+    // advances the watermark, leaving every row visible the moment the write
+    // loop ends (no background-drain race). This is the durable ingestion
+    // path; per the goal it is acceptable for writes to be slower than
+    // RocksDB. The RocksDB arm keeps its WAL on by default too (see
+    // `--rocksdb-disable-wal`) so the write comparison is apples-to-apples.
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let big = args.rows.saturating_mul(args.value_size + 256).max(1 << 30);
+    let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+        shard_id,
+        max_wal_persist_retries: 3,
+        wal_persist_retry_base_delay: std::time::Duration::from_millis(50),
+        shard_spec_id: 0,
+        durable_write: true,
+        max_memtable_size: big,
+        max_memtable_rows: args.rows * 4 + 1_000_000,
+        max_memtable_batches: args.rows / args.batch_rows + 1_000_000,
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: big,
+        max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(100)),
+        ..ShardWriterConfig::default()
+    };
+    let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await?;
+
+    // --- write phase ---
+    // LSM: split rows into `generations+1` parts; seal+flush after each of the
+    // first `generations` parts (each becomes an on-disk generation) and leave
+    // the last part in the active MemTable.
+    let gens = args.generations;
+    let part = (insert_order.len() / (gens + 1)).max(1);
+    let cpu0 = process_cpu_secs();
+    let t_write = Instant::now();
+    let mut lo = 0usize;
+    for g in 0..=gens {
+        let part_end = if g < gens {
+            ((g + 1) * part).min(insert_order.len())
+        } else {
+            insert_order.len()
+        };
+        while lo < part_end {
+            let hi = (lo + args.batch_rows).min(part_end);
+            let batch = make_batch(
+                schema.clone(),
+                &insert_order[lo..hi],
+                args.value_size,
+                key_type,
+            );
+            writer.put(vec![batch]).await?;
+            lo = hi;
+        }
+        if g < gens {
+            writer.force_seal_active().await?;
+            for _ in 0..600 {
+                let n = writer
+                    .manifest()
+                    .await?
+                    .map(|m| m.sstables.len())
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                if n > g {
+                    break;
+                }
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(25)).await;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let write_s = t_write.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let write_cpu_s = process_cpu_secs() - cpu0;
+    let write_rows_per_s = args.rows as f64 / write_s.max(1e-9);
+    let rss_after_load_mb = sampler.peak_mb();
+    let n_gens = writer
+        .manifest()
+        .await?
+        .map(|m| m.sstables.len())
+        .unwrap_or(0);
+    println!(
+        "[lance] wrote {} rows in {:.2}s = {:.0} rows/s (cpu {:.2}s, sstables={n_gens}+active)",
+        args.rows, write_s, write_rows_per_s, write_cpu_s
+    );
+
+    // Build the point-lookup planner over base + active MemTable.
+    let manifest = writer.manifest().await?;
+    let in_memory_refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await?;
+    let mut shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id);
+    if let Some(ref m) = manifest {
+        shard_snapshot = shard_snapshot.with_current_generation(m.current_generation);
+        for sstable in &m.sstables {
+            shard_snapshot = shard_snapshot.with_sstable(sstable.generation, sstable.path.clone());
+        }
+    }
+    // Keep a handle to the active MemTable for the direct fast path before
+    // the collector takes ownership of the refs.
+    let active = Arc::new(in_memory_refs.active.clone());
+    let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(dataset.clone(), vec![shard_snapshot.clone()])
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, in_memory_refs);
+    // Thread the dataset session + an SSTable cache into the planner, and
+    // prewarm every SSTable (open + warm its indexes) up front via
+    // the general MemWAL API, so gen-key lookups never re-open a generation per
+    // query (the equivalent of RocksDB keeping its DB + SSTs resident). Without
+    // this, each plan-path lookup pays a fresh manifest read + Dataset open — a
+    // fixed per-lookup cost independent of generation count.
+    let sstable_cache = Arc::new(SsTableCache::new((gens as u64).max(1)));
+    if args.prewarm {
+        dataset
+            .prewarm_mem_wal(std::slice::from_ref(&shard_snapshot), Some(&sstable_cache))
+            .await?;
+    }
+    let planner = Arc::new(
+        LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec![KEY_COL.to_string()], arrow_schema)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_session(dataset.session())
+            .with_sstable_cache(sstable_cache),
+    );
+
+    // Warmup + correctness: a hit key must resolve to exactly one row under
+    // whichever read mode we're timing.
+    {
+        let probe = insert_order[insert_order.len() / 2];
+        let n = match args.lance_read_mode {
+            LanceReadMode::Plan => {
+                let plan = planner
+                    .plan_lookup(&[key_scalar(probe, key_type)], None)
+                    .await?;
+                let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+                let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> =
+                    plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())?.try_collect().await?;
+                batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>()
+            }
+            LanceReadMode::Fast => fast_lookup(&active, probe, key_type)
+                .map(|b| b.num_rows())
+                .unwrap_or(0),
+            LanceReadMode::Api => planner
+                .lookup(&[key_scalar(probe, key_type)], None)
+                .await?
+                .map(|b| b.num_rows())
+                .unwrap_or(0),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(n, 1, "warmup lookup for key {probe} returned {n} rows");
+    }
+
+    // --- batch-get path: one vectorized BTree gather per `batch_get` keys ---
+    if args.batch_get > 0 {
+        let bg = args.batch_get;
+        let hit_keys: Vec<i64> = queries
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|(_, h)| *h)
+            .map(|(k, _)| *k)
+            .collect();
+        // `api` mode exercises the production `lookup_many` (async); `fast`/`plan`
+        // use the bench's direct `fast_lookup_batch`. Both gather columnar.
+        let use_api = matches!(args.lance_read_mode, LanceReadMode::Api);
+        let to_scalars = |chunk: &[i64]| -> Vec<ScalarValue> {
+            chunk.iter().map(|k| key_scalar(*k, key_type)).collect()
+        };
+        let cpu1 = process_cpu_secs();
+        let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(hit_keys.len().div_ceil(bg));
+        let mut found_total = 0usize;
+        let t = Instant::now();
+        for chunk in hit_keys.chunks(bg) {
+            let t0 = Instant::now();
+            let n = if use_api {
+                planner
+                    .lookup_many(&to_scalars(chunk), None)
+                    .await?
+                    .num_rows()
+            } else {
+                fast_lookup_batch(&active, chunk, key_type).num_rows()
+            };
+            latencies_us.push(t0.elapsed().as_nanos() as f64 / 1000.0);
+            found_total += n;
+        }
+        let s1 = t.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+        let read_qps_1t = hit_keys.len() as f64 / s1.max(1e-9); // keys/sec
+        let read_cpu_s = process_cpu_secs() - cpu1;
+        assert_eq!(
+            found_total,
+            hit_keys.len(),
+            "batch get must find all hit keys"
+        );
+
+        let read_qps_nt = if args.threads > 1 {
+            let keys = Arc::new(hit_keys);
+            let nchunks = keys.len().div_ceil(bg);
+            let t = Instant::now();
+            if use_api {
+                let mut handles = Vec::with_capacity(args.threads);
+                for shard in 0..args.threads {
+                    let keys = keys.clone();
+                    let planner = planner.clone();
+                    let threads = args.threads;
+                    handles.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                        let mut ci = shard;
+                        while ci < nchunks {
+                            let lo = ci * bg;
+                            let hi = (lo + bg).min(keys.len());
+                            let scalars: Vec<ScalarValue> = keys[lo..hi]
+                                .iter()
+                                .map(|k| key_scalar(*k, key_type))
+                                .collect();
+                            std::hint::black_box(
+                                planner.lookup_many(&scalars, None).await.unwrap(),
+                            );
+                            ci += threads;
+                        }
+                    }));
+                }
+                for h in handles {
+                    h.await.unwrap();
+                }
+            } else {
+                let mut handles = Vec::with_capacity(args.threads);
+                for shard in 0..args.threads {
+                    let keys = keys.clone();
+                    let active = active.clone();
+                    let threads = args.threads;
+                    handles.push(std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                        let mut ci = shard;
+                        while ci < nchunks {
+                            let lo = ci * bg;
+                            let hi = (lo + bg).min(keys.len());
+                            std::hint::black_box(fast_lookup_batch(
+                                &active,
+                                &keys[lo..hi],
+                                key_type,
+                            ));
+                            ci += threads;
+                        }
+                    }));
+                }
+                for h in handles {
+                    h.join().unwrap();
+                }
+            }
+            keys.len() as f64 / t.elapsed().as_secs_f64().max(1e-9)
+        } else {
+            read_qps_1t
+        };
+        let stats = compute_stats(latencies_us);
+        let peak_rss_mb = sampler.stop();
+        println!(
+            "[lance] batch_get={bg} keys/s_1t={read_qps_1t:.0} keys/s_{}t={read_qps_nt:.0} per_batch p50={:.2}us p99={:.2}us (found={found_total})",
+            args.threads, stats.p50_us, stats.p99_us
+        );
+        drop(writer);
+        return Ok(EngineResult {
+            engine: "lance-batch",
+            write_rows_per_s,
+            write_cpu_s,
+            read_p50_us: stats.p50_us,
+            read_p95_us: stats.p95_us,
+            read_p99_us: stats.p99_us,
+            read_mean_us: stats.mean_us,
+            read_qps_1t,
+            read_qps_nt,
+            read_cpu_s,
+            hits: found_total,
+            misses_resolved: 0,
+            peak_rss_mb,
+            rss_after_load_mb,
+        });
+    }
+
+    // Cold mode: drop the OS page cache so the on-disk generations are read
+    // from NVMe (the active MemTable stays in memory either way).
+    if args.cold {
+        drop_page_cache();
+        println!("[lance] dropped page cache (cold reads from NVMe)");
+    }
+
+    // --- read phase: single-thread latency + hit/miss accounting ---
+    let cpu1 = process_cpu_secs();
+    let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+    let task_ctx = ctx.task_ctx();
+    let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+    let mut hits = 0usize;
+    let mut misses_resolved = 0usize;
+    let t_read = Instant::now();
+    for &(key, expect_hit) in queries {
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        let n = match args.lance_read_mode {
+            LanceReadMode::Plan => {
+                let plan = planner
+                    .plan_lookup(&[key_scalar(key, key_type)], None)
+                    .await?;
+                let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> =
+                    plan.execute(0, task_ctx.clone())?.try_collect().await?;
+                batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>()
+            }
+            LanceReadMode::Fast => fast_lookup(&active, key, key_type)
+                .map(|b| b.num_rows())
+                .unwrap_or(0),
+            LanceReadMode::Api => planner
+                .lookup(&[key_scalar(key, key_type)], None)
+                .await?
+                .map(|b| b.num_rows())
+                .unwrap_or(0),
+        };
+        latencies_us.push(t0.elapsed().as_nanos() as f64 / 1000.0);
+        if expect_hit {
+            assert_eq!(n, 1, "expected hit for key {key}, got {n}");
+            hits += 1;
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(n, 0, "expected miss for key {key}, got {n}");
+            misses_resolved += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    let read_1t_s = t_read.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let read_qps_1t = queries.len() as f64 / read_1t_s.max(1e-9);
+    let read_cpu_s = process_cpu_secs() - cpu1;
+    let stats = compute_stats(latencies_us);
+
+    // --- read phase: N-thread QPS ---
+    let keys: Arc<Vec<i64>> = Arc::new(queries.iter().map(|(k, _)| *k).collect());
+    let read_qps_nt = if args.threads <= 1 {
+        read_qps_1t
+    } else if args.lance_read_mode == LanceReadMode::Fast {
+        // Direct path is synchronous; fan out over OS threads like RocksDB.
+        let t = Instant::now();
+        let mut handles = Vec::with_capacity(args.threads);
+        for shard in 0..args.threads {
+            let active = active.clone();
+            let keys = keys.clone();
+            let threads = args.threads;
+            handles.push(std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                let mut i = shard;
+                while i < keys.len() {
+                    std::hint::black_box(fast_lookup(&active, keys[i], key_type));
+                    i += threads;
+                }
+            }));
+        }
+        for h in handles {
+            h.join().unwrap();
+        }
+        keys.len() as f64 / t.elapsed().as_secs_f64().max(1e-9)
+    } else {
+        // Plan and Api are async; fan out over tokio tasks.
+        let mode = args.lance_read_mode;
+        let t = Instant::now();
+        let mut handles = Vec::with_capacity(args.threads);
+        for shard in 0..args.threads {
+            let planner = planner.clone();
+            let keys = keys.clone();
+            let threads = args.threads;
+            handles.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+                let task_ctx = ctx.task_ctx();
+                let mut done = 0usize;
+                let mut i = shard;
+                while i < keys.len() {
+                    match mode {
+                        LanceReadMode::Api => {
+                            std::hint::black_box(
+                                planner
+                                    .lookup(&[key_scalar(keys[i], key_type)], None)
+                                    .await
+                                    .unwrap(),
+                            );
+                        }
+                        _ => {
+                            let plan = planner
+                                .plan_lookup(&[key_scalar(keys[i], key_type)], None)
+                                .await
+                                .unwrap();
+                            let _b: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+                                .execute(0, task_ctx.clone())
+                                .unwrap()
+                                .try_collect()
+                                .await
+                                .unwrap();
+                        }
+                    }
+                    done += 1;
+                    i += threads;
+                }
+                done
+            }));
+        }
+        let mut total = 0usize;
+        for h in handles {
+            total += h.await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let s = t.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+        total as f64 / s.max(1e-9)
+    };
+
+    let peak_rss_mb = sampler.stop();
+    println!(
+        "[lance] read p50={:.2}us p95={:.2}us p99={:.2}us mean={:.2}us qps_1t={:.0} qps_{}t={:.0} (hits={} miss={}) peak_rss={:.0}MB",
+        stats.p50_us,
+        stats.p95_us,
+        stats.p99_us,
+        stats.mean_us,
+        read_qps_1t,
+        args.threads,
+        read_qps_nt,
+        hits,
+        misses_resolved,
+        peak_rss_mb
+    );
+
+    // Reads are done; release the writer (and, when this function returns, the
+    // planner/collector that hold the MemTable Arcs) so Lance memory is freed
+    // before any subsequent in-process engine — otherwise `--engine both`
+    // would inflate the RocksDB RSS sample. ShardWriter has no blocking Drop.
+    drop(writer);
+
+    Ok(EngineResult {
+        engine: match args.lance_read_mode {
+            LanceReadMode::Plan => "lance",
+            LanceReadMode::Fast => "lance-fast",
+            LanceReadMode::Api => "lance-api",
+        },
+        write_rows_per_s,
+        write_cpu_s,
+        read_p50_us: stats.p50_us,
+        read_p95_us: stats.p95_us,
+        read_p99_us: stats.p99_us,
+        read_mean_us: stats.mean_us,
+        read_qps_1t,
+        read_qps_nt,
+        read_cpu_s,
+        hits,
+        misses_resolved,
+        peak_rss_mb,
+        rss_after_load_mb,
+    })
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Lance SSTable (on-disk) engine
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Drop the OS page cache so subsequent reads hit storage (cold). Best-effort:
+/// needs passwordless sudo (true on the bench box); failures are ignored.
+fn drop_page_cache() {
+    let _ = std::process::Command::new("sudo")
+        .args(["sh", "-c", "sync; echo 3 > /proc/sys/vm/drop_caches"])
+        .status();
+    std::thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(300));
+}
+
+/// One indexed point lookup via the **DataFusion** path: `scan().filter("id =
+/// key")` parses + plans + executes a query per lookup (uses the on-disk BTree
+/// index). Returns the matched row count.
+async fn sstable_probe(dataset: &Dataset, key: i64) -> Result<usize> {
+    use futures::StreamExt;
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.filter(&format!("{KEY_COL} = {key}"))?;
+    let mut stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+    let mut n = 0;
+    while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
+        n += batch?.num_rows();
+    }
+    Ok(n)
+}
+
+/// One point lookup via the **direct** path: search the on-disk BTree scalar
+/// index for the row id, then `take` that row — bypassing DataFusion plan
+/// construction. Diagnostic for how much of the SSTable read cost is the plan.
+async fn sstable_probe_direct(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    scalar_index: &Arc<dyn lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex>,
+    key: i64,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::scalar::SargableQuery;
+    let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(key)));
+    let result = scalar_index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
+    let true_rows = result.row_addrs().true_rows();
+    let Some(rid) = true_rows
+        .row_addrs()
+        .and_then(|mut it| it.next())
+        .map(u64::from)
+    else {
+        return Ok(0);
+    };
+    let batch = dataset.take_rows(&[rid], dataset.schema().clone()).await?;
+    Ok(batch.num_rows())
+}
+
+/// Dispatch an SSTable point lookup: `direct` = on-disk BTree index search + take
+/// (no DataFusion); otherwise the DataFusion `scan().filter()` path.
+async fn sstable_lookup(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    scalar_index: &Arc<dyn lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex>,
+    key: i64,
+    direct: bool,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    if direct {
+        sstable_probe_direct(dataset, scalar_index, key).await
+    } else {
+        sstable_probe(dataset, key).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Batched SSTable lookup over a chunk of keys: `direct` searches the index for
+/// each key then issues one `take_rows` for all; otherwise one DataFusion scan
+/// with `id IN (...)`. Returns the total matched row count.
+async fn sstable_batch(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    scalar_index: &Arc<dyn lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex>,
+    keys: &[i64],
+    direct: bool,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    if direct {
+        use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        use lance_index::scalar::SargableQuery;
+        let mut rids = Vec::with_capacity(keys.len());
+        for &k in keys {
+            let q = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int64(Some(k)));
+            let r = scalar_index.search(&q, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
+            if let Some(rid) = r
+                .row_addrs()
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .and_then(|mut it| it.next())
+                .map(u64::from)
+            {
+                rids.push(rid);
+            }
+        }
+        if rids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(0);
+        }
+        let batch = dataset.take_rows(&rids, dataset.schema().clone()).await?;
+        Ok(batch.num_rows())
+    } else {
+        use futures::StreamExt;
+        let list = keys
+            .iter()
+            .map(|k| k.to_string())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(",");
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter(&format!("{KEY_COL} IN ({list})"))?;
+        let mut stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+        let mut n = 0;
+        while let Some(b) = stream.next().await {
+            n += b?.num_rows();
+        }
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+}
+
+/// SSTable Lance: write all rows as one on-disk Lance dataset with a BTree
+/// scalar index — the exact artifact a MemTable flush emits (forward-written
+/// data file + on-disk BTree index) — then point-lookup through the indexed
+/// scan path. Int keys only (the SQL filter literal is the integer).
+async fn run_lance_sstable(
+    args: &Args,
+    insert_order: &[i64],
+    queries: &[(i64, bool)],
+) -> Result<EngineResult> {
+    assert_eq!(
+        args.key_type,
+        KeyType::Int,
+        "sstable mode currently supports --key-type int only"
+    );
+    let sampler = RssSampler::start();
+    let key_type = args.key_type;
+    let schema = make_schema(key_type);
+    let uri = format!("{}/lance_sstable", args.uri.trim_end_matches('/'));
+    let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&uri);
+
+    // --- write + flush: build the on-disk data file + BTree index ---
+    let cpu0 = process_cpu_secs();
+    let t_write = Instant::now();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = insert_order
+        .chunks(args.batch_rows)
+        .map(|c| make_batch(schema.clone(), c, args.value_size, key_type))
+        .collect();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default())).await?;
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[KEY_COL],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some(BTREE_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    let write_s = t_write.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let write_cpu_s = process_cpu_secs() - cpu0;
+    let write_rows_per_s = args.rows as f64 / write_s.max(1e-9);
+    let rss_after_load_mb = sampler.peak_mb();
+    println!(
+        "[lance] wrote+flushed {} rows + btree index in {:.2}s = {:.0} rows/s (cpu {:.2}s)",
+        args.rows, write_s, write_rows_per_s, write_cpu_s
+    );
+    let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+    // `plan` = DataFusion scan().filter(); `fast`/`api` = direct BTree index
+    // search + take (no DataFusion). Open the on-disk index once for the latter.
+    let direct = args.lance_read_mode != LanceReadMode::Plan;
+    let scalar_index: Arc<dyn lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex> = {
+        use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+        let uuid = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|i| i.name == BTREE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .map(|i| i.uuid.to_string())
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::internal("sstable: btree index not found"))?;
+        dataset
+            .open_scalar_index(KEY_COL, &uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await?
+    };
+    println!(
+        "[lance] sstable read path = {}",
+        if direct {
+            "direct btree-index search + take"
+        } else {
+            "datafusion scan().filter()"
+        }
+    );
+
+    // warmup + correctness: a hit resolves to exactly one row via the index.
+    if let Some((probe, _)) = queries.iter().find(|(_, h)| *h) {
+        let n = sstable_lookup(&dataset, &scalar_index, *probe, direct).await?;
+        assert_eq!(n, 1, "sstable warmup lookup for key {probe} returned {n}");
+    }
+
+    // Cold mode: drop the OS page cache so reads hit NVMe (data > RAM assumed).
+    if args.cold {
+        drop_page_cache();
+        println!("[lance] dropped page cache (cold reads from NVMe)");
+    }
+
+    // --- batch-get path: gather `batch_get` keys per call from the SSTable ---
+    if args.batch_get > 0 {
+        let bg = args.batch_get;
+        let hit_keys: Vec<i64> = queries
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|(_, h)| *h)
+            .map(|(k, _)| *k)
+            .collect();
+        let cpu1 = process_cpu_secs();
+        let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(hit_keys.len().div_ceil(bg));
+        let mut found_total = 0usize;
+        let t = Instant::now();
+        for chunk in hit_keys.chunks(bg) {
+            let t0 = Instant::now();
+            found_total += sstable_batch(&dataset, &scalar_index, chunk, direct).await?;
+            latencies_us.push(t0.elapsed().as_nanos() as f64 / 1000.0);
+        }
+        let read_qps_1t = hit_keys.len() as f64 / t.elapsed().as_secs_f64().max(1e-9);
+        let read_cpu_s = process_cpu_secs() - cpu1;
+        let keys_arc: Arc<Vec<i64>> = Arc::new(hit_keys.clone());
+        let read_qps_nt = if args.threads <= 1 {
+            read_qps_1t
+        } else {
+            let t = Instant::now();
+            let mut handles = Vec::with_capacity(args.threads);
+            for shard in 0..args.threads {
+                let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                let si = scalar_index.clone();
+                let keys = keys_arc.clone();
+                let threads = args.threads;
+                handles.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                    let chunks: Vec<&[i64]> = keys.chunks(bg).collect();
+                    let mut i = shard;
+                    while i < chunks.len() {
+                        let _ = sstable_batch(&dataset, &si, chunks[i], direct).await;
+                        i += threads;
+                    }
+                }));
+            }
+            for h in handles {
+                h.await.unwrap();
+            }
+            hit_keys.len() as f64 / t.elapsed().as_secs_f64().max(1e-9)
+        };
+        let stats = compute_stats(latencies_us);
+        let peak_rss_mb = sampler.stop();
+        println!(
+            "[lance] batch_get={bg} keys/s_1t={read_qps_1t:.0} keys/s_{}t={read_qps_nt:.0} per_batch p50={:.2}us p99={:.2}us (found={found_total})",
+            args.threads, stats.p50_us, stats.p99_us
+        );
+        return Ok(EngineResult {
+            engine: "lance-sstable-batch",
+            write_rows_per_s,
+            write_cpu_s,
+            read_p50_us: stats.p50_us,
+            read_p95_us: stats.p95_us,
+            read_p99_us: stats.p99_us,
+            read_mean_us: stats.mean_us,
+            read_qps_1t,
+            read_qps_nt,
+            read_cpu_s,
+            hits: found_total,
+            misses_resolved: 0,
+            peak_rss_mb,
+            rss_after_load_mb,
+        });
+    }
+
+    // --- single-thread read latency ---
+    let cpu1 = process_cpu_secs();
+    let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+    let mut hits = 0usize;
+    let mut misses_resolved = 0usize;
+    let t_read = Instant::now();
+    for &(key, expect_hit) in queries {
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        let n = sstable_lookup(&dataset, &scalar_index, key, direct).await?;
+        latencies_us.push(t0.elapsed().as_nanos() as f64 / 1000.0);
+        if expect_hit {
+            assert_eq!(n, 1, "expected hit for key {key}, got {n}");
+            hits += 1;
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(n, 0, "expected miss for key {key}, got {n}");
+            misses_resolved += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    let read_1t_s = t_read.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let read_qps_1t = queries.len() as f64 / read_1t_s.max(1e-9);
+    let read_cpu_s = process_cpu_secs() - cpu1;
+    let stats = compute_stats(latencies_us);
+
+    // --- N-thread QPS (tokio tasks, shared Arc<Dataset>) ---
+    let keys: Arc<Vec<i64>> = Arc::new(queries.iter().map(|(k, _)| *k).collect());
+    let read_qps_nt = if args.threads <= 1 {
+        read_qps_1t
+    } else {
+        let t = Instant::now();
+        let mut handles = Vec::with_capacity(args.threads);
+        for shard in 0..args.threads {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let scalar_index = scalar_index.clone();
+            let keys = keys.clone();
+            let threads = args.threads;
+            handles.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                let mut i = shard;
+                while i < keys.len() {
+                    let _ = sstable_lookup(&dataset, &scalar_index, keys[i], direct).await;
+                    i += threads;
+                }
+            }));
+        }
+        for h in handles {
+            h.await.unwrap();
+        }
+        queries.len() as f64 / t.elapsed().as_secs_f64().max(1e-9)
+    };
+
+    let peak_rss_mb = sampler.stop();
+    println!(
+        "[lance] read p50={:.2}us p95={:.2}us p99={:.2}us mean={:.2}us qps_1t={:.0} qps_{}t={:.0} (hits={hits} miss={misses_resolved}) peak_rss={:.0}MB",
+        stats.p50_us,
+        stats.p95_us,
+        stats.p99_us,
+        stats.mean_us,
+        read_qps_1t,
+        args.threads,
+        read_qps_nt,
+        peak_rss_mb
+    );
+
+    Ok(EngineResult {
+        engine: "lance-sstable",
+        write_rows_per_s,
+        write_cpu_s,
+        read_p50_us: stats.p50_us,
+        read_p95_us: stats.p95_us,
+        read_p99_us: stats.p99_us,
+        read_mean_us: stats.mean_us,
+        read_qps_1t,
+        read_qps_nt,
+        read_cpu_s,
+        hits,
+        misses_resolved,
+        peak_rss_mb,
+        rss_after_load_mb,
+    })
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// RocksDB engine (only with --features bench-rocksdb)
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[cfg(feature = "bench-rocksdb")]
+fn run_rocksdb(args: &Args, insert_order: &[i64], queries: &[(i64, bool)]) -> Result<EngineResult> {
+    use rocksdb::{DB, Options, WriteBatch, WriteOptions};
+
+    let sampler = RssSampler::start();
+    let key_type = args.key_type;
+    let db_path = format!("{}/rocksdb", args.uri.trim_end_matches('/'));
+    let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&db_path);
+    // RocksDB's create_if_missing creates the DB dir but not missing parents;
+    // for `--engine rocksdb` (no Lance arm to create `--uri`) make it ourselves.
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&db_path)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("mkdir {db_path}: {e}")))?;
+
+    // Write-buffer sizing. Default (warm): above the whole dataset so one
+    // memtable holds every row. Cold: cap at 512MB so a larger-than-RAM dataset
+    // flushes to SSTs during write instead of OOMing the memtable.
+    let write_buf = if args.cold {
+        512usize << 20
+    } else {
+        args.rows * (args.value_size + 200) + (64 << 20)
+    };
+    let mut opts = Options::default();
+    opts.create_if_missing(true);
+    opts.set_write_buffer_size(write_buf);
+    opts.set_max_write_buffer_number(4);
+    opts.set_min_write_buffer_number_to_merge(2);
+    opts.set_disable_auto_compactions(true);
+    opts.set_db_write_buffer_size(write_buf);
+    // Block cache for the `--storage sstable` SST reads. Warm: large enough to
+    // hold the SST index/filter + hot data blocks. Cold: small (128MB) so data
+    // blocks miss the cache and reads go to NVMe (index/filter stay in memory).
+    {
+        let mut bbt = rocksdb::BlockBasedOptions::default();
+        bbt.set_bloom_filter(10.0, false);
+        let cache_bytes = if args.cold {
+            128usize << 20
+        } else {
+            (1usize << 30).max(write_buf / 2)
+        };
+        let cache = rocksdb::Cache::new_lru_cache(cache_bytes);
+        bbt.set_block_cache(&cache);
+        opts.set_block_based_table_factory(&bbt);
+    }
+
+    let db = Arc::new(
+        DB::open(&opts, &db_path)
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("rocksdb open: {e}")))?,
+    );
+
+    let mut wo = WriteOptions::default();
+    // Default: WAL on (durable), matching Lance's durable_write=true path.
+    // `--rocksdb-disable-wal` opts into RocksDB's faster no-WAL writes.
+    wo.disable_wal(args.rocksdb_disable_wal);
+
+    // --- write phase ---
+    // LSM: split into `generations+1` parts; flush each of the first
+    // `generations` parts to its own SST (compaction off → they stay separate
+    // L0 SSTs); the last part stays in the active memtable.
+    let gens = args.generations;
+    let part = (insert_order.len() / (gens + 1)).max(1);
+    let cpu0 = process_cpu_secs();
+    let t_write = Instant::now();
+    let mut lo = 0usize;
+    for g in 0..=gens {
+        let part_end = if g < gens {
+            ((g + 1) * part).min(insert_order.len())
+        } else {
+            insert_order.len()
+        };
+        while lo < part_end {
+            let hi = (lo + args.batch_rows).min(part_end);
+            let mut wb = WriteBatch::default();
+            for &k in &insert_order[lo..hi] {
+                wb.put(rocks_key(k, key_type), make_value(k, args.value_size));
+            }
+            db.write_opt(wb, &wo)
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("rocksdb write: {e}")))?;
+            lo = hi;
+        }
+        if g < gens {
+            db.flush()
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("rocksdb flush gen: {e}")))?;
+        }
+    }
+    let write_s = t_write.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let write_cpu_s = process_cpu_secs() - cpu0;
+    let write_rows_per_s = args.rows as f64 / write_s.max(1e-9);
+    let rss_after_load_mb = sampler.peak_mb();
+    println!(
+        "[rocksdb] wrote {} rows in {:.2}s = {:.0} rows/s (cpu {:.2}s, write_buf {}MB)",
+        args.rows,
+        write_s,
+        write_rows_per_s,
+        write_cpu_s,
+        write_buf >> 20
+    );
+
+    // Single-tier `--storage sstable` (no extra generations): flush the active
+    // to one SST (compact to one if cold). With generations>0 the per-chunk
+    // flushes already produced N separate L0 SSTs + the active memtable.
+    if gens == 0 && args.storage == Storage::SsTable {
+        db.flush()
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("rocksdb flush: {e}")))?;
+        if args.cold {
+            db.compact_range::<&[u8], &[u8]>(None, None);
+        }
+    }
+    if args.storage == Storage::SsTable || gens > 0 {
+        let n_sst = db
+            .property_int_value("rocksdb.num-files-at-level0")
+            .ok()
+            .flatten()
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        println!("[rocksdb] {n_sst} L0 SSTs + active memtable");
+    }
+
+    // Cold mode: drop the OS page cache so reads hit NVMe.
+    if args.cold {
+        drop_page_cache();
+        println!("[rocksdb] dropped page cache (cold reads from NVMe)");
+    }
+
+    // --- batch-get path: RocksDB multi_get of `batch_get` keys per call ---
+    if args.batch_get > 0 {
+        let bg = args.batch_get;
+        let hit_keys: Vec<i64> = queries
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|(_, h)| *h)
+            .map(|(k, _)| *k)
+            .collect();
+        let multiget = |db: &DB, chunk: &[i64]| -> usize {
+            db.multi_get(chunk.iter().map(|k| rocks_key(*k, key_type)))
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter(|r| matches!(r, Ok(Some(_))))
+                .count()
+        };
+        let cpu1 = process_cpu_secs();
+        let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(hit_keys.len().div_ceil(bg));
+        let mut found_total = 0usize;
+        let t = Instant::now();
+        for chunk in hit_keys.chunks(bg) {
+            let t0 = Instant::now();
+            found_total += multiget(&db, chunk);
+            latencies_us.push(t0.elapsed().as_nanos() as f64 / 1000.0);
+        }
+        let s1 = t.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+        let read_qps_1t = hit_keys.len() as f64 / s1.max(1e-9);
+        let read_cpu_s = process_cpu_secs() - cpu1;
+        assert_eq!(
+            found_total,
+            hit_keys.len(),
+            "multi_get must find all hit keys"
+        );
+
+        let read_qps_nt = if args.threads > 1 {
+            let keys = Arc::new(hit_keys);
+            let nchunks = keys.len().div_ceil(bg);
+            let t = Instant::now();
+            let mut handles = Vec::with_capacity(args.threads);
+            for shard in 0..args.threads {
+                let keys = keys.clone();
+                let db = db.clone();
+                let threads = args.threads;
+                handles.push(std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                    let mut ci = shard;
+                    while ci < nchunks {
+                        let lo = ci * bg;
+                        let hi = (lo + bg).min(keys.len());
+                        std::hint::black_box(
+                            db.multi_get(keys[lo..hi].iter().map(|k| rocks_key(*k, key_type))),
+                        );
+                        ci += threads;
+                    }
+                }));
+            }
+            for h in handles {
+                h.join().unwrap();
+            }
+            keys.len() as f64 / t.elapsed().as_secs_f64().max(1e-9)
+        } else {
+            read_qps_1t
+        };
+        let stats = compute_stats(latencies_us);
+        let peak_rss_mb = sampler.stop();
+        println!(
+            "[rocksdb] batch_get={bg} keys/s_1t={read_qps_1t:.0} keys/s_{}t={read_qps_nt:.0} per_batch p50={:.2}us p99={:.2}us (found={found_total})",
+            args.threads, stats.p50_us, stats.p99_us
+        );
+        drop(db);
+        let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&db_path);
+        return Ok(EngineResult {
+            engine: "rocksdb",
+            write_rows_per_s,
+            write_cpu_s,
+            read_p50_us: stats.p50_us,
+            read_p95_us: stats.p95_us,
+            read_p99_us: stats.p99_us,
+            read_mean_us: stats.mean_us,
+            read_qps_1t,
+            read_qps_nt,
+            read_cpu_s,
+            hits: found_total,
+            misses_resolved: 0,
+            peak_rss_mb,
+            rss_after_load_mb,
+        });
+    }
+
+    // --- read phase: single-thread latency ---
+    let cpu1 = process_cpu_secs();
+    let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+    let mut hits = 0usize;
+    let mut misses_resolved = 0usize;
+    let t_read = Instant::now();
+    for &(key, expect_hit) in queries {
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        let got = db
+            .get(rocks_key(key, key_type))
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("rocksdb get: {e}")))?;
+        latencies_us.push(t0.elapsed().as_nanos() as f64 / 1000.0);
+        if expect_hit {
+            assert!(got.is_some(), "expected hit for key {key}");
+            hits += 1;
+        } else {
+            assert!(got.is_none(), "expected miss for key {key}");
+            misses_resolved += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    let read_1t_s = t_read.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let read_qps_1t = queries.len() as f64 / read_1t_s.max(1e-9);
+    let read_cpu_s = process_cpu_secs() - cpu1;
+    let stats = compute_stats(latencies_us);
+
+    // --- read phase: N-thread QPS ---
+    let read_qps_nt = if args.threads > 1 {
+        let keys: Arc<Vec<i64>> = Arc::new(queries.iter().map(|(k, _)| *k).collect());
+        let t = Instant::now();
+        let mut handles = Vec::with_capacity(args.threads);
+        for shard in 0..args.threads {
+            let db = db.clone();
+            let keys = keys.clone();
+            let threads = args.threads;
+            handles.push(std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                let mut i = shard;
+                while i < keys.len() {
+                    let _ = db.get(rocks_key(keys[i], key_type)).unwrap();
+                    i += threads;
+                }
+            }));
+        }
+        for h in handles {
+            h.join().unwrap();
+        }
+        let s = t.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+        keys.len() as f64 / s.max(1e-9)
+    } else {
+        read_qps_1t
+    };
+
+    let peak_rss_mb = sampler.stop();
+    println!(
+        "[rocksdb] read p50={:.2}us p95={:.2}us p99={:.2}us mean={:.2}us qps_1t={:.0} qps_{}t={:.0} (hits={} miss={}) peak_rss={:.0}MB",
+        stats.p50_us,
+        stats.p95_us,
+        stats.p99_us,
+        stats.mean_us,
+        read_qps_1t,
+        args.threads,
+        read_qps_nt,
+        hits,
+        misses_resolved,
+        peak_rss_mb
+    );
+
+    drop(db);
+    let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&db_path);
+
+    Ok(EngineResult {
+        engine: "rocksdb",
+        write_rows_per_s,
+        write_cpu_s,
+        read_p50_us: stats.p50_us,
+        read_p95_us: stats.p95_us,
+        read_p99_us: stats.p99_us,
+        read_mean_us: stats.mean_us,
+        read_qps_1t,
+        read_qps_nt,
+        read_cpu_s,
+        hits,
+        misses_resolved,
+        peak_rss_mb,
+        rss_after_load_mb,
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "bench-rocksdb"))]
+fn run_rocksdb(
+    _args: &Args,
+    _insert_order: &[i64],
+    _queries: &[(i64, bool)],
+) -> Result<EngineResult> {
+    Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+        "RocksDB arm not compiled; rebuild with --features bench-rocksdb",
+    ))
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Entrypoint
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn print_comparison(results: &[EngineResult]) {
+    println!("\n=== comparison ===");
+    println!(
+        "{:>9} {:>14} {:>12} {:>12} {:>12} {:>12} {:>12} {:>11} {:>11}",
+        "engine",
+        "write_rows/s",
+        "rd_p50_us",
+        "rd_p95_us",
+        "rd_p99_us",
+        "qps_1t",
+        "qps_nt",
+        "rss_mb",
+        "rd_cpu_s"
+    );
+    for r in results {
+        println!(
+            "{:>9} {:>14.0} {:>12.2} {:>12.2} {:>12.2} {:>12.0} {:>12.0} {:>11.0} {:>11.3}",
+            r.engine,
+            r.write_rows_per_s,
+            r.read_p50_us,
+            r.read_p95_us,
+            r.read_p99_us,
+            r.read_qps_1t,
+            r.read_qps_nt,
+            r.peak_rss_mb,
+            r.read_cpu_s,
+        );
+    }
+    // Ratios when both ran.
+    if let (Some(l), Some(rdb)) = (
+        results.iter().find(|r| r.engine.starts_with("lance")),
+        results.iter().find(|r| r.engine == "rocksdb"),
+    ) {
+        let safe = |a: f64, b: f64| if b > 0.0 { a / b } else { f64::NAN };
+        println!(
+            "\nlance/rocksdb ratios: write={:.2}x  read_p50={:.2}x  qps_1t={:.2}x  qps_nt={:.2}x  rss={:.2}x",
+            safe(l.write_rows_per_s, rdb.write_rows_per_s),
+            safe(l.read_p50_us, rdb.read_p50_us),
+            safe(l.read_qps_1t, rdb.read_qps_1t),
+            safe(l.read_qps_nt, rdb.read_qps_nt),
+            safe(l.peak_rss_mb, rdb.rss_after_load_mb.max(rdb.peak_rss_mb)),
+        );
+        println!("(write/qps >1 = lance faster; read_p50/rss <1 = lance better)");
+    }
+}
+
+async fn run(args: Args) -> Result<()> {
+    println!(
+        "bench=mem_wal_kv_point_lookup engine={:?} storage={} generations={} prewarm={} key_type={} lance_read_mode={} batch_get={} rows={} value_size={} queries={} miss_ratio={} threads={} batch_rows={} uri={}",
+        args.engine,
+        args.storage.as_str(),
+        args.generations,
+        args.prewarm,
+        args.key_type.as_str(),
+        args.lance_read_mode.as_str(),
+        args.batch_get,
+        args.rows,
+        args.value_size,
+        args.queries,
+        args.miss_ratio,
+        args.threads,
+        args.batch_rows,
+        args.uri
+    );
+
+    let insert_order = shuffled_keys(args.rows, args.seed);
+    let queries = build_queries(args.rows, args.queries, args.miss_ratio, args.seed);
+
+    let mut results = Vec::new();
+    if matches!(args.engine, Engine::Lance | Engine::Both) {
+        let res = match args.storage {
+            Storage::Active => run_lance(&args, &insert_order, &queries).await?,
+            Storage::SsTable => run_lance_sstable(&args, &insert_order, &queries).await?,
+        };
+        results.push(res);
+    }
+    if matches!(args.engine, Engine::Rocksdb | Engine::Both) {
+        // RocksDB arm is synchronous; run it on a blocking thread so it does
+        // not stall the tokio reactor.
+        let a = args.clone();
+        let io = insert_order.clone();
+        let q = queries.clone();
+        let res = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || run_rocksdb(&a, &io, &q))
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("rocksdb join: {e}")))??;
+        results.push(res);
+    }
+
+    print_comparison(&results);
+
+    let out = json!({
+        "bench": "mem_wal_kv_point_lookup",
+        "rows": args.rows,
+        "value_size": args.value_size,
+        "queries": args.queries,
+        "miss_ratio": args.miss_ratio,
+        "threads": args.threads,
+        "batch_get": args.batch_get,
+        "results": results.iter().map(|r| r.to_json(&args)).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    });
+    let text = serde_json::to_string_pretty(&out)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("serialize: {e}")))?;
+    if let Some(path) = &args.output {
+        if let Some(parent) = path.parent()
+            && !parent.as_os_str().is_empty()
+        {
+            std::fs::create_dir_all(parent).ok();
+        }
+        std::fs::write(path, text.as_bytes())
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write {}: {e}", path.display())))?;
+    }
+    println!("\n{text}");
+    println!("=== DONE ===");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let args = parse_args()?;
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("build runtime: {e}")))?;
+    runtime.block_on(run(args))
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/kv/run_kv_compare.sh b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/kv/run_kv_compare.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..5253f719805
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/kv/run_kv_compare.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+# KV point-lookup comparison driver — Lance MemTable vs RocksDB.
+# Sibling of run_fts_compare.sh (Lance FTS vs Lucene).
+#
+# Sweeps `mem_wal_kv_point_lookup` over a set of MemTable sizes. For each size
+# it runs the Lance and RocksDB arms in *separate processes* (clean per-engine
+# peak RSS), then prints build/read/RSS side by side. A single mixed query set
+# (hits + guaranteed misses) is used per size, identical across engines via a
+# fixed seed in the bench itself.
+#
+# Usage:
+#   rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/kv/run_kv_compare.sh [run_id]
+#
+# Env:
+#   SIZES         row-count sweep (default "100000 500000 1000000")
+#   VALUE_SIZE    payload bytes per row (default 100)
+#   QUERIES       point lookups per size (default 5000)
+#   MISS_RATIO    fraction of lookups that miss (default 0.5)
+#   THREADS       reader threads for the N-thread QPS run (default nproc)
+#   BATCH_ROWS    rows per write batch (default 1000)
+#   WORK          scratch dir for datasets/DBs (default <tmpdir>/kv_compare/<run_id>)
+#   CONFIG_TIMEOUT  per-config seconds (default 3600)
+
+set -uo pipefail
+SCRIPT_DIR="$(cd "$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")" && pwd -P)"
+REPO_ROOT="$(git -C "$SCRIPT_DIR" rev-parse --show-toplevel)"
+cd "$REPO_ROOT"
+
+RUN_ID="${1:-kv-compare-$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)}"
+SIZES="${SIZES:-100000 500000 1000000}"
+VALUE_SIZE="${VALUE_SIZE:-100}"
+QUERIES="${QUERIES:-5000}"
+MISS_RATIO="${MISS_RATIO:-0.5}"
+THREADS="${THREADS:-$(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN 2>/dev/null || echo 8)}"
+BATCH_ROWS="${BATCH_ROWS:-1000}"
+WORK="${WORK:-${TMPDIR:-/tmp}/kv_compare/$RUN_ID}"
+CONFIG_TIMEOUT="${CONFIG_TIMEOUT:-3600}"
+RESULT_DIR="$REPO_ROOT/target/kv-compare-results/$RUN_ID"
+mkdir -p "$WORK" "$RESULT_DIR"
+
+BENCH=mem_wal_kv_point_lookup
+echo "=== Building $BENCH (--features bench-rocksdb) ==="
+# Drop stale binaries so the freshest build is unambiguous.
+rm -f "$REPO_ROOT"/target/release/deps/${BENCH}-*
+cargo bench -p lance --bench "$BENCH" --features bench-rocksdb --no-run || {
+    echo "ERROR: build failed" >&2; exit 1; }
+BIN="$(find "$REPO_ROOT/target/release/deps" -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 \
+    -name "${BENCH}-*" ! -name '*.d' -printf '%T@ %p\n' \
+    | sort -nr | head -1 | cut -d' ' -f2-)"
+echo "bench binary: $BIN"
+echo "run id:       $RUN_ID"
+echo "sizes:        $SIZES  value_size=$VALUE_SIZE queries=$QUERIES miss_ratio=$MISS_RATIO threads=$THREADS"
+echo ""
+
+run_engine() {  # $1=engine $2=rows $3=tag
+    local engine="$1" rows="$2" tag="$3"
+    local name="${engine}_${tag}"
+    local out="$RESULT_DIR/${name}.json"
+    local log="$RESULT_DIR/${name}.log"
+    local uri="$WORK/${name}"
+    if [ -f "$out" ]; then
+        echo ">>> $name (already done, skipping)"; return 0
+    fi
+    echo ">>> $name (rows=$rows)"
+    rm -rf "$uri"
+    timeout "$CONFIG_TIMEOUT" "$BIN" --bench \
+        --engine "$engine" --rows "$rows" --value-size "$VALUE_SIZE" \
+        --queries "$QUERIES" --miss-ratio "$MISS_RATIO" --threads "$THREADS" \
+        --batch-rows "$BATCH_ROWS" --uri "$uri" --output "$out" > "$log" 2>&1
+    local rc=$?
+    rm -rf "$uri"
+    if [ "$rc" -eq 124 ]; then
+        echo "    !!! TIMED OUT after ${CONFIG_TIMEOUT}s (see $log)"; return 1
+    elif [ "$rc" -ne 0 ]; then
+        echo "    !!! failed rc=$rc (see $log)"; return 1
+    fi
+    echo "    ok"
+}
+
+for rows in $SIZES; do
+    case "$rows" in
+        1000000) tag=1M ;;
+        500000)  tag=500k ;;
+        100000)  tag=100k ;;
+        *)       tag="$rows" ;;
+    esac
+    # Separate processes => clean per-engine peak RSS.
+    run_engine lance   "$rows" "$tag"
+    run_engine rocksdb "$rows" "$tag"
+done
+
+echo ""
+echo "=== summary ==="
+python3 - "$RESULT_DIR" <<'PY'
+import glob, json, os, sys
+d = sys.argv[1]
+rows_map = {}
+for p in sorted(glob.glob(os.path.join(d, "*.json"))):
+    try:
+        r = json.load(open(p))
+    except Exception as e:
+        print(f"  bad {p}: {e}"); continue
+    for res in r.get("results", []):
+        rows_map.setdefault(res["rows"], {})[res["engine"]] = res
+
+hdr = (f"{'rows':>9} {'engine':>8} {'write_rows/s':>13} {'rd_p50_us':>10} "
+       f"{'rd_p95_us':>10} {'rd_p99_us':>10} {'qps_1t':>9} {'qps_nt':>10} "
+       f"{'rss_load_mb':>12} {'rss_peak_mb':>12} {'rd_cpu_s':>9}")
+print(hdr)
+for rows in sorted(rows_map):
+    for engine in ("lance", "rocksdb"):
+        res = rows_map[rows].get(engine)
+        if not res:
+            continue
+        print(f"{rows:>9} {engine:>8} {res['write_rows_per_s']:>13} "
+              f"{res['read_p50_us']:>10} {res['read_p95_us']:>10} {res['read_p99_us']:>10} "
+              f"{res['read_qps_1t']:>9} {res['read_qps_nt']:>10} "
+              f"{res['rss_after_load_mb']:>12} {res['peak_rss_mb']:>12} {res['read_cpu_s']:>9}")
+    # ratios
+    l = rows_map[rows].get("lance"); g = rows_map[rows].get("rocksdb")
+    if l and g:
+        def sd(a, b): return (a / b) if b else float('nan')
+        print(f"{rows:>9} {'ratio':>8} "
+              f"{sd(l['write_rows_per_s'], g['write_rows_per_s']):>12.2f}x "
+              f"{sd(l['read_p50_us'], g['read_p50_us']):>9.2f}x "
+              f"{sd(l['read_p95_us'], g['read_p95_us']):>9.2f}x "
+              f"{sd(l['read_p99_us'], g['read_p99_us']):>9.2f}x "
+              f"{sd(l['read_qps_1t'], g['read_qps_1t']):>8.2f}x "
+              f"{sd(l['read_qps_nt'], g['read_qps_nt']):>9.2f}x "
+              f"{sd(l['rss_after_load_mb'], g['rss_after_load_mb']):>11.2f}x")
+print("\n(write/qps ratio >1 = lance faster; p50/rss ratio <1 = lance better)")
+PY
+echo ""
+echo "results: $RESULT_DIR"
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/point_lookup/mem_wal_point_lookup_bench.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/point_lookup/mem_wal_point_lookup_bench.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..53b2f924d8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/point_lookup/mem_wal_point_lookup_bench.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,536 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Standalone CLI benchmark for PK-based point lookups across LSM levels.
+//!
+//! Measures lookup latency against three tiers of the LSM tree:
+//!   - Base table (on-disk, compacted data)
+//!   - SSTables (on-disk L0)
+//!   - Active MemTable (in-memory write buffer)
+//!
+//! Two phases, selected with `--phase`:
+//!
+//!   --phase prepare   Create the base dataset and initialize MemWAL.
+//!   --phase lookup    Open the dataset, ingest rows across LSM levels via
+//!                     ShardWriter, then time point lookups per category.
+//!
+//! Example:
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_point_lookup_bench -- \
+//!   --phase prepare --uri /tmp/pk_lookup_bench
+//!
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_point_lookup_bench -- \
+//!   --phase lookup --uri /tmp/pk_lookup_bench \
+//!   --base-rows 1000000 --max-memtable-rows 100000 \
+//!   --queries 500 --output result.json
+//! ```
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{
+    ActiveMemTableRef, LsmDataSourceCollector, LsmPointLookupPlanner, ShardSnapshot,
+};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, ShardWriterConfig};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance_core::Result;
+use serde_json::json;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Schema / batch helpers
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn make_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+    id_meta.insert(
+        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+        "true".to_string(),
+    );
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+        Field::new("payload", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn make_payload(id: i64) -> String {
+    format!("{:0>100x}", id as u64)
+}
+
+fn make_batch(schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>, start_id: i64, count: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let ids: Vec<i64> = (start_id..start_id + count as i64).collect();
+    let payloads: Vec<String> = ids.iter().map(|id| make_payload(*id)).collect();
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(payloads)),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Latency stats
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn percentile(sorted: &[f64], pct: f64) -> f64 {
+    if sorted.is_empty() {
+        return f64::NAN;
+    }
+    let idx = ((pct / 100.0) * (sorted.len().saturating_sub(1)) as f64).round() as usize;
+    sorted[idx.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+struct LatencyStats {
+    p50_us: u64,
+    p95_us: u64,
+    p99_us: u64,
+    mean_us: f64,
+    qps: f64,
+}
+
+fn compute_stats(mut latencies_us: Vec<f64>) -> LatencyStats {
+    latencies_us.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    let mean = latencies_us.iter().sum::<f64>() / latencies_us.len().max(1) as f64;
+    let total_s = latencies_us.iter().sum::<f64>() / 1_000_000.0;
+    let qps = if total_s > 0.0 {
+        latencies_us.len() as f64 / total_s
+    } else {
+        0.0
+    };
+    LatencyStats {
+        p50_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 50.0) as u64,
+        p95_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 95.0) as u64,
+        p99_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 99.0) as u64,
+        mean_us: mean,
+        qps,
+    }
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CLI args
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum Phase {
+    Prepare,
+    Lookup,
+}
+
+impl Phase {
+    fn parse(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match value {
+            "prepare" => Ok(Self::Prepare),
+            "lookup" => Ok(Self::Lookup),
+            _ => Err(format!("unknown phase '{value}', expected prepare|lookup")),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Prepare => "prepare",
+            Self::Lookup => "lookup",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct Args {
+    phase: Phase,
+    uri: String,
+    base_rows: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: usize,
+    sstables: usize,
+    batch_rows: usize,
+    queries: usize,
+    output: Option<PathBuf>,
+}
+
+impl Default for Args {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            phase: Phase::Lookup,
+            uri: String::new(),
+            base_rows: 1_000_000,
+            max_memtable_rows: 100_000,
+            sstables: 2,
+            batch_rows: 1_000,
+            queries: 500,
+            output: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_val<T>(flag: &str, value: &str) -> Result<T>
+where
+    T: std::str::FromStr,
+    T::Err: std::fmt::Display,
+{
+    value
+        .parse()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid {flag}: {value} ({e})")))
+}
+
+fn parse_args() -> Result<Args> {
+    let mut args = Args::default();
+    let mut iter = std::env::args().skip(1);
+    let mut has_phase = false;
+    let mut has_uri = false;
+    while let Some(flag) = iter.next() {
+        if flag == "--bench" {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let value = iter
+            .next()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("missing value for {flag}")))?;
+        match flag.as_str() {
+            "--phase" => {
+                args.phase = Phase::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?;
+                has_phase = true;
+            }
+            "--uri" => {
+                args.uri = value;
+                has_uri = true;
+            }
+            "--base-rows" => args.base_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--max-memtable-rows" => args.max_memtable_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--sstables" => args.sstables = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--batch-rows" => args.batch_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--queries" => args.queries = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--output" => args.output = Some(PathBuf::from(value)),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "unknown argument: {flag}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if !has_phase {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "--phase is required (prepare|lookup)",
+        ));
+    }
+    if !has_uri {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input("--uri is required"));
+    }
+    if args.batch_rows == 0 || args.base_rows == 0 || args.max_memtable_rows == 0 {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "base-rows, max-memtable-rows, batch-rows must be > 0",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(args)
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Prepare phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run_prepare(args: &Args) -> Result<()> {
+    let schema = make_schema();
+    let total_batches = args.base_rows.div_ceil(args.batch_rows);
+    let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(total_batches);
+    for i in 0..total_batches {
+        let start = (i * args.batch_rows) as i64;
+        let rows = args.batch_rows.min(args.base_rows - i * args.batch_rows);
+        batches.push(Ok(make_batch(schema.clone(), start, rows)));
+    }
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter(), schema.clone());
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &args.uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let write_s = start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    println!("wrote {} base rows in {write_s:.1}s", args.base_rows);
+
+    dataset.initialize_mem_wal().execute().await?;
+    println!("initialized MemWAL");
+    println!("prepare complete: uri={}", args.uri);
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Lookup phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn is_cloud_uri(uri: &str) -> bool {
+    uri.starts_with("s3://") || uri.starts_with("gs://") || uri.starts_with("az://")
+}
+
+fn generate_lookup_ids(
+    base_rows: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: usize,
+    sstables: usize,
+    queries: usize,
+) -> (Vec<Vec<i64>>, Vec<&'static str>) {
+    let sstable_total = sstables * max_memtable_rows;
+    let active_start = base_rows + sstable_total;
+    let active_end = active_start + max_memtable_rows / 2;
+
+    let mut groups = Vec::new();
+    let mut names = Vec::new();
+
+    // Base table IDs
+    let base_ids: Vec<i64> = (0..queries)
+        .map(|i| {
+            let step = base_rows.max(1) / queries.max(1);
+            ((i * step) % base_rows) as i64
+        })
+        .collect();
+    groups.push(base_ids);
+    names.push("base");
+
+    // SSTable IDs (only if there are SSTables)
+    if sstables > 0 {
+        let sstable_start = base_rows;
+        let sstable_end = base_rows + sstable_total;
+        let sstable_ids: Vec<i64> = (0..queries)
+            .map(|i| {
+                let range = sstable_end - sstable_start;
+                let step = range.max(1) / queries.max(1);
+                (sstable_start + (i * step) % range) as i64
+            })
+            .collect();
+        groups.push(sstable_ids);
+        names.push("sstable");
+    }
+
+    // Active memtable IDs
+    let active_ids: Vec<i64> = (0..queries)
+        .map(|i| {
+            let range = active_end - active_start;
+            let step = range.max(1) / queries.max(1);
+            (active_start + (i * step) % range) as i64
+        })
+        .collect();
+    groups.push(active_ids);
+    names.push("active");
+
+    (groups, names)
+}
+
+async fn run_lookup(args: &Args) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&args.uri).await?);
+    let arrow_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema> = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+    let schema = make_schema();
+
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let max_memtable_rows = args.max_memtable_rows;
+    let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+        shard_id,
+        max_wal_persist_retries: 3,
+        wal_persist_retry_base_delay: std::time::Duration::from_millis(50),
+        shard_spec_id: 0,
+        durable_write: false,
+        max_memtable_size: max_memtable_rows * 200,
+        max_memtable_rows,
+        max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_secs(60)),
+        ..ShardWriterConfig::default()
+    };
+
+    let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await?;
+
+    let flush_wait = if is_cloud_uri(&args.uri) {
+        Duration::from_secs(5)
+    } else {
+        Duration::from_millis(500)
+    };
+
+    let id_base = args.base_rows as i64;
+    let num_sstables = args.sstables;
+    let active_rows = max_memtable_rows / 2;
+
+    // Ingest SSTables (each triggers a flush) + 1 active (50% full)
+    let mut gen_sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..num_sstables).map(|_| max_memtable_rows).collect();
+    gen_sizes.push(active_rows);
+
+    let mut cursor = 0usize;
+    for (gen_idx, &gen_rows) in gen_sizes.iter().enumerate() {
+        let gen_batches = gen_rows.div_ceil(args.batch_rows);
+        for b in 0..gen_batches {
+            let start = id_base + cursor as i64;
+            let rows = args.batch_rows.min(gen_rows - b * args.batch_rows);
+            let batch = make_batch(schema.clone(), start, rows);
+            writer.put(vec![batch]).await?;
+            cursor += rows;
+        }
+        let is_sstable = gen_idx < num_sstables;
+        println!(
+            "  gen {}: wrote {} rows ({}) cursor={}",
+            gen_idx + 1,
+            gen_rows,
+            if is_sstable { "sstable" } else { "active" },
+            cursor,
+        );
+        if is_sstable {
+            tokio::time::sleep(flush_wait).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    println!(
+        "ingested {} rows total ({} SSTables + active)",
+        cursor, num_sstables
+    );
+
+    let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap();
+    let active_ref: ActiveMemTableRef = writer.active_memtable_ref().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Build shard snapshot from manifest
+    let mut shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id);
+    if let Some(ref m) = manifest {
+        shard_snapshot = shard_snapshot.with_current_generation(m.current_generation);
+        for sstable in &m.sstables {
+            shard_snapshot = shard_snapshot.with_sstable(sstable.generation, sstable.path.clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    let num_sstables = manifest.as_ref().map(|m| m.sstables.len()).unwrap_or(0);
+    println!(
+        "manifest: {} SSTables, current_generation={}",
+        num_sstables,
+        manifest.as_ref().map(|m| m.current_generation).unwrap_or(0)
+    );
+
+    // Build the planner
+    let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(dataset.clone(), vec![shard_snapshot])
+        .with_active_memtable(shard_id, active_ref);
+    let pk_columns = vec!["id".to_string()];
+    let planner = LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, pk_columns, arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+    // Generate lookup IDs for each category
+    let (id_groups, category_names) = generate_lookup_ids(
+        args.base_rows,
+        max_memtable_rows,
+        num_sstables,
+        args.queries,
+    );
+
+    let session_ctx = SessionContext::new();
+    let task_ctx = session_ctx.task_ctx();
+
+    let mut results = HashMap::new();
+
+    for (cat_idx, (ids, name)) in id_groups.iter().zip(category_names.iter()).enumerate() {
+        let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(ids.len());
+
+        for (qi, &id) in ids.iter().enumerate() {
+            let t0 = Instant::now();
+            let plan = planner
+                .plan_lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int64(Some(id))], None)
+                .await?;
+            let stream = plan.execute(0, task_ctx.clone())?;
+            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await?;
+            let elapsed_us = t0.elapsed().as_micros() as f64;
+            latencies_us.push(elapsed_us);
+
+            let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert!(
+                total_rows <= 1,
+                "point lookup for id={id} returned {total_rows} rows, expected 0 or 1"
+            );
+
+            if qi < 3 && cat_idx == 0 {
+                println!(
+                    "  [warmup {name} q{qi}] id={id} -> {total_rows} row(s) in {elapsed_us:.0}us"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        let stats = compute_stats(latencies_us);
+        println!(
+            "  {name}: p50={p50}us p95={p95}us p99={p99}us mean={mean:.0}us qps={qps:.0}",
+            p50 = stats.p50_us,
+            p95 = stats.p95_us,
+            p99 = stats.p99_us,
+            mean = stats.mean_us,
+            qps = stats.qps,
+        );
+
+        results.insert(format!("{name}_p50_us"), json!(stats.p50_us));
+        results.insert(format!("{name}_p95_us"), json!(stats.p95_us));
+        results.insert(format!("{name}_p99_us"), json!(stats.p99_us));
+        results.insert(format!("{name}_qps"), json!(stats.qps as u64));
+    }
+
+    // Keep the writer alive so the active memtable is reachable during lookups
+    std::mem::forget(writer);
+
+    let mut output = serde_json::Map::new();
+    output.insert("bench".into(), json!("mem_wal_point_lookup"));
+    output.insert("phase".into(), json!("lookup"));
+    output.insert("base_rows".into(), json!(args.base_rows));
+    output.insert("max_memtable_rows".into(), json!(max_memtable_rows));
+    output.insert("sstables".into(), json!(num_sstables));
+    output.insert("active_rows".into(), json!(active_rows));
+    output.insert("queries_per_category".into(), json!(args.queries));
+    for (key, val) in &results {
+        output.insert(key.clone(), val.clone());
+    }
+    Ok(serde_json::Value::Object(output))
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Entrypoint
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run(args: Args) -> Result<()> {
+    println!(
+        "bench=mem_wal_point_lookup phase={} uri={} base_rows={} max_memtable_rows={} sstables={} batch_rows={} queries={}",
+        args.phase.as_str(),
+        args.uri,
+        args.base_rows,
+        args.max_memtable_rows,
+        args.sstables,
+        args.batch_rows,
+        args.queries,
+    );
+
+    match args.phase {
+        Phase::Prepare => {
+            run_prepare(&args).await?;
+        }
+        Phase::Lookup => {
+            let result = run_lookup(&args).await?;
+            let text = serde_json::to_string_pretty(&result)
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("serialize: {e}")))?;
+            println!("{text}");
+            if let Some(path) = &args.output {
+                if let Some(parent) = path.parent()
+                    && !parent.as_os_str().is_empty()
+                {
+                    std::fs::create_dir_all(parent).ok();
+                }
+                std::fs::write(path, text.as_bytes())
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write {}: {e}", path.display())))?;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    println!("=== DONE ===");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let args = parse_args()?;
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("build runtime: {e}")))?;
+    runtime.block_on(run(args))
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/memtable_read.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/read/memtable_read.rs
similarity index 91%
rename from rust/lance/benches/memtable_read.rs
rename to rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/read/memtable_read.rs
index 5ab68ed78ab..27d21e95763 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/memtable_read.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/read/memtable_read.rs
@@ -28,28 +28,25 @@
 
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
 use arrow_array::{
-    Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
-    StringArray,
+    FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput};
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use lance::dataset::mem_wal::write::{CacheConfig, IndexStore, MemTable};
 use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
 use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
-use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
-use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{train_kmeans, KMeansParams};
 use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
 use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 use rand::Rng;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
@@ -174,107 +171,38 @@ fn generate_random_ids(max_id: i64, count: usize) -> Vec<i64> {
     (0..count).map(|_| rng.random_range(0..max_id)).collect()
 }
 
-/// Train IVF centroids and PQ codebook from vectors.
-fn train_ivf_pq_models(
-    batches: &[RecordBatch],
-    vector_dim: usize,
-    num_partitions: usize,
-    num_sub_vectors: usize,
-    distance_type: DistanceType,
-) -> (IvfModel, lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer) {
-    // Collect all vectors into a single array
-    let mut all_vectors: Vec<f32> = Vec::new();
-    for batch in batches {
-        let vector_col = batch.column_by_name("vector").unwrap();
-        let fsl = vector_col
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<FixedSizeListArray>()
-            .unwrap();
-        let values = fsl
-            .values()
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
-            .unwrap();
-        all_vectors.extend_from_slice(values.values());
-    }
-
-    let vectors_array = Float32Array::from(all_vectors);
-
-    // Train IVF centroids
-    let kmeans_params = KMeansParams::new(None, 50, 1, distance_type);
-    let kmeans = train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(
-        &vectors_array,
-        kmeans_params,
-        vector_dim,
-        num_partitions,
-        256,
-    )
-    .unwrap();
-
-    // kmeans.centroids is a flat Float32Array, need to convert to FixedSizeListArray
-    let centroids_flat = kmeans
-        .centroids
-        .as_any()
-        .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
-        .expect("Centroids should be Float32Array")
-        .clone();
-
-    let centroids_fsl =
-        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids_flat, vector_dim as i32).unwrap();
-
-    let ivf_model = IvfModel::new(centroids_fsl, None);
-
-    // Train PQ codebook
-    let vectors_fsl =
-        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors_array, vector_dim as i32).unwrap();
-
-    let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(num_sub_vectors, 8);
-    let pq = pq_params.build(&vectors_fsl, distance_type).unwrap();
-
-    (ivf_model, pq)
-}
-
-/// Setup MemTable with all indexes (BTree on id, FTS on text, IVF-PQ on vector).
+/// Setup MemTable with all indexes (BTree on id, FTS on text, HNSW on vector).
 async fn setup_memtable(
     batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
-    vector_dim: usize,
-    num_partitions: usize,
-    num_sub_vectors: usize,
+    _vector_dim: usize,
+    _num_partitions: usize,
+    _num_sub_vectors: usize,
 ) -> MemTable {
     let schema = batches[0].schema();
     let num_batches = batches.len();
 
-    // Train IVF-PQ models from the data
-    let (ivf_model, pq) = train_ivf_pq_models(
-        &batches,
-        vector_dim,
-        num_partitions,
-        num_sub_vectors,
-        DistanceType::L2,
-    );
+    // Compute total rows for HNSW capacity sizing.
+    let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
 
-    // Create index store
     // Field IDs: id=0, text=1, vector=2
     let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
     index_store.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
     index_store.add_fts("text_idx".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
-    index_store.add_ivf_pq(
+    index_store.add_hnsw(
         "vector_idx".to_string(),
         2,
         "vector".to_string(),
-        ivf_model,
-        pq,
         DistanceType::L2,
+        total_rows.max(1),
+        num_batches.max(1),
     );
 
-    // Create MemTable with capacity for all batches (add 10% buffer)
     let batch_capacity = ((num_batches as f64) * 1.1) as usize;
     let mut memtable =
         MemTable::with_capacity(schema, 1, vec![0], CacheConfig::default(), batch_capacity)
             .unwrap();
     memtable.set_indexes(index_store);
 
-    // Insert batches
     for batch in batches.into_iter() {
         memtable.insert(batch).await.unwrap();
     }
@@ -296,6 +224,7 @@ async fn setup_lance(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> LanceSetup {
 
     let uri = format!("memory://lance_bench_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
     let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
         max_rows_per_file: total_rows + 1,
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -318,6 +247,7 @@ async fn setup_lance_per_batch(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>, batch_size: usize) ->
 
     let uri = format!("memory://lance_per_batch_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
     let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
         max_rows_per_file: batch_size,
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -340,6 +270,7 @@ async fn setup_lance_with_fts(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> LanceSetup {
 
     let uri = format!("memory://lance_fts_bench_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
     let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
         max_rows_per_file: total_rows + 1,
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -372,6 +303,7 @@ async fn setup_lance_per_batch_with_fts(
 
     let uri = format!("memory://lance_fts_per_batch_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
     let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
         max_rows_per_file: batch_size,
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -405,6 +337,7 @@ async fn setup_lance_with_vector_index(
 
     let uri = format!("memory://lance_vec_bench_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
     let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
         max_rows_per_file: total_rows + 1,
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -451,6 +384,7 @@ async fn setup_lance_per_batch_with_vector_index(
 
     let uri = format!("memory://lance_vec_per_batch_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
     let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
         max_rows_per_file: batch_size,
         ..Default::default()
     };
@@ -839,8 +773,14 @@ fn bench_fts(c: &mut Criterion) {
                 async move {
                     let mut total_found = 0usize;
                     for (mut scanner, term) in scanners.into_iter().zip(terms.iter()) {
+                        scanner
+                            .full_text_search(
+                                FullTextSearchQuery::new(term.to_string())
+                                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                                    .unwrap(),
+                            )
+                            .unwrap();
                         let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
-                            .full_text_search("text", term)
                             .try_into_stream()
                             .await
                             .unwrap()
@@ -1013,11 +953,14 @@ fn bench_vector_search(c: &mut Criterion) {
             let query_array: Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array> = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(q.clone()));
             b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| {
                 let query_array = query_array.clone();
-                async {
+                let memtable = &memtable;
+                async move {
                     let mut scanner = memtable.scan();
+                    scanner
+                        .nearest("vector", query_array.as_ref(), k)
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .nprobes(8);
                     let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
-                        .nearest("vector", query_array, k)
-                        .nprobes(8)
                         .try_into_stream()
                         .await
                         .unwrap()
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/disk_ann_compare.py b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/disk_ann_compare.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f93a06e5188
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/disk_ann_compare.py
@@ -0,0 +1,372 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+"""Disk-ANN comparison: Lance on-disk IVF_HNSW_SQ (the SSTable index)
+vs DiskANN vs FAISS, all backed by local NVMe.
+
+faiss/diskannpy/lance bundle conflicting tcmalloc/MKL/OpenMP and crash if
+imported in the same process, so each system runs in its OWN process:
+
+    python disk_ann_compare.py prepare --rows N --base /mnt/nvme/anncmp
+    python disk_ann_compare.py run --system lance  --rows N --base ...
+    python disk_ann_compare.py run --system faiss  --rows N --base ...
+    python disk_ann_compare.py run --system diskann --rows N --base ...
+
+prepare loads dbpedia-1M (1536-d OpenAI, cosine), normalizes, samples a fixed
+query holdout, computes exact top-k ground truth with numpy, and saves .npy.
+Each run loads those .npy, sweeps the system's search param, and reports
+recall@10 vs p50/p99 latency and QPS. The Lance index is served fully cached
+(large index_cache_size_bytes).
+"""
+
+import argparse
+import json
+import os
+import time
+
+import numpy as np
+
+K = 10
+NUM_QUERIES = 1000
+SEED = 42
+DIM = 1536
+EF_SWEEP = [16, 32, 64, 128, 256]
+HF_TREE = "https://huggingface.co/api/datasets/KShivendu/dbpedia-entities-openai-1M/tree/main/data"
+HF_BASE = (
+    "https://huggingface.co/datasets/KShivendu/dbpedia-entities-openai-1M/resolve/main/"
+)
+
+
+def data_dir(base, rows):
+    return os.path.join(base, f"data_{rows}")
+
+
+def normalize(x):
+    nrm = np.linalg.norm(x, axis=1, keepdims=True)
+    nrm[nrm == 0] = 1.0
+    return (x / nrm).astype(np.float32)
+
+
+# ---------------- prepare ----------------
+def load_corpus(cache_dir, needed):
+    import pyarrow.parquet as pq
+    import requests
+
+    os.makedirs(cache_dir, exist_ok=True)
+    shards = sorted(
+        e["path"]
+        for e in requests.get(HF_TREE, timeout=60).json()
+        if e["type"] == "file" and e["path"].endswith(".parquet")
+    )
+    out = np.empty((needed, DIM), dtype=np.float32)
+    n = 0
+    for rel in shards:
+        if n >= needed:
+            break
+        local = os.path.join(cache_dir, os.path.basename(rel))
+        if not os.path.exists(local):
+            r = requests.get(HF_BASE + rel, timeout=600)
+            r.raise_for_status()
+            with open(local, "wb") as f:
+                f.write(r.content)
+        col = pq.read_table(local, columns=["openai"]).column("openai")
+        arr = np.stack(col.to_pylist()).astype(np.float32)
+        take = min(len(arr), needed - n)
+        out[n : n + take] = arr[:take]
+        n += take
+        print(f"  shard {os.path.basename(rel)} -> {take} (cum {n})", flush=True)
+    assert n == needed, f"only got {n}/{needed}"
+    return out
+
+
+def numpy_ground_truth(corpus, queries):
+    gt = np.empty((len(queries), K), dtype=np.int64)
+    # corpus is normalized -> cosine == inner product; chunk over corpus.
+    chunk = 200_000
+    # Compute full similarity in query-major chunks to bound memory.
+    sim = np.zeros((len(queries), len(corpus)), dtype=np.float32)
+    for s in range(0, len(corpus), chunk):
+        e = min(s + chunk, len(corpus))
+        sim[:, s:e] = queries @ corpus[s:e].T
+    for i in range(len(queries)):
+        idx = np.argpartition(-sim[i], K)[:K]
+        gt[i] = idx[np.argsort(-sim[i][idx])]
+    return gt
+
+
+def cmd_prepare(args):
+    d = data_dir(args.base, args.rows)
+    os.makedirs(d, exist_ok=True)
+    if os.path.exists(os.path.join(d, "gt.npy")):
+        print("already prepared", flush=True)
+        return
+    cache = os.path.join(args.base, "dbpedia_cache")
+    needed = args.rows if args.rows >= 1_000_000 else args.rows
+    raw = load_corpus(cache, needed)
+    corpus = normalize(raw)
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(SEED)
+    qidx = rng.choice(args.rows, size=NUM_QUERIES, replace=False)
+    queries = corpus[qidx].copy()
+    print(
+        f"corpus={len(corpus)} queries={len(queries)} dim={DIM}; computing GT...",
+        flush=True,
+    )
+    t = time.perf_counter()
+    gt = numpy_ground_truth(corpus, queries)
+    print(f"  GT in {time.perf_counter() - t:.1f}s", flush=True)
+    np.save(os.path.join(d, "corpus.npy"), corpus)
+    np.save(os.path.join(d, "queries.npy"), queries)
+    np.save(os.path.join(d, "gt.npy"), gt)
+    print(f"=== prepared {d} ===", flush=True)
+
+
+# ---------------- shared run helpers ----------------
+def recall_at_k(gt, got):
+    return sum(len(set(g.tolist()) & set(r.tolist())) for g, r in zip(gt, got)) / (
+        len(gt) * K
+    )
+
+
+def latency_qps(query_fn, queries, repeats=3):
+    lat = []
+    for _ in range(repeats):
+        for q in queries:
+            t = time.perf_counter()
+            query_fn(q)
+            lat.append((time.perf_counter() - t) * 1e6)
+    lat.sort()
+    return lat[len(lat) // 2], lat[int(len(lat) * 0.99)], 1e6 / (sum(lat) / len(lat))
+
+
+def sweep(name, make_q, params, queries, gt):
+    rows = []
+    for p in EF_SWEEP:
+        qf = make_q(p)
+        for v in queries[:50]:
+            qf(v)
+        got = np.stack([qf(v) for v in queries])
+        rec = recall_at_k(gt, got)
+        p50, p99, qps = latency_qps(qf, queries)
+        rows.append(
+            {"param": p, "recall": rec, "p50_us": p50, "p99_us": p99, "qps": qps}
+        )
+        print(
+            f"  {name} param={p} recall={rec:.4f} "
+            f"p50={p50:.0f}us p99={p99:.0f}us qps={qps:.0f}",
+            flush=True,
+        )
+    return rows
+
+
+# ---------------- systems ----------------
+def run_lance(base, rows, corpus, queries, gt):
+    import shutil
+
+    import lance
+    import pyarrow as pa
+
+    uri = os.path.join(base, f"lance_{rows}")
+    shutil.rmtree(uri, ignore_errors=True)
+    vecs = pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(
+        pa.array(corpus.reshape(-1), type=pa.float32()), DIM
+    )
+    tbl = pa.table({"id": pa.array(np.arange(rows, dtype=np.int64)), "vec": vecs})
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(tbl, uri, mode="overwrite")
+    # The SSTable index is a SINGLE-partition HNSW+SQ, so model it with
+    # num_partitions=1 (nprobes=1); ef is the search knob, like DiskANN/FAISS.
+    t = time.perf_counter()
+    ds.create_index(
+        "vec",
+        "IVF_HNSW_SQ",
+        metric="cosine",
+        num_partitions=1,
+        m=20,
+        ef_construction=150,
+    )
+    build_s = time.perf_counter() - t
+    ds = lance.dataset(uri, index_cache_size_bytes=48 * 1024**3)
+
+    def make_q(ef):
+        def q(v):
+            return (
+                ds.to_table(
+                    nearest={"column": "vec", "q": v, "k": K, "nprobes": 1, "ef": ef},
+                    columns=["id"],
+                )
+                .column("id")
+                .to_numpy()
+            )
+
+        return q
+
+    return {
+        "build_s": build_s,
+        "nlist": 1,
+        "sweep": sweep("lance", make_q, None, queries, gt),
+    }
+
+
+def run_lance_sstable(base, rows, corpus, queries, gt, lance_path, id_offset, column):
+    # Open an SSTable generation directly from its dataset path and
+    # benchmark its on-disk IVF_HNSW_SQ index (single partition), fully cached.
+    import lance
+
+    ds = lance.dataset(lance_path, index_cache_size_bytes=48 * 1024**3)
+
+    def make_q(ef):
+        def q(v):
+            ids = (
+                ds.to_table(
+                    nearest={"column": column, "q": v, "k": K, "nprobes": 1, "ef": ef},
+                    columns=["id"],
+                )
+                .column("id")
+                .to_numpy()
+            )
+            return ids - id_offset  # map SSTable id -> corpus index
+
+        return q
+
+    return {
+        "lance_path": lance_path,
+        "id_offset": id_offset,
+        "sweep": sweep("lance_sstable", make_q, None, queries, gt),
+    }
+
+
+def run_faiss(base, rows, corpus, queries, gt):
+    # Full-precision HNSW reference (shows what no quantization buys).
+    import faiss
+
+    index = faiss.IndexHNSWFlat(DIM, 32, faiss.METRIC_INNER_PRODUCT)
+    index.hnsw.efConstruction = 200
+    t = time.perf_counter()
+    index.add(corpus)
+    build_s = time.perf_counter() - t
+    faiss.write_index(index, os.path.join(base, f"faiss_{rows}.index"))
+
+    def make_q(ef):
+        def q(v):
+            index.hnsw.efSearch = ef
+            return index.search(v.reshape(1, -1), K)[1][0]
+
+        return q
+
+    return {"build_s": build_s, "sweep": sweep("faiss", make_q, None, queries, gt)}
+
+
+def run_faiss_sq(base, rows, corpus, queries, gt):
+    # HNSW + 8-bit scalar quantization — apples-to-apples with Lance IVF_HNSW_SQ.
+    import faiss
+
+    try:
+        index = faiss.IndexHNSWSQ(
+            DIM, faiss.ScalarQuantizer.QT_8bit, 32, faiss.METRIC_INNER_PRODUCT
+        )
+    except Exception:
+        # Fall back to L2; on unit-normalized vectors L2 ranking == cosine.
+        index = faiss.IndexHNSWSQ(DIM, faiss.ScalarQuantizer.QT_8bit, 32)
+    index.hnsw.efConstruction = 200
+    t = time.perf_counter()
+    index.train(corpus)
+    index.add(corpus)
+    build_s = time.perf_counter() - t
+    faiss.write_index(index, os.path.join(base, f"faiss_sq_{rows}.index"))
+
+    def make_q(ef):
+        def q(v):
+            index.hnsw.efSearch = ef
+            return index.search(v.reshape(1, -1), K)[1][0]
+
+        return q
+
+    return {"build_s": build_s, "sweep": sweep("faiss_sq", make_q, None, queries, gt)}
+
+
+def run_diskann(base, rows, corpus, queries, gt):
+    import diskannpy as dap
+
+    idx_dir = os.path.join(base, f"diskann_{rows}")
+    os.makedirs(idx_dir, exist_ok=True)
+    t = time.perf_counter()
+    dap.build_memory_index(
+        data=corpus,
+        distance_metric="cosine",
+        index_directory=idx_dir,
+        index_prefix="ann",
+        complexity=150,
+        graph_degree=64,
+        num_threads=0,
+        alpha=1.2,
+        use_pq_build=False,
+        num_pq_bytes=0,
+    )
+    build_s = time.perf_counter() - t
+    idx = dap.StaticMemoryIndex(
+        index_directory=idx_dir,
+        index_prefix="ann",
+        num_threads=0,
+        initial_search_complexity=256,
+    )
+
+    def make_q(L):
+        def q(v):
+            return idx.search(v, k_neighbors=K, complexity=max(L, K)).identifiers
+
+        return q
+
+    return {"build_s": build_s, "sweep": sweep("diskann", make_q, None, queries, gt)}
+
+
+def cmd_run(args):
+    d = data_dir(args.base, args.rows)
+    corpus = np.load(os.path.join(d, "corpus.npy"))
+    queries = np.load(os.path.join(d, "queries.npy"))
+    gt = np.load(os.path.join(d, "gt.npy"))
+    print(f"=== {args.system} rows={args.rows} corpus={len(corpus)} ===", flush=True)
+    if args.system == "lance_sstable":
+        res = run_lance_sstable(
+            args.base,
+            args.rows,
+            corpus,
+            queries,
+            gt,
+            args.lance_path,
+            args.id_offset,
+            args.column,
+        )
+    else:
+        fn = {
+            "lance": run_lance,
+            "faiss": run_faiss,
+            "faiss_sq": run_faiss_sq,
+            "diskann": run_diskann,
+        }[args.system]
+        res = fn(args.base, args.rows, corpus, queries, gt)
+    res["rows"] = args.rows
+    res["system"] = args.system
+    out = os.path.join(args.base, f"result_{args.rows}_{args.system}.json")
+    with open(out, "w") as f:
+        json.dump(res, f, indent=2)
+    print(f"=== wrote {out} ===", flush=True)
+
+
+def main():
+    ap = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+    sub = ap.add_subparsers(dest="cmd", required=True)
+    p = sub.add_parser("prepare")
+    p.add_argument("--rows", type=int, required=True)
+    p.add_argument("--base", required=True)
+    r = sub.add_parser("run")
+    r.add_argument("--rows", type=int, required=True)
+    r.add_argument("--base", required=True)
+    r.add_argument("--system", required=True)
+    r.add_argument("--lance-path", default=None)
+    r.add_argument("--id-offset", type=int, default=0)
+    r.add_argument("--column", default="vector")
+    args = ap.parse_args()
+    (cmd_prepare if args.cmd == "prepare" else cmd_run)(args)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_hnsw_bench.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_hnsw_bench.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6c2fa697d67
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_hnsw_bench.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,364 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::error::Error;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use rayon::prelude::*;
+
+#[path = "../../../../src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/mod.rs"]
+mod hnsw;
+
+use hnsw::{ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore, BuildParams, HnswGraph, SearchParams, VectorSource};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct Args {
+    rows: usize,
+    dim: usize,
+    queries: usize,
+    truth_queries: usize,
+    k: usize,
+    m: usize,
+    ef_construction: usize,
+    ef_search: usize,
+    threads: usize,
+    seed: u64,
+    clusters: usize,
+    noise: f32,
+    query_repeats: usize,
+    /// When > 0, rebuild the graph in a loop for this many seconds (sustained
+    /// write), instead of a single build.
+    insert_seconds: f64,
+    /// When > 0, run the query workload in a loop for this many seconds
+    /// (sustained read), instead of `query_repeats` passes.
+    query_seconds: f64,
+}
+
+impl Default for Args {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            rows: 1_000_000,
+            dim: 1024,
+            queries: 1_000,
+            truth_queries: 100,
+            k: 10,
+            m: 12,
+            ef_construction: 64,
+            ef_search: 64,
+            threads: std::thread::available_parallelism().map_or(1, usize::from),
+            seed: 100,
+            clusters: 4096,
+            noise: 0.05,
+            query_repeats: 1,
+            insert_seconds: 0.0,
+            query_seconds: 0.0,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
+    let args = parse_args()?;
+    if args.threads > 0 {
+        let _ = rayon::ThreadPoolBuilder::new()
+            .num_threads(args.threads)
+            .build_global();
+    }
+
+    println!(
+        "bench=lance_hnsw rows={} dim={} queries={} truth_queries={} k={} m={} ef_construction={} ef_search={} threads={} seed={} clusters={} noise={}",
+        args.rows,
+        args.dim,
+        args.queries,
+        args.truth_queries,
+        args.k,
+        args.m,
+        args.ef_construction,
+        args.ef_search,
+        rayon::current_num_threads(),
+        args.seed,
+        args.clusters,
+        args.noise
+    );
+
+    let generate_start = Instant::now();
+    let values = generate_vectors(&args)?;
+    let generate_s = generate_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+
+    let arrow_start = Instant::now();
+    let values = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef;
+    let vectors = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+        args.dim as i32,
+        values,
+        None,
+    )?);
+    let store = Arc::new(ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(
+        args.rows,
+        1,
+        args.dim,
+        DistanceType::L2,
+    )?);
+    let ids = store.append_batch(vectors, 0)?;
+    let snapshot = store.snapshot();
+    let arrow_s = arrow_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+
+    let params = BuildParams::default()
+        .num_edges(args.m)
+        .ef_construction(args.ef_construction)
+        .seed(args.seed);
+
+    // Sustained write: rebuild a fresh graph in a loop for `insert_seconds`
+    // (or a single build when 0) so throughput reflects steady-state, not a
+    // burst. Only the last graph is retained for the query phase.
+    let insert_start = Instant::now();
+    let mut insert_passes: u64 = 0;
+    let mut insert_core = std::time::Duration::ZERO;
+    let graph = loop {
+        let g = HnswGraph::try_new(args.rows, params.clone())?;
+        let core = Instant::now();
+        g.insert_batch(ids.clone(), &snapshot)?;
+        insert_core += core.elapsed();
+        insert_passes += 1;
+        if args.insert_seconds <= 0.0 || insert_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64() >= args.insert_seconds
+        {
+            break g;
+        }
+    };
+    let insert_s = insert_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let insert_qps = (args.rows as u64 * insert_passes) as f64 / insert_s;
+    // insert_core excludes graph allocation + teardown, isolating the insertion
+    // algorithm from the per-build alloc/free cost.
+    let insert_core_s = insert_core.as_secs_f64();
+    let insert_core_qps = (args.rows as u64 * insert_passes) as f64 / insert_core_s;
+
+    // Sustained read: run the query workload in a loop for `query_seconds`
+    // (or `query_repeats` passes when 0).
+    let search_query_ids = query_ids(&args, args.queries);
+    let query_start = Instant::now();
+    // Assigned on every loop iteration before any break; the loop always runs at
+    // least once, so no dead initial store.
+    let mut hits: usize;
+    let mut query_passes: u64 = 0;
+    loop {
+        hits = search_query_ids
+            .par_iter()
+            .map(|row| {
+                let query = snapshot.vector(*row as u32);
+                let results = graph
+                    .search(query, SearchParams::new(args.k, args.ef_search), &snapshot)
+                    .expect("search should succeed");
+                usize::from(results.iter().any(|result| result.id as usize == *row))
+            })
+            .sum();
+        query_passes += 1;
+        if args.query_seconds > 0.0 {
+            if query_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64() >= args.query_seconds {
+                break;
+            }
+        } else if query_passes >= args.query_repeats as u64 {
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+    let query_s = query_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let query_qps = (args.queries as u64 * query_passes) as f64 / query_s;
+    let self_recall = hits as f64 / args.queries as f64;
+
+    let truth_query_ids = query_ids(&args, args.truth_queries);
+    let truth_start = Instant::now();
+    let recall_hits: usize = truth_query_ids
+        .par_iter()
+        .map(|row| {
+            let query = snapshot.vector(*row as u32);
+            let truth = exact_top_k(query, args.k, &snapshot);
+            let results = graph
+                .search(query, SearchParams::new(args.k, args.ef_search), &snapshot)
+                .expect("search should succeed");
+            results
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|result| truth.contains(&result.id))
+                .count()
+        })
+        .sum();
+    let truth_s = truth_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let recall_at_k = recall_hits as f64 / (args.truth_queries * args.k) as f64;
+
+    println!(
+        "result impl=lance_hnsw rows={} dim={} generate_s={:.6} arrow_s={:.6} insert_s={:.6} insert_passes={} insert_qps={:.3} insert_core_s={:.6} insert_core_qps={:.3} query_s={:.6} query_passes={} query_qps={:.3} truth_s={:.6} recall_at_{}={:.6} self_recall_at_{}={:.6}",
+        args.rows,
+        args.dim,
+        generate_s,
+        arrow_s,
+        insert_s,
+        insert_passes,
+        insert_qps,
+        insert_core_s,
+        insert_core_qps,
+        query_s,
+        query_passes,
+        query_qps,
+        truth_s,
+        args.k,
+        recall_at_k,
+        args.k,
+        self_recall
+    );
+    println!(
+        "{{\"impl\":\"lance_hnsw\",\"rows\":{},\"dim\":{},\"queries\":{},\"truth_queries\":{},\"k\":{},\"m\":{},\"ef_construction\":{},\"ef_search\":{},\"threads\":{},\"generate_s\":{},\"arrow_s\":{},\"insert_s\":{},\"insert_qps\":{},\"query_s\":{},\"query_qps\":{},\"truth_s\":{},\"recall_at_k\":{},\"self_recall_at_k\":{}}}",
+        args.rows,
+        args.dim,
+        args.queries,
+        args.truth_queries,
+        args.k,
+        args.m,
+        args.ef_construction,
+        args.ef_search,
+        rayon::current_num_threads(),
+        generate_s,
+        arrow_s,
+        insert_s,
+        insert_qps,
+        query_s,
+        query_qps,
+        truth_s,
+        recall_at_k,
+        self_recall
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn parse_args() -> Result<Args, Box<dyn Error>> {
+    let mut args = Args::default();
+    let mut iter = std::env::args().skip(1);
+    while let Some(flag) = iter.next() {
+        let value = iter
+            .next()
+            .ok_or_else(|| format!("missing value for argument {flag}"))?;
+        match flag.as_str() {
+            "--rows" => args.rows = value.parse()?,
+            "--dim" => args.dim = value.parse()?,
+            "--queries" => args.queries = value.parse()?,
+            "--truth-queries" => args.truth_queries = value.parse()?,
+            "--k" => args.k = value.parse()?,
+            "--m" => args.m = value.parse()?,
+            "--ef-construction" => args.ef_construction = value.parse()?,
+            "--ef-search" => args.ef_search = value.parse()?,
+            "--threads" => args.threads = value.parse()?,
+            "--seed" => args.seed = value.parse()?,
+            "--clusters" => args.clusters = value.parse()?,
+            "--noise" => args.noise = value.parse()?,
+            "--query-repeats" => args.query_repeats = value.parse()?,
+            "--insert-seconds" => args.insert_seconds = value.parse()?,
+            "--query-seconds" => args.query_seconds = value.parse()?,
+            _ => return Err(format!("unknown argument: {flag}").into()),
+        }
+    }
+    if args.rows == 0
+        || args.dim == 0
+        || args.queries == 0
+        || args.truth_queries == 0
+        || args.k == 0
+    {
+        return Err("rows, dim, queries, truth_queries, and k must be greater than 0".into());
+    }
+    if args.clusters == 0 {
+        return Err("clusters must be greater than 0".into());
+    }
+    Ok(args)
+}
+
+fn generate_vectors(args: &Args) -> Result<Vec<f32>, Box<dyn Error>> {
+    let total = args
+        .rows
+        .checked_mul(args.dim)
+        .ok_or("rows * dim overflow")?;
+    let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(total);
+    for row in 0..args.rows {
+        for col in 0..args.dim {
+            values.push(vector_value(row, col, args));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(values)
+}
+
+fn query_ids(args: &Args, count: usize) -> Vec<usize> {
+    (0..count)
+        .map(|idx| {
+            splitmix64(args.seed ^ (idx as u64).wrapping_mul(0x9e37_79b9_7f4a_7c15)) as usize
+                % args.rows
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+struct ExactNeighbor {
+    id: u32,
+    distance: f32,
+}
+
+impl Eq for ExactNeighbor {}
+
+impl PartialOrd for ExactNeighbor {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for ExactNeighbor {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.distance.total_cmp(&other.distance)
+    }
+}
+
+fn exact_top_k(query: &[f32], k: usize, vectors: &impl VectorSource) -> Vec<u32> {
+    let mut heap = std::collections::BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k);
+    for id in 0..vectors.len() as u32 {
+        let candidate = ExactNeighbor {
+            id,
+            distance: vectors.distance_to(query, id),
+        };
+        if heap.len() < k {
+            heap.push(candidate);
+        } else if let Some(top) = heap.peek()
+            && candidate.distance < top.distance
+        {
+            heap.pop();
+            heap.push(candidate);
+        }
+    }
+    heap.into_sorted_vec()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|point| point.id)
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn vector_value(row: usize, col: usize, args: &Args) -> f32 {
+    let cluster = row % args.clusters;
+    let base_key = args.seed
+        ^ (cluster as u64).wrapping_mul(0xbf58_476d_1ce4_e5b9)
+        ^ (col as u64).wrapping_mul(0x94d0_49bb_1331_11eb);
+    let noise_key = args.seed
+        ^ (row as u64).wrapping_mul(0x9e37_79b9_7f4a_7c15)
+        ^ (col as u64).wrapping_mul(0xd2b7_4407_b1ce_6e93);
+    let base = unit_f32(base_key) * 2.0 - 1.0;
+    let noise = (unit_f32(noise_key) * 2.0 - 1.0) * args.noise;
+    base + noise
+}
+
+fn unit_f32(key: u64) -> f32 {
+    let bits = splitmix64(key) >> 40;
+    (bits as f32) * (1.0 / 16_777_216.0)
+}
+
+fn splitmix64(mut x: u64) -> u64 {
+    x = x.wrapping_add(0x9e37_79b9_7f4a_7c15);
+    let mut z = x;
+    z = (z ^ (z >> 30)).wrapping_mul(0xbf58_476d_1ce4_e5b9);
+    z = (z ^ (z >> 27)).wrapping_mul(0x94d0_49bb_1331_11eb);
+    z ^ (z >> 31)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_hnswlib_bench.cpp b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_hnswlib_bench.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3d9dc7dcfa0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_hnswlib_bench.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,403 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+#include "hnswlib/hnswlib.h"
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <atomic>
+#include <chrono>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <cstdlib>
+#include <exception>
+#include <iostream>
+#include <memory>
+#include <mutex>
+#include <queue>
+#include <stdexcept>
+#include <string>
+#include <thread>
+#include <vector>
+
+struct Args {
+    size_t rows = 1000000;
+    size_t dim = 1024;
+    size_t queries = 1000;
+    size_t truth_queries = 100;
+    size_t k = 10;
+    size_t m = 12;
+    size_t ef_construction = 64;
+    size_t ef_search = 64;
+    size_t threads = std::thread::hardware_concurrency();
+    uint64_t seed = 100;
+    size_t clusters = 4096;
+    float noise = 0.05f;
+    size_t query_repeats = 1;
+    double insert_seconds = 0.0;
+    double query_seconds = 0.0;
+};
+
+Args parse_args(int argc, char **argv);
+size_t parse_size(const std::string &value);
+uint64_t parse_u64(const std::string &value);
+using Clock = std::chrono::steady_clock;
+Clock::time_point clock_now();
+double elapsed_seconds(Clock::time_point start);
+std::vector<float> generate_vectors(const Args &args);
+std::vector<size_t> query_ids(const Args &args);
+std::vector<size_t> query_ids(const Args &args, size_t count);
+std::vector<size_t> exact_top_k(const float *query, const std::vector<float> &data, const Args &args);
+float l2_distance(const float *left, const float *right, size_t dim);
+float vector_value(size_t row, size_t col, const Args &args);
+float unit_f32(uint64_t key);
+uint64_t splitmix64(uint64_t x);
+
+template <class Function>
+void parallel_for(size_t start, size_t end, size_t num_threads, Function fn) {
+    if (num_threads == 0) {
+        num_threads = std::thread::hardware_concurrency();
+    }
+    if (num_threads <= 1) {
+        for (size_t id = start; id < end; ++id) {
+            fn(id, 0);
+        }
+        return;
+    }
+
+    std::vector<std::thread> threads;
+    std::atomic<size_t> current(start);
+    std::exception_ptr last_exception = nullptr;
+    std::mutex exception_mutex;
+
+    for (size_t thread_id = 0; thread_id < num_threads; ++thread_id) {
+        threads.emplace_back([&, thread_id] {
+            while (true) {
+                size_t id = current.fetch_add(1);
+                if (id >= end) {
+                    break;
+                }
+                try {
+                    fn(id, thread_id);
+                } catch (...) {
+                    std::unique_lock<std::mutex> lock(exception_mutex);
+                    last_exception = std::current_exception();
+                    current = end;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        });
+    }
+    for (auto &thread : threads) {
+        thread.join();
+    }
+    if (last_exception) {
+        std::rethrow_exception(last_exception);
+    }
+}
+
+int main(int argc, char **argv) {
+    try {
+        Args args = parse_args(argc, argv);
+        std::cout << "bench=hnswlib rows=" << args.rows
+                  << " dim=" << args.dim
+                  << " queries=" << args.queries
+                  << " truth_queries=" << args.truth_queries
+                  << " k=" << args.k
+                  << " m=" << args.m
+                  << " ef_construction=" << args.ef_construction
+                  << " ef_search=" << args.ef_search
+                  << " threads=" << args.threads
+                  << " seed=" << args.seed
+                  << " clusters=" << args.clusters
+                  << " noise=" << args.noise << std::endl;
+
+        auto generate_start = clock_now();
+        std::vector<float> data = generate_vectors(args);
+        double generate_s = elapsed_seconds(generate_start);
+
+        hnswlib::L2Space space(static_cast<int>(args.dim));
+
+        // Sustained write: rebuild a fresh index in a loop for `insert_seconds`
+        // (or a single build when 0) so throughput reflects steady-state, not a
+        // burst. The last index is retained for the query phase.
+        auto insert_start = clock_now();
+        size_t insert_passes = 0;
+        double insert_core = 0.0;
+        std::unique_ptr<hnswlib::HierarchicalNSW<float>> index;
+        do {
+            index = std::make_unique<hnswlib::HierarchicalNSW<float>>(
+                &space,
+                args.rows,
+                args.m,
+                args.ef_construction,
+                static_cast<size_t>(args.seed));
+            index->setEf(args.ef_search);
+            auto core = clock_now();
+            parallel_for(0, args.rows, args.threads, [&](size_t row, size_t) {
+                index->addPoint(static_cast<void *>(data.data() + row * args.dim), row);
+            });
+            insert_core += elapsed_seconds(core);
+            ++insert_passes;
+        } while (args.insert_seconds > 0.0 && elapsed_seconds(insert_start) < args.insert_seconds);
+        double insert_s = elapsed_seconds(insert_start);
+        double insert_qps = static_cast<double>(args.rows * insert_passes) / insert_s;
+        // insert_core excludes index allocation + destruction.
+        double insert_core_s = insert_core;
+        double insert_core_qps = static_cast<double>(args.rows * insert_passes) / insert_core_s;
+
+        // Sustained read: run the query workload in a loop for `query_seconds`
+        // (or `query_repeats` passes when 0).
+        std::vector<size_t> queries = query_ids(args, args.queries);
+        auto query_start = clock_now();
+        std::atomic<size_t> hits{0};
+        size_t query_passes = 0;
+        for (;;) {
+            hits.store(0, std::memory_order_relaxed);
+            parallel_for(0, queries.size(), args.threads, [&](size_t idx, size_t) {
+                size_t row = queries[idx];
+                std::priority_queue<std::pair<float, hnswlib::labeltype>> result =
+                    index->searchKnn(data.data() + row * args.dim, args.k);
+                bool found = false;
+                while (!result.empty()) {
+                    if (static_cast<size_t>(result.top().second) == row) {
+                        found = true;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    result.pop();
+                }
+                if (found) {
+                    hits.fetch_add(1, std::memory_order_relaxed);
+                }
+            });
+            ++query_passes;
+            if (args.query_seconds > 0.0) {
+                if (elapsed_seconds(query_start) >= args.query_seconds) {
+                    break;
+                }
+            } else if (query_passes >= args.query_repeats) {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        double query_s = elapsed_seconds(query_start);
+        double query_qps = static_cast<double>(args.queries * query_passes) / query_s;
+        double self_recall = static_cast<double>(hits.load()) / static_cast<double>(args.queries);
+
+        std::vector<size_t> truth_queries = query_ids(args, args.truth_queries);
+        auto truth_start = clock_now();
+        std::atomic<size_t> recall_hits{0};
+        parallel_for(0, truth_queries.size(), args.threads, [&](size_t idx, size_t) {
+            size_t row = truth_queries[idx];
+            const float *query = data.data() + row * args.dim;
+            std::vector<size_t> truth = exact_top_k(query, data, args);
+            std::priority_queue<std::pair<float, hnswlib::labeltype>> result =
+                index->searchKnn(query, args.k);
+            while (!result.empty()) {
+                size_t id = static_cast<size_t>(result.top().second);
+                for (size_t truth_id : truth) {
+                    if (truth_id == id) {
+                        recall_hits.fetch_add(1, std::memory_order_relaxed);
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+                result.pop();
+            }
+        });
+        double truth_s = elapsed_seconds(truth_start);
+        double recall_at_k = static_cast<double>(recall_hits.load())
+            / static_cast<double>(args.truth_queries * args.k);
+
+        std::cout << "result impl=hnswlib rows=" << args.rows
+                  << " dim=" << args.dim
+                  << " generate_s=" << generate_s
+                  << " insert_s=" << insert_s
+                  << " insert_passes=" << insert_passes
+                  << " insert_qps=" << insert_qps
+                  << " insert_core_s=" << insert_core_s
+                  << " insert_core_qps=" << insert_core_qps
+                  << " query_s=" << query_s
+                  << " query_passes=" << query_passes
+                  << " query_qps=" << query_qps
+                  << " truth_s=" << truth_s
+                  << " recall_at_" << args.k << "=" << recall_at_k
+                  << " self_recall_at_" << args.k << "=" << self_recall
+                  << std::endl;
+        std::cout << "{\"impl\":\"hnswlib\",\"rows\":" << args.rows
+                  << ",\"dim\":" << args.dim
+                  << ",\"queries\":" << args.queries
+                  << ",\"truth_queries\":" << args.truth_queries
+                  << ",\"k\":" << args.k
+                  << ",\"m\":" << args.m
+                  << ",\"ef_construction\":" << args.ef_construction
+                  << ",\"ef_search\":" << args.ef_search
+                  << ",\"threads\":" << args.threads
+                  << ",\"generate_s\":" << generate_s
+                  << ",\"insert_s\":" << insert_s
+                  << ",\"insert_qps\":" << insert_qps
+                  << ",\"query_s\":" << query_s
+                  << ",\"query_qps\":" << query_qps
+                  << ",\"truth_s\":" << truth_s
+                  << ",\"recall_at_k\":" << recall_at_k
+                  << ",\"self_recall_at_k\":" << self_recall << "}"
+                  << std::endl;
+        return 0;
+    } catch (const std::exception &e) {
+        std::cerr << "ERROR: " << e.what() << std::endl;
+        return 1;
+    }
+}
+
+Args parse_args(int argc, char **argv) {
+    Args args;
+    for (int i = 1; i < argc; i += 2) {
+        if (i + 1 >= argc) {
+            throw std::invalid_argument(std::string("missing value for argument ") + argv[i]);
+        }
+        std::string flag(argv[i]);
+        std::string value(argv[i + 1]);
+        if (flag == "--rows") {
+            args.rows = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--dim") {
+            args.dim = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--queries") {
+            args.queries = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--truth-queries") {
+            args.truth_queries = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--k") {
+            args.k = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--m") {
+            args.m = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--ef-construction") {
+            args.ef_construction = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--ef-search") {
+            args.ef_search = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--threads") {
+            args.threads = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--seed") {
+            args.seed = parse_u64(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--clusters") {
+            args.clusters = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--noise") {
+            args.noise = std::stof(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--query-repeats") {
+            args.query_repeats = parse_size(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--insert-seconds") {
+            args.insert_seconds = std::stod(value);
+        } else if (flag == "--query-seconds") {
+            args.query_seconds = std::stod(value);
+        } else {
+            throw std::invalid_argument("unknown argument: " + flag);
+        }
+    }
+    if (args.rows == 0 || args.dim == 0 || args.queries == 0 || args.truth_queries == 0 || args.k == 0) {
+        throw std::invalid_argument("rows, dim, queries, truth_queries, and k must be greater than 0");
+    }
+    if (args.clusters == 0) {
+        throw std::invalid_argument("clusters must be greater than 0");
+    }
+    return args;
+}
+
+size_t parse_size(const std::string &value) {
+    return static_cast<size_t>(std::stoull(value));
+}
+
+uint64_t parse_u64(const std::string &value) {
+    return static_cast<uint64_t>(std::stoull(value));
+}
+
+Clock::time_point clock_now() {
+    return Clock::now();
+}
+
+double elapsed_seconds(Clock::time_point start) {
+    return std::chrono::duration<double>(Clock::now() - start).count();
+}
+
+std::vector<float> generate_vectors(const Args &args) {
+    size_t total = args.rows * args.dim;
+    if (args.rows != 0 && total / args.rows != args.dim) {
+        throw std::overflow_error("rows * dim overflow");
+    }
+    std::vector<float> values(total);
+    parallel_for(0, args.rows, args.threads, [&](size_t row, size_t) {
+        float *out = values.data() + row * args.dim;
+        for (size_t col = 0; col < args.dim; ++col) {
+            out[col] = vector_value(row, col, args);
+        }
+    });
+    return values;
+}
+
+std::vector<size_t> query_ids(const Args &args) {
+    return query_ids(args, args.queries);
+}
+
+std::vector<size_t> query_ids(const Args &args, size_t count) {
+    std::vector<size_t> ids(count);
+    for (size_t idx = 0; idx < count; ++idx) {
+        ids[idx] = static_cast<size_t>(
+            splitmix64(args.seed ^ (static_cast<uint64_t>(idx) * UINT64_C(0x9e3779b97f4a7c15)))
+            % static_cast<uint64_t>(args.rows));
+    }
+    return ids;
+}
+
+std::vector<size_t> exact_top_k(const float *query, const std::vector<float> &data, const Args &args) {
+    std::priority_queue<std::pair<float, size_t>> heap;
+    for (size_t row = 0; row < args.rows; ++row) {
+        float distance = l2_distance(query, data.data() + row * args.dim, args.dim);
+        if (heap.size() < args.k) {
+            heap.emplace(distance, row);
+        } else if (distance < heap.top().first) {
+            heap.pop();
+            heap.emplace(distance, row);
+        }
+    }
+    std::vector<std::pair<float, size_t>> ordered;
+    ordered.reserve(heap.size());
+    while (!heap.empty()) {
+        ordered.push_back(heap.top());
+        heap.pop();
+    }
+    std::sort(ordered.begin(), ordered.end());
+    std::vector<size_t> ids;
+    ids.reserve(ordered.size());
+    for (const auto &item : ordered) {
+        ids.push_back(item.second);
+    }
+    return ids;
+}
+
+float l2_distance(const float *left, const float *right, size_t dim) {
+    float total = 0.0f;
+    for (size_t col = 0; col < dim; ++col) {
+        float delta = left[col] - right[col];
+        total += delta * delta;
+    }
+    return total;
+}
+
+float vector_value(size_t row, size_t col, const Args &args) {
+    size_t cluster = row % args.clusters;
+    uint64_t base_key = args.seed
+        ^ (static_cast<uint64_t>(cluster) * UINT64_C(0xbf58476d1ce4e5b9))
+        ^ (static_cast<uint64_t>(col) * UINT64_C(0x94d049bb133111eb));
+    uint64_t noise_key = args.seed
+        ^ (static_cast<uint64_t>(row) * UINT64_C(0x9e3779b97f4a7c15))
+        ^ (static_cast<uint64_t>(col) * UINT64_C(0xd2b74407b1ce6e93));
+    float base = unit_f32(base_key) * 2.0f - 1.0f;
+    float noise = (unit_f32(noise_key) * 2.0f - 1.0f) * args.noise;
+    return base + noise;
+}
+
+float unit_f32(uint64_t key) {
+    uint64_t bits = splitmix64(key) >> 40;
+    return static_cast<float>(bits) * (1.0f / 16777216.0f);
+}
+
+uint64_t splitmix64(uint64_t x) {
+    x += UINT64_C(0x9e3779b97f4a7c15);
+    uint64_t z = x;
+    z = (z ^ (z >> 30)) * UINT64_C(0xbf58476d1ce4e5b9);
+    z = (z ^ (z >> 27)) * UINT64_C(0x94d049bb133111eb);
+    return z ^ (z >> 31);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_recall_hnsw.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_recall_hnsw.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c5d391cc8c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/mem_wal_recall_hnsw.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,822 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! HNSW recall benchmark for the in-memory MemTable index.
+//!
+//! - Downloads `KShivendu/dbpedia-entities-openai-1M` parquet shards (1536-dim
+//!   OpenAI ada embeddings) from HF as needed to cover the requested
+//!   checkpoints.
+//! - For each checkpoint size N (default 100k / 500k / 1M):
+//!     * Build a fresh MemTable with rows `[0..N)` via the production
+//!       ShardWriter path.
+//!     * Use 200 held-out queries from rows `[max_checkpoint..max_checkpoint+200)`
+//!       (constant across checkpoints so recall comparisons are apples-to-apples).
+//!     * For each query: brute-force top-k against the corpus (exact ground
+//!       truth) vs HNSW top-k via `MemTableScanner::nearest`.
+//!     * Recall@k = |brute ∩ hnsw| / k aggregated over queries.
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+    cast::AsArray, types::Float32Type,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::write::{MemTableScanner, ShardWriterConfig};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+use lance::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::prefilter::NoFilter;
+use lance_index::vector::Query;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams;
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
+use parquet::arrow::async_reader::ParquetRecordBatchStreamBuilder;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const VECTOR_COL: &str = "vector";
+const VECTOR_INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+const HF_API_LISTING: &str =
+    "https://huggingface.co/api/datasets/KShivendu/dbpedia-entities-openai-1M/tree/main/data";
+const HF_FILE_BASE: &str =
+    "https://huggingface.co/datasets/KShivendu/dbpedia-entities-openai-1M/resolve/main/";
+const DIM: usize = 1536;
+
+fn env_usize(key: &str, default: usize) -> usize {
+    std::env::var(key)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(default)
+}
+
+fn env_checkpoints() -> Vec<usize> {
+    let raw =
+        std::env::var("BENCH_CHECKPOINTS").unwrap_or_else(|_| "100000,500000,1000000".to_string());
+    raw.split(',')
+        .filter_map(|s| s.trim().parse::<usize>().ok())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+#[derive(serde::Deserialize)]
+struct HfTreeEntry {
+    #[serde(rename = "type")]
+    kind: String,
+    path: String,
+}
+
+async fn list_shard_paths() -> lance_core::Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let entries: Vec<HfTreeEntry> = reqwest::get(HF_API_LISTING)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("listing HTTP: {}", e)))?
+        .json()
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("listing JSON: {}", e)))?;
+    let mut shards: Vec<String> = entries
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|e| e.kind == "file" && e.path.ends_with(".parquet"))
+        .map(|e| e.path)
+        .collect();
+    shards.sort();
+    Ok(shards)
+}
+
+async fn download_shard(rel_path: &str, dest: &std::path::Path) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    if dest.exists() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let url = format!("{}{}", HF_FILE_BASE, rel_path);
+    let max_attempts = 5;
+    for attempt in 1..=max_attempts {
+        println!(
+            "downloading {} (attempt {}/{}) ...",
+            rel_path, attempt, max_attempts
+        );
+        let result: lance_core::Result<bytes::Bytes> = async {
+            let resp = reqwest::get(&url)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("download HTTP: {}", e)))?;
+            if !resp.status().is_success() {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+                    "download {} → status {}",
+                    url,
+                    resp.status()
+                )));
+            }
+            resp.bytes()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("read body: {}", e)))
+        }
+        .await;
+        match result {
+            Ok(bytes) => {
+                std::fs::write(dest, &bytes)
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write: {}", e)))?;
+                println!(
+                    "  wrote {:.1} MB to {}",
+                    bytes.len() as f64 / 1024.0 / 1024.0,
+                    dest.display()
+                );
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            Err(e) if attempt < max_attempts => {
+                let backoff = Duration::from_secs(2u64.pow(attempt as u32));
+                eprintln!(
+                    "  attempt {} failed: {}; retrying in {:?}",
+                    attempt, e, backoff
+                );
+                tokio::time::sleep(backoff).await;
+            }
+            Err(e) => return Err(e),
+        }
+    }
+    unreachable!()
+}
+
+/// Read up to `max_rows` rows from a single parquet file, appending to `buf`.
+/// Returns the number of rows actually read from this file.
+async fn read_shard_into_buf(
+    path: &std::path::Path,
+    buf: &mut Vec<f32>,
+    max_rows: usize,
+) -> lance_core::Result<usize> {
+    let file = tokio::fs::File::open(path)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("open parquet: {}", e)))?;
+    let builder = ParquetRecordBatchStreamBuilder::new(file)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet builder: {}", e)))?;
+    let mut stream = builder
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet stream: {}", e)))?;
+
+    let cast_target = arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(
+        Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::Float32, true)),
+        DIM as i32,
+    );
+    let mut rows_from_shard = 0usize;
+    while rows_from_shard < max_rows {
+        let Some(rb) = stream
+            .try_next()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("parquet read: {}", e)))?
+        else {
+            break;
+        };
+        let col = rb
+            .column_by_name("openai")
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("openai column missing".to_string()))?;
+        let casted = if col.data_type() == &cast_target {
+            col.clone()
+        } else {
+            arrow_cast::cast::cast(col.as_ref(), &cast_target).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+                    "cast openai column to FixedSizeList<Float32, {}>: {}",
+                    DIM, e
+                ))
+            })?
+        };
+        let fsl = casted.as_fixed_size_list();
+        let values = fsl
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+                    "fsl values not Float32: {:?}",
+                    fsl.values().data_type()
+                ))
+            })?
+            .values();
+        for i in 0..rb.num_rows() {
+            if rows_from_shard >= max_rows {
+                break;
+            }
+            let off = i * DIM;
+            buf.extend_from_slice(&values[off..off + DIM]);
+            rows_from_shard += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(rows_from_shard)
+}
+
+async fn load_corpus(needed_rows: usize) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<f32>> {
+    let shards = list_shard_paths().await?;
+    println!("dataset has {} parquet shards", shards.len());
+
+    let cache_dir = std::env::temp_dir().join("mem_wal_recall_hnsw_cache");
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&cache_dir)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("mkdir cache: {}", e)))?;
+
+    let mut buf: Vec<f32> = Vec::with_capacity(needed_rows * DIM);
+    let mut total_rows: usize = 0;
+
+    for rel_path in &shards {
+        if total_rows >= needed_rows {
+            break;
+        }
+        let local_name = rel_path.rsplit('/').next().unwrap_or(rel_path);
+        let local = cache_dir.join(local_name);
+        download_shard(rel_path, &local).await?;
+        let want = needed_rows - total_rows;
+        let got = read_shard_into_buf(&local, &mut buf, want).await?;
+        total_rows += got;
+        println!(
+            "  shard {} → {} rows (cumulative {})",
+            local_name, got, total_rows
+        );
+    }
+    if total_rows < needed_rows {
+        println!(
+            "  note: dataset exhausted at {} rows (asked {}); caller will adjust",
+            total_rows, needed_rows
+        );
+    }
+    Ok(buf)
+}
+
+fn make_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+    id_meta.insert(
+        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+        "true".to_string(),
+    );
+    let id = Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(id_meta);
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        id,
+        Field::new(
+            VECTOR_COL,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                DIM as i32,
+            ),
+            false,
+        ),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn make_batch(start_id: i64, vectors: &[f32], schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>) -> RecordBatch {
+    let n = vectors.len() / DIM;
+    let ids: Vec<i64> = (start_id..start_id + n as i64).collect();
+    let id_arr = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids));
+    let inner = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vectors.to_vec()));
+    let inner_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+    let fsl = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new(inner_field, DIM as i32, inner, None).unwrap());
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![id_arr, fsl as ArrayRef]).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn cosine_distance(a: &[f32], b: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    DistanceType::Cosine.func()(a, b)
+}
+
+fn brute_force_top_k(corpus: &[f32], n: usize, query: &[f32], k: usize) -> Vec<(f32, i64)> {
+    let mut all: Vec<(f32, i64)> = (0..n)
+        .map(|i| {
+            let off = i * DIM;
+            (cosine_distance(query, &corpus[off..off + DIM]), i as i64)
+        })
+        .collect();
+    all.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.partial_cmp(&b.0).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    all.truncate(k);
+    all
+}
+
+async fn build_base_dataset(uri: &str, schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    // Tiny base table — content is irrelevant for the recall test (we only
+    // query the MemTable), but it can't be all-zero: IVF/PQ training rejects
+    // zero-norm vectors under cosine. Use a deterministic non-zero pattern.
+    let base_n = 1024usize;
+    let mut base_vec = Vec::with_capacity(base_n * DIM);
+    for i in 0..base_n {
+        for d in 0..DIM {
+            base_vec.push((((i * 31 + d) as f32) * 0.000_173_f32).sin());
+        }
+    }
+    let base_batch = make_batch(0, &base_vec, schema.clone());
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(std::iter::once(Ok(base_batch)), schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let ivf = IvfBuildParams::new(16);
+    let pq = PQBuildParams::new(16, 8);
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(MetricType::Cosine, ivf, pq);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[VECTOR_COL],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some(VECTOR_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    dataset
+        .initialize_mem_wal()
+        .maintained_indexes([VECTOR_INDEX_NAME])
+        .execute()
+        .await?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+struct CheckpointResult {
+    rows: usize,
+    write_wall: Duration,
+    mean_recall: f64,
+    min_recall: f64,
+    median_query_us: u128,
+    p99_query_us: u128,
+    bf_total: Duration,
+    hnsw_total: Duration,
+}
+
+async fn run_checkpoint(
+    cp: usize,
+    corpus: &[f32],
+    queries: &[f32],
+    num_queries: usize,
+    k: usize,
+    schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<CheckpointResult> {
+    println!("\n=== checkpoint rows={} ===", cp);
+    let temp = tempfile::tempdir().map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("tempdir: {}", e)))?;
+    // When BENCH_URI_BASE is set, write to a persistent path and flush the
+    // MemTable to an on-disk generation (instead of querying the active
+    // MemTable), printing the SSTable's dataset path for a
+    // downstream direct-read benchmark.
+    let flush_base = std::env::var("BENCH_URI_BASE").ok();
+    let local_dir = flush_base.as_ref().map(|b| format!("{}/cp_{}", b, cp));
+    let uri = match &local_dir {
+        Some(d) => format!("file://{}", d),
+        None => format!("file://{}/lsm", temp.path().display()),
+    };
+    build_base_dataset(&uri, schema.clone()).await?;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&uri).await?);
+
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let row_size_estimate = DIM * 4 + 8;
+    let total_batches_max = cp.div_ceil(1000);
+    // Optionally override the maintained HNSW index's graph degree (num_edges)
+    // and ef_construction on the writer config so we can sweep build params and
+    // run matched comparisons vs FAISS. 0 keeps the library default.
+    let mut hnsw_params = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+    let num_edges = env_usize("BENCH_HNSW_NUM_EDGES", 0);
+    if num_edges > 0 {
+        let efc = env_usize("BENCH_HNSW_EFC", 200);
+        hnsw_params.insert(
+            VECTOR_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default()
+                .num_edges(num_edges)
+                .ef_construction(efc),
+        );
+    }
+    let writer_config = ShardWriterConfig {
+        shard_id,
+        max_wal_persist_retries: 3,
+        wal_persist_retry_base_delay: std::time::Duration::from_millis(50),
+        shard_spec_id: 0,
+        durable_write: false,
+        max_memtable_size: cp.saturating_mul(row_size_estimate).saturating_mul(4),
+        max_memtable_rows: cp.saturating_mul(2),
+        max_memtable_batches: total_batches_max.saturating_mul(2).max(8_000),
+        max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(200)),
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: usize::MAX / 2,
+        hnsw_params,
+        ..ShardWriterConfig::default()
+    };
+    let writer = dataset
+        .as_ref()
+        .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, writer_config)
+        .await?;
+
+    // Skip the base-table rows (1024) when assigning corpus IDs.
+    let id_offset: i64 = 1024 + 1;
+    let batch_size = 1000;
+    let total_batches = cp.div_ceil(batch_size);
+    let write_start = Instant::now();
+    for i in 0..total_batches {
+        let start_row = i * batch_size;
+        let n = batch_size.min(cp - start_row);
+        let batch_vec = &corpus[start_row * DIM..(start_row + n) * DIM];
+        let batch = make_batch(id_offset + start_row as i64, batch_vec, schema.clone());
+        writer.put(vec![batch]).await?;
+    }
+
+    let target_indexed_count = total_batches;
+    let mut spins = 0u64;
+    loop {
+        let active = writer.active_memtable_ref().await?;
+        if active.index_store.indexed_count() >= target_indexed_count {
+            break;
+        }
+        drop(active);
+        tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await;
+        spins += 1;
+        if spins.is_multiple_of(8) {
+            let dummy_vec = vec![0.0f32; DIM];
+            let dummy = make_batch(-1 - spins as i64, &dummy_vec, schema.clone());
+            writer.put(vec![dummy]).await?;
+        }
+    }
+    let write_wall = write_start.elapsed();
+    println!(
+        "  wrote {} rows in {:.2}s (incl. index catchup)",
+        cp,
+        write_wall.as_secs_f64()
+    );
+    use std::io::Write;
+    std::io::stdout().flush().ok();
+
+    // Flush mode: seal the active MemTable to a persistent on-disk generation
+    // (single-partition IVF_HNSW_SQ at the base dataset's storage version) and
+    // print its dataset path. Validates we can flush cp=100k/500k/1M.
+    if let Some(dir) = &local_dir {
+        let seal_start = Instant::now();
+        writer.force_seal_active().await?;
+        let mut waited = 0u64;
+        let gen_path = loop {
+            if let Some(m) = writer.manifest().await?
+                && let Some(sstable) = m.sstables.last()
+            {
+                break format!(
+                    "{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}",
+                    dir,
+                    shard_id.as_hyphenated(),
+                    sstable.path
+                );
+            }
+            tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await;
+            waited += 1;
+            if waited.is_multiple_of(50) {
+                println!("  ... waiting for flush cp={cp} ({}s)", waited / 10);
+                std::io::stdout().flush().ok();
+            }
+            if waited > 6000 {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+                    "flush timed out for cp={cp}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        println!(
+            "SSTABLE_OK cp={} id_offset={} flush_s={:.2} path={}",
+            cp,
+            id_offset,
+            seal_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+            gen_path
+        );
+        std::io::stdout().flush().ok();
+        writer.close().await?;
+
+        // Item 4: open the SSTable directly from its dataset path and
+        // benchmark its on-disk IVF_HNSW_SQ read in Rust (single-thread per-query
+        // latency + recall vs brute force), sweeping ef. nprobes=1 (single part).
+        let gen_uri = format!("file://{}", gen_path);
+        let gen_ds = Dataset::open(&gen_uri).await?;
+        // Precompute brute-force ground truth once per query (corpus indices).
+        let gt_sets: Vec<std::collections::HashSet<i64>> = (0..num_queries)
+            .map(|q| {
+                let q_vec = &queries[q * DIM..(q + 1) * DIM];
+                brute_force_top_k(corpus, cp, q_vec, k)
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(_, id)| *id)
+                    .collect()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let efs = [16usize, 64, 256];
+        let mut best: Option<(usize, f64, u128, u128)> = None;
+        for &ef in &efs {
+            let mut recall_sum = 0.0f64;
+            let mut lat: Vec<u128> = Vec::with_capacity(num_queries);
+            for q in 0..num_queries {
+                let q_vec = &queries[q * DIM..(q + 1) * DIM];
+                let bf_set = &gt_sets[q];
+                let q_arr = Float32Array::from(q_vec.to_vec());
+                let mut scanner = gen_ds.scan();
+                scanner.nearest(VECTOR_COL, &q_arr, k)?;
+                scanner.nprobes(1);
+                scanner.ef(ef);
+                let h_t = Instant::now();
+                let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> =
+                    scanner.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await?;
+                lat.push(h_t.elapsed().as_micros());
+                let mut hits = 0usize;
+                for b in &batches {
+                    if let Some(c) = b.column_by_name("id") {
+                        let col = c.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>();
+                        for i in 0..col.len() {
+                            if bf_set.contains(&(col.value(i) - id_offset)) {
+                                hits += 1;
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                recall_sum += hits as f64 / k as f64;
+            }
+            lat.sort();
+            let median_q = lat[lat.len() / 2];
+            let p99_q = lat[lat.len() * 99 / 100];
+            let mean_recall = recall_sum / num_queries as f64;
+            println!(
+                "SSTABLE_READ cp={} ef={} mean_recall={:.4} median_us={} p99_us={}",
+                cp, ef, mean_recall, median_q, p99_q
+            );
+            std::io::stdout().flush().ok();
+            if mean_recall >= 0.95 && best.is_none() {
+                best = Some((ef, mean_recall, median_q, p99_q));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Raw-index path: call VectorIndex::search() directly (partition-find +
+        // HNSW+SQ search, returns _rowid/_distance) bypassing the DataFusion
+        // scanner/take/projection. The RAW_READ vs SSTABLE_READ latency delta at
+        // matched ef isolates the DataFusion per-query overhead from the actual
+        // index search cost.
+        let idx_metas = gen_ds.load_indices_by_name(VECTOR_INDEX_NAME).await?;
+        let uuid = idx_metas
+            .first()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("SSTable has no vector index".to_string()))?
+            .uuid;
+        let vidx = gen_ds
+            .open_vector_index(VECTOR_COL, &uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await?;
+        // _rowid -> corpus index, to score recall on the raw path (built once,
+        // outside the timed region).
+        let mut rowid_to_corpus: std::collections::HashMap<u64, i64> =
+            std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        {
+            let mut scan = gen_ds.scan();
+            scan.with_row_id();
+            scan.project(&["id"])?;
+            let mut stream = scan.try_into_stream().await?;
+            while let Some(b) = stream.try_next().await? {
+                let rid = b
+                    .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("row id missing".to_string()))?
+                    .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+                let idc = b
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::io("id missing".to_string()))?
+                    .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>();
+                for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                    rowid_to_corpus.insert(rid.value(i), idc.value(i) - id_offset);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        for &ef in &efs {
+            let mut recall_sum = 0.0f64;
+            let mut lat: Vec<u128> = Vec::with_capacity(num_queries);
+            for q in 0..num_queries {
+                let q_vec = &queries[q * DIM..(q + 1) * DIM];
+                let bf_set = &gt_sets[q];
+                let query = Query {
+                    column: VECTOR_COL.to_string(),
+                    key: Arc::new(Float32Array::from(q_vec.to_vec())),
+                    k,
+                    lower_bound: None,
+                    upper_bound: None,
+                    minimum_nprobes: 1,
+                    maximum_nprobes: Some(1),
+                    ef: Some(ef),
+                    refine_factor: None,
+                    metric_type: Some(DistanceType::Cosine),
+                    use_index: true,
+                    query_parallelism: 1,
+                    dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                    approx_mode: Default::default(),
+                };
+                // IVFIndex::search is intentionally unimplemented (top-level does
+                // partition-aware search); replicate the ANN exec node: pick the
+                // closest partition then search it. Single-partition SSTable.
+                let t = Instant::now();
+                let (parts, _) = vidx.find_partitions(&query)?;
+                let pid = parts.value(0) as usize;
+                let batch = vidx
+                    .search_in_partition(pid, &query, Arc::new(NoFilter), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                    .await?;
+                lat.push(t.elapsed().as_micros());
+                let mut hits = 0usize;
+                if let Some(c) = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID) {
+                    let col = c.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+                    for i in 0..col.len() {
+                        if let Some(corpus_idx) = rowid_to_corpus.get(&col.value(i))
+                            && bf_set.contains(corpus_idx)
+                        {
+                            hits += 1;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                recall_sum += hits as f64 / k as f64;
+            }
+            lat.sort();
+            println!(
+                "RAW_READ cp={} ef={} mean_recall={:.4} median_us={} p99_us={}",
+                cp,
+                ef,
+                recall_sum / num_queries as f64,
+                lat[lat.len() / 2],
+                lat[lat.len() * 99 / 100]
+            );
+            std::io::stdout().flush().ok();
+        }
+
+        let (_, mr, med, p99) = best.unwrap_or((0, 0.0, 0, 0));
+        return Ok(CheckpointResult {
+            rows: cp,
+            write_wall,
+            mean_recall: mr,
+            min_recall: 0.0,
+            median_query_us: med,
+            p99_query_us: p99,
+            bf_total: Duration::ZERO,
+            hnsw_total: Duration::ZERO,
+        });
+    }
+
+    let active = writer.active_memtable_ref().await?;
+    let mut recall_sum: f64 = 0.0;
+    let mut min_recall: f64 = 1.0;
+    let mut bf_total = Duration::ZERO;
+    let mut hnsw_total = Duration::ZERO;
+    let mut latencies_us: Vec<u128> = Vec::with_capacity(num_queries);
+    let recall_phase_start = Instant::now();
+
+    for q in 0..num_queries {
+        let q_off = q * DIM;
+        let q_vec = &queries[q_off..q_off + DIM];
+
+        let bf_t = Instant::now();
+        let bf = brute_force_top_k(corpus, cp, q_vec, k);
+        bf_total += bf_t.elapsed();
+
+        let inner = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(q_vec.to_vec()));
+        let inner_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let q_fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(inner_field, DIM as i32, inner, None).unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(
+            active.batch_store.clone(),
+            active.index_store.clone(),
+            active.schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let q_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(q_fsl);
+        scanner.nearest(VECTOR_COL, q_arr.as_ref(), k)?;
+        let h_t = Instant::now();
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await?;
+        let elapsed = h_t.elapsed();
+        hnsw_total += elapsed;
+        latencies_us.push(elapsed.as_micros());
+
+        let mut hnsw_ids: Vec<i64> = Vec::with_capacity(k);
+        for b in &batches {
+            let id_col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input("id missing"))?
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>();
+            for i in 0..id_col.len() {
+                hnsw_ids.push(id_col.value(i) - id_offset);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let bf_set: std::collections::HashSet<i64> = bf.iter().map(|(_, id)| *id).collect();
+        let hits = hnsw_ids.iter().filter(|id| bf_set.contains(id)).count();
+        let recall = (hits as f64) / (k as f64);
+        recall_sum += recall;
+        if recall < min_recall {
+            min_recall = recall;
+        }
+        if (q + 1) % 25 == 0 || q + 1 == num_queries {
+            println!(
+                "    progress: {}/{} queries (running mean recall = {:.4})",
+                q + 1,
+                num_queries,
+                recall_sum / (q + 1) as f64
+            );
+            use std::io::Write;
+            std::io::stdout().flush().ok();
+        }
+    }
+
+    let recall_phase_wall = recall_phase_start.elapsed();
+    latencies_us.sort();
+    let median_q = latencies_us[latencies_us.len() / 2];
+    let p99_q = latencies_us[latencies_us.len() * 99 / 100];
+    let mean_recall = recall_sum / num_queries as f64;
+    println!(
+        "  recall phase: cp={} mean_recall={:.4} min_recall={:.4} q_median_us={} q_p99_us={} bf_s={:.2} hnsw_s={:.2} wall={:.2}s",
+        cp,
+        mean_recall,
+        min_recall,
+        median_q,
+        p99_q,
+        bf_total.as_secs_f64(),
+        hnsw_total.as_secs_f64(),
+        recall_phase_wall.as_secs_f64()
+    );
+    std::io::stdout().flush().ok();
+
+    drop(active);
+    writer.close().await?;
+    Ok(CheckpointResult {
+        rows: cp,
+        write_wall,
+        mean_recall,
+        min_recall,
+        median_query_us: median_q,
+        p99_query_us: p99_q,
+        bf_total,
+        hnsw_total,
+    })
+}
+
+#[tokio::main(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+async fn main() -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    let mut checkpoints = env_checkpoints();
+    let num_queries = env_usize("BENCH_NUM_QUERIES", 200);
+    let k = env_usize("BENCH_K", 10);
+    let ef = env_usize("BENCH_EF", 64);
+
+    // Probe how many rows the dataset actually contains by listing shards
+    // and estimating from the file count, then read all of them. The DBpedia
+    // dataset is exactly 1,000,000 rows across 26 shards; we want to leave
+    // room for `num_queries` queries at the tail.
+    println!(
+        "=== mem_wal_recall_hnsw === checkpoints={:?} num_queries={} k={} ef={} dim={}",
+        checkpoints, num_queries, k, ef, DIM
+    );
+
+    // Pull the entire dataset; queries come from the last `num_queries` rows
+    // and corpus from `[0, total - num_queries)`. Any checkpoint larger than
+    // the available corpus size is clamped down.
+    let max_cp_requested = *checkpoints.iter().max().unwrap_or(&1_000_000);
+    // load_corpus returns exactly the rows it could read, capped at max
+    // available; ask for max_cp_requested + num_queries up front so the
+    // common case (max_cp + queries <= dataset) avoids extra shards.
+    let all_vectors = load_corpus(max_cp_requested + num_queries).await?;
+    let total_rows_loaded = all_vectors.len() / DIM;
+    let max_corpus = total_rows_loaded.saturating_sub(num_queries);
+    println!(
+        "loaded {} rows × {} dim ({:.2} GB); corpus available = {}, queries = last {} rows",
+        total_rows_loaded,
+        DIM,
+        (total_rows_loaded * DIM * 4) as f64 / 1024.0 / 1024.0 / 1024.0,
+        max_corpus,
+        num_queries
+    );
+    // Clamp any checkpoint that exceeds available corpus rows.
+    for cp in checkpoints.iter_mut() {
+        if *cp > max_corpus {
+            println!("  clamping checkpoint {} → {}", cp, max_corpus);
+            *cp = max_corpus;
+        }
+    }
+    let corpus = &all_vectors[..max_corpus * DIM];
+    let queries = &all_vectors
+        [max_corpus * DIM..(max_corpus + num_queries.min(total_rows_loaded - max_corpus)) * DIM];
+
+    let schema = make_schema();
+    let mut results: Vec<CheckpointResult> = Vec::with_capacity(checkpoints.len());
+    for &cp in &checkpoints {
+        let r = run_checkpoint(cp, corpus, queries, num_queries, k, schema.clone()).await?;
+        results.push(r);
+    }
+
+    println!("\n=== RESULTS ===");
+    println!(
+        "{:<10} {:>14} {:>12} {:>12} {:>12} {:>12} {:>10} {:>10}",
+        "rows",
+        "write_wall_s",
+        "mean_recall",
+        "min_recall",
+        "q_median_us",
+        "q_p99_us",
+        "bf_s",
+        "hnsw_s"
+    );
+    for r in &results {
+        println!(
+            "{:<10} {:>14.2} {:>12.4} {:>12.4} {:>12} {:>12} {:>10.2} {:>10.2}",
+            r.rows,
+            r.write_wall.as_secs_f64(),
+            r.mean_recall,
+            r.min_recall,
+            r.median_query_us,
+            r.p99_query_us,
+            r.bf_total.as_secs_f64(),
+            r.hnsw_total.as_secs_f64(),
+        );
+    }
+    println!("=== DONE ===");
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/run_mem_wal_hnsw_compare.sh b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/run_mem_wal_hnsw_compare.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..99beb5327ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/run_mem_wal_hnsw_compare.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+set -euo pipefail
+
+SCRIPT_DIR="$(cd "$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")" && pwd -P)"
+REPO_ROOT="$(cd "$SCRIPT_DIR/../../.." && pwd -P)"
+HNSWLIB_DIR="${HNSWLIB_DIR:-$HOME/oss/hnswlib}"
+
+ROWS="${ROWS:-1000000}"
+DIM="${DIM:-1024}"
+QUERIES="${QUERIES:-1000}"
+TRUTH_QUERIES="${TRUTH_QUERIES:-100}"
+K="${K:-10}"
+M="${M:-12}"
+EF_CONSTRUCTION="${EF_CONSTRUCTION:-64}"
+EF_SEARCH="${EF_SEARCH:-64}"
+THREADS="${THREADS:-$(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN 2>/dev/null || sysctl -n hw.ncpu)}"
+SEED="${SEED:-100}"
+CLUSTERS="${CLUSTERS:-4096}"
+NOISE="${NOISE:-0.05}"
+
+if [ ! -d "$HNSWLIB_DIR/hnswlib" ]; then
+    echo "ERROR: HNSWLIB_DIR must point to a hnswlib checkout, got: $HNSWLIB_DIR" >&2
+    exit 1
+fi
+
+mkdir -p "$REPO_ROOT/target/release"
+
+echo "=== Building Lance HNSW benchmark ==="
+cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_hnsw_bench --no-run
+
+echo "=== Building hnswlib benchmark ==="
+g++ -std=c++17 -O3 -march=native -DNDEBUG -pthread \
+    -I "$HNSWLIB_DIR" \
+    "$SCRIPT_DIR/mem_wal_hnswlib_bench.cpp" \
+    -o "$REPO_ROOT/target/release/hnswlib_bench"
+
+COMMON_ARGS=(
+    --rows "$ROWS"
+    --dim "$DIM"
+    --queries "$QUERIES"
+    --truth-queries "$TRUTH_QUERIES"
+    --k "$K"
+    --m "$M"
+    --ef-construction "$EF_CONSTRUCTION"
+    --ef-search "$EF_SEARCH"
+    --threads "$THREADS"
+    --seed "$SEED"
+    --clusters "$CLUSTERS"
+    --noise "$NOISE"
+)
+
+echo "=== Running Lance HNSW ==="
+"$(find "$REPO_ROOT/target/release/deps" -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 -name 'mem_wal_hnsw_bench-*' | sort | tail -n 1)" "${COMMON_ARGS[@]}"
+
+echo "=== Running hnswlib ==="
+"$REPO_ROOT/target/release/hnswlib_bench" "${COMMON_ARGS[@]}"
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/run_parity_suite.sh b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/run_parity_suite.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..46ed113e66a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/hnsw/run_parity_suite.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+#
+# Runs the Lance HNSW primitive vs hnswlib across memtable sizes (100k/500k/1M),
+# capturing insert/query throughput, recall, peak RSS (/usr/bin/time -v) and CPU
+# counters (perf stat, if available). Designed for the parity benchmark loop.
+
+set -euo pipefail
+
+SCRIPT_DIR="$(cd "$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")" && pwd -P)"
+# Cargo writes to the workspace target dir at the repo root; resolve it robustly.
+REPO_ROOT="$(git -C "$SCRIPT_DIR" rev-parse --show-toplevel 2>/dev/null)"
+REPO_ROOT="${REPO_ROOT:-$(cd "$SCRIPT_DIR/../../../../.." && pwd -P)}"
+HNSWLIB_DIR="${HNSWLIB_DIR:-$HOME/oss/hnswlib}"
+# Honor CARGO_TARGET_DIR so haswell vs target-cpu=native builds can coexist.
+TARGET_DIR="${CARGO_TARGET_DIR:-$REPO_ROOT/target}"
+OUT_DIR="${OUT_DIR:-$TARGET_DIR/parity_suite}"
+
+SIZES="${SIZES:-100000 500000 1000000}"
+DIM="${DIM:-1024}"
+QUERIES="${QUERIES:-5000}"
+QUERY_REPEATS="${QUERY_REPEATS:-20}"
+# Sustained measurement: when > 0, write rebuilds the graph and read loops the
+# query workload for this many seconds, reporting steady-state (not burst).
+INSERT_SECONDS="${INSERT_SECONDS:-0}"
+QUERY_SECONDS="${QUERY_SECONDS:-0}"
+TRUTH_QUERIES="${TRUTH_QUERIES:-200}"
+K="${K:-10}"
+M="${M:-12}"
+EF_CONSTRUCTION="${EF_CONSTRUCTION:-64}"
+EF_SEARCH="${EF_SEARCH:-64}"
+THREADS="${THREADS:-$(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN 2>/dev/null || sysctl -n hw.ncpu)}"
+SEED="${SEED:-100}"
+CLUSTERS="${CLUSTERS:-4096}"
+NOISE="${NOISE:-0.05}"
+
+if [ ! -d "$HNSWLIB_DIR/hnswlib" ]; then
+    echo "ERROR: HNSWLIB_DIR must point to a hnswlib checkout, got: $HNSWLIB_DIR" >&2
+    exit 1
+fi
+
+mkdir -p "$OUT_DIR" "$TARGET_DIR/release"
+
+# Locate /usr/bin/time (GNU time, for peak RSS). Fall back to no wrapper.
+TIME_BIN=""
+if [ -x /usr/bin/time ]; then
+    TIME_BIN="/usr/bin/time"
+fi
+echo "=== Building Lance HNSW benchmark (release) ==="
+cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_hnsw_bench --no-run 2>&1 | tail -3
+LANCE_BIN="$(find "$TARGET_DIR/release/deps" -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 -name 'mem_wal_hnsw_bench-*' | sort | tail -n 1)"
+
+echo "=== Building hnswlib benchmark (g++ -O3 -march=native) ==="
+g++ -std=c++17 -O3 -march=native -DNDEBUG -pthread \
+    -I "$HNSWLIB_DIR" \
+    "$SCRIPT_DIR/mem_wal_hnswlib_bench.cpp" \
+    -o "$TARGET_DIR/release/hnswlib_bench"
+HNSWLIB_BIN="$TARGET_DIR/release/hnswlib_bench"
+
+run_one() {
+    local impl="$1" bin="$2" rows="$3"
+    local tag="${impl}_r${rows}"
+    local args=(
+        --rows "$rows" --dim "$DIM" --queries "$QUERIES" --truth-queries "$TRUTH_QUERIES"
+        --k "$K" --m "$M" --ef-construction "$EF_CONSTRUCTION" --ef-search "$EF_SEARCH"
+        --threads "$THREADS" --seed "$SEED" --clusters "$CLUSTERS" --noise "$NOISE"
+        --query-repeats "$QUERY_REPEATS"
+        --insert-seconds "$INSERT_SECONDS" --query-seconds "$QUERY_SECONDS"
+    )
+    local out="$OUT_DIR/${tag}.out"
+    local timef="$OUT_DIR/${tag}.time"
+    echo "--- run $tag ---"
+    if [ -n "$TIME_BIN" ]; then
+        "$TIME_BIN" -v "$bin" "${args[@]}" >"$out" 2>"$timef" || cat "$timef"
+    else
+        "$bin" "${args[@]}" >"$out" 2>&1
+    fi
+    grep -E '^(bench|result)' "$out" || true
+    if [ -f "$timef" ]; then
+        grep -E 'Maximum resident set size|Elapsed \(wall|Percent of CPU' "$timef" || true
+    fi
+}
+
+echo "=== Parity suite: sizes=[$SIZES] dim=$DIM threads=$THREADS ==="
+for rows in $SIZES; do
+    run_one lance "$LANCE_BIN" "$rows"
+    run_one hnswlib "$HNSWLIB_BIN" "$rows"
+done
+
+echo "=== SUMMARY (json lines) ==="
+grep -h '^{' "$OUT_DIR"/*.out 2>/dev/null || true
+echo "=== peak RSS (KB) ==="
+for f in "$OUT_DIR"/*.time; do
+    [ -f "$f" ] || continue
+    rss=$(grep 'Maximum resident set size' "$f" | grep -oE '[0-9]+' | head -1)
+    printf '%-28s %s\n' "$(basename "$f" .time)" "${rss:-NA}"
+done
+echo "=== results written to $OUT_DIR ==="
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/mem_wal_index_micro.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/mem_wal_index_micro.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c6fb42834a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/mem_wal_index_micro.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,468 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Microbench for the in-memory MemTable vector index.
+//!
+//! Two phases:
+//!
+//! 1. **Write + query through `ShardWriter`** — the production write path.
+//!    Builds a base table with a vector index, initializes MemWAL with that
+//!    index maintained, opens `mem_wal_writer` with a `ShardWriterConfig`
+//!    sized to hold the largest checkpoint without flushing, and times
+//!    `writer.put(batch)` calls. Index updates therefore go through the
+//!    `IndexStore::insert_batches` path, which indexes inline at or below
+//!    `PARALLEL_INDEX_MIN_ROWS` rows and spawns a thread per index above it —
+//!    so the checkpoint sizes here straddle that crossover. At each
+//!    checkpoint, queries are issued against `active_memtable_ref()` via
+//!    `MemTableScanner::nearest`.
+//!
+//! 2. **Flush** — populate a fresh `MemTable` directly through
+//!    `MemTable::insert` (same in-memory index, same final state) and time
+//!    `MemTableFlusher::flush_with_indexes`. This isolates the
+//!    memory-to-disk conversion cost (HNSW graph + FLAT vectors vs IVF-PQ
+//!    partition batches) from any writer/WAL coordination.
+//!
+//! Output is plain stdout, one line per checkpoint, captured by the runner.
+
+#![recursion_limit = "256"]
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+    builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder},
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::write::{
+    HnswIndexConfig, IndexStore, MemIndexConfig, MemTable, MemTableFlusher, MemTableScanner,
+    ShardWriterConfig,
+};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, ShardManifestStore};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const VECTOR_COL: &str = "vector";
+const VECTOR_INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+const BASE_ROWS: usize = 1024;
+const BASE_IVF_PARTITIONS: usize = 16;
+const BASE_PQ_SUBVECTORS: usize = 16;
+
+fn env_usize(key: &str, default: usize) -> usize {
+    std::env::var(key)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(default)
+}
+
+fn env_bool(key: &str, default: bool) -> bool {
+    std::env::var(key)
+        .ok()
+        .map(|s| {
+            let s = s.to_ascii_lowercase();
+            matches!(s.as_str(), "1" | "true" | "yes")
+        })
+        .unwrap_or(default)
+}
+
+fn env_dataset_prefix() -> Option<String> {
+    std::env::var("DATASET_PREFIX")
+        .ok()
+        .filter(|s| !s.is_empty())
+}
+
+fn env_checkpoints() -> Vec<usize> {
+    let raw =
+        std::env::var("BENCH_CHECKPOINTS").unwrap_or_else(|_| "100000,500000,1000000".to_string());
+    raw.split(',')
+        .filter_map(|s| s.trim().parse::<usize>().ok())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn schema(dim: usize) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+    id_meta.insert(
+        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+        "true".to_string(),
+    );
+    let id = Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(id_meta);
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        id,
+        Field::new(
+            VECTOR_COL,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dim as i32,
+            ),
+            false,
+        ),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn make_batch(start_id: i64, n: usize, dim: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let s = schema(dim);
+    let ids: Vec<i64> = (start_id..start_id + n as i64).collect();
+    let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), dim as i32);
+    for &id in &ids {
+        for d in 0..dim {
+            let v = ((id as f32) * 0.000_173 + (d as f32) * 0.000_011).fract();
+            builder.values().append_value(v);
+        }
+        builder.append(true);
+    }
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        s,
+        vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)), Arc::new(builder.finish())],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn make_query_fsl(dim: usize, seed: u64) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+    let mut b = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), dim as i32);
+    for d in 0..dim {
+        let v = (((seed.wrapping_mul(2654435761)) as f32) * 1e-9 + (d as f32) * 7e-5).fract();
+        b.values().append_value(v);
+    }
+    b.append(true);
+    b.finish()
+}
+
+async fn build_base_dataset(uri: &str, dim: usize) -> lance_core::Result<Dataset> {
+    let s = schema(dim);
+    let batch = make_batch(0, BASE_ROWS, dim);
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(std::iter::once(Ok(batch)), s.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(BASE_IVF_PARTITIONS);
+    let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(BASE_PQ_SUBVECTORS, 8);
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(MetricType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[VECTOR_COL],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some(VECTOR_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    Ok(dataset)
+}
+
+#[tokio::main(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+async fn main() -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    let dim = env_usize("BENCH_DIM", 1024);
+    let batch_size = env_usize("BENCH_BATCH", 1000);
+    let num_queries = env_usize("BENCH_NUM_QUERIES", 50);
+    let checkpoints = env_checkpoints();
+    let max_rows = *checkpoints.iter().max().unwrap_or(&1_000_000);
+    let durable_write = env_bool("BENCH_DURABLE_WRITE", false);
+    let prefix = env_dataset_prefix();
+
+    println!("=== mem_wal_index_micro [HNSW] ===");
+    println!(
+        "dim={} batch={} num_queries={} checkpoints={:?} durable_write={} prefix={:?}",
+        dim, batch_size, num_queries, checkpoints, durable_write, prefix
+    );
+
+    // ---- Write + query through ShardWriter (production path) ----
+    let temp = tempfile::tempdir().map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("tempdir: {}", e)))?;
+    let uri = match prefix.as_deref() {
+        Some(p) => format!(
+            "{}/run-{}/lsm",
+            p.trim_end_matches('/'),
+            Uuid::new_v4().simple()
+        ),
+        None => format!("file://{}/lsm", temp.path().display()),
+    };
+    println!("base dataset: {}", uri);
+
+    let mut dataset = build_base_dataset(&uri, dim).await?;
+    dataset
+        .initialize_mem_wal()
+        .maintained_indexes([VECTOR_INDEX_NAME])
+        .execute()
+        .await?;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    // Sized to hold the largest checkpoint with comfortable slack so the
+    // writer never flushes during the write phase.
+    let row_size_estimate = dim * 4 + 8;
+    let total_batches_max = max_rows.div_ceil(batch_size);
+    let writer_config = ShardWriterConfig {
+        shard_id,
+        max_wal_persist_retries: 3,
+        wal_persist_retry_base_delay: std::time::Duration::from_millis(50),
+        shard_spec_id: 0,
+        durable_write,
+        max_memtable_size: max_rows.saturating_mul(row_size_estimate).saturating_mul(4),
+        max_memtable_rows: max_rows.saturating_mul(2),
+        max_memtable_batches: total_batches_max.saturating_mul(2).max(8_000),
+        // Keep the time-based WAL flush trigger short so the last batch
+        // before each checkpoint isn't stranded in the buffer below the
+        // size threshold (which would block the index-catchup poll).
+        max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(200)),
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: usize::MAX / 2,
+        ..ShardWriterConfig::default()
+    };
+    let writer = dataset
+        .as_ref()
+        .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, writer_config)
+        .await?;
+
+    // `writer.put()` enqueues the batch into the WAL pipeline and returns;
+    // the actual index update happens in the background WAL flush handler.
+    // Measuring the put() return latency would only capture queueing, so we
+    // walk the wall clock from the first put to the moment the index store
+    // has caught up to the expected batch position. That's the end-to-end
+    // "rows successfully indexed" throughput a writer experiences when it
+    // both writes data AND waits for the data to become queryable.
+    let mut total_inserted: usize = 0;
+    let mut next_cp_idx = 0;
+    let total_batches = max_rows.div_ceil(batch_size);
+    println!(
+        "write phase: {} batches of {} rows via ShardWriter (wall time includes index catchup)",
+        total_batches, batch_size
+    );
+    let phase_start = Instant::now();
+
+    for i in 0..total_batches {
+        let start = (i * batch_size) as i64;
+        let rows = batch_size.min(max_rows - i * batch_size);
+        let batch = make_batch(start, rows, dim);
+        writer.put(vec![batch]).await?;
+        total_inserted += rows;
+
+        while next_cp_idx < checkpoints.len() && total_inserted >= checkpoints[next_cp_idx] {
+            let cp = checkpoints[next_cp_idx];
+            let target_indexed_count = cp / batch_size;
+            // The WAL flush handler only updates the index watermark when a
+            // flush is triggered, and the time-based trigger inside the
+            // writer runs only when `put()` is called. After the final put
+            // for the final checkpoint, no more put() comes — so we issue
+            // tiny dummy puts as a heartbeat to force the time trigger to
+            // fire and drain the last batch through the index pipeline.
+            // The dummy rows are negligible (1 row each) but are excluded
+            // from `total_inserted` so the throughput math stays accurate.
+            let mut spins = 0u64;
+            loop {
+                let active = writer.active_memtable_ref().await?;
+                if active.index_store.indexed_count() >= target_indexed_count {
+                    break;
+                }
+                drop(active);
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await;
+                spins += 1;
+                if spins.is_multiple_of(8) {
+                    // Heartbeat: poke the writer so its in-put time-trigger
+                    // check fires and flushes any stragglers.
+                    let dummy = make_batch(-1 - spins as i64, 1, dim);
+                    writer.put(vec![dummy]).await?;
+                }
+            }
+
+            let elapsed = phase_start.elapsed();
+            let throughput = cp as f64 / elapsed.as_secs_f64();
+            let rss_kb = read_rss_kb();
+            println!(
+                "[checkpoint] rows={} cumulative_wall_ms={} indexed_throughput_rows_per_sec={:.1} rss_mb={}",
+                cp,
+                elapsed.as_millis(),
+                throughput,
+                rss_kb / 1024,
+            );
+
+            let active = writer.active_memtable_ref().await?;
+            let mut latencies = Vec::with_capacity(num_queries);
+            for q in 0..num_queries {
+                let q_fsl = make_query_fsl(dim, q as u64);
+                let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(
+                    active.batch_store.clone(),
+                    active.index_store.clone(),
+                    active.schema.clone(),
+                );
+                let q_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(q_fsl);
+                scanner.nearest(VECTOR_COL, q_arr.as_ref(), 10)?;
+                let t = Instant::now();
+                let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+                let _: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await?;
+                latencies.push(t.elapsed());
+            }
+            latencies.sort();
+            let median = latencies[latencies.len() / 2];
+            let p99 = latencies[latencies.len() * 99 / 100];
+            println!(
+                "[checkpoint] rows={} query_median_us={} query_p99_us={} num_queries={}",
+                cp,
+                median.as_micros(),
+                p99.as_micros(),
+                num_queries
+            );
+
+            next_cp_idx += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    let phase_wall = phase_start.elapsed();
+    println!(
+        "write phase done: total_rows={} wall={:.2}s overall_indexed_throughput={:.0} rows/sec",
+        total_inserted,
+        phase_wall.as_secs_f64(),
+        total_inserted as f64 / phase_wall.as_secs_f64()
+    );
+
+    // Drop the writer cleanly (don't measure shutdown time as part of put).
+    writer.close().await?;
+    drop(dataset);
+
+    // ---- Flush phase (direct flusher; isolates memory→disk cost) ----
+    println!("flush phase:");
+    let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(Box::new(
+        HnswIndexConfig::new(
+            VECTOR_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            1,
+            VECTOR_COL.to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        .with_build_params(HnswBuildParams::default()),
+    ))];
+    for &cp in &checkpoints {
+        let (elapsed, disk_bytes) =
+            measure_flush(cp, dim, batch_size, &index_configs, prefix.as_deref()).await?;
+        println!(
+            "[flush] rows={} flush_wall_ms={} throughput_rows_per_sec={:.0} on_disk_bytes={} on_disk_mb={:.1}",
+            cp,
+            elapsed.as_millis(),
+            cp as f64 / elapsed.as_secs_f64(),
+            disk_bytes,
+            disk_bytes as f64 / 1024.0 / 1024.0,
+        );
+    }
+
+    println!("=== DONE ===");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn measure_flush(
+    cp: usize,
+    dim: usize,
+    batch_size: usize,
+    index_configs: &[MemIndexConfig],
+    prefix: Option<&str>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<(Duration, u64)> {
+    let s = schema(dim);
+    let mut memtable = MemTable::new(s.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
+    let registry =
+        IndexStore::from_configs(index_configs, cp, cp.div_ceil(batch_size).max(64)).unwrap();
+    memtable.set_indexes(registry);
+
+    let total_batches = cp.div_ceil(batch_size);
+    for i in 0..total_batches {
+        let start = (i * batch_size) as i64;
+        let rows = batch_size.min(cp - i * batch_size);
+        let batch = make_batch(start, rows, dim);
+        let _frag_id = memtable.insert(batch).await?;
+    }
+
+    let temp_dir =
+        tempfile::tempdir().map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("tempdir: {}", e)))?;
+    let temp_path: PathBuf = temp_dir.path().to_path_buf();
+    let uri = match prefix {
+        Some(p) => format!(
+            "{}/flush-{}",
+            p.trim_end_matches('/'),
+            Uuid::new_v4().simple()
+        ),
+        None => format!("file://{}", temp_path.display()),
+    };
+    let (store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await?;
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+        store.clone(),
+        &base_path,
+        shard_id,
+        2,
+    ));
+    let (epoch, _) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await?;
+    let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(store, base_path, uri, shard_id, manifest_store);
+
+    // total_batches WAL entries were stamped at positions 1..=total_batches
+    // by the loop above (1-based positions).
+    let covered_wal_entry_position = total_batches as u64;
+    // Every batch was appended above, so the writer-global durable count is all of them.
+    let durable = total_batches;
+    let t = Instant::now();
+    let _result = flusher
+        .flush_with_indexes(
+            &memtable,
+            epoch,
+            index_configs,
+            covered_wal_entry_position,
+            durable,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    let elapsed = t.elapsed();
+
+    // Disk size only meaningful when local; on remote storage the temp dir
+    // is empty so we report 0 (and bench output makes the storage location
+    // explicit via the printed URI/prefix).
+    let disk_bytes = if prefix.is_some() {
+        0
+    } else {
+        dir_size_bytes(&temp_path)
+    };
+    Ok((elapsed, disk_bytes))
+}
+
+fn read_rss_kb() -> u64 {
+    let Ok(s) = std::fs::read_to_string("/proc/self/status") else {
+        return 0;
+    };
+    for line in s.lines() {
+        if let Some(rest) = line.strip_prefix("VmRSS:")
+            && let Some(num) = rest.split_whitespace().next()
+            && let Ok(v) = num.parse::<u64>()
+        {
+            return v;
+        }
+    }
+    0
+}
+
+fn dir_size_bytes(path: &std::path::Path) -> u64 {
+    let mut total = 0u64;
+    let mut stack = vec![path.to_path_buf()];
+    while let Some(p) = stack.pop() {
+        let Ok(rd) = std::fs::read_dir(&p) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        for entry in rd.flatten() {
+            let Ok(ft) = entry.file_type() else { continue };
+            if ft.is_dir() {
+                stack.push(entry.path());
+            } else if let Ok(md) = entry.metadata() {
+                total += md.len();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    total
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/mem_wal_vector_bench.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/mem_wal_vector_bench.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e5bd050fd65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/vector/mem_wal_vector_bench.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,940 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Standalone CLI benchmark for KNN vector search across LSM levels with
+//! recall verification.
+//!
+//! Uses real embeddings from the `lance-format/fineweb-edu` HuggingFace
+//! dataset (384-dim) with an IVF-RQ index on the base table, then ingests
+//! additional rows through ShardWriter to populate SSTables and
+//! an active memtable.
+//!
+//! Three phases, selected with `--phase`:
+//!
+//!   --phase prepare   Load embeddings from HF, write the base dataset, create
+//!                     an IVF-RQ index, and initialize MemWAL.
+//!   --phase search    Ingest rows across LSM levels via ShardWriter, then run
+//!                     KNN queries through LsmVectorSearchPlanner with recall
+//!                     verification against brute-force ground truth.
+//!   --phase baseline  Run the same KNN queries against the base dataset
+//!                     (no memtables) through the standard Scanner API.
+//!
+//! Example:
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_vector_bench -- \
+//!   --phase prepare --uri /tmp/vec_bench \
+//!   --base-rows 100000 --ivf-partitions 64
+//!
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_vector_bench -- \
+//!   --phase search --uri /tmp/vec_bench \
+//!   --base-rows 100000 --max-memtable-rows 10000 \
+//!   --queries 100 --k 10 --nprobes 20 --output result.json
+//! ```
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{
+    LsmDataSourceCollector, LsmVectorSearchPlanner, ShardSnapshot,
+};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, ShardWriterConfig};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use serde_json::json;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const VECTOR_DIM: usize = 384;
+const VECTOR_COL: &str = "embedding";
+const INDEX_NAME: &str = "embedding_ivf_rq";
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Phase / Args
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum Phase {
+    Prepare,
+    Search,
+    Baseline,
+}
+
+impl Phase {
+    fn parse(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match value {
+            "prepare" => Ok(Self::Prepare),
+            "search" => Ok(Self::Search),
+            "baseline" => Ok(Self::Baseline),
+            _ => Err(format!(
+                "unknown phase '{value}', expected prepare|search|baseline"
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Prepare => "prepare",
+            Self::Search => "search",
+            Self::Baseline => "baseline",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct Args {
+    phase: Phase,
+    uri: String,
+    base_rows: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: usize,
+    sstables: usize,
+    batch_rows: usize,
+    queries: usize,
+    k: usize,
+    nprobes: usize,
+    ivf_partitions: usize,
+    rq_bits: u8,
+    refine_factor: u32,
+    output: Option<PathBuf>,
+}
+
+impl Default for Args {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            phase: Phase::Search,
+            uri: String::new(),
+            base_rows: 1_000_000,
+            max_memtable_rows: 100_000,
+            sstables: 2,
+            batch_rows: 1_000,
+            queries: 100,
+            k: 10,
+            nprobes: 20,
+            ivf_partitions: 256,
+            rq_bits: 8,
+            refine_factor: 0,
+            output: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_val<T>(flag: &str, value: &str) -> Result<T>
+where
+    T: std::str::FromStr,
+    T::Err: std::fmt::Display,
+{
+    value
+        .parse()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid {flag}: {value} ({e})")))
+}
+
+fn parse_args() -> Result<Args> {
+    let mut args = Args::default();
+    let mut iter = std::env::args().skip(1);
+    let mut has_phase = false;
+    let mut has_uri = false;
+    while let Some(flag) = iter.next() {
+        if flag == "--bench" {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let value = iter
+            .next()
+            .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("missing value for {flag}")))?;
+        match flag.as_str() {
+            "--phase" => {
+                args.phase = Phase::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?;
+                has_phase = true;
+            }
+            "--uri" => {
+                args.uri = value;
+                has_uri = true;
+            }
+            "--base-rows" => args.base_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--max-memtable-rows" => args.max_memtable_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--sstables" => args.sstables = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--batch-rows" => args.batch_rows = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--queries" => args.queries = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--k" => args.k = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--nprobes" => args.nprobes = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--ivf-partitions" => args.ivf_partitions = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--rq-bits" => args.rq_bits = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--refine-factor" => args.refine_factor = parse_val(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--output" => args.output = Some(PathBuf::from(value)),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "unknown argument: {flag}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if !has_phase {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "--phase is required (prepare|search|baseline)",
+        ));
+    }
+    if !has_uri {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input("--uri is required"));
+    }
+    if args.batch_rows == 0 || args.base_rows == 0 || args.max_memtable_rows == 0 {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "base-rows, max-memtable-rows, batch-rows must be > 0",
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(args)
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Schema / batch helpers
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn make_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+    id_meta.insert(
+        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+        "true".to_string(),
+    );
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+        Field::new(
+            VECTOR_COL,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                VECTOR_DIM as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        ),
+    ]))
+}
+
+/// Prepend a sequential `id` column to an embedding-only batch.
+fn prepend_id(batch: &RecordBatch, start_id: i64) -> RecordBatch {
+    let n = batch.num_rows();
+    let ids: Vec<i64> = (start_id..start_id + n as i64).collect();
+    let id_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids));
+    let emb_col = batch.column_by_name(VECTOR_COL).unwrap().clone();
+    RecordBatch::try_new(make_schema(), vec![id_arr, emb_col]).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn wrap_query(values: &[f32], dim: usize) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+    let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), dim as i32);
+    for v in values {
+        builder.values().append_value(*v);
+    }
+    builder.append(true);
+    builder.finish()
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Distance / recall helpers
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn cosine_distance(a: &[f32], b: &[f32]) -> f32 {
+    let dot: f32 = a.iter().zip(b).map(|(x, y)| x * y).sum();
+    let norm_a: f32 = a.iter().map(|x| x * x).sum::<f32>().sqrt();
+    let norm_b: f32 = b.iter().map(|x| x * x).sum::<f32>().sqrt();
+    1.0 - dot / (norm_a * norm_b + 1e-10)
+}
+
+/// Brute-force top-k using cosine distance. Returns the IDs of the k closest.
+fn brute_force_topk(
+    query: &[f32],
+    all_ids: &[i64],
+    all_vectors: &[Vec<f32>],
+    k: usize,
+) -> Vec<i64> {
+    let mut scored: Vec<(i64, f32)> = all_ids
+        .iter()
+        .zip(all_vectors)
+        .map(|(&id, vec)| (id, cosine_distance(query, vec)))
+        .collect();
+    scored.sort_by(|a, b| a.1.partial_cmp(&b.1).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    scored.truncate(k);
+    scored.into_iter().map(|(id, _)| id).collect()
+}
+
+fn compute_recall(result_ids: &[i64], truth_ids: &[i64]) -> f64 {
+    let truth_set: HashSet<i64> = truth_ids.iter().copied().collect();
+    let hits = result_ids
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|id| truth_set.contains(id))
+        .count();
+    hits as f64 / truth_ids.len().max(1) as f64
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Latency stats
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn percentile(sorted: &[f64], pct: f64) -> f64 {
+    if sorted.is_empty() {
+        return f64::NAN;
+    }
+    let idx = ((pct / 100.0) * (sorted.len().saturating_sub(1)) as f64).round() as usize;
+    sorted[idx.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+struct LatencyStats {
+    p50_us: u64,
+    p95_us: u64,
+    p99_us: u64,
+    mean_us: f64,
+    qps: f64,
+}
+
+fn compute_latency_stats(mut latencies_us: Vec<f64>) -> LatencyStats {
+    latencies_us.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    let mean = latencies_us.iter().sum::<f64>() / latencies_us.len().max(1) as f64;
+    let total_s = latencies_us.iter().sum::<f64>() / 1_000_000.0;
+    let qps = if total_s > 0.0 {
+        latencies_us.len() as f64 / total_s
+    } else {
+        0.0
+    };
+    LatencyStats {
+        p50_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 50.0) as u64,
+        p95_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 95.0) as u64,
+        p99_us: percentile(&latencies_us, 99.0) as u64,
+        mean_us: mean,
+        qps,
+    }
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Extract embeddings from RecordBatches
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn extract_embeddings(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> (Vec<i64>, Vec<Vec<f32>>) {
+    let mut ids = Vec::new();
+    let mut vecs = Vec::new();
+    for batch in batches {
+        let id_col = batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .and_then(|c| c.as_any().downcast_ref::<Int64Array>())
+            .expect("id column");
+        let emb_col = batch.column_by_name(VECTOR_COL).expect("embedding column");
+        let fsl = emb_col.as_fixed_size_list();
+        for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            ids.push(id_col.value(i));
+            let values = fsl.value(i);
+            let f32_arr = values.as_any().downcast_ref::<Float32Array>().unwrap();
+            vecs.push(f32_arr.values().to_vec());
+        }
+    }
+    (ids, vecs)
+}
+
+fn extract_result_ids(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Vec<i64> {
+    let mut ids = Vec::new();
+    for batch in batches {
+        let id_col = batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .and_then(|c| c.as_any().downcast_ref::<Int64Array>());
+        if let Some(arr) = id_col {
+            for i in 0..arr.len() {
+                ids.push(arr.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    ids
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Synthetic embedding generation
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Generate `count` synthetic 384-dim embedding vectors starting at
+/// logical offset `offset`. Uses a deterministic cluster+noise scheme
+/// (same approach as mem_wal_hnsw_bench.rs) so vectors are clustered
+/// enough for IVF to be meaningful but noisy enough for recall to be
+/// non-trivial.
+const NUM_CLUSTERS: usize = 1024;
+const NOISE: f32 = 0.05;
+const SEED: u64 = 42;
+
+fn splitmix64(mut x: u64) -> u64 {
+    x = x.wrapping_add(0x9e37_79b9_7f4a_7c15);
+    let mut z = x;
+    z = (z ^ (z >> 30)).wrapping_mul(0xbf58_476d_1ce4_e5b9);
+    z = (z ^ (z >> 27)).wrapping_mul(0x94d0_49bb_1331_11eb);
+    z ^ (z >> 31)
+}
+
+fn unit_f32(key: u64) -> f32 {
+    let bits = splitmix64(key) >> 40;
+    (bits as f32) * (1.0 / 16_777_216.0)
+}
+
+fn generate_vector(row: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+    let cluster = row % NUM_CLUSTERS;
+    (0..VECTOR_DIM)
+        .map(|col| {
+            let base_key = SEED
+                ^ (cluster as u64).wrapping_mul(0xbf58_476d_1ce4_e5b9)
+                ^ (col as u64).wrapping_mul(0x94d0_49bb_1331_11eb);
+            let noise_key = SEED
+                ^ (row as u64).wrapping_mul(0x9e37_79b9_7f4a_7c15)
+                ^ (col as u64).wrapping_mul(0xd2b7_4407_b1ce_6e93);
+            let base = unit_f32(base_key) * 2.0 - 1.0;
+            let noise = (unit_f32(noise_key) * 2.0 - 1.0) * NOISE;
+            base + noise
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn generate_embedding_batches(offset: usize, count: usize, batch_size: usize) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+    let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+    let fsl_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(field, VECTOR_DIM as i32);
+    let emb_field = Arc::new(Field::new(VECTOR_COL, fsl_type, false));
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![emb_field]));
+
+    let mut batches = Vec::new();
+    let mut cursor = offset;
+    let end = offset + count;
+    while cursor < end {
+        let n = batch_size.min(end - cursor);
+        let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), VECTOR_DIM as i32);
+        for row in cursor..(cursor + n) {
+            let vec = generate_vector(row);
+            for v in &vec {
+                builder.values().append_value(*v);
+            }
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(builder.finish()) as ArrayRef])
+                .unwrap();
+        batches.push(batch);
+        cursor += n;
+    }
+    batches
+}
+
+fn is_cloud_uri(uri: &str) -> bool {
+    uri.starts_with("s3://") || uri.starts_with("gs://") || uri.starts_with("az://")
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Prepare phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run_prepare(args: &Args) -> Result<()> {
+    println!(
+        "generating {} synthetic {}-dim embeddings ...",
+        args.base_rows, VECTOR_DIM
+    );
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let raw_batches = generate_embedding_batches(0, args.base_rows, args.batch_rows);
+    println!(
+        "  generated {} batches in {:.1}s",
+        raw_batches.len(),
+        start.elapsed().as_secs_f64()
+    );
+
+    let schema = make_schema();
+    let mut id_cursor: i64 = 0;
+    let mut batches_with_id = Vec::with_capacity(raw_batches.len());
+    for batch in &raw_batches {
+        let with_id = prepend_id(batch, id_cursor);
+        id_cursor += batch.num_rows() as i64;
+        batches_with_id.push(Ok(with_id));
+    }
+    println!("  total rows with IDs: {id_cursor}");
+
+    let write_start = Instant::now();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches_with_id.into_iter(), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &args.uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    println!(
+        "  wrote base dataset in {:.1}s",
+        write_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64()
+    );
+
+    let index_start = Instant::now();
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_rq(args.ivf_partitions, args.rq_bits, DistanceType::Cosine);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[VECTOR_COL],
+            IndexType::IvfRq,
+            Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    println!(
+        "  created IVF-RQ index in {:.1}s (partitions={}, bits={})",
+        index_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+        args.ivf_partitions,
+        args.rq_bits,
+    );
+
+    dataset
+        .initialize_mem_wal()
+        .maintained_indexes([INDEX_NAME])
+        .execute()
+        .await?;
+    println!("  initialized MemWAL with maintained index: {INDEX_NAME}");
+    println!(
+        "prepare complete in {:.1}s: uri={}",
+        start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+        args.uri
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Search phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run_search(args: &Args) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&args.uri).await?);
+    let arrow_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema> = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+    let schema = make_schema();
+
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let row_bytes = VECTOR_DIM * 4 + 8; // embedding + id
+    let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+        shard_id,
+        max_wal_persist_retries: 3,
+        wal_persist_retry_base_delay: std::time::Duration::from_millis(50),
+        shard_spec_id: 0,
+        durable_write: false,
+        max_memtable_size: args.max_memtable_rows * row_bytes * 2,
+        max_memtable_rows: args.max_memtable_rows,
+        max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: args.max_memtable_rows * row_bytes * 6,
+        max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_secs(60)),
+        ..ShardWriterConfig::default()
+    };
+    let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await?;
+
+    let flush_wait = if is_cloud_uri(&args.uri) {
+        Duration::from_secs(5)
+    } else {
+        Duration::from_millis(500)
+    };
+
+    // Ingest N SSTables + 1 active (50% full)
+    let num_sstable_target = args.sstables;
+    let active_rows = args.max_memtable_rows / 2;
+    let total_memtable_rows = num_sstable_target * args.max_memtable_rows + active_rows;
+    let mut gen_sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..num_sstable_target)
+        .map(|_| args.max_memtable_rows)
+        .collect();
+    gen_sizes.push(active_rows);
+
+    println!(
+        "generating {} synthetic memtable embeddings ...",
+        total_memtable_rows
+    );
+    let mt_batches =
+        generate_embedding_batches(args.base_rows, total_memtable_rows, args.batch_rows);
+
+    // Flatten the memtable embeddings for ground truth computation later
+    let (mt_all_ids_raw, mt_all_vecs) = {
+        let mut all_ids = Vec::new();
+        let mut all_vecs = Vec::new();
+        let mut id_cursor = args.base_rows as i64;
+        for batch in &mt_batches {
+            let emb_col = batch.column_by_name(VECTOR_COL).expect("embedding column");
+            let fsl = emb_col.as_fixed_size_list();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                all_ids.push(id_cursor);
+                let values = fsl.value(i);
+                let f32_arr = values.as_any().downcast_ref::<Float32Array>().unwrap();
+                all_vecs.push(f32_arr.values().to_vec());
+                id_cursor += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        (all_ids, all_vecs)
+    };
+
+    // Ingest through ShardWriter
+    let mut row_offset = 0usize;
+    let mut id_cursor = args.base_rows as i64;
+    let ingest_start = Instant::now();
+    for (gen_idx, &gen_rows) in gen_sizes.iter().enumerate() {
+        let mut rows_written = 0usize;
+        // Walk through raw batches, slicing as needed
+        while rows_written < gen_rows {
+            let remaining = gen_rows - rows_written;
+            let chunk_rows = remaining.min(args.batch_rows);
+            // Build a batch from the flat vectors
+            let end = (row_offset + chunk_rows).min(mt_all_ids_raw.len());
+            let actual = end - row_offset;
+            if actual == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
+            let ids: Vec<i64> = (id_cursor..id_cursor + actual as i64).collect();
+            let mut fsl_builder =
+                FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), VECTOR_DIM as i32);
+            for vec in &mt_all_vecs[row_offset..end] {
+                for &v in vec {
+                    fsl_builder.values().append_value(v);
+                }
+                fsl_builder.append(true);
+            }
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(fsl_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            writer.put(vec![batch]).await?;
+            row_offset += actual;
+            id_cursor += actual as i64;
+            rows_written += actual;
+        }
+
+        println!(
+            "  gen {}: wrote {} rows in {:.1}s",
+            gen_idx + 1,
+            gen_rows,
+            ingest_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+        );
+        if gen_idx < num_sstable_target {
+            tokio::time::sleep(flush_wait).await;
+        }
+    }
+    println!(
+        "ingested {} total memtable rows ({} SSTables + active) in {:.1}s",
+        total_memtable_rows,
+        num_sstable_target,
+        ingest_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+    );
+
+    let manifest = writer.manifest().await?;
+    let in_memory_refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await?;
+
+    let mut shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id);
+    if let Some(ref m) = manifest {
+        shard_snapshot = shard_snapshot.with_current_generation(m.current_generation);
+        for sstable in &m.sstables {
+            shard_snapshot = shard_snapshot.with_sstable(sstable.generation, sstable.path.clone());
+        }
+    }
+    let num_sstables = manifest.as_ref().map(|m| m.sstables.len()).unwrap_or(0);
+    println!(
+        "manifest: {} SSTables, current_generation={}",
+        num_sstables,
+        manifest.as_ref().map(|m| m.current_generation).unwrap_or(0)
+    );
+
+    // Build the LsmVectorSearchPlanner
+    let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(dataset.clone(), vec![shard_snapshot])
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, in_memory_refs);
+    let pk_columns = vec!["id".to_string()];
+    let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+        collector,
+        pk_columns,
+        arrow_schema.clone(),
+        VECTOR_COL.to_string(),
+        DistanceType::Cosine,
+    )
+    .with_dataset(dataset.clone());
+
+    // Pick query vectors: first `queries` embeddings from the base table
+    println!("loading {} query vectors from base table ...", args.queries);
+    let mut q_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    q_scanner.project(&["id", VECTOR_COL])?;
+    q_scanner.limit(Some(args.queries as i64), None)?;
+    let q_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = q_scanner.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await?;
+    let (_, query_vecs) = extract_embeddings(&q_batches);
+
+    // Ground truth computation (expensive — cap at 20 queries)
+    let recall_queries = args.queries.min(20);
+    println!("computing brute-force ground truth for {recall_queries} queries ...");
+    let gt_start = Instant::now();
+
+    // Scan all base embeddings for ground truth
+    let mut base_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    base_scanner.project(&["id", VECTOR_COL])?;
+    let base_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> =
+        base_scanner.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await?;
+    let (base_ids, base_vecs) = extract_embeddings(&base_batches);
+
+    // Combine base + memtable vectors for full corpus
+    let mut all_ids: Vec<i64> = base_ids;
+    let mut all_vecs: Vec<Vec<f32>> = base_vecs;
+    all_ids.extend_from_slice(&mt_all_ids_raw);
+    all_vecs.extend(mt_all_vecs.iter().cloned());
+
+    let mut ground_truth: Vec<Vec<i64>> = Vec::with_capacity(recall_queries);
+    for qv in query_vecs.iter().take(recall_queries) {
+        let gt = brute_force_topk(qv, &all_ids, &all_vecs, args.k);
+        ground_truth.push(gt);
+    }
+    println!(
+        "  ground truth computed in {:.1}s for {} queries over {} total vectors",
+        gt_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+        recall_queries,
+        all_ids.len(),
+    );
+
+    // Run KNN searches
+    println!(
+        "running {} KNN queries (k={}, nprobes={}) ...",
+        args.queries, args.k, args.nprobes
+    );
+    let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+    let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(args.queries);
+
+    let refine_base_table = args.refine_factor > 0;
+
+    let mut all_result_ids: Vec<Vec<i64>> = Vec::with_capacity(args.queries);
+    for (qi, qv) in query_vecs.iter().enumerate().take(args.queries) {
+        let fsl = wrap_query(qv, VECTOR_DIM);
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        // overfetch_factor 0.0 leaves stale filtering off (raw search, as before).
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&fsl, args.k, args.nprobes, None, refine_base_table, 0.0)
+            .await?;
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await?;
+        let elapsed_us = t0.elapsed().as_micros() as f64;
+        latencies_us.push(elapsed_us);
+
+        let result_ids = extract_result_ids(&batches);
+        if qi < 3 {
+            println!(
+                "  [q{qi}] {} results in {elapsed_us:.0}us, ids={:?}",
+                result_ids.len(),
+                &result_ids[..result_ids.len().min(5)]
+            );
+        }
+        all_result_ids.push(result_ids);
+    }
+
+    // Compute recall
+    let mut recall_sum = 0.0f64;
+    for (gt, res) in ground_truth.iter().zip(all_result_ids.iter()) {
+        let r = compute_recall(res, gt);
+        recall_sum += r;
+    }
+    let avg_recall = recall_sum / recall_queries.max(1) as f64;
+
+    let stats = compute_latency_stats(latencies_us);
+    println!(
+        "results: recall@{}={:.4} p50={p50}us p95={p95}us p99={p99}us mean={mean:.0}us qps={qps:.1}",
+        args.k,
+        avg_recall,
+        p50 = stats.p50_us,
+        p95 = stats.p95_us,
+        p99 = stats.p99_us,
+        mean = stats.mean_us,
+        qps = stats.qps,
+    );
+
+    // Keep writer alive so active memtable stays reachable
+    std::mem::forget(writer);
+
+    let active_rows = args.max_memtable_rows / 2;
+    Ok(json!({
+        "bench": "mem_wal_vector",
+        "phase": "search",
+        "base_rows": args.base_rows,
+        "max_memtable_rows": args.max_memtable_rows,
+        "sstables": num_sstables,
+        "active_rows": active_rows,
+        "vector_dim": VECTOR_DIM,
+        "k": args.k,
+        "nprobes": args.nprobes,
+        "ivf_partitions": args.ivf_partitions,
+        "rq_bits": args.rq_bits,
+        "refine_factor": args.refine_factor,
+        "queries": args.queries,
+        "recall_queries": recall_queries,
+        "recall_at_k": avg_recall,
+        "latency_p50_us": stats.p50_us,
+        "latency_p95_us": stats.p95_us,
+        "latency_p99_us": stats.p99_us,
+        "latency_mean_us": stats.mean_us as u64,
+        "qps": stats.qps,
+    }))
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Baseline phase
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run_baseline(args: &Args) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&args.uri).await?);
+
+    // Pick query vectors
+    println!("loading {} query vectors from base table ...", args.queries);
+    let mut q_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    q_scanner.project(&["id", VECTOR_COL])?;
+    q_scanner.limit(Some(args.queries as i64), None)?;
+    let q_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = q_scanner.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await?;
+    let (_, query_vecs) = extract_embeddings(&q_batches);
+
+    // Ground truth
+    let recall_queries = args.queries.min(20);
+    println!("computing brute-force ground truth for {recall_queries} queries ...");
+    let gt_start = Instant::now();
+    let mut base_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    base_scanner.project(&["id", VECTOR_COL])?;
+    let base_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> =
+        base_scanner.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await?;
+    let (base_ids, base_vecs) = extract_embeddings(&base_batches);
+
+    let mut ground_truth: Vec<Vec<i64>> = Vec::with_capacity(recall_queries);
+    for qv in query_vecs.iter().take(recall_queries) {
+        let gt = brute_force_topk(qv, &base_ids, &base_vecs, args.k);
+        ground_truth.push(gt);
+    }
+    println!(
+        "  ground truth computed in {:.1}s",
+        gt_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+    );
+
+    // Run baseline KNN through Scanner
+    println!(
+        "running {} baseline KNN queries (k={}, nprobes={}) ...",
+        args.queries, args.k, args.nprobes
+    );
+    let mut latencies_us = Vec::with_capacity(args.queries);
+    let mut all_result_ids: Vec<Vec<i64>> = Vec::with_capacity(args.queries);
+
+    for (qi, qv) in query_vecs.iter().enumerate().take(args.queries) {
+        let fsl = wrap_query(qv, VECTOR_DIM);
+        let query_arr = fsl.value(0);
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest(VECTOR_COL, query_arr.as_ref(), args.k)?;
+        scanner.nprobes(args.nprobes);
+        scanner.distance_metric(DistanceType::Cosine);
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await?;
+        let elapsed_us = t0.elapsed().as_micros() as f64;
+        latencies_us.push(elapsed_us);
+
+        let result_ids = extract_result_ids(&batches);
+        if qi < 3 {
+            println!(
+                "  [q{qi}] {} results in {elapsed_us:.0}us, ids={:?}",
+                result_ids.len(),
+                &result_ids[..result_ids.len().min(5)]
+            );
+        }
+        all_result_ids.push(result_ids);
+    }
+
+    // Recall
+    let mut recall_sum = 0.0f64;
+    for (gt, res) in ground_truth.iter().zip(all_result_ids.iter()) {
+        let r = compute_recall(res, gt);
+        recall_sum += r;
+    }
+    let avg_recall = recall_sum / recall_queries.max(1) as f64;
+
+    let stats = compute_latency_stats(latencies_us);
+    println!(
+        "baseline: recall@{}={:.4} p50={p50}us p95={p95}us p99={p99}us mean={mean:.0}us qps={qps:.1}",
+        args.k,
+        avg_recall,
+        p50 = stats.p50_us,
+        p95 = stats.p95_us,
+        p99 = stats.p99_us,
+        mean = stats.mean_us,
+        qps = stats.qps,
+    );
+
+    Ok(json!({
+        "bench": "mem_wal_vector",
+        "phase": "baseline",
+        "base_rows": args.base_rows,
+        "vector_dim": VECTOR_DIM,
+        "k": args.k,
+        "nprobes": args.nprobes,
+        "queries": args.queries,
+        "recall_queries": recall_queries,
+        "recall_at_k": avg_recall,
+        "latency_p50_us": stats.p50_us,
+        "latency_p95_us": stats.p95_us,
+        "latency_p99_us": stats.p99_us,
+        "latency_mean_us": stats.mean_us as u64,
+        "qps": stats.qps,
+    }))
+}
+
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Entrypoint
+// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+async fn run(args: Args) -> Result<()> {
+    println!(
+        "bench=mem_wal_vector phase={} uri={} base_rows={} max_memtable_rows={} \
+         batch_rows={} queries={} k={} nprobes={} ivf_partitions={} rq_bits={} refine_factor={}",
+        args.phase.as_str(),
+        args.uri,
+        args.base_rows,
+        args.max_memtable_rows,
+        args.batch_rows,
+        args.queries,
+        args.k,
+        args.nprobes,
+        args.ivf_partitions,
+        args.rq_bits,
+        args.refine_factor,
+    );
+
+    match args.phase {
+        Phase::Prepare => {
+            run_prepare(&args).await?;
+        }
+        Phase::Search | Phase::Baseline => {
+            let result = if args.phase == Phase::Search {
+                run_search(&args).await?
+            } else {
+                run_baseline(&args).await?
+            };
+            let text = serde_json::to_string_pretty(&result)
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("serialize: {e}")))?;
+            println!("{text}");
+            if let Some(path) = &args.output {
+                if let Some(parent) = path.parent()
+                    && !parent.as_os_str().is_empty()
+                {
+                    std::fs::create_dir_all(parent).ok();
+                }
+                std::fs::write(path, text.as_bytes())
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write {}: {e}", path.display())))?;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    println!("=== DONE ===");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let args = parse_args()?;
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("build runtime: {e}")))?;
+    runtime.block_on(run(args))
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_replay.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_replay.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6fda0748006
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_replay.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,353 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmark for MemWAL replay throughput.
+//!
+//! Two scenarios:
+//! 1. **Raw `WalTailer::read_entry`**: time the cost of pulling N WAL
+//!    entries off storage one at a time. This is the lower bound for any
+//!    higher-level replay (e.g. `ShardWriter::open` MemTable-mode replay).
+//! 2. **`ShardWriter::open` end-to-end replay** in MemTable mode: open a
+//!    shard whose previous writer left N un-flushed WAL entries on disk,
+//!    measuring how long it takes for `open` to return (replay reads +
+//!    MemTable inserts + index updates).
+//!
+//! ## Running against S3
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! export AWS_DEFAULT_REGION=us-east-1
+//! export DATASET_PREFIX=s3://your-bucket/bench/mem_wal_replay
+//! cargo bench --bench mem_wal_replay
+//! ```
+//!
+//! ## Running against local filesystem (with temp directory)
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! cargo bench --bench mem_wal_replay
+//! ```
+//!
+//! ## Configuration
+//!
+//! - `DATASET_PREFIX`: Base URI for datasets (optional, e.g. s3://bucket/prefix or /tmp/bench).
+//!   If not set, uses a temporary directory.
+//! - `NUM_ENTRIES`: Number of WAL entries to write before the replay run (default: 1000)
+//! - `BATCH_SIZE`: Rows per WAL entry (default: 20)
+//! - `SAMPLE_SIZE`: Number of benchmark iterations (default: 10, minimum: 10)
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatch, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, ShardWriterConfig, WalTailer};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+
+/// Default number of WAL entries to write before replay.
+const DEFAULT_NUM_ENTRIES: usize = 1000;
+
+/// Default rows per WAL entry.
+const DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE: usize = 20;
+
+fn get_num_entries() -> usize {
+    std::env::var("NUM_ENTRIES")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_NUM_ENTRIES)
+}
+
+fn get_batch_size() -> usize {
+    std::env::var("BATCH_SIZE")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE)
+}
+
+fn get_sample_size() -> usize {
+    std::env::var("SAMPLE_SIZE")
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|s| s.parse().ok())
+        .unwrap_or(10)
+        .max(10)
+}
+
+fn get_dataset_prefix() -> String {
+    std::env::var("DATASET_PREFIX").unwrap_or_else(|_| {
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().expect("Failed to create temp directory");
+        let path = temp_dir.path().to_string_lossy().to_string();
+        std::mem::forget(temp_dir);
+        format!("file://{}", path)
+    })
+}
+
+fn get_storage_label(prefix: &str) -> &'static str {
+    if prefix.starts_with("s3://") {
+        "s3"
+    } else if prefix.starts_with("gs://") {
+        "gcs"
+    } else if prefix.starts_with("az://") {
+        "azure"
+    } else {
+        "local"
+    }
+}
+
+fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    let id_meta: std::collections::HashMap<String, String> = [(
+        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+        "1".to_string(),
+    )]
+    .into_iter()
+    .collect();
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn create_test_batch(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, start_id: i64, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let ids: Vec<i64> = (start_id..start_id + num_rows as i64).collect();
+    let texts: Vec<String> = (0..num_rows)
+        .map(|i| format!("row_{}", start_id as usize + i))
+        .collect();
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Build a base Lance dataset and initialize MemWAL on it. Returns the
+/// dataset URI.
+async fn setup_dataset(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, name: &str, dataset_prefix: &str) -> String {
+    let dataset_uri = if let Some(stripped) = dataset_prefix.strip_prefix("file://") {
+        format!("file://{}/{}", stripped, name)
+    } else {
+        format!("{}/{}", dataset_prefix.trim_end_matches('/'), name)
+    };
+
+    // Best-effort delete in case a prior run left state behind.
+    if let Ok((object_store, base)) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&dataset_uri).await {
+        let _ = object_store.remove_dir_all(base).await;
+    }
+
+    // Seed an empty Lance dataset (one tiny batch). Keeps `Dataset::open`
+    // happy and lets us call `initialize_mem_wal`.
+    let initial = create_test_batch(schema, -1, 1);
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &dataset_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            mode: lance::dataset::WriteMode::Create,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .expect("Failed to seed dataset");
+
+    dataset
+        .initialize_mem_wal()
+        .execute()
+        .await
+        .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+    dataset_uri
+}
+
+/// Pre-populate a shard with `num_entries` durable WAL entries, then
+/// drop the writer **without** calling `close` so the active MemTable
+/// is not flushed. The WAL files persist on storage and become input
+/// to the replay benchmark.
+async fn populate_shard_wal(
+    dataset_uri: &str,
+    schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    num_entries: usize,
+    batch_size: usize,
+) {
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dataset_uri).await.unwrap();
+    let mut config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id);
+    config.durable_write = true;
+    let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await.unwrap();
+
+    for i in 0..num_entries {
+        let batch = create_test_batch(schema, (i * batch_size) as i64, batch_size);
+        writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // Intentionally drop without close() — leaves the WAL entries on
+    // disk for replay.
+    drop(writer);
+}
+
+/// Bench: raw `WalTailer::read_entry` throughput. Measures how long it
+/// takes to walk N entries from position 0 to the tip, end-to-end.
+async fn run_tailer_replay(
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base_path: object_store::path::Path,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    expected_entries: usize,
+) -> usize {
+    let tailer = WalTailer::new(object_store, base_path, shard_id);
+    let mut count = 0usize;
+    let mut pos = 0u64;
+    loop {
+        match tailer.read_entry(pos).await.unwrap() {
+            None => break,
+            Some(_entry) => {
+                count += 1;
+                pos += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        count, expected_entries,
+        "tailer saw fewer entries than written"
+    );
+    count
+}
+
+/// Bench: full `ShardWriter::open` + replay path. Open the shard with the
+/// pre-populated WAL, time how long until `open` returns. The returned
+/// writer is closed afterwards so the next iteration is independent.
+async fn run_open_replay(dataset_uri: &str, shard_id: Uuid) -> Duration {
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dataset_uri).await.unwrap();
+    let config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id);
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await.unwrap();
+    let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+    // Drop without close() so the next iteration sees the same WAL state.
+    drop(writer);
+    elapsed
+}
+
+fn bench_replay(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let _ = env_logger::try_init();
+    let _ = tracing_subscriber::fmt()
+        .with_env_filter(tracing_subscriber::EnvFilter::from_default_env())
+        .try_init();
+
+    let dataset_prefix = get_dataset_prefix();
+    let storage_label = get_storage_label(&dataset_prefix);
+    let num_entries = get_num_entries();
+    let batch_size = get_batch_size();
+    let sample_size = get_sample_size();
+    let total_rows = num_entries * batch_size;
+
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+    println!("=== MemWAL Replay Benchmark Setup ===");
+    println!("Storage: {}", dataset_prefix);
+    println!("Schema: id (Int64, primary key), text (Utf8)");
+    println!("Num WAL entries: {}", num_entries);
+    println!("Batch size: {} rows/entry", batch_size);
+    println!("Total rows replayed: {}", total_rows);
+    println!("Iterations: {}", sample_size);
+    println!();
+
+    // Setup: one dataset for all replay variants. Each variant uses a fresh
+    // shard so they don't interfere.
+    let dataset_uri = rt.block_on(setup_dataset(&schema, "replay_dataset", &dataset_prefix));
+
+    // Pre-populate two shards: one for the raw-tailer bench, one for the
+    // open-replay bench. Each iteration of the open-replay bench drops the
+    // writer without close(), so the WAL state is unchanged across
+    // iterations and the bench is repeatable.
+    let tailer_shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    rt.block_on(populate_shard_wal(
+        &dataset_uri,
+        &schema,
+        tailer_shard_id,
+        num_entries,
+        batch_size,
+    ));
+    let open_shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    rt.block_on(populate_shard_wal(
+        &dataset_uri,
+        &schema,
+        open_shard_id,
+        num_entries,
+        batch_size,
+    ));
+
+    let (object_store, base_path) = rt.block_on(ObjectStore::from_uri(&dataset_uri)).unwrap();
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("MemWAL Replay");
+    group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(num_entries as u64));
+    group.sample_size(sample_size);
+    group.warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs(1));
+
+    // 1. Raw tailer read throughput.
+    let label_tailer = format!("{} entries (tailer, {})", num_entries, storage_label);
+    println!("Running: {}", label_tailer);
+    group.bench_with_input(
+        BenchmarkId::new("WalTailer::read_entry", &label_tailer),
+        &num_entries,
+        |b, &expected| {
+            let object_store = object_store.clone();
+            let base_path = base_path.clone();
+            b.to_async(&rt).iter_custom(|iters| {
+                let object_store = object_store.clone();
+                let base_path = base_path.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let mut total = Duration::ZERO;
+                    for _ in 0..iters {
+                        let start = Instant::now();
+                        let _count = run_tailer_replay(
+                            object_store.clone(),
+                            base_path.clone(),
+                            tailer_shard_id,
+                            expected,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                        total += start.elapsed();
+                    }
+                    total
+                }
+            })
+        },
+    );
+
+    // 2. End-to-end ShardWriter::open replay.
+    let label_open = format!("{} entries (open, {})", num_entries, storage_label);
+    println!("Running: {}", label_open);
+    group.bench_with_input(
+        BenchmarkId::new("ShardWriter::open replay", &label_open),
+        &num_entries,
+        |b, _| {
+            let dataset_uri = dataset_uri.clone();
+            b.to_async(&rt).iter_custom(|iters| {
+                let dataset_uri = dataset_uri.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let mut total = Duration::ZERO;
+                    for _ in 0..iters {
+                        let elapsed = run_open_replay(&dataset_uri, open_shard_id).await;
+                        total += elapsed;
+                    }
+                    total
+                }
+            })
+        },
+    );
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.05);
+    targets = bench_replay
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..98e20143109
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1072 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Native MemWAL ShardWriter backpressure benchmark.
+//!
+//! This is the Rust-side equivalent of the LanceDB Python
+//! `bench_async.py` / `bench_backpressure.py` runs.  It intentionally bypasses
+//! LanceDB and PyO3 so the same FineWeb-shaped payload can be driven straight
+//! through Lance's `ShardWriter`.
+//!
+//! Example:
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure -- \
+//!   --uri /tmp/memwal-rust-native \
+//!   --mode async_idx \
+//!   --seed-rows 100000 \
+//!   --batch-rows 1000 \
+//!   --calls 500 \
+//!   --target-rows-per-sec 1800 \
+//!   --max-memtable-size 268435456 \
+//!   --max-unflushed-memtable-bytes 1073741824 \
+//!   --sample-interval-ms 500 \
+//!   --threads 64
+//! ```
+
+// serde_json's `json_internal!` recurses once per nesting level of the config
+// literals below, which exceeds the default limit of 128. Async future depth
+// is not the reason; see issue #8416.
+#![recursion_limit = "256"]
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::mem::size_of;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch,
+    RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::write::{MemTableStats, WriteStatsSnapshot};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, ShardWriterConfig};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams;
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use serde_json::json;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const VECTOR_COL: &str = "vec";
+const VECTOR_INDEX_NAME: &str = "vec_idx";
+const TEXT_COL: &str = "text";
+const FTS_INDEX_NAME: &str = "text_fts";
+const TEXT_BYTES: usize = 1_500;
+const ROW_BYTES_FINEWEB_SHAPE: usize = 5_760;
+const FINEWEB_FIXED_BYTES: usize = ROW_BYTES_FINEWEB_SHAPE - TEXT_BYTES - 1024 * size_of::<f32>();
+const VECTOR_ONLY_ID_BYTES: usize = 64;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+enum Mode {
+    AsyncNoIndex,
+    AsyncIndexed,
+    SyncNoIndex,
+    SyncIndexed,
+}
+
+impl Mode {
+    fn parse(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match value {
+            "async_noidx" => Ok(Self::AsyncNoIndex),
+            "async_idx" => Ok(Self::AsyncIndexed),
+            "sync_noidx" => Ok(Self::SyncNoIndex),
+            "sync_idx" => Ok(Self::SyncIndexed),
+            _ => Err(format!(
+                "unknown mode '{value}', expected async_noidx|async_idx|sync_noidx|sync_idx"
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::AsyncNoIndex => "async_noidx",
+            Self::AsyncIndexed => "async_idx",
+            Self::SyncNoIndex => "sync_noidx",
+            Self::SyncIndexed => "sync_idx",
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn indexed(self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::AsyncIndexed | Self::SyncIndexed)
+    }
+
+    fn durable_write(self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::SyncNoIndex | Self::SyncIndexed)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Which index the MemTable maintains in the indexed (`*_idx`) modes.
+/// The backpressure methodology — paced ingest, WAL-queue sampling,
+/// skip-close — is identical for both; only the indexed column and the
+/// index built differ, so vector and FTS results are directly comparable.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum IndexKind {
+    Vector,
+    Fts,
+}
+
+impl IndexKind {
+    fn parse(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match value {
+            "vector" => Ok(Self::Vector),
+            "fts" => Ok(Self::Fts),
+            _ => Err(format!("unknown index-type '{value}', expected vector|fts")),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Vector => "vector",
+            Self::Fts => "fts",
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn index_name(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Vector => VECTOR_INDEX_NAME,
+            Self::Fts => FTS_INDEX_NAME,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum SchemaShape {
+    FineWeb,
+    VectorOnly,
+}
+
+impl SchemaShape {
+    fn parse(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, String> {
+        match value {
+            "fineweb" => Ok(Self::FineWeb),
+            "vector_only" => Ok(Self::VectorOnly),
+            _ => Err(format!(
+                "unknown schema shape '{value}', expected fineweb|vector_only"
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn as_str(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::FineWeb => "fineweb",
+            Self::VectorOnly => "vector_only",
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn default_row_bytes(self, vector_dim: usize, text_bytes: usize) -> usize {
+        let vector_bytes = vector_dim.saturating_mul(size_of::<f32>());
+        match self {
+            Self::FineWeb => text_bytes
+                .saturating_add(vector_bytes)
+                .saturating_add(FINEWEB_FIXED_BYTES),
+            Self::VectorOnly => vector_bytes.saturating_add(VECTOR_ONLY_ID_BYTES),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct Args {
+    uri: Option<String>,
+    mode: Mode,
+    index_kind: IndexKind,
+    schema_shape: SchemaShape,
+    seed_rows: usize,
+    batch_rows: usize,
+    calls: usize,
+    vector_dim: usize,
+    text_bytes: usize,
+    row_bytes: usize,
+    max_memtable_size: usize,
+    max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: Option<usize>,
+    max_memtable_batches: Option<usize>,
+    max_wal_buffer_size: usize,
+    max_wal_flush_interval_ms: u64,
+    sample_interval_ms: u64,
+    target_rows_per_sec: Option<f64>,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    num_sub_vectors: usize,
+    threads: usize,
+    tokio_threads: usize,
+    skip_close: bool,
+    output: Option<PathBuf>,
+}
+
+impl Default for Args {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        let threads = std::thread::available_parallelism().map_or(1, usize::from);
+        Self {
+            uri: None,
+            mode: Mode::AsyncIndexed,
+            index_kind: IndexKind::Vector,
+            schema_shape: SchemaShape::FineWeb,
+            seed_rows: 100_000,
+            batch_rows: 1_000,
+            calls: 500,
+            vector_dim: 1024,
+            text_bytes: TEXT_BYTES,
+            row_bytes: ROW_BYTES_FINEWEB_SHAPE,
+            max_memtable_size: 256 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: 1024 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_memtable_rows: None,
+            max_memtable_batches: None,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 10 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval_ms: 100,
+            sample_interval_ms: 500,
+            target_rows_per_sec: None,
+            num_partitions: 1,
+            num_sub_vectors: 8,
+            threads,
+            tokio_threads: threads,
+            skip_close: false,
+            output: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let args = parse_args()?;
+    if args.threads > 0 {
+        let _ = rayon::ThreadPoolBuilder::new()
+            .num_threads(args.threads)
+            .build_global();
+    }
+
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+        .worker_threads(args.tokio_threads.max(1))
+        .enable_all()
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("build tokio runtime: {e}")))?;
+
+    runtime.block_on(run(args))
+}
+
+async fn run(args: Args) -> Result<()> {
+    let memtable_limits = effective_memtable_limits(&args);
+    let temp_dir = if args.uri.is_none() {
+        Some(
+            tempfile::tempdir()
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("create temp dir: {e}")))?,
+        )
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    let uri = match &args.uri {
+        Some(uri) => uri.clone(),
+        None => temp_dir
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("temporary directory must be initialized")
+            .path()
+            .join("memwal_native.lance")
+            .display()
+            .to_string(),
+    };
+
+    println!(
+        "bench=mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure uri={} mode={} index_type={} schema_shape={} seed_rows={} batch_rows={} calls={} vector_dim={} text_bytes={} row_bytes={} target_rows_per_sec={:?} max_memtable_size={} max_memtable_rows={} max_memtable_batches={} max_unflushed_memtable_bytes={} max_wal_buffer_size={} max_wal_flush_interval_ms={} rayon_threads={} tokio_threads={} skip_close={}",
+        uri,
+        args.mode.as_str(),
+        args.index_kind.as_str(),
+        args.schema_shape.as_str(),
+        args.seed_rows,
+        args.batch_rows,
+        args.calls,
+        args.vector_dim,
+        args.text_bytes,
+        args.row_bytes,
+        args.target_rows_per_sec,
+        args.max_memtable_size,
+        memtable_limits.rows,
+        memtable_limits.batches,
+        args.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+        args.max_wal_buffer_size,
+        args.max_wal_flush_interval_ms,
+        rayon::current_num_threads(),
+        args.tokio_threads,
+        args.skip_close,
+    );
+
+    let schema = schema_for_shape(args.schema_shape, args.vector_dim);
+
+    let setup_start = Instant::now();
+    let seed_batch = make_batch(
+        args.schema_shape,
+        schema.as_ref(),
+        "seed",
+        0,
+        args.seed_rows,
+        args.vector_dim,
+        args.text_bytes,
+    )?;
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(seed_batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        batches,
+        &uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    let index_start = Instant::now();
+    if args.mode.indexed() {
+        match args.index_kind {
+            IndexKind::Vector => create_base_vector_index(&mut dataset, &args).await?,
+            IndexKind::Fts => create_base_fts_index(&mut dataset).await?,
+        }
+    }
+    let index_setup_s = index_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+
+    dataset
+        .initialize_mem_wal()
+        .maintained_indexes(if args.mode.indexed() {
+            vec![args.index_kind.index_name().to_string()]
+        } else {
+            vec![]
+        })
+        .execute()
+        .await?;
+
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let mut config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id)
+        .with_durable_write(args.mode.durable_write())
+        .with_max_memtable_size(args.max_memtable_size)
+        .with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(args.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes)
+        .with_max_wal_buffer_size(args.max_wal_buffer_size)
+        .with_max_memtable_rows(memtable_limits.rows)
+        .with_max_memtable_batches(memtable_limits.batches);
+    if args.max_wal_flush_interval_ms == 0 {
+        config.max_wal_flush_interval = None;
+    } else {
+        config = config
+            .with_max_wal_flush_interval(Duration::from_millis(args.max_wal_flush_interval_ms));
+    }
+
+    let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await?;
+    let setup_s = setup_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+
+    let stats_handle = writer.stats_handle();
+    let mut latencies_ms = Vec::with_capacity(args.calls);
+    let mut puts = Vec::with_capacity(args.calls);
+    let mut samples = Vec::new();
+    let mut batch_build_s = 0.0_f64;
+    let sample_interval = if args.sample_interval_ms == 0 {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(Duration::from_millis(args.sample_interval_ms))
+    };
+    let mut next_sample_at = Duration::ZERO;
+
+    let puts_start = Instant::now();
+    for call in 0..args.calls {
+        let batch_start = Instant::now();
+        let batch = make_batch(
+            args.schema_shape,
+            schema.as_ref(),
+            "new",
+            args.seed_rows + call * args.batch_rows,
+            args.batch_rows,
+            args.vector_dim,
+            args.text_bytes,
+        )?;
+        batch_build_s += batch_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+
+        let put_start = Instant::now();
+        writer.put(vec![batch]).await?;
+        let put_latency_ms = put_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0;
+        let elapsed = puts_start.elapsed();
+        latencies_ms.push(put_latency_ms);
+        puts.push(json!({
+            "i": call,
+            "t": elapsed.as_secs_f64(),
+            "lat_ms": put_latency_ms,
+        }));
+
+        if let Some(interval) = sample_interval
+            && elapsed >= next_sample_at
+        {
+            push_sample(
+                &mut samples,
+                "puts",
+                elapsed,
+                &stats_handle.snapshot(),
+                writer.memtable_stats().await.ok(),
+                writer.memory().active_bytes(),
+            );
+            while next_sample_at <= elapsed {
+                next_sample_at += interval;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let Some(target) = args.target_rows_per_sec
+            && target > 0.0
+        {
+            let target_elapsed = ((call + 1) * args.batch_rows) as f64 / target;
+            let actual_elapsed = puts_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+            if target_elapsed > actual_elapsed {
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_secs_f64(target_elapsed - actual_elapsed)).await;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let elapsed_puts_s = puts_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+    let final_memtable_stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.ok();
+    let final_resident_bytes = writer.memory().active_bytes();
+    push_sample(
+        &mut samples,
+        "puts_done",
+        puts_start.elapsed(),
+        &stats_handle.snapshot(),
+        final_memtable_stats.clone(),
+        final_resident_bytes,
+    );
+
+    let (elapsed_drain_s, elapsed_total_s, stats) = if args.skip_close {
+        let stats = stats_handle.snapshot();
+        push_sample(
+            &mut samples,
+            "close_skipped",
+            puts_start.elapsed(),
+            &stats,
+            final_memtable_stats.clone(),
+            final_resident_bytes,
+        );
+        (0.0, elapsed_puts_s, stats)
+    } else {
+        let close_start = Instant::now();
+        writer.close().await?;
+        let elapsed_drain_s = close_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+        let elapsed_total_s = puts_start.elapsed().as_secs_f64();
+        let stats = stats_handle.snapshot();
+        push_sample(
+            &mut samples,
+            "closed",
+            puts_start.elapsed(),
+            &stats,
+            None,
+            0,
+        );
+        (elapsed_drain_s, elapsed_total_s, stats)
+    };
+
+    let rows = args.calls * args.batch_rows;
+    let puts_rows_s = rows as f64 / elapsed_puts_s;
+    let total_rows_s = rows as f64 / elapsed_total_s;
+    let puts_mb_s = puts_rows_s * args.row_bytes as f64 / 1_000_000.0;
+    let total_mb_s = total_rows_s * args.row_bytes as f64 / 1_000_000.0;
+    let result_rows_s = if args.skip_close {
+        puts_rows_s
+    } else {
+        total_rows_s
+    };
+    let result_mb_s = if args.skip_close {
+        puts_mb_s
+    } else {
+        total_mb_s
+    };
+
+    let p50_ms = percentile(&latencies_ms, 50.0);
+    let p90_ms = percentile(&latencies_ms, 90.0);
+    let p99_ms = percentile(&latencies_ms, 99.0);
+    let slow_puts_1s = latencies_ms.iter().filter(|ms| **ms >= 1_000.0).count();
+    let slow_puts_10s = latencies_ms.iter().filter(|ms| **ms >= 10_000.0).count();
+    let final_wal_pending_batches = final_memtable_stats
+        .as_ref()
+        .map_or(0, |stats| stats.pending_wal_batch_count);
+    let final_wal_pending_rows = final_memtable_stats
+        .as_ref()
+        .map_or(0, |stats| stats.pending_wal_row_count);
+    let final_wal_pending_mb = final_memtable_stats.as_ref().map_or(0.0, |stats| {
+        stats.pending_wal_estimated_bytes as f64 / 1_000_000.0
+    });
+    let final_memtable_rows = final_memtable_stats
+        .as_ref()
+        .map_or(0, |stats| stats.row_count);
+    let final_memtable_batches = final_memtable_stats
+        .as_ref()
+        .map_or(0, |stats| stats.batch_count);
+
+    println!(
+        "result mode={} rows={} result_rows_s={:.1} result_mb_s={:.2} puts_rows_s={:.1} drained_rows_s={:.1} puts_mb_s={:.2} drained_mb_s={:.2} setup_s={:.3} index_setup_s={:.3} batch_build_s={:.3} puts_s={:.3} drain_s={:.3} total_s={:.3} skip_close={} p50_ms={:.2} p90_ms={:.2} p99_ms={:.2} slow_puts_1s={} slow_puts_10s={} wal_flushes={} final_wal_pending_batches={} final_wal_pending_rows={} final_wal_pending_mb={:.2} final_memtable_rows={} final_memtable_batches={} index_update_s={:.3} memtable_flush_s={:.3}",
+        args.mode.as_str(),
+        rows,
+        result_rows_s,
+        result_mb_s,
+        puts_rows_s,
+        total_rows_s,
+        puts_mb_s,
+        total_mb_s,
+        setup_s,
+        index_setup_s,
+        batch_build_s,
+        elapsed_puts_s,
+        elapsed_drain_s,
+        elapsed_total_s,
+        args.skip_close,
+        p50_ms,
+        p90_ms,
+        p99_ms,
+        slow_puts_1s,
+        slow_puts_10s,
+        stats.wal_flush_count,
+        final_wal_pending_batches,
+        final_wal_pending_rows,
+        final_wal_pending_mb,
+        final_memtable_rows,
+        final_memtable_batches,
+        stats.index_update_time.as_secs_f64(),
+        stats.memtable_flush_time.as_secs_f64(),
+    );
+
+    let output = json!({
+        "uri": uri,
+        "mode": args.mode.as_str(),
+        "index_type": args.index_kind.as_str(),
+        "schema_shape": args.schema_shape.as_str(),
+        "seed_rows": args.seed_rows,
+        "batch_rows": args.batch_rows,
+        "calls": args.calls,
+        "total_rows_written": rows,
+        "vector_dim": args.vector_dim,
+        "text_bytes": args.text_bytes,
+        "row_bytes": args.row_bytes,
+        "target_rows_per_sec": args.target_rows_per_sec,
+        "rayon_threads": rayon::current_num_threads(),
+        "tokio_threads": args.tokio_threads,
+        "max_memtable_size": args.max_memtable_size,
+        "max_unflushed_memtable_bytes": args.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+        "requested_max_memtable_rows": args.max_memtable_rows,
+        "requested_max_memtable_batches": args.max_memtable_batches,
+        "max_memtable_rows": memtable_limits.rows,
+        "max_memtable_batches": memtable_limits.batches,
+        "max_wal_buffer_size": args.max_wal_buffer_size,
+        "max_wal_flush_interval_ms": args.max_wal_flush_interval_ms,
+        "sample_interval_ms": args.sample_interval_ms,
+        "skip_close": args.skip_close,
+        "setup_seconds": setup_s,
+        "index_setup_seconds": index_setup_s,
+        "batch_build_seconds": batch_build_s,
+        "elapsed_puts_seconds": elapsed_puts_s,
+        "elapsed_drain_seconds": elapsed_drain_s,
+        "elapsed_total_seconds": elapsed_total_s,
+        "result_rows_per_sec": result_rows_s,
+        "result_mb_per_sec": result_mb_s,
+        "throughput_puts_rows_per_sec": puts_rows_s,
+        "throughput_rows_per_sec": total_rows_s,
+        "throughput_puts_mb_per_sec": puts_mb_s,
+        "throughput_mb_per_sec": total_mb_s,
+        "p50_ms": p50_ms,
+        "p90_ms": p90_ms,
+        "p99_ms": p99_ms,
+        "slow_puts_1s": slow_puts_1s,
+        "slow_puts_10s": slow_puts_10s,
+        "final_memtable_stats": memtable_stats_json(final_memtable_stats.as_ref(), final_resident_bytes),
+        "puts": puts,
+        "samples": samples,
+        "write_stats": {
+            "put_count": stats.put_count,
+            "put_time_seconds": stats.put_time.as_secs_f64(),
+            "wal_flush_count": stats.wal_flush_count,
+            "wal_flush_time_seconds": stats.wal_flush_time.as_secs_f64(),
+            "wal_flush_bytes": stats.wal_flush_bytes,
+            "wal_io_count": stats.wal_io_count,
+            "wal_io_time_seconds": stats.wal_io_time.as_secs_f64(),
+            "index_update_count": stats.index_update_count,
+            "index_update_time_seconds": stats.index_update_time.as_secs_f64(),
+            "index_update_rows": stats.index_update_rows,
+            "memtable_flush_count": stats.memtable_flush_count,
+            "memtable_flush_time_seconds": stats.memtable_flush_time.as_secs_f64(),
+            "memtable_flush_rows": stats.memtable_flush_rows,
+        },
+    });
+
+    let json_text = serde_json::to_string_pretty(&output)
+        .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("serialize output JSON: {e}")))?;
+    println!("{json_text}");
+    if let Some(path) = args.output {
+        std::fs::write(&path, json_text)
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("write {}: {e}", path.display())))?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn create_base_vector_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, args: &Args) -> Result<()> {
+    let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(args.num_partitions);
+    let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(args.num_sub_vectors, 8);
+    let vector_params =
+        VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[VECTOR_COL],
+            IndexType::IvfPq,
+            Some(VECTOR_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &vector_params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .map(|_| ())
+}
+
+async fn create_base_fts_index(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[TEXT_COL],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some(FTS_INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .map(|_| ())
+}
+
+fn push_sample(
+    samples: &mut Vec<serde_json::Value>,
+    phase: &'static str,
+    elapsed: Duration,
+    stats: &WriteStatsSnapshot,
+    memtable: Option<MemTableStats>,
+    resident_bytes: usize,
+) {
+    samples.push(json!({
+        "phase": phase,
+        "t": elapsed.as_secs_f64(),
+        "put_count": stats.put_count,
+        "wal_flush_count": stats.wal_flush_count,
+        "wal_flush_bytes": stats.wal_flush_bytes,
+        "wal_io_seconds": stats.wal_io_time.as_secs_f64(),
+        "index_update_count": stats.index_update_count,
+        "index_update_seconds": stats.index_update_time.as_secs_f64(),
+        "index_update_rows": stats.index_update_rows,
+        "memtable_flush_count": stats.memtable_flush_count,
+        "memtable_flush_seconds": stats.memtable_flush_time.as_secs_f64(),
+        "memtable_flush_rows": stats.memtable_flush_rows,
+        "active_memtable_rows": memtable.as_ref().map(|stats| stats.row_count),
+        "active_memtable_batches": memtable.as_ref().map(|stats| stats.batch_count),
+        "active_memtable_bytes": resident_bytes,
+        "active_memtable_generation": memtable.as_ref().map(|stats| stats.generation),
+        "active_memtable_max_buffered_batch_position": memtable.as_ref().and_then(|stats| stats.max_buffered_batch_position),
+        "active_memtable_durable_batch_count": memtable.as_ref().map(|stats| stats.durable_batch_count),
+        "wal_queue_pending_batches": memtable.as_ref().map(|stats| stats.pending_wal_batch_count),
+        "wal_queue_pending_rows": memtable.as_ref().map(|stats| stats.pending_wal_row_count),
+        "wal_queue_pending_bytes": memtable.as_ref().map(|stats| stats.pending_wal_estimated_bytes),
+        "wal_queue_pending_start_batch_position": memtable.as_ref().and_then(|stats| stats.pending_wal_start_batch_position),
+        "wal_queue_pending_end_batch_position": memtable.as_ref().and_then(|stats| stats.pending_wal_end_batch_position),
+    }));
+}
+
+fn memtable_stats_json(
+    memtable: Option<&MemTableStats>,
+    resident_bytes: usize,
+) -> serde_json::Value {
+    match memtable {
+        Some(stats) => json!({
+            "row_count": stats.row_count,
+            "batch_count": stats.batch_count,
+            "resident_bytes": resident_bytes,
+            "generation": stats.generation,
+            "max_buffered_batch_position": stats.max_buffered_batch_position,
+            "durable_batch_count": stats.durable_batch_count,
+            "wal_queue_pending_start_batch_position": stats.pending_wal_start_batch_position,
+            "wal_queue_pending_end_batch_position": stats.pending_wal_end_batch_position,
+            "wal_queue_pending_batches": stats.pending_wal_batch_count,
+            "wal_queue_pending_rows": stats.pending_wal_row_count,
+            "wal_queue_pending_bytes": stats.pending_wal_estimated_bytes,
+        }),
+        None => serde_json::Value::Null,
+    }
+}
+
+fn schema_for_shape(shape: SchemaShape, vector_dim: usize) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    match shape {
+        SchemaShape::FineWeb => fineweb_schema(vector_dim),
+        SchemaShape::VectorOnly => vector_only_schema(vector_dim),
+    }
+}
+
+fn id_field() -> Field {
+    let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
+    id_metadata.insert(
+        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+        "true".to_string(),
+    );
+    Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(id_metadata)
+}
+
+fn vector_field(vector_dim: usize) -> Field {
+    Field::new(
+        VECTOR_COL,
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            vector_dim as i32,
+        ),
+        false,
+    )
+}
+
+fn fineweb_schema(vector_dim: usize) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        id_field(),
+        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        Field::new("dump", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        Field::new("url", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        Field::new("file_path", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        Field::new("language", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        Field::new("language_score", DataType::Float64, false),
+        Field::new("token_count", DataType::Int64, false),
+        vector_field(vector_dim),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn vector_only_schema(vector_dim: usize) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![id_field(), vector_field(vector_dim)]))
+}
+
+/// Deterministic pseudo-random text of roughly `target_bytes` bytes for
+/// row `row`. Drawn word-by-word from a small fixed vocabulary so the
+/// `text` column carries a realistic token distribution — essential for
+/// the FTS index to do representative work, and harmless for the vector
+/// runs where `text` is inert payload of the same size.
+fn gen_text(row: usize, target_bytes: usize) -> String {
+    const VOCAB: &[&str] = &[
+        "data",
+        "vector",
+        "search",
+        "index",
+        "query",
+        "memory",
+        "table",
+        "write",
+        "read",
+        "shard",
+        "stream",
+        "batch",
+        "flush",
+        "token",
+        "score",
+        "model",
+        "system",
+        "record",
+        "format",
+        "column",
+        "engine",
+        "result",
+        "filter",
+        "metric",
+        "latency",
+        "throughput",
+        "cache",
+        "buffer",
+        "segment",
+        "lance",
+        "arrow",
+        "schema",
+        "field",
+        "value",
+        "object",
+        "store",
+        "cloud",
+        "remote",
+        "local",
+        "build",
+        "merge",
+        "scan",
+        "rank",
+        "match",
+        "phrase",
+        "fuzzy",
+        "boolean",
+        "recall",
+        "corpus",
+        "document",
+        "passage",
+        "sentence",
+        "language",
+        "machine",
+        "learning",
+        "training",
+        "dataset",
+        "feature",
+        "embedding",
+        "cluster",
+        "graph",
+        "node",
+        "edge",
+        "path",
+        "weight",
+        "layer",
+        "tensor",
+        "kernel",
+    ];
+    // SplitMix64-ish deterministic generator seeded by the row index.
+    let mut state = (row as u64)
+        .wrapping_mul(0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15)
+        .wrapping_add(1);
+    let mut next = || {
+        state = state.wrapping_add(0x9E37_79B9_7F4A_7C15);
+        let mut z = state;
+        z = (z ^ (z >> 30)).wrapping_mul(0xBF58_476D_1CE4_E5B9);
+        z = (z ^ (z >> 27)).wrapping_mul(0x94D0_49BB_1331_11EB);
+        z ^ (z >> 31)
+    };
+    let mut out = String::with_capacity(target_bytes + 16);
+    while out.len() < target_bytes {
+        if !out.is_empty() {
+            out.push(' ');
+        }
+        out.push_str(VOCAB[(next() as usize) % VOCAB.len()]);
+    }
+    out.truncate(target_bytes);
+    out
+}
+
+fn make_batch(
+    shape: SchemaShape,
+    schema: &ArrowSchema,
+    id_prefix: &str,
+    start_row: usize,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    vector_dim: usize,
+    text_bytes: usize,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let ids = StringArray::from_iter_values(
+        (0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("{id_prefix}-{:012}", start_row + i)),
+    );
+    let mut vectors = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * vector_dim);
+    for row in start_row..start_row + num_rows {
+        let cluster = row % 4096;
+        let row_noise = ((row / 4096) % 97) as f32 * 0.0001;
+        for dim in 0..vector_dim {
+            let mixed = cluster
+                .wrapping_mul(1_103_515_245)
+                .wrapping_add(dim.wrapping_mul(12_345));
+            vectors.push(((mixed & 0xffff) as f32 / 65_536.0) + row_noise);
+        }
+    }
+    let vector_values = Float32Array::from(vectors);
+    let vector_array = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, vector_dim as i32)?;
+
+    if shape == SchemaShape::VectorOnly {
+        return RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(vector_array) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .map_err(Into::into);
+    }
+
+    let text =
+        StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| gen_text(start_row + i, text_bytes)));
+    let dump = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| match (start_row + i) % 5 {
+        0 => "CC-MAIN-2023-50",
+        1 => "CC-MAIN-2024-10",
+        2 => "CC-MAIN-2024-26",
+        3 => "CC-MAIN-2024-42",
+        _ => "CC-MAIN-2025-05",
+    }));
+    let url = StringArray::from_iter_values(
+        (0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("https://example.org/doc/{:012}", start_row + i)),
+    );
+    let file_path = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| {
+        let row = start_row + i;
+        format!("s3://bucket/cc/{:06}/{:012}.warc.gz", row / 1000, row)
+    }));
+    let language = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|_| "en"));
+    let language_score = Float64Array::from_iter_values(
+        (0..num_rows).map(|i| 0.85 + (((start_row + i) % 140) as f64 / 1000.0)),
+    );
+    let token_count =
+        Int64Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| 50 + ((start_row + i) % 4046) as i64));
+
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(text) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(dump) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(url) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(file_path) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(language) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(language_score) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(token_count) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(vector_array) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .map_err(Into::into)
+}
+
+fn percentile(values: &[f64], pct: f64) -> f64 {
+    if values.is_empty() {
+        return f64::NAN;
+    }
+    let mut sorted = values.to_vec();
+    sorted.sort_by(|left, right| left.partial_cmp(right).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    let idx = ((pct / 100.0) * (sorted.len().saturating_sub(1)) as f64).round() as usize;
+    sorted[idx.min(sorted.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct EffectiveMemTableLimits {
+    rows: usize,
+    batches: usize,
+}
+
+fn effective_memtable_limits(args: &Args) -> EffectiveMemTableLimits {
+    let rows = args.max_memtable_rows.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let rows_from_bytes = args.max_memtable_size.div_ceil(args.row_bytes);
+        rows_from_bytes
+            .saturating_mul(2)
+            .saturating_add(args.batch_rows)
+            .max(args.batch_rows)
+            .max(1)
+    });
+    let batches = args
+        .max_memtable_batches
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| rows.div_ceil(args.batch_rows).saturating_add(64).max(16));
+    EffectiveMemTableLimits { rows, batches }
+}
+
+fn parse_args() -> Result<Args> {
+    let mut args = Args::default();
+    let mut row_bytes_explicit = false;
+    let mut iter = std::env::args().skip(1);
+    while let Some(flag) = iter.next() {
+        if flag == "--bench" {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if flag == "--skip-close" {
+            args.skip_close = true;
+            continue;
+        }
+        let value = iter.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("missing value for argument {flag}"))
+        })?;
+        match flag.as_str() {
+            "--uri" => args.uri = Some(value),
+            "--mode" => {
+                args.mode = Mode::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?;
+            }
+            "--index-type" => {
+                args.index_kind =
+                    IndexKind::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?;
+            }
+            "--schema-shape" => {
+                args.schema_shape =
+                    SchemaShape::parse(&value).map_err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input)?;
+            }
+            "--seed-rows" => args.seed_rows = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--batch-rows" => args.batch_rows = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--calls" => args.calls = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--vector-dim" => args.vector_dim = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--text-bytes" => args.text_bytes = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--row-bytes" => {
+                args.row_bytes = parse(&flag, &value)?;
+                row_bytes_explicit = true;
+            }
+            "--max-memtable-size" => args.max_memtable_size = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--max-unflushed-memtable-bytes" => {
+                args.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes = parse(&flag, &value)?;
+            }
+            "--max-memtable-rows" => {
+                args.max_memtable_rows = parse_optional_nonzero(&flag, &value)?
+            }
+            "--max-memtable-batches" => {
+                args.max_memtable_batches = parse_optional_nonzero(&flag, &value)?
+            }
+            "--max-wal-buffer-size" => args.max_wal_buffer_size = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--max-wal-flush-interval-ms" => {
+                args.max_wal_flush_interval_ms = parse(&flag, &value)?;
+            }
+            "--sample-interval-ms" => args.sample_interval_ms = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--target-rows-per-sec" => args.target_rows_per_sec = Some(parse(&flag, &value)?),
+            "--num-partitions" => args.num_partitions = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--num-sub-vectors" => args.num_sub_vectors = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--threads" => args.threads = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--tokio-threads" => args.tokio_threads = parse(&flag, &value)?,
+            "--output" => args.output = Some(PathBuf::from(value)),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "unknown argument: {flag}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if !row_bytes_explicit {
+        args.row_bytes = args
+            .schema_shape
+            .default_row_bytes(args.vector_dim, args.text_bytes);
+    }
+
+    if args.seed_rows == 0
+        || args.batch_rows == 0
+        || args.calls == 0
+        || args.vector_dim == 0
+        || args.row_bytes == 0
+        || args.max_memtable_size == 0
+        || args.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes == 0
+    {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "seed_rows, batch_rows, calls, vector_dim, row_bytes, max_memtable_size, and max_unflushed_memtable_bytes must be greater than 0",
+        ));
+    }
+    if args.schema_shape == SchemaShape::FineWeb && args.text_bytes == 0 {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "text_bytes must be greater than 0 for schema_shape=fineweb",
+        ));
+    }
+    if let Some(max_memtable_rows) = args.max_memtable_rows
+        && max_memtable_rows < args.batch_rows
+    {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "max_memtable_rows must be at least batch_rows so one batch fits: max_memtable_rows={}, batch_rows={}",
+            max_memtable_rows, args.batch_rows
+        )));
+    }
+    if args.mode.indexed()
+        && args.index_kind == IndexKind::Vector
+        && args.vector_dim % args.num_sub_vectors != 0
+    {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "vector_dim must be divisible by num_sub_vectors for IVF_PQ: vector_dim={}, num_sub_vectors={}",
+            args.vector_dim, args.num_sub_vectors
+        )));
+    }
+    if args.mode.indexed()
+        && args.index_kind == IndexKind::Fts
+        && args.schema_shape != SchemaShape::FineWeb
+    {
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
+            "index-type=fts requires schema-shape=fineweb (it has the text column)",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    Ok(args)
+}
+
+fn parse_optional_nonzero(flag: &str, value: &str) -> Result<Option<usize>> {
+    let parsed: usize = parse(flag, value)?;
+    Ok((parsed != 0).then_some(parsed))
+}
+
+fn parse<T>(flag: &str, value: &str) -> Result<T>
+where
+    T: std::str::FromStr,
+    T::Err: std::fmt::Display,
+{
+    value.parse().map_err(|e| {
+        lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid value for {flag}: {value} ({e})"))
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal_write.rs b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_write.rs
similarity index 84%
rename from rust/lance/benches/mem_wal_write.rs
rename to rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_write.rs
index 80cc391e8ab..df21c145299 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal_write.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/mem_wal_write.rs
@@ -30,39 +30,45 @@
 //! - `BATCH_SIZE`: Number of rows per write batch (default: 20)
 //! - `NUM_BATCHES`: Total number of batches to write (default: 1000)
 //! - `DURABLE_WRITE`: yes/no/both (default: no) - whether writes wait for WAL flush
-//! - `INDEXED_WRITE`: yes/no/both (default: no) - whether writes update indexes synchronously
-//! - `MAX_WAL_BUFFER_SIZE`: WAL buffer size in bytes (default: 1MB from RegionWriterConfig)
+//! - `MAX_WAL_BUFFER_SIZE`: WAL buffer size in bytes (default: 1MB from ShardWriterConfig)
 //! - `MAX_FLUSH_INTERVAL_MS`: WAL flush interval in milliseconds, 0 to disable (default: 1000ms)
-//! - `MAX_MEMTABLE_SIZE`: MemTable size threshold in bytes (default: 64MB from RegionWriterConfig)
+//! - `MAX_MEMTABLE_SIZE`: MemTable size threshold in bytes (default: 64MB from ShardWriterConfig)
 //! - `VECTOR_DIM`: Vector dimension for the vector column (default: 512)
 //! - `MEMWAL_MAINTAINED_INDEXES`: Comma-separated list of index names to maintain in MemWAL (default: id_btree)
 //!     - Available indexes: id_btree, text_fts, vector_ivfpq (all created on base table)
 //!     - Examples: `id_btree`, `id_btree,text_fts`, `vector_ivfpq`
 //!     - Use `none` to disable MemWAL index maintenance entirely
+//! - `ENABLE_MEMTABLE`: yes/no/both (default: yes) - whether the writer maintains an in-memory MemTable.
+//!   `yes` uses the standard MemTable + WAL pipeline (with optional indexes).
+//!   `no` uses WAL-only mode (no MemTable, no indexes, no Lance flushes; pure WAL throughput).
+//!   `both` runs each combination twice, once per mode, side-by-side.
+//!   When `no` or `both`, the WAL-only branch always runs with
+//!   `MEMWAL_MAINTAINED_INDEXES=none`.
 //! - `SAMPLE_SIZE`: Number of benchmark iterations (default: 10, minimum: 10)
 
 #![allow(clippy::print_stdout, clippy::print_stderr)]
 
-use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
 use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
 use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 
 use arrow_array::{
     FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput};
-use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, MemWalConfig, RegionWriterConfig};
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, ShardWriterConfig};
 use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
 use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
 /// Default number of rows per batch.
@@ -111,9 +117,11 @@ fn get_durable_write_options() -> Vec<bool> {
     parse_yes_no_both("DURABLE_WRITE", "no")
 }
 
-/// Get indexed write settings from environment.
-fn get_indexed_write_options() -> Vec<bool> {
-    parse_yes_no_both("INDEXED_WRITE", "no")
+/// Get enable_memtable settings from environment. Default `yes` keeps
+/// existing benchmark behavior; `no` runs WAL-only mode; `both` runs both
+/// modes side-by-side for comparison.
+fn get_enable_memtable_options() -> Vec<bool> {
+    parse_yes_no_both("ENABLE_MEMTABLE", "yes")
 }
 
 /// Get max WAL buffer size from environment or use default.
@@ -341,7 +349,10 @@ async fn create_dataset(
     // Create initial dataset with 1000 rows for index training
     let initial_batch = create_test_batch(schema, 0, BASE_DATASET_ROWS, vector_dim);
     let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial_batch)], Arc::new(schema.clone()));
-    let write_params = WriteParams::default();
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
     let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(write_params))
         .await
         .expect("Failed to create dataset");
@@ -391,10 +402,9 @@ async fn create_dataset(
 
     // Initialize MemWAL with specified maintained indexes
     dataset
-        .initialize_mem_wal(MemWalConfig {
-            region_spec: None,
-            maintained_indexes: maintained_indexes.to_vec(),
-        })
+        .initialize_mem_wal()
+        .maintained_indexes(maintained_indexes.to_vec())
+        .execute()
         .await
         .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
 
@@ -425,24 +435,26 @@ fn build_label(
     num_batches: usize,
     batch_size: usize,
     durable: bool,
-    indexed: bool,
+    enable_memtable: bool,
     storage: &str,
 ) -> String {
     let durable_str = if durable { "durable" } else { "nondurable" };
-    // sync_indexed_write controls sync vs async index updates
-    let indexed_str = if indexed { "sync_idx" } else { "async_idx" };
+    let mode_str = if enable_memtable {
+        "memtable"
+    } else {
+        "wal_only"
+    };
     format!(
         "{}x{} {} {} ({})",
-        num_batches, batch_size, durable_str, indexed_str, storage
+        num_batches, batch_size, mode_str, durable_str, storage
     )
 }
 
 /// Build dataset name prefix from config options.
-fn build_name_prefix(durable: bool, indexed: bool) -> String {
+fn build_name_prefix(durable: bool, enable_memtable: bool) -> String {
     let d = if durable { "d" } else { "nd" };
-    // sync_indexed_write: sync (si) vs async (ai)
-    let i = if indexed { "si" } else { "ai" };
-    format!("{}_{}", d, i)
+    let m = if enable_memtable { "mt" } else { "wo" };
+    format!("{}_{}", m, d)
 }
 
 /// Benchmark Lance MemWAL write throughput.
@@ -466,7 +478,7 @@ fn bench_lance_memwal_write(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let maintained_indexes = get_maintained_indexes();
 
     let durable_options = get_durable_write_options();
-    let indexed_options = get_indexed_write_options();
+    let enable_memtable_options = get_enable_memtable_options();
     let max_wal_buffer_size = get_max_wal_buffer_size();
     let max_flush_interval = get_max_flush_interval();
     let max_memtable_size = get_max_memtable_size();
@@ -478,7 +490,7 @@ fn bench_lance_memwal_write(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let total_bytes = (total_rows * row_size_bytes) as u64;
 
     // Get effective config values for display
-    let default_config = RegionWriterConfig::default();
+    let default_config = ShardWriterConfig::default();
     let effective_wal_buffer = max_wal_buffer_size.unwrap_or(default_config.max_wal_buffer_size);
     let effective_flush_interval =
         max_flush_interval.unwrap_or(default_config.max_wal_flush_interval);
@@ -523,18 +535,32 @@ fn bench_lance_memwal_write(c: &mut Criterion) {
     group.warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs(1));
 
     // Generate benchmarks for all combinations
-    for &durable in &durable_options {
-        for &indexed in &indexed_options {
-            let label = build_label(num_batches, batch_size, durable, indexed, storage_label);
-            let name_prefix = build_name_prefix(durable, indexed);
+    for &enable_memtable in &enable_memtable_options {
+        for &durable in &durable_options {
+            let label = build_label(
+                num_batches,
+                batch_size,
+                durable,
+                enable_memtable,
+                storage_label,
+            );
+            let name_prefix = build_name_prefix(durable, enable_memtable);
+
+            // WAL-only mode never uses indexes; force the dataset
+            // setup to skip the MemWAL index list.
+            let effective_indexes: Vec<String> = if enable_memtable {
+                maintained_indexes.clone()
+            } else {
+                Vec::new()
+            };
 
             // Create dataset ONCE before benchmark iterations
-            // Each iteration will use a different region on the same dataset
+            // Each iteration will use a different shard on the same dataset
             let dataset = rt.block_on(create_dataset(
                 &schema,
                 &name_prefix,
                 vector_dim,
-                &maintained_indexes,
+                &effective_indexes,
                 &dataset_prefix,
             ));
             let dataset_uri = dataset.uri().to_string();
@@ -555,8 +581,8 @@ fn bench_lance_memwal_write(c: &mut Criterion) {
 
             group.bench_with_input(
                 BenchmarkId::new("Lance MemWAL", &label),
-                &(batch_size, num_batches, durable, indexed, row_size_bytes),
-                |b, &(_batch_size, _num_batches, durable, indexed, row_size_bytes)| {
+                &(batch_size, num_batches, durable, row_size_bytes),
+                |b, &(_batch_size, _num_batches, durable, row_size_bytes)| {
                     let dataset_uri = dataset_uri.clone();
                     let batches = batches.clone();
                     let stats_printed = stats_printed.clone();
@@ -571,14 +597,17 @@ fn bench_lance_memwal_write(c: &mut Criterion) {
                                 // Re-open dataset (cheap operation)
                                 let dataset = Dataset::open(&dataset_uri).await.unwrap();
 
-                                // Create a NEW region for each iteration
-                                let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-                                let default_config = RegionWriterConfig::default();
-                                let config = RegionWriterConfig {
-                                    region_id,
-                                    region_spec_id: 0,
+                                // Create a NEW shard for each iteration
+                                let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+                                let default_config = ShardWriterConfig::default();
+                                let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+                                    shard_id,
+                                    shard_spec_id: 0,
+                                    max_wal_persist_retries: 3,
+                                    wal_persist_retry_base_delay: std::time::Duration::from_millis(
+                                        50,
+                                    ),
                                     durable_write: durable,
-                                    sync_indexed_write: indexed,
                                     max_wal_buffer_size: max_wal_buffer_size
                                         .unwrap_or(default_config.max_wal_buffer_size),
                                     max_wal_flush_interval: max_flush_interval
@@ -587,10 +616,6 @@ fn bench_lance_memwal_write(c: &mut Criterion) {
                                         .unwrap_or(default_config.max_memtable_size),
                                     max_memtable_rows: default_config.max_memtable_rows,
                                     max_memtable_batches: default_config.max_memtable_batches,
-                                    ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor: default_config
-                                        .ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor,
-                                    async_index_buffer_rows: default_config.async_index_buffer_rows,
-                                    async_index_interval: default_config.async_index_interval,
                                     manifest_scan_batch_size: default_config
                                         .manifest_scan_batch_size,
                                     max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: default_config
@@ -598,11 +623,21 @@ fn bench_lance_memwal_write(c: &mut Criterion) {
                                     backpressure_log_interval: default_config
                                         .backpressure_log_interval,
                                     stats_log_interval: default_config.stats_log_interval,
+                                    frozen_memtable_grace: default_config.frozen_memtable_grace,
+                                    enable_memtable,
+                                    hnsw_params: default_config.hnsw_params,
+                                    warmer: None,
+                                    observer: None,
+                                    store_params: default_config.store_params,
+                                    session: default_config.session,
+                                    // Measure the built-in per-shard valve, not
+                                    // an injected policy.
+                                    backpressure: None,
                                 };
 
                                 // Get writer through Dataset API (index configs loaded automatically)
                                 let writer =
-                                    dataset.mem_wal_writer(region_id, config).await.unwrap();
+                                    dataset.mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config).await.unwrap();
 
                                 // Time writes (excluding close to measure pure put throughput)
                                 let start = Instant::now();
@@ -619,7 +654,7 @@ fn bench_lance_memwal_write(c: &mut Criterion) {
                                 // Get stats after close to include all WAL flushes
                                 let stats = stats_handle.snapshot();
 
-                                total_duration += put_duration;
+                                total_duration += put_duration + close_duration;
 
                                 // Report stats once (first iteration of first sample only)
                                 if iter == 0 && !stats_printed.swap(true, Ordering::SeqCst) {
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/run_shard_writer_backpressure.sh b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/run_shard_writer_backpressure.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..4fc5f1d9f22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/run_shard_writer_backpressure.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+# Centralized MemWAL ShardWriter backpressure sweep — drives the
+# `mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure` bench for BOTH the vector and the
+# FTS index. The methodology (paced async ingest, WAL-queue sampling,
+# skip-close) is identical; the only difference is `--index-type`, so the
+# vector and FTS numbers are directly comparable.
+#
+# Usage:
+#   INDEX_TYPE=fts    rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/run_shard_writer_backpressure.sh [run_id]
+#   INDEX_TYPE=vector rust/lance/benches/mem_wal/write/run_shard_writer_backpressure.sh [run_id]
+#
+# Finds the max sustainable async-indexed throughput: the highest paced
+# target where puts never block (slow>=1s == 0) and the WAL flush queue
+# does not accumulate (tail queue delta ~0).
+#
+# Env:
+#   DATASET_PREFIX  scratch dataset location (default <tmpdir>/mem-wal-backpressure)
+
+set -uo pipefail
+
+SCRIPT_DIR="$(cd "$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")" && pwd -P)"
+REPO_ROOT="$(git -C "$SCRIPT_DIR" rev-parse --show-toplevel)"
+cd "$REPO_ROOT"
+
+INDEX_TYPE="${INDEX_TYPE:-fts}"
+RUN_ID="${1:-bp-${INDEX_TYPE}-$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)}"
+DATASET_PREFIX="${DATASET_PREFIX:-${TMPDIR:-/tmp}/mem-wal-backpressure}"
+
+# Shared knobs — identical to the HNSW vector backpressure sweep so the
+# two index types are measured the same way.
+ROWS="${ROWS:-500000}"
+SEED_ROWS="${SEED_ROWS:-100000}"
+BATCH_ROWS="${BATCH_ROWS:-1000}"
+VECTOR_DIM="${VECTOR_DIM:-1024}"
+THREADS="${THREADS:-64}"
+TOKIO_THREADS="${TOKIO_THREADS:-64}"
+MAX_MEMTABLE_SIZE="${MAX_MEMTABLE_SIZE:-17179869184}"          # 16 GiB
+MAX_UNFLUSHED_BYTES="${MAX_UNFLUSHED_BYTES:-34359738368}"      # 32 GiB
+MAX_WAL_BUFFER_SIZE="${MAX_WAL_BUFFER_SIZE:-52428800}"        # 50 MiB
+MAX_WAL_FLUSH_INTERVAL_MS="${MAX_WAL_FLUSH_INTERVAL_MS:-0}"
+SAMPLE_INTERVAL_MS="${SAMPLE_INTERVAL_MS:-1000}"
+CONFIG_TIMEOUT="${CONFIG_TIMEOUT:-2400}"
+
+# Paced async-indexed target sweep (rows/s). FTS indexing is heavier than
+# IVF/PQ so its sustainable ceiling is lower; the vector sweep can push
+# the same script higher via TARGETS=...
+case "$INDEX_TYPE" in
+    fts)    TARGETS_DEFAULT="500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 0" ;;
+    vector) TARGETS_DEFAULT="2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0" ;;
+    *) echo "INDEX_TYPE must be fts|vector" >&2; exit 1 ;;
+esac
+TARGETS="${TARGETS:-$TARGETS_DEFAULT}"
+
+CALLS=$(( ROWS / BATCH_ROWS ))
+LOCAL_DIR="$REPO_ROOT/target/mem-wal-backpressure-results/${RUN_ID}"
+mkdir -p "$LOCAL_DIR"
+
+BIN="$(find target/release/deps -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 \
+    -name 'mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure-*' ! -name '*.d' -printf '%T@ %p\n' 2>/dev/null | sort -nr | head -1 | cut -d' ' -f2-)"
+if [ -z "$BIN" ]; then
+    cargo bench -p lance --bench mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure --no-run
+    BIN="$(find target/release/deps -maxdepth 1 -type f -perm -111 \
+        -name 'mem_wal_shard_writer_backpressure-*' ! -name '*.d' -printf '%T@ %p\n' 2>/dev/null | sort -nr | head -1 | cut -d' ' -f2-)"
+fi
+echo "index_type=$INDEX_TYPE  bin=$BIN  run_id=$RUN_ID  rows=$ROWS"
+
+for tgt in $TARGETS; do
+    if [ "$tgt" = "0" ]; then label="async_idx_unpaced"; paced=()
+    else label="async_idx_t${tgt}"; paced=(--target-rows-per-sec "$tgt"); fi
+    out="$LOCAL_DIR/${label}.json"; log="$LOCAL_DIR/${label}.log"
+    echo ">>> $label"
+    if [ -f "$out" ]; then echo "    already done"; continue; fi
+    timeout "$CONFIG_TIMEOUT" "$BIN" --bench \
+        --mode async_idx --index-type "$INDEX_TYPE" --schema-shape fineweb \
+        --uri "$DATASET_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/bp_${label}" \
+        --seed-rows "$SEED_ROWS" --batch-rows "$BATCH_ROWS" --calls "$CALLS" \
+        --vector-dim "$VECTOR_DIM" \
+        --max-memtable-size "$MAX_MEMTABLE_SIZE" \
+        --max-unflushed-memtable-bytes "$MAX_UNFLUSHED_BYTES" \
+        --max-wal-buffer-size "$MAX_WAL_BUFFER_SIZE" \
+        --max-wal-flush-interval-ms "$MAX_WAL_FLUSH_INTERVAL_MS" \
+        --sample-interval-ms "$SAMPLE_INTERVAL_MS" \
+        --threads "$THREADS" --tokio-threads "$TOKIO_THREADS" \
+        --skip-close \
+        "${paced[@]}" --output "$out" > "$log" 2>&1
+    rc=$?
+    if [ "$rc" -eq 124 ]; then echo "    !!! TIMED OUT"
+    elif [ "$rc" -ne 0 ]; then echo "    !!! failed rc=$rc"
+    else echo "    ok"; fi
+    [ -f "$out" ] && aws s3 cp "$out" "$DATASET_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/results/${label}.json" >/dev/null 2>&1
+    aws s3 cp "$log" "$DATASET_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/results/${label}.log" >/dev/null 2>&1
+done
+
+echo ""
+echo "=== backpressure summary (index_type=$INDEX_TYPE) ==="
+python3 - "$LOCAL_DIR" "$ROWS" <<'PY'
+import glob, json, os, sys
+d, rows = sys.argv[1], int(sys.argv[2])
+print(f"{'cell':22s} {'target':>8s} {'rows/s':>9s} {'MB/s':>8s} {'p99_ms':>10s} "
+      f"{'slow>=1s':>9s} {'wal_q_end':>10s} {'wal_q_max':>10s} {'q_tail_delta':>13s}")
+for p in sorted(glob.glob(os.path.join(d, "*.json"))):
+    try: r = json.load(open(p))
+    except Exception: continue
+    name = os.path.basename(p)[:-5]
+    mem = r.get("final_memtable_stats") or {}
+    samples = r.get("samples") or []
+    q_end = int(mem.get("wal_queue_pending_rows") or 0)
+    q_max = max([s.get("wal_queue_pending_rows") or 0 for s in samples], default=0)
+    puts = [s for s in samples if s.get("phase") == "puts"
+            and isinstance(s.get("wal_queue_pending_rows"), int)]
+    tail = puts[-5:]
+    q_tail = (tail[-1]["wal_queue_pending_rows"] - tail[0]["wal_queue_pending_rows"]
+              if len(tail) >= 2 else 0)
+    tgt = r.get("target_rows_per_sec") or 0
+    print(f"{name:22s} {tgt:>8.0f} {r.get('throughput_rows_per_sec',0):>9.0f} "
+          f"{r.get('throughput_mb_per_sec',0):>8.2f} {r.get('p99_ms',0):>10.2f} "
+          f"{r.get('slow_puts_1s',0):>9d} {q_end:>10d} {q_max:>10d} {q_tail:>13d}")
+PY
+echo ""
+echo "results: $LOCAL_DIR  +  $DATASET_PREFIX/$RUN_ID/results/"
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/merge_insert.rs b/rust/lance/benches/merge_insert.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5de190ffde2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/merge_insert.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+//
+//! Benchmarks for `merge_insert` with a scalar index on the merge key.
+//!
+//! The interesting case is the dataset shape that exercises the fragment-
+//! bitmap allow-list path in `DatasetPreFilter::create_restricted_deletion_mask`:
+//!
+//! - some fragments live OUTSIDE the index's `fragment_bitmap`
+//!   (i.e. data was appended after the index was built, or partially
+//!   rewritten without re-indexing), AND
+//! - some fragments INSIDE the bitmap have a deletion file.
+//!
+//! Both conditions together force the slow `AllowList(Full) - BlockList(Partial)`
+//! computation. The other shapes (`clean`, `with_new_rows_only`,
+//! `with_deletions_only`) skip that branch and serve as controls.
+//!
+//! The `composite_key_indexed` shape covers merge_insert joined on two
+//! indexed key columns, which probes every index and AND-folds the results.
+//!
+//! Run with `cargo bench --bench merge_insert`.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance::dataset::write::merge_insert::{MergeInsertBuilder, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+
+// Many small fragments to amplify the slow path: each indexed fragment with
+// a deletion file produces one RoaringBitmap::full() allocation per
+// merge_insert call. Cost scales linearly with NUM_FRAGS.
+const ROWS_PER_FRAG: u64 = 100;
+const NUM_FRAGS: u64 = 200;
+// Minimal schema so the merge_insert baseline (sort, hash-join, write) is small
+// and the prefilter overhead dominates the measurement.
+fn schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "id",
+        DataType::Int64,
+        false,
+    )]))
+}
+
+fn make_batch(start_id: i64, n: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let ids = Int64Array::from_iter_values(start_id..start_id + n as i64);
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema(), vec![Arc::new(ids)]).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn make_batches(start_id: i64, total_rows: u64) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut out = Vec::new();
+    let mut remaining = total_rows;
+    let mut next_start = start_id;
+    while remaining > 0 {
+        let n = remaining.min(ROWS_PER_FRAG) as usize;
+        out.push(make_batch(next_start, n));
+        next_start += n as i64;
+        remaining -= n as u64;
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+async fn build_indexed_base(path: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let total = ROWS_PER_FRAG * NUM_FRAGS;
+    let params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAG as usize,
+        max_rows_per_group: ROWS_PER_FRAG as usize,
+        mode: WriteMode::Create,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let batches = make_batches(0, total);
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema());
+    Dataset::write(reader, path, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut ds = Dataset::open(path).await.unwrap();
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["id"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        None,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    ds
+}
+
+async fn append_rows(path: &str, base_id: i64, n: usize) -> Dataset {
+    let batch = make_batch(base_id, n);
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(std::iter::once(Ok(batch)), schema());
+    let params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: n,
+        max_rows_per_group: n,
+        mode: WriteMode::Append,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    Dataset::write(reader, path, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+    Dataset::open(path).await.unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn delete_some_indexed_rows(ds: &mut Dataset) {
+    // Delete a sparse pattern that lands in EVERY indexed fragment (one row
+    // per fragment, since ROWS_PER_FRAG = 100 and we delete `id % 100 == 0`).
+    // Each affected fragment gets its own deletion file inside the bitmap,
+    // which is what scales the slow `RoaringBitmap::full()` materialization
+    // path: one allocation per fragment per merge_insert call.
+    ds.delete("id % 100 == 0").await.unwrap();
+}
+
+/// One merge_insert op: 30 updates of existing IDs + 70 inserts of new IDs.
+async fn one_merge_insert(ds: Arc<Dataset>, base_existing: i64, base_new: i64) {
+    let mut ids: Vec<i64> = (0..30).map(|i| base_existing + i).collect();
+    ids.extend(base_new..base_new + 70);
+    let id_arr = Int64Array::from(ids);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema(), vec![Arc::new(id_arr)]).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(std::iter::once(Ok(batch)), schema());
+
+    let mut builder = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds, vec!["id".to_string()]).unwrap();
+    builder
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll);
+    let job = builder.try_build().unwrap();
+    let _ = job.execute_reader(reader).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+// --- Composite-key shape: join on (a, b) with a BTree index on each key ---
+//
+// Exercises the multi-index probe path: one `IsIn` query per indexed key
+// column, AND-folded inside a single `MapIndexExec`, followed by the
+// composite hash join.  `b` is a deterministic function of `a` so source
+// rows can target existing composite keys without tracking extra state.
+
+fn composite_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, false),
+        Field::new("b", DataType::Int64, false),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn composite_b(a: i64) -> i64 {
+    a * 7 + 3
+}
+
+fn make_composite_batch(start: i64, n: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let a = Int64Array::from_iter_values(start..start + n as i64);
+    let b = Int64Array::from_iter_values((start..start + n as i64).map(composite_b));
+    RecordBatch::try_new(composite_schema(), vec![Arc::new(a), Arc::new(b)]).unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn build_composite_key_indexed() -> (TempStrDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let path = dir.as_str().to_string();
+    let total = ROWS_PER_FRAG * NUM_FRAGS;
+    let mut batches = Vec::new();
+    let mut start = 0i64;
+    while (start as u64) < total {
+        let n = (total - start as u64).min(ROWS_PER_FRAG) as usize;
+        batches.push(make_composite_batch(start, n));
+        start += n as i64;
+    }
+    let params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAG as usize,
+        max_rows_per_group: ROWS_PER_FRAG as usize,
+        mode: WriteMode::Create,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), composite_schema());
+    Dataset::write(reader, &path, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut ds = Dataset::open(&path).await.unwrap();
+    for col in ["a", "b"] {
+        ds.create_index(
+            &[col],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+    (dir, Arc::new(ds))
+}
+
+/// Composite-key merge_insert op: 30 updates of existing (a, b) pairs +
+/// 70 inserts of new pairs, joined on both columns.
+async fn one_composite_merge_insert(ds: Arc<Dataset>, base_existing: i64, base_new: i64) {
+    let mut a_vals: Vec<i64> = (0..30).map(|i| base_existing + i).collect();
+    a_vals.extend(base_new..base_new + 70);
+    let b_vals: Vec<i64> = a_vals.iter().copied().map(composite_b).collect();
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        composite_schema(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int64Array::from(a_vals)),
+            Arc::new(Int64Array::from(b_vals)),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(std::iter::once(Ok(batch)), composite_schema());
+
+    let mut builder =
+        MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds, vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()]).unwrap();
+    builder
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll);
+    let job = builder.try_build().unwrap();
+    let _ = job.execute_reader(reader).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+async fn build_clean() -> (TempStrDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let path = dir.as_str().to_string();
+    let ds = build_indexed_base(&path).await;
+    (dir, Arc::new(ds))
+}
+
+async fn build_with_new_rows_only() -> (TempStrDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let path = dir.as_str().to_string();
+    build_indexed_base(&path).await;
+    let base = (ROWS_PER_FRAG * NUM_FRAGS) as i64;
+    let ds = append_rows(&path, base, 500).await;
+    (dir, Arc::new(ds))
+}
+
+async fn build_with_deletions_only() -> (TempStrDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let path = dir.as_str().to_string();
+    let mut ds = build_indexed_base(&path).await;
+    delete_some_indexed_rows(&mut ds).await;
+    (dir, Arc::new(ds))
+}
+
+async fn build_with_new_rows_and_deletions() -> (TempStrDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let path = dir.as_str().to_string();
+    build_indexed_base(&path).await;
+    let base = (ROWS_PER_FRAG * NUM_FRAGS) as i64;
+    let mut ds = append_rows(&path, base, 500).await;
+    delete_some_indexed_rows(&mut ds).await;
+    (dir, Arc::new(ds))
+}
+
+fn bench_one_shape<F, Fut, M, MFut>(c: &mut Criterion, name: &str, builder: F, merge: M)
+where
+    F: FnOnce() -> Fut,
+    Fut: std::future::Future<Output = (TempStrDir, Arc<Dataset>)>,
+    M: Fn(Arc<Dataset>, i64, i64) -> MFut + Copy,
+    MFut: std::future::Future<Output = ()>,
+{
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let (_dir, ds) = rt.block_on(builder());
+    // Cache a snapshot version so each iteration restores to the same baseline.
+    let base_version = ds.version().version;
+    let path = ds.uri().to_string();
+    let total = rt.block_on(ds.count_rows(None)).unwrap() as i64;
+
+    c.bench_function(name, |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            rt.block_on(async {
+                // Restore to the base version so the bench measures a single
+                // merge_insert against the same dataset shape every time.
+                let bench_ds = Dataset::open(&path).await.unwrap();
+                let mut bench_ds = bench_ds.checkout_version(base_version).await.unwrap();
+                bench_ds.restore().await.unwrap();
+                let arc = Arc::new(bench_ds);
+                // base_existing in the indexed range, base_new beyond all data so it's an insert.
+                merge(arc, 100, total + 1_000_000).await;
+            })
+        })
+    });
+}
+
+fn bench_merge_insert(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    bench_one_shape(c, "merge_insert/clean", build_clean, one_merge_insert);
+    bench_one_shape(
+        c,
+        "merge_insert/with_new_rows_only",
+        build_with_new_rows_only,
+        one_merge_insert,
+    );
+    bench_one_shape(
+        c,
+        "merge_insert/with_deletions_only",
+        build_with_deletions_only,
+        one_merge_insert,
+    );
+    // The shape that exercises the AllowList(Full) - BlockList(Partial) path.
+    bench_one_shape(
+        c,
+        "merge_insert/with_new_rows_and_deletions",
+        build_with_new_rows_and_deletions,
+        one_merge_insert,
+    );
+    // Composite key joined on (a, b), both BTree-indexed: exercises the
+    // AND-folded multi-index probe inside MapIndexExec.
+    bench_one_shape(
+        c,
+        "merge_insert/composite_key_indexed",
+        build_composite_key_indexed,
+        one_composite_merge_insert,
+    );
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+criterion_group!(
+    name=benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10)
+        .with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+    targets = bench_merge_insert);
+
+#[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
+criterion_group!(
+    name=benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
+    targets = bench_merge_insert);
+
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/nullable_vector_training.rs b/rust/lance/benches/nullable_vector_training.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b2b9fad91c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/nullable_vector_training.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::dataset::WriteParams;
+use lance::index::vector::{has_vectors_to_train, utils::maybe_sample_training_data};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::SmallRng};
+
+fn bench_nullable_vector_training(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(42);
+    let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..8192 * 2048).map(|_| rng.random::<f32>())),
+        2048,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    // This matches Coyo: the schema allows nulls, but every vector is present.
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "vector",
+        vectors.data_type().clone(),
+        true,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+    let dataset = rt
+        .block_on(Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("nullable_vector_training");
+    group.warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs(1));
+    group.measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(3));
+    group.sample_size(10);
+    group.bench_function("preflight_256_of_8192", |b| {
+        b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
+            assert!(has_vectors_to_train(&dataset, "vector", 256).await.unwrap());
+        });
+    });
+    group.bench_function("sample_512_of_8192", |b| {
+        b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
+            let sample = maybe_sample_training_data(&dataset, "vector", 512, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sample.len(), 512);
+            assert_eq!(sample.null_count(), 0);
+        });
+    });
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(benches, bench_nullable_vector_training);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/random_access.rs b/rust/lance/benches/random_access.rs
index 7ead6c2045c..6fb76f0783b 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/random_access.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/random_access.rs
@@ -5,9 +5,9 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{Float64Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use lance::dataset::{Dataset, ProjectionRequest, WriteParams};
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use tokio::runtime::Runtime;
 use uuid::Uuid;
@@ -85,7 +85,12 @@ fn utf8_field_without_fsst(name: &str) -> Field {
 }
 
 fn utf8_field_for(version: LanceFileVersion, enable_fsst: bool, name: &str) -> Field {
-    if enable_fsst && version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1 {
+    if enable_fsst
+        && matches!(
+            version.resolve(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+        )
+    {
         Field::new(name, DataType::Utf8, false)
     } else {
         utf8_field_without_fsst(name)
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/regex_ngram.rs b/rust/lance/benches/regex_ngram.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..76f597ad9cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/regex_ngram.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Benchmark: regex predicate scans over an ngram-indexed string column.
+//!
+//! Each query is a `regexp_match(doc, '...')` filter against a dataset that has
+//! an NGram index on `doc`. The query set spans a selective AND pattern, an
+//! alternation, a plain literal (rewritten to an infix LIKE before it reaches
+//! the index), and a deliberately non-accelerable pattern (`a.b`, which yields
+//! no trigram) that serves as a regression guard.
+//!
+//! On `main` none of these use the index (regex falls through to a full scan +
+//! recheck); with the ngram-regex acceleration the index prunes candidates for
+//! the first three while `a.b` stays a full scan. Capture a baseline on `main`
+//! with `--save-baseline before_7130`, then compare after the change with
+//! `--baseline before_7130`.
+
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use arrow::array::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+use lance_datagen::{RowCount, array};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+
+const TOTAL: usize = 200_000;
+
+/// Build the `doc` column: random sentences with rare markers injected into a
+/// small fraction of rows so the regex queries have controlled selectivity.
+/// The markers (`zqxwvu`, `needlexyz`, `qwerasdf`) are unlikely to appear in
+/// the generated English-word sentences.
+fn build_docs() -> StringArray {
+    let mut sentence_gen = array::random_sentence(1, 30, false);
+    let base = sentence_gen
+        .generate_default(RowCount::from(TOTAL as u64))
+        .unwrap();
+    let base = base.as_string::<i32>();
+    let docs = (0..TOTAL).map(|i| {
+        let sentence = base.value(i);
+        if i % 200 == 0 {
+            // ~0.5% of rows match `zqxwvu.*needlexyz` and `zqxwvu`.
+            format!("{sentence} zqxwvu needlexyz")
+        } else if i % 211 == 0 {
+            // A second marker for the alternation query.
+            format!("{sentence} qwerasdf")
+        } else {
+            sentence.to_string()
+        }
+    });
+    StringArray::from_iter_values(docs)
+}
+
+async fn build_dataset(tempdir: &TempStrDir) -> Arc<Dataset> {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(build_docs())]).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, tempdir.as_str(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["doc"],
+            IndexType::NGram,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    Arc::new(dataset)
+}
+
+async fn scan_filter(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str) -> usize {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
+    let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum()
+}
+
+fn bench_regex_ngram(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let tempdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = rt.block_on(build_dataset(&tempdir));
+
+    let queries = [
+        ("selective_and", "regexp_match(doc, 'zqxwvu.*needlexyz')"),
+        (
+            "alternation",
+            "regexp_match(doc, '(zqxwvu|qwerasdf|needlexyz)')",
+        ),
+        ("plain_literal", "regexp_match(doc, 'zqxwvu')"),
+        ("non_accelerable_a_dot_b", "regexp_match(doc, 'a.b')"),
+    ];
+
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("regex_ngram");
+    group
+        .sample_size(10)
+        .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(15));
+    for (name, filter) in queries {
+        group.bench_function(name, |b| {
+            b.iter(|| black_box(rt.block_on(scan_filter(&dataset, filter))));
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default()
+        .significance_level(0.1)
+        .sample_size(10)
+        .with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+    targets = bench_regex_ngram);
+
+#[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
+    targets = bench_regex_ngram);
+
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/rowid_spill.rs b/rust/lance/benches/rowid_spill.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..35ebc68380a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/rowid_spill.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1040 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! What it costs to keep a fragment's row lineage -- its stable row id
+//! sequence and its created-at and last-updated-at version sequences -- in the
+//! manifest, and what changes when those sequences spill to hidden columns of
+//! the fragment's data file.
+//!
+//! Two workloads, because they sit at opposite ends of what the run encoding
+//! can do with a sequence:
+//!
+//! - `deleted`: rows deleted and then compacted, the workload behind the
+//!   numbers in <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8621>. The
+//!   deletions become holes, so the row id sequence encodes as a range plus a
+//!   bitmap and costs a fraction of a byte per row. A compacted fragment merges
+//!   a few whole fragments, so its version sequences stay a few runs long.
+//! - `shuffled`: every row rewritten in random order, which is what a
+//!   reclustering pass leaves behind. Each fragment's rows now come from all
+//!   over the table, so there is no run structure left: the row id sequence
+//!   falls back to `U64Segment::Array`, at four bytes per row on the wire, and
+//!   the rows' created-at versions interleave, so most rows start a new version
+//!   run. This is the worst case for keeping sequences inline. At the defaults
+//!   the inline arm carries about 200 MB of version runs in its manifest, which
+//!   makes that arm much slower to open and to commit to.
+//!
+//! Each workload runs two arms, and within a workload the arms differ only in
+//! the table config: the inline arm never opts in, which is today's behavior,
+//! and the spilled arm sets `lance.row_lineage.spill=true` and takes the
+//! format's 200 KiB inline budget unless `BENCH_INLINE_MAX_BYTES` overrides it.
+//! Both arms measure the case for the design and the costs it adds:
+//!
+//! 1. manifest bytes -- the claim is that this stops growing with the table.
+//!    Taken from the first append after the compaction, which is the manifest
+//!    every later reader decodes and every later commit rewrites. The
+//!    compaction's own manifest file can also hold a copy of its transaction
+//!    that no reader downloads, so it is reported on its own row
+//! 2. cold dataset open -- every reader pays the manifest decode
+//! 3. commit latency for one small append -- every writer rewrites the
+//!    manifest. Only the commit is timed; the append's data file is written
+//!    before the timer starts
+//! 4. reading a sequence back, split into loading one fragment's sequence and
+//!    the dataset-wide row id index build that a query pays before it can
+//!    resolve an id -- the read cost the design adds. The `take` that follows
+//!    once the index and the fragment's sequence are cached is a control: it
+//!    should cost the same in both arms
+//! 5. compaction wall time and the bytes it wrote -- the write cost it adds
+//!
+//! Timings are reported as the median and the minimum of their samples.
+//!
+//! The benchmark also checks its premise: the spilled arm must have spilled
+//! something and the inline arm nothing, and after the compaction a full scan
+//! compares every row's row id and versions with the ones the workload handed
+//! out.
+//!
+//! ## Running
+//!
+//! Spilled row lineage is an unstable feature, so a release build -- which is
+//! what `cargo bench` produces -- has to opt in:
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! LANCE_ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE=1 cargo bench --bench rowid_spill
+//! # A quick run. At this size the deleted table fits the default inline
+//! # budget, so the budget is set to zero to keep something spilling.
+//! BENCH_FRAGMENTS=2 BENCH_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT=200000 BENCH_INLINE_MAX_BYTES=0 \
+//!   LANCE_ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE=1 cargo bench --bench rowid_spill
+//! ```
+//!
+//! ## Configuration
+//!
+//! - `BENCH_FRAGMENTS`: fragments to write (default 8).
+//! - `BENCH_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT`: rows in each (default 1,000,000).
+//! - `BENCH_DELETE_PERCENT`: percentage of rows deleted before compaction in
+//!   the `deleted` workload, 1 to 99 (default 30). Deletions are what turn the
+//!   sequences into something the run encoding cannot compress into a plain
+//!   range.
+//! - `BENCH_APPENDS`: appends timed for the commit-latency figure (default 5).
+//! - `BENCH_INLINE_MAX_BYTES`: the spilled arm's inline budget in bytes,
+//!   written to `lance.row_lineage.inline_max_bytes` (default: the format's
+//!   200 KiB). A small table's sequences can all fit the default budget, which
+//!   would leave the spilled arm nothing to measure and stops the benchmark,
+//!   so a quick run sets this to 0.
+//! - `BENCH_SCENARIOS`: comma-separated subset of `deleted,shuffled` to run
+//!   (default both).
+//!
+//! A value that does not parse or is out of range stops the benchmark before
+//! any data is written. A spilled arm that spills nothing stops it after that
+//! arm's compaction.
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::{Int64Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::{Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+use lance::dataset::rowids::{
+    DEFAULT_INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES, INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY,
+    SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY, get_row_id_index, load_row_id_sequence,
+};
+use lance::dataset::{
+    CommitBuilder, Dataset, InsertBuilder, ProjectionRequest, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+};
+use lance::session::Session;
+use lance_core::{ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry;
+use lance_table::feature_flags::ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE_ENV;
+use lance_table::format::{RowDatasetVersionMeta, RowDatasetVersionSequence, RowIdMeta};
+use lance_table::rowids::version::write_dataset_versions;
+use lance_table::rowids::{RowIdSequence, write_row_ids};
+use lance_table::transaction::{Operation, RewriteGroup, TransactionBuilder};
+use rand::{SeedableRng, rngs::SmallRng, seq::SliceRandom};
+use tokio::runtime::Runtime;
+
+const DEFAULT_FRAGMENTS: usize = 8;
+const DEFAULT_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 1_000_000;
+const DEFAULT_DELETE_PERCENT: usize = 30;
+const DEFAULT_APPENDS: usize = 5;
+
+/// Repeats for the cold-open figure, which is sub-millisecond on local disk
+/// for a small manifest.
+const OPEN_SAMPLES: usize = 10;
+
+/// Repeats for the two cold sequence-read figures.
+const READ_SAMPLES: usize = 10;
+
+/// Row ids taken, one per call, for the take figure.
+const TAKE_PROBES: usize = 16;
+
+/// The value of `name`, or `None` when it is unset. A value that does not
+/// parse stops the benchmark: falling back to the default would quietly run,
+/// say, `BENCH_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT=1e5` at a million rows.
+fn env_usize(name: &str) -> Option<usize> {
+    let value = std::env::var(name).ok()?;
+    match value.parse() {
+        Ok(parsed) => Some(parsed),
+        Err(error) => panic!("{name}={value:?} is not a non-negative integer: {error}"),
+    }
+}
+
+/// How the table is left before compaction, which decides what the lineage
+/// sequences look like and so what keeping them inline costs.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum Scenario {
+    /// A slice of every fragment deleted, then compacted. The surviving ids are
+    /// still ascending, so the sequence encodes as a range plus a bitmap of
+    /// holes.
+    Deleted,
+    /// Every row rewritten in a random order. The ids in a fragment are no
+    /// longer ascending or contiguous, so the encoding degrades to a bitpacked
+    /// array of absolute values, and neighboring rows no longer share a
+    /// created-at version.
+    Shuffled,
+}
+
+impl Scenario {
+    fn name(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Deleted => "deleted",
+            Self::Shuffled => "shuffled",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct Config {
+    fragments: usize,
+    rows_per_fragment: usize,
+    delete_percent: usize,
+    appends: usize,
+    /// The spilled arm's inline budget, or `None` for the format's default.
+    inline_max_bytes: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl Config {
+    fn from_env() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            fragments: env_usize("BENCH_FRAGMENTS").unwrap_or(DEFAULT_FRAGMENTS),
+            rows_per_fragment: env_usize("BENCH_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT")
+                .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT),
+            delete_percent: env_usize("BENCH_DELETE_PERCENT").unwrap_or(DEFAULT_DELETE_PERCENT),
+            appends: env_usize("BENCH_APPENDS").unwrap_or(DEFAULT_APPENDS),
+            inline_max_bytes: env_usize("BENCH_INLINE_MAX_BYTES"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Reject a configuration that would fail, or measure nothing, only after
+    /// minutes of setup.
+    fn validate(self, scenarios: &[Scenario]) {
+        assert!(
+            self.fragments >= 1,
+            "BENCH_FRAGMENTS={} must be at least 1",
+            self.fragments
+        );
+        assert!(
+            self.appends >= 1,
+            "BENCH_APPENDS={} must be at least 1: the commit figures and the steady-state \
+             manifest both come from the appends",
+            self.appends
+        );
+        if scenarios.contains(&Scenario::Shuffled) {
+            assert!(
+                self.rows_per_fragment >= 2,
+                "BENCH_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT={} must be at least 2 for the shuffled scenario, which \
+                 rewrites the table in fragments of half that size",
+                self.rows_per_fragment
+            );
+        }
+        if scenarios.contains(&Scenario::Deleted) {
+            assert!(
+                (1..=99).contains(&self.delete_percent),
+                "BENCH_DELETE_PERCENT={} must be between 1 and 99 for the deleted scenario: 0 \
+                 leaves the compaction nothing to do and 100 deletes the whole table",
+                self.delete_percent
+            );
+            // A row survives when `id % 100 >= delete_percent`, so with at most 99
+            // percent deleted the row with id 99 always does; a smaller table can
+            // lose every row.
+            assert!(
+                self.fragments.saturating_mul(self.rows_per_fragment) >= 100,
+                "BENCH_FRAGMENTS x BENCH_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT = {} x {} must reach 100 rows for the \
+                 deleted scenario, or the deletions can remove every row",
+                self.fragments,
+                self.rows_per_fragment
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fragments whose sequence of each lineage family left the manifest. The
+/// families are planned on their own sizes, so a workload can spill one and
+/// keep another inline.
+struct SpilledFragments {
+    row_ids: usize,
+    created_at: usize,
+    last_updated_at: usize,
+}
+
+impl SpilledFragments {
+    fn any(&self) -> bool {
+        self.row_ids + self.created_at + self.last_updated_at > 0
+    }
+}
+
+struct ArmResult {
+    compaction: Duration,
+    compaction_output_bytes: u64,
+    manifest_bytes: u64,
+    compaction_manifest_bytes: u64,
+    transaction_bytes: u64,
+    inline_row_id_bytes: u64,
+    inline_row_version_bytes: u64,
+    rows: u64,
+    open: Vec<Duration>,
+    commit: Vec<Duration>,
+    load_sequence: Vec<Duration>,
+    index_build: Vec<Duration>,
+    take: Vec<Duration>,
+    spilled_fragments: SpilledFragments,
+    total_fragments: usize,
+}
+
+/// Encoded bytes each fragment keeps inline in the manifest, split by which of
+/// the three per-row sequence families they belong to. The row version families
+/// are spilled on their own size, so the split shows which sequences a
+/// workload actually moves.
+fn inline_sequence_bytes(dataset: &Dataset) -> (u64, u64) {
+    let mut row_ids = 0;
+    let mut versions = 0;
+    for fragment in dataset.manifest.fragments.iter() {
+        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragment.row_id_meta {
+            row_ids += data.len() as u64;
+        }
+        for meta in [
+            &fragment.created_at_version_meta,
+            &fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta,
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .flatten()
+        {
+            if let RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(data) = meta {
+                versions += data.len() as u64;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    (row_ids, versions)
+}
+
+fn schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+        Field::new("value", DataType::Int64, false),
+    ]))
+}
+
+/// `value` is a pure function of `id` so that a `take` by row id can be checked
+/// against the id it resolved to, which is what proves a spilled sequence maps
+/// rows to the same places the inline one did.
+fn value_of(id: i64) -> i64 {
+    id * 3
+}
+
+fn batch(schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>, start: i64, len: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    let ids = Int64Array::from_iter_values(start..(start + len as i64));
+    let values = Int64Array::from_iter_values((start..(start + len as i64)).map(value_of));
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(values)]).unwrap()
+}
+
+/// A fresh session with no caches, so each measurement pays the real decode
+/// rather than reading back what the previous one memoized.
+fn cold_session() -> Arc<Session> {
+    Arc::new(Session::new(0, 0, Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default())))
+}
+
+async fn open_cold(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+        .with_session(cold_session())
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Write the table one fragment per commit, so the fragments come from
+/// different versions the way an incrementally loaded table's would.
+async fn write_table(uri: &str, config: Config) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = schema();
+    let mut dataset = None;
+    for fragment in 0..config.fragments {
+        let start = (fragment * config.rows_per_fragment) as i64;
+        let data = batch(schema.clone(), start, config.rows_per_fragment);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data)], schema.clone());
+        dataset = Some(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    max_rows_per_file: config.rows_per_fragment,
+                    mode: if fragment == 0 {
+                        WriteMode::Create
+                    } else {
+                        WriteMode::Append
+                    },
+                    skip_auto_cleanup: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    dataset.unwrap()
+}
+
+/// The version `write_table` created the row with `id` at: the first fragment
+/// is created at version 1 and each later one appended at the next version.
+fn created_at_version(id: u64, config: Config) -> u64 {
+    id / config.rows_per_fragment as u64 + 1
+}
+
+/// Rewrite the whole table in a random row order, keeping every row's stable
+/// row id and the version that created it.
+///
+/// This is the shape a reclustering pass leaves behind, and it goes through the
+/// same `Operation::Rewrite` a compaction commits: the new fragments carry the
+/// permuted sequences, which is how such a pass would have to preserve row
+/// lineage. The fragments are written at half the target size so that the
+/// compaction that follows has neighbors to merge, and therefore rechunks --
+/// and in the spilled arm spills -- every sequence.
+///
+/// Nothing is read back from the table: `write_table` gives the row with `id`
+/// the row id `id`, so the permutation of the ids is also the permutation of
+/// the row ids, and the created-at version follows from the id too.
+async fn shuffle_rewrite(dataset: Dataset, config: Config) -> Dataset {
+    let total_rows = config.fragments * config.rows_per_fragment;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.next_row_id, total_rows as u64,
+        "write_table handed out {} row ids for {total_rows} rows, so the row ids no longer \
+         equal the ids",
+        dataset.manifest.next_row_id
+    );
+
+    let mut ids: Vec<u64> = (0..total_rows as u64).collect();
+    // A fixed seed, so both arms of a scenario rewrite the same permutation.
+    ids.shuffle(&mut SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0x2545_F491_4F6C_DD1D));
+    let ids = Arc::new(ids);
+
+    let rows_per_file = config.rows_per_fragment / 2;
+    let arrow_schema = schema();
+    // Batches are built as the writer asks for them, so the permuted table is
+    // never held in memory next to the ids. The writer needs a reader that owns
+    // what it reads, hence the shared vector.
+    let batches = {
+        let ids = ids.clone();
+        let schema = arrow_schema.clone();
+        (0..total_rows).step_by(rows_per_file).map(move |start| {
+            let chunk = &ids[start..(start + rows_per_file).min(total_rows)];
+            let id_column = Int64Array::from_iter_values(chunk.iter().map(|id| *id as i64));
+            let values = Int64Array::from_iter_values(chunk.iter().map(|id| value_of(*id as i64)));
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(id_column), Arc::new(values)])
+        })
+    };
+
+    let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, arrow_schema);
+    let uncommitted = InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            max_rows_per_file: rows_per_file,
+            skip_auto_cleanup: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted_stream(reader)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut new_fragments = match uncommitted.operation {
+        Operation::Append { fragments } => fragments,
+        other => panic!("uncommitted write produced {other:?}, expected an append"),
+    };
+
+    // An uncommitted append carries no lineage: an append is handed its row ids
+    // and versions when it commits, and these fragments are committed by a
+    // rewrite instead. Give them the lineage the rows already have, sliced in
+    // the order the fragments were written. No row has been updated, so a row
+    // was last updated at the version that created it.
+    let mut offset = 0;
+    for fragment in new_fragments.iter_mut() {
+        let rows_in_fragment = fragment.physical_rows.unwrap();
+        let fragment_ids = &ids[offset..offset + rows_in_fragment];
+        let sequence = RowIdSequence::from(fragment_ids);
+        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&sequence).into()));
+
+        let created = fragment_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| created_at_version(*id, config))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let versions: Arc<[u8]> =
+            write_dataset_versions(&RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&created)).into();
+        fragment.created_at_version_meta = Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(versions.clone()));
+        fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(versions));
+        offset += rows_in_fragment;
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        offset, total_rows,
+        "the new fragments hold {offset} rows but the table has {total_rows}"
+    );
+
+    let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+        dataset.version().version,
+        Operation::Rewrite {
+            groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments: dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone(),
+                new_fragments,
+            }],
+            rewritten_indices: Vec::new(),
+            frag_reuse_index: None,
+        },
+    )
+    .build();
+
+    CommitBuilder::new(dataset)
+        .with_skip_auto_cleanup(true)
+        .execute(transaction)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// The table as the scenario leaves it, ready for the compaction that decides
+/// where each sequence lands.
+async fn build_base(uri: &str, config: Config, scenario: Scenario) -> Dataset {
+    let mut dataset = write_table(uri, config).await;
+    match scenario {
+        Scenario::Deleted => {
+            // Spread the deletions across every fragment rather than truncating
+            // a prefix: a hole every few rows is what stops the sequence from
+            // encoding as a range.
+            dataset
+                .delete(&format!("id % 100 < {}", config.delete_percent))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+        }
+        Scenario::Shuffled => shuffle_rewrite(dataset, config).await,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Scan every row's lineage and compare it with what the workload handed out:
+/// the row with `id` has the row id `id`, was created at
+/// [`created_at_version`], and has not been updated since. A spilled column of
+/// the right length but with misaligned values gets past the reader's own
+/// checks, so this is what separates a fast answer from a correct one.
+///
+/// Returns the number of rows checked.
+async fn check_lineage(dataset: &Dataset, config: Config) -> u64 {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .project(&[
+            "id",
+            ROW_ID,
+            ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+            ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut checked = 0;
+    while let Some(batch) = stream.try_next().await.unwrap() {
+        let ids = batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int64Type>();
+        let row_ids = batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let created = batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let last_updated = batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            created.null_count() + last_updated.null_count(),
+            0,
+            "the scan returned rows without a created-at or last-updated-at version"
+        );
+        for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            let id = ids.value(row) as u64;
+            let version = created_at_version(id, config);
+            let lineage = (
+                row_ids.value(row),
+                created.value(row),
+                last_updated.value(row),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                lineage,
+                (id, version, version),
+                "the row with id {id} came back with (row id, created at, last updated at) = \
+                 {lineage:?}"
+            );
+        }
+        checked += batch.num_rows() as u64;
+    }
+    checked
+}
+
+fn dir_bytes(path: &str) -> u64 {
+    let mut total = 0;
+    let Ok(entries) = std::fs::read_dir(path) else {
+        return 0;
+    };
+    for entry in entries.flatten() {
+        let Ok(metadata) = entry.metadata() else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        if metadata.is_dir() {
+            total += dir_bytes(&entry.path().to_string_lossy());
+        } else {
+            total += metadata.len();
+        }
+    }
+    total
+}
+
+async fn run_arm(dir: &str, config: Config, scenario: Scenario, spill: bool) -> ArmResult {
+    let uri = dir.to_string();
+    let mut dataset = build_base(&uri, config, scenario).await;
+    if spill {
+        let inline_budget = config.inline_max_bytes.map(|bytes| bytes.to_string());
+        let mut table_config = vec![(SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY, "true")];
+        if let Some(bytes) = &inline_budget {
+            table_config.push((INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY, bytes.as_str()));
+        }
+        dataset.update_config(table_config).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // A commit writes the whole transaction to its own file under
+    // `_transactions/` as well as putting the fragment list in the manifest, so
+    // the compaction's transaction blob is a write cost the manifest row does
+    // not show. The data directory is measured the same way, so that only the
+    // files the compaction wrote count, not the ones the base table left
+    // behind.
+    let transactions_before = dir_bytes(&format!("{dir}/_transactions"));
+    let data_before = dir_bytes(&format!("{dir}/data"));
+
+    let started = Instant::now();
+    compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: config.rows_per_fragment,
+            // Only bites in the `deleted` scenario; the `shuffled` one has no
+            // deletions and is picked up by the below-target rule instead.
+            materialize_deletions: true,
+            materialize_deletions_threshold: 0.0,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let compaction = started.elapsed();
+    let transaction_bytes =
+        dir_bytes(&format!("{dir}/_transactions")).saturating_sub(transactions_before);
+    // Both arms wrote identical user data, so the difference between them is
+    // what the spilled lineage columns cost.
+    let compaction_output_bytes = dir_bytes(&format!("{dir}/data")).saturating_sub(data_before);
+
+    let fragments = dataset.manifest.fragments.as_slice();
+    let total_fragments = fragments.len();
+    let spilled_fragments = SpilledFragments {
+        row_ids: fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|fragment| matches!(fragment.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column)))
+            .count(),
+        created_at: fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|fragment| {
+                matches!(
+                    fragment.created_at_version_meta,
+                    Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+                )
+            })
+            .count(),
+        last_updated_at: fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|fragment| {
+                matches!(
+                    fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta,
+                    Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+                )
+            })
+            .count(),
+    };
+    if spill {
+        // Spilling is planned per compaction task, so some outputs staying
+        // inline is a legitimate result. None spilling is not: the table would
+        // compare the inline layout with itself.
+        assert!(
+            spilled_fragments.any(),
+            "the spilled arm spilled nothing: every compacted sequence of the {} scenario fits \
+             the {} byte inline budget at BENCH_FRAGMENTS={} BENCH_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT={}; lower \
+             the budget ({INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY}) with BENCH_INLINE_MAX_BYTES",
+            scenario.name(),
+            config
+                .inline_max_bytes
+                .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES),
+            config.fragments,
+            config.rows_per_fragment,
+        );
+    } else {
+        assert!(
+            !spilled_fragments.any(),
+            "the inline arm never set {SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY}, yet it spilled row ids in \
+             {} fragments, created-at versions in {} and last-updated-at versions in {}",
+            spilled_fragments.row_ids,
+            spilled_fragments.created_at,
+            spilled_fragments.last_updated_at,
+        );
+    }
+
+    let rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap() as u64;
+    let compaction_manifest_bytes = dataset
+        .manifest_location()
+        .size
+        .expect("a commit records the size of the manifest it wrote");
+    let (inline_row_id_bytes, inline_row_version_bytes) = inline_sequence_bytes(&dataset);
+
+    // A cold open of a small manifest is sub-millisecond on a local
+    // filesystem, so a single sample is mostly noise.
+    let mut open = Vec::with_capacity(OPEN_SAMPLES);
+    for _ in 0..OPEN_SAMPLES {
+        let started = Instant::now();
+        let _opened = open_cold(&uri).await;
+        open.push(started.elapsed());
+    }
+
+    // One fragment's sequence, read cold. This is the work the design moves out
+    // of the manifest decode and into a data file read, so it is measured on its
+    // own rather than only through the query that depends on it.
+    let mut load_sequence = Vec::with_capacity(READ_SAMPLES);
+    for _ in 0..READ_SAMPLES {
+        // Opened outside the timed region: this row is the sequence read, not
+        // the manifest decode that `open` already reports.
+        let cold = open_cold(&uri).await;
+        let last = cold
+            .get_fragments()
+            .pop()
+            .expect("compaction left no fragments");
+        let started = Instant::now();
+        load_row_id_sequence(&cold, last.metadata()).await.unwrap();
+        load_sequence.push(started.elapsed());
+    }
+
+    // The dataset-wide row id index, which is what any query that resolves a row
+    // id pays for before it can touch data.
+    let mut index_build = Vec::with_capacity(READ_SAMPLES);
+    for _ in 0..READ_SAMPLES {
+        let cold = open_cold(&uri).await;
+        let started = Instant::now();
+        get_row_id_index(&cold).await.unwrap();
+        index_build.push(started.elapsed());
+    }
+
+    // The take itself, once everything it depends on is cached, which makes
+    // this row a control. It needs a session that actually caches --
+    // `open_cold` gives the caches zero capacity, so on that dataset
+    // `take_rows` would rebuild the index and re-measure `index_build`. The
+    // index build bypasses the per-fragment sequence cache, yet opening the
+    // target fragment for the take goes through it, so the target's sequence
+    // is loaded before the timer too: otherwise the spilled arm's take would
+    // re-read the hidden column `load_sequence` already measures. One untimed
+    // take then opens the data file and caches its metadata.
+    let warm = Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap();
+    get_row_id_index(&warm).await.unwrap();
+    let target = warm
+        .get_fragments()
+        .pop()
+        .expect("compaction left no fragments");
+    let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(&warm, target.metadata())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let probes = (0..TAKE_PROBES)
+        .map(|probe| {
+            let offset = probe * sequence.len() as usize / TAKE_PROBES;
+            sequence
+                .get(offset)
+                .expect("the offset is within the sequence")
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let projection = ProjectionRequest::from_columns(["value"], warm.schema());
+    warm.take_rows(&probes[..1], projection.clone())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut take = Vec::with_capacity(TAKE_PROBES);
+    for probe_id in probes {
+        let request = projection.clone();
+        let started = Instant::now();
+        let taken = warm.take_rows(&[probe_id], request).await.unwrap();
+        take.push(started.elapsed());
+
+        // A spot check of the index path: row ids were handed out in `id`
+        // order, so the row a sequence resolves has to be the one whose `value`
+        // matches.
+        let value = taken
+            .column_by_name("value")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+            .value(0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            value,
+            value_of(probe_id as i64),
+            "row id {probe_id} resolved to a row holding {value}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // The full check, after the timed reads so that it cannot warm what they
+    // measure, and before the appends, whose rows break `_rowid == id`.
+    let checked = check_lineage(&dataset, config).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        checked, rows,
+        "the lineage scan returned {checked} rows, but the table has {rows}"
+    );
+
+    // Only the commit is timed. The dataset is opened once, so the manifest
+    // decode that `open` reports is not counted again, and each append's data
+    // file is written before the timer starts.
+    let schema = schema();
+    let append_params = WriteParams {
+        mode: WriteMode::Append,
+        skip_auto_cleanup: true,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let mut current = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap());
+    let mut commit = Vec::with_capacity(config.appends);
+    let mut manifest_bytes = 0;
+    for append in 0..config.appends {
+        let data = batch(schema.clone(), 1_000_000_000 + append as i64 * 10, 10);
+        let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(current.clone())
+            .with_params(&append_params)
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let started = Instant::now();
+        let committed = CommitBuilder::new(current.clone())
+            .with_skip_auto_cleanup(true)
+            .execute(transaction)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        commit.push(started.elapsed());
+        if append == 0 {
+            // The compacted fragment list plus one small fragment and a small
+            // inline transaction: the manifest every reader decodes from now on
+            // and every later commit rewrites.
+            manifest_bytes = committed
+                .manifest_location()
+                .size
+                .expect("a commit records the size of the manifest it wrote");
+        }
+        current = Arc::new(committed);
+    }
+
+    ArmResult {
+        compaction,
+        compaction_output_bytes,
+        manifest_bytes,
+        compaction_manifest_bytes,
+        transaction_bytes,
+        inline_row_id_bytes,
+        inline_row_version_bytes,
+        rows,
+        open,
+        commit,
+        load_sequence,
+        index_build,
+        take,
+        spilled_fragments,
+        total_fragments,
+    }
+}
+
+fn mib(bytes: u64) -> f64 {
+    bytes as f64 / (1024.0 * 1024.0)
+}
+
+/// The middle sample, or the mean of the two middle ones.
+fn median(samples: &[Duration]) -> Duration {
+    let mut sorted = samples.to_vec();
+    sorted.sort_unstable();
+    let middle = sorted.len() / 2;
+    if sorted.len().is_multiple_of(2) {
+        (sorted[middle - 1] + sorted[middle]) / 2
+    } else {
+        sorted[middle]
+    }
+}
+
+fn report(scenario: Scenario, config: Config, inline: &ArmResult, spilled: &ArmResult) {
+    println!();
+    match scenario {
+        Scenario::Deleted => println!(
+            "--- {}: {} fragments x {} rows, {}% deleted then compacted ---",
+            scenario.name(),
+            config.fragments,
+            config.rows_per_fragment,
+            config.delete_percent
+        ),
+        Scenario::Shuffled => println!(
+            "--- {}: {} fragments x {} rows, rewritten in random order then compacted ---",
+            scenario.name(),
+            config.fragments,
+            config.rows_per_fragment
+        ),
+    }
+    println!(
+        "spilled arm: {SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY}=true with a {} byte inline budget",
+        config
+            .inline_max_bytes
+            .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES)
+    );
+    println!();
+
+    println!(
+        "{:<40} {:>14} {:>14} {:>10}",
+        "metric", "inline", "spilled", "ratio"
+    );
+    let row = |name: &str, inline: f64, spilled: f64, unit: &str| {
+        let ratio = if spilled == 0.0 {
+            f64::INFINITY
+        } else {
+            inline / spilled
+        };
+        println!("{name:<40} {inline:>12.2}{unit:<2} {spilled:>12.2}{unit:<2} {ratio:>9.2}x");
+    };
+    let ms = |duration: Duration| duration.as_secs_f64() * 1e3;
+    // The median is the figure to quote; the minimum under it shows how much
+    // of the median is noise.
+    let timing = |name: &str, inline: &[Duration], spilled: &[Duration]| {
+        let fastest = |samples: &[Duration]| samples.iter().min().copied().unwrap_or_default();
+        row(
+            &format!("{name} (median)"),
+            ms(median(inline)),
+            ms(median(spilled)),
+            "ms",
+        );
+        row("  min", ms(fastest(inline)), ms(fastest(spilled)), "ms");
+    };
+
+    row(
+        "manifest size (steady state)",
+        mib(inline.manifest_bytes),
+        mib(spilled.manifest_bytes),
+        "M",
+    );
+    row(
+        "  of which row ids",
+        mib(inline.inline_row_id_bytes),
+        mib(spilled.inline_row_id_bytes),
+        "M",
+    );
+    row(
+        "  of which row versions",
+        mib(inline.inline_row_version_bytes),
+        mib(spilled.inline_row_version_bytes),
+        "M",
+    );
+    // When the compaction's transaction serializes to at most
+    // `MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES` (20 MiB), a copy of it is written into the
+    // manifest file ahead of the manifest itself (`Manifest::transaction_section`),
+    // on top of the file under `_transactions/`. Readers decode only the
+    // manifest, so the copy is a one-off write cost, which is why this file is
+    // reported apart from the steady-state size above.
+    row(
+        "compaction manifest (incl. inline txn)",
+        mib(inline.compaction_manifest_bytes),
+        mib(spilled.compaction_manifest_bytes),
+        "M",
+    );
+    row(
+        "compaction transaction file",
+        mib(inline.transaction_bytes),
+        mib(spilled.transaction_bytes),
+        "M",
+    );
+    timing("cold dataset open", &inline.open, &spilled.open);
+    timing("append commit", &inline.commit, &spilled.commit);
+    timing(
+        "load one sequence (cold)",
+        &inline.load_sequence,
+        &spilled.load_sequence,
+    );
+    timing(
+        "row id index build (cold)",
+        &inline.index_build,
+        &spilled.index_build,
+    );
+    timing("take by row id (control)", &inline.take, &spilled.take);
+    row(
+        "compaction",
+        ms(inline.compaction),
+        ms(spilled.compaction),
+        "ms",
+    );
+    row(
+        "compaction output (data files)",
+        mib(inline.compaction_output_bytes),
+        mib(spilled.compaction_output_bytes),
+        "M",
+    );
+
+    println!();
+    // Bytes per row is what makes the two scenarios comparable: it is the
+    // encoding's cost for one row, and it is what decides whether a sequence
+    // belongs in the manifest at all.
+    let spilled_column_bytes = spilled
+        .compaction_output_bytes
+        .saturating_sub(inline.compaction_output_bytes);
+    println!(
+        "{} rows: the inline arm keeps {:.2} B/row of row ids and {:.2} B/row of row versions \
+         in the manifest; the spilled lineage columns add {:.2} B/row to the compaction output",
+        inline.rows,
+        inline.inline_row_id_bytes as f64 / inline.rows as f64,
+        inline.inline_row_version_bytes as f64 / inline.rows as f64,
+        spilled_column_bytes as f64 / spilled.rows as f64,
+    );
+    println!(
+        "spilled arm, fragments with a spilled sequence: row ids {}/{}, created at {}/{}, last \
+         updated at {}/{}",
+        spilled.spilled_fragments.row_ids,
+        spilled.total_fragments,
+        spilled.spilled_fragments.created_at,
+        spilled.total_fragments,
+        spilled.spilled_fragments.last_updated_at,
+        spilled.total_fragments,
+    );
+}
+
+fn scenarios_from_env() -> Vec<Scenario> {
+    let all = [Scenario::Deleted, Scenario::Shuffled];
+    let Ok(requested) = std::env::var("BENCH_SCENARIOS") else {
+        return all.to_vec();
+    };
+    let selected: Vec<Scenario> = all
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|scenario| {
+            requested
+                .split(',')
+                .any(|name| name.trim() == scenario.name())
+        })
+        .collect();
+    assert!(
+        !selected.is_empty(),
+        "BENCH_SCENARIOS={requested} selected none of: deleted, shuffled"
+    );
+    selected
+}
+
+fn bench_rowid_spill(_c: &mut Criterion) {
+    if std::env::var_os(ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE_ENV).is_none()
+        && !cfg!(debug_assertions)
+    {
+        panic!(
+            "set {ENABLE_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE_ENV}=1 to run this benchmark: spilled row lineage \
+             are an unstable feature and a release build refuses the dataset without it"
+        );
+    }
+
+    let config = Config::from_env();
+    let scenarios = scenarios_from_env();
+    config.validate(&scenarios);
+    let runtime = Runtime::new().unwrap();
+
+    println!("=== Row lineage placement ===");
+
+    for scenario in scenarios {
+        // A table that has not opted in reproduces the behavior on main, where
+        // a compacted fragment's sequences always stay inline however large
+        // they grow. Each arm's table is deleted before the next arm builds its
+        // own, so the two never take up disk at the same time.
+        let run = |spill: bool| {
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_string_lossy().into_owned();
+            runtime.block_on(run_arm(&uri, config, scenario, spill))
+        };
+        let inline = run(false);
+        let spilled = run(true);
+
+        report(scenario, config, &inline, &spilled);
+    }
+}
+
+criterion_group!(benches, bench_rowid_spill);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/s3_file_reader_diagnostics.rs b/rust/lance/benches/s3_file_reader_diagnostics.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c3e6a768678
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/s3_file_reader_diagnostics.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2361 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+// serde_json's `json_internal!` recurses once per nesting level of the
+// diagnostics payload literals below, which exceeds the default limit of 128.
+// Async future depth is not the reason: the crate compiles at the default
+// limit with the payloads flattened.
+#![recursion_limit = "256"]
+
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use std::env;
+use std::fs;
+use std::hint::black_box;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::{
+    Arc, Mutex,
+    atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
+};
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant, SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::stream::{FuturesOrdered, FuturesUnordered};
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance::dataset::ProjectionRequest;
+use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use lance::dataset::fragment::{FileFragment, FragReadConfig};
+use lance::dataset::scanner::{ExecutionStatsCallback, ExecutionSummaryCounts};
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_encoding::decoder::PageEncoding;
+use lance_encoding::format::pb21;
+use lance_file::reader::{
+    DEFAULT_READ_CHUNK_SIZE, FileReader as LanceFileReader, FileReaderOptions,
+};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore as LanceObjectStore;
+use lance_io::scheduler::{FileScheduler, ScanScheduler, ScanStats, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
+use tracing::field::{Field, Visit};
+use tracing::subscriber::Interest;
+use tracing::{Event, Metadata, Subscriber};
+use tracing_subscriber::layer::{Context, Layer};
+use tracing_subscriber::prelude::*;
+
+type Error = Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync>;
+type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, Error>;
+
+const GIB: u64 = 1024 * 1024 * 1024;
+const SCHEDULER_STATE_EVENT_TARGET: &str = "lance_io::scheduler::state";
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Eq, PartialEq)]
+enum SchedulerQueueKind {
+    Standard,
+    Lite,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct SchedulerDiagnostics {
+    kind: SchedulerQueueKind,
+    stats: ScanStats,
+    io_capacity: u64,
+    iops_available: u64,
+    active_iops: u64,
+    pending_iops: u64,
+    pending_bytes: u64,
+    bytes_available: i64,
+    bytes_reserved: i64,
+    io_buffer_size_bytes: u64,
+    priorities_in_flight: u64,
+    no_backpressure: bool,
+    head_task_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    head_task_priority_high: Option<u64>,
+    head_task_priority_low: Option<u64>,
+    min_in_flight_priority_high: Option<u64>,
+    min_in_flight_priority_low: Option<u64>,
+    head_task_can_deliver: Option<bool>,
+    head_task_priority_bypass: Option<bool>,
+    head_task_blocked_by_iops: Option<bool>,
+    head_task_blocked_by_bytes: Option<bool>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct Config {
+    backend: Backend,
+    uri: String,
+    dataset_version: u64,
+    columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    limit_rows: u64,
+    target_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    raw_range_size_bytes: u64,
+    raw_range_mode: RawRangeMode,
+    raw_column_indices: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+    raw_submit_mode: RawSubmitMode,
+    raw_completion_mode: RawCompletionMode,
+    take_repetitions: u64,
+    io_buffer_gib: Vec<Option<u64>>,
+    batch_size: u32,
+    batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    skip_batch_byte_accounting: bool,
+    read_chunk_size: Option<u64>,
+    fragment_concurrency: usize,
+    batch_concurrency: usize,
+    sample_ms: u64,
+    out_dir: String,
+    case_name: String,
+    describe_layout: bool,
+    detach_fragment_streams: bool,
+    drop_read_tasks: bool,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Eq, PartialEq)]
+enum Backend {
+    FileReader,
+    Scanner,
+    SchedulerRaw,
+    DatasetTake,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Eq, PartialEq)]
+enum RawSubmitMode {
+    Single,
+    SplitNoConcat,
+    SplitConcat,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Eq, PartialEq)]
+enum RawRangeMode {
+    FileSequential,
+    MetadataPages,
+    MetadataPagesRoundRobin,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Eq, PartialEq)]
+enum RawCompletionMode {
+    Unordered,
+    Ordered,
+}
+
+impl RawRangeMode {
+    fn name(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::FileSequential => "file-sequential",
+            Self::MetadataPages => "metadata-pages",
+            Self::MetadataPagesRoundRobin => "metadata-pages-round-robin",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl RawSubmitMode {
+    fn name(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Single => "single",
+            Self::SplitNoConcat => "split-no-concat",
+            Self::SplitConcat => "split-concat",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl RawCompletionMode {
+    fn name(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::Unordered => "unordered",
+            Self::Ordered => "ordered",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Backend {
+    fn name(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::FileReader => "lance-file-reader",
+            Self::Scanner => "lance-scanner",
+            Self::SchedulerRaw => "lance-scheduler-raw",
+            Self::DatasetTake => "lance-dataset-take",
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn layer(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::FileReader => "file-reader",
+            Self::Scanner => "scanner",
+            Self::SchedulerRaw => "scheduler",
+            Self::DatasetTake => "dataset-take",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct CpuSample {
+    idle: u64,
+    total: u64,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct SharedCounters {
+    fragments_started: AtomicU64,
+    fragments_completed: AtomicU64,
+    batch_futures_emitted: AtomicU64,
+    batch_futures_received: AtomicU64,
+    batches_completed: AtomicU64,
+    rows_completed: AtomicU64,
+    arrow_bytes: AtomicU64,
+    open_reader_ns: AtomicU64,
+    read_stream_create_ns: AtomicU64,
+    next_batch_poll_ns: AtomicU64,
+    channel_send_wait_ns: AtomicU64,
+    decode_ns: AtomicU64,
+    raw_reassemble_ns: AtomicU64,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct CaseStats {
+    rows: u64,
+    batches: u64,
+    arrow_bytes: u64,
+    planned_fragments: usize,
+    planned_rows: u64,
+    elapsed: Duration,
+    producer_finished_at: Option<Duration>,
+    peak_decode_in_flight: usize,
+    cpu_avg: Option<f64>,
+    scheduler_diagnostics: SchedulerDiagnostics,
+    counters: Arc<SharedCounters>,
+    samples: Vec<Value>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct LastSample {
+    elapsed: Duration,
+    scheduler_stats: ScanStats,
+    rows: u64,
+    batches: u64,
+    arrow_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+fn usage() -> &'static str {
+    "usage: s3_file_reader_diagnostics --uri <s3-dataset-uri> \
+     [--backend <file-reader|scanner|scheduler-raw>] \
+     [--dataset-version <n>] [--columns <all|col[,col...]>] \
+     [--limit-rows <n>] [--target-bytes <n>] [--raw-range-size-bytes <n>] \
+     [--raw-range-mode <file-sequential|metadata-pages|metadata-pages-round-robin>] \
+     [--raw-column-indices <all|n[,n...]>] \
+     [--raw-submit-mode <single|split-no-concat|split-concat>] \
+     [--raw-completion-mode <unordered|ordered>] \
+     [--take-repetitions <n>] \
+     [--io-buffer-gib <auto|n[,n...]>] \
+     [--batch-size <n>] [--batch-size-bytes <n>] [--read-chunk-size <n>] \
+     [--skip-batch-byte-accounting] \
+     [--fragment-concurrency <n>] [--batch-concurrency <n>] \
+     [--sample-ms <n>] [--out-dir <path>] [--case <name>] \
+     [--detach-fragment-streams] [--drop-read-tasks] [--describe-layout]"
+}
+
+fn parse_args() -> Result<Config> {
+    let mut backend = Backend::FileReader;
+    let mut uri = None;
+    let mut dataset_version = 1u64;
+    let mut columns = Some(vec!["vector".to_string()]);
+    let mut limit_rows = 67_108_864u64;
+    let mut target_bytes = None;
+    let mut raw_range_size_bytes = 16 * 1024 * 1024;
+    let mut raw_range_mode = RawRangeMode::FileSequential;
+    let mut raw_column_indices = None;
+    let mut raw_submit_mode = RawSubmitMode::Single;
+    let mut raw_completion_mode = RawCompletionMode::Unordered;
+    let mut take_repetitions = 100u64;
+    let mut io_buffer_gib = vec![Some(8)];
+    let mut batch_size = 8192u32;
+    let mut batch_size_bytes = None;
+    let mut skip_batch_byte_accounting = false;
+    let mut read_chunk_size = None;
+    let mut fragment_concurrency = 256usize;
+    let mut batch_concurrency = 256usize;
+    let mut sample_ms = 1000u64;
+    let mut out_dir = "/tmp/lance-s3-bottleneck-results".to_string();
+    let mut case_name = "lance-file-reader-diagnostics".to_string();
+    let mut describe_layout = false;
+    let mut detach_fragment_streams = false;
+    let mut drop_read_tasks = false;
+
+    let mut args = env::args().skip(1);
+    while let Some(arg) = args.next() {
+        match arg.as_str() {
+            "--backend" => {
+                let value = args
+                    .next()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| format!("missing value for --backend. {}", usage()))?;
+                backend = parse_backend(&value)?;
+            }
+            "--uri" => uri = args.next(),
+            "--dataset-version" => {
+                dataset_version = parse_required_value(&mut args, "--dataset-version")?;
+            }
+            "--columns" => {
+                let value = args
+                    .next()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| format!("missing value for --columns. {}", usage()))?;
+                columns = parse_columns(&value)?;
+            }
+            "--limit-rows" => {
+                limit_rows = parse_required_value(&mut args, "--limit-rows")?;
+            }
+            "--target-bytes" => {
+                target_bytes = Some(parse_required_value(&mut args, "--target-bytes")?);
+            }
+            "--raw-range-size-bytes" => {
+                raw_range_size_bytes = parse_required_value(&mut args, "--raw-range-size-bytes")?;
+            }
+            "--raw-range-mode" => {
+                let value = args
+                    .next()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| format!("missing value for --raw-range-mode. {}", usage()))?;
+                raw_range_mode = parse_raw_range_mode(&value)?;
+            }
+            "--raw-column-indices" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    format!("missing value for --raw-column-indices. {}", usage())
+                })?;
+                raw_column_indices = parse_raw_column_indices(&value)?;
+            }
+            "--raw-submit-mode" => {
+                let value = args
+                    .next()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| format!("missing value for --raw-submit-mode. {}", usage()))?;
+                raw_submit_mode = parse_raw_submit_mode(&value)?;
+            }
+            "--raw-completion-mode" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    format!("missing value for --raw-completion-mode. {}", usage())
+                })?;
+                raw_completion_mode = parse_raw_completion_mode(&value)?;
+            }
+            "--take-repetitions" => {
+                take_repetitions = parse_required_value(&mut args, "--take-repetitions")?;
+            }
+            "--io-buffer-gib" => {
+                let value = args
+                    .next()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| format!("missing value for --io-buffer-gib. {}", usage()))?;
+                io_buffer_gib = parse_io_buffer_gib(&value)?;
+            }
+            "--batch-size" => {
+                batch_size = parse_required_value(&mut args, "--batch-size")?;
+            }
+            "--batch-size-bytes" => {
+                batch_size_bytes = Some(parse_required_value(&mut args, "--batch-size-bytes")?);
+            }
+            "--skip-batch-byte-accounting" => {
+                skip_batch_byte_accounting = true;
+            }
+            "--read-chunk-size" => {
+                read_chunk_size = Some(parse_required_value(&mut args, "--read-chunk-size")?);
+            }
+            "--fragment-concurrency" => {
+                fragment_concurrency = parse_required_value(&mut args, "--fragment-concurrency")?;
+            }
+            "--batch-concurrency" => {
+                batch_concurrency = parse_required_value(&mut args, "--batch-concurrency")?;
+            }
+            "--sample-ms" => {
+                sample_ms = parse_required_value(&mut args, "--sample-ms")?;
+            }
+            "--out-dir" => {
+                out_dir = args
+                    .next()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| format!("missing value for --out-dir. {}", usage()))?;
+            }
+            "--case" => {
+                case_name = args
+                    .next()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| format!("missing value for --case. {}", usage()))?;
+            }
+            "--describe-layout" => {
+                describe_layout = true;
+            }
+            "--detach-fragment-streams" => {
+                detach_fragment_streams = true;
+            }
+            "--drop-read-tasks" => {
+                drop_read_tasks = true;
+            }
+            "--help" | "-h" => {
+                println!("{}", usage());
+                std::process::exit(0);
+            }
+            "--bench" => {
+                // Cargo appends this flag when running harness-free benches.
+            }
+            other => {
+                return Err(format!("unknown argument {other}. {}", usage()).into());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let uri = uri.ok_or_else(|| format!("missing required --uri. {}", usage()))?;
+    if limit_rows == 0 {
+        return Err("--limit-rows must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+    if matches!(target_bytes, Some(0)) {
+        return Err("--target-bytes must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+    if raw_range_size_bytes == 0 {
+        return Err("--raw-range-size-bytes must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+    if take_repetitions == 0 {
+        return Err("--take-repetitions must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+    if io_buffer_gib.is_empty() {
+        return Err("--io-buffer-gib must not be empty".into());
+    }
+    if batch_size == 0 {
+        return Err("--batch-size must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+    if matches!(batch_size_bytes, Some(0)) {
+        return Err("--batch-size-bytes must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+    if matches!(read_chunk_size, Some(0)) {
+        return Err("--read-chunk-size must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+    if fragment_concurrency == 0 && !matches!(backend, Backend::Scanner) {
+        return Err("--fragment-concurrency must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+    if batch_concurrency == 0 && !matches!(backend, Backend::Scanner) {
+        return Err("--batch-concurrency must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+    if sample_ms == 0 {
+        return Err("--sample-ms must be greater than zero".into());
+    }
+
+    Ok(Config {
+        backend,
+        uri,
+        dataset_version,
+        columns,
+        limit_rows,
+        target_bytes,
+        raw_range_size_bytes,
+        raw_range_mode,
+        raw_column_indices,
+        raw_submit_mode,
+        raw_completion_mode,
+        take_repetitions,
+        io_buffer_gib,
+        batch_size,
+        batch_size_bytes,
+        skip_batch_byte_accounting,
+        read_chunk_size,
+        fragment_concurrency,
+        batch_concurrency,
+        sample_ms,
+        out_dir,
+        case_name,
+        describe_layout,
+        detach_fragment_streams,
+        drop_read_tasks,
+    })
+}
+
+fn parse_backend(value: &str) -> Result<Backend> {
+    match value {
+        "file-reader" | "lance-file-reader" => Ok(Backend::FileReader),
+        "scanner" | "lance-scanner" => Ok(Backend::Scanner),
+        "scheduler-raw" | "lance-scheduler-raw" => Ok(Backend::SchedulerRaw),
+        "dataset-take" | "take" | "lance-dataset-take" => Ok(Backend::DatasetTake),
+        other => Err(format!(
+            "invalid --backend value {other}; expected file-reader, scanner, scheduler-raw, or dataset-take"
+        )
+        .into()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_raw_submit_mode(value: &str) -> Result<RawSubmitMode> {
+    match value {
+        "single" => Ok(RawSubmitMode::Single),
+        "split-no-concat" => Ok(RawSubmitMode::SplitNoConcat),
+        "split-concat" => Ok(RawSubmitMode::SplitConcat),
+        other => Err(format!(
+            "invalid --raw-submit-mode value {other}; expected single, split-no-concat, or split-concat"
+        )
+        .into()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_raw_range_mode(value: &str) -> Result<RawRangeMode> {
+    match value {
+        "file-sequential" => Ok(RawRangeMode::FileSequential),
+        "metadata-pages" => Ok(RawRangeMode::MetadataPages),
+        "metadata-pages-round-robin" => Ok(RawRangeMode::MetadataPagesRoundRobin),
+        other => Err(format!(
+            "invalid --raw-range-mode value {other}; expected file-sequential, metadata-pages, or metadata-pages-round-robin"
+        )
+        .into()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_raw_column_indices(value: &str) -> Result<Option<Vec<u32>>> {
+    if value == "all" {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let indices = value
+        .split(',')
+        .map(str::trim)
+        .filter(|part| !part.is_empty())
+        .map(|part| {
+            part.parse::<u32>()
+                .map_err(|err| format!("invalid raw column index {part}: {err}").into())
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    if indices.is_empty() {
+        return Err("--raw-column-indices must specify at least one column index or all".into());
+    }
+    Ok(Some(indices))
+}
+
+fn parse_raw_completion_mode(value: &str) -> Result<RawCompletionMode> {
+    match value {
+        "unordered" => Ok(RawCompletionMode::Unordered),
+        "ordered" => Ok(RawCompletionMode::Ordered),
+        other => Err(format!(
+            "invalid --raw-completion-mode value {other}; expected unordered or ordered"
+        )
+        .into()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_required_value<T>(args: &mut impl Iterator<Item = String>, name: &str) -> Result<T>
+where
+    T: std::str::FromStr,
+    T::Err: std::fmt::Display + Send + Sync + 'static,
+{
+    let value = args
+        .next()
+        .ok_or_else(|| format!("missing value for {name}. {}", usage()))?;
+    value
+        .parse()
+        .map_err(|err| format!("invalid {name} value {value}: {err}").into())
+}
+
+fn parse_columns(value: &str) -> Result<Option<Vec<String>>> {
+    match value {
+        "all" => Ok(None),
+        "empty" => Err("FileReader benchmark requires at least one data column".into()),
+        _ => Ok(Some(
+            value
+                .split(',')
+                .map(str::trim)
+                .filter(|column| !column.is_empty())
+                .map(ToString::to_string)
+                .collect(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_io_buffer_gib(value: &str) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+    value
+        .split(',')
+        .map(|part| {
+            let part = part.trim();
+            if part == "auto" {
+                Ok(None)
+            } else {
+                part.parse::<u64>()
+                    .map(Some)
+                    .map_err(|err| format!("invalid --io-buffer-gib value {part}: {err}").into())
+            }
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn projection_name(columns: &Option<Vec<String>>) -> String {
+    match columns {
+        None => "all".to_string(),
+        Some(columns) => columns.join(","),
+    }
+}
+
+fn page_layout_kind(encoding: &PageEncoding) -> &'static str {
+    match encoding {
+        PageEncoding::Legacy(_) => "legacy",
+        PageEncoding::Structural(layout) => match layout.layout.as_ref() {
+            Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::MiniBlockLayout(_)) => "miniblock",
+            Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::ConstantLayout(_)) => "constant",
+            Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::FullZipLayout(_)) => "fullzip",
+            Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::BlobLayout(_)) => "blob",
+            Some(pb21::page_layout::Layout::SparseLayout(_)) => "sparse",
+            None => "missing",
+        },
+    }
+}
+
+fn summarize_u64(values: &[u64]) -> Value {
+    if values.is_empty() {
+        return json!({
+            "count": 0,
+            "min": null,
+            "p50": null,
+            "p90": null,
+            "max": null,
+            "sum": 0,
+        });
+    }
+    let mut sorted = values.to_vec();
+    sorted.sort_unstable();
+    let percentile = |p: f64| {
+        let idx = ((sorted.len() - 1) as f64 * p).round() as usize;
+        sorted[idx]
+    };
+    json!({
+        "count": sorted.len(),
+        "min": sorted[0],
+        "p50": percentile(0.5),
+        "p90": percentile(0.9),
+        "max": *sorted.last().unwrap(),
+        "sum": values.iter().sum::<u64>(),
+    })
+}
+
+async fn describe_layout(config: &Config) -> Result<()> {
+    let dataset = Arc::new(
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&config.uri)
+            .with_version(config.dataset_version)
+            .load()
+            .await?,
+    );
+    let fragment = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .first()
+        .ok_or("dataset has no fragments")?;
+    let data_file = fragment
+        .files
+        .first()
+        .ok_or("first fragment has no data files")?;
+    if data_file.base_id.is_some() {
+        return Err("layout diagnostics do not support external base data files yet".into());
+    }
+
+    let data_path = dataset.data_dir().join(data_file.path.as_str());
+    let (object_store, _) = LanceObjectStore::from_uri(&config.uri).await?;
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, SchedulerConfig::new(8 * GIB));
+    let file_scheduler = scheduler
+        .open_file(&data_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+        .await?;
+    let metadata = LanceFileReader::read_all_metadata(&file_scheduler).await?;
+
+    let columns = metadata
+        .column_infos
+        .iter()
+        .map(|column| {
+            let mut layout_counts = BTreeMap::new();
+            let mut page_rows = Vec::with_capacity(column.page_infos.len());
+            let mut page_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(column.page_infos.len());
+            for page in column.page_infos.iter() {
+                *layout_counts
+                    .entry(page_layout_kind(&page.encoding))
+                    .or_insert(0usize) += 1;
+                page_rows.push(page.num_rows);
+                page_bytes.push(
+                    page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|(_, size)| *size)
+                        .sum::<u64>(),
+                );
+            }
+            json!({
+                "column_index": column.index,
+                "num_pages": column.page_infos.len(),
+                "layout_counts": layout_counts,
+                "page_rows": summarize_u64(&page_rows),
+                "page_bytes": summarize_u64(&page_bytes),
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    println!(
+        "{}",
+        serde_json::to_string_pretty(&json!({
+            "dataset_uri": config.uri,
+            "dataset_version": config.dataset_version,
+            "fragment_id": fragment.id,
+            "data_file_path": data_file.path,
+            "resolved_data_path": data_path.to_string(),
+            "file_version": metadata.version().to_string(),
+            "num_rows": metadata.num_rows,
+            "num_data_bytes": metadata.num_data_bytes,
+            "columns": columns,
+        }))?
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn projected_schema(dataset_schema: &Schema, columns: &Option<Vec<String>>) -> Result<Schema> {
+    Ok(match columns {
+        None => dataset_schema.clone(),
+        Some(columns) => dataset_schema.project(columns)?,
+    })
+}
+
+fn file_reader_options(config: &Config) -> Option<FileReaderOptions> {
+    if config.batch_size_bytes.is_none() && config.read_chunk_size.is_none() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    Some(FileReaderOptions {
+        batch_size_bytes: config.batch_size_bytes,
+        read_chunk_size: config.read_chunk_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_READ_CHUNK_SIZE),
+        ..Default::default()
+    })
+}
+
+fn add_duration(counter: &AtomicU64, duration: Duration) {
+    let nanos = duration.as_nanos().min(u128::from(u64::MAX)) as u64;
+    counter.fetch_add(nanos, Ordering::Relaxed);
+}
+
+fn ns_to_seconds(ns: u64) -> f64 {
+    ns as f64 / 1_000_000_000.0
+}
+
+fn diff_u64(current: u64, previous: u64) -> u64 {
+    current.saturating_sub(previous)
+}
+
+fn scheduler_kind_name(kind: SchedulerQueueKind) -> &'static str {
+    match kind {
+        SchedulerQueueKind::Standard => "standard",
+        SchedulerQueueKind::Lite => "lite",
+    }
+}
+
+fn diagnostics_json(diagnostics: SchedulerDiagnostics) -> Value {
+    json!({
+        "queue_kind": scheduler_kind_name(diagnostics.kind),
+        "scheduler_iops": diagnostics.stats.iops,
+        "scheduler_requests": diagnostics.stats.requests,
+        "scheduler_bytes_read": diagnostics.stats.bytes_read,
+        "io_capacity": diagnostics.io_capacity,
+        "iops_available": diagnostics.iops_available,
+        "active_iops": diagnostics.active_iops,
+        "pending_iops": diagnostics.pending_iops,
+        "pending_bytes": diagnostics.pending_bytes,
+        "bytes_available": diagnostics.bytes_available,
+        "bytes_reserved": diagnostics.bytes_reserved,
+        "io_buffer_size_bytes": diagnostics.io_buffer_size_bytes,
+        "priorities_in_flight": diagnostics.priorities_in_flight,
+        "no_backpressure": diagnostics.no_backpressure,
+        "head_task_bytes": diagnostics.head_task_bytes,
+        "head_task_priority_high": diagnostics.head_task_priority_high,
+        "head_task_priority_low": diagnostics.head_task_priority_low,
+        "min_in_flight_priority_high": diagnostics.min_in_flight_priority_high,
+        "min_in_flight_priority_low": diagnostics.min_in_flight_priority_low,
+        "head_task_can_deliver": diagnostics.head_task_can_deliver,
+        "head_task_priority_bypass": diagnostics.head_task_priority_bypass,
+        "head_task_blocked_by_iops": diagnostics.head_task_blocked_by_iops,
+        "head_task_blocked_by_bytes": diagnostics.head_task_blocked_by_bytes,
+    })
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct ExecutionStatsHolder {
+    collected_stats: Arc<Mutex<Option<ExecutionSummaryCounts>>>,
+}
+
+impl ExecutionStatsHolder {
+    fn get_setter(&self) -> ExecutionStatsCallback {
+        let collected_stats = self.collected_stats.clone();
+        Arc::new(move |stats| {
+            *collected_stats.lock().unwrap() = Some(stats.clone());
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn consume(self) -> Option<ExecutionSummaryCounts> {
+        self.collected_stats.lock().unwrap().take()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+struct SchedulerDiagnosticsCollector {
+    latest: Arc<Mutex<Option<SchedulerDiagnostics>>>,
+}
+
+impl SchedulerDiagnosticsCollector {
+    fn clear(&self) {
+        *self.latest.lock().unwrap() = None;
+    }
+
+    fn observe(&self, diagnostics: SchedulerDiagnostics) {
+        *self.latest.lock().unwrap() = Some(diagnostics);
+    }
+
+    fn snapshot(&self, io_buffer_gib: Option<u64>) -> SchedulerDiagnostics {
+        self.latest
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| diagnostics_from_scan_stats(ScanStats::default(), io_buffer_gib))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct SchedulerDiagnosticsLayer {
+    collector: SchedulerDiagnosticsCollector,
+}
+
+impl SchedulerDiagnosticsLayer {
+    fn new(collector: SchedulerDiagnosticsCollector) -> Self {
+        Self { collector }
+    }
+}
+
+fn is_scheduler_state_metadata(metadata: &Metadata<'_>) -> bool {
+    // The scheduler uses `tracing::enabled!` before constructing the event;
+    // that guard registers a HINT callsite, not an EVENT callsite.
+    metadata.target() == SCHEDULER_STATE_EVENT_TARGET && *metadata.level() == tracing::Level::TRACE
+}
+
+impl<S> Layer<S> for SchedulerDiagnosticsLayer
+where
+    S: Subscriber,
+{
+    fn register_callsite(&self, metadata: &'static Metadata<'static>) -> Interest {
+        if is_scheduler_state_metadata(metadata) {
+            Interest::always()
+        } else {
+            Interest::never()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn enabled(&self, metadata: &Metadata<'_>, _ctx: Context<'_, S>) -> bool {
+        is_scheduler_state_metadata(metadata)
+    }
+
+    fn on_event(&self, event: &Event<'_>, _ctx: Context<'_, S>) {
+        if !is_scheduler_state_metadata(event.metadata()) {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut visitor = SchedulerDiagnosticsVisitor::default();
+        event.record(&mut visitor);
+        if let Some(diagnostics) = visitor.into_diagnostics() {
+            self.collector.observe(diagnostics);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct SchedulerDiagnosticsVisitor {
+    kind: Option<SchedulerQueueKind>,
+    scheduler_iops: Option<u64>,
+    scheduler_requests: Option<u64>,
+    scheduler_bytes_read: Option<u64>,
+    io_capacity: Option<u64>,
+    iops_available: Option<u64>,
+    active_iops: Option<u64>,
+    pending_iops: Option<u64>,
+    pending_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    bytes_available: Option<i64>,
+    bytes_reserved: Option<i64>,
+    io_buffer_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    priorities_in_flight: Option<u64>,
+    no_backpressure: Option<bool>,
+    head_task_bytes_present: bool,
+    head_task_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    head_task_priority_high_present: bool,
+    head_task_priority_high: Option<u64>,
+    head_task_priority_low_present: bool,
+    head_task_priority_low: Option<u64>,
+    min_in_flight_priority_high_present: bool,
+    min_in_flight_priority_high: Option<u64>,
+    min_in_flight_priority_low_present: bool,
+    min_in_flight_priority_low: Option<u64>,
+    head_task_can_deliver_present: bool,
+    head_task_can_deliver: Option<bool>,
+    head_task_priority_bypass_present: bool,
+    head_task_priority_bypass: Option<bool>,
+    head_task_blocked_by_iops_present: bool,
+    head_task_blocked_by_iops: Option<bool>,
+    head_task_blocked_by_bytes_present: bool,
+    head_task_blocked_by_bytes: Option<bool>,
+}
+
+impl SchedulerDiagnosticsVisitor {
+    fn into_diagnostics(self) -> Option<SchedulerDiagnostics> {
+        Some(SchedulerDiagnostics {
+            kind: self.kind?,
+            stats: ScanStats {
+                iops: self.scheduler_iops.unwrap_or_default(),
+                requests: self.scheduler_requests.unwrap_or_default(),
+                bytes_read: self.scheduler_bytes_read.unwrap_or_default(),
+            },
+            io_capacity: self.io_capacity.unwrap_or_default(),
+            iops_available: self.iops_available.unwrap_or_default(),
+            active_iops: self.active_iops.unwrap_or_default(),
+            pending_iops: self.pending_iops.unwrap_or_default(),
+            pending_bytes: self.pending_bytes.unwrap_or_default(),
+            bytes_available: self.bytes_available.unwrap_or_default(),
+            bytes_reserved: self.bytes_reserved.unwrap_or_default(),
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: self.io_buffer_size_bytes.unwrap_or_default(),
+            priorities_in_flight: self.priorities_in_flight.unwrap_or_default(),
+            no_backpressure: self.no_backpressure.unwrap_or(false),
+            head_task_bytes: optional_u64(self.head_task_bytes_present, self.head_task_bytes),
+            head_task_priority_high: optional_u64(
+                self.head_task_priority_high_present,
+                self.head_task_priority_high,
+            ),
+            head_task_priority_low: optional_u64(
+                self.head_task_priority_low_present,
+                self.head_task_priority_low,
+            ),
+            min_in_flight_priority_high: optional_u64(
+                self.min_in_flight_priority_high_present,
+                self.min_in_flight_priority_high,
+            ),
+            min_in_flight_priority_low: optional_u64(
+                self.min_in_flight_priority_low_present,
+                self.min_in_flight_priority_low,
+            ),
+            head_task_can_deliver: optional_bool(
+                self.head_task_can_deliver_present,
+                self.head_task_can_deliver,
+            ),
+            head_task_priority_bypass: optional_bool(
+                self.head_task_priority_bypass_present,
+                self.head_task_priority_bypass,
+            ),
+            head_task_blocked_by_iops: optional_bool(
+                self.head_task_blocked_by_iops_present,
+                self.head_task_blocked_by_iops,
+            ),
+            head_task_blocked_by_bytes: optional_bool(
+                self.head_task_blocked_by_bytes_present,
+                self.head_task_blocked_by_bytes,
+            ),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl Visit for SchedulerDiagnosticsVisitor {
+    fn record_bool(&mut self, field: &Field, value: bool) {
+        match field.name() {
+            "no_backpressure" => self.no_backpressure = Some(value),
+            "head_task_bytes_present" => self.head_task_bytes_present = value,
+            "head_task_priority_high_present" => self.head_task_priority_high_present = value,
+            "head_task_priority_low_present" => self.head_task_priority_low_present = value,
+            "min_in_flight_priority_high_present" => {
+                self.min_in_flight_priority_high_present = value;
+            }
+            "min_in_flight_priority_low_present" => {
+                self.min_in_flight_priority_low_present = value;
+            }
+            "head_task_can_deliver_present" => self.head_task_can_deliver_present = value,
+            "head_task_can_deliver" => self.head_task_can_deliver = Some(value),
+            "head_task_priority_bypass_present" => {
+                self.head_task_priority_bypass_present = value;
+            }
+            "head_task_priority_bypass" => self.head_task_priority_bypass = Some(value),
+            "head_task_blocked_by_iops_present" => {
+                self.head_task_blocked_by_iops_present = value;
+            }
+            "head_task_blocked_by_iops" => self.head_task_blocked_by_iops = Some(value),
+            "head_task_blocked_by_bytes_present" => {
+                self.head_task_blocked_by_bytes_present = value;
+            }
+            "head_task_blocked_by_bytes" => self.head_task_blocked_by_bytes = Some(value),
+            _ => {}
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn record_i64(&mut self, field: &Field, value: i64) {
+        match field.name() {
+            "bytes_available" => self.bytes_available = Some(value),
+            "bytes_reserved" => self.bytes_reserved = Some(value),
+            _ => {}
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn record_u64(&mut self, field: &Field, value: u64) {
+        match field.name() {
+            "scheduler_iops" => self.scheduler_iops = Some(value),
+            "scheduler_requests" => self.scheduler_requests = Some(value),
+            "scheduler_bytes_read" => self.scheduler_bytes_read = Some(value),
+            "io_capacity" => self.io_capacity = Some(value),
+            "iops_available" => self.iops_available = Some(value),
+            "active_iops" => self.active_iops = Some(value),
+            "pending_iops" => self.pending_iops = Some(value),
+            "pending_bytes" => self.pending_bytes = Some(value),
+            "io_buffer_size_bytes" => self.io_buffer_size_bytes = Some(value),
+            "priorities_in_flight" => self.priorities_in_flight = Some(value),
+            "head_task_bytes" => self.head_task_bytes = Some(value),
+            "head_task_priority_high" => self.head_task_priority_high = Some(value),
+            "head_task_priority_low" => self.head_task_priority_low = Some(value),
+            "min_in_flight_priority_high" => self.min_in_flight_priority_high = Some(value),
+            "min_in_flight_priority_low" => self.min_in_flight_priority_low = Some(value),
+            _ => {}
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn record_str(&mut self, field: &Field, value: &str) {
+        if field.name() == "queue_kind" {
+            self.kind = match value {
+                "standard" => Some(SchedulerQueueKind::Standard),
+                "lite" => Some(SchedulerQueueKind::Lite),
+                _ => None,
+            };
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn record_debug(&mut self, _field: &Field, _value: &dyn std::fmt::Debug) {}
+}
+
+fn optional_u64(present: bool, value: Option<u64>) -> Option<u64> {
+    present.then(|| value.unwrap_or_default())
+}
+
+fn optional_bool(present: bool, value: Option<bool>) -> Option<bool> {
+    present.then(|| value.unwrap_or(false))
+}
+
+fn diagnostics_from_scan_stats(
+    stats: ScanStats,
+    io_buffer_gib: Option<u64>,
+) -> SchedulerDiagnostics {
+    SchedulerDiagnostics {
+        kind: SchedulerQueueKind::Standard,
+        stats,
+        io_capacity: 0,
+        iops_available: 0,
+        active_iops: 0,
+        pending_iops: 0,
+        pending_bytes: 0,
+        bytes_available: 0,
+        bytes_reserved: 0,
+        io_buffer_size_bytes: io_buffer_gib.map(|value| value * GIB).unwrap_or_default(),
+        priorities_in_flight: 0,
+        no_backpressure: false,
+        head_task_bytes: None,
+        head_task_priority_high: None,
+        head_task_priority_low: None,
+        min_in_flight_priority_high: None,
+        min_in_flight_priority_low: None,
+        head_task_can_deliver: None,
+        head_task_priority_bypass: None,
+        head_task_blocked_by_iops: None,
+        head_task_blocked_by_bytes: None,
+    }
+}
+
+fn scan_stats_from_execution_summary(summary: &ExecutionSummaryCounts) -> ScanStats {
+    ScanStats {
+        iops: summary.iops as u64,
+        requests: summary.requests as u64,
+        bytes_read: summary.bytes_read as u64,
+    }
+}
+
+fn sample_json(
+    started: Instant,
+    counters: &SharedCounters,
+    diagnostics: SchedulerDiagnostics,
+    decode_in_flight: usize,
+    channel_buffered: usize,
+    last: &mut LastSample,
+) -> Value {
+    let elapsed = started.elapsed();
+    let interval = elapsed.saturating_sub(last.elapsed);
+    let interval_secs = interval.as_secs_f64();
+    let rows = counters.rows_completed.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+    let batches = counters.batches_completed.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+    let arrow_bytes = counters.arrow_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+    let scheduler_stats = diagnostics.stats;
+    let delta_scheduler_bytes =
+        diff_u64(scheduler_stats.bytes_read, last.scheduler_stats.bytes_read);
+    let delta_rows = diff_u64(rows, last.rows);
+    let delta_arrow_bytes = diff_u64(arrow_bytes, last.arrow_bytes);
+    let physical_gbps = if interval_secs > 0.0 {
+        delta_scheduler_bytes as f64 * 8.0 / interval_secs / 1_000_000_000.0
+    } else {
+        0.0
+    };
+    let logical_gbps = if interval_secs > 0.0 {
+        delta_arrow_bytes as f64 * 8.0 / interval_secs / 1_000_000_000.0
+    } else {
+        0.0
+    };
+    let rows_per_second = if interval_secs > 0.0 {
+        delta_rows as f64 / interval_secs
+    } else {
+        0.0
+    };
+
+    last.elapsed = elapsed;
+    last.scheduler_stats = scheduler_stats;
+    last.rows = rows;
+    last.batches = batches;
+    last.arrow_bytes = arrow_bytes;
+
+    json!({
+        "elapsed_seconds": elapsed.as_secs_f64(),
+        "interval_seconds": interval_secs,
+        "physical_gbps": physical_gbps,
+        "logical_gbps": logical_gbps,
+        "rows_per_second": rows_per_second,
+        "rows": rows,
+        "batches": batches,
+        "arrow_bytes": arrow_bytes,
+        "delta_rows": delta_rows,
+        "delta_arrow_bytes": delta_arrow_bytes,
+        "delta_scheduler_bytes": delta_scheduler_bytes,
+        "fragments_started": counters.fragments_started.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+        "fragments_completed": counters.fragments_completed.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+        "batch_futures_emitted": counters.batch_futures_emitted.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+        "batch_futures_received": counters.batch_futures_received.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+        "batches_completed": counters.batches_completed.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+        "decode_in_flight": decode_in_flight,
+        "channel_buffered": channel_buffered,
+        "open_reader_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.open_reader_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+        "read_stream_create_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.read_stream_create_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+        "next_batch_poll_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.next_batch_poll_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+        "channel_send_wait_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.channel_send_wait_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+        "decode_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.decode_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+        "raw_reassemble_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.raw_reassemble_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+        "scheduler": diagnostics_json(diagnostics),
+    })
+}
+
+async fn run_scanner_case(
+    config: &Config,
+    io_buffer_gib: Option<u64>,
+    scheduler_diagnostics: &SchedulerDiagnosticsCollector,
+) -> Result<CaseStats> {
+    scheduler_diagnostics.clear();
+    let dataset = Arc::new(
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&config.uri)
+            .with_version(config.dataset_version)
+            .load()
+            .await?,
+    );
+
+    let mut remaining_rows = config.limit_rows;
+    let mut planned_fragments = 0usize;
+    let mut planned_rows = 0u64;
+    for fragment in dataset.fragments().iter() {
+        if remaining_rows == 0 {
+            break;
+        }
+        let fragment_rows = fragment
+            .num_rows()
+            .ok_or_else(|| format!("fragment {} is missing num_rows", fragment.id))?
+            as u64;
+        let rows = fragment_rows.min(remaining_rows);
+        planned_fragments += 1;
+        planned_rows += rows;
+        remaining_rows -= rows;
+    }
+    if planned_fragments == 0 {
+        return Err("no fragments selected".into());
+    }
+
+    let counters = Arc::new(SharedCounters::default());
+    let stats_holder = ExecutionStatsHolder::default();
+    let cpu_before = read_cpu_sample();
+    let started = Instant::now();
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    if let Some(columns) = config.columns.as_ref() {
+        scanner.project(columns)?;
+    }
+    scanner
+        .batch_size(config.batch_size as usize)
+        .scan_in_order(false)
+        .scan_stats_callback(stats_holder.get_setter());
+    if config.batch_concurrency > 0 {
+        scanner
+            .batch_readahead(config.batch_concurrency)
+            .target_parallelism(config.batch_concurrency);
+    }
+    if config.fragment_concurrency > 0 {
+        scanner.fragment_readahead(config.fragment_concurrency);
+    }
+    if let Some(file_reader_options) = file_reader_options(config) {
+        scanner.with_file_reader_options(file_reader_options);
+    }
+    if let Some(batch_size_bytes) = config.batch_size_bytes {
+        scanner.batch_size_bytes(batch_size_bytes);
+    }
+    if let Some(io_buffer_gib) = io_buffer_gib {
+        scanner.io_buffer_size(io_buffer_gib * GIB);
+    }
+    let limit_rows = i64::try_from(config.limit_rows)
+        .map_err(|_| "--limit-rows is too large for scanner limit")?;
+    scanner.limit(Some(limit_rows), None)?;
+
+    let mut stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+    let mut rows = 0u64;
+    let mut batches = 0u64;
+    let mut arrow_bytes = 0u64;
+    let mut samples = Vec::new();
+    let mut sample_interval = tokio::time::interval(Duration::from_millis(config.sample_ms));
+    sample_interval.set_missed_tick_behavior(tokio::time::MissedTickBehavior::Skip);
+    let mut last_sample = LastSample {
+        elapsed: Duration::default(),
+        scheduler_stats: ScanStats::default(),
+        rows: 0,
+        batches: 0,
+        arrow_bytes: 0,
+    };
+    loop {
+        tokio::select! {
+            maybe_batch = stream.next() => {
+                let Some(batch) = maybe_batch else {
+                    break;
+                };
+                let batch = batch?;
+                let batch_bytes = if config.skip_batch_byte_accounting {
+                    0
+                } else {
+                    batch.get_array_memory_size() as u64
+                };
+                rows += batch.num_rows() as u64;
+                batches += 1;
+                arrow_bytes += batch_bytes;
+                counters.batches_completed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                counters
+                    .rows_completed
+                    .fetch_add(batch.num_rows() as u64, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                counters.arrow_bytes.fetch_add(batch_bytes, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            }
+            _ = sample_interval.tick() => {
+                samples.push(sample_json(
+                    started,
+                    counters.as_ref(),
+                    scheduler_diagnostics.snapshot(io_buffer_gib),
+                    0,
+                    0,
+                    &mut last_sample,
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    drop(stream);
+
+    let elapsed = started.elapsed();
+    let summary = stats_holder
+        .consume()
+        .ok_or("scanner execution stats callback did not run")?;
+    let scheduler_stats = scan_stats_from_execution_summary(&summary);
+    let mut final_diagnostics = scheduler_diagnostics.snapshot(io_buffer_gib);
+    final_diagnostics.stats = scheduler_stats;
+    let cpu_after = read_cpu_sample();
+    samples.push(sample_json(
+        started,
+        counters.as_ref(),
+        final_diagnostics,
+        0,
+        0,
+        &mut last_sample,
+    ));
+
+    Ok(CaseStats {
+        rows,
+        batches,
+        arrow_bytes,
+        planned_fragments,
+        planned_rows,
+        elapsed,
+        producer_finished_at: Some(elapsed),
+        peak_decode_in_flight: 0,
+        cpu_avg: cpu_before.zip(cpu_after).and_then(|(before, after)| {
+            let total = after.total.checked_sub(before.total)?;
+            let idle = after.idle.checked_sub(before.idle)?;
+            if total == 0 {
+                return None;
+            }
+            Some((total - idle) as f64 / total as f64 * 100.0)
+        }),
+        scheduler_diagnostics: final_diagnostics,
+        counters,
+        samples,
+    })
+}
+
+async fn run_dataset_take_case(
+    config: &Config,
+    scheduler_diagnostics: &SchedulerDiagnosticsCollector,
+) -> Result<CaseStats> {
+    scheduler_diagnostics.clear();
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&config.uri)
+        .with_version(config.dataset_version)
+        .load()
+        .await?;
+    let projection = Arc::new(projected_schema(dataset.schema(), &config.columns)?);
+    let total_rows = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| {
+            fragment
+                .num_rows()
+                .map(|rows| rows as u64)
+                .ok_or_else(|| format!("fragment {} is missing num_rows", fragment.id))
+        })
+        .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?
+        .into_iter()
+        .sum::<u64>();
+    if total_rows == 0 {
+        return Err("dataset has no rows".into());
+    }
+
+    let counters = Arc::new(SharedCounters::default());
+    let cpu_before = read_cpu_sample();
+    let started = Instant::now();
+    let mut rows = 0u64;
+    let mut batches = 0u64;
+    let mut arrow_bytes = 0u64;
+    const STRIDE: u64 = 104_729;
+
+    for repetition in 0..config.take_repetitions {
+        let row_ids = (0..config.limit_rows)
+            .map(|offset| {
+                repetition
+                    .wrapping_mul(STRIDE)
+                    .wrapping_add(offset.wrapping_mul(STRIDE))
+                    % total_rows
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let batch = dataset
+            .take(&row_ids, ProjectionRequest::Schema(projection.clone()))
+            .await?;
+        if batch.num_rows() as u64 != config.limit_rows {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "take_rows returned {} rows, expected {}",
+                batch.num_rows(),
+                config.limit_rows
+            )
+            .into());
+        }
+        black_box(&batch);
+        rows += batch.num_rows() as u64;
+        batches += 1;
+        let batch_bytes = if config.skip_batch_byte_accounting {
+            0
+        } else {
+            batch.get_array_memory_size() as u64
+        };
+        arrow_bytes += batch_bytes;
+        counters.batches_completed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        counters
+            .rows_completed
+            .fetch_add(batch.num_rows() as u64, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        counters
+            .arrow_bytes
+            .fetch_add(batch_bytes, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    let elapsed = started.elapsed();
+    let cpu_after = read_cpu_sample();
+    Ok(CaseStats {
+        rows,
+        batches,
+        arrow_bytes,
+        planned_fragments: dataset.fragments().len(),
+        planned_rows: total_rows,
+        elapsed,
+        producer_finished_at: Some(elapsed),
+        peak_decode_in_flight: 0,
+        cpu_avg: cpu_before.zip(cpu_after).and_then(|(before, after)| {
+            let total = after.total.checked_sub(before.total)?;
+            let idle = after.idle.checked_sub(before.idle)?;
+            if total == 0 {
+                return None;
+            }
+            Some((total - idle) as f64 / total as f64 * 100.0)
+        }),
+        scheduler_diagnostics: scheduler_diagnostics.snapshot(None),
+        counters,
+        samples: Vec::new(),
+    })
+}
+
+enum RawInFlight {
+    Unordered(FuturesUnordered<BoxFuture<'static, lance_core::Result<usize>>>),
+    Ordered(FuturesOrdered<BoxFuture<'static, lance_core::Result<usize>>>),
+}
+
+impl RawInFlight {
+    fn new(mode: RawCompletionMode) -> Self {
+        match mode {
+            RawCompletionMode::Unordered => Self::Unordered(FuturesUnordered::new()),
+            RawCompletionMode::Ordered => Self::Ordered(FuturesOrdered::new()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Unordered(in_flight) => in_flight.len(),
+            Self::Ordered(in_flight) => in_flight.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Unordered(in_flight) => in_flight.is_empty(),
+            Self::Ordered(in_flight) => in_flight.is_empty(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn push(&mut self, future: BoxFuture<'static, lance_core::Result<usize>>) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Unordered(in_flight) => in_flight.push(future),
+            Self::Ordered(in_flight) => in_flight.push_back(future),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn next(&mut self) -> Option<lance_core::Result<usize>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Unordered(in_flight) => in_flight.next().await,
+            Self::Ordered(in_flight) => in_flight.next().await,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn raw_read_future(
+    file_scheduler: FileScheduler,
+    range: Range<u64>,
+    priority: u64,
+    raw_submit_mode: RawSubmitMode,
+    read_chunk_size: u64,
+    counters: Arc<SharedCounters>,
+) -> BoxFuture<'static, lance_core::Result<usize>> {
+    async move {
+        match raw_submit_mode {
+            RawSubmitMode::Single => {
+                let bytes = file_scheduler.submit_single(range, priority).await?;
+                Ok(bytes.len())
+            }
+            RawSubmitMode::SplitNoConcat => {
+                let ranges = split_range_by_size(range, read_chunk_size);
+                let bytes = file_scheduler.submit_request(ranges, priority).await?;
+                Ok(bytes.iter().map(bytes::Bytes::len).sum())
+            }
+            RawSubmitMode::SplitConcat => {
+                let ranges = split_range_by_size(range, read_chunk_size);
+                let bytes = file_scheduler.submit_request(ranges, priority).await?;
+                let reassemble_started = Instant::now();
+                let total_size = bytes.iter().map(bytes::Bytes::len).sum();
+                let mut combined = Vec::with_capacity(total_size);
+                for chunk in bytes {
+                    combined.extend_from_slice(&chunk);
+                }
+                add_duration(&counters.raw_reassemble_ns, reassemble_started.elapsed());
+                let len = combined.len();
+                black_box(&combined);
+                Ok(len)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    .boxed()
+}
+
+fn split_range_by_size(range: Range<u64>, chunk_size: u64) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+    let range_size = range.end - range.start;
+    if range_size <= chunk_size {
+        return vec![range];
+    }
+
+    let num_chunks = range_size.div_ceil(chunk_size);
+    let per_chunk = range_size / num_chunks;
+    let mut ranges = Vec::with_capacity(num_chunks as usize);
+    for idx in 0..num_chunks {
+        let start = range.start + idx * per_chunk;
+        let end = if idx == num_chunks - 1 {
+            range.end
+        } else {
+            start + per_chunk
+        };
+        ranges.push(start..end);
+    }
+    ranges
+}
+
+fn push_split_planned_ranges(
+    planned: &mut Vec<(usize, Range<u64>)>,
+    file_idx: usize,
+    range: Range<u64>,
+    chunk_size: u64,
+    remaining: &mut u64,
+) {
+    let mut start = range.start;
+    while start < range.end && *remaining > 0 {
+        let bytes_to_read = chunk_size.min(range.end - start).min(*remaining);
+        if bytes_to_read == 0 {
+            break;
+        }
+        let end = start + bytes_to_read;
+        planned.push((file_idx, start..end));
+        *remaining -= bytes_to_read;
+        start = end;
+    }
+}
+
+fn push_split_ranges(ranges: &mut Vec<Range<u64>>, range: Range<u64>, chunk_size: u64) {
+    let mut start = range.start;
+    while start < range.end {
+        let bytes_to_read = chunk_size.min(range.end - start);
+        if bytes_to_read == 0 {
+            break;
+        }
+        let end = start + bytes_to_read;
+        ranges.push(start..end);
+        start = end;
+    }
+}
+
+async fn run_scheduler_raw_case(
+    config: &Config,
+    io_buffer_gib: Option<u64>,
+    scheduler_diagnostics: &SchedulerDiagnosticsCollector,
+) -> Result<CaseStats> {
+    scheduler_diagnostics.clear();
+    let target_bytes = config
+        .target_bytes
+        .ok_or("--target-bytes is required for --backend scheduler-raw")?;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&config.uri)
+            .with_version(config.dataset_version)
+            .load()
+            .await?,
+    );
+    let (object_store, _) = LanceObjectStore::from_uri(&config.uri).await?;
+    let scheduler_config = io_buffer_gib
+        .map(|gib| SchedulerConfig::new(gib * GIB))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(object_store.as_ref()));
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, scheduler_config);
+
+    let (selected_files, planned) = match config.raw_range_mode {
+        RawRangeMode::FileSequential => {
+            let mut selected_files = Vec::new();
+            let mut selected_file_bytes = 0u64;
+            for fragment in dataset.fragments().iter() {
+                for data_file in &fragment.files {
+                    if data_file.base_id.is_some() {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let Some(file_size) = data_file.file_size_bytes.get() else {
+                        continue;
+                    };
+                    let path = dataset.data_dir().join(data_file.path.as_str());
+                    let file_scheduler = scheduler
+                        .open_file_with_priority(&path, 0, &data_file.file_size_bytes)
+                        .await?;
+                    selected_file_bytes += file_size.get();
+                    selected_files.push((file_scheduler, file_size.get()));
+                    if selected_file_bytes >= target_bytes {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+                if selected_file_bytes >= target_bytes {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            if selected_files.is_empty() {
+                return Err("scheduler-raw found no data files with known sizes".into());
+            }
+
+            let mut offsets = vec![0u64; selected_files.len()];
+            let mut planned = Vec::new();
+            let mut remaining = target_bytes;
+            let mut file_idx = 0usize;
+            while remaining > 0 {
+                let idx = file_idx % selected_files.len();
+                let file_size = selected_files[idx].1;
+                if offsets[idx] >= file_size {
+                    offsets[idx] = 0;
+                }
+                let available = file_size - offsets[idx];
+                let bytes_to_read = config.raw_range_size_bytes.min(available).min(remaining);
+                let start = offsets[idx];
+                let end = start + bytes_to_read;
+                planned.push((idx, start..end));
+                offsets[idx] = end;
+                remaining -= bytes_to_read;
+                file_idx += 1;
+            }
+            (selected_files, planned)
+        }
+        RawRangeMode::MetadataPages | RawRangeMode::MetadataPagesRoundRobin => {
+            let mut selected_files = Vec::new();
+            let mut per_file_ranges = Vec::<Vec<Range<u64>>>::new();
+            let mut candidate_bytes = 0u64;
+
+            'fragments: for fragment in dataset.fragments().iter() {
+                for data_file in &fragment.files {
+                    if data_file.base_id.is_some() {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    if data_file.file_size_bytes.get().is_none() {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let path = dataset.data_dir().join(data_file.path.as_str());
+                    let file_scheduler = scheduler
+                        .open_file_with_priority(&path, 0, &data_file.file_size_bytes)
+                        .await?;
+                    let metadata = LanceFileReader::read_all_metadata(&file_scheduler).await?;
+                    let mut file_ranges = Vec::new();
+
+                    let raw_column_indices = config
+                        .raw_column_indices
+                        .clone()
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| (0..metadata.column_infos.len() as u32).collect());
+                    for column_index in raw_column_indices {
+                        let column_info = metadata
+                            .column_infos
+                            .get(column_index as usize)
+                            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                format!(
+                                    "raw metadata-pages requested column index {column_index} but file has {} columns",
+                                    metadata.column_infos.len()
+                                )
+                            })?;
+                        for page in column_info.page_infos.iter() {
+                            for (offset, size) in page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter() {
+                                if *size == 0 {
+                                    continue;
+                                }
+                                push_split_ranges(
+                                    &mut file_ranges,
+                                    *offset..(*offset + *size),
+                                    config.raw_range_size_bytes,
+                                );
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+
+                    if !file_ranges.is_empty() {
+                        candidate_bytes += file_ranges
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|range| range.end - range.start)
+                            .sum::<u64>();
+                        selected_files.push((
+                            file_scheduler,
+                            data_file.file_size_bytes.get().unwrap().get(),
+                        ));
+                        per_file_ranges.push(file_ranges);
+                        if candidate_bytes >= target_bytes {
+                            break 'fragments;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if selected_files.is_empty() || per_file_ranges.is_empty() {
+                return Err("scheduler-raw metadata-pages found no readable page buffers".into());
+            }
+
+            let mut planned = Vec::new();
+            let mut remaining = target_bytes;
+            match config.raw_range_mode {
+                RawRangeMode::MetadataPages => {
+                    'ranges: for (file_idx, ranges) in per_file_ranges.iter().enumerate() {
+                        for range in ranges {
+                            push_split_planned_ranges(
+                                &mut planned,
+                                file_idx,
+                                range.clone(),
+                                config.raw_range_size_bytes,
+                                &mut remaining,
+                            );
+                            if remaining == 0 {
+                                break 'ranges;
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                RawRangeMode::MetadataPagesRoundRobin => {
+                    let mut positions = vec![0usize; per_file_ranges.len()];
+                    while remaining > 0 {
+                        let mut made_progress = false;
+                        for (file_idx, ranges) in per_file_ranges.iter().enumerate() {
+                            if positions[file_idx] >= ranges.len() {
+                                continue;
+                            }
+                            let range = ranges[positions[file_idx]].clone();
+                            positions[file_idx] += 1;
+                            made_progress = true;
+                            push_split_planned_ranges(
+                                &mut planned,
+                                file_idx,
+                                range,
+                                config.raw_range_size_bytes,
+                                &mut remaining,
+                            );
+                            if remaining == 0 {
+                                break;
+                            }
+                        }
+                        if !made_progress {
+                            break;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                RawRangeMode::FileSequential => unreachable!(),
+            }
+
+            if remaining > 0 {
+                return Err(format!(
+                    "scheduler-raw metadata-pages planned {} bytes but target is {target_bytes}",
+                    target_bytes - remaining
+                )
+                .into());
+            }
+            (selected_files, planned)
+        }
+    };
+    let planned_bytes = planned
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(_, range)| range.end - range.start)
+        .sum::<u64>();
+
+    let counters = Arc::new(SharedCounters::default());
+    let cpu_before = read_cpu_sample();
+    let started = Instant::now();
+    let mut samples = Vec::new();
+    let mut sample_interval = tokio::time::interval(Duration::from_millis(config.sample_ms));
+    sample_interval.set_missed_tick_behavior(tokio::time::MissedTickBehavior::Skip);
+    let mut last_sample = LastSample {
+        elapsed: Duration::default(),
+        scheduler_stats: ScanStats::default(),
+        rows: 0,
+        batches: 0,
+        arrow_bytes: 0,
+    };
+    let mut in_flight = RawInFlight::new(config.raw_completion_mode);
+    let mut next_range = 0usize;
+    let read_chunk_size = config.read_chunk_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_READ_CHUNK_SIZE);
+    while next_range < planned.len() && in_flight.len() < config.batch_concurrency {
+        let (idx, range) = planned[next_range].clone();
+        in_flight.push(raw_read_future(
+            selected_files[idx].0.clone(),
+            range,
+            next_range as u64,
+            config.raw_submit_mode,
+            read_chunk_size,
+            counters.clone(),
+        ));
+        next_range += 1;
+    }
+
+    let mut bytes_read = 0u64;
+    let mut requests_completed = 0u64;
+    while !in_flight.is_empty() {
+        tokio::select! {
+            maybe_bytes = in_flight.next() => {
+                let bytes = maybe_bytes.expect("raw read future disappeared")?;
+                let bytes = bytes as u64;
+                bytes_read += bytes;
+                requests_completed += 1;
+                counters.batches_completed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                counters.arrow_bytes.fetch_add(bytes, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                if next_range < planned.len() {
+                    let (idx, range) = planned[next_range].clone();
+                    in_flight.push(raw_read_future(
+                        selected_files[idx].0.clone(),
+                        range,
+                        next_range as u64,
+                        config.raw_submit_mode,
+                        read_chunk_size,
+                        counters.clone(),
+                    ));
+                    next_range += 1;
+                }
+            }
+            _ = sample_interval.tick() => {
+                samples.push(sample_json(
+                    started,
+                    counters.as_ref(),
+                    scheduler_diagnostics.snapshot(io_buffer_gib),
+                    in_flight.len(),
+                    planned.len().saturating_sub(next_range),
+                    &mut last_sample,
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    counters.arrow_bytes.store(bytes_read, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    let mut final_diagnostics = scheduler_diagnostics.snapshot(io_buffer_gib);
+    final_diagnostics.stats = scheduler.stats();
+    samples.push(sample_json(
+        started,
+        counters.as_ref(),
+        final_diagnostics,
+        in_flight.len(),
+        0,
+        &mut last_sample,
+    ));
+    let elapsed = started.elapsed();
+    let cpu_after = read_cpu_sample();
+
+    Ok(CaseStats {
+        rows: 0,
+        batches: requests_completed,
+        arrow_bytes: bytes_read,
+        planned_fragments: selected_files.len(),
+        planned_rows: planned_bytes,
+        elapsed,
+        producer_finished_at: Some(elapsed),
+        peak_decode_in_flight: config.batch_concurrency,
+        cpu_avg: cpu_before.zip(cpu_after).and_then(|(before, after)| {
+            let total = after.total.checked_sub(before.total)?;
+            let idle = after.idle.checked_sub(before.idle)?;
+            if total == 0 {
+                return None;
+            }
+            Some((total - idle) as f64 / total as f64 * 100.0)
+        }),
+        scheduler_diagnostics: final_diagnostics,
+        counters,
+        samples,
+    })
+}
+
+async fn run_case(
+    config: &Config,
+    io_buffer_gib: Option<u64>,
+    scheduler_diagnostics: &SchedulerDiagnosticsCollector,
+) -> Result<CaseStats> {
+    scheduler_diagnostics.clear();
+    let dataset = Arc::new(
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&config.uri)
+            .with_version(config.dataset_version)
+            .load()
+            .await?,
+    );
+    let projection = Arc::new(projected_schema(dataset.schema(), &config.columns)?);
+    let (object_store, _) = LanceObjectStore::from_uri(&config.uri).await?;
+    let scheduler_config = io_buffer_gib
+        .map(|gib| SchedulerConfig::new(gib * GIB))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(object_store.as_ref()));
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, scheduler_config);
+
+    let mut planned = Vec::new();
+    let mut remaining_rows = config.limit_rows;
+    for fragment in dataset.fragments().iter() {
+        if remaining_rows == 0 {
+            break;
+        }
+        let fragment_rows = fragment
+            .num_rows()
+            .ok_or_else(|| format!("fragment {} is missing num_rows", fragment.id))?
+            as u64;
+        let rows = fragment_rows.min(remaining_rows);
+        planned.push((fragment.clone(), rows));
+        remaining_rows -= rows;
+    }
+    if planned.is_empty() {
+        return Err("no fragments selected".into());
+    }
+    let planned_rows: u64 = planned.iter().map(|(_, rows)| *rows).sum();
+    let planned_fragments = planned.len();
+
+    let counters = Arc::new(SharedCounters::default());
+    let cpu_before = read_cpu_sample();
+    let started = Instant::now();
+
+    let (tx, mut rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<
+        BoxFuture<'static, lance_core::Result<RecordBatch>>,
+    >(config.batch_concurrency * 2);
+    let producer = if config.detach_fragment_streams {
+        tokio::spawn({
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let projection = projection.clone();
+            let scheduler = scheduler.clone();
+            let counters = counters.clone();
+            let batch_size = config.batch_size;
+            let file_reader_options = file_reader_options(config);
+            let fragment_concurrency = config.fragment_concurrency;
+            async move {
+                let drainers = futures::stream::iter(planned.into_iter().enumerate())
+                    .map({
+                        move |(priority, (fragment, rows))| {
+                            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                            let projection = projection.clone();
+                            let scheduler = scheduler.clone();
+                            let tx = tx.clone();
+                            let counters = counters.clone();
+                            let file_reader_options = file_reader_options.clone();
+                            async move {
+                                counters.fragments_started.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                                let file_fragment = FileFragment::new(dataset, fragment);
+                                let read_config = FragReadConfig::default()
+                                    .with_scan_scheduler(scheduler)
+                                    .with_reader_priority(priority as u32);
+                                let read_config = if let Some(file_reader_options) =
+                                    file_reader_options.clone()
+                                {
+                                    read_config.with_file_reader_options(file_reader_options)
+                                } else {
+                                    read_config
+                                };
+
+                                let open_started = Instant::now();
+                                let reader =
+                                    file_fragment.open(projection.as_ref(), read_config).await?;
+                                add_duration(&counters.open_reader_ns, open_started.elapsed());
+
+                                let create_stream_started = Instant::now();
+                                let mut read_stream =
+                                    reader.read_ranges(vec![0..rows].into(), batch_size).await?;
+                                add_duration(
+                                    &counters.read_stream_create_ns,
+                                    create_stream_started.elapsed(),
+                                );
+
+                                let drainer = tokio::spawn(async move {
+                                    loop {
+                                        let next_started = Instant::now();
+                                        let maybe_batch_fut = read_stream.next().await;
+                                        add_duration(
+                                            &counters.next_batch_poll_ns,
+                                            next_started.elapsed(),
+                                        );
+                                        let Some(batch_fut) = maybe_batch_fut else {
+                                            break;
+                                        };
+                                        counters
+                                            .batch_futures_emitted
+                                            .fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                                        let send_started = Instant::now();
+                                        tx.send(batch_fut)
+                                            .await
+                                            .map_err(|_| "batch consumer dropped")?;
+                                        add_duration(
+                                            &counters.channel_send_wait_ns,
+                                            send_started.elapsed(),
+                                        );
+                                    }
+                                    counters.fragments_completed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                                    Ok::<_, Error>(())
+                                });
+                                Ok::<_, Error>(drainer)
+                            }
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .buffer_unordered(fragment_concurrency)
+                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .await?;
+
+                for drainer in drainers {
+                    drainer.await.map_err(Error::from)??;
+                }
+                Ok::<_, Error>(())
+            }
+        })
+    } else {
+        tokio::spawn({
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let projection = projection.clone();
+            let scheduler = scheduler.clone();
+            let counters = counters.clone();
+            let batch_size = config.batch_size;
+            let file_reader_options = file_reader_options(config);
+            let fragment_concurrency = config.fragment_concurrency;
+            async move {
+                futures::stream::iter(planned.into_iter().enumerate())
+                    .map({
+                        move |(priority, (fragment, rows))| {
+                            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                            let projection = projection.clone();
+                            let scheduler = scheduler.clone();
+                            let tx = tx.clone();
+                            let counters = counters.clone();
+                            let file_reader_options = file_reader_options.clone();
+                            async move {
+                                counters.fragments_started.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                                let file_fragment = FileFragment::new(dataset, fragment);
+                                let read_config = FragReadConfig::default()
+                                    .with_scan_scheduler(scheduler)
+                                    .with_reader_priority(priority as u32);
+                                let read_config = if let Some(file_reader_options) =
+                                    file_reader_options.clone()
+                                {
+                                    read_config.with_file_reader_options(file_reader_options)
+                                } else {
+                                    read_config
+                                };
+
+                                let open_started = Instant::now();
+                                let reader =
+                                    file_fragment.open(projection.as_ref(), read_config).await?;
+                                add_duration(&counters.open_reader_ns, open_started.elapsed());
+
+                                let create_stream_started = Instant::now();
+                                let mut read_stream =
+                                    reader.read_ranges(vec![0..rows].into(), batch_size).await?;
+                                add_duration(
+                                    &counters.read_stream_create_ns,
+                                    create_stream_started.elapsed(),
+                                );
+
+                                loop {
+                                    let next_started = Instant::now();
+                                    let maybe_batch_fut = read_stream.next().await;
+                                    add_duration(
+                                        &counters.next_batch_poll_ns,
+                                        next_started.elapsed(),
+                                    );
+                                    let Some(batch_fut) = maybe_batch_fut else {
+                                        break;
+                                    };
+                                    counters
+                                        .batch_futures_emitted
+                                        .fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                                    let send_started = Instant::now();
+                                    tx.send(batch_fut)
+                                        .await
+                                        .map_err(|_| "batch consumer dropped")?;
+                                    add_duration(
+                                        &counters.channel_send_wait_ns,
+                                        send_started.elapsed(),
+                                    );
+                                }
+                                counters.fragments_completed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                                Ok::<_, Error>(())
+                            }
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .buffer_unordered(fragment_concurrency)
+                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .await?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>(())
+            }
+        })
+    };
+
+    let mut in_flight = FuturesUnordered::new();
+    let skip_batch_byte_accounting = config.skip_batch_byte_accounting;
+    let drop_read_tasks = config.drop_read_tasks;
+    let mut producer_done = false;
+    let mut producer_finished_at = None;
+    let mut rows = 0u64;
+    let mut batches = 0u64;
+    let mut arrow_bytes = 0u64;
+    let mut peak_decode_in_flight = 0usize;
+    let mut samples = Vec::new();
+    let mut sample_interval = tokio::time::interval(Duration::from_millis(config.sample_ms));
+    sample_interval.set_missed_tick_behavior(tokio::time::MissedTickBehavior::Skip);
+    let mut last_sample = LastSample {
+        elapsed: Duration::default(),
+        scheduler_stats: ScanStats::default(),
+        rows: 0,
+        batches: 0,
+        arrow_bytes: 0,
+    };
+
+    loop {
+        if producer_done && in_flight.is_empty() {
+            break;
+        }
+        tokio::select! {
+            maybe_batch_fut = rx.recv(), if !producer_done && in_flight.len() < config.batch_concurrency => {
+                if let Some(batch_fut) = maybe_batch_fut {
+                    counters.batch_futures_received.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    if drop_read_tasks {
+                        drop(batch_fut);
+                        counters.batches_completed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                        batches += 1;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let counters_for_task = counters.clone();
+                    in_flight.push(async move {
+                        let decode_started = Instant::now();
+                        let batch = batch_fut.await?;
+                        let batch_bytes = if skip_batch_byte_accounting {
+                            0
+                        } else {
+                            batch.get_array_memory_size() as u64
+                        };
+                        add_duration(&counters_for_task.decode_ns, decode_started.elapsed());
+                        counters_for_task.batches_completed.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                        counters_for_task.rows_completed.fetch_add(batch.num_rows() as u64, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                        counters_for_task.arrow_bytes.fetch_add(batch_bytes, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                        Ok::<_, lance_core::Error>((batch, batch_bytes))
+                    });
+                    peak_decode_in_flight = peak_decode_in_flight.max(in_flight.len());
+                } else {
+                    producer_done = true;
+                    producer_finished_at = Some(started.elapsed());
+                }
+            }
+            maybe_batch = in_flight.next(), if !in_flight.is_empty() => {
+                let (batch, batch_bytes) = maybe_batch.expect("in-flight batch future disappeared")?;
+                rows += batch.num_rows() as u64;
+                batches += 1;
+                arrow_bytes += batch_bytes;
+            }
+            _ = sample_interval.tick() => {
+                samples.push(sample_json(
+                    started,
+                    counters.as_ref(),
+                    scheduler_diagnostics.snapshot(io_buffer_gib),
+                    in_flight.len(),
+                    rx.len(),
+                    &mut last_sample,
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    producer.await??;
+
+    let mut final_diagnostics = scheduler_diagnostics.snapshot(io_buffer_gib);
+    final_diagnostics.stats = scheduler.stats();
+    samples.push(sample_json(
+        started,
+        counters.as_ref(),
+        final_diagnostics,
+        in_flight.len(),
+        rx.len(),
+        &mut last_sample,
+    ));
+
+    let elapsed = started.elapsed();
+    let cpu_after = read_cpu_sample();
+
+    Ok(CaseStats {
+        rows,
+        batches,
+        arrow_bytes,
+        planned_fragments,
+        planned_rows,
+        elapsed,
+        producer_finished_at,
+        peak_decode_in_flight,
+        cpu_avg: cpu_before.zip(cpu_after).and_then(|(before, after)| {
+            let total = after.total.checked_sub(before.total)?;
+            let idle = after.idle.checked_sub(before.idle)?;
+            if total == 0 {
+                return None;
+            }
+            Some((total - idle) as f64 / total as f64 * 100.0)
+        }),
+        scheduler_diagnostics: final_diagnostics,
+        counters,
+        samples,
+    })
+}
+
+fn read_cpu_sample() -> Option<CpuSample> {
+    let contents = fs::read_to_string("/proc/stat").ok()?;
+    let line = contents.lines().next()?;
+    let values = line
+        .split_whitespace()
+        .skip(1)
+        .map(|value| value.parse::<u64>())
+        .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
+        .ok()?;
+    if values.len() < 5 {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let idle = values[3] + values[4];
+    let total = values.iter().sum();
+    Some(CpuSample { idle, total })
+}
+
+fn now_unix_secs() -> u64 {
+    SystemTime::now()
+        .duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH)
+        .map(|duration| duration.as_secs())
+        .unwrap_or_default()
+}
+
+fn current_commit() -> String {
+    option_env!("LANCE_BENCH_COMMIT")
+        .or_else(|| option_env!("GIT_COMMIT"))
+        .unwrap_or("unknown")
+        .to_string()
+}
+
+fn env_var(name: &str) -> Option<String> {
+    env::var(name).ok()
+}
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let config = parse_args()?;
+    if config.describe_layout {
+        return describe_layout(&config).await;
+    }
+    let scheduler_diagnostics = SchedulerDiagnosticsCollector::default();
+    let subscriber = tracing_subscriber::registry().with(SchedulerDiagnosticsLayer::new(
+        scheduler_diagnostics.clone(),
+    ));
+    tracing::subscriber::set_global_default(subscriber).map_err(|error| {
+        std::io::Error::other(format!(
+            "failed to install scheduler diagnostics subscriber: {error}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    fs::create_dir_all(&config.out_dir)?;
+    let output_path = format!(
+        "{}/s3_file_reader_diagnostics_{}.jsonl",
+        config.out_dir,
+        now_unix_secs()
+    );
+    let mut jsonl = String::new();
+    let commit = current_commit();
+    let instance = env_var("EC2_INSTANCE_TYPE").unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string());
+    let region = env_var("AWS_REGION")
+        .or_else(|| env_var("AWS_DEFAULT_REGION"))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string());
+    let projection = projection_name(&config.columns);
+
+    for io_buffer_gib in &config.io_buffer_gib {
+        println!(
+            "running case={} backend={} projection={} limit_rows={} io_buffer_gib={} batch_size={} fragment_concurrency={} batch_concurrency={} sample_ms={}",
+            config.case_name,
+            config.backend.name(),
+            projection,
+            config.limit_rows,
+            io_buffer_gib
+                .map(|value| value.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| "auto".to_string()),
+            config.batch_size,
+            config.fragment_concurrency,
+            config.batch_concurrency,
+            config.sample_ms
+        );
+        let stats = match config.backend {
+            Backend::FileReader => {
+                run_case(&config, *io_buffer_gib, &scheduler_diagnostics).await?
+            }
+            Backend::Scanner => {
+                run_scanner_case(&config, *io_buffer_gib, &scheduler_diagnostics).await?
+            }
+            Backend::SchedulerRaw => {
+                run_scheduler_raw_case(&config, *io_buffer_gib, &scheduler_diagnostics).await?
+            }
+            Backend::DatasetTake => run_dataset_take_case(&config, &scheduler_diagnostics).await?,
+        };
+        let elapsed_secs = stats.elapsed.as_secs_f64();
+        let scheduler_stats = stats.scheduler_diagnostics.stats;
+        let logical_gbps = if elapsed_secs > 0.0 {
+            stats.arrow_bytes as f64 * 8.0 / elapsed_secs / 1_000_000_000.0
+        } else {
+            0.0
+        };
+        let physical_gbps = if elapsed_secs > 0.0 {
+            scheduler_stats.bytes_read as f64 * 8.0 / elapsed_secs / 1_000_000_000.0
+        } else {
+            0.0
+        };
+        let rows_per_second = if elapsed_secs > 0.0 {
+            stats.rows as f64 / elapsed_secs
+        } else {
+            0.0
+        };
+        let bytes_per_row = stats.arrow_bytes.checked_div(stats.rows).unwrap_or(0);
+        let avg_bytes_per_scheduler_request = scheduler_stats
+            .bytes_read
+            .checked_div(scheduler_stats.requests)
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        let avg_bytes_per_scheduler_iop = scheduler_stats
+            .bytes_read
+            .checked_div(scheduler_stats.iops)
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        let counters = stats.counters.as_ref();
+        let record = json!({
+            "case": config.case_name,
+            "instance": instance,
+            "region": region,
+            "layer": config.backend.layer(),
+            "backend": config.backend.name(),
+            "dataset_uri": config.uri,
+            "dataset_version": config.dataset_version,
+            "lance_commit": commit,
+            "projection": projection,
+            "limit_rows": config.limit_rows,
+            "target_bytes": config.target_bytes,
+            "raw_range_size_bytes": config.raw_range_size_bytes,
+            "raw_range_mode": config.raw_range_mode.name(),
+            "raw_column_indices": config.raw_column_indices.clone(),
+            "raw_submit_mode": config.raw_submit_mode.name(),
+            "raw_completion_mode": config.raw_completion_mode.name(),
+            "take_repetitions": config.take_repetitions,
+            "raw_read_chunk_size_bytes": config.read_chunk_size.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_READ_CHUNK_SIZE),
+            "planned_rows": stats.planned_rows,
+            "planned_fragments": stats.planned_fragments,
+            "rows": stats.rows,
+            "batches": stats.batches,
+            "batch_size": config.batch_size,
+            "batch_size_bytes": config.batch_size_bytes,
+            "skip_batch_byte_accounting": config.skip_batch_byte_accounting,
+            "read_chunk_size": config.read_chunk_size,
+            "fragment_concurrency": config.fragment_concurrency,
+            "batch_concurrency": config.batch_concurrency,
+            "detach_fragment_streams": config.detach_fragment_streams,
+            "drop_read_tasks": config.drop_read_tasks,
+            "sample_ms": config.sample_ms,
+            "io_buffer_bytes": io_buffer_gib.map(|value| value * GIB),
+            "io_buffer_mode": if io_buffer_gib.is_some() { "explicit" } else { "auto" },
+            "lance_io_threads": env_var("LANCE_IO_THREADS").or_else(|| env_var("IO_THREADS")),
+            "lance_default_io_buffer_size": env_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE"),
+            "lance_max_iop_size": env_var("LANCE_MAX_IOP_SIZE"),
+            "lance_use_lite_scheduler": env_var("LANCE_USE_LITE_SCHEDULER"),
+            "lance_inline_scheduling_threshold": env_var("LANCE_INLINE_SCHEDULING_THRESHOLD"),
+            "elapsed_seconds": elapsed_secs,
+            "producer_finished_seconds": stats.producer_finished_at.map(|duration| duration.as_secs_f64()),
+            "logical_gbps": logical_gbps,
+            "physical_gbps": physical_gbps,
+            "rows_per_second": rows_per_second,
+            "arrow_bytes": stats.arrow_bytes,
+            "bytes_per_row": bytes_per_row,
+            "avg_bytes_per_scheduler_request": avg_bytes_per_scheduler_request,
+            "avg_bytes_per_scheduler_iop": avg_bytes_per_scheduler_iop,
+            "scheduler_iops": scheduler_stats.iops,
+            "scheduler_requests": scheduler_stats.requests,
+            "scheduler_bytes_read": scheduler_stats.bytes_read,
+            "scheduler_diagnostics": diagnostics_json(stats.scheduler_diagnostics),
+            "fragments_started": counters.fragments_started.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            "fragments_completed": counters.fragments_completed.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            "batch_futures_emitted": counters.batch_futures_emitted.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            "batch_futures_received": counters.batch_futures_received.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            "batches_completed": counters.batches_completed.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            "peak_decode_in_flight": stats.peak_decode_in_flight,
+            "open_reader_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.open_reader_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+            "read_stream_create_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.read_stream_create_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+            "next_batch_poll_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.next_batch_poll_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+            "channel_send_wait_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.channel_send_wait_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+            "decode_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.decode_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+            "raw_reassemble_seconds_total": ns_to_seconds(counters.raw_reassemble_ns.load(Ordering::Relaxed)),
+            "cpu_avg": stats.cpu_avg,
+            "samples": stats.samples,
+        });
+        println!(
+            "case={} backend={} projection={} io_buffer_gib={} elapsed={:.3}s logical_gbps={:.2} physical_gbps={:.2} rows={} batches={} scheduler_bytes_read={} scheduler_iops={} scheduler_requests={} active_iops={} pending_iops={} cpu_avg={}",
+            config.case_name,
+            config.backend.name(),
+            projection,
+            io_buffer_gib
+                .map(|value| value.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| "auto".to_string()),
+            elapsed_secs,
+            logical_gbps,
+            physical_gbps,
+            stats.rows,
+            stats.batches,
+            scheduler_stats.bytes_read,
+            scheduler_stats.iops,
+            scheduler_stats.requests,
+            stats.scheduler_diagnostics.active_iops,
+            stats.scheduler_diagnostics.pending_iops,
+            stats
+                .cpu_avg
+                .map(|value| format!("{value:.1}%"))
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string())
+        );
+        jsonl.push_str(&serde_json::to_string(&record)?);
+        jsonl.push('\n');
+        fs::write(&output_path, &jsonl)?;
+    }
+
+    println!("wrote {output_path}");
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/scalar_index.rs b/rust/lance/benches/scalar_index.rs
index e0b4fdb5198..ad8880c665d 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/scalar_index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/scalar_index.rs
@@ -4,27 +4,27 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    types::{UInt32Type, UInt64Type},
     RecordBatchReader,
+    types::{UInt32Type, UInt64Type},
 };
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use datafusion::{physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream, scalar::ScalarValue};
 use futures::{FutureExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance::{io::ObjectStore, Dataset};
+use lance::{Dataset, io::ObjectStore};
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowSetOps;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
 use lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream;
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, RowCount};
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
 use lance_index::scalar::{
-    btree::{train_btree_index, DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE},
+    IndexStore, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
+    btree::{DEFAULT_BTREE_BATCH_SIZE, train_btree_index},
     lance_format::LanceIndexStore,
     registry::ScalarIndexPlugin,
-    IndexStore, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
 };
 use lance_index::{metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector, scalar::btree::BTreeIndexPlugin};
+use lance_select::RowSetOps;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 
 struct BenchmarkFixture {
     _datadir: TempStrDir,
@@ -201,6 +201,7 @@ fn bench_warm_indexed(c: &mut Criterion) {
         .block_on(BTreeIndexPlugin.load_index(
             fixture.index_store.clone(),
             &details,
+            0,
             None,
             &LanceCache::no_cache(),
         ))
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/scan.rs b/rust/lance/benches/scan.rs
index b618aeb98dd..e3bbf0d2a75 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/scan.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/scan.rs
@@ -19,11 +19,11 @@ use arrow_array::{
     StringArray,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, FieldRef, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use futures::stream::TryStreamExt;
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/stable_row_id_limit.rs b/rust/lance/benches/stable_row_id_limit.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a82e6103563
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/stable_row_id_limit.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Measures V2 LIMIT/OFFSET scans over stable-row-ID fragments with deletions.
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! cargo bench -p lance --bench stable_row_id_limit
+//! ```
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use arrow_array::types::UInt32Type;
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+
+const NUM_FRAGMENTS: usize = 128;
+const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 1024;
+const LIVE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT - 1;
+const OFFSET: usize = (NUM_FRAGMENTS - 8) * LIVE_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT;
+const LIMIT: usize = 16;
+
+struct Fixture {
+    _data_dir: TempStrDir,
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+}
+
+impl Fixture {
+    async fn open() -> Self {
+        let data_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                RowCount::from(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as u64),
+                BatchCount::from(NUM_FRAGMENTS as u32),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            data_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // One deletion per fragment forces the fallback path to load every deletion vector.
+        dataset
+            .delete(&format!("value % {ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT} = 0"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), NUM_FRAGMENTS);
+        assert!(
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .all(|fragment| fragment.deletion_file.is_some())
+        );
+
+        Self {
+            _data_dir: data_dir,
+            dataset: Arc::new(dataset),
+            fragments,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+async fn scan_slice(dataset: &Dataset, fragments: &[Fragment]) -> usize {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.with_fragments(fragments.to_vec());
+    scanner
+        .limit(Some(LIMIT as i64), Some(OFFSET as i64))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows()
+}
+
+fn bench_stable_row_id_limit(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let runtime = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let fixture = runtime.block_on(Fixture::open());
+
+    c.bench_function("stable_row_id_limit", |b| {
+        b.to_async(&runtime).iter(|| async {
+            let rows = scan_slice(&fixture.dataset, &fixture.fragments).await;
+            assert_eq!(rows, LIMIT);
+        })
+    });
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    name = benches;
+    config = Criterion::default()
+        .warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs(2))
+        .measurement_time(Duration::from_secs(5))
+        .sample_size(20);
+    targets = bench_stable_row_id_limit
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/streaming_ivf_training.rs b/rust/lance/benches/streaming_ivf_training.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1e75e876cc2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/streaming_ivf_training.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+// The streaming IVF training path still nests async frames past the default
+// recursion limit of 128 when the Linux io_uring reader types are in the
+// obligation graph (the failure does not reproduce on non-Linux hosts). Every
+// other bench now fits the default; see issue #8416.
+#![recursion_limit = "256"]
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, FieldRef, Schema};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+
+use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::dataset::WriteParams;
+use lance::index::vector::ivf::build_ivf_model;
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_index::progress::noop_progress;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+
+const DIM: usize = 8;
+const NUM_PARTITIONS: usize = 320;
+const SAMPLE_RATE: usize = 2;
+const STREAMING_SAMPLE_RATE: usize = 1;
+const MAX_ITERS: usize = 1;
+
+async fn create_training_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "vector",
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            FieldRef::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            DIM as i32,
+        ),
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let num_rows = NUM_PARTITIONS * SAMPLE_RATE;
+    let batch_size = num_rows / 2;
+    let batches = (0..2)
+        .map(|_| {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        generate_random_array(batch_size * DIM),
+                        DIM as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                )],
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+    Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: num_rows,
+            max_rows_per_group: batch_size,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn bench_streaming_ivf_training(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tempdir
+        .path()
+        .join("streaming_ivf_training.lance")
+        .to_string_lossy()
+        .to_string();
+    let dataset = rt.block_on(create_training_dataset(&uri));
+
+    let mut params = IvfBuildParams::new(NUM_PARTITIONS);
+    params.sample_rate = SAMPLE_RATE;
+    params.streaming_sample_rate = Some(STREAMING_SAMPLE_RATE);
+    params.max_iters = MAX_ITERS;
+
+    c.bench_function(
+        &format!(
+            "streaming_ivf_training_{}d_{}p_sample_{}_stream_{}",
+            DIM, NUM_PARTITIONS, SAMPLE_RATE, STREAMING_SAMPLE_RATE
+        ),
+        |b| {
+            b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| async {
+                let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(
+                    &dataset,
+                    "vector",
+                    DIM,
+                    MetricType::L2,
+                    &params,
+                    None,
+                    noop_progress(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                black_box(ivf_model.num_partitions());
+            });
+        },
+    );
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    name=benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().sample_size(10);
+    targets = bench_streaming_ivf_training
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/take.rs b/rust/lance/benches/take.rs
index 3f9fd842bd8..285ba10c5d4 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/take.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/take.rs
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ use arrow_array::{
     UInt32Array,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, FieldRef, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 
 use futures::StreamExt;
 use lance::dataset::ProjectionRequest;
@@ -14,15 +14,15 @@ use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
+use lance_file::LanceEncodingsIo;
 use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_file::LanceEncodingsIo;
+use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
-use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
-use object_store::path::Path;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use object_store::path::Path;
 use rand::Rng;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
@@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ fn file_reader_take(
         let fragment = fragments.first().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(fragment.num_data_files(), 1);
         let file = fragment.metadata().files.first().unwrap();
-        let file_path = dataset.data_dir().child(file.path.as_str());
+        let file_path = dataset.data_dir().join(file.path.as_str());
 
         (dataset, file_path)
     });
@@ -213,6 +213,7 @@ fn file_reader_take(
                             16,
                             FilterExpression::no_filter(),
                         )
+                        .await
                         .unwrap();
                     stream.fold(Vec::new(), |mut acc, item| async move {
                         acc.push(item);
@@ -226,10 +227,8 @@ fn file_reader_take(
 
 async fn create_file_reader(dataset: &Dataset, file_path: &Path) -> FileReader {
     // Create file reader v2.
-    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
-        dataset.object_store.clone(),
-        SchedulerConfig::new(2 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024),
-    );
+    let object_store = dataset.object_store(None).await.unwrap();
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, SchedulerConfig::new(2 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024));
     let file = scheduler
         .open_file(file_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
         .await
@@ -352,6 +351,38 @@ fn fragment_take(
     }
 }
 
+/// Benchmarks Dataset::sample(), which is used during IVF training.
+fn bench_sample(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let rt = tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap();
+
+    // 100 batches * 1024 rows = 102,400 rows total, spread across multiple fragments
+    let num_batches = 100;
+    let file_size = 10 * BATCH_SIZE as usize; // 10,240 rows per fragment → 10 fragments
+    let dataset = rt.block_on(create_dataset(
+        "memory://sample_bench.lance",
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+        num_batches,
+        file_size as i32,
+    ));
+    let total_rows = num_batches as u64 * BATCH_SIZE;
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+
+    for sample_size in [1024, 8192] {
+        c.bench_function(
+            &format!("sample({sample_size} of {total_rows} rows)"),
+            |b| {
+                b.to_async(&rt).iter(|| {
+                    let schema = schema.clone();
+                    let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        dataset.sample(sample_size, &schema, None).await.unwrap();
+                    }
+                })
+            },
+        );
+    }
+}
+
 async fn create_dataset(
     path: &str,
     data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
@@ -431,10 +462,10 @@ criterion_group!(
         .sample_size(10000)
         .warm_up_time(Duration::from_secs_f32(3.0))
         .with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
-    targets = bench_random_take_with_dataset, bench_random_single_take_with_file_fragment, bench_random_single_take_with_file_reader, bench_random_batch_take_with_file_fragment, bench_random_batch_take_with_file_reader);
+    targets = bench_random_take_with_dataset, bench_random_single_take_with_file_fragment, bench_random_single_take_with_file_reader, bench_random_batch_take_with_file_fragment, bench_random_batch_take_with_file_reader, bench_sample);
 #[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
 criterion_group!(
     name=benches;
     config = Criterion::default().significance_level(0.1).sample_size(10);
-    targets = bench_random_take_with_dataset, bench_random_single_take_with_file_fragment, bench_random_single_take_with_file_reader, bench_random_batch_take_with_file_fragment, bench_random_batch_take_with_file_reader);
+    targets = bench_random_take_with_dataset, bench_random_single_take_with_file_fragment, bench_random_single_take_with_file_reader, bench_random_batch_take_with_file_fragment, bench_random_batch_take_with_file_reader, bench_sample);
 criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/take_blob.rs b/rust/lance/benches/take_blob.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..82452ee7f0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/take_blob.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,383 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{LargeBinaryArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use std::hint::black_box;
+
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use lance::blob::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, ProjectionRequest, ReadParams, WriteParams};
+use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
+use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderConfig;
+use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use tokio::runtime::Runtime;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+const TOTAL_ROWS: usize = 128 * 1024;
+const ROWS_PER_BATCH: usize = 1024;
+const BLOB_COLUMN: &str = "video_blob";
+const ID_COLUMN: &str = "id";
+
+fn bench_take_blob(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let runtime = Runtime::new().expect("failed to build tokio runtime");
+
+    let cases = [
+        (LanceFileVersion::V2_0, false, "V2_0 cache_off"),
+        (LanceFileVersion::V2_1, false, "V2_1 cache_off"),
+        (LanceFileVersion::V2_1, true, "V2_1 cache_on"),
+        (LanceFileVersion::V2_2, false, "V2_2 cache_off"),
+        (LanceFileVersion::V2_2, true, "V2_2 cache_on"),
+    ];
+
+    for (version, cache_repetition_index, label) in cases {
+        let dataset = Arc::new(runtime.block_on(prepare_dataset(version, cache_repetition_index)));
+        bench_take_blobs_by_indices(&runtime, c, dataset.clone(), label, 1);
+        bench_take_blobs_by_indices(&runtime, c, dataset.clone(), label, 16);
+        bench_take_blob_descriptors(&runtime, c, dataset.clone(), label, 1);
+        bench_take_blob_descriptors(&runtime, c, dataset.clone(), label, 16);
+        bench_take_blob_descriptors_with_row_addr(&runtime, c, dataset.clone(), label, 1);
+        bench_take_blob_descriptors_with_row_addr(&runtime, c, dataset.clone(), label, 16);
+        bench_take_id_column(&runtime, c, dataset.clone(), label, 1);
+        bench_take_id_column(&runtime, c, dataset, label, 16);
+    }
+
+    bench_sequential_8k_reads(c, &runtime);
+}
+
+fn bench_sequential_8k_reads(c: &mut Criterion, runtime: &Runtime) {
+    let dataset = Arc::new(runtime.block_on(prepare_sequential_blob_dataset()));
+    c.bench_function("V2_2 sequential read_up_to 8KiB", |b| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        b.to_async(runtime).iter(move || {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            async move {
+                let blobs = dataset
+                    .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], BLOB_COLUMN)
+                    .await
+                    .expect("take_blobs_by_indices failed");
+                let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().expect("blob");
+                loop {
+                    let chunk = blob.read_up_to(8192).await.expect("read_up_to failed");
+                    if chunk.is_empty() {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    black_box(chunk.len());
+                }
+            }
+        });
+    });
+}
+
+async fn prepare_sequential_blob_dataset() -> Dataset {
+    let uri = std::env::temp_dir()
+        .join(format!("lance-bench-seq-blob-{}", Uuid::new_v4()))
+        .to_string_lossy()
+        .into_owned();
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        blob_field(BLOB_COLUMN, true),
+    ]));
+    let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+    blobs
+        .push_bytes(vec![0xABu8; 2 * 1024 * 1024])
+        .expect("failed to append sequential blob payload");
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])),
+            blobs.finish().unwrap(),
+        ],
+    )
+    .expect("failed to build sequential blob batch");
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .expect("failed to write sequential blob dataset")
+}
+
+fn bench_take_blobs_by_indices(
+    runtime: &Runtime,
+    c: &mut Criterion,
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    label: &str,
+    take_rows: usize,
+) {
+    let indices = Arc::new(build_indices(take_rows));
+    let bench_name = format!("{label} take_blobs_by_indices ({take_rows} rows)");
+
+    c.bench_function(&bench_name, |b| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let indices = indices.clone();
+        b.to_async(runtime).iter(move || {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let indices = indices.clone();
+            async move {
+                let blobs = dataset
+                    .take_blobs_by_indices(indices.as_slice(), BLOB_COLUMN)
+                    .await
+                    .expect("take_blobs_by_indices failed");
+                black_box(blobs.len());
+            }
+        });
+    });
+}
+
+fn bench_take_blob_descriptors(
+    runtime: &Runtime,
+    c: &mut Criterion,
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    label: &str,
+    take_rows: usize,
+) {
+    let indices = Arc::new(build_indices(take_rows));
+    let projection = ProjectionRequest::from_columns([BLOB_COLUMN], dataset.schema());
+    let bench_name = format!("{label} take_rows(blob descriptor) ({take_rows} rows)");
+
+    c.bench_function(&bench_name, |b| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let indices = indices.clone();
+        let projection = projection.clone();
+        b.to_async(runtime).iter(move || {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let indices = indices.clone();
+            let projection = projection.clone();
+            async move {
+                let batch = dataset
+                    .take_rows(indices.as_slice(), projection.clone())
+                    .await
+                    .expect("take_rows on blob column failed");
+                black_box(batch.num_rows());
+            }
+        });
+    });
+}
+
+fn bench_take_blob_descriptors_with_row_addr(
+    runtime: &Runtime,
+    c: &mut Criterion,
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    label: &str,
+    take_rows: usize,
+) {
+    let indices = Arc::new(build_indices(take_rows));
+    let projection = ProjectionRequest::from_columns([BLOB_COLUMN], dataset.schema());
+    let bench_name = format!("{label} take_builder(blob+rowaddr) ({take_rows} rows)");
+
+    c.bench_function(&bench_name, |b| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let indices = indices.clone();
+        let projection = projection.clone();
+        b.to_async(runtime).iter(move || {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let indices = indices.clone();
+            let projection = projection.clone();
+            async move {
+                let batch = dataset
+                    .take_builder(indices.as_slice(), projection.clone())
+                    .expect("failed to create take_builder")
+                    .with_row_address(true)
+                    .execute()
+                    .await
+                    .expect("take_builder execute failed");
+                black_box(batch.num_rows());
+            }
+        });
+    });
+}
+
+fn bench_take_id_column(
+    runtime: &Runtime,
+    c: &mut Criterion,
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    label: &str,
+    take_rows: usize,
+) {
+    let indices = Arc::new(build_indices(take_rows));
+    let projection = ProjectionRequest::from_columns([ID_COLUMN], dataset.schema());
+    let bench_name = format!("{label} take_rows(id column) ({take_rows} rows)");
+
+    c.bench_function(&bench_name, |b| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let indices = indices.clone();
+        let projection = projection.clone();
+        b.to_async(runtime).iter(move || {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let indices = indices.clone();
+            let projection = projection.clone();
+            async move {
+                let batch = dataset
+                    .take_rows(indices.as_slice(), projection.clone())
+                    .await
+                    .expect("take_rows on id column failed");
+                black_box(batch.num_rows());
+            }
+        });
+    });
+}
+
+fn build_indices(take_rows: usize) -> Vec<u64> {
+    if take_rows == 1 {
+        return vec![(TOTAL_ROWS / 2) as u64];
+    }
+
+    let step = TOTAL_ROWS / take_rows;
+    (0..take_rows).map(|i| (i * step) as u64).collect()
+}
+
+async fn prepare_dataset(version: LanceFileVersion, cache_repetition_index: bool) -> Dataset {
+    let label = match version {
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_0 => "v2_0",
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_1 => "v2_1",
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_2 => "v2_2",
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_3 => "v2_3",
+        LanceFileVersion::Legacy => "legacy",
+        LanceFileVersion::Stable => "stable",
+        LanceFileVersion::Next => "next",
+    };
+    let cache_label = if cache_repetition_index {
+        "cache_on"
+    } else {
+        "cache_off"
+    };
+    let uri = std::env::temp_dir()
+        .join(format!(
+            "take-blob-{label}-{cache_label}-{}",
+            Uuid::new_v4()
+        ))
+        .to_string_lossy()
+        .into_owned();
+    write_blob_dataset(&uri, version, cache_repetition_index).await
+}
+
+async fn write_blob_dataset(
+    uri: &str,
+    version: LanceFileVersion,
+    cache_repetition_index: bool,
+) -> Dataset {
+    let batches = if matches!(
+        version.resolve(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+    ) {
+        make_blob_v2_batches()
+    } else {
+        make_legacy_blob_batches()
+    };
+    let schema = batches[0].schema();
+
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(version),
+        max_rows_per_file: TOTAL_ROWS,
+        max_rows_per_group: ROWS_PER_BATCH,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .expect("failed to write benchmark dataset");
+
+    let mut read_params = ReadParams::default();
+    if cache_repetition_index {
+        read_params.file_reader_options(FileReaderOptions {
+            decoder_config: DecoderConfig {
+                cache_repetition_index: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+    }
+
+    DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+        .with_read_params(read_params)
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .expect("failed to reopen benchmark dataset")
+}
+
+fn make_blob_v2_batches() -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        blob_field(BLOB_COLUMN, true),
+    ]));
+
+    let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(TOTAL_ROWS.div_ceil(ROWS_PER_BATCH));
+    let mut start = 0usize;
+
+    while start < TOTAL_ROWS {
+        let end = usize::min(start + ROWS_PER_BATCH, TOTAL_ROWS);
+        let ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(start as u64..end as u64));
+
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(end - start);
+        for idx in start..end {
+            blobs
+                .push_bytes(format!("blob-payload-{idx}").as_bytes())
+                .expect("failed to append blob payload");
+        }
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![ids, blobs.finish().unwrap()])
+            .expect("failed to build v2 blob batch");
+        batches.push(batch);
+        start = end;
+    }
+
+    batches
+}
+
+fn make_legacy_blob_batches() -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+    metadata.insert(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new(BLOB_COLUMN, DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(metadata),
+    ]));
+
+    let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(TOTAL_ROWS.div_ceil(ROWS_PER_BATCH));
+    let mut start = 0usize;
+
+    while start < TOTAL_ROWS {
+        let end = usize::min(start + ROWS_PER_BATCH, TOTAL_ROWS);
+        let ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(start as u64..end as u64));
+        let payloads = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter_values(
+            (start..end).map(|idx| format!("blob-payload-{idx}").into_bytes()),
+        ));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![ids, payloads])
+            .expect("failed to build legacy blob batch");
+        batches.push(batch);
+        start = end;
+    }
+
+    batches
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
+criterion_group!(
+    name=benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().sample_size(50).with_profiler(PProfProfiler::new(100, Output::Flamegraph(None)));
+    targets = bench_take_blob
+);
+#[cfg(not(target_os = "linux"))]
+criterion_group!(
+    name=benches;
+    config = Criterion::default().sample_size(30);
+    targets = bench_take_blob
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/vector_index.rs b/rust/lance/benches/vector_index.rs
index e20febfd2fb..5c8d9f88e20 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/vector_index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/vector_index.rs
@@ -5,21 +5,22 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::as_primitive_array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+    FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, cast::as_primitive_array,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, FieldRef, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, Criterion};
+use criterion::{Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
 use rand::Rng;
 
-use lance::dataset::{builder::DatasetBuilder, Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams, builder::DatasetBuilder};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
-use lance_arrow::{as_fixed_size_list_array, FixedSizeListArrayExt};
+use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, as_fixed_size_list_array};
 use lance_index::{
+    IndexType,
     vector::{ivf::IvfBuildParams, pq::PQBuildParams},
-    DatasetIndexExt, IndexType,
 };
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 
diff --git a/rust/lance/benches/vector_throughput.rs b/rust/lance/benches/vector_throughput.rs
index aa557863d2b..4910b7339ca 100644
--- a/rust/lance/benches/vector_throughput.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/benches/vector_throughput.rs
@@ -10,20 +10,21 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, FieldRef, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-use criterion::{criterion_group, criterion_main, BatchSize, Criterion, Throughput};
+use criterion::{BatchSize, Criterion, Throughput, criterion_group, criterion_main};
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use log::info;
 #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
-use pprof::criterion::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use lance_testing::pprof::{Output, PProfProfiler};
+use log::info;
 use rand::Rng;
 
 use lance::dataset::{Dataset, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 use lance_index::{
+    IndexType,
     vector::{ivf::IvfBuildParams, pq::PQBuildParams},
-    DatasetIndexExt, IndexType,
 };
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
@@ -215,20 +216,20 @@ fn drop_dataset_from_cache(dataset_dir: &str) -> std::io::Result<()> {
     let entries = fs::read_dir(format!("{}/data", dataset_dir)).unwrap();
     for entry in entries.flatten() {
         let path = entry.path();
-        if path.is_file() {
-            if let Ok(file) = fs::File::open(&path) {
-                let fd = file.as_raw_fd();
-                // POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED = 4
-                let result = unsafe { libc::posix_fadvise(fd, 0, 0, libc::POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED) };
-                if result != 0 {
-                    panic!(
-                        "Warning: Failed to drop {:?} from cache: {}",
-                        path,
-                        std::io::Error::from_raw_os_error(result)
-                    );
-                }
-                num_dropped += 1;
+        if path.is_file()
+            && let Ok(file) = fs::File::open(&path)
+        {
+            let fd = file.as_raw_fd();
+            // POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED = 4
+            let result = unsafe { libc::posix_fadvise(fd, 0, 0, libc::POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED) };
+            if result != 0 {
+                panic!(
+                    "Warning: Failed to drop {:?} from cache: {}",
+                    path,
+                    std::io::Error::from_raw_os_error(result)
+                );
             }
+            num_dropped += 1;
         }
     }
     if num_dropped == 0 {
@@ -287,7 +288,11 @@ fn bench_ivf_pq_throughput(c: &mut Criterion) {
     let mut group = c.benchmark_group("ivf_pq_throughput");
     group.throughput(Throughput::Elements(NUM_QUERIES as u64));
 
-    for &version in &[LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1] {
+    for &version in &[
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+    ] {
         // Get or create cached dataset
         let cached_dataset = get_or_create_dataset(&rt, version);
 
diff --git a/rust/lance/build.rs b/rust/lance/build.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4225007d46c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/build.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::io::Result;
+
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=protos");
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "protoc")]
+    // Use vendored protobuf compiler if requested.
+    unsafe {
+        std::env::set_var("PROTOC", protobuf_src::protoc());
+    }
+
+    let mut prost_build = prost_build::Config::new();
+    prost_build.extern_path(".lance.table", "::lance_table::format::pb");
+    prost_build.extern_path(".lance.index.pb", "::lance_index::pb");
+    prost_build.extern_path(".lance.datafusion", "::lance_datafusion::pb");
+    prost_build.protoc_arg("--experimental_allow_proto3_optional");
+    prost_build.enable_type_names();
+    prost_build.compile_protos(&["./protos/ann.proto"], &["./protos"])?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/arrow/json.rs b/rust/lance/src/arrow/json.rs
index 13819e7a0f5..a7fbefb6412 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/arrow/json.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/arrow/json.rs
@@ -10,8 +10,6 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use snafu::location;
-
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
 
@@ -101,10 +99,9 @@ impl TryFrom<&DataType> for JsonDataType {
                 ("struct".to_string(), Some(fields))
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Arrow {
-                    message: format!("Json conversion: Unsupported type: {dt}"),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::arrow(format!(
+                    "Json conversion: Unsupported type: {dt}"
+                )));
             }
         };
 
@@ -142,9 +139,8 @@ impl TryFrom<&JsonDataType> for DataType {
                 let fields = value
                     .fields
                     .as_ref()
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::Arrow {
-                        message: "Json conversion: List type requires a field".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::arrow("Json conversion: List type requires a field".to_string())
                     })?
                     .iter()
                     .map(Field::try_from)
@@ -154,10 +150,10 @@ impl TryFrom<&JsonDataType> for DataType {
                     "list" => Ok(Self::List(Arc::new(fields[0].clone()))),
                     "large_list" => Ok(Self::LargeList(Arc::new(fields[0].clone()))),
                     "fixed_size_list" => {
-                        let length = value.length.ok_or_else(|| Error::Arrow {
-                            message: "Json conversion: FixedSizeList type requires a length"
-                                .to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
+                        let length = value.length.ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::arrow(
+                                "Json conversion: FixedSizeList type requires a length".to_string(),
+                            )
                         })?;
                         Ok(Self::FixedSizeList(
                             Arc::new(fields[0].clone()),
@@ -169,16 +165,16 @@ impl TryFrom<&JsonDataType> for DataType {
                 }
             }
             "fixed_size_binary" => {
-                let length = value.length.ok_or_else(|| Error::Arrow {
-                    message: "Json conversion: FixedSizeBinary type requires a length".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
+                let length = value.length.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::arrow(
+                        "Json conversion: FixedSizeBinary type requires a length".to_string(),
+                    )
                 })?;
                 Ok(Self::FixedSizeBinary(length as i32))
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::Arrow {
-                message: format!("Json conversion: Unsupported type: {value:?}"),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::arrow(format!(
+                "Json conversion: Unsupported type: {value:?}"
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -310,7 +306,7 @@ mod test {
     use super::*;
 
     use arrow_schema::TimeUnit;
-    use serde_json::{json, Value};
+    use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
     fn assert_type_json_str(dt: DataType, val: Value) {
         assert_eq!(
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/bin/fm_contains_bench.rs b/rust/lance/src/bin/fm_contains_bench.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b62ad8699f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/bin/fm_contains_bench.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,610 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::fs::File;
+use std::io::{BufWriter, Write};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, LargeStringArray, RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt64Array};
+use clap::Parser;
+use futures::future::join_all;
+use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use lance::dataset::{Dataset, ReadParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance::{Error, Result};
+use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptionsAccessor};
+use serde::Serialize;
+use tokio::sync::Semaphore;
+use tokio::time::timeout;
+
+const ROW_ID_COLUMN: &str = "_rowid";
+
+#[derive(Parser, Debug, Clone)]
+#[command(author, version, about, long_about = None)]
+struct Args {
+    #[arg(
+        long,
+        default_value = "az://datasets/mmlb/mmlb_100m_fts_en_fm_20260626.lance"
+    )]
+    uri: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value = "full_content_idx")]
+    index_name: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value = "full_content")]
+    text_column: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value = "summary_in_image")]
+    pattern_source_column: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value = "oailancepub")]
+    storage_account: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, value_parser = parse_storage_option)]
+    storage_option: Vec<(String, String)>,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = 1_099_511_627_776)]
+    index_cache_bytes: usize,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = 8_589_934_592)]
+    metadata_cache_bytes: usize,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = 5_000)]
+    sample_rows: usize,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = 5)]
+    query_term_count: usize,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = 100)]
+    k: i64,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = 0)]
+    warmup: usize,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = 4)]
+    queries: usize,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value = "1 2 4 8")]
+    threads: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = 60.0)]
+    query_timeout_secs: f64,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = false)]
+    skip_prewarm: bool,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = true)]
+    explain: bool,
+
+    #[arg(long)]
+    output_json: String,
+
+    #[arg(long)]
+    output_csv: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize)]
+struct QueryPattern {
+    query_id: String,
+    pattern: String,
+    filter_sql: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
+struct QueryResult {
+    query_id: String,
+    pattern: String,
+    filter_sql: String,
+    success: bool,
+    error: Option<String>,
+    elapsed_ms: f64,
+    result_count: usize,
+    checksum: u64,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
+struct BatchSummary {
+    round_type: String,
+    threads: usize,
+    queries: usize,
+    successes: usize,
+    success_rate: f64,
+    wall_s: f64,
+    qps: f64,
+    mean_ms: f64,
+    p50_ms: f64,
+    p95_ms: f64,
+    p99_ms: f64,
+    avg_result_count: f64,
+    max_result_count: usize,
+    checksum: u64,
+    results: Vec<QueryResult>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
+struct BenchmarkOutput {
+    uri: String,
+    index_name: String,
+    text_column: String,
+    pattern_source_column: String,
+    sample_rows: usize,
+    query_term_count: usize,
+    k: i64,
+    warmup: usize,
+    queries: usize,
+    threads: Vec<usize>,
+    query_timeout_secs: f64,
+    index_cache_bytes: usize,
+    metadata_cache_bytes: usize,
+    prewarm_ms: Option<f64>,
+    explain_plan: Option<String>,
+    summaries: Vec<BatchSummary>,
+}
+
+fn parse_threads(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Vec<usize>, String> {
+    let mut threads = Vec::new();
+    for part in value.replace(',', " ").split_whitespace() {
+        let thread_count = part
+            .parse::<usize>()
+            .map_err(|err| format!("invalid thread count {part:?}: {err}"))?;
+        if thread_count == 0 {
+            return Err("thread counts must be greater than zero".to_string());
+        }
+        threads.push(thread_count);
+    }
+    if threads.is_empty() {
+        return Err("at least one thread count is required".to_string());
+    }
+    Ok(threads)
+}
+
+fn parse_storage_option(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<(String, String), String> {
+    let Some((key, val)) = value.split_once('=') else {
+        return Err("storage options must be key=value".to_string());
+    };
+    if key.is_empty() {
+        return Err("storage option key cannot be empty".to_string());
+    }
+    Ok((key.to_string(), val.to_string()))
+}
+
+fn sql_quote(value: &str) -> String {
+    format!("'{}'", value.replace('\'', "''"))
+}
+
+fn query_terms_from_text(text: &str, term_count: usize) -> Result<String> {
+    let terms = text.split_whitespace().take(term_count).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    if terms.len() < term_count {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "sampled query text has {} terms, but requested {}",
+            terms.len(),
+            term_count
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(terms.join(" "))
+}
+
+fn string_value(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str, row: usize) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+    let array = batch
+        .column_by_name(column)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("column {column:?} not found")))?;
+    if array.is_null(row) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    if let Some(strings) = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>() {
+        return Ok(Some(strings.value(row).to_string()));
+    }
+    if let Some(strings) = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>() {
+        return Ok(Some(strings.value(row).to_string()));
+    }
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "column {column:?} must be Utf8 or LargeUtf8, got {:?}",
+        array.data_type()
+    )))
+}
+
+async fn open_dataset(args: &Args) -> Result<Dataset> {
+    let mut options = HashMap::from([("account_name".to_string(), args.storage_account.clone())]);
+    for (key, val) in &args.storage_option {
+        options.insert(key.clone(), val.clone());
+    }
+    let read_params = ReadParams {
+        index_cache_size_bytes: args.index_cache_bytes,
+        metadata_cache_size_bytes: args.metadata_cache_bytes,
+        store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                options,
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&args.uri)
+        .with_read_params(read_params)
+        .load()
+        .await
+}
+
+async fn sample_patterns(dataset: &Dataset, args: &Args) -> Result<Vec<QueryPattern>> {
+    let total = args.warmup + args.queries;
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .project(&[args.pattern_source_column.as_str()])?
+        .limit(Some(args.sample_rows as i64), None)?;
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await?;
+    let mut patterns = Vec::with_capacity(total);
+    let mut seen = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+
+    for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+        let Some(text) = string_value(&batch, &args.pattern_source_column, row)? else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let pattern = query_terms_from_text(&text, args.query_term_count)?;
+        if seen.insert(pattern.clone()) {
+            let filter_sql = format!(
+                "contains({}, {})",
+                args.text_column,
+                sql_quote(pattern.as_str())
+            );
+            patterns.push(QueryPattern {
+                query_id: format!("Q{:06}", patterns.len() + 1),
+                pattern,
+                filter_sql,
+            });
+            if patterns.len() == total {
+                return Ok(patterns);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "sampled only {} unique patterns, need {}; increase --sample-rows",
+        patterns.len(),
+        total
+    )))
+}
+
+async fn explain_first_query(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    pattern: &QueryPattern,
+    args: &Args,
+) -> Result<String> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .project::<&str>(&[])?
+        .filter(&pattern.filter_sql)?
+        .limit(Some(args.k), None)?;
+    scanner.explain_plan(false).await
+}
+
+async fn execute_query(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    pattern: &QueryPattern,
+    args: &Args,
+) -> Result<QueryResult> {
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .project::<&str>(&[])?
+        .filter(&pattern.filter_sql)?
+        .limit(Some(args.k), None)?;
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await?;
+    let elapsed_ms = start.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0;
+    let row_ids = batch
+        .column_by_name(ROW_ID_COLUMN)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("{ROW_ID_COLUMN} column missing")))?;
+    let row_ids = row_ids
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("{ROW_ID_COLUMN} must be UInt64")))?;
+    let mut checksum = 0_u64;
+    for row in 0..row_ids.len() {
+        if !row_ids.is_null(row) {
+            checksum ^= row_ids.value(row);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(QueryResult {
+        query_id: pattern.query_id.clone(),
+        pattern: pattern.pattern.clone(),
+        filter_sql: pattern.filter_sql.clone(),
+        success: true,
+        error: None,
+        elapsed_ms,
+        result_count: batch.num_rows(),
+        checksum,
+    })
+}
+
+async fn run_one(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, pattern: QueryPattern, args: Arc<Args>) -> QueryResult {
+    let start = Instant::now();
+    let result = if args.query_timeout_secs > 0.0 {
+        timeout(
+            Duration::from_secs_f64(args.query_timeout_secs),
+            execute_query(dataset, &pattern, &args),
+        )
+        .await
+        .map_err(|_| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "query timed out after {}s",
+                args.query_timeout_secs
+            ))
+        })
+        .and_then(|inner| inner)
+    } else {
+        execute_query(dataset, &pattern, &args).await
+    };
+
+    match result {
+        Ok(result) => result,
+        Err(err) => QueryResult {
+            query_id: pattern.query_id,
+            pattern: pattern.pattern,
+            filter_sql: pattern.filter_sql,
+            success: false,
+            error: Some(err.to_string()),
+            elapsed_ms: start.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0,
+            result_count: 0,
+            checksum: 0,
+        },
+    }
+}
+
+async fn run_batch(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    args: Arc<Args>,
+    patterns: &[QueryPattern],
+    thread_count: usize,
+    round_type: &str,
+) -> BatchSummary {
+    let wall_start = Instant::now();
+    let semaphore = Arc::new(Semaphore::new(thread_count));
+    let tasks = patterns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|pattern| {
+            let pattern = pattern.clone();
+            let dataset = Arc::clone(&dataset);
+            let args = Arc::clone(&args);
+            let semaphore = Arc::clone(&semaphore);
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                let _permit = semaphore.acquire_owned().await.expect("semaphore closed");
+                run_one(dataset, pattern, args).await
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let results = join_all(tasks)
+        .await
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|result| match result {
+            Ok(query_result) => query_result,
+            Err(err) => QueryResult {
+                query_id: "join_error".to_string(),
+                pattern: String::new(),
+                filter_sql: String::new(),
+                success: false,
+                error: Some(err.to_string()),
+                elapsed_ms: 0.0,
+                result_count: 0,
+                checksum: 0,
+            },
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    summarize(round_type, thread_count, results, wall_start.elapsed())
+}
+
+fn percentile(values: &[f64], pct: usize) -> f64 {
+    if values.is_empty() {
+        return 0.0;
+    }
+    let mut ordered = values.to_vec();
+    ordered.sort_by(|left, right| left.total_cmp(right));
+    let idx = ((ordered.len() * pct).div_ceil(100)).saturating_sub(1);
+    ordered[idx.min(ordered.len() - 1)]
+}
+
+fn summarize(
+    round_type: &str,
+    threads: usize,
+    results: Vec<QueryResult>,
+    wall: Duration,
+) -> BatchSummary {
+    let successes = results.iter().filter(|result| result.success).count();
+    let latencies = results
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|result| result.success)
+        .map(|result| result.elapsed_ms)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let result_counts = results
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|result| result.success)
+        .map(|result| result.result_count)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let wall_s = wall.as_secs_f64();
+    BatchSummary {
+        round_type: round_type.to_string(),
+        threads,
+        queries: results.len(),
+        successes,
+        success_rate: if results.is_empty() {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            successes as f64 / results.len() as f64
+        },
+        wall_s,
+        qps: if wall_s == 0.0 {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            successes as f64 / wall_s
+        },
+        mean_ms: if latencies.is_empty() {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            latencies.iter().sum::<f64>() / latencies.len() as f64
+        },
+        p50_ms: percentile(&latencies, 50),
+        p95_ms: percentile(&latencies, 95),
+        p99_ms: percentile(&latencies, 99),
+        avg_result_count: if result_counts.is_empty() {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            result_counts.iter().sum::<usize>() as f64 / result_counts.len() as f64
+        },
+        max_result_count: result_counts.into_iter().max().unwrap_or(0),
+        checksum: results
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|result| result.success)
+            .map(|result| result.checksum)
+            .fold(0, |acc, checksum| acc ^ checksum),
+        results,
+    }
+}
+
+fn write_csv(path: &str, summaries: &[BatchSummary]) -> Result<()> {
+    let file = File::create(path)?;
+    let mut writer = BufWriter::new(file);
+    writeln!(
+        writer,
+        "round_type,threads,queries,successes,success_rate,wall_s,qps,mean_ms,p50_ms,p95_ms,p99_ms,avg_result_count,max_result_count,checksum"
+    )?;
+    for summary in summaries {
+        writeln!(
+            writer,
+            "{},{},{},{},{:.6},{:.6},{:.6},{:.6},{:.6},{:.6},{:.6},{:.6},{},{}",
+            csv_escape(&summary.round_type),
+            summary.threads,
+            summary.queries,
+            summary.successes,
+            summary.success_rate,
+            summary.wall_s,
+            summary.qps,
+            summary.mean_ms,
+            summary.p50_ms,
+            summary.p95_ms,
+            summary.p99_ms,
+            summary.avg_result_count,
+            summary.max_result_count,
+            summary.checksum
+        )?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn csv_escape(value: &str) -> String {
+    if value.contains([',', '"', '\n']) {
+        format!("\"{}\"", value.replace('"', "\"\""))
+    } else {
+        value.to_string()
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let args = Arc::new(Args::parse());
+    let thread_counts = parse_threads(&args.threads).map_err(Error::invalid_input)?;
+    if args.k <= 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input("--k must be greater than zero"));
+    }
+    if args.query_term_count == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "--query-term-count must be greater than zero",
+        ));
+    }
+    if args.query_timeout_secs < 0.0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "--query-timeout-secs must be non-negative",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    println!("opening dataset {}", args.uri);
+    let dataset = Arc::new(open_dataset(&args).await?);
+    println!("dataset version {}", dataset.version().version);
+
+    let patterns = sample_patterns(&dataset, &args).await?;
+    println!("sampled {} patterns", patterns.len());
+
+    let explain_plan = if args.explain {
+        Some(explain_first_query(&dataset, &patterns[0], &args).await?)
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    let prewarm_ms = if args.skip_prewarm {
+        None
+    } else {
+        println!("prewarming index {}", args.index_name);
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        dataset.prewarm_index(&args.index_name).await?;
+        let elapsed_ms = start.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0;
+        println!("prewarm finished in {:.3} ms", elapsed_ms);
+        Some(elapsed_ms)
+    };
+
+    let warmup_patterns = &patterns[..args.warmup];
+    let query_patterns = &patterns[args.warmup..];
+    let mut summaries = Vec::new();
+    for thread_count in thread_counts.iter().copied() {
+        if !warmup_patterns.is_empty() {
+            summaries.push(
+                run_batch(
+                    Arc::clone(&dataset),
+                    Arc::clone(&args),
+                    warmup_patterns,
+                    thread_count,
+                    "warmup",
+                )
+                .await,
+            );
+        }
+        let summary = run_batch(
+            Arc::clone(&dataset),
+            Arc::clone(&args),
+            query_patterns,
+            thread_count,
+            "test",
+        )
+        .await;
+        println!(
+            "test threads={} queries={} successes={} wall_s={:.3} qps={:.3} mean_ms={:.3} p95_ms={:.3}",
+            summary.threads,
+            summary.queries,
+            summary.successes,
+            summary.wall_s,
+            summary.qps,
+            summary.mean_ms,
+            summary.p95_ms
+        );
+        summaries.push(summary);
+    }
+
+    let output = BenchmarkOutput {
+        uri: args.uri.clone(),
+        index_name: args.index_name.clone(),
+        text_column: args.text_column.clone(),
+        pattern_source_column: args.pattern_source_column.clone(),
+        sample_rows: args.sample_rows,
+        query_term_count: args.query_term_count,
+        k: args.k,
+        warmup: args.warmup,
+        queries: args.queries,
+        threads: thread_counts,
+        query_timeout_secs: args.query_timeout_secs,
+        index_cache_bytes: args.index_cache_bytes,
+        metadata_cache_bytes: args.metadata_cache_bytes,
+        prewarm_ms,
+        explain_plan,
+        summaries,
+    };
+
+    let mut json = serde_json::to_string_pretty(&output)?;
+    json.push('\n');
+    std::fs::write(&args.output_json, json)?;
+    write_csv(&args.output_csv, &output.summaries)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/bin/fm_index_tool.rs b/rust/lance/src/bin/fm_index_tool.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1eb03b78b26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/bin/fm_index_tool.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,161 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+#![allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use clap::{Parser, ValueEnum};
+use lance::dataset::ReadParams;
+use lance::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use lance::index::{CreateIndexBuilder, DatasetIndexExt};
+use lance::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptionsAccessor};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+#[derive(Parser, Debug)]
+#[command(author, version, about, long_about = None)]
+struct Args {
+    #[arg(value_enum)]
+    action: Action,
+
+    #[arg(long)]
+    uri: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value = "full_content_idx")]
+    index_name: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value = "full_content")]
+    column: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value = "oailancepub")]
+    storage_account: String,
+
+    #[arg(long, value_parser = parse_storage_option)]
+    storage_option: Vec<(String, String)>,
+
+    #[arg(long, default_value_t = 1)]
+    num_segments: u32,
+
+    #[arg(long)]
+    index_uuid: Option<Uuid>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, ValueEnum)]
+enum Action {
+    List,
+    Drop,
+    Create,
+}
+
+fn parse_storage_option(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<(String, String), String> {
+    let Some((key, val)) = value.split_once('=') else {
+        return Err("storage options must be key=value".to_string());
+    };
+    if key.is_empty() {
+        return Err("storage option key cannot be empty".to_string());
+    }
+    Ok((key.to_string(), val.to_string()))
+}
+
+async fn open_dataset(args: &Args) -> Result<lance::Dataset> {
+    let mut options = HashMap::from([("account_name".to_string(), args.storage_account.clone())]);
+    for (key, val) in &args.storage_option {
+        options.insert(key.clone(), val.clone());
+    }
+    let read_params = ReadParams {
+        store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                options,
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&args.uri)
+        .with_read_params(read_params)
+        .load()
+        .await
+}
+
+fn fm_params(num_segments: u32) -> ScalarIndexParams {
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm);
+    if num_segments == 1 {
+        params
+    } else {
+        params.with_params(&serde_json::json!({ "num_segments": num_segments }))
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let args = Args::parse();
+    if args.num_segments == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "--num-segments must be greater than 0",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    println!("opening dataset {}", args.uri);
+    let mut dataset = open_dataset(&args).await?;
+    println!("dataset version {}", dataset.version().version);
+
+    match args.action {
+        Action::List => {
+            let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+            println!("indices={}", indices.len());
+            for index in indices.iter() {
+                println!(
+                    "name={} uuid={} version={} fields={:?} fragments={}",
+                    index.name,
+                    index.uuid,
+                    index.index_version,
+                    index.fields,
+                    index
+                        .fragment_bitmap
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|bitmap| bitmap.len())
+                        .unwrap_or(0)
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        Action::Drop => {
+            let start = Instant::now();
+            dataset.drop_index(&args.index_name).await?;
+            println!(
+                "dropped index {} in {:.3}s; new version {}",
+                args.index_name,
+                start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+                dataset.version().version
+            );
+        }
+        Action::Create => {
+            let params = fm_params(args.num_segments);
+            let start = Instant::now();
+            let mut builder = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &[args.column.as_str()],
+                lance_index::IndexType::Fm,
+                &params,
+            )
+            .name(args.index_name.clone())
+            .replace(true);
+            if let Some(index_uuid) = args.index_uuid {
+                builder = builder.index_uuid(index_uuid);
+            }
+            let metadata = builder.await?;
+            println!(
+                "created index {} uuid={} in {:.3}s; new version {}",
+                metadata.name,
+                metadata.uuid,
+                start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
+                dataset.version().version
+            );
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/bin/lq.rs b/rust/lance/src/bin/lq.rs
index 2615d5e6085..afaa15c7f10 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/bin/lq.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/bin/lq.rs
@@ -6,14 +6,13 @@
 use arrow::util::pretty::print_batches;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use clap::{Parser, Subcommand, ValueEnum};
-use futures::stream::StreamExt;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
-use snafu::location;
+use futures::stream::StreamExt;
 
 use lance::dataset::Dataset;
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
 use lance::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 
 #[derive(Parser)]
@@ -154,25 +153,18 @@ async fn create_index(
     num_sub_vectors: &usize,
     metric_type: &Option<String>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let col = column.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-        message: "Must specify column".to_string(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
-    let _ = index_type.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-        message: "Must specify index type".to_string(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
+    let col = column
+        .as_ref()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Must specify column".to_string()))?;
+    let _ = index_type.ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Must specify index type".to_string()))?;
     let mt = match metric_type.as_ref().unwrap_or(&"l2".to_string()).as_str() {
         "l2" => MetricType::L2,
         "cosine" => MetricType::Cosine,
         _ => {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Only l2 and cosine metric type are supported, got: {}",
-                    metric_type.as_ref().unwrap_or(&"N/A".to_string())
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Only l2 and cosine metric type are supported, got: {}",
+                metric_type.as_ref().unwrap_or(&"N/A".to_string())
+            )));
         }
     };
     dataset
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/blob.rs b/rust/lance/src/blob.rs
index 196fe3866ca..c5d8fd45b5e 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/blob.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/blob.rs
@@ -1,43 +1,1198 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-//! Convenience builders for Lance blob v2 input columns.
+//! Builders and file-level writer helpers for Lance blob v2 columns.
 //!
-//! Blob v2 expects a column shaped as `Struct<data: LargeBinary?, uri: Utf8?>` and
-//! tagged with `ARROW:extension:name = "lance.blob.v2"`. This module offers a
-//! type-safe builder to construct that struct without manually wiring metadata
+//! Logical blob input uses either `Struct<data: LargeBinary?, uri: Utf8?>` or the complete
+//! `Struct<data: LargeBinary?, uri: Utf8?, position: UInt64?, size: UInt64?>` shape. In the
+//! complete shape, `position` and `size` select a non-empty range within an external `uri` and
+//! must be set together. Every non-null row must set exactly one of `data` and `uri`. File-level
+//! blob preparation produces a kind-aware writer intermediate with `blob_id` and range fields.
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::{
+    Arc, Mutex,
+    atomic::{AtomicU32, Ordering},
+};
 
-use arrow_array::{builder::LargeBinaryBuilder, builder::StringBuilder, ArrayRef, StructArray};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, StructArray,
+    builder::{LargeBinaryBuilder, PrimitiveBuilder, StringBuilder},
+    cast::AsArray,
+    types::{UInt8Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type},
+};
 use arrow_buffer::NullBufferBuilder;
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
-use lance_arrow::{ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_arrow::{
+    ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+    BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME, FieldExt,
+};
+use lance_core::{
+    datatypes::{
+        BLOB_V2_DESC_TYPE, BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS, BLOB_V2_PREPARED_FIELDS,
+        BLOB_V2_PREPARED_TYPE, BlobKind, BlobV2Layout, Field as LanceField, Schema as LanceSchema,
+    },
+    utils::blob::blob_path,
+};
+use lance_io::{
+    object_store::ObjectStore,
+    traits::{Reader, WriteExt, Writer},
+};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 
 /// Construct the Arrow field for a blob v2 column.
 ///
-/// Blob v2 expects a column shaped as `Struct<data: LargeBinary?, uri: Utf8?>` and
-/// tagged with `ARROW:extension:name = "lance.blob.v2"`.
+/// This helper constructs the minimal logical shape
+/// `Struct<data: LargeBinary?, uri: Utf8?>`, tagged with
+/// `ARROW:extension:name = "lance.blob.v2"`. Writers also accept the complete logical shape
+/// with trailing `position: UInt64?` and `size: UInt64?` fields for external URI ranges.
 pub fn blob_field(name: &str, nullable: bool) -> Field {
-    let metadata = [(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string())]
+    blob_field_with_options(name, nullable, BlobFieldOptions::default())
+}
+
+/// Options for constructing a blob v2 field.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
+pub struct BlobFieldOptions {
+    /// Maximum payload size to keep inline in the data file before using packed blob storage.
+    pub inline_size_threshold: Option<usize>,
+    /// Maximum payload size to store in packed blob storage before using dedicated blob storage.
+    ///
+    /// A zero threshold is invalid because dedicated blob storage is selected when
+    /// the payload size is greater than this value.
+    pub dedicated_size_threshold: Option<NonZeroUsize>,
+}
+
+impl BlobFieldOptions {
+    /// Set the maximum payload size to keep inline in the data file.
+    pub fn with_inline_size_threshold(mut self, threshold: usize) -> Self {
+        self.inline_size_threshold = Some(threshold);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum payload size to store in packed blob storage.
+    pub fn with_dedicated_size_threshold(mut self, threshold: NonZeroUsize) -> Self {
+        self.dedicated_size_threshold = Some(threshold);
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// Construct the Arrow field for a blob v2 column with storage layout options.
+///
+/// This helper constructs the minimal logical shape
+/// `Struct<data: LargeBinary?, uri: Utf8?>`, tagged with
+/// `ARROW:extension:name = "lance.blob.v2"`. Writers also accept the complete logical shape
+/// with trailing `position: UInt64?` and `size: UInt64?` fields for external URI ranges.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use lance::{BlobFieldOptions, blob_field_with_options};
+/// let field = blob_field_with_options(
+///     "blob",
+///     true,
+///     BlobFieldOptions::default().with_inline_size_threshold(16 * 1024),
+/// );
+/// assert_eq!(
+///     field
+///         .metadata()
+///         .get("lance-encoding:blob-inline-size-threshold")
+///         .map(String::as_str),
+///     Some("16384"),
+/// );
+/// ```
+pub fn blob_field_with_options(name: &str, nullable: bool, options: BlobFieldOptions) -> Field {
+    let mut metadata = [(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string())]
         .into_iter()
-        .collect();
+        .collect::<std::collections::HashMap<_, _>>();
+    if let Some(threshold) = options.inline_size_threshold {
+        metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            threshold.to_string(),
+        );
+    }
+    if let Some(threshold) = options.dedicated_size_threshold {
+        metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            threshold.get().to_string(),
+        );
+    }
     Field::new(
         name,
-        DataType::Struct(
-            vec![
-                Field::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
-                Field::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
-            ]
-            .into(),
-        ),
+        DataType::Struct(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS.clone()),
         nullable,
     )
     .with_metadata(metadata)
 }
 
+pub(crate) fn prepared_blob_field_with_metadata(
+    name: &str,
+    nullable: bool,
+    metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> Field {
+    Field::new(name, BLOB_V2_PREPARED_TYPE.clone(), nullable).with_metadata(metadata)
+}
+
+fn logical_to_prepared_blob_field(field: &Field) -> Result<Field> {
+    if field.is_blob_v2() {
+        return match blob_v2_layout(field) {
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical) | Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) => {
+                Ok(prepared_blob_field_with_metadata(
+                    field.name(),
+                    field.is_nullable(),
+                    field.metadata().clone(),
+                ))
+            }
+            _ => Err(blob_v2_shape_error(
+                field,
+                &[BlobV2Layout::Logical, BlobV2Layout::Prepared],
+            )),
+        };
+    }
+
+    let data_type = match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(children) => DataType::Struct(
+            children
+                .iter()
+                .map(|child| logical_to_prepared_blob_field(child.as_ref()).map(Arc::new))
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+                .into(),
+        ),
+        DataType::List(child) => DataType::List(Arc::new(logical_to_prepared_blob_field(child)?)),
+        DataType::LargeList(child) => {
+            DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(logical_to_prepared_blob_field(child)?))
+        }
+        _ => field.data_type().clone(),
+    };
+    Ok(field.clone().with_data_type(data_type))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn logical_to_prepared_blob_schema(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> Result<ArrowSchema> {
+    let fields = schema
+        .fields()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| logical_to_prepared_blob_field(field.as_ref()).map(Arc::new))
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    Ok(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        fields,
+        schema.metadata().clone(),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn prepared_to_descriptor_blob_field(field: &Field) -> Result<Field> {
+    if field.is_blob_v2() {
+        return match blob_v2_layout(field) {
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) | Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor) => {
+                Ok(
+                    Field::new(field.name(), BLOB_V2_DESC_TYPE.clone(), field.is_nullable())
+                        .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+                )
+            }
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical) => Ok(field.clone()),
+            _ => Err(blob_v2_shape_error(
+                field,
+                &[BlobV2Layout::Prepared, BlobV2Layout::Descriptor],
+            )),
+        };
+    }
+
+    let data_type = match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(children) => DataType::Struct(
+            children
+                .iter()
+                .map(|child| prepared_to_descriptor_blob_field(child.as_ref()).map(Arc::new))
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+                .into(),
+        ),
+        DataType::List(child) => {
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(prepared_to_descriptor_blob_field(child)?))
+        }
+        DataType::LargeList(child) => {
+            DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(prepared_to_descriptor_blob_field(child)?))
+        }
+        _ => field.data_type().clone(),
+    };
+    Ok(field.clone().with_data_type(data_type))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn prepared_to_descriptor_blob_schema(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> Result<ArrowSchema> {
+    let fields = schema
+        .fields()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| prepared_to_descriptor_blob_field(field.as_ref()).map(Arc::new))
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    Ok(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        fields,
+        schema.metadata().clone(),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn logical_blob_lance_children() -> Result<Vec<LanceField>> {
+    BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| LanceField::try_from(field.as_ref()))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn blob_v2_layout(field: &Field) -> Option<BlobV2Layout> {
+    if !field.is_blob_v2() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let DataType::Struct(fields) = field.data_type() else {
+        return None;
+    };
+    BlobV2Layout::classify(fields)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn blob_v2_shape_error(field: &Field, expected: &[BlobV2Layout]) -> Error {
+    let expected = expected
+        .iter()
+        .map(ToString::to_string)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .join(" or ");
+    let actual = match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(fields) => BlobV2Layout::classify(fields)
+            .map(|layout| format!("{layout} layout"))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| format!("unrecognized layout {fields:?}")),
+        data_type => format!("non-struct type {data_type}"),
+    };
+    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "Blob v2 field '{}' has {actual}; expected {expected} layout",
+        field.name(),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn prepared_to_logical_blob_lance_field(field: &LanceField) -> Result<LanceField> {
+    if field.is_blob_v2() {
+        let arrow_field = Field::from(field);
+        match blob_v2_layout(&arrow_field) {
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) => {
+                let mut normalized = field.clone();
+                let mut logical_children = logical_blob_lance_children()?;
+                for logical_child in &mut logical_children {
+                    let prepared_child = field
+                        .children
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|prepared_child| prepared_child.name == logical_child.name)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal(format!(
+                                "Prepared blob v2 field '{}' is missing logical child '{}'",
+                                field.name, logical_child.name
+                            ))
+                        })?;
+                    logical_child.id = prepared_child.id;
+                    logical_child.parent_id = field.id;
+                }
+                normalized.children = logical_children;
+                return Ok(normalized);
+            }
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical) => return Ok(field.clone()),
+            _ => {
+                return Err(blob_v2_shape_error(
+                    &arrow_field,
+                    &[BlobV2Layout::Logical, BlobV2Layout::Prepared],
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if field.children.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(field.clone());
+    }
+
+    let normalized_children = field
+        .children
+        .iter()
+        .map(prepared_to_logical_blob_lance_field)
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+    Ok(LanceField {
+        children: normalized_children,
+        ..field.clone()
+    })
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn prepared_to_logical_blob_schema(schema: &LanceSchema) -> Result<LanceSchema> {
+    let fields = schema
+        .fields
+        .iter()
+        .map(prepared_to_logical_blob_lance_field)
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    Ok(LanceSchema {
+        fields,
+        metadata: schema.metadata.clone(),
+    })
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct BlobIdAllocator {
+    inner: Arc<BlobIdAllocatorInner>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BlobIdAllocatorInner {
+    start_inclusive: u32,
+    next: AtomicU32,
+    end_exclusive: Option<u32>,
+    state: Mutex<BlobIdAllocatorState>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct BlobIdAllocatorState {
+    used: HashSet<u32>,
+    allocated: HashSet<u32>,
+}
+
+impl BlobIdAllocator {
+    pub(crate) fn new(start: u32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(BlobIdAllocatorInner {
+                start_inclusive: start,
+                next: AtomicU32::new(start),
+                end_exclusive: None,
+                state: Mutex::new(BlobIdAllocatorState::default()),
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn from_range(range: Range<u32>) -> Result<Self> {
+        if range.start == 0 || range.start >= range.end {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob ID range must be non-empty and start at 1 or greater, got {}..{}",
+                range.start, range.end
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(BlobIdAllocatorInner {
+                start_inclusive: range.start,
+                next: AtomicU32::new(range.start),
+                end_exclusive: Some(range.end),
+                state: Mutex::new(BlobIdAllocatorState::default()),
+            }),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn next(&self) -> Result<u32> {
+        loop {
+            let id = self.inner.next.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+            if id == u32::MAX || self.inner.end_exclusive.is_some_and(|end| id >= end) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(match self.inner.end_exclusive {
+                    Some(end) => format!(
+                        "Blob ID range exhausted before allocating another sidecar; range ends at {end}"
+                    ),
+                    None => "Blob id allocator exhausted u32 id space".to_string(),
+                }));
+            }
+            if self
+                .inner
+                .next
+                .compare_exchange(id, id + 1, Ordering::Relaxed, Ordering::Relaxed)
+                .is_err()
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let mut state =
+                self.inner.state.lock().map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal("Blob id allocator mutex was poisoned".to_string())
+                })?;
+            if state.used.insert(id) {
+                state.allocated.insert(id);
+                return Ok(id);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn reserve(&self, id: u32) -> Result<()> {
+        if id < self.inner.start_inclusive || self.inner.end_exclusive.is_some_and(|end| id >= end)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(match self.inner.end_exclusive {
+                Some(end) => format!(
+                    "Blob ID {id} is outside allocator range {}..{end}",
+                    self.inner.start_inclusive
+                ),
+                None => format!(
+                    "Blob ID {id} is below allocator start {}",
+                    self.inner.start_inclusive
+                ),
+            }));
+        }
+        let mut state = self
+            .inner
+            .state
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| Error::internal("Blob id allocator mutex was poisoned".to_string()))?;
+        if state.allocated.contains(&id) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob ID {id} was already allocated for a generated sidecar"
+            )));
+        }
+        state.used.insert(id);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn allocated_ids(&self) -> Result<Vec<u32>> {
+        let mut ids = self
+            .inner
+            .state
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| Error::internal("Blob id allocator mutex was poisoned".to_string()))?
+            .allocated
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        Ok(ids)
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_blob_id(blob_id: u32) -> Result<()> {
+    if blob_id == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input("Blob id 0 is reserved"));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_range(offset: u64, size: u64, object_size: u64, label: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    let end = offset.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "{label} range overflows u64: offset={offset}, size={size}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    if end > object_size {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "{label} range [{offset}, {end}) exceeds blob object size {object_size}"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_prepared_blob_value_array(field: &Field, array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+    if blob_v2_layout(field) != Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) {
+        return Err(blob_v2_shape_error(field, &[BlobV2Layout::Prepared]));
+    }
+
+    let struct_arr = array
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Prepared blob column was not a struct array"))?;
+    if BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_arr.fields()) != Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) {
+        let actual = BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_arr.fields())
+            .map(|layout| layout.to_string())
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| format!("unrecognized ({:?})", struct_arr.fields()));
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Prepared blob column '{}' has {actual} array layout; expected prepared layout",
+            field.name()
+        )));
+    }
+    let kind_col = struct_arr
+        .column_by_name("kind")
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Prepared blob struct missing `kind` field"))?
+        .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+    let data_col = struct_arr
+        .column_by_name("data")
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Prepared blob struct missing `data` field"))?
+        .as_binary::<i64>();
+    let uri_col = struct_arr
+        .column_by_name("uri")
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Prepared blob struct missing `uri` field"))?
+        .as_string::<i32>();
+    let blob_id_col = struct_arr
+        .column_by_name("blob_id")
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Prepared blob struct missing `blob_id` field"))?
+        .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+    let blob_size_col = struct_arr
+        .column_by_name("blob_size")
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Prepared blob struct missing `blob_size` field"))?
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let position_col = struct_arr
+        .column_by_name("position")
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Prepared blob struct missing `position` field"))?
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+
+    for row in 0..struct_arr.len() {
+        if struct_arr.is_null(row) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if kind_col.is_null(row) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Prepared blob row {row} is non-null but `kind` is null"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        match BlobKind::try_from(kind_col.value(row))? {
+            BlobKind::Inline => {
+                if data_col.is_null(row) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Prepared inline blob row {row} must set `data`"
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+            BlobKind::Packed => {
+                if blob_id_col.is_null(row)
+                    || blob_size_col.is_null(row)
+                    || position_col.is_null(row)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Prepared packed blob row {row} must set `blob_id`, `blob_size`, and `position`"
+                    )));
+                }
+                validate_blob_id(blob_id_col.value(row))?;
+                let offset = position_col.value(row);
+                let size = blob_size_col.value(row);
+                offset.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Prepared packed blob row {row} range overflows u64: offset={offset}, size={size}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            }
+            BlobKind::Dedicated => {
+                if blob_id_col.is_null(row) || blob_size_col.is_null(row) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Prepared dedicated blob row {row} must set `blob_id` and `blob_size`"
+                    )));
+                }
+                validate_blob_id(blob_id_col.value(row))?;
+            }
+            BlobKind::Managed | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase => {
+                if uri_col.is_null(row)
+                    || ((kind_col.value(row) == BlobKind::ManagedWithBase as u8)
+                        != blob_id_col.is_valid(row))
+                    || blob_size_col.is_null(row)
+                    || position_col.is_null(row)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Prepared Managed blob row {row} requires `uri`, `blob_size`, and `position`, plus `blob_id` for an explicit base"
+                    )));
+                }
+                lance_core::utils::blob::validate_managed_reference(
+                    uri_col.value(row),
+                    position_col.value(row),
+                    blob_size_col.value(row),
+                )?;
+            }
+            BlobKind::External => {
+                if uri_col.is_null(row) || uri_col.value(row).is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Prepared external blob row {row} must set a non-empty `uri`"
+                    )));
+                }
+                let offset = if position_col.is_null(row) {
+                    0
+                } else {
+                    position_col.value(row)
+                };
+                let size = if blob_size_col.is_null(row) {
+                    0
+                } else {
+                    blob_size_col.value(row)
+                };
+                offset.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Prepared external blob row {row} range overflows u64: offset={offset}, size={size}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Validate a writer-side prepared blob v2 array before it reaches the encoder.
+pub(crate) fn validate_prepared_blob_array(field: &Field, array: &ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+    validate_prepared_blob_value_array(field, array)
+}
+
+fn sidecar_path_for_data_file(data_file_path: &Path, blob_id: u32) -> Result<Path> {
+    validate_blob_id(blob_id)?;
+    let file_name = data_file_path.filename().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input("Data file path must include a file name".to_string())
+    })?;
+    let data_file_key = file_name.strip_suffix(".lance").ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Data file path '{}' must end with '.lance'",
+            data_file_path
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let data_dir = data_file_path.parent().unwrap_or_default();
+    Ok(blob_path(&data_dir, data_file_key, blob_id))
+}
+
+/// Byte range inside a packed or external blob object.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct BlobRange {
+    /// Byte offset relative to the beginning of the blob object.
+    pub offset: u64,
+    /// Number of bytes in this range.
+    pub size: u64,
+}
+
+/// A kind-aware row used to build the writer-prepared blob representation.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum BlobDescriptor {
+    /// A null blob row.
+    Null,
+    /// Payload bytes embedded into the data file by the blob encoder.
+    Inline { data: Bytes },
+    /// Payload bytes stored as a range in a packed sidecar blob.
+    Packed {
+        blob_id: u32,
+        offset: u64,
+        size: u64,
+    },
+    /// Payload bytes stored as the full contents of a dedicated sidecar blob.
+    Dedicated { blob_id: u32, size: u64 },
+    /// A known range in an immutable Lance-owned object. `None` uses the
+    /// writer's table base; `Some(id)` requires an already registered base.
+    Managed {
+        base_id: Option<u32>,
+        uri: String,
+        offset: u64,
+        size: u64,
+    },
+    /// Payload bytes referenced from an external object or registered base.
+    External {
+        base_id: u32,
+        uri: String,
+        offset: u64,
+        size: u64,
+    },
+}
+
+/// A writer-prepared blob column ready to be included in a [`RecordBatch`](arrow_array::RecordBatch).
+///
+/// Despite the legacy type name, its Arrow representation is
+/// [`BlobV2Layout::Prepared`], not the descriptor stored in a Lance file.
+pub struct BlobDescriptorColumn {
+    field: Field,
+    array: ArrayRef,
+}
+
+impl BlobDescriptorColumn {
+    /// Return the Arrow field for the prepared column.
+    pub fn field(&self) -> &Field {
+        &self.field
+    }
+
+    /// Return the Arrow array for the prepared column.
+    pub fn array(&self) -> &ArrayRef {
+        &self.array
+    }
+
+    /// Consume this column into `(field, array)` parts.
+    pub fn into_parts(self) -> (Field, ArrayRef) {
+        (self.field, self.array)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Builds the writer-prepared representation for one blob v2 column.
+///
+/// This builder only produces the writer-prepared struct array. It does not allocate blob ids,
+/// choose sidecar paths, write blob objects, or commit data files.
+pub struct BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder {
+    field: Field,
+    values: Vec<BlobDescriptor>,
+}
+
+impl BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder {
+    /// Create a descriptor array builder for one blob column.
+    pub fn new(column: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::with_capacity(1);
+        metadata.insert(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string());
+        Self::new_with_metadata(column, true, metadata)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn new_with_metadata(
+        column: impl Into<String>,
+        nullable: bool,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            field: prepared_blob_field_with_metadata(&column.into(), nullable, metadata),
+            values: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Append one packed blob descriptor.
+    pub fn push_packed(&mut self, blob_id: u32, range: BlobRange) -> Result<()> {
+        self.push(BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+            blob_id,
+            offset: range.offset,
+            size: range.size,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Append multiple packed blob descriptors for the same blob object.
+    pub fn extend_packed(
+        &mut self,
+        blob_id: u32,
+        ranges: impl IntoIterator<Item = BlobRange>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        for range in ranges {
+            self.push_packed(blob_id, range)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Append one dedicated blob descriptor.
+    pub fn push_dedicated(&mut self, blob_id: u32, size: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.push(BlobDescriptor::Dedicated { blob_id, size })
+    }
+
+    /// Append one blob descriptor to this column.
+    pub fn push(&mut self, value: BlobDescriptor) -> Result<()> {
+        validate_blob_descriptor(&value)?;
+        self.values.push(value);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Append multiple blob descriptors to this column.
+    pub fn extend(&mut self, values: impl IntoIterator<Item = BlobDescriptor>) -> Result<()> {
+        for value in values {
+            self.push(value)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Append an inline blob value.
+    pub fn push_inline(&mut self, data: impl Into<Bytes>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.push(BlobDescriptor::Inline { data: data.into() })
+    }
+
+    /// Append an external blob reference.
+    pub fn push_external(
+        &mut self,
+        uri: impl Into<String>,
+        range: Option<BlobRange>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let range = range.unwrap_or(BlobRange { offset: 0, size: 0 });
+        self.push(BlobDescriptor::External {
+            base_id: 0,
+            uri: uri.into(),
+            offset: range.offset,
+            size: range.size,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Append a null blob row.
+    pub fn push_null(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.push(BlobDescriptor::Null)
+    }
+
+    /// Return the prepared Arrow field for this blob column.
+    pub fn field(&self) -> &Field {
+        &self.field
+    }
+
+    /// Finish this column and return the writer-prepared struct array.
+    pub fn finish(self) -> Result<BlobDescriptorColumn> {
+        let mut kind_builder = PrimitiveBuilder::<UInt8Type>::with_capacity(self.values.len());
+        let mut data_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(self.values.len(), 0);
+        let mut uri_builder = StringBuilder::with_capacity(self.values.len(), 0);
+        let mut blob_id_builder = PrimitiveBuilder::<UInt32Type>::with_capacity(self.values.len());
+        let mut blob_size_builder =
+            PrimitiveBuilder::<UInt64Type>::with_capacity(self.values.len());
+        let mut position_builder = PrimitiveBuilder::<UInt64Type>::with_capacity(self.values.len());
+        let mut validity = NullBufferBuilder::new(self.values.len());
+
+        for value in self.values {
+            match value {
+                BlobDescriptor::Null => {
+                    validity.append_null();
+                    kind_builder.append_null();
+                    data_builder.append_null();
+                    uri_builder.append_null();
+                    blob_id_builder.append_null();
+                    blob_size_builder.append_null();
+                    position_builder.append_null();
+                }
+                BlobDescriptor::Inline { data } => {
+                    validity.append_non_null();
+                    kind_builder.append_value(BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+                    data_builder.append_value(data.as_ref());
+                    uri_builder.append_null();
+                    blob_id_builder.append_null();
+                    blob_size_builder.append_null();
+                    position_builder.append_null();
+                }
+                BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+                    blob_id,
+                    offset,
+                    size,
+                } => {
+                    validity.append_non_null();
+                    kind_builder.append_value(BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+                    data_builder.append_null();
+                    uri_builder.append_null();
+                    blob_id_builder.append_value(blob_id);
+                    blob_size_builder.append_value(size);
+                    position_builder.append_value(offset);
+                }
+                BlobDescriptor::Dedicated { blob_id, size } => {
+                    validity.append_non_null();
+                    kind_builder.append_value(BlobKind::Dedicated as u8);
+                    data_builder.append_null();
+                    uri_builder.append_null();
+                    blob_id_builder.append_value(blob_id);
+                    blob_size_builder.append_value(size);
+                    position_builder.append_null();
+                }
+                BlobDescriptor::Managed {
+                    base_id,
+                    uri,
+                    offset,
+                    size,
+                } => {
+                    validity.append_non_null();
+                    kind_builder.append_value(if base_id.is_some() {
+                        BlobKind::ManagedWithBase as u8
+                    } else {
+                        BlobKind::Managed as u8
+                    });
+                    data_builder.append_null();
+                    uri_builder.append_value(uri);
+                    blob_id_builder.append_option(base_id);
+                    blob_size_builder.append_value(size);
+                    position_builder.append_value(offset);
+                }
+                BlobDescriptor::External {
+                    base_id,
+                    uri,
+                    offset,
+                    size,
+                } => {
+                    validity.append_non_null();
+                    kind_builder.append_value(BlobKind::External as u8);
+                    data_builder.append_null();
+                    uri_builder.append_value(uri);
+                    blob_id_builder.append_value(base_id);
+                    blob_size_builder.append_value(size);
+                    position_builder.append_value(offset);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let array = Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
+            BLOB_V2_PREPARED_FIELDS.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(kind_builder.finish()),
+                Arc::new(data_builder.finish()),
+                Arc::new(uri_builder.finish()),
+                Arc::new(blob_id_builder.finish()),
+                Arc::new(blob_size_builder.finish()),
+                Arc::new(position_builder.finish()),
+            ],
+            validity.finish(),
+        )?) as ArrayRef;
+        validate_prepared_blob_array(&self.field, &array)?;
+
+        Ok(BlobDescriptorColumn {
+            field: self.field,
+            array,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_blob_descriptor(value: &BlobDescriptor) -> Result<()> {
+    match value {
+        BlobDescriptor::Null => Ok(()),
+        BlobDescriptor::Inline { .. } => Ok(()),
+        BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+            blob_id,
+            offset,
+            size,
+        } => {
+            validate_blob_id(*blob_id)?;
+            offset.checked_add(*size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Packed blob range overflows u64: offset={offset}, size={size}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        BlobDescriptor::Dedicated { blob_id, .. } => validate_blob_id(*blob_id),
+        BlobDescriptor::Managed {
+            uri, offset, size, ..
+        } => {
+            lance_core::utils::blob::validate_managed_reference(uri, *offset, *size)?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        BlobDescriptor::External {
+            uri, offset, size, ..
+        } => {
+            if uri.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input("External blob URI cannot be empty"));
+            }
+            offset.checked_add(*size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "External blob range overflows u64: offset={offset}, size={size}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn packed_descriptor(blob_id: u32, offset: u64, size: u64) -> Result<(BlobDescriptor, u64)> {
+    let next_offset = offset.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Packed blob writer offset overflowed: offset={offset}, size={size}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok((
+        BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+            blob_id,
+            offset,
+            size,
+        },
+        next_offset,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Writes a Lance-owned packed sidecar blob for one data file and returns descriptors.
+pub struct PackedBlobWriter {
+    object_store: ObjectStore,
+    path: Path,
+    blob_id: u32,
+    writer: Option<Box<dyn Writer>>,
+    offset: u64,
+    values: Vec<BlobDescriptor>,
+}
+
+impl PackedBlobWriter {
+    /// Create a packed blob writer for `data_file_path` and `blob_id`.
+    pub async fn try_new(
+        object_store: ObjectStore,
+        data_file_path: Path,
+        blob_id: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let path = sidecar_path_for_data_file(&data_file_path, blob_id)?;
+        Self::try_new_at(object_store, path, blob_id).await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn try_new_at(
+        object_store: ObjectStore,
+        path: Path,
+        blob_id: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let writer = object_store.create(&path).await?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            object_store,
+            path,
+            blob_id,
+            writer: Some(writer),
+            offset: 0,
+            values: Vec::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Return the blob id for this packed sidecar.
+    pub fn blob_id(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.blob_id
+    }
+
+    /// Return the derived sidecar path for this packed blob.
+    pub fn path(&self) -> &Path {
+        &self.path
+    }
+
+    /// Append one logical blob payload to the packed sidecar.
+    pub async fn write_blob(&mut self, bytes: impl AsRef<[u8]>) -> Result<()> {
+        let bytes = bytes.as_ref();
+        self.write_blob_bytes(bytes).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Append multiple logical blobs, one per iterator item.
+    ///
+    /// Each `Some(bytes)` is appended to the sidecar and records a packed
+    /// descriptor; an empty slice records a valid zero-length blob. Each `None`
+    /// records a [`BlobDescriptor::Null`] without writing any bytes, so the
+    /// descriptors returned by [`Self::finish`] stay row-aligned with the input.
+    ///
+    /// If writing fails or the future is cancelled after a partial write, no
+    /// descriptors from this call are recorded, the active writer is dropped,
+    /// and this instance cannot be reused.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{PackedBlobWriter, Result};
+    /// # async fn write(mut writer: PackedBlobWriter) -> Result<()> {
+    /// writer
+    ///     .write_packed_blobs([Some(b"first".as_slice()), None, Some(b"second".as_slice())])
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// let descriptors = writer.finish().await?;
+    /// assert_eq!(descriptors.len(), 3);
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn write_packed_blobs<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        blobs: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<&'a [u8]>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut writer = self.take_writer()?;
+        let mut descriptors = Vec::new();
+        let mut next_offset = self.offset;
+        for blob in blobs {
+            let Some(blob) = blob else {
+                descriptors.push(BlobDescriptor::Null);
+                continue;
+            };
+            let (descriptor, following_offset) =
+                packed_descriptor(self.blob_id, next_offset, blob.len() as u64)?;
+            if !blob.is_empty() {
+                writer.write_all(blob).await?;
+            }
+            descriptors.push(descriptor);
+            next_offset = following_offset;
+        }
+        self.writer = Some(writer);
+        self.offset = next_offset;
+        self.values.extend(descriptors);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn write_blob_bytes(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<BlobDescriptor> {
+        let size = bytes.len() as u64;
+        let offset = self.offset;
+        let mut writer = self.take_writer()?;
+        writer.write_all(bytes).await?;
+        self.writer = Some(writer);
+        self.record_written_blob(offset, size)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn write_blob_from_reader(
+        &mut self,
+        reader: &dyn Reader,
+        range: Range<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<BlobDescriptor> {
+        let size = range.len() as u64;
+        let offset = self.offset;
+        let mut writer = self.take_writer()?;
+        writer.copy_range_from_reader(reader, range).await?;
+        self.writer = Some(writer);
+        self.record_written_blob(offset, size)
+    }
+
+    fn record_written_blob(&mut self, offset: u64, size: u64) -> Result<BlobDescriptor> {
+        let (value, next_offset) = packed_descriptor(self.blob_id, offset, size)?;
+        self.offset = next_offset;
+        self.values.push(value.clone());
+        Ok(value)
+    }
+
+    fn take_writer(&mut self) -> Result<Box<dyn Writer>> {
+        self.writer.take().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "Packed blob writer for '{}' has no active upload",
+                self.path
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Finish the packed sidecar and return descriptors in write order.
+    pub async fn finish(mut self) -> Result<Vec<BlobDescriptor>> {
+        let mut writer = self.take_writer()?;
+        Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await?;
+        let object_size = self.object_store.size(&self.path).await?;
+        validate_range(0, self.offset, object_size, "Packed blob")?;
+        Ok(self.values)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Writes a Lance-owned dedicated sidecar blob for one data file and returns its descriptor.
+pub struct DedicatedBlobWriter {
+    object_store: ObjectStore,
+    path: Path,
+    blob_id: u32,
+    writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
+    size: u64,
+}
+
+impl DedicatedBlobWriter {
+    /// Create a dedicated blob writer for `data_file_path` and `blob_id`.
+    pub async fn try_new(
+        object_store: ObjectStore,
+        data_file_path: Path,
+        blob_id: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let path = sidecar_path_for_data_file(&data_file_path, blob_id)?;
+        Self::try_new_at(object_store, path, blob_id).await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn try_new_at(
+        object_store: ObjectStore,
+        path: Path,
+        blob_id: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let writer = object_store.create(&path).await?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            object_store,
+            path,
+            blob_id,
+            writer,
+            size: 0,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Return the blob id for this dedicated sidecar.
+    pub fn blob_id(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.blob_id
+    }
+
+    /// Return the derived sidecar path for this dedicated blob.
+    pub fn path(&self) -> &Path {
+        &self.path
+    }
+
+    /// Append bytes to the dedicated sidecar.
+    pub async fn write(&mut self, bytes: impl AsRef<[u8]>) -> Result<()> {
+        let bytes = bytes.as_ref();
+        let size = bytes.len() as u64;
+        self.writer.write_all(bytes).await?;
+        self.record_written_bytes(size)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn write_from_reader(
+        &mut self,
+        reader: &dyn Reader,
+        range: Range<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let size = range.len() as u64;
+        self.writer.copy_range_from_reader(reader, range).await?;
+        self.record_written_bytes(size)
+    }
+
+    fn record_written_bytes(&mut self, size: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.size = self.size.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Dedicated blob writer size overflowed: current={}, append={size}",
+                self.size
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Finish the dedicated sidecar and return its descriptor.
+    pub async fn finish(mut self) -> Result<BlobDescriptor> {
+        Writer::shutdown(self.writer.as_mut()).await?;
+        let object_size = self.object_store.size(&self.path).await?;
+        if object_size != self.size {
+            return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "Dedicated blob sidecar '{}' has size {}, expected {}",
+                self.path, object_size, self.size
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(BlobDescriptor::Dedicated {
+            blob_id: self.blob_id,
+            size: self.size,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
 /// Builder for blob v2 input struct columns.
 ///
 /// The builder enforces that each row contains exactly one of `data` or `uri` (or is null).
@@ -76,10 +1231,7 @@ impl BlobArrayBuilder {
         self.ensure_capacity()?;
         let uri = uri.into();
         if uri.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "URI cannot be empty",
-                snafu::location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("URI cannot be empty"));
         }
         self.validity.append_non_null();
         self.data_builder.append_null();
@@ -111,13 +1263,10 @@ impl BlobArrayBuilder {
     /// Finish building and return an Arrow struct array.
     pub fn finish(mut self) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         if self.len != self.expected_len {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Expected {} rows but received {}",
-                    self.expected_len, self.len
-                ),
-                snafu::location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Expected {} rows but received {}",
+                self.expected_len, self.len
+            )));
         }
 
         let data = Arc::new(self.data_builder.finish());
@@ -125,11 +1274,7 @@ impl BlobArrayBuilder {
         let validity = self.validity.finish();
 
         let struct_array = StructArray::try_new(
-            vec![
-                Field::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
-                Field::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
-            ]
-            .into(),
+            BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS.clone(),
             vec![data as ArrayRef, uri as ArrayRef],
             validity,
         )?;
@@ -139,10 +1284,7 @@ impl BlobArrayBuilder {
 
     fn ensure_capacity(&self) -> Result<()> {
         if self.len >= self.expected_len {
-            Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "BlobArrayBuilder capacity exceeded",
-                snafu::location!(),
-            ))
+            Err(Error::invalid_input("BlobArrayBuilder capacity exceeded"))
         } else {
             Ok(())
         }
@@ -151,9 +1293,132 @@ impl BlobArrayBuilder {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use std::future::Future;
+    use std::io;
+    use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
+    use std::pin::Pin;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+    use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
     use super::*;
     use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-    use arrow_array::Array;
+    use arrow_array::{Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use futures::task::noop_waker;
+    use lance_core::datatypes::{BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS, BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS};
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+    use lance_io::object_writer::WriteResult;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use tokio::io::AsyncWrite;
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+    enum WriteTerminal {
+        Error,
+        Pending,
+    }
+
+    struct PartialWriter {
+        bytes_before_terminal: usize,
+        terminal: WriteTerminal,
+        bytes_written: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        dropped: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    }
+
+    impl AsyncWrite for PartialWriter {
+        fn poll_write(
+            mut self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+            _cx: &mut Context<'_>,
+            bytes: &[u8],
+        ) -> Poll<io::Result<usize>> {
+            if self.bytes_before_terminal > 0 {
+                let written = self.bytes_before_terminal.min(bytes.len());
+                self.bytes_before_terminal -= written;
+                self.bytes_written.fetch_add(written, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                return Poll::Ready(Ok(written));
+            }
+            match self.terminal {
+                WriteTerminal::Error => {
+                    Poll::Ready(Err(io::Error::other("injected write failure")))
+                }
+                WriteTerminal::Pending => Poll::Pending,
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn poll_flush(self: Pin<&mut Self>, _cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<io::Result<()>> {
+            Poll::Ready(Ok(()))
+        }
+
+        fn poll_shutdown(self: Pin<&mut Self>, _cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<io::Result<()>> {
+            Poll::Ready(Ok(()))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl Writer for PartialWriter {
+        async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<usize> {
+            Ok(self.bytes_written.load(Ordering::SeqCst))
+        }
+
+        async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+            Ok(WriteResult::default())
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Drop for PartialWriter {
+        fn drop(&mut self) {
+            self.dropped.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn partial_writer(
+        terminal: WriteTerminal,
+    ) -> (Box<dyn Writer>, Arc<AtomicUsize>, Arc<AtomicBool>) {
+        let bytes_written = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let dropped = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        (
+            Box::new(PartialWriter {
+                bytes_before_terminal: 2,
+                terminal,
+                bytes_written: bytes_written.clone(),
+                dropped: dropped.clone(),
+            }),
+            bytes_written,
+            dropped,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn cancel_pending<F: Future>(future: F) {
+        let mut future = Box::pin(future);
+        let waker = noop_waker();
+        let mut context = Context::from_waker(&waker);
+        assert!(future.as_mut().poll(&mut context).is_pending());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn part_blob_id_allocator_stops_at_lease_end() {
+        let allocator = BlobIdAllocator::from_range(7..8).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(allocator.next().unwrap(), 7);
+        let error = allocator.next().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("range ends at 8"), "{error}");
+        assert_eq!(allocator.allocated_ids().unwrap(), vec![7]);
+
+        let allocator = BlobIdAllocator::from_range(7..9).unwrap();
+        allocator.reserve(7).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(allocator.next().unwrap(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(allocator.allocated_ids().unwrap(), vec![8]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn part_blob_id_allocator_rejects_generated_id_reservations() {
+        let allocator = BlobIdAllocator::from_range(7..9).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(allocator.next().unwrap(), 7);
+        let error = allocator.reserve(7).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("already allocated"), "{error}");
+
+        allocator.reserve(8).unwrap();
+        allocator.reserve(8).unwrap();
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_field_metadata() {
@@ -165,6 +1430,73 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_field_metadata_with_options() {
+        let field = blob_field_with_options(
+            "blob",
+            true,
+            BlobFieldOptions::default()
+                .with_inline_size_threshold(16 * 1024)
+                .with_dedicated_size_threshold(NonZeroUsize::new(2 * 1024 * 1024).unwrap()),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            field
+                .metadata()
+                .get(BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "16384"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            field
+                .metadata()
+                .get(BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY)
+                .unwrap(),
+            "2097152"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_mem_wal_blob_schema_transforms_nested_fields() {
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(
+                "record",
+                DataType::Struct(vec![blob_field("payload", true)].into()),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new(
+                "items",
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(blob_field("item", false))),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let prepared = logical_to_prepared_blob_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+        let DataType::Struct(record_fields) = prepared.field(0).data_type() else {
+            panic!("record must remain a struct");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_v2_layout(record_fields[0].as_ref()),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared)
+        );
+        let DataType::List(item) = prepared.field(1).data_type() else {
+            panic!("items must remain a list");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(blob_v2_layout(item), Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared));
+
+        let descriptor = prepared_to_descriptor_blob_schema(&prepared).unwrap();
+        let DataType::Struct(record_fields) = descriptor.field(0).data_type() else {
+            panic!("record must remain a struct");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_v2_layout(record_fields[0].as_ref()),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor)
+        );
+        let DataType::List(item) = descriptor.field(1).data_type() else {
+            panic!("items must remain a list");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(blob_v2_layout(item), Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_builder_basic() {
         let mut b = BlobArrayBuilder::new(4);
@@ -203,4 +1535,435 @@ mod tests {
         let err = b.push_uri("").unwrap_err();
         assert!(err.to_string().contains("URI cannot be empty"));
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prepared_blob_column_finish() {
+        let mut writer = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        writer.push_inline(Bytes::from_static(b"hello")).unwrap();
+        writer
+            .push_packed(7, BlobRange { offset: 3, size: 5 })
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.push_dedicated(8, 9).unwrap();
+        writer.push_null().unwrap();
+
+        let column = writer.finish().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob_v2_layout(column.field()), Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared));
+        let struct_arr = column.array().as_struct();
+        let kinds = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+        let blob_ids = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("blob_id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let sizes = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("blob_size")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let positions = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("position")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+
+        assert_eq!(kinds.value(0), BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+        assert_eq!(kinds.value(1), BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+        assert_eq!(blob_ids.value(1), 7);
+        assert_eq!(positions.value(1), 3);
+        assert_eq!(sizes.value(1), 5);
+        assert_eq!(kinds.value(2), BlobKind::Dedicated as u8);
+        assert_eq!(blob_ids.value(2), 8);
+        assert_eq!(sizes.value(2), 9);
+        assert!(struct_arr.is_null(3));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prepared_blob_array_rejects_range_overflow() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string());
+        let field = prepared_blob_field_with_metadata("blob", true, metadata);
+
+        for (kind, uri) in [
+            (BlobKind::Packed, None),
+            (BlobKind::External, Some("file:///external.bin")),
+        ] {
+            let array = Arc::new(
+                StructArray::try_new(
+                    BLOB_V2_PREPARED_FIELDS.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt8Array::from(vec![kind as u8])) as ArrayRef,
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray::from_iter([None::<&[u8]>])),
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from_iter([uri])),
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(vec![4])),
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(vec![u64::MAX - 1])),
+                    ],
+                    None,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ) as ArrayRef;
+
+            let err = validate_prepared_blob_array(&field, &array).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(err.to_string().contains("range overflows u64"));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+    enum LogicalBlobShape {
+        Minimal,
+        CompleteNullableRange,
+        CompleteRequiredRange,
+    }
+
+    fn blob_v2_field_with_children(name: &str, children: Fields, nullable: bool) -> Field {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string());
+        metadata.insert("blob-root-metadata".to_string(), "preserved".to_string());
+        Field::new(name, DataType::Struct(children), nullable).with_metadata(metadata)
+    }
+
+    fn logical_blob_fields(shape: LogicalBlobShape) -> Fields {
+        let source = match shape {
+            LogicalBlobShape::Minimal => &*BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS,
+            LogicalBlobShape::CompleteNullableRange | LogicalBlobShape::CompleteRequiredRange => {
+                &*BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS
+            }
+        };
+        source
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(index, field)| {
+                let nullable = !matches!(shape, LogicalBlobShape::CompleteRequiredRange)
+                    || index < BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS.len();
+                Arc::new(
+                    field
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .clone()
+                        .with_nullable(nullable)
+                        .with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                            "blob-child-metadata".to_string(),
+                            field.name().to_string(),
+                        )])),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .into()
+    }
+
+    fn lance_schema_with_metadata(fields: Vec<Field>) -> LanceSchema {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            fields,
+            HashMap::from([("schema-metadata".to_string(), "preserved".to_string())]),
+        );
+        let mut schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        schema.set_field_id(None);
+        schema
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::minimal(LogicalBlobShape::Minimal)]
+    #[case::complete_nullable_range(LogicalBlobShape::CompleteNullableRange)]
+    #[case::complete_required_range(LogicalBlobShape::CompleteRequiredRange)]
+    fn test_logical_blob_schema_normalization_is_identity(#[case] shape: LogicalBlobShape) {
+        let blob_field = blob_v2_field_with_children("blob", logical_blob_fields(shape), false);
+        let schema = lance_schema_with_metadata(vec![blob_field]);
+
+        let normalized = prepared_to_logical_blob_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields, schema.fields);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.metadata, schema.metadata);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_nested_logical_blob_schema_normalization_is_identity() {
+        let struct_blob = blob_v2_field_with_children(
+            "struct_blob",
+            logical_blob_fields(LogicalBlobShape::CompleteNullableRange),
+            true,
+        );
+        let list_blob = blob_v2_field_with_children(
+            "item",
+            logical_blob_fields(LogicalBlobShape::CompleteRequiredRange),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = lance_schema_with_metadata(vec![
+            Field::new("payload", DataType::Struct(vec![struct_blob].into()), true),
+            Field::new("items", DataType::List(Arc::new(list_blob)), false),
+        ]);
+
+        let normalized = prepared_to_logical_blob_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields, schema.fields);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.metadata, schema.metadata);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prepared_to_logical_blob_schema_preserves_non_blob_fields() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string());
+        let prepared_field = prepared_blob_field_with_metadata("blob", true, metadata);
+        let dict_field = Field::new(
+            "dict",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::UInt32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            true,
+        );
+        let mut schema =
+            LanceSchema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![dict_field, prepared_field])).unwrap();
+        schema.fields[0].id = 42;
+        schema.fields[1].id = 7;
+
+        let dictionary_values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"])) as ArrayRef;
+        schema.fields[0].set_dictionary_values(&dictionary_values);
+
+        let normalized = prepared_to_logical_blob_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[0].id, 42);
+        assert_eq!(
+            normalized.fields[0]
+                .dictionary
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|dict| dict.values.as_ref())
+                .map(|values| values.len()),
+            Some(2)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].id, 7);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children[0].name, "data");
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children[1].name, "uri");
+        assert!(normalized.fields[1].children[0].id >= 0);
+        assert!(normalized.fields[1].children[1].id >= 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prepared_blob_schema_normalizes_by_semantic_child_name() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string());
+        metadata.insert("blob-root-metadata".to_string(), "preserved".to_string());
+        let prepared_field = prepared_blob_field_with_metadata("blob", false, metadata);
+        let dict_field = Field::new(
+            "dict",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::UInt32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            true,
+        );
+        let mut schema = lance_schema_with_metadata(vec![dict_field, prepared_field]);
+        schema.fields[0].id = 42;
+        schema.fields[1].id = 7;
+        for (child, id) in schema.fields[1].children.iter_mut().zip(70..76) {
+            child.id = id;
+            child.parent_id = 7;
+        }
+
+        let dictionary_values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"])) as ArrayRef;
+        schema.fields[0].set_dictionary_values(&dictionary_values);
+
+        let normalized = prepared_to_logical_blob_schema(&schema).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(normalized.metadata, schema.metadata);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[0], schema.fields[0]);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].id, 7);
+        assert!(!normalized.fields[1].nullable);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].metadata, schema.fields[1].metadata);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children[0].name, "data");
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children[0].id, 71);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children[0].parent_id, 7);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children[1].name, "uri");
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children[1].id, 72);
+        assert_eq!(normalized.fields[1].children[1].parent_id, 7);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::descriptor(BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS.clone(), "descriptor layout")]
+    #[case::malformed(
+        vec![
+            Field::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+            Field::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("size", DataType::UInt64, true),
+        ].into(),
+        "unrecognized layout"
+    )]
+    fn test_non_logical_blob_schema_normalization_is_rejected(
+        #[case] fields: Fields,
+        #[case] actual_layout: &str,
+    ) {
+        let field = blob_v2_field_with_children("blob", fields, true);
+        let schema = lance_schema_with_metadata(vec![field]);
+
+        let error = prepared_to_logical_blob_schema(&schema).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(actual_layout));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("expected logical or prepared layout")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sidecar_writers_return_prepared_values() {
+        let temp_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let data_dir = Path::from_absolute_path(temp_dir.std_path().join("data")).unwrap();
+        let data_file_key = "data-file".to_string();
+        let data_file_path = data_dir.clone().join(format!("{data_file_key}.lance"));
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+
+        let packed_id = 7;
+        let packed_path = blob_path(&data_dir, &data_file_key, packed_id);
+        let mut packed =
+            PackedBlobWriter::try_new(object_store.clone(), data_file_path.clone(), packed_id)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(packed.path(), &packed_path);
+        packed.write_blob(b"abc").await.unwrap();
+        packed.write_blob(b"de").await.unwrap();
+        let packed_values = packed.finish().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            packed_values,
+            vec![
+                BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+                    blob_id: packed_id,
+                    offset: 0,
+                    size: 3,
+                },
+                BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+                    blob_id: packed_id,
+                    offset: 3,
+                    size: 2,
+                },
+            ]
+        );
+
+        let dedicated_id = 8;
+        let dedicated_path = blob_path(&data_dir, &data_file_key, dedicated_id);
+        let mut dedicated =
+            DedicatedBlobWriter::try_new(object_store.clone(), data_file_path, dedicated_id)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dedicated.path(), &dedicated_path);
+        dedicated.write(b"abcdef").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dedicated.finish().await.unwrap(),
+            BlobDescriptor::Dedicated {
+                blob_id: dedicated_id,
+                size: 6,
+            }
+        );
+
+        let mut builder = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        builder
+            .extend_packed(
+                42,
+                vec![
+                    BlobRange { offset: 1, size: 2 },
+                    BlobRange { offset: 4, size: 1 },
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        builder.push_dedicated(43, 3).unwrap();
+        let column = builder.finish().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(column.array().len(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_packed_blob_writer_bulk_bytes() {
+        let temp_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let data_dir = Path::from_absolute_path(temp_dir.std_path().join("data")).unwrap();
+        let data_file_path = data_dir.join("data-file.lance");
+        let mut writer = PackedBlobWriter::try_new(ObjectStore::local(), data_file_path, 7)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .write_packed_blobs([
+                Some(b"a".as_slice()),
+                Some(b"".as_slice()),
+                None,
+                Some(b"bc".as_slice()),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            writer.finish().await.unwrap(),
+            vec![
+                BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+                    blob_id: 7,
+                    offset: 0,
+                    size: 1,
+                },
+                BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+                    blob_id: 7,
+                    offset: 1,
+                    size: 0,
+                },
+                BlobDescriptor::Null,
+                BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+                    blob_id: 7,
+                    offset: 1,
+                    size: 2,
+                },
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_packed_blob_writer_bulk_drops_after_partial_write_error() {
+        let (partial_writer, bytes_written, dropped) = partial_writer(WriteTerminal::Error);
+        let previous_descriptor = BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+            blob_id: 7,
+            offset: 0,
+            size: 3,
+        };
+        let mut writer = PackedBlobWriter {
+            object_store: ObjectStore::local(),
+            path: Path::from("packed.blob"),
+            blob_id: 7,
+            writer: Some(partial_writer),
+            offset: 3,
+            values: vec![previous_descriptor.clone()],
+        };
+
+        let error = writer
+            .write_packed_blobs([Some(b"abcdef".as_slice())])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("injected write failure"));
+        assert_eq!(bytes_written.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 2);
+        assert!(dropped.load(Ordering::SeqCst));
+        assert!(writer.writer.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(writer.offset, 3);
+        assert_eq!(writer.values, vec![previous_descriptor]);
+        let retry_error = writer.write_blob(b"retry").await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(retry_error, Error::IO { .. }));
+        assert!(retry_error.to_string().contains("no active upload"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_packed_blob_writer_bulk_drops_if_cancelled() {
+        let (partial_writer, bytes_written, dropped) = partial_writer(WriteTerminal::Pending);
+        let previous_descriptor = BlobDescriptor::Packed {
+            blob_id: 7,
+            offset: 0,
+            size: 3,
+        };
+        let mut writer = PackedBlobWriter {
+            object_store: ObjectStore::local(),
+            path: Path::from("packed.blob"),
+            blob_id: 7,
+            writer: Some(partial_writer),
+            offset: 3,
+            values: vec![previous_descriptor.clone()],
+        };
+
+        cancel_pending(writer.write_packed_blobs([Some(b"abcdef".as_slice())]));
+
+        assert_eq!(bytes_written.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 2);
+        assert!(dropped.load(Ordering::SeqCst));
+        assert!(writer.writer.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(writer.offset, 3);
+        assert_eq!(writer.values, vec![previous_descriptor]);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/datafusion/dataframe.rs b/rust/lance/src/datafusion/dataframe.rs
index 76c4ac99e97..87113242a7c 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/datafusion/dataframe.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/datafusion/dataframe.rs
@@ -1,21 +1,18 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{
-    any::Any,
-    sync::{Arc, Mutex},
-};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 
 use arrow_schema::{Schema, SchemaRef};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::{
-    catalog::{streaming::StreamingTable, Session},
+    catalog::{Session, streaming::StreamingTable},
     dataframe::DataFrame,
     datasource::TableProvider,
     error::DataFusionError,
-    execution::{context::SessionContext, TaskContext},
+    execution::{TaskContext, context::SessionContext},
     logical_expr::{Expr, TableProviderFilterPushDown, TableType},
-    physical_plan::{streaming::PartitionStream, ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream},
+    physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream, streaming::PartitionStream},
 };
 use lance_arrow::SchemaExt;
 use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID_FIELD};
@@ -42,6 +39,9 @@ pub struct LanceTableProvider {
     row_id_idx: Option<usize>,
     row_addr_idx: Option<usize>,
     ordered: bool,
+    blob_handling: Option<lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling>,
+    batch_size: Option<usize>,
+    batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
 }
 
 impl LanceTableProvider {
@@ -72,7 +72,46 @@ impl LanceTableProvider {
             row_id_idx,
             row_addr_idx,
             ordered,
+            blob_handling: None,
+            batch_size: None,
+            batch_size_bytes: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Overrides how blob columns are read during [`TableProvider::scan`].
+    /// When unset, the underlying dataset scan uses its default
+    /// [`BlobHandling`](lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling) policy.
+    pub fn with_blob_handling(mut self, handling: lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling) -> Self {
+        let converted = self
+            .dataset
+            .full_projection()
+            .with_blob_handling(handling.clone())
+            .to_bare_schema();
+        let mut full_schema = Schema::from(&converted);
+        if self.row_id_idx.is_some() {
+            full_schema = full_schema.try_with_column(ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()).unwrap();
+        }
+        if self.row_addr_idx.is_some() {
+            full_schema = full_schema.try_with_column(ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone()).unwrap();
         }
+        self.full_schema = Arc::new(full_schema);
+        self.blob_handling = Some(handling);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Overrides the maximum number of rows produced by each dataset scan batch.
+    ///
+    /// The batch size must be between 1 and [`u32::MAX`], inclusive. Invalid
+    /// values are rejected when DataFusion creates the scan plan.
+    pub fn with_batch_size(mut self, batch_size: usize) -> Self {
+        self.batch_size = Some(batch_size);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Overrides the approximate maximum bytes produced by each dataset scan batch.
+    pub fn with_batch_size_bytes(mut self, batch_size_bytes: u64) -> Self {
+        self.batch_size_bytes = Some(batch_size_bytes);
+        self
     }
 
     pub fn dataset(&self) -> Arc<Dataset> {
@@ -82,10 +121,6 @@ impl LanceTableProvider {
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl TableProvider for LanceTableProvider {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         self.full_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -96,32 +131,34 @@ impl TableProvider for LanceTableProvider {
 
     async fn scan(
         &self,
-        _state: &dyn Session,
+        state: &dyn Session,
         projection: Option<&Vec<usize>>,
         filters: &[Expr],
         limit: Option<usize>,
     ) -> datafusion::common::Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         let mut scan = self.dataset.scan();
-        match projection {
-            Some(projection) if projection.is_empty() => {
-                scan.empty_project()?;
-            }
-            Some(projection) => {
-                let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(projection.len());
-                for field_idx in projection {
-                    if Some(*field_idx) == self.row_id_idx {
-                        scan.with_row_id();
-                    } else if Some(*field_idx) == self.row_addr_idx {
-                        scan.with_row_address();
-                    } else {
-                        columns.push(self.full_schema.field(*field_idx).name());
-                    }
-                }
-                if !columns.is_empty() {
-                    scan.project(&columns)?;
+        if let Some(handling) = self.blob_handling.clone() {
+            scan.blob_handling(handling);
+        }
+        if let Some(batch_size) = self.batch_size {
+            scan.batch_size(batch_size);
+        }
+        if let Some(batch_size_bytes) = self.batch_size_bytes {
+            scan.batch_size_bytes(batch_size_bytes);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(projection) = projection {
+            let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(projection.len());
+            for field_idx in projection {
+                if Some(*field_idx) == self.row_id_idx {
+                    scan.with_row_id();
+                } else if Some(*field_idx) == self.row_addr_idx {
+                    scan.with_row_address();
+                } else {
+                    columns.push(self.full_schema.field(*field_idx).name());
                 }
             }
-            _ => {}
+            scan.project(&columns)?;
         }
 
         let combined_filter = match filters.len() {
@@ -141,7 +178,9 @@ impl TableProvider for LanceTableProvider {
         scan.limit(limit.map(|l| l as i64), None)?;
         scan.scan_in_order(self.ordered);
 
-        scan.create_plan().await.map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+        scan.create_plan_with_session(state)
+            .await
+            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
     }
 
     // Since we are using datafusion itself to apply the filters it should
@@ -166,13 +205,7 @@ pub trait SessionContextExt {
         with_row_id: bool,
         with_row_addr: bool,
     ) -> datafusion::common::Result<DataFrame>;
-    /// Creates a DataFrame for reading a Lance dataset without ordering
-    fn read_lance_unordered(
-        &self,
-        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-        with_row_id: bool,
-        with_row_addr: bool,
-    ) -> datafusion::common::Result<DataFrame>;
+
     /// Creates a DataFrame for reading a stream of data
     ///
     /// This dataframe may only be queried once, future queries will fail
@@ -232,20 +265,6 @@ impl SessionContextExt for SessionContext {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn read_lance_unordered(
-        &self,
-        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-        with_row_id: bool,
-        with_row_addr: bool,
-    ) -> datafusion::common::Result<DataFrame> {
-        self.read_table(Arc::new(LanceTableProvider::new_with_ordering(
-            dataset,
-            with_row_id,
-            with_row_addr,
-            false,
-        )))
-    }
-
     fn read_one_shot(
         &self,
         data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
@@ -258,7 +277,7 @@ impl SessionContextExt for SessionContext {
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
+mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     use arrow::{
@@ -309,4 +328,39 @@ pub mod tests {
         // SUM(0..100) - SUM(0..50) = 3675
         assert_eq!(results.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 3675);
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_provider_rejects_invalid_batch_size() {
+        let data = Arc::new(
+            lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_dataset(
+                    "memory://test_table_provider_rejects_invalid_batch_size",
+                    FragmentCount::from(1),
+                    FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        for batch_size in [0, u32::MAX as usize + 1] {
+            let provider =
+                LanceTableProvider::new(data.clone(), false, false).with_batch_size(batch_size);
+            let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+            ctx.register_table("dataset", Arc::new(provider)).unwrap();
+
+            let error = ctx
+                .sql("SELECT x FROM dataset")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .collect()
+                .await
+                .expect_err("invalid batch size should be rejected");
+            assert!(
+                error
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains(&format!("batch_size must be between 1 and {}", u32::MAX))
+            );
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/datafusion/logical_plan.rs b/rust/lance/src/datafusion/logical_plan.rs
index b16bfd63b4a..039aa75864f 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/datafusion/logical_plan.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/datafusion/logical_plan.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{any::Any, borrow::Cow, sync::Arc};
+use std::{borrow::Cow, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
@@ -19,10 +19,6 @@ use crate::Dataset;
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl TableProvider for Dataset {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
         Arc::new(self.schema().into())
     }
@@ -85,8 +81,8 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use crate::{dataset::WriteParams, io::exec::LanceScanExec};
     use arrow_array::{
-        builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Int32Builder},
         Float64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray,
+        builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Int32Builder},
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef};
     use datafusion::prelude::*;
@@ -167,15 +163,11 @@ mod tests {
 
         // DataFusion will create a cooperative execution plan, so we need to get its inner plan
         let physical_plan = physical_plan
-            .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<CooperativeExec>()
             .unwrap()
             .children()[0];
 
-        assert!(physical_plan
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<LanceScanExec>()
-            .is_some());
+        assert!(physical_plan.downcast_ref::<LanceScanExec>().is_some());
 
         let expected_fields = schema
             .fields()
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset.rs
index 20c5138af7e..38fa2f53a70 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset.rs
@@ -5,136 +5,206 @@
 //!
 
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader};
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian};
-use chrono::{prelude::*, Duration};
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use chrono::{Duration, prelude::*};
 use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 use futures::stream::{self, BoxStream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use futures::{FutureExt, Stream};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 
 use crate::dataset::metadata::UpdateFieldMetadataBuilder;
 use crate::dataset::transaction::translate_schema_metadata_updates;
 use crate::session::caches::{DSMetadataCache, ManifestKey, TransactionKey};
 use crate::session::index_caches::DSIndexCache;
 use itertools::Itertools;
+use lance_core::ROW_ADDR;
 use lance_core::datatypes::{OnMissing, OnTypeMismatch, Projectable, Projection};
 use lance_core::traits::DatasetTakeRows;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{
-    DATASET_CLEANING_EVENT, DATASET_DELETING_EVENT, DATASET_DROPPING_COLUMN_EVENT,
-    TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS,
+    DATASET_DELETING_EVENT, DATASET_DROPPING_COLUMN_EVENT, TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS,
 };
-use lance_core::ROW_ADDR;
 use lance_datafusion::projection::ProjectionPlan;
-use lance_file::datatypes::populate_schema_dictionary;
-use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
+use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
+use lance_file::versions as file_versions;
+use lance_index::{IndexType, progress::IndexBuildProgress};
 use lance_io::object_store::{
-    LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptions,
-    StorageOptionsAccessor, StorageOptionsProvider,
+    ChainedWrappingObjectStore, LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptions, StorageOptionsAccessor, StorageOptionsProvider,
+    WrappingObjectStore,
+};
+use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_io::utils::{
+    CachedFileSize, read_last_block, read_message, read_metadata_offset, read_struct,
 };
-use lance_io::utils::{read_last_block, read_message, read_metadata_offset, read_struct};
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
 use lance_table::format::{
-    pb, DataFile, DataStorageFormat, DeletionFile, Fragment, IndexMetadata, Manifest, RowIdMeta,
+    DataFile, DataStorageFormat, DeletionFile, Fragment, IndexMetadata, MAGIC, Manifest,
+    ManifestBuildConfig, RowIdMeta, pb, populate_manifest_schema_dictionaries,
 };
 use lance_table::io::commit::{
-    migrate_scheme_to_v2, write_manifest_file_to_path, CommitConfig, CommitError, CommitHandler,
-    CommitLock, ManifestLocation, ManifestNamingScheme, VERSIONS_DIR,
+    CommitConfig, CommitError, CommitHandler, CommitLock, ManifestLocation, ManifestNamingScheme,
+    VERSIONS_DIR, external_manifest::ExternalManifestCommitHandler, migrate_scheme_to_v2,
+    write_manifest_file_to_path,
 };
+
+use crate::io::commit::namespace_manifest::LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore;
 use lance_table::io::manifest::{read_manifest, read_manifest_indexes};
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use rowids::get_row_id_index;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 use std::borrow::Cow;
 use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::fmt::Debug;
+use std::num::NonZero;
 use std::ops::Range;
 use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::sync::Arc;
-use take::row_offsets_to_row_addresses;
-use tracing::{info, instrument};
+use tracing::{info, instrument, warn};
 
 pub(crate) mod blob;
-mod branch_location;
+pub(crate) mod branch_location;
 pub mod builder;
 pub mod cleanup;
+mod data_file;
+mod data_file_part;
 pub mod delta;
+pub mod files;
 pub mod fragment;
 mod hash_joiner;
 pub mod index;
 pub mod mem_wal;
 mod metadata;
 pub mod optimize;
+pub(crate) mod overlay;
 pub mod progress;
 pub mod refs;
-pub(crate) mod rowids;
+pub mod rowids;
 pub mod scanner;
 mod schema_evolution;
 pub mod sql;
 pub mod statistics;
 mod take;
-pub mod transaction;
+/// Transaction definitions for updating datasets
+///
+/// Prior to creating a new manifest, a transaction must be created representing
+/// the changes being made to the dataset. By representing them as incremental
+/// changes, we can detect whether concurrent operations are compatible with
+/// one another. We can also rebuild manifests when retrying committing a
+/// manifest.
+///
+/// The definitions live in [`lance_table::transaction`]: building a manifest from
+/// a transaction reads and writes only table metadata, so it belongs at the table
+/// layer. This module re-exports them at the path callers have always used.
+///
+/// For more details please refer to the
+/// [Transaction Specification](https://lance.org/format/table/transaction/#transaction-types).
+pub mod transaction {
+    pub use lance_table::transaction::{
+        DataOverlayGroup, DataReplacementGroup, Operation, ReadVersionState, RewriteGroup,
+        RewrittenIndex, TaggedRewriteAssembly, Transaction, TransactionBuilder, UpdateMap,
+        UpdateMapEntry, UpdateMode, UpdatedFragmentOffsets, translate_config_updates,
+        translate_schema_metadata_updates, validate_operation,
+    };
+}
 pub mod udtf;
 pub mod updater;
 mod utils;
+pub(crate) mod versions;
 pub mod write;
 
+pub use data_file::DataFileTarget;
+pub use data_file_part::DataFilePart;
+
+pub(crate) use take::row_offsets_to_row_addresses;
+
 use self::builder::DatasetBuilder;
 use self::cleanup::RemovalStats;
 use self::fragment::FileFragment;
 use self::refs::Refs;
 use self::scanner::{DatasetRecordBatchStream, Scanner};
+use self::statistics::DatasetStatistics;
 use self::transaction::{Operation, Transaction, TransactionBuilder, UpdateMapEntry};
-use self::write::write_fragments_internal;
+use self::write::cleanup_data_fragments;
 use crate::dataset::branch_location::BranchLocation;
-use crate::dataset::cleanup::{CleanupPolicy, CleanupPolicyBuilder};
-use crate::dataset::refs::{BranchContents, Branches, Tags};
+use crate::dataset::cleanup::{CleanupOperation, CleanupPolicy, CleanupPolicyBuilder};
+use crate::dataset::refs::{BranchContents, BranchIdentifier, Branches, Tags};
 use crate::dataset::sql::SqlQueryBuilder;
 use crate::datatypes::Schema;
-use crate::index::retain_supported_indices;
 use crate::io::commit::{
     commit_detached_transaction, commit_new_dataset, commit_transaction,
-    detect_overlapping_fragments,
+    default_commit_retry_timeout, detect_overlapping_fragments,
 };
 use crate::session::Session;
-use crate::utils::temporal::{timestamp_to_nanos, utc_now, SystemTime};
+use crate::utils::temporal::{SystemTime, timestamp_to_nanos, utc_now};
 use crate::{Error, Result};
-pub use blob::BlobFile;
+pub use blob::{
+    BlobFile, BlobRangeRequest, BlobReadRange, ReadBlob, ReadBlobRange, ReadBlobRangesBuilder,
+    ReadBlobRangesStream, ReadBlobsBuilder, ReadBlobsStream,
+};
 use hash_joiner::HashJoiner;
-use lance_core::box_error;
 pub use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+use lance_core::box_error;
 use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
-use lance_namespace::models::{
-    CreateEmptyTableRequest, DeclareTableRequest, DeclareTableResponse, DescribeTableRequest,
+use lance_namespace::models::{DeclareTableRequest, DescribeTableRequest};
+use lance_table::feature_flags::{
+    apply_feature_flags, ensure_can_read_manifest, ensure_can_write_manifest,
+    validate_paired_feature_flags,
 };
-use lance_table::feature_flags::{apply_feature_flags, can_read_dataset};
-use lance_table::io::deletion::{relative_deletion_file_path, DELETIONS_DIR};
+use lance_table::io::deletion::{DELETIONS_DIR, relative_deletion_file_path};
+use lance_table::rowids::{RowIdSequence, write_row_ids};
+pub use overlay::writer::{OverlayWriter, WriteOverlayError};
 pub use schema_evolution::{
     BatchInfo, BatchUDF, ColumnAlteration, NewColumnTransform, UDFCheckpointStore,
 };
 pub use take::TakeBuilder;
+use uuid::Uuid;
 pub use write::merge_insert::{
-    MergeInsertBuilder, MergeInsertJob, MergeStats, UncommittedMergeInsert, WhenMatched,
-    WhenNotMatched, WhenNotMatchedBySource,
+    MergeInsertBuilder, MergeInsertJob, MergeInsertWriteMode, MergeStats, UncommittedMergeInsert,
+    WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched, WhenNotMatchedBySource,
 };
 
 use crate::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
 pub use write::update::{UpdateBuilder, UpdateJob};
 #[allow(deprecated)]
 pub use write::{
-    write_fragments, AutoCleanupParams, CommitBuilder, DeleteBuilder, InsertBuilder,
-    WriteDestination, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+    AutoCleanupParams, CommitBuilder, DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT, DeleteBuilder, DeleteResult,
+    ExternalBlobMode, InsertBuilder, UncommittedDelete, WriteDestination, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+    WriteProgressFn, WriteStats, write_fragments,
 };
 
 pub(crate) const INDICES_DIR: &str = "_indices";
 pub(crate) const DATA_DIR: &str = "data";
 pub(crate) const TRANSACTIONS_DIR: &str = "_transactions";
+const DEFAULT_MAX_STREAM_COPY_PARALLELISM: usize = 4;
+
+fn parse_deep_clone_stream_concurrency(value: &str) -> Result<usize> {
+    value
+        .parse::<NonZero<usize>>()
+        .map(NonZero::get)
+        .map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "LANCE_DEEP_CLONE_STREAM_CONCURRENCY must be a positive integer, got {value:?}"
+            ))
+        })
+}
+
+fn deep_clone_copy_parallelism(
+    configured_io_parallelism: usize,
+    uses_streaming_copy: bool,
+    stream_copy_parallelism: Option<usize>,
+) -> usize {
+    if !uses_streaming_copy {
+        configured_io_parallelism
+    } else if let Some(value) = stream_copy_parallelism {
+        value
+    } else {
+        configured_io_parallelism.min(DEFAULT_MAX_STREAM_COPY_PARALLELISM)
+    }
+}
 
 // We default to 6GB for the index cache, since indices are often large but
 // worth caching.
@@ -147,7 +217,9 @@ pub const DEFAULT_METADATA_CACHE_SIZE: usize = 1024 * 1024 * 1024;
 /// Lance Dataset
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct Dataset {
-    pub object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    /// The primary dataset object store. Use [`Self::object_store`] when
+    /// resolving files that may carry a base id.
+    pub(crate) object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     pub(crate) commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler>,
     /// Uri of the dataset.
     ///
@@ -175,8 +247,17 @@ pub struct Dataset {
     /// Object store parameters used when opening this dataset.
     /// These are used when creating object stores for additional base paths.
     pub(crate) store_params: Option<Box<ObjectStoreParams>>,
+    /// Optional runtime-only object store parameters keyed by base path URI.
+    pub(crate) base_store_params: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, ObjectStoreParams>>>,
+    /// Object stores for additional base paths, normally shared across clones.
+    /// Applying new object store wrappers starts a fresh cache scope.
+    pub(crate) base_object_stores: BaseObjectStores,
 }
 
+/// The `OnceCell` coalesces concurrent first resolutions into one build.
+pub(crate) type BaseObjectStores =
+    Arc<std::sync::Mutex<HashMap<u32, Arc<tokio::sync::OnceCell<Arc<ObjectStore>>>>>>;
+
 impl std::fmt::Debug for Dataset {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         f.debug_struct("Dataset")
@@ -184,6 +265,7 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for Dataset {
             .field("base", &self.base)
             .field("version", &self.manifest.version)
             .field("cache_num_items", &self.session.approx_num_items())
+            .field("base_store_params", &self.base_store_params.is_some())
             .finish()
     }
 }
@@ -201,6 +283,14 @@ pub struct Version {
     pub metadata: BTreeMap<String, String>,
 }
 
+/// A lightweight reference to an attached dataset version, which could be used to uniquely identify a version.
+#[non_exhaustive]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Deserialize, Eq, Hash, Ord, PartialEq, PartialOrd, Serialize)]
+pub struct VersionRef {
+    /// Version number within the current branch's history.
+    pub version: u64,
+}
+
 /// Convert Manifest to Data Version.
 impl From<&Manifest> for Version {
     fn from(m: &Manifest) -> Self {
@@ -212,6 +302,23 @@ impl From<&Manifest> for Version {
     }
 }
 
+/// The transaction that produced a version of the dataset, along with the
+/// version's commit timestamp.
+///
+/// Returned by [`Dataset::read_version_transaction`], which reads this
+/// information directly from storage without checking out the version.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct VersionTransaction {
+    /// Version number.
+    pub version: u64,
+
+    /// Timestamp the version was committed, in UTC.
+    pub timestamp: DateTime<Utc>,
+
+    /// The transaction that produced this version, if one was recorded.
+    pub transaction: Option<Transaction>,
+}
+
 /// Customize read behavior of a dataset.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 pub struct ReadParams {
@@ -251,6 +358,9 @@ pub struct ReadParams {
     /// File reader options to use when reading data files.
     ///
     /// This allows control over features like caching repetition indices and validation.
+    /// Options set here act as dataset-level defaults and can be overridden on a
+    /// per-scan basis via [`Scanner::batch_size_bytes`](crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::batch_size_bytes) or
+    /// [`Scanner::with_file_reader_options`](crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::with_file_reader_options).
     pub file_reader_options: Option<FileReaderOptions>,
 }
 
@@ -411,7 +521,10 @@ impl Dataset {
         DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri).load().await
     }
 
-    /// Check out a dataset version with a ref
+    /// Check out a dataset version with a ref.
+    ///
+    /// In reference contexts, `"main"` is an alias for the default branch and
+    /// is equivalent to `None`.
     pub async fn checkout_version(&self, version: impl Into<refs::Ref>) -> Result<Self> {
         let reference: refs::Ref = version.into();
         match reference {
@@ -435,6 +548,12 @@ impl Dataset {
         self.refs.tags()
     }
 
+    /// A handle for cheap, index-derived statistics about this dataset (e.g. a
+    /// column's global value range) that never scan data.
+    pub fn statistics(&self) -> DatasetStatistics<'_> {
+        DatasetStatistics::new(self)
+    }
+
     pub fn branches(&self) -> Branches<'_> {
         self.refs.branches()
     }
@@ -442,6 +561,16 @@ impl Dataset {
     /// Check out the latest version of the dataset
     pub async fn checkout_latest(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
         let (manifest, manifest_location) = self.latest_manifest().await?;
+        self.set_manifest(manifest, manifest_location);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Replace the manifest, refreshing derived state. Base stores are kept
+    /// when `base_paths` is unchanged.
+    fn set_manifest(&mut self, manifest: Arc<Manifest>, manifest_location: ManifestLocation) {
+        if manifest.base_paths != self.manifest.base_paths {
+            self.base_object_stores = Default::default();
+        }
         self.manifest = manifest;
         self.manifest_location = manifest_location;
         self.fragment_bitmap = Arc::new(
@@ -451,10 +580,11 @@ impl Dataset {
                 .map(|f| f.id as u32)
                 .collect(),
         );
-        Ok(())
     }
 
-    /// Check out the latest version of the branch
+    /// Check out the latest version of the branch.
+    ///
+    /// Use `"main"` to check out the latest version of the default branch.
     pub async fn checkout_branch(&self, branch: &str) -> Result<Self> {
         self.checkout_by_ref(None, Some(branch)).await
     }
@@ -474,28 +604,38 @@ impl Dataset {
     /// which can be cleaned up later. Such a zombie dataset may cause a branch creation
     /// failure if we use the same name to `create_branch`. In that case, you need to call
     /// `force_delete_branch` to interactively clean up the zombie dataset.
+    ///
+    /// `"main"` is reserved for the default branch and cannot be used as a new branch name.
     pub async fn create_branch(
         &mut self,
         branch: &str,
         version: impl Into<refs::Ref>,
         store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
+        refs::check_valid_branch(branch)?;
+
         let (source_branch, version_number) = self.resolve_reference(version.into()).await?;
-        let branch_location = self.find_branch_location(branch)?;
+        let branch_location = self.branch_location().find_branch(Some(branch))?;
+        let source_location = self
+            .branch_location()
+            .find_branch(source_branch.as_deref())?;
         let clone_op = Operation::Clone {
             is_shallow: true,
             ref_name: source_branch.clone(),
             ref_version: version_number,
-            ref_path: String::from(self.uri()),
+            ref_path: source_location.uri,
             branch_name: Some(branch.to_string()),
         };
         let transaction = Transaction::new(version_number, clone_op, None);
 
         let builder = CommitBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Uri(branch_location.uri.as_str()))
-            .with_store_params(store_params.unwrap_or_default())
-            .with_object_store(Arc::new(self.object_store().clone()))
+            // Fall back to the dataset's own store params
+            .with_store_params(
+                store_params.unwrap_or(self.store_params.as_deref().cloned().unwrap_or_default()),
+            )
+            .with_object_store(Arc::new(self.object_store.as_ref().clone()))
             .with_commit_handler(self.commit_handler.clone())
-            .with_storage_format(self.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()?);
+            .with_exact_storage_format(self.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format());
         let dataset = builder.execute(transaction).await?;
 
         // Create BranchContents after shallow_clone
@@ -520,8 +660,10 @@ impl Dataset {
     }
 
     fn already_checked_out(&self, location: &ManifestLocation, branch_name: Option<&str>) -> bool {
-        // We check the e_tag here just in case it has been overwritten. This can
-        // happen if the table has been dropped then re-created recently.
+        // The ETag is an opaque object-generation token, not a content hash.
+        // Comparing the token still prevents reusing this Dataset's manifest
+        // after the physical object was replaced, for example by a recent
+        // drop/recreate at the same URI and version.
         self.manifest.branch.as_deref() == branch_name
             && self.manifest.version == location.version
             && self.manifest_location.naming_scheme == location.naming_scheme
@@ -538,7 +680,19 @@ impl Dataset {
         version_number: Option<u64>,
         branch: Option<&str>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let new_location = self.branch_location().find_branch(branch)?;
+        let standardized_branch = branch.and_then(refs::standardize_branch);
+        // Reject malformed names at the boundary (mirroring the branch CRUD
+        // paths) so they fail as InvalidRef instead of tripping the wrong-chain
+        // check below
+        if let Some(branch_name) = standardized_branch.as_deref()
+            && !Branches::is_main_branch(Some(branch_name))
+        {
+            refs::check_valid_branch(branch_name)?;
+        }
+
+        let new_location = self
+            .branch_location()
+            .find_branch(standardized_branch.as_deref())?;
 
         let manifest_location = if let Some(version_number) = version_number {
             self.commit_handler
@@ -554,27 +708,42 @@ impl Dataset {
                 .await?
         };
 
-        if self.already_checked_out(&manifest_location, branch) {
+        if self.already_checked_out(&manifest_location, standardized_branch.as_deref()) {
             return Ok(self.clone());
         }
 
-        let manifest = Self::load_manifest(
+        let manifest = Self::get_manifest(
             self.object_store.as_ref(),
             &manifest_location,
             &new_location.uri,
             self.session.as_ref(),
         )
         .await?;
+
+        // The resolved manifest must belong to the requested branch. A mismatch
+        // means the commit handler resolved against a different chain (for
+        // example an external manifest store that ignores branch-qualified
+        // paths); error loudly rather than hand back another branch's data.
+        if manifest.branch.as_deref() != standardized_branch.as_deref() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "checkout of branch '{}' at version {} resolved a manifest belonging to branch '{}'",
+                refs::normalize_branch(branch),
+                manifest.version,
+                refs::normalize_branch(manifest.branch.as_deref()),
+            )));
+        }
+
         Self::checkout_manifest(
             self.object_store.clone(),
             new_location.path,
             new_location.uri,
-            Arc::new(manifest),
+            manifest,
             manifest_location,
             self.session.clone(),
             self.commit_handler.clone(),
             self.file_reader_options.clone(),
             self.store_params.as_deref().cloned(),
+            self.base_store_params.clone(),
         )
     }
 
@@ -592,11 +761,7 @@ impl Dataset {
             object_store.open(&manifest_location.path).await
         };
         let object_reader = object_reader.map_err(|e| match &e {
-            Error::NotFound { uri, .. } => Error::DatasetNotFound {
-                path: uri.clone(),
-                source: box_error(e),
-                location: location!(),
-            },
+            Error::NotFound { uri, .. } => Error::dataset_not_found(uri.clone(), box_error(e)),
             _ => e,
         })?;
 
@@ -604,16 +769,29 @@ impl Dataset {
             read_last_block(object_reader.as_ref())
                 .await
                 .map_err(|err| match err {
-                    object_store::Error::NotFound { path, source } => Error::DatasetNotFound {
-                        path,
-                        source,
-                        location: location!(),
-                    },
-                    _ => Error::IO {
-                        source: err.into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    },
+                    object_store::Error::NotFound { path, source } => {
+                        Error::dataset_not_found(path, source)
+                    }
+                    _ => Error::io_source(err.into()),
                 })?;
+
+        // A stale cached size yields a bogus footer offset. Detect it (the block
+        // lacks the trailing magic) and retry with the true size, like
+        // read_manifest.
+        if manifest_location.size.is_some() && !last_block.ends_with(MAGIC) {
+            let manifest_location = ManifestLocation {
+                size: None,
+                ..manifest_location.clone()
+            };
+            return Box::pin(Self::load_manifest(
+                object_store,
+                &manifest_location,
+                uri,
+                session,
+            ))
+            .await;
+        }
+
         let offset = read_metadata_offset(&last_block)?;
 
         // If manifest is in the last block, we can decode directly from memory.
@@ -626,61 +804,58 @@ impl Dataset {
             let message_data = &last_block[offset_in_block + 4..offset_in_block + 4 + message_len];
             Manifest::try_from(lance_table::format::pb::Manifest::decode(message_data)?)
         } else {
-            read_struct(object_reader.as_ref(), offset).await
+            let mut manifest: Manifest = read_struct(object_reader.as_ref(), offset).await?;
+            manifest.detach_sparse_inline_row_ids(manifest_size - offset);
+            Ok(manifest)
         }?;
 
-        if !can_read_dataset(manifest.reader_feature_flags) {
-            let message = format!(
-                "This dataset cannot be read by this version of Lance. \
-                 Please upgrade Lance to read this dataset.\n Flags: {}",
-                manifest.reader_feature_flags
-            );
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: message.into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+        ensure_can_read_manifest(&manifest)?;
+
+        versions::check_manifest_storage_version(&mut manifest)?;
 
         // If indices were also in the last block, we can take the opportunity to
         // decode them now and cache them.
-        if let Some(index_offset) = manifest.index_section {
-            if manifest_size - index_offset <= last_block.len() {
-                let offset_in_block = last_block.len() - (manifest_size - index_offset);
-                let message_len =
-                    LittleEndian::read_u32(&last_block[offset_in_block..offset_in_block + 4])
-                        as usize;
-                let message_data =
-                    &last_block[offset_in_block + 4..offset_in_block + 4 + message_len];
-                let section = lance_table::format::pb::IndexSection::decode(message_data)?;
-                let mut indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = section
-                    .indices
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(IndexMetadata::try_from)
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-                retain_supported_indices(&mut indices);
-                let ds_index_cache = session.index_cache.for_dataset(uri);
-                let metadata_key = crate::session::index_caches::IndexMetadataKey {
-                    version: manifest_location.version,
-                };
-                ds_index_cache
-                    .insert_with_key(&metadata_key, Arc::new(indices))
-                    .await;
-            }
+        if let Some(index_offset) = manifest.index_section
+            && manifest_size - index_offset <= last_block.len()
+        {
+            let offset_in_block = last_block.len() - (manifest_size - index_offset);
+            let message_len =
+                LittleEndian::read_u32(&last_block[offset_in_block..offset_in_block + 4]) as usize;
+            let message_data = &last_block[offset_in_block + 4..offset_in_block + 4 + message_len];
+            let section = lance_table::format::pb::IndexSection::decode(message_data)?;
+            // Cached unfiltered: this is the same cache the commit path reads
+            // from, and an index this build cannot decode still has to survive
+            // into the next manifest. Version filtering happens on the way out,
+            // in `DatasetIndexExt::load_indices`.
+            let indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = section
+                .indices
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(IndexMetadata::try_from)
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            crate::index::warn_about_unsupported_indices(&indices);
+            let ds_index_cache = session.index_cache.for_dataset(uri);
+            let metadata_key = crate::session::index_caches::IndexMetadataKey {
+                version: manifest_location.version,
+                store_identity: &object_store.store_prefix,
+                e_tag: manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+            };
+            ds_index_cache
+                .insert_with_key(&metadata_key, Arc::new(indices))
+                .await;
         }
 
         // If transaction is also in the last block, we can take the opportunity to
         // decode them now and cache them.
-        if let Some(transaction_offset) = manifest.transaction_section {
-            if manifest_size - transaction_offset <= last_block.len() {
-                let offset_in_block = last_block.len() - (manifest_size - transaction_offset);
-                let message_len =
-                    LittleEndian::read_u32(&last_block[offset_in_block..offset_in_block + 4])
-                        as usize;
-                let message_data =
-                    &last_block[offset_in_block + 4..offset_in_block + 4 + message_len];
-                let transaction: Transaction =
-                    lance_table::format::pb::Transaction::decode(message_data)?.try_into()?;
-
+        if let Some(transaction_offset) = manifest.transaction_section
+            && manifest_size - transaction_offset <= last_block.len()
+        {
+            let offset_in_block = last_block.len() - (manifest_size - transaction_offset);
+            let message_len =
+                LittleEndian::read_u32(&last_block[offset_in_block..offset_in_block + 4]) as usize;
+            let message_data = &last_block[offset_in_block + 4..offset_in_block + 4 + message_len];
+            if let Some(transaction) =
+                decode_inline_transaction(message_data, manifest_location.version)
+            {
                 let metadata_cache = session.metadata_cache.for_dataset(uri);
                 let metadata_key = TransactionKey {
                     version: manifest_location.version,
@@ -691,15 +866,43 @@ impl Dataset {
             }
         }
 
-        if manifest.should_use_legacy_format() {
-            populate_schema_dictionary(&mut manifest.schema, object_reader.as_ref()).await?;
-        }
+        populate_manifest_schema_dictionaries(&mut manifest, object_reader.as_ref()).await?;
 
         Ok(manifest)
     }
 
+    /// Fetch the manifest for `manifest_location` from the session metadata
+    /// cache, loading and caching it on a miss.
+    pub(crate) async fn get_manifest(
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        manifest_location: &ManifestLocation,
+        uri: &str,
+        session: &Session,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Manifest>> {
+        if manifest_location.size.is_none() {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(
+                Self::load_manifest(object_store, manifest_location, uri, session).await?,
+            ));
+        }
+        let metadata_cache = session.metadata_cache.for_dataset(uri);
+        let manifest_key = ManifestKey {
+            version: manifest_location.version,
+            e_tag: manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+        };
+        if let Some(cached) = metadata_cache.get_with_key(&manifest_key).await {
+            ensure_can_read_manifest(&cached)?;
+            return Ok(cached);
+        }
+        let loaded =
+            Arc::new(Self::load_manifest(object_store, manifest_location, uri, session).await?);
+        metadata_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&manifest_key, loaded.clone())
+            .await;
+        Ok(loaded)
+    }
+
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn checkout_manifest(
+    pub fn checkout_manifest(
         object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
         base_path: Path,
         uri: String,
@@ -709,6 +912,7 @@ impl Dataset {
         commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler>,
         file_reader_options: Option<FileReaderOptions>,
         store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+        base_store_params: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, ObjectStoreParams>>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let refs = Refs::new(
             object_store.clone(),
@@ -722,6 +926,11 @@ impl Dataset {
         let metadata_cache = Arc::new(session.metadata_cache.for_dataset(&uri));
         let index_cache = Arc::new(session.index_cache.for_dataset(&uri));
         let fragment_bitmap = Arc::new(manifest.fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect());
+        write::log_unregistered_base_scoped_options(
+            store_params.as_ref(),
+            &manifest.base_paths,
+            log::Level::Debug,
+        );
         Ok(Self {
             object_store,
             base: base_path,
@@ -736,6 +945,8 @@ impl Dataset {
             index_cache,
             file_reader_options,
             store_params: store_params.map(Box::new),
+            base_store_params,
+            base_object_stores: Default::default(),
         })
     }
 
@@ -759,77 +970,103 @@ impl Dataset {
             .await
     }
 
-    /// Write into a namespace-managed table with automatic credential vending.
+    /// Write into a namespace client-managed table with automatic credential vending.
     ///
-    /// For CREATE mode, calls create_empty_table() to initialize the table.
-    /// For other modes, calls describe_table() and opens dataset with namespace credentials.
+    /// For CREATE mode, calls declare_table() to initialize the table.
+    /// For other modes, calls describe_table() and opens dataset with namespace client credentials.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `batches` - The record batches to write
-    /// * `namespace` - The namespace to use for table management
+    /// * `namespace_client` - The namespace client to use for table management
     /// * `table_id` - The table identifier
     /// * `params` - Write parameters
     pub async fn write_into_namespace(
         batches: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static,
-        namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
+        namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
+        table_id: Vec<String>,
+        params: Option<WriteParams>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::write_into_namespace_impl(batches, namespace_client, table_id, None, params).await
+    }
+
+    /// Write into a branch of a namespace client-managed table.
+    ///
+    /// Behaves like [`write_into_namespace`](Self::write_into_namespace), but APPEND and
+    /// OVERWRITE open and commit against `branch` instead of main. CREATE is rejected,
+    /// since a branch forks from an existing version.
+    pub async fn write_into_namespace_on_branch(
+        batches: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static,
+        namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
+        table_id: Vec<String>,
+        branch: &str,
+        params: Option<WriteParams>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::write_into_namespace_impl(
+            batches,
+            namespace_client,
+            table_id,
+            Some(branch.to_string()),
+            params,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn write_into_namespace_impl(
+        batches: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static,
+        namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
         table_id: Vec<String>,
+        branch: Option<String>,
         mut params: Option<WriteParams>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut write_params = params.take().unwrap_or_default();
 
         match write_params.mode {
             WriteMode::Create => {
+                if branch.is_some() {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                        "cannot create a table on a branch; create on main first, then branch it"
+                            .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
                 let declare_request = DeclareTableRequest {
                     id: Some(table_id.clone()),
                     ..Default::default()
                 };
-                // Try declare_table first, fall back to deprecated create_empty_table
-                // for backward compatibility with older namespace implementations.
-                // create_empty_table support will be removed in 3.0.0.
-                #[allow(deprecated)]
-                let response = match namespace.declare_table(declare_request).await {
-                    Ok(resp) => resp,
-                    Err(Error::NotSupported { .. }) => {
-                        let fallback_request = CreateEmptyTableRequest {
-                            id: Some(table_id.clone()),
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        };
-                        let fallback_resp = namespace
-                            .create_empty_table(fallback_request)
-                            .await
-                            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                                source: Box::new(e),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            })?;
-                        DeclareTableResponse {
-                            transaction_id: fallback_resp.transaction_id,
-                            location: fallback_resp.location,
-                            storage_options: fallback_resp.storage_options,
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Err(e) => {
-                        return Err(Error::Namespace {
-                            source: Box::new(e),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                };
+                let response = namespace_client
+                    .declare_table(declare_request)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::namespace_source(Box::new(e)))?;
 
-                let uri = response.location.ok_or_else(|| Error::Namespace {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(
+                let uri = response.location.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::namespace_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(
                         "Table location not found in declare_table response",
-                    )),
-                    location: location!(),
+                    )))
                 })?;
 
-                // Set initial credentials and provider from namespace
+                // Set up commit handler when managed_versioning is enabled
+                if response.managed_versioning == Some(true) {
+                    // The store derives the branch a request targets from the
+                    // base path it is handed, resolved against the table root.
+                    let external_store = LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::for_table_uri(
+                        namespace_client.clone(),
+                        table_id.clone(),
+                        &uri,
+                    )?;
+                    let commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler> =
+                        Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+                        });
+                    write_params.commit_handler = Some(commit_handler);
+                }
+
+                // Set initial credentials and provider from namespace_client
                 if let Some(namespace_storage_options) = response.storage_options {
                     let provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider> = Arc::new(
-                        LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(namespace, table_id),
+                        LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(namespace_client, table_id),
                     );
 
-                    // Merge namespace storage options with any existing options
+                    // Merge namespace client storage options with any existing options
                     let mut merged_options = write_params
                         .store_params
                         .as_ref()
@@ -856,31 +1093,46 @@ impl Dataset {
                     id: Some(table_id.clone()),
                     ..Default::default()
                 };
-                let response =
-                    namespace
-                        .describe_table(request)
-                        .await
-                        .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                            source: Box::new(e),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
+                let response = namespace_client
+                    .describe_table(request)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::namespace_source(Box::new(e)))?;
 
-                let uri = response.location.ok_or_else(|| Error::Namespace {
-                    source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(
+                let uri = response.location.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::namespace_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(
                         "Table location not found in describe_table response",
-                    )),
-                    location: location!(),
+                    )))
                 })?;
 
-                // Set initial credentials and provider from namespace
+                // Set up commit handler when managed_versioning is enabled.
+                // It must ride on the dataset opened below: InsertBuilder
+                // commits through the destination dataset's handler and does
+                // not consult write params for Dataset destinations.
+                let commit_handler: Option<Arc<dyn CommitHandler>> =
+                    if response.managed_versioning == Some(true) {
+                        // The store derives the branch a request targets from the
+                        // base path it is handed, resolved against the table root.
+                        let external_store = LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::for_table_uri(
+                            namespace_client.clone(),
+                            table_id.clone(),
+                            uri.as_str(),
+                        )?;
+                        Some(Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+                        }))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+
+                // Set initial credentials and provider from namespace_client
                 if let Some(namespace_storage_options) = response.storage_options {
                     let provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider> =
                         Arc::new(LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(
-                            namespace.clone(),
+                            namespace_client.clone(),
                             table_id.clone(),
                         ));
 
-                    // Merge namespace storage options with any existing options
+                    // Merge namespace client storage options with any existing options
                     let mut merged_options = write_params
                         .store_params
                         .as_ref()
@@ -904,10 +1156,16 @@ impl Dataset {
                 // and pass it to InsertBuilder. If we pass just the URI, InsertBuilder
                 // assumes no dataset exists and converts the mode to CREATE.
                 let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri.as_str());
-                if let Some(ref store_params) = write_params.store_params {
-                    if let Some(accessor) = &store_params.storage_options_accessor {
-                        builder = builder.with_storage_options_accessor(accessor.clone());
-                    }
+                if let Some(ref store_params) = write_params.store_params
+                    && let Some(accessor) = &store_params.storage_options_accessor
+                {
+                    builder = builder.with_storage_options_accessor(accessor.clone());
+                }
+                if let Some(commit_handler) = commit_handler {
+                    builder = builder.with_commit_handler(commit_handler);
+                }
+                if let Some(branch) = &branch {
+                    builder = builder.with_branch(branch, None);
                 }
                 let dataset = Arc::new(builder.load().await?);
 
@@ -952,13 +1210,11 @@ impl Dataset {
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn find_branch_location(&self, branch_name: &str) -> Result<BranchLocation> {
-        let current_location = BranchLocation {
-            path: self.base.clone(),
-            uri: self.uri.clone(),
-            branch: self.manifest.branch.clone(),
-        };
-        current_location.find_branch(Some(branch_name))
+    pub async fn branch_identifier(&self) -> Result<BranchIdentifier> {
+        self.refs
+            .branches()
+            .get_identifier(self.manifest.branch.as_deref())
+            .await
     }
 
     /// Get the full manifest of the dataset version.
@@ -988,50 +1244,19 @@ impl Dataset {
         delta::DatasetDeltaBuilder::new(self.clone())
     }
 
-    // TODO: Cache this
-    pub(crate) fn is_legacy_storage(&self) -> bool {
-        self.manifest
-            .data_storage_format
-            .lance_file_version()
-            .unwrap()
-            == LanceFileVersion::Legacy
-    }
-
     pub async fn latest_manifest(&self) -> Result<(Arc<Manifest>, ManifestLocation)> {
         let location = self
             .commit_handler
             .resolve_latest_location(&self.base, &self.object_store)
             .await?;
 
-        // Check if manifest is in cache before reading from storage
-        let manifest_key = ManifestKey {
-            version: location.version,
-            e_tag: location.e_tag.as_deref(),
-        };
-        let cached_manifest = self.metadata_cache.get_with_key(&manifest_key).await;
-        if let Some(cached_manifest) = cached_manifest {
-            return Ok((cached_manifest, location));
-        }
-
         if self.already_checked_out(&location, self.manifest.branch.as_deref()) {
+            ensure_can_read_manifest(&self.manifest)?;
             return Ok((self.manifest.clone(), self.manifest_location.clone()));
         }
-        let mut manifest = read_manifest(&self.object_store, &location.path, location.size).await?;
-        if manifest.schema.has_dictionary_types() && manifest.should_use_legacy_format() {
-            let reader = if let Some(size) = location.size {
-                self.object_store
-                    .open_with_size(&location.path, size as usize)
-                    .await?
-            } else {
-                self.object_store.open(&location.path).await?
-            };
-            populate_schema_dictionary(&mut manifest.schema, reader.as_ref()).await?;
-        }
-        let manifest_arc = Arc::new(manifest);
-        self.metadata_cache
-            .insert_with_key(&manifest_key, manifest_arc.clone())
-            .await;
-        Ok((manifest_arc, location))
+        let manifest =
+            Self::get_manifest(&self.object_store, &location, &self.uri, &self.session).await?;
+        Ok((manifest, location))
     }
 
     /// Read the transaction file for this version of the dataset.
@@ -1046,43 +1271,146 @@ impl Dataset {
             return Ok(Some((*transaction).clone()));
         }
 
+        let transaction = self
+            .read_transaction_from_storage(&self.manifest, &self.manifest_location)
+            .await?;
+
+        if let Some(tx) = transaction.as_ref() {
+            self.metadata_cache
+                .insert_with_key(&transaction_key, Arc::new(tx.clone()))
+                .await;
+        }
+        Ok(transaction)
+    }
+
+    /// Read the transaction recorded by `manifest` directly from storage,
+    /// without consulting or populating any session cache.
+    async fn read_transaction_from_storage(
+        &self,
+        manifest: &Manifest,
+        manifest_location: &ManifestLocation,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Transaction>> {
         // Prefer inline transaction from manifest when available
-        let transaction = if let Some(pos) = self.manifest.transaction_section {
-            let reader = if let Some(size) = self.manifest_location.size {
-                self.object_store
-                    .open_with_size(&self.manifest_location.path, size as usize)
-                    .await?
-            } else {
-                self.object_store.open(&self.manifest_location.path).await?
+        if let Some(pos) = manifest.transaction_section {
+            let reader = match manifest_location.size {
+                Some(size) => {
+                    self.object_store
+                        .open_with_size(&manifest_location.path, size as usize)
+                        .await?
+                }
+                None => self.object_store.open(&manifest_location.path).await?,
             };
 
-            let tx: pb::Transaction = read_message(reader.as_ref(), pos).await?;
-            Transaction::try_from(tx).map(Some)?
-        } else if let Some(path) = &self.manifest.transaction_file {
+            // A concurrent overwrite can leave the listed size too small; retry
+            // once with the true size.
+            let tx: pb::Transaction = match read_message(reader.as_ref(), pos).await {
+                Err(e)
+                    if manifest_location.size.is_some()
+                        && e.to_string().contains("file size is too small") =>
+                {
+                    let reader = self.object_store.open(&manifest_location.path).await?;
+                    read_message(reader.as_ref(), pos).await?
+                }
+                other => other?,
+            };
+            Transaction::try_from(tx).map(Some)
+        } else if let Some(path) = &manifest.transaction_file {
             // Fallback: read external transaction file if present
-            let path = self.transactions_dir().child(path.as_str());
+            let path = self.transactions_dir().join(path.as_str());
             let data = self.object_store.inner.get(&path).await?.bytes().await?;
             let transaction = lance_table::format::pb::Transaction::decode(data)?;
-            Transaction::try_from(transaction).map(Some)?
+            Transaction::try_from(transaction).map(Some)
         } else {
-            None
-        };
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+    }
 
-        if let Some(tx) = transaction.as_ref() {
-            self.metadata_cache
-                .insert_with_key(&transaction_key, Arc::new(tx.clone()))
-                .await;
+    /// Read the transaction (if any) and commit timestamp of a version of the
+    /// dataset. `version` is a version number on this dataset's current branch.
+    ///
+    /// Reads the version's manifest transiently: no historical `Dataset` is
+    /// constructed, no `IndexSection` is decoded, and no session cache is read
+    /// or written, so scanning many historical versions does not fill the
+    /// shared caches.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if the version does not exist (for example, if it has
+    /// been cleaned up).
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let record = dataset.read_version_transaction(5).await?;
+    /// let committed_at = record.timestamp;
+    /// let operation = record.transaction.as_ref().map(|t| t.operation.name());
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn read_version_transaction(&self, version: u64) -> Result<VersionTransaction> {
+        // Resolve against this dataset's current branch.
+        let manifest_location = self
+            .commit_handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&self.base, version, &self.object_store.inner)
+            .await?;
+
+        // Keep the DatasetNotFound variant callers expect for a missing version.
+        let manifest = read_manifest(
+            &self.object_store,
+            &manifest_location.path,
+            manifest_location.size,
+        )
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| match &e {
+            Error::NotFound { uri, .. } => Error::dataset_not_found(uri.clone(), box_error(e)),
+            _ => e,
+        })?;
+
+        // The resolved manifest must belong to this dataset's branch. A
+        // mismatch means the commit handler resolved against a different chain
+        // (for example an external manifest store that ignores
+        // branch-qualified paths); error loudly rather than hand back another
+        // branch's transaction.
+        if manifest.branch != self.manifest.branch {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "reading version {} on branch '{}' resolved a manifest belonging to branch '{}'",
+                version,
+                refs::normalize_branch(self.manifest.branch.as_deref()),
+                refs::normalize_branch(manifest.branch.as_deref()),
+            )));
         }
-        Ok(transaction)
+
+        let transaction = self
+            .read_transaction_from_storage(&manifest, &manifest_location)
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(VersionTransaction {
+            version: manifest.version,
+            timestamp: manifest.timestamp(),
+            transaction,
+        })
     }
 
     /// Read the transaction file for this version of the dataset.
     ///
     /// If there was no transaction file written for this version of the dataset
     /// then this will return None.
+    ///
+    /// Does not populate the session caches; see
+    /// [`Self::read_version_transaction`].
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let transaction = dataset.read_transaction_by_version(5).await?;
+    /// let operation = transaction.as_ref().map(|t| t.operation.name());
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
     pub async fn read_transaction_by_version(&self, version: u64) -> Result<Option<Transaction>> {
-        let dataset_version = self.checkout_version(version).await?;
-        dataset_version.read_transaction().await
+        Ok(self.read_version_transaction(version).await?.transaction)
     }
 
     /// List transactions for the dataset, up to a maximum number.
@@ -1205,8 +1533,15 @@ impl Dataset {
         &self,
         policy: CleanupPolicy,
     ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<RemovalStats>> {
-        info!(target: TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS, event=DATASET_CLEANING_EVENT, uri=&self.uri);
-        cleanup::cleanup_old_versions(self, policy).boxed()
+        async move { self.cleanup(policy).execute().await }.boxed()
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a cleanup operation for this dataset.
+    ///
+    /// The returned operation can be explained without deleting files, or
+    /// executed to re-evaluate the current dataset state and remove files.
+    pub fn cleanup(&self, policy: CleanupPolicy) -> CleanupOperation<'_> {
+        CleanupOperation::new(self, policy)
     }
 
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
@@ -1225,7 +1560,6 @@ impl Dataset {
                 Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::Restore { .. } => Ok(0),
                 _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "read_version must be specified for this operation",
-                    location!(),
                 )),
             },
             Ok,
@@ -1343,25 +1677,18 @@ impl Dataset {
     ) -> Result<()> {
         let (manifest, manifest_location) = commit_transaction(
             self,
-            self.object_store(),
+            self.object_store.as_ref(),
             self.commit_handler.as_ref(),
             &transaction,
             write_config,
             commit_config,
+            default_commit_retry_timeout(),
             self.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
             None,
         )
         .await?;
 
-        self.manifest = Arc::new(manifest);
-        self.manifest_location = manifest_location;
-        self.fragment_bitmap = Arc::new(
-            self.manifest
-                .fragments
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.id as u32)
-                .collect(),
-        );
+        self.set_manifest(Arc::new(manifest), manifest_location);
 
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -1463,11 +1790,30 @@ impl Dataset {
     }
 
     /// Take [BlobFile] by row IDs.
+    ///
+    /// The returned vector has one element per row ID. Null blob values are
+    /// represented as `None`; valid empty blobs return a `BlobFile` with size
+    /// zero.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::Dataset;
+    /// # use lance::Result;
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let blobs = dataset.take_blobs(&[42], "images").await?;
+    /// match &blobs[0] {
+    ///     None => { /* The selected blob is null. */ }
+    ///     Some(blob) if blob.size() == 0 => { /* The selected blob is valid but empty. */ }
+    ///     Some(blob) => { let _size = blob.size(); }
+    /// }
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
     pub async fn take_blobs(
         self: &Arc<Self>,
         row_ids: &[u64],
         column: impl AsRef<str>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<BlobFile>> {
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Option<BlobFile>>> {
         blob::take_blobs(self, row_ids, column.as_ref()).await
     }
 
@@ -1477,54 +1823,202 @@ impl Dataset {
     /// Use this method when you already have row addresses, for example from
     /// a scan with `with_row_address()`. For row IDs (stable identifiers), use
     /// [`Self::take_blobs`]. For row indices (offsets), use
-    /// [`Self::take_blobs_by_indices`].
+    /// [`Self::take_blobs_by_indices`]. The result has the same null and empty
+    /// blob representation as [`Self::take_blobs`].
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::Dataset;
+    /// # use lance::Result;
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, row_address: u64) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let blobs = dataset
+    ///     .take_blobs_by_addresses(&[row_address], "images")
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// match &blobs[0] {
+    ///     None => { /* The selected blob is null. */ }
+    ///     Some(blob) if blob.size() == 0 => { /* The selected blob is valid but empty. */ }
+    ///     Some(blob) => { let _size = blob.size(); }
+    /// }
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
     pub async fn take_blobs_by_addresses(
         self: &Arc<Self>,
         row_addrs: &[u64],
         column: impl AsRef<str>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<BlobFile>> {
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Option<BlobFile>>> {
         blob::take_blobs_by_addresses(self, row_addrs, column.as_ref()).await
     }
 
     /// Take [BlobFile] by row indices (offsets in the dataset).
+    ///
+    /// The result has the same null and empty blob representation as
+    /// [`Self::take_blobs`].
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::Dataset;
+    /// # use lance::Result;
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "images").await?;
+    /// match &blobs[0] {
+    ///     None => { /* The selected blob is null. */ }
+    ///     Some(blob) if blob.size() == 0 => { /* The selected blob is valid but empty. */ }
+    ///     Some(blob) => { let _size = blob.size(); }
+    /// }
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
     pub async fn take_blobs_by_indices(
         self: &Arc<Self>,
         row_indices: &[u64],
         column: impl AsRef<str>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<BlobFile>> {
-        let row_addrs = row_offsets_to_row_addresses(self, row_indices).await?;
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Option<BlobFile>>> {
+        let fragments = self.get_fragments();
+        let row_addrs = row_offsets_to_row_addresses(&fragments, row_indices).await?;
         blob::take_blobs_by_addresses(self, &row_addrs, column.as_ref()).await
     }
 
-    /// Get a stream of batches based on iterator of ranges of row numbers.
+    /// Create a planned blob reader for a blob column.
     ///
-    /// This is an experimental API. It may change at any time.
-    pub fn take_scan(
-        &self,
-        row_ranges: Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<Range<u64>>> + Send>>,
-        projection: Arc<Schema>,
-        batch_readahead: usize,
-    ) -> DatasetRecordBatchStream {
-        take::take_scan(self, row_ranges, projection, batch_readahead)
-    }
-
-    /// Sample `n` rows from the dataset.
-    pub(crate) async fn sample(&self, n: usize, projection: &Schema) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        use rand::seq::IteratorRandom;
-        let num_rows = self.count_rows(None).await?;
-        let ids = (0..num_rows as u64).choose_multiple(&mut rand::rng(), n);
-        self.take(&ids, projection.clone()).await
-    }
-
+    /// This API complements [`Self::take_blobs`]. `take_blobs` returns
+    /// [`BlobFile`] handles for caller-driven random access, while
+    /// `read_blobs` builds a streaming read plan for sequential or batched blob
+    /// retrieval. Every selected row produces one result: null blob values have
+    /// `ReadBlob::data` set to `None`, while valid empty blobs contain an empty
+    /// buffer.
+    ///
+    /// ```rust
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::Dataset;
+    /// # use lance::Result;
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let blobs = dataset
+    ///     .read_blobs("images")?
+    ///     .with_row_indices(vec![0, 1, 2])
+    ///     .execute()
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// # let _ = blobs;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn read_blobs(self: &Arc<Self>, column: impl AsRef<str>) -> Result<ReadBlobsBuilder> {
+        let column = column.as_ref();
+        let blob_field_id = blob::validate_blob_column(self, column)?;
+        Ok(ReadBlobsBuilder::new(
+            self.clone(),
+            column.to_string(),
+            blob_field_id,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a planned reader for row-specific blob-local byte ranges.
+    ///
+    /// Each [`BlobRangeRequest`] contains both its row selector and byte range,
+    /// so requests can be repeated or reordered without coordinating parallel
+    /// selector and range lists. Every request produces one result. A null blob
+    /// has `ReadBlobRange::data` set to `None`; an empty range on a non-null blob
+    /// contains an empty buffer.
+    ///
+    /// ```rust
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::{BlobRangeRequest, Dataset};
+    /// # use lance::Result;
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let ranges = dataset
+    ///     .read_blob_ranges("images")?
+    ///     .with_row_indices([
+    ///         BlobRangeRequest::new(7, 0, 1024),
+    ///         BlobRangeRequest::new(7, 4096, 1024),
+    ///     ])
+    ///     .execute()
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// # let _ = ranges;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn read_blob_ranges(
+        self: &Arc<Self>,
+        column: impl AsRef<str>,
+    ) -> Result<ReadBlobRangesBuilder> {
+        Ok(ReadBlobRangesBuilder::new(self.read_blobs(column)?))
+    }
+
+    /// Get a stream of batches based on iterator of ranges of row numbers.
+    ///
+    /// This is an experimental API. It may change at any time.
+    pub fn take_scan(
+        &self,
+        row_ranges: Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<Range<u64>>> + Send>>,
+        projection: Arc<Schema>,
+        batch_readahead: usize,
+    ) -> DatasetRecordBatchStream {
+        take::take_scan(self, row_ranges, projection, batch_readahead)
+    }
+
+    /// Randomly sample `n` rows from the dataset.
+    ///
+    /// If `fragment_ids` is provided, sampling is limited to rows from those
+    /// fragments in the current dataset version.
+    ///
+    /// The returned rows are in row-id order (not random order), which allows
+    /// the underlying take operation to use an efficient sorted code path.
+    pub async fn sample(
+        &self,
+        n: usize,
+        projection: &Schema,
+        fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        use rand::seq::IteratorRandom;
+
+        match fragment_ids {
+            None => {
+                let num_rows = self.count_rows(None).await?;
+                let mut ids = (0..num_rows as u64).choose_multiple(&mut rand::rng(), n);
+                ids.sort_unstable();
+                self.take(&ids, projection.clone()).await
+            }
+            Some(fragment_ids) => {
+                if fragment_ids.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "Dataset::sample does not accept an empty fragment_ids list".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+
+                let selected_fragments = self.get_fragments_from_ids(fragment_ids)?;
+
+                let num_rows = stream::iter(selected_fragments.iter().cloned())
+                    .map(|fragment| async move { fragment.count_rows(None).await })
+                    .buffer_unordered(16)
+                    .try_fold(0_u64, |acc, rows| async move { Ok(acc + rows as u64) })
+                    .await?;
+
+                let mut offsets = (0..num_rows).choose_multiple(&mut rand::rng(), n);
+                offsets.sort_unstable();
+
+                let row_addrs = row_offsets_to_row_addresses(&selected_fragments, &offsets).await?;
+                let dataset = Arc::new(self.clone());
+                let projection = Arc::new(
+                    ProjectionRequest::from(projection.clone())
+                        .into_projection_plan(dataset.clone())?,
+                );
+                TakeBuilder::try_new_from_addresses(dataset, row_addrs, projection)?
+                    .execute()
+                    .await
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Delete rows based on a predicate.
-    pub async fn delete(&mut self, predicate: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    pub async fn delete(&mut self, predicate: &str) -> Result<write::delete::DeleteResult> {
         info!(target: TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS, event=DATASET_DELETING_EVENT, uri = &self.uri, predicate=predicate);
         write::delete::delete(self, predicate).await
     }
 
     /// Truncate the dataset by deleting all rows.
     pub async fn truncate_table(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        self.delete("true").await
+        self.delete("true").await.map(|_| ())
     }
 
     /// Add new base paths to the dataset.
@@ -1568,8 +2062,115 @@ impl Dataset {
             .await
     }
 
-    pub fn object_store(&self) -> &ObjectStore {
-        &self.object_store
+    /// Clone this dataset with a different object store binding.
+    ///
+    /// The returned dataset shares metadata, session state, and caches with the
+    /// original dataset, but all subsequent operations on the returned dataset
+    /// use the supplied object store.
+    pub fn with_object_store(
+        &self,
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let mut cloned = self.clone();
+        cloned.object_store = object_store;
+        cloned.base_object_stores = Default::default();
+        if let Some(store_params) = store_params {
+            cloned.store_params = Some(Box::new(store_params));
+        }
+        cloned
+    }
+
+    /// Clone this dataset with extra object store wrappers applied to all read stores.
+    ///
+    /// The returned dataset uses the wrappers for the already-open primary object
+    /// store and appends the same wrappers to the dataset-level and base-specific
+    /// object store params used when additional base stores are opened later.
+    pub fn with_object_store_wrappers(
+        &self,
+        wrappers: impl IntoIterator<Item = Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let wrappers = wrappers.into_iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if wrappers.is_empty() {
+            return self.clone();
+        }
+
+        let mut cloned = self.clone();
+        // Each wrapper application defines a new store lifetime. Keep base
+        // stores alive within the derived dataset without sharing stateful
+        // provider layers (such as an AIMD throttle) with other scopes.
+        cloned.base_object_stores = Default::default();
+        let mut object_store = self.object_store.as_ref().clone();
+        for wrapper in &wrappers {
+            object_store.apply_wrapper(wrapper.as_ref());
+        }
+        cloned.object_store = Arc::new(object_store);
+        cloned.refs = Refs::new(
+            cloned.object_store.clone(),
+            cloned.commit_handler.clone(),
+            cloned.branch_location(),
+        );
+
+        let store_params = self.store_params.as_deref().cloned().unwrap_or_default();
+        cloned.store_params = Some(Box::new(Self::append_object_store_wrappers(
+            store_params,
+            &wrappers,
+        )));
+        cloned.base_store_params = self.base_store_params.as_ref().map(|base_store_params| {
+            Arc::new(
+                base_store_params
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(base_path, store_params)| {
+                        (
+                            base_path.clone(),
+                            Self::append_object_store_wrappers(store_params.clone(), &wrappers),
+                        )
+                    })
+                    .collect(),
+            )
+        });
+        cloned
+    }
+
+    fn append_object_store_wrappers(
+        mut store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+        wrappers: &[Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>],
+    ) -> ObjectStoreParams {
+        let mut all_wrappers = Vec::with_capacity(
+            store_params.object_store_wrapper.as_ref().map_or(0, |_| 1) + wrappers.len(),
+        );
+        if let Some(wrapper) = store_params.object_store_wrapper.take() {
+            all_wrappers.push(wrapper);
+        }
+        all_wrappers.extend(wrappers.iter().cloned());
+        store_params.object_store_wrapper = match all_wrappers.len() {
+            0 => None,
+            1 => all_wrappers.pop(),
+            _ => Some(Arc::new(ChainedWrappingObjectStore::new(all_wrappers))),
+        };
+        store_params
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn store_params_for_base(
+        &self,
+        base_path: Option<&lance_table::format::BasePath>,
+    ) -> ObjectStoreParams {
+        // Base-specific bindings are exact ObjectStoreParams keyed by
+        // `BasePath.path` and are used as-is. Otherwise the dataset-level
+        // default params are resolved for the base scope: `base_<id>.<key>`
+        // storage options overlay the shared defaults for that base.
+        if let Some(params) = base_path.and_then(|base_path| {
+            self.base_store_params
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|params| params.get(&base_path.path))
+        }) {
+            return params.clone();
+        }
+        let default_params = self.store_params.as_deref().cloned().unwrap_or_default();
+        match default_params.scoped_to_base(base_path.map(|base_path| base_path.id)) {
+            Cow::Owned(scoped_params) => scoped_params,
+            Cow::Borrowed(_) => default_params,
+        }
     }
 
     /// Returns the initial storage options used when opening this dataset, if any.
@@ -1635,66 +2236,335 @@ impl Dataset {
     }
 
     pub fn data_dir(&self) -> Path {
-        self.base.child(DATA_DIR)
+        self.base.clone().join(DATA_DIR)
     }
 
     pub fn indices_dir(&self) -> Path {
-        self.base.child(INDICES_DIR)
+        self.base.clone().join(INDICES_DIR)
     }
 
     pub fn transactions_dir(&self) -> Path {
-        self.base.child(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)
+        self.base.clone().join(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)
     }
 
     pub fn deletions_dir(&self) -> Path {
-        self.base.child(DELETIONS_DIR)
+        self.base.clone().join(DELETIONS_DIR)
     }
 
     pub fn versions_dir(&self) -> Path {
-        self.base.child(VERSIONS_DIR)
+        self.base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR)
     }
 
     pub(crate) fn data_file_dir(&self, data_file: &DataFile) -> Result<Path> {
-        match data_file.base_id.as_ref() {
+        self.data_file_dir_for_base(data_file.base_id)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a [`DataFile`] by reading metadata from an existing lance file.
+    ///
+    /// This reads the file's schema and version information, matches columns to
+    /// the dataset's schema to determine field IDs, and calculates column indices.
+    /// This is useful for constructing `DataFile` metadata needed for operations
+    /// like [`Operation::DataReplacement`].
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `path` - The path to the data file, relative to the dataset's data directory.
+    /// * `base_id` - The base path ID if the file is outside the dataset directory.
+    pub async fn create_data_file(&self, path: &str, base_id: Option<u32>) -> Result<DataFile> {
+        let data_dir = self.data_file_dir_for_base(base_id)?;
+        let filepath = data_dir.clone().join(path);
+
+        let object_store = self.object_store(base_id).await?;
+
+        // Get file size
+        let file_size = object_store.size(&filepath).await?;
+
+        // Read file metadata
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            SchedulerConfig::new(2 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024),
+        );
+        let file = scheduler
+            .open_file(&filepath, &CachedFileSize::new(file_size))
+            .await?;
+        let file_metadata = FileReader::read_all_metadata(&file).await?;
+
+        let lance_file_format = file_metadata.version;
+        let physical_columns = file_metadata.column_metadatas.len();
+        let has_footer_orphans = file_metadata.file_schema.fields.len() > physical_columns;
+        let dataset_schema = self.schema();
+        let mut represented_columns = 0usize;
+        let mut column_names = Vec::new();
+        let mut consumed_top_level_fields = 0usize;
+
+        fn field_contains_blob(field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field) -> bool {
+            field.is_blob() || field.children.iter().any(field_contains_blob)
+        }
+
+        fn field_names_match(
+            fields: &[lance_core::datatypes::Field],
+            start: usize,
+            expected: &arrow_schema::Fields,
+        ) -> bool {
+            fields
+                .get(start..start + expected.len())
+                .is_some_and(|candidate| {
+                    candidate
+                        .iter()
+                        .zip(expected.iter())
+                        .all(|(field, expected)| field.name == expected.name().as_str())
+                })
+        }
+
+        fn blob_descriptor_orphan_len(
+            fields: &[lance_core::datatypes::Field],
+            start: usize,
+        ) -> usize {
+            if field_names_match(fields, start, &lance_core::datatypes::BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS) {
+                lance_core::datatypes::BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS.len()
+            } else if field_names_match(fields, start, &lance_core::datatypes::BLOB_DESC_FIELDS) {
+                lance_core::datatypes::BLOB_DESC_FIELDS.len()
+            } else {
+                0
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn validate_file_field_matches_dataset(
+            dataset_field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+            file_field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+            path: &str,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            if dataset_field.name != file_field.name {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Schema mismatch: expected field '{}' but file has '{}'",
+                    path, file_field.name
+                )));
+            }
+
+            if dataset_field.is_blob() && file_field.is_blob() {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+
+            if dataset_field.children.len() != file_field.children.len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Schema mismatch: field '{}' has {} children in dataset schema but {} children in file schema",
+                    path,
+                    dataset_field.children.len(),
+                    file_field.children.len()
+                )));
+            }
+
+            for (dataset_child, file_child) in
+                dataset_field.children.iter().zip(&file_field.children)
+            {
+                let child_path = format!("{}.{}", path, dataset_child.name);
+                validate_file_field_matches_dataset(dataset_child, file_child, &child_path)?;
+            }
+
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        let file_schema_fields = &file_metadata.file_schema.fields;
+        let mut idx = 0usize;
+        while represented_columns < physical_columns {
+            let Some(field) = file_schema_fields.get(idx) else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Schema mismatch: file schema ended after representing {} physical columns but file has {} columns",
+                    represented_columns, physical_columns
+                )));
+            };
+
+            let Some(dataset_field) = dataset_schema.field(&field.name) else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Schema mismatch: file has extra field '{}'",
+                    field.name
+                )));
+            };
+            validate_file_field_matches_dataset(dataset_field, field, &field.name)?;
+
+            represented_columns += file_versions::physical_column_count(lance_file_format, field);
+            column_names.push(field.name.as_str());
+            consumed_top_level_fields = idx + 1;
+            idx += 1;
+
+            if has_footer_orphans && field_contains_blob(field) {
+                loop {
+                    let skipped = blob_descriptor_orphan_len(file_schema_fields, idx);
+                    if skipped == 0 {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    consumed_top_level_fields = idx + skipped;
+                    idx += skipped;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if represented_columns != physical_columns {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Schema mismatch: file schema represents {} physical columns but file has {} columns",
+                represented_columns, physical_columns
+            )));
+        }
+
+        if let Some(field) = file_schema_fields.get(consumed_top_level_fields) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Schema mismatch: file has extra field '{}'",
+                field.name
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let projected_ds_schema = self.schema().project(&column_names)?;
+
+        let (fields, column_indices) =
+            file_versions::data_file_columns(lance_file_format, &projected_ds_schema);
+        let represented_dataset_columns = column_indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|column_index| **column_index >= 0)
+            .count();
+
+        if represented_dataset_columns != physical_columns {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Schema mismatch: dataset projection maps to {} physical columns but file has {} columns",
+                represented_dataset_columns, physical_columns
+            )));
+        }
+
+        if fields.is_empty() && physical_columns > 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Schema mismatch: file has columns but none matched the dataset schema",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let file_size_nz = NonZero::new(file_size);
+        Ok(DataFile::new(
+            path,
+            fields,
+            column_indices,
+            lance_file_format,
+            file_size_nz,
+            base_id,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve the data directory for a given base_id.
+    ///
+    /// If `base_id` is `None`, returns the default data directory.
+    pub(crate) fn data_file_dir_for_base(&self, base_id: Option<u32>) -> Result<Path> {
+        match base_id {
             Some(base_id) => {
-                let base_paths = &self.manifest.base_paths;
-                let base_path = base_paths.get(base_id).ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "base_path id {} not found for data_file {}",
-                            base_id, data_file.path
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                let base_path = self.manifest.base_paths.get(&base_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("base_path id {} not found", base_id))
                 })?;
                 let path = base_path.extract_path(self.session.store_registry())?;
                 if base_path.is_dataset_root {
-                    Ok(path.child(DATA_DIR))
+                    Ok(path.join(DATA_DIR))
                 } else {
                     Ok(path)
                 }
             }
-            None => Ok(self.base.child(DATA_DIR)),
+            None => Ok(self.base.clone().join(DATA_DIR)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn blob_base_path(&self, base_id: Option<u32>) -> Result<Path> {
+        match base_id {
+            Some(id) => self
+                .manifest
+                .base_paths
+                .get(&id)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("Managed blob references unknown base_id {id}"))
+                })?
+                .extract_path(self.session.store_registry()),
+            None => Ok(self.base.clone()),
         }
     }
 
-    /// Get the ObjectStore for a specific path based on base_id
-    pub(crate) async fn object_store_for_base(&self, base_id: u32) -> Result<Arc<ObjectStore>> {
+    async fn base_object_store(&self, base_id: u32) -> Result<Arc<ObjectStore>> {
         let base_path = self.manifest.base_paths.get(&base_id).ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Dataset base path with ID {} not found", base_id),
-                Default::default(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Dataset base path with ID {} not found", base_id))
         })?;
+        if base_path.path == self.uri
+            && !self
+                .base_store_params
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|params| params.contains_key(&base_path.path))
+            && self.store_params.as_ref().is_none_or(|params| {
+                matches!(params.scoped_to_base(Some(base_id)), Cow::Borrowed(_))
+            })
+        {
+            return Ok(self.object_store.clone());
+        }
+        let store_params = self.store_params_for_base(Some(base_path));
 
-        let (store, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
-            self.session.store_registry(),
-            &base_path.path,
-            &self.store_params.as_deref().cloned().unwrap_or_default(),
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let cell = {
+            let mut stores = self.base_object_stores.lock().unwrap();
+            stores.entry(base_id).or_default().clone()
+        };
+        let store = cell
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                // Wrappers define a request or execution scope. Keep the
+                // fully resolved store in this dataset's OnceCell, but do not
+                // also put it in the global registry: provider-local state
+                // such as GCS AIMD token buckets must not cross that scope.
+                let (store, _) = if store_params.object_store_wrapper.is_some() {
+                    ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params_uncached(
+                        self.session.store_registry(),
+                        &base_path.path,
+                        &store_params,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                } else {
+                    ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+                        self.session.store_registry(),
+                        &base_path.path,
+                        &store_params,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                };
+                Ok::<_, Error>(store)
+            })
+            .await?;
+        Ok(store.clone())
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve the object store for the primary dataset or an additional base.
+    ///
+    /// Pass `None` to get the primary dataset object store. Pass `Some(base_id)`
+    /// when resolving a file whose metadata references an additional base.
+    pub async fn object_store(&self, base_id: Option<u32>) -> Result<Arc<ObjectStore>> {
+        match base_id {
+            Some(base_id) => self.base_object_store(base_id).await,
+            None => Ok(self.object_store.clone()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The `ObjectStoreParams` this dataset was opened with, or `None` when
+    /// opened without explicit params. Lets a caller re-open a derived path
+    /// (e.g. a MemWAL SSTable) with the same store this dataset used.
+    pub fn store_params(&self) -> Option<&ObjectStoreParams> {
+        self.store_params.as_deref()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn object_store_for_data_file(
+        &self,
+        data_file: &DataFile,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<ObjectStore>> {
+        self.object_store(data_file.base_id).await
+    }
 
-        Ok(store)
+    pub(crate) async fn object_store_for_deletion(
+        &self,
+        deletion_file: &DeletionFile,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<ObjectStore>> {
+        self.object_store(deletion_file.base_id).await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn object_store_for_index(
+        &self,
+        index: &IndexMetadata,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<ObjectStore>> {
+        self.object_store(index.base_id).await
     }
 
     pub(crate) fn dataset_dir_for_deletion(&self, deletion_file: &DeletionFile) -> Result<Path> {
@@ -1702,23 +2572,17 @@ impl Dataset {
             Some(base_id) => {
                 let base_paths = &self.manifest.base_paths;
                 let base_path = base_paths.get(base_id).ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "base_path id {} not found for deletion_file {:?}",
-                            base_id, deletion_file
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "base_path id {} not found for deletion_file {:?}",
+                        base_id, deletion_file
+                    ))
                 })?;
 
                 if !base_path.is_dataset_root {
-                    return Err(Error::Internal {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "base_path id {} is not a dataset root for deletion_file {:?}",
-                            base_id, deletion_file
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "base_path id {} is not a dataset root for deletion_file {:?}",
+                        base_id, deletion_file
+                    )));
                 }
                 base_path.extract_path(self.session.store_registry())
             }
@@ -1732,23 +2596,20 @@ impl Dataset {
             Some(base_id) => {
                 let base_paths = &self.manifest.base_paths;
                 let base_path = base_paths.get(base_id).ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "base_path id {} not found for index {}",
-                            base_id, index.uuid
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "base_path id {} not found for index {}",
+                        base_id, index.uuid
+                    ))
                 })?;
                 let path = base_path.extract_path(self.session.store_registry())?;
                 if base_path.is_dataset_root {
-                    Ok(path.child(INDICES_DIR))
+                    Ok(path.join(INDICES_DIR))
                 } else {
                     // For non-dataset-root base paths, we assume the path already points to the indices directory
                     Ok(path)
                 }
             }
-            None => Ok(self.base.child(INDICES_DIR)),
+            None => Ok(self.base.clone().join(INDICES_DIR)),
         }
     }
 
@@ -1756,6 +2617,18 @@ impl Dataset {
         self.session.clone()
     }
 
+    /// Get the currently checked-out version id.
+    ///
+    /// This is a cheap accessor that reads the id directly from the loaded
+    /// manifest without constructing the full [Version] summary.
+    pub fn version_id(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.manifest.version
+    }
+
+    /// Get the currently checked-out version details.
+    ///
+    /// This constructs a full [Version], including summary metadata derived
+    /// from the loaded manifest fragments.
     pub fn version(&self) -> Version {
         Version::from(self.manifest.as_ref())
     }
@@ -1795,6 +2668,58 @@ impl Dataset {
         Ok(versions)
     }
 
+    /// Get the number of versions in the current version history.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`Self::versions`], this only enumerates manifest locations and does not read or
+    /// deserialize every manifest.
+    pub async fn count_versions(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.commit_handler
+            .list_manifest_locations(&self.base, &self.object_store, false)
+            .try_fold(0_u64, |count, _| async move { Ok(count + 1) })
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// List lightweight references to all attached versions in the current branch's history.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`Self::versions`], this only enumerates manifest locations and does not read or
+    /// deserialize every manifest. The references are sorted by version in ascending order.
+    /// Detached manifests are excluded; see [`Self::list_detached_manifests`].
+    ///
+    /// Use [`Self::latest_version_id`] instead when only the latest version is needed.
+    pub async fn version_refs(&self) -> Result<Vec<VersionRef>> {
+        let mut versions: Vec<_> = self
+            .commit_handler
+            .list_manifest_locations(&self.base, &self.object_store, false)
+            .map_ok(|location| VersionRef {
+                version: location.version,
+            })
+            .try_collect()
+            .await?;
+        versions.sort_unstable_by_key(|version| version.version);
+        Ok(versions)
+    }
+
+    /// List all detached manifest locations.
+    ///
+    /// Detached manifests are versions that are not part of the main version history.
+    /// They are created by `commit_detached` and can be used for staging changes.
+    ///
+    /// To read transaction properties from a detached manifest:
+    /// ```ignore
+    /// let detached = dataset.list_detached_manifests().await?;
+    /// for location in detached {
+    ///     let ds = dataset.checkout_version(location.version).await?;
+    ///     let tx = ds.read_transaction().await?;
+    ///     // Access tx.transaction_properties
+    /// }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn list_detached_manifests(&self) -> Result<Vec<ManifestLocation>> {
+        self.commit_handler
+            .list_detached_manifest_locations(&self.base, &self.object_store)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+    }
+
     /// Get the latest version of the dataset
     /// This is meant to be a fast path for checking if a dataset has changed. This is why
     /// we don't return the full version struct.
@@ -1806,6 +2731,39 @@ impl Dataset {
             .version)
     }
 
+    /// Return whether the dataset has a newer committed version.
+    pub async fn is_stale(&self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let latest_version = self.latest_version_id().await?;
+        Ok(latest_version != self.manifest.version)
+    }
+
+    /// Return whether the immediate attached successor manifest exists.
+    ///
+    /// This is a fast contiguous-history probe. It does not resolve the latest
+    /// version and may return `false` if intermediate manifests have been
+    /// removed. Callers that need a general freshness check should use
+    /// [`Self::is_stale`].
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub async fn has_successor_version(&self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let Some(next_version) = self.manifest.version.checked_add(1) else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        if lance_table::format::is_detached_version(next_version) {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+
+        let exists = self
+            .commit_handler
+            .version_exists(
+                &self.base,
+                next_version,
+                self.object_store.inner.as_ref(),
+                self.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        Ok(exists)
+    }
+
     pub fn count_fragments(&self) -> usize {
         self.manifest.fragments.len()
     }
@@ -1836,55 +2794,156 @@ impl Dataset {
             .collect()
     }
 
+    /// Iterate over manifest fragments without allocating [`FileFragment`] wrappers.
+    pub fn iter_fragments(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &Fragment> {
+        self.manifest.fragments.iter()
+    }
+
     pub fn get_fragment(&self, fragment_id: usize) -> Option<FileFragment> {
-        let dataset = Arc::new(self.clone());
-        let fragment = self
-            .manifest
-            .fragments
-            .iter()
-            .find(|f| f.id == fragment_id as u64)?;
-        Some(FileFragment::new(dataset, fragment.clone()))
+        let metadata = self.find_fragment(fragment_id as u64)?.clone();
+        Some(FileFragment::new(Arc::new(self.clone()), metadata))
     }
 
     pub fn fragments(&self) -> &Arc<Vec<Fragment>> {
         &self.manifest.fragments
     }
 
-    // Gets a filtered list of fragments from ids in O(N) time instead of using
-    // `get_fragment` which would require O(N^2) time.
+    pub(crate) fn normalize_fragment_ids(fragment_ids: &[u32]) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let mut ids = fragment_ids.to_vec();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids.dedup();
+        ids
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn get_fragments_from_ids(&self, fragment_ids: &[u32]) -> Result<Vec<FileFragment>> {
+        let ordered_ids = Self::normalize_fragment_ids(fragment_ids);
+        let fragments = self.get_frags_from_ordered_ids(&ordered_ids);
+        if let Some(missing_id) = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .zip(ordered_ids.iter())
+            .find_map(|(fragment, fragment_id)| fragment.is_none().then_some(*fragment_id))
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unknown fragment id {missing_id} in fragment filter; not part of the current dataset version"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(fragments.into_iter().flatten().collect())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn get_existing_fragments_from_ids(
+        &self,
+        fragment_ids: &[u32],
+    ) -> Vec<FileFragment> {
+        let ordered_ids = Self::normalize_fragment_ids(fragment_ids);
+        self.get_frags_from_ordered_ids(&ordered_ids)
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn get_fragment_metadata_from_ids(
+        &self,
+        fragment_ids: &[u32],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+        Ok(self
+            .get_fragments_from_ids(fragment_ids)?
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.metadata().clone())
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn get_existing_fragment_metadata_from_ids(
+        &self,
+        fragment_ids: &[u32],
+    ) -> Vec<Fragment> {
+        self.get_existing_fragments_from_ids(fragment_ids)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.metadata().clone())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn count_rows_in_fragments(&self, fragment_ids: &[u32]) -> Result<usize> {
+        let fragments = self.get_fragments_from_ids(fragment_ids)?;
+        self.count_rows_in_resolved_fragments(fragments).await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn count_rows_in_existing_fragments(
+        &self,
+        fragment_ids: &[u32],
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let fragments = self.get_existing_fragments_from_ids(fragment_ids);
+        self.count_rows_in_resolved_fragments(fragments).await
+    }
+
+    async fn count_rows_in_resolved_fragments(
+        &self,
+        fragments: Vec<FileFragment>,
+    ) -> Result<usize> {
+        let counts = stream::iter(fragments)
+            .map(|fragment| async move { fragment.count_rows(None).await })
+            .buffer_unordered(16)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        Ok(counts.iter().sum())
+    }
+
+    /// Resolves fragments for the given ids without scanning the manifest.
+    ///
+    /// The ids do not need to be sorted or deduplicated. Each id is resolved
+    /// independently via the fragment bitmap.
     pub fn get_frags_from_ordered_ids(&self, ordered_ids: &[u32]) -> Vec<Option<FileFragment>> {
-        let mut fragments = Vec::with_capacity(ordered_ids.len());
-        let mut id_iter = ordered_ids.iter();
-        let mut id = id_iter.next();
-        // This field is just used to assert the ids are in order
-        let mut last_id: i64 = -1;
-        for frag in self.manifest.fragments.iter() {
-            let mut the_id = if let Some(id) = id { *id } else { break };
-            // Assert the given ids are, in fact, in order
-            assert!(the_id as i64 > last_id);
-            // For any IDs we've passed we can assume that no fragment exists any longer
-            // with that ID.
-            while the_id < frag.id as u32 {
-                fragments.push(None);
-                last_id = the_id as i64;
-                id = id_iter.next();
-                the_id = if let Some(id) = id { *id } else { break };
-            }
+        let dataset = Arc::new(self.clone());
+        ordered_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| {
+                if !self.fragment_bitmap.contains(*id) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let fragment_index = self.fragment_bitmap.rank(*id) as usize - 1;
+                let fragment = self.manifest.fragments.get(fragment_index)?;
+                debug_assert_eq!(
+                    fragment.id, *id as u64,
+                    "fragment_bitmap rank({id}) resolved to fragment {}, but fragment_bitmap and manifest.fragments are expected to stay in sync",
+                    fragment.id
+                );
+                Some(FileFragment::new(dataset.clone(), fragment.clone()))
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
 
-            if the_id == frag.id as u32 {
-                fragments.push(Some(FileFragment::new(
-                    Arc::new(self.clone()),
-                    frag.clone(),
-                )));
-                last_id = the_id as i64;
-                id = id_iter.next();
-            }
+    /// Look up the fragment with `id` in the manifest.
+    ///
+    /// `Manifest::fragments` is kept sorted by id, so this binary searches
+    /// rather than scanning. Two kinds of manifest predate that invariant and
+    /// are still readable: those written before fragments were forced into id
+    /// order (Lance 0.10 and earlier), and those with duplicate fragment ids
+    /// (Lance 0.16 and earlier). Neither is rejected on read, so the search
+    /// result is checked and a scan takes over when it does not match --
+    /// returning some other fragment's data would be silent corruption.
+    pub(crate) fn find_fragment(&self, id: u64) -> Option<&Fragment> {
+        if !u32::try_from(id).is_ok_and(|id| self.fragment_bitmap.contains(id)) {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let fragments = self.manifest.fragments.as_slice();
+        let index = fragments.partition_point(|fragment| fragment.id < id);
+        match fragments.get(index) {
+            Some(fragment) if fragment.id == id => Some(fragment),
+            _ => fragments.iter().find(|fragment| fragment.id == id),
         }
-        fragments
     }
 
     // This method filters deleted items from `addr_or_ids` using `addrs` as a reference
     async fn filter_addr_or_ids(&self, addr_or_ids: &[u64], addrs: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+        // The final zip pairs these positionally; misalignment must fail
+        // loud rather than truncate.
+        if addr_or_ids.len() != addrs.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "filter_addr_or_ids: addr_or_ids has {} entries but addrs has {}",
+                addr_or_ids.len(),
+                addrs.len()
+            )));
+        }
         if addrs.is_empty() {
             return Ok(Vec::new());
         }
@@ -1996,17 +3055,24 @@ impl Dataset {
     }
 
     pub(crate) async fn filter_deleted_ids(&self, ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
-        let addresses = if let Some(row_id_index) = get_row_id_index(self).await? {
-            let addresses = ids
-                .iter()
-                .filter_map(|id| row_id_index.get(*id).map(|address| address.into()))
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            Cow::Owned(addresses)
+        let (ids, addresses) = if let Some(row_id_index) = get_row_id_index(self).await? {
+            // Ids absent from the deletion-aware index are deleted; drop
+            // them from both lists to keep the zip aligned. ids.len() is an
+            // upper bound on the output size, so allocate once up front.
+            let mut live_ids = Vec::with_capacity(ids.len());
+            let mut addresses = Vec::with_capacity(ids.len());
+            for id in ids {
+                if let Some(address) = row_id_index.get(*id)? {
+                    live_ids.push(*id);
+                    addresses.push(u64::from(address));
+                }
+            }
+            (Cow::Owned(live_ids), Cow::Owned(addresses))
         } else {
-            Cow::Borrowed(ids)
+            (Cow::Borrowed(ids), Cow::Borrowed(ids))
         };
 
-        self.filter_addr_or_ids(ids, &addresses).await
+        self.filter_addr_or_ids(&ids, &addresses).await
     }
 
     /// Gets the number of files that are so small they don't even have a full
@@ -2041,7 +3107,6 @@ impl Dataset {
                         "Duplicate fragment id {} found in dataset {:?}",
                         id, self.base
                     ),
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
         }
@@ -2053,14 +3118,10 @@ impl Dataset {
             .map(|f| f.id)
             .try_fold(0, |prev, id| {
                 if id < prev {
-                    Err(Error::corrupt_file(
-                        self.base.clone(),
-                        format!(
-                            "Fragment ids are not sorted in increasing fragment-id order. Found {} after {} in dataset {:?}",
-                            id, prev, self.base
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    Err(Error::corrupt_file(self.base.clone(), format!(
+                        "Fragment ids are not sorted in increasing fragment-id order. Found {} after {} in dataset {:?}",
+                        id, prev, self.base
+                    )))
                 } else {
                     Ok(id)
                 }
@@ -2073,8 +3134,14 @@ impl Dataset {
             .try_collect::<Vec<()>>()
             .await?;
 
-        // Validate indices
-        let indices = self.load_indices().await?;
+        rowids::validate_stable_row_ids(self).await?;
+
+        // Validate indices. Over the complete list: these checks are about what
+        // the manifest says, not about what this build can use, and duplicate
+        // uuids or overlapping coverage are no less corrupt for involving an
+        // index this build has no reader for. `migrate_indices` already runs the
+        // same overlap check over the complete list on every commit.
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(self).await?;
         self.validate_indices(&indices)?;
 
         Ok(())
@@ -2089,9 +3156,8 @@ impl Dataset {
                     self.manifest_location.path.clone(),
                     format!(
                         "Duplicate index id {} found in dataset {:?}",
-                        &index.uuid, self.base
+                        index.uuid, self.base
                     ),
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
         }
@@ -2108,7 +3174,6 @@ impl Dataset {
             return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
                 self.manifest_location.path.clone(),
                 message,
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
 
@@ -2150,13 +3215,112 @@ impl Dataset {
     /// # tokio::runtime::Runtime::new().unwrap().block_on(fut);
     /// ```
     pub async fn migrate_manifest_paths_v2(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        migrate_scheme_to_v2(self.object_store(), &self.base).await?;
+        migrate_scheme_to_v2(self.object_store.as_ref(), &self.base).await?;
         // We need to re-open.
         let latest_version = self.latest_version_id().await?;
         *self = self.checkout_version(latest_version).await?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    /// Assign stable row ID sequences to fragments that do not yet have them,
+    /// contiguously from `start`, and return the resulting `next_row_id`
+    /// high-water mark.
+    fn assign_stable_row_ids_for_migration(fragments: &mut [Fragment], start: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        let mut next_row_id = start;
+        for fragment in fragments.iter_mut() {
+            let physical_rows = fragment.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Fragment {} is missing physical_rows; cannot assign stable row IDs",
+                    fragment.id
+                ))
+            })? as u64;
+            let end = next_row_id
+                .checked_add(physical_rows)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Row ID overflow during stable row ID migration"))?;
+            let sequence = RowIdSequence::from(next_row_id..end);
+            fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&sequence).into()));
+            next_row_id = end;
+        }
+        Ok(next_row_id)
+    }
+
+    /// Migrate a table to use stable row IDs.
+    ///
+    /// Stable row IDs assign a persistent identifier to each row that remains
+    /// stable across compaction operations. This enables more efficient updates
+    /// to secondary indices.
+    ///
+    /// A single Merge commit assigns row ID sequences to all fragments and
+    /// activates the stable row ID feature flag atomically. Because `Merge`
+    /// conflicts with all data-modifying operations, a successful commit
+    /// guarantees no concurrent write occurred — no separate validation step
+    /// is needed.
+    ///
+    /// **No retries are attempted.** Callers should quiesce concurrent writes
+    /// before running this migration. If a conflicting write is detected, this
+    /// method returns an error and the caller must retry.
+    ///
+    /// This method is idempotent: if the table already uses stable row IDs,
+    /// it returns `Ok(())` immediately.
+    pub async fn migrate_to_stable_row_ids(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let mut fragments = self.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone();
+        // Restore carries the high-water mark forward across a version that
+        // predates activation, so a re-migration must allocate above it rather
+        // than reissue ids the earlier versions still hold.
+        let next_row_id =
+            Self::assign_stable_row_ids_for_migration(&mut fragments, self.manifest.next_row_id)?;
+        let schema = self.manifest.schema.clone();
+        let read_version = self.manifest.version;
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments,
+                schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let new_ds = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(self.clone()))
+            .with_max_retries(0)
+            .with_stable_row_id_migration_activation(next_row_id)
+            .execute(transaction)
+            .await?;
+
+        *self = new_ds;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Shared clone-target preflight for `shallow_clone` and `deep_clone`:
+    /// permit the clone only when the target definitively holds no dataset.
+    /// Only the codebase-wide "dataset absent" pair passes: the built-in
+    /// resolver reports an empty `_versions/` listing as `NotFound`, while
+    /// handlers with an external source of truth use `DatasetNotFound` (the
+    /// same discrimination the write path's destination probe applies). Any
+    /// other resolver failure (storage, auth, corrupt manifest listing)
+    /// propagates instead of letting the clone write into a target it failed
+    /// to inspect.
+    async fn ensure_clone_target_absent(
+        commit_handler: &dyn CommitHandler,
+        target_base: &Path,
+        target_store: &ObjectStore,
+        target_path: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        match commit_handler
+            .resolve_latest_location(target_base, target_store)
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(_) => Err(Error::dataset_already_exists(target_path.to_string())),
+            Err(Error::NotFound { .. } | Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }) => Ok(()),
+            Err(error) => Err(error),
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Shallow clone the target version into a new dataset at target_path.
     /// 'target_path': the uri string to clone the dataset into.
     /// 'version': the version cloned from, could be a version number or tag.
@@ -2167,12 +3331,30 @@ impl Dataset {
         version: impl Into<refs::Ref>,
         store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
+        // Prevent cloning into an existing target dataset (parity with
+        // `deep_clone`) before anything is written there: a tagged clone
+        // stages its relocated FRI details in the target's `_indices/`
+        // ahead of the manifest commit, which must not pollute a live
+        // dataset. The check goes through the same store and commit handler
+        // the commit below writes through. Only a definitive "no dataset
+        // here" permits the clone; see `ensure_clone_target_absent`.
+        let target_base =
+            ObjectStore::extract_path_from_uri(self.session.store_registry(), target_path)?;
+        Self::ensure_clone_target_absent(
+            self.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+            &target_base,
+            &self.object_store,
+            target_path,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
         let (ref_name, version_number) = self.resolve_reference(version.into()).await?;
+        let source_location = self.branch_location().find_branch(ref_name.as_deref())?;
         let clone_op = Operation::Clone {
             is_shallow: true,
             ref_name,
             ref_version: version_number,
-            ref_path: self.uri.clone(),
+            ref_path: source_location.uri,
             branch_name: None,
         };
         let transaction = Transaction::new(version_number, clone_op, None);
@@ -2181,21 +3363,35 @@ impl Dataset {
             .with_store_params(
                 store_params.unwrap_or(self.store_params.as_deref().cloned().unwrap_or_default()),
             )
-            .with_object_store(Arc::new(self.object_store().clone()))
+            .with_object_store(Arc::new(self.object_store.as_ref().clone()))
             .with_commit_handler(self.commit_handler.clone())
-            .with_storage_format(self.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()?);
+            .with_exact_storage_format(self.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format());
         builder.execute(transaction).await
     }
 
     /// Deep clone the target version into a new dataset at target_path.
-    /// This performs a server-side copy of all relevant dataset files (data files,
-    /// deletion files, and any external row-id files) into the target dataset
-    /// without loading data into memory.
+    /// This copies all relevant dataset files (data files, deletion files, and
+    /// index files) into the target dataset with bounded memory use.
+    ///
+    /// The source files are read through this dataset's own object store while the
+    /// copies are written through the target object store built from `store_params`.
+    /// This makes the clone work across accounts/stores (e.g. between two abfss
+    /// accounts). Object-store files are streamed through this process by default;
+    /// `LANCE_IO_SERVER_SIDE_COPY_ENABLED` opts same-store copies into
+    /// provider-native copy operations. Cross-store copies continue to stream, and
+    /// local files retain their filesystem copy path.
     ///
     /// Parameters:
     /// - `target_path`: the URI string to clone the dataset into.
     /// - `version`: the version cloned from, could be a version number, branch head, or tag.
-    /// - `store_params`: the object store params to use for the new dataset.
+    /// - `store_params`: the object store params for the target dataset (e.g. the
+    ///   credentials of the target account).
+    ///
+    /// Note: external `base_paths` referenced by the source manifest are read through
+    /// this dataset's object store; per-base distinct source credentials are not yet
+    /// supported (see <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/6093>).
+    /// Object-store streaming defaults to at most four concurrent file copies;
+    /// `LANCE_DEEP_CLONE_STREAM_CONCURRENCY` overrides that limit for this operation.
     pub async fn deep_clone(
         &mut self,
         target_path: &str,
@@ -2206,6 +3402,9 @@ impl Dataset {
 
         // Resolve source dataset and its manifest using checkout_version
         let src_ds = self.checkout_version(version).await?;
+        ensure_can_write_manifest(&src_ds.manifest)?;
+        // Rejects a tagged FRI history this writer cannot fully interpret
+        // before anything is copied or written to the target.
         let src_paths = src_ds.collect_paths().await?;
 
         // Prepare target object store and base path
@@ -2216,43 +3415,62 @@ impl Dataset {
         )
         .await?;
 
-        // Prevent cloning into an existing target dataset
-        if self
-            .commit_handler
-            .resolve_latest_location(&target_base, &target_store)
-            .await
-            .is_ok()
-        {
-            return Err(Error::DatasetAlreadyExists {
-                uri: target_path.to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+        // Prevent cloning into an existing target dataset. Only a definitive
+        // "no dataset here" permits the clone; see
+        // `ensure_clone_target_absent`.
+        Self::ensure_clone_target_absent(
+            self.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+            &target_base,
+            &target_store,
+            target_path,
+        )
+        .await?;
 
         let build_absolute_path = |relative_path: &str, base: &Path| -> Path {
             let mut path = base.clone();
             for seg in relative_path.split('/') {
                 if !seg.is_empty() {
-                    path = path.child(seg);
+                    path = path.clone().join(seg);
                 }
             }
             path
         };
 
-        // TODO: Leverage object store bulk copy for efficient deep_clone
-        //
-        // All cloud storage providers support batch copy APIs that would provide significant
-        // performance improvements. We use single file copy before we have upstream support.
-        //
-        // Tracked by: https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/5435
-        let io_parallelism = self.object_store.io_parallelism();
+        let configured_io_parallelism = src_ds.object_store.io_parallelism();
+        // Provider-native copy can fall back to streaming for large objects, so every
+        // non-direct-local transfer stays within the bounded file-copy window.
+        let uses_streaming_copy = !(src_ds.object_store.has_direct_local_paths()
+            && target_store.has_direct_local_paths());
+        let stream_copy_parallelism = match std::env::var("LANCE_DEEP_CLONE_STREAM_CONCURRENCY") {
+            Ok(value) => Some(parse_deep_clone_stream_concurrency(&value)?),
+            Err(std::env::VarError::NotPresent) => None,
+            Err(std::env::VarError::NotUnicode(value)) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "LANCE_DEEP_CLONE_STREAM_CONCURRENCY must be valid UTF-8 and a positive \
+                     integer, got {value:?}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        // Limit the number of concurrently buffered transfers by default while
+        // preserving efficient local copies and the operation-specific override.
+        let io_parallelism = deep_clone_copy_parallelism(
+            configured_io_parallelism,
+            uses_streaming_copy,
+            stream_copy_parallelism,
+        );
         let copy_futures = src_paths
             .iter()
             .map(|(relative_path, base)| {
-                let store = Arc::clone(&target_store);
+                let source_store = Arc::clone(&src_ds.object_store);
+                let target_store = Arc::clone(&target_store);
                 let src_path = build_absolute_path(relative_path, base);
                 let target_path = build_absolute_path(relative_path, &target_base);
-                async move { store.copy(&src_path, &target_path).await.map(|_| ()) }
+                async move {
+                    source_store
+                        .copy_bulk(&src_path, &target_store, &target_path)
+                        .await?;
+                    Result::Ok(())
+                }
             })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
@@ -2277,8 +3495,10 @@ impl Dataset {
         let builder = CommitBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Uri(target_path))
             .with_store_params(store_params.clone().unwrap_or_default())
             .with_object_store(target_store.clone())
+            .with_source_store(src_ds.object_store.clone())
             .with_commit_handler(self.commit_handler.clone())
-            .with_storage_format(self.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()?);
+            .with_exact_storage_format(self.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format())
+            .with_deep_clone_files_copied();
         let new_ds = builder.execute(txn).await?;
         Ok(new_ds)
     }
@@ -2311,45 +3531,57 @@ impl Dataset {
     /// Collect all (relative_path, path) of the dataset files.
     async fn collect_paths(&self) -> Result<Vec<(String, Path)>> {
         let mut file_paths: Vec<(String, Path)> = Vec::new();
+        let mut blob_dirs = HashSet::new();
         for fragment in self.manifest.fragments.iter() {
-            if let Some(RowIdMeta::External(external_file)) = &fragment.row_id_meta {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "External row_id_meta is not supported yet. external file path: {}",
-                        external_file.path
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-            for data_file in fragment.files.iter() {
+            for data_file in fragment.referenced_lance_files() {
                 let base_root = if let Some(base_id) = data_file.base_id {
                     let base_path =
-                        self.manifest
-                            .base_paths
-                            .get(&base_id)
-                            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                                message: format!("base_id {} not found", base_id),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            })?;
+                        self.manifest.base_paths.get(&base_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal(format!("base_id {} not found", base_id))
+                        })?;
                     Path::parse(base_path.path.as_str())?
                 } else {
                     self.base.clone()
                 };
                 file_paths.push((
                     format!("{}/{}", DATA_DIR, data_file.path.clone()),
-                    base_root,
+                    base_root.clone(),
                 ));
+
+                if !data_file
+                    .schema(self.schema())
+                    .fields_pre_order()
+                    .any(|field| field.is_blob_v2())
+                {
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                // Blob v2 sidecars are not listed in the manifest. Their directory is
+                // derived from the owning data file, so enumerate it to copy packed and
+                // dedicated payloads without decoding blob descriptors. External blobs
+                // remain caller-owned references and are deliberately not collected.
+                let data_file_key = blob::data_file_key_from_path(data_file.path.as_str());
+                let relative_blob_dir = format!("{}/{}", DATA_DIR, data_file_key);
+                let blob_dir = base_root.clone().join(DATA_DIR).join(data_file_key);
+                // Overlays can make the same data file reachable from multiple fragments.
+                if blob_dirs.insert(blob_dir.clone()) {
+                    let mut stream = self.object_store.read_dir_all(&blob_dir, None);
+                    while let Some(meta) = stream.next().await.transpose()? {
+                        if let Some(filename) = meta.location.filename() {
+                            file_paths.push((
+                                format!("{}/{}", relative_blob_dir, filename),
+                                base_root.clone(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
             }
             if let Some(deletion_file) = &fragment.deletion_file {
                 let base_root = if let Some(base_id) = deletion_file.base_id {
                     let base_path =
-                        self.manifest
-                            .base_paths
-                            .get(&base_id)
-                            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                                message: format!("base_id {} not found", base_id),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            })?;
+                        self.manifest.base_paths.get(&base_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal(format!("base_id {} not found", base_id))
+                        })?;
                     Path::parse(base_path.path.as_str())?
                 } else {
                     self.base.clone()
@@ -2369,20 +3601,30 @@ impl Dataset {
         .await?;
 
         for index in &indices {
+            if lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged(index) {
+                // The clone commit rewrites a tagged FRI entry under a fresh
+                // uuid with local references (its details spill included), so
+                // the entry's own `_indices/<uuid>/` directory is not copied;
+                // the row maps it references are, into the clone's `_fri/`.
+                file_paths.extend(
+                    crate::index::frag_reuse::collect_tagged_row_map_paths(self, index).await?,
+                );
+                continue;
+            }
             let base_root = if let Some(base_id) = index.base_id {
-                let base_path =
-                    self.manifest
-                        .base_paths
-                        .get(&base_id)
-                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                            message: format!("base_id {} not found", base_id),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
+                let base_path = self
+                    .manifest
+                    .base_paths
+                    .get(&base_id)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal(format!("base_id {} not found", base_id)))?;
                 Path::parse(base_path.path.as_str())?
             } else {
                 self.base.clone()
             };
-            let index_root = base_root.child(INDICES_DIR).child(index.uuid.to_string());
+            let index_root = base_root
+                .clone()
+                .join(INDICES_DIR)
+                .join(index.uuid.to_string());
             let mut stream = self.object_store.read_dir_all(&index_root, None);
             while let Some(meta) = stream.next().await.transpose()? {
                 if let Some(filename) = meta.location.filename() {
@@ -2402,29 +3644,6 @@ impl Dataset {
     pub fn sql(&self, sql: &str) -> SqlQueryBuilder {
         SqlQueryBuilder::new(self.clone(), sql)
     }
-
-    /// Returns true if Lance supports writing this datatype with nulls.
-    pub(crate) fn lance_supports_nulls(&self, datatype: &DataType) -> bool {
-        match self
-            .manifest()
-            .data_storage_format
-            .lance_file_version()
-            .unwrap_or(LanceFileVersion::Legacy)
-            .resolve()
-        {
-            LanceFileVersion::Legacy => matches!(
-                datatype,
-                DataType::Utf8
-                    | DataType::LargeUtf8
-                    | DataType::Binary
-                    | DataType::List(_)
-                    | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_)
-                    | DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _)
-            ),
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_0 => !matches!(datatype, DataType::Struct(..)),
-            _ => true,
-        }
-    }
 }
 
 pub(crate) struct NewTransactionResult<'a> {
@@ -2433,16 +3652,15 @@ pub(crate) struct NewTransactionResult<'a> {
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn load_new_transactions(dataset: &Dataset) -> NewTransactionResult<'_> {
-    // Re-use the same list call for getting the latest manifest and the metadata
-    // for all manifests in between.
-    let io_parallelism = dataset.object_store().io_parallelism();
-    let latest_version = dataset.manifest.version;
-    let locations = dataset
-        .commit_handler
-        .list_manifest_locations(&dataset.base, dataset.object_store(), true)
-        .try_take_while(move |location| {
-            futures::future::ready(Ok(location.version > latest_version))
-        });
+    // Resolve every manifest with version > our current version (the latest plus
+    // the ones in between). On non-lexically-ordered stores this uses the version
+    // hint to avoid an O(n) listing.
+    let io_parallelism = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_parallelism();
+    let locations = dataset.commit_handler.list_manifest_locations_since(
+        &dataset.base,
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        dataset.manifest.version,
+    );
 
     // Will send the latest manifest via a channel.
     let (latest_tx, latest_rx) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel();
@@ -2452,30 +3670,13 @@ pub(crate) fn load_new_transactions(dataset: &Dataset) -> NewTransactionResult<'
         .map_ok(move |location| {
             let latest_tx = latest_tx.take();
             async move {
-                let manifest_key = ManifestKey {
-                    version: location.version,
-                    e_tag: location.e_tag.as_deref(),
-                };
-                let manifest = if let Some(cached) =
-                    dataset.metadata_cache.get_with_key(&manifest_key).await
-                {
-                    cached
-                } else {
-                    let loaded = Arc::new(
-                        Dataset::load_manifest(
-                            dataset.object_store(),
-                            &location,
-                            &dataset.uri,
-                            dataset.session.as_ref(),
-                        )
-                        .await?,
-                    );
-                    dataset
-                        .metadata_cache
-                        .insert_with_key(&manifest_key, loaded.clone())
-                        .await;
-                    loaded
-                };
+                let manifest = Dataset::get_manifest(
+                    dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+                    &location,
+                    &dataset.uri,
+                    dataset.session.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
 
                 if let Some(latest_tx) = latest_tx {
                     // We ignore the error, since we don't care if the receiver is dropped.
@@ -2506,16 +3707,14 @@ pub(crate) fn load_new_transactions(dataset: &Dataset) -> NewTransactionResult<'
                         dataset.commit_handler.clone(),
                         dataset.file_reader_options.clone(),
                         dataset.store_params.as_deref().cloned(),
+                        dataset.base_store_params.clone(),
                     )?;
                     let loaded =
                         Arc::new(dataset_version.read_transaction().await?.ok_or_else(|| {
-                            Error::Internal {
-                                message: format!(
-                                    "Dataset version {} does not have a transaction file",
-                                    manifest_copy.version
-                                ),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            }
+                            Error::internal(format!(
+                                "Dataset version {} does not have a transaction file",
+                                manifest_copy.version
+                            ))
                         })?);
                     dataset
                         .metadata_cache
@@ -2540,6 +3739,7 @@ pub(crate) fn load_new_transactions(dataset: &Dataset) -> NewTransactionResult<'
                 dataset.commit_handler.clone(),
                 dataset.file_reader_options.clone(),
                 dataset.store_params.as_deref().cloned(),
+                dataset.base_store_params.clone(),
             )
         } else {
             // If we didn't get the latest manifest, we can still return the dataset
@@ -2602,6 +3802,15 @@ impl Dataset {
     /// underlying storage. In order to remove the data, you must subsequently
     /// call [optimize::compact_files()] to rewrite the data without the removed columns and
     /// then call [cleanup::cleanup_old_versions()] to remove the old files.
+    /// The schema a [`Self::drop_columns`] of `columns` would project to,
+    /// with every validation that drop performs and no mutation of its own.
+    ///
+    /// For a caller that must not write anything until the whole projection
+    /// is known to be valid against this revision.
+    pub fn plan_drop_columns(&self, columns: &[&str]) -> Result<Schema> {
+        schema_evolution::plan_drop_columns(self, columns)
+    }
+
     pub async fn drop_columns(&mut self, columns: &[&str]) -> Result<()> {
         info!(target: TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS, event=DATASET_DROPPING_COLUMN_EVENT, uri = &self.uri, columns = columns.join(","));
         schema_evolution::drop_columns(self, columns).await
@@ -2625,20 +3834,17 @@ impl Dataset {
     ) -> Result<()> {
         // Sanity check.
         if self.schema().field(left_on).is_none() && left_on != ROW_ID && left_on != ROW_ADDR {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Column {} does not exist in the left side dataset", left_on),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column {} does not exist in the left side dataset",
+                left_on
+            )));
         };
         let right_schema = stream.schema();
         if right_schema.field_with_name(right_on).is_err() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Column {} does not exist in the right side dataset",
-                    right_on
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column {} does not exist in the right side dataset",
+                right_on
+            )));
         };
         for field in right_schema.fields() {
             if field.name() == right_on {
@@ -2647,13 +3853,10 @@ impl Dataset {
                 continue;
             }
             if self.schema().field(field.name()).is_some() {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Column {} exists in both sides of the dataset",
-                        field.name()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column {} exists in both sides of the dataset",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
             }
         }
 
@@ -2674,11 +3877,14 @@ impl Dataset {
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await?;
 
+        let preserves_nullability =
+            !schema_evolution::merge_introduces_required_field(self.schema(), &new_schema);
         let transaction = Transaction::new(
             self.manifest.version,
             Operation::Merge {
                 fragments: updated_fragments,
                 schema: new_schema,
+                preserves_nullability,
             },
             None,
         );
@@ -2710,52 +3916,57 @@ impl Dataset {
         self.merge_impl(stream, left_on, right_on).await
     }
 
+    /// Merge a distributed scalar index into a single root artifact and report
+    /// progress via the supplied callback.
     pub async fn merge_index_metadata(
         &self,
-        index_uuid: &str,
+        index_uuid: &Uuid,
         index_type: IndexType,
-        batch_readhead: Option<usize>,
+        _batch_readhead: Option<usize>,
+        progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
     ) -> Result<()> {
         let store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(self, index_uuid)?;
-        let index_dir = self.indices_dir().child(index_uuid);
+        let index_dir = self.indices_dir().join(index_uuid.to_string());
         match index_type {
             IndexType::Inverted => {
                 // Call merge_index_files function for inverted index
                 lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::merge_index_files(
-                    self.object_store(),
+                    self.object_store.as_ref(),
                     &index_dir,
                     Arc::new(store),
+                    progress,
                 )
                 .await
             }
             IndexType::BTree => {
-                // Call merge_index_files function for btree index
-                lance_index::scalar::btree::merge_index_files(
-                    self.object_store(),
-                    &index_dir,
-                    Arc::new(store),
-                    batch_readhead,
-                )
-                .await
+                Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "BTree distributed indexing no longer supports merge_index_metadata; \
+                     build segments, optionally merge groups with merge_existing_index_segments(...), \
+                     and commit with commit_existing_index_segments(...)"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ))
+            }
+            IndexType::Bitmap => {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "Bitmap distributed indexing no longer supports merge_index_metadata; \
+                     build segments with create_index_uncommitted(...), merge them with \
+                     merge_existing_index_segments(...), and commit with \
+                     commit_existing_index_segments(...)"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ))
             }
-            // Precise vector index types: IVF_FLAT, IVF_PQ, IVF_SQ
             IndexType::IvfFlat | IndexType::IvfPq | IndexType::IvfSq | IndexType::Vector => {
-                // Merge distributed vector index partials and finalize root index via Lance IVF helper
-                crate::index::vector::ivf::finalize_distributed_merge(
-                    self.object_store(),
-                    &index_dir,
-                    Some(index_type),
-                )
-                .await?;
-                Ok(())
+                Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "Vector distributed indexing no longer supports merge_index_metadata; \
+                     build segments, optionally merge groups with merge_existing_index_segments(...), \
+                     and commit with commit_existing_index_segments(...)"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ))
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: Box::new(std::io::Error::new(
-                    std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidInput,
-                    format!("Unsupported index type (patched): {}", index_type),
-                )),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::new(
+                std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidInput,
+                format!("Unsupported index type (patched): {}", index_type),
+            )))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -2986,6 +4197,14 @@ pub(crate) struct ManifestWriteConfig {
     use_legacy_format: Option<bool>,           // default None
     storage_format: Option<DataStorageFormat>, // default None
     disable_transaction_file: bool,            // default false
+    /// When `Some`, this commit is the second step of `migrate_to_stable_row_ids`.
+    /// It bypasses the "cannot enable stable row ids on existing dataset" guard and
+    /// sets `manifest.next_row_id` to the provided value before activating the flag.
+    migration_next_row_id: Option<u64>, // default None
+    /// This commit is a tagged fragment-reuse-index trim derived by
+    /// `cleanup_frag_reuse_index` against the current manifest entry; see
+    /// `ManifestBuildConfig::tagged_frag_reuse_trim`.
+    tagged_frag_reuse_trim: bool, // default false
 }
 
 impl Default for ManifestWriteConfig {
@@ -2997,6 +4216,8 @@ impl Default for ManifestWriteConfig {
             disable_transaction_file: false,
             use_legacy_format: None,
             storage_format: None,
+            migration_next_row_id: None,
+            tagged_frag_reuse_trim: false,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -3005,6 +4226,67 @@ impl ManifestWriteConfig {
     pub fn disable_transaction_file(&self) -> bool {
         self.disable_transaction_file
     }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn with_transaction_file_disabled(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.disable_transaction_file = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Mark this commit as a tagged fragment-reuse-index trim derived by the
+    /// maintenance path; required for `build_manifest` to accept the shape.
+    pub(crate) fn with_tagged_frag_reuse_trim(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.tagged_frag_reuse_trim = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this commit is the tagged fragment reuse trim the maintenance
+    /// path derived against the current entry (`FragReuseUpdate::Trim`).
+    pub(crate) fn tagged_frag_reuse_trim(&self) -> bool {
+        self.tagged_frag_reuse_trim
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve into the config `Transaction::build_manifest` consumes.
+    ///
+    /// The timestamp is resolved here rather than during the build so it goes
+    /// through this crate's mockable `SystemTime`.
+    pub(crate) fn to_build_config(&self) -> ManifestBuildConfig {
+        ManifestBuildConfig {
+            auto_set_feature_flags: self.auto_set_feature_flags,
+            timestamp_nanos: timestamp_to_nanos(self.timestamp),
+            use_stable_row_ids: self.use_stable_row_ids,
+            use_legacy_format: self.use_legacy_format,
+            storage_format: self.storage_format.clone(),
+            disable_transaction_file: self.disable_transaction_file,
+            migration_next_row_id: self.migration_next_row_id,
+            spilled_row_lineage: Default::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Decode an inline transaction section for opportunistic caching.
+///
+/// Returns `None` instead of failing when the transaction cannot be decoded:
+/// the section may have been written by a newer version of Lance with an
+/// operation type this version does not know, and that must not prevent
+/// opening the dataset. Paths that need the transaction contents surface the
+/// error at their call sites instead.
+fn decode_inline_transaction(message_data: &[u8], version: u64) -> Option<Transaction> {
+    match lance_table::format::pb::Transaction::decode(message_data)
+        .map_err(Error::from)
+        .and_then(Transaction::try_from)
+    {
+        Ok(transaction) => Some(transaction),
+        Err(err) => {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Failed to decode the inline transaction of version {}; \
+                 it may have been written by a newer version of Lance: {}",
+                version,
+                err
+            );
+            None
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 /// Commit a manifest file and create a copy at the latest manifest path.
@@ -3017,15 +4299,63 @@ pub(crate) async fn write_manifest_file(
     indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
     config: &ManifestWriteConfig,
     naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
-    mut transaction: Option<&Transaction>,
+    transaction: Option<lance_table::format::Transaction>,
+    may_change_schema: bool,
 ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+    validate_paired_feature_flags(manifest)?;
+    if let Some(indices) = &indices {
+        lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::validate_flags(manifest, indices)?;
+    }
+    // Every manifest write funnels through here, including restore and clone,
+    // which rebuild a manifest from a stored one rather than from an Arrow
+    // schema, so this is where the invariant holds for a schema that never
+    // passed through that conversion.
+    //
+    // Only for transactions that can change the schema. Released versions could
+    // install a key on a nullable column through the metadata path, and
+    // validating every write would make such a table read-only on upgrade --
+    // including through the delete that removes the offending rows, which is
+    // the first step of repairing it. A repair still has to pass: it changes
+    // the schema, and the schema it produces is valid.
+    //
+    // The caller classifies the operation, rather than this reading it off
+    // `transaction`, which is None whenever the encoded bytes were too large
+    // to inline. Deriving it here would make the verdict depend on payload
+    // size, so the same operation would be exempt while small and validated
+    // once it spilled -- and a MemWAL table spills routinely, since its
+    // transactions carry mem-table state.
+    if may_change_schema {
+        manifest
+            .schema
+            .verify_primary_key()
+            .map_err(CommitError::OtherError)?;
+        blob::validate_blob_threshold_metadata(&manifest.schema)
+            .map_err(CommitError::OtherError)?;
+    }
+
     if config.auto_set_feature_flags {
+        // build_manifest may have already set FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS on the manifest.
+        // Preserve it here so this second apply_feature_flags call does not clear it
+        // when config.use_stable_row_ids is false (the ManifestWriteConfig default).
+        let use_stable_row_ids = config.use_stable_row_ids || manifest.uses_stable_row_ids();
         apply_feature_flags(
             manifest,
-            config.use_stable_row_ids,
+            use_stable_row_ids,
             config.disable_transaction_file,
         )?;
+        crate::index::frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids::apply_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_flag(
+            manifest,
+            indices.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+        );
     }
+    // After the flag reset, which restores the stable-row-id flag a shallow clone
+    // masks. Here rather than in `build_manifest`, which restore and clone bypass.
+    crate::index::frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids::validate_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(
+        manifest,
+        indices.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+    )?;
+
+    versions::finalize_manifest_storage_version(manifest)?;
 
     manifest.set_timestamp(timestamp_to_nanos(config.timestamp));
 
@@ -3039,7 +4369,7 @@ pub(crate) async fn write_manifest_file(
             object_store,
             write_manifest_file_to_path,
             naming_scheme,
-            transaction.take().map(|tx| tx.into()),
+            transaction,
         )
         .await
 }
@@ -3050,5 +4380,130 @@ impl Projectable for Dataset {
     }
 }
 
+/// Marker files that `DirectoryNamespace` writes for a table that is declared or
+/// deregistered but was never materialized. Spelled out here because
+/// `lance-namespace-impls` depends on this crate, not the other way around.
+const NAMESPACE_TABLE_MARKERS: &[&str] = &[".lance-reserved", ".lance-deregistered"];
+
+/// Check that `base` is a Lance dataset root before deleting it recursively.
+///
+/// Dropping a dataset removes whatever the caller pointed at, so a mistyped or
+/// misconfigured URI — a warehouse root, a bucket root, a home directory — destroys
+/// unrelated data with no way back. Requiring the target to actually be a dataset
+/// turns that class of mistake into an error instead of silent data loss.
+///
+/// A path qualifies on positive evidence only, which is one of:
+///
+/// * a file under `_versions/` that both parses as a manifest location and deserializes
+///   as a manifest, attached or detached. Every dataset that has ever committed has one,
+///   whatever naming scheme or commit handler produced it.
+/// * a `DirectoryNamespace` declare or deregister marker, for a table that a namespace
+///   reserved but never wrote.
+///
+/// Nothing weaker qualifies. A non-empty `_versions/` is not evidence, because any file
+/// can be put there; neither are data files, which look identical to a storage root whose
+/// only prefix happens to be `data/`. Leftovers from a write that never committed,
+/// manifests that are corrupt, and the staging manifest an external store writes before
+/// it materializes the canonical path therefore need an explicit storage-level delete
+/// rather than a weaker default guard here. That costs little: leftovers do not block
+/// re-creating the dataset, because creation only refuses a path that already holds a
+/// manifest, and [`Dataset::cleanup_old_versions`] removes data files no manifest
+/// references.
+///
+/// Unmanaged files that a user keeps next to a committed dataset do not change the
+/// answer, matching the way cleanup leaves them alone. Note that the recursive delete
+/// this guards still removes them.
+///
+/// A missing or empty path also qualifies, so callers keep whatever not-found behavior
+/// they have today rather than seeing a new error kind.
+///
+/// This cannot protect files that another dataset references through `base_paths`;
+/// shallow-clone sources still need the reference tracking discussed in
+/// [#7514](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7514).
+pub async fn validate_dataset_root_for_drop(object_store: &ObjectStore, base: &Path) -> Result<()> {
+    if holds_readable_manifest(object_store, base).await? {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    for marker in NAMESPACE_TABLE_MARKERS {
+        if object_store.exists(&base.clone().join(*marker)).await? {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Rejecting a path that holds nothing would replace the not-found error callers
+    // already handle, and `ignore_not_found` relies on, with a different error kind.
+    if !has_any_entry(object_store, base).await? {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "Refusing to drop '{base}': no readable Lance manifest was found under \
+         '{VERSIONS_DIR}', so this is not a dataset root. Check that the path points at a \
+         dataset and not at a parent directory, and check the logs for manifests that \
+         could not be read. A path holding only data files, or only manifests that cannot \
+         be read, needs an explicit storage-level delete instead: such leftovers neither \
+         block re-creating the dataset nor survive cleanup."
+    )))
+}
+
+/// Whether `base` holds a manifest that actually deserializes, which is the only proof
+/// that a dataset was ever committed here.
+///
+/// Returns on the first manifest that reads, so a real dataset costs one listing plus one
+/// manifest read no matter how many versions it has.
+async fn holds_readable_manifest(object_store: &ObjectStore, base: &Path) -> Result<bool> {
+    let mut entries = object_store.list(Some(base.clone().join(VERSIONS_DIR)));
+    loop {
+        let meta = match entries.try_next().await {
+            Ok(Some(meta)) => meta,
+            Ok(None) => return Ok(false),
+            // Local filesystems report a missing directory as an error where object stores
+            // return an empty listing. Neither holds a manifest.
+            Err(e) if e.is_not_found() => return Ok(false),
+            Err(e) => return Err(e),
+        };
+
+        if !is_manifest_location(&meta) {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        match read_manifest(object_store, &meta.location, Some(meta.size)).await {
+            Ok(_) => return Ok(true),
+            // A file that only looks like a manifest proves nothing, so keep looking
+            // rather than authorizing the delete. The reason is logged because a read
+            // that failed for an unrelated cause, such as a transient storage error,
+            // otherwise leaves no trace of why the path was refused.
+            Err(e) => warn!(
+                "Ignoring '{}' while checking whether '{base}' is a dataset root: {e}",
+                meta.location
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether `meta` names a manifest, using the same parsing that manifest discovery uses.
+fn is_manifest_location(meta: &object_store::ObjectMeta) -> bool {
+    if ManifestLocation::try_from(meta.clone()).is_ok() {
+        return true;
+    }
+    meta.location
+        .filename()
+        .and_then(ManifestNamingScheme::parse_detached_version)
+        .is_some()
+}
+
+/// Whether anything at all lives under `prefix`. Stops at the first entry, so this stays
+/// cheap even on a storage root holding millions of objects.
+async fn has_any_entry(object_store: &ObjectStore, prefix: &Path) -> Result<bool> {
+    match object_store.list(Some(prefix.clone())).try_next().await {
+        Ok(entry) => Ok(entry.is_some()),
+        // Local filesystems report a missing directory as an error where object stores
+        // return an empty listing. Neither has anything to protect.
+        Err(e) if e.is_not_found() => Ok(false),
+        Err(e) => Err(e),
+    }
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests;
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/blob.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/blob.rs
index 720edd33534..52101b24474 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/blob.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/blob.rs
@@ -1,1171 +1,11241 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{collections::HashMap, future::Future, ops::DerefMut, sync::Arc};
+pub mod clone;
+
+use std::{
+    collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap, HashSet},
+    ops::{DerefMut, Range},
+    panic::AssertUnwindSafe,
+    sync::{
+        Arc,
+        atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+    },
+};
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
-use arrow::datatypes::{UInt32Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type};
-use arrow_array::builder::{LargeBinaryBuilder, PrimitiveBuilder, StringBuilder};
-use arrow_array::Array;
-use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-use arrow_schema::DataType as ArrowDataType;
-use lance_arrow::{FieldExt, BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY};
+use arrow::datatypes::{UInt8Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, GenericListArray, OffsetSizeTrait, RecordBatch, StringArray, StructArray,
+    UInt8Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array, builder::LargeBinaryBuilder,
+};
+use arrow_buffer::{ArrowNativeType, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+use arrow_schema::{
+    DataType as ArrowDataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef,
+};
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_arrow::{
+    ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+    BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, FieldExt,
+    list::ListArrayExt, r#struct::StructArrayExt,
+};
 use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
+use lance_io::scheduler::{FileScheduler, ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
-use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
-use tokio::sync::Mutex;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use tokio::sync::{Mutex, Notify, OnceCell, oneshot};
+use url::Url;
 
-use super::take::TakeBuilder;
+use super::take::{MissingRowPolicy, TakeBuilder};
+use super::write::ExternalBlobMode;
 use super::{Dataset, ProjectionRequest};
-use arrow_array::StructArray;
-use lance_core::datatypes::{BlobKind, BlobVersion};
+use crate::blob::{
+    BlobDescriptor, BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder, BlobIdAllocator, BlobRange, PackedBlobWriter,
+    blob_v2_layout, blob_v2_shape_error, validate_prepared_blob_array,
+};
+use lance_core::datatypes::{
+    BLOB_DESC_FIELDS, BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS, BlobKind, BlobV2Layout, BlobVersion,
+    Field as LanceField, Schema, parse_field_path,
+};
 use lance_core::utils::blob::blob_path;
-use lance_core::{utils::address::RowAddress, Error, Result};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ADDR, Result, utils::address::RowAddress};
 use lance_io::traits::Reader;
 
 const INLINE_MAX: usize = 64 * 1024; // 64KB inline cutoff
 const DEDICATED_THRESHOLD: usize = 4 * 1024 * 1024; // 4MB dedicated cutoff
 const PACK_FILE_MAX_SIZE: usize = 1024 * 1024 * 1024; // 1GiB per .pack sidecar
 
-// Maintains rolling `.blob` sidecar files for packed blobs.
-// Layout: data/{data_file_key}/{blob_id:08x}.blob where each file is an
-// unframed concatenation of blob payloads; descriptors store (blob_id,
-// position, size) to locate each slice. A dedicated struct keeps path state
-// and rolling size separate from the per-batch preprocessor logic, so we can
-// reuse the same writer across rows and close/roll files cleanly on finish.
-struct PackWriter {
-    object_store: ObjectStore,
-    data_dir: Path,
-    data_file_key: String,
-    max_pack_size: usize,
-    current_blob_id: Option<u32>,
-    writer: Option<lance_io::object_writer::ObjectWriter>,
+pub(super) fn blob_inline_threshold_from_metadata(
+    metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    field_name: &str,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    blob_threshold_from_metadata(
+        metadata,
+        field_name,
+        BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+        INLINE_MAX,
+        true,
+    )
+}
+
+pub(super) fn blob_dedicated_threshold_from_metadata(
+    metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    field_name: &str,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    blob_threshold_from_metadata(
+        metadata,
+        field_name,
+        BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+        DEDICATED_THRESHOLD,
+        false,
+    )
+}
+
+pub(super) fn blob_pack_file_threshold_from_metadata(
+    metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    field_name: &str,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    blob_threshold_from_metadata(
+        metadata,
+        field_name,
+        BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+        PACK_FILE_MAX_SIZE,
+        false,
+    )
+}
+
+fn blob_threshold_from_metadata(
+    metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    field_name: &str,
+    key: &str,
+    default_value: usize,
+    allow_zero: bool,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let Some(value) = metadata.get(key) else {
+        return Ok(default_value);
+    };
+    let threshold = value.parse::<usize>().map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Invalid blob threshold metadata {key}={value:?} for field '{field_name}'; \
+             expected a non-negative integer that fits in usize"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    if !allow_zero && threshold == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Invalid blob threshold metadata {key}={value:?} for field '{field_name}'; \
+             expected a positive integer"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(threshold)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn validate_blob_threshold_metadata(schema: &Schema) -> Result<()> {
+    for field in schema.fields_pre_order().filter(|field| field.is_blob_v2()) {
+        blob_inline_threshold_from_metadata(&field.metadata, &field.name)?;
+        blob_dedicated_threshold_from_metadata(&field.metadata, &field.name)?;
+        blob_pack_file_threshold_from_metadata(&field.metadata, &field.name)?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) struct ResolvedExternalBase {
+    pub base_id: u32,
+    pub relative_path: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub(super) struct ExternalBaseCandidate {
+    pub base_id: u32,
+    pub store_prefix: String,
+    pub base_path: Path,
+    pub store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct ExternalBaseResolver {
+    candidates: Vec<ExternalBaseCandidate>,
+    pub(super) registered_base_ids: RoaringBitmap,
+    store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+}
+
+impl ExternalBaseResolver {
+    pub(super) fn new(
+        candidates: Vec<ExternalBaseCandidate>,
+        store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            registered_base_ids: candidates.iter().map(|base| base.base_id).collect(),
+            candidates,
+            store_registry,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn resolve_external_uri(
+        &self,
+        uri: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Option<ResolvedExternalBase>> {
+        let uri_path = ObjectStore::extract_path_from_uri(self.store_registry.clone(), uri)?;
+
+        let mut best_match: Option<(usize, ResolvedExternalBase)> = None;
+        for candidate in &self.candidates {
+            let uri_store_prefix = self
+                .store_registry
+                .calculate_object_store_prefix(uri, candidate.store_params.storage_options())?;
+            if candidate.store_prefix != uri_store_prefix {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(relative_parts) = uri_path.prefix_match(&candidate.base_path) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let relative_path = Path::from_iter(relative_parts);
+            if relative_path.as_ref().is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let prefix_len = candidate.base_path.parts().count();
+            if best_match
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|(current_len, _)| prefix_len > *current_len)
+                .unwrap_or(true)
+            {
+                best_match = Some((
+                    prefix_len,
+                    ResolvedExternalBase {
+                        base_id: candidate.base_id,
+                        relative_path: relative_path.to_string(),
+                    },
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(best_match.map(|(_, matched)| matched))
+    }
+}
+
+fn arrow_field_contains_blob_v2(field: &ArrowField) -> bool {
+    if field.is_blob_v2() {
+        return true;
+    }
+    match field.data_type() {
+        ArrowDataType::Struct(children) => children
+            .iter()
+            .any(|child| arrow_field_contains_blob_v2(child)),
+        ArrowDataType::List(child) | ArrowDataType::LargeList(child) => {
+            arrow_field_contains_blob_v2(child)
+        }
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+fn collect_external_blob_uris(
+    field: &ArrowField,
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+    selected_rows: &[bool],
+    field_path: &str,
+    external_uris: &mut Vec<(String, String)>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if !arrow_field_contains_blob_v2(field) {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if array.len() != selected_rows.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Blob field '{}' row count {} did not match selection length {}",
+            field_path,
+            array.len(),
+            selected_rows.len()
+        )));
+    }
+
+    if field.is_blob_v2() {
+        let struct_array = array.as_struct();
+        match BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_array.fields()) {
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) => {
+                validate_prepared_blob_array(field, array)?;
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical) => {}
+            _ => {
+                return Err(blob_v2_shape_error(
+                    field,
+                    &[BlobV2Layout::Logical, BlobV2Layout::Prepared],
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        let data_column = struct_array
+            .column_by_name("data")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Blob struct missing `data` field"))?
+            .as_binary::<i64>();
+        let uri_column = struct_array
+            .column_by_name("uri")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Blob struct missing `uri` field"))?
+            .as_string::<i32>();
+        let position_column = struct_array
+            .column_by_name("position")
+            .map(|column| column.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>());
+        let size_column = struct_array
+            .column_by_name("size")
+            .map(|column| column.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>());
+        for (row_idx, is_selected) in selected_rows.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+            if !is_selected || struct_array.is_null(row_idx) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let has_data = data_column.is_valid(row_idx);
+            let has_uri = uri_column.is_valid(row_idx);
+            let has_position = position_column
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|column| column.is_valid(row_idx));
+            let has_size = size_column
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|column| column.is_valid(row_idx));
+            if has_position != has_size {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field '{}' row {row_idx} must set both `position` and `size`, or neither",
+                    field_path
+                )));
+            }
+            if has_position && !has_uri {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field '{}' row {row_idx} sets `position` and `size` but `uri` is null",
+                    field_path
+                )));
+            }
+            if has_data == has_uri {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field '{}' row {row_idx} must set exactly one of `data` and `uri`",
+                    field_path
+                )));
+            }
+            if has_size
+                && size_column
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|column| column.value(row_idx) == 0)
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field '{}' row {row_idx} external range `size` must be greater than zero",
+                    field_path
+                )));
+            }
+            if has_uri {
+                external_uris.push((
+                    field_path.to_string(),
+                    uri_column.value(row_idx).to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    match field.data_type() {
+        ArrowDataType::Struct(children) => {
+            let struct_array = array.as_struct();
+            let child_selection = selected_rows
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(row_idx, is_selected)| is_selected && struct_array.is_valid(row_idx))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            for (child_field, child_array) in children.iter().zip(struct_array.columns()) {
+                let child_path = format!("{}.{}", field_path, child_field.name());
+                collect_external_blob_uris(
+                    child_field,
+                    child_array,
+                    &child_selection,
+                    &child_path,
+                    external_uris,
+                )?;
+            }
+        }
+        ArrowDataType::List(child) => {
+            let list_array = array.as_list::<i32>();
+            let mut child_selection = vec![false; list_array.values().len()];
+            for (row_idx, is_selected) in selected_rows.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+                if is_selected && list_array.is_valid(row_idx) {
+                    let start = list_array.value_offsets()[row_idx].as_usize();
+                    let end = list_array.value_offsets()[row_idx + 1].as_usize();
+                    child_selection[start..end].fill(true);
+                }
+            }
+            let child_path = format!("{}.{}", field_path, child.name());
+            collect_external_blob_uris(
+                child,
+                list_array.values(),
+                &child_selection,
+                &child_path,
+                external_uris,
+            )?;
+        }
+        ArrowDataType::LargeList(child) => {
+            let list_array = array.as_list::<i64>();
+            let mut child_selection = vec![false; list_array.values().len()];
+            for (row_idx, is_selected) in selected_rows.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+                if is_selected && list_array.is_valid(row_idx) {
+                    let start = list_array.value_offsets()[row_idx].as_usize();
+                    let end = list_array.value_offsets()[row_idx + 1].as_usize();
+                    child_selection[start..end].fill(true);
+                }
+            }
+            let child_path = format!("{}.{}", field_path, child.name());
+            collect_external_blob_uris(
+                child,
+                list_array.values(),
+                &child_selection,
+                &child_path,
+                external_uris,
+            )?;
+        }
+        _ => {}
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Validate external blob references supplied by selected input rows.
+///
+/// Existing rows can contain trusted absolute references that were accepted by an earlier write.
+/// Update paths use this check before allowing those fallback values through the writer, so newly
+/// matched values must still resolve beneath a registered external base.
+pub(super) async fn validate_external_blob_references(
+    resolver: &ExternalBaseResolver,
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    selected_rows: &[bool],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut external_uris = Vec::new();
+    for (field, array) in batch.schema().fields().iter().zip(batch.columns()) {
+        collect_external_blob_uris(
+            field,
+            array,
+            selected_rows,
+            field.name(),
+            &mut external_uris,
+        )?;
+    }
+
+    let mut validated_uris = HashSet::new();
+    for (field_path, uri) in external_uris {
+        if validated_uris.insert(uri.clone())
+            && resolver.resolve_external_uri(&uri).await?.is_none()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "External blob URI '{}' in field '{}' is outside registered external bases (dataset root is not allowed)",
+                uri, field_path
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+struct RollingPackedBlobWriter {
+    current: Option<PackedBlobWriter>,
     current_size: usize,
+    current_max_pack_size: Option<usize>,
 }
 
-impl PackWriter {
-    fn new(object_store: ObjectStore, data_dir: Path, data_file_key: String) -> Self {
+impl RollingPackedBlobWriter {
+    fn new() -> Self {
         Self {
-            object_store,
-            data_dir,
-            data_file_key,
-            max_pack_size: PACK_FILE_MAX_SIZE,
-            current_blob_id: None,
-            writer: None,
+            current: None,
             current_size: 0,
+            current_max_pack_size: None,
         }
     }
 
-    async fn start_new_pack(&mut self, blob_id: u32) -> Result<()> {
-        let path = blob_path(&self.data_dir, &self.data_file_key, blob_id);
-        let writer = self.object_store.create(&path).await?;
-        self.writer = Some(writer);
-        self.current_blob_id = Some(blob_id);
+    async fn start_new_pack(
+        &mut self,
+        object_store: ObjectStore,
+        data_file_path: Path,
+        managed_base: Option<&(Option<u32>, Path)>,
+        blob_id_allocator: BlobIdAllocator,
+        max_pack_size: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.finish().await?;
+        let blob_id = blob_id_allocator.next()?;
+        self.current = Some(if let Some((_, root)) = managed_base {
+            let path = root
+                .clone()
+                .join("_blobs")
+                .join(format!("{}.blob", uuid::Uuid::new_v4()));
+            PackedBlobWriter::try_new_at(object_store, path, blob_id).await?
+        } else {
+            PackedBlobWriter::try_new(object_store, data_file_path, blob_id).await?
+        });
         self.current_size = 0;
+        self.current_max_pack_size = Some(max_pack_size);
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    /// Append `data` to the current `.blob` file, rolling to a new file when
-    /// `max_pack_size` would be exceeded.
-    ///
-    /// alloc_blob_id: called only when a new pack file is opened; returns the
-    /// blob_id used as the file name.
-    ///
-    /// Returns `(blob_id, position)` where
-    /// position is the start offset of this payload in that pack file.
-    async fn write_with_allocator<F>(
+    async fn write(
         &mut self,
-        alloc_blob_id: &mut F,
-        data: &[u8],
-    ) -> Result<(u32, u64)>
-    where
-        F: FnMut() -> u32,
-    {
-        let len = data.len();
-        if self
-            .current_blob_id
-            .map(|_| self.current_size + len > self.max_pack_size)
-            .unwrap_or(true)
-        {
-            let blob_id = alloc_blob_id();
-            self.finish().await?;
-            self.start_new_pack(blob_id).await?;
+        object_store: ObjectStore,
+        data_file_path: Path,
+        managed_base: Option<&(Option<u32>, Path)>,
+        blob_id_allocator: BlobIdAllocator,
+        max_pack_size: usize,
+        source: BlobWriteSource<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<BlobDescriptor> {
+        let len = source.size();
+        let needs_new_pack = match (self.current.as_ref(), self.current_max_pack_size) {
+            (Some(_), Some(current_max_pack_size)) => {
+                current_max_pack_size != max_pack_size
+                    || self.current_size + len > current_max_pack_size
+            }
+            _ => true,
+        };
+        if needs_new_pack {
+            self.start_new_pack(
+                object_store,
+                data_file_path,
+                managed_base,
+                blob_id_allocator,
+                max_pack_size,
+            )
+            .await?;
         }
 
-        let writer = self.writer.as_mut().expect("pack writer is initialized");
-        let position = self.current_size as u64;
-        writer.write_all(data).await?;
+        let writer = self.current.as_mut().expect("pack writer is initialized");
+        let value = match source {
+            BlobWriteSource::Bytes(data) => writer.write_blob_bytes(data).await?,
+            BlobWriteSource::External(source) => {
+                writer
+                    .write_blob_from_reader(source.reader.as_ref(), source.reader_range()?)
+                    .await?
+            }
+        };
         self.current_size += len;
-        Ok((self.current_blob_id.expect("pack blob id"), position))
+        BlobPreprocessor::managed_descriptor(value, managed_base, writer.path())
     }
 
     async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        if let Some(mut writer) = self.writer.take() {
-            writer.shutdown().await?;
+        if let Some(writer) = self.current.take() {
+            writer.finish().await?;
         }
-        self.current_blob_id = None;
         self.current_size = 0;
+        self.current_max_pack_size = None;
         Ok(())
     }
+
+    fn abort(&mut self) {
+        self.current.take();
+        self.current_size = 0;
+        self.current_max_pack_size = None;
+    }
 }
 
-/// Preprocesses blob v2 columns on the write path so the encoder only sees lightweight descriptors:
+/// Preprocesses blob v2 columns on the write path so the encoder sees bounded inline values and
+/// lightweight descriptors for larger payloads:
 ///
 /// - Spills large blobs to sidecar files before encoding, reducing memory/CPU and avoiding copying huge payloads through page builders.
-/// - Emits `blob_id/blob_size` tied to the data file stem, giving readers a stable path independent of temporary fragment IDs assigned during write.
+/// - Emits relative Managed addresses for dataset writes; low-level sidecar writers retain their existing descriptors.
 /// - Leaves small inline blobs and URI rows unchanged for compatibility.
 pub struct BlobPreprocessor {
+    managed_base: Option<(Option<u32>, Path)>,
     object_store: ObjectStore,
     data_dir: Path,
     data_file_key: String,
-    local_counter: u32,
-    pack_writer: PackWriter,
-    blob_v2_cols: Vec<bool>,
-    dedicated_thresholds: Vec<usize>,
-    writer_metadata: Vec<HashMap<String, String>>,
+    blob_id_allocator: BlobIdAllocator,
+    part_blob_ids: Option<Range<u32>>,
+    pack_writer: RollingPackedBlobWriter,
+    /// Write-param override for the pack-file roll size. When set, it takes
+    /// precedence over each field's `blob-pack-file-size-threshold` metadata for
+    /// this write job only; it is not persisted into the dataset schema.
+    pack_file_size_override: Option<usize>,
+    field_processors: Vec<BlobPreprocessField>,
+    external_base_resolver: Option<Arc<ExternalBaseResolver>>,
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool,
+    external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode,
+    source_store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    source_store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+}
+
+/// A logical slice of an external blob that can be materialized or streamed into Lance-managed
+/// storage.
+struct ExternalBlobSource {
+    reader: Box<dyn Reader>,
+    start: u64,
+    size: u64,
+}
+
+/// A blob payload source used by packed and dedicated writers.
+///
+/// Inline blobs still need an in-memory byte slice because they are embedded into the descriptor
+/// array, while external ingest can stream bytes from the source reader.
+enum BlobWriteSource<'a> {
+    Bytes(&'a [u8]),
+    External(&'a ExternalBlobSource),
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+struct BlobPreprocessField {
+    kind: BlobPreprocessFieldKind,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+enum BlobPreprocessFieldKind {
+    BlobV2 {
+        inline_threshold: usize,
+        dedicated_threshold: usize,
+        pack_file_threshold: usize,
+        writer_metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    },
+    Struct {
+        children: Vec<BlobPreprocessField>,
+    },
+    List {
+        child: Box<BlobPreprocessField>,
+    },
+    Passthrough,
+}
+
+impl BlobPreprocessField {
+    fn new(field: &ArrowField) -> Result<Self> {
+        if field.is_blob_v2() {
+            return match blob_v2_layout(field) {
+                Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared | BlobV2Layout::Logical) => Ok(Self {
+                    kind: BlobPreprocessFieldKind::BlobV2 {
+                        inline_threshold: blob_inline_threshold_from_metadata(
+                            field.metadata(),
+                            field.name(),
+                        )?,
+                        dedicated_threshold: blob_dedicated_threshold_from_metadata(
+                            field.metadata(),
+                            field.name(),
+                        )?,
+                        pack_file_threshold: blob_pack_file_threshold_from_metadata(
+                            field.metadata(),
+                            field.name(),
+                        )?,
+                        writer_metadata: field.metadata().clone(),
+                    },
+                }),
+                _ => Err(blob_v2_shape_error(
+                    field,
+                    &[BlobV2Layout::Logical, BlobV2Layout::Prepared],
+                )),
+            };
+        }
+
+        if let ArrowDataType::Struct(children) = field.data_type() {
+            let children = children
+                .iter()
+                .map(|child| Self::new(child.as_ref()))
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            if children.iter().any(|child| child.requires_preprocessing()) {
+                return Ok(Self {
+                    kind: BlobPreprocessFieldKind::Struct { children },
+                });
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let ArrowDataType::List(child) | ArrowDataType::LargeList(child) = field.data_type() {
+            let child = Self::new(child.as_ref())?;
+            if child.requires_preprocessing() {
+                return Ok(Self {
+                    kind: BlobPreprocessFieldKind::List {
+                        child: Box::new(child),
+                    },
+                });
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            kind: BlobPreprocessFieldKind::Passthrough,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn requires_preprocessing(&self) -> bool {
+        !matches!(self.kind, BlobPreprocessFieldKind::Passthrough)
+    }
+
+    fn force_non_empty_inline_to_sidecar(&mut self) {
+        match &mut self.kind {
+            BlobPreprocessFieldKind::BlobV2 {
+                inline_threshold, ..
+            } => *inline_threshold = 0,
+            BlobPreprocessFieldKind::Struct { children } => {
+                for child in children {
+                    child.force_non_empty_inline_to_sidecar();
+                }
+            }
+            BlobPreprocessFieldKind::List { child } => {
+                child.force_non_empty_inline_to_sidecar();
+            }
+            BlobPreprocessFieldKind::Passthrough => {}
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExternalBlobSource {
+    /// Return the logical payload size after applying any external slice.
+    fn size(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.size
+    }
+
+    /// Convert the logical slice into the current reader API's usize-based range.
+    fn reader_range(&self) -> Result<Range<usize>> {
+        let start = usize::try_from(self.start).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "External blob position {} does not fit into usize",
+                self.start
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let size = usize::try_from(self.size).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "External blob size {} does not fit into usize",
+                self.size
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let end = start.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "External blob range overflows usize: position={}, size={}",
+                self.start, self.size
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(start..end)
+    }
+
+    /// Materialize the slice into memory for the inline blob path.
+    async fn read_all(&self) -> Result<bytes::Bytes> {
+        if self.size == 0 {
+            return Ok(bytes::Bytes::new());
+        }
+        let range = self.reader_range()?;
+        self.reader.get_range(range).await.map_err(Into::into)
+    }
+}
+
+impl BlobWriteSource<'_> {
+    /// Return the payload size regardless of whether bytes come from memory or an external reader.
+    fn size(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Bytes(data) => data.len(),
+            Self::External(source) => source
+                .size()
+                .try_into()
+                .expect("packed and inline external blobs must fit into usize"),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 impl BlobPreprocessor {
-    pub(crate) fn new(
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(super) fn new(
         object_store: ObjectStore,
         data_dir: Path,
         data_file_key: String,
         schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let pack_writer = PackWriter::new(
-            object_store.clone(),
-            data_dir.clone(),
-            data_file_key.clone(),
-        );
+        external_base_resolver: Option<Arc<ExternalBaseResolver>>,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool,
+        external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode,
+        source_store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+        source_store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+        pack_file_size_override: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let pack_writer = RollingPackedBlobWriter::new();
         let arrow_schema = arrow_schema::Schema::from(schema);
-        let fields = arrow_schema.fields();
-        let blob_v2_cols = fields.iter().map(|field| field.is_blob_v2()).collect();
-        let dedicated_thresholds = fields
-            .iter()
-            .map(|field| dedicated_threshold_from_metadata(field.as_ref()))
-            .collect();
-        let writer_metadata = fields
+        let field_processors = arrow_schema
+            .fields()
             .iter()
-            .map(|field| field.metadata().clone())
-            .collect();
-        Self {
+            .map(|field| BlobPreprocessField::new(field.as_ref()))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            managed_base: None,
             object_store,
             data_dir,
             data_file_key,
-            // Start at 1 to avoid a potential all-zero blob_id value.
-            local_counter: 1,
+            blob_id_allocator: BlobIdAllocator::new(1),
+            part_blob_ids: None,
             pack_writer,
-            blob_v2_cols,
-            dedicated_thresholds,
-            writer_metadata,
-        }
+            pack_file_size_override,
+            field_processors,
+            external_base_resolver,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+            external_blob_mode,
+            source_store_registry,
+            source_store_params,
+        })
     }
 
-    fn next_blob_id(&mut self) -> u32 {
-        let id = self.local_counter;
-        self.local_counter += 1;
-        id
+    pub(super) fn with_managed_base(mut self, base_id: Option<u32>, root: Path) -> Self {
+        self.managed_base = Some((base_id, root));
+        self
     }
 
-    async fn write_dedicated(&mut self, blob_id: u32, data: &[u8]) -> Result<Path> {
-        let path = blob_path(&self.data_dir, &self.data_file_key, blob_id);
-        let mut writer = self.object_store.create(&path).await?;
-        writer.write_all(data).await?;
-        writer.shutdown().await?;
-        Ok(path)
+    fn managed_descriptor(
+        descriptor: BlobDescriptor,
+        managed_base: Option<&(Option<u32>, Path)>,
+        path: &Path,
+    ) -> Result<BlobDescriptor> {
+        let Some((base_id, root)) = managed_base else {
+            return Ok(descriptor);
+        };
+        let (offset, size) = match descriptor {
+            BlobDescriptor::Packed { offset, size, .. } => (offset, size),
+            BlobDescriptor::Dedicated { size, .. } => (0, size),
+            other => return Ok(other),
+        };
+        let relative = path
+            .prefix_match(root)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!("Blob object {path} is outside writer base {root}"))
+            })?
+            .map(|part| part.as_ref().to_string())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join("/");
+        Ok(BlobDescriptor::Managed {
+            base_id: *base_id,
+            uri: relative,
+            offset,
+            size,
+        })
     }
 
-    async fn write_packed(&mut self, data: &[u8]) -> Result<(u32, u64)> {
-        let (counter, pack_writer) = (&mut self.local_counter, &mut self.pack_writer);
-        pack_writer
-            .write_with_allocator(
-                &mut || {
-                    let id = *counter;
-                    *counter += 1;
-                    id
-                },
-                data,
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-    pub(crate) async fn preprocess_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let expected_columns = self.blob_v2_cols.len();
-        if batch.num_columns() != expected_columns {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Unexpected number of columns: expected {}, got {}",
-                    expected_columns,
-                    batch.num_columns()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+    pub(super) fn with_part_blob_ids(mut self, blob_ids: Range<u32>) -> Result<Self> {
+        self.blob_id_allocator = BlobIdAllocator::from_range(blob_ids.clone())?;
+        self.part_blob_ids = Some(blob_ids);
+        for processor in &mut self.field_processors {
+            processor.force_non_empty_inline_to_sidecar();
         }
+        Ok(self)
+    }
 
-        let batch_schema = batch.schema();
-        let batch_fields = batch_schema.fields();
+    pub(crate) fn for_mem_wal(mut self, blob_id_allocator: BlobIdAllocator) -> Self {
+        self.blob_id_allocator = blob_id_allocator;
+        self
+    }
 
-        let mut new_columns = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_columns());
-        let mut new_fields = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_columns());
+    fn blob_writer_with_metadata(
+        &self,
+        field: &ArrowField,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder {
+        BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new_with_metadata(field.name(), field.is_nullable(), metadata)
+    }
 
-        for idx in 0..batch.num_columns() {
-            let array = batch.column(idx);
-            let field = &batch_fields[idx];
-            if !self.blob_v2_cols[idx] {
-                new_columns.push(array.clone());
-                new_fields.push(field.clone());
-                continue;
+    async fn write_dedicated(&mut self, source: BlobWriteSource<'_>) -> Result<BlobDescriptor> {
+        let blob_id = self.blob_id_allocator.next()?;
+        let mut writer = if let Some((_, root)) = &self.managed_base {
+            let path = root
+                .clone()
+                .join("_blobs")
+                .join(format!("{}.blob", uuid::Uuid::new_v4()));
+            crate::blob::DedicatedBlobWriter::try_new_at(self.object_store.clone(), path, blob_id)
+                .await?
+        } else {
+            let data_file_path = self
+                .data_dir
+                .clone()
+                .join(format!("{}.lance", self.data_file_key));
+            crate::blob::DedicatedBlobWriter::try_new(
+                self.object_store.clone(),
+                data_file_path,
+                blob_id,
+            )
+            .await?
+        };
+        match source {
+            BlobWriteSource::Bytes(data) => writer.write(data).await?,
+            BlobWriteSource::External(source) => {
+                writer
+                    .write_from_reader(source.reader.as_ref(), source.reader_range()?)
+                    .await?;
             }
+        }
+        let path = writer.path().clone();
+        Self::managed_descriptor(writer.finish().await?, self.managed_base.as_ref(), &path)
+    }
 
-            let struct_arr = array
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
-                .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input("Blob column was not a struct array", location!())
-                })?;
+    async fn write_packed(
+        &mut self,
+        field_pack_file_threshold: usize,
+        source: BlobWriteSource<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<BlobDescriptor> {
+        let max_pack_size = self
+            .pack_file_size_override
+            .unwrap_or(field_pack_file_threshold);
+        self.pack_writer
+            .write(
+                self.object_store.clone(),
+                self.data_dir
+                    .clone()
+                    .join(format!("{}.lance", self.data_file_key)),
+                self.managed_base.as_ref(),
+                self.blob_id_allocator.clone(),
+                max_pack_size,
+                source,
+            )
+            .await
+    }
 
-            let data_col = struct_arr
-                .column_by_name("data")
-                .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input("Blob struct missing `data` field", location!())
-                })?
-                .as_binary::<i64>();
-            let uri_col = struct_arr
-                .column_by_name("uri")
-                .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input("Blob struct missing `uri` field", location!())
-                })?
-                .as_string::<i32>();
-
-            let mut data_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(struct_arr.len(), 0);
-            let mut uri_builder = StringBuilder::with_capacity(struct_arr.len(), 0);
-            let mut blob_id_builder =
-                PrimitiveBuilder::<arrow_array::types::UInt32Type>::with_capacity(struct_arr.len());
-            let mut blob_size_builder =
-                PrimitiveBuilder::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>::with_capacity(struct_arr.len());
-            let mut kind_builder = PrimitiveBuilder::<UInt8Type>::with_capacity(struct_arr.len());
-            let mut position_builder =
-                PrimitiveBuilder::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>::with_capacity(struct_arr.len());
-
-            let struct_nulls = struct_arr.nulls();
-
-            for i in 0..struct_arr.len() {
-                if struct_arr.is_null(i) {
-                    data_builder.append_null();
-                    uri_builder.append_null();
-                    blob_id_builder.append_null();
-                    blob_size_builder.append_null();
-                    kind_builder.append_null();
-                    position_builder.append_null();
-                    continue;
+    async fn prepare_blob_for_part(
+        &mut self,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        field: &ArrowField,
+        pack_file_threshold: usize,
+        writer_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<(ArrayRef, Arc<ArrowField>)> {
+        validate_prepared_blob_array(field, &array)?;
+        let values = array.as_struct();
+        let kinds = values
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .expect("validated prepared Blob has kind")
+            .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+        let data = values
+            .column_by_name("data")
+            .expect("validated prepared Blob has data")
+            .as_binary::<i64>();
+        let uris = values
+            .column_by_name("uri")
+            .expect("validated prepared Blob has uri")
+            .as_string::<i32>();
+        let blob_ids = values
+            .column_by_name("blob_id")
+            .expect("validated prepared Blob has blob_id")
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let sizes = values
+            .column_by_name("blob_size")
+            .expect("validated prepared Blob has blob_size")
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let positions = values
+            .column_by_name("position")
+            .expect("validated prepared Blob has position")
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let mut output = self.blob_writer_with_metadata(field, writer_metadata.clone());
+
+        for row in 0..values.len() {
+            if values.is_null(row) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            match BlobKind::try_from(kinds.value(row))? {
+                BlobKind::Packed | BlobKind::Dedicated => {
+                    let blob_id = blob_ids.value(row);
+                    self.blob_id_allocator.reserve(blob_id).map_err(|error| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Prepared Blob v2 field '{}' row {row} uses invalid managed Blob ID {blob_id}: {error}",
+                            field.name()
+                        ))
+                    })?;
                 }
+                BlobKind::Inline
+                | BlobKind::External
+                | BlobKind::Managed
+                | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase => {}
+            }
+        }
 
-                let has_data = !data_col.is_null(i);
-                let has_uri = !uri_col.is_null(i);
-                let data_len = if has_data { data_col.value(i).len() } else { 0 };
-
-                let dedicated_threshold = self.dedicated_thresholds[idx];
-                if has_data && data_len > dedicated_threshold {
-                    let blob_id = self.next_blob_id();
-                    self.write_dedicated(blob_id, data_col.value(i)).await?;
-
-                    kind_builder.append_value(BlobKind::Dedicated as u8);
-                    data_builder.append_null();
-                    uri_builder.append_null();
-                    blob_id_builder.append_value(blob_id);
-                    blob_size_builder.append_value(data_len as u64);
-                    position_builder.append_null();
-                    continue;
+        for row in 0..values.len() {
+            if values.is_null(row) {
+                output.push_null()?;
+                continue;
+            }
+            match BlobKind::try_from(kinds.value(row))? {
+                BlobKind::Inline => {
+                    let value = data.value(row);
+                    if value.is_empty() {
+                        output.push_inline(Bytes::new())?;
+                    } else {
+                        let descriptor = self
+                            .write_packed(pack_file_threshold, BlobWriteSource::Bytes(value))
+                            .await?;
+                        output.push(descriptor)?;
+                    }
                 }
-
-                if has_data && data_len > INLINE_MAX {
-                    let (pack_blob_id, position) = self.write_packed(data_col.value(i)).await?;
-
-                    kind_builder.append_value(BlobKind::Packed as u8);
-                    data_builder.append_null();
-                    uri_builder.append_null();
-                    blob_id_builder.append_value(pack_blob_id);
-                    blob_size_builder.append_value(data_len as u64);
-                    position_builder.append_value(position);
-                    continue;
+                BlobKind::Packed => {
+                    output.push_packed(
+                        blob_ids.value(row),
+                        BlobRange {
+                            offset: positions.value(row),
+                            size: sizes.value(row),
+                        },
+                    )?;
                 }
-
-                if has_uri {
-                    let uri_val = uri_col.value(i);
-                    kind_builder.append_value(BlobKind::External as u8);
-                    data_builder.append_null();
-                    uri_builder.append_value(uri_val);
-                    blob_id_builder.append_null();
-                    blob_size_builder.append_null();
-                    position_builder.append_null();
-                    continue;
+                BlobKind::Dedicated => {
+                    output.push_dedicated(blob_ids.value(row), sizes.value(row))?;
                 }
-
-                if has_data {
-                    kind_builder.append_value(BlobKind::Inline as u8);
-                    let value = data_col.value(i);
-                    data_builder.append_value(value);
-                    uri_builder.append_null();
-                    blob_id_builder.append_null();
-                    blob_size_builder.append_null();
-                    position_builder.append_null();
-                } else {
-                    data_builder.append_null();
-                    uri_builder.append_null();
-                    blob_id_builder.append_null();
-                    blob_size_builder.append_null();
-                    kind_builder.append_null();
-                    position_builder.append_null();
+                BlobKind::Managed | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase => {
+                    output.push(BlobDescriptor::Managed {
+                        base_id: (kinds.value(row) == BlobKind::ManagedWithBase as u8)
+                            .then(|| blob_ids.value(row)),
+                        uri: uris.value(row).to_string(),
+                        offset: positions.value(row),
+                        size: sizes.value(row),
+                    })?;
+                }
+                BlobKind::External => {
+                    output.push(BlobDescriptor::External {
+                        base_id: blob_ids.value(row),
+                        uri: uris.value(row).to_string(),
+                        offset: positions.value(row),
+                        size: sizes.value(row),
+                    })?;
                 }
             }
+        }
+        let (field, array) = output.finish()?.into_parts();
+        Ok((array, Arc::new(field)))
+    }
 
-            let child_fields = vec![
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("kind", ArrowDataType::UInt8, true),
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("data", ArrowDataType::LargeBinary, true),
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("uri", ArrowDataType::Utf8, true),
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("blob_id", ArrowDataType::UInt32, true),
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("blob_size", ArrowDataType::UInt64, true),
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("position", ArrowDataType::UInt64, true),
-            ];
-
-            let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::try_new(
-                child_fields.clone().into(),
-                vec![
-                    Arc::new(kind_builder.finish()),
-                    Arc::new(data_builder.finish()),
-                    Arc::new(uri_builder.finish()),
-                    Arc::new(blob_id_builder.finish()),
-                    Arc::new(blob_size_builder.finish()),
-                    Arc::new(position_builder.finish()),
-                ],
-                struct_nulls.cloned(),
-            )?;
-
-            new_columns.push(Arc::new(struct_array));
-            new_fields.push(Arc::new(
-                arrow_schema::Field::new(
-                    field.name(),
-                    ArrowDataType::Struct(child_fields.into()),
-                    field.is_nullable(),
-                )
-                .with_metadata(self.writer_metadata[idx].clone()),
-            ));
+    async fn resolve_external_reference(&mut self, uri: &str) -> Result<(u32, String)> {
+        let mapped = if let Some(resolver) = &self.external_base_resolver {
+            resolver.resolve_external_uri(uri).await?
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        if let Some(mapped) = mapped {
+            return Ok((mapped.base_id, mapped.relative_path));
         }
 
-        let new_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new_with_metadata(
-            new_fields
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone())
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            batch_schema.metadata().clone(),
-        ));
+        if self.allow_external_blob_outside_bases {
+            let normalized = normalize_external_absolute_uri(uri)?;
+            return Ok((0, normalized));
+        }
 
-        RecordBatch::try_new(new_schema, new_columns)
-            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string(), location!()))
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "External blob URI '{}' is outside registered external bases (dataset root is not allowed). Set allow_external_blob_outside_bases=true to store it as absolute external URI.",
+            uri
+        )))
     }
 
-    pub(crate) async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-        self.pack_writer.finish().await
+    pub(crate) async fn validate_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        let selected_rows = vec![true; batch.num_rows()];
+        let mut external_uris = Vec::new();
+        for (field, array) in batch.schema().fields().iter().zip(batch.columns()) {
+            collect_external_blob_uris(
+                field,
+                array,
+                &selected_rows,
+                field.name(),
+                &mut external_uris,
+            )?;
+        }
+
+        if self.external_blob_mode == ExternalBlobMode::Reference {
+            let mut validated_uris = HashSet::new();
+            for (_, uri) in external_uris {
+                if validated_uris.insert(uri.clone()) {
+                    self.resolve_external_reference(&uri).await?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
-}
 
-fn dedicated_threshold_from_metadata(field: &arrow_schema::Field) -> usize {
-    field
-        .metadata()
-        .get(BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY)
-        .and_then(|value| value.parse::<i64>().ok())
-        .filter(|value| *value > 0)
-        .and_then(|value| usize::try_from(value).ok())
-        .unwrap_or(DEDICATED_THRESHOLD)
-}
-
-pub async fn preprocess_blob_batches(
-    batches: &[RecordBatch],
-    pre: &mut BlobPreprocessor,
-) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
-    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(batches.len());
-    for batch in batches {
-        out.push(pre.preprocess_batch(batch).await?);
+    async fn open_external_source(
+        &mut self,
+        uri: &str,
+        position: Option<u64>,
+        size: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<ExternalBlobSource> {
+        let (object_store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            self.source_store_registry.clone(),
+            uri,
+            &self.source_store_params,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let reader = object_store.open(&path).await?;
+        match (position, size) {
+            (Some(position), Some(size)) => {
+                position.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "External blob range overflows u64: position={}, size={}",
+                        position, size
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                Ok(ExternalBlobSource {
+                    reader,
+                    start: position,
+                    size,
+                })
+            }
+            (None, None) => {
+                let size = reader.size().await? as u64;
+                Ok(ExternalBlobSource {
+                    reader,
+                    start: 0,
+                    size,
+                })
+            }
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "External blob URI '{}' must set both position and size when slicing for ingest",
+                uri
+            ))),
+        }
     }
-    Ok(out)
-}
 
-/// Current state of the reader.  Held in a mutex for easy sharing
-///
-/// The u64 is the cursor in the file that the reader is currently at
-/// (note that seeks are allowed before the file is opened)
-#[derive(Debug)]
-enum ReaderState {
-    Uninitialized(u64),
-    Open((u64, Arc<dyn Reader>)),
-    Closed,
-}
+    pub(crate) async fn preprocess_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        self.validate_batch(batch).await?;
+        let expected_columns = self.field_processors.len();
+        if batch.num_columns() != expected_columns {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unexpected number of columns: expected {}, got {}",
+                expected_columns,
+                batch.num_columns()
+            )));
+        }
 
-/// A file-like object that represents a blob in a dataset
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct BlobFile {
-    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
-    path: Path,
-    reader: Arc<Mutex<ReaderState>>,
-    position: u64,
-    size: u64,
-    kind: BlobKind,
-    uri: Option<String>,
-}
+        let batch_schema = batch.schema();
+        let batch_fields = batch_schema.fields();
+        let field_processors = self.field_processors.clone();
 
-impl BlobFile {
-    /// Create a new BlobFile
-    ///
-    /// See [`crate::dataset::Dataset::take_blobs`]
-    pub fn new_inline(
-        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-        field_id: u32,
-        row_addr: u64,
-        position: u64,
-        size: u64,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let frag_id = RowAddress::from(row_addr).fragment_id();
-        let frag = dataset.get_fragment(frag_id as usize).unwrap();
-        let data_file = frag.data_file_for_field(field_id).unwrap();
-        let data_file = dataset.data_dir().child(data_file.path.as_str());
-        Self {
-            object_store: dataset.object_store.clone(),
-            path: data_file,
-            position,
-            size,
-            kind: BlobKind::Inline,
-            uri: None,
-            reader: Arc::new(Mutex::new(ReaderState::Uninitialized(0))),
+        let mut new_columns = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_columns());
+        let mut new_fields = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_columns());
+
+        for ((processor, array), field) in field_processors
+            .iter()
+            .zip(batch.columns().iter())
+            .zip(batch_fields.iter())
+        {
+            let (new_column, new_field) = self
+                .preprocess_field(processor, array.clone(), field)
+                .await?;
+            new_columns.push(new_column);
+            new_fields.push(new_field);
         }
+
+        let new_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new_with_metadata(
+            new_fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            batch_schema.metadata().clone(),
+        ));
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(new_schema, new_columns)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))
     }
 
-    pub fn new_dedicated(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, path: Path, size: u64) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            object_store: dataset.object_store.clone(),
-            path,
-            position: 0,
-            size,
-            kind: BlobKind::Dedicated,
-            uri: None,
-            reader: Arc::new(Mutex::new(ReaderState::Uninitialized(0))),
+    fn preprocess_field<'a>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        processor: &'a BlobPreprocessField,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        field: &'a Arc<ArrowField>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<(ArrayRef, Arc<ArrowField>)>> {
+        async move {
+            if blob_v2_layout(field.as_ref()) == Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) {
+                validate_prepared_blob_array(field.as_ref(), &array)?;
+                let values = array.as_struct();
+                let kinds = values
+                    .column_by_name("kind")
+                    .expect("validated prepared kind")
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+                let ids = values
+                    .column_by_name("blob_id")
+                    .expect("validated prepared base")
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+                for row in 0..values.len() {
+                    if !values.is_null(row)
+                        && kinds.is_valid(row)
+                        && kinds.value(row) == BlobKind::ManagedWithBase as u8
+                    {
+                        let id = ids.value(row);
+                        if !self
+                            .external_base_resolver
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .is_some_and(|resolver| resolver.registered_base_ids.contains(id))
+                        {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "Managed blob references unknown base_id {id}"
+                            )));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                if self.part_blob_ids.is_some()
+                    && let BlobPreprocessFieldKind::BlobV2 {
+                        pack_file_threshold,
+                        writer_metadata,
+                        ..
+                    } = &processor.kind
+                {
+                    return self
+                        .prepare_blob_for_part(
+                            array,
+                            field.as_ref(),
+                            *pack_file_threshold,
+                            writer_metadata,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                }
+                return Ok((array, field.clone()));
+            }
+
+            match &processor.kind {
+                BlobPreprocessFieldKind::Passthrough => Ok((array, field.clone())),
+                BlobPreprocessFieldKind::BlobV2 {
+                    inline_threshold,
+                    dedicated_threshold,
+                    pack_file_threshold,
+                    writer_metadata,
+                } => {
+                    self.logical_to_prepared_blob_array(
+                        array,
+                        field.as_ref(),
+                        *inline_threshold,
+                        *dedicated_threshold,
+                        *pack_file_threshold,
+                        writer_metadata,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                }
+                BlobPreprocessFieldKind::Struct { children } => {
+                    self.preprocess_struct_array(array, field.as_ref(), children)
+                        .await
+                }
+                BlobPreprocessFieldKind::List { child } => match field.data_type() {
+                    ArrowDataType::List(_) => {
+                        self.preprocess_list_array::<i32>(array, field.as_ref(), child)
+                            .await
+                    }
+                    ArrowDataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                        self.preprocess_list_array::<i64>(array, field.as_ref(), child)
+                            .await
+                    }
+                    _ => Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Blob list preprocessor received non-list field '{}'",
+                        field.name()
+                    ))),
+                },
+            }
         }
+        .boxed()
     }
-    pub fn new_packed(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, path: Path, position: u64, size: u64) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            object_store: dataset.object_store.clone(),
-            path,
-            position,
-            size,
-            kind: BlobKind::Packed,
-            uri: None,
-            reader: Arc::new(Mutex::new(ReaderState::Uninitialized(0))),
+
+    async fn preprocess_struct_array(
+        &mut self,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        field: &ArrowField,
+        children: &[BlobPreprocessField],
+    ) -> Result<(ArrayRef, Arc<ArrowField>)> {
+        let struct_arr = array
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Struct field was not a struct array"))?;
+        if struct_arr.num_columns() != children.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Struct field '{}' expected {} children, got {}",
+                field.name(),
+                children.len(),
+                struct_arr.num_columns()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let struct_arr = struct_arr.normalize_slicing()?;
+        let parent_nulls = struct_arr.nulls().cloned();
+        let pushed_down = struct_arr.pushdown_nulls()?;
+        let child_fields = pushed_down.fields().clone();
+        let child_columns = pushed_down.columns().to_vec();
+
+        let mut new_columns = Vec::with_capacity(children.len());
+        let mut new_fields = Vec::with_capacity(children.len());
+        for ((child_processor, child_array), child_field) in
+            children.iter().zip(child_columns).zip(child_fields.iter())
+        {
+            let (new_column, new_field) = self
+                .preprocess_field(child_processor, child_array, child_field)
+                .await?;
+            new_columns.push(new_column);
+            new_fields.push(new_field);
         }
+
+        let struct_array =
+            StructArray::try_new(new_fields.clone().into(), new_columns, parent_nulls)?;
+        let field = Arc::new(
+            ArrowField::new(
+                field.name(),
+                ArrowDataType::Struct(new_fields.into()),
+                field.is_nullable(),
+            )
+            .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+        );
+        Ok((Arc::new(struct_array), field))
     }
-    pub async fn new_external(
-        uri: String,
-        size: u64,
-        registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
-        params: Arc<ObjectStoreParams>,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let (object_store, path) =
-            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, &uri, &params).await?;
-        let size = if size > 0 {
-            size
+
+    async fn preprocess_list_array<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+        &mut self,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        field: &ArrowField,
+        child: &BlobPreprocessField,
+    ) -> Result<(ArrayRef, Arc<ArrowField>)> {
+        let list_arr = array.as_list::<O>();
+        let list_arr = if list_arr.null_count() > 0 {
+            list_arr.filter_garbage_nulls()
         } else {
-            object_store.size(&path).await?
+            list_arr.clone()
         };
-        Ok(Self {
-            object_store,
-            path,
-            position: 0,
-            size,
-            kind: BlobKind::External,
-            uri: Some(uri),
-            reader: Arc::new(Mutex::new(ReaderState::Uninitialized(0))),
-        })
-    }
 
-    /// Close the blob file, releasing any associated resources
-    pub async fn close(&self) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut reader = self.reader.lock().await;
-        *reader = ReaderState::Closed;
-        Ok(())
-    }
+        let first_offset = *list_arr
+            .offsets()
+            .first()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("List offsets cannot be empty"))?;
+        let last_offset = *list_arr
+            .offsets()
+            .last()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("List offsets cannot be empty"))?;
+        let values_len = list_arr.values().len();
+        let needs_trim = first_offset != O::zero()
+            || last_offset.to_usize().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "List field '{}' offset does not fit into usize",
+                    field.name()
+                ))
+            })? != values_len;
+
+        let (offsets, values) = if needs_trim {
+            let values = list_arr.trimmed_values();
+            let offsets = list_arr
+                .offsets()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|offset| *offset - first_offset)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            (OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)), values)
+        } else {
+            (list_arr.offsets().clone(), list_arr.values().clone())
+        };
 
-    /// Returns true if the blob file is closed
-    pub async fn is_closed(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(*self.reader.lock().await, ReaderState::Closed)
+        let child_field = match field.data_type() {
+            ArrowDataType::List(child_field) | ArrowDataType::LargeList(child_field) => {
+                child_field.clone()
+            }
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob list preprocessor expected list field '{}', got {other}",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        let (new_values, new_child_field) =
+            self.preprocess_field(child, values, &child_field).await?;
+
+        let list_array = GenericListArray::<O>::try_new(
+            new_child_field,
+            offsets,
+            new_values,
+            list_arr.nulls().cloned(),
+        )?;
+        let field = Arc::new(
+            ArrowField::new(
+                field.name(),
+                list_array.data_type().clone(),
+                field.is_nullable(),
+            )
+            .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+        );
+        Ok((Arc::new(list_array), field))
     }
 
-    async fn do_with_reader<
-        T,
-        Fut: Future<Output = Result<(u64, T)>>,
-        Func: FnOnce(u64, Arc<dyn Reader>) -> Fut,
-    >(
-        &self,
-        func: Func,
-    ) -> Result<T> {
-        let mut reader = self.reader.lock().await;
-        if let ReaderState::Uninitialized(cursor) = *reader {
-            let opened = self.object_store.open(&self.path).await?;
-            let opened = Arc::<dyn Reader>::from(opened);
-            *reader = ReaderState::Open((cursor, opened.clone()));
-        }
-        match reader.deref_mut() {
-            ReaderState::Open((cursor, reader)) => {
-                let (new_cursor, data) = func(*cursor, reader.clone()).await?;
-                *cursor = new_cursor;
-                Ok(data)
-            }
-            ReaderState::Closed => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Blob file is already closed".to_string(),
-                location!(),
-            )),
-            _ => unreachable!(),
+    async fn logical_to_prepared_blob_array(
+        &mut self,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        field: &ArrowField,
+        inline_threshold: usize,
+        dedicated_threshold: usize,
+        pack_file_threshold: usize,
+        writer_metadata: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<(ArrayRef, Arc<ArrowField>)> {
+        // Legacy byte input follows the same per-leaf preparation as logical v2 input.
+        let array = if matches!(
+            array.data_type(),
+            ArrowDataType::Binary | ArrowDataType::LargeBinary
+        ) {
+            Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
+                lance_core::datatypes::BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_MINIMAL_FIELDS.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    arrow::compute::cast(&array, &ArrowDataType::LargeBinary)?,
+                    arrow_array::new_null_array(&ArrowDataType::Utf8, array.len()),
+                ],
+                array.nulls().cloned(),
+            )?) as ArrayRef
+        } else {
+            array
+        };
+        let struct_arr = array
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Blob column was not a struct array"))?;
+        if BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_arr.fields()) != Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical) {
+            let actual = BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_arr.fields())
+                .map(|layout| layout.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| format!("unrecognized ({:?})", struct_arr.fields()));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob v2 field '{}' has {actual} array layout; expected logical layout before preparation",
+                field.name()
+            )));
         }
-    }
 
-    /// Read the entire blob file from the current cursor position
-    /// to the end of the file
-    ///
-    /// After this call the cursor will be pointing to the end of
-    /// the file.
-    pub async fn read(&self) -> Result<bytes::Bytes> {
-        let position = self.position;
-        let size = self.size;
-        self.do_with_reader(|cursor, reader| async move {
-            let start = position as usize + cursor as usize;
-            let end = (position + size) as usize;
-            Ok((end as u64, reader.get_range(start..end).await?))
-        })
-        .await
-    }
+        let data_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("data")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Blob struct missing `data` field"))?
+            .as_binary::<i64>();
+        let uri_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("uri")
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Blob struct missing `uri` field"))?
+            .as_string::<i32>();
+        let position_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("position")
+            .map(|col| col.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>());
+        let size_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("size")
+            .map(|col| col.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>());
+
+        let mut blob_writer = self.blob_writer_with_metadata(field, writer_metadata.clone());
+
+        for i in 0..struct_arr.len() {
+            if struct_arr.is_null(i) {
+                blob_writer.push_null()?;
+                continue;
+            }
 
-    /// Read up to `len` bytes from the current cursor position
-    ///
-    /// After this call the cursor will be pointing to the end of
-    /// the read data.
-    pub async fn read_up_to(&self, len: usize) -> Result<bytes::Bytes> {
-        let position = self.position;
-        let size = self.size;
-        self.do_with_reader(|cursor, reader| async move {
-            let start = position as usize + cursor as usize;
-            let read_size = len.min((size - cursor) as usize);
-            let end = start + read_size;
-            let data = reader.get_range(start..end).await?;
-            Ok((end as u64 - position, data))
-        })
-        .await
-    }
+            let has_data = !data_col.is_null(i);
+            let has_uri = !uri_col.is_null(i);
+            let has_position = position_col
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|col| !col.is_null(i))
+                .unwrap_or(false);
+            let has_size = size_col
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|col| !col.is_null(i))
+                .unwrap_or(false);
+
+            if has_position != has_size {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field '{}' row {i} must set both `position` and `size`, or neither",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
+            }
+            if has_position && !has_uri {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field '{}' row {i} sets `position` and `size` but `uri` is null",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
+            }
+            if has_data == has_uri {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field '{}' row {i} must set exactly one of `data` and `uri`",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
+            }
+            if has_size && size_col.as_ref().is_some_and(|col| col.value(i) == 0) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field '{}' row {i} external range `size` must be greater than zero",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
+            }
 
-    /// Seek to a new cursor position in the file
-    pub async fn seek(&self, new_cursor: u64) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut reader = self.reader.lock().await;
-        match reader.deref_mut() {
-            ReaderState::Open((cursor, _)) => {
-                *cursor = new_cursor;
-                Ok(())
+            let data_len = if has_data { data_col.value(i).len() } else { 0 };
+
+            if has_data && data_len > dedicated_threshold {
+                let value = self
+                    .write_dedicated(BlobWriteSource::Bytes(data_col.value(i)))
+                    .await?;
+                blob_writer.push(value)?;
+                continue;
             }
-            ReaderState::Closed => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Blob file is already closed".to_string(),
-                location!(),
-            )),
-            ReaderState::Uninitialized(cursor) => {
-                *cursor = new_cursor;
-                Ok(())
+
+            if has_data && data_len > inline_threshold {
+                let value = self
+                    .write_packed(
+                        pack_file_threshold,
+                        BlobWriteSource::Bytes(data_col.value(i)),
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                blob_writer.push(value)?;
+                continue;
             }
-        }
-    }
 
-    /// Return the current cursor position in the file
-    pub async fn tell(&self) -> Result<u64> {
-        let reader = self.reader.lock().await;
-        match *reader {
-            ReaderState::Open((cursor, _)) => Ok(cursor),
-            ReaderState::Closed => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Blob file is already closed".to_string(),
-                location!(),
-            )),
-            ReaderState::Uninitialized(cursor) => Ok(cursor),
+            if has_uri {
+                let uri_val = uri_col.value(i);
+                if self.external_blob_mode == ExternalBlobMode::Ingest {
+                    let position = if has_position {
+                        Some(
+                            position_col
+                                .as_ref()
+                                .expect("position column must exist")
+                                .value(i),
+                        )
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+                    let size = if has_size {
+                        Some(size_col.as_ref().expect("size column must exist").value(i))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+                    let source = self.open_external_source(uri_val, position, size).await?;
+                    let data_len = source.size();
+
+                    if data_len > dedicated_threshold as u64 {
+                        let value = self
+                            .write_dedicated(BlobWriteSource::External(&source))
+                            .await?;
+                        blob_writer.push(value)?;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+
+                    if data_len > inline_threshold as u64 {
+                        let value = self
+                            .write_packed(pack_file_threshold, BlobWriteSource::External(&source))
+                            .await?;
+                        blob_writer.push(value)?;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+
+                    let data = source.read_all().await?;
+                    blob_writer.push_inline(data)?;
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                let (external_base_id, external_uri_or_path) =
+                    self.resolve_external_reference(uri_val).await?;
+                let range = if has_position && has_size {
+                    BlobRange {
+                        offset: position_col
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .expect("position column must exist")
+                            .value(i),
+                        size: size_col.as_ref().expect("size column must exist").value(i),
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    BlobRange { offset: 0, size: 0 }
+                };
+                blob_writer.push(BlobDescriptor::External {
+                    base_id: external_base_id,
+                    uri: external_uri_or_path,
+                    offset: range.offset,
+                    size: range.size,
+                })?;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            if has_data {
+                blob_writer.push_inline(Bytes::copy_from_slice(data_col.value(i)))?;
+            } else {
+                blob_writer.push_null()?;
+            }
         }
+
+        let column = blob_writer.finish()?;
+        let (field, array) = column.into_parts();
+        Ok((array, Arc::new(field)))
     }
 
-    /// Return the size of the blob file in bytes
-    pub fn size(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.size
+    pub(crate) async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.pack_writer.finish().await
     }
 
-    pub fn position(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.position
+    pub(super) fn abort(&mut self) {
+        self.pack_writer.abort();
     }
+}
 
-    pub fn data_path(&self) -> &Path {
-        &self.path
+fn prepared_blob_to_descriptor(
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+    field: &ArrowField,
+) -> Result<(ArrayRef, Arc<ArrowField>)> {
+    validate_prepared_blob_array(field, array)?;
+    let values = array.as_struct();
+    let kinds = values
+        .column_by_name("kind")
+        .expect("validated prepared Blob has kind")
+        .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+    let data = values
+        .column_by_name("data")
+        .expect("validated prepared Blob has data")
+        .as_binary::<i64>();
+    let uris = values
+        .column_by_name("uri")
+        .expect("validated prepared Blob has uri")
+        .as_string::<i32>();
+    let blob_ids = values
+        .column_by_name("blob_id")
+        .expect("validated prepared Blob has blob_id")
+        .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+    let sizes = values
+        .column_by_name("blob_size")
+        .expect("validated prepared Blob has blob_size")
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let positions = values
+        .column_by_name("position")
+        .expect("validated prepared Blob has position")
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+
+    let mut output_kinds = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+    let mut output_positions = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+    let mut output_sizes = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+    let mut output_ids = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+    let mut output_uris = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+
+    for row in 0..values.len() {
+        if values.is_null(row) {
+            output_kinds.push(BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+            output_positions.push(0);
+            output_sizes.push(0);
+            output_ids.push(0);
+            output_uris.push(String::new());
+            continue;
+        }
+        match BlobKind::try_from(kinds.value(row))? {
+            BlobKind::Inline => {
+                let inline = data.value(row);
+                output_kinds.push(BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+                output_positions.push(0);
+                output_sizes.push(inline.len() as u64);
+                output_ids.push(0);
+                output_uris.push(String::new());
+            }
+            BlobKind::Packed => {
+                output_kinds.push(BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+                output_positions.push(positions.value(row));
+                output_sizes.push(sizes.value(row));
+                output_ids.push(blob_ids.value(row));
+                output_uris.push(String::new());
+            }
+            BlobKind::Dedicated => {
+                output_kinds.push(BlobKind::Dedicated as u8);
+                output_positions.push(0);
+                output_sizes.push(sizes.value(row));
+                output_ids.push(blob_ids.value(row));
+                output_uris.push(String::new());
+            }
+            BlobKind::Managed | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase => {
+                output_kinds.push(kinds.value(row));
+                output_positions.push(positions.value(row));
+                output_sizes.push(sizes.value(row));
+                output_ids.push(if kinds.value(row) == BlobKind::ManagedWithBase as u8 {
+                    blob_ids.value(row)
+                } else {
+                    0
+                });
+                output_uris.push(uris.value(row).to_string());
+            }
+            BlobKind::External => {
+                output_kinds.push(BlobKind::External as u8);
+                output_positions.push(if positions.is_null(row) {
+                    0
+                } else {
+                    positions.value(row)
+                });
+                output_sizes.push(if sizes.is_null(row) {
+                    0
+                } else {
+                    sizes.value(row)
+                });
+                output_ids.push(if blob_ids.is_null(row) {
+                    0
+                } else {
+                    blob_ids.value(row)
+                });
+                output_uris.push(uris.value(row).to_string());
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    pub fn kind(&self) -> BlobKind {
-        self.kind
+    let descriptor = StructArray::try_new(
+        BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(output_kinds)),
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(output_positions)),
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(output_sizes)),
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(output_ids)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(output_uris)),
+        ],
+        values.nulls().cloned(),
+    )?;
+    let field = Arc::new(
+        ArrowField::new(
+            field.name(),
+            descriptor.data_type().clone(),
+            field.is_nullable(),
+        )
+        .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+    );
+    Ok((Arc::new(descriptor), field))
+}
+
+fn prepared_field_to_descriptor(
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+    field: &Arc<ArrowField>,
+) -> Result<(ArrayRef, Arc<ArrowField>)> {
+    if blob_v2_layout(field.as_ref()) == Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) {
+        return prepared_blob_to_descriptor(array, field.as_ref());
     }
 
-    pub fn uri(&self) -> Option<&str> {
-        self.uri.as_deref()
+    match field.data_type() {
+        ArrowDataType::Struct(children) => {
+            let values = array.as_struct();
+            let converted = values
+                .columns()
+                .iter()
+                .zip(children.iter())
+                .map(|(array, field)| prepared_field_to_descriptor(array, field))
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            let (arrays, fields): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = converted.into_iter().unzip();
+            let output = StructArray::try_new(fields.into(), arrays, values.nulls().cloned())?;
+            let field = Arc::new(
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    field.name(),
+                    output.data_type().clone(),
+                    field.is_nullable(),
+                )
+                .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+            );
+            Ok((Arc::new(output), field))
+        }
+        ArrowDataType::List(child) => {
+            let values = array.as_list::<i32>();
+            let (child_array, child_field) = prepared_field_to_descriptor(values.values(), child)?;
+            let output = GenericListArray::<i32>::try_new(
+                child_field,
+                values.offsets().clone(),
+                child_array,
+                values.nulls().cloned(),
+            )?;
+            let field = Arc::new(
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    field.name(),
+                    output.data_type().clone(),
+                    field.is_nullable(),
+                )
+                .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+            );
+            Ok((Arc::new(output), field))
+        }
+        ArrowDataType::LargeList(child) => {
+            let values = array.as_list::<i64>();
+            let (child_array, child_field) = prepared_field_to_descriptor(values.values(), child)?;
+            let output = GenericListArray::<i64>::try_new(
+                child_field,
+                values.offsets().clone(),
+                child_array,
+                values.nulls().cloned(),
+            )?;
+            let field = Arc::new(
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    field.name(),
+                    output.data_type().clone(),
+                    field.is_nullable(),
+                )
+                .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+            );
+            Ok((Arc::new(output), field))
+        }
+        _ => Ok((array.clone(), field.clone())),
     }
 }
 
-pub(super) async fn take_blobs(
-    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
-    row_ids: &[u64],
-    column: &str,
-) -> Result<Vec<BlobFile>> {
-    let projection = dataset.schema().project(&[column])?;
-    let blob_field = &projection.fields[0];
-    let blob_field_id = blob_field.id;
-    if !projection.fields[0].is_blob() {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            location: location!(),
-            source: format!("the column '{}' is not a blob column", column).into(),
-        });
+pub fn prepared_blob_batch_to_descriptors(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let converted = batch
+        .columns()
+        .iter()
+        .zip(batch.schema().fields().iter())
+        .map(|(array, field)| prepared_field_to_descriptor(array, field))
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    let (columns, fields): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = converted.into_iter().unzip();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        fields,
+        batch.schema().metadata().clone(),
+    ));
+    RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+        schema,
+        columns,
+        &arrow_array::RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(batch.num_rows())),
+    )
+    .map_err(|error| Error::internal(format!("convert prepared MemWAL Blob batch: {error}")))
+}
+
+fn collect_prepared_blob_ids(
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+    field: &Arc<ArrowField>,
+    blob_ids: &mut HashSet<u32>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if blob_v2_layout(field.as_ref()) == Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared) {
+        validate_prepared_blob_array(field.as_ref(), array)?;
+        let values = array.as_struct();
+        let kinds = values
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .expect("validated prepared Blob has kind")
+            .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+        let ids = values
+            .column_by_name("blob_id")
+            .expect("validated prepared Blob has blob_id")
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        for row in 0..values.len() {
+            if values.is_valid(row)
+                && matches!(
+                    BlobKind::try_from(kinds.value(row))?,
+                    BlobKind::Packed | BlobKind::Dedicated
+                )
+            {
+                blob_ids.insert(ids.value(row));
+            }
+        }
+        return Ok(());
     }
-    let description_and_addr = dataset
-        .take_builder(row_ids, projection)?
-        .with_row_address(true)
-        .execute()
-        .await?;
-    let descriptions = description_and_addr.column(0).as_struct();
-    let row_addrs = description_and_addr.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-    let blob_field_id = blob_field_id as u32;
 
-    match blob_version_from_descriptions(descriptions)? {
-        BlobVersion::V1 => collect_blob_files_v1(dataset, blob_field_id, descriptions, row_addrs),
-        BlobVersion::V2 => {
-            collect_blob_files_v2(dataset, blob_field_id, descriptions, row_addrs).await
+    match field.data_type() {
+        ArrowDataType::Struct(children) => {
+            let values = array.as_struct();
+            for (child_array, child_field) in values.columns().iter().zip(children.iter()) {
+                collect_prepared_blob_ids(child_array, child_field, blob_ids)?;
+            }
         }
+        ArrowDataType::List(child) => {
+            collect_prepared_blob_ids(array.as_list::<i32>().values(), child, blob_ids)?;
+        }
+        ArrowDataType::LargeList(child) => {
+            collect_prepared_blob_ids(array.as_list::<i64>().values(), child, blob_ids)?;
+        }
+        _ => {}
     }
+    Ok(())
 }
 
-/// Take [BlobFile] by row addresses.
+pub fn prepared_blob_ids(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<HashSet<u32>> {
+    let mut blob_ids = HashSet::new();
+    for (array, field) in batch.columns().iter().zip(batch.schema().fields().iter()) {
+        collect_prepared_blob_ids(array, field, &mut blob_ids)?;
+    }
+    Ok(blob_ids)
+}
+
+/// Shared physical read context for blob handles that resolve to the same object.
 ///
-/// Row addresses are `u64` values encoding `(fragment_id << 32) | row_offset`.
-/// Use this method when you already have row addresses, for example from
-/// a scan with `with_row_address()`. For row IDs (stable identifiers), use
-/// [`Dataset::take_blobs`]. For row indices (offsets), use
-/// [`Dataset::take_blobs_by_indices`].
-pub async fn take_blobs_by_addresses(
-    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
-    row_addrs: &[u64],
-    column: &str,
-) -> Result<Vec<BlobFile>> {
-    let projection = dataset.schema().project(&[column])?;
-    let blob_field = &projection.fields[0];
-    let blob_field_id = blob_field.id;
-    if !projection.fields[0].is_blob() {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            location: location!(),
-            source: format!("the column '{}' is not a blob column", column).into(),
-        });
-    }
+/// Blob descriptors are logical slices over a backing object (data file, packed
+/// sidecar, dedicated sidecar, or external object). Multiple [`BlobFile`] values
+/// can point at different regions of that same object. This struct gives those
+/// handles a single lazy-open scheduler plus a lightweight pending queue so
+/// concurrent reads can be opportunistically grouped before reaching Lance's
+/// existing I/O scheduler.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BlobSource {
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    path: Path,
+    scheduler: OnceCell<FileScheduler>,
+    pending_reads: Mutex<PendingBlobReads>,
+    /// Calls to [`BlobSource::read_ranges`]. Shared by every handle on this
+    /// source. The I/O scheduler may combine or split a submission.
+    range_submissions: AtomicUsize,
+}
 
-    // Convert Schema to ProjectionPlan
-    let projection_request = ProjectionRequest::from(projection);
-    let projection_plan = Arc::new(projection_request.into_projection_plan(dataset.clone())?);
+impl BlobSource {
+    /// Create a shared read context for one physical backing object.
+    fn new(object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            object_store,
+            path,
+            scheduler: OnceCell::new(),
+            pending_reads: Mutex::new(PendingBlobReads::default()),
+            range_submissions: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        }
+    }
 
-    // Use try_new_from_addresses to bypass row ID index lookup.
-    // This is critical when enable_stable_row_ids=true because row addresses
-    // (fragment_id << 32 | row_offset) are different from row IDs (sequential integers).
-    let description_and_addr =
-        TakeBuilder::try_new_from_addresses(dataset.clone(), row_addrs.to_vec(), projection_plan)?
-            .with_row_address(true)
-            .execute()
+    /// Read one or more physical ranges from this source.
+    ///
+    /// Concurrent callers enqueue their requests into `pending_reads`. The first
+    /// caller in a drain cycle becomes the leader and spawns the batch drain task.
+    /// The mutex critical section only updates in-memory queue bookkeeping; the
+    /// actual scheduler submission happens after the lock is released.
+    async fn read_ranges(self: &Arc<Self>, ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>) -> Result<Vec<Bytes>> {
+        if ranges.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        self.range_submissions.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+        let scheduler = self
+            .scheduler
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                let reader = self.object_store.open(&self.path).await?;
+                let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+                    self.object_store.clone(),
+                    SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(self.object_store.as_ref()),
+                );
+                Ok::<_, Error>(scheduler.open_reader(reader.into()))
+            })
             .await?;
 
-    let descriptions = description_and_addr.column(0).as_struct();
-    let row_addrs_result = description_and_addr.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-    let blob_field_id = blob_field_id as u32;
+        let (response_tx, response_rx) = oneshot::channel();
+        let should_spawn = {
+            let mut pending_reads = self.pending_reads.lock().await;
+            pending_reads.requests.push(PendingBlobRead {
+                ranges,
+                response: response_tx,
+            });
+            if pending_reads.is_draining {
+                false
+            } else {
+                pending_reads.is_draining = true;
+                true
+            }
+        };
 
-    match blob_version_from_descriptions(descriptions)? {
-        BlobVersion::V1 => {
-            collect_blob_files_v1(dataset, blob_field_id, descriptions, row_addrs_result)
-        }
-        BlobVersion::V2 => {
-            collect_blob_files_v2(dataset, blob_field_id, descriptions, row_addrs_result).await
+        if should_spawn {
+            let source = self.clone();
+            let scheduler = scheduler.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                let result = AssertUnwindSafe(source.clone().drain_pending_reads(scheduler))
+                    .catch_unwind()
+                    .await;
+                if let Err(panic) = result {
+                    let mut pending_reads = source.pending_reads.lock().await;
+                    pending_reads.is_draining = false;
+                    std::panic::resume_unwind(panic);
+                }
+            });
         }
-    }
-}
 
-fn blob_version_from_descriptions(descriptions: &StructArray) -> Result<BlobVersion> {
-    let fields = descriptions.fields();
-    if fields.len() == 2 && fields[0].name() == "position" && fields[1].name() == "size" {
-        return Ok(BlobVersion::V1);
+        response_rx.await.map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal("Blob source read task dropped the response".to_string())
+        })?
     }
-    if fields.len() == 5
-        && fields[0].name() == "kind"
-        && fields[1].name() == "position"
-        && fields[2].name() == "size"
-        && fields[3].name() == "blob_id"
-        && fields[4].name() == "blob_uri"
-    {
-        return Ok(BlobVersion::V2);
+
+    /// Drain currently queued requests and submit them as scheduler batches.
+    ///
+    /// Each loop iteration grabs the queued requests with a short mutex hold and
+    /// dispatches them without waiting for earlier batches to finish. Awaiting a
+    /// batch here would hold later, naturally staggered callers behind its I/O.
+    /// [`FileScheduler`] owns the concurrency and backpressure for dispatched I/O.
+    async fn drain_pending_reads(self: Arc<Self>, scheduler: FileScheduler) {
+        loop {
+            let batch = {
+                let mut pending_reads = self.pending_reads.lock().await;
+                if pending_reads.requests.is_empty() {
+                    pending_reads.is_draining = false;
+                    return;
+                }
+                std::mem::take(&mut pending_reads.requests)
+            };
+            let scheduler = scheduler.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                fulfill_pending_blob_reads(&scheduler, batch).await;
+            });
+        }
     }
-    Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-        source: format!(
-            "Unrecognized blob descriptions schema: expected v1 (position,size) or v2 (kind,position,size,blob_id,blob_uri) but got {:?}",
-            fields.iter().map(|f| f.name().as_str()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-        )
-        .into(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })
 }
 
-fn collect_blob_files_v1(
-    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
-    blob_field_id: u32,
-    descriptions: &StructArray,
-    row_addrs: &arrow::array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
-) -> Result<Vec<BlobFile>> {
-    let positions = descriptions.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-    let sizes = descriptions.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-
-    Ok(row_addrs
-        .values()
-        .iter()
-        .zip(positions.iter())
-        .zip(sizes.iter())
-        .filter_map(|((row_addr, position), size)| {
-            let position = position?;
-            let size = size?;
-            Some((*row_addr, position, size))
-        })
-        .map(|(row_addr, position, size)| {
-            BlobFile::new_inline(dataset.clone(), blob_field_id, row_addr, position, size)
-        })
-        .collect())
+/// Queue of pending logical blob reads for one [`BlobSource`].
+///
+/// `is_draining` marks whether a leader task is already draining the queue.
+#[derive(Default, Debug)]
+struct PendingBlobReads {
+    requests: Vec<PendingBlobRead>,
+    is_draining: bool,
 }
 
-async fn collect_blob_files_v2(
-    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
-    blob_field_id: u32,
-    descriptions: &StructArray,
-    row_addrs: &arrow::array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
-) -> Result<Vec<BlobFile>> {
-    let kinds = descriptions.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
-    let positions = descriptions.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-    let sizes = descriptions.column(2).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-    let blob_ids = descriptions.column(3).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
-    let blob_uris = descriptions.column(4).as_string::<i32>();
+/// Pending logical blob reads waiting to be grouped into one scheduler batch.
+///
+/// This queue exists only to combine overlapping concurrent calls. The actual
+/// coalescing and physical I/O scheduling still happens in [`FileScheduler`].
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PendingBlobRead {
+    ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+    response: oneshot::Sender<Result<Vec<Bytes>>>,
+}
 
-    let mut files = Vec::with_capacity(row_addrs.len());
-    for (idx, row_addr) in row_addrs.values().iter().enumerate() {
-        let kind = BlobKind::try_from(kinds.value(idx))?;
+/// Submit one grouped batch of pending blob reads to Lance's [`FileScheduler`].
+///
+/// The function flattens all logical requests into one range list, preserves the
+/// caller-visible order for each request, and fans the bytes back out after the
+/// scheduler completes its own merge / split logic.
+async fn fulfill_pending_blob_reads(scheduler: &FileScheduler, batch: Vec<PendingBlobRead>) {
+    let total_ranges = batch
+        .iter()
+        .map(|request| request.ranges.len())
+        .sum::<usize>();
+    let mut request_ranges = Vec::with_capacity(total_ranges);
+    let mut response = batch
+        .iter()
+        .map(|request| vec![Bytes::new(); request.ranges.len()])
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        // Struct is non-nullable; null rows are encoded as inline with zero position/size and empty uri
-        if matches!(kind, BlobKind::Inline) && positions.value(idx) == 0 && sizes.value(idx) == 0 {
-            continue;
+    for (request_idx, request) in batch.iter().enumerate() {
+        for (range_idx, range) in request.ranges.iter().enumerate() {
+            if range.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            request_ranges.push((range.clone(), request_idx, range_idx));
         }
+    }
 
-        match kind {
-            BlobKind::Inline => {
-                let position = positions.value(idx);
-                let size = sizes.value(idx);
-                files.push(BlobFile::new_inline(
-                    dataset.clone(),
-                    blob_field_id,
-                    *row_addr,
-                    position,
-                    size,
-                ));
-            }
-            BlobKind::Dedicated => {
-                let blob_id = blob_ids.value(idx);
-                let size = sizes.value(idx);
-                let frag_id = RowAddress::from(*row_addr).fragment_id();
-                let frag =
-                    dataset
-                        .get_fragment(frag_id as usize)
-                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Fragment not found".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-                let data_file =
-                    frag.data_file_for_field(blob_field_id)
-                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Data file not found for blob field".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-
-                let data_file_key = data_file_key_from_path(data_file.path.as_str());
-                let path = blob_path(&dataset.data_dir(), data_file_key, blob_id);
-                files.push(BlobFile::new_dedicated(dataset.clone(), path, size));
+    let result = if request_ranges.is_empty() {
+        Ok(())
+    } else {
+        request_ranges.sort_by_key(|(range, _, _)| (range.start, range.end));
+        let priority = request_ranges[0].0.start;
+        match scheduler
+            .submit_request(
+                request_ranges
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(range, _, _)| range.clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                priority,
+            )
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(bytes_vec) => {
+                for ((_, request_idx, range_idx), bytes) in
+                    request_ranges.into_iter().zip(bytes_vec)
+                {
+                    response[request_idx][range_idx] = bytes;
+                }
+                Ok(())
             }
-            BlobKind::Packed => {
-                let blob_id = blob_ids.value(idx);
-                let size = sizes.value(idx);
-                let position = positions.value(idx);
-                let frag_id = RowAddress::from(*row_addr).fragment_id();
-                let frag =
-                    dataset
-                        .get_fragment(frag_id as usize)
-                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Fragment not found".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-                let data_file =
-                    frag.data_file_for_field(blob_field_id)
-                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Data file not found for blob field".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-                let data_file_key = data_file_key_from_path(data_file.path.as_str());
-                let path = blob_path(&dataset.data_dir(), data_file_key, blob_id);
-                files.push(BlobFile::new_packed(dataset.clone(), path, position, size));
+            Err(err) => Err(err),
+        }
+    };
+
+    match result {
+        Ok(()) => {
+            for (request, bytes) in batch.into_iter().zip(response) {
+                let _ = request.response.send(Ok(bytes));
             }
-            BlobKind::External => {
-                let uri = blob_uris.value(idx).to_string();
-                let size = sizes.value(idx);
-                let registry = dataset.session.store_registry();
-                let params = dataset
-                    .store_params
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .map(|p| Arc::new((**p).clone()))
-                    .unwrap_or_else(|| Arc::new(ObjectStoreParams::default()));
-                files.push(BlobFile::new_external(uri, size, registry, params).await?);
+        }
+        Err(err) => {
+            let message = format!(
+                "Failed to read blob source {}: {}",
+                scheduler.reader().path(),
+                err
+            );
+            for request in batch {
+                let _ = request.response.send(Err(Error::io(message.clone())));
             }
         }
     }
-
-    Ok(files)
 }
 
-fn data_file_key_from_path(path: &str) -> &str {
-    let filename = path.rsplit('/').next().unwrap_or(path);
-    filename.strip_suffix(".lance").unwrap_or(filename)
+/// Cache key for sharing one [`BlobSource`] across multiple blob descriptors.
+///
+/// We include the store prefix as well as the path so the same path string in
+/// different object stores is never conflated.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+struct BlobSourceKey {
+    store_prefix: String,
+    path: String,
 }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use std::sync::Arc;
-
-    use arrow::{array::AsArray, datatypes::UInt64Type};
-    use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-    use arrow_array::{RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-    use futures::TryStreamExt;
-    use lance_arrow::{DataTypeExt, BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY};
-    use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
-    use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream;
-
-    use lance_core::{utils::tempfile::TempStrDir, Error, Result};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
-    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+impl BlobSourceKey {
+    /// Build the cache key for one shared [`BlobSource`].
+    fn new(source: &BlobSource) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            store_prefix: source.object_store.store_prefix.clone(),
+            path: source.path.to_string(),
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-    use super::data_file_key_from_path;
-    use crate::{
-        blob::{blob_field, BlobArrayBuilder},
-        dataset::WriteParams,
-        utils::test::TestDatasetGenerator,
-        Dataset,
+/// Return a shared [`BlobSource`] for the given physical object.
+///
+/// This keeps all blob handles that resolve to the same `(store, path)` on a
+/// single lazy-open scheduler and pending-read queue.
+fn shared_blob_source(
+    source_cache: &mut HashMap<BlobSourceKey, Arc<BlobSource>>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    path: &Path,
+) -> Arc<BlobSource> {
+    let key = BlobSourceKey {
+        store_prefix: object_store.store_prefix.clone(),
+        path: path.to_string(),
     };
+    source_cache
+        .entry(key)
+        .or_insert_with(|| Arc::new(BlobSource::new(object_store, path.clone())))
+        .clone()
+}
 
-    struct BlobTestFixture {
-        _test_dir: TempStrDir,
-        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-        data: Vec<RecordBatch>,
-    }
-
-    impl BlobTestFixture {
-        async fn new() -> Self {
-            let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+/// A file-like object that represents a blob in a dataset
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct BlobFile {
+    source: Arc<BlobSource>,
+    state: Arc<Mutex<BlobFileState>>,
+    position: u64,
+    size: u64,
+    kind: BlobKind,
+    uri: Option<String>,
+}
 
-            let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-                .col("filterme", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-                .col("blobs", array::blob())
-                .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(10))
-                .map(|batch| Ok(batch?))
-                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
-                .unwrap();
+/// Base-aware physical location metadata used while resolving blob reads.
+///
+/// This is cached per fragment so repeated rows from the same fragment do not
+/// recompute the object store, data directory, and data file key.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct BlobReadLocation {
+    base_id: Option<u32>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    data_file_dir: Path,
+    data_file_key: String,
+    data_file_path: Path,
+}
 
-            let dataset = Arc::new(
-                TestDatasetGenerator::new(data.clone(), LanceFileVersion::default())
-                    .make_hostile(&test_dir)
-                    .await,
-            );
+impl BlobFile {
+    /// Default sequential read-ahead size in bytes.
+    pub const DEFAULT_READ_BUFFER_SIZE: usize = 512 * 1024;
 
-            Self {
-                _test_dir: test_dir,
-                dataset,
-                data,
-            }
+    fn with_source(
+        source: Arc<BlobSource>,
+        position: u64,
+        size: u64,
+        kind: BlobKind,
+        uri: Option<String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            source,
+            position,
+            size,
+            kind,
+            uri,
+            state: Arc::new(Mutex::new(BlobFileState::new())),
         }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    pub async fn test_take_blobs() {
-        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+    /// Create an inline blob reader backed by a data file.
+    ///
+    /// This constructor assumes the caller has already resolved multi-base routing
+    /// (base-aware object store and file path). It does not inspect dataset metadata.
+    ///
+    /// # Parameters
+    ///
+    /// * `object_store` - The store that owns `path`; reads are issued against this store.
+    /// * `path` - Full path to the data file containing inline blob bytes.
+    /// * `position` - Byte offset of the blob payload inside the data file.
+    /// * `size` - Blob payload length in bytes.
+    pub fn new_inline(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        path: Path,
+        position: u64,
+        size: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::with_source(
+            Arc::new(BlobSource::new(object_store, path)),
+            position,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::Inline,
+            None,
+        )
+    }
 
-        let row_ids = fixture
-            .dataset
-            .scan()
-            .project::<String>(&[])
-            .unwrap()
-            .filter("filterme >= 50")
-            .unwrap()
-            .with_row_id()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let row_ids = row_ids.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-        let row_ids = vec![row_ids[5], row_ids[17], row_ids[33]];
+    /// Create a dedicated blob reader backed by a sidecar `.blob` file.
+    ///
+    /// Dedicated blobs occupy an entire sidecar file, so the logical read starts
+    /// at offset `0` and spans `size` bytes.
+    ///
+    /// # Parameters
+    ///
+    /// * `object_store` - The store that owns `path`; reads are issued against this store.
+    /// * `path` - Full path to the dedicated sidecar blob file.
+    /// * `size` - Total byte length to expose from the sidecar file.
+    pub fn new_dedicated(object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, path: Path, size: u64) -> Self {
+        Self::with_source(
+            Arc::new(BlobSource::new(object_store, path)),
+            0,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::Dedicated,
+            None,
+        )
+    }
 
-        let blobs = fixture.dataset.take_blobs(&row_ids, "blobs").await.unwrap();
+    /// Create a packed blob reader for a slice inside a shared sidecar `.blob` file.
+    ///
+    /// Packed blobs share one sidecar file; this constructor exposes only the
+    /// `[position, position + size)` range that belongs to a single row.
+    ///
+    /// # Parameters
+    ///
+    /// * `object_store` - The store that owns `path`; reads are issued against this store.
+    /// * `path` - Full path to the packed sidecar blob file.
+    /// * `position` - Start offset of this blob within the packed sidecar.
+    /// * `size` - Blob payload length in bytes.
+    pub fn new_packed(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        path: Path,
+        position: u64,
+        size: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::with_source(
+            Arc::new(BlobSource::new(object_store, path)),
+            position,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::Packed,
+            None,
+        )
+    }
 
-        for (actual_idx, (expected_batch_idx, expected_row_idx)) in
-            [(5, 5), (6, 7), (8, 3)].iter().enumerate()
-        {
-            let val = blobs[actual_idx].read().await.unwrap();
-            let expected = fixture.data[*expected_batch_idx]
-                .column(1)
-                .as_binary::<i64>()
-                .value(*expected_row_idx);
+    /// Create an external blob reader backed by a caller-resolved object location.
+    ///
+    /// External blobs are identified by a URI in metadata, but actual reads happen
+    /// against a concrete store/path pair resolved by the caller. This keeps URI
+    /// resolution (which may be async) outside of the constructor.
+    ///
+    /// # Parameters
+    ///
+    /// * `object_store` - The resolved store used to open and read `path`.
+    /// * `path` - The resolved object path that contains external blob bytes.
+    /// * `uri` - The original URI recorded in blob metadata for round-tripping.
+    /// * `position` - Start offset of the blob payload in the external object.
+    /// * `size` - Number of bytes exposed from `position`.
+    pub fn new_external(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        path: Path,
+        uri: String,
+        position: u64,
+        size: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::with_source(
+            Arc::new(BlobSource::new(object_store, path)),
+            position,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::External,
+            Some(uri),
+        )
+    }
 
-            assert_eq!(&val, expected);
-        }
+    /// Close the blob file, releasing any associated resources
+    pub async fn close(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock().await;
+        *state = BlobFileState::Closed;
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    pub async fn test_take_blobs_by_indices() {
-        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+    /// Returns true if the blob file is closed
+    pub async fn is_closed(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(&*self.state.lock().await, BlobFileState::Closed)
+    }
 
-        let fragments = fixture.dataset.fragments();
-        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
-        let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
-        let mut last = 2;
+    async fn ensure_open(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let state = self.state.lock().await;
+        match &*state {
+            BlobFileState::Open { .. } => Ok(()),
+            BlobFileState::Closed => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Blob file is already closed".to_string(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
 
-        for frag in fragments.iter() {
-            indices.push(last as u64);
-            last += frag.num_rows().unwrap_or(0);
+    fn read_phys_range(&self, range: Range<u64>) -> Result<Range<u64>> {
+        if range.start > range.end {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob range start {} must be <= end {}",
+                range.start, range.end
+            )));
         }
-        indices.pop();
+        if range.end > self.size {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob range end {} exceeds blob size {}",
+                range.end, self.size
+            )));
+        }
+        let start = self.position.checked_add(range.start).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob range start overflowed physical position: base={} offset={}",
+                self.position, range.start
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let end = self.position.checked_add(range.end).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob range end overflowed physical position: base={} offset={}",
+                self.position, range.end
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(start..end)
+    }
 
-        // Row indices
-        assert_eq!(indices, [2, 12, 22, 32, 42, 52, 62, 72, 82]);
-        let blobs = fixture
-            .dataset
-            .take_blobs_by_indices(&indices, "blobs")
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    /// Read a byte range relative to the beginning of this blob without changing the cursor.
+    ///
+    /// The provided range is interpreted in blob-local coordinates, not object
+    /// coordinates. Empty ranges are allowed. This method is intended for random
+    /// access callers that want deterministic range semantics instead of the
+    /// stateful file-like cursor used by [`Self::read`] and [`Self::read_up_to`].
+    pub async fn read_range(&self, range: Range<u64>) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        let mut data = self.read_ranges(&[range]).await?;
+        Ok(data.pop().unwrap_or_default())
+    }
 
-        // Row IDs
-        let row_ids = fragments
+    /// Read multiple ranges relative to the beginning of this blob without changing the cursor.
+    ///
+    /// Empty ranges are allowed and yield empty buffers. The result order always
+    /// matches the input order, even though the underlying physical requests may
+    /// be reordered, coalesced, or split for efficiency.
+    pub async fn read_ranges(&self, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> Result<Vec<Bytes>> {
+        self.ensure_open().await?;
+        let physical_ranges = ranges
             .iter()
-            .map(|frag| (frag.id << 32) + 2)
+            .cloned()
+            .map(|range| self.read_phys_range(range))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        self.source.read_ranges(physical_ranges).await
+    }
+
+    /// Read the entire blob file from the current cursor position
+    /// to the end of the file
+    ///
+    /// Advances the cursor by the number of bytes returned.
+    pub async fn read(&self) -> Result<bytes::Bytes> {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock().await;
+        match state.deref_mut() {
+            BlobFileState::Closed => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Blob file is already closed".to_string(),
+            )),
+            BlobFileState::Open {
+                cursor, prefetch, ..
+            } => {
+                if *cursor >= self.size {
+                    *prefetch = None;
+                    return Ok(Bytes::new());
+                }
+                let remaining = (self.size - *cursor) as usize;
+                let held = prefetch
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|w| w.slice_from(*cursor, remaining));
+                let bytes = match held {
+                    Some(held) if held.len() == remaining => held,
+                    // Joining copies the unread span while the tail is still
+                    // live, so only do it when the tail is no larger than the
+                    // bytes it saves re-fetching.
+                    Some(held) if remaining <= 2 * held.len() => {
+                        self.fetch_after(*cursor, held).await?
+                    }
+                    _ => self.fetch_after(*cursor, Bytes::new()).await?,
+                };
+                *cursor = self.size;
+                *prefetch = None;
+                Ok(bytes)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn fetch_after(&self, cursor: u64, held: Bytes) -> Result<Bytes> {
+        let physical = self.read_phys_range(cursor + held.len() as u64..self.size)?;
+        let rest = self
+            .source
+            .read_ranges(vec![physical])
+            .await?
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap();
+        if held.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(rest);
+        }
+        Ok([held, rest].concat().into())
+    }
+
+    /// Read up to `len` bytes from the current cursor position
+    ///
+    /// After this call the cursor will be pointing to the end of
+    /// the read data.
+    pub async fn read_up_to(&self, len: usize) -> Result<bytes::Bytes> {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock().await;
+        match state.deref_mut() {
+            BlobFileState::Closed => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Blob file is already closed".to_string(),
+            )),
+            BlobFileState::Open {
+                cursor,
+                buffer_size,
+                prefetch,
+            } => {
+                if *cursor >= self.size || len == 0 {
+                    return Ok(Bytes::new());
+                }
+                let remaining = (self.size - *cursor) as usize;
+                let read_len = len.min(remaining);
+                let prefix = prefetch
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|p| p.slice_from(*cursor, read_len));
+                let prefix_len = prefix.as_ref().map(Bytes::len).unwrap_or(0);
+                if prefix_len == read_len {
+                    *cursor += read_len as u64;
+                    return Ok(prefix.unwrap_or_default());
+                }
+
+                let fetch_cursor = *cursor + prefix_len as u64;
+                let still_need = read_len - prefix_len;
+                let remaining = (self.size - fetch_cursor) as usize;
+                let fetch_len = if *buffer_size == 0 {
+                    still_need
+                } else {
+                    remaining.min((*buffer_size).max(still_need))
+                };
+                let start = self.position.checked_add(fetch_cursor).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Blob cursor overflowed physical position: base={} cursor={}",
+                        self.position, fetch_cursor
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let end = start.checked_add(fetch_len as u64).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Blob fetch end overflowed physical position: start={} fetch_len={}",
+                        start, fetch_len
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let data = self
+                    .source
+                    .read_ranges(vec![start..end])
+                    .await?
+                    .pop()
+                    .unwrap_or_default();
+                let result = data.slice(0..still_need.min(data.len()));
+                if *buffer_size > 0 {
+                    *prefetch = Some(BlobPrefetch {
+                        start: fetch_cursor,
+                        bytes: data,
+                    });
+                } else {
+                    *prefetch = None;
+                }
+                *cursor = fetch_cursor + result.len() as u64;
+                match prefix {
+                    Some(hit) => {
+                        let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(hit.len() + result.len());
+                        out.extend_from_slice(&hit);
+                        out.extend_from_slice(&result);
+                        Ok(Bytes::from(out))
+                    }
+                    None => Ok(result),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Sequential read-ahead size in bytes. `0` disables read-ahead. Changing
+    /// the size drops any unused prefetch.
+    pub async fn set_buffer_size(&self, buffer_size: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock().await;
+        match state.deref_mut() {
+            BlobFileState::Open {
+                buffer_size: size,
+                prefetch,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                if *size != buffer_size {
+                    *size = buffer_size;
+                    *prefetch = None;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            BlobFileState::Closed => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Blob file is already closed".to_string(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Seek to a new cursor position in the file
+    pub async fn seek(&self, new_cursor: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock().await;
+        match state.deref_mut() {
+            BlobFileState::Open {
+                cursor, prefetch, ..
+            } => {
+                *cursor = new_cursor;
+                match prefetch.as_ref() {
+                    Some(p) if p.contains(new_cursor) => {}
+                    _ => *prefetch = None,
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            BlobFileState::Closed => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Blob file is already closed".to_string(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Return the current cursor position in the file
+    pub async fn tell(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        let state = self.state.lock().await;
+        match &*state {
+            BlobFileState::Open { cursor, .. } => Ok(*cursor),
+            BlobFileState::Closed => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Blob file is already closed".to_string(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Number of range-read submissions on this handle's backing object.
+    ///
+    /// Shared with other handles on the same object. Not a count of
+    /// object-store fetches. Test instrumentation, not a supported metric.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn range_submission_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.source.range_submissions.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    /// Return the size of the blob file in bytes
+    pub fn size(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.size
+    }
+
+    pub fn position(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.position
+    }
+
+    pub fn data_path(&self) -> &Path {
+        &self.source.path
+    }
+
+    pub fn kind(&self) -> BlobKind {
+        self.kind
+    }
+
+    pub fn uri(&self) -> Option<&str> {
+        self.uri.as_deref()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Bytes fetched by a sequential [`BlobFile`] read, still valid for later
+/// `read_up_to` calls until the cursor leaves this span.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BlobPrefetch {
+    start: u64,
+    bytes: Bytes,
+}
+
+impl BlobPrefetch {
+    fn slice_from(&self, cursor: u64, want: usize) -> Option<Bytes> {
+        if cursor < self.start {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let offset = (cursor - self.start) as usize;
+        if offset >= self.bytes.len() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let available = self.bytes.len() - offset;
+        let n = want.min(available);
+        if n == 0 {
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(self.bytes.slice(offset..offset + n))
+    }
+
+    fn contains(&self, cursor: u64) -> bool {
+        let end = self.start + self.bytes.len() as u64;
+        cursor >= self.start && cursor < end
+    }
+}
+
+/// Mutable state for a [`BlobFile`] cursor.
+///
+/// The cursor is logical to the blob slice, not the backing object. Once closed,
+/// subsequent cursor-based and range-based reads are rejected, but reads that
+/// were already in flight may still complete.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum BlobFileState {
+    Open {
+        cursor: u64,
+        buffer_size: usize,
+        prefetch: Option<BlobPrefetch>,
+    },
+    Closed,
+}
+
+impl BlobFileState {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::Open {
+            cursor: 0,
+            buffer_size: BlobFile::DEFAULT_READ_BUFFER_SIZE,
+            prefetch: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Blob bytes materialized by [`ReadBlobsBuilder`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct ReadBlob {
+    /// Row address of the blob that was read.
+    pub row_address: u64,
+    /// Blob payload bytes, or `None` when the selected blob value is null.
+    ///
+    /// A valid empty blob is represented as `Some(Bytes::new())`.
+    pub data: Option<Bytes>,
+}
+
+/// A byte range relative to the beginning of one logical blob value.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct BlobReadRange {
+    /// Byte offset from the beginning of the blob value.
+    pub offset: u64,
+    /// Number of bytes to read.
+    pub length: u64,
+}
+
+impl BlobReadRange {
+    /// Create a blob-local byte range from an offset and length.
+    pub const fn new(offset: u64, length: u64) -> Self {
+        Self { offset, length }
+    }
+
+    fn checked_range(self, request_index: usize) -> Result<Range<u64>> {
+        let end = self.offset.checked_add(self.length).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob range request {request_index} offset + length overflowed u64: offset={}, length={}",
+                self.offset, self.length
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(self.offset..end)
+    }
+}
+
+/// One row-specific blob range read request.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct BlobRangeRequest {
+    /// Row selector interpreted by the selection method on
+    /// [`ReadBlobRangesBuilder`].
+    pub row: u64,
+    /// Blob-local byte range to read from the selected row.
+    pub range: BlobReadRange,
+}
+
+impl BlobRangeRequest {
+    /// Create a request for `length` bytes at `offset` in the selected row.
+    pub const fn new(row: u64, offset: u64, length: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            row,
+            range: BlobReadRange::new(offset, length),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Bytes materialized for one request submitted through [`ReadBlobRangesBuilder`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct ReadBlobRange {
+    /// Zero-based position of this request in the caller's request list.
+    pub request_index: usize,
+    /// Physical row address of the selected blob value.
+    pub row_address: u64,
+    /// Blob-local range supplied for this request.
+    pub range: BlobReadRange,
+    /// Bytes in `range`, or `None` when the selected blob value is null.
+    ///
+    /// An empty range on a non-null blob is represented as
+    /// `Some(Bytes::new())`.
+    pub data: Option<Bytes>,
+}
+
+/// Stream returned by [`ReadBlobsBuilder::try_into_stream`].
+pub type ReadBlobsStream = BoxStream<'static, Result<ReadBlob>>;
+
+/// Stream returned by [`ReadBlobRangesBuilder::try_into_stream`].
+pub type ReadBlobRangesStream = BoxStream<'static, Result<ReadBlobRange>>;
+
+/// Row selector configured on [`ReadBlobsBuilder`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum ReadBlobsSelection {
+    None,
+    RowIds(Vec<u64>),
+    RowIndices(Vec<u64>),
+    RowAddresses(Vec<u64>),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum ReadBlobRangesSelection {
+    None,
+    RowIds(Vec<BlobRangeRequest>),
+    RowIndices(Vec<BlobRangeRequest>),
+    RowAddresses(Vec<BlobRangeRequest>),
+}
+
+impl ReadBlobRangesSelection {
+    fn requests(&self) -> Option<&[BlobRangeRequest]> {
+        match self {
+            Self::None => None,
+            Self::RowIds(requests) | Self::RowIndices(requests) | Self::RowAddresses(requests) => {
+                Some(requests)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn into_row_selection(self) -> Option<(ReadBlobsSelection, Vec<BlobRangeRequest>)> {
+        match self {
+            Self::None => None,
+            Self::RowIds(requests) => {
+                let rows = requests.iter().map(|request| request.row).collect();
+                Some((ReadBlobsSelection::RowIds(rows), requests))
+            }
+            Self::RowIndices(requests) => {
+                let rows = requests.iter().map(|request| request.row).collect();
+                Some((ReadBlobsSelection::RowIndices(rows), requests))
+            }
+            Self::RowAddresses(requests) => {
+                let rows = requests.iter().map(|request| request.row).collect();
+                Some((ReadBlobsSelection::RowAddresses(rows), requests))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Planner knobs for [`ReadBlobsBuilder`].
+///
+/// Options that shape how `read_blobs` uses Lance's existing schedulers.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct ReadBlobsOptions {
+    io_buffer_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    preserve_order: bool,
+}
+
+impl Default for ReadBlobsOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            io_buffer_size_bytes: None,
+            preserve_order: true,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Builder for sequential / planned blob reads.
+///
+/// Unlike [`Dataset::take_blobs`], which returns [`BlobFile`] handles for
+/// caller-driven random access, this builder plans object-store reads across a
+/// selected row set and yields fully materialized blob payloads.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ReadBlobsBuilder {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    column: String,
+    blob_field_id: u32,
+    selection: ReadBlobsSelection,
+    options: ReadBlobsOptions,
+}
+
+impl ReadBlobsBuilder {
+    pub(crate) fn new(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, column: String, blob_field_id: u32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            column,
+            blob_field_id,
+            selection: ReadBlobsSelection::None,
+            options: ReadBlobsOptions::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Read blobs for the provided stable row ids.
+    pub fn with_row_ids(mut self, row_ids: impl Into<Vec<u64>>) -> Self {
+        self.selection = ReadBlobsSelection::RowIds(row_ids.into());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Read blobs for the provided row offsets in dataset order.
+    pub fn with_row_indices(mut self, row_indices: impl Into<Vec<u64>>) -> Self {
+        self.selection = ReadBlobsSelection::RowIndices(row_indices.into());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Read blobs for the provided physical row addresses.
+    pub fn with_row_addresses(mut self, row_addrs: impl Into<Vec<u64>>) -> Self {
+        self.selection = ReadBlobsSelection::RowAddresses(row_addrs.into());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the scheduler I/O buffer size used while materializing blobs.
+    pub fn with_io_buffer_size_bytes(mut self, bytes: u64) -> Self {
+        self.options.io_buffer_size_bytes = Some(bytes);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Whether results must follow the caller's requested row order.
+    pub fn preserve_order(mut self, preserve: bool) -> Self {
+        self.options.preserve_order = preserve;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Execute the planned blob read and return a stream of blob payloads.
+    ///
+    /// The stream yields one [`ReadBlob`] per selected row. Null blob values
+    /// have `data` set to `None`; valid empty blobs contain an empty buffer.
+    pub async fn try_into_stream(self) -> Result<ReadBlobsStream> {
+        self.validate()?;
+        let collected = collect_blob_selection_for_selection(
+            &self.dataset,
+            self.blob_field_id,
+            &self.column,
+            &self.selection,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let partitioned =
+            partition_blob_selections(collected, |selection_index, row_address, range| {
+                if range.is_some() {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Whole-blob selection {} unexpectedly carried range metadata",
+                        selection_index
+                    )));
+                }
+                Ok(ReadBlob {
+                    row_address,
+                    data: None,
+                })
+            })?;
+        let physical_buffer_size = self.options.io_buffer_size_bytes.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(self.dataset.object_store.as_ref()).io_buffer_size_bytes
+        });
+        let batches = plan_blob_read_batches(partitioned.reads, physical_buffer_size)?;
+        let execution = Arc::new(ReadBlobsExecution::new(self.options.io_buffer_size_bytes));
+        let non_null_blobs = execute_blob_read_batches_stream(
+            batches,
+            execution,
+            self.dataset.object_store.io_parallelism(),
+        )
+        .map_ok(|blob| {
+            let selection_index = blob.selection_index;
+            (selection_index, into_read_blob(blob))
+        })
+        .boxed();
+        Ok(totalize_blob_selection_stream(
+            non_null_blobs,
+            partitioned.ready_values,
+            partitioned.selection_count,
+            self.options.preserve_order,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Execute the planned blob read and collect the full result in memory.
+    pub async fn execute(self) -> Result<Vec<ReadBlob>> {
+        self.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await
+    }
+
+    fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        match self.selection {
+            ReadBlobsSelection::None => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "ReadBlobsBuilder requires a row selection; call one of with_row_ids, with_row_indices, or with_row_addresses".to_string(),
+            )),
+            _ if self.options.io_buffer_size_bytes == Some(0) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "ReadBlobsBuilder io_buffer_size must be greater than 0".to_string(),
+            )),
+            _ => Ok(()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Builder for planned blob-local range reads.
+///
+/// Planning retains `O(request_count)` metadata. [`Self::try_into_stream`]
+/// bounds each scheduler-visible physical batch by the configured I/O buffer
+/// size after accounting for range coalescing, except that one request larger
+/// than the buffer must be materialized by itself. The existing scheduler
+/// separately applies byte backpressure to physical I/O. [`Self::execute`]
+/// additionally retains all returned payload bytes.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ReadBlobRangesBuilder {
+    inner: ReadBlobsBuilder,
+    selection: ReadBlobRangesSelection,
+}
+
+impl ReadBlobRangesBuilder {
+    pub(crate) fn new(inner: ReadBlobsBuilder) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner,
+            selection: ReadBlobRangesSelection::None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Read requests whose row values are stable row ids.
+    pub fn with_row_ids(mut self, requests: impl IntoIterator<Item = BlobRangeRequest>) -> Self {
+        self.selection = ReadBlobRangesSelection::RowIds(requests.into_iter().collect());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Read requests whose row values are offsets in dataset order.
+    pub fn with_row_indices(
+        mut self,
+        requests: impl IntoIterator<Item = BlobRangeRequest>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.selection = ReadBlobRangesSelection::RowIndices(requests.into_iter().collect());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Read requests whose row values are physical row addresses.
+    pub fn with_row_addresses(
+        mut self,
+        requests: impl IntoIterator<Item = BlobRangeRequest>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.selection = ReadBlobRangesSelection::RowAddresses(requests.into_iter().collect());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the scheduler I/O buffer size used while materializing ranges.
+    pub fn with_io_buffer_size_bytes(mut self, bytes: u64) -> Self {
+        self.inner.options.io_buffer_size_bytes = Some(bytes);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Whether results must follow the caller's request order.
+    pub fn preserve_order(mut self, preserve: bool) -> Self {
+        self.inner.options.preserve_order = preserve;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Execute the planned range read and return one result per request.
+    ///
+    /// Null blob requests have `data` set to `None`. Empty ranges on non-null
+    /// blobs contain an empty buffer without issuing payload I/O. By default,
+    /// results follow input order; `request_index` identifies the original
+    /// request even when ordering is disabled. Blob-local bounds are not
+    /// evaluated for null values because they have no logical payload length.
+    pub async fn try_into_stream(self) -> Result<ReadBlobRangesStream> {
+        self.validate()?;
+        let (row_selection, requests) = self.selection.into_row_selection().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Validated blob range selection was missing".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let mut selections = collect_blob_selection_for_selection(
+            &self.inner.dataset,
+            self.inner.blob_field_id,
+            &self.inner.column,
+            &row_selection,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        if selections.len() != requests.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Resolved blob selection count {} did not match range request count {}",
+                selections.len(),
+                requests.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        for (selection, request) in selections.iter_mut().zip(requests) {
+            selection.requested_range = Some(request.range);
+        }
+        let partitioned = partition_blob_selections(
+            selections,
+            |request_index, row_address, requested_range| {
+                let range = requested_range.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Blob range request {} was missing range metadata",
+                        request_index
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                Ok(ReadBlobRange {
+                    request_index,
+                    row_address,
+                    range,
+                    data: None,
+                })
+            },
+        )?;
+        let physical_buffer_size = self.inner.options.io_buffer_size_bytes.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(self.inner.dataset.object_store.as_ref())
+                .io_buffer_size_bytes
+        });
+        let batches = plan_blob_read_batches(partitioned.reads, physical_buffer_size)?;
+        let execution = Arc::new(ReadBlobsExecution::new(
+            self.inner.options.io_buffer_size_bytes,
+        ));
+        let non_null_ranges = execute_blob_read_batches_stream(
+            batches,
+            execution,
+            self.inner.dataset.object_store.io_parallelism(),
+        )
+        .map(|result| {
+            result.and_then(|blob| {
+                let selection_index = blob.selection_index;
+                into_read_blob_range(blob).map(|range| (selection_index, range))
+            })
+        })
+        .boxed();
+        Ok(totalize_blob_selection_stream(
+            non_null_ranges,
+            partitioned.ready_values,
+            partitioned.selection_count,
+            self.inner.options.preserve_order,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Execute the planned range read and collect all returned bytes in memory.
+    pub async fn execute(self) -> Result<Vec<ReadBlobRange>> {
+        self.try_into_stream().await?.try_collect().await
+    }
+
+    fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let requests = self.selection.requests().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(
+                "ReadBlobRangesBuilder requires requests; call one of with_row_ids, with_row_indices, or with_row_addresses".to_string(),
+            )
+        })?;
+        if self.inner.options.io_buffer_size_bytes == Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "ReadBlobRangesBuilder io_buffer_size must be greater than 0".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        for (request_index, request) in requests.iter().enumerate() {
+            request.range.checked_range(request_index)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// One logical blob selected for planned reading.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BlobEntry {
+    selection_index: usize,
+    row_address: u64,
+    file: BlobFile,
+    requested_range: Option<BlobReadRange>,
+}
+
+/// One resolved logical selection. Its position in the containing vector is
+/// the caller's selection index.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ResolvedBlobSelection {
+    row_address: u64,
+    file: Option<BlobFile>,
+    requested_range: Option<BlobReadRange>,
+}
+
+/// Physical read input derived from one [`BlobEntry`].
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PlannedBlobRead {
+    selection_index: usize,
+    row_address: u64,
+    requested_range: Option<BlobReadRange>,
+    physical_range: Range<u64>,
+}
+
+/// A slice of one disjoint physical range submitted to the file scheduler.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PlannedBlobReadSlice {
+    read_index: usize,
+    physical_range_index: usize,
+    relative_range: Range<u64>,
+}
+
+/// One physical read paired with the backing source used to batch it.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SourcePlannedBlobRead {
+    source_key: BlobSourceKey,
+    source: Arc<BlobSource>,
+    read: PlannedBlobRead,
+}
+
+/// One per-source read plan emitted by `read_blobs`.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BlobReadPlan {
+    source_key: BlobSourceKey,
+    source: Arc<BlobSource>,
+    reads: Vec<PlannedBlobRead>,
+}
+
+/// A payload-bounded group of per-source plans.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BlobReadBatch {
+    plans: Vec<BlobReadPlan>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct CoalescedRangeInsertion {
+    merged: Range<u64>,
+    replaced_starts: Vec<u64>,
+    replaced_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+impl CoalescedRangeInsertion {
+    fn additional_bytes(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        let merged_bytes = self.merged.end - self.merged.start;
+        merged_bytes.checked_sub(self.replaced_bytes).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Coalesced blob range {:?} was smaller than its replaced ranges totaling {} bytes",
+                self.merged, self.replaced_bytes
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Physical ranges already charged to one source in the current batch.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct CoalescedPhysicalRanges {
+    ranges: BTreeMap<u64, u64>,
+}
+
+impl CoalescedPhysicalRanges {
+    fn plan_insertion(
+        &self,
+        range: &Range<u64>,
+        block_size: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Option<CoalescedRangeInsertion>> {
+        if range.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let scan_start = self
+            .ranges
+            .range(..=range.start)
+            .next_back()
+            .map(|(start, _)| *start)
+            .unwrap_or(range.start);
+        let mut merged = range.clone();
+        let mut replaced_starts = Vec::new();
+        let mut replaced_bytes = 0_u64;
+        for (&start, &end) in self.ranges.range(scan_start..) {
+            if end.saturating_add(block_size) < merged.start {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if start > merged.end.saturating_add(block_size) {
+                break;
+            }
+            merged.start = merged.start.min(start);
+            merged.end = merged.end.max(end);
+            replaced_starts.push(start);
+            replaced_bytes = replaced_bytes
+                .checked_add(end - start)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Coalesced blob range size overflow".to_string()))?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(Some(CoalescedRangeInsertion {
+            merged,
+            replaced_starts,
+            replaced_bytes,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn insert(&mut self, insertion: CoalescedRangeInsertion) {
+        for start in insertion.replaced_starts {
+            self.ranges.remove(&start);
+        }
+        self.ranges
+            .insert(insertion.merged.start, insertion.merged.end);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Exact scheduler-visible physical footprint of the current batch.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct BlobReadBatchFootprint {
+    sources: HashMap<BlobSourceKey, CoalescedPhysicalRanges>,
+    physical_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+impl BlobReadBatchFootprint {
+    fn try_insert(
+        &mut self,
+        planned: &SourcePlannedBlobRead,
+        physical_buffer_size: u64,
+        allow_oversized: bool,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        let remaining = physical_buffer_size.saturating_sub(self.physical_bytes);
+        let additional_bytes = {
+            let source_ranges = self.sources.entry(planned.source_key.clone()).or_default();
+            let insertion = source_ranges.plan_insertion(
+                &planned.read.physical_range,
+                planned.source.object_store.block_size() as u64,
+            )?;
+            let Some(insertion) = insertion else {
+                return Ok(true);
+            };
+            let additional_bytes = insertion.additional_bytes()?;
+            if !allow_oversized && additional_bytes > remaining {
+                return Ok(false);
+            }
+            source_ranges.insert(insertion);
+            additional_bytes
+        };
+        self.physical_bytes = self
+            .physical_bytes
+            .checked_add(additional_bytes)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Blob read batch size overflow".to_string()))?;
+        Ok(true)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Operation-scoped scheduler cache for one [`ReadBlobsBuilder`] execution.
+///
+/// We reuse one [`ScanScheduler`] per object store during a single `read_blobs`
+/// operation and still submit exactly one request per physical file.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ReadBlobsExecution {
+    io_buffer_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    schedulers: std::sync::Mutex<HashMap<String, Arc<ScanScheduler>>>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BlobMaterializationBudget {
+    limit: u64,
+    state: std::sync::Mutex<BlobMaterializationBudgetState>,
+    notify: Notify,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct BlobMaterializationBudgetState {
+    reserved: u64,
+    next_ticket: u64,
+    serving_ticket: u64,
+    cancelled_tickets: HashSet<u64>,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    peak_reserved: u64,
+}
+
+impl BlobMaterializationBudgetState {
+    fn skip_cancelled(&mut self) {
+        while self.cancelled_tickets.remove(&self.serving_ticket) {
+            self.serving_ticket = self.serving_ticket.wrapping_add(1);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl BlobMaterializationBudget {
+    fn admission(self: &Arc<Self>) -> BlobMaterializationAdmission {
+        let ticket = {
+            let mut state = self.state.lock().unwrap();
+            let ticket = state.next_ticket;
+            state.next_ticket = state.next_ticket.wrapping_add(1);
+            ticket
+        };
+        BlobMaterializationAdmission {
+            budget: Some(self.clone()),
+            ticket,
+            acquired: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    async fn reserve(self: &Arc<Self>, bytes: u64) -> BlobMaterializationReservation {
+        self.admission().reserve(bytes).await.unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct BlobMaterializationAdmission {
+    budget: Option<Arc<BlobMaterializationBudget>>,
+    ticket: u64,
+    acquired: bool,
+}
+
+impl BlobMaterializationAdmission {
+    async fn reserve(mut self, bytes: u64) -> Option<BlobMaterializationReservation> {
+        let Some(budget) = self.budget.clone() else {
+            self.acquired = true;
+            return None;
+        };
+        loop {
+            let notified = budget.notify.notified();
+            {
+                let mut state = budget.state.lock().unwrap();
+                let fits = bytes <= budget.limit.saturating_sub(state.reserved);
+                let oversized_and_idle = state.reserved == 0 && bytes > budget.limit;
+                if self.ticket == state.serving_ticket && (fits || oversized_and_idle) {
+                    state.reserved = state.reserved.saturating_add(bytes);
+                    #[cfg(test)]
+                    {
+                        state.peak_reserved = state.peak_reserved.max(state.reserved);
+                    }
+                    state.serving_ticket = state.serving_ticket.wrapping_add(1);
+                    state.skip_cancelled();
+                    self.acquired = true;
+                    let reservation = BlobMaterializationReservation {
+                        budget: budget.clone(),
+                        bytes,
+                    };
+                    drop(state);
+                    budget.notify.notify_waiters();
+                    return Some(reservation);
+                }
+            }
+            notified.await;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for BlobMaterializationAdmission {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        let Some(budget) = &self.budget else {
+            return;
+        };
+        if self.acquired {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut state = budget.state.lock().unwrap();
+        if self.ticket >= state.serving_ticket {
+            state.cancelled_tickets.insert(self.ticket);
+            state.skip_cancelled();
+        }
+        drop(state);
+        budget.notify.notify_waiters();
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BlobMaterializationReservation {
+    budget: Arc<BlobMaterializationBudget>,
+    bytes: u64,
+}
+
+impl Drop for BlobMaterializationReservation {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        let mut state = self.budget.state.lock().unwrap();
+        state.reserved = state.reserved.saturating_sub(self.bytes);
+        drop(state);
+        self.budget.notify.notify_waiters();
+    }
+}
+
+/// Shared state for asynchronously materializing blob v2 descriptor batches.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct BlobMaterializationContext {
+    execution: Arc<ReadBlobsExecution>,
+    budget: Option<Arc<BlobMaterializationBudget>>,
+}
+
+impl BlobMaterializationContext {
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        io_buffer_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+        materialization_readahead_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Arc<Self> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            execution: Arc::new(ReadBlobsExecution::new(io_buffer_size_bytes)),
+            budget: materialization_readahead_bytes.map(|limit| {
+                Arc::new(BlobMaterializationBudget {
+                    limit,
+                    state: std::sync::Mutex::new(BlobMaterializationBudgetState::default()),
+                    notify: Notify::new(),
+                })
+            }),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn admission(&self) -> BlobMaterializationAdmission {
+        match &self.budget {
+            Some(budget) => budget.admission(),
+            None => BlobMaterializationAdmission {
+                budget: None,
+                ticket: 0,
+                acquired: false,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn peak_reserved_bytes(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.budget
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|budget| budget.state.lock().unwrap().peak_reserved)
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A materialized batch that retains its byte-budget reservation until yielded.
+pub struct MaterializedBlobBatch {
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    /// Reservations are reference-counted so that splitting a batch into
+    /// multiple chunks keeps the original memory reservation alive until the
+    /// last chunk is dropped.
+    _reservations: Vec<Arc<BlobMaterializationReservation>>,
+}
+
+impl MaterializedBlobBatch {
+    pub(crate) fn unreserved(batch: RecordBatch) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            batch,
+            _reservations: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn with_reservations(
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        reservations: Vec<Arc<BlobMaterializationReservation>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            batch,
+            _reservations: reservations,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn batch(&self) -> &RecordBatch {
+        &self.batch
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_batch(self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            batch,
+            _reservations: self._reservations,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn concat(schema: &SchemaRef, batches: Vec<Self>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut record_batches = Vec::with_capacity(batches.len());
+        let mut reservations = Vec::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            record_batches.push(batch.batch);
+            reservations.extend(batch._reservations);
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            batch: arrow::compute::concat_batches(schema, record_batches.iter())?,
+            _reservations: reservations,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Split the batch into chunks of at most `max_bytes` array memory.
+    ///
+    /// The original materialization reservation is shared across all chunks so
+    /// that the memory remains accounted for until every chunk has been
+    /// dropped, preserving the `materialization_readahead_bytes` bound while
+    /// the split chunks are queued.
+    pub(crate) fn split_by_bytes(self, max_bytes: usize) -> Result<Vec<Self>> {
+        let Self {
+            batch,
+            _reservations,
+        } = self;
+        let chunks = split_batch_by_bytes(batch, max_bytes)?;
+        Ok(chunks
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|batch| Self {
+                batch,
+                _reservations: _reservations.clone(),
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn into_batch(self) -> RecordBatch {
+        self.batch
+    }
+}
+
+impl ReadBlobsExecution {
+    fn new(io_buffer_size_bytes: Option<u64>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            io_buffer_size_bytes,
+            schedulers: std::sync::Mutex::new(HashMap::new()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn scheduler_for(&self, source: &BlobSource) -> Arc<ScanScheduler> {
+        let mut schedulers = self.schedulers.lock().unwrap();
+        schedulers
+            .entry(source.object_store.store_prefix.clone())
+            .or_insert_with(|| {
+                let config = self
+                    .io_buffer_size_bytes
+                    .map(SchedulerConfig::new)
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                        SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(source.object_store.as_ref())
+                    });
+                ScanScheduler::new(source.object_store.clone(), config)
+            })
+            .clone()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Materialized blob bytes plus the original selection index used to restore
+/// caller ordering after per-source reads complete.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct IndexedReadBlob {
+    selection_index: usize,
+    row_address: u64,
+    requested_range: Option<BlobReadRange>,
+    data: Bytes,
+}
+
+fn into_read_blob(blob: IndexedReadBlob) -> ReadBlob {
+    debug_assert!(
+        blob.requested_range.is_none(),
+        "whole-blob reads must not carry a requested range"
+    );
+    ReadBlob {
+        row_address: blob.row_address,
+        data: Some(blob.data),
+    }
+}
+
+struct PartitionedBlobSelection<T> {
+    selection_count: usize,
+    reads: Vec<BlobEntry>,
+    ready_values: Vec<(usize, T)>,
+}
+
+fn partition_blob_selections<T>(
+    selections: Vec<ResolvedBlobSelection>,
+    mut make_ready_value: impl FnMut(usize, u64, Option<BlobReadRange>) -> Result<T>,
+) -> Result<PartitionedBlobSelection<T>> {
+    let selection_count = selections.len();
+    let read_count = selections
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|selection| selection.file.is_some())
+        .count();
+    let mut reads = Vec::with_capacity(read_count);
+    let mut ready_values = Vec::with_capacity(selection_count - read_count);
+    for (selection_index, selection) in selections.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        match selection.file {
+            Some(file) => reads.push(BlobEntry {
+                selection_index,
+                row_address: selection.row_address,
+                file,
+                requested_range: selection.requested_range,
+            }),
+            None => {
+                let value = make_ready_value(
+                    selection_index,
+                    selection.row_address,
+                    selection.requested_range,
+                )?;
+                ready_values.push((selection_index, value));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(PartitionedBlobSelection {
+        selection_count,
+        reads,
+        ready_values,
+    })
+}
+
+fn totalize_blob_selection_stream<T: Send + 'static>(
+    read_values: BoxStream<'static, Result<(usize, T)>>,
+    ready_values: Vec<(usize, T)>,
+    selection_count: usize,
+    preserve_order: bool,
+) -> BoxStream<'static, Result<T>> {
+    if preserve_order {
+        return totalize_ordered_blob_selection_stream(read_values, ready_values, selection_count);
+    }
+
+    let ready_values = stream::iter(ready_values.into_iter().map(Ok::<(usize, T), Error>));
+    let values = stream::select(ready_values, read_values).boxed();
+    totalize_unordered_blob_selection_stream(values, selection_count)
+}
+
+struct UnorderedBlobSelectionState<T> {
+    values: BoxStream<'static, Result<(usize, T)>>,
+    seen_selection_indices: Vec<bool>,
+    remaining: usize,
+}
+
+fn totalize_unordered_blob_selection_stream<T: Send + 'static>(
+    values: BoxStream<'static, Result<(usize, T)>>,
+    selection_count: usize,
+) -> BoxStream<'static, Result<T>> {
+    let state = UnorderedBlobSelectionState {
+        values,
+        seen_selection_indices: vec![false; selection_count],
+        remaining: selection_count,
+    };
+    stream::try_unfold(state, move |mut state| async move {
+        let Some((selection_index, value)) = state.values.try_next().await? else {
+            return if state.remaining == 0 {
+                Ok(None)
+            } else {
+                Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "planned blob read stream completed after producing {} of {} selections",
+                    selection_count - state.remaining,
+                    selection_count
+                )))
+            };
+        };
+
+        if selection_index >= selection_count {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Blob selection index {} exceeded selected row count {}",
+                selection_index, selection_count
+            )));
+        }
+        if state.seen_selection_indices[selection_index] {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Blob selection index {} was produced more than once",
+                selection_index
+            )));
+        }
+        state.seen_selection_indices[selection_index] = true;
+        state.remaining -= 1;
+        Ok(Some((value, state)))
+    })
+    .boxed()
+}
+
+struct OrderedBlobSelectionState<T> {
+    read_values: BoxStream<'static, Result<(usize, T)>>,
+    ready: BTreeMap<usize, T>,
+    next_selection_index: usize,
+}
+
+fn totalize_ordered_blob_selection_stream<T: Send + 'static>(
+    read_values: BoxStream<'static, Result<(usize, T)>>,
+    ready_values: Vec<(usize, T)>,
+    selection_count: usize,
+) -> BoxStream<'static, Result<T>> {
+    // Seed the reorder buffer so ordered consumers do not start later physical
+    // I/O while the next logical selection is already available.
+    let mut ready = BTreeMap::new();
+    for (selection_index, value) in ready_values {
+        if selection_index >= selection_count {
+            let error = Error::internal(format!(
+                "Blob selection index {} exceeded selected row count {}",
+                selection_index, selection_count
+            ));
+            return stream::once(async move { Err(error) }).boxed();
+        }
+        if ready.insert(selection_index, value).is_some() {
+            let error = Error::internal(format!(
+                "Blob selection index {} was produced more than once",
+                selection_index
+            ));
+            return stream::once(async move { Err(error) }).boxed();
+        }
+    }
+    let state = OrderedBlobSelectionState {
+        read_values,
+        ready,
+        next_selection_index: 0,
+    };
+    stream::try_unfold(state, move |mut state| async move {
+        loop {
+            if let Some(value) = state.ready.remove(&state.next_selection_index) {
+                state.next_selection_index += 1;
+                return Ok(Some((value, state)));
+            }
+
+            match state.read_values.try_next().await? {
+                Some((selection_index, value)) => {
+                    if selection_index >= selection_count {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Blob selection index {} exceeded selected row count {}",
+                            selection_index, selection_count
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    if selection_index < state.next_selection_index {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Blob selection index {} was produced more than once",
+                            selection_index
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    if state.ready.insert(selection_index, value).is_some() {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Blob selection index {} was produced more than once",
+                            selection_index
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+                None if state.next_selection_index == selection_count => return Ok(None),
+                None => {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "planned blob read stream completed before selection index {} was produced",
+                        state.next_selection_index
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    })
+    .boxed()
+}
+
+fn into_read_blob_range(blob: IndexedReadBlob) -> Result<ReadBlobRange> {
+    let range = blob.requested_range.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal(format!(
+            "Blob range request {} completed without range metadata",
+            blob.selection_index
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok(ReadBlobRange {
+        request_index: blob.selection_index,
+        row_address: blob.row_address,
+        range,
+        data: Some(blob.data),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Split selected reads into request-order batches before grouping each batch
+/// by physical source. Each batch accounts for the physical spans that the file
+/// scheduler will read after coalescing nearby ranges.
+fn plan_blob_read_batches(
+    mut entries: Vec<BlobEntry>,
+    physical_buffer_size: u64,
+) -> Result<Vec<BlobReadBatch>> {
+    debug_assert!(physical_buffer_size > 0);
+    entries.sort_by_key(|entry| entry.selection_index);
+    let planned_reads = plan_blob_reads(entries)?;
+
+    let mut batches = Vec::new();
+    let mut current_reads = Vec::new();
+    let mut footprint = BlobReadBatchFootprint::default();
+    for planned in planned_reads {
+        if !footprint.try_insert(&planned, physical_buffer_size, current_reads.is_empty())? {
+            batches.push(into_blob_read_batch(std::mem::take(&mut current_reads)));
+            footprint = BlobReadBatchFootprint::default();
+            let inserted = footprint.try_insert(&planned, physical_buffer_size, true)?;
+            debug_assert!(inserted, "an empty batch must accept one physical read");
+        }
+        current_reads.push(planned);
+    }
+    if !current_reads.is_empty() {
+        batches.push(into_blob_read_batch(current_reads));
+    }
+
+    Ok(batches)
+}
+
+fn plan_blob_reads(entries: Vec<BlobEntry>) -> Result<Vec<SourcePlannedBlobRead>> {
+    let mut planned_reads = Vec::with_capacity(entries.len());
+    for entry in entries {
+        let logical_range = match entry.requested_range {
+            Some(range) => range.checked_range(entry.selection_index)?,
+            None => 0..entry.file.size,
+        };
+        let physical_range = entry.file.read_phys_range(logical_range).map_err(|err| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob range request {} for row address {} is invalid: {}",
+                entry.selection_index, entry.row_address, err
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let source_key = BlobSourceKey::new(&entry.file.source);
+        planned_reads.push(SourcePlannedBlobRead {
+            source_key,
+            source: entry.file.source.clone(),
+            read: PlannedBlobRead {
+                selection_index: entry.selection_index,
+                row_address: entry.row_address,
+                requested_range: entry.requested_range,
+                physical_range,
+            },
+        });
+    }
+
+    Ok(planned_reads)
+}
+
+fn into_blob_read_batch(planned_reads: Vec<SourcePlannedBlobRead>) -> BlobReadBatch {
+    BlobReadBatch {
+        plans: group_blob_read_plans(planned_reads),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Group selected blobs by physical source and sort each group's ranges by
+/// physical offset before handing them to the file scheduler.
+fn group_blob_read_plans(planned_reads: Vec<SourcePlannedBlobRead>) -> Vec<BlobReadPlan> {
+    let mut plan_indices = HashMap::<BlobSourceKey, usize>::new();
+    let mut plans = Vec::<BlobReadPlan>::new();
+
+    for planned in planned_reads {
+        let plan_index = if let Some(plan_index) = plan_indices.get(&planned.source_key) {
+            *plan_index
+        } else {
+            let plan_index = plans.len();
+            plans.push(BlobReadPlan {
+                source_key: planned.source_key.clone(),
+                source: planned.source,
+                reads: Vec::new(),
+            });
+            plan_indices.insert(planned.source_key, plan_index);
+            plan_index
+        };
+        plans[plan_index].reads.push(planned.read);
+    }
+
+    plans.sort_by(|left, right| {
+        left.source_key
+            .store_prefix
+            .cmp(&right.source_key.store_prefix)
+            .then_with(|| left.source_key.path.cmp(&right.source_key.path))
+    });
+
+    for plan in &mut plans {
+        plan.reads.sort_by(|left, right| {
+            left.physical_range
+                .start
+                .cmp(&right.physical_range.start)
+                .then_with(|| left.physical_range.end.cmp(&right.physical_range.end))
+                .then_with(|| left.selection_index.cmp(&right.selection_index))
+        });
+    }
+
+    plans
+}
+
+fn plan_blob_read_plans(entries: Vec<BlobEntry>) -> Result<Vec<BlobReadPlan>> {
+    Ok(group_blob_read_plans(plan_blob_reads(entries)?))
+}
+
+/// Merge overlapping physical reads before submitting them to [`FileScheduler`].
+///
+/// `FileScheduler` can safely coalesce and split disjoint ranges. Original
+/// overlapping ranges need to be mapped onto their union first so a split does
+/// not advance past the start of a later nested range while reconstructing the
+/// caller's buffers.
+fn plan_disjoint_blob_reads(
+    reads: &[PlannedBlobRead],
+) -> (Vec<Range<u64>>, Vec<PlannedBlobReadSlice>) {
+    let mut non_empty_ranges = reads
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter(|(_, read)| !read.physical_range.is_empty())
+        .map(|(read_index, read)| (read_index, read.physical_range.clone()))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    non_empty_ranges.sort_by_key(|(read_index, range)| (range.start, range.end, *read_index));
+
+    let mut physical_ranges = Vec::<Range<u64>>::with_capacity(non_empty_ranges.len());
+    let mut slices = Vec::with_capacity(non_empty_ranges.len());
+    for (read_index, range) in non_empty_ranges {
+        let physical_range_index = match physical_ranges.last_mut() {
+            Some(physical_range) if range.start <= physical_range.end => {
+                physical_range.end = physical_range.end.max(range.end);
+                physical_ranges.len() - 1
+            }
+            _ => {
+                physical_ranges.push(range.clone());
+                physical_ranges.len() - 1
+            }
+        };
+        let physical_start = physical_ranges[physical_range_index].start;
+        slices.push(PlannedBlobReadSlice {
+            read_index,
+            physical_range_index,
+            relative_range: range.start - physical_start..range.end - physical_start,
+        });
+    }
+
+    (physical_ranges, slices)
+}
+
+/// Execute one per-source blob read plan with a single scheduler submission.
+async fn execute_blob_read_plan(
+    task: BlobReadPlan,
+    execution: Arc<ReadBlobsExecution>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexedReadBlob>> {
+    let (physical_ranges, slices) = plan_disjoint_blob_reads(&task.reads);
+    let mut bytes = vec![Bytes::new(); task.reads.len()];
+    if let Some(first_range) = physical_ranges.first() {
+        let scheduler = execution.scheduler_for(&task.source);
+        // The plan already bounds physical reads; probing the backing object's
+        // size would add a metadata request without validating the blob slice.
+        let reader = task.source.object_store.open(&task.source.path).await?;
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler.open_reader(reader.into());
+        let priority = first_range.start;
+        let physical_range_count = physical_ranges.len();
+        let returned = file_scheduler
+            .submit_request(physical_ranges, priority)
+            .await?;
+        if returned.len() != physical_range_count {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Blob read scheduler returned {} ranges for {} disjoint physical ranges from {}",
+                returned.len(),
+                physical_range_count,
+                task.source.path
+            )));
+        }
+        for slice in slices {
+            let start = usize::try_from(slice.relative_range.start).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob read slice start {} does not fit into usize for {}",
+                    slice.relative_range.start, task.source.path
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let end = usize::try_from(slice.relative_range.end).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob read slice end {} does not fit into usize for {}",
+                    slice.relative_range.end, task.source.path
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let data = &returned[slice.physical_range_index];
+            if end > data.len() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob read slice {:?} exceeds the {} bytes returned for physical range {} from {}",
+                    slice.relative_range,
+                    data.len(),
+                    slice.physical_range_index,
+                    task.source.path
+                )));
+            }
+            bytes[slice.read_index] = data.slice(start..end);
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(task
+        .reads
+        .into_iter()
+        .zip(bytes)
+        .map(|(read, data)| IndexedReadBlob {
+            selection_index: read.selection_index,
+            row_address: read.row_address,
+            requested_range: read.requested_range,
+            data,
+        })
+        .collect())
+}
+
+fn execute_blob_read_batches_stream(
+    batches: Vec<BlobReadBatch>,
+    execution: Arc<ReadBlobsExecution>,
+    io_parallelism: usize,
+) -> BoxStream<'static, Result<IndexedReadBlob>> {
+    let streams = batches.into_iter().map(move |batch| {
+        execute_blob_read_plans_stream(batch.plans, execution.clone(), io_parallelism)
+    });
+    stream::iter(streams).flatten().boxed()
+}
+
+fn execute_blob_read_plans_stream(
+    plans: Vec<BlobReadPlan>,
+    execution: Arc<ReadBlobsExecution>,
+    io_parallelism: usize,
+) -> BoxStream<'static, Result<IndexedReadBlob>> {
+    if plans.is_empty() {
+        return stream::empty().boxed();
+    }
+
+    let plan_stream = stream::iter(plans.into_iter().map(move |plan| {
+        let execution = execution.clone();
+        execute_blob_read_plan(plan, execution)
+    }))
+    .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism.max(1));
+
+    plan_stream
+        .map_ok(|blobs| stream::iter(blobs.into_iter().map(Ok)))
+        .try_flatten()
+        .boxed()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+async fn execute_blob_entries(
+    entries: Vec<BlobEntry>,
+    io_parallelism: usize,
+    io_buffer_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexedReadBlob>> {
+    execute_blob_entries_with_execution(
+        entries,
+        io_parallelism,
+        Arc::new(ReadBlobsExecution::new(io_buffer_size_bytes)),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+async fn execute_blob_entries_with_execution(
+    entries: Vec<BlobEntry>,
+    io_parallelism: usize,
+    execution: Arc<ReadBlobsExecution>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexedReadBlob>> {
+    let plans = plan_blob_read_plans(entries)?;
+    if plans.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+
+    let batches = stream::iter(plans.into_iter().map(move |plan| {
+        let execution = execution.clone();
+        execute_blob_read_plan(plan, execution)
+    }))
+    .buffer_unordered(io_parallelism.max(1))
+    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    .await?;
+    Ok(batches.into_iter().flatten().collect())
+}
+
+pub(super) async fn take_blobs(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    row_ids: &[u64],
+    column: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<Option<BlobFile>>> {
+    let blob_field_id = validate_blob_column(dataset, column)?;
+    let collected = collect_blob_selection_for_selection(
+        dataset,
+        blob_field_id,
+        column,
+        &ReadBlobsSelection::RowIds(row_ids.to_vec()),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    Ok(collected
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|selection| selection.file)
+        .collect())
+}
+
+/// Take [BlobFile] by row addresses.
+///
+/// Row addresses are `u64` values encoding `(fragment_id << 32) | row_offset`.
+/// Use this method when you already have row addresses, for example from
+/// a scan with `with_row_address()`. For row IDs (stable identifiers), use
+/// [`Dataset::take_blobs`]. For row indices (offsets), use
+/// [`Dataset::take_blobs_by_indices`].
+pub async fn take_blobs_by_addresses(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    row_addrs: &[u64],
+    column: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<Option<BlobFile>>> {
+    let blob_field_id = validate_blob_column(dataset, column)?;
+    let collected = collect_blob_selection_for_selection(
+        dataset,
+        blob_field_id,
+        column,
+        &ReadBlobsSelection::RowAddresses(row_addrs.to_vec()),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    Ok(collected
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|selection| selection.file)
+        .collect())
+}
+
+/// Validate that `column` exists and is a blob column, returning its field id.
+pub(super) fn validate_blob_column(dataset: &Arc<Dataset>, column: &str) -> Result<u32> {
+    let schema = dataset.schema();
+    let blob_field = schema
+        .field(column)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::field_not_found(column, schema.field_paths()))?;
+    if !blob_field.is_blob() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("the column '{}' is not a blob column", column).into(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(blob_field.id as u32)
+}
+
+/// Load blob descriptor rows for a stable-row-id selection.
+async fn take_blob_descriptions_by_row_ids(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    row_ids: &[u64],
+    column: &str,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let projection = dataset.schema().project(&[column])?;
+    dataset
+        .take_builder(row_ids, projection)?
+        .with_missing_row_policy(MissingRowPolicy::Error)
+        .with_row_address(true)
+        .execute()
+        .await
+}
+
+/// Load blob descriptor rows for a physical-row-address selection.
+async fn take_blob_descriptions_by_row_addresses(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    row_addrs: &[u64],
+    column: &str,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let projection = dataset.schema().project(&[column])?;
+    let projection_request = ProjectionRequest::from(projection);
+    let projection_plan = Arc::new(projection_request.into_projection_plan(dataset.clone())?);
+    TakeBuilder::try_new_from_addresses(dataset.clone(), row_addrs.to_vec(), projection_plan)?
+        .with_row_address(true)
+        .execute()
+        .await
+}
+
+/// Resolve every selected row address and the non-null blob entries among them.
+async fn collect_blob_selection_for_selection(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    blob_field_id: u32,
+    column: &str,
+    selection: &ReadBlobsSelection,
+) -> Result<Vec<ResolvedBlobSelection>> {
+    let description_and_addr = match selection {
+        ReadBlobsSelection::None => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Blob row selection is required".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        ReadBlobsSelection::RowIds(row_ids) => {
+            take_blob_descriptions_by_row_ids(dataset, row_ids, column).await?
+        }
+        ReadBlobsSelection::RowIndices(row_indices) => {
+            let row_addrs =
+                super::take::row_offsets_to_row_addresses(&dataset.get_fragments(), row_indices)
+                    .await?;
+            take_blob_descriptions_by_row_addresses(dataset, &row_addrs, column).await?
+        }
+        ReadBlobsSelection::RowAddresses(row_addrs) => {
+            take_blob_descriptions_by_row_addresses(dataset, row_addrs, column).await?
+        }
+    };
+
+    if description_and_addr.num_rows() == 0 {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+
+    let descriptions = leaf_descriptor_struct(&description_and_addr, column)?;
+    let row_addrs = description_and_addr.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+
+    let files = match blob_version_from_descriptions(descriptions)? {
+        BlobVersion::V1 => collect_blob_files_v1(dataset, blob_field_id, descriptions, row_addrs),
+        BlobVersion::V2 => {
+            collect_blob_files_v2(dataset, blob_field_id, descriptions, row_addrs).await
+        }
+    }?;
+    if files.len() != row_addrs.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Resolved blob file count {} did not match row address count {}",
+            files.len(),
+            row_addrs.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(row_addrs
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .zip(files)
+        .map(|(row_address, file)| ResolvedBlobSelection {
+            row_address,
+            file,
+            requested_range: None,
+        })
+        .collect())
+}
+
+/// Walk into the descriptor `RecordBatch` at `column` and return the leaf
+/// descriptor `StructArray`, descending through nested struct children for
+/// dotted paths.
+fn leaf_descriptor_struct<'a>(batch: &'a RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<&'a StructArray> {
+    let current = leaf_descriptor_array(batch, column)?;
+    current
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Blob column '{}' expected descriptor struct but got {}",
+                    column,
+                    current.data_type()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            )
+        })
+}
+
+fn leaf_descriptor_array<'a>(batch: &'a RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<&'a dyn Array> {
+    let path = parse_field_path(column)?;
+    let mut current: &dyn Array = batch
+        .column_by_name(&path[0])
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob column '{}' was not found in descriptor batch",
+                column
+            ))
+        })?
+        .as_ref();
+    for segment in &path[1..] {
+        let struct_array = current
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Blob column path '{}' expected struct before segment '{}' but got {}",
+                        column,
+                        segment,
+                        current.data_type()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        current = struct_array
+            .column_by_name(segment)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob column path '{}' missing segment '{}'",
+                    column, segment
+                ))
+            })?
+            .as_ref();
+    }
+    Ok(current)
+}
+
+fn blob_descriptor_fields_match(
+    actual: &arrow_schema::Fields,
+    expected: &arrow_schema::Fields,
+) -> bool {
+    actual.len() == expected.len()
+        && actual
+            .iter()
+            .zip(expected.iter())
+            .all(|(actual, expected)| {
+                actual.name() == expected.name() && actual.data_type() == expected.data_type()
+            })
+}
+
+fn blob_version_from_descriptions(descriptions: &StructArray) -> Result<BlobVersion> {
+    let fields = descriptions.fields();
+    if blob_descriptor_fields_match(fields, &BLOB_DESC_FIELDS) {
+        return Ok(BlobVersion::V1);
+    }
+    if BlobV2Layout::classify(fields) == Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor) {
+        return Ok(BlobVersion::V2);
+    }
+    Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!(
+        "Unrecognized blob descriptions schema: expected v1 descriptor or v2 descriptor layout but got {fields:?}",
+    )
+    .into()))
+}
+
+struct BlobV2DescriptorColumns<'a> {
+    descriptions: &'a StructArray,
+    kinds: &'a arrow::array::PrimitiveArray<UInt8Type>,
+    positions: &'a arrow::array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
+    sizes: &'a arrow::array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
+    blob_ids: &'a arrow::array::PrimitiveArray<UInt32Type>,
+    blob_uris: &'a arrow::array::GenericStringArray<i32>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> BlobV2DescriptorColumns<'a> {
+    fn new(descriptions: &'a StructArray) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            descriptions,
+            kinds: descriptions.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt8Type>(),
+            positions: descriptions.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>(),
+            sizes: descriptions.column(2).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>(),
+            blob_ids: descriptions.column(3).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>(),
+            blob_uris: descriptions.column(4).as_string::<i32>(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn managed_base_id(&self, idx: usize) -> Option<u32> {
+        (self.kinds.value(idx) == BlobKind::ManagedWithBase as u8).then(|| self.blob_ids.value(idx))
+    }
+
+    fn is_null_blob(&self, idx: usize) -> bool {
+        self.descriptions.is_null(idx) || self.kinds.is_null(idx)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Resolve blob v1 descriptors without dropping null selection slots.
+fn collect_blob_files_v1(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    blob_field_id: u32,
+    descriptions: &StructArray,
+    row_addrs: &arrow::array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Option<BlobFile>>> {
+    if descriptions.len() != row_addrs.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Blob descriptor count {} did not match row address count {}",
+            descriptions.len(),
+            row_addrs.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    let positions = descriptions.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let sizes = descriptions.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let mut source_cache = HashMap::<BlobSourceKey, Arc<BlobSource>>::new();
+    let mut files = Vec::with_capacity(row_addrs.len());
+    for selection_index in 0..row_addrs.len() {
+        if descriptions.is_null(selection_index)
+            || positions.is_null(selection_index)
+            || sizes.is_null(selection_index)
+        {
+            files.push(None);
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let position = positions.value(selection_index);
+        let size = sizes.value(selection_index);
+        // V1 encodes valid empty blobs as (0, 0) and smuggles null
+        // repetition/definition levels through a non-zero zero-sized position.
+        if size == 0 && position != 0 {
+            files.push(None);
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let row_addr = row_addrs.value(selection_index);
+        let frag_id = RowAddress::from(row_addr).fragment_id();
+        let frag = dataset.get_fragment(frag_id as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob row address {} references missing fragment {}",
+                row_addr, frag_id
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let data_file = frag.data_file_for_field(blob_field_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob field {} has no data file in fragment {} for row address {}",
+                blob_field_id, frag_id, row_addr
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let data_file_path = dataset.data_dir().join(data_file.path.as_str());
+        files.push(Some(BlobFile::with_source(
+            shared_blob_source(
+                &mut source_cache,
+                dataset.object_store.clone(),
+                &data_file_path,
+            ),
+            position,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::Inline,
+            None,
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(files)
+}
+
+/// Resolve blob v2 descriptors without dropping null selection slots.
+async fn collect_blob_files_v2(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    blob_field_id: u32,
+    descriptions: &StructArray,
+    row_addrs: &arrow::array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Option<BlobFile>>> {
+    collect_blob_v2_descriptor_files(dataset, blob_field_id, descriptions, row_addrs.values()).await
+}
+
+/// Resolve blob v2 descriptors to lazy handles without materializing their payloads.
+pub(super) async fn collect_blob_v2_descriptor_files(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    blob_field_id: u32,
+    descriptions: &StructArray,
+    row_addrs: &[u64],
+) -> Result<Vec<Option<BlobFile>>> {
+    if descriptions.len() != row_addrs.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Blob descriptor count {} did not match row address count {}",
+            descriptions.len(),
+            row_addrs.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    let columns = BlobV2DescriptorColumns::new(descriptions);
+    let mut files = Vec::with_capacity(row_addrs.len());
+    let mut read_context = BlobV2ReadContext::new(dataset, blob_field_id);
+    for (selection_index, row_addr) in row_addrs.iter().enumerate() {
+        files.push(
+            read_context
+                .collect_file(&columns, selection_index, *row_addr)
+                .await?,
+        );
+    }
+
+    Ok(files)
+}
+
+fn is_blob_v2_binary_view(field: &LanceField) -> bool {
+    field.is_blob_v2() && matches!(field.data_type(), ArrowDataType::LargeBinary)
+}
+
+fn public_blob_v2_binary_output_field(mut field: LanceField) -> LanceField {
+    if is_blob_v2_binary_view(&field) {
+        field.metadata.remove(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY);
+    }
+    field.children = field
+        .children
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(public_blob_v2_binary_output_field)
+        .collect();
+    field
+}
+
+/// Return the public Arrow-facing schema for a blob v2 binary scan.
+///
+/// Scan planning uses a blob v2 extension marker on `LargeBinary` leaves to
+/// identify payloads that need descriptor-based materialization. This helper
+/// removes that internal marker before the schema is exposed to callers.
+pub fn public_blob_v2_binary_output_schema(schema: &Schema) -> Schema {
+    Schema {
+        fields: schema
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .map(public_blob_v2_binary_output_field)
+            .collect(),
+        metadata: schema.metadata.clone(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn field_has_blob_v2_binary_view(field: &LanceField) -> bool {
+    is_blob_v2_binary_view(field) || field.children.iter().any(field_has_blob_v2_binary_view)
+}
+
+/// Return true if the schema contains a blob v2 leaf in binary payload view.
+///
+/// This detects the internal `LargeBinary` view created by
+/// [`BlobHandling::AllBinary`](lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+/// or selective binary blob handling.
+pub fn schema_has_blob_v2_binary_view(schema: &Schema) -> bool {
+    schema.fields.iter().any(field_has_blob_v2_binary_view)
+}
+
+fn blob_v2_descriptor_field(mut field: LanceField) -> LanceField {
+    if is_blob_v2_binary_view(&field) {
+        field.unloaded_mut();
+        return field;
+    }
+
+    field.children = field
+        .children
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(blob_v2_descriptor_field)
+        .collect();
+    field
+}
+
+/// Convert blob v2 binary-view leaves back to descriptor-view leaves.
+///
+/// Readers use this schema to fetch stored blob descriptors first. The scan
+/// layer then materializes those descriptors into the caller's binary payload
+/// view after row addresses are available.
+pub fn blob_v2_descriptor_schema(schema: &Schema) -> Schema {
+    Schema {
+        fields: schema
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .map(blob_v2_descriptor_field)
+            .collect(),
+        metadata: schema.metadata.clone(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Materialize blob v2 descriptor arrays in a decoded batch into binary arrays.
+///
+/// The input batch must include `_rowaddr`, which is used to resolve packed,
+/// dedicated, inline, and external blob payload locations. `output_schema`
+/// defines the exact returned columns, including requested system columns, with
+/// blob v2 binary leaves exposed as plain `LargeBinary` fields.
+pub async fn materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    output_schema: &Schema,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let context = BlobMaterializationContext::new(None, None);
+    Ok(
+        materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch_with_context(dataset, output_schema, batch, &context)
+            .await?
+            .into_batch(),
+    )
+}
+
+/// Split `batch` into row-aligned chunks whose total array memory size is at
+/// most `max_bytes`.
+///
+/// The split estimates chunk boundaries from average bytes per row and then
+/// recursively re-checks each deep-copied slice. Because `RecordBatch::slice`
+/// shares backing buffers, each slice is deep-copied so that
+/// `get_array_memory_size` reflects the true chunk size. Splitting stops when
+/// a chunk is within budget or contains a single indivisible row.
+pub fn split_batch_by_bytes(batch: RecordBatch, max_bytes: usize) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+    split_batch_by_bytes_recursive(batch, max_bytes)
+}
+
+fn split_batch_by_bytes_recursive(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    max_bytes: usize,
+) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+    if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+    let total_bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+    let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+    if total_bytes <= max_bytes || num_rows == 1 {
+        return Ok(vec![batch]);
+    }
+    let bytes_per_row = total_bytes / num_rows;
+    let rows_per_chunk = (max_bytes / bytes_per_row.max(1)).max(1);
+    // Make sure we make progress: never take all rows in one slice.
+    let rows_per_chunk = rows_per_chunk.min(num_rows - 1).max(1);
+
+    let mut chunks = Vec::new();
+    let mut offset = 0;
+    while offset < num_rows {
+        let rows = (offset + rows_per_chunk).min(num_rows) - offset;
+        let sliced = batch.slice(offset, rows);
+        // Deep-copy so that `get_array_memory_size()` reports the slice's own
+        // size rather than the parent buffer's size, allowing recursion to
+        // catch skewed rows that still exceed the budget.
+        let copied = lance_arrow::deepcopy::deep_copy_batch_sliced(&sliced)?;
+        chunks.extend(split_batch_by_bytes_recursive(copied, max_bytes)?);
+        offset += rows;
+    }
+    Ok(chunks)
+}
+
+pub fn materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch_with_context<'a>(
+    dataset: &'a Arc<Dataset>,
+    output_schema: &'a Schema,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    context: &'a Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<MaterializedBlobBatch>> {
+    let admission = context.admission();
+    materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch_with_admission(
+        dataset,
+        output_schema,
+        batch,
+        context,
+        admission,
+    )
+}
+
+pub fn materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch_with_admission<'a>(
+    dataset: &'a Arc<Dataset>,
+    output_schema: &'a Schema,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    context: &'a Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+    admission: BlobMaterializationAdmission,
+) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<MaterializedBlobBatch>> {
+    async move {
+        let materialized_bytes =
+            estimate_blob_v2_materialized_batch_bytes(dataset, output_schema, &batch).await?;
+        let reservation = admission.reserve(materialized_bytes).await;
+        let row_addr_idx = batch
+            .schema()
+            .column_with_name(ROW_ADDR)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "_rowaddr column missing from blob v2 binary scan batch, columns: {:?}",
+                    batch
+                        .schema()
+                        .fields()
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|field| field.name())
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                ))
+            })?
+            .0;
+        let row_addrs = batch
+            .column(row_addr_idx)
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let row_addrs: Arc<[u64]> = row_addrs.into();
+
+        let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(output_schema.fields.len());
+        let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(output_schema.fields.len());
+
+        for field in &output_schema.fields {
+            let input = batch
+                .column_by_name(&field.name)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "blob v2 binary scan batch missing projected column '{}'",
+                        field.name
+                    ))
+                })?
+                .clone();
+            let materialized =
+                materialize_blob_v2_binary_array(dataset, field, input, row_addrs.clone(), context)
+                    .await?;
+            columns.push(materialized);
+            let output_field = public_blob_v2_binary_output_field(field.clone());
+            fields.push(ArrowField::from(&output_field));
+        }
+
+        Ok(MaterializedBlobBatch {
+            batch: RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+                    fields,
+                    batch.schema().metadata().clone(),
+                )),
+                columns,
+            )?,
+            _reservations: reservation.into_iter().map(Arc::new).collect(),
+        })
+    }
+    .boxed()
+}
+
+async fn estimate_blob_v2_materialized_batch_bytes(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    output_schema: &Schema,
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    let mut bytes = u64::try_from(batch.get_array_memory_size()).unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+    let row_addr_idx = batch
+        .schema()
+        .column_with_name(ROW_ADDR)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("_rowaddr missing while estimating blob materialization"))?
+        .0;
+    let row_addrs = batch
+        .column(row_addr_idx)
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values();
+    for field in &output_schema.fields {
+        let input = batch.column_by_name(&field.name).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "blob v2 binary scan batch missing projected column '{}'",
+                field.name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        bytes = bytes.saturating_add(
+            estimate_blob_v2_materialized_array_bytes(dataset, field, input, row_addrs.as_ref())
+                .await?,
+        );
+    }
+    Ok(bytes)
+}
+
+fn estimate_blob_v2_materialized_array_bytes<'a>(
+    dataset: &'a Arc<Dataset>,
+    field: &'a LanceField,
+    array: &'a ArrayRef,
+    row_addrs: &'a [u64],
+) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<u64>> {
+    async move {
+        if is_blob_v2_binary_view(field) {
+            let descriptions = array.as_struct();
+            match blob_version_from_descriptions(descriptions)? {
+                BlobVersion::V1 => {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                        "Blob v2 binary materialization received a legacy blob descriptor"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                BlobVersion::V2 => {}
+            }
+            if descriptions.len() != row_addrs.len() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "blob v2 descriptor count {} did not match row address count {}",
+                    descriptions.len(),
+                    row_addrs.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            let columns = BlobV2DescriptorColumns::new(descriptions);
+            let mut read_context = BlobV2ReadContext::new(dataset, field.id as u32);
+            let mut payload_bytes = 0_u64;
+            for (idx, row_addr) in row_addrs.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+                if columns.is_null_blob(idx) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let kind = BlobKind::try_from(columns.kinds.value(idx))?;
+                if matches!(kind, BlobKind::Inline)
+                    && columns.positions.value(idx) == 0
+                    && columns.sizes.value(idx) == 0
+                {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let file = read_context
+                    .collect_file(&columns, idx, row_addr)
+                    .await?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "blob v2 descriptor at index {idx} unexpectedly resolved to null"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                payload_bytes = payload_bytes.saturating_add(file.size);
+            }
+            let offsets_bytes =
+                u64::try_from((descriptions.len() + 1).saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<i64>()))
+                    .unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+            return Ok(payload_bytes.saturating_add(offsets_bytes));
+        }
+
+        match field.data_type() {
+            ArrowDataType::Struct(_) => {
+                let array = array.as_struct();
+                let mut total = 0_u64;
+                for (child, array) in field.children.iter().zip(array.columns()) {
+                    total = total.saturating_add(
+                        estimate_blob_v2_materialized_array_bytes(dataset, child, array, row_addrs)
+                            .await?,
+                    );
+                }
+                Ok(total)
+            }
+            ArrowDataType::List(_) => {
+                let array = array.as_list::<i32>();
+                let child = field.children.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "List field '{}' missing child while estimating blob v2 materialization",
+                        field.name
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let (values_start, child_row_addrs) =
+                    list_child_row_addrs(array.value_offsets(), row_addrs)?;
+                let values = array.values().slice(values_start, child_row_addrs.len());
+                estimate_blob_v2_materialized_array_bytes(dataset, child, &values, &child_row_addrs)
+                    .await
+            }
+            ArrowDataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                let array = array.as_list::<i64>();
+                let child = field.children.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "List field '{}' missing child while estimating blob v2 materialization",
+                        field.name
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let (values_start, child_row_addrs) =
+                    list_child_row_addrs(array.value_offsets(), row_addrs)?;
+                let values = array.values().slice(values_start, child_row_addrs.len());
+                estimate_blob_v2_materialized_array_bytes(dataset, child, &values, &child_row_addrs)
+                    .await
+            }
+            _ => Ok(0),
+        }
+    }
+    .boxed()
+}
+
+fn list_child_row_addrs<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+    offsets: &[O],
+    row_addrs: &[u64],
+) -> Result<(usize, Vec<u64>)> {
+    if offsets.len() != row_addrs.len() + 1 {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "list offsets did not match row addresses while estimating blob materialization"
+                .to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let values_start = offsets[0].as_usize();
+    let values_end = offsets[row_addrs.len()].as_usize();
+    let mut child_row_addrs = Vec::with_capacity(values_end.saturating_sub(values_start));
+    for (row_idx, row_addr) in row_addrs.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+        let start = offsets[row_idx].as_usize();
+        let end = offsets[row_idx + 1].as_usize();
+        if end < start {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "list offsets decreased while estimating blob materialization".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        child_row_addrs.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(row_addr, end - start));
+    }
+    Ok((values_start, child_row_addrs))
+}
+
+fn materialize_blob_v2_binary_array<'a>(
+    dataset: &'a Arc<Dataset>,
+    field: &'a LanceField,
+    array: ArrayRef,
+    row_addrs: Arc<[u64]>,
+    context: &'a Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<ArrayRef>> {
+    async move {
+        if is_blob_v2_binary_view(field) {
+            let descriptions = array.as_struct();
+            return materialize_blob_v2_descriptors(
+                dataset,
+                field.id as u32,
+                descriptions,
+                row_addrs.as_ref(),
+                context,
+            )
+            .await;
+        }
+
+        match field.data_type() {
+            ArrowDataType::Struct(_) => {
+                let struct_array = array.as_struct();
+                let mut children = Vec::with_capacity(field.children.len());
+                for (child_field, child_array) in
+                    field.children.iter().zip(struct_array.columns().iter())
+                {
+                    children.push(
+                        materialize_blob_v2_binary_array(
+                            dataset,
+                            child_field,
+                            child_array.clone(),
+                            row_addrs.clone(),
+                            context,
+                        )
+                        .await?,
+                    );
+                }
+                let public_field = public_blob_v2_binary_output_field(field.clone());
+                let ArrowDataType::Struct(fields) = public_field.data_type() else {
+                    unreachable!("public output field preserved struct type")
+                };
+                Ok(Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
+                    fields,
+                    children,
+                    struct_array.nulls().cloned(),
+                )?) as ArrayRef)
+            }
+            ArrowDataType::List(_) => {
+                let list_array = array.as_list::<i32>();
+                materialize_blob_v2_list_array::<i32>(
+                    dataset, field, list_array, row_addrs, context,
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+            ArrowDataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                let list_array = array.as_list::<i64>();
+                materialize_blob_v2_list_array::<i64>(
+                    dataset, field, list_array, row_addrs, context,
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+            _ => Ok(array),
+        }
+    }
+    .boxed()
+}
+
+async fn materialize_blob_v2_list_array<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    field: &LanceField,
+    list_array: &GenericListArray<O>,
+    row_addrs: Arc<[u64]>,
+    context: &Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    let offsets = list_array.value_offsets();
+    let values_start = offsets[0].as_usize();
+    let values_end = offsets[list_array.len()].as_usize();
+    if values_end < values_start {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "List field '{}' has invalid offsets while materializing blob v2 binary scan",
+            field.name
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let values_len = values_end - values_start;
+    let mut normalized_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(list_array.len() + 1);
+    normalized_offsets.push(O::usize_as(0));
+    let mut child_row_addrs = Vec::with_capacity(values_len);
+    for row_idx in 0..list_array.len() {
+        let start = offsets[row_idx].as_usize();
+        let end = offsets[row_idx + 1].as_usize();
+        if end < start {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "List field '{}' has decreasing offsets while materializing blob v2 binary scan",
+                field.name
+            )));
+        }
+        let row_addr = row_addrs.get(row_idx).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "List field '{}' row address count {} did not match row count {}",
+                field.name,
+                row_addrs.len(),
+                list_array.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        for _ in start..end {
+            child_row_addrs.push(row_addr);
+        }
+        normalized_offsets.push(O::usize_as(end - values_start));
+    }
+    let child_row_addrs: Arc<[u64]> = child_row_addrs.into();
+    let child = field.children.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal(format!(
+            "List field '{}' missing child while materializing blob v2 binary scan",
+            field.name
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let values = list_array.values().slice(values_start, values_len);
+    let values =
+        materialize_blob_v2_binary_array(dataset, child, values, child_row_addrs, context).await?;
+    let child_field = public_blob_v2_binary_output_field(child.clone());
+    let list_array = GenericListArray::<O>::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowField::from(&child_field)),
+        OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(normalized_offsets)),
+        values,
+        list_array.nulls().cloned(),
+    )?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(list_array))
+}
+
+async fn materialize_blob_v2_descriptors(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    blob_field_id: u32,
+    descriptions: &StructArray,
+    row_addrs: &[u64],
+    context: &Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    if descriptions.len() != row_addrs.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "blob v2 descriptor count {} did not match row address count {}",
+            descriptions.len(),
+            row_addrs.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    match blob_version_from_descriptions(descriptions)? {
+        BlobVersion::V1 => {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "Blob v2 binary materialization received a legacy blob descriptor".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        BlobVersion::V2 => {}
+    }
+
+    let columns = BlobV2DescriptorColumns::new(descriptions);
+    let mut read_context = BlobV2ReadContext::new(dataset, blob_field_id);
+    let mut entries = Vec::with_capacity(descriptions.len());
+    let mut payloads = vec![None; descriptions.len()];
+
+    for (idx, row_addr) in row_addrs.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+        if descriptions.is_null(idx) || columns.kinds.is_null(idx) {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let kind = BlobKind::try_from(columns.kinds.value(idx))?;
+        if matches!(kind, BlobKind::Inline)
+            && columns.positions.value(idx) == 0
+            && columns.sizes.value(idx) == 0
+        {
+            payloads[idx] = Some(Bytes::new());
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let file = read_context
+            .collect_file(&columns, idx, row_addr)
+            .await?
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "blob v2 descriptor at index {idx} unexpectedly resolved to null"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        entries.push(BlobEntry {
+            selection_index: idx,
+            row_address: row_addr,
+            file,
+            requested_range: None,
+        });
+    }
+
+    let blobs = execute_blob_entries_with_execution(
+        entries,
+        dataset.object_store.io_parallelism(),
+        context.execution.clone(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    for blob in blobs {
+        let payload = payloads.get_mut(blob.selection_index).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "blob result selection index {} exceeded descriptor count {}",
+                blob.selection_index,
+                descriptions.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if payload.replace(blob.data).is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "blob result selection index {} was produced more than once",
+                blob.selection_index
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let payload_capacity = payloads.iter().flatten().map(Bytes::len).sum::<usize>();
+    let mut builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(descriptions.len(), payload_capacity);
+    for (idx, payload) in payloads.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        if descriptions.is_null(idx) || columns.kinds.is_null(idx) {
+            builder.append_null();
+        } else {
+            let payload = payload.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "blob v2 descriptor at index {idx} did not produce a payload"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            builder.append_value(payload);
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(Arc::new(builder.finish()))
+}
+
+struct BlobV2ReadContext<'a> {
+    dataset: &'a Arc<Dataset>,
+    blob_field_id: u32,
+    fragment_cache: HashMap<u32, BlobReadLocation>,
+    store_cache: HashMap<u32, Arc<ObjectStore>>,
+    external_base_path_cache: HashMap<u32, Path>,
+    source_cache: HashMap<BlobSourceKey, Arc<BlobSource>>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> BlobV2ReadContext<'a> {
+    fn new(dataset: &'a Arc<Dataset>, blob_field_id: u32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            blob_field_id,
+            fragment_cache: HashMap::new(),
+            store_cache: HashMap::new(),
+            external_base_path_cache: HashMap::new(),
+            source_cache: HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn collect_file(
+        &mut self,
+        columns: &BlobV2DescriptorColumns<'_>,
+        idx: usize,
+        row_addr: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Option<BlobFile>> {
+        if columns.is_null_blob(idx) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let kind = BlobKind::try_from(columns.kinds.value(idx))?;
+        let file = match kind {
+            BlobKind::Inline => self.collect_inline(columns, idx, row_addr).await?,
+            BlobKind::Dedicated => self.collect_dedicated(columns, idx, row_addr).await?,
+            BlobKind::Packed => self.collect_packed(columns, idx, row_addr).await?,
+            BlobKind::External => self.collect_external(columns, idx).await?,
+            BlobKind::Managed | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase => {
+                self.collect_managed(columns, idx, row_addr).await?
+            }
+        };
+
+        Ok(Some(file))
+    }
+
+    async fn blob_read_location(&mut self, row_addr: u64) -> Result<BlobReadLocation> {
+        resolve_blob_read_location(
+            self.dataset,
+            self.blob_field_id,
+            row_addr,
+            &mut self.fragment_cache,
+            &mut self.store_cache,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn collect_inline(
+        &mut self,
+        columns: &BlobV2DescriptorColumns<'_>,
+        idx: usize,
+        row_addr: u64,
+    ) -> Result<BlobFile> {
+        let position = columns.positions.value(idx);
+        let size = columns.sizes.value(idx);
+        let location = self.blob_read_location(row_addr).await?;
+        let source = shared_blob_source(
+            &mut self.source_cache,
+            location.object_store,
+            &location.data_file_path,
+        );
+        Ok(BlobFile::with_source(
+            source,
+            position,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::Inline,
+            None,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn collect_dedicated(
+        &mut self,
+        columns: &BlobV2DescriptorColumns<'_>,
+        idx: usize,
+        row_addr: u64,
+    ) -> Result<BlobFile> {
+        let blob_id = columns.blob_ids.value(idx);
+        let size = columns.sizes.value(idx);
+        let location = self.blob_read_location(row_addr).await?;
+        let path = blob_path(&location.data_file_dir, &location.data_file_key, blob_id);
+        let source = shared_blob_source(&mut self.source_cache, location.object_store, &path);
+        Ok(BlobFile::with_source(
+            source,
+            0,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::Dedicated,
+            None,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn collect_packed(
+        &mut self,
+        columns: &BlobV2DescriptorColumns<'_>,
+        idx: usize,
+        row_addr: u64,
+    ) -> Result<BlobFile> {
+        let blob_id = columns.blob_ids.value(idx);
+        let size = columns.sizes.value(idx);
+        let position = columns.positions.value(idx);
+        let location = self.blob_read_location(row_addr).await?;
+        let path = blob_path(&location.data_file_dir, &location.data_file_key, blob_id);
+        let source = shared_blob_source(&mut self.source_cache, location.object_store, &path);
+        Ok(BlobFile::with_source(
+            source,
+            position,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::Packed,
+            None,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn collect_managed(
+        &mut self,
+        columns: &BlobV2DescriptorColumns<'_>,
+        idx: usize,
+        row_addr: u64,
+    ) -> Result<BlobFile> {
+        let uri = columns.blob_uris.value(idx);
+        let position = columns.positions.value(idx);
+        let size = columns.sizes.value(idx);
+        let relative = lance_core::utils::blob::validate_managed_reference(uri, position, size)?;
+        let base_id = resolve_managed_base_id(
+            self.dataset,
+            self.blob_field_id,
+            row_addr,
+            columns.managed_base_id(idx),
+        )?;
+        let (root, store) = if let Some(id) = base_id {
+            let root = if let Some(root) = self.external_base_path_cache.get(&id) {
+                root.clone()
+            } else {
+                let root = self.dataset.blob_base_path(Some(id))?;
+                self.external_base_path_cache.insert(id, root.clone());
+                root
+            };
+            let store = if let Some(store) = self.store_cache.get(&id) {
+                store.clone()
+            } else {
+                let store = self.dataset.object_store(Some(id)).await?;
+                self.store_cache.insert(id, store.clone());
+                store
+            };
+            (root, store)
+        } else {
+            (self.dataset.base.clone(), self.dataset.object_store.clone())
+        };
+        let path = join_base_and_relative_path(&root, relative.as_ref())?;
+        let source = shared_blob_source(&mut self.source_cache, store, &path);
+        Ok(BlobFile::with_source(
+            source,
+            position,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::Managed,
+            Some(uri.to_string()),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn collect_external(
+        &mut self,
+        columns: &BlobV2DescriptorColumns<'_>,
+        idx: usize,
+    ) -> Result<BlobFile> {
+        let uri_or_path = columns.blob_uris.value(idx).to_string();
+        let position = columns.positions.value(idx);
+        let size = columns.sizes.value(idx);
+        let base_id = columns.blob_ids.value(idx);
+        let (object_store, path) = if base_id == 0 {
+            let registry = self.dataset.session.store_registry();
+            let params = self
+                .dataset
+                .store_params
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|p| Arc::new((**p).clone()))
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| Arc::new(ObjectStoreParams::default()));
+            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, &uri_or_path, &params).await?
+        } else {
+            let object_store = if let Some(store) = self.store_cache.get(&base_id) {
+                store.clone()
+            } else {
+                let store = self.dataset.object_store(Some(base_id)).await?;
+                self.store_cache.insert(base_id, store.clone());
+                store
+            };
+            let base_root = if let Some(path) = self.external_base_path_cache.get(&base_id) {
+                path.clone()
+            } else {
+                let base = self
+                    .dataset
+                    .manifest
+                    .base_paths
+                    .get(&base_id)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "External blob references unknown base_id {}",
+                            base_id
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                let path = base.extract_path(self.dataset.session.store_registry())?;
+                self.external_base_path_cache.insert(base_id, path.clone());
+                path
+            };
+            let path = join_base_and_relative_path(&base_root, &uri_or_path)?;
+            (object_store, path)
+        };
+        let size = if size > 0 {
+            size
+        } else {
+            object_store.size(&path).await?
+        };
+        let source = shared_blob_source(&mut self.source_cache, object_store, &path);
+        Ok(BlobFile::with_source(
+            source,
+            position,
+            size,
+            BlobKind::External,
+            Some(uri_or_path),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+fn normalize_external_absolute_uri(uri: &str) -> Result<String> {
+    let url = Url::parse(uri).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "External URI '{}' is outside registered external bases and is not a valid absolute URI",
+            uri
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok(url.to_string())
+}
+
+fn join_base_and_relative_path(base: &Path, relative_path: &str) -> Result<Path> {
+    let relative = Path::parse(relative_path).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Invalid relative external blob path '{}': {}",
+            relative_path, e
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok(Path::from_iter(base.parts().chain(relative.parts())))
+}
+
+/// Resolve the physical read location for a blob row in a base-aware way.
+///
+/// Given a `row_addr`, this helper locates the owning fragment and the blob field's
+/// data file, then returns the concrete object store and paths needed to read blob
+/// bytes correctly under multi-base datasets.
+///
+/// It uses two caller-provided caches:
+/// - `fragment_cache` memoizes per-fragment path metadata (`data_file_dir`,
+///   `data_file_path`, and `data_file_key`) plus the resolved store.
+/// - `store_cache` memoizes `base_id -> ObjectStore` so multiple fragments that
+///   share the same base do not repeat async store resolution.
+async fn resolve_blob_read_location(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    blob_field_id: u32,
+    row_addr: u64,
+    fragment_cache: &mut HashMap<u32, BlobReadLocation>,
+    store_cache: &mut HashMap<u32, Arc<ObjectStore>>,
+) -> Result<BlobReadLocation> {
+    let frag_id = RowAddress::from(row_addr).fragment_id();
+    if let Some(location) = fragment_cache.get(&frag_id) {
+        return Ok(location.clone());
+    }
+
+    let frag = dataset
+        .get_fragment(frag_id as usize)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Fragment not found".to_string()))?;
+    let data_file = frag
+        .data_file_for_field(blob_field_id)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Data file not found for blob field".to_string()))?;
+    let data_file_dir = dataset.data_file_dir(data_file)?;
+    let data_file_path = data_file_dir.clone().join(data_file.path.as_str());
+    let data_file_key = data_file_key_from_path(data_file.path.as_str()).to_string();
+
+    let object_store = if let Some(base_id) = data_file.base_id {
+        if let Some(store) = store_cache.get(&base_id) {
+            store.clone()
+        } else {
+            let store = dataset.object_store(Some(base_id)).await?;
+            store_cache.insert(base_id, store.clone());
+            store
+        }
+    } else {
+        dataset.object_store.clone()
+    };
+
+    let location = BlobReadLocation {
+        base_id: data_file.base_id,
+        object_store,
+        data_file_dir,
+        data_file_key,
+        data_file_path,
+    };
+    fragment_cache.insert(frag_id, location.clone());
+    Ok(location)
+}
+
+fn resolve_managed_base_id(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    field_id: u32,
+    row_addr: u64,
+    explicit: Option<u32>,
+) -> Result<Option<u32>> {
+    if explicit.is_some() {
+        return Ok(explicit);
+    }
+    let fragment = dataset
+        .get_fragment(RowAddress::from(row_addr).fragment_id() as usize)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Managed descriptor fragment is missing"))?;
+    let file = fragment
+        .data_file_for_field(field_id)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Managed descriptor data file is missing"))?;
+    Ok(file.base_id)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn field_contains_blob(field: &LanceField) -> bool {
+    field.is_blob_v2() || field.children.iter().any(field_contains_blob)
+}
+
+fn visit_managed_row(
+    field: &LanceField,
+    array: &dyn Array,
+    row: usize,
+    visit: &mut impl FnMut(u32, Option<u32>, &str, Range<u64>) -> Result<()>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if array.is_null(row) {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if field.is_blob_v2() {
+        let values = array.as_struct_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Expected Blob descriptor array during reference scan")
+        })?;
+        let columns = BlobV2DescriptorColumns::new(values);
+        if !columns.is_null_blob(row)
+            && matches!(
+                BlobKind::try_from(columns.kinds.value(row))?,
+                BlobKind::Managed | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase
+            )
+        {
+            let uri = columns.blob_uris.value(row);
+            lance_core::utils::blob::validate_managed_reference(
+                uri,
+                columns.positions.value(row),
+                columns.sizes.value(row),
+            )?;
+            visit(
+                field.id as u32,
+                columns.managed_base_id(row),
+                uri,
+                columns.positions.value(row)
+                    ..columns.positions.value(row) + columns.sizes.value(row),
+            )?;
+        }
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    match array.data_type() {
+        ArrowDataType::Struct(_) => {
+            for child in field
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|child| field_contains_blob(child))
+            {
+                let values = array
+                    .as_struct()
+                    .column_by_name(&child.name)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Missing Blob child during reference scan"))?;
+                visit_managed_row(child, values.as_ref(), row, visit)?;
+            }
+        }
+        ArrowDataType::List(_) => {
+            let values = array.as_list::<i32>();
+            let child = field
+                .children
+                .first()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Missing Blob list item field"))?;
+            for index in values.value_offsets()[row]..values.value_offsets()[row + 1] {
+                visit_managed_row(child, values.values().as_ref(), index as usize, visit)?;
+            }
+        }
+        ArrowDataType::LargeList(_) => {
+            let values = array.as_list::<i64>();
+            let child = field
+                .children
+                .first()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Missing Blob list item field"))?;
+            for index in values.value_offsets()[row]..values.value_offsets()[row + 1] {
+                visit_managed_row(child, values.values().as_ref(), index as usize, visit)?;
+            }
+        }
+        _ => {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "Cannot scan Managed references in {}",
+                array.data_type()
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Discover referenced objects from stored descriptors without reading payloads.
+async fn managed_references(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    mut scan: super::scanner::Scanner,
+) -> Result<HashSet<(Option<u32>, String)>> {
+    let fields = dataset
+        .schema()
+        .fields
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|field| field_contains_blob(field))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    if fields.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(HashSet::new());
+    }
+    let names = fields
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    scan.project(&names)?;
+    scan.with_row_address();
+    let mut stream = scan.try_into_stream().await?;
+    let mut references = HashSet::new();
+    while let Some(batch) = stream.try_next().await? {
+        for field in &fields {
+            let values = batch
+                .column_by_name(&field.name)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Missing Blob column during reference scan"))?;
+            for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                visit_managed_row(
+                    field,
+                    values.as_ref(),
+                    row,
+                    &mut |field_id, id, uri, _range| {
+                        let row_addr = batch[ROW_ADDR].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(row);
+                        let id = resolve_managed_base_id(dataset, field_id, row_addr, id)?;
+                        references.insert((id, uri.to_string()));
+                        Ok(())
+                    },
+                )?;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(references)
+}
+
+/// Resolve only objects within the cleanup owner's deletion jurisdiction.
+pub(super) async fn managed_paths(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    owner: &Dataset,
+    scan: super::scanner::Scanner,
+) -> Result<HashSet<Path>> {
+    let references = managed_references(dataset, scan).await?;
+    let mut paths = HashSet::new();
+    let mut bases = HashMap::new();
+    for (id, uri) in references {
+        if let std::collections::hash_map::Entry::Vacant(entry) = bases.entry(id) {
+            let root = dataset.blob_base_path(id)?;
+            let store = dataset.object_store(id).await?;
+            entry.insert((store.store_prefix == owner.object_store.store_prefix, root));
+        }
+        let (same_store, root) = bases
+            .get(&id)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Missing resolved Managed base"))?;
+        if *same_store {
+            let path = join_base_and_relative_path(root, &uri)?;
+            if path.prefix_match(&owner.base).is_some() {
+                paths.insert(path);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(paths)
+}
+
+/// Preserve Managed references and adopt Packed/Dedicated objects in place.
+/// Only Inline payloads are copied. Implicit source bases become explicit when
+/// a shallow clone rewrites descriptors into its own table base.
+pub(super) async fn preserve_managed_descriptors(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    field_id: u32,
+    values: &StructArray,
+    row_addrs: &[u64],
+    field: &ArrowField,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    if values.len() != row_addrs.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "Blob descriptors and row addresses have different lengths",
+        ));
+    }
+    let columns = BlobV2DescriptorColumns::new(values);
+    let mut builder = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new_with_metadata(
+        field.name(),
+        field.is_nullable(),
+        field.metadata().clone(),
+    );
+    let mut context = BlobV2ReadContext::new(dataset, field_id);
+    for (row, row_addr) in row_addrs.iter().enumerate() {
+        if columns.is_null_blob(row) {
+            builder.push_null()?;
+            continue;
+        }
+        let kind = BlobKind::try_from(columns.kinds.value(row))?;
+        match kind {
+            BlobKind::Managed | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase => {
+                context.collect_managed(&columns, row, *row_addr).await?;
+                builder.push(BlobDescriptor::Managed {
+                    base_id: resolve_managed_base_id(
+                        dataset,
+                        field_id,
+                        *row_addr,
+                        columns.managed_base_id(row),
+                    )?,
+                    uri: columns.blob_uris.value(row).to_string(),
+                    offset: columns.positions.value(row),
+                    size: columns.sizes.value(row),
+                })?;
+            }
+            BlobKind::Packed | BlobKind::Dedicated => {
+                let location = context.blob_read_location(*row_addr).await?;
+                let root = dataset.blob_base_path(location.base_id)?;
+                let path = blob_path(
+                    &location.data_file_dir,
+                    &location.data_file_key,
+                    columns.blob_ids.value(row),
+                );
+                let uri = path
+                    .prefix_match(&root)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!("Blob source {path} is outside base {root}"))
+                    })?
+                    .map(|part| part.as_ref().to_string())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .join("/");
+                builder.push(BlobDescriptor::Managed {
+                    base_id: location.base_id,
+                    uri,
+                    offset: if kind == BlobKind::Dedicated {
+                        0
+                    } else {
+                        columns.positions.value(row)
+                    },
+                    size: columns.sizes.value(row),
+                })?;
+            }
+            BlobKind::External => builder.push(BlobDescriptor::External {
+                base_id: columns.blob_ids.value(row),
+                uri: columns.blob_uris.value(row).to_string(),
+                offset: columns.positions.value(row),
+                size: columns.sizes.value(row),
+            })?,
+            BlobKind::Inline => {
+                let file = context.collect_inline(&columns, row, *row_addr).await?;
+                builder.push_inline(file.read().await?)?;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(builder.finish()?.into_parts().1)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn data_file_key_from_path(path: &str) -> &str {
+    let filename = path.rsplit('/').next().unwrap_or(path);
+    filename.strip_suffix(".lance").unwrap_or(filename)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::ops::Range;
+    use std::sync::{
+        Arc,
+        atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+    };
+    use std::time::Duration;
+
+    use arrow::{
+        array::AsArray,
+        datatypes::{UInt8Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type},
+    };
+    use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, ArrayRef, Int32Array, LargeBinaryArray, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+        StructArray, UInt8Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use chrono::Utc;
+    use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+    use lance_arrow::{
+        ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+        BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, BLOB_META_KEY, BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+        BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME, DataTypeExt,
+    };
+    use lance_core::{
+        datatypes::{BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS, BlobHandling, BlobKind, OnMissing},
+        utils::blob::blob_path,
+    };
+    use lance_io::object_store::{
+        ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry, StorageOptionsAccessor,
+    };
+    use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream;
+    use lance_table::format::BasePath;
+    use object_store::{
+        Attributes, CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetRange, GetResult, GetResultPayload, ListResult,
+        MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta, PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult,
+        path::Path,
+    };
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use tokio::sync::{Notify, Semaphore};
+    use url::Url;
+
+    use lance_core::{
+        Error, ROW_ADDR, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION, Result,
+        utils::tempfile::{TempDir, TempStrDir},
+    };
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+    use lance_file::{version::LanceFileVersion, writer::FileWriterOptions};
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    use super::{
+        BlobEntry, BlobFile, BlobMaterializationBudget, BlobMaterializationBudgetState,
+        BlobRangeRequest, BlobReadRange, BlobSource, BlobV2DescriptorColumns,
+        ExternalBaseCandidate, ExternalBaseResolver, ExternalBlobSource, ReadBlobsExecution,
+        blob_version_from_descriptions, collect_blob_files_v1, data_file_key_from_path,
+        execute_blob_entries, execute_blob_read_batches_stream, execute_blob_read_plan,
+        plan_blob_read_batches, plan_blob_read_plans,
+    };
+    use crate::{
+        Dataset,
+        blob::{
+            BlobArrayBuilder, BlobDescriptor, BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder, BlobRange,
+            PackedBlobWriter, blob_field,
+        },
+        dataset::{
+            CommitBuilder, ExternalBlobMode, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+            scanner::MaterializationStyle,
+            transaction::{DataReplacementGroup, Operation, Transaction},
+        },
+        utils::test::TestDatasetGenerator,
+    };
+
+    struct BlobTestFixture {
+        _test_dir: TempStrDir,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        data: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    }
+
+    struct MultiBaseBlobFixture {
+        _test_dir: TempDir,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        expected: Vec<u8>,
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::inline(1024, BlobKind::Inline)]
+    #[case::packed(100 * 1024, BlobKind::Managed)]
+    #[case::dedicated(8 * 1024 * 1024, BlobKind::Managed)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_write_read(
+        #[case] size: usize,
+        #[case] kind: BlobKind,
+        #[values(false, true)] maximum_base_id: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] primary_write: bool,
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let payload = vec![42u8; size];
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+        blobs.push_bytes(&payload).unwrap();
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"").unwrap();
+        blobs.push_null().unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blobs.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    initial_bases: maximum_base_id.then(|| {
+                        vec![BasePath::new(
+                            u32::MAX,
+                            test_dir.to_string(),
+                            Some("payload".to_string()),
+                            true,
+                        )]
+                    }),
+                    target_bases: (maximum_base_id && !primary_write).then_some(vec![u32::MAX]),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let flag = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS;
+        assert_ne!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, 0);
+        assert_ne!(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, 0);
+        for (_, uri) in super::managed_references(&dataset, dataset.scan())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        {
+            assert!(uri.starts_with("_blobs/"), "{uri}");
+            assert_eq!(uri.split('/').count(), 2);
+            Uuid::parse_str(uri.trim_start_matches("_blobs/").trim_end_matches(".blob")).unwrap();
+        }
+        let id = (maximum_base_id && !primary_write).then_some(u32::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.base_paths.len(),
+            usize::from(maximum_base_id)
+        );
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            assert_eq!(fragment.metadata.files[0].base_id, id);
+        }
+        let values = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(values[0].as_ref().unwrap().kind(), kind);
+        assert_eq!(
+            values[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            payload
+        );
+        assert!(values[1].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(values[2].is_none());
+        if kind == BlobKind::Managed
+            && let Some(id) = id
+        {
+            let mut missing_base = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+            let manifest = Arc::make_mut(&mut missing_base.manifest);
+            // The data file lives at the dataset root even when the writer
+            // selected an explicit base. Isolate the descriptor's base lookup.
+            for fragment in Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments) {
+                for file in fragment.referenced_lance_files_mut() {
+                    file.base_id = None;
+                }
+            }
+            manifest.base_paths.clear();
+            let error = Arc::new(missing_base)
+                .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob")
+                .await
+                .err()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains(&format!("unknown base_id {id}")),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_append_preserves_primary_base_root_semantics(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_dataset_root: bool,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let payload = vec![7; 100 * 1024];
+        let make_reader = || {
+            let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+            blobs.push_bytes(&payload).unwrap();
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", false)]));
+            let batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blobs.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema)
+        };
+        Dataset::write(
+            make_reader(),
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath::new(
+                    7,
+                    test_dir.to_string(),
+                    None,
+                    is_dataset_root,
+                )]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                make_reader(),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for blob in blobs {
+            assert_eq!(blob.unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), payload);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.base_paths.len(), 1);
+        let flags = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS
+            | lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_BASE_PATHS
+            | lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flags, flags);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flags, flags);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.base_paths[&7].is_dataset_root,
+            is_dataset_root
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|fragment| fragment.metadata.files[0].base_id.is_none())
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::local(None)]
+    #[case::registered(Some(7))]
+    #[case::maximum(Some(u32::MAX))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_prepared_write_validates_registered_base(
+        #[case] base_id: Option<u32>,
+        #[values(false, true)] registered: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] nested: bool,
+    ) {
+        let table = TempStrDir::default();
+        let objects = TempStrDir::default();
+        let root: &str = if base_id.is_some() {
+            objects.as_ref()
+        } else {
+            table.as_ref()
+        };
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(std::path::Path::new(root).join("_blobs")).unwrap();
+        std::fs::write(
+            std::path::Path::new(root).join("_blobs/test.blob"),
+            b"payload",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut values = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        values
+            .push(BlobDescriptor::Managed {
+                base_id,
+                uri: "_blobs/test.blob".to_string(),
+                offset: 1,
+                size: 3,
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+        let (field, values) = values.finish().unwrap().into_parts();
+        let (field, values): (Field, ArrayRef) = if nested {
+            let fields: arrow_schema::Fields = vec![field].into();
+            (
+                Field::new("nested", DataType::Struct(fields.clone()), false),
+                Arc::new(StructArray::new(fields, vec![values], None)),
+            )
+        } else {
+            (field, values)
+        };
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![values]).unwrap();
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &table,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                initial_bases: base_id
+                    .filter(|_| registered)
+                    .map(|id| vec![BasePath::new(id, objects.to_string(), None, false)]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await;
+        if base_id.is_some() && !registered {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("unknown base_id"), "{error}");
+        } else {
+            let dataset = Arc::new(result.unwrap());
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.manifest.base_paths.len(),
+                usize::from(base_id.is_some())
+            );
+            let blobs = dataset
+                .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], if nested { "nested.blob" } else { "blob" })
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+                b"ayl"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_empty_range_does_not_discover_object_length() {
+        let (store, recording) = recording_range_store(Bytes::from_static(b"not empty"));
+        let source = Arc::new(BlobSource::new(store, Path::from("data/a/payload.blob")));
+        let blob = BlobFile::with_source(source, 4, 0, BlobKind::Managed, None);
+        assert!(blob.read().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(blob.read_range(0..0).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(recording.head_requests.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert!(recording.requested_ranges().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::adopt_stable(true)]
+    #[case::reuse_managed(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_compaction_preserves_sidecars_after_source_gc(
+        #[case] released: bool,
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        mock_instant::thread_local::MockClock::set_system_time(
+            std::time::SystemTime::now()
+                .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let payload = vec![b'p'; 16];
+        let dedicated = vec![b'd'; 32];
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(6);
+        blobs.push_bytes(&payload).unwrap();
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"inline").unwrap();
+        blobs.push_null().unwrap();
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"").unwrap();
+        blobs.push_bytes(&dedicated).unwrap();
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"inline").unwrap();
+        let mut field = blob_field("blob", true);
+        let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+        metadata.extend(HashMap::from([
+            (
+                BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                "8".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                "24".to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]));
+        field = field.with_metadata(metadata);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blobs.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+        let old_data = crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp("v11.0.0/blob_sidecars").unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = if released {
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::open(old_data.path_str().as_str()).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(!dataset.manifest.has_managed_blobs());
+            dataset
+                .update_config([("test", "metadata-only")])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(!dataset.manifest.has_managed_blobs());
+            dataset
+        } else {
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments.len(), 2);
+        let before = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .read_dir_all(&dataset.base, None)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let sidecars = before
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|object| object.location.extension() == Some("blob"))
+            .map(|object| (object.location.clone(), object.size))
+            .collect::<std::collections::BTreeMap<_, _>>();
+        assert!(!sidecars.is_empty());
+        mock_instant::thread_local::MockClock::set_system_time(
+            std::time::SystemTime::now()
+                .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments.len(), 1);
+        assert!(dataset.manifest.has_managed_blobs());
+        let cleanup_stats = crate::dataset::cleanup::cleanup_old_versions(
+            &dataset,
+            crate::dataset::cleanup::CleanupPolicy {
+                before_timestamp: Some(Utc::now() + chrono::TimeDelta::seconds(1)),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let after = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .read_dir_all(&dataset.base, None)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let remaining_sidecars = after
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|object| object.location.extension() == Some("blob"))
+            .map(|object| (object.location.clone(), object.size))
+            .collect::<std::collections::BTreeMap<_, _>>();
+        assert_eq!(sidecars, remaining_sidecars);
+        for source in before
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|object| object.location.extension() == Some("lance"))
+        {
+            assert!(
+                !after
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|object| object.location == source.location),
+                "source={source:?}, stats={cleanup_stats:?}, fragments={:?}",
+                dataset.manifest.fragments
+            );
+        }
+        // Move the complete table and remove the old location. Both adopted
+        // sidecars and newly written Managed objects must follow the table.
+        let moved_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        std::fs::remove_dir(moved_dir.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let old_path = if released {
+            old_data.path_str()
+        } else {
+            test_dir.to_string()
+        };
+        drop(dataset);
+        std::fs::rename(&old_path, moved_dir.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&moved_dir).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(dataset.manifest.base_paths.is_empty());
+        crate::dataset::cleanup::cleanup_old_versions(
+            &dataset,
+            crate::dataset::cleanup::CleanupPolicy {
+                before_timestamp: Some(Utc::now() + chrono::TimeDelta::seconds(1)),
+                delete_unverified: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+        let scanned = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scanned.num_rows(), 6);
+        assert_eq!(scanned["blob"].as_binary::<i64>().value(0), payload);
+        let values = Arc::new(dataset)
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for index in [0, 4] {
+            assert_eq!(values[index].as_ref().unwrap().kind(), BlobKind::Managed);
+            assert_eq!(
+                values[index]
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .read()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_ref(),
+                if index == 0 { &payload } else { &dedicated }.as_slice()
+            );
+        }
+        for index in [1, 5] {
+            assert_eq!(values[index].as_ref().unwrap().kind(), BlobKind::Inline);
+            assert_eq!(
+                values[index]
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .read()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_ref(),
+                b"inline"
+            );
+        }
+        assert!(values[2].is_none());
+        assert!(values[3].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_flag_survives_restore_of_unflagged_snapshot() {
+        let dir = crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp("v11.0.0/blob_sidecars").unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+        let mut old = dataset.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!old.manifest.has_managed_blobs());
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(&mut dataset, Default::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(dataset.manifest.has_managed_blobs());
+        old.restore().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(old.manifest.has_managed_blobs());
+        assert_ne!(
+            old.manifest.writer_feature_flags & lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS,
+            0
+        );
+        let values = Arc::new(old)
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 4], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(values[0].as_ref().unwrap().kind(), BlobKind::Packed);
+        assert_eq!(values[1].as_ref().unwrap().kind(), BlobKind::Dedicated);
+        assert_eq!(
+            values[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"pppppppppppppppp"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::append(WriteMode::Append)]
+    #[case::overwrite(WriteMode::Overwrite)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_flag_activates_on_blob_write(#[case] mode: WriteMode) {
+        let dir = crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp("v11.0.0/blob_sidecars").unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+        let files = dataset.manifest.fragments[0].files.clone();
+        dataset.delete("_rowid = 1").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!dataset.manifest.has_managed_blobs());
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments[0].files, files);
+        assert!(dataset.manifest.fragments[0].deletion_file.is_some());
+
+        // Preserve the released field's thresholds when appending. Even an
+        // inline-only batch publishes new Blob descriptors and activates the fence.
+        let metadata = dataset.schema().field("blob").unwrap().metadata.clone();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            blob_field("blob", true).with_metadata(metadata),
+        ]));
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"inline").unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blobs.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let flag = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch["blob"].as_binary::<i64>().value(batch.num_rows() - 1),
+            b"inline"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::drop_column(false)]
+    #[case::overwrite(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_flag_survives_removing_blob_columns(#[case] overwrite: bool) {
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"inline").unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            blob_field("blob", false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])), blobs.finish().unwrap()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        if overwrite {
+            let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [2])).unwrap();
+            dataset = Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                Arc::new(dataset.clone()),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        } else {
+            dataset.drop_columns(&["blob"]).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        dataset
+            .update_config([("test", "metadata-only")])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let flag = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MANAGED_BLOBS;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        assert!(dataset.schema().field("blob").is_none());
+        assert_eq!(dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_clone_preserves_existing_retention_contract(
+        #[values(false, true)] deep: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] registered: bool,
+    ) {
+        let source_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let clone_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"external").unwrap();
+        let payload = vec![9; 100 * 1024];
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(6);
+        for row in 0..6 {
+            match row {
+                2 => blobs
+                    .push_uri(format!("file://{}", external_path.display()))
+                    .unwrap(),
+                4 => blobs.push_bytes(b"inline").unwrap(),
+                _ => blobs.push_bytes(&payload).unwrap(),
+            }
+        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])),
+                blobs.finish().unwrap(),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut source = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &source_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+                initial_bases: registered
+                    .then(|| vec![BasePath::new(7, source_dir.to_string(), None, true)]),
+                target_bases: registered.then_some(vec![7]),
+                max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                allow_external_blob_outside_bases: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        source.delete("id IN (1, 3, 5)").await.unwrap();
+        let version = source.version_id();
+        let mut cloned = if deep {
+            source.deep_clone(&clone_dir, version, None).await.unwrap()
+        } else {
+            source.tags().create("clone_source", version).await.unwrap();
+            source
+                .shallow_clone(&clone_dir, "clone_source", None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        if deep && !registered {
+            assert_eq!(source.manifest.fragments, cloned.manifest.fragments);
+            for fragment in source.get_fragments() {
+                for file in &fragment.metadata.files {
+                    let relative = format!("data/{}", file.path);
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        std::fs::read(std::path::Path::new(source_dir.as_ref()).join(&relative))
+                            .unwrap(),
+                        std::fs::read(std::path::Path::new(clone_dir.as_ref()).join(&relative))
+                            .unwrap(),
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if !deep {
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(&mut cloned, Default::default(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        source.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(source.version_id(), version);
+        if deep {
+            std::fs::remove_dir_all(source_dir.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        } else {
+            source.delete("true").await.unwrap();
+            let version = source.version_id();
+            crate::dataset::cleanup::cleanup_old_versions(
+                &source,
+                crate::dataset::cleanup::CleanupPolicy {
+                    before_version: Some(version),
+                    error_if_tagged_old_versions: false,
+                    delete_unverified: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            source.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(source.version_id(), version);
+            assert_eq!(source.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(cloned.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+        let blobs = Arc::new(cloned)
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected = [
+            (BlobKind::Managed, payload.as_slice()),
+            (BlobKind::External, b"external".as_slice()),
+            (BlobKind::Inline, b"inline".as_slice()),
+        ];
+        for (blob, (kind, bytes)) in blobs.into_iter().zip(expected) {
+            let blob = blob.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(blob.kind(), kind);
+            assert_eq!(blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), bytes);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_blob_version_rejects_malformed_v2_descriptor_layout() {
+        let descriptions = StructArray::try_new(
+            vec![
+                Field::new("kind", DataType::UInt8, false),
+                Field::new("position", DataType::UInt64, false),
+                Field::new("size", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("blob_id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("blob_uri", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ]
+            .into(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![BlobKind::Inline as u8])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![""])),
+            ],
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let error = blob_version_from_descriptions(&descriptions).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("expected v1 descriptor or v2 descriptor layout")
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn complete_blob_v2_field(name: &str, nullable: bool) -> Field {
+        Field::new(
+            name,
+            DataType::Struct(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.clone()),
+            nullable,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        )]))
+    }
+
+    fn complete_blob_v2_array(
+        data: Vec<Option<Vec<u8>>>,
+        uris: Vec<Option<String>>,
+        positions: Vec<Option<u64>>,
+        sizes: Vec<Option<u64>>,
+        validity: Option<NullBuffer>,
+    ) -> ArrayRef {
+        Arc::new(
+            StructArray::try_new(
+                BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(
+                        data.iter().map(|value| value.as_deref()),
+                    )) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter(
+                        uris.iter().map(|value| value.as_deref()),
+                    )) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(positions)) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(sizes)) as ArrayRef,
+                ],
+                validity,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn nested_blob_v2_batch_with_field(
+        blob_field: Field,
+        blob_array: ArrayRef,
+    ) -> (Arc<Schema>, RecordBatch) {
+        let info_fields = vec![Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false), blob_field];
+        let info_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+            StructArray::try_new(
+                info_fields.clone().into(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                        (0..blob_array.len()).map(|idx| format!("name-{idx}")),
+                    )) as ArrayRef,
+                    blob_array,
+                ],
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "info",
+            DataType::Struct(info_fields.into()),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![info_array]).unwrap();
+        (schema, batch)
+    }
+
+    fn nested_blob_v2_batch(blob_array: ArrayRef) -> (Arc<Schema>, RecordBatch) {
+        nested_blob_v2_batch_with_field(blob_field("blob", true), blob_array)
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+    fn azure_store_params(account_name: &str) -> ObjectStoreParams {
+        ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("account_name".to_string(), account_name.to_string()),
+                    ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct RejectEmptyRangeObjectStore;
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_external_base_resolver_uses_candidate_store_params() {
+        let store_registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        let base_a = BasePath::new(
+            1,
+            "az://container/path-a".to_string(),
+            Some("base-a".to_string()),
+            false,
+        );
+        let base_b = BasePath::new(
+            2,
+            "az://container/path-b".to_string(),
+            Some("base-b".to_string()),
+            false,
+        );
+
+        let base_a_params = azure_store_params("account-a");
+        let base_b_params = azure_store_params("account-b");
+
+        let (store_a, extracted_a) =
+            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(store_registry.clone(), &base_a.path, &base_a_params)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        let (store_b, extracted_b) =
+            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(store_registry.clone(), &base_b.path, &base_b_params)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let resolver = ExternalBaseResolver::new(
+            vec![
+                ExternalBaseCandidate {
+                    base_id: base_a.id,
+                    store_prefix: store_a.store_prefix.clone(),
+                    base_path: extracted_a,
+                    store_params: base_a_params,
+                },
+                ExternalBaseCandidate {
+                    base_id: base_b.id,
+                    store_prefix: store_b.store_prefix.clone(),
+                    base_path: extracted_b,
+                    store_params: base_b_params,
+                },
+            ],
+            store_registry,
+        );
+
+        let resolved_a = resolver
+            .resolve_external_uri("az://container/path-a/file.bin")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let resolved_b = resolver
+            .resolve_external_uri("az://container/path-b/file.bin")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(resolved_a.base_id, 1);
+        assert_eq!(resolved_a.relative_path, "file.bin");
+        assert_eq!(resolved_b.base_id, 2);
+        assert_eq!(resolved_b.relative_path, "file.bin");
+    }
+
+    impl std::fmt::Display for RejectEmptyRangeObjectStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "RejectEmptyRangeObjectStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl object_store::ObjectStore for RejectEmptyRangeObjectStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _bytes: PutPayload,
+            _opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<PutResult> {
+            unimplemented!("put_opts is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            unimplemented!("put_multipart_opts is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            options: GetOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<GetResult> {
+            let Some(GetRange::Bounded(range)) = options.range else {
+                unreachable!("blob reads should always request a bounded range")
+            };
+            if range.start == range.end {
+                return Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                    store: "RejectEmptyRangeObjectStore",
+                    source: format!(
+                        "Range started at {} and ended at {}",
+                        range.start, range.end
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                });
+            }
+            Err(object_store::Error::NotSupported {
+                source: format!("unexpected non-empty range {range:?} for {location}").into(),
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            _locations: futures::stream::BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<Path>>,
+        ) -> futures::stream::BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<Path>> {
+            unimplemented!("delete_stream is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        fn list(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&Path>,
+        ) -> futures::stream::BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<ObjectMeta>> {
+            unimplemented!("list is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&Path>,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<ListResult> {
+            unimplemented!("list_with_delimiter is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(
+            &self,
+            _from: &Path,
+            _to: &Path,
+            _options: CopyOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
+            unimplemented!("copy_opts is not used by these tests")
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn reject_empty_range_store() -> Arc<ObjectStore> {
+        Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
+            Arc::new(RejectEmptyRangeObjectStore) as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+            Url::parse("mock:///blob-tests").unwrap(),
+            None,
+            None,
+            false,
+            true,
+            lance_io::object_store::DEFAULT_LOCAL_IO_PARALLELISM,
+            lance_io::object_store::DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT,
+            None,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct RecordingRangeObjectStore {
+        data: Bytes,
+        gate: Option<Arc<Semaphore>>,
+        head_requests: AtomicUsize,
+        requested_ranges: std::sync::Mutex<Vec<Range<u64>>>,
+        started_blob_requests: AtomicUsize,
+        active_blob_requests: AtomicUsize,
+        peak_active_blob_requests: AtomicUsize,
+        request_started: Notify,
+    }
+
+    impl RecordingRangeObjectStore {
+        fn new(data: Bytes) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                data,
+                gate: None,
+                head_requests: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                requested_ranges: std::sync::Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+                started_blob_requests: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                active_blob_requests: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                peak_active_blob_requests: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                request_started: Notify::new(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn with_gate(data: Bytes, gate: Arc<Semaphore>) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                data,
+                gate: Some(gate),
+                head_requests: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                requested_ranges: std::sync::Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+                started_blob_requests: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                active_blob_requests: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                peak_active_blob_requests: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                request_started: Notify::new(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn wait_for_blob_requests(&self, expected: usize) {
+            loop {
+                let request_started = self.request_started.notified();
+                if self.started_blob_requests.load(Ordering::Acquire) >= expected {
+                    return;
+                }
+                request_started.await;
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn peak_active_blob_requests(&self) -> usize {
+            self.peak_active_blob_requests.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+        }
+
+        fn requested_ranges(&self) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+            self.requested_ranges.lock().unwrap().clone()
+        }
+
+        fn requested_blob_ranges(&self) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+            let full_object = 0..self.data.len() as u64;
+            self.requested_ranges()
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter(|range| range != &full_object)
+                .collect()
+        }
+
+        fn object_meta(&self, location: &Path) -> ObjectMeta {
+            ObjectMeta {
+                location: location.clone(),
+                last_modified: Utc::now(),
+                size: self.data.len() as u64,
+                e_tag: None,
+                version: None,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl std::fmt::Display for RecordingRangeObjectStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "RecordingRangeObjectStore")
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl object_store::ObjectStore for RecordingRangeObjectStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _bytes: PutPayload,
+            _opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<PutResult> {
+            unimplemented!("put_opts is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            _location: &Path,
+            _opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            unimplemented!("put_multipart_opts is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            options: GetOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<GetResult> {
+            if options.head {
+                self.head_requests.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            }
+            let range = match options.range {
+                Some(GetRange::Bounded(range)) => range,
+                None => 0..self.data.len() as u64,
+                Some(other) => {
+                    return Err(object_store::Error::NotSupported {
+                        source: format!("unsupported range request {other:?}").into(),
+                    });
+                }
+            };
+            let is_full_object_probe = range.start == 0 && range.end == self.data.len() as u64;
+            self.requested_ranges.lock().unwrap().push(range.clone());
+            if !is_full_object_probe {
+                let active = self.active_blob_requests.fetch_add(1, Ordering::AcqRel) + 1;
+                self.peak_active_blob_requests
+                    .fetch_max(active, Ordering::AcqRel);
+                self.started_blob_requests.fetch_add(1, Ordering::AcqRel);
+                self.request_started.notify_waiters();
+                if let Some(gate) = &self.gate {
+                    gate.acquire()
+                        .await
+                        .expect("test gate should remain open")
+                        .forget();
+                }
+                self.active_blob_requests.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::AcqRel);
+            }
+            let bytes = self.data.slice(range.start as usize..range.end as usize);
+            Ok(GetResult {
+                payload: GetResultPayload::Stream(
+                    futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(bytes) }).boxed(),
+                ),
+                meta: self.object_meta(location),
+                range,
+                attributes: Attributes::default(),
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            _locations: futures::stream::BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<Path>>,
+        ) -> futures::stream::BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<Path>> {
+            unimplemented!("delete_stream is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        fn list(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&Path>,
+        ) -> futures::stream::BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<ObjectMeta>> {
+            unimplemented!("list is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(
+            &self,
+            _prefix: Option<&Path>,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<ListResult> {
+            unimplemented!("list_with_delimiter is not used by these tests")
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(
+            &self,
+            _from: &Path,
+            _to: &Path,
+            _options: CopyOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
+            unimplemented!("copy_opts is not used by these tests")
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn recording_range_store_with_url_and_block_size(
+        data: Bytes,
+        url: &str,
+        block_size: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Arc<RecordingRangeObjectStore>) {
+        const TEST_RANGE_STORE_SIZE: usize = 128 * 1024;
+        let mut padded = vec![0; TEST_RANGE_STORE_SIZE.max(data.len())];
+        padded[..data.len()].copy_from_slice(data.as_ref());
+        let inner = Arc::new(RecordingRangeObjectStore::new(Bytes::from(padded)));
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
+            inner.clone() as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+            Url::parse(url).unwrap(),
+            block_size,
+            None,
+            false,
+            true,
+            lance_io::object_store::DEFAULT_LOCAL_IO_PARALLELISM,
+            lance_io::object_store::DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT,
+            None,
+        ));
+        (store, inner)
+    }
+
+    fn recording_range_store_with_url(
+        data: Bytes,
+        url: &str,
+    ) -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Arc<RecordingRangeObjectStore>) {
+        recording_range_store_with_url_and_block_size(data, url, None)
+    }
+
+    fn recording_range_store(data: Bytes) -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Arc<RecordingRangeObjectStore>) {
+        recording_range_store_with_url(data, "mock://recording/blob-range-tests")
+    }
+
+    fn recording_range_store_with_block_size(
+        data: Bytes,
+        block_size: usize,
+    ) -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Arc<RecordingRangeObjectStore>) {
+        recording_range_store_with_url_and_block_size(
+            data,
+            "mock://recording/blob-range-tests",
+            Some(block_size),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn gated_range_store(
+        data: Bytes,
+        url: &str,
+    ) -> (
+        Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        Arc<RecordingRangeObjectStore>,
+        Arc<Semaphore>,
+    ) {
+        const TEST_RANGE_STORE_SIZE: usize = 128 * 1024;
+        let mut padded = vec![0; TEST_RANGE_STORE_SIZE.max(data.len())];
+        padded[..data.len()].copy_from_slice(data.as_ref());
+        let gate = Arc::new(Semaphore::new(0));
+        let inner = Arc::new(RecordingRangeObjectStore::with_gate(
+            Bytes::from(padded),
+            gate.clone(),
+        ));
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
+            inner.clone() as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+            Url::parse(url).unwrap(),
+            None,
+            None,
+            false,
+            true,
+            lance_io::object_store::DEFAULT_LOCAL_IO_PARALLELISM,
+            lance_io::object_store::DEFAULT_DOWNLOAD_RETRY_COUNT,
+            None,
+        ));
+        (store, inner, gate)
+    }
+
+    impl BlobTestFixture {
+        async fn new() -> Self {
+            let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+            let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("filterme", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+                .col("blobs", array::blob())
+                .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(4))
+                .map(|batch| Ok(batch?))
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let dataset = Arc::new(
+                TestDatasetGenerator::new(data.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
+                    .make_hostile(&test_dir)
+                    .await,
+            );
+
+            Self {
+                _test_dir: test_dir,
+                dataset,
+                data,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn stable_row_id_blob_dataset_with_deleted_row() -> (TempStrDir, Arc<Dataset>, Vec<u64>) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"AAaa").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"BBbb").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"CCcc").unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            blob_field("blob", true),
+            Field::new("idx", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                blob_builder.finish().unwrap(),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let with_row_ids = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["idx"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = with_row_ids["idx"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let ids = with_row_ids[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let mut row_ids = vec![0; with_row_ids.num_rows()];
+        for (index, row_id) in indices.values().iter().zip(ids.values()) {
+            row_ids[*index as usize] = *row_id;
+        }
+
+        dataset.delete("idx = 1").await.unwrap();
+        (test_dir, Arc::new(dataset), row_ids)
+    }
+
+    async fn create_multi_base_blob_v2_fixture(
+        payload: Vec<u8>,
+        dedicated_threshold: Option<usize>,
+        is_dataset_root: bool,
+    ) -> MultiBaseBlobFixture {
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let primary_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+        let base_dir = test_dir.std_path().join("blob_base");
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(&base_dir).unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("file://{}", base_dir.display());
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(payload.clone()).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let mut blob_column = blob_field("blob", true);
+        if let Some(threshold) = dedicated_threshold {
+            let mut metadata = blob_column.metadata().clone();
+            metadata.insert(
+                BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                threshold.to_string(),
+            );
+            blob_column = blob_column.with_metadata(metadata);
+        }
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            blob_column,
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])), blob_array],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &primary_uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath {
+                        id: 1,
+                        name: Some("blob_base".to_string()),
+                        path: base_uri,
+                        is_dataset_root,
+                    }]),
+                    target_bases: Some(vec![1]),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|frag| frag.files.iter().all(|file| file.base_id == Some(1)))
+        );
+
+        MultiBaseBlobFixture {
+            _test_dir: test_dir,
+            dataset,
+            expected: payload,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    pub async fn test_take_blobs() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+
+        let row_ids = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project::<String>(&[])
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter("filterme >= 10")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_ids = row_ids.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+        let row_ids = vec![row_ids[5], row_ids[17], row_ids[23]];
+
+        let blobs = fixture.dataset.take_blobs(&row_ids, "blobs").await.unwrap();
+
+        for (actual_idx, (expected_batch_idx, expected_row_idx)) in
+            [(1, 5), (2, 7), (3, 3)].iter().enumerate()
+        {
+            let val = blobs[actual_idx].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap();
+            let expected = fixture.data[*expected_batch_idx]
+                .column(1)
+                .as_binary::<i64>()
+                .value(*expected_row_idx);
+
+            assert_eq!(&val, expected);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_blobs_requires_selection() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+
+        let err = fixture.dataset.read_blobs("blobs").unwrap().execute().await;
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })));
+        assert!(
+            err.unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("requires a row selection")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_blobs_by_indices_execute() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+        let indices = vec![2, 12, 22];
+
+        let blobs = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .read_blobs("blobs")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices(indices)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 3);
+        for (actual_idx, (expected_batch_idx, expected_row_idx)) in
+            [(0, 2), (1, 2), (2, 2)].iter().enumerate()
+        {
+            let expected = fixture.data[*expected_batch_idx]
+                .column(1)
+                .as_binary::<i64>()
+                .value(*expected_row_idx);
+            assert_eq!(blobs[actual_idx].data.as_deref(), Some(expected));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    pub async fn test_take_blobs_by_indices() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+
+        let fragments = fixture.dataset.fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        let mut last = 2;
+
+        for frag in fragments.iter() {
+            indices.push(last as u64);
+            last += frag.num_rows().unwrap_or(0);
+        }
+        indices.pop();
+
+        // Row indices
+        assert_eq!(indices, [2, 12, 22]);
+        let blobs = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&indices, "blobs")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Row IDs
+        let row_ids = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|frag| (frag.id << 32) + 2)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let blobs2 = fixture.dataset.take_blobs(&row_ids, "blobs").await.unwrap();
+
+        for (blob1, blob2) in blobs.iter().zip(blobs2.iter()) {
+            let blob1 = blob1.as_ref().unwrap();
+            let blob2 = blob2.as_ref().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(blob1.position(), blob2.position());
+            assert_eq!(blob1.size(), blob2.size());
+            assert_eq!(blob1.data_path(), blob2.data_path());
+        }
+
+        // Unsorted indices spanning fragments use the take remapping path, which
+        // carries _rowaddr internally and must still preserve the requested order.
+        let indices = [33_u64, 17, 5, 28, 12, 39];
+        let blobs = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&indices, "blobs")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for (blob, index) in blobs.iter().zip(indices) {
+            let actual = blob.as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap();
+            let index = index as usize;
+            let expected = fixture.data[index / 10]
+                .column(1)
+                .as_binary::<i64>()
+                .value(index % 10);
+            assert_eq!(actual.as_ref(), expected);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::all_valid_first(false)]
+    #[case::nullable_first(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_blob_batches_with_mixed_nullability(#[case] nulls_first: bool) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                "true".to_string(),
+            )])),
+        ]));
+        let batch = |values: Vec<Option<&[u8]>>| {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(values))],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Definition-level semantics come from each batch's validity bitmap. Both
+        // transitions must start a new descriptor page so nulls remain distinct
+        // from valid empty blobs.
+        let all_valid = batch(vec![Some(b"a".as_slice()), Some(b"".as_slice())]);
+        let with_null = batch(vec![Some(b"c".as_slice()), None]);
+        let (batches, expected) = if nulls_first {
+            (
+                vec![with_null, all_valid],
+                vec![Some(b"c".as_slice()), None, Some(b"a"), Some(b"")],
+            )
+        } else {
+            (
+                vec![all_valid, with_null],
+                vec![Some(b"a".as_slice()), Some(b""), Some(b"c"), None],
+            )
+        };
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2, 3], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), expected.len());
+        for (row_idx, (blob, expected)) in blobs.into_iter().zip(expected).enumerate() {
+            let actual = match blob {
+                Some(blob) => Some(blob.read().await.unwrap()),
+                None => None,
+            };
+            assert_eq!(actual.as_deref(), expected, "row {row_idx}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    pub async fn test_take_blob_id_not_exist() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+
+        let err = fixture.dataset.take_blobs(&[1000], "blobs").await;
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_take_blobs_by_ids_rejects_deleted_stable_row_id() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset, row_ids) = stable_row_id_blob_dataset_with_deleted_row().await;
+
+        let err = dataset.take_blobs(&row_ids, "blob").await.unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Could not resolve all requested row IDs")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_blobs_by_ids_rejects_deleted_stable_row_id() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset, row_ids) = stable_row_id_blob_dataset_with_deleted_row().await;
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .read_blobs("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_ids(row_ids)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Could not resolve all requested row IDs")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_blob_ranges_by_ids_rejects_deleted_stable_row_id() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset, row_ids) = stable_row_id_blob_dataset_with_deleted_row().await;
+        let requests = [
+            BlobRangeRequest::new(row_ids[0], 0, 2),
+            BlobRangeRequest::new(row_ids[1], 0, 2),
+            BlobRangeRequest::new(row_ids[2], 2, 2),
+        ];
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .read_blob_ranges("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_ids(requests)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Could not resolve all requested row IDs")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_collect_blob_files_v1_rejects_missing_fragment() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+        let blob_field_id =
+            fixture.dataset.schema().project(&["blobs"]).unwrap().fields[0].id as u32;
+        let descriptions = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("position", DataType::UInt64, false)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("size", DataType::UInt64, false)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![3])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let row_addrs = UInt64Array::from(vec![(999_u64 << 32) | 7]);
+
+        let err = collect_blob_files_v1(&fixture.dataset, blob_field_id, &descriptions, &row_addrs)
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("references missing fragment"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    pub async fn test_take_blob_not_blob_col() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+
+        let err = fixture.dataset.take_blobs(&[0], "filterme").await;
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })));
+        assert!(err.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("not a blob column"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    pub async fn test_scan_blobs() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+
+        // By default, scanning a blob column will load descriptions
+        let batches = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let schema = batches.schema();
+
+        assert!(schema.fields[0].data_type().is_struct());
+
+        let batches = batches.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 4);
+        for batch in batches.iter() {
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
+            assert!(batch.column(0).data_type().is_struct());
+        }
+
+        // Should also be able to scan with filter
+        let batches = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter("filterme = 30")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let schema = batches.schema();
+
+        assert!(schema.fields[0].data_type().is_struct());
+
+        let batches = batches.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        for batch in batches.iter() {
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
+            assert!(batch.column(0).data_type().is_struct());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Test that take_blobs_by_indices works correctly with enable_stable_row_ids=true.
+    ///
+    /// This is a regression test for a bug where take_blobs_by_indices would fail
+    /// with "index out of bounds" for fragment 1+ when stable row IDs are enabled.
+    /// The bug was caused by passing row addresses (from row_offsets_to_row_addresses)
+    /// to blob::take_blobs which expected row IDs. When stable row IDs are enabled,
+    /// row addresses (fragment_id << 32 | offset) are different from row IDs
+    /// (sequential integers), causing the row ID index lookup to fail for fragment 1+.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    pub async fn test_take_blobs_by_indices_with_stable_row_ids() {
+        use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        // Create test data with blob column
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("filterme", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col("blobs", array::blob())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(6), BatchCount::from(1))
+            .map(|batch| Ok(batch.unwrap()))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Write with enable_stable_row_ids=true and force multiple fragments
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            max_rows_per_file: 3, // Force 2 fragments with 3 rows each
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(data.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), data[0].schema());
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(reader, &test_dir, Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Verify we have multiple fragments
+        let fragments = dataset.fragments();
+        assert!(
+            fragments.len() >= 2,
+            "Expected at least 2 fragments, got {}",
+            fragments.len()
+        );
+
+        // Test first fragment (indices 0, 1, 2) - this always worked
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2], "blobs")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 3, "First fragment blobs should have 3 items");
+
+        // Verify we can read the blob content
+        for blob in &blobs {
+            let content = blob.as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap();
+            assert!(!content.is_empty(), "Blob content should not be empty");
+        }
+
+        // Test second fragment (indices 3, 4, 5) - this was failing before the fix
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[3, 4, 5], "blobs")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 3, "Second fragment blobs should have 3 items");
+
+        // Verify we can read the blob content from second fragment
+        for blob in &blobs {
+            let content = blob.as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap();
+            assert!(!content.is_empty(), "Blob content should not be empty");
+        }
+
+        // Test mixed indices from both fragments
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[1, 4], "blobs")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 2, "Mixed fragment blobs should have 2 items");
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test: scanning the same blob column twice on a single
+    /// `Dataset` (and therefore a single cache scope) with different
+    /// `BlobHandling` values must not panic in the structural decoder.
+    ///
+    /// Background: the page-data cache key previously keyed cached page data
+    /// only by `column_index`. A blob column has two valid decoder shapes — the
+    /// descriptor view (`Struct<position, size>`) used when scanning with
+    /// `BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions`, and the bytes view (`LargeBinary`)
+    /// used when scanning with `BlobHandling::AllBinary`. Both views go through
+    /// the same `StructuralPrimitiveFieldScheduler` but instantiate different
+    /// page-level schedulers, which cache different concrete `CachedPageData`
+    /// types under the same column index. When the second view hit the cache
+    /// populated by the first, it downcast the wrong state type and panicked.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_cache_key_distinguishes_views() {
+        use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+        use arrow_array::{LargeBinaryArray, UInt64Array};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+        use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let blob_meta = HashMap::from([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("blobs", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(blob_meta),
+            Field::new("idx", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![
+                    Some(b"foo".as_slice()),
+                    Some(b"bar".as_slice()),
+                    Some(b"baz".as_slice()),
+                ])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1, 2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Open once and reuse the same Dataset (single Session, single cache)
+        // across both scans. Reopening would defeat the test.
+        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(test_dir.as_str()).await.unwrap());
+
+        // Pass 1: descriptor view (Struct<position, size>). Default for scan().
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions);
+        let descriptors = scanner
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(descriptors.column(0).data_type().is_struct());
+
+        let read_payload = || {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            async move {
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+                scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+                scanner
+                    .project(&["blobs"])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Pass 2: bytes view (LargeBinary). Used by compact_files.
+        // Without the fix this used to panic in BlobPageScheduler::load
+        // when it downcast the cached BlobDescriptionPageScheduler state.
+        let bytes = read_payload().await;
+        assert_eq!(bytes.column(0).data_type(), &DataType::LargeBinary);
+        let blobs = bytes.column(0).as_binary::<i64>();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(0), b"foo");
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(1), b"bar");
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(2), b"baz");
+
+        // Pass 3: back to descriptor view to verify both directions are safe.
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions);
+        let descriptors = scanner
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(descriptors.column(0).data_type().is_struct());
+
+        // Pass 4: repeat the bytes view to exercise the payload cache hit.
+        let bytes = read_payload().await;
+        let blobs = bytes.column(0).as_binary::<i64>();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(0), b"foo");
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(1), b"bar");
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(2), b"baz");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_0_legacy_blob_descriptor_projection_and_reads() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let blob_meta = HashMap::from([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(blob_meta),
+        ]));
+        let payloads = [
+            b"abc".as_slice(),
+            b"defgh".as_slice(),
+            b"ijklmnop".as_slice(),
+        ];
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter_values(payloads)) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        for blob_handling in [
+            None,
+            Some(BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions),
+            Some(BlobHandling::AllDescriptions),
+        ] {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            if let Some(blob_handling) = blob_handling {
+                scanner.blob_handling(blob_handling);
+            }
+            let descriptors = scanner
+                .project(&["blob"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let descriptor = descriptors.column(0).as_struct();
+            assert_eq!(descriptor.fields().len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(descriptor.fields()[0].name(), "position");
+            assert_eq!(descriptor.fields()[1].name(), "size");
+            let sizes = descriptor
+                .column_by_name("size")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+            assert_eq!(sizes.values(), &[3, 5, 8]);
+        }
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+        let bytes = scanner
+            .project(&["blob"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let bytes = bytes.column(0).as_binary::<i64>();
+        for (idx, expected) in payloads.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(bytes.value(idx), *expected);
+        }
+
+        let blob_files = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob_files.len(), payloads.len());
+        for (blob_file, expected) in blob_files.iter().zip(payloads) {
+            assert_eq!(
+                blob_file.as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+                expected
+            );
+        }
+
+        let read_blobs = dataset
+            .read_blobs("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices(vec![0, 1, 2])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(read_blobs.len(), payloads.len());
+        for (read_blob, expected) in read_blobs.iter().zip(payloads) {
+            assert_eq!(read_blob.data.as_deref(), Some(expected));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v20("v2.0.lance")]
+    #[case::v21("v2.1.lance")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_legacy_blob_append_without_metadata(#[case] fixture: &str) {
+        let test_dir =
+            crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp(&format!("v8.0.0/blobs/{fixture}")).unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![3])),
+                Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(b"appended".as_slice())])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir.path_str(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let handles = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[3], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            handles[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"appended"
+        );
+        assert!(!dataset.schema().field("blob").unwrap().is_blob_v2());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v20_bytes("v2.0.lance", false)]
+    #[case::v20_struct("v2.0.lance", true)]
+    #[case::v21_bytes("v2.1.lance", false)]
+    #[case::v21_struct("v2.1.lance", true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_mixed_blob_versions(#[case] fixture: &str, #[case] struct_input: bool) {
+        let test_dir =
+            crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp(&format!("v8.0.0/blobs/{fixture}")).unwrap();
+        let dir = test_dir.path_str();
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&dir).await.unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::from(dataset.schema()));
+        let id_field = schema.field_with_name("id").unwrap().clone();
+        let legacy_field = schema.field_with_name("blob").unwrap();
+        let old_values = [Some(b"legacy bytes".as_slice()), None, Some(b"".as_slice())];
+        let old_snapshot = dataset.version_id();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("blob").unwrap().id;
+        let old_fragment = dataset.manifest.fragments[0].clone();
+        let old_path = std::path::Path::new(dir.as_str())
+            .join("data")
+            .join(&old_fragment.files[0].path);
+        let old_file_bytes = std::fs::read(&old_path).unwrap();
+
+        let new_values = [
+            Some(b"packed!!".as_slice()),
+            Some(b"dedicated blob bytes".as_slice()),
+            None,
+            Some(b"".as_slice()),
+        ];
+        let batch = if struct_input {
+            let mut builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(new_values.len());
+            for value in new_values {
+                match value {
+                    Some(bytes) => builder.push_bytes(bytes).unwrap(),
+                    None => builder.push_null().unwrap(),
+                }
+            }
+            let mut field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(legacy_field).unwrap();
+            field.promote_blob_v2().unwrap();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![id_field, Field::from(&field)])),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![3, 4, 5, 6])),
+                    builder.finish().unwrap(),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        } else {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![3, 4, 5, 6])),
+                    Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(new_values.to_vec())),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            &dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&dir).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().field("blob").unwrap().id, field_id);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments[0], old_fragment);
+        assert_eq!(std::fs::read(&old_path).unwrap(), old_file_bytes);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments.len(), 2);
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+        // The table default remains the original version. A subsequent byte append
+        // must preserve the promoted schema while writing another legacy file.
+        let legacy_again = Some(b"legacy again".as_slice());
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![7])),
+                Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![legacy_again])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(dataset.schema().field("blob").unwrap().is_blob_v2());
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().field("blob").unwrap().id, field_id);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments.len(), 3);
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+        let expected = old_values
+            .into_iter()
+            .chain(new_values)
+            .chain([legacy_again])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        for compact in [false, true] {
+            if compact {
+                crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                    &mut dataset,
+                    crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                        target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                        data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    },
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments.len(), 1);
+                dataset = Dataset::open(&dir).await.unwrap();
+            }
+            let dataset = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
+            let descriptors = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                descriptors["blob"].as_struct().fields(),
+                &*lance_core::datatypes::BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS
+            );
+            for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+                let batch = fragment.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(batch.schema(), descriptors.schema());
+            }
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+            let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch["blob"].as_binary::<i64>().iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                expected
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch["id"]
+                    .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt32Type>()
+                    .values(),
+                &[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
+            );
+            let indices = [4, 0, 6, 1, 3, 2, 5, 7];
+            let handles = dataset
+                .take_blobs_by_indices(&indices, "blob")
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            for (index, handle) in indices.into_iter().zip(handles) {
+                match (expected[index as usize], handle) {
+                    (Some(bytes), Some(handle)) => {
+                        assert_eq!(handle.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), bytes)
+                    }
+                    (None, None) => {}
+                    _ => panic!("blob nullability changed at row {index}"),
+                }
+            }
+            let ranges = dataset
+                .read_blob_ranges("blob")
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_row_indices(vec![
+                    BlobRangeRequest::new(4, 1, 3),
+                    BlobRangeRequest::new(0, 1, 3),
+                ])
+                .execute()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ranges[0].data.as_deref(), Some(&b"edi"[..]));
+            assert_eq!(ranges[1].data.as_deref(), Some(&b"ega"[..]));
+        }
+        let historical = Arc::new(dataset.checkout_version(old_snapshot).await.unwrap());
+        assert!(!historical.schema().field("blob").unwrap().is_blob_v2());
+        let handles = historical
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            handles[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"legacy bytes"
+        );
+        assert!(handles[1].is_none());
+        assert_eq!(handles[2].as_ref().unwrap().size(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(std::fs::read(&old_path).unwrap(), old_file_bytes);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_file_key_from_path() {
+        assert_eq!(data_file_key_from_path("data/abc.lance"), "abc");
+        assert_eq!(data_file_key_from_path("abc.lance"), "abc");
+        assert_eq!(data_file_key_from_path("nested/path/xyz"), "xyz");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_and_take_blobs_with_blob_descriptor_array_builder() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        // Build a blob column with the new BlobArrayBuilder
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"hello").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"world").unwrap();
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(reader, &test_dir, Some(params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 2);
+        let first = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap();
+        let second = blobs[1].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.as_ref(), b"hello");
+        assert_eq!(second.as_ref(), b"world");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::local(None, 7, 16)]
+    #[case::range(Some(0), 7, 16)]
+    #[case::empty(Some(u32::MAX), 0, 0)]
+    fn managed_prepared_batch_preserves_address(
+        #[case] base_id: Option<u32>,
+        #[case] offset: u64,
+        #[case] size: u64,
+    ) {
+        let mut builder = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        builder
+            .push(BlobDescriptor::Managed {
+                base_id,
+                uri: "_blobs/payload.blob".to_string(),
+                offset,
+                size,
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+        let (field, array) = builder.finish().unwrap().into_parts();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field])), vec![array]).unwrap();
+        let batch = super::prepared_blob_batch_to_descriptors(&batch).unwrap();
+        let columns = BlobV2DescriptorColumns::new(batch["blob"].as_struct());
+        assert_eq!(columns.managed_base_id(0), base_id);
+        assert_eq!(columns.positions.value(0), offset);
+        assert_eq!(columns.sizes.value(0), size);
+        assert_eq!(columns.blob_uris.value(0), "_blobs/payload.blob");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_prepared_blob_column_normalizes_schema() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut prepared_writer = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        prepared_writer
+            .push_inline(Bytes::from_static(b"prepared-inline"))
+            .unwrap();
+        let (prepared_field, prepared_array) = prepared_writer.finish().unwrap().into_parts();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            prepared_field,
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])) as ArrayRef,
+                prepared_array,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let dataset_schema = Schema::from(dataset.schema());
+        let blob_field = dataset_schema.field_with_name("blob").unwrap();
+        let DataType::Struct(fields) = blob_field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected blob field to be a struct");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(fields.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(fields[0].name(), "data");
+        assert_eq!(fields[1].name(), "uri");
+
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"prepared-inline"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_data_replacement_uses_blob_descriptor_array_builder_prepared_packed_blob_column()
+    {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let logical_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+        let mut initial_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        initial_builder.push_bytes(b"initial").unwrap();
+        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            logical_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])) as ArrayRef,
+                initial_builder.finish().unwrap(),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], logical_schema.clone()),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let file_id = Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
+        let data_file_name = format!("{file_id}.lance");
+        let data_file_path = dataset.data_dir().join(data_file_name.as_str());
+        let blob_id = 1;
+        let packed_path = blob_path(&dataset.data_dir(), &file_id, blob_id);
+        let mut blob_writer = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        let mut packed = PackedBlobWriter::try_new(
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref().clone(),
+            data_file_path.clone(),
+            blob_id,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(packed.path(), &packed_path);
+        packed.write_blob(b"prepared-packed").await.unwrap();
+        blob_writer.extend(packed.finish().await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        let prepared_field = blob_writer.field().clone();
+        let prepared_array = blob_writer.finish().unwrap().into_parts().1;
+        let append_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            prepared_field,
+        ]));
+        let replacement_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            append_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])) as ArrayRef,
+                prepared_array,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let object_writer = dataset.object_store.create(&data_file_path).await.unwrap();
+        let mut file_writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+            object_writer,
+            crate::datatypes::Schema::try_from(append_schema.as_ref()).unwrap(),
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        file_writer.write_batch(&replacement_batch).await.unwrap();
+        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let data_file = dataset
+            .create_data_file(&data_file_name, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let transaction = Transaction {
+            read_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4().hyphenated().to_string(),
+            operation: Operation::DataReplacement {
+                replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file)],
+            },
+            tag: None,
+            transaction_properties: None,
+        };
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            CommitBuilder::new(dataset)
+                .execute(transaction)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), b"prepared-packed");
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), BlobKind::Packed);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_uses_blob_descriptor_array_builder_prepared_blob_column() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let logical_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+        let mut initial_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        initial_builder.push_bytes(b"initial").unwrap();
+        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            logical_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])) as ArrayRef,
+                initial_builder.finish().unwrap(),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], logical_schema.clone()),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let mut blob_writer = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        blob_writer
+            .push_inline(Bytes::from_static(b"append"))
+            .unwrap();
+        let prepared_column = blob_writer.finish().unwrap();
+        let (prepared_field, prepared_array) = prepared_column.into_parts();
+        let append_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            prepared_field,
+        ]));
+        let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            append_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])) as ArrayRef,
+                prepared_array,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_batch)], append_schema),
+                dataset,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let ids = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let id_values = ids.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        assert_eq!(id_values.values(), &[0, 1]);
+
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"initial"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[1].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"append"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_data_replacement_uses_blob_descriptor_array_builder_prepared_nested_blob_column()
+    {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut initial_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        initial_builder.push_bytes(b"initial").unwrap();
+        let (logical_schema, initial_batch) =
+            nested_blob_v2_batch(initial_builder.finish().unwrap());
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], logical_schema.clone()),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let file_id = Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
+        let data_file_name = format!("{file_id}.lance");
+        let data_file_path = dataset.data_dir().join(data_file_name.as_str());
+        let blob_id = 1;
+        let mut blob_writer = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        let mut packed = PackedBlobWriter::try_new(
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref().clone(),
+            data_file_path.clone(),
+            blob_id,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        packed.write_blob(b"nested-replacement").await.unwrap();
+        blob_writer.extend(packed.finish().await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        let prepared_column = blob_writer.finish().unwrap();
+        let (prepared_field, prepared_array) = prepared_column.into_parts();
+
+        let info_fields = vec![Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false), prepared_field];
+        let info_array = Arc::new(
+            StructArray::try_new(
+                info_fields.clone().into(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["replacement"])) as ArrayRef,
+                    prepared_array,
+                ],
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef;
+        let replacement_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "info",
+            DataType::Struct(info_fields.into()),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let replacement_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(replacement_schema.clone(), vec![info_array]).unwrap();
+
+        let object_writer = dataset.object_store.create(&data_file_path).await.unwrap();
+        let mut file_writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+            object_writer,
+            crate::datatypes::Schema::try_from(replacement_schema.as_ref()).unwrap(),
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        file_writer.write_batch(&replacement_batch).await.unwrap();
+        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let data_file = dataset
+            .create_data_file(&data_file_name, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let transaction = Transaction {
+            read_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4().hyphenated().to_string(),
+            operation: Operation::DataReplacement {
+                replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file)],
+            },
+            tag: None,
+            transaction_properties: None,
+        };
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            CommitBuilder::new(dataset)
+                .execute(transaction)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "info.blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"nested-replacement"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().kind(), BlobKind::Packed);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_data_file_skips_blob_orphans_with_top_level_name_collision() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut initial_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        initial_builder.push_bytes(b"initial").unwrap();
+        let (_, initial_info_batch) = nested_blob_v2_batch(initial_builder.finish().unwrap());
+        let info_field = initial_info_batch.schema().field(0).as_ref().clone();
+        let logical_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            info_field,
+            Field::new("kind", DataType::UInt8, false),
+        ]));
+        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            logical_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                initial_info_batch.column(0).clone(),
+                Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![7])) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], logical_schema.clone()),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let file_id = Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
+        let data_file_name = format!("{file_id}.lance");
+        let data_file_path = dataset.data_dir().join(data_file_name.as_str());
+        let mut blob_writer = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        blob_writer
+            .push_inline(Bytes::from_static(b"replacement"))
+            .unwrap();
+        let prepared_column = blob_writer.finish().unwrap();
+        let (prepared_field, prepared_array) = prepared_column.into_parts();
+
+        let info_fields = vec![Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false), prepared_field];
+        let info_array = Arc::new(
+            StructArray::try_new(
+                info_fields.clone().into(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["replacement"])) as ArrayRef,
+                    prepared_array,
+                ],
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef;
+        let replacement_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "info",
+            DataType::Struct(info_fields.into()),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let replacement_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(replacement_schema.clone(), vec![info_array]).unwrap();
+
+        let object_writer = dataset.object_store.create(&data_file_path).await.unwrap();
+        let mut file_writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+            object_writer,
+            crate::datatypes::Schema::try_from(replacement_schema.as_ref()).unwrap(),
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        file_writer.write_batch(&replacement_batch).await.unwrap();
+        file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let data_file = dataset
+            .create_data_file(&data_file_name, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(data_file.fields.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(data_file.column_indices.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_and_take_nested_blob_v2(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let packed_payload = vec![0x4A; super::INLINE_MAX + 1024];
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"hello").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&packed_payload).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let (schema, batch) = nested_blob_v2_batch(blob_array);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let info_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["info"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let blob_desc = info_batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_struct()
+            .column_by_name("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_desc
+                .column_by_name("kind")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
+                .value(0),
+            BlobKind::Inline as u8
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_desc
+                .column_by_name("kind")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
+                .value(1),
+            BlobKind::Managed as u8
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1], "info.blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"hello"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[1].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            packed_payload.as_slice()
+        );
+
+        let null_blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[2], "info.blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(null_blobs.len(), 1);
+        assert!(null_blobs[0].is_none());
+
+        let filtered = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["info"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter("info.blob IS NOT NULL")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(filtered.num_rows(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_and_take_nested_complete_blob_v2(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let packed_payload = vec![0x4A; super::INLINE_MAX + 1024];
+
+        let blob_array = complete_blob_v2_array(
+            vec![Some(b"hello".to_vec()), Some(packed_payload.clone()), None],
+            vec![None, None, None],
+            vec![None, None, None],
+            vec![None, None, None],
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, false])),
+        );
+
+        let (schema, batch) =
+            nested_blob_v2_batch_with_field(complete_blob_v2_field("blob", true), blob_array);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let info_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["info"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let blob_desc = info_batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_struct()
+            .column_by_name("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_desc
+                .column_by_name("kind")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
+                .value(0),
+            BlobKind::Inline as u8
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_desc
+                .column_by_name("kind")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
+                .value(1),
+            BlobKind::Managed as u8
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1], "info.blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"hello"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[1].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            packed_payload.as_slice()
+        );
+
+        let null_blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[2], "info.blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(null_blobs.len(), 1);
+        assert!(null_blobs[0].is_none());
+
+        let filtered = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["info"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter("info.blob IS NOT NULL")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(filtered.num_rows(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_and_scan_list_blob_v2_descriptions(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let packed_payload = vec![0x4B; super::INLINE_MAX + 1024];
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(4);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"hello").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&packed_payload).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"tail").unwrap();
+        let blob_values = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let item_field = Arc::new(blob_field("item", true));
+        let list_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+            arrow_array::ListArray::try_new(
+                item_field.clone(),
+                arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer::new(arrow_buffer::ScalarBuffer::from(vec![
+                    0i32, 3, 3, 3, 4,
+                ])),
+                blob_values,
+                Some(arrow_buffer::NullBuffer::from(vec![
+                    true, true, false, true,
+                ])),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("blobs", DataType::List(item_field), true),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![list_array, Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let descriptions = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let lists = descriptions.column(0).as_list::<i32>();
+        assert_eq!(lists.offsets().inner().as_ref(), &[0, 3, 3, 3, 4]);
+        assert!(lists.is_valid(0));
+        assert!(lists.is_valid(1));
+        assert!(lists.is_null(2));
+        assert!(lists.is_valid(3));
+
+        let DataType::List(descriptor_field) = lists.data_type() else {
+            panic!("unexpected list type: {}", lists.data_type());
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(descriptor_field.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_)));
+        assert!(!descriptor_field.metadata().contains_key(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY));
+        let descriptors = lists.values().as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(descriptors.fields().len(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(descriptors.fields()[0].name(), "kind");
+        assert!(descriptors.is_valid(0));
+        assert!(descriptors.is_null(1));
+        assert!(descriptors.is_valid(2));
+        assert!(descriptors.is_valid(3));
+        let kinds = descriptors
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+        assert_eq!(kinds.value(0), BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+        assert_eq!(kinds.value(2), BlobKind::Managed as u8);
+        assert_eq!(kinds.value(3), BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+
+        let filtered = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter("blobs IS NOT NULL")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(filtered.num_rows(), 3);
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+        let bytes = scanner
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let lists = bytes.column(0).as_list::<i32>();
+        assert_eq!(lists.offsets().inner().as_ref(), &[0, 3, 3, 3, 4]);
+        assert!(lists.is_valid(0));
+        assert!(lists.is_valid(1));
+        assert!(lists.is_null(2));
+        assert!(lists.is_valid(3));
+        let DataType::List(value_field) = lists.data_type() else {
+            panic!("unexpected list type: {}", lists.data_type());
+        };
+        assert_eq!(value_field.data_type(), &DataType::LargeBinary);
+        assert!(!value_field.metadata().contains_key(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY));
+        let values = lists.values().as_binary::<i64>();
+        assert_eq!(values.value(0), b"hello");
+        assert!(values.is_null(1));
+        assert_eq!(values.value(2), packed_payload.as_slice());
+        assert_eq!(values.value(3), b"tail");
+
+        for (filter, materialization_style) in [
+            (None, MaterializationStyle::Heuristic),
+            (Some("id >= 2"), MaterializationStyle::Heuristic),
+            (Some("id >= 2"), MaterializationStyle::AllEarly),
+        ] {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+            scanner.materialization_style(materialization_style);
+            scanner
+                .project(&["blobs", ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION])
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_row_id()
+                .with_row_address();
+            if let Some(filter) = filter {
+                scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            }
+
+            let expected_schema = scanner.schema().await.unwrap();
+            let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(batch.schema().as_ref(), expected_schema.as_ref());
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), if filter.is_some() { 2 } else { 4 });
+            for column in [
+                ROW_ID,
+                ROW_ADDR,
+                ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
+                ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+            ] {
+                assert!(
+                    batch.column_by_name(column).is_some(),
+                    "requested system column {column} was missing"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_and_scan_struct_nested_list_blob_v2(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"nested").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        let blob_values = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let item_field = Arc::new(blob_field("item", true));
+        let list_field = Field::new("blobs", DataType::List(item_field.clone()), true);
+        let list_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+            arrow_array::ListArray::try_new(
+                item_field,
+                arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer::new(arrow_buffer::ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0i32, 2, 2])),
+                blob_values,
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let info_fields = vec![Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false), list_field];
+        let info_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+            StructArray::try_new(
+                info_fields.clone().into(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["row-0", "row-1"])) as ArrayRef,
+                    list_array,
+                ],
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "info",
+            DataType::Struct(info_fields.into()),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![info_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let descriptions = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["info"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let info = descriptions.column(0).as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(
+            info.column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_string::<i32>()
+                .value(0),
+            "row-0"
+        );
+        let lists = info.column_by_name("blobs").unwrap().as_list::<i32>();
+        assert_eq!(lists.offsets().inner().as_ref(), &[0, 2, 2]);
+        let DataType::List(descriptor_field) = lists.data_type() else {
+            panic!("unexpected nested list type: {}", lists.data_type());
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(descriptor_field.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_)));
+        assert!(!descriptor_field.metadata().contains_key(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY));
+        let descriptors = lists.values().as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(descriptors.fields().len(), 5);
+        assert!(descriptors.is_valid(0));
+        assert!(descriptors.is_null(1));
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+        let bytes = scanner
+            .project(&["info"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let info = bytes.column(0).as_struct();
+        let lists = info.column_by_name("blobs").unwrap().as_list::<i32>();
+        assert_eq!(lists.offsets().inner().as_ref(), &[0, 2, 2]);
+        let DataType::List(value_field) = lists.data_type() else {
+            panic!("unexpected nested list type: {}", lists.data_type());
+        };
+        assert_eq!(value_field.data_type(), &DataType::LargeBinary);
+        assert!(!value_field.metadata().contains_key(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY));
+        let values = lists.values().as_binary::<i64>();
+        assert_eq!(values.value(0), b"nested");
+        assert!(values.is_null(1));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nested_blob_v2_requires_v2_2() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"hello").unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let (schema, batch) = nested_blob_v2_batch(blob_array);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Nested blob v2 should be rejected for file version 2.1"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Blob v2 requires file version >= 2.2")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_file_read_empty_range_returns_empty_bytes() {
+        let store = reject_empty_range_store();
+        let path = Path::from("blobs/test.bin");
+
+        let empty_blob = BlobFile::new_packed(store.clone(), path.clone(), 1, 0);
+        assert!(empty_blob.read().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(empty_blob.read_up_to(16).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_external_blob_source_read_all_empty_range_returns_empty_bytes() {
+        let store = reject_empty_range_store();
+        let reader = store.open(&Path::from("blobs/test.bin")).await.unwrap();
+        let source = ExternalBlobSource {
+            reader,
+            start: 0,
+            size: 0,
+        };
+
+        assert!(source.read_all().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_file_read_tracks_relative_cursor() {
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let file_path = test_dir.std_path().join("blob.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&file_path, b"abcd").unwrap();
+
+        let path = Path::from_absolute_path(file_path).unwrap();
+        let blob = BlobFile::new_packed(Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()), path, 1, 2);
+
+        assert_eq!(blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), b"bc");
+        assert_eq!(blob.tell().await.unwrap(), 2);
+        assert!(blob.read().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(blob.read_up_to(1).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(blob.tell().await.unwrap(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_file_read_range_does_not_change_cursor() {
+        let (store, _) = recording_range_store(Bytes::from_static(b"abcdefgh"));
+        let path = Path::from("blobs/test.bin");
+        let blob = BlobFile::new_packed(store, path, 1, 6);
+
+        let bytes = blob.read_range(2..5).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bytes.as_ref(), b"def");
+        assert_eq!(blob.tell().await.unwrap(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_file_read_ranges_preserves_input_order() {
+        let (store, inner) = recording_range_store(Bytes::from_static(b"abcdefghij"));
+        let path = Path::from("blobs/test.bin");
+        let blob = BlobFile::new_packed(store, path, 1, 6);
+
+        let chunks = blob.read_ranges(&[4..6, 0..2, 2..4, 2..2]).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(chunks[0].as_ref(), b"fg");
+        assert_eq!(chunks[1].as_ref(), b"bc");
+        assert_eq!(chunks[2].as_ref(), b"de");
+        assert!(chunks[3].is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(inner.requested_ranges(), vec![1..7]);
+        assert_eq!(inner.head_requests.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_file_read_range_rejects_out_of_bounds() {
+        let (store, inner) = recording_range_store(Bytes::from_static(b"abcdef"));
+        let path = Path::from("blobs/test.bin");
+        let blob = BlobFile::new_packed(store, path, 0, 4);
+
+        let err = blob.read_range(1..5).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("exceeds blob size"));
+        assert!(inner.requested_ranges().is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(inner.head_requests.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::partial(3)]
+    #[case::empty(0)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_range_reads_reject_truncated_backing_object(#[case] truncated_size: u64) {
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let file_path = test_dir.std_path().join("blob.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&file_path, b"abcdefgh").unwrap();
+        let path = Path::from_absolute_path(&file_path).unwrap();
+        let blob = BlobFile::new_packed(Arc::new(ObjectStore::local()), path, 2, 4);
+        std::fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .write(true)
+            .open(&file_path)
+            .unwrap()
+            .set_len(truncated_size)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = blob.read_range(0..4).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }), "{error:?}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("failed to fill whole buffer"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+
+        let error = execute_blob_entries(
+            vec![BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: 0,
+                row_address: 0,
+                file: blob,
+                requested_range: Some(BlobReadRange::new(0, 4)),
+            }],
+            1,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }), "{error:?}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("failed to fill whole buffer"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_file_staggered_same_source_ranges_run_concurrently() {
+        let (store, inner, gate) = gated_range_store(
+            Bytes::from_static(b"abcdefgh"),
+            "mock://same-source/blob-range-tests",
+        );
+        let blob = Arc::new(BlobFile::new_dedicated(
+            store,
+            Path::from("blobs/test.bin"),
+            8,
+        ));
+
+        let first_blob = blob.clone();
+        let first = tokio::spawn(async move { first_blob.read_range(0..3).await });
+        inner.wait_for_blob_requests(1).await;
+
+        let second_blob = blob.clone();
+        let second = tokio::spawn(async move { second_blob.read_range(4..7).await });
+        tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(1), inner.wait_for_blob_requests(2))
+            .await
+            .expect("the second same-source range should start while the first is in flight");
+
+        assert_eq!(inner.peak_active_blob_requests(), 2);
+        gate.add_permits(2);
+        assert_eq!(first.await.unwrap().unwrap().as_ref(), b"abc");
+        assert_eq!(second.await.unwrap().unwrap().as_ref(), b"efg");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_file_staggered_multiple_source_ranges_run_concurrently() {
+        let (first_store, first_inner, first_gate) = gated_range_store(
+            Bytes::from_static(b"abcdefgh"),
+            "mock://first-source/blob-range-tests",
+        );
+        let (second_store, second_inner, second_gate) = gated_range_store(
+            Bytes::from_static(b"ijklmnop"),
+            "mock://second-source/blob-range-tests",
+        );
+        let first_blob = Arc::new(BlobFile::new_dedicated(
+            first_store,
+            Path::from("blobs/first.bin"),
+            8,
+        ));
+        let second_blob = Arc::new(BlobFile::new_dedicated(
+            second_store,
+            Path::from("blobs/second.bin"),
+            8,
+        ));
+
+        let first = tokio::spawn(async move { first_blob.read_range(0..3).await });
+        first_inner.wait_for_blob_requests(1).await;
+
+        let second = tokio::spawn(async move { second_blob.read_range(4..7).await });
+        tokio::time::timeout(
+            Duration::from_secs(1),
+            second_inner.wait_for_blob_requests(1),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("a read from another source should start while the first is in flight");
+
+        first_gate.add_permits(1);
+        second_gate.add_permits(1);
+        assert_eq!(first.await.unwrap().unwrap().as_ref(), b"abc");
+        assert_eq!(second.await.unwrap().unwrap().as_ref(), b"mno");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_files_share_source_and_coalesce() {
+        let (store, inner) = recording_range_store(Bytes::from_static(b"abcdefghij"));
+        let source = Arc::new(BlobSource::new(store, Path::from("blobs/test.bin")));
+        let blob1 = BlobFile::with_source(source.clone(), 1, 3, BlobKind::Packed, None);
+        let blob2 = BlobFile::with_source(source, 4, 3, BlobKind::Packed, None);
+
+        let (data1, data2) = tokio::join!(blob1.read(), blob2.read());
+        assert_eq!(data1.unwrap().as_ref(), b"bcd");
+        assert_eq!(data2.unwrap().as_ref(), b"efg");
+        assert_eq!(inner.requested_blob_ranges(), vec![1..7]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_execute_blob_entries_preserves_order_and_coalesces() {
+        let (store, inner) = recording_range_store(Bytes::from_static(b"abcdefghij"));
+        let source = Arc::new(BlobSource::new(store, Path::from("blobs/test.bin")));
+        let entries = vec![
+            BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: 0,
+                row_address: 10,
+                file: BlobFile::with_source(source.clone(), 4, 3, BlobKind::Packed, None),
+                requested_range: None,
+            },
+            BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: 1,
+                row_address: 11,
+                file: BlobFile::with_source(source, 1, 3, BlobKind::Packed, None),
+                requested_range: None,
+            },
+        ];
+        let mut blobs = execute_blob_entries(entries, 2, None).await.unwrap();
+        blobs.sort_by_key(|blob| blob.selection_index);
+
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(blobs[0].row_address, 10);
+        assert_eq!(blobs[0].data.as_ref(), b"efg");
+        assert_eq!(blobs[1].row_address, 11);
+        assert_eq!(blobs[1].data.as_ref(), b"bcd");
+        assert_eq!(inner.requested_blob_ranges(), vec![1..7]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_materialization_budget_blocks_and_admits_oversized_batch() {
+        let budget = Arc::new(BlobMaterializationBudget {
+            limit: 10,
+            state: std::sync::Mutex::new(BlobMaterializationBudgetState::default()),
+            notify: Notify::new(),
+        });
+        let first = budget.reserve(8).await;
+        let waiting_budget = budget.clone();
+        let waiting = tokio::spawn(async move { waiting_budget.reserve(4).await });
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(20), waiting_budget_wait(&waiting))
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+        drop(first);
+        let second = waiting.await.unwrap();
+        drop(second);
+
+        let oversized = budget.reserve(11).await;
+        assert_eq!(budget.state.lock().unwrap().reserved, 11);
+        drop(oversized);
+        assert_eq!(budget.state.lock().unwrap().reserved, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_materialization_admission_cannot_invert_output_order() {
+        let budget = Arc::new(BlobMaterializationBudget {
+            limit: 100,
+            state: std::sync::Mutex::new(BlobMaterializationBudgetState::default()),
+            notify: Notify::new(),
+        });
+        let first = budget.admission();
+        let second = budget.admission();
+        let later = tokio::spawn(async move { second.reserve(60).await.unwrap() });
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(20), waiting_budget_wait(&later))
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(budget.state.lock().unwrap().reserved, 0);
+
+        let earlier = first.reserve(80).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(budget.state.lock().unwrap().reserved, 80);
+        drop(earlier);
+        let later = later.await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(budget.state.lock().unwrap().reserved, 60);
+        drop(later);
+        assert_eq!(budget.state.lock().unwrap().reserved, 0);
+    }
+
+    async fn waiting_budget_wait(
+        task: &tokio::task::JoinHandle<super::BlobMaterializationReservation>,
+    ) {
+        while !task.is_finished() {
+            tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_blob_read_batches_bound_physical_bytes() {
+        let (store, _) = recording_range_store(Bytes::from_static(b"abcdefghij"));
+        let source = Arc::new(BlobSource::new(store, Path::from("blobs/test.bin")));
+        let entries = vec![
+            BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: 1,
+                row_address: 11,
+                file: BlobFile::with_source(source.clone(), 4, 6, BlobKind::Packed, None),
+                requested_range: Some(BlobReadRange::new(0, 5)),
+            },
+            BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: 0,
+                row_address: 10,
+                file: BlobFile::with_source(source, 1, 3, BlobKind::Packed, None),
+                requested_range: Some(BlobReadRange::new(0, 3)),
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let batches = plan_blob_read_batches(entries, 4).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 2);
+        let selection_indices = batches
+            .iter()
+            .map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .plans
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|plan| plan.reads.iter())
+                    .map(|read| read.selection_index)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let blobs2 = fixture.dataset.take_blobs(&row_ids, "blobs").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(selection_indices, vec![vec![0], vec![1]]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_read_batches_bound_coalesced_physical_bytes() {
+        const BLOCK_SIZE: usize = 64 * 1024;
+        const RANGE_GAP: u64 = 32 * 1024;
+        const REQUEST_COUNT: usize = 4;
+
+        let mut data = vec![0_u8; 128 * 1024];
+        for request_index in 0..REQUEST_COUNT {
+            data[request_index * RANGE_GAP as usize] = request_index as u8 + 1;
+        }
+        let (store, inner) = recording_range_store_with_block_size(Bytes::from(data), BLOCK_SIZE);
+        let source = Arc::new(BlobSource::new(store, Path::from("blobs/dense.pack")));
+        let entries = (0..REQUEST_COUNT)
+            .map(|request_index| BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: request_index,
+                row_address: request_index as u64,
+                file: BlobFile::with_source(
+                    source.clone(),
+                    request_index as u64 * RANGE_GAP,
+                    1,
+                    BlobKind::Packed,
+                    None,
+                ),
+                requested_range: Some(BlobReadRange::new(0, 1)),
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let batches = plan_blob_read_batches(entries, REQUEST_COUNT as u64).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), REQUEST_COUNT);
+
+        let results = execute_blob_read_batches_stream(
+            batches,
+            Arc::new(ReadBlobsExecution::new(Some(REQUEST_COUNT as u64))),
+            REQUEST_COUNT,
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), REQUEST_COUNT);
+        for (request_index, result) in results.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(result.selection_index, request_index);
+            assert_eq!(result.data.as_ref(), &[request_index as u8 + 1]);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            inner.requested_blob_ranges(),
+            (0..REQUEST_COUNT)
+                .map(|request_index| {
+                    let start = request_index as u64 * RANGE_GAP;
+                    start..start + 1
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_blob_ranges_preserves_request_order_across_fragments() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+        let selections = [
+            (22_u64, 2_usize, 2_usize),
+            (2, 0, 2),
+            (12, 1, 2),
+            (12, 1, 2),
+        ];
+        let ranges = vec![
+            BlobReadRange::new(2, 3),
+            BlobReadRange::new(0, 2),
+            BlobReadRange::new(3, 2),
+            BlobReadRange::new(0, 3),
+        ];
+
+        let results = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .read_blob_ranges("blobs")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices(
+                selections
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(&ranges)
+                    .map(|((row_index, _, _), range)| {
+                        BlobRangeRequest::new(*row_index, range.offset, range.length)
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), selections.len());
+        for (request_index, (((_, batch_index, row_index), range), result)) in
+            selections.iter().zip(&ranges).zip(&results).enumerate()
+        {
+            let payload = fixture.data[*batch_index]
+                .column(1)
+                .as_binary::<i64>()
+                .value(*row_index);
+            let start = range.offset as usize;
+            let end = start + range.length as usize;
+            assert_eq!(result.request_index, request_index);
+            assert_eq!(result.range, *range);
+            assert_eq!(result.data.as_deref(), Some(&payload[start..end]));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_selection_apis_preserve_v1_nulls_and_empty_values() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let blob_metadata = HashMap::from([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(blob_metadata),
+        ]));
+        let blobs =
+            LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![None, Some(b"".as_slice()), Some(b"abc".as_slice())]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(blobs)]).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let blob_files = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[2, 1, 0], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob_files.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_files[0]
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .read()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_ref(),
+            b"abc"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            blob_files[1]
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .read()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        assert!(blob_files[2].is_none());
+
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .read_blobs("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices([2, 1, 0])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|blob| (blob.row_address, blob.data.as_deref()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![
+                (2, Some(b"abc".as_slice())),
+                (1, Some(b"".as_slice())),
+                (0, None),
+            ]
+        );
+
+        let results = dataset
+            .read_blob_ranges("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices([
+                BlobRangeRequest::new(0, 0, 0),
+                BlobRangeRequest::new(0, 0, 1),
+                BlobRangeRequest::new(1, 0, 0),
+                BlobRangeRequest::new(2, 1, 1),
+            ])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            results
+                .iter()
+                .map(|result| (result.request_index, result.data.as_deref()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![
+                (0, None),
+                (1, None),
+                (2, Some(b"".as_slice())),
+                (3, Some(b"b".as_slice())),
+            ]
+        );
+
+        let descriptions = StructArray::try_new(
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Field::new("position", DataType::UInt64, false)),
+                Arc::new(Field::new("size", DataType::UInt64, false)),
+            ]
+            .into(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0])) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0])) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![false])),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = UInt64Array::from(vec![u64::MAX]);
+        let files = collect_blob_files_v1(&dataset, u32::MAX, &descriptions, &row_addrs).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(files.len(), 1);
+        assert!(files[0].is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_selection_apis_preserve_v2_nulls_and_empty_values() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+        blob_builder.push_empty().unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"abc").unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blob_builder.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let blob_files = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[2, 1, 0], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob_files.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_files[0]
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .read()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_ref(),
+            b"abc"
+        );
+        assert!(blob_files[1].is_none());
+        assert!(
+            blob_files[2]
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .read()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .read_blobs("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices([2, 1, 0])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|blob| (blob.row_address, blob.data.as_deref()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![
+                (2, Some(b"abc".as_slice())),
+                (1, None),
+                (0, Some(b"".as_slice())),
+            ]
+        );
+
+        let results = dataset
+            .read_blob_ranges("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices([
+                BlobRangeRequest::new(0, 0, 0),
+                BlobRangeRequest::new(1, 0, 0),
+                BlobRangeRequest::new(1, 0, 1),
+                BlobRangeRequest::new(2, 1, 1),
+            ])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(results[0].request_index, 0);
+        assert_eq!(results[0].data.as_deref(), Some(b"".as_slice()));
+        assert_eq!(results[1].request_index, 1);
+        assert!(results[1].data.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(results[2].request_index, 2);
+        assert!(results[2].data.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(results[3].request_index, 3);
+        assert_eq!(results[3].data.as_deref(), Some(b"b".as_slice()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_blob_ranges_handles_overlaps_across_scheduler_splits() {
+        let max_iop_size = *lance_io::object_store::DEFAULT_MAX_IOP_SIZE;
+        let value_size = max_iop_size + 12;
+        let nested_start = value_size / 2 - 1;
+        let nested_end = value_size;
+        let (store, inner) = recording_range_store(Bytes::from(vec![7; value_size as usize]));
+        let source = Arc::new(BlobSource::new(store, Path::from("blobs/overlapping.bin")));
+        let entries = vec![
+            BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: 0,
+                row_address: 10,
+                file: BlobFile::with_source(
+                    source.clone(),
+                    0,
+                    value_size,
+                    BlobKind::Dedicated,
+                    None,
+                ),
+                requested_range: Some(BlobReadRange::new(0, value_size)),
+            },
+            BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: 1,
+                row_address: 10,
+                file: BlobFile::with_source(source, 0, value_size, BlobKind::Dedicated, None),
+                requested_range: Some(BlobReadRange::new(nested_start, nested_end - nested_start)),
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let mut plans = plan_blob_read_plans(entries).unwrap();
+        let results = execute_blob_read_plan(
+            plans.pop().unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(ReadBlobsExecution::new(None)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(results[0].selection_index, 0);
+        assert_eq!(results[0].data.len(), value_size as usize);
+        assert!(results[0].data.iter().all(|byte| *byte == 7));
+        assert_eq!(results[1].selection_index, 1);
+        assert_eq!(results[1].data.len(), (nested_end - nested_start) as usize);
+        assert!(results[1].data.iter().all(|byte| *byte == 7));
+
+        let mut physical_ranges = inner.requested_blob_ranges();
+        physical_ranges.sort_by_key(|range| range.start);
+        assert_eq!(
+            physical_ranges.len(),
+            value_size.div_ceil(max_iop_size) as usize
+        );
+        assert_eq!(physical_ranges[0].start, 0);
+        assert_eq!(physical_ranges.last().unwrap().end, value_size);
+        assert!(
+            physical_ranges
+                .windows(2)
+                .all(|ranges| ranges[0].end == ranges[1].start)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_blob_ranges_rejects_overflow_and_out_of_bounds() {
+        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+
+        let err = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .read_blob_ranges("blobs")
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("requires requests"));
+
+        let err = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .read_blob_ranges("blobs")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices([BlobRangeRequest::new(0, u64::MAX, 1)])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("offset + length overflowed"));
+
+        let err = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .read_blob_ranges("blobs")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices([BlobRangeRequest::new(0, 0, u64::MAX)])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("exceeds blob size"));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("request 0"));
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum BlobSelectionStreamCase {
+        Normal,
+        Empty,
+        Missing,
+        Duplicate,
+        DuplicateReplacesMissing,
+        OutOfRange,
+        UpstreamError,
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::normal(BlobSelectionStreamCase::Normal)]
+    #[case::empty(BlobSelectionStreamCase::Empty)]
+    #[case::missing(BlobSelectionStreamCase::Missing)]
+    #[case::duplicate(BlobSelectionStreamCase::Duplicate)]
+    #[case::duplicate_replaces_missing(BlobSelectionStreamCase::DuplicateReplacesMissing)]
+    #[case::out_of_range(BlobSelectionStreamCase::OutOfRange)]
+    #[case::upstream_error(BlobSelectionStreamCase::UpstreamError)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_selection_stream(
+        #[case] case: BlobSelectionStreamCase,
+        #[values(true, false)] preserve_order: bool,
+    ) {
+        let (non_null, null_values, selection_count, mut expected_values, expected_error) =
+            match case {
+                BlobSelectionStreamCase::Normal => (
+                    vec![Ok((2, "row2")), Ok((0, "row0"))],
+                    vec![(1, "null1")],
+                    3,
+                    vec!["row0", "null1", "row2"],
+                    None,
+                ),
+                BlobSelectionStreamCase::Empty => (Vec::new(), Vec::new(), 0, Vec::new(), None),
+                BlobSelectionStreamCase::Missing => (
+                    vec![Ok((0, "row0"))],
+                    vec![(1, "null1")],
+                    3,
+                    vec!["row0", "null1"],
+                    Some(if preserve_order {
+                        "completed before selection index 2 was produced"
+                    } else {
+                        "completed after producing 2 of 3 selections"
+                    }),
+                ),
+                BlobSelectionStreamCase::Duplicate => (
+                    vec![Ok((0, "row0")), Ok((0, "duplicate"))],
+                    Vec::new(),
+                    1,
+                    vec!["row0"],
+                    Some("selection index 0 was produced more than once"),
+                ),
+                BlobSelectionStreamCase::DuplicateReplacesMissing => (
+                    vec![Ok((0, "row0")), Ok((0, "duplicate"))],
+                    Vec::new(),
+                    2,
+                    vec!["row0"],
+                    Some("selection index 0 was produced more than once"),
+                ),
+                BlobSelectionStreamCase::OutOfRange => (
+                    vec![Ok((1, "out-of-range"))],
+                    Vec::new(),
+                    1,
+                    Vec::new(),
+                    Some("selection index 1 exceeded selected row count 1"),
+                ),
+                BlobSelectionStreamCase::UpstreamError => (
+                    vec![
+                        Ok((0, "row0")),
+                        Err(Error::internal("planned blob read failed".to_string())),
+                    ],
+                    Vec::new(),
+                    1,
+                    vec!["row0"],
+                    Some("planned blob read failed"),
+                ),
+            };
+        let non_null = futures::stream::iter(non_null).boxed();
+        let results = super::totalize_blob_selection_stream(
+            non_null,
+            null_values,
+            selection_count,
+            preserve_order,
+        )
+        .take(8)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await;
+
+        let mut actual_values = results
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|result| result.as_ref().ok().copied())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if !preserve_order {
+            actual_values.sort_unstable();
+            expected_values.sort_unstable();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(actual_values, expected_values);
+
+        let errors = results
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|result| result.as_ref().err())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            errors.len(),
+            if expected_error.is_some() { 1 } else { 0 },
+            "stream must terminate after its first error: {errors:?}"
+        );
+        if let Some(expected_error) = expected_error {
+            assert!(errors[0].to_string().contains(expected_error));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ordered_blob_selection_stream_drains_ready_prefix_before_reads() {
+        let read_poll_count = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let read_poll_count_for_stream = read_poll_count.clone();
+        let read_values = futures::stream::once(async move {
+            read_poll_count_for_stream.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            Ok::<_, Error>((2, "row2"))
+        })
+        .boxed();
+        let mut values = super::totalize_blob_selection_stream(
+            read_values,
+            vec![(0, "null0"), (1, "null1")],
+            3,
+            true,
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(values.try_next().await.unwrap(), Some("null0"));
+        assert_eq!(read_poll_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+        assert_eq!(values.try_next().await.unwrap(), Some("null1"));
+        assert_eq!(read_poll_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 0);
+        assert_eq!(values.try_next().await.unwrap(), Some("row2"));
+        assert_eq!(read_poll_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1);
+        assert_eq!(values.try_next().await.unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_planned_blob_range_avoids_whole_value_read_amplification() {
+        const VALUE_SIZE: u64 = 500 * 1024 * 1024;
+        const WINDOW_SIZE: u64 = 100 * 1024;
+
+        let (store, inner) = recording_range_store(Bytes::from(vec![7; WINDOW_SIZE as usize]));
+        let source = Arc::new(BlobSource::new(store, Path::from("blobs/large.bin")));
+        let entries = vec![BlobEntry {
+            selection_index: 0,
+            row_address: 10,
+            file: BlobFile::with_source(source, 0, VALUE_SIZE, BlobKind::Dedicated, None),
+            requested_range: Some(BlobReadRange::new(0, WINDOW_SIZE)),
+        }];
+        let mut plans = plan_blob_read_plans(entries).unwrap();
+        let results = execute_blob_read_plan(
+            plans.pop().unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(ReadBlobsExecution::new(None)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(results[0].data.len(), WINDOW_SIZE as usize);
+        let physical_ranges = inner.requested_ranges();
+        assert_eq!(inner.head_requests.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(physical_ranges, vec![0..WINDOW_SIZE]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            physical_ranges
+                .iter()
+                .map(|range| range.end - range.start)
+                .sum::<u64>(),
+            WINDOW_SIZE
+        );
+        assert!(!physical_ranges.contains(&(0..VALUE_SIZE)));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::inline(BlobKind::Inline, 1024 * 1024, 1024 * 1024)]
+    #[case::packed(BlobKind::Managed, 0, 1024 * 1024)]
+    #[case::dedicated(BlobKind::Managed, 0, 1)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_blob_ranges_avoids_whole_value_read_amplification_end_to_end(
+        #[case] kind: BlobKind,
+        #[case] inline_threshold: usize,
+        #[case] dedicated_threshold: usize,
+    ) {
+        const VALUE_SIZE: usize = 256 * 1024;
+        const WINDOW_SIZE: u64 = 4 * 1024;
+        const OFFSET: u64 = 64 * 1024;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(4);
+        for value in 0xA5..0xA9 {
+            blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![value; VALUE_SIZE]).unwrap();
+        }
+        let mut blob_field = blob_field("blob", false);
+        let mut metadata = blob_field.metadata().clone();
+        metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            dedicated_threshold.to_string(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            inline_threshold.to_string(),
+        );
+        blob_field = blob_field.with_metadata(metadata);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(blob_builder.finish().unwrap())],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+        let indices = [3, 0, 2, 1];
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&indices, "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for blob in &blobs {
+            assert_eq!(blob.as_ref().unwrap().kind(), kind);
+        }
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let results = dataset
+            .read_blob_ranges("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices(indices.map(|row| BlobRangeRequest::new(row, OFFSET, WINDOW_SIZE)))
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), indices.len());
+        for ((result, row), blob) in results.iter().zip(indices).zip(blobs) {
+            let data = result.data.as_ref().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(data.as_ref(), vec![0xA5 + row as u8; WINDOW_SIZE as usize]);
+            let blob = blob.unwrap();
+            let range = blob.position + OFFSET..blob.position + OFFSET + WINDOW_SIZE;
+            assert!(
+                stats.requests.iter().any(|request| {
+                    request.path == blob.source.path && request.range.as_ref() == Some(&range)
+                }),
+                "{stats:?}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                stats
+                    .requests
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|request| request.path == blob.source.path)
+                    .all(|request| {
+                        request.method != "head"
+                            && (request.method != "get_opts" || request.range.is_some())
+                    }),
+                "{stats:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_blobs_stream_emits_ready_plan_without_waiting_for_slower_ones() {
+        let (slow_store, _, slow_gate) = gated_range_store(
+            Bytes::from_static(b"abcdef"),
+            "mock://slow/blob-range-tests",
+        );
+        let (fast_store, _) = recording_range_store_with_url(
+            Bytes::from_static(b"uvwxyz"),
+            "mock://fast/blob-range-tests",
+        );
+        let entries = vec![
+            BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: 0,
+                row_address: 10,
+                file: BlobFile::with_source(
+                    Arc::new(BlobSource::new(slow_store, Path::from("blobs/slow.bin"))),
+                    0,
+                    3,
+                    BlobKind::Packed,
+                    None,
+                ),
+                requested_range: None,
+            },
+            BlobEntry {
+                selection_index: 1,
+                row_address: 11,
+                file: BlobFile::with_source(
+                    Arc::new(BlobSource::new(fast_store, Path::from("blobs/fast.bin"))),
+                    0,
+                    3,
+                    BlobKind::Packed,
+                    None,
+                ),
+                requested_range: None,
+            },
+        ];
+        let execution = Arc::new(ReadBlobsExecution::new(None));
+        let mut stream: super::ReadBlobsStream = futures::stream::iter(
+            plan_blob_read_plans(entries)
+                .unwrap()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(move |plan| execute_blob_read_plan(plan, execution.clone())),
+        )
+        .buffer_unordered(2)
+        .map_ok(|blobs: Vec<super::IndexedReadBlob>| {
+            futures::stream::iter(
+                blobs
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|blob| Ok::<super::ReadBlob, Error>(super::into_read_blob(blob))),
+            )
+        })
+        .try_flatten()
+        .boxed();
+
+        let first = tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(1), stream.next())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.row_address, 11);
+        assert_eq!(first.data.as_deref(), Some(b"uvw".as_slice()));
+
+        slow_gate.add_permits(1);
+        let second = tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(1), stream.next())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.row_address, 10);
+        assert_eq!(second.data.as_deref(), Some(b"abc".as_slice()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_take_blob_v2_from_non_default_base_inline() {
+        let fixture = create_multi_base_blob_v2_fixture(b"inline".to_vec(), None, true).await;
+
+        let blobs = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), BlobKind::Inline);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            fixture.expected.as_slice()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_take_blob_v2_from_non_default_base_packed() {
+        let fixture =
+            create_multi_base_blob_v2_fixture(vec![0x5A; super::INLINE_MAX + 4096], None, true)
+                .await;
+
+        let blobs = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), BlobKind::Managed);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            fixture.expected.as_slice()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_take_blob_v2_from_non_default_base_dedicated() {
+        let fixture = create_multi_base_blob_v2_fixture(vec![0xA5; 4096], Some(1), true).await;
+
+        let blobs = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), BlobKind::Managed);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            fixture.expected.as_slice()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_take_blob_v2_from_data_only_base() {
+        let fixture =
+            create_multi_base_blob_v2_fixture(vec![0x6B; super::INLINE_MAX + 2048], None, false)
+                .await;
+
+        let blobs = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), BlobKind::Managed);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            fixture.expected.as_slice()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_external_outside_base_denied_by_default() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"outside").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let err = result.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("outside registered external bases"),
+            "{err:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_external_under_dataset_root_denied_by_default() {
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let dataset_path = test_dir.std_path().join("dataset");
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(dataset_path.join("media")).unwrap();
+        let external_path = dataset_path.join("media").join("external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"root-local").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            dataset_path.to_str().unwrap(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let err = result.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("outside registered external bases"),
+            "{err:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_external_outside_base_allowed() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"outside").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri.clone()).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let descriptor_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blob"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_address()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        {
+            let desc = descriptor_batch.column_by_name("blob").unwrap().as_struct();
+            assert_eq!(
+                desc.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().value(0),
+                BlobKind::External as u8
+            );
+            assert_eq!(desc.column(2).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0), 0);
+            assert_eq!(desc.column(3).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0), 0);
+            let expected_uri = super::normalize_external_absolute_uri(&external_uri).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(desc.column(4).as_string::<i32>().value(0), expected_uri);
+        }
+
+        let output_schema = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_columns(["blob"], OnMissing::Error)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .to_schema();
+        let descriptor_bytes =
+            u64::try_from(descriptor_batch.get_array_memory_size()).unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+        let context = super::BlobMaterializationContext::new(None, Some(1));
+        let materialized = super::materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch_with_context(
+            &dataset,
+            &output_schema,
+            descriptor_batch,
+            &context,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let reserved = context
+            .budget
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .state
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .reserved;
+        assert_eq!(
+            reserved,
+            descriptor_bytes + b"outside".len() as u64 + 2 * std::mem::size_of::<i64>() as u64
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            materialized
+                .batch()
+                .column_by_name("blob")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_binary::<i64>()
+                .value(0),
+            b"outside"
+        );
+        drop(materialized);
+        assert_eq!(
+            context
+                .budget
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .state
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .reserved,
+            0
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"outside"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::whole_object(None, b"mapped")]
+    #[case::slice(Some(BlobRange { offset: 1, size: 4 }), b"appe")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_external_mapped_to_registered_base(
+        #[case] range: Option<BlobRange>,
+        #[case] expected: &[u8],
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = test_dir.std_path().join("dataset");
+        let external_base = test_dir.std_path().join("external_base");
+        let external_obj_dir = external_base.join("objects");
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(&external_obj_dir).unwrap();
+        let external_path = external_obj_dir.join("mapped.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"mapped").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+        let base_uri = format!("file://{}", external_base.display());
+
+        let blob_array = complete_blob_v2_array(
+            vec![None],
+            vec![Some(external_uri)],
+            vec![range.map(|r| r.offset)],
+            vec![range.map(|r| r.size)],
+            None,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![complete_blob_v2_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                dataset_uri.to_str().unwrap(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath {
+                        id: 1,
+                        name: Some("external".to_string()),
+                        path: base_uri,
+                        is_dataset_root: false,
+                    }]),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let desc = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blob"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .column(0)
+            .as_struct()
+            .to_owned();
+        assert_eq!(
+            desc.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().value(0),
+            BlobKind::External as u8
+        );
+        assert_eq!(desc.column(3).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            desc.column(4).as_string::<i32>().value(0),
+            "objects/mapped.bin"
+        );
+
+        let external_store = dataset.object_store(Some(1)).await.unwrap();
+        let _ = external_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            expected
+        );
+        let results = dataset
+            .read_blob_ranges("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_indices([BlobRangeRequest::new(0, 1, 2)])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results[0].data.as_deref(), Some(&expected[1..3]));
+        let stats = external_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let size_queries = stats
+            .requests
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|request| request.method == "head")
+            .count();
+        // A descriptor without a length still needs one size query per selection.
+        let expected_size_queries = if desc.column(2).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0) == 0 {
+            2
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        assert_eq!(size_queries, expected_size_queries, "{stats:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_external_ingest_inline_slice() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"prefix-inline-suffix").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+
+        let metadata = [(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(), BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string())]
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        let blob_field = Field::new(
+            "blob",
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    Field::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+                    Field::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                    Field::new("position", DataType::UInt64, true),
+                    Field::new("size", DataType::UInt64, true),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            true,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(metadata);
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+            StructArray::try_new(
+                vec![
+                    Field::new("data", DataType::LargeBinary, true),
+                    Field::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                    Field::new("position", DataType::UInt64, true),
+                    Field::new("size", DataType::UInt64, true),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![None::<&[u8]>])) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some(external_uri.as_str())])) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![Some(7)])) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![Some(6)])) as ArrayRef,
+                ],
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode::Ingest,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let desc = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blob"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .column(0)
+            .as_struct()
+            .to_owned();
+        assert_eq!(
+            desc.column_by_name("kind")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
+                .value(0),
+            BlobKind::Inline as u8
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), BlobKind::Inline);
+        assert_eq!(blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), b"inline");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_complete_blob_v2_schema_survives_create() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![complete_blob_v2_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![complete_blob_v2_array(
+                vec![Some(b"created".to_vec())],
+                vec![None],
+                vec![None],
+                vec![None],
+                None,
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let dataset_schema = Schema::from(dataset.schema());
+        let DataType::Struct(fields) = dataset_schema.field_with_name("blob").unwrap().data_type()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected complete logical blob struct after create");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(fields.as_ref(), BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.as_ref());
+
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"created"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_complete_blob_v2_schema_survives_append() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![complete_blob_v2_field("blob", true)]));
+        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![complete_blob_v2_array(
+                vec![Some(b"initial".to_vec())],
+                vec![None],
+                vec![None],
+                vec![None],
+                None,
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone()),
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![complete_blob_v2_array(
+                vec![Some(b"appended".to_vec())],
+                vec![None],
+                vec![None],
+                vec![None],
+                None,
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_batch)], schema),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        let dataset_schema = Schema::from(dataset.schema());
+        let DataType::Struct(fields) = dataset_schema.field_with_name("blob").unwrap().data_type()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected complete logical blob struct after append");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(fields.as_ref(), BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.as_ref());
+
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"initial"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[1].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"appended"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::reference_missing_size(
+        ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+        Some("file:///source.bin"),
+        Some(3),
+        None,
+        "both `position` and `size`"
+    )]
+    #[case::reference_missing_position(
+        ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+        Some("file:///source.bin"),
+        None,
+        Some(2),
+        "both `position` and `size`"
+    )]
+    #[case::reference_range_without_uri(
+        ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+        None,
+        Some(3),
+        Some(2),
+        "`uri` is null"
+    )]
+    #[case::ingest_missing_size(
+        ExternalBlobMode::Ingest,
+        Some("file:///source.bin"),
+        Some(3),
+        None,
+        "both `position` and `size`"
+    )]
+    #[case::ingest_missing_position(
+        ExternalBlobMode::Ingest,
+        Some("file:///source.bin"),
+        None,
+        Some(2),
+        "both `position` and `size`"
+    )]
+    #[case::ingest_range_without_uri(
+        ExternalBlobMode::Ingest,
+        None,
+        Some(3),
+        Some(2),
+        "`uri` is null"
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_complete_blob_v2_rejects_invalid_ranges(
+        #[case] external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode,
+        #[case] uri: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] position: Option<u64>,
+        #[case] size: Option<u64>,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![complete_blob_v2_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![complete_blob_v2_array(
+                vec![None],
+                vec![uri.map(str::to_string)],
+                vec![position],
+                vec![size],
+                None,
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let error = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                allow_external_blob_outside_bases: matches!(
+                    external_blob_mode,
+                    ExternalBlobMode::Reference
+                ),
+                external_blob_mode,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(expected_message));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::reference(ExternalBlobMode::Reference)]
+    #[case::ingest(ExternalBlobMode::Ingest)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_complete_blob_v2_rejects_zero_size_range(
+        #[case] external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode,
+    ) {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![complete_blob_v2_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![complete_blob_v2_array(
+                vec![None],
+                vec![Some("file:///source.bin".to_string())],
+                vec![Some(3)],
+                vec![Some(0)],
+                None,
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let error = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                allow_external_blob_outside_bases: matches!(
+                    external_blob_mode,
+                    ExternalBlobMode::Reference
+                ),
+                external_blob_mode,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
 
-        for (blob1, blob2) in blobs.iter().zip(blobs2.iter()) {
-            assert_eq!(blob1.position(), blob2.position());
-            assert_eq!(blob1.size(), blob2.size());
-            assert_eq!(blob1.data_path(), blob2.data_path());
-        }
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("greater than zero"));
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::both_small(Some(5), true)]
+    #[case::both_packed(Some(crate::dataset::blob::INLINE_MAX + 1), true)]
+    #[case::neither(None, false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    pub async fn test_take_blob_id_not_exist() {
-        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+    async fn test_complete_blob_v2_rejects_invalid_representation(
+        #[case] data_size: Option<usize>,
+        #[case] has_uri: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![complete_blob_v2_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![complete_blob_v2_array(
+                vec![data_size.map(|size| vec![0x41; size])],
+                vec![has_uri.then(|| "file:///source.bin".to_string())],
+                vec![None],
+                vec![None],
+                None,
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let err = fixture.dataset.take_blobs(&[1000], "blobs").await;
+        let error = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                allow_external_blob_outside_bases: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
 
-        assert!(matches!(err, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })));
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("must set exactly one of `data` and `uri`")
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    pub async fn test_take_blob_not_blob_col() {
-        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+    async fn test_blob_v2_external_ingest_packed() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("external.bin");
+        let payload = vec![0x5A; super::INLINE_MAX + 1024];
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, &payload).unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
 
-        let err = fixture.dataset.take_blobs(&[0], "filterme").await;
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
 
-        assert!(matches!(err, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })));
-        assert!(err.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("not a blob column"));
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode::Ingest,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let desc = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blob"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .column(0)
+            .as_struct()
+            .to_owned();
+        assert_eq!(
+            desc.column_by_name("kind")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
+                .value(0),
+            BlobKind::Managed as u8
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), BlobKind::Managed);
+        assert_eq!(blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), payload.as_slice());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    pub async fn test_scan_blobs() {
-        let fixture = BlobTestFixture::new().await;
+    async fn test_blob_v2_external_ingest_respects_inline_threshold() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("external.bin");
+        let payload = vec![0x5A; 2048];
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, &payload).unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
 
-        // By default, scanning a blob column will load descriptions
-        let batches = fixture
-            .dataset
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let mut field = blob_field("blob", true);
+        let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+        metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "1024".to_string(),
+        );
+        field = field.with_metadata(metadata);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode::Ingest,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), BlobKind::Managed);
+        assert_eq!(blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), payload.as_slice());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_external_ingest_dedicated() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("external.bin");
+        let payload = vec![0x7A; super::DEDICATED_THRESHOLD + 1024];
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, &payload).unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode::Ingest,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let desc = dataset
             .scan()
-            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .project(&["blob"])
             .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .unwrap()
+            .column(0)
+            .as_struct()
+            .to_owned();
+        assert_eq!(
+            desc.column_by_name("kind")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>()
+                .value(0),
+            BlobKind::Managed as u8
+        );
 
-        let schema = batches.schema();
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 1);
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), BlobKind::Managed);
+        assert_eq!(blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), payload.as_slice());
+    }
 
-        assert!(schema.fields[0].data_type().is_struct());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_requires_v2_2() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
 
-        let batches = batches.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"hello").unwrap();
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 10);
-        for batch in batches.iter() {
-            assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
-            assert!(batch.column(0).data_type().is_struct());
+        let id_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Blob v2 should be rejected for file version 2.1"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Blob v2 requires file version >= 2.2")
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn try_preprocess_blobs_with_blob_metadata(
+        metadata_entries: Vec<(&'static str, String)>,
+        pack_file_size_override: Option<usize>,
+        blob_len: usize,
+        num_blobs: usize,
+    ) -> Result<arrow_array::StructArray> {
+        let (object_store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            "memory://blob_preprocessor",
+            &ObjectStoreParams::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let object_store = object_store.as_ref().clone();
+        let data_dir = base_path.clone().join("data");
+
+        let mut field = blob_field("blob", true);
+        let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+        for (key, value) in metadata_entries {
+            metadata.insert(key.to_string(), value);
         }
+        field = field.with_metadata(metadata);
 
-        // Should also be able to scan with filter
-        let batches = fixture
-            .dataset
-            .scan()
-            .project(&["blobs"])
+        let writer_arrow_schema = Schema::new(vec![field.clone()]);
+        let writer_schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&writer_arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let mut preprocessor = super::BlobPreprocessor::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            data_dir,
+            "data_file_key".to_string(),
+            &writer_schema,
+            None,
+            false,
+            ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            ObjectStoreParams::default(),
+            pack_file_size_override,
+        )?;
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(num_blobs);
+        for _ in 0..num_blobs {
+            blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![0u8; blob_len]).unwrap();
+        }
+        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let field_without_metadata =
+            Field::new("blob", field.data_type().clone(), field.is_nullable());
+        let batch_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field_without_metadata]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(batch_schema, vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
+
+        let out = preprocessor.preprocess_batch(&batch).await?;
+        Ok(out
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
             .unwrap()
-            .filter("filterme = 50")
+            .clone())
+    }
+
+    async fn try_preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+        metadata_entries: Vec<(&'static str, String)>,
+        data_len: usize,
+    ) -> Result<u8> {
+        let struct_arr =
+            try_preprocess_blobs_with_blob_metadata(metadata_entries, None, data_len, 1).await?;
+        Ok(struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("kind")
             .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
+            .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt8Type>()
+            .value(0))
+    }
+
+    async fn preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+        metadata_entries: Vec<(&'static str, String)>,
+        data_len: usize,
+    ) -> u8 {
+        try_preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(metadata_entries, data_len)
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .unwrap()
+    }
 
-        let schema = batches.schema();
+    async fn packed_blobs_with_blob_metadata(
+        metadata_entries: Vec<(&'static str, String)>,
+        pack_file_size_override: Option<usize>,
+        blob_len: usize,
+        num_blobs: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let struct_arr = try_preprocess_blobs_with_blob_metadata(
+            metadata_entries,
+            pack_file_size_override,
+            blob_len,
+            num_blobs,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let blob_ids = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("blob_id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type>();
+        (0..struct_arr.len()).map(|i| blob_ids.value(i)).collect()
+    }
 
-        assert!(schema.fields[0].data_type().is_struct());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_dedicated_threshold_rejects_non_positive_metadata() {
+        let err = try_preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "0".to_string())],
+            256 * 1024,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("expected a positive integer"));
+    }
 
-        let batches = batches.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_inline_threshold_rejects_invalid_metadata() {
+        let err = try_preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(
+                BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+                "not-a-number".to_string(),
+            )],
+            256 * 1024,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("expected a non-negative integer that fits in usize")
+        );
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
-        for batch in batches.iter() {
-            assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
-            assert!(batch.column(0).data_type().is_struct());
-        }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_write_rejects_invalid_inline_threshold_metadata() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let mut field = blob_field("blob", true);
+        let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+        metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "not-a-number".to_string(),
+        );
+        field = field.with_metadata(metadata);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![0u8; 256]).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(blob_builder.finish().unwrap()) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let Err(err) = result else {
+            panic!("write with invalid blob threshold metadata should fail");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("expected a non-negative integer that fits in usize")
+        );
     }
 
-    /// Test that take_blobs_by_indices works correctly with enable_stable_row_ids=true.
-    ///
-    /// This is a regression test for a bug where take_blobs_by_indices would fail
-    /// with "index out of bounds" for fragment 1+ when stable row IDs are enabled.
-    /// The bug was caused by passing row addresses (from row_offsets_to_row_addresses)
-    /// to blob::take_blobs which expected row IDs. When stable row IDs are enabled,
-    /// row addresses (fragment_id << 32 | offset) are different from row IDs
-    /// (sequential integers), causing the row ID index lookup to fail for fragment 1+.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::negative_inline(BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "-5")]
+    #[case::invalid_dedicated(BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "abc")]
+    #[case::zero_dedicated(BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "0")]
+    #[case::zero_pack_file(BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "0")]
     #[tokio::test]
-    pub async fn test_take_blobs_by_indices_with_stable_row_ids() {
-        use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
-        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+    async fn test_blob_v2_empty_create_rejects_invalid_threshold_metadata(
+        #[case] key: &str,
+        #[case] value: &str,
+    ) {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let mut field = blob_field("blob", true);
+        let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+        metadata.insert(key.to_string(), value.to_string());
+        field = field.with_metadata(metadata);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let err = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains(&format!("{key}=\"{value}\"")));
+        assert!(Dataset::open(&dataset_dir.path_str()).await.is_err());
+    }
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::negative_inline(BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "-5")]
+    #[case::invalid_dedicated(BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "abc")]
+    #[case::zero_pack_file(BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "0")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_field_metadata_rejects_invalid_threshold(
+        #[case] key: &str,
+        #[case] value: &str,
+    ) {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let version = dataset.version_id();
 
-        // Create test data with blob column
-        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("filterme", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
-            .col("blobs", array::blob())
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(6), BatchCount::from(1))
-            .map(|batch| Ok(batch.unwrap()))
-            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
-            .unwrap();
+        let err = dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("blob", [(key, value)])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains(&format!("{key}=\"{value}\"")));
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version_id(), version);
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(&dataset_dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reopened.version_id(), version);
+        assert!(
+            !reopened
+                .schema()
+                .field("blob")
+                .unwrap()
+                .metadata
+                .contains_key(key)
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Write with enable_stable_row_ids=true and force multiple fragments
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
-            max_rows_per_file: 3, // Force 2 fragments with 3 rows each
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_overwrite_rejects_invalid_threshold_metadata() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(data.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), data[0].schema());
-        let dataset = Arc::new(
-            Dataset::write(reader, &test_dir, Some(write_params))
+        let mut field = blob_field("blob", true);
+        let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+        metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "-5".to_string(),
+        );
+        field = field.with_metadata(metadata);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let err = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {err:?}");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains(BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            Dataset::open(&dataset_dir.path_str())
                 .await
-                .unwrap(),
+                .unwrap()
+                .version_id(),
+            dataset.version_id()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_dedicated_threshold_respects_smaller_metadata() {
+        let kind = preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "131072".to_string())],
+            256 * 1024,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Dedicated as u8);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_dedicated_threshold_respects_larger_metadata() {
+        let kind = preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(
+                BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+                "8388608".to_string(),
+            )],
+            super::DEDICATED_THRESHOLD + 1024,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_pack_file_threshold_rolls_at_metadata_value() {
+        // Blobs must exceed the inline cutoff to be packed at all. With a pack-file
+        // threshold equal to a single blob's size, each of the three blobs rolls to its
+        // own pack file (a distinct blob_id).
+        let blob_len = super::INLINE_MAX + 1024;
+        let blob_ids = packed_blobs_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, blob_len.to_string())],
+            None,
+            blob_len,
+            3,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let distinct: std::collections::HashSet<u32> = blob_ids.iter().copied().collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            distinct.len(),
+            3,
+            "expected one pack file per blob: {blob_ids:?}"
         );
+    }
 
-        // Verify we have multiple fragments
-        let fragments = dataset.fragments();
-        assert!(
-            fragments.len() >= 2,
-            "Expected at least 2 fragments, got {}",
-            fragments.len()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_pack_file_threshold_packs_within_metadata_value() {
+        // A pack-file threshold large enough for all three blobs keeps them in a single
+        // pack file (one shared blob_id).
+        let blob_len = super::INLINE_MAX + 1024;
+        let blob_ids = packed_blobs_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(
+                BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+                (blob_len * 3).to_string(),
+            )],
+            None,
+            blob_len,
+            3,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let distinct: std::collections::HashSet<u32> = blob_ids.iter().copied().collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            distinct.len(),
+            1,
+            "expected a single shared pack file: {blob_ids:?}"
         );
+    }
 
-        // Test first fragment (indices 0, 1, 2) - this always worked
-        let blobs = dataset
-            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2], "blobs")
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 3, "First fragment blobs should have 3 items");
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_pack_file_threshold_rejects_non_positive_metadata() {
+        let err = try_preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "0".to_string())],
+            1024,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("zero pack-file threshold should be rejected");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("expected a positive integer"));
+    }
 
-        // Verify we can read the blob content
-        for blob in &blobs {
-            let content = blob.read().await.unwrap();
-            assert!(!content.is_empty(), "Blob content should not be empty");
-        }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_inline_threshold_respects_smaller_metadata() {
+        let kind = preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "1024".to_string())],
+            2048,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+    }
 
-        // Test second fragment (indices 3, 4, 5) - this was failing before the fix
-        let blobs = dataset
-            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[3, 4, 5], "blobs")
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 3, "Second fragment blobs should have 3 items");
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_inline_threshold_respects_larger_metadata() {
+        let kind = preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(
+                BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+                (super::INLINE_MAX + 8192).to_string(),
+            )],
+            super::INLINE_MAX + 4096,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+    }
 
-        // Verify we can read the blob content from second fragment
-        for blob in &blobs {
-            let content = blob.read().await.unwrap();
-            assert!(!content.is_empty(), "Blob content should not be empty");
-        }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_inline_threshold_uses_strict_greater_than() {
+        let kind = preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "1024".to_string())],
+            1024,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+    }
 
-        // Test mixed indices from both fragments
-        let blobs = dataset
-            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[1, 4], "blobs")
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 2, "Mixed fragment blobs should have 2 items");
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_dedicated_threshold_uses_strict_greater_than() {
+        let kind = preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![
+                (BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "2048".to_string()),
+                (BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "1024".to_string()),
+            ],
+            1024,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Inline as u8);
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_data_file_key_from_path() {
-        assert_eq!(data_file_key_from_path("data/abc.lance"), "abc");
-        assert_eq!(data_file_key_from_path("abc.lance"), "abc");
-        assert_eq!(data_file_key_from_path("nested/path/xyz"), "xyz");
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_inline_threshold_does_not_override_dedicated_threshold() {
+        let kind = preprocess_kind_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![
+                (BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "8192".to_string()),
+                (BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, "4096".to_string()),
+            ],
+            6144,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Dedicated as u8);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_write_and_take_blobs_with_blob_array_builder() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    async fn test_blob_v2_inline_threshold_is_per_column() {
+        let (object_store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            "memory://blob_preprocessor",
+            &ObjectStoreParams::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let object_store = object_store.as_ref().clone();
+        let data_dir = base_path.clone().join("data");
 
-        // Build a blob column with the new BlobArrayBuilder
-        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
-        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"hello").unwrap();
-        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"world").unwrap();
-        let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+        let mut inline_field = blob_field("inline_blob", true);
+        let mut inline_metadata = inline_field.metadata().clone();
+        inline_metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "4096".to_string(),
+        );
+        inline_field = inline_field.with_metadata(inline_metadata);
 
-        let id_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1]));
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
-            blob_field("blob", true),
-        ]));
+        let mut packed_field = blob_field("packed_blob", true);
+        let mut packed_metadata = packed_field.metadata().clone();
+        packed_metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "1024".to_string(),
+        );
+        packed_field = packed_field.with_metadata(packed_metadata);
 
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let writer_arrow_schema = Schema::new(vec![inline_field.clone(), packed_field.clone()]);
+        let writer_schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&writer_arrow_schema).unwrap();
 
-        let params = WriteParams {
-            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let dataset = Arc::new(
-            Dataset::write(reader, &test_dir, Some(params))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-        );
+        let mut preprocessor = super::BlobPreprocessor::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            data_dir,
+            "data_file_key".to_string(),
+            &writer_schema,
+            None,
+            false,
+            ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            ObjectStoreParams::default(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let blobs = dataset
-            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1], "blob")
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let mut inline_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        inline_builder.push_bytes(vec![0u8; 2048]).unwrap();
+        let inline_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = inline_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let mut packed_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        packed_builder.push_bytes(vec![0u8; 2048]).unwrap();
+        let packed_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = packed_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let batch_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(
+                "inline_blob",
+                inline_field.data_type().clone(),
+                inline_field.is_nullable(),
+            ),
+            Field::new(
+                "packed_blob",
+                packed_field.data_type().clone(),
+                packed_field.is_nullable(),
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(batch_schema, vec![inline_array, packed_array]).unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 2);
-        let first = blobs[0].read().await.unwrap();
-        let second = blobs[1].read().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(first.as_ref(), b"hello");
-        assert_eq!(second.as_ref(), b"world");
+        let out = preprocessor.preprocess_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        let inline_kind = out
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt8Type>()
+            .value(0);
+        let packed_kind = out
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt8Type>()
+            .value(0);
+
+        assert_eq!(inline_kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+        assert_eq!(packed_kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Packed as u8);
     }
 
-    async fn preprocess_kind_with_schema_metadata(metadata_value: &str, data_len: usize) -> u8 {
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_pack_file_threshold_starts_new_packed_blob() {
         let (object_store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
             Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
             "memory://blob_preprocessor",
@@ -1174,13 +11244,17 @@ mod tests {
         .await
         .unwrap();
         let object_store = object_store.as_ref().clone();
-        let data_dir = base_path.child("data");
+        let data_dir = base_path.clone().join("data");
 
         let mut field = blob_field("blob", true);
         let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+        metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "0".to_string(),
+        );
         metadata.insert(
             BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            metadata_value.to_string(),
+            "1024".to_string(),
         );
         field = field.with_metadata(metadata);
 
@@ -1192,47 +11266,569 @@ mod tests {
             data_dir,
             "data_file_key".to_string(),
             &writer_schema,
-        );
+            None,
+            false,
+            ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            ObjectStoreParams::default(),
+            Some(3),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
-        blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![0u8; data_len]).unwrap();
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![0x11; 2]).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![0x22; 2]).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![0x33; 1]).unwrap();
         let blob_array: arrow_array::ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
 
-        let field_without_metadata =
-            Field::new("blob", field.data_type().clone(), field.is_nullable());
-        let batch_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field_without_metadata]));
+        let batch_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "blob",
+            field.data_type().clone(),
+            field.is_nullable(),
+        )]));
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(batch_schema, vec![blob_array]).unwrap();
 
         let out = preprocessor.preprocess_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        preprocessor.finish().await.unwrap();
+
         let struct_arr = out
             .column(0)
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
             .unwrap();
-        struct_arr
+        let kinds = struct_arr
             .column_by_name("kind")
             .unwrap()
-            .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt8Type>()
-            .value(0)
+            .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+        let blob_ids = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("blob_id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let sizes = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("blob_size")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let positions = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("position")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+
+        assert_eq!(kinds.values(), &[BlobKind::Packed as u8; 3]);
+        assert_eq!(blob_ids.values(), &[1, 2, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(sizes.values(), &[2, 2, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(positions.values(), &[0, 0, 2]);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_blob_v2_dedicated_threshold_ignores_non_positive_metadata() {
-        let kind = preprocess_kind_with_schema_metadata("0", 256 * 1024).await;
-        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+    async fn test_blob_v2_append_rejects_explicit_inline_threshold_mismatch() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let payload = vec![0u8; 2048];
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let mut initial_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        initial_builder.push_bytes(payload.clone()).unwrap();
+        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(initial_builder.finish().unwrap()) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let initial_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            initial_reader,
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut append_field = blob_field("blob", true);
+        let mut append_metadata = append_field.metadata().clone();
+        append_metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "1024".to_string(),
+        );
+        append_field = append_field.with_metadata(append_metadata);
+        let append_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![append_field]));
+        let mut append_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        append_builder.push_bytes(payload).unwrap();
+        let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            append_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(append_builder.finish().unwrap()) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let append_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_batch)], append_schema);
+
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            append_reader,
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let Err(err) = result else {
+            panic!("append with explicit blob threshold mismatch should fail");
+        };
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("Cannot append data with blob threshold metadata"));
+        assert!(message.contains(BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_blob_v2_dedicated_threshold_respects_smaller_metadata() {
-        let kind = preprocess_kind_with_schema_metadata("131072", 256 * 1024).await;
-        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Dedicated as u8);
+    async fn test_blob_v2_append_rejects_threshold_mismatch_with_non_blob_input_extension() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let payload = vec![0u8; 2048];
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let mut initial_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        initial_builder.push_bytes(payload.clone()).unwrap();
+        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(initial_builder.finish().unwrap()) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let initial_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            initial_reader,
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut append_field = blob_field("blob", true);
+        let mut append_metadata = append_field.metadata().clone();
+        append_metadata.insert(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            "some.other.extension".to_string(),
+        );
+        append_metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            "1024".to_string(),
+        );
+        append_field = append_field.with_metadata(append_metadata);
+        let append_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![append_field]));
+        let mut append_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        append_builder.push_bytes(payload).unwrap();
+        let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            append_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(append_builder.finish().unwrap()) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let append_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_batch)], append_schema);
+
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            append_reader,
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let Err(err) = result else {
+            panic!("append with ignored blob threshold metadata should fail");
+        };
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("Cannot append data with blob threshold metadata"));
+        assert!(message.contains(BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_blob_v2_dedicated_threshold_respects_larger_metadata() {
-        let kind =
-            preprocess_kind_with_schema_metadata("8388608", super::DEDICATED_THRESHOLD + 1024)
-                .await;
-        assert_eq!(kind, lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+    async fn test_blob_v2_append_accepts_explicit_default_inline_threshold() {
+        let dataset_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let payload = vec![0u8; 2048];
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let mut initial_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        initial_builder.push_bytes(payload.clone()).unwrap();
+        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(initial_builder.finish().unwrap()) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let initial_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            initial_reader,
+            &dataset_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut append_field = blob_field("blob", true);
+        let mut append_metadata = append_field.metadata().clone();
+        append_metadata.insert(
+            BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            super::INLINE_MAX.to_string(),
+        );
+        append_field = append_field.with_metadata(append_metadata);
+        let append_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![append_field]));
+        let mut append_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        append_builder.push_bytes(payload).unwrap();
+        let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            append_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(append_builder.finish().unwrap()) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let append_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_batch)], append_schema);
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            append_reader,
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_v2_pack_file_threshold_write_param_overrides_metadata() {
+        let blob_len = super::INLINE_MAX + 1024;
+        let blob_ids = packed_blobs_with_blob_metadata(
+            vec![(
+                BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+                (blob_len * 3).to_string(),
+            )],
+            Some(blob_len),
+            blob_len,
+            3,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let distinct: std::collections::HashSet<u32> = blob_ids.iter().copied().collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            distinct.len(),
+            3,
+            "write-param override should force one pack file per blob: {blob_ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn default_sequential_buffer_uses_512_kib_windows() {
+        let payload = vec![0xABu8; 1024 * 1024];
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+
+        let got = read_up_to_chunks(blob, 8192).await;
+        assert_eq!(got.as_ref(), payload.as_slice());
+        assert_eq!(blob.range_submission_count(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn sequential_small_reads_reuse_prefetch() {
+        let payload = vec![0xABu8; 40 * 1024];
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        blob.set_buffer_size(32 * 1024).await.unwrap();
+
+        let got = read_up_to_chunks(blob, 8192).await;
+        assert_eq!(got.as_ref(), payload.as_slice());
+        assert_eq!(blob.range_submission_count(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::window_covers_the_rest(4 * 1024 * 1024, 0, 1)]
+    #[case::small_tail_is_appended(64 * 1024, 32 * 1024, 2)]
+    #[case::large_tail_is_read_from_cursor(16 * 1024, 95 * 1024, 2)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn read_after_read_up_to_reuses_prefetch(
+        #[case] buffer_size: usize,
+        #[case] fetched: u64,
+        #[case] submissions: usize,
+    ) {
+        let payload: Vec<u8> = (0..96 * 1024).map(|i| (i % 251) as u8).collect();
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        blob.set_buffer_size(buffer_size).await.unwrap();
+
+        blob.read_up_to(1024).await.unwrap();
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let rest = blob.read().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rest.as_ref(), &payload[1024..]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental().read_bytes,
+            fetched
+        );
+        assert_eq!(blob.range_submission_count(), submissions);
+        assert_eq!(blob.tell().await.unwrap(), payload.len() as u64);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn zero_buffer_size_fetches_each_sequential_read() {
+        let payload = vec![0xCDu8; 16 * 1024];
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        blob.set_buffer_size(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        let got = read_up_to_chunks(blob, 8192).await;
+        assert_eq!(got.as_ref(), payload.as_slice());
+        assert_eq!(blob.range_submission_count(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn read_range_does_not_use_or_advance_prefetch() {
+        let payload: Vec<u8> = (0..32).collect();
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        blob.set_buffer_size(16).await.unwrap();
+
+        let first = blob.read_up_to(4).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.as_ref(), &payload[..4]);
+        let after_fill = blob.range_submission_count();
+        let ranged = blob.read_range(10..14).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ranged.as_ref(), &payload[10..14]);
+        assert_eq!(blob.tell().await.unwrap(), 4);
+        let second = blob.read_up_to(4).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.as_ref(), &payload[4..8]);
+        assert_eq!(blob.range_submission_count(), after_fill + 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn seek_inside_prefetch_does_not_refetch() {
+        let payload: Vec<u8> = (0..40).map(|i| i as u8).collect();
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        blob.set_buffer_size(16).await.unwrap();
+
+        let _ = blob.read_up_to(4).await.unwrap();
+        let after_fill = blob.range_submission_count();
+        blob.seek(8).await.unwrap();
+        let jumped = blob.read_up_to(4).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(jumped.as_ref(), &payload[8..12]);
+        assert_eq!(blob.range_submission_count(), after_fill);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn seek_outside_prefetch_drops_it() {
+        let payload: Vec<u8> = (0..40).map(|i| i as u8).collect();
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        blob.set_buffer_size(16).await.unwrap();
+
+        let _ = blob.read_up_to(4).await.unwrap();
+        let after_fill = blob.range_submission_count();
+        blob.seek(20).await.unwrap();
+        let jumped = blob.read_up_to(4).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(jumped.as_ref(), &payload[20..24]);
+        assert_eq!(blob.range_submission_count(), after_fill + 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn read_past_eof_leaves_the_cursor() {
+        let payload = b"abcdef";
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        let past_eof = blob.size() + 1;
+
+        blob.seek(past_eof).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(blob.read().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(blob.tell().await.unwrap(), past_eof);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn changing_buffer_size_drops_unused_prefetch() {
+        let payload: Vec<u8> = (0..40).map(|i| i as u8).collect();
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        blob.set_buffer_size(16).await.unwrap();
+
+        let _ = blob.read_up_to(4).await.unwrap();
+        let after_fill = blob.range_submission_count();
+        blob.set_buffer_size(8).await.unwrap();
+        let next = blob.read_up_to(4).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(next.as_ref(), &payload[4..8]);
+        assert_eq!(blob.range_submission_count(), after_fill + 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn read_up_to_fills_across_prefetch_boundary() {
+        let payload: Vec<u8> = (0..40).map(|i| i as u8).collect();
+        let (_dir, dataset) = write_blob_v2_dataset(&[payload.as_slice()]).await;
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        blob.set_buffer_size(16).await.unwrap();
+
+        let first = blob.read_up_to(4).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.as_ref(), &payload[..4]);
+        let after_fill = blob.range_submission_count();
+        let second = blob.read_up_to(20).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.as_ref(), &payload[4..24]);
+        assert_eq!(blob.tell().await.unwrap(), 24);
+        assert_eq!(blob.range_submission_count(), after_fill + 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_split_batch_by_bytes_skewed_rows() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "data",
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let small = vec![0u8; 1];
+        let large = vec![0u8; 10_000];
+        let values: Vec<Option<&[u8]>> = (0..100)
+            .map(|_| Some(small.as_slice()))
+            .chain(std::iter::once(Some(large.as_slice())))
+            .collect();
+        let array = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![array]).unwrap();
+
+        let max_bytes = 200;
+        let chunks = super::split_batch_by_bytes(batch.clone(), max_bytes).unwrap();
+        let total_rows: usize = chunks.iter().map(|c| c.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, batch.num_rows());
+
+        for chunk in &chunks {
+            if chunk.num_rows() > 1 {
+                assert!(
+                    chunk.get_array_memory_size() <= max_bytes,
+                    "chunk with {} rows has {} bytes, max is {}",
+                    chunk.num_rows(),
+                    chunk.get_array_memory_size(),
+                    max_bytes
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Regression: multiple medium rows that individually fit the budget can
+    // still be grouped into a chunk above it by the average-based split; the
+    // recursive re-check must split them apart (bot reproducer: 10 rows × 900 B
+    // plus 90 rows × 1 B, budget 1024 B).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_split_batch_by_bytes_grouped_oversized_rows() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "data",
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let small = vec![0u8; 1];
+        let medium = vec![0u8; 900];
+        let values: Vec<Option<&[u8]>> = (0..10)
+            .map(|_| Some(medium.as_slice()))
+            .chain((0..90).map(|_| Some(small.as_slice())))
+            .collect();
+        let array = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![array]).unwrap();
+
+        let max_bytes = 1024;
+        let chunks = super::split_batch_by_bytes(batch.clone(), max_bytes).unwrap();
+        let total_rows: usize = chunks.iter().map(|c| c.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, batch.num_rows());
+
+        for chunk in &chunks {
+            if chunk.num_rows() > 1 {
+                assert!(
+                    chunk.get_array_memory_size() <= max_bytes,
+                    "chunk with {} rows has {} bytes, max is {}",
+                    chunk.num_rows(),
+                    chunk.get_array_memory_size(),
+                    max_bytes
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_split_materialized_batch_retains_reservation_until_chunks_drop() {
+        let budget = Arc::new(super::BlobMaterializationBudget {
+            limit: 1024,
+            state: std::sync::Mutex::new(super::BlobMaterializationBudgetState::default()),
+            notify: Notify::new(),
+        });
+        let reservation = budget.reserve(800).await;
+        assert_eq!(budget.state.lock().unwrap().reserved, 800);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "data",
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let value = [0u8; 100];
+        let values: Vec<Option<&[u8]>> = (0..10).map(|_| Some(value.as_slice())).collect();
+        let array = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![array]).unwrap();
+
+        let materialized =
+            super::MaterializedBlobBatch::with_reservations(batch, vec![Arc::new(reservation)]);
+        let chunks = materialized.split_by_bytes(200).unwrap();
+        assert!(!chunks.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(
+            budget.state.lock().unwrap().reserved,
+            800,
+            "reservation should be held while chunks are alive"
+        );
+
+        drop(chunks);
+        assert_eq!(
+            budget.state.lock().unwrap().reserved,
+            0,
+            "reservation should be released after chunks drop"
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn write_blob_v2_dataset(payloads: &[&[u8]]) -> (TempStrDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(payloads.len());
+        for payload in payloads {
+            blob_builder.push_bytes(*payload).unwrap();
+        }
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+        let ids: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(
+            (0..payloads.len() as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![ids, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        (test_dir, dataset)
+    }
+
+    async fn read_up_to_chunks(blob: &super::BlobFile, chunk: usize) -> Bytes {
+        let mut out = Vec::new();
+        loop {
+            let piece = blob.read_up_to(chunk).await.unwrap();
+            if piece.is_empty() {
+                break;
+            }
+            out.extend_from_slice(&piece);
+        }
+        Bytes::from(out)
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/blob/clone.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/blob/clone.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6d757ec3e3a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/blob/clone.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Copy Managed payloads and rebind descriptors for an independent deep clone.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, GenericListArray, RecordBatch, StringArray, StructArray, UInt8Array,
+    UInt32Array,
+};
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{BlobHandling, BlobKind, Field};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ADDR, Result};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_table::format::{Fragment, Manifest};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use super::{
+    BlobV2DescriptorColumns, field_contains_blob, join_base_and_relative_path, managed_references,
+};
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::optimize::BlobV2BatchRewritePlan;
+
+type BlobCopies = HashMap<(Option<u32>, String), String>;
+
+fn replace_array(copies: &BlobCopies, field: &Field, array: ArrayRef) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    if !field_contains_blob(field) {
+        return Ok(array);
+    }
+    if field.is_blob_v2() {
+        let values = array.as_struct();
+        let column = |name: &str| {
+            values.column_by_name(name).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!("Prepared Managed rewrite is missing {name}"))
+            })
+        };
+        let columns = BlobV2DescriptorColumns {
+            descriptions: values,
+            kinds: column("kind")?.as_primitive(),
+            positions: column("position")?.as_primitive(),
+            sizes: column("blob_size")?.as_primitive(),
+            blob_ids: column("blob_id")?.as_primitive(),
+            blob_uris: column("uri")?.as_string(),
+        };
+        let mut ids = columns.blob_ids.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut kinds = columns.kinds.values().to_vec();
+        let mut uris = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
+        for (row, id) in ids.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let uri = columns.blob_uris.value(row);
+            if !columns.is_null_blob(row)
+                && matches!(
+                    BlobKind::try_from(columns.kinds.value(row))?,
+                    BlobKind::Managed | BlobKind::ManagedWithBase
+                )
+                && let Some(replacement) =
+                    copies.get(&(columns.managed_base_id(row), uri.to_string()))
+            {
+                *id = None;
+                kinds[row] = BlobKind::Managed as u8;
+                uris.push(Some(replacement.as_str()));
+            } else {
+                uris.push(columns.blob_uris.is_valid(row).then_some(uri));
+            }
+        }
+        let arrays = values
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(values.columns())
+            .map(|(field, array)| -> ArrayRef {
+                match field.name().as_str() {
+                    "kind" => Arc::new(UInt8Array::new(
+                        kinds.clone().into(),
+                        columns.kinds.nulls().cloned(),
+                    )),
+                    "blob_id" => Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(ids.clone())),
+                    "uri" => Arc::new(StringArray::from(uris.clone())),
+                    _ => array.clone(),
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        return Ok(Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
+            values.fields().clone(),
+            arrays,
+            values.nulls().cloned(),
+        )?));
+    }
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(_) => {
+            let values = array.as_struct();
+            let arrays = field
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .zip(values.columns())
+                .map(|(child, array)| replace_array(copies, child, array.clone()))
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            Ok(Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
+                values.fields().clone(),
+                arrays,
+                values.nulls().cloned(),
+            )?))
+        }
+        DataType::List(child) => {
+            let values = array.as_list::<i32>();
+            Ok(Arc::new(GenericListArray::<i32>::try_new(
+                child.clone(),
+                values.offsets().clone(),
+                replace_array(copies, &field.children[0], values.values().clone())?,
+                values.nulls().cloned(),
+            )?))
+        }
+        DataType::LargeList(child) => {
+            let values = array.as_list::<i64>();
+            Ok(Arc::new(GenericListArray::<i64>::try_new(
+                child.clone(),
+                values.offsets().clone(),
+                replace_array(copies, &field.children[0], values.values().clone())?,
+                values.nulls().cloned(),
+            )?))
+        }
+        datatype => Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "Managed replacement does not support {datatype}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Rewrite only top-level columns that contain selected references. Fragment
+/// identity, row IDs, deletion vectors, and unrelated column files survive.
+async fn rewrite_blob_columns(
+    copies: &BlobCopies,
+    source: Arc<Dataset>,
+    target: Arc<Dataset>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+    let fields = source
+        .schema()
+        .fields
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|field| field_contains_blob(field))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut updated = Vec::new();
+    if copies.is_empty() || fields.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(updated);
+    }
+    for fragment in source.get_fragments() {
+        let columns = fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let write_schema = source.schema().project(&columns)?;
+        let mut projection = columns.clone();
+        projection.push(ROW_ADDR);
+        let destination_fragment = target
+            .get_fragment(fragment.id())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Managed rewrite target fragment is missing"))?;
+        let mut updater = destination_fragment
+            .updater(
+                Some(&projection),
+                Some((write_schema, target.schema().clone())),
+                Some(64),
+                Some(BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        updater.allow_external_blob_outside_bases();
+        while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await? {
+            let plan = BlobV2BatchRewritePlan::try_new(
+                source.schema(),
+                batch.schema().as_ref(),
+                false,
+                true,
+            )?;
+            let prepared = plan.transform_batch(&source, batch.clone()).await?;
+            let arrays = prepared
+                .schema()
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .zip(prepared.columns())
+                .map(|(field, array)| {
+                    let field = source
+                        .schema()
+                        .field(field.name())
+                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Managed rewrite field is missing"))?;
+                    replace_array(copies, field, array.clone())
+                })
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            updater
+                .update(RecordBatch::try_new(prepared.schema(), arrays)?)
+                .await?;
+        }
+        let mut fragment = updater.finish().await?;
+        let replaced = fragment
+            .files
+            .last()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Managed rewrite produced no data file"))?
+            .fields
+            .clone();
+        for file in fragment.files.iter_mut().rev().skip(1) {
+            file.fields = file
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| if replaced.contains(id) { -2 } else { *id })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .into();
+        }
+        fragment
+            .files
+            .retain(|file| file.fields.iter().any(|id| *id != -2));
+        updated.push(fragment);
+    }
+    Ok(updated)
+}
+
+pub async fn copy_blob_columns(
+    source: Arc<Dataset>,
+    store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base: Path,
+    uri: &str,
+    manifest: &mut Manifest,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut target = source.as_ref().clone();
+    target.object_store = store;
+    target.base = base;
+    target.uri = uri.to_string();
+    target.base_object_stores = Default::default();
+    target.manifest = Arc::new(manifest.clone());
+    let target = Arc::new(target);
+    let mut copies = HashMap::new();
+    for (id, uri) in managed_references(&source, source.scan()).await? {
+        let path = join_base_and_relative_path(&source.blob_base_path(id)?, &uri)?;
+        // Local objects keep their relative address, so their data files can be
+        // copied verbatim. Registered bases may contain colliding object names.
+        let target_uri = if id.is_none() {
+            uri.clone()
+        } else {
+            format!("_blobs/{}.blob", Uuid::new_v4())
+        };
+        let target_path = join_base_and_relative_path(&target.base, &target_uri)?;
+        source
+            .object_store(id)
+            .await?
+            .copy_bulk(&path, &target.object_store, &target_path)
+            .await?;
+        if id.is_some() {
+            copies.insert((id, uri), target_uri);
+        }
+    }
+    let rewritten = rewrite_blob_columns(&copies, source, target).await?;
+    let fragments = Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments);
+    for fragment in rewritten {
+        let existing = fragments
+            .iter_mut()
+            .find(|entry| entry.id == fragment.id)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Cloned fragment is missing"))?;
+        *existing = fragment;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/branch_location.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/branch_location.rs
index b9c979c8920..7ebce36ec86 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/branch_location.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/branch_location.rs
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 use crate::dataset::refs::Branches;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 
 pub const BRANCH_DIR: &str = "tree";
 
@@ -32,41 +31,76 @@ impl BranchLocation {
     }
 
     fn get_root_path(path_str: &str, branch_name: &str) -> Result<String> {
+        // A uri may carry a query string (e.g. `s3+ddb://...?ddbTableName=t`);
+        // the branch suffix sits on the path part, before the query.
+        let (path_part, query) = match path_str.split_once('?') {
+            Some((path, query)) => (path, Some(query)),
+            None => (path_str, None),
+        };
         let branch_suffix = format!("{}/{}", BRANCH_DIR, branch_name);
         let branch_suffix = branch_suffix.as_str();
-        let root_path_str = path_str
+        let root_path_str = path_part
             .strip_suffix(branch_suffix)
             .or_else(|| {
                 if cfg!(windows) {
                     let windows_suffix = branch_suffix.replace('/', "\\");
-                    path_str.strip_suffix(&windows_suffix)
+                    path_part.strip_suffix(&windows_suffix)
                 } else {
                     None
                 }
             })
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Can not find the root location of branch {} by uri {}",
-                        branch_name, path_str,
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Can not find the root location of branch {} by uri {}",
+                    branch_name, path_str,
+                ))
             })?;
         let root_path_str = if root_path_str.ends_with('/') {
             root_path_str.trim_end_matches('/').to_string()
         } else if cfg!(windows) {
             root_path_str.trim_end_matches('\\').to_string()
         } else {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Invalid dataset root uri {} for branch {}",
-                    root_path_str, path_str,
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid dataset root uri {} for branch {}",
+                root_path_str, path_str,
+            )));
         };
-        Ok(root_path_str)
+        Ok(match query {
+            Some(query) => format!("{}?{}", root_path_str, query),
+            None => root_path_str,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// The branch a location under `root` targets: the inverse of
+    /// [`Self::find_branch`]. `location` must be either `root` itself (main)
+    /// or `<root>/tree/<branch>`; anything else is rejected so a caller never
+    /// misattributes an unrelated location to a branch.
+    pub fn branch_of(root: &str, location: &str) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+        if location == root {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        // Require the `/` component boundary after the root so a sibling path
+        // that merely shares the root as a string prefix is rejected.
+        let branch = location
+            .strip_prefix(root)
+            .and_then(|rel| {
+                if root.is_empty() {
+                    Some(rel)
+                } else {
+                    rel.strip_prefix('/')
+                }
+            })
+            .and_then(|rel| rel.strip_prefix(BRANCH_DIR))
+            .and_then(|rel| rel.strip_prefix('/'))
+            .filter(|name| !name.is_empty());
+
+        match branch {
+            Some(name) => Ok(Some(name.to_string())),
+            None => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cannot derive a branch for location '{}': expected the table root '{}' or a branch chain under '{}/{}'",
+                location, root, root, BRANCH_DIR
+            ))),
+        }
     }
 
     /// Find the target branch location
@@ -107,13 +141,23 @@ impl BranchLocation {
     }
 
     fn join_str(base: &str, segment: &str) -> Result<String> {
+        // A uri may carry a query string (e.g. `s3+ddb://...?ddbTableName=t`);
+        // path segments must be appended before it.
+        let (path_part, query) = match base.split_once('?') {
+            Some((path, query)) => (path, Some(query)),
+            None => (base, None),
+        };
         let normalized_segment = segment.trim_start_matches('/');
-        let is_base_dir = base.ends_with("/");
-        if is_base_dir {
-            Ok(format!("{}{}", base, normalized_segment))
+        let is_base_dir = path_part.ends_with("/");
+        let joined = if is_base_dir {
+            format!("{}{}", path_part, normalized_segment)
         } else {
-            Ok(format!("{}/{}", base, normalized_segment))
-        }
+            format!("{}/{}", path_part, normalized_segment)
+        };
+        Ok(match query {
+            Some(query) => format!("{}?{}", joined, query),
+            None => joined,
+        })
     }
 }
 
@@ -230,6 +274,59 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(fs::create_dir_all(std::path::Path::new(new_location.uri.as_str())).is_ok());
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_branch_location_with_query_uri() {
+        // Uris like `s3+ddb://...?ddbTableName=t` carry the commit handler
+        // config in the query string; branch path segments must be inserted
+        // before it and the query must survive the round trip.
+        let location = BranchLocation {
+            path: Path::parse("bucket/table.lance").unwrap(),
+            uri: "s3+ddb://bucket/table.lance?ddbTableName=t".to_string(),
+            branch: None,
+        };
+        let dev = location.find_branch(Some("dev")).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dev.uri,
+            "s3+ddb://bucket/table.lance/tree/dev?ddbTableName=t"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dev.path.as_ref(), "bucket/table.lance/tree/dev");
+        assert_eq!(dev.branch.as_deref(), Some("dev"));
+
+        let main = dev.find_main().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(main.uri, "s3+ddb://bucket/table.lance?ddbTableName=t");
+        assert_eq!(main.path.as_ref(), "bucket/table.lance");
+        assert_eq!(main.branch, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_branch_of() {
+        let derive = |root: &str, location: &str| BranchLocation::branch_of(root, location);
+
+        // The table root targets main.
+        assert_eq!(derive("data/t.lance", "data/t.lance").unwrap(), None);
+
+        // Branch chains, including multi-segment branch names.
+        assert_eq!(
+            derive("data/t.lance", "data/t.lance/tree/exp").unwrap(),
+            Some("exp".to_string())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            derive("data/t.lance", "data/t.lance/tree/bugfix/issue-123").unwrap(),
+            Some("bugfix/issue-123".to_string())
+        );
+
+        // A sibling path sharing the root as a string prefix is not a branch.
+        assert!(derive("data/t", "data/tx/tree/exp").is_err());
+        // Neither is a sub-path outside the branch directory.
+        assert!(derive("data/t.lance", "data/t.lance/other/exp").is_err());
+        // Nor a path missing the component boundary after the branch dir.
+        assert!(derive("data/t.lance", "data/t.lance/treex").is_err());
+        // An empty branch name is invalid.
+        assert!(derive("data/t.lance", "data/t.lance/tree").is_err());
+        // An unrelated location is invalid.
+        assert!(derive("data/t.lance", "elsewhere/u.lance").is_err());
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_find_empty_branch() {
         let root_path = TempStdDir::default().to_owned();
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/builder.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/builder.rs
index 9eba7009d19..1a7be62fcb5 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/builder.rs
@@ -2,29 +2,33 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc, time::Duration};
 
-use super::refs::{Ref, Refs};
-use super::{ReadParams, WriteParams, DEFAULT_INDEX_CACHE_SIZE, DEFAULT_METADATA_CACHE_SIZE};
+use lance_core::cache::CacheBackend;
+
+use super::refs::{Branches, Ref, Refs, check_valid_branch, normalize_branch, standardize_branch};
+use super::versions;
+use super::{DEFAULT_INDEX_CACHE_SIZE, DEFAULT_METADATA_CACHE_SIZE, ReadParams, WriteParams};
 use crate::dataset::branch_location::BranchLocation;
-use crate::{session::Session, Dataset, Error, Result};
-use futures::FutureExt;
+use crate::io::commit::namespace_manifest::LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore;
+use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result, session::Session};
+use futures::{FutureExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{DATASET_LOADING_EVENT, TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS};
-use lance_file::datatypes::populate_schema_dictionary;
 use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
 use lance_io::object_store::{
-    LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptions,
-    StorageOptionsAccessor, DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM,
+    DEFAULT_CLOUD_IO_PARALLELISM, LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider, ObjectStore,
+    ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptions, StorageOptionsAccessor,
 };
-use lance_namespace::models::DescribeTableRequest;
 use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::models::DescribeTableRequest;
 use lance_table::{
-    format::Manifest,
-    io::commit::{commit_handler_from_url, CommitHandler},
+    feature_flags::ensure_can_read_manifest,
+    format::{Manifest, populate_manifest_schema_dictionaries},
+    io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestCommitHandler,
+    io::commit::{CommitHandler, ManifestLocation, commit_handler_from_url},
 };
 #[cfg(feature = "aws")]
 use object_store::aws::AwsCredentialProvider;
-use object_store::{path::Path, DynObjectStore};
+use object_store::{DynObjectStore, path::Path};
 use prost::Message;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::{info, instrument};
 use url::Url;
 
@@ -36,6 +40,8 @@ pub struct DatasetBuilder {
     /// Metadata cache size for the fragment metadata. If it is zero, metadata
     /// cache is disabled.
     metadata_cache_size_bytes: usize,
+    /// Custom index cache backend. If set, overrides `index_cache_size_bytes`.
+    index_cache_backend: Option<Arc<dyn CacheBackend>>,
     /// Optional pre-loaded manifest to avoid loading it again.
     manifest: Option<Manifest>,
     session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
@@ -44,8 +50,16 @@ pub struct DatasetBuilder {
     version: Option<Ref>,
     table_uri: String,
     file_reader_options: Option<FileReaderOptions>,
-    /// Storage options that override user-provided options (e.g., from namespace)
+    /// Storage options that override user-provided options (e.g., from namespace client)
     storage_options_override: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+    /// Runtime-only exact object store bindings keyed by base path URI.
+    base_store_params: HashMap<String, ObjectStoreParams>,
+    /// Namespace-managed table info `(client, table_id)`, set by `from_namespace`
+    /// when the table uses managed versioning. The commit handler is built in
+    /// `build_object_store`, rooted at the resolved table path; the branch a
+    /// namespace request targets is derived per call from the base path the
+    /// handler is handed.
+    namespace_managed: Option<(Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>, Vec<String>)>,
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for DatasetBuilder {
@@ -63,6 +77,8 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for DatasetBuilder {
                 "storage_options_override",
                 &self.storage_options_override.is_some(),
             )
+            .field("base_store_params", &!self.base_store_params.is_empty())
+            .field("namespace_managed", &self.namespace_managed.is_some())
             .finish()
     }
 }
@@ -72,6 +88,7 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
         Self {
             index_cache_size_bytes: DEFAULT_INDEX_CACHE_SIZE,
             metadata_cache_size_bytes: DEFAULT_METADATA_CACHE_SIZE,
+            index_cache_backend: None,
             table_uri: table_uri.as_ref().to_string(),
             options: ObjectStoreParams::default(),
             commit_handler: None,
@@ -80,20 +97,22 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
             manifest: None,
             file_reader_options: None,
             storage_options_override: None,
+            base_store_params: HashMap::new(),
+            namespace_managed: None,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a DatasetBuilder from a LanceNamespace
+    /// Create a DatasetBuilder from a LanceNamespace client
     ///
     /// This will automatically fetch the table location and storage options from the namespace
-    /// via `describe_table()`.
+    /// client via `describe_table()`.
     ///
-    /// Storage options from the namespace will override any user-provided storage options
-    /// set via `.with_storage_options()`. This ensures the namespace is always the source
+    /// Storage options from the namespace client will override any user-provided storage options
+    /// set via `.with_storage_options()`. This ensures the namespace client is always the source
     /// of truth for storage options.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
-    /// * `namespace` - The namespace implementation to fetch table info from
+    /// * `namespace_client` - The namespace client implementation to fetch table info from
     /// * `table_id` - The table identifier (e.g., vec!["my_table"])
     ///
     /// # Example
@@ -102,14 +121,14 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
     /// use lance::dataset::DatasetBuilder;
     ///
     /// // Connect to a REST namespace
-    /// let namespace = ConnectBuilder::new("rest")
+    /// let namespace_client = ConnectBuilder::new("rest")
     ///     .property("uri", "http://localhost:8080")
     ///     .connect()
     ///     .await?;
     ///
-    /// // Load a dataset using storage options from namespace
+    /// // Load a dataset using storage options from namespace client
     /// let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_namespace(
-    ///     namespace,
+    ///     namespace_client,
     ///     vec!["my_table".to_string()],
     /// )
     /// .await?
@@ -118,7 +137,7 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
     /// ```
     #[allow(deprecated)]
     pub async fn from_namespace(
-        namespace: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
+        namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
         table_id: Vec<String>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let request = DescribeTableRequest {
@@ -126,22 +145,25 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
             ..Default::default()
         };
 
-        let response = namespace
+        let response = namespace_client
             .describe_table(request)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Namespace {
-                source: Box::new(e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .map_err(|e| Error::namespace_source(Box::new(e)))?;
 
-        let table_uri = response.location.ok_or_else(|| Error::Namespace {
-            source: Box::new(std::io::Error::other(
+        let table_uri = response.location.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::namespace_source(Box::new(std::io::Error::other(
                 "Table location not found in namespace response",
-            )),
-            location: location!(),
+            )))
         })?;
 
-        let mut builder = Self::from_uri(table_uri);
+        let mut builder = Self::from_uri(&table_uri);
+
+        // Defer building the commit handler to load(): the manifest store is
+        // rooted at the resolved table path, which is only known once the
+        // object store is built.
+        if response.managed_versioning == Some(true) {
+            builder.namespace_managed = Some((namespace_client.clone(), table_id.clone()));
+        }
 
         // Use namespace storage options if available
         let namespace_storage_options = response.storage_options;
@@ -150,7 +172,7 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
 
         if let Some(initial_opts) = namespace_storage_options {
             let provider: Arc<dyn lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider> = Arc::new(
-                LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(namespace, table_id),
+                LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(namespace_client, table_id),
             );
             builder.options.storage_options_accessor = Some(Arc::new(
                 StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(initial_opts, provider),
@@ -170,6 +192,15 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Use a custom index cache backend.
+    ///
+    /// When set, this overrides `with_index_cache_size_bytes` — the custom
+    /// backend is responsible for its own capacity management.
+    pub fn with_index_cache_backend(mut self, backend: Arc<dyn CacheBackend>) -> Self {
+        self.index_cache_backend = Some(backend);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set the cache size for indices. Set to zero, to disable the cache.
     #[deprecated(since = "0.30.0", note = "Use `with_index_cache_size_bytes` instead")]
     pub fn with_index_cache_size(mut self, cache_size: usize) -> Self {
@@ -275,6 +306,14 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
     /// - [Azure options](https://docs.rs/object_store/latest/object_store/azure/enum.AzureConfigKey.html#variants)
     /// - [S3 options](https://docs.rs/object_store/latest/object_store/aws/enum.AmazonS3ConfigKey.html#variants)
     /// - [Google options](https://docs.rs/object_store/latest/object_store/gcp/enum.GoogleConfigKey.html#variants)
+    ///
+    /// For datasets with additional registered base paths, a key of the form
+    /// `base_<id>.<key>` applies `<key>` only to the base path with that
+    /// manifest id, overriding the unscoped options that every base inherits.
+    /// For example `base_1.account_key = abc` makes base 1 use
+    /// `account_key = abc` while all other options are shared. Exact per-base
+    /// bindings set via [`Self::with_base_store_params`] take precedence over
+    /// base-scoped keys.
     pub fn with_storage_options(mut self, storage_options: HashMap<String, String>) -> Self {
         // Merge with existing options if accessor exists, otherwise create new static accessor
         if let Some(existing) = self.options.storage_options_accessor.take() {
@@ -330,10 +369,10 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Enable credential vending from a LanceNamespace
+    /// Enable credential vending from a LanceNamespace client
     ///
-    /// Credentials will be automatically refreshed from the namespace
-    /// before they expire. The namespace should return `expires_at_millis`
+    /// Credentials will be automatically refreshed from the namespace client
+    /// before they expire. The namespace client should return `expires_at_millis`
     /// in the storage_options from `describe_table()`.
     ///
     /// Use `with_s3_credentials_refresh_offset()` to configure how early
@@ -350,14 +389,14 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
     /// use lance_io::object_store::{StorageOptionsProvider, LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider};
     ///
     /// // Connect to a REST namespace
-    /// let namespace = ConnectBuilder::new("rest")
+    /// let namespace_client = ConnectBuilder::new("rest")
     ///     .property("uri", "http://localhost:8080")
     ///     .connect()
     ///     .await?;
     ///
-    /// // Create a storage options provider from namespace
+    /// // Create a storage options provider from namespace client
     /// let provider = Arc::new(LanceNamespaceStorageOptionsProvider::new(
-    ///     namespace,
+    ///     namespace_client,
     ///     vec!["my_table".to_string()],
     /// ));
     ///
@@ -425,6 +464,23 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set runtime-only object store params for a specific registered base path.
+    ///
+    /// These params are not persisted in the manifest. They are used as-is
+    /// whenever the dataset resolves an object store for the given
+    /// `BasePath.path`, taking precedence over `base_<id>.<key>` storage
+    /// options (see [`Self::with_storage_options`]). Dataset-level store params
+    /// remain the fallback for bases without an explicit binding.
+    pub fn with_base_store_params(
+        mut self,
+        base_path: impl AsRef<str>,
+        store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.base_store_params
+            .insert(base_path.as_ref().to_string(), store_params);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set options based on [ReadParams].
     pub fn with_read_params(mut self, read_params: ReadParams) -> Self {
         self = self
@@ -473,15 +529,16 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set exact object store params used as the dataset-level default binding.
+    pub fn with_store_params(mut self, store_params: ObjectStoreParams) -> Self {
+        self.options = store_params;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Build a lance object store for the given config
     pub async fn build_object_store(
-        self,
+        mut self,
     ) -> Result<(Arc<ObjectStore>, Path, Arc<dyn CommitHandler>)> {
-        let commit_handler = match self.commit_handler {
-            Some(commit_handler) => Ok(commit_handler),
-            None => commit_handler_from_url(&self.table_uri, &Some(self.options.clone())).await,
-        }?;
-
         let storage_options = self
             .options
             .storage_options()
@@ -497,13 +554,13 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
             .unwrap_or_default();
 
         #[allow(deprecated)]
-        match &self.options.object_store {
-            Some(store) => Ok((
+        let (object_store, base_path) = match &self.options.object_store {
+            Some(store) => (
                 Arc::new(ObjectStore::new(
                     store.0.clone(),
                     store.1.clone(),
                     self.options.block_size,
-                    self.options.object_store_wrapper,
+                    self.options.object_store_wrapper.clone(),
                     self.options.use_constant_size_upload_parts,
                     store.1.scheme() != "file",
                     // If user supplied an object store then we just assume it's probably
@@ -513,18 +570,65 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
                     None, // No storage_options available here
                 )),
                 Path::from(store.1.path()),
-                commit_handler,
-            )),
+            ),
             None => {
-                let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
-                    store_registry,
-                    &self.table_uri,
-                    &self.options,
-                )
-                .await?;
-                Ok((store, path, commit_handler))
+                ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(store_registry, &self.table_uri, &self.options)
+                    .await?
             }
+        };
+
+        // Resolve the commit handler: an explicitly set one wins; otherwise a
+        // namespace-managed table builds a manifest store rooted at the resolved
+        // table path (the branch a request targets is derived per call from the
+        // base path the handler is handed); otherwise fall back to the default
+        // for the uri. Resolving here (not in load) keeps this pub method
+        // consistent for every caller.
+        let commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler> =
+            if let Some(commit_handler) = self.commit_handler.take() {
+                commit_handler
+            } else if let Some((namespace_client, table_id)) = self.namespace_managed.take() {
+                Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+                    external_manifest_store: Arc::new(LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::new(
+                        namespace_client,
+                        table_id,
+                        base_path.clone(),
+                    )),
+                })
+            } else {
+                commit_handler_from_url(&self.table_uri, &Some(self.options.clone())).await?
+            };
+
+        Ok((object_store, base_path, commit_handler))
+    }
+
+    /// List manifest locations without reading the manifest contents.
+    ///
+    /// The returned locations are not guaranteed to be ordered. This operation may list and
+    /// materialize the full manifest history. Explicit version, branch, and tag targets are not
+    /// supported. Custom commit handlers and externally managed version stores are also not
+    /// supported because listing physical manifest objects may omit committed versions whose
+    /// authoritative locations are held outside the object store.
+    pub async fn list_manifest_locations(mut self) -> Result<Vec<ManifestLocation>> {
+        if self.version.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "list_manifest_locations does not support an explicit version, branch, or tag",
+            ));
         }
+        let uses_external_or_custom_commit_handler = self.commit_handler.is_some()
+            || self.namespace_managed.is_some()
+            || Url::parse(&self.table_uri).is_ok_and(|url| url.scheme() == "s3+ddb");
+        if uses_external_or_custom_commit_handler {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "list_manifest_locations does not support external or custom commit handlers; \
+                 object-store listing may omit committed manifest locations",
+            ));
+        }
+        self.apply_storage_options_override();
+        let (object_store, base_path, commit_handler) = self.build_object_store().await?;
+        commit_handler
+            .list_manifest_locations(&base_path, object_store.as_ref(), false)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
     }
 
     #[instrument(skip_all)]
@@ -543,39 +647,62 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
         }
     }
 
-    async fn load_impl(mut self) -> Result<Dataset> {
-        // Apply storage_options_override to merge namespace options with any existing accessor
-        if let Some(override_opts) = self.storage_options_override.take() {
-            // Get existing options and merge
-            let mut merged_opts = self.options.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default();
-            // Override with namespace storage options - they take precedence
-            merged_opts.extend(override_opts);
-
-            // Update accessor with merged options
-            if let Some(accessor) = &self.options.storage_options_accessor {
-                if let Some(provider) = accessor.provider().cloned() {
-                    self.options.storage_options_accessor = Some(Arc::new(
-                        StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(merged_opts, provider),
-                    ));
-                } else {
-                    self.options.storage_options_accessor = Some(Arc::new(
-                        StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(merged_opts),
-                    ));
-                }
-            } else {
-                self.options.storage_options_accessor = Some(Arc::new(
-                    StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(merged_opts),
-                ));
-            }
+    // Runtime per-base overrides are supplied as storage options, but the dataset
+    // ultimately resolves object stores from ObjectStoreParams. Normalize once in
+    // the builder so reads only need to look up the prepared params by base path.
+    fn merge_store_params_with_storage_options(
+        params: &ObjectStoreParams,
+        override_options: &HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> ObjectStoreParams {
+        if override_options.is_empty() {
+            return params.clone();
         }
 
+        let mut merged_params = params.clone();
+        let mut merged_options = merged_params.storage_options().cloned().unwrap_or_default();
+        merged_options.extend(override_options.clone());
+
+        let storage_options_accessor = match merged_params
+            .storage_options_accessor
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|accessor| accessor.provider().cloned())
+        {
+            Some(provider) => Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(
+                merged_options,
+                provider,
+            )),
+            None => Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(merged_options)),
+        };
+        merged_params.storage_options_accessor = Some(storage_options_accessor);
+        merged_params
+    }
+
+    fn apply_storage_options_override(&mut self) {
+        if let Some(override_options) = self.storage_options_override.take() {
+            self.options =
+                Self::merge_store_params_with_storage_options(&self.options, &override_options);
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn load_impl(mut self) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        // Apply storage_options_override to merge namespace client options with any existing accessor
+        self.apply_storage_options_override();
+
+        let index_cache_backend = self.index_cache_backend.take();
         let session = match self.session.as_ref() {
             Some(session) => session.clone(),
-            None => Arc::new(Session::new(
-                self.index_cache_size_bytes,
-                self.metadata_cache_size_bytes,
-                Default::default(),
-            )),
+            None => match index_cache_backend {
+                Some(backend) => Arc::new(Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+                    backend,
+                    self.metadata_cache_size_bytes,
+                    Default::default(),
+                )),
+                None => Arc::new(Session::new(
+                    self.index_cache_size_bytes,
+                    self.metadata_cache_size_bytes,
+                    Default::default(),
+                )),
+            },
         };
 
         let target_ref = self.version.clone();
@@ -586,6 +713,16 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
 
         let file_reader_options = self.file_reader_options.clone();
         let store_params = self.options.clone();
+        let base_store_params = (!self.base_store_params.is_empty())
+            .then(|| Arc::new(std::mem::take(&mut self.base_store_params)));
+
+        // A namespace-managed table is always addressed at its root uri, so the
+        // effective branch is resolvable before loading: the base path is
+        // qualified up front and the manifest store derives the branch from it.
+        // An explicitly supplied commit handler opts out of the managed flow.
+        let managed_store_active =
+            self.namespace_managed.is_some() && self.commit_handler.is_none();
+
         let (object_store, base_path, commit_handler) = self.build_object_store().await?;
 
         // Two cases that need to check out after loading the manifest:
@@ -597,7 +734,7 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
         let mut need_delay_checkout = false;
         let (mut branch, mut version_number) = match target_ref.clone() {
             Some(Ref::Version(branch, version_number)) => {
-                if branch.is_some() {
+                if branch.is_some() && !managed_store_active {
                     need_delay_checkout = true;
                 }
                 (branch, version_number)
@@ -617,30 +754,93 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
                         branch: None,
                     },
                 );
-                let tag_content = refs.tags().get(&tag_name).await;
-                if let Ok(tag_content) = tag_content {
-                    (tag_content.branch.clone(), Some(tag_content.version))
-                } else {
-                    need_delay_checkout = true;
-                    (None, None)
+                match refs.tags().get(&tag_name).await {
+                    Ok(tag_content) => {
+                        if tag_content.branch.is_some() && !managed_store_active {
+                            // The tag's chain lives under a different base path
+                            // and the unmanaged handler resolves versions by
+                            // base path only, so load the root's latest first
+                            // and check the tag's branch/version out from it.
+                            need_delay_checkout = true;
+                            (tag_content.branch, None)
+                        } else {
+                            (tag_content.branch.clone(), Some(tag_content.version))
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        // A managed table is always rooted at the namespace
+                        // location, so a tag missing here is missing.
+                        if managed_store_active {
+                            return Err(e);
+                        }
+                        need_delay_checkout = true;
+                        (None, None)
+                    }
                 }
             }
             None => (None, None),
         };
 
+        // Reject malformed branch names at the boundary (mirroring the branch
+        // CRUD paths) so they fail as InvalidRef instead of resolving oddly
+        if let Some(branch_name) = branch.as_deref()
+            && !Branches::is_main_branch(Some(branch_name))
+        {
+            check_valid_branch(branch_name)?;
+        }
+
+        // For a managed table the branch is known before loading; point the base
+        // path and uri at the branch chain so the loaded dataset is rooted there
+        // (data placement, refs and the path-derived store branch all follow the
+        // base path).
+        let (base_path, table_uri) = if managed_store_active && branch.is_some() {
+            let branch_location = BranchLocation {
+                path: base_path,
+                uri: table_uri,
+                branch: None,
+            }
+            .find_branch(branch.as_deref())?;
+            (branch_location.path, branch_location.uri)
+        } else {
+            (base_path, table_uri)
+        };
+
+        // A delayed checkout resolves (branch, version) against the right chain
+        // afterwards, so the uri's chain only needs its latest version here: the
+        // requested version number may not exist on that chain at all.
+        let load_version = if need_delay_checkout {
+            None
+        } else {
+            version_number
+        };
         let dataset = Self::load_by_uri(
             session,
             manifest,
             file_reader_options,
             table_uri,
-            version_number,
+            load_version,
             object_store,
             base_path,
             commit_handler,
             Some(store_params),
+            base_store_params,
         )
         .await?;
 
+        if managed_store_active {
+            // The base path was qualified above, so the loaded manifest must
+            // already be on the requested branch; a mismatch means the namespace
+            // resolved another chain.
+            let requested_branch = branch.as_deref().and_then(standardize_branch);
+            if dataset.manifest.branch.as_deref() != requested_branch.as_deref() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "open of branch '{}' resolved a manifest belonging to branch '{}'",
+                    normalize_branch(branch.as_deref()),
+                    normalize_branch(dataset.manifest.branch.as_deref()),
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
         if need_delay_checkout {
             if let Some(Ref::Tag(tag_name)) = target_ref {
                 let tag_content = dataset.tags().get(tag_name.as_str()).await?;
@@ -648,18 +848,21 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
                 version_number = Some(tag_content.version);
             }
 
-            if branch.as_deref() != dataset.manifest.branch.as_deref() {
+            let branch_differs = branch.as_deref() != dataset.manifest.branch.as_deref();
+            let version_differs =
+                version_number.is_some() && version_number != Some(dataset.manifest.version);
+            if branch_differs || version_differs {
                 return dataset
                     .checkout_version((branch.as_deref(), version_number))
                     .await;
             }
         }
-        if let Some(version_number) = version_number {
-            if version_number != dataset.manifest.version {
-                return Err(Error::VersionNotFound {
-                    message: format!("version {} not found", version_number),
-                });
-            }
+        if let Some(version_number) = version_number
+            && version_number != dataset.manifest.version
+        {
+            return Err(Error::VersionNotFound {
+                message: format!("version {} not found", version_number),
+            });
         }
         Ok(dataset)
     }
@@ -675,16 +878,19 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
         base_path: Path,
         commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler>,
         store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+        base_store_params: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, ObjectStoreParams>>>,
     ) -> Result<Dataset> {
         let (manifest, location) = if let Some(mut manifest) = manifest {
+            ensure_can_read_manifest(&manifest)?;
+            versions::check_manifest_storage_version(&mut manifest)?;
             let location = commit_handler
                 .resolve_version_location(&base_path, manifest.version, &object_store.inner)
                 .await?;
-            if manifest.schema.has_dictionary_types() && manifest.should_use_legacy_format() {
+            if manifest.schema.has_dictionary_types() {
                 let reader = object_store.open(&location.path).await?;
-                populate_schema_dictionary(&mut manifest.schema, reader.as_ref()).await?;
+                populate_manifest_schema_dictionaries(&mut manifest, reader.as_ref()).await?;
             }
-            (manifest, location)
+            (Arc::new(manifest), location)
         } else {
             let manifest_location = match version_number {
                 Some(version) => {
@@ -710,13 +916,15 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
                 None => commit_handler
                     .resolve_latest_location(&base_path, &object_store)
                     .await
-                    .map_err(|e| Error::DatasetNotFound {
-                        source: Box::new(e),
-                        path: base_path.to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
+                    .map_err(|e| match &e {
+                        Error::NotFound { .. } => {
+                            Error::dataset_not_found(base_path.to_string(), Box::new(e))
+                        }
+                        _ => e,
                     })?,
             };
-            let manifest = Dataset::load_manifest(
+
+            let manifest = Dataset::get_manifest(
                 &object_store,
                 &manifest_location,
                 &table_uri,
@@ -730,12 +938,107 @@ impl DatasetBuilder {
             object_store,
             base_path,
             table_uri,
-            Arc::new(manifest),
+            manifest,
             location,
             session,
             commit_handler,
             file_reader_options,
             store_params,
+            base_store_params,
         )
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsProvider;
+    use lance_table::io::commit::UnsafeCommitHandler;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct TestStorageOptionsProvider;
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct TestNamespace;
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl LanceNamespace for TestNamespace {
+        fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
+            "test-namespace".to_string()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl StorageOptionsProvider for TestStorageOptionsProvider {
+        async fn fetch_storage_options(&self) -> Result<Option<HashMap<String, String>>> {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+
+        fn provider_id(&self) -> String {
+            "test-storage-options-provider".to_string()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_storage_options_override_wins_and_preserves_provider() {
+        let caller_options = HashMap::from([
+            ("endpoint".to_string(), "caller".to_string()),
+            ("caller-only".to_string(), "caller-value".to_string()),
+        ]);
+        let provider: Arc<dyn StorageOptionsProvider> = Arc::new(TestStorageOptionsProvider);
+        let options = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
+                StorageOptionsAccessor::with_initial_and_provider(caller_options, provider),
+            )),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://table").with_store_params(options);
+        builder.storage_options_override = Some(HashMap::from([
+            ("endpoint".to_string(), "namespace".to_string()),
+            ("namespace-only".to_string(), "namespace-value".to_string()),
+        ]));
+
+        builder.apply_storage_options_override();
+
+        let merged = builder.options.storage_options().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(merged.get("endpoint").unwrap(), "namespace");
+        assert_eq!(merged.get("caller-only").unwrap(), "caller-value");
+        assert_eq!(merged.get("namespace-only").unwrap(), "namespace-value");
+        assert_eq!(
+            builder
+                .options
+                .get_accessor()
+                .unwrap()
+                .provider()
+                .unwrap()
+                .provider_id(),
+            "test-storage-options-provider"
+        );
+        assert!(builder.storage_options_override.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_list_manifest_locations_rejects_external_and_custom_commit_handlers() {
+        let mut namespace_builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://namespace-table");
+        namespace_builder.namespace_managed =
+            Some((Arc::new(TestNamespace), vec!["namespace-table".to_string()]));
+
+        let builders = [
+            DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://custom-handler-table")
+                .with_commit_handler(Arc::new(UnsafeCommitHandler)),
+            DatasetBuilder::from_uri("s3+ddb://bucket/table.lance?ddbTableName=manifest-table"),
+            namespace_builder,
+        ];
+
+        for builder in builders {
+            let err = builder.list_manifest_locations().await.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string()
+                    .contains("does not support external or custom commit handlers")
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/cleanup.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/cleanup.rs
index 68e760cc3e3..3ee5449912d 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/cleanup.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/cleanup.rs
@@ -33,17 +33,26 @@
 //! (which should only be done if the caller can guarantee there are no updates
 //! happening at the same time)
 
+use super::refs::TagContents;
+use crate::dataset::TRANSACTIONS_DIR;
+use crate::{Dataset, utils::temporal::utc_now};
 use chrono::{DateTime, TimeDelta, Utc};
-use futures::{stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use dashmap::DashSet;
+use futures::future::try_join_all;
+use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
 use humantime::parse_duration;
 use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
     utils::tracing::{
         AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, AUDIT_MODE_DELETE_UNVERIFIED, AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, AUDIT_TYPE_DELETION,
-        AUDIT_TYPE_INDEX, AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, TRACE_FILE_AUDIT,
+        AUDIT_TYPE_INDEX, AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, DATASET_CLEANING_EVENT, TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS,
+        TRACE_FILE_AUDIT,
     },
-    Error, Result,
 };
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use lance_table::{
+    feature_flags::{ensure_can_read_manifest, ensure_can_write_manifest},
     format::{IndexMetadata, Manifest},
     io::{
         commit::ManifestLocation,
@@ -51,32 +60,236 @@ use lance_table::{
         manifest::{read_manifest, read_manifest_indexes},
     },
 };
+use object_store::ObjectMeta;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use object_store::{Error as ObjectStoreError, ObjectMeta};
+use prost::Message;
 use std::fmt::Debug;
 use std::{
     collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
     future,
-    sync::{Mutex, MutexGuard},
+    sync::{Arc, Mutex, MutexGuard},
+    time::Duration,
 };
-use tracing::{debug, info, instrument, Span};
-
-use super::refs::TagContents;
-use crate::dataset::TRANSACTIONS_DIR;
-use crate::{utils::temporal::utc_now, Dataset};
+use tokio::sync::OnceCell;
+use tokio::time::{MissedTickBehavior, interval};
+use tokio_stream::wrappers::IntervalStream;
+use tracing::{Span, debug, info, instrument, warn};
 
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
 struct ReferencedFiles {
     data_paths: HashSet<Path>,
+    managed_blob_paths: HashSet<Path>,
     delete_paths: HashSet<Path>,
     tx_paths: HashSet<Path>,
     index_uuids: HashSet<String>,
+    /// Stable-partition row-map ids (`_fri/<map_id>/`) referenced by tagged
+    /// fragment-reuse-index entries. Resolved from
+    /// [`CleanupInspection::frag_reuse_entries`] before deletion decisions.
+    frag_reuse_map_ids: HashSet<String>,
 }
 
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
 pub struct RemovalStats {
     pub bytes_removed: u64,
     pub old_versions: u64,
+    pub data_files_removed: u64,
+    pub transaction_files_removed: u64,
+    pub index_files_removed: u64,
+    pub deletion_files_removed: u64,
+    /// Files that could not be deleted. They are not counted as removed; the next
+    /// cleanup finds them again by listing.
+    pub failed_deletes: u64,
+}
+
+/// A read-only explanation of what a cleanup operation would remove.
+///
+/// This is an explanation, not a deletion plan.  Calling
+/// [`CleanupOperation::execute`] re-evaluates the current dataset and reference
+/// state before deleting files.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct CleanupExplanation {
+    /// Dataset version observed when the explanation was produced.
+    pub read_version: u64,
+    /// Aggregate statistics for files that would be removed.
+    pub stats: RemovalStats,
+    /// Candidate files that would be removed, capped by `candidate_file_limit`.
+    pub candidate_files: Vec<CleanupCandidateFile>,
+    /// True if more candidate files were found than are included.
+    pub candidate_files_truncated: bool,
+    /// Maximum number of candidate files included in this explanation.
+    pub candidate_file_limit: usize,
+    /// Referenced child branches and whether cleanup would cascade into them.
+    pub referenced_branches: Vec<CleanupReferencedBranch>,
+    /// Non-fatal warnings about the explanation.
+    pub warnings: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+/// A file that cleanup identified as removable.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct CleanupCandidateFile {
+    /// Dataset-relative or storage path for the candidate file.
+    pub path: String,
+    /// Kind of file identified by cleanup.
+    pub kind: CleanupFileKind,
+    /// True if the file is removable only because it aged past the unverified
+    /// retention threshold or `delete_unverified` is enabled.
+    pub unverified: bool,
+    /// Candidate file size in bytes.
+    pub size_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+/// A branch that references the current branch lineage.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct CleanupReferencedBranch {
+    /// Branch name.
+    pub name: String,
+    /// Version of the current lineage referenced by this branch.
+    pub referenced_version: u64,
+    /// True if this branch would be cleaned when cascading cleanup is enabled.
+    pub cleanup_candidate: bool,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum CleanupFileKind {
+    Manifest,
+    Data,
+    Transaction,
+    Index,
+    Deletion,
+    /// A leftover `_versions/.tmp` manifest from a failed transaction.  These
+    /// are deleted but excluded from per-kind `RemovalStats` counts and audit
+    /// logs to match the long-standing cleanup behavior.  Their bytes
+    /// are still included in `bytes_removed`.
+    TemporaryManifest,
+}
+
+impl CleanupCandidateFile {
+    fn from_cleanup_file(file: &CleanupFile) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            path: file.path.to_string(),
+            kind: file.kind,
+            unverified: file.unverified,
+            size_bytes: file.size_bytes,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn cleanup_file(
+    path: Path,
+    kind: CleanupFileKind,
+    unverified: bool,
+    size_bytes: u64,
+) -> Option<CleanupFile> {
+    Some(CleanupFile {
+        path,
+        kind,
+        unverified,
+        size_bytes,
+    })
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+struct CleanupFile {
+    path: Path,
+    kind: CleanupFileKind,
+    /// True when the file was kept on disk past its referenced lifetime
+    /// because we could not verify it was safe to remove (e.g. produced by an
+    /// unfinished commit) and is being deleted only because it has aged past
+    /// the unverified-retention threshold or `delete_unverified` is set.
+    unverified: bool,
+    size_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+impl RemovalStats {
+    fn record_file(&mut self, file: &CleanupFile) {
+        self.bytes_removed += file.size_bytes;
+        match file.kind {
+            CleanupFileKind::Manifest => self.old_versions += 1,
+            CleanupFileKind::Data => self.data_files_removed += 1,
+            CleanupFileKind::Transaction => self.transaction_files_removed += 1,
+            CleanupFileKind::Index => self.index_files_removed += 1,
+            CleanupFileKind::Deletion => self.deletion_files_removed += 1,
+            CleanupFileKind::TemporaryManifest => {}
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn merge(&mut self, other: &Self) {
+        self.bytes_removed += other.bytes_removed;
+        self.old_versions += other.old_versions;
+        self.data_files_removed += other.data_files_removed;
+        self.transaction_files_removed += other.transaction_files_removed;
+        self.index_files_removed += other.index_files_removed;
+        self.deletion_files_removed += other.deletion_files_removed;
+        self.failed_deletes += other.failed_deletes;
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct CleanupRunResult {
+    stats: RemovalStats,
+    removed_manifests: HashSet<Path>,
+    candidate_files: Vec<CleanupCandidateFile>,
+    candidate_files_truncated: bool,
+    referenced_branches: Vec<CleanupReferencedBranch>,
+}
+
+impl CleanupRunResult {
+    fn record_file(
+        &mut self,
+        file: &CleanupFile,
+        candidate_file_limit: Option<usize>,
+        track_removed_manifests: bool,
+    ) {
+        self.stats.record_file(file);
+        if track_removed_manifests && matches!(file.kind, CleanupFileKind::Manifest) {
+            self.removed_manifests.insert(file.path.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(limit) = candidate_file_limit {
+            if self.candidate_files.len() < limit {
+                self.candidate_files
+                    .push(CleanupCandidateFile::from_cleanup_file(file));
+            } else {
+                self.candidate_files_truncated = true;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn merge(&mut self, other: Self, candidate_file_limit: Option<usize>) {
+        self.stats.merge(&other.stats);
+        self.removed_manifests.extend(other.removed_manifests);
+        self.referenced_branches.extend(other.referenced_branches);
+        if let Some(limit) = candidate_file_limit {
+            for file in other.candidate_files {
+                if self.candidate_files.len() < limit {
+                    self.candidate_files.push(file);
+                } else {
+                    self.candidate_files_truncated = true;
+                }
+            }
+            self.candidate_files_truncated |= other.candidate_files_truncated;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+enum CleanupAction {
+    Execute,
+    Explain { max_candidate_files: usize },
+}
+
+impl CleanupAction {
+    fn deletes_files(self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::Execute)
+    }
+
+    fn candidate_file_limit(self) -> Option<usize> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Execute => None,
+            Self::Explain {
+                max_candidate_files,
+            } => Some(max_candidate_files),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 fn remove_prefix(path: &Path, prefix: &Path) -> Path {
@@ -91,12 +304,44 @@ fn remove_prefix(path: &Path, prefix: &Path) -> Path {
 struct CleanupTask<'a> {
     dataset: &'a Dataset,
     policy: CleanupPolicy,
+    action: CleanupAction,
+    read_version: u64,
+    ignored_manifests: HashSet<Path>,
+    track_removed_manifests: bool,
+    include_referenced_branches: bool,
+}
+
+/// The visible descriptor rows and base namespace used by one fragment scan.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+struct ManagedScanKey {
+    store_prefix: String,
+    data_dir: Path,
+    bases: Vec<(u32, String, bool)>,
+    fragment: Vec<u8>,
+    fields: Vec<arrow_schema::Field>,
+    field_ids: Vec<i32>,
+    retained: bool,
+}
+
+/// A manifest that has aged out and is queued for deletion.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+struct ExpiredManifest {
+    version: u64,
+    /// Size from the manifest listing. `None` means it must be fetched before it can
+    /// be counted in `RemovalStats::bytes_removed`.
+    size_bytes: Option<u64>,
 }
 
 /// Information about the dataset that we learn by inspecting all of the manifests
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
 struct CleanupInspection {
-    old_manifests: Vec<Path>,
+    // Completed scans have already added their paths to the sets below. Keep
+    // only whether they found owner paths, not another copy of all references.
+    managed_scans: HashMap<ManagedScanKey, Arc<OnceCell<bool>>>,
+    old_manifests: HashMap<Path, ExpiredManifest>,
+    /// Store records to retire once their manifests are gone, by version;
+    /// see `CommitHandler::forget_version`.
+    retired_records: HashMap<u64, String>,
     /// Referenced files are part of our working set
     referenced_files: ReferencedFiles,
     /// Verified files may or may not be part of the working set but they are
@@ -105,34 +350,200 @@ struct CleanupInspection {
     verified_files: ReferencedFiles,
     /// Track tagged old versions in case we want to raise a `CleanupError`.
     tagged_old_versions: HashSet<u64>,
+    /// Tagged fragment-reuse-index entries seen across manifests, deduped by
+    /// entry uuid so each is decoded at most once; the flag records whether
+    /// some retained (working-set) manifest carries the entry.
+    frag_reuse_entries: HashMap<uuid::Uuid, (IndexMetadata, bool)>,
+    /// Tagged FRI entry uuids per manifest version, so a branch rescue that
+    /// retains a parent manifest can flip its entries into the working set
+    /// (their row maps become referenced instead of merely verified).
+    frag_reuse_entry_versions: HashMap<u64, Vec<uuid::Uuid>>,
+    /// Set when a branch manifest's FRI history could not be interpreted:
+    /// `_fri/` garbage collection is skipped for the run rather than risking
+    /// row maps the branch references invisibly.
+    skip_frag_reuse_gc: bool,
     /// The earliest timestamp of all retained manifests.
     earliest_retained_manifest_time: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
+    /// The latest timestamp of all manifests that will be removed.
+    latest_deleted_manifest_time: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
+}
+
+impl CleanupInspection {
+    /// Cutoff for `read_dir_all(..., unmodified_since)`.
+    ///
+    /// Listing only files with `last_modified <= earliest_retained` is valid
+    /// when the working set is a time suffix: every retained version is newer
+    /// than every deleted one. A tagged old version (or any other sparse
+    /// retain) pulls that cutoff backwards, so files from newer deleted
+    /// versions are never listed. Their manifests are still removed, which
+    /// permanently orphans the data files ([#8705](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8705)).
+    ///
+    /// When a deleted manifest is newer than the earliest retained one, drop
+    /// the cutoff and scan the whole subtree — the same approach already used
+    /// for `_indices/`.
+    fn listing_unmodified_since(&self) -> Option<DateTime<Utc>> {
+        match (
+            self.earliest_retained_manifest_time,
+            self.latest_deleted_manifest_time,
+        ) {
+            (Some(retained), Some(deleted)) if deleted > retained => None,
+            (retained, _) => retained,
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 /// If a file cannot be verified then it will only be deleted if it is at least
 /// this many days old.
 const UNVERIFIED_THRESHOLD_DAYS: i64 = 7;
+const DEFAULT_EXPLANATION_MAX_CANDIDATE_FILES: usize = 1_000;
+
+/// Builder-style cleanup operation.
+///
+/// Call [`Self::explain`] for a read-only explanation of what cleanup would
+/// remove, or [`Self::execute`] to re-evaluate the current dataset state and
+/// delete files.
+pub struct CleanupOperation<'a> {
+    dataset: &'a Dataset,
+    policy: CleanupPolicy,
+    max_candidate_files: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a> CleanupOperation<'a> {
+    pub(crate) fn new(dataset: &'a Dataset, policy: CleanupPolicy) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            policy,
+            max_candidate_files: DEFAULT_EXPLANATION_MAX_CANDIDATE_FILES,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum number of candidate files included in explanations.
+    ///
+    /// The aggregate [`RemovalStats`] in [`CleanupExplanation`] still include
+    /// all files that would be removed.
+    pub fn with_max_candidate_files(mut self, max_candidate_files: usize) -> Self {
+        self.max_candidate_files = max_candidate_files;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Explain what cleanup would remove without deleting files.
+    pub async fn explain(&self) -> Result<CleanupExplanation> {
+        let cleanup = CleanupTask::new(
+            self.dataset,
+            self.policy.clone(),
+            CleanupAction::Explain {
+                max_candidate_files: self.max_candidate_files,
+            },
+        );
+        let read_version = cleanup.read_version;
+        let result = cleanup.run().await?;
+        let warnings = if result.candidate_files_truncated {
+            vec![format!(
+                "candidate_files truncated to {} entries",
+                self.max_candidate_files
+            )]
+        } else {
+            Vec::new()
+        };
+        Ok(CleanupExplanation {
+            read_version,
+            stats: result.stats,
+            candidate_files: result.candidate_files,
+            candidate_files_truncated: result.candidate_files_truncated,
+            candidate_file_limit: self.max_candidate_files,
+            referenced_branches: result.referenced_branches,
+            warnings,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Execute cleanup by re-evaluating the current dataset state.
+    pub async fn execute(&self) -> Result<RemovalStats> {
+        info!(target: TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS, event=DATASET_CLEANING_EVENT, uri=&self.dataset.uri);
+        let cleanup = CleanupTask::new(self.dataset, self.policy.clone(), CleanupAction::Execute);
+        Ok(cleanup.run().await?.stats)
+    }
+}
 
 impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
-    fn new(dataset: &'a Dataset, policy: CleanupPolicy) -> Self {
-        Self { dataset, policy }
+    fn new(dataset: &'a Dataset, policy: CleanupPolicy, action: CleanupAction) -> Self {
+        let track_removed_manifests = policy.clean_referenced_branches;
+        let include_referenced_branches = action.candidate_file_limit().is_some();
+        Self::new_with_ignored_manifests(
+            dataset,
+            policy,
+            action,
+            HashSet::new(),
+            track_removed_manifests,
+            include_referenced_branches,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn new_with_ignored_manifests(
+        dataset: &'a Dataset,
+        policy: CleanupPolicy,
+        action: CleanupAction,
+        ignored_manifests: HashSet<Path>,
+        track_removed_manifests: bool,
+        include_referenced_branches: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            policy,
+            action,
+            read_version: dataset.version().version,
+            ignored_manifests,
+            track_removed_manifests,
+            include_referenced_branches,
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn run(self) -> Result<RemovalStats> {
-        // First we process all manifest files in parallel to figure
+    async fn run(self) -> Result<CleanupRunResult> {
+        let mut final_result = CleanupRunResult::default();
+        let candidate_file_limit = self.action.candidate_file_limit();
+        // First check if we need to clean referenced branches
+        // For cases that referenced branches never clean and the current cleanup cannot clean anything
+        // This must happen before cleaning the current branch if the setting is enabled.
+
+        let referenced_branches: Vec<(String, u64)> = self.find_referenced_branches().await?;
+        if self.include_referenced_branches {
+            final_result.referenced_branches = referenced_branches
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(name, referenced_version)| CleanupReferencedBranch {
+                    name: name.clone(),
+                    referenced_version: *referenced_version,
+                    cleanup_candidate: self.policy.clean_referenced_branches,
+                })
+                .collect();
+        }
+        if self.policy.clean_referenced_branches {
+            final_result.merge(
+                self.clean_referenced_branches(&referenced_branches).await?,
+                candidate_file_limit,
+            );
+        }
+
+        // we process all manifest files in parallel to figure
         // out which files are referenced by valid manifests
 
         // get protected manifests first, and include those in process_manifests
         // pass on option to process manifests around whether to return error
         // or clean around the manifest
-
         let tags = self.dataset.tags().list().await?;
+        let current_branch = &self.dataset.manifest.branch;
+
+        // Only retain tags on the current branch.
+        // Tags on other branches would take effect in retain_branch_lineage_files
         let tagged_versions: HashSet<u64> = tags
             .values()
+            .filter(|tag| match (tag.branch.as_ref(), current_branch.as_ref()) {
+                (Some(branch_of_tag), Some(current_branch)) => branch_of_tag == current_branch,
+                (None, None) => true,
+                _ => false,
+            })
             .map(|tag_content| tag_content.version)
             .collect();
 
-        let inspection = self.process_manifests(&tagged_versions).await?;
+        let mut inspection = self.process_manifests(&tagged_versions).await?;
 
         if self.policy.error_if_tagged_old_versions && !inspection.tagged_old_versions.is_empty() {
             return Err(tagged_old_versions_cleanup_error(
@@ -141,7 +552,22 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
             ));
         }
 
-        self.delete_unreferenced_files(inspection).await
+        if !referenced_branches.is_empty() {
+            let ignored_manifests: HashSet<_> = final_result
+                .removed_manifests
+                .union(&self.ignored_manifests)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            inspection = self
+                .retain_branch_lineage_files(inspection, &referenced_branches, &ignored_manifests)
+                .await?
+        };
+
+        final_result.merge(
+            self.delete_unreferenced_files(inspection).await?,
+            candidate_file_limit,
+        );
+        Ok(final_result)
     }
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
@@ -153,6 +579,7 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
         self.dataset
             .commit_handler
             .list_manifest_locations(&self.dataset.base, &self.dataset.object_store, false)
+            .try_filter(|location| future::ready(!self.ignored_manifests.contains(&location.path)))
             .try_for_each_concurrent(self.dataset.object_store.io_parallelism(), |location| {
                 self.process_manifest_file(location, &inspection, tagged_versions)
             })
@@ -160,6 +587,95 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
         Ok(inspection.into_inner().unwrap())
     }
 
+    async fn inspect_managed_blobs(
+        &self,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        retained: bool,
+        inspection: &Mutex<CleanupInspection>,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        let names = dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|field| super::blob::field_contains_blob(field))
+            .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if names.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        let projection = dataset.schema().project(&names)?;
+        let fields = projection
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(arrow_schema::Field::from)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let field_ids = projection.field_ids();
+        let mut bases = dataset
+            .manifest
+            .base_paths
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(id, base)| (*id, base.path.clone(), base.is_dataset_root))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        bases.sort_unstable();
+        let mut found = false;
+        // Manifests are already read concurrently. Scan their fragments in order
+        // to avoid multiplying concurrent descriptor buffers and path sets.
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            let key = ManagedScanKey {
+                store_prefix: dataset.object_store.store_prefix.clone(),
+                data_dir: dataset.data_dir(),
+                bases: bases.clone(),
+                fragment: lance_table::format::pb::DataFragment::from(&fragment.metadata)
+                    .encode_to_vec(),
+                fields: fields.clone(),
+                field_ids: field_ids.clone(),
+                retained,
+            };
+            let cell = inspection
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .managed_scans
+                .entry(key)
+                .or_default()
+                .clone();
+            let scanned = cell
+                .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                    let paths =
+                        super::blob::managed_paths(dataset, self.dataset, fragment.scan()).await?;
+                    let found = !paths.is_empty();
+                    let mut inspection = inspection.lock().unwrap();
+                    for path in paths {
+                        let relative = remove_prefix(&path, &self.dataset.base);
+                        if retained {
+                            inspection
+                                .verified_files
+                                .managed_blob_paths
+                                .remove(&relative);
+                            inspection
+                                .referenced_files
+                                .managed_blob_paths
+                                .insert(relative);
+                        } else {
+                            inspection
+                                .verified_files
+                                .managed_blob_paths
+                                .insert(relative);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok::<_, Error>(found)
+                })
+                .await;
+            match scanned {
+                Ok(has_paths) => found |= *has_paths,
+                // An expired descriptor can disappear during concurrent cleanup.
+                // Do not mark failed scans complete: retained reads must still fail.
+                Err(error) if !retained && error.is_not_found() => {}
+                Err(error) => return Err(error),
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(found)
+    }
+
     async fn process_manifest_file(
         &self,
         location: ManifestLocation,
@@ -172,19 +688,53 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
         // ignore it then we might delete valid data files thinking they are not
         // referenced.
 
-        let manifest =
-            read_manifest(&self.dataset.object_store, &location.path, location.size).await?;
-        let dataset_version = self.dataset.version().version;
-
+        let manifest_and_indexes = async {
+            let manifest =
+                read_manifest(&self.dataset.object_store, &location.path, location.size).await?;
+            ensure_can_read_manifest(&manifest)?;
+            ensure_can_write_manifest(&manifest)?;
+            let indexes =
+                read_manifest_indexes(&self.dataset.object_store, &location, &manifest).await?;
+            Ok::<_, Error>((manifest, indexes))
+        }
+        .await;
+        let (manifest, indexes) = match manifest_and_indexes {
+            Ok(manifest_and_indexes) => manifest_and_indexes,
+            Err(error) if location.version < self.read_version && error.is_not_found() => {
+                // Another cleanup may remove an old manifest after this cleanup lists it.
+                // The current manifest is never safe to skip because it anchors our snapshot.
+                debug!(
+                    manifest_version = location.version,
+                    read_version = self.read_version,
+                    manifest_path = %location.path,
+                    "Skipping old manifest removed by concurrent cleanup"
+                );
+                // Its record may still be there if that cleanup stopped early.
+                if let Some(identity) = location.identity {
+                    inspection
+                        .lock()
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .retired_records
+                        .insert(location.version, identity);
+                }
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            Err(error) => return Err(error),
+        };
         // Don't delete the latest version, even if it is old. Don't delete tagged versions,
         // regardless of age. Don't delete manifests if their version is newer than the dataset
         // version.  These are either in-progress or newly added since we started.
-        let is_latest = dataset_version <= manifest.version;
+        let is_latest = self.read_version <= manifest.version;
         let is_tagged = tagged_versions.contains(&manifest.version);
         let in_working_set = is_latest || !self.policy.should_clean(&manifest) || is_tagged;
-        let indexes =
-            read_manifest_indexes(&self.dataset.object_store, &location, &manifest).await?;
-
+        if manifest.has_managed_blobs() {
+            let snapshot = self
+                .dataset
+                .checkout_version((manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some(manifest.version)))
+                .await?;
+            self.inspect_managed_blobs(&snapshot, in_working_set, inspection)
+                .await?;
+        }
         let mut inspection = inspection.lock().unwrap();
 
         // Track tagged old versions in case we want to return a `CleanupError` later.
@@ -194,16 +744,30 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
         }
 
         self.process_manifest(&manifest, &indexes, in_working_set, &mut inspection)?;
+        let commit_ts = manifest.timestamp();
         if !in_working_set {
-            inspection.old_manifests.push(location.path.clone());
+            inspection.old_manifests.insert(
+                location.path.clone(),
+                ExpiredManifest {
+                    version: manifest.version,
+                    // Carried from the listing so the delete phase need not HEAD
+                    // every manifest just to report bytes removed.
+                    size_bytes: location.size,
+                },
+            );
+            if let Some(identity) = location.identity.clone() {
+                inspection
+                    .retired_records
+                    .insert(manifest.version, identity);
+            }
+            match inspection.latest_deleted_manifest_time {
+                Some(ts) if commit_ts <= ts => {}
+                _ => inspection.latest_deleted_manifest_time = Some(commit_ts),
+            }
         } else {
-            let commit_ts = manifest.timestamp();
-            if let Some(ts) = inspection.earliest_retained_manifest_time {
-                if commit_ts < ts {
-                    inspection.earliest_retained_manifest_time = Some(commit_ts);
-                }
-            } else {
-                inspection.earliest_retained_manifest_time = Some(commit_ts);
+            match inspection.earliest_retained_manifest_time {
+                Some(ts) if commit_ts >= ts => {}
+                _ => inspection.earliest_retained_manifest_time = Some(commit_ts),
             }
         }
         Ok(())
@@ -225,8 +789,8 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
         };
 
         for fragment in manifest.fragments.iter() {
-            for file in fragment.files.iter() {
-                let full_data_path = self.dataset.data_dir().child(file.path.as_str());
+            for file in fragment.referenced_lance_files() {
+                let full_data_path = self.dataset.data_dir().clone().join(file.path.as_str());
                 let relative_data_path = remove_prefix(&full_data_path, &self.dataset.base);
                 referenced_files.data_paths.insert(relative_data_path);
             }
@@ -242,126 +806,412 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
         if let Some(relative_tx_path) = &manifest.transaction_file {
             referenced_files
                 .tx_paths
-                .insert(Path::parse(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)?.child(relative_tx_path.as_str()));
+                .insert(Path::parse(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)?.join(relative_tx_path.as_str()));
         }
 
         for index in indexes {
             let uuid_str = index.uuid.to_string();
             referenced_files.index_uuids.insert(uuid_str);
         }
+
+        // Tagged FRI entries are recorded for row-map reference resolution
+        // (their content is decoded later, once per unique entry). A v0 entry
+        // cannot reference row maps, so v0-only datasets record nothing.
+        for index in indexes {
+            if index.name == lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME
+                && index.index_version != 0
+            {
+                let entry = inspection
+                    .frag_reuse_entries
+                    .entry(index.uuid)
+                    .or_insert_with(|| (index.clone(), false));
+                entry.1 |= in_working_set;
+                inspection
+                    .frag_reuse_entry_versions
+                    .entry(manifest.version)
+                    .or_default()
+                    .push(index.uuid);
+            }
+        }
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all, fields(old_versions = inspection.old_manifests.len(), bytes_removed = tracing::field::Empty))]
+    #[instrument(
+        level = "debug",
+        skip_all,
+        fields(
+            old_versions = inspection.old_manifests.len(),
+            bytes_removed = tracing::field::Empty,
+            data_files_removed = tracing::field::Empty,
+            transaction_files_removed = tracing::field::Empty,
+            index_files_removed = tracing::field::Empty,
+            deletion_files_removed = tracing::field::Empty
+        )
+    )]
+    /// Resolve the row-map ids referenced by the recorded tagged FRI entries
+    /// into the inspection's referenced (retained manifests) and verified
+    /// (expiring manifests) sets. Returns false when some entry cannot be
+    /// interpreted, in which case `_fri/` garbage collection is skipped for
+    /// this run: an uninterpretable entry may reference maps invisibly.
+    async fn resolve_frag_reuse_map_ids(&self, inspection: &mut CleanupInspection) -> bool {
+        let entries = std::mem::take(&mut inspection.frag_reuse_entries);
+        for (uuid, (entry, in_working_set)) in entries.iter() {
+            let map_ids = async {
+                let content =
+                    crate::index::frag_reuse::load_raw_frag_reuse_content(self.dataset, entry)
+                        .await?;
+                let ledger = crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(
+                    entry.index_version,
+                    &content,
+                )
+                .await?;
+                if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                        "the tagged FRI history carries transitions this client cannot interpret",
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok::<Vec<String>, Error>(
+                    ledger
+                        .transitions()
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter_map(|transition| {
+                            match transition.mapping() {
+                            lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::Mapping::StablePartition(
+                                partition,
+                            ) => Some(partition.map_id.clone()),
+                            _ => None,
+                        }
+                        })
+                        .collect(),
+                )
+            }
+            .await;
+            match map_ids {
+                Ok(map_ids) => {
+                    let target = if *in_working_set {
+                        &mut inspection.referenced_files
+                    } else {
+                        &mut inspection.verified_files
+                    };
+                    target.frag_reuse_map_ids.extend(map_ids);
+                }
+                Err(error) => {
+                    warn!(
+                        entry_uuid = %uuid,
+                        error = %error,
+                        "Cannot resolve the row-map references of a fragment reuse index \
+                         entry; skipping _fri garbage collection for this run"
+                    );
+                    return false;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        true
+    }
+
     async fn delete_unreferenced_files(
         &self,
-        inspection: CleanupInspection,
-    ) -> Result<RemovalStats> {
-        let removal_stats = Mutex::new(RemovalStats::default());
+        mut inspection: CleanupInspection,
+    ) -> Result<CleanupRunResult> {
+        let collect_frag_reuse_maps = !inspection.skip_frag_reuse_gc
+            && self.resolve_frag_reuse_map_ids(&mut inspection).await;
+        let inspection = inspection;
+        let cleanup_result = Mutex::new(CleanupRunResult::default());
+        let deletes_files = self.action.deletes_files();
+        let removes_empty_dirs = matches!(
+            self.dataset.object_store.scheme(),
+            "file" | "file+uring" | "file-object-store"
+        );
+        let indices_dir = self.dataset.indices_dir();
+        let retained_index_dirs = inspection
+            .referenced_files
+            .index_uuids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|uuid| indices_dir.clone().join(uuid.as_str()))
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let index_dirs_to_remove = Mutex::new(HashSet::new());
+        // Versions whose manifest could not be deleted. Their store records must
+        // survive with them: a record outliving its manifest is retired by the next
+        // cleanup, but a manifest outliving its record is a lost version.
+        let undeleted_manifest_versions = Mutex::new(HashSet::new());
+        let candidate_file_limit = self.action.candidate_file_limit();
         let verification_threshold = utc_now()
             - TimeDelta::try_days(UNVERIFIED_THRESHOLD_DAYS).expect("TimeDelta::try_days");
 
-        let is_not_found_err = |e: &Error| {
-            matches!(
-                e,
-                Error::IO { source,.. }
-                    if source
-                      .downcast_ref::<ObjectStoreError>()
-                      .map(|os_err| matches!(os_err, ObjectStoreError::NotFound {.. }))
-                      .unwrap_or(false)
-            )
-        };
         // Build stream for a managed subtree
-        let build_listing_stream = |dir: Path| {
+        let build_listing_stream = |dir: Path, unmodified_since| {
+            let inspection_ref = &inspection;
             self.dataset
                 .object_store
-                .read_dir_all(&dir, inspection.earliest_retained_manifest_time)
+                .read_dir_all(&dir, unmodified_since)
                 .map_ok(|obj| stream::once(future::ready(Ok(obj))).boxed())
                 .or_else(|e| {
                     // If the directory doesn't exist then we can just return an empty stream.
-                    if is_not_found_err(&e) {
+                    if e.is_not_found() {
                         future::ready(Ok(stream::empty::<Result<ObjectMeta>>().boxed()))
                     } else {
                         future::ready(Err(e))
                     }
                 })
                 .try_flatten()
-                .try_filter_map(|obj_meta| {
+                .try_filter_map(move |obj_meta| {
                     // If a file is new-ish then it might be part of an ongoing operation and so we only
                     // delete it if we can verify it is part of an old version.
                     let maybe_in_progress = !self.policy.delete_unverified
                         && obj_meta.last_modified >= verification_threshold;
-                    let path_to_remove = self.path_if_not_referenced(
-                        obj_meta.location,
+                    let file_to_remove = self.cleanup_file_if_not_referenced(
+                        obj_meta,
                         maybe_in_progress,
-                        &inspection,
+                        inspection_ref,
                     );
-                    if matches!(path_to_remove, Ok(Some(..))) {
-                        removal_stats.lock().unwrap().bytes_removed += obj_meta.size;
-                    }
-                    future::ready(path_to_remove)
+                    future::ready(file_to_remove)
                 })
                 .boxed()
         };
 
         // Restrict scanning to Lance-managed subtrees for safety and performance.
-        let streams = vec![
-            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.versions_dir()),
-            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.transactions_dir()),
-            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.data_dir()),
-            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.indices_dir()),
-            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.deletions_dir()),
+        // Drop the retained-manifest cutoff when a sparse retain (e.g. a tag)
+        // would hide files that belong to newer deleted versions. See
+        // [`CleanupInspection::listing_unmodified_since`].
+        let unmodified_since = inspection.listing_unmodified_since();
+        // Data files owned by no manifest can be newer than the retained
+        // manifest floor. List through the moving verification threshold so
+        // they become candidates once old enough, or list all data files when
+        // the caller explicitly permits deleting unverified files.
+        let data_unmodified_since = if self.policy.delete_unverified {
+            None
+        } else {
+            unmodified_since.map(|cutoff| cutoff.max(verification_threshold))
+        };
+        let mut streams = vec![
+            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.versions_dir(), unmodified_since),
+            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.transactions_dir(), unmodified_since),
+            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.data_dir(), data_unmodified_since),
+            build_listing_stream(
+                self.dataset.base.clone().join("_blobs"),
+                data_unmodified_since,
+            ),
+            // Index UUIDs from manifests being removed are proof that their files are
+            // safe to delete. Scan every index artifact while that proof is available;
+            // a retained-manifest cutoff can otherwise skip newer artifacts and lose
+            // the proof when the old manifests are removed by this cleanup pass.
+            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.indices_dir(), None),
+            build_listing_stream(self.dataset.deletions_dir(), unmodified_since),
         ];
-        let unreferenced_paths = stream::iter(streams).flatten().boxed();
+        if collect_frag_reuse_maps {
+            // Stable-partition row maps, referenced by map id from tagged FRI
+            // entries. Like `_indices/`, scanned without a cutoff: references
+            // from manifests removed by this pass are proof of deletability.
+            // A dataset without a `_fri/` directory yields an empty stream.
+            streams.push(build_listing_stream(
+                self.dataset.base.clone().join("_fri"),
+                None,
+            ));
+        }
+        let unreferenced_files = stream::iter(streams).flatten().boxed();
 
         let old_manifests = inspection.old_manifests.clone();
-        let num_old_manifests = old_manifests.len();
-
-        // Ideally this collect shouldn't be needed here but it seems necessary
-        // to avoid https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/102211
-        let manifest_bytes_removed = stream::iter(&old_manifests)
-            .map(|path| self.dataset.object_store.size(path))
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await;
-        let manifest_bytes_removed = stream::iter(manifest_bytes_removed)
-            .buffer_unordered(self.dataset.object_store.io_parallelism())
-            .try_fold(0, |acc, size| async move { Ok(acc + (size)) })
-            .await;
-
-        let old_manifests_stream = stream::iter(old_manifests)
-            .map(|path| {
-                info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, path = path.as_ref());
-                Ok(path)
+        let manifest_files = stream::iter(old_manifests)
+            .map(|(path, expired)| async move {
+                let size_bytes =
+                    expired_manifest_size(&self.dataset.object_store, &path, expired.size_bytes)
+                        .await?;
+                Ok::<CleanupFile, Error>(CleanupFile {
+                    path,
+                    kind: CleanupFileKind::Manifest,
+                    unverified: false,
+                    size_bytes,
+                })
             })
+            .buffer_unordered(self.dataset.object_store.io_parallelism())
             .boxed();
-        let all_paths_to_remove =
-            stream::iter(vec![unreferenced_paths, old_manifests_stream]).flatten();
 
-        let delete_fut = self
-            .dataset
-            .object_store
-            .remove_stream(all_paths_to_remove.boxed())
-            .try_for_each(|_| future::ready(Ok(())));
+        let all_files = stream::iter(vec![unreferenced_files, manifest_files]).flatten();
+        let all_files_to_remove = all_files.map(|file| {
+            let file = file?;
+            if deletes_files {
+                let mode = if file.unverified {
+                    AUDIT_MODE_DELETE_UNVERIFIED
+                } else {
+                    AUDIT_MODE_DELETE
+                };
+                let path_str = file.path.as_ref();
+                match file.kind {
+                    CleanupFileKind::Manifest => {
+                        info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_MANIFEST, path = path_str);
+                    }
+                    CleanupFileKind::Data => {
+                        info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=mode, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = path_str);
+                    }
+                    CleanupFileKind::Deletion => {
+                        info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=mode, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DELETION, path = path_str);
+                    }
+                    CleanupFileKind::Index => {
+                        info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=mode, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_INDEX, path = path_str);
+                    }
+                    CleanupFileKind::Transaction | CleanupFileKind::TemporaryManifest => {}
+                }
+            }
+            if deletes_files && removes_empty_dirs && matches!(file.kind, CleanupFileKind::Index) {
+                let mut parent = file.path.parent();
+                let mut index_dirs = index_dirs_to_remove.lock().unwrap();
+                while let Some(dir_path) = parent {
+                    if dir_path == indices_dir || !dir_path.prefix_matches(&indices_dir) {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    index_dirs.insert(dir_path.clone());
+                    parent = dir_path.parent();
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(file)
+        });
+
+        if deletes_files {
+            let files_to_delete: BoxStream<Result<CleanupFile>> =
+                if let Some(rate) = self.policy.delete_rate_limit {
+                    let duration = calculate_duration(rate);
+                    let mut ticker = interval(duration);
+                    ticker.set_missed_tick_behavior(MissedTickBehavior::Delay);
+                    IntervalStream::new(ticker)
+                        .zip(all_files_to_remove)
+                        .map(|(_, file)| file)
+                        .boxed()
+                } else {
+                    all_files_to_remove.boxed()
+                };
+
+            // Deleting here rather than through `remove_stream` keeps each outcome
+            // attached to its file, which is what lets the stats below count what was
+            // actually removed instead of what was merely attempted.
+            let store = &self.dataset.object_store;
+            files_to_delete
+                .map(|file| async move {
+                    let file = file?;
+                    let outcome = match store.delete(&file.path).await {
+                        Ok(()) => Ok(()),
+                        // Cleanup lists first and deletes after, so a concurrent
+                        // writer or a second cleanup can remove a path in between.
+                        // Already gone is the outcome we wanted.
+                        Err(error) if error.is_not_found() => Ok(()),
+                        Err(error) => Err(error),
+                    };
+                    Ok::<_, Error>((file, outcome))
+                })
+                .buffer_unordered(self.dataset.object_store.io_parallelism())
+                .try_for_each(|(file, outcome)| {
+                    let mut result = cleanup_result.lock().unwrap();
+                    match outcome {
+                        Ok(()) => result.record_file(
+                            &file,
+                            candidate_file_limit,
+                            self.track_removed_manifests,
+                        ),
+                        // One transient failure must not discard a sweep over
+                        // millions of objects. The file stays, is not counted as
+                        // removed, and the next run finds it again by listing.
+                        Err(error) => {
+                            // Only the first is warned; a failing backend would
+                            // otherwise emit a line per object.
+                            if result.stats.failed_deletes == 0 {
+                                warn!(path = %file.path, error = %error,
+                                      "failed to delete file; continuing and counting it");
+                            } else {
+                                debug!(path = %file.path, error = %error, "failed to delete file");
+                            }
+                            result.stats.failed_deletes += 1;
+                            if matches!(file.kind, CleanupFileKind::Manifest)
+                                && let Some(expired) = inspection.old_manifests.get(&file.path)
+                            {
+                                undeleted_manifest_versions
+                                    .lock()
+                                    .unwrap()
+                                    .insert(expired.version);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    future::ready(Ok(()))
+                })
+                .await?;
+
+            // Only after the objects are gone: a record that outlives its
+            // manifest is retired by the next cleanup, the reverse is a lost
+            // version.
+            let undeleted = undeleted_manifest_versions.into_inner().unwrap();
+            for (version, identity) in &inspection.retired_records {
+                if undeleted.contains(version) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                self.dataset
+                    .commit_handler
+                    .forget_version(&self.dataset.base, *version, identity)
+                    .await?;
+            }
 
-        delete_fut.await?;
+            if removes_empty_dirs
+                && let Err(error) = self
+                    .dataset
+                    .object_store
+                    .remove_empty_dirs(
+                        indices_dir.clone(),
+                        retained_index_dirs,
+                        index_dirs_to_remove.into_inner().unwrap(),
+                        (!self.policy.delete_unverified).then_some(verification_threshold),
+                    )
+                    .await
+            {
+                warn!(
+                    path = indices_dir.as_ref(),
+                    error = %error,
+                    "Failed to remove empty index directories"
+                );
+            }
+        } else {
+            // Nothing is deleted, so the stats describe what would be removed.
+            all_files_to_remove
+                .try_for_each(|file| {
+                    cleanup_result.lock().unwrap().record_file(
+                        &file,
+                        candidate_file_limit,
+                        self.track_removed_manifests,
+                    );
+                    future::ready(Ok(()))
+                })
+                .await?;
+        }
 
-        let mut removal_stats = removal_stats.into_inner().unwrap();
-        removal_stats.old_versions = num_old_manifests as u64;
-        removal_stats.bytes_removed += manifest_bytes_removed?;
+        let cleanup_result = cleanup_result.into_inner().unwrap();
 
         let span = Span::current();
-        span.record("bytes_removed", removal_stats.bytes_removed);
+        span.record("bytes_removed", cleanup_result.stats.bytes_removed);
+        span.record(
+            "data_files_removed",
+            cleanup_result.stats.data_files_removed,
+        );
+        span.record(
+            "transaction_files_removed",
+            cleanup_result.stats.transaction_files_removed,
+        );
+        span.record(
+            "index_files_removed",
+            cleanup_result.stats.index_files_removed,
+        );
+        span.record(
+            "deletion_files_removed",
+            cleanup_result.stats.deletion_files_removed,
+        );
 
-        Ok(removal_stats)
+        Ok(cleanup_result)
     }
 
-    fn path_if_not_referenced(
+    fn cleanup_file_if_not_referenced(
         &self,
-        path: Path,
+        obj_meta: ObjectMeta,
         maybe_in_progress: bool,
         inspection: &CleanupInspection,
-    ) -> Result<Option<Path>> {
+    ) -> Result<Option<CleanupFile>> {
+        let path = obj_meta.location;
         let relative_path = remove_prefix(&path, &self.dataset.base);
+        let size_bytes = obj_meta.size;
         if relative_path.as_ref().starts_with("_versions/.tmp") {
             // This is a temporary manifest file.
             //
@@ -370,8 +1220,46 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
             if maybe_in_progress {
                 return Ok(None);
             } else {
-                return Ok(Some(path));
+                return Ok(cleanup_file(
+                    path,
+                    CleanupFileKind::TemporaryManifest,
+                    true,
+                    size_bytes,
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        if relative_path.as_ref().starts_with("_fri") {
+            // Row maps are referenced by map id (`_fri/<map_id>/...`) from
+            // tagged FRI entries, resolved in `resolve_frag_reuse_map_ids`.
+            // The same lifecycle as `_indices/`: kept while some retained
+            // manifest references the map; deletable immediately when only
+            // expiring manifests reference it; an unreferenced map (a failed
+            // commit's orphan, or one released by an already-expired history)
+            // ages past the unverified-retention threshold first, which also
+            // protects a just-written map whose commit has not landed yet.
+            if let Some(map_id) = relative_path.parts().nth(1) {
+                if inspection
+                    .referenced_files
+                    .frag_reuse_map_ids
+                    .contains(map_id.as_ref())
+                {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                } else if !maybe_in_progress {
+                    return Ok(cleanup_file(path, CleanupFileKind::Index, true, size_bytes));
+                } else if inspection
+                    .verified_files
+                    .frag_reuse_map_ids
+                    .contains(map_id.as_ref())
+                {
+                    return Ok(cleanup_file(
+                        path,
+                        CleanupFileKind::Index,
+                        false,
+                        size_bytes,
+                    ));
+                }
             }
+            return Ok(None);
         }
         if relative_path.as_ref().starts_with("_indices") {
             // Indices are referenced by UUID so we need to examine the UUID
@@ -384,15 +1272,18 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
                 {
                     return Ok(None);
                 } else if !maybe_in_progress {
-                    info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE_UNVERIFIED, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_INDEX, path = path.to_string());
-                    return Ok(Some(path));
+                    return Ok(cleanup_file(path, CleanupFileKind::Index, true, size_bytes));
                 } else if inspection
                     .verified_files
                     .index_uuids
                     .contains(uuid.as_ref())
                 {
-                    info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_INDEX, path = path.to_string());
-                    return Ok(Some(path));
+                    return Ok(cleanup_file(
+                        path,
+                        CleanupFileKind::Index,
+                        false,
+                        size_bytes,
+                    ));
                 }
             } else {
                 return Ok(None);
@@ -408,15 +1299,13 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
                     {
                         Ok(None)
                     } else if !maybe_in_progress {
-                        info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE_UNVERIFIED, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = path.to_string());
-                        Ok(Some(path))
+                        Ok(cleanup_file(path, CleanupFileKind::Data, true, size_bytes))
                     } else if inspection
                         .verified_files
                         .data_paths
                         .contains(&relative_path)
                     {
-                        info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = path.to_string());
-                        Ok(Some(path))
+                        Ok(cleanup_file(path, CleanupFileKind::Data, false, size_bytes))
                     } else {
                         Ok(None)
                     }
@@ -426,8 +1315,35 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
                 }
             }
             Some("blob") => {
+                if inspection
+                    .referenced_files
+                    .managed_blob_paths
+                    .contains(&relative_path)
+                {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                if relative_path
+                    .parts()
+                    .next()
+                    .is_some_and(|part| part.as_ref() == "_blobs")
+                {
+                    let verified = inspection
+                        .verified_files
+                        .managed_blob_paths
+                        .contains(&relative_path);
+                    return if verified || !maybe_in_progress {
+                        Ok(cleanup_file(
+                            path,
+                            CleanupFileKind::Data,
+                            !verified,
+                            size_bytes,
+                        ))
+                    } else {
+                        Ok(None)
+                    };
+                }
                 // Blob v2 sidecar files are keyed by the data file stem:
-                //   data/{data_file_key}/{blob_id:08x}.blob
+                //   data/{data_file_key}/{obfuscated_blob_id:032b}.blob
                 //
                 // These files are not referenced directly by the manifest.  Instead, treat them
                 // as referenced if their parent data file is referenced.
@@ -444,7 +1360,10 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
                 let data_file_key = parts.next();
                 let blob_file = parts.next();
                 // Be conservative: only handle the expected 3-part layout.
-                if data_dir.is_none() || data_file_key.is_none() || blob_file.is_none() {
+                if !matches!(data_dir, Some(dir) if dir.as_ref() == "data")
+                    || data_file_key.is_none()
+                    || blob_file.is_none()
+                {
                     debug!(
                         path = relative_path.as_ref(),
                         "Will not garbage collect blob file because it does not follow convention"
@@ -478,15 +1397,17 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
                 {
                     Ok(None)
                 } else if !maybe_in_progress {
-                    info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE_UNVERIFIED, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = path.to_string());
-                    Ok(Some(path))
+                    Ok(cleanup_file(path, CleanupFileKind::Data, true, size_bytes))
                 } else if inspection
                     .verified_files
                     .data_paths
                     .contains(&parent_data_path)
+                    || inspection
+                        .verified_files
+                        .managed_blob_paths
+                        .contains(&relative_path)
                 {
-                    info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = path.to_string());
-                    Ok(Some(path))
+                    Ok(cleanup_file(path, CleanupFileKind::Data, false, size_bytes))
                 } else {
                     Ok(None)
                 }
@@ -504,15 +1425,23 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
                     {
                         Ok(None)
                     } else if !maybe_in_progress {
-                        info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE_UNVERIFIED, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DELETION, path = path.to_string());
-                        Ok(Some(path))
+                        Ok(cleanup_file(
+                            path,
+                            CleanupFileKind::Deletion,
+                            true,
+                            size_bytes,
+                        ))
                     } else if inspection
                         .verified_files
                         .delete_paths
                         .contains(&relative_path)
                     {
-                        info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DELETION, path = path.to_string());
-                        Ok(Some(path))
+                        Ok(cleanup_file(
+                            path,
+                            CleanupFileKind::Deletion,
+                            false,
+                            size_bytes,
+                        ))
                     } else {
                         Ok(None)
                     }
@@ -531,7 +1460,14 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
                     } else if !maybe_in_progress
                         || inspection.verified_files.tx_paths.contains(&relative_path)
                     {
-                        Ok(Some(path))
+                        let unverified =
+                            !inspection.verified_files.tx_paths.contains(&relative_path);
+                        Ok(cleanup_file(
+                            path,
+                            CleanupFileKind::Transaction,
+                            unverified,
+                            size_bytes,
+                        ))
                     } else {
                         Ok(None)
                     }
@@ -542,29 +1478,485 @@ impl<'a> CleanupTask<'a> {
             _ => Ok(None),
         }
     }
-}
 
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct CleanupPolicy {
-    /// If not none, cleanup all versions before the specified timestamp.
-    pub before_timestamp: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
-    /// If not none, cleanup all versions before the specified version.
-    pub before_version: Option<u64>,
-    /// If true, delete unverified data files even if they are recent
-    pub delete_unverified: bool,
-    /// If true, return an Error if a tagged version is old
-    pub error_if_tagged_old_versions: bool,
-}
+    async fn find_referenced_branches(&self) -> Result<Vec<(String, u64)>> {
+        let current_branch_id = self.dataset.branch_identifier().await?;
+        let all_branches = self.dataset.branches().list().await?;
+        let children = current_branch_id.collect_referenced_versions(&all_branches);
+
+        // Use a concurrent set to identify branches eligible for cleanup.
+        // The filter below preserves the original (branch_name, version) tuples.
+        let referenced_branches: DashSet<String> = DashSet::new();
+        let tasks: Vec<_> = children
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(branch_name, referenced_version)| {
+                let dataset = &self.dataset;
+                let policy = &self.policy;
+                let referenced_branches = &referenced_branches;
+
+                async move {
+                    let manifest = async {
+                        let manifest_location = dataset
+                            .commit_handler
+                            .resolve_version_location(
+                                &dataset.base,
+                                *referenced_version,
+                                &dataset.object_store.inner,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+
+                        read_manifest(
+                            &dataset.object_store,
+                            &manifest_location.path,
+                            manifest_location.size,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                    }
+                    .await;
+                    match manifest {
+                        Ok(manifest) => {
+                            ensure_can_read_manifest(&manifest)?;
+                            ensure_can_write_manifest(&manifest)?;
+                            if policy.should_clean(&manifest) {
+                                referenced_branches.insert(branch_name.clone());
+                            }
+                        }
+                        Err(error) if error.is_not_found() => {
+                            // The source may be gone while descendants still use its files.
+                            // Scan their manifests before deleting any parent data.
+                            referenced_branches.insert(branch_name.clone());
+                        }
+                        Err(error) => return Err(error),
+                    }
+                    Ok::<(), Error>(())
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
 
-impl CleanupPolicy {
-    pub fn should_clean(&self, manifest: &Manifest) -> bool {
-        let mut should_clean = true;
-        if let Some(before_timestamp) = self.before_timestamp {
-            should_clean &= manifest.timestamp() < before_timestamp;
+        try_join_all(tasks).await?;
+
+        // Filter children to only include branches that should be cleaned.
+        // The DashSet contains branch names found eligible during concurrent scan.
+        let referenced_branches = children
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|(branch_name, _)| referenced_branches.contains(branch_name))
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        Ok(referenced_branches)
+    }
+
+    async fn clean_referenced_branches(
+        &self,
+        referenced_branches: &[(String, u64)],
+    ) -> Result<CleanupRunResult> {
+        let final_result = Mutex::new(CleanupRunResult::default());
+
+        // Group branches by their lineage identifier (BranchIdentifier).
+        // Branches with the same identifier share a lineage and must be cleaned sequentially
+        // to preserve cleanup order. Different lineages can be cleaned concurrently.
+        let mut branches_chains = HashMap::new();
+        for (branch, id) in referenced_branches {
+            branches_chains
+                .entry(*id)
+                .or_insert_with(Vec::new)
+                .push(branch.clone());
         }
-        if let Some(before_version) = self.before_version {
+        let action = self.action;
+        let candidate_file_limit = self.action.candidate_file_limit();
+        let tasks: Vec<_> = branches_chains
+            .values()
+            .map(|branch_chain| {
+                let final_result = &final_result;
+                async move {
+                    for branch in branch_chain {
+                        let branch_dataset = self
+                            .dataset
+                            .checkout_version((branch.as_str(), None))
+                            .await?;
+                        let ignored_manifests =
+                            final_result.lock().unwrap().removed_manifests.clone();
+                        if let Some(result) = cleanup_cascade_branch_run(
+                            &branch_dataset,
+                            branch_dataset.manifest.as_ref(),
+                            action,
+                            ignored_manifests,
+                        )
+                        .await?
+                        {
+                            final_result
+                                .lock()
+                                .unwrap()
+                                .merge(result, candidate_file_limit);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok::<(), Error>(())
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        try_join_all(tasks).await?;
+        Ok(final_result.into_inner().unwrap())
+    }
+
+    // Retain manifests containing files referenced by descendant branches.
+    // This protects parent branch files that are still needed by child branches.
+    async fn retain_branch_lineage_files(
+        &self,
+        inspection: CleanupInspection,
+        referenced_branches: &[(String, u64)],
+        removed_branch_manifests: &HashSet<Path>,
+    ) -> Result<CleanupInspection> {
+        let inspection = Mutex::new(inspection);
+        for (branch, root_version_number) in referenced_branches {
+            // Use find_branch to get the branch path directly without checkout.
+            // This avoids creating a dataset instance and prevents manifest deletion
+            // during the retain operation.
+            let branch_location = self.dataset.branch_location().find_branch(Some(branch))?;
+            self.dataset
+                .commit_handler
+                .list_manifest_locations(&branch_location.path, &self.dataset.object_store, false)
+                .try_filter(|location| {
+                    future::ready(!removed_branch_manifests.contains(&location.path))
+                })
+                .try_for_each_concurrent(self.dataset.object_store.io_parallelism(), |location| {
+                    self.process_branch_referenced_manifests(
+                        &branch_location.path,
+                        location,
+                        *root_version_number,
+                        &inspection,
+                    )
+                })
+                .await?;
+        }
+        Ok(inspection.into_inner().unwrap())
+    }
+
+    /// The `_fri/<map_id>/` row maps a branch manifest's tagged FRI entry
+    /// resolves into THIS dataset's base: stable-partition mappings whose
+    /// `base_id` names the parent (a branch clone's relocated entry keeps
+    /// reading the parent's row maps in place). The entry's own details are
+    /// read base-aware, exactly as a reader on the branch would.
+    async fn branch_frag_reuse_parent_map_ids(
+        &self,
+        branch_root: &Path,
+        manifest: &Manifest,
+        entry: &IndexMetadata,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+        use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::Mapping;
+
+        let details = entry
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .filter(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("FragmentReuseIndexDetails"))
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Index details is not for the fragment reuse index"))?;
+        let content =
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::extract_raw_frag_reuse_content(details, |file| async move {
+                let end = file
+                    .offset
+                    .checked_add(file.size)
+                    .and_then(|n| usize::try_from(n).ok())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI details", "external FRI range overflow")
+                    })?;
+                let (store, indices_dir) = match entry.base_id {
+                    None => (None, branch_root.clone().join(crate::dataset::INDICES_DIR)),
+                    Some(id) => {
+                        let base_path = manifest.base_paths.get(&id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "base_path id {} not found for index {}",
+                                id, entry.uuid
+                            ))
+                        })?;
+                        let path = base_path.extract_path(self.dataset.session.store_registry())?;
+                        let dir = if base_path.is_dataset_root {
+                            path.join(crate::dataset::INDICES_DIR)
+                        } else {
+                            path
+                        };
+                        let store = if base_path.path == self.dataset.uri {
+                            None
+                        } else {
+                            // Foreign bases are opened with default store
+                            // params; per-base credentials are not plumbed
+                            // through cleanup (see
+                            // <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/6093>).
+                            Some(
+                                lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+                                    self.dataset.session.store_registry(),
+                                    &base_path.path,
+                                    &Default::default(),
+                                )
+                                .await?
+                                .0,
+                            )
+                        };
+                        (store, dir)
+                    }
+                };
+                let path = indices_dir
+                    .join(entry.uuid.to_string())
+                    .join(file.path.as_str());
+                let store = store.as_deref().unwrap_or(&self.dataset.object_store);
+                store
+                    .open(&path)
+                    .await?
+                    .get_range(file.offset as usize..end)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(Error::from)
+            })
+            .await?;
+        let ledger = crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(
+            entry.index_version,
+            &content,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "the branch's tagged FRI history carries transitions this client cannot interpret",
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(ledger
+            .transitions()
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|transition| match transition.mapping() {
+                Mapping::StablePartition(partition) => partition
+                    .base_id
+                    .and_then(|id| manifest.base_paths.get(&id))
+                    .filter(|base_path| base_path.path == self.dataset.uri)
+                    .map(|_| partition.map_id.clone()),
+                _ => None,
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    async fn process_branch_referenced_manifests(
+        &self,
+        branch_root: &Path,
+        location: ManifestLocation,
+        referenced_version: u64,
+        inspection: &Mutex<CleanupInspection>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let manifest =
+            read_manifest(&self.dataset.object_store, &location.path, location.size).await?;
+        ensure_can_read_manifest(&manifest)?;
+        ensure_can_write_manifest(&manifest)?;
+        let managed_referenced = if manifest.has_managed_blobs() {
+            let snapshot = self
+                .dataset
+                .checkout_version((manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some(manifest.version)))
+                .await?;
+            self.inspect_managed_blobs(&snapshot, true, inspection)
+                .await?
+        } else {
+            false
+        };
+        let indexes =
+            read_manifest_indexes(&self.dataset.object_store, &location, &manifest).await?;
+
+        // Resolve tagged FRI references into the parent before taking the
+        // lock (content reads are async). A history this client cannot
+        // interpret disables `_fri/` GC for the whole run: it may reference
+        // parent row maps invisibly.
+        let mut branch_parent_map_ids: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
+        let mut fri_unresolvable = false;
+        for index in indexes.iter() {
+            if index.name == lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME
+                && index.index_version != 0
+            {
+                match self
+                    .branch_frag_reuse_parent_map_ids(branch_root, &manifest, index)
+                    .await
+                {
+                    Ok(map_ids) => branch_parent_map_ids.extend(map_ids),
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        warn!(
+                            entry_uuid = %index.uuid,
+                            error = %error,
+                            "Cannot resolve the row-map references of a branch's fragment \
+                             reuse index entry; skipping _fri garbage collection for this run"
+                        );
+                        fri_unresolvable = true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut inspection = inspection.lock().unwrap();
+        let mut is_referenced = managed_referenced;
+
+        for fragment in manifest.fragments.iter() {
+            for file in fragment.referenced_lance_files() {
+                if let Some(base_id) = file.base_id {
+                    let base_path = manifest.base_paths.get(&base_id);
+                    if let Some(base_path) = base_path
+                        && base_path.path == self.dataset.uri
+                    {
+                        let full_data_path =
+                            self.dataset.data_dir().clone().join(file.path.as_str());
+                        let relative_data_path = remove_prefix(&full_data_path, &self.dataset.base);
+                        inspection
+                            .verified_files
+                            .data_paths
+                            .remove(&relative_data_path);
+                        inspection
+                            .referenced_files
+                            .data_paths
+                            .insert(relative_data_path);
+                        is_referenced = true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if let Some(del_file) = fragment.deletion_file.as_ref()
+                && let Some(base_id) = del_file.base_id
+            {
+                let base_path = manifest.base_paths.get(&base_id);
+                if let Some(base_path) = base_path {
+                    let deletion_path = fragment.deletion_file.as_ref().map(|deletion_file| {
+                        deletion_file_path(&self.dataset.base, fragment.id, deletion_file)
+                    });
+                    if base_path.path == self.dataset.uri {
+                        if let Some(deletion_path) = deletion_path {
+                            let relative_del_path =
+                                remove_prefix(&deletion_path, &self.dataset.base);
+                            inspection
+                                .verified_files
+                                .delete_paths
+                                .remove(&relative_del_path);
+                            inspection
+                                .referenced_files
+                                .delete_paths
+                                .insert(relative_del_path);
+                        }
+                        is_referenced = true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        for index in indexes {
+            if let Some(base_id) = index.base_id {
+                let base_path = manifest.base_paths.get(&base_id);
+                if let Some(base_path) = base_path
+                    && base_path.path == self.dataset.uri
+                {
+                    let uuid_str = index.uuid.to_string();
+                    inspection.verified_files.index_uuids.remove(&uuid_str);
+                    inspection.referenced_files.index_uuids.insert(uuid_str);
+                    is_referenced = true;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if fri_unresolvable {
+            inspection.skip_frag_reuse_gc = true;
+        }
+        // The branch's relocated FRI entry keeps translating through row
+        // maps that live in the parent's `_fri/`; those maps are part of the
+        // working set for as long as the branch's history references them.
+        for map_id in branch_parent_map_ids {
+            inspection.verified_files.frag_reuse_map_ids.remove(&map_id);
+            inspection
+                .referenced_files
+                .frag_reuse_map_ids
+                .insert(map_id);
+            is_referenced = true;
+        }
+        if is_referenced {
+            inspection
+                .old_manifests
+                .retain(|_path, expired| expired.version != referenced_version);
+            // Kept on disk, so its record stays too.
+            inspection.retired_records.remove(&referenced_version);
+            // The rescued parent manifest's own FRI entries join the working
+            // set with it: their row maps become referenced, not merely
+            // verified, when `resolve_frag_reuse_map_ids` decodes them.
+            if let Some(uuids) = inspection
+                .frag_reuse_entry_versions
+                .get(&referenced_version)
+            {
+                for uuid in uuids.clone() {
+                    if let Some(entry) = inspection.frag_reuse_entries.get_mut(&uuid) {
+                        entry.1 = true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Size of an expired manifest, for `bytes_removed`.
+///
+/// `known` is what the listing reported. The HEAD fallback only runs when the listing did
+/// not say, because issuing it unconditionally costs a request per expired manifest.
+///
+/// A manifest that has already vanished counts as zero rather than failing. Cleanup lists
+/// first and acts after, so a concurrent cleanup can remove one in between — and that is
+/// the outcome this sweep wanted. Propagating `NotFound` here would abandon an entire
+/// sweep over a single file that is already in the desired state.
+async fn expired_manifest_size(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    path: &Path,
+    known: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    match known {
+        Some(size_bytes) => Ok(size_bytes),
+        None => match object_store.size(path).await {
+            Ok(size_bytes) => Ok(size_bytes),
+            Err(error) if error.is_not_found() => Ok(0),
+            Err(error) => Err(error),
+        },
+    }
+}
+
+/// The interval between delete permits for a `delete_rate_limit` of `rate` requests/s.
+///
+/// One permit issues exactly one `delete`, so the interval is the reciprocal of the
+/// rate. Scaling it by a bulk-delete batch size would only be correct if a permit
+/// covered a whole batch; nothing coalesces paths into a single request, so doing so
+/// lets the limiter issue `batch_size` times the configured rate.
+fn calculate_duration(rate: u64) -> Duration {
+    let effective_rate = rate.max(1);
+    info!(
+        "delete_rate_limit enabled: limit {} delete requests/sec",
+        effective_rate
+    );
+    Duration::from_nanos(1_000_000_000u64.div_ceil(effective_rate).max(1))
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct CleanupPolicy {
+    /// If not none, cleanup all versions before the specified timestamp.
+    pub before_timestamp: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
+    /// If not none, cleanup all versions before the specified version.
+    pub before_version: Option<u64>,
+    /// If not none, cleanup only the specified versions.
+    pub versions: Option<HashSet<u64>>,
+    /// If true, delete unverified data files even if they are recent
+    pub delete_unverified: bool,
+    /// If true, return an Error if a tagged version is old
+    pub error_if_tagged_old_versions: bool,
+    /// If clean the referenced branches
+    pub clean_referenced_branches: bool,
+    /// Maximum number of delete requests per second. If None, no rate limiting is applied.
+    ///
+    /// Use this to avoid hitting S3 (or other object store) request rate limits during
+    /// cleanup. Cleanup deletes one path per request, so this is also the number of
+    /// paths removed per second. For example, `Some(100)` limits deletions to 100
+    /// delete requests per second.
+    pub delete_rate_limit: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+impl CleanupPolicy {
+    pub fn should_clean(&self, manifest: &Manifest) -> bool {
+        let mut should_clean = true;
+        if let Some(before_timestamp) = self.before_timestamp {
+            should_clean &= manifest.timestamp() < before_timestamp;
+        }
+        if let Some(before_version) = self.before_version {
             should_clean &= manifest.version < before_version;
         }
+        if let Some(versions) = self.versions.as_ref() {
+            should_clean &= versions.contains(&manifest.version);
+        }
         should_clean
     }
 }
@@ -574,8 +1966,11 @@ impl Default for CleanupPolicy {
         Self {
             before_timestamp: None,
             before_version: None,
+            versions: None,
             delete_unverified: false,
             error_if_tagged_old_versions: true,
+            clean_referenced_branches: false,
+            delete_rate_limit: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -586,15 +1981,48 @@ pub struct CleanupPolicyBuilder {
 }
 
 impl CleanupPolicyBuilder {
+    /// If auto clean referenced branches.
+    pub fn clean_referenced_branches(mut self, clean_referenced_branches: bool) -> Self {
+        self.policy.clean_referenced_branches = clean_referenced_branches;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Cleanup all versions before the specified timestamp.
     pub fn before_timestamp(mut self, timestamp: DateTime<Utc>) -> Self {
         self.policy.before_timestamp = Some(timestamp);
         self
     }
 
+    /// Cleanup only the specified dataset versions.
+    ///
+    /// This is an exact-version filter. If other policy filters are also
+    /// configured, a manifest is removed only when it satisfies all of them.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if `versions` is empty.
+    pub fn versions(mut self, versions: Vec<u64>) -> Result<Self> {
+        if versions.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "versions must not be empty when specified",
+            ));
+        }
+        self.policy.versions = Some(versions.into_iter().collect());
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
     /// Cleanup all versions except the last `n` versions of the dataset.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if `n` is zero.
     pub async fn retain_n_versions(mut self, dataset: &Dataset, n: usize) -> Result<Self> {
-        let versions = dataset.versions().await?;
+        if n == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "retain_versions must be greater than 0, got {n}"
+            )));
+        }
+        let versions = dataset.version_refs().await?;
         self.policy.before_version = if versions.len() <= n {
             Some(versions[0].version)
         } else {
@@ -623,6 +2051,25 @@ impl CleanupPolicyBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Limit the number of delete requests per second during cleanup.
+    ///
+    /// By default (None), deletions run at full speed. Set this to a positive value to
+    /// throttle deletions and avoid hitting object store request rate limits (e.g. S3 HTTP 503).
+    /// On backends with bulk delete APIs, effective path throughput scales with batch size.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if `rate` is zero.
+    pub fn delete_rate_limit(mut self, rate: u64) -> Result<Self> {
+        if rate == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::Cleanup {
+                message: format!("delete_rate_limit must be greater than 0, got {}", rate),
+            });
+        }
+        self.policy.delete_rate_limit = Some(rate);
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
     pub fn build(self) -> CleanupPolicy {
         self.policy
     }
@@ -642,8 +2089,7 @@ pub async fn cleanup_old_versions(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     policy: CleanupPolicy,
 ) -> Result<RemovalStats> {
-    let cleanup = CleanupTask::new(dataset, policy);
-    cleanup.run().await
+    CleanupOperation::new(dataset, policy).execute().await
 }
 
 /// If the dataset config has `lance.auto_cleanup` parameters set,
@@ -656,6 +2102,58 @@ pub async fn auto_cleanup_hook(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     manifest: &Manifest,
 ) -> Result<Option<RemovalStats>> {
+    let policy = build_cleanup_policy(dataset, manifest).await?;
+    if let Some(policy) = policy {
+        Ok(Some(dataset.cleanup_with_policy(policy).await?))
+    } else {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+}
+
+/// This is trigger when a parent branch is cleaning and `clean_referenced_branches` is set as true
+/// For cascade branches, some cleanup parameters need be overridden.
+pub async fn cleanup_cascade_branch(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+) -> Result<Option<RemovalStats>> {
+    Ok(
+        cleanup_cascade_branch_run(dataset, manifest, CleanupAction::Execute, HashSet::new())
+            .await?
+            .map(|result| result.stats),
+    )
+}
+
+async fn cleanup_cascade_branch_run(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    action: CleanupAction,
+    ignored_manifests: HashSet<Path>,
+) -> Result<Option<CleanupRunResult>> {
+    let policy = build_cleanup_policy(dataset, manifest).await?;
+    if let Some(mut policy) = policy {
+        policy.clean_referenced_branches = false;
+        policy.error_if_tagged_old_versions = false;
+        if action.deletes_files() {
+            info!(target: TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS, event=DATASET_CLEANING_EVENT, uri=&dataset.uri);
+        }
+        let cleanup = CleanupTask::new_with_ignored_manifests(
+            dataset,
+            policy,
+            action,
+            ignored_manifests,
+            true,
+            false,
+        );
+        Ok(Some(cleanup.run().await?))
+    } else {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+}
+
+pub async fn build_cleanup_policy(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+) -> Result<Option<CleanupPolicy>> {
     if let Some(interval) = manifest.config.get("lance.auto_cleanup.interval") {
         let interval: u64 = match interval.parse() {
             Ok(i) => i,
@@ -665,7 +2163,7 @@ pub async fn auto_cleanup_hook(
                         "Error encountered while parsing lance.auto_cleanup.interval as u64: {}",
                         e
                     ),
-                })
+                });
             }
         };
 
@@ -683,10 +2181,10 @@ pub async fn auto_cleanup_hook(
             Err(e) => {
                 return Err(Error::Cleanup {
                     message: format!(
-                    "Error encountered while parsing lance.auto_cleanup.older_than as std::time::Duration: {}",
-                    e
-                ),
-                })
+                        "Error encountered while parsing lance.auto_cleanup.older_than as std::time::Duration: {}",
+                        e
+                    ),
+                });
             }
         };
         let timestamp = utc_now() - TimeDelta::from_std(std_older_than).unwrap_or(TimeDelta::MAX);
@@ -698,16 +2196,48 @@ pub async fn auto_cleanup_hook(
             Err(e) => {
                 return Err(Error::Cleanup {
                     message: format!(
-                    "Error encountered while parsing lance.auto_cleanup.retain_versions as u64: {}",
-                    e
-                ),
-                })
+                        "Error encountered while parsing lance.auto_cleanup.retain_versions as u64: {}",
+                        e
+                    ),
+                });
             }
         };
         builder = builder.retain_n_versions(dataset, retain_versions).await?;
     }
+    if let Some(referenced_branch) = manifest.config.get("lance.auto_cleanup.referenced_branch") {
+        let clean_referenced: bool = match referenced_branch.parse() {
+            Ok(b) => b,
+            Err(e) => {
+                return Err(Error::Cleanup {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Error encountered while parsing lance.auto_cleanup.referenced_branch as bool: {}",
+                        e
+                    ),
+                });
+            }
+        };
+        // Map config to policy flag controlling whether referenced branches are cleaned
+        builder = builder.clean_referenced_branches(clean_referenced);
+    }
+    if let Some(delete_rate_limit) = manifest.config.get("lance.auto_cleanup.delete_rate_limit") {
+        let rate: u64 = match delete_rate_limit.parse() {
+            Ok(r) => r,
+            Err(e) => {
+                return Err(Error::Cleanup {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Error encountered while parsing lance.auto_cleanup.delete_rate_limit as u64: {}",
+                        e
+                    ),
+                });
+            }
+        };
+        builder = match builder.delete_rate_limit(rate) {
+            Ok(b) => b,
+            Err(e) => return Err(e),
+        };
+    }
 
-    Ok(Some(dataset.cleanup_with_policy(builder.build()).await?))
+    Ok(Some(builder.build()))
 }
 
 fn tagged_old_versions_cleanup_error(
@@ -736,29 +2266,42 @@ fn tagged_old_versions_cleanup_error(
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+    use std::{
+        collections::HashMap,
+        sync::{
+            Arc, Mutex,
+            atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+        },
+    };
 
     use super::*;
-    use crate::blob::{blob_field, BlobArrayBuilder};
+    use crate::blob::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use crate::{
-        dataset::{builder::DatasetBuilder, ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams},
+        dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
+        dataset::{AutoCleanupParams, ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams, builder::DatasetBuilder},
         index::vector::VectorIndexParams,
     };
     use all_asserts::{assert_gt, assert_lt};
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader};
+    use arrow::compute;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, UInt64Array,
+    };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
     use datafusion::common::assert_contains;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_core::utils::testing::{ProxyObjectStore, ProxyObjectStorePolicy};
-    use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
     use lance_io::object_store::{
         ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry, WrappingObjectStore,
     };
     use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
     use lance_table::io::commit::RenameCommitHandler;
-    use lance_testing::datagen::{some_batch, BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
+    use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32, RandomVector, some_batch};
     use mock_instant::thread_local::MockClock;
-    use snafu::location;
+    use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
 
     #[derive(Debug)]
     struct MockObjectStore {
@@ -774,6 +2317,15 @@ mod tests {
         ) -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
             Arc::new(ProxyObjectStore::new(original, self.policy.clone()))
         }
+
+        // Injects behaviour into every request, so a listing must not go around it.
+        fn wrap_paginated(
+            &self,
+            _store_prefix: &str,
+            _original: Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>,
+        ) -> Option<Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>> {
+            None
+        }
     }
 
     impl MockObjectStore {
@@ -811,7 +2363,7 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
-    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Clone, Copy)]
     struct FileCounts {
         num_data_files: usize,
         num_manifest_files: usize,
@@ -824,7 +2376,7 @@ mod tests {
     struct MockDatasetFixture {
         // This is a temporary directory that will be deleted when the fixture
         // is dropped
-        _tmpdir: TempStrDir,
+        tmpdir: TempStrDir,
         dataset_path: String,
         mock_store: Arc<MockObjectStore>,
     }
@@ -833,14 +2385,30 @@ mod tests {
         fn try_new() -> Result<Self> {
             let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
             let tmpdir_path = tmpdir.as_str();
-            let dataset_path = format!("{}/my_db", tmpdir_path);
+            // Use file-object-store:// scheme so that writes go through the ObjectStore
+            // wrapper chain (MockObjectStore) instead of the optimized local writer path.
+            // The path must always start with "/" (three slashes after the scheme) so that
+            // on Windows, a drive letter like "C:" isn't parsed as the URL authority.
+            let path_prefix = if tmpdir_path.starts_with('/') {
+                ""
+            } else {
+                "/"
+            };
+            let dataset_path = format!("file-object-store://{path_prefix}{tmpdir_path}/my_db");
             Ok(Self {
-                _tmpdir: tmpdir,
+                tmpdir,
                 dataset_path,
                 mock_store: Arc::new(MockObjectStore::new()),
             })
         }
 
+        fn local_index_dir(&self, uuid: Uuid) -> std::path::PathBuf {
+            std::path::Path::new(self.tmpdir.as_str())
+                .join("my_db")
+                .join(crate::dataset::INDICES_DIR)
+                .join(uuid.to_string())
+        }
+
         fn os_params(&self) -> ObjectStoreParams {
             ObjectStoreParams {
                 object_store_wrapper: Some(self.mock_store.clone()),
@@ -876,6 +2444,24 @@ mod tests {
             self.write_some_data_impl(WriteMode::Create).await
         }
 
+        // Auto-cleanup is disabled by default; this helper creates a dataset
+        // with auto-cleanup enabled using the default interval/older_than.
+        async fn create_some_data_with_auto_cleanup(&self) -> Result<()> {
+            Dataset::write(
+                some_batch(),
+                &self.dataset_path,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    store_params: Some(self.os_params()),
+                    commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+                    mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                    auto_cleanup: Some(AutoCleanupParams::default()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
         async fn overwrite_some_data(&self) -> Result<()> {
             self.write_some_data_impl(WriteMode::Overwrite).await
         }
@@ -927,11 +2513,8 @@ mod tests {
             policy.set_before_policy(
                 "block_commit",
                 Arc::new(|op, _| -> Result<()> {
-                    if op.contains("copy") {
-                        return Err(Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Copy blocked".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                    if op.contains("copy") || op.contains("rename") {
+                        return Err(Error::internal("Commit blocked".to_string()));
                     }
                     Ok(())
                 }),
@@ -944,10 +2527,7 @@ mod tests {
                 "block_delete_manifest",
                 Arc::new(|op, path| -> Result<()> {
                     if op.contains("delete") && path.extension() == Some("manifest") {
-                        Err(Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Delete manifest blocked".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })
+                        Err(Error::internal("Delete manifest blocked".to_string()))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
@@ -976,6 +2556,14 @@ mod tests {
             cleanup_old_versions(&db, policy).await
         }
 
+        async fn explain_cleanup_with_policy(
+            &self,
+            policy: CleanupPolicy,
+        ) -> Result<CleanupExplanation> {
+            let db = self.open().await?;
+            db.cleanup(policy).explain().await
+        }
+
         async fn run_cleanup_with_override(
             &self,
             before: DateTime<Utc>,
@@ -1005,6 +2593,35 @@ mod tests {
             Ok(Box::new(ds))
         }
 
+        // Load the fixture's dataset.
+        async fn load(&self) -> Result<Dataset> {
+            self.load_dataset(&self.dataset_path).await
+        }
+
+        // Helper to load a dataset with the mock store configured.
+        async fn load_dataset(&self, uri: &str) -> Result<Dataset> {
+            DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+                .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                    store_options: Some(self.os_params()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .load()
+                .await
+        }
+
+        // Helper to create a branch and load it as a Dataset.
+        async fn create_branch_and_load<V: Into<crate::dataset::refs::Ref>>(
+            &self,
+            from_dataset: &mut Dataset,
+            branch_name: &str,
+            source_ref: V,
+        ) -> Result<Dataset> {
+            let branch_ds = from_dataset
+                .create_branch(branch_name, source_ref, Some(self.os_params()))
+                .await?;
+            self.load_dataset(&branch_ds.uri).await
+        }
+
         async fn count_files(&self) -> Result<FileCounts> {
             let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
             let (os, path) =
@@ -1055,6 +2672,64 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    async fn write_dummy_index_artifact(dataset: &Dataset, uuid: Uuid) -> Result<()> {
+        let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(uuid.to_string());
+        dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .put(&index_dir.clone().join("index.idx"), b"idx")
+            .await?;
+        dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .put(&index_dir.clone().join("auxiliary.idx"), b"aux")
+            .await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn write_dummy_staging_partial(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        staging_uuid: Uuid,
+        shard_uuid: Uuid,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let shard_dir = dataset
+            .indices_dir()
+            .join(staging_uuid.to_string())
+            .join(format!("partial_{}", shard_uuid));
+        dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .put(&shard_dir.clone().join("index.idx"), b"idx")
+            .await?;
+        dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .put(&shard_dir.clone().join("auxiliary.idx"), b"aux")
+            .await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn dummy_index_metadata(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        field_id: i32,
+        uuid: Uuid,
+        fragment_bitmap: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>,
+    ) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid,
+            name: "some_index".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: dataset.version().version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap.into_iter().collect()),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: IndexType::Vector.version(),
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
     fn blob_v2_batch(blob_len: usize) -> Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> {
         let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
         blobs.push_bytes(vec![0u8; blob_len]).unwrap();
@@ -1076,26 +2751,349 @@ mod tests {
         ))
     }
 
+    // Tiny dedicated objects make individual row retention observable without
+    // large payloads or partially live packed objects masking a missing reference.
+    fn managed_blob_batch() -> RecordBatch {
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"first").unwrap();
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"second").unwrap();
+        let field = blob_field("blob", false).with_metadata(HashMap::from([
+            ("ARROW:extension:name".into(), "lance.blob.v2".into()),
+            (
+                "lance-encoding:blob-inline-size-threshold".into(),
+                "0".into(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance-encoding:blob-dedicated-size-threshold".into(),
+                "1".into(),
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            field,
+        ]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+                blobs.finish().unwrap(),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::unprotected(None)]
+    #[case::tag(Some("tag"))]
+    #[case::branch(Some("branch"))]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn cleanup_unreferenced_data_files() {
-        // We should clean up data files that are only referenced
-        // by old versions.  This can happen, for example, due to
-        // an overwrite
+    async fn managed_cleanup_preserves_protected_rows(#[case] protection: Option<&str>) {
         let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
-        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
-        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
-
-        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
-
-        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-
-        let removed = fixture
-            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let batch = managed_blob_batch();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            &fixture.dataset_path,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                store_params: Some(fixture.os_params()),
+                data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.update_config([("before", "delete")]).await.unwrap();
+        let protected_version = dataset.version_id();
+        let protected = match protection {
+            Some("tag") => {
+                dataset
+                    .tags()
+                    .create("keep", protected_version)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                Some(dataset.clone())
+            }
+            Some("branch") => Some(
+                fixture
+                    .create_branch_and_load(&mut dataset, "keep", protected_version)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            ),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+        dataset.delete("id = 0").await.unwrap();
+        dataset.update_config([("after", "delete")]).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .cleanup(CleanupPolicy {
+                before_version: Some(dataset.version_id()),
+                error_if_tagged_old_versions: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            fixture.count_blob_files().await.unwrap(),
+            if protected.is_some() { 2 } else { 1 }
+        );
+        let values = Arc::new(dataset)
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            values[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"second"
+        );
+        if let Some(protected) = protected {
+            let values = Arc::new(protected)
+                .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob")
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                values[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+                b"first"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_cleanup_distinguishes_column_projections(
+        #[values(false, true)] keep_old: bool,
+    ) {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        let batch = managed_blob_batch();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            batch.schema().field(0).clone(),
+            batch.schema().field(1).clone(),
+            batch.schema().field(1).clone().with_name("other"),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                batch.column(0).clone(),
+                batch.column(1).clone(),
+                batch.column(1).clone(),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &fixture.dataset_path,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                store_params: Some(fixture.os_params()),
+                data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.update_config([("before", "drop")]).await.unwrap();
+        let old = dataset.clone();
+        if keep_old {
+            dataset
+                .tags()
+                .create("keep", dataset.version_id())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        dataset.drop_columns(&["other"]).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.update_config([("after", "drop")]).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fixture.count_blob_files().await.unwrap(), 4);
+        if keep_old {
+            // Both views are retained and share the physical file. Scanning the
+            // narrower view first must not hide the old view's second column.
+            let task = CleanupTask::new(&dataset, CleanupPolicy::default(), CleanupAction::Execute);
+            let inspection = Mutex::new(CleanupInspection::default());
+            task.inspect_managed_blobs(&dataset, true, &inspection)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            task.inspect_managed_blobs(&old, true, &inspection)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                inspection
+                    .lock()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .referenced_files
+                    .managed_blob_paths
+                    .len(),
+                4
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .cleanup(CleanupPolicy {
+                before_version: Some(dataset.version_id()),
+                error_if_tagged_old_versions: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            fixture.count_blob_files().await.unwrap(),
+            if keep_old { 4 } else { 2 }
+        );
+        let values = Arc::new(dataset)
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1], "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for (value, expected) in values
+            .iter()
+            .zip([b"first".as_slice(), b"second".as_slice()])
+        {
+            assert_eq!(
+                value.as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+                expected
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn managed_cleanup_deduplicates_reads_and_retries_failures() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        let batch = managed_blob_batch();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            &fixture.dataset_path,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                store_params: Some(fixture.os_params()),
+                data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.update_config([("version", "2")]).await.unwrap();
+        let reads = Arc::new(std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let read_count = reads.clone();
+        fixture.mock_store.policy.lock().unwrap().set_before_policy(
+            "count_descriptors",
+            Arc::new(move |op, path| {
+                if op.starts_with("get") && path.extension() == Some("lance") {
+                    read_count.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }),
+        );
+        let task = CleanupTask::new(&dataset, CleanupPolicy::default(), CleanupAction::Execute);
+        // Warm the session's file metadata cache, then measure one descriptor scan.
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            reads.store(0, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+            task.inspect_managed_blobs(&dataset, false, &Mutex::new(CleanupInspection::default()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let single_scan_reads = reads.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+        assert!(single_scan_reads > 0);
+        let inspection = Mutex::new(CleanupInspection::default());
+        for retained in [false, true] {
+            let before = reads.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+            let scans = (0..8).map(|_| task.inspect_managed_blobs(&dataset, retained, &inspection));
+            for result in futures::future::join_all(scans).await {
+                assert!(result.unwrap());
+            }
+            let after = reads.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+            assert_eq!(after - before, single_scan_reads);
+            task.inspect_managed_blobs(&dataset, retained, &inspection)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(reads.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst), after);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(inspection.lock().unwrap().managed_scans.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            inspection
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .referenced_files
+                .managed_blob_paths
+                .len(),
+            2
+        );
+
+        let file = dataset
+            .data_dir()
+            .join(dataset.manifest.fragments[0].files[0].path.as_str());
+        let saved = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .inner
+            .get(&file)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.object_store.inner.delete(&file).await.unwrap();
+        let before = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        let result = dataset
+            .cleanup(CleanupPolicy {
+                before_version: Some(dataset.version_id()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute()
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.unwrap_err().is_not_found());
+        assert_eq!(fixture.count_files().await.unwrap(), before);
+        assert_eq!(fixture.count_blob_files().await.unwrap(), 2);
+
+        // A missing expired descriptor must not publish successful completion.
+        let inspection = Mutex::new(CleanupInspection::default());
+        assert!(
+            !task
+                .inspect_managed_blobs(&dataset, false, &inspection)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            inspection
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .managed_scans
+                .values()
+                .all(|cell| cell.get().is_none())
+        );
+        dataset
+            .object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&file, saved.into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            task.inspect_managed_blobs(&dataset, false, &inspection)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+        dataset
+            .cleanup(CleanupPolicy {
+                before_version: Some(dataset.version_id()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fixture.count_blob_files().await.unwrap(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_unreferenced_data_files() {
+        // We should clean up data files that are only referenced
+        // by old versions.  This can happen, for example, due to
+        // an overwrite
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+
+        let removed = fixture
+            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
         let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 1);
+        assert_eq!(removed.data_files_removed, 1);
         assert_eq!(
             removed.bytes_removed,
             before_count.num_bytes - after_count.num_bytes
@@ -1116,6 +3114,117 @@ mod tests {
         assert_gt!(after_count.num_tx_files, 0);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_ignores_old_manifest_removed_after_listing() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+
+        let old_manifest = dataset
+            .commit_handler
+            .list_manifest_locations(&dataset.base, &dataset.object_store, false)
+            .try_filter(|location| future::ready(location.version == 1))
+            .try_next()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .object_store
+            .delete(&old_manifest.path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let cleanup = CleanupTask::new(
+            &dataset,
+            CleanupPolicyBuilder::default().build(),
+            CleanupAction::Execute,
+        );
+        cleanup
+            .process_manifest_file(
+                old_manifest,
+                &Mutex::new(CleanupInspection::default()),
+                &HashSet::new(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn explain_cleanup_does_not_delete_files() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_seconds(1).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .before_timestamp(utc_now())
+            .build();
+
+        let explanation = fixture
+            .explain_cleanup_with_policy(policy.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let after_preview_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Files are not actually removed when explaining cleanup.
+        assert_eq!(before_count, after_preview_count);
+        assert_eq!(explanation.read_version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(explanation.stats.old_versions, 1);
+        assert_eq!(explanation.stats.data_files_removed, 1);
+        assert_eq!(explanation.stats.transaction_files_removed, 1);
+        assert_gt!(explanation.stats.bytes_removed, 0);
+        assert!(!explanation.candidate_files.is_empty());
+        assert!(!explanation.candidate_files_truncated);
+
+        // Running cleanup with the same policy should remove the same files the
+        // explanation reported for this unchanged dataset.
+        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+        let after_cleanup_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            removed.bytes_removed,
+            before_count.num_bytes - after_cleanup_count.num_bytes
+        );
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, explanation.stats.old_versions);
+        assert_eq!(
+            removed.data_files_removed,
+            explanation.stats.data_files_removed
+        );
+        assert_eq!(removed.bytes_removed, explanation.stats.bytes_removed);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn every_removed_file_kind_contributes_its_bytes() {
+        // Each kind must contribute its size to `bytes_removed`, not merely increment its
+        // per-kind counter. Index files dominate some tables, so an undercount there makes
+        // cleanup look far less effective than it is; deletion and transaction files are
+        // individually small but numerous.
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_index().await.unwrap();
+        // Produces a deletion file that the overwrite below then orphans. The only data
+        // column here is a vector, so delete on the row id instead.
+        fixture.delete_data("_rowid < 20").await.unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        // Overwrite drops the index and the old fragments, leaving all of it unreferenced.
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let before = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup(utc_now()).await.unwrap();
+        let after = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_gt!(removed.index_files_removed, 0);
+        assert_gt!(removed.deletion_files_removed, 0);
+        assert_gt!(removed.transaction_files_removed, 0);
+        assert_gt!(removed.data_files_removed, 0);
+        assert_gt!(removed.old_versions, 0);
+        // The whole point: reported bytes match the storage delta exactly with every kind
+        // in the mix, so no kind is silently contributing zero.
+        assert_eq!(removed.bytes_removed, before.num_bytes - after.num_bytes);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn cleanup_blob_v2_sidecar_files() {
         let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
@@ -1239,8 +3348,11 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(after_count.num_tx_files, 2);
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::version_number(false)]
+    #[case::raw_main_alias(true)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn cleanup_error_when_tagged_old_versions() {
+    async fn cleanup_error_when_tagged_old_versions(#[case] use_main_alias: bool) {
         // We should not clean up old versions that are tagged.
         // This tests when `error_if_tagged_old_version=true`.
         // When `true`, no files should be cleaned and a `Error::CleanupError`
@@ -1252,8 +3364,31 @@ mod tests {
 
         let dataset = *(fixture.open().await.unwrap());
 
-        dataset.tags().create("old-tag", 1).await.unwrap();
-        dataset.tags().create("another-old-tag", 2).await.unwrap();
+        let reference = |version| {
+            if use_main_alias {
+                crate::dataset::refs::Ref::Version(Some("main".to_string()), Some(version))
+            } else {
+                crate::dataset::refs::Ref::VersionNumber(version)
+            }
+        };
+        dataset
+            .tags()
+            .create("old-tag", reference(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .tags()
+            .create("another-old-tag", reference(3))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .tags()
+            .update("another-old-tag", reference(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for tag in dataset.tags().list().await.unwrap().values() {
+            assert_eq!(tag.branch, None);
+        }
 
         MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
 
@@ -1268,7 +3403,10 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .err()
             .unwrap();
-        assert_contains!(cleanup_error.to_string(), "Cleanup error: 2 tagged version(s) have been marked for cleanup. Either set `error_if_tagged_old_versions=false` or delete the following tag(s) to enable cleanup:");
+        assert_contains!(
+            cleanup_error.to_string(),
+            "Cleanup error: 2 tagged version(s) have been marked for cleanup. Either set `error_if_tagged_old_versions=false` or delete the following tag(s) to enable cleanup:"
+        );
 
         dataset.tags().delete("old-tag").await.unwrap();
 
@@ -1277,7 +3415,10 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .err()
             .unwrap();
-        assert_contains!(cleanup_error.to_string(), "Cleanup error: 1 tagged version(s) have been marked for cleanup. Either set `error_if_tagged_old_versions=false` or delete the following tag(s) to enable cleanup:");
+        assert_contains!(
+            cleanup_error.to_string(),
+            "Cleanup error: 1 tagged version(s) have been marked for cleanup. Either set `error_if_tagged_old_versions=false` or delete the following tag(s) to enable cleanup:"
+        );
 
         dataset.tags().delete("another-old-tag").await.unwrap();
 
@@ -1344,6 +3485,49 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 1);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_deletes_data_files_newer_than_tagged_version() {
+        // A tag on an old version must not prevent cleanup from deleting data
+        // files that belong only to newer, untagged versions. The listing
+        // cutoff used to be the earliest retained manifest time; with a tag
+        // that pulled the cutoff backwards and skipped those newer files.
+        // After their manifests were removed they became permanent orphans
+        // (https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8705).
+        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(0));
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(1).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(2).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = *(fixture.open().await.unwrap());
+        dataset.tags().create("keep-v1", 1).await.unwrap();
+
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 3);
+
+        let removed = fixture
+            .run_cleanup_with_override(
+                utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap(),
+                None,
+                Some(false),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 1);
+        assert_eq!(removed.data_files_removed, 1);
+
+        let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_tx_files, 2);
+    }
+
     // Helper function to check that the number of files is correct.
     async fn check_num_files(fixture: &MockDatasetFixture, num_expected_files: usize) {
         let file_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
@@ -1365,7 +3549,7 @@ mod tests {
         // commit.
         let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
 
-        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data_with_auto_cleanup().await.unwrap();
 
         let dataset_config = &fixture.open().await.unwrap().manifest.config;
         let cleanup_interval: usize = dataset_config
@@ -1514,6 +3698,13 @@ mod tests {
             fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
             fixture.block_commits();
             assert!(fixture.append_some_data().await.is_err());
+            let dataset = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+            let blob_path = dataset.base.clone().join("_blobs").join("orphan.blob");
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .put(&blob_path, b"orphan")
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
             let age = if old_files {
                 TimeDelta::try_days(UNVERIFIED_THRESHOLD_DAYS + 1).unwrap()
@@ -1539,6 +3730,11 @@ mod tests {
             let should_delete = override_opt.unwrap_or(false) || old_files;
 
             let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.object_store.exists(&blob_path).await.unwrap(),
+                !should_delete,
+                "override={override_opt:?}, old_files={old_files}"
+            );
             assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
             assert_eq!(
                 removed.bytes_removed,
@@ -1553,23 +3749,97 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::head_error(Some(0))]
+    #[case::read_error(Some(1))]
+    #[case::missing_source(None)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn cleanup_old_index() {
+    async fn cleanup_preserves_child_after_source_manifest_failure(
+        #[case] fail_request: Option<usize>,
+    ) {
+        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::ZERO);
         let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
         fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
-        fixture.create_some_index().await.unwrap();
+        let mut parent = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+        let source_manifest = parent.manifest_location.path.clone();
+        let child = fixture
+            .create_branch_and_load(&mut parent, "child", (None, None))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected = child.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
         MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
         fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
 
-        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        // we store 2 files (index and quantized storage) for each index
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_index_files, 2);
-        // Two user data files
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 2);
-        // Creating an index creates a new manifest so there are 3 total
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 3);
-
-        let before = utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap();
+        let source_reads = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        if let Some(fail_request) = fail_request {
+            let source_reads = source_reads.clone();
+            fixture.mock_store.policy.lock().unwrap().set_before_policy(
+                "fail_branch_source",
+                Arc::new(move |operation, path| {
+                    // get_opts serves both HEAD (first) and the subsequent range read.
+                    if operation == "get_opts"
+                        && path == &source_manifest
+                        && source_reads.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst) == fail_request
+                    {
+                        return Err(Error::internal("transient branch source read"));
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }),
+            );
+        } else {
+            parent
+                .object_store
+                .inner
+                .delete(&source_manifest)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let before = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        let policy = CleanupPolicy {
+            before_version: Some(2),
+            error_if_tagged_old_versions: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy.clone()).await;
+        if let Some(fail_request) = fail_request {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert_contains!(error.to_string(), "transient branch source read");
+            assert_eq!(source_reads.load(Ordering::SeqCst), fail_request + 1);
+            let after = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(after.num_data_files, before.num_data_files);
+            assert_eq!(after.num_manifest_files, before.num_manifest_files);
+            fixture
+                .mock_store
+                .policy
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .clear_before_policy("fail_branch_source");
+            let retried = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(retried.data_files_removed, 0);
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(result.unwrap().data_files_removed, 0);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(child.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_old_index() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_index().await.unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        // we store 2 files (index and quantized storage) for each index
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_index_files, 2);
+        // Two user data files
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 2);
+        // Creating an index creates a new manifest so there are 3 total
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 3);
+
+        let before = utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap();
         let removed = fixture.run_cleanup(before).await.unwrap();
 
         let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
@@ -1628,268 +3898,3435 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn dont_clean_index_data_files() {
-        // Indexes have .lance files in them that are not referenced
-        // by any fragment.  We need to make sure the cleanup routine
-        // doesn't over-zealously delete these
+    async fn cleanup_collects_removed_file_metrics() {
         let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
-        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
-        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        let row_count = 512;
+        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
+            .col(Box::new(
+                IncrementingInt32::new().named("filter_me".to_owned()),
+            ))
+            .col(Box::new(RandomVector::new().named("indexable".to_owned())));
+
+        fixture
+            .create_with_data(data_gen.batch(row_count))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        fixture
+            .append_data(data_gen.batch(row_count))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
         fixture.create_some_index().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.delete_data("filter_me < 20").await.unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        fixture
+            .overwrite_data(data_gen.batch(row_count))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        fixture.delete_data("filter_me >= 40").await.unwrap();
 
         let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        let before = utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap();
-        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup(before).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
-        assert_eq!(removed.bytes_removed, 0);
-
+        let removed = fixture
+            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
         let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(before_count, after_count);
+        let data_files_removed = (before_count.num_data_files - after_count.num_data_files) as u64;
+        let transaction_files_removed =
+            (before_count.num_tx_files - after_count.num_tx_files) as u64;
+        let index_files_removed =
+            (before_count.num_index_files - after_count.num_index_files) as u64;
+        let deletion_files_removed =
+            (before_count.num_delete_files - after_count.num_delete_files) as u64;
+
+        assert_eq!(removed.data_files_removed, data_files_removed);
+        assert_eq!(removed.transaction_files_removed, transaction_files_removed);
+        assert_eq!(removed.index_files_removed, index_files_removed);
+        assert_eq!(removed.deletion_files_removed, deletion_files_removed);
+        assert_gt!(removed.data_files_removed, 0);
+        assert_gt!(removed.transaction_files_removed, 0);
+        assert_gt!(removed.index_files_removed, 0);
+        assert_gt!(removed.deletion_files_removed, 0);
     }
 
+    /// A branch reaches its parent's files through `base_id`, and
+    /// `retain_branch_lineage_files` promotes those into the parent's keep set. An
+    /// overlay inherited that way must be promoted too, or the parent deletes a
+    /// file the branch still reads.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn cleanup_failed_commit_data_file() {
-        // We should clean up data files that are written but the commit failed
-        // for whatever reason
+    async fn lineage_retention_covers_inherited_overlay_files() {
+        use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 
-        let mut fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
         fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
-        fixture.block_commits();
-        assert!(fixture.append_some_data().await.is_err());
-        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
 
-        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        // This append will fail since the commit is blocked but it should have
-        // deposited a data file
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 2);
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 1);
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_tx_files, 2);
+        // Give the parent an overlay, then branch from it: `shallow_clone` stamps
+        // the overlay's `base_id` so the branch resolves it against the parent.
+        let mut dataset = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+        let mut fragments: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
+            .collect();
+        let mut overlay_file = fragments[0].files[0].clone();
+        overlay_file.path = "overlay.lance".to_string();
+        fragments[0].overlays = vec![DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: overlay_file,
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0_u32]))),
+            committed_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        }];
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::Overwrite {
+                fragments,
+                schema: dataset.schema().clone(),
+                config_upsert_values: None,
+                initial_bases: None,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // All of our manifests are newer than the threshold but temp files
-        // should still be deleted.
-        let removed = fixture
-            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
+        let root_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let branch = fixture
+            .create_branch_and_load(&mut dataset, "child", (None, None))
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let branch_fragments = branch.get_fragments();
+        let inherited = &branch_fragments[0].metadata().overlays[0].data_file;
+        assert!(
+            inherited.base_id.is_some(),
+            "the branch must reach the parent's overlay through base_id"
+        );
 
-        let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
-        assert_eq!(
-            removed.bytes_removed,
-            before_count.num_bytes - after_count.num_bytes
+        // The parent's cleanup walks the branch's manifest and must promote that
+        // overlay out of `verified_files`.
+        let task = CleanupTask::new(
+            &dataset,
+            CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                .before_timestamp(utc_now())
+                .build(),
+            CleanupAction::Execute,
+        );
+        let inspection = task.process_manifests(&HashSet::new()).await.unwrap();
+        // Queue the branch root for removal on both sides; rescuing the
+        // manifest must rescue its store record with it.
+        let inspection = Mutex::new(inspection);
+        {
+            let mut queued = inspection.lock().unwrap();
+            queued.old_manifests.insert(
+                Path::from("_versions/root.manifest"),
+                ExpiredManifest {
+                    version: root_version,
+                    size_bytes: None,
+                },
+            );
+            queued
+                .retired_records
+                .insert(root_version, "root-identity".to_string());
+        }
+        task.process_branch_referenced_manifests(
+            &branch.base,
+            branch.manifest_location.clone(),
+            root_version,
+            &inspection,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let inspection = inspection.into_inner().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !inspection
+                .old_manifests
+                .values()
+                .any(|expired| expired.version == root_version)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !inspection.retired_records.contains_key(&root_version),
+            "a retained branch root must not be retired from authoritative history"
         );
+        let referenced_branches = task.find_referenced_branches().await.unwrap();
+        let inspection = task
+            .retain_branch_lineage_files(inspection, &referenced_branches, &HashSet::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(after_count.num_data_files, 1);
-        assert_eq!(after_count.num_manifest_files, 1);
-        assert_eq!(after_count.num_tx_files, 1);
+        let overlay_path = Path::from("data/overlay.lance");
+        assert!(
+            inspection
+                .referenced_files
+                .data_paths
+                .contains(&overlay_path),
+            "the inherited overlay must be promoted into the parent's keep set"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// A keep set built from `fragment.files` alone omits overlay data files, so
+    /// cleanup would delete live data.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn dont_cleanup_in_progress_write() {
-        // We should not cleanup data files newer than our threshold as they might
-        // belong to in-progress writes
+    async fn keep_set_covers_referenced_overlay_files() {
+        use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 
-        // For testing purposes we actually create these files with a failed write
-        // but the cleanup routine has no way of detecting this.  They should look
-        // just like an in-progress write.
-        let mut fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
-        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
         fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
-        fixture.block_commits();
-        assert!(fixture.append_some_data().await.is_err());
-
-        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
 
-        let removed = fixture
-            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
+        // The overlay file need not exist: the keep set comes from manifest
+        // metadata alone.
+        let mut dataset = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+        let mut fragments: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
+            .collect();
+        let mut overlay_file = fragments[0].files[0].clone();
+        overlay_file.path = "overlay.lance".to_string();
+        fragments[0].overlays = vec![DataOverlayFile {
+            data_file: overlay_file,
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0_u32]))),
+            committed_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        }];
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::Overwrite {
+                fragments,
+                schema: dataset.schema().clone(),
+                config_upsert_values: None,
+                initial_bases: None,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
+        let task = CleanupTask::new(
+            &dataset,
+            CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                .before_timestamp(utc_now())
+                .build(),
+            CleanupAction::Execute,
+        );
+        let inspection = task.process_manifests(&HashSet::new()).await.unwrap();
+        let kept: HashSet<&Path> = inspection
+            .referenced_files
+            .data_paths
+            .iter()
+            .chain(inspection.verified_files.data_paths.iter())
+            .collect();
+
+        let overlay_path = Path::from("data/overlay.lance");
+        assert!(
+            kept.contains(&overlay_path),
+            "the overlay's data file must be in the keep set, got {kept:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn dont_clean_index_data_files() {
+        // Indexes have .lance files in them that are not referenced
+        // by any fragment.  We need to make sure the cleanup routine
+        // doesn't over-zealously delete these
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_index().await.unwrap();
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        let before = utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap();
+        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup(before).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
         assert_eq!(removed.bytes_removed, 0);
 
         let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+
         assert_eq!(before_count, after_count);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn can_recover_delete_failure() {
-        // We want to make sure that an I/O error during the cleanup process doesn't
-        // prevent us from running cleanup again later.
-        let mut fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+    async fn cleanup_removes_preexisting_empty_index_directories() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
         fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
-        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
-        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
 
-        // The delete operation should delete the first version and its
-        // data file.  However, we will block the manifest file from getting
-        // cleaned up by simulating an I/O error.
-        fixture.block_delete_manifest();
+        let mut dataset = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("indexable").unwrap().id;
+        let stale_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let nested_stale_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let referenced_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(fixture.local_index_dir(stale_uuid)).unwrap();
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(
+            fixture
+                .local_index_dir(nested_stale_uuid)
+                .join("empty_nested_dir"),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(fixture.local_index_dir(referenced_uuid)).unwrap();
+
+        let referenced_index = dummy_index_metadata(&dataset, field_id, referenced_uuid, [0_u32]);
+        let create_index_tx = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![referenced_index],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(create_index_tx, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 2);
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        let real_now = std::time::SystemTime::now()
+            .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+            .unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(real_now + TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        let in_progress_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        write_dummy_index_artifact(&dataset, in_progress_uuid)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let in_progress_empty_dir = fixture
+            .local_index_dir(in_progress_uuid)
+            .join("empty_in_progress_dir");
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(&in_progress_empty_dir).unwrap();
 
-        assert!(fixture
+        let removed = fixture
             .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
             .await
-            .is_err());
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // This test currently relies on us sending in manifest files after
-        // data files.  Also, the delete process is run in parallel.  However,
-        // it seems stable to stably delete the data file even though the manifest delete fails.
-        // My guess is that it is not possible to interrupt a task in flight and so it still
-        // has to finish the buffered tasks even if they are ignored.
-        let mid_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(mid_count.num_data_files, 1);
-        assert_eq!(mid_count.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(removed.index_files_removed, 0);
+        assert!(!fixture.local_index_dir(stale_uuid).exists());
+        assert!(!fixture.local_index_dir(nested_stale_uuid).exists());
+        assert!(fixture.local_index_dir(referenced_uuid).exists());
+        assert!(fixture.local_index_dir(in_progress_uuid).exists());
+        assert!(in_progress_empty_dir.exists());
+    }
 
-        fixture.unblock_delete_manifest();
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::default_policy(false, true)]
+    #[case::delete_unverified(true, false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_applies_unverified_policy_to_fresh_empty_index_directory(
+        #[case] delete_unverified: bool,
+        #[case] should_preserve: bool,
+    ) {
+        let real_now = std::time::SystemTime::now()
+            .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+            .unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(real_now);
 
-        let removed = fixture
-            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        let in_progress_dir = fixture.local_index_dir(Uuid::new_v4());
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(&in_progress_dir).unwrap();
+
+        fixture
+            .run_cleanup_with_override(
+                utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap(),
+                Some(delete_unverified),
+                None,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 1);
-        assert_eq!(
-            removed.bytes_removed,
-            mid_count.num_bytes - after_count.num_bytes
-        );
-
-        assert_eq!(after_count.num_data_files, 1);
-        assert_eq!(after_count.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(in_progress_dir.exists(), should_preserve);
     }
 
+    #[cfg(unix)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn cleanup_and_retain_3_recent_versions() {
+    async fn cleanup_does_not_remove_empty_directory_through_index_symlink() {
         let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
         fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
-        let mut time = 10i64;
-        for _ in 0..4 {
-            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_seconds(time).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
-            time += 10i64;
-            fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
-        }
 
-        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 5);
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 5);
+        let outside = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let outside_empty_dir = outside.path().join("must_remain");
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(&outside_empty_dir).unwrap();
 
-        // Retain 3 recent versions
-        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
-            .retain_n_versions(&fixture.open().await.unwrap(), 3)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .build();
-        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+        let link_path = fixture.local_index_dir(Uuid::new_v4());
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(link_path.parent().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        std::os::unix::fs::symlink(outside.path(), &link_path).unwrap();
 
-        let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 2);
-        assert_eq!(
-            removed.bytes_removed,
-            before_count.num_bytes - after_count.num_bytes
-        );
+        fixture
+            .run_cleanup_with_override(utc_now(), Some(true), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(after_count.num_data_files, 3);
-        assert_eq!(after_count.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert!(outside_empty_dir.exists());
+        assert!(link_path.is_symlink());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn cleanup_before_ts_and_retain_n_recent_versions() {
+    async fn cleanup_old_replaced_segment_keeps_still_referenced_segments() {
         let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
         fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
-        let mut time = 1i64;
-        for _ in 0..4 {
-            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(time).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
-            time += 1i64;
-            fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
-        }
-
-        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 5);
-        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 5);
 
-        // Retain 3 recent versions before timestamp now - 6days
-        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
-            .before_timestamp(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(6).unwrap())
-            .retain_n_versions(&fixture.open().await.unwrap(), 3)
+        let mut dataset = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("indexable").unwrap().id;
+
+        let seg_a = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let seg_b = Uuid::new_v4();
+        write_dummy_index_artifact(&dataset, seg_a).await.unwrap();
+        write_dummy_index_artifact(&dataset, seg_b).await.unwrap();
+
+        let index_a = dummy_index_metadata(&dataset, field_id, seg_a, [0_u32]);
+        let index_b = dummy_index_metadata(&dataset, field_id, seg_b, [1_u32]);
+        let initial_tx = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_a.clone(), index_b.clone()],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(initial_tx, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
             .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .build();
-        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Retain 10 recent versions before timestamp now
-        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
-            .before_timestamp(utc_now())
-            .retain_n_versions(&fixture.open().await.unwrap(), 10)
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+
+        let seg_c = Uuid::new_v4();
+        write_dummy_index_artifact(&dataset, seg_c).await.unwrap();
+        let index_c = dummy_index_metadata(&dataset, field_id, seg_c, [2_u32]);
+        let replace_tx = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_c.clone()],
+                removed_indices: vec![index_a.clone()],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(replace_tx, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
             .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .build();
-        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Retain 3 recent versions before timestamp now - 1days
-        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
-            .before_timestamp(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(2).unwrap())
-            .retain_n_versions(&fixture.open().await.unwrap(), 3)
+        let removed = fixture
+            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
             .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .build();
-        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(removed.index_files_removed, 2);
+        assert!(!fixture.local_index_dir(seg_a).exists());
+        assert!(
+            !dataset
+                .object_store
+                .as_ref()
+                .exists(
+                    &dataset
+                        .indices_dir()
+                        .clone()
+                        .join(seg_a.to_string())
+                        .join("index.idx")
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .as_ref()
+                .exists(
+                    &dataset
+                        .indices_dir()
+                        .clone()
+                        .join(seg_b.to_string())
+                        .join("index.idx")
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .as_ref()
+                .exists(
+                    &dataset
+                        .indices_dir()
+                        .clone()
+                        .join(seg_c.to_string())
+                        .join("index.idx")
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_recent_replaced_index_with_short_retention() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.append_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("indexable").unwrap().id;
+        let old_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let current_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let old_index = dummy_index_metadata(&dataset, field_id, old_uuid, [0_u32, 1]);
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![old_index.clone()],
+                        removed_indices: vec![],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_minutes(1).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        let current_index = dummy_index_metadata(&dataset, field_id, current_uuid, [0_u32, 1]);
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![current_index],
+                        removed_indices: vec![old_index],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Model index artifacts whose storage timestamp is newer than the retained
+        // manifest. UUID verification must not be hidden by the manifest cutoff.
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_minutes(2).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        write_dummy_index_artifact(&dataset, old_uuid)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        write_dummy_index_artifact(&dataset, current_uuid)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let short_retention = TimeDelta::try_seconds(30).unwrap();
+        let removed = fixture
+            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - short_retention)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 3);
+        assert_eq!(removed.index_files_removed, 2);
+
+        let old_index_file = dataset
+            .indices_dir()
+            .join(old_uuid.to_string())
+            .join("index.idx");
+        let current_index_file = dataset
+            .indices_dir()
+            .join(current_uuid.to_string())
+            .join("index.idx");
+        assert!(
+            !dataset
+                .object_store
+                .as_ref()
+                .exists(&old_index_file)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .as_ref()
+                .exists(&current_index_file)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_old_uncommitted_index_artifacts() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+        let staging_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let shard_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let built_segment_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        write_dummy_staging_partial(&dataset, staging_uuid, shard_uuid)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        write_dummy_index_artifact(&dataset, built_segment_uuid)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+
+        let removed = fixture
+            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
+        assert_eq!(removed.index_files_removed, 4);
+        assert!(!fixture.local_index_dir(staging_uuid).exists());
+        assert!(!fixture.local_index_dir(built_segment_uuid).exists());
+        assert!(
+            !dataset
+                .object_store
+                .as_ref()
+                .exists(
+                    &dataset
+                        .indices_dir()
+                        .clone()
+                        .join(staging_uuid.to_string())
+                        .join(format!("partial_{}", shard_uuid))
+                        .join("index.idx"),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !dataset
+                .object_store
+                .as_ref()
+                .exists(
+                    &dataset
+                        .indices_dir()
+                        .clone()
+                        .join(built_segment_uuid.to_string())
+                        .join("index.idx"),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::aged(false, 10)]
+    #[case::delete_unverified(true, 1)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_failed_commit_data_file(
+        #[case] delete_unverified: bool,
+        #[case] cleanup_day: i64,
+    ) {
+        // We should clean up data files that are written but the commit failed
+        // for whatever reason
+
+        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(0));
+        let mut fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        // The failed write is newer than every manifest, so a retained-manifest
+        // listing cutoff must not hide it from the age and policy checks.
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(1).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        fixture.block_commits();
+        assert!(fixture.append_some_data().await.is_err());
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(cleanup_day).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        // Only 1 txn file: the failed commit's txn file was already cleaned up.
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_tx_files, 1);
+
+        let removed = fixture
+            .run_cleanup_with_override(
+                utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap(),
+                Some(delete_unverified),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
         let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 2);
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
+        assert_eq!(removed.data_files_removed, 1);
         assert_eq!(
             removed.bytes_removed,
             before_count.num_bytes - after_count.num_bytes
         );
-        assert_eq!(after_count.num_data_files, 3);
-        assert_eq!(after_count.num_manifest_files, 3);
+
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_tx_files, 1);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn cleanup_preserves_unmanaged_dirs_and_files() {
-        // Ensure cleanup does not delete unmanaged directories/files under the dataset root
-        // Uses MockDatasetFixture and run_cleanup_with_override to match other tests' style
-        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+    async fn dont_cleanup_in_progress_write() {
+        // We should not cleanup data files newer than our threshold as they might
+        // belong to in-progress writes
+
+        // For testing purposes we actually create these files with a failed write
+        // but the cleanup routine has no way of detecting this.  They should look
+        // just like an in-progress write.
+        let mut fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.block_commits();
+        assert!(fixture.append_some_data().await.is_err());
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+
+        let removed = fixture
+            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
+        assert_eq!(removed.bytes_removed, 0);
+        assert_eq!(removed.data_files_removed, 0);
+
+        let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before_count, after_count);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn can_recover_delete_failure() {
+        // We want to make sure that an I/O error during the cleanup process doesn't
+        // prevent us from running cleanup again later.
+        let mut fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
         fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
 
-        let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
-        let (os, base) =
-            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, &fixture.dataset_path, &fixture.os_params())
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        // The delete operation should delete the first version and its
+        // data file.  However, we will block the manifest file from getting
+        // cleaned up by simulating an I/O error.
+        fixture.block_delete_manifest();
 
-        // Create unmanaged directories/files under dataset root
-        let img = base.child("images").child("clip.mp4");
-        let misc = base.child("misc").child("notes.txt");
-        let branch_file = base.child("tree").child("branchA").child("data.bin");
-        os.put(&img, b"video").await.unwrap();
-        os.put(&misc, b"notes").await.unwrap();
-        os.put(&branch_file, b"branch").await.unwrap();
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 2);
 
-        // Create a temporary manifest file that should be cleaned
-        let tmp_manifest = base.child("_versions").child(".tmp").child("orphan");
-        os.put(&tmp_manifest, b"tmp").await.unwrap();
-        // Delete the _transactions directory so that we can test that if not_found err will be swallowed
-        os.remove_dir_all(base.child(TRANSACTIONS_DIR))
+        // A file that cannot be deleted is counted and skipped, not fatal: one
+        // transient failure must not discard a sweep over millions of objects.
+        let interrupted = fixture
+            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(interrupted.failed_deletes, 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            interrupted.old_versions, 0,
+            "a manifest that failed to delete is not a removed version"
+        );
 
-        fixture
-            .run_cleanup_with_override(utc_now(), Some(true), Some(false))
+        // Every candidate is attempted, so the data file goes even though the
+        // manifest delete fails. This no longer depends on buffering order.
+        let mid_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(mid_count.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(mid_count.num_manifest_files, 2);
+
+        fixture.unblock_delete_manifest();
+
+        let removed = fixture
+            .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Temp manifest file is managed by Lance and should be removed
-        assert!(!os.exists(&tmp_manifest).await.unwrap());
-        // Unrelated files must remain
-        assert!(os.exists(&img).await.unwrap());
-        assert!(os.exists(&misc).await.unwrap());
-        assert!(os.exists(&branch_file).await.unwrap());
+        let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            removed.bytes_removed,
+            mid_count.num_bytes - after_count.num_bytes
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_manifest_files, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::missing(true, 0)]
+    #[case::permission_denied(false, 2)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_handles_wrapped_delete_errors(
+        #[case] is_missing: bool,
+        #[case] expected_failed_deletes: u64,
+    ) {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        let data = || {
+            lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col(
+                    "id",
+                    lance_datagen::array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>(),
+                )
+                .into_reader_rows(2.into(), 1.into())
+        };
+        fixture.create_with_data(data()).await.unwrap();
+        fixture.append_data(data()).await.unwrap();
+        fixture.overwrite_data(data()).await.unwrap();
+
+        fixture.mock_store.policy.lock().unwrap().set_before_policy(
+            "concurrent_data_delete",
+            Arc::new(move |method, path| {
+                if method == "delete" && path.extension() == Some("lance") {
+                    if is_missing {
+                        // Simulate another cleanup removing the file after listing.
+                        std::fs::remove_file(lance_io::local::to_local_path(path))?;
+                        return Err(Error::not_found(path.to_string()));
+                    }
+                    return Err(Error::from(std::io::Error::new(
+                        std::io::ErrorKind::PermissionDenied,
+                        "cleanup delete denied",
+                    )));
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }),
+        );
+
+        let dataset = fixture.load().await.unwrap();
+        let logs = tempfile::NamedTempFile::new().unwrap();
+        let subscriber = tracing_subscriber::fmt()
+            .with_ansi(false)
+            .without_time()
+            .with_max_level(tracing::Level::WARN)
+            .with_writer(logs.reopen().unwrap())
+            .finish();
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(subscriber);
+        let stats = dataset
+            .cleanup_with_policy(
+                CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                    .versions(vec![1, 2])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .build(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.old_versions, 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats.failed_deletes, expected_failed_deletes);
+        assert_eq!(stats.data_files_removed, if is_missing { 2 } else { 0 });
+        assert_eq!(
+            fixture.count_files().await.unwrap().num_data_files,
+            if is_missing { 1 } else { 3 }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(fixture.count_rows().await.unwrap(), 2);
+        let output = std::fs::read_to_string(logs.path()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            output
+                .matches("failed to delete file; continuing and counting it")
+                .count(),
+            usize::from(!is_missing),
+            "missing files must be silent; other failures warn once per sweep: {output}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_rejects_retain_zero_versions() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let error = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .retain_n_versions(&fixture.open().await.unwrap(), 0)
+            .await
+            .err()
+            .expect("retaining zero versions should return an error");
+
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("retain_versions must be greater than 0, got 0"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn retain_n_versions_does_not_read_manifests() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .retain_n_versions(&dataset, 2)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .build();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+        assert_eq!(policy.before_version, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(io_stats.read_bytes, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_and_retain_3_recent_versions() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        let mut time = 10i64;
+        for _ in 0..4 {
+            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_seconds(time).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+            time += 10i64;
+            fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 5);
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 5);
+
+        // Retain 3 recent versions
+        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .retain_n_versions(&fixture.open().await.unwrap(), 3)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .build();
+        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+
+        let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            removed.bytes_removed,
+            before_count.num_bytes - after_count.num_bytes
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_data_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            fixture
+                .open()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .version_refs()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|version| version.version)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![3, 4, 5]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_specific_versions_only() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 3);
+
+        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .versions(vec![2])
+            .unwrap()
+            .build();
+        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 1);
+
+        let versions = fixture
+            .open()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .version_refs()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|version| version.version)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(versions, vec![1, 3]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_before_ts_and_retain_n_recent_versions() {
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        for time in (1i64..).take(4) {
+            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(time).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+            fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let before_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_data_files, 5);
+        assert_eq!(before_count.num_manifest_files, 5);
+
+        // Retain 3 recent versions before timestamp now - 6days
+        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .before_timestamp(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(6).unwrap())
+            .retain_n_versions(&fixture.open().await.unwrap(), 3)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .build();
+        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
+
+        // Retain 10 recent versions before timestamp now
+        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .before_timestamp(utc_now())
+            .retain_n_versions(&fixture.open().await.unwrap(), 10)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .build();
+        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 0);
+
+        // Retain 3 recent versions before timestamp now - 1days
+        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .before_timestamp(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(2).unwrap())
+            .retain_n_versions(&fixture.open().await.unwrap(), 3)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .build();
+        let removed = fixture.run_cleanup_with_policy(policy).await.unwrap();
+
+        let after_count = fixture.count_files().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            removed.bytes_removed,
+            before_count.num_bytes - after_count.num_bytes
+        );
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_data_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(after_count.num_manifest_files, 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_preserves_unmanaged_dirs_and_files() {
+        // Ensure cleanup does not delete unmanaged directories/files under the dataset root
+        // Uses MockDatasetFixture and run_cleanup_with_override to match other tests' style
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+        let (os, base) =
+            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(registry, &fixture.dataset_path, &fixture.os_params())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // Create unmanaged directories/files under dataset root
+        let img = base.clone().join("images").join("clip.mp4");
+        let misc = base.clone().join("misc").join("notes.txt");
+        let branch_file = base.clone().join("tree").join("branchA").join("data.bin");
+        os.put(&img, b"video").await.unwrap();
+        os.put(&misc, b"notes").await.unwrap();
+        os.put(&branch_file, b"branch").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create a temporary manifest file that should be cleaned
+        let tmp_manifest = base.clone().join("_versions").join(".tmp").join("orphan");
+        os.put(&tmp_manifest, b"tmp").await.unwrap();
+        // Delete the _transactions directory so that we can test that if not_found err will be swallowed
+        os.remove_dir_all(base.clone().join(TRANSACTIONS_DIR))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        fixture
+            .run_cleanup_with_override(utc_now(), Some(true), Some(false))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Temp manifest file is managed by Lance and should be removed
+        assert!(!os.exists(&tmp_manifest).await.unwrap());
+        // Unrelated files must remain
+        assert!(os.exists(&img).await.unwrap());
+        assert!(os.exists(&misc).await.unwrap());
+        assert!(os.exists(&branch_file).await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    // Lineage overview with annotated base versions:
+    // - branch1 is created from main@v1
+    // - branch4 is created from main@v2 (after main receives a second write)
+    // - dev/branch2 is created from branch1@latest
+    // - feature/nathan/branch3 is created from dev/branch2@latest
+    //
+    // ASCII lineage with versions:
+    //    main:v1 ──▶ branch1:v1 ──▶ dev/branch2:v2 ──▶ feature/nathan/branch3:v3
+    //        │
+    //    (main:v2) ──▶ branch4:v2
+    //
+    // Cleanup policy focus (unless explicitly overridden in a test):
+    // - retain_n_versions = 1: keep the latest manifest per branch
+    // - referenced branches: when enabled, protect parent files referenced by descendants
+    // - file counts reported per branch:
+    //   manifest: number of manifest files under _versions
+    //   data: .lance files under data directory
+    //   tx: .txn files count under _transactions
+    //   delete: deletion files count under _deletions
+    //   index: index files count under _indices
+    //
+    // Note: branch2 is stored as "dev/branch2"; comments may refer to it as branch2 for brevity.
+    // Important: auto_cleanup_hook uses policy derived from manifest config; it does not flip
+    // clean_referenced_branches unless tests call cleanup_old_versions with a custom policy.
+    struct LineageSetup {
+        main: BranchDatasetFixture,
+        branch1: BranchDatasetFixture,
+        branch2: BranchDatasetFixture,
+        branch3: BranchDatasetFixture,
+        branch4: BranchDatasetFixture,
+    }
+
+    impl LineageSetup {
+        /// Assert all branches and main are unchanged since last refresh.
+        pub async fn assert_all_unchanged(&mut self) {
+            self.main.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap();
+            self.branch1.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap();
+            self.branch2.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap();
+            self.branch3.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap();
+            self.branch4.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        /// Assert specified branches are unchanged.
+        pub async fn assert_unchanged(&mut self, branches: &[&str]) {
+            for &b in branches {
+                match b {
+                    "main" => self.main.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap(),
+                    "branch1" => self.branch1.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap(),
+                    "branch2" => self.branch2.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap(),
+                    "branch3" => self.branch3.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap(),
+                    "branch4" => self.branch4.assert_not_changed().await.unwrap(),
+                    _ => panic!("unknown branch: {}", b),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        pub async fn enable_auto_cleanup(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            let updates = [
+                ("lance.auto_cleanup.interval", "1"),
+                ("lance.auto_cleanup.retain_versions", "1"),
+                ("lance.auto_cleanup.referenced_branch", "true"),
+            ];
+            self.main.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.branch1.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.branch2.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.branch3.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.branch4.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.main.refresh().await?;
+            self.branch1.refresh().await?;
+            self.branch2.refresh().await?;
+            self.branch3.refresh().await?;
+            self.branch4.refresh().await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        pub async fn disable_auto_cleanup(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            let updates = [
+                ("lance.auto_cleanup.interval", None),
+                ("lance.auto_cleanup.retain_versions", None),
+                ("lance.auto_cleanup.older_than", None),
+            ];
+            self.main.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.branch1.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.branch2.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.branch3.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.branch4.dataset.update_config(updates).await?;
+            self.main.refresh().await?;
+            self.branch1.refresh().await?;
+            self.branch2.refresh().await?;
+            self.branch3.refresh().await?;
+            self.branch4.refresh().await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Build the lineage and configure per-branch auto-cleanup to retain latest version.
+    async fn build_lineage_datasets() -> Result<LineageSetup> {
+        let fixture = Arc::new(MockDatasetFixture::try_new()?);
+
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_seconds(1).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+
+        // Create main (initial write) with id and text columns for inverted index
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..50i32);
+        let texts = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..50i32).map(|i| format!("text_{}", i)));
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(texts)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &fixture.dataset_path,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                store_params: Some(fixture.os_params()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let mut main = BranchDatasetFixture::new(fixture.clone(), fixture.load().await?);
+        // Initial index creation and refresh counts
+        main.create_text_index().await?;
+        main.write_data().await?;
+
+        // Create branch1 from main@v1, then do an initial append + deterministic delete
+        let mut branch1 = BranchDatasetFixture::new(
+            fixture.clone(),
+            fixture
+                .create_branch_and_load(&mut main.dataset, "branch1", (None, None))
+                .await?,
+        );
+        branch1.write_data().await?;
+
+        // Create branch2 from branch1@latest
+        let mut branch2 = BranchDatasetFixture::new(
+            fixture.clone(),
+            fixture
+                .create_branch_and_load(&mut branch1.dataset, "dev/branch2", ("branch1", None))
+                .await?,
+        );
+        branch2.write_data().await?;
+
+        // Create branch3 from branch2@latest, initial append + delete
+        let mut branch3 = BranchDatasetFixture::new(
+            fixture.clone(),
+            fixture
+                .create_branch_and_load(
+                    &mut branch2.dataset,
+                    "feature/nathan/branch3",
+                    ("dev/branch2", None),
+                )
+                .await?,
+        );
+        branch3.write_data().await?;
+
+        // Create branch4 from a new version in main
+        main.write_data().await?;
+        let mut branch4 = BranchDatasetFixture::new(
+            fixture.clone(),
+            fixture
+                .create_branch_and_load(&mut main.dataset, "branch4", (None, None))
+                .await?,
+        );
+        branch4.write_data().await?;
+
+        let mut lineage = LineageSetup {
+            main,
+            branch1,
+            branch2,
+            branch3,
+            branch4,
+        };
+
+        lineage.disable_auto_cleanup().await?;
+        Ok(lineage)
+    }
+
+    // BranchDatasetFixture combines dataset with branch-specific state and file counting.
+    // It provides:
+    // - Shared fixture for temporary directory and mock store
+    // - Dataset holding for stateful operations (checkout, write, etc.)
+    // - File counting for cleanup verification
+    struct BranchDatasetFixture {
+        fixture: Arc<MockDatasetFixture>,
+        dataset: Dataset,
+        counts: FileCounts,
+    }
+
+    impl BranchDatasetFixture {
+        fn new(fixture: Arc<MockDatasetFixture>, dataset: Dataset) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                fixture,
+                dataset,
+                counts: FileCounts {
+                    num_manifest_files: 0,
+                    num_data_files: 0,
+                    num_tx_files: 0,
+                    num_delete_files: 0,
+                    num_index_files: 0,
+                    num_bytes: 0,
+                },
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Create a full-text index (Inverted) on the "text" column once.
+        // We only create this on main during dataset creation. Branches inherit the index configuration.
+        async fn create_text_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+            use lance_index::IndexType;
+            use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
+            let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+            self.dataset
+                .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+                .await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        // Append a batch, then read exactly one row and delete that row; finally optimize indices.
+        async fn append_delete_and_optimize_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            // Append a small batch with id and text columns
+            self.write_batch(5).await?;
+            // Delete the last row to create a deletion file
+            self.delete_last_row().await?;
+            // Optimize indices after write and delete
+            use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+            self.dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
+                .await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        // Append a batch with id and text columns.
+        async fn write_batch(&mut self, rows: i32) -> Result<()> {
+            use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+            use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+            use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+
+            let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..rows);
+            let texts = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..rows).map(|i| format!("text_{}", i)));
+            let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ]));
+            let batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(texts)]).unwrap();
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+            self.dataset
+                .append(
+                    reader,
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                        store_params: Some(self.fixture.os_params()),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await?;
+            self.dataset.checkout_latest().await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        // Delete the last row to generate a deletion file.
+        async fn delete_last_row(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            let batch = self.dataset.scan().with_row_id().try_into_batch().await?;
+            if batch.num_rows() > 0 {
+                let row_id_col = batch.column_by_name(lance_core::ROW_ID).unwrap();
+                let uint64_array = row_id_col.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>().unwrap();
+                let max_row_id = compute::max(uint64_array).unwrap_or(0);
+                self.dataset
+                    .delete(&format!("_rowid = {}", max_row_id))
+                    .await?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        // Update counters by listing authoritative branch directories instead of reading the latest manifest.
+        async fn refresh(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            use futures::TryStreamExt;
+            let branch_path = self.dataset.base.clone();
+
+            // Count files in a directory, filtering by optional extension(s).
+            async fn count_dir(
+                os: &ObjectStore,
+                dir: &Path,
+                exts: Option<&[&str]>,
+            ) -> Result<usize> {
+                let mut count = 0usize;
+                let mut s = os.read_dir_all(dir, None);
+                while let Some(meta) = s.try_next().await? {
+                    match exts {
+                        Some(exts) => {
+                            if let Some(e) = meta.location.extension()
+                                && exts.contains(&e)
+                            {
+                                count += 1;
+                            }
+                        }
+                        None => count += 1,
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(count)
+            }
+
+            let manifest_dir = branch_path.clone().join("_versions");
+            self.counts.num_manifest_files = count_dir(
+                &self.dataset.object_store,
+                &manifest_dir,
+                Some(&["manifest"]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+
+            // Transactions: count files under _transactions (extension .txn)
+            let txn_dir = branch_path.clone().join("_transactions");
+            self.counts.num_tx_files =
+                count_dir(&self.dataset.object_store, &txn_dir, Some(&["txn"]))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+
+            // Indices: count files under _indices
+            let idx_dir = branch_path.clone().join(crate::dataset::INDICES_DIR);
+            self.counts.num_index_files = count_dir(&self.dataset.object_store, &idx_dir, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_or(0);
+
+            // Deletions: count files under _deletions (extensions .arrow / .bin)
+            let del_dir = branch_path.clone().join("_deletions");
+            self.counts.num_delete_files = count_dir(
+                &self.dataset.object_store,
+                &del_dir,
+                Some(&["arrow", "bin"]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+
+            // Data files: count .lance files under data/
+            let data_dir = branch_path.clone().join(crate::dataset::DATA_DIR);
+            self.counts.num_data_files =
+                count_dir(&self.dataset.object_store, &data_dir, Some(&["lance"]))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn count_data(&self) -> Result<usize> {
+            use futures::TryStreamExt;
+            let mut count = 0usize;
+            let mut s = self.dataset.scan().try_into_stream().await?;
+            while let Some(_batch) = s.try_next().await? {
+                count += 1;
+            }
+            Ok(count)
+        }
+
+        // Strict equality assertion for all counters.
+        async fn assert_not_changed(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            let pre_counts = self.counts;
+            let pre_data_count = self.count_data().await?;
+
+            self.refresh().await?;
+            assert_eq!(
+                self.counts.num_manifest_files,
+                pre_counts.num_manifest_files
+            );
+            assert_eq!(self.counts.num_data_files, pre_counts.num_data_files);
+            assert_eq!(self.counts.num_tx_files, pre_counts.num_tx_files);
+            assert_eq!(self.counts.num_delete_files, pre_counts.num_delete_files);
+            assert_eq!(self.counts.num_index_files, pre_counts.num_index_files);
+            assert_eq!(self.count_data().await?, pre_data_count);
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        // Append, delete top row, and optimize indices.
+        async fn write_data(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            self.append_delete_and_optimize_index().await?;
+            self.refresh().await
+        }
+
+        // Compact files for a given branch and optimize indices to stabilize index files.
+        async fn compact(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+            compact_files(&mut self.dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None).await?;
+            self.refresh().await
+        }
+
+        async fn run_cleanup(&mut self) -> Result<RemovalStats> {
+            let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                .error_if_tagged_old_versions(false)
+                .retain_n_versions(&self.dataset, 1)
+                .await?
+                .build();
+            self.run_cleanup_inner(policy).await
+        }
+
+        async fn run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches(&mut self) -> Result<RemovalStats> {
+            let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                .error_if_tagged_old_versions(false)
+                .clean_referenced_branches(true)
+                .retain_n_versions(&self.dataset, 1)
+                .await?
+                .build();
+            self.run_cleanup_inner(policy).await
+        }
+
+        async fn explain_cleanup_with_referenced_branches(&mut self) -> Result<CleanupExplanation> {
+            let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                .error_if_tagged_old_versions(false)
+                .clean_referenced_branches(true)
+                .retain_n_versions(&self.dataset, 1)
+                .await?
+                .build();
+            self.dataset.checkout_latest().await?;
+            self.dataset.cleanup(policy).explain().await
+        }
+
+        async fn run_cleanup_inner(&mut self, policy: CleanupPolicy) -> Result<RemovalStats> {
+            let pre_count = self.count_data().await?;
+            self.dataset.checkout_latest().await?;
+            let stats = cleanup_old_versions(&self.dataset, policy).await;
+            self.refresh().await?;
+            // Assert data could be read again and did't change
+            assert_eq!(self.count_data().await?, pre_count);
+            stats
+        }
+    }
+
+    // ===================== Tests =====================
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_lineage_branch1() {
+        let mut setup = build_lineage_datasets().await.unwrap();
+
+        setup.branch1.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch2 and branch3 hold references from branch1:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data file
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // - 4 index files
+        // The left is the counts for the latest version of appending
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+        setup.assert_all_unchanged().await;
+
+        setup.branch1.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch2 and branch3 hold references from branch1:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data file
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // - 4 index files
+        // The left (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version of compaction
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+        setup.assert_all_unchanged().await;
+
+        // Now we clean the referenced files of branch1 by branch2 and branch3
+        setup.branch2.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version of compaction
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version of compaction
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        setup.branch1.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version of compaction
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        setup.assert_all_unchanged().await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_lineage_branch3() {
+        let mut setup = build_lineage_datasets().await.unwrap();
+
+        setup.branch3.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Two writes produced:
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 2 deletion files
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        setup
+            .assert_unchanged(&["branch1", "branch2", "branch4", "main"])
+            .await;
+
+        setup.branch2.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch3 hold references from branch2:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data file
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // The left is the counts for the latest version of compaction
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.branch3.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        setup
+            .assert_unchanged(&["branch1", "branch2", "branch4", "main"])
+            .await;
+
+        setup.branch2.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_lineage_branch4() {
+        // Setup shared lineage and per-branch auto-clean config
+        let mut setup = build_lineage_datasets().await.unwrap();
+
+        setup.branch4.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Two writes produced:
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 2 deletion files
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        setup.assert_all_unchanged().await;
+
+        setup.main.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.main.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch1-branch2 hold references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // - 4 index files
+        // Branch4 holds references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 3 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // - 4 index files
+        // The left(1, 1, 1, 0, 0) is the counts for the latest version of compaction
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+
+        setup.branch4.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts of one version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        setup.assert_all_unchanged().await;
+
+        setup.main.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch1-branch2 hold references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // - 4 index files
+        // The left(1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version of compaction
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_lineage_main() {
+        // Setup shared lineage and per-branch auto-clean config
+        let mut setup = build_lineage_datasets().await.unwrap();
+
+        setup.main.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.main.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch1-branch2 hold references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // - 4 index files(only for branch1)
+        // Branch4 holds references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 3 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // - 4 index files
+        // The left(1, 1, 1, 1, 4) is the counts for the latest version of compaction
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 21);
+        setup.assert_all_unchanged().await;
+
+        setup.main.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.main.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Cleanup the deletion file
+        // Produce 1 datafile and cleanup 1
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 21);
+        setup.assert_all_unchanged().await;
+
+        setup.branch1.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch3 holds references from branch2:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // Branch3 holds reference from branch1:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data files
+        // - 2 deletion files
+        // - 4 index files
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+        setup.branch1.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Cleanup 4 index files referenced from branch2
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.main.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch3 holds references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // Branch4 holds references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 3 data files
+        // - 2 deletion files
+        // - 4 index files
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+
+        setup.branch3.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the counts for the latest version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.main.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Cleanup doesn't take effects if we don't clean branch2 and branch1 first
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+
+        // Cleanup doesn't take effect if we don't clean branch2 first
+        setup.branch1.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.branch2.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.branch1.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.main.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch4 holds references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 3 data files
+        // - 2 deletion files
+        // - 4 index files
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+
+        setup.branch4.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.main.run_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts for the latest version
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn auto_clean_referenced_branches_from_branch2() {
+        // Setup shared lineage and per-branch auto-clean config
+        let mut setup = build_lineage_datasets().await.unwrap();
+
+        setup.branch3.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.enable_auto_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .branch2
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch3 holds references from branch2:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data file
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        // After auto-clean: branch3
+        // 2 appends produced 2 data files
+        // 2 deletes produced 2 deletion files
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        setup
+            .assert_unchanged(&["branch1", "branch4", "main"])
+            .await;
+
+        setup.disable_auto_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.enable_auto_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .branch2
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts of one version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        // Only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts of one version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        setup
+            .assert_unchanged(&["branch1", "branch4", "main"])
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn auto_clean_referenced_branches_from_main() {
+        let mut setup = build_lineage_datasets().await.unwrap();
+
+        setup.enable_auto_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        setup.main.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Branch3, branch2 and branch1 hold references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // Branch4 holds references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 3 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // - 4 index files
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.main.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Branch3, branch2 and branch1 hold references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        // Branch4 holds references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 3 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.branch4.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch3, branch2 and branch1 hold references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts of one version
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.branch1.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch3 and branch2 still hold references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        // Branch3 and branch2 still hold references from branch1:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.branch2.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        // Branch3 still holds references from main:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 2 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        // Branch3 still holds references from branch1:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        // Branch3 still holds references from branch2:
+        // - 1 manifest file
+        // - 1 data files
+        // - 1 deletion file
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.branch3.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        // For all branches, only the latest manifest is retained.
+        // (1, 1, 1, 0, 4) is the counts of one version
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        setup.assert_unchanged(&["branch4"]).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn explain_cleanup_with_referenced_branches_matches_cleanup() {
+        let mut setup = build_lineage_datasets().await.unwrap();
+
+        setup.enable_auto_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        setup.main.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.main.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.write_data().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.compact().await.unwrap();
+
+        setup.main.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        let main_counts_before = setup.main.counts;
+        let branch1_counts_before = setup.branch1.counts;
+        let branch2_counts_before = setup.branch2.counts;
+        let branch3_counts_before = setup.branch3.counts;
+        let branch4_counts_before = setup.branch4.counts;
+
+        let explanation = setup
+            .main
+            .explain_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        setup.main.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts, main_counts_before);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts, branch1_counts_before);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts, branch2_counts_before);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts, branch3_counts_before);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts, branch4_counts_before);
+
+        let removed = setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!explanation.referenced_branches.is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            explanation
+                .referenced_branches
+                .iter()
+                .any(|branch| branch.cleanup_candidate)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(explanation.stats, removed);
+        setup.branch1.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn auto_clean_referenced_branches_with_tags() {
+        let mut setup = build_lineage_datasets().await.unwrap();
+
+        setup
+            .branch3
+            .dataset
+            .tags()
+            .create("branch3-tag", setup.branch3.dataset.version().version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .dataset
+            .tags()
+            .create("main-tag", setup.main.dataset.version().version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        setup.branch1.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.main.compact().await.unwrap();
+        setup.enable_auto_cleanup().await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        // Two tags hold two manifest references
+        // Main tag holds 1 tx file, 3 data files, 2 deletion files and 4 index files
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 3);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+        // Branch3 tag holds branch1 with 1 tx file, 1 data files, 1 deletion files and 4 index files
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        // Branch3 tag holds branch2 with 1 tx file, 1 data files, 1 deletion files and 4 index files
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup
+            .branch3
+            .dataset
+            .tags()
+            .delete("branch3-tag")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup.branch1.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        // 1 manifest file referenced by branch3-tag is cleaned
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 4);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 2);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 14);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch1.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+
+        setup.main.dataset.tags().delete("main-tag").await.unwrap();
+        setup
+            .main
+            .run_cleanup_with_referenced_branches()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        setup.branch2.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch3.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        setup.branch4.refresh().await.unwrap();
+        // All cleaned up
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.main.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch2.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch3.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_manifest_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_data_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_tx_files, 1);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_delete_files, 0);
+        assert_eq!(setup.branch4.counts.num_index_files, 7);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::plain(false)]
+    #[case::wrapped(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn expired_manifest_size_tolerates_a_vanished_manifest(#[case] is_wrapped: bool) {
+        let wrapper = Arc::new(MockObjectStore::new());
+        let (store, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            "memory://",
+            &ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(wrapper.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let path = Path::from("_versions/1.manifest");
+        if is_wrapped {
+            wrapper.policy.lock().unwrap().set_before_policy(
+                "missing_manifest",
+                Arc::new(|_, path| Err(Error::not_found(path.to_string()))),
+            );
+        }
+
+        // A size the listing already reported costs no request at all.
+        assert_eq!(
+            expired_manifest_size(&store, &path, Some(42))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            42
+        );
+
+        // Unknown size and the object is gone: zero, not an error. A concurrent cleanup
+        // can remove a manifest between listing and here, and propagating NotFound would
+        // abandon the whole sweep over one file already in the state we wanted.
+        assert_eq!(expired_manifest_size(&store, &path, None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+
+        // A present object still reports its real size through the fallback.
+        wrapper
+            .policy
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .clear_before_policy("missing_manifest");
+        store.put(&path, b"1234".as_slice()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(expired_manifest_size(&store, &path, None).await.unwrap(), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_calculate_duration() {
+        // One permit is one delete request, so the interval is the reciprocal of the
+        // configured rate. Scaling by a bulk-delete batch size here would let the
+        // limiter issue batch_size times the rate the caller asked for: at 100
+        // requests/s an S3 multiplier of 1,000 would give 10us instead of 10ms.
+        assert_eq!(calculate_duration(100), Duration::from_millis(10));
+        assert_eq!(calculate_duration(1_000), Duration::from_millis(1));
+        assert_eq!(calculate_duration(1), Duration::from_secs(1));
+
+        // Edge case: rate too small is clamped to 1.
+        assert_eq!(calculate_duration(0), calculate_duration(1));
+
+        // Edge case: a rate finer than 1ns is clamped to 1ns.
+        assert_eq!(calculate_duration(2_000_000_000), Duration::from_nanos(1));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_cleanup_with_rate_limit() {
+        // Create multiple versions with data files that will be deleted.
+        let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+        fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        // Create several old versions
+        for _ in 0..4 {
+            fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+
+        // Set rate limit to 1 ops/second so cleanup of several files must take at least ~1s
+        let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .before_timestamp(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap())
+            .delete_rate_limit(1)
+            .unwrap()
+            .build();
+
+        let start = tokio::time::Instant::now();
+        let db = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+        let stats = cleanup_old_versions(&db, policy).await.unwrap();
+        let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+
+        // We deleted old versions, so there should be removed files
+        assert!(
+            stats.old_versions > 0,
+            "expected some old versions to be removed"
+        );
+        // With rate=1 and multiple files, it must take at least 2s
+        // (even just 2 deletions at 1/s means ≥2s)
+        assert!(
+            elapsed.as_millis() >= 2000,
+            "expected cleanup to be rate-limited (elapsed: {:?})",
+            elapsed
+        );
+    }
+
+    use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestStore;
+    use lance_table::io::commit::{ManifestLocation, ManifestNamingScheme};
+
+    /// `(path, size, identity)` per version.
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct IdentifiedStore {
+        rows: Mutex<HashMap<u64, (String, u64, String)>>,
+        next_identity: std::sync::atomic::AtomicU64,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl ExternalManifestStore for IdentifiedStore {
+        async fn get(&self, _base_uri: &str, version: u64) -> Result<String> {
+            self.rows
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .get(&version)
+                .map(|row| row.0.clone())
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("@{version}")))
+        }
+
+        async fn get_manifest_location(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+        ) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+            let row = self
+                .rows
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .get(&version)
+                .cloned()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("@{version}")))?;
+            Ok(ManifestLocation {
+                version,
+                path: Path::parse(&row.0).unwrap(),
+                size: Some(row.1),
+                naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                e_tag: None,
+                identity: Some(row.2),
+            })
+        }
+
+        async fn get_latest_version(&self, _base_uri: &str) -> Result<Option<(u64, String)>> {
+            Ok(self
+                .rows
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .max_by_key(|(version, _)| **version)
+                .map(|(version, row)| (*version, row.0.clone())))
+        }
+
+        async fn get_latest_manifest_location(
+            &self,
+            base_uri: &str,
+        ) -> Result<Option<ManifestLocation>> {
+            match self.get_latest_version(base_uri).await? {
+                Some((version, _)) => self
+                    .get_manifest_location(base_uri, version)
+                    .await
+                    .map(Some),
+                None => Ok(None),
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn put_if_not_exists(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+            path: &str,
+            size: u64,
+            _e_tag: Option<String>,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            let identity = format!(
+                "identity-{}",
+                self.next_identity
+                    .fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst)
+            );
+            let mut rows = self.rows.lock().unwrap();
+            if rows.contains_key(&version) {
+                return Err(Error::commit_conflict_source(version, "exists".into()));
+            }
+            rows.insert(version, (path.to_string(), size, identity));
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn put_if_exists(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+            path: &str,
+            size: u64,
+            _e_tag: Option<String>,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            let mut rows = self.rows.lock().unwrap();
+            let row = rows
+                .get_mut(&version)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_found(format!("@{version}")))?;
+            row.0 = path.to_string();
+            row.1 = size;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        fn supports_predecessor_condition(&self) -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+
+        async fn get_identity(&self, _base_uri: &str, version: u64) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+            Ok(self
+                .rows
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .get(&version)
+                .map(|row| row.2.clone()))
+        }
+
+        async fn list_versions(
+            &self,
+            base_uri: &str,
+            since: Option<u64>,
+        ) -> Result<Option<Vec<ManifestLocation>>> {
+            let versions: Vec<u64> = self.rows.lock().unwrap().keys().copied().collect();
+            let mut locations = Vec::new();
+            for version in versions {
+                if since.is_none_or(|since| version > since) {
+                    locations.push(self.get_manifest_location(base_uri, version).await?);
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(Some(locations))
+        }
+
+        async fn forget_version(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+            identity: &str,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            let mut rows = self.rows.lock().unwrap();
+            if rows.get(&version).is_some_and(|row| row.2 == identity) {
+                rows.remove(&version);
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Cleanup retires the store record of every manifest it removes, one
+    /// whose object was already gone included, so store-backed history
+    /// matches what is on disk.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cleanup_forgets_removed_versions_in_the_external_store() {
+        use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteDestination};
+        use lance_table::io::commit::CommitHandler;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::{
+            ExternalManifestCommitHandler, ExternalManifestStore,
+        };
+
+        let store = Arc::new(IdentifiedStore::default());
+        let handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler> = Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: store.clone(),
+        });
+        let uri = TempStrDir::default();
+        let batch = || arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [1, 2, 3])).unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(uri.as_str())
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![batch()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            dataset = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch()])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_versions().await.unwrap(), 3);
+
+        // Version 1's object is already gone, as after a cleanup that stopped
+        // before retiring records.
+        let v1 = Path::parse(store.get("", 1).await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        dataset.object_store.delete(&v1).await.unwrap();
+
+        cleanup_old_versions(
+            &dataset,
+            CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                .before_timestamp(chrono::Utc::now())
+                .build(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut remaining: Vec<u64> = store.rows.lock().unwrap().keys().copied().collect();
+        remaining.sort();
+        assert_eq!(remaining, vec![3]);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_versions().await.unwrap(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.versions().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// A manifest whose delete fails keeps its store record. A record outliving its
+    /// manifest is retired by the next cleanup; a manifest outliving its record is a
+    /// version nothing can find again.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_manifest_that_fails_to_delete_keeps_its_record() {
+        use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteDestination};
+        use lance_table::io::commit::CommitHandler;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestCommitHandler;
+
+        let store = Arc::new(IdentifiedStore::default());
+        let handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler> = Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: store.clone(),
+        });
+        let mock_store = Arc::new(MockObjectStore::new());
+        let os_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            object_store_wrapper: Some(mock_store.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let uri = TempStrDir::default();
+        let batch = || arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [1, 2, 3])).unwrap();
+        let params = |mode| WriteParams {
+            mode,
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            store_params: Some(os_params.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(uri.as_str())
+            .with_params(&params(WriteMode::Create))
+            .execute(vec![batch()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            dataset = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)))
+                .with_params(&params(WriteMode::Append))
+                .execute(vec![batch()])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_versions().await.unwrap(), 3);
+
+        mock_store.policy.lock().unwrap().set_before_policy(
+            "block_delete_manifest",
+            Arc::new(|op: &str, path: &Path| -> Result<()> {
+                if op.contains("delete") && path.extension() == Some("manifest") {
+                    Err(Error::internal("Delete manifest blocked".to_string()))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+            }),
+        );
+
+        let stats = cleanup_old_versions(
+            &dataset,
+            CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                .before_timestamp(chrono::Utc::now())
+                .build(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("a blocked manifest delete must not fail the sweep");
+
+        assert!(
+            stats.failed_deletes > 0,
+            "the blocked manifests are counted"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.old_versions, 0,
+            "a manifest still on disk is not a removed version"
+        );
+        // Every record survives, because every manifest survives.
+        let mut remaining: Vec<u64> = store.rows.lock().unwrap().keys().copied().collect();
+        remaining.sort();
+        assert_eq!(remaining, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+    }
+
+    /// D-rows: `_fri/` row-map garbage collection.
+    mod frag_reuse_map_gc {
+        use super::*;
+        use crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index;
+        use crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder;
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests as reader_tests;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        use chrono::TimeDelta;
+        use lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+        use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+        use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+        use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details as pb_fri;
+        use lance_table::transaction::RewriteGroup;
+        use prost::Message;
+
+        impl MockDatasetFixture {
+            /// The `_fri/<map_id>/` directories currently on disk.
+            async fn list_fri_map_dirs(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+                let registry = Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default());
+                let (os, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+                    registry,
+                    &self.dataset_path,
+                    &self.os_params(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                let mut ids = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+                let mut stream = os.read_dir_all(&path.clone().join("_fri"), None);
+                loop {
+                    match stream.try_next().await {
+                        Ok(Some(meta)) => {
+                            let relative = remove_prefix(&meta.location, &path);
+                            if let Some(map_id) = relative.parts().nth(1) {
+                                ids.insert(map_id.as_ref().to_string());
+                            }
+                        }
+                        Ok(None) => break,
+                        Err(Error::NotFound { .. }) => break,
+                        Err(e) => panic!("{e}"),
+                    }
+                }
+                let mut ids: Vec<String> = ids.into_iter().collect();
+                ids.sort();
+                ids
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn reserve_fragments(dataset: &mut Dataset, num_fragments: u32) {
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        /// A persisted dataset (mock store, recorded mtimes) with one
+        /// committed stable-partition rewrite; returns the map id of its
+        /// row map.
+        async fn make_tagged(fixture: &MockDatasetFixture) -> (Dataset, String) {
+            let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_reader_rows(
+                    lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4),
+                    lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+                );
+            Dataset::write(
+                data,
+                &fixture.dataset_path,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    store_params: Some(fixture.os_params()),
+                    commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+                    mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = *fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::StablePartition(mapping)) = &transition.mapping
+            else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            let map_id = mapping.map_id.clone();
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let frag_reuse_index = Some(
+                crate::index::frag_reuse::frag_reuse_entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .execute(Transaction::new(
+                    read_version,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                            old_fragments,
+                            new_fragments: destinations,
+                        }],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            (dataset, map_id)
+        }
+
+        /// D1: a map referenced by a retained manifest survives cleanup, no
+        /// matter how old it is.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn referenced_map_is_kept() {
+            let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+            let (_, map_id) = make_tagged(&fixture).await;
+            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+            fixture
+                .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_seconds(1).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await, vec![map_id]);
+        }
+
+        /// D2: a map referenced only by expiring manifests goes away in the
+        /// same pass that removes them (the trim released it from the entry
+        /// first).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn map_released_by_trim_is_collected_with_its_manifests() {
+            let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, map_id) = make_tagged(&fixture).await;
+            assert_eq!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await, vec![map_id]);
+
+            // Drain the index onto the destinations, then trim: the entry is
+            // deleted, so only old manifests reference the map.
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                dataset
+                    .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .is_none()
+            );
+
+            // Young files referenced by expiring manifests still wait for the
+            // unverified retention window unless verified; the reference from
+            // the removed manifest is that verification.
+            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+            fixture
+                .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_seconds(1).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await.is_empty());
+        }
+
+        /// D3 + D4: an unreferenced map (a failed commit's orphan) is kept
+        /// while young and collected once it ages past the unverified
+        /// retention threshold.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn orphan_map_ages_out() {
+            let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+            let (dataset, committed_map_id) = make_tagged(&fixture).await;
+
+            // A row map written at day 10 whose commit never lands.
+            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+            let (orphan_transition, _) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::StablePartition(mapping)) =
+                &orphan_transition.mapping
+            else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            let orphan_map_id = mapping.map_id.clone();
+            let mut expected = vec![committed_map_id.clone(), orphan_map_id.clone()];
+            expected.sort();
+            assert_eq!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await, expected);
+
+            // D3: unreferenced but young, kept.
+            fixture
+                .run_cleanup(utc_now() + TimeDelta::try_seconds(1).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await, expected);
+
+            // D4: unreferenced and old, collected; the referenced map stays.
+            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(20).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+            fixture
+                .run_cleanup(utc_now() + TimeDelta::try_seconds(1).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await, vec![committed_map_id]);
+        }
+
+        /// D5: reference resolution decodes external entry content too. The
+        /// integration tests above cover inline entries; this drives the
+        /// resolver directly over an entry whose details live in an external
+        /// file.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn reference_resolution_reads_external_entries() {
+            let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+            let (dataset, _) = make_tagged(&fixture).await;
+
+            let map_id = Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
+            let digest = |id: u64| pb_fri::FragmentDigest {
+                id,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            };
+            let content = {
+                let mut content = Vec::new();
+                let transition = pb_fri::Transition {
+                    sources: vec![digest(100)],
+                    destinations: vec![digest(101)],
+                    mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::StablePartition(
+                        pb_fri::StablePartition {
+                            map_id: map_id.clone(),
+                            map_size_bytes: 1,
+                            base_id: None,
+                        },
+                    )),
+                };
+                content.extend(reader_tests::field(2, &transition.encode_to_vec()));
+                content
+            };
+            let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let details_path = dataset
+                .indices_dir()
+                .join(uuid.to_string())
+                .join("frag_reuse_details.binpb");
+            let mut writer = dataset.object_store.create(&details_path).await.unwrap();
+            use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+            writer.write_all(&content).await.unwrap();
+            writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+            let entry = IndexMetadata {
+                uuid,
+                fields: vec![],
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.into(),
+                dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+                index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                    type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                    value: reader_tests::field(
+                        2,
+                        &lance_table::format::pb::ExternalFile {
+                            path: "frag_reuse_details.binpb".into(),
+                            offset: 0,
+                            size: content.len() as u64,
+                        }
+                        .encode_to_vec(),
+                    ),
+                })),
+                index_version: 1,
+                created_at: None,
+                base_id: None,
+                files: None,
+            };
+
+            let task = CleanupTask::new(&dataset, CleanupPolicy::default(), CleanupAction::Execute);
+            let mut inspection = CleanupInspection::default();
+            inspection
+                .frag_reuse_entries
+                .insert(uuid, (entry.clone(), true));
+            assert!(task.resolve_frag_reuse_map_ids(&mut inspection).await);
+            assert!(
+                inspection
+                    .referenced_files
+                    .frag_reuse_map_ids
+                    .contains(&map_id)
+            );
+
+            // An uninterpretable entry (a future index_version) disables
+            // `_fri` collection for the whole run instead of guessing.
+            let future_entry = IndexMetadata {
+                index_version: 2,
+                ..entry.clone()
+            };
+            let mut inspection = CleanupInspection::default();
+            inspection
+                .frag_reuse_entries
+                .insert(uuid, (future_entry, true));
+            assert!(!task.resolve_frag_reuse_map_ids(&mut inspection).await);
+
+            // So does an unknown envelope-level record inside a supported
+            // index_version: it may reference row maps this build cannot
+            // see, so no map may be treated as unreferenced this run.
+            let mut unknown_content = content.clone();
+            unknown_content.extend(reader_tests::field(9, b"future envelope record"));
+            let unknown_entry = IndexMetadata {
+                index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                    type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                    value: reader_tests::field(1, &unknown_content),
+                })),
+                ..entry
+            };
+            let mut inspection = CleanupInspection::default();
+            inspection
+                .frag_reuse_entries
+                .insert(uuid, (unknown_entry, true));
+            assert!(
+                !task.resolve_frag_reuse_map_ids(&mut inspection).await,
+                "an unknown envelope record must disable _fri collection"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// E: the full lifecycle, asserting every stage. A stable-partition
+        /// commit installs the tagged entry and its row map; an index rebuild
+        /// over the destinations simulates the drain and drops the old
+        /// segment; the trim then deletes the fully drained entry; a young
+        /// cleanup keeps the map (still referenced by retained manifests);
+        /// an aged cleanup removes those manifests and the map with them,
+        /// leaving a working table.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn end_to_end_lifecycle() {
+            use crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger;
+            use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::Mapping;
+
+            let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, map_id) = make_tagged(&fixture).await;
+
+            // Stage 1: the tagged entry holds one stable-partition
+            // transition referencing the on-disk row map, and the old index
+            // segment still hangs off the sources.
+            let entry = dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .expect("the stable-partition commit installs the entry");
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+            let Mapping::StablePartition(partition) = ledger.transitions()[0].mapping() else {
+                panic!("expected a stable-partition transition");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(partition.map_id, map_id);
+            assert_eq!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await, vec![map_id.clone()]);
+            let old_segment = dataset
+                .load_index_by_name("i_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .expect("fixture index");
+
+            // Stage 2: the trim retains the entry while the segment still
+            // derives from the sources.
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                dataset
+                    .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .is_some()
+            );
+
+            // Stage 3: drain -- rebuild the index over the destinations,
+            // dropping the old segment.
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let rebuilt = dataset
+                .load_index_by_name("i_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .expect("rebuilt index");
+            assert_ne!(rebuilt.uuid, old_segment.uuid);
+
+            // Stage 4: the trim now deletes the fully drained entry.
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                dataset
+                    .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .is_none()
+            );
+
+            // Stage 5: a young cleanup keeps the map -- the manifests that
+            // reference it are still retained.
+            fixture
+                .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(7).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await, vec![map_id]);
+
+            // Stage 6: once aged, the referencing manifests expire and the
+            // map goes with them; the table keeps working.
+            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+            fixture
+                .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_seconds(1).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await.is_empty());
+            let reopened = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(reopened.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 8);
+            assert_eq!(
+                reopened
+                    .count_rows(Some("i >= 4".to_string()))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                4
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Commit a fresh `i_idx` delta segment built over the current
+        /// (translated) table state; `covered` optionally narrows the
+        /// committed bitmap to an under-claim.
+        async fn commit_delta_segment(dataset: &mut Dataset, covered: Option<&[u32]>) -> Uuid {
+            let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+            let mut delta =
+                crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                    .name("i_idx_delta".into())
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            delta.name = "i_idx".into();
+            if let Some(covered) = covered {
+                delta.fragment_bitmap = Some(covered.iter().copied().collect());
+            }
+            let uuid = delta.uuid;
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![delta],
+                            removed_indices: vec![],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            uuid
+        }
+
+        async fn stored_segments(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+            lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == name)
+            .collect()
+        }
+
+        /// Draining through `optimize_indices` merge on a tagged table. A
+        /// provenance-only segment still owning translated coverage is opened
+        /// through the translating loader, so the merged file holds live
+        /// addresses. The merged segment commits the UNION of the selected
+        /// segments' stored bitmaps (provenance, retired sources included):
+        /// the tagged reader treats a segment's bitmap as provenance, stops
+        /// translating at a live fragment, and derives coverage of a
+        /// destination whenever every contributing source is present, so the
+        /// merged segment keeps the translated destination coverage instead
+        /// of degrading to scan fallback, and the transition it still names
+        /// stays retained.
+        ///
+        /// A provenance-only segment whose translated coverage is fully taken
+        /// over by siblings is excluded from the query listing by
+        /// direct-coverage-wins and cannot be selected for a merge; it is
+        /// dead weight that the prune step removes
+        /// (`delta_drain_stages_partial_then_full`).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn merge_keeps_translated_coverage_on_tagged_tables() {
+            use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+            let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, _map_id) = make_tagged(&fixture).await;
+            // A partial delta: the old segment keeps exclusive translated
+            // coverage of destination 11, so it stays openable.
+            commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, Some(&[10])).await;
+            assert_eq!(stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(), 2);
+            let all_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+            let scan_counts = counts_without_index(&dataset).await;
+
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // One merged segment; its stored bitmap is provenance: the retired
+            // sources of the old segment plus the delta's direct coverage.
+            let merged = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(merged.len(), 1, "{merged:?}");
+            let stored = merged[0].fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                stored.contains(0) && stored.contains(1) && stored.contains(10),
+                "{stored:?}"
+            );
+
+            // The reader derives coverage of BOTH destinations from that
+            // provenance, so nothing falls back to scan.
+            let derived = derived_coverage(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                derived,
+                dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone(),
+                "the merged segment must answer for every live fragment"
+            );
+            assert_index_used(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), all_rows);
+            assert_eq!(counts_with_index(&dataset).await, scan_counts);
+
+            // Trim keeps the transition: the merged segment's provenance still
+            // names its sources and destination 11 has no direct coverage.
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                dataset
+                    .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .is_some(),
+                "the merged segment still depends on the transition"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(counts_with_index(&dataset).await, scan_counts);
+        }
+
+        /// A merge that selects only SOME of the segments contributing to a
+        /// destination must not strip the unselected sibling of its coverage.
+        /// Two per-fragment segments S1 (fragment 0) and S2 (fragment 1) both
+        /// contribute to destinations 10 and 11 after the recluster. Merging
+        /// S2 with newly appended data produces M whose provenance still names
+        /// fragment 1, so the reader keeps resolving 10 and 11 from {S1, M}.
+        /// With a `stored ∩ live` bitmap M would drop fragment 1 and S1 would
+        /// lose both destinations.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn merge_keeps_unselected_sibling_coverage_on_tagged_tables() {
+            use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+            let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, _map_id) = make_tagged_per_fragment(&fixture).await;
+            let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2);
+            let s1 = segments
+                .iter()
+                .find(|s| s.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(0))
+                .unwrap()
+                .uuid;
+
+            // New data so a one-segment merge has something to fold in.
+            let appended = arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [8, 9, 10, 11])).unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .append(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        store_params: Some(fixture.os_params()),
+                        commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let all_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+            let scan_counts = counts_without_index(&dataset).await;
+
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let after = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.len(), 2, "{after:?}");
+            assert!(after.iter().any(|s| s.uuid == s1), "S1 was not selected");
+            // Both destinations are still derived for S1 and for the merged
+            // segment, and every live fragment is covered.
+            let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+            for segment in derived.iter().filter(|s| s.name == "i_idx") {
+                let coverage = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+                assert!(
+                    coverage.contains(10) && coverage.contains(11),
+                    "segment {} lost translated coverage: {coverage:?}",
+                    segment.uuid
+                );
+            }
+            assert_eq!(
+                derived_coverage(&dataset, "i_idx").await,
+                dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+            );
+            assert_index_used(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), all_rows);
+            assert_eq!(counts_with_index(&dataset).await, scan_counts);
+        }
+
+        /// Sorted per-value row counts through the scalar index.
+        async fn counts_with_index(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<usize> {
+            let mut counts = Vec::new();
+            for value in 0..12 {
+                let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+                scan.filter(&format!("i = {value}")).unwrap();
+                counts.push(scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows());
+            }
+            counts
+        }
+
+        /// The same counts with the scalar index disabled: the ground truth.
+        async fn counts_without_index(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<usize> {
+            let mut counts = Vec::new();
+            for value in 0..12 {
+                let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+                scan.filter(&format!("i = {value}")).unwrap();
+                scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+                counts.push(scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows());
+            }
+            counts
+        }
+
+        /// Union of the coverage the tagged reader derives for `name`.
+        async fn derived_coverage(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> roaring::RoaringBitmap {
+            dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|s| s.name == name)
+                .filter_map(|s| s.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+                .fold(roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(), |acc, b| acc | b)
+        }
+
+        /// A filtered scan plans through the scalar index (no scan fallback).
+        async fn assert_index_used(dataset: &Dataset) {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter("i >= 4").unwrap();
+            let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+        }
+
+        /// `make_tagged` with `i_idx` built as one segment per source fragment.
+        async fn make_tagged_per_fragment(fixture: &MockDatasetFixture) -> (Dataset, String) {
+            let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_reader_rows(
+                    lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4),
+                    lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+                );
+            Dataset::write(
+                data,
+                &fixture.dataset_path,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    store_params: Some(fixture.os_params()),
+                    commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+                    mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = *fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+            let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+            let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+            let mut segments = Vec::new();
+            for fragment in fragment_ids {
+                segments.push(
+                    crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+                        &mut dataset,
+                        &["i"],
+                        IndexType::BTree,
+                        &params,
+                    )
+                    .name("i_idx".into())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                );
+            }
+            dataset
+                .commit_existing_index_segments("i_idx", "i", segments)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::StablePartition(mapping)) = &transition.mapping
+            else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            let map_id = mapping.map_id.clone();
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let frag_reuse_index = Some(
+                crate::index::frag_reuse::frag_reuse_entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .execute(Transaction::new(
+                    read_version,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                            old_fragments,
+                            new_fragments: destinations,
+                        }],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            (dataset, map_id)
+        }
+
+        /// The staged drain the merge tests were after, via delta segments:
+        /// partial direct coverage retains the transition; completing the
+        /// coverage lets one maintenance run prune the superseded segment,
+        /// release the transition, and (aged) collect the row map.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn delta_drain_stages_partial_then_full() {
+            let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, map_id) = make_tagged(&fixture).await;
+            let all_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+
+            // Stage 1: only destination 10 gains direct coverage; the
+            // transition and the old segment must both stay.
+            commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, Some(&[10])).await;
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(), 2);
+            assert!(
+                dataset
+                    .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .is_some(),
+                "destination 11 lacks direct coverage, so the transition stays"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await, vec![map_id.clone()]);
+
+            // Stage 2: destination 11 gains direct coverage too. One
+            // maintenance run prunes the superseded old segment and releases
+            // the transition.
+            let second = commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, Some(&[11])).await;
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2, "the two deltas remain");
+            assert!(segments.iter().any(|s| s.uuid == second));
+            assert!(
+                dataset
+                    .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .is_none(),
+                "with the old segment pruned, nothing needs the transition"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), all_rows);
+
+            // Stage 3: the released row map ages out with its manifests.
+            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+            fixture
+                .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_seconds(1).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await.is_empty());
+            let reopened = fixture.open().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(reopened.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), all_rows);
+        }
+
+        /// D-guard: a v0 dataset records no tagged entries and has no `_fri`
+        /// directory; cleanup behaves exactly as before.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn v0_dataset_is_untouched() {
+            let fixture = MockDatasetFixture::try_new().unwrap();
+            fixture.create_some_data().await.unwrap();
+            fixture.overwrite_some_data().await.unwrap();
+            MockClock::set_system_time(TimeDelta::try_days(10).unwrap().to_std().unwrap());
+            let removed = fixture
+                .run_cleanup(utc_now() - TimeDelta::try_days(8).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(removed.old_versions, 1);
+            assert!(fixture.list_fri_map_dirs().await.is_empty());
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/data_file.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/data_file.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a97099dd1bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/data_file.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,377 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    io::Cursor,
+    sync::Arc,
+};
+
+use arrow::ipc::{reader::StreamReader, writer::StreamWriter};
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    datatypes::{Field, Schema},
+};
+use lance_file::{concat::BlobTargetId, format::pb, version::ConcreteFileVersion};
+use object_store::path::{Path, PathPart};
+use prost::Message;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Deserializer, Serialize, Serializer};
+
+use super::{Dataset, fragment::write::generate_random_filename};
+use crate::blob::prepared_to_logical_blob_schema;
+
+/// Serializable identity and logical schema of a final concatenated data file.
+///
+/// Reuse the same identity for every part write and final concatenation. Callers
+/// serialize and deserialize this value with serde. The representation preserves
+/// field IDs, metadata, and loaded dictionary values. The caller owns checkpoint
+/// state and must keep every use associated with the same dataset and resolved base;
+/// Lance does not validate that association across [`Dataset`] instances.
+/// Checkpoints must come from trusted application state. Deserialization does not
+/// prove artifact ownership or establish whether a target has been committed.
+/// Callers must fence stale workers and never resume writes or assembly for a
+/// committed target; only staging cleanup via [`Self::finish`] remains valid.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use lance::dataset::DataFileTarget;
+/// # fn checkpoint(target: &DataFileTarget) -> Result<(), serde_json::Error> {
+/// let bytes = serde_json::to_vec(target)?;
+/// let restored: DataFileTarget = serde_json::from_slice(&bytes)?;
+/// # let _ = restored;
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct DataFileTarget {
+    pub(super) file_name: String,
+    pub(super) base_id: Option<u32>,
+    pub(super) schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    pub(super) version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+}
+
+impl DataFileTarget {
+    /// Create a final data-file target with Lance's ordinary random file naming.
+    ///
+    /// This only creates a runtime identity; it does not create, reserve, or
+    /// register an object. The caller owns the target lifetime, part storage,
+    /// cleanup, and commit state. Prepared Blob v2 schemas are normalized to
+    /// their caller-visible logical form; the persisted descriptor schema remains
+    /// an internal writer detail.
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// use lance::dataset::DataFileTarget;
+    /// use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+    /// use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+    ///
+    /// # fn target(schema: Arc<Schema>) -> lance_core::Result<DataFileTarget> {
+    /// DataFileTarget::new(
+    ///     None,
+    ///     schema,
+    ///     ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+    /// )
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn new(
+        base_id: Option<u32>,
+        schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "data-file part concatenation does not support Lance v1".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if base_id == Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "DataFileTarget.base_id must not use reserved ID 0",
+            ));
+        }
+        if schema.fields.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "DataFileTarget.schema must contain at least one top-level field",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut field_ids = HashSet::with_capacity(schema.fields.len());
+        for field in &schema.fields {
+            if !field_ids.insert(field.id) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "DataFileTarget.schema contains duplicate top-level field ID {}",
+                    field.id
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(prepared_to_logical_blob_schema(schema.as_ref())?);
+        if schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .any(|field| field.is_blob() && !field.is_blob_v2())
+        {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "DataFileTarget does not support legacy Blob v1 fields",
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            file_name: format!("{}.lance", generate_random_filename()),
+            base_id,
+            schema,
+            version,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn blob_target_id(&self) -> Option<BlobTargetId> {
+        self.schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .any(|field| field.is_blob_v2())
+            .then(|| {
+                let base = self
+                    .base_id
+                    .map(|id| format!("base:{id}"))
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| "primary".to_string());
+                BlobTargetId::new(format!("{base}/{}", self.file_name))
+            })
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn data_file_key(&self) -> &str {
+        self.file_name
+            .strip_suffix(".lance")
+            .unwrap_or(&self.file_name)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn object_path(&self, data_dir: &Path) -> Path {
+        data_dir.clone().join(self.file_name.as_str())
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn parts_dir(&self, data_dir: &Path) -> Path {
+        data_dir
+            .clone()
+            .join("_parts")
+            .join(self.file_name.as_str())
+    }
+
+    /// Release staging parts after a successful commit, keeping the final file
+    /// and its managed Blob payloads. Stop all writers and assemblers first.
+    ///
+    /// This also removes incomplete parts. Missing files are OK; storage failures
+    /// may leave partial cleanup and can be retried. Use the same dataset and
+    /// resolved base as the original write. This does not commit the target.
+    /// All Blob payloads in the target's namespace are retained, including those
+    /// from failed or unused retry leases. Ordinary dataset GC also retains these
+    /// payloads while the parent data file is referenced; this operation does not
+    /// perform per-Blob reachability collection.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, dataset::DataFileTarget};
+    /// # async fn release(dataset: &Dataset, target: &DataFileTarget) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    /// // After committing the assembled file and releasing all part users:
+    /// target.finish(dataset).await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn finish(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+        let data_dir = dataset.data_file_dir_for_base(self.base_id)?;
+        let store = dataset.object_store(self.base_id).await?;
+        if let Err(error) = store.remove_dir_all(self.parts_dir(&data_dir)).await
+            && !error.is_not_found()
+        {
+            return Err(error);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Delete an abandoned target's staging parts, final file, and file-relative
+    /// Packed/Dedicated sidecars, including those left by failed writes or assembly.
+    /// Independent Managed objects are not owned by this target; unreferenced
+    /// objects follow the dataset's ordinary garbage-collection policy.
+    ///
+    /// The caller must stop all users and ensure no current or retained dataset
+    /// version, checkpoint, or future commit needs this target. Lance does not
+    /// track task liveness or check historical references. Use the original
+    /// dataset/base mapping. Missing objects are OK; retry on storage failures.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, dataset::DataFileTarget};
+    /// # async fn abandon(dataset: &Dataset, target: &DataFileTarget) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    /// // After abandoning the target and stopping all its users:
+    /// target.cleanup(dataset).await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn cleanup(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+        self.finish(dataset).await?;
+        let data_dir = dataset.data_file_dir_for_base(self.base_id)?;
+        let store = dataset.object_store(self.base_id).await?;
+        if let Err(error) = store.delete(&self.object_path(&data_dir)).await
+            && !error.is_not_found()
+        {
+            return Err(error);
+        }
+        if let Err(error) = store
+            .remove_dir_all(data_dir.join(self.data_file_key()))
+            .await
+            && !error.is_not_found()
+        {
+            return Err(error);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+struct TargetData {
+    format_version: u32,
+    file_name: String,
+    base_id: Option<u32>,
+    file_version: String,
+    fields: Vec<FieldData>,
+    metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+}
+
+// Keep the tree explicit: logical Blob children can carry unassigned field IDs,
+// so reconstructing parent/child relationships from IDs alone is ambiguous.
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+struct FieldData {
+    field: Vec<u8>,
+    children: Vec<Self>,
+    dictionary_values: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&Field> for FieldData {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(field: &Field) -> Result<Self> {
+        let dictionary_values = field
+            .dictionary
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|dictionary| dictionary.values.as_ref())
+            .map(|values| -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+                let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    "values",
+                    values.data_type().clone(),
+                    true,
+                )]));
+                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![values.clone()])?;
+                let mut bytes = Vec::new();
+                let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut bytes, schema.as_ref())?;
+                writer.write(&batch)?;
+                writer.finish()?;
+                drop(writer);
+                Ok(bytes)
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            field: pb::Field::from(field).encode_to_vec(),
+            children: field
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .map(Self::try_from)
+                .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+            dictionary_values,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<FieldData> for Field {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(data: FieldData) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut field = Self::from(&pb::Field::decode(data.field.as_slice())?);
+        field.children = data
+            .children
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(Self::try_from)
+            .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+        if let Some(bytes) = data.dictionary_values {
+            let dictionary = field.dictionary.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "field '{}' has values without dictionary metadata",
+                    field.name
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let mut reader = StreamReader::try_new(Cursor::new(bytes), None)?;
+            let batch = reader.next().transpose()?.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "field '{}' has an empty dictionary stream",
+                    field.name
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if batch.num_columns() != 1 || reader.next().transpose()?.is_some() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "field '{}' dictionary stream must contain one column and one batch",
+                    field.name
+                )));
+            }
+            dictionary.values = Some(batch.column(0).clone());
+        }
+        Ok(field)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Serialize for DataFileTarget {
+    fn serialize<S: Serializer>(&self, serializer: S) -> std::result::Result<S::Ok, S::Error> {
+        let fields = self
+            .schema
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(FieldData::try_from)
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+            .map_err(serde::ser::Error::custom)?;
+        TargetData {
+            format_version: 1,
+            file_name: self.file_name.clone(),
+            base_id: self.base_id,
+            file_version: self.version.to_string(),
+            fields,
+            metadata: self.schema.metadata.clone(),
+        }
+        .serialize(serializer)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for DataFileTarget {
+    fn deserialize<D: Deserializer<'de>>(deserializer: D) -> std::result::Result<Self, D::Error> {
+        let data = TargetData::deserialize(deserializer)?;
+        if data.format_version != 1 {
+            return Err(serde::de::Error::custom(format!(
+                "unsupported data-file target checkpoint version {}",
+                data.format_version
+            )));
+        }
+        let fields = data
+            .fields
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(Field::try_from)
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+            .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)?;
+        let version = ConcreteFileVersion::from_manifest_string(&data.file_version)
+            .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)?;
+        // The identity must select a child object, never a parent directory.
+        PathPart::parse(&data.file_name).map_err(|error| {
+            serde::de::Error::custom(format!("invalid target identity: {error}"))
+        })?;
+        if data
+            .file_name
+            .strip_suffix(".lance")
+            .unwrap_or(&data.file_name)
+            .is_empty()
+        {
+            return Err(serde::de::Error::custom(
+                "target identity must not be empty",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut target = Self::new(
+            data.base_id,
+            Arc::new(Schema {
+                fields,
+                metadata: data.metadata,
+            }),
+            version,
+        )
+        .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)?;
+        target.file_name = data.file_name;
+        Ok(target)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/data_file_part.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/data_file_part.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..926044a414f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/data_file_part.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{collections::HashSet, num::NonZeroU64, ops::Range};
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_file::concat::{DataFilePart as OpenedDataFilePart, EncodedFileInput};
+use lance_io::{
+    scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig},
+    utils::CachedFileSize,
+};
+use object_store::path::PathPart;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+use super::{DataFileTarget, Dataset};
+
+/// Serializable description of a completed staging part, containing its identity
+/// and expected metadata rather than file contents or open readers.
+///
+/// Assembly reopens and validates the actual file. Keep staging files until no
+/// worker or checkpoint needs them, then call [`DataFileTarget::finish`] after
+/// commit or [`DataFileTarget::cleanup`] when abandoning the target.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use lance::dataset::DataFilePart;
+/// # fn checkpoint(part: &DataFilePart) -> Result<(), serde_json::Error> {
+/// let bytes = serde_json::to_vec(part)?;
+/// let restored: DataFilePart = serde_json::from_slice(&bytes)?;
+/// # let _ = restored;
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct DataFilePart {
+    pub(super) target_file_name: String,
+    pub(super) base_id: Option<u32>,
+    pub(super) file_name: String,
+    pub(super) blob_ids: Option<Range<u32>>,
+    pub(super) num_rows: u64,
+    pub(super) size_bytes: NonZeroU64,
+}
+
+impl DataFilePart {
+    /// Expected physical row count, verified against the footer during assembly.
+    pub fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.num_rows
+    }
+
+    /// Expected complete file size, verified during assembly.
+    pub fn size_bytes(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.size_bytes.get()
+    }
+
+    pub(super) async fn open_all(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        target: &DataFileTarget,
+        parts: &[Self],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<OpenedDataFilePart>> {
+        dataset.validate_data_file_target(target)?;
+        if parts.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "concat_data_file_parts requires at least one part",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut names = HashSet::with_capacity(parts.len());
+        let mut ranges = Vec::with_capacity(parts.len());
+        for part in parts {
+            PathPart::parse(&part.file_name)
+                .map_err(|error| Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid part identity: {error}")))?;
+            if part.file_name.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "part file_name must select a child object",
+                ));
+            }
+            if part.target_file_name != target.file_name || part.base_id != target.base_id {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "part '{}' belongs to target {:?} in base {:?}, not {:?} in base {:?}",
+                    part.file_name.as_str(),
+                    part.target_file_name,
+                    part.base_id,
+                    target.file_name,
+                    target.base_id
+                )));
+            }
+            if !names.insert(part.file_name.as_str()) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "duplicate part '{}'",
+                    part.file_name.as_str()
+                )));
+            }
+            if let Some(ids) = &part.blob_ids {
+                ranges.push(ids);
+            }
+        }
+        ranges.sort_unstable_by_key(|range| range.start);
+        for pair in ranges.windows(2) {
+            if pair[1].start < pair[0].end {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "part Blob ID ranges overlap: {:?} and {:?}",
+                    pair[0], pair[1]
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        let store = dataset.object_store(target.base_id).await?;
+        let dir = target.parts_dir(&dataset.data_file_dir_for_base(target.base_id)?);
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(store.clone(), SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&store));
+        let mut opened = Vec::with_capacity(parts.len());
+        for part in parts {
+            let path = dir.clone().join(part.file_name.as_str());
+            let size = store.size(&path).await?;
+            if size != part.size_bytes() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "part at '{path}' has {size} bytes, checkpoint expects {}",
+                    part.size_bytes()
+                )));
+            }
+            let file = scheduler
+                .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::new(size))
+                .await?;
+            opened.push(
+                OpenedDataFilePart::open(
+                    EncodedFileInput::new(file).with_expected_num_rows(part.num_rows()),
+                    part.blob_ids.clone(),
+                    target.blob_target_id(),
+                )
+                .await?,
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(opened)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/delta.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/delta.rs
index 1ee94e2d4e3..7092d9bce02 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/delta.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/delta.rs
@@ -2,18 +2,63 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use super::transaction::Transaction;
-use crate::dataset::scanner::DatasetRecordBatchStream;
 use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::Result;
+use crate::dataset::fragment::FileFragment;
+use crate::dataset::rowids::load_row_id_sequence;
+use crate::dataset::scanner::{
+    BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK, DatasetRecordBatchStream, get_default_batch_size,
+};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+use arrow_schema::SortOptions;
 use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
+use datafusion::common::NullEquality;
+use datafusion::error::DataFusionError;
+use datafusion::logical_expr::JoinType;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::{LexOrdering, PhysicalSortExpr};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::joins::SortMergeJoinExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::expressions::Column;
+use futures::Stream;
 use futures::stream::{self, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
 use lance_core::Error;
 use lance_core::ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION;
 use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+use lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD;
 use lance_core::ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION;
 use lance_core::WILDCARD;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
+use lance_datafusion::exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, execute_plan};
+use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+use lance_table::rowids::RowIdSequence;
+use lance_table::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+/// Rows per batch of [`DatasetDelta::get_deleted_row_ids`], taken from the
+/// scanner so it matches the sibling readers.
+fn deleted_row_id_batch_rows() -> usize {
+    batch_rows(get_default_batch_size())
+}
+
+/// The largest batch this reader will emit whatever the configuration says:
+/// the batch is the unit of buffering, so an unbounded setting would defeat
+/// the chunking.
+const DELETED_ROW_ID_BATCH_CAP: usize = 64 * 1024;
+
+/// A configured size of zero would mean no bound at all, so it is refused in
+/// favour of the default; an oversized one is clamped to the cap.
+fn batch_rows(configured: Option<usize>) -> usize {
+    configured
+        .filter(|rows| *rows > 0)
+        .unwrap_or(BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK)
+        .min(DELETED_ROW_ID_BATCH_CAP)
+}
 
 /// Builder for creating a [`DatasetDelta`] to explore changes between dataset versions.
 ///
@@ -128,7 +173,6 @@ impl DatasetDeltaBuilder {
         {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Cannot combine compared_against_version with explicit begin/end versions or dates",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
@@ -155,26 +199,22 @@ impl DatasetDeltaBuilder {
             (None, Some(_), None, None, None) | (None, None, Some(_), None, None) => {
                 return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "Must specify both with_begin_version and with_end_version",
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
             (None, None, None, Some(begin_ts), None) => (0, 0, Some(begin_ts), None),
             (None, None, None, None, Some(_)) => {
                 return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "Must specify with_begin_date when with_end_date is provided",
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
             (None, None, None, None, None) => {
                 return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "Must specify either compared_against_version or both with_begin_version and with_end_version",
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
             _ => {
                 return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "Invalid combination of parameters for DatasetDeltaBuilder",
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
         };
@@ -276,6 +316,107 @@ impl DatasetDelta {
             .await
     }
 
+    /// The stable row ids live at the begin version and absent at the end
+    /// version, as a stream of batches carrying a single [`ROW_ID`] column.
+    /// Rows in a fragment the range removed outright count as deleted.
+    ///
+    /// Requires stable row ids at both endpoints and an ordered range;
+    /// version 0 is the empty snapshot. Runs in bounded memory: subtracting
+    /// the still-live ids is a sort-merge anti join that spills past the
+    /// session memory pool.
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+    /// # use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: &Dataset, previous_version: u64) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let delta = dataset
+    ///     .delta()
+    ///     .compared_against_version(previous_version)
+    ///     .build()?;
+    /// let mut deleted = delta.get_deleted_row_ids().await?;
+    /// while let Some(batch) = deleted.try_next().await? {
+    ///     // Each batch holds a `_rowid` column of deleted ids.
+    /// }
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn get_deleted_row_ids(&self) -> Result<DatasetRecordBatchStream> {
+        let (begin_version, end_version) = self.resolve_range().await?;
+        if begin_version > end_version {
+            // A reversed range would report the rows the range added as
+            // deleted.
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "begin version {begin_version} is newer than end version {end_version}"
+            )));
+        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()]));
+        // Version 0 is the empty snapshot: nothing is live at it, so nothing
+        // is deleted relative to it.
+        if begin_version == 0 {
+            return Ok(DatasetRecordBatchStream::new(Box::pin(
+                RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream::empty()),
+            )));
+        }
+        let begin = Arc::new(self.base_dataset.checkout_version(begin_version).await?);
+        let end = Arc::new(self.base_dataset.checkout_version(end_version).await?);
+        // Both endpoints: a restore can leave later versions without them.
+        for endpoint in [&begin, &end] {
+            if !endpoint.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "deleted row ids require stable row ids, version {} does not use them",
+                    endpoint.manifest.version
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let begin_frags = begin.get_fragments();
+        let end_frags = end.get_fragments();
+        let delta = fragment_delta(
+            begin_frags.iter().map(|f| f.metadata()),
+            end_frags.iter().map(|f| f.metadata()),
+        );
+        let out_schema = schema.clone();
+        let candidate_end = end.clone();
+        let candidate_begin = begin.clone();
+        let batches = stream::iter(delta.candidates)
+            .map(move |(before, after)| {
+                deleted_batches_in_fragment(
+                    candidate_begin.clone(),
+                    candidate_end.clone(),
+                    before,
+                    after,
+                    schema.clone(),
+                )
+            })
+            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .try_flatten()
+            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+            .try_filter(|batch| std::future::ready(batch.num_rows() > 0));
+        let candidates: SendableRecordBatchStream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(out_schema.clone(), batches));
+        if delta.added.is_empty() && delta.changed.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(DatasetRecordBatchStream::new(candidates));
+        }
+
+        // A candidate is only deleted if it is live nowhere at end: a moved
+        // row lands in a fragment the range created, a restored one where a
+        // deletion vector shrank. Subtracting those newly live ids is an
+        // anti join, run the way merge_insert runs its joins: sorted with
+        // spilling past the memory pool, so a delta of any size is bounded.
+        let live = live_id_batches(begin.clone(), end, delta.added, delta.changed, out_schema);
+        let stream = anti_join(
+            candidates,
+            live,
+            LanceExecutionOptions {
+                use_spilling: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )?;
+        Ok(DatasetRecordBatchStream::new(stream))
+    }
+
     /// Get inserted rows between the two versions.
     ///
     /// This returns rows where `_row_created_at_version` is greater than `begin_version`
@@ -456,9 +597,371 @@ impl DatasetDelta {
     }
 }
 
+/// A fragment's deletion vector at this version, empty where it has none.
+async fn deletion_offsets(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    fragment: &Fragment,
+) -> Result<Arc<DeletionVector>> {
+    let fragment = FileFragment::new(dataset, fragment.clone());
+    Ok(fragment.get_deletion_vector().await?.unwrap_or_default())
+}
+
+/// The fragment-level shape of a version range, from metadata alone: a
+/// shared fragment whose deletion file is unchanged has neither lost nor
+/// regained a row, so nothing else costs any I/O. Each entry carries the
+/// fragment metadata it names, so readers never look ids up in a manifest.
+struct FragmentDelta {
+    /// Fragments only the end version holds: every live row is newly live.
+    added: Vec<Fragment>,
+    /// Shared fragments whose deletion vector changed, as (begin, end)
+    /// metadata: only rows a shrink revived are newly live.
+    changed: Vec<(Fragment, Fragment)>,
+    /// Begin fragments that can have lost rows, with their end-version
+    /// metadata where they survive: vanished, or a changed deletion vector.
+    candidates: Vec<(Fragment, Option<Fragment>)>,
+}
+
+fn fragment_delta<'a>(
+    begin: impl Iterator<Item = &'a Fragment>,
+    end: impl Iterator<Item = &'a Fragment>,
+) -> FragmentDelta {
+    let begin_meta: HashMap<u64, &Fragment> = begin.map(|f| (f.id, f)).collect();
+    let mut added = Vec::new();
+    let mut changed = Vec::new();
+    let mut end_meta = HashMap::new();
+    for fragment in end {
+        end_meta.insert(fragment.id, fragment);
+        match begin_meta.get(&fragment.id) {
+            None => added.push(fragment.clone()),
+            Some(before) if before.deletion_file != fragment.deletion_file => {
+                changed.push(((*before).clone(), fragment.clone()));
+            }
+            Some(_) => {}
+        }
+    }
+    let candidates = begin_meta
+        .into_values()
+        .filter_map(|before| match end_meta.get(&before.id) {
+            None => Some((before.clone(), None)),
+            Some(after) if after.deletion_file != before.deletion_file => {
+                Some((before.clone(), Some((*after).clone())))
+            }
+            Some(_) => None,
+        })
+        .collect();
+    FragmentDelta {
+        added,
+        changed,
+        candidates,
+    }
+}
+
+/// The ids one begin-version fragment lost by the end version, a batch at a
+/// time. The offsets are iterated straight off the deletion vectors, so a
+/// fragment's deletions are never held whole.
+async fn deleted_batches_in_fragment(
+    begin: Arc<Dataset>,
+    end: Arc<Dataset>,
+    before: Fragment,
+    after: Option<Fragment>,
+    schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+) -> Result<impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send> {
+    let before_dv = deletion_offsets(begin.clone(), &before).await?;
+    let emit = if let Some(after) = after {
+        // The rows it lost are the offsets its deletion vector gained.
+        let after_dv = deletion_offsets(end, &after).await?;
+        let before_dv = before_dv.clone();
+        let gained: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32> + Send> = Box::new(
+            DeletionVector::clone(&after_dv)
+                .into_sorted_iter()
+                .filter(move |offset| !before_dv.contains(*offset)),
+        );
+        Emit::At(gained.peekable())
+    } else {
+        // Gone: every row it still held at the begin version left with it.
+        Emit::Skipping(before_dv)
+    };
+
+    let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(&begin, &before).await?;
+    Ok(id_batches(SequenceCursor::new(sequence, emit), schema))
+}
+
+/// Batches of the ids newly live at the end version: every live row of a
+/// fragment the range created, and the rows a shrunk deletion vector
+/// revived in a shared one. A growth-only change revives nothing and feeds
+/// nothing.
+fn live_id_batches(
+    begin: Arc<Dataset>,
+    end: Arc<Dataset>,
+    added: Vec<Fragment>,
+    changed: Vec<(Fragment, Fragment)>,
+    schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    // Paired with the begin-version metadata for a shared fragment; a
+    // fragment the range created has none.
+    let fragments: Vec<(Fragment, Option<Fragment>)> = added
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|f| (f, None))
+        .chain(
+            changed
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(before, after)| (after, Some(before))),
+        )
+        .collect();
+    let batches = stream::iter(fragments)
+        .map(move |(fragment, before)| {
+            let (begin, end, schema) = (begin.clone(), end.clone(), schema.clone());
+            async move {
+                let end_dv = deletion_offsets(end.clone(), &fragment).await?;
+                let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(&end, &fragment).await?;
+                let emit = match before {
+                    None => Emit::Skipping(end_dv),
+                    Some(before) => {
+                        let begin_dv = deletion_offsets(begin.clone(), &before).await?;
+                        // Lazy: a mass restore revives offsets without ever
+                        // holding them whole.
+                        let revived: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32> + Send> = Box::new(
+                            DeletionVector::clone(&begin_dv)
+                                .into_sorted_iter()
+                                .filter(move |offset| !end_dv.contains(*offset)),
+                        );
+                        Emit::At(revived.peekable())
+                    }
+                };
+                Ok::<_, Error>(id_batches(SequenceCursor::new(sequence, emit), schema))
+            }
+        })
+        .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+        .try_flatten()
+        .map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()]));
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, batches))
+}
+
+/// One forward traversal of a row id sequence, resumable across batches.
+/// The cursor keeps only positions and reads storage through the shared
+/// sequence each round, so nothing is cloned, and resuming re-walks no
+/// prefix.
+struct SequenceCursor {
+    sequence: Arc<RowIdSequence>,
+    segment: usize,
+    /// Length of the current segment, computed once on entry: encoded
+    /// cardinality is not constant-time.
+    segment_len: Option<usize>,
+    /// Rows of the current segment already consumed.
+    consumed: usize,
+    /// Global offset of the next unconsumed row.
+    offset: u32,
+    /// Value resume point for the sorted range-backed encodings; the
+    /// array-backed ones resume by element through `consumed`.
+    next_value: u64,
+    emit: Emit,
+}
+
+/// Which of the traversed ids to emit.
+enum Emit {
+    /// Every offset the deletion vector does not hold.
+    Skipping(Arc<DeletionVector>),
+    /// Exactly these offsets, ascending.
+    At(std::iter::Peekable<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32> + Send>>),
+}
+
+/// A segment's ids from a resume point, without cloning storage or
+/// re-walking what came before.
+fn segment_ids<'a>(
+    segment: &'a U64Segment,
+    consumed: usize,
+    next_value: u64,
+) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u64> + 'a> {
+    match segment {
+        U64Segment::Range(range) => Box::new(next_value.max(range.start)..range.end),
+        U64Segment::RangeWithHoles { range, holes } => {
+            let start = next_value.max(range.start);
+            Box::new((start..range.end).filter(move |&v| holes.binary_search(v).is_err()))
+        }
+        U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { range, bitmap } => {
+            let (base, start) = (range.start, next_value.max(range.start));
+            Box::new((start..range.end).filter(move |&v| bitmap.get((v - base) as usize)))
+        }
+        U64Segment::Ranges { range, runs } => {
+            let (base, start) = (range.start, next_value.max(range.start));
+            // Walk the present ranges, clipping the one the resume point falls in.
+            Box::new(
+                runs.present_ranges()
+                    .filter_map(move |present| {
+                        let first = (base + present.start as u64).max(start);
+                        let end = base + present.end as u64;
+                        (first < end).then_some(first..end)
+                    })
+                    .flatten(),
+            )
+        }
+        U64Segment::SortedArray(array) | U64Segment::Array(array) => {
+            Box::new((consumed..array.len()).filter_map(move |i| array.get(i)))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl SequenceCursor {
+    fn new(sequence: Arc<RowIdSequence>, emit: Emit) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            sequence,
+            segment: 0,
+            segment_len: None,
+            consumed: 0,
+            offset: 0,
+            next_value: 0,
+            emit,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Append up to `cap` emitted ids to `out`, stopping early when the
+    /// traversal is exhausted.
+    fn fill(&mut self, out: &mut Vec<u64>, cap: usize) {
+        while out.len() < cap {
+            let Some(segment) = self.sequence.segments().get(self.segment) else {
+                return;
+            };
+            let segment_len = *self.segment_len.get_or_insert_with(|| segment.len());
+            let remaining = segment_len - self.consumed;
+            if remaining == 0 {
+                self.segment += 1;
+                self.segment_len = None;
+                self.consumed = 0;
+                self.next_value = 0;
+                continue;
+            }
+            // Hop the rest of a segment with no wanted offset in it without
+            // touching its encoding.
+            if let Emit::At(wanted) = &mut self.emit {
+                let Some(target) = wanted.peek().copied() else {
+                    return;
+                };
+                if (target - self.offset) as usize >= remaining {
+                    self.offset += remaining as u32;
+                    self.segment += 1;
+                    self.segment_len = None;
+                    self.consumed = 0;
+                    self.next_value = 0;
+                    continue;
+                }
+            }
+            let mut ids = segment_ids(segment, self.consumed, self.next_value);
+            match &mut self.emit {
+                Emit::Skipping(dv) => {
+                    let take = remaining.min(cap - out.len());
+                    for _ in 0..take {
+                        let Some(id) = ids.next() else {
+                            debug_assert!(false, "sequence shorter than segment lengths");
+                            return;
+                        };
+                        if !dv.contains(self.offset) {
+                            out.push(id);
+                        }
+                        self.offset += 1;
+                        self.consumed += 1;
+                        self.next_value = id.saturating_add(1);
+                    }
+                }
+                Emit::At(wanted) => {
+                    while out.len() < cap {
+                        let Some(target) = wanted.peek().copied() else {
+                            return;
+                        };
+                        let skip = (target - self.offset) as usize;
+                        if skip >= segment_len - self.consumed {
+                            break;
+                        }
+                        let Some(id) = ids.nth(skip) else {
+                            debug_assert!(false, "sequence shorter than segment lengths");
+                            return;
+                        };
+                        out.push(id);
+                        wanted.next();
+                        self.consumed += skip + 1;
+                        self.offset = target + 1;
+                        self.next_value = id.saturating_add(1);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The cursor's ids, batched.
+fn id_batches(
+    cursor: SequenceCursor,
+    schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send {
+    let rows = deleted_row_id_batch_rows();
+    stream::try_unfold(cursor, move |mut cursor| {
+        let schema = schema.clone();
+        async move {
+            let mut ids: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(rows);
+            cursor.fill(&mut ids, rows);
+            if ids.is_empty() {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(ids)) as ArrayRef])?;
+            Ok(Some((batch, cursor)))
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// Candidates minus the live ids, streamed. Sort-merge rather than hash:
+/// the sorts spill past the memory pool where a hash build cannot, so a
+/// delta of any size runs in bounded memory.
+fn anti_join(
+    candidates: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    live: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    options: LanceExecutionOptions,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    let sorted = |stream: SendableRecordBatchStream| -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let key = Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, stream.schema().as_ref())?;
+        let ordering = LexOrdering::new(vec![PhysicalSortExpr::new(
+            Arc::new(key),
+            SortOptions::default(),
+        )])
+        .expect("one sort key");
+        Ok(Arc::new(SortExec::new(
+            ordering,
+            Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream)),
+        )))
+    };
+    let candidate_key = Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, candidates.schema().as_ref())?;
+    let live_key = Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, live.schema().as_ref())?;
+    let joined = Arc::new(SortMergeJoinExec::try_new(
+        sorted(candidates)?,
+        sorted(live)?,
+        vec![(Arc::new(candidate_key), Arc::new(live_key))],
+        None,
+        JoinType::LeftAnti,
+        vec![SortOptions::default()],
+        NullEquality::NullEqualsNothing,
+    )?);
+    execute_plan(joined, options)
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
 
+    async fn collect_deleted(delta: &super::DatasetDelta) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let mut ids = Vec::new();
+        let mut stream = delta.get_deleted_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+        while let Some(batch) = stream.try_next().await.unwrap() {
+            ids.extend(
+                batch[ROW_ID]
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied(),
+            );
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids
+    }
+
     use crate::dataset::transaction::Operation;
     use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
     use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
@@ -467,7 +970,7 @@ mod tests {
     use chrono::Duration;
     use futures::TryStreamExt;
     use lance_core::{ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
     use mock_instant::thread_local::MockClock;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
@@ -1377,6 +1880,548 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    /// One deleted row must not drag the fragment's survivors through the
+    /// join: a growth-only change revives nothing.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_one_row_deletion_on_a_large_fragment() {
+        let mut dataset = create_test_dataset(200_000, 1, "value", true).await;
+        let begin = dataset.manifest.version;
+        dataset.delete("key = 123456").await.unwrap();
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .compared_against_version(begin)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collect_deleted(&delta).await, vec![123456]);
+    }
+
+    /// The cursor walks a many-segment sequence once, with either a skip
+    /// set or a wanted list; a naive per-offset read is its oracle. The
+    /// sequence covers every segment encoding, asserted below.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sequence_cursor_matches_naive_reads() {
+        use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
+        use lance_table::rowids::RowIdSequence;
+        use lance_table::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
+
+        let mut sequence = RowIdSequence::from(100..200);
+        sequence.extend(RowIdSequence::try_from_iter([5, 900, 42]).unwrap());
+        sequence.extend(RowIdSequence::from(300..350));
+        sequence.extend(RowIdSequence::try_from_iter((20_000..26_000).step_by(2)).unwrap());
+        sequence.extend(
+            RowIdSequence::try_from_iter((50_000..53_000).filter(|v| v % 997 != 0)).unwrap(),
+        );
+        // Large enough to span many bounded batches during the resume loops.
+        sequence.extend(RowIdSequence::try_from_iter((100_000..500_000).step_by(4)).unwrap());
+        sequence.extend(
+            RowIdSequence::try_from_iter((600_000..700_000).filter(|v| v % 9973 != 0)).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let sequence = Arc::new(sequence);
+        for expected in [
+            |s: &U64Segment| matches!(s, U64Segment::Range(_)),
+            |s: &U64Segment| matches!(s, U64Segment::Array(_) | U64Segment::SortedArray(_)),
+            |s: &U64Segment| matches!(s, U64Segment::RangeWithBitmap { .. }),
+            |s: &U64Segment| matches!(s, U64Segment::RangeWithHoles { .. }),
+        ] {
+            assert!(sequence.segments().iter().any(expected), "encoding missing");
+        }
+        let len = sequence.len() as u32;
+        let dv = Arc::new(DeletionVector::from_iter(
+            (0..len).step_by(97).chain([3u32, 101, 152]),
+        ));
+
+        let mut skipped: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+        super::SequenceCursor::new(sequence.clone(), super::Emit::Skipping(dv.clone()))
+            .fill(&mut skipped, usize::MAX);
+        let naive: Vec<u64> = sequence
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(offset, _)| !dv.contains(*offset as u32))
+            .map(|(_, id)| id)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(skipped, naive);
+
+        // A tiny cap forces many resumes, covering the position keeping
+        // across batches.
+        let mut resumed: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+        let mut cursor = super::SequenceCursor::new(sequence.clone(), super::Emit::Skipping(dv));
+        loop {
+            let before = resumed.len();
+            cursor.fill(&mut resumed, before + 3);
+            if resumed.len() == before {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(resumed, naive);
+
+        // The second list leaves whole segments and a consumed tail
+        // unwanted, covering the hops.
+        for wanted in [
+            vec![
+                0u32, 99, 100, 102, 152, 153, 154, 500, 3152, 3153, 4000, 6149,
+            ],
+            vec![5u32, 200, 6000, 6150, 106_000, 206_139],
+        ] {
+            let lazy: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32> + Send> = Box::new(wanted.clone().into_iter());
+            let mut at: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+            let mut cursor =
+                super::SequenceCursor::new(sequence.clone(), super::Emit::At(lazy.peekable()));
+            loop {
+                let before = at.len();
+                cursor.fill(&mut at, before + 1);
+                if at.len() == before {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            let naive: Vec<u64> = wanted
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|offset| sequence.get(*offset as usize))
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(at, naive);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A range spanning the stable-id migration has a bare begin endpoint
+    /// and is rejected, naming the offending version.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_mixed_stable_id_endpoints_are_rejected() {
+        let dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_temp(&dir, 0, 10, 1, "v1", false, false).await;
+        dataset.migrate_to_stable_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+
+        let delta = dataset.delta().compared_against_version(1).build().unwrap();
+        let err = delta.get_deleted_row_ids().await.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("stable row ids") && err.to_string().contains("version 1"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// One deletion per fragment across many fragments.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deletes_across_many_fragments_are_reported() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("key", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(160), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            max_rows_per_file: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", Some(params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 16);
+        let begin = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        dataset.delete("key % 10 = 3").await.unwrap();
+
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .compared_against_version(begin)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected: Vec<u64> = (0..16).map(|i| i * 10 + 3).collect();
+        assert_eq!(collect_deleted(&delta).await, expected);
+    }
+
+    /// An append neither removes nor moves a row: the stream is empty.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_appends_report_no_deleted_row_ids() {
+        let dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        write_dataset_temp(&dir, 0, 10, 1, "v1", true, false).await;
+        let ds = write_dataset_temp(&dir, 10, 10, 1, "v2", true, true).await;
+        let delta = ds.delta().compared_against_version(1).build().unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert!(deleted.is_empty(), "an append deletes nothing: {deleted:?}");
+    }
+
+    /// Deletes on both sides of a merging compaction are all reported.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deletes_after_a_merging_compaction_are_reported() {
+        use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+
+        let dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        write_dataset_temp(&dir, 0, 100, 1, "v1", true, false).await;
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_temp(&dir, 100, 100, 1, "v2", true, true).await;
+        let begin = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        dataset.delete("key = 0 OR key = 100").await.unwrap();
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            materialize_deletions_threshold: 0.0,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("key = 150").await.unwrap();
+
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .compared_against_version(begin)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert_eq!(deleted, vec![0, 100, 150], "one id per deleted row");
+    }
+
+    /// Repeated partial updates leave fully tombstoned outputs; the result
+    /// stays exact regardless.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_repeated_updates_report_no_deleted_row_ids() {
+        let mut dataset = create_test_dataset(100, 1, "value", true).await;
+        for round in 0..4 {
+            dataset = update_where(dataset, "key < 75", &format!("round {round}")).await;
+        }
+        let delta = dataset.delta().compared_against_version(1).build().unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert!(deleted.is_empty(), "updates delete nothing: {deleted:?}");
+    }
+
+    /// The anti join must stay correct when its build side exceeds the
+    /// memory pool and spills.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_anti_join_is_exact_under_a_tiny_memory_pool() {
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+        use lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD;
+        use lance_datafusion::exec::LanceExecutionOptions;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()]));
+        // ~8 MB of candidates against a 2 MB pool: the sorts must spill,
+        // and the pool still clears DataFusion's fixed merge reservations.
+        let candidate_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..1_000_000).collect();
+        let live_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..1_000_000).filter(|id| id % 3 == 0).collect();
+        let expected = candidate_ids.len() - live_ids.len();
+        let as_stream = |ids: Vec<u64>| -> datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream {
+            let batches: Vec<_> = ids
+                .chunks(8192)
+                .map(|chunk| {
+                    Ok(arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                        schema.clone(),
+                        vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(chunk.to_vec())) as _],
+                    )
+                    .unwrap())
+                })
+                .collect();
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                futures::stream::iter(batches),
+            ))
+        };
+        let stream = super::anti_join(
+            as_stream(candidate_ids),
+            as_stream(live_ids),
+            LanceExecutionOptions {
+                use_spilling: true,
+                mem_pool_size: Some(2 * 1024 * 1024),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, expected, "anti join dropped or kept the wrong ids");
+    }
+
+    /// Interleaved updates leave every row live; none may read as deleted.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_interleaved_updates_are_not_reported_as_deleted() {
+        let dataset = create_test_dataset(100, 2, "value", true).await;
+        let begin = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let dataset = update_where(dataset, "key % 2 = 0", "even").await;
+        let dataset = update_where(dataset, "key % 2 = 1", "odd").await;
+
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .compared_against_version(begin)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert!(
+            deleted.is_empty(),
+            "every updated row is live at end: {deleted:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A restore must not rewind the row-id high-water mark, or the next
+    /// append reuses old ids.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_restore_preserves_the_row_id_high_water_mark() {
+        let dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        write_dataset_temp(&dir, 0, 1, 1, "v1", true, false).await;
+        // v2: append row A, taking the next stable id.
+        let a = write_dataset_temp(&dir, 1, 1, 1, "v2", true, true).await;
+        let begin = a.manifest.version;
+        // v3: restore v1, dropping row A.
+        let mut dataset = a.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.restore().await.unwrap();
+        // v4: append row B, which must not reuse A's id.
+        let dataset = write_dataset_temp(&dir, 2, 1, 1, "v4", true, true).await;
+
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .with_begin_version(begin)
+            .with_end_version(dataset.manifest.version)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            deleted,
+            vec![1],
+            "row A's id is gone, not reused: {deleted:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A mass delete-and-restore revives every row; the revived offsets are
+    /// streamed, and the result is exact at scale.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_mass_restore_reports_no_deleted_row_ids() {
+        let mut dataset = create_test_dataset(50_000, 1, "value", true).await;
+        dataset.delete("key >= 0").await.unwrap();
+        let begin = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let mut restored = dataset.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
+        restored.restore().await.unwrap();
+
+        let delta = restored
+            .delta()
+            .with_begin_version(begin)
+            .with_end_version(restored.manifest.version)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert!(
+            deleted.is_empty(),
+            "every row revived: {} ids",
+            deleted.len()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A restore drops the deletion vector an update left behind, so the
+    /// updated row is live at both endpoints in a fragment both hold.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_restored_updated_rows_are_not_reported_as_deleted() {
+        let dataset = create_test_dataset(100, 2, "value", true).await;
+        let updated = update_where(dataset, "key = 0", "changed").await;
+
+        let mut restored = updated.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
+        restored.restore().await.unwrap();
+        let delta = restored
+            .delta()
+            .with_begin_version(2)
+            .with_end_version(3)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert!(
+            deleted.is_empty(),
+            "a restored row is live at both endpoints: {deleted:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A reversed range would report the rows the range added as deleted.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deleted_row_ids_rejects_a_reversed_range() {
+        let dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        write_dataset_temp(&dir, 0, 10, 1, "v1", true, false).await;
+        let ds = write_dataset_temp(&dir, 10, 10, 1, "v2", true, true).await;
+        let delta = ds
+            .delta()
+            .with_begin_version(2)
+            .with_end_version(1)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let Err(err) = delta.get_deleted_row_ids().await else {
+            panic!("a reversed range must be rejected")
+        };
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("newer than end version"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    /// A window opening before v1 resolves begin to the version-0 sentinel:
+    /// the empty snapshot, relative to which nothing is deleted.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deleted_row_ids_accepts_the_zero_version_sentinel() {
+        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(100));
+        let mut dataset = create_test_dataset(10, 1, "v1", true).await;
+        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(200));
+        dataset.delete("key = 0").await.unwrap();
+
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .with_begin_date(chrono::DateTime::<chrono::Utc>::from_timestamp(50, 0).unwrap())
+            .with_end_date(chrono::DateTime::<chrono::Utc>::from_timestamp(250, 0).unwrap())
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert!(
+            deleted.is_empty(),
+            "nothing is deleted relative to the empty snapshot: {deleted:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Unchanged shared fragments appear nowhere; changed ones on both
+    /// sides; vanished as candidates; added as probed.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fragment_delta_classifies_by_metadata() {
+        use lance_table::format::{DeletionFile, DeletionFileType, Fragment};
+
+        let deletion_file = |read_version| DeletionFile {
+            read_version,
+            id: 7,
+            file_type: DeletionFileType::Bitmap,
+            num_deleted_rows: Some(1),
+            base_id: None,
+        };
+        let dv_version = |f: &Fragment| f.deletion_file.as_ref().unwrap().read_version;
+        let unchanged = Fragment::new(1);
+        let mut changed_before = Fragment::new(2);
+        changed_before.deletion_file = Some(deletion_file(1));
+        let mut changed_after = changed_before.clone();
+        changed_after.deletion_file = Some(deletion_file(2));
+        let vanished = Fragment::new(3);
+        let added = Fragment::new(4);
+
+        let begin = [unchanged.clone(), changed_before, vanished];
+        let end = [unchanged, changed_after, added];
+        let delta = super::fragment_delta(begin.iter(), end.iter());
+
+        let added: Vec<u64> = delta.added.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(added, vec![4], "only the new fragment is added");
+        let changed: Vec<(u64, u64, u64)> = delta
+            .changed
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(b, a)| (b.id, dv_version(b), dv_version(a)))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            changed,
+            vec![(2, 1, 2)],
+            "the changed pair carries each side's metadata"
+        );
+        let mut candidates: Vec<(u64, Option<u64>)> = delta
+            .candidates
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(b, a)| (b.id, a.as_ref().map(dv_version)))
+            .collect();
+        candidates.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            candidates,
+            vec![(2, Some(2)), (3, None)],
+            "changed and vanished bear candidates, with end metadata where it survives"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A configured batch size of zero would leave the stream unbounded.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_batch_rows_refuses_a_nonpositive_configuration() {
+        use super::{BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK, DELETED_ROW_ID_BATCH_CAP, batch_rows};
+        assert_eq!(batch_rows(Some(0)), BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK);
+        assert_eq!(batch_rows(None), BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK);
+        assert_eq!(batch_rows(Some(64)), 64);
+        assert_eq!(batch_rows(Some(usize::MAX)), DELETED_ROW_ID_BATCH_CAP);
+    }
+
+    /// An update rewrites a row under the same stable id, so the old
+    /// fragment gains a deletion offset for a row that still exists.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_updated_rows_are_not_reported_as_deleted() {
+        let dataset = create_test_dataset(100, 2, "value", true).await;
+        let begin = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        let dataset = update_where(dataset, "key >= 10 AND key < 20", "changed").await;
+
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .compared_against_version(begin)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert!(
+            deleted.is_empty(),
+            "an update is not a deletion: {deleted:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A fragment's deletions can outnumber one batch.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deleted_row_ids_arrive_in_bounded_batches() {
+        let rows = super::deleted_row_id_batch_rows() * 2 + 100;
+        let mut dataset = create_test_dataset(rows, 1, "value", true).await;
+        let begin = dataset.manifest.version;
+        dataset.delete("true").await.unwrap();
+
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .compared_against_version(begin)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut stream = delta.get_deleted_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+        let mut sizes = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(batch) = stream.try_next().await.unwrap() {
+            sizes.push(batch.num_rows());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(sizes.iter().sum::<usize>(), rows, "{sizes:?}");
+        assert!(
+            sizes
+                .iter()
+                .all(|n| *n <= super::deleted_row_id_batch_rows()),
+            "a batch exceeded the bound: {sizes:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Deleted ids are recoverable even though the rows cannot be scanned,
+    /// and a compaction in the range is not mistaken for deletion.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_get_deleted_row_ids() {
+        use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+
+        let mut dataset = create_test_dataset(100, 2, "value", true).await;
+        let begin = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        dataset.delete("key >= 10 AND key < 20").await.unwrap();
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .compared_against_version(begin)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let deleted = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert_eq!(deleted.len(), 10, "one id per deleted row: {deleted:?}");
+
+        // Compaction rewrites the surviving rows into new fragments; their
+        // ids are unchanged, so the deleted set must not grow.
+        // Materializing the deletions rewrites the fragment under a new id.
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            materialize_deletions_threshold: 0.0,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            metrics.fragments_removed > 0,
+            "the compaction case is vacuous unless fragments were actually rewritten"
+        );
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .compared_against_version(begin)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let after_compaction = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            after_compaction, deleted,
+            "compaction moved live rows; only the deleted ids may be reported"
+        );
+
+        // A row deleted after its fragment was compacted away is still
+        // addressable, so surviving an address lookup does not prove it lives.
+        dataset.delete("key >= 20 AND key < 30").await.unwrap();
+        let delta = dataset
+            .delta()
+            .compared_against_version(begin)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let after_delete = collect_deleted(&delta).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            after_delete.len(),
+            20,
+            "deletes on both sides of the compaction must be reported: {after_delete:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_get_updated_rows() {
         // Create initial dataset (version 1)
@@ -1426,7 +2471,7 @@ mod tests {
         for i in 0..result.num_rows() {
             assert_eq!(created_at[i], 1); // Created at version 1
             assert_eq!(updated_at[i], 2); // Updated at version 2
-                                          // Keys should be in range [0, 30) but excluding [10, 20)
+            // Keys should be in range [0, 30) but excluding [10, 20)
             assert!(keys[i] < 30);
             assert!(keys[i] < 10 || keys[i] >= 20);
         }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/files.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/files.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cd9c05d46c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/files.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1055 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Dataset file inspection APIs.
+
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_array::builder::{
+    Int64Builder, StringBuilder, StringDictionaryBuilder, TimestampMicrosecondBuilder,
+};
+use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use either::Either;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_table::utils::LanceIteratorExtension;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::files::arrow::{TRACKED_FILES_SCHEMA, TrackedFileBatch};
+use crate::dataset::files::file_types::FileType;
+use crate::dataset::files::scan::{ManifestScan, scan_manifests};
+use crate::dataset::{DATA_DIR, INDICES_DIR, TRANSACTIONS_DIR};
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_table::io::deletion::relative_deletion_file_path;
+
+mod arrow;
+mod file_types;
+pub(crate) mod scan;
+
+const BATCH_SIZE: usize = 4096;
+
+fn remove_prefix(path: &Path, prefix: &Path) -> Path {
+    match path.prefix_match(prefix) {
+        Some(parts) => Path::from_iter(parts),
+        None => path.clone(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// A single row destined for the `tracked_files` output.
+struct FileRow<'a> {
+    version: u64,
+    base_uri: Cow<'a, str>,
+    path: Cow<'a, str>,
+    file_type: FileType,
+}
+
+struct ResolvedFileBase<'a> {
+    uri: &'a str,
+    is_dataset_root: bool,
+}
+
+/// Resolve the base a file lives under. Files referenced from a shallow clone
+/// carry a `base_id` pointing into `manifest.base_paths`; otherwise they live
+/// under this dataset's own root.
+fn resolve_file_base<'a>(
+    manifest: &'a lance_table::format::Manifest,
+    base_id: Option<u32>,
+    base_uri: &'a str,
+) -> ResolvedFileBase<'a> {
+    base_id
+        .and_then(|id| manifest.base_paths.get(&id))
+        .map(|base_path| ResolvedFileBase {
+            uri: base_path.path.as_str(),
+            is_dataset_root: base_path.is_dataset_root,
+        })
+        .unwrap_or(ResolvedFileBase {
+            uri: base_uri,
+            is_dataset_root: true,
+        })
+}
+
+fn manifest_file_rows<'a>(
+    manifest: &'a lance_table::format::Manifest,
+    base_uri: &'a str,
+    manifest_path: &'a str,
+) -> Box<dyn ExactSizeIterator<Item = FileRow<'a>> + Send + 'a> {
+    let mut files = 1;
+    let manifest_row = FileRow {
+        version: manifest.version,
+        base_uri: Cow::Borrowed(base_uri),
+        path: Cow::Borrowed(manifest_path),
+        file_type: FileType::Manifest,
+    };
+    let iter = std::iter::once(manifest_row);
+
+    let iter = if let Some(txn_file) = &manifest.transaction_file {
+        files += 1;
+        let txn_row = FileRow {
+            version: manifest.version,
+            base_uri: Cow::Borrowed(base_uri),
+            path: Cow::Owned(format!("{}/{}", TRANSACTIONS_DIR, txn_file)),
+            file_type: FileType::TransactionFile,
+        };
+        Either::Left(iter.chain(std::iter::once(txn_row)))
+    } else {
+        Either::Right(iter)
+    };
+
+    for fragment in manifest.fragments.iter() {
+        // Precount with the same accessor as the iterator below, or `exact_size`
+        // drifts.
+        files += fragment.referenced_lance_files().count();
+
+        if fragment.deletion_file.is_some() {
+            files += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    let data_files = manifest.fragments.iter().flat_map(move |fragment| {
+        fragment.referenced_lance_files().map(move |data_file| {
+            let resolved_base = resolve_file_base(manifest, data_file.base_id, base_uri);
+            let path = if resolved_base.is_dataset_root {
+                Cow::Owned(format!("{}/{}", DATA_DIR, data_file.path))
+            } else {
+                Cow::Borrowed(data_file.path.as_str())
+            };
+            FileRow {
+                version: manifest.version,
+                base_uri: Cow::Borrowed(resolved_base.uri),
+                path,
+                file_type: FileType::DataFile,
+            }
+        })
+    });
+
+    let deletion_files = manifest.fragments.iter().filter_map(|fragment| {
+        fragment.deletion_file.as_ref().map(|del_file| FileRow {
+            version: manifest.version,
+            base_uri: Cow::Borrowed(resolve_file_base(manifest, del_file.base_id, base_uri).uri),
+            path: Cow::Owned(relative_deletion_file_path(fragment.id, del_file)),
+            file_type: FileType::DeletionFile,
+        })
+    });
+
+    Box::new(
+        iter.chain(data_files)
+            .chain(deletion_files)
+            .exact_size(files),
+    )
+}
+
+fn manifest_file_batches<'a>(
+    manifest: &'a lance_table::format::Manifest,
+    base_uri: &'a str,
+    manifest_path: &'a str,
+) -> Box<dyn ExactSizeIterator<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send + 'a> {
+    let mut builder = TrackedFileBatch::with_capacity(BATCH_SIZE);
+
+    let mut iter = manifest_file_rows(manifest, base_uri, manifest_path);
+    let size = iter.len().div_ceil(BATCH_SIZE);
+
+    let mut flushed = false;
+    Box::new(
+        std::iter::from_fn(move || {
+            if flushed {
+                return None;
+            }
+            while let Some(row) = iter.next() {
+                builder.append(&row);
+                if builder.len() == BATCH_SIZE {
+                    let next_size = iter.len().div_ceil(BATCH_SIZE);
+                    let old_builder =
+                        std::mem::replace(&mut builder, TrackedFileBatch::with_capacity(next_size));
+                    return Some(old_builder.finish());
+                }
+            }
+            // Flush the remaining partial batch.
+            flushed = true;
+            if builder.len() != 0 {
+                let partial = std::mem::replace(&mut builder, TrackedFileBatch::with_capacity(0));
+                Some(partial.finish())
+            } else {
+                None
+            }
+        })
+        .exact_size(size),
+    )
+}
+
+async fn get_index_files(
+    uuids: impl IntoIterator<Item = Uuid>,
+    base: &Path,
+    object_store: &lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore,
+    cache: &mut HashMap<Uuid, Vec<object_store::ObjectMeta>>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Path>> {
+    let uuids: Vec<Uuid> = uuids.into_iter().collect();
+
+    // Phase 1: list uncached UUID directories concurrently.
+    let uncached: Vec<Uuid> = uuids
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|uuid| !cache.contains_key(*uuid))
+        .copied()
+        .collect();
+    if !uncached.is_empty() {
+        let parallelism = object_store.io_parallelism();
+        // Clone for use in async move closures (ObjectStore is Arc-backed).
+        let base_owned = base.clone();
+        let os = object_store.clone();
+        let new_entries: Vec<(Uuid, Vec<object_store::ObjectMeta>)> =
+            futures::stream::iter(uncached)
+                .map(|uuid| {
+                    let base = base_owned.clone();
+                    let os = os.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        let prefix = base.join(INDICES_DIR).join(uuid.to_string());
+                        let files: Vec<object_store::ObjectMeta> =
+                            os.list(Some(prefix)).try_collect().await?;
+                        lance_core::Result::Ok((uuid, files))
+                    }
+                })
+                .buffer_unordered(parallelism)
+                .try_collect()
+                .await?;
+
+        // Phase 2: insert results into cache (serial, no contention).
+        cache.extend(new_entries);
+    }
+
+    // Phase 3: collect paths for the requested UUIDs in order.
+    let mut paths = Vec::new();
+    for uuid in &uuids {
+        paths.extend(
+            cache[uuid]
+                .iter()
+                .map(|meta| remove_prefix(&meta.location, base)),
+        );
+    }
+    Ok(paths)
+}
+
+async fn index_file_batch(version: u64, base_uri: &str, paths: &[Path]) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut builder = TrackedFileBatch::with_capacity(paths.len());
+    for path in paths {
+        builder.append(&FileRow {
+            version,
+            base_uri: Cow::Borrowed(base_uri),
+            path: Cow::Owned(path.to_string()),
+            file_type: FileType::IndexFile,
+        });
+    }
+    builder.finish()
+}
+
+/// Progress update for [`Dataset::tracked_files_with_options`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct TrackedFilesProgress {
+    /// Number of manifests processed so far.
+    pub manifests_processed: usize,
+    /// Total number of manifests, if known. This becomes `Some` once the
+    /// listing stream is exhausted; until then it is `None`.
+    pub manifests_total: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+/// Options for [`Dataset::tracked_files_with_options`].
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub struct TrackedFilesOptions {
+    /// If set, only include manifests with `version >= min_version`.
+    pub min_version: Option<u64>,
+    /// If set, called each time a manifest has been fully processed. The
+    /// callback runs on a background tokio task, so it must not block (it
+    /// will stall the manifest reader pipeline). Order is the order in which
+    /// manifests finish processing, which is not the version order.
+    pub progress: Option<Box<dyn Fn(TrackedFilesProgress) + Send + Sync>>,
+}
+
+impl Dataset {
+    /// Returns one row per (version, file) for every file referenced in any manifest.
+    ///
+    /// Each row contains the manifest version, the storage root URI, the file path
+    /// relative to that URI, and the file type.
+    ///
+    /// # Schema
+    ///
+    /// | Column     | Type                              | Notes |
+    /// |------------|-----------------------------------|-------|
+    /// | `version`  | `Int64` (non-null)                | Manifest version number |
+    /// | `base_uri` | `Dictionary(Int32, Utf8)` (non-null) | Storage root for this file |
+    /// | `path`     | `Utf8` (non-null)                 | Relative to `base_uri` |
+    /// | `type`     | `Dictionary(Int8, Utf8)` (non-null)  | One of: `data file`, `manifest`, `deletion file`, `transaction file`, `index file` |
+    ///
+    /// Output order is non-deterministic.
+    pub async fn tracked_files(&self) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        self.tracked_files_with_options(TrackedFilesOptions::default())
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::tracked_files`], but with additional options for filtering
+    /// and progress reporting.
+    pub async fn tracked_files_with_options(
+        &self,
+        options: TrackedFilesOptions,
+    ) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        let uri = self.uri().to_string();
+        let object_store = self.object_store.clone();
+        let base = self.base.clone();
+
+        // Pipeline architecture:
+        //
+        // scan_manifests ──► Emitter ──┬──► tx (output)
+        //                              └──► tx_indexes ──► IndexLister ──► tx (output)
+        //
+        // The Lister and Reader stages live in `scan::scan_manifests`, shared
+        // with the keep-set walk.
+        let ManifestScan { stream, total, .. } = scan_manifests(self, options.min_version);
+
+        // Output channel: Emitter and IndexLister both send batches here.
+        let (tx, rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<datafusion::error::Result<RecordBatch>>(4);
+        // Index channel: Emitter -> IndexLister.
+        let (tx_indexes, mut rx_indexes) =
+            tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<(u64, Vec<IndexMetadata>)>(8);
+
+        // --- Emitter task ---
+        // Converts scanned manifests into file-row batches, forwards index
+        // metadata to the IndexLister, and reports progress. Dropping each
+        // `ScannedManifest` releases its share of the scan's memory budget.
+        let tx_emitter = tx.clone();
+        let uri_emitter = uri.clone();
+        let progress_cb = options.progress;
+        tokio::spawn(async move {
+            let mut stream = stream;
+            let mut processed = 0usize;
+            while let Some(scanned) = stream.next().await {
+                let mut scanned = match scanned {
+                    Ok(scanned) => scanned,
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        let _ = tx_emitter
+                            .send(Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from(e)))
+                            .await;
+                        return;
+                    }
+                };
+
+                let batches =
+                    manifest_file_batches(&scanned.manifest, &uri_emitter, &scanned.manifest_path);
+                for batch_result in batches {
+                    let df_result = batch_result.map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from);
+                    if tx_emitter.send(df_result).await.is_err() {
+                        return;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // Fan out to the index lister only after this manifest's rows
+                // are out and its memory is released. Doing it earlier would
+                // block file-row output on a full index channel while still
+                // holding the manifest's share of the scan's memory budget.
+                let version = scanned.manifest.version;
+                let indexes = std::mem::take(&mut scanned.indexes);
+                drop(scanned);
+
+                if !indexes.is_empty() && tx_indexes.send((version, indexes)).await.is_err() {
+                    return;
+                }
+
+                processed += 1;
+                if let Some(ref cb) = progress_cb {
+                    cb(TrackedFilesProgress {
+                        manifests_processed: processed,
+                        manifests_total: total.get().copied(),
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+        });
+
+        // --- IndexLister task ---
+        // Lists index directories and emits index file batches.
+        let tx_idx = tx;
+        let uri_idx = uri;
+        let os_idx = object_store;
+        let base_idx = base;
+        tokio::spawn(async move {
+            let mut uuid_cache: HashMap<Uuid, Vec<object_store::ObjectMeta>> = HashMap::new();
+            while let Some((version, indexes)) = rx_indexes.recv().await {
+                let uuids: Vec<Uuid> = indexes.iter().map(|idx| idx.uuid).collect();
+                match get_index_files(uuids, &base_idx, &os_idx, &mut uuid_cache).await {
+                    Ok(index_paths) if !index_paths.is_empty() => {
+                        match index_file_batch(version, &uri_idx, &index_paths).await {
+                            Ok(batch) => {
+                                if tx_idx.send(Ok(batch)).await.is_err() {
+                                    return;
+                                }
+                            }
+                            Err(e) => {
+                                let _ = tx_idx
+                                    .send(Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from(e)))
+                                    .await;
+                                return;
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        let _ = tx_idx
+                            .send(Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from(e)))
+                            .await;
+                        return;
+                    }
+                    _ => {}
+                }
+            }
+        });
+
+        let stream = tokio_stream::wrappers::ReceiverStream::new(rx);
+
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            TRACKED_FILES_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            stream,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Returns one row per file that physically exists at the dataset's base URI.
+    ///
+    /// This scans the primary object store root only. Additional `base_paths`
+    /// entries in the manifest (for externally-located data files) are not
+    /// scanned by this method.
+    ///
+    /// # Schema
+    ///
+    /// | Column          | Type                                       | Notes |
+    /// |-----------------|--------------------------------------------|-------|
+    /// | `base_uri`      | `Dictionary(Int32, Utf8)` (non-null)       | Storage root |
+    /// | `path`          | `Utf8` (non-null)                          | Relative to `base_uri` |
+    /// | `size_bytes`    | `Int64` (non-null)                         | File size in bytes |
+    /// | `last_modified` | `Timestamp(Microsecond, "UTC")` (non-null) | Last modification time |
+    pub async fn all_files(&self) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        let base = self.base.clone();
+        let uri = self.uri().to_string();
+        let object_store = self.object_store.clone();
+
+        let stream = object_store
+            .list(Some(base.clone()))
+            .try_chunks(4000)
+            .map_err(|err| err.1)
+            .and_then(
+                move |chunk| match build_all_files_batch(&chunk, &base, &uri) {
+                    Ok(batch) => futures::future::ok(batch),
+                    Err(e) => futures::future::err(e),
+                },
+            )
+            .map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from);
+
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            arrow::ALL_FILES_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            stream,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+fn build_all_files_batch(
+    chunk: &[object_store::ObjectMeta],
+    base: &Path,
+    uri: &str,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let n = chunk.len();
+    let mut base_uri_builder = StringDictionaryBuilder::<Int32Type>::with_capacity(n, 1, uri.len());
+    let path_capacity = chunk.iter().map(|m| m.location.as_ref().len()).sum();
+    let mut path_builder = StringBuilder::with_capacity(n, path_capacity);
+    let mut size_builder = Int64Builder::with_capacity(n);
+    let mut ts_builder = TimestampMicrosecondBuilder::with_capacity(n).with_timezone("UTC");
+
+    for meta in chunk {
+        let rel = remove_prefix(&meta.location, base);
+        base_uri_builder.append_value(uri);
+        path_builder.append_value(rel.as_ref());
+        size_builder.append_value(meta.size as i64);
+        ts_builder.append_value(meta.last_modified.timestamp_micros());
+    }
+
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow::ALL_FILES_SCHEMA.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(base_uri_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(path_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(size_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(ts_builder.finish()),
+        ],
+    )
+    .map_err(Into::into)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::Dataset;
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+    use arrow_array::{Array, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema, TimeUnit};
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+    use lance_testing::datagen::some_batch;
+    use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+    async fn collect_rows(stream: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn count_rows(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> usize {
+        batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum()
+    }
+
+    fn dict_value_at(col: &dyn arrow_array::Array, i: usize) -> String {
+        if let Some(dict) = col
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::DictionaryArray<arrow_array::types::Int8Type>>()
+        {
+            let values = dict
+                .values()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            values.value(dict.keys().value(i) as usize).to_string()
+        } else if let Some(dict) = col
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::DictionaryArray<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>>()
+        {
+            let values = dict
+                .values()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            values.value(dict.keys().value(i) as usize).to_string()
+        } else {
+            panic!("expected a dictionary array with Int8 or Int32 keys");
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn collect_column_values(batches: &[RecordBatch], col: &str) -> Vec<String> {
+        batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                let col = b.column_by_name(col).unwrap();
+                (0..col.len()).map(|i| dict_value_at(col.as_ref(), i))
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn make_simple_batch() -> impl arrow_array::RecordBatchReader {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_tracked_files_basic() {
+        let uri = "memory://test_tracked_files_basic";
+
+        // Create then append twice to get 3 manifest versions.
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(make_simple_batch(), uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.append(make_simple_batch(), None).await.unwrap();
+        ds.append(make_simple_batch(), None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let stream = ds.tracked_files().await;
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let batches = collect_rows(stream).await;
+
+        // Schema is correct.
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(0).name(), "version");
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(1).name(), "base_uri");
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(2).name(), "path");
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(3).name(), "type");
+
+        let n = count_rows(&batches);
+        // At minimum: 3 manifests + 3 data files = 6 rows
+        assert!(n >= 6, "expected at least 6 rows, got {n}");
+
+        let types: HashSet<String> = collect_column_values(&batches, "type")
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        assert!(types.contains("manifest"), "missing 'manifest' rows");
+        assert!(types.contains("data file"), "missing 'data file' rows");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_tracked_files_deletion() {
+        let uri = "memory://test_tracked_files_deletion";
+
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(make_simple_batch(), uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.delete("id = 2").await.unwrap();
+
+        let stream = ds.tracked_files().await;
+        let batches = collect_rows(stream).await;
+
+        let types: HashSet<String> = collect_column_values(&batches, "type")
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            types.contains("deletion file"),
+            "missing 'deletion file' rows after delete; got types: {:?}",
+            types
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_tracked_files_transaction() {
+        let uri = "memory://test_tracked_files_transaction";
+
+        // Normal writes record transaction files by default.
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(make_simple_batch(), uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.append(make_simple_batch(), None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let stream = ds.tracked_files().await;
+        let batches = collect_rows(stream).await;
+
+        let types: HashSet<String> = collect_column_values(&batches, "type")
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            types.contains("transaction file"),
+            "expected 'transaction file' rows; got types: {:?}",
+            types
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_tracked_files_index() {
+        let uri = "memory://test_tracked_files_index";
+
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(some_batch(), uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 5);
+        ds.create_index(&["indexable"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stream = ds.tracked_files().await;
+        let batches = collect_rows(stream).await;
+
+        let types: HashSet<String> = collect_column_values(&batches, "type")
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            types.contains("index file"),
+            "expected 'index file' rows after vector index creation; got types: {:?}",
+            types
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn collect_versions(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Vec<i64> {
+        batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                let col = b
+                    .column_by_name("version")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int64Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                (0..col.len()).map(|i| col.value(i)).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_tracked_files_min_version() {
+        let uri = "memory://test_tracked_files_min_version";
+
+        // Create 3 versions.
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(make_simple_batch(), uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.append(make_simple_batch(), None).await.unwrap();
+        ds.append(make_simple_batch(), None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Without filter: should have rows from versions 1, 2, 3.
+        let stream = ds.tracked_files().await;
+        let all_batches = collect_rows(stream).await;
+        let all_versions: HashSet<i64> = collect_versions(&all_batches).into_iter().collect();
+        assert!(all_versions.contains(&1));
+        assert!(all_versions.contains(&2));
+        assert!(all_versions.contains(&3));
+
+        // With min_version=3: should only have version 3.
+        let stream = ds
+            .tracked_files_with_options(TrackedFilesOptions {
+                min_version: Some(3),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await;
+        let filtered_batches = collect_rows(stream).await;
+        let filtered_versions: HashSet<i64> =
+            collect_versions(&filtered_batches).into_iter().collect();
+        assert_eq!(filtered_versions, HashSet::from([3]));
+
+        // With min_version=2: should have versions 2 and 3.
+        let stream = ds
+            .tracked_files_with_options(TrackedFilesOptions {
+                min_version: Some(2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await;
+        let filtered_batches = collect_rows(stream).await;
+        let filtered_versions: HashSet<i64> =
+            collect_versions(&filtered_batches).into_iter().collect();
+        assert_eq!(filtered_versions, HashSet::from([2, 3]));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_tracked_files_progress() {
+        let uri = "memory://test_tracked_files_progress";
+
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(make_simple_batch(), uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.append(make_simple_batch(), None).await.unwrap();
+        ds.append(make_simple_batch(), None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let updates = Arc::new(std::sync::Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let updates_clone = updates.clone();
+
+        let stream = ds
+            .tracked_files_with_options(TrackedFilesOptions {
+                progress: Some(Box::new(move |p| {
+                    updates_clone.lock().unwrap().push(p);
+                })),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await;
+        // Consume the full stream to drive all tasks to completion.
+        let _batches = collect_rows(stream).await;
+
+        let updates = updates.lock().unwrap();
+        // Should have exactly 3 progress updates (one per manifest).
+        assert_eq!(updates.len(), 3, "expected 3 progress updates");
+        // Processed counts should be monotonically increasing.
+        for (i, u) in updates.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(u.manifests_processed, i + 1);
+        }
+        // The last update should know the total.
+        let last = updates.last().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(last.manifests_total, Some(3));
+    }
+
+    fn make_multi_row_batch(rows: usize) -> impl arrow_array::RecordBatchReader {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..rows as i32))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema)
+    }
+
+    /// Multi-fragment scenario: write 6 rows split across 3 fragments, delete
+    /// one row to produce a deletion file, then assert that every path
+    /// `tracked_files` emits for the latest version actually exists in the
+    /// `all_files` listing of the dataset directory.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_tracked_files_paths_match_disk() {
+        use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+
+        let uri = "memory://test_tracked_files_paths_match_disk";
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(make_multi_row_batch(6), uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Triggers a deletion file on one of the fragments.
+        ds.delete("id = 1").await.unwrap();
+        let latest_version = ds.version().version as i64;
+
+        // Sanity-check the multi-fragment setup: 3 data files in the latest manifest.
+        assert_eq!(
+            ds.get_fragments().len(),
+            3,
+            "expected 3 fragments from max_rows_per_file=2 over 6 rows"
+        );
+
+        let tracked = collect_rows(ds.tracked_files().await).await;
+        let all = collect_rows(ds.all_files().await).await;
+
+        let all_paths: HashSet<String> = all
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                let col = b
+                    .column_by_name("path")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                (0..col.len()).map(|i| col.value(i).to_string())
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // Collect tracked paths grouped by type for the latest version only.
+        let mut tracked_at_latest: HashMap<String, Vec<String>> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in &tracked {
+            let versions = batch
+                .column_by_name("version")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int64Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let paths = batch
+                .column_by_name("path")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let types = batch.column_by_name("type").unwrap();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                if versions.value(i) == latest_version {
+                    tracked_at_latest
+                        .entry(dict_value_at(types.as_ref(), i))
+                        .or_default()
+                        .push(paths.value(i).to_string());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Every file tracked at the latest version must exist on disk.
+        for (file_type, paths) in &tracked_at_latest {
+            for p in paths {
+                assert!(
+                    all_paths.contains(p),
+                    "tracked {file_type} path {p:?} not present in all_files (got {all_paths:?})"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        // The latest manifest references one manifest, 3 data files, and 1 deletion file.
+        assert_eq!(
+            tracked_at_latest.get("manifest").map(Vec::len),
+            Some(1),
+            "expected 1 manifest row at latest version"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            tracked_at_latest.get("data file").map(Vec::len),
+            Some(3),
+            "expected 3 data files at latest version"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            tracked_at_latest.get("deletion file").map(Vec::len),
+            Some(1),
+            "expected 1 deletion file at latest version"
+        );
+
+        // Path shapes are as documented (relative to base_uri, no leading slash).
+        for p in tracked_at_latest.get("data file").unwrap() {
+            assert!(
+                p.starts_with("data/"),
+                "data file path {p:?} should start with data/"
+            );
+        }
+        let manifest_path = &tracked_at_latest.get("manifest").unwrap()[0];
+        assert!(
+            manifest_path.starts_with("_versions/") && manifest_path.ends_with(".manifest"),
+            "manifest path {manifest_path:?} should match _versions/<n>.manifest"
+        );
+        let deletion_path = &tracked_at_latest.get("deletion file").unwrap()[0];
+        assert!(
+            deletion_path.starts_with("_deletions/"),
+            "deletion path {deletion_path:?} should start with _deletions/"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Each `DataFile` inside a fragment carries its own `base_id`; both the
+    /// emitted `base_uri` and relative path must honor that base's layout.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_manifest_file_rows_per_file_base_id() {
+        use lance_core::datatypes::{Field as LanceField, Schema as LanceSchema};
+        use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+        use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use lance_table::format::{
+            BasePath, DataFile, DataStorageFormat, DeletionFile, DeletionFileType, Fragment,
+            Manifest,
+        };
+
+        let schema = LanceSchema {
+            fields: vec![LanceField::try_from(&Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)).unwrap()],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        let mk_file = |path: &str, base_id: Option<u32>| DataFile {
+            path: path.to_string(),
+            fields: Arc::from(vec![0]),
+            column_indices: Arc::from(Vec::<i32>::new()),
+            file_major_version: 2,
+            file_minor_version: 0,
+            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::unknown(),
+            base_id,
+        };
+
+        let fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![
+                mk_file("a.lance", Some(1)),
+                mk_file("b.lance", Some(2)),
+                // No base_id -> falls back to the dataset base_uri.
+                mk_file("c.lance", None),
+            ],
+            // An overlay's data file is reported like any other, and resolves
+            // its own base_id.
+            overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file: mk_file("d.lance", Some(1)),
+                coverage: OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(Default::default())),
+                committed_version: 1,
+            }],
+            // Deletion files also carry a base_id when they originate from a
+            // shallow clone, and must resolve against base_paths too.
+            deletion_file: Some(DeletionFile {
+                read_version: 1,
+                id: 7,
+                file_type: DeletionFileType::Bitmap,
+                num_deleted_rows: Some(1),
+                base_id: Some(2),
+            }),
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(3),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+
+        let mut base_paths = HashMap::new();
+        base_paths.insert(
+            1,
+            BasePath::new(1, "s3://bucket-a/root".to_string(), None, false),
+        );
+        base_paths.insert(
+            2,
+            BasePath::new(2, "s3://bucket-b/root".to_string(), None, true),
+        );
+
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            base_paths,
+        );
+
+        let rows: Vec<_> =
+            manifest_file_rows(&manifest, "memory://main", "_versions/1.manifest").collect();
+        let by_path: HashMap<&str, &str> = rows
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|r| matches!(r.file_type, FileType::DataFile))
+            .map(|r| (r.path.as_ref(), r.base_uri.as_ref()))
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(by_path.get("a.lance"), Some(&"s3://bucket-a/root"));
+        assert_eq!(by_path.get("data/b.lance"), Some(&"s3://bucket-b/root"));
+        assert_eq!(by_path.get("data/c.lance"), Some(&"memory://main"));
+        assert_eq!(by_path.get("d.lance"), Some(&"s3://bucket-a/root"));
+
+        let deletion = rows
+            .iter()
+            .find(|r| matches!(r.file_type, FileType::DeletionFile))
+            .expect("deletion file row");
+        assert_eq!(deletion.path.as_ref(), "_deletions/0-1-7.bin");
+        assert_eq!(deletion.base_uri.as_ref(), "s3://bucket-b/root");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_all_files_basic() {
+        let uri = "memory://test_all_files_basic";
+        let ds = Dataset::write(make_simple_batch(), uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stream = ds.all_files().await;
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let batches = collect_rows(stream).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(0).name(), "base_uri");
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(1).name(), "path");
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(2).name(), "size_bytes");
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(3).name(), "last_modified");
+
+        let n = count_rows(&batches);
+        // A dataset always has at least a manifest and a data file.
+        assert!(n >= 2, "expected at least 2 physical files, got {n}");
+
+        // Verify sizes and timestamps are populated (non-zero).
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let sizes = batch
+                .column_by_name("size_bytes")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int64Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..sizes.len() {
+                assert!(
+                    sizes.value(i) > 0,
+                    "size_bytes should be positive, got {}",
+                    sizes.value(i)
+                );
+            }
+
+            let ts = batch
+                .column_by_name("last_modified")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::TimestampMicrosecondArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..ts.len() {
+                assert!(
+                    ts.value(i) > 0,
+                    "last_modified should be positive, got {}",
+                    ts.value(i)
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_all_files_schema() {
+        let uri = "memory://test_all_files_schema";
+        let ds = Dataset::write(make_simple_batch(), uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stream = ds.all_files().await;
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields().len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(0).name(), "base_uri");
+        assert!(matches!(
+            schema.field(0).data_type(),
+            DataType::Dictionary(_, _)
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(1).name(), "path");
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(1).data_type(), &DataType::Utf8);
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(2).name(), "size_bytes");
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(2).data_type(), &DataType::Int64);
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(3).name(), "last_modified");
+        assert!(matches!(
+            schema.field(3).data_type(),
+            DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Microsecond, _)
+        ));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/files/arrow.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/files/arrow.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..22d767fe13b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/files/arrow.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
+
+use arrow::array::{ArrayBuilder, Int8Builder};
+use arrow::datatypes::Int8Type;
+use arrow_array::builder::{Int64Builder, StringBuilder, StringDictionaryBuilder};
+use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef, TimeUnit};
+use lance_core::Result;
+
+use super::FileRow;
+use super::file_types::FileType;
+
+pub static FILE_TYPE_DICT_ARRAY: LazyLock<ArrayRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    let mut builder = StringBuilder::with_capacity(5, 20);
+    builder.append_value(FileType::Manifest.to_string());
+    builder.append_value(FileType::DataFile.to_string());
+    builder.append_value(FileType::DeletionFile.to_string());
+    builder.append_value(FileType::TransactionFile.to_string());
+    builder.append_value(FileType::IndexFile.to_string());
+    Arc::new(builder.finish())
+});
+
+pub struct FileTypeArrayBuilder {
+    builder: Int8Builder,
+}
+
+impl FileTypeArrayBuilder {
+    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            builder: Int8Builder::with_capacity(capacity),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn append_value(&mut self, file_type: FileType) {
+        let value = file_type.into();
+        self.builder.append_value(value);
+    }
+
+    pub fn finish(mut self) -> DictionaryArray<Int8Type> {
+        let indices = self.builder.finish();
+        DictionaryArray::new(indices, FILE_TYPE_DICT_ARRAY.clone())
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) static TRACKED_FILES_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("version", DataType::Int64, false),
+        Field::new(
+            "base_uri",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            false,
+        ),
+        Field::new("path", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        Field::new(
+            "type",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int8), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            false,
+        ),
+    ]))
+});
+
+pub(super) static ALL_FILES_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(
+            "base_uri",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            false,
+        ),
+        Field::new("path", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        Field::new("size_bytes", DataType::Int64, false),
+        Field::new(
+            "last_modified",
+            DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Microsecond, Some("UTC".into())),
+            false,
+        ),
+    ]))
+});
+
+/// Arrow batch builder for the `tracked_files` schema.
+///
+/// Construct with [`with_capacity`](Self::with_capacity) to pre-size the
+/// underlying buffers, then call [`extend`](Self::extend) to fill rows in bulk.
+pub(super) struct TrackedFileBatch {
+    version: Int64Builder,
+    base_uri: StringDictionaryBuilder<Int32Type>,
+    path: StringBuilder,
+    file_type: FileTypeArrayBuilder,
+}
+
+impl TrackedFileBatch {
+    pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            version: Int64Builder::with_capacity(capacity),
+            // Most of the time, there is only 1 base_uri
+            base_uri: StringDictionaryBuilder::with_capacity(capacity, 1, 20),
+            path: StringBuilder::with_capacity(capacity, capacity * 50),
+            file_type: FileTypeArrayBuilder::with_capacity(capacity),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn append(&mut self, row: &FileRow) {
+        self.version.append_value(row.version as i64);
+        self.base_uri.append_value(&row.base_uri);
+        self.path.append_value(&row.path);
+        self.file_type.append_value(row.file_type);
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.version.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn finish(mut self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            TRACKED_FILES_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(self.version.finish()),
+                Arc::new(self.base_uri.finish()),
+                Arc::new(self.path.finish()),
+                Arc::new(self.file_type.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .map_err(Into::into)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/files/file_types.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/files/file_types.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6734c5169aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/files/file_types.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+// Discriminants are the dictionary keys used in the `tracked_files` output
+// schema; they must stay in sync with `FILE_TYPE_DICT_ARRAY` in `arrow.rs`.
+#[repr(i8)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub enum FileType {
+    Manifest = 0,
+    DataFile = 1,
+    DeletionFile = 2,
+    TransactionFile = 3,
+    IndexFile = 4,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for FileType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let s = match self {
+            Self::Manifest => "manifest",
+            Self::DataFile => "data file",
+            Self::DeletionFile => "deletion file",
+            Self::TransactionFile => "transaction file",
+            Self::IndexFile => "index file",
+        };
+        write!(f, "{s}")
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<FileType> for i8 {
+    fn from(file_type: FileType) -> Self {
+        file_type as Self
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Array, StringArray, cast::AsArray};
+
+    use crate::dataset::files::arrow::FILE_TYPE_DICT_ARRAY;
+
+    const ALL: [FileType; 5] = [
+        FileType::Manifest,
+        FileType::DataFile,
+        FileType::DeletionFile,
+        FileType::TransactionFile,
+        FileType::IndexFile,
+    ];
+
+    /// The discriminants double as dictionary keys for the `tracked_files`
+    /// output, so reordering either list would silently mislabel every row.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_discriminants_index_into_the_dictionary() {
+        let dict: &StringArray = FILE_TYPE_DICT_ARRAY.as_string();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dict.len(),
+            ALL.len(),
+            "every variant needs a dictionary slot"
+        );
+
+        for file_type in ALL {
+            let key = i8::from(file_type);
+            assert_eq!(
+                dict.value(key as usize),
+                file_type.to_string(),
+                "{file_type:?} has key {key}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_discriminants_are_contiguous_from_zero() {
+        let keys: Vec<i8> = ALL.iter().copied().map(i8::from).collect();
+        assert_eq!(keys, (0..ALL.len() as i8).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/files/scan.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/files/scan.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..47d4e762b78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/files/scan.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,498 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! The shared manifest walk behind [`Dataset::tracked_files`] and
+//! [`Dataset::referenced_files`].
+//!
+//! Both need the same thing: every present manifest, read with bounded memory
+//! and bounded parallelism, together with the index metadata stored alongside
+//! it. They differ only in what they build from it, so the walk lives here and
+//! each caller materializes its own result.
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! Lister ──► tx_locations ──► Reader ──► tx_manifest ──► caller's stream
+//! ```
+//!
+//! The reader keeps several manifests in flight but stops launching reads once
+//! the estimated in-flight size reaches [`MANIFEST_MEMORY_BUDGET`]. The budget
+//! is charged for as long as the consumer holds a [`ScannedManifest`], so
+//! dropping each one after use is what keeps the pipeline moving.
+//!
+//! The bound is on the reader's prefetch, not on what a consumer chooses to
+//! retain: one read is always allowed when nothing is in flight, so a consumer
+//! that holds every manifest degrades the walk to serial reads rather than
+//! stopping it. That escape hatch is what keeps a manifest larger than the whole
+//! budget from deadlocking the walk.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+use futures::stream::{BoxStream, FuturesUnordered};
+use futures::{Future, StreamExt};
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_table::format::{IndexMetadata, Manifest};
+use lance_table::io::commit::ManifestLocation;
+use lance_table::io::manifest::{read_manifest, read_manifest_indexes};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+
+use super::remove_prefix;
+use crate::Dataset;
+
+/// Memory budget for in-flight manifests (estimated in-memory size).
+const MANIFEST_MEMORY_BUDGET: usize = 1024 * 1024 * 1024; // 1 GB
+/// Estimated ratio of in-memory size to on-disk size for manifests. Found
+/// empirically; manifests are protobuf with significant decompression and
+/// allocator overhead once parsed.
+const MANIFEST_DECOMPRESSION_RATIO: usize = 4;
+
+// A `ManifestLocation` is ~100 bytes, so a 50k-slot mpsc channel costs ~5 MB
+// in the worst case. That's enough headroom for the lister to run well ahead
+// of the reader on datasets with hundreds of thousands of manifests, while
+// still bounding memory.
+const MAX_BUFFERED_LOCATIONS: usize = 50_000;
+
+/// Releases a manifest's share of the memory budget and wakes the reader.
+///
+/// Held by [`ScannedManifest`] so the budget is returned when the caller drops
+/// it, whether or not the caller remembers to.
+struct MemoryPermit {
+    bytes: usize,
+    inflight: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    notify: Arc<tokio::sync::Notify>,
+}
+
+impl Drop for MemoryPermit {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.inflight.fetch_sub(self.bytes, Ordering::AcqRel);
+        self.notify.notify_one();
+    }
+}
+
+/// One manifest produced by [`scan_manifests`], with what was read alongside it.
+pub struct ScannedManifest {
+    pub manifest: Arc<Manifest>,
+    /// The manifest's own path, relative to the dataset root.
+    pub manifest_path: String,
+    /// Index metadata from this manifest's index section. Empty when it has none.
+    pub indexes: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    // Order matters: dropping the permit last means the budget is returned only
+    // after `manifest` is freed.
+    _permit: MemoryPermit,
+}
+
+/// A running manifest walk.
+pub struct ManifestScan {
+    /// Manifests in completion order, which is not version order.
+    pub stream: BoxStream<'static, Result<ScannedManifest>>,
+    /// Number of manifests the walk will yield. Set once listing finishes, so a
+    /// consumer reading it mid-walk may still see `None`.
+    pub total: Arc<std::sync::OnceLock<usize>>,
+    /// Estimated in-memory bytes the reader has read and the consumer has not
+    /// yet dropped. Test-only: production consumers rely on the budget
+    /// implicitly, by dropping each manifest after use, so keeping this in
+    /// release builds would be a field nothing reads.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    inflight_bytes: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+impl ManifestScan {
+    /// Estimated in-memory bytes currently charged against the budget.
+    fn inflight_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inflight_bytes.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    /// The budget counter itself, for assertions that outlive `stream`.
+    fn inflight_handle(&self) -> Arc<AtomicUsize> {
+        self.inflight_bytes.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Walk every present manifest of `dataset`.
+///
+/// `min_version`, when set, skips manifests older than that version. Note that
+/// this makes the result an incomplete view of what the dataset references, so
+/// a caller building a deletion predicate must leave it unset.
+pub fn scan_manifests(dataset: &Dataset, min_version: Option<u64>) -> ManifestScan {
+    let base = dataset.base.clone();
+    let object_store = dataset.object_store.clone();
+    let commit_handler = dataset.commit_handler.clone();
+
+    let (tx_manifest, rx_manifest) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<Result<ScannedManifest>>(2);
+    let (tx_locations, rx_locations) =
+        tokio::sync::mpsc::channel::<ManifestLocation>(MAX_BUFFERED_LOCATIONS);
+
+    let inflight_mem = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+    let mem_notify = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Notify::new());
+    let total: Arc<std::sync::OnceLock<usize>> = Arc::new(std::sync::OnceLock::new());
+
+    spawn_lister(
+        commit_handler,
+        object_store.clone(),
+        base.clone(),
+        min_version,
+        tx_locations,
+        total.clone(),
+        tx_manifest.clone(),
+    );
+    spawn_reader(
+        object_store,
+        base,
+        rx_locations,
+        tx_manifest,
+        &inflight_mem,
+        mem_notify,
+    );
+
+    ManifestScan {
+        stream: tokio_stream::wrappers::ReceiverStream::new(rx_manifest).boxed(),
+        total,
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        inflight_bytes: inflight_mem,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Lists manifest locations, applies `min_version`, and records the total.
+///
+/// Locations are small, so they are buffered generously to let the lister run
+/// ahead of the reader.
+fn spawn_lister(
+    commit_handler: Arc<dyn lance_table::io::commit::CommitHandler>,
+    object_store: Arc<lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore>,
+    base: Path,
+    min_version: Option<u64>,
+    tx_locations: tokio::sync::mpsc::Sender<ManifestLocation>,
+    total: Arc<std::sync::OnceLock<usize>>,
+    tx_err: tokio::sync::mpsc::Sender<Result<ScannedManifest>>,
+) {
+    tokio::spawn(async move {
+        let result: Result<()> = async {
+            let mut locations = commit_handler.list_manifest_locations(&base, &object_store, false);
+            let mut count = 0usize;
+            while let Some(location) = locations.next().await {
+                let location = location?;
+                if let Some(min_version) = min_version
+                    && location.version < min_version
+                {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                count += 1;
+                if tx_locations.send(location).await.is_err() {
+                    // The consumer went away; stop listing.
+                    return Ok(());
+                }
+            }
+            let _ = total.set(count);
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        .await;
+        if let Err(error) = result {
+            let _ = tx_err.send(Err(error)).await;
+        }
+    });
+}
+
+/// Reads manifests with memory-aware parallelism.
+///
+/// Read failures travel as `Err` items in the stream rather than ending the
+/// walk, so this task itself is infallible.
+fn spawn_reader(
+    object_store: Arc<lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore>,
+    base: Path,
+    mut rx_locations: tokio::sync::mpsc::Receiver<ManifestLocation>,
+    tx_manifest: tokio::sync::mpsc::Sender<Result<ScannedManifest>>,
+    inflight_mem: &Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    mem_notify: Arc<tokio::sync::Notify>,
+) {
+    let inflight_mem = inflight_mem.clone();
+    tokio::spawn(async move {
+        let max_parallelism = object_store.io_parallelism();
+        type ScanResult = Result<ScannedManifest>;
+        let mut in_flight: FuturesUnordered<
+            std::pin::Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = ScanResult> + Send>>,
+        > = FuturesUnordered::new();
+        let mut locations_exhausted = false;
+
+        loop {
+            // Always allow one read even when over budget, or a single
+            // manifest larger than the budget would deadlock the walk.
+            let can_launch = !locations_exhausted
+                && in_flight.len() < max_parallelism
+                && (in_flight.is_empty()
+                    || inflight_mem.load(Ordering::Acquire) < MANIFEST_MEMORY_BUDGET);
+
+            if in_flight.is_empty() && !can_launch {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            tokio::select! {
+                biased;
+                // Always drain completed reads first.
+                Some(scanned) = in_flight.next(), if !in_flight.is_empty() => {
+                    // The consumer went away; stop reading.
+                    if tx_manifest.send(scanned).await.is_err() {
+                        return;
+                    }
+                }
+                location = rx_locations.recv(), if can_launch => {
+                    match location {
+                        Some(location) => {
+                            let estimated = location.size.unwrap_or(0) as usize
+                                * MANIFEST_DECOMPRESSION_RATIO;
+                            inflight_mem.fetch_add(estimated, Ordering::AcqRel);
+                            let permit = MemoryPermit {
+                                bytes: estimated,
+                                inflight: inflight_mem.clone(),
+                                notify: mem_notify.clone(),
+                            };
+
+                            let object_store = object_store.clone();
+                            let base = base.clone();
+                            in_flight.push(Box::pin(async move {
+                                let manifest = read_manifest(
+                                    &object_store,
+                                    &location.path,
+                                    location.size,
+                                )
+                                .await?;
+                                let indexes = read_manifest_indexes(
+                                    &object_store,
+                                    &location,
+                                    &manifest,
+                                )
+                                .await?;
+                                Ok(ScannedManifest {
+                                    manifest: Arc::new(manifest),
+                                    manifest_path: remove_prefix(&location.path, &base)
+                                        .to_string(),
+                                    indexes,
+                                    _permit: permit,
+                                })
+                            }));
+                        }
+                        None => locations_exhausted = true,
+                    }
+                }
+                // Wake up when a consumer frees budget by dropping a manifest.
+                _ = mem_notify.notified(), if !can_launch && !in_flight.is_empty() => {}
+            }
+        }
+    });
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+
+    fn simple_batch() -> impl arrow_array::RecordBatchReader {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema)
+    }
+
+    async fn dataset_with_three_versions(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(simple_batch(), uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.append(simple_batch(), None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.append(simple_batch(), None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    /// The budget must return to zero once the consumer drops every manifest.
+    /// A leaked permit would leave it charged and eventually stall the reader.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn budget_returns_to_zero_after_consuming() {
+        let dataset = dataset_with_three_versions("memory://scan_budget_zero").await;
+        let mut scan = scan_manifests(&dataset, None);
+
+        let mut seen = 0usize;
+        while let Some(scanned) = scan.stream.next().await {
+            scanned.unwrap();
+            seen += 1;
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(seen, 3, "expected every present manifest");
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan.inflight_bytes(),
+            0,
+            "dropping every ScannedManifest must return the whole budget"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Holding manifests keeps the budget charged, which is the signal the
+    /// reader throttles on. It does not stop the walk: one read is always
+    /// allowed when nothing is in flight, so a hoarding consumer gets serial
+    /// reads rather than a stall.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn holding_manifests_keeps_budget_charged() {
+        let dataset = dataset_with_three_versions("memory://scan_budget_held").await;
+        let mut scan = scan_manifests(&dataset, None);
+
+        let mut held = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(scanned) = scan.stream.next().await {
+            held.push(scanned.unwrap());
+        }
+        assert!(
+            scan.inflight_bytes() > 0,
+            "held manifests must still be charged against the budget"
+        );
+
+        drop(held);
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan.inflight_bytes(),
+            0,
+            "the budget must come back when the consumer lets go"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `min_version` really does skip manifests, which is why a keep-set must
+    /// leave it unset.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn min_version_skips_older_manifests() {
+        let dataset = dataset_with_three_versions("memory://scan_min_version").await;
+
+        let mut versions = Vec::new();
+        let ManifestScan { mut stream, .. } = scan_manifests(&dataset, Some(3));
+        while let Some(scanned) = stream.next().await {
+            versions.push(scanned.unwrap().manifest.version);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(versions, vec![3], "min_version must drop versions 1 and 2");
+    }
+
+    /// Dropping the stream early must not leave the reader running: the closed
+    /// channel is what tells it to stop. Observed through the budget returning
+    /// to zero, which happens only once every in-flight permit is released.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn dropping_the_stream_releases_every_permit() {
+        let dataset = dataset_with_three_versions("memory://scan_drop_early").await;
+        let scan = scan_manifests(&dataset, None);
+        // Keep the budget handle after the stream goes away.
+        let inflight = scan.inflight_handle();
+        let mut stream = scan.stream;
+
+        // Hold the first manifest so the budget is provably charged. Without
+        // this the assertion below could pass on a walk that never charged
+        // anything.
+        let first = stream.next().await.expect("at least one manifest").unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            inflight.load(Ordering::Acquire) > 0,
+            "holding a manifest must charge the budget"
+        );
+
+        // Drop the stream while the walk may still have reads in flight, then
+        // release our own manifest.
+        drop(stream);
+        drop(first);
+
+        // The reader unwinds asynchronously, so poll rather than assume it has
+        // already observed the closed channel. Ten seconds is far longer than
+        // this needs locally and is only here so a loaded machine reports a
+        // real failure instead of a flake.
+        let mut released = false;
+        for _ in 0..1000 {
+            if inflight.load(Ordering::Acquire) == 0 {
+                released = true;
+                break;
+            }
+            tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10)).await;
+        }
+        assert!(
+            released,
+            "dropping the stream must release every in-flight permit; \
+             timed out waiting for the reader to unwind"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A manifest that cannot be read surfaces as an `Err` item in the stream
+    /// rather than being skipped. A skipped manifest would make the walk
+    /// silently incomplete, which for a deletion predicate means authorizing the
+    /// deletion of files only that manifest still references. The reader keeps
+    /// going after a failure; it is the consumer that decides whether to stop.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn read_failure_surfaces_as_an_error_item() {
+        use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use crate::dataset::{ObjectStoreParams, ReadParams};
+        use crate::utils::test::FailingProxyStore;
+
+        // A real store, not `memory://`: the failing proxy wraps the store, and
+        // re-opening with a wrapper changes the registry cache key, so an
+        // in-memory reopen would land on a fresh empty store and lose the three
+        // versions this test needs.
+        let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        drop(dataset_with_three_versions(uri).await);
+
+        // Install the proxy at open time but arm it only afterwards: opening
+        // reads the latest manifest itself, so failing that read would break the
+        // open rather than the walk under test.
+        let failing = Arc::new(FailingProxyStore::new());
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+            .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(failing.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        failing.fail_when("get_opts", "_versions", "injected manifest read failure");
+
+        let mut scan = scan_manifests(&dataset, None);
+        let mut errors = 0usize;
+        let mut successes = 0usize;
+        while let Some(scanned) = scan.stream.next().await {
+            match scanned {
+                Ok(_) => successes += 1,
+                Err(_) => errors += 1,
+            }
+        }
+
+        // One Err per manifest, not one for the whole walk: that is what pins
+        // the reader continuing after a failure. A listing failure would give a
+        // single Err instead, so this also proves the failure came from the
+        // reads rather than from listing.
+        assert_eq!(
+            successes, 0,
+            "no manifest read can succeed while every `_versions` read fails"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            errors, 3,
+            "each of the three manifests must surface its own read error"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan.inflight_bytes(),
+            0,
+            "a failed read must return its share of the budget"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The total is the number of manifests the walk will yield, available once
+    /// listing finishes.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn total_counts_every_yielded_manifest() {
+        let dataset = dataset_with_three_versions("memory://scan_total").await;
+        let ManifestScan {
+            mut stream, total, ..
+        } = scan_manifests(&dataset, None);
+
+        let mut seen = 0usize;
+        while let Some(scanned) = stream.next().await {
+            scanned.unwrap();
+            seen += 1;
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(total.get().copied(), Some(seen));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment.rs
index b43d6acae22..4231d4f7928 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment.rs
@@ -13,55 +13,82 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
 use arrow_array::cast::as_primitive_array;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
 use arrow_array::{
-    new_null_array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader, StructArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+    Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchOptions, RecordBatchReader, StructArray, UInt32Array,
+    UInt64Array, new_null_array,
 };
-use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields as ArrowFields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use datafusion::logical_expr::Expr;
 use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
-use futures::future::try_join_all;
-use futures::{join, stream, FutureExt, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::future::{BoxFuture, try_join_all};
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt, join, stream};
 use lance_arrow::{RecordBatchExt, SchemaExt};
-use lance_core::datatypes::{OnMissing, OnTypeMismatch, SchemaCompareOptions};
+use lance_core::datatypes::{
+    BlobHandling, NullabilityComparison, OnMissing, OnTypeMismatch, SchemaCompareOptions,
+};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
-use lance_core::{cache::CacheKey, datatypes::Schema, Error, Result};
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder},
+    datatypes::{Schema, Schema as LanceSchema},
+};
 use lance_core::{
     ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD,
     ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD,
 };
 use lance_datafusion::utils::StreamingWriteSource;
 use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderPlugins;
-use lance_file::previous::reader::{
-    read_batch as previous_read_batch, FileReader as PreviousFileReader,
+use lance_file::reader::{
+    CachedFileMetadata, FileMetadataIndex, FileReaderOptions, ProjectedFileReader,
 };
-use lance_file::reader::{CachedFileMetadata, FileReaderOptions, ReaderProjection};
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_file::{determine_file_version, LanceEncodingsIo};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::{FileReader as V1FileReader, read_batch as v1_read_batch};
+use lance_file::{LanceEncodingsIo, determine_file_version, versions as file_versions};
+use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use lance_io::scheduler::{FileScheduler, ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream;
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
-use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
 use lance_table::format::{DataFile, DeletionFile, Fragment};
 use lance_table::io::deletion::{deletion_file_path, write_deletion_file};
 use lance_table::rowids::RowIdSequence;
 use lance_table::utils::stream::{
-    wrap_with_row_id_and_delete, ReadBatchFutStream, ReadBatchTask, ReadBatchTaskStream,
-    RowIdAndDeletesConfig,
+    ReadBatchFutStream, ReadBatchTask, ReadBatchTaskStream, RowIdAndDeletesConfig,
+    wrap_with_row_id_and_delete,
 };
-use snafu::location;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 
 use self::write::FragmentCreateBuilder;
 
 use super::hash_joiner::HashJoiner;
-use super::rowids::load_row_id_sequence;
+use super::rowids::{RowVersionKind, load_row_id_sequence, load_row_version_sequence};
 use super::scanner::Scanner;
-use super::statistics::FieldStatistics;
+
 use super::updater::Updater;
-use super::{schema_evolution, NewColumnTransform, WriteParams};
-use crate::dataset::fragment::session::FragmentSession;
+use super::{NewColumnTransform, WriteParams, schema_evolution, versions};
 use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::fragment::session::FragmentSession;
+use crate::dataset::overlay::writer::{OverlayWriter, WriteOverlayError};
+use crate::dataset::overlay::{
+    OverlayReadPlanner, merge_overlay_batch, plan_overlays, resolve_overlays,
+};
+use crate::dataset::utils::SchemaAdapter;
 use crate::io::deletion::read_dataset_deletion_file;
 
+/// Result of [`FileFragment::update_columns_with_offsets`]: updated fragment metadata, modified field ids,
+/// and physical row offsets that matched the join (for stable row-id version metadata).
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct FragmentUpdateColumnsResult {
+    pub fragment: Fragment,
+    pub fields_modified: Vec<u32>,
+    /// Physical row offsets (0-based within this fragment) whose columns were rewritten from the right-hand stream.
+    pub matched_offsets: RoaringBitmap,
+}
+
 /// A Fragment of a Lance [`Dataset`].
 ///
 /// The interface is modeled after `pyarrow.dataset.Fragment`.
@@ -75,6 +102,13 @@ pub struct FileFragment {
 const DEFAULT_BATCH_READ_SIZE: u32 = 1024;
 
 /// A trait for file readers to be implemented by both the v1 and v2 readers
+///
+/// The `read_*_tasks` methods are async because for v2 files they drive
+/// the decode scheduler's `initialize` step (and, for small reads, the
+/// synchronous scheduling that follows) before returning the stream.
+/// Doing that work here keeps it on whichever task awaits this call —
+/// typically a per-fragment `tokio::spawn` — instead of smuggling it
+/// into the first poll of the returned stream.
 #[allow(clippy::len_without_is_empty)]
 pub trait GenericFileReader: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
     /// Reads the requested range of rows from the file, returning as a stream
@@ -84,20 +118,20 @@ pub trait GenericFileReader: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
         range: Range<u64>,
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<lance_core::datatypes::Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>;
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>>;
     /// Reads the requested ranges of rows from the file, only supported by v2
     fn read_ranges_tasks(
         &self,
         ranges: Arc<[Range<u64>]>,
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<lance_core::datatypes::Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>;
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>>;
     /// Reads all rows from the file, returning as a stream of tasks
     fn read_all_tasks(
         &self,
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<lance_core::datatypes::Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>;
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>>;
     /// Take specific rows from the file, returning as a stream of tasks
     fn take_all_tasks(
         &self,
@@ -105,7 +139,7 @@ pub trait GenericFileReader: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<lance_core::datatypes::Schema>,
         take_priority: Option<u32>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>;
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>>;
 
     /// Return the number of rows in the file
     fn len(&self) -> u32;
@@ -113,33 +147,16 @@ pub trait GenericFileReader: std::fmt::Debug + Send + Sync {
     /// Schema of the reader
     fn projection(&self) -> &Arc<Schema>;
 
-    /// Update storage statistics (ignored by v1 reader)
-    fn update_storage_stats(&self, field_stats: &mut HashMap<u32, FieldStatistics>);
-
-    // Helper functions to fallback to the legacy implementation while we
-    // slowly migrate functionality over to the generic reader
+    /// Get storage statistics for this file (ignored by v1 reader)
+    fn storage_stats(&self) -> Result<Vec<(u32, u64)>>;
 
     // Clone the reader, this is needed because Box<dyn Foo: Clone> doesn't
     // implement Clone
     fn clone_box(&self) -> Box<dyn GenericFileReader>;
-    // Return true if the reader is a v1 reader
-    fn is_legacy(&self) -> bool;
-    // Return a reference to the legacy reader, panics if called on a v2
-    // file.
-    fn as_legacy(&self) -> &PreviousFileReader {
-        self.as_legacy_opt()
-            .expect("legacy function called on v2 file")
-    }
-    // Return a reference to the legacy reader if this is a v1 reader and
-    // return None otherwise
-    fn as_legacy_opt(&self) -> Option<&PreviousFileReader>;
-    // Return a mutable reference to the legacy reader if this is a v1 reader
-    // and return None otherwise
-    fn as_legacy_opt_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut PreviousFileReader>;
 }
 
 fn ranges_to_tasks(
-    reader: &PreviousFileReader,
+    reader: &V1FileReader,
     ranges: Vec<(i32, Range<usize>)>,
     projection: Arc<Schema>,
 ) -> ReadBatchTaskStream {
@@ -150,7 +167,7 @@ fn ranges_to_tasks(
             let reader = reader.clone();
             let projection = projection.clone();
             let task = tokio::task::spawn(async move {
-                previous_read_batch(
+                v1_read_batch(
                     &reader,
                     &ReadBatchParams::Range(range.clone()),
                     &projection,
@@ -170,12 +187,12 @@ fn ranges_to_tasks(
 
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 struct V1Reader {
-    reader: PreviousFileReader,
+    reader: V1FileReader,
     projection: Arc<Schema>,
 }
 
 impl V1Reader {
-    fn new(reader: PreviousFileReader, projection: Arc<Schema>) -> Self {
+    fn new(reader: V1FileReader, projection: Arc<Schema>) -> Self {
         Self { reader, projection }
     }
 }
@@ -187,7 +204,7 @@ impl GenericFileReader for V1Reader {
         range: Range<u64>,
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
         let mut to_skip = range.start as u32;
         let mut remaining = range.end as u32 - to_skip;
         let mut ranges = Vec::new();
@@ -209,14 +226,15 @@ impl GenericFileReader for V1Reader {
                 ranges.push((next_batch_idx, (chunk_start as usize..chunk_end as usize)));
             }
         }
-        Ok(ranges_to_tasks(&self.reader, ranges, projection))
+        let stream = ranges_to_tasks(&self.reader, ranges, projection);
+        async move { Ok(stream) }.boxed()
     }
 
     fn read_all_tasks(
         &self,
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
         let ranges = (0..self.reader.num_batches())
             .flat_map(move |batch_idx| {
                 let rows_in_batch = self.reader.num_rows_in_batch(batch_idx as i32);
@@ -228,7 +246,8 @@ impl GenericFileReader for V1Reader {
                     })
             })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        Ok(ranges_to_tasks(&self.reader, ranges, projection))
+        let stream = ranges_to_tasks(&self.reader, ranges, projection);
+        async move { Ok(stream) }.boxed()
     }
 
     fn read_ranges_tasks(
@@ -236,11 +255,13 @@ impl GenericFileReader for V1Reader {
         _ranges: Arc<[Range<u64>]>,
         _batch_size: u32,
         _projection: Arc<Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
-        Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: "Attempt to perform FilteredRead on v1 files".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
+        async move {
+            Err(Error::internal(
+                "Attempt to perform FilteredRead on v1 files".to_string(),
+            ))
+        }
+        .boxed()
     }
 
     fn take_all_tasks(
@@ -249,17 +270,22 @@ impl GenericFileReader for V1Reader {
         _batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
         _take_priority: Option<u32>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
         let indices_vec = indices.to_vec();
         let reader = self.reader.clone();
-        // In the new path the row id is added by the fragment and not the file
-        let task_fut = async move { reader.take(&indices_vec, projection.as_ref()).await }.boxed();
-        let task = std::future::ready(ReadBatchTask {
-            task: task_fut,
-            num_rows: indices.len() as u32,
-        })
-        .boxed();
-        Ok(futures::stream::once(task).boxed())
+        let num_rows = indices.len() as u32;
+        async move {
+            // In the new path the row id is added by the fragment and not the file
+            let task_fut =
+                async move { reader.take(&indices_vec, projection.as_ref()).await }.boxed();
+            let task = std::future::ready(ReadBatchTask {
+                task: task_fut,
+                num_rows,
+            })
+            .boxed();
+            Ok(futures::stream::once(task).boxed())
+        }
+        .boxed()
     }
 
     fn projection(&self) -> &Arc<Schema> {
@@ -271,35 +297,136 @@ impl GenericFileReader for V1Reader {
         self.reader.len() as u32
     }
 
-    fn update_storage_stats(&self, _field_stats: &mut HashMap<u32, FieldStatistics>) {
+    fn storage_stats(&self) -> Result<Vec<(u32, u64)>> {
         // No-op for v1 files
+        Ok(Vec::new())
     }
 
     fn clone_box(&self) -> Box<dyn GenericFileReader> {
         Box::new(self.clone())
     }
-
-    fn is_legacy(&self) -> bool {
-        true
-    }
-
-    fn as_legacy_opt(&self) -> Option<&PreviousFileReader> {
-        Some(&self.reader)
-    }
-
-    fn as_legacy_opt_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut PreviousFileReader> {
-        Some(&mut self.reader)
-    }
 }
 
 mod v2_adapter {
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, GenericListArray, OffsetSizeTrait, cast::AsArray};
+    use lance_core::datatypes::{
+        BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD, BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS, BlobKind, Field as LanceField,
+    };
     use lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression;
 
     use super::*;
 
+    /// Request the original descriptor layout from an older file. Adaptation belongs at
+    /// the dataset boundary so the released file readers retain their original behavior.
+    pub(super) fn legacy_blob_read_schema(schema: &Schema) -> Schema {
+        fn adapt(field: &mut LanceField) {
+            if field.is_blob_v2() {
+                field.metadata.remove(lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY);
+                field
+                    .metadata
+                    .insert(lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
+                field.logical_type = BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.logical_type.clone();
+                field.children = BLOB_DESC_LANCE_FIELD.children.clone();
+            } else {
+                for child in &mut field.children {
+                    adapt(child);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let mut schema = schema.clone();
+        for field in &mut schema.fields {
+            adapt(field);
+        }
+        schema
+    }
+
+    /// A legacy payload is an Inline Blob v2 extent in the same data file. Normalize
+    /// before batches from different file versions are concatenated or materialized.
+    fn normalize_legacy_blob_batch(batch: RecordBatch, schema: &Schema) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        fn adapt(array: &ArrayRef, field: &LanceField) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+            if field.is_blob_v2() {
+                let descriptors = array.as_struct();
+                let positions = descriptors.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+                let sizes = descriptors.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+                let valid = (0..array.len())
+                    .map(|i| {
+                        descriptors.is_valid(i)
+                            && positions.is_valid(i)
+                            && sizes.is_valid(i)
+                            && !(sizes.value(i) == 0 && positions.value(i) != 0)
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                return Ok(Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
+                    BLOB_V2_DESC_FIELDS.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt8Array::from(vec![
+                            BlobKind::Inline as u8;
+                            array.len()
+                        ])),
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::new(
+                            positions.values().clone(),
+                            None,
+                        )),
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::new(sizes.values().clone(), None)),
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(vec![0; array.len()])),
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec![""; array.len()])),
+                    ],
+                    Some(arrow_buffer::NullBuffer::from(valid)),
+                )?));
+            }
+            match field.data_type() {
+                DataType::Struct(_) => {
+                    let values = array.as_struct();
+                    let columns = values
+                        .columns()
+                        .iter()
+                        .zip(&field.children)
+                        .map(|(array, field)| adapt(array, field))
+                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                    let fields = field
+                        .children
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(ArrowField::from)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    Ok(Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
+                        fields.into(),
+                        columns,
+                        values.nulls().cloned(),
+                    )?))
+                }
+                DataType::List(_) => adapt_list::<i32>(array, field),
+                DataType::LargeList(_) => adapt_list::<i64>(array, field),
+                _ => Ok(array.clone()),
+            }
+        }
+        fn adapt_list<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+            array: &ArrayRef,
+            field: &LanceField,
+        ) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+            let list = array.as_list::<O>();
+            let child = &field.children[0];
+            Ok(Arc::new(GenericListArray::<O>::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::from(child)),
+                list.offsets().clone(),
+                adapt(list.values(), child)?,
+                list.nulls().cloned(),
+            )?))
+        }
+        let columns = batch
+            .columns()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&schema.fields)
+            .map(|(array, field)| adapt(array, field))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(schema)),
+            columns,
+        )?)
+    }
+
     #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
     pub struct Reader {
-        reader: Arc<lance_file::reader::FileReader>,
+        reader: Arc<ProjectedFileReader>,
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
         field_id_to_column_idx: Arc<BTreeMap<u32, u32>>,
         default_priority: u32,
@@ -308,7 +435,7 @@ mod v2_adapter {
 
     impl Reader {
         pub fn new(
-            reader: Arc<lance_file::reader::FileReader>,
+            reader: Arc<ProjectedFileReader>,
             projection: Arc<Schema>,
             field_id_to_column_idx: Arc<BTreeMap<u32, u32>>,
             default_priority: u32,
@@ -322,85 +449,99 @@ mod v2_adapter {
                 file_scheduler,
             }
         }
-    }
-
-    impl GenericFileReader for Reader {
-        /// Reads the requested range of rows from the file, returning as a stream
-        fn read_range_tasks(
+        async fn read_tasks(
             &self,
-            range: Range<u64>,
+            reader: &ProjectedFileReader,
+            params: ReadBatchParams,
             batch_size: u32,
-            projection: Arc<Schema>,
+            output_schema: Arc<Schema>,
         ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
-            let projection = ReaderProjection::from_field_ids(
-                self.reader.metadata().version(),
-                projection.as_ref(),
+            let has_legacy_blobs = matches!(
+                reader.version(),
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+            ) && output_schema
+                .fields_pre_order()
+                .any(|field| field.is_blob_v2());
+            let physical_schema = if has_legacy_blobs {
+                legacy_blob_read_schema(&output_schema)
+            } else {
+                output_schema.as_ref().clone()
+            };
+            let projection = file_versions::reader_projection_from_field_ids(
+                reader.version(),
+                &physical_schema,
                 self.field_id_to_column_idx.as_ref(),
             )?;
-            Ok(self
-                .reader
+            Ok(reader
                 .read_tasks(
-                    ReadBatchParams::Range(range.start as usize..range.end as usize),
+                    params,
                     batch_size,
                     Some(projection),
                     FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                )?
-                .map(|v2_task| ReadBatchTask {
-                    task: v2_task.task.map_err(Error::from).boxed(),
-                    num_rows: v2_task.num_rows,
+                )
+                .await?
+                .map(move |task| {
+                    let output_schema = output_schema.clone();
+                    ReadBatchTask {
+                        task: async move {
+                            let batch = task.task.await?;
+                            if has_legacy_blobs {
+                                normalize_legacy_blob_batch(batch, &output_schema)
+                            } else {
+                                Ok(batch)
+                            }
+                        }
+                        .boxed(),
+                        num_rows: task.num_rows,
+                    }
                 })
                 .boxed())
         }
+    }
+
+    impl GenericFileReader for Reader {
+        fn read_range_tasks(
+            &self,
+            range: Range<u64>,
+            batch_size: u32,
+            projection: Arc<Schema>,
+        ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
+            self.read_tasks(
+                &self.reader,
+                ReadBatchParams::Range(range.start as usize..range.end as usize),
+                batch_size,
+                projection,
+            )
+            .boxed()
+        }
 
         fn read_ranges_tasks(
             &self,
             ranges: Arc<[Range<u64>]>,
             batch_size: u32,
             projection: Arc<Schema>,
-        ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
-            let projection = ReaderProjection::from_field_ids(
-                self.reader.metadata().version(),
-                projection.as_ref(),
-                self.field_id_to_column_idx.as_ref(),
-            )?;
-            Ok(self
-                .reader
-                .read_tasks(
-                    ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges),
-                    batch_size,
-                    Some(projection),
-                    FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                )?
-                .map(|v2_task| ReadBatchTask {
-                    task: v2_task.task.map_err(Error::from).boxed(),
-                    num_rows: v2_task.num_rows,
-                })
-                .boxed())
+        ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
+            self.read_tasks(
+                &self.reader,
+                ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges),
+                batch_size,
+                projection,
+            )
+            .boxed()
         }
 
         fn read_all_tasks(
             &self,
             batch_size: u32,
             projection: Arc<Schema>,
-        ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
-            let projection = ReaderProjection::from_field_ids(
-                self.reader.metadata().version(),
-                projection.as_ref(),
-                self.field_id_to_column_idx.as_ref(),
-            )?;
-            Ok(self
-                .reader
-                .read_tasks(
-                    ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
-                    batch_size,
-                    Some(projection),
-                    FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                )?
-                .map(|v2_task| ReadBatchTask {
-                    task: v2_task.task.map_err(Error::from).boxed(),
-                    num_rows: v2_task.num_rows,
-                })
-                .boxed())
+        ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
+            self.read_tasks(
+                &self.reader,
+                ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                batch_size,
+                projection,
+            )
+            .boxed()
         }
 
         fn take_all_tasks(
@@ -409,60 +550,51 @@ mod v2_adapter {
             batch_size: u32,
             projection: Arc<Schema>,
             take_priority: Option<u32>,
-        ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
+        ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
             let indices = UInt32Array::from(indices.to_vec());
-            let projection = ReaderProjection::from_field_ids(
-                self.reader.metadata().version(),
-                projection.as_ref(),
-                self.field_id_to_column_idx.as_ref(),
-            )?;
-
-            let reader = if let Some(take_priority) = take_priority {
-                let op_priority = ((take_priority as u64) << 32) | self.default_priority as u64;
-                let scheduler = self.file_scheduler.with_priority(op_priority);
-                Arc::new(
-                    self.reader
-                        .with_scheduler(Arc::new(LanceEncodingsIo::new(scheduler))),
-                )
-            } else {
-                self.reader.clone()
-            };
-
-            Ok(reader
-                .read_tasks(
+            async move {
+                let reader = if let Some(take_priority) = take_priority {
+                    let op_priority = ((take_priority as u64) << 32) | self.default_priority as u64;
+                    let scheduler = self.file_scheduler.with_priority(op_priority);
+                    Arc::new(
+                        self.reader
+                            .with_scheduler(Arc::new(LanceEncodingsIo::new(scheduler))),
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    self.reader.clone()
+                };
+                self.read_tasks(
+                    &reader,
                     ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices),
                     batch_size,
-                    Some(projection),
-                    FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                )?
-                .map(|v2_task| ReadBatchTask {
-                    task: v2_task.task.map_err(Error::from).boxed(),
-                    num_rows: v2_task.num_rows,
-                })
-                .boxed())
+                    projection,
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+            .boxed()
         }
 
-        fn update_storage_stats(&self, field_stats: &mut HashMap<u32, FieldStatistics>) {
-            let file_statistics = self.reader.file_statistics();
+        fn storage_stats(&self) -> Result<Vec<(u32, u64)>> {
+            let file_statistics = self.reader.file_statistics().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("storage_stats requires full file metadata".to_string())
+            })?;
             let column_idx_to_field_id = self
                 .field_id_to_column_idx
                 .iter()
                 .map(|(field_id, column_idx)| (*column_idx, *field_id))
                 .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
 
+            let mut stats = Vec::new();
             // Some fields span more than one column.  We assume a column that doesn't have an
             // entry in the field_id_to_column_idx map is a continuation of the previous field.
             let mut current_field_id = 0;
-            for (column_idx, stats) in file_statistics.columns.iter().enumerate() {
+            for (column_idx, col_stats) in file_statistics.columns.iter().enumerate() {
                 if let Some(field_id) = column_idx_to_field_id.get(&(column_idx as u32)) {
                     current_field_id = *field_id;
                 }
-                // If the field_id is not in the map then the field may no longer be part of the
-                // dataset
-                if let Some(field_stats) = field_stats.get_mut(&current_field_id) {
-                    field_stats.bytes_on_disk += stats.size_bytes;
-                }
+                stats.push((current_field_id, col_stats.size_bytes));
             }
+            Ok(stats)
         }
 
         fn projection(&self) -> &Arc<Schema> {
@@ -471,24 +603,12 @@ mod v2_adapter {
 
         /// Return the number of rows in the file
         fn len(&self) -> u32 {
-            self.reader.metadata().num_rows as u32
+            self.reader.num_rows() as u32
         }
 
         fn clone_box(&self) -> Box<dyn GenericFileReader> {
             Box::new(self.clone())
         }
-
-        fn is_legacy(&self) -> bool {
-            false
-        }
-
-        fn as_legacy_opt(&self) -> Option<&PreviousFileReader> {
-            None
-        }
-
-        fn as_legacy_opt_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut PreviousFileReader> {
-            None
-        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -505,6 +625,23 @@ impl NullReader {
         Self { schema, num_rows }
     }
 
+    /// The Arrow schema of the placeholder batches for `projection`.
+    ///
+    /// When a nested child is added to an existing parent, the parent lands
+    /// here as well (all-null) even though the dataset schema may declare it
+    /// NOT NULL; the later merge with the data files rebuilds it from the
+    /// parent's real data. Mark the placeholder fields nullable so the batch
+    /// is not rejected for violating a constraint the merged result satisfies.
+    fn nullable_schema(projection: &Schema) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::from(projection);
+        let fields = schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone().with_nullable(true))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(fields, schema.metadata))
+    }
+
     fn batch(projection: Arc<ArrowSchema>, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
         let columns = projection
             .fields()
@@ -521,7 +658,7 @@ impl GenericFileReader for NullReader {
         range: Range<u64>,
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
         self.read_ranges_tasks(vec![range].into(), batch_size, projection)
     }
 
@@ -530,9 +667,9 @@ impl GenericFileReader for NullReader {
         ranges: Arc<[Range<u64>]>,
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
         let mut remaining_rows = ranges.iter().map(|r| r.end - r.start).sum::<u64>();
-        let projection: Arc<ArrowSchema> = Arc::new(projection.as_ref().into());
+        let projection = Self::nullable_schema(projection.as_ref());
 
         let task_iter = std::iter::from_fn(move || {
             if remaining_rows == 0 {
@@ -549,14 +686,14 @@ impl GenericFileReader for NullReader {
             Some(task)
         });
 
-        Ok(futures::stream::iter(task_iter).boxed())
+        async move { Ok(futures::stream::iter(task_iter).boxed()) }.boxed()
     }
 
     fn read_all_tasks(
         &self,
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
         self.read_ranges_tasks(vec![0..self.num_rows as u64].into(), batch_size, projection)
     }
 
@@ -566,13 +703,14 @@ impl GenericFileReader for NullReader {
         batch_size: u32,
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
         _take_priority: Option<u32>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>> {
         let num_rows = indices.len() as u64;
         self.read_ranges_tasks(vec![0..num_rows].into(), batch_size, projection)
     }
 
-    fn update_storage_stats(&self, _field_stats: &mut HashMap<u32, FieldStatistics>) {
+    fn storage_stats(&self) -> Result<Vec<(u32, u64)>> {
         // No-op for null reader
+        Ok(Vec::new())
     }
 
     fn projection(&self) -> &Arc<Schema> {
@@ -586,21 +724,79 @@ impl GenericFileReader for NullReader {
     fn clone_box(&self) -> Box<dyn GenericFileReader> {
         Box::new(self.clone())
     }
+}
+
+/// A per-scan cache of `ScanScheduler`s for non-default bases.
+///
+/// Files that live on an additional base (e.g. shallow clones) each need a
+/// scheduler for their base's object store. Without this cache every opened
+/// base file builds its own scheduler, so the scheduler back-pressure budget
+/// scales with the number of files opened and can exhaust memory. Sharing one
+/// scheduler per base for the lifetime of a scan bounds that budget by the
+/// number of bases instead.
+///
+/// The cache lives on [`FragReadConfig`], so it shares the scan's lifetime and
+/// its `io_buffer_size` — matching the primary scheduler threaded in through
+/// [`FragReadConfig::scan_scheduler`] rather than a longer, dataset-wide scope.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct BaseSchedulers {
+    /// `None` sizes each scheduler for the max bandwidth of its base's store.
+    io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
+    schedulers: Arc<std::sync::Mutex<HashMap<u32, Arc<ScanScheduler>>>>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for BaseSchedulers {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("BaseSchedulers")
+            .field("io_buffer_size", &self.io_buffer_size)
+            .finish_non_exhaustive()
+    }
+}
+
+impl BaseSchedulers {
+    /// Create an empty cache whose schedulers will use `io_buffer_size`, the
+    /// same budget as the scan's primary scheduler.
+    pub fn new(io_buffer_size: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            io_buffer_size: Some(io_buffer_size),
+            schedulers: Arc::new(std::sync::Mutex::new(HashMap::new())),
+        }
+    }
 
-    fn is_legacy(&self) -> bool {
-        false
+    /// Create an empty cache whose schedulers are sized for the max bandwidth
+    /// of their base's object store, for scans whose primary scheduler uses
+    /// [`SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth`].
+    pub fn max_bandwidth() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            io_buffer_size: None,
+            schedulers: Arc::new(std::sync::Mutex::new(HashMap::new())),
+        }
     }
 
-    fn as_legacy_opt(&self) -> Option<&PreviousFileReader> {
-        None
+    /// Return the scheduler for `base_id`, building it once from `object_store`
+    /// and reusing it for every later file read from the same base.
+    fn get_or_create(&self, base_id: u32, object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>) -> Arc<ScanScheduler> {
+        let mut schedulers = self.schedulers.lock().unwrap();
+        schedulers
+            .entry(base_id)
+            .or_insert_with(|| {
+                let config = match self.io_buffer_size {
+                    Some(io_buffer_size) => SchedulerConfig::new(io_buffer_size),
+                    None => SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
+                };
+                ScanScheduler::new(object_store, config)
+            })
+            .clone()
     }
 
-    fn as_legacy_opt_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut PreviousFileReader> {
-        None
+    /// Number of distinct bases a scheduler has been built for.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.schedulers.lock().unwrap().len()
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone)]
 pub struct FragReadConfig {
     // Add the row id column
     pub with_row_id: bool,
@@ -625,6 +821,11 @@ pub struct FragReadConfig {
     pub reader_priority: Option<u32>,
     /// File reader options to use when reading data files.
     pub file_reader_options: Option<FileReaderOptions>,
+    /// Per-scan cache of schedulers for non-default bases.
+    ///
+    /// The scan sets this so every base file it opens shares one scheduler per
+    /// base. When absent, a base file falls back to building its own scheduler.
+    pub base_schedulers: Option<BaseSchedulers>,
 }
 
 impl FragReadConfig {
@@ -669,6 +870,100 @@ impl FragReadConfig {
         self.file_reader_options = Some(value);
         self
     }
+
+    pub fn with_base_schedulers(mut self, value: BaseSchedulers) -> Self {
+        self.base_schedulers = Some(value);
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum MetadataMode {
+    LazyAllowed,
+    Full,
+}
+
+/// The first path in `fields` that names a sibling twice. Projection picks
+/// children by name, so a duplicate makes that choice arbitrary, and the
+/// name-set comparison the schema check uses cannot see one at all.
+pub(crate) fn duplicate_field_path(fields: &ArrowFields, path: &str) -> Option<String> {
+    let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+    for field in fields {
+        let qualified = if path.is_empty() {
+            field.name().clone()
+        } else {
+            format!("{path}.{}", field.name())
+        };
+        if !seen.insert(field.name()) {
+            return Some(qualified);
+        }
+        if let Some(nested) = duplicate_nested_path(field.data_type(), &qualified) {
+            return Some(nested);
+        }
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+fn duplicate_nested_path(data_type: &DataType, path: &str) -> Option<String> {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Struct(children) => duplicate_field_path(children, path),
+        DataType::List(item)
+        | DataType::LargeList(item)
+        | DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _)
+        | DataType::Map(item, _) => {
+            duplicate_nested_path(item.data_type(), &format!("{path}.item"))
+        }
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Remove a staged file that will not be committed. Best effort: it is
+/// unreachable either way, and must not mask the error that caused it.
+pub(crate) async fn discard_staged_file(dataset: &Dataset, path: &Path) {
+    // Blob v2 spills sidecars into data/<file-stem>/ beside the file, and
+    // those are the large ones; leaving them is what makes a routine
+    // rejection expensive.
+    if let Some(stem) = path
+        .filename()
+        .and_then(|name| name.strip_suffix(".lance"))
+        .map(|stem| dataset.data_dir().join(stem))
+        && let Err(delete_error) = dataset.object_store.remove_dir_all(stem.clone()).await
+    {
+        log::warn!("failed to delete staged blob sidecars '{stem}': {delete_error}");
+    }
+    if let Err(delete_error) = dataset.object_store.delete(path).await {
+        log::warn!("failed to delete staged column file '{path}': {delete_error}");
+    }
+}
+
+/// `field` with nullability dropped at every level: the projector rebuilds
+/// arrays against its target and panics rather than reports on a constraint,
+/// so it gets a shape that cannot fail and the writer objects instead.
+pub(crate) fn relax_nullability(field: &ArrowField) -> ArrowField {
+    let relax = |field: &Arc<ArrowField>| Arc::new(relax_nullability(field));
+    let data_type = match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(children) => DataType::Struct(children.iter().map(relax).collect()),
+        DataType::List(item) => DataType::List(relax(item)),
+        DataType::LargeList(item) => DataType::LargeList(relax(item)),
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(item, width) => DataType::FixedSizeList(relax(item), *width),
+        // A Map's entries struct and its key stay required -- Arrow rejects a
+        // map whose entries or keys are nullable -- so only the value relaxes.
+        DataType::Map(entries, sorted) => match entries.data_type() {
+            DataType::Struct(kv) if kv.len() == 2 => {
+                let value = Arc::new(relax_nullability(&kv[1]));
+                let entries = ArrowField::new(
+                    entries.name(),
+                    DataType::Struct(vec![kv[0].clone(), value].into()),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .with_metadata(entries.metadata().clone());
+                DataType::Map(Arc::new(entries), *sorted)
+            }
+            _ => field.data_type().clone(),
+        },
+        other => other.clone(),
+    };
+    ArrowField::new(field.name(), data_type, true).with_metadata(field.metadata().clone())
 }
 
 impl FileFragment {
@@ -719,93 +1014,101 @@ impl FileFragment {
         fragment_id: usize,
         physical_rows: Option<usize>,
     ) -> Result<Fragment> {
-        let filepath = dataset.data_dir().child(filename);
+        let filepath = dataset.data_dir().join(filename);
         let file_version =
             determine_file_version(dataset.object_store.as_ref(), &filepath, None).await?;
 
-        if file_version != dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()? {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "File version mismatch. Dataset version: {:?} Fragment version: {:?}",
-                    dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()?,
-                    file_version
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
+        super::versions::create_fragment_from_file(
+            file_version,
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            filename,
+            dataset,
+            fragment_id,
+            physical_rows,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
 
-        if file_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            let fragment = Fragment::with_file_legacy(
-                fragment_id as u64,
-                filename,
-                dataset.schema(),
-                physical_rows,
-            );
-            Ok(fragment)
-        } else {
-            // Load the file metadata, confirm the schema is compatible, and
-            // determine the column offsets
-            let mut frag = Fragment::new(fragment_id as u64);
-            let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
-                dataset.object_store.clone(),
-                SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&dataset.object_store),
-            );
-            let file_scheduler = scheduler
-                .open_file(&filepath, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-                .await?;
-            let reader = lance_file::reader::FileReader::try_open(
-                file_scheduler,
-                None,
-                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-                &dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&filepath),
-                dataset.file_reader_options.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
-            )
-            .await?;
-            // If the schemas are not compatible we can't calculate field id offsets
-            reader
-                .schema()
-                .check_compatible(dataset.schema(), &SchemaCompareOptions::default())?;
-            let projection = lance_file::reader::ReaderProjection::from_whole_schema(
-                dataset.schema(),
-                reader.metadata().version(),
-            );
-            let physical_rows = reader.metadata().num_rows as usize;
-            frag.physical_rows = Some(physical_rows);
-            frag.id = fragment_id as u64;
+    pub(crate) async fn create_from_v1_file(
+        filename: &str,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        fragment_id: usize,
+        physical_rows: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<Fragment> {
+        Ok(Fragment::with_file_legacy(
+            fragment_id as u64,
+            filename,
+            dataset.schema(),
+            physical_rows,
+        ))
+    }
 
-            let column_indices = projection
-                .column_indices
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|c| c as i32)
-                .collect();
+    pub(crate) async fn create_from_current_file(
+        filename: &str,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        fragment_id: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Fragment> {
+        let filepath = dataset.data_dir().join(filename);
+        // Load the file metadata, confirm the schema is compatible, and
+        // determine the column offsets
+        let mut frag = Fragment::new(fragment_id as u64);
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+            dataset.object_store.clone(),
+            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&dataset.object_store),
+        );
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler
+            .open_file(&filepath, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await?;
+        let reader = lance_file::reader::FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&filepath),
+            dataset.file_reader_options.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        // If the schemas are not compatible we can't calculate field id offsets
+        reader
+            .schema()
+            .check_compatible(dataset.schema(), &SchemaCompareOptions::default())?;
+        let projection = file_versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(
+            dataset.schema(),
+            reader.metadata().version(),
+        );
+        frag.physical_rows = Some(reader.metadata().num_rows as usize);
 
-            frag.add_file(
-                filename,
-                dataset.schema().field_ids(),
-                column_indices,
-                &file_version,
-                None,
-            );
-            Ok(frag)
-        }
+        let column_indices = projection
+            .column_indices
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|column| column as i32)
+            .collect();
+        frag.add_file(
+            filename,
+            dataset.schema().field_ids(),
+            column_indices,
+            reader.metadata().version(),
+            None,
+        );
+        Ok(frag)
     }
 
-    pub(crate) async fn update_storage_stats(
+    /// Returns storage stats as `(field_id, bytes_on_disk)` pairs for this fragment.
+    pub(crate) async fn storage_stats(
         &self,
-        field_stats: &mut HashMap<u32, FieldStatistics>,
         dataset_schema: &Schema,
         scan_scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(u32, u64)>> {
+        let mut stats = Vec::new();
         for reader in self
-            .open_readers(
+            .open_readers_with_full_metadata(
                 dataset_schema,
                 &FragReadConfig::default().with_scan_scheduler(scan_scheduler),
             )
             .await?
         {
-            reader.update_storage_stats(field_stats);
+            stats.extend(reader.storage_stats()?);
         }
-        Ok(())
+        Ok(stats)
     }
 
     pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Dataset {
@@ -869,11 +1172,44 @@ impl FileFragment {
             futures::future::Either::Right(futures::future::ready(Ok(None)))
         };
 
-        let (opened_files, deletion_vec, row_id_sequence) =
-            join!(open_files, deletion_vec_load, row_id_load);
+        let version_load = |kind: RowVersionKind, wanted: bool| {
+            if wanted {
+                futures::future::Either::Left(load_row_version_sequence(
+                    &self.dataset,
+                    &self.metadata,
+                    kind,
+                ))
+            } else {
+                futures::future::Either::Right(futures::future::ready(Ok(None)))
+            }
+        };
+        let last_updated_at_load = version_load(
+            RowVersionKind::LastUpdatedAt,
+            read_config.with_row_last_updated_at_version,
+        );
+        let created_at_load = version_load(
+            RowVersionKind::CreatedAt,
+            read_config.with_row_created_at_version,
+        );
+
+        let (
+            opened_files,
+            deletion_vec,
+            row_id_sequence,
+            last_updated_at_sequence,
+            created_at_sequence,
+        ) = join!(
+            open_files,
+            deletion_vec_load,
+            row_id_load,
+            last_updated_at_load,
+            created_at_load
+        );
         let opened_files = opened_files?;
         let deletion_vec = deletion_vec?;
         let row_id_sequence = row_id_sequence?;
+        let last_updated_at_sequence = last_updated_at_sequence?;
+        let created_at_sequence = created_at_sequence?;
 
         if opened_files.is_empty() && !read_config.has_system_cols() {
             return Err(Error::not_found(format!(
@@ -896,6 +1232,19 @@ impl FileFragment {
             Arc::new(self.metadata.clone()),
         )?;
 
+        // Plan overlay resolution from coverage metadata (no files opened here); the
+        // readers are opened lazily on read, pruned to the rows each read touches.
+        if !self.metadata.overlays.is_empty() {
+            let planner = plan_overlays(self, projection)?;
+            if !planner.is_empty() {
+                reader.overlay = Some(OverlayReadState {
+                    planner: Arc::new(planner),
+                    fragment: Arc::new(self.clone()),
+                    read_config: Arc::new(read_config.clone()),
+                });
+            }
+        }
+
         if read_config.with_row_id {
             reader.with_row_id();
         }
@@ -903,135 +1252,301 @@ impl FileFragment {
             reader.with_row_address();
         }
         if read_config.with_row_last_updated_at_version {
-            reader.with_row_last_updated_at_version();
+            reader.with_row_last_updated_at_version(last_updated_at_sequence);
         }
         if read_config.with_row_created_at_version {
-            reader.with_row_created_at_version();
+            reader.with_row_created_at_version(created_at_sequence);
         }
 
         Ok(reader)
     }
 
-    fn get_field_id_offset(data_file: &DataFile) -> u32 {
-        data_file.fields.first().copied().unwrap_or(0) as u32
-    }
-
-    async fn open_reader(
+    pub(crate) async fn open_v1_fragment_reader(
         &self,
-        data_file: &DataFile,
-        projection: Option<&Schema>,
+        projection: &Schema,
         read_config: &FragReadConfig,
-    ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>> {
-        let full_schema = self.dataset.schema();
-        // The data file may contain fields that are not part of the dataset any longer, remove those
-        let data_file_schema = data_file.schema(full_schema);
-        let projection = projection.unwrap_or(full_schema);
-        // Also remove any fields that are not part of the user's provided projection
-        let schema_per_file = Arc::new(projection.intersection_ignore_types(&data_file_schema)?);
-
-        if data_file.is_legacy_file() {
-            let max_field_id = data_file.fields.iter().max().unwrap();
-            if !schema_per_file.fields.is_empty() {
-                let path = self
-                    .dataset
-                    .data_file_dir(data_file)?
-                    .child(data_file.path.as_str());
-                let field_id_offset = Self::get_field_id_offset(data_file);
-                let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_with_fragment_id(
-                    &self.dataset.object_store,
-                    &path,
-                    self.schema().clone(),
-                    self.id() as u32,
-                    field_id_offset as i32,
-                    *max_field_id,
-                    Some(&self.dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&path)),
-                )
-                .await?;
-                let initialized_schema = reader.schema().project_by_schema(
-                    schema_per_file.as_ref(),
-                    OnMissing::Error,
-                    OnTypeMismatch::Error,
-                )?;
-                let reader = V1Reader::new(reader, Arc::new(initialized_schema));
-                Ok(Some(Box::new(reader)))
-            } else {
-                Ok(None)
+    ) -> Result<V1FragmentReader> {
+        let open_readers = async {
+            let mut readers = Vec::new();
+            for data_file in &self.metadata.files {
+                if let Some(reader) = self.open_v1_reader(data_file, Some(projection)).await? {
+                    readers.push(reader);
+                }
             }
-        } else if schema_per_file.fields.is_empty() {
-            Ok(None)
+            Result::Ok(readers)
+        };
+        let deletion_vec_load = self.get_deletion_vector();
+        let row_id_load = if self.dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            futures::future::Either::Left(
+                load_row_id_sequence(&self.dataset, &self.metadata).map_ok(Some),
+            )
         } else {
-            let path = self
-                .dataset
-                .data_file_dir(data_file)?
-                .child(data_file.path.as_str());
-            let (store_scheduler, reader_priority) = if let Some(base_id) = data_file.base_id {
-                // TODO: make object stores for non-default bases reuse the same scan scheduler
-                //  currently we always create a new one
-                let object_store = self.dataset.object_store_for_base(base_id).await?;
-                let config = SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store);
-                (
-                    ScanScheduler::new(object_store, config),
-                    read_config.reader_priority.unwrap_or(0),
-                )
-            } else if let Some(scan_scheduler) = read_config.scan_scheduler.as_ref() {
-                (
-                    scan_scheduler.clone(),
-                    read_config.reader_priority.unwrap_or(0),
-                )
-            } else {
-                (
-                    ScanScheduler::new(
-                        self.dataset.object_store.clone(),
-                        SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&self.dataset.object_store),
-                    ),
-                    0,
-                )
+            futures::future::Either::Right(futures::future::ready(Ok(None)))
+        };
+        let (readers, deletion_vec, row_id_sequence) =
+            join!(open_readers, deletion_vec_load, row_id_load);
+        let mut reader =
+            V1FragmentReader::try_new(readers?, deletion_vec?, row_id_sequence?, self.id())?;
+        if read_config.with_row_id {
+            reader.with_row_id();
+        }
+        if read_config.with_row_address {
+            reader.with_row_address();
+        }
+        Ok(reader)
+    }
+
+    fn get_field_id_offset(data_file: &DataFile) -> u32 {
+        data_file.fields.first().copied().unwrap_or(0) as u32
+    }
+
+    pub(super) async fn open_reader(
+        &self,
+        data_file: &DataFile,
+        projection: Option<&Schema>,
+        read_config: &FragReadConfig,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>> {
+        self.open_reader_impl(
+            data_file,
+            projection,
+            read_config,
+            MetadataMode::LazyAllowed,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_reader_with_full_metadata(
+        &self,
+        data_file: &DataFile,
+        projection: Option<&Schema>,
+        read_config: &FragReadConfig,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>> {
+        self.open_reader_impl(data_file, projection, read_config, MetadataMode::Full)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    fn open_reader_impl<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        data_file: &'a DataFile,
+        projection: Option<&'a Schema>,
+        read_config: &'a FragReadConfig,
+        metadata_mode: MetadataMode,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Option<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>>> {
+        async move {
+            super::versions::open_file_reader(
+                data_file.file_version()?,
+                self,
+                data_file,
+                projection,
+                read_config,
+                metadata_mode,
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn open_v1_file_reader(
+        &self,
+        data_file: &DataFile,
+        projection: Option<&Schema>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>> {
+        Ok(self
+            .open_v1_reader(data_file, projection)
+            .await?
+            .map(|reader| Box::new(reader) as Box<dyn GenericFileReader>))
+    }
+
+    async fn open_v1_reader(
+        &self,
+        data_file: &DataFile,
+        projection: Option<&Schema>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<V1Reader>> {
+        let full_schema = self.dataset.schema();
+        let data_file_schema = Arc::new(data_file.schema(full_schema));
+        let projection = projection.unwrap_or(full_schema);
+        let schema_per_file =
+            Arc::new(projection.intersection_ignore_types(data_file_schema.as_ref())?);
+        if schema_per_file.fields.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let max_field_id = data_file.fields.iter().max().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Legacy data file {} does not contain any fields",
+                data_file.path
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let path = self
+            .dataset
+            .data_file_dir(data_file)?
+            .join(data_file.path.as_str());
+        let object_store = self.dataset.object_store_for_data_file(data_file).await?;
+        let field_id_offset = Self::get_field_id_offset(data_file);
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_with_fragment_id(
+            &object_store,
+            &path,
+            self.schema().clone(),
+            self.id() as u32,
+            field_id_offset as i32,
+            *max_field_id,
+            Some(&self.dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&path)),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let initialized_schema = reader.schema().project_by_schema(
+            schema_per_file.as_ref(),
+            OnMissing::Error,
+            OnTypeMismatch::Error,
+        )?;
+        Ok(Some(V1Reader::new(reader, Arc::new(initialized_schema))))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn open_current_file_reader(
+        &self,
+        data_file: &DataFile,
+        projection: Option<&Schema>,
+        read_config: &FragReadConfig,
+        metadata_mode: MetadataMode,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>> {
+        let full_schema = self.dataset.schema();
+        let data_file_schema = Arc::new(data_file.schema(full_schema));
+        let projection = projection.unwrap_or(full_schema);
+        let schema_per_file =
+            Arc::new(projection.intersection_ignore_types(data_file_schema.as_ref())?);
+        if schema_per_file.fields.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let path = self
+            .dataset
+            .data_file_dir(data_file)?
+            .join(data_file.path.as_str());
+        let (store_scheduler, reader_priority) = if let Some(base_id) = data_file.base_id {
+            let object_store = self.dataset.object_store(Some(base_id)).await?;
+            // Reuse one scheduler per base for the scan's lifetime so the
+            // scheduler budget scales with the number of bases, not files. When
+            // there is no scan cache (a one-off read), fall back to a dedicated
+            // scheduler for this file.
+            let scheduler = match read_config.base_schedulers.as_ref() {
+                Some(cache) => cache.get_or_create(base_id, object_store),
+                None => ScanScheduler::new(
+                    object_store.clone(),
+                    SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
+                ),
             };
-            let file_scheduler = store_scheduler
-                .open_file_with_priority(&path, reader_priority as u64, &data_file.file_size_bytes)
-                .await?;
-            let file_metadata = self.get_file_metadata(&file_scheduler).await?;
-            let path = file_scheduler.reader().path().clone();
-            let metadata_cache = self.dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&path);
-            let reader = Arc::new(
-                lance_file::reader::FileReader::try_open_with_file_metadata(
-                    Arc::new(LanceEncodingsIo::new(file_scheduler.clone())),
-                    path,
+            (scheduler, read_config.reader_priority.unwrap_or(0))
+        } else if let Some(scan_scheduler) = read_config.scan_scheduler.as_ref() {
+            (
+                scan_scheduler.clone(),
+                read_config.reader_priority.unwrap_or(0),
+            )
+        } else {
+            (
+                ScanScheduler::new(
+                    self.dataset.object_store.clone(),
+                    SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&self.dataset.object_store),
+                ),
+                0,
+            )
+        };
+        let file_scheduler = store_scheduler
+            .open_file_with_priority(&path, reader_priority as u64, &data_file.file_size_bytes)
+            .await?;
+        let path = file_scheduler.reader().path().clone();
+        let metadata_cache = self.dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&path);
+        let field_id_to_column_idx = Arc::new(BTreeMap::from_iter(
+            data_file
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .zip(data_file.column_indices.iter().copied())
+                .filter_map(|(field_id, column_index)| {
+                    (column_index >= 0).then_some((field_id as u32, column_index as u32))
+                }),
+        ));
+        let file_version = data_file.file_version()?;
+        let physical_schema = if matches!(
+            file_version,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        ) {
+            v2_adapter::legacy_blob_read_schema(&schema_per_file)
+        } else {
+            schema_per_file.as_ref().clone()
+        };
+        let reader_projection = file_versions::reader_projection_from_field_ids(
+            file_version,
+            &physical_schema,
+            field_id_to_column_idx.as_ref(),
+        )?;
+        let file_reader_options = read_config
+            .file_reader_options
+            .clone()
+            .or_else(|| self.dataset.file_reader_options.clone())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let prefer_indexed = metadata_mode == MetadataMode::LazyAllowed
+            && reader_projection.column_indices.len().saturating_mul(4)
+                < data_file
+                    .column_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|column_index| **column_index >= 0)
+                    .count();
+        let known_schema = self
+            .metadata
+            .physical_rows
+            .map(|num_rows| (data_file_schema.clone(), num_rows as u64));
+
+        let encodings_io = Arc::new(
+            LanceEncodingsIo::new(file_scheduler.clone())
+                .with_read_chunk_size(file_reader_options.read_chunk_size),
+        );
+        let reader = file_versions::open_projected_reader(
+            file_version,
+            &reader_projection,
+            prefer_indexed,
+            || async {
+                let metadata_index = self
+                    .get_file_metadata_index(&file_scheduler, known_schema.clone())
+                    .await?;
+                if (reader_projection.column_indices.len() as u32).saturating_mul(4)
+                    >= metadata_index.num_columns()
+                {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                Ok(Some(
+                    ProjectedFileReader::try_open_with_metadata_index(
+                        encodings_io.clone(),
+                        path.clone(),
+                        Some(reader_projection.clone()),
+                        Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                        metadata_index,
+                        &metadata_cache,
+                        file_reader_options.clone(),
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+                ))
+            },
+            || async {
+                let file_metadata = self.get_file_metadata(&file_scheduler).await?;
+                ProjectedFileReader::try_open_with_file_metadata(
+                    encodings_io.clone(),
+                    path.clone(),
                     None,
                     Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
                     file_metadata,
                     &metadata_cache,
-                    read_config
-                        .file_reader_options
-                        .clone()
-                        .or_else(|| self.dataset.file_reader_options.clone())
-                        .unwrap_or_default(),
+                    file_reader_options.clone(),
                 )
-                .await?,
-            );
-            let field_id_to_column_idx = Arc::new(BTreeMap::from_iter(
-                data_file
-                    .fields
-                    .iter()
-                    .copied()
-                    .zip(data_file.column_indices.iter().copied())
-                    .filter_map(|(field_id, column_index)| {
-                        if column_index < 0 {
-                            None
-                        } else {
-                            Some((field_id as u32, column_index as u32))
-                        }
-                    }),
-            ));
-            let reader = v2_adapter::Reader::new(
-                reader,
-                schema_per_file,
-                field_id_to_column_idx,
-                reader_priority,
-                file_scheduler,
-            );
-            Ok(Some(Box::new(reader)))
-        }
+                .await
+            },
+        )
+        .await?;
+        Ok(Some(Box::new(v2_adapter::Reader::new(
+            Arc::new(reader),
+            schema_per_file,
+            field_id_to_column_idx,
+            reader_priority,
+            file_scheduler,
+        ))))
     }
 
     async fn open_readers(
@@ -1039,35 +1554,70 @@ impl FileFragment {
         projection: &Schema,
         read_config: &FragReadConfig,
     ) -> Result<Vec<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>> {
-        let mut opened_files = vec![];
-        for data_file in &self.metadata.files {
-            if let Some(reader) = self
-                .open_reader(data_file, Some(projection), read_config)
-                .await?
-            {
-                opened_files.push(reader);
-            }
-        }
+        self.open_readers_impl(projection, read_config, MetadataMode::LazyAllowed)
+            .await
+    }
 
-        // This should return immediately on modern datasets.  Need to use physical_rows because
-        // deletions will be applied later
-        let num_rows = self.physical_rows().await?;
+    async fn open_readers_with_full_metadata(
+        &self,
+        projection: &Schema,
+        read_config: &FragReadConfig,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>> {
+        self.open_readers_impl(projection, read_config, MetadataMode::Full)
+            .await
+    }
 
-        // Check if there are any fields that are not in any data files
-        let field_ids_in_files = opened_files
-            .iter()
-            .flat_map(|r| r.projection().fields_pre_order().map(|f| f.id))
-            .filter(|id| *id >= 0)
-            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-        let mut missing_fields = projection.field_ids();
-        missing_fields.retain(|f| !field_ids_in_files.contains(f) && *f >= 0);
-        if !missing_fields.is_empty() {
-            let missing_projection = projection.project_by_ids(&missing_fields, true);
-            let null_reader = NullReader::new(Arc::new(missing_projection), num_rows as u32);
-            opened_files.push(Box::new(null_reader));
-        }
+    fn open_readers_impl<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        projection: &'a Schema,
+        read_config: &'a FragReadConfig,
+        metadata_mode: MetadataMode,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Vec<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>>> {
+        async move {
+            // Each open is at least one object-store round trip for the file's
+            // metadata; a fragment with several data files (one per
+            // `add_columns` / merge) would otherwise pay them back to back.
+            // `try_join_all` keeps the readers in data-file order.
+            let opens = self.metadata.files.iter().map(|data_file| async move {
+                match metadata_mode {
+                    MetadataMode::LazyAllowed => {
+                        self.open_reader(data_file, Some(projection), read_config)
+                            .await
+                    }
+                    MetadataMode::Full => {
+                        self.open_reader_with_full_metadata(
+                            data_file,
+                            Some(projection),
+                            read_config,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                    }
+                }
+            });
+            let mut opened_files: Vec<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>> =
+                try_join_all(opens).await?.into_iter().flatten().collect();
+
+            // This should return immediately on modern datasets.  Need to use physical_rows because
+            // deletions will be applied later
+            let num_rows = self.physical_rows().await?;
+
+            // Check if there are any fields that are not in any data files
+            let field_ids_in_files = opened_files
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|r| r.projection().fields_pre_order().map(|f| f.id))
+                .filter(|id| *id >= 0)
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+            let mut missing_fields = projection.field_ids();
+            missing_fields.retain(|f| !field_ids_in_files.contains(f) && *f >= 0);
+            if !missing_fields.is_empty() {
+                let missing_projection = projection.project_by_ids(&missing_fields, true);
+                let null_reader = NullReader::new(Arc::new(missing_projection), num_rows as u32);
+                opened_files.push(Box::new(null_reader));
+            }
 
-        Ok(opened_files)
+            Ok(opened_files)
+        }
+        .boxed()
     }
 
     /// Count the rows in this fragment.
@@ -1117,10 +1667,19 @@ impl FileFragment {
     /// Fails if the fragment does not have the physical row count in the metadata.  This method should
     /// only be called in new workflows which are not run on old versions of Lance.
     pub fn fast_physical_rows(&self) -> Result<usize> {
-        if self.dataset.manifest.writer_version.is_some() && self.metadata.physical_rows.is_some() {
-            Ok(self.metadata.physical_rows.unwrap())
+        if self.dataset.manifest.writer_version.is_some() {
+            let Some(physical_rows) = self.metadata.physical_rows else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "The method fast_physical_rows was called on a fragment that does not have the physical row count in the metadata. Fragment id: {}",
+                    self.id()
+                )));
+            };
+            Ok(physical_rows)
         } else {
-            Err(Error::Internal { message: format!("The method fast_physical_rows was called on a fragment that does not have the physical row count in the metadata. Fragment id: {}", self.id()), location: location!() })
+            Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "The method fast_physical_rows was called on a fragment that does not have the physical row count in the metadata. Fragment id: {}",
+                self.id()
+            )))
         }
     }
 
@@ -1135,7 +1694,10 @@ impl FileFragment {
                 ..
             }) => Ok(*num_deleted),
             None => Ok(0),
-            _ => Err(Error::Internal { message: format!("The method fast_num_deletions was called on a fragment that does not have the deletion count in the metadata. Fragment id: {}", self.id()), location: location!() }),
+            _ => Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "The method fast_num_deletions was called on a fragment that does not have the deletion count in the metadata. Fragment id: {}",
+                self.id()
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -1166,8 +1728,10 @@ impl FileFragment {
         // we should not used the cached value. On write, we update the values
         // in the manifest, fixing the issue for future reads.
         // See: https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/1531
-        if self.dataset.manifest.writer_version.is_some() && self.metadata.physical_rows.is_some() {
-            return Ok(self.metadata.physical_rows.unwrap());
+        if self.dataset.manifest.writer_version.is_some()
+            && let Some(physical_rows) = self.metadata.physical_rows
+        {
+            return Ok(physical_rows);
         }
 
         // Just open any file. All of them should have same size.
@@ -1175,12 +1739,11 @@ impl FileFragment {
         let reader = self
             .open_reader(some_file, None, &FragReadConfig::default())
             .await?
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
                     "The data file {} did not have any fields contained in the dataset schema",
                     some_file.path
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
+                ))
             })?;
 
         Ok(reader.len() as usize)
@@ -1191,7 +1754,10 @@ impl FileFragment {
     /// Verifies:
     /// * All field ids in the fragment are distinct
     /// * Within each data file, field ids are in increasing order
-    /// * All data files exist and have the same length
+    /// * All data files holding user data exist and have the same length. A
+    ///   file kept only for the spilled row lineage it carries is not opened;
+    ///   [`Dataset::validate`] reads that lineage back, which checks its
+    ///   length.
     /// * Field ids are distinct between data files.
     /// * Deletion file exists and has rowids in the correct range
     /// * `Fragment.physical_rows` matches length of file
@@ -1200,17 +1766,23 @@ impl FileFragment {
         let mut seen_fields = HashSet::new();
         for data_file in &self.metadata.files {
             let last = -1;
-            for field_id in &data_file.fields {
+            for field_id in data_file.fields.iter() {
+                // Negative ids are not schema fields: the tombstone marks a
+                // field superseded by a later data file, and the others are
+                // hidden system columns such as spilled row lineage. None has
+                // an ordering, and a tombstone can repeat.
+                if *field_id < 0 {
+                    continue;
+                }
                 if *field_id <= last {
                     return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
                         self.dataset
                             .data_file_dir(data_file)?
-                            .child(data_file.path.as_str()),
+                            .join(data_file.path.as_str()),
                         format!(
                             "Field id {} is not in increasing order in fragment {:#?}",
                             field_id, self
                         ),
-                        location!(),
                     ));
                 }
 
@@ -1218,43 +1790,71 @@ impl FileFragment {
                     return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
                         self.dataset
                             .data_file_dir(data_file)?
-                            .child(data_file.path.as_str()),
+                            .join(data_file.path.as_str()),
                         format!(
                             "Field id {} is duplicated in fragment {:#?}",
                             field_id, self
                         ),
-                        location!(),
                     ));
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        if self.metadata.files.iter().any(|f| f.is_legacy_file())
-            != self.metadata.files.iter().all(|f| f.is_legacy_file())
-        {
-            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
-                self.dataset
-                    .data_file_dir(&self.metadata.files[0])?
-                    .child(self.metadata.files[0].path.as_str()),
-                "Fragment contains a mix of v1 and v2 data files".to_string(),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+        let mut saw_v1 = false;
+        let mut saw_v2 = false;
+        for data_file in self.metadata.referenced_lance_files() {
+            match data_file.file_version()? {
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => saw_v1 = true,
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+                | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+                | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+                | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => saw_v2 = true,
+            }
+            if saw_v1 && saw_v2 {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                    self.dataset
+                        .data_file_dir(data_file)?
+                        .join(data_file.path.as_str()),
+                    "Fragment mixes V1 and V2 data files",
+                ));
+            }
         }
 
         for data_file in &self.metadata.files {
-            data_file.validate(&self.dataset.data_file_dir(&self.metadata.files[0])?)?;
+            data_file.validate(&self.dataset.data_file_dir(data_file)?)?;
         }
 
-        let get_lengths = self.metadata.files.iter().map(|data_file| async move {
+        // A file that holds no field of the dataset schema is not opened when
+        // it holds no user field at all, or when the fragment keeps it for a
+        // spilled row lineage sequence it carries -- a data file whose user
+        // columns were all dropped or replaced after compaction wrote the
+        // lineage next to them. The sequences it carries are checked against
+        // `physical_rows` when they are validated. Any other file is opened,
+        // so a file listing only user fields the schema does not have is
+        // still reported.
+        let schema_field_ids = self
+            .dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .map(|field| field.id)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let spilled_field_ids = self.metadata.spilled_row_lineage_field_ids();
+        let user_data_files = self.metadata.files.iter().filter(|data_file| {
+            let fields = &data_file.fields;
+            let holds_schema_field = fields.iter().any(|id| schema_field_ids.contains(id));
+            let holds_user_field = fields.iter().any(|id| *id >= 0);
+            let holds_spilled_lineage = fields.iter().any(|id| spilled_field_ids.contains(id));
+            holds_schema_field || (holds_user_field && !holds_spilled_lineage)
+        });
+        let get_lengths = user_data_files.clone().map(|data_file| async move {
             let data_file_dir = self.dataset.data_file_dir(data_file)?;
             let reader = self
                 .open_reader(data_file, None, &FragReadConfig::default())
                 .await?
                 .ok_or_else(|| {
                     Error::corrupt_file(
-                        data_file_dir.child(data_file.path.as_str()),
+                        data_file_dir.clone().join(data_file.path.as_str()),
                         "did not have any fields in common with the dataset schema",
-                        location!(),
                     )
                 })?;
             Result::Ok(reader.len() as usize)
@@ -1267,35 +1867,33 @@ impl FileFragment {
 
         let get_lengths = get_lengths?;
         let expected_length = get_lengths.first().unwrap_or(&0);
-        for (length, data_file) in get_lengths.iter().zip(self.metadata.files.iter()) {
+        for (length, data_file) in get_lengths.iter().zip(user_data_files) {
             if length != expected_length {
                 let path = self
                     .dataset
                     .data_file_dir(data_file)?
-                    .child(data_file.path.as_str());
+                    .join(data_file.path.as_str());
                 return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
                     path,
                     format!(
                         "data file has incorrect length. Expected: {} Got: {}",
                         expected_length, length
                     ),
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
         }
-        if let Some(physical_rows) = self.metadata.physical_rows {
-            if physical_rows != *expected_length {
-                return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
-                    self.dataset
-                        .data_file_dir(&self.metadata.files[0])?
-                        .child(self.metadata.files[0].path.as_str()),
-                    format!(
-                        "Fragment metadata has incorrect physical_rows. Actual: {} Metadata: {}",
-                        expected_length, physical_rows
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
+        if let Some(physical_rows) = self.metadata.physical_rows
+            && physical_rows != *expected_length
+        {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                self.dataset
+                    .data_file_dir(&self.metadata.files[0])?
+                    .join(self.metadata.files[0].path.as_str()),
+                format!(
+                    "Fragment metadata has incorrect physical_rows. Actual: {} Metadata: {}",
+                    expected_length, physical_rows
+                ),
+            ));
         }
 
         if let Some(deletion_vector) = deletion_vector? {
@@ -1305,21 +1903,20 @@ impl FileFragment {
                 .as_ref()
                 .unwrap()
                 .num_deleted_rows
+                && num_deletions != deletion_vector.len()
             {
-                if num_deletions != deletion_vector.len() {
-                    return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
-                        deletion_file_path(
-                            &self.dataset.base,
-                            self.metadata.id,
-                            self.metadata.deletion_file.as_ref().unwrap(),
-                        ),
-                        format!(
-                            "deletion vector length does not match metadata. Metadata: {} Deletion vector: {}",
-                            num_deletions, deletion_vector.len()
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                    deletion_file_path(
+                        &self.dataset.base,
+                        self.metadata.id,
+                        self.metadata.deletion_file.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                    ),
+                    format!(
+                        "deletion vector length does not match metadata. Metadata: {} Deletion vector: {}",
+                        num_deletions,
+                        deletion_vector.len()
+                    ),
+                ));
             }
 
             for offset in deletion_vector.iter() {
@@ -1331,8 +1928,10 @@ impl FileFragment {
                             self.metadata.id,
                             deletion_file_meta,
                         ),
-                        format!("deletion vector contains an offset that is out of range. Offset: {} Fragment length: {}", offset, expected_length),
-                        location!(),
+                        format!(
+                            "deletion vector contains an offset that is out of range. Offset: {} Fragment length: {}",
+                            offset, expected_length
+                        ),
                     ));
                 }
             }
@@ -1376,8 +1975,125 @@ impl FileFragment {
         };
 
         // Then call take rows
-        self.take_rows(&row_ids, projection, false, false, false, false)
-            .await
+        let batch = self
+            .take_rows(&row_ids, projection, false, false, false, false)
+            .await?;
+
+        // Convert Lance JSON columns (LargeBinary/JSONB) back to Arrow JSON (Utf8)
+        // for user-facing output.
+        if batch
+            .schema()
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|f| lance_arrow::json::is_json_field(f) || lance_arrow::json::has_json_fields(f))
+        {
+            Ok(lance_arrow::json::convert_lance_json_to_arrow(&batch)?)
+        } else {
+            Ok(batch)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Read a fragment-local half-open physical row interval without applying deletions.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike logical range reads, offsets address the immutable rows stored in
+    /// the fragment's files. Deleted positions remain present with their stored
+    /// column values. Callers can stream the batches into
+    /// [`Dataset::write_data_file_part`](super::Dataset::write_data_file_part)
+    /// when independently computing a physical-row part.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{dataset::fragment::FileFragment, Result};
+    /// # use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+    /// # async fn read(fragment: &FileFragment, schema: &Schema) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let batches = fragment.read_physical_slice(0..100, schema, 1024).await?;
+    /// # let _ = batches;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn read_physical_slice(
+        &self,
+        rows: Range<u64>,
+        projection: &Schema,
+        batch_size: u32,
+    ) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
+        if batch_size == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "read_physical_slice batch_size must be greater than zero",
+            ));
+        }
+        let physical_rows = self.physical_rows().await? as u64;
+        if rows.start > rows.end || rows.end > physical_rows {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "physical slice {}..{} is outside fragment {} with {} physical rows",
+                rows.start,
+                rows.end,
+                self.id(),
+                physical_rows
+            )));
+        }
+        let offset = i64::try_from(rows.start).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "physical slice start {} exceeds the supported scan offset range",
+                rows.start
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let limit = i64::try_from(rows.end - rows.start).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "physical slice length {} exceeds the supported scan limit range",
+                rows.end - rows.start
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        // Build a read-only view of this exact fragment without its deletion
+        // file. The normal scanner can then apply overlays and Blob descriptor
+        // materialization while offsets still address immutable physical rows.
+        let mut physical_metadata = self.metadata.clone();
+        physical_metadata.deletion_file = None;
+        let mut physical_dataset = self.dataset.as_ref().clone();
+        let mut physical_manifest = self.dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+        physical_manifest.fragments = Arc::new(vec![physical_metadata.clone()]);
+        physical_dataset.manifest = Arc::new(physical_manifest);
+        let physical_dataset = Arc::new(physical_dataset);
+        let fragment = Self::new(physical_dataset.clone(), physical_metadata);
+        let mut scanner = fragment.scan();
+        let columns = projection
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        scanner.project(&columns)?;
+        scanner.batch_size(batch_size as usize);
+        scanner.limit(Some(limit), Some(offset))?;
+
+        let has_blob_columns = projection.fields_pre_order().any(|field| field.is_blob());
+        if has_blob_columns {
+            scanner.with_row_address();
+        }
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+        if has_blob_columns {
+            let rewrite_plan = Arc::new(super::optimize::BlobV2BatchRewritePlan::try_new(
+                projection,
+                stream.schema().as_ref(),
+                false,
+                false,
+            )?);
+            Ok(stream
+                .map(move |batch_result| {
+                    let physical_dataset = physical_dataset.clone();
+                    let rewrite_plan = rewrite_plan.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        rewrite_plan
+                            .transform_batch(&physical_dataset, batch_result?)
+                            .await
+                    }
+                    .boxed()
+                })
+                .boxed())
+        } else {
+            Ok(stream
+                .map(|batch_result| async move { batch_result }.boxed())
+                .boxed())
+        }
     }
 
     /// Get the deletion vector for this fragment, using the cache if available.
@@ -1393,7 +2109,7 @@ impl FileFragment {
     }
 
     /// Get the file metadata for this fragment, using the cache if available.
-    async fn get_file_metadata(
+    pub async fn get_file_metadata(
         &self,
         file_scheduler: &FileScheduler,
     ) -> Result<Arc<CachedFileMetadata>> {
@@ -1410,6 +2126,32 @@ impl FileFragment {
         Ok(file_metadata)
     }
 
+    pub async fn get_file_metadata_index(
+        &self,
+        file_scheduler: &FileScheduler,
+        known_schema: Option<(Arc<Schema>, u64)>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<FileMetadataIndex>> {
+        let path = file_scheduler.reader().path();
+        let cache = self.dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(path);
+
+        let metadata_index = cache
+            .get_or_insert_with_key(FileMetadataIndexCacheKey, || async {
+                let metadata_index = if let Some((file_schema, num_rows)) = known_schema {
+                    lance_file::reader::FileReader::read_metadata_index_with_schema(
+                        file_scheduler,
+                        file_schema,
+                        num_rows,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                } else {
+                    lance_file::reader::FileReader::read_metadata_index(file_scheduler).await?
+                };
+                Ok(metadata_index)
+            })
+            .await?;
+        Ok(metadata_index)
+    }
+
     /// Take rows based on internal local row offsets
     ///
     /// If the row offsets are out-of-bounds, this will return an error. But if the
@@ -1442,7 +2184,7 @@ impl FileFragment {
         if row_offsets.len() > 1 && Self::row_ids_contiguous(row_offsets) {
             let range =
                 (row_offsets[0] as usize)..(row_offsets[row_offsets.len() - 1] as usize + 1);
-            reader.legacy_read_range_as_batch(range).await
+            reader.read_range_as_batch(range).await
         } else {
             // FIXME, change this method to streams
             reader.take_as_batch(row_offsets, None).await
@@ -1490,11 +2232,32 @@ impl FileFragment {
     /// at a time. This can be useful to control memory usage when processing very large
     /// fields. The batch_size will only be used if the dataset is a v2 dataset.  It will
     /// be ignored for v1 datasets.
+    ///
+    /// The `blob_handling` parameter controls the in-memory representation of blob
+    /// columns read by the updater. If unset, the dataset schema is used unchanged.
     pub(crate) async fn updater<T: AsRef<str>>(
         &self,
         columns: Option<&[T]>,
         schemas: Option<(Schema, Schema)>,
         batch_size: Option<u32>,
+        blob_handling: Option<BlobHandling>,
+    ) -> Result<Updater> {
+        let write_version = self
+            .dataset
+            .manifest
+            .data_storage_format
+            .lance_file_format();
+        self.updater_with_version(columns, schemas, batch_size, blob_handling, write_version)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn updater_with_version<T: AsRef<str>>(
+        &self,
+        columns: Option<&[T]>,
+        schemas: Option<(Schema, Schema)>,
+        batch_size: Option<u32>,
+        blob_handling: Option<BlobHandling>,
+        write_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
     ) -> Result<Updater> {
         let mut schema = self.dataset.schema().clone();
 
@@ -1514,8 +2277,16 @@ impl FileFragment {
             schema = schema.project(&projection)?;
         }
 
-        // If there is no projection, we at least need to read the row addresses
-        with_row_addr |= !with_row_id && schema.fields.is_empty();
+        if let Some(blob_handling) = blob_handling {
+            schema.fields = schema
+                .fields
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|field| blob_handling.unload_if_needed(field))
+                .collect();
+        }
+
+        // If there is no projection, we at least need to read the row addresses
+        with_row_addr |= !with_row_id && schema.fields.is_empty();
 
         let reader = self.open(
             &schema,
@@ -1528,7 +2299,15 @@ impl FileFragment {
         let reader = reader?;
         let deletion_vector = deletion_vector?.unwrap_or_default().as_ref().clone();
 
-        Updater::try_new(self.clone(), reader, deletion_vector, schemas, batch_size)
+        Updater::try_new(
+            self.clone(),
+            reader,
+            deletion_vector,
+            schemas,
+            batch_size,
+            write_version,
+        )
+        .await
     }
 
     pub async fn merge_columns(
@@ -1536,27 +2315,20 @@ impl FileFragment {
         stream: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static,
         left_on: &str,
         right_on: &str,
-        max_field_id: i32,
     ) -> Result<(Fragment, Schema)> {
         let stream = Box::new(stream);
         if self.schema().field(left_on).is_none() && left_on != ROW_ID && left_on != ROW_ADDR {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Column {} does not exist in the left side fragment",
-                    left_on
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column {} does not exist in the left side fragment",
+                left_on
+            )));
         };
         let right_schema = stream.schema();
         if right_schema.field_with_name(right_on).is_err() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Column {} does not exist in the right side fragment",
-                    right_on
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column {} does not exist in the right side fragment",
+                right_on
+            )));
         };
 
         for field in right_schema.fields() {
@@ -1566,13 +2338,10 @@ impl FileFragment {
                 continue;
             }
             if self.schema().field(field.name()).is_some() {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Column {} exists in left side fragment and right side dataset",
-                        field.name()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column {} exists in left side fragment and right side dataset",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
             }
         }
         // Hash join
@@ -1580,7 +2349,8 @@ impl FileFragment {
         // Final schema is union of current schema, plus the RHS schema without
         // the right_on key.
         let mut new_schema: Schema = self.schema().merge(joiner.out_schema().as_ref())?;
-        new_schema.set_field_id(Some(max_field_id));
+        // Use the same starting id as the updater so schema and data file ids match.
+        new_schema.set_field_id(Some(self.dataset.manifest.max_field_id()));
 
         let new_fragment = self
             .clone()
@@ -1592,7 +2362,7 @@ impl FileFragment {
     }
 
     pub(crate) async fn merge(mut self, join_column: &str, joiner: &HashJoiner) -> Result<Self> {
-        let mut updater = self.updater(Some(&[join_column]), None, None).await?;
+        let mut updater = self.updater(Some(&[join_column]), None, None, None).await?;
 
         while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await? {
             let batch = joiner
@@ -1606,51 +2376,54 @@ impl FileFragment {
         Ok(self)
     }
 
+    /// Same as [`Self::update_columns_with_offsets`] but discards the matched row offsets.
+    /// Use [`Self::update_columns_with_offsets`] if you need per-row version metadata for stable row IDs.
     pub async fn update_columns(
         &mut self,
         right_stream: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static,
         left_on: &str,
         right_on: &str,
     ) -> Result<(Fragment, Vec<u32>)> {
+        let r = self
+            .update_columns_with_offsets(right_stream, left_on, right_on)
+            .await?;
+        Ok((r.fragment, r.fields_modified))
+    }
+
+    /// Same operation as [`Self::update_columns`], and also returns matched physical row offsets for stable row IDs.
+    pub async fn update_columns_with_offsets(
+        &mut self,
+        right_stream: impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static,
+        left_on: &str,
+        right_on: &str,
+    ) -> Result<FragmentUpdateColumnsResult> {
         if self.schema().field(left_on).is_none() && left_on != ROW_ID && left_on != ROW_ADDR {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Column {} does not exist in the left side fragment",
-                    left_on
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column {} does not exist in the left side fragment",
+                left_on
+            )));
         };
         let right_stream = Box::new(right_stream);
         let right_schema = right_stream.schema();
         if right_schema.field_with_name(right_on).is_err() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Column {} does not exist in the right side fragment",
-                    right_on
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column {} does not exist in the right side fragment",
+                right_on
+            )));
         };
         let write_schema = right_schema.as_ref().without_column(right_on);
         for field in write_schema.fields() {
             if ROW_ID.eq(field.name()) || ROW_ADDR.eq(field.name()) {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Column {} is a reversed metadata column and cannot be updated",
-                        field.name()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column {} is a reserved metadata column and cannot be updated",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
             }
             if self.schema().field(field.name()).is_none() {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Column {} in right side fragment does not exist in left side fragment",
-                        field.name()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column {} in right side fragment does not exist in left side fragment",
+                    field.name()
+                )));
             }
         }
 
@@ -1663,19 +2436,101 @@ impl FileFragment {
         let mut read_columns: Vec<String> =
             write_schema.fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.clone()).collect();
         read_columns.push(left_on.to_string());
+        // Physical positions for matched rows are taken from `_rowaddr` (fragment id + row offset).
+        // The updater scans live rows in physical order; `_rowaddr` encodes the slot index used by row-level version metadata.
+        if !read_columns.iter().any(|n| n.as_str() == ROW_ADDR) {
+            read_columns.push(ROW_ADDR.to_string());
+        }
+        let selected_field_ids = read_columns
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|column| self.schema().field(column))
+            .map(|field| field.id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let descriptor_blob_ids = self
+            .schema()
+            .project_by_ids(&selected_field_ids, true)
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .filter(|field| field.is_blob_v2())
+            .filter_map(|field| u32::try_from(field.id).ok())
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let has_blob_v2 = !descriptor_blob_ids.is_empty();
+        let blob_handling = has_blob_v2.then(|| {
+            let materialized_blob_ids = self
+                .schema()
+                .fields_pre_order()
+                .filter(|field| field.is_blob())
+                .filter_map(|field| u32::try_from(field.id).ok())
+                .filter(|field_id| !descriptor_blob_ids.contains(field_id))
+                .collect();
+            BlobHandling::SomeBlobsBinary(materialized_blob_ids)
+        });
         let mut updater = self
             .updater(
                 Some(&read_columns),
                 Some((write_schema.clone(), self.schema().clone())),
                 None,
+                blob_handling,
             )
             .await?;
-        // Hash join
+        if has_blob_v2 {
+            updater.allow_external_blob_outside_bases();
+        }
+        let external_base_resolver = if has_blob_v2 {
+            super::write::blob_v2_external_base_resolver(
+                Some(self.dataset()),
+                &WriteParams::default(),
+                &write_schema,
+            )
+            .await?
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        // Hash join: rows matched on the right-hand stream rewrite columns; track physical offsets via `_rowaddr`.
+        // Convert the right stream from its logical form (Arrow JSON, view types)
+        // to the physical form stored on disk so it matches the fragment's left batch.
+        let right_stream =
+            SchemaAdapter::new(right_schema.clone()).to_physical_reader(right_stream);
         let joiner = Arc::new(HashJoiner::try_new(right_stream, right_on).await?);
+        let mut matched_offsets = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        let frag_id_u32 = u32::try_from(self.metadata.id).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Fragment id {} does not fit RowAddress fragment id",
+                self.metadata.id
+            ))
+        })?;
         while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await? {
+            let batch = if has_blob_v2 {
+                crate::dataset::optimize::transform_blob_v2_batch(
+                    &self.dataset,
+                    self.schema(),
+                    batch.clone(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await?
+            } else {
+                batch.clone()
+            };
+            let index_column = batch[left_on].clone();
+            let matched = joiner.matched_join_rows(index_column.clone())?;
+            if let Some(addr_col) = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ADDR) {
+                let addrs = as_primitive_array::<UInt64Type>(addr_col.as_ref());
+                for (row_idx, &is_matched) in matched.iter().enumerate().take(batch.num_rows()) {
+                    if !is_matched || addrs.is_null(row_idx) {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let addr = RowAddress::from(addrs.value(row_idx));
+                    if addr.fragment_id() == frag_id_u32 {
+                        matched_offsets.insert(addr.row_offset());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
             let updated_batch = joiner
-                .collect_with_fallback(batch, batch[left_on].clone(), self.dataset())
+                .collect_with_fallback(&batch, index_column, self.dataset())
                 .await?;
+            if let Some(resolver) = external_base_resolver.as_deref() {
+                super::blob::validate_external_blob_references(resolver, &updated_batch, &matched)
+                    .await?;
+            }
             updater.update(updated_batch).await?;
         }
 
@@ -1683,12 +2538,19 @@ impl FileFragment {
         // Mark fields in updated data files as obsolete ("tombstone").
         let updated_fields = updated_fragment.files.last().unwrap().fields.clone();
         for data_file in &mut updated_fragment.files.iter_mut().rev().skip(1) {
-            for field in &mut data_file.fields {
-                if updated_fields.contains(field) {
-                    // Tombstone these fields
-                    *field = -2;
-                }
-            }
+            let new_fields: Arc<[i32]> = data_file
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| {
+                    if updated_fields.contains(field) {
+                        -2 // Tombstone
+                    } else {
+                        *field
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .into();
+            data_file.fields = new_fields;
         }
         // Remove data files that have become entirely tombstoned.
         updated_fragment
@@ -1698,8 +2560,11 @@ impl FileFragment {
             .iter()
             .filter_map(|&i| u32::try_from(i).ok())
             .collect();
-        // Note: updated field should be returned when committing, waiting to be done
-        Ok((updated_fragment, updated_fields))
+        Ok(FragmentUpdateColumnsResult {
+            fragment: updated_fragment,
+            fields_modified: updated_fields,
+            matched_offsets,
+        })
     }
 
     /// Append new columns to the fragment
@@ -1711,7 +2576,7 @@ impl FileFragment {
         read_columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
         batch_size: Option<u32>,
     ) -> Result<(Fragment, Schema)> {
-        let (fragments, schema) = schema_evolution::add_columns_to_fragments(
+        let (fragments, schema, _, _) = schema_evolution::add_columns_to_fragments(
             self.dataset.as_ref(),
             transforms,
             read_columns,
@@ -1723,6 +2588,328 @@ impl FileFragment {
         Ok((fragments.into_iter().next().unwrap(), schema))
     }
 
+    fn schema_mismatch(&self, detail: impl std::fmt::Display) -> Error {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "column data for fragment {} does not match the requested schema: {detail}",
+            self.id()
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Write new data for columns of this fragment as a standalone data file,
+    /// without committing it, and return the
+    /// [`DataReplacementGroup`](super::transaction::DataReplacementGroup)
+    /// describing it.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`Self::add_columns`], the staged file answers for a field that
+    /// already exists, so this recomputes a column rather than appending one.
+    ///
+    /// `schema` names the fields being written. Each must be a top-level
+    /// column the dataset schema already defines, matching its manifest
+    /// definition; a column is staged whole, so a nested field cannot be
+    /// staged on its own. To recompute a new column, declare it first with an
+    /// all-null [`Self::add_columns`], then stage its data. Physical layout
+    /// comes from the manifest, so staging cannot change a field's storage
+    /// encoding. Batch columns are matched by name at every level, so struct
+    /// children may arrive in any order, but a batch whose fields are not
+    /// exactly the target's, at every level, is rejected.
+    ///
+    /// `data` must produce exactly the fragment's physical row count, nulls
+    /// included: the file is positionally aligned with the fragment and no
+    /// deletion vector is applied on the way in. Batches are pulled one at a
+    /// time, so the full column need not be held in memory.
+    ///
+    /// Callers should take care to set the read version correctly. If this is
+    /// not done then multiple replacements to the same field will not be
+    /// detected as a conflict.
+    pub async fn write_columns(
+        &self,
+        data: impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send,
+        schema: &Schema,
+    ) -> Result<super::transaction::DataReplacementGroup> {
+        let write_version = self
+            .dataset
+            .manifest
+            .data_storage_format
+            .lance_file_format();
+        self.write_column_with_version(data, schema, write_version)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Write replacement column data using an exact V2 data file version.
+    ///
+    /// The input and commit requirements are the same as [`Self::write_columns`].
+    /// V1 targets and legacy datasets are not supported.
+    /// When the version differs from the manifest default, the commit that
+    /// publishes the returned replacement group derives the mixed-version
+    /// capability from its final manifest.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{dataset::fragment::FileFragment, Result};
+    /// # use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+    /// # use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+    /// # async fn example(fragment: &FileFragment, batch: arrow_array::RecordBatch, schema: &Schema) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let replacement = fragment.write_column_with_version(
+    ///     futures::stream::iter([Ok(batch)]), schema, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+    /// ).await?;
+    /// // Commit the replacement with Operation::DataReplacement.
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn write_column_with_version(
+        &self,
+        data: impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send,
+        schema: &Schema,
+        write_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<super::transaction::DataReplacementGroup> {
+        versions::validate_write_version(
+            self.dataset
+                .manifest
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format(),
+            write_version,
+        )?;
+        let expected_rows = self.physical_rows().await? as u64;
+
+        let writer_schema = self.resolve_writer_schema(schema)?;
+        let batch_schema = ArrowSchema::from(&writer_schema);
+        let projection_schema = ArrowSchema::new(
+            batch_schema
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| relax_nullability(field))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+
+        if write_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+            // The legacy reader pairs a fragment's files by batch boundary, so a
+            // staged file chunked to the caller's batches leaves the fragment
+            // unreadable. Rechunking is the legacy update path's job, not this
+            // one's.
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "write_columns is not supported for fragment {} in the legacy file format",
+                self.id()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // The update writer, not a raw file writer: that boundary carries the
+        // version's write policies (blob v2 columns arrive logical and must be
+        // prepared for the encoders) and returns a populated `DataFile`.
+        // Blob v2 descriptors land under the dataset root, outside any
+        // registered external base, as on the other update paths.
+        let has_blob_v2 = writer_schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .any(|field| field.is_blob_v2());
+        let mut writer = versions::open_update_writer(
+            write_version,
+            self.dataset.as_ref(),
+            &writer_schema,
+            has_blob_v2,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let staged_path = {
+            let (file_name, _) = writer.data_file_path();
+            self.dataset.data_dir().join(file_name)
+        };
+
+        // From here every failure -- a stream error, a rejected batch, a write
+        // or finish error, a row-count mismatch -- owns the same staged
+        // artifacts: the data file and any Blob sidecars already finalized
+        // beside it. One exit cleans them all.
+        let mut data = std::pin::pin!(data);
+        let staged: Result<_> = async {
+            while let Some(batch_result) = data.next().await {
+                let batch = batch_result?;
+                // Struct encoders consume children positionally, so a batch
+                // ordered differently from the manifest lands under the wrong
+                // field ids. Projection fixes that by name, but it downcasts by
+                // shape, so the whole tree is compared first. Nullability is the
+                // writer's to enforce, against the data rather than the
+                // declared schema.
+                if let Some(duplicate) = duplicate_field_path(batch.schema_ref().fields(), "") {
+                    return Err(self.schema_mismatch(format!("column '{duplicate}' appears twice")));
+                }
+                LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema_ref().as_ref())
+                    .and_then(|staged| {
+                        staged.check_compatible(
+                            &writer_schema,
+                            &SchemaCompareOptions {
+                                compare_nullability: NullabilityComparison::Ignore,
+                                ignore_field_order: true,
+                                ..Default::default()
+                            },
+                        )
+                    })
+                    .map_err(|mismatch| self.schema_mismatch(mismatch))?;
+                let batch = batch
+                    .project_by_schema(&projection_schema)
+                    .map_err(|err| self.schema_mismatch(err))?;
+                writer.write(std::slice::from_ref(&batch)).await?;
+            }
+            let (num_rows, data_file) = writer.finish().await?;
+            if num_rows as u64 != expected_rows {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "column data for fragment {} has {} rows but the fragment has {} physical rows",
+                    self.id(),
+                    num_rows,
+                    expected_rows
+                )));
+            }
+            Ok(data_file)
+        }
+        .await;
+
+        match staged {
+            Ok(data_file) => Ok(super::transaction::DataReplacementGroup(
+                self.id() as u64,
+                data_file,
+            )),
+            Err(err) => {
+                // The writer may still hold the file open (a buffered upload,
+                // an unflushed local handle); release it before deleting.
+                drop(writer);
+                discard_staged_file(self.dataset.as_ref(), &staged_path).await;
+                Err(err)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve the fields a staged file will carry against the manifest.
+    ///
+    /// Shared by [`Self::write_columns`] and [`Self::write_overlay`]: both stage
+    /// a data file that the commit path publishes without publishing schema, so
+    /// both need the same guarantee that every field is one the dataset already
+    /// defines, exactly as it defines it. Returns the manifest's own fields, so
+    /// physical layout comes from the manifest rather than from the request.
+    pub(crate) fn resolve_writer_schema(&self, schema: &Schema) -> Result<Schema> {
+        // Readers take everything but the field id from the manifest, so a
+        // staged field reusing an id is decoded as the manifest's version rather
+        // than rejected. Compare full identity, not just the storage type.
+        let compare_options = SchemaCompareOptions {
+            compare_field_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        // Top-level requests match top-level manifest fields only: resolving an
+        // id from anywhere lets a caller reuse a field at a path the dataset
+        // never gave it, staging a file covering the borrowed field. Layout then
+        // comes from the manifest, since the metadata the identity check ignores
+        // -- packed structs, blob encoding -- decides physical field coverage.
+        let dataset_schema = self.dataset.schema();
+        let mut writer_fields = Vec::with_capacity(schema.fields.len());
+        let mut requested = HashSet::with_capacity(schema.fields.len());
+        for field in &schema.fields {
+            // The per-field identity check cannot see the request naming an
+            // id twice, and the set-based batch comparison downstream would
+            // match one batch column against both copies.
+            if !requested.insert(field.id) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "column data for fragment {} names field id {} ('{}') more than once",
+                    self.id(),
+                    field.id,
+                    field.name
+                )));
+            }
+            if lance_core::is_system_column(&field.name) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "column data for fragment {} names reserved column '{}'",
+                    self.id(),
+                    field.name
+                )));
+            }
+            let Some(existing) = dataset_schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .find(|existing| existing.id == field.id)
+            else {
+                // The commit path publishes data files, never schema, so a
+                // field the manifest does not define would commit as a file no
+                // live field answers for -- and a concurrent schema change
+                // could never be checked against it.
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "column data for fragment {} names field id {} ('{}') that the dataset schema \
+                     does not define; declare the column with add_columns before staging its data",
+                    self.id(),
+                    field.id,
+                    field.name
+                )));
+            };
+            // `explain_difference` recurses, covering the whole subtree.
+            if let Some(difference) = field.explain_difference(existing, &compare_options) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "column data for fragment {} does not match dataset field id {}: {}",
+                    self.id(),
+                    field.id,
+                    difference
+                )));
+            }
+            writer_fields.push(existing.clone());
+        }
+        Ok(Schema {
+            fields: writer_fields,
+            metadata: schema.metadata.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Stage a data overlay supplying new values for a subset of this fragment's
+    /// cells, without rewriting its base data files.
+    ///
+    /// `schema` declares the fields the overlay may supply, by the dataset's own
+    /// field ids, exactly as [`Self::write_columns`] does. Values are then fed to
+    /// the returned writer keyed by `_rowaddr`; see [`OverlayWriter`] for the
+    /// ordering and coverage rules it enforces, and for how to finish or discard
+    /// what it stages.
+    ///
+    /// An overlay is the cheap way to fill a small fraction of a column: write
+    /// cost is proportional to the cells supplied, rows keep their addresses, and
+    /// no existing values are re-read to carry them forward. It costs a merge on
+    /// every later read of the cells it covers, so a dense fill of a whole column
+    /// is better served by [`Self::write_columns`].
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+    /// # use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    /// # use lance::Dataset;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::transaction::Operation;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::WriteDestination;
+    /// # use lance_core::Result;
+    /// # async fn backfill(
+    /// #     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    /// #     mut values: impl futures::TryStream<Ok = RecordBatch, Error = lance_core::Error> + Unpin,
+    /// #     field_id: i32,
+    /// # ) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+    /// let fragment = dataset.get_fragment(0).expect("fragment 0 exists");
+    /// let schema = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(&[field_id], true);
+    ///
+    /// let mut overlay = fragment.write_overlay(&schema).await?;
+    /// // Each batch carries `_rowaddr` plus the fields being filled, for the
+    /// // rows it has values for. Addresses must strictly ascend per field.
+    /// while let Some(batch) = values.try_next().await? {
+    ///     overlay.write_batch(&batch).await?;
+    /// }
+    ///
+    /// if let Some(group) = overlay.finish().await? {
+    ///     Dataset::commit(
+    ///         WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset),
+    ///         Operation::DataOverlay { groups: vec![group] },
+    ///         Some(read_version),
+    ///         None,
+    ///         None,
+    ///         Arc::new(Default::default()),
+    ///         false,
+    ///     )
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// }
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn write_overlay(
+        &self,
+        schema: &Schema,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<OverlayWriter, WriteOverlayError> {
+        OverlayWriter::open(self.dataset.clone(), self, schema).await
+    }
+
     /// Delete rows from the fragment.
     ///
     /// If all rows are deleted, returns `Ok(None)`. Otherwise, returns a new
@@ -1828,15 +3015,12 @@ impl FileFragment {
                 .filter(|x| *x >= physical_rows as u32)
                 .take(5)
                 .collect();
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Deletion vector includes rows that aren't in the fragment. \
-                Num physical rows {}; Deletion vector length: {}; \
-                Examples: {:?}",
-                    physical_rows, dv_len, examples
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Deletion vector includes rows that aren't in the fragment. \
+            Num physical rows {}; Deletion vector length: {}; \
+            Examples: {:?}",
+                physical_rows, dv_len, examples
+            )));
         }
 
         self.metadata.deletion_file = write_deletion_file(
@@ -1844,7 +3028,7 @@ impl FileFragment {
             self.metadata.id,
             self.dataset.version().version,
             &deletion_vector,
-            self.dataset.object_store(),
+            self.dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
         )
         .await?;
 
@@ -1899,6 +3083,37 @@ impl CacheKey for FileMetadataCacheKey {
     fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
         "".into()
     }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "FileMetadata"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.dataset.fragment-file-metadata-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, _builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {}
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct FileMetadataIndexCacheKey;
+
+impl CacheKey for FileMetadataIndexCacheKey {
+    type ValueType = FileMetadataIndex;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        "metadata_index".into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "FileMetadataIndex"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.dataset.fragment-file-metadata-index-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, _builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {}
 }
 
 impl From<FileFragment> for Fragment {
@@ -1907,72 +3122,290 @@ impl From<FileFragment> for Fragment {
     }
 }
 
-/// [`FragmentReader`] is an abstract reader for a [`FileFragment`].
+/// Typed v1-only read operations used by the legacy pushdown path.
 ///
-/// It opens the data files that contains the columns of the projection schema, and
-/// reconstruct the RecordBatch from columns read from each data file.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct FragmentReader {
-    /// Readers and schema of each opened data file.
-    readers: Vec<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>,
-
-    /// The output schema. The defines the order in which the columns are returned.
-    output_schema: ArrowSchema,
-
-    /// The deleted row IDs
+/// Keeping the previous readers here avoids exposing legacy downcasts through
+/// [`GenericFileReader`]. Modern readers never implement or simulate these
+/// row-group and page-statistics operations.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct V1FragmentReader {
+    readers: Vec<V1Reader>,
     deletion_vec: Option<Arc<DeletionVector>>,
-
-    /// The row id sequence
-    ///
-    /// Only populated if the stable row id feature is enabled.
     row_id_sequence: Option<Arc<RowIdSequence>>,
-
-    /// ID of the fragment
     fragment_id: usize,
-
-    /// True if we should generate a row id for the output
     with_row_id: bool,
-
-    /// True if we should generate a row address column in output
     with_row_addr: bool,
+    make_deletions_null: bool,
+}
 
-    /// True if we should generate a last updated at version column in output
-    with_row_last_updated_at_version: bool,
+impl V1FragmentReader {
+    fn try_new(
+        readers: Vec<V1Reader>,
+        deletion_vec: Option<Arc<DeletionVector>>,
+        row_id_sequence: Option<Arc<RowIdSequence>>,
+        fragment_id: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let first_reader = readers.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("Cannot create a v1 fragment reader without data files")
+        })?;
+        let num_batches = first_reader.reader.num_batches();
+        if readers
+            .iter()
+            .any(|reader| reader.reader.num_batches() != num_batches)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Cannot create a v1 fragment reader from data files with different numbers of batches"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            readers,
+            deletion_vec,
+            row_id_sequence,
+            fragment_id,
+            with_row_id: false,
+            with_row_addr: false,
+            make_deletions_null: false,
+        })
+    }
 
-    /// True if we should generate a created at version column in output
-    with_row_created_at_version: bool,
+    pub(crate) fn with_row_id(&mut self) -> &mut Self {
+        self.with_row_id = true;
+        self
+    }
 
-    /// If true, deleted rows will be set to null, which is fast
-    /// If false, deleted rows will be removed from the batch, requiring a copy
-    make_deletions_null: bool,
+    pub(crate) fn with_row_address(&mut self) -> &mut Self {
+        self.with_row_addr = true;
+        self
+    }
 
-    /// The fragment metadata (needed for version columns)
-    fragment: Arc<Fragment>,
+    pub(crate) fn with_make_deletions_null(&mut self) -> &mut Self {
+        self.make_deletions_null = true;
+        self
+    }
 
-    /// The last_updated_at version sequence (loaded from fragment metadata)
-    last_updated_at_sequence: Option<Arc<lance_table::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionSequence>>,
+    pub(crate) fn num_batches(&self) -> usize {
+        self.readers[0].reader.num_batches()
+    }
 
-    /// The created_at version sequence (loaded from fragment metadata)
-    created_at_sequence: Option<Arc<lance_table::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionSequence>>,
+    pub(crate) fn num_rows_in_batch(&self, batch_id: u32) -> Option<u32> {
+        let reader = &self.readers[0].reader;
+        (batch_id < reader.num_batches() as u32)
+            .then(|| reader.num_rows_in_batch(batch_id as i32) as u32)
+    }
 
-    // total number of real rows in the fragment (num_physical_rows - num_deleted_rows)
-    num_rows: usize,
+    pub(crate) async fn read_page_stats(
+        &self,
+        projection: Option<&Schema>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+        let mut stats_batches = Vec::new();
+        for reader in &self.readers {
+            let schema = match projection {
+                Some(projection) => Arc::new(reader.projection.intersection(projection)?),
+                None => reader.projection.clone(),
+            };
+            if let Some(stats_batch) = reader.reader.read_page_stats(&schema.field_ids()).await? {
+                stats_batches.push(stats_batch);
+            }
+        }
 
-    // total number of physical rows in the fragment (all rows, ignoring deletions)
-    num_physical_rows: usize,
-}
+        if stats_batches.is_empty() {
+            Ok(None)
+        } else {
+            Ok(Some(merge_batches(&stats_batches)?))
+        }
+    }
 
-// Custom clone impl needed because it is not easy to clone Box<dyn GenericFileReader>
-//
-// We currently need FragmentReader to be Clone because the pushdown scan clones it
-// to reuse the fragment reader for both "scan with row id" and "scan without row id"
-impl Clone for FragmentReader {
-    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            readers: self
-                .readers
-                .iter()
-                .map(|reader| reader.clone_box())
+    pub(crate) async fn read_batch_projected(
+        &self,
+        batch_id: usize,
+        params: impl Into<ReadBatchParams> + Clone,
+        projection: &Schema,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let first_reader = &self.readers[0].reader;
+        // All batches have the same size in v1, except for the last one.
+        let batch_offset = batch_id * first_reader.num_rows_in_batch(0);
+        let rows_in_batch = first_reader.num_rows_in_batch(batch_id as i32);
+
+        let batches = if !projection.fields.is_empty() {
+            let read_tasks = self.readers.iter().map(|reader| {
+                let projection = reader.projection.intersection(projection);
+                let params = params.clone();
+                let reader = &reader.reader;
+
+                async move {
+                    let projection = projection?;
+                    if projection.fields.is_empty() {
+                        Result::Ok(None)
+                    } else {
+                        Ok(Some(
+                            reader
+                                .read_batch(batch_id as i32, params, &projection)
+                                .await?,
+                        ))
+                    }
+                }
+            });
+            try_join_all(read_tasks)
+                .await?
+                .into_iter()
+                .flatten()
+                .collect::<Vec<RecordBatch>>()
+        } else {
+            let expected_rows = params
+                .clone()
+                .into()
+                .slice(0, rows_in_batch)
+                .unwrap()
+                .to_offsets()?
+                .len();
+            vec![RecordBatch::from(StructArray::new_empty_fields(
+                expected_rows,
+                None,
+            ))]
+        };
+
+        let params = params.into();
+        let result = merge_batches(&batches)?;
+        let file_params = match params {
+            ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => ReadBatchParams::Indices(
+                indices
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|i| *i + batch_offset as u32)
+                    .collect(),
+            ),
+            ReadBatchParams::Ranges(_) => {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "ReadBatchParams::Ranges should not be used in v1 files".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => {
+                ReadBatchParams::Range(batch_offset..(batch_offset + rows_in_batch))
+            }
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(start) => {
+                ReadBatchParams::Range((start.start + batch_offset)..(batch_offset + rows_in_batch))
+            }
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(end) => {
+                ReadBatchParams::Range(batch_offset..(end.end + batch_offset))
+            }
+            ReadBatchParams::Range(range) => {
+                ReadBatchParams::Range((range.start + batch_offset)..(range.end + batch_offset))
+            }
+        };
+        let result = lance_table::utils::stream::apply_row_id_and_deletes(
+            result,
+            0,
+            self.fragment_id as u32,
+            &RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
+                params: file_params,
+                deletion_vector: self.deletion_vec.clone(),
+                row_id_sequence: self.row_id_sequence.clone(),
+                with_row_id: self.with_row_id,
+                with_row_addr: self.with_row_addr,
+                with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
+                with_row_created_at_version: false,
+                last_updated_at_sequence: None,
+                created_at_sequence: None,
+                make_deletions_null: self.make_deletions_null,
+                total_num_rows: first_reader.len() as u32,
+            },
+        )?;
+
+        let mut output_schema = ArrowSchema::from(projection);
+        if self.with_row_id {
+            output_schema = output_schema.try_with_column(ROW_ID_FIELD.clone())?;
+        }
+        if self.with_row_addr {
+            output_schema = output_schema.try_with_column(ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone())?;
+        }
+        Ok(result.project_by_schema(&output_schema)?)
+    }
+}
+
+/// [`FragmentReader`] is an abstract reader for a [`FileFragment`].
+///
+/// It opens the data files that contains the columns of the projection schema, and
+/// reconstruct the RecordBatch from columns read from each data file.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FragmentReader {
+    /// Readers and schema of each opened data file.
+    readers: Vec<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>,
+
+    /// The output schema. The defines the order in which the columns are returned.
+    output_schema: ArrowSchema,
+
+    /// The deleted row IDs
+    deletion_vec: Option<Arc<DeletionVector>>,
+
+    /// The row id sequence
+    ///
+    /// Only populated if the stable row id feature is enabled.
+    row_id_sequence: Option<Arc<RowIdSequence>>,
+
+    /// ID of the fragment
+    fragment_id: usize,
+
+    /// True if we should generate a row id for the output
+    with_row_id: bool,
+
+    /// True if we should generate a row address column in output
+    with_row_addr: bool,
+
+    /// True if we should generate a last updated at version column in output
+    with_row_last_updated_at_version: bool,
+
+    /// True if we should generate a created at version column in output
+    with_row_created_at_version: bool,
+
+    /// If true, deleted rows will be set to null, which is fast
+    /// If false, deleted rows will be removed from the batch, requiring a copy
+    make_deletions_null: bool,
+
+    /// The fragment metadata (needed for version columns)
+    fragment: Arc<Fragment>,
+
+    /// The last_updated_at version sequence (loaded from fragment metadata)
+    last_updated_at_sequence: Option<Arc<lance_table::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionSequence>>,
+
+    /// The created_at version sequence (loaded from fragment metadata)
+    created_at_sequence: Option<Arc<lance_table::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionSequence>>,
+
+    // total number of real rows in the fragment (num_physical_rows - num_deleted_rows)
+    num_rows: usize,
+
+    // total number of physical rows in the fragment (all rows, ignoring deletions)
+    num_physical_rows: usize,
+
+    /// Read-time state for resolving data overlay files: the coverage plan plus
+    /// what is needed to open overlay readers. `None` when the fragment has no
+    /// overlays. Overlays are merged into base batches (by `offset_in_frag`) before
+    /// deletion filtering, opening only the files each read's rows touch.
+    overlay: Option<OverlayReadState>,
+}
+
+/// What [`FragmentReader`] needs to resolve overlays at read time: the coverage
+/// plan (from metadata, cheap to build), and the fragment + config needed to open
+/// overlay readers once the read's rows — and therefore which files it touches —
+/// are known. All `Arc` so cloning a reader stays cheap.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+struct OverlayReadState {
+    planner: Arc<OverlayReadPlanner>,
+    fragment: Arc<FileFragment>,
+    read_config: Arc<FragReadConfig>,
+}
+
+// Custom clone impl needed because it is not easy to clone Box<dyn GenericFileReader>
+//
+// We currently need FragmentReader to be Clone because the pushdown scan clones it
+// to reuse the fragment reader for both "scan with row id" and "scan without row id"
+impl Clone for FragmentReader {
+    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            readers: self
+                .readers
+                .iter()
+                .map(|reader| reader.clone_box())
                 .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
             output_schema: self.output_schema.clone(),
             deletion_vec: self.deletion_vec.clone(),
@@ -1988,6 +3421,7 @@ impl Clone for FragmentReader {
             created_at_sequence: self.created_at_sequence.clone(),
             num_rows: self.num_rows,
             num_physical_rows: self.num_physical_rows,
+            overlay: self.overlay.clone(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -2002,7 +3436,6 @@ fn merge_batches(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
     if batches.is_empty() {
         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
             "Cannot merge empty batches".to_string(),
-            location!(),
         ));
     }
 
@@ -2025,25 +3458,6 @@ impl FragmentReader {
         num_physical_rows: usize,
         fragment: Arc<Fragment>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        if let Some(legacy_reader) = readers.first().and_then(|reader| reader.as_legacy_opt()) {
-            let num_batches = legacy_reader.num_batches();
-            for reader in readers.iter().skip(1) {
-                if let Some(other_legacy) = reader.as_legacy_opt() {
-                    if other_legacy.num_batches() != num_batches {
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                                "Cannot create FragmentReader from data files with different number of batches"
-                                    .to_string(),
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "Cannot mix legacy and non-legacy readers".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-            }
-        }
         Ok(Self {
             readers,
             output_schema,
@@ -2060,6 +3474,7 @@ impl FragmentReader {
             created_at_sequence: None,
             num_rows,
             num_physical_rows,
+            overlay: None,
         })
     }
 
@@ -2086,18 +3501,15 @@ impl FragmentReader {
         self
     }
 
-    pub(crate) fn with_row_last_updated_at_version(&mut self) -> &mut Self {
+    /// Emit the `_row_last_updated_at_version` column, served from `sequence`;
+    /// `None` means the fragment has no version metadata and every row reads
+    /// as version 1.
+    pub(crate) fn with_row_last_updated_at_version(
+        &mut self,
+        sequence: Option<Arc<lance_table::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionSequence>>,
+    ) -> &mut Self {
         self.with_row_last_updated_at_version = true;
-
-        // Load the version sequence if not already loaded
-        if self.last_updated_at_sequence.is_none() {
-            if let Some(meta) = &self.fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta {
-                if let Ok(sequence) = meta.load_sequence() {
-                    self.last_updated_at_sequence = Some(Arc::new(sequence));
-                }
-            }
-            // If no metadata or load fails, sequence remains None (will default to version 1)
-        }
+        self.last_updated_at_sequence = sequence;
 
         // Add the version column to the output schema
         self.output_schema = self
@@ -2108,18 +3520,15 @@ impl FragmentReader {
         self
     }
 
-    pub(crate) fn with_row_created_at_version(&mut self) -> &mut Self {
+    /// Emit the `_row_created_at_version` column, served from `sequence`;
+    /// `None` means the fragment has no version metadata and every row reads
+    /// as version 1.
+    pub(crate) fn with_row_created_at_version(
+        &mut self,
+        sequence: Option<Arc<lance_table::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionSequence>>,
+    ) -> &mut Self {
         self.with_row_created_at_version = true;
-
-        // Load the version sequence if not already loaded
-        if self.created_at_sequence.is_none() {
-            if let Some(meta) = &self.fragment.created_at_version_meta {
-                if let Ok(sequence) = meta.load_sequence() {
-                    self.created_at_sequence = Some(Arc::new(sequence));
-                }
-            }
-            // If no metadata or load fails, sequence remains None (will default to version 1)
-        }
+        self.created_at_sequence = sequence;
 
         // Add the version column to the output schema
         self.output_schema = self
@@ -2130,214 +3539,95 @@ impl FragmentReader {
         self
     }
 
-    /// TODO: This method is relied upon by the v1 pushdown mechanism and will need to stay
-    /// in place until v1 is removed.  v2 uses a different mechanism for pushdown and so there
-    /// is little benefit in updating the v1 pushdown node.
-    pub(crate) fn legacy_num_batches(&self) -> usize {
-        let legacy_reader = self.readers[0].as_legacy();
-        let num_batches = legacy_reader.num_batches();
-        assert!(
-            self.readers
-                .iter()
-                .all(|r| r.as_legacy().num_batches() == num_batches),
-            "Data files have varying number of batches, which is not yet supported."
-        );
-        num_batches
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: This method is relied upon by the v1 pushdown mechanism and will need to stay
-    /// in place until v1 is removed.  v2 uses a different mechanism for pushdown and so there
-    /// is little benefit in updating the v1 pushdown node.
+    /// Merge data overlay values onto a stream of base batches.
     ///
-    /// This method is also used by the updater.  Even though the updater has been updated to
-    /// use streams, the updater still needs to know the batch size in v1 so that it can create
-    /// files with the same batch size.
-    pub(crate) fn legacy_num_rows_in_batch(&self, batch_id: u32) -> Option<u32> {
-        if let Some(legacy_reader) = self.readers.first().and_then(|r| r.as_legacy_opt()) {
-            if batch_id < legacy_reader.num_batches() as u32 {
-                Some(legacy_reader.num_rows_in_batch(batch_id as i32) as u32)
-            } else {
-                None
-            }
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Read the page statistics of the fragment for the specified fields.
+    /// Runs on physical rows in read order, *before* deletion filtering, so each
+    /// row can be addressed by its position in the fragment (its `offset_in_frag`,
+    /// derived from `params`) and deletions take precedence naturally: an overlay
+    /// value for a deleted row is dropped along with the row downstream. A no-op
+    /// when the fragment has no overlays.
     ///
-    /// TODO: This method is relied upon by the v1 pushdown mechanism and will need to stay
-    /// in place until v1 is removed.  v2 uses a different mechanism for pushdown and so there
-    /// is little benefit in updating the v1 pushdown node.
-    pub(crate) async fn legacy_read_page_stats(
+    /// The read's `offset_in_frag` values are known from `params` up front, so
+    /// overlays are resolved here to just the files this read's rows touch — an
+    /// overlay whose cells fall outside the read is not opened at all. Within each
+    /// batch, the overlay reads (only the values that batch needs) are then issued
+    /// concurrently with the base read rather than after it.
+    async fn merge_overlays(
         &self,
-        projection: Option<&Schema>,
-    ) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
-        let mut stats_batches = vec![];
-        for reader in self.readers.iter() {
-            let schema = match projection {
-                Some(projection) => Arc::new(reader.projection().intersection(projection)?),
-                None => reader.projection().clone(),
-            };
-            let reader = reader.as_legacy();
-            if let Some(stats_batch) = reader.read_page_stats(&schema.field_ids()).await? {
-                stats_batches.push(stats_batch);
-            }
-        }
-
-        if stats_batches.is_empty() {
-            Ok(None)
-        } else {
-            Ok(Some(merge_batches(&stats_batches)?))
+        merged: ReadBatchTaskStream,
+        params: &ReadBatchParams,
+        total_num_rows: u32,
+    ) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream> {
+        let Some(overlay) = &self.overlay else {
+            return Ok(merged);
+        };
+        // The offset_in_frag of every row this read will return, materialized once.
+        // Cost is one u32 per output row (a whole-fragment scan is 4 bytes/row), and
+        // it lets us both prune overlays to the read and slice each batch's offsets
+        // below without reading any data. Only paid when the fragment has overlays.
+        //
+        // TODO(overlay perf): this could be avoided by teaching `ReadBatchParams` to
+        // yield a coverage bitmap directly (for pruning) and to slice per batch (for
+        // the routing below), or by moving `ReadBatchParams` to a roaring bitmap
+        // wholesale — a larger refactor tracked separately.
+        let offsets_in_frag: Arc<Vec<u32>> =
+            Arc::new(params.to_offsets_total(total_num_rows).values().to_vec());
+
+        // Open only the overlay readers this read touches (pruned by row selection).
+        let plans = resolve_overlays(
+            &overlay.planner,
+            &offsets_in_frag,
+            &overlay.fragment,
+            &overlay.read_config,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        if plans.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(merged);
         }
-    }
-
-    /// Read a batch of rows from the fragment, with a subset of columns.
-    ///
-    /// Note: the projection must be a subset of the schema the reader was created with.
-    /// Otherwise incorrect data will be returned.
-    ///
-    /// TODO: This method is relied upon by the v1 pushdown mechanism and will need to stay
-    /// in place until v1 is removed.  v2 uses a different mechanism for pushdown and so there
-    /// is little benefit in updating the v1 pushdown node.
-    pub(crate) async fn legacy_read_batch_projected(
-        &self,
-        batch_id: usize,
-        params: impl Into<ReadBatchParams> + Clone,
-        projection: &Schema,
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let first_reader = self.readers[0].as_legacy();
-        // All batches have the same size in v1, except for the last one.
-        let batch_offset = batch_id * first_reader.num_rows_in_batch(0);
-        let rows_in_batch = first_reader.num_rows_in_batch(batch_id as i32);
-
-        let batches = if !projection.fields.is_empty() {
-            let read_tasks = self.readers.iter().map(|reader| {
-                let projection = reader.projection().intersection(projection);
-                let params = params.clone();
-
-                let reader = reader.as_legacy();
-
-                async move {
-                    // Apply ? inside the task to keep read_tasks a simple iter of futures
-                    // for try_join_all
-                    let projection = projection?;
-                    if projection.fields.is_empty() {
-                        // The projection caused one of the data files to become
-                        // irrelevant and so we can skip it
-                        Result::Ok(None)
-                    } else {
-                        Ok(Some(
-                            reader
-                                .read_batch(batch_id as i32, params, &projection)
-                                .await?,
-                        ))
+        let plans = Arc::new(plans);
+
+        // Batches arrive in physical read order, so a running total of the rows seen
+        // so far gives each batch its starting offset_in_batch into `offsets_in_frag`.
+        let mut rows_seen = 0usize;
+        let stream = merged
+            .map(move |task| {
+                let num_rows = task.num_rows;
+                let start = rows_seen;
+                rows_seen += num_rows as usize;
+                let offsets_in_frag = offsets_in_frag.clone();
+                let plans = plans.clone();
+                let inner = task.task;
+                ReadBatchTask {
+                    num_rows,
+                    task: async move {
+                        let batch_offsets = &offsets_in_frag[start..start + num_rows as usize];
+                        merge_overlay_batch(inner, batch_offsets, &plans).await
                     }
+                    .boxed(),
                 }
-            });
-            let results = try_join_all(read_tasks).await?;
-            results.into_iter().flatten().collect::<Vec<RecordBatch>>()
-        } else {
-            // If we are selecting no columns, we can assume we are just getting
-            // the row ids. If this is the case, we need to generate an empty
-            // batch with the correct number of rows.
-            let expected_rows = params
-                .clone()
-                .into()
-                .slice(0, rows_in_batch)
-                .unwrap()
-                .to_offsets()?
-                .len();
-            vec![RecordBatch::from(StructArray::new_empty_fields(
-                expected_rows,
-                None,
-            ))]
-        };
-
-        let params = params.into();
-        let result = merge_batches(&batches)?;
+            })
+            .boxed();
+        Ok(stream)
+    }
 
-        // Need to apply deletions and row ids.
-        // In order to apply deletions we need to change the parameters to be
-        // relative to the file, not the batch.
-        let file_params = match params {
-            ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices) => ReadBatchParams::Indices(
-                indices
-                    .values()
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|i| *i + batch_offset as u32)
-                    .collect(),
-            ),
-            ReadBatchParams::Ranges(_) => {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "ReadBatchParams::Ranges should not be used in v1 files".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
-            }
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull => {
-                ReadBatchParams::Range(batch_offset..(batch_offset + rows_in_batch))
-            }
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeFrom(start) => {
-                ReadBatchParams::Range((start.start + batch_offset)..(batch_offset + rows_in_batch))
-            }
-            ReadBatchParams::RangeTo(end) => {
-                ReadBatchParams::Range(batch_offset..(end.end + batch_offset))
-            }
-            ReadBatchParams::Range(range) => {
-                ReadBatchParams::Range((range.start + batch_offset)..(range.end + batch_offset))
-            }
-        };
-        let result = lance_table::utils::stream::apply_row_id_and_deletes(
-            result,
-            0,
-            self.fragment_id as u32,
-            &RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
-                params: file_params,
-                deletion_vector: self.deletion_vec.clone(),
-                row_id_sequence: self.row_id_sequence.clone(),
-                with_row_id: self.with_row_id,
-                with_row_addr: self.with_row_addr,
-                with_row_last_updated_at_version: self.with_row_last_updated_at_version,
-                with_row_created_at_version: self.with_row_created_at_version,
-                last_updated_at_sequence: self.last_updated_at_sequence.clone(),
-                created_at_sequence: self.created_at_sequence.clone(),
-                make_deletions_null: self.make_deletions_null,
-                total_num_rows: first_reader.len() as u32,
-            },
-        )?;
-
-        let output_schema = {
-            let mut output_schema = ArrowSchema::from(projection);
-            if self.with_row_id {
-                output_schema = output_schema.try_with_column(ROW_ID_FIELD.clone())?;
-            }
-            if self.with_row_addr {
-                output_schema = output_schema.try_with_column(ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone())?;
-            }
-            output_schema
-        };
-
-        Ok(result.project_by_schema(&output_schema)?)
-    }
-
-    fn new_read_impl(
-        &self,
+    async fn new_read_impl<'a, F>(
+        &'a self,
         params: ReadBatchParams,
         batch_size: u32,
-        read_fn: impl Fn(&dyn GenericFileReader) -> Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
+        read_fn: F,
+    ) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream>
+    where
+        F: Fn(&'a dyn GenericFileReader) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<ReadBatchTaskStream>>,
+    {
         let total_num_rows = self.num_physical_rows as u32;
         // Note that the fragment length might be considerably smaller if there are deleted rows.
         // E.g. if a fragment has 100 rows but rows 0..10 are deleted we still need to make
         // sure it is valid to read / take 0..100
         if !params.valid_given_len(total_num_rows as usize) {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Invalid read params {} for fragment with {} addressable rows",
-                    params, total_num_rows
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid read params {} for fragment with {} addressable rows",
+                params, total_num_rows
+            )));
         }
         // If just the row id or address there is no need to actually read any data
         // and we don't need to involve the readers at all.
@@ -2349,13 +3639,29 @@ impl FragmentReader {
         //
         // We could potentially delete the support for no-columns in the wrap function or
         // we can delete this path once we migrate away from any support of v1.
-        let merged = if self.num_system_cols() == self.output_schema.fields.len() {
+        let system_columns_only = self.num_system_cols() == self.output_schema.fields.len();
+        let merged = if system_columns_only {
             let selected_rows = params.to_offsets_total(total_num_rows).len();
+            let empty_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::empty());
+            let full_batch = RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+                empty_schema.clone(),
+                Vec::new(),
+                &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(batch_size as usize)),
+            )?;
             let tasks = (0..selected_rows)
                 .step_by(batch_size as usize)
                 .map(move |offset| {
                     let num_rows = (batch_size as usize).min(selected_rows - offset);
-                    let batch = RecordBatch::from(StructArray::new_empty_fields(num_rows, None));
+                    let batch = if num_rows == batch_size as usize {
+                        full_batch.clone()
+                    } else {
+                        RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+                            empty_schema.clone(),
+                            Vec::new(),
+                            &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(num_rows)),
+                        )
+                        .expect("an empty schema accepts an explicit row count")
+                    };
                     ReadBatchTask {
                         task: std::future::ready(Ok(batch)).boxed(),
                         num_rows: num_rows as u32,
@@ -2366,25 +3672,29 @@ impl FragmentReader {
             // Read each data file, these reads should produce streams of equal sized
             // tasks.  In other words, if we get 3 tasks of 20 rows and then a task
             // of 10 rows from one data file we should get the same from the other.
-            let read_streams = self
-                .readers
-                .iter()
-                .filter_map(|reader| {
-                    // Normally we filter out empty readers in the open_readers method
-                    // However, we will keep the first empty reader to use for row id
-                    // purposes on some legacy paths and so we need to filter that out
-                    // here.
-                    if reader.projection().fields.is_empty() {
-                        None
-                    } else {
-                        Some(read_fn(reader.as_ref()))
-                    }
-                })
-                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            //
+            // We launch all readers' scheduling work concurrently — for v2 files
+            // this is where the decode scheduler's `initialize` I/O happens, so
+            // running them in parallel keeps the per-file scheduling I/Os from
+            // serializing.
+            let read_futs = self.readers.iter().filter_map(|reader| {
+                // Normally we filter out empty readers in the open_readers method
+                // However, we will keep the first empty reader to use for row id
+                // purposes on some legacy paths and so we need to filter that out
+                // here.
+                if reader.projection().fields.is_empty() {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(read_fn(reader.as_ref()))
+                }
+            });
+            let read_streams = futures::future::try_join_all(read_futs).await?;
             // Merge the streams, this merges the generated batches
             lance_table::utils::stream::merge_streams(read_streams)
         };
 
+        let merged = self.merge_overlays(merged, &params, total_num_rows).await?;
+
         // Add the row id column (if needed) and delete rows (if a deletion
         // vector is present).
         let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
@@ -2408,9 +3718,14 @@ impl FragmentReader {
                     let output_schema = output_schema.clone();
                     batch_fut
                         .map(move |batch| {
-                            batch?
-                                .project_by_schema(&output_schema)
-                                .map_err(Error::from)
+                            let batch = batch?;
+                            if system_columns_only
+                                && batch.schema().as_ref() == output_schema.as_ref()
+                            {
+                                Ok(batch)
+                            } else {
+                                batch.project_by_schema(&output_schema).map_err(Error::from)
+                            }
                         })
                         .boxed()
                 })
@@ -2434,16 +3749,14 @@ impl FragmentReader {
         start..end
     }
 
-    fn do_read_range(
+    async fn do_read_range(
         &self,
         mut range: Range<u32>,
         batch_size: u32,
         skip_deleted_rows: bool,
     ) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
-        if skip_deleted_rows {
-            if let Some(deletion_vector) = self.deletion_vec.as_ref() {
-                range = self.patch_range_for_deletions(range, deletion_vector.as_ref());
-            }
+        if skip_deleted_rows && let Some(deletion_vector) = self.deletion_vec.as_ref() {
+            range = self.patch_range_for_deletions(range, deletion_vector.as_ref());
         }
         self.new_read_impl(
             ReadBatchParams::Range(range.start as usize..range.end as usize),
@@ -2456,6 +3769,7 @@ impl FragmentReader {
                 )
             },
         )
+        .await
     }
 
     fn num_system_cols(&self) -> usize {
@@ -2469,28 +3783,48 @@ impl FragmentReader {
     ///
     /// This function interprets the request as the Xth to the Nth row of the fragment (after deletions)
     /// and will always return range.len().min(self.num_rows()) rows.
-    pub fn read_range(&self, range: Range<u32>, batch_size: u32) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
-        self.do_read_range(range, batch_size, true)
+    ///
+    /// This is async because it drives the per-data-file decode scheduler
+    /// `initialize` work before returning the stream — see
+    /// [`GenericFileReader`].
+    pub async fn read_range(
+        &self,
+        range: Range<u32>,
+        batch_size: u32,
+    ) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
+        self.do_read_range(range, batch_size, true).await
     }
 
     /// Takes a range of rows from the fragment
     ///
     /// Unlike [`Self::read_range`], this function will NOT skip deleted rows.  If rows are deleted they will
     /// be filtered or set to null.  This function may return less than range.len() rows as a result.
-    pub fn take_range(&self, range: Range<u32>, batch_size: u32) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
-        self.do_read_range(range, batch_size, false)
+    ///
+    /// This is async for the same reason as [`Self::read_range`].
+    pub async fn take_range(
+        &self,
+        range: Range<u32>,
+        batch_size: u32,
+    ) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
+        self.do_read_range(range, batch_size, false).await
     }
 
-    pub fn read_all(&self, batch_size: u32) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
+    /// Reads all rows from the fragment.
+    ///
+    /// This is async for the same reason as [`Self::read_range`].
+    pub async fn read_all(&self, batch_size: u32) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
         self.new_read_impl(ReadBatchParams::RangeFull, batch_size, move |reader| {
             reader.read_all_tasks(batch_size, reader.projection().clone())
         })
+        .await
     }
 
     // This method is a clone of new_read_impl but returns tasks instead of batches
     //
     // It also only supports v2 files
-    pub fn read_ranges(
+    ///
+    /// This is async for the same reason as [`Self::read_range`].
+    pub async fn read_ranges(
         &self,
         ranges: Arc<[Range<u64>]>,
         batch_size: u32,
@@ -2500,24 +3834,36 @@ impl FragmentReader {
         // Note that row ranges at this point are physical and not logical.
         for range in ranges.as_ref() {
             if range.end > total_num_rows as u64 {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Invalid read of range {:?} for fragment {} with {} addressable rows",
-                        range, self.fragment_id, total_num_rows
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Invalid read of range {:?} for fragment {} with {} addressable rows",
+                    range, self.fragment_id, total_num_rows
+                )));
             }
             num_requested_rows += range.end - range.start;
         }
 
-        let merged_stream = if self.num_system_cols() == self.output_schema.fields.len() {
+        let system_columns_only = self.num_system_cols() == self.output_schema.fields.len();
+        let merged_stream = if system_columns_only {
+            let empty_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::empty());
+            let full_batch = RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+                empty_schema.clone(),
+                Vec::new(),
+                &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(batch_size as usize)),
+            )?;
             let tasks = (0..num_requested_rows)
                 .step_by(batch_size as usize)
                 .map(move |offset| {
                     let num_rows = (batch_size as u64).min(num_requested_rows - offset);
-                    let batch =
-                        RecordBatch::from(StructArray::new_empty_fields(num_rows as usize, None));
+                    let batch = if num_rows == batch_size as u64 {
+                        full_batch.clone()
+                    } else {
+                        RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+                            empty_schema.clone(),
+                            Vec::new(),
+                            &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(num_rows as usize)),
+                        )
+                        .expect("an empty schema accepts an explicit row count")
+                    };
                     ReadBatchTask {
                         task: std::future::ready(Ok(batch)).boxed(),
                         num_rows: num_rows as u32,
@@ -2528,21 +3874,22 @@ impl FragmentReader {
             // Read each data file, these reads should produce streams of equal sized
             // tasks.  In other words, if we get 3 tasks of 20 rows and then a task
             // of 10 rows from one data file we should get the same from the other.
-            let read_streams = self
-                .readers
-                .iter()
-                .map(|reader| {
-                    reader.read_ranges_tasks(
-                        ranges.clone(),
-                        batch_size,
-                        reader.projection().clone(),
-                    )
-                })
-                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            //
+            // Run all readers' scheduling concurrently so the per-file
+            // `initialize` I/Os overlap.
+            let read_futs = self.readers.iter().map(|reader| {
+                reader.read_ranges_tasks(ranges.clone(), batch_size, reader.projection().clone())
+            });
+            let read_streams = futures::future::try_join_all(read_futs).await?;
             // Merge the streams, this merges the generated batches
             lance_table::utils::stream::merge_streams(read_streams)
         };
 
+        let params = ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges);
+        let merged_stream = self
+            .merge_overlays(merged_stream, &params, total_num_rows)
+            .await?;
+
         // Add the row id column (if needed) and delete rows (if a deletion
         // vector is present).
         let config = RowIdAndDeletesConfig {
@@ -2555,7 +3902,7 @@ impl FragmentReader {
             with_row_created_at_version: self.with_row_created_at_version,
             last_updated_at_sequence: self.last_updated_at_sequence.clone(),
             created_at_sequence: self.created_at_sequence.clone(),
-            params: ReadBatchParams::Ranges(ranges),
+            params,
             total_num_rows,
         };
         let output_schema = Arc::new(self.output_schema.clone());
@@ -2566,9 +3913,14 @@ impl FragmentReader {
                     let output_schema = output_schema.clone();
                     batch_fut
                         .map(move |batch| {
-                            batch?
-                                .project_by_schema(&output_schema)
-                                .map_err(Error::from)
+                            let batch = batch?;
+                            if system_columns_only
+                                && batch.schema().as_ref() == output_schema.as_ref()
+                            {
+                                Ok(batch)
+                            } else {
+                                batch.project_by_schema(&output_schema).map_err(Error::from)
+                            }
                         })
                         .boxed()
                 })
@@ -2576,176 +3928,1842 @@ impl FragmentReader {
         )
     }
 
-    // Legacy function that reads a range of data and concatenates the results
-    // into a single batch
-    //
-    // TODO: Move away from this by changing callers to support consuming a stream
-    pub async fn legacy_read_range_as_batch(&self, range: Range<usize>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let batches = self
-            .take_range(
-                range.start as u32..range.end as u32,
-                DEFAULT_BATCH_READ_SIZE,
-            )?
-            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await?;
-        concat_batches(&Arc::new(self.output_schema.clone()), batches.iter()).map_err(Error::from)
-    }
+    /// Reads a range and concatenates the result into one batch.
+    pub async fn read_range_as_batch(&self, range: Range<usize>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let batches = self
+            .take_range(
+                range.start as u32..range.end as u32,
+                DEFAULT_BATCH_READ_SIZE,
+            )
+            .await?
+            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        concat_batches(&Arc::new(self.output_schema.clone()), batches.iter()).map_err(Error::from)
+    }
+
+    /// Take rows from this fragment.
+    pub async fn take(
+        &self,
+        indices: &[u32],
+        batch_size: u32,
+        take_priority: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
+        let indices_arr = UInt32Array::from(indices.to_vec());
+        self.new_read_impl(
+            ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices_arr),
+            batch_size,
+            move |reader| {
+                reader.take_all_tasks(
+                    indices,
+                    batch_size,
+                    reader.projection().clone(),
+                    take_priority,
+                )
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Take rows from this fragment, will perform a copy if the underlying reader returns multiple
+    /// batches.  May return an error if the taken rows do not fit into a single batch.
+    ///
+    /// Duplicate indices are allowed and will produce duplicate rows in the output.
+    pub async fn take_as_batch(
+        &self,
+        indices: &[u32],
+        take_priority: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        // The v2 encoding layer requires strictly increasing indices. Deduplicate
+        // here so callers (e.g. FTS with duplicate row matches) don't need to.
+        let has_duplicates = indices.windows(2).any(|w| w[0] == w[1]);
+        let (unique_indices, expand_map) = if has_duplicates {
+            let mut unique: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+            let mut mapping: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+            for &idx in indices {
+                if unique.last() != Some(&idx) {
+                    unique.push(idx);
+                }
+                mapping.push((unique.len() - 1) as u32);
+            }
+            (Cow::Owned(unique), Some(UInt32Array::from(mapping)))
+        } else {
+            (Cow::Borrowed(indices), None)
+        };
+
+        let batches = self
+            .take(&unique_indices, u32::MAX, take_priority)
+            .await?
+            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        let mut batch = concat_batches(&Arc::new(self.output_schema.clone()), batches.iter())?;
+
+        if let Some(expand_map) = expand_map {
+            batch = arrow_select::take::take_record_batch(&batch, &expand_map)?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(batch)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use arrow_arith::numeric::mul;
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, BooleanArray, Int32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datagen::{RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+    use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+    use lance_io::{assert_io_eq, assert_io_lt, object_store::ObjectStore};
+    use pretty_assertions::assert_eq;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::{
+        dataset::{
+            CommitBuilder, InsertBuilder,
+            transaction::{Operation, Transaction, UpdateMode, UpdatedFragmentOffsets},
+        },
+        session::Session,
+        utils::test::TestDatasetGenerator,
+    };
+
+    async fn create_dataset(test_uri: &str, data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..10)
+            .map(|i| {
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20)),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                        )),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 40,
+            max_rows_per_group: 10,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn create_dataset_v2(test_uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..10)
+            .map(|i| {
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20))],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 40,
+            max_rows_per_group: 10,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// End-to-end tests for reading data overlay files (OSS-1324): overlays are
+    /// written, committed via the `DataOverlay` transaction, and then resolved on
+    /// the `take` and scan read paths.
+    mod overlay_read {
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        use arrow_array::{
+            Array, ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StructArray, UInt64Array,
+        };
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+        use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+        use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+        use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+        use lance_table::format::DataFile;
+        use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use object_store::path::Path;
+        use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+        use rstest::rstest;
+
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, Operation};
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteDestination, WriteParams};
+
+        fn bitmap(offsets: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>) -> RoaringBitmap {
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter(offsets)
+        }
+
+        fn i32_array(values: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<i32>>) -> ArrayRef {
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter(values))
+        }
+
+        /// Two-fragment Int32 dataset: `id` (field 0) = 0..12 and `val` (field 1)
+        /// = id * 10, written 6 rows per file (fragments 0 and 1).
+        ///
+        async fn create_base_dataset(version: LanceFileVersion) -> Dataset {
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("val", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..12)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..12).map(|v| v * 10))),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                max_rows_per_group: 6,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// Write an overlay file covering `fields` (dataset field ids) of
+        /// `fragment_id` with the given coverage and per-field value columns, then
+        /// commit it as a `DataOverlay` transaction. `name` makes the file unique.
+        #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+        async fn commit_overlay(
+            dataset: Dataset,
+            name: &str,
+            fragment_id: u64,
+            fields: &[i32],
+            coverage: OverlayCoverage,
+            columns: Vec<ArrayRef>,
+            version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) -> Dataset {
+            let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+            let overlay_schema = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(fields, true);
+
+            let filename = format!("{name}.lance");
+            // The manifest records the bare filename; only the physical write is
+            // data-dir qualified.
+            let path = dataset.data_dir().join(filename.as_str());
+            let obj_writer = dataset.object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+            let file_version = version.resolve();
+            let mut writer = lance_file::versions::create_writer(
+                file_version,
+                obj_writer,
+                overlay_schema,
+                FileWriterOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            for (column_index, array) in columns.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                writer.write_column(column_index, array).await.unwrap();
+            }
+            let summary = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+            let mut data_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(filename, file_version);
+            data_file.fields = writer
+                .field_id_to_column_indices()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(field_id, _)| *field_id as i32)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .into();
+            data_file.column_indices = writer
+                .field_id_to_column_indices()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(_, column_index)| *column_index as i32)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .into();
+            data_file.file_size_bytes = CachedFileSize::new(summary.size_bytes);
+
+            let overlay = DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file,
+                coverage,
+                committed_version: 0,
+            };
+            Dataset::commit(
+                WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+                Operation::DataOverlay {
+                    groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id,
+                        overlays: vec![overlay],
+                    }],
+                },
+                Some(read_version),
+                None,
+                None,
+                Arc::new(Default::default()),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// `collect_paths` feeds `deep_clone`'s copy loop, so an overlay data file
+        /// it omits is referenced by the clone's manifest but never copied. The
+        /// clone then fails to read the overlaid values.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn deep_clone_copies_overlay_files() {
+            use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir;
+
+            let version = LanceFileVersion::Stable;
+            let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let source_uri = test_dir.join("source").to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+            let clone_uri = test_dir.join("clone").to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("val", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..6).map(|v| v * 10))),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &source_uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                    max_rows_per_group: 6,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            // Overlay `val` on offsets 0 and 1 of fragment 0.
+            let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "overlay0",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(bitmap([0, 1]))),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(700), Some(701)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let source_version = dataset.version().version;
+            dataset
+                .tags()
+                .create("clone-me", source_version)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let cloned = dataset
+                .deep_clone(&clone_uri, "clone-me", None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let batch = cloned
+                .scan()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .expect("the clone must be readable, including its overlay files");
+            let val = col(&batch, "val");
+            assert_eq!(
+                val.values()[..2],
+                [700, 701],
+                "the clone must return the overlaid values, not the base ones"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Deep-cloning a shallow clone has to drop every `base_id`, since the
+        /// result owns its files. An overlay whose `base_id` survives points at a
+        /// base the new manifest no longer lists.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn deep_clone_of_shallow_clone_clears_overlay_base_id() {
+            use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir;
+
+            let version = LanceFileVersion::Stable;
+            let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+            let source_uri = test_dir.join("source").to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+            let shallow_uri = test_dir.join("shallow").to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+            let deep_uri = test_dir.join("deep").to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("val", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..6).map(|v| v * 10))),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &source_uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "overlay0",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::Shared(Arc::new(bitmap([0, 1]))),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(700), Some(701)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let source_version = dataset.version().version;
+            dataset.tags().create("v", source_version).await.unwrap();
+            let mut shallow = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(&shallow_uri, "v", None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // The shallow clone reaches the overlay through the parent.
+            assert!(
+                shallow.get_fragments()[0].metadata().overlays[0]
+                    .data_file
+                    .base_id
+                    .is_some(),
+                "the shallow clone must reference the parent's overlay by base_id"
+            );
+
+            let shallow_version = shallow.version().version;
+            shallow.tags().create("v", shallow_version).await.unwrap();
+            let deep = shallow.deep_clone(&deep_uri, "v", None).await.unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                deep.get_fragments()[0].metadata().overlays[0]
+                    .data_file
+                    .base_id,
+                None,
+                "a deep clone owns its files, so the overlay must carry no base_id"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                deep.manifest.base_paths.is_empty(),
+                "a deep clone lists no external bases"
+            );
+        }
+
+        fn full_schema(dataset: &Dataset) -> Schema {
+            dataset.schema().clone()
+        }
+
+        fn col(batch: &RecordBatch, name: &str) -> Int32Array {
+            let idx = batch.schema().index_of(name).unwrap();
+            batch
+                .column(idx)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .clone()
+        }
+
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_covered_and_uncovered(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            // Overlay fragment 0's `val` at physical offsets {1, 4}.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "ov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1, 4])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(111), Some(444)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag
+                .take(&[0, 1, 2, 4], &full_schema(&dataset))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Offsets 1 and 4 take overlay values; 0 and 2 fall through to base.
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &[0, 111, 20, 444]);
+            // The unrelated `id` column is untouched.
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "id").values(), &[0, 1, 2, 4]);
+        }
+
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_newest_overlay_wins(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "older",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1, 4])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(111), Some(444)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+            // A newer overlay (later commit -> higher committed_version) re-covers
+            // offset 1.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "newer",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1, 4], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            // Offset 1 -> newest overlay (999); offset 4 -> only older covers it.
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &[999, 444]);
+        }
+
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_per_field_coverage(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            // Sparse overlay: `id` covers {2}, `val` covers {2, 3} — different
+            // offset sets and therefore unequal-length value columns.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "sparse",
+                0,
+                &[0, 1],
+                OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![bitmap([2]), bitmap([2, 3])]),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(777)]), i32_array([Some(220), Some(330)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[2, 3], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            // id: offset 2 covered (777), offset 3 falls through (3).
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "id").values(), &[777, 3]);
+            // val: both offsets covered (220, 330).
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &[220, 330]);
+        }
+
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_null_override(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "nullov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([0])),
+                vec![i32_array([None])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[0, 1], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let val = col(&batch, "val");
+            // Offset 0 is covered with a NULL value -> resolves to NULL; offset 1
+            // falls through to the base value.
+            assert!(val.is_null(0));
+            assert_eq!(val.value(1), 10);
+        }
+
+        /// Overlays interact correctly with NULL *base* cells (distinct from a NULL
+        /// overlay value): a covered row whose base value is NULL is overridden to the
+        /// overlay's non-null value, while an uncovered NULL base cell falls through
+        /// and stays NULL.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_null_base_cell(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("val", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)),
+                    // `val` is NULL at offsets 1 and 3.
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter([
+                        Some(0),
+                        None,
+                        Some(20),
+                        None,
+                        Some(40),
+                        Some(50),
+                    ])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                max_rows_per_group: 6,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Cover offset 1 (NULL base) and offset 4 (non-null base); leave offset
+            // 3's NULL base uncovered.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "nullbase",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1, 4])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(111), Some(444)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1, 3, 4], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let val = col(&batch, "val");
+            // Offset 1: NULL base overridden to 111. Offset 3: uncovered NULL base
+            // stays NULL. Offset 4: non-null base overridden to 444.
+            assert_eq!(val.value(0), 111);
+            assert!(val.is_null(1));
+            assert_eq!(val.value(2), 444);
+        }
+
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_overlay_on_deleted_row_is_inert(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let mut dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            // Delete global row 1 (fragment 0, physical offset 1).
+            dataset.delete("id = 1").await.unwrap();
+            // Overlay covers the deleted offset 1 and the live offset 4.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "delov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1, 4])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(111), Some(444)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            // Scan fragment 0: row 1 is gone, and offset 4's overlay value survives
+            // even though the deletion shifts logical positions — coverage is keyed
+            // by physical offset.
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let mut scanner = frag.scan();
+            let batch = scanner
+                .project(&["id", "val"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "id").values(), &[0, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &[0, 20, 30, 444, 50]);
+        }
+
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_scan_multi_fragment_overlays(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            // Overlay fragment 0 at offset 0 and fragment 1 at offset 0 (global
+            // row 6). Each fragment's coverage is independent.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "frag0",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([0])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(1000)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "frag1",
+                1,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([0])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(6000)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let batch = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["id", "val"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 12);
+            let expected: Vec<i32> = (0..12)
+                .map(|i| match i {
+                    0 => 1000,
+                    6 => 6000,
+                    other => other * 10,
+                })
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &expected);
+        }
+
+        /// A `take` of a few rows must read only the overlay values those rows
+        /// touch — not the whole column. Uses v2.1 (which slices pages on read) and
+        /// an incompressible, all-covering overlay, so reading the full column would
+        /// be far more bytes than reading a couple of values. This is the regression
+        /// guard for the lazy, value-pushdown overlay read.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_reads_only_needed_overlay_values() {
+            let version = LanceFileVersion::V2_1;
+            const N: usize = 100_000;
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("val", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]));
+            let base = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..N as i32)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..N as i32).map(|v| v * 10))),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: N,
+                max_rows_per_group: N,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(base)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Overlay `val` over ALL N offsets with incompressible values, so the
+            // value column is ~N*4 bytes on disk.
+            let values: Vec<i32> = (0..N as u64)
+                .map(|i| {
+                    let mut x = i;
+                    x ^= x >> 33;
+                    x = x.wrapping_mul(0xff51_afd7_ed55_8ccd);
+                    x ^= x >> 33;
+                    x as i32
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "big",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap(0..N as u32)),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values.clone())) as ArrayRef],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let val_only = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(&[1], true);
+
+            // Measure only the reads that resolve the take.
+            dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[0, 1], &val_only).await.unwrap();
+            let io = dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+
+            // The overlay's `val` column alone is N*4 bytes; resolving two adjacent
+            // offsets must read only a small fraction of it.
+            let full_column_bytes = (N * std::mem::size_of::<i32>()) as u64;
+            assert!(
+                io.read_bytes > 0 && io.read_bytes < full_column_bytes / 4,
+                "take read {} bytes; expected far less than the {}-byte overlay \
+                 column (a take must not read the whole value column)",
+                io.read_bytes,
+                full_column_bytes,
+            );
+
+            // ...and it still resolves correctly.
+            let val = col(&batch, "val");
+            assert_eq!(val.value(0), values[0]);
+            assert_eq!(val.value(1), values[1]);
+        }
+
+        /// Row-selection pruning: an overlay whose coverage is disjoint from the
+        /// requested rows must not be opened at all. Proven by deleting the overlay's
+        /// data file — a `take` that misses its coverage still succeeds (the file is
+        /// never touched), while a `take` that hits it then fails because the file is
+        /// genuinely needed.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_prunes_overlays_outside_row_selection(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            // Overlay on fragment 0 (offsets 0..6) covering only offset_in_frag 5.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "miss",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([5])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(5000)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            // Delete the overlay's data file: opening it now fails.
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .delete(&Path::from("data/miss.lance"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let val_only = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(&[1], true);
+
+            // A take that misses the overlay's coverage must not open it, so it
+            // succeeds and returns base values (val = offset * 10).
+            let batch = frag.take(&[0, 1], &val_only).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &[0, 10]);
+
+            // A take that hits the coverage does need the file, so it now fails with
+            // a not-found error naming the missing overlay file.
+            let err = frag.take(&[5], &val_only).await.unwrap_err();
+            let message = format!("{err:?}");
+            assert!(
+                err.is_not_found() && message.contains("miss.lance"),
+                "take hitting the overlay's coverage should fail with a not-found error \
+                 for its missing file, got: {message}",
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// The overlay merge runs before `wrap_with_row_id_and_delete`, so the
+        /// `_rowid` system column must coexist with overlay-resolved data columns:
+        /// the row ids are unaffected by the merge and the overlay value still wins.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_scan_with_row_id_alongside_overlay(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "rowidov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([0])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(1000)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag
+                .scan()
+                .with_row_id()
+                .project(&["id", "val"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Overlay value resolves...
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values()[0], 1000);
+            assert_eq!(&col(&batch, "val").values()[1..], &[10, 20, 30, 40, 50]);
+            // ...and the row ids for fragment 0 are the untouched physical offsets.
+            let row_ids = batch
+                .column(batch.schema().index_of("_rowid").unwrap())
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(row_ids.values(), &[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
+        }
+
+        /// When the newest overlay covers every requested offset, an older overlay
+        /// in the same plan needs zero values and its value column must not be read
+        /// (the empty-input branch of `fetch_overlay_values`). The result still
+        /// resolves to the newest overlay.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_older_overlay_contributes_no_values(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            // Older covers {1, 4}; newer re-covers {1}. A take of only offset 1
+            // routes entirely to the newer overlay, leaving the older one with no
+            // values to fetch even though it is part of the field's plan.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "older",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1, 4])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(111), Some(444)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "newer",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &[999]);
+        }
+
+        /// A newest overlay whose value is NULL must shadow an older overlay's
+        /// non-null value at the same offset — the merge resolves to NULL, it does
+        /// not fall back to the older overlay.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_newest_null_shadows_older(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "older",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(111)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "newer_null",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1])),
+                vec![i32_array([None])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let val = col(&batch, "val");
+            assert!(val.is_null(0), "newest NULL must win over older 111");
+        }
+
+        /// Newest-wins is resolved independently per field across multiple sparse
+        /// overlays: for the same offset, `id` can resolve to one overlay while
+        /// `val` resolves to the other, depending on which overlay newly covers
+        /// that field at that offset.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_multi_sparse_per_field_newest_wins(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            // Older: id covers {3}, val covers {2}.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "older",
+                0,
+                &[0, 1],
+                OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![bitmap([3]), bitmap([2])]),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(7773)]), i32_array([Some(2772)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+            // Newer: id covers {2}, val covers {3} — the mirror image.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "newer",
+                0,
+                &[0, 1],
+                OverlayCoverage::sparse(vec![bitmap([2]), bitmap([3])]),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(9992)]), i32_array([Some(9993)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[2, 3], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            // id: offset 2 -> newer (9992), offset 3 -> older (7773).
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "id").values(), &[9992, 7773]);
+            // val: offset 2 -> older (2772), offset 3 -> newer (9993).
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &[2772, 9993]);
+        }
+
+        /// A fragment with an overlay plan, but a take that touches only uncovered
+        /// offsets, must fall entirely through to the base values (the
+        /// `!routing.any_overlay` early-return with a plan present).
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_plan_present_all_offsets_uncovered(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "ov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1, 4])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(111), Some(444)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            // None of {0, 2, 5} are covered: the plan exists but contributes nothing.
+            let batch = frag.take(&[0, 2, 5], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &[0, 20, 50]);
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "id").values(), &[0, 2, 5]);
+        }
+
+        /// A dataset-level `take` spanning multiple fragments, each with its own
+        /// overlay, routes every global row index to the right fragment's overlay.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_dataset_take_multi_fragment_overlays(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "frag0",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([0])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(1000)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "frag1",
+                1,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([0])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(6000)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            // Global rows 0 and 6 are the overlaid offset-0 rows of fragments 0 and
+            // 1; rows 1 and 7 fall through to base.
+            let batch = dataset
+                .take(&[0, 1, 6, 7], full_schema(&dataset))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "id").values(), &[0, 1, 6, 7]);
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "val").values(), &[1000, 10, 6000, 70]);
+        }
+
+        /// A scan whose read splits into multiple batches must slice
+        /// `offsets_in_frag` per batch correctly — the running `rows_seen`
+        /// accumulator in `merge_overlays` gives each batch its start. Every other
+        /// scan test uses single-batch fragments, so this is the only guard for the
+        /// cross-batch (`start > 0`) path.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_scan_multi_batch_overlay_slicing(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+            // One fragment of 10 rows so the read can be chunked below.
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("val", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..10).map(|v| v * 10))),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100,
+                max_rows_per_group: 100,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Overlay one offset in each batch that batch_size 4 produces (batches
+            // [0,4), [4,8), [8,10)): offsets 1, 5, 9 with distinct values. A wrong
+            // per-batch slice would misalign these.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "multibatch",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1, 5, 9])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(111), Some(555), Some(999)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let mut scanner = frag.scan();
+            scanner.batch_size(4).project(&["val"]).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Guard the guard: the read must actually span multiple batches, else
+            // this would not exercise the cross-batch slice at all.
+            assert!(
+                batches.len() > 1,
+                "expected a multi-batch scan, got {} batch(es)",
+                batches.len()
+            );
+
+            let merged =
+                arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+            let expected: Vec<i32> = (0..10)
+                .map(|i| match i {
+                    1 => 111,
+                    5 => 555,
+                    9 => 999,
+                    other => other * 10,
+                })
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(col(&merged, "val").values(), &expected);
+        }
+
+        /// An empty selection must not trip over the overlay path: the plan exists
+        /// but there are no offsets to route, so the result is an empty batch.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_take_empty_selection(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "ov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1, 4])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(111), Some(444)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
+        }
+
+        /// Overlays resolve variable-width columns end-to-end, not just fixed-width
+        /// ones: the value column is fetched through the real file reader (a
+        /// different value-pushdown path than the fixed-width case) and assembled.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_string_overlay_end_to_end(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            use arrow_array::StringArray;
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                max_rows_per_group: 6,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Overlay `name` at offsets {1, 4}, one of the values NULL.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "strov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([1, 4])),
+                vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("B"), None])) as ArrayRef],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[0, 1, 4], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let name = batch
+                .column(batch.schema().index_of("name").unwrap())
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(name.value(0), "a"); // falls through to base
+            assert_eq!(name.value(1), "B"); // overlay value
+            assert!(name.is_null(2)); // overlay NULL wins
+        }
+
+        /// Projection pruning must do NO IO to overlay files whose fields are not
+        /// projected. Proven the same way as row-selection pruning: delete the
+        /// overlay's data file, then read projecting only the *unrelated* `id`
+        /// column — it must succeed (the `val` overlay file is never opened), while
+        /// projecting the overlaid `val` column then fails because its file is gone.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_projection_prunes_overlay_files_no_io(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let dataset = create_base_dataset(version).await;
+            // Overlay covers `val` (field 1) only.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "valov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([0, 1])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(1000), Some(1010)])],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            // Delete the overlay's data file: opening it now fails.
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .delete(&Path::from("data/valov.lance"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let id_only = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(&[0], true);
+            let val_only = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(&[1], true);
+
+            // Projecting only `id` must not open the `val` overlay file, so it
+            // succeeds and returns untouched base values.
+            let batch = frag.take(&[0, 1], &id_only).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "id").values(), &[0, 1]);
+            // A scan projecting only `id` must likewise never touch the file.
+            let batch = frag
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(col(&batch, "id").values(), &[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
+
+            // Projecting the overlaid `val` column does need the file, so it fails
+            // with a not-found error naming the missing overlay file.
+            let err = frag.take(&[0], &val_only).await.unwrap_err();
+            let message = format!("{err:?}");
+            assert!(
+                err.is_not_found() && message.contains("valov.lance"),
+                "projecting the overlaid column should fail with a not-found error \
+                 for its missing file, got: {message}",
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A top-level struct column resolves through overlays: the overlay stores
+        /// the struct's leaf columns (under V2_1 those are the only ids in
+        /// `data_file.fields`), and `plan_overlays` maps them back to the top-level
+        /// struct so the whole value is fetched and replaced as a unit.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_struct_overlay_end_to_end(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]);
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("info", DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()), true),
+            ]));
+            let info = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                struct_fields.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..6).map(|v| v * 100))),
+                ],
+                None,
+            ));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)), info],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                max_rows_per_group: 6,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Overlay the whole `info` struct (top-level field id 1) at offset 2.
+            let overlay_info = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                struct_fields,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![777])),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![888])),
+                ],
+                None,
+            )) as ArrayRef;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "structov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([2])),
+                vec![overlay_info],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1, 2], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let info = batch
+                .column(batch.schema().index_of("info").unwrap())
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let x = info
+                .column(0)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let y = info
+                .column(1)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            // Offset 1 falls through to base {1, 100}; offset 2 takes the overlay.
+            assert_eq!(x.values(), &[1, 777]);
+            assert_eq!(y.values(), &[100, 888]);
+        }
+
+        /// A top-level list column resolves through overlays the same way — the
+        /// overlay's leaf (item) id maps back to the top-level list, and the whole
+        /// list value at a covered offset is replaced.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_list_overlay_end_to_end(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            use arrow_array::ListArray;
+            use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+
+            let item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true));
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("tags", DataType::List(item.clone()), true),
+            ]));
+            let base_tags = ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(
+                (0..6i32).map(|i| Some(vec![Some(i), Some(i * 10)])),
+            );
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)),
+                    Arc::new(base_tags),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                max_rows_per_group: 6,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Overlay `tags` (top-level field id 1) at offset 2 with a new list.
+            let overlay_tags =
+                ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(std::iter::once(Some(vec![
+                    Some(77),
+                    Some(88),
+                    Some(99),
+                ])));
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "listov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([2])),
+                vec![Arc::new(overlay_tags) as ArrayRef],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
 
-    /// Take rows from this fragment.
-    pub async fn take(
-        &self,
-        indices: &[u32],
-        batch_size: u32,
-        take_priority: Option<u32>,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchFutStream> {
-        let indices_arr = UInt32Array::from(indices.to_vec());
-        self.new_read_impl(
-            ReadBatchParams::Indices(indices_arr),
-            batch_size,
-            move |reader| {
-                reader.take_all_tasks(
-                    indices,
-                    batch_size,
-                    reader.projection().clone(),
-                    take_priority,
-                )
-            },
-        )
-    }
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1, 2], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let tags = batch
+                .column(batch.schema().index_of("tags").unwrap())
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<ListArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let row1 = tags.value(0);
+            let row1 = row1.as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+            let row2 = tags.value(1);
+            let row2 = row2.as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+            // Offset 1 falls through to base [1, 10]; offset 2 takes the overlay.
+            assert_eq!(row1.values(), &[1, 10]);
+            assert_eq!(row2.values(), &[77, 88, 99]);
+        }
 
-    /// Take rows from this fragment, will perform a copy if the underlying reader returns multiple
-    /// batches.  May return an error if the taken rows do not fit into a single batch.
-    ///
-    /// Duplicate indices are allowed and will produce duplicate rows in the output.
-    pub async fn take_as_batch(
-        &self,
-        indices: &[u32],
-        take_priority: Option<u32>,
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        // The v2 encoding layer requires strictly increasing indices. Deduplicate
-        // here so callers (e.g. FTS with duplicate row matches) don't need to.
-        let has_duplicates = indices.windows(2).any(|w| w[0] == w[1]);
-        let (unique_indices, expand_map) = if has_duplicates {
-            let mut unique: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
-            let mut mapping: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
-            for &idx in indices {
-                if unique.last() != Some(&idx) {
-                    unique.push(idx);
-                }
-                mapping.push((unique.len() - 1) as u32);
+        /// A top-level Map column resolves as a single atomic field even though its
+        /// value spans two leaves (key and value): both leaf ids map back to the one
+        /// Map atomic field, and the whole map value at a covered offset is replaced.
+        /// Maps require
+        /// the 2.2+ file format, so this runs only at V2_2 (unlike the V2_0/V2_1
+        /// parametrized tests).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_map_overlay_end_to_end() {
+            use arrow_array::MapArray;
+            use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, MapBuilder};
+
+            let version = LanceFileVersion::V2_2;
+
+            // Base row i holds the single entry {i: i * 10}.
+            let mut builder = MapBuilder::new(None, Int32Builder::new(), Int32Builder::new());
+            for i in 0..6i32 {
+                builder.keys().append_value(i);
+                builder.values().append_value(i * 10);
+                builder.append(true).unwrap();
             }
-            (Cow::Owned(unique), Some(UInt32Array::from(mapping)))
-        } else {
-            (Cow::Borrowed(indices), None)
-        };
+            let base_attrs = builder.finish();
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("attrs", base_attrs.data_type().clone(), true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)),
+                    Arc::new(base_attrs),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                max_rows_per_group: 6,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let batches = self
-            .take(&unique_indices, u32::MAX, take_priority)
-            .await?
-            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await?;
-        let mut batch = concat_batches(&Arc::new(self.output_schema.clone()), batches.iter())?;
+            // Overlay `attrs` (top-level field id 1) at offset 2 with a two-entry map.
+            let mut ov = MapBuilder::new(None, Int32Builder::new(), Int32Builder::new());
+            ov.keys().append_value(7);
+            ov.values().append_value(77);
+            ov.keys().append_value(8);
+            ov.values().append_value(88);
+            ov.append(true).unwrap();
+            let overlay_attrs = ov.finish();
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "mapov",
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([2])),
+                vec![Arc::new(overlay_attrs) as ArrayRef],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
 
-        if let Some(expand_map) = expand_map {
-            batch = arrow_select::take::take_record_batch(&batch, &expand_map)?;
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1, 2], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let attrs = batch
+                .column(batch.schema().index_of("attrs").unwrap())
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<MapArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let entries = |i: usize| -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
+                let row = attrs.value(i);
+                let keys = row.column(0).as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+                let vals = row.column(1).as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+                (keys.values().to_vec(), vals.values().to_vec())
+            };
+            // Offset 1 falls through to the base entry {1: 10}; offset 2 takes the
+            // overlay map {7: 77, 8: 88}.
+            assert_eq!(entries(0), (vec![1], vec![10]));
+            assert_eq!(entries(1), (vec![7, 8], vec![77, 88]));
         }
 
-        Ok(batch)
-    }
-}
+        /// Base `id` + a struct `s { a, b }` (6 rows). Field ids: s=1, a=2, b=3.
+        async fn create_struct_dataset(version: LanceFileVersion) -> (Dataset, Fields) {
+            let s_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]);
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(s_fields.clone()), true),
+            ]));
+            let s = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                s_fields.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..6).map(|v| v * 100))),
+                ],
+                None,
+            ));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)), s],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                max_rows_per_group: 6,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            (dataset, s_fields)
+        }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use arrow_arith::numeric::mul;
-    use arrow_array::{
-        ArrayRef, BooleanArray, Int32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
-    };
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, RowCount};
-    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-    use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
-    use lance_io::{assert_io_eq, assert_io_lt, object_store::ObjectStore};
-    use pretty_assertions::assert_eq;
-    use rstest::rstest;
+        fn struct_col<'a>(batch: &'a RecordBatch, name: &str) -> &'a StructArray {
+            batch
+                .column(batch.schema().index_of(name).unwrap())
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+        }
 
-    use super::*;
-    use crate::{
-        dataset::{
-            transaction::{Operation, UpdateMode},
-            InsertBuilder,
-        },
-        session::Session,
-        utils::test::TestDatasetGenerator,
-    };
+        fn i32_child(s: &StructArray, i: usize) -> Int32Array {
+            s.column(i)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .clone()
+        }
 
-    async fn create_dataset(test_uri: &str, data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion) -> Dataset {
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
-            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]));
+        /// The reviewer's core case (r3553495147): an overlay stores only sub-field
+        /// `s.a`, but the read projects the whole struct `s`. The overlay must splice
+        /// into `a` and leave `b` untouched (previously this panicked because the merge
+        /// fetched the whole `s` from an overlay file holding only `a`).
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_overlay_subfield_projecting_parent_struct(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let (dataset, _) = create_struct_dataset(version).await;
+            // Overlay ONLY `s.a` (field id 2) at offset 2.
+            let a_only = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+            let overlay = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                a_only,
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![777]))],
+                None,
+            )) as ArrayRef;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "aov",
+                0,
+                &[2],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([2])),
+                vec![overlay],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
 
-        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..10)
-            .map(|i| {
-                RecordBatch::try_new(
-                    schema.clone(),
-                    vec![
-                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20)),
-                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-                        )),
-                    ],
-                )
-                .unwrap()
-            })
-            .collect();
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1, 2], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let s = struct_col(&batch, "s");
+            // a: offset 1 base (1), offset 2 overlaid (777).
+            assert_eq!(i32_child(s, 0).values(), &[1, 777]);
+            // b: untouched base (100, 200).
+            assert_eq!(i32_child(s, 1).values(), &[100, 200]);
+        }
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 40,
-            max_rows_per_group: 10,
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        /// An overlay on a non-projected sibling leaf must be skipped and its file
+        /// never opened: overlay covers `s.b`, but the read projects only `s.a`.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_overlay_nonprojected_sibling_skipped(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let (dataset, _) = create_struct_dataset(version).await;
+            let b_only = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+            let overlay = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                b_only,
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![888]))],
+                None,
+            )) as ArrayRef;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "bov",
+                0,
+                &[3],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([2])),
+                vec![overlay],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+            // Delete the overlay file: if projecting only `s.a` opened it, this fails.
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .delete(&Path::from("data/bov.lance"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap()
-    }
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let a_only = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(&[2], true);
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1, 2], &a_only).await.unwrap();
+            let s = struct_col(&batch, "s");
+            // Only `a` is projected, unchanged base values.
+            assert_eq!(i32_child(s, 0).values(), &[1, 2]);
+        }
 
-    async fn create_dataset_v2(test_uri: &str) -> Dataset {
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "i",
-            DataType::Int32,
-            true,
-        )]));
+        /// Two overlays target different sub-fields of the same struct, and a third
+        /// re-overlays `s.a`. Each leaf resolves independently and newest wins on `a`.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_overlay_multiple_subfields_newest_wins(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let (dataset, _) = create_struct_dataset(version).await;
+            let a_field = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+            let b_field = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+            // Older: a := 700 at offset 2.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "a_old",
+                0,
+                &[2],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([2])),
+                vec![Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                    a_field.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![700]))],
+                    None,
+                )) as ArrayRef],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+            // b := 800 at offset 2.
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "b_ov",
+                0,
+                &[3],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([2])),
+                vec![Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                    b_field,
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![800]))],
+                    None,
+                )) as ArrayRef],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+            // Newest: a := 999 at offset 2 (shadows the older `a` overlay).
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "a_new",
+                0,
+                &[2],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([2])),
+                vec![Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                    a_field,
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![999]))],
+                    None,
+                )) as ArrayRef],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
 
-        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..10)
-            .map(|i| {
-                RecordBatch::try_new(
-                    schema.clone(),
-                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20))],
-                )
-                .unwrap()
-            })
-            .collect();
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[2], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let s = struct_col(&batch, "s");
+            assert_eq!(i32_child(s, 0).values(), &[999]); // newest `a` wins
+            assert_eq!(i32_child(s, 1).values(), &[800]); // `b` from its own overlay
+        }
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 40,
-            max_rows_per_group: 10,
-            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
-            .await
+        /// Three levels of nesting: `outer { middle { a, b } }`. An overlay on the
+        /// deep leaf `outer.middle.a` splices correctly when the whole `outer` is read.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_overlay_deeply_nested_subfield(
+            #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        ) {
+            let mid_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ]);
+            let outer_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "middle",
+                DataType::Struct(mid_fields.clone()),
+                true,
+            )]);
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("outer", DataType::Struct(outer_fields.clone()), true),
+            ]));
+            // Field ids: outer=1, middle=2, a=3, b=4.
+            let middle = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                mid_fields.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..6).map(|v| v * 100))),
+                ],
+                None,
+            ));
+            let outer = Arc::new(StructArray::new(outer_fields, vec![middle], None));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..6)), outer],
+            )
             .unwrap();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 6,
+                max_rows_per_group: 6,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap()
+            // Overlay the deep leaf `outer.middle.a` (field id 3) at offset 2.
+            let a_leaf = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+            let mid_a = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "middle",
+                DataType::Struct(a_leaf.clone()),
+                true,
+            )]);
+            let overlay = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                mid_a,
+                vec![Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                    a_leaf,
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![777]))],
+                    None,
+                ))],
+                None,
+            )) as ArrayRef;
+            let dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "deepov",
+                0,
+                &[3],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([2])),
+                vec![overlay],
+                version,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+            let batch = frag.take(&[1, 2], &full_schema(&dataset)).await.unwrap();
+            let outer = struct_col(&batch, "outer");
+            let middle = outer
+                .column(0)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            // a: offset 1 base (1), offset 2 overlaid (777); b untouched.
+            assert_eq!(i32_child(middle, 0).values(), &[1, 777]);
+            assert_eq!(i32_child(middle, 1).values(), &[100, 200]);
+
+            // Projecting the *intermediate* struct `outer.middle` (field id 2) while
+            // the overlay targets a deeper field (id 3) must still apply: the
+            // overlay's leaf id falls inside the projected subtree, so it maps to a
+            // projected atomic field. (This is the case wjones127/westonpace flagged where a
+            // top-level-only mapping would miss the overlay.)
+            let middle_only = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(&[2], true);
+            let batch = frag.take(&[2], &middle_only).await.unwrap();
+            let middle = struct_col(&batch, "outer")
+                .column(0)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(i32_child(middle, 0).values(), &[777]);
+        }
     }
 
     #[rstest]
@@ -2875,19 +5893,29 @@ mod tests {
             vec![Ok(update_batch1)].into_iter(),
             schema1,
         ));
-        let (updated_fragment1, fields_modified1) = fragment1
-            .update_columns(right_stream1, ROW_ID, ROW_ID)
+        let u1 = fragment1
+            .update_columns_with_offsets(right_stream1, ROW_ID, ROW_ID)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(u1.matched_offsets.iter().count(), 38);
+        assert!(!u1.matched_offsets.contains(0));
+        assert!(!u1.matched_offsets.contains(3));
+        assert!(u1.matched_offsets.contains(1));
+        assert!(u1.matched_offsets.contains(39));
+        let frag_id_1 = u1.fragment.id;
+        let matched_1 = u1.matched_offsets;
         let op1 = Operation::Update {
             removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
-            updated_fragments: vec![updated_fragment1],
+            updated_fragments: vec![u1.fragment],
             new_fragments: vec![],
-            fields_modified: fields_modified1,
-            merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+            fields_modified: u1.fields_modified,
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
             fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
             update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
             inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(HashMap::from([(
+                frag_id_1, matched_1,
+            )]))),
         };
         let mut dataset1 = Dataset::commit(
             test_uri,
@@ -2948,19 +5976,27 @@ mod tests {
             vec![Ok(update_batch2)].into_iter(),
             schema2,
         ));
-        let (updated_fragment2, fields_modified2) = fragment2
-            .update_columns(right_stream2, "i", "i1")
+        let u2 = fragment2
+            .update_columns_with_offsets(right_stream2, "i", "i1")
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(u2.matched_offsets.iter().count(), 38);
+        assert!(!u2.matched_offsets.contains(0));
+        assert!(!u2.matched_offsets.contains(3));
+        let frag_id_2 = u2.fragment.id;
+        let matched_2 = u2.matched_offsets;
         let op = Operation::Update {
             removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
-            updated_fragments: vec![updated_fragment2],
+            updated_fragments: vec![u2.fragment],
             new_fragments: vec![],
-            fields_modified: fields_modified2,
-            merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+            fields_modified: u2.fields_modified,
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
             fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
             update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
             inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(HashMap::from([(
+                frag_id_2, matched_2,
+            )]))),
         };
         let dataset2 = Dataset::commit(
             test_uri,
@@ -3024,6 +6060,7 @@ mod tests {
             for valid_range in [0..40, 20..40] {
                 reader
                     .take_range(valid_range, 100)
+                    .await
                     .unwrap()
                     .buffered(1)
                     .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
@@ -3031,7 +6068,7 @@ mod tests {
                     .unwrap();
             }
             for invalid_range in [0..41, 41..42] {
-                assert!(reader.take_range(invalid_range, 100).is_err());
+                assert!(reader.take_range(invalid_range, 100).await.is_err());
             }
         }
 
@@ -3047,6 +6084,7 @@ mod tests {
             for valid_range in [0..20, 0..10, 10..20] {
                 reader
                     .read_range(valid_range, 100)
+                    .await
                     .unwrap()
                     .buffered(1)
                     .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
@@ -3054,7 +6092,7 @@ mod tests {
                     .unwrap();
             }
             for invalid_range in [0..21, 21..22] {
-                assert!(reader.read_range(invalid_range, 100).is_err());
+                assert!(reader.read_range(invalid_range, 100).await.is_err());
             }
         }
     }
@@ -3085,6 +6123,7 @@ mod tests {
             for valid_range in [0..40, 20..40] {
                 reader
                     .take_range(valid_range, 100)
+                    .await
                     .unwrap()
                     .buffered(1)
                     .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
@@ -3092,7 +6131,7 @@ mod tests {
                     .unwrap();
             }
             for invalid_range in [0..41, 41..42] {
-                assert!(reader.take_range(invalid_range, 100).is_err());
+                assert!(reader.take_range(invalid_range, 100).await.is_err());
             }
         }
 
@@ -3110,6 +6149,7 @@ mod tests {
             for valid_range in [0..20, 0..10, 10..20] {
                 reader
                     .read_range(valid_range, 100)
+                    .await
                     .unwrap()
                     .buffered(1)
                     .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
@@ -3117,11 +6157,180 @@ mod tests {
                     .unwrap();
             }
             for invalid_range in [0..21, 21..22] {
-                assert!(reader.read_range(invalid_range, 100).is_err());
+                assert!(reader.read_range(invalid_range, 100).await.is_err());
             }
         }
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_mixed_payload_and_system_columns_preserve_schema_and_order() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..23)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..23).map(|value| format!("s-{value}")),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            max_rows_per_file: 23,
+            max_rows_per_group: 7,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            test_dir.as_ref(),
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let fragment = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+        let projection = fragment.schema().project(&["s", "i"]).unwrap();
+        let reader = fragment
+            .open(
+                &projection,
+                FragReadConfig::default()
+                    .with_row_id(true)
+                    .with_row_address(true)
+                    .with_row_last_updated_at_version(true)
+                    .with_row_created_at_version(true),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ranges: Arc<[Range<u64>]> = Arc::from([2..6, 10..13]);
+        let batches = reader
+            .read_ranges(ranges, 3)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .buffered(3)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>(), 7);
+        assert!(
+            batches
+                .windows(2)
+                .all(|pair| pair[0].schema().as_ref() == pair[1].schema().as_ref())
+        );
+        let expected_fields = [
+            "s",
+            "i",
+            ROW_ID,
+            ROW_ADDR,
+            lance_core::ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
+            lance_core::ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+        ];
+        assert_eq!(
+            batches[0]
+                .schema()
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| field.name().as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected_fields
+        );
+
+        let selected_offsets = [2_u64, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12];
+        let actual_row_ids = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values())
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let actual_row_addrs = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| batch[ROW_ADDR].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values())
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual_row_ids, selected_offsets);
+        assert_eq!(actual_row_addrs, selected_offsets);
+        for version_column in [
+            lance_core::ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
+            lance_core::ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+        ] {
+            assert!(batches.iter().all(|batch| {
+                batch[version_column]
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|version| *version == 1)
+            }));
+        }
+
+        let range_batches = reader
+            .read_range(1..8, 3)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .buffered(3)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            range_batches
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|batch| batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values())
+                .copied()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            (1..8).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(range_batches.last().unwrap().num_rows(), 1);
+
+        let empty_projection = fragment.schema().project::<&str>(&[]).unwrap();
+        let system_reader = fragment
+            .open(
+                &empty_projection,
+                FragReadConfig::default()
+                    .with_row_id(true)
+                    .with_row_address(true),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let system_batches = system_reader
+            .read_all(7)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .buffered(4)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            system_batches
+                .iter()
+                .map(RecordBatch::num_rows)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            [7, 7, 7, 2]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            system_batches
+                .windows(2)
+                .all(|pair| Arc::ptr_eq(&pair[0].schema(), &pair[1].schema()))
+        );
+
+        let system_ranges: Arc<[Range<u64>]> = Arc::from([2..6, 10..13]);
+        let system_range_batches = system_reader
+            .read_ranges(system_ranges, 3)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .buffered(3)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            system_range_batches
+                .windows(2)
+                .all(|pair| Arc::ptr_eq(&pair[0].schema(), &pair[1].schema()))
+        );
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_fragment_take_range_deletions(
@@ -3134,19 +6343,20 @@ mod tests {
         dataset.delete("i >= 0 and i < 15").await.unwrap();
 
         let fragment = &dataset.get_fragments()[0];
-        let mut reader = fragment
-            .open(
+        let read_config = FragReadConfig::default().with_row_id(true);
+
+        if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            let mut reader = crate::dataset::versions::open_v1_fragment_reader(
+                fragment,
                 dataset.schema(),
-                FragReadConfig::default().with_row_id(true),
+                &read_config,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        reader.with_make_deletions_null();
-
-        if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            reader.with_make_deletions_null();
             // The first batch is entirely deleted, deleted rows will be marked null with null row ids.
             let batch1 = reader
-                .legacy_read_batch_projected(0, .., dataset.schema())
+                .read_batch_projected(0, .., dataset.schema())
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
             assert_eq!(
@@ -3157,7 +6367,7 @@ mod tests {
             // The second batch is partially deleted, so the deleted rows will be
             // marked null with null row ids.
             let batch2 = reader
-                .legacy_read_batch_projected(1, .., dataset.schema())
+                .read_batch_projected(1, .., dataset.schema())
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
             assert_eq!(
@@ -3167,7 +6377,7 @@ mod tests {
 
             // The final batch is not deleted, so it will be returned as-is.
             let batch3 = reader
-                .legacy_read_batch_projected(2, .., dataset.schema())
+                .read_batch_projected(2, .., dataset.schema())
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
             assert_eq!(
@@ -3175,13 +6385,12 @@ mod tests {
                 &UInt64Array::from_iter_values(20..30)
             );
         } else {
+            let mut reader = fragment.open(dataset.schema(), read_config).await.unwrap();
+            reader.with_make_deletions_null();
             let to_batches = |range: Range<u32>| {
                 let batch_size = range.len() as u32;
-                reader
-                    .take_range(range, batch_size)
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .buffered(1)
-                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                let fut = reader.take_range(range, batch_size);
+                async move { fut.await.unwrap().buffered(1).try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await }
             };
 
             // Since the first batch is all deleted, it will return all nulls row ids.
@@ -3243,7 +6452,7 @@ mod tests {
             // Using batch_size=20 here.  If we use batch_size=range.len() we get
             // multiple batches because we might have to read from a larger range
             // to satisfy the request
-            let mut stream = reader.read_range(range, 20).unwrap();
+            let mut stream = reader.read_range(range, 20).await.unwrap();
             let mut batches = Vec::new();
             while let Some(next) = stream.next().await {
                 batches.push(next.await.unwrap());
@@ -3527,48 +6736,68 @@ mod tests {
                 assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 195);
             }
 
-            let fragment = &mut dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
-            let mut updater = fragment.updater(Some(&["i"]), None, None).await.unwrap();
             let new_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
                 "double_i",
                 DataType::Int32,
                 true,
             )]));
-            while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await.unwrap() {
-                let input_col = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-                let result_col = mul(input_col, &Int32Array::new_scalar(2)).unwrap();
-                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                    new_schema.clone(),
-                    vec![Arc::new(result_col) as ArrayRef],
-                )
-                .unwrap();
-                updater.update(batch).await.unwrap();
-            }
-            let new_fragment = updater.finish().await.unwrap();
+            // Merge keeps the fragment list intact, so every fragment gets the new
+            // column. Fragment 0 is the one carrying the deletions.
+            let fragment_ids = dataset
+                .manifest
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id as usize)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let mut merged_fragments = Vec::new();
+            for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+                let fragment = &mut dataset.get_fragment(fragment_id).unwrap();
+                let mut updater = fragment
+                    .updater(Some(&["i"]), None, None, None)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await.unwrap() {
+                    let input_col = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+                    let result_col = mul(input_col, &Int32Array::new_scalar(2)).unwrap();
+                    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                        new_schema.clone(),
+                        vec![Arc::new(result_col) as ArrayRef],
+                    )
+                    .unwrap();
+                    updater.update(batch).await.unwrap();
+                }
+                let new_fragment = updater.finish().await.unwrap();
 
-            assert_eq!(new_fragment.files.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(new_fragment.files.len(), 2);
+                merged_fragments.push(new_fragment);
+            }
 
             // Scan again
             let mut full_schema = dataset.schema().merge(new_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
             full_schema.set_field_id(None);
             let before_version = dataset.version().version;
 
-            let op = Operation::Overwrite {
-                fragments: vec![new_fragment],
+            let op = Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: merged_fragments,
                 schema: full_schema.clone(),
-                config_upsert_values: None,
-                initial_bases: None,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
             };
 
-            let dataset =
-                Dataset::commit(test_uri, op, None, None, None, Default::default(), false)
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
+            let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+                test_uri,
+                op,
+                Some(before_version),
+                None,
+                None,
+                Default::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            // We only kept the first fragment of 40 rows
             assert_eq!(
                 dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
-                if with_delete { 35 } else { 40 }
+                if with_delete { 195 } else { 200 }
             );
             assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, before_version + 1);
             dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
@@ -3610,6 +6839,82 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    /// A deletion vector naming a row the fragment does not have leaves the restorer
+    /// with rows it can never account for, so `Updater::next` has to refuse at the end
+    /// of the stream rather than let a data file short of those rows be written.
+    ///
+    /// `write_deletions` rejects an over-long vector, so the file is written directly
+    /// to get a fragment into this state.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_updater_rejects_deletion_vector_past_end_of_fragment() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = create_dataset(test_uri, LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+
+        // Point a fragment's deletion file at a row it does not have. 200 rows are
+        // spread over several 40-row fragments, so 10_000 is past the end of any of
+        // them. Pick a fragment whose id is not zero, so the assertion below cannot
+        // pass on a message that dropped the id entirely.
+        let deletion_vector: DeletionVector = [10_000].into_iter().collect();
+        let fragment_index = 1;
+        let fragment_id = dataset.manifest.fragments[fragment_index].id;
+        assert_ne!(fragment_id, 0, "need a non-zero fragment id");
+        let deletion_file = write_deletion_file(
+            &dataset.base,
+            fragment_id,
+            dataset.version().version,
+            &deletion_vector,
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut fragments = dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone();
+        fragments[fragment_index].deletion_file = deletion_file;
+        let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+        manifest.fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+        dataset.manifest = Arc::new(manifest);
+
+        let new_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "double_i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let fragment = dataset.get_fragment(fragment_id as usize).unwrap();
+        let mut updater = fragment
+            .updater(Some(&["i"]), None, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Every live row is handed back, so the loop only ends when next() gives up.
+        let err = loop {
+            match updater.next().await {
+                Ok(Some(batch)) => {
+                    let input_col = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+                    let result_col = mul(input_col, &Int32Array::new_scalar(2)).unwrap();
+                    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                        new_schema.clone(),
+                        vec![Arc::new(result_col) as ArrayRef],
+                    )
+                    .unwrap();
+                    updater.update(batch).await.unwrap();
+                }
+                Ok(None) => panic!("expected next() to refuse the unaccounted-for row"),
+                Err(err) => break err,
+            }
+        };
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("unaccounted for"),
+            "expected the stream-ended wording, got: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(&format!("fragment {fragment_id}")),
+            "message should name the fragment: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_merge_fragment(
@@ -3674,6 +6979,66 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_columns_field_ids_match_data_file() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = create_dataset(&test_dir, LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+        // The dropped column's id stays in the data files, so the manifest's
+        // max field id is larger than the schema's.
+        dataset.drop_columns(&["s"]).await.unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("double_i", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..200)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..400).step_by(2))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let mut merged_fragments = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        let mut merged_schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+        for mut frag in fragments {
+            let stream = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone());
+            let (new_frag, new_schema) = frag.merge_columns(stream, "i", "i").await.unwrap();
+            let new_field_id = new_schema.field("double_i").unwrap().id;
+            assert_eq!(new_field_id, dataset.manifest.max_field_id() + 1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                new_frag.files.last().unwrap().fields.as_ref(),
+                &[new_field_id]
+            );
+            merged_fragments.push(new_frag);
+            merged_schema = new_schema;
+        }
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+            &test_dir,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: merged_fragments,
+                schema: merged_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            Some(dataset.manifest.version),
+            None,
+            None,
+            Default::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let actual = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["i", "double_i"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, batch);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_write_batch_size() {
         // V1 ONLY
@@ -3719,11 +7084,12 @@ mod tests {
         .unwrap();
 
         let (object_store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let file_reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_with_fragment_id(
+        let file_reader = V1FileReader::try_new_with_fragment_id(
             &object_store,
             &base_path
-                .child("data")
-                .child(fragment.files[0].path.as_str()),
+                .clone()
+                .join("data")
+                .join(fragment.files[0].path.as_str()),
             schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
             10,
             0,
@@ -3781,7 +7147,7 @@ mod tests {
         let fragment = dataset.get_fragments().pop().unwrap();
 
         // Write batch_s using add_columns
-        let mut updater = fragment.updater(Some(&["i"]), None, None).await?;
+        let mut updater = fragment.updater(Some(&["i"]), None, None, None).await?;
         updater.next().await?;
         updater.update(batch_s.clone()).await?;
         let frag = updater.finish().await?;
@@ -3794,6 +7160,7 @@ mod tests {
             Operation::Merge {
                 schema,
                 fragments: vec![frag],
+                preserves_nullability: true,
             },
             Some(dataset.manifest.version),
             None,
@@ -3819,6 +7186,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let actual_data = reader
             .read_range(0..3, 3)
+            .await
             .unwrap()
             .next()
             .await
@@ -3868,7 +7236,7 @@ mod tests {
                 FragReadConfig::default().with_row_id(true),
             )
             .await?;
-        let batch = reader.legacy_read_range_as_batch(0..20).await?;
+        let batch = reader.read_range_as_batch(0..20).await?;
 
         let expected_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
             Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()])),
@@ -3888,8 +7256,17 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn create_from_file_v2() {
+    async fn create_from_file_v2(
+        #[values(
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_3
+        )]
+        file_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
@@ -3906,10 +7283,14 @@ mod tests {
 
         let new_data = make_gen().into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(128)).unwrap();
         let store = ObjectStore::local();
-        let file_path = dataset.data_dir().child("some_file.lance");
+        let file_path = dataset.data_dir().join("some_file.lance");
         let object_writer = store.create(&file_path).await.unwrap();
-        let mut file_writer =
-            lance_file::writer::FileWriter::new_lazy(object_writer, FileWriterOptions::default());
+        let mut file_writer = lance_file::versions::create_lazy_writer(
+            file_version.resolve(),
+            object_writer,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
         file_writer.write_batch(&new_data).await.unwrap();
         file_writer.finish().await.unwrap();
 
@@ -3921,23 +7302,18 @@ mod tests {
             Fragment::try_infer_version(std::slice::from_ref(&frag))
                 .unwrap()
                 .unwrap(),
-            LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve()
+            file_version.resolve()
         );
 
         let op = Operation::Append {
             fragments: vec![frag],
         };
-        let dataset = Dataset::commit(
-            &dataset.uri,
-            op,
-            Some(dataset.version().version),
-            None,
-            None,
-            Default::default(),
-            false,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new_from_version(dataset.version().version, op);
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_storage_format(file_version)
+            .execute(transaction)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(
             dataset
@@ -3948,6 +7324,158 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lazy_column_metadata_scan_reads_less_than_full_projection() {
+        let num_columns = 512;
+        let rows_per_batch = 100;
+        let num_batches = 10;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(
+            (0..num_columns)
+                .map(|i| ArrowField::new(format!("col_{i}"), DataType::Int32, true))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let batches = (0..num_batches)
+            .map(|batch_idx| {
+                let columns = (0..num_columns)
+                    .map(|column_idx| {
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..rows_per_batch).map(
+                            |row_idx| (batch_idx * rows_per_batch + row_idx) as i32 + column_idx,
+                        ))) as ArrayRef
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), columns).unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: rows_per_batch * num_batches,
+            max_rows_per_group: rows_per_batch,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &test_dir, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let projection = dataset.schema().project(&["col_0"]).unwrap();
+        let fragment = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        let narrow_reader = fragment
+            .open(&projection, FragReadConfig::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut empty_narrow_stream = narrow_reader.take_range(0..0, 1024).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(empty_narrow_stream.next().await.is_none());
+        let narrow_metadata_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(
+            narrow_metadata_stats.read_iops <= 3,
+            "expected lazy metadata open to skip the schema buffer read, iops={}, bytes={}",
+            narrow_metadata_stats.read_iops,
+            narrow_metadata_stats.read_bytes
+        );
+
+        let full_projection = dataset.schema().clone();
+        let full_reader = fragment
+            .open(&full_projection, FragReadConfig::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut empty_full_stream = full_reader.take_range(0..0, 1024).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(empty_full_stream.next().await.is_none());
+        let full_metadata_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+        assert!(
+            full_metadata_stats.read_bytes > narrow_metadata_stats.read_bytes * 4,
+            "expected narrow lazy metadata read to fetch much less than full metadata, narrow={} bytes, full={} bytes",
+            narrow_metadata_stats.read_bytes,
+            full_metadata_stats.read_bytes
+        );
+
+        let mut narrow_scan = dataset.scan();
+        let narrow_batch = narrow_scan
+            .project(&["col_0"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(narrow_batch.num_columns(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(narrow_batch.num_rows(), rows_per_batch * num_batches);
+
+        let taken = fragment.take(&[0, 777, 999], &projection).await.unwrap();
+        let taken_values = taken
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(taken_values.values(), &[0, 777, 999]);
+
+        let projected_readers = fragment
+            .open_readers(&projection, &FragReadConfig::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = projected_readers[0].storage_stats().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("storage_stats requires full file metadata"),
+            "expected storage_stats to reject projected metadata, got {err:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_indexed_metadata_heuristic_counts_selected_physical_columns() {
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "s",
+                DataType::Struct(
+                    vec![
+                        ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+                        ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
+                    ]
+                    .into(),
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]))
+        .unwrap();
+        let data_file = DataFile {
+            path: "wide.lance".to_string(),
+            fields: Arc::from([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]),
+            column_indices: Arc::from([-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]),
+            file_major_version: 2,
+            file_minor_version: 1,
+            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::unknown(),
+            base_id: None,
+        };
+
+        let full_struct = file_versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            &schema,
+            &["s"],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(full_struct.column_indices.len(), 2);
+        let valid_column_count = data_file
+            .column_indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|column_index| **column_index >= 0)
+            .count();
+        assert!(full_struct.column_indices.len().saturating_mul(4) >= valid_column_count);
+
+        let partial_struct = file_versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            &schema,
+            &["s.x"],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(partial_struct.column_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(partial_struct.column_indices.len().saturating_mul(4) < valid_column_count);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_iops_read_small() {
         // Create a file that has 8 columns.
@@ -3979,7 +7507,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Assert file is small (< 4300 bytes)
         {
-            let stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+            let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
             assert_io_eq!(stats, write_iops, 3);
             assert_io_lt!(stats, written_bytes, 4300);
         }
@@ -3994,6 +7522,7 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         let mut data = reader
             .read_all(1024)
+            .await
             .unwrap()
             .buffered(1)
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
@@ -4004,8 +7533,123 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), 1);
         assert_eq!(data.num_columns(), 7);
 
-        let stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
         assert_io_eq!(stats, read_iops, 1);
         assert_io_lt!(stats, read_bytes, 4096);
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_columns_with_json_extension_type() {
+        use arrow_array::{StringViewArray, UInt64Array};
+        use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+        use lance_arrow::json::ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME;
+        use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        // Create a dataset with an Arrow JSON extension column and a Utf8View
+        // column. Both are logical types that Lance stores in a different
+        // physical form (JSONB LargeBinary / Utf8), so the update path must
+        // convert the right-hand stream to match.
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut json_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        json_metadata.insert(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new("meta", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(json_metadata.clone()),
+            ArrowField::new("desc", DataType::Utf8View, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    r#"{"x":1}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":2}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":3}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":4}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":5}"#,
+                ])),
+                Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec!["d1", "d2", "d3", "d4", "d5"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_ref(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Build the right stream with an Arrow JSON column (Utf8 + arrow.json
+        // extension) and a Utf8View column. Only update rows with row_id 1 and 3.
+        let update_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+            ArrowField::new("meta", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(json_metadata),
+            ArrowField::new("desc", DataType::Utf8View, true),
+        ]));
+        let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            update_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    r#"{"updated":true,"id":2}"#,
+                    r#"{"updated":true,"id":4}"#,
+                ])),
+                Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec!["d2-new", "d4-new"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let right_stream: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(update_batch)],
+            update_schema,
+        ));
+
+        // Perform update_columns - this should NOT fail with a type mismatch.
+        // Previously the JSON column would error with:
+        //   "It is not possible to interleave arrays of different data types (Utf8 and LargeBinary)"
+        // and the view column would likewise mismatch (Utf8View vs stored Utf8).
+        let mut fragment = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+        let (updated_fragment, fields_modified) = fragment
+            .update_columns(right_stream, ROW_ID, ROW_ID)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the operation produced valid results
+        assert!(!fields_modified.is_empty());
+        assert!(!updated_fragment.files.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_base_schedulers_shares_one_per_base() {
+        let cache = BaseSchedulers::new(4 * 1024 * 1024);
+        let store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+
+        // Repeated resolutions of the same base reuse one scheduler, so opening
+        // many files from a base does not multiply scheduler budgets.
+        let first = cache.get_or_create(1, store.clone());
+        let second = cache.get_or_create(1, store.clone());
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &second),
+            "same base must reuse one scheduler"
+        );
+
+        // A different base gets its own scheduler.
+        let other = cache.get_or_create(2, store.clone());
+        assert!(
+            !Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &other),
+            "different bases must not share a scheduler"
+        );
+
+        // Clones of the cache (as threaded per fragment) share the same map.
+        let cloned = cache.clone();
+        let via_clone = cloned.get_or_create(1, store);
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &via_clone),
+            "cache clones must share the per-scan scheduler map"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cache.len(), 2);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment/session.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment/session.rs
index 9e2ca8378d3..77e4125bbc4 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment/session.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment/session.rs
@@ -2,11 +2,11 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use crate::dataset::fragment::{
-    resolve_actual_row_ids, FileFragment, FragReadConfig, FragmentReader,
+    FileFragment, FragReadConfig, FragmentReader, resolve_actual_row_ids,
 };
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use std::borrow::Cow;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
@@ -54,14 +54,27 @@ impl FragmentSession {
         };
 
         // Then call take rows
-        self.take_rows(&row_ids).await
+        let batch = self.take_rows(&row_ids).await?;
+
+        // Convert Lance JSON columns (LargeBinary/JSONB) back to Arrow JSON (Utf8)
+        // for user-facing output, mirroring FileFragment::take.
+        if batch
+            .schema()
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|f| lance_arrow::json::is_json_field(f) || lance_arrow::json::has_json_fields(f))
+        {
+            Ok(lance_arrow::json::convert_lance_json_to_arrow(&batch)?)
+        } else {
+            Ok(batch)
+        }
     }
 
     pub(crate) async fn take_rows(&self, row_offsets: &[u32]) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         if row_offsets.len() > 1 && FileFragment::row_ids_contiguous(row_offsets) {
             let range =
                 (row_offsets[0] as usize)..(row_offsets[row_offsets.len() - 1] as usize + 1);
-            self.reader.legacy_read_range_as_batch(range).await
+            self.reader.read_range_as_batch(range).await
         } else {
             self.reader.take_as_batch(row_offsets, None).await
         }
@@ -70,13 +83,13 @@ impl FragmentSession {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
     use crate::Dataset;
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
     use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, UInt64Array};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_core::ROW_ADDR;
-    use lance_encoding::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
     use rstest::rstest;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
@@ -204,6 +217,78 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fragment_session_take_json() {
+        use arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray;
+        use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+        use lance_arrow::json::{ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME, JsonArray, json_field};
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        // Build a schema with a Lance JSON column (LargeBinary + lance.json metadata).
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            json_field("j", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let json_strings = (0..10)
+            .map(|v| Some(format!("{{\"v\":{}}}", v)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let jsonb = JsonArray::try_from_iter(json_strings).unwrap().into_inner();
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10)),
+                Arc::new(jsonb),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragment = dataset.get_fragments().into_iter().next().unwrap();
+        let take_session = fragment
+            .open_session(dataset.schema(), false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = take_session.take(&[0, 3, 7]).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The JSON column must be returned as Arrow JSON (Utf8 + arrow.json), not raw JSONB.
+        let field = result.schema().field_with_name("j").unwrap().clone();
+        assert_eq!(field.data_type(), &DataType::Utf8);
+        assert_eq!(
+            field.metadata().get(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY).map(|s| s.as_str()),
+            Some(ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .column_by_name("j")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
+                .is_none(),
+            "JSON column should not be raw LargeBinary JSONB"
+        );
+        let json_col = result
+            .column_by_name("j")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .expect("JSON column should be Utf8 strings");
+        assert_eq!(json_col.value(0), "{\"v\":0}");
+        assert_eq!(json_col.value(1), "{\"v\":3}");
+        assert_eq!(json_col.value(2), "{\"v\":7}");
+    }
+
     async fn create_dataset(test_uri: &str, data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion) -> Dataset {
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
             ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment/write.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment/write.rs
index bc8f78871b4..443305c9d21 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment/write.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/fragment/write.rs
@@ -3,25 +3,29 @@
 
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use futures::StreamExt;
 use lance_core::Error;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_datafusion::chunker::{break_stream, chunk_stream};
 use lance_datafusion::utils::StreamingWriteSource;
-use lance_file::previous::writer::FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter;
+#[cfg(test)]
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+use lance_file::version::stable_file_version;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::writer::FileWriter as V1FileWriter;
+use lance_file::writer::{FileWriter, FileWriterOptions};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_io::traits::Writer;
 use lance_table::format::{DataFile, Fragment};
 use lance_table::io::manifest::ManifestDescribing;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::borrow::Cow;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
-use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
-use crate::dataset::write::do_write_fragments;
-use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams, DATA_DIR};
 use crate::Result;
+use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use crate::dataset::write::{
+    GenericWriter, V2WriterAdapter, validate_and_resolve_target_bases_with_primary,
+};
+use crate::dataset::{DATA_DIR, Dataset, ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams};
 
 /// Generates a filename optimized for S3 throughput using a UUID-based approach.
 ///
@@ -98,6 +102,12 @@ impl<'a> FragmentCreateBuilder<'a> {
         self
     }
 
+    pub(crate) fn file_writer_options(&self) -> FileWriterOptions {
+        self.write_params
+            .and_then(|params| params.file_writer_options.clone())
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
     /// Write a fragment.
     pub async fn write(
         &self,
@@ -105,7 +115,18 @@ impl<'a> FragmentCreateBuilder<'a> {
         id: Option<u64>,
     ) -> Result<Fragment> {
         let (stream, schema) = self.get_stream_and_schema(Box::new(source)).await?;
-        self.write_impl(stream, schema, id).await
+        let version = self
+            .write_params
+            .map(|params| params.storage_version_or_default())
+            .unwrap_or_else(stable_file_version);
+        crate::dataset::versions::write_fragment(
+            version,
+            self,
+            stream,
+            schema,
+            id.unwrap_or_default(),
+        )
+        .await
     }
 
     /// Write multi fragment which separated by max_rows_per_file.
@@ -117,12 +138,16 @@ impl<'a> FragmentCreateBuilder<'a> {
         self.write_fragments_v2_impl(stream, schema).await
     }
 
-    async fn write_v2_impl(
+    pub(crate) async fn write_current_impl<F>(
         &self,
+        create_writer: F,
         stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         schema: Schema,
         id: u64,
-    ) -> Result<Fragment> {
+    ) -> Result<Fragment>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(Box<dyn Writer>, Schema, String) -> Result<(FileWriter, DataFile)>,
+    {
         let params = self.write_params.map(Cow::Borrowed).unwrap_or_default();
         let progress = params.progress.as_ref();
 
@@ -137,53 +162,29 @@ impl<'a> FragmentCreateBuilder<'a> {
         let data_file_key = generate_random_filename();
         let filename = format!("{}.lance", data_file_key);
         let mut fragment = Fragment::new(id);
-        let full_path = base_path.child(DATA_DIR).child(filename.clone());
+        let full_path = base_path.clone().join(DATA_DIR).join(filename.clone());
         let obj_writer = object_store.create(&full_path).await?;
-        let mut writer = lance_file::writer::FileWriter::try_new(
-            obj_writer,
-            schema,
-            FileWriterOptions {
-                format_version: params.data_storage_version,
-                ..Default::default()
-            },
-        )?;
-
-        let (major, minor) = writer.version().to_numbers();
-
-        let data_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(filename, major, minor);
-        fragment.files.push(data_file);
+        let (writer, data_file) = create_writer(obj_writer, schema, filename)?;
+        fragment.files.push(data_file.clone());
 
         progress.begin(&fragment).await?;
 
+        let mut writer = V2WriterAdapter::new(writer, Some(data_file), None, None);
         let break_limit = (128 * 1024).min(params.max_rows_per_file);
 
-        let mut broken_stream = break_stream(stream, break_limit)
-            .map_ok(|batch| vec![batch])
-            .boxed();
-        while let Some(batched_chunk) = broken_stream.next().await {
-            let batch_chunk = batched_chunk?;
-            writer.write_batches(batch_chunk.iter()).await?;
+        let mut broken_stream = break_stream(stream, break_limit);
+        while let Some(batch) = broken_stream.next().await {
+            writer.write_batch(&batch?).await?;
         }
 
-        fragment.physical_rows = Some(writer.finish().await? as usize);
+        let (num_rows, data_file) = writer.finish().await?;
+        fragment.physical_rows = Some(num_rows as usize);
 
         if matches!(fragment.physical_rows, Some(0)) {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Input data was empty.", location!()));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Input data was empty."));
         }
 
-        let field_ids = writer
-            .field_id_to_column_indices()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|(field_id, _)| *field_id as i32)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let column_indices = writer
-            .field_id_to_column_indices()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|(_, column_index)| *column_index as i32)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        fragment.files[0].fields = field_ids;
-        fragment.files[0].column_indices = column_indices;
+        fragment.files[0] = data_file;
 
         progress.complete(&fragment).await?;
 
@@ -194,44 +195,64 @@ impl<'a> FragmentCreateBuilder<'a> {
         stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         schema: Schema,
     ) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
-        let params = self.write_params.map(Cow::Borrowed).unwrap_or_default();
+        let mut params = self.write_params.cloned().unwrap_or_default();
 
         Self::validate_schema(&schema, stream.schema().as_ref())?;
 
-        let version = params.data_storage_version.unwrap_or_default();
+        let version = params.storage_version_or_default();
+        let needs_existing_dataset = params.target_base_names_or_paths.is_some()
+            || params.target_bases.is_some()
+            || params.target_all_bases.is_some()
+            || params.initial_bases.is_some();
+        let existing_dataset = if needs_existing_dataset {
+            self.existing_dataset(&params).await?
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let existing_base_paths = existing_dataset
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|dataset| &dataset.manifest.base_paths);
         let (object_store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
             params.store_registry(),
             self.dataset_uri,
             &params.store_params.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
         )
         .await?;
-        do_write_fragments(
+        let target_bases_info = if needs_existing_dataset {
+            validate_and_resolve_target_bases_with_primary(
+                &mut params,
+                existing_base_paths,
+                &object_store,
+                &base_path,
+                self.dataset_uri,
+            )
+            .await?
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        crate::dataset::versions::write_fragments_direct(
+            version,
+            existing_dataset.as_ref(),
             object_store,
             &base_path,
             &schema,
             stream,
-            params.into_owned(),
-            version,
-            None, // Fragment creation doesn't use target_bases
+            params,
+            target_bases_info,
+            Vec::new(),
+            None,
+            None,
         )
         .await
     }
 
-    async fn write_impl(
+    pub(crate) async fn write_v1_impl(
         &self,
         stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         schema: Schema,
-        id: Option<u64>,
+        id: u64,
     ) -> Result<Fragment> {
-        let id = id.unwrap_or_default();
-
         let params = self.write_params.map(Cow::Borrowed).unwrap_or_default();
-
-        let storage_version = params.storage_version_or_default();
-
-        if storage_version != LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            return self.write_v2_impl(stream, schema, id).await;
-        }
         let progress = params.progress.as_ref();
 
         Self::validate_schema(&schema, stream.schema().as_ref())?;
@@ -244,8 +265,8 @@ impl<'a> FragmentCreateBuilder<'a> {
         .await?;
         let filename = format!("{}.lance", generate_random_filename());
         let mut fragment = Fragment::with_file_legacy(id, &filename, &schema, None);
-        let full_path = base_path.child(DATA_DIR).child(filename.clone());
-        let mut writer = PreviousFileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
+        let full_path = base_path.clone().join(DATA_DIR).join(filename.clone());
+        let mut writer = V1FileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
             &object_store,
             &full_path,
             schema,
@@ -262,10 +283,10 @@ impl<'a> FragmentCreateBuilder<'a> {
         }
 
         if writer.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Input data was empty.", location!()));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Input data was empty."));
         }
 
-        fragment.physical_rows = Some(writer.finish().await?);
+        fragment.physical_rows = Some(writer.finish().await?.num_rows as usize);
 
         progress.complete(&fragment).await?;
 
@@ -278,44 +299,53 @@ impl<'a> FragmentCreateBuilder<'a> {
     ) -> Result<(SendableRecordBatchStream, Schema)> {
         if let Some(schema) = self.schema {
             return Ok((source.into_stream(), schema.clone()));
-        } else if matches!(self.write_params.map(|p| p.mode), Some(WriteMode::Append)) {
-            if let Some(schema) = self.existing_dataset_schema().await? {
-                return Ok((source.into_stream(), schema));
-            }
+        } else if matches!(self.write_params.map(|p| p.mode), Some(WriteMode::Append))
+            && let Some(schema) = self.existing_dataset_schema().await?
+        {
+            return Ok((source.into_stream(), schema));
         }
         source.into_stream_and_schema().await
     }
 
     async fn existing_dataset_schema(&self) -> Result<Option<Schema>> {
-        let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(self.dataset_uri);
-        let accessor = self
-            .write_params
-            .and_then(|p| p.store_params.as_ref())
-            .and_then(|p| p.storage_options_accessor.clone());
-        if let Some(accessor) = accessor {
-            builder = builder.with_storage_options_accessor(accessor);
+        let params = self.write_params.map(Cow::Borrowed).unwrap_or_default();
+        match self.load_existing_dataset(&params).await {
+            // Use the schema from the dataset, because it has the correct
+            // field ids.
+            Ok(dataset) => Ok(Some(dataset.schema().clone())),
+            // If the dataset does not exist, we can use the schema from
+            // the reader.
+            Err(Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }) => Ok(None),
+            Err(e) => Err(e),
         }
-        match builder.load().await {
-            Ok(dataset) => {
-                // Use the schema from the dataset, because it has the correct
-                // field ids.
-                Ok(Some(dataset.schema().clone()))
-            }
-            Err(Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }) => {
-                // If the dataset does not exist, we can use the schema from
-                // the reader.
-                Ok(None)
-            }
+    }
+
+    async fn existing_dataset(&self, params: &WriteParams) -> Result<Option<Dataset>> {
+        match self.load_existing_dataset(params).await {
+            Ok(dataset) => Ok(Some(dataset)),
+            Err(Error::DatasetNotFound { .. } | Error::NotFound { .. }) => Ok(None),
             Err(e) => Err(e),
         }
     }
 
+    async fn load_existing_dataset(&self, params: &WriteParams) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(self.dataset_uri).with_read_params(ReadParams {
+            store_options: params.store_params.clone(),
+            commit_handler: params.commit_handler.clone(),
+            session: params.session.clone(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+        if let Some(base_store_params) = &params.base_store_params {
+            for (base_path, store_params) in base_store_params {
+                builder = builder.with_base_store_params(base_path, store_params.clone());
+            }
+        }
+        builder.load().await
+    }
+
     fn validate_schema(expected: &Schema, actual: &ArrowSchema) -> Result<()> {
         if actual.fields().is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Cannot write with an empty schema.",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Cannot write with an empty schema."));
         }
         let actual_lance = Schema::try_from(actual)?;
         actual_lance.check_compatible(expected, &Default::default())?;
@@ -329,14 +359,16 @@ mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     use arrow_array::{
-        Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, StringArray,
+        Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, StringArray, record_batch,
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField};
     use lance_arrow::SchemaExt;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempDir, TempStrDir};
+    use lance_table::format::BasePath;
     use rstest::rstest;
 
     use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::InsertBuilder;
 
     fn test_data() -> Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> {
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
@@ -367,7 +399,7 @@ mod tests {
             matches!(result.as_ref().unwrap_err(), Error::InvalidInput { source, .. }
             if source.to_string().contains("Cannot write with an empty schema.")),
             "{:?}",
-            &result
+            result
         );
 
         // Writing empty reader produces an error
@@ -381,7 +413,7 @@ mod tests {
             matches!(result.as_ref().unwrap_err(), Error::InvalidInput { source, .. }
             if source.to_string().contains("Input data was empty.")),
             "{:?}",
-            &result
+            result
         );
 
         // Writing with incorrect schema produces an error.
@@ -399,7 +431,7 @@ mod tests {
             matches!(result.as_ref().unwrap_err(), Error::SchemaMismatch { difference, .. }
             if difference.contains("fields did not match")),
             "{:?}",
-            &result
+            result
         );
     }
 
@@ -417,7 +449,7 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(fragment.id, 0);
         assert_eq!(fragment.deletion_file, None);
         assert_eq!(fragment.files.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].fields, vec![0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -440,8 +472,54 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(fragment.id, 42);
         assert_eq!(fragment.deletion_file, None);
         assert_eq!(fragment.files.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].fields, vec![3, 1]);
-        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].column_indices, vec![0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[3, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].column_indices.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fragment_create_with_session() {
+        let session = Arc::new(crate::session::Session::new(
+            0,
+            1024 * 1024,
+            Default::default(),
+        ));
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            session: Some(session.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        // Keep the dataset alive: the registry only holds weak references, so
+        // the in-memory store survives through the dataset's strong reference.
+        let initial_batch =
+            record_batch!(("a", Int64, [1, 2, 3]), ("b", Utf8, ["a", "b", "c"])).unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .with_params(&write_params)
+            .execute(vec![initial_batch])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Drop a column so the surviving field id is non-trivial (!= 0).
+        dataset.drop_columns(&["a"]).await.unwrap();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("b").unwrap().id;
+        assert_ne!(field_id, 0);
+
+        let append_batch = record_batch!(("b", Utf8, ["d", "e"])).unwrap();
+        let append_data =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(append_batch.clone())], append_batch.schema());
+
+        let append_params = WriteParams {
+            session: Some(session.clone()),
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let fragment = FragmentCreateBuilder::new(dataset.uri())
+            .write_params(&append_params)
+            .write(append_data, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[field_id]);
+        // The manifest load for schema inference went through the shared
+        // session's metadata cache.
+        assert!(session.metadata_cache_stats().await.num_entries > 0);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -458,7 +536,7 @@ mod tests {
             matches!(result.as_ref().unwrap_err(), Error::InvalidInput { source, .. }
             if source.to_string().contains("Cannot write with an empty schema.")),
             "{:?}",
-            &result
+            result
         );
 
         // Writing empty reader produces an error
@@ -485,7 +563,7 @@ mod tests {
             matches!(result.as_ref().unwrap_err(), Error::SchemaMismatch { difference, .. }
             if difference.contains("fields did not match")),
             "{:?}",
-            &result
+            result
         );
     }
 
@@ -503,7 +581,7 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(fragments[0].deletion_file, None);
         assert_eq!(fragments[0].files.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[0].fields, vec![0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -524,13 +602,91 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 3);
         assert_eq!(fragments[0].deletion_file, None);
         assert_eq!(fragments[0].files.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[0].column_indices, vec![0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[0].column_indices.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
         assert_eq!(fragments[1].deletion_file, None);
         assert_eq!(fragments[1].files.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(fragments[1].files[0].column_indices, vec![0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(fragments[1].files[0].column_indices.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
         assert_eq!(fragments[2].deletion_file, None);
         assert_eq!(fragments[2].files.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(fragments[2].files[0].column_indices, vec![0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(fragments[2].files[0].column_indices.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_fragments_with_target_base() {
+        let primary = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base1 = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base2 = TempStrDir::default();
+        let create_params = WriteParams::default()
+            .with_initial_bases(vec![
+                BasePath::new(0, base1.to_string(), Some("base1".to_string()), false),
+                BasePath::new(0, base2.to_string(), Some("base2".to_string()), false),
+            ])
+            .with_target_base_names_or_paths(vec!["base1".to_string()]);
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(primary.as_str())
+            .with_params(&create_params)
+            .execute_stream(test_data())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let append_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+        .with_target_base_names_or_paths(vec!["base2".to_string()]);
+        let fragments = FragmentCreateBuilder::new(dataset.uri.as_str())
+            .write_params(&append_params)
+            .write_fragments(test_data())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[0].base_id, Some(2));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_fragments_with_target_all_bases() {
+        let primary = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base1 = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base2 = TempStrDir::default();
+        let create_params = WriteParams::default().with_initial_bases(vec![
+            BasePath::new(0, base1.to_string(), Some("base1".to_string()), false),
+            BasePath::new(0, base2.to_string(), Some("base2".to_string()), false),
+        ]);
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(primary.as_str())
+            .with_params(&create_params)
+            .execute_stream(test_data())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Without primary, the first slot is the lowest registered base id.
+        let append_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+        .with_target_all_bases(false);
+        let fragments = FragmentCreateBuilder::new(dataset.uri.as_str())
+            .write_params(&append_params)
+            .write_fragments(test_data())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[0].base_id, Some(1));
+
+        // With primary included, the first slot is primary storage.
+        let append_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+        .with_target_all_bases(true);
+        let fragments = FragmentCreateBuilder::new(dataset.uri.as_str())
+            .write_params(&append_params)
+            .write_fragments(test_data())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[0].base_id, None);
     }
 
     #[rstest]
@@ -539,6 +695,7 @@ mod tests {
         #[values(
             LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
             LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
             LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
             LanceFileVersion::Stable
         )]
@@ -558,7 +715,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert!(!fragment.files.is_empty());
         fragment.files.iter().for_each(|f| {
-            let (major_version, minor_version) = file_version.to_numbers();
+            let (major_version, minor_version) = file_version.resolve().to_data_file_numbers();
             assert_eq!(f.file_major_version, major_version);
             assert_eq!(f.file_minor_version, minor_version);
         })
@@ -570,6 +727,7 @@ mod tests {
         #[values(
             LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
             LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
             LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
             LanceFileVersion::Stable
         )]
@@ -589,7 +747,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert!(!fragment.is_empty());
         fragment[0].files.iter().for_each(|f| {
-            let (major_version, minor_version) = file_version.to_numbers();
+            let (major_version, minor_version) = file_version.resolve().to_data_file_numbers();
             assert_eq!(f.file_major_version, major_version);
             assert_eq!(f.file_minor_version, minor_version);
         })
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/hash_joiner.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/hash_joiner.rs
index 7952c41d78f..9d41cdbd035 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/hash_joiner.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/hash_joiner.rs
@@ -7,14 +7,13 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result};
 use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
-use arrow_array::{new_null_array, Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader};
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader, new_null_array};
 use arrow_row::{OwnedRow, RowConverter, Rows, SortField};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType as ArrowDataType, SchemaRef};
 use arrow_select::interleave::interleave;
 use dashmap::{DashMap, ReadOnlyView};
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
-use snafu::location;
 use tokio::task;
 
 /// `HashJoiner` does hash join on two datasets.
@@ -51,10 +50,7 @@ impl HashJoiner {
         .await
         .unwrap()?;
         if batches.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "HashJoiner: No data".to_string(),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("HashJoiner: No data".to_string()));
         };
 
         let map = DashMap::new();
@@ -96,10 +92,7 @@ impl HashJoiner {
                     match task_result {
                         Ok(Ok(_)) => Ok(()),
                         Ok(Err(err)) => Err(err),
-                        Err(err) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!("HashJoiner: {}", err),
-                            location!(),
-                        )),
+                        Err(err) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("HashJoiner: {}", err))),
                     }
                 }
             })
@@ -137,14 +130,11 @@ impl HashJoiner {
         index_column: ArrayRef,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         if index_column.data_type() != &self.index_type {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Index column type mismatch: expected {}, got {}",
-                    self.index_type,
-                    index_column.data_type()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Index column type mismatch: expected {}, got {}",
+                self.index_type,
+                index_column.data_type()
+            )));
         }
 
         // Index to use for null values
@@ -176,24 +166,25 @@ impl HashJoiner {
                 }
                 arrays.push(Arc::new(new_null_array(arrays[0].data_type(), 1)));
 
+                let column_name = self.batches[0].schema().field(column_i).name().clone();
+
                 // Clone of indices we can send to a new thread
                 let indices = indices.clone();
 
                 async move {
                     let task_result = task::spawn_blocking(move || {
                         let array_refs = arrays.iter().map(|x| x.as_ref()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                        interleave(array_refs.as_ref(), indices.as_ref()).map_err(|err| {
-                            Error::invalid_input(format!("HashJoiner: {}", err), location!())
-                        })
+                        interleave(array_refs.as_ref(), indices.as_ref())
+                            .map_err(|err| Error::invalid_input(format!("HashJoiner: {}", err)))
                     })
                     .await;
                     match task_result {
                         Ok(Ok(array)) => {
-                            Self::check_lance_support_null(&array, dataset)?;
+                            Self::check_lance_support_null(&column_name, &array, dataset)?;
                             Ok(array)
                         }
                         Ok(Err(err)) => Err(err),
-                        Err(err) => Err(Error::io(format!("HashJoiner: {}", err), location!())),
+                        Err(err) => Err(Error::io(format!("HashJoiner: {}", err))),
                     }
                 }
             })
@@ -204,25 +195,17 @@ impl HashJoiner {
         Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(self.batches[0].schema(), columns)?)
     }
 
-    pub fn check_lance_support_null(array: &ArrayRef, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
-        if array.null_count() > 0 && !dataset.lance_supports_nulls(array.data_type()) {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Join produced null values for type: {:?}, but storing \
-                     nulls for this data type is not supported by the \
-                     dataset's current Lance file format version: {:?}. This \
-                     can be caused by an explicit null in the new data.",
-                    array.data_type(),
-                    dataset
-                        .manifest()
-                        .data_storage_format
-                        .lance_file_version()
-                        .unwrap()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
-        Ok(())
+    pub fn check_lance_support_null(
+        column_name: &str,
+        array: &ArrayRef,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        super::versions::validate_nulls(
+            dataset.manifest().data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            column_name,
+            array.data_type(),
+            array.null_count() > 0,
+        )
     }
 
     /// Collecting the data using the index column from left table,
@@ -236,14 +219,11 @@ impl HashJoiner {
         dataset: &Dataset,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         if index_column.data_type() != &self.index_type {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Index column type mismatch: expected {}, got {}",
-                    self.index_type,
-                    index_column.data_type()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Index column type mismatch: expected {}, got {}",
+                self.index_type,
+                index_column.data_type()
+            )));
         }
         // Index to use for fall back to left table values
         let left_batch_index = self.batches.len();
@@ -271,26 +251,23 @@ impl HashJoiner {
                     arrays.push(batch.column(column_i).clone());
                 }
                 arrays.push(left_batch.column(column_i).clone());
+                let column_name = self.batches[0].schema().field(column_i).name().clone();
                 // Clone of indices we can send to a new thread
                 let indices = indices.clone();
                 async move {
                     let task_result = task::spawn_blocking(move || {
                         let array_refs = arrays.iter().map(|x| x.as_ref()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                        interleave(array_refs.as_ref(), indices.as_ref()).map_err(|err| {
-                            Error::invalid_input(format!("HashJoiner: {}", err), location!())
-                        })
+                        interleave(array_refs.as_ref(), indices.as_ref())
+                            .map_err(|err| Error::invalid_input(format!("HashJoiner: {}", err)))
                     })
                     .await;
                     match task_result {
                         Ok(Ok(array)) => {
-                            Self::check_lance_support_null(&array, dataset)?;
+                            Self::check_lance_support_null(&column_name, &array, dataset)?;
                             Ok(array)
                         }
                         Ok(Err(err)) => Err(err),
-                        Err(err) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!("HashJoiner: {}", err),
-                            location!(),
-                        )),
+                        Err(err) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("HashJoiner: {}", err))),
                     }
                 }
             })
@@ -299,6 +276,16 @@ impl HashJoiner {
             .await?;
         Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(self.batches[0].schema(), columns)?)
     }
+
+    /// Returns `true` for each row where [collect_with_fallback] would take values from the
+    /// right-hand stream (hash hit); `false` where it falls back to the left batch row.
+    pub(super) fn matched_join_rows(&self, index_column: ArrayRef) -> Result<Vec<bool>> {
+        let rows = column_to_rows(index_column)?;
+        Ok(rows
+            .iter()
+            .map(|row| self.index_map.get(&row.owned()).is_some())
+            .collect())
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -318,6 +305,57 @@ mod tests {
         Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap()
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_null_validation_is_selected_by_exact_version() {
+        use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+
+        assert!(
+            super::super::versions::validate_nulls(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
+                "i",
+                &DataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            )
+            .is_err()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            super::super::versions::validate_nulls(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
+                "s",
+                &DataType::Utf8,
+                true,
+            )
+            .is_ok()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            super::super::versions::validate_nulls(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                "st",
+                &DataType::Struct(arrow_schema::Fields::empty()),
+                true,
+            )
+            .is_err()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            super::super::versions::validate_nulls(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+                "st",
+                &DataType::Struct(arrow_schema::Fields::empty()),
+                true,
+            )
+            .is_ok()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            super::super::versions::validate_nulls(
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
+                "i",
+                &DataType::Int32,
+                false,
+            )
+            .is_ok()
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_joiner_collect() {
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
@@ -377,6 +415,44 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(results.num_columns(), 1);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_matched_join_rows() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..2)
+            .map(|v| {
+                let values = (v * 10..v * 10 + 10).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter(values.iter().copied())),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                            values.iter().map(|val| format!("str_{}", val)),
+                        )),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            batches.into_iter().map(Ok),
+            schema,
+        ));
+        let joiner = HashJoiner::try_new(reader, "i").await.unwrap();
+
+        let index = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+            Some(5),  // present in first RHS batch
+            Some(15), // present in second RHS batch
+            Some(99), // absent from RHS
+            None,     // null join key — no RHS entry
+        ]));
+        let matched = joiner.matched_join_rows(index).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(matched, vec![true, true, false, false]);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_reject_invalid() {
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
@@ -405,9 +481,11 @@ mod tests {
         let indices = Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter(&[Some(15)]));
         let result = joiner.collect(&dataset, indices).await;
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Index column type mismatch: expected Int32, got UInt32"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Index column type mismatch: expected Int32, got UInt32")
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/index.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/index.rs
index 192a8b5ef74..bffb35d01a4 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/index.rs
@@ -3,50 +3,75 @@
 
 pub mod frag_reuse;
 
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
+use std::collections::HashSet;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use crate::dataset::optimize::remapping::RemapResult;
+use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::dataset::optimize::RemappedIndex;
+use crate::dataset::optimize::remapping::RemapResult;
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use crate::index::remap_index;
 use crate::index::scalar::infer_scalar_index_details;
-use crate::Dataset;
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_index::is_system_index;
+use lance_index::pb::VectorIndexDetails;
 use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
-use lance_table::format::pb::VectorIndexDetails;
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
 use super::optimize::{IndexRemapper, IndexRemapperOptions};
+use super::versions;
 
 #[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq, Eq)]
 pub struct DatasetIndexRemapperOptions {}
 
+/// Loads index metadata when compaction has at least one index to remap.
+///
+/// Returns all usable index metadata, including system indices, so the remapper
+/// uses a consistent snapshot. Returns `None` when there are no usable
+/// non-system indices.
+pub(crate) async fn load_indices_for_remapping(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+) -> Result<Option<Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>>> {
+    if dataset.manifest.index_section.is_none() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+    let has_remappable_index = indices.iter().any(|index| !is_system_index(index));
+    Ok(has_remappable_index.then_some(indices))
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
 impl IndexRemapperOptions for DatasetIndexRemapperOptions {
-    fn create_remapper(
-        &self,
-        dataset: &Dataset,
-    ) -> crate::Result<Box<dyn super::optimize::IndexRemapper>> {
-        Ok(Box::new(DatasetIndexRemapper {
+    async fn create_remapper(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn IndexRemapper>>> {
+        let Some(indices) = load_indices_for_remapping(dataset).await? else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        Ok(Some(Box::new(DatasetIndexRemapper {
             dataset: Arc::new(dataset.clone()),
-        }))
+            indices,
+        })))
     }
 }
 
 struct DatasetIndexRemapper {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    indices: Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
 }
 
 impl DatasetIndexRemapper {
     async fn remap_index(
         &self,
         index: &IndexMetadata,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: &RowAddrTranslator,
     ) -> Result<RemapResult> {
         remap_index(&self.dataset, &index.uuid, mapping).await
     }
@@ -56,14 +81,16 @@ impl DatasetIndexRemapper {
 impl IndexRemapper for DatasetIndexRemapper {
     async fn remap_indices(
         &self,
-        mapping: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: RowAddrRemap,
         affected_fragment_ids: &[u64],
     ) -> Result<Vec<RemappedIndex>> {
         let affected_frag_ids = HashSet::<u64>::from_iter(affected_fragment_ids.iter().copied());
-        let indices = self.dataset.load_indices().await?;
-        let mut remapped = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
-        for index in indices.iter() {
-            let needs_remapped = index.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME
+        // The compaction remap is fully materialized: one shared synchronous
+        // translator serves every index.
+        let mapping = RowAddrTranslator::sync(mapping);
+        let mut remapped = Vec::with_capacity(self.indices.len());
+        for index in self.indices.iter() {
+            let needs_remapped = !is_system_index(index)
                 && match &index.fragment_bitmap {
                     None => true,
                     Some(fragment_bitmap) => fragment_bitmap
@@ -71,26 +98,35 @@ impl IndexRemapper for DatasetIndexRemapper {
                         .any(|frag_idx| affected_frag_ids.contains(&(frag_idx as u64))),
                 };
             if needs_remapped {
-                let remap_result = self.remap_index(index, &mapping).await?;
+                // Box the remap future at the call site: inlining `remap_index` into this
+                // loop's async layout otherwise exceeds rustc's depth limit. It has to be
+                // boxed here, not inside `remap_index` — boxing internally turns the
+                // future's `Send` check into a `Box<Future>: Send` trait obligation that
+                // overflows the solver through the cache types (E0275 downstream).
+                let remap_result = Box::pin(self.remap_index(index, &mapping)).await?;
                 match remap_result {
                     RemapResult::Drop => continue,
                     RemapResult::Keep(id) => {
                         let index_details = match &index.index_details {
                             Some(index_details) => index_details.as_ref().clone(),
                             None => {
-                                // Migration path, if we didn't store details before then use the default
-                                // details.
-                                assert!(index.fields.len() == 1);
-                                let field = index.fields.first().unwrap();
+                                // Migration path, if we didn't store details before then use the
+                                // default details. This only supports a single keyed field, not a
+                                // composite index.
+                                let Some(field) = index.keyed_field() else {
+                                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                                        "Index {} has fields {:?} (carried fields {:?}); the \
+                                         legacy index-details migration path only supports a \
+                                         single keyed field",
+                                        index.uuid, index.fields, index.covering_fields
+                                    )));
+                                };
                                 let field =
-                                    self.dataset.schema().field_by_id(*field).ok_or_else(|| {
-                                        Error::Internal {
-                                            message: format!(
-                                                "Index {} references field {} which does not exist",
-                                                index.uuid, field
-                                            ),
-                                            location: location!(),
-                                        }
+                                    self.dataset.schema().field_by_id(field).ok_or_else(|| {
+                                        Error::internal(format!(
+                                            "Index {} references field {} which does not exist",
+                                            index.uuid, field
+                                        ))
                                     })?;
 
                                 if matches!(field.data_type(), DataType::FixedSizeList(..)) {
@@ -108,6 +144,7 @@ impl IndexRemapper for DatasetIndexRemapper {
                             new_id: id,
                             index_details,
                             index_version: index.index_version as u32,
+                            files: index.files.clone(),
                         });
                     }
                     RemapResult::Remapped(remapped_index) => {
@@ -120,38 +157,421 @@ impl IndexRemapper for DatasetIndexRemapper {
     }
 }
 
+#[async_trait]
 pub trait LanceIndexStoreExt {
     /// Create an index store for a new index (will always be absolute with no base id)
-    fn from_dataset_for_new(dataset: &Dataset, uuid: &str) -> Result<Self>
+    fn from_dataset_for_new(dataset: &Dataset, uuid: &Uuid) -> Result<Self>
     where
         Self: Sized;
 
     /// Open an index store for an existing index (might be relative or absolute)
-    fn from_dataset_for_existing(dataset: &Dataset, index: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<Self>
+    async fn from_dataset_for_existing(dataset: &Dataset, index: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<Self>
     where
         Self: Sized;
 }
 
+/// Select the exact file version used for index files in this dataset version.
+///
+/// Index files should never use the legacy format. If the dataset uses legacy
+/// format, V2_0 is selected explicitly by the dataset composition table.
+pub(crate) fn dataset_format_version(dataset: &Dataset) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+    versions::index_file_version(dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format())
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
 impl LanceIndexStoreExt for LanceIndexStore {
-    fn from_dataset_for_new(dataset: &Dataset, uuid: &str) -> Result<Self> {
-        let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid);
+    fn from_dataset_for_new(dataset: &Dataset, uuid: &Uuid) -> Result<Self> {
+        let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(uuid.to_string());
         let cache = dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&index_dir);
-        Ok(Self::new(
+        let format_version = dataset_format_version(dataset);
+        Ok(Self::with_format_version(
             dataset.object_store.clone(),
             index_dir,
             Arc::new(cache),
+            format_version,
         ))
     }
 
-    fn from_dataset_for_existing(dataset: &Dataset, index: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<Self> {
+    async fn from_dataset_for_existing(dataset: &Dataset, index: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<Self> {
         let index_dir = dataset
             .indice_files_dir(index)?
-            .child(index.uuid.to_string());
+            .join(index.uuid.to_string());
         let cache = dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&index_dir);
-        Ok(Self::new(
-            dataset.object_store.clone(),
-            index_dir,
-            Arc::new(cache),
-        ))
+        let format_version = dataset_format_version(dataset);
+        let object_store = dataset.object_store_for_index(index).await?;
+        let store =
+            Self::with_format_version(object_store, index_dir, Arc::new(cache), format_version);
+        Ok(store.with_file_sizes(index.file_size_map()))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+    use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::build_frag_reuse_index_metadata;
+    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+    use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, IntoIndexSegment};
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::{FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, FragReuseIndexDetails};
+    use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remapper_not_created_without_remappable_indices() {
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        let options = DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default();
+
+        assert!(options.create_remapper(&dataset).await.unwrap().is_none());
+
+        let frag_reuse_index = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            None,
+            FragReuseIndexDetails {
+                versions: Vec::new(),
+            },
+            Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![frag_reuse_index],
+                removed_indices: Vec::new(),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        assert!(options.create_remapper(&dataset).await.unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remapper_not_created_for_unknown_index_type() {
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let current = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let unknown = IndexMetadata {
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "type.googleapis.com/example.ForeignIndexDetails".to_string(),
+                value: Vec::new(),
+            })),
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            ..current[0].clone()
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![unknown],
+                removed_indices: current.to_vec(),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()
+                .create_remapper(&dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "compaction must not migrate an index type this build cannot open"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remapper_only_touches_segments_with_affected_fragments() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(16.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(40), BatchCount::from(2));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 20,
+                max_rows_per_group: 20,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(
+            fragments.len() >= 2,
+            "expected at least two fragments for this test"
+        );
+        let target_fragments = fragments.iter().take(2).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+        let first_segment_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let second_segment_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let built_index = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+            .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+            .index_uuid(first_segment_uuid)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let first_segment_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(first_segment_uuid.to_string());
+        let second_segment_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(second_segment_uuid.to_string());
+        for file_name in ["index.idx", "auxiliary.idx"] {
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .as_ref()
+                .copy(
+                    &first_segment_dir.clone().join(file_name),
+                    &second_segment_dir.clone().join(file_name),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let segments = [
+            IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: first_segment_uuid,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(std::iter::once(target_fragments[0].id() as u32).collect()),
+                ..built_index.clone()
+            },
+            IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: second_segment_uuid,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(std::iter::once(target_fragments[1].id() as u32).collect()),
+                ..built_index
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let segments = segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| {
+                segment
+                    .clone()
+                    .into_index_segment()
+                    .expect("test segment metadata should convert to an index segment")
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let committed_ids = committed
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let unaffected_segment_id = committed
+            .iter()
+            .find(|segment| {
+                segment
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|bitmap| bitmap.contains(target_fragments[1].id() as u32))
+            })
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .expect("expected one committed segment to cover the unaffected fragment");
+
+        let remapper = DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()
+            .create_remapper(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("vector index should require a remapper");
+        let remapped = remapper
+            .remap_indices(RowAddrRemap::empty(), &[target_fragments[0].id() as u64])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(remapped.len(), 1);
+        assert!(committed_ids.contains(&remapped[0].old_id));
+        assert_ne!(remapped[0].old_id, unaffected_segment_id);
+        assert_ne!(remapped[0].new_id, unaffected_segment_id);
+    }
+
+    /// A covered index must be withdrawn from remapping rather than remapped.
+    /// No index type carries the declared payload through a remap, so a
+    /// replacement would republish a covering claim its storage does not back.
+    /// Withdrawal also means the legacy `index_details: None` migration path is
+    /// never reached for such an index, so it cannot panic there either.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remapper_migration_path_withdraws_covered_index() {
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col("b", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["a"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let a_id = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap().id;
+        let b_id = dataset.schema().field("b").unwrap().id;
+        let current = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let mut legacy_covered = current[0].clone();
+        legacy_covered.fields = vec![a_id, b_id];
+        legacy_covered.covering_fields = vec![b_id];
+        // Force the legacy migration path this fix touches.
+        legacy_covered.index_details = None;
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![legacy_covered],
+                removed_indices: current.to_vec(),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_uuid = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].uuid;
+
+        // Fully delete every row so `remap_index` returns `RemapResult::Keep`,
+        // landing in the `index_details: None` migration branch this fix touches.
+        let remap_to_empty = (0..dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap())
+            .map(|i| (i as u64, None))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let remapper = DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()
+            .create_remapper(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("a real index should require a remapper");
+        let remapped = remapper
+            .remap_indices(RowAddrRemap::direct(remap_to_empty), &[0])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Withdrawn, not remapped: no index type carries the declared payload
+        // through a remap, so producing a replacement would republish a covering
+        // claim its storage does not back. The original entry stays in the
+        // manifest and simply stops covering the rewritten fragments.
+        assert!(
+            remapped.is_empty(),
+            "a covered index must be withdrawn from remapping, got {remapped:?}"
+        );
+        let _ = index_uuid;
+    }
+
+    /// The same migration path must reject -- cleanly, not with a panic -- a
+    /// malformed `covering_fields` longer than `fields`.
+    ///
+    /// Note this is a genuinely synthetic scenario, not one a real commit can
+    /// produce: `crate::index::remap_index`'s own `keyed > 1` guard (a sibling
+    /// fix in this same phase) already rejects every organically-committable
+    /// composite index *before* this migration path ever runs, since it is
+    /// only reached from that function's `RemapResult::Keep` arm. And
+    /// `validate_covering_fields` rejects a fully-consumed `covering_fields`
+    /// (`keyed == 0` with non-empty `fields`) at `Operation::CreateIndex`
+    /// commit time, and `TryFrom<pb::IndexMetadata>` rejects it again when a
+    /// manifest is decoded. The only way left to reach this branch's rejection
+    /// is metadata that passed through neither, which is how this test reaches
+    /// it: seeding the index cache directly rather than committing through a
+    /// `Transaction`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remapper_migration_path_rejects_malformed_covering_fields() {
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["a"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_uuid = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].uuid;
+        let mut indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+        for idx in &mut indices {
+            if idx.uuid == index_uuid {
+                // Force the legacy migration path, and malform `covering_fields`
+                // to be longer than `fields` -- more carried fields than fields
+                // at all. No normal commit can produce this.
+                idx.index_details = None;
+                idx.covering_fields = idx
+                    .fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .chain(std::iter::once(999))
+                    .collect();
+            }
+        }
+        let metadata_key = crate::session::index_caches::IndexMetadataKey {
+            version: dataset.version().version,
+            store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+            e_tag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+        };
+        dataset
+            .index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&metadata_key, Arc::new(indices))
+            .await;
+
+        let remap_to_empty = (0..dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap())
+            .map(|i| (i as u64, None))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let remapper = DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()
+            .create_remapper(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("a real index should require a remapper");
+        let error = remapper
+            .remap_indices(RowAddrRemap::direct(remap_to_empty), &[0])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("are not among its fields"),
+            "malformed covering must fail closed via the validator, not be \
+             withdrawn as an ordinary covered index; got: {error}"
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/index/frag_reuse.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/index/frag_reuse.rs
index 80f1281a297..a6fe30ff4a0 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/index/frag_reuse.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/index/frag_reuse.rs
@@ -1,31 +1,122 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-use crate::index::frag_reuse::{build_frag_reuse_index_metadata, load_frag_reuse_index_details};
+use std::collections::{HashMap, VecDeque};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
 use crate::Dataset;
-use lance_core::Error;
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME};
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction, TransactionBuilder};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+use crate::index::frag_reuse::{
+    build_frag_reuse_index_metadata, build_tagged_frag_reuse_entry,
+    decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content, load_frag_reuse_index_details,
+    load_raw_frag_reuse_content,
+};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::{
+    CompactFragReuseIndex, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion,
+};
 use lance_index::is_system_index;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details as pb_fri;
 use lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes;
 use log::warn;
+use prost::Message;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
+
+impl Dataset {
+    /// Opens the fragment reuse index (FRI) recorded in the dataset version this
+    /// handle has loaded, or `None` if that version has none. The index is served
+    /// from the session index cache, so repeated calls do not re-read it.
+    ///
+    /// The FRI records how physical row addresses moved in compactions run with
+    /// [`CompactionOptions::defer_index_remap`]: one reuse version per compaction,
+    /// applied oldest to newest. [`CompactFragReuseIndex::row_addr_remap`] gives
+    /// the raw per-address result:
+    ///
+    /// * `None`: not mapped by any retained version. Helpers such as
+    ///   [`CompactFragReuseIndex::remap_row_id`] return these unchanged.
+    /// * `Some(None)`: deleted by a recorded compaction.
+    /// * `Some(Some(addr))`: the last address reached through the retained
+    ///   mappings, not a validated current location.
+    ///
+    /// # Limitations
+    ///
+    /// * Covers only the loaded version; check out a newer version to observe
+    ///   later compactions.
+    /// * Versions are trimmed by [`cleanup_frag_reuse_index`] once indices catch
+    ///   up, so an unmapped address may still have moved.
+    /// * Mapped destinations are not checked against the manifest and can be
+    ///   stale, for example after every row of the destination fragment is deleted.
+    /// * Not every compaction records an FRI: it requires `defer_index_remap`,
+    ///   fresh index-free tables do not receive one automatically, and datasets
+    ///   with stable row ids reject the option.
+    /// * Says nothing about deletion files, source-value changes, or whether an
+    ///   address belongs to this table or branch.
+    ///
+    /// Prefer the remap methods over [`CompactFragReuseIndex::details`], which
+    /// mirrors the persisted format and is not a long-term client contract.
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```no_run
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: &lance::Dataset) -> lance::Result<()> {
+    /// let old_row_addr: u64 = 42;
+    /// if let Some(frag_reuse_index) = dataset.frag_reuse_index().await? {
+    ///     match frag_reuse_index.row_addr_remap().get(old_row_addr) {
+    ///         None => println!("no recorded movement for {old_row_addr}"),
+    ///         Some(None) => println!("row {old_row_addr} was deleted by compaction"),
+    ///         Some(Some(new_row_addr)) => println!("row moved to {new_row_addr}"),
+    ///     }
+    /// }
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// [`CompactionOptions::defer_index_remap`]: crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions::defer_index_remap
+    pub async fn frag_reuse_index(&self) -> Result<Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>> {
+        self.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await
+    }
+}
 
 /// Cleanup a fragment reuse index based on the current condition of the indices.
 /// If all the indices currently available are already caught up to as a specific reuse version,
 /// all older reuse versions (inclusive) can be cleaned up.
 ///
-/// An index is considered caught up against a specific reuse version if
-/// 1. the index is created after or at the same dataset version as the reuse version
-/// 2. there is no old fragment in the version that is covered by the index and can be remapped.
-///    If an index's fragment bitmap is missing, we will consider it as caught up.
-///    Otherwise, we will never be able to clean up the reuse version.
+/// An index is considered caught up against a specific reuse version if either:
+/// 1. its coverage is disjoint from the fragments the reuse chain touches, so it
+///    holds nothing the FRI would remap (the common multi-index case: a
+///    compaction rewrote a sibling index's fragments, not this one); or
+/// 2. it is past the reuse version's dataset version and no old fragment in the
+///    version is still in its bitmap. A missing bitmap counts as caught up, else
+///    the version could never be cleaned up.
 ///
 /// Note that there could be a race condition that an index is being added during the cleanup,
 /// This will make that specific index not efficient until the next reindex,
 /// but it will not cause any correctness problem.
+///
+/// Typically run after [`compact_files`] with deferred remap and per-index
+/// [`remap_column_index`] have caught the indexes up.
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns [`Error::RetryableCommitConflict`] if the fragment reuse index changed
+/// after `dataset`'s version; reload the latest version and run it again.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```no_run
+/// # use lance::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index;
+/// # async fn example(dataset: &mut lance::Dataset) -> lance::Result<()> {
+/// // Trim the fragment-reuse index to the versions still needed by some index.
+/// cleanup_frag_reuse_index(dataset).await?;
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+///
+/// [`compact_files`]: crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files
+/// [`remap_column_index`]: crate::dataset::optimize::remapping::remap_column_index
 pub async fn cleanup_frag_reuse_index(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
     // check against index metadata before auto-remap
     let indices = read_manifest_indexes(
@@ -39,16 +130,22 @@ pub async fn cleanup_frag_reuse_index(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> lance_core::Resu
         return Ok(());
     };
 
-    let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, frag_reuse_index_meta)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+    // Hard fork by index_version: tagged histories trim per transition in
+    // fresh code below, while the v0 path stays exactly as it was.
+    if frag_reuse_index_meta.index_version != 0 {
+        return cleanup_tagged_frag_reuse_index(dataset).await;
+    }
+
+    let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, frag_reuse_index_meta).await?;
+
+    let chain_frag_bitmap = reuse_chain_frag_bitmap(&frag_reuse_details.versions);
 
     let mut retained_versions = Vec::new();
     let mut fragment_bitmaps = RoaringBitmap::new();
     for version in frag_reuse_details.versions.iter() {
         let check_results = indices
             .iter()
-            .map(|idx| is_index_remap_caught_up(version, idx))
+            .map(|idx| is_index_remap_caught_up(version, idx, &chain_frag_bitmap))
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
         if check_results
@@ -98,15 +195,40 @@ pub async fn cleanup_frag_reuse_index(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> lance_core::Resu
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Every fragment the reuse chain touches (old + new) across all versions. An
+/// index disjoint from this set holds no row address the FRI remaps, so trimming
+/// can never strand it (fragment ids are never reused).
+fn reuse_chain_frag_bitmap(versions: &[FragReuseVersion]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+    let mut bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for version in versions {
+        bitmap.extend(version.old_frag_ids().iter().map(|&id| id as u32));
+        bitmap.extend(version.new_frag_ids().iter().map(|&id| id as u32));
+    }
+    bitmap
+}
+
 fn is_index_remap_caught_up(
     frag_reuse_version: &FragReuseVersion,
     index_meta: &IndexMetadata,
+    chain_frag_bitmap: &RoaringBitmap,
 ) -> lance_core::Result<bool> {
     if is_system_index(index_meta) {
         return Ok(true);
     }
 
-    if index_meta.dataset_version < frag_reuse_version.dataset_version {
+    // Disjoint coverage => caught up regardless of dataset_version, bypassing the
+    // stale-version gate below (see fn docs). The chain includes NEW fragments
+    // deliberately: a deferred-remap commit advances a covering index's bitmap
+    // onto them before its data is remapped, so an old-frag-only check would
+    // clear a still-stale index and trim a version it needs.
+    if let Some(index_frag_bitmap) = &index_meta.fragment_bitmap
+        && index_frag_bitmap.is_disjoint(chain_frag_bitmap)
+    {
+        return Ok(true);
+    }
+
+    // Inclusive: an index built at dataset_version predates the rewrite.
+    if index_meta.dataset_version <= frag_reuse_version.dataset_version {
         return Ok(false);
     }
 
@@ -126,10 +248,10 @@ fn is_index_remap_caught_up(
                         // and we always reindex either the entire group or nothing.
                         // We use invalid input to be consistent with
                         // dataset::transaction::recalculate_fragment_bitmap
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!("The compaction plan included a rewrite group that was a split of indexed and non-indexed data: {:?}",
-                                    group.old_frags),
-                            location!()));
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "The compaction plan included a rewrite group that was a split of indexed and non-indexed data: {:?}",
+                            group.old_frags
+                        )));
                     }
                     return Ok(false);
                 }
@@ -146,16 +268,747 @@ fn is_index_remap_caught_up(
     }
 }
 
+/// Conflict-source marker for a trim whose rebase derived nothing left to
+/// trim: a concurrent commit already satisfied it, so instead of writing an
+/// empty no-op manifest version the commit attempt aborts with a retryable
+/// conflict carrying this message, and [`cleanup_frag_reuse_index`] treats
+/// exactly that conflict as success.
+pub(crate) const TAGGED_TRIM_REBASED_TO_NOOP: &str =
+    "the tagged trim rebased to nothing to trim; a concurrent commit already satisfied it";
+
+/// Conflict-source marker for a superseded-segment prune whose rebase derived
+/// nothing left to remove: a concurrent commit changed the coverage the
+/// original removal set relied on (or already removed the segments), so
+/// instead of writing an empty no-op manifest version the commit attempt
+/// aborts with a retryable conflict carrying this message, and
+/// [`prune_superseded_segments`] treats exactly that conflict as success.
+pub(crate) const SUPERSEDED_PRUNE_REBASED_TO_NOOP: &str = "the superseded-segment prune rebased to nothing to remove; \
+     a concurrent commit changed the coverage it relied on";
+
+/// Transaction property marking a removal-only `CreateIndex` as a
+/// superseded-segment prune.
+///
+/// The shape alone (removals, no creations) is ambiguous: `drop_index`
+/// commits exactly the same operation, and re-deriving a user's drop as a
+/// prune would resurrect indexes they asked to remove. The explicit property
+/// travels with the transaction through the commit loop, so the conflict
+/// resolver's `finish_create_index` can recognize the prune and re-derive its
+/// removal set against the current manifest whenever the attempt builds on a
+/// version newer than the one it read. Without that, a rebase over a
+/// non-conflicting concurrent commit (e.g. a remap swap narrowing a sibling's
+/// coverage) would re-commit the stale removal set and silently drop index
+/// coverage.
+pub(crate) const SUPERSEDED_PRUNE_PROPERTY: &str = "__lance.frag_reuse.superseded_prune";
+
+/// Whether a transaction is a superseded-segment prune: marked with
+/// [`SUPERSEDED_PRUNE_PROPERTY`] and shaped as a pure removal.
+pub(crate) fn is_superseded_prune_transaction(transaction: &Transaction) -> bool {
+    let has_marker = transaction
+        .transaction_properties
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|props| props.contains_key(SUPERSEDED_PRUNE_PROPERTY));
+    has_marker
+        && matches!(
+            &transaction.operation,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices,
+            } if new_indices.is_empty() && !removed_indices.is_empty()
+        )
+}
+
+/// The outcome of deriving a tagged trim against the current manifest.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) enum TaggedTrimOutcome {
+    /// Every record is still needed, or there is no tagged entry to trim.
+    NothingToTrim,
+    /// Replace the current entry with the filtered history.
+    Replace {
+        new_entry: IndexMetadata,
+        current_entry: IndexMetadata,
+    },
+    /// Everything trimmed away: delete the entry outright. The manifest
+    /// feature flags stay set (they are sticky).
+    Delete { current_entry: IndexMetadata },
+}
+
+/// Segments of a logical index whose whole contribution is already served
+/// directly by other retained segments of the same index.
+///
+/// A segment X is superseded when every fragment of its VALID COVERAGE --
+/// (stored bitmap ∩ live fragments) ∪ (the destinations X reaches through the
+/// transition chain, exactly as the reader derives them via `load_indices`) --
+/// is directly covered by kept segments of the same logical index. Both
+/// halves matter: a segment still directly covering a live fragment nobody
+/// else covers is NOT superseded even if all its translated destinations are
+/// taken over.
+///
+/// Safe by direct-coverage-wins: the reader already masks X's contribution
+/// for every fragment another segment covers directly, so removing a
+/// qualifying X cannot change any query result.
+///
+/// Deterministic fixed point for mutual redundancy: segments are confirmed
+/// newest-first (dataset_version, then uuid), and a segment is prunable only
+/// against the direct coverage of segments already confirmed KEPT -- so of
+/// two segments fully covering each other, the newest survives, and at least
+/// one segment of every logical index always remains.
+pub(crate) async fn derive_superseded_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+    let stored = read_manifest_indexes(
+        &dataset.object_store,
+        &dataset.manifest_location,
+        &dataset.manifest,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    // The coverage derivation below flows through `load_indices`, the lenient
+    // reader path: a segment whose coverage crosses an unsupported transition
+    // (or an unknown envelope record) gets an empty translated bitmap, so its
+    // valid coverage shrinks and the subset check could prune a segment a
+    // newer client still serves. Validate the ledger strictly first, exactly
+    // as `derive_tagged_trim` does. Living here (not in the caller's retry
+    // loop) makes the refusal hold on every rebased re-derivation too.
+    if let Some(entry) = stored
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME && idx.index_version != 0)
+    {
+        let content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(dataset, entry).await?;
+        let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(entry.index_version, &content).await?;
+        if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "the tagged FRI history carries transitions this client cannot interpret; \
+                 upgrade to a newer version of Lance before pruning superseded index segments",
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    // The reader's own coverage derivation (translated through the ledger,
+    // direct-coverage-wins applied); not reimplemented here.
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+    let derived_by_uuid: HashMap<uuid::Uuid, &RoaringBitmap> = derived
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|idx| {
+            idx.fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|bitmap| (idx.uuid, bitmap))
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let live = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+
+    let mut groups: HashMap<&str, Vec<&IndexMetadata>> = HashMap::new();
+    for index in stored.iter() {
+        if is_system_index(index) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        groups.entry(index.name.as_str()).or_default().push(index);
+    }
+
+    let mut removals = Vec::new();
+    for segments in groups.into_values() {
+        let mut segments = segments;
+        // Newest first; uuid as a stable tie-break.
+        segments.sort_by(|a, b| {
+            b.dataset_version
+                .cmp(&a.dataset_version)
+                .then_with(|| b.uuid.cmp(&a.uuid))
+        });
+        let mut kept_direct = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        let mut kept_any = false;
+        for segment in segments {
+            // A segment this build cannot serve (unknown type or newer index
+            // version) is opaque: its translated coverage is invisible, so it
+            // is never pruned, and it must not mask anyone -- the reader will
+            // not answer queries from it, so its bitmap covers nothing.
+            if !crate::index::index_is_usable(segment) {
+                kept_any = true;
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(stored_bitmap) = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() else {
+                // Unknown coverage cannot be reasoned about; always keep.
+                kept_any = true;
+                continue;
+            };
+            let direct_live = stored_bitmap & live;
+            let mut valid = direct_live;
+            if let Some(translated) = derived_by_uuid.get(&segment.uuid) {
+                valid |= *translated & live;
+            }
+            if kept_any && valid.is_subset(&kept_direct) {
+                removals.push(segment.clone());
+            } else {
+                kept_any = true;
+                kept_direct |= stored_bitmap & live;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(removals)
+}
+
+/// Remove superseded segments, re-deriving on every attempt: a conflicting
+/// concurrent commit (e.g. index maintenance under the same name) refreshes
+/// the dataset and the removal set is recomputed against the new state.
+async fn prune_superseded_segments(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    const MAX_ATTEMPTS: usize = 5;
+    let mut last_conflict = None;
+    for _ in 0..MAX_ATTEMPTS {
+        let removals = derive_superseded_segments(dataset).await?;
+        if removals.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![],
+                removed_indices: removals,
+            },
+        )
+        // The marker lets `finish_create_index` recognize this shape (which
+        // is otherwise indistinguishable from `drop_index`) and re-derive
+        // the removal set whenever the commit rebases over a concurrent
+        // commit; see `SUPERSEDED_PRUNE_PROPERTY`.
+        .transaction_properties(Some(Arc::new(HashMap::from([(
+            SUPERSEDED_PRUNE_PROPERTY.to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        )]))))
+        .build();
+        match dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(()) => return Ok(()),
+            Err(error @ Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })
+                if error.to_string().contains(SUPERSEDED_PRUNE_REBASED_TO_NOOP) =>
+            {
+                // The rebase found nothing left to remove: a concurrent
+                // commit changed the coverage the removal relied on, so this
+                // maintenance run succeeds without writing a version.
+                dataset.checkout_latest().await?;
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            Err(error @ Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }) => {
+                dataset.checkout_latest().await?;
+                last_conflict = Some(error);
+            }
+            Err(error) => return Err(error),
+        }
+    }
+    Err(last_conflict.expect("loop only exits with a recorded conflict"))
+}
+
+/// Trim a tagged FRI entry, deriving what to keep from the CURRENT manifest.
+///
+/// The derivation runs again inside the commit path on every retry (see the
+/// conflict resolver's `finish_create_index`), so a concurrent append lands in
+/// the re-derived entry instead of being spliced away.
+async fn cleanup_tagged_frag_reuse_index(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    // Superseded segments go first, so the trim below derives against the
+    // pruned world and can release transitions that only those segments
+    // needed, in the same maintenance invocation.
+    prune_superseded_segments(dataset).await?;
+
+    let operation = match derive_tagged_trim(dataset).await? {
+        TaggedTrimOutcome::NothingToTrim => return Ok(()),
+        TaggedTrimOutcome::Replace {
+            new_entry,
+            current_entry,
+        } => Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![new_entry],
+            removed_indices: vec![current_entry],
+        },
+        TaggedTrimOutcome::Delete { current_entry } => Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![],
+            removed_indices: vec![current_entry],
+        },
+    };
+
+    let transaction = Transaction::new(dataset.manifest.version, operation, None);
+    match dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            transaction,
+            &crate::dataset::ManifestWriteConfig::default().with_tagged_frag_reuse_trim(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+    {
+        Ok(()) => Ok(()),
+        Err(error @ Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })
+            if error.to_string().contains(TAGGED_TRIM_REBASED_TO_NOOP) =>
+        {
+            // The rebase found nothing left to trim: a concurrent commit
+            // (e.g. an index catching up mid-trim) already satisfied this
+            // maintenance run, so succeed without writing a version.
+            dataset.checkout_latest().await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Err(error) => Err(error),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether a `CreateIndex` payload has the tagged-trim shape: exactly the
+/// tagged FRI entry replaced, or removed outright. A v0 trim (v0 entry
+/// replacing a v0 entry) deliberately does not match.
+pub(crate) fn is_tagged_trim_operation(
+    new_indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    removed_indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+) -> bool {
+    use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged;
+    let [removed] = removed_indices else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    if removed.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME {
+        return false;
+    }
+    match new_indices {
+        [] => is_tagged(removed),
+        [entry] => is_tagged(entry),
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// One splice unit of the entry's content: a legacy version (field 1) or a
+/// transition (field 2), kept with its exact wire form so retained records
+/// are carried forward verbatim.
+enum TrimRecord {
+    LegacyVersion(FragReuseVersion),
+    Transition(pb_fri::Transition),
+}
+
+struct TrimElement {
+    raw: Vec<u8>,
+    record: TrimRecord,
+}
+
+fn split_trim_elements(content: &[u8]) -> Result<Vec<TrimElement>> {
+    use bytes::Buf;
+    use prost::encoding::{WireType, decode_key, decode_varint};
+
+    let corrupt = |message: String| Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI details", message);
+    let total = content.len();
+    let mut buf = bytes::Bytes::copy_from_slice(content);
+    let mut elements = Vec::new();
+    while buf.has_remaining() {
+        let start = total - buf.remaining();
+        let (tag, wire_type) = decode_key(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+        // Fields 1 and 2 are the only known records and both are messages. An
+        // unknown record may participate in lineage in ways this client cannot
+        // reason about, so refuse to trim rather than silently dropping or
+        // blindly retaining it.
+        if wire_type != WireType::LengthDelimited || !matches!(tag, 1 | 2) {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "the tagged FRI history carries an unknown record (field {tag}); \
+                 upgrade to a newer version of Lance before trimming"
+            )));
+        }
+        let length = decode_varint(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+        if length > buf.remaining() as u64 {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "field {tag} length {length} exceeds remaining {} bytes",
+                buf.remaining()
+            )));
+        }
+        let payload = buf.split_to(length as usize);
+        let end = total - buf.remaining();
+        let record = match tag {
+            1 => TrimRecord::LegacyVersion(
+                pb_fri::Version::decode(payload)
+                    .map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?
+                    .try_into()?,
+            ),
+            _ => TrimRecord::Transition(
+                pb_fri::Transition::decode(payload).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?,
+            ),
+        };
+        elements.push(TrimElement {
+            raw: content[start..end].to_vec(),
+            record,
+        });
+    }
+    Ok(elements)
+}
+
+/// One logical index's coverage as the trim sees it: provenance is the union
+/// of every stored segment bitmap (any segment, usable by this build or not,
+/// pins the records its addresses need), while direct coverage counts only
+/// segments this build can actually serve (`index_is_usable`) -- an unusable
+/// segment answers no query, so its bitmap must not mask anyone's need for a
+/// translation.
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct IndexGroupCoverage {
+    provenance: RoaringBitmap,
+    direct: RoaringBitmap,
+}
+
+/// Whether some index still needs this transition to translate its rows.
+///
+/// RETAIN iff there is a logical index I (its stored segments grouped by
+/// name, system indices exempt) such that:
+/// * some segment's stored provenance bitmap intersects the transition's
+///   sources (I holds addresses the transition moves), AND
+/// * some destination is not directly covered by any USABLE segment of I
+///   (I has not fully re-derived onto the transition's output in a form this
+///   build can serve).
+///
+/// A segment without a stored bitmap imposes no constraint, mirroring the v0
+/// leniency for missing bitmaps.
+fn is_transition_needed(
+    transition: &pb_fri::Transition,
+    index_groups: &HashMap<&str, IndexGroupCoverage>,
+) -> bool {
+    index_groups.values().any(|group| {
+        let sources_hit = transition
+            .sources
+            .iter()
+            .any(|source| group.provenance.contains(source.id as u32));
+        sources_hit
+            && transition
+                .destinations
+                .iter()
+                .any(|destination| !group.direct.contains(destination.id as u32))
+    })
+}
+
+/// Which elements of a tagged history are still needed, from the entry's
+/// digests and the stored index metadata alone (zero payload IO).
+///
+/// Legacy versions keep the exact v0 caught-up predicate; transitions use
+/// [`is_transition_needed`]; then transitive chain retention closes the set
+/// forward: a retained record's translation path walks through every
+/// downstream consumer of its destinations, so those records must survive
+/// too. Legacy versions retain at whole-version granularity (their groups
+/// stand or fall together, as in v0).
+fn compute_tagged_retention(elements: &[TrimElement], indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> Vec<bool> {
+    // The v0 predicate's disjointness rule is scoped to the legacy chain, as
+    // in v0: an index touching only tagged-transition fragments holds nothing
+    // a legacy version remaps.
+    let legacy_versions: Vec<FragReuseVersion> = elements
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|element| match &element.record {
+            TrimRecord::LegacyVersion(version) => Some(version.clone()),
+            TrimRecord::Transition(_) => None,
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let chain_frag_bitmap = reuse_chain_frag_bitmap(&legacy_versions);
+
+    // Stored segments grouped by logical index name. Every segment's bitmap
+    // counts as provenance (pinning); only usable segments' bitmaps count as
+    // direct coverage (masking).
+    let mut index_groups: HashMap<&str, IndexGroupCoverage> = HashMap::new();
+    for index in indices.iter() {
+        if is_system_index(index) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let group = index_groups.entry(index.name.as_str()).or_default();
+        match &index.fragment_bitmap {
+            Some(bitmap) => {
+                group.provenance |= bitmap;
+                if crate::index::index_is_usable(index) {
+                    group.direct |= bitmap;
+                }
+            }
+            None => warn!(
+                "Index {} ({}) missing fragment bitmap, it cannot pin tagged fragment reuse records, consider retraining the index",
+                index.name, index.uuid
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut retained = vec![false; elements.len()];
+    for (position, element) in elements.iter().enumerate() {
+        match &element.record {
+            TrimRecord::LegacyVersion(version) => {
+                let check_results = indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|idx| is_index_remap_caught_up(version, idx, &chain_frag_bitmap))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                if check_results
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|r| matches!(r, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })))
+                {
+                    // If the check fails, the reuse version is likely corrupted,
+                    // do not retain it (v0 behavior).
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if !check_results.into_iter().all(|r| r.unwrap()) {
+                    retained[position] = true;
+                }
+            }
+            TrimRecord::Transition(transition) => {
+                retained[position] = is_transition_needed(transition, &index_groups);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Transitive chain retention (forward closure over producer->consumer
+    // edges).
+    struct Node {
+        element: usize,
+        sources: Vec<u64>,
+        destinations: Vec<u64>,
+    }
+    let mut nodes = Vec::new();
+    for (position, element) in elements.iter().enumerate() {
+        match &element.record {
+            TrimRecord::LegacyVersion(version) => {
+                for group in version.groups.iter() {
+                    nodes.push(Node {
+                        element: position,
+                        sources: group.old_frags.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect(),
+                        destinations: group.new_frags.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect(),
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+            TrimRecord::Transition(transition) => nodes.push(Node {
+                element: position,
+                sources: transition.sources.iter().map(|d| d.id).collect(),
+                destinations: transition.destinations.iter().map(|d| d.id).collect(),
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+    let mut consumer_of: HashMap<u64, usize> = HashMap::new();
+    let mut element_nodes: HashMap<usize, Vec<usize>> = HashMap::new();
+    for (node_index, node) in nodes.iter().enumerate() {
+        for source in &node.sources {
+            consumer_of.insert(*source, node_index);
+        }
+        element_nodes
+            .entry(node.element)
+            .or_default()
+            .push(node_index);
+    }
+    let mut node_retained = vec![false; nodes.len()];
+    let mut queue: VecDeque<usize> = VecDeque::new();
+    for (node_index, node) in nodes.iter().enumerate() {
+        if retained[node.element] {
+            node_retained[node_index] = true;
+            queue.push_back(node_index);
+        }
+    }
+    while let Some(node_index) = queue.pop_front() {
+        for destination in nodes[node_index].destinations.clone() {
+            let Some(&consumer) = consumer_of.get(&destination) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            if node_retained[consumer] {
+                continue;
+            }
+            node_retained[consumer] = true;
+            queue.push_back(consumer);
+            let element = nodes[consumer].element;
+            if !retained[element] {
+                retained[element] = true;
+                for &sibling in element_nodes[&element].iter() {
+                    if !node_retained[sibling] {
+                        node_retained[sibling] = true;
+                        queue.push_back(sibling);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    retained
+}
+
+/// Derive the trimmed tagged entry from the CURRENT manifest state.
+///
+/// Zero payload IO: retention is computed from the entry's digests and the
+/// stored index metadata alone. Row-map files released by trimming a
+/// stable-partition transition are collected separately by dataset cleanup.
+pub(crate) async fn derive_tagged_trim(dataset: &Dataset) -> lance_core::Result<TaggedTrimOutcome> {
+    let indices = read_manifest_indexes(
+        &dataset.object_store,
+        &dataset.manifest_location,
+        &dataset.manifest,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let Some(entry) = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .cloned()
+    else {
+        return Ok(TaggedTrimOutcome::NothingToTrim);
+    };
+    if entry.index_version == 0 {
+        // Reachable only through a rebase whose entry was concurrently
+        // replaced by a v0 one; nothing tagged remains to trim.
+        return Ok(TaggedTrimOutcome::NothingToTrim);
+    }
+
+    let content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(dataset, &entry).await?;
+    // Full ledger validation (lineage order, digest conservation, mapping
+    // presence) plus unsupported-transition detection before interpreting
+    // anything.
+    let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(entry.index_version, &content).await?;
+    if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "the tagged FRI history carries transitions this client cannot interpret; \
+             upgrade to a newer version of Lance before trimming",
+        ));
+    }
+    let elements = split_trim_elements(&content)?;
+    let retained = compute_tagged_retention(&elements, &indices);
+
+    if retained.iter().all(|kept| *kept) {
+        return Ok(TaggedTrimOutcome::NothingToTrim);
+    }
+    if retained.iter().all(|kept| !*kept) {
+        return Ok(TaggedTrimOutcome::Delete {
+            current_entry: entry,
+        });
+    }
+
+    let mut new_content = Vec::new();
+    let mut fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for (element, kept) in elements.iter().zip(retained.iter()) {
+        if !kept {
+            continue;
+        }
+        new_content.extend_from_slice(&element.raw);
+        match &element.record {
+            TrimRecord::LegacyVersion(version) => {
+                fragment_bitmap.extend(version.old_frag_ids().iter().map(|&id| id as u32));
+                fragment_bitmap.extend(version.new_frag_ids().iter().map(|&id| id as u32));
+            }
+            TrimRecord::Transition(transition) => {
+                for digest in transition
+                    .sources
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(transition.destinations.iter())
+                {
+                    fragment_bitmap.insert(digest.id as u32);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    // The filtered history must itself decode as a well-formed ledger.
+    decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(entry.index_version, &new_content).await?;
+    let new_entry = build_tagged_frag_reuse_entry(dataset, new_content, fragment_bitmap).await?;
+    Ok(TaggedTrimOutcome::Replace {
+        new_entry,
+        current_entry: entry,
+    })
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use crate::dataset::optimize::{compact_files, remapping, CompactionOptions};
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files, remapping};
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
     use all_asserts::{assert_false, assert_true};
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
     use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
+    use lance_core::ROW_ADDR;
+    use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
     use lance_datagen::Dimension;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
     use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-    use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    fn frag_digest(id: u64) -> lance_index::frag_reuse::FragDigest {
+        lance_index::frag_reuse::FragDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: 100,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn reuse_version(dataset_version: u64, old: &[u64], new: &[u64]) -> FragReuseVersion {
+        FragReuseVersion {
+            dataset_version,
+            groups: vec![lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseGroup {
+                changed_row_addrs: Vec::new(),
+                old_frags: old.iter().copied().map(frag_digest).collect(),
+                new_frags: new.iter().copied().map(frag_digest).collect(),
+            }],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn index_covering(dataset_version: u64, covered: &[u32]) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "test_idx".into(),
+            dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(covered.iter().copied())),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The catch-up determination must not pin the FRI on an index that is
+    /// simply unrelated to the compaction, while still retaining versions that a
+    /// covering-but-not-yet-remapped index needs.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_caught_up_uses_fragment_coverage_not_only_version() {
+        // A reuse version at dataset_version 10 rewrote fragments [4, 5] -> [6].
+        let version = reuse_version(10, &[4, 5], &[6]);
+        let chain = reuse_chain_frag_bitmap(std::slice::from_ref(&version));
+
+        // Non-covering, stale version: touches none of the rewritten frags, so
+        // caught up despite version 5 < 10 (the case the old gate got wrong).
+        assert_true!(
+            is_index_remap_caught_up(&version, &index_covering(5, &[1, 2, 3]), &chain).unwrap()
+        );
+
+        // Still holds an old fragment: not caught up.
+        assert_false!(
+            is_index_remap_caught_up(&version, &index_covering(5, &[1, 4, 5]), &chain).unwrap()
+        );
+
+        // Bitmap advanced onto the new fragment but data not yet remapped: not
+        // caught up (why the chain must include new frags).
+        assert_false!(
+            is_index_remap_caught_up(&version, &index_covering(5, &[1, 6]), &chain).unwrap()
+        );
+
+        // Built at version 10 itself: still pre-rewrite data, not caught up.
+        assert_false!(
+            is_index_remap_caught_up(&version, &index_covering(10, &[1, 6]), &chain).unwrap()
+        );
+
+        // Built or remapped after version 10: caught up.
+        assert_true!(
+            is_index_remap_caught_up(&version, &index_covering(11, &[1, 6]), &chain).unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The chain spans every reuse version, not just the one being checked: a
+    /// stale index touching only a *later* version's fragment must still fall to
+    /// the version gate (a per-version chain would wrongly clear it).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_caught_up_uses_whole_reuse_chain() {
+        let v1 = reuse_version(10, &[4, 5], &[6]); // 4,5 -> 6
+        let v2 = reuse_version(11, &[6], &[7]); // 6 -> 7
+        let chain = reuse_chain_frag_bitmap(&[v1.clone(), v2]);
+
+        // Stale index (version 5) covering only v2's new fragment [7]: not
+        // disjoint from the chain, so not caught up on v1.
+        assert_false!(is_index_remap_caught_up(&v1, &index_covering(5, &[1, 7]), &chain).unwrap());
+    }
+
+    /// Whole-fragment removal (every row deleted, no replacement): an index
+    /// emptied by the deletion has an empty bitmap and must count as caught up --
+    /// it holds only dead rows -- else its stale version pins the removed-fragment
+    /// version forever (remap hits the drop-everything path, never advancing it).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_caught_up_handles_fragment_removal() {
+        // Reuse version 20 removed fragment [7] outright (no replacement).
+        let version = reuse_version(20, &[7], &[]);
+        let chain = reuse_chain_frag_bitmap(std::slice::from_ref(&version));
+
+        // Index emptied by the deletion (empty bitmap): caught up.
+        assert_true!(is_index_remap_caught_up(&version, &index_covering(5, &[]), &chain).unwrap());
+
+        // Bitmap still lists the removed fragment (not yet updated): retained.
+        assert_false!(
+            is_index_remap_caught_up(&version, &index_covering(5, &[7]), &chain).unwrap()
+        );
+    }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_cleanup_frag_reuse_index() {
@@ -209,7 +1062,12 @@ mod tests {
         let scalar_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "scalar").unwrap();
         // Should not be considered caught up because index was created at an old dataset version
         assert_false!(
-            is_index_remap_caught_up(&frag_reuse_details.versions[0], scalar_index).unwrap()
+            is_index_remap_caught_up(
+                &frag_reuse_details.versions[0],
+                scalar_index,
+                &reuse_chain_frag_bitmap(&frag_reuse_details.versions),
+            )
+            .unwrap()
         );
 
         // Remap and check index is caught up
@@ -219,7 +1077,12 @@ mod tests {
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
         let scalar_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "scalar").unwrap();
         assert_true!(
-            is_index_remap_caught_up(&frag_reuse_details.versions[0], scalar_index).unwrap()
+            is_index_remap_caught_up(
+                &frag_reuse_details.versions[0],
+                scalar_index,
+                &reuse_chain_frag_bitmap(&frag_reuse_details.versions),
+            )
+            .unwrap()
         );
 
         // Cleanup frag reuse index and check there is no reuse version
@@ -243,4 +1106,1709 @@ mod tests {
             Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })
         ));
     }
+
+    /// With more than one index on the table, remapping every index must catch
+    /// all of them up so the reuse index can be trimmed.
+    ///
+    /// Regression: `remap_column_index` used to decide whether to remap an
+    /// index's data from the presence of the old fragments in its fragment
+    /// bitmap. But `load_indices` coverage-remaps the bitmap onto the new
+    /// fragments in memory, and remapping the *first* index commits a manifest
+    /// that persists that cleaned bitmap for the others — so remapping the
+    /// remaining indexes became a silent no-op (their data was never remapped
+    /// and their `dataset_version` never advanced), and the reuse index could
+    /// never be trimmed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cleanup_frag_reuse_index_multiple_indices() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("j", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for col in ["i", "j"] {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &[col],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some(format!("{col}_idx")),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let frag_reuse_index_meta = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 1);
+
+        for col in ["i", "j"] {
+            remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &[col], Some(format!("{col}_idx")))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Every index must now be caught up (data remapped, version advanced).
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        for col in ["i", "j"] {
+            let index = indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == format!("{col}_idx"))
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                is_index_remap_caught_up(
+                    &frag_reuse_details.versions[0],
+                    index,
+                    &reuse_chain_frag_bitmap(&frag_reuse_details.versions),
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+                "index {col}_idx was not caught up after remap"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // ... so the reuse index trims down to zero versions.
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let frag_reuse_index_meta = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 0);
+
+        // Data correctness, not just version bookkeeping: with the reuse index
+        // trimmed there is no auto-remap safety net, so each index must resolve
+        // to LIVE rows. An index whose data was not actually remapped (e.g. one
+        // whose bitmap was coverage-remapped by a sibling's commit before its
+        // own data remap) points at compacted-away fragments and errors on take.
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        for col in ["i", "j"] {
+            let rows: usize = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(&format!("{col} >= 2000 AND {col} < 3000"))
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|b| b.num_rows())
+                .sum();
+            assert_eq!(
+                rows, 1000,
+                "index {col}_idx must resolve to live rows after remap+trim"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// When the reuse index has accumulated several versions, a single remap
+    /// must compose them and rebuild + commit the index exactly ONCE, not once
+    /// per version.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_index_batches_multiple_reuse_versions() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(8), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Accumulate multiple reuse versions: each round deletes a prefix, which
+        // shrinks fragments below target and forces another deferred compaction.
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 4_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        for round in 0..4 {
+            dataset
+                .delete(&format!("i < {}", 1_000 * (round + 1)))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            compact_files(&mut dataset, options.clone(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let frag_reuse_index_meta = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        let num_versions = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .versions
+            .len();
+        assert!(
+            num_versions >= 2,
+            "test needs multiple reuse versions to exercise batching, got {num_versions}"
+        );
+
+        // A single remap must commit exactly once, regardless of version count.
+        let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let commits = dataset.manifest.version - version_before;
+        assert_eq!(
+            commits, 1,
+            "batched remap must commit once, not once per reuse version ({num_versions})"
+        );
+
+        // ... and the reuse index then trims to zero.
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let frag_reuse_index_meta = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        assert_eq!(
+            load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .versions
+                .len(),
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    mod tagged_trim {
+        use super::super::*;
+        use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+        use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+        use crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse::{
+            decode_frag_reuse_ledger, load_frag_reuse_records, load_raw_frag_reuse_content,
+        };
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests as reader_tests;
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+        use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+        use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::Mapping;
+        use lance_table::transaction::RewriteGroup;
+        use uuid::Uuid;
+
+        fn digest(id: u64) -> pb_fri::FragmentDigest {
+            pb_fri::FragmentDigest {
+                id,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn transition_element(sources: &[u64], destinations: &[u64]) -> TrimElement {
+            TrimElement {
+                raw: Vec::new(),
+                record: TrimRecord::Transition(pb_fri::Transition {
+                    sources: sources.iter().copied().map(digest).collect(),
+                    destinations: destinations.iter().copied().map(digest).collect(),
+                    mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::StablePartition(
+                        pb_fri::StablePartition {
+                            map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                            map_size_bytes: 1,
+                            base_id: None,
+                        },
+                    )),
+                }),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn legacy_element(dataset_version: u64, old: &[u64], new: &[u64]) -> TrimElement {
+            TrimElement {
+                raw: Vec::new(),
+                record: TrimRecord::LegacyVersion(super::reuse_version(dataset_version, old, new)),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn named_index(name: &str, dataset_version: u64, covered: &[u32]) -> IndexMetadata {
+            let mut index = super::index_covering(dataset_version, covered);
+            index.name = name.into();
+            index
+        }
+
+        /// The per-transition retention rule (B1-B5, B7-B9): retain iff some
+        /// logical index still derives coverage from the transition's sources
+        /// while not directly covering every destination.
+        #[test]
+        fn transition_retention_rules() {
+            let elements = vec![transition_element(&[1, 2], &[5, 6])];
+            let retain =
+                |indices: &[IndexMetadata]| compute_tagged_retention(&elements, indices)[0];
+
+            // B1: a disjoint index does not block the trim.
+            assert!(!retain(&[named_index("a_idx", 1, &[3, 4])]));
+            // B2: still deriving from the sources, destinations uncovered.
+            assert!(retain(&[named_index("a_idx", 1, &[1, 2])]));
+            // B3: partial drain (one destination still uncovered) retains.
+            assert!(retain(&[named_index("a_idx", 1, &[1, 5])]));
+            // B4: full direct coverage across the index's segments trims,
+            // even while another segment still lists the sources.
+            assert!(!retain(&[
+                named_index("a_idx", 1, &[1, 2]),
+                named_index("a_idx", 2, &[5, 6]),
+            ]));
+            // B5: segments rebuilt onto the destinations (sources gone) trim.
+            assert!(!retain(&[named_index("a_idx", 2, &[5, 6])]));
+            // B7: one index caught up, another still hanging off the sources.
+            assert!(retain(&[
+                named_index("a_idx", 2, &[5, 6]),
+                named_index("b_idx", 1, &[1]),
+            ]));
+            // B8/B9: no indices left, nothing pins the record.
+            assert!(!retain(&[]));
+            // A missing bitmap imposes no constraint (v0 leniency).
+            let mut no_bitmap = named_index("a_idx", 1, &[]);
+            no_bitmap.fragment_bitmap = None;
+            assert!(!retain(std::slice::from_ref(&no_bitmap)));
+            // ... but a sibling segment with a bitmap still pins it.
+            assert!(retain(&[no_bitmap, named_index("a_idx", 1, &[1])]));
+            // System indices are exempt.
+            assert!(!retain(&[named_index(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 1, &[1, 2])]));
+        }
+
+        /// B6: chain retention. A segment hanging off the head of a chain
+        /// pins every downstream hop its translation path traverses; hops
+        /// upstream of where the segment enters are not needed.
+        #[test]
+        fn chain_retention_closes_forward() {
+            let elements = vec![
+                transition_element(&[1], &[2]),
+                transition_element(&[2], &[3]),
+            ];
+            // Enters at the head: both hops retained.
+            assert_eq!(
+                compute_tagged_retention(&elements, &[named_index("a_idx", 1, &[1])]),
+                vec![true, true]
+            );
+            // Enters mid-chain: only the downstream hop retained.
+            assert_eq!(
+                compute_tagged_retention(&elements, &[named_index("a_idx", 1, &[2])]),
+                vec![false, true]
+            );
+            // Fully retired: both trim together.
+            assert_eq!(
+                compute_tagged_retention(&elements, &[named_index("a_idx", 2, &[3])]),
+                vec![false, false]
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Chain retention traverses lifted legacy groups too, and a legacy
+        /// version retains at whole-version granularity.
+        #[test]
+        fn chain_retention_spans_legacy_versions() {
+            let elements = vec![
+                legacy_element(10, &[1], &[2]),
+                transition_element(&[2], &[3]),
+            ];
+            // A stale index over the legacy sources pins the version (exact
+            // v0 predicate) and, transitively, the downstream transition.
+            assert_eq!(
+                compute_tagged_retention(&elements, &[named_index("a_idx", 5, &[1])]),
+                vec![true, true]
+            );
+            // Caught up past the legacy version and rebuilt onto the final
+            // fragments: everything trims.
+            assert_eq!(
+                compute_tagged_retention(&elements, &[named_index("a_idx", 11, &[3])]),
+                vec![false, false]
+            );
+
+            // Whole-version granularity: a version with two groups where a
+            // transition consumes the second group's output. An index pinning
+            // the FIRST group pins the version, whose second group then pins
+            // the downstream transition.
+            let elements = vec![
+                legacy_element(10, &[1, 5], &[2, 6]),
+                transition_element(&[6], &[7]),
+            ];
+            assert_eq!(
+                compute_tagged_retention(&elements, &[named_index("a_idx", 5, &[1])]),
+                vec![true, true]
+            );
+        }
+
+        async fn reserve_fragments(dataset: &mut Dataset, num_fragments: u32) {
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        async fn commit_stable_partition(
+            dataset: Dataset,
+            source_ids: &[u64],
+            dest_base_id: u64,
+        ) -> Dataset {
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = source_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| {
+                    dataset
+                        .fragments()
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .clone()
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) =
+                reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, source_ids, dest_base_id).await;
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let frag_reuse_index = Some(
+                crate::index::frag_reuse::frag_reuse_entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .execute(Transaction::new(
+                    read_version,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                            old_fragments,
+                            new_fragments: destinations,
+                        }],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn fri_entry(dataset: &Dataset) -> Option<IndexMetadata> {
+            crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .cloned()
+        }
+
+        async fn sorted_values(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|value| value.unwrap())
+                .collect();
+            values.sort_unstable();
+            values
+        }
+
+        /// The full trim lifecycle on a tagged table: retained while the
+        /// index still derives from the sources, deleted outright once the
+        /// index is rebuilt over the destinations (C3), with the sticky
+        /// feature flags left set and the table still fully usable.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn trim_lifecycle_retains_then_deletes() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let entry = fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+
+            // Still deriving: the trim must be a no-op (no commit at all).
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before);
+            assert_eq!(fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap().uuid, entry.uuid);
+
+            // Drain: rebuild the index over the destinations (the gate must
+            // admit user index maintenance on a tagged table).
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Fully drained: the entry is deleted outright.
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(fri_entry(&dataset).await.is_none());
+            let flag = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+
+            // The (still-flagged) table keeps working: reads, filtered reads,
+            // and new writes.
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i >= 4".into())).await.unwrap(), 4);
+            let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(100, 1))
+                .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4))
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 12);
+        }
+
+        /// Deletes after tagging (rows of one destination, then the other
+        /// destination entirely) leave the history and the segment's stored
+        /// provenance alone: the segment keeps translating, trim retains the
+        /// transition it translates through, indexed queries equal the
+        /// index-disabled scan, and draining afterwards still trims.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deletes_after_tagging_keep_translation_and_trim_honest() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let entry = fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+            // A delta segment over an appended fragment sits next to the
+            // translating segment, so index retention has a sibling with live
+            // coverage to compare against.
+            let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(100, 1))
+                .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4))
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let appended = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).max().unwrap();
+            let mut delta = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            )
+            .name("i_idx_delta".into())
+            .fragments(vec![appended as u32])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            delta.name = "i_idx".into();
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![delta],
+                            removed_indices: vec![],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(), 2);
+
+            // A row of F11 (odds), then every even value: all of F10 goes
+            // (the fragment is dropped) and two rows of the appended fragment.
+            dataset.delete("i = 5").await.unwrap();
+            dataset.delete("i % 2 = 0").await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![11, appended]
+            );
+            // The translating segment (provenance {0, 1}, empty against the
+            // live fragments) is kept next to its delta sibling.
+            let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2, "{segments:?}");
+            assert!(segments.iter().any(|segment| segment.fragment_bitmap
+                == Some(roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]))));
+            let expected = vec![1, 3, 7, 101, 103];
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, expected);
+            for value in [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 100, 101, 102, 103] {
+                let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+                scan.filter(&format!("i = {value}")).unwrap();
+                let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+                assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+                    usize::from(expected.contains(&value)),
+                    "value {value}"
+                );
+            }
+
+            // Still translating through the transition: the trim is a no-op.
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before);
+            assert_eq!(fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap().uuid, entry.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, expected);
+
+            // Draining after the deletes trims the entry away as usual.
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(fri_entry(&dataset).await.is_none());
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 3".into())).await.unwrap(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 4".into())).await.unwrap(), 0);
+            assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 101".into())).await.unwrap(), 1);
+        }
+
+        /// A trim committed from a stale read must re-derive at commit time:
+        /// a stable-partition rewrite that landed in between keeps its
+        /// transition while the drained one is still released.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn trim_rebases_over_concurrent_stable_partition() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            // Drain the index onto the destinations.
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // A second stable-partition rewrite lands after the trim's read.
+            let mut stale = dataset.clone();
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[10, 11], 20).await;
+            let current_entry = fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+            // The stale trim would have deleted the entry; the rebase must
+            // keep the new transition instead.
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut stale).await.unwrap();
+            let trimmed_entry = fri_entry(&stale).await.unwrap();
+            assert_ne!(trimmed_entry.uuid, current_entry.uuid);
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&stale, &trimmed_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+            let kept = &ledger.transitions()[0];
+            assert_eq!(
+                kept.sources().iter().map(|d| d.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![10, 11]
+            );
+            assert!(matches!(kept.mapping(), Mapping::StablePartition(_)));
+            // The drained transition's raw bytes are gone; the kept one's
+            // content is a verbatim suffix of the previous entry.
+            let previous = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&stale, &current_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let trimmed = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&stale, &trimmed_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(previous.ends_with(&trimmed));
+            assert!(trimmed.len() < previous.len());
+        }
+
+        /// Trim vs. trim mirrors the v0 cleanup-vs-cleanup conflict.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn concurrent_trims_conflict() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let mut stale = dataset.clone();
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(fri_entry(&dataset).await.is_none());
+            assert!(matches!(
+                cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut stale).await,
+                Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })
+            ));
+        }
+
+        /// Trim vs. tagged compaction: the freshly appended
+        /// ordered-compaction transition survives the rebased trim.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn trim_rebases_over_concurrent_tagged_compaction() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let mut stale = dataset.clone();
+            // A tagged compaction appends an ordered-compaction transition.
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&dataset, &fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 2);
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut stale).await.unwrap();
+            let trimmed_entry = fri_entry(&stale).await.unwrap();
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&stale, &trimmed_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+            assert!(matches!(
+                ledger.transitions()[0].mapping(),
+                Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_)
+            ));
+            assert_eq!(
+                ledger.transitions()[0]
+                    .sources()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|d| d.id)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![10, 11]
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Commit a fresh `i_idx` delta segment built over the current
+        /// (translated) table state. `covered` narrows the committed bitmap
+        /// to an under-claim, standing in for a segment that directly covers
+        /// only part of the destinations.
+        async fn commit_delta_segment(
+            dataset: &mut Dataset,
+            covered: Option<&[u32]>,
+        ) -> uuid::Uuid {
+            let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+            let mut delta =
+                crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                    .name("i_idx_delta".into())
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            delta.name = "i_idx".into();
+            if let Some(covered) = covered {
+                delta.fragment_bitmap = Some(covered.iter().copied().collect());
+            }
+            let uuid = delta.uuid;
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![delta],
+                            removed_indices: vec![],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            uuid
+        }
+
+        async fn stored_segments(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+            read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == name)
+            .collect()
+        }
+
+        /// Full takeover: a delta directly covering everything the old
+        /// segment reaches through the chain supersedes it. The prune runs
+        /// in the same maintenance invocation as the trim, which then
+        /// releases the transition only the pruned segment needed -- and
+        /// query results are identical before and after (direct-coverage-wins
+        /// already masked the pruned segment's contribution).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn superseded_segment_pruned_then_transition_released() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let old_segment = &stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await[0].clone();
+            let delta = commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, None).await;
+            assert_eq!(stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(), 2);
+
+            let before_all = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let before_filtered = dataset.count_rows(Some("i >= 4".into())).await.unwrap();
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+            // The old segment is pruned, the delta survives...
+            let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments.iter().map(|s| s.uuid).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![delta]
+            );
+            assert_ne!(segments[0].uuid, old_segment.uuid);
+            // ... and the same invocation's trim released the transition
+            // only the pruned segment needed (the entry is fully drained).
+            assert!(fri_entry(&dataset).await.is_none());
+            // Safety: pruning changed no query result.
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before_all);
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.count_rows(Some("i >= 4".into())).await.unwrap(),
+                before_filtered
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Union of the coverage the reader attributes to the usable
+        /// segments of `name`, restricted to live fragments.
+        async fn covered_fragments(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> roaring::RoaringBitmap {
+            let live = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+            let mut covered = roaring::RoaringBitmap::new();
+            for index in dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().iter() {
+                if index.name == name
+                    && let Some(bitmap) = index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+                {
+                    covered |= bitmap & live;
+                }
+            }
+            covered
+        }
+
+        /// Replace the segment `uuid` of `name` with an identical one whose
+        /// stored coverage narrows to `covered` -- the shape a tagged remap
+        /// swap commits when the reader attributes less coverage to the
+        /// segment than its stored bitmap claimed.
+        async fn narrow_segment_bitmap(
+            dataset: &mut Dataset,
+            name: &str,
+            uuid: Uuid,
+            covered: &[u32],
+        ) {
+            let original = stored_segments(dataset, name)
+                .await
+                .into_iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid == uuid)
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut narrowed = original.clone();
+            narrowed.fragment_bitmap = Some(covered.iter().copied().collect());
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![narrowed],
+                            removed_indices: vec![original],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        /// Residual race: the prune removes the old segment because the kept
+        /// delta's coverage justifies it, and a concurrent commit replaces
+        /// the delta with a narrower-coverage segment (the shape a tagged
+        /// remap swap commits). Neither side removes the other's UUID, so no
+        /// conflict predicate fires and the prune's commit rebases over the
+        /// replacement; re-committing the stale removal would drop the old
+        /// segment while its justification was withdrawn, silently losing
+        /// all index coverage of destination 11. The rebase must re-derive:
+        /// nothing is prunable against the narrowed delta, so the old
+        /// segment survives and the prune writes no version.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn prune_rederives_over_concurrent_coverage_narrowing() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let old_segment = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await[0].clone();
+            let delta = commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, None).await;
+
+            // The prune's read: the old segment is superseded by the delta.
+            assert_eq!(
+                derive_superseded_segments(&dataset)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![old_segment.uuid]
+            );
+            let covered_before = covered_fragments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+
+            let mut stale = dataset.clone();
+            // Concurrent replacement: the delta's coverage narrows to
+            // destination 10, withdrawing the justification for pruning the
+            // old segment (which alone still reaches destination 11 through
+            // the transition chain).
+            narrow_segment_bitmap(&mut dataset, "i_idx", delta, &[10]).await;
+            let expected_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            prune_superseded_segments(&mut stale).await.unwrap();
+
+            stale.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                stale.manifest.version, expected_version,
+                "the rebased no-op prune must not write a version"
+            );
+            let segments = stored_segments(&stale, "i_idx").await;
+            assert!(
+                segments.iter().any(|s| s.uuid == old_segment.uuid),
+                "the rebased prune must keep the segment whose justifying coverage was withdrawn"
+            );
+            let covered_after = covered_fragments(&stale, "i_idx").await;
+            assert!(
+                covered_before.is_subset(&covered_after),
+                "every fragment covered before the race must stay covered: \
+                 before {covered_before:?}, after {covered_after:?}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A segment still directly covering a live fragment nobody else
+        /// covers is NOT superseded, even with all its translated
+        /// destinations taken over.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn live_direct_coverage_prevents_pruning() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            // Only fragment 1 is repartitioned; the old segment keeps live
+            // direct coverage of fragment 0.
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[1], 10).await;
+            commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, Some(&[10, 11])).await;
+
+            assert!(
+                derive_superseded_segments(&dataset)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .is_empty(),
+                "a segment with exclusive live direct coverage must be kept"
+            );
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(), 2);
+        }
+
+        /// Partial takeover: one destination still lacks direct coverage, so
+        /// the old segment stays (and so does the transition).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn partial_takeover_keeps_segment_and_transition() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, Some(&[10])).await;
+
+            assert!(
+                derive_superseded_segments(&dataset)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .is_empty()
+            );
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(), 2);
+            assert!(
+                fri_entry(&dataset).await.is_some(),
+                "destination 11 lacks direct coverage, so the transition stays"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Mutual redundancy: of segments fully covering each other, exactly
+        /// one survives, deterministically the newest.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn mutual_redundancy_keeps_single_newest_segment() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let _delta1 = commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, None).await;
+            let delta2 = commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, None).await;
+            assert_eq!(stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(), 3);
+
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments.iter().map(|s| s.uuid).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![delta2],
+                "exactly the newest of the mutually redundant segments survives"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+        }
+
+        /// An unknown envelope-level record may carry lineage this build
+        /// cannot see: both the splice parser and the ledger refuse, so the
+        /// trim never rewrites such a history.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn unknown_envelope_record_refuses_trim() {
+            use prost::Message;
+            let transition = pb_fri::Transition {
+                sources: vec![digest(1)],
+                destinations: vec![digest(2)],
+                mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::StablePartition(
+                    pb_fri::StablePartition {
+                        map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                        map_size_bytes: 1,
+                        base_id: None,
+                    },
+                )),
+            };
+            let mut content = pb_fri::InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions: vec![],
+                transitions: vec![transition],
+            }
+            .encode_to_vec();
+            prost::encoding::encode_key(
+                9,
+                prost::encoding::WireType::LengthDelimited,
+                &mut content,
+            );
+            prost::encoding::encode_varint(6, &mut content);
+            content.extend_from_slice(b"future");
+
+            let Err(error) = split_trim_elements(&content) else {
+                panic!("an unknown envelope record must refuse the splice")
+            };
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+            let ledger =
+                crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(1, &content)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                ledger.has_unsupported_transitions(),
+                "the ledger must report envelope-level unknowns so every \
+                 maintenance path (and _fri GC) refuses consistently"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Superseded-segment pruning derives its removal set through the
+        /// lenient reader path, where coverage crossing an unknown record
+        /// translates to nothing -- so a history this build cannot fully
+        /// interpret must refuse the prune BEFORE any removal commit, not
+        /// prune a segment a newer client still serves.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn unknown_envelope_record_refuses_pruning() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let old_segment = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await[0].clone();
+            // A delta fully covering the destinations: without the unknown
+            // record the old segment would be pruned (see
+            // `superseded_segment_pruned_then_transition_released`).
+            let delta = commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, None).await;
+
+            // Splice an unknown envelope-level record into the committed
+            // entry, standing in for a record written by a newer Lance.
+            let entry = fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let mut content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            content.extend(reader_tests::field(9, b"future envelope record"));
+            let unknown_entry = IndexMetadata {
+                index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                    type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                    value: reader_tests::field(1, &content),
+                })),
+                ..entry.clone()
+            };
+            let indices = read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|idx| {
+                if idx.uuid == entry.uuid {
+                    unknown_entry.clone()
+                } else {
+                    idx
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+            reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let error = cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("upgrade"), "{error}");
+            // The refusal fired before the removal-only commit: no new
+            // version was written and the otherwise-superseded segment is
+            // still present.
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version);
+            let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let mut uuids: Vec<_> = segments.iter().map(|s| s.uuid).collect();
+            uuids.sort();
+            let mut expected = vec![old_segment.uuid, delta];
+            expected.sort();
+            assert_eq!(uuids, expected);
+        }
+
+        fn unusable_details() -> Option<Arc<prost_types::Any>> {
+            Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "/lance.index.FutureIndexDetails".into(),
+                value: vec![],
+            }))
+        }
+
+        /// Direct coverage from a segment this build cannot serve must not
+        /// mask a transition: only usable segments count as taking over a
+        /// destination, while any segment's provenance still pins.
+        #[test]
+        fn unusable_segments_do_not_mask_transition_coverage() {
+            let elements = vec![transition_element(&[1, 2], &[5, 6])];
+            let pinner = named_index("a_idx", 1, &[1, 2]);
+            let mut unusable_taker = named_index("a_idx", 2, &[5, 6]);
+            unusable_taker.index_details = unusable_details();
+            assert_eq!(
+                compute_tagged_retention(&elements, &[pinner.clone(), unusable_taker]),
+                vec![true],
+                "an unusable segment's bitmap must not stand in as direct coverage"
+            );
+            // The same takeover by a usable segment releases the transition.
+            assert_eq!(
+                compute_tagged_retention(&elements, &[pinner, named_index("a_idx", 2, &[5, 6])]),
+                vec![false]
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Integration: an unusable segment claiming the destinations
+        /// neither prunes the usable old segment nor releases the
+        /// transition.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn unusable_segment_neither_masks_nor_prunes() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let old_segment = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await[0].clone();
+
+            // A segment of a type this build has no reader for, claiming the
+            // destinations directly (e.g. written by a newer Lance).
+            let unusable = IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                fields: old_segment.fields.clone(),
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                name: "i_idx".into(),
+                dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some([10u32, 11].into_iter().collect()),
+                index_details: unusable_details(),
+                index_version: 0,
+                created_at: None,
+                base_id: None,
+                files: None,
+            };
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![unusable],
+                            removed_indices: vec![],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert!(
+                segments.iter().any(|s| s.uuid == old_segment.uuid),
+                "the only segment this build can serve must not be pruned"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2, "the unusable segment is kept too");
+            assert!(
+                fri_entry(&dataset).await.is_some(),
+                "a destination covered only by an unusable segment keeps its transition"
+            );
+        }
+
+        async fn narrow_index_bitmap(dataset: &mut Dataset, name: &str, covered: &[u32]) {
+            let original = stored_segments(dataset, name).await[0].clone();
+            let mut narrowed = original.clone();
+            narrowed.fragment_bitmap = Some(covered.iter().copied().collect());
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![narrowed],
+                            removed_indices: vec![original],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        /// A trim whose rebase finds nothing left to trim (a concurrent
+        /// commit re-pinned the history mid-trim) must abort instead of
+        /// writing an empty no-op version.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn rebased_noop_trim_commits_no_version() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            // Drain: the trim would delete the entry.
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let mut stale = dataset.clone();
+            // Concurrent commit re-pins the history: the segment's coverage
+            // returns to the sources, so nothing is trimmable anymore.
+            narrow_index_bitmap(&mut dataset, "i_idx", &[0, 1]).await;
+            let expected_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut stale).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                stale.manifest.version, expected_version,
+                "the rebased no-op trim must not write a version"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                fri_entry(&stale).await.is_some(),
+                "the re-pinned history stays"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// v0 guard: pruning only runs in the tagged branch; a v0 cleanup
+        /// leaves redundant segments alone.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn v0_cleanup_never_prunes_segments() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            commit_delta_segment(&mut dataset, None).await;
+            assert_eq!(stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(), 2);
+
+            // A v0 FRI entry via deferred compaction on the untagged table.
+            dataset.delete("i < 2").await.unwrap();
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let entry = fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 0);
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await.len(),
+                2,
+                "the v0 path must not prune segments"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Append `rows` rows of `i` counting up from `start` as one fragment.
+        async fn append_rows(dataset: Dataset, start: i32, rows: u64) -> Dataset {
+            let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col(
+                    "i",
+                    lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(start, 1),
+                )
+                .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(rows))
+                .unwrap();
+            crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// Sorted `i` under `predicate`, with or without the scalar index.
+        async fn filtered_values(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str, use_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+            scan.use_scalar_index(use_index);
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .collect();
+            values.sort_unstable();
+            values
+        }
+
+        /// (T7, trim half) A v0 deferred compaction (index file left holding
+        /// the source addresses), lifted into a tagged history by a stable
+        /// partition of fragments outside the index's lineage. The first
+        /// tagged trim drops the partition's transition (nothing derives
+        /// through it) but keeps the legacy version the stale segment pins,
+        /// and the rebuilt entry bitmap names the legacy SOURCE ids as well
+        /// as the destination. The table keeps answering from a fresh session.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn first_tagged_trim_records_legacy_sources_in_the_entry_bitmap() {
+            use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+
+            let dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_dataset(
+                    dir.as_str(),
+                    FragmentCount::from(2),
+                    FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = append_rows(dataset, 100, 2).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_rows(dataset, 102, 2).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::BTree,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let built = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await[0].clone();
+            // Real v0 deferred compaction of the two small fragments.
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let ids: Vec<u32> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+            assert_eq!(ids.len(), 3, "{ids:?}");
+            let destination = ids[2];
+            assert!(destination > 3);
+            let entry = fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 0);
+            let records = load_frag_reuse_records(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(records.legacy_versions.len(), 1);
+            assert!(records.transitions.is_empty());
+            let legacy_version = records.legacy_versions[0].dataset_version;
+            let listed = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx")
+                .cloned()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(listed.uuid, built.uuid);
+            assert!(
+                listed
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .contains(destination),
+                "{:?}",
+                listed.fragment_bitmap
+            );
+            assert!(listed.dataset_version < legacy_version);
+
+            // Upgrade: a stable partition of two fresh, unindexed fragments.
+            let dataset = append_rows(dataset, 300, 2).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_rows(dataset, 302, 2).await;
+            let ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let sources = vec![ids[ids.len() - 2], ids[ids.len() - 1]];
+            let dest_base = ids.iter().max().unwrap() + 1;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &sources, dest_base).await;
+            let lifted = fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(lifted.index_version, 1);
+            let records = load_frag_reuse_records(&dataset, &lifted).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(records.legacy_versions.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(records.transitions.len(), 1);
+            // The lift keeps the v0 bitmap (destinations only) plus the
+            // partition's fragments; the legacy sources are not named yet.
+            let lifted_bitmap = lifted.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap();
+            assert!(lifted_bitmap.contains(destination), "{lifted_bitmap:?}");
+            assert!(!lifted_bitmap.contains(2), "{lifted_bitmap:?}");
+            assert!(!lifted_bitmap.contains(3), "{lifted_bitmap:?}");
+
+            // The first tagged trim: the transition goes (no index derives
+            // through it), the legacy version stays (the segment is stale
+            // against it) and the entry bitmap is rebuilt from what remains.
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                dataset.manifest.version > version_before,
+                "the trim commits"
+            );
+            let trimmed = fri_entry(&dataset).await.expect("the entry is retained");
+            assert_ne!(trimmed.uuid, lifted.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(trimmed.index_version, 1);
+            let records = load_frag_reuse_records(&dataset, &trimmed).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(records.legacy_versions.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(records.legacy_versions[0].dataset_version, legacy_version);
+            assert!(records.transitions.is_empty());
+            assert_eq!(
+                trimmed.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 3, destination]),
+                "the rebuilt bitmap names the legacy sources and destination"
+            );
+            // The segment is untouched by the trim.
+            let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(segments.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(segments[0].uuid, built.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(segments[0].dataset_version, built.dataset_version);
+
+            // A fresh session answers the compacted rows through the index.
+            let dataset = crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(dir.as_str())
+                .with_session(Arc::new(crate::session::Session::default()))
+                .load()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap().uuid, trimmed.uuid);
+            for value in [0, 5, 100, 101, 102, 103, 300, 303] {
+                let predicate = format!("i = {value}");
+                let plan = dataset
+                    .scan()
+                    .filter(&predicate)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .use_scalar_index(true)
+                    .explain_plan(false)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let indexed = filtered_values(&dataset, &predicate, true).await;
+                assert_eq!(indexed, filtered_values(&dataset, &predicate, false).await);
+                if value < 300 {
+                    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{predicate}: {plan}");
+                    assert_eq!(indexed, vec![value]);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn row_addrs_by_i(dataset: &Dataset) -> HashMap<i32, u64> {
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["i"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_address()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let addrs = batch[ROW_ADDR].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+        ids.values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .zip(addrs.values().iter().copied())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_frag_reuse_index_accessor() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(dataset.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap().is_none());
+
+        // Non-deferred compaction of fragment 0 (deletions above the threshold) records no FRI.
+        dataset.delete("i < 200").await.unwrap();
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1_000,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(dataset.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap().is_none());
+        let num_fragments = dataset.fragments().len();
+        assert_eq!(num_fragments, 6);
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Deletions above the threshold make exactly these two fragments candidates.
+        dataset.delete("i >= 1000 AND i < 1250").await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("i >= 2000 AND i < 2250").await.unwrap();
+        let before = row_addrs_by_i(&dataset).await;
+        let pre_compaction_version = dataset.version().version;
+        let rewritten_frags = [
+            RowAddress::from(before[&1250]).fragment_id(),
+            RowAddress::from(before[&2250]).fragment_id(),
+        ];
+        let untouched_addr = before[&5000];
+        // Offset 0 of the first rewritten fragment is i=1000, deleted above.
+        let deleted_addr = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(rewritten_frags[0], 0));
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1_000,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let after = row_addrs_by_i(&dataset).await;
+        for frag in rewritten_frags {
+            assert!(
+                dataset.fragments().iter().all(|f| f.id != u64::from(frag)),
+                "fragment {frag} should have been rewritten"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let frag_reuse_index = dataset
+            .frag_reuse_index()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("deferred compaction must record an FRI");
+        let frag_reuse_index_meta = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("FRI must be in the manifest");
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.uuid, frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.details.versions.len(), 1);
+        assert_false!(frag_reuse_index.is_empty());
+
+        // Cache reuse, not an API guarantee.
+        let again = dataset.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&frag_reuse_index, &again));
+
+        let remap = frag_reuse_index.row_addr_remap();
+        for i in [1250, 1999, 2250, 2999] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                remap.get(before[&i]),
+                Some(Some(after[&i])),
+                "row i={i} should have moved"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.remap_row_id(before[&i]), Some(after[&i]));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(deleted_addr), Some(None));
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.remap_row_id(deleted_addr), None);
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(untouched_addr), None);
+        assert_eq!(after[&5000], untouched_addr);
+        assert_eq!(
+            frag_reuse_index.remap_row_id(untouched_addr),
+            Some(untouched_addr)
+        );
+
+        let pre_compaction = dataset
+            .checkout_version(pre_compaction_version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(pre_compaction.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap().is_none());
+
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let trimmed = dataset
+            .frag_reuse_index()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("trimmed FRI keeps an (empty) manifest entry");
+        assert_true!(trimmed.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(trimmed.details.versions.len(), 0);
+        assert_ne!(trimmed.uuid, frag_reuse_index.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(trimmed.row_addr_remap().get(before[&1250]), None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            trimmed.remap_row_id(before[&1250]),
+            Some(before[&1250]),
+            "trimmed history passes a moved address through unchanged"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Deleting every row of a destination fragment removes it from the manifest,
+    /// but the FRI still maps into it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_frag_reuse_index_mapped_destination_can_be_removed() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(4), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Target equals fragment size, so only the two deletion-heavy fragments are candidates.
+        dataset.delete("i < 250").await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("i >= 1000 AND i < 1250").await.unwrap();
+        let before = row_addrs_by_i(&dataset).await;
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1_000,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let after = row_addrs_by_i(&dataset).await;
+        let moved_rows = [250, 999, 1250, 1999];
+        let destination_frags: Vec<u32> = moved_rows
+            .iter()
+            .map(|i| RowAddress::from(after[i]).fragment_id())
+            .collect();
+        for i in moved_rows {
+            assert_ne!(before[&i], after[&i], "row i={i} should have moved");
+        }
+
+        dataset.delete("i < 2000").await.unwrap();
+        let remaining_frag_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        for frag in &destination_frags {
+            assert!(
+                !remaining_frag_ids.contains(&u64::from(*frag)),
+                "destination fragment {frag} should be removed; remaining: {remaining_frag_ids:?}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let frag_reuse_index = dataset.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.details.versions.len(), 1);
+        for i in moved_rows {
+            assert_eq!(
+                frag_reuse_index.row_addr_remap().get(before[&i]),
+                Some(Some(after[&i])),
+                "row i={i} still maps into a removed fragment"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.remap_row_id(before[&i]), Some(after[&i]));
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal.rs
index 8444c199b5a..8b371bb3fed 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal.rs
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 //!
 //! ## Architecture
 //!
-//! Each region has:
+//! Each shard has:
 //! - A **MemTable** for in-memory data (immediately queryable)
 //! - A **WAL Buffer** for durability (persisted to object storage)
 //! - **In-memory indexes** (BTree, IVF-PQ, FTS) for indexed queries
@@ -29,19 +29,511 @@
 //!
 //! ## Epoch-Based Fencing
 //!
-//! Each region has exactly one active writer at any time, enforced via
-//! monotonically increasing writer epochs in the region manifest.
+//! Each shard has exactly one active writer at any time, enforced via
+//! monotonically increasing writer epochs in the shard manifest.
 
 mod api;
-mod index;
+mod hnsw;
+pub mod index;
 mod manifest;
 pub mod memtable;
-mod util;
+pub mod observer;
+pub(crate) mod reconcile;
+pub mod scanner;
+pub mod sharding;
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(crate) mod test_util;
+pub mod util;
 mod wal;
 pub mod write;
 
-pub use api::{DatasetMemWalExt, MemWalConfig};
-pub use manifest::RegionManifestStore;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY, Schema};
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use self::util::{generate_random_hash, shard_base_path};
+use crate::dataset::fragment::write::generate_random_filename;
+
+/// Column name for the mem_wal tombstone (delete sentinel) marker.
+///
+/// `_tombstone` is a *physical* column present only in mem_wal memtables and
+/// SSTables — it is deliberately kept out of the base table (hard
+/// delete), so it is **not** a virtual [`is_system_column`](lance_core::is_system_column).
+/// A row with `_tombstone = true` is a delete sentinel: the newest value for
+/// its primary key, carrying null in every non-PK column, that wins
+/// newest-per-PK resolution and is then silently dropped from query results.
+///
+/// The column is owned end-to-end by lance: callers pass the logical schema and
+/// lance injects the column on the write path ([`write::ShardWriter::put`] /
+/// [`write::ShardWriter::delete`]), so no caller ever constructs or names it.
+pub const TOMBSTONE: &str = "_tombstone";
+
+/// The storage identity reserved for one MemTable generation.
+///
+/// Managed Blob v2 payloads are written beneath `data_file_name` before the
+/// corresponding Lance data file exists, so this identity follows the
+/// MemTable through WAL persistence, recovery, and SSTable flush. A successor
+/// writer may continue a recovered target after reserving its persisted Blob
+/// IDs; `creator_epoch` identifies the writer that originally created the
+/// target, not necessarily the writer currently appending to it.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) struct MemTableDataTarget {
+    pub generation: u64,
+    pub generation_dir: String,
+    pub data_file_name: String,
+    pub creator_epoch: u64,
+    pub batch_capacity: usize,
+}
+
+impl MemTableDataTarget {
+    pub fn new(generation: u64, creator_epoch: u64, batch_capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        let random_hash = generate_random_hash();
+        Self {
+            generation,
+            generation_dir: format!("{random_hash}_gen_{generation}"),
+            data_file_name: format!("{}.lance", generate_random_filename()),
+            creator_epoch,
+            batch_capacity,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn generation_path(&self, base_path: &Path, shard_id: &Uuid) -> Path {
+        shard_base_path(base_path, shard_id).join(self.generation_dir.as_str())
+    }
+
+    pub fn data_file_key(&self) -> &str {
+        self.data_file_name
+            .strip_suffix(".lance")
+            .unwrap_or(&self.data_file_name)
+    }
+
+    fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let simple_component = |value: &str| {
+            !value.is_empty()
+                && value != "."
+                && value != ".."
+                && !value.contains('/')
+                && !value.contains('\\')
+        };
+        if !simple_component(&self.generation_dir)
+            || !simple_component(&self.data_file_name)
+            || !self.data_file_name.ends_with(".lance")
+            || self.batch_capacity == 0
+            || !self
+                .generation_dir
+                .ends_with(format!("_gen_{}", self.generation).as_str())
+        {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::io(format!(
+                "invalid MemTable data target for generation {}: directory {:?}, file {:?}",
+                self.generation, self.generation_dir, self.data_file_name
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// The mem_wal tombstone field appended to the logical schema on the way to the
+/// storage schema.
+///
+/// Non-nullable: the write path always populates it (`false` for normal rows,
+/// `true` for tombstones). Non-nullability also lets the point-lookup base arm
+/// synthesize a matching `Literal(false)` column for the `CoalesceFirstExec`
+/// exact-schema check.
+pub fn tombstone_field() -> ArrowField {
+    ArrowField::new(TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, false)
+}
+
+/// Derive a shard's *storage* schema from its *logical* (base table) schema by
+/// widening every top-level field to nullable except the primary key and
+/// `_tombstone`.
+///
+/// A tombstone carries the primary key and null everywhere else, so storage
+/// must permit a null wherever the base table does not. The logical schema
+/// stays the caller's contract — validated at [`write::ShardWriter::put`],
+/// restored at the scan's egress.
+///
+/// Top-level only: Arrow validates nullability only there, so a vector column's
+/// item field is untouched. The primary key is excluded because
+/// [`lance_core::datatypes::Schema`] requires it non-nullable, `_tombstone`
+/// because the write path always populates it. Idempotent.
+pub fn relax_non_pk_nullability(
+    logical_schema: &ArrowSchema,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    let fields: Vec<ArrowField> = logical_schema
+        .fields()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| {
+            let keep = field.is_nullable()
+                || field.name() == TOMBSTONE
+                || pk_columns.iter().any(|c| c == field.name());
+            let field = field.as_ref().clone();
+            if keep {
+                field
+            } else {
+                field.with_nullable(true)
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        fields,
+        logical_schema.metadata().clone(),
+    ))
+}
+
+/// The schema's Arrow form, with each field's id carried in its metadata.
+///
+/// `From<&Field> for ArrowField` drops the id, leaving everything downstream
+/// matching on name — which loses a column across a rename. Arrow IPC preserves
+/// field metadata, so entries written under this schema carry the id too.
+///
+/// Scoped to the memtable path on purpose: emitting ids from the global Arrow
+/// conversion would change every schema Lance hands out, including for callers
+/// that compare schemas for equality.
+pub fn arrow_schema_with_field_ids(schema: &Schema) -> ArrowSchema {
+    let arrow: ArrowSchema = schema.into();
+    let fields: Vec<ArrowField> = arrow
+        .fields()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| stamp_field_id(field, &schema.fields))
+        .collect();
+    ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(fields, arrow.metadata().clone())
+}
+
+/// One field carrying its lance id, and its struct children carrying theirs.
+///
+/// A struct's children are fields in their own right: they have ids, a rename
+/// moves one child's name and not the parent's, and a reader that cannot see a
+/// child's id has only its name to go on.
+fn stamp_field_id(field: &ArrowField, among: &[Field]) -> ArrowField {
+    let Some(source) = among.iter().find(|f| f.name == *field.name()) else {
+        return field.clone();
+    };
+    let field = match source.id {
+        id if id >= 0 => {
+            let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+            metadata.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), id.to_string());
+            field.clone().with_metadata(metadata)
+        }
+        _ => field.clone(),
+    };
+    // A container carries its children inside its own type, and each of them is
+    // a field with an id of its own: a list's element, and that element's
+    // children in turn.
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Struct(children) => {
+            let children: Vec<ArrowField> = children
+                .iter()
+                .map(|child| stamp_field_id(child, &source.children))
+                .collect();
+            field.with_data_type(DataType::Struct(children.into()))
+        }
+        DataType::List(element) => {
+            let element = stamp_field_id(element, &source.children);
+            field.with_data_type(DataType::List(Arc::new(element)))
+        }
+        DataType::LargeList(element) => {
+            let element = stamp_field_id(element, &source.children);
+            field.with_data_type(DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(element)))
+        }
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(element, size) => {
+            let size = *size;
+            let element = stamp_field_id(element, &source.children);
+            field.with_data_type(DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(element), size))
+        }
+        DataType::Map(entries, sorted) => {
+            let sorted = *sorted;
+            let entries = stamp_field_id(entries, &source.children);
+            field.with_data_type(DataType::Map(Arc::new(entries), sorted))
+        }
+        _ => field,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extend the logical schema with the trailing `_tombstone` column — the
+/// intermediate [`relax_non_pk_nullability`] widens into the storage schema.
+///
+/// Idempotent: a schema that already carries `_tombstone` (a reopen/replay
+/// path) is returned unchanged. Schema-level metadata and per-field metadata
+/// (e.g. the `lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key` marker) are preserved.
+pub fn schema_with_tombstone(base: &ArrowSchema) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    if base.column_with_name(TOMBSTONE).is_some() {
+        return Arc::new(base.clone());
+    }
+    let mut fields: Vec<ArrowField> = base.fields().iter().map(|f| f.as_ref().clone()).collect();
+    fields.push(tombstone_field());
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        fields,
+        base.metadata().clone(),
+    ))
+}
+
+/// `batches`, written under `source_schema`, brought to `target_schema`.
+///
+/// Columns match by field id where both sides carry one, by name otherwise, at
+/// every level including inside structs, so a rename is followed. A column the
+/// target declares and the batches lack is filled with typed nulls, `_tombstone`
+/// with `false`; a column the target does not declare is dropped; a missing
+/// primary key is an error.
+///
+/// `batches` must be in `source_schema` order. The result is in `target_schema`
+/// order, without field ids.
+pub fn reconcile_batches(
+    source_schema: &ArrowSchema,
+    target_schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+    batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+    // A generation numbers its own columns -- `_tombstone`, and anything the
+    // table has since dropped -- in its own schema, so those ids collide with
+    // whatever the table gave those numbers. Stripped before resolution, or a
+    // column added to the table resolves to whichever of them shares its id.
+    let source = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        source_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| {
+                match field.name() != TOMBSTONE && !lance_core::is_system_column(field.name()) {
+                    true => field.as_ref().clone(),
+                    false => reconcile::without_field_id(field),
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        source_schema.metadata().clone(),
+    );
+    let plan =
+        reconcile::Plan::resolve(&source, target_schema, pk_columns)?.emitting_plain_schema();
+    if plan.is_identity() {
+        return Ok(batches);
+    }
+    batches.iter().map(|batch| plan.apply(batch)).collect()
+}
+
+pub use api::{DatasetMemWalExt, InitializeMemWalBuilder, validate_maintained_indexes};
+pub use index::{MemIndexKind, MemTableVisibility};
+pub use manifest::ShardManifestStore;
 pub use memtable::scanner::MemTableScanner;
-pub use write::RegionWriter;
-pub use write::RegionWriterConfig;
+pub use scanner::{LsmDataSource, LsmGeneration, LsmScanner, ShardSnapshot};
+pub use sharding::{
+    evaluate_sharding_spec, evaluate_sharding_spec_with_embedded_columns,
+    evaluate_sharding_spec_with_source_columns,
+};
+pub use wal::{BatchDurableWatcher, WalAppendResult, WalAppender, WalReadEntry, WalTailer};
+pub use write::SealFence;
+pub use write::ShardWriter;
+pub use write::ShardWriterConfig;
+pub use write::WriteResult;
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_schema::Fields;
+
+    fn logical() -> ArrowSchema {
+        ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("count", DataType::Int64, false),
+            ArrowField::new("note", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ])
+    }
+
+    fn stamped(name: &str, data_type: DataType, id: i32) -> ArrowField {
+        ArrowField::new(name, data_type, true).with_metadata(
+            [(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), id.to_string())]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// A generation numbers `_tombstone` in its own schema, so its id is
+    /// whatever that generation reached -- and the table has given that same
+    /// number to a column of its own. Honouring it would resolve the two to
+    /// each other and refuse the merge on their types.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_generations_tombstone_does_not_answer_for_a_column_sharing_its_id() {
+        let source = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            stamped("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+            stamped(TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, 1),
+        ]);
+        // The table gave id 1 to a column added after that generation sealed.
+        let target = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            stamped("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+            stamped("extra", DataType::Int64, 1),
+            ArrowField::new(TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(source.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::BooleanArray::from(vec![false])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .expect("a batch under the source schema");
+
+        let out = reconcile_batches(&source, &target, &["id".to_string()], vec![batch])
+            .expect("the tombstone's id must not be honoured");
+        let out = &out[0];
+        assert!(
+            out.column_by_name("extra").expect("extra").is_null(0),
+            "the added column has no value in a generation sealed before it"
+        );
+        let tombstone = out
+            .column_by_name(TOMBSTONE)
+            .expect("_tombstone")
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BooleanArray>()
+            .expect("boolean");
+        assert!(!tombstone.value(0), "and the row is still live");
+    }
+
+    /// Two children exchanging names is the case a name match cannot survive:
+    /// both sides carry the same two names, so only the ids say which values
+    /// belong to which. Each child's values must follow its id to the name the
+    /// target now gives it.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_pair_of_children_that_swapped_names_follow_their_ids() {
+        let struct_of = |first: &str, second: &str, ids: (i32, i32)| {
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                stamped(first, DataType::Int64, ids.0),
+                stamped(second, DataType::Int64, ids.1),
+            ]))
+        };
+        let source = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            stamped("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+            stamped("info", struct_of("a", "b", (1, 2)), 3),
+        ]);
+        // The table has since exchanged the two children's names; the ids stay.
+        let target = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            stamped("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+            stamped("info", struct_of("b", "a", (1, 2)), 3),
+        ]));
+
+        let info = arrow_array::StructArray::new(
+            match source.field(1).data_type() {
+                DataType::Struct(fields) => fields.clone(),
+                _ => unreachable!("info is a struct"),
+            },
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![10])) as arrow_array::ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![20])),
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(source.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(info),
+            ],
+        )
+        .expect("a batch under the source schema");
+
+        let out = reconcile_batches(&source, &target, &["id".to_string()], vec![batch])
+            .expect("reconcile");
+        let info = out[0]
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
+            .expect("info is a struct");
+
+        // `b` is the name id 1 now wears, so it must hold id 1's value.
+        let b = info
+            .column_by_name("b")
+            .expect("b")
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int64Array>()
+            .expect("int64");
+        assert_eq!(b.value(0), 10, "id 1's value follows its id to `b`");
+
+        let a = info
+            .column_by_name("a")
+            .expect("a")
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int64Array>()
+            .expect("int64");
+        assert_eq!(a.value(0), 20, "id 2's value follows its id to `a`");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn relax_widens_every_non_pk_field_and_leaves_the_key_alone() {
+        let relaxed = relax_non_pk_nullability(&logical(), &["id".to_string()]);
+
+        assert!(
+            !relaxed.field(0).is_nullable(),
+            "the primary key stays strict"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            relaxed.field(1).is_nullable(),
+            "`count` must accept a tombstone null"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            relaxed.field(2).is_nullable(),
+            "already-nullable is untouched"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn relax_leaves_nested_fields_exactly_as_declared() {
+        // Arrow validates nullability only at the top level, and a vector
+        // column's item field must not gain a validity layer.
+        let item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, false));
+        let child = ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false);
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("vector", DataType::FixedSizeList(item, 4), false),
+            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![child])), false),
+        ]);
+
+        let relaxed = relax_non_pk_nullability(&schema, &["id".to_string()]);
+
+        assert!(relaxed.field(1).is_nullable());
+        match relaxed.field(1).data_type() {
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(f, _) => assert!(!f.is_nullable(), "item field untouched"),
+            other => panic!("expected FixedSizeList, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+        match relaxed.field(2).data_type() {
+            DataType::Struct(fields) => assert!(!fields[0].is_nullable(), "child field untouched"),
+            other => panic!("expected Struct, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn relax_keeps_tombstone_non_nullable_and_is_idempotent() {
+        let pk = ["id".to_string()];
+        let once = relax_non_pk_nullability(&schema_with_tombstone(&logical()), &pk);
+        let twice = relax_non_pk_nullability(&once, &pk);
+
+        let tombstone = once.field_with_name(TOMBSTONE).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !tombstone.is_nullable(),
+            "the write path always populates _tombstone"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(once, twice);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn relax_preserves_schema_and_field_metadata() {
+        // The `lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key` marker rides on field
+        // metadata, so losing it here would silently drop the shard's PK.
+        let marked = ArrowField::new("count", DataType::Int64, false)
+            .with_metadata([("k".to_string(), "v".to_string())].into());
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false), marked],
+            [("s".to_string(), "m".to_string())].into(),
+        );
+
+        let relaxed = relax_non_pk_nullability(&schema, &["id".to_string()]);
+
+        assert_eq!(relaxed.metadata().get("s").map(String::as_str), Some("m"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            relaxed.field(1).metadata().get("k").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("v")
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/api.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/api.rs
index 1298395139e..89881b1315a 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/api.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/api.rs
@@ -3,73 +3,603 @@
 
 //! Dataset API extensions for MemWAL.
 //!
-//! This module provides the user-facing API for initializing and using MemWAL
-//! on a Dataset.
+//! # Limitations
+//!
+//! A MemWAL maintains the indexes its spec names, or every index the table has
+//! when it names none. The set is re-read whenever a MemTable is built, so an
+//! index created later is picked up without the spec being touched. Naming one
+//! that never existed is rejected; one the dataset no longer has is skipped
+//! when a shard opens. The sharding spec is not replaceable, because the
+//! generations already written were homed under it.
+//!
+//! A writer that is already open keeps the set it opened with until something
+//! calls [`DatasetMemWalExt::refresh_mem_wal_index_configs`].
+//!
+//! A rename reaches sealed generations and replay, but not the active MemTable,
+//! which keeps its original names until its writer reopens.
+//!
+//! # Upgrading
+//!
+//! Generations are read by field id. Ones flushed before that carry positional
+//! ids instead, which mispair against a table whose ids have gaps, and nothing
+//! records which scheme a generation used. Compact generations into base before
+//! upgrading. Durable WAL entries are unaffected: they carry no ids.
+//!
+//! # Known gaps
+//!
+//! A schema change started on a handle opened before the MemWAL was installed
+//! still commits: the refusals below read MemWAL state from the caller's
+//! handle, and the conflict resolver accepts both commits in either order.
+//!
+//! Adding a non-nullable column is not refused, which leaves rows in older
+//! generations with no value for it.
+//!
+//! A generation frozen before an index joined the maintained set is flushed
+//! without a vector or full-text index for it, and search over both is
+//! index-only, so its rows answer neither until compaction folds them into the
+//! base table.
 
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::mem_wal::{MemWalIndexDetails, RegionSpec, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME};
-use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
-use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
-use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_index::mem_wal::{MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, MemWalIndexDetails, ShardingField, ShardingSpec};
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
-use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::dataset::CommitBuilder;
-use crate::index::mem_wal::new_mem_wal_index_meta;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
-use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::index::mem_wal::{load_mem_wal_index_details, new_mem_wal_index_meta};
 
+use super::index::{MemIndexKind, unsupported_index_type, validate_index_configs};
+use super::scanner::sstable_cache::open_sstable;
+use super::scanner::{DatasetCache, ShardSnapshot};
+use super::schema_with_tombstone;
+use super::util::derived_store_params;
 use super::write::MemIndexConfig;
-use super::write::RegionWriter;
-use super::RegionWriterConfig;
+use super::write::ShardWriter;
+use super::{SealFence, ShardWriterConfig};
+
+/// Spec id of the sole sharding spec installed by [`InitializeMemWalBuilder`].
+const SHARDING_SPEC_ID: u32 = 1;
+
+/// Spec id used by manually managed shards, which have no sharding spec.
+const MANUAL_SHARD_SPEC_ID: u32 = 0;
+
+/// Field id, within the sharding spec, of the derived shard-routing value.
+const SHARDING_FIELD_ID: &str = "bucket";
+
+/// Result type of the derived shard-routing value.
+const SHARDING_RESULT_TYPE: &str = "int32";
+
+/// Transform name for [`InitializeMemWalBuilder::bucket_sharding`]. Matches
+/// Iceberg's `bucket(col, N)` partition transform name.
+const BUCKET_TRANSFORM: &str = "bucket";
+
+/// Transform name for [`InitializeMemWalBuilder::unsharded`]: every row maps to
+/// a single shard.
+const UNSHARDED_TRANSFORM: &str = "unsharded";
+
+/// Transform name for [`InitializeMemWalBuilder::identity_sharding`]: the shard
+/// value is the raw value of the source column.
+const IDENTITY_TRANSFORM: &str = "identity";
+
+/// Parameter key holding the bucket count `N` on the bucket transform.
+const NUM_BUCKETS_PARAM: &str = "num_buckets";
+
+/// Inclusive upper bound for `num_buckets`. Bounds the number of distinct
+/// MemWAL shards a single bucket spec can address, which caps how many shard
+/// manifests the dataset has to manage.
+const MAX_NUM_BUCKETS: u32 = 1024;
+
+/// Resolve the shard identity before a dataset-level writer creates or claims
+/// a manifest.
+fn resolve_writer_shard_spec_id(
+    details: &MemWalIndexDetails,
+    configured_spec_id: u32,
+) -> Result<u32> {
+    match details.sharding_specs.as_slice() {
+        [] if configured_spec_id == MANUAL_SHARD_SPEC_ID => Ok(MANUAL_SHARD_SPEC_ID),
+        [] => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "shard_spec_id {configured_spec_id} is invalid for manual sharding; expected {MANUAL_SHARD_SPEC_ID}"
+        ))),
+        [spec] if configured_spec_id == MANUAL_SHARD_SPEC_ID => Ok(spec.spec_id),
+        [spec] if configured_spec_id == spec.spec_id => Ok(configured_spec_id),
+        [spec] => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "shard_spec_id {configured_spec_id} does not match the MemWAL index sharding spec id {}",
+            spec.spec_id
+        ))),
+        specs => Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "opening a MemWAL writer requires at most one sharding spec, found {}",
+            specs.len()
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// How writes are partitioned into MemWAL shards.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum Sharding {
+    /// No sharding spec is recorded; shards are managed manually.
+    Manual,
+    /// A single shard; every row is routed to it.
+    Unsharded,
+    /// Hash-bucket a shard key into `num_buckets` shards.
+    Bucket { column: String, num_buckets: u32 },
+    /// Shard by the raw value of `column` (identity transform).
+    Identity { column: String },
+}
+
+/// Builder for initializing MemWAL on a [`Dataset`].
+///
+/// Created by [`DatasetMemWalExt::initialize_mem_wal`]. Choose a sharding
+/// strategy and the indexes to maintain, then call [`execute`](Self::execute).
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```ignore
+/// use lance::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+///
+/// dataset
+///     .initialize_mem_wal()
+///     .bucket_sharding("id", 16)
+///     .maintained_indexes(["id_btree"])
+///     .execute()
+///     .await?;
+/// ```
+#[must_use = "InitializeMemWalBuilder does nothing unless `.execute()` is awaited"]
+pub struct InitializeMemWalBuilder<'a> {
+    dataset: &'a mut Dataset,
+    sharding: Sharding,
+    maintained_indexes: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    writer_config_defaults: HashMap<String, String>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> InitializeMemWalBuilder<'a> {
+    fn new(dataset: &'a mut Dataset) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            sharding: Sharding::Manual,
+            maintained_indexes: None,
+            writer_config_defaults: HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Route every row to a single MemWAL shard.
+    pub fn unsharded(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.sharding = Sharding::Unsharded;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Hash-bucket `column` into `num_buckets` shards.
+    ///
+    /// `column` must name a scalar dataset column that can be hash-bucketed.
+    /// `num_buckets` must be in `[1, 1024]`. These constraints are validated
+    /// by [`execute`](Self::execute).
+    pub fn bucket_sharding(mut self, column: impl Into<String>, num_buckets: u32) -> Self {
+        self.sharding = Sharding::Bucket {
+            column: column.into(),
+            num_buckets,
+        };
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Shard by the raw value of `column` (the identity transform).
+    ///
+    /// Each distinct value of `column` becomes its own shard; use this when the
+    /// data is already partitioned by that column. For primary-key tables, the
+    /// caller is responsible for ensuring every primary key maps consistently
+    /// to a single value of `column`. `column` must be a scalar column that
+    /// exists on the dataset; it is validated by [`execute`](Self::execute).
+    pub fn identity_sharding(mut self, column: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        self.sharding = Sharding::Identity {
+            column: column.into(),
+        };
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the base-table indexes to maintain in MemTables, replacing any
+    /// previously set list.
+    ///
+    /// Each name must reference an existing index the MemWAL can maintain;
+    /// [`execute`](Self::execute) enforces both. The primary key btree, when
+    /// present, is maintained implicitly and must not be listed.
+    pub fn maintained_indexes<I, S>(mut self, indexes: I) -> Self
+    where
+        I: IntoIterator<Item = S>,
+        S: Into<String>,
+    {
+        self.maintained_indexes = Some(indexes.into_iter().map(Into::into).collect());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Record `config` as the default `ShardWriter` configuration.
+    ///
+    /// Every tunable field is persisted into the MemWAL index so that all
+    /// writers — across processes and restarts — start from the same
+    /// defaults. Shard identity (`shard_id`, `shard_spec_id`) is not a
+    /// configuration default and is not recorded. These remain defaults only:
+    /// an individual writer may still override any value at runtime in its own
+    /// (non-persisted) `ShardWriterConfig`.
+    ///
+    /// Merges into any defaults already set; a key set via
+    /// [`add_writer_config_default`](Self::add_writer_config_default) afterwards wins.
+    pub fn writer_config_defaults(mut self, config: ShardWriterConfig) -> Self {
+        self.writer_config_defaults
+            .extend(writer_config_to_defaults(&config));
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Record a single arbitrary writer-configuration default.
+    ///
+    /// Use this for keys not covered by
+    /// [`writer_config_defaults`](Self::writer_config_defaults).
+    pub fn add_writer_config_default(
+        mut self,
+        key: impl Into<String>,
+        value: impl Into<String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.writer_config_defaults.insert(key.into(), value.into());
+        self
+    }
 
-/// Configuration for initializing MemWAL on a Dataset.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
-pub struct MemWalConfig {
-    /// Optional region specification for partitioning writes.
+    /// Initialize MemWAL on the dataset, committing the MemWAL system index.
     ///
-    /// If None, MemWAL is initialized without any region spec (manual region management).
+    /// Fails if any maintained index does not exist or cannot be maintained by
+    /// the MemWAL, if the selected sharding configuration is invalid, or if
+    /// MemWAL is already initialized.
     ///
-    /// TODO: Add `add_region_spec()` API to add region specs after initialization.
-    pub region_spec: Option<RegionSpec>,
-    /// Index names to maintain in MemTables.
-    /// These must reference indexes already defined on the base table.
-    pub maintained_indexes: Vec<String>,
+    /// Validated against the dataset as it stands here; see the module-level
+    /// limitations for changes made afterwards.
+    pub async fn execute(self) -> Result<()> {
+        let Self {
+            dataset,
+            sharding,
+            maintained_indexes,
+            writer_config_defaults,
+        } = self;
+
+        // Resolve (and validate) the sharding choice before any I/O.
+        let (sharding_specs, num_shards) = resolve_sharding(dataset, sharding)?;
+
+        dataset.schema().verify_primary_key()?;
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+        if indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "MemWAL is already initialized on this dataset.",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // Gate the commit, not just a preflight a caller may skip: a set the
+        // writer cannot open leaves the table unwritable.
+        let maintain_all_indexes = maintained_indexes.is_none();
+        let maintained_indexes = maintained_indexes.unwrap_or_default();
+        if !maintain_all_indexes {
+            validate_maintained_indexes(dataset, &maintained_indexes).await?;
+        }
+
+        let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
+            num_shards,
+            sharding_specs,
+            maintained_indexes,
+            maintain_all_indexes,
+            writer_config_defaults,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let index_meta = new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset.manifest.version, details)?;
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_meta],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let new_dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(transaction)
+            .await?;
+        *dataset = new_dataset;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Resolve a [`Sharding`] choice into the sharding specs and shard count to
+/// persist in [`MemWalIndexDetails`].
+fn resolve_sharding(dataset: &Dataset, sharding: Sharding) -> Result<(Vec<ShardingSpec>, u32)> {
+    match sharding {
+        Sharding::Manual => Ok((Vec::new(), 0)),
+        Sharding::Unsharded => Ok((vec![unsharded_sharding_spec()], 1)),
+        Sharding::Bucket {
+            column,
+            num_buckets,
+        } => Ok((
+            vec![bucket_sharding_spec(dataset, &column, num_buckets)?],
+            num_buckets,
+        )),
+        Sharding::Identity { column } => Ok((vec![identity_sharding_spec(dataset, &column)?], 0)),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build the sharding spec for [`InitializeMemWalBuilder::unsharded`].
+fn unsharded_sharding_spec() -> ShardingSpec {
+    ShardingSpec {
+        spec_id: SHARDING_SPEC_ID,
+        fields: vec![ShardingField {
+            field_id: SHARDING_FIELD_ID.to_string(),
+            source_ids: Vec::new(),
+            transform: Some(UNSHARDED_TRANSFORM.to_string()),
+            expression: None,
+            result_type: SHARDING_RESULT_TYPE.to_string(),
+            parameters: HashMap::new(),
+        }],
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build the sharding spec for [`InitializeMemWalBuilder::bucket_sharding`].
+fn bucket_sharding_spec(dataset: &Dataset, column: &str, num_buckets: u32) -> Result<ShardingSpec> {
+    if num_buckets == 0 || num_buckets > MAX_NUM_BUCKETS {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "bucket_sharding: num_buckets must be in [1, {}], got {}",
+            MAX_NUM_BUCKETS, num_buckets
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let source_field = dataset.schema().field(column).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "bucket_sharding: column '{}' not found on the dataset",
+            column
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    let data_type = source_field.data_type();
+    if !is_bucket_sharding_supported_type(&data_type) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "bucket_sharding: column '{}' has type {:?}, which cannot be used as a shard key",
+            column, data_type
+        )));
+    }
+
+    Ok(ShardingSpec {
+        spec_id: SHARDING_SPEC_ID,
+        fields: vec![ShardingField {
+            field_id: SHARDING_FIELD_ID.to_string(),
+            source_ids: vec![source_field.id],
+            transform: Some(BUCKET_TRANSFORM.to_string()),
+            expression: None,
+            result_type: SHARDING_RESULT_TYPE.to_string(),
+            parameters: HashMap::from([(NUM_BUCKETS_PARAM.to_string(), num_buckets.to_string())]),
+        }],
+    })
+}
+
+/// Build the sharding spec for [`InitializeMemWalBuilder::identity_sharding`].
+fn identity_sharding_spec(dataset: &Dataset, column: &str) -> Result<ShardingSpec> {
+    let field = dataset.schema().field(column).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "identity_sharding: column '{}' not found on the dataset",
+            column
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    let data_type = field.data_type();
+    let result_type = scalar_result_type(&data_type).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "identity_sharding: column '{}' has type {:?}, which cannot be used as a shard key",
+            column, data_type
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    Ok(ShardingSpec {
+        spec_id: SHARDING_SPEC_ID,
+        fields: vec![ShardingField {
+            field_id: SHARDING_FIELD_ID.to_string(),
+            source_ids: vec![field.id],
+            transform: Some(IDENTITY_TRANSFORM.to_string()),
+            expression: None,
+            result_type: result_type.to_string(),
+            parameters: HashMap::new(),
+        }],
+    })
+}
+
+fn is_bucket_sharding_supported_type(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        data_type,
+        DataType::Boolean
+            | DataType::Int8
+            | DataType::Int16
+            | DataType::Int32
+            | DataType::Int64
+            | DataType::UInt8
+            | DataType::UInt16
+            | DataType::UInt32
+            | DataType::UInt64
+            | DataType::Float32
+            | DataType::Float64
+            | DataType::Date32
+            | DataType::Time32(_)
+            | DataType::Time64(_)
+            | DataType::Timestamp(_, _)
+            | DataType::Utf8
+            | DataType::LargeUtf8
+    )
+}
+
+/// The Arrow type name for a scalar column usable as a shard key, or `None`
+/// for types that cannot be a shard key.
+fn scalar_result_type(data_type: &DataType) -> Option<&'static str> {
+    Some(match data_type {
+        DataType::Int8 => "int8",
+        DataType::Int16 => "int16",
+        DataType::Int32 => "int32",
+        DataType::Int64 => "int64",
+        DataType::UInt8 => "uint8",
+        DataType::UInt16 => "uint16",
+        DataType::UInt32 => "uint32",
+        DataType::UInt64 => "uint64",
+        DataType::Utf8 => "utf8",
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => "large_utf8",
+        DataType::Boolean => "boolean",
+        _ => return None,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Extract the tunable defaults from a [`ShardWriterConfig`] into the persisted
+/// string map. Shard identity (`shard_id`, `shard_spec_id`) is not a default.
+/// `Duration` knobs are recorded in milliseconds with a `_ms` key suffix.
+fn writer_config_to_defaults(config: &ShardWriterConfig) -> HashMap<String, String> {
+    let mut defaults = HashMap::from([
+        (
+            "durable_write".to_string(),
+            config.durable_write.to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "max_wal_buffer_size".to_string(),
+            config.max_wal_buffer_size.to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "max_wal_persist_retries".to_string(),
+            config.max_wal_persist_retries.to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "wal_persist_retry_base_delay_ms".to_string(),
+            config.wal_persist_retry_base_delay.as_millis().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "max_memtable_size".to_string(),
+            config.max_memtable_size.to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "max_memtable_rows".to_string(),
+            config.max_memtable_rows.to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "max_memtable_batches".to_string(),
+            config.max_memtable_batches.to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "manifest_scan_batch_size".to_string(),
+            config.manifest_scan_batch_size.to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "max_unflushed_memtable_bytes".to_string(),
+            config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes.to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "backpressure_log_interval_ms".to_string(),
+            config.backpressure_log_interval.as_millis().to_string(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "enable_memtable".to_string(),
+            config.enable_memtable.to_string(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    if let Some(interval) = config.max_wal_flush_interval {
+        defaults.insert(
+            "max_wal_flush_interval_ms".to_string(),
+            interval.as_millis().to_string(),
+        );
+    }
+    if let Some(interval) = config.stats_log_interval {
+        defaults.insert(
+            "stats_log_interval_ms".to_string(),
+            interval.as_millis().to_string(),
+        );
+    }
+    // Per-index HNSW build params are recorded under `hnsw.<index>.<field>` keys.
+    for (index_name, params) in &config.hnsw_params {
+        defaults.insert(format!("hnsw.{index_name}.num_edges"), params.m.to_string());
+        defaults.insert(
+            format!("hnsw.{index_name}.ef_construction"),
+            params.ef_construction.to_string(),
+        );
+        defaults.insert(
+            format!("hnsw.{index_name}.max_level"),
+            params.max_level.to_string(),
+        );
+    }
+    defaults
 }
 
 /// Extension trait for Dataset to support MemWAL operations.
 #[async_trait]
 pub trait DatasetMemWalExt {
-    /// Initialize MemWAL on this dataset.
+    /// Begin initializing MemWAL on this dataset.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an [`InitializeMemWalBuilder`]; configure the sharding strategy
+    /// and maintained indexes, then call [`InitializeMemWalBuilder::execute`].
+    fn initialize_mem_wal(&mut self) -> InitializeMemWalBuilder<'_>;
+
+    /// Return the MemWAL index details for this dataset, if MemWAL is initialized.
+    async fn mem_wal_index_details(&self) -> Result<Option<MemWalIndexDetails>> {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Replace the set of base-table indexes the MemTables maintain, and only
+    /// that: everything else the MemWAL index carries is preserved. The
+    /// sharding spec is not changeable, because the generations already written
+    /// were homed under it and nothing re-homes them.
     ///
-    /// Creates the MemWalIndex system index with the given configuration.
-    /// All indexes in `maintained_indexes` must already exist on the dataset.
+    /// A named set is validated against the table before the commit. It takes
+    /// effect for MemTables built after it; a writer already open picks it up
+    /// through [`Self::refresh_mem_wal_index_configs`].
+    async fn update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(
+        &mut self,
+        _indexes: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes on this dataset type",
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// List current MemWAL shard IDs from object storage directory listing.
+    async fn list_mem_wal_latest_shard_ids(&self) -> Result<Vec<Uuid>> {
+        Ok(Vec::new())
+    }
+
+    /// Prewarm the SSTables of the given MemWAL shards into this
+    /// dataset's session caches.
     ///
-    /// # Example
+    /// For every SSTable in `snapshots`, opens the generation's
+    /// on-disk dataset (populating the session's metadata/index caches, and the
+    /// optional `cache` of opened `Arc<Dataset>`s) and prewarms each of its
+    /// indexes. Opens run concurrently.
     ///
-    /// ```ignore
-    /// let mut dataset = Dataset::open("s3://bucket/dataset").await?;
-    /// dataset.initialize_mem_wal(MemWalConfig {
-    ///     region_specs: vec![],
-    ///     maintained_indexes: vec!["id_btree".to_string()],
-    /// }).await?;
-    /// ```
-    async fn initialize_mem_wal(&mut self, config: MemWalConfig) -> Result<()>;
+    /// The caller chooses how to enumerate the shards — list the `_mem_wal`
+    /// directory (e.g. [`Self::list_mem_wal_latest_shard_ids`] then read each
+    /// shard manifest), or read the MemWAL index shard snapshots — and passes
+    /// the resulting [`ShardSnapshot`]s here. Prewarming is purely a cache
+    /// optimization; correctness never depends on it, so passing a generation
+    /// that has since been retired is harmless.
+    async fn prewarm_mem_wal(
+        &self,
+        _snapshots: &[ShardSnapshot],
+        _cache: Option<&Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-    /// Get a RegionWriter for the specified region.
+    /// Get a ShardWriter for the specified shard.
     ///
     /// Automatically loads index configurations from the MemWalIndex
     /// and creates the appropriate in-memory indexes.
+    /// The default `config.shard_spec_id` is resolved to the index's sole
+    /// automatic sharding spec; an explicit id must match it. A manually
+    /// sharded index accepts only id `0`.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
-    /// * `region_id` - UUID identifying this region
+    /// * `shard_id` - UUID identifying this shard
     /// * `config` - Writer configuration (durability, buffer sizes, etc.)
     ///
     /// # Example
@@ -77,68 +607,99 @@ pub trait DatasetMemWalExt {
     /// ```ignore
     /// let writer = dataset.mem_wal_writer(
     ///     Uuid::new_v4(),
-    ///     RegionWriterConfig::default(),
+    ///     ShardWriterConfig::default(),
     /// ).await?;
     /// writer.put(vec![batch1, batch2]).await?;
     /// ```
     async fn mem_wal_writer(
         &self,
-        region_id: Uuid,
-        config: RegionWriterConfig,
-    ) -> Result<RegionWriter>;
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        config: ShardWriterConfig,
+    ) -> Result<ShardWriter>;
+
+    /// Re-resolve the maintained set from this dataset and install it on
+    /// `writer`, sealing so the next MemTable carries it.
+    ///
+    /// This is how a change reaches a writer that is already open: a replaced
+    /// `maintained_indexes`, or, for a table that maintains all of them, an
+    /// index created since the writer opened. Read the dataset at the version to
+    /// up -- a stale handle resolves the set it was already holding.
+    ///
+    /// `Ok(None)` when the set is unchanged, which is every tick that finds
+    /// nothing new.
+    async fn refresh_mem_wal_index_configs(
+        &self,
+        writer: &ShardWriter,
+    ) -> Result<Option<SealFence>>;
+}
+
+/// Prewarm every index of `dataset` into its session caches. A no-op when the
+/// dataset has no indexes; duplicate index names are warmed once.
+async fn prewarm_all_indexes(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+    let mut seen = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+    for index in indices.iter() {
+        if seen.insert(index.name.as_str()) {
+            dataset.prewarm_index(&index.name).await?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl DatasetMemWalExt for Dataset {
-    async fn initialize_mem_wal(&mut self, config: MemWalConfig) -> Result<()> {
-        // Validate that the dataset has a primary key (required for MemWAL)
-        let pk_fields = self.schema().unenforced_primary_key();
-        if pk_fields.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "MemWAL requires a primary key on the dataset. \
-                 Define a primary key using the 'lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key' Arrow field metadata.",
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
+    fn initialize_mem_wal(&mut self) -> InitializeMemWalBuilder<'_> {
+        InitializeMemWalBuilder::new(self)
+    }
 
-        // Validate that all maintained_indexes exist on the dataset
-        let indices = self.load_indices().await?;
-        for index_name in &config.maintained_indexes {
-            if !indices.iter().any(|idx| &idx.name == index_name) {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Index '{}' not found on dataset. maintained_indexes must reference existing indexes.",
-                        index_name
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
-        }
+    async fn mem_wal_index_details(&self) -> Result<Option<MemWalIndexDetails>> {
+        // Stored list, not the derived listing: a history this writer cannot decode must
+        // not block add_columns.
+        let Some(index_meta) = crate::index::load_all_indices(self)
+            .await?
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+            .cloned()
+        else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
 
-        // Check if MemWAL index already exists
-        if indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME) {
+        load_mem_wal_index_details(index_meta).map(Some)
+    }
+
+    async fn update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(
+        &mut self,
+        indexes: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let Some(existing_meta) = self.load_index_by_name(MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME).await? else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "MemWAL is already initialized on this dataset. Use update methods instead.",
-                location!(),
+                "MemWAL is not initialized on this dataset.",
             ));
+        };
+        let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(existing_meta.clone())?;
+        let maintain_all_indexes = indexes.is_none();
+        let indexes = indexes.unwrap_or_default();
+        if details.maintain_all_indexes == maintain_all_indexes
+            && details.maintained_indexes == indexes
+        {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        if !maintain_all_indexes {
+            validate_maintained_indexes(self, &indexes).await?;
         }
 
-        // Create MemWalIndexDetails
         let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
-            region_specs: config.region_spec.into_iter().collect(),
-            maintained_indexes: config.maintained_indexes,
-            ..Default::default()
+            maintained_indexes: indexes,
+            maintain_all_indexes,
+            ..details
         };
-
-        // Create the index metadata
         let index_meta = new_mem_wal_index_meta(self.manifest.version, details)?;
-
-        // Commit as CreateIndex transaction
         let transaction = Transaction::new(
             self.manifest.version,
             Operation::CreateIndex {
                 new_indices: vec![index_meta],
-                removed_indices: vec![],
+                removed_indices: vec![existing_meta],
             },
             None,
         );
@@ -146,188 +707,1206 @@ impl DatasetMemWalExt for Dataset {
         let new_dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(self.clone()))
             .execute(transaction)
             .await?;
-
-        // Update self to point to new version
         *self = new_dataset;
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    async fn mem_wal_writer(
-        &self,
-        region_id: Uuid,
-        mut config: RegionWriterConfig,
-    ) -> Result<RegionWriter> {
-        use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-
-        // Load MemWalIndex to get maintained_indexes
-        let mem_wal_index = self
-            .open_mem_wal_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await?
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "MemWAL is not initialized on this dataset. Call initialize_mem_wal() first.",
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?;
-
-        // Get maintained_indexes from the MemWalIndex details
-        let maintained_indexes = &mem_wal_index.details.maintained_indexes;
-
-        // Load index configs for each maintained index
-        let mut index_configs = Vec::new();
-        for index_name in maintained_indexes {
-            let index_meta = self.load_index_by_name(index_name).await?.ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Index '{}' from maintained_indexes not found on dataset",
-                        index_name
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+    async fn list_mem_wal_latest_shard_ids(&self) -> Result<Vec<Uuid>> {
+        let prefix = super::util::mem_wal_path(&self.branch_location().path);
+        let object_store = self.object_store(None).await?;
+        let list_result = object_store
+            .inner
+            .list_with_delimiter(Some(&prefix))
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "failed to list MemWAL shard directories at {}: {}",
+                    prefix, e
+                ))
             })?;
+        let mut ids = Vec::new();
+        for shard_prefix in list_result.common_prefixes {
+            if let Some(name) = shard_prefix.filename()
+                && let Ok(shard_id) = Uuid::parse_str(name)
+            {
+                ids.push(shard_id);
+            }
+        }
+        ids.sort();
+        Ok(ids)
+    }
 
-            // Detect index type and create appropriate config
-            let type_url = index_meta
-                .index_details
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(|d| d.type_url.as_str())
-                .unwrap_or("");
+    async fn prewarm_mem_wal(
+        &self,
+        snapshots: &[ShardSnapshot],
+        cache: Option<&Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let session = self.session();
+        // Every open below targets a generation URI, never the base's own.
+        let store_params = self.store_params().map(derived_store_params);
+        // Resolve SSTable paths exactly as the LSM collector does, so the
+        // session/cache entries we warm key-match the paths later lookups open.
+        let base_path = self.uri().trim_end_matches('/').to_string();
+        let opens = snapshots
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|snapshot| {
+                let shard_id = snapshot.shard_id;
+                let base_path = &base_path;
+                let session = &session;
+                let store_params = &store_params;
+                snapshot.sstables.iter().map(move |sstable| {
+                    let path = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}", base_path, shard_id, sstable.path);
+                    async move {
+                        let dataset =
+                            open_sstable(&path, Some(session), store_params.as_ref(), cache, None)
+                                .await?;
+                        prewarm_all_indexes(&dataset).await
+                    }
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        futures::future::try_join_all(opens).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-            let index_type = MemIndexConfig::detect_index_type(type_url)?;
+    async fn mem_wal_writer(
+        &self,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        mut config: ShardWriterConfig,
+    ) -> Result<ShardWriter> {
+        let details = require_mem_wal_details(self).await?;
+        config.shard_spec_id = resolve_writer_shard_spec_id(&details, config.shard_spec_id)?;
+        let index_configs = maintained_index_configs(self, &details, &config.hnsw_params).await?;
 
-            match index_type {
-                "btree" => {
-                    index_configs.push(MemIndexConfig::btree_from_metadata(
-                        &index_meta,
-                        self.schema(),
-                    )?);
-                }
-                "fts" => {
-                    index_configs.push(MemIndexConfig::fts_from_metadata(
-                        &index_meta,
-                        self.schema(),
-                    )?);
-                }
-                "vector" => {
-                    // Vector index - load IVF-PQ config from base table
-                    let vector_config =
-                        load_vector_index_config(self, index_name, &index_meta).await?;
-                    index_configs.push(vector_config);
-                }
-                _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Unknown index type: {}", index_type),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
-                }
-            };
-        }
+        // Set shard_id in config
+        config.shard_id = shard_id;
 
-        // Set region_id in config
-        config.region_id = region_id;
+        // Inject the dataset's store params + session so the flusher opens the
+        // base + generations with the same store the base was resolved with.
+        config.store_params = self.store_params().cloned();
+        config.session = Some(self.session());
 
-        // Get object store and base path
+        // Reuse the dataset's own object store + base path; `ObjectStore::from_uri`
+        // would discard the store params the dataset was opened with, signing WAL
+        // writes with the ambient identity. Mirrors `list_mem_wal_latest_shard_ids`.
         let base_uri = self.uri();
-        let (store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(base_uri).await?;
+        let store = self.object_store(None).await?;
+        let base_path = self.branch_location().path;
 
-        // Create RegionWriter
-        RegionWriter::open(
+        // Create ShardWriter
+        ShardWriter::open(
             store,
             base_path,
             base_uri,
             config,
-            Arc::new(self.schema().into()),
+            Arc::new(super::arrow_schema_with_field_ids(self.schema())),
             index_configs,
         )
         .await
     }
+
+    async fn refresh_mem_wal_index_configs(
+        &self,
+        writer: &ShardWriter,
+    ) -> Result<Option<SealFence>> {
+        let details = require_mem_wal_details(self).await?;
+        let index_configs =
+            maintained_index_configs(self, &details, &writer.config().hnsw_params).await?;
+        writer.replace_index_configs(index_configs).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether an index kind this writer cannot mirror is fatal.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Debug)]
+enum OnUnsupportedIndex {
+    /// The caller named this index, so refusing is the only honest answer: it
+    /// asked for something the fresh tier cannot give it.
+    Reject,
+    /// The set is "every index on the table", so this one arrived by existing.
+    /// Skipping keeps the table writable when a kind the writer cannot mirror
+    /// is introduced.
+    Skip,
 }
 
-/// Load vector index configuration from the base table's IVF-PQ index.
+impl ShardWriter {
+    /// Moves this writer onto `dataset`'s current schema and maintained indexes.
+    ///
+    /// Pass the base table as read after the schema change. Returns `Ok(None)`
+    /// when the writer is already up to date.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+    /// # use lance::dataset::mem_wal::ShardWriter;
+    /// # async fn doc(writer: &ShardWriter, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+    /// writer.evolve_to(dataset).await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn evolve_to(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<SealFence>> {
+        let details = require_mem_wal_details(dataset).await?;
+        let index_configs =
+            maintained_index_configs(dataset, &details, &self.config().hnsw_params).await?;
+        self.evolve_schema(
+            Arc::new(super::arrow_schema_with_field_ids(dataset.schema())),
+            index_configs,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether an index the set names but the dataset does not have is fatal.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum OnMissingIndex {
+    /// Validating a set before it is installed: a name that resolves to nothing
+    /// is the operator's mistake, and the only moment it can still be corrected.
+    Reject,
+    /// Opening a shard against a set installed earlier: the index may have been
+    /// dropped since, or carried away with the column it covered. Rejecting
+    /// here would refuse every read on the table for something that costs only
+    /// the fresh tier's copy of one index.
+    Skip,
+}
+
+/// Loads the MemWAL index details, failing if MemWAL is not initialized.
+async fn require_mem_wal_details(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<MemWalIndexDetails> {
+    let index = dataset
+        .open_mem_wal_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await?
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(
+                "MemWAL is not initialized on this dataset. Call initialize_mem_wal() first.",
+            )
+        })?;
+    Ok(index.details.clone())
+}
+
+/// The index configs a writer on `dataset` maintains.
+///
+/// Every path that gives a writer its indexes uses this, so they all agree.
+async fn maintained_index_configs(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    details: &MemWalIndexDetails,
+    hnsw_params: &HashMap<String, HnswBuildParams>,
+) -> Result<Vec<MemIndexConfig>> {
+    let (index_names, on_unsupported) = resolve_maintained_indexes(dataset, details).await?;
+    build_index_configs(
+        dataset,
+        &index_names,
+        hnsw_params,
+        OnMissingIndex::Skip,
+        on_unsupported,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// The indexes a MemTable should carry, and how to treat one this writer cannot
+/// mirror.
+///
+/// `maintain_all_indexes` resolves against the table's indexes every time this
+/// runs, so an index created after the spec was written is picked up and a
+/// dropped one falls out. System indexes are not table data and are never
+/// mirrored.
+async fn resolve_maintained_indexes(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    details: &MemWalIndexDetails,
+) -> Result<(Vec<String>, OnUnsupportedIndex)> {
+    if !details.maintain_all_indexes {
+        return Ok((
+            details.maintained_indexes.clone(),
+            OnUnsupportedIndex::Reject,
+        ));
+    }
+    let names = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|index| !lance_index::is_system_index(index))
+        .map(|index| index.name.clone())
+        .collect::<std::collections::BTreeSet<_>>()
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+    Ok((names, OnUnsupportedIndex::Skip))
+}
+
+/// Build the in-memory index configurations for `index_names`.
+///
+/// Shared by [`DatasetMemWalExt::mem_wal_writer`] and
+/// [`validate_maintained_indexes`], so a set that validates is one the writer
+/// can build.
+async fn build_index_configs(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_names: &[String],
+    hnsw_params: &HashMap<String, HnswBuildParams>,
+    on_missing: OnMissingIndex,
+    on_unsupported: OnUnsupportedIndex,
+) -> Result<Vec<MemIndexConfig>> {
+    // The schema the writer will open with, so an eligibility check below asks
+    // exactly what the writer asks. Base + `_tombstone`, as `ShardWriter::open`
+    // extends it; field ids and the primary key resolve against that.
+    let base_schema: ArrowSchema = dataset.schema().into();
+    let shard_schema = schema_with_tombstone(&base_schema);
+    let shard_lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(shard_schema.as_ref())?;
+    let shard_pk_columns: Vec<String> = shard_lance_schema
+        .unenforced_primary_key()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| field.name.clone())
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut index_configs = Vec::with_capacity(index_names.len());
+    for index_name in index_names {
+        // A maintained index can split into multiple physical segments
+        // (e.g. `optimize_indices(append)` deltas), which the singular
+        // `load_index_by_name` rejects. Every segment carries the same
+        // type and params, so take the first match.
+        let index_meta = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name(index_name)
+            .await?
+            .into_iter()
+            .next();
+
+        // An index the maintained set names and the dataset does not have:
+        // dropped outright, or carried away with the column it covered. Serve
+        // without it -- the base index is gone for everyone, so the fresh tier
+        // has nothing to keep in step with. See `OnMissingIndex::Skip`.
+        let Some(index_meta) = index_meta else {
+            if on_missing == OnMissingIndex::Reject {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Index '{}' from maintained_indexes not found on dataset",
+                    index_name
+                )));
+            }
+            log::warn!(
+                "index '{}' is named by maintained_indexes but is not on the dataset; \
+                 the fresh tier will not maintain it",
+                index_name
+            );
+            continue;
+        };
+
+        // Detect index kind and create appropriate config
+        let type_url = index_meta
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|d| d.type_url.as_str())
+            .unwrap_or("");
+
+        let Some(kind) = MemIndexKind::from_type_url(type_url) else {
+            // Nobody named this index: it arrived because the table has it and
+            // the set is "everything". A kind this writer cannot mirror must not
+            // make the table unwritable, or introducing one upstream would break
+            // every table maintaining all of them.
+            if on_unsupported == OnUnsupportedIndex::Skip {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "index '{}' has a type this writer cannot mirror ({}); \
+                     the fresh tier will not maintain it",
+                    index_name,
+                    type_url
+                );
+                continue;
+            }
+            return Err(unsupported_index_type(index_name, type_url));
+        };
+
+        // Exhaustive: a new kind must be built here, or a maintained set could
+        // name an index this writer cannot open, failing every memtable claim.
+        let config = match kind {
+            MemIndexKind::BTree => {
+                MemIndexConfig::btree_from_metadata(&index_meta, dataset.schema())
+            }
+            MemIndexKind::Fts => MemIndexConfig::fts_from_metadata(&index_meta, dataset.schema()),
+            MemIndexKind::Hnsw => {
+                let hnsw_params = hnsw_params.get(index_name).cloned();
+                load_vector_index_config(dataset, index_name, &index_meta, hnsw_params).await
+            }
+        };
+
+        let config = config?;
+
+        // Nobody named this one, so a table must not become unwritable for
+        // merely having an index the writer cannot build.
+        if on_unsupported == OnUnsupportedIndex::Skip
+            && let Err(error) = validate_index_configs(
+                std::slice::from_ref(&config),
+                shard_schema.as_ref(),
+                &shard_lance_schema,
+                &shard_pk_columns,
+            )
+        {
+            log::warn!(
+                "index '{}' is not one the fresh tier can maintain ({}); \
+                 it will not be maintained",
+                index_name,
+                error
+            );
+            continue;
+        }
+        index_configs.push(config);
+    }
+    Ok(index_configs)
+}
+
+/// Whether the MemWAL can maintain `index_names` on `dataset`.
+///
+/// Applies the same rules [`ShardWriter::open`] does, so a set that passes here
+/// is a set the writer can open. [`InitializeMemWalBuilder::execute`] runs it
+/// before committing; it is public so a caller inferring a set can ask the same
+/// question first. A type url alone cannot decide this — every vector sub-type
+/// maps to [`MemIndexKind::Hnsw`], but the memtable's HNSW needs a
+/// `FixedSizeList<Float32>` column.
 ///
-/// Opens the vector index and extracts the IVF model and PQ codebook
-/// to create an in-memory IVF-PQ index config.
+/// All-or-nothing: it reports the first index it cannot maintain rather than
+/// returning a usable subset, so a caller inferring a set surfaces the error
+/// instead of dropping an index it believes is maintained.
+///
+/// Judges `dataset` as given; see the module-level limitations.
+///
+/// Opens each vector index to inherit its distance type.
+pub async fn validate_maintained_indexes(dataset: &Dataset, index_names: &[String]) -> Result<()> {
+    // Validation reads an index's name, column, and field id, never its HNSW
+    // tuning, so the writer's build params are not needed here.
+    let index_configs = build_index_configs(
+        dataset,
+        index_names,
+        &HashMap::new(),
+        OnMissingIndex::Reject,
+        OnUnsupportedIndex::Reject,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    // The shard schema is base + `_tombstone`, as `ShardWriter::open` extends
+    // it; field ids and the primary key resolve against that, not the base.
+    let base_schema: ArrowSchema = dataset.schema().into();
+    let schema = schema_with_tombstone(&base_schema);
+    let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(schema.as_ref())?;
+    let pk_columns: Vec<String> = lance_schema
+        .unenforced_primary_key()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| field.name.clone())
+        .collect();
+
+    validate_index_configs(&index_configs, schema.as_ref(), &lance_schema, &pk_columns)
+}
+
+/// Build an in-memory HNSW vector index configuration from a base-table
+/// vector index entry.
+///
+/// HNSW does not require any centroids/codebook from the base table — it is
+/// self-contained. The only thing we read from the base index is the distance
+/// type (so the in-memory index uses the same metric as the base). If the
+/// base index is unreadable for some reason, we default to L2.
 async fn load_vector_index_config(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     index_name: &str,
     index_meta: &lance_table::format::IndexMetadata,
+    hnsw_params: Option<HnswBuildParams>,
 ) -> Result<MemIndexConfig> {
-    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-
-    // Get the column name for this index
     let field_id = index_meta.fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!("Vector index '{}' has no fields", index_name),
-            location!(),
-        )
+        Error::invalid_input(format!("Vector index '{}' has no fields", index_name))
     })?;
 
     let field = dataset.schema().field_by_id(*field_id).ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!("Field not found for vector index '{}'", index_name),
-            location!(),
-        )
+        Error::invalid_input(format!("Field not found for vector index '{}'", index_name))
     })?;
-
     let column = field.name.clone();
 
-    // Load IVF-PQ components
-    let index_uuid = index_meta.uuid.to_string();
-    let (ivf_model, pq, distance_type) = load_ivf_pq_components(
-        dataset,
-        index_name,
-        &index_uuid,
-        &column,
-        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-    )
-    .await?;
+    // Inherit the base table's distance type so the in-memory index and the
+    // base index produce comparable distances. The index's recorded details
+    // state it, and for an index that covers nothing they are the only source:
+    // it carries its settings with no file to open. Opening the index is the
+    // fallback for an entry whose details do not decode. Surface the failure
+    // rather than silently defaulting to L2 — flushed `IVF_HNSW_SQ` files bake this metric
+    // into their on-disk metadata, so a wrong default would be durable
+    // corruption.
+    let recorded = index_meta
+        .index_details
+        .as_deref()
+        .and_then(crate::index::vector::details::vector_params_from_details)
+        .map(|params| params.metric_type);
+    let distance_type = match recorded {
+        Some(distance_type) => distance_type,
+        None => dataset
+            .open_vector_index(&column, &index_meta.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Failed to open base vector index '{}' to inherit distance type: {}",
+                    index_name, e
+                ))
+            })?
+            .metric_type(),
+    };
 
-    Ok(MemIndexConfig::ivf_pq(
-        index_name.to_string(),
-        *field_id,
-        column,
-        ivf_model,
-        pq,
-        distance_type,
-    ))
+    Ok(match hnsw_params {
+        Some(params) => MemIndexConfig::hnsw_with_params(
+            index_name.to_string(),
+            *field_id,
+            column,
+            distance_type,
+            params,
+        ),
+        None => MemIndexConfig::hnsw(index_name.to_string(), *field_id, column, distance_type),
+    })
 }
 
-/// Load IVF model and ProductQuantizer from an IVF-PQ index.
-async fn load_ivf_pq_components(
-    dataset: &Dataset,
-    index_name: &str,
-    index_uuid: &str,
-    column_name: &str,
-    metrics: &dyn lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector,
-) -> Result<(IvfModel, ProductQuantizer, DistanceType)> {
-    use crate::index::vector::ivf::v2::IvfPq;
-    use lance_index::vector::VectorIndex;
-
-    // Open the vector index using UUID
-    let index = dataset
-        .open_vector_index(column_name, index_uuid, metrics)
-        .await?;
-
-    // Try to downcast to IvfPq (IVFIndex<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>)
-    // This covers IVF-PQ indexes which are the most common
-    let ivf_index = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<IvfPq>().ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Vector index '{}' is not an IVF-PQ index. Only IVF-PQ indexes are supported for MemWAL.",
-                index_name
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::super::scanner::SsTableCache;
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+
+    fn id_v_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("v", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// A dataset of 256 rows with an IVF vector index `vector_idx` over a
+    /// `FixedSizeList<item_type>` column.
+    async fn dataset_with_vector_index(uri: &str, item_type: DataType) -> Dataset {
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder, Float64Builder};
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+        const ROWS: i32 = 256;
+        const DIM: i32 = 4;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", item_type.clone(), true)), DIM),
+                true,
             ),
-            location!(),
+        ]));
+
+        let vectors: ArrayRef = match item_type {
+            DataType::Float32 => {
+                let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), DIM);
+                for row in 0..ROWS {
+                    for d in 0..DIM {
+                        builder.values().append_value((row * DIM + d) as f32);
+                    }
+                    builder.append(true);
+                }
+                Arc::new(builder.finish())
+            }
+            DataType::Float64 => {
+                let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float64Builder::new(), DIM);
+                for row in 0..ROWS {
+                    for d in 0..DIM {
+                        builder.values().append_value((row * DIM + d) as f64);
+                    }
+                    builder.append(true);
+                }
+                Arc::new(builder.finish())
+            }
+            other => panic!("unhandled vector item type {other:?}"),
+        };
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from((0..ROWS).collect::<Vec<_>>())),
+                vectors,
+            ],
         )
-    })?;
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, DistanceType::L2),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    fn id_v_batch(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let vs: Vec<i32> = ids.iter().map(|i| i * 10).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vs)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// A dataset with the `id`/`v` schema holding `ids`, ready for MemWAL.
+    async fn id_v_dataset(uri: &str, ids: &[i32]) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = id_v_schema();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = if ids.is_empty() {
+            Vec::new()
+        } else {
+            vec![Ok(id_v_batch(&schema, ids))]
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema);
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn sharding_spec(spec_id: u32) -> ShardingSpec {
+        ShardingSpec {
+            spec_id,
+            fields: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::manual_accepts_manual(Vec::new(), MANUAL_SHARD_SPEC_ID, MANUAL_SHARD_SPEC_ID)]
+    #[case::automatic_resolves_default(vec![sharding_spec(1)], MANUAL_SHARD_SPEC_ID, 1)]
+    #[case::automatic_accepts_explicit_match(vec![sharding_spec(1)], 1, 1)]
+    fn test_writer_shard_spec_resolution_accepts_valid_identity(
+        #[case] sharding_specs: Vec<ShardingSpec>,
+        #[case] configured_spec_id: u32,
+        #[case] expected_spec_id: u32,
+    ) {
+        let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
+            sharding_specs,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let resolved = resolve_writer_shard_spec_id(&details, configured_spec_id).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resolved, expected_spec_id);
+    }
 
-    // Extract IVF model and distance type from the index
-    let ivf_model = ivf_index.ivf_model().clone();
-    let distance_type = ivf_index.metric_type();
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::manual_rejects_automatic(Vec::new(), 1, "manual sharding", false)]
+    #[case::automatic_rejects_other(vec![sharding_spec(1)], 2, "sharding spec id 1", false)]
+    #[case::multiple_specs_are_unsupported(
+        vec![sharding_spec(1), sharding_spec(2)],
+        0,
+        "found 2",
+        true
+    )]
+    fn test_writer_shard_spec_resolution_rejects_invalid_identity(
+        #[case] sharding_specs: Vec<ShardingSpec>,
+        #[case] configured_spec_id: u32,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+        #[case] is_not_supported: bool,
+    ) {
+        let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
+            sharding_specs,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let error = resolve_writer_shard_spec_id(&details, configured_spec_id).unwrap_err();
+        if is_not_supported {
+            assert!(matches!(&error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        } else {
+            assert!(matches!(&error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        }
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(expected_message), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_maintained_indexes_rejects_non_f32_vector_column() {
+        // A `FixedSizeList<Float64>` vector index is a valid durable index whose
+        // type url resolves to `Hnsw` like any other, but the memtable HNSW needs
+        // Float32 — so committing it would leave the table unwritable.
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let dataset = dataset_with_vector_index(&uri, DataType::Float64).await;
+
+        let index_meta = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .next()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            MemIndexKind::from_type_url(
+                index_meta.index_details.as_ref().unwrap().type_url.as_str()
+            ),
+            Some(MemIndexKind::Hnsw),
+            "the type url cannot see the column type"
+        );
+
+        let error = validate_maintained_indexes(&dataset, &["vector_idx".to_string()])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a Float64 vector column is not maintainable");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("FixedSizeList<Float32>"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_maintained_indexes_accepts_f32_vector_column() {
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let dataset = dataset_with_vector_index(&uri, DataType::Float32).await;
+
+        validate_maintained_indexes(&dataset, &["vector_idx".to_string()])
+            .await
+            .expect("a Float32 vector column is maintainable");
+    }
+
+    /// An index that covers nothing is maintainable: its recorded details
+    /// state the distance type, so there is no file to open.
+    ///
+    /// A table can register WAL before it holds enough vectors to train, and
+    /// validation refusing the definition would leave the index outside the
+    /// maintained set for the life of the table — the set is a snapshot, so
+    /// training it later does not add it back.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_maintained_indexes_accepts_a_definition() {
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, 2, DistanceType::Cosine, 1),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            indices[0]
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(roaring::RoaringBitmap::is_empty),
+            "an empty table trains nothing, so the index covers no rows"
+        );
+
+        validate_maintained_indexes(&dataset, &["vector_idx".to_string()])
+            .await
+            .expect("a definition is maintainable");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_maintained_indexes_accepts_btree() {
+        // Guards the shard-schema plumbing: validation resolves field ids against
+        // base + `_tombstone`, so a scalar index on an ordinary column must pass.
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut dataset = id_v_dataset(&uri, &[1, 2, 3]).await;
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-    // Get the quantizer and convert to ProductQuantizer
-    let quantizer = ivf_index.quantizer();
-    let pq = ProductQuantizer::try_from(quantizer)?;
+        validate_maintained_indexes(&dataset, &["id_idx".to_string()])
+            .await
+            .expect("a BTree index on an Int32 column is maintainable");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_maintained_indexes_rejects_unmaintainable_kind() {
+        // A bitmap index is a valid durable index the memtable cannot build.
+        // The error names it, so a caller validating a set knows which to drop.
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut dataset = id_v_dataset(&uri, &[1, 2, 3]).await;
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["v"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                Some("v_bitmap".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = validate_maintained_indexes(&dataset, &["v_bitmap".to_string()])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("the memtable cannot build a bitmap index");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("v_bitmap"),
+            "the error must name the index: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_maintained_indexes_rejects_unknown_name() {
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let dataset = id_v_dataset(&uri, &[1]).await;
+
+        let error = validate_maintained_indexes(&dataset, &["nope".to_string()])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("an index that does not exist cannot be maintained");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("not found"),
+            "unexpected: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_mem_wal_rejects_unmaintainable_index() {
+        // Initialization persists the set, so it must apply the writer's rules
+        // itself: a Float64 vector index committed here leaves the table unwritable.
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_vector_index(&uri, DataType::Float64).await;
+
+        let error = dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .maintained_indexes(["vector_idx"])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a Float64 vector column is not maintainable");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("FixedSizeList<Float32>"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset.mem_wal_index_details().await.unwrap().is_none(),
+            "a rejected maintained set must not be committed"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// "Maintain everything" is an intent, not a list: an index built after the
+    /// spec is maintained without anyone updating it, and a dropped one falls
+    /// out. The set is resolved from the table each time it is asked for.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_maintain_all_picks_up_an_index_built_later() {
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut dataset = id_v_dataset(&uri, &[]).await;
+
+        // Installed with no indexes on the table at all.
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let details = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("initialized");
+        assert!(
+            details.maintain_all_indexes,
+            "an unnamed set is the intent to maintain everything"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            details.maintained_indexes.is_empty(),
+            "the intent is persisted, not a snapshot of the table's indexes"
+        );
+        let (resolved, _) = resolve_maintained_indexes(&dataset, &details)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(resolved.is_empty(), "the table has no indexes yet");
+
+        // An index built afterwards is maintained with no further call.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let (resolved, on_unsupported) = resolve_maintained_indexes(&dataset, &details)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolved,
+            vec!["id_idx".to_string()],
+            "an index built after the spec is maintained without updating it"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            on_unsupported,
+            OnUnsupportedIndex::Skip,
+            "nobody named these, so a kind the writer cannot mirror is skipped"
+        );
+
+        // A named set is the opposite on both counts.
+        dataset
+            .update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(Some(Vec::new()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let named = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("initialized");
+        assert!(!named.maintain_all_indexes);
+        let (resolved, on_unsupported) =
+            resolve_maintained_indexes(&dataset, &named).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            resolved.is_empty(),
+            "an empty named set maintains nothing, even though the table has an index"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(on_unsupported, OnUnsupportedIndex::Reject);
+    }
 
-    Ok((ivf_model, pq, distance_type))
+    /// The maintained set moves in both directions, and nothing else in the
+    /// index moves with it.
+    ///
+    /// The sharding spec, the shard count, what has been compacted and the
+    /// writer defaults all live in the same message, so a careless update would
+    /// take them with it. An unchanged set must not commit at all, and a
+    /// rejected one must leave the committed set alone.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes_moves_only_that_set() {
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut dataset = id_v_dataset(&uri, &[1, 2]).await;
+        for (columns, name) in [(&["id"][..], "id_idx"), (&["v"][..], "v_idx")] {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    columns,
+                    IndexType::BTree,
+                    Some(name.to_string()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .maintained_indexes(["id_idx", "v_idx"])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let before = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("initialized");
+
+        // Narrowing.
+        dataset
+            .update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(Some(vec!["id_idx".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .expect("dropping one from the set is allowed");
+        let after = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("still initialized");
+        assert_eq!(after.maintained_indexes, vec!["id_idx".to_string()]);
+        assert_eq!(after.sharding_specs, before.sharding_specs);
+        assert_eq!(after.num_shards, before.num_shards);
+        assert_eq!(after.compacted_sstables, before.compacted_sstables);
+        assert_eq!(after.writer_config_defaults, before.writer_config_defaults);
+
+        // Unchanged: no commit at all.
+        let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        dataset
+            .update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(Some(vec!["id_idx".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.version, version,
+            "an unchanged set must not commit"
+        );
+
+        // Refused, and the committed set is left alone.
+        let error = dataset
+            .update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(Some(vec!["nope".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .expect_err("an unknown index must be refused");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("nope"), "unexpected: {error}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .mem_wal_index_details()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .expect("still initialized")
+                .maintained_indexes,
+            vec!["id_idx".to_string()],
+        );
+
+        // Growing again, then emptying: both are sets, not an uninstall.
+        dataset
+            .update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(Some(vec![
+                "id_idx".to_string(),
+                "v_idx".to_string(),
+            ]))
+            .await
+            .expect("adding one back is allowed");
+        dataset
+            .update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(Some(Vec::new()))
+            .await
+            .expect("an empty set is allowed");
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .mem_wal_index_details()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .expect("still initialized after emptying the set")
+                .maintained_indexes
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes_requires_an_initialized_mem_wal() {
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut dataset = id_v_dataset(&uri, &[1]).await;
+
+        let error = dataset
+            .update_mem_wal_maintained_indexes(Some(vec!["id_idx".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .expect_err("no MemWAL to update");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("not initialized"),
+            "unexpected: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(dataset.mem_wal_index_details().await.unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_mem_wal_rejects_unknown_index_name() {
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut dataset = id_v_dataset(&uri, &[1]).await;
+
+        let error = dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .maintained_indexes(["nope"])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("maintained_indexes must reference existing indexes");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("nope") && error.to_string().contains("not found"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(dataset.mem_wal_index_details().await.unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_prewarm_mem_wal_opens_and_warms_indexes() {
+        // `prewarm_mem_wal` opens each SSTable (into the base
+        // dataset's session + the supplied cache) and warms its indexes. We
+        // place an SSTable dataset with a BTree index at the
+        // canonical `{base}/_mem_wal/{shard}/{folder}` path, prewarm it via a
+        // snapshot, and assert the generation is cached and its index loadable.
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let schema = id_v_schema();
+
+        // Base dataset (1-row sentinel).
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(id_v_batch(&schema, &[-1]))], schema.clone());
+        let base = Dataset::write(reader, &base_uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // SSTable with a BTree index on `id`.
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let folder = "deadbeef_gen_1";
+        let gen_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}", base_uri, shard_id, folder);
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(id_v_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3]))], schema.clone());
+        let mut gen_ds = Dataset::write(reader, &gen_uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        gen_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, folder.to_string());
+
+        let cache: Arc<dyn DatasetCache> = Arc::new(SsTableCache::new(4));
+        base.prewarm_mem_wal(std::slice::from_ref(&snapshot), Some(&cache))
+            .await
+            .expect("prewarm must open the generation and warm its index");
+
+        // The generation is resident in the cache (same session), with its
+        // index loadable — a later lookup that opens this path is a pure hit.
+        let warmed = cache
+            .get_or_open(&gen_uri, Some(base.session()), base.store_params().cloned())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(warmed.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_prewarm_mem_wal_empty_is_noop() {
+        // No snapshots / no SSTables: prewarm is a clean no-op.
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let schema = id_v_schema();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(id_v_batch(&schema, &[-1]))], schema.clone());
+        let base = Dataset::write(reader, &base_uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        base.prewarm_mem_wal(&[], None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let empty = ShardSnapshot::new(Uuid::new_v4()).with_current_generation(1);
+        base.prewarm_mem_wal(std::slice::from_ref(&empty), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_mem_wal_writer_uses_automatic_sharding_spec() {
+        let uri = "memory://";
+        let schema = id_v_schema();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(id_v_batch(&schema, &[1]))], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(manifest.shard_spec_id, SHARDING_SPEC_ID);
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// An index the MemTable cannot mirror does not make the table unwritable.
+    ///
+    /// Nobody named it -- it arrived because the table has it and the set is
+    /// "everything" -- so a vector index over `Float64`, which resolves to HNSW
+    /// and is then refused on its element type, is skipped rather than failing
+    /// every writer open.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_maintain_all_skips_an_index_it_cannot_build() {
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().display());
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_vector_index(&uri, DataType::Float64).await;
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id))
+            .await
+            .expect("automatic intent must skip an index the MemTable cannot mirror");
+    }
+
+    /// An index created after a writer opened still reaches that writer.
+    ///
+    /// This is the whole point of persisting the intent rather than a resolved
+    /// list: nobody has to name the index, and nobody has to reopen the writer.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_refresh_installs_an_index_created_after_the_writer_opened() {
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut dataset = id_v_dataset(&uri, &[1]).await;
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .refresh_mem_wal_index_configs(&writer)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "the table has no indexes, so there is nothing to install"
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .refresh_mem_wal_index_configs(&writer)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("the new index changes the set");
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![id_v_batch(&id_v_schema(), &[2])])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            refs.active.index_store.get_btree("id_idx").is_some(),
+            "the memtable opened after the refresh carries the new index"
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .refresh_mem_wal_index_configs(&writer)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "a second pass over an unchanged table seals nothing"
+        );
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/graph.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/graph.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a48058d02b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/graph.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1498 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::cmp::{Ordering as CmpOrdering, Reverse};
+use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap};
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU16, AtomicU32, AtomicU64, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex, MutexGuard};
+
+use arc_swap::ArcSwap;
+
+use arrow_array::builder::{Float32Builder, ListBuilder, UInt32Builder};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use crossbeam_queue::ArrayQueue;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+use rayon::prelude::*;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+use super::storage::VectorSource;
+
+const HNSW_METADATA_KEY: &str = "lance:hnsw";
+const VECTOR_ID_COL: &str = "__vector_id";
+const NEIGHBORS_COL: &str = "__neighbors";
+const DIST_COL: &str = "_distance";
+const DEFAULT_SEED: u64 = 100;
+const WORD_BITS: usize = usize::BITS as usize;
+
+/// Parameters for HNSW graph construction.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq)]
+pub struct BuildParams {
+    /// Maximum number of graph levels.
+    pub max_level: u16,
+    /// Number of neighbors retained on upper levels. Level 0 retains `2 * m`.
+    pub m: usize,
+    /// Beam width used while inserting nodes.
+    pub ef_construction: usize,
+    /// Lance-compatible prefetch hint retained in exported metadata.
+    pub prefetch_distance: Option<usize>,
+    /// Random seed used for deterministic level assignment.
+    #[serde(skip, default = "default_seed")]
+    pub seed: u64,
+}
+
+impl Default for BuildParams {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            max_level: 7,
+            m: 20,
+            ef_construction: 150,
+            prefetch_distance: Some(2),
+            seed: DEFAULT_SEED,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl BuildParams {
+    /// Defaults intended for active MemTable indexing.
+    pub fn mem_wal_default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            m: 12,
+            ef_construction: 64,
+            ..Self::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum number of graph levels.
+    pub fn max_level(mut self, max_level: u16) -> Self {
+        self.max_level = max_level;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the HNSW `M` parameter.
+    pub fn num_edges(mut self, m: usize) -> Self {
+        self.m = m;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the construction beam width.
+    pub fn ef_construction(mut self, ef_construction: usize) -> Self {
+        self.ef_construction = ef_construction;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the deterministic level-assignment seed.
+    pub fn seed(mut self, seed: u64) -> Self {
+        self.seed = seed;
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.max_level == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("max_level must be greater than 0"));
+        }
+        if self.max_level as u32 > u64::BITS {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "max_level must be <= {}, got {}",
+                u64::BITS,
+                self.max_level
+            )));
+        }
+        if self.m == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("m must be greater than 0"));
+        }
+        if self.ef_construction < self.m {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "ef_construction must be >= m, got ef_construction={} and m={}",
+                self.ef_construction, self.m
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+fn default_seed() -> u64 {
+    DEFAULT_SEED
+}
+
+/// Query parameters for graph search.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct SearchParams {
+    /// Number of nearest neighbors to return.
+    pub k: usize,
+    /// Beam width used by the bottom-level search.
+    pub ef: usize,
+}
+
+impl SearchParams {
+    /// Create search params, using `max(k, ef)` internally.
+    pub fn new(k: usize, ef: usize) -> Self {
+        Self { k, ef }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Candidate with an internal vector id and distance.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+pub struct ScoredPoint {
+    pub id: u32,
+    pub distance: f32,
+}
+
+impl ScoredPoint {
+    fn new(id: u32, distance: f32) -> Self {
+        Self { id, distance }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for ScoredPoint {}
+
+impl PartialOrd for ScoredPoint {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<CmpOrdering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for ScoredPoint {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> CmpOrdering {
+        self.distance
+            .partial_cmp(&other.distance)
+            .unwrap_or(CmpOrdering::Equal)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Search result with Lance row id attached.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
+pub struct SearchResult {
+    pub id: u32,
+    pub row_id: u64,
+    pub distance: f32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct BeamLimits {
+    ef: usize,
+    output_limit: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct BuildBeamLimits {
+    ef: usize,
+    visible_len: usize,
+    visited_capacity: usize,
+}
+
+/// Metadata stored under `lance:hnsw` in Lance HNSW batches.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq)]
+pub struct LanceHnswMetadata {
+    pub entry_point: u32,
+    pub params: BuildParams,
+    pub level_offsets: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+struct PackedLevel {
+    offsets: Vec<usize>,
+    neighbors: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl PackedLevel {
+    fn empty() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            offsets: vec![0],
+            neighbors: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn neighbors(&self, id: u32) -> Option<&[u32]> {
+        let idx = id as usize;
+        let start = *self.offsets.get(idx)?;
+        let end = *self.offsets.get(idx + 1)?;
+        Some(&self.neighbors[start..end])
+    }
+}
+
+struct LevelLinks {
+    /// Published neighbor ids for this level, read lock-free by searchers.
+    /// `ArcSwap` reclaims the previous snapshot once no reader guard references
+    /// it, so the repeated publishes of an incremental build do not accumulate
+    /// (the prior manual `AtomicPtr` + retired-`Vec` scheme leaked every old
+    /// snapshot until graph drop, growing O(N^2/batch) and OOMing at ~1M rows).
+    published: ArcSwap<Vec<u32>>,
+    ranked: Mutex<Vec<ScoredPoint>>,
+}
+
+impl LevelLinks {
+    fn new(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            published: ArcSwap::from_pointee(Vec::<u32>::new()),
+            ranked: Mutex::new(Vec::with_capacity(capacity)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Heap bytes for one level, counting `published` at its full width even
+    /// while empty — the build fills it, and the caller budgets against a
+    /// ceiling where over-counting is the safe direction.
+    fn allocated_bytes(max_neighbors: usize) -> usize {
+        // Arc<Vec<u32>>: strong + weak refcounts, the Vec header, then the ids.
+        let published = 2 * std::mem::size_of::<usize>()
+            + std::mem::size_of::<Vec<u32>>()
+            + max_neighbors * std::mem::size_of::<u32>();
+        published + max_neighbors * std::mem::size_of::<ScoredPoint>()
+    }
+
+    fn publish_from_ranked(&self, ranked: &[ScoredPoint]) {
+        self.published.store(Arc::new(
+            ranked.iter().map(|point| point.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+    }
+}
+
+struct Node {
+    target_level: u16,
+    levels: Vec<LevelLinks>,
+    dirty_levels: AtomicU64,
+}
+
+impl Node {
+    fn new(target_level: u16, m: usize) -> Self {
+        let levels = (0..=target_level)
+            .map(|level| {
+                let max_neighbors = if level == 0 { m * 2 } else { m };
+                LevelLinks::new(max_neighbors)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Self {
+            target_level,
+            levels,
+            dirty_levels: AtomicU64::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Heap bytes held by a node of `target_level`, excluding the `Node` itself
+    /// (which lives inline in the graph's node arena).
+    fn allocated_bytes(target_level: u16, m: usize) -> usize {
+        let levels = target_level as usize + 1;
+        levels * std::mem::size_of::<LevelLinks>()
+            + (0..=target_level)
+                .map(|level| LevelLinks::allocated_bytes(max_neighbors(m, level)))
+                .sum::<usize>()
+    }
+
+    fn has_level(&self, level: u16) -> bool {
+        (level as usize) < self.levels.len()
+    }
+
+    fn ranked(&self, level: u16) -> Result<MutexGuard<'_, Vec<ScoredPoint>>> {
+        self.levels[level as usize]
+            .ranked
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| Error::internal("HNSW neighbor mutex poisoned"))
+    }
+
+    fn mark_dirty(&self, level: u16) {
+        self.dirty_levels
+            .fetch_or(1_u64 << level, Ordering::Release);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Multi-reader / single-writer HNSW graph.
+///
+/// Public readers search only the published visible prefix. A writer may build
+/// a new contiguous id range with worker threads and then publish that range
+/// atomically when the batch completes.
+pub struct HnswGraph {
+    params: BuildParams,
+    nodes: Vec<Node>,
+    build_entry_point: AtomicU32,
+    build_max_level: AtomicU16,
+    visible_entry_point: AtomicU32,
+    visible_max_level: AtomicU16,
+    indexed_len: AtomicUsize,
+    visible_len: AtomicUsize,
+    visited_pool: ArrayQueue<VisitedList>,
+    packed_level0: ArcSwap<PackedLevel>,
+    /// Heap bytes of the node arena and visited pool. Fixed at construction:
+    /// both are sized from `capacity`, not from `len()`.
+    base_bytes: usize,
+    /// Heap bytes of the current `packed_level0` snapshot, which is rebuilt
+    /// wholesale on each level-0 publish rather than grown.
+    packed_bytes: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl HnswGraph {
+    /// Pre-allocate graph nodes and their random levels.
+    pub fn try_new(capacity: usize, params: BuildParams) -> Result<Self> {
+        params.validate()?;
+        if capacity == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("capacity must be greater than 0"));
+        }
+        if capacity > u32::MAX as usize {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "capacity must fit in u32, got {capacity}"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(params.seed);
+        let mut nodes = Vec::with_capacity(capacity);
+        let mut node_bytes = 0;
+        for id in 0..capacity {
+            let target_level = if id == 0 {
+                0
+            } else {
+                random_level(&params, &mut rng)
+            };
+            node_bytes += Node::allocated_bytes(target_level, params.m);
+            nodes.push(Node::new(target_level, params.m));
+        }
+
+        let pool_size = visited_pool_size();
+        let visited_pool = ArrayQueue::new(pool_size);
+        for _ in 0..pool_size {
+            let _ = visited_pool.push(VisitedList::new(0));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            params,
+            base_bytes: capacity * std::mem::size_of::<Node>()
+                + node_bytes
+                + visited_pool_bytes(capacity),
+            nodes,
+            build_entry_point: AtomicU32::new(0),
+            build_max_level: AtomicU16::new(0),
+            visible_entry_point: AtomicU32::new(0),
+            visible_max_level: AtomicU16::new(0),
+            indexed_len: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            visible_len: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            visited_pool,
+            packed_level0: ArcSwap::from_pointee(PackedLevel::empty()),
+            packed_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Upper bound on the graph's dominant heap allocations.
+    ///
+    /// Near-constant from the first insert rather than proportional to `len()`:
+    /// the node arena is allocated in full at construction, sized by `capacity`.
+    /// Callers budgeting memtable memory must account for this the moment a
+    /// vector memtable takes its first row.
+    pub(crate) fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.base_bytes + self.packed_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    /// What [`Self::resident_bytes`] will report for a graph of this shape,
+    /// answerable before one is built.
+    ///
+    /// Everything `try_new` allocates is sized from `capacity`; the only random
+    /// input is how nodes divide across levels, and that division is a
+    /// geometric ladder — every node holds level 0, and the share reaching each
+    /// level above it falls by a factor of `m`. Walking that ladder lands close
+    /// to the built graph instead of sampling it, and level 0 — which dominates
+    /// — is not an estimate at all.
+    ///
+    /// Exists because the allocation is committed well before it happens: the
+    /// first vector row into a memtable materializes the whole graph. Charging
+    /// it only from that row on would put the largest single allocation in a
+    /// vector memtable beyond the reach of admission control.
+    pub(crate) fn reserved_bytes(capacity: usize, params: &BuildParams) -> usize {
+        // Guard the ladder's divisor rather than `params.m` itself: `validate`
+        // rejects m < 2, but this is reachable before that runs.
+        let ratio = params.m.max(2);
+        let mut reaching = capacity;
+        let mut links = 0;
+        for level in 0..params.max_level {
+            links += reaching
+                * (std::mem::size_of::<LevelLinks>()
+                    + LevelLinks::allocated_bytes(max_neighbors(params.m, level)));
+            reaching /= ratio;
+            if reaching == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        capacity * std::mem::size_of::<Node>() + links + visited_pool_bytes(capacity)
+    }
+
+    /// Number of nodes visible to readers.
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.visible_len.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if no nodes are visible to readers.
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    /// Number of nodes already inserted into the graph, including unpublished
+    /// in-flight writer batches after insertion completes.
+    pub fn indexed_len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.indexed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    /// Graph build parameters.
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &BuildParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    /// Insert and publish a single vector id.
+    pub fn insert(&self, id: u32, vectors: &impl VectorSource) -> Result<()> {
+        let expected = self.indexed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        if id as usize != expected {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "insert id must match indexed_len: id={}, indexed_len={expected}",
+                id
+            )));
+        }
+        self.validate_source(vectors, id as usize + 1)?;
+        self.insert_inner(id, vectors)?;
+        self.indexed_len.store(id as usize + 1, Ordering::Release);
+        self.publish_dirty(id as usize + 1)?;
+        self.publish_visible(id as usize + 1);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Insert a contiguous id range using Rayon worker threads.
+    ///
+    /// Readers continue to search the previous visible prefix while this runs.
+    /// The full range becomes visible only after every insert in the batch has
+    /// completed.
+    pub fn insert_batch(&self, ids: Range<u32>, vectors: &impl VectorSource) -> Result<()> {
+        if ids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let expected = self.indexed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        if ids.start as usize != expected {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "insert range must start at indexed_len: range_start={}, indexed_len={expected}",
+                ids.start
+            )));
+        }
+        self.validate_source(vectors, ids.end as usize)?;
+
+        let parallel_start = if ids.start == 0 {
+            self.insert_inner(0, vectors)?;
+            1
+        } else {
+            ids.start
+        };
+
+        (parallel_start..ids.end)
+            .into_par_iter()
+            .try_for_each_init(
+                || VisitedList::new(0),
+                |visited, id| self.insert_inner_with_visited(id, vectors, visited),
+            )?;
+
+        self.indexed_len.store(ids.end as usize, Ordering::Release);
+        self.publish_dirty(ids.end as usize)?;
+        self.publish_visible(ids.end as usize);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Insert a contiguous id range serially.
+    ///
+    /// This is useful when comparing against single-threaded baselines or
+    /// debugging graph quality without scheduler effects.
+    pub fn insert_batch_serial(&self, ids: Range<u32>, vectors: &impl VectorSource) -> Result<()> {
+        if ids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let expected = self.indexed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        if ids.start as usize != expected {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "insert range must start at indexed_len: range_start={}, indexed_len={expected}",
+                ids.start
+            )));
+        }
+        self.validate_source(vectors, ids.end as usize)?;
+
+        let mut visited = VisitedList::new(0);
+        for id in ids.clone() {
+            self.insert_inner_with_visited(id, vectors, &mut visited)?;
+        }
+
+        self.indexed_len.store(ids.end as usize, Ordering::Release);
+        self.publish_dirty(ids.end as usize)?;
+        self.publish_visible(ids.end as usize);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Insert a contiguous id range using the current thread.
+    pub fn insert_batch_with_threads(
+        &self,
+        ids: Range<u32>,
+        vectors: &impl VectorSource,
+        threads: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if threads <= 1 {
+            return self.insert_batch_serial(ids, vectors);
+        }
+        self.insert_batch(ids, vectors)
+    }
+
+    /// Search the published visible graph.
+    pub fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: &[f32],
+        params: SearchParams,
+        vectors: &impl VectorSource,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<SearchResult>> {
+        if params.k == 0 {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        if query.len() != vectors.dim() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "query dimension mismatch: expected {}, got {}",
+                vectors.dim(),
+                query.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // The vector snapshot and graph publication are captured separately.
+        // Cap search to the common visible prefix so a reader racing with the
+        // writer never follows a newly-published graph edge into an older
+        // vector snapshot.
+        let visible_len = self.visible_len.load(Ordering::Acquire).min(vectors.len());
+        if visible_len == 0 {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let neighbor_visible_len = visible_len;
+        let visible_max_level = self.visible_max_level.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let entry = self.visible_entry_point.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        if entry as usize >= visible_len {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+
+        let mut visited = self
+            .visited_pool
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| VisitedList::new(0));
+        let mut ep = ScoredPoint::new(entry, vectors.distance_to(query, entry));
+        for level in (1..visible_max_level).rev() {
+            ep = self.greedy_search_query(ep, level, neighbor_visible_len, |id| {
+                vectors.distance_to(query, id)
+            });
+        }
+
+        let ef = params.ef.max(params.k);
+        let limits = BeamLimits {
+            ef,
+            output_limit: params.k,
+        };
+        let candidates =
+            self.beam_search_query(ep, 0, limits, neighbor_visible_len, &mut visited, |id| {
+                vectors.distance_to(query, id)
+            });
+        let _ = self.visited_pool.push(visited);
+
+        Ok(candidates
+            .into_iter()
+            .take(params.k)
+            .map(|point| SearchResult {
+                id: point.id,
+                row_id: vectors.row_id(point.id),
+                distance: point.distance,
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    /// Emit the Lance HNSW sub-index record batch.
+    ///
+    /// The resulting batch uses the same schema and `lance:hnsw` metadata
+    /// expected by `lance-index`'s `HNSW::load`.
+    ///
+    /// `max_nodes` caps the prefix, for a caller that has already captured a
+    /// companion artifact and needs this one to agree with it: vector storage
+    /// is materialized separately, and a graph that advanced past it would name
+    /// rows the storage batch has no vector for.
+    ///
+    /// Ordinary search readers can run concurrently with insertion; a flush
+    /// export snapshots a completed prefix.
+    pub fn to_lance_hnsw_batch(&self, max_nodes: Option<usize>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let visible_len = self.visible_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let visible_len = match max_nodes {
+            Some(max_nodes) => visible_len.min(max_nodes),
+            None => visible_len,
+        };
+        let max_level = self.params.max_level as usize;
+        let mut level_counts = vec![0usize; max_level];
+        for id in 0..visible_len {
+            let node = &self.nodes[id];
+            for count in level_counts
+                .iter_mut()
+                .take(node.levels.len().min(max_level))
+            {
+                *count += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let total_rows: usize = level_counts.iter().sum();
+        let mut vector_id_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(total_rows);
+        let mut neighbors_builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(UInt32Builder::new(), total_rows);
+        let mut distances_builder = ListBuilder::with_capacity(Float32Builder::new(), total_rows);
+
+        for level in 0..max_level {
+            for id in 0..visible_len {
+                let node = &self.nodes[id];
+                if level >= node.levels.len() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let ranked = node.ranked(level as u16)?;
+                vector_id_builder.append_value(id as u32);
+                // `visible_len` is snapshotted but adjacency is read live, so a
+                // batch landing mid-export can append itself to a node already
+                // emitted. Those ids are not rows in this batch: `HNSW::load`
+                // slices level 0 to the rows below, and `neighbors_at` would
+                // address past them. `search` caps in-memory traversal the same
+                // way; the export has to persist the bound. Both columns filter
+                // together so a reader pairing them sees equal lengths.
+                neighbors_builder.append_value(
+                    ranked
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter(|point| (point.id as usize) < visible_len)
+                        .map(|point| Some(point.id)),
+                );
+                distances_builder.append_value(
+                    ranked
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter(|point| (point.id as usize) < visible_len)
+                        .map(|point| Some(point.distance)),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        // `publish_visible` stores the entry point before `visible_len`, so it
+        // can name a node outside this prefix. `search` returns no results in
+        // that case; an exported index cannot, so fall back to the deepest node
+        // the prefix does hold.
+        let entry_point = {
+            let published = self.visible_entry_point.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+            if (published as usize) < visible_len {
+                published
+            } else {
+                (0..visible_len)
+                    .max_by_key(|&id| self.nodes[id].levels.len())
+                    .map(|id| id as u32)
+                    .unwrap_or(0)
+            }
+        };
+        let metadata = LanceHnswMetadata {
+            entry_point,
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            level_offsets: level_counts
+                .iter()
+                .chain(std::iter::once(&0))
+                .scan(0, |state, count| {
+                    let start = *state;
+                    *state += *count;
+                    Some(start)
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        };
+        let metadata = serde_json::to_string(&metadata)?;
+        let schema = lance_hnsw_schema()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone()
+            .with_metadata(HashMap::from_iter([(
+                HNSW_METADATA_KEY.to_string(),
+                metadata,
+            )]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(vector_id_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(neighbors_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(distances_builder.finish()) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .map_err(Error::from)
+    }
+
+    fn validate_source(&self, vectors: &impl VectorSource, needed_len: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        // Not caller input: the graph was sized below what the memtable holds.
+        // See the matching note in `storage.rs::append_batch`.
+        if needed_len > self.nodes.len() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "HNSW graph capacity {} exhausted: need {needed_len}; \
+                 the graph is sized below the memtable's row capacity",
+                self.nodes.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        if vectors.len() < needed_len {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "vector source has {} rows but graph insert needs {needed_len}",
+                vectors.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn insert_inner(&self, id: u32, vectors: &impl VectorSource) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut visited = self
+            .visited_pool
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| VisitedList::new(0));
+        let result = self.insert_inner_with_visited(id, vectors, &mut visited);
+        let _ = self.visited_pool.push(visited);
+        result
+    }
+
+    fn insert_inner_with_visited(
+        &self,
+        id: u32,
+        vectors: &impl VectorSource,
+        visited: &mut VisitedList,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if id == 0 {
+            let target_level = self.nodes[0].target_level;
+            self.build_entry_point.store(0, Ordering::Release);
+            self.build_max_level
+                .store(target_level + 1, Ordering::Release);
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let target_level = self.nodes[id as usize].target_level;
+        let current_max_level = self.build_max_level.load(Ordering::Acquire).max(1);
+        let entry = self.build_entry_point.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let mut ep = ScoredPoint::new(entry, vectors.distance_between(id, entry));
+
+        for level in (target_level + 1..current_max_level).rev() {
+            ep = self.greedy_search_build(ep, level, usize::MAX, |candidate| {
+                vectors.distance_between(id, candidate)
+            })?;
+        }
+
+        let connect_max_level = target_level.min(current_max_level - 1);
+        let mut selected_by_level: Vec<Vec<ScoredPoint>> =
+            vec![Vec::new(); (target_level + 1) as usize];
+        for level in (0..=connect_max_level).rev() {
+            let candidates = self.beam_search_build(
+                ep,
+                level,
+                BuildBeamLimits {
+                    ef: self.params.ef_construction,
+                    visible_len: usize::MAX,
+                    visited_capacity: vectors.len(),
+                },
+                visited,
+                |candidate| vectors.distance_between(id, candidate),
+            )?;
+            let candidates: Vec<_> = candidates
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter(|point| point.id != id && self.nodes[point.id as usize].has_level(level))
+                .collect();
+
+            let selected =
+                self.select_neighbors(vectors, &candidates, max_neighbors(self.params.m, level));
+            self.set_node_neighbors(id, level, selected.clone())?;
+            if let Some(next) = selected.first().copied() {
+                ep = next;
+            }
+            selected_by_level[level as usize] = selected;
+        }
+
+        for (level, selected) in selected_by_level.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            let level = level as u16;
+            for neighbor in selected {
+                self.add_reverse_edge(vectors, neighbor.id, id, neighbor.distance, level)?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        self.promote_build_entry(id, target_level);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn greedy_search_query<F>(
+        &self,
+        mut current: ScoredPoint,
+        level: u16,
+        visible_len: usize,
+        distance: F,
+    ) -> ScoredPoint
+    where
+        F: Fn(u32) -> f32,
+    {
+        loop {
+            let mut next = None;
+            self.visit_published_neighbors(current.id, level, visible_len, |neighbor| {
+                let candidate_distance = distance(neighbor);
+                if candidate_distance < current.distance
+                    && next
+                        .map(|point: ScoredPoint| candidate_distance < point.distance)
+                        .unwrap_or(true)
+                {
+                    next = Some(ScoredPoint::new(neighbor, candidate_distance));
+                }
+            });
+
+            let Some(next_point) = next else {
+                break;
+            };
+            current = next_point;
+        }
+        current
+    }
+
+    fn beam_search_query<F>(
+        &self,
+        ep: ScoredPoint,
+        level: u16,
+        limits: BeamLimits,
+        visible_len: usize,
+        visited: &mut VisitedList,
+        distance: F,
+    ) -> Vec<ScoredPoint>
+    where
+        F: Fn(u32) -> f32,
+    {
+        let mut candidates = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(limits.ef);
+        let mut results = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(limits.ef);
+        let visited_capacity = if visible_len == usize::MAX {
+            self.visible_len.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+        } else {
+            visible_len
+        };
+        visited.reset(visited_capacity);
+        let _ = visited.insert(ep.id);
+        candidates.push(Reverse(ep));
+        results.push(ep);
+
+        while let Some(Reverse(current)) = candidates.pop() {
+            let furthest = results
+                .peek()
+                .map(|point| point.distance)
+                .unwrap_or(f32::INFINITY);
+            if current.distance > furthest && results.len() == limits.ef {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            self.visit_published_neighbors(current.id, level, visible_len, |neighbor| {
+                if !visited.insert(neighbor) {
+                    return;
+                }
+                let candidate = ScoredPoint::new(neighbor, distance(neighbor));
+                let furthest = results
+                    .peek()
+                    .map(|point| point.distance)
+                    .unwrap_or(f32::INFINITY);
+                if results.len() < limits.ef || candidate.distance < furthest {
+                    if results.len() == limits.ef {
+                        results.pop();
+                    }
+                    results.push(candidate);
+                    candidates.push(Reverse(candidate));
+                }
+            });
+        }
+
+        let output_limit = limits.output_limit.min(results.len());
+        while results.len() > output_limit {
+            results.pop();
+        }
+        results.into_sorted_vec()
+    }
+
+    fn greedy_search_build<F>(
+        &self,
+        mut current: ScoredPoint,
+        level: u16,
+        visible_len: usize,
+        distance: F,
+    ) -> Result<ScoredPoint>
+    where
+        F: Fn(u32) -> f32,
+    {
+        loop {
+            let mut next = None;
+            self.visit_build_neighbors(current.id, level, visible_len, |neighbor| {
+                let candidate_distance = distance(neighbor);
+                if candidate_distance < current.distance
+                    && next
+                        .map(|point: ScoredPoint| candidate_distance < point.distance)
+                        .unwrap_or(true)
+                {
+                    next = Some(ScoredPoint::new(neighbor, candidate_distance));
+                }
+            })?;
+
+            let Some(next_point) = next else {
+                break;
+            };
+            current = next_point;
+        }
+        Ok(current)
+    }
+
+    fn beam_search_build<F>(
+        &self,
+        ep: ScoredPoint,
+        level: u16,
+        limits: BuildBeamLimits,
+        visited: &mut VisitedList,
+        distance: F,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<ScoredPoint>>
+    where
+        F: Fn(u32) -> f32,
+    {
+        let mut candidates = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(limits.ef);
+        let mut results = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(limits.ef);
+        let visited_capacity = if limits.visible_len == usize::MAX {
+            limits.visited_capacity
+        } else {
+            limits.visible_len
+        };
+        visited.reset(visited_capacity);
+        let _ = visited.insert(ep.id);
+        candidates.push(Reverse(ep));
+        results.push(ep);
+
+        while let Some(Reverse(current)) = candidates.pop() {
+            let furthest = results
+                .peek()
+                .map(|point| point.distance)
+                .unwrap_or(f32::INFINITY);
+            if current.distance > furthest && results.len() == limits.ef {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            self.visit_build_neighbors(current.id, level, limits.visible_len, |neighbor| {
+                if !visited.insert(neighbor) {
+                    return;
+                }
+                let candidate = ScoredPoint::new(neighbor, distance(neighbor));
+                let furthest = results
+                    .peek()
+                    .map(|point| point.distance)
+                    .unwrap_or(f32::INFINITY);
+                if results.len() < limits.ef || candidate.distance < furthest {
+                    if results.len() == limits.ef {
+                        results.pop();
+                    }
+                    results.push(candidate);
+                    candidates.push(Reverse(candidate));
+                }
+            })?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(results.into_sorted_vec())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_published_neighbors<F>(&self, id: u32, level: u16, visible_len: usize, mut visit: F)
+    where
+        F: FnMut(u32),
+    {
+        let node = &self.nodes[id as usize];
+        if !node.has_level(level) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if level == 0 {
+            let packed = self.packed_level0.load();
+            if let Some(neighbors) = packed.neighbors(id) {
+                if visible_len == usize::MAX {
+                    for neighbor in neighbors.iter().copied() {
+                        visit(neighbor);
+                    }
+                    return;
+                }
+                for neighbor in neighbors.iter().copied() {
+                    if neighbor as usize >= visible_len {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    visit(neighbor);
+                }
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+        let published = node.levels[level as usize].published.load();
+        if visible_len == usize::MAX {
+            for neighbor in published.iter().copied() {
+                visit(neighbor);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        for neighbor in published.iter().copied() {
+            if neighbor as usize >= visible_len {
+                continue;
+            }
+            visit(neighbor);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn visit_build_neighbors<F>(
+        &self,
+        id: u32,
+        level: u16,
+        visible_len: usize,
+        mut visit: F,
+    ) -> Result<()>
+    where
+        F: FnMut(u32),
+    {
+        let node = &self.nodes[id as usize];
+        if !node.has_level(level) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let ranked = node.ranked(level)?;
+        if visible_len == usize::MAX {
+            for neighbor in ranked.iter().map(|point| point.id) {
+                visit(neighbor);
+            }
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        for neighbor in ranked.iter().map(|point| point.id) {
+            if neighbor as usize >= visible_len {
+                continue;
+            }
+            visit(neighbor);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn select_neighbors(
+        &self,
+        vectors: &impl VectorSource,
+        candidates: &[ScoredPoint],
+        limit: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<ScoredPoint> {
+        if candidates.len() <= limit {
+            let mut candidates = candidates.to_vec();
+            candidates.sort_unstable();
+            return candidates;
+        }
+
+        let mut candidates = candidates.to_vec();
+        candidates.sort_unstable();
+        let mut selected = Vec::with_capacity(limit);
+        for candidate in candidates {
+            if selected.len() == limit {
+                break;
+            }
+            if selected.is_empty() || vectors.prefers_candidate(candidate, &selected) {
+                selected.push(candidate);
+            }
+        }
+        selected
+    }
+
+    fn set_node_neighbors(&self, id: u32, level: u16, neighbors: Vec<ScoredPoint>) -> Result<()> {
+        let node = &self.nodes[id as usize];
+        let mut ranked = node.ranked(level)?;
+        *ranked = neighbors;
+        node.mark_dirty(level);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn add_reverse_edge(
+        &self,
+        vectors: &impl VectorSource,
+        target: u32,
+        neighbor: u32,
+        distance: f32,
+        level: u16,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let node = &self.nodes[target as usize];
+        if !node.has_level(level) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let mut ranked = node.ranked(level)?;
+        if ranked.iter().any(|point| point.id == neighbor) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        ranked.push(ScoredPoint::new(neighbor, distance));
+        let limit = max_neighbors(self.params.m, level);
+        if ranked.len() > limit {
+            *ranked = self.select_neighbors(vectors, &ranked, limit);
+        } else {
+            ranked.sort_unstable();
+        }
+        node.mark_dirty(level);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn promote_build_entry(&self, id: u32, target_level: u16) {
+        loop {
+            let entry = self.build_entry_point.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+            let entry_level = self.nodes[entry as usize].target_level;
+            if target_level <= entry_level {
+                break;
+            }
+            if self
+                .build_entry_point
+                .compare_exchange(entry, id, Ordering::AcqRel, Ordering::Acquire)
+                .is_ok()
+            {
+                self.build_max_level
+                    .fetch_max(target_level + 1, Ordering::AcqRel);
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn publish_visible(&self, len: usize) {
+        let entry = self.build_entry_point.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        self.visible_entry_point.store(entry, Ordering::Release);
+        self.visible_max_level.store(
+            self.build_max_level.load(Ordering::Acquire),
+            Ordering::Release,
+        );
+        self.visible_len.store(len, Ordering::Release);
+    }
+
+    fn publish_dirty(&self, len: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut has_level0_update = false;
+        for node in self.nodes.iter().take(len) {
+            let mut mask = node.dirty_levels.swap(0, Ordering::AcqRel);
+            while mask != 0 {
+                let level = mask.trailing_zeros() as usize;
+                mask &= mask - 1;
+                if level >= node.levels.len() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let ranked = node.ranked(level as u16)?;
+                node.levels[level].publish_from_ranked(&ranked);
+                has_level0_update |= level == 0;
+            }
+        }
+        if has_level0_update {
+            self.rebuild_packed_level0(len)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn rebuild_packed_level0(&self, len: usize) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(len + 1);
+        let mut neighbors = Vec::with_capacity(len.saturating_mul(max_neighbors(self.params.m, 0)));
+        offsets.push(0);
+        for node in self.nodes.iter().take(len) {
+            let ranked = node.ranked(0)?;
+            neighbors.extend(ranked.iter().map(|point| point.id));
+            offsets.push(neighbors.len());
+        }
+
+        let packed_bytes = offsets.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<usize>()
+            + neighbors.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>();
+
+        // ArcSwap reclaims the prior snapshot once no reader guard holds it.
+        self.packed_level0
+            .store(Arc::new(PackedLevel { offsets, neighbors }));
+        self.packed_bytes.store(packed_bytes, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+fn lance_hnsw_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(VECTOR_ID_COL, DataType::UInt32, true),
+        Field::new(
+            NEIGHBORS_COL,
+            DataType::List(Field::new_list_field(DataType::UInt32, true).into()),
+            true,
+        ),
+        Field::new(
+            DIST_COL,
+            DataType::List(Field::new_list_field(DataType::Float32, true).into()),
+            true,
+        ),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn random_level(params: &BuildParams, rng: &mut SmallRng) -> u16 {
+    let ml = 1.0 / (params.m as f32).ln();
+    ((-rng.random::<f32>().ln() * ml) as u16).min(params.max_level - 1)
+}
+
+fn max_neighbors(m: usize, level: u16) -> usize {
+    if level == 0 { m * 2 } else { m }
+}
+
+/// One list per worker, doubled so a searcher never blocks on the queue.
+fn visited_pool_size() -> usize {
+    rayon::current_num_threads().max(1) * 2
+}
+
+/// Heap the visited pool settles at for a graph of `capacity` nodes. The lists
+/// are pushed empty but `VisitedList::reset` resizes each to one bit per node
+/// on first use, so the pool is charged at its grown size from the start.
+fn visited_pool_bytes(capacity: usize) -> usize {
+    visited_pool_size()
+        * (std::mem::size_of::<VisitedList>()
+            + capacity.div_ceil(WORD_BITS) * std::mem::size_of::<usize>())
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct VisitedList {
+    words: Vec<usize>,
+    touched: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl VisitedList {
+    fn new(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            words: vec![0; capacity.div_ceil(WORD_BITS)],
+            touched: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn reset(&mut self, capacity: usize) {
+        for id in self.touched.drain(..) {
+            let idx = id as usize;
+            self.words[idx / WORD_BITS] &= !(1usize << (idx % WORD_BITS));
+        }
+        let needed_words = capacity.div_ceil(WORD_BITS);
+        if self.words.len() < needed_words {
+            self.words.resize(needed_words, 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn insert(&mut self, id: u32) -> bool {
+        let idx = id as usize;
+        let word = idx / WORD_BITS;
+        let bit = 1usize << (idx % WORD_BITS);
+        if self.words[word] & bit == 0 {
+            self.words[word] |= bit;
+            self.touched.push(id);
+            true
+        } else {
+            false
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
+
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+    use lance_index::vector::hnsw::HNSW;
+    use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+    use super::super::{ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore, VectorSource};
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn fsl(rows: usize, dim: usize) -> Arc<FixedSizeListArray> {
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(rows * dim);
+        for row in 0..rows {
+            for col in 0..dim {
+                values.push(row as f32 + col as f32 * 0.001);
+            }
+        }
+        let values = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef;
+        Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dim as i32,
+                values,
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parallel_insert_searches_visible_graph() {
+        let rows = 256;
+        let dim = 16;
+        let store = Arc::new(
+            ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(512, 4, dim, DistanceType::L2).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let ids = store.append_batch(fsl(rows, dim), 100).unwrap();
+        let snapshot = store.snapshot();
+        let graph = HnswGraph::try_new(
+            512,
+            BuildParams::mem_wal_default()
+                .num_edges(8)
+                .ef_construction(32)
+                .seed(7),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        graph.insert_batch(ids, &snapshot).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(graph.len(), rows);
+
+        let query = snapshot.vector(42);
+        let result = graph
+            .search(query, SearchParams::new(5, 32), &snapshot)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(result.iter().any(|point| point.id == 42));
+    }
+
+    /// The graph must be exportable to a boundary its caller chose, because the
+    /// companion vector storage is captured separately: a graph that advanced
+    /// past it would name rows the storage batch has no vector for, and a search
+    /// would score them.
+    #[test]
+    fn to_lance_hnsw_batch_honors_a_caller_supplied_prefix() {
+        const ROWS: usize = 256;
+        const DIM: usize = 8;
+        const PREFIX: usize = 64;
+        let store = Arc::new(
+            ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(512, 4, DIM, DistanceType::L2).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let ids = store.append_batch(fsl(ROWS, DIM), 0).unwrap();
+        let snapshot = store.snapshot();
+        let graph = HnswGraph::try_new(
+            512,
+            BuildParams::mem_wal_default()
+                .num_edges(8)
+                .ef_construction(32)
+                .seed(17),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        graph.insert_batch(ids, &snapshot).unwrap();
+
+        let full = graph.to_lance_hnsw_batch(None).unwrap();
+        let bounded = graph.to_lance_hnsw_batch(Some(PREFIX)).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            bounded.num_rows() < full.num_rows(),
+            "the cap has to actually bound the export"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(HNSW::load(bounded.clone()).unwrap().len(), PREFIX);
+
+        // Every edge must stay inside the requested prefix, not merely inside
+        // whatever the graph had published.
+        let neighbors = bounded
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::ListArray>()
+            .expect("neighbors column is a list");
+        for row in 0..bounded.num_rows() {
+            let ids = neighbors.value(row);
+            let ids = ids
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt32Array>()
+                .expect("neighbor ids are u32");
+            for i in 0..ids.len() {
+                assert!(
+                    (ids.value(i) as usize) < PREFIX,
+                    "row {row} points at {} outside the {PREFIX}-node prefix",
+                    ids.value(i)
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// An export racing inserts must persist only edges inside the prefix it
+    /// publishes.
+    ///
+    /// `to_lance_hnsw_batch` snapshots `visible_len` but reads each node's ranked
+    /// list live, so a batch landing mid-export can append itself to a node
+    /// already emitted. `HNSW::load` then slices level 0 to the exported rows and
+    /// a walk over that edge addresses past them. `search` bounds in-memory
+    /// traversal by `visible_len` for the same reason.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_lance_hnsw_batch_edges_stay_inside_the_exported_prefix() {
+        const ROWS: usize = 1024;
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        const CHUNK: usize = 32;
+        let store = Arc::new(
+            ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(2048, 8, DIM, DistanceType::L2).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let ids = store.append_batch(fsl(ROWS, DIM), 0).unwrap();
+        let snapshot = store.snapshot();
+        let graph = Arc::new(
+            HnswGraph::try_new(
+                2048,
+                BuildParams::mem_wal_default()
+                    .num_edges(8)
+                    .ef_construction(32)
+                    .seed(13),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Seed a prefix so an export has real adjacency to walk.
+        let chunk = CHUNK as u32;
+        graph
+            .insert_batch(ids.start..ids.start + chunk, &snapshot)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let writing = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(true));
+        let writer = {
+            let graph = Arc::clone(&graph);
+            let writing = Arc::clone(&writing);
+            std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                let mut next = ids.start + chunk;
+                while next < ids.end {
+                    let stop = (next + chunk).min(ids.end);
+                    graph.insert_batch(next..stop, &snapshot).unwrap();
+                    next = stop;
+                }
+                writing.store(false, Ordering::Release);
+            })
+        };
+
+        // Export while the writer runs rather than a fixed count, so the overlap
+        // does not depend on how fast this machine inserts.
+        let mut exports = 0;
+        let mut edges_checked = 0;
+        while writing.load(Ordering::Acquire) || exports < 5 {
+            let batch = graph.to_lance_hnsw_batch(None).unwrap();
+            let rows = batch.num_rows();
+            let neighbors = batch
+                .column(1)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::ListArray>()
+                .expect("neighbors column is a list");
+            let distances = batch
+                .column(2)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::ListArray>()
+                .expect("distances column is a list");
+            // Level 0 holds every visible node, so its row count is the prefix.
+            let prefix = HNSW::load(batch.clone()).unwrap().len() as u32;
+            for row in 0..rows {
+                let ids = neighbors.value(row);
+                let ids = ids
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt32Array>()
+                    .expect("neighbor ids are u32");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    ids.len(),
+                    distances.value(row).len(),
+                    "row {row} pairs {} ids with {} distances",
+                    ids.len(),
+                    distances.value(row).len()
+                );
+                for i in 0..ids.len() {
+                    let nid = ids.value(i);
+                    assert!(
+                        nid < prefix,
+                        "exported row {row} points at {nid}, outside the \
+                         {prefix}-node prefix it was exported with"
+                    );
+                    edges_checked += 1;
+                }
+            }
+            exports += 1;
+        }
+        writer.join().unwrap();
+        assert!(edges_checked > 0, "test never inspected an edge");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_lance_hnsw_batch_loads_with_lance_index() {
+        let rows = 64;
+        let dim = 8;
+        let store = Arc::new(
+            ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(128, 2, dim, DistanceType::L2).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let ids = store.append_batch(fsl(rows, dim), 0).unwrap();
+        let snapshot = store.snapshot();
+        let graph = HnswGraph::try_new(
+            128,
+            BuildParams::mem_wal_default()
+                .num_edges(8)
+                .ef_construction(32)
+                .seed(11),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        graph.insert_batch(ids, &snapshot).unwrap();
+
+        let batch = graph.to_lance_hnsw_batch(None).unwrap();
+        let loaded = HNSW::load(batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(loaded.len(), rows);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/mod.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ff0f2bc509f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Fast HNSW primitives for MemWAL's in-memory vector index.
+//!
+//! The graph takes the hnswlib layout as the performance baseline while
+//! keeping MemWAL-specific constraints explicit: vector data is borrowed from
+//! Arrow batches, graph publication follows a multi-reader / single-writer
+//! lifecycle, and flush snapshots emit Lance's HNSW sub-index batch format.
+
+#![allow(dead_code, unused_imports)]
+
+mod graph;
+mod storage;
+
+pub use graph::{BuildParams, HnswGraph, SearchParams};
+pub use storage::{ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore, VectorSource};
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub use graph::{LanceHnswMetadata, ScoredPoint, SearchResult};
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub use storage::{VectorStoreSnapshot, compute_f32_distance};
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/storage.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/storage.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c9c29a98c29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/hnsw/storage.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,663 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::mem::MaybeUninit;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, cosine_distance, dot_distance, l2_f32};
+
+use super::graph::ScoredPoint;
+
+/// Vector column name used by Lance's flat vector storage batches.
+pub const FLAT_COLUMN: &str = "flat";
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct StoredArrowBatch {
+    /// Keeps the Arrow buffer alive while `values_ptr` is used by readers.
+    _array: Arc<FixedSizeListArray>,
+    values_ptr: *const f32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+struct RowLookup {
+    batch_idx: u32,
+    offset: u32,
+}
+
+/// Read-only vector source used by the HNSW graph.
+///
+/// The graph owns neighbor connectivity only. Vector bytes and row ids stay in
+/// the caller's storage so MemTables can avoid a second `rows * dim * 4`
+/// allocation.
+pub trait VectorSource: Send + Sync {
+    /// Number of vectors visible through this source.
+    fn len(&self) -> usize;
+
+    /// Number of `f32` values per vector.
+    fn dim(&self) -> usize;
+
+    /// Distance metric to use for all graph operations.
+    fn distance_type(&self) -> DistanceType;
+
+    /// Lance row id or row position for a vector id.
+    fn row_id(&self, id: u32) -> u64;
+
+    /// Borrow the vector values for a vector id.
+    fn vector(&self, id: u32) -> &[f32];
+
+    /// Returns true if no vectors are visible.
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    /// Compute distance between an external query vector and a vector id.
+    fn distance_to(&self, query: &[f32], id: u32) -> f32 {
+        compute_f32_distance(query, self.vector(id), self.distance_type())
+    }
+
+    /// Compute distance between two vector ids.
+    fn distance_between(&self, left: u32, right: u32) -> f32 {
+        compute_f32_distance(self.vector(left), self.vector(right), self.distance_type())
+    }
+
+    /// HNSW neighbor diversity heuristic.
+    fn prefers_candidate(&self, candidate: ScoredPoint, selected: &[ScoredPoint]) -> bool {
+        selected
+            .iter()
+            .all(|other| candidate.distance < self.distance_between(candidate.id, other.id))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compute a distance between two f32 vectors using Lance's SIMD-backed
+/// distance kernels.
+pub fn compute_f32_distance(query: &[f32], vector: &[f32], distance_type: DistanceType) -> f32 {
+    match distance_type {
+        DistanceType::L2 => l2_f32(query, vector),
+        DistanceType::Dot => dot_distance(query, vector),
+        DistanceType::Cosine => cosine_distance(query, vector),
+        DistanceType::Hamming => f32::INFINITY,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Zero-copy Arrow-backed vector store for active MemTables.
+///
+/// The store is append-only and follows a single-writer / multi-reader model.
+/// Appended vector batches are retained by `Arc`, while id-to-batch lookup
+/// tables make `vector(id)` O(1).
+pub struct ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore {
+    batches: *mut MaybeUninit<StoredArrowBatch>,
+    row_to_batch: *mut MaybeUninit<RowLookup>,
+    row_ids: *mut MaybeUninit<u64>,
+    committed_batches: AtomicUsize,
+    committed_len: AtomicUsize,
+    capacity: usize,
+    max_batches: usize,
+    dim: usize,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+}
+
+// SAFETY: writes are single-threaded and publish initialized slots with
+// Release stores. Readers use Acquire loads and only read committed slots.
+unsafe impl Send for ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore {}
+unsafe impl Sync for ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore {}
+
+impl Drop for ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        // SAFETY: `drop` has exclusive access to the store. Only committed
+        // batch slots contain initialized `Arc` values that need dropping.
+        unsafe {
+            let committed_batches = self.committed_batches.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+            for idx in 0..committed_batches {
+                std::ptr::drop_in_place(self.batches.add(idx).cast::<StoredArrowBatch>());
+            }
+            let _: Box<[MaybeUninit<StoredArrowBatch>]> = Box::from_raw(
+                std::ptr::slice_from_raw_parts_mut(self.batches, self.max_batches),
+            );
+            let _: Box<[MaybeUninit<RowLookup>]> = Box::from_raw(
+                std::ptr::slice_from_raw_parts_mut(self.row_to_batch, self.capacity),
+            );
+            let _: Box<[MaybeUninit<u64>]> = Box::from_raw(std::ptr::slice_from_raw_parts_mut(
+                self.row_ids,
+                self.capacity,
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore {
+    /// Create an append-only vector store.
+    pub fn try_new(
+        capacity: usize,
+        max_batches: usize,
+        dim: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if capacity == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("capacity must be greater than 0"));
+        }
+        if max_batches == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("max_batches must be greater than 0"));
+        }
+        if dim == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("dim must be greater than 0"));
+        }
+        if capacity > u32::MAX as usize {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "capacity must fit in u32, got {capacity}"
+            )));
+        }
+        if max_batches > u32::MAX as usize {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "max_batches must fit in u32, got {max_batches}"
+            )));
+        }
+        if distance_type == DistanceType::Hamming {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore stores f32 vectors and does not support hamming distance",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let batches: Box<[MaybeUninit<StoredArrowBatch>]> = uninit_boxed_slice(max_batches);
+        let row_to_batch: Box<[MaybeUninit<RowLookup>]> = uninit_boxed_slice(capacity);
+        let row_ids: Box<[MaybeUninit<u64>]> = uninit_boxed_slice(capacity);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new(
+                FLAT_COLUMN,
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dim as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            batches: Box::into_raw(batches) as *mut MaybeUninit<StoredArrowBatch>,
+            row_to_batch: Box::into_raw(row_to_batch) as *mut MaybeUninit<RowLookup>,
+            row_ids: Box::into_raw(row_ids) as *mut MaybeUninit<u64>,
+            committed_batches: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            committed_len: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            capacity,
+            max_batches,
+            dim,
+            distance_type,
+            schema,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Heap bytes of the store's own slabs, all sized from `capacity` and
+    /// `max_batches` at construction.
+    ///
+    /// Excludes the vectors themselves: batches are held by reference, so their
+    /// bytes belong to the MemTable's batch store and counting them here would
+    /// double-count. That also makes this independent of `dim`.
+    pub(crate) fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        Self::reserved_bytes(self.capacity, self.max_batches)
+    }
+
+    /// What [`Self::resident_bytes`] will report for a store of this shape,
+    /// answerable before one exists — the slabs are sized from these two
+    /// numbers alone, and `dim` never enters. Lets a memory ceiling charge for
+    /// the store ahead of the first insert that allocates it.
+    pub(crate) fn reserved_bytes(capacity: usize, max_batches: usize) -> usize {
+        max_batches * std::mem::size_of::<StoredArrowBatch>()
+            + capacity * (std::mem::size_of::<RowLookup>() + std::mem::size_of::<u64>())
+    }
+
+    /// Number of committed vectors.
+    pub fn committed_len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    /// Number of `f32` values per vector.
+    pub fn dim(&self) -> usize {
+        self.dim
+    }
+
+    /// Append one Arrow `FixedSizeList<Float32>` batch by reference.
+    ///
+    /// Null-vector rows (e.g. tombstones, or rows written without an embedding)
+    /// are skipped — they get no graph node — matching base-table vector index
+    /// semantics. Surviving non-null rows are compacted into a contiguous node
+    /// range, but each node's `row_ids` entry preserves its *original* offset in
+    /// the input batch so search still resolves a hit back to the correct row.
+    pub fn append_batch(
+        &self,
+        vectors: Arc<FixedSizeListArray>,
+        row_id_start: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Range<u32>> {
+        if vectors.is_empty() {
+            let start = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as u32;
+            return Ok(start..start);
+        }
+        if vectors.value_length() as usize != self.dim {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "vector dimension mismatch: expected {}, got {}",
+                self.dim,
+                vectors.value_length()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // Compact away null-vector rows, remembering each survivor's original
+        // offset. The all-non-null case keeps the input array as-is (offsets are
+        // the identity) to avoid a copy on the hot path.
+        let (stored_array, original_offsets): (Arc<FixedSizeListArray>, Option<Vec<u32>>) =
+            if vectors.null_count() == 0 {
+                (vectors, None)
+            } else {
+                let valid = vectors
+                    .nulls()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("null_count > 0 but no null buffer"))?;
+                let mask = BooleanArray::new(valid.inner().clone(), None);
+                let filtered = arrow_select::filter::filter(vectors.as_ref(), &mask)?;
+                let fsl = filtered
+                    .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal("filtered vector column is not a FixedSizeList")
+                    })?
+                    .clone();
+                let offsets: Vec<u32> = (0..vectors.len() as u32)
+                    .filter(|&i| valid.is_valid(i as usize))
+                    .collect();
+                (Arc::new(fsl), Some(offsets))
+            };
+
+        let num_rows = stored_array.len();
+        if num_rows == 0 {
+            // All rows were null (e.g. an all-tombstone memtable): no graph node.
+            let start = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as u32;
+            return Ok(start..start);
+        }
+
+        let values = stored_array.values();
+        let Some(values_f32) = values.as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "vector values must be Float32, got {:?}",
+                values.data_type()
+            )));
+        };
+
+        // Exhaustion is a shard-construction bug (store sized below the memtable),
+        // not caller input — hence `internal`, not `invalid_input`.
+        let start = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        let end = start.checked_add(num_rows).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "vector count overflow: start={}, batch_len={}",
+                start, num_rows
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if end > self.capacity {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "HNSW vector store capacity {} exhausted: inserting rows [{}..{}); \
+                 the store is sized below the memtable's row capacity",
+                self.capacity, start, end
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let batch_idx = self.committed_batches.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        if batch_idx >= self.max_batches {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "HNSW vector store max_batches {} exhausted at batch_idx {} \
+                 (inserting rows [{}..{})); the store is sized below the \
+                 memtable's batch capacity",
+                self.max_batches, batch_idx, start, end
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // SAFETY: slots are not visible until the Release stores below. The
+        // single writer reserves `batch_idx` and `start..end`.
+        unsafe {
+            self.batches
+                .add(batch_idx)
+                .write(MaybeUninit::new(StoredArrowBatch {
+                    _array: stored_array.clone(),
+                    values_ptr: values_f32.values().as_ptr(),
+                }));
+            for offset in 0..num_rows {
+                self.row_to_batch
+                    .add(start + offset)
+                    .write(MaybeUninit::new(RowLookup {
+                        batch_idx: batch_idx as u32,
+                        offset: offset as u32,
+                    }));
+                // The node maps back to the survivor's *original* row position,
+                // so a compacted node still resolves to the right row.
+                let original = match &original_offsets {
+                    Some(offsets) => offsets[offset] as u64,
+                    None => offset as u64,
+                };
+                self.row_ids
+                    .add(start + offset)
+                    .write(MaybeUninit::new(row_id_start + original));
+            }
+        }
+
+        self.committed_batches
+            .store(batch_idx + 1, Ordering::Release);
+        self.committed_len.store(end, Ordering::Release);
+        Ok(start as u32..end as u32)
+    }
+
+    /// Capture a stable visible prefix of the store.
+    pub fn snapshot(self: &Arc<Self>) -> VectorStoreSnapshot {
+        self.snapshot_after_visible_len(|| {})
+    }
+
+    fn snapshot_after_visible_len(
+        self: &Arc<Self>,
+        after_visible_len: impl FnOnce(),
+    ) -> VectorStoreSnapshot {
+        // Read the length first. If it observes a newly committed batch, the
+        // Acquire load also makes the preceding committed_batches publication
+        // visible to the later load below. If it observes the old length, the
+        // snapshot remains a valid prefix even if a writer commits meanwhile.
+        let visible_len = self.committed_len();
+        after_visible_len();
+        let committed_batches = self.committed_batches.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let contiguous_values_addr = if committed_batches == 1 {
+            // SAFETY: batch slot 0 is initialized before committed_batches is
+            // published. The store Arc retained by the snapshot keeps it alive.
+            unsafe { (*self.batches.cast::<StoredArrowBatch>()).values_ptr as usize }
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        VectorStoreSnapshot {
+            store: self.clone(),
+            visible_len,
+            contiguous_values_addr,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Materialize the visible vectors into Lance flat-storage format.
+    pub fn to_record_batch(&self, total_rows: Option<u64>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let visible_len = self.committed_len();
+        self.to_record_batch_with_len(visible_len, total_rows)
+    }
+
+    fn to_record_batch_with_len(
+        &self,
+        visible_len: usize,
+        total_rows: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(visible_len);
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(visible_len * self.dim);
+        for id in 0..visible_len as u32 {
+            let row_id = self.row_id_at(id);
+            row_ids.push(match total_rows {
+                Some(total_rows) => total_rows.checked_sub(row_id + 1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "row id reversal underflow: total_rows={total_rows}, row_id={row_id}"
+                    ))
+                })?,
+                None => row_id,
+            });
+            values.extend_from_slice(self.vector_at(id));
+        }
+
+        let row_ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)) as ArrayRef;
+        let values = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let vectors = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            field,
+            self.dim as i32,
+            values,
+            None,
+        )?) as ArrayRef;
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            self.schema.clone(),
+            vec![row_ids, vectors],
+        )?)
+    }
+
+    fn row_id_at(&self, id: u32) -> u64 {
+        debug_assert!((id as usize) < self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+        // SAFETY: callers pass committed ids. Row ids are initialized before
+        // `committed_len` is published and never overwritten.
+        unsafe { self.row_ids.add(id as usize).read().assume_init() }
+    }
+
+    fn vector_at(&self, id: u32) -> &[f32] {
+        debug_assert!((id as usize) < self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+        // SAFETY: callers pass committed ids. The lookup and batch slot were
+        // initialized before publication; the retained Arc keeps values alive.
+        unsafe {
+            let lookup = self.row_to_batch.add(id as usize).read().assume_init();
+            let batch = &*self
+                .batches
+                .add(lookup.batch_idx as usize)
+                .cast::<StoredArrowBatch>();
+            let ptr = batch.values_ptr.add(lookup.offset as usize * self.dim);
+            std::slice::from_raw_parts(ptr, self.dim)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Snapshot of an [`ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore`].
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct VectorStoreSnapshot {
+    store: Arc<ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore>,
+    visible_len: usize,
+    contiguous_values_addr: usize,
+}
+
+impl VectorStoreSnapshot {
+    /// Materialize the snapshot into Lance flat-storage format.
+    pub fn to_record_batch(&self, total_rows: Option<u64>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        self.store
+            .to_record_batch_with_len(self.visible_len, total_rows)
+    }
+}
+
+impl VectorSource for VectorStoreSnapshot {
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.visible_len
+    }
+
+    fn dim(&self) -> usize {
+        self.store.dim
+    }
+
+    fn distance_type(&self) -> DistanceType {
+        self.store.distance_type
+    }
+
+    fn row_id(&self, id: u32) -> u64 {
+        // HNSW only requests ids from its own graph, which is built from this
+        // snapshot's visible prefix. Keep this as a debug-only contract check.
+        debug_assert!(
+            (id as usize) < self.visible_len,
+            "vector id {id} is outside snapshot length {}",
+            self.visible_len
+        );
+        self.store.row_id_at(id)
+    }
+
+    fn vector(&self, id: u32) -> &[f32] {
+        debug_assert!(
+            (id as usize) < self.visible_len,
+            "vector id {id} is outside snapshot length {}",
+            self.visible_len
+        );
+        if self.contiguous_values_addr != 0 {
+            // SAFETY: this snapshot holds the store Arc, which retains the
+            // Arrow batch backing this pointer. The id was checked above.
+            unsafe {
+                let ptr =
+                    (self.contiguous_values_addr as *const f32).add(id as usize * self.store.dim);
+                return std::slice::from_raw_parts(ptr, self.store.dim);
+            }
+        }
+        self.store.vector_at(id)
+    }
+}
+
+fn uninit_boxed_slice<T>(len: usize) -> Box<[MaybeUninit<T>]> {
+    (0..len)
+        .map(|_| MaybeUninit::uninit())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .into_boxed_slice()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use std::sync::Barrier;
+
+    fn fsl(values: Vec<f32>, dim: usize) -> Arc<FixedSizeListArray> {
+        let values = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef;
+        Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dim as i32,
+                values,
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_arrow_store_reuses_batches() {
+        let store =
+            Arc::new(ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(8, 2, 2, DistanceType::L2).unwrap());
+        let first = fsl(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], 2);
+        let second = fsl(vec![5.0, 6.0], 2);
+
+        assert_eq!(store.append_batch(first, 10).unwrap(), 0..2);
+        assert_eq!(store.append_batch(second, 12).unwrap(), 2..3);
+
+        let snapshot = store.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.row_id(2), 12);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.vector(1), &[3.0, 4.0]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            compute_f32_distance(snapshot.vector(0), snapshot.vector(1), DistanceType::L2),
+            8.0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_snapshot_stays_with_visible_prefix_during_commit() {
+        let store =
+            Arc::new(ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(8, 2, 2, DistanceType::L2).unwrap());
+        store
+            .append_batch(fsl(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], 2), 10)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let visible_len_loaded = Arc::new(Barrier::new(2));
+        let continue_snapshot = Arc::new(Barrier::new(2));
+        let snapshot_store = store.clone();
+        let snapshot_visible_len_loaded = visible_len_loaded.clone();
+        let snapshot_continue = continue_snapshot.clone();
+        let snapshot_thread = std::thread::spawn(move || {
+            snapshot_store.snapshot_after_visible_len(|| {
+                snapshot_visible_len_loaded.wait();
+                snapshot_continue.wait();
+            })
+        });
+
+        visible_len_loaded.wait();
+        store.append_batch(fsl(vec![5.0, 6.0], 2), 12).unwrap();
+        continue_snapshot.wait();
+
+        let snapshot = snapshot_thread.join().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.row_id(1), 11);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.vector(1), &[3.0, 4.0]);
+    }
+
+    /// Build a `FixedSizeList<Float32>` where `None` rows are null at the list
+    /// level (the representation a tombstone / embedding-less row produces).
+    fn fsl_opt(rows: &[Option<Vec<f32>>], dim: usize) -> Arc<FixedSizeListArray> {
+        let mut values: Vec<f32> = Vec::new();
+        let mut validity: Vec<bool> = Vec::new();
+        for r in rows {
+            match r {
+                Some(v) => {
+                    assert_eq!(v.len(), dim);
+                    values.extend_from_slice(v);
+                    validity.push(true);
+                }
+                None => {
+                    values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(0.0f32, dim));
+                    validity.push(false);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let values = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef;
+        let nulls = arrow_buffer::NullBuffer::new(arrow_buffer::BooleanBuffer::from(validity));
+        Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dim as i32,
+                values,
+                Some(nulls),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_append_skips_null_vectors_preserves_mapping() {
+        // Mid-batch null: rows [(1,1), null, (3,3)] → two nodes that map back to
+        // the *original* offsets 0 and 2 (no off-by-one after the skip).
+        let store =
+            Arc::new(ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(8, 2, 2, DistanceType::L2).unwrap());
+        let batch = fsl_opt(&[Some(vec![1.0, 1.0]), None, Some(vec![3.0, 3.0])], 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            store.append_batch(batch, 0).unwrap(),
+            0..2,
+            "two non-null survivors → two contiguous nodes"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(store.committed_len(), 2);
+
+        // `to_record_batch` exposes each node's row id = its original offset.
+        let rb = store.to_record_batch(None).unwrap();
+        let row_ids = rb.column(0).as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>().unwrap();
+        let got: Vec<u64> = (0..row_ids.len()).map(|i| row_ids.value(i)).collect();
+        assert_eq!(got, vec![0, 2], "node→row mapping skips the null row");
+
+        let snapshot = store.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.vector(0), &[1.0, 1.0]);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.vector(1), &[3.0, 3.0]);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.row_id(0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.row_id(1), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_append_skips_null_vectors_offsets_with_row_id_start() {
+        // The survivor's original offset is added to `row_id_start`.
+        let store =
+            Arc::new(ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(8, 2, 2, DistanceType::L2).unwrap());
+        // rows at row_id_start=100: [null, (2,2)] → one node, row id 100+1.
+        let batch = fsl_opt(&[None, Some(vec![2.0, 2.0])], 2);
+        assert_eq!(store.append_batch(batch, 100).unwrap(), 0..1);
+        let snapshot = store.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.row_id(0), 101);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.vector(0), &[2.0, 2.0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_append_all_null_batch_is_empty_range() {
+        // All-null batch (e.g. an all-tombstone memtable) adds no node.
+        let store =
+            Arc::new(ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(8, 2, 2, DistanceType::L2).unwrap());
+        let batch = fsl_opt(&[None, None], 2);
+        assert!(
+            store.append_batch(batch, 0).unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "all-null batch yields an empty node range"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(store.committed_len(), 0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index.rs
index d6834b5d76c..b7864c7aae6 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index.rs
@@ -5,7 +5,8 @@
 //!
 //! Maintains in-memory indexes that are updated synchronously with writes:
 //! - BTree: Primary key and scalar field lookups
-//! - IVF-PQ: Vector similarity search (reuses centroids and codebook from base table)
+//! - HNSW: Vector similarity search (built incrementally, queryable while
+//!   building, flushed as Lance HNSW + FLAT)
 //! - FTS: Full-text search
 //!
 //! Other index types log a warning and are skipped.
@@ -13,25 +14,32 @@
 #![allow(clippy::print_stderr)]
 #![allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
 
+mod arena_skiplist;
 mod btree;
 mod fts;
-mod ivf_pq;
+mod hnsw;
+mod pk_key;
 
 use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
 
 use super::memtable::batch_store::StoredBatch;
+use super::wal::WriterCursors;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_index::pbold;
 use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
-use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
-use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
 use prost::Message as _;
-use snafu::location;
+use tracing::instrument;
 
 /// Row position in MemTable.
 ///
@@ -41,34 +49,307 @@ pub type RowPosition = u64;
 
 // Re-export public types used externally
 pub use btree::{BTreeIndexConfig, BTreeMemIndex};
-pub use fts::{FtsIndexConfig, FtsMemIndex, FtsQueryExpr, SearchOptions};
-pub use ivf_pq::{IvfPqIndexConfig, IvfPqMemIndex};
+pub use fts::{FtsIndexConfig, FtsMemIndex, FtsQueryExpr, SearchOptions, search_cross_column};
+pub(crate) use fts::{QueryLocalFtsIndex, QueryLocalFtsStats};
+pub use hnsw::{HnswIndexConfig, HnswMemIndex};
+pub use pk_key::encode_pk_tuple;
+
+use pk_key::encode_pk_batch;
+
+/// Synthetic column the composite PK index is keyed on: the order-preserving
+/// encoded tuple (see [`encode_pk_tuple`]), stored as `Binary` so a
+/// [`BTreeMemIndex`]'s byte backend indexes it directly.
+const PK_KEY_COLUMN: &str = "__pk_key__";
+
+/// Row count at or below which [`IndexStore::insert_batches`] indexes inline
+/// rather than spawning a thread per index.
+///
+/// The spawn is one OS thread *per index* — tens of microseconds each, and a table can
+/// carry several BTrees alongside its HNSW and FTS — so for a small batch it costs more
+/// than the indexing it parallelizes. Small batches are not the exceptional case: a
+/// durable put triggers a WAL flush covering only the batch it just inserted, so this
+/// path is routinely called with a single short batch.
+///
+/// The crossover depends on per-row HNSW cost, which varies with dimension and
+/// `ef_construction`; tune against `benches/mem_wal/vector/mem_wal_index_micro.rs`.
+const PARALLEL_INDEX_MIN_ROWS: usize = 64;
+
+/// The memtable's primary-key index, used to answer "newest visible version of
+/// this key" for dedup. Single-column PKs reuse the column's compact typed
+/// [`BTreeMemIndex`] (no second copy); composite PKs key a `BTreeMemIndex` on
+/// the order-preserving encoded tuple ([`encode_pk_tuple`]) instead. Either way
+/// the lookup is a single seek on one `BTreeMemIndex`.
+enum PkIndex {
+    /// Arity 1: aliases a `btree_indexes` entry, so the insert loop maintains it.
+    Single(Arc<BTreeMemIndex>),
+    /// Arity >= 2: a `BTreeMemIndex` over the encoded-tuple `Binary` key,
+    /// maintained explicitly in the insert paths (the original batch lacks the
+    /// synthetic key column). `columns` are the PK columns in order, resolved
+    /// against each batch's schema at insert time.
+    Composite {
+        index: Arc<BTreeMemIndex>,
+        columns: Vec<String>,
+    },
+}
 
 // ============================================================================
 // Index Store
 // ============================================================================
 
-/// Configuration for an index in MemWAL.
+/// Validate every configured in-memory index, and the composite primary key,
+/// against the shard schema. Call once at shard open, before any write can land.
 ///
-/// Each variant contains all the configuration needed for that index type.
-/// IvfPq is boxed because it contains large IVF model and PQ codebook.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+/// This is what makes poison-and-replay *terminating*. An index insert that
+/// fails deterministically on a row that is already WAL-durable cannot be
+/// recovered from: the writer poisons, the operator reopens, replay re-reads the
+/// same WAL rows, the same insert fails again, and `open()` propagates it — a
+/// shard that never comes back. Every such failure is an index *config*
+/// disagreeing with the schema, never a property of the data, so one pass here
+/// closes the whole class before a single row is accepted.
+///
+/// The data-dependent errors inside the index layer are already unreachable
+/// through `put`: `MemTable::insert_batches_only` does a full `Arc<Schema>`
+/// equality check, so a batch that would trip one is rejected before it reaches
+/// the batch store, let alone the WAL.
+///
+/// It also rejects a config whose `field_id` names a different column than its
+/// `column`. Index *selection* keys off `field_id` — a single-column PK reuses
+/// the BTree whose `field_id` matches its key — so a config resolved only by name
+/// could be bound under the wrong identity, serving stale reads and flushing the
+/// wrong column into the durable PK sidecar. `lance_schema` supplies the
+/// authoritative name→id mapping.
+pub fn validate_index_configs(
+    configs: &[MemIndexConfig],
+    schema: &ArrowSchema,
+    lance_schema: &LanceSchema,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    for config in configs {
+        let column = config.column();
+        if let MemIndexConfig::Fts(config) = config {
+            let resolved = crate::index::scalar::inverted::resolve_fts_field(
+                lance_schema,
+                column,
+                config.params.get_document_granularity(),
+            )
+            .map_err(|error| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "FTS index '{}' is invalid for field path '{}': {error}",
+                    config.name, column
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if resolved.final_field_id != config.field_id {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "index '{}' is configured with field_id {} but its field path '{}' has \
+                     final field_id {} in the shard schema",
+                    config.name, config.field_id, column, resolved.final_field_id,
+                )));
+            }
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let field = schema.field_with_name(column).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "index '{}' is configured on column '{}', which is not in the shard schema; \
+                 available columns: [{}]",
+                config.name(),
+                column,
+                schema
+                    .fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .join(", ")
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        match config {
+            // BTree falls back to per-row `ScalarValue` extraction, so it
+            // accepts any column type the schema can hold. Existence is the
+            // only precondition.
+            MemIndexConfig::BTree(_) => {}
+            MemIndexConfig::Fts(_) => unreachable!("FTS configs are validated by schema path"),
+            MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(_) => match field.data_type() {
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(item, dim) => {
+                    if item.data_type() != &DataType::Float32 {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "HNSW index '{}' requires a FixedSizeList<Float32> column; \
+                             column '{}' has item type {:?}",
+                            config.name(),
+                            column,
+                            item.data_type()
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    // `HnswMemIndex.dim` is a placeholder until the first batch
+                    // pins it (`hnsw.rs`), so a zero-width vector would only
+                    // surface at insert time — i.e. on already-durable data.
+                    if *dim <= 0 {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "HNSW index '{}' requires a vector dimension > 0; column '{}' has \
+                             dimension {dim}",
+                            config.name(),
+                            column,
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+                other => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "HNSW index '{}' requires a FixedSizeList<Float32> column; \
+                         column '{}' is {:?}",
+                        config.name(),
+                        column,
+                        other
+                    )));
+                }
+            },
+        }
+
+        // The column resolves, but index selection keys off `field_id`, not name.
+        // A config whose `field_id` identifies a *different* column would be bound
+        // under the wrong identity (e.g. reused as the single-column PK index), so
+        // reject any `field_id` that does not name the resolved column.
+        let resolved_field_id = lance_schema
+            .field(column)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "index '{}' is configured on column '{}', which is present in the Arrow \
+                     schema but absent from the Lance schema",
+                    config.name(),
+                    column,
+                ))
+            })?
+            .id;
+        if resolved_field_id != config.field_id() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "index '{}' is configured with field_id {} but its column '{}' has field_id {} \
+                 in the shard schema",
+                config.name(),
+                config.field_id(),
+                column,
+                resolved_field_id,
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Every PK column must exist in the schema. A single-column PK aliases a
+    // BTree entry (any type); only a *composite* PK builds an order-preserving
+    // encoded key, and only some types encode.
+    for column in pk_columns {
+        let field = schema.field_with_name(column).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "primary-key column '{column}' is not in the shard schema"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if pk_columns.len() > 1 && !is_encodable_pk_type(field.data_type()) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "composite primary-key column '{column}' has type {:?}, which has no \
+                 order-preserving key encoding",
+                field.data_type()
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Types `pk_key::encode_value` can encode into an order-preserving composite key.
+fn is_encodable_pk_type(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        data_type,
+        DataType::Int8
+            | DataType::Int16
+            | DataType::Int32
+            | DataType::Int64
+            | DataType::UInt8
+            | DataType::UInt16
+            | DataType::UInt32
+            | DataType::UInt64
+            | DataType::Date32
+            | DataType::Date64
+            | DataType::Boolean
+            | DataType::Utf8
+            | DataType::LargeUtf8
+            | DataType::Binary
+            | DataType::LargeBinary
+            | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_)
+    )
+}
+
+/// The index kinds a MemTable can maintain — the registry of MemWAL index
+/// support. Data-free because indexes are identified by type url before any
+/// [`MemIndexConfig`] exists.
+///
+/// Adding a variant is a compile error in [`details_suffix`](Self::details_suffix),
+/// `MemIndexConfig::kind`, and `Dataset::mem_wal_writer` until each handles it.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub enum MemIndexKind {
+    /// BTree index for scalar fields (point lookups, range queries).
+    BTree,
+    /// HNSW vector index built incrementally, queryable while building.
+    Hnsw,
+    /// Full-text search index.
+    Fts,
+}
+
+impl MemIndexKind {
+    /// Every maintainable kind. A kind missing here is never detected, so it
+    /// goes unmaintained rather than reaching a memtable that cannot build it.
+    pub const ALL: &'static [Self] = &[Self::BTree, Self::Hnsw, Self::Fts];
+
+    /// Suffix of the protobuf details message identifying this kind.
+    ///
+    /// Only the suffix: the prefix varies by dataset version
+    /// (`/lance.table.`, `/lance.index.pb.`, and the `type.googleapis.com/`
+    /// form MemWAL flush once wrote), and all must resolve.
+    pub const fn details_suffix(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::BTree => "BTreeIndexDetails",
+            Self::Hnsw => "VectorIndexDetails",
+            Self::Fts => "InvertedIndexDetails",
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The kind a base-table index of this protobuf type maps to, or `None`
+    /// when a memtable cannot maintain it.
+    pub fn from_type_url(type_url: &str) -> Option<Self> {
+        Self::ALL
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .find(|kind| type_url.ends_with(kind.details_suffix()))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Configuration for an index in MemWAL. Pairs 1:1 with [`MemIndexKind`] via
+/// [`kind`](Self::kind).
+///
+/// `Hnsw` is boxed because `HnswBuildParams` is small but the variant may
+/// grow with future config (e.g. shard-specific tuning).
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub enum MemIndexConfig {
     /// BTree index for scalar fields (point lookups, range queries).
     BTree(BTreeIndexConfig),
-    /// IVF-PQ index for vector similarity search.
-    /// Boxed due to large size (contains IVF centroids and PQ codebook).
-    IvfPq(Box<IvfPqIndexConfig>),
+    /// HNSW vector index built incrementally, queryable while building.
+    Hnsw(Box<HnswIndexConfig>),
     /// Full-text search index.
     Fts(FtsIndexConfig),
 }
 
 impl MemIndexConfig {
+    /// The kind this config builds. Links the config enum to the registry, so
+    /// a new variant must declare its kind.
+    pub const fn kind(&self) -> MemIndexKind {
+        match self {
+            Self::BTree(_) => MemIndexKind::BTree,
+            Self::Hnsw(_) => MemIndexKind::Hnsw,
+            Self::Fts(_) => MemIndexKind::Fts,
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Get the index name.
     pub fn name(&self) -> &str {
         match self {
             Self::BTree(c) => &c.name,
-            Self::IvfPq(c) => &c.name,
+            Self::Hnsw(c) => &c.name,
             Self::Fts(c) => &c.name,
         }
     }
@@ -77,7 +358,7 @@ impl MemIndexConfig {
     pub fn field_id(&self) -> i32 {
         match self {
             Self::BTree(c) => c.field_id,
-            Self::IvfPq(c) => c.field_id,
+            Self::Hnsw(c) => c.field_id,
             Self::Fts(c) => c.field_id,
         }
     }
@@ -86,7 +367,7 @@ impl MemIndexConfig {
     pub fn column(&self) -> &str {
         match self {
             Self::BTree(c) => &c.column,
-            Self::IvfPq(c) => &c.column,
+            Self::Hnsw(c) => &c.column,
             Self::Fts(c) => &c.column,
         }
     }
@@ -103,63 +384,61 @@ impl MemIndexConfig {
 
     /// Create an FTS index config from base table IndexMetadata.
     pub fn fts_from_metadata(index_meta: &IndexMetadata, schema: &LanceSchema) -> Result<Self> {
-        let (field_id, column) = Self::extract_field_info(index_meta, schema)?;
+        let (field_id, _) = Self::extract_field_info(index_meta, schema)?;
 
         // Extract InvertedIndexParams from index_details if available
-        let params = if let Some(details_any) = &index_meta.index_details {
-            if let Ok(details) = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details_any.value.as_slice()) {
-                InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&details)?
-            } else {
-                InvertedIndexParams::default()
-            }
+        let details = if let Some(details_any) = &index_meta.index_details {
+            pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details_any.value.as_slice()).map_err(|err| {
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails for MemWAL FTS index '{}': {}",
+                    index_meta.name, err
+                ))
+            })?
         } else {
-            InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::default()
         };
+        let details =
+            crate::index::scalar::inverted::normalize_inverted_details(index_meta, details)?;
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&details)?;
+        let resolved = crate::index::scalar::inverted::resolve_fts_field_by_id(
+            schema,
+            field_id,
+            params.get_document_granularity(),
+        )?;
+
+        Ok(Self::Fts(
+            FtsIndexConfig::try_with_params(
+                index_meta.name.clone(),
+                field_id,
+                resolved.canonical_path.clone(),
+                params,
+            )?
+            .with_resolved_field(resolved),
+        ))
+    }
 
-        Ok(Self::Fts(FtsIndexConfig::with_params(
-            index_meta.name.clone(),
+    /// Create an HNSW vector index config.
+    pub fn hnsw(name: String, field_id: i32, column: String, distance_type: DistanceType) -> Self {
+        Self::Hnsw(Box::new(HnswIndexConfig::new(
+            name,
             field_id,
             column,
-            params,
+            distance_type,
         )))
     }
 
-    /// Create an IVF-PQ index config with centroids and codebook from base table.
-    pub fn ivf_pq(
+    /// Create an HNSW vector index config with explicit build parameters.
+    pub fn hnsw_with_params(
         name: String,
         field_id: i32,
         column: String,
-        ivf_model: IvfModel,
-        pq: ProductQuantizer,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
+        build_params: HnswBuildParams,
     ) -> Self {
-        Self::IvfPq(Box::new(IvfPqIndexConfig {
-            name,
-            field_id,
-            column,
-            ivf_model,
-            pq,
-            distance_type,
-        }))
-    }
-
-    /// Detect index type from protobuf type_url.
-    pub fn detect_index_type(type_url: &str) -> Result<&'static str> {
-        if type_url.ends_with("BTreeIndexDetails") {
-            Ok("btree")
-        } else if type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails") {
-            Ok("fts")
-        } else if type_url.ends_with("VectorIndexDetails") {
-            Ok("vector")
-        } else {
-            Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Unsupported index type for MemWAL: {}. Supported: BTree, Inverted, Vector",
-                    type_url
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ))
-        }
+        Self::Hnsw(Box::new(
+            HnswIndexConfig::new(name, field_id, column, distance_type)
+                .with_build_params(build_params),
+        ))
     }
 
     /// Extract field ID and column name from index metadata.
@@ -168,53 +447,101 @@ impl MemIndexConfig {
         schema: &LanceSchema,
     ) -> Result<(i32, String)> {
         let field_id = index_meta.fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Index '{}' has no fields", index_meta.name),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Index '{}' has no fields", index_meta.name))
         })?;
 
         let column = schema
             .field_by_id(*field_id)
             .map(|f| f.name.clone())
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Field with id {} not found in schema", field_id),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("Field with id {} not found in schema", field_id))
             })?;
 
         Ok((*field_id, column))
     }
 }
 
+/// Names the index, not just its type: a caller validating a maintained set
+/// needs to know which one to drop.
+pub(crate) fn unsupported_index_type(index_name: &str, type_url: &str) -> Error {
+    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "index '{}' has type {}, which the MemWAL cannot maintain. Supported: BTree, Inverted, Vector",
+        index_name, type_url
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Which prefix of a MemTable a reader may see.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]
+pub enum MemTableVisibility {
+    /// [`IndexStore::visible_count`]. Required for every reader but the writer
+    /// itself: a row past this bound can still fail its append and never exist.
+    #[default]
+    Published,
+    /// [`IndexStore::indexed_count`], which also covers writes whose append is
+    /// outstanding.
+    ///
+    /// Sound only for a writer reading its own prefix under the lock that makes
+    /// it the sole writer. Both cursors advance over contiguous prefixes, so a
+    /// row derived from `p` cannot be published before `p`, and a failed append
+    /// poisons the writer before either is acknowledged.
+    Indexed,
+}
+
 /// Registry managing all in-memory indexes for a MemTable.
 ///
 /// Indexes are keyed by index name. Each index stores its field_id for
 /// stable column-to-index resolution (column name → field_id → index).
 ///
-/// The store maintains a global `max_indexed_batch_position` watermark that
-/// tracks which batches have been indexed. All indexes are updated atomically,
-/// so queries should only see data up to this watermark for consistent results.
+/// The store also carries the MemTable's two cursors: `indexed_count` (what the
+/// index layer has ingested) and `visible_count` (what is indexed *and* durable,
+/// and therefore safe for scanners to read). Scanners snapshot the latter at plan
+/// construction time so every plan keys on a stable MVCC cursor.
 pub struct IndexStore {
-    /// BTree indexes keyed by index name.
-    btree_indexes: HashMap<String, BTreeMemIndex>,
-    /// IVF-PQ indexes keyed by index name.
-    ivf_pq_indexes: HashMap<String, IvfPqMemIndex>,
+    /// BTree indexes keyed by index name. `Arc` so the primary-key BTrees can be
+    /// shared into [`Self::pk_btrees`] without a second copy or a second insert.
+    btree_indexes: HashMap<String, Arc<BTreeMemIndex>>,
+    /// HNSW vector indexes keyed by index name.
+    hnsw_indexes: HashMap<String, HnswMemIndex>,
     /// FTS indexes keyed by index name.
     fts_indexes: HashMap<String, FtsMemIndex>,
-    /// Maximum batch position that has been indexed across all indexes.
-    /// Updated atomically after all indexes have processed a batch.
-    max_indexed_batch_position: AtomicUsize,
+    /// The primary-key index (single-column or composite), or `None` without a
+    /// primary key. Queried via [`Self::pk_newest_visible`] (see
+    /// [`Self::enable_pk_index`]).
+    pk_index: Option<PkIndex>,
+    /// How many batches of this memtable have been fully indexed. An exclusive
+    /// count: 0 means none.
+    ///
+    /// This has only ever been an *indexed* cursor — it is advanced at the end of
+    /// `insert_batches`, once every index insert for the batch has completed, and
+    /// never before. It was named `max_visible_batch_position` and treated as a
+    /// visibility cursor by five read sites, which is how rows became readable
+    /// before they were durable. Publishing is a separate step, and it is the
+    /// writer's to make — see `visible_count`.
+    indexed_count: AtomicUsize,
+
+    /// The writer's cursors, and this memtable's coordinate within them. `None`
+    /// for a bare `IndexStore` (tests, benches), where visibility is just the
+    /// indexed prefix.
+    ///
+    /// Visibility is **derived, never stored**: see `visible_count`.
+    durability: Option<(Arc<WriterCursors>, usize)>,
+    /// Conservative flag set once this memtable has observed any primary-key
+    /// rewrite while maintaining a search index. Search planners can push top-k
+    /// into HNSW/FTS for append-only PK data, but must switch to
+    /// newest-before-top-k search after an overwrite.
+    pk_has_overrides: AtomicBool,
 }
 
 impl Default for IndexStore {
     fn default() -> Self {
         Self {
             btree_indexes: HashMap::new(),
-            ivf_pq_indexes: HashMap::new(),
+            hnsw_indexes: HashMap::new(),
             fts_indexes: HashMap::new(),
-            max_indexed_batch_position: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            pk_index: None,
+            indexed_count: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            durability: None,
+            pk_has_overrides: AtomicBool::new(false),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -227,13 +554,24 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for IndexStore {
                 &self.btree_indexes.keys().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
             )
             .field(
-                "ivf_pq_indexes",
-                &self.ivf_pq_indexes.keys().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                "hnsw_indexes",
+                &self.hnsw_indexes.keys().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
             )
             .field("fts_indexes", &self.fts_indexes.keys().collect::<Vec<_>>())
             .field(
-                "max_indexed_batch_position",
-                &self.max_indexed_batch_position.load(Ordering::Acquire),
+                "pk_index",
+                &match &self.pk_index {
+                    None => "none".to_string(),
+                    Some(PkIndex::Single(b)) => format!("single({})", b.column_name()),
+                    Some(PkIndex::Composite { columns, .. }) => {
+                        format!("composite({})", columns.join(", "))
+                    }
+                },
+            )
+            .field("indexed_count", &self.indexed_count.load(Ordering::Acquire))
+            .field(
+                "pk_has_overrides",
+                &self.pk_has_overrides.load(Ordering::Acquire),
             )
             .finish()
     }
@@ -250,43 +588,49 @@ impl IndexStore {
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `configs` - Index configurations
-    /// * `max_rows` - Maximum rows in memtable, used to calculate IVF-PQ partition capacity
-    /// * `ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor` - Safety factor for partition capacity (accounts for non-uniform distribution)
+    /// * `max_rows` - Maximum vectors / rows in memtable. Used to size the
+    ///   pre-allocated HNSW graph and storage capacity.
+    /// * `max_batches` - Maximum number of write batches the HNSW storage
+    ///   can hold by reference (matches the writer's
+    ///   `ShardWriterConfig::max_memtable_batches`).
     pub fn from_configs(
         configs: &[MemIndexConfig],
         max_rows: usize,
-        ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor: usize,
+        max_batches: usize,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut registry = Self::new();
 
         for config in configs {
             match config {
                 MemIndexConfig::BTree(c) => {
-                    let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(c.field_id, c.column.clone());
+                    let index = Arc::new(BTreeMemIndex::new(c.field_id, c.column.clone()));
                     registry.btree_indexes.insert(c.name.clone(), index);
                 }
-                MemIndexConfig::IvfPq(c) => {
-                    let num_partitions = c.ivf_model.num_partitions();
-                    // Calculate capacity with safety factor for non-uniform distribution.
-                    // Cap at max_rows to avoid over-allocation when num_partitions < safety_factor.
-                    let avg_per_partition = max_rows / num_partitions;
-                    let partition_capacity = (avg_per_partition
-                        * ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor)
-                        .min(max_rows);
-
-                    let index = IvfPqMemIndex::with_capacity(
+                MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(c) => {
+                    let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
                         c.field_id,
                         c.column.clone(),
-                        c.ivf_model.clone(),
-                        c.pq.clone(),
                         c.distance_type,
-                        partition_capacity,
+                        c.build_params.clone(),
+                        max_rows,
+                        max_batches,
                     );
-                    registry.ivf_pq_indexes.insert(c.name.clone(), index);
+                    registry.hnsw_indexes.insert(c.name.clone(), index);
                 }
                 MemIndexConfig::Fts(c) => {
-                    let index =
-                        FtsMemIndex::with_params(c.field_id, c.column.clone(), c.params.clone());
+                    let index = match c.resolved_field.as_deref() {
+                        Some(resolved) => FtsMemIndex::try_with_resolved_field(
+                            c.field_id,
+                            c.column.clone(),
+                            c.params.clone(),
+                            resolved.clone(),
+                        )?,
+                        None => FtsMemIndex::try_with_params(
+                            c.field_id,
+                            c.column.clone(),
+                            c.params.clone(),
+                        )?,
+                    };
                     registry.fts_indexes.insert(c.name.clone(), index);
                 }
             }
@@ -295,30 +639,85 @@ impl IndexStore {
         Ok(registry)
     }
 
-    /// Add a BTree/scalar index (implemented using skip-list for better concurrency).
+    /// Add a BTree/scalar index (skip-list backed). Low-level / test helper;
+    /// the production memtable path goes through [`Self::from_configs`].
     pub fn add_btree(&mut self, name: String, field_id: i32, column: String) {
         self.btree_indexes
-            .insert(name, BTreeMemIndex::new(field_id, column));
+            .insert(name, Arc::new(BTreeMemIndex::new(field_id, column)));
     }
 
-    /// Add an IVF-PQ index with centroids and codebook from base table.
-    pub fn add_ivf_pq(
+    /// Add an HNSW vector index with default build parameters.
+    ///
+    /// HNSW indexes must be configured before rows are inserted into a
+    /// PK-indexed memtable. The vector planner's append-only fast path relies
+    /// on `pk_has_overrides` being maintained for every row visible to HNSW.
+    pub fn add_hnsw(
         &mut self,
         name: String,
         field_id: i32,
         column: String,
-        ivf_model: IvfModel,
-        pq: ProductQuantizer,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
+        capacity: usize,
+        max_batches: usize,
     ) {
-        self.ivf_pq_indexes.insert(
+        assert!(
+            self.pk_index.is_none() || self.pk_is_empty(),
+            "HNSW indexes must be configured before inserting rows into a PK memtable"
+        );
+        self.hnsw_indexes.insert(
             name,
-            IvfPqMemIndex::new(field_id, column, ivf_model, pq, distance_type),
+            HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+                field_id,
+                column,
+                distance_type,
+                HnswBuildParams::default(),
+                capacity,
+                max_batches,
+            ),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Add an HNSW vector index with explicit build parameters.
+    ///
+    /// See [`Self::add_hnsw`] for the PK-indexed memtable lifecycle invariant.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub fn add_hnsw_with_params(
+        &mut self,
+        name: String,
+        field_id: i32,
+        column: String,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        build_params: HnswBuildParams,
+        capacity: usize,
+        max_batches: usize,
+    ) {
+        assert!(
+            self.pk_index.is_none() || self.pk_is_empty(),
+            "HNSW indexes must be configured before inserting rows into a PK memtable"
+        );
+        self.hnsw_indexes.insert(
+            name,
+            HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+                field_id,
+                column,
+                distance_type,
+                build_params,
+                capacity,
+                max_batches,
+            ),
         );
     }
 
     /// Add an FTS index with default tokenizer parameters.
+    ///
+    /// FTS indexes must be configured before rows are inserted into a
+    /// PK-indexed memtable. FTS top-k pushdown relies on `pk_has_overrides`
+    /// being maintained for every row visible to the index.
     pub fn add_fts(&mut self, name: String, field_id: i32, column: String) {
+        assert!(
+            self.pk_index.is_none() || self.pk_is_empty(),
+            "FTS indexes must be configured before inserting rows into a PK memtable"
+        );
         self.fts_indexes
             .insert(name, FtsMemIndex::new(field_id, column));
     }
@@ -330,9 +729,210 @@ impl IndexStore {
         field_id: i32,
         column: String,
         params: InvertedIndexParams,
-    ) {
-        self.fts_indexes
-            .insert(name, FtsMemIndex::with_params(field_id, column, params));
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        assert!(
+            self.pk_index.is_none() || self.pk_is_empty(),
+            "FTS indexes must be configured before inserting rows into a PK memtable"
+        );
+        self.fts_indexes.insert(
+            name,
+            FtsMemIndex::try_with_params(field_id, column, params)?,
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Maintain a primary-key index so the memtable can answer "newest visible
+    /// version of this key" (see [`Self::pk_newest_visible`]).
+    ///
+    /// Single-column PKs reuse an existing BTree on the field, else auto-create
+    /// one under a `__pk__*` name so the normal insert loop maintains it (no
+    /// second copy). Composite (arity >= 2) PKs key a `BTreeMemIndex` on the
+    /// order-preserving encoded tuple (synthetic `PK_KEY_COLUMN`), maintained
+    /// explicitly in the insert paths. Call once at construction, after
+    /// [`Self::from_configs`] and before any inserts; a no-op when `pk_columns`
+    /// is empty. Search indexes (HNSW/FTS) must also still be empty so every
+    /// search-visible row participates in PK override tracking.
+    pub fn enable_pk_index(&mut self, pk_columns: &[(String, i32)]) {
+        if !pk_columns.is_empty() {
+            assert!(
+                self.hnsw_indexes.values().all(|idx| idx.is_empty())
+                    && self.fts_indexes.values().all(|idx| idx.is_empty()),
+                "Primary-key indexes must be configured before inserting rows into a search-indexed memtable"
+            );
+        }
+        self.pk_index = match pk_columns {
+            [] => None,
+            [(column, field_id)] => {
+                let btree = match self
+                    .btree_indexes
+                    .values()
+                    .find(|b| b.field_id() == *field_id)
+                {
+                    Some(existing) => existing.clone(),
+                    None => {
+                        let btree = Arc::new(BTreeMemIndex::new(*field_id, column.clone()));
+                        self.btree_indexes
+                            .insert(format!("__pk__{column}"), btree.clone());
+                        btree
+                    }
+                };
+                Some(PkIndex::Single(btree))
+            }
+            multi => Some(PkIndex::Composite {
+                // Synthetic field id (-1): the composite index is held directly,
+                // never resolved by field id.
+                index: Arc::new(BTreeMemIndex::new(-1, PK_KEY_COLUMN.to_string())),
+                columns: multi.iter().map(|(c, _)| c.clone()).collect(),
+            }),
+        };
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the memtable has a primary-key index.
+    pub fn has_pk_index(&self) -> bool {
+        self.pk_index.is_some()
+    }
+
+    /// Sorted `(value, row_id)` training batches for the flushed on-disk PK
+    /// BTree (the sidecar dedup index). Single-column emits the typed PK value;
+    /// composite emits the order-preserving `Binary` encoded tuple. Empty when
+    /// there is no primary key. Row positions line up 1:1 with the forward-
+    /// written data file, so they are the SSTable row ids directly.
+    pub fn pk_training_batches(&self, batch_size: usize) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        match &self.pk_index {
+            None => Ok(Vec::new()),
+            Some(PkIndex::Single(btree)) => btree.to_training_batches(batch_size),
+            Some(PkIndex::Composite { index, .. }) => index.to_training_batches(batch_size),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve the PK columns' positions in `batch` (composite insert helper).
+    fn pk_batch_indices(batch: &RecordBatch, columns: &[String]) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
+        columns
+            .iter()
+            .map(|c| {
+                batch
+                    .schema()
+                    .column_with_name(c)
+                    .map(|(i, _)| i)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!("PK column '{c}' not found in batch"))
+                    })
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Maintain the composite PK index for `batch` (no-op for single/no PK):
+    /// encode the PK columns into the synthetic `PK_KEY_COLUMN` `Binary` column
+    /// and feed that to the keyed `BTreeMemIndex`.
+    fn insert_composite_pk(
+        &self,
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        row_offset: u64,
+        report_existing: bool,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        if let Some(PkIndex::Composite { index, columns }) = &self.pk_index {
+            let pk_indices = Self::pk_batch_indices(batch, columns)?;
+            let encoded = encode_pk_batch(batch, &pk_indices)?;
+            let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                PK_KEY_COLUMN,
+                arrow_schema::DataType::Binary,
+                false,
+            )]));
+            let key_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(encoded)])
+                .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+            if report_existing {
+                return index.insert_and_report_existing(&key_batch, row_offset);
+            }
+            index.insert(&key_batch, row_offset)?;
+        }
+        Ok(false)
+    }
+
+    /// The newest row position of the primary-key tuple `values` (in PK order)
+    /// visible at `max_visible_row`, or `None`. A single seek either way:
+    /// single-column probes the typed BTree; composite probes the encoded-tuple
+    /// index. Collision-free, since `position` is the row identity.
+    pub fn pk_newest_visible(
+        &self,
+        values: &[ScalarValue],
+        max_visible_row: RowPosition,
+    ) -> Option<RowPosition> {
+        match &self.pk_index {
+            None => None,
+            Some(PkIndex::Single(btree)) => btree.get_newest_visible(&values[0], max_visible_row),
+            Some(PkIndex::Composite { index, .. }) => {
+                // An unsupported PK type would have failed at insert, so the
+                // index can't hold a tuple this fails to encode. The probe key is
+                // the same `Binary`-encoded tuple the insert path indexed.
+                let key = encode_pk_tuple(values).ok()?;
+                index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Binary(Some(key)), max_visible_row)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether `position` is the newest visible row of `values` — the recency
+    /// check the active index-search arms apply to drop predicate-crossing
+    /// stale hits. Callers gate on [`Self::has_pk_index`] first, since this is
+    /// `false` (drop) when the memtable has no primary-key index.
+    pub fn pk_is_newest(
+        &self,
+        values: &[ScalarValue],
+        position: RowPosition,
+        max_visible_row: RowPosition,
+    ) -> bool {
+        self.pk_newest_visible(values, max_visible_row) == Some(position)
+    }
+
+    /// Whether `key` has any version visible at `max_visible_row` — the
+    /// cross-source block-list's existence query, snapshot-bounded so a
+    /// not-yet-visible write can't shadow an older visible copy.
+    ///
+    /// `key` is already in the index's key space: the typed PK value for a
+    /// single-column key, the `Binary`-encoded tuple for a composite one (built
+    /// by `block_list::on_disk_pk_key`, the same key the flushed on-disk index is
+    /// probed with). Both arities forward it straight to the keyed BTree.
+    pub fn pk_contains_key(&self, key: &ScalarValue, max_visible_row: RowPosition) -> bool {
+        match &self.pk_index {
+            None => false,
+            Some(PkIndex::Single(btree)) | Some(PkIndex::Composite { index: btree, .. }) => {
+                btree.get_newest_visible(key, max_visible_row).is_some()
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the primary-key index holds no rows (or doesn't exist).
+    pub fn pk_is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        match &self.pk_index {
+            None => true,
+            Some(PkIndex::Single(btree)) => btree.is_empty(),
+            Some(PkIndex::Composite { index, .. }) => index.is_empty(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this memtable has observed at least one PK rewrite.
+    ///
+    /// This is intentionally conservative: once true, it never resets for the
+    /// lifetime of the memtable. That is enough for query planning because a
+    /// memtable is flushed as a unit, and any rewrite means search-index top-k
+    /// pushdown can be polluted by stale entries that must be removed before
+    /// top-k. Scalar-only PK tables skip tracking because no search index uses
+    /// the flag.
+    pub fn pk_has_overrides(&self) -> bool {
+        self.pk_has_overrides.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    fn should_track_pk_overrides(&self) -> bool {
+        (!self.hnsw_indexes.is_empty() || !self.fts_indexes.is_empty()) && !self.pk_has_overrides()
+    }
+
+    fn is_single_pk_btree(&self, index: &Arc<BTreeMemIndex>) -> bool {
+        matches!(&self.pk_index, Some(PkIndex::Single(pk)) if Arc::ptr_eq(pk, index))
+    }
+
+    fn mark_pk_overrides_if_needed(&self, had_existing_pk: bool) {
+        if had_existing_pk {
+            self.pk_has_overrides.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        }
     }
 
     /// Insert a batch into all indexes.
@@ -341,39 +941,52 @@ impl IndexStore {
     }
 
     /// Insert a batch into all indexes with batch position tracking.
+    #[instrument(name = "idx_insert_batch", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(num_rows = batch.num_rows(), row_offset, batch_position))]
     pub fn insert_with_batch_position(
         &self,
         batch: &RecordBatch,
         row_offset: u64,
         batch_position: Option<usize>,
     ) -> Result<()> {
+        let track_pk_overrides = self.should_track_pk_overrides();
         for index in self.btree_indexes.values() {
-            index.insert(batch, row_offset)?;
+            if track_pk_overrides && self.is_single_pk_btree(index) {
+                let had_existing = index.insert_and_report_existing(batch, row_offset)?;
+                self.mark_pk_overrides_if_needed(had_existing);
+            } else {
+                index.insert(batch, row_offset)?;
+            }
         }
-        for index in self.ivf_pq_indexes.values() {
+        for index in self.hnsw_indexes.values() {
             index.insert(batch, row_offset)?;
         }
         for index in self.fts_indexes.values() {
             index.insert(batch, row_offset)?;
         }
+        // Single-column PK aliases a `btree_indexes` entry (maintained above);
+        // a composite PK has its own index, maintained here.
+        let had_existing = self.insert_composite_pk(batch, row_offset, track_pk_overrides)?;
+        self.mark_pk_overrides_if_needed(had_existing);
 
-        // Update global watermark after all indexes have been updated
+        // Update the indexed prefix after every index has been updated.
         if let Some(bp) = batch_position {
-            self.update_max_indexed_batch_position(bp);
+            self.advance_indexed_count(bp + 1);
         }
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    /// Update the maximum indexed batch position.
+    /// Advance the indexed prefix to at least `count` batches.
     ///
-    /// Only updates if the new value is greater than the current value.
-    fn update_max_indexed_batch_position(&self, batch_pos: usize) {
-        let mut current = self.max_indexed_batch_position.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        while batch_pos > current {
-            match self.max_indexed_batch_position.compare_exchange_weak(
+    /// Only ever moves forward (idempotent max). The vector planner relies on the
+    /// insert paths setting `pk_has_overrides` before this is called, so any
+    /// snapshot that can see a PK rewrite also observes `pk_has_overrides == true`.
+    pub(crate) fn advance_indexed_count(&self, count: usize) {
+        let mut current = self.indexed_count.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        while count > current {
+            match self.indexed_count.compare_exchange_weak(
                 current,
-                batch_pos,
+                count,
                 Ordering::Release,
                 Ordering::Acquire,
             ) {
@@ -383,168 +996,157 @@ impl IndexStore {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Insert multiple batches into all indexes with cross-batch optimization.
+    /// Insert multiple batches into every index.
     ///
-    /// For IVF-PQ indexes, this enables vectorized partition assignment and
-    /// PQ encoding across all batches, improving performance through better
-    /// SIMD utilization.
-    pub fn insert_batches(&self, batches: &[StoredBatch]) -> Result<()> {
-        if batches.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(());
-        }
-
-        // BTree indexes: iterate batches (no cross-batch optimization benefit)
-        for index in self.btree_indexes.values() {
-            for stored in batches {
-                index.insert(&stored.data, stored.row_offset)?;
-            }
-        }
-
-        // IVF-PQ indexes: use batched insert for vectorization
-        for index in self.ivf_pq_indexes.values() {
-            index.insert_batches(batches)?;
-        }
-
-        // FTS indexes: iterate batches (potential future optimization)
-        for index in self.fts_indexes.values() {
-            for stored in batches {
-                index.insert(&stored.data, stored.row_offset)?;
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Update global watermark to the max batch position
-        let max_bp = batches.iter().map(|b| b.batch_position).max().unwrap();
-        self.update_max_indexed_batch_position(max_bp);
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    /// Insert multiple batches into all indexes in parallel.
-    ///
-    /// Each individual index runs in its own thread, regardless of type.
-    /// This maximizes parallelism when multiple indexes are maintained.
-    ///
-    /// This is used during WAL flush to parallelize index updates with WAL I/O.
-    /// Insert batches into all indexes in parallel.
+    /// Above `PARALLEL_INDEX_MIN_ROWS` rows each index runs on its own thread, which
+    /// maximizes parallelism when several indexes are maintained. At or below it they run
+    /// inline on the calling thread: the spawn is one OS thread *per index*, and for a
+    /// handful of rows that costs more than the indexing itself.
     ///
     /// Returns a map of index names to their update durations for performance tracking.
-    #[allow(clippy::print_stderr)]
-    pub fn insert_batches_parallel(
+    #[instrument(name = "idx_insert_batches", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(batch_count = batches.len()))]
+    pub fn insert_batches(
         &self,
         batches: &[StoredBatch],
     ) -> Result<std::collections::HashMap<String, std::time::Duration>> {
-        use std::time::Instant;
-
         if batches.is_empty() {
             return Ok(std::collections::HashMap::new());
         }
 
-        // Use std::thread::scope for parallel CPU-bound work
-        std::thread::scope(|scope| {
-            // Each handle returns (index_name, index_type, duration, Result)
-            let mut handles: Vec<(
-                &str,
-                &str,
-                std::thread::ScopedJoinHandle<'_, (std::time::Duration, Result<()>)>,
-            )> = Vec::new();
-
-            // Spawn a thread for each BTree index
-            for (name, index) in &self.btree_indexes {
-                let handle = scope.spawn(move || -> (std::time::Duration, Result<()>) {
-                    let start = Instant::now();
-                    let result = (|| {
-                        for stored in batches {
+        let track_pk_overrides = self.should_track_pk_overrides();
+
+        // One task per index, boxed so the inline and the threaded path drive the very
+        // same closures. Each reports whether it saw an already-present PK.
+        type IndexTask<'a> = Box<dyn Fn() -> Result<bool> + Send + Sync + 'a>;
+        let mut tasks: Vec<(&str, IndexTask<'_>)> = Vec::new();
+
+        for (name, index) in &self.btree_indexes {
+            let track_this_index = track_pk_overrides && self.is_single_pk_btree(index);
+            tasks.push((
+                name.as_str(),
+                Box::new(move || {
+                    let mut had_existing = false;
+                    for stored in batches {
+                        if track_this_index {
+                            had_existing |= index
+                                .insert_and_report_existing(&stored.data, stored.row_offset)?;
+                        } else {
                             index.insert(&stored.data, stored.row_offset)?;
                         }
-                        Ok(())
-                    })();
-                    (start.elapsed(), result)
-                });
-                handles.push((name.as_str(), "btree", handle));
-            }
-
-            // Spawn a thread for each IVF-PQ index
-            for (name, index) in &self.ivf_pq_indexes {
-                let handle = scope.spawn(move || -> (std::time::Duration, Result<()>) {
-                    let start = Instant::now();
-                    let result = index.insert_batches(batches);
-                    (start.elapsed(), result)
-                });
-                handles.push((name.as_str(), "ivfpq", handle));
-            }
-
-            // Spawn a thread for each FTS index
-            for (name, index) in &self.fts_indexes {
-                let handle = scope.spawn(move || -> (std::time::Duration, Result<()>) {
-                    let start = Instant::now();
-                    let result = (|| {
-                        for stored in batches {
-                            index.insert(&stored.data, stored.row_offset)?;
-                        }
-                        Ok(())
-                    })();
-                    (start.elapsed(), result)
-                });
-                handles.push((name.as_str(), "fts", handle));
-            }
+                    }
+                    Ok(had_existing)
+                }),
+            ));
+        }
 
-            // Collect results, log timing, and check for errors
-            let mut first_error: Option<Error> = None;
-            let mut timings: Vec<(&str, &str, u128)> = Vec::new();
+        for (name, index) in &self.hnsw_indexes {
+            tasks.push((
+                name.as_str(),
+                Box::new(move || index.insert_batches(batches).map(|_| false)),
+            ));
+        }
 
-            for (name, idx_type, handle) in handles {
-                match handle.join() {
-                    Ok((duration, Ok(()))) => {
-                        timings.push((name, idx_type, duration.as_millis()));
-                    }
-                    Ok((duration, Err(e))) => {
-                        timings.push((name, idx_type, duration.as_millis()));
-                        if first_error.is_none() {
-                            first_error = Some(e);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Err(_) => {
-                        if first_error.is_none() {
-                            first_error = Some(Error::Internal {
-                                message: format!("Index '{}' thread panicked", name),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
-                        }
+        for (name, index) in &self.fts_indexes {
+            tasks.push((
+                name.as_str(),
+                Box::new(move || {
+                    for stored in batches {
+                        index.insert(&stored.data, stored.row_offset)?;
                     }
-                }
-            }
+                    Ok(false)
+                }),
+            ));
+        }
 
-            if let Some(e) = first_error {
-                return Err(e);
+        // Keep the raw `Duration` so sub-millisecond timings (the steady state for BTree
+        // updates) survive instead of truncating to 0.
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows).sum();
+        let results: Vec<(&str, std::time::Duration, Result<bool>)> =
+            if tasks.len() < 2 || total_rows <= PARALLEL_INDEX_MIN_ROWS {
+                tasks
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(name, task)| {
+                        let start = Instant::now();
+                        let result = task();
+                        (*name, start.elapsed(), result)
+                    })
+                    .collect()
+            } else {
+                std::thread::scope(|scope| {
+                    let handles: Vec<_> = tasks
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|(name, task)| {
+                            let handle = scope.spawn(move || {
+                                let start = Instant::now();
+                                let result = task();
+                                (start.elapsed(), result)
+                            });
+                            (*name, handle)
+                        })
+                        .collect();
+
+                    handles
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|(name, handle)| match handle.join() {
+                            Ok((duration, result)) => (name, duration, result),
+                            Err(_) => (
+                                name,
+                                std::time::Duration::ZERO,
+                                Err(Error::internal(format!("Index '{}' thread panicked", name))),
+                            ),
+                        })
+                        .collect()
+                })
+            };
+
+        // Every task ran to completion whether or not a peer failed (the threaded path
+        // joins all handles unconditionally). Keep the first error; there is no rollback,
+        // so a failure here is terminal for the writer.
+        let mut first_error: Option<Error> = None;
+        let mut had_existing_pk = false;
+        let mut duration_map =
+            std::collections::HashMap::<String, std::time::Duration>::with_capacity(results.len());
+
+        for (name, duration, result) in results {
+            duration_map.insert(name.to_string(), duration);
+            match result {
+                Ok(had_existing) => had_existing_pk |= had_existing,
+                Err(e) if first_error.is_none() => first_error = Some(e),
+                Err(_) => {}
             }
+        }
 
-            // Convert timings to HashMap<String, Duration>
-            let duration_map: std::collections::HashMap<String, std::time::Duration> = timings
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|(name, _idx_type, ms)| {
-                    (
-                        name.to_string(),
-                        std::time::Duration::from_millis(ms as u64),
-                    )
-                })
-                .collect();
+        if let Some(e) = first_error {
+            return Err(e);
+        }
+        self.mark_pk_overrides_if_needed(had_existing_pk);
+
+        // Single-column PK aliases a `btree_indexes` entry — its task above already
+        // maintained it. A composite PK has its own index; maintain it here before the
+        // watermark advances so the visible prefix is fully indexed.
+        let mut had_existing = false;
+        for stored in batches {
+            had_existing |=
+                self.insert_composite_pk(&stored.data, stored.row_offset, track_pk_overrides)?;
+        }
+        self.mark_pk_overrides_if_needed(had_existing);
 
-            // Update global watermark to the max batch position
-            let max_bp = batches.iter().map(|b| b.batch_position).max().unwrap();
-            self.update_max_indexed_batch_position(max_bp);
+        // The indexed prefix now covers every batch up to and including the
+        // highest position in this call, so the count is that position plus one.
+        let max_bp = batches.iter().map(|b| b.batch_position).max().unwrap();
+        self.advance_indexed_count(max_bp + 1);
 
-            Ok(duration_map)
-        })
+        Ok(duration_map)
     }
 
     /// Get a BTree index by name.
     pub fn get_btree(&self, name: &str) -> Option<&BTreeMemIndex> {
-        self.btree_indexes.get(name)
+        self.btree_indexes.get(name).map(Arc::as_ref)
     }
 
-    /// Get an IVF-PQ index by name.
-    pub fn get_ivf_pq(&self, name: &str) -> Option<&IvfPqMemIndex> {
-        self.ivf_pq_indexes.get(name)
+    /// Get an HNSW vector index by name.
+    pub fn get_hnsw(&self, name: &str) -> Option<&HnswMemIndex> {
+        self.hnsw_indexes.get(name)
     }
 
     /// Get an FTS index by name.
@@ -560,14 +1162,12 @@ impl IndexStore {
         self.btree_indexes
             .values()
             .find(|idx| idx.field_id() == field_id)
+            .map(Arc::as_ref)
     }
 
-    /// Get an IVF-PQ index by field ID.
-    ///
-    /// Searches through all IVF-PQ indexes to find one matching the field_id.
-    /// Use this for column-to-index resolution (column → field_id → index).
-    pub fn get_ivf_pq_by_field_id(&self, field_id: i32) -> Option<&IvfPqMemIndex> {
-        self.ivf_pq_indexes
+    /// Get an HNSW vector index by field ID.
+    pub fn get_hnsw_by_field_id(&self, field_id: i32) -> Option<&HnswMemIndex> {
+        self.hnsw_indexes
             .values()
             .find(|idx| idx.field_id() == field_id)
     }
@@ -577,9 +1177,20 @@ impl IndexStore {
     /// Searches through all FTS indexes to find one matching the field_id.
     /// Use this for column-to-index resolution (column → field_id → index).
     pub fn get_fts_by_field_id(&self, field_id: i32) -> Option<&FtsMemIndex> {
-        self.fts_indexes
-            .values()
-            .find(|idx| idx.field_id() == field_id)
+        self.get_fts_by_field_id_and_granularity(
+            field_id,
+            lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::Row,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn get_fts_by_field_id_and_granularity(
+        &self,
+        field_id: i32,
+        document_granularity: lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Option<&FtsMemIndex> {
+        self.fts_indexes.values().find(|idx| {
+            idx.field_id() == field_id && idx.document_granularity() == document_granularity
+        })
     }
 
     /// Get a BTree index by column name.
@@ -587,43 +1198,145 @@ impl IndexStore {
         self.btree_indexes
             .values()
             .find(|idx| idx.column_name() == column)
+            .map(Arc::as_ref)
     }
 
-    /// Get an IVF-PQ index by column name.
-    pub fn get_ivf_pq_by_column(&self, column: &str) -> Option<&IvfPqMemIndex> {
-        self.ivf_pq_indexes
+    /// Get an HNSW vector index by column name.
+    pub fn get_hnsw_by_column(&self, column: &str) -> Option<&HnswMemIndex> {
+        self.hnsw_indexes
             .values()
             .find(|idx| idx.column_name() == column)
     }
 
     /// Get an FTS index by column name.
     pub fn get_fts_by_column(&self, column: &str) -> Option<&FtsMemIndex> {
-        self.fts_indexes
+        self.get_fts_by_column_and_granularity(
+            column,
+            lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::Row,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn get_fts_by_column_and_granularity(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        document_granularity: lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Option<&FtsMemIndex> {
+        self.fts_indexes.values().find(|idx| {
+            idx.column_name() == column && idx.document_granularity() == document_granularity
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Return the distinct persisted document granularities for FTS indexes on
+    /// `column`, ordered from row to list-element.
+    pub fn fts_document_granularities_by_column(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+    ) -> Vec<lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity> {
+        let mut granularities = self
+            .fts_indexes
             .values()
-            .find(|idx| idx.column_name() == column)
+            .filter(|index| index.column_name() == column)
+            .map(|index| index.document_granularity())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        granularities.sort_by_key(|document_granularity| match document_granularity {
+            lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::Row => 0,
+            lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::ListElement => 1,
+        });
+        granularities.dedup();
+        granularities
     }
 
     /// Check if the registry has any indexes.
     pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.btree_indexes.is_empty()
-            && self.ivf_pq_indexes.is_empty()
-            && self.fts_indexes.is_empty()
+        self.btree_indexes.is_empty() && self.hnsw_indexes.is_empty() && self.fts_indexes.is_empty()
+    }
+
+    /// Name every index this memtable carries, for diagnostics.
+    ///
+    /// Answers "is my fresh-tier vector search brute-force" — an absent
+    /// name is the whole explanation, and there is no other way to see it
+    /// from outside. Sorted so repeated calls compare cleanly; `HashMap`
+    /// iteration order alone would not.
+    pub fn index_names(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut out: Vec<String> = self
+            .btree_indexes
+            .keys()
+            .chain(self.hnsw_indexes.keys())
+            .chain(self.fts_indexes.keys())
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        out.sort();
+        out
     }
 
     /// Get the total number of indexes.
     pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.btree_indexes.len() + self.ivf_pq_indexes.len() + self.fts_indexes.len()
+        self.btree_indexes.len() + self.hnsw_indexes.len() + self.fts_indexes.len()
     }
 
-    /// Get the global maximum indexed batch position.
+    /// Heap bytes held by every index in the registry.
     ///
-    /// Returns the batch position up to which all data has been indexed.
-    /// Queries should use `min(max_visible_batch_position, max_indexed_batch_position)`
-    /// as their effective visibility to ensure consistent results.
+    /// `MemTable::row_bytes` deliberately omits this — it sizes the flush
+    /// unit, which is row data. Callers budgeting *resident* memory must add it:
+    /// a configured HNSW index pre-allocates its whole graph on the first insert
+    /// and is charged for it from the moment it is configured (see
+    /// `HnswMemIndex::resident_bytes`), so it can dwarf a memtable's row bytes
+    /// while `row_bytes` still reads zero.
+    pub fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        let btrees: usize = self
+            .btree_indexes
+            .values()
+            .map(|b| b.resident_bytes())
+            .sum();
+        let hnsw: usize = self.hnsw_indexes.values().map(|h| h.resident_bytes()).sum();
+        let fts: usize = self.fts_indexes.values().map(|f| f.resident_bytes()).sum();
+        // A `Single` PK aliases a `btree_indexes` entry, already counted above.
+        // A composite PK's index is held only here.
+        let pk = match &self.pk_index {
+            Some(PkIndex::Composite { index, .. }) => index.resident_bytes(),
+            Some(PkIndex::Single(_)) | None => 0,
+        };
+        btrees + hnsw + fts + pk
+    }
+
+    /// How many batches of this memtable have been fully indexed (exclusive
+    /// count; 0 before any batch is indexed).
+    ///
+    /// This is the *indexed* cursor, not the visibility watermark: it advances
+    /// once every index insert for a batch completes, regardless of WAL
+    /// durability. Readers must snapshot [`Self::visible_count`], which derives
+    /// what is safe to read from this cursor and the writer's durability cursor.
+    pub fn indexed_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.indexed_count.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    /// The prefix of this memtable that readers may see. Snapshot this, never
+    /// `indexed_count`.
     ///
-    /// Returns 0 if no data has been indexed yet.
-    pub fn max_indexed_batch_position(&self) -> usize {
-        self.max_indexed_batch_position.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    /// Derived on every call from the two cursors rather than cached, so there is
+    /// no published value that can be left stale by a race between the two tasks
+    /// that advance them. A bare `IndexStore` has no writer, so its visible
+    /// prefix is simply what has been indexed.
+    pub fn visible_count(&self) -> usize {
+        let indexed = self.indexed_count();
+        match &self.durability {
+            Some((cursors, global_offset)) => cursors.visible_count(indexed, *global_offset),
+            None => indexed,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The prefix readable under `visibility`.
+    pub fn prefix_count(&self, visibility: MemTableVisibility) -> usize {
+        match visibility {
+            MemTableVisibility::Published => self.visible_count(),
+            MemTableVisibility::Indexed => self.indexed_count(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Bind this memtable's indexes to the writer's cursors. Called once at
+    /// construction, before the memtable is published.
+    pub(crate) fn set_durability(&mut self, cursors: Arc<WriterCursors>, global_offset: usize) {
+        self.durability = Some((cursors, global_offset));
     }
 }
 
@@ -631,25 +1344,60 @@ impl IndexStore {
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use log::warn;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedListFormatVersion;
+    use rstest::rstest;
     use std::sync::Arc;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    /// Matching is on the message-name suffix, not the whole url: `Any::from_msg`
+    /// emits the package (`/lance.table.`, `/lance.index.pb.`), while MemWAL flush
+    /// used to hand-write a `type.googleapis.com/` url that existing datasets
+    /// still carry.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::btree("/lance.table.BTreeIndexDetails", Some(MemIndexKind::BTree))]
+    #[case::fts("/lance.table.InvertedIndexDetails", Some(MemIndexKind::Fts))]
+    #[case::fts_legacy("/lance.index.pb.InvertedIndexDetails", Some(MemIndexKind::Fts))]
+    #[case::vector("/lance.index.pb.VectorIndexDetails", Some(MemIndexKind::Hnsw))]
+    // What MemWAL flush wrote before it switched to `Any::from_msg`.
+    #[case::vector_legacy_flush(
+        "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.VectorIndexDetails",
+        Some(MemIndexKind::Hnsw)
+    )]
+    #[case::bitmap("/lance.table.BitmapIndexDetails", None)]
+    #[case::label_list("/lance.table.LabelListIndexDetails", None)]
+    #[case::ngram("/lance.table.NGramIndexDetails", None)]
+    #[case::zone_map("/lance.table.ZoneMapIndexDetails", None)]
+    #[case::bloom_filter("/lance.index.pb.BloomFilterIndexDetails", None)]
+    #[case::json("/lance.index.pb.JsonIndexDetails", None)]
+    #[case::fm("/lance.index.pb.FMIndexDetails", None)]
+    #[case::absent("", None)]
+    fn type_urls_resolve_to_the_kind_the_writer_builds(
+        #[case] type_url: &str,
+        #[case] expected: Option<MemIndexKind>,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(MemIndexKind::from_type_url(type_url), expected);
+    }
 
-    /// Check if an index type is supported and log warning if not.
-    fn check_index_type_supported(index_type: &str) -> bool {
-        match index_type.to_lowercase().as_str() {
-            "btree" | "scalar" => true,
-            "ivf_pq" | "ivf-pq" | "ivfpq" | "vector" => true,
-            "fts" | "inverted" | "fulltext" => true,
-            _ => {
-                warn!(
-                    "Index type '{}' is not supported for MemWAL. \
-                     Supported types: btree, ivf_pq, fts. Skipping.",
-                    index_type
-                );
-                false
-            }
+    /// `ALL` is hand-maintained, so a kind left out of it stops resolving.
+    #[test]
+    fn every_kind_is_registered_and_uniquely_identified() {
+        for kind in MemIndexKind::ALL {
+            assert_eq!(
+                MemIndexKind::from_type_url(&format!("/lance.table.{}", kind.details_suffix())),
+                Some(*kind),
+                "{kind:?} does not resolve from its own suffix",
+            );
         }
+        let suffixes: std::collections::HashSet<_> = MemIndexKind::ALL
+            .iter()
+            .map(|k| k.details_suffix())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            suffixes.len(),
+            MemIndexKind::ALL.len(),
+            "two kinds share a details suffix, so one can never be resolved",
+        );
     }
 
     fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
@@ -676,6 +1424,312 @@ mod tests {
         .unwrap()
     }
 
+    fn create_sized_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, start_id: i32, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = (0..num_rows as i32).map(|i| start_id + i).collect();
+        let names: Vec<String> = ids.iter().map(|id| format!("name-{id}")).collect();
+        let descriptions: Vec<String> = ids.iter().map(|id| format!("hello world {id}")).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(descriptions)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn fts_index_metadata(index_version: i32) -> IndexMetadata {
+        fts_index_metadata_with_details(index_version, None)
+    }
+
+    fn fts_index_metadata_with_details(
+        index_version: i32,
+        details: Option<pbold::InvertedIndexDetails>,
+    ) -> IndexMetadata {
+        let index_details = details.map(|details| {
+            let mut value = Vec::new();
+            details.encode(&mut value).unwrap();
+            Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.InvertedIndexDetails".to_string(),
+                value,
+            })
+        });
+
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![2],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "desc_idx".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details,
+            index_version,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Single-column `id` batch for primary-key lookup tests.
+    fn id_batch(ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "id",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec()))],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn id_vector_batch(ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let mut vectors = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 2);
+        for id in ids {
+            vectors.values().append_value(*id as f32);
+            vectors.values().append_value(*id as f32 + 0.5);
+            vectors.append(true);
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(vectors.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn id_name_vector_batch(rows: &[(i32, &str)]) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let mut ids = Vec::with_capacity(rows.len());
+        let mut names = Vec::with_capacity(rows.len());
+        let mut vectors = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 2);
+        for (id, name) in rows {
+            ids.push(*id);
+            names.push(*name);
+            vectors.values().append_value(*id as f32);
+            vectors.values().append_value(name.len() as f32);
+            vectors.append(true);
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+                Arc::new(vectors.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pk_newest_visible_single_column() {
+        let mut store = IndexStore::new();
+        store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        // id=1 at positions 0 and 2 (an update), id=2 at position 1.
+        store.insert(&id_batch(&[1, 2]), 0).unwrap();
+        store.insert(&id_batch(&[1]), 2).unwrap();
+
+        let one = [ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))];
+        // Watermark above the update sees the newest position; below it, the older.
+        assert_eq!(store.pk_newest_visible(&one, 5), Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(store.pk_newest_visible(&one, 1), Some(0));
+        assert!(store.pk_is_newest(&one, 2, 5));
+        assert!(!store.pk_is_newest(&one, 0, 5));
+        // Absent key (probed by the typed value, as the block-list does).
+        assert!(!store.pk_contains_key(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(9)), 5));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pk_has_overrides_tracks_single_column_rewrites() {
+        let mut store = IndexStore::new();
+        store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+
+        store.insert(&id_vector_batch(&[1, 2]), 0).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !store.pk_has_overrides(),
+            "append-only PK inserts should keep HNSW eligible"
+        );
+
+        store.insert(&id_vector_batch(&[3, 3]), 2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            store.pk_has_overrides(),
+            "duplicate PKs within one insert must disable HNSW"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(
+        expected = "Primary-key indexes must be configured before inserting rows into a search-indexed memtable"
+    )]
+    fn enable_pk_index_after_search_rows_panics() {
+        let mut store = IndexStore::new();
+        store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        store.insert(&id_vector_batch(&[1, 2]), 0).unwrap();
+
+        store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pk_has_overrides_tracks_single_column_rewrites_across_inserts() {
+        let mut store = IndexStore::new();
+        store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+
+        store.insert(&id_vector_batch(&[1, 2]), 0).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !store.pk_has_overrides(),
+            "append-only PK inserts should keep HNSW eligible"
+        );
+
+        store.insert(&id_vector_batch(&[1]), 2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            store.pk_has_overrides(),
+            "single-column PK rewrites across inserts must disable HNSW"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pk_has_overrides_skips_scalar_only_tables() {
+        let mut store = IndexStore::new();
+        store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+
+        store.insert(&id_batch(&[1, 1]), 0).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !store.pk_has_overrides(),
+            "scalar-only PK tables should not pay override tracking cost"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pk_has_overrides_tracks_fts_rewrites() {
+        let mut store = IndexStore::new();
+        store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        store.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["alpha", "beta"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        store.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            store.pk_has_overrides(),
+            "FTS PK rewrites must disable index-level FTS limit/WAND pushdown"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pk_newest_visible_composite_seeks_encoded_tuple() {
+        let mut store = IndexStore::new();
+        store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0), ("name".to_string(), 1)]);
+        // Rows: (1,"a")@0, (1,"b")@1, (1,"a")@2 — an update of (1,"a").
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 1, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "a"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        store.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let tuple_1a = [ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)), ScalarValue::from("a")];
+        let tuple_1b = [ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)), ScalarValue::from("b")];
+        // (1,"a")'s newest visible row is its re-write at position 2.
+        assert_eq!(store.pk_newest_visible(&tuple_1a, 5), Some(2));
+        assert!(store.pk_is_newest(&tuple_1a, 2, 5));
+        assert!(!store.pk_is_newest(&tuple_1a, 0, 5));
+        // (1,"b") only exists at position 1.
+        assert_eq!(store.pk_newest_visible(&tuple_1b, 5), Some(1));
+        // Watermark below the re-write: the older (1,"a")@0 is the newest visible.
+        assert_eq!(store.pk_newest_visible(&tuple_1a, 1), Some(0));
+        // An absent tuple (probed by its Binary-encoded key, as the block-list
+        // does).
+        let tuple_2a = [ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2)), ScalarValue::from("a")];
+        let key_2a = ScalarValue::Binary(Some(encode_pk_tuple(&tuple_2a).unwrap()));
+        assert!(!store.pk_contains_key(&key_2a, 5));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pk_has_overrides_tracks_composite_rewrites() {
+        let mut store = IndexStore::new();
+        store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            2,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0), ("name".to_string(), 1)]);
+        let first = id_name_vector_batch(&[(1, "a"), (1, "b")]);
+        store.insert(&first, 0).unwrap();
+        assert!(!store.pk_has_overrides());
+
+        let rewrite = id_name_vector_batch(&[(1, "a")]);
+        store.insert(&rewrite, 2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            store.pk_has_overrides(),
+            "repeated composite PK must disable HNSW"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_index_registry() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
@@ -698,14 +1752,173 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_check_index_type_supported() {
-        assert!(check_index_type_supported("btree"));
-        assert!(check_index_type_supported("BTree"));
-        assert!(check_index_type_supported("ivf_pq"));
-        assert!(check_index_type_supported("fts"));
-        assert!(check_index_type_supported("inverted"));
+    fn fts_registry_routes_row_and_element_targets_independently() {
+        let mut registry = IndexStore::new();
+        registry
+            .add_fts_with_params(
+                "tags_idx".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "tags".to_string(),
+                InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        registry
+            .add_fts_with_params(
+                "tags_element_idx".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "tags".to_string(),
+                InvertedIndexParams::default().document_granularity(
+                    lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::ListElement,
+                ),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
 
-        assert!(!check_index_type_supported("unknown"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            registry.get_fts_by_column("tags").unwrap().column_name(),
+            "tags"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            registry
+                .get_fts_by_column_and_granularity(
+                    "tags",
+                    lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::ListElement,
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+                .column_name(),
+            "tags"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fts_from_metadata_preserves_format_version() {
+        let arrow_schema = create_test_schema();
+        let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        for (index_version, expected_format_version) in [
+            (0, InvertedListFormatVersion::V1),
+            (1, InvertedListFormatVersion::V1),
+            (2, InvertedListFormatVersion::V2),
+            (3, InvertedListFormatVersion::V3),
+        ] {
+            let config =
+                MemIndexConfig::fts_from_metadata(&fts_index_metadata(index_version), &schema)
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            match config {
+                MemIndexConfig::Fts(config) => {
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        config.params.resolved_format_version(),
+                        expected_format_version
+                    );
+                }
+                _ => unreachable!("fts metadata should create an FTS config"),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fts_from_metadata_rejects_unsupported_format_version() {
+        let arrow_schema = create_test_schema();
+        let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let err = MemIndexConfig::fts_from_metadata(&fts_index_metadata(4), &schema).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("unsupported index_version 4"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fts_from_metadata_accepts_element_document_v3_capability() {
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(
+                "tags",
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let tags = schema.field("tags").unwrap();
+        for (block_size, expected_format_version) in [
+            (128, InvertedListFormatVersion::V2),
+            (256, InvertedListFormatVersion::V3),
+        ] {
+            let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                .block_size(block_size)
+                .unwrap()
+                .document_granularity(
+                    lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::ListElement,
+                );
+            let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&params).unwrap();
+            let mut metadata = fts_index_metadata_with_details(3, Some(details));
+            metadata.fields = vec![tags.id];
+            let config = MemIndexConfig::fts_from_metadata(&metadata, &schema).unwrap();
+
+            let MemIndexConfig::Fts(config) = config else {
+                unreachable!("fts metadata should create an FTS config")
+            };
+            assert_eq!(config.field_id, tags.id);
+            assert_eq!(config.column, "tags");
+            assert_eq!(
+                config.params.get_document_granularity(),
+                lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::ListElement
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                config.params.resolved_format_version(),
+                expected_format_version
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fts_from_metadata_accepts_v3_with_legacy_block_size() {
+        let arrow_schema = create_test_schema();
+        let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let mut legacy_details =
+            pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap();
+        legacy_details.posting_format_version = None;
+
+        for metadata in [
+            fts_index_metadata(3),
+            fts_index_metadata_with_details(3, Some(legacy_details)),
+        ] {
+            let config = MemIndexConfig::fts_from_metadata(&metadata, &schema).unwrap();
+            let MemIndexConfig::Fts(config) = config else {
+                unreachable!("FTS metadata should create an FTS config");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(
+                config.params.resolved_format_version(),
+                InvertedListFormatVersion::V3
+            );
+            assert_eq!(config.params.posting_block_size(), 128);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fts_from_metadata_accepts_v3_with_256_block_size() {
+        let arrow_schema = create_test_schema();
+        let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size(256).unwrap();
+        let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&params).unwrap();
+
+        let config = MemIndexConfig::fts_from_metadata(
+            &fts_index_metadata_with_details(3, Some(details)),
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        match config {
+            MemIndexConfig::Fts(config) => {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    config.params.resolved_format_version(),
+                    InvertedListFormatVersion::V3
+                );
+                assert_eq!(config.params.posting_block_size(), 256);
+            }
+            _ => unreachable!("fts metadata should create an FTS config"),
+        }
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -723,7 +1936,7 @@ mod tests {
             )),
         ];
 
-        let registry = IndexStore::from_configs(&configs, 100_000, 8).unwrap();
+        let registry = IndexStore::from_configs(&configs, 100_000, 1_000).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(registry.len(), 2);
         assert!(registry.get_btree("pk_idx").is_some());
         assert!(registry.get_fts("search_idx").is_some());
@@ -732,8 +1945,241 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(registry.get_fts_by_field_id(2).is_some());
     }
 
+    /// The admission controller reads `IndexStore::resident_bytes` *before* the
+    /// insert that would allocate an HNSW graph, so a configured-but-untouched
+    /// vector index reporting zero would put the largest allocation in a vector
+    /// memtable outside its reach. It must be charged from configuration.
     #[test]
-    fn test_index_store_max_indexed_batch_position() {
+    fn test_resident_bytes_charges_hnsw_before_first_insert() {
+        let max_rows = 100_000;
+        let btree_only = IndexStore::from_configs(
+            &[MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+                name: "pk_idx".to_string(),
+                field_id: 0,
+                column: "id".to_string(),
+            })],
+            max_rows,
+            1_000,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            btree_only.resident_bytes(),
+            0,
+            "a BTree index allocates per row, so an untouched one holds nothing"
+        );
+
+        let with_hnsw = IndexStore::from_configs(
+            &[MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(Box::new(HnswIndexConfig::new(
+                "vec_idx".to_string(),
+                2,
+                "vector".to_string(),
+                DistanceType::L2,
+            )))],
+            max_rows,
+            1_000,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            with_hnsw.resident_bytes() > max_rows * 128,
+            "the graph is sized from capacity and owed from configuration, got {}",
+            with_hnsw.resident_bytes()
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn vector_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("description", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new(
+                "f64_vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float64, true)), 4),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// Every index config that would fail *deterministically* on insert must be
+    /// rejected at open instead. Such a config also fails on WAL replay, so once
+    /// a row is durable the shard could never reopen — poison-and-replay would
+    /// not terminate.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::btree_ok(MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+        name: "idx".into(), field_id: 0, column: "id".into(),
+    }), None)]
+    #[case::btree_missing_column(MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+        name: "idx".into(), field_id: 9, column: "nope".into(),
+    }), Some("not in the shard schema"))]
+    // Column exists, but its field_id names a *different* column ("id" is 0, not 1).
+    #[case::btree_field_id_column_mismatch(MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+        name: "idx".into(), field_id: 1, column: "id".into(),
+    }), Some("has field_id 0"))]
+    #[case::fts_ok(MemIndexConfig::Fts(FtsIndexConfig::new(
+        "idx".into(), 1, "description".into(),
+    )), None)]
+    #[case::fts_non_utf8(MemIndexConfig::Fts(FtsIndexConfig::new(
+        "idx".into(), 0, "id".into(),
+    )), Some("must resolve to Utf8, LargeUtf8, Utf8View, or JSON"))]
+    #[case::fts_missing_column(MemIndexConfig::Fts(FtsIndexConfig::new(
+        "idx".into(), 9, "nope".into(),
+    )), Some("does not exist in the dataset schema"))]
+    #[case::hnsw_ok(MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(Box::new(HnswIndexConfig::new(
+        "idx".into(), 2, "vector".into(), DistanceType::L2,
+    ))), None)]
+    #[case::hnsw_not_a_vector(MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(Box::new(HnswIndexConfig::new(
+        "idx".into(), 0, "id".into(), DistanceType::L2,
+    ))), Some("requires a FixedSizeList<Float32> column"))]
+    #[case::hnsw_wrong_item_type(MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(Box::new(HnswIndexConfig::new(
+        "idx".into(), 3, "f64_vector".into(), DistanceType::L2,
+    ))), Some("item type Float64"))]
+    #[case::hnsw_missing_column(MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(Box::new(HnswIndexConfig::new(
+        "idx".into(), 9, "nope".into(), DistanceType::L2,
+    ))), Some("not in the shard schema"))]
+    fn test_validate_index_configs(
+        #[case] config: MemIndexConfig,
+        #[case] expected_error: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let schema = vector_schema();
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let result = validate_index_configs(&[config], &schema, &lance_schema, &[]);
+        match expected_error {
+            None => result.expect("valid config must pass validation"),
+            Some(fragment) => {
+                let message = result
+                    .expect_err("invalid config must be rejected")
+                    .to_string();
+                assert!(
+                    message.contains(fragment),
+                    "error must explain the mismatch; wanted {fragment:?}, got {message:?}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_nested_fts_index_config() {
+        let content_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("content", DataType::Utf8, true)]);
+        let doc_item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(content_fields), true));
+        let group_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("docs", DataType::List(doc_item), true)]);
+        let group_item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(group_fields), true));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "groups",
+            DataType::List(group_item),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let resolved = crate::index::scalar::inverted::resolve_fts_field(
+            &lance_schema,
+            "groups.docs.content",
+            lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::ListElement,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .document_granularity(lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+        let config = MemIndexConfig::Fts(FtsIndexConfig::with_params(
+            "idx".into(),
+            resolved.final_field_id,
+            "groups.docs.content".into(),
+            params.clone(),
+        ));
+        validate_index_configs(&[config], &schema, &lance_schema, &[]).unwrap();
+
+        let wrong_field_id = MemIndexConfig::Fts(FtsIndexConfig::with_params(
+            "idx".into(),
+            resolved.final_field_id + 1,
+            "groups.docs.content".into(),
+            params,
+        ));
+        let error =
+            validate_index_configs(&[wrong_field_id], &schema, &lance_schema, &[]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("final field_id"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_index_configs_rejects_diverged_lance_schema() {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "other",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]))
+        .expect("test Lance schema must be valid");
+        let config = MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "idx".into(),
+            field_id: 0,
+            column: "id".into(),
+        });
+
+        let error = validate_index_configs(&[config], &arrow_schema, &lance_schema, &[])
+            .expect_err("diverged Arrow and Lance schemas must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("index 'idx'"),
+            "error must name the index: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("column 'id'"),
+            "error must name the column: {message}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("absent from the Lance schema"),
+            "error must explain the schema divergence: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A composite PK builds an order-preserving encoded key, so its columns must
+    /// be encodable. A single-column PK aliases a BTree entry, which accepts any
+    /// type — so it must *not* be rejected here.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_composite_pk_column_types() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "coords",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        validate_index_configs(&[], &schema, &lance_schema, &["id".into(), "name".into()])
+            .expect("Int32 + Utf8 composite PK must be encodable");
+
+        let err =
+            validate_index_configs(&[], &schema, &lance_schema, &["id".into(), "coords".into()])
+                .expect_err("a FixedSizeList PK column has no order-preserving encoding");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("order-preserving key encoding"),
+            "error must name the reason, got {err}"
+        );
+
+        // A single-column PK of the same type is fine: it aliases a BTree.
+        validate_index_configs(&[], &schema, &lance_schema, &["coords".into()])
+            .expect("single-column PK aliases a BTree and accepts any type");
+
+        // But every PK column must exist. A single-column PK naming an absent
+        // column is rejected here, not left to fail deterministically on every
+        // later index build and WAL replay.
+        let err = validate_index_configs(&[], &schema, &lance_schema, &["missing".into()])
+            .expect_err("a single-column PK on an absent column must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("not in the shard schema"),
+            "error must name the missing column, got {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_store_indexed_count() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let mut registry = IndexStore::new();
 
@@ -742,7 +2188,7 @@ mod tests {
         registry.add_fts("desc_idx".to_string(), 2, "description".to_string());
 
         // Initial watermark should be 0 (no data indexed yet)
-        assert_eq!(registry.max_indexed_batch_position(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(registry.indexed_count(), 0);
 
         // Insert with batch position tracking
         let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0);
@@ -750,20 +2196,54 @@ mod tests {
             .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(5))
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Now watermark should be 5
-        assert_eq!(registry.max_indexed_batch_position(), 5);
+        // Indexing batch position 5 means the prefix [0, 6) is indexed.
+        assert_eq!(registry.indexed_count(), 6);
 
         // Insert with higher batch position
         registry
             .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 3, Some(10))
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Watermark should advance to 10
-        assert_eq!(registry.max_indexed_batch_position(), 10);
+        // Advances to cover batch position 10.
+        assert_eq!(registry.indexed_count(), 11);
 
-        // Insert without batch position shouldn't change watermark
+        // Insert without batch position shouldn't change the cursor
         registry.insert(&batch, 6).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(registry.max_indexed_batch_position(), 10);
+        assert_eq!(registry.indexed_count(), 11);
+    }
+
+    /// `insert_batches` picks the inline or the threaded path by row count, so
+    /// exercise both and assert they leave the same index state: every row indexed
+    /// exactly once, in every index, with a timing reported for each.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::inline(8)]
+    #[case::threaded(PARALLEL_INDEX_MIN_ROWS + 64)]
+    fn test_insert_batches_indexes_every_row_once(#[case] num_rows: usize) {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let mut registry = IndexStore::new();
+        registry.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
+        registry.add_fts("desc_idx".to_string(), 2, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_sized_batch(&schema, 0, num_rows);
+        let durations = registry
+            .insert_batches(&[StoredBatch::new(batch, 0, 2)])
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(durations.len(), 2, "expected one timing per index");
+        assert!(durations.contains_key("id_idx"));
+        assert!(durations.contains_key("desc_idx"));
+
+        let btree = registry.get_btree("id_idx").unwrap();
+        for id in 0..num_rows as i32 {
+            let positions = btree.get(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(id)));
+            assert_eq!(
+                positions.len(),
+                1,
+                "id={id} should be indexed exactly once, got {positions:?}"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(registry.get_fts("desc_idx").unwrap().doc_count(), num_rows);
+        assert_eq!(registry.indexed_count(), 3);
     }
 
     #[test]
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/arena_skiplist.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/arena_skiplist.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ababd152340
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/arena_skiplist.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,626 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Single-writer, lock-free-read skiplist with no epoch reclamation.
+//!
+//! Purpose-built for the MemTable scalar index, whose access pattern is:
+//! append-only (no per-entry delete), a single writer (serialized by the
+//! `ShardWriter` actor), and many concurrent readers. Under that pattern there
+//! is nothing to reclaim until the whole index is dropped, so — unlike a
+//! general-purpose concurrent skiplist (`crossbeam_skiplist`) — we pay **no
+//! epoch pin** on reads. Profiling showed crossbeam's per-operation epoch
+//! pinning (`try_pin_loop`) dominating the point-lookup hot path and, worse,
+//! contending across threads (the N-thread read-scaling bottleneck). This
+//! mirrors RocksDB's arena `InlineSkipList`: nodes live for the index's whole
+//! life, readers only do `Acquire` loads, the writer publishes with `Release`.
+//!
+//! # Node layout (cache locality)
+//! The seek is **cache-miss bound** — each tower hop loads a node's key. So a
+//! node is a **single bump-arena allocation** with the key and its forward-
+//! pointer tower laid out contiguously (`[key][AtomicPtr; height]`), exactly
+//! like RocksDB. This is one cache miss per hop, not two (a separate boxed
+//! tower measured ~2x slower single-thread). Nodes are bump-allocated from
+//! large chunks, so they are also contiguous in insertion order.
+//!
+//! # Safety model
+//! - **Single writer.** Only [`SkipListWriter`] mutates (the sole `&mut`).
+//!   Callers must serialize writes (the MemTable does so via the actor; the
+//!   BTree index additionally guards the writer behind a `Mutex`).
+//! - **No free before drop.** Nodes live in the arena and are freed only when
+//!   the core (the whole index generation) drops, when no readers remain. So a
+//!   reader can never observe a freed node. Node addresses are stable (bump
+//!   chunks never move or realloc).
+//! - **Publish/consume.** The writer initializes a node fully, then links it in
+//!   with `Release` stores; readers follow links with `Acquire` loads, so a
+//!   reader that sees a pointer also sees the fully-initialized node.
+//! - **In-bounds towers.** A node is linked at level `L` only if its height is
+//!   `> L`, so any node reached during a level-`L` traversal has a tower slot at
+//!   `L` — reads never run off the end of a variable-length tower.
+
+use std::alloc::{self, Layout};
+use std::cell::UnsafeCell;
+use std::marker::PhantomData;
+use std::mem::{align_of, size_of};
+use std::ptr::{self, NonNull};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicPtr, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+/// Maximum tower height. 16 levels with p=1/4 supports ~4^16 ≈ 4 billion
+/// entries before degrading, far beyond any single MemTable generation.
+const MAX_HEIGHT: usize = 16;
+/// Inverse promotion probability (p = 1/4): a node grows one level with prob
+/// 1/4. Matches RocksDB's default `kBranching`.
+const BRANCHING: u64 = 4;
+/// Bump-arena chunk size (1 MiB). Nodes are packed contiguously within a chunk.
+const CHUNK_SIZE: usize = 1 << 20;
+
+/// Node header. The variable-length forward-pointer tower (`height` slots of
+/// `AtomicPtr<Node<K>>`) is laid out immediately after this header in the same
+/// allocation; see [`tower`]. `#[repr(C)]` fixes the field order so the tower
+/// offset is stable.
+#[repr(C)]
+struct Node<K> {
+    key: K,
+}
+
+/// Byte offset of the tower (first `AtomicPtr`) within a node allocation.
+#[inline]
+fn tower_offset<K>() -> usize {
+    let align = align_of::<AtomicPtr<Node<K>>>();
+    (size_of::<Node<K>>() + align - 1) & !(align - 1)
+}
+
+/// Allocation layout for a node with `height` tower levels.
+#[inline]
+fn node_layout<K>(height: usize) -> Layout {
+    let size = tower_offset::<K>() + height * size_of::<AtomicPtr<Node<K>>>();
+    let align = align_of::<Node<K>>().max(align_of::<AtomicPtr<Node<K>>>());
+    Layout::from_size_align(size, align).expect("valid node layout")
+}
+
+/// Pointer to a node's tower (level-0 forward pointer). `node` must be non-null
+/// and point to an initialized node; level access must stay `< node.height`.
+#[inline]
+unsafe fn tower<K>(node: *const Node<K>) -> *const AtomicPtr<Node<K>> {
+    (node as *const u8).add(tower_offset::<K>()).cast()
+}
+
+/// A simple single-threaded bump allocator. Hands out node-sized blocks from
+/// large chunks; never frees individual blocks. Chunks are freed on drop.
+struct Arena {
+    chunks: Vec<(NonNull<u8>, Layout)>,
+    cursor: *mut u8,
+    end: *mut u8,
+}
+
+impl Arena {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            chunks: Vec::new(),
+            cursor: ptr::null_mut(),
+            end: ptr::null_mut(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Bump-allocate `layout`. Caller must have exclusive access (single writer).
+    /// `allocated` accumulates chunk bytes; only the cold `grow` path touches it.
+    unsafe fn alloc(&mut self, layout: Layout, allocated: &AtomicUsize) -> *mut u8 {
+        let align = layout.align();
+        let mut aligned = (self.cursor as usize).wrapping_add(align - 1) & !(align - 1);
+        if self.cursor.is_null() || aligned + layout.size() > self.end as usize {
+            self.grow(layout, allocated);
+            aligned = (self.cursor as usize + align - 1) & !(align - 1);
+        }
+        self.cursor = (aligned + layout.size()) as *mut u8;
+        aligned as *mut u8
+    }
+
+    /// Allocate a fresh chunk large enough for `layout` and make it current.
+    #[cold]
+    unsafe fn grow(&mut self, layout: Layout, allocated: &AtomicUsize) {
+        let align = layout.align().max(64);
+        let size = CHUNK_SIZE.max(layout.size().next_power_of_two());
+        let chunk_layout = Layout::from_size_align(size, align).expect("valid chunk layout");
+        let ptr = alloc::alloc(chunk_layout);
+        if ptr.is_null() {
+            alloc::handle_alloc_error(chunk_layout);
+        }
+        self.chunks
+            .push((NonNull::new_unchecked(ptr), chunk_layout));
+        allocated.fetch_add(size, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.cursor = ptr;
+        self.end = ptr.add(size);
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for Arena {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        for (ptr, layout) in &self.chunks {
+            // SAFETY: each chunk was allocated by `grow` with this exact layout
+            // and is freed exactly once.
+            unsafe { alloc::dealloc(ptr.as_ptr(), *layout) };
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Shared, append-only core. Owns the arena (and thus every node) for the
+/// index's lifetime. `head` is a bare tower (no key) acting as the before-first
+/// sentinel; a null node pointer in a traversal means "at head". `arena` is
+/// touched only by the single writer; readers only follow `next` pointers.
+struct SkipListCore<K> {
+    /// Forward pointers out of the head sentinel, one per level (`MAX_HEIGHT`).
+    head: Box<[AtomicPtr<Node<K>>]>,
+    /// Backing storage for all nodes. Writer-only access.
+    arena: UnsafeCell<Arena>,
+    /// Highest tower level currently in use (1..=MAX_HEIGHT).
+    height: AtomicUsize,
+    /// Number of entries.
+    len: AtomicUsize,
+    /// Bytes of arena chunks allocated so far. Maintained here rather than read
+    /// off `arena.chunks` because the arena is writer-only; this is readable by
+    /// anyone. Only `Arena::grow` touches it, so it costs nothing per insert.
+    arena_bytes: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+// SAFETY: `arena` (the only non-Sync field) is mutated exclusively by the single
+// writer; readers never access it. Reader/writer interaction on `head`/towers
+// goes through atomics with Acquire/Release. `K: Send + Sync` covers the keys
+// shared with readers.
+unsafe impl<K: Send + Sync> Send for SkipListCore<K> {}
+unsafe impl<K: Send + Sync> Sync for SkipListCore<K> {}
+
+impl<K> SkipListCore<K> {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        let head = (0..MAX_HEIGHT)
+            .map(|_| AtomicPtr::new(ptr::null_mut()))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .into_boxed_slice();
+        Self {
+            head,
+            arena: UnsafeCell::new(Arena::new()),
+            height: AtomicUsize::new(1),
+            len: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            arena_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The forward-pointer slot at `level` for `node` (null `node` = head).
+    /// `level` must be `< node.height` for a non-null node (upheld by the
+    /// "linked at L ⇒ height > L" invariant during traversal).
+    #[inline]
+    fn next_slot(&self, node: *const Node<K>, level: usize) -> &AtomicPtr<Node<K>> {
+        if node.is_null() {
+            &self.head[level]
+        } else {
+            // SAFETY: `node` is a live node owned by the arena; `level` is in
+            // bounds by the traversal invariant.
+            unsafe { &*tower(node).add(level) }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.len.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<K> Drop for SkipListCore<K> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        // Drop each key in place before the arena frees the backing chunks.
+        // Runs before fields drop, so `arena` memory is still valid here. No
+        // readers remain (the core drops only when all handles are gone), so
+        // relaxed loads suffice.
+        let mut node = self.head[0].load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        while !node.is_null() {
+            // SAFETY: `node` is a live node in the arena; tower[0] is its
+            // level-0 successor (or null at the end).
+            let next = unsafe { (*tower(node)).load(Ordering::Relaxed) };
+            unsafe { ptr::drop_in_place(ptr::addr_of_mut!((*node).key)) };
+            node = next;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create a paired writer and reader over a fresh, empty skiplist core.
+pub fn new_skiplist<K: Ord + Send + Sync>() -> (SkipListWriter<K>, SkipListReader<K>) {
+    let core = Arc::new(SkipListCore::new());
+    let writer = SkipListWriter {
+        core: core.clone(),
+        // Nonzero xorshift seed; the writer is single-threaded so a private,
+        // deterministic RNG is fine (and keeps tests reproducible).
+        rng: 0x9E3779B97F4A7C15,
+    };
+    let reader = SkipListReader { core };
+    (writer, reader)
+}
+
+/// The sole mutator of a skiplist. Not `Sync`: only one writer may exist.
+pub struct SkipListWriter<K> {
+    core: Arc<SkipListCore<K>>,
+    rng: u64,
+}
+
+impl<K: Ord> SkipListWriter<K> {
+    /// Geometric height with p = 1/BRANCHING, capped at `MAX_HEIGHT`.
+    fn random_height(&mut self) -> usize {
+        // xorshift64
+        let mut x = self.rng;
+        x ^= x << 13;
+        x ^= x >> 7;
+        x ^= x << 17;
+        self.rng = x;
+        let mut height = 1;
+        while height < MAX_HEIGHT && x.is_multiple_of(BRANCHING) {
+            height += 1;
+            x /= BRANCHING;
+        }
+        height
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub fn insert(&mut self, key: K) {
+        self.insert_and_check_neighbors(key, |_, _| false);
+    }
+
+    /// Insert `key` and let the caller inspect its immediate level-0 neighbors.
+    ///
+    /// Keys must be unique (the MemTable key carries a row position, making
+    /// every entry distinct). Backends that index `(value, row_position)` use
+    /// the neighbor check to detect whether the same value already existed,
+    /// reusing the insertion traversal instead of issuing a second lookup.
+    pub fn insert_and_check_neighbors(
+        &mut self,
+        key: K,
+        check: impl FnOnce(Option<&K>, Option<&K>) -> bool,
+    ) -> bool {
+        let cur_height = self.core.height.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+        // Find the predecessor at every level. For levels at/above the current
+        // height the predecessor is the head (null); the descent never enters
+        // those levels, leaving `pred` null there.
+        let mut preds: [*const Node<K>; MAX_HEIGHT] = [ptr::null(); MAX_HEIGHT];
+        let mut pred: *const Node<K> = ptr::null();
+        for level in (0..MAX_HEIGHT).rev() {
+            if level < cur_height {
+                loop {
+                    let next = self.core.next_slot(pred, level).load(Ordering::Acquire);
+                    if !next.is_null() && unsafe { (*next).key < key } {
+                        pred = next;
+                    } else {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            preds[level] = pred;
+        }
+
+        let succ = self.core.next_slot(preds[0], 0).load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        // SAFETY: `preds[0]` and `succ` are either null or point to nodes owned
+        // by this skiplist's arena. The single writer never removes nodes, so
+        // any non-null neighbor remains alive for the duration of this call.
+        let had_neighbor_match =
+            check(unsafe { preds[0].as_ref().map(|node| &node.key) }, unsafe {
+                succ.as_ref().map(|node| &node.key)
+            });
+
+        let height = self.random_height();
+
+        // Allocate the node in one block and initialize it fully (key + tower)
+        // before publishing. Successors are stable: the single writer is the
+        // only mutator, so no link changes between read and publish.
+        let layout = node_layout::<K>(height);
+        // SAFETY: single-writer exclusive access to the arena.
+        let node = unsafe { (*self.core.arena.get()).alloc(layout, &self.core.arena_bytes) }
+            as *mut Node<K>;
+        // SAFETY: `node` points to a fresh, uninitialized, correctly-sized and
+        // -aligned block; we write the key then `height` tower slots.
+        unsafe {
+            ptr::write(ptr::addr_of_mut!((*node).key), key);
+            let tower = tower::<K>(node) as *mut AtomicPtr<Node<K>>;
+            for (level, pred) in preds.iter().enumerate().take(height) {
+                let succ = self.core.next_slot(*pred, level).load(Ordering::Acquire);
+                ptr::write(tower.add(level), AtomicPtr::new(succ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Advertise the taller height before linking the top levels: a reader
+        // that sees the new height but not yet a top link just finds a null
+        // there and descends — still correct.
+        if height > cur_height {
+            self.core.height.store(height, Ordering::Release);
+        }
+
+        // Publish: splice the node in at each level with Release so a reader
+        // that loads the pointer also sees the initialized node.
+        for (level, pred) in preds.iter().enumerate().take(height) {
+            self.core
+                .next_slot(*pred, level)
+                .store(node, Ordering::Release);
+        }
+
+        self.core.len.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Release);
+        had_neighbor_match
+    }
+}
+
+/// A lock-free, pin-free reader. Cheaply cloned and shared across threads.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct SkipListReader<K> {
+    core: Arc<SkipListCore<K>>,
+}
+
+impl<K: Ord> SkipListReader<K> {
+    /// Bytes of arena chunks backing this skiplist's nodes.
+    ///
+    /// Counts chunks, not entries, so it steps by `CHUNK_SIZE` and overshoots
+    /// the live nodes by at most one partly-filled chunk. Excludes any bytes a
+    /// key owns outside its node (e.g. a long `Box<[u8]>` key) — the arena
+    /// never sees those, so whoever built the key charges them; see
+    /// `BytesBackend::key_heap_bytes`.
+    pub(crate) fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.core.arena_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    /// Greatest node with `key <= target`, mapped through `f` while it is alive.
+    /// Equivalent to crossbeam's `upper_bound(Included(target))`. `None` if no
+    /// such node. The closure avoids cloning the key on the hot path.
+    pub fn upper_bound_with<R>(&self, target: &K, f: impl FnOnce(&K) -> R) -> Option<R> {
+        let node = self.find_le(target);
+        if node.is_null() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            // SAFETY: non-null node owned by the core, alive for this call.
+            Some(f(unsafe { &(*node).key }))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Greatest node with `key <= target`, or null. Descends the tower.
+    fn find_le(&self, target: &K) -> *const Node<K> {
+        let height = self.core.height.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let mut pred: *const Node<K> = ptr::null();
+        for level in (0..height).rev() {
+            loop {
+                let next = self.core.next_slot(pred, level).load(Ordering::Acquire);
+                if !next.is_null() && unsafe { (*next).key <= *target } {
+                    pred = next;
+                } else {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        pred
+    }
+
+    /// First node with `key >= start`, or null.
+    fn lower_bound(&self, start: &K) -> *const Node<K> {
+        let height = self.core.height.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let mut pred: *const Node<K> = ptr::null();
+        for level in (0..height).rev() {
+            loop {
+                let next = self.core.next_slot(pred, level).load(Ordering::Acquire);
+                if !next.is_null() && unsafe { (*next).key < *start } {
+                    pred = next;
+                } else {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        self.core.next_slot(pred, 0).load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    /// Iterate all keys in ascending order.
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> Iter<'_, K> {
+        Iter {
+            node: self.core.head[0].load(Ordering::Acquire),
+            _marker: PhantomData,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Iterate keys in ascending order starting at the first `key >= start`.
+    pub fn range_from(&self, start: &K) -> Iter<'_, K> {
+        Iter {
+            node: self.lower_bound(start),
+            _marker: PhantomData,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The smallest key, mapped through `f`, or `None` if empty.
+    pub fn front_with<R>(&self, f: impl FnOnce(&K) -> R) -> Option<R> {
+        let node = self.core.head[0].load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        if node.is_null() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            // SAFETY: non-null node owned by the core, alive for this call.
+            Some(f(unsafe { &(*node).key }))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Number of entries.
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.core.len()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Forward iterator over keys in ascending order. Yields `&K` borrowed from the
+/// reader: nodes are never freed while the core (and thus the reader) is alive.
+pub struct Iter<'a, K> {
+    node: *const Node<K>,
+    _marker: PhantomData<&'a SkipListReader<K>>,
+}
+
+impl<'a, K> Iterator for Iter<'a, K> {
+    type Item = &'a K;
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<&'a K> {
+        if self.node.is_null() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        // SAFETY: non-null node owned by the core; the borrow lifetime `'a` is
+        // bounded by the reader, which keeps the core (and node) alive. tower[0]
+        // is the level-0 successor.
+        let node = unsafe { &*self.node };
+        self.node = unsafe { (*tower(self.node)).load(Ordering::Acquire) };
+        Some(&node.key)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
+    use std::thread;
+
+    fn collect(reader: &SkipListReader<i64>) -> Vec<i64> {
+        reader.iter().copied().collect()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_insert_keeps_sorted_order() {
+        let (mut w, r) = new_skiplist::<i64>();
+        for k in [5, 1, 9, 3, 7, 2, 8, 4, 6, 0] {
+            w.insert(k);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(collect(&r), vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]);
+        assert_eq!(r.len(), 10);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_empty() {
+        let (_w, r) = new_skiplist::<i64>();
+        assert_eq!(r.len(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(collect(&r), Vec::<i64>::new());
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&5, |k| *k), None);
+        assert_eq!(r.front_with(|k| *k), None);
+        assert_eq!(r.range_from(&0).count(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_upper_bound_le() {
+        let (mut w, r) = new_skiplist::<i64>();
+        for k in [10, 20, 30, 40] {
+            w.insert(k);
+        }
+        // Exact hits.
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&20, |k| *k), Some(20));
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&40, |k| *k), Some(40));
+        // Between keys → greatest <= target.
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&25, |k| *k), Some(20));
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&39, |k| *k), Some(30));
+        // Above all.
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&999, |k| *k), Some(40));
+        // Below all → None.
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&5, |k| *k), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_front_and_range_from() {
+        let (mut w, r) = new_skiplist::<i64>();
+        for k in [3, 1, 4, 1_000, 2] {
+            w.insert(k);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(r.front_with(|k| *k), Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(
+            r.range_from(&3).copied().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![3, 4, 1_000]
+        );
+        // start below first → all; start above last → empty.
+        assert_eq!(
+            r.range_from(&0).copied().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 1_000]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(r.range_from(&2_000).count(), 0);
+        // start between → from first >= start.
+        assert_eq!(r.range_from(&5).copied().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![1_000]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_composite_key_dup_values() {
+        // Mirrors IndexKey = (value, position): same value, distinct positions.
+        let (mut w, r) = new_skiplist::<(i64, u64)>();
+        for key in [(7, 0), (3, 1), (7, 2), (3, 0), (7, 1)] {
+            w.insert(key);
+        }
+        let all: Vec<_> = r.iter().copied().collect();
+        assert_eq!(all, vec![(3, 0), (3, 1), (7, 0), (7, 1), (7, 2)]);
+        // Newest visible position for value 7 with watermark 1 = (7,1).
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&(7, 1), |k| *k), Some((7, 1)));
+        // Watermark below all of value 3 → falls back to a smaller value.
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&(3, 5), |k| *k), Some((3, 1)));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_string_keys_drop() {
+        // Exercises key Drop (heap-owning K) through the arena Drop path.
+        let (mut w, r) = new_skiplist::<String>();
+        for s in ["delta", "alpha", "charlie", "bravo"] {
+            w.insert(s.to_string());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            r.iter().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec!["alpha", "bravo", "charlie", "delta"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            r.upper_bound_with(&"c".to_string(), |k| k.clone()),
+            Some("bravo".to_string())
+        );
+        drop(w);
+        drop(r); // arena drops here; keys must be dropped (no leak / double free)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_many_inserts_force_chunk_growth() {
+        // Enough entries to span multiple arena chunks; verifies ordering and
+        // pointer stability across chunk growth.
+        let (mut w, r) = new_skiplist::<i64>();
+        const N: i64 = 200_000;
+        for k in (0..N).rev() {
+            w.insert(k);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(r.len(), N as usize);
+        assert!(r.iter().copied().eq(0..N));
+        assert_eq!(r.upper_bound_with(&(N - 1), |k| *k), Some(N - 1));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_concurrent_single_writer_many_readers() {
+        // 1 writer inserting 0..N while readers continuously seek. Asserts:
+        // every value a reader observes is one the writer has inserted, the
+        // observed prefix is contiguous and monotonically non-decreasing (no
+        // torn/lost nodes), and the final state is complete and sorted.
+        const N: i64 = 50_000;
+        let (mut w, r) = new_skiplist::<i64>();
+        let done = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+
+        let readers: Vec<_> = (0..4)
+            .map(|_| {
+                let r = r.clone();
+                let done = done.clone();
+                thread::spawn(move || {
+                    let mut max_seen = -1;
+                    while !done.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                        // Largest key present <= N is a contiguous prefix max.
+                        if let Some(top) = r.upper_bound_with(&N, |k| *k) {
+                            assert!((0..N).contains(&top));
+                            assert!(top >= max_seen, "visibility went backwards");
+                            max_seen = top;
+                            // The observed max must itself be present.
+                            assert!(r.upper_bound_with(&top, |k| *k) == Some(top));
+                        }
+                    }
+                    max_seen
+                })
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        for k in 0..N {
+            w.insert(k);
+        }
+        done.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        for h in readers {
+            h.join().unwrap();
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(r.len(), N as usize);
+        assert_eq!(collect(&r), (0..N).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/btree.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/btree.rs
index a9c4048a83e..f0ad3098d2c 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/btree.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/btree.rs
@@ -3,21 +3,40 @@
 
 //! In-memory BTree index for scalar fields.
 //!
-//! Provides O(log n) lookups and range queries using crossbeam-skiplist.
-//! Used for primary key lookups and scalar column filtering.
+//! Provides O(log n) lookups and range queries. Used for primary key lookups
+//! and scalar column filtering.
+//!
+//! Backed by [`super::arena_skiplist`] — a single-writer, lock-free-read
+//! skiplist with no epoch reclamation. Reads (the point-lookup hot path and
+//! scans) take no lock and no epoch pin; writes go through an (uncontended,
+//! since the MemTable serializes them) `Mutex`.
+//!
+//! Three backends, chosen lazily by column type on first insert. The compact
+//! backends store only a small comparable key + the row position (not the fat
+//! value) so nodes are RocksDB-sized; the value is decoded from the key at
+//! flush. Small nodes match RocksDB's cache behavior on the bottom-level walk.
+//! - [`FixedIntBackend`] for fixed-width integers/dates: key is a compact
+//!   [`FixedKey`] `{ order-preserving u64, position }` (~24B node).
+//! - [`BytesBackend`] for strings / binary / `FixedSizeBinary` (UUID): key is
+//!   [`BytesKey`] with the bytes stored inline for small values (UUID, short
+//!   keys) and boxed only for long ones.
+//! - [`ScalarBackend`] for everything else: the original `OrderableScalarValue`
+//!   key (fat node, but handles arbitrary scalar types).
+
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Mutex, OnceLock};
 
 use arrow_array::types::*;
 use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch};
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use crossbeam_skiplist::SkipMap;
 use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_index::scalar::btree::OrderableScalarValue;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use super::RowPosition;
+use super::arena_skiplist::{SkipListReader, SkipListWriter, new_skiplist};
 
-/// Composite key for BTree index.
+/// Composite key for the scalar (fallback) backend.
 ///
 /// By combining (scalar_value, row_position), each entry is unique.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
@@ -44,54 +63,644 @@ impl Ord for IndexKey {
     }
 }
 
-/// In-memory BTree index for scalar fields.
-///
-/// Represents the in-memory portion of Lance's on-disk BTree index.
-/// Implemented using crossbeam-skiplist for concurrent access with O(log n) operations.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct BTreeMemIndex {
-    /// Ordered map: (scalar_value, row_position) -> ()
-    lookup: SkipMap<IndexKey, ()>,
-    /// Field ID this index is built on.
-    field_id: i32,
-    /// Column name (for Arrow batch lookups).
-    column_name: String,
+/// Compact key for the fixed-width-integer backend: an order-preserving `u64`
+/// encoding of the value plus the row position. Sorts by `(enc, position)` —
+/// identical ordering to `(value, position)` because `enc` is order-preserving.
+/// 16 bytes, so a node is ~24B (vs ~72B for the `OrderableScalarValue` node).
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+struct FixedKey {
+    enc: u64,
+    position: RowPosition,
 }
 
-impl BTreeMemIndex {
-    /// Create a new BTree index for the given field.
-    pub fn new(field_id: i32, column_name: String) -> Self {
+/// Sign-flip a signed integer to an order-preserving unsigned key.
+#[inline]
+fn encode_signed(v: i64) -> u64 {
+    (v as u64) ^ (1u64 << 63)
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn decode_signed(enc: u64) -> i64 {
+    (enc ^ (1u64 << 63)) as i64
+}
+
+/// Whether `dt` is handled by the compact fixed-width-integer backend.
+fn is_fixed_int(dt: &DataType) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        dt,
+        DataType::Int8
+            | DataType::Int16
+            | DataType::Int32
+            | DataType::Int64
+            | DataType::UInt8
+            | DataType::UInt16
+            | DataType::UInt32
+            | DataType::UInt64
+            | DataType::Date32
+            | DataType::Date64
+    )
+}
+
+/// Order-preserving `u64` encoding of a fixed-int `ScalarValue`, or `None` if
+/// the value is null or not a fixed-int type.
+fn encode_scalar(value: &ScalarValue) -> Option<u64> {
+    Some(match value {
+        ScalarValue::Int8(Some(v)) => encode_signed(*v as i64),
+        ScalarValue::Int16(Some(v)) => encode_signed(*v as i64),
+        ScalarValue::Int32(Some(v)) => encode_signed(*v as i64),
+        ScalarValue::Int64(Some(v)) => encode_signed(*v),
+        ScalarValue::UInt8(Some(v)) => *v as u64,
+        ScalarValue::UInt16(Some(v)) => *v as u64,
+        ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(v)) => *v as u64,
+        ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(v)) => *v,
+        ScalarValue::Date32(Some(v)) => encode_signed(*v as i64),
+        ScalarValue::Date64(Some(v)) => encode_signed(*v),
+        _ => return None,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Decode a fixed-int `enc` back to its typed `ScalarValue` for `data_type`.
+fn decode_enc(enc: u64, data_type: &DataType) -> ScalarValue {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Int8 => ScalarValue::Int8(Some(decode_signed(enc) as i8)),
+        DataType::Int16 => ScalarValue::Int16(Some(decode_signed(enc) as i16)),
+        DataType::Int32 => ScalarValue::Int32(Some(decode_signed(enc) as i32)),
+        DataType::Int64 => ScalarValue::Int64(Some(decode_signed(enc))),
+        DataType::UInt8 => ScalarValue::UInt8(Some(enc as u8)),
+        DataType::UInt16 => ScalarValue::UInt16(Some(enc as u16)),
+        DataType::UInt32 => ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(enc as u32)),
+        DataType::UInt64 => ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(enc)),
+        DataType::Date32 => ScalarValue::Date32(Some(decode_signed(enc) as i32)),
+        DataType::Date64 => ScalarValue::Date64(Some(decode_signed(enc))),
+        other => unreachable!("decode_enc on non-fixed-int type {other:?}"),
+    }
+}
+
+/// The typed null `ScalarValue` for a fixed-int `data_type`.
+fn null_scalar(data_type: &DataType) -> ScalarValue {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Int8 => ScalarValue::Int8(None),
+        DataType::Int16 => ScalarValue::Int16(None),
+        DataType::Int32 => ScalarValue::Int32(None),
+        DataType::Int64 => ScalarValue::Int64(None),
+        DataType::UInt8 => ScalarValue::UInt8(None),
+        DataType::UInt16 => ScalarValue::UInt16(None),
+        DataType::UInt32 => ScalarValue::UInt32(None),
+        DataType::UInt64 => ScalarValue::UInt64(None),
+        DataType::Date32 => ScalarValue::Date32(None),
+        DataType::Date64 => ScalarValue::Date64(None),
+        other => unreachable!("null_scalar on non-fixed-int type {other:?}"),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Max key length stored inline in [`InlineBytes`]. 23 covers a 16-byte UUID
+/// (`FixedSizeBinary(16)`) and short string/binary primary keys, keeping the
+/// node a single allocation (no second cache miss on the seek).
+const INLINE_CAP: usize = 23;
+
+/// A byte key that lives inline in the node for small values and spills to the
+/// heap only for long ones — so the common cases (UUID, short string PKs) get
+/// the small-node win, and long keys still work (with the usual boxed penalty).
+enum InlineBytes {
+    Inline { len: u8, buf: [u8; INLINE_CAP] },
+    Heap(Box<[u8]>),
+}
+
+impl InlineBytes {
+    fn new(bytes: &[u8]) -> Self {
+        if bytes.len() <= INLINE_CAP {
+            let mut buf = [0u8; INLINE_CAP];
+            buf[..bytes.len()].copy_from_slice(bytes);
+            Self::Inline {
+                len: bytes.len() as u8,
+                buf,
+            }
+        } else {
+            Self::Heap(bytes.into())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn as_slice(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        match self {
+            Self::Inline { len, buf } => &buf[..*len as usize],
+            Self::Heap(b) => b,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Bytes this key owns outside its node. Inline keys own none; a spilled
+    /// key owns exactly its payload, since `Box<[u8]>` allocates no slack.
+    #[inline]
+    fn heap_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Inline { .. } => 0,
+            Self::Heap(b) => b.len(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for InlineBytes {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.as_slice() == other.as_slice()
+    }
+}
+impl Eq for InlineBytes {}
+impl PartialOrd for InlineBytes {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+impl Ord for InlineBytes {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.as_slice().cmp(other.as_slice())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compact key for the byte backend: an order-preserving inline byte key plus
+/// the row position. Sorts by `(bytes, position)` — lexicographic byte order is
+/// the natural order for strings, binary, and `FixedSizeBinary`/UUID.
+struct BytesKey {
+    bytes: InlineBytes,
+    position: RowPosition,
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for BytesKey {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.position == other.position && self.bytes == other.bytes
+    }
+}
+impl Eq for BytesKey {}
+impl PartialOrd for BytesKey {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+impl Ord for BytesKey {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.bytes
+            .cmp(&other.bytes)
+            .then(self.position.cmp(&other.position))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether `dt` is handled by the compact byte backend (strings / binary /
+/// fixed-size binary, including UUID).
+fn is_bytes_type(dt: &DataType) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        dt,
+        DataType::Utf8
+            | DataType::LargeUtf8
+            | DataType::Binary
+            | DataType::LargeBinary
+            | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_)
+    )
+}
+
+/// The order-preserving key bytes for a byte-typed `ScalarValue`, or `None` if
+/// null or not a byte type. Strings encode as their UTF-8 bytes.
+fn value_bytes(value: &ScalarValue) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+    match value {
+        ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s)) | ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(s)) => Some(s.as_bytes()),
+        ScalarValue::Binary(Some(b))
+        | ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(b))
+        | ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(_, Some(b)) => Some(b.as_slice()),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Decode key bytes back to a typed `ScalarValue` for `data_type`.
+fn decode_bytes(bytes: &[u8], data_type: &DataType) -> ScalarValue {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Utf8 => ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(String::from_utf8_lossy(bytes).into_owned())),
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
+            ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(String::from_utf8_lossy(bytes).into_owned()))
+        }
+        DataType::Binary => ScalarValue::Binary(Some(bytes.to_vec())),
+        DataType::LargeBinary => ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(bytes.to_vec())),
+        DataType::FixedSizeBinary(n) => ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(*n, Some(bytes.to_vec())),
+        other => unreachable!("decode_bytes on non-byte type {other:?}"),
+    }
+}
+
+/// The typed null `ScalarValue` for a byte `data_type`.
+fn null_bytes_scalar(data_type: &DataType) -> ScalarValue {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Utf8 => ScalarValue::Utf8(None),
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(None),
+        DataType::Binary => ScalarValue::Binary(None),
+        DataType::LargeBinary => ScalarValue::LargeBinary(None),
+        DataType::FixedSizeBinary(n) => ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(*n, None),
+        other => unreachable!("null_bytes_scalar on non-byte type {other:?}"),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compact backend for fixed-width integers / dates. The skiplist holds only
+/// non-null entries as [`FixedKey`]; nulls are tracked separately (they never
+/// appear in concrete point lookups and sort first at flush).
+struct FixedIntBackend {
+    reader: SkipListReader<FixedKey>,
+    writer: Mutex<SkipListWriter<FixedKey>>,
+    /// Row positions whose value is null (rare; not on the hot path).
+    null_positions: Mutex<Vec<RowPosition>>,
+    /// `null_positions`' heap, kept alongside it so a memory poll never has to
+    /// take that lock. See [`Backend::resident_bytes`].
+    null_bytes: AtomicUsize,
+    data_type: DataType,
+}
+
+impl FixedIntBackend {
+    fn new(data_type: DataType) -> Self {
+        let (writer, reader) = new_skiplist::<FixedKey>();
         Self {
-            lookup: SkipMap::new(),
-            field_id,
-            column_name,
+            reader,
+            writer: Mutex::new(writer),
+            null_positions: Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+            null_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            data_type,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Get the field ID this index is built on.
-    pub fn field_id(&self) -> i32 {
-        self.field_id
+    fn insert_array_and_report_existing(&self, array: &dyn Array, row_offset: u64) -> Result<bool> {
+        let mut had_existing = false;
+        macro_rules! insert_int {
+            ($array_type:ty, $to_i64:expr) => {{
+                let typed = array
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<$array_type>>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                let mut writer = self.writer.lock().unwrap();
+                let mut nulls: Vec<RowPosition> = Vec::new();
+                let had_existing_nulls = !self.null_positions.lock().unwrap().is_empty();
+                let mut saw_null = false;
+                for (row_idx, value) in typed.iter().enumerate() {
+                    let position = row_offset + row_idx as u64;
+                    match value {
+                        Some(v) => {
+                            let enc = $to_i64(v);
+                            let key = FixedKey { enc, position };
+                            had_existing |= writer.insert_and_check_neighbors(key, |prev, next| {
+                                prev.is_some_and(|key| key.enc == enc)
+                                    || next.is_some_and(|key| key.enc == enc)
+                            });
+                        }
+                        None => {
+                            if had_existing_nulls || saw_null {
+                                had_existing = true;
+                            }
+                            saw_null = true;
+                            nulls.push(position);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                drop(writer);
+                if !nulls.is_empty() {
+                    let mut positions = self.null_positions.lock().unwrap();
+                    // Reserve and charge before the extend, so the counter is
+                    // never behind the positions a concurrent poll can reach.
+                    positions.reserve(nulls.len());
+                    self.null_bytes.store(
+                        positions.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<RowPosition>(),
+                        Ordering::Relaxed,
+                    );
+                    positions.extend(nulls);
+                }
+            }};
+        }
+
+        match array.data_type() {
+            DataType::Int8 => insert_int!(Int8Type, |v: i8| encode_signed(v as i64)),
+            DataType::Int16 => insert_int!(Int16Type, |v: i16| encode_signed(v as i64)),
+            DataType::Int32 => insert_int!(Int32Type, |v: i32| encode_signed(v as i64)),
+            DataType::Int64 => insert_int!(Int64Type, encode_signed),
+            DataType::UInt8 => insert_int!(UInt8Type, |v: u8| v as u64),
+            DataType::UInt16 => insert_int!(UInt16Type, |v: u16| v as u64),
+            DataType::UInt32 => insert_int!(UInt32Type, |v: u32| v as u64),
+            DataType::UInt64 => insert_int!(UInt64Type, |v: u64| v),
+            DataType::Date32 => insert_int!(Date32Type, |v: i32| encode_signed(v as i64)),
+            DataType::Date64 => insert_int!(Date64Type, encode_signed),
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "FixedIntBackend received non-fixed-int array {other:?}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(had_existing)
     }
 
-    /// Insert rows from a batch into the index.
-    pub fn insert(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, row_offset: u64) -> Result<()> {
-        let col_idx = batch
-            .schema()
-            .column_with_name(&self.column_name)
-            .map(|(idx, _)| idx)
-            .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Column '{}' not found in batch", self.column_name),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?;
+    fn get_newest_visible(
+        &self,
+        value: &ScalarValue,
+        max_visible_row: RowPosition,
+    ) -> Option<RowPosition> {
+        // Concrete value lookups never hit nulls. A null query falls back to
+        // the newest visible null position.
+        let Some(enc) = encode_scalar(value) else {
+            if value.is_null() {
+                return self
+                    .null_positions
+                    .lock()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .filter(|p| *p <= max_visible_row)
+                    .max();
+            }
+            return None;
+        };
+        let target = FixedKey {
+            enc,
+            position: max_visible_row,
+        };
+        self.reader
+            .upper_bound_with(&target, |key| (key.enc == enc).then_some(key.position))
+            .flatten()
+    }
 
-        let column = batch.column(col_idx);
-        self.insert_array(column.as_ref(), row_offset)
+    fn get(&self, value: &ScalarValue) -> Vec<RowPosition> {
+        let Some(enc) = encode_scalar(value) else {
+            if value.is_null() {
+                return self.null_positions.lock().unwrap().clone();
+            }
+            return Vec::new();
+        };
+        let start = FixedKey { enc, position: 0 };
+        let mut positions = Vec::new();
+        for key in self.reader.range_from(&start) {
+            if key.enc != enc {
+                break;
+            }
+            positions.push(key.position);
+        }
+        positions
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.reader.len() + self.null_positions.lock().unwrap().len()
+    }
+
+    fn data_type(&self) -> DataType {
+        self.data_type.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn snapshot(&self) -> Vec<(OrderableScalarValue, Vec<RowPosition>)> {
+        let mut result: Vec<(OrderableScalarValue, Vec<RowPosition>)> = Vec::new();
+
+        // Nulls sort first (None < Some), matching OrderableScalarValue order.
+        let nulls = self.null_positions.lock().unwrap();
+        if !nulls.is_empty() {
+            let mut positions = nulls.clone();
+            positions.sort_unstable();
+            result.push((
+                OrderableScalarValue(null_scalar(&self.data_type)),
+                positions,
+            ));
+        }
+        drop(nulls);
+
+        let mut cur_enc: Option<u64> = None;
+        for key in self.reader.iter() {
+            if cur_enc == Some(key.enc) {
+                result.last_mut().unwrap().1.push(key.position);
+            } else {
+                cur_enc = Some(key.enc);
+                result.push((
+                    OrderableScalarValue(decode_enc(key.enc, &self.data_type)),
+                    vec![key.position],
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        result
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compact backend for byte-typed columns (strings / binary / `FixedSizeBinary`
+/// / UUID). The skiplist holds non-null entries as [`BytesKey`] (key bytes
+/// inline for small values); nulls are tracked separately and sort first.
+struct BytesBackend {
+    reader: SkipListReader<BytesKey>,
+    writer: Mutex<SkipListWriter<BytesKey>>,
+    null_positions: Mutex<Vec<RowPosition>>,
+    /// `null_positions`' heap, kept alongside it so a memory poll never has to
+    /// take that lock. See [`Backend::resident_bytes`].
+    null_bytes: AtomicUsize,
+    data_type: DataType,
+    /// Payload of keys too long to live inline in their node. The skiplist's
+    /// own counter measures arena chunks only, so without this a column of long
+    /// strings would duplicate its whole payload uncharged.
+    key_heap_bytes: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl BytesBackend {
+    fn new(data_type: DataType) -> Self {
+        let (writer, reader) = new_skiplist::<BytesKey>();
+        Self {
+            reader,
+            writer: Mutex::new(writer),
+            null_positions: Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+            null_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            data_type,
+            key_heap_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn insert_array_and_report_existing(&self, array: &dyn Array, row_offset: u64) -> Result<bool> {
+        let mut had_existing = false;
+        // Append (position, key bytes) for each row; nulls go to the side list.
+        // `$v => $to_bytes` extracts the key bytes from each non-null value
+        // inline (no closure, so the borrow ties directly to the row value).
+        macro_rules! insert_bytes {
+            ($array_type:ty, $v:ident => $to_bytes:expr) => {{
+                let typed = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<$array_type>().unwrap();
+                let mut writer = self.writer.lock().unwrap();
+                let mut nulls: Vec<RowPosition> = Vec::new();
+                let had_existing_nulls = !self.null_positions.lock().unwrap().is_empty();
+                let mut saw_null = false;
+                for row_idx in 0..typed.len() {
+                    let position = row_offset + row_idx as u64;
+                    if typed.is_null(row_idx) {
+                        if had_existing_nulls || saw_null {
+                            had_existing = true;
+                        }
+                        saw_null = true;
+                        nulls.push(position);
+                    } else {
+                        let $v = typed.value(row_idx);
+                        let bytes: &[u8] = $to_bytes;
+                        let key = BytesKey {
+                            bytes: InlineBytes::new(bytes),
+                            position,
+                        };
+                        // Charge before publishing, the way the arena charges
+                        // a chunk before the node that lives in it: the insert
+                        // below splices the node in with `Release`, so a reader
+                        // that can reach the key can also see its payload. A
+                        // per-batch total added afterwards would leave a whole
+                        // in-flight batch of keys visible but uncharged, and an
+                        // admission sample landing there reads low. Inline keys
+                        // own nothing, so they skip the atomic entirely.
+                        let spilled = key.bytes.heap_bytes();
+                        if spilled > 0 {
+                            self.key_heap_bytes.fetch_add(spilled, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                        }
+                        had_existing |= writer.insert_and_check_neighbors(key, |prev, next| {
+                            prev.is_some_and(|key| key.bytes.as_slice() == bytes)
+                                || next.is_some_and(|key| key.bytes.as_slice() == bytes)
+                        });
+                    }
+                }
+                drop(writer);
+                if !nulls.is_empty() {
+                    let mut positions = self.null_positions.lock().unwrap();
+                    // Reserve and charge before the extend, so the counter is
+                    // never behind the positions a concurrent poll can reach.
+                    positions.reserve(nulls.len());
+                    self.null_bytes.store(
+                        positions.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<RowPosition>(),
+                        Ordering::Relaxed,
+                    );
+                    positions.extend(nulls);
+                }
+            }};
+        }
+
+        match array.data_type() {
+            DataType::Utf8 => insert_bytes!(arrow_array::StringArray, v => v.as_bytes()),
+            DataType::LargeUtf8 => insert_bytes!(arrow_array::LargeStringArray, v => v.as_bytes()),
+            DataType::Binary => insert_bytes!(arrow_array::BinaryArray, v => v),
+            DataType::LargeBinary => insert_bytes!(arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray, v => v),
+            DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_) => {
+                insert_bytes!(arrow_array::FixedSizeBinaryArray, v => v)
+            }
+            other => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "BytesBackend received non-byte array {other:?}"
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(had_existing)
+    }
+
+    fn get_newest_visible(
+        &self,
+        value: &ScalarValue,
+        max_visible_row: RowPosition,
+    ) -> Option<RowPosition> {
+        let Some(bytes) = value_bytes(value) else {
+            if value.is_null() {
+                return self
+                    .null_positions
+                    .lock()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .filter(|p| *p <= max_visible_row)
+                    .max();
+            }
+            return None;
+        };
+        let target = BytesKey {
+            bytes: InlineBytes::new(bytes),
+            position: max_visible_row,
+        };
+        self.reader
+            .upper_bound_with(&target, |key| {
+                (key.bytes.as_slice() == bytes).then_some(key.position)
+            })
+            .flatten()
     }
 
-    /// Insert values from an Arrow array into the index.
-    fn insert_array(&self, array: &dyn Array, row_offset: u64) -> Result<()> {
+    fn get(&self, value: &ScalarValue) -> Vec<RowPosition> {
+        let Some(bytes) = value_bytes(value) else {
+            if value.is_null() {
+                return self.null_positions.lock().unwrap().clone();
+            }
+            return Vec::new();
+        };
+        let start = BytesKey {
+            bytes: InlineBytes::new(bytes),
+            position: 0,
+        };
+        let mut positions = Vec::new();
+        for key in self.reader.range_from(&start) {
+            if key.bytes.as_slice() != bytes {
+                break;
+            }
+            positions.push(key.position);
+        }
+        positions
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.reader.len() + self.null_positions.lock().unwrap().len()
+    }
+
+    fn data_type(&self) -> DataType {
+        self.data_type.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn snapshot(&self) -> Vec<(OrderableScalarValue, Vec<RowPosition>)> {
+        let mut result: Vec<(OrderableScalarValue, Vec<RowPosition>)> = Vec::new();
+
+        // Nulls sort first (None < Some).
+        let nulls = self.null_positions.lock().unwrap();
+        if !nulls.is_empty() {
+            let mut positions = nulls.clone();
+            positions.sort_unstable();
+            result.push((
+                OrderableScalarValue(null_bytes_scalar(&self.data_type)),
+                positions,
+            ));
+        }
+        drop(nulls);
+
+        let mut cur: Option<Vec<u8>> = None;
+        for key in self.reader.iter() {
+            let bytes = key.bytes.as_slice();
+            if cur.as_deref() == Some(bytes) {
+                result.last_mut().unwrap().1.push(key.position);
+            } else {
+                cur = Some(bytes.to_vec());
+                result.push((
+                    OrderableScalarValue(decode_bytes(bytes, &self.data_type)),
+                    vec![key.position],
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        result
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fallback backend for arbitrary scalar types, keyed by `OrderableScalarValue`.
+struct ScalarBackend {
+    reader: SkipListReader<IndexKey>,
+    writer: Mutex<SkipListWriter<IndexKey>>,
+}
+
+impl ScalarBackend {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        let (writer, reader) = new_skiplist::<IndexKey>();
+        Self {
+            reader,
+            writer: Mutex::new(writer),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn add(&self, value: OrderableScalarValue, row_position: RowPosition) -> bool {
+        let probe = value.clone();
+        self.writer.lock().unwrap().insert_and_check_neighbors(
+            IndexKey {
+                value,
+                row_position,
+            },
+            |prev, next| {
+                prev.is_some_and(|key| key.value == probe)
+                    || next.is_some_and(|key| key.value == probe)
+            },
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn insert_array_and_report_existing(&self, array: &dyn Array, row_offset: u64) -> Result<bool> {
+        let mut had_existing = false;
         macro_rules! insert_primitive {
             ($array_type:ty, $scalar_variant:ident) => {{
                 let typed_array = array
@@ -100,11 +709,10 @@ impl BTreeMemIndex {
                     .unwrap();
                 for (row_idx, value) in typed_array.iter().enumerate() {
                     let row_position = row_offset + row_idx as u64;
-                    let key = IndexKey {
-                        value: OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::$scalar_variant(value)),
+                    had_existing |= self.add(
+                        OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::$scalar_variant(value)),
                         row_position,
-                    };
-                    self.lookup.insert(key, ());
+                    );
                 }
             }};
         }
@@ -129,13 +737,10 @@ impl BTreeMemIndex {
                     .unwrap();
                 for (row_idx, value) in typed_array.iter().enumerate() {
                     let row_position = row_offset + row_idx as u64;
-                    let key = IndexKey {
-                        value: OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Utf8(
-                            value.map(|s| s.to_string()),
-                        )),
+                    had_existing |= self.add(
+                        OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Utf8(value.map(|s| s.to_string()))),
                         row_position,
-                    };
-                    self.lookup.insert(key, ());
+                    );
                 }
             }
             DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
@@ -145,13 +750,10 @@ impl BTreeMemIndex {
                     .unwrap();
                 for (row_idx, value) in typed_array.iter().enumerate() {
                     let row_position = row_offset + row_idx as u64;
-                    let key = IndexKey {
-                        value: OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(
-                            value.map(|s| s.to_string()),
-                        )),
+                    had_existing |= self.add(
+                        OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(value.map(|s| s.to_string()))),
                         row_position,
-                    };
-                    self.lookup.insert(key, ());
+                    );
                 }
             }
             DataType::Boolean => {
@@ -161,11 +763,10 @@ impl BTreeMemIndex {
                     .unwrap();
                 for (row_idx, value) in typed_array.iter().enumerate() {
                     let row_position = row_offset + row_idx as u64;
-                    let key = IndexKey {
-                        value: OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Boolean(value)),
+                    had_existing |= self.add(
+                        OrderableScalarValue(ScalarValue::Boolean(value)),
                         row_position,
-                    };
-                    self.lookup.insert(key, ());
+                    );
                 }
             }
             // Fallback for other types - use per-row extraction
@@ -173,44 +774,249 @@ impl BTreeMemIndex {
                 for row_idx in 0..array.len() {
                     let value = ScalarValue::try_from_array(array, row_idx)?;
                     let row_position = row_offset + row_idx as u64;
-                    let key = IndexKey {
-                        value: OrderableScalarValue(value),
-                        row_position,
-                    };
-                    self.lookup.insert(key, ());
+                    had_existing |= self.add(OrderableScalarValue(value), row_position);
                 }
             }
         }
-        Ok(())
+        Ok(had_existing)
     }
 
-    /// Look up row positions for an exact value.
-    pub fn get(&self, value: &ScalarValue) -> Vec<RowPosition> {
-        let orderable = OrderableScalarValue(value.clone());
+    fn get_newest_visible(
+        &self,
+        value: &ScalarValue,
+        max_visible_row: RowPosition,
+    ) -> Option<RowPosition> {
+        let target = IndexKey {
+            value: OrderableScalarValue(value.clone()),
+            row_position: max_visible_row,
+        };
+        self.reader
+            .upper_bound_with(&target, |key| {
+                (key.value.0 == *value).then_some(key.row_position)
+            })
+            .flatten()
+    }
+
+    fn get(&self, value: &ScalarValue) -> Vec<RowPosition> {
         let start = IndexKey {
-            value: orderable.clone(),
+            value: OrderableScalarValue(value.clone()),
             row_position: 0,
         };
-        let end = IndexKey {
-            value: orderable,
-            row_position: u64::MAX,
-        };
+        let mut positions = Vec::new();
+        for key in self.reader.range_from(&start) {
+            if key.value.0 != *value {
+                break;
+            }
+            positions.push(key.row_position);
+        }
+        positions
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.reader.len()
+    }
+
+    fn data_type(&self) -> Option<DataType> {
+        self.reader.front_with(|key| key.value.0.data_type())
+    }
+
+    fn snapshot(&self) -> Vec<(OrderableScalarValue, Vec<RowPosition>)> {
+        let mut result: Vec<(OrderableScalarValue, Vec<RowPosition>)> = Vec::new();
+        for key in self.reader.iter() {
+            if let Some(last) = result.last_mut()
+                && last.0 == key.value
+            {
+                last.1.push(key.row_position);
+                continue;
+            }
+            result.push((key.value.clone(), vec![key.row_position]));
+        }
+        result
+    }
+}
+
+/// The chosen backend for a `BTreeMemIndex`, selected by column type.
+enum Backend {
+    FixedInt(FixedIntBackend),
+    Bytes(BytesBackend),
+    Scalar(ScalarBackend),
+}
+
+impl Backend {
+    fn for_type(data_type: &DataType) -> Self {
+        if is_fixed_int(data_type) {
+            Self::FixedInt(FixedIntBackend::new(data_type.clone()))
+        } else if is_bytes_type(data_type) {
+            Self::Bytes(BytesBackend::new(data_type.clone()))
+        } else {
+            Self::Scalar(ScalarBackend::new())
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn insert_array_and_report_existing(&self, array: &dyn Array, row_offset: u64) -> Result<bool> {
+        match self {
+            Self::FixedInt(b) => b.insert_array_and_report_existing(array, row_offset),
+            Self::Bytes(b) => b.insert_array_and_report_existing(array, row_offset),
+            Self::Scalar(b) => b.insert_array_and_report_existing(array, row_offset),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn get_newest_visible(&self, value: &ScalarValue, max: RowPosition) -> Option<RowPosition> {
+        match self {
+            Self::FixedInt(b) => b.get_newest_visible(value, max),
+            Self::Bytes(b) => b.get_newest_visible(value, max),
+            Self::Scalar(b) => b.get_newest_visible(value, max),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn get(&self, value: &ScalarValue) -> Vec<RowPosition> {
+        match self {
+            Self::FixedInt(b) => b.get(value),
+            Self::Bytes(b) => b.get(value),
+            Self::Scalar(b) => b.get(value),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::FixedInt(b) => b.len(),
+            Self::Bytes(b) => b.len(),
+            Self::Scalar(b) => b.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Lock-free by construction: admission reads this on every put and on every
+    /// `DRAIN_POLL_INTERVAL` tick while a writer is parked, so taking the
+    /// `null_positions` mutex here would park a memory poll behind an in-flight
+    /// insert.
+    fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::FixedInt(b) => b.reader.resident_bytes() + b.null_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            Self::Bytes(b) => {
+                b.reader.resident_bytes()
+                    + b.null_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+                    + b.key_heap_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+            }
+            Self::Scalar(b) => b.reader.resident_bytes(),
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Range scan: all entries with the same value
-        self.lookup
-            .range(start..=end)
-            .map(|entry| entry.key().row_position)
-            .collect()
+    fn data_type(&self) -> Option<DataType> {
+        match self {
+            Self::FixedInt(b) => Some(b.data_type()),
+            Self::Bytes(b) => Some(b.data_type()),
+            Self::Scalar(b) => b.data_type(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn snapshot(&self) -> Vec<(OrderableScalarValue, Vec<RowPosition>)> {
+        match self {
+            Self::FixedInt(b) => b.snapshot(),
+            Self::Bytes(b) => b.snapshot(),
+            Self::Scalar(b) => b.snapshot(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// In-memory BTree index for scalar fields.
+///
+/// The backing `Backend` is selected lazily on first insert from the column's
+/// Arrow type: a compact `FixedKey` for fixed-width integers, fat
+/// `OrderableScalarValue` for everything else. Before the first insert the index
+/// is empty (all reads return empty / `None`).
+pub struct BTreeMemIndex {
+    backend: OnceLock<Backend>,
+    /// Field ID this index is built on.
+    field_id: i32,
+    /// Column name (for Arrow batch lookups).
+    column_name: String,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for BTreeMemIndex {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("BTreeMemIndex")
+            .field("field_id", &self.field_id)
+            .field("column_name", &self.column_name)
+            .field("len", &self.len())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl BTreeMemIndex {
+    /// Create a new BTree index for the given field.
+    pub fn new(field_id: i32, column_name: String) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            backend: OnceLock::new(),
+            field_id,
+            column_name,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The newest row position for `value` that is visible at `max_visible_row`
+    /// (inclusive), or `None` if the value has no visible row. A single
+    /// **seek-and-stop** on the backing skiplist — no range collect, no
+    /// allocation. This is the point-lookup hot path.
+    pub fn get_newest_visible(
+        &self,
+        value: &ScalarValue,
+        max_visible_row: RowPosition,
+    ) -> Option<RowPosition> {
+        self.backend
+            .get()?
+            .get_newest_visible(value, max_visible_row)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the field ID this index is built on.
+    pub fn field_id(&self) -> i32 {
+        self.field_id
+    }
+
+    /// Insert rows from a batch into the index.
+    pub fn insert(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, row_offset: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.insert_and_report_existing(batch, row_offset)
+            .map(|_| ())
+    }
+
+    /// Insert rows and report whether any inserted key already existed in the
+    /// index or repeated earlier in this batch.
+    pub fn insert_and_report_existing(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, row_offset: u64) -> Result<bool> {
+        let col_idx = batch
+            .schema()
+            .column_with_name(&self.column_name)
+            .map(|(idx, _)| idx)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("Column '{}' not found in batch", self.column_name))
+            })?;
+
+        let column = batch.column(col_idx);
+        let backend = self
+            .backend
+            .get_or_init(|| Backend::for_type(column.data_type()));
+        backend.insert_array_and_report_existing(column.as_ref(), row_offset)
+    }
+
+    /// Look up row positions for an exact value.
+    pub fn get(&self, value: &ScalarValue) -> Vec<RowPosition> {
+        self.backend.get().map(|b| b.get(value)).unwrap_or_default()
     }
 
     /// Get the number of entries (not unique values).
     pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.lookup.len()
+        self.backend.get().map(|b| b.len()).unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    /// Heap bytes held by this index; zero before the first insert.
+    ///
+    /// Grows with rows (unlike the pre-allocated HNSW index). Arena-chunk
+    /// granular, so it steps rather than climbs smoothly — plus the exact
+    /// payload of any key too long to live inline in its node.
+    pub(crate) fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.backend.get().map(|b| b.resident_bytes()).unwrap_or(0)
     }
 
     /// Check if the index is empty.
     pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.lookup.is_empty()
+        self.len() == 0
     }
 
     /// Get the column name.
@@ -220,29 +1026,14 @@ impl BTreeMemIndex {
 
     /// Get a snapshot of all entries grouped by value in sorted order.
     pub fn snapshot(&self) -> Vec<(OrderableScalarValue, Vec<RowPosition>)> {
-        let mut result: Vec<(OrderableScalarValue, Vec<RowPosition>)> = Vec::new();
-
-        for entry in self.lookup.iter() {
-            let key = entry.key();
-            if let Some(last) = result.last_mut() {
-                if last.0 == key.value {
-                    last.1.push(key.row_position);
-                    continue;
-                }
-            }
-            result.push((key.value.clone(), vec![key.row_position]));
-        }
-
-        result
+        self.backend.get().map(|b| b.snapshot()).unwrap_or_default()
     }
 
     /// Get the data type of the indexed column.
     ///
     /// Returns None if the index is empty.
     pub fn data_type(&self) -> Option<arrow_schema::DataType> {
-        self.lookup
-            .front()
-            .map(|entry| entry.key().value.0.data_type())
+        self.backend.get().and_then(|b| b.data_type())
     }
 
     /// Export the index data as sorted RecordBatches for BTree index training.
@@ -252,15 +1043,12 @@ impl BTreeMemIndex {
         use lance_index::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
         use std::sync::Arc;
 
-        if self.lookup.is_empty() {
+        let snapshot = self.snapshot();
+        if snapshot.is_empty() {
             return Ok(vec![]);
         }
 
-        // Get the data type from the first key
-        let first_entry = self.lookup.front().unwrap();
-        let data_type = first_entry.key().value.0.data_type();
-
-        // Create schema for training data
+        let data_type = snapshot[0].0.0.data_type();
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
             Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, data_type, true),
             Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
@@ -270,56 +1058,60 @@ impl BTreeMemIndex {
         let mut values: Vec<ScalarValue> = Vec::with_capacity(batch_size);
         let mut row_ids: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(batch_size);
 
-        for entry in self.lookup.iter() {
-            let key = entry.key();
-            values.push(key.value.0.clone());
-            row_ids.push(key.row_position);
-
-            if values.len() >= batch_size {
-                // Build and emit a batch
-                let batch = self.build_training_batch(&schema, &values, &row_ids)?;
-                batches.push(batch);
-                values.clear();
-                row_ids.clear();
+        // Expand each (value, [positions]) group into one row per position, in
+        // sorted (value, position) order.
+        //
+        // The skiplist is a multiset: the same `(value, position)` is stored
+        // once per insert, and a row can be indexed more than once (a WAL
+        // replay re-indexes every buffered batch on top of what the flusher
+        // already indexed). The on-disk BTree turns each page's row ids into a
+        // `RoaringBitmap` via `from_sorted_iter`, which requires strictly
+        // increasing input, so a repeated position poisons the whole page:
+        // every later probe fails with "from_sorted_iter called with non-sorted
+        // input". Positions within a group are sorted, so a dedup here is the
+        // cheapest place to guarantee the invariant.
+        for (value, positions) in &snapshot {
+            let mut last: Option<RowPosition> = None;
+            for position in positions {
+                if last == Some(*position) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                last = Some(*position);
+                values.push(value.0.clone());
+                row_ids.push(*position);
+                if values.len() >= batch_size {
+                    batches.push(build_training_batch(&schema, &values, &row_ids)?);
+                    values.clear();
+                    row_ids.clear();
+                }
             }
         }
-
-        // Emit any remaining data
         if !values.is_empty() {
-            let batch = self.build_training_batch(&schema, &values, &row_ids)?;
-            batches.push(batch);
+            batches.push(build_training_batch(&schema, &values, &row_ids)?);
         }
 
         Ok(batches)
     }
+}
 
-    /// Build a single training batch from values and row IDs.
-    fn build_training_batch(
-        &self,
-        schema: &std::sync::Arc<arrow_schema::Schema>,
-        values: &[ScalarValue],
-        row_ids: &[u64],
-    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        use arrow_array::UInt64Array;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
-
-        // Convert ScalarValues to Arrow array
-        let value_array = ScalarValue::iter_to_array(values.iter().cloned())?;
+/// Build a single training batch from values and row IDs.
+fn build_training_batch(
+    schema: &std::sync::Arc<arrow_schema::Schema>,
+    values: &[ScalarValue],
+    row_ids: &[u64],
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    use arrow_array::UInt64Array;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
 
-        // Create row_id array
-        let row_id_array = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids.to_vec()));
+    let value_array = ScalarValue::iter_to_array(values.iter().cloned())?;
+    let row_id_array = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids.to_vec()));
 
-        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![value_array, row_id_array]).map_err(|e| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!("Failed to create training batch: {}", e),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })
-    }
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![value_array, row_id_array])
+        .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to create training batch: {}", e)))
 }
 
 /// Configuration for a BTree scalar index.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub struct BTreeIndexConfig {
     /// Index name.
     pub name: String,
@@ -332,8 +1124,9 @@ pub struct BTreeIndexConfig {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, Int64Array, StringArray, UInt32Array};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use rstest::rstest;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
@@ -360,40 +1153,162 @@ mod tests {
         let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "id".to_string());
 
         let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0);
-        // row_offset = 0 for first batch
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(index.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))), vec![0]);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))), vec![1]);
+    }
 
-        // Row positions are 0, 1, 2 for the first batch
-        let result = index.get(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
-        assert!(!result.is_empty());
-        assert_eq!(result, vec![0]);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_get_newest_visible_seek_and_stop() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "id".to_string());
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema, 0), 0).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema, 0), 3).unwrap();
 
-        let result = index.get(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)));
-        assert!(!result.is_empty());
-        assert_eq!(result, vec![1]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)), 5),
+            Some(3)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)), 5),
+            Some(4)
+        );
+        // Visibility watermark below the newest update.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)), 2),
+            Some(0)
+        );
+        // Watermark below every version.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)), 0),
+            None
+        );
+        // Absent key.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(999)), 5),
+            None
+        );
+        let mut all = index.get(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
+        all.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(all, vec![0, 3]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_int_signed_ordering_negatives() {
+        // Negative + positive i64 keys must sort correctly via the encoding.
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "k",
+            DataType::Int64,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "k".to_string());
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![
+                Some(5),
+                Some(-3),
+                Some(i64::MIN),
+                Some(i64::MAX),
+                Some(0),
+            ]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        // snapshot is value-sorted; decode round-trips.
+        let snap = index.snapshot();
+        let values: Vec<i64> = snap
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(v, _)| match v.0 {
+                ScalarValue::Int64(Some(x)) => x,
+                _ => panic!("unexpected"),
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(values, vec![i64::MIN, -3, 0, 5, i64::MAX]);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(&ScalarValue::Int64(Some(-3))), vec![1]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Int64(Some(i64::MIN)), 10),
+            Some(2)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_int_unsigned() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "k",
+            DataType::UInt32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "k".to_string());
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![10u32, 4_000_000_000, 1]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        let snap = index.snapshot();
+        let values: Vec<u32> = snap
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(v, _)| match v.0 {
+                ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(x)) => x,
+                _ => panic!(),
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(values, vec![1, 10, 4_000_000_000]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(&ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(4_000_000_000))),
+            vec![1]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_int_nulls() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "k",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "k".to_string());
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![
+                Some(7),
+                None,
+                Some(3),
+                None,
+            ]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.len(), 4);
+        // Nulls sort first.
+        let snap = index.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(snap[0].0.0, ScalarValue::Int32(None));
+        assert_eq!(snap[0].1, vec![1, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(snap[1].0.0, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3)));
+        assert_eq!(snap[2].0.0, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(7)));
+        // Null lookup returns null positions.
+        let mut nulls = index.get(&ScalarValue::Int32(None));
+        nulls.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(nulls, vec![1, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Int32(None), 10),
+            Some(3)
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_btree_index_multiple_batches() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "id".to_string());
-
-        let batch1 = create_test_batch(&schema, 0);
-        let batch2 = create_test_batch(&schema, 10);
-
-        // First batch: rows 0-2
-        index.insert(&batch1, 0).unwrap();
-        // Second batch: rows 3-5 (row_offset = 3 since batch1 had 3 rows)
-        index.insert(&batch2, 3).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema, 0), 0).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema, 10), 3).unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(index.len(), 6);
-
-        // Value 10 is at row position 3 (first row of second batch)
-        let result = index.get(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(10)));
-        assert!(!result.is_empty());
-        assert_eq!(result, vec![3]);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(&ScalarValue::Int32(Some(10))), vec![3]);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -403,67 +1318,308 @@ mod tests {
 
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "id".to_string());
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema, 0), 0).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema, 10), 3).unwrap();
 
-        let batch1 = create_test_batch(&schema, 0); // ids: 0, 1, 2
-        let batch2 = create_test_batch(&schema, 10); // ids: 10, 11, 12
-
-        index.insert(&batch1, 0).unwrap(); // row positions 0, 1, 2
-        index.insert(&batch2, 3).unwrap(); // row positions 3, 4, 5
-
-        // Export as training batches (batch_size = 100 to get all in one batch)
         let batches = index.to_training_batches(100).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
-
         let batch = &batches[0];
         assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 6);
-
-        // Check schema
         assert_eq!(batch.schema().field(0).name(), VALUE_COLUMN_NAME);
         assert_eq!(batch.schema().field(1).name(), ROW_ID);
 
-        // Data should be sorted by value (0, 1, 2, 10, 11, 12)
         let values = batch
             .column_by_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)
             .unwrap()
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(values.value(0), 0);
-        assert_eq!(values.value(1), 1);
-        assert_eq!(values.value(2), 2);
-        assert_eq!(values.value(3), 10);
-        assert_eq!(values.value(4), 11);
-        assert_eq!(values.value(5), 12);
-
-        // Check row IDs match positions
+        assert_eq!(
+            (0..6).map(|i| values.value(i)).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 10, 11, 12]
+        );
         let row_ids = batch
             .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
             .unwrap()
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(0), 0); // id=0 -> row 0
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(1), 1); // id=1 -> row 1
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(2), 2); // id=2 -> row 2
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(3), 3); // id=10 -> row 3
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(4), 4); // id=11 -> row 4
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(5), 5); // id=12 -> row 5
+        assert_eq!(
+            (0..6).map(|i| row_ids.value(i)).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+        );
     }
 
+    /// A row indexed twice (the flusher indexed it, then a WAL replay indexed
+    /// every buffered batch again) must appear once in the training batches.
+    /// The on-disk BTree builds a `RoaringBitmap` per page with
+    /// `from_sorted_iter`, which rejects a repeated row id and poisons the
+    /// page for every later probe.
     #[test]
-    fn test_btree_index_snapshot() {
+    fn test_btree_index_to_training_batches_dedups_repeated_positions() {
+        use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+        use lance_index::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
+
+        // Int and bytes backends both dedup; check each.
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "id".to_string());
-
         let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.len(), 6, "the memtable index itself is a multiset");
+
+        let batches = index.to_training_batches(100).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        let row_ids = batches[0]
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.values(), &[0, 1, 2]);
+        let values = batches[0]
+            .column_by_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(values.values(), &[0, 1, 2]);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec![
+                "item:a", "item:b",
+            ]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "id".to_string());
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        let batches = index.to_training_batches(100).unwrap();
+        let row_ids = batches[0]
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.values(), &[0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_btree_index_snapshot() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "id".to_string());
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema, 0), 0).unwrap();
 
         let snapshot = index.snapshot();
         assert_eq!(snapshot.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot[0].0.0, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
+        assert_eq!(snapshot[1].0.0, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)));
+        assert_eq!(snapshot[2].0.0, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2)));
+    }
+
+    /// Keys longer than `INLINE_CAP` spill to a `Box<[u8]>` outside the
+    /// skiplist's arena, so the arena counter alone would leave an arbitrarily
+    /// large duplicate of the column uncharged.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resident_bytes_counts_spilled_keys() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "s".to_string());
+
+        let rows = 256;
+        let width = 16 * 1024;
+        let values: Vec<String> = (0..rows)
+            .map(|i| format!("{i:07}{}", "z".repeat(width - 7)))
+            .collect();
+        let key_bytes = rows * width;
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                values.iter().map(|v| Some(v.as_str())).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            ))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            index.resident_bytes() >= key_bytes,
+            "resident {} must cover the {key_bytes} bytes of spilled key payload",
+            index.resident_bytes()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Null positions live behind a mutex the memory poll must never take, so
+    /// their heap is mirrored into an atomic. That mirror has to actually track
+    /// the vector, or a column of nulls goes uncharged against the ceiling.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::fixed_int(DataType::Int32)]
+    #[case::bytes(DataType::Utf8)]
+    fn test_resident_bytes_counts_null_positions(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "c",
+            data_type.clone(),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "c".to_string());
+
+        let rows = 1_024;
+        let column: ArrayRef = match data_type {
+            DataType::Int32 => Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None::<i32>; rows])),
+            DataType::Utf8 => Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>; rows])),
+            other => unreachable!("unhandled case {other:?}"),
+        };
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![column]).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let expected = rows * std::mem::size_of::<RowPosition>();
+        assert!(
+            index.resident_bytes() >= expected,
+            "resident {} must cover the {expected} bytes of null positions",
+            index.resident_bytes()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Charging the batch's total after the loop is not enough: each key is
+    /// reachable to lock-free readers the moment it is spliced in, so an
+    /// admission sample landing mid-batch would see a growing index against a
+    /// stale byte total and admit a write it should have refused. The charge
+    /// has to land before the key it pays for.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resident_bytes_covers_keys_already_published() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let rows = 2_000usize;
+        let width = 8 * 1024usize;
+        let values: Vec<String> = (0..rows)
+            .map(|i| format!("{i:07}{}", "z".repeat(width - 7)))
+            .collect();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(values)) as Arc<dyn Array>],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let index = Arc::new(BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "s".to_string()));
+        let inserting = Arc::clone(&index);
+        let handle = std::thread::spawn(move || inserting.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap());
+
+        // Sample until the insert is partway through. Every sample that catches
+        // it there must already account for the keys it can see; the loop is
+        // only about *reaching* that state, so the assertion is inside it.
+        let mut sampled_mid_insert = false;
+        while !handle.is_finished() {
+            let published = index.len();
+            if published == 0 || published >= rows {
+                std::hint::spin_loop();
+                continue;
+            }
+            sampled_mid_insert = true;
+            let charged = index.resident_bytes();
+            assert!(
+                charged >= published * width,
+                "{published} keys are visible but only {charged} bytes are charged"
+            );
+        }
+        handle.join().unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            sampled_mid_insert,
+            "the insert never became observable partway through, so nothing was proven"
+        );
+        assert!(index.resident_bytes() >= rows * width);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bytes_backend_strings() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "s".to_string());
+        // Mix short (inline) and a long (> INLINE_CAP, heap) key; include a null.
+        let long = "z".repeat(64);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                Some("delta"),
+                Some("alpha"),
+                None,
+                Some(long.as_str()),
+                Some("alpha"), // duplicate value, newer position
+            ]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        // Newest visible position for a duplicated value.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("alpha".to_string())), 10),
+            Some(4)
+        );
+        // Visibility watermark hides the newer duplicate.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("alpha".to_string())), 3),
+            Some(1)
+        );
+        // Long (heap) key round-trips.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(long.clone())), 10),
+            Some(3)
+        );
+        // snapshot: null first, then lexicographic order; decode round-trips.
+        let snap = index.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(snap[0].0.0, ScalarValue::Utf8(None));
+        assert_eq!(snap[0].1, vec![2]);
+        assert_eq!(snap[1].0.0, ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("alpha".to_string())));
+        assert_eq!(snap[1].1, vec![1, 4]);
+        assert_eq!(snap[2].0.0, ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("delta".to_string())));
+        assert_eq!(snap[3].0.0, ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(long)));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bytes_backend_fixed_size_binary_uuid() {
+        // UUIDs are FixedSizeBinary(16); verify the compact byte backend.
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::FixedSizeBinary(16),
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let index = BTreeMemIndex::new(0, "id".to_string());
+        let a = [0x11u8; 16];
+        let b = [0x22u8; 16];
+        let c = [0xAAu8; 16];
+        let values = vec![c.to_vec(), a.to_vec(), b.to_vec()];
+        let arr = arrow_array::FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_iter(values.into_iter()).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(arr)]).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Snapshot should be in sorted order
-        assert_eq!(snapshot[0].0 .0, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)));
-        assert_eq!(snapshot[1].0 .0, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)));
-        assert_eq!(snapshot[2].0 .0, ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2)));
+        // Point lookup by UUID bytes.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get_newest_visible(&ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(16, Some(a.to_vec())), 10),
+            Some(1)
+        );
+        // snapshot is byte-sorted: a (0x11) < b (0x22) < c (0xAA).
+        let snap = index.snapshot();
+        let order: Vec<Vec<u8>> = snap
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(v, _)| match &v.0 {
+                ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(16, Some(bytes)) => bytes.clone(),
+                _ => panic!("unexpected"),
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(order, vec![a.to_vec(), b.to_vec(), c.to_vec()]);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/fts.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/fts.rs
index b66b8f18051..2939ec57d46 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/fts.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/fts.rs
@@ -1,79 +1,142 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-//! In-memory Full-Text Search (FTS) index.
+//! In-memory Full-Text Search (FTS) index with single-writer / multi-reader
+//! semantics.
 //!
-//! Provides inverted index for text search using crossbeam-skiplist.
-//! Uses the same tokenization as Lance's InvertedIndex for consistency.
+//! # Concurrency model
 //!
-//! ## Current Features
-//! - BM25 scoring algorithm for relevance ranking
-//! - Automatic result ordering by score (descending)
-//! - Single-column term queries
-//! - Phrase queries with slop support
+//! - **One writer** (`insert` / `insert_with_batch_position`) at a time per
+//!   index. Callers are responsible for that invariant; this is consistent
+//!   with `IndexStore`'s usage from `ShardWriter`.
+//! - **Many readers** (`search*`, `expand_fuzzy`, `to_index_builder`)
+//!   in parallel with the writer. Reads are lock-free aside from a brief
+//!   tokenizer-pool checkout.
+//! - **Per-batch monotonic visibility**: a reader either sees every row of
+//!   batch `b` or none of them. A reader never sees a batch numbered above
+//!   the published `visible_count`. BM25 statistics observed by a reader
+//!   (`doc_count`, `total_tokens`, per-term `df`) are mutually consistent
+//!   with the postings the reader walks.
 //!
-//! ## Pending Features (TODO)
-//! - Multi-column search: Search across multiple columns simultaneously
-//! - Boolean queries: MUST/SHOULD/MUST_NOT for complex query logic
-//! - Fuzzy matching: Typo tolerance with configurable edit distance
-//! - Boost queries: Positive/negative boosting for relevance tuning
-//! - WAND factor: Performance/recall tradeoff control
-//! - Per-term/column boost: Fine-grained relevance weighting
+//! # Partition-structured layout
 //!
-//! **Note**: FTS index flush to persistent storage is NOT YET IMPLEMENTED.
-//! The in-memory index works for real-time queries on MemTable data,
-//! but is skipped during MemTable flush.
+//! The index is a set of immutable [`Partition`]s plus a bounded mutable
+//! `tail` ([`TailIndex`]). Each partition holds a frozen slice of inserts as
+//! on-disk-shaped posting lists and is queried with block-max WAND in
+//! ≈O(matches). The tail accumulates recent inserts in a per-batch-chunk
+//! layout and is searched in place; the writer freezes it into a new
+//! partition once it crosses `freeze_threshold_rows`. The `{partitions, tail}`
+//! pair lives behind one [`ArcSwap`] ([`IndexState`]) so a freeze publishes
+//! atomically — a reader never sees a doc twice or misses one across a
+//! freeze.
+//!
+//! Within the tail, visibility is published atomically by replacing a single
+//! `Snapshot` via `ArcSwap`. The writer first installs all term chunks into
+//! the per-term `ArcSwap<TermSlice>` slots, then atomically swaps in a new
+//! `Snapshot` whose `visible_count` covers the new batch. Readers load the
+//! `Snapshot` first and filter every term chunk by `batch_position <
+//! snapshot.visible_count`. Frozen partitions are fully visible by
+//! construction.
+//!
+//! # On-disk format
+//!
+//! At flush time we hand off to `lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::InnerBuilder`
+//! via `to_index_builder`, which merges every partition and the tail
+//! into one builder. The on-disk format is unchanged from Lance's existing
+//! inverted index.
 
-use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::cmp::Reverse;
+use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
-use std::sync::Mutex;
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex, OnceLock};
 
-use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arc_swap::ArcSwap;
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
 use crossbeam_skiplist::SkipMap;
-use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
-use lance_core::Result;
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::lance_tokenizer::LanceTokenizer;
+use fst::{Map, Streamer};
+use lance_bitpacking::{BitPacker, BitPacker4x};
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
-use tantivy::tokenizer::TokenStream;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery, Operator, Tokens};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::{DocType, LanceTokenizer};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{DocSet, MemBM25Scorer, Scorer, TokenSet};
+use lance_tokenizer::TokenStream;
+use rayon::prelude::*;
+use rustc_hash::{FxHashMap, FxHashSet};
 
 use super::RowPosition;
+use crate::index::scalar::inverted::{ResolvedFtsField, resolve_fts_field};
 
-/// Composite key for FTS index.
-///
-/// By combining (token, row_position), each entry is unique.
-/// This follows the same pattern as IndexKey and IvfPqKey.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
-pub struct FtsKey {
-    /// The indexed token (lowercase).
-    pub token: String,
-    /// Row position (makes the key unique for tokens appearing in multiple docs).
-    pub row_position: RowPosition,
-}
+// ============================================================================
+// Public types preserved from previous API
+// ============================================================================
 
-/// In-memory FTS (Full-Text Search) index entry (returned from search).
+/// In-memory FTS index entry returned from search.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct FtsEntry {
     /// Row position in MemTable.
     pub row_position: RowPosition,
+    /// Root-to-leaf physical list ordinals for a ListElement document.
+    pub doc_index: Option<Vec<u32>>,
     /// BM25 score for this document.
     pub score: f32,
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+struct DocumentKey {
+    row_position: RowPosition,
+    doc_index: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl FtsEntry {
+    fn key(&self) -> DocumentKey {
+        DocumentKey {
+            row_position: self.row_position,
+            doc_index: self.doc_index.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct DocumentMetadata {
+    key: DocumentKey,
+    num_tokens: u32,
+}
+
+fn doc_set_key(docs: &DocSet, doc_id: u32) -> DocumentKey {
+    DocumentKey {
+        row_position: docs.row_id(doc_id),
+        doc_index: (0..docs.coordinate_rank())
+            .map(|rank| docs.coordinate(doc_id, rank))
+            .collect(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn public_doc_index(coordinates: &[u32]) -> Option<Vec<u32>> {
+    (!coordinates.is_empty()).then(|| coordinates.to_vec())
+}
+
 /// Full-text search query expression for composable queries.
-///
-/// Supports simple term matches, phrase queries, fuzzy matching, and Boolean
-/// combinations with MUST/SHOULD/MUST_NOT logic.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub enum FtsQueryExpr {
     /// Simple term match query.
     Match {
+        /// Column this leaf searches. `None` binds to the query's single column;
+        /// a tree whose leaves name different columns carries `Some` on each.
+        column: Option<String>,
         /// The search query string.
         query: String,
+        /// The operator used to combine tokenized query terms.
+        operator: Operator,
         /// Boost factor applied to the score (default 1.0).
         boost: f32,
     },
     /// Phrase query with optional slop.
     Phrase {
+        /// Column this leaf searches. `None` binds to the query's single column;
+        /// a tree whose leaves name different columns carries `Some` on each.
+        column: Option<String>,
         /// The phrase to search for.
         query: String,
         /// Maximum allowed distance between consecutive tokens.
@@ -83,39 +146,52 @@ pub enum FtsQueryExpr {
     },
     /// Fuzzy match query with typo tolerance.
     Fuzzy {
+        /// Column this leaf searches. `None` binds to the query's single column;
+        /// a tree whose leaves name different columns carries `Some` on each.
+        column: Option<String>,
         /// The search query string.
         query: String,
         /// Maximum edit distance (Levenshtein distance).
-        /// None means auto-fuzziness based on token length.
+        /// `None` means auto-fuzziness based on token length.
         fuzziness: Option<u32>,
-        /// Maximum number of terms to expand to (default 50).
+        /// Number of initial characters that must match exactly.
+        prefix_length: u32,
+        /// Maximum number of terms to expand to.
         max_expansions: usize,
         /// Boost factor applied to the score (default 1.0).
         boost: f32,
     },
     /// Boolean combination of queries.
     Boolean {
-        /// All MUST clauses must match for a document to be included.
-        must: Vec<FtsQueryExpr>,
+        /// All MUST clauses must match and contribute to the score.
+        must: Vec<Self>,
         /// At least one SHOULD clause should match (adds to score).
-        should: Vec<FtsQueryExpr>,
+        should: Vec<Self>,
         /// No MUST_NOT clause may match (excludes documents).
-        must_not: Vec<FtsQueryExpr>,
+        must_not: Vec<Self>,
     },
-    /// Boosting query with positive and optional negative components.
-    ///
-    /// Documents matching the positive query are returned.
-    /// If a negative query is provided, documents matching both positive
-    /// and negative have their scores reduced by `negative_boost`.
+    /// Boosting query with a positive and an optional negative component.
     Boost {
-        /// The primary query (documents must match this).
-        positive: Box<FtsQueryExpr>,
-        /// Optional query to demote matching documents.
-        negative: Option<Box<FtsQueryExpr>>,
-        /// Boost factor for documents matching negative query (typically < 1.0).
-        /// Score becomes: original_score * negative_boost for docs matching negative.
+        /// Documents must match this query.
+        positive: Box<Self>,
+        /// Optional query whose matches are demoted.
+        negative: Option<Box<Self>>,
+        /// How strongly a document matching `negative` is demoted: its score
+        /// becomes `positive - negative_boost * negative_score`. `0.0` is no
+        /// demotion, and larger values demote harder — the same contract the
+        /// compound scorer applies to committed data, so both tiers rank a
+        /// boost query identically. Scores may go negative.
         negative_boost: f32,
     },
+    /// Disjunction scored by the best child: a document's score is the highest
+    /// among the children that match it (`DisjunctionScore::Max`), which is how
+    /// the compound scorer ranks a multi-match over committed data. The
+    /// children are the leaves of an index-level multi-match, each bound to its
+    /// own column, so a tree spanning fields still routes leaf by leaf.
+    MultiMatch {
+        /// The alternatives, scored independently.
+        children: Vec<Self>,
+    },
 }
 
 /// Default maximum number of fuzzy expansions.
@@ -125,26 +201,25 @@ pub const DEFAULT_MAX_EXPANSIONS: usize = 50;
 pub const DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR: f32 = 1.0;
 
 /// Search options for controlling performance/recall tradeoffs.
-///
-/// The WAND (Weak AND) factor allows trading recall for performance:
-/// - `wand_factor = 1.0`: Full recall (default), all matching documents returned
-/// - `wand_factor < 1.0`: Faster but may miss some results. Documents with
-///   scores below `top_k_score * wand_factor` are pruned.
-///
-/// # Example
-/// ```ignore
-/// let options = SearchOptions::default()
-///     .with_limit(10)
-///     .with_wand_factor(0.5);
-/// let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
-/// ```
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct SearchOptions {
     /// WAND factor for early termination (0.0 to 1.0).
-    /// 1.0 = full recall, <1.0 = faster but may miss low-scoring results.
+    /// 1.0 = full recall (default).
     pub wand_factor: f32,
     /// Maximum number of results to return. None means unlimited.
     pub limit: Option<usize>,
+    /// Whether to also search the mutable tail (rows written since the last
+    /// freeze). `true` (default) is read-your-writes: every completed batch is
+    /// visible, at the cost of scanning the un-indexed tail on each query.
+    /// `false` searches only the immutable frozen partitions — the Lucene
+    /// model (a reader sees only flushed segments), which removes the tail
+    /// scan from the hot path. Trades read-recency for query latency.
+    pub include_tail: bool,
+    /// Whether to skip the whole tail scan when its score upper bound cannot
+    /// beat the current top-k threshold (block-max-style tail pruning). `true`
+    /// (default) prunes; `false` always scans the visible tail. Only affects
+    /// top-k term queries; exposed mainly to A/B the optimization.
+    pub tail_skip: bool,
 }
 
 impl Default for SearchOptions {
@@ -152,21 +227,18 @@ impl Default for SearchOptions {
         Self {
             wand_factor: DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR,
             limit: None,
+            include_tail: true,
+            tail_skip: true,
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl SearchOptions {
-    /// Create new SearchOptions with default values.
     pub fn new() -> Self {
         Self::default()
     }
 
     /// Set the WAND factor for early termination.
-    ///
-    /// - 1.0 = full recall (default)
-    /// - 0.5 = prune documents scoring below 50% of the current k-th best score
-    /// - 0.0 = only return the absolute best match
     pub fn with_wand_factor(mut self, wand_factor: f32) -> Self {
         self.wand_factor = wand_factor.clamp(0.0, 1.0);
         self
@@ -177,82 +249,94 @@ impl SearchOptions {
         self.limit = Some(limit);
         self
     }
+
+    /// Set whether to search the mutable tail (see [`Self::include_tail`]).
+    pub fn with_include_tail(mut self, include_tail: bool) -> Self {
+        self.include_tail = include_tail;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set whether to prune the tail scan by score bound (see [`Self::tail_skip`]).
+    pub fn with_tail_skip(mut self, tail_skip: bool) -> Self {
+        self.tail_skip = tail_skip;
+        self
+    }
 }
 
 impl FtsQueryExpr {
-    /// Create a simple match query.
     pub fn match_query(query: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self::match_query_with_operator(query, Operator::Or)
+    }
+
+    pub fn match_query_with_operator(query: impl Into<String>, operator: Operator) -> Self {
         Self::Match {
+            column: None,
             query: query.into(),
+            operator,
             boost: 1.0,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a phrase query with exact matching (slop=0).
     pub fn phrase(query: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
         Self::Phrase {
+            column: None,
             query: query.into(),
             slop: 0,
             boost: 1.0,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a phrase query with specified slop.
     pub fn phrase_with_slop(query: impl Into<String>, slop: u32) -> Self {
         Self::Phrase {
+            column: None,
             query: query.into(),
             slop,
             boost: 1.0,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a fuzzy match query with auto-fuzziness.
-    ///
-    /// Auto-fuzziness is calculated based on token length:
-    /// - 0-2 chars: 0 (exact match)
-    /// - 3-5 chars: 1
-    /// - 6+ chars: 2
     pub fn fuzzy(query: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
         Self::Fuzzy {
+            column: None,
             query: query.into(),
-            fuzziness: None, // auto
+            fuzziness: None,
+            prefix_length: 0,
             max_expansions: DEFAULT_MAX_EXPANSIONS,
             boost: 1.0,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a fuzzy match query with specified edit distance.
     pub fn fuzzy_with_distance(query: impl Into<String>, fuzziness: u32) -> Self {
         Self::Fuzzy {
+            column: None,
             query: query.into(),
             fuzziness: Some(fuzziness),
+            prefix_length: 0,
             max_expansions: DEFAULT_MAX_EXPANSIONS,
             boost: 1.0,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a fuzzy match query with specified edit distance and max expansions.
     pub fn fuzzy_with_options(
         query: impl Into<String>,
         fuzziness: Option<u32>,
+        prefix_length: u32,
         max_expansions: usize,
     ) -> Self {
         Self::Fuzzy {
+            column: None,
             query: query.into(),
             fuzziness,
+            prefix_length,
             max_expansions,
             boost: 1.0,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a Boolean query.
     pub fn boolean() -> BooleanQueryBuilder {
         BooleanQueryBuilder::new()
     }
 
-    /// Create a boosting query with only a positive component.
-    ///
-    /// This is equivalent to just running the positive query.
     pub fn boosting(positive: Self) -> Self {
         Self::Boost {
             positive: Box::new(positive),
@@ -261,17 +345,6 @@ impl FtsQueryExpr {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a boosting query with positive and negative components.
-    ///
-    /// Documents matching the positive query are returned.
-    /// Documents matching both positive and negative have their scores
-    /// multiplied by `negative_boost` (typically < 1.0 to demote).
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `positive` - The primary query (documents must match this)
-    /// * `negative` - Query to demote matching documents
-    /// * `negative_boost` - Multiplier for documents matching negative (e.g., 0.5)
     pub fn boosting_with_negative(positive: Self, negative: Self, negative_boost: f32) -> Self {
         Self::Boost {
             positive: Box::new(positive),
@@ -280,58 +353,210 @@ impl FtsQueryExpr {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Apply a boost factor to this query.
     pub fn with_boost(self, boost: f32) -> Self {
         match self {
-            Self::Match { query, .. } => Self::Match { query, boost },
-            Self::Phrase { query, slop, .. } => Self::Phrase { query, slop, boost },
+            Self::Match {
+                column,
+                query,
+                operator,
+                ..
+            } => Self::Match {
+                column,
+                query,
+                operator,
+                boost,
+            },
+            Self::Phrase {
+                column,
+                query,
+                slop,
+                ..
+            } => Self::Phrase {
+                column,
+                query,
+                slop,
+                boost,
+            },
+            Self::Fuzzy {
+                column,
+                query,
+                fuzziness,
+                prefix_length,
+                max_expansions,
+                ..
+            } => Self::Fuzzy {
+                column,
+                query,
+                fuzziness,
+                prefix_length,
+                max_expansions,
+                boost,
+            },
+            // Compound nodes don't carry a top-level boost field today.
+            // Preserved as-is to keep behavior identical to the previous impl.
+            other @ (Self::Boolean { .. } | Self::Boost { .. } | Self::MultiMatch { .. }) => other,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Bind this leaf to `column`. Compound nodes carry no binding of their
+    /// own; bind their leaves instead.
+    pub fn with_column(self, column: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        let bound = Some(column.into());
+        match self {
+            Self::Match {
+                query,
+                operator,
+                boost,
+                ..
+            } => Self::Match {
+                column: bound,
+                query,
+                operator,
+                boost,
+            },
+            Self::Phrase {
+                query, slop, boost, ..
+            } => Self::Phrase {
+                column: bound,
+                query,
+                slop,
+                boost,
+            },
             Self::Fuzzy {
                 query,
                 fuzziness,
+                prefix_length,
                 max_expansions,
+                boost,
                 ..
             } => Self::Fuzzy {
+                column: bound,
                 query,
                 fuzziness,
+                prefix_length,
                 max_expansions,
                 boost,
             },
+            other @ (Self::Boolean { .. } | Self::Boost { .. } | Self::MultiMatch { .. }) => other,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The column this leaf searches, or `None` for a compound node or an
+    /// unbound leaf.
+    pub fn column(&self) -> Option<&str> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Match { column, .. }
+            | Self::Phrase { column, .. }
+            | Self::Fuzzy { column, .. } => column.as_deref(),
+            Self::Boolean { .. } | Self::Boost { .. } | Self::MultiMatch { .. } => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Bind every leaf that names no column to `column`, leaving bound leaves
+    /// alone. Lets a tree built from bare terms be attached to one field.
+    pub fn bind_unbound_leaves(self, column: &str) -> Self {
+        match self {
             Self::Boolean {
                 must,
                 should,
                 must_not,
-            } => {
-                // For Boolean queries, boost is not directly applied
-                // (would need to apply to sub-queries)
-                Self::Boolean {
-                    must,
-                    should,
-                    must_not,
-                }
-            }
+            } => Self::Boolean {
+                must: bind_all(must, column),
+                should: bind_all(should, column),
+                must_not: bind_all(must_not, column),
+            },
             Self::Boost {
                 positive,
                 negative,
                 negative_boost,
+            } => Self::Boost {
+                positive: Box::new(positive.bind_unbound_leaves(column)),
+                negative: negative.map(|n| Box::new(n.bind_unbound_leaves(column))),
+                negative_boost,
+            },
+            Self::MultiMatch { children } => Self::MultiMatch {
+                children: bind_all(children, column),
+            },
+            leaf if leaf.column().is_some() => leaf,
+            leaf => leaf.with_column(column),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether any leaf of this tree names no column. Cross-column routing has
+    /// no single column to fall back to, so such a tree cannot be evaluated.
+    pub fn has_unbound_leaf(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::Boolean {
+                must,
+                should,
+                must_not,
+            } => must
+                .iter()
+                .chain(should)
+                .chain(must_not)
+                .any(Self::has_unbound_leaf),
+            Self::Boost {
+                positive, negative, ..
             } => {
-                // For Boost queries, we wrap the positive in a boosted match
-                // This is a bit unusual - typically you'd boost individual sub-queries
-                Self::Boost {
-                    positive,
-                    negative,
-                    negative_boost,
+                positive.has_unbound_leaf()
+                    || negative.as_ref().is_some_and(|n| n.has_unbound_leaf())
+            }
+            Self::MultiMatch { children } => children.iter().any(Self::has_unbound_leaf),
+            leaf => leaf.column().is_none(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Distinct columns this tree's leaves name, in tree order. An unbound leaf
+    /// contributes nothing, so an all-unbound tree yields an empty vec.
+    pub fn columns(&self) -> Vec<&str> {
+        fn visit<'a>(expr: &'a FtsQueryExpr, out: &mut Vec<&'a str>) {
+            match expr {
+                FtsQueryExpr::Boolean {
+                    must,
+                    should,
+                    must_not,
+                } => {
+                    for child in must.iter().chain(should).chain(must_not) {
+                        visit(child, out);
+                    }
+                }
+                FtsQueryExpr::Boost {
+                    positive, negative, ..
+                } => {
+                    visit(positive, out);
+                    if let Some(negative) = negative {
+                        visit(negative, out);
+                    }
+                }
+                FtsQueryExpr::MultiMatch { children } => {
+                    for child in children {
+                        visit(child, out);
+                    }
+                }
+                leaf => {
+                    if let Some(column) = leaf.column()
+                        && !out.contains(&column)
+                    {
+                        out.push(column);
+                    }
                 }
             }
         }
+        let mut out = Vec::new();
+        visit(self, &mut out);
+        out
     }
 }
 
-/// Calculate auto-fuzziness based on token length.
-///
-/// This follows the same algorithm as Lance's existing InvertedIndex:
-/// - 0-2 chars: 0 (exact match only)
-/// - 3-5 chars: 1 edit allowed
-/// - 6+ chars: 2 edits allowed
+fn bind_all(exprs: Vec<FtsQueryExpr>, column: &str) -> Vec<FtsQueryExpr> {
+    exprs
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|expr| expr.bind_unbound_leaves(column))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Auto-fuzziness based on token length:
+/// 0–2 chars → 0, 3–5 chars → 1, 6+ chars → 2.
 pub fn auto_fuzziness(token: &str) -> u32 {
     match token.chars().count() {
         0..=2 => 0,
@@ -340,17 +565,13 @@ pub fn auto_fuzziness(token: &str) -> u32 {
     }
 }
 
-/// Calculate Levenshtein distance between two strings.
-///
-/// Returns the minimum number of single-character edits (insertions,
-/// deletions, or substitutions) required to transform one string into another.
+/// Levenshtein distance using two-row dynamic programming.
 pub fn levenshtein_distance(a: &str, b: &str) -> u32 {
     let a_chars: Vec<char> = a.chars().collect();
     let b_chars: Vec<char> = b.chars().collect();
     let m = a_chars.len();
     let n = b_chars.len();
 
-    // Handle edge cases
     if m == 0 {
         return n as u32;
     }
@@ -358,27 +579,68 @@ pub fn levenshtein_distance(a: &str, b: &str) -> u32 {
         return m as u32;
     }
 
-    // Use two rows instead of full matrix for space efficiency
     let mut prev_row: Vec<u32> = (0..=n as u32).collect();
     let mut curr_row: Vec<u32> = vec![0; n + 1];
 
     for (i, a_char) in a_chars.iter().enumerate() {
         curr_row[0] = (i + 1) as u32;
-
         for (j, b_char) in b_chars.iter().enumerate() {
             let cost = if a_char == b_char { 0 } else { 1 };
-
-            curr_row[j + 1] = (prev_row[j + 1] + 1) // deletion
-                .min(curr_row[j] + 1) // insertion
-                .min(prev_row[j] + cost); // substitution
+            curr_row[j + 1] = (prev_row[j + 1] + 1)
+                .min(curr_row[j] + 1)
+                .min(prev_row[j] + cost);
         }
-
         std::mem::swap(&mut prev_row, &mut curr_row);
     }
 
     prev_row[n]
 }
 
+fn char_prefix(term: &str, prefix_length: u32) -> &str {
+    if prefix_length == 0 {
+        return "";
+    }
+    term.char_indices()
+        .nth(prefix_length as usize)
+        .map(|(idx, _)| &term[..idx])
+        .unwrap_or(term)
+}
+
+fn query_tokens_to_vec(tokens: &Tokens) -> Vec<String> {
+    (0..tokens.len())
+        .map(|idx| tokens.get_token(idx).to_string())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn has_grouped_positions(tokens: &Tokens) -> bool {
+    let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+    (0..tokens.len()).any(|idx| !seen.insert(tokens.position(idx)))
+}
+
+fn query_position_groups(tokens: &Tokens) -> Vec<Vec<String>> {
+    let mut groups = Vec::new();
+    let mut current_position = None;
+    for idx in 0..tokens.len() {
+        let position = tokens.position(idx);
+        if current_position != Some(position) {
+            current_position = Some(position);
+            groups.push(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let group = groups
+            .last_mut()
+            .expect("a group should exist after pushing for position");
+        let token = tokens.get_token(idx).to_string();
+        if !group.contains(&token) {
+            group.push(token);
+        }
+    }
+    groups
+}
+
+fn position_groups_to_tokens(groups: &[Vec<String>]) -> Vec<String> {
+    groups.iter().flatten().cloned().collect()
+}
+
 /// Builder for constructing Boolean queries.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
 pub struct BooleanQueryBuilder {
@@ -388,30 +650,25 @@ pub struct BooleanQueryBuilder {
 }
 
 impl BooleanQueryBuilder {
-    /// Create a new Boolean query builder.
     pub fn new() -> Self {
         Self::default()
     }
 
-    /// Add a MUST clause (document must match).
     pub fn must(mut self, query: FtsQueryExpr) -> Self {
         self.must.push(query);
         self
     }
 
-    /// Add a SHOULD clause (document should match, adds to score).
     pub fn should(mut self, query: FtsQueryExpr) -> Self {
         self.should.push(query);
         self
     }
 
-    /// Add a MUST_NOT clause (document must not match).
     pub fn must_not(mut self, query: FtsQueryExpr) -> Self {
         self.must_not.push(query);
         self
     }
 
-    /// Build the Boolean query.
     pub fn build(self) -> FtsQueryExpr {
         FtsQueryExpr::Boolean {
             must: self.must,
@@ -421,877 +678,4730 @@ impl BooleanQueryBuilder {
     }
 }
 
-/// Posting value stored in the inverted index.
-/// Contains term frequency and positions for phrase query support.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct PostingValue {
-    /// Term frequency in the document.
-    pub frequency: u32,
-    /// Token positions within the document (0-indexed).
-    /// Used for phrase matching.
-    pub positions: Vec<u32>,
-}
+// ============================================================================
+// Internal types
+// ============================================================================
 
-/// In-memory FTS index for full-text search.
-pub struct FtsMemIndex {
-    /// Field ID this index is built on.
-    field_id: i32,
-    /// Column name (for Arrow batch lookups).
-    column_name: String,
-    /// Inverted index: (token, row_position) -> (frequency, positions).
-    postings: SkipMap<FtsKey, PostingValue>,
-    /// Total document count.
-    doc_count: AtomicUsize,
-    /// Tokenizer for text processing (same as Lance's InvertedIndex).
-    tokenizer: Mutex<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>>,
-    /// The parameters used to create the tokenizer (for flush).
-    params: InvertedIndexParams,
-    /// Document lengths: row_position -> token count (for BM25).
-    doc_lengths: SkipMap<u64, u32>,
-    /// Total token count across all documents (for computing avgdl).
-    total_tokens: AtomicUsize,
-    /// Document frequency: term -> number of documents containing the term.
-    doc_freq: SkipMap<String, AtomicUsize>,
+/// Compressed sparse row (CSR) layout for per-document positions.
+///
+/// `offsets[i]..offsets[i+1]` is the slice of `data` belonging to the i-th
+/// document in this `TermChunk`. `offsets.len() == row_positions.len() + 1`.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Positions {
+    offsets: Vec<u32>,
+    data: Vec<u32>,
 }
 
-impl std::fmt::Debug for FtsMemIndex {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        f.debug_struct("FtsMemIndex")
-            .field("field_id", &self.field_id)
-            .field("column_name", &self.column_name)
-            .field("doc_count", &self.doc_count)
-            .field("params", &self.params)
-            .finish()
+impl Positions {
+    fn doc_positions(&self, doc_idx: usize) -> &[u32] {
+        let start = self.offsets[doc_idx] as usize;
+        let end = self.offsets[doc_idx + 1] as usize;
+        &self.data[start..end]
     }
-}
 
-impl FtsMemIndex {
-    /// Create a new FTS index for the given field with default parameters.
-    pub fn new(field_id: i32, column_name: String) -> Self {
-        Self::with_params(field_id, column_name, InvertedIndexParams::default())
+    fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.offsets.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>()
+            + self.data.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>()
     }
+}
 
-    /// Create a new FTS index with custom tokenizer parameters.
-    pub fn with_params(field_id: i32, column_name: String, params: InvertedIndexParams) -> Self {
-        let tokenizer = params.build().expect("Failed to build tokenizer");
-        Self {
-            field_id,
-            column_name,
-            postings: SkipMap::new(),
-            doc_count: AtomicUsize::new(0),
-            tokenizer: Mutex::new(tokenizer),
-            params,
-            doc_lengths: SkipMap::new(),
-            total_tokens: AtomicUsize::new(0),
-            doc_freq: SkipMap::new(),
-        }
+/// Postings produced by a single batch insert for a single term.
+///
+/// SoA layout for cache locality and trivial handoff to
+/// `PostingListBuilder`. `row_positions` is sorted ascending.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct TermChunk {
+    batch_position: usize,
+    row_positions: Vec<u64>,
+    frequencies: Vec<u32>,
+    /// Largest frequency in the chunk; `doc_weight(max_freq, 1)` bounds any
+    /// doc's tf-component, used to skip the whole tail scan when it cannot beat
+    /// the top-k threshold.
+    max_freq: u32,
+    /// Per-doc token positions. Always `Some` in the current
+    /// implementation (the writer tracks positions unconditionally so
+    /// in-memory phrase queries work even when `params.has_positions()`
+    /// is false). Kept as `Option` for forward compatibility with a
+    /// future "no-positions" mode that drops the allocation.
+    positions: Option<Positions>,
+}
+
+impl TermChunk {
+    fn doc_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.row_positions.len()
     }
 
-    /// Get the field ID this index is built on.
-    pub fn field_id(&self) -> i32 {
-        self.field_id
+    fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        let base = std::mem::size_of::<Self>()
+            + self.row_positions.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u64>()
+            + self.frequencies.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<u32>();
+        base + self.positions.as_ref().map_or(0, Positions::resident_bytes)
     }
+}
 
-    /// Get the inverted index parameters.
-    pub fn params(&self) -> &InvertedIndexParams {
-        &self.params
+/// Append-only list of `TermChunk`s for a single term, replaced atomically
+/// via `ArcSwap`.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+/// One term's tail postings as a persistent singly-linked list of chunks,
+/// newest first. Appending shares the existing list (the new head points at the
+/// old slice), so a reader holding an older `Arc<TermSlice>` keeps a consistent
+/// view while the writer extends it — and append is O(1) instead of the O(n)
+/// copy-per-append that made tail inserts quadratic in batches-per-generation.
+/// Order is newest-first; every consumer either sorts by doc id or is
+/// order-agnostic.
+struct TermSlice {
+    /// This node's chunk; `None` only for the empty root.
+    chunk: Option<Arc<TermChunk>>,
+    /// The slice before this chunk was appended (older chunks).
+    prev: Option<Arc<Self>>,
+}
+
+impl TermSlice {
+    fn empty() -> Arc<Self> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            chunk: None,
+            prev: None,
+        })
     }
 
-    /// Insert documents from a batch into the index.
-    pub fn insert(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, row_offset: u64) -> Result<()> {
-        let col_idx = batch
-            .schema()
-            .column_with_name(&self.column_name)
-            .map(|(idx, _)| idx);
+    /// O(1) append: a fresh head holding `chunk` and linking to `prev`. `prev`
+    /// is left unchanged so any reader holding it sees a consistent state.
+    fn push(prev: Arc<Self>, chunk: Arc<TermChunk>) -> Arc<Self> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            chunk: Some(chunk),
+            prev: Some(prev),
+        })
+    }
 
-        if col_idx.is_none() {
-            return Ok(());
-        }
+    /// Iterate the term's chunks, newest first.
+    fn chunks(&self) -> TermChunkIter<'_> {
+        TermChunkIter { cur: Some(self) }
+    }
 
-        let column = batch.column(col_idx.unwrap());
-
-        for row_idx in 0..batch.num_rows() {
-            let value = ScalarValue::try_from_array(column.as_ref(), row_idx)?;
-            let row_position = row_offset + row_idx as u64;
-
-            if let ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(text)) | ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(text)) = value {
-                // Use the tokenizer (same as InvertedIndex)
-                // Track both frequency and positions for each term
-                let mut term_data: HashMap<String, (u32, Vec<u32>)> = HashMap::new();
-                {
-                    let mut tokenizer = self.tokenizer.lock().unwrap();
-                    let mut token_stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(&text);
-                    let mut position: u32 = 0;
-                    while let Some(token) = token_stream.next() {
-                        let entry = term_data.entry(token.text.clone()).or_default();
-                        entry.0 += 1; // frequency
-                        entry.1.push(position); // position
-                        position += 1;
-                    }
-                }
+    fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        // Each node: the struct itself plus its chunk's payload.
+        self.chunks()
+            .map(|c| std::mem::size_of::<Self>() + c.resident_bytes())
+            .sum::<usize>()
+            + std::mem::size_of::<Self>() // empty root node
+    }
+}
 
-                // Calculate document length (total token count in this doc)
-                let doc_length: u32 = term_data.values().map(|(freq, _)| freq).sum();
-                self.doc_lengths.insert(row_position, doc_length);
-                self.total_tokens
-                    .fetch_add(doc_length as usize, Ordering::Relaxed);
+/// Newest-first iterator over a [`TermSlice`] cons-list.
+struct TermChunkIter<'a> {
+    cur: Option<&'a TermSlice>,
+}
 
-                for (token, (freq, positions)) in term_data {
-                    // Update document frequency for this term
-                    if let Some(entry) = self.doc_freq.get(&token) {
-                        entry.value().fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
-                    } else {
-                        self.doc_freq.insert(token.clone(), AtomicUsize::new(1));
-                    }
+impl<'a> Iterator for TermChunkIter<'a> {
+    type Item = &'a Arc<TermChunk>;
 
-                    let key = FtsKey {
-                        token,
-                        row_position,
-                    };
-                    self.postings.insert(
-                        key,
-                        PostingValue {
-                            frequency: freq,
-                            positions,
-                        },
-                    );
-                }
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        // Walk links; the empty root has no chunk and ends iteration.
+        while let Some(node) = self.cur {
+            self.cur = node.prev.as_deref();
+            if let Some(chunk) = &node.chunk {
+                return Some(chunk);
             }
+        }
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-batch document metadata.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BatchMeta {
+    batch_position: usize,
+    /// Dense tail-local document position of `documents[0]`.
+    document_position_start: u64,
+    documents: Vec<DocumentMetadata>,
+}
 
-            self.doc_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+impl BatchMeta {
+    fn document(&self, document_position: u64) -> Option<&DocumentMetadata> {
+        if document_position < self.document_position_start {
+            return None;
         }
+        let idx = (document_position - self.document_position_start) as usize;
+        self.documents.get(idx)
+    }
 
-        Ok(())
+    fn dl(&self, document_position: u64) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.document(document_position).map(|doc| doc.num_tokens)
     }
 
-    /// Search for documents containing a term.
-    ///
-    /// The term is tokenized using the same tokenizer as the index.
-    /// Returns all matching documents with their BM25 scores.
-    pub fn search(&self, term: &str) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
-        // Tokenize the search term using token_stream_for_search
-        let tokens: Vec<String> = {
-            let mut tokenizer = self.tokenizer.lock().unwrap();
-            let mut token_stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search(term);
-            let mut tokens = Vec::new();
-            while let Some(token) = token_stream.next() {
-                tokens.push(token.text.clone());
-            }
-            tokens
-        };
+    fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        std::mem::size_of::<Self>()
+            + self.documents.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<DocumentMetadata>()
+    }
+}
 
-        // BM25 parameters
-        const K1: f32 = 1.2;
-        const B: f32 = 0.75;
+/// Per-entry overhead charged for a `SkipMap` node (tower + links) when sizing
+/// the tail's term map. An estimate — the node layout is crossbeam-internal.
+const SKIPMAP_ENTRY_OVERHEAD: usize = 32;
 
-        let n = self.doc_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as f32;
-        let total_tokens = self.total_tokens.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as f32;
-        let avgdl = if n > 0.0 { total_tokens / n } else { 1.0 };
+/// Size of a sealed batch block. Small enough that copying the partial tail
+/// block on append stays cheap; large enough that sealing (which clones the
+/// block-pointer vec) is rare.
+const BATCH_BLOCK: usize = 64;
 
-        // Collect term frequencies per document for all query tokens
-        // Map: row_position -> Vec<(term_freq, doc_freq_for_term)>
-        let mut doc_term_info: HashMap<RowPosition, Vec<(u32, usize)>> = HashMap::new();
+/// Append-only, structurally-shared log of visible batch metadata. Sealed full
+/// blocks are immutable and shared across snapshots; only the current partial
+/// block is copied on append, so publishing a batch is amortized O(1) (instead
+/// of copying every batch pointer per publish — O(batches²) per generation)
+/// while keeping O(1) index for `batch_for`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct BatchLog {
+    /// Immutable full blocks (each `BATCH_BLOCK` long), shared across snapshots.
+    sealed: Arc<Vec<Arc<[Arc<BatchMeta>]>>>,
+    /// The current partial block (`< BATCH_BLOCK` entries).
+    tail: Arc<[Arc<BatchMeta>]>,
+    len: usize,
+}
 
-        for token in &tokens {
-            // Get document frequency for this term
-            let df = self
-                .doc_freq
-                .get(token)
-                .map(|e| e.value().load(Ordering::Relaxed))
-                .unwrap_or(0);
+impl BatchLog {
+    fn empty() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            sealed: Arc::new(Vec::new()),
+            tail: Arc::from(Vec::<Arc<BatchMeta>>::new().into_boxed_slice()),
+            len: 0,
+        }
+    }
 
-            if df == 0 {
-                continue;
+    /// A new log with `meta` appended; shares every sealed block with `self`,
+    /// copying only the partial tail block.
+    fn pushed(&self, meta: Arc<BatchMeta>) -> Self {
+        let mut tail: Vec<Arc<BatchMeta>> = self.tail.to_vec();
+        tail.push(meta);
+        if tail.len() == BATCH_BLOCK {
+            let mut sealed = (*self.sealed).clone();
+            sealed.push(Arc::from(tail.into_boxed_slice()));
+            Self {
+                sealed: Arc::new(sealed),
+                tail: Arc::from(Vec::<Arc<BatchMeta>>::new().into_boxed_slice()),
+                len: self.len + 1,
             }
-
-            let start = FtsKey {
-                token: token.clone(),
-                row_position: 0,
-            };
-            let end = FtsKey {
-                token: token.clone(),
-                row_position: u64::MAX,
-            };
-
-            for entry in self.postings.range(start..=end) {
-                doc_term_info
-                    .entry(entry.key().row_position)
-                    .or_default()
-                    .push((entry.value().frequency, df));
+        } else {
+            Self {
+                sealed: Arc::clone(&self.sealed),
+                tail: Arc::from(tail.into_boxed_slice()),
+                len: self.len + 1,
             }
         }
+    }
 
-        // Compute BM25 score for each document
-        doc_term_info
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|(row_position, term_infos)| {
-                let dl = self
-                    .doc_lengths
-                    .get(&row_position)
-                    .map(|e| *e.value() as f32)
-                    .unwrap_or(1.0);
-
-                let mut score: f32 = 0.0;
-                for (tf, df) in term_infos {
-                    // IDF = log((N - n + 0.5) / (n + 0.5) + 1)
-                    let df_f = df as f32;
-                    let idf = ((n - df_f + 0.5) / (df_f + 0.5) + 1.0).ln();
-
-                    // BM25 term score = IDF * (tf * (k1 + 1)) / (tf + k1 * (1 - b + b * (dl / avgdl)))
-                    let tf_f = tf as f32;
-                    let numerator = tf_f * (K1 + 1.0);
-                    let denominator = tf_f + K1 * (1.0 - B + B * (dl / avgdl));
-                    score += idf * (numerator / denominator);
-                }
+    fn get(&self, i: usize) -> Option<&Arc<BatchMeta>> {
+        let block = i / BATCH_BLOCK;
+        let off = i % BATCH_BLOCK;
+        match self.sealed.get(block) {
+            Some(b) => b.get(off),
+            None if block == self.sealed.len() => self.tail.get(off),
+            None => None,
+        }
+    }
 
-                FtsEntry {
-                    row_position,
-                    score,
-                }
-            })
-            .collect()
+    fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &Arc<BatchMeta>> {
+        self.sealed
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| b.iter())
+            .chain(self.tail.iter())
     }
+}
 
-    /// Search for documents containing an exact phrase.
-    ///
-    /// The phrase is tokenized and documents must contain all tokens
-    /// in the correct order (within the specified slop distance).
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    /// * `phrase` - The phrase to search for
-    /// * `slop` - Maximum allowed distance between consecutive tokens.
-    ///   0 means exact phrase match (tokens must be adjacent).
-    ///   1 allows one intervening token, etc.
-    ///
-    /// Returns matching documents with BM25 scores.
-    pub fn search_phrase(&self, phrase: &str, slop: u32) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
-        // Tokenize the phrase
-        let tokens: Vec<String> = {
-            let mut tokenizer = self.tokenizer.lock().unwrap();
-            let mut token_stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search(phrase);
-            let mut tokens = Vec::new();
-            while let Some(token) = token_stream.next() {
-                tokens.push(token.text.clone());
-            }
-            tokens
-        };
+/// Atomic snapshot of the visible state. Replaced via `ArcSwap` after each
+/// batch is fully linked.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Snapshot {
+    /// Number of batches visible to readers. `0` means empty index.
+    visible_count: usize,
+    /// Visible-batch metadata in publish order. `batches.len() ==
+    /// visible_count` for any snapshot the writer has stored (each publish
+    /// appends one entry and bumps `visible_count`).
+    batches: BatchLog,
+    /// `Σ batches[i].documents.len()` for `i < visible_count`.
+    cumulative_doc_count: u64,
+    /// `Σ batches[i].documents[*].num_tokens` for `i < visible_count`.
+    cumulative_total_tokens: u64,
+}
 
-        if tokens.is_empty() {
-            return vec![];
-        }
+impl Snapshot {
+    fn empty() -> Arc<Self> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            visible_count: 0,
+            batches: BatchLog::empty(),
+            cumulative_doc_count: 0,
+            cumulative_total_tokens: 0,
+        })
+    }
 
-        // Single token phrase is just a regular search
-        if tokens.len() == 1 {
-            return self.search(phrase);
-        }
+    fn batch_for(&self, batch_position: usize) -> Option<&Arc<BatchMeta>> {
+        // Fast path: batch_position equals the index (true when callers use the
+        // no-arg `insert()` and let the index assign sequential positions). With
+        // explicit, possibly sparse positions, fall back to a linear search.
+        self.batches
+            .get(batch_position)
+            .filter(|m| m.batch_position == batch_position)
+            .or_else(|| {
+                self.batches
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|m| m.batch_position == batch_position)
+            })
+    }
+}
 
-        // BM25 parameters
-        const K1: f32 = 1.2;
-        const B: f32 = 0.75;
+/// Bounded pool of reader tokenizers with a writer-dedicated slot.
+///
+/// `LanceTokenizer::token_stream_for_*` takes `&mut self`, so each concurrent
+/// caller needs its own tokenizer instance. Builds are cheap for English but
+/// can load dictionaries for CJK tokenizers, so we amortize via the pool.
+struct TokenizerPool {
+    template: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    free: Mutex<Vec<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>>>,
+    cap: usize,
+}
 
-        let n = self.doc_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as f32;
-        let total_tokens = self.total_tokens.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as f32;
-        let avgdl = if n > 0.0 { total_tokens / n } else { 1.0 };
+impl std::fmt::Debug for TokenizerPool {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("TokenizerPool")
+            .field("cap", &self.cap)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
 
-        // Collect posting lists for each token
-        // Map: token_index -> Map<row_position, PostingValue>
-        let mut token_postings: Vec<HashMap<RowPosition, PostingValue>> = Vec::new();
+impl TokenizerPool {
+    fn new(params: &InvertedIndexParams, cap: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::from_template(params.build()?, cap))
+    }
 
-        for token in &tokens {
-            let start = FtsKey {
-                token: token.clone(),
-                row_position: 0,
-            };
-            let end = FtsKey {
-                token: token.clone(),
-                row_position: u64::MAX,
-            };
+    fn from_template(template: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>, cap: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            template,
+            free: Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+            cap: cap.max(1),
+        }
+    }
 
-            let mut postings_for_token: HashMap<RowPosition, PostingValue> = HashMap::new();
-            for entry in self.postings.range(start..=end) {
-                postings_for_token.insert(entry.key().row_position, entry.value().clone());
-            }
-            token_postings.push(postings_for_token);
+    /// Acquire a tokenizer. Pops from the free list, otherwise clones the
+    /// template.
+    fn acquire(&self) -> Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> {
+        if let Some(t) = self.free.lock().ok().and_then(|mut g| g.pop()) {
+            return t;
         }
+        self.template.box_clone()
+    }
 
-        // Find documents that contain ALL tokens
-        let first_token_docs: Vec<RowPosition> = token_postings[0].keys().copied().collect();
+    /// Return a tokenizer to the pool, dropping it if the pool is at cap.
+    fn release(&self, tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>) {
+        if let Ok(mut g) = self.free.lock()
+            && g.len() < self.cap
+        {
+            g.push(tokenizer);
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-        let mut matching_docs: Vec<FtsEntry> = Vec::new();
+/// RAII guard that returns the tokenizer to the pool on drop.
+struct PooledTokenizer<'a> {
+    pool: &'a TokenizerPool,
+    inner: Option<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>>,
+}
 
-        for row_position in first_token_docs {
-            // Check if this document contains all tokens
-            let all_tokens_present = token_postings
-                .iter()
-                .all(|tp| tp.contains_key(&row_position));
-            if !all_tokens_present {
-                continue;
-            }
+impl<'a> PooledTokenizer<'a> {
+    fn new(pool: &'a TokenizerPool) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            pool,
+            inner: Some(pool.acquire()),
+        }
+    }
 
-            // Check if the phrase matches (positions are in order within slop)
-            if self.check_phrase_positions(&token_postings, row_position, slop) {
-                // Calculate BM25 score
-                let dl = self
-                    .doc_lengths
-                    .get(&row_position)
-                    .map(|e| *e.value() as f32)
-                    .unwrap_or(1.0);
-
-                let mut score: f32 = 0.0;
-                for (token_idx, token) in tokens.iter().enumerate() {
-                    let df = self
-                        .doc_freq
-                        .get(token)
-                        .map(|e| e.value().load(Ordering::Relaxed))
-                        .unwrap_or(1) as f32;
-                    let tf = token_postings[token_idx]
-                        .get(&row_position)
-                        .map(|p| p.frequency as f32)
-                        .unwrap_or(1.0);
-
-                    // IDF = log((N - n + 0.5) / (n + 0.5) + 1)
-                    let idf = ((n - df + 0.5) / (df + 0.5) + 1.0).ln();
-
-                    // BM25 term score
-                    let numerator = tf * (K1 + 1.0);
-                    let denominator = tf + K1 * (1.0 - B + B * (dl / avgdl));
-                    score += idf * (numerator / denominator);
-                }
+    fn get_mut(&mut self) -> &mut dyn LanceTokenizer {
+        self.inner.as_mut().expect("tokenizer in scope").as_mut()
+    }
+}
 
-                matching_docs.push(FtsEntry {
-                    row_position,
-                    score,
-                });
-            }
+impl<'a> Drop for PooledTokenizer<'a> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        if let Some(t) = self.inner.take() {
+            self.pool.release(t);
         }
+    }
+}
 
-        matching_docs
+// ============================================================================
+// FtsMemIndex
+// ============================================================================
+
+/// In-memory full-text search index. See module docs for the concurrency
+/// model and visibility contract.
+/// The bounded mutable accumulator: recent inserts since the last freeze, in
+/// the per-batch-chunk layout. Searched in place; frozen into a [`Partition`]
+/// once it crosses the freeze threshold.
+struct TailIndex {
+    /// Per-term posting slices. `Arc<str>` interns the term so a single
+    /// allocation backs every chunk that mentions it.
+    terms: SkipMap<Arc<str>, Arc<ArcSwap<TermSlice>>>,
+    /// Atomically-swapped visibility snapshot.
+    snapshot: ArcSwap<Snapshot>,
+    /// Strictly-monotonic, dense, 0-based batch position counter. Dense
+    /// positions are required by the `batch_position < visible_count`
+    /// visibility filter; the tail therefore assigns its own.
+    next_batch_position: AtomicUsize,
+    /// Writer-only fast path: term -> its posting slot. Only a term's *first*
+    /// appearance in this tail generation pays the sorted `SkipMap` lookup;
+    /// later batches reuse the cached handle, so the per-batch cost is a flat
+    /// hash probe instead of a skiplist search. Reset implicitly when the tail
+    /// is replaced on freeze. Uncontended — the single writer holds it briefly.
+    writer_term_cache: Mutex<FxHashMap<Arc<str>, Arc<ArcSwap<TermSlice>>>>,
+    /// Running total mirroring [`Self::resident_bytes`], maintained by
+    /// `append_batch`. Exists so the write path can budget memtable memory
+    /// without the O(terms) walk. `test_tail_bytes_tracks_memory_size` pins the
+    /// two together.
+    bytes: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl TailIndex {
+    fn new() -> Arc<Self> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            terms: SkipMap::new(),
+            snapshot: ArcSwap::from(Snapshot::empty()),
+            next_batch_position: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            writer_term_cache: Mutex::new(FxHashMap::default()),
+            bytes: AtomicUsize::new(std::mem::size_of::<Self>()),
+        })
     }
 
-    /// Check if phrase positions match within the given slop.
-    ///
-    /// Uses relative position algorithm: for each token, compute
-    /// `relative_pos = doc_position - query_position`. If all tokens
-    /// have the same relative position (within slop), the phrase matches.
-    fn check_phrase_positions(
+    /// [`Self::resident_bytes`] without the walk. See [`Self::bytes`].
+    fn resident_bytes_cached(&self) -> usize {
+        self.bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    fn snapshot(&self) -> Arc<Snapshot> {
+        self.snapshot.load_full()
+    }
+
+    fn doc_count(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.snapshot.load().cumulative_doc_count
+    }
+
+    fn visible_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.snapshot.load().visible_count
+    }
+
+    /// Next dense batch position for an incoming batch.
+    fn next_position(&self) -> usize {
+        self.next_batch_position.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    /// Install one batch's term chunks then publish a new visibility snapshot.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)] // one batch's fields, threaded together
+    fn append_batch(
         &self,
-        token_postings: &[HashMap<RowPosition, PostingValue>],
-        row_position: RowPosition,
-        slop: u32,
-    ) -> bool {
-        // Get positions for each token in this document
-        let mut all_positions: Vec<&Vec<u32>> = Vec::new();
-        for tp in token_postings {
-            if let Some(posting) = tp.get(&row_position) {
-                all_positions.push(&posting.positions);
-            } else {
-                return false;
+        batch_position: usize,
+        document_position_start: u64,
+        documents: Vec<DocumentMetadata>,
+        total_tokens: u64,
+        term_builders: FxHashMap<Arc<str>, BatchTermBuilder>,
+        with_position: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut cache = self
+            .writer_term_cache
+            .lock()
+            .expect("writer term cache poisoned — single-writer invariant violated");
+        // Mirrors `memory_size`'s per-term arithmetic; keep the two in step.
+        let mut added = 0;
+        for (term, builder) in term_builders {
+            let chunk = builder.build(batch_position, with_position);
+            added += std::mem::size_of::<TermSlice>() + chunk.resident_bytes();
+            if !cache.contains_key(&term) {
+                // First sight this generation: the SkipMap entry plus the
+                // slice's empty root node.
+                added += std::mem::size_of::<Arc<str>>()
+                    + term.len()
+                    + SKIPMAP_ENTRY_OVERHEAD
+                    + std::mem::size_of::<TermSlice>();
             }
+            // First sight of the term this generation populates the SkipMap
+            // (so readers can find it) and caches the slot; later batches hit
+            // only the cache.
+            let slot = cache.entry(term).or_insert_with_key(|term| {
+                self.terms
+                    .get_or_insert_with(term.clone(), TermSlice::empty_arc_swap)
+                    .value()
+                    .clone()
+            });
+            let cur = slot.load_full();
+            slot.store(TermSlice::push(cur, chunk));
         }
+        drop(cache);
+        let document_count = documents.len() as u64;
+        let new_meta = Arc::new(BatchMeta {
+            batch_position,
+            document_position_start,
+            documents,
+        });
+        added += new_meta.resident_bytes();
+        self.bytes.fetch_add(added, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        let cur = self.snapshot.load();
+        debug_assert_eq!(document_position_start, cur.cumulative_doc_count);
+        self.snapshot.store(Arc::new(Snapshot {
+            visible_count: cur.visible_count + 1,
+            batches: cur.batches.pushed(new_meta),
+            cumulative_doc_count: cur.cumulative_doc_count + document_count,
+            cumulative_total_tokens: cur.cumulative_total_tokens + total_tokens,
+        }));
+    }
 
-        // For each position of the first token, check if we can form a phrase
-        for &first_pos in all_positions[0] {
-            if Self::check_phrase_from_position(&all_positions, first_pos, slop) {
-                return true;
-            }
+    fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        let mut total = std::mem::size_of::<Self>();
+        for entry in self.terms.iter() {
+            let term: &Arc<str> = entry.key();
+            total += std::mem::size_of::<Arc<str>>() + term.len() + SKIPMAP_ENTRY_OVERHEAD;
+            total += entry.value().load().resident_bytes();
         }
+        total += self
+            .snapshot
+            .load()
+            .batches
+            .iter()
+            .map(|b| b.resident_bytes())
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        total
+    }
+}
+
+/// Atomically-published index state: the immutable partitions plus the live
+/// mutable tail. The pair lives behind one `ArcSwap` so a freeze (which both
+/// appends a partition and resets the tail) is observed atomically.
+struct IndexState {
+    partitions: Arc<[Arc<Partition>]>,
+    tail: Arc<TailIndex>,
+}
 
-        false
+impl IndexState {
+    fn empty() -> Arc<Self> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            partitions: Arc::from(Vec::<Arc<Partition>>::new().into_boxed_slice()),
+            tail: TailIndex::new(),
+        })
     }
+}
+
+/// In-memory full-text search index. See module docs for the concurrency
+/// model and visibility contract.
+pub struct FtsMemIndex {
+    field_id: i32,
+    source_column_name: String,
+    params: InvertedIndexParams,
+    resolved_field: OnceLock<ResolvedFtsField>,
+
+    tokenizer_pool: Arc<TokenizerPool>,
+    /// Writer-only tokenizer slot. Held under a Mutex purely so `insert`
+    /// can take `&self`. Single-writer assumption means this is uncontested.
+    writer_tokenizer: Mutex<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>>,
+
+    /// `{partitions, tail}` published atomically. The tail mutates in place
+    /// between freezes; the whole state is swapped on freeze.
+    state: ArcSwap<IndexState>,
+
+    /// The tail freezes into a partition once it reaches this many docs.
+    freeze_threshold_rows: usize,
+
+    /// Query-local materializations disable freezes and tiered merges. Their
+    /// lifetime is bounded by one query, so background maintenance would only
+    /// outlive cancellation without providing reuse.
+    background_maintenance: bool,
+
+    /// Background tiered-merge slot. `None` = idle; `Some` with `result: None`
+    /// = a merge is running on a worker thread; `Some` with `result: Some` =
+    /// the merged partition is ready for the writer to install. Only the
+    /// writer mutates `state`; the worker is read-only and just fills `result`,
+    /// so the single-writer / lock-free-reader contract is preserved.
+    merge: Arc<Mutex<Option<PendingMerge>>>,
+}
 
-    /// Check if a phrase can be formed starting from a given position of the first token.
-    fn check_phrase_from_position(all_positions: &[&Vec<u32>], first_pos: u32, slop: u32) -> bool {
-        let mut expected_pos = first_pos;
+/// Query-owned term-only postings for one residual scan.
+///
+/// This deliberately exposes only the immutable feature-materialization API
+/// needed by hybrid execution. Unlike [`FtsMemIndex`], it never freezes or
+/// starts a detached tiered merge; dropping the query drops all residual
+/// postings.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct QueryLocalFtsIndex {
+    inner: FtsMemIndex,
+}
 
-        for positions in all_positions.iter().skip(1) {
-            // Find a position for this token that's within slop of expected
-            // For slop=0, next token must be at expected_pos+1 (adjacent)
-            // For slop=1, next token can be at expected_pos+1 or expected_pos+2
-            let min_pos = expected_pos.saturating_add(1);
-            let max_pos = expected_pos.saturating_add(1 + slop);
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct QueryLocalFtsStats {
+    doc_count: usize,
+    total_tokens: u64,
+    token_docs: FxHashMap<String, usize>,
+}
 
-            // Find the actual position used (smallest valid one)
-            if let Some(&actual_pos) = positions
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|&&pos| pos >= min_pos && pos <= max_pos)
-                .min()
-            {
-                expected_pos = actual_pos;
-            } else {
-                return false;
-            }
+impl QueryLocalFtsStats {
+    pub(crate) fn checked_add_assign(&mut self, other: Self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.doc_count = self
+            .doc_count
+            .checked_add(other.doc_count)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("query-local FTS document count overflow"))?;
+        self.total_tokens = self
+            .total_tokens
+            .checked_add(other.total_tokens)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("query-local FTS total token count overflow"))?;
+        for (token, df) in other.token_docs {
+            let current = self.token_docs.entry(token).or_default();
+            *current = current
+                .checked_add(df)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("query-local FTS term document count overflow"))?;
         }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-        true
+    pub(crate) fn add_to_scorer(&self, scorer: &mut MemBM25Scorer) -> Result<()> {
+        scorer.num_docs = scorer
+            .num_docs
+            .checked_add(self.doc_count)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("residual BM25 document count overflow"))?;
+        scorer.total_tokens = scorer
+            .total_tokens
+            .checked_add(self.total_tokens)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("residual BM25 total token count overflow"))?;
+        for (token, df) in &self.token_docs {
+            let current = scorer.token_docs.entry(token.clone()).or_default();
+            *current = current
+                .checked_add(*df)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("residual BM25 term document count overflow"))?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
+}
 
-    /// Get the number of entries in the index.
-    /// Note: This counts (token, row_position) pairs, not unique tokens.
-    pub fn entry_count(&self) -> usize {
-        self.postings.len()
+impl QueryLocalFtsIndex {
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn try_with_params(
+        field_id: i32,
+        column_name: String,
+        params: InvertedIndexParams,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: FtsMemIndex::try_with_params_and_maintenance(
+                field_id,
+                column_name,
+                params,
+                false,
+            )?,
+        })
     }
 
-    /// Get the document count.
-    pub fn doc_count(&self) -> usize {
-        self.doc_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    pub(crate) fn try_with_loaded_tokenizer(
+        field_id: i32,
+        column_name: String,
+        params: InvertedIndexParams,
+        tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        params.validate_format_version()?;
+        let pool = TokenizerPool::from_template(tokenizer, FtsMemIndex::DEFAULT_TOKENIZER_POOL_CAP);
+        Ok(Self {
+            inner: FtsMemIndex::with_tokenizer_pool_and_maintenance(
+                field_id,
+                column_name,
+                params,
+                pool,
+                false,
+            ),
+        })
     }
 
-    /// Check if the index is empty.
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.doc_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed) == 0
+    /// Create an empty query-local shard without rebuilding tokenizer assets.
+    ///
+    /// The tokenizer pool and its loaded template are shared with the seed;
+    /// each shard only clones a writer tokenizer from that in-memory template.
+    pub(crate) fn empty_sibling(&self) -> Self {
+        let resolved_field = OnceLock::new();
+        if let Some(resolved) = self.inner.resolved_field.get() {
+            resolved_field
+                .set(resolved.clone())
+                .expect("new query-local shard traversal is empty");
+        }
+
+        Self {
+            inner: FtsMemIndex {
+                field_id: self.inner.field_id,
+                source_column_name: self.inner.source_column_name.clone(),
+                params: self.inner.params.clone(),
+                resolved_field,
+                tokenizer_pool: self.inner.tokenizer_pool.clone(),
+                writer_tokenizer: Mutex::new(self.inner.tokenizer_pool.acquire()),
+                state: ArcSwap::from(IndexState::empty()),
+                freeze_threshold_rows: self.inner.freeze_threshold_rows,
+                background_maintenance: false,
+                merge: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
+            },
+        }
     }
 
-    /// Get the column name.
-    pub fn column_name(&self) -> &str {
-        &self.column_name
+    pub(crate) fn exact_query_terms(&self, query: &FtsQuery) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+        self.inner.exact_query_terms(query)
     }
 
-    /// Expand a term to fuzzy matches within the specified edit distance.
-    ///
-    /// Returns a list of (matching_term, edit_distance) tuples, sorted by
-    /// edit distance (closest matches first), limited to max_expansions.
-    pub fn expand_fuzzy(
+    pub(crate) fn insert_with_row_ids_for_terms(
         &self,
-        term: &str,
-        max_distance: u32,
-        max_expansions: usize,
-    ) -> Vec<(String, u32)> {
-        let mut matches: Vec<(String, u32)> = Vec::new();
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        row_ids: &UInt64Array,
+        terms: &FxHashSet<String>,
+    ) -> Result<QueryLocalFtsStats> {
+        self.inner
+            .insert_with_row_ids_for_terms(batch, row_ids, terms)
+    }
 
-        // If max_distance is 0, only exact matches
-        if max_distance == 0 {
-            if self.doc_freq.get(term).is_some() {
-                matches.push((term.to_string(), 0));
-            }
-            return matches;
-        }
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn doc_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.doc_count()
+    }
 
-        // Iterate through all tokens in doc_freq
-        for entry in self.doc_freq.iter() {
-            let indexed_term = entry.key();
-            let distance = levenshtein_distance(term, indexed_term);
+    pub(crate) fn exact_leaf_results(
+        &self,
+        query: &FtsQuery,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Vec<(u64, f32)>>> {
+        self.inner.exact_leaf_results(query, scorer)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A tiered merge dispatched to a background worker.
+struct PendingMerge {
+    /// `Arc::as_ptr` of each source partition, for identity-matching the
+    /// merged-away partitions when the writer installs the result.
+    sources: Vec<usize>,
+    /// Filled by the worker when the merge completes.
+    result: Option<Arc<Partition>>,
+}
 
-            if distance <= max_distance {
-                matches.push((indexed_term.clone(), distance));
+fn publish_pending_merge(slot: &Mutex<Option<PendingMerge>>, merged: Result<Partition>) {
+    let Ok(mut guard) = slot.lock() else {
+        return;
+    };
+    match merged {
+        Ok(merged) => {
+            if let Some(pending) = guard.as_mut() {
+                pending.result = Some(Arc::new(merged));
             }
         }
+        Err(error) => {
+            tracing::error!(?error, "background FTS tiered merge failed");
+            *guard = None;
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-        // Sort by distance (prefer closer matches)
-        matches.sort_by_key(|(_, d)| *d);
+impl std::fmt::Debug for FtsMemIndex {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let st = self.state.load();
+        f.debug_struct("FtsMemIndex")
+            .field("field_id", &self.field_id)
+            .field("source_column_name", &self.source_column_name)
+            .field("doc_count", &self.doc_count())
+            .field("partitions", &st.partitions.len())
+            .field("params", &self.params)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
 
-        // Limit to max_expansions
-        matches.truncate(max_expansions);
+impl FtsMemIndex {
+    /// Default reader-tokenizer pool capacity. Small but enough to absorb
+    /// short bursts of concurrent search calls without thrashing.
+    const DEFAULT_TOKENIZER_POOL_CAP: usize = 8;
+
+    /// Default tail freeze threshold (docs). Analogous to Lucene's
+    /// `ramBufferSizeMB`: large enough that the per-query tail scan stays
+    /// cheap, small enough to bound it independent of corpus size.
+    const DEFAULT_FREEZE_THRESHOLD_ROWS: usize = 50_000;
+
+    /// Hard cap on live partitions: when a freeze would exceed it, all
+    /// partitions are merged into one synchronously. This is only a safety net;
+    /// the background tiered merge normally keeps the count far below it.
+    const MAX_PARTITIONS: usize = 32;
+
+    /// Background tiered-merge factor: once a size tier (partitions bucketed by
+    /// `floor(log2(doc_count))`) accumulates this many partitions, they are
+    /// merged into one larger partition off the writer thread. Mirrors Lucene's
+    /// tiered merge — it bounds the live partition count to ~`O(log n)` (so
+    /// per-query overhead and posting fragmentation stay low) while amortizing
+    /// total merge work, and runs in the background so write throughput is
+    /// unaffected.
+    const MERGE_FACTOR: usize = 8;
 
-        matches
+    /// Create a new FTS index for the given field with default parameters.
+    pub fn new(field_id: i32, column_name: String) -> Self {
+        Self::with_params(field_id, column_name, InvertedIndexParams::default())
     }
 
-    /// Search for documents using fuzzy matching.
-    ///
-    /// Each query token is expanded to fuzzy matches within the edit distance,
-    /// then searched. Results from all expansions are combined.
-    pub fn search_fuzzy(
-        &self,
-        query: &str,
-        fuzziness: Option<u32>,
-        max_expansions: usize,
-    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
-        // Tokenize the query
-        let tokens: Vec<String> = {
-            let mut tokenizer = self.tokenizer.lock().unwrap();
-            let mut token_stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_search(query);
-            let mut tokens = Vec::new();
-            while let Some(token) = token_stream.next() {
-                tokens.push(token.text.clone());
-            }
-            tokens
-        };
+    /// Create a new FTS index with custom tokenizer parameters.
+    pub fn with_params(field_id: i32, column_name: String, params: InvertedIndexParams) -> Self {
+        Self::try_with_params(field_id, column_name, params)
+            .expect("invalid MemWAL FTS index parameters")
+    }
 
-        if tokens.is_empty() {
-            return vec![];
-        }
+    /// Try to create a new FTS index with custom tokenizer parameters.
+    pub fn try_with_params(
+        field_id: i32,
+        column_name: String,
+        params: InvertedIndexParams,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_with_params_and_maintenance(field_id, column_name, params, true)
+    }
+
+    fn try_with_params_and_maintenance(
+        field_id: i32,
+        column_name: String,
+        params: InvertedIndexParams,
+        background_maintenance: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        params.validate_format_version()?;
+        let pool = TokenizerPool::new(&params, Self::DEFAULT_TOKENIZER_POOL_CAP)?;
+        Ok(Self::with_tokenizer_pool_and_maintenance(
+            field_id,
+            column_name,
+            params,
+            pool,
+            background_maintenance,
+        ))
+    }
 
-        // BM25 parameters
-        const K1: f32 = 1.2;
-        const B: f32 = 0.75;
+    fn with_tokenizer_pool_and_maintenance(
+        field_id: i32,
+        column_name: String,
+        params: InvertedIndexParams,
+        pool: TokenizerPool,
+        background_maintenance: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let writer_tokenizer = pool.template.box_clone();
+        Self {
+            field_id,
+            source_column_name: column_name,
+            params,
+            resolved_field: OnceLock::new(),
+            tokenizer_pool: Arc::new(pool),
+            writer_tokenizer: Mutex::new(writer_tokenizer),
+            state: ArcSwap::from(IndexState::empty()),
+            freeze_threshold_rows: Self::DEFAULT_FREEZE_THRESHOLD_ROWS,
+            background_maintenance,
+            merge: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
+        }
+    }
 
-        let n = self.doc_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as f32;
-        let total_tokens = self.total_tokens.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as f32;
-        let avgdl = if n > 0.0 { total_tokens / n } else { 1.0 };
+    pub(crate) fn try_with_resolved_field(
+        field_id: i32,
+        column_name: String,
+        params: InvertedIndexParams,
+        resolved_field: ResolvedFtsField,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let index = Self::try_with_params(field_id, column_name, params)?;
+        index.resolved_field.set(resolved_field).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal("MemWAL FTS traversal was initialized twice".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(index)
+    }
 
-        // Collect term frequencies per document for all expanded tokens
-        // Map: row_position -> Vec<(term_freq, doc_freq_for_term)>
-        let mut doc_term_info: HashMap<RowPosition, Vec<(u32, usize)>> = HashMap::new();
+    /// Override the tail freeze threshold (docs) — the analogue of Lucene's
+    /// `ramBufferSizeMB`. Larger keeps more rows in the un-indexed mutable tail
+    /// (cheaper writes, costlier read-your-writes scans); smaller freezes into
+    /// block-max-searchable partitions sooner.
+    pub fn with_freeze_threshold_rows(mut self, rows: usize) -> Self {
+        self.freeze_threshold_rows = rows.max(1);
+        self
+    }
 
-        for token in &tokens {
-            // Determine fuzziness for this token
-            let max_distance = fuzziness.unwrap_or_else(|| auto_fuzziness(token));
+    pub fn field_id(&self) -> i32 {
+        self.field_id
+    }
 
-            // Expand to fuzzy matches
-            let expanded = self.expand_fuzzy(token, max_distance, max_expansions);
+    pub fn column_name(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.source_column_name
+    }
 
-            for (matched_term, _distance) in expanded {
-                // Get document frequency for this term
-                let df = self
-                    .doc_freq
-                    .get(&matched_term)
-                    .map(|e| e.value().load(Ordering::Relaxed))
-                    .unwrap_or(0);
+    pub fn source_column_name(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.source_column_name
+    }
 
-                if df == 0 {
-                    continue;
-                }
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &InvertedIndexParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
 
-                let start = FtsKey {
-                    token: matched_term.clone(),
-                    row_position: 0,
-                };
-                let end = FtsKey {
-                    token: matched_term,
-                    row_position: u64::MAX,
-                };
+    pub fn document_granularity(&self) -> lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity {
+        self.params.get_document_granularity()
+    }
 
-                for entry in self.postings.range(start..=end) {
-                    doc_term_info
-                        .entry(entry.key().row_position)
-                        .or_default()
-                        .push((entry.value().frequency, df));
-                }
-            }
-        }
+    /// Number of visible documents across all partitions and the tail.
+    pub fn doc_count(&self) -> usize {
+        let st = self.state.load();
+        st.partitions.iter().map(|p| p.doc_count()).sum::<usize>() + st.tail.doc_count() as usize
+    }
 
-        // Compute BM25 score for each document
-        doc_term_info
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|(row_position, term_infos)| {
-                let dl = self
-                    .doc_lengths
-                    .get(&row_position)
-                    .map(|e| *e.value() as f32)
-                    .unwrap_or(1.0);
-
-                let mut score: f32 = 0.0;
-                for (tf, df) in term_infos {
-                    // IDF = log((N - n + 0.5) / (n + 0.5) + 1)
-                    let df_f = df as f32;
-                    let idf = ((n - df_f + 0.5) / (df_f + 0.5) + 1.0).ln();
-
-                    // BM25 term score
-                    let tf_f = tf as f32;
-                    let numerator = tf_f * (K1 + 1.0);
-                    let denominator = tf_f + K1 * (1.0 - B + B * (dl / avgdl));
-                    score += idf * (numerator / denominator);
-                }
+    /// Whether there are any visible documents.
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        let st = self.state.load();
+        st.partitions.is_empty() && st.tail.doc_count() == 0
+    }
 
-                FtsEntry {
-                    row_position,
-                    score,
-                }
+    /// Total number of visible (term, doc) postings.
+    pub fn entry_count(&self) -> usize {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        let part: usize = st.partitions.iter().map(|p| p.entry_count()).sum();
+        let visible = st.tail.visible_count();
+        let tail: usize = st
+            .tail
+            .terms
+            .iter()
+            .map(|e| {
+                e.value()
+                    .load()
+                    .chunks()
+                    .filter(|c| c.batch_position < visible)
+                    .map(|c| c.doc_count())
+                    .sum::<usize>()
             })
-            .collect()
+            .sum();
+        part + tail
     }
 
-    /// Execute a query expression and return matching documents with scores.
+    /// Estimated bytes of heap memory held by this index.
     ///
-    /// This is the main entry point for executing complex queries including
-    /// match, phrase, fuzzy, and Boolean queries.
-    ///
-    /// For performance optimization with limits, use `search_with_options()` instead.
-    pub fn search_query(&self, query: &FtsQueryExpr) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
-        match query {
-            FtsQueryExpr::Match { query, boost } => {
-                let mut results = self.search(query);
-                if *boost != 1.0 {
-                    for entry in &mut results {
-                        entry.score *= boost;
-                    }
-                }
-                results
-            }
-            FtsQueryExpr::Phrase { query, slop, boost } => {
-                let mut results = self.search_phrase(query, *slop);
-                if *boost != 1.0 {
-                    for entry in &mut results {
-                        entry.score *= boost;
-                    }
-                }
-                results
-            }
-            FtsQueryExpr::Fuzzy {
-                query,
-                fuzziness,
-                max_expansions,
-                boost,
-            } => {
-                let mut results = self.search_fuzzy(query, *fuzziness, *max_expansions);
-                if *boost != 1.0 {
-                    for entry in &mut results {
-                        entry.score *= boost;
-                    }
-                }
-                results
-            }
-            FtsQueryExpr::Boolean {
-                must,
-                should,
-                must_not,
-            } => self.search_boolean(must, should, must_not),
-            FtsQueryExpr::Boost {
-                positive,
-                negative,
-                negative_boost,
-            } => self.search_boost(positive, negative.as_deref(), *negative_boost),
-        }
+    /// Walks every tail term. Prefer `resident_bytes` on the write path.
+    pub fn resident_bytes_exact(&self) -> usize {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        let mut total = std::mem::size_of::<Self>();
+        total += st
+            .partitions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|p| p.resident_bytes())
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        total += st.tail.resident_bytes();
+        total
     }
 
-    /// Execute a query with options for performance/recall tradeoffs.
-    ///
-    /// This method extends `search_query()` with:
-    /// - **WAND factor**: Early termination based on score threshold.
-    ///   With `wand_factor < 1.0`, documents scoring below
-    ///   `threshold = top_k_score * wand_factor` are pruned after scoring.
-    /// - **Limit**: Maximum number of results to return (top-k by score).
-    ///
-    /// Results are always sorted by score in descending order.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    /// * `query` - The query expression to execute
-    /// * `options` - Search options including wand_factor and limit
-    ///
-    /// # Example
-    /// ```ignore
-    /// let options = SearchOptions::default()
-    ///     .with_limit(10)
-    ///     .with_wand_factor(0.8);
-    /// let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
-    /// ```
-    pub fn search_with_options(
-        &self,
-        query: &FtsQueryExpr,
-        options: SearchOptions,
-    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
-        // Execute the query to get all results
-        let mut results = self.search_query(query);
+    /// [`Self::resident_bytes_exact`] without the per-term walk: partitions are capped
+    /// at `MAX_PARTITIONS` and size themselves in O(1), and the tail keeps a
+    /// running total. Cheap enough for the write path.
+    pub(crate) fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        let st = self.state.load();
+        std::mem::size_of::<Self>()
+            + st.partitions
+                .iter()
+                .map(|p| p.resident_bytes())
+                .sum::<usize>()
+            + st.tail.resident_bytes_cached()
+    }
 
-        // Sort by score descending
-        results.sort_by(|a, b| {
-            b.score
-                .partial_cmp(&a.score)
-                .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
-        });
+    /// Component memory breakdown (bytes), for diagnostics:
+    /// `(num_partitions, term_strings, postings_meta, block_meta, doc_freq, pos, docs, tail)`.
+    pub fn memory_breakdown(&self) -> (usize, usize, usize, usize, usize, usize, usize, usize) {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        let (mut terms, mut postings, mut blocks, mut df, mut pos, mut docs) = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0);
+        for p in st.partitions.iter() {
+            terms += p.term_fst.as_fst().as_bytes().len();
+            postings += p.postings.len() * std::mem::size_of::<PostingRef>();
+            blocks += p.block_bytes.len();
+            df += p.doc_freq_data.len();
+            pos += p.pos_data.len();
+            docs += p.docs.len() * (std::mem::size_of::<u64>() + std::mem::size_of::<u32>());
+        }
+        (
+            st.partitions.len(),
+            terms,
+            postings,
+            blocks,
+            df,
+            pos,
+            docs,
+            st.tail.resident_bytes(),
+        )
+    }
 
-        // Apply WAND factor pruning if wand_factor < 1.0 and we have a limit
-        if options.wand_factor < 1.0 {
-            if let Some(limit) = options.limit {
-                if results.len() > limit {
-                    // Get the k-th best score (at position limit-1)
-                    let top_k_score = results[limit - 1].score;
-                    let threshold = top_k_score * options.wand_factor;
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    // Insert
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------
 
-                    // Keep results scoring above the threshold, plus all results up to limit
-                    // This ensures we don't accidentally prune results that would be in top-k
-                    results.retain(|e| e.score >= threshold);
-                }
-            } else {
-                // No limit but wand_factor < 1.0: prune relative to max score
-                if let Some(max_entry) = results.first() {
-                    let threshold = max_entry.score * options.wand_factor;
-                    results.retain(|e| e.score >= threshold);
-                }
-            }
-        }
+    /// Insert a batch into the mutable tail.
+    pub fn insert(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, row_offset: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.insert_batch(batch, row_offset)
+    }
 
-        // Apply limit
-        if let Some(limit) = options.limit {
-            results.truncate(limit);
+    /// Insert a batch. The explicit `batch_position` is accepted for API
+    /// compatibility but not used for placement: the tail assigns its own
+    /// dense, 0-based positions (required by the visibility filter).
+    pub fn insert_with_batch_position(
+        &self,
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        row_offset: u64,
+        _batch_position: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.insert_batch(batch, row_offset)
+    }
+
+    /// Insert explicit, potentially non-contiguous rows while retaining
+    /// postings only for query terms.
+    /// The tokenizer still visits the complete document so BM25 document
+    /// lengths remain accurate when scoring with committed-index statistics.
+    pub(crate) fn insert_with_row_ids_for_terms(
+        &self,
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        row_ids: &UInt64Array,
+        terms: &FxHashSet<String>,
+    ) -> Result<QueryLocalFtsStats> {
+        if row_ids.len() != batch.num_rows() || row_ids.null_count() != 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MemWAL FTS explicit row ids require {} non-null values, got len={} nulls={}",
+                batch.num_rows(),
+                row_ids.len(),
+                row_ids.null_count()
+            )));
         }
+        self.insert_batch_with_keys(batch, |row_index| Ok(row_ids.value(row_index)), Some(terms))
+    }
 
-        results
+    fn insert_batch(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, row_offset: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.insert_batch_with_keys(
+            batch,
+            |row_index| {
+                row_offset
+                    .checked_add(row_index as u64)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("MemWAL FTS row position overflow"))
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .map(|_| ())
     }
 
-    /// Execute a boosting query.
-    ///
-    /// Returns documents matching the positive query. Documents that also
-    /// match the negative query have their scores multiplied by `negative_boost`.
-    fn search_boost(
+    fn insert_batch_with_keys(
         &self,
-        positive: &FtsQueryExpr,
-        negative: Option<&FtsQueryExpr>,
-        negative_boost: f32,
-    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
-        // Execute positive query to get base results
-        let mut results = self.search_query(positive);
-
-        // If no negative query, just return positive results
-        let Some(neg_query) = negative else {
-            return results;
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        row_position: impl Fn(usize) -> Result<u64>,
+        allowed_terms: Option<&FxHashSet<String>>,
+    ) -> Result<QueryLocalFtsStats> {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        let document_position_start = st.tail.doc_count();
+        if self.resolved_field.get().is_none() {
+            let schema = LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref())?;
+            let resolved = resolve_fts_field(
+                &schema,
+                &self.source_column_name,
+                self.params.get_document_granularity(),
+            )?;
+            let _ = self.resolved_field.set(resolved);
+        }
+        let resolved = self.resolved_field.get().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("MemWAL FTS traversal was not initialized".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let extracted_documents = resolved.documents_from_batch(batch)?;
+
+        let mut tok_guard = self
+            .writer_tokenizer
+            .lock()
+            .expect("writer tokenizer poisoned — single-writer invariant violated");
+        let tokenizer: &mut dyn LanceTokenizer = tok_guard.as_mut();
+
+        // Per-term postings for this batch. Tokens are appended directly
+        // (`observe`) as they stream out of the tokenizer, avoiding the
+        // per-document map and per-`(term, doc)` `Vec` allocation that
+        // dominated insert cost. `FxHashMap` skips SipHash on the hot lookup.
+        let mut term_builders: FxHashMap<Arc<str>, BatchTermBuilder> = FxHashMap::default();
+        let mut documents: Vec<DocumentMetadata> = if allowed_terms.is_some() {
+            Vec::new()
+        } else {
+            Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_rows())
+        };
+        let mut total_tokens: u64 = 0;
+        let mut query_local_corpus_doc_count = 0usize;
+        let mut query_local_corpus_total_tokens = 0u64;
+        let preserve_zero_token_documents =
+            self.params.get_document_granularity().is_list_element();
+        let mut index_document = |key: DocumentKey, text: &str| -> Result<()> {
+            let document_position = document_position_start + documents.len() as u64;
+            let (num_tokens, retained_term) = match allowed_terms {
+                Some(allowed_terms) => index_text_filtered(
+                    text,
+                    document_position,
+                    tokenizer,
+                    &mut term_builders,
+                    allowed_terms,
+                )?,
+                None => (
+                    index_text(text, document_position, tokenizer, &mut term_builders)?,
+                    false,
+                ),
+            };
+            let belongs_in_corpus = preserve_zero_token_documents || num_tokens > 0;
+            if allowed_terms.is_some() && belongs_in_corpus {
+                query_local_corpus_doc_count = query_local_corpus_doc_count
+                    .checked_add(1)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("query-local FTS document count overflow"))?;
+                query_local_corpus_total_tokens = query_local_corpus_total_tokens
+                    .checked_add(num_tokens as u64)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("query-local FTS total token count overflow"))?;
+            }
+            let retain_document = if allowed_terms.is_some() {
+                retained_term
+            } else {
+                belongs_in_corpus
+            };
+            if retain_document {
+                documents.push(DocumentMetadata { key, num_tokens });
+                total_tokens += num_tokens as u64;
+            }
+            Ok(())
         };
 
-        // Execute negative query
-        let negative_results = self.search_query(neg_query);
-
-        // Build a set of row positions that match the negative query
-        let negative_positions: std::collections::HashSet<RowPosition> =
-            negative_results.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
+        for document in extracted_documents {
+            index_document(
+                DocumentKey {
+                    row_position: row_position(document.row_index)?,
+                    doc_index: document.doc_index,
+                },
+                &document.text,
+            )?;
+        }
 
-        // Apply negative boost to documents matching both queries
-        for entry in &mut results {
-            if negative_positions.contains(&entry.row_position) {
-                entry.score *= negative_boost;
+        let query_local_stats = if allowed_terms.is_some() {
+            QueryLocalFtsStats {
+                doc_count: query_local_corpus_doc_count,
+                total_tokens: query_local_corpus_total_tokens,
+                token_docs: term_builders
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(term, builder)| (term.to_string(), builder.row_positions.len()))
+                    .collect(),
             }
+        } else {
+            QueryLocalFtsStats::default()
+        };
+
+        if documents.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(query_local_stats);
         }
 
-        results
+        // Drop the tokenizer guard before publishing so we don't hold it
+        // across the snapshot install.
+        drop(tok_guard);
+
+        let batch_position = st.tail.next_position();
+        st.tail.append_batch(
+            batch_position,
+            document_position_start,
+            documents,
+            total_tokens,
+            term_builders,
+            self.params.has_positions(),
+        );
+
+        if self.background_maintenance && st.tail.doc_count() >= self.freeze_threshold_rows as u64 {
+            self.freeze(&st)?;
+        }
+        Ok(query_local_stats)
+    }
+
+    /// Analyze every exact leaf and return the deduplicated query terms in
+    /// canonical leaf traversal order.
+    pub(crate) fn exact_query_terms(&self, query: &FtsQuery) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+        fn visit(index: &FtsMemIndex, query: &FtsQuery, terms: &mut Vec<String>) -> Result<()> {
+            match query {
+                FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+                    if query.fuzziness != Some(0) {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "residual compound FTS only supports exact Match leaves",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    terms.extend(index.analyze_for_search(&query.terms));
+                }
+                FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
+                    terms.extend(index.analyze_for_search(&query.terms));
+                }
+                FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                    visit(index, &query.positive, terms)?;
+                    visit(index, &query.negative, terms)?;
+                }
+                FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                    for query in &query.match_queries {
+                        visit(index, &FtsQuery::Match(query.clone()), terms)?;
+                    }
+                }
+                FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                    for query in query
+                        .should
+                        .iter()
+                        .chain(&query.must)
+                        .chain(&query.must_not)
+                    {
+                        visit(index, query, terms)?;
+                    }
+                }
+                FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "residual compound FTS does not support combined_fields (BM25F) leaves",
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        let mut terms = Vec::new();
+        visit(self, query, &mut terms)?;
+        let mut seen = HashSet::with_capacity(terms.len());
+        terms.retain(|term| seen.insert(term.clone()));
+        Ok(terms)
+    }
+
+    /// Materialize each exact leaf with a caller-supplied scorer. Compound
+    /// semantics are deliberately evaluated by the canonical lance-index
+    /// scorer instead of being duplicated here.
+    pub(crate) fn exact_leaf_results(
+        &self,
+        query: &FtsQuery,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Vec<(u64, f32)>>> {
+        fn visit(
+            index: &FtsMemIndex,
+            query: &FtsQuery,
+            scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+            leaves: &mut Vec<Vec<(u64, f32)>>,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            match query {
+                FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+                    if query.fuzziness != Some(0) {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "residual compound FTS only supports exact Match leaves",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    let st = index.state.load_full();
+                    let tokens = index.analyze_for_search(&query.terms);
+                    let rows = index
+                        .search_match_with_scorer(&st, &tokens, query.operator, scorer)
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|entry| (entry.row_position, entry.score))
+                        .collect();
+                    leaves.push(rows);
+                }
+                FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
+                    let st = index.state.load_full();
+                    let tokens = index.analyze_for_search(&query.terms);
+                    let rows = index
+                        .search_phrase_with_scorer(&st, &tokens, query.slop, scorer)
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|entry| (entry.row_position, entry.score))
+                        .collect();
+                    leaves.push(rows);
+                }
+                FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                    visit(index, &query.positive, scorer, leaves)?;
+                    visit(index, &query.negative, scorer, leaves)?;
+                }
+                FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                    for query in &query.match_queries {
+                        visit(index, &FtsQuery::Match(query.clone()), scorer, leaves)?;
+                    }
+                }
+                FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                    for query in query
+                        .should
+                        .iter()
+                        .chain(&query.must)
+                        .chain(&query.must_not)
+                    {
+                        visit(index, query, scorer, leaves)?;
+                    }
+                }
+                FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "residual compound FTS does not support combined_fields (BM25F) leaves",
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        let mut leaves = Vec::new();
+        visit(self, query, scorer, &mut leaves)?;
+        Ok(leaves)
+    }
+
+    /// Freeze the current tail into a new immutable partition and publish a
+    /// fresh empty tail. Only the writer calls this; readers snapshotting the
+    /// old `IndexState` keep a consistent view across the freeze.
+    fn freeze(&self, st: &IndexState) -> Result<()> {
+        let Some(partition) = Partition::from_tail(&st.tail)? else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let mut partitions: Vec<Arc<Partition>> = st.partitions.iter().cloned().collect();
+        partitions.push(Arc::new(partition));
+        // Fold in any completed background merge before re-evaluating tiers.
+        self.install_pending_merge(&mut partitions)?;
+        if partitions.len() > Self::MAX_PARTITIONS {
+            partitions = vec![Arc::new(Partition::merge(&partitions)?)];
+        }
+        self.state.store(Arc::new(IndexState {
+            partitions: Arc::from(partitions.into_boxed_slice()),
+            tail: TailIndex::new(),
+        }));
+        // Kick off a background merge if a size tier is now over-full.
+        self.maybe_start_merge()?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Install a completed background merge into `partitions` (in place):
+    /// drop the merged-away source partitions and append the merged one.
+    /// No-op while a merge is still running or none is pending.
+    fn install_pending_merge(&self, partitions: &mut Vec<Arc<Partition>>) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut guard = self
+            .merge
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| Error::internal("FTS merge slot mutex poisoned"))?;
+        let Some(pending) = guard.as_mut() else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let Some(merged) = pending.result.take() else {
+            return Ok(()); // still running
+        };
+        let sources: HashSet<usize> = pending.sources.iter().copied().collect();
+        *guard = None;
+        // Install only if every source is still live. If a synchronous
+        // `MAX_PARTITIONS` collapse merged the sources away while this merge
+        // ran, the merged docs are already present — appending it would
+        // double-count, so discard the stale result instead.
+        let present = partitions
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|p| sources.contains(&(Arc::as_ptr(p) as usize)))
+            .count();
+        if present == sources.len() {
+            partitions.retain(|p| !sources.contains(&(Arc::as_ptr(p) as usize)));
+            partitions.push(merged);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// If no merge is in flight and some size tier holds at least
+    /// `MERGE_FACTOR` partitions, dispatch their merge to a background thread.
+    fn maybe_start_merge(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut guard = self
+            .merge
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| Error::internal("FTS merge slot mutex poisoned"))?;
+        if guard.is_some() {
+            return Ok(()); // one merge at a time
+        }
+        let partitions = self.state.load();
+        let Some(group) = select_merge_group(&partitions.partitions, Self::MERGE_FACTOR) else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let sources: Vec<usize> = group.iter().map(|p| Arc::as_ptr(p) as usize).collect();
+        *guard = Some(PendingMerge {
+            sources,
+            result: None,
+        });
+        drop(guard);
+        let slot = Arc::clone(&self.merge);
+        // Read-only merge off the writer thread; the writer installs the result
+        // on a later freeze. The worker shares ownership of `slot` (and, via
+        // `group`, the source partitions), so it is safe even if the index is
+        // dropped mid-merge.
+        std::thread::spawn(move || {
+            publish_pending_merge(slot.as_ref(), Partition::merge(&group));
+        });
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    // Read path
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+    /// Search for documents containing a term.
+    ///
+    /// The term is tokenized using the configured tokenizer. Returns all
+    /// matching documents with BM25 scores. Result order is unspecified;
+    /// use `search_with_options` for sorted/limited output.
+    pub fn search(&self, term: &str) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        let tokens = self.analyze_for_search(term);
+        self.search_match(&st, &tokens, Operator::Or, None, true, true)
+    }
+
+    /// Search for documents containing an exact phrase, optionally allowing
+    /// `slop` intervening tokens between consecutive query tokens.
+    pub fn search_phrase(&self, phrase: &str, slop: u32) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        let tokens = self.analyze_for_search(phrase);
+        self.search_phrase_tokens(&st, &tokens, slop, true)
+    }
+
+    /// Freeze the current mutable tail into an immutable partition, so a
+    /// subsequent `include_tail = false` search sees all rows written so far
+    /// (the analogue of a Lucene commit/flush before opening a reader). No-op
+    /// when the tail is empty. Writer-side: callers hold the single-writer role.
+    pub fn flush(&self) {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        if st.tail.visible_count() > 0
+            && let Err(error) = self.freeze(&st)
+        {
+            tracing::error!(?error, "failed to freeze the FTS MemWAL tail");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Expand a term to fuzzy matches within the specified edit distance.
+    /// Returns `(matched_term, distance)` pairs sorted by distance, capped
+    /// at `max_expansions`.
+    pub fn expand_fuzzy(
+        &self,
+        term: &str,
+        max_distance: u32,
+        max_expansions: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<(String, u32)> {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        self.expand_fuzzy_term(&st, term, max_distance, 0, max_expansions, true)
+    }
+
+    /// Search for documents using fuzzy matching on each query token.
+    pub fn search_fuzzy(
+        &self,
+        query: &str,
+        fuzziness: Option<u32>,
+        max_expansions: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        let tokens = self.tokenize_for_search(query);
+        self.search_fuzzy_tokens(&st, &tokens, fuzziness, 0, max_expansions, true)
+    }
+
+    /// BM25 OR-search over the query tokens, scored with one corpus-wide
+    /// [`MemBM25Scorer`]. With a result limit, all partitions and the tail
+    /// feed a single shared top-k heap: the tail is scanned first to warm the
+    /// pruning threshold, then each partition's WAND prunes against the
+    /// shared rising threshold (instead of every partition cold-starting).
+    /// Without a limit, an exact O(matches) scan across partitions + tail.
+    fn search_match(
+        &self,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        query_tokens: &Tokens,
+        operator: Operator,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+        include_tail: bool,
+        tail_skip: bool,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        if operator == Operator::And && has_grouped_positions(query_tokens) {
+            return self.search_grouped_and(st, query_tokens, limit, include_tail, tail_skip);
+        }
+        let tokens = query_tokens_to_vec(query_tokens);
+        self.search_match_strings(st, &tokens, operator, limit, include_tail, tail_skip)
+    }
+
+    fn search_match_strings(
+        &self,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        tokens: &[String],
+        operator: Operator,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+        include_tail: bool,
+        tail_skip: bool,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        if tokens.is_empty() {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        // Snapshot the tail once so the scorer's stats and the scanned tail
+        // postings are from the same visibility point.
+        let tail_snap = st.tail.snapshot();
+        let scan_tail = include_tail && tail_snap.visible_count > 0;
+        let scorer = build_scorer(st, &tail_snap, tokens, include_tail);
+        if scorer.num_docs() == 0 {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        match (operator, limit) {
+            (Operator::Or, Some(k)) if k > 0 => {
+                let mut topk = TopK::new(k);
+                // Scan the block-max partitions first to warm the shared
+                // threshold, then the (un-skippable) tail last — so the tail
+                // scan can be skipped wholesale when its score bound can't beat
+                // the threshold. `tail_skip = false` forces a full tail scan.
+                for p in st.partitions.iter() {
+                    p.or_topk_into(tokens, &scorer, &mut topk);
+                }
+                if scan_tail {
+                    let theta = if tail_skip {
+                        topk.threshold()
+                    } else {
+                        f32::NEG_INFINITY
+                    };
+                    for e in score_terms(
+                        &tail_snap,
+                        &st.tail.terms,
+                        tokens,
+                        Operator::Or,
+                        &scorer,
+                        theta,
+                        false,
+                    ) {
+                        topk.offer(e.score, e.key());
+                    }
+                }
+                topk.into_entries()
+            }
+            _ => {
+                let mut results = Vec::new();
+                for p in st.partitions.iter() {
+                    results.extend(p.search_match(tokens, operator, &scorer));
+                }
+                if scan_tail {
+                    results.extend(score_terms(
+                        &tail_snap,
+                        &st.tail.terms,
+                        tokens,
+                        operator,
+                        &scorer,
+                        f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+                        false,
+                    ));
+                }
+                results
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn search_match_with_scorer(
+        &self,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        query_tokens: &Tokens,
+        operator: Operator,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        if operator == Operator::And && has_grouped_positions(query_tokens) {
+            let mut result_map: Option<HashMap<DocumentKey, f32>> = None;
+            for group in query_position_groups(query_tokens) {
+                let group_results =
+                    self.search_match_strings_with_scorer(st, &group, Operator::Or, scorer);
+                let group_map = group_results
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|entry| (entry.key(), entry.score))
+                    .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+                let Some(current) = result_map.as_mut() else {
+                    result_map = Some(group_map);
+                    continue;
+                };
+                current.retain(|key, score| {
+                    if let Some(group_score) = group_map.get(key) {
+                        *score += group_score;
+                        true
+                    } else {
+                        false
+                    }
+                });
+            }
+            return result_map
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(key, score)| FtsEntry {
+                    row_position: key.row_position,
+                    doc_index: public_doc_index(&key.doc_index),
+                    score,
+                })
+                .collect();
+        }
+        let tokens = query_tokens_to_vec(query_tokens);
+        self.search_match_strings_with_scorer(st, &tokens, operator, scorer)
+    }
+
+    fn search_match_strings_with_scorer(
+        &self,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        tokens: &[String],
+        operator: Operator,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        if tokens.is_empty() {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let tail = st.tail.snapshot();
+        let mut results = Vec::new();
+        for partition in st.partitions.iter() {
+            results.extend(partition.search_match(tokens, operator, scorer));
+        }
+        results.extend(score_terms(
+            &tail,
+            &st.tail.terms,
+            tokens,
+            operator,
+            scorer,
+            f32::NEG_INFINITY,
+            true,
+        ));
+        results
+    }
+
+    fn search_grouped_and(
+        &self,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        query_tokens: &Tokens,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+        include_tail: bool,
+        tail_skip: bool,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        let mut result_map: Option<HashMap<DocumentKey, f32>> = None;
+        for group in query_position_groups(query_tokens) {
+            let group_results =
+                self.search_match_strings(st, &group, Operator::Or, None, include_tail, tail_skip);
+            let group_map = group_results
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|entry| (entry.key(), entry.score))
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+            let Some(current) = result_map.as_mut() else {
+                result_map = Some(group_map);
+                continue;
+            };
+            current.retain(|key, score| {
+                if let Some(group_score) = group_map.get(key) {
+                    *score += group_score;
+                    true
+                } else {
+                    false
+                }
+            });
+            if current.is_empty() {
+                return Vec::new();
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut results = result_map
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(key, score)| FtsEntry {
+                row_position: key.row_position,
+                doc_index: public_doc_index(&key.doc_index),
+                score,
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if let Some(limit) = limit {
+            results.sort_by(|a, b| {
+                b.score
+                    .partial_cmp(&a.score)
+                    .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
+            });
+            results.truncate(limit);
+        }
+        results
+    }
+
+    fn search_phrase_tokens(
+        &self,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        query_tokens: &Tokens,
+        slop: u32,
+        include_tail: bool,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        if query_tokens.is_empty() {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let groups = query_position_groups(query_tokens);
+        if groups.is_empty() {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        if groups.len() == 1 {
+            // A single-token phrase reduces to a regular term search.
+            return self.search_match_strings(
+                st,
+                &groups[0],
+                Operator::Or,
+                None,
+                include_tail,
+                true,
+            );
+        }
+        // A multi-token phrase needs token positions; without them (the index
+        // was built `with_position = false`) phrase search is unsupported, as
+        // on disk and in Lucene (`DOCS_AND_FREQS`).
+        if !self.params.has_positions() {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let has_grouped_terms = groups.iter().any(|group| group.len() > 1);
+        let tokens = position_groups_to_tokens(&groups);
+        let tail_snap = st.tail.snapshot();
+        let scan_tail = include_tail && tail_snap.visible_count > 0;
+        let scorer = build_scorer(st, &tail_snap, &tokens, include_tail);
+        if scorer.num_docs() == 0 {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let mut results = Vec::new();
+        for p in st.partitions.iter() {
+            if has_grouped_terms {
+                results.extend(p.search_phrase_groups(&groups, slop, &scorer));
+            } else {
+                results.extend(p.search_phrase(&tokens, slop, &scorer));
+            }
+        }
+        if scan_tail {
+            if has_grouped_terms {
+                results.extend(phrase_search_tail_groups(
+                    &tail_snap,
+                    &st.tail.terms,
+                    &groups,
+                    slop,
+                    &scorer,
+                ));
+            } else {
+                results.extend(phrase_search_tail(
+                    &tail_snap,
+                    &st.tail.terms,
+                    &tokens,
+                    slop,
+                    &scorer,
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        results
+    }
+
+    fn search_phrase_with_scorer(
+        &self,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        query_tokens: &Tokens,
+        slop: u32,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        if query_tokens.is_empty() || scorer.num_docs() == 0 {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let groups = query_position_groups(query_tokens);
+        if groups.is_empty() {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        if groups.len() == 1 {
+            return self.search_match_strings_with_scorer(st, &groups[0], Operator::Or, scorer);
+        }
+        if !self.params.has_positions() {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let has_grouped_terms = groups.iter().any(|group| group.len() > 1);
+        let tokens = position_groups_to_tokens(&groups);
+        let tail = st.tail.snapshot();
+        let mut results = Vec::new();
+        for partition in st.partitions.iter() {
+            if has_grouped_terms {
+                results.extend(partition.search_phrase_groups(&groups, slop, scorer));
+            } else {
+                results.extend(partition.search_phrase(&tokens, slop, scorer));
+            }
+        }
+        if has_grouped_terms {
+            results.extend(phrase_search_tail_groups(
+                &tail,
+                &st.tail.terms,
+                &groups,
+                slop,
+                scorer,
+            ));
+        } else {
+            results.extend(phrase_search_tail(
+                &tail,
+                &st.tail.terms,
+                &tokens,
+                slop,
+                scorer,
+            ));
+        }
+        results
+    }
+
+    fn search_fuzzy_tokens(
+        &self,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        tokens: &[String],
+        fuzziness: Option<u32>,
+        prefix_length: u32,
+        max_expansions: usize,
+        include_tail: bool,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        if tokens.is_empty() {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let mut expanded: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
+        let mut seen: HashSet<String> = HashSet::new();
+        for tok in tokens {
+            let max_dist = fuzziness.unwrap_or_else(|| auto_fuzziness(tok));
+            for (matched, _) in self.expand_fuzzy_term(
+                st,
+                tok,
+                max_dist,
+                prefix_length,
+                max_expansions,
+                include_tail,
+            ) {
+                if seen.insert(matched.clone()) {
+                    expanded.push(matched);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if expanded.is_empty() {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        self.search_match_strings(st, &expanded, Operator::Or, None, include_tail, true)
+    }
+
+    /// Expand `term` against the term dictionaries of every partition (and the
+    /// visible tail, when `include_tail`).
+    fn expand_fuzzy_term(
+        &self,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        term: &str,
+        max_distance: u32,
+        prefix_length: u32,
+        max_expansions: usize,
+        include_tail: bool,
+    ) -> Vec<(String, u32)> {
+        let tail_snap = st.tail.snapshot();
+        if max_distance == 0 {
+            let in_tail = include_tail
+                && st
+                    .tail
+                    .terms
+                    .get(term)
+                    .map(|e| has_visible_chunk(&e.value().load(), tail_snap.visible_count))
+                    .unwrap_or(false);
+            let in_partition = st.partitions.iter().any(|p| p.contains_token(term));
+            return if in_tail || in_partition {
+                vec![(term.to_string(), 0)]
+            } else {
+                Vec::new()
+            };
+        }
+        let mut matches: Vec<(String, u32)> = Vec::new();
+        let mut seen: HashSet<String> = HashSet::new();
+        let prefix = char_prefix(term, prefix_length);
+        for entry in st.tail.terms.iter() {
+            if !include_tail || !has_visible_chunk(&entry.value().load(), tail_snap.visible_count) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let key: &Arc<str> = entry.key();
+            if !key.starts_with(prefix) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let dist = levenshtein_distance(term, key);
+            if dist <= max_distance && seen.insert(key.to_string()) {
+                matches.push((key.to_string(), dist));
+            }
+        }
+        for p in st.partitions.iter() {
+            for key in p.collect_terms() {
+                if !key.starts_with(prefix) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let dist = levenshtein_distance(term, key.as_ref());
+                if dist <= max_distance && seen.insert(key.to_string()) {
+                    matches.push((key.to_string(), dist));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        matches.sort_by_key(|(_, d)| *d);
+        matches.truncate(max_expansions);
+        matches
+    }
+
+    /// Execute a query expression and return matching documents with scores.
+    ///
+    /// Snapshots the index state once at entry so the entire compound
+    /// query — including every leaf invoked recursively from `Boolean` /
+    /// `Boost` — sees the same `{partitions, tail}` view. This preserves the
+    /// per-batch monotonic visibility contract for compound queries.
+    pub fn search_query(&self, query: &FtsQueryExpr) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        self.search_query_with_state(query, &st, None, true, true)
+    }
+
+    /// `limit` is the caller's top-k, threaded down so a top-level `Match`
+    /// leaf can prune with WAND. Compound branches (`Boolean`/`Boost`/
+    /// `MultiMatch`) need their children's full result sets, so they pass
+    /// `None` downward.
+    /// `include_tail` selects read-your-writes vs immutable-only (see
+    /// [`SearchOptions::include_tail`]) and is threaded uniformly to every leaf.
+    fn search_query_with_state(
+        &self,
+        query: &FtsQueryExpr,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+        include_tail: bool,
+        tail_skip: bool,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        match query {
+            FtsQueryExpr::Boolean { .. }
+            | FtsQueryExpr::Boost { .. }
+            | FtsQueryExpr::MultiMatch { .. } => {
+                // Every leaf of this subtree searches this index, so the leaf
+                // evaluator ignores the binding and keeps the one snapshot.
+                combine_compound(query, &|leaf| {
+                    self.search_leaf_with_state(leaf, st, None, include_tail, true)
+                })
+            }
+            leaf => self.search_leaf_with_state(leaf, st, limit, include_tail, tail_skip),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Score one `Match` / `Phrase` / `Fuzzy` leaf against this index.
+    ///
+    /// The leaf's own column binding is not consulted: routing a leaf to the
+    /// index holding its column is the caller's job ([`search_cross_column`]).
+    fn search_leaf_with_state(
+        &self,
+        leaf: &FtsQueryExpr,
+        st: &IndexState,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+        include_tail: bool,
+        tail_skip: bool,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        match leaf {
+            FtsQueryExpr::Match {
+                query,
+                operator,
+                boost,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let tokens = self.analyze_for_search(query);
+                let mut results =
+                    self.search_match(st, &tokens, *operator, limit, include_tail, tail_skip);
+                apply_boost(&mut results, *boost);
+                results
+            }
+            FtsQueryExpr::Phrase {
+                query, slop, boost, ..
+            } => {
+                let tokens = self.analyze_for_search(query);
+                let mut results = self.search_phrase_tokens(st, &tokens, *slop, include_tail);
+                apply_boost(&mut results, *boost);
+                results
+            }
+            FtsQueryExpr::Fuzzy {
+                query,
+                fuzziness,
+                prefix_length,
+                max_expansions,
+                boost,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let tokens = self.tokenize_for_search(query);
+                let mut results = self.search_fuzzy_tokens(
+                    st,
+                    &tokens,
+                    *fuzziness,
+                    *prefix_length,
+                    *max_expansions,
+                    include_tail,
+                );
+                apply_boost(&mut results, *boost);
+                results
+            }
+            // `combine_compound` routes compound nodes itself and only ever
+            // hands a leaf here.
+            FtsQueryExpr::Boolean { .. }
+            | FtsQueryExpr::Boost { .. }
+            | FtsQueryExpr::MultiMatch { .. } => Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Score one leaf, dropping hits past `max_row_position`.
+    ///
+    /// The bound is what makes leaves from *different* indexes safe to combine:
+    /// each index snapshots its own `{partitions, tail}` view, and those views
+    /// can disagree about how far the memtable has advanced. Clamping every
+    /// leaf to one row-position ceiling before the clauses meet keeps a MUST
+    /// across columns from dropping a row both columns actually contain.
+    pub fn search_leaf_bounded(
+        &self,
+        leaf: &FtsQueryExpr,
+        include_tail: bool,
+        max_row_position: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        // No limit: a clause needs its full result set before the combine.
+        let mut results = self.search_leaf_with_state(leaf, &st, None, include_tail, true);
+        if let Some(max) = max_row_position {
+            results.retain(|entry| entry.row_position <= max);
+        }
+        results
+    }
+
+    /// Execute a query with options (sort + WAND prune + limit).
+    pub fn search_with_options(
+        &self,
+        query: &FtsQueryExpr,
+        options: SearchOptions,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        if options.limit == Some(0) {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        let mut results = self.search_query_with_state(
+            query,
+            &st,
+            options.limit,
+            options.include_tail,
+            options.tail_skip,
+        );
+        results.sort_by(|a, b| {
+            b.score
+                .partial_cmp(&a.score)
+                .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
+        });
+        if options.wand_factor < 1.0 {
+            if let Some(limit) = options.limit {
+                if results.len() > limit {
+                    let threshold =
+                        relaxed_score_threshold(results[limit - 1].score, options.wand_factor);
+                    results.retain(|e| e.score >= threshold);
+                }
+            } else if let Some(max_entry) = results.first() {
+                let threshold = relaxed_score_threshold(max_entry.score, options.wand_factor);
+                results.retain(|e| e.score >= threshold);
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(limit) = options.limit {
+            results.truncate(limit);
+        }
+        results
+    }
+
+    fn tokenize_for_search(&self, text: &str) -> Vec<String> {
+        query_tokens_to_vec(&self.analyze_for_search(text))
+    }
+
+    fn analyze_for_search(&self, text: &str) -> Tokens {
+        let mut tok = PooledTokenizer::new(&self.tokenizer_pool);
+        let mut stream = tok.get_mut().token_stream_for_search(text);
+        let mut tokens = Vec::new();
+        let mut positions = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(t) = stream.next() {
+            tokens.push(t.text.clone());
+            positions.push(t.position as u32);
+        }
+        Tokens::with_positions(tokens, positions, DocType::Text)
+    }
+
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------
+    // Flush to Lance inverted index format
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+    /// Export the in-memory FTS index to an `InnerBuilder` ready to be
+    /// written to disk.
+    ///
+    /// Stored documents are kept in insert order and retain their positions in
+    /// the forward-written flush data file. `total_rows` is used only to
+    /// validate positions.
+    pub fn to_index_builder(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: u64,
+        total_rows: usize,
+    ) -> Result<lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::InnerBuilder> {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::PostingListBuilder;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::{InnerBuilder, PositionRecorder};
+
+        let st = self.state.load_full();
+        let with_position = self.params.has_positions();
+        let block_size = self.params.posting_block_size();
+        let format_version = self.params.resolved_format_version();
+        let posting_tail_codec = format_version.posting_tail_codec();
+        let total_rows_u64 = total_rows as u64;
+
+        // Step 1: collect (document key, num_tokens) for every doc across all
+        // immutable partitions and the visible tail.
+        let mut all_docs: Vec<(DocumentKey, u32)> = Vec::new();
+        for p in st.partitions.iter() {
+            for (doc_id, (_, num_tokens)) in p.docs.iter().enumerate() {
+                all_docs.push((doc_set_key(&p.docs, doc_id as u32), *num_tokens));
+            }
+        }
+        let tail_snap = st.tail.snapshot();
+        for batch in tail_snap.batches.iter().take(tail_snap.visible_count) {
+            for document in &batch.documents {
+                all_docs.push((document.key.clone(), document.num_tokens));
+            }
+        }
+        if all_docs.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+                partition_id,
+                with_position,
+                Default::default(),
+                format_version,
+                block_size,
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // Step 2: assign doc_ids in ascending insert-position order while
+        // preserving each document's position in the forward-written data file.
+        let mut entries: Vec<(DocumentKey, u32)> = Vec::with_capacity(all_docs.len());
+        for (key, num_tokens) in &all_docs {
+            if key.row_position >= total_rows_u64 {
+                return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                    "FTS flush: row position {} >= total_rows {}",
+                    key.row_position, total_rows
+                )));
+            }
+            entries.push((key.clone(), *num_tokens));
+        }
+        entries.sort_by(|left, right| left.0.cmp(&right.0));
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        let mut original_to_doc_id: HashMap<DocumentKey, u32> =
+            HashMap::with_capacity(entries.len());
+        for (key, num_tokens) in &entries {
+            let doc_id = if !key.doc_index.is_empty() {
+                docs.append_with_doc_index(key.row_position, *num_tokens, &key.doc_index)?
+            } else {
+                docs.append(key.row_position, *num_tokens)
+            };
+            original_to_doc_id.insert(key.clone(), doc_id);
+        }
+
+        // Step 3: merge per-term postings across every partition and the tail.
+        let mut term_postings: HashMap<String, Vec<(u32, u32, Option<Vec<u32>>)>> = HashMap::new();
+        for p in st.partitions.iter() {
+            for (term_id, term) in p.collect_terms().into_iter().enumerate() {
+                let term_id = term_id as u32;
+                let bucket = term_postings.entry(term.to_string()).or_default();
+                let mut cursor = PostingCursor::new(p, term_id);
+                while let Some(local_doc) = cursor.doc() {
+                    let key = doc_set_key(&p.docs, local_doc);
+                    if let Some(&doc_id) = original_to_doc_id.get(&key) {
+                        let pos = if with_position {
+                            Some(cursor.positions().to_vec())
+                        } else {
+                            None
+                        };
+                        bucket.push((doc_id, cursor.freq(), pos));
+                    }
+                    cursor.advance();
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        for entry in st.tail.terms.iter() {
+            let token: &Arc<str> = entry.key();
+            let slice = entry.value().load();
+            let bucket = term_postings.entry(token.to_string()).or_default();
+            for chunk in slice.chunks() {
+                if chunk.batch_position >= tail_snap.visible_count {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                for (i, document_position) in chunk.row_positions.iter().enumerate() {
+                    let Some(document) = lookup_document(&tail_snap, *document_position) else {
+                        continue;
+                    };
+                    let Some(&doc_id) = original_to_doc_id.get(&document.key) else {
+                        continue;
+                    };
+                    let pos = if with_position {
+                        Some(
+                            chunk
+                                .positions
+                                .as_ref()
+                                .map(|p| p.doc_positions(i).to_vec())
+                                .unwrap_or_default(),
+                        )
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+                    bucket.push((doc_id, chunk.frequencies[i], pos));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Step 4: emit posting lists; tokens in sorted order for determinism.
+        let mut sorted_tokens: Vec<String> = term_postings.keys().cloned().collect();
+        sorted_tokens.sort_unstable();
+        let mut tokens = TokenSet::default();
+        let mut posting_lists: Vec<PostingListBuilder> = Vec::with_capacity(sorted_tokens.len());
+        for token in sorted_tokens {
+            let mut docs_for_term = term_postings.remove(&token).unwrap_or_default();
+            if docs_for_term.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            docs_for_term.sort_by_key(|(doc_id, _, _)| *doc_id);
+            let token_id = tokens.add(token) as usize;
+            debug_assert_eq!(token_id, posting_lists.len());
+            posting_lists.push(
+                PostingListBuilder::new_with_posting_tail_codec_and_block_size(
+                    with_position,
+                    posting_tail_codec,
+                    block_size,
+                ),
+            );
+            let plb = &mut posting_lists[token_id];
+            for (doc_id, freq, pos) in docs_for_term {
+                let recorder = if with_position {
+                    PositionRecorder::Position(pos.unwrap_or_default().into())
+                } else {
+                    PositionRecorder::Count(freq)
+                };
+                plb.add(doc_id, recorder);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut builder = InnerBuilder::new_with_format_version_and_block_size(
+            partition_id,
+            with_position,
+            Default::default(),
+            format_version,
+            block_size,
+        );
+        builder.set_tokens(tokens);
+        builder.set_docs(docs);
+        builder.set_posting_lists(posting_lists);
+        Ok(builder)
+    }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Internal helpers
+// ============================================================================
+
+impl TermSlice {
+    fn empty_arc_swap() -> Arc<ArcSwap<Self>> {
+        Arc::new(ArcSwap::from(Self::empty()))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Accumulates one batch's postings for a single term in a flat,
+/// allocation-light layout. Tokens are appended directly as they stream out
+/// of the tokenizer (`observe`), so there is no intermediate per-document map
+/// or per-`(term, doc)` `Vec` — the dominant insert-path allocation cost.
+///
+/// `row_positions[i]`/`frequencies[i]` describe the i-th document this term
+/// appears in (documents are observed in ascending row order, so
+/// `row_positions` is sorted). `pos_data` is every position concatenated in
+/// document order; document `i`'s slice is delimited by the `frequencies`
+/// prefix sum, materialized into a CSR `Positions` at `build`.
+struct BatchTermBuilder {
+    row_positions: Vec<u64>,
+    frequencies: Vec<u32>,
+    pos_data: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl BatchTermBuilder {
+    /// Start a builder seeded with the term's first observed occurrence.
+    fn with_first(row_position: u64, position: u32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            row_positions: vec![row_position],
+            frequencies: vec![1],
+            pos_data: vec![position],
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Record one token occurrence of this term at `position` in document
+    /// `row_position`. Documents must be observed in non-decreasing row order.
+    fn observe(&mut self, row_position: u64, position: u32) {
+        if self.row_positions.last().copied() != Some(row_position) {
+            self.row_positions.push(row_position);
+            self.frequencies.push(0);
+        }
+        *self.frequencies.last_mut().expect("seeded on construction") += 1;
+        self.pos_data.push(position);
+    }
+
+    /// Freeze the accumulated postings into a `TermChunk`. Positions are stored
+    /// only when `with_position` (the column's FTS index config) is set — the
+    /// same contract as the on-disk format and Lucene's
+    /// `DOCS_AND_FREQS_AND_POSITIONS` vs `DOCS_AND_FREQS`. Without positions,
+    /// term/BM25 search works but phrase search is unsupported.
+    fn build(self, batch_position: usize, with_position: bool) -> Arc<TermChunk> {
+        let positions = with_position.then(|| {
+            // CSR offsets are the frequency prefix sum.
+            let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(self.frequencies.len() + 1);
+            offsets.push(0u32);
+            let mut acc = 0u32;
+            for &f in &self.frequencies {
+                acc += f;
+                offsets.push(acc);
+            }
+            Positions {
+                offsets,
+                data: self.pos_data,
+            }
+        });
+        let max_freq = self.frequencies.iter().copied().max().unwrap_or(0);
+        Arc::new(TermChunk {
+            batch_position,
+            row_positions: self.row_positions,
+            frequencies: self.frequencies,
+            max_freq,
+            positions,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+fn index_text(
+    text: &str,
+    document_position: u64,
+    tokenizer: &mut dyn LanceTokenizer,
+    term_builders: &mut FxHashMap<Arc<str>, BatchTermBuilder>,
+) -> Result<u32> {
+    index_text_with_predicate(text, document_position, tokenizer, term_builders, |_| true)
+        .map(|(num_tokens, _)| num_tokens)
+}
+
+fn index_text_filtered(
+    text: &str,
+    document_position: u64,
+    tokenizer: &mut dyn LanceTokenizer,
+    term_builders: &mut FxHashMap<Arc<str>, BatchTermBuilder>,
+    allowed_terms: &FxHashSet<String>,
+) -> Result<(u32, bool)> {
+    index_text_with_predicate(text, document_position, tokenizer, term_builders, |term| {
+        allowed_terms.contains(term)
+    })
+}
+
+#[inline]
+fn index_text_with_predicate(
+    text: &str,
+    document_position: u64,
+    tokenizer: &mut dyn LanceTokenizer,
+    term_builders: &mut FxHashMap<Arc<str>, BatchTermBuilder>,
+    mut retain_term: impl FnMut(&str) -> bool,
+) -> Result<(u32, bool)> {
+    let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(text);
+    let mut num_tokens = 0u32;
+    let mut retained_term = false;
+    while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
+        let position = u32::try_from(token.position).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "token position overflow for document_position={document_position}: token_position={}",
+                token.position
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let term = token.text.as_str();
+        if retain_term(term) {
+            retained_term = true;
+            if let Some(builder) = term_builders.get_mut(term) {
+                builder.observe(document_position, position);
+            } else {
+                term_builders.insert(
+                    Arc::<str>::from(term),
+                    BatchTermBuilder::with_first(document_position, position),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        num_tokens = num_tokens.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "token count overflow for document_position={document_position}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+    }
+    Ok((num_tokens, retained_term))
+}
+
+fn has_visible_chunk(slice: &TermSlice, visible_count: usize) -> bool {
+    slice.chunks().any(|c| c.batch_position < visible_count)
+}
+
+fn lookup_document(snap: &Snapshot, document_position: u64) -> Option<DocumentMetadata> {
+    snap.batches
+        .iter()
+        .find_map(|batch| batch.document(document_position).cloned())
+}
+
+fn lookup_dl(snap: &Snapshot, document_position: u64) -> Option<u32> {
+    lookup_document(snap, document_position).map(|document| document.num_tokens)
+}
+
+fn find_doc_in_chunks(
+    chunks: &[Arc<TermChunk>],
+    document_position: u64,
+) -> Option<(&Arc<TermChunk>, usize)> {
+    for chunk in chunks {
+        if let Ok(idx) = chunk.row_positions.binary_search(&document_position) {
+            return Some((chunk, idx));
+        }
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+/// Build a corpus-wide BM25 scorer for the (deduplicated) query tokens. A
+/// single scorer makes partition-WAND scores and tail-scan scores directly
+/// comparable. The corpus stats span exactly what the caller searches: the
+/// frozen partitions always, plus the tail when `include_tail` is set (in
+/// which case `tail_snap` must be the *same* snapshot the caller scans, so the
+/// stats and the scanned postings stay mutually consistent).
+fn build_scorer(
+    st: &IndexState,
+    tail_snap: &Snapshot,
+    tokens: &[String],
+    include_tail: bool,
+) -> MemBM25Scorer {
+    let (mut total_tokens, mut num_docs) = if include_tail {
+        (
+            tail_snap.cumulative_total_tokens,
+            tail_snap.cumulative_doc_count as usize,
+        )
+    } else {
+        (0, 0)
+    };
+    for p in st.partitions.iter() {
+        total_tokens += p.total_tokens();
+        num_docs += p.doc_count();
+    }
+    let mut token_docs: HashMap<String, usize> = HashMap::new();
+    for token in tokens {
+        if token_docs.contains_key(token) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let mut df = if include_tail {
+            tail_token_df(&st.tail.terms, token, tail_snap.visible_count)
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        for p in st.partitions.iter() {
+            df += p.token_df(token);
+        }
+        token_docs.insert(token.clone(), df);
+    }
+    MemBM25Scorer::new(total_tokens, num_docs, token_docs)
+}
+
+/// Number of visible tail docs containing `token`.
+fn tail_token_df(
+    terms: &SkipMap<Arc<str>, Arc<ArcSwap<TermSlice>>>,
+    token: &str,
+    visible_count: usize,
+) -> usize {
+    match terms.get(token) {
+        Some(e) => e
+            .value()
+            .load()
+            .chunks()
+            .filter(|c| c.batch_position < visible_count)
+            .map(|c| c.doc_count())
+            .sum(),
+        None => 0,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Score `tokens` against the visible tail, summing each token's BM25
+/// contribution per document. Uses the shared corpus-wide `scorer`.
+///
+/// `retain_zero_weight_matches` is reserved for query-local residual postings
+/// scored with committed-index statistics. A term absent from the committed
+/// corpus has zero BM25 weight, but its fresh matching rows must remain visible
+/// to compound membership and MUST_NOT evaluation.
+fn score_terms(
+    snap: &Snapshot,
+    terms: &SkipMap<Arc<str>, Arc<ArcSwap<TermSlice>>>,
+    tokens: &[String],
+    operator: Operator,
+    scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    theta: f32,
+    retain_zero_weight_matches: bool,
+) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+    // Per-token tail data + its score upper bound (max freq over visible chunks,
+    // scored at the most generous doc length of 1). If even the sum of those
+    // bounds cannot beat the current top-k threshold, no tail doc can enter the
+    // results, so skip the whole tail scan. Sound: `doc_weight` is monotone.
+    let mut tail_ub = 0.0f32;
+    let mut tail_terms: Vec<(f32, Arc<TermSlice>)> = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+    for token in tokens {
+        let Some(entry) = terms.get(token.as_str()) else {
+            if operator == Operator::And {
+                return Vec::new();
+            }
+            continue;
+        };
+        let qw = scorer.query_weight(token);
+        if qw == 0.0 && !retain_zero_weight_matches {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let slice = entry.value().load_full();
+        let max_freq = slice
+            .chunks()
+            .filter(|c| c.batch_position < snap.visible_count)
+            .map(|c| c.max_freq)
+            .max()
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        if qw != 0.0 {
+            tail_ub += qw * scorer.doc_weight(max_freq, 1);
+        }
+        tail_terms.push((qw, slice));
+    }
+    if tail_ub <= theta {
+        return Vec::new();
+    }
+    let mut doc_scores: HashMap<u64, f32> = HashMap::new();
+    let mut doc_hits: Option<HashMap<u64, u32>> = (operator == Operator::And).then(HashMap::new);
+    for (qw, slice) in tail_terms {
+        for chunk in slice.chunks() {
+            if chunk.batch_position >= snap.visible_count {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(meta) = snap.batch_for(chunk.batch_position) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            for (i, &document_position) in chunk.row_positions.iter().enumerate() {
+                let score = if qw == 0.0 {
+                    0.0
+                } else {
+                    let dl = meta.dl(document_position).unwrap_or(1);
+                    qw * scorer.doc_weight(chunk.frequencies[i], dl)
+                };
+                *doc_scores.entry(document_position).or_default() += score;
+                if let Some(doc_hits) = &mut doc_hits {
+                    *doc_hits.entry(document_position).or_default() += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    doc_scores
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|(document_position, _)| {
+            operator == Operator::Or
+                || doc_hits
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|doc_hits| doc_hits.get(document_position))
+                    .is_some_and(|hits| *hits >= tokens.len() as u32)
+        })
+        .filter_map(|(document_position, score)| {
+            lookup_document(snap, document_position).map(|document| FtsEntry {
+                row_position: document.key.row_position,
+                doc_index: public_doc_index(&document.key.doc_index),
+                score,
+            })
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Phrase-search the visible tail. Callers shortcut the single-token case, so
+/// `tokens.len() >= 2` here. Scored with the shared corpus-wide `scorer`.
+fn phrase_search_tail(
+    snap: &Snapshot,
+    terms: &SkipMap<Arc<str>, Arc<ArcSwap<TermSlice>>>,
+    tokens: &[String],
+    slop: u32,
+    scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+    // Gather visible chunks per query token; any missing token => no match.
+    let mut per_token_chunks: Vec<Vec<Arc<TermChunk>>> = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+    for tok in tokens {
+        match terms.get(tok.as_str()) {
+            Some(entry) => {
+                let slice = entry.value().load_full();
+                let visible: Vec<Arc<TermChunk>> = slice
+                    .chunks()
+                    .filter(|c| c.batch_position < snap.visible_count)
+                    .cloned()
+                    .collect();
+                if visible.is_empty() {
+                    return Vec::new();
+                }
+                per_token_chunks.push(visible);
+            }
+            None => return Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+    // Drive the intersection from the rarest token to bound work.
+    let smallest_idx = (0..per_token_chunks.len())
+        .min_by_key(|&i| {
+            per_token_chunks[i]
+                .iter()
+                .map(|c| c.doc_count())
+                .sum::<usize>()
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut results = Vec::new();
+    for chunk in &per_token_chunks[smallest_idx] {
+        for (doc_idx, &document_position) in chunk.row_positions.iter().enumerate() {
+            let Some(pos) = chunk
+                .positions
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|p| p.doc_positions(doc_idx).to_vec())
+            else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let mut all_positions: Vec<Vec<u32>> = vec![Vec::new(); tokens.len()];
+            all_positions[smallest_idx] = pos;
+            let mut frequencies = vec![0u32; tokens.len()];
+            frequencies[smallest_idx] = chunk.frequencies[doc_idx];
+            let mut all_present = true;
+            for (ti, chunks) in per_token_chunks.iter().enumerate() {
+                if ti == smallest_idx {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                match find_doc_in_chunks(chunks, document_position) {
+                    Some((c, other_idx)) => {
+                        frequencies[ti] = c.frequencies[other_idx];
+                        all_positions[ti] = c
+                            .positions
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .map(|p| p.doc_positions(other_idx).to_vec())
+                            .unwrap_or_default();
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        all_present = false;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if !all_present || !phrase_matches(&all_positions, slop) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let dl = lookup_dl(snap, document_position).unwrap_or(1);
+            let score: f32 = tokens
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(ti, tok)| scorer.query_weight(tok) * scorer.doc_weight(frequencies[ti], dl))
+                .sum();
+            if let Some(document) = lookup_document(snap, document_position) {
+                results.push(FtsEntry {
+                    row_position: document.key.row_position,
+                    doc_index: public_doc_index(&document.key.doc_index),
+                    score,
+                });
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    results
+}
+
+#[derive(Default, Clone)]
+struct PhraseGroupDoc {
+    positions: Vec<u32>,
+    score: f32,
+}
+
+struct PhraseCandidate {
+    positions_by_group: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+    score: f32,
+}
+
+fn merge_phrase_group<K>(
+    candidates: &mut Option<HashMap<K, PhraseCandidate>>,
+    group_idx: usize,
+    group_count: usize,
+    group_docs: HashMap<K, PhraseGroupDoc>,
+) -> bool
+where
+    K: Eq + std::hash::Hash,
+{
+    let Some(current) = candidates.as_mut() else {
+        *candidates = Some(
+            group_docs
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(doc, group_doc)| {
+                    let mut positions_by_group = vec![Vec::new(); group_count];
+                    positions_by_group[group_idx] = group_doc.positions;
+                    (
+                        doc,
+                        PhraseCandidate {
+                            positions_by_group,
+                            score: group_doc.score,
+                        },
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        );
+        return true;
+    };
+
+    current.retain(|doc, candidate| {
+        if let Some(group_doc) = group_docs.get(doc) {
+            candidate.positions_by_group[group_idx] = group_doc.positions.clone();
+            candidate.score += group_doc.score;
+            true
+        } else {
+            false
+        }
+    });
+    !current.is_empty()
+}
+
+fn phrase_search_tail_groups(
+    snap: &Snapshot,
+    terms: &SkipMap<Arc<str>, Arc<ArcSwap<TermSlice>>>,
+    groups: &[Vec<String>],
+    slop: u32,
+    scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+    let mut candidates: Option<HashMap<DocumentKey, PhraseCandidate>> = None;
+    for (group_idx, group) in groups.iter().enumerate() {
+        let group_docs = tail_phrase_group_docs(snap, terms, group, scorer);
+        if group_docs.is_empty()
+            || !merge_phrase_group(&mut candidates, group_idx, groups.len(), group_docs)
+        {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+    }
+
+    candidates
+        .unwrap_or_default()
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|(_, candidate)| phrase_matches(&candidate.positions_by_group, slop))
+        .map(|(key, candidate)| FtsEntry {
+            row_position: key.row_position,
+            doc_index: public_doc_index(&key.doc_index),
+            score: candidate.score,
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn tail_phrase_group_docs(
+    snap: &Snapshot,
+    terms: &SkipMap<Arc<str>, Arc<ArcSwap<TermSlice>>>,
+    group: &[String],
+    scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+) -> HashMap<DocumentKey, PhraseGroupDoc> {
+    let mut docs: HashMap<DocumentKey, PhraseGroupDoc> = HashMap::new();
+    for token in group {
+        let Some(entry) = terms.get(token.as_str()) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let qw = scorer.query_weight(token);
+        let slice = entry.value().load_full();
+        for chunk in slice.chunks() {
+            if chunk.batch_position >= snap.visible_count {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let Some(meta) = snap.batch_for(chunk.batch_position) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let Some(positions) = &chunk.positions else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            for (i, &document_position) in chunk.row_positions.iter().enumerate() {
+                let Some(document) = meta.document(document_position) else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                let entry = docs.entry(document.key.clone()).or_default();
+                entry
+                    .positions
+                    .extend_from_slice(positions.doc_positions(i));
+                let dl = document.num_tokens;
+                entry.score += qw * scorer.doc_weight(chunk.frequencies[i], dl);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    for doc in docs.values_mut() {
+        doc.positions.sort_unstable();
+        doc.positions.dedup();
+    }
+    docs
+}
+
+fn phrase_matches<T: AsRef<[u32]>>(positions: &[T], slop: u32) -> bool {
+    if positions.is_empty() {
+        return false;
+    }
+    for &first_pos in positions[0].as_ref() {
+        if phrase_from_position(positions, first_pos, slop) {
+            return true;
+        }
+    }
+    false
+}
+
+fn phrase_from_position<T: AsRef<[u32]>>(positions: &[T], first_pos: u32, slop: u32) -> bool {
+    let mut expected = first_pos;
+    for token_positions in positions.iter().skip(1) {
+        let min = expected.saturating_add(1);
+        let max = expected.saturating_add(1 + slop);
+        match token_positions
+            .as_ref()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|&&p| p >= min && p <= max)
+            .min()
+        {
+            Some(&p) => expected = p,
+            None => return false,
+        }
+    }
+    true
+}
+
+/// Loosen `anchor` by `factor`, in the direction that admits *more* results
+/// whatever the sign.
+///
+/// For a non-negative anchor this is exactly `anchor * factor`, the form this
+/// has always used — `|x| == x` there, so `anchor - (1 - f) * anchor == anchor *
+/// f`. The two only diverge once scores can be negative, which a boost query's
+/// `positive - negative_boost * negative` makes reachable: multiplying a
+/// negative anchor by a factor below one moves the threshold *up*, tightening
+/// the filter rather than loosening it, and can then discard the entire top-k.
+fn relaxed_score_threshold(anchor: f32, factor: f32) -> f32 {
+    anchor - (1.0 - factor) * anchor.abs()
+}
+
+/// Evaluate a query tree, combining its clauses over leaves scored by
+/// `eval_leaf`.
+///
+/// The clause algebra is the contract the committed compound scorer applies:
+/// MUST intersects and sums (`RequiredConjunctionScorer`), SHOULD sums into the
+/// surviving set (`DisjunctionScore::Sum`), MUST_NOT excludes, a boost
+/// subtracts `negative_boost * negative_score`, and a multi-match keeps each
+/// document's best child (`DisjunctionScore::Max`). It is the same whether the
+/// leaves all come from one index or from one index per column — only
+/// `eval_leaf` differs.
+fn combine_compound<F>(expr: &FtsQueryExpr, eval_leaf: &F) -> Vec<FtsEntry>
+where
+    F: Fn(&FtsQueryExpr) -> Vec<FtsEntry>,
+{
+    match expr {
+        FtsQueryExpr::Boolean {
+            must,
+            should,
+            must_not,
+        } => combine_boolean(must, should, must_not, eval_leaf),
+        FtsQueryExpr::Boost {
+            positive,
+            negative,
+            negative_boost,
+        } => combine_boost(positive, negative.as_deref(), *negative_boost, eval_leaf),
+        FtsQueryExpr::MultiMatch { children } => combine_multi_match(children, eval_leaf),
+        leaf => eval_leaf(leaf),
+    }
+}
+
+fn combine_multi_match<F>(children: &[FtsQueryExpr], eval_leaf: &F) -> Vec<FtsEntry>
+where
+    F: Fn(&FtsQueryExpr) -> Vec<FtsEntry>,
+{
+    // A document matching several children is in several result sets and
+    // comes back once, at the highest of its scores.
+    let mut best: HashMap<DocumentKey, f32> = HashMap::new();
+    for child in children {
+        for entry in combine_compound(child, eval_leaf) {
+            best.entry(entry.key())
+                .and_modify(|score| *score = score.max(entry.score))
+                .or_insert(entry.score);
+        }
+    }
+    best.into_iter()
+        .map(|(key, score)| FtsEntry {
+            row_position: key.row_position,
+            doc_index: public_doc_index(&key.doc_index),
+            score,
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn combine_boost<F>(
+    positive: &FtsQueryExpr,
+    negative: Option<&FtsQueryExpr>,
+    negative_boost: f32,
+    eval_leaf: &F,
+) -> Vec<FtsEntry>
+where
+    F: Fn(&FtsQueryExpr) -> Vec<FtsEntry>,
+{
+    let mut results = combine_compound(positive, eval_leaf);
+    let Some(neg) = negative else {
+        return results;
+    };
+    let negative_results = combine_compound(neg, eval_leaf);
+    // Subtractive, matching the compound scorer's contract exactly:
+    // `positive - negative_boost * negative_score` for a document the
+    // negative clause also matches, `positive` otherwise
+    // (`BoostScorer::score`). The negative *score* is needed, not just
+    // membership, which is why this keeps a map rather than a set.
+    //
+    // Scores may go negative; only non-finite values are an error upstream
+    // (`checked_score`), so nothing is clamped here.
+    let negative_scores: HashMap<DocumentKey, f32> = negative_results
+        .iter()
+        .map(|entry| (entry.key(), entry.score))
+        .collect();
+    for entry in &mut results {
+        if let Some(negative) = negative_scores.get(&entry.key()) {
+            entry.score -= negative_boost * negative;
+        }
+    }
+    results
+}
+
+fn combine_boolean<F>(
+    must: &[FtsQueryExpr],
+    should: &[FtsQueryExpr],
+    must_not: &[FtsQueryExpr],
+    eval_leaf: &F,
+) -> Vec<FtsEntry>
+where
+    F: Fn(&FtsQueryExpr) -> Vec<FtsEntry>,
+{
+    let excluded: HashSet<DocumentKey> = must_not
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|q| combine_compound(q, eval_leaf))
+        .map(|entry| entry.key())
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut result_map: HashMap<DocumentKey, f32> = if must.is_empty() {
+        let mut map: HashMap<DocumentKey, f32> = HashMap::new();
+        for q in should {
+            for entry in combine_compound(q, eval_leaf) {
+                *map.entry(entry.key()).or_default() += entry.score;
+            }
+        }
+        map
+    } else {
+        let first_results = combine_compound(&must[0], eval_leaf);
+        let mut map: HashMap<DocumentKey, f32> = first_results
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|entry| (entry.key(), entry.score))
+            .collect();
+        for q in must.iter().skip(1) {
+            let results = combine_compound(q, eval_leaf);
+            let result_set: HashMap<DocumentKey, f32> = results
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|entry| (entry.key(), entry.score))
+                .collect();
+            map = map
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter_map(|(pos, score)| result_set.get(&pos).map(|s| (pos, score + s)))
+                .collect();
+        }
+        for q in should {
+            for entry in combine_compound(q, eval_leaf) {
+                if let Some(score) = map.get_mut(&entry.key()) {
+                    *score += entry.score;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        map
+    };
+
+    for pos in &excluded {
+        result_map.remove(pos);
+    }
+
+    result_map
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|(key, score)| FtsEntry {
+            row_position: key.row_position,
+            doc_index: public_doc_index(&key.doc_index),
+            score,
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Evaluate a tree whose leaves may name different columns, routing each leaf
+/// to the index holding its column.
+///
+/// `max_row_position` bounds every leaf to one visibility cut; see
+/// [`FtsMemIndex::search_leaf_bounded`] for why that matters here and not on
+/// the single-index path.
+///
+/// The routing is resolved before any leaf is scored, so a tree naming a column
+/// with no index fails outright instead of contributing a silently short arm.
+pub fn search_cross_column(
+    expr: &FtsQueryExpr,
+    indexes: &HashMap<&str, &FtsMemIndex>,
+    include_tail: bool,
+    max_row_position: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<Vec<FtsEntry>> {
+    if expr.has_unbound_leaf() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "cross-column full-text search needs every leaf bound to a column; \
+             there is no single index to fall back to"
+                .to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    if let Some(missing) = expr
+        .columns()
+        .into_iter()
+        .find(|column| !indexes.contains_key(column))
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "cross-column full-text search has no in-memory FTS index for column '{missing}'"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(combine_compound(expr, &|leaf| {
+        // Resolved above, so the tree and the index set cannot disagree here.
+        let Some(index) = leaf.column().and_then(|column| indexes.get(column)) else {
+            debug_assert!(false, "cross-column FTS leaf routing was validated");
+            return Vec::new();
+        };
+        index.search_leaf_bounded(leaf, include_tail, max_row_position)
+    }))
+}
+
+fn apply_boost(results: &mut [FtsEntry], boost: f32) {
+    if boost == 1.0 {
+        return;
+    }
+    for r in results.iter_mut() {
+        r.score *= boost;
+    }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Configuration
+// ============================================================================
+
+/// Configuration for a Full-Text Search index.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct FtsIndexConfig {
+    pub name: String,
+    pub field_id: i32,
+    pub column: String,
+    pub params: InvertedIndexParams,
+    pub(crate) resolved_field: Option<Arc<ResolvedFtsField>>,
+}
+
+/// `resolved_field` is a cache of the schema lookup, not part of what the index
+/// is, so two configs that resolve the same way are equal whether or not either
+/// has resolved yet.
+impl PartialEq for FtsIndexConfig {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.name == other.name
+            && self.field_id == other.field_id
+            && self.column == other.column
+            && self.params == other.params
+    }
+}
+
+impl FtsIndexConfig {
+    pub fn new(name: String, field_id: i32, column: String) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            name,
+            field_id,
+            column,
+            params: InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            resolved_field: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_params(
+        name: String,
+        field_id: i32,
+        column: String,
+        params: InvertedIndexParams,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::try_with_params(name, field_id, column, params)
+            .expect("invalid MemWAL FTS index config parameters")
+    }
+
+    pub fn try_with_params(
+        name: String,
+        field_id: i32,
+        column: String,
+        params: InvertedIndexParams,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        params.validate_format_version()?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            name,
+            field_id,
+            column,
+            params,
+            resolved_field: None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_resolved_field(mut self, resolved_field: ResolvedFtsField) -> Self {
+        self.resolved_field = Some(Arc::new(resolved_field));
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Immutable partition (compressed posting storage)
+// ============================================================================
+
+/// Docs per posting block. Blocks bound WAND skip granularity and carry the
+/// per-block score bound; a block's payload is self-delimiting.
+const POSTING_BLOCK: usize = 128;
+
+/// Number of docs in block `b` (0-based within a term) of a `doc_count`-long
+/// posting list.
+fn block_len(doc_count: u32, b: u32) -> usize {
+    (doc_count as usize - b as usize * POSTING_BLOCK).min(POSTING_BLOCK)
+}
+
+/// Append `v` as an unsigned LEB128 varint.
+fn put_varint(buf: &mut Vec<u8>, mut v: u64) {
+    loop {
+        let byte = (v & 0x7f) as u8;
+        v >>= 7;
+        if v == 0 {
+            buf.push(byte);
+            break;
+        }
+        buf.push(byte | 0x80);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Read an unsigned LEB128 varint from `buf` at `*pos`, advancing `*pos`.
+fn read_varint(buf: &[u8], pos: &mut usize) -> u64 {
+    let mut v = 0u64;
+    let mut shift = 0u32;
+    loop {
+        let byte = buf[*pos];
+        *pos += 1;
+        v |= ((byte & 0x7f) as u64) << shift;
+        if byte & 0x80 == 0 {
+            break;
+        }
+        shift += 7;
+    }
+    v
+}
+
+/// Bit width needed to represent `v` (0 for `v == 0`).
+fn bit_width(v: u32) -> u8 {
+    (32 - v.leading_zeros()) as u8
+}
+
+/// Pack `values` (each `< 2^width`) into `buf` as little-endian `width`-bit
+/// fields. `width == 0` writes nothing.
+fn bitpack_put(buf: &mut Vec<u8>, values: &[u32], width: u8) {
+    if width == 0 {
+        return;
+    }
+    let mut acc: u64 = 0;
+    let mut bits: u32 = 0;
+    for &v in values {
+        acc |= (v as u64) << bits;
+        bits += width as u32;
+        while bits >= 8 {
+            buf.push(acc as u8);
+            acc >>= 8;
+            bits -= 8;
+        }
+    }
+    if bits > 0 {
+        buf.push(acc as u8);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Unpack `n` little-endian `width`-bit values starting at `buf[start]`,
+/// appending them to `out`.
+fn bitpack_get(buf: &[u8], start: usize, n: usize, width: u8, out: &mut Vec<u32>) {
+    if width == 0 {
+        out.resize(out.len() + n, 0);
+        return;
+    }
+    let mask: u64 = if width >= 32 {
+        u32::MAX as u64
+    } else {
+        (1u64 << width) - 1
+    };
+    let mut acc: u64 = 0;
+    let mut bits: u32 = 0;
+    let mut byte = start;
+    for _ in 0..n {
+        while bits < width as u32 {
+            acc |= (buf[byte] as u64) << bits;
+            byte += 1;
+            bits += 8;
+        }
+        out.push((acc & mask) as u32);
+        acc >>= width;
+        bits -= width as u32;
+    }
+}
+
+/// Number of bytes a width-`width` bit-packed block of `n` values occupies.
+/// Identical for the scalar and `BitPacker4x` codecs.
+fn bitpack_len(n: usize, width: u8) -> usize {
+    (n * width as usize).div_ceil(8)
+}
+
+/// Bit-pack `values` into `buf`: SIMD `BitPacker4x` for a full 128-element
+/// block (the common-term hot path), scalar `bitpack_put` for a shorter
+/// final block.
+fn pack_block(bp: &BitPacker4x, buf: &mut Vec<u8>, values: &[u32], width: u8) {
+    if values.len() == POSTING_BLOCK && width > 0 {
+        let mut input = [0u32; POSTING_BLOCK];
+        input.copy_from_slice(values);
+        let mut out = [0u8; POSTING_BLOCK * 4];
+        let n = bp.compress(&input, &mut out, width);
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&out[..n]);
+    } else {
+        bitpack_put(buf, values, width);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Unpack `n` values of `width` bits from `buf[start..]` into `out` (cleared
+/// first) — SIMD for a full 128-element block, scalar otherwise.
+fn unpack_block(
+    bp: &BitPacker4x,
+    buf: &[u8],
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    width: u8,
+    out: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) {
+    out.clear();
+    if n == POSTING_BLOCK && width > 0 {
+        let mut decoded = [0u32; POSTING_BLOCK];
+        let bytes = bitpack_len(POSTING_BLOCK, width);
+        bp.decompress(&buf[start..start + bytes], &mut decoded, width);
+        out.extend_from_slice(&decoded);
+    } else {
+        bitpack_get(buf, start, n, width, out);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Bit width for a block of ascending doc ids encoded as consecutive gaps from
+/// `first` (`docs[0] == first`, so the leading gap is 0). This is far smaller
+/// than a frame-of-reference width (`bit_width(last - first)`) for dense terms —
+/// the width tracks the largest gap, not the block's span.
+fn doc_block_width(bp: &BitPacker4x, docs: &[u32], first: u32) -> u8 {
+    if docs.len() == POSTING_BLOCK {
+        let mut input = [0u32; POSTING_BLOCK];
+        input.copy_from_slice(docs);
+        bp.num_bits_sorted(first, &input)
+    } else {
+        let mut prev = first;
+        let mut max_gap = 0u32;
+        for &d in docs {
+            max_gap = max_gap.max(d - prev);
+            prev = d;
+        }
+        bit_width(max_gap)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Pack ascending doc ids as consecutive gaps from `first`: SIMD
+/// `compress_sorted` for a full block, scalar gaps otherwise.
+fn pack_doc_block(bp: &BitPacker4x, buf: &mut Vec<u8>, docs: &[u32], first: u32, width: u8) {
+    if docs.len() == POSTING_BLOCK && width > 0 {
+        let mut input = [0u32; POSTING_BLOCK];
+        input.copy_from_slice(docs);
+        let mut out = [0u8; POSTING_BLOCK * 4];
+        let n = bp.compress_sorted(first, &input, &mut out, width);
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&out[..n]);
+    } else {
+        let mut gaps: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(docs.len());
+        let mut prev = first;
+        for &d in docs {
+            gaps.push(d - prev);
+            prev = d;
+        }
+        bitpack_put(buf, &gaps, width);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Inverse of `pack_doc_block`: reconstruct ascending doc ids into `out`.
+fn unpack_doc_block(
+    bp: &BitPacker4x,
+    buf: &[u8],
+    start: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    width: u8,
+    first: u32,
+    out: &mut Vec<u32>,
+) {
+    out.clear();
+    if n == POSTING_BLOCK && width > 0 {
+        let mut decoded = [0u32; POSTING_BLOCK];
+        let bytes = bitpack_len(POSTING_BLOCK, width);
+        bp.decompress_sorted(first, &buf[start..start + bytes], &mut decoded, width);
+        out.extend_from_slice(&decoded);
+    } else {
+        bitpack_get(buf, start, n, width, out); // gaps
+        let mut acc = first;
+        for g in out.iter_mut() {
+            acc += *g;
+            *g = acc;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Random-access read of `n` width-`width` values at logical index `s` from a
+/// bit-packed stream whose first value starts at byte `base` of `buf`. Used to
+/// decode one document's positions without touching the rest of the block.
+fn bitpack_read_at(buf: &[u8], base: usize, s: usize, n: usize, width: u8, out: &mut Vec<u32>) {
+    if n == 0 {
+        return;
+    }
+    if width == 0 {
+        out.resize(out.len() + n, 0);
+        return;
+    }
+    let w = width as u32;
+    let mask: u64 = if w >= 32 {
+        u32::MAX as u64
+    } else {
+        (1u64 << w) - 1
+    };
+    let start_bit = s * width as usize;
+    let mut byte = base + start_bit / 8;
+    let skip = (start_bit % 8) as u32;
+    let mut acc = (buf[byte] as u64) >> skip;
+    let mut bits = 8 - skip;
+    byte += 1;
+    for _ in 0..n {
+        while bits < w {
+            acc |= (buf[byte] as u64) << bits;
+            byte += 1;
+            bits += 8;
+        }
+        out.push((acc & mask) as u32);
+        acc >>= w;
+        bits -= w;
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-128-doc-block metadata — enough to skip and score-bound a block
+/// without decoding its payload.
+/// One block's metadata, parsed on demand from the varint `block_bytes` stream
+/// by [`BlockReader`]. `df_offset`/`pos_offset`/`n` are reconstructed by the
+/// reader (the doc/freq offset is derived from per-block widths; the position
+/// offset accumulates the stored per-block byte length), so they are not stored.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct BlockMeta<'a> {
+    /// first / last doc id in the block (block doc ids are ascending).
+    first_doc: u32,
+    last_doc: u32,
+    /// start offset of the block's doc/freq payload in `doc_freq_data`.
+    df_offset: u32,
+    /// start offset of the block's position payload in `pos_data`.
+    pos_offset: u32,
+    /// number of docs in this block.
+    n: usize,
+    /// bit width of the packed doc-id gaps and freqs.
+    doc_width: u8,
+    freq_width: u8,
+    /// bit width of the packed position deltas.
+    pos_width: u8,
+    /// Block-local BM25 "impacts": the Pareto `(freq, dl)` frontier of the
+    /// block's docs (no doc dominated by another with both higher freq and
+    /// shorter length), stored as `impacts_len` varint pairs. Because
+    /// `doc_weight` rises with freq and falls with dl, the block's max score is
+    /// `max` over this frontier — a tight (exact) bound used to skip
+    /// non-competitive blocks (block-max WAND). A loose single `(max_freq,
+    /// min_dl)` pair would inflate the bound and defeat skipping.
+    impacts: &'a [u8],
+    impacts_len: u32,
+}
+
+impl BlockMeta<'_> {
+    /// Tight block-max BM25 bound: `qw * max_d doc_weight(freq_d, dl_d)` over the
+    /// block, evaluated at the Pareto frontier (the only docs that can be the max
+    /// for any `avgdl`). Sound: every block doc is dominated by a frontier point.
+    fn block_ub(&self, scorer: &MemBM25Scorer, qw: f32) -> f32 {
+        let mut pos = 0usize;
+        let mut best = 0.0f32;
+        for _ in 0..self.impacts_len {
+            let freq = read_varint(self.impacts, &mut pos) as u32;
+            let dl = read_varint(self.impacts, &mut pos) as u32;
+            best = best.max(scorer.doc_weight(freq, dl));
+        }
+        qw * best
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-term locator. The term's per-block metadata lives in the partition's
+/// `block_bytes` varint stream starting at `meta_offset`.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct PostingRef {
+    /// byte offset of the term's metadata in `block_bytes`.
+    meta_offset: u32,
+    /// number of blocks the term spans.
+    block_count: u32,
+    /// number of docs (postings) for the term.
+    doc_count: u32,
+}
+
+/// Forward-sequential parser over a term's blocks in `block_bytes`. The cursor
+/// only ever moves forward (new -> block 0; advance -> next; skip_to walks
+/// forward), so block metadata is parsed on demand instead of being stored as a
+/// 32-byte struct per block.
+struct BlockReader<'a> {
+    bytes: &'a [u8],
+    pos: usize,
+    doc_count: u32,
+    block_count: u32,
+    block_idx: u32,
+    prev_last_doc: u32,
+    df_offset: usize,
+    pos_offset: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a> BlockReader<'a> {
+    fn new(part: &'a Partition, pref: &PostingRef) -> Self {
+        let mut pos = pref.meta_offset as usize;
+        let df_offset = read_varint(&part.block_bytes, &mut pos) as usize;
+        let pos_offset = read_varint(&part.block_bytes, &mut pos) as usize;
+        Self {
+            bytes: &part.block_bytes,
+            pos,
+            doc_count: pref.doc_count,
+            block_count: pref.block_count,
+            block_idx: 0,
+            prev_last_doc: 0,
+            df_offset,
+            pos_offset,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Parse the next block's metadata (without decoding its payload), advancing
+    /// the derived doc/freq and position offsets. `None` once exhausted.
+    fn next_meta(&mut self) -> Option<BlockMeta<'a>> {
+        if self.block_idx >= self.block_count {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let n = block_len(self.doc_count, self.block_idx);
+        let first_field = read_varint(self.bytes, &mut self.pos) as u32;
+        let first_doc = if self.block_idx == 0 {
+            first_field
+        } else {
+            self.prev_last_doc + first_field
+        };
+        let last_doc = first_doc + read_varint(self.bytes, &mut self.pos) as u32;
+        let doc_width = self.bytes[self.pos];
+        let freq_width = self.bytes[self.pos + 1];
+        let pos_width = self.bytes[self.pos + 2];
+        self.pos += 3;
+        let pos_bytes = read_varint(self.bytes, &mut self.pos) as usize;
+        // Pareto `(freq, dl)` frontier: a count followed by that many varint
+        // pairs. Capture the pair bytes as a slice and skip past them.
+        let impacts_len = read_varint(self.bytes, &mut self.pos) as u32;
+        let impacts_start = self.pos;
+        for _ in 0..impacts_len {
+            read_varint(self.bytes, &mut self.pos);
+            read_varint(self.bytes, &mut self.pos);
+        }
+        let bm = BlockMeta {
+            first_doc,
+            last_doc,
+            df_offset: self.df_offset as u32,
+            pos_offset: self.pos_offset as u32,
+            n,
+            doc_width,
+            freq_width,
+            pos_width,
+            impacts: &self.bytes[impacts_start..self.pos],
+            impacts_len,
+        };
+        self.df_offset += bitpack_len(n, doc_width) + bitpack_len(n, freq_width);
+        self.pos_offset += pos_bytes;
+        self.prev_last_doc = last_doc;
+        self.block_idx += 1;
+        Some(bm)
+    }
+}
+
+/// An immutable, frozen FTS partition. Posting lists are byte-compressed
+/// (VByte + delta, 128-doc blocks) into three shared buffers, so per-term
+/// overhead is one `PostingRef`. See `compress-fts-partition-memory/DESIGN.md`.
+struct Partition {
+    /// Term dictionary: a compact FST mapping each term's bytes to its local
+    /// term id (0-based, dense, in sorted order). Replaces a sorted
+    /// `Box<[Arc<str>]>` searched by binary search; smaller (prefix-shared, no
+    /// per-term pointers) with O(term length) lookup.
+    term_fst: Map<Vec<u8>>,
+    /// per term, indexed by the FST's term id.
+    postings: Box<[PostingRef]>,
+    /// per-term, per-block metadata as a varint stream (see [`BlockReader`]) —
+    /// replaces a 32-byte `BlockMeta` struct per block.
+    block_bytes: Box<[u8]>,
+    /// VByte(doc-id gaps) then VByte(freqs) for every block, concatenated.
+    doc_freq_data: Box<[u8]>,
+    /// per doc per block: VByte(count) then VByte(delta positions), concatenated.
+    pos_data: Box<[u8]>,
+    /// local doc id -> (MemTable row position, token count).
+    docs: DocSet,
+}
+
+/// Maximum stored `(freq, dl)` impacts per block. The frontier can't exceed the
+/// number of distinct freqs in a block, so it is naturally small; beyond this a
+/// block falls back to the single loose `(max_freq, min_dl)` point (still a sound
+/// bound), capping storage for rare high-freq-variance blocks.
+const MAX_BLOCK_IMPACTS: usize = 16;
+
+/// Pareto `(freq, dl)` frontier of a block's docs: the points not dominated by
+/// another with both `freq' >= freq` and `dl' <= dl`. Since `doc_weight` rises
+/// with freq and falls with dl, the block's max BM25 score for ANY `avgdl` is
+/// reached on this frontier — so `max` over it is a tight (exact) block bound.
+/// `pairs` is sorted in place.
+fn block_impacts(pairs: &mut [(u32, u32)]) -> Vec<(u32, u32)> {
+    // dl ascending, then freq descending: sweep keeping a running max freq; a
+    // point joins the frontier iff its freq exceeds every point with a
+    // smaller-or-equal dl seen so far (each added point has a strictly larger
+    // freq, so |frontier| <= distinct freqs).
+    pairs.sort_unstable_by(|a, b| a.1.cmp(&b.1).then(b.0.cmp(&a.0)));
+    let mut frontier: Vec<(u32, u32)> = Vec::new();
+    let mut max_f = 0u32;
+    for &(f, d) in pairs.iter() {
+        if frontier.is_empty() || f > max_f {
+            frontier.push((f, d.max(1)));
+            max_f = f;
+        }
+    }
+    if frontier.len() > MAX_BLOCK_IMPACTS {
+        let max_freq = frontier.iter().map(|&(f, _)| f).max().unwrap_or(0);
+        let min_dl = frontier.iter().map(|&(_, d)| d).min().unwrap_or(1).max(1);
+        return vec![(max_freq, min_dl)];
+    }
+    frontier
+}
+
+/// Build a partition from `(term, sorted (doc, freq, positions))` entries.
+/// Each term's docs must already be sorted ascending by doc id.
+fn build_partition(
+    mut entries: Vec<(Arc<str>, Vec<(u32, u32, Vec<u32>)>)>,
+    docs: DocSet,
+) -> Partition {
+    entries.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.cmp(&b.0));
+    let bp = BitPacker4x::new();
+    // Terms are inserted in sorted order; the FST value is the dense term id.
+    let mut term_builder = fst::MapBuilder::memory();
+    let mut postings = Vec::with_capacity(entries.len());
+    let mut block_bytes: Vec<u8> = Vec::new();
+    let mut doc_freq_data: Vec<u8> = Vec::new();
+    let mut pos_data: Vec<u8> = Vec::new();
+    for (term, docs_for_term) in entries {
+        let doc_count = docs_for_term.len() as u32;
+        let meta_offset = block_bytes.len() as u32;
+        // Term-level start offsets; per-block doc/freq offsets are derived from
+        // widths, position offsets accumulate the stored per-block byte length.
+        put_varint(&mut block_bytes, doc_freq_data.len() as u64);
+        put_varint(&mut block_bytes, pos_data.len() as u64);
+        let mut block_count = 0u32;
+        let mut prev_last_doc = 0u32;
+        for chunk in docs_for_term.chunks(POSTING_BLOCK) {
+            let pos_offset_before = pos_data.len();
+            let first_doc = chunk[0].0;
+            let last_doc = chunk[chunk.len() - 1].0;
+            // doc ids: bit-pack consecutive gaps from `first_doc` (width tracks
+            // the largest gap, not the block span — much tighter for dense terms).
+            let docs_block: Vec<u32> = chunk.iter().map(|&(d, _, _)| d).collect();
+            let doc_width = doc_block_width(&bp, &docs_block, first_doc);
+            pack_doc_block(&bp, &mut doc_freq_data, &docs_block, first_doc, doc_width);
+            // frequencies: bit-pack at a fixed block width.
+            let blk_max_freq = chunk.iter().map(|&(_, f, _)| f).max().unwrap_or(0);
+            let freq_width = bit_width(blk_max_freq);
+            let freqs: Vec<u32> = chunk.iter().map(|&(_, f, _)| f).collect();
+            pack_block(&bp, &mut doc_freq_data, &freqs, freq_width);
+            // positions: one bit-packed delta stream for the whole block.
+            // A doc's position count equals its frequency, so no count is
+            // stored — doc `i`'s slice is found from the freq prefix sum.
+            let mut pos_deltas: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
+            let mut pairs: Vec<(u32, u32)> = Vec::with_capacity(chunk.len());
+            for &(d, f, ref positions) in chunk {
+                let mut prev_p = 0u32;
+                for &p in positions {
+                    pos_deltas.push(p - prev_p);
+                    prev_p = p;
+                }
+                pairs.push((f, docs.num_tokens(d)));
+            }
+            let pos_width = bit_width(pos_deltas.iter().copied().max().unwrap_or(0));
+            bitpack_put(&mut pos_data, &pos_deltas, pos_width);
+            // Emit the block's varint metadata record.
+            let first_field = if block_count == 0 {
+                first_doc
+            } else {
+                first_doc - prev_last_doc
+            };
+            put_varint(&mut block_bytes, first_field as u64);
+            put_varint(&mut block_bytes, (last_doc - first_doc) as u64);
+            block_bytes.push(doc_width);
+            block_bytes.push(freq_width);
+            block_bytes.push(pos_width);
+            put_varint(
+                &mut block_bytes,
+                (pos_data.len() - pos_offset_before) as u64,
+            );
+            // Block-max impacts: the Pareto (freq, dl) frontier, as a count then
+            // that many varint pairs (read back by `BlockReader::next_meta`).
+            let impacts = block_impacts(&mut pairs);
+            put_varint(&mut block_bytes, impacts.len() as u64);
+            for (f, d) in impacts {
+                put_varint(&mut block_bytes, f as u64);
+                put_varint(&mut block_bytes, d as u64);
+            }
+            prev_last_doc = last_doc;
+            block_count += 1;
+        }
+        let term_id = postings.len() as u64;
+        postings.push(PostingRef {
+            meta_offset,
+            block_count,
+            doc_count,
+        });
+        term_builder
+            .insert(term.as_bytes(), term_id)
+            .expect("terms inserted in sorted, unique order");
+    }
+    let term_fst =
+        Map::new(term_builder.into_inner().expect("fst build")).expect("valid fst bytes");
+    Partition {
+        term_fst,
+        postings: postings.into_boxed_slice(),
+        block_bytes: block_bytes.into_boxed_slice(),
+        doc_freq_data: doc_freq_data.into_boxed_slice(),
+        pos_data: pos_data.into_boxed_slice(),
+        docs,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Pick a size tier (partitions bucketed by `floor(log2(doc_count))`) holding
+/// at least `factor` partitions and return its members to merge. Prefers the
+/// smallest such tier, so a merge fuses similarly-sized partitions and total
+/// merge work stays amortized (a partition is re-merged only as it climbs
+/// tiers). `None` when no tier is over-full.
+fn select_merge_group(partitions: &[Arc<Partition>], factor: usize) -> Option<Vec<Arc<Partition>>> {
+    let mut buckets: HashMap<u32, Vec<Arc<Partition>>> = HashMap::new();
+    for p in partitions {
+        let tier = u64::BITS - (p.doc_count().max(1) as u64).leading_zeros();
+        buckets.entry(tier).or_default().push(p.clone());
+    }
+    buckets
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|(_, g)| g.len() >= factor)
+        .min_by_key(|(tier, _)| *tier)
+        .map(|(_, g)| g)
+}
+
+impl Partition {
+    fn doc_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.docs.len()
+    }
+
+    fn total_tokens(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.docs.total_tokens_num()
+    }
+
+    fn entry_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.postings.iter().map(|p| p.doc_count as usize).sum()
+    }
+
+    /// Local term id of `token`, via the FST term dictionary.
+    fn term_id(&self, token: &str) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.term_fst.get(token.as_bytes()).map(|v| v as u32)
+    }
+
+    fn contains_token(&self, token: &str) -> bool {
+        self.term_id(token).is_some()
+    }
+
+    /// All terms, indexed by term id (recovered from the FST). Used by the
+    /// flush, merge, and fuzzy-expansion paths; not on the hot search path.
+    fn collect_terms(&self) -> Vec<Arc<str>> {
+        let mut out: Vec<Arc<str>> = vec![Arc::from(""); self.term_fst.len()];
+        let mut stream = self.term_fst.stream();
+        while let Some((key, id)) = stream.next() {
+            out[id as usize] = Arc::from(std::str::from_utf8(key).expect("utf8 term"));
+        }
+        out
+    }
+
+    /// Exact upper bound on a term's BM25 contribution to any doc: the max over
+    /// its per-block impact frontiers. Walks block metadata (no payload decode),
+    /// so it is cheap relative to scoring; used as the MaxScore lane bound.
+    fn term_ub(&self, term_id: u32, scorer: &MemBM25Scorer, qw: f32) -> f32 {
+        let pref = self.postings[term_id as usize];
+        let mut reader = BlockReader::new(self, &pref);
+        let mut ub = 0.0f32;
+        while let Some(bm) = reader.next_meta() {
+            ub = ub.max(bm.block_ub(scorer, qw));
+        }
+        ub
+    }
+
+    /// Number of docs in this partition containing `token`.
+    fn token_df(&self, token: &str) -> usize {
+        self.term_id(token)
+            .map(|id| self.postings[id as usize].doc_count as usize)
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        std::mem::size_of::<Self>()
+            + self.term_fst.as_fst().as_bytes().len()
+            + self.postings.len() * std::mem::size_of::<PostingRef>()
+            + self.block_bytes.len()
+            + self.doc_freq_data.len()
+            + self.pos_data.len()
+            + self.docs.len() * (std::mem::size_of::<u64>() + 2 * std::mem::size_of::<u32>())
+    }
+
+    /// Freeze the visible contents of `tail` into a new partition. Returns
+    /// `None` if the tail has no visible docs.
+    fn from_tail(tail: &TailIndex) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        let snap = tail.snapshot();
+        if snap.visible_count == 0 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        // Assign dense local doc ids in row-position order.
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        let mut pos_to_doc: HashMap<u64, u32> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in snap.batches.iter().take(snap.visible_count) {
+            for (offset, document) in batch.documents.iter().enumerate() {
+                let doc_id = if !document.key.doc_index.is_empty() {
+                    docs.append_with_doc_index(
+                        document.key.row_position,
+                        document.num_tokens,
+                        &document.key.doc_index,
+                    )?
+                } else {
+                    docs.append(document.key.row_position, document.num_tokens)
+                };
+                pos_to_doc.insert(batch.document_position_start + offset as u64, doc_id);
+            }
+        }
+        if docs.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        // Snapshot the term slices (a cheap sequential skip-list walk of Arc
+        // clones), then build each term's sorted posting list in parallel — the
+        // per-term work (chunk traversal + sort) dominates the freeze and is
+        // independent across terms. `pos_to_doc`/`snap` are shared read-only.
+        let term_slices: Vec<(Arc<str>, Arc<TermSlice>)> = tail
+            .terms
+            .iter()
+            .map(|e| (e.key().clone(), e.value().load_full()))
+            .collect();
+        let entries: Vec<(Arc<str>, Vec<(u32, u32, Vec<u32>)>)> = term_slices
+            .into_par_iter()
+            .filter_map(|(key, slice)| {
+                let mut docs_for_term: Vec<(u32, u32, Vec<u32>)> = Vec::new();
+                for chunk in slice.chunks() {
+                    if chunk.batch_position >= snap.visible_count {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    for (i, rp) in chunk.row_positions.iter().enumerate() {
+                        let Some(&doc_id) = pos_to_doc.get(rp) else {
+                            continue;
+                        };
+                        let pos = chunk
+                            .positions
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .map(|p| p.doc_positions(i).to_vec())
+                            .unwrap_or_default();
+                        docs_for_term.push((doc_id, chunk.frequencies[i], pos));
+                    }
+                }
+                if docs_for_term.is_empty() {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                docs_for_term.sort_by_key(|(d, _, _)| *d);
+                Some((key, docs_for_term))
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Ok(Some(build_partition(entries, docs)))
+    }
+
+    /// Merge several partitions into one. Local doc ids are reassigned by
+    /// concatenation, which keeps each merged per-term posting list sorted.
+    fn merge(parts: &[Arc<Self>]) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut merged: HashMap<Arc<str>, Vec<(u32, u32, Vec<u32>)>> = HashMap::new();
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        let mut doc_offset: u32 = 0;
+        let coordinate_rank = parts
+            .first()
+            .map_or(0, |partition| partition.docs.coordinate_rank());
+        for p in parts {
+            if p.docs.coordinate_rank() != coordinate_rank {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "cannot merge MemWAL FTS partitions with coordinate ranks {coordinate_rank} and {}",
+                    p.docs.coordinate_rank()
+                )));
+            }
+            for (doc_id, (row_position, num_tokens)) in p.docs.iter().enumerate() {
+                if coordinate_rank > 0 {
+                    docs.append_with_doc_index(
+                        *row_position,
+                        *num_tokens,
+                        &p.docs.doc_index(doc_id as u32),
+                    )?;
+                } else {
+                    docs.append(*row_position, *num_tokens);
+                }
+            }
+            let terms = p.collect_terms();
+            for (term_id, term) in terms.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                let term_id = term_id as u32;
+                let bucket = merged.entry(term).or_default();
+                let mut cursor = PostingCursor::new(p, term_id);
+                while let Some(doc) = cursor.doc() {
+                    let positions = cursor.positions().to_vec();
+                    bucket.push((doc + doc_offset, cursor.freq(), positions));
+                    cursor.advance();
+                }
+            }
+            doc_offset += p.docs.len() as u32;
+        }
+        Ok(build_partition(merged.into_iter().collect(), docs))
     }
 
-    /// Execute a Boolean query with MUST/SHOULD/MUST_NOT logic.
-    ///
-    /// - MUST: All clauses must match (intersection). Scores are summed.
-    /// - SHOULD: At least one clause should match (union). Scores are added.
-    /// - MUST_NOT: No clause may match (exclusion).
-    ///
-    /// If only SHOULD clauses are present, at least one must match.
-    /// If MUST clauses are present, SHOULD clauses just add to the score.
-    fn search_boolean(
+    /// Exact O(matches) BM25 OR/AND-search of the partition by direct posting
+    /// scan. The pruned top-k path is `or_topk_into`; this is the unbounded and
+    /// AND path. Scored with `scorer`, so scores match `score_terms`.
+    fn search_match(
         &self,
-        must: &[FtsQueryExpr],
-        should: &[FtsQueryExpr],
-        must_not: &[FtsQueryExpr],
+        tokens: &[String],
+        operator: Operator,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
     ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
-        // Collect MUST_NOT results for exclusion
-        let excluded: std::collections::HashSet<RowPosition> = must_not
-            .iter()
-            .flat_map(|q| self.search_query(q))
-            .map(|e| e.row_position)
-            .collect();
+        // Resolve present query tokens to (local term id, query weight).
+        // Repeated query tokens are kept so scores match `score_terms`.
+        let mut terms: Vec<(u32, f32)> = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+        let mut all_present = true;
+        for token in tokens {
+            match self.term_id(token) {
+                Some(id) => terms.push((id, scorer.query_weight(token))),
+                None => all_present = false,
+            }
+        }
+        if terms.is_empty() || (operator == Operator::And && !all_present) {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        self.scan_match(&terms, operator, tokens.len() as u32, scorer)
+    }
 
-        // Start with MUST clauses (intersection)
-        let mut result_map: HashMap<RowPosition, f32> = if must.is_empty() {
-            // No MUST clauses: start with all SHOULD results
-            let mut map = HashMap::new();
-            for q in should {
-                for entry in self.search_query(q) {
-                    *map.entry(entry.row_position).or_default() += entry.score;
-                }
+    /// Exact direct scan: accumulate every match into flat arrays indexed by
+    /// the dense local doc id. Used for unbounded and AND queries.
+    fn scan_match(
+        &self,
+        terms: &[(u32, f32)],
+        operator: Operator,
+        need: u32,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        let n = self.docs.len();
+        let mut scores = vec![0.0f32; n];
+        let mut hits = vec![0u32; n];
+        for &(id, qw) in terms {
+            let mut cursor = PostingCursor::new(self, id);
+            while let Some(doc) = cursor.doc() {
+                let dl = self.docs.num_tokens(doc);
+                scores[doc as usize] += qw * scorer.doc_weight(cursor.freq(), dl);
+                hits[doc as usize] += 1;
+                cursor.advance();
             }
-            map
-        } else {
-            // Execute first MUST clause
-            let first_results = self.search_query(&must[0]);
-            let mut map: HashMap<RowPosition, f32> = first_results
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(|e| (e.row_position, e.score))
-                .collect();
+        }
+        let mut results = Vec::new();
+        for doc in 0..n {
+            // AND requires the doc to be hit once per query-token slot.
+            if hits[doc] == 0 || (operator == Operator::And && hits[doc] < need) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let key = doc_set_key(&self.docs, doc as u32);
+            results.push(FtsEntry {
+                row_position: key.row_position,
+                doc_index: public_doc_index(&key.doc_index),
+                score: scores[doc],
+            });
+        }
+        results
+    }
 
-            // Intersect with remaining MUST clauses
-            for q in must.iter().skip(1) {
-                let results = self.search_query(q);
-                let result_set: HashMap<RowPosition, f32> = results
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|e| (e.row_position, e.score))
-                    .collect();
+    /// Single-term top-k with block-max skipping. For each 128-doc block, the
+    /// per-block upper bound `qw * doc_weight(block.max_freq, block.min_dl)`
+    /// bounds every doc's score in the block; when the top-k heap is full and
+    /// that bound cannot beat the current k-th score, the block is skipped
+    /// without decoding. This keeps cost ~O(competitive blocks) instead of
+    /// O(df), the gap behind term-query latency scaling with corpus size.
+    /// Exactness is preserved: the bound is sound, so no top-k doc is dropped.
+    fn score_single_into(&self, term_id: u32, qw: f32, scorer: &MemBM25Scorer, topk: &mut TopK) {
+        let pref = self.postings[term_id as usize];
+        let bp = BitPacker4x::new();
+        let mut docs: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
+        let mut freqs: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
+        let mut reader = BlockReader::new(self, &pref);
+        while let Some(bm) = reader.next_meta() {
+            let block_ub = bm.block_ub(scorer, qw);
+            if block_ub <= topk.threshold() {
+                continue; // no doc in this block can enter the top-k
+            }
+            let n = bm.n;
+            let df_start = bm.df_offset as usize;
+            unpack_doc_block(
+                &bp,
+                &self.doc_freq_data,
+                df_start,
+                n,
+                bm.doc_width,
+                bm.first_doc,
+                &mut docs,
+            );
+            let freq_start = df_start + bitpack_len(n, bm.doc_width);
+            unpack_block(
+                &bp,
+                &self.doc_freq_data,
+                freq_start,
+                n,
+                bm.freq_width,
+                &mut freqs,
+            );
+            for i in 0..n {
+                let doc = docs[i];
+                let dl = self.docs.num_tokens(doc);
+                let score = qw * scorer.doc_weight(freqs[i], dl);
+                topk.offer(score, doc_set_key(&self.docs, doc));
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-                // Keep only documents in both sets, sum scores
-                map = map
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .filter_map(|(pos, score)| result_set.get(&pos).map(|s| (pos, score + s)))
-                    .collect();
+    /// Top-k OR over the query tokens, contributing into the caller's shared
+    /// [`TopK`]. Single-term uses block-max skipping; multi-term uses MaxScore
+    /// (see [`Self::maxscore_loop`]). Exact, and because the threshold is shared
+    /// across all partitions and the tail, a partition processed late prunes
+    /// against an already-warm threshold instead of cold-starting.
+    fn or_topk_into(&self, tokens: &[String], scorer: &MemBM25Scorer, topk: &mut TopK) {
+        // Single-term top-k: block-max skip. Multi-term: MaxScore below.
+        if tokens.len() == 1 {
+            if let Some(id) = self.term_id(&tokens[0]) {
+                let qw = scorer.query_weight(&tokens[0]);
+                self.score_single_into(id, qw, scorer, topk);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut lanes: Vec<WandLane> = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+        for token in tokens {
+            if let Some(id) = self.term_id(token) {
+                let qw = scorer.query_weight(token);
+                let cursor = PostingCursor::new(self, id);
+                let doc = cursor.doc();
+                lanes.push(WandLane {
+                    cursor,
+                    qw,
+                    // Exact term max contribution (tightest sound bound): the
+                    // max over the term's per-block impact frontiers. A loose
+                    // `doc_weight(max_freq, min_dl)` would over-bound and keep
+                    // terms "essential" longer, shrinking MaxScore's prune.
+                    ub: self.term_ub(id, scorer, qw),
+                    doc,
+                });
             }
+        }
+        lanes.retain(|l| l.doc.is_some());
+        if lanes.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.maxscore_loop(lanes, scorer, topk);
+    }
 
-            // Add SHOULD clause scores (don't require match since MUST already filters)
-            for q in should {
-                for entry in self.search_query(q) {
-                    if let Some(score) = map.get_mut(&entry.row_position) {
-                        *score += entry.score;
-                    }
+    /// MaxScore top-k over an OR query. Terms are sorted by their max
+    /// contribution (`ub`) ascending; the longest prefix whose `ub` sum can't
+    /// reach the current threshold is "non-essential" — a doc matching only
+    /// those can't enter the top-k, so candidates are generated from the
+    /// "essential" suffix alone (iterating fewer lists than WAND) and the
+    /// non-essential lists are only probed per candidate, highest-`ub` first,
+    /// with an early exit once the remaining bound can't beat the threshold.
+    /// Exact: same bounds as WAND, just a different traversal.
+    fn maxscore_loop(&self, mut lanes: Vec<WandLane>, scorer: &MemBM25Scorer, topk: &mut TopK) {
+        // Fixed ascending-`ub` order so the non-essential prefix is well-defined.
+        lanes.sort_by(|a, b| a.ub.partial_cmp(&b.ub).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+        loop {
+            let theta = topk.threshold();
+            // Non-essential prefix [0..ne): cumulative `ub` sum <= theta.
+            let mut ne = 0;
+            let mut cum = 0.0f32;
+            while ne < lanes.len() && cum + lanes[ne].ub <= theta {
+                cum += lanes[ne].ub;
+                ne += 1;
+            }
+            if ne == lanes.len() {
+                break; // no remaining doc can reach theta
+            }
+            // Candidate: min current doc among the essential lanes.
+            let mut cand: Option<u32> = None;
+            for l in &lanes[ne..] {
+                if let Some(d) = l.doc {
+                    cand = Some(cand.map_or(d, |c| c.min(d)));
+                }
+            }
+            let Some(cand) = cand else {
+                break; // essential lanes exhausted
+            };
+            let dl = self.docs.num_tokens(cand);
+            let mut score = 0.0f32;
+            for l in lanes[ne..].iter_mut() {
+                if l.doc == Some(cand) {
+                    score += l.qw * scorer.doc_weight(l.cursor.freq(), dl);
+                }
+            }
+            // Probe non-essential lanes high-`ub` first; stop once even the max
+            // remaining contribution can't lift the score past theta.
+            let mut rem = cum;
+            let mut alive = true;
+            for i in (0..ne).rev() {
+                if score + rem <= theta {
+                    alive = false;
+                    break;
+                }
+                rem -= lanes[i].ub;
+                lanes[i].cursor.skip_to(cand);
+                lanes[i].doc = lanes[i].cursor.doc();
+                if lanes[i].doc == Some(cand) {
+                    score += lanes[i].qw * scorer.doc_weight(lanes[i].cursor.freq(), dl);
+                }
+            }
+            if alive {
+                topk.offer(score, doc_set_key(&self.docs, cand));
+            }
+            // Advance the essential lanes that were positioned at the candidate.
+            for l in lanes[ne..].iter_mut() {
+                if l.doc == Some(cand) {
+                    l.cursor.advance();
+                    l.doc = l.cursor.doc();
                 }
             }
+            lanes.retain(|l| l.doc.is_some());
+            if lanes.is_empty() {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-            map
-        };
+    /// Phrase-search by intersecting posting lists: drive from the rarest
+    /// token, require every other token to contain the doc, and verify the
+    /// token positions satisfy the phrase. `tokens.len() >= 2`.
+    fn search_phrase(&self, tokens: &[String], slop: u32, scorer: &MemBM25Scorer) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        let mut term_ids: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+        for token in tokens {
+            match self.term_id(token) {
+                Some(id) => term_ids.push(id),
+                // A phrase needs every token present in this partition.
+                None => return Vec::new(),
+            }
+        }
+        let rarest = (0..term_ids.len())
+            .min_by_key(|&i| self.postings[term_ids[i] as usize].doc_count)
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut cursors: Vec<PostingCursor> = term_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&id| PostingCursor::new(self, id))
+            .collect();
+        let mut results = Vec::new();
+        // Reused across candidate docs to avoid per-doc allocation (the hot
+        // phrase cost when the rarest term still has a high doc count).
+        let mut all_positions: Vec<Vec<u32>> = vec![Vec::new(); tokens.len()];
+        let mut freqs = vec![0u32; tokens.len()];
+        while let Some(doc) = cursors[rarest].cursor_doc() {
+            let mut present = true;
+            for ti in 0..tokens.len() {
+                if ti != rarest {
+                    cursors[ti].skip_to(doc);
+                }
+                if cursors[ti].doc() == Some(doc) {
+                    freqs[ti] = cursors[ti].freq();
+                    all_positions[ti].clear();
+                    all_positions[ti].extend_from_slice(cursors[ti].positions());
+                } else {
+                    present = false;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            if present && phrase_matches(&all_positions, slop) {
+                let dl = self.docs.num_tokens(doc);
+                let score: f32 = tokens
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(&freqs)
+                    .map(|(t, &f)| scorer.query_weight(t) * scorer.doc_weight(f, dl))
+                    .sum();
+                let key = doc_set_key(&self.docs, doc);
+                results.push(FtsEntry {
+                    row_position: key.row_position,
+                    doc_index: public_doc_index(&key.doc_index),
+                    score,
+                });
+            }
+            cursors[rarest].advance();
+        }
+        results
+    }
 
-        // Filter out MUST_NOT results
-        for pos in &excluded {
-            result_map.remove(pos);
+    fn search_phrase_groups(
+        &self,
+        groups: &[Vec<String>],
+        slop: u32,
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        let mut candidates: Option<HashMap<u32, PhraseCandidate>> = None;
+        for (group_idx, group) in groups.iter().enumerate() {
+            let group_docs = self.phrase_group_docs(group, scorer);
+            if group_docs.is_empty()
+                || !merge_phrase_group(&mut candidates, group_idx, groups.len(), group_docs)
+            {
+                return Vec::new();
+            }
         }
 
-        // Convert to FtsEntry list
-        result_map
+        candidates
+            .unwrap_or_default()
             .into_iter()
-            .map(|(row_position, score)| FtsEntry {
-                row_position,
-                score,
+            .filter(|(_, candidate)| phrase_matches(&candidate.positions_by_group, slop))
+            .map(|(doc, candidate)| FtsEntry {
+                row_position: self.docs.row_id(doc),
+                doc_index: public_doc_index(&self.docs.doc_index(doc)),
+                score: candidate.score,
             })
             .collect()
     }
+
+    fn phrase_group_docs(
+        &self,
+        group: &[String],
+        scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    ) -> HashMap<u32, PhraseGroupDoc> {
+        let mut docs: HashMap<u32, PhraseGroupDoc> = HashMap::new();
+        for token in group {
+            let Some(term_id) = self.term_id(token) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let qw = scorer.query_weight(token);
+            let mut cursor = PostingCursor::new(self, term_id);
+            while let Some(doc) = cursor.cursor_doc() {
+                let positions = cursor.positions().to_vec();
+                let freq = cursor.freq();
+                let dl = self.docs.num_tokens(doc);
+                let entry = docs.entry(doc).or_default();
+                entry.positions.extend_from_slice(&positions);
+                entry.score += qw * scorer.doc_weight(freq, dl);
+                cursor.advance();
+            }
+        }
+        for doc in docs.values_mut() {
+            doc.positions.sort_unstable();
+            doc.positions.dedup();
+        }
+        docs
+    }
 }
 
-/// Configuration for a Full-Text Search index.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct FtsIndexConfig {
-    /// Index name.
-    pub name: String,
-    /// Field ID the index is built on.
-    pub field_id: i32,
-    /// Column name (for Arrow batch lookups).
-    pub column: String,
-    /// Tokenizer parameters (same as InvertedIndex).
-    pub params: InvertedIndexParams,
+/// A scored MemTable row, ordered by score then row position (`total_cmp`,
+/// so a stray non-finite score cannot panic the heap).
+struct ScoredEntry {
+    score: f32,
+    key: DocumentKey,
 }
 
-impl FtsIndexConfig {
-    /// Create a new FtsIndexConfig with default tokenizer parameters.
-    pub fn new(name: String, field_id: i32, column: String) -> Self {
+impl PartialEq for ScoredEntry {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.cmp(other) == std::cmp::Ordering::Equal
+    }
+}
+impl Eq for ScoredEntry {}
+impl PartialOrd for ScoredEntry {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+impl Ord for ScoredEntry {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        self.score
+            .total_cmp(&other.score)
+            .then(self.key.cmp(&other.key))
+    }
+}
+
+/// A bounded top-k collector shared across all partitions and the tail of a
+/// single query. `threshold()` is the score of the weakest entry once full —
+/// the WAND pruning bound — and rises monotonically as entries are offered.
+struct TopK {
+    k: usize,
+    heap: BinaryHeap<Reverse<ScoredEntry>>,
+}
+
+impl TopK {
+    fn new(k: usize) -> Self {
         Self {
-            name,
-            field_id,
-            column,
-            params: InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            k,
+            heap: BinaryHeap::with_capacity(k + 1),
         }
     }
 
-    /// Create a new FtsIndexConfig with custom tokenizer parameters.
-    pub fn with_params(
-        name: String,
-        field_id: i32,
-        column: String,
-        params: InvertedIndexParams,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            name,
+    /// Score a doc must beat to enter the top-k (`-inf` until the heap fills).
+    fn threshold(&self) -> f32 {
+        if self.heap.len() >= self.k {
+            self.heap.peek().unwrap().0.score
+        } else {
+            f32::NEG_INFINITY
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn offer(&mut self, score: f32, key: DocumentKey) {
+        if self.heap.len() < self.k {
+            self.heap.push(Reverse(ScoredEntry { score, key }));
+        } else if score > self.heap.peek().unwrap().0.score {
+            self.heap.pop();
+            self.heap.push(Reverse(ScoredEntry { score, key }));
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn into_entries(self) -> Vec<FtsEntry> {
+        self.heap
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|Reverse(e)| FtsEntry {
+                row_position: e.key.row_position,
+                doc_index: public_doc_index(&e.key.doc_index),
+                score: e.score,
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+}
+
+/// One WAND lane: a posting cursor plus its query weight and score bound.
+struct WandLane<'a> {
+    cursor: PostingCursor<'a>,
+    qw: f32,
+    /// Upper bound on this term's contribution to any doc's score.
+    ub: f32,
+    /// Cached `cursor.doc()`, refreshed only when the lane moves. The WAND loop
+    /// reads this field (not `cursor.doc()`) in its per-iteration retain / sort /
+    /// pivot, which dominates OR latency (~20 iterations per scored doc).
+    doc: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+/// A decoding cursor over one term's compressed posting list. Decodes a
+/// 128-doc block at a time; `skip_to` jumps whole blocks via `BlockMeta`
+/// without decoding them.
+struct PostingCursor<'a> {
+    part: &'a Partition,
+    /// Forward-only parser over the term's block metadata.
+    reader: BlockReader<'a>,
+    /// Metadata of the block currently decoded into `docs`/`freqs`, or `None`
+    /// when the posting list is exhausted.
+    cur: Option<BlockMeta<'a>>,
+    /// Whether `docs`/`freqs` hold `cur`'s payload (false while `skip_to` walks
+    /// past whole blocks without decoding them).
+    decoded: bool,
+    docs: Vec<u32>,
+    freqs: Vec<u32>,
+    /// freq prefix sum of the current block (`len == freqs.len() + 1`), indexing
+    /// the position stream for random per-doc access. Valid when `prefix_valid`.
+    prefix: Vec<u32>,
+    prefix_valid: bool,
+    /// scratch for the most recently decoded doc's positions.
+    pos_scratch: Vec<u32>,
+    /// index within the current block.
+    i: usize,
+    /// SIMD bit-(un)packer for full 128-doc blocks.
+    bp: BitPacker4x,
+}
+
+impl<'a> PostingCursor<'a> {
+    fn new(part: &'a Partition, term_id: u32) -> Self {
+        let pref = part.postings[term_id as usize];
+        let mut reader = BlockReader::new(part, &pref);
+        let cur = reader.next_meta();
+        let mut cursor = Self {
+            part,
+            reader,
+            cur,
+            decoded: false,
+            docs: Vec::new(),
+            freqs: Vec::new(),
+            prefix: Vec::new(),
+            prefix_valid: false,
+            pos_scratch: Vec::new(),
+            i: 0,
+            bp: BitPacker4x::new(),
+        };
+        if let Some(bm) = cursor.cur {
+            cursor.decode(bm);
+        }
+        cursor
+    }
+
+    /// Decode the doc ids + freqs of block `bm` into `docs`/`freqs`.
+    fn decode(&mut self, bm: BlockMeta<'a>) {
+        let df_start = bm.df_offset as usize;
+        unpack_doc_block(
+            &self.bp,
+            &self.part.doc_freq_data,
+            df_start,
+            bm.n,
+            bm.doc_width,
+            bm.first_doc,
+            &mut self.docs,
+        );
+        let freq_start = df_start + bitpack_len(bm.n, bm.doc_width);
+        unpack_block(
+            &self.bp,
+            &self.part.doc_freq_data,
+            freq_start,
+            bm.n,
+            bm.freq_width,
+            &mut self.freqs,
+        );
+        self.decoded = true;
+        self.prefix_valid = false;
+    }
+
+    /// Move to the next block (parse + decode it), or exhaust.
+    fn next_block(&mut self) {
+        self.cur = self.reader.next_meta();
+        self.i = 0;
+        self.prefix_valid = false;
+        self.decoded = false;
+        if let Some(bm) = self.cur {
+            self.decode(bm);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Ensure `prefix` holds the freq prefix sum of the current block.
+    fn ensure_prefix(&mut self) {
+        if self.prefix_valid {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.prefix.clear();
+        self.prefix.push(0);
+        let mut sum = 0u32;
+        for &f in &self.freqs {
+            sum += f;
+            self.prefix.push(sum);
+        }
+        self.prefix_valid = true;
+    }
+
+    /// Current doc id, or `None` once the list is exhausted.
+    fn doc(&self) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.cur?;
+        self.docs.get(self.i).copied()
+    }
+
+    /// `doc()` under a `&mut` receiver — for use as a loop condition while the
+    /// cursor is borrowed mutably elsewhere.
+    fn cursor_doc(&mut self) -> Option<u32> {
+        self.doc()
+    }
+
+    /// Frequency of the current posting.
+    fn freq(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.freqs[self.i]
+    }
+
+    /// Positions of the current posting — decoded on demand for this one
+    /// document only (random access into the block's position stream).
+    fn positions(&mut self) -> &[u32] {
+        self.ensure_prefix();
+        let bm = self.cur.expect("positions() on exhausted cursor");
+        let s = self.prefix[self.i] as usize;
+        let n = self.prefix[self.i + 1] as usize - s;
+        self.pos_scratch.clear();
+        bitpack_read_at(
+            &self.part.pos_data,
+            bm.pos_offset as usize,
+            s,
+            n,
+            bm.pos_width,
+            &mut self.pos_scratch,
+        );
+        // un-delta in place.
+        let mut last = 0u32;
+        for d in &mut self.pos_scratch {
+            last += *d;
+            *d = last;
+        }
+        &self.pos_scratch
+    }
+
+    /// Step to the next posting.
+    fn advance(&mut self) {
+        self.i += 1;
+        if self.i >= self.docs.len() {
+            self.next_block();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Advance to the first posting with `doc_id >= target` (or exhaust),
+    /// skipping whole blocks via their `last_doc` without decoding them.
+    fn skip_to(&mut self, target: u32) {
+        if self.doc().is_some_and(|d| d >= target) {
+            return;
+        }
+        loop {
+            let Some(bm) = self.cur else {
+                return; // exhausted
+            };
+            if bm.last_doc >= target {
+                if !self.decoded {
+                    self.decode(bm);
+                }
+                // `last_doc >= target`, so this block holds a doc >= target.
+                self.i += self.docs[self.i..].partition_point(|&d| d < target);
+                return;
+            }
+            // Whole block precedes `target`; skip it without decoding.
+            self.cur = self.reader.next_meta();
+            self.i = 0;
+            self.decoded = false;
+            self.prefix_valid = false;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, Int32Array, ListArray, StringArray, StructArray};
+    use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
+
+    fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("description", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// A position-enabled index — required for phrase search. The default
+    /// `InvertedIndexParams` (`with_position = false`) indexes no positions, so
+    /// phrase tests must opt in, mirroring the on-disk / Lucene contract.
+    fn position_index(field_id: i32, column: &str) -> FtsMemIndex {
+        FtsMemIndex::with_params(
             field_id,
-            column,
+            column.to_string(),
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "hello world",
+                    "goodbye world",
+                    "hello again",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn query_term_allowlist_preserves_document_lengths_with_external_scorer() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(schema.as_ref());
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![900, 42, 777]);
+        let terms = FxHashSet::from_iter(["hello".to_string()]);
+        let index = QueryLocalFtsIndex::try_with_params(
+            1,
+            "description".to_string(),
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let full_index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let stats = index
+            .insert_with_row_ids_for_terms(&batch, &row_ids, &terms)
+            .unwrap();
+        full_index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        // The unmatched nonempty row (row id 42) contributes no postings or
+        // metadata, but remains part of the approximate residual BM25 corpus.
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(index.inner.entry_count(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats.doc_count, 3);
+        assert_eq!(stats.total_tokens, 5);
+        assert_eq!(stats.token_docs.get("hello"), Some(&2));
+        let committed_scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(6, 3, HashMap::from([("hello".to_string(), 2)]));
+        let mut residual_scorer = committed_scorer.clone();
+        stats.add_to_scorer(&mut residual_scorer).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(residual_scorer.num_docs, 6);
+        assert_eq!(residual_scorer.total_tokens, 11);
+        assert_eq!(residual_scorer.token_docs.get("hello"), Some(&4));
+
+        let query = FtsQuery::Match(
+            lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("description".to_string())),
+        );
+        let leaves = index.exact_leaf_results(&query, &committed_scorer).unwrap();
+        let full_leaves = full_index
+            .exact_leaf_results(&query, &committed_scorer)
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut actual = leaves[0]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        actual.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(actual, vec![777, 900]);
+        let mut actual_scores = leaves[0]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, score)| score.to_bits())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut full_scores = full_leaves[0]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, score)| score.to_bits())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        actual_scores.sort_unstable();
+        full_scores.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(actual_scores, full_scores);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn query_local_external_empty_scorer_retains_zero_score_membership() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(schema.as_ref());
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![900, 42, 777]);
+        let terms = FxHashSet::from_iter(["hello".to_string()]);
+        let index = QueryLocalFtsIndex::try_with_params(
+            1,
+            "description".to_string(),
+            InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index
+            .insert_with_row_ids_for_terms(&batch, &row_ids, &terms)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed_scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(0, 0, HashMap::from([("hello".to_string(), 0)]));
+        let query = FtsQuery::Match(
+            lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("description".to_string())),
+        );
+        let leaves = index.exact_leaf_results(&query, &committed_scorer).unwrap();
+
+        let mut actual = leaves[0].clone();
+        actual.sort_unstable_by_key(|(row_id, _)| *row_id);
+        assert_eq!(actual.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(actual[0].0, 777);
+        assert_eq!(actual[1].0, 900);
+        assert!(actual.iter().all(|(_, score)| score.to_bits() == 0));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn query_local_materialization_never_starts_background_maintenance() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(schema.as_ref());
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![900, 42, 777]);
+        let terms = FxHashSet::from_iter(["hello".to_string()]);
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        let tokenizer = params.build().unwrap();
+        let mut index = QueryLocalFtsIndex::try_with_loaded_tokenizer(
+            1,
+            "description".to_string(),
             params,
-        }
+            tokenizer,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        // Crossing the normal freeze threshold would create a partition and
+        // may launch a detached tiered merge. Query-local materialization must
+        // remain entirely in its query-owned tail instead.
+        index.inner.freeze_threshold_rows = 1;
+        index
+            .insert_with_row_ids_for_terms(&batch, &row_ids, &terms)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(index.inner.state.load().partitions.is_empty());
+        assert!(index.inner.merge.lock().unwrap().is_none());
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 2);
+
+        let sibling = index.empty_sibling();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &index.inner.tokenizer_pool,
+            &sibling.inner.tokenizer_pool
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(sibling.doc_count(), 0);
+        sibling
+            .insert_with_row_ids_for_terms(&batch, &UInt64Array::from(vec![901, 43, 778]), &terms)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(sibling.doc_count(), 2);
+        assert!(sibling.inner.state.load().partitions.is_empty());
+        assert!(sibling.inner.merge.lock().unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    fn create_element_test_batch() -> RecordBatch {
+        let mut tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        tags.values().append_value("alpha beta");
+        tags.values().append_null();
+        tags.values().append_value("");
+        tags.values().append_value("beta gamma");
+        tags.append(true);
+        tags.values().append_value("alpha");
+        tags.values().append_value("beta");
+        tags.append(true);
+        let tags = tags.finish();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("tags", tags.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])), Arc::new(tags)],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_element_document_search_and_flush_identity() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .with_position(true)
+            .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::try_with_params(1, "tags".to_string(), params)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_freeze_threshold_rows(1);
+        assert_eq!(index.column_name(), "tags");
+        assert_eq!(index.source_column_name(), "tags");
+
+        index.insert(&create_element_test_batch(), 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 6);
+
+        let mut beta = index.search("beta");
+        beta.sort_by_key(|entry| (entry.row_position, entry.doc_index.clone()));
+        assert_eq!(
+            beta.iter()
+                .map(|entry| (entry.row_position, entry.doc_index.clone()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![(0, Some(vec![0])), (0, Some(vec![3])), (1, Some(vec![1]))]
+        );
+
+        let phrase = index.search_phrase("beta gamma", 0);
+        assert_eq!(phrase.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            (phrase[0].row_position, phrase[0].doc_index.clone()),
+            (0, Some(vec![3]))
+        );
+
+        let conjunctive = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
+            .must(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha"))
+            .must(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("beta"))
+            .build();
+        let results = index.search_query(&conjunctive);
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            (results[0].row_position, results[0].doc_index.clone()),
+            (0, Some(vec![0]))
+        );
+
+        index.to_index_builder(7, 2).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_nested_element_documents_keep_all_list_ordinals() {
+        let doc_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("content", DataType::Utf8, true)]);
+        let doc_values = StructArray::new(
+            doc_fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["alpha", "beta", "alpha"]))],
+            None,
+        );
+        let doc_item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(doc_fields), true));
+        let docs_type = DataType::List(doc_item.clone());
+        let docs = ListArray::new(
+            doc_item,
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0i32, 1, 3])),
+            Arc::new(doc_values),
+            None,
+        );
+        let group_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("docs", docs_type, true)]);
+        let group_values = StructArray::new(group_fields.clone(), vec![Arc::new(docs)], None);
+        let group_item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(group_fields), true));
+        let groups = ListArray::new(
+            group_item,
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0i32, 2])),
+            Arc::new(group_values),
+            None,
+        );
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "groups",
+                groups.data_type().clone(),
+                true,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(groups)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::try_with_params(
+            1,
+            "groups.docs.content".to_string(),
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_freeze_threshold_rows(1);
+
+        index.insert(&batch, 7).unwrap();
+        let mut entries = index.search("alpha");
+        entries.sort_by_key(|entry| entry.doc_index.clone());
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries
+                .iter()
+                .map(|entry| (entry.row_position, entry.doc_index.clone()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![(7, Some(vec![0, 0])), (7, Some(vec![1, 1]))]
+        );
+
+        index.insert(&batch, 8).unwrap();
+        let state = index.state.load_full();
+        assert_eq!(state.partitions.len(), 2);
+        let merged = Partition::merge(&state.partitions).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(merged.docs.coordinate_rank(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            (0..merged.docs.len() as u32)
+                .map(|doc_id| doc_set_key(&merged.docs, doc_id))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![
+                DocumentKey {
+                    row_position: 7,
+                    doc_index: vec![0, 0],
+                },
+                DocumentKey {
+                    row_position: 7,
+                    doc_index: vec![1, 0],
+                },
+                DocumentKey {
+                    row_position: 7,
+                    doc_index: vec![1, 1],
+                },
+                DocumentKey {
+                    row_position: 8,
+                    doc_index: vec![0, 0],
+                },
+                DocumentKey {
+                    row_position: 8,
+                    doc_index: vec![1, 0],
+                },
+                DocumentKey {
+                    row_position: 8,
+                    doc_index: vec![1, 1],
+                },
+            ]
+        );
+        index.to_index_builder(8, 9).unwrap();
     }
-}
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use std::sync::Arc;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_failed_background_merge_releases_pending_slot() {
+        let slot = Mutex::new(Some(PendingMerge {
+            sources: vec![1],
+            result: None,
+        }));
+
+        publish_pending_merge(
+            &slot,
+            Err(Error::index("inconsistent test partitions".to_string())),
+        );
 
-    fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
-        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new("description", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]))
+        assert!(slot.lock().unwrap().is_none());
     }
 
-    fn create_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> RecordBatch {
-        RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
-                    "hello world",
-                    "goodbye world",
-                    "hello again",
-                ])),
-            ],
+    #[test]
+    fn test_zero_token_element_documents_remain_addressable_after_flush() {
+        let mut tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        tags.values().append_null();
+        tags.values().append_value("");
+        tags.values().append_value("!!!");
+        tags.append(true);
+        let tags = tags.finish();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "tags",
+                tags.data_type().clone(),
+                true,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(tags)],
         )
-        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::try_with_params(
+            1,
+            "tags".to_string(),
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        index.flush();
+
+        assert!(!index.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 3);
+        assert!(index.search("missing").is_empty());
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1304,40 +5414,259 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 3);
 
-        // "hello" appears in docs 0 and 2
         let entries = index.search("hello");
-        assert!(!entries.is_empty());
         assert_eq!(entries.len(), 2);
 
-        // "world" appears in docs 0 and 1
         let entries = index.search("world");
-        assert!(!entries.is_empty());
         assert_eq!(entries.len(), 2);
 
-        // "goodbye" appears only in doc 1 (row position 1)
         let entries = index.search("goodbye");
-        assert!(!entries.is_empty());
         assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 1);
 
-        // Non-existent term returns empty Vec
         let entries = index.search("nonexistent");
         assert!(entries.is_empty());
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_code_analyzer_and_query_uses_position_alternatives() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::with_params(
+            1,
+            "description".to_string(),
+            InvertedIndexParams::code().split_identifiers(true),
+        );
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["get user name", "getUserName"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query_with_operator("getUserName", Operator::And);
+        let mut rows = index
+            .search_query(&query)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|entry| entry.row_position)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        rows.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(rows, vec![0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_code_analyzer_queries_keep_element_document_identity() {
+        let mut tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        tags.values().append_value("get");
+        tags.values().append_value("x user name");
+        tags.append(true);
+        tags.values().append_value("getUserName");
+        tags.append(true);
+        let tags = tags.finish();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "tags",
+                tags.data_type().clone(),
+                true,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(tags)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::try_with_params(
+            1,
+            "tags".to_string(),
+            InvertedIndexParams::code()
+                .with_position(true)
+                .split_identifiers(true)
+                .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let and_query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query_with_operator("getUserName", Operator::And);
+        let phrase_query = FtsQueryExpr::phrase("getUserName");
+        for entries in [
+            index.search_query(&and_query),
+            index.search_query(&phrase_query),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 1);
+            assert_eq!(entries[0].doc_index, Some(vec![0]));
+        }
+
+        index.flush();
+        let partition_only = SearchOptions::new().with_include_tail(false);
+        for entries in [
+            index.search_with_options(&and_query, partition_only.clone()),
+            index.search_with_options(&phrase_query, partition_only),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 1);
+            assert_eq!(entries[0].doc_index, Some(vec![0]));
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn tail_positions_for(index: &FtsMemIndex, term: &str, row_position: RowPosition) -> Vec<u32> {
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        let snap = st.tail.snapshot();
+        let entry = st.tail.terms.get(term).expect("term should be indexed");
+        let slice = entry.value().load();
+        for chunk in slice.chunks() {
+            if chunk.batch_position >= snap.visible_count {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if let Ok(doc_idx) = chunk.row_positions.binary_search(&row_position) {
+                return chunk
+                    .positions
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("test index stores positions")
+                    .doc_positions(doc_idx)
+                    .to_vec();
+            }
+        }
+        panic!("term {term} should be present in row {row_position}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_code_analyzer_phrase_uses_token_positions_and_alternatives() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::with_params(
+            1,
+            "description".to_string(),
+            InvertedIndexParams::code()
+                .with_position(true)
+                .split_identifiers(true),
+        );
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "get user name",
+                    "getUserName",
+                    "get user",
+                    "get fast user name",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(tail_positions_for(&index, "getusername", 1), vec![0]);
+        assert_eq!(tail_positions_for(&index, "get", 1), vec![0]);
+        assert_eq!(tail_positions_for(&index, "user", 1), vec![1]);
+        assert_eq!(tail_positions_for(&index, "name", 1), vec![2]);
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::phrase("getUserName");
+        assert_eq!(rows(index.search_phrase("getUserName", 0)), vec![0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(rows(index.search_query(&query)), vec![0, 1]);
+
+        index.flush();
+        let partition_only = SearchOptions::new().with_include_tail(false);
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows(index.search_with_options(&query, partition_only)),
+            vec![0, 1]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_zero_token_documents_are_skipped_across_memwal_paths() {
+        let params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::new("whitespace".to_string(), lance_tokenizer::Language::English)
+                .remove_stop_words(true)
+                .stem(false)
+                .max_token_length(Some(6));
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    Some(""),
+                    Some("   "),
+                    Some("the"),
+                    Some("overlength"),
+                    None,
+                    Some("hello"),
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::with_params(1, "description".to_string(), params.clone());
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 1);
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        let tail_snap = st.tail.snapshot();
+        let tokens = vec!["hello".to_string()];
+        let tail_scorer = build_scorer(&st, &tail_snap, &tokens, true);
+        let expected_scorer = MemBM25Scorer::new(1, 1, HashMap::from([("hello".to_string(), 1)]));
+        assert_eq!(tail_scorer.total_tokens, 1);
+        assert_eq!(tail_scorer.num_docs(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(tail_scorer.num_docs_containing_token("hello"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            tail_scorer.avg_doc_length(),
+            expected_scorer.avg_doc_length()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            tail_scorer.query_weight("hello"),
+            expected_scorer.query_weight("hello")
+        );
+        let tail_results = index.search("hello");
+        assert_eq!(rows(tail_results.clone()), vec![5]);
+        let tail_score = tail_results[0].score;
+        assert!(!index.to_index_builder(0, 6).unwrap().is_empty());
+
+        index.flush();
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        assert_eq!(st.partitions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            st.partitions[0]
+                .docs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(row_id, num_tokens)| (*row_id, *num_tokens))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![(5, 1)]
+        );
+        let frozen_scorer = build_scorer(&st, &st.tail.snapshot(), &tokens, true);
+        assert_eq!(frozen_scorer.total_tokens, 1);
+        assert_eq!(frozen_scorer.num_docs(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(frozen_scorer.num_docs_containing_token("hello"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            frozen_scorer.avg_doc_length(),
+            expected_scorer.avg_doc_length()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            frozen_scorer.query_weight("hello"),
+            expected_scorer.query_weight("hello")
+        );
+        let frozen_results = index.search("hello");
+        assert_eq!(rows(frozen_results.clone()), vec![5]);
+        assert!((frozen_results[0].score - tail_score).abs() < f32::EPSILON);
+
+        let all_zero_batch = batch.slice(0, 5);
+        let all_zero_index = FtsMemIndex::with_params(1, "description".to_string(), params);
+        all_zero_index.insert(&all_zero_batch, 0).unwrap();
+        assert!(all_zero_index.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(all_zero_index.doc_count(), 0);
+        assert!(all_zero_index.to_index_builder(0, 5).unwrap().is_empty());
+        all_zero_index.flush();
+        assert!(all_zero_index.state.load().partitions.is_empty());
+    }
+
     fn create_phrase_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> RecordBatch {
-        // Note: The tokenizer filters stop words (the, and, very, etc.) and lowercases.
-        // Positions are assigned to non-filtered tokens only.
         RecordBatch::try_new(
             Arc::new(schema.clone()),
             vec![
                 Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4])),
                 Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
-                    "alpha beta gamma",               // 0: alpha=0, beta=1, gamma=2
-                    "beta alpha gamma",               // 1: beta=0, alpha=1, gamma=2
-                    "alpha delta beta gamma",         // 2: alpha=0, delta=1, beta=2, gamma=3
-                    "alpha gamma",                    // 3: alpha=0, gamma=1
-                    "alpha delta epsilon beta gamma", // 4: alpha=0, delta=1, epsilon=2, beta=3, gamma=4
+                    "alpha beta gamma",
+                    "beta alpha gamma",
+                    "alpha delta beta gamma",
+                    "alpha gamma",
+                    "alpha delta epsilon beta gamma",
                 ])),
             ],
         )
@@ -1347,33 +5676,23 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_phrase_search_exact_match() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let index = position_index(1, "description");
 
         let batch = create_phrase_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Exact phrase "alpha beta" with slop=0 should match only doc 0
-        // Doc 0: "alpha beta gamma" - alpha=0, beta=1 (adjacent)
-        // Doc 2: "alpha delta beta gamma" - alpha=0, beta=2 (NOT adjacent, slop needed)
         let entries = index.search_phrase("alpha beta", 0);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            1,
-            "Expected 1 match for 'alpha beta', got {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 0);
 
-        // "hello world" exact phrase
         let batch2 = create_test_batch(&schema);
-        let index2 = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let index2 = position_index(1, "description");
         index2.insert(&batch2, 0).unwrap();
 
         let entries = index2.search_phrase("hello world", 0);
         assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 0);
 
-        // "goodbye world" exact phrase
         let entries = index2.search_phrase("goodbye world", 0);
         assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 1);
@@ -1382,99 +5701,49 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_phrase_search_with_slop() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let index = position_index(1, "description");
 
         let batch = create_phrase_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Positions after tokenization (no stop words filtered):
-        // Doc 0: "alpha beta gamma" - alpha=0, beta=1, gamma=2
-        // Doc 2: "alpha delta beta gamma" - alpha=0, delta=1, beta=2, gamma=3
-        // Doc 4: "alpha delta epsilon beta gamma" - alpha=0, delta=1, epsilon=2, beta=3, gamma=4
-
-        // "alpha beta" with slop=0 should match only doc 0
-        // Doc 0: alpha=0, beta=1 (adjacent)
         let entries = index.search_phrase("alpha beta", 0);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            1,
-            "slop=0 matches: {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 0);
 
-        // "alpha beta" with slop=1 should match docs 0 and 2
-        // Doc 0: alpha=0, beta=1 (diff=1, within slop=1)
-        // Doc 2: alpha=0, beta=2 (diff=2, slop=1 allows pos 1-2)
-        // Doc 4: alpha=0, beta=3 (diff=3, slop=1 does NOT allow pos 3)
         let entries = index.search_phrase("alpha beta", 1);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            2,
-            "slop=1 matches: {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 2);
         let positions: Vec<_> = entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
         assert!(positions.contains(&0));
         assert!(positions.contains(&2));
 
-        // "alpha beta" with slop=2 should match docs 0, 2, and 4
         let entries = index.search_phrase("alpha beta", 2);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            3,
-            "slop=2 matches: {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 3);
 
-        // "alpha gamma" with slop=0 should match docs 1 and 3 (adjacent)
-        // Doc 1: "beta alpha gamma" - alpha=1, gamma=2 (adjacent)
-        // Doc 3: "alpha gamma" - alpha=0, gamma=1 (adjacent)
         let entries = index.search_phrase("alpha gamma", 0);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            2,
-            "alpha gamma slop=0: {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 2);
 
-        // "alpha gamma" with slop=1 should match docs 0, 1, 2, and 3
-        // Doc 0: alpha=0, gamma=2 (diff=2, slop=1 allows pos 1-2)
-        // Doc 1: alpha=1, gamma=2 (adjacent)
-        // Doc 2: alpha=0, gamma=3 (diff=3, slop=1 allows pos 1-2, gamma at 3 NOT in range)
-        // Doc 3: alpha=0, gamma=1 (adjacent)
         let entries = index.search_phrase("alpha gamma", 1);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            3,
-            "alpha gamma slop=1: {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 3);
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_phrase_search_no_match() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let index = position_index(1, "description");
 
         let batch = create_phrase_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // "beta alpha" with slop=0 should not match in most docs (wrong order)
-        // Doc 1 has "beta alpha gamma" - beta=0, alpha=1, so "beta alpha" matches there!
         let entries = index.search_phrase("beta alpha", 0);
-        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1); // matches doc 1
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 1);
 
-        // Non-existent phrase
         let entries = index.search_phrase("nonexistent phrase", 0);
         assert!(entries.is_empty());
 
-        // Partial phrase not in any doc
         let entries = index.search_phrase("alpha hello", 0);
         assert!(entries.is_empty());
 
-        // "gamma alpha" should not match (wrong order in all docs)
         let entries = index.search_phrase("gamma alpha", 0);
         assert!(entries.is_empty());
     }
@@ -1482,15 +5751,13 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_phrase_search_single_token() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let index = position_index(1, "description");
 
         let batch = create_phrase_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Single token phrase should behave like regular search
         let phrase_entries = index.search_phrase("alpha", 0);
         let search_entries = index.search("alpha");
-
         assert_eq!(phrase_entries.len(), search_entries.len());
     }
 
@@ -1502,20 +5769,37 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Empty phrase
         let entries = index.search_phrase("", 0);
         assert!(entries.is_empty());
     }
 
-    // ====== Boolean Query Tests ======
+    #[test]
+    fn test_without_positions_disables_phrase_and_skips_storage() {
+        // Default params (`with_position = false`): the index stores no token
+        // positions, so term/BM25 search works but phrase search does not — the
+        // same contract as the on-disk format and Lucene `DOCS_AND_FREQS`.
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(1);
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 0).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.search("hello").len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            index.search_phrase("hello world", 0).is_empty(),
+            "phrase search requires positions"
+        );
+        // The frozen partition stored no positions.
+        let (_, _, _, _, _, pos, _, _) = index.memory_breakdown();
+        assert_eq!(pos, 0, "no positions stored when with_position = false");
+
+        // With positions enabled the same phrase matches.
+        let with_pos = position_index(1, "description").with_freeze_threshold_rows(1);
+        with_pos.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(with_pos.search_phrase("hello world", 0).len(), 1);
+        let (_, _, _, _, _, pos2, _, _) = with_pos.memory_breakdown();
+        assert!(pos2 > 0, "positions stored when with_position = true");
+    }
 
     fn create_boolean_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> RecordBatch {
-        // Test documents for Boolean queries:
-        // Doc 0: "rust programming language"
-        // Doc 1: "python programming language"
-        // Doc 2: "rust web server"
-        // Doc 3: "python web framework"
-        // Doc 4: "javascript programming"
         RecordBatch::try_new(
             Arc::new(schema.clone()),
             vec![
@@ -1540,21 +5824,35 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boolean_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // MUST: rust AND programming
-        // Should match doc 0 only ("rust programming language")
+        let rust = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust").with_boost(2.0);
+        let programming = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming").with_boost(3.0);
+        let rust_score = index
+            .search_query(&rust)
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|entry| entry.row_position == 0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .score;
+        let programming_score = index
+            .search_query(&programming)
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|entry| entry.row_position == 0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .score;
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
-            .must(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust"))
-            .must(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"))
+            .must(rust.clone())
+            .must(programming.clone())
             .build();
 
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            1,
-            "Expected 1 match for MUST(rust, programming), got {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 0);
+        let expected_score = rust_score + programming_score;
+        assert!((entries[0].score - expected_score).abs() < 1e-6);
+
+        let reversed = FtsQueryExpr::boolean().must(programming).must(rust).build();
+        let reversed_entries = index.search_query(&reversed);
+        assert_eq!(reversed_entries.len(), 1);
+        assert!((reversed_entries[0].score - expected_score).abs() < 1e-6);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1565,21 +5863,13 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boolean_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // SHOULD: rust OR python
-        // Should match docs 0, 1, 2, 3 (all containing rust or python)
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
             .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust"))
             .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"))
             .build();
 
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            4,
-            "Expected 4 matches for SHOULD(rust, python), got {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
-
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 4);
         let positions: Vec<_> = entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
         assert!(positions.contains(&0));
         assert!(positions.contains(&1));
@@ -1587,6 +5877,64 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(positions.contains(&3));
     }
 
+    /// A multi-match keeps each document's best child — the compound scorer's
+    /// `DisjunctionScore::Max` — rather than the sum a SHOULD would give.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multi_match_scores_best_child() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        index
+            .insert(&create_boolean_test_batch(&schema), 0)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let rust = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust");
+        let programming = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming").with_boost(3.0);
+        // Row 0 matches both children; row 2 matches `rust` alone.
+        let rust_at_0 = index
+            .search_query(&rust)
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|entry| entry.row_position == 0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .score;
+        let programming_at_0 = index
+            .search_query(&programming)
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|entry| entry.row_position == 0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .score;
+        let rust_at_2 = index
+            .search_query(&rust)
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|entry| entry.row_position == 2)
+            .unwrap()
+            .score;
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::MultiMatch {
+            children: vec![rust, programming],
+        };
+        let entries = index.search_query(&query);
+        let mut positions: Vec<_> = entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
+        positions.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            positions,
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 4],
+            "every child's matches, each row once"
+        );
+        let at = |row| {
+            entries
+                .iter()
+                .find(|e| e.row_position == row)
+                .unwrap()
+                .score
+        };
+        assert!(
+            (at(0) - rust_at_0.max(programming_at_0)).abs() < 1e-6,
+            "best child, not the sum: {} vs {rust_at_0} / {programming_at_0}",
+            at(0)
+        );
+        assert!((at(2) - rust_at_2).abs() < 1e-6);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_boolean_must_not_only() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
@@ -1595,18 +5943,12 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boolean_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // MUST_NOT alone with no MUST or SHOULD returns empty
-        // (nothing to include, only exclusions)
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
             .must_not(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust"))
             .build();
 
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-        assert!(
-            entries.is_empty(),
-            "MUST_NOT only should return empty, got {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert!(entries.is_empty());
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1617,33 +5959,17 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boolean_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // MUST: programming, SHOULD: rust
-        // Should match docs 0, 1, 4 (all with programming)
-        // Doc 0 should have higher score (also matches rust)
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
             .must(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"))
             .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust"))
             .build();
 
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            3,
-            "Expected 3 matches for MUST(programming) SHOULD(rust), got {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 3);
 
-        // Find doc 0 and doc 1 scores
         let doc0 = entries.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 0).unwrap();
         let doc1 = entries.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 1).unwrap();
-
-        // Doc 0 has both programming and rust, should score higher than doc 1 (only programming)
-        assert!(
-            doc0.score > doc1.score,
-            "Doc 0 (rust+programming) should score higher than doc 1 (programming only). Doc0: {}, Doc1: {}",
-            doc0.score,
-            doc1.score
-        );
+        assert!(doc0.score > doc1.score);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1654,25 +5980,18 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boolean_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // MUST: programming, MUST_NOT: python
-        // Should match docs 0 and 4 (programming but not python)
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
             .must(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"))
             .must_not(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"))
             .build();
 
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            2,
-            "Expected 2 matches for MUST(programming) MUST_NOT(python), got {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 2);
 
         let positions: Vec<_> = entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
-        assert!(positions.contains(&0)); // rust programming language
-        assert!(positions.contains(&4)); // javascript programming
-        assert!(!positions.contains(&1)); // python programming language - excluded
+        assert!(positions.contains(&0));
+        assert!(positions.contains(&4));
+        assert!(!positions.contains(&1));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1683,10 +6002,6 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boolean_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // MUST: web, SHOULD: rust, MUST_NOT: framework
-        // Docs with "web": 2 (rust web server), 3 (python web framework)
-        // After MUST_NOT framework: only doc 2
-        // Doc 2 also matches SHOULD(rust), so should have higher score
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
             .must(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("web"))
             .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust"))
@@ -1694,37 +6009,24 @@ mod tests {
             .build();
 
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            1,
-            "Expected 1 match for MUST(web) SHOULD(rust) MUST_NOT(framework), got {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(entries[0].row_position, 2);
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_boolean_nested_phrase() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let index = position_index(1, "description");
 
         let batch = create_boolean_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // MUST: phrase("programming language")
-        // Should match docs 0 and 1
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
             .must(FtsQueryExpr::phrase("programming language"))
             .build();
 
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            2,
-            "Expected 2 matches for MUST(phrase 'programming language'), got {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
-
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 2);
         let positions: Vec<_> = entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
         assert!(positions.contains(&0));
         assert!(positions.contains(&1));
@@ -1738,7 +6040,6 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Test FtsQueryExpr::Match
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("hello");
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
         assert_eq!(entries.len(), 2);
@@ -1747,12 +6048,11 @@ mod tests {
     #[test]
     fn test_search_query_phrase() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let index = position_index(1, "description");
 
         let batch = create_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Test FtsQueryExpr::Phrase
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::phrase("hello world");
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
         assert_eq!(entries.len(), 1);
@@ -1767,7 +6067,6 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Test boost
         let query_no_boost = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("hello");
         let query_with_boost = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("hello").with_boost(2.0);
 
@@ -1775,77 +6074,44 @@ mod tests {
         let entries_with_boost = index.search_query(&query_with_boost);
 
         assert_eq!(entries_no_boost.len(), entries_with_boost.len());
-
-        // Boosted scores should be 2x
-        for (e1, e2) in entries_no_boost.iter().zip(entries_with_boost.iter()) {
+        for e1 in &entries_no_boost {
+            let e2 = entries_with_boost
+                .iter()
+                .find(|e| e.row_position == e1.row_position)
+                .unwrap();
             let expected = e1.score * 2.0;
-            assert!(
-                (e2.score - expected).abs() < 0.001,
-                "Boosted score {} should be 2x original {}",
-                e2.score,
-                e1.score
-            );
+            assert!((e2.score - expected).abs() < 0.001);
         }
     }
 
-    // ====== Fuzzy Matching Tests ======
-
     #[test]
     fn test_levenshtein_distance() {
-        // Identical strings
         assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "hello"), 0);
-
-        // Single character difference
-        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "hallo"), 1); // substitution
-        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "hell"), 1); // deletion
-        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "helloo"), 1); // insertion
-
-        // Two character differences
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "hallo"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "hell"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "helloo"), 1);
         assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "hxllo"), 1);
         assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", "hxxlo"), 2);
-
-        // Completely different strings
         assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("abc", "xyz"), 3);
-
-        // Empty strings
         assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("", ""), 0);
         assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("hello", ""), 5);
         assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("", "hello"), 5);
-
-        // Case sensitivity
         assert_eq!(levenshtein_distance("Hello", "hello"), 1);
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_auto_fuzziness() {
-        // 0-2 chars: 0 fuzziness
         assert_eq!(auto_fuzziness(""), 0);
         assert_eq!(auto_fuzziness("a"), 0);
         assert_eq!(auto_fuzziness("ab"), 0);
-
-        // 3-5 chars: 1 fuzziness
         assert_eq!(auto_fuzziness("abc"), 1);
         assert_eq!(auto_fuzziness("abcd"), 1);
         assert_eq!(auto_fuzziness("abcde"), 1);
-
-        // 6+ chars: 2 fuzziness
         assert_eq!(auto_fuzziness("abcdef"), 2);
         assert_eq!(auto_fuzziness("programming"), 2);
     }
 
     fn create_fuzzy_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> RecordBatch {
-        // Test documents for fuzzy matching.
-        // Note: The tokenizer stems words, so we use unstemmed single tokens
-        // for predictable fuzzy matching tests.
-        // Levenshtein distance examples:
-        // - "alpha" to "alpho" = 1 (substitution: a -> o)
-        // - "alpha" to "alphax" = 1 (insertion)
-        // - "alpha" to "alph" = 1 (deletion)
-        // Doc 0: "alpha beta gamma"
-        // Doc 1: "alpho beta delta" (typo: 'alpho' instead of 'alpha', distance=1)
-        // Doc 2: "alpha delta epsilon"
-        // Doc 3: "omega zeta"
-        // Doc 4: "alphax gamma" (typo: extra 'x', distance=1)
         RecordBatch::try_new(
             Arc::new(schema.clone()),
             vec![
@@ -1870,18 +6136,11 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Exact match with fuzziness=0: "alpha" exists in index
         let matches = index.expand_fuzzy("alpha", 0, 50);
-        assert_eq!(
-            matches.len(),
-            1,
-            "Expected 1 match for 'alpha', got {:?}",
-            matches
-        );
+        assert_eq!(matches.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(matches[0].0, "alpha");
         assert_eq!(matches[0].1, 0);
 
-        // Non-existent term with fuzziness=0
         let matches = index.expand_fuzzy("nonexistent", 0, 50);
         assert!(matches.is_empty());
     }
@@ -1894,22 +6153,9 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // "alpho" (typo, substitution distance=1 from "alpha") should match "alpha"
         let matches = index.expand_fuzzy("alpho", 1, 50);
-        assert!(
-            matches
-                .iter()
-                .any(|(term, dist)| term == "alpha" && *dist == 1),
-            "Expected 'alpha' with distance 1, got {:?}",
-            matches
-        );
-
-        // Also matches itself since it's in the index
-        assert!(
-            matches.iter().any(|(term, _)| term == "alpho"),
-            "Expected 'alpho' in matches, got {:?}",
-            matches
-        );
+        assert!(matches.iter().any(|(t, d)| t == "alpha" && *d == 1));
+        assert!(matches.iter().any(|(t, _)| t == "alpho"));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1920,13 +6166,8 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // With very high distance, should be limited by max_expansions
         let matches = index.expand_fuzzy("a", 10, 3);
-        assert!(
-            matches.len() <= 3,
-            "Expected at most 3 matches, got {}",
-            matches.len()
-        );
+        assert!(matches.len() <= 3);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1937,17 +6178,8 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Search with typo "alpho" should match documents with "alpha" or "alpho"
         let entries = index.search_fuzzy("alpho", Some(1), 50);
-        assert!(!entries.is_empty(), "Expected matches for fuzzy 'alpho'");
-
-        // Should match docs with alpha (0, 2) and alpho (1)
-        let positions: Vec<_> = entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
-        assert!(
-            positions.contains(&0) || positions.contains(&1) || positions.contains(&2),
-            "Expected to match docs with alpha/alpho, got {:?}",
-            positions
-        );
+        assert!(!entries.is_empty());
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1958,9 +6190,8 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // "alpho" (5 chars) should get auto-fuzziness of 1
         let entries = index.search_fuzzy("alpho", None, 50);
-        assert!(!entries.is_empty(), "Expected matches with auto-fuzziness");
+        assert!(!entries.is_empty());
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1971,46 +6202,74 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Search for something completely different with low fuzziness
         let entries = index.search_fuzzy("xyz", Some(0), 50);
-        assert!(entries.is_empty(), "Expected no matches for 'xyz'");
+        assert!(entries.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_query_fuzzy() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy("alpho");
+        let entries = index.search_query(&query);
+        assert!(!entries.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_query_fuzzy_with_distance() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Even with fuzziness=1, "xyz" shouldn't match anything meaningful
-        // (this may or may not be empty depending on what 3-letter words are in the index)
-        let _ = index.search_fuzzy("xyz", Some(1), 50);
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy_with_distance("alpho", 1);
+        let entries = index.search_query(&query);
+        assert!(!entries.is_empty());
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_query_fuzzy() {
+    fn test_search_query_fuzzy_respects_prefix_length() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
 
         let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Test FtsQueryExpr::Fuzzy via search_query
-        let query = FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy("alpho");
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy_with_options("alpha", Some(5), 2, 50);
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
+        assert!(!entries.is_empty());
         assert!(
-            !entries.is_empty(),
-            "Expected matches for fuzzy query 'alpho'"
+            entries.iter().all(|entry| entry.row_position != 3),
+            "the omega row is within edit distance but does not share the required prefix"
         );
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_query_fuzzy_with_distance() {
+    fn test_search_query_fuzzy_prefix_length_uses_char_boundaries() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
 
-        let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["éclair", "xclair"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Exact distance: "alpho" has distance 1 from "alpha"
-        let query = FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy_with_distance("alpho", 1);
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy_with_options("éclair", Some(2), 1, 50);
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
+        assert!(!entries.is_empty());
         assert!(
-            !entries.is_empty(),
-            "Expected matches for fuzzy query with distance 1"
+            entries.iter().all(|entry| entry.row_position != 1),
+            "the ASCII-prefixed row is within edit distance but not the character prefix"
         );
     }
 
@@ -2027,22 +6286,15 @@ mod tests {
 
         let entries_no_boost = index.search_query(&query_no_boost);
         let entries_with_boost = index.search_query(&query_with_boost);
-
         assert_eq!(entries_no_boost.len(), entries_with_boost.len());
 
-        // Boosted scores should be 2x
         for e1 in &entries_no_boost {
             let e2 = entries_with_boost
                 .iter()
                 .find(|e| e.row_position == e1.row_position)
                 .unwrap();
             let expected = e1.score * 2.0;
-            assert!(
-                (e2.score - expected).abs() < 0.001,
-                "Boosted score {} should be 2x original {}",
-                e2.score,
-                e1.score
-            );
+            assert!((e2.score - expected).abs() < 0.001);
         }
     }
 
@@ -2054,48 +6306,19 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_fuzzy_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // MUST: fuzzy("alpho", distance=1), MUST_NOT: "delta"
-        // "alpho" matches "alpha" (distance=1) and itself
-        // Doc 0: "alpha beta gamma" - matches fuzzy alpho, no delta -> included
-        // Doc 1: "alpho beta delta" - matches fuzzy alpho, has delta -> excluded
-        // Doc 2: "alpha delta epsilon" - matches fuzzy alpho, has delta -> excluded
-        // Doc 4: "alphax gamma" - matches fuzzy alpho via alphax (dist=1 to alpho), no delta -> included
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
             .must(FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy_with_distance("alpho", 1))
             .must_not(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("delta"))
             .build();
 
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-
-        // Should not contain docs 1 and 2 (have "delta")
         let positions: Vec<_> = entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
-        assert!(
-            !positions.contains(&1),
-            "Doc 1 should be excluded due to MUST_NOT, got {:?}",
-            positions
-        );
-        assert!(
-            !positions.contains(&2),
-            "Doc 2 should be excluded due to MUST_NOT, got {:?}",
-            positions
-        );
-        // Doc 0 should be included
-        assert!(
-            positions.contains(&0),
-            "Doc 0 should be included, got {:?}",
-            positions
-        );
+        assert!(!positions.contains(&1));
+        assert!(!positions.contains(&2));
+        assert!(positions.contains(&0));
     }
 
-    // ====== Boost Query Tests ======
-
     fn create_boost_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> RecordBatch {
-        // Test documents for boost queries:
-        // Doc 0: "rust programming language" - matches rust, programming, language
-        // Doc 1: "python programming language" - matches python, programming, language
-        // Doc 2: "rust web server" - matches rust, web, server
-        // Doc 3: "python web framework" - matches python, web, framework
-        // Doc 4: "javascript programming" - matches javascript, programming
         RecordBatch::try_new(
             Arc::new(schema.clone()),
             vec![
@@ -2120,17 +6343,9 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boost_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Boosting query with only positive component (same as regular query)
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boosting(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"));
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-
-        // Should match docs 0, 1, 4 (all with "programming")
-        assert_eq!(
-            entries.len(),
-            3,
-            "Expected 3 matches for 'programming', got {:?}",
-            entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        );
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 3);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -2141,46 +6356,19 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boost_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Boosting query: find "programming", demote docs with "python"
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boosting_with_negative(
             FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"),
             FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"),
-            0.5, // Demote python docs by half
+            0.5,
         );
         let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-
-        // Should still match docs 0, 1, 4 (all with "programming")
         assert_eq!(entries.len(), 3);
 
-        // Find scores for each doc
-        let doc0 = entries.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 0); // rust programming
-        let doc1 = entries.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 1); // python programming
-        let doc4 = entries.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 4); // javascript programming
-
-        assert!(doc0.is_some() && doc1.is_some() && doc4.is_some());
-
-        // Doc 1 (python) should have lower score than doc 0 (rust) due to negative boost
-        // Doc 0 and doc 4 should have similar scores (neither match "python")
-        let score0 = doc0.unwrap().score;
-        let score1 = doc1.unwrap().score;
-        let score4 = doc4.unwrap().score;
-
-        // Doc 1 was demoted by 0.5, so it should have roughly half the score
-        assert!(
-            score1 < score0,
-            "Doc 1 (python) should have lower score than doc 0 (rust). Doc0: {}, Doc1: {}",
-            score0,
-            score1
-        );
-
-        // Doc 0 and doc 4 should have similar scores (both not demoted)
-        // They may differ slightly due to BM25 scoring differences, but doc 1 should be lower
-        assert!(
-            score1 < score4,
-            "Doc 1 (python) should have lower score than doc 4 (javascript). Doc1: {}, Doc4: {}",
-            score1,
-            score4
-        );
+        let doc0 = entries.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 0).unwrap();
+        let doc1 = entries.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 1).unwrap();
+        let doc4 = entries.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 4).unwrap();
+        assert!(doc1.score < doc0.score);
+        assert!(doc1.score < doc4.score);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -2191,58 +6379,51 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boost_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Compare different negative boost factors
-        let query_no_demote = FtsQueryExpr::boosting_with_negative(
+        let query_full_demote = FtsQueryExpr::boosting_with_negative(
             FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"),
             FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"),
-            1.0, // No demotion
+            1.0,
         );
-
         let query_half_demote = FtsQueryExpr::boosting_with_negative(
             FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"),
             FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"),
-            0.5, // Half score for python
+            0.5,
         );
-
         let query_zero_demote = FtsQueryExpr::boosting_with_negative(
             FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"),
             FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"),
-            0.0, // Zero score for python
+            0.0,
         );
 
-        let results_no_demote = index.search_query(&query_no_demote);
-        let results_half_demote = index.search_query(&query_half_demote);
-        let results_zero_demote = index.search_query(&query_zero_demote);
+        let r_no = index.search_query(&query_full_demote);
+        let r_half = index.search_query(&query_half_demote);
+        let r_zero = index.search_query(&query_zero_demote);
 
-        // Get doc 1 (python programming) scores
-        let score_no_demote = results_no_demote
-            .iter()
-            .find(|e| e.row_position == 1)
-            .unwrap()
-            .score;
-        let score_half_demote = results_half_demote
-            .iter()
+        let s_no = r_no.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 1).unwrap().score;
+        let s_half = r_half.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 1).unwrap().score;
+        let s_zero = r_zero.iter().find(|e| e.row_position == 1).unwrap().score;
+
+        // Subtractive: `positive - negative_boost * negative`. `0.0` leaves the
+        // positive score untouched and larger factors demote further, so the
+        // three are evenly spaced by the negative score.
+        let positive = index
+            .search_query(&FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"))
+            .into_iter()
             .find(|e| e.row_position == 1)
             .unwrap()
             .score;
-        let score_zero_demote = results_zero_demote
-            .iter()
+        let negative = index
+            .search_query(&FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"))
+            .into_iter()
             .find(|e| e.row_position == 1)
             .unwrap()
             .score;
-
-        // Verify demotion factors are applied correctly
-        assert!(
-            (score_half_demote - score_no_demote * 0.5).abs() < 0.001,
-            "Half demotion should give half score. Expected {}, got {}",
-            score_no_demote * 0.5,
-            score_half_demote
-        );
-
+        assert!((s_zero - positive).abs() < 0.001, "0.0 must not demote");
+        assert!((s_half - (positive - 0.5 * negative)).abs() < 0.001);
+        assert!((s_no - (positive - negative)).abs() < 0.001);
         assert!(
-            score_zero_demote.abs() < 0.001,
-            "Zero demotion should give zero score, got {}",
-            score_zero_demote
+            s_no < s_half && s_half < s_zero,
+            "larger factor demotes more"
         );
     }
 
@@ -2254,310 +6435,1101 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_boost_test_batch(&schema);
         index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // Boosting query where negative doesn't match any positive results
         let query = FtsQueryExpr::boosting_with_negative(
-            FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust"),   // Matches docs 0, 2
-            FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"), // Matches docs 1, 3 (no overlap!)
+            FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust"),
+            FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"),
             0.1,
         );
+        let entries = index.search_query(&query);
+        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 2);
+
+        let baseline = index.search_query(&FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust"));
+        for entry in &entries {
+            let b = baseline
+                .iter()
+                .find(|e| e.row_position == entry.row_position)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!((entry.score - b.score).abs() < 0.001);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_options_default() {
+        let options = SearchOptions::default();
+        assert_eq!(options.wand_factor, 1.0);
+        assert!(options.limit.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_options_builder() {
+        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_wand_factor(0.5).with_limit(10);
+        assert_eq!(options.wand_factor, 0.5);
+        assert_eq!(options.limit, Some(10));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_options_wand_factor_clamped() {
+        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_wand_factor(2.0);
+        assert_eq!(options.wand_factor, 1.0);
+        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_wand_factor(-0.5);
+        assert_eq!(options.wand_factor, 0.0);
+    }
+
+    fn create_wand_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "alpha alpha alpha beta",
+                    "alpha beta gamma",
+                    "beta gamma delta",
+                    "alpha alpha",
+                    "alpha",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_with_options_full_recall() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha");
+        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, SearchOptions::default());
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 4);
+        for i in 1..results.len() {
+            assert!(results[i - 1].score >= results[i].score);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_with_options_with_limit() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha");
+        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_limit(2);
+        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 2);
+
+        let mut full = index.search_query(&query);
+        full.sort_by(|a, b| b.score.partial_cmp(&a.score).unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(results[0].row_position, full[0].row_position);
+        assert_eq!(results[1].row_position, full[1].row_position);
+    }
+
+    /// Boost makes negative scores reachable, and the factor threshold has to
+    /// stay a *relaxation* at that point. Multiplying a negative k-th score by a
+    /// factor below one moves the threshold toward zero — tightening the filter
+    /// — which can drop every result including the actual top-k.
+    #[test]
+    fn boost_negative_scores_preserve_top_k_with_wand_factor() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let batch = create_boost_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        // Same clause on both sides with a factor above 1 drives every match
+        // negative: `positive - 2.0 * positive`.
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::boosting_with_negative(
+            FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"),
+            FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"),
+            2.0,
+        );
+        let exhaustive = index.search_with_options(&query, SearchOptions::default());
+        assert!(
+            exhaustive.iter().all(|entry| entry.score < 0.0),
+            "fixture must actually produce negative scores"
+        );
+
+        let limited = index.search_with_options(
+            &query,
+            SearchOptions::new().with_limit(1).with_wand_factor(0.5),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(limited.len(), 1, "factor pruning removed the actual top-k");
+        // Compare scores, not keys: the fixture's two best documents tie, so
+        // which one a stable sort surfaces is not a property of pruning.
+        assert_eq!(
+            limited[0].score, exhaustive[0].score,
+            "the surviving result must be a best-scoring one"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The relaxation is bit-identical to the old `anchor * factor` wherever
+    /// scores are non-negative, which is every query but boost.
+    #[test]
+    fn relaxed_score_threshold_matches_multiplication_when_non_negative() {
+        for anchor in [0.0f32, 0.25, 1.0, 12.5] {
+            for factor in [0.0f32, 0.25, 0.5, 0.99] {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    relaxed_score_threshold(anchor, factor),
+                    anchor * factor,
+                    "anchor={anchor} factor={factor}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        // Negative anchors relax downward instead of upward.
+        assert!(relaxed_score_threshold(-0.3, 0.5) < -0.3);
+        assert_eq!(relaxed_score_threshold(-0.3, 1.0), -0.3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_with_options_wand_factor_pruning() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha");
+        let mut full = index.search_query(&query);
+        full.sort_by(|a, b| b.score.partial_cmp(&a.score).unwrap());
+
+        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_wand_factor(0.5);
+        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
+
+        if !results.is_empty() {
+            let max_score = full[0].score;
+            let threshold = max_score * 0.5;
+            for result in &results {
+                assert!(result.score >= threshold - 0.001);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_with_options_wand_factor_with_limit() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha");
+        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_limit(2).with_wand_factor(0.5);
+        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
+        assert!(results.len() <= 2);
+        if results.len() > 1 {
+            assert!(results[0].score >= results[1].score);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_with_options_zero_limit_with_wand_factor() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha");
+        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_limit(0).with_wand_factor(0.5);
+        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
+        assert!(results.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_with_options_empty_results() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("nonexistent");
+        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_limit(10).with_wand_factor(0.5);
+        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
+        assert!(results.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_search_with_options_boolean_query() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
+            .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha"))
+            .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("beta"))
+            .build();
+
+        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_limit(3);
+        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
+        assert!(results.len() <= 3);
+        for i in 1..results.len() {
+            assert!(results[i - 1].score >= results[i].score);
+        }
+    }
+
+    // ====== New tests for SWMR semantics, Utf8View, memory accounting ======
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_utf8view_insert_and_search() {
+        // Mirror of test_fts_index_insert_and_search but with a Utf8View column.
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("description", DataType::Utf8View, true),
+        ]));
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let view =
+            arrow_array::StringViewArray::from(vec!["hello world", "goodbye world", "hello again"]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])), Arc::new(view)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(index.search("hello").len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(index.search("world").len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(index.search("goodbye").len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_memory_usage_grows_with_inserts() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+
+        let empty = index.resident_bytes_exact();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 0).unwrap();
+        let after_one = index.resident_bytes_exact();
+        index
+            .insert(&create_phrase_test_batch(&schema), 100)
+            .unwrap();
+        let after_two = index.resident_bytes_exact();
+
+        assert!(after_one > empty, "memory should grow after first insert");
+        assert!(
+            after_two > after_one,
+            "memory should grow after second insert"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let entries = index.search_query(&query);
-
-        // Should match docs 0, 2 (rust docs)
-        assert_eq!(entries.len(), 2);
+    /// The tail's running byte counter must stay exactly in step with the walk
+    /// it replaces, including across a freeze (which swaps in a fresh tail).
+    #[test]
+    fn test_tail_bytes_tracks_resident_bytes() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        // Freeze partway through so the counter is checked on both a live tail
+        // and a post-freeze one.
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(4);
 
-        // Scores should not be demoted (no overlap with python)
-        let query_baseline = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("rust");
-        let baseline_entries = index.search_query(&query_baseline);
+        for round in 0..6 {
+            let batch = if round % 2 == 0 {
+                create_test_batch(&schema)
+            } else {
+                create_phrase_test_batch(&schema)
+            };
+            index.insert(&batch, round * 100).unwrap();
 
-        for entry in &entries {
-            let baseline = baseline_entries
-                .iter()
-                .find(|e| e.row_position == entry.row_position)
-                .unwrap();
-            assert!(
-                (entry.score - baseline.score).abs() < 0.001,
-                "Scores should match when no negative overlap. Got {} vs {}",
-                entry.score,
-                baseline.score
+            let st = index.state.load();
+            assert_eq!(
+                st.tail.resident_bytes_cached(),
+                st.tail.resident_bytes(),
+                "tail byte counter drifted from the walk at round {round}"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                index.resident_bytes(),
+                index.resident_bytes_exact(),
+                "index memory_size drifted from memory_usage at round {round}"
             );
         }
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_boost_query_nested() {
+    fn test_partial_doc_never_visible_phrase() {
+        // A phrase query inside a single document must either match fully
+        // (both phrase tokens present) or not match at all — readers must
+        // never observe a half-inserted doc that contains only one of the
+        // phrase tokens. Since `search_phrase` only returns rows where
+        // every token's position constraint holds, any returned entry
+        // implicitly proves both tokens were visible together.
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let index = Arc::new(position_index(1, "description"));
+
+        let stop = Arc::new(std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let mut readers = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..4 {
+            let idx = index.clone();
+            let stop = stop.clone();
+            readers.push(std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                while !stop.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+                    let entries = idx.search_phrase("hello world", 0);
+                    for e in &entries {
+                        // "hello world" appears as the doc at offset 0 of
+                        // every inserted batch, whose row_offset is a
+                        // multiple of 100 — so any matched row_position
+                        // must be a multiple of 100 (the row_offset itself,
+                        // not offset+1 or offset+2).
+                        assert_eq!(
+                            e.row_position % 100,
+                            0,
+                            "phrase 'hello world' should only match the row_offset row of each batch, but got row_position {}",
+                            e.row_position
+                        );
+                        assert!(e.score.is_finite() && e.score >= 0.0);
+                    }
+                }
+            }));
+        }
 
-        let batch = create_boost_test_batch(&schema);
-        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        for i in 0..50 {
+            let batch = create_test_batch(&schema);
+            index.insert(&batch, (i * 100) as u64).unwrap();
+        }
+        std::thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(20));
+        stop.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
 
-        // Nested boost: positive is a Boolean query
-        let positive_query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
-            .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("programming"))
-            .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("web"))
-            .build();
+        for r in readers {
+            r.join().unwrap();
+        }
+    }
 
-        let query = FtsQueryExpr::boosting_with_negative(
-            positive_query,
-            FtsQueryExpr::match_query("python"),
-            0.5,
-        );
+    #[test]
+    fn test_swmr_visibility_torture() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = Arc::new(FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()));
+        let stop = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+
+        // 8 reader threads issuing match queries.
+        let mut readers = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..8 {
+            let idx = index.clone();
+            let stop = stop.clone();
+            readers.push(std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                while !stop.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+                    let r = idx.search("hello");
+                    // BM25 scores must be finite and non-negative.
+                    for e in &r {
+                        assert!(e.score.is_finite());
+                        assert!(e.score >= 0.0);
+                    }
+                }
+            }));
+        }
 
-        let entries = index.search_query(&query);
+        // One writer thread.
+        let writer = {
+            let idx = index.clone();
+            std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                for i in 0..200 {
+                    let batch = create_test_batch(&schema);
+                    idx.insert(&batch, (i * 100) as u64).unwrap();
+                }
+            })
+        };
 
-        // Should match docs 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (programming or web)
-        assert!(entries.len() >= 4, "Should match multiple docs");
+        writer.join().unwrap();
+        stop.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        for r in readers {
+            r.join().unwrap();
+        }
 
-        // Python docs (1, 3) should be demoted
-        let python_docs: Vec<_> = entries
-            .iter()
-            .filter(|e| e.row_position == 1 || e.row_position == 3)
-            .collect();
+        // After all inserts, doc_count must be 200 batches × 3 rows.
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 600);
+    }
 
-        let non_python_docs: Vec<_> = entries
-            .iter()
-            .filter(|e| e.row_position != 1 && e.row_position != 3)
-            .collect();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_to_index_builder_smoke() {
+        // Ensure flush works on a minimal input.
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
 
-        // At least some python docs should have lower scores
-        if !python_docs.is_empty() && !non_python_docs.is_empty() {
-            let max_python_score = python_docs.iter().map(|e| e.score).fold(0.0f32, f32::max);
-            let max_non_python_score = non_python_docs
-                .iter()
-                .map(|e| e.score)
-                .fold(0.0f32, f32::max);
-
-            // This is a soft check - depends on BM25 scoring details
-            // Just verify the demotion is happening
-            assert!(
-                python_docs.iter().any(|e| e.score < max_non_python_score)
-                    || max_python_score <= max_non_python_score,
-                "Python docs should generally have lower scores"
-            );
-        }
+        let builder = index.to_index_builder(42, 3).unwrap();
+        // The builder can be consumed by callers; we just check it built.
+        assert!(builder.id() > 0 || builder.id() == 42);
     }
 
-    // ====== WAND Factor / Search Options Tests ======
-
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_options_default() {
-        let options = SearchOptions::default();
-        assert_eq!(options.wand_factor, 1.0);
-        assert!(options.limit.is_none());
+    fn test_to_index_builder_supports_block_size_256() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().block_size(256).unwrap();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::try_with_params(1, "description".to_string(), params).unwrap();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let builder = index.to_index_builder(42, 3).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(builder.id(), 42);
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_options_builder() {
-        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_wand_factor(0.5).with_limit(10);
+    fn test_unsupported_column_type_errors() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("description", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
 
-        assert_eq!(options.wand_factor, 0.5);
-        assert_eq!(options.limit, Some(10));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let err = index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap_err();
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("must resolve to Utf8, LargeUtf8, Utf8View, or JSON")
+                && message.contains("got Int32"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_search_options_wand_factor_clamped() {
-        // wand_factor should be clamped to [0.0, 1.0]
-        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_wand_factor(2.0);
-        assert_eq!(options.wand_factor, 1.0);
+    // ===== Partition-structured redesign =====
 
-        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_wand_factor(-0.5);
-        assert_eq!(options.wand_factor, 0.0);
+    /// Sorted row positions of a result set.
+    fn rows(mut entries: Vec<FtsEntry>) -> Vec<u64> {
+        entries.sort_by_key(|e| e.row_position);
+        entries.into_iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect()
     }
 
-    fn create_wand_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> RecordBatch {
-        // Test documents with varying relevance:
-        // Doc 0: "alpha alpha alpha beta" - high relevance for "alpha" (3 occurrences)
-        // Doc 1: "alpha beta gamma" - medium relevance for "alpha" (1 occurrence)
-        // Doc 2: "beta gamma delta" - no relevance for "alpha"
-        // Doc 3: "alpha alpha" - medium-high relevance for "alpha" (2 occurrences, shorter doc)
-        // Doc 4: "alpha" - some relevance for "alpha" (1 occurrence, very short doc)
-        RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+    /// An index whose 4 docs (row positions 100..104) have all been frozen
+    /// into a single partition (`freeze_threshold_rows = 1`).
+    fn build_test_partition_index() -> FtsMemIndex {
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(1);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            create_test_schema(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
                 Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
-                    "alpha alpha alpha beta",
-                    "alpha beta gamma",
-                    "beta gamma delta",
-                    "alpha alpha",
-                    "alpha",
+                    "apple banana",
+                    "apple cherry",
+                    "banana",
+                    "apple apple date",
                 ])),
             ],
         )
-        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 100).unwrap();
+        index
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_with_options_full_recall() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
-
-        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
-        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
-
-        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha");
-
-        // Full recall (wand_factor = 1.0)
-        let options = SearchOptions::default();
-        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
-
-        // Should return all docs containing "alpha" (docs 0, 1, 3, 4)
-        assert_eq!(results.len(), 4, "Expected 4 matches with full recall");
+    fn test_partition_build_and_search() {
+        let index = build_test_partition_index();
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        assert_eq!(st.partitions.len(), 1, "the batch should have frozen");
+        assert_eq!(st.tail.visible_count(), 0, "the tail should be empty");
+
+        let p = &st.partitions[0];
+        assert_eq!(p.doc_count(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(p.total_tokens(), 8); // 2 + 2 + 1 + 3
+        // Term dictionary stores the *tokenized* form, so probe via the
+        // configured tokenizer rather than the raw word.
+        let tok = |w: &str| index.tokenize_for_search(w).pop().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(p.token_df(&tok("apple")), 3);
+        assert_eq!(p.token_df(&tok("banana")), 2);
+        assert_eq!(p.token_df("definitely_missing"), 0);
+
+        // Searching the index must return the partition's row positions.
+        assert_eq!(rows(index.search("apple")), vec![100, 101, 103]);
+        assert_eq!(rows(index.search("banana")), vec![100, 102]);
+        assert_eq!(rows(index.search("date")), vec![103]);
+        assert!(index.search("definitely_missing").is_empty());
+    }
 
-        // Results should be sorted by score descending
-        for i in 1..results.len() {
-            assert!(
-                results[i - 1].score >= results[i].score,
-                "Results should be sorted by score descending"
-            );
-        }
+    #[test]
+    fn test_partition_and_query_short_circuits_missing_term() {
+        let index = build_test_partition_index();
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        let p = &st.partitions[0];
+        let tail_snap = st.tail.snapshot();
+        let apple = index.tokenize_for_search("apple").pop().unwrap();
+        // "apple" is present -> an OR search over it matches.
+        let or_scorer = build_scorer(&st, &tail_snap, std::slice::from_ref(&apple), true);
+        let or_hits = p.search_match(std::slice::from_ref(&apple), Operator::Or, &or_scorer);
+        assert_eq!(or_hits.len(), 3);
+        // Adding an absent term to an AND query short-circuits to nothing.
+        let and_tokens = vec![apple, "definitely_missing".to_string()];
+        let and_scorer = build_scorer(&st, &tail_snap, &and_tokens, true);
+        let and_hits = p.search_match(&and_tokens, Operator::And, &and_scorer);
+        assert!(and_hits.is_empty());
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_with_options_with_limit() {
+    fn test_freeze_produces_multiple_partitions() {
+        // freeze_threshold_rows = 3 with 3-row batches => one partition per
+        // batch insert.
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
-
-        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
-        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
-
-        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha");
-
-        // Limit to top 2 results
-        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_limit(2);
-        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
-
-        assert_eq!(results.len(), 2, "Expected 2 matches with limit=2");
-
-        // Should be the top 2 by score
-        let full_results = index.search_query(&query);
-        let mut full_sorted = full_results;
-        full_sorted.sort_by(|a, b| b.score.partial_cmp(&a.score).unwrap());
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(3);
+        for i in 0..5 {
+            index
+                .insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), (i * 100) as u64)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        assert_eq!(st.partitions.len(), 5, "every batch should have frozen");
+        assert_eq!(st.tail.visible_count(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 15);
 
+        // "hello" appears in docs 0 and 2 of every batch; "world" in 0 and 1.
         assert_eq!(
-            results[0].row_position, full_sorted[0].row_position,
-            "First result should be highest scorer"
+            rows(index.search("hello")),
+            vec![0, 2, 100, 102, 200, 202, 300, 302, 400, 402]
         );
         assert_eq!(
-            results[1].row_position, full_sorted[1].row_position,
-            "Second result should be second highest scorer"
+            rows(index.search("world")),
+            vec![0, 1, 100, 101, 200, 201, 300, 301, 400, 401]
         );
+        assert!(index.search("definitely_missing").is_empty());
+        // Every score must be finite and positive.
+        for e in index.search("world") {
+            assert!(e.score.is_finite() && e.score > 0.0);
+        }
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_with_options_wand_factor_pruning() {
+    fn test_search_spans_partitions_and_tail() {
+        // freeze_threshold_rows = 5, 3-row batches: batch 1 -> tail(3);
+        // batch 2 -> tail(6) freezes -> partition(6); batch 3 -> tail(3).
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
-
-        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
-        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(5);
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 0).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 100).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 200).unwrap();
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        assert_eq!(st.partitions.len(), 1, "the first two batches froze");
+        assert_eq!(st.tail.visible_count(), 1, "the third batch is in the tail");
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 9);
+
+        // Results must merge the partition (rows 0..200) and the tail (200..).
+        assert_eq!(rows(index.search("hello")), vec![0, 2, 100, 102, 200, 202]);
+        assert_eq!(rows(index.search("goodbye")), vec![1, 101, 201]);
+    }
 
-        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha");
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flush_merges_partitions_and_tail() {
+        // A frozen partition plus a live tail must all reach the builder.
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(5);
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 0).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 100).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 200).unwrap();
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        assert_eq!(st.partitions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(st.tail.visible_count(), 1);
+
+        let builder = index.to_index_builder(7, 300).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(builder.id(), 7);
+        // A non-empty builder proves the partition and the tail both reached
+        // the flush; end-to-end flush correctness is covered by the MemTable
+        // flush integration tests.
+        assert!(
+            !builder.is_empty(),
+            "9 docs across partition + tail must flush"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Get full results first to understand the score distribution
-        let full_results = index.search_query(&query);
-        let mut full_sorted = full_results.clone();
-        full_sorted.sort_by(|a, b| b.score.partial_cmp(&a.score).unwrap());
+    #[test]
+    fn test_phrase_across_partitions() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = position_index(1, "description").with_freeze_threshold_rows(3);
+        // Each batch has "hello world" at its row_offset row.
+        for i in 0..4 {
+            index
+                .insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), (i * 100) as u64)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        assert_eq!(st.partitions.len(), 4);
+        // The phrase must be found in every partition.
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows(index.search_phrase("hello world", 0)),
+            vec![0, 100, 200, 300]
+        );
+        // A phrase not present anywhere returns nothing.
+        assert!(index.search_phrase("world hello", 0).is_empty());
+    }
 
-        // With wand_factor = 0.0, should only keep results at or above threshold (max_score * 0.0 = 0)
-        // Actually with wand_factor = 0.0, threshold = max_score * 0.0 = 0, so all positive scores pass
-        // The real test is to use a higher wand_factor like 0.5
-        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_wand_factor(0.5);
-        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_caps_partition_count() {
+        // freeze_threshold_rows = 1 freezes every 3-row batch; past
+        // MAX_PARTITIONS (32) the partitions are merged into one.
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(1);
+        for i in 0..40 {
+            index
+                .insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), (i * 100) as u64)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let st = index.state.load_full();
+        assert!(
+            st.partitions.len() <= FtsMemIndex::MAX_PARTITIONS,
+            "partition count {} should be capped",
+            st.partitions.len()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 120);
+        // Merge must preserve every posting: "hello" hits 2 docs per batch.
+        assert_eq!(index.search("hello").len(), 80);
+        for e in index.search("hello") {
+            assert!(e.score.is_finite() && e.score > 0.0);
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Results should be pruned based on threshold
-        if !results.is_empty() {
-            let max_score = full_sorted[0].score;
-            let threshold = max_score * 0.5;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_include_tail_option_and_flush() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        // threshold 5 with 3-row batches: batch@0 stays in tail; batch@100
+        // pushes the tail to 6 and freezes both; batch@200 stays in the tail.
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(5);
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 0).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 100).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), 200).unwrap();
+        let immutable = SearchOptions::new().with_include_tail(false);
+        let match_hello = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("hello");
+
+        // Read-your-writes (default) sees all three batches (2 "hello"/batch).
+        assert_eq!(index.search("hello").len(), 6);
+        // Immutable-only sees only the two frozen batches.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index
+                .search_with_options(&match_hello, immutable.clone())
+                .len(),
+            4
+        );
+        // Flushing the tail makes it immutable; immutable-only now sees all.
+        index.flush();
+        assert_eq!(index.search_with_options(&match_hello, immutable).len(), 6);
+        assert_eq!(index.search("hello").len(), 6);
+    }
 
-            for result in &results {
+    #[test]
+    fn test_block_impacts_frontier_is_tight_and_sound() {
+        // The Pareto (freq, dl) frontier must dominate every input pair (sound
+        // upper bound) and contain no dominated pair (minimal/tight).
+        let dominates = |a: (u32, u32), b: (u32, u32)| a.0 >= b.0 && a.1 <= b.1;
+        let cases: Vec<Vec<(u32, u32)>> = vec![
+            vec![(3, 10), (1, 5), (2, 8), (5, 20), (1, 4)],
+            vec![(1, 100); 5], // all identical => single frontier point
+            vec![(9, 2)],      // single doc
+            vec![(1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7), (4, 6), (5, 5)], // fully Pareto-optimal
+        ];
+        for input in cases {
+            let mut pairs = input.clone();
+            let frontier = block_impacts(&mut pairs);
+            assert!(!frontier.is_empty());
+            // Soundness: every input pair is dominated by some frontier pair.
+            for &p in &input {
+                let dl = (p.0, p.1.max(1));
                 assert!(
-                    result.score >= threshold - 0.001, // small epsilon for float comparison
-                    "With wand_factor=0.5, all results should score >= {} but got {}",
-                    threshold,
-                    result.score
+                    frontier.iter().any(|&f| dominates(f, dl)),
+                    "{p:?} not dominated by frontier {frontier:?}"
                 );
             }
-
-            // Should have fewer or equal results compared to full results
-            assert!(
-                results.len() <= full_results.len(),
-                "Pruned results should not exceed full results"
-            );
+            // Tightness: no frontier pair dominates another.
+            for (i, &a) in frontier.iter().enumerate() {
+                for (j, &b) in frontier.iter().enumerate() {
+                    assert!(
+                        i == j || !dominates(a, b),
+                        "frontier not minimal: {frontier:?}"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
         }
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_with_options_wand_factor_with_limit() {
+    fn test_multi_term_wand_and_tail_skip_match_exhaustive() {
+        // Multi-term OR across frozen partitions + a non-empty tail. The
+        // block-max-pruned WAND (limited) + tail-skip must return the same
+        // top-k scores as the exhaustive (unlimited) scan.
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        // threshold 5 with 3-row batches leaves the last batch in the tail.
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(5);
+        for i in 0..5 {
+            index
+                .insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), (i * 100) as u64)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("hello world");
+        let mut exhaustive = index.search_query(&query);
+        exhaustive.sort_by(|a, b| b.score.partial_cmp(&a.score).unwrap());
+        for k in [1usize, 3, 10] {
+            // Tail-skip is only an optimization: pruning the tail (default) and
+            // forcing a full tail scan must both equal the exhaustive top-k.
+            for tail_skip in [true, false] {
+                let limited = index.search_with_options(
+                    &query,
+                    SearchOptions::new().with_limit(k).with_tail_skip(tail_skip),
+                );
+                let mut got: Vec<f32> = limited.iter().map(|e| e.score).collect();
+                got.sort_by(|a, b| b.partial_cmp(a).unwrap());
+                let want: Vec<f32> = exhaustive.iter().take(k).map(|e| e.score).collect();
+                assert_eq!(got.len(), want.len(), "k={k} tail_skip={tail_skip}");
+                for (g, w) in got.iter().zip(&want) {
+                    assert!(
+                        (g - w).abs() < 1e-4,
+                        "k={k} tail_skip={tail_skip}: {g} vs {w}"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
-        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_multi_term_wand_prune_keeps_multi_match_docs() {
+        // Regression: the block-max prune must bound a pivot doc by *every* lane
+        // positioned at it (the same set the scorer sums), not just lanes up to
+        // the pivot index. A doc matching several query terms is high-scoring
+        // but has contributing lanes that can sort *after* the pivot; bounding
+        // only `lanes[..=pivot]` under-counts its score and unsoundly skips it,
+        // dropping true top-k results (silent recall loss on OR queries).
+        //
+        // Needs a corpus rich in multi-term-match docs across frozen partitions
+        // (so block-max applies) with a warm threshold — a small fixed corpus
+        // never exercises the faulty branch.
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        // A 12-word vocab with Zipfian inclusion + skewed per-term frequencies:
+        // query terms have very different df/idf and per-doc tf, so a contributing
+        // lane's `ub` can be small enough to sort it *after* the pivot. Generated
+        // from a deterministic LCG so the case is reproducible without `rand`.
+        let vocab: Vec<String> = (0..12).map(|i| format!("w{i}")).collect();
+        let make_batch = |start: i32, count: i32| -> RecordBatch {
+            let ids: Vec<i32> = (start..start + count).collect();
+            let texts: Vec<String> = (start..start + count)
+                .map(|i| {
+                    let mut rng = (i as u64).wrapping_mul(6364136223846793005).wrapping_add(1);
+                    let mut next = || {
+                        rng = rng
+                            .wrapping_mul(6364136223846793005)
+                            .wrapping_add(1442695040888963407);
+                        (rng >> 33) as u32
+                    };
+                    let mut words: Vec<&str> = Vec::new();
+                    for (j, w) in vocab.iter().enumerate() {
+                        // Rarer words (higher j) included less often; when present,
+                        // a skewed term frequency (larger for low j).
+                        if next() % (j as u32 + 2) == 0 {
+                            let reps = 1 + (next() % (8u32.saturating_sub(j as u32 / 2).max(1)));
+                            for _ in 0..reps {
+                                words.push(w);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if words.is_empty() {
+                        words.push(&vocab[0]);
+                    }
+                    words.join(" ")
+                })
+                .collect();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
 
-        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha");
+        // 40 freezes of 100 docs (threshold 250) => multiple multi-block
+        // partitions (so a block's max_freq differs from the partition max,
+        // making the block bound straddle the threshold) plus a live tail.
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(250);
+        for b in 0..40 {
+            index
+                .insert(&make_batch(b * 100, 100), (b * 100) as u64)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        assert!(index.state.load_full().partitions.len() >= 2);
+
+        // Sweep every common+common and common+rare pair/triple so the lanes have
+        // a wide spread of upper bounds — the condition that exposes the prune.
+        let mut queries: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
+        for a in 0..6 {
+            for b in (a + 1)..8 {
+                queries.push(format!("w{a} w{b}"));
+                for c in (b + 1)..10 {
+                    queries.push(format!("w{a} w{b} w{c}"));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        for query_text in &queries {
+            let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query(query_text.as_str());
+            let mut exhaustive = index.search_query(&query);
+            exhaustive.sort_by(|a, b| b.score.partial_cmp(&a.score).unwrap());
+            for k in [1usize, 5, 10, 25] {
+                let limited = index.search_with_options(&query, SearchOptions::new().with_limit(k));
+                let mut got: Vec<f32> = limited.iter().map(|e| e.score).collect();
+                got.sort_by(|a, b| b.partial_cmp(a).unwrap());
+                let want: Vec<f32> = exhaustive.iter().take(k).map(|e| e.score).collect();
+                assert_eq!(got.len(), want.len(), "q={query_text:?} k={k}");
+                for (g, w) in got.iter().zip(&want) {
+                    assert!(
+                        (g - w).abs() < 1e-4,
+                        "q={query_text:?} k={k}: WAND returned {g}, exhaustive top-k has {w} \
+                         (block-max prune dropped a higher-scoring multi-term-match doc)"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Get full results to understand score distribution
-        let full_results = index.search_query(&query);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_background_tiered_merge_reduces_partition_count() {
+        // 16 single-batch freezes (freeze_threshold_rows = 1) make 16 tiny
+        // same-tier partitions. The tiered merge (MERGE_FACTOR = 8) runs in the
+        // background and the writer installs it on a later freeze. Total inserts
+        // stay below MAX_PARTITIONS (32), so any reduction is from the tier
+        // merge — not the synchronous safety-net collapse.
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(1);
+        for i in 0..16 {
+            index
+                .insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), (i * 100) as u64)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let deadline = std::time::Instant::now() + std::time::Duration::from_secs(5);
+        let mut total = 16u64;
+        while index.state.load().partitions.len() >= 16
+            && total < 30
+            && std::time::Instant::now() < deadline
+        {
+            std::thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(5));
+            index
+                .insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), total * 100)
+                .unwrap();
+            total += 1;
+        }
+        let parts = index.state.load().partitions.len();
         assert!(
-            full_results.len() >= 3,
-            "Need at least 3 results for this test"
+            parts < 16,
+            "background tier merge should reduce partitions below 16, got {parts}"
         );
-
-        // With limit=2 and wand_factor=0.5, prune docs scoring below 50% of 2nd best
-        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_limit(2).with_wand_factor(0.5);
-        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
-
-        // Should have at most 2 results (the limit)
-        assert!(results.len() <= 2, "Should not exceed limit");
-
-        // Results should be sorted by score
-        if results.len() > 1 {
-            assert!(results[0].score >= results[1].score);
+        // Merge is doc-preserving: counts are exact regardless of timing.
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), total as usize * 3);
+        assert_eq!(index.search("hello").len(), total as usize * 2);
+        for e in index.search("hello") {
+            assert!(e.score.is_finite() && e.score > 0.0);
         }
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_with_options_empty_results() {
+    fn test_freeze_during_concurrent_search() {
+        // Searches running concurrently with freezes must never observe a
+        // doc twice or miss one: every result row is valid and scored.
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+        let index =
+            Arc::new(FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(6));
+        let stop = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let mut readers = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..4 {
+            let idx = index.clone();
+            let stop = stop.clone();
+            readers.push(std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                while !stop.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+                    for e in idx.search("world") {
+                        // "world" only ever appears in docs 0 and 1 of a
+                        // batch, whose row_offset is a multiple of 100.
+                        assert!(e.row_position % 100 < 2);
+                        assert!(e.score.is_finite() && e.score >= 0.0);
+                    }
+                }
+            }));
+        }
+        for i in 0..60 {
+            index
+                .insert(&create_test_batch(&schema), (i * 100) as u64)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        std::thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(20));
+        stop.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        for r in readers {
+            r.join().unwrap();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(index.doc_count(), 180);
+        assert_eq!(index.search("world").len(), 120);
+    }
 
-        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
-        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_limited_search_returns_exact_top_k_across_partitions() {
+        // Regression: a limited `search_with_options` over many partitions
+        // must still return the *exact* global top-k. Per-partition WAND must
+        // not prune by a limit it cannot bound (in-memory posting lists carry
+        // no `max_score`), or valid top-k docs are silently dropped.
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(2);
+        // 8 docs (4 batches of 2) -> 4 partitions. "lion" appears with tf
+        // 1..=6, so the 6 matching docs have strictly distinct BM25 scores.
+        let texts = [
+            ["lion", "lion lion"],
+            ["lion lion lion", "lion lion lion lion"],
+            ["cat", "lion lion lion lion lion"],
+            ["lion lion lion lion lion lion", "dog"],
+        ];
+        for (b, pair) in texts.iter().enumerate() {
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                create_test_schema(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(pair.to_vec())),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            index.insert(&batch, (b * 100) as u64).unwrap();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(index.state.load_full().partitions.len(), 4);
 
-        // Query for something that doesn't exist
-        let query = FtsQueryExpr::match_query("nonexistent");
-        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_limit(10).with_wand_factor(0.5);
-        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
+        // Exact full ranking via the unbounded search path.
+        let mut full = index.search("lion");
+        full.sort_by(|a, b| b.score.partial_cmp(&a.score).unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(full.len(), 6);
 
-        assert!(
-            results.is_empty(),
-            "Should return empty for non-matching query"
+        // The limited top-3 must equal the first 3 of the full ranking.
+        let limited = index.search_with_options(
+            &FtsQueryExpr::match_query("lion"),
+            SearchOptions::new().with_limit(3),
         );
+        assert_eq!(limited.len(), 3);
+        let got: Vec<u64> = limited.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
+        let expected: Vec<u64> = full.iter().take(3).map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
+        assert_eq!(got, expected, "limited search must return the exact top-3");
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_search_with_options_boolean_query() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string());
+    fn test_wand_topk_matches_exact_full_scan() {
+        // WAND must produce the exact same top-k as an unbounded scan, at a
+        // scale where pruning genuinely engages. 40 docs across ~8 partitions;
+        // "alpha" appears with tf 1..=40, giving 40 strictly distinct scores.
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "description".to_string()).with_freeze_threshold_rows(5);
+        for i in 0..40u64 {
+            let text = "alpha ".repeat((i + 1) as usize);
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                create_test_schema(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![text.as_str()])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            index.insert(&batch, i).unwrap();
+        }
+        assert!(index.state.load_full().partitions.len() >= 2);
 
-        let batch = create_wand_test_batch(&schema);
-        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        // Exact ranking from the unbounded path.
+        let mut full = index.search("alpha");
+        assert_eq!(full.len(), 40);
+        full.sort_by(|a, b| {
+            b.score
+                .partial_cmp(&a.score)
+                .unwrap()
+                .then(a.row_position.cmp(&b.row_position))
+        });
 
-        // Boolean query: alpha SHOULD beta
-        let query = FtsQueryExpr::boolean()
-            .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha"))
-            .should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query("beta"))
-            .build();
+        // For several k, WAND-pruned top-k must equal the exact top-k.
+        for k in [1usize, 3, 10, 25, 40, 50] {
+            let limited = index.search_with_options(
+                &FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha"),
+                SearchOptions::new().with_limit(k),
+            );
+            let expect_len = k.min(40);
+            assert_eq!(limited.len(), expect_len, "k={k}");
+            let got: Vec<u64> = limited.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
+            let expected: Vec<u64> = full
+                .iter()
+                .take(expect_len)
+                .map(|e| e.row_position)
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(got, expected, "WAND top-{k} must equal the exact top-{k}");
+        }
+    }
 
-        let options = SearchOptions::new().with_limit(3);
-        let results = index.search_with_options(&query, options);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitpack_read_at_random_access() {
+        // Pack a stream, then random-access arbitrary [s, s+n) ranges.
+        let vals: Vec<u32> = (0..200u32).map(|i| (i * 7 + 3) % 1000).collect();
+        let width = bit_width(*vals.iter().max().unwrap());
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        bitpack_put(&mut buf, &vals, width);
+        for &(s, n) in &[(0usize, 5usize), (1, 1), (63, 10), (130, 70), (199, 1)] {
+            let mut out = Vec::new();
+            bitpack_read_at(&buf, 0, s, n, width, &mut out);
+            assert_eq!(out, &vals[s..s + n], "s={s} n={n}");
+        }
+    }
 
-        assert!(results.len() <= 3, "Should not exceed limit");
-        // Results should be sorted by score descending
-        for i in 1..results.len() {
-            assert!(results[i - 1].score >= results[i].score);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_bitpack_roundtrip() {
+        // Cover width 0 (all-zero), sub-byte, byte-crossing, and full widths.
+        let cases: [(Vec<u32>, u8); 6] = [
+            (vec![0u32; 5], 0),
+            (vec![0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1], 1),
+            (vec![3, 0, 7, 5, 2, 6, 1, 4], 3),
+            (vec![200, 17, 255, 0, 130], 8),
+            (vec![1000, 5, 65535, 42], 16),
+            (vec![1, u32::MAX, 0, 123_456_789], 32),
+        ];
+        for (values, width) in &cases {
+            let mut buf = Vec::new();
+            bitpack_put(&mut buf, values, *width);
+            assert_eq!(
+                buf.len(),
+                bitpack_len(values.len(), *width),
+                "width={width}"
+            );
+            let mut out = Vec::new();
+            bitpack_get(&buf, 0, values.len(), *width, &mut out);
+            assert_eq!(&out, values, "width={width}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_posting_cursor_codec_roundtrip() {
+        // One term spanning 3 blocks (300 docs), varied freqs + positions.
+        let mut docs = DocSet::default();
+        let mut docs_for_term: Vec<(u32, u32, Vec<u32>)> = Vec::new();
+        for d in 0..300u32 {
+            docs.append(1000 + d as u64, (d % 7) + 1);
+            let freq = (d % 5) + 1;
+            let positions: Vec<u32> = (0..freq).map(|p| p * 3).collect();
+            docs_for_term.push((d, freq, positions));
+        }
+        let part = build_partition(vec![(Arc::from("term"), docs_for_term.clone())], docs);
+
+        // Full iteration must reproduce the input exactly.
+        let mut c = PostingCursor::new(&part, 0);
+        for (d, f, pos) in &docs_for_term {
+            assert_eq!(c.doc(), Some(*d));
+            assert_eq!(c.freq(), *f);
+            assert_eq!(c.positions(), pos.as_slice());
+            c.advance();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(c.doc(), None, "cursor exhausted after the last doc");
+
+        // skip_to must land correctly across and within block boundaries.
+        for &(target, expect) in &[
+            (5u32, Some(5u32)), // within block 0
+            (128, Some(128)),   // exact block-1 boundary
+            (200, Some(200)),   // within block 1
+            (299, Some(299)),   // last doc
+            (300, None),        // past the end
+        ] {
+            let mut c = PostingCursor::new(&part, 0);
+            c.skip_to(target);
+            assert_eq!(c.doc(), expect, "skip_to({target})");
         }
+        // Sequential skips on one cursor.
+        let mut c = PostingCursor::new(&part, 0);
+        c.skip_to(100);
+        assert_eq!(c.doc(), Some(100));
+        c.skip_to(260);
+        assert_eq!(c.doc(), Some(260));
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/hnsw.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/hnsw.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1657ab4ef44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/hnsw.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,953 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! In-memory HNSW index for vector similarity search.
+//!
+//! This is the MemWAL adapter around the local HNSW graph. Vectors are
+//! retained by reference from the writer's Arrow batches, inserts are
+//! published under a multi-reader / single-writer contract, and flush
+//! snapshots are emitted in Lance's on-disk HNSW + FLAT storage format.
+
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::{HNSW, builder::HnswBuildParams};
+use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+use super::super::hnsw::{ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore, BuildParams, HnswGraph, SearchParams};
+use super::super::memtable::batch_store::StoredBatch;
+
+pub use super::RowPosition;
+
+const MEM_HNSW_DIM_PLACEHOLDER: usize = 0;
+
+/// Write-optimized default HNSW build parameters for MemTable indexes.
+///
+/// MemTable HNSW graphs are rebuilt on every flush, so build speed matters more
+/// than for a static base-table index. A dbpedia-1M (1536-d) sweep showed
+/// `num_edges = 16, ef_construction = 100` is the best fast-write/good-recall
+/// point: ~27% faster to flush than the generic `HnswBuildParams::default()`
+/// (`num_edges = 20, ef_construction = 150`) with an equal-or-better recall
+/// ceiling (~0.95 at ef=256, the SQ8-quantization limit). Lower `num_edges`
+/// (e.g. 12) flushes faster still but drops the recall ceiling below 0.95.
+pub fn mem_wal_hnsw_default() -> HnswBuildParams {
+    HnswBuildParams::default()
+        .num_edges(16)
+        .ef_construction(100)
+}
+
+/// Configuration for an in-memory HNSW index.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct HnswIndexConfig {
+    pub name: String,
+    pub field_id: i32,
+    /// Vector column name for batch lookups.
+    pub column: String,
+    pub distance_type: DistanceType,
+    pub build_params: HnswBuildParams,
+}
+
+impl HnswIndexConfig {
+    pub fn new(name: String, field_id: i32, column: String, distance_type: DistanceType) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            name,
+            field_id,
+            column,
+            distance_type,
+            build_params: mem_wal_hnsw_default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_build_params(mut self, params: HnswBuildParams) -> Self {
+        self.build_params = params;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// In-memory HNSW index queryable while building.
+pub struct HnswMemIndex {
+    field_id: i32,
+    column: String,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    /// Vector dimension (lazy-initialized on first insert).
+    dim: AtomicUsize,
+    /// Capacity (max vectors) for both the HNSW graph and vector store.
+    capacity: usize,
+    /// Maximum number of Arrow batches retained by reference.
+    max_batches: usize,
+    build_params: HnswBuildParams,
+    state: OnceLock<HnswState>,
+}
+
+struct HnswState {
+    storage: Arc<ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore>,
+    graph: HnswGraph,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for HnswMemIndex {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("HnswMemIndex")
+            .field("field_id", &self.field_id)
+            .field("column", &self.column)
+            .field("distance_type", &self.distance_type)
+            .field("dim", &self.dim.load(Ordering::Acquire))
+            .field("capacity", &self.capacity)
+            .field("len", &self.len())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl HnswMemIndex {
+    pub fn with_capacity(
+        field_id: i32,
+        column: String,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        build_params: HnswBuildParams,
+        capacity: usize,
+        max_batches: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            field_id,
+            column,
+            distance_type,
+            dim: AtomicUsize::new(MEM_HNSW_DIM_PLACEHOLDER),
+            capacity,
+            max_batches,
+            build_params,
+            state: OnceLock::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn field_id(&self) -> i32 {
+        self.field_id
+    }
+
+    pub fn column_name(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.column
+    }
+
+    pub fn distance_type(&self) -> DistanceType {
+        self.distance_type
+    }
+
+    pub fn build_params(&self) -> &HnswBuildParams {
+        &self.build_params
+    }
+
+    pub fn capacity(&self) -> usize {
+        self.capacity
+    }
+
+    /// Vector dimension. Returns 0 before the first insert.
+    pub fn dim(&self) -> usize {
+        self.dim.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.state.get().map(|s| s.graph.len()).unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.len() == 0
+    }
+
+    /// Upper bound on heap bytes held — or already committed — by this index.
+    ///
+    /// Sized by `capacity` (the writer's `max_memtable_rows`) rather than by
+    /// rows inserted: the graph and lookup slabs are pre-allocated in full on
+    /// the first insert, so an idle vector memtable costs the same as a full
+    /// one.
+    ///
+    /// Non-zero *before* that first insert too. The allocation is settled the
+    /// moment the index exists — only `dim` is still unknown, and no term
+    /// depends on it — so reporting zero until the row that triggers it would
+    /// hide the largest allocation in a vector memtable from the admission
+    /// controller that runs just ahead of it. Until then this is the reserved
+    /// estimate; from the first insert on it is the graph's own measurement.
+    pub(crate) fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match self.state.get() {
+            Some(s) => s.graph.resident_bytes() + s.storage.resident_bytes(),
+            None => {
+                HnswGraph::reserved_bytes(self.capacity, &build_params_of(&self.build_params))
+                    + ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::reserved_bytes(self.capacity, self.max_batches)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ensure_state(&self, dim: usize) -> Result<&HnswState> {
+        if let Some(state) = self.state.get() {
+            if state.storage.dim() != dim {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "HNSW index column '{}' dimension changed: expected {}, got {}",
+                    self.column,
+                    state.storage.dim(),
+                    dim
+                )));
+            }
+            return Ok(state);
+        }
+
+        let state = HnswState {
+            storage: Arc::new(ArrowFixedSizeListVectorStore::try_new(
+                self.capacity,
+                self.max_batches,
+                dim,
+                self.distance_type,
+            )?),
+            graph: HnswGraph::try_new(self.capacity, to_lance_hnsw_params(&self.build_params)?)?,
+        };
+        self.dim.store(dim, Ordering::Release);
+
+        if self.state.set(state).is_err() {
+            // Another writer initialized first. The shard writer has a
+            // single-writer contract, but handle the race defensively.
+            let Some(state) = self.state.get() else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "HNSW state initialization raced but no state was installed",
+                ));
+            };
+            if state.storage.dim() != dim {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "HNSW index column '{}' dimension changed: expected {}, got {}",
+                    self.column,
+                    state.storage.dim(),
+                    dim
+                )));
+            }
+            return Ok(state);
+        }
+
+        self.state
+            .get()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("HNSW state was not installed after initialization"))
+    }
+
+    /// Insert vectors from a single batch.
+    ///
+    /// The vector column is appended by reference; the Arrow values buffer is
+    /// not copied. The graph then indexes the dense id range assigned to this
+    /// batch.
+    pub fn insert(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, row_offset: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        let (col_idx, _) = batch
+            .schema()
+            .column_with_name(&self.column)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "HNSW index column '{}' is not in the inserted batch schema",
+                    self.column
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let column = batch.column(col_idx);
+        let fsl_ref = column.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column '{}' is not a FixedSizeList, got {:?}",
+                self.column,
+                column.data_type()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if fsl_ref.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        if fsl_ref.values().as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>().is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column '{}' must be FixedSizeList<Float32>, got values type {:?}",
+                self.column,
+                fsl_ref.values().data_type()
+            )));
+        }
+        // Null-vector rows (e.g. tombstones) are skipped inside `append_batch`,
+        // which yields an empty range for an all-null batch — handled below.
+        let dim = fsl_ref.value_length() as usize;
+        let state = self.ensure_state(dim)?;
+        let vectors = Arc::new(fsl_ref.clone());
+        let id_range = state.storage.append_batch(vectors, row_offset)?;
+        if id_range.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let snapshot = state.storage.snapshot();
+        state.graph.insert_batch(id_range, &snapshot)
+    }
+
+    /// Insert vectors from multiple batches.
+    pub fn insert_batches(&self, batches: &[StoredBatch]) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut combined_range: Option<std::ops::Range<u32>> = None;
+        let mut state: Option<&HnswState> = None;
+
+        for stored in batches {
+            let (col_idx, _) = stored
+                .data
+                .schema()
+                .column_with_name(&self.column)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "HNSW index column '{}' is not in the inserted batch schema",
+                        self.column
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            let column = stored.data.column(col_idx);
+            let fsl_ref = column.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column '{}' is not a FixedSizeList, got {:?}",
+                    self.column,
+                    column.data_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if fsl_ref.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if fsl_ref.values().as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>().is_none() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column '{}' must be FixedSizeList<Float32>, got values type {:?}",
+                    self.column,
+                    fsl_ref.values().data_type()
+                )));
+            }
+            // Null-vector rows (e.g. tombstones) are skipped inside
+            // `append_batch`; an all-null batch yields an empty range, handled
+            // by the `id_range.is_empty()` continue below.
+            let dim = fsl_ref.value_length() as usize;
+            let current_state = match state {
+                Some(state) => {
+                    if state.storage.dim() != dim {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "HNSW index column '{}' dimension changed: expected {}, got {}",
+                            self.column,
+                            state.storage.dim(),
+                            dim
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    state
+                }
+                None => self.ensure_state(dim)?,
+            };
+            state = Some(current_state);
+
+            let vectors = Arc::new(fsl_ref.clone());
+            let id_range = current_state
+                .storage
+                .append_batch(vectors, stored.row_offset)?;
+            if id_range.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            match &mut combined_range {
+                Some(range) if range.end == id_range.start => {
+                    range.end = id_range.end;
+                }
+                Some(range) => {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "non-contiguous HNSW vector id range while inserting batches: existing={:?}, next={:?}",
+                        range, id_range
+                    )));
+                }
+                None => {
+                    combined_range = Some(id_range);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let (Some(state), Some(id_range)) = (state, combined_range) {
+            let snapshot = state.storage.snapshot();
+            state.graph.insert_batch(id_range, &snapshot)?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Search for nearest neighbors of `query` with MVCC visibility.
+    ///
+    /// Distances are exact because the in-memory graph is backed by FLAT
+    /// vectors. Rows with positions greater than `max_row_position` are
+    /// filtered after graph search.
+    pub fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: &FixedSizeListArray,
+        k: usize,
+        ef: Option<usize>,
+        max_row_position: RowPosition,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(f32, RowPosition)>> {
+        if k == 0 {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        if query.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Query must have exactly 1 vector, got {}",
+                query.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        if query.null_count() > 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("HNSW query vector must not be null"));
+        }
+        let Some(state) = self.state.get() else {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        };
+        if query.value_length() as usize != state.storage.dim() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "HNSW query dimension mismatch: expected {}, got {}",
+                state.storage.dim(),
+                query.value_length()
+            )));
+        }
+        let query_values = query.value(0);
+        let Some(query_values) = query_values.as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "HNSW query must contain Float32 values, got {:?}",
+                query_values.data_type()
+            )));
+        };
+
+        let ef_actual = ef.unwrap_or(k.max(64)).max(k);
+        let snapshot = state.storage.snapshot();
+        let mut out: Vec<_> = state
+            .graph
+            .search(
+                query_values.values(),
+                SearchParams::new(ef_actual, ef_actual),
+                &snapshot,
+            )?
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter_map(|result| {
+                if result.row_id <= max_row_position && result.distance.is_finite() {
+                    Some((result.distance, result.row_id))
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        out.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.partial_cmp(&b.0).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+        out.truncate(k);
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+
+    /// Snapshot the in-memory HNSW into the Lance on-disk representation:
+    /// returns the graph + the FLAT vector storage record batch.
+    pub fn to_lance_hnsw(&self, total_rows: Option<u64>) -> Result<Option<(HNSW, RecordBatch)>> {
+        let Some(state) = self.state.get() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if state.graph.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        // Bound the graph by storage, and only in that direction. A graph past
+        // storage names rows the batch has no vector for, which is the defect
+        // this fixes. Storage past the graph is left whole on purpose: those
+        // rows are unreachable by traversal either way, but `HNSW::search`
+        // brute-forces the storage domain under a narrow prefilter
+        // (`flat_search`), so dropping them would lose results this export
+        // previously returned. Closing that gap means finishing index
+        // application before export, not trimming storage to match.
+        let storage_batch = state.storage.to_record_batch(total_rows)?;
+        let hnsw_batch = state
+            .graph
+            .to_lance_hnsw_batch(Some(storage_batch.num_rows()))?;
+        let hnsw = HNSW::load(hnsw_batch)?;
+        Ok(Some((hnsw, storage_batch)))
+    }
+}
+
+fn to_lance_hnsw_params(params: &HnswBuildParams) -> Result<BuildParams> {
+    let params = build_params_of(params);
+    // Validate by constructing a tiny graph with these params. This keeps
+    // invalid builder options as boundary errors instead of delayed panics.
+    HnswGraph::try_new(1, params.clone())?;
+    Ok(params)
+}
+
+/// The same field-for-field translation without the validating build, so sizing
+/// questions can be answered off a config that has not been accepted yet.
+fn build_params_of(params: &HnswBuildParams) -> BuildParams {
+    BuildParams {
+        max_level: params.max_level,
+        m: params.m,
+        ef_construction: params.ef_construction,
+        prefetch_distance: params.prefetch_distance,
+        ..BuildParams::default()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Float32Array, Int32Array};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+    fn make_batch(start_id: i32, n: usize, dim: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = (start_id..start_id + n as i32).collect();
+        let mut flat: Vec<f32> = Vec::with_capacity(n * dim);
+        for &id in &ids {
+            for d in 0..dim {
+                flat.push((id as f32 * 0.01) + (d as f32 * 0.001));
+            }
+        }
+        batch_of(ids, flat, dim)
+    }
+
+    /// `ids` with their vectors, `dim` values each, laid out row after row.
+    fn batch_of(ids: Vec<i32>, flat: Vec<f32>, dim: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        let inner = Float32Array::from(flat);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(inner, dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dim as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)), Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The graph is pre-allocated from `capacity`, so its footprint is settled
+    /// before any row arrives and barely moves as rows do. A memory budget that
+    /// samples only row bytes would miss all of it, and one that waited for the
+    /// first insert would miss the allocation that insert triggers.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resident_bytes_is_preallocated_not_proportional_to_rows() {
+        let dim = 8;
+        let capacity = 4_000;
+        let index = || {
+            HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+                1,
+                "vector".to_string(),
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(16).ef_construction(64),
+                capacity,
+                64,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let untouched = index().resident_bytes();
+
+        let sparse = index();
+        sparse.insert(&make_batch(0, 1, dim), 0).unwrap();
+        let one_row = sparse.resident_bytes();
+
+        let full = index();
+        full.insert(&make_batch(0, capacity, dim), 0).unwrap();
+        let all_rows = full.resident_bytes();
+
+        // One row already pays for the whole graph: well over a KB per slot of
+        // capacity, and within a small factor of the fully-populated index.
+        assert!(
+            one_row > capacity * 128,
+            "one row should commit the pre-allocated graph, got {one_row} for capacity {capacity}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            all_rows < one_row * 2,
+            "a full index ({all_rows}) should not dwarf a one-row index ({one_row})"
+        );
+
+        // The charge is visible before the row that commits it, and close
+        // enough to the real thing to admit against. The reservation walks the
+        // level ladder in expectation where the graph samples it, so allow a
+        // 25% band either way rather than demanding equality.
+        assert!(
+            untouched.abs_diff(one_row) * 4 < one_row,
+            "reserved {untouched} should track the built graph {one_row} before the first insert"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_insert_and_search() {
+        let dim = 8;
+        let n = 200;
+        let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(16).ef_construction(64),
+            n,
+            64,
+        );
+
+        let batch = make_batch(0, n, dim);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.len(), n);
+
+        let fsl = batch.column_by_name("vector").unwrap().as_fixed_size_list();
+        let query_inner =
+            Float32Array::from(fsl.value(5).as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().to_vec());
+        let query = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(query_inner, dim as i32).unwrap();
+
+        let results = index.search(&query, 5, Some(32), u64::MAX).unwrap();
+        assert!(!results.is_empty());
+        let (best_dist, best_pos) = results[0];
+        assert!(
+            best_dist < 1e-4,
+            "expected near-zero distance, got {}",
+            best_dist
+        );
+        assert_eq!(best_pos, 5);
+    }
+
+    /// A dot index ranks the larger product first and reports `1 - dot`, the
+    /// distance the base table's dot index reports.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dot_index_ranks_the_larger_product_first() {
+        let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            2,
+            64,
+        );
+        let batch = batch_of(vec![0, 1], vec![1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 10.0, 10.0, 10.0], 3);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let query =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 1.0, 1.0]), 3)
+                .unwrap();
+        // Products 3 and 30.
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.search(&query, 2, None, u64::MAX).unwrap(),
+            vec![(-29.0, 1), (-2.0, 0)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_insert_batches_combines_hnsw_insert_range() {
+        let dim = 8;
+        let n = 200;
+        let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(16).ef_construction(64),
+            n,
+            64,
+        );
+
+        let first = make_batch(0, 75, dim);
+        let second = make_batch(75, 125, dim);
+        let stored = vec![
+            StoredBatch::new(first, 0, 0),
+            StoredBatch::new(second.clone(), 75, 1),
+        ];
+        index.insert_batches(&stored).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.len(), n);
+
+        let fsl = second
+            .column_by_name("vector")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_fixed_size_list();
+        let query_inner =
+            Float32Array::from(fsl.value(7).as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().to_vec());
+        let query = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(query_inner, dim as i32).unwrap();
+
+        let results = index.search(&query, 5, Some(32), u64::MAX).unwrap();
+        assert!(!results.is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            results.iter().any(|&(dist, pos)| pos == 82 && dist < 1e-4),
+            "expected exact row position 82 in top-5 candidates, got {:?}",
+            results
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_visibility_filter() {
+        let dim = 8;
+        let n = 50;
+        let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(16).ef_construction(64),
+            n,
+            64,
+        );
+        let batch = make_batch(0, n, dim);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let fsl = batch.column_by_name("vector").unwrap().as_fixed_size_list();
+        let query_inner = Float32Array::from(
+            fsl.value(40)
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec(),
+        );
+        let query = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(query_inner, dim as i32).unwrap();
+
+        let results = index.search(&query, 5, Some(32), 10).unwrap();
+        for (_, pos) in &results {
+            assert!(*pos <= 10);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_empty_search() {
+        let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            16,
+            16,
+        );
+        let inner = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 4]);
+        let query = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(inner, 4).unwrap();
+        let results = index.search(&query, 5, None, u64::MAX).unwrap();
+        assert!(results.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// Storage leading the graph must keep its rows.
+    ///
+    /// `insert_batches` appends storage before it builds and publishes the
+    /// graph, so storage can lead. Those rows are unreachable by traversal
+    /// either way, but `HNSW::search` brute-forces the storage domain under a
+    /// narrow prefilter, so trimming storage to the graph would drop results
+    /// this export used to return. The graph still may not exceed storage.
+    #[test]
+    fn to_lance_hnsw_keeps_storage_rows_the_graph_has_not_reached() {
+        let dim = 8;
+        let n = 32;
+        let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(8).ef_construction(32),
+            n * 2,
+            4,
+        );
+        index.insert(&make_batch(0, n, dim), 0).unwrap();
+
+        // Reproduce the interval: storage takes the next batch, the graph does
+        // not see it yet.
+        let state = index.state.get().expect("state is initialized");
+        let extra = make_batch(n as i32, n, dim);
+        let vectors = extra
+            .column_by_name("vector")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_fixed_size_list_opt()
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+        state
+            .storage
+            .append_batch(Arc::new(vectors), n as u64)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            state.storage.committed_len() > state.graph.len(),
+            "the test needs storage ahead of the graph"
+        );
+
+        let Some((hnsw, storage_batch)) = index.to_lance_hnsw(None).unwrap() else {
+            panic!("expected HNSW snapshot");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            storage_batch.num_rows(),
+            n * 2,
+            "storage keeps every committed row; a narrow prefilter scans them"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(hnsw.len(), n, "the graph covers only what it indexed");
+        assert!(
+            hnsw.len() <= storage_batch.num_rows(),
+            "the graph must never name a row storage has no vector for"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_to_lance_hnsw_reverses_row_ids() {
+        let dim = 8;
+        let n = 32;
+        let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(8).ef_construction(32),
+            n,
+            4,
+        );
+        let batch = make_batch(0, n, dim);
+        index.insert(&batch, 10).unwrap();
+
+        let Some((hnsw, storage_batch)) = index.to_lance_hnsw(Some(100)).unwrap() else {
+            panic!("expected HNSW snapshot");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(hnsw.len(), n);
+        let row_ids = storage_batch
+            .column_by_name(lance_core::ROW_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(0), 89);
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(n - 1), 58);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_concurrent_insert_and_search() {
+        use std::sync::Arc as StdArc;
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering as StdOrdering};
+        use std::thread;
+
+        let dim = 16;
+        let n = 500;
+        let index = StdArc::new(HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(8).ef_construction(32),
+            n,
+            256,
+        ));
+
+        let initial = make_batch(-1, 1, dim);
+        index.insert(&initial, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let stop = StdArc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let mut reader_handles = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..4 {
+            let index = index.clone();
+            let stop = stop.clone();
+            reader_handles.push(thread::spawn(move || {
+                let inner = Float32Array::from(vec![0.5_f32; dim]);
+                let query = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(inner, dim as i32).unwrap();
+                let mut iters = 0u64;
+                while !stop.load(StdOrdering::Relaxed) {
+                    let _ = index.search(&query, 5, Some(32), u64::MAX).unwrap();
+                    iters += 1;
+                }
+                iters
+            }));
+        }
+
+        let writer_index = index.clone();
+        let writer_handle = thread::spawn(move || {
+            for i in 1..(n / 5) {
+                let batch = make_batch(i as i32 * 5, 5, dim);
+                let row_offset = (i as u64) * 5 + 1;
+                writer_index.insert(&batch, row_offset).unwrap();
+            }
+        });
+
+        writer_handle.join().unwrap();
+        stop.store(true, StdOrdering::Release);
+        let mut total_reader_iters = 0u64;
+        for h in reader_handles {
+            total_reader_iters += h.join().unwrap();
+        }
+
+        assert!(index.len() > 1);
+        assert!(total_reader_iters > 0);
+    }
+
+    /// Build a 3-row batch whose middle vector row is null at the list level.
+    fn batch_with_null_middle(dim: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        let mut values: Vec<f32> = Vec::new();
+        values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(1.0f32, dim)); // row 0
+        values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(0.0f32, dim)); // row 1 (null placeholder)
+        values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(3.0f32, dim)); // row 2
+        let inner = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values)) as arrow_array::ArrayRef;
+        let nulls = arrow_buffer::NullBuffer::new(arrow_buffer::BooleanBuffer::from(vec![
+            true, false, true,
+        ]));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            dim as i32,
+            inner,
+            Some(nulls),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dim as i32,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])), Arc::new(fsl)],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_skips_null_vector_row() {
+        // A null vector row gets no graph node; the surviving rows keep their
+        // original positions (the tombstone-enabling fix).
+        let dim = 4;
+        let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(16).ef_construction(64),
+            16,
+            16,
+        );
+        index.insert(&batch_with_null_middle(dim), 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.len(), 2, "the null row is skipped");
+
+        let query = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![3.0f32; dim]),
+            dim as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let results = index.search(&query, 2, Some(16), u64::MAX).unwrap();
+        assert!(!results.is_empty());
+        let (best_dist, best_pos) = results[0];
+        assert!(best_dist < 1e-4, "got {}", best_dist);
+        assert_eq!(
+            best_pos, 2,
+            "row 2 resolves to its original offset, not 1, after the skip"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            results.iter().all(|(_, pos)| *pos != 1),
+            "the skipped null row must never be returned"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_all_null_batch_adds_no_nodes() {
+        // An all-null batch (e.g. an all-tombstone memtable) inserts cleanly and
+        // adds no nodes.
+        let dim = 4;
+        let index = HnswMemIndex::with_capacity(
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            8,
+            8,
+        );
+        let inner = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; dim * 2])) as arrow_array::ArrayRef;
+        let nulls =
+            arrow_buffer::NullBuffer::new(arrow_buffer::BooleanBuffer::from(vec![false, false]));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            dim as i32,
+            inner,
+            Some(nulls),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dim as i32,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])), Arc::new(fsl)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.len(), 0, "no nodes for an all-null batch");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/ivf_pq.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/ivf_pq.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index d2ea1e585f0..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/ivf_pq.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,1141 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-//! In-memory IVF-PQ index for vector similarity search.
-//!
-//! Uses hybrid storage with pre-allocated primary buffers and SkipMap overflow.
-//! Reuses IVF centroids and PQ codebook from the base table for consistent
-//! distance computations.
-//!
-//! # Architecture
-//!
-//! Each partition uses hybrid storage:
-//! - **Primary**: Pre-allocated `ColumnMajorIvfPqMemPartition` with transposed codes
-//! - **Overflow**: `SkipMap` for when primary is full (row-major, transpose at search)
-//!
-//! This design ensures writes never block while optimizing the common case.
-//!
-//! # Safety Model
-//!
-//! Same as `BatchStore`:
-//! - Single writer (WalFlushHandler during WAL flush)
-//! - Multiple concurrent readers
-//! - Append-only until memtable flush
-
-use std::cell::UnsafeCell;
-use std::mem::MaybeUninit;
-use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
-
-use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-use arrow_array::types::UInt8Type;
-use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt8Array};
-use crossbeam_skiplist::SkipMap;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
-use lance_index::vector::kmeans::compute_partitions_arrow_array;
-use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::transpose;
-use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
-use lance_index::vector::quantizer::Quantization;
-use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
-use snafu::location;
-
-use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::batch_store::StoredBatch;
-
-pub use super::RowPosition;
-
-// ============================================================================
-// Lock-free IVF-PQ Partition Storage
-// ============================================================================
-
-/// Error when partition store is full.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
-pub struct PartitionFull;
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for PartitionFull {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "IVF-PQ partition store is full")
-    }
-}
-
-impl std::error::Error for PartitionFull {}
-
-/// Lock-free storage for a single IVF partition with pre-transposed PQ codes.
-///
-/// Stores PQ codes in column-major (transposed) format for zero-cost
-/// search-time access. Uses the same single-writer, multi-reader pattern
-/// as `BatchStore`.
-///
-/// # Memory Layout
-///
-/// ```text
-/// codes: [subvec_0_all_vectors | subvec_1_all_vectors | ... | subvec_n_all_vectors]
-/// ```
-///
-/// Each subvector section has `capacity` bytes pre-allocated.
-///
-/// # Safety
-///
-/// - Single writer (WalFlushHandler during WAL flush)
-/// - Multiple concurrent readers
-/// - Append-only until memtable flush
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct ColumnMajorIvfPqMemPartition {
-    /// Pre-allocated column-major PQ codes.
-    /// Layout: codes[subvec_idx * capacity + vector_idx] = code_byte
-    codes: UnsafeCell<Box<[MaybeUninit<u8>]>>,
-
-    /// Row positions for result mapping.
-    row_positions: UnsafeCell<Box<[MaybeUninit<u64>]>>,
-
-    /// Number of vectors committed (visible to readers).
-    committed_len: AtomicUsize,
-
-    /// Maximum vectors this partition can hold.
-    capacity: usize,
-
-    /// Number of sub-vectors (PQ code length).
-    num_sub_vectors: usize,
-}
-
-// SAFETY: Single-writer pattern enforced by architecture.
-// UnsafeCell contents are only mutated by single writer thread.
-unsafe impl Sync for ColumnMajorIvfPqMemPartition {}
-unsafe impl Send for ColumnMajorIvfPqMemPartition {}
-
-impl ColumnMajorIvfPqMemPartition {
-    /// Create a new partition store with given capacity.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `capacity` - Maximum number of vectors
-    /// * `num_sub_vectors` - PQ code length (number of sub-vectors)
-    ///
-    /// # Panics
-    ///
-    /// Panics if capacity or num_sub_vectors is 0.
-    fn new(capacity: usize, num_sub_vectors: usize) -> Self {
-        assert!(capacity > 0, "capacity must be > 0");
-        assert!(num_sub_vectors > 0, "num_sub_vectors must be > 0");
-
-        // Allocate codes: capacity * num_sub_vectors bytes
-        let codes_size = capacity * num_sub_vectors;
-        let mut codes = Vec::with_capacity(codes_size);
-        for _ in 0..codes_size {
-            codes.push(MaybeUninit::uninit());
-        }
-
-        // Allocate row positions: capacity u64s
-        let mut row_positions = Vec::with_capacity(capacity);
-        for _ in 0..capacity {
-            row_positions.push(MaybeUninit::uninit());
-        }
-
-        Self {
-            codes: UnsafeCell::new(codes.into_boxed_slice()),
-            row_positions: UnsafeCell::new(row_positions.into_boxed_slice()),
-            committed_len: AtomicUsize::new(0),
-            capacity,
-            num_sub_vectors,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the number of committed vectors.
-    #[inline]
-    fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire)
-    }
-
-    /// Returns remaining capacity.
-    #[inline]
-    fn remaining_capacity(&self) -> usize {
-        self.capacity
-            .saturating_sub(self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Relaxed))
-    }
-
-    /// Append a batch of already-transposed PQ codes.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `transposed_codes` - Column-major codes from `transpose()`.
-    ///   Layout: [subvec0_all, subvec1_all, ...] where each section
-    ///   has `num_vectors` bytes.
-    /// * `positions` - Row positions for each vector.
-    ///
-    /// # Returns
-    ///
-    /// * `Ok(())` - Successfully appended
-    /// * `Err(PartitionFull)` - Not enough capacity
-    ///
-    /// # Safety
-    ///
-    /// Must be called from single writer thread only.
-    fn append_transposed_batch(
-        &self,
-        transposed_codes: &[u8],
-        positions: &[u64],
-    ) -> std::result::Result<(), PartitionFull> {
-        let num_vectors = positions.len();
-        if num_vectors == 0 {
-            return Ok(());
-        }
-
-        debug_assert_eq!(
-            transposed_codes.len(),
-            num_vectors * self.num_sub_vectors,
-            "transposed_codes length mismatch: expected {}, got {}",
-            num_vectors * self.num_sub_vectors,
-            transposed_codes.len()
-        );
-
-        let committed = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
-        if committed + num_vectors > self.capacity {
-            return Err(PartitionFull);
-        }
-
-        // SAFETY: Single writer, and we checked capacity.
-        let codes = unsafe { &mut *self.codes.get() };
-        let row_pos = unsafe { &mut *self.row_positions.get() };
-
-        // Copy transposed codes column by column.
-        // Source layout: [sv0_v0..sv0_vN, sv1_v0..sv1_vN, ...]
-        // Dest layout:   [sv0_v0..sv0_vCAP, sv1_v0..sv1_vCAP, ...]
-        for subvec_idx in 0..self.num_sub_vectors {
-            let src_start = subvec_idx * num_vectors;
-            let dst_start = subvec_idx * self.capacity + committed;
-
-            for i in 0..num_vectors {
-                codes[dst_start + i].write(transposed_codes[src_start + i]);
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Copy row positions.
-        for (i, &pos) in positions.iter().enumerate() {
-            row_pos[committed + i].write(pos);
-        }
-
-        // Publish with release ordering.
-        self.committed_len
-            .store(committed + num_vectors, Ordering::Release);
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    /// Get codes formatted for `ProductQuantizer::compute_distances()`.
-    ///
-    /// Copies committed codes to a contiguous buffer in column-major format.
-    /// This is the format expected by `compute_distances()`.
-    ///
-    /// # Returns
-    ///
-    /// Tuple of (contiguous_codes, row_positions).
-    fn get_codes_for_search(&self) -> (Vec<u8>, Vec<u64>) {
-        let len = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        if len == 0 {
-            return (Vec::new(), Vec::new());
-        }
-
-        let codes = unsafe { &*self.codes.get() };
-        let row_pos = unsafe { &*self.row_positions.get() };
-
-        // Copy codes to contiguous buffer (remove capacity gaps).
-        let mut result_codes = Vec::with_capacity(len * self.num_sub_vectors);
-        for subvec_idx in 0..self.num_sub_vectors {
-            let start = subvec_idx * self.capacity;
-            for i in 0..len {
-                // SAFETY: i < len <= committed_len, data was initialized.
-                result_codes.push(unsafe { codes[start + i].assume_init() });
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Copy row positions.
-        let result_positions: Vec<u64> = (0..len)
-            .map(|i| unsafe { row_pos[i].assume_init() })
-            .collect();
-
-        (result_codes, result_positions)
-    }
-}
-
-/// A single IVF partition with primary (pre-transposed) and overflow (row-major) storage.
-///
-/// This is the main interface for partition storage, handling the split between
-/// fast primary storage and overflow when primary is full.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct IvfPqMemPartition {
-    /// Primary storage: pre-allocated, pre-transposed codes (fast search).
-    primary: ColumnMajorIvfPqMemPartition,
-
-    /// Overflow storage: SkipMap for when primary is full (slower search).
-    /// Key: row_position, Value: row-major PQ code.
-    overflow: SkipMap<u64, Vec<u8>>,
-
-    /// Number of vectors in overflow (cached for fast access).
-    overflow_count: AtomicUsize,
-
-    /// Number of sub-vectors (code length).
-    num_sub_vectors: usize,
-}
-
-impl IvfPqMemPartition {
-    /// Create a new partition with given capacity.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `capacity` - Maximum vectors in primary storage
-    /// * `num_sub_vectors` - PQ code length
-    pub fn new(capacity: usize, num_sub_vectors: usize) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            primary: ColumnMajorIvfPqMemPartition::new(capacity, num_sub_vectors),
-            overflow: SkipMap::new(),
-            overflow_count: AtomicUsize::new(0),
-            num_sub_vectors,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Append a batch of vectors to this partition.
-    ///
-    /// Goes to primary if capacity available, otherwise overflow.
-    /// Codes should be in row-major format; this method handles transpose.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `row_major_codes` - Row-major PQ codes (as returned by `pq.quantize()`)
-    /// * `positions` - Row positions for each vector
-    pub fn append_batch(&self, row_major_codes: &[u8], positions: &[u64]) {
-        let num_vectors = positions.len();
-        if num_vectors == 0 {
-            return;
-        }
-
-        debug_assert_eq!(
-            row_major_codes.len(),
-            num_vectors * self.num_sub_vectors,
-            "row_major_codes length mismatch"
-        );
-
-        let primary_remaining = self.primary.remaining_capacity();
-
-        if primary_remaining >= num_vectors {
-            // All fit in primary - transpose and append.
-            let codes_array = UInt8Array::from(row_major_codes.to_vec());
-            let transposed =
-                transpose::<UInt8Type>(&codes_array, num_vectors, self.num_sub_vectors);
-            let _ = self
-                .primary
-                .append_transposed_batch(transposed.values(), positions);
-        } else if primary_remaining > 0 {
-            // Split: some go to primary, rest to overflow.
-            let primary_count = primary_remaining;
-
-            // Primary portion - transpose and append.
-            let primary_codes = &row_major_codes[..primary_count * self.num_sub_vectors];
-            let primary_positions = &positions[..primary_count];
-            let codes_array = UInt8Array::from(primary_codes.to_vec());
-            let transposed =
-                transpose::<UInt8Type>(&codes_array, primary_count, self.num_sub_vectors);
-            let _ = self
-                .primary
-                .append_transposed_batch(transposed.values(), primary_positions);
-
-            // Overflow portion - store row-major.
-            let overflow_count = num_vectors - primary_count;
-            for i in 0..overflow_count {
-                let idx = primary_count + i;
-                let code_start = idx * self.num_sub_vectors;
-                let code_end = code_start + self.num_sub_vectors;
-                let code = row_major_codes[code_start..code_end].to_vec();
-                self.overflow.insert(positions[idx], code);
-            }
-            self.overflow_count
-                .fetch_add(overflow_count, Ordering::Relaxed);
-        } else {
-            // Primary full - all go to overflow.
-            for (i, &pos) in positions.iter().enumerate() {
-                let code_start = i * self.num_sub_vectors;
-                let code_end = code_start + self.num_sub_vectors;
-                let code = row_major_codes[code_start..code_end].to_vec();
-                self.overflow.insert(pos, code);
-            }
-            self.overflow_count
-                .fetch_add(num_vectors, Ordering::Relaxed);
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Check if this partition has overflow data.
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn has_overflow(&self) -> bool {
-        self.overflow_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed) > 0
-    }
-
-    /// Total vectors in this partition.
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.primary.len() + self.overflow_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
-    }
-
-    /// Returns true if empty.
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.len() == 0
-    }
-
-    /// Get primary codes for search (pre-transposed, fast).
-    ///
-    /// Returns (codes, positions) where codes are column-major.
-    pub fn get_primary_codes_for_search(&self) -> (Vec<u8>, Vec<u64>) {
-        self.primary.get_codes_for_search()
-    }
-
-    /// Get overflow codes for search.
-    ///
-    /// Returns (row_major_codes, positions). Caller must transpose before distance computation.
-    pub fn get_overflow_codes_for_search(&self) -> (Vec<u8>, Vec<u64>) {
-        let overflow_count = self.overflow_count.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        if overflow_count == 0 {
-            return (Vec::new(), Vec::new());
-        }
-
-        let mut codes = Vec::with_capacity(overflow_count * self.num_sub_vectors);
-        let mut positions = Vec::with_capacity(overflow_count);
-
-        for entry in self.overflow.iter() {
-            positions.push(*entry.key());
-            codes.extend_from_slice(entry.value());
-        }
-
-        (codes, positions)
-    }
-}
-
-// ============================================================================
-// IVF-PQ Memory Index
-// ============================================================================
-
-/// In-memory IVF-PQ index entry.
-///
-/// Stores partition assignment and PQ codes for each vector.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct IvfPqEntry {
-    /// Row position in MemTable.
-    pub row_position: RowPosition,
-    /// PQ code for this vector (compressed representation).
-    /// Length = num_sub_vectors (for 8-bit) or num_sub_vectors/2 (for 4-bit).
-    pub pq_code: Vec<u8>,
-}
-
-/// In-memory IVF-PQ index for vector similarity search.
-///
-/// Reuses IVF centroids and PQ codebook from the base table to ensure
-/// distance comparisons are consistent between the in-memory and base table indexes.
-///
-/// Uses hybrid storage for optimal performance:
-/// - **Primary**: Pre-allocated `IvfPqMemPartition` stores with pre-transposed codes (fast search)
-/// - **Overflow**: SkipMap fallback when primary is full (row-major, transpose at search)
-///
-/// This design ensures writes never block while optimizing the common case where
-/// most data (typically 95%+) fits in the fast primary storage.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct IvfPqMemIndex {
-    /// Field ID this index is built on.
-    field_id: i32,
-    /// Column name (for Arrow batch lookups).
-    column_name: String,
-    ivf_model: IvfModel,
-    pq: ProductQuantizer,
-    /// Per-partition stores with hybrid storage (primary + overflow).
-    partitions: Vec<IvfPqMemPartition>,
-    /// Total number of vectors indexed.
-    vector_count: AtomicUsize,
-    /// Distance type for partition assignment.
-    distance_type: DistanceType,
-    /// Number of partitions.
-    num_partitions: usize,
-    /// PQ code length per vector (num_sub_vectors for 8-bit, num_sub_vectors/2 for 4-bit).
-    code_len: usize,
-}
-
-/// Default partition capacity when not specified.
-/// This is a fallback - in practice, capacity should always be calculated
-/// from memtable config using the safety factor.
-const DEFAULT_PARTITION_CAPACITY: usize = 1024;
-
-impl IvfPqMemIndex {
-    /// Create a new IVF-PQ index with centroids and codebook from base table.
-    ///
-    /// Uses default partition capacity. For production use, prefer `with_capacity()`
-    /// with capacity calculated from memtable config.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `field_id` - Field ID the index is built on
-    /// * `column_name` - Vector column name
-    /// * `ivf_model` - IVF model with centroids from base table
-    /// * `pq` - Product quantizer with codebook from base table
-    /// * `distance_type` - Distance type for search
-    pub fn new(
-        field_id: i32,
-        column_name: String,
-        ivf_model: IvfModel,
-        pq: ProductQuantizer,
-        distance_type: DistanceType,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self::with_capacity(
-            field_id,
-            column_name,
-            ivf_model,
-            pq,
-            distance_type,
-            DEFAULT_PARTITION_CAPACITY,
-        )
-    }
-
-    /// Create a new IVF-PQ index with specified partition capacity.
-    ///
-    /// The partition capacity determines how many vectors each partition's
-    /// primary storage can hold before overflowing to the slower SkipMap.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `field_id` - Field ID the index is built on
-    /// * `column_name` - Vector column name
-    /// * `ivf_model` - IVF model with centroids from base table
-    /// * `pq` - Product quantizer with codebook from base table
-    /// * `distance_type` - Distance type for search
-    /// * `partition_capacity` - Max vectors per partition in primary storage
-    pub fn with_capacity(
-        field_id: i32,
-        column_name: String,
-        ivf_model: IvfModel,
-        pq: ProductQuantizer,
-        distance_type: DistanceType,
-        partition_capacity: usize,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let num_partitions = ivf_model.num_partitions();
-        let code_len = pq.num_sub_vectors * pq.num_bits as usize / 8;
-
-        // Pre-allocate all partition stores.
-        let partitions: Vec<_> = (0..num_partitions)
-            .map(|_| IvfPqMemPartition::new(partition_capacity, code_len))
-            .collect();
-
-        Self {
-            field_id,
-            column_name,
-            ivf_model,
-            pq,
-            partitions,
-            vector_count: AtomicUsize::new(0),
-            distance_type,
-            num_partitions,
-            code_len,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Get the field ID this index is built on.
-    pub fn field_id(&self) -> i32 {
-        self.field_id
-    }
-
-    /// Insert vectors from a batch into the index.
-    ///
-    /// For better performance with multiple batches, prefer `insert_batches()`
-    /// which enables cross-batch vectorization.
-    pub fn insert(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, row_offset: u64) -> Result<()> {
-        let col_idx = batch
-            .schema()
-            .column_with_name(&self.column_name)
-            .map(|(idx, _)| idx);
-
-        let Some(col_idx) = col_idx else {
-            // Column not in this batch, skip
-            return Ok(());
-        };
-
-        let column = batch.column(col_idx);
-        let fsl = column.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Column '{}' is not a FixedSizeList, got {:?}",
-                    self.column_name,
-                    column.data_type()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })?;
-
-        // Find partition assignments for all vectors using batch computation
-        let centroids = self
-            .ivf_model
-            .centroids
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("IVF model has no centroids", location!()))?;
-        let (partition_ids, _distances) =
-            compute_partitions_arrow_array(centroids, fsl, self.distance_type)?;
-
-        // Compute PQ codes for all vectors (row-major output)
-        let pq_codes = self.pq.quantize(fsl)?;
-        let pq_codes_fsl = pq_codes.as_fixed_size_list();
-        let pq_codes_flat = pq_codes_fsl
-            .values()
-            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt8Type>();
-
-        // Group vectors by partition
-        let mut partition_groups: Vec<Vec<usize>> = vec![Vec::new(); self.num_partitions];
-        for (row_idx, partition_id) in partition_ids.iter().enumerate().take(batch.num_rows()) {
-            if let Some(pid) = partition_id {
-                if (*pid as usize) < self.num_partitions {
-                    partition_groups[*pid as usize].push(row_idx);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // For each partition: gather codes and append
-        let mut total_inserted = 0usize;
-
-        for (partition_id, indices) in partition_groups.iter().enumerate() {
-            if indices.is_empty() {
-                continue;
-            }
-
-            let num_vectors = indices.len();
-
-            // Gather row-major codes for this partition
-            let mut partition_codes: Vec<u8> = Vec::with_capacity(num_vectors * self.code_len);
-            let mut partition_positions: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(num_vectors);
-
-            for &row_idx in indices {
-                let code_start = row_idx * self.code_len;
-                let code_end = code_start + self.code_len;
-                partition_codes.extend_from_slice(&pq_codes_flat.values()[code_start..code_end]);
-                partition_positions.push(row_offset + row_idx as u64);
-            }
-
-            // Append to partition (handles primary vs overflow internally)
-            self.partitions[partition_id].append_batch(&partition_codes, &partition_positions);
-
-            total_inserted += num_vectors;
-        }
-
-        self.vector_count
-            .fetch_add(total_inserted, Ordering::Relaxed);
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    /// Insert vectors from multiple batches with cross-batch vectorization.
-    ///
-    /// This method concatenates vectors from all batches and processes them
-    /// together for better SIMD utilization in partition assignment and PQ encoding.
-    /// Vectors are stored in the partition's primary (pre-transposed) storage when
-    /// capacity allows, otherwise in the overflow SkipMap.
-    pub fn insert_batches(&self, batches: &[StoredBatch]) -> Result<()> {
-        if batches.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(());
-        }
-
-        // Collect vector arrays and track batch boundaries
-        let mut vector_arrays: Vec<&FixedSizeListArray> = Vec::with_capacity(batches.len());
-        let mut batch_infos: Vec<(u64, usize, usize)> = Vec::with_capacity(batches.len());
-
-        for stored in batches {
-            let col_idx = stored
-                .data
-                .schema()
-                .column_with_name(&self.column_name)
-                .map(|(idx, _)| idx);
-
-            if let Some(col_idx) = col_idx {
-                let column = stored.data.column(col_idx);
-                if let Some(fsl) = column.as_fixed_size_list_opt() {
-                    let num_vectors = fsl.len();
-                    if num_vectors > 0 {
-                        vector_arrays.push(fsl);
-                        batch_infos.push((stored.row_offset, num_vectors, stored.batch_position));
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        if vector_arrays.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(());
-        }
-
-        // Concatenate all vectors into a single array for vectorized processing
-        let arrays_as_refs: Vec<&dyn Array> =
-            vector_arrays.iter().map(|a| *a as &dyn Array).collect();
-        let concatenated = arrow_select::concat::concat(&arrays_as_refs)?;
-        let mega_fsl = concatenated.as_fixed_size_list();
-        let total_vectors = mega_fsl.len();
-
-        // Batch compute partition assignments (SIMD-optimized)
-        let centroids = self
-            .ivf_model
-            .centroids
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("IVF model has no centroids", location!()))?;
-        let (partition_ids, _distances) =
-            compute_partitions_arrow_array(centroids, mega_fsl, self.distance_type)?;
-
-        // Batch compute PQ codes (SIMD-optimized, row-major output)
-        let pq_codes = self.pq.quantize(mega_fsl)?;
-        let pq_codes_fsl = pq_codes.as_fixed_size_list();
-        let pq_codes_flat = pq_codes_fsl
-            .values()
-            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt8Type>();
-
-        // Build row position mapping
-        let mut row_positions: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(total_vectors);
-        for (row_offset, num_vectors, _) in &batch_infos {
-            for i in 0..*num_vectors {
-                row_positions.push(row_offset + i as u64);
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Group vectors by partition
-        let mut partition_groups: Vec<Vec<usize>> = vec![Vec::new(); self.num_partitions];
-        for (idx, pid) in partition_ids.iter().enumerate() {
-            if let Some(pid) = pid {
-                if (*pid as usize) < self.num_partitions {
-                    partition_groups[*pid as usize].push(idx);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // For each partition: gather codes and append
-        let mut total_inserted = 0usize;
-
-        for (partition_id, indices) in partition_groups.iter().enumerate() {
-            if indices.is_empty() {
-                continue;
-            }
-
-            let num_vectors = indices.len();
-
-            // Gather row-major codes for this partition
-            let mut partition_codes: Vec<u8> = Vec::with_capacity(num_vectors * self.code_len);
-            let mut partition_positions: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(num_vectors);
-
-            for &idx in indices {
-                let code_start = idx * self.code_len;
-                let code_end = code_start + self.code_len;
-                partition_codes.extend_from_slice(&pq_codes_flat.values()[code_start..code_end]);
-                partition_positions.push(row_positions[idx]);
-            }
-
-            // Append to partition (handles primary vs overflow internally)
-            self.partitions[partition_id].append_batch(&partition_codes, &partition_positions);
-
-            total_inserted += num_vectors;
-        }
-
-        self.vector_count
-            .fetch_add(total_inserted, Ordering::Relaxed);
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    /// Search for nearest neighbors with visibility filtering.
-    ///
-    /// Searches both primary (pre-transposed, fast) and overflow (needs transpose)
-    /// storage and merges results. Only returns rows where `row_position <= max_row_position`.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `query` - Query vector as FixedSizeListArray with single vector
-    /// * `k` - Number of results to return
-    /// * `nprobes` - Number of partitions to search
-    /// * `max_row_position` - Maximum visible row position (for MVCC filtering)
-    ///
-    /// # Returns
-    ///
-    /// Vec of (distance, row_position) sorted by distance ascending.
-    pub fn search(
-        &self,
-        query: &FixedSizeListArray,
-        k: usize,
-        nprobes: usize,
-        max_row_position: RowPosition,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<(f32, RowPosition)>> {
-        if query.len() != 1 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Query must have exactly 1 vector, got {}", query.len()),
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
-
-        // Find nearest partitions to probe
-        let query_values = query.value(0);
-        let (partition_ids, _) =
-            self.ivf_model
-                .find_partitions(&query_values, nprobes, self.distance_type)?;
-
-        let mut results: Vec<(f32, RowPosition)> = Vec::new();
-
-        for i in 0..partition_ids.len() {
-            let partition_id = partition_ids.value(i) as usize;
-            if partition_id >= self.num_partitions {
-                continue;
-            }
-
-            let partition = &self.partitions[partition_id];
-            if partition.is_empty() {
-                continue;
-            }
-
-            // Search primary storage (pre-transposed, fast path)
-            let (primary_codes, primary_positions) = partition.get_primary_codes_for_search();
-            if !primary_codes.is_empty() {
-                let codes_array = UInt8Array::from(primary_codes);
-                let distances = self.pq.compute_distances(&query_values, &codes_array)?;
-
-                for (idx, &dist) in distances.values().iter().enumerate() {
-                    let pos = primary_positions[idx];
-                    if pos <= max_row_position {
-                        results.push((dist, pos));
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-
-            // Search overflow storage (needs transpose)
-            if partition.has_overflow() {
-                let (overflow_codes_rowmajor, overflow_positions) =
-                    partition.get_overflow_codes_for_search();
-
-                if !overflow_codes_rowmajor.is_empty() {
-                    let num_overflow = overflow_positions.len();
-
-                    // Transpose to column-major for distance computation
-                    let codes_array = UInt8Array::from(overflow_codes_rowmajor);
-                    let transposed = transpose::<arrow_array::types::UInt8Type>(
-                        &codes_array,
-                        num_overflow,
-                        self.code_len,
-                    );
-                    let distances = self.pq.compute_distances(&query_values, &transposed)?;
-
-                    for (idx, &dist) in distances.values().iter().enumerate() {
-                        let pos = overflow_positions[idx];
-                        if pos <= max_row_position {
-                            results.push((dist, pos));
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Sort by distance and take top-k
-        results.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.partial_cmp(&b.0).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
-        results.truncate(k);
-
-        Ok(results)
-    }
-
-    /// Get total vector count.
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.vector_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
-    }
-
-    /// Check if the index is empty.
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.vector_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed) == 0
-    }
-
-    /// Get the column name.
-    pub fn column_name(&self) -> &str {
-        &self.column_name
-    }
-
-    /// Get entries for a partition.
-    /// Returns PQ codes in row-major format.
-    pub fn get_partition(&self, partition_id: usize) -> Vec<IvfPqEntry> {
-        if partition_id >= self.num_partitions {
-            return Vec::new();
-        }
-
-        let partition = &self.partitions[partition_id];
-        let mut entries = Vec::with_capacity(partition.len());
-
-        // Get from primary storage (need to convert from column-major to row-major)
-        let (primary_codes, primary_positions) = partition.get_primary_codes_for_search();
-        if !primary_codes.is_empty() {
-            let num_vectors = primary_positions.len();
-            // primary_codes are column-major, need to transpose back to row-major
-            for (i, &row_position) in primary_positions.iter().enumerate() {
-                let mut pq_code = Vec::with_capacity(self.code_len);
-                for sv in 0..self.code_len {
-                    pq_code.push(primary_codes[sv * num_vectors + i]);
-                }
-                entries.push(IvfPqEntry {
-                    row_position,
-                    pq_code,
-                });
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Get from overflow storage (already row-major)
-        let (overflow_codes, overflow_positions) = partition.get_overflow_codes_for_search();
-        for (i, &row_position) in overflow_positions.iter().enumerate() {
-            let code_start = i * self.code_len;
-            let code_end = code_start + self.code_len;
-            entries.push(IvfPqEntry {
-                row_position,
-                pq_code: overflow_codes[code_start..code_end].to_vec(),
-            });
-        }
-
-        entries
-    }
-
-    /// Get the number of partitions.
-    pub fn num_partitions(&self) -> usize {
-        self.ivf_model.num_partitions()
-    }
-
-    /// Get the IVF model (for advanced use).
-    pub fn ivf_model(&self) -> &IvfModel {
-        &self.ivf_model
-    }
-
-    /// Get the product quantizer (for advanced use).
-    pub fn pq(&self) -> &ProductQuantizer {
-        &self.pq
-    }
-
-    /// Get the distance type.
-    pub fn distance_type(&self) -> DistanceType {
-        self.distance_type
-    }
-
-    /// Export partition data as RecordBatches for index creation.
-    /// Each batch has schema: `_rowid` (UInt64), `__pq_code` (FixedSizeList<UInt8>).
-    ///
-    /// The PQ codes are stored row-major (not transposed), matching the format
-    /// expected by the index builder's shuffle stage.
-    pub fn to_partition_batches(&self) -> Result<Vec<(usize, RecordBatch)>> {
-        use arrow_array::UInt64Array;
-        use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
-        use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-        use lance_index::vector::PQ_CODE_COLUMN;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
-
-        let pq_code_len = self.pq.num_sub_vectors * self.pq.num_bits as usize / 8;
-
-        // Schema for partition data: row_id and pq_code
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new(ROW_ID, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, false),
-            Field::new(
-                PQ_CODE_COLUMN,
-                arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, false)),
-                    pq_code_len as i32,
-                ),
-                false,
-            ),
-        ]));
-
-        let mut result = Vec::new();
-
-        for part_id in 0..self.num_partitions {
-            let entries = self.get_partition(part_id);
-            if entries.is_empty() {
-                continue;
-            }
-
-            // Collect row IDs
-            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = entries.iter().map(|e| e.row_position).collect();
-            let row_id_array = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids));
-
-            // Collect PQ codes into a flat array
-            let mut pq_codes_flat: Vec<u8> = Vec::with_capacity(entries.len() * pq_code_len);
-            for entry in &entries {
-                pq_codes_flat.extend_from_slice(&entry.pq_code);
-            }
-
-            // Create FixedSizeList array for PQ codes with non-nullable inner field
-            let pq_codes_array = UInt8Array::from(pq_codes_flat);
-            let inner_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, false));
-            let pq_codes_fsl = Arc::new(
-                FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
-                    inner_field,
-                    pq_code_len as i32,
-                    Arc::new(pq_codes_array),
-                    None,
-                )
-                .map_err(|e| {
-                    Error::io(
-                        format!("Failed to create PQ code array: {}", e),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })?,
-            );
-
-            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![row_id_array, pq_codes_fsl])
-                .map_err(|e| {
-                    Error::io(
-                        format!("Failed to create partition batch: {}", e),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })?;
-
-            result.push((part_id, batch));
-        }
-
-        Ok(result)
-    }
-}
-
-/// Configuration for an IVF-PQ vector index.
-///
-/// Contains the centroids and codebook from the base table
-/// to ensure consistent distance computations.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct IvfPqIndexConfig {
-    /// Index name.
-    pub name: String,
-    /// Field ID the index is built on.
-    pub field_id: i32,
-    /// Column name (for Arrow batch lookups).
-    pub column: String,
-    /// IVF model with centroids from base table.
-    pub ivf_model: IvfModel,
-    /// Product quantizer with codebook from base table.
-    pub pq: ProductQuantizer,
-    /// Distance type for search.
-    pub distance_type: DistanceType,
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_partition_store_append_transposed() {
-        let store = ColumnMajorIvfPqMemPartition::new(100, 4);
-
-        // Append 3 vectors with 4 sub-vectors each.
-        // Transposed layout: [sv0_v0, sv0_v1, sv0_v2, sv1_v0, sv1_v1, sv1_v2, ...]
-        let transposed_codes = vec![
-            // SubVec 0
-            10, 20, 30, // SubVec 1
-            11, 21, 31, // SubVec 2
-            12, 22, 32, // SubVec 3
-            13, 23, 33,
-        ];
-        let positions = vec![100, 200, 300];
-
-        store
-            .append_transposed_batch(&transposed_codes, &positions)
-            .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(store.len(), 3);
-        assert_eq!(store.remaining_capacity(), 97);
-
-        let (codes, pos) = store.get_codes_for_search();
-        assert_eq!(pos, vec![100, 200, 300]);
-        assert_eq!(codes, transposed_codes);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_partition_store_full() {
-        let store = ColumnMajorIvfPqMemPartition::new(2, 4);
-
-        // First batch - fills capacity.
-        let codes1 = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]; // 2 vectors transposed
-        let pos1 = vec![10, 20];
-        store.append_transposed_batch(&codes1, &pos1).unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(store.remaining_capacity(), 0);
-
-        // Should fail - no capacity left.
-        let codes2 = vec![9, 10, 11, 12];
-        let pos2 = vec![30];
-        assert!(store.append_transposed_batch(&codes2, &pos2).is_err());
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_ivfpq_partition_primary_only() {
-        let partition = IvfPqMemPartition::new(100, 4);
-
-        // Row-major codes for 3 vectors.
-        let row_major = vec![
-            10, 11, 12, 13, // vec 0
-            20, 21, 22, 23, // vec 1
-            30, 31, 32, 33, // vec 2
-        ];
-        let positions = vec![100, 200, 300];
-
-        partition.append_batch(&row_major, &positions);
-
-        assert_eq!(partition.len(), 3);
-        assert!(!partition.has_overflow());
-
-        let (codes, pos) = partition.get_primary_codes_for_search();
-        assert_eq!(pos, vec![100, 200, 300]);
-        // Codes should be transposed.
-        assert_eq!(
-            codes,
-            vec![
-                10, 20, 30, // sv0
-                11, 21, 31, // sv1
-                12, 22, 32, // sv2
-                13, 23, 33, // sv3
-            ]
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_ivfpq_partition_overflow() {
-        let partition = IvfPqMemPartition::new(2, 4); // Only 2 slots in primary.
-
-        // Insert 4 vectors - 2 should go to primary, 2 to overflow.
-        let row_major = vec![
-            10, 11, 12, 13, // vec 0 -> primary
-            20, 21, 22, 23, // vec 1 -> primary
-            30, 31, 32, 33, // vec 2 -> overflow
-            40, 41, 42, 43, // vec 3 -> overflow
-        ];
-        let positions = vec![100, 200, 300, 400];
-
-        partition.append_batch(&row_major, &positions);
-
-        assert_eq!(partition.len(), 4);
-        assert!(partition.has_overflow());
-
-        // Check primary (2 vectors, transposed).
-        let (primary_codes, primary_pos) = partition.get_primary_codes_for_search();
-        assert_eq!(primary_pos, vec![100, 200]);
-        assert_eq!(
-            primary_codes,
-            vec![
-                10, 20, // sv0
-                11, 21, // sv1
-                12, 22, // sv2
-                13, 23, // sv3
-            ]
-        );
-
-        // Check overflow (2 vectors, row-major).
-        let (overflow_codes, overflow_pos) = partition.get_overflow_codes_for_search();
-        assert_eq!(overflow_pos.len(), 2);
-        assert!(overflow_pos.contains(&300));
-        assert!(overflow_pos.contains(&400));
-        assert_eq!(overflow_codes.len(), 8);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_ivfpq_partition_all_overflow() {
-        let partition = IvfPqMemPartition::new(2, 4);
-
-        // Fill primary first.
-        let batch1 = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8];
-        partition.append_batch(&batch1, &[10, 20]);
-        assert!(!partition.has_overflow());
-
-        // This batch should all go to overflow.
-        let batch2 = vec![11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 33, 34];
-        partition.append_batch(&batch2, &[30, 40, 50]);
-
-        assert_eq!(partition.len(), 5);
-        assert!(partition.has_overflow());
-    }
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/pk_key.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/pk_key.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b31fe42c995
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/index/pk_key.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,204 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Composite primary-key encoding for MemWAL dedup.
+//!
+//! A multi-column primary key is reduced to a single order-preserving byte
+//! string ([`encode_pk_tuple`]) so the whole tuple is one comparable key:
+//! lexicographic byte order equals tuple order, and distinct tuples never
+//! collide. Encoded as a `Binary` value, the tuple is indexed directly by a
+//! [`super::BTreeMemIndex`] (its byte backend) — both in memory and, after
+//! flush, as the on-disk BTree's `Binary` value column — so a probe builds
+//! `ScalarValue::Binary(key)` and every layer agrees.
+//!
+//! Single-column primary keys do **not** use this — they key the typed
+//! `BTreeMemIndex` on the column value directly.
+
+use arrow_array::{BinaryArray, RecordBatch};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Sign-flip a signed integer to an order-preserving unsigned key (matches the
+/// fixed-int BTree backend). Big-endian bytes of the result sort like the value.
+#[inline]
+fn encode_signed(v: i64) -> u64 {
+    (v as u64) ^ (1u64 << 63)
+}
+
+/// Append an order-preserving encoding of one non-null byte string: each `0x00`
+/// is escaped to `0x00 0xFF`, then a `0x00 0x00` terminator is appended. The
+/// terminator sorts before any escaped content, so a prefix orders before its
+/// extensions and no value can forge a column boundary.
+fn encode_bytes(out: &mut Vec<u8>, bytes: &[u8]) {
+    for &b in bytes {
+        out.push(b);
+        if b == 0x00 {
+            out.push(0xFF);
+        }
+    }
+    out.extend_from_slice(&[0x00, 0x00]);
+}
+
+/// Append the order-preserving encoding of a single PK column value. A leading
+/// tag (`0x00` null / `0x01` non-null) makes nulls sort first and keeps the
+/// per-column encoding self-delimiting (fixed-width for ints, terminated for
+/// bytes), so concatenating columns stays injective and order-preserving.
+fn encode_value(out: &mut Vec<u8>, value: &ScalarValue) -> Result<()> {
+    if value.is_null() {
+        out.push(0x00);
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    out.push(0x01);
+    macro_rules! be_signed {
+        ($v:expr) => {
+            out.extend_from_slice(&encode_signed($v as i64).to_be_bytes())
+        };
+    }
+    match value {
+        ScalarValue::Int8(Some(v)) => be_signed!(*v),
+        ScalarValue::Int16(Some(v)) => be_signed!(*v),
+        ScalarValue::Int32(Some(v)) => be_signed!(*v),
+        ScalarValue::Int64(Some(v)) => be_signed!(*v),
+        ScalarValue::Date32(Some(v)) => be_signed!(*v),
+        ScalarValue::Date64(Some(v)) => be_signed!(*v),
+        ScalarValue::UInt8(Some(v)) => out.extend_from_slice(&(*v as u64).to_be_bytes()),
+        ScalarValue::UInt16(Some(v)) => out.extend_from_slice(&(*v as u64).to_be_bytes()),
+        ScalarValue::UInt32(Some(v)) => out.extend_from_slice(&(*v as u64).to_be_bytes()),
+        ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(v)) => out.extend_from_slice(&v.to_be_bytes()),
+        ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(b)) => out.push(*b as u8),
+        ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(s)) | ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(Some(s)) => {
+            encode_bytes(out, s.as_bytes())
+        }
+        ScalarValue::Binary(Some(b))
+        | ScalarValue::LargeBinary(Some(b))
+        | ScalarValue::FixedSizeBinary(_, Some(b)) => encode_bytes(out, b),
+        other => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Unsupported primary-key column type for composite key: {other:?}"
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Encode a PK tuple (values in PK column order) to one order-preserving key.
+pub fn encode_pk_tuple(values: &[ScalarValue]) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(values.len() * 9);
+    for value in values {
+        encode_value(&mut out, value)?;
+    }
+    Ok(out)
+}
+
+/// Encode row `row` of `batch`'s PK columns (at `pk_indices`) to one key.
+fn encode_pk_row(batch: &RecordBatch, pk_indices: &[usize], row: usize) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(pk_indices.len() * 9);
+    for &col in pk_indices {
+        let value = ScalarValue::try_from_array(batch.column(col), row)?;
+        encode_value(&mut out, &value)?;
+    }
+    Ok(out)
+}
+
+/// Encode every row of `batch`'s PK columns (at `pk_indices`) into a `Binary`
+/// column of order-preserving composite keys — the form a [`super::BTreeMemIndex`]
+/// indexes directly (its byte backend), so the composite PK reuses the same
+/// index as a single-column one.
+pub fn encode_pk_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, pk_indices: &[usize]) -> Result<BinaryArray> {
+    let mut keys: Vec<Vec<u8>> = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
+    for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+        keys.push(encode_pk_row(batch, pk_indices, row)?);
+    }
+    Ok(BinaryArray::from_iter_values(keys.iter()))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    fn tuple(a: i32, b: &str) -> Vec<ScalarValue> {
+        vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(a)), ScalarValue::from(b)]
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn encoding_is_order_preserving_and_injective() {
+        // Sorting tuples by their encoding must match tuple order, and distinct
+        // tuples must produce distinct bytes.
+        let tuples = [
+            tuple(1, "a"),
+            tuple(1, "ab"),
+            tuple(1, "b"),
+            tuple(2, "a"),
+            tuple(-1, "z"),
+        ];
+        let mut encoded: Vec<(Vec<u8>, &Vec<ScalarValue>)> = tuples
+            .iter()
+            .map(|t| (encode_pk_tuple(t).unwrap(), t))
+            .collect();
+        encoded.sort_by(|x, y| x.0.cmp(&y.0));
+        let order: Vec<_> = encoded.iter().map(|(_, t)| (*t).clone()).collect();
+        // -1 < 1 < 2; within id=1, "a" < "ab" < "b".
+        assert_eq!(
+            order,
+            vec![
+                tuple(-1, "z"),
+                tuple(1, "a"),
+                tuple(1, "ab"),
+                tuple(1, "b"),
+                tuple(2, "a"),
+            ]
+        );
+        // Injective: 5 distinct tuples → 5 distinct keys.
+        let mut keys: Vec<Vec<u8>> = tuples.iter().map(|t| encode_pk_tuple(t).unwrap()).collect();
+        keys.sort();
+        keys.dedup();
+        assert_eq!(keys.len(), 5);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn null_sorts_first_and_is_distinct() {
+        let null_a = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(None), ScalarValue::from("a")];
+        let one_a = tuple(1, "a");
+        assert!(encode_pk_tuple(&null_a).unwrap() < encode_pk_tuple(&one_a).unwrap());
+        assert_ne!(
+            encode_pk_tuple(&null_a).unwrap(),
+            encode_pk_tuple(&one_a).unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn prefix_safety_with_embedded_zero() {
+        // A string containing 0x00 must not collide with or sort incorrectly
+        // against a shorter one (escaping + terminator).
+        let with_zero = vec![ScalarValue::Binary(Some(vec![0x00]))];
+        let empty = vec![ScalarValue::Binary(Some(vec![]))];
+        assert!(encode_pk_tuple(&empty).unwrap() < encode_pk_tuple(&with_zero).unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn encode_pk_batch_matches_per_tuple_encoding() {
+        // Each row of the encoded `Binary` column equals `encode_pk_tuple` of
+        // that row's PK values — so the column a BTreeMemIndex indexes is exactly
+        // what a probe builds.
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let encoded = encode_pk_batch(&batch, &[0, 1]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(encoded.value(0), encode_pk_tuple(&tuple(2, "a")).unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(encoded.value(1), encode_pk_tuple(&tuple(1, "b")).unwrap());
+        // (1,"b") encodes below (2,"a").
+        assert!(encoded.value(1) < encoded.value(0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/manifest.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/manifest.rs
index 451264db2e9..a2099e97d44 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/manifest.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/manifest.rs
@@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-//! Region manifest storage with bit-reversed versioned naming.
+//! Shard manifest storage with bit-reversed versioned naming.
 //!
-//! Region manifests are stored as versioned protobuf files using bit-reversed
+//! Shard manifests are stored as versioned protobuf files using bit-reversed
 //! naming scheme to distribute files across object store keyspace.
 //!
 //! ## File Layout
 //!
 //! ```text
-//! _mem_wal/{region_id}/manifest/
+//! _mem_wal/{shard_id}/manifest/
 //!   ├── {bit_reversed_version}.binpb  # Versioned manifest files
 //!   └── version_hint.json             # Best-effort version hint
 //! ```
@@ -27,25 +27,25 @@
 //! 3. Continue until a version is not found
 //! 4. Return the last found version
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::{Arc, RwLock};
 
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use futures::stream::FuturesUnordered;
 use futures::StreamExt;
+use futures::stream::FuturesUnordered;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::mem_wal::RegionManifest;
+use lance_index::mem_wal::{ShardManifest, ShardStatus};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use lance_table::format::pb;
 use log::{info, warn};
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use object_store::PutMode;
-use object_store::PutOptions;
 use prost::Message;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
+use tracing::instrument;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
-use super::util::{manifest_filename, parse_bit_reversed_filename, region_manifest_path};
+use super::util::{manifest_filename, parse_bit_reversed_filename, shard_manifest_path};
 
 /// Version hint file structure.
 #[derive(Debug, Serialize, Deserialize)]
@@ -53,46 +53,111 @@ struct VersionHint {
     version: u64,
 }
 
-/// Store for reading and writing region manifests.
+/// Store for reading and writing shard manifests.
 ///
 /// Handles versioned manifest files with bit-reversed naming scheme
 /// and PUT-IF-NOT-EXISTS atomicity.
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct RegionManifestStore {
+pub struct ShardManifestStore {
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
-    region_id: Uuid,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
     manifest_dir: Path,
     manifest_scan_batch_size: usize,
+    /// This store's position: the version it may build its next write on, and
+    /// what [`Self::latest`] serves.
+    ///
+    /// Set by a landed write and by [`Self::refresh_latest`] — the epoch holder
+    /// is the sole permitted writer, so what it wrote or last refreshed to
+    /// stays latest until a PUT-IF-NOT-EXISTS collision proves otherwise. A
+    /// plain [`Self::latest`] scan never sets it, so a reader that polls keeps
+    /// observing the writer instead of pinning the first manifest it saw.
+    latest: RwLock<Option<ShardManifest>>,
 }
 
-impl RegionManifestStore {
-    /// Create a new manifest store for the given region.
+impl ShardManifestStore {
+    /// Create a new manifest store for the given shard.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `object_store` - Object store for reading/writing manifests
     /// * `base_path` - Base path within the object store (from ObjectStore::from_uri)
-    /// * `region_id` - Region UUID
+    /// * `shard_id` - Shard UUID
     /// * `manifest_scan_batch_size` - Batch size for parallel HEAD requests when scanning versions
     pub fn new(
         object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
         base_path: &Path,
-        region_id: Uuid,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
         manifest_scan_batch_size: usize,
     ) -> Self {
-        let manifest_dir = region_manifest_path(base_path, &region_id);
+        let manifest_dir = shard_manifest_path(base_path, &shard_id);
         Self {
             object_store,
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             manifest_dir,
             manifest_scan_batch_size,
+            latest: RwLock::new(None),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The cached manifest, if this store has written one.
+    fn cached(&self) -> Option<ShardManifest> {
+        self.latest.read().expect("manifest cache lock").clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Publish `manifest` as the latest. Only ever called after a durable write.
+    ///
+    /// Never regresses: the flush task and the tailer's cursor updates share one
+    /// handle, so two writes can win their CAS in one order and return to their
+    /// callers in the other.
+    fn cache(&self, manifest: &ShardManifest) {
+        let mut latest = self.latest.write().expect("manifest cache lock");
+        if latest.as_ref().is_none_or(|c| manifest.version > c.version) {
+            *latest = Some(manifest.clone());
         }
     }
 
-    /// Read the latest manifest version.
+    /// Drop the cache on a write collision — the one signal that another
+    /// writer may have moved the shard past us.
+    fn invalidate(&self) {
+        *self.latest.write().expect("manifest cache lock") = None;
+    }
+
+    /// The latest manifest as far as this store knows: its own position when it
+    /// has one, otherwise a scan of storage.
     ///
-    /// Returns `None` if no manifest exists (new region).
-    pub async fn read_latest(&self) -> Result<Option<RegionManifest>> {
+    /// Cheap, and deliberately not authoritative — it can sit behind a peer's
+    /// commit, and a scan here does *not* become this store's position, so a
+    /// reader that polls keeps observing the writer. To observe a peer, or to
+    /// take a position to write from, use [`Self::refresh_latest`].
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` if no manifest exists (new shard).
+    pub async fn latest(&self) -> Result<Option<ShardManifest>> {
+        match self.cached() {
+            Some(cached) => Ok(Some(cached)),
+            None => self.scan_latest().await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Read the latest manifest from storage and adopt it as this store's
+    /// position.
+    ///
+    /// The adopting half matters: a claim reads uncached precisely because it
+    /// must see another process, and what it finds is the version its own write
+    /// then builds on. Callers that only want to *look* want [`Self::latest`],
+    /// which leaves this store's position alone.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` if no manifest exists (new shard).
+    #[instrument(name = "manifest_refresh_latest", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.shard_id))]
+    pub async fn refresh_latest(&self) -> Result<Option<ShardManifest>> {
+        let latest = self.scan_latest().await?;
+        if let Some(manifest) = &latest {
+            self.cache(manifest);
+        }
+        Ok(latest)
+    }
+
+    /// Scan storage for the latest manifest, touching no local state.
+    async fn scan_latest(&self) -> Result<Option<ShardManifest>> {
         let version = self.find_latest_version().await?;
         if version == 0 {
             return Ok(None);
@@ -102,33 +167,63 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
     }
 
     /// Read a specific manifest version.
-    pub async fn read_version(&self, version: u64) -> Result<RegionManifest> {
+    pub async fn read_version(&self, version: u64) -> Result<ShardManifest> {
         let filename = manifest_filename(version);
-        let path = self.manifest_dir.child(filename.as_str());
+        let path = self.manifest_dir.clone().join(filename.as_str());
 
         let data = self.object_store.inner.get(&path).await.map_err(|e| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!(
-                    "Failed to read manifest version {} for region {}: {}",
-                    version, self.region_id, e
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "Failed to read manifest version {} for shard {}: {}",
+                version, self.shard_id, e
+            ))
         })?;
 
         let bytes = data
             .bytes()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to read manifest bytes: {}", e), location!()))?;
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to read manifest bytes: {}", e)))?;
 
-        let pb_manifest = pb::RegionManifest::decode(bytes).map_err(|e| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!("Failed to decode manifest protobuf: {}", e),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })?;
+        let pb_manifest = pb::ShardManifest::decode(bytes)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to decode manifest protobuf: {}", e)))?;
 
-        RegionManifest::try_from(pb_manifest)
+        ShardManifest::try_from(pb_manifest)
+    }
+
+    /// Write an initial manifest for a newly-created shard.
+    ///
+    /// `shard_field_values` maps field_id to raw Arrow scalar bytes.
+    /// Initial manifests use writer epoch 0. A writer that claims the shard
+    /// will write a new manifest with epoch 1 before appending WAL entries.
+    pub async fn initialize_shard(
+        &self,
+        shard_spec_id: u32,
+        shard_field_values: HashMap<String, Vec<u8>>,
+    ) -> Result<ShardManifest> {
+        let manifest = ShardManifest {
+            shard_id: self.shard_id,
+            version: 1,
+            shard_spec_id,
+            shard_field_values,
+            writer_epoch: 0,
+            replay_after_wal_entry_position: 0,
+            wal_entry_position_last_seen: 0,
+            current_generation: 1,
+            sstables: vec![],
+            status: ShardStatus::Active,
+        };
+
+        match self.write(&manifest).await {
+            Ok(_) => Ok(manifest),
+            Err(error) => match self.refresh_latest().await? {
+                Some(existing)
+                    if existing.shard_spec_id == manifest.shard_spec_id
+                        && existing.shard_field_values == manifest.shard_field_values =>
+                {
+                    Ok(existing)
+                }
+                _ => Err(error),
+            },
+        }
     }
 
     /// Write a new manifest version atomically.
@@ -139,93 +234,55 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
     ///
     /// Returns the version that was written.
     ///
+    /// Callers derive `manifest.version` from a manifest they just read, which
+    /// is what keeps the sequence gap-free — the cache treats a landed write as
+    /// proof of the tip, and `find_latest_version` stops at the first absent
+    /// batch, so a gap hides every version past it. Whoever holds that
+    /// predecessor checks the successor; see [`Self::commit_update`].
+    ///
+    /// A version at or below this store's position is reported as the collision
+    /// it is, so callers retry.
+    ///
     /// # Errors
     ///
-    /// Returns `Error::AlreadyExists` if another writer already wrote this version.
-    pub async fn write(&self, manifest: &RegionManifest) -> Result<u64> {
+    /// Returns [`Error::RetryableCommitConflict`] if another writer already
+    /// holds this version.
+    #[instrument(name = "manifest_write", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.shard_id, version = manifest.version, epoch = manifest.writer_epoch))]
+    pub(crate) async fn write(&self, manifest: &ShardManifest) -> Result<u64> {
         let version = manifest.version;
+        if self.cached().is_some_and(|c| version <= c.version) {
+            // Someone already took it — our own position proves it exists.
+            // Report the collision so callers retry rather than fail.
+            self.invalidate();
+            return Err(self.version_taken(version));
+        }
         let filename = manifest_filename(version);
-        let path = self.manifest_dir.child(filename.as_str());
+        let path = self.manifest_dir.clone().join(filename.as_str());
 
-        let pb_manifest = pb::RegionManifest::from(manifest);
+        let pb_manifest = pb::ShardManifest::from(manifest);
         let bytes = pb_manifest.encode_to_vec();
 
-        if self.object_store.is_local() {
-            // Local storage: Use temp file + atomic rename for fencing
-            let temp_filename = format!("{}.tmp.{}", filename, uuid::Uuid::new_v4());
-            let temp_path = self.manifest_dir.child(temp_filename.as_str());
-
-            // Write to temp file
-            self.object_store
-                .inner
-                .put(&temp_path, Bytes::from(bytes).into())
-                .await
-                .map_err(|e| {
-                    Error::io(format!("Failed to write temp manifest: {}", e), location!())
-                })?;
-
-            // Atomically rename to final path
-            match self
-                .object_store
-                .inner
-                .rename_if_not_exists(&temp_path, &path)
-                .await
-            {
-                Ok(()) => {}
-                Err(object_store::Error::AlreadyExists { .. }) => {
-                    // Clean up temp file
-                    let _ = self.object_store.delete(&temp_path).await;
-                    return Err(Error::io(
-                        format!(
-                            "Manifest version {} already exists for region {}",
-                            version, self.region_id
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-                Err(e) => {
-                    // Clean up temp file
-                    let _ = self.object_store.delete(&temp_path).await;
-                    return Err(Error::io(
-                        format!(
-                            "Failed to write manifest version {} for region {}: {}",
-                            version, self.region_id, e
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+        self.object_store
+            .put_if_absent(&path, Bytes::from(bytes).into())
+            .await
+            .inspect_err(|_| self.invalidate())
+            .map_err(|error| {
+                if matches!(
+                    error,
+                    object_store::Error::AlreadyExists { .. }
+                        | object_store::Error::Precondition { .. }
+                ) {
+                    self.version_taken(version)
+                } else {
+                    Error::io(format!(
+                        "Failed to write manifest version {} for shard {}: {}",
+                        version, self.shard_id, error
+                    ))
                 }
-            }
-        } else {
-            // Cloud storage: Use PUT-IF-NOT-EXISTS
-            let put_opts = PutOptions {
-                mode: PutMode::Create,
-                ..Default::default()
-            };
+            })?;
 
-            self.object_store
-                .inner
-                .put_opts(&path, Bytes::from(bytes).into(), put_opts)
-                .await
-                .map_err(|e| {
-                    if matches!(e, object_store::Error::AlreadyExists { .. }) {
-                        Error::io(
-                            format!(
-                                "Manifest version {} already exists for region {}",
-                                version, self.region_id
-                            ),
-                            location!(),
-                        )
-                    } else {
-                        Error::io(
-                            format!(
-                                "Failed to write manifest version {} for region {}: {}",
-                                version, self.region_id, e
-                            ),
-                            location!(),
-                        )
-                    }
-                })?;
-        }
+        // The write landed, so this is now the latest.
+        self.cache(manifest);
 
         // Best-effort update version hint (failures are logged as warnings)
         self.write_version_hint(version).await;
@@ -233,6 +290,19 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
         Ok(version)
     }
 
+    /// The error for a version another writer already holds. `commit_update`
+    /// matches on the variant to decide whether to retry.
+    fn version_taken(&self, version: u64) -> Error {
+        Error::retryable_commit_conflict_source(
+            version,
+            format!(
+                "Manifest version {} already exists for shard {}",
+                version, self.shard_id
+            )
+            .into(),
+        )
+    }
+
     /// Find the latest manifest version.
     ///
     /// Uses HEAD requests starting from version hint, scanning forward
@@ -265,11 +335,9 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
 
             let mut found_any = false;
             while let Some((version, result)) = futures.next().await {
-                if let Ok(true) = result {
-                    if version > latest_found {
-                        latest_found = version;
-                        found_any = true;
-                    }
+                if result? && version > latest_found {
+                    latest_found = version;
+                    found_any = true;
                 }
             }
 
@@ -284,21 +352,21 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
     /// Check if a manifest version exists using HEAD request.
     async fn version_exists(&self, version: u64) -> Result<bool> {
         let filename = manifest_filename(version);
-        let path = self.manifest_dir.child(filename.as_str());
+        let path = self.manifest_dir.clone().join(filename.as_str());
 
         match self.object_store.inner.head(&path).await {
             Ok(_) => Ok(true),
             Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. }) => Ok(false),
-            Err(e) => Err(Error::io(
-                format!("HEAD request failed for version {}: {}", version, e),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            Err(e) => Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "HEAD request failed for version {}: {}",
+                version, e
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
     /// Read the version hint file.
     async fn read_version_hint(&self) -> Option<u64> {
-        let path = self.manifest_dir.child("version_hint.json");
+        let path = self.manifest_dir.clone().join("version_hint.json");
 
         let data = self.object_store.inner.get(&path).await.ok()?;
         let bytes = data.bytes().await.ok()?;
@@ -309,7 +377,7 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
 
     /// Write the version hint file (best-effort, failures logged but ignored).
     async fn write_version_hint(&self, version: u64) {
-        let path = self.manifest_dir.child("version_hint.json");
+        let path = self.manifest_dir.clone().join("version_hint.json");
         let hint = VersionHint { version };
 
         match serde_json::to_vec(&hint) {
@@ -321,8 +389,8 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
                     .await
                 {
                     warn!(
-                        "Failed to write version hint for region {}: {}",
-                        self.region_id, e
+                        "Failed to write version hint for shard {}: {}",
+                        self.shard_id, e
                     );
                 }
             }
@@ -346,12 +414,11 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
         for item in list_result {
             match item {
                 Ok(meta) => {
-                    if let Some(filename) = meta.location.filename() {
-                        if filename.ends_with(".binpb") {
-                            if let Some(version) = parse_bit_reversed_filename(filename) {
-                                versions.push(version);
-                            }
-                        }
+                    if let Some(filename) = meta.location.filename()
+                        && filename.ends_with(".binpb")
+                        && let Some(version) = parse_bit_reversed_filename(filename)
+                    {
+                        versions.push(version);
                     }
                 }
                 Err(e) => {
@@ -364,102 +431,150 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
         Ok(versions)
     }
 
-    /// Get the region ID.
-    pub fn region_id(&self) -> Uuid {
-        self.region_id
+    /// Get the shard ID.
+    pub fn shard_id(&self) -> Uuid {
+        self.shard_id
     }
 
     // ========================================================================
     // Epoch-based Writer Fencing
     // ========================================================================
 
-    /// Claim a region by incrementing its writer epoch.
+    /// Claim a shard by incrementing its writer epoch.
     ///
     /// This establishes single-writer semantics by:
     /// 1. Loading the current manifest (or creating initial state)
     /// 2. Incrementing the writer epoch
     /// 3. Atomically writing the new manifest
     ///
-    /// If another writer has already claimed the region (version conflict),
-    /// this fails immediately rather than retrying. This prevents "epoch wars"
-    /// where multiple writers keep fencing each other.
+    /// On version conflict, re-reads the manifest and only retries when
+    /// the latest writer_epoch is strictly less than the epoch we were
+    /// targeting — meaning the version was bumped by something other than
+    /// a real claim (a tailer cursor update or a concurrent
+    /// `initialize_shard` writing epoch 0). If the latest writer_epoch
+    /// is equal to or greater than our target, the target epoch is
+    /// already claimed and this call fails. This preserves the
+    /// no-epoch-war guarantee for real claimants while tolerating benign
+    /// version bumps.
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
-    /// A tuple of `(epoch, RegionManifest)` where the manifest is the
+    /// A tuple of `(epoch, ShardManifest)` where the manifest is the
     /// claimed state (may be freshly created or loaded and epoch-bumped).
     ///
     /// # Errors
     ///
-    /// Returns an error if another writer already claimed the region.
-    pub async fn claim_epoch(&self, region_spec_id: u32) -> Result<(u64, RegionManifest)> {
-        let current = self.read_latest().await?;
-
-        let (next_version, next_epoch, base_manifest) = match current {
-            Some(m) => (m.version + 1, m.writer_epoch + 1, Some(m)),
-            None => (1, 1, None),
-        };
-
-        let new_manifest = if let Some(base) = base_manifest {
-            RegionManifest {
-                version: next_version,
-                writer_epoch: next_epoch,
-                ..base
-            }
-        } else {
-            RegionManifest {
-                region_id: self.region_id,
-                version: next_version,
-                region_spec_id,
-                writer_epoch: next_epoch,
-                replay_after_wal_entry_position: 0,
-                wal_entry_position_last_seen: 0,
-                current_generation: 1,
-                flushed_generations: vec![],
+    /// Returns an error if another writer claimed an equal-or-higher
+    /// epoch than our target, or if the manifest stays contended past
+    /// the retry budget.
+    #[instrument(name = "manifest_claim_epoch", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.shard_id, shard_spec_id))]
+    pub async fn claim_epoch(&self, shard_spec_id: u32) -> Result<(u64, ShardManifest)> {
+        const MAX_CLAIM_RETRIES: usize = 16;
+        let mut last_write_err: Option<Error> = None;
+        for _ in 0..MAX_CLAIM_RETRIES {
+            // Refreshing, not reading: a claim exists to discover another
+            // writer's epoch, and the tip it finds is what our write builds on.
+            let current = self.refresh_latest().await?;
+
+            // A sealed shard is mid-drop (drop-table 2PC). Refuse the claim
+            // with a distinguishable error rather than minting a new epoch,
+            // so a caller that skips its own status check still cannot
+            // resurrect a shard being dropped. Sophon's reconcile keys on
+            // the "sealed" marker in this message to tell it apart from an
+            // ordinary epoch fence.
+            if let Some(m) = &current
+                && m.status == ShardStatus::Sealed
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "shard {} is sealed; refusing claim (drop in flight)",
+                    self.shard_id
+                )));
             }
-        };
 
-        self.write(&new_manifest).await.map_err(|e| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!(
-                    "Failed to claim region {} (version {}): another writer may have claimed it: {}",
-                    self.region_id, next_version, e
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })?;
+            let (next_version, next_epoch, base_manifest) = match current {
+                Some(m) => (m.next_version(), m.writer_epoch + 1, Some(m)),
+                None => (1, 1, None),
+            };
 
-        info!(
-            "Claimed region {} with epoch {} (version {})",
-            self.region_id, next_epoch, next_version
-        );
+            let new_manifest = if let Some(base) = base_manifest {
+                ShardManifest {
+                    version: next_version,
+                    writer_epoch: next_epoch,
+                    ..base
+                }
+            } else {
+                ShardManifest {
+                    shard_id: self.shard_id,
+                    version: next_version,
+                    shard_spec_id,
+                    shard_field_values: HashMap::new(),
+                    writer_epoch: next_epoch,
+                    replay_after_wal_entry_position: 0,
+                    wal_entry_position_last_seen: 0,
+                    current_generation: 1,
+                    sstables: vec![],
+                    status: ShardStatus::Active,
+                }
+            };
 
-        Ok((next_epoch, new_manifest))
+            match self.write(&new_manifest).await {
+                Ok(_) => {
+                    info!(
+                        "Claimed shard {} with epoch {} (version {})",
+                        self.shard_id, next_epoch, next_version
+                    );
+                    return Ok((next_epoch, new_manifest));
+                }
+                Err(write_err) => {
+                    let latest_epoch = self
+                        .refresh_latest()
+                        .await?
+                        .map(|m| m.writer_epoch)
+                        .unwrap_or(0);
+                    if latest_epoch >= next_epoch {
+                        return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                            "Failed to claim shard {} (version {}): another writer claimed epoch {} (>= our target {}): {}",
+                            self.shard_id, next_version, latest_epoch, next_epoch, write_err
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    last_write_err = Some(write_err);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Err(Error::io(format!(
+            "Failed to claim shard {} after {} retries due to manifest contention: {}",
+            self.shard_id,
+            MAX_CLAIM_RETRIES,
+            last_write_err
+                .map(|e| e.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string())
+        )))
     }
 
     /// Check if the given epoch has been fenced by a newer writer.
     ///
     /// Loads the current manifest and compares epochs. If the stored epoch
     /// is higher than the local epoch, the writer has been fenced.
+    #[instrument(name = "manifest_check_fenced", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.shard_id, local_epoch))]
     pub async fn check_fenced(&self, local_epoch: u64) -> Result<()> {
-        let current = self.read_latest().await?;
-        Self::check_fenced_against(&current, local_epoch, self.region_id)
+        // Refreshed: a fence is another process's write, which our own
+        // position can never show us.
+        let current = self.refresh_latest().await?;
+        Self::check_fenced_against(&current, local_epoch, self.shard_id)
     }
 
     /// Check fencing against a pre-read manifest (avoids redundant read).
     fn check_fenced_against(
-        manifest: &Option<RegionManifest>,
+        manifest: &Option<ShardManifest>,
         local_epoch: u64,
-        region_id: Uuid,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
     ) -> Result<()> {
         match manifest {
-            Some(m) if m.writer_epoch > local_epoch => Err(Error::io(
-                format!(
-                    "Writer fenced: local epoch {} < stored epoch {} for region {}",
-                    local_epoch, m.writer_epoch, region_id
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            Some(m) if m.writer_epoch > local_epoch => Err(Error::fenced_by_peer(format!(
+                "local epoch {} < stored epoch {} for shard {}",
+                local_epoch, m.writer_epoch, shard_id
+            ))),
             _ => Ok(()),
         }
     }
@@ -476,39 +591,70 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `local_epoch` - The writer's epoch (for fencing check)
-    /// * `prepare_fn` - Function that takes current manifest and returns new manifest
+    /// * `prepare_fn` - Function that takes current manifest and returns new
+    ///   manifest. Its `version` must be `current.next_version()`; anything
+    ///   else is rejected, so the sequence cannot develop a gap.
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
     /// The successfully written manifest.
-    pub async fn commit_update<F>(&self, local_epoch: u64, prepare_fn: F) -> Result<RegionManifest>
+    ///
+    /// # Concurrency
+    ///
+    /// Each losing CAS clears the store's shared position, so commits that
+    /// overlap within one CAS round-trip all fall back to a scan and retry —
+    /// roughly `n^2/2` scans for `n` of them. Commits spaced further apart than
+    /// that window cost nothing: the winner leaves its position warm for the
+    /// next one.
+    ///
+    /// `MAX_RETRIES` therefore bounds how many commits can overlap on one
+    /// handle: the unluckiest loses every round, so past ten concurrent commits
+    /// it exhausts its budget and returns the conflict instead of landing.
+    /// Reaching that needs eleven commit sources inside a single CAS, which no
+    /// current caller comes close to. Worth revisiting if one funnels many
+    /// independent writers through a single [`Self`].
+    #[instrument(name = "manifest_commit_update", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.shard_id, local_epoch))]
+    pub async fn commit_update<F>(&self, local_epoch: u64, prepare_fn: F) -> Result<ShardManifest>
     where
-        F: Fn(&RegionManifest) -> RegionManifest,
+        F: Fn(&ShardManifest) -> ShardManifest,
     {
         const MAX_RETRIES: usize = 10;
 
         for attempt in 0..MAX_RETRIES {
-            // Step 1: Read latest
-            let current = self
-                .read_latest()
-                .await?
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("Region manifest not found", location!()))?;
+            // Step 1: take a position to build on. A cold cache — a fresh
+            // store, or a retry after losing a race — must go to storage and
+            // adopt what it finds, or the write below has no baseline.
+            let current = match self.cached() {
+                Some(cached) => cached,
+                None => self
+                    .refresh_latest()
+                    .await?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("Shard manifest not found"))?,
+            };
 
             // Step 2: Check fencing
-            Self::check_fenced_against(&Some(current.clone()), local_epoch, self.region_id)?;
+            Self::check_fenced_against(&Some(current.clone()), local_epoch, self.shard_id)?;
 
             // Step 3: Prepare new manifest
             let new_manifest = prepare_fn(&current);
 
+            // Check the successor against `current`, the manifest the closure
+            // actually built on. The store's position is shared and moves
+            // under concurrent commits — a peer's failed CAS can clear it
+            // between here and the write — so it cannot judge this.
+            if new_manifest.version != current.next_version() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "manifest version {} is not the successor of {} for shard {}: the version sequence must stay gap-free",
+                    new_manifest.version, current.version, self.shard_id
+                )));
+            }
+
             // Validate epoch matches
             if new_manifest.writer_epoch != local_epoch {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Manifest epoch {} doesn't match local epoch {}",
-                        new_manifest.writer_epoch, local_epoch
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Manifest epoch {} doesn't match local epoch {}",
+                    new_manifest.writer_epoch, local_epoch
+                )));
             }
 
             // Step 4: Try to commit
@@ -518,7 +664,7 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
                 }
                 Err(e) => {
                     // Check if it's a version conflict (can retry) vs other error
-                    let is_version_conflict = e.to_string().contains("already exists");
+                    let is_version_conflict = matches!(e, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. });
 
                     if is_version_conflict && attempt < MAX_RETRIES - 1 {
                         continue;
@@ -529,19 +675,18 @@ impl RegionManifestStore {
             }
         }
 
-        Err(Error::io(
-            format!(
-                "Failed to update manifest for region {} after {} attempts",
-                self.region_id, MAX_RETRIES
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ))
+        Err(Error::io(format!(
+            "Failed to update manifest for shard {} after {} attempts",
+            self.shard_id, MAX_RETRIES
+        )))
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use lance_core::utils::testing::{ProxyObjectStore, ProxyObjectStorePolicy};
+    use std::sync::Mutex;
     use tempfile::TempDir;
 
     async fn create_local_store() -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Path, TempDir) {
@@ -551,58 +696,197 @@ mod tests {
         (store, path, temp_dir)
     }
 
-    fn create_test_manifest(region_id: Uuid, version: u64, epoch: u64) -> RegionManifest {
-        RegionManifest {
-            region_id,
+    fn create_test_manifest(shard_id: Uuid, version: u64, epoch: u64) -> ShardManifest {
+        ShardManifest {
+            shard_id,
             version,
-            region_spec_id: 0,
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            shard_field_values: HashMap::new(),
             writer_epoch: epoch,
             replay_after_wal_entry_position: 0,
             wal_entry_position_last_seen: 0,
             current_generation: 1,
-            flushed_generations: vec![],
+            sstables: vec![],
+            status: ShardStatus::Active,
         }
     }
 
+    /// A warm cache must not hide a successor's claim from `check_fenced`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn check_fenced_sees_a_peer_through_a_warm_cache() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let incumbent = ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+        let successor = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        // Claiming writes a manifest, warming the cache.
+        let (epoch, _) = incumbent.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(incumbent.cached().is_some(), "the claim write must cache");
+
+        successor.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            incumbent.check_fenced(epoch).await.is_err(),
+            "a cached manifest must not hide a successor's epoch"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Reads must not cache, or a reader-only handle (a WAL tailer, a
+    /// drop-reconcile probe) would never observe the writer.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_reader_only_store_never_caches() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+        let reader = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let (epoch, _) = writer.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap().current_generation,
+            1
+        );
+        assert!(
+            reader.cached().is_none(),
+            "a read must not populate the cache"
+        );
+
+        writer
+            .commit_update(epoch, |c| ShardManifest {
+                version: c.version + 1,
+                current_generation: 5,
+                ..c.clone()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap().current_generation,
+            5,
+            "a reader must see the writer's later commits"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A losing `commit_update` re-reads from storage, so it converges instead
+    /// of spinning on the version it lost on.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn commit_update_recovers_from_a_stale_cache() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let ours = ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+        let peer = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let (epoch, _) = ours.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        ours.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        // A same-epoch commit through another handle stales our cache.
+        peer.commit_update(epoch, |c| ShardManifest {
+            version: c.version + 1,
+            current_generation: 7,
+            ..c.clone()
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let updated = ours
+            .commit_update(epoch, |c| ShardManifest {
+                version: c.version + 1,
+                wal_entry_position_last_seen: 42,
+                ..c.clone()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Built on the peer's version, not on the stale cached one.
+        assert_eq!(updated.current_generation, 7);
+        assert_eq!(updated.wal_entry_position_last_seen, 42);
+        assert_eq!(
+            ours.refresh_latest().await.unwrap().unwrap().version,
+            updated.version
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A write whose CAS won earlier but returned later must not publish its
+    /// older manifest over the newer one.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_late_write_never_regresses_the_cache() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let older = create_test_manifest(shard_id, 1, 1);
+        let newer = create_test_manifest(shard_id, 2, 1);
+        manifest_store.write(&older).await.unwrap();
+        manifest_store.write(&newer).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The straggler resolving after the newer write already cached.
+        manifest_store.cache(&older);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap().version,
+            2,
+            "the cache must hold the newest version this store wrote"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The cached read and the storage read agree after a write.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_read_latest_empty() {
+    async fn latest_serves_the_written_manifest() {
         let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = RegionManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, region_id, 2);
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let mut manifest = create_test_manifest(shard_id, 1, 1);
+        manifest_store.write(&manifest).await.unwrap();
+        manifest.version = 2;
+        manifest.current_generation = 9;
+        manifest_store.write(&manifest).await.unwrap();
 
-        let result = manifest_store.read_latest().await.unwrap();
+        let cached = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let durable = manifest_store.refresh_latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cached.version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(cached.current_generation, 9);
+        assert_eq!(cached, durable);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_latest_empty() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let result = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap();
         assert!(result.is_none());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_write_and_read_manifest() {
         let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = RegionManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, region_id, 2);
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
 
-        let manifest = create_test_manifest(region_id, 1, 1);
+        let manifest = create_test_manifest(shard_id, 1, 1);
         manifest_store.write(&manifest).await.unwrap();
 
-        let loaded = manifest_store.read_latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let loaded = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(loaded.version, 1);
         assert_eq!(loaded.writer_epoch, 1);
-        assert_eq!(loaded.region_id, region_id);
+        assert_eq!(loaded.shard_id, shard_id);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_multiple_versions() {
         let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = RegionManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, region_id, 2);
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
 
         // Write multiple versions
         for version in 1..=5 {
-            let manifest = create_test_manifest(region_id, version, version);
+            let manifest = create_test_manifest(shard_id, version, version);
             manifest_store.write(&manifest).await.unwrap();
         }
 
         // Should find latest
-        let loaded = manifest_store.read_latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let loaded = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(loaded.version, 5);
         assert_eq!(loaded.writer_epoch, 5);
 
@@ -614,11 +898,11 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_read_specific_version() {
         let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = RegionManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, region_id, 2);
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
 
         for version in 1..=3 {
-            let manifest = create_test_manifest(region_id, version, version * 10);
+            let manifest = create_test_manifest(shard_id, version, version * 10);
             manifest_store.write(&manifest).await.unwrap();
         }
 
@@ -630,15 +914,360 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_put_if_not_exists() {
         let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = RegionManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, region_id, 2);
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
 
-        let manifest1 = create_test_manifest(region_id, 1, 1);
+        let manifest1 = create_test_manifest(shard_id, 1, 1);
         manifest_store.write(&manifest1).await.unwrap();
 
         // Second write to same version should fail
-        let manifest2 = create_test_manifest(region_id, 1, 2);
+        let manifest2 = create_test_manifest(shard_id, 1, 2);
         let result = manifest_store.write(&manifest2).await;
         assert!(result.is_err());
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_shard_writes_v1_with_epoch_zero() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let mut field_values = HashMap::new();
+        field_values.insert("user_bucket".to_string(), 7i32.to_le_bytes().to_vec());
+
+        let manifest = manifest_store
+            .initialize_shard(3, field_values.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(manifest.shard_id, shard_id);
+        assert_eq!(manifest.version, 1);
+        assert_eq!(manifest.writer_epoch, 0);
+        assert_eq!(manifest.shard_spec_id, 3);
+        assert_eq!(manifest.shard_field_values, field_values);
+
+        let loaded = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(loaded, manifest);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_shard_idempotent_on_match() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let mut field_values = HashMap::new();
+        field_values.insert("k".to_string(), b"v".to_vec());
+
+        let first = manifest_store
+            .initialize_shard(1, field_values.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let second = manifest_store
+            .initialize_shard(1, field_values)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first, second);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_claim_epoch_after_cursor_update() {
+        // After a tailer cursor update bumps the manifest version without
+        // claiming an epoch, the next claim_epoch should observe the new
+        // state and produce the next epoch — this guards against treating
+        // a cursor update as a real claimant.
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let (first_epoch, first) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first_epoch, 1);
+        assert_eq!(first.version, 1);
+
+        let mut cursor_update = first.clone();
+        cursor_update.version += 1;
+        cursor_update.wal_entry_position_last_seen = 42;
+        manifest_store.write(&cursor_update).await.unwrap();
+
+        let (second_epoch, second) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second_epoch, 2);
+        assert_eq!(second.version, 3);
+        assert_eq!(second.wal_entry_position_last_seen, 42);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_claim_epoch_refuses_sealed_manifest() {
+        // A `Sealed` manifest is the drop-table 2PC in-doubt marker:
+        // `claim_epoch` must refuse it with a distinguishable error rather
+        // than mint a new epoch, so a sealed shard can't be resurrected even
+        // by a caller that skips its own status check. Rolling the status
+        // back to `Active` makes the shard claimable again (reversible).
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let (epoch, claimed) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(claimed.status, ShardStatus::Active);
+
+        // Seal it (drop-table prepare).
+        let sealed = ShardManifest {
+            version: claimed.version + 1,
+            status: ShardStatus::Sealed,
+            ..claimed
+        };
+        manifest_store.write(&sealed).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The claim is refused with the distinguishable "sealed" error —
+        // and the manifest is left untouched (no new epoch minted).
+        let err = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("sealed"),
+            "expected a distinguishable sealed-refusal error, got: {err}"
+        );
+        let after = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(after.writer_epoch, sealed.writer_epoch, "no epoch minted");
+        assert_eq!(after.status, ShardStatus::Sealed);
+
+        // Roll back to Active (drop-table abort) → re-claimable.
+        let active = ShardManifest {
+            version: sealed.version + 1,
+            status: ShardStatus::Active,
+            ..sealed
+        };
+        manifest_store.write(&active).await.unwrap();
+        let (next_epoch, reclaimed) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(next_epoch > epoch, "rolled-back shard mints the next epoch");
+        assert_eq!(reclaimed.status, ShardStatus::Active);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_shard_rejects_conflict_with_mismatch() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        manifest_store
+            .initialize_shard(1, HashMap::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut other = HashMap::new();
+        other.insert("k".to_string(), b"v".to_vec());
+        let result = manifest_store.initialize_shard(1, other).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "second initialize_shard with different fields must fail"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A commit closure that names the wrong version fails loudly instead of
+    /// having its intent rewritten underneath it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn commit_update_rejects_a_closure_that_skips_a_version() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let ours = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let (epoch, claimed) = ours.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        let error = ours
+            .commit_update(epoch, |c| ShardManifest {
+                version: 99,
+                current_generation: 7,
+                ..c.clone()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(error.contains("is not the successor of"), "{}", error);
+        assert_eq!(
+            ours.refresh_latest().await.unwrap().unwrap().version,
+            claimed.version,
+            "the rejected commit left the shard alone"
+        );
+
+        // The same edit with the right version commits.
+        let committed = ours
+            .commit_update(epoch, |c| ShardManifest {
+                version: c.next_version(),
+                current_generation: 7,
+                ..c.clone()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.version, claimed.next_version());
+        assert_eq!(committed.current_generation, 7);
+    }
+
+    /// The two reads differ in one thing that matters: `refresh_latest` adopts
+    /// what it finds as this store's position, `latest` does not. Getting that
+    /// backwards either pins pollers or rejects valid writes.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn only_refresh_latest_adopts_a_position() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+        let observer = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let (epoch, _) = writer.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        // A plain read leaves the observer positionless, so it keeps going to
+        // storage and keeps seeing the writer.
+        assert!(observer.latest().await.unwrap().is_some());
+        assert!(
+            observer.cached().is_none(),
+            "`latest` must not take a position"
+        );
+
+        writer
+            .commit_update(epoch, |c| ShardManifest {
+                version: c.next_version(),
+                current_generation: 9,
+                ..c.clone()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            observer.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap().current_generation,
+            9,
+            "a poller must observe the writer's later commits"
+        );
+
+        // Refreshing takes a position, which is what lets a claim write from it.
+        let refreshed = observer.refresh_latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            observer.cached().map(|c| c.version),
+            Some(refreshed.version),
+            "`refresh_latest` must take a position"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The store's position moves under concurrent commits — a peer's failed
+    /// CAS clears it — so it cannot judge a closure's output. Every commit
+    /// must land, and none may be lost.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 8)]
+    async fn concurrent_commits_on_one_handle_all_land() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let shared = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2));
+        let (epoch, claimed) = shared.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        const COMMITS: u64 = 8;
+        let mut tasks = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..COMMITS {
+            let shared = shared.clone();
+            tasks.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                shared
+                    .commit_update(epoch, |c| ShardManifest {
+                        version: c.next_version(),
+                        current_generation: c.current_generation + 1,
+                        ..c.clone()
+                    })
+                    .await
+            }));
+        }
+
+        let mut failures = Vec::new();
+        for task in tasks {
+            if let Err(error) = task.await.unwrap() {
+                failures.push(error.to_string());
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(failures.is_empty(), "commits failed: {:#?}", failures);
+
+        let tip = shared.refresh_latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            tip.current_generation,
+            claimed.current_generation + COMMITS,
+            "every commit must be reflected; a lost update means one was \
+             built on stale state and overwrote an intervening one"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(tip.version, claimed.version + COMMITS);
+    }
+    /// A version this store's own position proves is taken must read as a
+    /// collision, so `commit_update` retries instead of failing.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn write_reports_a_taken_version_as_a_collision() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let ours = ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let (_, claimed) = ours.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut replay = claimed.clone();
+        replay.current_generation = 42;
+        let error = ours.write(&replay).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "the variant is what commit_update retries on: {:?}",
+            error
+        );
+        assert!(
+            ours.cached().is_none(),
+            "a collision must drop the position so the retry re-reads"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A HEAD that fails is not a version that is absent, and the scan must not
+    /// read it as the end of the sequence: the answer becomes a position.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_failed_head_is_not_read_as_the_end_of_the_sequence() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // The durable tip is v3, written by a peer that claimed epoch 2.
+        let peer = ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+        for version in 1..=3u64 {
+            let epoch = if version == 3 { 2 } else { 1 };
+            peer.write(&create_test_manifest(shard_id, version, epoch))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // The hint is written after the manifest and is best-effort, so lagging
+        // by one is the ordinary state during any commit.
+        let hint_path = shard_manifest_path(&base_path, &shard_id).join("version_hint.json");
+        store
+            .inner
+            .put(
+                &hint_path,
+                Bytes::from(serde_json::to_vec(&VersionHint { version: 2 }).unwrap()).into(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // A store whose HEAD on v3 gets a transient 503.
+        let policy = Arc::new(Mutex::new(ProxyObjectStorePolicy::new()));
+        let v3_file = manifest_filename(3);
+        policy.lock().unwrap().set_before_policy(
+            "503",
+            Arc::new(move |method: &str, path: &Path| {
+                if method == "get_opts" && path.as_ref().ends_with(v3_file.as_str()) {
+                    return Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                        store: "test",
+                        source: "503 slow down".into(),
+                    }
+                    .into());
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }),
+        );
+        let mut proxied = (*store).clone();
+        proxied.inner = Arc::new(ProxyObjectStore::new(store.inner.clone(), policy.clone()));
+        let ours = ShardManifestStore::new(Arc::new(proxied), &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+
+        let err = ours.refresh_latest().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("503"),
+            "the scan must surface the HEAD failure, got: {err}"
+        );
+        assert!(ours.cached().is_none(), "a failed scan takes no position");
+        assert!(
+            ours.check_fenced(1).await.is_err(),
+            "a fence check that could not read the tip must not report clear"
+        );
+
+        // Once the blip clears, the scan sees the durable tip.
+        policy.lock().unwrap().clear_before_policy("503");
+        assert_eq!(ours.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap().version, 3);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable.rs
index 524426d60da..33d2ef5f0c2 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable.rs
@@ -7,23 +7,25 @@ pub mod batch_store;
 pub mod flush;
 pub mod scanner;
 
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 
 use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_core::utils::bloomfilter::sbbf::Sbbf;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::scalar::bloomfilter::sbbf::Sbbf;
-use snafu::location;
 use tokio::sync::RwLock;
+use tracing::instrument;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
+use super::MemTableDataTarget;
 use super::index::IndexStore;
 use super::util::{WatchableOnceCell, WatchableOnceCellReader};
+use super::wal::WalFlushFailure;
 use super::write::{DurabilityResult, WalFlushResult};
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::blob::{BlobIdAllocator, prepared_to_descriptor_blob_schema};
 use batch_store::BatchStore;
 
 /// Default batch store capacity when not specified.
@@ -60,6 +62,13 @@ impl Default for CacheConfig {
 pub struct MemTable {
     /// Schema for this MemTable.
     schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    /// Caller-visible scan schema.
+    ///
+    /// `schema` describes the prepared arrays stored in the MemTable, including
+    /// bounded inline bytes. Query planning must instead see the public Blob
+    /// descriptor fields (`size`, `position`, and so on), so the scanner keeps
+    /// this derived schema alongside the physical one.
+    scan_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
     /// Lance schema (for index operations).
     lance_schema: Schema,
 
@@ -78,15 +87,18 @@ pub struct MemTable {
     /// Generation number (incremented on flush).
     generation: u64,
 
-    /// WAL batch mapping: batch_position -> (wal_entry_position, position within WAL entry).
-    wal_batch_mapping: HashMap<usize, (u64, usize)>,
-    /// Last WAL entry position that has been flushed.
-    last_flushed_wal_entry_position: u64,
-    /// Set of batch IDs that have been flushed to WAL.
-    flushed_batch_positions: HashSet<usize>,
+    /// Reserved SSTable/data-file identity for this generation.
+    target: Option<MemTableDataTarget>,
+
+    /// Shared across the per-put Blob preprocessors for this target.
+    blob_id_allocator: BlobIdAllocator,
 
     /// Primary key bloom filter for staleness detection.
     pk_bloom_filter: Sbbf,
+    /// Decoded size of the primary-key columns across every batch appended so
+    /// far. Accumulated here because [`Self::update_bloom_filter`] already has
+    /// the key columns in hand.
+    pk_bytes: usize,
     /// Primary key field IDs (for bloom filter updates).
     pk_field_ids: Vec<i32>,
 
@@ -103,9 +115,10 @@ pub struct MemTable {
     /// Set when the memtable is frozen and a WAL flush request is sent.
     /// The reader can be awaited to know when WAL flush is complete.
     /// Uses Mutex for interior mutability since the MemTable is wrapped in Arc when frozen.
-    /// Uses Result<WalFlushResult, String> since lance_core::Error doesn't implement Clone.
+    /// Uses `WalFlushFailure` (not `Error`) since `lance_core::Error` doesn't
+    /// implement Clone; the carrier preserves the fence reason for the waiter.
     wal_flush_completion: std::sync::Mutex<
-        Option<WatchableOnceCellReader<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, String>>>,
+        Option<WatchableOnceCellReader<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, WalFlushFailure>>>,
     >,
 
     /// Cell for memtable flush completion notification.
@@ -129,6 +142,24 @@ const PK_BLOOM_FILTER_EXPECTED_ITEMS: u64 = 8192;
 /// Consistent with lance-index scalar bloomfilter defaults (≈ 1 in 1754).
 const PK_BLOOM_FILTER_FPP: f64 = 0.00057;
 
+/// Heap one memtable's PK bloom filter holds.
+///
+/// The same for every memtable, because it is sized from two constants rather
+/// than from the rows in it — so this is a property of the build, not a
+/// measurement, and a memory view need not carry it per memtable.
+///
+/// Counted as index memory rather than row data: it is an auxiliary lookup
+/// structure, and a fixed term in the `max_memtable_size` seal trigger would
+/// make every memtable seal a constant early.
+pub fn pk_bloom_filter_bytes() -> usize {
+    static BYTES: std::sync::OnceLock<usize> = std::sync::OnceLock::new();
+    *BYTES.get_or_init(|| {
+        Sbbf::with_ndv_fpp(PK_BLOOM_FILTER_EXPECTED_ITEMS, PK_BLOOM_FILTER_FPP)
+            .map(|f| f.estimated_memory_size())
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    })
+}
+
 impl MemTable {
     /// Create a new MemTable with default capacity.
     ///
@@ -186,16 +217,65 @@ impl MemTable {
         cache_config: CacheConfig,
         batch_capacity: usize,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::with_capacity_at(
+            schema,
+            generation,
+            pk_field_ids,
+            cache_config,
+            batch_capacity,
+            0,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Create a memtable whose batch 0 sits at `global_offset` in the writer's
+    /// batch sequence. Every memtable after the writer's first is rotated in by
+    /// `freeze_memtable`, which stamps the outgoing memtable's `global_end()`
+    /// here so writer-global cursors stay mappable onto local batch positions.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub fn with_capacity_at(
+        schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+        generation: u64,
+        pk_field_ids: Vec<i32>,
+        cache_config: CacheConfig,
+        batch_capacity: usize,
+        global_offset: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::with_capacity_at_target(
+            schema,
+            generation,
+            pk_field_ids,
+            cache_config,
+            batch_capacity,
+            global_offset,
+            None,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(crate) fn with_capacity_at_target(
+        schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+        generation: u64,
+        pk_field_ids: Vec<i32>,
+        cache_config: CacheConfig,
+        batch_capacity: usize,
+        global_offset: usize,
+        target: Option<MemTableDataTarget>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let batch_capacity = target
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|target| batch_capacity.max(target.batch_capacity))
+            .unwrap_or(batch_capacity);
         let lance_schema = Schema::try_from(schema.as_ref())?;
+        let scan_schema = Arc::new(prepared_to_descriptor_blob_schema(schema.as_ref())?);
 
         // Initialize bloom filter for primary key staleness detection.
         let pk_bloom_filter =
             Sbbf::with_ndv_fpp(PK_BLOOM_FILTER_EXPECTED_ITEMS, PK_BLOOM_FILTER_FPP).map_err(
                 |e| {
-                    Error::io(
-                        format!("Failed to create bloom filter for primary key: {}", e),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                    Error::io(format!(
+                        "Failed to create bloom filter for primary key: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))
                 },
             )?;
 
@@ -203,7 +283,12 @@ impl MemTable {
         let dataset_uri = format!("memory://{}", Uuid::new_v4());
 
         // Create lock-free batch store
-        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(batch_capacity));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity_at_target(
+            batch_capacity,
+            global_offset,
+            target.clone(),
+            generation,
+        ));
 
         // Create memtable_flush_completion cell immediately so backpressure can
         // wait on it even before the memtable is frozen. Every memtable will
@@ -212,18 +297,26 @@ impl MemTable {
 
         Ok(Self {
             schema,
+            scan_schema,
             lance_schema,
             batch_store,
             dataset_uri,
             cache_config,
             cached_dataset: RwLock::new(None),
             generation,
-            wal_batch_mapping: HashMap::new(),
-            last_flushed_wal_entry_position: 0,
-            flushed_batch_positions: HashSet::new(),
+            target,
+            blob_id_allocator: BlobIdAllocator::new(1),
             pk_bloom_filter,
             pk_field_ids,
-            indexes: None,
+            pk_bytes: 0,
+            // Initialize with an empty IndexStore so the visibility cursor has
+            // a stable Arc shared between the scanner (via `indexes_arc()`)
+            // and the WAL flush handler. Replaced via `set_indexes_arc` if
+            // index configs are supplied. Without this, the no-index path
+            // would hand out fresh empty IndexStores to scanners and the WAL
+            // flush handler, breaking cursor advance — see the regression
+            // test `test_unindexed_memtable_visibility_after_flush`.
+            indexes: Some(Arc::new(IndexStore::new())),
             frozen_at_wal_entry_position: None,
             wal_flush_completion: std::sync::Mutex::new(None),
             memtable_flush_completion: std::sync::Mutex::new(Some(memtable_flush_cell)),
@@ -259,7 +352,7 @@ impl MemTable {
     /// the WAL flush is complete.
     pub fn set_wal_flush_completion(
         &self,
-        reader: WatchableOnceCellReader<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, String>>,
+        reader: WatchableOnceCellReader<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, WalFlushFailure>>,
     ) {
         *self.wal_flush_completion.lock().unwrap() = Some(reader);
     }
@@ -271,7 +364,7 @@ impl MemTable {
     /// Thread-safe via interior mutability.
     pub fn take_wal_flush_completion(
         &self,
-    ) -> Option<WatchableOnceCellReader<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, String>>> {
+    ) -> Option<WatchableOnceCellReader<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, WalFlushFailure>>> {
         self.wal_flush_completion.lock().unwrap().take()
     }
 
@@ -310,12 +403,15 @@ impl MemTable {
             .map(|cell| cell.reader())
     }
 
-    /// Signal that the memtable flush is complete.
+    /// Signal that the memtable flush has finished, with the outcome.
     ///
-    /// Called after the memtable has been flushed to Lance storage.
-    pub fn signal_memtable_flush_complete(&self) {
+    /// Must be called whether the flush succeeded or failed — otherwise the
+    /// watch channel is dropped without a value and any awaiting watcher
+    /// (e.g. `ShardWriter::wait_for_flush_drain`) sees the closed channel
+    /// and returns `Err` instead of receiving the actual outcome.
+    pub fn signal_memtable_flush_complete(&self, result: DurabilityResult) {
         if let Some(cell) = self.memtable_flush_completion.lock().unwrap().take() {
-            cell.write(DurabilityResult::ok());
+            cell.write(result);
         }
     }
 
@@ -342,21 +438,18 @@ impl MemTable {
     /// # Single Writer Requirement
     ///
     /// This method MUST only be called from the single writer task.
+    #[instrument(name = "mt_insert", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(num_rows = batch.num_rows(), generation = self.generation))]
     pub async fn insert(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<usize> {
         // Validate schema compatibility
         if batch.schema() != self.schema {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Batch schema doesn't match MemTable schema",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
         let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
         if num_rows == 0 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Cannot insert empty batch",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Cannot insert empty batch"));
         }
 
         // Row offset is the current row count (before adding this batch)
@@ -376,10 +469,7 @@ impl MemTable {
         // Append to batch store (returns batch_position, row_offset, estimated_size)
         let (batch_position, _row_offset, _estimated_size) =
             self.batch_store.append(batch).map_err(|_| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "MemTable batch store is full - should have been flushed",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("MemTable batch store is full - should have been flushed")
             })?;
 
         Ok(batch_position)
@@ -399,16 +489,12 @@ impl MemTable {
         if batch.schema() != self.schema {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Batch schema doesn't match MemTable schema",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
         let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
         if num_rows == 0 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Cannot insert empty batch",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Cannot insert empty batch"));
         }
 
         // Update bloom filter with primary keys
@@ -419,10 +505,7 @@ impl MemTable {
         // Append to batch store (returns batch_position, row_offset, estimated_size)
         let (batch_position, row_offset, estimated_size) =
             self.batch_store.append(batch).map_err(|_| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    "MemTable batch store is full - should have been flushed",
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input("MemTable batch store is full - should have been flushed")
             })?;
 
         Ok((batch_position, row_offset, estimated_size))
@@ -438,6 +521,7 @@ impl MemTable {
     /// # Single Writer Requirement
     ///
     /// This method MUST only be called from the single writer task.
+    #[instrument(name = "mt_insert_batches", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(batch_count = batches.len(), generation = self.generation))]
     pub async fn insert_batches_only(
         &mut self,
         batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
@@ -449,16 +533,13 @@ impl MemTable {
         // Validate all batches upfront
         for (i, batch) in batches.iter().enumerate() {
             if batch.schema() != self.schema {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Batch {} schema doesn't match MemTable schema", i),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Batch {} schema doesn't match MemTable schema",
+                    i
+                )));
             }
             if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Batch {} is empty", i),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("Batch {} is empty", i)));
             }
         }
 
@@ -471,10 +552,7 @@ impl MemTable {
 
         // Append all batches atomically
         let results = self.batch_store.append_batches(batches).map_err(|_| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                "MemTable batch store is full - should have been flushed",
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input("MemTable batch store is full - should have been flushed")
         })?;
 
         Ok(results)
@@ -484,56 +562,44 @@ impl MemTable {
     ///
     /// Returns true if the batch store is full or estimated size exceeds threshold.
     pub fn should_flush(&self, max_bytes: usize) -> bool {
-        self.batch_store.is_full() || self.batch_store.estimated_bytes() >= max_bytes
+        self.batch_store.is_full() || self.batch_store.row_bytes() >= max_bytes
     }
 
-    /// Get batches visible up to a specific batch position (inclusive).
+    /// Get the batches in the visible prefix.
     ///
-    /// A batch at position `i` is visible if `i <= max_visible_batch_position`.
+    /// A batch at position `i` is visible if `i < visible_count`.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
-    /// * `max_visible_batch_position` - The maximum batch position to include (inclusive)
+    /// * `visible_count` - Exclusive count of batch positions to include
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
     /// Vector of visible batches.
-    pub async fn get_visible_batches(&self, max_visible_batch_position: usize) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
-        self.batch_store
-            .visible_record_batches(max_visible_batch_position)
+    pub async fn get_visible_batches(&self, visible_count: usize) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        self.batch_store.visible_record_batches(visible_count)
     }
 
-    /// Get batch positions visible up to a specific batch position (inclusive).
+    /// Get the batch positions in the visible prefix.
     ///
     /// This is useful for filtering index results by visibility.
-    pub async fn get_max_visible_batch_positions(
-        &self,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
-    ) -> Vec<usize> {
-        self.batch_store
-            .max_visible_batch_positions(max_visible_batch_position)
+    pub async fn get_visible_batch_positions(&self, visible_count: usize) -> Vec<usize> {
+        self.batch_store.visible_batch_positions(visible_count)
     }
 
     /// Check if a specific batch is visible at a given visibility position.
     ///
     /// Returns true if the batch is visible, false if not visible or doesn't exist.
-    pub async fn is_batch_visible(
-        &self,
-        batch_position: usize,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
-    ) -> bool {
+    pub async fn is_batch_visible(&self, batch_position: usize, visible_count: usize) -> bool {
         self.batch_store
-            .is_batch_visible(batch_position, max_visible_batch_position)
+            .is_batch_visible(batch_position, visible_count)
     }
 
     /// Scan batches visible up to a specific batch position.
     ///
     /// This combines `get_visible_batches` with the scan interface.
-    pub async fn scan_batches_at_position(
-        &self,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
-        Ok(self.get_visible_batches(max_visible_batch_position).await)
+    pub async fn scan_batches_at_position(&self, visible_count: usize) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        Ok(self.get_visible_batches(visible_count).await)
     }
 
     /// Update the bloom filter with primary keys from a batch.
@@ -555,10 +621,7 @@ impl MemTable {
             .collect();
 
         if pk_columns.len() != self.pk_field_ids.len() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Batch is missing primary key columns",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Batch is missing primary key columns"));
         }
 
         // Insert each row's primary key hash
@@ -567,31 +630,13 @@ impl MemTable {
             bloom.insert_hash(hash);
         }
 
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    /// Mark batches as flushed to WAL.
-    ///
-    /// Updates the WAL batch mapping for use during MemTable flush.
-    /// Also updates the batch_store's watermark to the highest flushed batch_position.
-    pub fn mark_wal_flushed(
-        &mut self,
-        batch_positions: &[usize],
-        wal_entry_position: u64,
-        positions: &[usize],
-    ) {
-        for (idx, &batch_position) in batch_positions.iter().enumerate() {
-            self.wal_batch_mapping
-                .insert(batch_position, (wal_entry_position, positions[idx]));
-            self.flushed_batch_positions.insert(batch_position);
-        }
-        self.last_flushed_wal_entry_position = wal_entry_position;
+        // Per column, not per row: the loop above is what costs something here.
+        self.pk_bytes += pk_columns
+            .iter()
+            .map(|column| batch_store::StoredBatch::estimate_array_size(&column.to_data()))
+            .sum::<usize>();
 
-        // Update batch_store watermark to the highest batch_position flushed (inclusive)
-        if let Some(&max_batch_position) = batch_positions.iter().max() {
-            self.batch_store
-                .set_max_flushed_batch_position(max_batch_position);
-        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     /// Get or create a Dataset for reading.
@@ -639,9 +684,11 @@ impl MemTable {
     /// Construct a fresh Dataset from stored batches.
     async fn construct_dataset(&self) -> Result<Dataset> {
         if self.batch_store.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Cannot construct Dataset: no batches",
-                location!(),
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Cannot construct Dataset: no batches"));
+        }
+        if self.target.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "constructing a standalone Dataset from a Blob v2 MemTable; use MemTable::scan so descriptors keep the preassigned data-file identity",
             ));
         }
 
@@ -662,12 +709,27 @@ impl MemTable {
         Ok(self.batch_store.to_vec())
     }
 
+    /// Scan all data from the MemTable in reverse order (newest first).
+    ///
+    /// This is used when flushing MemTable to persistent storage to ensure
+    /// the flushed data is ordered from newest to oldest. This enables more
+    /// efficient K-way merge during LSM scan because SSTables
+    /// will be pre-sorted in the order needed for deduplication.
+    ///
+    /// The total number of rows in the MemTable is also returned to allow
+    /// callers to compute reversed row positions for indexes.
+    pub async fn scan_batches_reversed(&self) -> Result<(Vec<RecordBatch>, usize)> {
+        let total_rows = self.batch_store.total_rows();
+        let batches = self.batch_store.to_vec_reversed()?;
+        Ok((batches, total_rows))
+    }
+
     /// Scan specific batches by their batch_positions.
     pub async fn scan_batches_by_ids(&self, batch_positions: &[usize]) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
         let mut results = Vec::with_capacity(batch_positions.len());
         for &batch_position in batch_positions {
             let batch = self.batch_store.get_batch(batch_position).ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(format!("Batch {} not found", batch_position), location!())
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("Batch {} not found", batch_position))
             })?;
             results.push(batch.clone());
         }
@@ -692,6 +754,10 @@ impl MemTable {
         &self.schema
     }
 
+    pub(crate) fn scan_schema(&self) -> &Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        &self.scan_schema
+    }
+
     /// Get the Lance schema.
     pub fn lance_schema(&self) -> &Schema {
         &self.lance_schema
@@ -702,7 +768,20 @@ impl MemTable {
         self.generation
     }
 
+    pub(crate) fn target(&self) -> Option<&MemTableDataTarget> {
+        self.target.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn blob_id_allocator(&self) -> BlobIdAllocator {
+        self.blob_id_allocator.clone()
+    }
+
     /// Get total row count.
+    /// Decoded size of the primary-key columns this memtable holds.
+    pub fn pk_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.pk_bytes
+    }
+
     pub fn row_count(&self) -> usize {
         self.batch_store.total_rows()
     }
@@ -718,21 +797,6 @@ impl MemTable {
         self.batch_count()
     }
 
-    /// Get estimated size in bytes.
-    pub fn estimated_size(&self) -> usize {
-        self.batch_store.estimated_bytes() + self.pk_bloom_filter.estimated_memory_size()
-    }
-
-    /// Get the WAL batch mapping.
-    pub fn wal_batch_mapping(&self) -> &HashMap<usize, (u64, usize)> {
-        &self.wal_batch_mapping
-    }
-
-    /// Get the last flushed WAL entry position.
-    pub fn last_flushed_wal_entry_position(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.last_flushed_wal_entry_position
-    }
-
     /// Get the bloom filter for serialization.
     pub fn bloom_filter(&self) -> &Sbbf {
         &self.pk_bloom_filter
@@ -754,17 +818,15 @@ impl MemTable {
         self.indexes.take()
     }
 
-    /// Check if all batches have been flushed to WAL.
-    pub fn all_flushed_to_wal(&self) -> bool {
-        self.batch_store.pending_wal_flush_count() == 0
+    /// Whether every committed batch in this memtable is WAL-durable, given the
+    /// writer-global durability cursor. The L0 flush's precondition.
+    pub fn all_flushed_to_wal(&self, durable: usize) -> bool {
+        self.batch_store.pending_wal_flush_count(durable) == 0
     }
 
-    /// Get unflushed batch IDs.
-    pub fn unflushed_batch_positions(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
-        let batch_count = self.batch_count();
-        (0..batch_count)
-            .filter(|id| !self.flushed_batch_positions.contains(id))
-            .collect()
+    /// Writer-global coordinate one past this memtable's last committed batch.
+    pub fn global_end(&self) -> usize {
+        self.batch_store.global_end()
     }
 
     /// Get cache configuration.
@@ -782,18 +844,13 @@ impl MemTable {
         self.batch_store.remaining_capacity()
     }
 
-    /// Check if batch store is full.
-    pub fn is_batch_store_full(&self) -> bool {
-        self.batch_store.is_full()
-    }
-
     /// Create a scanner for querying this MemTable.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
-    /// * `max_visible_batch_position` - Maximum batch position visible (inclusive)
+    /// * `visible_count` - Maximum batch position visible (inclusive)
     ///
-    /// The scanner captures the current `max_indexed_batch_position` from the
+    /// The scanner captures the current `visible_count` from the
     /// `IndexStore` at construction time to ensure consistent visibility.
     ///
     /// # Panics
@@ -815,7 +872,7 @@ impl MemTable {
             .indexes
             .clone()
             .expect("MemTable must have indexes configured for scanning");
-        scanner::MemTableScanner::new(self.batch_store.clone(), indexes, self.schema.clone())
+        scanner::MemTableScanner::new(self.batch_store.clone(), indexes, self.scan_schema.clone())
     }
 
     /// Get a clone of the batch store Arc for external use.
@@ -928,29 +985,11 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(total_rows, 15);
     }
 
+    /// `all_flushed_to_wal(durable)` is the L0 flush's precondition (`flush.rs:171`):
+    /// false while any committed batch is still un-appended, true once the
+    /// durability watermark covers every one of them.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_memtable_wal_mapping() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
-
-        let batch_position = memtable
-            .insert(create_test_batch(&schema, 10))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert!(!memtable.all_flushed_to_wal());
-
-        memtable.mark_wal_flushed(&[batch_position], 5, &[0]);
-
-        assert!(memtable.all_flushed_to_wal());
-        assert_eq!(
-            memtable.wal_batch_mapping().get(&batch_position),
-            Some(&(5, 0))
-        );
-        assert_eq!(memtable.last_flushed_wal_entry_position(), 5);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_memtable_unflushed_batches() {
+    async fn test_all_flushed_to_wal_tracks_the_durability_watermark() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
 
@@ -962,12 +1001,16 @@ mod tests {
             .insert(create_test_batch(&schema, 5))
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert!(!memtable.all_flushed_to_wal(0), "nothing is durable yet");
 
-        assert_eq!(memtable.unflushed_batch_positions(), vec![batch1, batch2]);
-
-        memtable.mark_wal_flushed(&[batch1], 1, &[0]);
+        let durable = batch1 + 1;
+        assert!(
+            !memtable.all_flushed_to_wal(durable),
+            "batch2 is still waiting on its WAL append"
+        );
 
-        assert_eq!(memtable.unflushed_batch_positions(), vec![batch2]);
+        let durable = batch2 + 1;
+        assert!(memtable.all_flushed_to_wal(durable));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -989,23 +1032,21 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=1 means positions 0 and 1 are visible
-        let visible = memtable.get_visible_batches(1).await;
+        // A count of N exposes the prefix [0, N).
+        let visible = memtable.get_visible_batches(2).await;
         assert_eq!(visible.len(), 2);
         let total_rows: usize = visible.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
         assert_eq!(total_rows, 15); // 10 + 5
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=2 means all batches are visible
-        let visible = memtable.get_visible_batches(2).await;
+        let visible = memtable.get_visible_batches(3).await;
         assert_eq!(visible.len(), 3);
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=0 means only position 0 is visible
-        let visible = memtable.get_visible_batches(0).await;
-        assert_eq!(visible.len(), 1);
+        // A count of 0 exposes nothing — not "batch 0".
+        assert!(memtable.get_visible_batches(0).await.is_empty());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_memtable_get_max_visible_batch_positions() {
+    async fn test_memtable_get_visible_batch_positions() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
 
@@ -1023,17 +1064,15 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=1 means positions 0 and 1 visible
-        let visible_ids = memtable.get_max_visible_batch_positions(1).await;
+        // A count of N exposes the prefix [0, N).
+        let visible_ids = memtable.get_visible_batch_positions(2).await;
         assert_eq!(visible_ids, vec![0, 1]);
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=2 means all positions visible
-        let visible_ids = memtable.get_max_visible_batch_positions(2).await;
+        let visible_ids = memtable.get_visible_batch_positions(3).await;
         assert_eq!(visible_ids, vec![0, 1, 2]);
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=0 means only position 0 visible
-        let visible_ids = memtable.get_max_visible_batch_positions(0).await;
-        assert_eq!(visible_ids, vec![0]);
+        // A count of 0 exposes nothing.
+        assert!(memtable.get_visible_batch_positions(0).await.is_empty());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -1054,14 +1093,14 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap(); // position 2
 
-        // batch_position 0 is visible when max_visible_batch_position >= 0
-        assert!(memtable.is_batch_visible(0, 0).await);
+        // A count of 0 means nothing is visible, batch 0 included.
+        assert!(!memtable.is_batch_visible(0, 0).await);
+
+        // Batch i is visible once the count exceeds i.
         assert!(memtable.is_batch_visible(0, 1).await);
         assert!(memtable.is_batch_visible(0, 2).await);
-
-        // batch_position 2 is only visible when max_visible_batch_position >= 2
         assert!(!memtable.is_batch_visible(2, 1).await);
-        assert!(memtable.is_batch_visible(2, 2).await);
+        assert!(!memtable.is_batch_visible(2, 2).await);
         assert!(memtable.is_batch_visible(2, 3).await);
 
         // Non-existent batch
@@ -1082,12 +1121,21 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap(); // position 1
 
-        let batches = memtable.scan_batches_at_position(0).await.unwrap();
+        let batches = memtable.scan_batches_at_position(1).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 10);
 
-        let batches = memtable.scan_batches_at_position(1).await.unwrap();
+        let batches = memtable.scan_batches_at_position(2).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(batches.len(), 2);
+
+        // Nothing indexed yet => nothing scannable.
+        assert!(
+            memtable
+                .scan_batches_at_position(0)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -1098,7 +1146,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert_eq!(memtable.batch_capacity(), 3);
         assert_eq!(memtable.remaining_batch_capacity(), 3);
-        assert!(!memtable.is_batch_store_full());
+        assert!(!memtable.batch_store().is_full());
 
         // Fill up the store
         memtable
@@ -1114,7 +1162,7 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert!(memtable.is_batch_store_full());
+        assert!(memtable.batch_store().is_full());
         assert_eq!(memtable.remaining_batch_capacity(), 0);
 
         // Next insert should fail
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/batch_store.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/batch_store.rs
index 367f543b28f..b0384e6d896 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/batch_store.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/batch_store.rs
@@ -1,22 +1,23 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-//! Lock-free append-only batch storage for MemTable.
+//! Append-only batch storage with lock-free readers for MemTable.
 //!
-//! This module provides a high-performance, lock-free storage structure for
-//! RecordBatches in the MemTable. It is designed for a single-writer,
-//! multiple-reader scenario where:
+//! This module provides high-performance storage for RecordBatches in the
+//! MemTable. Reads remain lock-free, while appends are serialized so the
+//! single-writer invariant is also upheld for safe callers.
 //!
-//! - A single writer task (WriteBatchHandler) appends batches
+//! - A writer task (WriteBatchHandler) appends batches
 //! - Multiple reader tasks concurrently read batches
-//! - No locks are needed for either reads or writes
+//! - Accidental concurrent appends are serialized
 //!
 //! # Safety Model
 //!
 //! The lock-free design relies on these invariants:
 //!
-//! 1. **Single Writer**: Only one thread calls `append()` at a time.
-//!    Enforced by the WriteBatchHandler architecture.
+//! 1. **Serialized Writers**: Only one thread mutates slots at a time.
+//!    Enforced by an internal writer guard in addition to the
+//!    WriteBatchHandler architecture.
 //!
 //! 2. **Append-Only**: Once written, slots are never modified or removed
 //!    until the entire store is dropped.
@@ -40,10 +41,17 @@
 //! ```
 
 use std::cell::UnsafeCell;
+use std::collections::HashSet;
 use std::mem::MaybeUninit;
-use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::sync::Mutex;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 
+use arrow::array::ArrayData;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_buffer::Buffer;
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::MemTableDataTarget;
 
 /// A batch stored in the lock-free store.
 #[derive(Clone)]
@@ -52,6 +60,8 @@ pub struct StoredBatch {
     pub data: RecordBatch,
     /// Number of rows in this batch (cached for quick access).
     pub num_rows: usize,
+    /// Estimated memory size in bytes.
+    pub estimated_size: usize,
     /// Row offset in the MemTable (cumulative rows before this batch).
     pub row_offset: u64,
     /// Position of this batch in the store (0-indexed).
@@ -62,13 +72,82 @@ impl StoredBatch {
     /// Create a new StoredBatch.
     pub fn new(data: RecordBatch, row_offset: u64, batch_position: usize) -> Self {
         let num_rows = data.num_rows();
+        let estimated_size = Self::estimate_batch_size(&data);
         Self {
             data,
             num_rows,
+            estimated_size,
             row_offset,
             batch_position,
         }
     }
+
+    /// Estimate the memory size of a RecordBatch.
+    ///
+    /// Sums each column's slice-aware buffer size (see
+    /// [`Self::estimate_array_size`]) plus the struct overhead, so a column that
+    /// is a zero-copy slice of a larger parent contributes only its own window
+    /// rather than the whole shared buffer.
+    fn estimate_batch_size(batch: &RecordBatch) -> usize {
+        batch
+            .columns()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|col| Self::estimate_array_size(&col.to_data()))
+            .sum::<usize>()
+            + std::mem::size_of::<RecordBatch>()
+    }
+
+    /// Slice-aware buffer size of a single array.
+    ///
+    /// [`ArrayData::get_slice_memory_size`] reports each buffer's own window
+    /// (not the whole shared buffer), but omits the variadic data buffers of
+    /// `Utf8View`/`BinaryView` (values > 12 bytes) while still returning `Ok`, so
+    /// [`Self::view_data_buffers_size`] adds them. Those buffers are shared across
+    /// zero-copy slices and are counted at full capacity for each slice — an
+    /// over-count in the safe direction.
+    pub(crate) fn estimate_array_size(data: &ArrayData) -> usize {
+        match data.get_slice_memory_size() {
+            Ok(size) => size + Self::view_data_buffers_size(data),
+            // Fall back to the full-buffer sum for layouts the slice-aware call
+            // cannot handle.
+            Err(_) => data.get_array_memory_size(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Capacity of the variadic `Utf8View`/`BinaryView` data buffers that
+    /// [`ArrayData::get_slice_memory_size`] omits, summed recursively over children.
+    fn view_data_buffers_size(data: &ArrayData) -> usize {
+        let mut size = 0;
+        if matches!(data.data_type(), DataType::Utf8View | DataType::BinaryView) {
+            // buffers()[0] is the 16-byte view array that get_slice_memory_size
+            // already counts; [1..] are the data buffers it skips.
+            size += data
+                .buffers()
+                .iter()
+                .skip(1)
+                .map(|b| b.capacity())
+                .sum::<usize>();
+        }
+        for child in data.child_data() {
+            size += Self::view_data_buffers_size(child);
+        }
+        size
+    }
+}
+
+/// Snapshot of the active batches that have not yet been flushed to WAL.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct PendingWalFlushStats {
+    /// First pending batch position, inclusive.
+    pub start_batch_position: Option<usize>,
+    /// Last pending batch position, exclusive.
+    pub end_batch_position: Option<usize>,
+    /// Number of pending batches.
+    pub batch_count: usize,
+    /// Number of rows in pending batches.
+    pub row_count: usize,
+    /// Estimated bytes in pending batches.
+    pub estimated_bytes: usize,
 }
 
 /// Error returned when the store is full.
@@ -83,10 +162,9 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for StoreFull {
 
 impl std::error::Error for StoreFull {}
 
-/// Lock-free append-only storage for memtable batches.
+/// Append-only storage with lock-free readers for memtable batches.
 ///
-/// This structure provides O(1) lock-free appends and reads for a
-/// single-writer, multiple-reader scenario.
+/// This structure provides O(1) serialized appends and lock-free reads.
 ///
 /// # Example
 ///
@@ -113,6 +191,9 @@ pub struct BatchStore {
     /// Invariant: all slots [0, committed_len) contain valid data.
     committed_len: AtomicUsize,
 
+    /// Serializes slot initialization for safe callers.
+    writer_active: AtomicBool,
+
     /// Total capacity (fixed at creation).
     capacity: usize,
 
@@ -122,20 +203,54 @@ pub struct BatchStore {
     /// Estimated size in bytes (for flush threshold).
     estimated_bytes: AtomicUsize,
 
-    /// WAL flush watermark: the last batch ID that has been flushed to WAL (inclusive).
-    /// Uses usize::MAX as sentinel for "nothing flushed yet".
-    /// This is per-memtable tracking, not global.
-    max_flushed_batch_position: AtomicUsize,
+    /// Sum of [`Buffer::capacity`] over the distinct allocations the stored
+    /// batches keep alive. See [`Self::retained_bytes`].
+    retained_bytes: AtomicUsize,
+
+    /// Addresses of the allocations already counted into `retained_bytes`, so
+    /// batches sharing a parent buffer charge it once.
+    ///
+    /// Only `append`/`append_batches` touch it, already serialized by the
+    /// writer guard; the `Mutex` is what makes that sound for a `Sync` type,
+    /// not a second layer of exclusion.
+    retained_buffers: Mutex<HashSet<usize>>,
+
+    /// Writer-global coordinate of this store's batch 0.
+    ///
+    /// A *coordinate*, not a cursor: stamped once at construction and never
+    /// moved. `global_position = global_offset + local_position`. Batch
+    /// positions restart at 0 in every memtable, so this is the only thing that
+    /// lets a writer-global cursor (the WAL durability count) be mapped onto a
+    /// particular store.
+    global_offset: usize,
+
+    /// Final generation/data-file identity for batches in this store.
+    target: Option<MemTableDataTarget>,
+
+    /// The memtable generation these batches belong to. Recorded in each WAL
+    /// entry so replay keeps the writer's generation boundaries, even if the
+    /// shard is reopened with a different size limit.
+    generation: u64,
 }
 
 // SAFETY: Safe to share across threads because:
-// - Single writer guarantee (architectural invariant)
+// - writer_active serializes all slot initialization
 // - Readers only access committed slots (index < committed_len)
 // - Atomic operations provide proper synchronization
 // - Slots are never modified after being written
 unsafe impl Sync for BatchStore {}
 unsafe impl Send for BatchStore {}
 
+struct BatchStoreWriterGuard<'a> {
+    writer_active: &'a AtomicBool,
+}
+
+impl Drop for BatchStoreWriterGuard<'_> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.writer_active.store(false, Ordering::Release);
+    }
+}
+
 impl BatchStore {
     /// Create a new store with the given capacity.
     ///
@@ -148,6 +263,22 @@ impl BatchStore {
     ///
     /// Panics if capacity is 0.
     pub fn with_capacity(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self::with_capacity_at(capacity, 0)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a store whose batch 0 sits at `global_offset` in the writer's
+    /// batch sequence. Used by `freeze_memtable` for every memtable after the
+    /// first; the first starts at 0.
+    pub fn with_capacity_at(capacity: usize, global_offset: usize) -> Self {
+        Self::with_capacity_at_target(capacity, global_offset, None, 0)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_capacity_at_target(
+        capacity: usize,
+        global_offset: usize,
+        target: Option<MemTableDataTarget>,
+        generation: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
         assert!(capacity > 0, "capacity must be > 0");
 
         // Allocate uninitialized storage
@@ -159,13 +290,23 @@ impl BatchStore {
         Self {
             slots: slots.into_boxed_slice(),
             committed_len: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            writer_active: AtomicBool::new(false),
             capacity,
             total_rows: AtomicUsize::new(0),
             estimated_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
-            max_flushed_batch_position: AtomicUsize::new(usize::MAX), // Nothing flushed yet
+            retained_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            retained_buffers: Mutex::new(HashSet::new()),
+            global_offset,
+            target,
+            generation,
         }
     }
 
+    /// The memtable generation these batches belong to.
+    pub fn generation(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.generation
+    }
+
     /// Calculate recommended capacity from memtable size configuration.
     ///
     /// Uses an assumed average batch size of 64KB with 20% buffer.
@@ -198,39 +339,36 @@ impl BatchStore {
     }
 
     // =========================================================================
-    // Writer API (Single Writer Only)
+    // Writer API
     // =========================================================================
 
     /// Append a batch to the store.
     ///
-    /// # Safety Requirements
-    ///
-    /// This method MUST only be called from the single writer task.
-    /// Concurrent calls from multiple threads cause undefined behavior.
-    ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
     /// - `Ok((batch_position, row_offset, estimated_size))` - The index, row offset, and size of the appended batch
     /// - `Err(StoreFull)` - The store is at capacity, needs flush
     pub fn append(&self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<(usize, u64, usize), StoreFull> {
-        // Load current length (Relaxed is fine - we're the only writer)
+        let _writer_guard = self.acquire_writer();
+
+        // The writer guard makes Relaxed sufficient for writer-owned state.
         let idx = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
 
         if idx >= self.capacity {
             return Err(StoreFull);
         }
 
-        let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
-        let estimated_size = Self::estimate_batch_size(&batch);
-
         // Row offset is the total rows BEFORE this batch
         let row_offset = self.total_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as u64;
 
+        let retained = self.charge_retained(&batch);
         let stored = StoredBatch::new(batch, row_offset, idx);
+        let num_rows = stored.num_rows;
+        let estimated_size = stored.estimated_size;
 
         // SAFETY:
         // 1. idx < capacity, so slot exists
-        // 2. Single writer guarantee - no concurrent writes to this slot
+        // 2. The writer guard prevents concurrent writes to this slot
         // 3. Slot at idx is uninitialized (never written before, append-only)
         unsafe {
             let slot_ptr = self.slots[idx].get();
@@ -241,6 +379,7 @@ impl BatchStore {
         self.total_rows.fetch_add(num_rows, Ordering::Relaxed);
         self.estimated_bytes
             .fetch_add(estimated_size, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.retained_bytes.fetch_add(retained, Ordering::Relaxed);
 
         // CRITICAL: Publish with Release ordering.
         // This ensures all writes above are visible to readers
@@ -255,11 +394,6 @@ impl BatchStore {
     /// All batches are written before publishing, so readers see either
     /// none of the batches or all of them (atomic visibility).
     ///
-    /// # Safety Requirements
-    ///
-    /// This method MUST only be called from the single writer task.
-    /// Concurrent calls from multiple threads cause undefined behavior.
-    ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
     /// - `Ok(Vec<(batch_position, row_offset, estimated_size)>)` - Info for each appended batch
@@ -272,7 +406,9 @@ impl BatchStore {
             return Ok(vec![]);
         }
 
-        // Load current length (Relaxed is fine - we're the only writer)
+        let _writer_guard = self.acquire_writer();
+
+        // The writer guard makes Relaxed sufficient for writer-owned state.
         let start_idx = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
         let count = batches.len();
 
@@ -284,19 +420,20 @@ impl BatchStore {
         let mut results = Vec::with_capacity(count);
         let mut total_rows_added = 0usize;
         let mut total_bytes_added = 0usize;
+        let mut total_retained_added = 0usize;
         let mut row_offset = self.total_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed) as u64;
 
         // Write all batches to slots (not yet visible to readers)
         for (i, batch) in batches.into_iter().enumerate() {
             let idx = start_idx + i;
-            let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
-            let estimated_size = Self::estimate_batch_size(&batch);
-
+            total_retained_added += self.charge_retained(&batch);
             let stored = StoredBatch::new(batch, row_offset, idx);
+            let num_rows = stored.num_rows;
+            let estimated_size = stored.estimated_size;
 
             // SAFETY:
             // 1. idx < capacity (checked above)
-            // 2. Single writer guarantee - no concurrent writes to this slot
+            // 2. The writer guard prevents concurrent writes to this slot
             // 3. Slot at idx is uninitialized (never written before, append-only)
             unsafe {
                 let slot_ptr = self.slots[idx].get();
@@ -314,6 +451,8 @@ impl BatchStore {
             .fetch_add(total_rows_added, Ordering::Relaxed);
         self.estimated_bytes
             .fetch_add(total_bytes_added, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        self.retained_bytes
+            .fetch_add(total_retained_added, Ordering::Relaxed);
 
         // CRITICAL: Publish ALL batches at once with Release ordering.
         // This ensures all writes above are visible to readers
@@ -324,14 +463,68 @@ impl BatchStore {
         Ok(results)
     }
 
-    /// Estimate the memory size of a RecordBatch.
-    fn estimate_batch_size(batch: &RecordBatch) -> usize {
-        batch
-            .columns()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|col| col.get_array_memory_size())
-            .sum::<usize>()
-            + std::mem::size_of::<RecordBatch>()
+    /// Charge the allocations `batch` retains that this store has not counted
+    /// yet, and return how much that added.
+    ///
+    /// The unit is the allocation, not the window a batch reads through it: a
+    /// one-row zero-copy slice pins its whole parent buffer, so measuring the
+    /// window would let an unbounded footprint in under a small number.
+    ///
+    /// Charged once per *distinct buffer view*, not strictly once per
+    /// allocation. `ArrayData::slice` advances the offset and leaves the buffer
+    /// pointer alone, so ordinary slices of one parent do dedupe; a buffer that
+    /// came back re-sliced from a kernel (`Buffer::slice_with_length`, concat or
+    /// take output) presents a different `data_ptr` for the same allocation and
+    /// is charged again in full. That over-counts, which is the safe direction
+    /// for a ceiling.
+    ///
+    /// `retained_buffers` is never pruned: it grows with every batch this store
+    /// accepts, bounded only by the store being dropped at flush. The walk plus
+    /// `to_data`, the mutex and a hash insert run per column per append — fine
+    /// at current batch rates, and the thing to look at first if that changes.
+    ///
+    /// Call under the writer guard, before the batch is moved into its slot.
+    fn charge_retained(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> usize {
+        let mut seen = self.retained_buffers.lock().unwrap();
+        let mut added = 0;
+        for column in batch.columns() {
+            Self::walk_buffers(&column.to_data(), &mut |buffer| {
+                if seen.insert(buffer.data_ptr().as_ptr() as usize) {
+                    // `capacity` reads 0 for a foreign allocation whose size
+                    // arrow was not told; the window is the only figure left.
+                    added += buffer.capacity().max(buffer.len());
+                }
+            });
+        }
+        added
+    }
+
+    /// Every buffer reachable from `data`, validity and nested children
+    /// included — `ArrayData::buffers` alone omits both, and the variadic
+    /// `Utf8View`/`BinaryView` data buffers hang off it as ordinary entries.
+    fn walk_buffers(data: &ArrayData, visit: &mut impl FnMut(&Buffer)) {
+        for buffer in data.buffers() {
+            visit(buffer);
+        }
+        if let Some(nulls) = data.nulls() {
+            visit(nulls.buffer());
+        }
+        for child in data.child_data() {
+            Self::walk_buffers(child, visit);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn acquire_writer(&self) -> BatchStoreWriterGuard<'_> {
+        while self
+            .writer_active
+            .compare_exchange_weak(false, true, Ordering::Acquire, Ordering::Relaxed)
+            .is_err()
+        {
+            std::hint::spin_loop();
+        }
+        BatchStoreWriterGuard {
+            writer_active: &self.writer_active,
+        }
     }
 
     // =========================================================================
@@ -357,11 +550,7 @@ impl BatchStore {
     #[inline]
     pub fn max_buffered_batch_position(&self) -> Option<usize> {
         let len = self.len();
-        if len == 0 {
-            None
-        } else {
-            Some(len - 1)
-        }
+        if len == 0 { None } else { Some(len - 1) }
     }
 
     /// Get total row count.
@@ -372,77 +561,101 @@ impl BatchStore {
 
     /// Get estimated size in bytes.
     #[inline]
-    pub fn estimated_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+    pub fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
         self.estimated_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
     }
 
+    /// Heap this store actually keeps alive: every distinct allocation its
+    /// batches reference, counted once at its full capacity.
+    ///
+    /// Differs from [`Self::row_bytes`] wherever a batch is a zero-copy slice.
+    /// `row_bytes` measures the window, because it drives the flush threshold
+    /// and a flush writes only the rows in that window. This measures what the
+    /// allocator cannot hand back until the memtable is dropped — which is the
+    /// question a memory ceiling is asking. Sixteen one-row slices of sixteen
+    /// large parents are megabytes here and a few hundred bytes there.
+    ///
+    /// Deduplicated within a store, not across them: two memtables slicing one
+    /// parent each charge it in full, which errs toward refusing writes.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn retained_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.retained_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
     // =========================================================================
     // WAL Flush Tracking API
     // =========================================================================
 
-    /// Get the WAL flush watermark (the last batch ID that was flushed, inclusive).
-    /// Returns None if nothing has been flushed yet.
+    /// Writer-global coordinate one past this store's last committed batch.
     #[inline]
-    pub fn max_flushed_batch_position(&self) -> Option<usize> {
-        let watermark = self.max_flushed_batch_position.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        if watermark == usize::MAX {
-            None
-        } else {
-            Some(watermark)
-        }
+    pub fn global_end(&self) -> usize {
+        self.global_offset + self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    /// This store's writer-global coordinate for batch 0.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn global_offset(&self) -> usize {
+        self.global_offset
     }
 
-    /// Update the WAL flush watermark after successful WAL flush.
+    pub(crate) fn target(&self) -> Option<&MemTableDataTarget> {
+        self.target.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// The local exclusive end of this store covered by a writer-global cursor.
     ///
-    /// # Arguments
+    /// Saturating in both directions, and both directions are reachable in
+    /// normal operation: a cursor *below* this store's offset means "nothing
+    /// here yet" (the store was rotated in after the cursor last advanced —
+    /// the ordinary state of a fresh memtable), and a cursor beyond its end
+    /// clamps to what is committed.
     ///
-    /// * `batch_position` - The last batch ID that was flushed (inclusive)
+    /// This is the **only** place the global-to-local subtraction is written.
+    /// Open-coding it underflows on every memtable rotation, which in release
+    /// wraps to a huge end and makes the whole new memtable instantly visible.
     #[inline]
-    pub fn set_max_flushed_batch_position(&self, batch_position: usize) {
-        debug_assert!(
-            batch_position != usize::MAX,
-            "batch_position cannot be usize::MAX (reserved as sentinel)"
-        );
-        self.max_flushed_batch_position
-            .store(batch_position, Ordering::Release);
+    pub fn local_end(&self, global_cursor: usize) -> usize {
+        global_cursor
+            .saturating_sub(self.global_offset)
+            .min(self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire))
     }
 
-    /// Get the number of batches pending WAL flush.
+    /// Batches in this store still waiting on their WAL append.
     #[inline]
-    pub fn pending_wal_flush_count(&self) -> usize {
-        let committed = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        let watermark = self.max_flushed_batch_position.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        if watermark == usize::MAX {
-            // Nothing flushed yet, all committed batches are pending
-            committed
-        } else {
-            // Batches [0, watermark] are flushed, so pending = committed - (watermark + 1)
-            committed.saturating_sub(watermark + 1)
-        }
+    pub fn pending_wal_flush_count(&self, durable: usize) -> usize {
+        self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire) - self.local_end(durable)
     }
 
-    /// Check if all committed batches have been WAL-flushed.
+    /// Local range `[start, end)` of batches still waiting on their WAL append,
+    /// or `None` when the store is fully durable.
     #[inline]
-    pub fn is_wal_flush_complete(&self) -> bool {
-        self.pending_wal_flush_count() == 0
+    pub fn pending_wal_flush_range(&self, durable: usize) -> Option<(usize, usize)> {
+        let start = self.local_end(durable);
+        let end = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        (end > start).then_some((start, end))
     }
 
-    /// Get the range of batch IDs pending WAL flush: [start, end).
-    /// Returns None if nothing pending.
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn pending_wal_flush_range(&self) -> Option<(usize, usize)> {
-        let committed = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        let watermark = self.max_flushed_batch_position.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        let start = if watermark == usize::MAX {
-            0
-        } else {
-            watermark + 1
+    /// Get a point-in-time summary of batches pending WAL flush.
+    pub fn pending_wal_flush_stats(&self, durable: usize) -> PendingWalFlushStats {
+        let Some((start, end)) = self.pending_wal_flush_range(durable) else {
+            return PendingWalFlushStats::default();
         };
-        if committed > start {
-            Some((start, committed))
-        } else {
-            None
+
+        let mut stats = PendingWalFlushStats {
+            start_batch_position: Some(start),
+            end_batch_position: Some(end),
+            batch_count: 0,
+            row_count: 0,
+            estimated_bytes: 0,
+        };
+        for batch_position in start..end {
+            if let Some(stored) = self.get(batch_position) {
+                stats.batch_count += 1;
+                stats.row_count += stored.num_rows;
+                stats.estimated_bytes += stored.estimated_size;
+            }
         }
+        stats
     }
 
     /// Get a reference to a batch by index.
@@ -504,54 +717,112 @@ impl BatchStore {
         self.iter().cloned().collect()
     }
 
+    /// Iterate over all committed batches in reverse order (newest first).
+    ///
+    /// The iterator captures a snapshot of the committed length at creation
+    /// time, so it will not see batches appended during iteration.
+    pub fn iter_reversed(&self) -> BatchStoreIterReversed<'_> {
+        let len = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        BatchStoreIterReversed {
+            store: self,
+            current: len,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get all batches as a Vec with rows in reverse order (newest first).
+    ///
+    /// This is useful for flushing MemTable to disk where we want the
+    /// flushed data to be ordered from newest to oldest for efficient
+    /// K-way merge during LSM scan.
+    ///
+    /// The batches are iterated in reverse order, and the rows within each
+    /// batch are also reversed, so the final result has all rows in reverse
+    /// order from newest to oldest.
+    pub fn to_vec_reversed(&self) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>, arrow::error::ArrowError> {
+        use arrow::compute::kernels::take::take;
+        use arrow_array::UInt32Array;
+
+        self.iter_reversed()
+            .map(|b| {
+                // Reverse the rows within each batch
+                let num_rows = b.data.num_rows();
+                if num_rows == 0 {
+                    return Ok(b.data.clone());
+                }
+
+                // Create indices for reversed order: [n-1, n-2, ..., 1, 0]
+                let indices: Vec<u32> = (0..num_rows as u32).rev().collect();
+                let indices_array = UInt32Array::from(indices);
+
+                // Take rows in reversed order
+                let columns: Result<Vec<_>, _> = b
+                    .data
+                    .columns()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|col| take(col.as_ref(), &indices_array, None))
+                    .collect();
+
+                RecordBatch::try_new(b.data.schema(), columns?)
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Get all StoredBatches as a Vec in reverse order (newest first).
+    pub fn to_stored_vec_reversed(&self) -> Vec<StoredBatch> {
+        self.iter_reversed().cloned().collect()
+    }
+
     // =========================================================================
     // Visibility API
     // =========================================================================
 
-    /// Get batches visible up to a specific batch position (inclusive).
+    /// Batches in the visible prefix `[0, visible_count)`.
     ///
-    /// A batch at position `i` is visible if `i <= max_visible_batch_position`.
-    pub fn visible_batches(&self, max_visible_batch_position: usize) -> Vec<&StoredBatch> {
-        let len = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        let end = (max_visible_batch_position + 1).min(len);
+    /// `visible_count` is an **exclusive count**, not an inclusive position: 0
+    /// means nothing is visible. As an inclusive position, 0 meant *both*
+    /// "nothing visible" and "batch 0 is visible", so a batch that was committed
+    /// to the store but not yet indexed or WAL-durable was readable for a full
+    /// PUT round-trip. The count makes that off-by-one inexpressible.
+    pub fn visible_batches(&self, visible_count: usize) -> Vec<&StoredBatch> {
+        let end = visible_count.min(self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire));
         (0..end).filter_map(|i| self.get(i)).collect()
     }
 
-    /// Get batch positions visible up to a specific batch position (inclusive).
-    pub fn max_visible_batch_positions(&self, max_visible_batch_position: usize) -> Vec<usize> {
-        let len = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        let end = (max_visible_batch_position + 1).min(len);
+    /// Positions of the batches in the visible prefix.
+    pub fn visible_batch_positions(&self, visible_count: usize) -> Vec<usize> {
+        let end = visible_count.min(self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire));
         (0..end).collect()
     }
 
-    /// Check if a specific batch is visible at a given visibility position.
+    /// The inclusive maximum visible *row* position, or `None` when no rows are
+    /// visible. Each batch carries its cumulative `row_offset`, so this is the
+    /// end of the last visible batch minus one. Bounds MVCC seeks against the
+    /// maintained PK-position index.
+    pub fn max_visible_row(&self, visible_count: usize) -> Option<u64> {
+        let end = visible_count.min(self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+        let last = self.get(end.checked_sub(1)?)?;
+        let visible_end = last.row_offset + last.num_rows as u64; // exclusive
+        visible_end.checked_sub(1)
+    }
+
+    /// Whether a batch falls inside the visible prefix.
     #[inline]
-    pub fn is_batch_visible(
-        &self,
-        batch_position: usize,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
-    ) -> bool {
+    pub fn is_batch_visible(&self, batch_position: usize, visible_count: usize) -> bool {
         let len = self.committed_len.load(Ordering::Acquire);
-        batch_position < len && batch_position <= max_visible_batch_position
+        batch_position < len && batch_position < visible_count
     }
 
-    /// Get visible RecordBatches (clones the data).
-    pub fn visible_record_batches(&self, max_visible_batch_position: usize) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
-        self.visible_batches(max_visible_batch_position)
+    /// Visible RecordBatches (clones the data).
+    pub fn visible_record_batches(&self, visible_count: usize) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        self.visible_batches(visible_count)
             .into_iter()
             .map(|b| b.data.clone())
             .collect()
     }
 
-    /// Get visible RecordBatches with their row offsets.
-    ///
-    /// Returns tuples of (batch, row_offset) for each visible batch.
-    /// The row_offset is the starting row position for that batch.
-    pub fn visible_batches_with_offsets(
-        &self,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
-    ) -> Vec<(RecordBatch, u64)> {
-        self.visible_batches(max_visible_batch_position)
+    /// Visible RecordBatches paired with the row position each one starts at.
+    pub fn visible_batches_with_offsets(&self, visible_count: usize) -> Vec<(RecordBatch, u64)> {
+        self.visible_batches(visible_count)
             .into_iter()
             .map(|b| (b.data.clone(), b.row_offset))
             .collect()
@@ -611,6 +882,45 @@ impl<'a> Iterator for BatchStoreIter<'a> {
 
 impl ExactSizeIterator for BatchStoreIter<'_> {}
 
+/// Reverse iterator over committed batches in a BatchStore.
+///
+/// Iterates from the newest batch (highest index) to the oldest batch (index 0).
+/// This is used during MemTable flush to write batches in reverse order,
+/// ensuring flushed data is ordered from newest to oldest for efficient
+/// K-way merge during LSM scan.
+pub struct BatchStoreIterReversed<'a> {
+    store: &'a BatchStore,
+    /// Points to the next batch to return (exclusive upper bound).
+    /// Starts at len and decrements to 0.
+    current: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a> Iterator for BatchStoreIterReversed<'a> {
+    type Item = &'a StoredBatch;
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        if self.current == 0 {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        self.current -= 1;
+
+        // SAFETY: current is now in range [0, len), and len was captured with Acquire ordering
+        let batch = unsafe {
+            let slot_ptr = self.store.slots[self.current].get();
+            (*slot_ptr).assume_init_ref()
+        };
+
+        Some(batch)
+    }
+
+    fn size_hint(&self) -> (usize, Option<usize>) {
+        (self.current, Some(self.current))
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExactSizeIterator for BatchStoreIterReversed<'_> {}
+
 // =========================================================================
 // Tests
 // =========================================================================
@@ -620,7 +930,7 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use arrow_array::Int32Array;
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::sync::{Arc, Barrier};
 
     fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
         Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
@@ -745,17 +1055,52 @@ mod tests {
         store.append(create_test_batch(10)).unwrap(); // position 3
         store.append(create_test_batch(10)).unwrap(); // position 4
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=2 means positions 0, 1, 2 are visible
-        let visible = store.max_visible_batch_positions(2);
-        assert_eq!(visible, vec![0, 1, 2]);
+        // A count of N exposes the prefix [0, N).
+        assert_eq!(store.visible_batch_positions(3), vec![0, 1, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(store.visible_batch_positions(5), vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=4 means all visible
-        let visible = store.max_visible_batch_positions(4);
-        assert_eq!(visible, vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        // A count of 0 exposes nothing. Under the old inclusive cursor this
+        // case was indistinguishable from "batch 0 is visible", so every
+        // memtable leaked its first batch before it was indexed or durable.
+        assert!(store.visible_batch_positions(0).is_empty());
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=0 means only position 0 visible
-        let visible = store.max_visible_batch_positions(0);
-        assert_eq!(visible, vec![0]);
+        // Beyond the committed range, clamp.
+        assert_eq!(store.visible_batch_positions(99), vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+    }
+
+    /// The zero of the visibility cursor must be unambiguous.
+    ///
+    /// `BatchStore::append` publishes `committed_len` on the put path, under the
+    /// state lock, *before* the WAL flush that indexes the batch is even
+    /// triggered — and that flush is a ~100ms S3 PUT on another task. So batch 0
+    /// sits committed and readable for a full round-trip before it is indexed or
+    /// durable. As an inclusive position, a cursor of 0 meant both "nothing is
+    /// visible" and "batch 0 is visible", so every read arm backed by the batch
+    /// store served that batch while the index-backed arms did not — the tiers
+    /// actively disagreed. An exclusive count makes the state inexpressible.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_zero_cursor_hides_the_committed_but_unindexed_prefix() {
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(4);
+        store.append(create_test_batch(10)).unwrap();
+        store.append(create_test_batch(10)).unwrap();
+
+        // Committed, but nothing indexed yet: every visibility query must agree
+        // that there is nothing to read.
+        assert!(store.visible_batches(0).is_empty());
+        assert!(store.visible_batch_positions(0).is_empty());
+        assert!(store.visible_record_batches(0).is_empty());
+        assert!(store.visible_batches_with_offsets(0).is_empty());
+        assert!(!store.is_batch_visible(0, 0));
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(0), None);
+
+        // The batches are there — they are simply not yet published.
+        assert_eq!(store.len(), 2);
+
+        // Indexing batch 0 publishes exactly batch 0.
+        assert_eq!(store.visible_batches(1).len(), 1);
+        assert!(store.is_batch_visible(0, 1));
+        assert!(!store.is_batch_visible(1, 1));
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(1), Some(9));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -766,20 +1111,55 @@ mod tests {
         store.append(create_test_batch(10)).unwrap(); // position 1
         store.append(create_test_batch(10)).unwrap(); // position 2
 
-        // Batch at position 0 is visible when max_visible_batch_position >= 0
-        assert!(store.is_batch_visible(0, 0));
+        // A count of 0 means *nothing* is visible — including batch 0. As an
+        // inclusive position this case was indistinguishable from "batch 0 is
+        // visible", so a batch that was committed to the store but not yet
+        // indexed or WAL-durable was readable for a full PUT round-trip.
+        assert!(!store.is_batch_visible(0, 0));
+
+        // Batch i is visible once the count exceeds i.
         assert!(store.is_batch_visible(0, 1));
         assert!(store.is_batch_visible(0, 2));
-
-        // Batch at position 2 is only visible when max_visible_batch_position >= 2
         assert!(!store.is_batch_visible(2, 1));
-        assert!(store.is_batch_visible(2, 2));
+        assert!(!store.is_batch_visible(2, 2));
         assert!(store.is_batch_visible(2, 3));
 
         // Batch 3 doesn't exist
         assert!(!store.is_batch_visible(3, 10));
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_max_visible_row() {
+        // (1) Empty store: no rows are visible at any count.
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(10);
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(0), None);
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(100), None);
+
+        // Three batches → rows [0,10) [10,30) [30,60); row_offsets 0, 10, 30.
+        store.append(create_test_batch(10)).unwrap(); // position 0
+        store.append(create_test_batch(20)).unwrap(); // position 1
+        store.append(create_test_batch(30)).unwrap(); // position 2
+
+        // (2) A count of 0 means nothing is visible — not "batch 0 is visible".
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(0), None);
+
+        // (3) A count of N yields the inclusive last row of the prefix [0, N).
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(1), Some(9)); // batch 0: 0..10
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(2), Some(29)); // + batch 1: 10..30
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(3), Some(59)); // + batch 2: 30..60
+
+        // (4) A count beyond the committed range clamps to the last batch.
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(100), Some(59));
+
+        // (5) An empty leading batch contributes no rows, so a prefix covering
+        // only it still yields None, while a later non-empty batch is reported.
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(10);
+        store.append(create_test_batch(0)).unwrap(); // position 0: rows [0,0)
+        store.append(create_test_batch(5)).unwrap(); // position 1: rows [0,5)
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(1), None); // empty prefix → no rows
+        assert_eq!(store.max_visible_row(2), Some(4)); // through batch 1
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_recommended_capacity() {
         // 64MB memtable, 64KB avg batch = 1024 batches * 1.2 = ~1228
@@ -795,6 +1175,170 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(cap, 16); // minimum
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_estimated_size_is_slice_aware() {
+        // A batch that is a zero-copy slice of a larger parent must contribute
+        // only its own window to the estimate, not the whole shared buffer.
+        // `get_array_memory_size` counts every buffer's full capacity regardless
+        // of offset/length, so N slices tiling one parent each report the
+        // parent's size and inflate the memtable estimate ~N×, tripping the
+        // flush threshold far below the configured size.
+        let chunk = 1_000;
+        let num_slices = 100;
+        let parent = create_test_batch(chunk * num_slices);
+
+        // One window vs an equivalently-sized owned batch should track each
+        // other; the buggy per-slice estimate would be ~num_slices× larger.
+        let slice_est = StoredBatch::estimate_batch_size(&parent.slice(0, chunk));
+        let owned_est = StoredBatch::estimate_batch_size(&create_test_batch(chunk));
+        assert!(
+            slice_est <= owned_est * 2,
+            "slice estimate {slice_est} should track its own window (~{owned_est}), not the parent"
+        );
+
+        // End-to-end: tiling the parent with zero-copy slices must not multiply
+        // the store's running estimate. Track what the old full-buffer behavior
+        // would have summed to for contrast.
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(num_slices);
+        let mut over_counting_sum = 0usize;
+        for k in 0..num_slices {
+            let s = parent.slice(k * chunk, chunk);
+            over_counting_sum += s
+                .columns()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|col| col.get_array_memory_size())
+                .sum::<usize>()
+                + std::mem::size_of::<RecordBatch>();
+            store.append(s).unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Two non-nullable Int32 columns → exactly 4 bytes/row/col of payload.
+        let payload_bytes = num_slices * chunk * 2 * std::mem::size_of::<i32>();
+        let estimated = store.row_bytes();
+        assert!(
+            estimated >= payload_bytes,
+            "estimate {estimated} should cover the actual payload {payload_bytes}"
+        );
+        // The old behavior over-counts by ~num_slices×; the fix must be far
+        // below it (generous 10× margin against struct/alignment overhead).
+        assert!(
+            estimated * 10 < over_counting_sum,
+            "estimate {estimated} should be far below the over-counting sum {over_counting_sum}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `row_bytes` and `retained_bytes` answer different questions about the
+    /// same slices, and a memory ceiling needs the second one.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_retained_bytes_counts_pinned_parents_once() {
+        let chunk = 100_000;
+
+        // Sixteen one-row slices, each off its own parent. The windows are
+        // trivial, but every parent stays alive in full for as long as the
+        // store does — this is the shape that lets a window-based ledger admit
+        // an unbounded footprint.
+        let distinct = BatchStore::with_capacity(16);
+        for _ in 0..16 {
+            distinct
+                .append(create_test_batch(chunk).slice(0, 1))
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        // Two non-nullable Int32 columns.
+        let parent_payload = 16 * chunk * 2 * std::mem::size_of::<i32>();
+        assert!(
+            distinct.retained_bytes() >= parent_payload,
+            "retained {} must cover the {parent_payload} bytes of pinned parents",
+            distinct.retained_bytes()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            distinct.row_bytes() * 1_000 < distinct.retained_bytes(),
+            "row_bytes {} measures the windows and is nowhere near the retained {}",
+            distinct.row_bytes(),
+            distinct.retained_bytes()
+        );
+
+        // Sixteen slices of *one* parent pin one allocation, so the ledger must
+        // charge it once — the failure this shares with a naive full-capacity
+        // sum, which would report ~16×.
+        let parent = create_test_batch(chunk);
+        let shared = BatchStore::with_capacity(16);
+        for k in 0..16 {
+            shared
+                .append(parent.slice(k * (chunk / 16), chunk / 16))
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        assert!(
+            shared.retained_bytes() * 8 < distinct.retained_bytes(),
+            "one shared parent ({}) must not be charged like sixteen ({})",
+            shared.retained_bytes(),
+            distinct.retained_bytes()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_estimated_size_counts_view_data_buffers() {
+        // Long Utf8View/BinaryView values live in variadic data buffers that
+        // `get_slice_memory_size` ignores (returning ~16 * rows). The estimate
+        // must include them, both for a top-level view column and for a view
+        // array nested in a container, which is only reached via child_data
+        // recursion.
+        use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, StringViewArray, StructArray};
+
+        let num_rows = 1_000;
+        // Each value exceeds the 12-byte inline limit, so it spills to a data buffer.
+        let long_value = "x".repeat(64);
+        let payload_bytes = num_rows * long_value.len();
+        // What the slice-aware call alone reports: just the 16-byte view entries.
+        let view_entries_only = num_rows * 16;
+
+        let make_views = || {
+            StringViewArray::from(
+                (0..num_rows)
+                    .map(|_| Some(long_value.as_str()))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )
+        };
+        let assert_covers = |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            let estimated = StoredBatch::estimate_batch_size(batch);
+            assert!(
+                estimated >= payload_bytes,
+                "estimate {estimated} should cover the view data-buffer payload {payload_bytes}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                estimated > view_entries_only * 2,
+                "estimate {estimated} must exceed the ~{view_entries_only}-byte view-entry-only undercount"
+            );
+        };
+
+        // Top-level view column.
+        let flat = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "s",
+                DataType::Utf8View,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(make_views())],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_covers(&flat);
+
+        // View nested inside a struct — reachable only through child_data recursion.
+        let nested = StructArray::from(vec![(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("s", DataType::Utf8View, false)),
+            Arc::new(make_views()) as ArrayRef,
+        )]);
+        let nested = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "st",
+                nested.data_type().clone(),
+                false,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(nested)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_covers(&nested);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_to_vec() {
         let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(10);
@@ -811,6 +1355,90 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(vec[1].num_rows(), 20);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_to_vec_reversed() {
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(10);
+
+        // Create batches with identifiable values
+        // batch1: ids [0, 1, 2, ..., 9], values [0, 10, 20, ..., 90]
+        let batch1 = create_test_batch(10);
+        // batch2: ids [0, 1, 2, ..., 4], values [0, 10, 20, 30, 40]
+        let batch2 = create_test_batch(5);
+
+        store.append(batch1).unwrap();
+        store.append(batch2).unwrap();
+
+        // Forward order: batches in insertion order, rows in original order
+        let forward = store.to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(forward.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(forward[0].num_rows(), 10);
+        assert_eq!(forward[1].num_rows(), 5);
+
+        // Verify first row of first batch is id=0
+        let ids = forward[0]
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ids.value(0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(ids.value(9), 9);
+
+        // Reversed order: batches in reverse order, rows within each batch also reversed
+        let reversed = store.to_vec_reversed().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reversed.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(reversed[0].num_rows(), 5); // batch2 comes first
+        assert_eq!(reversed[1].num_rows(), 10); // batch1 comes second
+
+        // Verify batch2 rows are reversed: [4, 3, 2, 1, 0] instead of [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
+        let ids = reversed[0]
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ids.value(0), 4); // Was last, now first
+        assert_eq!(ids.value(4), 0); // Was first, now last
+
+        // Verify batch1 rows are reversed: [9, 8, ..., 0] instead of [0, 1, ..., 9]
+        let ids = reversed[1]
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ids.value(0), 9); // Was last, now first
+        assert_eq!(ids.value(9), 0); // Was first, now last
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_iter_reversed() {
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(10);
+
+        for i in 0..5 {
+            store.append(create_test_batch(10 * (i + 1))).unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Forward iteration: batch positions 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
+        let forward: Vec<_> = store.iter().map(|b| b.batch_position).collect();
+        assert_eq!(forward, vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+
+        // Reversed iteration: batch positions 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 (newest first)
+        let reversed: Vec<_> = store.iter_reversed().map(|b| b.batch_position).collect();
+        assert_eq!(reversed, vec![4, 3, 2, 1, 0]);
+
+        // Verify row counts match
+        let forward_rows: Vec<_> = store.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows).collect();
+        let reversed_rows: Vec<_> = store.iter_reversed().map(|b| b.num_rows).collect();
+        assert_eq!(forward_rows, vec![10, 20, 30, 40, 50]);
+        assert_eq!(reversed_rows, vec![50, 40, 30, 20, 10]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_iter_reversed_empty() {
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(10);
+
+        let reversed: Vec<_> = store.iter_reversed().collect();
+        assert!(reversed.is_empty());
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_concurrent_readers() {
         use std::sync::Arc;
@@ -854,6 +1482,42 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_concurrent_writers_are_serialized() {
+        const NUM_WRITERS: usize = 8;
+        const BATCHES_PER_WRITER: usize = 50;
+        let expected_batches = NUM_WRITERS * BATCHES_PER_WRITER;
+        let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(expected_batches));
+        let start = Arc::new(Barrier::new(NUM_WRITERS));
+
+        let writers: Vec<_> = (0..NUM_WRITERS)
+            .map(|_| {
+                let writer_store = store.clone();
+                let writer_start = start.clone();
+                std::thread::spawn(move || {
+                    writer_start.wait();
+                    for _ in 0..BATCHES_PER_WRITER {
+                        writer_store.append(create_test_batch(1)).unwrap();
+                        std::thread::yield_now();
+                    }
+                })
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        for writer in writers {
+            writer.join().unwrap();
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(store.len(), expected_batches);
+        assert_eq!(store.total_rows(), expected_batches);
+        let mut expected_row_offset = 0;
+        for (batch_position, batch) in store.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(batch.batch_position, batch_position);
+            assert_eq!(batch.row_offset, expected_row_offset);
+            expected_row_offset += batch.num_rows as u64;
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_append_batches() {
         let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(10);
@@ -910,8 +1574,8 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_concurrent_read_write() {
-        use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
         use std::sync::Arc;
+        use std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool;
         use std::thread;
 
         let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(200));
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/flush.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/flush.rs
index dae4c60420b..7421c9b60cc 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/flush.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/flush.rs
@@ -3,39 +3,125 @@
 
 //! MemTable flush to persistent storage.
 
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use bytes::Bytes;
+use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::mem_wal::{FlushedGeneration, RegionManifest};
-use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
 use lance_index::IndexType;
-use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_index::mem_wal::{ShardManifest, SsTable};
+use lance_index::scalar::{IndexStore, ScalarIndexParams};
+use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams};
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
-use log::info;
+use lance_table::io::commit::write_manifest_file_to_path;
+use lance_table::io::deletion::write_deletion_file;
+use log::{info, warn};
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use tracing::instrument;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
 use super::super::index::MemIndexConfig;
 use super::super::memtable::MemTable;
-use crate::dataset::mem_wal::manifest::RegionManifestStore;
-use crate::dataset::mem_wal::util::{flushed_memtable_path, generate_random_hash};
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::manifest::ShardManifestStore;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::SsTableWarmer;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::exec::{compute_pk_hash, validate_pk_types};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::util::{derived_store_params, generate_random_hash, sstable_path};
+use crate::dataset::write::InsertBuilder;
+use crate::index::vector::details::vector_index_details_default;
+use crate::session::Session;
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct FlushResult {
-    pub generation: FlushedGeneration,
+    pub sstable: SsTable,
     pub rows_flushed: usize,
     pub covered_wal_entry_position: u64,
 }
 
+/// Build the within-generation deletion vector for forward-written flush data.
+///
+/// `batches` are in on-disk (insert) order, so the newest version of each
+/// primary key is at the largest offset: the last occurrence of a PK hash is
+/// kept and every earlier occurrence is marked deleted. Keys are hashed
+/// (collisions accepted, consistent with the read path).
+fn compute_dedup_deletions(batches: &[RecordBatch], pk_indices: &[usize]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+    let mut deleted = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let mut latest: HashMap<u64, u32> = HashMap::new();
+    let mut offset: u32 = 0;
+    for batch in batches {
+        for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            let pk_hash = compute_pk_hash(batch, pk_indices, row);
+            if let Some(previous) = latest.insert(pk_hash, offset) {
+                // An earlier (older) occurrence of this PK is now superseded.
+                deleted.insert(previous);
+            }
+            offset += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    deleted
+}
+
 pub struct MemTableFlusher {
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     base_path: Path,
     base_uri: String,
-    region_id: Uuid,
-    manifest_store: Arc<RegionManifestStore>,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    manifest_store: Arc<ShardManifestStore>,
+    /// When present, each new generation is warmed before it is committed, so
+    /// the first query sees zero cold reads. `None` => no warming.
+    warmer: Option<Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>>,
+    /// Store params the base dataset was opened with, reused for the flusher's
+    /// own opens + writes. Used verbatim only for the base's own URI; generation
+    /// URIs go through [`derived_store_params`]. `None` opens by URI alone.
+    store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    /// Session for those opens, sharing the base's store registry. `None` opens
+    /// with a fresh session.
+    session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+}
+
+/// What a flushed generation holds, for the manifest entry recording it.
+///
+/// Read off the memtable being flushed, which is frozen. That matters: an
+/// appending store bumps these counters before it publishes the batch, so only
+/// a sealed one agrees with what a scan of it will see.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct FlushedSize {
+    in_memory_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    physical_rows: Option<u64>,
+    primary_key_bytes: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+impl FlushedSize {
+    /// Zero reads as unmeasured. An empty memtable is refused before a flush
+    /// gets here, so a flushed generation always holds rows and a zero can only
+    /// mean the accounting failed.
+    fn of(memtable: &MemTable) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            // `row_bytes`, not the store's retained heap: the window being
+            // written is what a reader of this generation gets back.
+            in_memory_bytes: Some(memtable.batch_store().row_bytes() as u64).filter(|b| *b > 0),
+            physical_rows: Some(memtable.row_count() as u64).filter(|r| *r > 0),
+            // Zero means the table has no primary key, which is not a
+            // measurement of one.
+            primary_key_bytes: Some(memtable.pk_bytes() as u64).filter(|b| *b > 0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn sstable(self, generation: u64, path: String) -> SsTable {
+        SsTable {
+            generation,
+            path,
+            in_memory_bytes: self.in_memory_bytes,
+            physical_rows: self.physical_rows,
+            primary_key_bytes: self.primary_key_bytes,
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 impl MemTableFlusher {
@@ -43,21 +129,87 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
         object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
         base_path: Path,
         base_uri: impl Into<String>,
-        region_id: Uuid,
-        manifest_store: Arc<RegionManifestStore>,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        manifest_store: Arc<ShardManifestStore>,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             object_store,
             base_path,
             base_uri: base_uri.into(),
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             manifest_store,
+            warmer: None,
+            store_params: None,
+            session: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Attach the warmer fired pre-commit for each new generation.
+    pub fn with_warmer(mut self, warmer: Option<Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>>) -> Self {
+        self.warmer = warmer;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the store params + session used for derived-URI opens. Injected by
+    /// `mem_wal_writer` from the base `Dataset`.
+    pub fn with_storage_context(
+        mut self,
+        store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+        session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.store_params = store_params;
+        self.session = session;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Open the base table, reusing the injected store params verbatim — they
+    /// were resolved for exactly this URI, so a path-bound `object_store`
+    /// binding still points where it should.
+    async fn open_base(&self) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        self.open_uri(&self.base_uri, self.store_params.clone())
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Open an SSTable under `_mem_wal/`. The params must be adapted
+    /// first: a path-bound store binding would redirect the open at the base
+    /// table (see [`derived_store_params`]).
+    async fn open_generation(&self, uri: &str) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        self.open_uri(uri, self.store_params.as_ref().map(derived_store_params))
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Open `uri` with the injected session, or by URI alone when nothing was
+    /// injected.
+    async fn open_uri(
+        &self,
+        uri: &str,
+        store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    ) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri);
+        if let Some(params) = store_params {
+            builder = builder.with_store_params(params);
+        }
+        if let Some(session) = &self.session {
+            builder = builder.with_session(session.clone());
+        }
+        builder.load().await
+    }
+
+    /// Warm a just-written generation before it is committed. Best-effort: a
+    /// failure is logged and the flush proceeds — warming is never a commit
+    /// gate. No-op without a warmer. `uri` must be the resolved reader path
+    /// (`path_to_uri(gen_path)`) so warmed entries key-match later queries.
+    async fn warm_generation(&self, uri: &str) {
+        let Some(warmer) = &self.warmer else {
+            return;
+        };
+        if let Err(e) = warmer.warm(uri).await {
+            warn!("pre-commit warm failed for generation {uri}; committing cold: {e}");
         }
     }
 
     /// Construct a full URI for a path within the base dataset.
     fn path_to_uri(&self, path: &Path) -> String {
-        // Remove base_path prefix from path to get relative path
         let path_str = path.as_ref();
         let base_str = self.base_path.as_ref();
 
@@ -67,7 +219,6 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
             path_str
         };
 
-        // Combine base_uri with relative path
         let base = self.base_uri.trim_end_matches('/');
         if relative.is_empty() {
             base.to_string()
@@ -76,29 +227,80 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
         }
     }
 
+    fn generation_target(&self, memtable: &MemTable) -> Result<(String, Path, Option<String>)> {
+        let generation = memtable.generation();
+        if let Some(target) = memtable.target() {
+            if target.generation != generation {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "memtable generation {} carries data target generation {}",
+                    generation, target.generation
+                )));
+            }
+            return Ok((
+                target.generation_dir.clone(),
+                target.generation_path(&self.base_path, &self.shard_id),
+                Some(target.data_file_name.clone()),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // Blob-free memtables do not reserve a storage identity during puts.
+        // Preserve the existing flush-time random generation and file naming
+        // for that path.
+        let random_hash = generate_random_hash();
+        Ok((
+            format!("{}_gen_{}", random_hash, generation),
+            sstable_path(&self.base_path, &self.shard_id, &random_hash, generation),
+            None,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Storage file version of the shard's base dataset. SSTables
+    /// (data fragments and index files) are written at this same version so the
+    /// whole shard stays on one format (e.g. a 2.2 base => 2.2 SSTables).
+    ///
+    /// Falls back to the default selector's exact version when no base dataset exists at
+    /// `base_uri` (e.g. flusher unit tests that run without a committed base).
+    /// In production MemWAL is always initialized on a real dataset, so the base
+    /// version is inherited; other open errors are propagated.
+    async fn base_storage_version(&self) -> Result<lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion> {
+        match self.open_base().await {
+            Ok(dataset) => Ok(dataset.manifest().data_storage_format.lance_file_format()),
+            Err(Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }) => Ok(lance_file::version::stable_file_version()),
+            Err(e) => Err(e),
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Flush the MemTable to storage (data files, indexes, bloom filter).
-    pub async fn flush(&self, memtable: &MemTable, epoch: u64) -> Result<FlushResult> {
+    ///
+    /// `covered_wal_entry_position` is stamped into the manifest's
+    /// `replay_after_wal_entry_position` so post-restart replay skips the
+    /// WAL entries this generation captures. Pass 0 only for shards that
+    /// have not yet appended any WAL entry — non-zero positions are
+    /// 1-based (see `FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION`).
+    #[instrument(name = "mt_flush_storage", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.shard_id, epoch, generation = memtable.generation(), row_count = memtable.row_count()))]
+    pub async fn flush(
+        &self,
+        memtable: &MemTable,
+        epoch: u64,
+        covered_wal_entry_position: u64,
+        durable: usize,
+    ) -> Result<FlushResult> {
         self.manifest_store.check_fenced(epoch).await?;
 
         if memtable.row_count() == 0 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Cannot flush empty MemTable",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Cannot flush empty MemTable"));
         }
 
-        if !memtable.all_flushed_to_wal() {
+        if !memtable.all_flushed_to_wal(durable) {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "MemTable has unflushed fragments - WAL flush required first",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
-        let random_hash = generate_random_hash();
         let generation = memtable.generation();
-        let gen_folder_name = format!("{}_gen_{}", random_hash, generation);
-        let gen_path =
-            flushed_memtable_path(&self.base_path, &self.region_id, &random_hash, generation);
+        let size = FlushedSize::of(memtable);
+        let (gen_folder_name, gen_path, preassigned_data_file_name) =
+            self.generation_target(memtable)?;
 
         info!(
             "Flushing MemTable generation {} to {} ({} rows, {} batches)",
@@ -108,102 +310,259 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
             memtable.batch_count()
         );
 
-        self.write_data_file(&gen_path, memtable).await?;
+        let (rows_flushed, deleted) = self
+            .write_data_file(&gen_path, memtable, preassigned_data_file_name.as_deref())
+            .await?;
+
+        // Persist the within-generation deletion vector so the
+        // SSTable exposes newest-per-PK on every read path.
+        if !deleted.is_empty() {
+            let uri = self.path_to_uri(&gen_path);
+            let dataset = self.open_generation(&uri).await?;
+            self.finalize_generation(&dataset, &deleted, None).await?;
+        }
 
-        let bloom_path = gen_path.child("bloom_filter.bin");
+        let bloom_path = gen_path.clone().join("bloom_filter.bin");
         self.write_bloom_filter(&bloom_path, memtable.bloom_filter())
             .await?;
 
-        let last_wal_entry_position = memtable.last_flushed_wal_entry_position();
+        // Write the standalone primary-key dedup sidecar. A primary key needs
+        // no secondary index, so this is required on the plain-flush path too —
+        // the LSM scanner opens it to dedup the generation. (`flush_with_indexes`
+        // writes it on the indexed path.) No-op when the memtable has no PK.
+        self.create_pk_index(&gen_path, memtable.indexes()).await?;
+
+        // Warm before commit (zero cold window); no-op without a warmer.
+        let warm_uri = self.path_to_uri(&gen_path);
+        self.warm_generation(&warm_uri).await;
+
         let new_manifest = self
-            .update_manifest(epoch, generation, &gen_folder_name, last_wal_entry_position)
+            .update_manifest(
+                epoch,
+                generation,
+                &gen_folder_name,
+                covered_wal_entry_position,
+                size,
+            )
             .await?;
 
         info!(
-            "Flushed generation {} for region {} (manifest version {})",
-            generation, self.region_id, new_manifest.version
+            "Flushed SSTable {} for shard {} (manifest version {})",
+            generation, self.shard_id, new_manifest.version
         );
 
         Ok(FlushResult {
-            generation: FlushedGeneration {
-                generation,
-                path: gen_folder_name,
-            },
-            rows_flushed: memtable.row_count(),
-            covered_wal_entry_position: last_wal_entry_position,
+            sstable: size.sstable(generation, gen_folder_name),
+            rows_flushed,
+            covered_wal_entry_position,
         })
     }
 
-    async fn write_data_file(&self, path: &Path, memtable: &MemTable) -> Result<()> {
+    /// Write the data file in insert (forward) order.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the total number of rows written and the within-generation
+    /// deletion vector marking every older duplicate of each primary key (see
+    /// [`compute_dedup_deletions`]). Forward order keeps the data file, the
+    /// incrementally-built indexes, and the deletion-vector offsets in one
+    /// position space (newest = largest offset) with no remap.
+    #[instrument(name = "mt_write_data_file", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(path = %path))]
+    async fn write_data_file(
+        &self,
+        path: &Path,
+        memtable: &MemTable,
+        preassigned_data_file_name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> Result<(usize, RoaringBitmap)> {
         use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
 
         use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
 
         if memtable.row_count() == 0 {
-            return Ok(());
+            return Ok((0, RoaringBitmap::new()));
         }
 
         let batches = memtable.scan_batches().await?;
         if batches.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(());
+            return Ok((0, RoaringBitmap::new()));
         }
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+
+        // Build the deletion vector before `batches` is moved into the writer.
+        let pk_columns: Vec<String> = memtable
+            .lance_schema()
+            .unenforced_primary_key()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name.clone())
+            .collect();
+        let deleted = if pk_columns.is_empty() {
+            RoaringBitmap::new()
+        } else {
+            let schema = batches[0].schema();
+            // Match the read-path contract (create_dedup_plan): unsupported PK
+            // types must error here rather than hit compute_pk_hash's
+            // debug-format fallback, which can collapse distinct keys.
+            validate_pk_types(schema.as_ref(), &pk_columns)?;
+            let pk_indices = pk_columns
+                .iter()
+                .map(|c| {
+                    schema.index_of(c).map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Primary key column '{}' not found in flush schema",
+                            c
+                        ))
+                    })
+                })
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<usize>>>()?;
+            compute_dedup_deletions(&batches, &pk_indices)
+        };
 
         let uri = self.path_to_uri(path);
+        if let Some(preassigned_data_file_name) = preassigned_data_file_name {
+            match self.open_generation(&uri).await {
+                Ok(dataset) => {
+                    let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+                    let is_expected = fragments.len() == 1
+                        && fragments[0].metadata().physical_rows == Some(total_rows)
+                        && fragments[0]
+                            .metadata()
+                            .files
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|file| file.path == preassigned_data_file_name);
+                    if is_expected {
+                        return Ok((total_rows, deleted));
+                    }
+                    return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                        "generation {} already exists but does not describe the expected file {} and {} rows",
+                        path, preassigned_data_file_name, total_rows
+                    )));
+                }
+                Err(Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }) => {}
+                Err(error) => return Err(error),
+            }
+        }
+
         let reader =
             RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), memtable.schema().clone());
 
-        // Use very large max_rows_per_file to ensure 1 fragment per flushed memtable
+        // Use very large max_rows_per_file to ensure 1 fragment per SSTable.
+        // Inherit the base dataset's storage version so the SSTable
+        // matches it (a 2.2 base also fixes the v2.1 miniblock 32 KiB chunk cap
+        // that the dense HNSW graph List columns overflow at scale).
         let write_params = WriteParams {
             max_rows_per_file: usize::MAX,
+            data_storage_version: Some(self.base_storage_version().await?.to_selector()),
+            // Write the generation through the base's store params + session so it
+            // uses the same store the base was opened with. Adapted for the
+            // generation URI: a path-bound store binding would send this write at
+            // the base table's own path (see [`derived_store_params`]).
+            store_params: self.store_params.as_ref().map(derived_store_params),
+            session: self.session.clone(),
             ..Default::default()
         };
-        Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(write_params)).await?;
+        let mut builder = InsertBuilder::new(uri.as_str()).with_params(&write_params);
+        if let Some(preassigned_data_file_name) = preassigned_data_file_name {
+            builder = builder.with_preassigned_data_file_name(preassigned_data_file_name);
+        }
+        builder.execute_stream(reader).await?;
+
+        Ok((total_rows, deleted))
+    }
+
+    /// Persist the within-generation deletion vector (and any indexes) onto the
+    /// just-written generation by rewriting its manifest in place.
+    ///
+    /// The generation dataset is brand-new and not yet published in the shard
+    /// manifest, so overwriting its v1 manifest is safe. A no-op when there is
+    /// neither a deletion vector nor an index to record.
+    async fn finalize_generation(
+        &self,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        deleted: &RoaringBitmap,
+        indexes: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let indexes = indexes.filter(|i| !i.is_empty());
+        if deleted.is_empty() && indexes.is_none() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
 
+        let mut manifest = dataset.manifest().clone();
+        let manifest_path = dataset.manifest_location().path.clone();
+
+        if !deleted.is_empty() {
+            let dv = DeletionVector::from(deleted.clone());
+            let deletion_file = write_deletion_file(
+                &dataset.base,
+                0, // 1 fragment per SSTable
+                dataset.version().version,
+                &dv,
+                dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            let fragments = Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments);
+            if let Some(fragment) = fragments.first_mut() {
+                fragment.deletion_file = deletion_file;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Clear stale section offsets from the v1 manifest since the rewritten
+        // file has a different layout (added index/deletion metadata).
+        manifest.index_section = None;
+        manifest.transaction_section = None;
+        manifest.transaction_file = None;
+        write_manifest_file_to_path(
+            &self.object_store,
+            &mut manifest,
+            indexes,
+            &manifest_path,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to write generation manifest: {}", e)))?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
     async fn write_bloom_filter(
         &self,
         path: &Path,
-        bloom: &lance_index::scalar::bloomfilter::sbbf::Sbbf,
+        bloom: &lance_core::utils::bloomfilter::sbbf::Sbbf,
     ) -> Result<()> {
         let data = bloom.to_bytes();
         self.object_store
             .inner
             .put(path, Bytes::from(data).into())
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to write bloom filter: {}", e), location!()))?;
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to write bloom filter: {}", e)))?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
     /// Flush the MemTable to storage with indexes.
+    ///
+    /// See [`MemTableFlusher::flush`] for `covered_wal_entry_position`
+    /// semantics.
+    #[instrument(name = "mt_flush_with_indexes", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.shard_id, epoch, generation = memtable.generation(), row_count = memtable.row_count(), index_count = index_configs.len()))]
     pub async fn flush_with_indexes(
         &self,
         memtable: &MemTable,
         epoch: u64,
         index_configs: &[MemIndexConfig],
+        covered_wal_entry_position: u64,
+        durable: usize,
     ) -> Result<FlushResult> {
         self.manifest_store.check_fenced(epoch).await?;
 
         if memtable.row_count() == 0 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Cannot flush empty MemTable",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Cannot flush empty MemTable"));
         }
 
-        if !memtable.all_flushed_to_wal() {
+        if !memtable.all_flushed_to_wal(durable) {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "MemTable has unflushed fragments - WAL flush required first",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
 
-        let random_hash = generate_random_hash();
         let generation = memtable.generation();
-        let gen_folder_name = format!("{}_gen_{}", random_hash, generation);
-        let gen_path =
-            flushed_memtable_path(&self.base_path, &self.region_id, &random_hash, generation);
+        let size = FlushedSize::of(memtable);
+        let (gen_folder_name, gen_path, preassigned_data_file_name) =
+            self.generation_target(memtable)?;
 
         info!(
             "Flushing MemTable generation {} with indexes to {} ({} rows, {} batches)",
@@ -213,102 +572,132 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
             memtable.batch_count()
         );
 
-        self.write_data_file(&gen_path, memtable).await?;
+        let (total_rows, deleted) = self
+            .write_data_file(&gen_path, memtable, preassigned_data_file_name.as_deref())
+            .await?;
+
+        // Open the dataset once for all index building. Dataset::write already
+        // created a v1 manifest with the fragment data.
+        let uri = self.path_to_uri(&gen_path);
+        let mut dataset = self.open_generation(&uri).await?;
+
+        // Collect all index metadata without committing individually.
+        // We write a single manifest containing both data and all indexes.
+        let mut all_indexes: Vec<IndexMetadata> = Vec::new();
 
-        let created_indexes = self
-            .create_indexes(&gen_path, index_configs, memtable.indexes())
+        let btree_indexes = self
+            .create_indexes(&mut dataset, index_configs, memtable.indexes())
             .await?;
-        if !created_indexes.is_empty() {
+        if !btree_indexes.is_empty() {
             info!(
-                "Created {} BTree indexes on flushed generation {}",
-                created_indexes.len(),
+                "Created {} BTree indexes on SSTable {}",
+                btree_indexes.len(),
                 generation
             );
         }
+        all_indexes.extend(btree_indexes);
 
-        // Create IVF-PQ indexes and commit them to the dataset
         if let Some(registry) = memtable.indexes() {
-            let uri = self.path_to_uri(&gen_path);
-            let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&uri).await?;
-
             for config in index_configs {
-                if let MemIndexConfig::IvfPq(ivf_pq_config) = config {
-                    if let Some(mem_index) = registry.get_ivf_pq(&ivf_pq_config.name) {
-                        let mut index_meta = self
-                            .create_ivf_pq_index(&gen_path, ivf_pq_config, mem_index)
-                            .await?;
-
-                        // Fix up the index metadata with correct field index
-                        let schema = dataset.schema();
-                        let field_idx = schema
-                            .field(&ivf_pq_config.column)
-                            .map(|f| f.id)
-                            .unwrap_or(0);
-                        index_meta.fields = vec![field_idx];
-                        index_meta.dataset_version = dataset.version().version;
-                        // Calculate fragment_bitmap from dataset fragments
-                        let fragment_ids: roaring::RoaringBitmap = dataset
-                            .get_fragments()
-                            .iter()
-                            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
-                            .collect();
-                        index_meta.fragment_bitmap = Some(fragment_ids);
-
-                        // Commit the index to the dataset
-                        use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-                        let transaction = Transaction::new(
-                            index_meta.dataset_version,
-                            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                                new_indices: vec![index_meta],
-                                removed_indices: vec![],
-                            },
-                            None,
-                        );
-                        dataset
-                            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-                            .await?;
-
+                if let MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(hnsw_config) = config
+                    && let Some(mem_index) = registry.get_hnsw(&hnsw_config.name)
+                {
+                    // `None` → the generation has no indexable vectors (e.g. all
+                    // tombstones); flush the data without an HNSW index for it.
+                    let Some(mut index_meta) = self
+                        .create_hnsw_index(&gen_path, hnsw_config, mem_index)
+                        .await?
+                    else {
                         info!(
-                            "Created IVF-PQ index '{}' on flushed generation {}",
-                            ivf_pq_config.name, generation
+                            "Skipped empty HNSW index '{}' on SSTable {} (no vectors)",
+                            hnsw_config.name, generation
                         );
-                    }
+                        continue;
+                    };
+
+                    let schema = dataset.schema();
+                    let field_idx = schema
+                        .field(&hnsw_config.column)
+                        .map(|f| f.id)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "HNSW index '{}' references column '{}' which is not in the dataset schema",
+                                hnsw_config.name, hnsw_config.column
+                            ))
+                        })?;
+                    index_meta.fields = vec![field_idx];
+                    index_meta.dataset_version = dataset.version().version;
+                    let fragment_ids: roaring::RoaringBitmap =
+                        dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone();
+                    index_meta.fragment_bitmap = Some(fragment_ids);
+                    all_indexes.push(index_meta);
+
+                    info!(
+                        "Created HNSW index '{}' on SSTable {}",
+                        hnsw_config.name, generation
+                    );
                 }
             }
 
-            // Create FTS indexes
-            self.create_fts_indexes(&uri, index_configs, &mut dataset)
+            let fts_indexes = self
+                .create_fts_indexes(
+                    &dataset,
+                    &gen_path,
+                    index_configs,
+                    memtable.indexes(),
+                    total_rows,
+                )
                 .await?;
+            all_indexes.extend(fts_indexes);
         }
 
-        let bloom_path = gen_path.child("bloom_filter.bin");
+        // Write the standalone primary-key dedup index (sidecar, not a manifest
+        // index — the block-list opens it directly by path).
+        self.create_pk_index(&gen_path, memtable.indexes()).await?;
+
+        // Write a single manifest that records the fragments, the
+        // within-generation deletion vector, and all indexes, overwriting the
+        // data-only v1 manifest created by Dataset::write.
+        self.finalize_generation(&dataset, &deleted, Some(all_indexes))
+            .await?;
+
+        let bloom_path = gen_path.clone().join("bloom_filter.bin");
         self.write_bloom_filter(&bloom_path, memtable.bloom_filter())
             .await?;
 
-        let last_wal_entry_position = memtable.last_flushed_wal_entry_position();
+        // Warm before commit (zero cold window); no-op without a warmer.
+        let warm_uri = self.path_to_uri(&gen_path);
+        self.warm_generation(&warm_uri).await;
+
         let new_manifest = self
-            .update_manifest(epoch, generation, &gen_folder_name, last_wal_entry_position)
+            .update_manifest(
+                epoch,
+                generation,
+                &gen_folder_name,
+                covered_wal_entry_position,
+                size,
+            )
             .await?;
 
         info!(
-            "Flushed generation {} for region {} (manifest version {})",
-            generation, self.region_id, new_manifest.version
+            "Flushed SSTable {} for shard {} (manifest version {})",
+            generation, self.shard_id, new_manifest.version
         );
 
         Ok(FlushResult {
-            generation: FlushedGeneration {
-                generation,
-                path: gen_folder_name,
-            },
+            sstable: size.sstable(generation, gen_folder_name),
             rows_flushed: memtable.row_count(),
-            covered_wal_entry_position: last_wal_entry_position,
+            covered_wal_entry_position,
         })
     }
 
-    /// Create BTree indexes on the flushed dataset.
+    /// Create BTree indexes on the SSTable dataset (uncommitted).
+    ///
+    /// Returns index metadata without committing to the dataset manifest.
+    /// The caller is responsible for writing a single manifest with all indexes.
     async fn create_indexes(
         &self,
-        gen_path: &Path,
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
         index_configs: &[MemIndexConfig],
         mem_indexes: Option<&super::super::index::IndexStore>,
     ) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
@@ -316,13 +705,11 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
 
         use crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder;
 
-        let uri = self.path_to_uri(gen_path);
-
         let btree_configs: Vec<_> = index_configs
             .iter()
             .filter_map(|c| match c {
                 MemIndexConfig::BTree(cfg) => Some(cfg),
-                MemIndexConfig::IvfPq(_) => None,
+                MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(_) => None,
                 MemIndexConfig::Fts(_) => None,
             })
             .collect();
@@ -331,62 +718,96 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
             return Ok(vec![]);
         }
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&uri).await?;
         let mut created_indexes = Vec::new();
 
         for btree_cfg in btree_configs {
             let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
             let mut builder = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
-                &mut dataset,
+                dataset,
                 &[btree_cfg.column.as_str()],
                 IndexType::BTree,
                 &params,
             )
             .name(btree_cfg.name.clone());
 
-            if let Some(registry) = mem_indexes {
-                if let Some(btree_index) = registry.get_btree(&btree_cfg.name) {
-                    let training_batches = btree_index.to_training_batches(8192)?;
-                    if !training_batches.is_empty() {
-                        let schema = training_batches[0].schema();
-                        let reader =
-                            RecordBatchIterator::new(training_batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-                        builder = builder.preprocessed_data(Box::new(reader));
-                    }
+            if let Some(registry) = mem_indexes
+                && let Some(btree_index) = registry.get_btree(&btree_cfg.name)
+            {
+                // Forward-written data: index row positions line up 1:1 with
+                // the data file, no remap needed.
+                let training_batches = btree_index.to_training_batches(8192)?;
+                if !training_batches.is_empty() {
+                    let schema = training_batches[0].schema();
+                    let reader =
+                        RecordBatchIterator::new(training_batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+                    builder = builder.preprocessed_data(Box::new(reader));
                 }
             }
 
             let index_meta = builder.execute_uncommitted().await?;
-            created_indexes.push(index_meta.clone());
-
-            use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-            let transaction = Transaction::new(
-                index_meta.dataset_version,
-                Operation::CreateIndex {
-                    new_indices: vec![index_meta],
-                    removed_indices: vec![],
-                },
-                None,
-            );
-            dataset
-                .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-                .await?;
+            created_indexes.push(index_meta);
         }
 
         Ok(created_indexes)
     }
 
-    /// Create FTS (Full-Text Search) indexes on the flushed dataset.
+    /// Write the standalone primary-key dedup index for this generation.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike user indexes, this is a **sidecar**: it is not registered in the
+    /// manifest. The block-list opens it directly by path
+    /// ([`pk_index_path`]) and probes it with `Equals`. Single-column primary
+    /// keys index the typed value; composite keys index the order-preserving
+    /// `Binary` encoded tuple (see [`super::super::index::encode_pk_tuple`]).
+    /// Row positions line up 1:1 with the forward-written data file, so they are
+    /// the SSTable row ids directly. No-op without a primary-key index.
+    async fn create_pk_index(
+        &self,
+        gen_path: &Path,
+        mem_indexes: Option<&super::super::index::IndexStore>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+        use lance_index::scalar::btree::train_btree_index;
+        use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::util::pk_index_path;
+
+        let Some(registry) = mem_indexes else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let batches = registry.pk_training_batches(8192)?;
+        if batches.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let store = LanceIndexStore::new(
+            self.object_store.clone(),
+            pk_index_path(gen_path),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        );
+        let stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)),
+        ));
+        train_btree_index(stream, &store, 8192, None, None).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Create FTS (Full-Text Search) indexes from in-memory data (uncommitted).
     ///
-    /// Uses the standard InvertedIndexBuilder with the same tokenizer parameters
-    /// that were used for the in-memory FTS index.
+    /// Writes the FTS index files and returns index metadata without committing.
+    /// The caller is responsible for writing a single manifest with all indexes.
     async fn create_fts_indexes(
         &self,
-        _uri: &str,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        gen_path: &Path,
         index_configs: &[MemIndexConfig],
-        dataset: &mut Dataset,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        use crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder;
+        mem_indexes: Option<&super::super::index::IndexStore>,
+        total_rows: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+        use lance_index::pbold;
+        use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
 
         let fts_configs: Vec<_> = index_configs
             .iter()
@@ -397,149 +818,286 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
             .collect();
 
         if fts_configs.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(());
+            return Ok(vec![]);
         }
 
+        let Some(registry) = mem_indexes else {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
+        };
+
+        let mut created_indexes = Vec::new();
+
         for fts_cfg in fts_configs {
-            let mut builder = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
-                dataset,
-                &[fts_cfg.column.as_str()],
-                IndexType::Inverted,
-                &fts_cfg.params,
-            )
-            .name(fts_cfg.name.clone());
+            let Some(fts_index) = registry.get_fts(&fts_cfg.name) else {
+                continue;
+            };
 
-            let index_meta = builder.execute_uncommitted().await?;
+            if fts_index.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let partition_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4().as_u64_pair().0;
 
-            use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-            let transaction = Transaction::new(
-                index_meta.dataset_version,
-                Operation::CreateIndex {
-                    new_indices: vec![index_meta.clone()],
-                    removed_indices: vec![],
-                },
-                None,
+            let mut inner_builder = fts_index.to_index_builder(partition_id, total_rows)?;
+
+            let index_uuid = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+            let index_dir = gen_path
+                .clone()
+                .join("_indices")
+                .join(index_uuid.to_string());
+            let index_store = LanceIndexStore::new(
+                self.object_store.clone(),
+                index_dir.clone(),
+                Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
             );
-            dataset
-                .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+
+            inner_builder.write(&index_store).await?;
+
+            self.write_fts_metadata(&index_store, partition_id, fts_cfg)
                 .await?;
 
+            let details = pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&fts_cfg.params)?;
+            let index_details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to serialize index details: {}", e)))?;
+
+            let field_idx = fts_cfg.field_id;
+
+            let fragment_ids: roaring::RoaringBitmap = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone();
+            let format_version = fts_cfg.params.resolved_format_version();
+            let index_version = if fts_cfg.params.get_document_granularity().is_list_element() {
+                lance_index::scalar::inverted::INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3
+            } else {
+                format_version.index_version()
+            };
+
+            let index_meta = IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: index_uuid,
+                name: fts_cfg.name.clone(),
+                fields: vec![field_idx],
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                dataset_version: dataset.version().version,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_ids),
+                index_details: Some(Arc::new(index_details)),
+                index_version: index_version as i32,
+                created_at: None,
+                base_id: None,
+                files: None,
+            };
+            created_indexes.push(index_meta);
+
             info!(
-                "Created FTS index '{}' on column '{}'",
+                "Created FTS index '{}' on column '{}' (direct flush)",
                 fts_cfg.name, fts_cfg.column
             );
         }
 
+        Ok(created_indexes)
+    }
+
+    /// Write FTS index metadata file.
+    async fn write_fts_metadata(
+        &self,
+        index_store: &lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore,
+        partition_id: u64,
+        config: &super::super::index::FtsIndexConfig,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, StringArray};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
+            FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY, POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY, POSITIONS_CODEC_PACKED_DELTA_V1,
+            POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY, POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2, POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY,
+            POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY, TokenSetFormat,
+        };
+
+        // Create metadata with params and partitions in schema metadata (this is what InvertedIndex expects)
+        let params_json = serde_json::to_string(&config.params)?;
+        let partitions_json = serde_json::to_string(&[partition_id])?;
+        let token_set_format = TokenSetFormat::default().to_string();
+        let format_version = config.params.resolved_format_version();
+        let mut metadata = [
+            ("params".to_string(), params_json),
+            ("partitions".to_string(), partitions_json),
+            ("token_set_format".to_string(), token_set_format),
+            (
+                POSTING_TAIL_CODEC_KEY.to_string(),
+                format_version.posting_tail_codec().as_str().to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                FTS_FORMAT_VERSION_KEY.to_string(),
+                format_version.index_version().to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                POSTING_BLOCK_SIZE_KEY.to_string(),
+                config.params.posting_block_size().to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect::<std::collections::HashMap<_, _>>();
+        if config.params.has_positions() && format_version.uses_shared_position_stream() {
+            metadata.insert(
+                POSITIONS_LAYOUT_KEY.to_string(),
+                POSITIONS_LAYOUT_SHARED_STREAM_V2.to_string(),
+            );
+            metadata.insert(
+                POSITIONS_CODEC_KEY.to_string(),
+                POSITIONS_CODEC_PACKED_DELTA_V1.to_string(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(
+            Schema::new(vec![Field::new("_placeholder", DataType::Utf8, true)])
+                .with_metadata(metadata),
+        );
+
+        // Create a minimal batch (schema metadata is what matters)
+        let placeholder_array = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![placeholder_array])?;
+
+        let mut writer = index_store.new_index_file("metadata.lance", schema).await?;
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
+        writer.finish().await?;
+
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    /// Create an IVF-PQ index from in-memory data.
+    /// Create an HNSW + SQ8 index from the in-memory HNSW.
     ///
-    /// Writes the index files directly using the pre-computed partition assignments
-    /// and PQ codes from the in-memory index.
-    async fn create_ivf_pq_index(
+    /// Writes:
+    /// - `auxiliary.idx`: SQ8-quantized vector storage (`_rowid`, `__sq_code`).
+    ///   Bounds learned from the full memtable in one pass.
+    /// - `index.idx`: HNSW graph (`__vector_id`, `__neighbors`, `_distance`).
+    ///
+    /// Both files use a single placeholder IVF partition so they conform to
+    /// the existing Lance `IVF_HNSW_SQ` reader path.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    /// * `gen_path` - Path to the SSTable folder
+    /// * `config` - HNSW index configuration
+    /// * `mem_index` - In-memory HNSW index (snapshotted, not consumed)
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// `Ok(None)` when the memtable holds no indexable vectors — e.g. a
+    /// generation of only tombstones (delete nulls the vector column and the
+    /// HNSW skips nulls), or an all-null vector column. The generation still
+    /// flushes its data; it simply carries no HNSW index, and an index-only
+    /// (`fast_search`) query over it returns empty — no brute-force scan.
+    /// Erroring here would fail the whole flush drain.
+    async fn create_hnsw_index(
         &self,
         gen_path: &Path,
-        config: &super::super::index::IvfPqIndexConfig,
-        mem_index: &super::super::index::IvfPqMemIndex,
-    ) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
-        use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        config: &super::super::index::HnswIndexConfig,
+        mem_index: &super::super::index::HnswMemIndex,
+    ) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+        use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch as ArrowRecordBatch};
+        use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
         use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-        use lance_file::writer::FileWriter;
+        use lance_file::versions as file_versions;
+        use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
         use lance_index::pb;
-        use lance_index::vector::flat::index::FlatIndex;
+        use lance_index::vector::DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY;
+        use lance_index::vector::SQ_CODE_COLUMN;
+        use lance_index::vector::hnsw::HNSW;
         use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IVF_METADATA_KEY;
-        use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{
-            Quantization, QuantizationMetadata, QuantizerMetadata,
-        };
+        use lance_index::vector::sq::ScalarQuantizer;
         use lance_index::vector::storage::STORAGE_METADATA_KEY;
         use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
-        use lance_index::vector::{DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY, PQ_CODE_COLUMN};
         use lance_index::{
-            IndexMetadata as IndexMetaSchema, INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_FILE_NAME,
-            INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
+            INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_FILE_NAME, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
+            IndexMetadata as IndexMetaSchema,
         };
         use prost::Message;
+        use std::ops::Range;
         use std::sync::Arc;
 
+        // Write the index files at the base dataset's storage version (matches
+        // the flushed data fragments; 2.2 avoids the v2.1 miniblock chunk cap).
+        let storage_version =
+            crate::dataset::versions::index_file_version(self.base_storage_version().await?);
+
         let index_uuid = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
-        let index_dir = gen_path.child("_indices").child(index_uuid.to_string());
+        let index_dir = gen_path
+            .clone()
+            .join("_indices")
+            .join(index_uuid.to_string());
 
-        // Get partition data from in-memory index
-        let partition_batches = mem_index.to_partition_batches()?;
-        let ivf_model = mem_index.ivf_model();
-        let pq = mem_index.pq();
         let distance_type = mem_index.distance_type();
+        let dim = mem_index.dim();
+        if dim == 0 {
+            // No vector was ever inserted (e.g. an all-tombstone generation):
+            // skip the index, keep the data flush.
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        // Forward-written data: HNSW row ids line up 1:1 with the data file, so
+        // no position reversal (pass `None`).
+        let Some((hnsw, flat_storage_batch)) = mem_index.to_lance_hnsw(None)? else {
+            // Every vector in the generation is null → empty graph; skip the
+            // index rather than failing the flush.
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
 
-        // Create storage file schema: _rowid, __pq_code
-        let pq_code_len = pq.num_sub_vectors * pq.num_bits as usize / 8;
-        let storage_schema: ArrowSchema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            Field::new(ROW_ID, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, false),
-            Field::new(
-                PQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+        // Train SQ8 on the full memtable in one pass: learn global min/max
+        // from every flushed vector, then quantize all rows in one shot.
+        let row_id_col = flat_storage_batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("_rowid missing from HNSW storage batch"))?
+            .clone();
+        let flat_col = flat_storage_batch
+            .column_by_name(lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("flat column missing from HNSW storage batch"))?
+            .clone();
+        let flat_fsl = flat_col.as_fixed_size_list();
+        let mut sq = ScalarQuantizer::new(8, dim);
+        let bounds: Range<f64> = sq.update_bounds::<Float32Type>(flat_fsl)?;
+        let sq_codes = sq.transform::<Float32Type>(flat_fsl as &dyn arrow_array::Array)?;
+
+        let storage_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ID, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                SQ_CODE_COLUMN,
                 arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, false)),
-                    pq_code_len as i32,
+                    Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                        "item",
+                        arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8,
+                        true,
+                    )),
+                    dim as i32,
                 ),
-                false,
+                true,
             ),
         ]);
+        let storage_batch = ArrowRecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(storage_schema.clone()),
+            vec![row_id_col, sq_codes],
+        )?;
 
-        // Create index file schema (FlatIndex schema)
-        let index_schema: ArrowSchema = FlatIndex::schema().as_ref().clone();
-
-        // Create file writers
-        let storage_path = index_dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let index_path = index_dir.child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
-
-        let mut storage_writer = FileWriter::try_new(
+        // Single-partition IVF for both the storage and graph files. We need
+        // *some* centroid because the on-disk read path routes every query
+        // through `IvfModel::find_partitions` before HNSW search; that call
+        // unwraps `centroids`. With one partition the centroid value is
+        // irrelevant for routing — every query goes to partition 0 — so use
+        // a zero vector.
+        let zero_centroid_values = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; dim]);
+        let zero_centroid_fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(zero_centroid_values, dim as i32)?;
+        let mut storage_ivf =
+            lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel::new(zero_centroid_fsl.clone(), None);
+        storage_ivf.add_partition(storage_batch.num_rows() as u32);
+
+        let storage_path = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let mut storage_writer = file_versions::create_writer(
+            storage_version,
             self.object_store.create(&storage_path).await?,
             (&storage_schema).try_into()?,
-            Default::default(),
-        )?;
-        let mut index_writer = FileWriter::try_new(
-            self.object_store.create(&index_path).await?,
-            (&index_schema).try_into()?,
-            Default::default(),
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
         )?;
+        storage_writer.write_batch(&storage_batch).await?;
 
-        // Track IVF partitions for both files
-        let mut storage_ivf = lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel::empty();
-
-        // Get centroids (required for IVF index)
-        let centroids = ivf_model
-            .centroids
-            .clone()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("IVF model has no centroids", location!()))?;
-        let mut index_ivf = lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel::new(centroids, None);
-        let mut partition_index_metadata = Vec::with_capacity(ivf_model.num_partitions());
-
-        // Create a map of partition_id -> batch for quick lookup
-        let partition_map: std::collections::HashMap<usize, _> =
-            partition_batches.into_iter().collect();
-
-        // Write each partition
-        for part_id in 0..ivf_model.num_partitions() {
-            if let Some(batch) = partition_map.get(&part_id) {
-                // Transpose PQ codes for storage (column-major layout)
-                let transposed_batch = transpose_pq_batch(batch, pq_code_len)?;
-
-                // Write storage data
-                storage_writer.write_batch(&transposed_batch).await?;
-                storage_ivf.add_partition(transposed_batch.num_rows() as u32);
-
-                // FlatIndex is empty (no additional sub-index data needed for IVF-PQ)
-                index_ivf.add_partition(0);
-                partition_index_metadata.push(String::new());
-            } else {
-                // Empty partition
-                storage_ivf.add_partition(0);
-                index_ivf.add_partition(0);
-                partition_index_metadata.push(String::new());
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Write storage file metadata
         let storage_ivf_pb = pb::Ivf::try_from(&storage_ivf)?;
         storage_writer.add_schema_metadata(DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY, distance_type.to_string());
         let ivf_buffer_pos = storage_writer
@@ -547,27 +1105,82 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
             .await?;
         storage_writer.add_schema_metadata(IVF_METADATA_KEY, ivf_buffer_pos.to_string());
 
-        // Write PQ metadata
-        let pq_metadata = pq.metadata(Some(QuantizationMetadata {
-            codebook_position: Some(0),
-            codebook: None,
-            transposed: true,
-        }));
-        if let Some(extra_metadata) = pq_metadata.extra_metadata()? {
-            let idx = storage_writer.add_global_buffer(extra_metadata).await?;
-            let mut pq_meta = pq_metadata;
-            pq_meta.set_buffer_index(idx);
-            let storage_partition_metadata = vec![serde_json::to_string(&pq_meta)?];
-            storage_writer.add_schema_metadata(
-                STORAGE_METADATA_KEY,
-                serde_json::to_string(&storage_partition_metadata)?,
-            );
-        }
+        // The reader needs the SQ metadata in two forms: a single
+        // ScalarQuantizationMetadata under SQ_METADATA_KEY (whole-file path),
+        // and a JSON array of per-partition ScalarQuantizationMetadata strings
+        // under STORAGE_METADATA_KEY (per-partition path). With one partition
+        // we serialize the same value twice.
+        let sq_meta = lance_index::vector::sq::storage::ScalarQuantizationMetadata {
+            dim,
+            num_bits: 8,
+            bounds,
+        };
+        let sq_meta_json = serde_json::to_string(&sq_meta)?;
+        storage_writer.add_schema_metadata(
+            STORAGE_METADATA_KEY,
+            serde_json::to_string(&[&sq_meta_json])?,
+        );
+        storage_writer.add_schema_metadata(
+            lance_index::vector::sq::storage::SQ_METADATA_KEY,
+            sq_meta_json,
+        );
+        storage_writer.finish().await?;
+
+        // Write the HNSW graph batch to index.idx. The graph file uses the
+        // same single-partition IVF model with zero centroid for the same
+        // reason as the storage file.
+        let hnsw_batch = hnsw.to_batch()?;
+        let hnsw_metadata_json = hnsw_batch
+            .schema_ref()
+            .metadata()
+            .get(lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HNSW_METADATA_KEY)
+            .cloned()
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        // Force fullzip structural encoding for the graph's List<u32>/List<f32>
+        // columns. The HNSW graph has dense level-0 neighbor lists followed by
+        // many empty higher-level lists; the v2.x miniblock List codec decodes
+        // the row count incorrectly for that shape at scale (the locally-sparse
+        // empty block is not captured by the global levels-per-value average),
+        // and at 2.1 it also overflows the 32 KiB miniblock cap. Fullzip
+        // round-trips it correctly.
+        let fullzip_meta = std::collections::HashMap::from([(
+            lance_encoding::constants::STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_META_KEY.to_string(),
+            lance_encoding::constants::STRUCTURAL_ENCODING_FULLZIP.to_string(),
+        )]);
+        let index_schema: ArrowSchema = {
+            let base = HNSW::schema();
+            let fields = base
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| {
+                    if matches!(f.data_type(), arrow_schema::DataType::List(_)) {
+                        Arc::new(f.as_ref().clone().with_metadata(fullzip_meta.clone()))
+                    } else {
+                        f.clone()
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            ArrowSchema::new(fields)
+        };
+        let index_path = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+        let mut index_writer = file_versions::create_writer(
+            storage_version,
+            self.object_store.create(&index_path).await?,
+            (&index_schema).try_into()?,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )?;
+        index_writer.write_batch(&hnsw_batch).await?;
 
-        // Write index file metadata
+        let mut index_ivf =
+            lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel::new(zero_centroid_fsl, None);
+        index_ivf.add_partition(hnsw_batch.num_rows() as u32);
         let index_ivf_pb = pb::Ivf::try_from(&index_ivf)?;
+        // The on-disk type string matches Lance's index loader vocabulary —
+        // an HNSW sub-index over SQ8-quantized vector storage, registered
+        // under the same name as the standard IVF_HNSW_SQ path even though
+        // our IVF layer is a single-partition placeholder.
         let index_metadata = IndexMetaSchema {
-            index_type: "IVF_PQ".to_string(),
+            index_type: "IVF_HNSW_SQ".to_string(),
             distance_type: distance_type.to_string(),
         };
         index_writer.add_schema_metadata(
@@ -578,62 +1191,57 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
             .add_global_buffer(index_ivf_pb.encode_to_vec().into())
             .await?;
         index_writer.add_schema_metadata(IVF_METADATA_KEY, ivf_buffer_pos.to_string());
+        // Per-partition HNSW metadata: a JSON array with one entry.
         index_writer.add_schema_metadata(
-            FlatIndex::metadata_key(),
-            serde_json::to_string(&partition_index_metadata)?,
+            HNSW::metadata_key(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&[hnsw_metadata_json])?,
         );
-
-        // Finish writing
-        storage_writer.finish().await?;
         index_writer.finish().await?;
 
-        // Create index metadata for commit
-        // Vector indices need index_details set for retain_supported_indices() to keep them
-        let index_details = Some(std::sync::Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
-            type_url: "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.VectorIndexDetails".to_string(),
-            value: vec![],
-        }));
+        // Packed the same way index creation does; hand-building the `Any` here
+        // produced a `type.googleapis.com/` url no other writer in lance emits.
+        let index_details = Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details_default()));
         let index_meta = IndexMetadata {
             uuid: index_uuid,
             name: config.name.clone(),
-            fields: vec![0], // Will be updated when committing
+            fields: vec![0], // updated by caller
+            covering_fields: vec![],
             dataset_version: 0,
             fragment_bitmap: None,
             index_details,
             base_id: None,
             created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
             index_version: 1,
+            files: None,
         };
 
-        Ok(index_meta)
+        Ok(Some(index_meta))
     }
 
-    /// Update the region manifest with the new flushed generation.
+    /// Update the shard manifest with the new SSTable.
     async fn update_manifest(
         &self,
         epoch: u64,
         generation: u64,
         gen_path: &str,
         covered_wal_entry_position: u64,
-    ) -> Result<RegionManifest> {
+        size: FlushedSize,
+    ) -> Result<ShardManifest> {
         let gen_path = gen_path.to_string();
 
         self.manifest_store
             .commit_update(epoch, |current| {
-                let mut flushed_generations = current.flushed_generations.clone();
-                flushed_generations.push(FlushedGeneration {
-                    generation,
-                    path: gen_path.clone(),
-                });
-
-                RegionManifest {
-                    version: current.version + 1,
+                let mut sstables = current.sstables.clone();
+                sstables.push(size.sstable(generation, gen_path.clone()));
+
+                ShardManifest {
+                    version: current.next_version(),
                     replay_after_wal_entry_position: covered_wal_entry_position,
                     wal_entry_position_last_seen: current
                         .wal_entry_position_last_seen
                         .max(covered_wal_entry_position),
                     current_generation: generation + 1,
-                    flushed_generations,
+                    sstables,
                     ..current.clone()
                 }
             })
@@ -641,72 +1249,35 @@ impl MemTableFlusher {
     }
 }
 
-/// Transpose PQ codes in a batch from row-major to column-major layout.
-///
-/// The storage format expects PQ codes to be transposed for efficient distance computation.
-fn transpose_pq_batch(
-    batch: &arrow_array::RecordBatch,
-    pq_code_len: usize,
-) -> Result<arrow_array::RecordBatch> {
-    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-    use arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray;
-    use arrow_schema::Field;
-    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-    use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::transpose;
-    use lance_index::vector::PQ_CODE_COLUMN;
-    use std::sync::Arc;
-
-    let row_ids = batch
-        .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("Missing _rowid column in partition batch", location!()))?;
-
-    let pq_codes = batch
-        .column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN)
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("Missing __pq_code column in partition batch", location!()))?;
-
-    let pq_codes_fsl = pq_codes.as_fixed_size_list();
-    let codes_flat = pq_codes_fsl
-        .values()
-        .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt8Type>();
-
-    // Transpose from row-major to column-major
-    let transposed = transpose(codes_flat, pq_code_len, batch.num_rows());
-    // Use non-nullable inner field to match the schema
-    let inner_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, false));
-    let transposed_fsl = Arc::new(
-        FixedSizeListArray::try_new(inner_field, pq_code_len as i32, Arc::new(transposed), None)
-            .map_err(|e| {
-                Error::io(
-                    format!("Failed to create transposed PQ array: {}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?,
-    );
-
-    arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(batch.schema(), vec![row_ids.clone(), transposed_fsl])
-        .map_err(|e| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!("Failed to create transposed batch: {}", e),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })
-}
-
-/// Message to trigger flush of a frozen memtable to Lance storage.
-pub struct TriggerMemTableFlush {
-    /// The frozen memtable to flush.
-    pub memtable: Arc<MemTable>,
-    /// Optional channel to notify when flush completes.
-    pub done: Option<tokio::sync::oneshot::Sender<Result<FlushResult>>>,
+/// Message driving the background memtable-flush task.
+pub enum TriggerMemTableFlush {
+    /// Flush a frozen memtable to Lance storage.
+    Flush {
+        /// The frozen memtable to flush.
+        memtable: Arc<MemTable>,
+        /// The indexes the memtable was built with. Not read from the writer,
+        /// whose set changes with the schema while this memtable keeps the old one.
+        index_configs: Arc<[MemIndexConfig]>,
+        /// Optional channel to notify when flush completes.
+        done: Option<tokio::sync::oneshot::Sender<Result<FlushResult>>>,
+    },
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for TriggerMemTableFlush {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        f.debug_struct("TriggerMemTableFlush")
-            .field("memtable_gen", &self.memtable.generation())
-            .field("memtable_rows", &self.memtable.row_count())
-            .field("has_done", &self.done.is_some())
-            .finish()
+        match self {
+            Self::Flush {
+                memtable,
+                index_configs,
+                done,
+            } => f
+                .debug_struct("TriggerMemTableFlush::Flush")
+                .field("memtable_gen", &memtable.generation())
+                .field("memtable_rows", &memtable.row_count())
+                .field("index_count", &index_configs.len())
+                .field("has_done", &done.is_some())
+                .finish(),
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -715,6 +1286,7 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, StringArray};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2;
     use std::sync::Arc;
     use tempfile::TempDir;
 
@@ -725,11 +1297,80 @@ mod tests {
         (store, path, uri, temp_dir)
     }
 
-    fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
-        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]))
+    /// A local store with one claimed shard and a flusher over it.
+    ///
+    /// Every flush test in this module repeats this setup.
+    struct FlushFixture {
+        manifest_store: Arc<ShardManifestStore>,
+        flusher: MemTableFlusher,
+        epoch: u64,
+        _temp_dir: TempDir,
+    }
+
+    impl FlushFixture {
+        async fn new() -> Self {
+            let (store, base_path, base_uri, temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+            let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+                store.clone(),
+                &base_path,
+                shard_id,
+                2,
+            ));
+            let (epoch, _) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+            let flusher =
+                MemTableFlusher::new(store, base_path, base_uri, shard_id, manifest_store.clone());
+            Self {
+                manifest_store,
+                flusher,
+                epoch,
+                _temp_dir: temp_dir,
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Flush `memtable` and read the entry it wrote back **off storage**.
+        ///
+        /// Through `read_version`, not `latest`: the store caches the manifest
+        /// it just wrote, so `latest` returns that same Rust value and would
+        /// pass even for a field that never reached the protobuf.
+        async fn flush_and_read_back(&self, memtable: &MemTable, durable: usize) -> SsTable {
+            let result = self
+                .flusher
+                .flush(memtable, self.epoch, 1, durable)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let version = self.manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap().version;
+            self.manifest_store
+                .read_version(version)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .sstables
+                .into_iter()
+                .find(|sstable| sstable.generation == result.sstable.generation)
+                .expect("the flush recorded its generation")
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// Schema with `id` marked as the unenforced primary key, so the flush
+    /// computes a within-generation deletion vector.
+    fn create_pk_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_metadata = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
     }
 
     fn create_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
@@ -748,15 +1389,15 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_flusher_requires_wal_flush() {
         let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = Arc::new(RegionManifestStore::new(
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
             store.clone(),
             &base_path,
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             2,
         ));
 
-        // Claim region
+        // Claim shard
         let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
 
         let schema = create_test_schema();
@@ -766,38 +1407,41 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Not flushed to WAL yet
-        assert!(!memtable.all_flushed_to_wal());
+        // Nothing is durable yet, so the L0 flush must refuse.
+        let durable = 0;
+        assert!(!memtable.all_flushed_to_wal(durable));
 
-        let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(store, base_path, base_uri, region_id, manifest_store);
-        let result = flusher.flush(&memtable, epoch).await;
+        let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(store, base_path, base_uri, shard_id, manifest_store);
+        let result = flusher.flush(&memtable, epoch, 0, 0).await;
 
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("unflushed fragments"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("unflushed fragments")
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_flusher_empty_memtable() {
         let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = Arc::new(RegionManifestStore::new(
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
             store.clone(),
             &base_path,
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             2,
         ));
 
-        // Claim region
+        // Claim shard
         let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
 
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let memtable = MemTable::new(schema, 1, vec![]).unwrap();
 
-        let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(store, base_path, base_uri, region_id, manifest_store);
-        let result = flusher.flush(&memtable, epoch).await;
+        let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(store, base_path, base_uri, shard_id, manifest_store);
+        let result = flusher.flush(&memtable, epoch, 0, 0).await;
 
         assert!(result.is_err());
         assert!(result.unwrap_err().to_string().contains("empty MemTable"));
@@ -806,15 +1450,15 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_flusher_success() {
         let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = Arc::new(RegionManifestStore::new(
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
             store.clone(),
             &base_path,
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             2,
         ));
 
-        // Claim region
+        // Claim shard
         let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
 
         let schema = create_test_schema();
@@ -825,45 +1469,602 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
         // Simulate WAL flush
-        memtable.mark_wal_flushed(&[frag_id], 1, &[0]);
-        assert!(memtable.all_flushed_to_wal());
+        let durable = frag_id + 1;
+        assert!(memtable.all_flushed_to_wal(durable));
 
         let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(
             store.clone(),
             base_path,
             base_uri,
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             manifest_store.clone(),
         );
-        let result = flusher.flush(&memtable, epoch).await.unwrap();
+        let result = flusher.flush(&memtable, epoch, 1, durable).await.unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(result.generation.generation, 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.sstable.generation, 1);
         assert_eq!(result.rows_flushed, 10);
         assert_eq!(result.covered_wal_entry_position, 1);
 
         // Verify manifest was updated
-        let updated_manifest = manifest_store.read_latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let updated_manifest = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(updated_manifest.version, 2);
         assert_eq!(updated_manifest.replay_after_wal_entry_position, 1);
         assert_eq!(updated_manifest.current_generation, 2);
-        assert_eq!(updated_manifest.flushed_generations.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(updated_manifest.sstables.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// A flushed generation records what it holds, read back off storage.
+    ///
+    /// The read goes through the persisted protobuf on purpose: a consumer
+    /// decides whether to open a generation from these numbers, so a field that
+    /// never reached storage is the failure worth catching.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn flushed_sstable_records_what_it_holds() {
+        let fixture = FlushFixture::new().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
+        let rows = 10;
+        let frag_id = memtable
+            .insert(create_test_batch(&schema, rows))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let accounted = memtable.batch_store().row_bytes() as u64;
+
+        let entry = fixture.flush_and_read_back(&memtable, frag_id + 1).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(entry.physical_rows, Some(rows as u64));
+        assert_eq!(entry.in_memory_bytes, Some(accounted));
+        // The MemTable's own accounting, so above the raw payload (4 bytes per
+        // `id`) and not the encoded file size.
+        let payload = rows as u64 * std::mem::size_of::<i32>() as u64;
+        assert!(
+            entry.in_memory_bytes.unwrap() > payload,
+            "recorded {:?} should exceed the raw payload {payload}",
+            entry.in_memory_bytes
+        );
+        // No primary key here: absent, not zero, which a consumer would read as
+        // costing nothing.
+        assert_eq!(entry.primary_key_bytes, None);
+    }
+
+    /// With a primary key, its size is recorded too -- the term neither of the
+    /// others carries, since a narrow key over many rows and a wide key over
+    /// few weigh the same in `in_memory_bytes`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn flushed_sstable_records_its_primary_key_size() {
+        let fixture = FlushFixture::new().await;
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![0]).unwrap();
+        let rows = 10;
+        let frag_id = memtable
+            .insert(create_test_batch(&schema, rows))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let entry = fixture.flush_and_read_back(&memtable, frag_id + 1).await;
+
+        // `id` is a non-nullable Int32, so the key columns hold at least four
+        // bytes a row and cannot reach the whole MemTable's size.
+        let key_bytes = entry.primary_key_bytes.expect("a keyed table records it");
+        assert!(
+            key_bytes >= rows as u64 * std::mem::size_of::<i32>() as u64,
+            "recorded {key_bytes} is below the raw key payload"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            key_bytes < entry.in_memory_bytes.unwrap(),
+            "keys ({key_bytes}) cannot outweigh the whole MemTable ({:?})",
+            entry.in_memory_bytes
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A `SsTableWarmer` that counts calls and optionally fails.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct CountingWarmer {
+        calls: Arc<std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize>,
+        fail: bool,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl SsTableWarmer for CountingWarmer {
+        async fn warm(&self, _path: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            self.calls.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+            if self.fail {
+                Err(Error::io("simulated warm failure".to_string()))
+            } else {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Warming is a best-effort optimization, never a commit gate: a warmer that
+    /// errors pre-commit must still let the flush commit the generation. The
+    /// warm fires exactly once on the pre-commit path.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flusher_commits_when_warm_fails() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            &base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            2,
+        ));
+        let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
+        let frag_id = memtable
+            .insert(create_test_batch(&schema, 10))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let durable = frag_id + 1;
+
+        let calls = Arc::new(std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let warmer: Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer> = Arc::new(CountingWarmer {
+            calls: calls.clone(),
+            fail: true,
+        });
+
+        let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store.clone(),
+        )
+        .with_warmer(Some(warmer));
+        // Flush must succeed despite the warmer erroring.
+        let result = flusher.flush(&memtable, epoch, 1, durable).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.sstable.generation, 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            calls.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst),
+            1,
+            "pre-commit warm fires exactly once"
+        );
+        let updated = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated.sstables.len(),
+            1,
+            "generation still committed after a failed warm"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Flushing a generation with within-generation duplicate PKs writes a
+    /// deletion vector so the SSTable dataset exposes newest-per-PK on scan.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flush_writes_dedup_deletion_vector() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            &base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            2,
+        ));
+        let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![0]).unwrap();
+        // Append order (newest last): id=1 a->a2, id=2 b, id=3 c->c2.
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 1, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c", "a2", "c2"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let frag_id = memtable.insert(batch).await.unwrap();
+        let durable = frag_id + 1;
+
+        let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path,
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store,
+        );
+        let result = flusher.flush(&memtable, epoch, 1, durable).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.rows_flushed, 5, "all physical rows are written");
+
+        // Scanning the SSTable must honor the deletion vector and
+        // return only the newest version of each PK.
+        let gen_uri = format!(
+            "{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}",
+            base_uri.trim_end_matches('/'),
+            shard_id,
+            result.sstable.path
+        );
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&gen_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut rows = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let ids = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = b
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                rows.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows.len(),
+            3,
+            "deletion vector should leave newest-per-PK, got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+        assert_eq!(rows.get(&1), Some(&"a2".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(rows.get(&2), Some(&"b".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(rows.get(&3), Some(&"c2".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    /// Flushing a memtable with a primary-key index writes a standalone sidecar
+    /// BTree at `{gen}/_pk_index` that the block-list can reopen by path and
+    /// probe by value — including for a within-gen-superseded PK (existence,
+    /// not visibility).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn sstable_pk_index_sidecar_is_probeable() {
+        use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+        use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        use lance_index::registry::IndexPluginRegistry;
+        use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, SearchResult};
+
+        use super::super::super::index::IndexStore;
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::util::pk_index_path;
+        use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+
+        let (store, base_path, _base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            &base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            2,
+        ));
+        let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Primary-key index on `id`, no user indexes.
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![0]).unwrap();
+        let mut registry = IndexStore::new();
+        registry.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        memtable.set_indexes(registry);
+
+        // id=1 updated in-gen (a -> a2); id=2 unique.
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "a2"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let frag_id = memtable.insert(batch).await.unwrap();
+        let durable = frag_id + 1;
+
+        let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            _base_uri.clone(),
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store.clone(),
+        );
+        let result = flusher
+            .flush_with_indexes(&memtable, epoch, &[], 1, durable)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reopen the sidecar directly by path (the block-list's route).
+        let gen_path = base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join("_mem_wal")
+            .join(shard_id.to_string())
+            .join(result.sstable.path.as_str());
+        let index_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            pk_index_path(&gen_path),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+        let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name("BTree").unwrap();
+        let details =
+            prost_types::Any::from_msg(&lance_index::pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
+        let index = plugin
+            .load_index(index_store, &details, 0, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let contains = |id: i32| {
+            let index = index.clone();
+            async move {
+                let result = index
+                    .search(
+                        &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(id))),
+                        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                match result {
+                    SearchResult::Exact(s) | SearchResult::AtMost(s) | SearchResult::AtLeast(s) => {
+                        !s.is_empty()
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        };
+        // Both PKs present (id=1 even though its first version was superseded);
+        // an absent PK is not.
+        assert!(contains(1).await);
+        assert!(contains(2).await);
+        assert!(!contains(99).await);
+    }
+
+    /// Regression: production dispatches a PK-only flush (a primary key, no
+    /// secondary index) to `flush`, not `flush_with_indexes`. `flush` must still
+    /// write the PK dedup sidecar, otherwise cross-generation dedup fails with
+    /// `page_lookup.lance not found`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn plain_flush_writes_pk_sidecar() {
+        use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+        use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        use lance_index::registry::IndexPluginRegistry;
+        use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, SearchResult};
+
+        use super::super::super::index::IndexStore;
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::util::pk_index_path;
+        use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+
+        let (store, base_path, _base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            &base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            2,
+        ));
+        let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Primary-key index on `id`, no user indexes.
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![0]).unwrap();
+        let mut registry = IndexStore::new();
+        registry.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        memtable.set_indexes(registry);
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let frag_id = memtable.insert(batch).await.unwrap();
+        let durable = frag_id + 1;
+
+        let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            _base_uri.clone(),
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store.clone(),
+        );
+        // The plain-flush path — what the writer dispatches to with no indexes.
+        let result = flusher.flush(&memtable, epoch, 1, durable).await.unwrap();
+
+        let gen_path = base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join("_mem_wal")
+            .join(shard_id.to_string())
+            .join(result.sstable.path.as_str());
+        let index_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            pk_index_path(&gen_path),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        ));
+        let registry = IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins();
+        let plugin = registry.get_plugin_by_name("BTree").unwrap();
+        let details =
+            prost_types::Any::from_msg(&lance_index::pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
+        let index = plugin
+            .load_index(index_store, &details, 0, None, &LanceCache::no_cache())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let contains = |id: i32| {
+            let index = index.clone();
+            async move {
+                let result = index
+                    .search(
+                        &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(id))),
+                        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                match result {
+                    SearchResult::Exact(s) | SearchResult::AtMost(s) | SearchResult::AtLeast(s) => {
+                        !s.is_empty()
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        };
+        assert!(contains(1).await);
+        assert!(contains(2).await);
+        assert!(!contains(99).await);
+    }
+
+    /// Covers `finalize_generation` writing both a deletion vector *and*
+    /// indexes into the same manifest — the deletion-only and index-only
+    /// paths are exercised by sibling tests.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flush_with_indexes_and_dedup_deletion_vector() {
+        use super::super::super::index::{BTreeIndexConfig, IndexStore};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            &base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            2,
+        ));
+        let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+
+        // BTree on the non-PK `name` column so the index sees the dedup set.
+        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "name_btree".to_string(),
+            field_id: 1,
+            column: "name".to_string(),
+        })];
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![0]).unwrap();
+        let registry = IndexStore::from_configs(&index_configs, 100_000, 1_000).unwrap();
+        memtable.set_indexes(registry);
+
+        // Duplicate PKs in append order: id=1 a->a2, id=2 b, id=3 c->c2.
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 1, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c", "a2", "c2"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let frag_id = memtable.insert(batch).await.unwrap();
+        let durable = frag_id + 1;
+
+        let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store.clone(),
+        );
+        let result = flusher
+            .flush_with_indexes(&memtable, epoch, &index_configs, 1, durable)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.rows_flushed, 5, "all physical rows are written");
+
+        let gen_uri = format!(
+            "{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}",
+            base_uri.trim_end_matches('/'),
+            shard_id,
+            result.sstable.path
+        );
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&gen_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            1,
+            "SSTable dataset must be a single-version dataset"
+        );
+
+        // Index half of the combined manifest.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "name_btree");
+
+        // Deletion-vector half: scan returns newest-per-PK.
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut rows = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let ids = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = b
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                rows.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows.len(),
+            3,
+            "deletion vector should leave newest-per-PK, got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+        assert_eq!(rows.get(&1), Some(&"a2".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(rows.get(&2), Some(&"b".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(rows.get(&3), Some(&"c2".to_string()));
+
+        // The BTree on `name` must not surface a stale value: a hit for the
+        // pre-update "a" would mean the indexed path ignored the deletion
+        // vector.
+        let stale_hits = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name = 'a'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stale_hits.num_rows(),
+            0,
+            "older name 'a' for id=1 must be filtered out by the deletion vector"
+        );
+        let fresh_hits = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name = 'a2'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fresh_hits.num_rows(), 1);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_flusher_with_btree_index() {
         use super::super::super::index::{BTreeIndexConfig, IndexStore};
-        use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 
         let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = Arc::new(RegionManifestStore::new(
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
             store.clone(),
             &base_path,
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             2,
         ));
 
-        // Claim region
+        // Claim shard
         let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
 
         // Create index config for the 'id' column (field_id = 0)
@@ -877,7 +2078,7 @@ mod tests {
         let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
 
         // Set up in-memory index registry so preprocessed data path is used
-        let registry = IndexStore::from_configs(&index_configs, 100_000, 8).unwrap();
+        let registry = IndexStore::from_configs(&index_configs, 100_000, 1_000).unwrap();
         memtable.set_indexes(registry);
 
         let frag_id = memtable
@@ -886,30 +2087,31 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
         // Simulate WAL flush
-        memtable.mark_wal_flushed(&[frag_id], 1, &[0]);
+        let durable = frag_id + 1;
 
         let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(
             store.clone(),
             base_path.clone(),
             base_uri.clone(),
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             manifest_store.clone(),
         );
         let result = flusher
-            .flush_with_indexes(&memtable, epoch, &index_configs)
+            .flush_with_indexes(&memtable, epoch, &index_configs, 1, durable)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(result.generation.generation, 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.sstable.generation, 1);
         assert_eq!(result.rows_flushed, 10);
 
-        // Verify the flushed dataset has the BTree index
-        // result.generation.path is just the folder name, construct full URI
-        let gen_uri = format!(
-            "{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}",
-            base_uri, region_id, result.generation.path
-        );
+        // Verify the SSTable dataset is a single-version dataset with the BTree index
+        let gen_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}", base_uri, shard_id, result.sstable.path);
         let dataset = Dataset::open(&gen_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            1,
+            "SSTable dataset must be a single-version dataset"
+        );
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
@@ -941,41 +2143,33 @@ mod tests {
         crate::utils::test::assert_plan_node_equals(
             plan,
             "LanceRead: ...full_filter=id = Int32(5)...
-  ScalarIndexQuery: query=[id = 5]@id_btree",
+  ScalarIndexQuery: query=[id = 5]@id_btree(BTree)",
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_flusher_with_ivf_pq_index() {
-        use super::super::super::index::{IndexStore, IvfPqIndexConfig};
+    async fn test_flusher_with_hnsw_index() {
+        use super::super::super::index::IndexStore;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
         use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
-        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-        use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
-        use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{train_kmeans, KMeansParams};
-        use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
-        use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
         use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 
         let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = Arc::new(RegionManifestStore::new(
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
             store.clone(),
             &base_path,
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             2,
         ));
 
-        // Claim region
+        // Claim shard
         let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Create schema with vector column
-        // Use 300 vectors to satisfy PQ training requirement (min 256)
         let vector_dim = 8;
         let num_vectors = 300;
-        let num_partitions = 4;
-        let num_sub_vectors = 2;
 
         let vector_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
             Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
@@ -989,67 +2183,22 @@ mod tests {
             ),
         ]));
 
-        // Generate random vectors for training and testing
+        // Generate random-ish vectors.
         let vectors: Vec<f32> = (0..num_vectors * vector_dim)
             .map(|i| ((i as f32 * 0.1).sin() + (i as f32 * 0.05).cos()) * 0.5)
             .collect();
         let vectors_array = Float32Array::from(vectors);
 
-        // Train IVF centroids using KMeans
-        let kmeans_params = KMeansParams::new(None, 10, 1, DistanceType::L2);
-        let kmeans = train_kmeans::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(
-            &vectors_array,
-            kmeans_params,
-            vector_dim,
-            num_partitions,
-            num_vectors, // sample_size
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Create centroids as FixedSizeListArray
-        let centroids_flat = kmeans
-            .centroids
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
-            .expect("Centroids should be Float32Array")
-            .clone();
-        let centroids_fsl =
-            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids_flat, vector_dim as i32).unwrap();
-
-        let ivf_model = IvfModel::new(centroids_fsl, None);
-
-        // Train PQ codebook
-        let vectors_fsl =
-            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors_array.clone(), vector_dim as i32)
-                .unwrap();
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(num_sub_vectors, 8);
-        let pq = pq_params.build(&vectors_fsl, DistanceType::L2).unwrap();
-
-        // Create index config (field_id = 1 for vector column)
-        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::IvfPq(Box::new(IvfPqIndexConfig {
-            name: "vector_ivf_pq".to_string(),
-            field_id: 1,
-            column: "vector".to_string(),
-            ivf_model: ivf_model.clone(),
-            pq: pq.clone(),
-            distance_type: DistanceType::L2,
-        }))];
-
-        // Create MemTable with vector schema
-        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(vector_schema.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
-
-        // Set up in-memory index registry
-        let mut registry = IndexStore::from_configs(&index_configs, 100_000, 8).unwrap();
-
-        // Also need to add the IVF-PQ index to the registry for preprocessing
-        registry.add_ivf_pq(
-            "vector_ivf_pq".to_string(),
-            1, // field_id for vector column
+        // Create HNSW index config (field_id = 1 for vector column)
+        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
             "vector".to_string(),
-            ivf_model,
-            pq,
             DistanceType::L2,
-        );
+        )];
+
+        let mut memtable = MemTable::new(vector_schema.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
+        let registry = IndexStore::from_configs(&index_configs, num_vectors, 100).unwrap();
         memtable.set_indexes(registry);
 
         // Create test batch with vectors
@@ -1072,123 +2221,115 @@ mod tests {
         let frag_id = memtable.insert(batch).await.unwrap();
 
         // Simulate WAL flush
-        memtable.mark_wal_flushed(&[frag_id], 1, &[0]);
+        let durable = frag_id + 1;
 
         let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(
             store.clone(),
             base_path.clone(),
             base_uri.clone(),
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             manifest_store.clone(),
         );
         let result = flusher
-            .flush_with_indexes(&memtable, epoch, &index_configs)
+            .flush_with_indexes(&memtable, epoch, &index_configs, 1, durable)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(result.generation.generation, 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.sstable.generation, 1);
         assert_eq!(result.rows_flushed, num_vectors);
 
-        // Verify the flushed dataset has the IVF-PQ index
-        let gen_uri = format!(
-            "{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}",
-            base_uri, region_id, result.generation.path
-        );
+        // Verify the SSTable dataset is a single-version dataset with the HNSW index
+        let gen_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}", base_uri, shard_id, result.sstable.path);
         let dataset = Dataset::open(&gen_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            1,
+            "SSTable dataset must be a single-version dataset"
+        );
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "vector_ivf_pq");
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "vector_hnsw");
+
+        // End-to-end query: pick a row from the SSTable dataset, query for
+        // it, and verify the index path returns it as the nearest neighbor.
+        // This exercises the on-disk HNSW + SQ8 format including the IVF
+        // partition routing and the storage_metadata ScalarQuantizationMetadata
+        // deserialization.
+        let scanned: Vec<RecordBatch> = {
+            use futures::TryStreamExt;
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        let total_scanned: usize = scanned.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_scanned, num_vectors);
 
-        // Create a query vector (use first vector from the dataset)
-        let query_vector: Vec<f32> = (0..vector_dim)
+        // Query with the first vector in the dataset; it must come back as
+        // the nearest neighbor with distance ~0.
+        let first_vec_values: Vec<f32> = (0..vector_dim)
             .map(|i| ((i as f32 * 0.1).sin() + (i as f32 * 0.05).cos()) * 0.5)
             .collect();
-        let query_array = Float32Array::from(query_vector);
-
-        // Verify ANN query returns correct results
-        let batch = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest("vector", &query_array, 10)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        // Should return 10 nearest neighbors
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 10);
-
-        // Verify distances are non-negative and sorted in ascending order (nearest first)
-        let distance_col = batch
+        let query = Float32Array::from(first_vec_values);
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vector", &query, 5).unwrap();
+        scan.fast_search();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(batch.num_rows() > 0, "query returned no rows");
+        let dist_col = batch
             .column_by_name("_distance")
-            .unwrap()
+            .expect("_distance column missing")
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
             .unwrap();
         assert!(
-            distance_col.value(0) >= 0.0,
-            "First distance should be non-negative"
+            dist_col.value(0) < 1e-3,
+            "expected near-zero distance for self-match, got {}",
+            dist_col.value(0)
         );
-        for i in 1..10 {
-            assert!(
-                distance_col.value(i - 1) <= distance_col.value(i),
-                "Distances should be sorted: {} > {}",
-                distance_col.value(i - 1),
-                distance_col.value(i)
-            );
-        }
 
-        // Verify returned IDs are valid (within range 0..num_vectors)
-        let id_col = batch
-            .column_by_name("id")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
-            .unwrap();
-        for i in 0..10 {
-            let id = id_col.value(i);
-            assert!(
-                id >= 0 && id < num_vectors as i32,
-                "ID {} should be in range [0, {})",
-                id,
-                num_vectors
-            );
-        }
-
-        // Verify the query plan uses the IVF-PQ index
+        // Verify the query plan uses the HNSW vector index
         let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.nearest("vector", &query_array, 10).unwrap();
+        scan.nearest("vector", &query, 5).unwrap();
+        scan.fast_search();
         let plan = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap();
-        crate::utils::test::assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[id@2 as id, vector@3 as vector, _distance@0 as _distance]
-  Take: ...
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: ...
-      SortExec: TopK...
-        ANNSubIndex: name=vector_ivf_pq, k=10, deltas=1, metric=L2
-          ANNIvfPartition: ...deltas=1",
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!(
+            "{}",
+            datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ANNSubIndex: name=vector_hnsw, k=5"),
+            "query plan must use HNSW index, got: {plan_str}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ANNIvfPartition:"),
+            "query plan must use IVF partition, got: {plan_str}"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_flusher_with_fts_index() {
         use super::super::super::index::{FtsIndexConfig, IndexStore};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
         use arrow_array::StringArray;
         use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-        use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
         use std::sync::Arc;
 
         let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let manifest_store = Arc::new(RegionManifestStore::new(
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
             store.clone(),
             &base_path,
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             2,
         ));
 
-        // Claim region
+        // Claim shard
         let (epoch, _manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
 
         // Create schema with text column
@@ -1207,7 +2348,7 @@ mod tests {
         let mut memtable = MemTable::new(schema.clone(), 1, vec![]).unwrap();
 
         // Set up in-memory index registry
-        let registry = IndexStore::from_configs(&index_configs, 100_000, 8).unwrap();
+        let registry = IndexStore::from_configs(&index_configs, 100_000, 1_000).unwrap();
         memtable.set_indexes(registry);
 
         // Create test batch with text data
@@ -1227,33 +2368,36 @@ mod tests {
         let frag_id = memtable.insert(batch).await.unwrap();
 
         // Simulate WAL flush
-        memtable.mark_wal_flushed(&[frag_id], 1, &[0]);
+        let durable = frag_id + 1;
 
         let flusher = MemTableFlusher::new(
             store.clone(),
             base_path.clone(),
             base_uri.clone(),
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             manifest_store.clone(),
         );
         let result = flusher
-            .flush_with_indexes(&memtable, epoch, &index_configs)
+            .flush_with_indexes(&memtable, epoch, &index_configs, 1, durable)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(result.generation.generation, 1);
+        assert_eq!(result.sstable.generation, 1);
         assert_eq!(result.rows_flushed, 3);
 
-        // Verify the flushed dataset has the FTS index
-        let gen_uri = format!(
-            "{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}",
-            base_uri, region_id, result.generation.path
-        );
+        // Verify the SSTable dataset is a single-version dataset with the FTS index
+        let gen_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}", base_uri, shard_id, result.sstable.path);
         let dataset = Dataset::open(&gen_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            1,
+            "SSTable dataset must be a single-version dataset"
+        );
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "text_fts");
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].index_version, INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2 as i32);
 
         // Verify FTS query returns correct results
         // Searching for "hello" should find the first document
@@ -1307,9 +2451,8 @@ mod tests {
         crate::utils::test::assert_plan_node_equals(
             plan,
             "ProjectionExec: expr=[id@2 as id, text@3 as text, _score@1 as _score]
-  Take: ...
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: ...
-      MatchQuery: column=text, query=hello",
+  LanceRead: ..., source=stream(_rowid)
+    MatchQuery: column=text, query=[hello]",
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner.rs
index 4272dc55a8d..eb601fca695 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner.rs
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
 //! ## Key Features
 //!
 //! - **MVCC Visibility**: All scans respect visibility sequence numbers
-//! - **Index Support**: BTree, IVF-PQ vector, and FTS indexes
+//! - **Index Support**: BTree, HNSW vector, and FTS indexes
 //! - **DataFusion Integration**: Full ExecutionPlan compatibility
 
 mod builder;
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/builder.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/builder.rs
index 3828a69e013..1245d668119 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/builder.rs
@@ -7,17 +7,27 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, SchemaRef};
-use datafusion::common::{ScalarValue, ToDFSchema};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::limit::GlobalLimitExec;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream};
 use datafusion::prelude::{Expr, SessionContext};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::PhysicalExprRef;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::datatypes::{Schema as LanceSchema, parse_field_path};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_datafusion::expr::safe_coerce_scalar;
 use lance_datafusion::planner::Planner;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery as IndexFtsQuery, Operator};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{DOC_INDEX_FIELD, DocumentGranularity};
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
-use snafu::location;
 
-use super::exec::{BTreeIndexExec, FtsIndexExec, MemTableScanExec, VectorIndexExec};
+use super::exec::{
+    BTreeIndexExec, FtsIndexExec, MemTableBruteForceVectorExec, MemTableDedupScanExec,
+    MemTableScanExec, SCORE_COLUMN, VectorIndexExec,
+};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::{FtsQueryExpr, MemTableVisibility};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{exec::validate_pk_types, parse_filter_expr};
 use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
 
 /// Vector search query parameters.
@@ -47,100 +57,123 @@ pub struct VectorQuery {
     pub distance_upper_bound: Option<f32>,
 }
 
-/// Full-text search query type.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub enum FtsQueryType {
-    /// Simple term match.
-    Match {
-        /// The search query string.
-        query: String,
-    },
-    /// Phrase query with slop.
-    Phrase {
-        /// The phrase to search for.
-        query: String,
-        /// Maximum allowed distance between consecutive tokens.
-        slop: u32,
-    },
-    /// Boolean query with MUST/SHOULD/MUST_NOT.
-    Boolean {
-        /// Terms that must match.
-        must: Vec<String>,
-        /// Terms that should match (adds to score).
-        should: Vec<String>,
-        /// Terms that must not match.
-        must_not: Vec<String>,
-    },
-    /// Fuzzy match query with typo tolerance.
-    Fuzzy {
-        /// The search query string.
-        query: String,
-        /// Maximum edit distance (Levenshtein distance).
-        /// None means auto-fuzziness based on token length.
-        fuzziness: Option<u32>,
-        /// Maximum number of terms to expand to.
-        max_expansions: usize,
-    },
-}
-
 /// Full-text search query parameters.
+///
+/// The query itself is an [`FtsQueryExpr`] — the same tree the in-memory
+/// inverted index evaluates — so every shape the index supports (nested
+/// boolean, boost with a negative clause, phrase, fuzzy) reaches it without a
+/// lossy intermediate form. Everything outside the tree here is execution
+/// policy rather than the query: which document unit and the recall/latency
+/// knobs. The columns searched live on the tree's leaves — [`Self::columns`]
+/// reads them back out — so there is no second copy to fall out of step with it.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct FtsQuery {
-    /// Column name to search.
-    pub column: String,
-    /// Query type.
-    pub query_type: FtsQueryType,
+    /// The query tree, evaluated as given by the memtable's inverted index.
+    /// Every leaf names the column it searches; the memtable routes each leaf
+    /// to that column's index.
+    pub expr: FtsQueryExpr,
+    /// Logical document unit. Defaults to one document per dataset row.
+    pub document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
     /// WAND factor for early termination (0.0 to 1.0).
     /// 1.0 = full recall (default), <1.0 = faster but may miss low-scoring results.
     pub wand_factor: f32,
+    /// Query-level result limit.
+    pub limit: Option<usize>,
+    /// Whether to also search the mutable tail (rows written since the last
+    /// freeze). `true` (default) = read-your-writes; `false` = search only the
+    /// immutable frozen partitions (the Lucene model), trading read-recency for
+    /// query latency. See [`crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::SearchOptions`].
+    pub include_tail: bool,
 }
 
-/// Default maximum number of fuzzy expansions.
-pub const DEFAULT_MAX_EXPANSIONS: usize = 50;
-
 /// Default WAND factor for full recall (no early termination).
 pub const DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR: f32 = 1.0;
 
 impl FtsQuery {
-    /// Create a simple term match query.
-    pub fn match_query(column: impl Into<String>, query: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+    /// Wrap an already-built query tree, binding every unbound leaf to
+    /// `column`. Leaves that already name a column keep it.
+    pub fn new(column: impl Into<String>, expr: FtsQueryExpr) -> Self {
         Self {
-            column: column.into(),
-            query_type: FtsQueryType::Match {
-                query: query.into(),
-            },
+            expr: expr.bind_unbound_leaves(&column.into()),
+            document_granularity: DocumentGranularity::Row,
             wand_factor: DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR,
+            limit: None,
+            include_tail: true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Wrap a tree whose leaves name several columns. Every leaf must already
+    /// carry its binding — there is no single column to fall back to.
+    pub fn cross_column(expr: FtsQueryExpr) -> Result<Self> {
+        let num_columns = expr.columns().len();
+        if num_columns < 2 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column MemTable full-text search needs at least two bound columns, \
+                 got {num_columns}"
+            )));
+        }
+        if expr.has_unbound_leaf() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "cross-column MemTable full-text search needs every leaf bound to a column; \
+                 there is no single index to fall back to"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
         }
+        Ok(Self {
+            expr,
+            document_granularity: DocumentGranularity::Row,
+            wand_factor: DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR,
+            limit: None,
+            include_tail: true,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Distinct columns this query's leaves name, in tree order. A tree with
+    /// no leaves at all (an empty boolean) names none.
+    pub fn columns(&self) -> Vec<&str> {
+        self.expr.columns()
+    }
+
+    /// Create a simple term match query.
+    pub fn match_query(column: impl Into<String>, query: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self::new(column, FtsQueryExpr::match_query(query))
+    }
+
+    pub fn match_query_with_operator(
+        column: impl Into<String>,
+        query: impl Into<String>,
+        operator: Operator,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::new(
+            column,
+            FtsQueryExpr::match_query_with_operator(query, operator),
+        )
     }
 
     /// Create a phrase query.
     pub fn phrase(column: impl Into<String>, query: impl Into<String>, slop: u32) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            column: column.into(),
-            query_type: FtsQueryType::Phrase {
-                query: query.into(),
-                slop,
-            },
-            wand_factor: DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR,
-        }
+        Self::new(column, FtsQueryExpr::phrase_with_slop(query, slop))
     }
 
-    /// Create a Boolean query.
+    /// Create a Boolean query over plain terms. Nested clauses go through
+    /// [`Self::new`] with a tree built on [`FtsQueryExpr::boolean`].
     pub fn boolean(
         column: impl Into<String>,
         must: Vec<String>,
         should: Vec<String>,
         must_not: Vec<String>,
     ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            column: column.into(),
-            query_type: FtsQueryType::Boolean {
-                must,
-                should,
-                must_not,
-            },
-            wand_factor: DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR,
+        let mut builder = FtsQueryExpr::boolean();
+        for term in must {
+            builder = builder.must(FtsQueryExpr::match_query(term));
+        }
+        for term in should {
+            builder = builder.should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query(term));
+        }
+        for term in must_not {
+            builder = builder.must_not(FtsQueryExpr::match_query(term));
         }
+        Self::new(column, builder.build())
     }
 
     /// Create a fuzzy match query with auto-fuzziness.
@@ -150,15 +183,7 @@ impl FtsQuery {
     /// - 3-5 chars: 1 edit allowed
     /// - 6+ chars: 2 edits allowed
     pub fn fuzzy(column: impl Into<String>, query: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            column: column.into(),
-            query_type: FtsQueryType::Fuzzy {
-                query: query.into(),
-                fuzziness: None,
-                max_expansions: DEFAULT_MAX_EXPANSIONS,
-            },
-            wand_factor: DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR,
-        }
+        Self::new(column, FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy(query))
     }
 
     /// Create a fuzzy match query with specified edit distance.
@@ -167,15 +192,7 @@ impl FtsQuery {
         query: impl Into<String>,
         fuzziness: u32,
     ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            column: column.into(),
-            query_type: FtsQueryType::Fuzzy {
-                query: query.into(),
-                fuzziness: Some(fuzziness),
-                max_expansions: DEFAULT_MAX_EXPANSIONS,
-            },
-            wand_factor: DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR,
-        }
+        Self::new(column, FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy_with_distance(query, fuzziness))
     }
 
     /// Create a fuzzy match query with full options.
@@ -183,17 +200,13 @@ impl FtsQuery {
         column: impl Into<String>,
         query: impl Into<String>,
         fuzziness: Option<u32>,
+        prefix_length: u32,
         max_expansions: usize,
     ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            column: column.into(),
-            query_type: FtsQueryType::Fuzzy {
-                query: query.into(),
-                fuzziness,
-                max_expansions,
-            },
-            wand_factor: DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR,
-        }
+        Self::new(
+            column,
+            FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy_with_options(query, fuzziness, prefix_length, max_expansions),
+        )
     }
 
     /// Set the WAND factor for early termination.
@@ -205,6 +218,236 @@ impl FtsQuery {
         self.wand_factor = wand_factor.clamp(0.0, 1.0);
         self
     }
+
+    pub fn with_limit(mut self, limit: Option<usize>) -> Self {
+        self.limit = limit;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set whether to search the mutable tail (read-your-writes) or only the
+    /// immutable frozen partitions (the Lucene model). Default `true`.
+    pub fn with_include_tail(mut self, include_tail: bool) -> Self {
+        self.include_tail = include_tail;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_document_granularity(mut self, document_granularity: DocumentGranularity) -> Self {
+        self.document_granularity = document_granularity;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert an index-level [`FullTextSearchQuery`] into the MemTable's local
+/// [`FtsQuery`], so the MemTable scanner shares the dataset `Scanner`'s FTS
+/// entry type.
+///
+/// Every shape the in-memory inverted index can evaluate is carried across:
+/// match (exact and fuzzy), phrase, boolean and boost, nested to any depth, and
+/// over one column or several. Multi-match is the exception — its fields are
+/// scored independently and fused by max, which the LSM planner decomposes
+/// above this layer rather than expressing as one tree.
+fn resolve_memtable_document_granularity(
+    column: &str,
+    requested: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+    indexes: Option<&IndexStore>,
+) -> Result<DocumentGranularity> {
+    let available = indexes
+        .map(|indexes| indexes.fts_document_granularities_by_column(column))
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+    match requested {
+        Some(requested) if available.is_empty() || available.contains(&requested) => Ok(requested),
+        Some(requested) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "FTS query for field '{column}' requested {requested:?} document granularity, but \
+             the active MemTable FTS index uses a different granularity: {available:?}"
+        ))),
+        None if available.is_empty() => Ok(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+        None if available.len() == 1 => Ok(available[0]),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "FTS query for field '{column}' is ambiguous because Row and ListElement active \
+             MemTable indexes coexist; specify document_granularity"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn local_fts_query(query: FullTextSearchQuery, indexes: Option<&IndexStore>) -> Result<FtsQuery> {
+    let wand_factor = query.wand_factor.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR);
+    let limit = query
+        .limit
+        .map(|limit| {
+            if limit < 0 {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "full-text search limit must be non-negative".to_string(),
+                ))
+            } else {
+                Ok(limit as usize)
+            }
+        })
+        .transpose()?;
+    let require_column = |column: Option<String>| {
+        column.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(
+                "full-text search requires a column; set it with \
+                 `FullTextSearchQuery::with_column`"
+                    .to_string(),
+            )
+        })
+    };
+    let requested = requested_document_granularity(&query.query)?;
+    let expr = to_local_expr(&query.query)?;
+    // Taken from the mapped tree rather than the index-level query: it is what
+    // the arm evaluates, and its order is the tree's rather than a hash set's.
+    let columns = expr
+        .columns()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(str::to_string)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let local = if columns.len() > 1 {
+        // Each column resolves its granularity against its own index, and they
+        // have to agree: the arm emits one schema, and `_doc_index` is present
+        // or absent for the whole batch.
+        let mut resolved = None;
+        for column in &columns {
+            let granularity = resolve_memtable_document_granularity(column, requested, indexes)?;
+            match resolved {
+                None => resolved = Some(granularity),
+                Some(previous) if previous != granularity => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "cross-column full-text search resolved {previous:?} document \
+                         granularity for an earlier column and {granularity:?} for \
+                         '{column}'; they must agree"
+                    )));
+                }
+                Some(_) => {}
+            }
+        }
+        let document_granularity = resolved.unwrap_or(DocumentGranularity::Row);
+        FtsQuery::cross_column(expr)?.with_document_granularity(document_granularity)
+    } else {
+        let column = require_column(columns.into_iter().next())?;
+        let document_granularity =
+            resolve_memtable_document_granularity(&column, requested, indexes)?;
+        FtsQuery::new(column, expr).with_document_granularity(document_granularity)
+    };
+    Ok(local.with_wand_factor(wand_factor).with_limit(limit))
+}
+
+/// The document granularity the query asks for, erroring if its leaves disagree
+/// — the memtable evaluates one index, so one granularity.
+fn requested_document_granularity(query: &IndexFtsQuery) -> Result<Option<DocumentGranularity>> {
+    fn visit(query: &IndexFtsQuery, current: &mut Option<DocumentGranularity>) -> Result<()> {
+        let requested = match query {
+            IndexFtsQuery::Match(m) => m.document_granularity,
+            IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(p) => p.document_granularity,
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boost(b) => {
+                visit(&b.positive, current)?;
+                return visit(&b.negative, current);
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(b) => {
+                for child in b.must.iter().chain(&b.should).chain(&b.must_not) {
+                    visit(child, current)?;
+                }
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(m) => {
+                for leaf in &m.match_queries {
+                    visit(&IndexFtsQuery::Match(leaf.clone()), current)?;
+                }
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            // BM25F blends the target columns per row, so combined_fields is
+            // row-granular by construction and carries no granularity field.
+            IndexFtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => Some(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+        };
+        match (*current, requested) {
+            (_, None) => {}
+            (None, Some(requested)) => *current = Some(requested),
+            (Some(current), Some(requested)) if current != requested => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "FTS queries cannot mix Row and ListElement document granularities".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            _ => {}
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+    let mut granularity = None;
+    visit(query, &mut granularity)?;
+    Ok(granularity)
+}
+
+/// Map an index-level query onto the tree the in-memory index evaluates.
+///
+/// Each leaf keeps the column the planner bound it to, so a tree spanning
+/// several fields stays routable. Document granularity is still resolved once
+/// for the whole query by the caller: the arm emits one schema.
+fn to_local_expr(query: &IndexFtsQuery) -> Result<FtsQueryExpr> {
+    fn bind(expr: FtsQueryExpr, column: Option<&String>) -> FtsQueryExpr {
+        match column {
+            Some(column) => expr.with_column(column.clone()),
+            None => expr,
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(match query {
+        IndexFtsQuery::Match(m) => bind(
+            match m.fuzziness {
+                // `Some(0)` is an exact match in the index model.
+                Some(0) => FtsQueryExpr::match_query_with_operator(m.terms.clone(), m.operator)
+                    .with_boost(m.boost),
+                // The fuzzy path expands each term independently and unions the
+                // expansions, so it cannot also require every term to match.
+                _ if m.operator != Operator::Or => {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                        "MemTable fuzzy full-text search only supports OR match operators"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                fuzziness => FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy_with_options(
+                    m.terms.clone(),
+                    fuzziness,
+                    m.prefix_length,
+                    m.max_expansions,
+                )
+                .with_boost(m.boost),
+            },
+            m.column.as_ref(),
+        ),
+        IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(p) => bind(
+            FtsQueryExpr::phrase_with_slop(p.terms.clone(), p.slop),
+            p.column.as_ref(),
+        ),
+        IndexFtsQuery::Boost(b) => FtsQueryExpr::boosting_with_negative(
+            to_local_expr(&b.positive)?,
+            to_local_expr(&b.negative)?,
+            b.negative_boost,
+        ),
+        IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(b) => {
+            let mut builder = FtsQueryExpr::boolean();
+            for child in &b.must {
+                builder = builder.must(to_local_expr(child)?);
+            }
+            for child in &b.should {
+                builder = builder.should(to_local_expr(child)?);
+            }
+            for child in &b.must_not {
+                builder = builder.must_not(to_local_expr(child)?);
+            }
+            builder.build()
+        }
+        IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(m) => FtsQueryExpr::MultiMatch {
+            children: m
+                .match_queries
+                .iter()
+                .map(|leaf| to_local_expr(&IndexFtsQuery::Match(leaf.clone())))
+                .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+        },
+        // BM25F needs corpus-wide field statistics that the in-memory index
+        // does not maintain, so there is no local expression for it.
+        IndexFtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "MemTable full-text search does not support combined_fields (BM25F)".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+    })
 }
 
 /// Scalar predicate for BTree index queries.
@@ -241,19 +484,23 @@ impl ScalarPredicate {
 /// Provides a builder pattern similar to Lance's Scanner interface
 /// for constructing DataFusion execution plans over in-memory data.
 ///
-/// # Index Visibility Model
+/// # Readable Prefix
 ///
-/// The scanner captures `max_indexed_batch_position` from the `IndexStore` at
-/// construction time. This frozen visibility ensures queries only see data
-/// that has been indexed, providing consistent results.
+/// The scanner snapshots one readable prefix at construction, so every plan it
+/// builds cuts at the same bound. [`MemTableVisibility`] selects which prefix:
+/// published, or the writer's own indexed prefix.
 ///
 /// # Example
 ///
+/// The builder methods take `&mut self` (mirroring
+/// [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner`]), so configure the scanner with
+/// statements rather than a fluent chain:
+///
 /// ```ignore
-/// let scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema)
-///     .project(&["id", "name"])?
-///     .filter("id > 10")?
-///     .limit(100, None)?;
+/// let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema);
+/// scanner.project(&["id", "name"])?;
+/// scanner.filter("id > 10")?;
+/// scanner.limit(Some(100), None)?;
 ///
 /// let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
 /// ```
@@ -261,9 +508,9 @@ pub struct MemTableScanner {
     batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
     indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
     schema: SchemaRef,
-    /// Frozen visibility captured at scanner construction time.
-    /// This is the `max_indexed_batch_position` from the IndexStore.
-    max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+    /// Readable prefix frozen at scanner construction. Which `IndexStore`
+    /// cursor it came from is this scanner's [`MemTableVisibility`].
+    readable_count: usize,
     projection: Option<Vec<String>>,
     filter: Option<Expr>,
     limit: Option<usize>,
@@ -275,28 +522,43 @@ pub struct MemTableScanner {
     /// Whether to include _rowid column in output.
     /// In MemTable, _rowid is the row_position (global row offset).
     with_row_id: bool,
+    /// Whether to include _rowaddr column in output.
+    /// Same value as _rowid but named for compatibility with LSM scanner.
+    with_row_address: bool,
+    /// Primary-key columns, supplied by the LSM planner. When set, a filtered
+    /// vector/FTS search evaluates the predicate against the newest version of
+    /// each PK only, so an in-memtable update whose current version fails the
+    /// predicate is excluded rather than leaking a stale older match.
+    pk_columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
 }
 
 impl MemTableScanner {
-    /// Create a new scanner.
-    ///
-    /// Captures `max_indexed_batch_position` from the `IndexStore` at construction
-    /// time to ensure consistent query visibility.
+    /// Create a new scanner over the published prefix.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `batch_store` - Lock-free batch store containing the data
-    /// * `indexes` - Index registry (required for visibility tracking)
+    /// * `indexes` - Index registry (carries the visibility cursors)
     /// * `schema` - Schema of the data
     pub fn new(batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>, indexes: Arc<IndexStore>, schema: SchemaRef) -> Self {
-        // Capture max_indexed_batch_position at construction time
-        let max_visible_batch_position = indexes.max_indexed_batch_position();
+        Self::new_at_visibility(batch_store, indexes, schema, MemTableVisibility::Published)
+    }
+
+    /// As [`Self::new`], bounded by `visibility`. Snapshotted at construction,
+    /// so every plan this scanner builds keys on one stable cursor.
+    pub fn new_at_visibility(
+        batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+        indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        visibility: MemTableVisibility,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let readable_count = indexes.prefix_count(visibility);
 
         Self {
             batch_store,
             indexes,
             schema,
-            max_visible_batch_position,
+            readable_count,
             projection: None,
             filter: None,
             limit: None,
@@ -306,18 +568,35 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
             use_index: true,
             batch_size: None,
             with_row_id: false,
+            with_row_address: false,
+            pk_columns: None,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Project only the specified columns.
+    /// Provide the primary-key columns. When set, a filtered vector/FTS search
+    /// evaluates the predicate against the newest version of each PK only,
+    /// preventing a stale older match from leaking past an in-memtable update
+    /// whose current version fails the predicate.
+    pub fn with_pk_columns(&mut self, pk_columns: Vec<String>) -> &mut Self {
+        self.pk_columns = if pk_columns.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(pk_columns)
+        };
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Project only the specified columns. Mirrors
+    /// [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::project`].
     ///
     /// Special columns:
     /// - `_rowid`: Returns the row position (global row offset in MemTable)
-    pub fn project(&mut self, columns: &[&str]) -> &mut Self {
+    pub fn project<T: AsRef<str>>(&mut self, columns: &[T]) -> Result<&mut Self> {
         // Check if _rowid is requested in projection
         let mut filtered_columns = Vec::new();
         for col in columns {
-            if *col == ROW_ID {
+            let col = col.as_ref();
+            if col == ROW_ID {
                 self.with_row_id = true;
             } else {
                 filtered_columns.push(col.to_string());
@@ -327,7 +606,7 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         if !filtered_columns.is_empty() || self.with_row_id {
             self.projection = Some(filtered_columns);
         }
-        self
+        Ok(self)
     }
 
     /// Include the _rowid column in output.
@@ -338,18 +617,26 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         self
     }
 
+    /// The readable-prefix snapshot this scanner latched at construction. A
+    /// downstream recency filter must key on this same snapshot (not a fresh
+    /// read of the IndexStore cursor, which a concurrent append could have
+    /// advanced) so it stays consistent with the rows the search saw.
+    pub fn readable_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.readable_count
+    }
+
+    /// Include the _rowaddr column in output.
+    ///
+    /// Same value as _rowid but named for compatibility with LSM scanner.
+    /// Used when scanning MemTable as part of a unified LSM scan.
+    pub fn with_row_address(&mut self) -> &mut Self {
+        self.with_row_address = true;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set a filter expression using SQL-like syntax.
     pub fn filter(&mut self, filter_expr: &str) -> Result<&mut Self> {
-        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
-        let df_schema = self.schema.clone().to_dfschema().map_err(|e| {
-            Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create DFSchema: {}", e), location!())
-        })?;
-        let expr = ctx.parse_sql_expr(filter_expr, &df_schema).map_err(|e| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Failed to parse filter expression: {}", e),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })?;
+        let expr = parse_filter_expr(self.schema.as_ref(), filter_expr)?;
         self.filter = Some(expr);
         Ok(self)
     }
@@ -360,24 +647,50 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Limit the number of results.
-    pub fn limit(&mut self, limit: usize, offset: Option<usize>) -> &mut Self {
-        self.limit = Some(limit);
-        self.offset = offset;
-        self
+    /// Limit the number of results, with an optional offset. Mirrors
+    /// [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::limit`]: both bounds are `Option<i64>`
+    /// and must be non-negative.
+    pub fn limit(&mut self, limit: Option<i64>, offset: Option<i64>) -> Result<&mut Self> {
+        if let Some(value) = limit
+            && value < 0
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "limit must be non-negative".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = offset
+            && value < 0
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "offset must be non-negative".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.limit = limit.map(|value| value as usize);
+        self.offset = offset.map(|value| value as usize);
+        Ok(self)
     }
 
-    /// Set up a vector similarity search.
+    /// Set up a vector similarity search. Mirrors
+    /// [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::nearest`] — the query vector is passed
+    /// by reference.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `column` - The name of the vector column to search.
     /// * `query` - The query vector.
     /// * `k` - Number of nearest neighbors to return.
-    pub fn nearest(&mut self, column: &str, query: Arc<dyn Array>, k: usize) -> &mut Self {
+    pub fn nearest(&mut self, column: &str, query: &dyn Array, k: usize) -> Result<&mut Self> {
+        if k == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("k must be positive".to_string()));
+        }
+        if query.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "query vector must have non-zero length".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
         self.nearest = Some(VectorQuery {
             column: column.to_string(),
-            query_vector: query,
+            query_vector: query.slice(0, query.len()),
             k,
             nprobes: 1,
             maximum_nprobes: None,
@@ -387,13 +700,12 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
             distance_lower_bound: None,
             distance_upper_bound: None,
         });
-        self
+        Ok(self)
     }
 
     /// Set the number of probes for IVF search.
     ///
-    /// This is a convenience method that sets both minimum and maximum nprobes
-    /// to the same value, guaranteeing exactly `n` partitions will be searched.
+    /// Sets both the minimum and maximum to `n`.
     pub fn nprobes(&mut self, n: usize) -> &mut Self {
         if let Some(ref mut q) = self.nearest {
             q.nprobes = n;
@@ -481,10 +793,15 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set up a full-text search with simple term matching.
-    pub fn full_text_search(&mut self, column: &str, query: &str) -> &mut Self {
-        self.full_text_query = Some(FtsQuery::match_query(column, query));
-        self
+    /// Set up a full-text search. Mirrors
+    /// [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::full_text_search`], taking a
+    /// [`FullTextSearchQuery`] whose column is set via
+    /// `FullTextSearchQuery::with_column`. Match (exact/fuzzy) and phrase leaf
+    /// queries are supported; compound queries (boolean/boost/multi-match) are
+    /// not yet supported by the MemTable path and return an error.
+    pub fn full_text_search(&mut self, query: FullTextSearchQuery) -> Result<&mut Self> {
+        self.full_text_query = Some(local_fts_query(query, Some(self.indexes.as_ref()))?);
+        Ok(self)
     }
 
     /// Set up a full-text phrase search.
@@ -571,6 +888,7 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
             column,
             query,
             fuzziness,
+            0,
             max_expansions,
         ));
         self
@@ -598,6 +916,21 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Choose whether FTS searches the mutable tail (read-your-writes, default)
+    /// or only the immutable frozen partitions (the Lucene model — lower latency,
+    /// does not reflect rows written since the last freeze). Only applies when a
+    /// full-text query is set.
+    pub fn fts_include_tail(&mut self, include_tail: bool) -> &mut Self {
+        if let Some(ref mut q) = self.full_text_query {
+            q.include_tail = include_tail;
+        } else {
+            log::warn!(
+                "fts_include_tail is not set because full_text_query has not been called yet"
+            );
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Enable or disable index usage.
     pub fn use_index(&mut self, use_index: bool) -> &mut Self {
         self.use_index = use_index;
@@ -616,23 +949,29 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         let ctx = SessionContext::new();
         let task_ctx = ctx.task_ctx();
         plan.execute(0, task_ctx)
-            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to execute plan: {}", e), location!()))
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to execute plan: {}", e)))
     }
 
     /// Execute the scan and collect all results into a single RecordBatch.
     pub async fn try_into_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let stream = self.try_into_stream().await?;
+        let plan = self.create_plan().await?;
+        let output_schema = plan.schema();
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let task_ctx = ctx.task_ctx();
+        let stream = plan
+            .execute(0, task_ctx)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to execute plan: {}", e)))?;
         let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream
             .try_collect()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to collect batches: {}", e), location!()))?;
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to collect batches: {}", e)))?;
 
         if batches.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(self.output_schema()));
+            return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(output_schema));
         }
 
-        arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&self.output_schema(), &batches)
-            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to concatenate batches: {}", e), location!()))
+        arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&output_schema, &batches)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to concatenate batches: {}", e)))
     }
 
     /// Count the number of rows that match the query.
@@ -641,7 +980,7 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream
             .try_collect()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to count rows: {}", e), location!()))?;
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to count rows: {}", e)))?;
 
         Ok(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows() as u64).sum())
     }
@@ -649,48 +988,62 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
     /// Get the output schema after projection.
     ///
     /// If `with_row_id` is true, adds `_rowid` column at the end.
-    pub fn output_schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
-        let mut fields: Vec<Field> = if let Some(ref projection) = self.projection {
-            projection
-                .iter()
-                .filter_map(|name| self.schema.field_with_name(name).ok().cloned())
-                .collect()
-        } else {
-            self.schema
-                .fields()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone())
-                .collect()
-        };
+    /// If `with_row_address` is true, adds `_rowaddr` column at the end.
+    pub fn output_schema(&self) -> Result<SchemaRef> {
+        use super::exec::ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN;
+
+        let mut fields: Vec<Field> = self.projected_data_fields()?;
 
         // Add _rowid column if requested
         if self.with_row_id {
             fields.push(Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true));
         }
 
-        Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(fields))
+        // Add _rowaddr column if requested
+        if self.with_row_address {
+            fields.push(Field::new(ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN, DataType::UInt64, true));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(fields)))
     }
 
     /// Get the base output schema after projection, WITHOUT special columns like _rowid.
     /// This is used by index execs that add their own special columns.
-    fn base_output_schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
-        let fields: Vec<Field> = if let Some(ref projection) = self.projection {
-            projection
-                .iter()
-                .filter_map(|name| self.schema.field_with_name(name).ok().cloned())
-                .collect()
-        } else {
-            self.schema
+    fn base_output_schema(&self) -> Result<SchemaRef> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(
+            self.projected_data_fields()?,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    /// Data columns this scan emits, with nested paths narrowed to the leaves
+    /// they select — a projected `meta.a` yields `meta: Struct<a>`.
+    ///
+    /// An unresolvable column is an error here, matching
+    /// [`Self::compute_projection_indices`]; both used to disagree, one
+    /// silently dropping what the other rejected.
+    fn projected_data_fields(&self) -> Result<Vec<Field>> {
+        let Some(ref projection) = self.projection else {
+            return Ok(self
+                .schema
                 .fields()
                 .iter()
                 .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone())
-                .collect()
+                .collect());
         };
-        Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(fields))
+        let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(self.schema.as_ref())?;
+        let projected = lance_schema.project(projection)?;
+        let arrow = arrow_schema::Schema::from(&projected);
+        Ok(arrow.fields().iter().map(|f| f.as_ref().clone()).collect())
     }
 
     /// Create the execution plan based on the query configuration.
     pub async fn create_plan(&self) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if self.nearest.is_some() && self.full_text_query.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "MemTableScanner cannot combine vector and full-text search".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
         // Determine which type of plan to create
         if let Some(ref vector_query) = self.nearest {
             return self.plan_vector_search(vector_query).await;
@@ -701,12 +1054,11 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         }
 
         // Check if we can use a BTree index for the filter
-        if self.use_index {
-            if let Some(predicate) = self.extract_btree_predicate() {
-                if self.has_btree_index(predicate.column()) {
-                    return self.plan_btree_query(&predicate).await;
-                }
-            }
+        if self.use_index
+            && let Some(predicate) = self.extract_btree_predicate()
+            && self.has_btree_index(predicate.column())
+        {
+            return self.plan_btree_query(&predicate).await;
         }
 
         // Fall back to full scan
@@ -718,42 +1070,95 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         let projection_indices = self.compute_projection_indices()?;
 
         // Build filter predicate if present
+        // Note: optimize_expr() must be called before create_physical_expr() to handle
+        // type coercion (e.g., Int64 literal -> Int32 to match column type)
         let (filter_predicate, filter_expr) = if let Some(ref filter) = self.filter {
             let planner = Planner::new(self.schema.clone());
-            let predicate = planner.create_physical_expr(filter)?;
-            (Some(predicate), Some(filter.clone()))
+            let optimized = planner.optimize_expr(filter.clone())?;
+            let predicate = planner.create_physical_expr(&optimized)?;
+            (Some(predicate), Some(optimized))
         } else {
             (None, None)
         };
 
         let scan = MemTableScanExec::with_filter(
             self.batch_store.clone(),
-            self.max_visible_batch_position,
+            self.readable_count,
             projection_indices,
-            self.output_schema(),
+            self.output_schema()?,
             self.schema.clone(),
             self.with_row_id,
+            self.with_row_address,
             filter_predicate,
             filter_expr,
         );
 
         let mut plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(scan);
 
-        // Apply limit if present
-        if let Some(limit) = self.limit {
+        // Apply limit / offset if present.
+        if self.limit.is_some() || self.offset.unwrap_or(0) > 0 {
             plan = Arc::new(GlobalLimitExec::new(
                 plan,
                 self.offset.unwrap_or(0),
-                Some(limit),
+                self.limit,
             ));
         }
 
         Ok(plan)
     }
 
+    /// Plan a newest-per-PK active-arm scan via `MemTableDedupScanExec` —
+    /// dedup runs before the predicate so a PK whose newest version fails the
+    /// filter cannot leak an older version that passes. Unlike
+    /// `plan_full_scan`, this never takes the BTree skip (dedup needs
+    /// every version) and never pushes a limit (the LSM caps results above
+    /// the cross-source merge).
+    pub async fn create_dedup_plan(&self, pk_columns: &[String]) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        validate_pk_types(&self.schema, pk_columns)?;
+
+        let pk_indices = pk_columns
+            .iter()
+            .map(|name| {
+                self.schema
+                    .column_with_name(name)
+                    .map(|(idx, _)| idx)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Primary key column '{}' not found in schema",
+                            name
+                        ))
+                    })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<usize>>>()?;
+
+        let projection_indices = self.compute_projection_indices()?;
+
+        // optimize_expr() must run before create_physical_expr() for type coercion.
+        let (filter_predicate, filter_expr) = if let Some(ref filter) = self.filter {
+            let planner = Planner::new(self.schema.clone());
+            let optimized = planner.optimize_expr(filter.clone())?;
+            let predicate = planner.create_physical_expr(&optimized)?;
+            (Some(predicate), Some(optimized))
+        } else {
+            (None, None)
+        };
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(MemTableDedupScanExec::new(
+            self.batch_store.clone(),
+            self.readable_count,
+            projection_indices,
+            self.output_schema()?,
+            pk_indices,
+            self.with_row_id,
+            self.with_row_address,
+            filter_predicate,
+            filter_expr,
+        )))
+    }
+
     /// Plan a BTree index query.
     ///
-    /// Uses the effective visibility (min of max_visible and max_indexed) to ensure
+    /// Uses the effective visibility (min of max_readable and max_indexed) to ensure
     /// queries only see indexed data. Falls back to full scan if no index exists.
     async fn plan_btree_query(
         &self,
@@ -763,69 +1168,163 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
             return self.plan_full_scan().await;
         }
 
-        let max_visible = self.max_visible_batch_position;
+        let max_readable = self.readable_count;
         let projection_indices = self.compute_projection_indices()?;
 
         let index_exec = BTreeIndexExec::new(
             self.batch_store.clone(),
             self.indexes.clone(),
             predicate.clone(),
-            max_visible,
+            max_readable,
             projection_indices,
-            self.output_schema(),
+            self.output_schema()?,
             self.with_row_id,
+            self.with_row_address,
         )?;
         self.apply_post_index_ops(Arc::new(index_exec)).await
     }
 
     /// Plan a vector similarity search.
     ///
-    /// Uses the effective visibility (min of max_visible and max_indexed) to ensure
-    /// queries only see indexed data. Falls back to full scan if no index exists.
-    async fn plan_vector_search(&self, query: &VectorQuery) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        if !self.has_vector_index(&query.column) {
-            return self.plan_full_scan().await;
-        }
+    /// Always emits a plan whose output schema includes `_distance`: dispatches
+    /// to [`VectorIndexExec`] when an HNSW exists for the column, otherwise to
+    /// [`MemTableBruteForceVectorExec`]. The brute-force arm exists because the
+    /// active memtable is the LSM's unindexed-rows path — when the HNSW config
+    /// hasn't reached this writer yet (cold-start, or rows written between an
+    /// index commit and the next memtable rotation), KNN must still produce
+    /// correct, distance-bearing results so the LSM-level merge stays sound.
+    /// Compile the optional logical `filter` into a physical predicate against
+    /// the memtable schema. Shared by the vector and FTS search arms; mirrors the
+    /// compilation in [`Self::plan_full_scan`] (`optimize_expr` before
+    /// `create_physical_expr` for literal type coercion).
+    fn filter_predicate(&self) -> Result<Option<PhysicalExprRef>> {
+        let Some(ref filter) = self.filter else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let planner = Planner::new(self.schema.clone());
+        let optimized = planner.optimize_expr(filter.clone())?;
+        Ok(Some(planner.create_physical_expr(&optimized)?))
+    }
 
-        let max_visible = self.max_visible_batch_position;
+    async fn plan_vector_search(&self, query: &VectorQuery) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let max_readable = self.readable_count;
         let projection_indices = self.compute_projection_indices()?;
+        let base_schema = self.base_output_schema()?;
+        let filter_predicate = self.filter_predicate()?;
+        if let Some(pk_columns) = &self.pk_columns {
+            validate_pk_types(&self.schema, pk_columns)?;
+        }
 
-        let index_exec = VectorIndexExec::new(
-            self.batch_store.clone(),
-            self.indexes.clone(),
-            query.clone(),
-            max_visible,
-            projection_indices,
-            self.base_output_schema(),
-            self.with_row_id,
-        )?;
-        self.apply_post_index_ops(Arc::new(index_exec)).await
+        // With a prefilter we use brute force rather than HNSW because graph
+        // traversal cannot honor an arbitrary predicate. With PK rewrites, we
+        // also need exact newest-before-top-k semantics: a stale near vector
+        // must not consume an HNSW top-k slot and hide the next live row. Pure
+        // append-only PK data can still use HNSW safely. This relies on
+        // `IndexStore` marking PK overrides before advancing the visible batch
+        // watermark, so any snapshot that sees a rewrite also sees the flag.
+        let hnsw_safe_with_pk = self
+            .pk_columns
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|_| self.indexes.has_pk_index() && !self.indexes.pk_has_overrides())
+            .unwrap_or(true);
+        // A distance lower bound excludes the *nearest* rows, and
+        // `VectorIndexExec` can only drop them after the graph search has
+        // already cut to k — leaving fewer than k in-range rows, or none.
+        // Brute force filters the complete candidate set before its cut, so it
+        // is the only correct arm here. An upper bound is safe on HNSW: it
+        // trims the far tail, which the top-k would have dropped anyway.
+        let hnsw_safe_with_bounds = query.distance_lower_bound.is_none();
+        let exec: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = if self.use_index
+            && filter_predicate.is_none()
+            && hnsw_safe_with_pk
+            && hnsw_safe_with_bounds
+            && self.has_vector_index(&query.column, query.distance_type)
+        {
+            Arc::new(VectorIndexExec::new(
+                self.batch_store.clone(),
+                self.indexes.clone(),
+                query.clone(),
+                max_readable,
+                projection_indices,
+                base_schema,
+                self.with_row_id,
+            )?)
+        } else {
+            Arc::new(
+                MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(
+                    self.batch_store.clone(),
+                    query.clone(),
+                    max_readable,
+                    projection_indices,
+                    base_schema,
+                    self.with_row_id,
+                )?
+                .with_filter(filter_predicate)
+                .with_pk_columns(self.pk_columns.clone()),
+            )
+        };
+        self.apply_post_index_ops(exec).await
     }
 
     /// Plan a full-text search.
     ///
-    /// Uses the effective visibility (min of max_visible and max_indexed) to ensure
-    /// queries only see indexed data. Falls back to full scan if no index exists.
+    /// Uses the effective visibility (min of max_readable and max_indexed) to ensure
+    /// queries only see indexed data.
     async fn plan_fts_search(&self, query: &FtsQuery) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        if !self.has_fts_index(&query.column) {
-            return self.plan_full_scan().await;
+        // Every queried column needs an index: a cross-column predicate is one
+        // predicate, so a missing arm is a missing answer, not a smaller one.
+        if !query
+            .columns()
+            .into_iter()
+            .all(|column| self.has_fts_index(column, query.document_granularity))
+        {
+            return self.empty_fts_plan(query.document_granularity);
         }
 
-        let max_visible = self.max_visible_batch_position;
+        let max_readable = self.readable_count;
         let projection_indices = self.compute_projection_indices()?;
+        let filter_predicate = self.filter_predicate()?;
+        if let Some(pk_columns) = &self.pk_columns {
+            validate_pk_types(&self.schema, pk_columns)?;
+        }
 
         let index_exec = FtsIndexExec::new(
             self.batch_store.clone(),
             self.indexes.clone(),
             query.clone(),
-            max_visible,
+            max_readable,
             projection_indices,
-            self.base_output_schema(),
+            self.base_output_schema()?,
             self.with_row_id,
-        )?;
+        )?
+        .with_filter(filter_predicate)
+        .with_pk_columns(self.pk_columns.clone());
         self.apply_post_index_ops(Arc::new(index_exec)).await
     }
 
+    fn empty_fts_plan(
+        &self,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::empty::EmptyExec;
+
+        let mut fields: Vec<Field> = self
+            .base_output_schema()?
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone())
+            .collect();
+        if document_granularity.is_list_element() {
+            fields.push(DOC_INDEX_FIELD.clone());
+        }
+        fields.push(Field::new(SCORE_COLUMN, DataType::Float32, true));
+        if self.with_row_id {
+            fields.push(Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true));
+        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(fields));
+        Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(schema)))
+    }
+
     /// Apply limit and other post-processing operations.
     async fn apply_post_index_ops(
         &self,
@@ -833,11 +1332,11 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         let mut result = plan;
 
-        if let Some(limit) = self.limit {
+        if self.limit.is_some() || self.offset.unwrap_or(0) > 0 {
             result = Arc::new(GlobalLimitExec::new(
                 result,
                 self.offset.unwrap_or(0),
-                Some(limit),
+                self.limit,
             ));
         }
 
@@ -845,58 +1344,162 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
     }
 
     /// Compute column indices for projection.
+    /// Top-level column indices this scan must materialize.
+    ///
+    /// A nested path contributes its *parent* index — the memtable batch stores
+    /// whole columns, so `meta.a` is served by taking `meta` and narrowing it
+    /// to [`Self::projected_data_fields`] downstream. Sibling leaves of one
+    /// parent therefore collapse to a single index.
     fn compute_projection_indices(&self) -> Result<Option<Vec<usize>>> {
-        if let Some(ref columns) = self.projection {
-            let indices: Result<Vec<usize>> = columns
-                .iter()
-                .map(|name| {
-                    self.schema
-                        .column_with_name(name)
-                        .map(|(idx, _)| idx)
-                        .ok_or_else(|| {
-                            Error::invalid_input(
-                                format!("Column '{}' not found in schema", name),
-                                location!(),
-                            )
-                        })
-                })
-                .collect();
-            Ok(Some(indices?))
-        } else {
-            Ok(None)
+        let Some(ref columns) = self.projection else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let mut indices: Vec<usize> = Vec::with_capacity(columns.len());
+        for name in columns {
+            let top = parse_field_path(name)?
+                .into_iter()
+                .next()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("empty projection name: {}", name)))?;
+            let (idx, _) = self.schema.column_with_name(&top).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("Column '{}' not found in schema", name))
+            })?;
+            if !indices.contains(&idx) {
+                indices.push(idx);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Some(indices))
+    }
+
+    /// Collect `col = lit OR col IN (lit, ..) OR ..` over one column into its
+    /// values, or return false and leave the caller to fall back to a full scan.
+    fn collect_or_equalities(
+        &self,
+        expr: &Expr,
+        column: &mut Option<String>,
+        values: &mut Vec<ScalarValue>,
+    ) -> bool {
+        let mut same_column = |name: &str| match column {
+            Some(existing) => existing == name,
+            None => {
+                *column = Some(name.to_string());
+                true
+            }
+        };
+        // The exec answers `In` by concatenating a lookup per value, so a value
+        // listed twice would emit its rows twice. Two disjuncts can easily name
+        // the same value: the signed-zero rewrite turns both sides of
+        // `x = -0.0 OR x = 0.0` into the same two-element list.
+        fn push_once(values: &mut Vec<ScalarValue>, value: ScalarValue) {
+            if !values.contains(&value) {
+                values.push(value);
+            }
+        }
+        match expr {
+            Expr::BinaryExpr(binary) if binary.op == datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::Or => {
+                self.collect_or_equalities(&binary.left, column, values)
+                    && self.collect_or_equalities(&binary.right, column, values)
+            }
+            Expr::BinaryExpr(binary) if binary.op == datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::Eq => {
+                let (Expr::Column(col), Expr::Literal(lit, _)) =
+                    (binary.left.as_ref(), binary.right.as_ref())
+                else {
+                    return false;
+                };
+                let Some(value) = self.coerce_literal_to_column(&col.name, lit) else {
+                    return false;
+                };
+                if !same_column(&col.name) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+                push_once(values, value);
+                true
+            }
+            Expr::InList(in_list) if !in_list.negated => {
+                let Expr::Column(col) = in_list.expr.as_ref() else {
+                    return false;
+                };
+                if !same_column(&col.name) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+                for item in &in_list.list {
+                    let Expr::Literal(lit, _) = item else {
+                        return false;
+                    };
+                    // A NULL among the values makes `IN` return NULL rather than
+                    // false, which a key lookup does not reproduce; fall back.
+                    if lit.is_null() {
+                        return false;
+                    }
+                    let Some(value) = self.coerce_literal_to_column(&col.name, lit) else {
+                        return false;
+                    };
+                    push_once(values, value);
+                }
+                true
+            }
+            _ => false,
         }
     }
 
     /// Extract a BTree-compatible predicate from the filter.
+    ///
+    /// This method also coerces literal values to match the column's data type
+    /// (e.g., Int64 literal -> Int32 when the column is Int32).
     fn extract_btree_predicate(&self) -> Option<ScalarPredicate> {
-        let filter = self.filter.as_ref()?;
+        // `filter()` stores the parsed expression without running `optimize_expr`,
+        // so run it here to pick the plan from the same expression the full scan
+        // would evaluate. Coercion has to happen before the signed-zero rewrite
+        // inside it, otherwise `value = 0` keeps its integer literal and gets a
+        // bit-exact lookup while the scan beside it answers per IEEE 754. An
+        // expression `optimize_expr` rejects is reported by `plan_full_scan`,
+        // which runs the same pass, so there is nothing to report here.
+        let planner = Planner::new(self.schema.clone());
+        let filter = planner
+            .optimize_expr(self.filter.clone()?)
+            .inspect_err(|error| {
+                log::debug!("memtable index fast path skipped: {error}");
+            })
+            .ok()?;
 
         // Simple pattern matching for common predicates
-        match filter {
+        match &filter {
+            // `simplify` turns an `IN` list of three or fewer values back into an
+            // OR chain of equalities, and the signed-zero rewrite then turns any
+            // zero among them into a two-element list of its own, so the fast path
+            // has to accept the chain to keep covering `IN`.
+            Expr::BinaryExpr(binary) if binary.op == datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::Or => {
+                let mut column = None;
+                let mut values = Vec::new();
+                if self.collect_or_equalities(&filter, &mut column, &mut values) {
+                    debug_assert!(column.is_some(), "a true return always names the column");
+                    return column.map(|column| ScalarPredicate::In { column, values });
+                }
+            }
             Expr::BinaryExpr(binary) => {
                 if let (Expr::Column(col), Expr::Literal(lit, _)) =
                     (binary.left.as_ref(), binary.right.as_ref())
                 {
+                    // Coerce literal to match column type
+                    let coerced_lit = self.coerce_literal_to_column(&col.name, lit)?;
+
                     match binary.op {
                         datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::Eq => {
                             return Some(ScalarPredicate::Eq {
                                 column: col.name.clone(),
-                                value: lit.clone(),
+                                value: coerced_lit,
                             });
                         }
-                        datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::Lt
-                        | datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::LtEq => {
+                        datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::Lt => {
                             return Some(ScalarPredicate::Range {
                                 column: col.name.clone(),
                                 lower: None,
-                                upper: Some(lit.clone()),
+                                upper: Some(coerced_lit),
                             });
                         }
-                        datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::Gt
-                        | datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::GtEq => {
+                        datafusion::logical_expr::Operator::GtEq => {
                             return Some(ScalarPredicate::Range {
                                 column: col.name.clone(),
-                                lower: Some(lit.clone()),
+                                lower: Some(coerced_lit),
                                 upper: None,
                             });
                         }
@@ -904,14 +1507,15 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
                     }
                 }
             }
-            Expr::InList(in_list) => {
+            Expr::InList(in_list) if !in_list.negated => {
                 if let Expr::Column(col) = in_list.expr.as_ref() {
                     let values: Vec<ScalarValue> = in_list
                         .list
                         .iter()
                         .filter_map(|e| {
                             if let Expr::Literal(lit, _) = e {
-                                Some(lit.clone())
+                                // Coerce each literal to match column type
+                                self.coerce_literal_to_column(&col.name, lit)
                             } else {
                                 None
                             }
@@ -932,26 +1536,51 @@ impl MemTableScanner {
         None
     }
 
+    /// Coerce a literal value to match the column's data type.
+    fn coerce_literal_to_column(&self, column: &str, lit: &ScalarValue) -> Option<ScalarValue> {
+        let field = self.schema.field_with_name(column).ok()?;
+        let target_type = field.data_type();
+
+        // If types already match, return as-is
+        if &lit.data_type() == target_type {
+            return Some(lit.clone());
+        }
+
+        // Use safe_coerce_scalar to convert the value
+        safe_coerce_scalar(lit, target_type)
+    }
+
     /// Check if a BTree index exists for a column.
     fn has_btree_index(&self, column: &str) -> bool {
         self.indexes.get_btree_by_column(column).is_some()
     }
 
     /// Check if a vector index exists for a column.
-    fn has_vector_index(&self, column: &str) -> bool {
-        self.indexes.get_ivf_pq_by_column(column).is_some()
+    /// Whether an HNSW index on `column` can answer a query in `distance_type`.
+    ///
+    /// The graph's metric is baked into its structure, so a query asking for a
+    /// different one has to brute-force instead — the same fallback
+    /// `Scanner::vector_search` applies when a requested metric disagrees with
+    /// a base index. `None` means "use the index's metric", which always
+    /// matches.
+    fn has_vector_index(&self, column: &str, distance_type: Option<DistanceType>) -> bool {
+        self.indexes
+            .get_hnsw_by_column(column)
+            .is_some_and(|hnsw| distance_type.is_none_or(|dt| dt == hnsw.distance_type()))
     }
 
     /// Check if an FTS index exists for a column.
-    fn has_fts_index(&self, column: &str) -> bool {
-        self.indexes.get_fts_by_column(column).is_some()
+    fn has_fts_index(&self, column: &str, document_granularity: DocumentGranularity) -> bool {
+        self.indexes
+            .get_fts_by_column_and_granularity(column, document_granularity)
+            .is_some()
     }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, Int32Array, StringArray};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
 
     fn create_test_schema() -> SchemaRef {
@@ -1044,7 +1673,7 @@ mod tests {
         let indexes = Arc::new(index_store);
         let scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
         let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        // max_indexed_batch_position is 1, so we see batches 0 and 1 (20 rows)
+        // readable_count is 1, so we see batches 0 and 1 (20 rows)
         assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 20);
     }
 
@@ -1056,27 +1685,923 @@ mod tests {
         let indexes = create_index_store_with_batches(&batch_store, &schema, &[(0, 10)]);
 
         let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
-        scanner.project(&["id"]);
+        scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
 
         let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(result.num_columns(), 1);
         assert_eq!(result.schema().field(0).name(), "id");
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scanner_limit() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
+    /// `meta: Struct<a, b>` beside a flat column, for nested projection.
+    fn nested_test_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        use arrow_schema::Fields;
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "meta",
+                DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                    Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, true),
+                    Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                ])),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn projecting_a_struct_leaf_narrows_the_memtable_output() {
+        use arrow_array::{Int64Array, StructArray};
+        use arrow_schema::Fields;
+
+        let schema = nested_test_schema();
+        let meta_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                    meta_fields,
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![10, 20])),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["x", "y"])),
+                    ],
+                    None,
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(8));
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        // Publishing through the index store is what makes the batch readable.
+        let index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema);
+        scanner.project(&["meta.a"]).unwrap();
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(result.num_columns(), 1);
+        let field = result.schema().field(0).clone();
+        assert_eq!(field.name(), "meta");
+        let DataType::Struct(children) = field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("meta is not a struct: {:?}", field.data_type());
+        };
+        let names: Vec<&str> = children.iter().map(|f| f.name().as_str()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            names,
+            vec!["a"],
+            "sibling `b` must not survive the projection"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The index fast path is chosen from the filter the caller set, which has not
+    /// been through `optimize_expr`. Running it there is what keeps a float zero
+    /// from getting a bit-exact lookup while the full scan beside it answers per
+    /// IEEE 754. The integer spelling matters too: the rewrite only fires once
+    /// coercion has given the literal the column's type.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::float_literal("value = 0.0")]
+    #[case::integer_literal("value = 0")]
+    fn test_extract_btree_predicate_covers_both_zero_encodings(#[case] equality: &str) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "value",
+            DataType::Float64,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(8));
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(
+            batch_store,
+            Arc::new(IndexStore::new()),
+            schema as SchemaRef,
+        );
+
+        scanner.filter(equality).unwrap();
+        match scanner.extract_btree_predicate() {
+            Some(ScalarPredicate::In { column, values }) => {
+                assert_eq!(column, "value");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    values,
+                    vec![
+                        ScalarValue::Float64(Some(-0.0)),
+                        ScalarValue::Float64(Some(0.0)),
+                    ]
+                );
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected an In predicate over both encodings, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+
+        // `simplify` shortens a two-value `IN` list into an OR chain, and the
+        // rewrite then replaces the zero with a list of its own. Both spellings
+        // still have to reach the index.
+        scanner.filter("value IN (0.0, 1.0)").unwrap();
+        match scanner.extract_btree_predicate() {
+            Some(ScalarPredicate::In { column, values }) => {
+                assert_eq!(column, "value");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    values,
+                    vec![
+                        ScalarValue::Float64(Some(-0.0)),
+                        ScalarValue::Float64(Some(0.0)),
+                        ScalarValue::Float64(Some(1.0)),
+                    ]
+                );
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected an In predicate covering the list, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+
+        // A short list with no zero in it is shortened just the same, so this is
+        // what keeps the pre-existing `IN` fast path from being lost.
+        scanner.filter("value IN (1.0, 2.0)").unwrap();
+        match scanner.extract_btree_predicate() {
+            Some(ScalarPredicate::In { values, .. }) => {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    values,
+                    vec![
+                        ScalarValue::Float64(Some(1.0)),
+                        ScalarValue::Float64(Some(2.0)),
+                    ]
+                );
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected an In predicate, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+
+        // Both disjuncts rewrite to the same two-element list. The exec answers
+        // `In` with one lookup per value and concatenates, so a value listed twice
+        // would return its rows twice.
+        scanner.filter("value = -0.0 OR value = 0.0").unwrap();
+        match scanner.extract_btree_predicate() {
+            Some(ScalarPredicate::In { values, .. }) => {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    values,
+                    vec![
+                        ScalarValue::Float64(Some(-0.0)),
+                        ScalarValue::Float64(Some(0.0)),
+                    ]
+                );
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected a deduplicated In predicate, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+
+        // `<` has to compare against the negative encoding, or the lookup admits a
+        // row the predicate excludes.
+        scanner.filter("value < 0.0").unwrap();
+        match scanner.extract_btree_predicate() {
+            Some(ScalarPredicate::Range { upper, .. }) => {
+                assert_eq!(upper, Some(ScalarValue::Float64(Some(-0.0))));
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected a Range predicate, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scanner_limit() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
         let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
 
         let indexes = create_index_store_with_batches(&batch_store, &schema, &[(0, 100)]);
 
         let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
-        scanner.limit(10, None);
+        scanner.limit(Some(10), None).unwrap();
 
         let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 10);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scanner_offset_without_limit() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+
+        let indexes = create_index_store_with_batches(&batch_store, &schema, &[(0, 10)]);
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
+        scanner.limit(Some(3), None).unwrap();
+        scanner.limit(None, Some(2)).unwrap();
+
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn btree_filter_fallback_preserves_non_representable_predicates() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+        let indexes = create_index_store_with_batches(&batch_store, &schema, &[(0, 10)]);
+
+        async fn ids_for(
+            batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+            indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
+            schema: SchemaRef,
+            filter: &str,
+        ) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema);
+            scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            scanner
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids_for(
+                batch_store.clone(),
+                indexes.clone(),
+                schema.clone(),
+                "id NOT IN (1, 2)"
+            )
+            .await,
+            vec![0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids_for(
+                batch_store.clone(),
+                indexes.clone(),
+                schema.clone(),
+                "id <= 5"
+            )
+            .await,
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids_for(batch_store, indexes, schema, "id > 5").await,
+            vec![6, 7, 8, 9]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `full_text_search` now takes a structured `FullTextSearchQuery` (matching
+    /// the dataset `Scanner`); `local_fts_query` maps the supported leaf shapes
+    /// and rejects compound queries and missing columns.
+    /// A boost query routed through the public entry point has to score the way
+    /// the compound scorer does — `positive - negative_boost * negative` — or
+    /// active rows rank differently from committed rows for the same query, and
+    /// can even differ in sign. Pins the formula, not just the ordering.
+    #[test]
+    fn public_boost_query_keeps_subtractive_scoring_in_memtable() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::FtsMemIndex;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{BoostQuery, MatchQuery};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec!["alpha", "alpha beta"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let index = FtsMemIndex::new(1, "text".to_string());
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+
+        let leaf = |terms: &str| {
+            IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+                MatchQuery::new(terms.to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+            )
+        };
+        let negative_boost = 0.5;
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boost(BoostQuery::new(
+            leaf("alpha"),
+            leaf("beta"),
+            Some(negative_boost),
+        )));
+        let local = local_fts_query(query, None).unwrap();
+
+        let score_of = |expr: &FtsQueryExpr| {
+            index
+                .search_query(expr)
+                .into_iter()
+                .find(|entry| entry.row_position == 1)
+                .unwrap()
+                .score
+        };
+        // Row 1 matches both clauses, so it is the one the demotion applies to.
+        let actual = score_of(&local.expr);
+        let positive = score_of(&FtsQueryExpr::match_query("alpha"));
+        let negative = score_of(&FtsQueryExpr::match_query("beta"));
+        assert!(
+            (actual - (positive - negative_boost * negative)).abs() < 1e-5,
+            "expected positive - {negative_boost} * negative = {}, got {actual}",
+            positive - negative_boost * negative
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn local_fts_query_maps_leaf_shapes_and_rejects_the_rest() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+            BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Occur, Operator, PhraseQuery,
+        };
+
+        // Exact match (default fuzziness Some(0)) -> local Match, preserving the
+        // old `full_text_search(col, terms)` behavior.
+        let q = FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_string())
+            .with_column("text".to_string())
+            .unwrap();
+        let local = local_fts_query(q, None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(local.columns(), ["text"]);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(local.expr, FtsQueryExpr::Match { query, operator, .. }
+                if query == "hello" && operator == Operator::Or)
+        );
+
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes
+            .add_fts_with_params(
+                "tags_list_element_idx".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "tags".to_string(),
+                lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                    .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let inferred = FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_string())
+            .with_column("tags".to_string())
+            .unwrap();
+        let inferred = local_fts_query(inferred, Some(&indexes)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            inferred.document_granularity,
+            DocumentGranularity::ListElement
+        );
+        let conflicting = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("tags".to_string()))
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+        ));
+        assert!(
+            local_fts_query(conflicting, Some(&indexes))
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("different granularity")
+        );
+        indexes
+            .add_fts_with_params(
+                "tags_idx".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "tags".to_string(),
+                lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let ambiguous = FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_string())
+            .with_column("tags".to_string())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            local_fts_query(ambiguous, Some(&indexes))
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("ambiguous")
+        );
+
+        let exact_and = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("hello world".to_string())
+                .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                .with_boost(3.0)
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+        ));
+        let local = local_fts_query(exact_and, None).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(local.expr, FtsQueryExpr::Match { query, operator, boost, .. }
+                if query == "hello world" && operator == Operator::And && boost == 3.0)
+        );
+
+        // Fuzzy match -> local Fuzzy carrying edit distance, prefix length, and boost.
+        let fuzzy = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                .with_fuzziness(Some(2))
+                .with_prefix_length(2)
+                .with_boost(2.5)
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+        ));
+        let local = local_fts_query(fuzzy, None).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(local.expr, FtsQueryExpr::Fuzzy { fuzziness, prefix_length, boost, .. }
+                if fuzziness == Some(2) && prefix_length == 2 && boost == 2.5)
+        );
+
+        let fuzzy_and = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("lance memwal".to_string())
+                .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+        ));
+        assert!(
+            local_fts_query(fuzzy_and, None).is_err(),
+            "fuzzy AND cannot be represented by the local memtable query"
+        );
+
+        // Phrase -> local Phrase.
+        let phrase = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(
+            PhraseQuery::new("quick fox".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+        ));
+        let local = local_fts_query(phrase, None).unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(local.expr, FtsQueryExpr::Phrase { .. }));
+
+        // Compound (boolean) -> mapped onto the index's own tree, clause for
+        // clause, rather than refused.
+        let leaf = |terms: &str| {
+            IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+                MatchQuery::new(terms.to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+            )
+        };
+        let boolean =
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![
+                (Occur::Must, leaf("x")),
+                (Occur::MustNot, leaf("y")),
+            ])));
+        let local = local_fts_query(boolean, None).unwrap();
+        let FtsQueryExpr::Boolean {
+            must,
+            should,
+            must_not,
+        } = &local.expr
+        else {
+            panic!("expected a Boolean expr, got {:?}", local.expr);
+        };
+        assert!(should.is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&must[..], [FtsQueryExpr::Match { query, .. }] if query == "x"),
+            "MUST clause lost: {must:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&must_not[..], [FtsQueryExpr::Match { query, .. }] if query == "y"),
+            "MUST_NOT clause lost: {must_not:?}"
+        );
+
+        // Boost -> positive and negative both carried, with the demotion factor.
+        let boost = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boost(BoostQuery::new(
+            leaf("keep"),
+            leaf("demote"),
+            Some(0.25),
+        )));
+        let local = local_fts_query(boost, None).unwrap();
+        let FtsQueryExpr::Boost {
+            positive,
+            negative,
+            negative_boost,
+        } = &local.expr
+        else {
+            panic!("expected a Boost expr, got {:?}", local.expr);
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(positive.as_ref(), FtsQueryExpr::Match { query, .. } if query == "keep"));
+        let negative = negative.as_ref().expect("negative clause carried");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(negative.as_ref(), FtsQueryExpr::Match { query, .. } if query == "demote")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(*negative_boost, 0.25);
+
+        // Nested: a boolean whose clause is itself a boolean.
+        let nested =
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![(
+                Occur::Must,
+                IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![(Occur::Should, leaf("deep"))])),
+            )])));
+        let local = local_fts_query(nested, None).unwrap();
+        let FtsQueryExpr::Boolean { must, .. } = &local.expr else {
+            panic!("expected a Boolean expr, got {:?}", local.expr);
+        };
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&must[..], [FtsQueryExpr::Boolean { .. }]),
+            "nesting flattened: {must:?}"
+        );
+
+        // Multi-match maps to a best-child node whose leaves keep their own
+        // columns, so a tree spanning fields still routes leaf by leaf.
+        let multi = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+                "x".to_string(),
+                vec!["text".to_string(), "other".to_string()],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ));
+        let local = local_fts_query(multi, None).unwrap();
+        let FtsQueryExpr::MultiMatch { children } = &local.expr else {
+            panic!("expected a MultiMatch expr, got {:?}", local.expr);
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            children
+                .iter()
+                .map(|child| child.column())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            [Some("text"), Some("other")]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(local.columns(), ["text", "other"]);
+
+        // Missing column -> error.
+        let no_col = FullTextSearchQuery::new("hi".to_string());
+        assert!(
+            local_fts_query(no_col, None).is_err(),
+            "missing column must error"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_honors_query_limit() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "lance",
+                    "lance filler",
+                    "lance filler filler",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, Arc::new(indexes), schema);
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .limit(Some(1)),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            result.num_rows(),
+            1,
+            "query-level FTS limit must cap direct MemTableScanner results"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_without_index_returns_empty_score_schema() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["needle", "needle"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        batch_store.append(batch).unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, Arc::new(IndexStore::new()), schema);
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("needle".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+        assert!(
+            result.schema().field_with_name("_score").is_ok(),
+            "missing FTS indexes should produce an empty FTS-shaped result"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_prefilter_null_predicate_excludes_rows() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("active", DataType::Boolean, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["needle", "needle", "needle"])),
+                Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![None, Some(true), Some(false)])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, Arc::new(indexes), schema);
+        scanner.filter("active = true").unwrap();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("needle".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2],
+            "NULL predicate results must be excluded from FTS prefilter candidates"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_prefilter_disables_wand_pruning() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("active", DataType::Boolean, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["alpha beta gamma delta", "alpha"])),
+                Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![Some(false), Some(true)])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, Arc::new(indexes), schema);
+        scanner.filter("active = true").unwrap();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha beta gamma delta".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .wand_factor(Some(0.99)),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2],
+            "filtered FTS must not let WAND prune rows before the prefilter is applied"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_append_only_pk_keeps_wand_pruning() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["alpha beta gamma delta", "alpha"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, Arc::new(indexes), schema);
+        scanner.with_pk_columns(vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha beta gamma delta".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .wand_factor(Some(0.99)),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1],
+            "append-only PK data should keep index WAND pruning enabled"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_with_pk_rewrite_disables_index_limit_pushdown() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "alpha beta gamma delta epsilon",
+                    "other",
+                    "alpha beta gamma delta",
+                    "alpha",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, Arc::new(indexes), schema);
+        scanner.with_pk_columns(vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha beta gamma delta epsilon".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .limit(Some(2)),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2, 3],
+            "FTS-only PK rewrites must disable index limit pushdown so live lower-scoring PKs can backfill"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_with_pk_columns_drops_stale_filtered_hits() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("active", DataType::Boolean, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["needle", "needle"])),
+                Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![true, false])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, Arc::new(indexes), schema);
+        scanner.with_pk_columns(vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        scanner.filter("active = true").unwrap();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("needle".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            result.num_rows(),
+            0,
+            "the older matching version must not leak when the newest PK fails the filter"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_with_pk_columns_falls_back_without_pk_index() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 1, 2, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "needle stale",
+                    "other",
+                    "other",
+                    "needle fresh",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, Arc::new(indexes), schema);
+        scanner.with_pk_columns(vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("needle".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = scanner
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .expect("FTS PK recency should fall back without a PK index");
+        let ids = result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2],
+            "without a PK index the batch-scan fallback must drop stale id=1 \
+             but keep id=2 whose newest version still matches"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_scanner_count_rows() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
@@ -1100,7 +2625,7 @@ mod tests {
         scanner.with_row_id();
 
         // Verify output schema includes _rowid
-        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema();
+        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 3);
         assert_eq!(output_schema.field(0).name(), "id");
         assert_eq!(output_schema.field(1).name(), "name");
@@ -1133,10 +2658,10 @@ mod tests {
 
         let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
         // Project only "id" and "_rowid"
-        scanner.project(&["id", "_rowid"]);
+        scanner.project(&["id", "_rowid"]).unwrap();
 
         // Verify output schema
-        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema();
+        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 2);
         assert_eq!(output_schema.field(0).name(), "id");
         assert_eq!(output_schema.field(1).name(), "_rowid");
@@ -1183,13 +2708,13 @@ mod tests {
         let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema);
 
         // Without with_row_id, schema should not include _rowid
-        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema();
+        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 2);
         assert!(output_schema.field_with_name("_rowid").is_err());
 
         // With with_row_id, schema should include _rowid
         scanner.with_row_id();
-        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema();
+        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 3);
         assert!(output_schema.field_with_name("_rowid").is_ok());
     }
@@ -1203,7 +2728,7 @@ mod tests {
         let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema);
 
         // Project with _rowid should set with_row_id flag
-        scanner.project(&["id", "_rowid"]);
+        scanner.project(&["id", "_rowid"]).unwrap();
 
         // with_row_id should be true now
         assert!(scanner.with_row_id);
@@ -1212,7 +2737,7 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(scanner.projection, Some(vec!["id".to_string()]));
 
         // Output schema should include _rowid at the end
-        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema();
+        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema().unwrap();
         assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 2);
         assert_eq!(output_schema.field(0).name(), "id");
         assert_eq!(output_schema.field(1).name(), "_rowid");
@@ -1251,7 +2776,7 @@ mod tests {
         let indexes = create_index_store_with_batches(&batch_store, &schema, &[(0, 10)]);
 
         let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
-        scanner.project(&["id", "_rowid"]);
+        scanner.project(&["id", "_rowid"]).unwrap();
 
         let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
 
@@ -1285,4 +2810,332 @@ mod tests {
         .await
         .unwrap();
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_output_schema_with_row_address() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+        let indexes = Arc::new(IndexStore::new());
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema);
+
+        // Without with_row_address, schema should not include _rowaddr
+        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 2);
+        assert!(output_schema.field_with_name("_rowaddr").is_err());
+
+        // With with_row_address, schema should include _rowaddr
+        scanner.with_row_address();
+        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 3);
+        assert!(output_schema.field_with_name("_rowaddr").is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scanner_with_row_address() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+
+        let indexes = create_index_store_with_batches(&batch_store, &schema, &[(0, 10)]);
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
+        scanner.with_row_address();
+
+        // Verify output schema includes _rowaddr
+        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.field(0).name(), "id");
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.field(1).name(), "name");
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.field(2).name(), "_rowaddr");
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.field(2).data_type(), &DataType::UInt64);
+
+        // Verify data includes correct row addresses
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_columns(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(result.schema().field(2).name(), "_rowaddr");
+
+        let row_addrs = result
+            .column(2)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(row_addrs.len(), 10);
+        // Row addresses should be 0-9 for a single batch
+        for i in 0..10 {
+            assert_eq!(row_addrs.value(i), i as u64);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scan_plan_with_row_address() {
+        use crate::utils::test::assert_plan_node_equals;
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+
+        let indexes = create_index_store_with_batches(&batch_store, &schema, &[(0, 10)]);
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
+        scanner.with_row_address();
+
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify plan structure with _rowaddr
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "MemTableScanExec: projection=[id, name, _rowaddr], with_row_id=false, with_row_address=true",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scanner_with_both_row_id_and_row_address() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+
+        let indexes = create_index_store_with_batches(&batch_store, &schema, &[(0, 5)]);
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
+        scanner.with_row_id();
+        scanner.with_row_address();
+
+        // Verify output schema includes both _rowid and _rowaddr
+        let output_schema = scanner.output_schema().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.field(2).name(), "_rowid");
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.field(3).name(), "_rowaddr");
+
+        // Verify data
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_columns(), 4);
+
+        let row_ids = result
+            .column(2)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = result
+            .column(3)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Both should have the same values
+        for i in 0..5 {
+            assert_eq!(row_ids.value(i), i as u64);
+            assert_eq!(row_addrs.value(i), i as u64);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Regression: vector search against a column with no HNSW must still
+    /// emit a plan whose output schema contains `_distance`. The earlier
+    /// behaviour fell back to `plan_full_scan` (no `_distance`), which broke
+    /// the LSM caller's `sort_by_distance` chain. Now the planner dispatches
+    /// to `MemTableBruteForceVectorExec` instead — see
+    /// [`super::super::exec::MemTableBruteForceVectorExec`].
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_plan_vector_search_without_hnsw_produces_distance_schema() {
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        const DISTANCE_COLUMN: &str = "_distance";
+
+        let schema: SchemaRef = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(4));
+        let indexes = Arc::new(IndexStore::new()); // intentionally no HNSW
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema.clone());
+        let query: Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array> =
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32, 0.0_f32]));
+        scanner.nearest("vector", query.as_ref(), 5).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scanner
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .expect("planner must produce a plan when no HNSW exists");
+        let out_schema = plan.schema();
+        assert!(
+            out_schema.field_with_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN).is_ok(),
+            "plan output schema missing `{DISTANCE_COLUMN}` — got {:?}",
+            out_schema
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The HNSW graph's metric is baked into its structure, so a query asking
+    /// for a different one must brute-force rather than traverse it. Without
+    /// this the memtable silently answers in the graph's metric while the base
+    /// arm answers in the requested one, and the union merges two scales.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn vector_search_routes_to_brute_force_on_a_metric_mismatch() {
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        let schema: SchemaRef = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let plan_rendering_for = |requested: Option<DistanceType>| {
+            let schema = schema.clone();
+            async move {
+                let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(4));
+                let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+                indexes.add_hnsw(
+                    "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+                    1,
+                    "vector".to_string(),
+                    DistanceType::Cosine,
+                    64,
+                    8,
+                );
+                let mut scanner =
+                    MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, Arc::new(indexes), schema.clone());
+                let query: Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array> =
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32, 0.0_f32]));
+                scanner.nearest("vector", query.as_ref(), 5).unwrap();
+                if let Some(metric) = requested {
+                    scanner.distance_metric(metric);
+                }
+                let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+                // The chosen exec sits under `apply_post_index_ops`'s wrappers,
+                // so match on the rendered tree rather than the root node.
+                format!(
+                    "{}",
+                    datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(false)
+                )
+            }
+        };
+
+        let uses_graph = |rendered: &str| rendered.contains("VectorIndex");
+        let uses_brute_force = |rendered: &str| rendered.contains("MemTableBruteForceVector");
+
+        // Unset means "use the index's metric", so the graph is still usable.
+        let unset = plan_rendering_for(None).await;
+        assert!(uses_graph(&unset), "{unset}");
+        // Matching the graph's own metric keeps the graph.
+        let matching = plan_rendering_for(Some(DistanceType::Cosine)).await;
+        assert!(uses_graph(&matching), "{matching}");
+        // Disagreeing with it must not.
+        for mismatched in [DistanceType::Dot, DistanceType::L2] {
+            let rendered = plan_rendering_for(Some(mismatched)).await;
+            assert!(
+                uses_brute_force(&rendered) && !uses_graph(&rendered),
+                "{mismatched:?} query must not traverse a cosine graph: {rendered}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nearest_rejects_invalid_query_shape() {
+        let schema: SchemaRef = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(4));
+        let indexes = Arc::new(IndexStore::new());
+
+        let mut scanner =
+            MemTableScanner::new(batch_store.clone(), indexes.clone(), schema.clone());
+        let query: Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array> =
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32, 0.0_f32]));
+        let Err(err) = scanner.nearest("vector", query.as_ref(), 0) else {
+            panic!("zero-k vector search should fail");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("k must be positive"),
+            "unexpected zero-k error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema);
+        let empty_query: Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array> =
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Float32Array::from(Vec::<f32>::new()));
+        let Err(err) = scanner.nearest("vector", empty_query.as_ref(), 5) else {
+            panic!("empty vector search should fail");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("non-zero length"),
+            "unexpected empty-query error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_plan_rejects_vector_and_fts_combination() {
+        let schema: SchemaRef = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(4));
+        let indexes = Arc::new(IndexStore::new());
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema);
+        let query: Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array> =
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32, 0.0_f32]));
+        scanner.nearest("vector", query.as_ref(), 5).unwrap();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("needle".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let err = scanner
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("vector and FTS search must not be silently combined");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("vector and full-text search"),
+            "unexpected combined-search error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_plan_vector_search_validates_pk_types() {
+        let schema: SchemaRef = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Float64, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(4));
+        let indexes = Arc::new(IndexStore::new());
+
+        let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new(batch_store, indexes, schema);
+        scanner.with_pk_columns(vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        let query: Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array> =
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32, 0.0_f32]));
+        scanner.nearest("vector", query.as_ref(), 5).unwrap();
+
+        let err = scanner
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("unsupported vector PK type must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("unsupported type Float64"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec.rs
index 18cc584e42c..6688435229a 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec.rs
@@ -6,15 +6,121 @@
 //! This module contains execution nodes for:
 //! - `MemTableScanExec` - Full table scan with MVCC visibility
 //! - `BTreeIndexExec` - BTree index queries
-//! - `VectorIndexExec` - IVF-PQ vector search
+//! - `VectorIndexExec` - HNSW vector search
+//! - `MemTableBruteForceVectorExec` - KNN over the active memtable without an HNSW
 //! - `FtsIndexExec` - Full-text search
 
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch, RecordBatchOptions};
+use arrow_schema::{Fields, Schema};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
+use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
+
+mod brute_force_vector;
 mod btree;
+mod dedup_scan;
 mod fts;
 mod scan;
 mod vector;
 
+use crate::dataset::blob::prepared_blob_batch_to_descriptors;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::exec::resolve_pk_indices;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::BatchStore;
+
+pub use brute_force_vector::MemTableBruteForceVectorExec;
 pub use btree::BTreeIndexExec;
-pub use fts::FtsIndexExec;
-pub use scan::MemTableScanExec;
+pub use dedup_scan::MemTableDedupScanExec;
+pub use fts::{FtsIndexExec, SCORE_COLUMN};
+pub use scan::{MemTableScanExec, ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN};
 pub use vector::VectorIndexExec;
+
+pub(super) fn scan_record_batch(batch: &RecordBatch) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+    prepared_blob_batch_to_descriptors(batch)
+        .map_err(|error| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(error)))
+}
+
+/// Take `indices` out of `source_columns` and trim each to the shape
+/// `output_schema` promises for that column name.
+///
+/// A projected struct leaf (`meta.a`) is served by taking the whole `meta`
+/// column — the memtable stores columns whole — and narrowing it here.
+/// `project_by_schema` recurses through structs, lists and maps and preserves
+/// null buffers. Columns whose type already matches are passed through
+/// untouched, so a projection with no nested paths costs nothing.
+pub(super) fn take_projected_columns(
+    source_columns: &[ArrayRef],
+    source_fields: &Fields,
+    indices: &[usize],
+    output_schema: &Schema,
+    num_rows: usize,
+) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<ArrayRef>> {
+    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+    for &i in indices {
+        let field = &source_fields[i];
+        let column = source_columns[i].clone();
+        let Ok(target) = output_schema.field_with_name(field.name()) else {
+            out.push(column);
+            continue;
+        };
+        if target.data_type() == field.data_type() {
+            out.push(column);
+            continue;
+        }
+        let src = RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field.clone()])),
+            vec![column],
+            &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(num_rows)),
+        )
+        .map_err(DataFusionError::from)?;
+        let narrowed = src
+            .project_by_schema(&Schema::new(vec![Arc::new(target.clone())]))
+            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(e)))?;
+        out.push(narrowed.column(0).clone());
+    }
+    Ok(out)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn newest_pk_positions(
+    batch_store: &BatchStore,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+    readable_count: usize,
+    max_readable_row: u64,
+) -> DataFusionResult<HashSet<u64>> {
+    let mut newest: HashMap<Vec<ScalarValue>, u64> = HashMap::new();
+    let mut current_row: u64 = 0;
+    for (batch_position, stored_batch) in batch_store.iter().enumerate() {
+        let n = stored_batch.num_rows;
+        if n == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if batch_position >= readable_count {
+            current_row += n as u64;
+            continue;
+        }
+        let pk_indices = resolve_pk_indices(&stored_batch.data, pk_columns)?;
+        for row in 0..n {
+            let pos = current_row + row as u64;
+            if pos > max_readable_row {
+                break;
+            }
+            let key = pk_key(&stored_batch.data, &pk_indices, row)?;
+            newest.insert(key, pos);
+        }
+        current_row += n as u64;
+    }
+    Ok(newest.into_values().collect())
+}
+
+fn pk_key(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    pk_indices: &[usize],
+    row: usize,
+) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<ScalarValue>> {
+    pk_indices
+        .iter()
+        .map(|&col_idx| ScalarValue::try_from_array(batch.column(col_idx).as_ref(), row))
+        .collect()
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/brute_force_vector.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/brute_force_vector.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..dd8c6650057
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/brute_force_vector.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,889 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! MemTableBruteForceVectorExec — KNN over the active memtable without an HNSW.
+//!
+//! Mirrors [`super::VectorIndexExec`]'s output contract (same schema, same row
+//! shape, same `_distance` / `_rowid` semantics) so the LSM caller can swap one
+//! for the other based on whether the memtable's `IndexStore` has an HNSW for
+//! the queried column. The active memtable is the LSM's unindexed-rows path:
+//! whenever the HNSW config is absent (cold-start before the Indexer commits,
+//! or new rows in the window between commit and next memtable rotation), this
+//! exec keeps KNN correct by computing exact distances row-by-row.
+
+use std::fmt::{Debug, Formatter};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, BooleanArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, cast::AsArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::common::stats::Precision;
+use datafusion::error::Result as DataFusionResult;
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, Partitioning, PlanProperties,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream, Statistics,
+};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, PhysicalExprRef};
+use futures::stream::{self, StreamExt};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+use super::super::builder::VectorQuery;
+use super::newest_pk_positions;
+use super::vector::DISTANCE_COLUMN;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::exec::{scan_record_batch, take_projected_columns};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::BatchStore;
+
+/// Distance metric used when [`VectorQuery::distance_type`] is `None`. The
+/// indexed path defers to the index's own metric, but with no index there is
+/// no inherent default — L2 matches what most callers configure and what the
+/// SSTable/base arms use when re-ranking unindexed candidates.
+const DEFAULT_DISTANCE_TYPE: DistanceType = DistanceType::L2;
+
+/// Brute-force KNN over an active memtable without an HNSW. Produces the same
+/// output schema as [`super::VectorIndexExec`].
+pub struct MemTableBruteForceVectorExec {
+    batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+    query: VectorQuery,
+    readable_count: usize,
+    projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+    output_schema: SchemaRef,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+    with_row_id: bool,
+    /// Optional prefilter predicate, compiled against the memtable schema.
+    /// Applied per row before the top-k cut so the KNN only ranks matching
+    /// rows (true prefilter, not a lossy post-filter on the top-k).
+    filter: Option<PhysicalExprRef>,
+    /// Primary-key columns. When set, only the newest version of each PK is
+    /// eligible for top-k. With a filter, this evaluates the predicate against
+    /// the current PK version instead of falling back to a stale older version.
+    pk_columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
+}
+
+impl Debug for MemTableBruteForceVectorExec {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("MemTableBruteForceVectorExec")
+            .field("column", &self.query.column)
+            .field("k", &self.query.k)
+            .field("readable_count", &self.readable_count)
+            .field("with_row_id", &self.with_row_id)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl MemTableBruteForceVectorExec {
+    /// Build the exec. `base_schema` is the post-projection row schema (no
+    /// `_distance`, no `_rowid`); `_distance` is appended unconditionally and
+    /// `_rowid` only when `with_row_id` is set, matching [`VectorIndexExec`].
+    pub fn new(
+        batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+        query: VectorQuery,
+        readable_count: usize,
+        projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+        base_schema: SchemaRef,
+        with_row_id: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut fields: Vec<Field> = base_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone())
+            .collect();
+        fields.push(Field::new(DISTANCE_COLUMN, DataType::Float32, true));
+        if with_row_id {
+            fields.push(Field::new(lance_core::ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true));
+        }
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(fields));
+
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
+            EmissionType::Incremental,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            batch_store,
+            query,
+            readable_count,
+            projection,
+            output_schema,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+            with_row_id,
+            filter: None,
+            pk_columns: None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Attach an optional prefilter predicate (compiled against the memtable
+    /// schema). Rows that fail the predicate are excluded before the top-k cut.
+    pub fn with_filter(mut self, filter: Option<PhysicalExprRef>) -> Self {
+        self.filter = filter;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Provide the primary-key columns so search keeps only the newest version
+    /// of each PK (see `pk_columns`).
+    pub fn with_pk_columns(mut self, pk_columns: Option<Vec<String>>) -> Self {
+        self.pk_columns = pk_columns.filter(|columns| !columns.is_empty());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Evaluate the prefilter predicate against a memtable batch, returning a
+    /// keep-mask (`true` = retain). `Ok(None)` when no filter is configured.
+    fn filter_mask(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Option<BooleanArray>> {
+        let Some(ref predicate) = self.filter else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let values = predicate
+            .evaluate(batch)
+            .and_then(|v| v.into_array(batch.num_rows()))
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("vector prefilter evaluation failed: {}", e))
+            })?;
+        let mask = values
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(
+                    "vector prefilter predicate did not evaluate to boolean".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?
+            .clone();
+        Ok(Some(mask))
+    }
+
+    /// Last row position within `readable_count`, or `None` if nothing is
+    /// readable. Identical to `VectorIndexExec`'s helper so both arms cut at
+    /// the same bound.
+    fn compute_max_readable_row(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        let mut max_readable_row_exclusive: u64 = 0;
+        let mut current_row: u64 = 0;
+
+        for (batch_position, stored_batch) in self.batch_store.iter().enumerate() {
+            let batch_end = current_row + stored_batch.num_rows as u64;
+            if batch_position < self.readable_count {
+                max_readable_row_exclusive = batch_end;
+            }
+            current_row = batch_end;
+        }
+
+        if max_readable_row_exclusive > 0 {
+            Some(max_readable_row_exclusive - 1)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Extract the flat per-element query vector. `arrow_batch_func` wants
+    /// `(from: &dyn Array, to: &FixedSizeListArray)` where `from` is the raw
+    /// primitive array of one vector (NOT an FSL), so unwrap an FSL with one
+    /// row if that's how the caller built it.
+    fn query_as_flat(&self) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
+        let query_array = self.query.query_vector.as_ref();
+        if let Some(fsl) = query_array.as_fixed_size_list_opt() {
+            if fsl.len() != 1 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "brute-force vector search expects a single query vector, got {}",
+                    fsl.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            return Ok(fsl.value(0));
+        }
+        Ok(self.query.query_vector.clone())
+    }
+
+    /// Compute `(distance, row_position)` for every visible row, then top-k by
+    /// distance ascending. Rows where the vector column is null or where the
+    /// computed distance is non-finite are skipped — same convention as the
+    /// HNSW search (which filters on `result.distance.is_finite()`).
+    fn compute_topk(&self) -> Result<Vec<(f32, u64)>> {
+        if self.query.k == 0 {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let Some(max_readable_row) = self.compute_max_readable_row() else {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        };
+        let query_flat = self.query_as_flat()?;
+        let column_name = self.query.column.as_str();
+        let distance_type = self.query.distance_type.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_DISTANCE_TYPE);
+        let batch_func = distance_type.arrow_batch_func();
+
+        // When PK columns are configured, only the newest version of each PK is
+        // eligible. This keeps top-k slots from being consumed by superseded
+        // rows and makes filtered search evaluate the predicate against the
+        // current version of the PK.
+        let newest_positions = if let Some(pk_columns) = &self.pk_columns {
+            Some(
+                newest_pk_positions(
+                    &self.batch_store,
+                    pk_columns,
+                    self.readable_count,
+                    max_readable_row,
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?,
+            )
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        // Walk batches in append order. `current_row` is the global row offset
+        // of the *next* row about to be visited; rows past `max_readable_row`
+        // are dropped before they reach the heap.
+        let mut current_row: u64 = 0;
+        let mut candidates: Vec<(f32, u64)> = Vec::new();
+
+        for (batch_position, stored_batch) in self.batch_store.iter().enumerate() {
+            let n = stored_batch.num_rows;
+            if n == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if batch_position >= self.readable_count {
+                current_row += n as u64;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let scan_batch = scan_record_batch(&stored_batch.data)?;
+            let column = scan_batch.column_by_name(column_name).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Vector column '{}' not found in memtable schema",
+                    column_name
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let column_fsl = column.as_fixed_size_list_opt().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Vector column '{}' must be FixedSizeList; got {:?}",
+                    column_name,
+                    column.data_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+            let distances = batch_func(query_flat.as_ref(), column_fsl).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "brute-force distance computation failed for column '{}': {}",
+                    column_name, e
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+            // Prefilter: drop rows that fail the predicate before they reach the
+            // top-k heap (a NULL predicate result excludes the row, matching SQL).
+            let filter_mask = self.filter_mask(&scan_batch)?;
+
+            for row in 0..n {
+                let pos = current_row + row as u64;
+                if pos > max_readable_row {
+                    break;
+                }
+                // Skip superseded versions: only the newest version of each PK is
+                // eligible, so a newer non-matching version excludes the PK.
+                if let Some(ref newest) = newest_positions
+                    && !newest.contains(&pos)
+                {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(ref mask) = filter_mask
+                    && (!mask.is_valid(row) || !mask.value(row))
+                {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if distances.is_null(row) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let dist = distances.value(row);
+                if !dist.is_finite() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                candidates.push((dist, pos));
+            }
+
+            current_row += n as u64;
+        }
+
+        // `partial_cmp` defaults Equal on NaN; we filtered non-finite above so
+        // every remaining value compares deterministically.
+        candidates.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.partial_cmp(&b.0).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+
+        if self.query.distance_lower_bound.is_some() || self.query.distance_upper_bound.is_some() {
+            candidates.retain(|&(dist, _)| {
+                let above_lower = self.query.distance_lower_bound.is_none_or(|lb| dist >= lb);
+                let below_upper = self.query.distance_upper_bound.is_none_or(|ub| dist < ub);
+                above_lower && below_upper
+            });
+        }
+
+        candidates.truncate(self.query.k);
+        Ok(candidates)
+    }
+
+    /// Materialize the top-k rows from the batch store, mirroring
+    /// `VectorIndexExec::materialize_rows`. Groups by batch so the per-batch
+    /// `take` is amortized; emits one output batch per source batch that
+    /// contributes.
+    fn materialize_rows(&self, results: &[(f32, u64)]) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        if results.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
+        }
+
+        let mut batch_ranges = Vec::new();
+        let mut current_row = 0usize;
+        for stored_batch in self.batch_store.iter() {
+            let start = current_row;
+            let end = current_row + stored_batch.num_rows;
+            batch_ranges.push((start, end));
+            current_row = end;
+        }
+
+        let mut batches_data: std::collections::HashMap<usize, Vec<(usize, f32, u64)>> =
+            std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        for &(distance, pos) in results {
+            let pos_usize = pos as usize;
+            for (batch_id, &(start, end)) in batch_ranges.iter().enumerate() {
+                if pos_usize >= start && pos_usize < end {
+                    batches_data.entry(batch_id).or_default().push((
+                        pos_usize - start,
+                        distance,
+                        pos,
+                    ));
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut all_batches = Vec::new();
+        for (batch_id, rows_with_dist) in batches_data {
+            if let Some(stored) = self.batch_store.get(batch_id) {
+                let data = scan_record_batch(&stored.data)?;
+                let rows: Vec<u32> = rows_with_dist.iter().map(|&(r, _, _)| r as u32).collect();
+                let distances: Vec<f32> = rows_with_dist.iter().map(|&(_, d, _)| d).collect();
+                let row_positions: Vec<u64> =
+                    rows_with_dist.iter().map(|&(_, _, pos)| pos).collect();
+
+                let indices = arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(rows);
+
+                let mut columns: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> = data
+                    .columns()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|col| arrow_select::take::take(col.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap())
+                    .collect();
+
+                columns.push(Arc::new(Float32Array::from(distances)));
+
+                let source_schema = data.schema();
+                let mut final_columns = if let Some(ref proj_indices) = self.projection {
+                    let mut projected: Vec<_> = take_projected_columns(
+                        &columns,
+                        source_schema.fields(),
+                        proj_indices,
+                        self.output_schema.as_ref(),
+                        row_positions.len(),
+                    )?;
+                    // Distance was just pushed onto `columns`; keep it last.
+                    projected.push(columns.last().unwrap().clone());
+                    projected
+                } else {
+                    columns
+                };
+
+                if self.with_row_id {
+                    final_columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_positions)));
+                }
+
+                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(self.output_schema.clone(), final_columns)?;
+                all_batches.push(batch);
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(all_batches)
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for MemTableBruteForceVectorExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "MemTableBruteForceVectorExec: column={}, k={}, with_row_id={}",
+                    self.query.column, self.query.k, self.with_row_id
+                )
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "MemTableBruteForceVectorExec\ncolumn={}\nk={}\nwith_row_id={}",
+                    self.query.column, self.query.k, self.with_row_id
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for MemTableBruteForceVectorExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "MemTableBruteForceVectorExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.output_schema.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if !children.is_empty() {
+            return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "MemTableBruteForceVectorExec does not have children".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        _partition: usize,
+        _context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let results = self
+            .compute_topk()
+            .map_err(|e| datafusion::error::DataFusionError::External(Box::new(e)))?;
+        let batches = self.materialize_rows(&results)?;
+        let stream = stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)).boxed();
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.output_schema.clone(),
+            stream,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
+            num_rows: Precision::Exact(self.query.k),
+            total_byte_size: Precision::Absent,
+            column_statistics: vec![],
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::common::collect;
+    use datafusion::prelude::{Expr, SessionContext, col, lit};
+    use lance_datafusion::planner::Planner;
+
+    fn make_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn make_schema_with_active() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new("active", DataType::Boolean, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn make_batch(schema: SchemaRef, ids: &[i32], vectors: &[[f32; 2]]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let id_array = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        let values: Vec<f32> = vectors.iter().flat_map(|v| v.iter().copied()).collect();
+        let inner = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values));
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let vec_array =
+            Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, 2, inner, None).expect("build fsl"))
+                as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![id_array, vec_array]).expect("build batch")
+    }
+
+    fn make_batch_with_active(
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        ids: &[i32],
+        vectors: &[[f32; 2]],
+        active: &[Option<bool>],
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        let id_array = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        let values: Vec<f32> = vectors.iter().flat_map(|v| v.iter().copied()).collect();
+        let inner = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values));
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let vec_array =
+            Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, 2, inner, None).expect("build fsl"))
+                as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        let active_array = Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(active.to_vec())) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![id_array, vec_array, active_array]).expect("build batch")
+    }
+
+    fn store_with_batches(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Arc<BatchStore> {
+        let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(batches.len().max(1)));
+        for batch in batches {
+            store.append(batch).expect("append batch");
+        }
+        store
+    }
+
+    fn query_for(vector: [f32; 2], k: usize) -> VectorQuery {
+        let values = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vector.to_vec())) as Arc<dyn Array>;
+        VectorQuery {
+            column: "vector".to_string(),
+            query_vector: values,
+            k,
+            nprobes: 1,
+            maximum_nprobes: None,
+            distance_type: Some(DistanceType::L2),
+            ef: None,
+            refine_factor: None,
+            distance_lower_bound: None,
+            distance_upper_bound: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn physical_filter(schema: SchemaRef, expr: Expr) -> PhysicalExprRef {
+        let planner = Planner::new(schema);
+        let optimized = planner.optimize_expr(expr).expect("optimize filter");
+        planner
+            .create_physical_expr(&optimized)
+            .expect("create physical filter")
+    }
+
+    async fn execute_to_batches(exec: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).expect("execute");
+        collect(stream).await.expect("collect")
+    }
+
+    fn ids_from_batches(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut ids = Vec::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let id_arr = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+            for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(id_arr.value(row));
+            }
+        }
+        ids
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn top_k_by_distance() {
+        // Five rows; query at (0,0); L2 distances are id² each — expect ids in
+        // ascending order, capped at k=3.
+        let schema = make_schema();
+        let batch = make_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            &[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
+            &[[0.0, 0.0], [1.0, 0.0], [2.0, 0.0], [3.0, 0.0], [4.0, 0.0]],
+        );
+        let store = store_with_batches(vec![batch]);
+        let query = query_for([0.0, 0.0], 3);
+        let exec = Arc::new(
+            MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(
+                store,
+                query,
+                /* readable_count = */ usize::MAX,
+                None,
+                schema,
+                false,
+            )
+            .expect("ctor"),
+        );
+        let out = execute_to_batches(exec).await;
+        // Concat and check ids + distances in order.
+        let total: usize = out.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 3, "k=3 cap not honored: got {total} rows");
+
+        let mut id_dist: Vec<(i32, f32)> = Vec::new();
+        for batch in &out {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+            let dists = batch
+                .column_by_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                id_dist.push((ids.value(i), dists.value(i)));
+            }
+        }
+        id_dist.sort_by(|a, b| a.1.partial_cmp(&b.1).unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(id_dist[0].0, 0);
+        assert_eq!(id_dist[1].0, 1);
+        assert_eq!(id_dist[2].0, 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn empty_memtable_returns_empty_with_distance_schema() {
+        let schema = make_schema();
+        let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(4));
+        let query = query_for([0.5, 0.5], 10);
+        let exec = Arc::new(
+            MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(store, query, usize::MAX, None, schema, false)
+                .expect("ctor"),
+        );
+        let out_schema = exec.schema();
+        assert!(
+            out_schema.field_with_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN).is_ok(),
+            "output schema must contain `{DISTANCE_COLUMN}` even with empty memtable; got {:?}",
+            out_schema
+        );
+        let out = execute_to_batches(exec).await;
+        let total: usize = out.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn respects_indexed_count() {
+        // Two batches of two rows. Freeze at batch 0 — only ids 0,1 are
+        // visible candidates; the (closer) ids 2,3 in batch 1 are excluded.
+        let schema = make_schema();
+        let b0 = make_batch(schema.clone(), &[0, 1], &[[5.0, 0.0], [6.0, 0.0]]);
+        let b1 = make_batch(schema.clone(), &[2, 3], &[[1.0, 0.0], [2.0, 0.0]]);
+        let store = store_with_batches(vec![b0, b1]);
+        let query = query_for([0.0, 0.0], 4);
+        let exec = Arc::new(
+            MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(
+                store, query, /* readable_count = */ 1, None, schema, false,
+            )
+            .expect("ctor"),
+        );
+        let out = execute_to_batches(exec).await;
+        let mut returned_ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for batch in &out {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                returned_ids.push(ids.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        returned_ids.sort();
+        assert_eq!(returned_ids, vec![0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn applies_distance_bounds() {
+        let schema = make_schema();
+        let batch = make_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            &[0, 1, 2, 3],
+            &[[0.0, 0.0], [1.0, 0.0], [2.0, 0.0], [3.0, 0.0]],
+        );
+        let store = store_with_batches(vec![batch]);
+        let mut query = query_for([0.0, 0.0], 10);
+        // L2² distances: 0, 1, 4, 9. Keep only distances in [1, 5) — ids 1, 2.
+        query.distance_lower_bound = Some(1.0);
+        query.distance_upper_bound = Some(5.0);
+        let exec = Arc::new(
+            MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(store, query, usize::MAX, None, schema, false)
+                .expect("ctor"),
+        );
+        let out = execute_to_batches(exec).await;
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for batch in &out {
+            let id_arr = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(id_arr.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        ids.sort();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![1, 2]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn populates_row_id_when_requested() {
+        let schema = make_schema();
+        let batch = make_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            &[10, 11, 12],
+            &[[3.0, 0.0], [1.0, 0.0], [2.0, 0.0]],
+        );
+        let store = store_with_batches(vec![batch]);
+        let query = query_for([0.0, 0.0], 3);
+        let exec = Arc::new(
+            MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(
+                store,
+                query,
+                usize::MAX,
+                None,
+                schema,
+                /* with_row_id = */ true,
+            )
+            .expect("ctor"),
+        );
+        let out_schema = exec.schema();
+        assert!(out_schema.field_with_name(lance_core::ROW_ID).is_ok());
+
+        let out = execute_to_batches(exec).await;
+        let mut pairs: Vec<(i32, u64)> = Vec::new();
+        for batch in &out {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+            let rowids = batch
+                .column_by_name(lance_core::ROW_ID)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                pairs.push((ids.value(i), rowids.value(i)));
+            }
+        }
+        // Row offsets are insert-order: id=10 → 0, id=11 → 1, id=12 → 2.
+        pairs.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(pairs, vec![(10, 0), (11, 1), (12, 2)]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prefilter_null_predicate_excludes_rows() {
+        let schema = make_schema_with_active();
+        let batch = make_batch_with_active(
+            schema.clone(),
+            &[1, 2, 3],
+            &[[0.0, 0.0], [3.0, 0.0], [1.0, 0.0]],
+            &[None, Some(true), Some(false)],
+        );
+        let store = store_with_batches(vec![batch]);
+        let query = query_for([0.0, 0.0], 3);
+        let filter = physical_filter(schema.clone(), col("active").eq(lit(true)));
+        let exec = Arc::new(
+            MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(store, query, usize::MAX, None, schema, false)
+                .expect("ctor")
+                .with_filter(Some(filter)),
+        );
+
+        let out = execute_to_batches(exec).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids_from_batches(&out),
+            vec![2],
+            "NULL predicate results must be excluded from vector prefilter candidates"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prefilter_with_pk_columns_drops_stale_matching_version() {
+        let schema = make_schema_with_active();
+        let batch = make_batch_with_active(
+            schema.clone(),
+            &[5, 5],
+            &[[0.0, 0.0], [10.0, 0.0]],
+            &[Some(true), Some(false)],
+        );
+        let store = store_with_batches(vec![batch]);
+        let query = query_for([0.0, 0.0], 10);
+        let filter = physical_filter(schema.clone(), col("active").eq(lit(true)));
+        let exec = Arc::new(
+            MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(store, query, usize::MAX, None, schema, false)
+                .expect("ctor")
+                .with_filter(Some(filter))
+                .with_pk_columns(Some(vec!["id".to_string()])),
+        );
+
+        let out = execute_to_batches(exec).await;
+        assert!(
+            out.iter().all(|batch| batch.num_rows() == 0),
+            "the older matching vector version must not leak when the newest PK fails the filter"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn pk_columns_keep_newest_version_without_filter() {
+        let schema = make_schema();
+        let batch = make_batch(schema.clone(), &[5, 5], &[[0.0, 0.0], [10.0, 0.0]]);
+        let store = store_with_batches(vec![batch]);
+        let query = query_for([0.0, 0.0], 10);
+        let exec = Arc::new(
+            MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(
+                store,
+                query,
+                usize::MAX,
+                None,
+                schema,
+                /* with_row_id = */ true,
+            )
+            .expect("ctor")
+            .with_pk_columns(Some(vec!["id".to_string()])),
+        );
+
+        let out = execute_to_batches(exec).await;
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = out
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                let row_ids = batch
+                    .column_by_name(lance_core::ROW_ID)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+                (0..batch.num_rows())
+                    .map(|row| row_ids.value(row))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids,
+            vec![1],
+            "brute-force vector PK recency must keep only the newest duplicate"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn empty_pk_columns_do_not_collapse_results() {
+        let schema = make_schema();
+        let batch = make_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            &[1, 2, 3],
+            &[[0.0, 0.0], [1.0, 0.0], [2.0, 0.0]],
+        );
+        let store = store_with_batches(vec![batch]);
+        let query = query_for([0.0, 0.0], 3);
+        let exec = Arc::new(
+            MemTableBruteForceVectorExec::new(store, query, usize::MAX, None, schema, false)
+                .expect("ctor")
+                .with_pk_columns(Some(vec![])),
+        );
+
+        let out = execute_to_batches(exec).await;
+        let mut ids = ids_from_batches(&out);
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 2, 3],
+            "empty PK columns should behave like no PK columns, not one empty tuple key"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/btree.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/btree.rs
index 35c522fc9ba..0f4964babf5 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/btree.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/btree.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@
 
 //! BTreeIndexExec - BTree index queries with MVCC visibility.
 
-use std::any::Any;
 use std::fmt::{Debug, Formatter};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
@@ -22,9 +21,9 @@ use datafusion::physical_plan::{
 use datafusion_physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
 use futures::stream::{self, StreamExt};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use super::super::builder::ScalarPredicate;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::exec::{scan_record_batch, take_projected_columns};
 use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
 
 /// ExecutionPlan node that queries BTree index with visibility filtering.
@@ -32,26 +31,26 @@ pub struct BTreeIndexExec {
     batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
     indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
     predicate: ScalarPredicate,
-    max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+    readable_count: usize,
     projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
     output_schema: SchemaRef,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
     /// Column name of the indexed field.
     column: String,
     /// Whether to include _rowid column (row position) in output.
     with_row_id: bool,
+    /// Whether to include _rowaddr column (same as row position) in output.
+    with_row_address: bool,
 }
 
 impl Debug for BTreeIndexExec {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         f.debug_struct("BTreeIndexExec")
             .field("predicate", &self.predicate)
-            .field(
-                "max_visible_batch_position",
-                &self.max_visible_batch_position,
-            )
+            .field("readable_count", &self.readable_count)
             .field("with_row_id", &self.with_row_id)
+            .field("with_row_address", &self.with_row_address)
             .field("column", &self.column)
             .finish()
     }
@@ -65,65 +64,69 @@ impl BTreeIndexExec {
     /// * `batch_store` - Lock-free batch store containing data
     /// * `indexes` - Index registry with BTree indexes
     /// * `predicate` - Scalar predicate to apply
-    /// * `max_visible_batch_position` - MVCC visibility sequence number
+    /// * `readable_count` - Exclusive count of batch positions this scan may read
     /// * `projection` - Optional column indices to project
-    /// * `output_schema` - Schema after projection (should include _rowid if with_row_id is true)
+    /// * `output_schema` - Schema after projection (should include _rowid/_rowaddr if requested)
     /// * `with_row_id` - Whether to include _rowid column (row position)
+    /// * `with_row_address` - Whether to include _rowaddr column (same as row position)
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub fn new(
         batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
         indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
         predicate: ScalarPredicate,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+        readable_count: usize,
         projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
         output_schema: SchemaRef,
         with_row_id: bool,
+        with_row_address: bool,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         // Verify the index exists for this column
         let column = predicate.column().to_string();
         if indexes.get_btree_by_column(&column).is_none() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("No BTree index found for column '{}'", column),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "No BTree index found for column '{}'",
+                column
+            )));
         }
 
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()),
             Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
         Ok(Self {
             batch_store,
             indexes,
             predicate,
-            max_visible_batch_position,
+            readable_count,
             projection,
             output_schema,
             properties,
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
             column,
             with_row_id,
+            with_row_address,
         })
     }
 
-    /// Compute the maximum visible row position based on max_visible_batch_position.
-    /// Returns None if no batches are visible.
-    fn compute_max_visible_row(&self) -> Option<u64> {
-        let mut max_visible_row_exclusive: u64 = 0;
+    /// Last row position within `readable_count`, or None if nothing is
+    /// readable.
+    fn compute_max_readable_row(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        let mut max_readable_row_exclusive: u64 = 0;
         let mut current_row: u64 = 0;
 
         for (batch_position, stored_batch) in self.batch_store.iter().enumerate() {
             let batch_end = current_row + stored_batch.num_rows as u64;
-            if batch_position <= self.max_visible_batch_position {
-                max_visible_row_exclusive = batch_end;
+            if batch_position < self.readable_count {
+                max_readable_row_exclusive = batch_end;
             }
             current_row = batch_end;
         }
 
-        if max_visible_row_exclusive > 0 {
-            Some(max_visible_row_exclusive - 1)
+        if max_readable_row_exclusive > 0 {
+            Some(max_readable_row_exclusive - 1)
         } else {
             None
         }
@@ -135,7 +138,7 @@ impl BTreeIndexExec {
             return vec![];
         };
 
-        let Some(max_visible_row) = self.compute_max_visible_row() else {
+        let Some(max_readable_row) = self.compute_max_readable_row() else {
             return vec![];
         };
 
@@ -173,7 +176,7 @@ impl BTreeIndexExec {
         // Filter by visibility
         positions
             .into_iter()
-            .filter(|&pos| pos <= max_visible_row)
+            .filter(|&pos| pos <= max_readable_row)
             .collect()
     }
 
@@ -226,6 +229,7 @@ impl BTreeIndexExec {
         let mut results = Vec::new();
         for (batch_id, rows_with_positions) in batches_to_rows {
             if let Some(stored) = self.batch_store.get(batch_id) {
+                let data = scan_record_batch(&stored.data)?;
                 // Extract row indices and row positions
                 let row_indices: Vec<u32> = rows_with_positions
                     .iter()
@@ -239,30 +243,40 @@ impl BTreeIndexExec {
                 // Use take to select specific rows
                 let indices = arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(row_indices);
 
-                let columns: std::result::Result<Vec<_>, datafusion::error::DataFusionError> =
-                    stored
-                        .data
-                        .columns()
-                        .iter()
-                        .map(|col| {
-                            arrow_select::take::take(col.as_ref(), &indices, None).map_err(|e| {
-                                datafusion::error::DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None)
-                            })
+                let columns: std::result::Result<Vec<_>, datafusion::error::DataFusionError> = data
+                    .columns()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|col| {
+                        arrow_select::take::take(col.as_ref(), &indices, None).map_err(|e| {
+                            datafusion::error::DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None)
                         })
-                        .collect();
+                    })
+                    .collect();
 
                 let columns = columns?;
 
                 // Apply projection
+                let source_schema = data.schema();
                 let mut final_columns: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> =
                     if let Some(ref proj_indices) = self.projection {
-                        proj_indices.iter().map(|&i| columns[i].clone()).collect()
+                        take_projected_columns(
+                            &columns,
+                            source_schema.fields(),
+                            proj_indices,
+                            self.output_schema.as_ref(),
+                            row_positions.len(),
+                        )?
                     } else {
                         columns
                     };
 
                 // Add _rowid column if requested
                 if self.with_row_id {
+                    final_columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_positions.clone())));
+                }
+
+                // Add _rowaddr column if requested (same value as row position)
+                if self.with_row_address {
                     final_columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_positions)));
                 }
 
@@ -281,15 +295,15 @@ impl DisplayAs for BTreeIndexExec {
             DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
                 write!(
                     f,
-                    "BTreeIndexExec: predicate={:?}, column={}, with_row_id={}",
-                    self.predicate, self.column, self.with_row_id
+                    "BTreeIndexExec: predicate={:?}, column={}, with_row_id={}, with_row_address={}",
+                    self.predicate, self.column, self.with_row_id, self.with_row_address
                 )
             }
             DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
                 write!(
                     f,
-                    "BTreeIndexExec\npredicate={:?}\ncolumn={}\nwith_row_id={}",
-                    self.predicate, self.column, self.with_row_id
+                    "BTreeIndexExec\npredicate={:?}\ncolumn={}\nwith_row_id={}\nwith_row_address={}",
+                    self.predicate, self.column, self.with_row_id, self.with_row_address
                 )
             }
         }
@@ -301,10 +315,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for BTreeIndexExec {
         "BTreeIndexExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         self.output_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -347,20 +357,20 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for BTreeIndexExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Statistics> {
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
         // We can't know the exact count without querying the index
-        Ok(Statistics {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
             num_rows: Precision::Absent,
             total_byte_size: Precision::Absent,
             column_statistics: vec![],
-        })
+        }))
     }
 
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -423,10 +433,11 @@ mod tests {
             batch_store,
             indexes,
             predicate,
-            0, // max_visible_batch_position (batch at position 0)
+            1, // readable_count (batch at position 0)
             None,
             schema,
             false,
+            false,
         )
         .unwrap();
 
@@ -462,8 +473,17 @@ mod tests {
             ],
         };
 
-        let exec =
-            BTreeIndexExec::new(batch_store, indexes, predicate, 0, None, schema, false).unwrap();
+        let exec = BTreeIndexExec::new(
+            batch_store,
+            indexes,
+            predicate,
+            1,
+            None,
+            schema,
+            false,
+            false,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
@@ -497,15 +517,16 @@ mod tests {
             value: ScalarValue::Int32(Some(15)),
         };
 
-        // Query with max_visible=0 should not see batch at position 1
+        // Query with max_readable=0 should not see batch at position 1
         let exec = BTreeIndexExec::new(
             batch_store.clone(),
             indexes.clone(),
             predicate.clone(),
-            0,
+            1,
             None,
             schema.clone(),
             false,
+            false,
         )
         .unwrap();
 
@@ -516,9 +537,18 @@ mod tests {
         let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
         assert_eq!(total_rows, 0);
 
-        // Query with max_visible=1 should see both batches
-        let exec =
-            BTreeIndexExec::new(batch_store, indexes, predicate, 1, None, schema, false).unwrap();
+        // Query with max_readable=1 should see both batches
+        let exec = BTreeIndexExec::new(
+            batch_store,
+            indexes,
+            predicate,
+            2,
+            None,
+            schema,
+            false,
+            false,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
@@ -561,16 +591,18 @@ mod tests {
             batch_store,
             indexes,
             predicate,
-            0,
+            1,
             None,
             schema_with_rowid.clone(),
             true,
+            false,
         )
         .unwrap();
 
         // Verify the plan output
         let debug_str = format!("{:?}", exec);
         assert!(debug_str.contains("with_row_id: true"));
+        assert!(debug_str.contains("with_row_address: false"));
 
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
@@ -623,17 +655,18 @@ mod tests {
                 batch_store.clone(),
                 indexes.clone(),
                 predicate.clone(),
-                0,
+                1,
                 None,
                 schema.clone(),
                 false,
+                false,
             )
             .unwrap(),
         );
 
         assert_plan_node_equals(
             exec,
-            "BTreeIndexExec: predicate=Eq { column: \"id\", value: Int32(5) }, column=id, with_row_id=false",
+            "BTreeIndexExec: predicate=Eq { column: \"id\", value: Int32(5) }, column=id, with_row_id=false, with_row_address=false",
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
@@ -650,17 +683,18 @@ mod tests {
                 batch_store,
                 indexes,
                 predicate,
-                0,
+                1,
                 None,
                 schema_with_rowid,
                 true,
+                false,
             )
             .unwrap(),
         );
 
         assert_plan_node_equals(
             exec,
-            "BTreeIndexExec: predicate=Eq { column: \"id\", value: Int32(5) }, column=id, with_row_id=true",
+            "BTreeIndexExec: predicate=Eq { column: \"id\", value: Int32(5) }, column=id, with_row_id=true, with_row_address=false",
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/dedup_scan.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/dedup_scan.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b1636eecd8f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/dedup_scan.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,450 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! MemTableDedupScanExec — newest-per-PK scan over the active memtable that
+//! fuses within-source dedup with the scalar predicate in a single pass.
+//!
+//! The active memtable is an append log, so a PK update is a later append
+//! with the same key. [`super::MemTableScanExec`] pushes the filter into the
+//! scan, which removes a PK's newest row *before* dedup runs — an older row
+//! that still satisfies the predicate then leaks through (a "phantom").
+//!
+//! This exec walks rows newest-first (batches reversed, rows iterated
+//! back-to-front), seeds a seen-set from the *newest* occurrence of every PK
+//! regardless of the predicate (so older versions stay suppressed even when
+//! the newest row fails the filter), and records the keep/drop verdict into a
+//! forward-aligned mask. A single `filter_record_batch` over the original
+//! batch then emits the survivors with no per-column reverse copy.
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::fmt::{Debug, Formatter};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use datafusion::common::stats::Precision;
+use datafusion::error::Result as DataFusionResult;
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, Partitioning, PlanProperties,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream, Statistics,
+};
+use datafusion::prelude::Expr;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, PhysicalExprRef};
+use futures::stream::{self, StreamExt};
+
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::exec::{scan_record_batch, take_projected_columns};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::exec::compute_pk_hash;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::BatchStore;
+
+/// Scans the active memtable newest-first and emits the newest-per-PK rows
+/// that satisfy the (optional) predicate. See the module doc.
+pub struct MemTableDedupScanExec {
+    batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+    readable_count: usize,
+    /// Column indices to project (into the source schema).
+    projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+    output_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Column indices of the primary key in the source schema.
+    pk_indices: Vec<usize>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+    with_row_id: bool,
+    with_row_address: bool,
+    filter_predicate: Option<PhysicalExprRef>,
+    /// Original filter expression, for display only.
+    filter_expr: Option<Expr>,
+}
+
+impl Debug for MemTableDedupScanExec {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("MemTableDedupScanExec")
+            .field("readable_count", &self.readable_count)
+            .field("projection", &self.projection)
+            .field("pk_indices", &self.pk_indices)
+            .field("with_row_address", &self.with_row_address)
+            .field("has_filter", &self.filter_predicate.is_some())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl MemTableDedupScanExec {
+    /// Create a new fused dedup + predicate scan over the active memtable.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub fn new(
+        batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+        readable_count: usize,
+        projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+        output_schema: SchemaRef,
+        pk_indices: Vec<usize>,
+        with_row_id: bool,
+        with_row_address: bool,
+        filter_predicate: Option<PhysicalExprRef>,
+        filter_expr: Option<Expr>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
+            EmissionType::Incremental,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+
+        Self {
+            batch_store,
+            readable_count,
+            projection,
+            output_schema,
+            pk_indices,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+            with_row_id,
+            with_row_address,
+            filter_predicate,
+            filter_expr,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for MemTableDedupScanExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let projection_names: Vec<&str> = self
+            .output_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| field.name().as_str())
+            .collect();
+        let filter_str = self
+            .filter_expr
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|e| format!(", filter={}", e))
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let row_addr_str = if self.with_row_address {
+            ", with_row_address=true"
+        } else {
+            ""
+        };
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => write!(
+                f,
+                "MemTableDedupScanExec: projection=[{}], with_row_id={}{}{}",
+                projection_names.join(", "),
+                self.with_row_id,
+                row_addr_str,
+                filter_str
+            ),
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => write!(
+                f,
+                "MemTableDedupScanExec\nprojection=[{}]\nwith_row_id={}{}{}",
+                projection_names.join(", "),
+                self.with_row_id,
+                row_addr_str,
+                filter_str
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for MemTableDedupScanExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "MemTableDedupScanExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.output_schema.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if !children.is_empty() {
+            return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "MemTableDedupScanExec does not have children".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        _partition: usize,
+        _context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        // Newest-first iteration: reverse batches here, rows are walked
+        // back-to-front below.
+        let mut batches = self
+            .batch_store
+            .visible_batches_with_offsets(self.readable_count);
+        batches.reverse();
+
+        let projection = self.projection.clone();
+        let schema = self.output_schema.clone();
+        let with_row_id = self.with_row_id;
+        let with_row_address = self.with_row_address;
+        let filter_predicate = self.filter_predicate.clone();
+        let pk_indices = self.pk_indices.clone();
+        let need_row_offsets = with_row_id || with_row_address;
+
+        // Cross-batch seen-set: first time a PK hash is seen (newest-first) wins.
+        let mut seen: HashSet<u64> = HashSet::new();
+        let mut out: Vec<DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> = Vec::with_capacity(batches.len());
+
+        for (batch, row_offset) in batches {
+            let batch = scan_record_batch(&batch)?;
+            let n = batch.num_rows();
+            if n == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Predicate mask over the original (forward) rows; null counts as
+            // no-match.
+            let filter_array = match &filter_predicate {
+                Some(predicate) => {
+                    let value = predicate.evaluate(&batch)?;
+                    let array = value.into_array(n)?;
+                    let Some(boolean) = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>() else {
+                        return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                            "Filter predicate did not evaluate to boolean".to_string(),
+                        ));
+                    };
+                    Some(boolean.clone())
+                }
+                None => None,
+            };
+
+            // Walk newest-first; first insertion into `seen` is the newest
+            // occurrence (keep), later ones are older (drop). `seen` is
+            // updated even when the newest row fails the predicate so its
+            // older versions stay suppressed (no phantom).
+            let mut emit_forward = vec![false; n];
+            for j in (0..n).rev() {
+                let pk_hash = compute_pk_hash(&batch, &pk_indices, j);
+                let is_newest = seen.insert(pk_hash);
+                let passes = match &filter_array {
+                    Some(mask) => mask.is_valid(j) && mask.value(j),
+                    None => true,
+                };
+                emit_forward[j] = is_newest && passes;
+            }
+            let emit_mask = BooleanArray::from(emit_forward);
+
+            let emitted = arrow_select::filter::filter_record_batch(&batch, &emit_mask)?;
+            if emitted.num_rows() == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let filtered_offsets: Vec<u64> = if need_row_offsets {
+                (0..n)
+                    .filter(|&j| emit_mask.value(j))
+                    .map(|j| row_offset + j as u64)
+                    .collect()
+            } else {
+                vec![]
+            };
+
+            let emitted_schema = emitted.schema();
+            let mut columns: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = if let Some(ref indices) = projection {
+                match take_projected_columns(
+                    emitted.columns(),
+                    emitted_schema.fields(),
+                    indices,
+                    schema.as_ref(),
+                    emitted.num_rows(),
+                ) {
+                    Ok(cols) => cols,
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        out.push(Err(e));
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                emitted.columns().to_vec()
+            };
+            if with_row_id {
+                columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(filtered_offsets.clone())));
+            }
+            if with_row_address {
+                columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(filtered_offsets)));
+            }
+
+            out.push(
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), columns)
+                    .map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let stream = stream::iter(out).boxed();
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.output_schema.clone(),
+            stream,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
+            num_rows: Precision::Absent,
+            total_byte_size: Precision::Absent,
+            column_statistics: vec![],
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::prelude::col;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_datafusion::planner::Planner;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    fn source_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn output_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new(
+                crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::exec::ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// id PK + nullable value. Each tuple is one appended row, in order.
+    fn batch(rows: &[(i32, Option<i32>)]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = rows.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+        let values: Vec<Option<i32>> = rows.iter().map(|(_, v)| *v).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            source_schema(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Run the exec and collect (id -> (value, rowaddr)).
+    async fn run(
+        store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+        readable_count: usize,
+        filter: Option<Expr>,
+    ) -> HashMap<i32, (Option<i32>, u64)> {
+        let filter_predicate = filter.map(|expr| {
+            let planner = Planner::new(source_schema());
+            let optimized = planner.optimize_expr(expr).unwrap();
+            planner.create_physical_expr(&optimized).unwrap()
+        });
+        let filter_expr = None;
+        let exec = MemTableDedupScanExec::new(
+            store,
+            readable_count,
+            None,
+            output_schema(),
+            vec![0],
+            false,
+            true,
+            filter_predicate,
+            filter_expr,
+        );
+        let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap().try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut out = HashMap::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let ids = b.column(0).as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+            let values = b.column(1).as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+            let addrs = b.column(2).as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>().unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                let value = (!values.is_null(i)).then(|| values.value(i));
+                let prev = out.insert(ids.value(i), (value, addrs.value(i)));
+                assert!(prev.is_none(), "duplicate PK {} in output", ids.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        out
+    }
+
+    /// Within a single batch: insert + update of one PK collapses to newest,
+    /// and a predicate that the newest version fails must NOT resurrect the old.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn within_batch_phantom_suppressed() {
+        let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        // id=10 inserted (100) then updated to NULL, all in one batch.
+        store.append(batch(&[(10, Some(100)), (10, None)])).unwrap();
+
+        let no_filter = run(store.clone(), 1, None).await;
+        assert_eq!(no_filter.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(no_filter[&10].0, None, "newest version of id=10 is NULL");
+
+        let not_null = run(store, 1, Some(col("value").is_not_null())).await;
+        assert!(
+            !not_null.contains_key(&10),
+            "id=10 newest is NULL; the stale value=100 must not leak under value IS NOT NULL"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Cross-batch dedup + predicate, mirroring the design doc worked example.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_batch_newest_per_pk_with_filter() {
+        let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        store
+            .append(batch(&[(10, Some(100)), (20, Some(200)), (10, None)]))
+            .unwrap();
+        store.append(batch(&[(20, Some(999)), (30, None)])).unwrap();
+
+        // No filter: newest per PK = {10:NULL@2, 20:999@3, 30:NULL@4}.
+        let all = run(store.clone(), 2, None).await;
+        assert_eq!(all.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(all[&10], (None, 2));
+        assert_eq!(all[&20], (Some(999), 3));
+        assert_eq!(all[&30], (None, 4));
+
+        // value IS NOT NULL: only id=20 (newest 999) survives; 10 and 30 are
+        // newest-NULL so they must be absent (no stale leak).
+        let not_null = run(store, 2, Some(col("value").is_not_null())).await;
+        assert_eq!(not_null.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(not_null[&20], (Some(999), 3));
+    }
+
+    /// value IS NULL is the mirror case: a PK whose newest version is non-NULL
+    /// must not leak an older NULL version.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn is_null_predicate_no_stale_leak() {
+        let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        // id=40 inserted NULL then updated to 400 (newest non-NULL).
+        store.append(batch(&[(40, None), (40, Some(400))])).unwrap();
+
+        let is_null = run(store, 1, Some(col("value").is_null())).await;
+        assert!(
+            !is_null.contains_key(&40),
+            "id=40 newest is 400; the stale NULL must not leak under value IS NULL"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/fts.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/fts.rs
index 3f03e1917d7..84adcdb05eb 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/fts.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/fts.rs
@@ -3,12 +3,14 @@
 
 //! FtsIndexExec - Full-text search with MVCC visibility.
 
-use std::any::Any;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, hash_map::Entry};
 use std::fmt::{Debug, Formatter};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow_array::{Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::builder::{ListBuilder, UInt32Builder};
+use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
 use datafusion::common::stats::Precision;
 use datafusion::error::Result as DataFusionResult;
 use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
@@ -19,13 +21,16 @@ use datafusion::physical_plan::{
     DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, Partitioning, PlanProperties,
     SendableRecordBatchStream, Statistics,
 };
-use datafusion_physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, PhysicalExprRef};
 use futures::stream::{self, StreamExt};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::DOC_INDEX_FIELD;
 
-use super::super::builder::{FtsQuery, FtsQueryType, DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR};
-use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::{FtsQueryExpr, SearchOptions};
+use super::super::builder::FtsQuery;
+use super::{newest_pk_positions, scan_record_batch};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::{SearchOptions, search_cross_column};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::exec::take_projected_columns;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::exec::resolve_pk_indices;
 use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
 
 /// Score column name in output.
@@ -39,33 +44,50 @@ struct BatchRange {
     batch_id: usize,
 }
 
+/// One scored hit: row position, the element ordinal for a list-element
+/// document, and the BM25 score.
+type FtsHit = (u64, Option<Vec<u32>>, f32);
+
+type MaterializedFtsRows = (
+    Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>>,
+    Vec<f32>,
+    Vec<u64>,
+    Vec<Option<Vec<u32>>>,
+);
+
 /// ExecutionPlan node that queries FTS index with MVCC visibility.
 pub struct FtsIndexExec {
     batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
     indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
     query: FtsQuery,
-    max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+    readable_count: usize,
     projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
     output_schema: SchemaRef,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
     /// Pre-computed batch ranges for O(log n) lookup.
     batch_ranges: Vec<BatchRange>,
-    /// Maximum visible row position based on max_visible_batch_position (None if nothing visible).
-    max_visible_row: Option<u64>,
+    /// Last row position within `readable_count` (None if nothing is readable).
+    max_readable_row: Option<u64>,
     /// Whether to include _rowid column (row position) in output.
     with_row_id: bool,
+    /// Whether results identify element documents with `_doc_index`.
+    with_doc_index: bool,
+    /// Optional prefilter predicate, compiled against the memtable schema.
+    /// Applied to the materialized full-schema hits before projection so the
+    /// FTS arm only returns rows matching the predicate.
+    filter: Option<PhysicalExprRef>,
+    /// Primary-key columns. When set, materialized hits are kept only if their
+    /// row position is the newest visible version of that PK.
+    pk_columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
 }
 
 impl Debug for FtsIndexExec {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         f.debug_struct("FtsIndexExec")
-            .field("column", &self.query.column)
-            .field("query_type", &self.query.query_type)
-            .field(
-                "max_visible_batch_position",
-                &self.max_visible_batch_position,
-            )
+            .field("columns", &self.query.columns())
+            .field("expr", &self.query.expr)
+            .field("readable_count", &self.readable_count)
             .field("with_row_id", &self.with_row_id)
             .finish()
     }
@@ -79,7 +101,7 @@ impl FtsIndexExec {
     /// * `batch_store` - Lock-free batch store containing data
     /// * `indexes` - Index registry with FTS indexes
     /// * `query` - FTS query parameters
-    /// * `max_visible_batch_position` - MVCC visibility sequence number
+    /// * `readable_count` - Exclusive count of batch positions this scan may read
     /// * `projection` - Optional column indices to project
     /// * `base_schema` - Schema before adding score column (and _rowid if with_row_id)
     /// * `with_row_id` - Whether to include _rowid column (row position)
@@ -87,43 +109,57 @@ impl FtsIndexExec {
         batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
         indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
         query: FtsQuery,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+        readable_count: usize,
         projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
         base_schema: SchemaRef,
         with_row_id: bool,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        // Verify the index exists for this column
-        let column = &query.column;
-        if indexes.get_fts_by_column(column).is_none() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("No FTS index found for column '{}'", column),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+        // Every queried column must resolve an index. A cross-column predicate
+        // is one predicate: a column with no arm is a missing answer rather
+        // than a narrower one.
+        for column in query.columns() {
+            if indexes
+                .get_fts_by_column_and_granularity(column, query.document_granularity)
+                .is_none()
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "No FTS index found for column '{column}'"
+                )));
+            }
         }
+        let with_doc_index = query.document_granularity.is_list_element();
 
-        // Build output schema: base fields + _score + optional _rowid
+        // Build output schema: base fields + optional _doc_index + _score + optional _rowid
         let mut fields: Vec<Field> = base_schema
             .fields()
             .iter()
             .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone())
             .collect();
-        fields.push(Field::new(SCORE_COLUMN, DataType::Float32, false));
+        if with_doc_index {
+            fields.push(DOC_INDEX_FIELD.clone());
+        }
+        // `_score` is nullable here to stay schema-compatible with
+        // `lance_index::scalar::inverted::FTS_SCHEMA` (the schema base/SSTable
+        // FTS exec nodes emit). The LSM `full_text_search` planner unions the
+        // active arm with base/SSTable arms; UnionExec requires schema equality
+        // including nullability. The actual emitted column is always populated.
+        fields.push(Field::new(SCORE_COLUMN, DataType::Float32, true));
         if with_row_id {
             fields.push(Field::new(lance_core::ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true));
         }
         let output_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(fields));
 
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()),
             Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
-        // Pre-compute batch ranges for O(log n) lookup and max visible row
+        // Pre-compute batch ranges for O(log n) lookup and max readable row
         let mut batch_ranges = Vec::new();
         let mut current_row = 0usize;
-        let mut max_visible_row_exclusive: u64 = 0;
+        let mut max_readable_row_exclusive: u64 = 0;
 
         for (batch_id, stored_batch) in batch_store.iter().enumerate() {
             let batch_start = current_row;
@@ -133,15 +169,15 @@ impl FtsIndexExec {
                 end: batch_end,
                 batch_id,
             });
-            if batch_id <= max_visible_batch_position {
-                max_visible_row_exclusive = batch_end as u64;
+            if batch_id < readable_count {
+                max_readable_row_exclusive = batch_end as u64;
             }
             current_row = batch_end;
         }
 
-        // Convert exclusive end to inclusive last position, or None if nothing visible
-        let max_visible_row = if max_visible_row_exclusive > 0 {
-            Some(max_visible_row_exclusive - 1)
+        // Convert exclusive end to inclusive last position, or None if nothing readable
+        let max_readable_row = if max_readable_row_exclusive > 0 {
+            Some(max_readable_row_exclusive - 1)
         } else {
             None
         };
@@ -150,17 +186,33 @@ impl FtsIndexExec {
             batch_store,
             indexes,
             query,
-            max_visible_batch_position,
+            readable_count,
             projection,
             output_schema,
             properties,
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
             batch_ranges,
-            max_visible_row,
+            max_readable_row,
             with_row_id,
+            with_doc_index,
+            filter: None,
+            pk_columns: None,
         })
     }
 
+    /// Attach an optional prefilter predicate (compiled against the memtable
+    /// schema). Hits that fail the predicate are dropped before projection.
+    pub fn with_filter(mut self, filter: Option<PhysicalExprRef>) -> Self {
+        self.filter = filter;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Provide primary-key columns for newest-version filtering.
+    pub fn with_pk_columns(mut self, pk_columns: Option<Vec<String>>) -> Self {
+        self.pk_columns = pk_columns;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Find batch for a row position using binary search. O(log n).
     #[inline]
     fn find_batch(&self, row_pos: usize) -> Option<&BatchRange> {
@@ -172,141 +224,101 @@ impl FtsIndexExec {
     }
 
     /// Query the index and return matching rows with BM25 scores.
-    fn query_index(&self) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
-        let Some(index) = self.indexes.get_fts_by_column(&self.query.column) else {
-            return vec![];
+    fn query_index(&self) -> Result<Vec<FtsHit>> {
+        let columns = self.query.columns();
+        if columns.len() > 1 {
+            return self.query_across_columns(&columns);
+        }
+        let Some(&column) = columns.first() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "full-text search names no column to search".to_string(),
+            ));
         };
-
-        // Convert FtsQueryType to FtsQueryExpr
-        let query_expr = match &self.query.query_type {
-            FtsQueryType::Match { query } => FtsQueryExpr::match_query(query),
-            FtsQueryType::Phrase { query, slop } => FtsQueryExpr::phrase_with_slop(query, *slop),
-            FtsQueryType::Boolean {
-                must,
-                should,
-                must_not,
-            } => {
-                let mut builder = FtsQueryExpr::boolean();
-                for term in must {
-                    builder = builder.must(FtsQueryExpr::match_query(term));
-                }
-                for term in should {
-                    builder = builder.should(FtsQueryExpr::match_query(term));
-                }
-                for term in must_not {
-                    builder = builder.must_not(FtsQueryExpr::match_query(term));
-                }
-                builder.build()
-            }
-            FtsQueryType::Fuzzy {
-                query,
-                fuzziness,
-                max_expansions,
-            } => FtsQueryExpr::fuzzy_with_options(query, *fuzziness, *max_expansions),
+        let Some(index) = self
+            .indexes
+            .get_fts_by_column_and_granularity(column, self.query.document_granularity)
+        else {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
         };
 
-        // Search the index using the query expression
-        // Use search_with_options if wand_factor is set (< 1.0)
-        let entries = if self.query.wand_factor < DEFAULT_WAND_FACTOR {
-            let options = SearchOptions::new().with_wand_factor(self.query.wand_factor);
-            index.search_with_options(&query_expr, options)
-        } else {
-            index.search_query(&query_expr)
-        };
+        // The scanner carries the tree the index evaluates, so there is nothing
+        // to translate here.
+        let query_expr = self.query.expr.clone();
+
+        let all_rows_visible = self.batch_ranges.last().is_none_or(|last| {
+            self.max_readable_row
+                .map(|max_readable| max_readable + 1 >= last.end as u64)
+                .unwrap_or(last.end == 0)
+        });
+        let pk_recency_is_noop = self.pk_columns.is_none()
+            || (self.indexes.has_pk_index() && !self.indexes.pk_has_overrides());
+        let can_prune_in_index = self.filter.is_none() && pk_recency_is_noop && all_rows_visible;
+
+        // Search the index using the query expression. WAND pruning is only
+        // safe when the index search itself sees the final candidate set.
+        let mut options = SearchOptions::new().with_include_tail(self.query.include_tail);
+        if can_prune_in_index {
+            options = options.with_wand_factor(self.query.wand_factor);
+            if let Some(limit) = self.query.limit {
+                options = options.with_limit(limit);
+            }
+        }
+        let entries = index.search_with_options(&query_expr, options);
 
-        // Convert to (row_position, score) pairs
-        entries
+        // Convert to (row_position, element ordinal, score) tuples.
+        Ok(entries
             .into_iter()
-            .map(|entry| (entry.row_position, entry.score))
-            .collect()
+            .map(|entry| (entry.row_position, entry.doc_index, entry.score))
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    /// Route each leaf of a cross-column tree to the index holding its column.
+    ///
+    /// No WAND pruning and no query limit: the clauses combine over full result
+    /// sets, the same way a single-index compound query already does. The
+    /// visibility ceiling goes *in* rather than being applied after, so leaves
+    /// read from indexes whose tails have advanced differently still meet over
+    /// one cut.
+    fn query_across_columns(&self, columns: &[&str]) -> Result<Vec<FtsHit>> {
+        let mut indexes = HashMap::with_capacity(columns.len());
+        for &column in columns {
+            let Some(index) = self
+                .indexes
+                .get_fts_by_column_and_granularity(column, self.query.document_granularity)
+            else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "No FTS index found for column '{column}'"
+                )));
+            };
+            indexes.insert(column, index);
+        }
+        Ok(search_cross_column(
+            &self.query.expr,
+            &indexes,
+            self.query.include_tail,
+            self.max_readable_row,
+        )?
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|entry| (entry.row_position, entry.doc_index, entry.score))
+        .collect())
     }
 
     /// Filter results by MVCC visibility using max_row_position. O(n).
-    fn filter_by_visibility(&self, results: Vec<(u64, f32)>) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
-        let Some(max_visible) = self.max_visible_row else {
+    fn filter_by_visibility(&self, results: Vec<FtsHit>) -> Vec<FtsHit> {
+        let Some(max_readable) = self.max_readable_row else {
             return vec![];
         };
         results
             .into_iter()
-            .filter(|&(pos, _)| pos <= max_visible)
+            .filter(|(pos, _, _)| *pos <= max_readable)
             .collect()
     }
 
-    /// Materialize rows from batch store with score column (for unsorted results).
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
-    fn materialize_rows(&self, results: &[(u64, f32)]) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
-        if results.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(vec![]);
-        }
-
-        // Group rows by batch using binary search on pre-computed ranges
-        // Track (row_in_batch, score, original_row_position)
-        let mut batches_data: std::collections::HashMap<usize, Vec<(usize, f32, u64)>> =
-            std::collections::HashMap::new();
-
-        for &(pos, score) in results {
-            if let Some(batch) = self.find_batch(pos as usize) {
-                batches_data.entry(batch.batch_id).or_default().push((
-                    pos as usize - batch.start,
-                    score,
-                    pos,
-                ));
-            }
-        }
-
-        let mut all_batches = Vec::new();
-
-        for (batch_id, rows_with_score) in batches_data {
-            if let Some(stored) = self.batch_store.get(batch_id) {
-                let rows: Vec<u32> = rows_with_score.iter().map(|&(r, _, _)| r as u32).collect();
-                let scores: Vec<f32> = rows_with_score.iter().map(|&(_, s, _)| s).collect();
-                let row_positions: Vec<u64> =
-                    rows_with_score.iter().map(|&(_, _, pos)| pos).collect();
-
-                let indices = UInt32Array::from(rows);
-
-                let mut columns: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> = stored
-                    .data
-                    .columns()
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|col| arrow_select::take::take(col.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap())
-                    .collect();
-
-                // Add score column
-                columns.push(Arc::new(Float32Array::from(scores)));
-
-                // Apply projection if needed (excluding score column which is always included)
-                let mut final_columns = if let Some(ref proj_indices) = self.projection {
-                    let mut projected: Vec<_> =
-                        proj_indices.iter().map(|&i| columns[i].clone()).collect();
-                    // Always include score as last column
-                    projected.push(columns.last().unwrap().clone());
-                    projected
-                } else {
-                    columns
-                };
-
-                // Add _rowid column if requested
-                if self.with_row_id {
-                    final_columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_positions)));
-                }
-
-                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(self.output_schema.clone(), final_columns)?;
-                all_batches.push(batch);
-            }
-        }
-
-        Ok(all_batches)
-    }
-
     /// Materialize rows from batch store preserving input order (for sorted results).
     ///
     /// This method processes results one at a time to preserve the score-sorted order,
     /// then combines them into a single batch.
-    fn materialize_rows_sorted(
-        &self,
-        results: &[(u64, f32)],
-    ) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+    fn materialize_rows_sorted(&self, results: &[FtsHit]) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
         if results.is_empty() {
             return Ok(vec![]);
         }
@@ -315,7 +327,9 @@ impl FtsIndexExec {
         let mut all_rows: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(results.len());
         let mut all_scores: Vec<f32> = Vec::with_capacity(results.len());
         let mut all_row_positions: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(results.len());
+        let mut all_doc_indices: Vec<Option<Vec<u32>>> = Vec::with_capacity(results.len());
         let mut all_columns: Vec<Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>>> = Vec::new();
+        let mut scan_batches = HashMap::<usize, RecordBatch>::new();
 
         // Initialize column vectors based on first batch's schema
         let first_batch = self.batch_store.get(0);
@@ -325,25 +339,32 @@ impl FtsIndexExec {
             }
         }
 
-        for &(pos, score) in results {
-            if let Some(batch_range) = self.find_batch(pos as usize) {
-                if let Some(stored) = self.batch_store.get(batch_range.batch_id) {
-                    let row_in_batch = (pos as usize - batch_range.start) as u32;
-                    let indices = UInt32Array::from(vec![row_in_batch]);
-
-                    // Take each column value
-                    for (col_idx, col) in stored.data.columns().iter().enumerate() {
-                        let taken = arrow_select::take::take(col.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap();
-                        if all_columns.len() <= col_idx {
-                            all_columns.push(Vec::new());
-                        }
-                        all_columns[col_idx].push(taken);
+        for (pos, doc_index, score) in results {
+            let pos = *pos;
+            let score = *score;
+            if let Some(batch_range) = self.find_batch(pos as usize)
+                && let Some(stored) = self.batch_store.get(batch_range.batch_id)
+            {
+                let data = match scan_batches.entry(batch_range.batch_id) {
+                    Entry::Occupied(entry) => entry.into_mut(),
+                    Entry::Vacant(entry) => entry.insert(scan_record_batch(&stored.data)?),
+                };
+                let row_in_batch = (pos as usize - batch_range.start) as u32;
+                let indices = UInt32Array::from(vec![row_in_batch]);
+
+                // Take each column value
+                for (col_idx, col) in data.columns().iter().enumerate() {
+                    let taken = arrow_select::take::take(col.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap();
+                    if all_columns.len() <= col_idx {
+                        all_columns.push(Vec::new());
                     }
-
-                    all_rows.push(row_in_batch);
-                    all_scores.push(score);
-                    all_row_positions.push(pos);
+                    all_columns[col_idx].push(taken);
                 }
+
+                all_rows.push(row_in_batch);
+                all_scores.push(score);
+                all_row_positions.push(pos);
+                all_doc_indices.push(doc_index.clone());
             }
         }
 
@@ -363,15 +384,138 @@ impl FtsIndexExec {
             }
         }
 
+        // Prefilter: evaluate the predicate against the full-schema hits and drop
+        // non-matching rows before applying the query limit and projection (a
+        // NULL result excludes the row, matching SQL). When a predicate exists,
+        // query_index deliberately avoids pushing the limit into the index so
+        // this remains an exact prefilter, not a lossy post-filter.
+        let (final_columns, all_scores, all_row_positions, all_doc_indices) =
+            if let Some(ref predicate) = self.filter {
+                let Some(first) = self.batch_store.get(0) else {
+                    return Ok(vec![]);
+                };
+                let data_batch =
+                    RecordBatch::try_new(scan_record_batch(&first.data)?.schema(), final_columns)?;
+                let mask = predicate
+                    .evaluate(&data_batch)?
+                    .into_array(data_batch.num_rows())?;
+                let mask = mask
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                            "FTS prefilter predicate did not evaluate to boolean".to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                let filtered_columns = data_batch
+                    .columns()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|c| arrow_select::filter::filter(c.as_ref(), mask))
+                    .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                let filtered_scores: Vec<f32> = all_scores
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(mask.iter())
+                    .filter_map(|(s, keep)| keep.unwrap_or(false).then_some(*s))
+                    .collect();
+                let filtered_positions: Vec<u64> = all_row_positions
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(mask.iter())
+                    .filter_map(|(p, keep)| keep.unwrap_or(false).then_some(*p))
+                    .collect();
+                let filtered_doc_indices: Vec<Option<Vec<u32>>> = all_doc_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(mask.iter())
+                    .filter(|(_, keep)| keep.unwrap_or(false))
+                    .map(|(index, _)| index.clone())
+                    .collect();
+                (
+                    filtered_columns,
+                    filtered_scores,
+                    filtered_positions,
+                    filtered_doc_indices,
+                )
+            } else {
+                (
+                    final_columns,
+                    all_scores,
+                    all_row_positions,
+                    all_doc_indices,
+                )
+            };
+
+        let (mut final_columns, mut all_scores, mut all_row_positions, mut all_doc_indices) = self
+            .filter_to_newest_pk(
+                final_columns,
+                all_scores,
+                all_row_positions,
+                all_doc_indices,
+            )?;
+
+        if all_scores.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(limit) = self.query.limit
+            && all_scores.len() > limit
+        {
+            final_columns = final_columns
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|column| column.slice(0, limit))
+                .collect();
+            all_scores.truncate(limit);
+            all_row_positions.truncate(limit);
+            all_doc_indices.truncate(limit);
+        }
+
+        if self.with_doc_index {
+            let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(UInt32Builder::new()).with_field(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::UInt32,
+                false,
+            ));
+            for doc_index in all_doc_indices {
+                let doc_index = doc_index.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "element-document FTS result is missing its document coordinate"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                builder.values().append_slice(&doc_index);
+                builder.append(true);
+            }
+            final_columns.push(Arc::new(builder.finish()));
+        }
+
         // Add score column
+        let n_hits = all_scores.len();
         final_columns.push(Arc::new(Float32Array::from(all_scores)));
 
         // Apply projection if needed
         let mut projected_columns = if let Some(ref proj_indices) = self.projection {
-            let mut projected: Vec<_> = proj_indices
-                .iter()
-                .map(|&i| final_columns[i].clone())
-                .collect();
+            // Source shape comes from the memtable's own batches; `final_columns`
+            // holds one entry per source column, concatenated across hits.
+            let source_fields = self
+                .batch_store
+                .get(0)
+                .map(|stored| scan_record_batch(&stored.data))
+                .transpose()?
+                .map(|batch| batch.schema().fields().clone());
+            let mut projected: Vec<_> = match source_fields {
+                Some(fields) => take_projected_columns(
+                    &final_columns,
+                    &fields,
+                    proj_indices,
+                    self.output_schema.as_ref(),
+                    n_hits,
+                )?,
+                None => proj_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|&i| final_columns[i].clone())
+                    .collect(),
+            };
+            if self.with_doc_index {
+                projected.push(final_columns[final_columns.len() - 2].clone());
+            }
             // Always include score as last column
             projected.push(final_columns.last().unwrap().clone());
             projected
@@ -387,6 +531,113 @@ impl FtsIndexExec {
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(self.output_schema.clone(), projected_columns)?;
         Ok(vec![batch])
     }
+
+    fn filter_to_newest_pk(
+        &self,
+        final_columns: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>>,
+        all_scores: Vec<f32>,
+        all_row_positions: Vec<u64>,
+        all_doc_indices: Vec<Option<Vec<u32>>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<MaterializedFtsRows> {
+        let Some(pk_columns) = &self.pk_columns else {
+            return Ok((
+                final_columns,
+                all_scores,
+                all_row_positions,
+                all_doc_indices,
+            ));
+        };
+        if pk_columns.is_empty() || all_scores.is_empty() {
+            return Ok((
+                final_columns,
+                all_scores,
+                all_row_positions,
+                all_doc_indices,
+            ));
+        }
+        let Some(max_readable_row) = self.max_readable_row else {
+            return Ok((
+                final_columns,
+                all_scores,
+                all_row_positions,
+                all_doc_indices,
+            ));
+        };
+        if self.indexes.has_pk_index() && !self.indexes.pk_has_overrides() {
+            return Ok((
+                final_columns,
+                all_scores,
+                all_row_positions,
+                all_doc_indices,
+            ));
+        }
+        let Some(first) = self.batch_store.get(0) else {
+            return Ok((
+                final_columns,
+                all_scores,
+                all_row_positions,
+                all_doc_indices,
+            ));
+        };
+        let newest_positions = if self.indexes.has_pk_index() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(newest_pk_positions(
+                &self.batch_store,
+                pk_columns,
+                self.readable_count,
+                max_readable_row,
+            )?)
+        };
+
+        let data_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(scan_record_batch(&first.data)?.schema(), final_columns)?;
+        let pk_indices = resolve_pk_indices(&data_batch, pk_columns)?;
+        let keep = (0..data_batch.num_rows())
+            .map(|row| {
+                Ok(match &newest_positions {
+                    Some(newest) => newest.contains(&all_row_positions[row]),
+                    None => {
+                        let values: Vec<ScalarValue> = pk_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|&col| ScalarValue::try_from_array(data_batch.column(col), row))
+                            .collect::<DataFusionResult<_>>()?;
+                        self.indexes
+                            .pk_is_newest(&values, all_row_positions[row], max_readable_row)
+                    }
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<DataFusionResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        let mask = BooleanArray::from_iter(keep.iter().copied());
+        let filtered_columns = data_batch
+            .columns()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|c| arrow_select::filter::filter(c.as_ref(), &mask))
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+        let filtered_scores = all_scores
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(keep.iter())
+            .filter_map(|(s, keep)| keep.then_some(s))
+            .collect();
+        let filtered_positions = all_row_positions
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(keep.iter())
+            .filter_map(|(p, keep)| keep.then_some(p))
+            .collect();
+        let filtered_doc_indices = all_doc_indices
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(keep.iter())
+            .filter_map(|(index, keep)| keep.then_some(index))
+            .collect();
+
+        Ok((
+            filtered_columns,
+            filtered_scores,
+            filtered_positions,
+            filtered_doc_indices,
+        ))
+    }
 }
 
 impl DisplayAs for FtsIndexExec {
@@ -395,15 +646,19 @@ impl DisplayAs for FtsIndexExec {
             DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
                 write!(
                     f,
-                    "FtsIndexExec: column={}, query_type={:?}, with_row_id={}",
-                    self.query.column, self.query.query_type, self.with_row_id
+                    "FtsIndexExec: columns={:?}, query_type={:?}, with_row_id={}",
+                    self.query.columns(),
+                    self.query.expr,
+                    self.with_row_id
                 )
             }
             DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
                 write!(
                     f,
-                    "FtsIndexExec\ncolumn={}\nquery_type={:?}\nwith_row_id={}",
-                    self.query.column, self.query.query_type, self.with_row_id
+                    "FtsIndexExec\ncolumns={:?}\nquery_type={:?}\nwith_row_id={}",
+                    self.query.columns(),
+                    self.query.expr,
+                    self.with_row_id
                 )
             }
         }
@@ -415,10 +670,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FtsIndexExec {
         "FtsIndexExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         self.output_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -445,13 +696,13 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FtsIndexExec {
         _context: Arc<TaskContext>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         // Query the index
-        let results = self.query_index();
+        let results = self.query_index()?;
 
         // Filter by visibility
         let mut visible_results = self.filter_by_visibility(results);
 
         // Sort by score descending (best matches first)
-        visible_results.sort_by(|a, b| b.1.partial_cmp(&a.1).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+        visible_results.sort_by(|a, b| b.2.partial_cmp(&a.2).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
 
         // Materialize the rows (preserving sort order)
         let batches = self.materialize_rows_sorted(&visible_results)?;
@@ -464,19 +715,19 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FtsIndexExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics {
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
             num_rows: Precision::Absent,
             total_byte_size: Precision::Absent,
             column_statistics: vec![],
-        })
+        }))
     }
 
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -488,9 +739,13 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FtsIndexExec {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow::array::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, Int32Array, StringArray};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
     use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{DOC_INDEX_COL, DocumentGranularity};
 
     fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<Schema> {
         Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
@@ -532,7 +787,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let query = FtsQuery::match_query("text", "hello");
 
-        let exec = FtsIndexExec::new(batch_store, indexes, query, 0, None, schema, false).unwrap();
+        let exec = FtsIndexExec::new(batch_store, indexes, query, 1, None, schema, false).unwrap();
 
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
@@ -547,6 +802,67 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(result_schema.field_with_name(SCORE_COLUMN).is_ok());
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_element_document_fts_index_search() {
+        let mut tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        tags.values().append_value("alpha beta");
+        tags.values().append_value("beta gamma");
+        tags.append(true);
+        tags.values().append_value("beta");
+        tags.append(true);
+        let tags = tags.finish();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("tags", tags.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])), Arc::new(tags)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        let mut registry = IndexStore::new();
+        registry
+            .add_fts_with_params(
+                "tags_element_idx".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "tags".to_string(),
+                InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                    .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        registry.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        batch_store.append(batch).unwrap();
+
+        let exec = FtsIndexExec::new(
+            batch_store,
+            Arc::new(registry),
+            FtsQuery::match_query("tags", "beta")
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+            1,
+            None,
+            schema,
+            false,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let stream = exec.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let mut hits = Vec::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>();
+            let coordinates = batch[DOC_INDEX_COL].as_list::<i32>();
+            for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let coordinate = coordinates
+                    .value(row)
+                    .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type>()
+                    .value(0);
+                hits.push((ids.value(row), coordinate));
+            }
+        }
+        hits.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(hits, vec![(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0)]);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_fts_index_visibility() {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
@@ -568,12 +884,12 @@ mod tests {
 
         let query = FtsQuery::match_query("text", "hello");
 
-        // Query with max_visible=0 should only see first batch
+        // Query with max_readable=0 should only see first batch
         let exec = FtsIndexExec::new(
             batch_store.clone(),
             indexes.clone(),
             query.clone(),
-            0,
+            1,
             None,
             schema.clone(),
             false,
@@ -587,8 +903,8 @@ mod tests {
         let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
         assert_eq!(total_rows, 2); // "hello" in batch1 docs 0 and 2
 
-        // Query with max_visible=1 should see both batches
-        let exec = FtsIndexExec::new(batch_store, indexes, query, 1, None, schema, false).unwrap();
+        // Query with max_readable=1 should see both batches
+        let exec = FtsIndexExec::new(batch_store, indexes, query, 2, None, schema, false).unwrap();
 
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/scan.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/scan.rs
index 3485867b614..85dda35ebaa 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/scan.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/scan.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@
 
 //! MemTableScanExec - Full table scan with MVCC visibility filtering.
 
-use std::any::Any;
 use std::fmt::{Debug, Formatter};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
@@ -23,25 +22,31 @@ use datafusion::prelude::Expr;
 use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, PhysicalExprRef};
 use futures::stream::{self, StreamExt};
 
+use crate::dataset::blob::prepared_blob_batch_to_descriptors;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::exec::take_projected_columns;
 use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::BatchStore;
 
-/// ExecutionPlan node that scans all visible batches from a MemTable.
+/// Column name for row address (consistent with base table scanner).
+pub const ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN: &str = "_rowaddr";
+
+/// ExecutionPlan node that scans the readable prefix of a MemTable.
 ///
-/// This node implements visibility filtering, returning only batches
-/// where `batch_position <= max_visible_batch_position`.
+/// Returns only the batches at `batch_position < readable_count`.
 ///
 /// Supports filter pushdown for efficient predicate evaluation during scan.
 pub struct MemTableScanExec {
     batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
-    max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+    readable_count: usize,
     projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
     output_schema: SchemaRef,
     /// Schema of the source data (before projection), used for filter evaluation.
     source_schema: SchemaRef,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
     /// Whether to include _rowid column (row position) in output.
     with_row_id: bool,
+    /// Whether to include _rowaddr column (row position, same as _rowid but different name).
+    with_row_address: bool,
     /// Optional filter predicate (physical expression).
     filter_predicate: Option<PhysicalExprRef>,
     /// Original filter expression for display purposes.
@@ -51,12 +56,10 @@ pub struct MemTableScanExec {
 impl Debug for MemTableScanExec {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         f.debug_struct("MemTableScanExec")
-            .field(
-                "max_visible_batch_position",
-                &self.max_visible_batch_position,
-            )
+            .field("readable_count", &self.readable_count)
             .field("projection", &self.projection)
             .field("with_row_id", &self.with_row_id)
+            .field("with_row_address", &self.with_row_address)
             .field("has_filter", &self.filter_predicate.is_some())
             .finish()
     }
@@ -68,24 +71,25 @@ impl MemTableScanExec {
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `batch_store` - Lock-free batch store containing data
-    /// * `max_visible_batch_position` - Maximum batch position visible (inclusive)
+    /// * `readable_count` - Exclusive count of batch positions this scan may read
     /// * `projection` - Optional column indices to project
-    /// * `output_schema` - Schema after projection (should include _rowid if with_row_id is true)
+    /// * `output_schema` - Schema after projection (should include _rowid/_rowaddr if requested)
     /// * `with_row_id` - Whether to include _rowid column (row position)
     pub fn new(
         batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+        readable_count: usize,
         projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
         output_schema: SchemaRef,
         with_row_id: bool,
     ) -> Self {
         Self::with_filter(
             batch_store,
-            max_visible_batch_position,
+            readable_count,
             projection,
             output_schema.clone(),
             output_schema,
             with_row_id,
+            false, // with_row_address
             None,
             None,
         )
@@ -96,40 +100,43 @@ impl MemTableScanExec {
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `batch_store` - Lock-free batch store containing data
-    /// * `max_visible_batch_position` - Maximum batch position visible (inclusive)
+    /// * `readable_count` - Exclusive count of batch positions this scan may read
     /// * `projection` - Optional column indices to project
-    /// * `output_schema` - Schema after projection (should include _rowid if with_row_id is true)
+    /// * `output_schema` - Schema after projection (should include _rowid/_rowaddr if requested)
     /// * `source_schema` - Schema of source data (before projection), used for filter evaluation
     /// * `with_row_id` - Whether to include _rowid column (row position)
+    /// * `with_row_address` - Whether to include _rowaddr column (row position, for LSM scanner)
     /// * `filter_predicate` - Optional physical expression for filtering
     /// * `filter_expr` - Optional logical expression for display
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub fn with_filter(
         batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+        readable_count: usize,
         projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
         output_schema: SchemaRef,
         source_schema: SchemaRef,
         with_row_id: bool,
+        with_row_address: bool,
         filter_predicate: Option<PhysicalExprRef>,
         filter_expr: Option<Expr>,
     ) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()),
             Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
         Self {
             batch_store,
-            max_visible_batch_position,
+            readable_count,
             projection,
             output_schema,
             source_schema,
             properties,
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
             with_row_id,
+            with_row_address,
             filter_predicate,
             filter_expr,
         }
@@ -149,22 +156,29 @@ impl DisplayAs for MemTableScanExec {
             .as_ref()
             .map(|e| format!(", filter={}", e))
             .unwrap_or_default();
+        let row_addr_str = if self.with_row_address {
+            ", with_row_address=true"
+        } else {
+            ""
+        };
         match t {
             DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
                 write!(
                     f,
-                    "MemTableScanExec: projection=[{}], with_row_id={}{}",
+                    "MemTableScanExec: projection=[{}], with_row_id={}{}{}",
                     projection_names.join(", "),
                     self.with_row_id,
+                    row_addr_str,
                     filter_str
                 )
             }
             DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
                 write!(
                     f,
-                    "MemTableScanExec\nprojection=[{}]\nwith_row_id={}{}",
+                    "MemTableScanExec\nprojection=[{}]\nwith_row_id={}{}{}",
                     projection_names.join(", "),
                     self.with_row_id,
+                    row_addr_str,
                     filter_str
                 )
             }
@@ -177,10 +191,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MemTableScanExec {
         "MemTableScanExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         self.output_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -209,19 +219,31 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MemTableScanExec {
         // Get visible batches with their row offsets
         let batches_with_offsets = self
             .batch_store
-            .visible_batches_with_offsets(self.max_visible_batch_position);
+            .visible_batches_with_offsets(self.readable_count);
 
         let projection = self.projection.clone();
         let schema = self.output_schema.clone();
         let source_schema = self.source_schema.clone();
         let with_row_id = self.with_row_id;
+        let with_row_address = self.with_row_address;
         let filter_predicate = self.filter_predicate.clone();
 
+        // We need row offsets if either _rowid or _rowaddr is requested
+        let need_row_offsets = with_row_id || with_row_address;
+
         let projected_batches: Vec<DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> = batches_with_offsets
             .into_iter()
             .filter_map(|(batch, row_offset)| {
+                let batch = match prepared_blob_batch_to_descriptors(&batch) {
+                    Ok(batch) => batch,
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        return Some(Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::External(Box::new(
+                            error,
+                        ))));
+                    }
+                };
                 // Apply filter first (on unprojected data)
-                let (filtered_batch, filtered_row_ids) = if let Some(ref predicate) =
+                let (filtered_batch, filtered_row_offsets) = if let Some(ref predicate) =
                     filter_predicate
                 {
                     // Evaluate filter predicate
@@ -248,30 +270,30 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MemTableScanExec {
                             Err(e) => return Some(Err(e.into())),
                         };
 
-                    // Compute filtered row IDs if needed
-                    let row_ids = if with_row_id {
-                        let mut ids = Vec::with_capacity(filtered.num_rows());
+                    // Compute filtered row offsets if needed
+                    let row_offsets = if need_row_offsets {
+                        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(filtered.num_rows());
                         for (i, valid) in filter_array.iter().enumerate() {
                             if valid.unwrap_or(false) {
-                                ids.push(row_offset + i as u64);
+                                offsets.push(row_offset + i as u64);
                             }
                         }
-                        ids
+                        offsets
                     } else {
                         vec![]
                     };
 
-                    (filtered, row_ids)
+                    (filtered, row_offsets)
                 } else {
-                    // No filter - generate sequential row IDs if needed
-                    let row_ids = if with_row_id {
+                    // No filter - generate sequential row offsets if needed
+                    let row_offsets = if need_row_offsets {
                         (0..batch.num_rows() as u64)
                             .map(|i| row_offset + i)
                             .collect()
                     } else {
                         vec![]
                     };
-                    (batch, row_ids)
+                    (batch, row_offsets)
                 };
 
                 // Skip empty batches after filtering
@@ -279,20 +301,33 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MemTableScanExec {
                     return None;
                 }
 
-                // Apply projection
+                // Apply projection. `indices` name whole top-level columns; a
+                // projected struct leaf is narrowed against `schema`.
                 let mut columns: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> =
                     if let Some(ref indices) = projection {
-                        indices
-                            .iter()
-                            .map(|&i| filtered_batch.column(i).clone())
-                            .collect()
+                        let batch_schema = filtered_batch.schema();
+                        match take_projected_columns(
+                            filtered_batch.columns(),
+                            batch_schema.fields(),
+                            indices,
+                            schema.as_ref(),
+                            filtered_batch.num_rows(),
+                        ) {
+                            Ok(cols) => cols,
+                            Err(e) => return Some(Err(e)),
+                        }
                     } else {
                         filtered_batch.columns().to_vec()
                     };
 
                 // Add _rowid column if requested
                 if with_row_id {
-                    columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(filtered_row_ids)));
+                    columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(filtered_row_offsets.clone())));
+                }
+
+                // Add _rowaddr column if requested (same value as _rowid, different name)
+                if with_row_address {
+                    columns.push(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(filtered_row_offsets)));
                 }
 
                 Some(
@@ -313,21 +348,21 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MemTableScanExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Statistics> {
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
         // Report statistics as Absent to avoid DataFusion analysis bugs
         // with selectivity calculation on in-memory tables.
-        Ok(Statistics {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
             num_rows: Precision::Absent,
             total_byte_size: Precision::Absent,
             column_statistics: vec![],
-        })
+        }))
     }
 
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -372,8 +407,8 @@ mod tests {
         let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10);
         batch_store.append(batch).unwrap();
 
-        // Batch is at position 0, max_visible=0 means position 0 is visible
-        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 0, None, schema, false);
+        // Batch is at position 0, max_readable=0 means position 0 is visible
+        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 1, None, schema, false);
 
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
@@ -399,8 +434,8 @@ mod tests {
             .append(create_test_batch(&schema, 20, 10))
             .unwrap();
 
-        // max_visible_batch_position=1 means positions 0 and 1 are visible (2 batches)
-        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store.clone(), 1, None, schema.clone(), false);
+        // readable_count=1 means positions 0 and 1 are visible (2 batches)
+        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store.clone(), 2, None, schema.clone(), false);
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
         let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
@@ -421,7 +456,7 @@ mod tests {
         // Project only "id" column (index 0)
         let projected_schema =
             Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]));
-        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 0, Some(vec![0]), projected_schema, false);
+        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 1, Some(vec![0]), projected_schema, false);
 
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
@@ -437,8 +472,8 @@ mod tests {
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
 
-        // Empty store with max_visible=0 should return no batches
-        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 0, None, schema, false);
+        // Empty store with max_readable=0 should return no batches
+        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 1, None, schema, false);
 
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
@@ -459,8 +494,8 @@ mod tests {
             .append(create_test_batch(&schema, 10, 20))
             .unwrap();
 
-        // max_visible=1 means positions 0 and 1 are visible
-        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 1, None, schema, false);
+        // max_readable=1 means positions 0 and 1 are visible
+        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 2, None, schema, false);
 
         let stats = exec.partition_statistics(None).unwrap();
         // Statistics are Absent to avoid DataFusion analysis bugs
@@ -487,7 +522,7 @@ mod tests {
             Field::new("_rowid", DataType::UInt64, true),
         ]));
 
-        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 1, None, schema_with_rowid, true);
+        let exec = MemTableScanExec::new(batch_store, 2, None, schema_with_rowid, true);
 
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
         let stream = exec.execute(0, ctx).unwrap();
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/vector.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/vector.rs
index 6d63c902009..5fd4d4f1ab4 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/vector.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/memtable/scanner/exec/vector.rs
@@ -1,13 +1,12 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-//! VectorIndexExec - IVF-PQ vector search with MVCC visibility.
+//! VectorIndexExec - HNSW vector search with MVCC visibility.
 
-use std::any::Any;
 use std::fmt::{Debug, Formatter};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, cast::AsArray};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
 use datafusion::common::stats::Precision;
 use datafusion::error::Result as DataFusionResult;
@@ -22,24 +21,24 @@ use datafusion::physical_plan::{
 use datafusion_physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
 use futures::stream::{self, StreamExt};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use super::super::builder::VectorQuery;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::exec::{scan_record_batch, take_projected_columns};
 use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
 
 /// Distance column name in output.
 pub const DISTANCE_COLUMN: &str = "_distance";
 
-/// ExecutionPlan node that queries IVF-PQ vector index with MVCC visibility.
+/// ExecutionPlan node that queries the in-memory HNSW vector index with
+/// MVCC visibility.
 pub struct VectorIndexExec {
     batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
     indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
     query: VectorQuery,
-    max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+    readable_count: usize,
     projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
     output_schema: SchemaRef,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
     /// Whether to include _rowid column (row position) in output.
     with_row_id: bool,
@@ -50,11 +49,7 @@ impl Debug for VectorIndexExec {
         let mut debug = f.debug_struct("VectorIndexExec");
         debug
             .field("column", &self.query.column)
-            .field("k", &self.query.k)
-            .field("nprobes", &self.query.nprobes);
-        if let Some(max_nprobes) = self.query.maximum_nprobes {
-            debug.field("maximum_nprobes", &max_nprobes);
-        }
+            .field("k", &self.query.k);
         if let Some(ef) = self.query.ef {
             debug.field("ef", &ef);
         }
@@ -64,10 +59,7 @@ impl Debug for VectorIndexExec {
         if let Some(metric) = &self.query.distance_type {
             debug.field("distance_type", metric);
         }
-        debug.field(
-            "max_visible_batch_position",
-            &self.max_visible_batch_position,
-        );
+        debug.field("readable_count", &self.readable_count);
         debug.field("with_row_id", &self.with_row_id);
         debug.finish()
     }
@@ -79,9 +71,9 @@ impl VectorIndexExec {
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `batch_store` - Lock-free batch store containing data
-    /// * `indexes` - Index registry with IVF-PQ indexes
+    /// * `indexes` - Index registry with HNSW vector indexes
     /// * `query` - Vector query parameters
-    /// * `max_visible_batch_position` - MVCC visibility sequence number
+    /// * `readable_count` - Exclusive count of batch positions this scan may read
     /// * `projection` - Optional column indices to project
     /// * `base_schema` - Schema after projection (will add _distance column, and _rowid if with_row_id)
     /// * `with_row_id` - Whether to include _rowid column (row position)
@@ -89,18 +81,17 @@ impl VectorIndexExec {
         batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
         indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
         query: VectorQuery,
-        max_visible_batch_position: usize,
+        readable_count: usize,
         projection: Option<Vec<usize>>,
         base_schema: SchemaRef,
         with_row_id: bool,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        // Verify the index exists for this column
         let column = &query.column;
-        if indexes.get_ivf_pq_by_column(column).is_none() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("No IVF-PQ index found for column '{}'", column),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+        if indexes.get_hnsw_by_column(column).is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "No HNSW vector index found for column '{}'",
+                column
+            )));
         }
 
         // Build output schema: base fields + _distance + optional _rowid
@@ -109,24 +100,24 @@ impl VectorIndexExec {
             .iter()
             .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone())
             .collect();
-        fields.push(Field::new(DISTANCE_COLUMN, DataType::Float32, false));
+        fields.push(Field::new(DISTANCE_COLUMN, DataType::Float32, true));
         if with_row_id {
             fields.push(Field::new(lance_core::ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true));
         }
         let output_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(fields));
 
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()),
             Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
         Ok(Self {
             batch_store,
             indexes,
             query,
-            max_visible_batch_position,
+            readable_count,
             projection,
             output_schema,
             properties,
@@ -135,70 +126,58 @@ impl VectorIndexExec {
         })
     }
 
-    /// Compute the maximum visible row position based on max_visible_batch_position.
-    ///
-    /// Returns the last row position that is visible at the given max_visible_batch_position,
-    /// or None if no batches are visible.
-    fn compute_max_visible_row(&self) -> Option<u64> {
-        let mut max_visible_row_exclusive: u64 = 0;
+    /// Last row position within `readable_count`, or None if nothing is
+    /// readable.
+    fn compute_max_readable_row(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        let mut max_readable_row_exclusive: u64 = 0;
         let mut current_row: u64 = 0;
 
         for (batch_position, stored_batch) in self.batch_store.iter().enumerate() {
             let batch_end = current_row + stored_batch.num_rows as u64;
-            if batch_position <= self.max_visible_batch_position {
-                max_visible_row_exclusive = batch_end;
+            if batch_position < self.readable_count {
+                max_readable_row_exclusive = batch_end;
             }
             current_row = batch_end;
         }
 
-        if max_visible_row_exclusive > 0 {
-            Some(max_visible_row_exclusive - 1)
+        if max_readable_row_exclusive > 0 {
+            Some(max_readable_row_exclusive - 1)
         } else {
             None
         }
     }
 
-    /// Query the index and return matching rows with distances.
-    fn query_index(&self) -> Vec<(f32, u64)> {
-        let Some(index) = self.indexes.get_ivf_pq_by_column(&self.query.column) else {
-            return vec![];
+    /// Query the HNSW index and return matching rows with exact distances.
+    ///
+    /// Distances are exact because the in-memory HNSW is backed by FLAT
+    /// (uncompressed) vectors; no refine step is needed.
+    fn query_index(&self) -> Result<Vec<(f32, u64)>> {
+        let Some(index) = self.indexes.get_hnsw_by_column(&self.query.column) else {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
         };
 
-        // Compute max visible row for MVCC filtering
-        let Some(max_visible_row) = self.compute_max_visible_row() else {
-            return vec![];
+        let Some(max_readable_row) = self.compute_max_readable_row() else {
+            return Ok(vec![]);
         };
 
-        // Convert query vector to FixedSizeListArray
+        // Normalize the query vector to a single-row FixedSizeListArray.
         let query_array = self.query.query_vector.as_ref();
-
-        // Try to interpret as FixedSizeList
         let fsl = if let Some(fsl) = query_array.as_fixed_size_list_opt() {
             fsl.clone()
         } else {
-            // If it's a primitive array, wrap it in a FixedSizeList (single row)
             let values = self.query.query_vector.clone();
             let dim = values.len() as i32;
             let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", values.data_type().clone(), true));
-            match FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, dim, values, None) {
-                Ok(arr) => arr,
-                Err(_) => return vec![],
-            }
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, dim, values, None).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Failed to wrap vector query into FixedSizeListArray (dim={}): {}",
+                    dim, e
+                ))
+            })?
         };
 
-        // Determine effective k: if refine_factor is set, fetch more candidates
-        let effective_k = if let Some(factor) = self.query.refine_factor {
-            self.query.k * factor as usize
-        } else {
-            self.query.k
-        };
+        let mut results = index.search(&fsl, self.query.k, self.query.ef, max_readable_row)?;
 
-        // Search the index with visibility filtering
-        let mut results = index
-            .search(&fsl, effective_k, self.query.nprobes, max_visible_row)
-            .unwrap_or_default();
-
-        // Apply distance bounds filtering if specified
         if self.query.distance_lower_bound.is_some() || self.query.distance_upper_bound.is_some() {
             results.retain(|&(dist, _)| {
                 let above_lower = self.query.distance_lower_bound.is_none_or(|lb| dist >= lb);
@@ -207,126 +186,8 @@ impl VectorIndexExec {
             });
         }
 
-        // If refine_factor is set, compute exact distances and re-sort
-        if self.query.refine_factor.is_some() && !results.is_empty() {
-            let distance_type = self
-                .query
-                .distance_type
-                .unwrap_or_else(|| index.distance_type());
-            results = self.refine_with_exact_distances(results, distance_type);
-        }
-
-        // Truncate to requested k after filtering and refinement
         results.truncate(self.query.k);
-
-        results
-    }
-
-    /// Refine results by computing exact distances using original vectors.
-    ///
-    /// Fetches the original vector data for each result row, computes the
-    /// exact distance using the specified distance type, and returns results
-    /// sorted by exact distance.
-    fn refine_with_exact_distances(
-        &self,
-        results: Vec<(f32, u64)>,
-        distance_type: DistanceType,
-    ) -> Vec<(f32, u64)> {
-        if results.is_empty() {
-            return results;
-        }
-
-        // Find the vector column index in the schema
-        let vector_col_idx = self.batch_store.iter().next().and_then(|stored| {
-            stored
-                .data
-                .schema()
-                .column_with_name(&self.query.column)
-                .map(|(idx, _)| idx)
-        });
-
-        let Some(col_idx) = vector_col_idx else {
-            // Vector column not found, return original results
-            return results;
-        };
-
-        // Build batch ranges for row position lookup
-        let mut batch_ranges = Vec::new();
-        let mut current_row = 0usize;
-        for stored_batch in self.batch_store.iter() {
-            let batch_start = current_row;
-            let batch_end = current_row + stored_batch.num_rows;
-            batch_ranges.push((batch_start, batch_end));
-            current_row = batch_end;
-        }
-
-        // Group rows by batch to minimize data fetching
-        let mut batch_to_rows: std::collections::HashMap<usize, Vec<(usize, usize, u64)>> =
-            std::collections::HashMap::new();
-
-        for (result_idx, &(_, pos)) in results.iter().enumerate() {
-            let pos_usize = pos as usize;
-            for (batch_id, &(start, end)) in batch_ranges.iter().enumerate() {
-                if pos_usize >= start && pos_usize < end {
-                    batch_to_rows.entry(batch_id).or_default().push((
-                        result_idx,
-                        pos_usize - start,
-                        pos,
-                    ));
-                    break;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Compute exact distances
-        let distance_func = distance_type.arrow_batch_func();
-        let query_vec = &self.query.query_vector;
-
-        let mut refined_results: Vec<(f32, u64)> = Vec::with_capacity(results.len());
-
-        for (batch_id, rows) in batch_to_rows {
-            let Some(stored) = self.batch_store.get(batch_id) else {
-                // If batch not found, keep approximate distances for these rows
-                for &(result_idx, _, pos) in &rows {
-                    refined_results.push((results[result_idx].0, pos));
-                }
-                continue;
-            };
-
-            let vector_col = stored.data.column(col_idx);
-
-            // For each row in this batch, compute exact distance
-            for &(_, row_in_batch, pos) in &rows {
-                // Extract the single vector at this row position
-                let vector_arr = vector_col.as_fixed_size_list();
-                let single_vector = vector_arr.value(row_in_batch);
-
-                // Create a single-element FixedSizeList for distance computation
-                let dim = vector_arr.value_length();
-                let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", single_vector.data_type().clone(), true));
-
-                if let Ok(single_fsl) =
-                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, dim, single_vector.clone(), None)
-                {
-                    // Compute exact distance
-                    if let Ok(distances) = distance_func(query_vec.as_ref(), &single_fsl) {
-                        let exact_distance = distances.value(0);
-                        refined_results.push((exact_distance, pos));
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                }
-
-                // Fallback: use approximate distance if exact computation fails
-                if let Some((approx_dist, _)) = results.iter().find(|&&(_, p)| p == pos) {
-                    refined_results.push((*approx_dist, pos));
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Sort by exact distance
-        refined_results.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.partial_cmp(&b.0).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
-
-        refined_results
+        Ok(results)
     }
 
     /// Materialize rows from batch store with distance column.
@@ -368,6 +229,7 @@ impl VectorIndexExec {
 
         for (batch_id, rows_with_dist) in batches_data {
             if let Some(stored) = self.batch_store.get(batch_id) {
+                let data = scan_record_batch(&stored.data)?;
                 let rows: Vec<u32> = rows_with_dist.iter().map(|&(r, _, _)| r as u32).collect();
                 let distances: Vec<f32> = rows_with_dist.iter().map(|&(_, d, _)| d).collect();
                 let row_positions: Vec<u64> =
@@ -375,8 +237,7 @@ impl VectorIndexExec {
 
                 let indices = arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(rows);
 
-                let mut columns: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> = stored
-                    .data
+                let mut columns: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> = data
                     .columns()
                     .iter()
                     .map(|col| arrow_select::take::take(col.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap())
@@ -386,9 +247,15 @@ impl VectorIndexExec {
                 columns.push(Arc::new(Float32Array::from(distances)));
 
                 // Apply projection if needed (excluding distance column which is always included)
+                let source_schema = data.schema();
                 let mut final_columns = if let Some(ref proj_indices) = self.projection {
-                    let mut projected: Vec<_> =
-                        proj_indices.iter().map(|&i| columns[i].clone()).collect();
+                    let mut projected: Vec<_> = take_projected_columns(
+                        &columns,
+                        source_schema.fields(),
+                        proj_indices,
+                        self.output_schema.as_ref(),
+                        row_positions.len(),
+                    )?;
                     // Always include distance as last column
                     projected.push(columns.last().unwrap().clone());
                     projected
@@ -416,29 +283,23 @@ impl DisplayAs for VectorIndexExec {
             DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
                 write!(
                     f,
-                    "VectorIndexExec: column={}, k={}, nprobes={}",
-                    self.query.column, self.query.k, self.query.nprobes
+                    "VectorIndexExec: column={}, k={}",
+                    self.query.column, self.query.k
                 )?;
                 if let Some(ef) = self.query.ef {
                     write!(f, ", ef={}", ef)?;
                 }
-                if let Some(refine) = self.query.refine_factor {
-                    write!(f, ", refine={}", refine)?;
-                }
                 write!(f, ", with_row_id={}", self.with_row_id)
             }
             DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
                 write!(
                     f,
-                    "VectorIndexExec\ncolumn={}\nk={}\nnprobes={}",
-                    self.query.column, self.query.k, self.query.nprobes
+                    "VectorIndexExec\ncolumn={}\nk={}",
+                    self.query.column, self.query.k
                 )?;
                 if let Some(ef) = self.query.ef {
                     write!(f, "\nef={}", ef)?;
                 }
-                if let Some(refine) = self.query.refine_factor {
-                    write!(f, "\nrefine={}", refine)?;
-                }
                 write!(f, "\nwith_row_id={}", self.with_row_id)
             }
         }
@@ -450,10 +311,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for VectorIndexExec {
         "VectorIndexExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         self.output_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -480,7 +337,9 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for VectorIndexExec {
         _context: Arc<TaskContext>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         // Query the index (visibility filtering happens inside search)
-        let results = self.query_index();
+        let results = self
+            .query_index()
+            .map_err(|e| datafusion::error::DataFusionError::External(Box::new(e)))?;
 
         // Materialize the rows
         let batches = self.materialize_rows(&results)?;
@@ -493,19 +352,19 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for VectorIndexExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics {
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
             num_rows: Precision::Exact(self.query.k),
             total_byte_size: Precision::Absent,
             column_statistics: vec![],
-        })
+        }))
     }
 
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -518,9 +377,9 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for VectorIndexExec {
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
-    // Note: Full tests for VectorIndexExec require setting up IVF-PQ index
-    // with trained centroids and codebook, which is complex.
-    // Basic structure tests are included here.
+    // Note: end-to-end tests for VectorIndexExec live next to the in-memory
+    // HNSW index in `dataset/mem_wal/index/hnsw.rs`. The structural tests
+    // here only exercise the MVCC visibility plumbing.
 
     #[test]
     fn test_distance_column_name() {
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/observer.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/observer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a567e953e8e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/observer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Consumer-supplied sink for MemWAL write-path events.
+
+use std::fmt::Debug;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+/// Sink for individual write-path events, supplied by the consumer via
+/// [`ShardWriterConfig::observer`](super::write::ShardWriterConfig::observer).
+///
+/// Cumulative counts stay on
+/// [`WriteStats`](super::write::WriteStats), which an embedder polls: a total
+/// loses nothing to aggregation. A duration does — an average reconstructed
+/// from a running total cannot show a tail — so each flush is reported here as
+/// it completes and the consumer decides how to aggregate it.
+///
+/// Observers run inline on the flush task. Do the aggregation, not the export.
+///
+/// Every method defaults to a no-op, so adding an event is not a breaking
+/// change for existing implementors.
+pub trait WalObserver: Send + Sync + Debug {
+    /// A WAL buffer flush landed in object storage. This is the latency a
+    /// `durable_write` put waits on.
+    fn on_wal_flush(&self, _duration: Duration, _bytes: usize) {}
+
+    /// A frozen memtable became an L0 SSTable. Orders of magnitude longer
+    /// than a WAL flush.
+    fn on_memtable_flush(&self, _duration: Duration, _rows: usize) {}
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/reconcile.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/reconcile.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..45331f3319d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/reconcile.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,932 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Bringing a batch written under one schema to the schema in force now.
+//!
+//! A MemWAL holds rows written under older schemas, read and replayed against
+//! the current one. That resolution happens once, here, and drives both replay
+//! and scans.
+//!
+//! Columns match by **field id**. A rename keeps the id and changes the name, so
+//! the same name under a different id is a different column. Names are used only
+//! where no id exists, as in a batch a caller just handed in.
+//!
+//! A table with a MemWAL refuses type changes, so an id that disappears always
+//! means the column was dropped.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::array::ArrayData;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, FixedSizeListArray, GenericListArray, RecordBatch,
+    RecordBatchOptions, StructArray,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef};
+use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+use super::TOMBSTONE;
+
+/// The lance field id an Arrow field carries, if it carries one.
+///
+/// Lance writes `-1` for a field it has not assigned an id to yet. Treating
+/// that as an id would pair every unassigned column with every other, so a
+/// negative id counts as none at all.
+pub(super) fn field_id_of(field: &ArrowField) -> Option<i32> {
+    field
+        .metadata()
+        .get(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY)
+        .and_then(|v| v.parse::<i32>().ok())
+        .filter(|id| *id >= 0)
+}
+
+/// `column` under `data_type`, which differs from its own only in the field
+/// ids it carries.
+///
+/// The two describe the same values as two different Arrow types, because the
+/// ids sit inside the type. Only the labels differ, so this relabels the array
+/// rather than converting it.
+pub(super) fn relabel_to(column: &ArrayRef, data_type: &DataType) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    if column.data_type() == data_type {
+        return Ok(column.clone());
+    }
+    relabel_data(&column.to_data(), data_type).map(arrow_array::make_array)
+}
+
+/// [`relabel_to`] over one array's data, and its children's in turn. Arrow
+/// validates a container against the child types its own type declares, so a
+/// label that moved at any depth has to move at every level below it.
+fn relabel_data(data: &ArrayData, data_type: &DataType) -> Result<ArrayData> {
+    let children = children_of(data_type);
+    let child_data = match children {
+        Some(fields) if fields.len() == data.child_data().len() => data
+            .child_data()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(fields.iter())
+            .map(|(child, field)| relabel_data(child, field.data_type()))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+        _ => data.child_data().to_vec(),
+    };
+    data.clone()
+        .into_builder()
+        .data_type(data_type.clone())
+        .child_data(child_data)
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "a {} column cannot be read as {data_type}: {e}",
+                data.data_type()
+            ))
+        })
+}
+
+/// [`without_field_ids`] for a type rather than a schema, for the nested types a
+/// reconciliation builds.
+pub(super) fn without_field_ids_in(data_type: &DataType) -> DataType {
+    let one = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("", data_type.clone(), true)]);
+    without_field_ids(&one).field(0).data_type().clone()
+}
+
+/// `field` without its Lance field id, keeping the rest of its metadata.
+pub(super) fn without_field_id(field: &ArrowField) -> ArrowField {
+    let mut field = field.clone();
+    field.metadata_mut().remove(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY);
+    field
+}
+
+/// `schema` without the field ids, for comparing against what a caller sends.
+///
+/// Ids belong to the stored schema, where identity has to survive a rename. A
+/// caller's batch carries none, and Arrow compares a struct's children by their
+/// full field — metadata included — so a stamped schema would reject it.
+pub(super) fn without_field_ids(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> ArrowSchema {
+    fn strip(field: &ArrowField) -> ArrowField {
+        let field = without_field_id(field);
+        match field.data_type() {
+            DataType::Struct(children) => {
+                let children: Vec<ArrowField> = children.iter().map(|c| strip(c)).collect();
+                field.with_data_type(DataType::Struct(children.into()))
+            }
+            DataType::List(element) => field
+                .clone()
+                .with_data_type(DataType::List(Arc::new(strip(element)))),
+            DataType::LargeList(element) => field
+                .clone()
+                .with_data_type(DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(strip(element)))),
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(element, size) => {
+                let size = *size;
+                field
+                    .clone()
+                    .with_data_type(DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(strip(element)), size))
+            }
+            DataType::Map(entries, sorted) => {
+                let sorted = *sorted;
+                field
+                    .clone()
+                    .with_data_type(DataType::Map(Arc::new(strip(entries)), sorted))
+            }
+            _ => field,
+        }
+    }
+    let fields: Vec<ArrowField> = schema.fields().iter().map(|f| strip(f)).collect();
+    ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(fields, schema.metadata().clone())
+}
+
+/// Where one target column's values come from.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum Source {
+    /// The source column at this index, as it stands.
+    Take(usize),
+    /// The source column at this index, whose struct children need their own
+    /// resolution.
+    Nested(usize, Vec<Self>, DataType),
+    /// The source does not have this column: rows written before it existed
+    /// hold no value for it.
+    Null(DataType),
+    /// `_tombstone`, which a generation written before deletes existed does not
+    /// carry. Its rows are all live.
+    Live,
+}
+
+/// One resolution of a source schema against a target schema.
+pub struct Plan {
+    target: SchemaRef,
+    sources: Vec<Source>,
+    /// Whether the source already is the target, so applying changes nothing.
+    identity: bool,
+}
+
+impl Plan {
+    /// The same plan emitting the table's plain Arrow schema.
+    ///
+    /// Resolution needs ids on the target, but a reader is handed the table's
+    /// plain schema. Since the ids sit inside a nested column's type, a struct
+    /// built to the id-carrying target is a different Arrow type from the one
+    /// the caller declared. Only replay keeps them, writing back into the
+    /// memtable's id-carrying storage schema.
+    pub(crate) fn emitting_plain_schema(mut self) -> Self {
+        fn strip(source: &mut Source) {
+            match source {
+                Source::Nested(_, children, data_type) => {
+                    *data_type = without_field_ids_in(data_type);
+                    children.iter_mut().for_each(strip);
+                }
+                Source::Null(data_type) => *data_type = without_field_ids_in(data_type),
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
+        self.sources.iter_mut().for_each(strip);
+        self.target = Arc::new(without_field_ids(&self.target));
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve `source` against `target`, or say why it cannot be done.
+    ///
+    /// `pk_columns` may not be filled with nulls: a row with no primary key
+    /// cannot be placed, so an absent one is an error rather than a null.
+    pub(crate) fn resolve(
+        source: &ArrowSchema,
+        target: &SchemaRef,
+        pk_columns: &[String],
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        // An id match takes its source column; a name match may then only take
+        // one nothing has claimed. A rename frees a name for another column to
+        // use, and it is the id that says which column is really which.
+        let claimed = claimed_by_id(source.fields(), target.fields());
+        let sources = target
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| resolve_field(field, source.fields(), &claimed, pk_columns, true))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let identity = source.fields() == target.fields();
+        Ok(Self {
+            target: Arc::clone(target),
+            sources,
+            identity,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// The schema a batch has after [`Self::apply`].
+    pub(crate) fn target(&self) -> &SchemaRef {
+        &self.target
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the source schema already is the target, so applying this plan
+    /// would produce the batch it was given.
+    pub(crate) fn is_identity(&self) -> bool {
+        self.identity
+    }
+
+    /// `batch` under the target schema.
+    pub(crate) fn apply(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let rows = batch.num_rows();
+        let columns = self
+            .sources
+            .iter()
+            .zip(self.target.fields())
+            .map(|(source, field)| take_column(source, batch.columns(), rows, field.name()))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+            Arc::clone(&self.target),
+            columns,
+            &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(rows)),
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("reconcile a batch to the schema: {e}")))
+    }
+}
+
+fn resolve_field(
+    field: &ArrowField,
+    source_fields: &arrow_schema::Fields,
+    claimed: &[bool],
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+    // `_tombstone` is a column of the batch, not a name that means anything
+    // inside one. A struct child may legitimately be called that, and at depth
+    // it is an ordinary field: absent from the source it is null, like any
+    // other. `pk_columns` is emptied at depth for the same reason.
+    top_level: bool,
+) -> Result<Source> {
+    let name = field.name();
+    let by_id = field_id_of(field).and_then(|id| {
+        source_fields
+            .iter()
+            .position(|f| field_id_of(f) == Some(id))
+    });
+    // Ids first. The name fallback is asymmetric on purpose: it fires for a
+    // target field carrying no id, and for one whose id no source field has --
+    // an id-bearing target against an unstamped source still matches by name.
+    let by_name = || {
+        source_fields
+            .iter()
+            .position(|f| f.name() == name)
+            .filter(|i| !claimed[*i])
+    };
+    let index = match field_id_of(field) {
+        // The target names an identity: only that identity answers for it,
+        // unless the source has none to be matched on.
+        Some(_) => by_id.or_else(|| {
+            source_fields
+                .iter()
+                .all(|f| field_id_of(f).is_none())
+                .then(by_name)
+                .flatten()
+        }),
+        None => by_name(),
+    };
+
+    let Some(index) = index else {
+        if top_level && name == TOMBSTONE {
+            return Ok(Source::Live);
+        }
+        if pk_columns.iter().any(|c| c == name) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "batch is missing primary key column `{name}` declared by the schema"
+            )));
+        }
+        return Ok(Source::Null(field.data_type().clone()));
+    };
+
+    let source = &source_fields[index];
+    // A nested column's children are part of the array's own type, metadata
+    // included, so the array is rebuilt under the target's children even when
+    // nothing about them moved — otherwise the batch disagrees with the schema
+    // it is built under. The leaves are reused, so it costs a pointer copy.
+    if is_nested(field.data_type()) {
+        return Ok(Source::Nested(
+            index,
+            resolve_children(source, field)?,
+            field.data_type().clone(),
+        ));
+    }
+    if source.data_type() == field.data_type() {
+        return Ok(Source::Take(index));
+    }
+    // The same column under a different scalar type. A table with a MemWAL
+    // refuses a cast, so this is a disagreement to surface rather than paper
+    // over; a struct differing only in its children is handled below.
+    if !matches!(
+        (source.data_type(), field.data_type()),
+        (DataType::Struct(_), DataType::Struct(_))
+    ) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "column `{name}` is stored as {} and the schema declares {}; a column's type \
+             cannot change on a table with a MemWAL",
+            source.data_type(),
+            field.data_type()
+        )));
+    }
+    unreachable!("a struct is resolved above and any other mismatch is rejected")
+}
+
+/// Whether this type carries its children inside its own type, so an array of
+/// it has to be rebuilt rather than taken as it stands.
+fn is_nested(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+    children_of(data_type).is_some()
+}
+
+/// The child fields of a nested type, if it has them.
+fn children_of(data_type: &DataType) -> Option<arrow_schema::Fields> {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Struct(children) => Some(children.clone()),
+        // A list has exactly one child: its element. Its name is part of the
+        // type, so it is resolved like any other.
+        DataType::List(element) | DataType::LargeList(element) => {
+            Some(vec![element.as_ref().clone()].into())
+        }
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(element, _) => Some(vec![element.as_ref().clone()].into()),
+        // A map's child is its entries struct, which carries the key and value
+        // as children of its own.
+        DataType::Map(entries, _) => Some(vec![entries.as_ref().clone()].into()),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// How each of `field`'s children is produced from `source`'s.
+fn resolve_children(source: &ArrowField, field: &ArrowField) -> Result<Vec<Source>> {
+    let (Some(source_children), Some(target_children)) = (
+        children_of(source.data_type()),
+        children_of(field.data_type()),
+    ) else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "column `{}` is stored as {} and the schema declares {}; a column's type \
+             cannot change on a table with a MemWAL",
+            field.name(),
+            source.data_type(),
+            field.data_type()
+        )));
+    };
+    let claimed = claimed_by_id(&source_children, &target_children);
+    target_children
+        .iter()
+        .map(|child| resolve_field(child, &source_children, &claimed, &[], false))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Source columns an id match has taken, which a name match may not take again.
+fn claimed_by_id(source: &arrow_schema::Fields, target: &arrow_schema::Fields) -> Vec<bool> {
+    let by_id: HashMap<i32, usize> = source
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter_map(|(i, f)| field_id_of(f).map(|id| (id, i)))
+        .collect();
+    let mut claimed = vec![false; source.len()];
+    for field in target {
+        if let Some(i) = field_id_of(field).and_then(|id| by_id.get(&id)) {
+            claimed[*i] = true;
+        }
+    }
+    claimed
+}
+
+/// One list column rebuilt around a reconciled element, for either offset width.
+fn rebuild_list<O: arrow_array::OffsetSizeTrait>(
+    column: &ArrayRef,
+    element_source: &Source,
+    target: &DataType,
+    name: &str,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    let list = column
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<GenericListArray<O>>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("column `{name}` is not a list")))?;
+    let Some(element) = children_of(target).and_then(|c| c.first().cloned()) else {
+        unreachable!("a list target has an element");
+    };
+    let child = take_column(
+        element_source,
+        std::slice::from_ref(list.values()),
+        list.values().len(),
+        element.name(),
+    )?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(
+        GenericListArray::<O>::try_new(
+            element,
+            list.offsets().clone(),
+            child,
+            list.nulls().cloned(),
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("rebuild list column `{name}`: {e}")))?,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// One stored column under the type the caller declared.
+fn take_column(source: &Source, columns: &[ArrayRef], rows: usize, name: &str) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    match source {
+        Source::Take(i) => Ok(Arc::clone(&columns[*i])),
+        // A list is rebuilt around its element: the offsets and the validity say
+        // which rows hold what, and only the element's own type moves. The two
+        // offset widths are different array types and neither downcasts to the
+        // other.
+        Source::Nested(i, children, to @ DataType::List(_)) => {
+            rebuild_list::<i32>(&columns[*i], &children[0], to, name)
+        }
+        Source::Nested(i, children, to @ DataType::LargeList(_)) => {
+            rebuild_list::<i64>(&columns[*i], &children[0], to, name)
+        }
+        // A map is its entries struct behind offsets. The sortedness flag is
+        // part of the type, so it comes from the target with the rest of it.
+        Source::Nested(i, children, to @ DataType::Map(_, sorted)) => {
+            let map = columns[*i]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::MapArray>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("column `{name}` is not a map")))?;
+            let Some(entries) = children_of(to).and_then(|c| c.first().cloned()) else {
+                unreachable!("a map target has an entries field");
+            };
+            let stored_entries: ArrayRef = Arc::new(map.entries().clone());
+            let rebuilt = take_column(
+                &children[0],
+                std::slice::from_ref(&stored_entries),
+                map.entries().len(),
+                entries.name(),
+            )?;
+            let rebuilt = rebuilt
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("map column `{name}` entries are not a struct"))
+                })?
+                .clone();
+            Ok(Arc::new(
+                arrow_array::MapArray::try_new(
+                    entries,
+                    map.offsets().clone(),
+                    rebuilt,
+                    map.nulls().cloned(),
+                    *sorted,
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("rebuild map column `{name}`: {e}")))?,
+            ))
+        }
+        // A fixed-size list is rebuilt the same way, keeping its width.
+        Source::Nested(i, children, to @ DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _)) => {
+            let DataType::FixedSizeList(_, size) = to else {
+                unreachable!("matched above");
+            };
+            let list = columns[*i]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<FixedSizeListArray>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("column `{name}` is not a fixed-size list"))
+                })?;
+            let Some(element) = children_of(to).and_then(|c| c.first().cloned()) else {
+                unreachable!("a fixed-size list target has an element");
+            };
+            let child = take_column(
+                &children[0],
+                std::slice::from_ref(list.values()),
+                list.values().len(),
+                element.name(),
+            )?;
+            Ok(Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new(element, *size, child, list.nulls().cloned()).map_err(
+                    |e| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "rebuild fixed-size list column `{name}`: {e}"
+                        ))
+                    },
+                )?,
+            ))
+        }
+        Source::Nested(i, children, to) => {
+            let DataType::Struct(target_children) = to else {
+                unreachable!("Nested is only built for a struct or list target");
+            };
+            let struct_array = columns[*i]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("column `{name}` is not a struct")))?;
+            let built = children
+                .iter()
+                .zip(target_children)
+                .map(|(child, field)| {
+                    take_column(child, struct_array.columns(), rows, field.name())
+                })
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            Ok(Arc::new(
+                StructArray::try_new(
+                    target_children.clone(),
+                    built,
+                    struct_array.nulls().cloned(),
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("rebuild struct column `{name}`: {e}"))
+                })?,
+            ))
+        }
+        Source::Null(ty) => Ok(arrow_array::new_null_array(ty, rows)),
+        Source::Live => Ok(Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![false; rows]))),
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod relabel_tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, FixedSizeListArray, Int64Array, LargeListArray, ListArray, StructArray,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::{NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer};
+    use arrow_schema::Fields;
+
+    /// A nested column resolves by the field ids Lance puts on its children.
+    /// If Lance starts giving children to a type [`is_nested`] does not know,
+    /// those ids go unrestored and the column falls back to matching by name --
+    /// the failure this module exists to prevent. So every type Lance gives
+    /// children to has to be one we recurse into.
+    #[test]
+    fn every_type_lance_gives_children_to_is_one_we_recurse_into() {
+        let item = || Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int64, true));
+        let a_struct = || Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int64, true)]);
+        let entries = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+            "entries",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("key", DataType::Int64, false),
+                ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int64, true),
+            ])),
+            false,
+        ));
+        let candidates = [
+            DataType::Int64,
+            DataType::Struct(a_struct()),
+            DataType::List(item()),
+            DataType::LargeList(item()),
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(item(), 2),
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Struct(a_struct()), true)),
+                2,
+            ),
+            DataType::Map(entries, false),
+            DataType::ListView(item()),
+            DataType::LargeListView(item()),
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            DataType::RunEndEncoded(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("run_ends", DataType::Int32, false)),
+                item(),
+            ),
+        ];
+        for data_type in candidates {
+            let field = ArrowField::new("c", data_type.clone(), true);
+            // A type Lance refuses outright can never reach a MemWAL.
+            let Ok(lance) = lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&field) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            if !lance.children.is_empty() {
+                assert!(
+                    is_nested(&data_type),
+                    "Lance gives {data_type:?} children, so reconcile must recurse into it"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn stamped(name: &str, data_type: DataType, id: i32) -> ArrowField {
+        ArrowField::new(name, data_type, true).with_metadata(
+            [(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), id.to_string())]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Relabel `column` to its own type with the field ids stripped, and check
+    /// that nothing but the labels moved.
+    fn strip_and_check(column: ArrayRef) -> ArrayRef {
+        let plain = without_field_ids_in(column.data_type());
+        let out = relabel_to(&column, &plain).expect("relabel");
+        assert_eq!(out.data_type(), &plain, "every level is relabelled");
+        assert_eq!(out.len(), column.len(), "row count is preserved");
+        assert_eq!(
+            out.null_count(),
+            column.null_count(),
+            "validity is preserved"
+        );
+        out
+    }
+
+    /// Arrow validates a struct against the child types its own type declares,
+    /// so a relabel that stops at the outer level produces a rejected array.
+    #[test]
+    fn relabel_reaches_a_nested_child() {
+        let inner_stamped = stamped("b", DataType::Int64, 3);
+        let middle_stamped = stamped(
+            "inner",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![inner_stamped.clone()])),
+            2,
+        );
+        let outer_stamped = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![middle_stamped.clone()]));
+
+        let leaf = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(7)])) as ArrayRef;
+        let middle = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![inner_stamped]),
+            vec![Arc::clone(&leaf)],
+            None,
+        );
+        let outer = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![middle_stamped]),
+            vec![Arc::new(middle) as ArrayRef],
+            None,
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        assert_eq!(outer.data_type(), &outer_stamped);
+
+        let plain = without_field_ids_in(&outer_stamped);
+        let relabelled = relabel_to(&outer, &plain).expect("relabel a nested column");
+        assert_eq!(relabelled.data_type(), &plain, "every level is relabelled");
+
+        // The values have to survive, not just the type.
+        let as_struct = relabelled
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .expect("a struct");
+        let middle = as_struct
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .expect("a nested struct");
+        let values = middle
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .expect("the leaf");
+        assert_eq!(values.value(0), 7);
+    }
+
+    /// A map is a nested container like any other: its entries carry field ids
+    /// of their own, so a rename inside one has to resolve by id rather than
+    /// read as a changed type.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_renamed_field_inside_a_map_resolves_by_id() {
+        let entry = |value: &str| {
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "entries",
+                DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                    stamped("key", DataType::Int64, 2).with_nullable(false),
+                    stamped(value, DataType::Int64, 3),
+                ])),
+                false,
+            )
+        };
+        let keys = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef;
+        let values = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![10, 20])) as ArrayRef;
+        let entries = StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![
+                stamped("key", DataType::Int64, 2).with_nullable(false),
+                stamped("old", DataType::Int64, 3),
+            ]),
+            vec![keys, values],
+            None,
+        );
+        let column = Arc::new(
+            arrow_array::MapArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(entry("old")),
+                arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer::new(vec![0, 2].into()),
+                entries,
+                None,
+                false,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let source = ArrowSchema::new(vec![stamped(
+            "m",
+            DataType::Map(Arc::new(entry("old")), false),
+            1,
+        )]);
+        let target: SchemaRef = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![stamped(
+            "m",
+            DataType::Map(Arc::new(entry("new")), false),
+            1,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(source.clone()), vec![column]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = Plan::resolve(&source, &target, &[]).expect("a rename inside a map resolves");
+        let out = plan.apply(&batch).expect("apply");
+        let map = out
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::MapArray>()
+            .expect("a map");
+        assert_eq!(
+            map.entries().column_names(),
+            vec!["key", "new"],
+            "the renamed entry arrives under its new name"
+        );
+        let vals = map
+            .entries()
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .expect("values");
+        assert_eq!(
+            (vals.value(0), vals.value(1)),
+            (10, 20),
+            "carrying its values"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(map.value_length(0), 2, "and its offsets");
+    }
+
+    /// A struct whose parent is null at one row, and whose child is null at
+    /// another: both levels of validity have to survive the relabel.
+    /// `_tombstone` names a column of the batch, not a field inside one. A
+    /// struct child may legitimately carry that name, and at depth it is an
+    /// ordinary field: absent from the source it is null like any other, not
+    /// the live-row marker. Treating it as the marker also fails outright when
+    /// the child is not Boolean.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_struct_child_named_like_the_tombstone_is_an_ordinary_field() {
+        let kept = stamped("kept", DataType::Int64, 2);
+        let source = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            stamped("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+            stamped(
+                "info",
+                DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![kept.clone()])),
+                1,
+            ),
+        ]);
+        // The table declares a child with the tombstone's name that the
+        // generation never stored -- and typed Int64, which the live marker
+        // could not be built as.
+        let target = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            stamped("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+            stamped(
+                "info",
+                DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                    kept.clone(),
+                    stamped(TOMBSTONE, DataType::Int64, 3),
+                ])),
+                1,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(source.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1])) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                    Fields::from(vec![kept]),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![7])) as ArrayRef],
+                    None,
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .expect("a batch under the source schema");
+
+        let out = Plan::resolve(&source, &target, &["id".to_string()])
+            .expect("a nested field named like the tombstone resolves")
+            .emitting_plain_schema()
+            .apply(&batch)
+            .expect("and applies");
+        let info = out
+            .column_by_name("info")
+            .expect("info")
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .expect("a struct");
+        assert!(
+            info.column_by_name(TOMBSTONE)
+                .expect("the child")
+                .is_null(0),
+            "a child the generation never stored is null, whatever it is called"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_null_parent_and_a_null_child_both_survive() {
+        let child = stamped("b", DataType::Int64, 3);
+        let values = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)])) as ArrayRef;
+        let column = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![child]),
+            vec![values],
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, false])),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let out = strip_and_check(column);
+        let out = out.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().expect("struct");
+        assert!(out.is_null(2), "the null parent stays null");
+        let inner = out
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .expect("the child");
+        assert_eq!(inner.value(0), 1);
+        assert!(inner.is_null(1), "the null child stays null");
+    }
+
+    /// A list carries offsets and its own validity, and the element carries
+    /// values: an empty list, a null list and a null element in one column.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_lists_offsets_and_validity_survive() {
+        let element = stamped(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![stamped("b", DataType::Int64, 4)])),
+            3,
+        );
+        let leaf = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)])) as ArrayRef;
+        let inner = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![stamped("b", DataType::Int64, 4)]),
+            vec![leaf],
+            None,
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        // Rows: [two elements], [], null.
+        let column = Arc::new(ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(element),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(vec![0, 2, 2, 3].into()),
+            inner,
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, false])),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let out = strip_and_check(column);
+        let out = out.as_any().downcast_ref::<ListArray>().expect("list");
+        assert_eq!(out.value_length(0), 2, "the first row keeps two elements");
+        assert_eq!(out.value_length(1), 0, "the empty list stays empty");
+        assert!(out.is_null(2), "the null list stays null");
+    }
+
+    /// `LargeList` is a different offset width, and neither array downcasts to
+    /// the other.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_large_lists_offsets_survive() {
+        let element = stamped("item", DataType::Int64, 3);
+        let values = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])) as ArrayRef;
+        let column = Arc::new(LargeListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(element),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(vec![0i64, 2, 3].into()),
+            values,
+            None,
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let out = strip_and_check(column);
+        let out = out
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<LargeListArray>()
+            .expect("a large list, not a list");
+        assert_eq!(out.value_length(0), 2);
+        assert_eq!(out.value_length(1), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// A fixed-size list's width lives in its type, so a relabel must carry it.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_fixed_size_lists_width_survives() {
+        let element = stamped("item", DataType::Int64, 3);
+        let values = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4])) as ArrayRef;
+        let column =
+            Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::new(Arc::new(element), 2, values, None)) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let out = strip_and_check(column);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(out.data_type(), DataType::FixedSizeList(_, 2)),
+            "the width is part of the type, got {:?}",
+            out.data_type()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A sliced array carries a non-zero offset into its buffers. Relabelling
+    /// must not reinterpret that as a full array.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_slice_keeps_its_offset() {
+        let child = stamped("b", DataType::Int64, 3);
+        let values = Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4])) as ArrayRef;
+        let whole = StructArray::new(Fields::from(vec![child]), vec![values], None);
+        let column = Arc::new(whole.slice(2, 2)) as ArrayRef;
+
+        let out = strip_and_check(column);
+        let out = out.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().expect("struct");
+        let inner = out
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .expect("the child");
+        assert_eq!(
+            (0..out.len()).map(|i| inner.value(i)).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![3, 4],
+            "the slice reads its own rows, not the array's first ones"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An empty batch has no values to check, so the schema is the whole
+    /// contract.
+    #[test]
+    fn an_empty_column_is_still_relabelled() {
+        let child = stamped("b", DataType::Int64, 3);
+        let column = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![child]),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from(Vec::<i64>::new())) as ArrayRef],
+            None,
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let out = strip_and_check(column);
+        assert_eq!(out.len(), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// Nothing to change is the fast path, and it has to return the same
+    /// arrays rather than a rebuilt approximation of them.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_column_already_in_the_target_shape_is_returned_as_it_stands() {
+        let plain = ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int64, true);
+        let column = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            Fields::from(vec![plain]),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef],
+            None,
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let out = relabel_to(&column, column.data_type()).expect("relabel");
+        assert_eq!(out.data_type(), column.data_type());
+        assert_eq!(out.len(), 2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e6db4c0a1de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! LSM Scanner - Unified scanner for LSM tree data
+//!
+//! This module provides scanners that read from multiple data sources
+//! in an LSM tree architecture:
+//! - Base table (compacted data)
+//! - SSTables (persisted but not yet compacted)
+//! - Active MemTable (in-memory buffer)
+//!
+//! The scanner handles deduplication by primary key, keeping the newest
+//! version based on generation number and row address.
+//!
+//! ## Supported Query Types
+//!
+//! - **Scan**: Full table scan with deduplication
+//! - **Point Lookup**: Primary key-based lookup with bloom filter optimization
+//! - **Vector Search**: KNN search with staleness detection
+//!
+//! ## Example
+//!
+//! ```ignore
+//! use lance::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::LsmScanner;
+//!
+//! let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_table, shard_snapshots, vec!["pk".to_string()])
+//!     .project(&["id", "name"])?
+//!     .filter("id > 10")?
+//!     .limit(Some(100), None)?;
+//!
+//! let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+//! ```
+
+use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+use datafusion::common::ToDFSchema;
+use datafusion::prelude::{Expr, SessionContext};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+mod block_list;
+mod builder;
+mod collector;
+mod data_source;
+pub mod exec;
+mod fts_search;
+mod generation_read;
+mod planner;
+mod point_lookup;
+mod projection;
+pub(crate) mod sstable_cache;
+mod vector_search;
+
+pub use block_list::write_pk_sidecar;
+pub use builder::LsmScanner;
+pub use collector::{
+    ActiveMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables, LsmDataSourceCollector,
+};
+pub use data_source::{FreshTierWatermark, LsmDataSource, LsmGeneration, ShardSnapshot, SsTable};
+pub use fts_search::{LsmFtsSearchPlanner, SCORE_COLUMN};
+pub use point_lookup::LsmPointLookupPlanner;
+pub use projection::DISTANCE_COLUMN;
+pub use sstable_cache::{DatasetCache, SsTableCache, SsTableWarmer};
+pub use vector_search::LsmVectorSearchPlanner;
+
+/// Parse a SQL filter expression against a MemWAL source schema.
+pub fn parse_filter_expr(schema: &ArrowSchema, filter_expr: &str) -> Result<Expr> {
+    let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+    let df_schema = schema
+        .clone()
+        .to_dfschema()
+        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to create DFSchema: {}", e)))?;
+    ctx.parse_sql_expr(filter_expr, &df_schema)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("Failed to parse filter expression: {}", e)))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn validate_overfetch_factor(factor: f64) -> Result<f64> {
+    if !factor.is_finite() || factor < 1.0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "overfetch_factor must be finite and at least 1.0, got {}",
+            factor
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(factor)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/block_list.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/block_list.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..caadc9c9638
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/block_list.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,895 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Per-source block-list construction for LSM vector search.
+//!
+//! A generation's membership is a [`GenMembership`]: in-memory generations
+//! (active / frozen) are probed by value against their maintained primary-key
+//! index (no per-query set), while SSTables are probed against their
+//! standalone on-disk PK BTree (the sidecar written at flush, opened by path).
+//! Probing is batched — [`GenMembership::contains_keys`] tests a whole batch of
+//! keys per generation in one pass. Each source gets a `Vec<GenMembership>` of
+//! the newer generations (`NEWER(G)`; base: all of them); the KNN drops a
+//! candidate whose PK any of them contains (see
+//! [`super::exec::PkBlockFilterExec`]).
+//!
+//! Cross-generation only: within-gen dups collapse via the global dedup's
+//! `(generation, freshness)` tiebreaker.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
+
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::registry::IndexPluginRegistry;
+use lance_index::scalar::btree::BTreeIndex;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::{
+    IndexStore as ScalarIndexStore, SargableQuery, ScalarIndex, SearchResult,
+};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use super::data_source::{FreshTierWatermark, LsmDataSource, LsmGeneration};
+use super::sstable_cache::{DatasetCache, open_sstable};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::encode_pk_tuple;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::util::PK_INDEX_DIR;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+use crate::session::Session;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+/// Default-plugin registry, used only to load the standalone PK BTree by its
+/// `BTreeIndexDetails` type. Built once.
+static PK_BTREE_REGISTRY: LazyLock<Arc<IndexPluginRegistry>> =
+    LazyLock::new(IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins);
+
+/// One newer generation's PK membership, used to decide whether it shadows an
+/// older source's row.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub enum GenMembership {
+    /// Probe the in-memory memtable's primary-key index, bounded to its visible
+    /// prefix (so a not-yet-visible write can't shadow an older visible copy).
+    InMemory {
+        index_store: Arc<IndexStore>,
+        /// Inclusive visible row watermark; `None` when no rows are visible.
+        max_visible_row: Option<u64>,
+    },
+    /// Probe the SSTable's standalone on-disk PK BTree.
+    OnDisk(Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>),
+}
+
+impl GenMembership {
+    /// Whether this generation visibly contains the primary `key` — the typed
+    /// value for a single-column PK, the encoded `Binary` tuple for a composite
+    /// one (built by [`on_disk_pk_key`]). The same key probes the in-memory
+    /// BTree and the flushed on-disk BTree, which now share a key space.
+    pub async fn contains(&self, key: &ScalarValue) -> Result<bool> {
+        match self {
+            Self::InMemory {
+                index_store,
+                max_visible_row,
+            } => Ok(max_visible_row.is_some_and(|max| index_store.pk_contains_key(key, max))),
+            Self::OnDisk(index) => {
+                let result = index
+                    .search(&SargableQuery::Equals(key.clone()), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::io(e.to_string()))?;
+                Ok(!search_is_empty(&result))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Batched [`Self::contains`]: for each key in `keys`, whether this
+    /// generation visibly contains it, returned as a mask aligned to `keys`.
+    ///
+    /// One probe replaces N. The on-disk arm issues a single
+    /// [`BTreeIndex::contains_keys`] (no per-key `SearchResult` allocation); the
+    /// in-memory arm maps the sync, allocation-free PK lookup over the slice.
+    /// Keys are in the index's key space (see [`on_disk_pk_key`]).
+    pub async fn contains_keys(&self, keys: &[ScalarValue]) -> Result<Vec<bool>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::InMemory {
+                index_store,
+                max_visible_row,
+            } => Ok(keys
+                .iter()
+                .map(|key| max_visible_row.is_some_and(|max| index_store.pk_contains_key(key, max)))
+                .collect()),
+            Self::OnDisk(index) => {
+                // The flushed PK sidecar is always a BTree (built via
+                // `PK_BTREE_REGISTRY`); downcast to reach the batched probe.
+                let btree = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<BTreeIndex>().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::io("flushed PK dedup index is not a BTree".to_string())
+                })?;
+                btree
+                    .contains_keys(keys, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::io(e.to_string()))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether this generation has no (visible) membership — used to skip adding
+    /// an empty blocked set. An SSTable always has rows (flush rejects
+    /// an empty memtable), so it is never empty.
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::InMemory {
+                index_store,
+                max_visible_row,
+            } => max_visible_row.is_none() || index_store.pk_is_empty(),
+            Self::OnDisk(_) => false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether a scalar search returned no rows (existence test for the block-list).
+fn search_is_empty(result: &SearchResult) -> bool {
+    match result {
+        SearchResult::Exact(set) | SearchResult::AtMost(set) | SearchResult::AtLeast(set) => {
+            set.is_empty()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The probe key for the on-disk PK BTree: a single-column PK indexes its typed
+/// value directly; a composite PK indexes the order-preserving encoded tuple as
+/// `Binary` (matching what flush wrote — see [`encode_pk_tuple`]).
+pub fn on_disk_pk_key(values: &[ScalarValue]) -> Result<ScalarValue> {
+    match values {
+        [single] => Ok(single.clone()),
+        _ => Ok(ScalarValue::Binary(Some(encode_pk_tuple(values)?))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-source blocked memberships, keyed by `(shard_id, generation)`. Each value
+/// is the memberships of the generations newer than that source.
+pub type SourceBlockLists = HashMap<(Option<Uuid>, LsmGeneration), Vec<GenMembership>>;
+
+/// A shard's generations paired with their membership, before sorting.
+type ShardGenSets = HashMap<Uuid, Vec<(LsmGeneration, GenMembership)>>;
+
+/// Per-source `NEWER(G)`, keyed by `(shard_id, generation)`. Generations are
+/// per-shard, so a source is superseded only by strictly-newer generations of
+/// the **same** shard — it never appears in its own blocked list. The base table
+/// is shardless (`None`, oldest) and superseded by every non-base generation.
+/// Only superseded sources get an entry; the newest of each shard never does.
+pub async fn compute_source_block_lists(
+    sources: &[LsmDataSource],
+    session: Option<&Arc<Session>>,
+    store_params: Option<&ObjectStoreParams>,
+    sstable_cache: Option<&Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+) -> Result<SourceBlockLists> {
+    // Membership per non-base source, grouped by shard (generations are
+    // per-shard, so supersession is within-shard only).
+    let mut by_shard: ShardGenSets = HashMap::new();
+    let mut has_base = false;
+    // Flushed PK-BTree opens are cold S3 reads; overlap them with
+    // `try_join_all`. Order is irrelevant — gens are sorted per-shard below.
+    let mut sstable_loads = Vec::new();
+    for source in sources {
+        match source {
+            LsmDataSource::BaseTable { .. } => has_base = true,
+            LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store,
+                shard_id,
+                generation,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let membership = in_memory_membership(batch_store, index_store);
+                by_shard
+                    .entry(*shard_id)
+                    .or_default()
+                    .push((*generation, membership));
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::SsTable {
+                path,
+                shard_id,
+                generation,
+                ..
+            } => sstable_loads.push(async move {
+                let index = open_pk_index(path, session, store_params, sstable_cache).await?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>((*shard_id, *generation, GenMembership::OnDisk(index)))
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+    for (shard_id, generation, membership) in futures::future::try_join_all(sstable_loads).await? {
+        by_shard
+            .entry(shard_id)
+            .or_default()
+            .push((generation, membership));
+    }
+
+    let mut blocked: SourceBlockLists = HashMap::new();
+    // Base (shardless, oldest) is superseded by every non-base generation.
+    let mut base_blocked: Vec<GenMembership> = Vec::new();
+    for (shard, mut gens) in by_shard {
+        // Newest-first: a gen's blocked list is its own shard's newer gens.
+        gens.sort_by_key(|(generation, _)| std::cmp::Reverse(*generation));
+        let mut newer: Vec<GenMembership> = Vec::new();
+        for (generation, membership) in gens {
+            if !newer.is_empty() {
+                blocked.insert((Some(shard), generation), newer.clone());
+            }
+            if !membership.is_empty() {
+                base_blocked.push(membership.clone());
+                newer.push(membership);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if has_base && !base_blocked.is_empty() {
+        blocked.insert((None, LsmGeneration::BASE_TABLE), base_blocked);
+    }
+    Ok(blocked)
+}
+
+/// The fresh-tier block-list: one [`GenMembership`] per generation that shadows
+/// the base table — active + frozen memtables (probed against their index) and
+/// SSTables (probed against their on-disk PK BTree). A base/external
+/// reader can test any PK against these (via [`GenMembership::contains`]) to
+/// decide whether the fresh tier shadows it. The base source, if present, is
+/// skipped (it is what gets shadowed).
+///
+/// When `watermarks` carries a watermark for a source's shard, membership is
+/// bounded to it (see [`FreshTierWatermark`]): higher generations are excluded,
+/// the active generation is bounded to its first `active_batch_count` batches,
+/// and lower generations (frozen and flushed) are immutable and included whole.
+/// A shard absent from `watermarks` (or `watermarks == None`) uses the live tier.
+pub async fn fresh_tier_block_list(
+    sources: &[LsmDataSource],
+    session: Option<&Arc<Session>>,
+    store_params: Option<&ObjectStoreParams>,
+    sstable_cache: Option<&Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+    watermarks: Option<&HashMap<Uuid, FreshTierWatermark>>,
+) -> Result<Vec<GenMembership>> {
+    // Membership per source, in source order (`None` = skipped). Flushed
+    // PK-BTree opens are cold S3 reads, so collect them tagged with their slot
+    // and overlap with `try_join_all` rather than opening one at a time.
+    let mut slots: Vec<Option<GenMembership>> = Vec::with_capacity(sources.len());
+    let mut sstable_loads = Vec::new();
+    for source in sources {
+        match source {
+            LsmDataSource::BaseTable { .. } => slots.push(None),
+            LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store,
+                shard_id,
+                generation,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let membership = match watermarks.and_then(|m| m.get(shard_id)) {
+                    None => Some(in_memory_membership(batch_store, index_store)),
+                    Some(watermark) => {
+                        let g = generation.as_u64();
+                        if g > watermark.active_generation {
+                            // Rolled in after the snapshot; the arm never saw it.
+                            None
+                        } else if g == watermark.active_generation {
+                            // Bound the active generation to the batches the arm saw.
+                            Some(bounded_in_memory_membership(
+                                batch_store,
+                                index_store,
+                                watermark.active_batch_count,
+                            ))
+                        } else {
+                            // Lower (frozen) generations are immutable — include all.
+                            Some(in_memory_membership(batch_store, index_store))
+                        }
+                    }
+                };
+                slots.push(membership);
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::SsTable {
+                path,
+                shard_id,
+                generation,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                // A generation at or above the active one was flushed after the
+                // snapshot; exclude it. Lower generations are immutable. The
+                // `==` case is the active generation flushed between the two
+                // reads: excluding the flushed copy loses nothing, since its
+                // rows are already captured by the in-memory arm above (bounded
+                // to `active_batch_count`).
+                let flushed_after_snapshot = watermarks
+                    .and_then(|m| m.get(shard_id))
+                    .is_some_and(|watermark| generation.as_u64() >= watermark.active_generation);
+                if flushed_after_snapshot {
+                    slots.push(None);
+                } else {
+                    let slot = slots.len();
+                    slots.push(None);
+                    sstable_loads.push(async move {
+                        let index =
+                            open_pk_index(path, session, store_params, sstable_cache).await?;
+                        Ok::<_, Error>((slot, GenMembership::OnDisk(index)))
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    for (slot, membership) in futures::future::try_join_all(sstable_loads).await? {
+        slots[slot] = Some(membership);
+    }
+    Ok(slots
+        .into_iter()
+        .flatten()
+        .filter(|membership| !membership.is_empty())
+        .collect())
+}
+
+/// Cross-source membership of an in-memory (active / frozen) memtable: a
+/// snapshot-bounded probe of its maintained primary-key index. A memtable
+/// without a primary-key index can't be probed, so it blocks nothing — the
+/// production vector-search path always enables the index.
+fn in_memory_membership(
+    batch_store: &Arc<BatchStore>,
+    index_store: &Arc<IndexStore>,
+) -> GenMembership {
+    let max_visible_row = batch_store.max_visible_row(index_store.visible_count());
+    GenMembership::InMemory {
+        index_store: index_store.clone(),
+        max_visible_row,
+    }
+}
+
+/// As-of variant of [`in_memory_membership`] for the active generation under a
+/// watermark: bounds visibility to the first `batch_count` batches — those a
+/// prior scan observed before the memtable grew. A later append lands at a
+/// higher row position and is excluded by the probe, so it can't shadow a base
+/// row whose replacement the scan never delivered. `batch_count == 0` leaves the
+/// membership empty.
+fn bounded_in_memory_membership(
+    batch_store: &Arc<BatchStore>,
+    index_store: &Arc<IndexStore>,
+    batch_count: u64,
+) -> GenMembership {
+    // `batch_count` is already an exclusive count, and so is what
+    // `max_visible_row` takes, so it passes straight through: no
+    // count-to-inclusive-position conversion, and `0` yields `None` on its own.
+    let max_visible_row = batch_store.max_visible_row(batch_count as usize);
+    GenMembership::InMemory {
+        index_store: index_store.clone(),
+        max_visible_row,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Open the standalone PK BTree at `{SSTable gen}/_pk_index` for one
+/// SSTable. Reuses the SSTable dataset's (session-configured) object store
+/// and **its index cache**, then loads the sidecar directly by path through the
+/// BTree plugin — it is not a manifest index. The opened index and its pages
+/// are cached in the session's index cache (keyed by the immutable SSTable
+/// path), so repeated probes reuse them with no separate cache path and no
+/// upfront scan; concurrent first-opens may each load before the cache fills.
+/// A stable cache UUID for a non-manifest index identified only by its path.
+///
+/// `DSIndexCache::for_index` keys by `&Uuid`, but the flushed PK sidecar has no
+/// manifest UUID — its identity is its immutable path. Derive a deterministic
+/// UUID from the path so the cache namespace is per-path and stable across
+/// probes (the `uuid` crate lacks the `v5` "name-based" feature here, so hash to
+/// a `u128` instead).
+fn path_cache_uuid(path: &str) -> Uuid {
+    use std::hash::{Hash, Hasher};
+    let mut lo = std::collections::hash_map::DefaultHasher::new();
+    path.hash(&mut lo);
+    let mut hi = std::collections::hash_map::DefaultHasher::new();
+    // Seed the high half differently so it never equals the low half.
+    "lance/flushed-pk-index".hash(&mut hi);
+    path.hash(&mut hi);
+    Uuid::from_u128(((hi.finish() as u128) << 64) | lo.finish() as u128)
+}
+
+async fn open_pk_index(
+    path: &str,
+    session: Option<&Arc<Session>>,
+    store_params: Option<&ObjectStoreParams>,
+    sstable_cache: Option<&Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+    let dataset = open_sstable(path, session, store_params, sstable_cache, None).await?;
+    // Namespace the session index cache by the (immutable) SSTable path so this
+    // sidecar's pages live alongside every other index instead of a bespoke
+    // cache. `fri_uuid` is None — SSTables carry no fragment-reuse.
+    let index_cache = dataset.index_cache.for_index(&path_cache_uuid(path), None);
+    let index_dir = dataset.base.clone().join(PK_INDEX_DIR);
+    let store: Arc<dyn ScalarIndexStore> = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::new(
+        dataset.object_store.clone(),
+        index_dir,
+        Arc::new(index_cache.clone()),
+    ));
+
+    let plugin = PK_BTREE_REGISTRY.get_plugin_by_name("BTree")?;
+    // Cache the opened index in the session cache (mirrors `open_scalar_index`).
+    if let Some(index) = plugin
+        .get_from_cache(store.clone(), None, &index_cache)
+        .await?
+    {
+        return Ok(index);
+    }
+    let details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&lance_index::pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default())
+        .map_err(|e| Error::io(e.to_string()))?;
+    let index = plugin
+        .load_index(store.clone(), &details, 0, None, &index_cache)
+        .await?;
+    plugin
+        .put_in_cache(store, &index_cache, index.clone())
+        .await?;
+    Ok(index)
+}
+
+/// Write an SSTable's standalone PK sidecar at `{uri}/_pk_index` from
+/// `batches`, mirroring what flush does in production. `pk_columns` are the
+/// primary-key column names (field ids are synthesized by position — `insert`
+/// resolves columns by name). A no-op when no batch carries the PK columns.
+///
+/// Used by Rust scanner tests and by the Python test-support binding to stage
+/// faithful SSTables (an SSTable dataset alone, with no sidecar, is
+/// not a state production ever produces).
+pub async fn write_pk_sidecar(
+    uri: &str,
+    batches: &[arrow_array::RecordBatch],
+    pk_columns: &[&str],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+    use lance_index::scalar::btree::train_btree_index;
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::util::pk_index_path;
+
+    let pk: Vec<(String, i32)> = pk_columns
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, c)| (c.to_string(), i as i32))
+        .collect();
+    let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+    index.enable_pk_index(&pk);
+    let mut offset = 0u64;
+    for batch in batches {
+        index.insert(batch, offset)?;
+        offset += batch.num_rows() as u64;
+    }
+
+    let training = index.pk_training_batches(8192)?;
+    if training.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let schema = training[0].schema();
+    let (object_store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(uri).await?;
+    let store = LanceIndexStore::new(
+        object_store,
+        pk_index_path(&base_path),
+        Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+    );
+    let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema,
+        futures::stream::iter(training.into_iter().map(Ok)),
+    ));
+    // `train_btree_index` now returns the written index files; the sidecar
+    // writer only needs success/failure.
+    train_btree_index(stream, &store, 8192, None, None).await?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::{LsmDataSource, LsmGeneration};
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::IndexStore;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    fn id_batch(ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec()))]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// An active/frozen memtable source whose PK index holds one row per id in
+    /// `ids` (positions 0..n), all committed and visible.
+    fn active_source(shard: Uuid, generation: u64, ids: &[i32]) -> LsmDataSource {
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(16);
+        let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+        index.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        for &id in ids {
+            let b = id_batch(&[id]);
+            let (bp, off, _) = store.append(b.clone()).unwrap();
+            index.insert_with_batch_position(&b, off, Some(bp)).unwrap();
+        }
+        LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+            batch_store: Arc::new(store),
+            index_store: Arc::new(index),
+            schema: id_batch(&[1]).schema(),
+            shard_id: shard,
+            generation: LsmGeneration::memtable(generation),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether `id`'s PK is blocked by any of a source's newer-gen memberships.
+    async fn blocks(memberships: &[GenMembership], id: i32) -> bool {
+        let key = on_disk_pk_key(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(id))]).unwrap();
+        for m in memberships {
+            if m.contains(&key).await.unwrap() {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        false
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn on_disk_key_is_typed_for_single_and_binary_for_composite() {
+        // Single-column → the typed value; composite → encoded Binary.
+        let single = [ScalarValue::Int32(Some(7))];
+        assert_eq!(
+            on_disk_pk_key(&single).unwrap(),
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(7))
+        );
+        let composite = [ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)), ScalarValue::from("a")];
+        assert!(matches!(
+            on_disk_pk_key(&composite).unwrap(),
+            ScalarValue::Binary(Some(_))
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fresh_tier_block_list_one_membership_per_in_memory_gen() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // Active gen 2: pk=1,2. Frozen gen 1: pk=3.
+        let sources = vec![
+            active_source(shard, 2, &[1, 2]),
+            active_source(shard, 1, &[3]),
+        ];
+
+        let memberships = fresh_tier_block_list(&sources, None, None, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // One membership per generation; together they cover pk=1,2,3 (not 4).
+        assert_eq!(memberships.len(), 2);
+        for id in [1, 2, 3] {
+            assert!(blocks(&memberships, id).await);
+        }
+        assert!(!blocks(&memberships, 4).await);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn block_lists_suppress_stale_across_in_memory_gens() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // Frozen gen 1: stale pk=1. Active gen 2: pk=1 re-written, pk=2 new.
+        let sources = vec![
+            active_source(shard, 1, &[1]),
+            active_source(shard, 2, &[1, 2]),
+        ];
+
+        let blocked = Box::pin(compute_source_block_lists(&sources, None, None, None))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let g1 = LsmGeneration::memtable(1);
+        let g2 = LsmGeneration::memtable(2);
+        // The newer active write supersedes the frozen copy: gen 1 is blocked on
+        // pk=1, so its KNN drops pk=1.
+        assert!(blocks(&blocked[&(Some(shard), g1)], 1).await);
+        // The active (newest) generation is superseded by nothing — no entry.
+        assert!(!blocked.contains_key(&(Some(shard), g2)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn block_lists_suppress_stale_base_row() {
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+
+        // Base (gen 0): pk=1 (stale), pk=3 (live).
+        let base_batch = id_batch(&[1, 3]);
+        let schema = base_batch.schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(base_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Active gen 1: pk=1 re-written, pk=2 new.
+        let sources = vec![
+            LsmDataSource::BaseTable { dataset: base },
+            active_source(Uuid::new_v4(), 1, &[1, 2]),
+        ];
+
+        let blocked = Box::pin(compute_source_block_lists(&sources, None, None, None))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Base is blocked by every newer gen: pk=1 (re-written in gen 1) is
+        // blocked, pk=3 (base-only) is not.
+        let base_blocked = blocked
+            .get(&(None, LsmGeneration::BASE_TABLE))
+            .expect("base has a blocked set");
+        assert!(blocks(base_blocked, 1).await);
+        assert!(!blocks(base_blocked, 3).await);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn block_lists_are_keyed_per_shard() {
+        // Regression: generations are per-shard, so a source must only be blocked
+        // by newer generations of its OWN shard.
+        let a = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let b = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // Two shards, each: frozen gen 1 (stale) + active gen 2 (re-write).
+        // Shard A keys pk=1; shard B keys pk=2 (disjoint partitions).
+        let sources = vec![
+            active_source(a, 1, &[1]),
+            active_source(a, 2, &[1]),
+            active_source(b, 1, &[2]),
+            active_source(b, 2, &[2]),
+        ];
+
+        let blocked = Box::pin(compute_source_block_lists(&sources, None, None, None))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let g1 = LsmGeneration::memtable(1);
+        let g2 = LsmGeneration::memtable(2);
+        // Each shard's gen 1 is blocked by its OWN gen 2 only.
+        assert!(blocks(&blocked[&(Some(a), g1)], 1).await);
+        assert!(!blocks(&blocked[&(Some(a), g1)], 2).await);
+        assert!(blocks(&blocked[&(Some(b), g1)], 2).await);
+        assert!(!blocks(&blocked[&(Some(b), g1)], 1).await);
+        // The newest generation of each shard is superseded by nothing.
+        assert!(!blocked.contains_key(&(Some(a), g2)));
+        assert!(!blocked.contains_key(&(Some(b), g2)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn index_membership_is_snapshot_bounded() {
+        // The index-sourced membership only counts a PK whose version is visible
+        // at the source's watermark, so a newer generation's not-yet-visible
+        // write can't shadow an older generation's visible copy.
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let schema = id_batch(&[1]).schema();
+
+        // Older frozen gen 1: pk=1.
+        let g1 = active_source(shard, 1, &[1]);
+
+        // Newer active gen 2: pk=99 visible at position 0, then pk=1 written at
+        // position 1 but with the watermark left at batch 0 (so pk=1 is in the
+        // index yet not visible) — the concurrent-write race.
+        let g2_store = BatchStore::with_capacity(8);
+        let mut g2_index = IndexStore::new();
+        g2_index.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        let b0 = id_batch(&[99]);
+        let (bp0, off0, _) = g2_store.append(b0.clone()).unwrap();
+        g2_index
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b0, off0, Some(bp0)) // advances watermark to 0
+            .unwrap();
+        let b1 = id_batch(&[1]);
+        let (_, off1, _) = g2_store.append(b1.clone()).unwrap();
+        g2_index
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b1, off1, None) // index updated, watermark unchanged
+            .unwrap();
+        let g2 = LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+            batch_store: Arc::new(g2_store),
+            index_store: Arc::new(g2_index),
+            schema,
+            shard_id: shard,
+            generation: LsmGeneration::memtable(2),
+        };
+
+        let blocked = Box::pin(compute_source_block_lists(&[g1, g2], None, None, None))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let g1_block = &blocked[&(Some(shard), LsmGeneration::memtable(1))];
+        // pk=99 is visible in gen 2 → it blocks gen 1's pk=99.
+        assert!(blocks(g1_block, 99).await);
+        // pk=1's only gen-2 copy is not yet visible → it must NOT shadow gen 1.
+        assert!(
+            !blocks(g1_block, 1).await,
+            "a not-yet-visible newer write must not shadow an older visible copy"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A fresh-tier watermark bounds the active generation to the first
+    /// `active_batch_count` batches — those the arm observed before the memtable
+    /// grew. A later append is invisible, so a base row is never dropped without
+    /// the arm having delivered its replacement.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fresh_tier_watermark_bounds_active_memtable_by_batch_count() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::FreshTierWatermark;
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // Three single-row batches: pk=1 at batch 0, pk=2 at batch 1, pk=3 at
+        // batch 2 (appended after the arm).
+        let sources = vec![active_source(shard, 1, &[1, 2, 3])];
+
+        // Watermark at 2 batches of gen 1: pk=1,2 are members; pk=3 (batch 2) is not.
+        let watermarks: HashMap<Uuid, FreshTierWatermark> = [(
+            shard,
+            FreshTierWatermark {
+                active_generation: 1,
+                active_batch_count: 2,
+            },
+        )]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+        let sets = fresh_tier_block_list(&sources, None, None, None, Some(&watermarks))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(blocks(&sets, 1).await);
+        assert!(blocks(&sets, 2).await);
+        assert!(!blocks(&sets, 3).await);
+
+        // No watermark → live tier: all three are members.
+        let sets = fresh_tier_block_list(&sources, None, None, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for id in [1, 2, 3] {
+            assert!(blocks(&sets, id).await);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A generation above the active one rolled in after the snapshot and is
+    /// excluded whole; a lower one is immutable (frozen) and included whole
+    /// regardless of the active batch count.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fresh_tier_watermark_excludes_newer_gen_includes_lower_gen() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::FreshTierWatermark;
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // gen 3 newer (after snapshot), gen 2 == active (bounded to 1 batch),
+        // gen 1 lower/immutable (whole). Each id is its own batch.
+        let sources = vec![
+            active_source(shard, 3, &[100]),
+            active_source(shard, 2, &[20, 21]),
+            active_source(shard, 1, &[1, 2]),
+        ];
+
+        let watermarks: HashMap<Uuid, FreshTierWatermark> = [(
+            shard,
+            FreshTierWatermark {
+                active_generation: 2,
+                active_batch_count: 1,
+            },
+        )]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+        let sets = fresh_tier_block_list(&sources, None, None, None, Some(&watermarks))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(blocks(&sets, 1).await); // gen 1, whole
+        assert!(blocks(&sets, 2).await); // gen 1, whole
+        assert!(blocks(&sets, 20).await); // gen 2, batch 0
+        assert!(!blocks(&sets, 21).await); // gen 2, batch 1 — past the watermark
+        assert!(!blocks(&sets, 100).await); // gen 3 — after the snapshot
+    }
+
+    /// Regression: a row indexed twice in the memtable (WAL replay re-indexes
+    /// batches the flusher already indexed) used to produce a PK sidecar page
+    /// with a repeated row id. Loading that page builds a `RoaringBitmap` via
+    /// `from_sorted_iter`, which rejects the repeat, so every probe of the
+    /// generation failed with "from_sorted_iter called with non-sorted input"
+    /// and any LSM scan over the store returned 500 (observed in production:
+    /// one 2-row generation broke reads of a 54k-row store for weeks).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn sidecar_from_doubly_indexed_memtable_is_probeable() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::util::pk_index_path;
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use arrow_array::{RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+        use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+        use lance_index::scalar::btree::train_btree_index;
+        use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["item:a", "item:b"]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let path = format!("{}/gen2", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(reader, &path, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Index the same batch twice at the same offset, as the flusher +
+        // a replay would, then train the sidecar from that index.
+        let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+        index.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        index.insert(&batch, 0).unwrap();
+        let training = index.pk_training_batches(8192).unwrap();
+        let (object_store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let store = LanceIndexStore::new(
+            object_store,
+            pk_index_path(&base_path),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::no_cache()),
+        );
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            training[0].schema(),
+            futures::stream::iter(training.into_iter().map(Ok)),
+        ));
+        train_btree_index(stream, &store, 8192, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let membership =
+            GenMembership::OnDisk(open_pk_index(&path, None, None, None).await.unwrap());
+        let keys: Vec<ScalarValue> = ["item:a", "item:b", "item:zzz"]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|k| ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(k.to_string())))
+            .collect();
+        let hits = membership.contains_keys(&keys).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(hits, vec![true, true, false]);
+    }
+
+    /// An SSTable at or above the active generation was produced by a
+    /// flush after the snapshot and is excluded; one strictly below it is
+    /// immutable and included.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fresh_tier_watermark_excludes_sstables_at_or_above_active() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::FreshTierWatermark;
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        // An SSTable 2 holding pk=5, staged as an SSTable dataset with
+        // its standalone PK sidecar (what the on-disk membership probes).
+        let sstable_batch = id_batch(&[5]);
+        let schema = sstable_batch.schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let path = format!("{}/gen2", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(sstable_batch.clone())], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(reader, &path, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        write_pk_sidecar(&path, &[sstable_batch], &["id"])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let sources = vec![LsmDataSource::SsTable {
+            path,
+            shard_id: shard,
+            generation: LsmGeneration::memtable(2),
+        }];
+
+        // active_generation 2 (gen 2 flushed at/after the snapshot): excluded.
+        let at: HashMap<Uuid, FreshTierWatermark> = [(
+            shard,
+            FreshTierWatermark {
+                active_generation: 2,
+                active_batch_count: u64::MAX,
+            },
+        )]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+        let sets = fresh_tier_block_list(&sources, None, None, None, Some(&at))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(!blocks(&sets, 5).await);
+
+        // active_generation 3 (gen 2 strictly below, immutable): included.
+        let above: HashMap<Uuid, FreshTierWatermark> = [(
+            shard,
+            FreshTierWatermark {
+                active_generation: 3,
+                active_batch_count: u64::MAX,
+            },
+        )]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+        let sets = fresh_tier_block_list(&sources, None, None, None, Some(&above))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(blocks(&sets, 5).await);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/builder.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/builder.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..82fbeb41ce9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/builder.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2358 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! LSM Scanner builder.
+
+use std::collections::hash_map::Entry;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::logical_expr::Operator;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::limit::GlobalLimitExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream};
+use datafusion::prelude::{Expr, SessionContext};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, is_system_column};
+use lance_datafusion::expr::safe_coerce_scalar;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use super::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables, LsmDataSourceCollector};
+use super::data_source::{FreshTierWatermark, ShardSnapshot};
+use super::planner::LsmScanPlanner;
+use super::point_lookup::LsmPointLookupPlanner;
+use super::projection::validate_projection_names;
+use super::sstable_cache::{DatasetCache, SsTableWarmer};
+use super::vector_search::ProbeBounds;
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::util::derived_store_params;
+use crate::session::Session;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+/// Vector (KNN) search state, set by [`LsmScanner::nearest`] and friends. Mirrors
+/// the subset of `lance::dataset::scanner::Query` the LSM vector planner honors.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct LsmVectorQuery {
+    /// Vector column to search.
+    column: String,
+    /// Flat query vector (one vector; validated against the column dim in `create_plan`).
+    key: Arc<dyn Array>,
+    /// Number of nearest neighbors to fetch per source before the global merge.
+    k: usize,
+    /// IVF partition probe bounds for indexed arms.
+    probe_bounds: ProbeBounds,
+    /// Re-rank base candidates with exact distances when set (refine factor is
+    /// treated as a boolean; the LSM merge needs exact base distances).
+    refine: bool,
+    /// Distance metric; `None` defaults to L2 (matching the unindexed memtable arm).
+    metric_type: Option<DistanceType>,
+}
+
+/// If `filter` is a point-lookup shape on `pk_col` — `pk = lit` (either
+/// operand order) or `pk IN (lit, …)` — return the literal key values. Any
+/// other shape returns `None`, so the scanner falls through to the general
+/// scan plan. `IN` keys are normalized to `pk_type` only for deduplication;
+/// the first original literal is retained so the lookup path still chooses
+/// between its exact-type fast path and coercing fallback. A literal that
+/// cannot be normalized routes the expression through the general scan.
+fn extract_pk_point_keys(
+    filter: &Expr,
+    pk_col: &str,
+    pk_type: &DataType,
+) -> Option<Vec<ScalarValue>> {
+    match filter {
+        Expr::BinaryExpr(b) if matches!(b.op, Operator::Eq) => {
+            match (b.left.as_ref(), b.right.as_ref()) {
+                (Expr::Column(c), Expr::Literal(lit, _))
+                | (Expr::Literal(lit, _), Expr::Column(c))
+                    if c.name == pk_col =>
+                {
+                    Some(vec![lit.clone()])
+                }
+                _ => None,
+            }
+        }
+        Expr::InList(in_list) if !in_list.negated => {
+            let Expr::Column(c) = in_list.expr.as_ref() else {
+                return None;
+            };
+            if c.name != pk_col {
+                return None;
+            }
+            let mut vals = Vec::with_capacity(in_list.list.len());
+            let mut seen = HashSet::with_capacity(in_list.list.len());
+            for e in &in_list.list {
+                let Expr::Literal(lit, _) = e else {
+                    return None; // a non-literal IN element → not a point lookup
+                };
+                let identity = safe_coerce_scalar(lit, pk_type)?;
+                if seen.insert(identity) {
+                    vals.push(lit.clone());
+                }
+            }
+            (!vals.is_empty()).then_some(vals)
+        }
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Either a base Lance table, or an explicit base path used to resolve
+/// SSTable directories when no base dataset is configured.
+enum BaseSource {
+    Table(Arc<Dataset>),
+    PathOnly(String),
+}
+
+/// The fixed-size-list dimension of `column` in `schema`. Errors if the column
+/// is missing or is not a fixed-size-list vector column.
+fn vector_dim(schema: &arrow_schema::Schema, column: &str) -> Result<i32> {
+    let field = schema
+        .field_with_name(column)
+        .map_err(|_| Error::invalid_input(format!("vector column '{}' not found", column)))?;
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, dim) => Ok(*dim),
+        other => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "column '{}' is not a fixed-size-list vector (got {:?})",
+            column, other
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Wrap a flat `Float32` query vector into a single-row `FixedSizeListArray` of
+/// `dim`, as the vector planner expects. A pre-built single-row FSL passes
+/// through unchanged. The query length must match the column dimension.
+fn key_to_fsl(key: &dyn Array, dim: i32) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    if let Some(fsl) = key.as_any().downcast_ref::<FixedSizeListArray>() {
+        // The LSM cross-source merge assumes a single query vector; a multi-row
+        // FSL would otherwise flow through and silently produce wrong results.
+        if fsl.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "LSM vector search supports a single query vector, got {} rows",
+                fsl.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        if fsl.value_length() != dim {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "query vector dimension {} does not match column dimension {}",
+                fsl.value_length(),
+                dim
+            )));
+        }
+        return Ok(fsl.clone());
+    }
+    let values = key
+        .as_primitive_opt::<Float32Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("query vector must be Float32".to_string()))?;
+    if values.len() != dim as usize {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "query vector dimension {} does not match column dimension {}",
+            values.len(),
+            dim
+        )));
+    }
+    let mut builder =
+        FixedSizeListBuilder::with_capacity(Float32Builder::with_capacity(dim as usize), dim, 1);
+    builder.values().append_slice(values.values());
+    builder.append(true);
+    Ok(builder.finish())
+}
+
+/// Scanner for LSM tree data spanning base table, SSTables, and active MemTable.
+///
+/// This scanner provides a unified interface for querying data across multiple
+/// LSM tree levels:
+/// - Base table (compacted data, generation = 0)
+/// - SSTables (persisted but not yet compacted, generation = 1, 2, ...)
+/// - Active MemTable (in-memory buffer, highest generation)
+///
+/// The scanner automatically handles deduplication by primary key, keeping
+/// the newest version based on generation number and row address.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```ignore
+/// let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_table, shard_snapshots, vec!["pk".to_string()])
+///     .project(&["id", "name"])?
+///     .filter("id > 10")?
+///     .limit(Some(100), None)?;
+///
+/// let results = scanner.try_into_batch().await?;
+/// ```
+///
+/// The query-building methods mirror [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner`]:
+/// [`Self::nearest`] (+ [`Self::nprobes`] / [`Self::minimum_nprobes`] /
+/// [`Self::maximum_nprobes`] / [`Self::refine`] / [`Self::distance_metric`])
+/// for vector search and [`Self::full_text_search`] for FTS are state setters,
+/// and [`Self::create_plan`] dispatches to the right planner — so an LSM read
+/// reads like a normal scan.
+pub struct LsmScanner {
+    // Data sources
+    base: BaseSource,
+    /// Schema used for projection, empty plans, and filter parsing.
+    /// Derived from the base dataset when one is present, otherwise supplied
+    /// explicitly by [`Self::without_base_table`].
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// [`Self::schema`] with each field's id, which is what resolves a
+    /// generation's stored columns to the table's.
+    identity_schema: SchemaRef,
+    shard_snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot>,
+    /// In-memory memtables by shard (active + frozen-awaiting-flush), so
+    /// the scanner path carries frozen-undrained generations too.
+    in_memory_memtables: HashMap<Uuid, InMemoryMemTables>,
+
+    // Query configuration
+    projection: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    filter: Option<Expr>,
+    limit: Option<usize>,
+    offset: Option<usize>,
+    /// Vector (KNN) search; when set, `create_plan` routes to the vector planner.
+    nearest: Option<LsmVectorQuery>,
+    /// Full-text search; when set, `create_plan` routes to the FTS planner.
+    full_text_query: Option<FullTextSearchQuery>,
+
+    // Internal columns
+    with_row_address: bool,
+    with_memtable_gen: bool,
+
+    // Primary key columns (required for deduplication)
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+
+    /// Session for opening SSTables (shares the base's caches).
+    /// Defaults to the base table's session.
+    session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+    /// Store params for opening SSTables, reusing the base dataset's
+    /// store. Defaults to the base table's params.
+    store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    /// Cache of opened SSTable datasets. When set, repeated
+    /// queries against the same generation skip the manifest read entirely.
+    sstable_cache: Option<Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+    /// Optional warmer fired on first open of an SSTable.
+    warmer: Option<Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>>,
+    /// Over-fetch multiple for block-listed sources in search plans
+    /// (see [`super::LsmFtsSearchPlanner::with_overfetch_factor`]).
+    overfetch_factor: Option<f64>,
+}
+
+impl LsmScanner {
+    /// Create a new LSM scanner.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `base_table` - The base Lance table (compacted data)
+    /// * `shard_snapshots` - Snapshots of shard states from MemWAL index
+    /// * `pk_columns` - Primary key column names for deduplication
+    pub fn new(
+        base_table: Arc<Dataset>,
+        shard_snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot>,
+        pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let lance_schema = base_table.schema();
+        let arrow_schema: arrow_schema::Schema = lance_schema.into();
+        // Default the session to the base table's so the common path reuses
+        // the shared index / metadata caches without extra wiring. An
+        // explicit `with_session` still overrides this.
+        let session = Some(base_table.session());
+        // The scanner only ever opens SSTables with these — the base
+        // table is already open and handed in — so they must not carry a
+        // path-bound store binding.
+        let store_params = base_table.store_params().map(derived_store_params);
+        Self {
+            identity_schema: Arc::new(crate::dataset::mem_wal::arrow_schema_with_field_ids(
+                base_table.schema(),
+            )),
+            base: BaseSource::Table(base_table),
+            schema: Arc::new(arrow_schema),
+            shard_snapshots,
+            in_memory_memtables: HashMap::new(),
+            projection: None,
+            filter: None,
+            limit: None,
+            offset: None,
+            nearest: None,
+            full_text_query: None,
+            with_row_address: false,
+            with_memtable_gen: false,
+            pk_columns,
+            session,
+            store_params,
+            sstable_cache: None,
+            warmer: None,
+            overfetch_factor: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a scanner that reads only the fresh tier (active memtable and
+    /// SSTables) without including a base Lance table.
+    ///
+    /// This is useful when the caller owns the base read path separately and
+    /// only needs the WAL's contribution: active memtable ∪ L0 SSTables.
+    /// Deduplication semantics are unchanged — newer generations
+    /// still win on PK conflicts.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `schema` - Schema used for projection, filter parsing, and empty plans.
+    ///   Should match the schema SSTables were written with.
+    /// * `base_path` - Table-root URI used to resolve relative SSTable paths.
+    /// * `shard_snapshots` - Snapshots of shard states from MemWAL index.
+    /// * `pk_columns` - Primary key column names for deduplication.
+    pub fn without_base_table(
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        base_path: impl Into<String>,
+        shard_snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot>,
+        pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            // Name matching until the caller supplies ids, as it was before
+            // ids existed. See [`Self::with_identity_schema`].
+            identity_schema: schema.clone(),
+            base: BaseSource::PathOnly(base_path.into()),
+            schema,
+            shard_snapshots,
+            in_memory_memtables: HashMap::new(),
+            projection: None,
+            filter: None,
+            limit: None,
+            offset: None,
+            nearest: None,
+            full_text_query: None,
+            with_row_address: false,
+            with_memtable_gen: false,
+            pk_columns,
+            session: None,
+            store_params: None,
+            sstable_cache: None,
+            warmer: None,
+            overfetch_factor: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set a shard's active memtable. Back-compat / test entry point; the
+    /// read path uses [`Self::with_in_memory_memtables`]. Replaces the
+    /// active memtable, preserving any frozen memtables already registered.
+    pub fn with_active_memtable(mut self, shard_id: Uuid, memtable: InMemoryMemTableRef) -> Self {
+        match self.in_memory_memtables.entry(shard_id) {
+            Entry::Occupied(mut e) => e.get_mut().active = memtable,
+            Entry::Vacant(e) => {
+                e.insert(InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: memtable,
+                    frozen: Vec::new(),
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Supply [`Self::schema`] with each field's id, so a sealed generation's
+    /// columns resolve to the table's by id rather than by name. A rename keeps
+    /// the id and moves the name, so without this a renamed column reads as
+    /// absent. Built with
+    /// [`arrow_schema_with_field_ids`](crate::dataset::mem_wal::arrow_schema_with_field_ids).
+    ///
+    /// Set for you by [`Self::new`], which has the dataset to read them from.
+    pub fn with_identity_schema(mut self, identity_schema: SchemaRef) -> Self {
+        self.identity_schema = identity_schema;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Register a shard's in-memory memtables (active + frozen-awaiting-
+    /// flush) captured atomically by `ShardWriter::in_memory_memtable_refs`.
+    /// The read path's entry point — closes the concurrent-read-vs-flush
+    /// hole by carrying frozen-undrained generations into the scan.
+    pub fn with_in_memory_memtables(
+        mut self,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        memtables: InMemoryMemTables,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.in_memory_memtables.insert(shard_id, memtables);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the session used to open SSTables. Defaults to the base
+    /// table's; set explicitly on a fresh-tier-only scanner (no base table).
+    pub fn with_session(mut self, session: Arc<Session>) -> Self {
+        self.session = Some(session);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the store params used to open SSTables. Defaults to the
+    /// base table's; set explicitly on a fresh-tier-only scanner (no base table).
+    ///
+    /// Pass the params the *base* was opened with. As in [`Self::new`], they are
+    /// adapted for generation URIs: a path-bound `object_store` binding would
+    /// redirect every generation open at the base table itself, so it is dropped
+    /// while storage options, wrapper, and credentials carry over.
+    pub fn with_store_params(mut self, store_params: ObjectStoreParams) -> Self {
+        self.store_params = Some(derived_store_params(&store_params));
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject a cache of opened SSTable datasets.
+    ///
+    /// With a cache, repeated queries against the same generation become a
+    /// pure `Arc::clone` with no manifest read or object-store I/O. The cache
+    /// is owned and sized by the caller (any [`DatasetCache`] impl, e.g.
+    /// [`SsTableCache`](super::SsTableCache)); not set by
+    /// default, so behavior is unchanged unless opted in.
+    pub fn with_sstable_cache(mut self, cache: Arc<dyn DatasetCache>) -> Self {
+        self.sstable_cache = Some(cache);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject the warmer fired on first open of an SSTable. Not set by
+    /// default, so behavior is unchanged unless opted in.
+    pub fn with_warmer(mut self, warmer: Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>) -> Self {
+        self.warmer = Some(warmer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the over-fetch multiple block-listed sources use in search plans
+    /// so they still yield `k` live rows after cross-generation dedup.
+    /// Threaded into the LSM search planners; values below `1.0` are rejected
+    /// when the plan is created.
+    pub fn with_overfetch_factor(mut self, factor: f64) -> Self {
+        self.overfetch_factor = Some(factor);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Project specific columns.
+    ///
+    /// If not called, all columns from the base schema are included.
+    /// Primary key columns are always included for deduplication.
+    pub fn project<T: AsRef<str>>(mut self, columns: &[T]) -> Result<Self> {
+        self.projection = Some(columns.iter().map(|s| s.as_ref().to_string()).collect());
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Set filter expression using SQL-like syntax.
+    ///
+    /// The filter is pushed down to each data source when possible.
+    pub fn filter(mut self, filter_expr: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        let expr = super::parse_filter_expr(self.schema.as_ref(), filter_expr)?;
+        self.filter = Some(expr);
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Set filter expression directly.
+    pub fn filter_expr(mut self, expr: Expr) -> Self {
+        self.filter = Some(expr);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Limit the number of results, with an optional offset. Matches
+    /// [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::limit`]: both bounds are `Option<i64>`
+    /// and must be non-negative.
+    pub fn limit(mut self, limit: Option<i64>, offset: Option<i64>) -> Result<Self> {
+        if let Some(value) = limit
+            && value < 0
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "limit must be non-negative".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = offset
+            && value < 0
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "offset must be non-negative".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.limit = limit.map(|value| value as usize);
+        self.offset = offset.map(|value| value as usize);
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Find the `k` nearest neighbors of `key` in `column`. Routes `create_plan`
+    /// through the LSM vector planner (base ∪ SSTables ∪ in-memory). Mirrors
+    /// [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::nearest`]; the LSM path supports a
+    /// single Float32 query vector. When combined with an offset, the LSM path
+    /// fetches `k + offset` per source before applying the final page. Tune with
+    /// [`Self::nprobes`], [`Self::minimum_nprobes`], [`Self::maximum_nprobes`],
+    /// [`Self::refine`], and [`Self::distance_metric`].
+    pub fn nearest(mut self, column: &str, key: &dyn Array, k: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        if k == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("k must be positive".to_string()));
+        }
+        if key.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "query vector must have non-zero length".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.nearest = Some(LsmVectorQuery {
+            column: column.to_string(),
+            key: key.slice(0, key.len()),
+            k,
+            probe_bounds: ProbeBounds::default(),
+            refine: false,
+            metric_type: None,
+        });
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Search exactly `nprobes` IVF partitions on indexed arms by setting both
+    /// probe bounds. No-op unless [`Self::nearest`] was called.
+    pub fn nprobes(mut self, nprobes: usize) -> Self {
+        if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
+            q.probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes = Some(nprobes);
+            q.probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes = Some(nprobes);
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the minimum number of IVF partitions to search on indexed arms.
+    ///
+    /// When unset, the underlying Lance scanner supplies its default. No-op
+    /// unless [`Self::nearest`] was called.
+    pub fn minimum_nprobes(mut self, minimum_nprobes: usize) -> Self {
+        if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
+            q.probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes = Some(minimum_nprobes);
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum number of IVF partitions to search on indexed arms.
+    ///
+    /// When unset, all partitions may be searched if needed. No-op unless
+    /// [`Self::nearest`] was called.
+    pub fn maximum_nprobes(mut self, maximum_nprobes: usize) -> Self {
+        if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
+            q.probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes = Some(maximum_nprobes);
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Re-rank base-table candidates with exact distances so they are directly
+    /// comparable to the exact memtable distances in the cross-source merge.
+    /// The factor is treated as a boolean today. No-op unless `nearest` was set.
+    pub fn refine(mut self, refine_factor: u32) -> Self {
+        if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
+            q.refine = refine_factor > 0;
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Distance metric for the vector search. Defaults to L2. No-op unless
+    /// [`Self::nearest`] was called.
+    pub fn distance_metric(mut self, metric: DistanceType) -> Self {
+        if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
+            q.metric_type = Some(metric);
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Include `_rowaddr` column in output.
+    ///
+    /// The row address is used for ordering within a generation.
+    pub fn with_row_address(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.with_row_address = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Include `_memtable_gen` column in output.
+    ///
+    /// The generation column shows which data source each row came from:
+    /// - 0: Base table
+    /// - 1, 2, ...: MemTable generations (higher = newer)
+    pub fn with_memtable_gen(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.with_memtable_gen = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Get the output schema.
+    pub fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        // For now, return the configured schema. Full implementation would
+        // compute the projected schema with optional _gen/_rowaddr columns.
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the projection requests any system column (e.g. `_rowaddr`,
+    /// `_memtable_gen`), which only the union scan path can produce.
+    fn projection_has_system_columns(&self) -> bool {
+        self.projection
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|p| p.iter().any(|c| is_system_column(c)))
+            .unwrap_or(false)
+    }
+
+    /// Create the execution plan.
+    pub async fn create_plan(&self) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        // Dispatch by builder state, mirroring `Scanner::create_plan` and
+        // `MemTableScanner::create_plan`: vector search, then full-text search,
+        // then the (point-lookup or union) plain scan.
+        // The LSM path has no hybrid mode, so reject combined search rather than
+        // silently dropping the full-text query under the vector dispatch.
+        if self.nearest.is_some() && self.full_text_query.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "LSM scanner does not support combined vector and full-text search".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if self.nearest.is_some() {
+            return self.plan_vector().await;
+        }
+        if self.full_text_query.is_some() {
+            return self.plan_fts().await;
+        }
+        self.plan_scan().await
+    }
+
+    /// Apply the builder's `limit`/`offset` on top of a search plan. The plain
+    /// scan applies them inside the planner; the vector/FTS arms wrap here.
+    fn apply_limit_offset(&self, plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        let skip = self.offset.unwrap_or(0);
+        if skip == 0 && self.limit.is_none() {
+            return plan;
+        }
+        Arc::new(GlobalLimitExec::new(plan, skip, self.limit))
+    }
+
+    /// Vector (KNN) search across base ∪ SSTables ∪ in-memory, via the LSM vector
+    /// planner. Honors the builder filter as a prefilter.
+    async fn plan_vector(&self) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let nearest = self
+            .nearest
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("plan_vector requires a nearest query");
+        let base_schema = self.schema();
+        let dim = vector_dim(base_schema.as_ref(), &nearest.column)?;
+        let query_fsl = key_to_fsl(nearest.key.as_ref(), dim)?;
+        let distance_type = nearest.metric_type.unwrap_or(DistanceType::L2);
+
+        let collector = self.build_collector();
+        let mut planner = super::LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            self.pk_columns.clone(),
+            base_schema,
+            nearest.column.clone(),
+            distance_type,
+        )
+        .with_identity_schema(Arc::clone(&self.identity_schema))
+        .with_filter(self.filter.clone());
+        if let BaseSource::Table(dataset) = &self.base {
+            planner = planner.with_dataset(dataset.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(session) = &self.session {
+            planner = planner.with_session(session.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(store_params) = &self.store_params {
+            planner = planner.with_store_params(store_params.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(cache) = &self.sstable_cache {
+            planner = planner.with_sstable_cache(cache.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(warmer) = &self.warmer {
+            planner = planner.with_warmer(warmer.clone());
+        }
+        // Over-fetch by `offset` so the per-source top-k still yields `k` live
+        // rows after `apply_limit_offset` skips the first `offset` (mirrors the
+        // FTS arm, which folds `offset` into its `k`).
+        let per_source_k = nearest.k.saturating_add(self.offset.unwrap_or(0));
+        let overfetch_factor = self.overfetch_factor.unwrap_or(1.0);
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search_with_probe_bounds(
+                &query_fsl,
+                per_source_k,
+                nearest.probe_bounds,
+                self.projection.as_deref(),
+                nearest.refine,
+                overfetch_factor,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        Ok(self.apply_limit_offset(plan))
+    }
+
+    /// Full-text search across base ∪ SSTables ∪ in-memory, via the LSM FTS
+    /// planner. Query/scanner limits bound per-source fetches when present;
+    /// otherwise the search remains unbounded and any offset is applied above.
+    async fn plan_fts(&self) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let query = self
+            .full_text_query
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("plan_fts requires a full-text query");
+        let base_schema = self.schema();
+        let query_limit = query
+            .limit
+            .map(|limit| {
+                if limit < 0 {
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "full-text search limit must be non-negative".to_string(),
+                    ))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(limit as usize)
+                }
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+        // Match the dataset Scanner: a query-level FTS limit is the hard
+        // search cap, and scanner offset pages within that capped result set.
+        let source_limit = match query_limit {
+            Some(limit) => Some(limit),
+            None => self
+                .limit
+                .map(|limit| limit.saturating_add(self.offset.unwrap_or(0))),
+        };
+
+        let collector = self.build_collector();
+        let mut planner =
+            super::LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, self.pk_columns.clone(), base_schema)
+                .with_identity_schema(Arc::clone(&self.identity_schema))
+                .with_filter(self.filter.clone());
+        if let Some(session) = &self.session {
+            planner = planner.with_session(session.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(store_params) = &self.store_params {
+            planner = planner.with_store_params(store_params.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(cache) = &self.sstable_cache {
+            planner = planner.with_sstable_cache(cache.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(warmer) = &self.warmer {
+            planner = planner.with_warmer(warmer.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(factor) = self.overfetch_factor {
+            planner = planner.with_overfetch_factor(factor);
+        }
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(query.clone(), source_limit, self.projection.as_deref())
+            .await?;
+        Ok(self.apply_limit_offset(plan))
+    }
+
+    /// Plain (filter / projection / limit) scan over base ∪ SSTables ∪ in-memory.
+    async fn plan_scan(&self) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let collector = self.build_collector();
+        let base_schema = self.schema();
+        validate_projection_names(self.projection.as_deref(), &base_schema, &[])?;
+
+        // Fast point-lookup routing: a `pk = lit` / `pk IN (..)` filter on the
+        // single pk column — with no offset and no scan-only system columns —
+        // bypasses the union/dedup scan for the direct BTree point-lookup path
+        // (`LsmPointLookupPlanner`), composed as a normal `ExecutionPlan` so a
+        // `limit` still applies on top. Any other shape falls through to the
+        // general scan, so this never changes results for unmatched queries.
+        if self.pk_columns.len() == 1
+            && self.offset.is_none()
+            && !self.with_memtable_gen
+            && !self.with_row_address
+            && !self.projection_has_system_columns()
+            && let Some(filter) = &self.filter
+            && let Ok(pk_field) = base_schema.field_with_name(&self.pk_columns[0])
+            && let Some(keys) =
+                extract_pk_point_keys(filter, &self.pk_columns[0], pk_field.data_type())
+        {
+            let mut planner =
+                LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, self.pk_columns.clone(), base_schema)?
+                    .with_identity_schema(Arc::clone(&self.identity_schema));
+            if let Some(session) = &self.session {
+                planner = planner.with_session(session.clone());
+            }
+            if let Some(store_params) = &self.store_params {
+                planner = planner.with_store_params(store_params.clone());
+            }
+            if let Some(cache) = &self.sstable_cache {
+                planner = planner.with_sstable_cache(cache.clone());
+            }
+            if let Some(warmer) = &self.warmer {
+                planner = planner.with_warmer(warmer.clone());
+            }
+            let plan = planner
+                .plan_point_lookup(&keys, self.projection.as_deref())
+                .await?;
+            return Ok(match self.limit {
+                Some(n) => Arc::new(GlobalLimitExec::new(plan, 0, Some(n))),
+                None => plan,
+            });
+        }
+
+        let mut planner = LsmScanPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            self.pk_columns.clone(),
+            base_schema,
+            Arc::clone(&self.identity_schema),
+        );
+        if let Some(session) = &self.session {
+            planner = planner.with_session(session.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(store_params) = &self.store_params {
+            planner = planner.with_store_params(store_params.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(cache) = &self.sstable_cache {
+            planner = planner.with_sstable_cache(cache.clone());
+        }
+        if let Some(warmer) = &self.warmer {
+            planner = planner.with_warmer(warmer.clone());
+        }
+
+        planner
+            .plan_scan(
+                self.projection.as_deref(),
+                self.filter.as_ref(),
+                self.limit,
+                self.offset,
+                self.with_memtable_gen,
+                self.with_row_address,
+            )
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Find rows matching a full-text query. Routes `create_plan` through the
+    /// LSM FTS planner (base ∪ SSTables ∪ in-memory), local-scored by BM25 and
+    /// merged by `_score` DESC. Mirrors
+    /// [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::full_text_search`]: the searched
+    /// column(s) come from the query (set via `FullTextSearchQuery::with_column`);
+    /// the query limit, when present, controls the FTS source/merge top-k;
+    /// scanner limit/offset still apply to the final merged result. The LSM
+    /// path supports a single FTS-indexed column.
+    pub fn full_text_search(mut self, query: FullTextSearchQuery) -> Result<Self> {
+        self.full_text_query = Some(query);
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Execute the scan and return a stream of record batches.
+    pub async fn try_into_stream(&self) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let plan = self.create_plan().await?;
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let task_ctx = ctx.task_ctx();
+        plan.execute(0, task_ctx)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to execute plan: {}", e)))
+    }
+
+    /// Execute the scan and collect all results into a single RecordBatch.
+    pub async fn try_into_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let stream = self.try_into_stream().await?;
+        let output_schema = stream.schema();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to collect batches: {}", e)))?;
+
+        if batches.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(output_schema));
+        }
+
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&schema, &batches)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to concatenate batches: {}", e)))
+    }
+
+    /// Count the number of rows that match the query.
+    pub async fn count_rows(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        let stream = self.try_into_stream().await?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to count rows: {}", e)))?;
+
+        Ok(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows() as u64).sum())
+    }
+
+    /// Test which `pks` have been (re)written in the WAL fresh tier — the active
+    /// and frozen memtables and SSTables this scanner spans — i.e.
+    /// are shadowed above the base table. `pks` is a batch whose columns include
+    /// the primary-key columns; the returned `Vec<bool>` is aligned with its
+    /// rows. Hashing matches the scanner's internal dedup, so the caller never
+    /// hashes PKs itself. Flushed membership comes from the injected
+    /// [`DatasetCache`] when one is set.
+    pub async fn contains_pks(&self, pks: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Vec<bool>> {
+        self.contains_pks_at(pks, None).await
+    }
+
+    /// As-of variant of [`Self::contains_pks`]. Membership is evaluated against
+    /// a per-shard watermark on the fresh tier, supplied via `watermarks` (see
+    /// [`FreshTierWatermark`]), matching the tier a prior scan observed and
+    /// avoiding the two-snapshot skew that would drop a base row with no
+    /// delivered replacement. `None` evaluates against the live tier.
+    pub async fn contains_pks_at(
+        &self,
+        pks: &RecordBatch,
+        watermarks: Option<&HashMap<Uuid, FreshTierWatermark>>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<bool>> {
+        let sources = self.build_collector().collect()?;
+        let memberships = super::block_list::fresh_tier_block_list(
+            &sources,
+            self.session.as_ref(),
+            self.store_params.as_ref(),
+            self.sstable_cache.as_ref(),
+            watermarks,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let pk_indices = super::exec::resolve_pk_indices(pks, &self.pk_columns)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+        // One key per row, in the index key space (typed value, or encoded
+        // `Binary` tuple for a composite PK).
+        let keys: Vec<ScalarValue> = (0..pks.num_rows())
+            .map(|row| {
+                let values: Vec<ScalarValue> = pk_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|&col| ScalarValue::try_from_array(pks.column(col), row))
+                    .collect::<std::result::Result<_, _>>()
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+                super::block_list::on_disk_pk_key(&values)
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+
+        // A row is contained if any generation contains its key. Probe each
+        // generation once (batched), narrowing to still-unfound rows.
+        let mut contained = vec![false; keys.len()];
+        let mut live: Vec<usize> = (0..keys.len()).collect();
+        for membership in &memberships {
+            if live.is_empty() {
+                break;
+            }
+            let live_keys: Vec<ScalarValue> = live.iter().map(|&i| keys[i].clone()).collect();
+            let mask = membership.contains_keys(&live_keys).await?;
+            let mut next_live = Vec::with_capacity(live.len());
+            for (pos, &row) in live.iter().enumerate() {
+                if mask[pos] {
+                    contained[row] = true;
+                } else {
+                    next_live.push(row);
+                }
+            }
+            live = next_live;
+        }
+        Ok(contained)
+    }
+
+    /// Build the data source collector.
+    fn build_collector(&self) -> LsmDataSourceCollector {
+        let mut collector = match &self.base {
+            BaseSource::Table(dataset) => {
+                LsmDataSourceCollector::new(dataset.clone(), self.shard_snapshots.clone())
+            }
+            BaseSource::PathOnly(path) => LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(
+                path.clone(),
+                self.shard_snapshots.clone(),
+            ),
+        };
+
+        for (shard_id, mems) in &self.in_memory_memtables {
+            collector = collector.with_in_memory_memtables(*shard_id, mems.clone());
+        }
+
+        collector
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for LsmScanner {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let (label, value) = match &self.base {
+            BaseSource::Table(dataset) => ("base_table", dataset.uri().to_string()),
+            BaseSource::PathOnly(path) => ("base_path", path.clone()),
+        };
+        f.debug_struct("LsmScanner")
+            .field(label, &value)
+            .field("num_shards", &self.shard_snapshots.len())
+            .field(
+                "num_in_memory_memtables",
+                &self
+                    .in_memory_memtables
+                    .values()
+                    .map(|m| 1 + m.frozen.len())
+                    .sum::<usize>(),
+            )
+            .field("projection", &self.projection)
+            .field("limit", &self.limit)
+            .field("offset", &self.offset)
+            .field("pk_columns", &self.pk_columns)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, ListArray, StringArray, StructArray, UInt32Array};
+    use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+    use arrow_schema::{Field, Fields};
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{DOC_INDEX_COL, DocumentGranularity, InvertedIndexParams};
+
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_lsm_scanner_builder() {
+        // Test that the builder pattern compiles and works
+        // Full integration tests would require a real dataset
+
+        let pk_columns = ["id".to_string()];
+        let shard_snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot> = vec![];
+
+        // We can't easily create an Arc<Dataset> without I/O,
+        // so just test the type construction
+        assert_eq!(pk_columns.len(), 1);
+        assert!(shard_snapshots.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn point_lookup_extraction_requires_normalizable_literals() {
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+
+        let filters = [
+            col("id").in_list(vec![lit(1i32), lit("not an integer")], false),
+            col("id").in_list(vec![lit(1i32), col("other")], false),
+        ];
+        for filter in filters {
+            assert!(
+                extract_pk_point_keys(&filter, "id", &DataType::Int32).is_none(),
+                "unsupported point-lookup filter must use the scan path: {filter}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shard_snapshot_construction() {
+        use super::super::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_spec_id(1)
+            .with_current_generation(5)
+            .with_sstable(1, "path/gen_1".to_string())
+            .with_sstable(2, "path/gen_2".to_string());
+
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.shard_id, shard_id);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.spec_id, 1);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.current_generation, 5);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.sstables.len(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_in_memory_memtable_ref() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+        let index_store = Arc::new(IndexStore::new());
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty());
+
+        let memtable_ref = InMemoryMemTableRef {
+            batch_store,
+            index_store,
+            schema,
+            generation: 10,
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(memtable_ref.generation, 10);
+    }
+
+    /// Single-column `id: Int32` schema used by the PK-membership tests.
+    fn pk_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]))
+    }
+
+    /// A `RecordBatch` of `id` values against [`pk_schema`].
+    fn id_pk_batch(ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        RecordBatch::try_new(pk_schema(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec()))]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// An active/frozen memtable holding `ids` at `generation`, with a single
+    /// batch and a maintained primary-key index on `id`.
+    fn mk_pk_memtable(ids: &[i32], generation: u64) -> InMemoryMemTableRef {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(8);
+        let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+        index.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        let b = id_pk_batch(ids);
+        let (bp, off, _) = store.append(b.clone()).unwrap();
+        index.insert_with_batch_position(&b, off, Some(bp)).unwrap();
+        InMemoryMemTableRef {
+            batch_store: Arc::new(store),
+            index_store: Arc::new(index),
+            schema: pk_schema(),
+            generation,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn overfetch_factor_only_applies_to_searches() {
+        // Plain scans refill exactly via LocalLimitExec, so overfetch_factor is
+        // search-only and must not affect scan planning.
+        let scan = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            pk_schema(),
+            "memory://scan",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_overfetch_factor(0.5)
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan.num_rows(), 0);
+
+        let vector_schema = pk_schema_with(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                4,
+            ),
+            false,
+        ));
+        let vector_search = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            vector_schema,
+            "memory://vector",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .nearest(
+            "vector",
+            &arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0]),
+            1,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_overfetch_factor(0.5);
+        let Err(err) = vector_search.try_into_stream().await else {
+            panic!("invalid overfetch factor should fail vector search planning");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("overfetch_factor"),
+            "unexpected error for invalid overfetch factor: {err}"
+        );
+
+        let fts_search = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            pk_schema_with(arrow_schema::Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true)),
+            "memory://fts",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                .with_column("text".to_string())
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_overfetch_factor(0.5);
+        let Err(err) = fts_search.try_into_stream().await else {
+            panic!("invalid overfetch factor should fail full-text search planning");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("overfetch_factor"),
+            "unexpected error for invalid overfetch factor: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unknown_scan_projection_column_is_rejected() {
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            pk_schema(),
+            "memory://t",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .project(&["missing"])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let Err(err) = scanner.try_into_stream().await else {
+            panic!("unknown projection column should fail planning");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing"),
+            "unexpected missing-column projection error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn point_lookup_fast_route_rejects_missing_projection_column() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            pk_schema(),
+            "memory://t",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: mk_pk_memtable(&[1, 2], 2),
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        )
+        .project(&["missing"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter("id = 1")
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let Err(err) = scanner.try_into_stream().await else {
+            panic!("unknown projection column should fail on point-lookup fast route");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing"),
+            "unexpected missing-column point lookup error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_missing_column_is_rejected() {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            pk_schema_with(Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true)),
+            "memory://t",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                .with_column("missing".to_string())
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let Err(err) = scanner.try_into_stream().await else {
+            panic!("unknown FTS column should fail planning");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing"),
+            "unexpected missing FTS column error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn contains_pks_reports_fresh_tier_membership() {
+        // Fresh-tier only: active gen 2 (pk=1,2) + frozen gen 1 (pk=3).
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            pk_schema(),
+            "memory://t",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: mk_pk_memtable(&[1, 2], 2),
+                frozen: vec![mk_pk_memtable(&[3], 1)],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // pk=1 (active), pk=4 (absent), pk=3 (frozen).
+        let result = scanner
+            .contains_pks(&id_pk_batch(&[1, 4, 3]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result, vec![true, false, true]);
+    }
+
+    /// `contains_pks_at` probes each generation once over the still-unfound
+    /// rows, so a multi-PK batch spanning several generations resolves to the
+    /// right per-row mask — and a watermark bounds which generations count.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn contains_pks_at_batched_probe_respects_watermark() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::FreshTierWatermark;
+
+        // active gen 2 (pk=1,2) + frozen gen 1 (pk=3,4).
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            pk_schema(),
+            "memory://t",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: mk_pk_memtable(&[1, 2], 2),
+                frozen: vec![mk_pk_memtable(&[3, 4], 1)],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // Duplicate and out-of-order keys exercise the live-row narrowing: each
+        // generation only re-probes the rows earlier generations didn't claim.
+        let probe = id_pk_batch(&[4, 1, 9, 3, 2, 1]);
+
+        // watermark=None → live tier: every PK present in either generation.
+        let live = scanner.contains_pks_at(&probe, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(live, vec![true, true, false, true, true, true]);
+
+        // watermark at gen 1 → active gen 2 rolled in after the snapshot and is
+        // excluded; only the frozen gen 1 keys (3,4) remain members.
+        let watermarks: HashMap<Uuid, FreshTierWatermark> = [(
+            shard,
+            FreshTierWatermark {
+                active_generation: 1,
+                active_batch_count: u64::MAX,
+            },
+        )]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+        let bounded = scanner
+            .contains_pks_at(&probe, Some(&watermarks))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bounded, vec![true, false, false, true, false, false]);
+    }
+
+    fn pk_schema_with(extra: arrow_schema::Field) -> SchemaRef {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+            extra,
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn vector_probe_settings_preserve_adaptive_defaults() {
+        use arrow_array::Float32Array;
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+            false,
+        ));
+        let new_scanner = || {
+            LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+                schema.clone(),
+                "memory://",
+                vec![],
+                vec!["id".to_string()],
+            )
+            .nearest(
+                "vector",
+                &Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0]),
+                1,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let scanner = new_scanner();
+        let query = scanner.nearest.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query.probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes, None);
+        assert_eq!(query.probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes, None);
+
+        let scanner = new_scanner().nprobes(20);
+        let query = scanner.nearest.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query.probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes, Some(20));
+        assert_eq!(query.probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes, Some(20));
+
+        let scanner = new_scanner().minimum_nprobes(20);
+        let query = scanner.nearest.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query.probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes, Some(20));
+        assert_eq!(query.probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes, None);
+
+        let scanner = new_scanner().maximum_nprobes(20);
+        let query = scanner.nearest.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query.probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes, None);
+        assert_eq!(query.probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes, Some(20));
+    }
+
+    /// `LsmScanner::nearest(..).create_plan()` must route through the vector
+    /// planner (exercising the Scanner-aligned facade, `key_to_fsl`, and
+    /// `vector_dim`) and surface the in-memory match.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn nearest_dispatches_through_facade() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+        use arrow_array::{Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+            false,
+        ));
+        let make_batch = |ids: &[i32]| -> RecordBatch {
+            let mut vb = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+            for id in ids {
+                let base = *id as f32 * 0.1;
+                for d in 0..4 {
+                    vb.values().append_value(base + d as f32 * 0.1);
+                }
+                vb.append(true);
+            }
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                    Arc::new(vb.finish()),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Far, unindexed base rows contribute nothing under fast_search.
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(&[100, 200]))], schema.clone());
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+        index.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index.add_hnsw(
+            "vec_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let batch = make_batch(&[1, 2, 3]);
+        store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store: store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(index),
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            )
+            // A flat query vector (closest to id=1); the facade wraps it into an FSL.
+            .nearest(
+                "vector",
+                &Float32Array::from(vec![0.1f32, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4]),
+                3,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids.first().copied(),
+            Some(1),
+            "nearest neighbor via the facade should be id=1; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Vector pagination: `limit(Some(2), Some(1))` over-fetches `k + offset`
+    /// per source, then skips `offset` and caps at `limit`. With ids ordered by
+    /// distance (id=1 nearest), the page must be the 2nd–3rd nearest (id=2, id=3),
+    /// not the 1st–2nd. Covers `plan_vector`'s `per_source_k` + `apply_limit_offset`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn nearest_pagination_skips_offset_and_caps_limit() {
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+        use arrow_array::{Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+            false,
+        ));
+        let mut vb = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = (1..=6).collect();
+        for id in &ids {
+            let base = *id as f32 * 0.1;
+            for d in 0..4 {
+                vb.values().append_value(base + d as f32 * 0.1);
+            }
+            vb.append(true);
+        }
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.clone())),
+                Arc::new(vb.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        // `ivf_flat(1)` is exhaustive within its single partition, so ordering is exact.
+        let mut base = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, DistanceType::L2);
+        base.create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base = Arc::new(base);
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .nearest(
+                "vector",
+                &Float32Array::from(vec![0.1f32, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4]),
+                2,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(2), Some(1))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut out: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        out.sort();
+        assert_eq!(
+            out,
+            vec![2, 3],
+            "offset=1, limit=2 over k=2 must return the 2nd-3rd nearest (id=2, id=3); got {out:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// FTS pagination: `limit(Some(1), Some(1))` fetches `limit + offset` per
+    /// source then skips `offset`. With BM25 ranking id=1 > id=2 > id=3 (by doc
+    /// length), the page must be the 2nd-ranked hit (id=2). Covers `plan_fts`'s
+    /// `k = limit + offset` + `apply_limit_offset`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_pagination_skips_offset_and_caps_limit() {
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true));
+        // Shorter docs score higher under BM25 length normalization, so the
+        // ranking is deterministically id=1 > id=2 > id=3.
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "lance",
+                    "lance filler",
+                    "lance filler filler",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut base = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        base.create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let base = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let query_limited = LsmScanner::new(base.clone(), vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .limit(Some(1)),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = query_limited
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let out: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            out,
+            vec![1],
+            "query-level FTS limit=1 must cap the unpaginated scanner result; got {out:?}"
+        );
+
+        let query_limited_with_offset =
+            LsmScanner::new(base.clone(), vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .full_text_search(
+                    FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                        .with_column("text".to_string())
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .limit(Some(2)),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(None, Some(1))
+                .unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = query_limited_with_offset
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let out: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            out,
+            vec![2],
+            "query-level FTS limit=2 plus offset=1 must page within the top 2; got {out:?}"
+        );
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(1), Some(1))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let out: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            out,
+            vec![2],
+            "offset=1, limit=1 must return the 2nd-ranked hit (id=2); got {out:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_without_limit_returns_all_matches() {
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true));
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = (0..12).collect();
+        let texts: Vec<&str> = (0..12).map(|_| "lance").collect();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut base = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        base.create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let base = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(
+            total, 12,
+            "unbounded LSM FTS must not apply the old default top-10 cap"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Setting both `nearest` and `full_text_search` must error rather than
+    /// silently running vector search and dropping the full-text query (the LSM
+    /// path has no hybrid mode).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn combined_vector_and_fts_is_rejected() {
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+        use arrow_array::{Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+            false,
+        ));
+        let mut vb = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for d in 0..4 {
+            vb.values().append_value(d as f32);
+        }
+        vb.append(true);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])), Arc::new(vb.finish())],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .nearest(
+                "vector",
+                &Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0]),
+                1,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("vector".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("combined vector and full-text search"),
+            "expected combined-search rejection, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A multi-row query vector must be rejected, not silently flow through the
+    /// single-vector LSM merge as wrong results.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn multi_row_query_vector_is_rejected() {
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+            false,
+        ));
+        let mut col = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for d in 0..4 {
+            col.values().append_value(d as f32);
+        }
+        col.append(true);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])), Arc::new(col.finish())],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // A two-row FSL query vector.
+        let mut q = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            for d in 0..4 {
+                q.values().append_value(d as f32);
+            }
+            q.append(true);
+        }
+        let query = q.finish();
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 1)
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("single query vector"),
+            "expected single-query-vector rejection, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `LsmScanner::full_text_search(query).create_plan()` must route through the
+    /// FTS planner and surface a memtable-only match.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_dispatches_through_facade() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true));
+        let make_batch = |ids: &[i32], texts: &[&str]| {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts.to_vec())),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(&[1], &["alpha"]))], schema.clone());
+        let mut base = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        base.create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let base = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+        index.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let batch = make_batch(&[99], &["zebra"]);
+        store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store: store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(index),
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            )
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("zebra".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows, 1,
+            "facade FTS should surface the memtable 'zebra' row"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A query naming several columns searches all of them and returns one row
+    /// per match, not one per matching field. `with_columns` on an unbound query
+    /// is the binding path a caller with out-of-band columns takes, and it
+    /// expands to the multi-match the cross-column planner decomposes.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_spans_every_named_column() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+            Field::new("title", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("body", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        // id=1 matches in `title` only, id=2 in `body` only, id=3 in both — so a
+        // planner that kept one hit per field would return four rows, and one
+        // that searched only the first column would miss id=2.
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["lance", "unrelated", "lance"])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["unrelated", "lance", "lance"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+        index.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index.add_fts("title_fts".to_string(), 1, "title".to_string());
+        index.add_fts("body_fts".to_string(), 2, "body".to_string());
+        store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            schema.clone(),
+            "memory://multi_column_fts",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store: store,
+                    index_store: Arc::new(index),
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        )
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                .with_columns(&["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()])
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                let column = batch.column_by_name("id").expect("id is projected");
+                let ids = column
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .expect("id is Int32");
+                ids.values().to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 2, 3],
+            "every named column must be searched and a row matching in both must collapse to one"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn full_text_search_supports_nested_list_element_path() {
+        let doc_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("content", DataType::Utf8, true)]);
+        let doc_values = StructArray::new(
+            doc_fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["alpha", "beta", "alpha"]))],
+            None,
+        );
+        let doc_item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(doc_fields), true));
+        let docs = ListArray::new(
+            doc_item.clone(),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i32, 1, 3])),
+            Arc::new(doc_values),
+            None,
+        );
+        let group_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("docs", DataType::List(doc_item), true)]);
+        let group_values = StructArray::new(group_fields.clone(), vec![Arc::new(docs)], None);
+        let group_item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(group_fields), true));
+        let groups = ListArray::new(
+            group_item,
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i32, 2])),
+            Arc::new(group_values),
+            None,
+        );
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new("groups", groups.data_type().clone(), true));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7])), Arc::new(groups)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes
+            .add_fts_with_params(
+                "content_list_element_fts".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "groups.docs.content".to_string(),
+                InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                    .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let (batch_position, row_offset, _) = batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            schema.clone(),
+            "memory://nested_fts",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: Arc::new(indexes),
+                    schema,
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        )
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_string())
+                .with_column("groups.docs.content".to_string())
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["id"].as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+        let coordinates = batch[DOC_INDEX_COL]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<ListArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut hits = (0..batch.num_rows())
+            .map(|row| {
+                let coordinate = coordinates
+                    .value(row)
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec();
+                (ids.value(row), coordinate)
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        hits.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(hits, vec![(7, vec![0, 0]), (7, vec![1, 1])]);
+    }
+
+    /// Empty search results must still preserve the execution plan schema.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn try_into_batch_empty_fts_keeps_score_schema() {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+
+        let schema = pk_schema_with(Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true));
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            schema,
+            "memory://empty",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("missing".to_string())
+                .with_column("text".to_string())
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
+        assert!(
+            batch.schema().field_with_name("_score").is_ok(),
+            "empty FTS batch must keep the planned _score column"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// One active memtable with a maintained BTree on `id`, all rows visible.
+    fn mk_indexed_memtable(schema: &SchemaRef, ids: &[i32], names: &[&str]) -> InMemoryMemTableRef {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(8);
+        let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+        index.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names.to_vec())),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let (idx, row_offset, _) = store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, row_offset, Some(idx))
+            .unwrap();
+        InMemoryMemTableRef {
+            batch_store: Arc::new(store),
+            index_store: Arc::new(index),
+            schema: schema.clone(),
+            generation: 1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn point_lookup_filter_routes_to_fast_path() {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::displayable;
+        use datafusion::prelude::{SessionContext, col, lit};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let memtable = mk_indexed_memtable(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4, 5], &["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"]);
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let scanner = || {
+            LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+                schema.clone(),
+                "memory://t",
+                vec![],
+                vec!["id".to_string()],
+            )
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: memtable.clone(),
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            )
+        };
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let count = |plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>| {
+            let ctx = ctx.clone();
+            async move {
+                let rows: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+                    .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_collect()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                rows.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>()
+            }
+        };
+        let collect_ids = |plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>| {
+            let ctx = ctx.clone();
+            async move {
+                let rows: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+                    .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_collect()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let mut ids = Vec::new();
+                for batch in rows {
+                    let id_array = batch
+                        .column_by_name("id")
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .as_any()
+                        .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int32Array>()
+                        .unwrap();
+                    ids.extend(id_array.values().iter().copied());
+                }
+                ids.sort_unstable();
+                ids
+            }
+        };
+
+        // `id = 2` routes to the direct point-lookup node (OneShotStream), not the
+        // union/dedup scan, and returns the one matching row.
+        let plan = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("id").eq(lit(2i32)))
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let disp = format!("{}", displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true));
+        assert!(disp.contains("OneShotStream"), "pk=lit must route: {disp}");
+        assert!(
+            !disp.contains("Union"),
+            "must not use the union path: {disp}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(count(plan).await, 1);
+
+        // `id IN (1, 3)` routes and returns both rows.
+        let plan = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("id").in_list(vec![lit(1i32), lit(3i32)], false))
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            format!("{}", displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)).contains("OneShotStream"),
+            "pk IN (..) must route"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(count(plan).await, 2);
+
+        // Duplicate literals retain predicate semantics: each matching row is
+        // emitted once, including when a limit would otherwise hide a distinct
+        // match behind the duplicate.
+        let plan = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("id").in_list(vec![lit(1i32), lit(1i32), lit(2i32)], false))
+            .limit(Some(2), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collect_ids(plan).await, vec![1, 2]);
+
+        // Distinct literal types can coerce to the same primary-key value and
+        // must share one deduplication identity before the limit is applied.
+        let plan = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("id").in_list(vec![lit(1i32), lit(1i64), lit(2i32)], false))
+            .limit(Some(2), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collect_ids(plan).await, vec![1, 2]);
+
+        // Coercible literals use the per-key fallback and must have the same
+        // set semantics as exact-type keys.
+        let plan = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("id").in_list(vec![lit(1i64), lit(1i64), lit(3i64)], false))
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collect_ids(plan).await, vec![1, 3]);
+
+        // NULL literals cannot match, and duplicate NULLs must not affect the
+        // non-NULL matches.
+        let null = lit(ScalarValue::Int32(None));
+        let plan = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("id").in_list(vec![null.clone(), lit(2i32), null], false))
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collect_ids(plan).await, vec![2]);
+
+        // A range filter is NOT a point lookup → falls through to the scan path.
+        let plan = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("id").gt(lit(2i32)))
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !format!("{}", displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)).contains("OneShotStream"),
+            "range filter must not route to the point-lookup node"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(count(plan).await, 3); // 3,4,5
+
+        // Offset changes the semantics, so even a point-lookup-shaped filter
+        // must bypass the direct lookup route and use the general scan path.
+        let plan = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("id").in_list(vec![lit(1i32), lit(3i32), lit(5i32)], false))
+            .limit(None, Some(1))
+            .unwrap()
+            .create_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let disp = format!("{}", displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true));
+        assert!(
+            !disp.contains("OneShotStream"),
+            "offset point-lookup filters must use the scan path: {disp}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(collect_ids(plan).await, vec![3, 5]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/collector.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/collector.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a5d0ecd0b65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/collector.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,545 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Data source collector for LSM scanner.
+
+use std::collections::hash_map::Entry;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use super::data_source::{LsmDataSource, LsmGeneration, ShardSnapshot};
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+
+/// A point-in-time handle to one in-memory memtable, active or frozen —
+/// structurally identical (a frozen memtable is just the immutable case).
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct InMemoryMemTableRef {
+    /// Batch store containing the data.
+    pub batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+    /// Index store for the MemTable.
+    pub index_store: Arc<IndexStore>,
+    /// Schema of the data.
+    pub schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Generation number.
+    pub generation: u64,
+}
+
+impl InMemoryMemTableRef {
+    /// Row-data bytes: the buffered batches.
+    ///
+    /// This is the **flush unit**, not the memtable's footprint — it drives the
+    /// `max_memtable_size` seal trigger, so it stays a function of the rows in
+    /// it. Use [`Self::resident_bytes`] to budget memory.
+    pub fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.batch_store.row_bytes()
+    }
+
+    /// Heap held by this memtable's auxiliary lookup structures: its in-memory
+    /// indexes plus the fixed PK bloom filter.
+    ///
+    /// Usually the term that explains an indexed table's footprint — an HNSW
+    /// index pre-allocates its whole graph on the first insert — so it can dwarf
+    /// row bytes while [`Self::row_bytes`] reads near zero.
+    pub fn index_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.index_store.resident_bytes()
+            + crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::pk_bloom_filter_bytes()
+    }
+
+    /// Heap the buffered batches keep alive, which is not [`Self::row_bytes`]
+    /// once any batch is a zero-copy slice: a slice's window is a fraction of
+    /// the parent buffer it pins. See [`BatchStore::retained_bytes`].
+    pub fn retained_row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.batch_store.retained_bytes()
+    }
+
+    /// Total resident heap bytes. This, not [`Self::row_bytes`], is what a
+    /// memory ceiling must be built on.
+    pub fn resident_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.retained_row_bytes() + self.index_bytes()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Back-compat alias; prefer [`InMemoryMemTableRef`].
+pub type ActiveMemTableRef = InMemoryMemTableRef;
+
+/// A shard's in-memory memtables: the one live `active` memtable plus any
+/// `frozen` memtables awaiting flush (not yet recorded in the manifest).
+/// Mirrors the writer's `WriterState { memtable, frozen_memtables }` so the
+/// reader and writer name the same thing the same way.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct InMemoryMemTables {
+    /// The single live memtable accepting writes.
+    pub active: InMemoryMemTableRef,
+    /// Frozen memtables awaiting flush; element order is irrelevant — the
+    /// collector sorts in-memory sources by `generation` before the scan.
+    pub frozen: Vec<InMemoryMemTableRef>,
+}
+
+/// Collects data sources from base table and MemWAL shards.
+///
+/// This collector gathers all data sources that need to be scanned
+/// for a query, including:
+/// - The base table (compacted data) — optional; omit for fresh-tier-only scans
+/// - SSTables from each shard
+/// - In-memory memtables per shard (active + frozen-awaiting-flush)
+///
+/// When the base table is omitted (see [`Self::without_base_table`]), `collect`
+/// returns only SSTable and active-memtable sources. This is used
+/// by callers that own the base read path elsewhere and only need the WAL's
+/// fresh tier (active memtable ∪ L0 SSTables).
+pub struct LsmDataSourceCollector {
+    /// Base Lance table (None when scanning only the fresh tier).
+    base_table: Option<Arc<Dataset>>,
+    /// Base path for resolving relative SSTable paths.
+    base_path: String,
+    /// Shard snapshots from MemWAL index.
+    shard_snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot>,
+    /// In-memory memtables by shard (active + frozen-awaiting-flush).
+    in_memory_memtables: HashMap<Uuid, InMemoryMemTables>,
+}
+
+impl LsmDataSourceCollector {
+    /// Create a new collector from base table and shard snapshots.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `base_table` - The base Lance table (compacted data)
+    /// * `shard_snapshots` - Snapshots of shard states from MemWAL index
+    pub fn new(base_table: Arc<Dataset>, shard_snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot>) -> Self {
+        // Use the dataset's URI as base path for resolving relative paths.
+        // This ensures memory:// and other scheme-based URIs work correctly.
+        let base_path = base_table.uri().trim_end_matches('/').to_string();
+        Self {
+            base_table: Some(base_table),
+            base_path,
+            shard_snapshots,
+            in_memory_memtables: HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a collector without a base table (fresh-tier scan only).
+    ///
+    /// The collector emits only SSTable and active-memtable sources.
+    /// `base_path` is the table-root URI used to resolve relative SSTable paths
+    /// (typically the same URI that would have been the base dataset's URI).
+    pub fn without_base_table(
+        base_path: impl Into<String>,
+        shard_snapshots: Vec<ShardSnapshot>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            base_table: None,
+            base_path: base_path.into().trim_end_matches('/').to_string(),
+            shard_snapshots,
+            in_memory_memtables: HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set a shard's active memtable. Back-compat / test entry point; the
+    /// read path uses [`Self::with_in_memory_memtables`]. Replaces the
+    /// active memtable, preserving any frozen memtables already registered.
+    pub fn with_active_memtable(mut self, shard_id: Uuid, memtable: InMemoryMemTableRef) -> Self {
+        match self.in_memory_memtables.entry(shard_id) {
+            Entry::Occupied(mut e) => e.get_mut().active = memtable,
+            Entry::Vacant(e) => {
+                e.insert(InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: memtable,
+                    frozen: Vec::new(),
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Register a shard's in-memory memtables (active + frozen-awaiting-
+    /// flush) captured atomically by `ShardWriter::in_memory_memtable_refs`.
+    /// The WAL read path's entry point.
+    pub fn with_in_memory_memtables(
+        mut self,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        memtables: InMemoryMemTables,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.in_memory_memtables.insert(shard_id, memtables);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Get the base table, if any.
+    pub fn base_table(&self) -> Option<&Arc<Dataset>> {
+        self.base_table.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Get all shard snapshots.
+    pub fn shard_snapshots(&self) -> &[ShardSnapshot] {
+        &self.shard_snapshots
+    }
+
+    /// In-memory memtables (active + frozen-awaiting-flush) by shard.
+    pub fn in_memory_memtables(&self) -> &HashMap<Uuid, InMemoryMemTables> {
+        &self.in_memory_memtables
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the collector has any on-disk source (base table or an
+    /// SSTable). The point-lookup fast path uses this to decide, after
+    /// missing every in-memory memtable, between "definitely absent" (`false`)
+    /// and "must consult disk via the plan path" (`true`). Cheap: no allocation.
+    pub fn has_on_disk_sources(&self) -> bool {
+        self.base_table.is_some() || self.shard_snapshots.iter().any(|s| !s.sstables.is_empty())
+    }
+
+    /// The in-memory memtables (active + frozen across all shards) as
+    /// references, **newest generation first**. Used by batch point lookups
+    /// that probe many keys against the same set of memtables; clones no
+    /// `Arc`s. Empty when there are no in-memory memtables.
+    pub fn in_memory_refs_newest_first(&self) -> Vec<&InMemoryMemTableRef> {
+        let mut refs: Vec<&InMemoryMemTableRef> = Vec::new();
+        for mems in self.in_memory_memtables.values() {
+            refs.push(&mems.active);
+            refs.extend(mems.frozen.iter());
+        }
+        refs.sort_by_key(|m| std::cmp::Reverse(m.generation));
+        refs
+    }
+
+    /// Visit the in-memory memtables (active + frozen) **newest generation
+    /// first** by reference, calling `f` until it returns `Some`; returns that
+    /// value (or `None` if every memtable was visited without one).
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`Self::collect`], this clones no `Arc`s and — in the common
+    /// single-shard, single-active case — allocates nothing, so concurrent
+    /// readers don't contend on source refcounts. Generation-DESC order makes
+    /// a re-write in the active memtable win over a stale frozen row.
+    pub fn find_in_memory_newest_first<T>(
+        &self,
+        mut f: impl FnMut(&InMemoryMemTableRef) -> Result<Option<T>>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<T>> {
+        // Hot path: one shard, only the active memtable → no Vec, no sort.
+        if self.in_memory_memtables.len() == 1 {
+            let mems = self.in_memory_memtables.values().next().unwrap();
+            if mems.frozen.is_empty() {
+                return f(&mems.active);
+            }
+        }
+        let mut refs: Vec<&InMemoryMemTableRef> = Vec::new();
+        for mems in self.in_memory_memtables.values() {
+            refs.push(&mems.active);
+            refs.extend(mems.frozen.iter());
+        }
+        refs.sort_by_key(|m| std::cmp::Reverse(m.generation));
+        for m in refs {
+            if let Some(v) = f(m)? {
+                return Ok(Some(v));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// A shard's in-memory memtables (active + frozen-awaiting-flush) as
+    /// scan sources, in **ascending generation order**. The planner relies
+    /// on this: it reverses sources to generation-DESC so the newest row
+    /// wins the dedup tiebreaker (see `LsmScanPlanner::plan_scan`). Active
+    /// is the newest generation; frozen are older sealed ones — so without
+    /// this sort a stale frozen row could outrank a re-write in the active
+    /// memtable for the same pk.
+    fn in_memory_sources(shard_id: Uuid, mems: &InMemoryMemTables) -> Vec<LsmDataSource> {
+        let mut refs: Vec<&InMemoryMemTableRef> = std::iter::once(&mems.active)
+            .chain(mems.frozen.iter())
+            .collect();
+        refs.sort_by_key(|m| m.generation);
+        refs.into_iter()
+            .map(|m| LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+                batch_store: m.batch_store.clone(),
+                index_store: m.index_store.clone(),
+                schema: m.schema.clone(),
+                shard_id,
+                generation: LsmGeneration::memtable(m.generation),
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// True when `generation` for `shard_id` is still pinned in memory as a
+    /// frozen memtable. During the post-flush grace window a generation is both
+    /// committed to the manifest (a flushed source) and held in memory (an
+    /// in-memory source); it must be served only from memory — which preserves
+    /// the per-batch boundaries the SSTable dataset has lost, so as-of reads
+    /// stay snapshot-bounded — and its on-disk copy skipped to avoid scanning
+    /// the generation twice. See `ShardWriterConfig::frozen_memtable_grace`.
+    fn sstable_pinned_in_memory(&self, shard_id: &Uuid, generation: u64) -> bool {
+        self.in_memory_memtables
+            .get(shard_id)
+            .is_some_and(|mems| mems.frozen.iter().any(|f| f.generation == generation))
+    }
+
+    /// Collect all data sources.
+    ///
+    /// Returns sources in a consistent order:
+    /// 1. Base table (gen=0), if configured
+    /// 2. SSTables per shard, ordered by generation
+    /// 3. In-memory memtables per shard (active + frozen-awaiting-flush)
+    pub fn collect(&self) -> Result<Vec<LsmDataSource>> {
+        let mut sources = Vec::new();
+
+        if let Some(base) = &self.base_table {
+            sources.push(LsmDataSource::BaseTable {
+                dataset: base.clone(),
+            });
+        }
+
+        for snapshot in &self.shard_snapshots {
+            for sstable in &snapshot.sstables {
+                if self.sstable_pinned_in_memory(&snapshot.shard_id, sstable.generation) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let path = self.resolve_sstable_path(&snapshot.shard_id, &sstable.path);
+                sources.push(LsmDataSource::SsTable {
+                    path,
+                    shard_id: snapshot.shard_id,
+                    generation: LsmGeneration::memtable(sstable.generation),
+                });
+            }
+        }
+
+        for (shard_id, mems) in &self.in_memory_memtables {
+            sources.extend(Self::in_memory_sources(*shard_id, mems));
+        }
+
+        Ok(sources)
+    }
+
+    /// Collect data sources for specific shards only.
+    ///
+    /// This is used after shard pruning to avoid loading data from
+    /// shards that cannot contain matching rows.
+    ///
+    /// The base table (when configured) is always included since it may
+    /// contain data from any shard (after merging).
+    pub fn collect_for_shards(&self, shard_ids: &HashSet<Uuid>) -> Result<Vec<LsmDataSource>> {
+        let mut sources = Vec::new();
+
+        if let Some(base) = &self.base_table {
+            sources.push(LsmDataSource::BaseTable {
+                dataset: base.clone(),
+            });
+        }
+
+        for snapshot in &self.shard_snapshots {
+            if !shard_ids.contains(&snapshot.shard_id) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            for sstable in &snapshot.sstables {
+                if self.sstable_pinned_in_memory(&snapshot.shard_id, sstable.generation) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let path = self.resolve_sstable_path(&snapshot.shard_id, &sstable.path);
+                sources.push(LsmDataSource::SsTable {
+                    path,
+                    shard_id: snapshot.shard_id,
+                    generation: LsmGeneration::memtable(sstable.generation),
+                });
+            }
+        }
+
+        for (shard_id, mems) in &self.in_memory_memtables {
+            if !shard_ids.contains(shard_id) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            sources.extend(Self::in_memory_sources(*shard_id, mems));
+        }
+
+        Ok(sources)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the total number of data sources.
+    pub fn num_sources(&self) -> usize {
+        let sstable_count: usize = self.shard_snapshots.iter().map(|s| s.sstables.len()).sum();
+        let base_count = if self.base_table.is_some() { 1 } else { 0 };
+        let in_memory_count: usize = self
+            .in_memory_memtables
+            .values()
+            .map(|m| 1 + m.frozen.len())
+            .sum();
+        base_count + sstable_count + in_memory_count
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve an SSTable path to an absolute path.
+    ///
+    /// SSTables are stored at: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/{shard_id}/{folder_name}`
+    /// The `folder_name` is what's stored in `SsTable.path`.
+    fn resolve_sstable_path(&self, shard_id: &Uuid, folder_name: &str) -> String {
+        format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}", self.base_path, shard_id, folder_name)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::SsTable;
+
+    fn create_test_snapshots() -> Vec<ShardSnapshot> {
+        let shard_a = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let shard_b = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        vec![
+            ShardSnapshot {
+                shard_id: shard_a,
+                spec_id: 1,
+                current_generation: 3,
+                sstables: vec![
+                    SsTable {
+                        generation: 1,
+                        path: "abc_gen_1".to_string(),
+                    },
+                    SsTable {
+                        generation: 2,
+                        path: "def_gen_2".to_string(),
+                    },
+                ],
+            },
+            ShardSnapshot {
+                shard_id: shard_b,
+                spec_id: 1,
+                current_generation: 2,
+                sstables: vec![SsTable {
+                    generation: 1,
+                    path: "xyz_gen_1".to_string(),
+                }],
+            },
+        ]
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collector_num_sources() {
+        let snapshots = create_test_snapshots();
+        // 1 base table + 2 flushed from shard_a + 1 flushed from shard_b = 4
+        // Using a mock dataset is complex, so we just test the counting logic
+        assert_eq!(snapshots[0].sstables.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(snapshots[1].sstables.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_in_memory_memtable_ref() {
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+        let index_store = Arc::new(IndexStore::new());
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty());
+
+        let memtable_ref = InMemoryMemTableRef {
+            batch_store,
+            index_store,
+            schema,
+            generation: 5,
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(memtable_ref.generation, 5);
+    }
+
+    fn memtable_ref(generation: u64) -> InMemoryMemTableRef {
+        InMemoryMemTableRef {
+            batch_store: Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(8)),
+            index_store: Arc::new(IndexStore::new()),
+            schema: Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()),
+            generation,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Regression for the concurrent-read-vs-flush hole: frozen-awaiting-
+    /// flush memtables must reach the scan as their own sources alongside
+    /// the active one, so a reader sees no gap while a flush drains.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_includes_active_and_frozen() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let other = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // Frozen deliberately out of order to prove the collector sorts.
+        let mems = InMemoryMemTables {
+            active: memtable_ref(5),
+            frozen: vec![memtable_ref(4), memtable_ref(3)],
+        };
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table("/tmp/x", vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(shard, mems);
+
+        // One source per in-memory memtable, in ascending generation order
+        // (the planner reverses to gen-DESC for the dedup tiebreaker, so a
+        // stale frozen row must not outrank a re-write in the active one).
+        // num_sources() must account for frozen too.
+        assert_eq!(collector.num_sources(), 3);
+        let sources = collector.collect().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sources.len(), 3);
+        assert!(sources.iter().all(|s| s.is_active_memtable()));
+        assert!(sources.iter().all(|s| s.shard_id() == Some(shard)));
+        let gens: Vec<u64> = sources.iter().map(|s| s.generation().as_u64()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(gens, vec![3, 4, 5]);
+
+        // Shard pruning keeps the active+frozen set together, all-or-nothing.
+        assert!(
+            collector
+                .collect_for_shards(&HashSet::from([other]))
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            collector
+                .collect_for_shards(&HashSet::from([shard]))
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            3
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// During the post-flush grace window a generation is both committed to the
+    /// manifest (a flushed source) and still pinned in memory (a frozen
+    /// source). The collector must emit it once, from memory — so as-of reads
+    /// keep batch-resolved membership — and skip the on-disk copy. SSTables
+    /// NOT pinned in memory are still emitted from disk.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_suppresses_sstable_pinned_in_memory() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // Manifest lists gens 1 and 2 as flushed; gen 2 is still pinned in
+        // memory (just flushed, within grace), gen 1 has been swept.
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot {
+            shard_id: shard,
+            spec_id: 0,
+            current_generation: 3,
+            sstables: vec![
+                SsTable {
+                    generation: 1,
+                    path: "gen_1".to_string(),
+                },
+                SsTable {
+                    generation: 2,
+                    path: "gen_2".to_string(),
+                },
+            ],
+        };
+        let mems = InMemoryMemTables {
+            active: memtable_ref(3),
+            frozen: vec![memtable_ref(2)],
+        };
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table("/tmp/x", vec![snapshot])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(shard, mems);
+
+        let sources = collector.collect().unwrap();
+        // gen 1: on-disk (not pinned). gen 2: in-memory only (pinned, disk
+        // copy suppressed). gen 3: active. No duplicate gen 2.
+        let sstable_gens: Vec<u64> = sources
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|s| !s.is_active_memtable())
+            .map(|s| s.generation().as_u64())
+            .collect();
+        let in_memory: Vec<u64> = sources
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|s| s.is_active_memtable())
+            .map(|s| s.generation().as_u64())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sstable_gens,
+            vec![1],
+            "only the unpinned SSTable gen from disk"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(in_memory, vec![2, 3], "pinned gen 2 served from memory");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/data_source.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/data_source.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..86e6041142b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/data_source.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,291 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Data source types for LSM scanner.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+
+/// A watermark marking how far into one shard's fresh tier a prior scan
+/// observed, so membership can be evaluated as of that point (see
+/// [`super::builder::LsmScanner::contains_pks_at`]).
+///
+/// Only the active memtable grows between two reads (appended batches, and a new
+/// generation when it rolls); everything at a lower generation — frozen and
+/// flushed — is immutable and was fully observed. The watermark includes lower
+/// generations whole, the active generation up to `active_batch_count` batches,
+/// and excludes higher generations (which appeared after it). It uses only the
+/// batch count and generation — both always available, unlike per-batch WAL
+/// positions, which the write path does not track. The bound only excludes rows
+/// the scan did not observe, so a stale watermark under-counts (a tolerable
+/// stale read) rather than dropping a row with no replacement.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct FreshTierWatermark {
+    /// Active generation the scan observed. Higher generations are excluded;
+    /// lower ones are immutable and included whole.
+    pub active_generation: u64,
+    /// Active-memtable batch count at snapshot time. Within the active
+    /// generation, only batches at index `< active_batch_count` were observed.
+    pub active_batch_count: u64,
+}
+
+/// Generation number in LSM tree.
+///
+/// The base table has generation 0. MemTables have positive integers
+/// starting from 1, where higher numbers represent newer data.
+///
+/// Ordering: Higher generation = newer data.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Hash)]
+pub struct LsmGeneration(u64);
+
+impl LsmGeneration {
+    /// Generation for the base table (compacted data).
+    pub const BASE_TABLE: Self = Self(0);
+
+    /// Create a generation for a MemTable.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `generation` is 0, as generation 0 is reserved for the base table.
+    pub fn memtable(generation: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            generation > 0,
+            "MemTable generation must be >= 1 (0 is reserved for base table)"
+        );
+        Self(generation)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the raw u64 value.
+    pub fn as_u64(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.0
+    }
+
+    /// Check if this is the base table generation.
+    pub fn is_base_table(&self) -> bool {
+        self.0 == 0
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<u64> for LsmGeneration {
+    fn from(value: u64) -> Self {
+        Self(value)
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for LsmGeneration {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        if self.is_base_table() {
+            write!(f, "base")
+        } else {
+            write!(f, "gen{}", self.0)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for LsmGeneration {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::BASE_TABLE
+    }
+}
+
+/// An SSTable with its storage path.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct SsTable {
+    /// Generation number.
+    pub generation: u64,
+    /// Path to the SSTable directory (relative to table root).
+    pub path: String,
+}
+
+/// Snapshot of a shard's state at a point in time.
+///
+/// This is read from the MemWAL index for eventual consistency,
+/// or from shard manifests directly for strong consistency.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ShardSnapshot {
+    /// Shard UUID.
+    pub shard_id: Uuid,
+    /// Shard spec ID (0 if manual shard).
+    pub spec_id: u32,
+    /// Current generation being written (next flush will be this generation).
+    pub current_generation: u64,
+    /// List of SSTables and their paths.
+    pub sstables: Vec<SsTable>,
+}
+
+impl ShardSnapshot {
+    /// Create a new shard snapshot.
+    pub fn new(shard_id: Uuid) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            shard_id,
+            spec_id: 0,
+            current_generation: 1,
+            sstables: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the spec ID.
+    pub fn with_spec_id(mut self, spec_id: u32) -> Self {
+        self.spec_id = spec_id;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the current generation.
+    pub fn with_current_generation(mut self, generation: u64) -> Self {
+        self.current_generation = generation;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Add an SSTable.
+    pub fn with_sstable(mut self, generation: u64, path: String) -> Self {
+        self.sstables.push(SsTable { generation, path });
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// A data source in the LSM tree that can be scanned.
+pub enum LsmDataSource {
+    /// Base Lance table (generation = 0).
+    BaseTable {
+        /// The base dataset.
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    },
+    /// SSTable stored as Lance table on disk.
+    SsTable {
+        /// Absolute path to the SSTable directory.
+        path: String,
+        /// Shard this MemTable belongs to.
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        /// Generation number (1, 2, 3, ...).
+        generation: LsmGeneration,
+    },
+    /// In-memory MemTable (active write buffer).
+    ActiveMemTable {
+        /// Batch store containing the data.
+        batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+        /// Index store for the MemTable.
+        index_store: Arc<IndexStore>,
+        /// Schema of the data.
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        /// Shard this MemTable belongs to.
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        /// Generation number.
+        generation: LsmGeneration,
+    },
+}
+
+impl LsmDataSource {
+    /// Get the generation of this data source.
+    pub fn generation(&self) -> LsmGeneration {
+        match self {
+            Self::BaseTable { .. } => LsmGeneration::BASE_TABLE,
+            Self::SsTable { generation, .. } => *generation,
+            Self::ActiveMemTable { generation, .. } => *generation,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the shard ID if this is a shard source.
+    pub fn shard_id(&self) -> Option<Uuid> {
+        match self {
+            Self::BaseTable { .. } => None,
+            Self::SsTable { shard_id, .. } => Some(*shard_id),
+            Self::ActiveMemTable { shard_id, .. } => Some(*shard_id),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Check if this is the base table.
+    pub fn is_base_table(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::BaseTable { .. })
+    }
+
+    /// Check if this is an active (in-memory) MemTable.
+    pub fn is_active_memtable(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::ActiveMemTable { .. })
+    }
+
+    /// Get a display name for logging.
+    pub fn display_name(&self) -> String {
+        match self {
+            Self::BaseTable { .. } => "base_table".to_string(),
+            Self::SsTable {
+                shard_id,
+                generation,
+                ..
+            } => format!("flushed[{}:{}]", &shard_id.to_string()[..8], generation),
+            Self::ActiveMemTable {
+                shard_id,
+                generation,
+                ..
+            } => format!("memtable[{}:{}]", &shard_id.to_string()[..8], generation),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_lsm_generation_ordering() {
+        let base = LsmGeneration::BASE_TABLE;
+        let gen1 = LsmGeneration::memtable(1);
+        let gen2 = LsmGeneration::memtable(2);
+        let gen10 = LsmGeneration::memtable(10);
+
+        // Base table (gen=0) should be less than all MemTable generations
+        assert!(base < gen1);
+        assert!(base < gen2);
+        assert!(base < gen10);
+
+        // Higher generation = newer data
+        assert!(gen1 < gen2);
+        assert!(gen2 < gen10);
+
+        // Test display
+        assert_eq!(base.to_string(), "base");
+        assert_eq!(gen1.to_string(), "gen1");
+        assert_eq!(gen10.to_string(), "gen10");
+
+        // Test as_u64
+        assert_eq!(base.as_u64(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(gen1.as_u64(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(gen10.as_u64(), 10);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_lsm_generation_conversions() {
+        let from_u64: LsmGeneration = 5u64.into();
+        assert_eq!(from_u64.as_u64(), 5);
+
+        let base: LsmGeneration = 0u64.into();
+        assert!(base.is_base_table());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "MemTable generation must be >= 1")]
+    fn test_memtable_generation_zero_panics() {
+        LsmGeneration::memtable(0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shard_snapshot_builder() {
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_spec_id(1)
+            .with_current_generation(5)
+            .with_sstable(1, "abc123_gen_1".to_string())
+            .with_sstable(2, "def456_gen_2".to_string());
+
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.shard_id, shard_id);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.spec_id, 1);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.current_generation, 5);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.sstables.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.sstables[0].generation, 1);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.sstables[1].generation, 2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..46de19e87d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Execution plan nodes for LSM scanner.
+//!
+//! This module contains custom DataFusion execution plan implementations
+//! for LSM tree query execution:
+//!
+//! - [`MemtableGenTagExec`]: Wraps a scan to add `_memtable_gen` column
+//! - [`BloomFilterGuardExec`]: Guards child execution with bloom filter check
+//! - [`CoalesceFirstExec`]: Returns first non-empty result with short-circuit
+//! - [`FirstByPkExec`]: Keeps the first row per PK from an ordered stream (the cross-column collapse)
+//! - [`PkBlockFilterExec`]: Drops rows whose PK was superseded by a newer generation (the cross-generation block-list)
+//! - [`SchemaRelabelExec`]: Re-labels batches to an exact schema (the logical/storage nullability boundary)
+
+mod bloom_guard;
+mod coalesce_first;
+mod first_by_pk;
+mod generation_tag;
+mod pk;
+mod pk_block_filter;
+mod reconcile;
+mod schema_relabel;
+
+pub use bloom_guard::{BloomFilterGuardExec, compute_pk_hash_from_scalars};
+pub use coalesce_first::CoalesceFirstExec;
+pub use first_by_pk::FirstByPkExec;
+pub use generation_tag::{MEMTABLE_GEN_COLUMN, MemtableGenTagExec};
+pub use pk::{
+    ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN, compute_pk_hash, is_supported_pk_type, resolve_pk_indices,
+    validate_pk_types,
+};
+pub use pk_block_filter::PkBlockFilterExec;
+pub(crate) use reconcile::ReconcileExec;
+pub use schema_relabel::SchemaRelabelExec;
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/bloom_guard.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/bloom_guard.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e3a710bd367
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/bloom_guard.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,374 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! BloomFilterGuardExec - Guards child execution with bloom filter check.
+//!
+//! Used in point lookup queries to skip generations that definitely don't contain the key.
+
+use std::fmt;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use datafusion::error::Result as DFResult;
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, ExecutionPlanProperties, PlanProperties,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
+};
+use futures::Stream;
+use lance_core::utils::bloomfilter::sbbf::Sbbf;
+
+/// Guards a child execution node with a bloom filter check.
+///
+/// Given a primary key hash, checks the bloom filter before executing the child.
+/// If the bloom filter returns negative (key definitely not present), returns
+/// empty without executing the child. If the bloom filter returns positive
+/// (key may be present), executes the child normally.
+///
+/// # Use Case
+///
+/// For point lookup in LSM tree:
+/// - Check bloom filter of each generation before scanning
+/// - Skip generations that definitely don't contain the key
+/// - Reduces I/O by avoiding unnecessary scans
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```text
+/// CoalesceFirstExec
+///   BloomFilterGuardExec: gen3, pk_hash=12345
+///     GlobalLimitExec: limit=1 (gen3)
+///   BloomFilterGuardExec: gen2, pk_hash=12345
+///     GlobalLimitExec: limit=1 (gen2)
+///   GlobalLimitExec: limit=1 (base_table)
+/// ```
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct BloomFilterGuardExec {
+    /// Child execution plan to conditionally execute.
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    /// Bloom filter to check.
+    bloom_filter: Arc<Sbbf>,
+    /// Primary key hash to check.
+    pk_hash: u64,
+    /// Generation number (for display purposes).
+    generation: u64,
+    /// Output schema.
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Plan properties.
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl BloomFilterGuardExec {
+    /// Create a new BloomFilterGuardExec.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `input` - Child plan to conditionally execute
+    /// * `bloom_filter` - Bloom filter to check
+    /// * `pk_hash` - Primary key hash to check
+    /// * `generation` - Generation number (for display)
+    pub fn new(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        bloom_filter: Arc<Sbbf>,
+        pk_hash: u64,
+        generation: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = input.schema();
+
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
+            input.pipeline_behavior(),
+            input.boundedness(),
+        ));
+
+        Self {
+            input,
+            bloom_filter,
+            pk_hash,
+            generation,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Check if the key might be in this generation.
+    pub fn might_contain(&self) -> bool {
+        self.bloom_filter.check_hash(self.pk_hash)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the generation number.
+    pub fn generation(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.generation
+    }
+
+    /// Get the primary key hash.
+    pub fn pk_hash(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.pk_hash
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for BloomFilterGuardExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default
+            | DisplayFormatType::Verbose
+            | DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "BloomFilterGuardExec: gen={}, pk_hash={}",
+                    self.generation, self.pk_hash
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for BloomFilterGuardExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "BloomFilterGuardExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "BloomFilterGuardExec requires exactly one child".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
+            children[0].clone(),
+            self.bloom_filter.clone(),
+            self.pk_hash,
+            self.generation,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DFResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        if !self.might_contain() {
+            return Ok(Box::pin(EmptyStream::new(self.schema.clone())));
+        }
+        self.input.execute(partition, context)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Empty stream that returns no batches.
+struct EmptyStream {
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+}
+
+impl EmptyStream {
+    fn new(schema: SchemaRef) -> Self {
+        Self { schema }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Stream for EmptyStream {
+    type Item = DFResult<RecordBatch>;
+
+    fn poll_next(self: Pin<&mut Self>, _cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        Poll::Ready(None)
+    }
+}
+
+impl datafusion::physical_plan::RecordBatchStream for EmptyStream {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compute hash for a primary key value.
+///
+/// Must stay byte-for-byte consistent with [`super::compute_pk_hash`]: for each
+/// scalar, hash `is_null` first, then hash the inner value only when not-null.
+/// This includes the typed Option(None) branches — they represent a NULL of a
+/// known type and must hash the same as a row-side NULL of the same column.
+pub fn compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(values: &[datafusion::common::ScalarValue]) -> u64 {
+    use std::collections::hash_map::DefaultHasher;
+    use std::hash::{Hash, Hasher};
+
+    let mut hasher = DefaultHasher::new();
+
+    fn hash_opt<T: Hash>(hasher: &mut DefaultHasher, v: &Option<T>) {
+        v.is_none().hash(hasher);
+        if let Some(val) = v {
+            val.hash(hasher);
+        }
+    }
+
+    for value in values {
+        match value {
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Null => {
+                true.hash(&mut hasher); // is_null = true
+            }
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int8(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int16(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int32(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int64(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::UInt8(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::UInt16(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::UInt32(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::UInt64(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Boolean(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Utf8(v)
+            | datafusion::common::ScalarValue::LargeUtf8(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Binary(v)
+            | datafusion::common::ScalarValue::LargeBinary(v) => hash_opt(&mut hasher, v),
+            // Unsupported types: validated out at the scanner boundary, but
+            // distinguish by value rather than collapse if reached.
+            _ => {
+                false.hash(&mut hasher);
+                format!("{:?}", value).hash(&mut hasher);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    hasher.finish()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::test::TestMemoryExec;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+    fn create_test_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_batch(schema: &Schema, ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let names: Vec<String> = ids.iter().map(|id| format!("name_{}", id)).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn create_bloom_filter_with_hash(hash: u64) -> Arc<Sbbf> {
+        let mut bf = Sbbf::with_ndv_fpp(100, 0.01).unwrap();
+        bf.insert_hash(hash);
+        Arc::new(bf)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bloom_guard_passes_when_key_present() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3]);
+
+        let pk_hash =
+            compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(&[datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))]);
+        let bf = create_bloom_filter_with_hash(pk_hash);
+
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+        let guard = BloomFilterGuardExec::new(input, bf, pk_hash, 1);
+
+        assert!(guard.might_contain());
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = guard.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bloom_guard_skips_when_key_absent() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3]);
+
+        // Create bloom filter with different hash
+        let bf_hash =
+            compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(&[datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(999))]);
+        let bf = create_bloom_filter_with_hash(bf_hash);
+
+        // Query for a different key
+        let query_hash =
+            compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(&[datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))]);
+
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+        let guard = BloomFilterGuardExec::new(input, bf, query_hash, 1);
+
+        assert!(!guard.might_contain());
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = guard.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should return empty (child not executed)
+        assert!(batches.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pk_hash_consistency() {
+        // Test that same values produce same hash
+        let hash1 =
+            compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(&[datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(42))]);
+        let hash2 =
+            compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(&[datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(42))]);
+        assert_eq!(hash1, hash2);
+
+        // Different values produce different hashes
+        let hash3 =
+            compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(&[datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(43))]);
+        assert_ne!(hash1, hash3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_pk_hash_with_multiple_columns() {
+        let hash1 = compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(&[
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("foo".to_string())),
+        ]);
+        let hash2 = compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(&[
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)),
+            datafusion::common::ScalarValue::Utf8(Some("bar".to_string())),
+        ]);
+        assert_ne!(hash1, hash2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_display() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch]], schema, None).unwrap();
+
+        let bf = Sbbf::with_ndv_fpp(100, 0.01).unwrap();
+        let guard = BloomFilterGuardExec::new(input, Arc::new(bf), 12345, 2);
+
+        // Verify it doesn't panic
+        let _ = format!("{:?}", guard);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/coalesce_first.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/coalesce_first.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c212b47c013
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/coalesce_first.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,421 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! CoalesceFirstExec - Returns first non-empty result with short-circuit evaluation.
+//!
+//! Used in point lookup queries to stop searching after finding the first match.
+
+use std::fmt;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use datafusion::error::Result as DFResult;
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, ExecutionPlanProperties, PlanProperties,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
+};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt};
+
+/// Returns the first non-empty result from multiple inputs with short-circuit evaluation.
+///
+/// Inputs are evaluated lazily in order; once a non-empty result is found,
+/// remaining inputs are not evaluated. This is critical for point lookup
+/// performance where we want to stop after finding the newest version.
+///
+/// # Behavior
+///
+/// 1. Execute inputs in order (first to last)
+/// 2. For each input, collect all batches
+/// 3. If total rows > 0, return those batches and skip remaining inputs
+/// 4. If total rows == 0, move to next input
+/// 5. If all inputs are empty, return empty
+///
+/// # Use Case
+///
+/// For point lookup with generations [gen3, gen2, gen1, base]:
+/// - If gen3 has the key, return immediately without checking gen2, gen1, base
+/// - If gen3 is empty, check gen2, and so on
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct CoalesceFirstExec {
+    /// Child execution plans (ordered: newest first for point lookup).
+    inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    /// Output schema (must be same for all inputs).
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Plan properties.
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl CoalesceFirstExec {
+    /// Create a new CoalesceFirstExec.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `inputs` - Child plans to evaluate in order
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if inputs is empty or if schemas don't match.
+    pub fn new(inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            !inputs.is_empty(),
+            "CoalesceFirstExec requires at least one input"
+        );
+
+        let schema = inputs[0].schema();
+
+        for (i, input) in inputs.iter().enumerate().skip(1) {
+            assert!(
+                input.schema() == schema,
+                "Input {} schema doesn't match: expected {:?}, got {:?}",
+                i,
+                schema,
+                input.schema()
+            );
+        }
+
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
+            inputs[0].pipeline_behavior(),
+            inputs[0].boundedness(),
+        ));
+
+        Self {
+            inputs,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for CoalesceFirstExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default
+            | DisplayFormatType::Verbose
+            | DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(f, "CoalesceFirstExec: inputs={}", self.inputs.len())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for CoalesceFirstExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "CoalesceFirstExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        self.inputs.iter().collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(children)))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DFResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = self.inputs.clone();
+        let schema = self.schema.clone();
+
+        Ok(Box::pin(CoalesceFirstStream::new(
+            inputs, partition, context, schema,
+        )))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Stream that evaluates inputs in order and returns first non-empty.
+struct CoalesceFirstStream {
+    /// Inputs to evaluate.
+    inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    /// Current input index.
+    current_input: usize,
+    /// Current input stream (if active).
+    current_stream: Option<SendableRecordBatchStream>,
+    /// Partition to execute.
+    partition: usize,
+    /// Task context.
+    context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    /// Output schema.
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Accumulated batches from current input.
+    accumulated_batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    /// Whether we've found a non-empty result.
+    found_result: bool,
+    /// Index into accumulated_batches for returning.
+    return_index: usize,
+}
+
+impl CoalesceFirstStream {
+    fn new(
+        inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inputs,
+            current_input: 0,
+            current_stream: None,
+            partition,
+            context,
+            schema,
+            accumulated_batches: Vec::new(),
+            found_result: false,
+            return_index: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn start_next_input(&mut self) -> DFResult<bool> {
+        if self.current_input >= self.inputs.len() {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+
+        let input = &self.inputs[self.current_input];
+        let stream = input.execute(self.partition, self.context.clone())?;
+        self.current_stream = Some(stream);
+        self.accumulated_batches.clear();
+        Ok(true)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Stream for CoalesceFirstStream {
+    type Item = DFResult<RecordBatch>;
+
+    fn poll_next(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        loop {
+            if self.found_result {
+                if self.return_index < self.accumulated_batches.len() {
+                    let batch = self.accumulated_batches[self.return_index].clone();
+                    self.return_index += 1;
+                    return Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch)));
+                } else {
+                    return Poll::Ready(None);
+                }
+            }
+
+            if self.current_stream.is_none() {
+                match self.start_next_input() {
+                    Ok(true) => {}
+                    Ok(false) => return Poll::Ready(None),
+                    Err(e) => return Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))),
+                }
+            }
+
+            if let Some(ref mut stream) = self.current_stream {
+                match stream.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
+                    Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => {
+                        if batch.num_rows() > 0 {
+                            self.accumulated_batches.push(batch);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))) => {
+                        return Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e)));
+                    }
+                    Poll::Ready(None) => {
+                        self.current_stream = None;
+
+                        let total_rows: usize =
+                            self.accumulated_batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+                        if total_rows > 0 {
+                            self.found_result = true;
+                            self.return_index = 0;
+                            continue;
+                        }
+
+                        self.current_input += 1;
+                        if self.current_input >= self.inputs.len() {
+                            return Poll::Ready(None);
+                        }
+
+                        match self.start_next_input() {
+                            Ok(true) => continue,
+                            Ok(false) => return Poll::Ready(None),
+                            Err(e) => return Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))),
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Poll::Pending => {
+                        return Poll::Pending;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl datafusion::physical_plan::RecordBatchStream for CoalesceFirstStream {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::displayable;
+    use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::test::TestMemoryExec;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+    fn create_test_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_batch(schema: &Schema, ids: &[i32], prefix: &str) -> RecordBatch {
+        let names: Vec<String> = ids.iter().map(|id| format!("{}_{}", prefix, id)).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_coalesce_first_returns_first_non_empty() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // Create three inputs:
+        // 1. Empty
+        // 2. Has data (should be returned)
+        // 3. Has data (should NOT be evaluated)
+        let empty_batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
+        let batch2 = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2], "second");
+        let batch3 = create_test_batch(&schema, &[3, 4], "third");
+
+        let input1 =
+            TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![empty_batch]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+        let input2 = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch2]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+        let input3 = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch3]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+
+        let coalesce = CoalesceFirstExec::new(vec![input1, input2, input3]);
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = coalesce.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should return batch2 (first non-empty)
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 2);
+
+        let names = batches[0]
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(names.value(0), "second_1");
+        assert_eq!(names.value(1), "second_2");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_coalesce_first_returns_first_input() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // First input has data
+        let batch1 = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "first");
+        let batch2 = create_test_batch(&schema, &[2], "second");
+
+        let input1 = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch1]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+        let input2 = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch2]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+
+        let coalesce = CoalesceFirstExec::new(vec![input1, input2]);
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = coalesce.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should return batch1
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        let names = batches[0]
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(names.value(0), "first_1");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_coalesce_first_all_empty() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let empty1 = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
+        let empty2 = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
+
+        let input1 = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![empty1]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+        let input2 = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![empty2]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+
+        let coalesce = CoalesceFirstExec::new(vec![input1, input2]);
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = coalesce.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should be empty
+        assert!(batches.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_coalesce_first_multiple_batches_in_input() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // First input has two batches
+        let batch1a = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "first");
+        let batch1b = create_test_batch(&schema, &[2], "first");
+        let batch2 = create_test_batch(&schema, &[3], "second");
+
+        let input1 =
+            TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch1a, batch1b]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+        let input2 = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch2]], schema.clone(), None).unwrap();
+
+        let coalesce = CoalesceFirstExec::new(vec![input1, input2]);
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = coalesce.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should return both batches from first input
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 2);
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_display() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch]], schema, None).unwrap();
+
+        let coalesce: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(CoalesceFirstExec::new(vec![input]));
+        // Just verify it doesn't panic
+        let _ = format!("{:?}", coalesce);
+        // Test that the display representation is valid
+        let display_str = format!("{}", displayable(coalesce.as_ref()).indent(true));
+        assert!(display_str.contains("CoalesceFirstExec"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/first_by_pk.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/first_by_pk.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0e440b18381
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/first_by_pk.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,294 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Keep the first row per primary key from an ordered stream.
+//!
+//! Collapses the duplicates a cross-column full-text search produces: a row
+//! whose text matches in two columns is scored once per column, so it arrives
+//! twice. A cross-column `MultiMatch` scores each field independently and takes
+//! the **maximum** per row (`DisjunctionScore::Max` on the base-table path), and
+//! over an input already sorted by `_score` descending, "first wins" *is* that
+//! maximum — which is why this is a filter rather than a grouped aggregate, and
+//! why it keeps the streaming top-k shape the FTS planner is built around.
+//!
+//! The input ordering is load-bearing. Feeding this an unordered stream keeps an
+//! arbitrary duplicate instead of the best-scoring one.
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::fmt;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+use arrow::compute::filter_record_batch;
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, BooleanArray, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_row::{OwnedRow, RowConverter, SortField};
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DFResult};
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, ExecutionPlanProperties, PlanProperties,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
+};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt};
+
+/// Emits the first row seen for each primary key, preserving input order.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FirstByPkExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl FirstByPkExec {
+    pub fn new(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, pk_columns: Vec<String>) -> Self {
+        // A filter: same schema, same partitioning, and the input's ordering
+        // survives because rows are only dropped.
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(input.schema()),
+            input.output_partitioning().clone(),
+            input.pipeline_behavior(),
+            input.boundedness(),
+        ));
+        Self {
+            input,
+            pk_columns,
+            properties,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for FirstByPkExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(f, "FirstByPk: pk={:?}", self.pk_columns)
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => write!(f, "FirstByPk"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for FirstByPkExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "FirstByPkExec"
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let input = children.into_iter().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal("FirstByPkExec requires one child".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(input, self.pk_columns.clone())))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DFResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let schema = self.schema();
+        // Resolve the PK columns once per stream rather than once per batch:
+        // every batch carries the plan's schema, so positions and types are
+        // fixed for the life of the stream.
+        let mut pk_indices = Vec::with_capacity(self.pk_columns.len());
+        let mut sort_fields = Vec::with_capacity(self.pk_columns.len());
+        for col in &self.pk_columns {
+            let (idx, field) = schema.column_with_name(col).ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Internal(format!("Primary key column '{col}' not found"))
+            })?;
+            pk_indices.push(idx);
+            sort_fields.push(SortField::new(field.data_type().clone()));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Box::pin(FirstByPkStream {
+            input: self.input.execute(partition, context)?,
+            converter: RowConverter::new(sort_fields)?,
+            pk_indices,
+            schema,
+            seen: HashSet::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+struct FirstByPkStream {
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    /// Positions of the primary-key columns within the input schema.
+    pk_indices: Vec<usize>,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Encodes a row's primary key into one comparable byte string. Column-at-a-time
+    /// and exact, so the dedup key costs a single allocation and a `memcmp` rather
+    /// than a boxed `ScalarValue` per key column.
+    converter: RowConverter,
+    seen: HashSet<OwnedRow>,
+}
+
+impl FirstByPkStream {
+    /// Mask out rows whose PK was already emitted. Sequential by construction:
+    /// the first occurrence in input order wins, so the mask depends on every
+    /// row before it.
+    fn keep_first(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> DFResult<RecordBatch> {
+        if self.pk_indices.is_empty() || batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+            return Ok(batch.clone());
+        }
+        let pk_columns = self
+            .pk_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&idx| batch.column(idx).clone())
+            .collect::<Vec<ArrayRef>>();
+        let rows = self.converter.convert_columns(&pk_columns)?;
+        let mut keep = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
+        for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            keep.push(self.seen.insert(rows.row(row).owned()));
+        }
+        filter_record_batch(batch, &BooleanArray::from(keep)).map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Stream for FirstByPkStream {
+    type Item = DFResult<RecordBatch>;
+
+    fn poll_next(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        loop {
+            match futures::ready!(self.input.poll_next_unpin(cx)) {
+                Some(Ok(batch)) => {
+                    let filtered = self.keep_first(&batch)?;
+                    // An all-duplicate batch yields nothing; keep polling rather
+                    // than emitting empties.
+                    if filtered.num_rows() > 0 {
+                        return Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(filtered)));
+                    }
+                }
+                other => return Poll::Ready(other),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl datafusion::physical_plan::RecordBatchStream for FirstByPkStream {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::test::TestMemoryExec;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+    /// Run the exec over a single partition holding `batches` and return the
+    /// `tag` of every surviving row, in output order. `tag` identifies which
+    /// occurrence of a duplicated key was kept.
+    async fn kept_tags(schema: SchemaRef, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>, pk: &[&str]) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[batches], schema, None).unwrap();
+        let exec = FirstByPkExec::new(input, pk.iter().map(|c| c.to_string()).collect());
+        let stream = exec.execute(0, SessionContext::new().task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let out: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        out.iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("tag")
+                    .expect("tag is projected")
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .expect("tag is Int32")
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn string_pk_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("pk", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("tag", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn string_pk_batch(schema: &SchemaRef, pks: Vec<Option<&str>>, tags: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(pks)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(tags.to_vec())),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// `seen` spans the whole stream, so a key repeated in a later batch is
+    /// dropped even though nothing in that batch repeats.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn duplicates_are_dropped_across_batch_boundaries() {
+        let schema = string_pk_schema();
+        let batches = vec![
+            string_pk_batch(&schema, vec![Some("a"), Some("b")], &[1, 2]),
+            string_pk_batch(&schema, vec![Some("a"), Some("c")], &[3, 4]),
+        ];
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            kept_tags(schema, batches, &["pk"]).await,
+            vec![1, 2, 4],
+            "the second 'a' must be dropped and the first kept"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A composite key collapses only on the whole tuple — sharing one component
+    /// is not a duplicate.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn composite_keys_collapse_on_the_whole_tuple() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("pk_a", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("pk_b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("tag", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("x"), Some("x"), Some("x")])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 1])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            kept_tags(schema, vec![batch], &["pk_a", "pk_b"]).await,
+            vec![1, 2],
+            "('x', 2) is a distinct key; the repeated ('x', 1) is not"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Null keys collapse with each other and stay distinct from the empty
+    /// string, which the row encoding separates by a leading sentinel.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn null_keys_collapse_and_stay_distinct_from_empty() {
+        let schema = string_pk_schema();
+        let batch = string_pk_batch(
+            &schema,
+            vec![None, Some(""), None, Some("a")],
+            &[1, 2, 3, 4],
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            kept_tags(schema, vec![batch], &["pk"]).await,
+            vec![1, 2, 4],
+            "the repeated null drops; the empty string is its own key"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/generation_tag.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/generation_tag.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9c1d0060a78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/generation_tag.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,282 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! MemTable generation tagging execution node.
+
+use std::fmt;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::error::Result as DFResult;
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, ExecutionPlanProperties, PlanProperties,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
+};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt};
+
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::LsmGeneration;
+
+/// Column name for MemTable generation in LSM scans.
+///
+/// This column indicates which generation (MemTable flush version) a row came from:
+/// - Base table rows have generation 0
+/// - MemTable rows have generation 1, 2, 3, ... (higher = newer)
+pub const MEMTABLE_GEN_COLUMN: &str = "_memtable_gen";
+
+/// Wraps a scan executor to add MemTable generation column.
+///
+/// This node adds a `_memtable_gen` column with a constant value to all output batches.
+/// The generation column is used for deduplication ordering:
+/// - Base table: gen = 0
+/// - MemTables: gen = 1, 2, 3, ... (higher = newer)
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct MemtableGenTagExec {
+    /// Child execution plan.
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    /// Generation number to tag rows with.
+    generation: LsmGeneration,
+    /// Output schema (input schema + _gen column).
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Plan properties.
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl MemtableGenTagExec {
+    /// Create a new generation tagging executor.
+    pub fn new(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, generation: LsmGeneration) -> Self {
+        let input_schema = input.schema();
+
+        // Build output schema: input columns + _gen
+        let mut fields: Vec<Arc<Field>> = input_schema.fields().iter().cloned().collect();
+        fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new(
+            MEMTABLE_GEN_COLUMN,
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(fields));
+
+        // Preserve input properties
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            input.output_partitioning().clone(),
+            input.pipeline_behavior(),
+            input.boundedness(),
+        ));
+
+        Self {
+            input,
+            generation,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the generation this executor tags.
+    pub fn generation(&self) -> LsmGeneration {
+        self.generation
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for MemtableGenTagExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default
+            | DisplayFormatType::Verbose
+            | DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(f, "MemtableGenTagExec: gen={}", self.generation)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for MemtableGenTagExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "MemtableGenTagExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "MemtableGenTagExec requires exactly one child".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(children[0].clone(), self.generation)))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DFResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let input_stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        Ok(Box::pin(GenerationTagStream {
+            input: input_stream,
+            generation: self.generation,
+            schema: self.schema.clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Stream that adds generation column to batches.
+struct GenerationTagStream {
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    generation: LsmGeneration,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+}
+
+impl Stream for GenerationTagStream {
+    type Item = DFResult<RecordBatch>;
+
+    fn poll_next(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        match self.input.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => {
+                let result = self.add_generation_column(batch);
+                Poll::Ready(Some(result))
+            }
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))) => Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))),
+            Poll::Ready(None) => Poll::Ready(None),
+            Poll::Pending => Poll::Pending,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl GenerationTagStream {
+    fn add_generation_column(&self, batch: RecordBatch) -> DFResult<RecordBatch> {
+        let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+        let gen_value = self.generation.as_u64();
+
+        // Create generation column with constant value
+        let gen_array = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![gen_value; num_rows]));
+
+        // Append to existing columns
+        let mut columns: Vec<Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>> = batch.columns().to_vec();
+        columns.push(gen_array);
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(self.schema.clone(), columns)
+            .map_err(|e| datafusion::error::DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+    }
+}
+
+impl datafusion::physical_plan::RecordBatchStream for GenerationTagStream {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray, UInt64Array};
+    use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::test::TestMemoryExec;
+
+    fn create_test_batch() -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_generation_tag_exec() {
+        let batch = create_test_batch();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch]], schema, None).unwrap();
+
+        let tag_exec = MemtableGenTagExec::new(input, LsmGeneration::memtable(5));
+
+        // Verify schema has _gen column
+        let output_schema = tag_exec.schema();
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.fields().len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.field(2).name(), MEMTABLE_GEN_COLUMN);
+        assert_eq!(output_schema.field(2).data_type(), &DataType::UInt64);
+
+        // Execute and verify data
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = tag_exec.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream.collect::<Vec<_>>().await;
+
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        let result = batches[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_columns(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3);
+
+        // Check _gen column values
+        let gen_col = result
+            .column(2)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(gen_col.value(0), 5);
+        assert_eq!(gen_col.value(1), 5);
+        assert_eq!(gen_col.value(2), 5);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_generation_tag_base_table() {
+        let batch = create_test_batch();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch]], schema, None).unwrap();
+
+        let tag_exec = MemtableGenTagExec::new(input, LsmGeneration::BASE_TABLE);
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = tag_exec.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream.collect::<Vec<_>>().await;
+
+        let result = batches[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        let gen_col = result
+            .column(2)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Base table has gen = 0
+        assert_eq!(gen_col.value(0), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_display() {
+        let batch = create_test_batch();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch]], schema, None).unwrap();
+        let tag_exec = MemtableGenTagExec::new(input, LsmGeneration::memtable(3));
+
+        // Test fmt_as directly
+        let mut buf = String::new();
+        use std::fmt::Write;
+        write!(buf, "{:?}", tag_exec).unwrap();
+        assert!(buf.contains("MemtableGenTagExec"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/pk.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/pk.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..af1e7696181
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/pk.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Shared primary-key helpers for the LSM scanner execution nodes.
+//!
+//! Centralizes PK column resolution and per-row hashing so that every
+//! consumer (e.g. [`super::PkBlockFilterExec`])
+//! resolves and hashes a primary key the same way. The row hash is kept
+//! consistent with the variants supported by [`super::compute_pk_hash_from_scalars`]
+//! so a single PK produces the same hash regardless of which exec consumes it.
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DFResult};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Column name for a row address (the in-source row offset).
+pub const ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN: &str = "_rowaddr";
+
+/// Resolve the column index of each primary-key column in `batch`.
+pub fn resolve_pk_indices(batch: &RecordBatch, pk_columns: &[String]) -> DFResult<Vec<usize>> {
+    pk_columns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|col| {
+            batch
+                .schema()
+                .column_with_name(col)
+                .map(|(idx, _)| idx)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal(format!("Primary key column '{}' not found", col))
+                })
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Primary-key column types we can hash exactly in the fast path.
+///
+/// Anything else is rejected by [`validate_pk_types`] at the scanner boundary,
+/// so the hot hash path never silently collapses distinct keys to one hash
+/// (which would over-block in the block-list and drop live rows).
+pub fn is_supported_pk_type(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        data_type,
+        DataType::Int8
+            | DataType::Int16
+            | DataType::Int32
+            | DataType::Int64
+            | DataType::UInt8
+            | DataType::UInt16
+            | DataType::UInt32
+            | DataType::UInt64
+            | DataType::Boolean
+            | DataType::Utf8
+            | DataType::LargeUtf8
+            | DataType::Binary
+            | DataType::LargeBinary
+    )
+}
+
+/// Validate that every primary-key column has a type we can hash exactly.
+///
+/// Rejects unsupported types with a descriptive error at the API boundary
+/// rather than degrading to a constant hash. Call this where a scanner that
+/// hashes primary keys is built.
+pub fn validate_pk_types(schema: &Schema, pk_columns: &[String]) -> Result<()> {
+    for col in pk_columns {
+        let field = schema.field_with_name(col).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Primary key column '{}' not found in schema", col))
+        })?;
+        if !is_supported_pk_type(field.data_type()) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Primary key column '{}' has unsupported type {:?} for hashing; supported types: \
+                 Int8/16/32/64, UInt8/16/32/64, Boolean, Utf8/LargeUtf8, Binary/LargeBinary",
+                col,
+                field.data_type()
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Hash a single row's primary key, identified by the `pk_indices` column
+/// positions and `row_idx`.
+///
+/// Must stay byte-for-byte consistent with
+/// [`super::compute_pk_hash_from_scalars`] so a single PK hashes the same
+/// regardless of which exec consumes it. Supported types are validated up
+/// front by [`validate_pk_types`]; the trailing branch is a defensive,
+/// value-distinguishing fallback that should be unreachable in validated plans.
+pub fn compute_pk_hash(batch: &RecordBatch, pk_indices: &[usize], row_idx: usize) -> u64 {
+    use std::collections::hash_map::DefaultHasher;
+    use std::hash::{Hash, Hasher};
+
+    let mut hasher = DefaultHasher::new();
+    for &col_idx in pk_indices {
+        let col = batch.column(col_idx);
+        let is_null = col.is_null(row_idx);
+        is_null.hash(&mut hasher);
+
+        if !is_null {
+            if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int8Array>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int16Array>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int32Array>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int64Array>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt8Array>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt16Array>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt32Array>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BooleanArray>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StringArray>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::LargeStringArray>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BinaryArray>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Some(arr) = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray>() {
+                arr.value(row_idx).hash(&mut hasher);
+            } else if let Ok(scalar) = ScalarValue::try_from_array(col.as_ref(), row_idx) {
+                // Defensive fallback: distinguish by value rather than collapse.
+                format!("{:?}", scalar).hash(&mut hasher);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    hasher.finish()
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/pk_block_filter.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/pk_block_filter.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ef2dc695dfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/pk_block_filter.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,374 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Drop superseded rows from a per-source result by primary-key membership.
+//!
+//! Drops a row when any newer generation's membership ([`GenMembership`])
+//! contains its primary key — in-memory generations probe their PK index by
+//! value, SSTables probe their on-disk PK BTree. Each generation is
+//! probed once per batch (see the perf note below). Used both as the KNN
+//! post-filter (vector search, with over-fetch) and the cross-generation scan
+//! filter (`k = 0`).
+//!
+//! Cross-generation only: within-gen duplicates collapse via the global dedup's
+//! `(generation, freshness)` tiebreaker.
+//!
+//! Post-filters an over-fetched KNN (the planner's `overfetch_factor`); warns
+//! when a source had >= k candidates but < k survived (over-fetch too small).
+//!
+//! Perf note: each generation is probed once per batch via
+//! [`GenMembership::contains_keys`] — a batched existence check over the
+//! batch's keys — not once per row. The on-disk arm issues a single
+//! `BTreeIndex::contains_keys` (one page pass, no per-key `SearchResult`
+//! allocation); the in-memory arm maps a sync PK lookup over the keys. Probes
+//! are not disk-bound in steady state: the opened index and its (small,
+//! memtable-sized) pages are held by the injected `SsTableCache` /
+//! `LanceCache`, so after the first touch every probe is memory-resident.
+//! Already-blocked rows are dropped from the key set before probing older
+//! generations, preserving the per-row short-circuit.
+
+use std::fmt;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+use arrow::compute::filter_record_batch;
+use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DFResult};
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, ExecutionPlanProperties, PlanProperties,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
+};
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt};
+use tracing::warn;
+
+use super::super::block_list::{GenMembership, on_disk_pk_key};
+use super::pk::resolve_pk_indices;
+
+/// Filters out rows whose PK is contained in any newer generation's membership.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct PkBlockFilterExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    /// Newer generations' membership; a row is blocked if any contains its PK.
+    blocked: Vec<GenMembership>,
+    /// Target neighbor count, used only to warn on a per-source under-fetch.
+    k: usize,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl PkBlockFilterExec {
+    pub fn new(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+        blocked: Vec<GenMembership>,
+        k: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // A filter preserves the input schema and partitioning.
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(input.schema()),
+            input.output_partitioning().clone(),
+            input.pipeline_behavior(),
+            input.boundedness(),
+        ));
+        Self {
+            input,
+            pk_columns,
+            blocked,
+            k,
+            properties,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for PkBlockFilterExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default
+            | DisplayFormatType::Verbose
+            | DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[{}], gens={}",
+                    self.pk_columns.join(", "),
+                    self.blocked.len(),
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for PkBlockFilterExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "PkBlockFilterExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.input.schema()
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "PkBlockFilterExec requires exactly one child".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
+            children[0].clone(),
+            self.pk_columns.clone(),
+            self.blocked.clone(),
+            self.k,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DFResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let input_stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        Ok(Box::pin(PkBlockFilterStream {
+            input: input_stream,
+            config: Arc::new(FilterConfig {
+                pk_columns: self.pk_columns.clone(),
+                blocked: self.blocked.clone(),
+            }),
+            k: self.k,
+            schema: self.schema(),
+            pending: None,
+            input_seen: 0,
+            kept: 0,
+            warned: false,
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Immutable per-stream filter config. Shared into each batch's `'static` async
+/// future by a single `Arc` clone, rather than deep-cloning the PK columns and
+/// memberships per batch.
+struct FilterConfig {
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    blocked: Vec<GenMembership>,
+}
+
+struct PkBlockFilterStream {
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    config: Arc<FilterConfig>,
+    k: usize,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// The in-flight filter for the batch currently being processed (the probe
+    /// is async, so a batch is filtered off-poll and resumed here).
+    pending: Option<BoxFuture<'static, DFResult<RecordBatch>>>,
+    input_seen: usize,
+    kept: usize,
+    warned: bool,
+}
+
+/// Keep only the rows no newer-gen membership contains. Async because SSTables
+/// are probed against their on-disk PK BTree.
+async fn filter_batch(batch: RecordBatch, config: Arc<FilterConfig>) -> DFResult<RecordBatch> {
+    let FilterConfig {
+        pk_columns,
+        blocked,
+    } = config.as_ref();
+    if blocked.is_empty() || batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+        return Ok(batch);
+    }
+    let pk_indices = resolve_pk_indices(&batch, pk_columns)?;
+    let to_df = |e: lance_core::Error| DataFusionError::Execution(e.to_string());
+
+    // One key per row, in the index key space.
+    let keys: Vec<ScalarValue> = (0..batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|row| {
+            let values: Vec<ScalarValue> = pk_indices
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&col| ScalarValue::try_from_array(batch.column(col), row))
+                .collect::<DFResult<_>>()?;
+            on_disk_pk_key(&values).map_err(to_df)
+        })
+        .collect::<DFResult<_>>()?;
+
+    // A row is dropped if any newer generation contains its key. Probe each
+    // generation once (batched) rather than once per row, narrowing to the
+    // still-live rows so an already-blocked row isn't re-probed against older
+    // generations.
+    let mut blocked_row = vec![false; keys.len()];
+    let mut live: Vec<usize> = (0..keys.len()).collect();
+    for membership in blocked {
+        if live.is_empty() {
+            break;
+        }
+        let live_keys: Vec<ScalarValue> = live.iter().map(|&i| keys[i].clone()).collect();
+        let mask = membership.contains_keys(&live_keys).await.map_err(to_df)?;
+        let mut next_live = Vec::with_capacity(live.len());
+        for (pos, &row) in live.iter().enumerate() {
+            if mask[pos] {
+                blocked_row[row] = true;
+            } else {
+                next_live.push(row);
+            }
+        }
+        live = next_live;
+    }
+
+    let keep = BooleanArray::from_iter(blocked_row.into_iter().map(|b| Some(!b)));
+    filter_record_batch(&batch, &keep).map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+}
+
+impl Stream for PkBlockFilterStream {
+    type Item = DFResult<RecordBatch>;
+
+    fn poll_next(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        let this = self.get_mut();
+        loop {
+            // Drive an in-flight filter to completion before pulling more input.
+            if let Some(fut) = this.pending.as_mut() {
+                return match fut.as_mut().poll(cx) {
+                    Poll::Ready(Ok(out)) => {
+                        this.pending = None;
+                        this.kept += out.num_rows();
+                        Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(out)))
+                    }
+                    Poll::Ready(Err(e)) => {
+                        this.pending = None;
+                        Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e)))
+                    }
+                    Poll::Pending => Poll::Pending,
+                };
+            }
+
+            match this.input.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
+                Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => {
+                    this.input_seen += batch.num_rows();
+                    this.pending = Some(filter_batch(batch, this.config.clone()).boxed());
+                    // Loop to poll the just-created future.
+                }
+                Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))) => return Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))),
+                Poll::Ready(None) => {
+                    // >= k candidates in, < k out: over-fetch missed superseded
+                    // rows. Each is a PK shadowed by a newer generation — an
+                    // update (replaced elsewhere) or a delete (a tombstone that
+                    // emits nothing, so it is pure, uncompensated subtraction).
+                    // A burst of deletes between compactions is the likeliest
+                    // cause of repeated warnings.
+                    if !this.warned && this.input_seen >= this.k && this.kept < this.k {
+                        warn!(
+                            k = this.k,
+                            fetched = this.input_seen,
+                            kept = this.kept,
+                            "LSM vector search: < k live rows survived the PK post-filter \
+                             (superseded by newer-generation updates or deletes); \
+                             raise the over-fetch factor or use a true KNN prefilter."
+                        );
+                        this.warned = true;
+                    }
+                    return Poll::Ready(None);
+                }
+                Poll::Pending => return Poll::Pending,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl datafusion::physical_plan::RecordBatchStream for PkBlockFilterStream {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+    use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::test::TestMemoryExec;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+    fn int_batch(ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec()))]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// An in-memory membership whose PK index holds `ids` (positions 0..n).
+    fn membership(ids: &[i32]) -> GenMembership {
+        let store = BatchStore::with_capacity(16);
+        let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+        index.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        for &id in ids {
+            let b = int_batch(&[id]);
+            let (bp, off, _) = store.append(b.clone()).unwrap();
+            index.insert_with_batch_position(&b, off, Some(bp)).unwrap();
+        }
+        let max_visible_row = store.max_visible_row(index.visible_count());
+        GenMembership::InMemory {
+            index_store: Arc::new(index),
+            max_visible_row,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn run(exec: PkBlockFilterExec) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let out: Vec<RecordBatch> = exec
+            .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        out.iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn drops_rows_blocked_by_a_newer_generation() {
+        let b = int_batch(&[10, 20, 30]);
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![b.clone()]], b.schema(), None).unwrap();
+        let exec =
+            PkBlockFilterExec::new(input, vec!["id".to_string()], vec![membership(&[20])], 1);
+        assert_eq!(run(exec).await, vec![10, 30]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn blocks_a_pk_present_in_any_generation() {
+        // Two newer-gen memberships: a row is dropped if either contains its PK.
+        let b = int_batch(&[10, 20, 30]);
+        let blocked = vec![membership(&[10]), membership(&[30])];
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![b.clone()]], b.schema(), None).unwrap();
+        let exec = PkBlockFilterExec::new(input, vec!["id".to_string()], blocked, 1);
+        assert_eq!(run(exec).await, vec![20]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn empty_blocked_keeps_all_rows() {
+        let b = int_batch(&[1, 2, 3]);
+        let input = TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![b.clone()]], b.schema(), None).unwrap();
+        let exec = PkBlockFilterExec::new(input, vec!["id".to_string()], Vec::new(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(run(exec).await, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/reconcile.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/reconcile.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5f9e9847f93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/reconcile.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Applying a [`Plan`] to a source's batches.
+
+use std::fmt;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DFResult};
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties, RecordBatchStream,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
+};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt};
+
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::reconcile::Plan;
+
+/// Brings one source's batches to the schema the scan reads in.
+///
+/// The same [`Plan`] replay applies to a WAL entry, so a generation and an
+/// entry written under the same schema are reconciled the same way.
+pub struct ReconcileExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    plan: Arc<Plan>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl ReconcileExec {
+    pub fn new(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, plan: Arc<Plan>) -> Self {
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(Arc::clone(plan.target())),
+            input.properties().output_partitioning().clone(),
+            input.properties().emission_type,
+            input.properties().boundedness,
+        ));
+        Self {
+            input,
+            plan,
+            properties,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Debug for ReconcileExec {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "ReconcileExec")
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for ReconcileExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, _t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "ReconcileExec")
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for ReconcileExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "ReconcileExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::clone(self.plan.target())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
+            children
+                .into_iter()
+                .next()
+                .ok_or_else(|| DataFusionError::Internal("ReconcileExec needs one child".into()))?,
+            Arc::clone(&self.plan),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DFResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        Ok(Box::pin(ReconcileStream {
+            input: self.input.execute(partition, context)?,
+            plan: Arc::clone(&self.plan),
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+struct ReconcileStream {
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    plan: Arc<Plan>,
+}
+
+impl Stream for ReconcileStream {
+    type Item = DFResult<RecordBatch>;
+
+    fn poll_next(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        match self.input.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => Poll::Ready(Some(
+                self.plan
+                    .apply(&batch)
+                    .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(e))),
+            )),
+            other => other,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl RecordBatchStream for ReconcileStream {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::clone(self.plan.target())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/schema_relabel.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/schema_relabel.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e629bc3e293
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/exec/schema_relabel.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,260 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Schema re-labeling execution node.
+
+use std::fmt;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::reconcile::relabel_to;
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchOptions};
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DFResult};
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, ExecutionPlanProperties, PlanProperties,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
+};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt};
+
+/// Re-labels every batch to an exact target schema, leaving the arrays
+/// untouched. `ProjectionExec` cannot: DataFusion derives output nullability
+/// from the expressions, not from the schema the planner intended.
+///
+/// **Widening** makes a shard's storage schema (see `relax_non_pk_nullability`)
+/// agree with the base-table arm before `UnionExec` / `CoalesceFirstExec`.
+/// **Narrowing** restores the logical schema at the scan's output boundary and
+/// doubles as the tombstone-leak check, since `RecordBatch` validation rejects
+/// a null in a non-nullable column.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct SchemaRelabelExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl SchemaRelabelExec {
+    /// Wrap `input` so its batches are re-labeled to `schema`: same column
+    /// count, order, and data types; only names, nullability, and metadata may
+    /// differ. A mismatch surfaces per batch at execution time, not plan time.
+    pub fn new(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, schema: SchemaRef) -> Self {
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            input.output_partitioning().clone(),
+            input.pipeline_behavior(),
+            input.boundedness(),
+        ));
+        Self {
+            input,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for SchemaRelabelExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default
+            | DisplayFormatType::Verbose
+            | DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(f, "SchemaRelabelExec")
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for SchemaRelabelExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "SchemaRelabelExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "SchemaRelabelExec requires exactly one child".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
+            children[0].clone(),
+            self.schema.clone(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DFResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        Ok(Box::pin(SchemaRelabelStream {
+            input: self.input.execute(partition, context)?,
+            schema: self.schema.clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+struct SchemaRelabelStream {
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+}
+
+impl Stream for SchemaRelabelStream {
+    type Item = DFResult<RecordBatch>;
+
+    fn poll_next(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        match self.input.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => {
+                // Carry the row count explicitly: `try_new` infers it from the
+                // first column, which a column-less batch does not have.
+                // A nested column carries its field ids inside its own type, so
+                // relabelling the schema alone would leave the arrays
+                // disagreeing with it.
+                let columns: Result<Vec<_>, _> = batch
+                    .columns()
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(self.schema.fields())
+                    .map(|(column, field)| {
+                        relabel_to(column, field.data_type())
+                            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(e)))
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                let relabeled = columns.and_then(|columns| {
+                    RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+                        self.schema.clone(),
+                        columns,
+                        &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(batch.num_rows())),
+                    )
+                    .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+                });
+                Poll::Ready(Some(relabeled))
+            }
+            other => other,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl datafusion::physical_plan::RecordBatchStream for SchemaRelabelStream {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::test::TestMemoryExec;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+    fn schema_with(nullable: bool) -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, nullable),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn source(batch: RecordBatch) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch.clone()]], batch.schema(), None).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn batch(schema: SchemaRef, names: Vec<Option<&str>>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = (0..names.len() as i32).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn run(plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> DFResult<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())?.try_collect().await
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn widening_preserves_rows_and_reports_target_schema() {
+        let input = source(batch(schema_with(false), vec![Some("a"), Some("b")]));
+        let relabeled = Arc::new(SchemaRelabelExec::new(input, schema_with(true)));
+
+        assert_eq!(relabeled.schema(), schema_with(true));
+        let out = run(relabeled).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(out[0].schema(), schema_with(true));
+        assert_eq!(out[0].num_rows(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn narrowing_succeeds_when_no_nulls_remain() {
+        // Post-tombstone-filter: `name` is nullable in storage, but every
+        // surviving row has a value.
+        let input = source(batch(schema_with(true), vec![Some("a"), Some("b")]));
+        let relabeled = Arc::new(SchemaRelabelExec::new(input, schema_with(false)));
+
+        let out = run(relabeled).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out[0].schema(), schema_with(false));
+        assert_eq!(out[0].num_rows(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn narrowing_rejects_a_surviving_null() {
+        // A tombstone that escaped its filter must error here, not reach the
+        // caller as a row of nulls.
+        let input = source(batch(schema_with(true), vec![Some("a"), None]));
+        let relabeled = Arc::new(SchemaRelabelExec::new(input, schema_with(false)));
+
+        let error = run(relabeled).await.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            error.contains("non-nullable") && error.contains("name"),
+            "expected a nullability error naming the column, got: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn empty_batch_is_relabeled() {
+        let input = source(batch(schema_with(true), vec![]));
+        let relabeled = Arc::new(SchemaRelabelExec::new(input, schema_with(false)));
+
+        let out = run(relabeled).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(out.iter().all(|b| b.num_rows() == 0));
+        assert!(out.iter().all(|b| b.schema() == schema_with(false)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn empty_batch_is_still_checked_against_the_target_schema() {
+        let input = source(batch(schema_with(true), vec![]));
+        let mistyped = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let relabeled = Arc::new(SchemaRelabelExec::new(input, mistyped));
+
+        let error = run(relabeled).await.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            error.contains("cannot be read as Int32"),
+            "expected a data type error, got: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/fts_search.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/fts_search.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..39fad0c7239
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/fts_search.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,5490 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Full-text search planner for LSM scanner (local scoring).
+//!
+//! Builds an execution plan that scores an FTS query across the base
+//! table, SSTable generations, and the active/frozen-undrained
+//! in-memory memtables, returning rows ordered by BM25 `_score` DESC.
+//!
+//! # Scoring
+//!
+//! Each source scores with its own corpus statistics (local BM25), and
+//! the coordinator unions the per-source plans and merges by `_score`
+//! (per-partition top-k sort + sort-preserving merge). The plan is
+//! single-pass and never coordinates statistics across sources, so
+//! cross-source `_score` values are only approximately comparable — but
+//! within each source the ranking is exact. This mirrors the default
+//! `query_then_fetch` trade-off of distributed search systems.
+//!
+//! A globally-consistent scoring mode (aggregate corpus statistics
+//! across sources, then rescore) is a deliberate follow-up: the
+//! benchmark in this PR shows it carries a real latency penalty, so the
+//! local path lands first and the global option is optimized separately.
+//!
+//! Staleness: within an SSTable, the deletion vector written
+//! at flush time (see #6929) already masks rows superseded by a newer
+//! generation, so per-source results are clean within each tier. The
+//! same primary key can still appear across tiers (active vs SSTable)
+//! when an updated row sits in the active memtable while the older
+//! copy lives in an SSTable; cross-tier deduplication is
+//! left to the caller in local mode.
+//!
+//! Everything here is contained in the `mem_wal` module — it reuses the
+//! existing per-source FTS read paths (`scanner.full_text_search` for
+//! base/SSTable Lance datasets, `MemTableScanner` for the active
+//! memtable) and requires no changes to `lance-index`.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef, SortOptions};
+use datafusion::physical_expr::expressions::Column;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::{LexOrdering, PhysicalSortExpr};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::limit::GlobalLimitExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort_preserving_merge::SortPreservingMergeExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::union::UnionExec;
+use datafusion::prelude::Expr;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, is_system_column};
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery as IndexFtsQuery, Operator};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{DOC_INDEX_COL, DOC_INDEX_FIELD, DocumentGranularity};
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+use super::block_list::compute_source_block_lists;
+use super::collector::LsmDataSourceCollector;
+use super::data_source::LsmDataSource;
+use super::exec::{FirstByPkExec, PkBlockFilterExec};
+use super::generation_read::{GenerationRead, memtable_matches_table};
+use super::projection::{
+    project_to_canonical, resolve_data_fields, top_level_of, validate_projection_names,
+};
+use super::sstable_cache::{DatasetCache, SsTableWarmer, open_sstable};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::MemTableScanner;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+use crate::index::scalar::inverted::{
+    indexed_fts_document_granularities, indexed_fts_index_params, resolve_fts_field,
+};
+use crate::session::Session;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+/// `_score` column name in FTS results — kept aligned with
+/// `lance_index::scalar::inverted::SCORE_COL` so this module doesn't
+/// require an import for one string constant.
+pub const SCORE_COLUMN: &str = "_score";
+
+/// Default over-fetch multiple for blocked sources. `1.0` keeps cross-generation
+/// dedup on with no over-fetch; callers (e.g. the sophon WAL handler) raise it
+/// so a blocked source still yields `k` live rows after the block-list filter.
+const DEFAULT_OVERFETCH_FACTOR: f64 = 1.0;
+
+fn requested_query_document_granularity(
+    query: &IndexFtsQuery,
+) -> Result<Option<DocumentGranularity>> {
+    fn merge(
+        current: &mut Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+        requested: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let Some(requested) = requested else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        if let Some(current) = current
+            && *current != requested
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "FTS queries cannot mix Row and ListElement document granularities".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        *current = Some(requested);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit(query: &IndexFtsQuery, current: &mut Option<DocumentGranularity>) -> Result<()> {
+        match query {
+            IndexFtsQuery::Match(query) => merge(current, query.document_granularity),
+            IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(query) => merge(current, query.document_granularity),
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                visit(&query.positive, current)?;
+                visit(&query.negative, current)
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                for child in query
+                    .must
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(&query.should)
+                    .chain(&query.must_not)
+                {
+                    visit(child, current)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                for child in &query.match_queries {
+                    merge(current, child.document_granularity)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            // BM25F blends the target columns per row, so combined_fields is
+            // row-granular by construction and carries no granularity field.
+            // Merging Row still catches a tree that mixes it with a
+            // list-element leaf.
+            IndexFtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => merge(current, Some(DocumentGranularity::Row)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut requested = None;
+    visit(query, &mut requested)?;
+    Ok(requested)
+}
+
+fn set_query_document_granularity(
+    query: &mut IndexFtsQuery,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+) {
+    match query {
+        IndexFtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+            query.document_granularity = Some(document_granularity);
+        }
+        IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
+            query.document_granularity = Some(document_granularity);
+        }
+        IndexFtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+            set_query_document_granularity(&mut query.positive, document_granularity);
+            set_query_document_granularity(&mut query.negative, document_granularity);
+        }
+        IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+            for child in query
+                .must
+                .iter_mut()
+                .chain(&mut query.should)
+                .chain(&mut query.must_not)
+            {
+                set_query_document_granularity(child, document_granularity);
+            }
+        }
+        IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+            for child in &mut query.match_queries {
+                child.document_granularity = Some(document_granularity);
+            }
+        }
+        // Row-granular by construction, and it carries no field to set.
+        IndexFtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {}
+    }
+}
+
+fn query_document_granularity(query: &FullTextSearchQuery) -> Result<DocumentGranularity> {
+    requested_query_document_granularity(&query.query)?.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal("LSM FTS query document granularity was not resolved".to_string())
+    })
+}
+
+fn resolve_document_granularity_from_candidates(
+    column: &str,
+    requested: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+    mut available: Vec<DocumentGranularity>,
+) -> Result<DocumentGranularity> {
+    available.sort_by_key(|document_granularity| match document_granularity {
+        DocumentGranularity::Row => 0,
+        DocumentGranularity::ListElement => 1,
+    });
+    available.dedup();
+    match requested {
+        Some(requested) if available.is_empty() || available.contains(&requested) => Ok(requested),
+        Some(requested) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "FTS query for field '{column}' requested {requested:?} document granularity, but \
+             the MemWAL sources use a different indexed granularity: {available:?}"
+        ))),
+        None if available.is_empty() => Ok(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+        None if available.len() == 1 => Ok(available[0]),
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "FTS query for field '{column}' is ambiguous because Row and ListElement indexes \
+             coexist across MemWAL sources; specify document_granularity"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_source_document_granularities(
+    column: &str,
+    resolved: DocumentGranularity,
+    source_granularities: &[Vec<DocumentGranularity>],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    for granularities in source_granularities {
+        if !granularities.is_empty() && !granularities.contains(&resolved) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS query for field '{column}' resolved to {resolved:?}, but a MemWAL source has \
+                 only incompatible indexed granularities: {granularities:?}"
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Reject the query shapes the active memtable arm cannot evaluate.
+///
+/// Only one remains: a fuzzy Match cannot also require every term, because the
+/// fuzzy path expands each term independently and unions the expansions. A
+/// multi-match is checked leaf by leaf under the same rule.
+fn validate_lsm_fts_query(query: &FullTextSearchQuery) -> Result<()> {
+    fn visit(query: &IndexFtsQuery) -> Result<()> {
+        match query {
+            IndexFtsQuery::Match(m) => {
+                if m.fuzziness != Some(0) && m.operator != Operator::Or {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                        "LSM fuzzy full-text search only supports OR match operators".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(_) => Ok(()),
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boost(b) => {
+                visit(&b.positive)?;
+                visit(&b.negative)
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(b) => {
+                for child in b.must.iter().chain(&b.should).chain(&b.must_not) {
+                    visit(child)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(m) => {
+                for leaf in &m.match_queries {
+                    visit(&IndexFtsQuery::Match(leaf.clone()))?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            // BM25F needs corpus-wide field statistics that the memtable's
+            // in-memory index does not maintain.
+            IndexFtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "LSM full-text search does not support combined_fields (BM25F)".to_string(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+    visit(&query.query)
+}
+
+/// Bind `query` to the names a generation stores its columns under.
+///
+/// `stored_columns` pairs each table name with its stored name. No limit is
+/// set here; each caller applies its own.
+fn bind_to_stored_columns(
+    query: &FullTextSearchQuery,
+    columns: &[String],
+    stored_columns: &[(String, String)],
+) -> Result<FullTextSearchQuery> {
+    match stored_columns {
+        // No column was renamed: keep each leaf bound to its own column.
+        _ if stored_columns.iter().all(|(asked, stored)| asked == stored) => match columns {
+            [column] => query.clone().with_column(column.clone()),
+            _ => Ok(query.clone()),
+        },
+        // One renamed column: bind the query to its stored name.
+        [(_, stored)] => query.clone().with_column(stored.clone()),
+        // Several columns and one was renamed. `with_column` would bind every
+        // leaf to the same column, so refuse instead of ranking the wrong one.
+        moved => {
+            let renamed: Vec<String> = moved
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|(asked, stored)| asked != stored)
+                .map(|(asked, stored)| format!("{asked} (stored as {stored})"))
+                .collect();
+            Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "a full-text search over several columns cannot read a generation written \
+                 before one of them was renamed: {}. Wait for the generation to merge into \
+                 base, or search the columns separately",
+                renamed.join(", ")
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn active_source_can_execute_fts(
+    source: &LsmDataSource,
+    column: &str,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+) -> bool {
+    match source {
+        LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+            batch_store,
+            index_store,
+            ..
+        } => {
+            index_store
+                .get_fts_by_column_and_granularity(column, document_granularity)
+                .is_some_and(|index| !index.is_empty())
+                && batch_store
+                    .max_visible_row(index_store.visible_count())
+                    .is_some()
+        }
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build a throwaway [`IndexStore`] carrying an inverted index on `column`,
+/// populated from the memtable's visible prefix.
+///
+/// The active memtable indexes only the columns in the write spec's maintained
+/// set, and that set is fixed when the spec is installed — an FTS index created
+/// afterwards can never join it. Without this, the arm for such a column is
+/// `empty_plan()`: the query succeeds, the plan says it consulted the memtable,
+/// and every matching row still in memory is missing from the answer.
+///
+/// Indexing at query time costs a tokenize pass over the visible rows, which is
+/// what any brute-force scoring would cost anyway — and going through a real
+/// index means every query shape works here exactly as it does on a maintained
+/// column, compound trees included, rather than a hand-written subset.
+///
+/// Returns `None` when the memtable has no visible rows, so an empty memtable
+/// pays nothing.
+fn transient_fts_index_store(
+    batch_store: &Arc<BatchStore>,
+    source: &IndexStore,
+    schema: &SchemaRef,
+    columns: &[String],
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+    index_params: &HashMap<&str, InvertedIndexParams>,
+) -> Result<Option<Arc<IndexStore>>> {
+    let visible_batches = source.visible_count();
+    if visible_batches == 0 {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let field_ids = columns
+        .iter()
+        .map(|column| {
+            schema
+                .index_of(column)
+                .map(|field_id| (column.as_str(), field_id as i32))
+                .map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "FTS query column '{column}' is not in the MemWAL schema"
+                    ))
+                })
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+    // PK columns first: `enable_pk_index` refuses to run once a search index
+    // holds rows, and the FTS exec needs the PK index to drop superseded
+    // postings before it applies the query limit.
+    let mut store = IndexStore::new();
+    if !pk_columns.is_empty() {
+        let resolved = pk_columns
+            .iter()
+            .map(|name| {
+                schema
+                    .index_of(name)
+                    .map(|idx| (name.clone(), idx as i32))
+                    .map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "primary-key column '{name}' is not in the MemWAL schema"
+                        ))
+                    })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        store.enable_pk_index(&resolved);
+    }
+    // Inherit the persisted index's analyzer and positional settings. They are
+    // part of the query contract: a phrase query needs positions, and a
+    // stemming or n-gram tokenizer changes which terms a document produces, so
+    // defaults here would have the active rows disagree with base and SSTable
+    // rows about what matches — silently, by returning fewer rows. Defaults are
+    // right only when no persisted index covers the column, where there is no
+    // contract to match — except for positions. The base answers a phrase over
+    // an unindexed column from a flat scan, where positions are implicit, and a
+    // transient index built without them returns no phrase hit for rows the
+    // base finds. The index lives for one query over the visible prefix, so the
+    // extra storage is bounded by that prefix.
+    for (column, field_id) in field_ids {
+        let params = index_params
+            .get(column)
+            .cloned()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true))
+            .document_granularity(document_granularity);
+        store.add_fts_with_params(
+            format!("__transient_fts_{column}"),
+            field_id,
+            column.to_string(),
+            params,
+        )?;
+    }
+
+    // Exactly the prefix the real store publishes. A bare `IndexStore` carries
+    // no durability cursors, so its own `visible_count` is its indexed prefix —
+    // indexing this many batches makes the two agree.
+    for position in 0..visible_batches {
+        let Some(stored) = batch_store.get(position) else {
+            break;
+        };
+        store.insert_with_batch_position(
+            &stored.data,
+            stored.row_offset,
+            Some(stored.batch_position),
+        )?;
+    }
+    Ok(Some(Arc::new(store)))
+}
+
+/// How the planner routes a query across the columns it names.
+enum FtsPlanShape {
+    /// One predicate, evaluated whole by every source against these columns.
+    /// Usually one; several when the tree's leaves name different fields.
+    Bound(Vec<String>),
+    /// A top-level multi-match spanning columns: one independent search per
+    /// leaf, unioned and collapsed to the best hit per row.
+    PerColumn(Vec<(String, IndexFtsQuery)>),
+}
+
+/// Decide how `query` reaches the columns it names.
+///
+/// A top-level multi-match spanning columns decomposes: its leaves are
+/// independent matches — usually one per column, but a column may carry
+/// several — which is exactly what the base-table path scores separately
+/// before taking the best per row. Naming one column, it is a single-index
+/// query like any other and stays bound: the memtable scores it as a
+/// best-child node and the dataset scanner keeps it on its compound scorer, so
+/// it needs no primary key to collapse by. Every other shape spanning columns
+/// is *one* predicate over several fields — `must: [a in title, b in body]` is
+/// a conjunction, not a union of per-column results — so it stays whole and
+/// each source evaluates it across all of them.
+fn fts_plan_shape(query: &IndexFtsQuery) -> Result<FtsPlanShape> {
+    let columns = collect_query_columns(query);
+    if let IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(multi) = query {
+        // Row documents only, whatever the column count: the dataset scanner
+        // refuses element documents for any multi-match, and collapsing arms
+        // per primary key would drop elements anyway.
+        if requested_query_document_granularity(query)?
+            .is_some_and(|granularity| granularity.is_list_element())
+        {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "multi-match full-text search supports row documents only, not list elements"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if columns.len() <= 1 {
+            return Ok(FtsPlanShape::Bound(columns));
+        }
+        return multi
+            .match_queries
+            .iter()
+            .map(|leaf| {
+                let column = leaf.column.clone().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(
+                        "multi-match leaf has no bound column; they are bound at construction"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Ok((column, IndexFtsQuery::Match(leaf.clone())))
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+            .map(FtsPlanShape::PerColumn);
+    }
+    if columns.len() <= 1 {
+        return Ok(FtsPlanShape::Bound(columns));
+    }
+    // The on-disk cross-column path accepts Row documents only
+    // (`validate_row_leaf_granularities`); match that contract rather than
+    // inventing a broader one here.
+    if requested_query_document_granularity(query)?
+        .is_some_and(|granularity| granularity.is_list_element())
+    {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "cross-column full-text search supports row documents only, not list elements"
+                .to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(FtsPlanShape::Bound(columns))
+}
+
+/// The columns `query` names, in tree order and deduplicated.
+///
+/// `FtsQueryNode::columns` returns a `HashSet`, and the order decides which
+/// column a single-column plan binds to and the order arms are built in, so it
+/// is derived from the tree here instead.
+fn collect_query_columns(query: &IndexFtsQuery) -> Vec<String> {
+    fn visit(query: &IndexFtsQuery, out: &mut Vec<String>) {
+        let mut push = |column: &Option<String>| {
+            if let Some(column) = column
+                && !out.contains(column)
+            {
+                out.push(column.clone());
+            }
+        };
+        match query {
+            IndexFtsQuery::Match(query) => push(&query.column),
+            IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(query) => push(&query.column),
+            IndexFtsQuery::CombinedFields(query) => {
+                for column in query.column_names() {
+                    push(&Some(column.to_string()));
+                }
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                for leaf in &query.match_queries {
+                    push(&leaf.column);
+                }
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                visit(&query.positive, out);
+                visit(&query.negative, out);
+            }
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                for child in query
+                    .must
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(&query.should)
+                    .chain(&query.must_not)
+                {
+                    visit(child, out);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let mut out = Vec::new();
+    visit(query, &mut out);
+    out
+}
+
+/// Plans local-scoring FTS queries over LSM data.
+pub struct LsmFtsSearchPlanner {
+    collector: LsmDataSourceCollector,
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    base_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// The same schema with each field's id, which resolves a generation's
+    /// stored columns to the table's.
+    identity_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Session threaded into SSTable opens (shared caches).
+    session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+    /// Store params for opening SSTables, reusing the base dataset's store.
+    store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    /// Cache of opened SSTable datasets.
+    sstable_cache: Option<Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+    /// Optional warmer fired on first open of an SSTable.
+    warmer: Option<Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>>,
+    /// Over-fetch multiple for blocked sources.
+    overfetch_factor: f64,
+    /// Optional prefilter predicate applied to every source arm so FTS hits
+    /// failing the predicate are dropped. Base/SSTable arms use the dataset
+    /// scanner's native filter; memtable arms filter the materialized hits.
+    filter: Option<Expr>,
+}
+
+impl LsmFtsSearchPlanner {
+    /// Create a new planner.
+    pub fn new(
+        collector: LsmDataSourceCollector,
+        pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+        base_schema: SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            collector,
+            pk_columns,
+            identity_schema: base_schema.clone(),
+            base_schema,
+            session: None,
+            store_params: None,
+            sstable_cache: None,
+            warmer: None,
+            overfetch_factor: DEFAULT_OVERFETCH_FACTOR,
+            filter: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Attach an optional prefilter predicate. Every source arm restricts its
+    /// FTS hits to rows matching the predicate, matching a normal filtered
+    /// full-text scan over base ∪ SSTables ∪ in-memory data.
+    pub fn with_filter(mut self, filter: Option<Expr>) -> Self {
+        self.filter = filter;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the over-fetch multiple for blocked sources so they still yield `k`
+    /// live rows after cross-generation block-list filtering. Values below
+    /// `1.0` are rejected by [`Self::plan_search`].
+    pub fn with_overfetch_factor(mut self, factor: f64) -> Self {
+        self.overfetch_factor = factor;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// The table's schema carrying each field's id, which is what resolves a
+    /// generation's stored columns to the table's.
+    ///
+    /// Defaults to the base schema, so a caller that has no ids to give is
+    /// matched by name as it was.
+    pub fn with_identity_schema(mut self, schema: SchemaRef) -> Self {
+        self.identity_schema = schema;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the session used to open SSTables.
+    pub fn with_session(mut self, session: Arc<Session>) -> Self {
+        self.session = Some(session);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the store params used to open SSTables.
+    pub fn with_store_params(mut self, store_params: ObjectStoreParams) -> Self {
+        self.store_params = Some(store_params);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject a cache of opened SSTable datasets, making repeated
+    /// searches against the same generation a pure `Arc::clone`.
+    pub fn with_sstable_cache(mut self, cache: Arc<dyn DatasetCache>) -> Self {
+        self.sstable_cache = Some(cache);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject the warmer fired on first open of an SSTable.
+    pub fn with_warmer(mut self, warmer: Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>) -> Self {
+        self.warmer = Some(warmer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Build the FTS execution plan (local scoring).
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `query` — the FTS query (match / phrase / boolean / fuzzy for
+    ///   base/SSTable Lance sources; the active memtable currently
+    ///   supports `MatchQuery`). It names the columns to search; bind them
+    ///   with [`FullTextSearchQuery::with_columns`] if they arrive separately.
+    /// * `limit` — optional global top-k to return.
+    /// * `projection` — user columns to project. PK columns are
+    ///   auto-included; `_score` is always appended.
+    ///
+    /// Each source is scored independently (local BM25), normalized to a
+    /// canonical schema, unioned, and merged by `_score` DESC. When a finite
+    /// limit is supplied, top-k caps are pushed into each partition.
+    #[instrument(name = "lsm_fts_search", level = "info", skip_all, fields(limit))]
+    pub async fn plan_search(
+        &self,
+        query: FullTextSearchQuery,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        // The query is the only source of the columns to search. Unlike the base
+        // scanner, this planner cannot fill them in from the dataset's indexes:
+        // the fresh tier may carry no base table at all, and a memtable's
+        // inverted indexes are built on demand rather than declared up front, so
+        // there is no authoritative set to enumerate.
+        if query.query.is_missing_column() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "LSM full-text search requires the query to name the columns to search; \
+                 bind them with `FullTextSearchQuery::with_columns` before planning"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let per_column = match fts_plan_shape(&query.query)? {
+            FtsPlanShape::Bound(columns) => {
+                // The bound check above rules out a query naming no column.
+                if columns.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(
+                        "full-text query names no column after the bound check".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                return self
+                    .plan_bound_search(&columns, query, limit, projection)
+                    .await;
+            }
+            FtsPlanShape::PerColumn(per_column) => per_column,
+        };
+
+        // Collapsing field hits needs a row identity to collapse *by*. Without
+        // one every matching field contributes its own row, which is not a
+        // partial answer to a multi-match — it is a different one, with inflated
+        // counts and a ranking that double-counts rows matching in two fields.
+        if self.pk_columns.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "cross-column full-text search requires a primary key: a row matching in \
+                 several columns is scored once per column, and collapsing those hits to \
+                 one row needs a stable identity to collapse by"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // One single-column plan per leaf, unioned and collapsed. Each leaf is
+        // scored independently and a row takes its best leaf's score, which is
+        // what the base-table path does for a MultiMatch
+        // (`DisjunctionScore::Max`). Reusing the single-column planner per leaf
+        // keeps every per-source behavior — granularity resolution, prefilter,
+        // the cross-generation block-list — identical to a single-column search,
+        // at the cost of one pass over the sources per leaf.
+        //
+        // Each arm is cut at `k * leaves` rather than `k`: the final top-k is
+        // over *rows*, and a row can occupy up to one slot per leaf, so a
+        // tighter per-arm cut could leave fewer than `k` rows after the collapse
+        // even when more matching rows exist.
+        let candidate_limit = limit.map(|k| k.saturating_mul(per_column.len().max(1)));
+        let mut per_column_plans = Vec::with_capacity(per_column.len());
+        for (field, sub_query) in per_column {
+            let mut bounded = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(sub_query);
+            bounded.limit = query.limit;
+            bounded.wand_factor = query.wand_factor;
+            per_column_plans.push(
+                Box::pin(self.plan_bound_search(
+                    std::slice::from_ref(&field),
+                    bounded,
+                    candidate_limit,
+                    projection,
+                ))
+                .await?,
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Enforce the row-only contract on what each arm *resolved*, not on what
+        // the query asked for. A default multi-match requests no granularity, so
+        // the check in `cross_column_targets` sees nothing to reject; if every
+        // column happens to carry a list-element index, each arm resolves to
+        // `ListElement` independently and their schemas agree, so a
+        // schema-equality check passes too. The result would be element hits
+        // collapsed by row primary key — which silently discards every matching
+        // element of a row but one, because a row PK is not an element identity.
+        //
+        // `_doc_index` in the output is the observable form of that resolution,
+        // so key on it rather than re-deriving the granularity.
+        if per_column_plans
+            .iter()
+            .any(|plan| plan.schema().column_with_name(DOC_INDEX_COL).is_some())
+        {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "cross-column full-text search supports row documents only: element hits \
+                 carry a per-element coordinate that a row primary key cannot collapse by, \
+                 so matching elements would be silently dropped"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // `UnionExec::try_new` only rejects inputs with different field counts
+        // and does not compare field types, so check the schemas here and report
+        // any divergence as an unsupported cross-column query.
+        if let Some((first, rest)) = per_column_plans.split_first()
+            && let Some(mismatch) = rest.iter().find(|plan| plan.schema() != first.schema())
+        {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "cross-column full-text search requires every column to produce the same \
+                 schema; got {:?} and {:?}",
+                first.schema(),
+                mismatch.schema()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // `try_new` returns a single plan as is instead of wrapping it in a union.
+        let merged = UnionExec::try_new(per_column_plans)?;
+        // Order the candidates, collapse duplicates, *then* cut to k. Cutting
+        // before the collapse spends the budget on repeat hits of the same row.
+        // The input is sorted by `_score` descending, so keeping the first
+        // occurrence per primary key takes the maximum — see `FirstByPkExec`.
+        let sorted = self.sort_by_score(merged, candidate_limit)?;
+        let collapsed: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+            Arc::new(FirstByPkExec::new(sorted, self.pk_columns.clone()));
+        Ok(match limit {
+            Some(k) => Arc::new(GlobalLimitExec::new(collapsed, 0, Some(k))),
+            None => collapsed,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Plan one query evaluated whole against `columns` on every source.
+    ///
+    /// One column is the ordinary case. Several means the tree's leaves name
+    /// different fields and the predicate spans them — a MUST across columns is
+    /// an intersection, so it cannot be split into per-column arms the way a
+    /// multi-match can. Each source evaluates the whole tree instead: the base
+    /// and SSTable arms through the dataset scanner's own cross-column path,
+    /// the memtable arm by routing each leaf to that column's in-memory index.
+    #[instrument(
+        name = "lsm_fts_search_columns",
+        level = "info",
+        skip_all,
+        fields(columns = ?columns, limit)
+    )]
+    async fn plan_bound_search(
+        &self,
+        columns: &[String],
+        mut query: FullTextSearchQuery,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let sources = self.collector.collect()?;
+        let requested = requested_query_document_granularity(&query.query)?;
+
+        // Resolve each column independently, then require the results to agree.
+        // The arm emits one schema per source, and `_doc_index` is present for
+        // the whole batch or not at all, so columns that resolved to different
+        // document units could not be merged.
+        let mut document_granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity> = None;
+        let mut index_params: HashMap<&str, InvertedIndexParams> =
+            HashMap::with_capacity(columns.len());
+        for column in columns {
+            let (granularity, params) = self
+                .resolve_column_index_contract(&sources, column, requested)
+                .await?;
+            match document_granularity {
+                None => document_granularity = Some(granularity),
+                Some(previous) if previous != granularity => {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                        "cross-column full-text search resolved {previous:?} document \
+                         granularity for an earlier column and {granularity:?} for \
+                         '{column}'; they must agree"
+                    )));
+                }
+                Some(_) => {}
+            }
+            if let Some(params) = params {
+                index_params.insert(column.as_str(), params);
+            }
+        }
+        let document_granularity = document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("full-text query names no column after the bound check".to_string())
+        })?;
+        // Same contract the committed cross-column scorer enforces
+        // (`validate_row_leaf_granularities`): an element hit carries a
+        // per-element coordinate, and the clauses meet on row identity.
+        if columns.len() > 1 && document_granularity.is_list_element() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "cross-column full-text search supports row documents only: element hits \
+                 carry a per-element coordinate the clauses cannot be joined on"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(self.base_schema.as_ref())?;
+        for column in columns {
+            resolve_fts_field(&schema, column, document_granularity)?;
+        }
+        set_query_document_granularity(&mut query.query, document_granularity);
+        if sources.iter().any(|source| {
+            columns
+                .iter()
+                .any(|column| active_source_can_execute_fts(source, column, document_granularity))
+        }) {
+            validate_lsm_fts_query(&query)?;
+        }
+        let allowed_system_columns: &[&str] = if document_granularity.is_list_element() {
+            &[SCORE_COLUMN, DOC_INDEX_COL]
+        } else {
+            &[SCORE_COLUMN]
+        };
+        validate_projection_names(projection, &self.base_schema, allowed_system_columns)?;
+        let target_schema = self.canonical_fts_schema(projection, document_granularity)?;
+        let overfetch = super::validate_overfetch_factor(self.overfetch_factor)?;
+
+        if sources.is_empty() {
+            return self.empty_plan(&target_schema);
+        }
+
+        // Per-source PK block sets for cross-generation dedup (NEWER(G) per
+        // shard; base = union of all gens). Query-type-agnostic — same call the
+        // vector planner makes. `Box::pin` keeps the future off
+        // `clippy::large_futures`.
+        let block_lists = Box::pin(compute_source_block_lists(
+            &sources,
+            self.session.as_ref(),
+            self.store_params.as_ref(),
+            self.sstable_cache.as_ref(),
+        ))
+        .await?;
+
+        // Stage the per-source over-fetch decisions, then build every source
+        // plan concurrently — the builds are independent and a sequential loop
+        // was the dominant serial planning cost at multiple generations.
+        let arm_inputs: Vec<_> = sources
+            .iter()
+            .map(|source| {
+                let is_active = matches!(source, LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable { .. });
+                let blocked = block_lists.get(&(source.shard_id(), source.generation()));
+                let active_needs_uncapped_recency = match source {
+                    LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable { index_store, .. }
+                        if !self.pk_columns.is_empty() =>
+                    {
+                        !index_store.has_pk_index() || index_store.pk_has_overrides()
+                    }
+                    _ => false,
+                };
+                // Active PK arms only need to stay uncapped when recency
+                // filtering may drop hits. Append-only PK memtables can safely
+                // pass the limit through and let FtsIndexExec use WAND/top-k.
+                // Blocked non-active sources use heuristic over-fetch because
+                // their newer generation membership may also drop candidates.
+                let fetch_limit = if active_needs_uncapped_recency {
+                    None
+                } else if blocked.is_some() && !self.pk_columns.is_empty() {
+                    limit.map(|limit| ((limit as f64) * overfetch).ceil() as usize)
+                } else {
+                    limit
+                };
+                (source, is_active, blocked, fetch_limit)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        // Type-erased for the reason the vector planner's arm gives.
+        let built =
+            futures::future::try_join_all(arm_inputs.iter().map(|(source, _, _, fetch_limit)| {
+                let arm: futures::future::BoxFuture<'_, Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> =
+                    Box::pin(self.build_source_plan(
+                        source,
+                        columns,
+                        &query,
+                        *fetch_limit,
+                        projection,
+                        &index_params,
+                        &target_schema,
+                    ));
+                arm
+            }))
+            .await?;
+
+        let mut per_source_plans: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = Vec::with_capacity(sources.len());
+        for ((_, _, blocked, _), plan) in arm_inputs.iter().zip(built) {
+            let blocked = *blocked;
+            // Dedup, mirroring LsmVectorSearchPlanner:
+            //  * each memtable: `FtsIndexExec` drops superseded PK versions
+            //    within that memtable before the query limit whenever PK
+            //    columns are present.
+            //  * any source with a block-list: drop rows superseded by a newer
+            //    generation, including frozen in-memory memtables.
+            let deduped = if let Some(set) = blocked
+                && !self.pk_columns.is_empty()
+            {
+                Arc::new(PkBlockFilterExec::new(
+                    plan,
+                    self.pk_columns.clone(),
+                    set.clone(),
+                    limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX),
+                )) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>
+            } else {
+                plan
+            };
+
+            // Normalize to the canonical FTS schema before merging sources.
+            let normalized = project_to_canonical(deduped, &target_schema)?;
+            per_source_plans.push(normalized);
+        }
+
+        // A single source is returned as is, without a union. Otherwise the
+        // downstream `SortPreservingMergeExec` already spawns one driver task per
+        // input partition (one per union arm) via `spawn_buffered`, so each arm's
+        // per-arm CPU (posting decode, BM25) runs on its own task without an
+        // extra repartition.
+        let merged = UnionExec::try_new(per_source_plans)?;
+
+        self.sort_by_score(merged, limit)
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve one column's document granularity across every source, plus the
+    /// analyzer/positional settings its persisted index was built with.
+    ///
+    /// The settings are part of the query contract — a phrase needs positions,
+    /// and a stemming or n-gram tokenizer changes which terms a document
+    /// produces — so the transient memtable arm rebuilds against them rather
+    /// than against defaults. Which one applies is only known once the
+    /// granularity is settled: row and list-element indexes may coexist on a
+    /// column with different settings.
+    async fn resolve_column_index_contract(
+        &self,
+        sources: &[LsmDataSource],
+        column: &str,
+        requested: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+    ) -> Result<(DocumentGranularity, Option<InvertedIndexParams>)> {
+        let mut available = Vec::new();
+        let mut source_granularities = Vec::with_capacity(sources.len());
+        let mut index_params: Vec<(DocumentGranularity, InvertedIndexParams)> = Vec::new();
+        for source in sources {
+            let granularities = match source {
+                LsmDataSource::BaseTable { dataset } => {
+                    if index_params.is_empty() {
+                        index_params = indexed_fts_index_params(dataset, column).await?;
+                    }
+                    indexed_fts_document_granularities(dataset, column)
+                        .await?
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|(_, document_granularity)| document_granularity)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                }
+                LsmDataSource::SsTable { path, .. } => {
+                    let dataset = open_sstable(
+                        path,
+                        self.session.as_ref(),
+                        self.store_params.as_ref(),
+                        self.sstable_cache.as_ref(),
+                        self.warmer.as_ref(),
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                    // The index is on this generation's own column, under the
+                    // name it had when the generation was sealed. A generation
+                    // sealed before the column existed has no index on it and
+                    // offers no granularity.
+                    let generation = GenerationRead::new(
+                        dataset.schema(),
+                        &self.identity_schema,
+                        &self.pk_columns,
+                        Vec::new(),
+                    );
+                    match generation.stored_fts_name(column) {
+                        None => Vec::new(),
+                        Some(stored_column) => {
+                            if index_params.is_empty() {
+                                index_params =
+                                    indexed_fts_index_params(&dataset, stored_column).await?;
+                            }
+                            indexed_fts_document_granularities(&dataset, stored_column)
+                                .await?
+                                .into_iter()
+                                .map(|(_, document_granularity)| document_granularity)
+                                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+                    index_store,
+                    schema,
+                    ..
+                } => {
+                    // A memtable created before a schema change indexes the
+                    // column under its old name, or not at all if it is newer.
+                    if memtable_matches_table(schema, &self.identity_schema) {
+                        index_store.fts_document_granularities_by_column(column)
+                    } else {
+                        let generation = GenerationRead::for_memtable(
+                            schema,
+                            &self.identity_schema,
+                            &self.pk_columns,
+                            Vec::new(),
+                        );
+                        match generation.stored_fts_name(column) {
+                            None => Vec::new(),
+                            Some(stored_column) => {
+                                index_store.fts_document_granularities_by_column(stored_column)
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            };
+            available.extend(granularities.iter().copied());
+            source_granularities.push(granularities);
+        }
+        let document_granularity =
+            resolve_document_granularity_from_candidates(column, requested, available)?;
+        validate_source_document_granularities(
+            column,
+            document_granularity,
+            &source_granularities,
+        )?;
+        // `load_segments` picks the persisted index the same way.
+        let params = index_params
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|(granularity, _)| *granularity == document_granularity)
+            .map(|(_, params)| params);
+        Ok((document_granularity, params))
+    }
+
+    /// Order a merged FTS result by `_score` descending, capped at `limit`.
+    ///
+    /// Per-partition sort with `fetch=k` so each upstream partition can
+    /// early-terminate at k; the preserving merge then does a K-way heap merge
+    /// also capped at k. Same pattern as `LsmVectorSearchPlanner`.
+    fn sort_by_score(
+        &self,
+        merged: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let score_idx = merged.schema().index_of(SCORE_COLUMN).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "{SCORE_COLUMN} missing from canonical FTS schema after merge"
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        let sort_expr = vec![PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: Arc::new(Column::new(SCORE_COLUMN, score_idx)),
+            options: SortOptions {
+                descending: true,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            },
+        }];
+        let lex_ordering = LexOrdering::new(sort_expr).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Failed to build LexOrdering for FTS _score sort".to_string())
+        })?;
+
+        let per_partition_sorted: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(
+            SortExec::new(lex_ordering.clone(), merged)
+                .with_preserve_partitioning(true)
+                .with_fetch(limit),
+        );
+        Ok(Arc::new(
+            SortPreservingMergeExec::new(lex_ordering, per_partition_sorted).with_fetch(limit),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn build_source_plan(
+        &self,
+        source: &LsmDataSource,
+        columns: &[String],
+        query: &FullTextSearchQuery,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        index_params: &HashMap<&str, InvertedIndexParams>,
+        // What every arm is normalized to, so an arm with nothing to offer can
+        // stand in for itself.
+        target_schema: &SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        // One column: bind every leaf to it, which is what lets a tree built
+        // from bare terms reach the right field. Several: the leaves already
+        // carry their bindings and rebinding would collapse the query onto one
+        // column, so the dataset scanner gets the tree untouched.
+        let bind_column = match columns {
+            [column] => Some(column.as_str()),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+        let bind = |query: &FullTextSearchQuery| -> Result<FullTextSearchQuery> {
+            let bound = match bind_column {
+                Some(column) => query.clone().with_column(column.to_string())?,
+                None => query.clone(),
+            };
+            Ok(match limit {
+                Some(limit) => bound.limit(Some(limit as i64)),
+                None => bound.limit(None),
+            })
+        };
+        match source {
+            LsmDataSource::BaseTable { dataset } => {
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+                let cols = self.fts_scanner_projection(projection);
+                // Resolve against the *source* schema so a nested path narrows the
+                // struct rather than flattening it; expressions cannot express a
+                // partial nested projection, only a schema can.
+                scanner.project_with_schema(&dataset.schema().project(&cols)?)?;
+                if let Some(ref filter) = self.filter {
+                    // `prefilter(true)` is required: without it the scanner
+                    // post-filters the unfiltered BM25 top-k, dropping matching
+                    // rows that scored below non-matching ones.
+                    scanner.filter_expr(filter.clone());
+                    scanner.prefilter(true);
+                }
+                scanner.full_text_search(bind(query)?)?;
+                scanner.create_plan().await
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::SsTable { path, .. } => {
+                let dataset = open_sstable(
+                    path,
+                    self.session.as_ref(),
+                    self.store_params.as_ref(),
+                    self.sstable_cache.as_ref(),
+                    self.warmer.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+                // Asked of this generation under its own names: a rename moved
+                // the table's name while the file still holds the old one.
+                let asked_for = self.fts_scanner_projection(projection);
+                let mut generation = GenerationRead::new(
+                    dataset.schema(),
+                    &self.identity_schema,
+                    &self.pk_columns,
+                    asked_for,
+                );
+                // Every queried column has to be resolved: a rename moved the
+                // table's name while the file still holds the old one.
+                let mut stored_columns = Vec::with_capacity(columns.len());
+                for column in columns {
+                    let Some(stored) = generation.stored_fts_name(column) else {
+                        // Sealed before the column existed, so it has nothing to
+                        // match -- and nothing to give a predicate spanning it.
+                        return self.empty_plan(target_schema);
+                    };
+                    stored_columns.push((column.clone(), stored.to_string()));
+                }
+                // A predicate this generation cannot answer as written runs
+                // above the reconciliation, where the columns it names exist.
+                let (stored_filter, above) = generation.split_filter(self.filter.as_ref());
+                // Resolve against the *source* schema so a nested path narrows the
+                // struct rather than flattening it; expressions cannot express a
+                // partial nested projection, only a schema can.
+                scanner.project_with_schema(
+                    &dataset.schema().project(&generation.stored_projection())?,
+                )?;
+                if let Some(ref stored) = stored_filter {
+                    // See the base arm: `prefilter(true)` makes this a true
+                    // prefilter rather than a lossy post-filter on the BM25 top-k.
+                    scanner.filter_expr(stored.clone());
+                    scanner.prefilter(true);
+                }
+                let bound_query = bind_to_stored_columns(query, columns, &stored_columns)?;
+                // A predicate that could not be pushed down runs above the
+                // reconciliation, which is after the search has taken its top-k
+                // by score. Cutting first would drop rows that pass the
+                // predicate behind rows that do not, so a generation with a
+                // deferred predicate does not cut.
+                let bound_query = match limit.filter(|_| above.is_none()) {
+                    Some(limit) => bound_query.limit(Some(limit as i64)),
+                    None => bound_query.limit(None),
+                };
+                scanner.full_text_search(bound_query)?;
+                // Boxed for the reason the scan planner's arm gives: a
+                // generation resolves its own schema before scanning, and
+                // the inlined future is too deep for the `Send` proof.
+                generation.reconcile_above(Box::pin(scanner.create_plan()).await?, &above)
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store,
+                schema,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let document_granularity = query_document_granularity(query)?;
+                // `Some` only for a memtable created before a schema change.
+                let mut generation =
+                    (!memtable_matches_table(schema, &self.identity_schema)).then(|| {
+                        GenerationRead::for_memtable(
+                            schema,
+                            &self.identity_schema,
+                            &self.pk_columns,
+                            self.fts_scanner_projection(projection),
+                        )
+                    });
+                // (table name, stored name) for each queried column.
+                let mut stored_columns = Vec::with_capacity(columns.len());
+                for column in columns {
+                    let stored = match &generation {
+                        None => column.clone(),
+                        Some(generation) => match generation.stored_fts_name(column) {
+                            Some(stored) => stored.to_string(),
+                            // Created before the column existed: nothing matches.
+                            None => {
+                                return self.empty_plan(
+                                    &self.canonical_fts_schema(projection, document_granularity)?,
+                                );
+                            }
+                        },
+                    };
+                    stored_columns.push((column.clone(), stored));
+                }
+                let stored_names: Vec<String> = stored_columns
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(_, stored)| stored.clone())
+                    .collect();
+                let pk_columns = match &generation {
+                    None => self.pk_columns.clone(),
+                    Some(generation) => generation.stored_pk_columns()?,
+                };
+                // The persisted index's settings are keyed by the table's names.
+                let stored_index_params: HashMap<&str, InvertedIndexParams> = stored_columns
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter_map(|(asked, stored)| {
+                        index_params
+                            .get(asked.as_str())
+                            .map(|params| (stored.as_str(), params.clone()))
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+
+                // A column outside the write spec's maintained set has no
+                // in-memory inverted index, so the memtable cannot be searched
+                // through `index_store`. Build one over the visible prefix for
+                // this query rather than contributing nothing: an empty arm is a
+                // silently short answer, since those rows are present and do
+                // match. `None` means there is nothing to index.
+                //
+                // One missing column sends every queried column through the
+                // transient store: the arm routes leaves to indexes from a
+                // single store, and re-indexing a maintained column costs one
+                // tokenize pass over a memtable that is already paying for the
+                // missing one.
+                let index_store = if stored_names.iter().all(|column| {
+                    active_source_can_execute_fts(source, column, document_granularity)
+                }) {
+                    index_store.clone()
+                } else {
+                    match transient_fts_index_store(
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema,
+                        &stored_names,
+                        document_granularity,
+                        &pk_columns,
+                        &stored_index_params,
+                    )? {
+                        Some(store) => store,
+                        None => {
+                            return self.empty_plan(
+                                &self.canonical_fts_schema(projection, document_granularity)?,
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                };
+                validate_lsm_fts_query(query)?;
+                let mut scanner =
+                    MemTableScanner::new(batch_store.clone(), index_store, schema.clone());
+                // The append-only inverted index keeps an updated row's old
+                // postings live, so the memtable FTS exec needs PK columns to
+                // drop stale hits before it applies the query limit.
+                if !pk_columns.is_empty() {
+                    scanner.with_pk_columns(pk_columns);
+                }
+
+                let Some(generation) = generation.as_mut() else {
+                    let cols = self.fts_scanner_projection(projection);
+                    scanner.project(&cols.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect::<Vec<_>>())?;
+                    if let Some(ref filter) = self.filter {
+                        // Honored inside `plan_fts_search`: the materialized hits
+                        // are masked by the predicate before projection.
+                        scanner.filter_expr(filter.clone());
+                    }
+                    scanner.full_text_search(bind(query)?)?;
+                    return scanner.create_plan().await;
+                };
+
+                // If part of the filter runs after the search, don't limit the
+                // search: the limit would drop rows before that filter sees them.
+                let (stored_filter, above) = generation.split_filter(self.filter.as_ref());
+                scanner.project(&generation.stored_projection())?;
+                if let Some(stored) = stored_filter {
+                    scanner.filter_expr(stored);
+                }
+                let bound_query = bind_to_stored_columns(query, columns, &stored_columns)?;
+                let bound_query = match limit.filter(|_| above.is_none()) {
+                    Some(limit) => bound_query.limit(Some(limit as i64)),
+                    None => bound_query.limit(None),
+                };
+                scanner.full_text_search(bound_query)?;
+                generation.reconcile_above(Box::pin(scanner.create_plan()).await?, &above)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Columns to pass to the underlying scanner: user projection minus
+    /// system / `_score`, with PK columns appended.
+    fn fts_scanner_projection(&self, user_projection: Option<&[String]>) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut cols: Vec<String> = if let Some(p) = user_projection {
+            p.iter()
+                .filter(|c| !is_system_column(c) && c.as_str() != SCORE_COLUMN)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect()
+        } else {
+            self.base_schema
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                .collect()
+        };
+        for pk in &self.pk_columns {
+            if !cols.contains(pk) {
+                cols.push(pk.clone());
+            }
+        }
+        cols
+    }
+
+    /// Canonical FTS output: user-projected cols + PK + `_score`.
+    ///
+    /// Data columns resolve through [`resolve_data_fields`], the same
+    /// nested-path resolver [`canonical_output_schema`] uses, so `meta.a`
+    /// contributes `meta: Struct<a>` and sibling leaves collapse into one
+    /// field at the parent's first-mentioned position. The FTS-specific
+    /// columns (`_score`, `_doc_index`) are appended around it.
+    ///
+    /// [`canonical_output_schema`]: super::projection::canonical_output_schema
+    fn canonical_fts_schema(
+        &self,
+        user_projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Result<SchemaRef> {
+        let mut ordered: Vec<String> = if let Some(p) = user_projection {
+            p.to_vec()
+        } else {
+            self.base_schema
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                .collect()
+        };
+        for pk in &self.pk_columns {
+            if !ordered.contains(pk) {
+                ordered.push(pk.clone());
+            }
+        }
+        if document_granularity.is_list_element() && !ordered.iter().any(|c| c == DOC_INDEX_COL) {
+            ordered.push(DOC_INDEX_COL.to_string());
+        }
+        if !ordered.iter().any(|c| c == SCORE_COLUMN) {
+            ordered.push(SCORE_COLUMN.to_string());
+        }
+
+        let data_names: Vec<String> = ordered
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|n| {
+                n.as_str() != SCORE_COLUMN && n.as_str() != DOC_INDEX_COL && !is_system_column(n)
+            })
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        let mut by_name: HashMap<String, Arc<Field>> =
+            resolve_data_fields(&data_names, &self.base_schema)?
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|f| (f.name().clone(), f))
+                .collect();
+
+        let mut fields: Vec<Arc<Field>> = Vec::with_capacity(ordered.len());
+        for name in &ordered {
+            if name == SCORE_COLUMN {
+                fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new(SCORE_COLUMN, DataType::Float32, true)));
+            } else if name == DOC_INDEX_COL {
+                fields.push(Arc::new(DOC_INDEX_FIELD.clone()));
+            } else if is_system_column(name) {
+                fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new(name.clone(), DataType::UInt64, true)));
+            } else if let Some(field) = by_name.remove(&top_level_of(name)?) {
+                // `remove` is what collapses a second mention of the same
+                // parent (`meta.a` then `meta.c`) into the single merged field.
+                fields.push(field);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Schema::new(fields)))
+    }
+
+    fn empty_plan(&self, schema: &SchemaRef) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::empty::EmptyExec;
+        Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(schema.clone())))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+    use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+    use arrow_array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, BooleanArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+        StringArray, UInt32Array,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MatchQuery;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    fn fts_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta);
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// Two independently searchable text columns, for cross-column queries.
+    fn two_column_fts_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta);
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("title", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("body", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn make_two_column_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, rows: &[(i32, &str, &str)]) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(
+                    rows.iter().map(|(id, _, _)| *id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                    rows.iter().map(|(_, t, _)| *t).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                    rows.iter().map(|(_, _, b)| *b).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn fts_tombstone_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta);
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(crate::dataset::mem_wal::TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, false),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn make_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, ids: &[i32], texts: &[&str]) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts.to_vec())),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn make_tombstone_batch(
+        schema: &ArrowSchema,
+        rows: &[(i32, Option<&str>, bool)],
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = rows.iter().map(|(id, _, _)| *id).collect();
+        let texts: Vec<Option<&str>> = rows.iter().map(|(_, text, _)| *text).collect();
+        let tombstones: Vec<bool> = rows.iter().map(|(_, _, tombstone)| *tombstone).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
+                Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(tombstones)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn write_dataset(uri: &str, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let has_id = schema.column_with_name("id").is_some();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if has_id {
+            crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::block_list::write_pk_sidecar(uri, &batches, &["id"])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    /// `fts_schema` plus `meta: Struct<a: Int64, b: Utf8>`.
+    fn nested_fts_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("meta", DataType::Struct(nested_meta_fields()), true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn nested_meta_fields() -> arrow_schema::Fields {
+        arrow_schema::Fields::from(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ])
+    }
+
+    /// The children `meta` carries in `schema`, in order.
+    fn meta_children(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> Vec<String> {
+        let DataType::Struct(fields) = schema
+            .field_with_name("meta")
+            .expect("meta survived canonicalization")
+            .data_type()
+            .clone()
+        else {
+            panic!("meta is not a struct");
+        };
+        fields.iter().map(|f| f.name().clone()).collect()
+    }
+
+    /// The FTS planner builds its own canonical target, so it needs the same
+    /// nested-path resolver as every other arm. A flat `field_with_name`
+    /// lookup misses `meta.a` entirely and `project_to_canonical` then drops
+    /// the column from every source — a silent truncation, since
+    /// `validate_projection_names` accepts the name.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn nested_projection_survives_fts_canonicalization() {
+        let schema = nested_fts_schema();
+        let meta = arrow_array::StructArray::new(
+            nested_meta_fields(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![10i64, 20])) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["b_1", "b_2"])) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["lance rocks", "unrelated"])),
+                Arc::new(meta),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(indexes),
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let projection = vec!["meta.a".to_string()];
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&projection),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(meta_children(&plan.schema()), vec!["a"]);
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+            .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 1, "only id=1 contains 'lance'");
+        let hit = batches.iter().find(|b| b.num_rows() > 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(meta_children(hit.schema_ref()), vec!["a"]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            hit.column_by_name("meta")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_struct()
+                .column_by_name("a")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int64Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(0),
+            10
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The no-source arm builds the same canonical target, so an empty result
+    /// still reports the narrowed struct rather than dropping it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn empty_fts_plan_preserves_nested_projection() {
+        let schema = nested_fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let projection = vec!["meta.a".to_string()];
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(1),
+                Some(&projection),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(meta_children(&plan.schema()), vec!["a"]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_missing_projection_column() {
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let projection = vec!["missing".to_string()];
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(1),
+                Some(&projection),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing"),
+            "unexpected missing-column projection error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn resolves_document_granularity_from_memwal_indexes() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolve_document_granularity_from_candidates("tags", None, vec![]).unwrap(),
+            DocumentGranularity::Row
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolve_document_granularity_from_candidates(
+                "tags",
+                None,
+                vec![DocumentGranularity::ListElement],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            DocumentGranularity::ListElement
+        );
+        assert!(
+            resolve_document_granularity_from_candidates(
+                "tags",
+                Some(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+                vec![DocumentGranularity::ListElement],
+            )
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("different indexed granularity")
+        );
+        let both = vec![DocumentGranularity::Row, DocumentGranularity::ListElement];
+        assert!(
+            resolve_document_granularity_from_candidates("tags", None, both.clone())
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("ambiguous")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolve_document_granularity_from_candidates(
+                "tags",
+                Some(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+                both,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            DocumentGranularity::ListElement
+        );
+        assert!(
+            validate_source_document_granularities(
+                "tags",
+                DocumentGranularity::ListElement,
+                &[
+                    vec![DocumentGranularity::ListElement],
+                    vec![DocumentGranularity::Row],
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("incompatible indexed granularities")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn memwal_rejects_list_element_without_a_list_path() {
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+        ));
+
+        let error = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                query.with_column("text".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                Some(1),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("has no List layer"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn active_element_document_search_returns_physical_ordinals() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta);
+
+        let mut tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        tags.values().append_value("alpha");
+        tags.values().append_value("beta gamma");
+        tags.values().append_null();
+        tags.values().append_value("beta");
+        tags.append(true);
+        tags.append(true);
+        tags.values().append_value("beta");
+        tags.append(true);
+        let tags = tags.finish();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("tags", tags.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ]));
+        let active_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])), Arc::new(tags)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes
+            .add_fts_with_params(
+                "tags_list_element_fts".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "tags".to_string(),
+                InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                    .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(indexes),
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema.clone());
+        let projection = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(MatchQuery::new(
+                    "beta".to_string(),
+                )))
+                .with_column("tags".to_string())
+                .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&projection),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let mut hits = Vec::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch["id"].as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+            let doc_indices = batch[DOC_INDEX_COL]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<ListArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let coordinate = doc_indices
+                    .value(row)
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .value(0);
+                hits.push((ids.value(row), coordinate));
+            }
+        }
+        hits.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(hits, vec![(1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 0)]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn element_document_search_unions_base_and_active_sources() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta);
+        let list_type = DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true)));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("tags", list_type, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let mut base_tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        base_tags.values().append_value("beta");
+        base_tags.values().append_value("other");
+        base_tags.append(true);
+        let base_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(base_tags.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(base_batch)], schema.clone()),
+            &base_uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["tags"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("tags_list_element_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                    .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let mut active_tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        active_tags.values().append_value("other");
+        active_tags.values().append_value("beta");
+        active_tags.append(true);
+        let active_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2])),
+                Arc::new(active_tags.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes
+            .add_fts_with_params(
+                "tags_list_element_fts".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "tags".to_string(),
+                InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                    .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: Arc::new(indexes),
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let projection = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(MatchQuery::new(
+                    "beta".to_string(),
+                )))
+                .with_column("tags".to_string())
+                .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&projection),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+            .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut hits = Vec::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch["id"].as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+            let coordinates = batch[DOC_INDEX_COL]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<ListArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let coordinate = coordinates
+                    .value(row)
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .value(0);
+                hits.push((ids.value(row), coordinate));
+            }
+        }
+        hits.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(hits, vec![(1, 0), (2, 1)]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn local_mode_unions_base_and_active_with_consistent_score_schema() {
+        // Regression for the `_score` nullability mismatch between
+        // FtsIndexExec (active arm) and FTS_SCHEMA (base/SSTable). The
+        // active-only test below would not catch this — UnionExec rejects
+        // schema-inequality, so we need at least one base + one active
+        // source to exercise that code path.
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+
+        // Base Lance dataset with FTS index on the `text` column.
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(
+                &schema,
+                &[1, 2],
+                &["lance rocks", "unrelated text"],
+            )],
+        )
+        .await;
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        // Active memtable with its own FTS index, containing a matching row.
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[3, 4],
+            &["lance memwal goes fast", "completely unrelated"],
+        );
+        batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: indexes,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a base+active union plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        // Both base id=1 ("lance rocks") and active id=3 ("lance memwal ...")
+        // should match. id=2 / id=4 do not contain "lance".
+        assert!(
+            total >= 2,
+            "expected at least the 2 'lance' rows from base+active, got {total}"
+        );
+
+        // Both sources must agree on _score nullability — verifies the fix.
+        let out = batches[0].schema();
+        let score_field = out
+            .field_with_name(SCORE_COLUMN)
+            .expect("_score column missing from output");
+        assert!(
+            score_field.is_nullable(),
+            "_score must be nullable to stay union-compatible across base+active"
+        );
+
+        // Sanity: ids contain at least one base hit (id=1) and one active hit (id=3).
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(ids.contains(&1), "missing base hit id=1; got ids={ids:?}");
+        assert!(ids.contains(&3), "missing active hit id=3; got ids={ids:?}");
+    }
+
+    /// A prefilter on a full-text search must drop hits failing the predicate
+    /// from both the base arm (native scanner filter) and the active memtable
+    /// arm (materialized-hit mask), even though they match the query text.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prefilter_drops_nonmatching_hits_across_base_and_active() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+
+        // Base rows 1 and 2 both contain "lance".
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(&schema, &[1, 2], &["lance one", "lance two"])],
+        )
+        .await;
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        // Active memtable rows 0 and 3 both contain "lance".
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_batch(&schema, &[0, 3], &["lance zero", "lance three"]);
+        batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: indexes,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema)
+            // `id >= 2` keeps base id=2 and active id=3; drops base id=1 and active id=0.
+            .with_filter(Some(col("id").gt_eq(lit(2i32))));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered base+active plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        ids.sort();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2, 3],
+            "prefilter must keep only id>=2 across base (id=2) and active (id=3), \
+            dropping base id=1 and active id=0; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Refused rather than ranked on the wrong column: rebinding the tree to
+    /// one name would answer a different question.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_cross_column_predicate_over_a_renamed_generation_is_refused() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{BooleanQuery, MatchQuery, Occur};
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let stored_schema = two_column_fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // The generation holds `title` and `body`, indexed under those names.
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let mut gen1 = write_dataset(
+            &gen1_uri,
+            vec![make_two_column_batch(
+                &stored_schema,
+                &[(1, "alpha", "beta")],
+            )],
+        )
+        .await;
+        for column in ["title", "body"] {
+            gen1.create_index(
+                &[column],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some(format!("{column}_fts")),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // The table has since renamed `title` to `heading`. The id stays, which
+        // is what lets the generation be recognised as holding the same column.
+        let stamp = |name: &str, id: i32, nullable: bool| {
+            Field::new(name, DataType::Utf8, nullable).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(),
+                id.to_string(),
+            )]))
+        };
+        let mut pk_meta = HashMap::from([(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), "0".to_string())]);
+        pk_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let table_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(pk_meta),
+            stamp("heading", 1, true),
+            stamp("body", 2, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string());
+        let collector =
+            LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri.clone(), vec![snapshot]);
+        let planner =
+            LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], table_schema.clone())
+                .with_identity_schema(Arc::clone(&table_schema));
+
+        // One predicate over both fields, under the names the table uses now.
+        let query = |first: &str| {
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![
+                (
+                    Occur::Must,
+                    MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_string())
+                        .with_column(Some(first.to_string()))
+                        .into(),
+                ),
+                (
+                    Occur::Must,
+                    MatchQuery::new("beta".to_string())
+                        .with_column(Some("body".to_string()))
+                        .into(),
+                ),
+            ])))
+        };
+
+        let error = planner
+            .plan_search(query("heading"), Some(10), None)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a renamed column in a cross-column predicate must be refused");
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("renamed") && message.contains("heading"),
+            "the refusal should name the column that moved, got: {message}"
+        );
+
+        // The control: the same generation, the same predicate, but the table
+        // still calls the column what the generation does. Nothing to rebind,
+        // so the tree reaches the scanner and the arm plans.
+        let unmoved = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            table_schema.field(0).clone(),
+            stamp("title", 1, true),
+            stamp("body", 2, true),
+        ]));
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![snapshot]);
+        LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], unmoved.clone())
+            .with_identity_schema(unmoved)
+            .plan_search(query("title"), Some(10), None)
+            .await
+            .expect("an unmoved cross-column predicate still plans over the generation");
+    }
+
+    /// The SSTable arm must apply the filter as a true FTS prefilter, and that
+    /// prefiltered candidate set must compose with cross-generation block-list
+    /// filtering plus over-fetch. Gen 1's best predicate-matching hit (id=3) is
+    /// superseded by gen 2; with over-fetch, gen 1 should still contribute id=4.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prefilter_on_sstable_composes_with_block_list() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Gen 1: id=1 matches strongly but fails the predicate. id=3 matches
+        // strongly but is stale (blocked by gen 2). id=4 is the next live
+        // predicate match that only survives if the SSTable arm prefilters and
+        // over-fetches before the block-list drops id=3.
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let mut gen1 = write_dataset(
+            &gen1_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(
+                &schema,
+                &[1, 3, 4],
+                &["lance lance lance lance", "lance lance lance", "lance"],
+            )],
+        )
+        .await;
+        gen1.create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Gen 2: newer id=3 shadows gen 1's match but does not match the query.
+        let gen2_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_2", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let mut gen2 =
+            write_dataset(&gen2_uri, vec![make_batch(&schema, &[3], &["other text"])]).await;
+        gen2.create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(3)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string())
+            .with_sstable(2, "gen_2".to_string());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![snapshot]);
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema)
+            .with_filter(Some(col("id").gt_eq(lit(3i32))))
+            .with_overfetch_factor(2.0);
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(1),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered SSTable plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![4],
+            "SSTable FTS prefilter should return live id=4 after stale id=3 is blocked; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn active_tombstone_masks_base_fts_hit() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let base_schema = fts_schema();
+        let mem_schema = fts_tombstone_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let mut base = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(&base_schema, &[1, 2], &["lance lance", "lance"])],
+        )
+        .await;
+        base.create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let active_tombstone = make_tombstone_batch(&mem_schema, &[(1, None, true)]);
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_tombstone.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_tombstone, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(Arc::new(base), vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: mem_schema,
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], base_schema)
+            .with_overfetch_factor(2.0);
+
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(1),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stream = plan
+            .execute(0, datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new().task_ctx())
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2],
+            "active tombstone for id=1 must block the older base FTS hit; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn active_update_and_tombstone_mask_frozen_fts_hits() {
+        let base_schema = fts_schema();
+        let mem_schema = fts_tombstone_schema();
+
+        let frozen_batch = make_tombstone_batch(
+            &mem_schema,
+            &[
+                (1, Some("lance stale update"), false),
+                (2, Some("lance live"), false),
+                (3, Some("lance deleted"), false),
+            ],
+        );
+        let frozen_batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut frozen_index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        frozen_index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        frozen_index_store.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let (_, frozen_row_offset, frozen_batch_position) =
+            frozen_batch_store.append(frozen_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        frozen_index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(
+                &frozen_batch,
+                frozen_row_offset,
+                Some(frozen_batch_position),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let active_batch = make_tombstone_batch(
+            &mem_schema,
+            &[(1, Some("fresh other text"), false), (3, None, true)],
+        );
+        let active_batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut active_index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        active_index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        active_index_store.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let (_, active_row_offset, active_batch_position) =
+            active_batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        active_index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(
+                &active_batch,
+                active_row_offset,
+                Some(active_batch_position),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store: active_batch_store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(active_index_store),
+                        schema: mem_schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 2,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store: frozen_batch_store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(frozen_index_store),
+                        schema: mem_schema,
+                        generation: 1,
+                    }],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], base_schema);
+
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stream = plan
+            .execute(0, datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new().task_ctx())
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2],
+            "active update id=1 and tombstone id=3 must block stale frozen FTS hits; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A single-column multi-match takes the same bound path as a plain match:
+    /// without a primary key there is nothing to collapse by, and nothing that
+    /// needs collapsing.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::match_query(false)]
+    #[case::single_column_multi_match(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn active_filtered_search_without_pk_applies_small_limit_after_filter(
+        #[case] multi_match: bool,
+    ) {
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MultiMatchQuery;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[1, 2, 3],
+            &["lance", "lance filler", "lance filler filler"],
+        );
+        batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec![], schema)
+            .with_filter(Some(col("id").gt_eq(lit(1i32))));
+        let query = if multi_match {
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+                MultiMatchQuery::try_new("lance".to_string(), vec!["text".to_string()]).unwrap(),
+            ))
+        } else {
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                .with_column("text".to_string())
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(query, Some(2), None)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce an active-only filtered plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 2],
+            "no-PK filtered active search must apply the limit after filtering \
+             and keep the top-scoring matching hits; got ids={ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fuzzy_and_query_is_rejected_when_active_memtable_is_present() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+            FtsQuery as IndexFtsQuery, MatchQuery, Operator,
+        };
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_batch(&schema, &[1], &["lance memwal"]);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec![], schema);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("lance memwal".to_string())
+                .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                .with_fuzziness(Some(1)),
+        ));
+
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                query.with_column("text".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect_err("fuzzy AND should be rejected consistently");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("fuzzy full-text search"),
+            "unexpected error for fuzzy AND query: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn base_only_boolean_query_uses_dataset_scanner_support() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+            BooleanQuery, FtsQuery as IndexFtsQuery, MatchQuery, Occur,
+        };
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(
+                &schema,
+                &[1, 2],
+                &["lance rocks", "unrelated text"],
+            )],
+        )
+        .await;
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(
+            vec![(Occur::Must, MatchQuery::new("lance".to_string()).into())],
+        )));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                query.with_column("text".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&["id".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("base-only boolean query should be delegated to dataset scanner");
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![1]);
+    }
+
+    /// An active memtable with no FTS index on the column is now indexed for
+    /// the query rather than skipped, so a boolean query reaches it. This
+    /// memtable's row carries none of the query's terms, so the answer is
+    /// unchanged — what changed is that it was actually searched.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn boolean_query_searches_active_memtable_without_a_maintained_fts_index() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+            BooleanQuery, FtsQuery as IndexFtsQuery, MatchQuery, Occur,
+        };
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(
+                &schema,
+                &[1, 2],
+                &["lance rocks", "unrelated text"],
+            )],
+        )
+        .await;
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        let active_batch = make_batch(&schema, &[99], &["active text has no fts index"]);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: indexes,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(
+            vec![(Occur::Must, MatchQuery::new("lance".to_string()).into())],
+        )));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                query.with_column("text".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&["id".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("an unmaintained column must be indexed for the query, not skipped");
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![1]);
+    }
+
+    /// A boolean query has to reach the active memtable, not just the base
+    /// table, and every clause has to survive the trip: the MUST clause selects
+    /// and the MUST_NOT clause excludes, on memtable rows as much as base rows.
+    ///
+    /// Before this, `local_fts_query` refused any compound query outright, so a
+    /// memtable holding an FTS index on the searched column made the whole
+    /// query fail — and the LSM validator rejected it one layer up.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn boolean_query_reaches_the_active_memtable() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+            BooleanQuery, FtsQuery as IndexFtsQuery, MatchQuery, Occur,
+        };
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(
+                &schema,
+                &[1, 2],
+                &["lance rocks", "unrelated text"],
+            )],
+        )
+        .await;
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        // Active memtable with its own FTS index on the searched column: one
+        // row the query should keep, one the MUST_NOT clause should drop.
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_batch(&schema, &[10, 11], &["lance memwal", "lance beta"]);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: indexes,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let leaf = |terms: &str| IndexFtsQuery::from(MatchQuery::new(terms.to_string()));
+        let query =
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![
+                (Occur::Must, leaf("lance")),
+                (Occur::MustNot, leaf("beta")),
+            ])));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                query.with_column("text".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&["id".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("an active memtable with an FTS index must serve a boolean query");
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 10],
+            "id=1 from base and id=10 from the memtable match MUST 'lance'; \
+             id=2 lacks it and id=11 is excluded by MUST_NOT 'beta'"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An FTS index the write spec does not maintain used to make the active
+    /// memtable contribute nothing — `empty_plan()`, not an error — so the query
+    /// returned a base-only answer under a plan that said it consulted the
+    /// memtable. Index the visible prefix for the query instead.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unmaintained_column_is_indexed_for_the_query() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(&schema, &[1, 2], &["lance rocks", "unrelated"])],
+        )
+        .await;
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        // PK index maintained, FTS index not — the shape you get when the FTS
+        // index is built after `set_lsm_write_spec`.
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        let active_batch = make_batch(&schema, &[10, 11], &["lance in memtable", "no match here"]);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+        assert!(
+            indexes
+                .fts_document_granularities_by_column("text")
+                .is_empty(),
+            "precondition: the memtable maintains no FTS index on the column"
+        );
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: indexes,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(MatchQuery::new(
+            "lance".to_string(),
+        )));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                query.with_column("text".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&["id".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 10],
+            "id=10 lives only in the memtable and matches 'lance'; without a \
+             transient index the arm contributes nothing and only id=1 comes back"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The transient index has to inherit the persisted index's analyzer and
+    /// positional settings, not defaults. Positions are the sharpest case:
+    /// `InvertedIndexParams::default()` has `with_position = false`, so a phrase
+    /// that matches in base silently matches nothing in the active prefix —
+    /// fewer rows, no error. Tokenizer settings diverge the same way.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn transient_index_inherits_persisted_index_params() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::PhraseQuery;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(&schema, &[1, 2], &["lance rocks", "unrelated"])],
+        )
+        .await;
+        // Built *with* positions, so phrase is a supported query on this table.
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        let active_batch = make_batch(&schema, &[10], &["lance rocks in memtable"]);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: indexes,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(PhraseQuery::new(
+            "lance rocks".to_string(),
+        )));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                query.with_column("text".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&["id".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 10],
+            "id=10 carries the phrase in the memtable; a default-params transient \
+             index has no positions and drops it"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Row and list-element indexes may coexist on one column with *different*
+    /// settings, and the query selects between them by its resolved
+    /// granularity. Taking whichever index came first would rebuild the
+    /// transient arm against the wrong contract — here the row index has no
+    /// positions, so a list-element phrase query would analyze the active rows
+    /// positionlessly and silently match nothing.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn transient_index_uses_params_for_selected_granularity() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::PhraseQuery;
+
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta);
+        let list_type = DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true)));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("tags", list_type, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let mut base_tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        base_tags.values().append_value("lance rocks");
+        base_tags.append(true);
+        let base_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(base_tags.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(base_batch)], schema.clone()),
+            &base_uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        // Row index first, without positions; list-element index second, with.
+        // Order matters: a first-match lookup picks the positionless one.
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["tags"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("tags_row_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["tags"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("tags_element_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                    .with_position(true)
+                    .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        // Precondition: both granularities really do coexist, with different
+        // positional settings, or this test proves nothing.
+        let params = indexed_fts_index_params(&base_ds, "tags").await.unwrap();
+        let row = params
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(g, _)| *g == DocumentGranularity::Row)
+            .expect("row index");
+        let element = params
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(g, _)| *g == DocumentGranularity::ListElement)
+            .expect("list-element index");
+        assert!(!row.1.has_positions(), "row index must lack positions");
+        assert!(
+            element.1.has_positions(),
+            "element index must have positions"
+        );
+
+        // Active memtable with no maintained FTS index on the column.
+        let mut active_tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        active_tags.values().append_value("lance rocks");
+        active_tags.append(true);
+        let active_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10])),
+                Arc::new(active_tags.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: indexes,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(
+            PhraseQuery::new("lance rocks".to_string())
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+        ));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                query.with_column("tags".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&["id".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids.dedup();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 10],
+            "id=10 is in the memtable; rebuilding against the row index's \
+             positionless settings drops it"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An empty memtable pays nothing: there is nothing to index, so the arm
+    /// stays empty rather than building a tokenizer pool over no rows.""""""
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn empty_memtable_builds_no_transient_index() {
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(MatchQuery::new(
+            "lance".to_string(),
+        )));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                query.with_column("text".to_string()).unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                Some(&["id".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// A multi-match decomposes per leaf only when its leaves span columns.
+    /// Naming one column — through however many leaves — it is a single-index
+    /// query and stays on the bound path, which needs no primary key.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::one_leaf(vec!["text"], false)]
+    #[case::two_leaves_one_column(vec!["text", "text"], false)]
+    #[case::one_leaf_per_column(vec!["title", "body"], true)]
+    #[case::mixed(vec!["title", "title", "body"], true)]
+    fn multi_match_decomposes_only_when_it_spans_columns(
+        #[case] leaves: Vec<&str>,
+        #[case] spans_columns: bool,
+    ) {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MultiMatchQuery;
+
+        let multi = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            "lance".to_string(),
+            leaves.iter().map(|leaf| leaf.to_string()).collect(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        match fts_plan_shape(&IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(multi)).unwrap() {
+            FtsPlanShape::Bound(columns) => {
+                assert!(!spans_columns, "expected one arm per leaf for {leaves:?}");
+                assert_eq!(columns, vec![leaves[0].to_string()]);
+            }
+            FtsPlanShape::PerColumn(arms) => {
+                assert!(spans_columns, "expected the bound path for {leaves:?}");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    arms.iter()
+                        .map(|(column, _)| column.as_str())
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    leaves
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Two leaves on one column evaluate whole on the bound path, each row
+    /// scored by its best leaf — the same rows and scores as the dominating
+    /// leaf alone.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn single_column_multi_match_scores_each_row_by_its_best_leaf() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MultiMatchQuery;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[1, 2, 3],
+            &["lance rocks", "lance lance", "nothing"],
+        );
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let scores_for = |query: FullTextSearchQuery| {
+            let planner = &planner;
+            let ctx = &ctx;
+            async move {
+                let plan = planner
+                    .plan_search(query, Some(10), Some(&["id".to_string()]))
+                    .await
+                    .expect("plans");
+                let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+                    .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_collect()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let mut scores: Vec<(i32, f32)> = batches
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|batch| {
+                        let ids = batch
+                            .column_by_name("id")
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .as_any()
+                            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                            .unwrap();
+                        let scores = batch
+                            .column_by_name(SCORE_COLUMN)
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .as_any()
+                            .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+                            .unwrap();
+                        (0..batch.num_rows())
+                            .map(|i| (ids.value(i), scores.value(i)))
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                scores.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+                scores
+            }
+        };
+
+        let multi = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            "lance".to_string(),
+            vec!["text".to_string(), "text".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_with_boosts(vec![1.0, 2.0])
+        .unwrap();
+        let fused = scores_for(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            multi,
+        )))
+        .await;
+        let dominating = scores_for(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                .with_boost(2.0),
+        )))
+        .await;
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            fused.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![1, 2],
+            "each matching row once; id=3 matches nothing"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(fused.len(), dominating.len());
+        for ((id, fused_score), (_, dominating_score)) in fused.iter().zip(&dominating) {
+            assert!(
+                (fused_score - dominating_score).abs() < 1e-6,
+                "id={id}: best-leaf score {fused_score} != boost-2 leaf alone {dominating_score}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A multi-match below the root is one clause of the enclosing tree. The
+    /// memtable scores it as a best-child node and routes each leaf to its own
+    /// column's index, so a MUST over it excludes what MUST_NOT names.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn nested_multi_match_reaches_the_active_memtable() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{BooleanQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Occur};
+
+        let schema = two_column_fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("title_fts".to_string(), 1, "title".to_string());
+        indexes.add_fts("body_fts".to_string(), 2, "body".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_two_column_batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[
+                (1, "lance title", "unrelated body"),  // title only
+                (2, "unrelated title", "lance body"),  // body only
+                (3, "lance title", "lance body"),      // both -> once
+                (4, "spam lance title", "lance body"), // excluded by MUST_NOT
+                (5, "nothing", "nothing"),             // neither
+            ],
+        );
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let multi = IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+                "lance".to_string(),
+                vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let spam = IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("spam".to_string()).with_column(Some("title".to_string())),
+        );
+        let query =
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![
+                (Occur::Must, multi),
+                (Occur::MustNot, spam),
+            ])));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(query, Some(10), Some(&["id".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .expect("a boolean over a multi-match must plan");
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+            .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 2, 3],
+            "both columns searched through the nested multi-match, id=4 excluded, id=3 once"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A column with no FTS index is served by a transient index over the
+    /// visible prefix. The base answers a phrase there from a flat scan, so the
+    /// transient index has to carry positions or every phrase hit in fresh rows
+    /// is silently lost while a plain match on the same rows succeeds.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn phrase_over_an_unindexed_column_reaches_the_active_memtable() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::PhraseQuery;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        // Deliberately no FTS index on `text`.
+        let active_batch = make_batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[1, 2, 3],
+            &["alpha prose here", "prose alpha reversed", "nothing"],
+        );
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let ids_for = |query: FullTextSearchQuery| {
+            let planner = &planner;
+            let ctx = &ctx;
+            async move {
+                let plan = planner
+                    .plan_search(query, Some(10), Some(&["id".to_string()]))
+                    .await
+                    .expect("plans");
+                let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+                    .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_collect()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|batch| {
+                        batch
+                            .column_by_name("id")
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .as_any()
+                            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .values()
+                            .to_vec()
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                ids.sort_unstable();
+                ids
+            }
+        };
+
+        let matched = ids_for(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+        )))
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched,
+            vec![1, 2],
+            "precondition: the transient index serves a match"
+        );
+
+        let phrase = ids_for(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Phrase(
+            PhraseQuery::new("alpha prose".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+        )))
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            phrase,
+            vec![1],
+            "the phrase matches row 1 only; row 2 carries the terms reversed"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A multi-match reaches the active memtable across every queried column,
+    /// and a row matching in more than one is returned once rather than per
+    /// column.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn multi_match_searches_every_column_and_collapses_duplicates() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MultiMatchQuery;
+
+        let schema = two_column_fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("title_fts".to_string(), 1, "title".to_string());
+        indexes.add_fts("body_fts".to_string(), 2, "body".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_two_column_batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[
+                (1, "lance title", "unrelated body"), // title only
+                (2, "unrelated title", "lance body"), // body only
+                (3, "lance title", "lance body"),     // both -> must appear once
+                (4, "nothing", "nothing"),            // neither
+            ],
+        );
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+                "lance".to_string(),
+                vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(query, Some(10), Some(&["id".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .expect("a cross-column multi-match must plan");
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let mut sorted = ids.clone();
+        sorted.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sorted,
+            vec![1, 2, 3],
+            "every column must be searched; id=4 matches neither"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids.len(),
+            3,
+            "id=3 matches in both columns and must collapse to one row, got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The top-k is over *rows*, so the cut has to happen after duplicates
+    /// collapse. Cutting the union to `k` field hits first lets one row that
+    /// ranks highly in several fields spend the whole budget on itself, and the
+    /// query returns fewer than `k` rows while more matching rows exist.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_column_limit_counts_rows_not_field_hits() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MultiMatchQuery;
+
+        let schema = two_column_fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("title_fts".to_string(), 1, "title".to_string());
+        indexes.add_fts("body_fts".to_string(), 2, "body".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_two_column_batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[
+                // Ranks top in both fields, so it occupies two of the union's
+                // slots on its own.
+                (3, "lance lance lance", "lance lance lance"),
+                (1, "lance title", "unrelated body"),
+                (2, "unrelated title", "lance body"),
+            ],
+        );
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+                "lance".to_string(),
+                vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(query, Some(2), Some(&["id".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids.len(),
+            2,
+            "limit 2 must return two distinct rows, got {ids:?}"
+        );
+        let mut distinct = ids.clone();
+        distinct.sort_unstable();
+        distinct.dedup();
+        assert_eq!(distinct.len(), 2, "rows must be distinct, got {ids:?}");
+    }
+
+    /// The query is the only source of the columns to search, so an unbound one
+    /// is a caller error rather than something to fill in from the sources: the
+    /// fresh tier may carry no base table, and a memtable's inverted indexes are
+    /// built on demand rather than declared up front.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unbound_query_columns_are_refused() {
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string()),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("name the columns to search"),
+            "unexpected unbound-column error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Without a primary key there is no identity to collapse field hits by, so
+    /// the query is refused rather than returning one row per matching field.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_column_without_a_primary_key_is_refused() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MultiMatchQuery;
+
+        let schema = two_column_fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec![], schema);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+                "lance".to_string(),
+                vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ));
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(query, Some(10), Some(&["id".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("requires a primary key"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A list-element leaf makes one arm carry `_doc_index` and the other not.
+    /// Refuse it before building the union: the on-disk cross-column contract
+    /// is row documents only.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_column_list_element_granularity_is_refused() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery};
+
+        let schema = two_column_fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        let mut multi = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            "lance".to_string(),
+            vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        multi.match_queries[1] = MatchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+            .with_column(Some("body".to_string()))
+            .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(multi));
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(query, Some(10), Some(&["id".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("row documents only"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The implicit case the explicit-request guard cannot see: a default
+    /// multi-match names no granularity, so nothing is rejected up front, and
+    /// if every column carries a list-element index each arm resolves to
+    /// `ListElement` on its own. Their schemas then *agree*, so a
+    /// schema-equality check passes too — and the collapse would key element
+    /// hits by row primary key, dropping every matching element of a row but
+    /// one.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_column_implicit_list_element_granularity_is_refused() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MultiMatchQuery;
+
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta);
+        let list_type = DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true)));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("tags", list_type.clone(), true),
+            Field::new("notes", list_type, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let mut tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        tags.values().append_value("lance");
+        tags.append(true);
+        let mut notes = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        notes.values().append_value("lance");
+        notes.append(true);
+        let active_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(tags.finish()),
+                Arc::new(notes.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        for (name, field_id, column) in [
+            ("tags_element_fts", 1, "tags"),
+            ("notes_element_fts", 2, "notes"),
+        ] {
+            indexes
+                .add_fts_with_params(
+                    name.to_string(),
+                    field_id,
+                    column.to_string(),
+                    InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                        .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+
+        // No explicit granularity: both arms resolve to ListElement themselves.
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+                "lance".to_string(),
+                vec!["tags".to_string(), "notes".to_string()],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ));
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(query, Some(10), Some(&["id".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("row documents only"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Rows and their `_score`s from a cross-column plan over the standard
+    /// two-column fixture, in plan order.
+    async fn run_cross_column(
+        rows: &[(i32, &str, &str)],
+        indexed_columns: &[&str],
+        query: IndexFtsQuery,
+        limit: usize,
+    ) -> Vec<(i32, f32)> {
+        let schema = two_column_fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        for column in indexed_columns {
+            let field_id = match *column {
+                "title" => 1,
+                "body" => 2,
+                other => panic!("unknown fixture column '{other}'"),
+            };
+            indexes.add_fts(format!("{column}_fts"), field_id, column.to_string());
+        }
+        let active_batch = make_two_column_batch(&schema, rows);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query),
+                Some(limit),
+                Some(&["id".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("a cross-column predicate must plan");
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                let ids = batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                let scores = batch
+                    .column_by_name(SCORE_COLUMN)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                (0..batch.num_rows())
+                    .map(|row| (ids.value(row), scores.value(row)))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn match_leaf(terms: &str, column: &str) -> IndexFtsQuery {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MatchQuery;
+        IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new(terms.to_string()).with_column(Some(column.to_string())),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// A MUST spanning columns is an intersection: the row has to match in
+    /// *both* fields. Decomposing it into per-column arms and unioning them —
+    /// the way a multi-match decomposes — would return rows matching in only
+    /// one, which is a different query.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_column_boolean_must_intersects_the_columns() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{BooleanQuery, Occur};
+
+        let results = run_cross_column(
+            &[
+                (1, "alpha title", "beta body"),
+                (2, "alpha title", "unrelated body"),
+                (3, "unrelated title", "beta body"),
+                (4, "unrelated title", "unrelated body"),
+            ],
+            &["title", "body"],
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![
+                (Occur::Must, match_leaf("alpha", "title")),
+                (Occur::Must, match_leaf("beta", "body")),
+            ])),
+            10,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = results.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1],
+            "only the row matching in both columns satisfies a cross-column MUST"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The MUST_NOT clause reaches across columns too: a row matching the
+    /// excluded term in the *other* field is dropped. This is the hazard the
+    /// sophon-side fragment descent used to invert — arming only the MUST_NOT
+    /// clause returns exactly the rows the caller asked to leave out.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_column_boolean_must_not_excludes_across_columns() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{BooleanQuery, Occur};
+
+        let results = run_cross_column(
+            &[
+                (1, "alpha title", "beta body"),
+                (2, "alpha title", "unrelated body"),
+            ],
+            &["title", "body"],
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![
+                (Occur::Must, match_leaf("alpha", "title")),
+                (Occur::MustNot, match_leaf("beta", "body")),
+            ])),
+            10,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = results.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![2], "id=1 carries the excluded term in `body`");
+    }
+
+    /// A boost demotes rather than drops: the row matching the negative clause
+    /// in the other column still comes back, ranked below the one that does
+    /// not. Dropping it would be a boolean MUST_NOT, a different query.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_column_boost_demotes_rather_than_drops() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::BoostQuery;
+
+        let results = run_cross_column(
+            &[
+                (1, "alpha title", "beta body"),
+                (2, "alpha title", "unrelated body"),
+            ],
+            &["title", "body"],
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boost(BoostQuery::new(
+                match_leaf("alpha", "title"),
+                match_leaf("beta", "body"),
+                Some(1.0),
+            )),
+            10,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = results.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2, 1],
+            "both rows come back, and the demoted one ranks last"
+        );
+        let demoted = results.iter().find(|(id, _)| *id == 1).unwrap().1;
+        let kept = results.iter().find(|(id, _)| *id == 2).unwrap().1;
+        assert!(
+            demoted < kept,
+            "the negative clause must subtract from the score: {demoted} vs {kept}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A column outside the maintained set still contributes: the transient
+    /// store covers every queried column, so the clause on `body` is evaluated
+    /// rather than silently matching nothing — which on a MUST would empty the
+    /// whole result.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_column_builds_transient_indexes_for_unmaintained_columns() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{BooleanQuery, Occur};
+
+        let results = run_cross_column(
+            &[
+                (1, "alpha title", "beta body"),
+                (2, "alpha title", "unrelated body"),
+            ],
+            // `body` has no maintained in-memory index.
+            &["title"],
+            IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![
+                (Occur::Must, match_leaf("alpha", "title")),
+                (Occur::Must, match_leaf("beta", "body")),
+            ])),
+            10,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = results.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1],
+            "the unmaintained column must still be searched"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A leaf naming no column cannot be routed: once the tree spans fields
+    /// there is no single index to fall back to, and binding it to one of the
+    /// others would silently answer a different query. Refused at planning.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_column_unbound_leaf_is_refused() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{BooleanQuery, MatchQuery, Occur};
+
+        let schema = two_column_fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("title_fts".to_string(), 1, "title".to_string());
+        indexes.add_fts("body_fts".to_string(), 2, "body".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_two_column_batch(&schema, &[(1, "alpha title", "beta body")]);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let query =
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(vec![
+                (Occur::Must, match_leaf("alpha", "title")),
+                (
+                    Occur::Must,
+                    IndexFtsQuery::Match(MatchQuery::new("beta".to_string())),
+                ),
+            ])));
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(query, Some(10), Some(&["id".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("name the columns to search"),
+            "unexpected error for an unbound leaf: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The base arm must apply the filter as a true *prefilter*, not a
+    /// post-filter on the BM25 top-k. With `k = 1` and the higher-scoring base
+    /// doc failing the predicate, a post-filter would return zero rows; a
+    /// prefilter restricts BM25 to matching rows and returns the lower-scoring
+    /// match. Regression for a missing `scanner.prefilter(true)` on the base arm.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prefilter_on_base_is_not_a_lossy_postfilter() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+
+        // id=1 is a short doc ("lance") so it scores higher under BM25 length
+        // normalization; id=2 buries "lance" among filler so it scores lower.
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_batch(
+                &schema,
+                &[1, 2],
+                &["lance", "lance filler filler filler filler filler"],
+            )],
+        )
+        .await;
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        // Base-only collector (no in-memory memtables): isolates the base arm.
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema)
+            // Keeps only id=2, which is the *lower*-scoring match. A post-filter
+            // on the top-1 (id=1) would drop everything.
+            .with_filter(Some(col("id").gt_eq(lit(2i32))));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(1),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered base plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2],
+            "prefilter must return the lower-scoring match id=2, not post-filter \
+             the top-1 (id=1) down to nothing; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The active memtable FTS arm must also apply the predicate before its
+    /// top-k cap. With `k = 1` and the higher-scoring active doc failing the
+    /// predicate, pushing the limit into the index would return zero rows.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prefilter_on_active_is_not_a_lossy_postfilter() {
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("status", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "lance",
+                    "lance filler filler filler filler filler",
+                ])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["archived", "active"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema)
+            .with_filter(Some(col("status").eq(lit("active"))));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(1),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered active plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2],
+            "active FTS prefilter must return the lower-scoring matching row, \
+             not post-filter the top-1 down to nothing; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The active FTS arm must also avoid capping before newest-PK filtering.
+    /// A stale high-scoring hit can be removed by `FtsIndexExec`; a lower
+    /// scoring live hit must still be available for the final global top-k.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn active_limit_applies_after_newest_pk_recency_filter() {
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("status", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "lance",
+                    "lance filler filler filler filler filler",
+                    "other text",
+                ])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["active", "active", "active"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema)
+            .with_filter(Some(col("status").eq(lit("active"))));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(1),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered active plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![2],
+            "active FTS limit must apply after newest-PK filtering; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An in-memtable update whose *newest* version fails the prefilter must
+    /// exclude the PK, not leak the stale older hit that still passes. Both
+    /// versions of pk=5 match the query text "lance", but only the older one is
+    /// "active"; the current version is "archived" and must be dropped.
+    /// Regression for filter-before-dedup on the active FTS arm.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prefilter_excludes_pk_whose_newest_version_fails() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("status", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let make_row = |statuses: &[&str]| -> RecordBatch {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![5; statuses.len()])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["lance text"; statuses.len()])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(statuses.to_vec())),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Base unindexed → contributes nothing; isolate the active arm.
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![999])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["unrelated"])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["active"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(write_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        // Active memtable: pk=5 appended twice (active then archived), both "lance".
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_row(&["active", "archived"]);
+        batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: indexes,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema)
+            .with_filter(Some(col("status").eq(lit("active"))));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered active plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(
+            total, 0,
+            "pk=5's current version is 'archived' and must be excluded; the stale \
+             'active' older hit must not leak (filter evaluated on newest version)"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Cross-arm stale hits must be blocked even if the newer active row fails
+    /// the prefilter. The base copy of pk=5 matches both text and status, but
+    /// the newer active copy is archived; pk=5 must not leak from the base arm.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn prefilter_blocks_base_hit_when_active_newest_fails() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let mut id_meta = HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("status", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let make_rows = |rows: &[(i32, &str, &str)]| -> RecordBatch {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(
+                        rows.iter().map(|(id, _, _)| *id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                        rows.iter().map(|(_, text, _)| *text).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                        rows.iter()
+                            .map(|(_, _, status)| *status)
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut base_ds = write_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![make_rows(&[
+                (5, "lance base stale", "active"),
+                (6, "lance base live", "active"),
+            ])],
+        )
+        .await;
+        base_ds
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_ds = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let active_batch = make_rows(&[(5, "lance active newest", "archived")]);
+        batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_ds, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store: indexes,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema)
+            .with_filter(Some(col("status").eq(lit("active"))));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered base+active plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let mut ids = Vec::new();
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let id_array = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(id_array.value(row));
+            }
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![6],
+            "base pk=5 passes the filter but is superseded by active archived pk=5; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn local_mode_active_memtable_only_returns_score_sorted_hits() {
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        // text column has field_id 1 in fts_schema()
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let batch = make_batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[1, 2, 3, 4],
+            &[
+                "lance is a columnar data format",
+                "memwal handles streaming writes",
+                "lance memwal lance lance",
+                "completely unrelated",
+            ],
+        );
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("local mode planner should produce a plan");
+
+        // Plan executes and emits _score-sorted rows.
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert!(
+            total >= 2,
+            "expected at least the 2 'lance' rows, got {total}"
+        );
+
+        // Schema must include _score and the PK id.
+        let out = batches[0].schema();
+        assert!(out.field_with_name(SCORE_COLUMN).is_ok());
+        assert!(out.field_with_name("id").is_ok());
+
+        // _score must be non-ascending across the result.
+        let mut prev_score: Option<f32> = None;
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let score = batch
+                .column_by_name(SCORE_COLUMN)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let s = score.value(i);
+                if let Some(p) = prev_score {
+                    assert!(p >= s, "scores not sorted DESC: {p} then {s}");
+                }
+                prev_score = Some(s);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn active_match_query_preserves_and_operator() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+            FtsQuery as IndexFtsQuery, MatchQuery, Operator,
+        };
+
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let batch = make_batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[1, 2, 3],
+            &["lance only", "memwal only", "lance memwal"],
+        );
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(IndexFtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("lance memwal".to_string())
+                .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+        ));
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(query, Some(10), None)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce an active-only plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![3],
+            "AND query must only return rows containing both terms; got ids={ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn local_mode_active_dedups_updated_pk_keeping_newest() {
+        // The active memtable is an append log and the FTS index is
+        // append-only, so a PK updated before flush is searchable as two
+        // row-positions. WithinSourceDedupExec(KeepMaxRowAddr) must collapse
+        // them to the newest insert. Without it the same PK would surface
+        // twice (criterion 2 violation).
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+
+        // First append (positions 0,1): id=1 is the stale version of the PK.
+        let batch_old = make_batch(&schema, &[1, 2], &["lance stale version", "other doc"]);
+        batch_store.append(batch_old.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch_old, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Second append (position 2): id=1 updated — same PK, later row.
+        let batch_new = make_batch(&schema, &[1], &["lance fresh version"]);
+        batch_store.append(batch_new.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch_new, 2, Some(1))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce an active-only plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut rows: Vec<(i32, String)> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let ids = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let texts = b
+                .column_by_name("text")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                rows.push((ids.value(i), texts.value(i).to_string()));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // id=1 must appear exactly once, and it must be the *newest* version.
+        let id1: Vec<&(i32, String)> = rows.iter().filter(|(id, _)| *id == 1).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            id1.len(),
+            1,
+            "updated PK id=1 must be deduped to one row; got {rows:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            id1[0].1, "lance fresh version",
+            "dedup must keep the newest (max row-position) version"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn active_stale_update_predicate_crossing_leaks() {
+        // A PK update that crosses out of the match set: pk=1 inserted as
+        // "alpha lance", then updated to "beta lance". The append-only inverted
+        // index keeps the old "alpha" posting live, so an "alpha" search still
+        // matches the STALE pk=1 row — and the fresh "beta lance" row isn't even
+        // a candidate, so a result-set dedup has nothing to suppress it against.
+        // `FtsIndexExec` drops it predicate-independently: pk=1's newest visible
+        // row is "beta lance", so the "alpha" hit is not the newest.
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+
+        // Insert pk=1 ("alpha lance") and an unrelated live pk=2 ("alpha foo").
+        let b1 = make_batch(&schema, &[1, 2], &["alpha lance", "alpha foo"]);
+        let (bp1, off1, _) = batch_store.append(b1.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b1, off1, Some(bp1))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Update pk=1 → "beta lance" (no longer matches "alpha").
+        let b2 = make_batch(&schema, &[1], &["beta lance"]);
+        let (bp2, off2, _) = batch_store.append(b2.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b2, off2, Some(bp2))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: indexes,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            !ids.contains(&1),
+            "stale pk=1 (now 'beta lance') leaked on an 'alpha' search; got ids={ids:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            ids.contains(&2),
+            "live pk=2 ('alpha foo') must still match 'alpha'; got ids={ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_gen_stale_update_blocked_by_newer_memtable() {
+        // The cross-generation analog of `active_stale_update_predicate_crossing_leaks`:
+        // pk=1's stale "alpha" version lives in a FROZEN memtable and its fresh
+        // "beta" version in the ACTIVE one. The frozen arm's recency filter is
+        // per-generation and can't see the newer gen, so only the cross-gen
+        // block-list can drop the stale "alpha" hit. The cluster constantly
+        // freezes memtables, so an insert and its later update/delete split
+        // across in-memory generations — this is the residual fuzz phantom.
+        let schema = fts_schema();
+
+        // Frozen gen=1: pk=1 "alpha lance" (matches), pk=2 "alpha foo" (live).
+        let frozen_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut frozen_idx = IndexStore::new();
+        frozen_idx.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        frozen_idx.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let fb = make_batch(&schema, &[1, 2], &["alpha lance", "alpha foo"]);
+        let (bp, off, _) = frozen_store.append(fb.clone()).unwrap();
+        frozen_idx
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&fb, off, Some(bp))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Active gen=2: pk=1 updated to "beta lance" (no longer matches "alpha").
+        let active_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut active_idx = IndexStore::new();
+        active_idx.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        active_idx.add_fts("text_fts".to_string(), 1, "text".to_string());
+        let ab = make_batch(&schema, &[1], &["beta lance"]);
+        let (bp, off, _) = active_store.append(ab.clone()).unwrap();
+        active_idx
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&ab, off, Some(bp))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store: active_store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(active_idx),
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 2,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store: frozen_store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(frozen_idx),
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    }],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema);
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_string())
+                    .with_column("text".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(10),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a plan");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            !ids.contains(&1),
+            "stale frozen pk=1 ('alpha lance', now 'beta lance' in the active gen) \
+             leaked on an 'alpha' search; got ids={ids:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            ids.contains(&2),
+            "live pk=2 ('alpha foo', only in the frozen gen) must still match; got ids={ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Full-text search on a field inside a list of structs still matches after
+    /// an unrelated column is added to the table.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_list_of_struct_fts_still_matches_after_an_unrelated_column_is_added() {
+        let item_fields: arrow_schema::Fields = vec![
+            Arc::new(Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, true)),
+            Arc::new(Field::new("body", DataType::Utf8, true)),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let item = Arc::new(Field::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(item_fields.clone()),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let stored_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("tags", DataType::List(item.clone()), true),
+        ]));
+        let values = arrow_array::StructArray::new(
+            item_fields,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![10i64])) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["lance rocks"])) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let tags = arrow_array::ListArray::new(
+            item,
+            arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer::new(vec![0, 1].into()),
+            Arc::new(values),
+            None,
+        );
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            stored_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])), Arc::new(tags)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("list_fts".to_string(), 3, "tags.body".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+
+        let mut fields = stored_schema.fields().to_vec();
+        fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new("extra", DataType::Int64, true)));
+        let evolved_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields));
+
+        for table_schema in [stored_schema.clone(), evolved_schema] {
+            let collector =
+                LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table("memory://".to_string(), vec![])
+                    .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                        uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                        InMemoryMemTables {
+                            active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                                index_store: indexes.clone(),
+                                schema: stored_schema.clone(),
+                                generation: 1,
+                            },
+                            frozen: vec![],
+                        },
+                    );
+            let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], table_schema);
+            let plan = planner
+                .plan_search(
+                    FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                        .with_column("tags.body".to_string())
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    Some(10),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+                .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let count: usize = batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(
+                count, 1,
+                "the list's text field still matches under its full-text path"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_nested_fts_still_matches_after_an_unrelated_column_is_added() {
+        let stored_schema = nested_fts_schema();
+        let meta = arrow_array::StructArray::new(
+            nested_meta_fields(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![10i64])) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["lance rocks"])) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            stored_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["unrelated"])),
+                Arc::new(meta),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut indexes = IndexStore::new();
+        indexes.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        indexes.add_fts("nested_fts".to_string(), 4, "meta.b".to_string());
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        indexes
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexes = Arc::new(indexes);
+        let mut fields = stored_schema.fields().to_vec();
+        fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new("extra", DataType::Int64, true)));
+        let evolved_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields));
+        for table_schema in [stored_schema.clone(), evolved_schema] {
+            let collector =
+                LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table("memory://".to_string(), vec![])
+                    .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                        uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                        InMemoryMemTables {
+                            active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                                index_store: indexes.clone(),
+                                schema: stored_schema.clone(),
+                                generation: 1,
+                            },
+                            frozen: vec![],
+                        },
+                    );
+            let planner = LsmFtsSearchPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], table_schema);
+            let plan = planner
+                .plan_search(
+                    FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                        .with_column("meta.b".to_string())
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    Some(10),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+                .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let count: usize = batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum();
+            assert_eq!(count, 1, "the unchanged nested text field still matches");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/generation_read.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/generation_read.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..85747ffa9f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/generation_read.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,843 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Reading a sealed generation under the table's current schema.
+//!
+//! A sealed generation is a Lance dataset of its own, written under whatever
+//! the table's schema was at the time. The names it stores are therefore its
+//! own: a rename since the seal moved the table's name and left the file
+//! holding the old one, and only field ids relate the two. Every read path —
+//! scan, point lookup, vector search, full-text search — goes through
+//! [`GenerationRead`] so they resolve a generation the same way.
+
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::common::DFSchema;
+use datafusion::common::tree_node::{Transformed, TreeNode};
+use datafusion::execution::context::ExecutionProps;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::filter::FilterExec;
+use datafusion::prelude::Expr;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::create_physical_expr;
+use lance_core::datatypes::format_field_path_minimal;
+use lance_core::is_system_column;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+use super::exec::ReconcileExec;
+use super::projection::{is_auto_managed, resolve_data_fields_or_drop};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::reconcile::{Plan, field_id_of, without_field_id};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::{TOMBSTONE, arrow_schema_with_field_ids};
+
+/// One sealed generation, read under the table's schema.
+///
+/// Answers what to project ([`Self::stored_projection`]), whether a predicate
+/// can be pushed down and under which names ([`Self::to_stored`]), and how to
+/// bring the result back to the table's names ([`Self::reconcile`]).
+///
+/// # Invariant
+///
+/// A field id must keep identifying the same column while any generation holds
+/// it. Lance does not enforce this: `max_field_id` is a maximum over the current
+/// schema and base fragments, so dropping a column can lower it and let the next
+/// added column reuse the id. Reads then serve the dropped column's values as
+/// the new one. Callers that retain generations must drain them before a
+/// drop/add can reuse an id.
+pub(super) struct GenerationRead {
+    /// The generation's own schema, carrying its field ids.
+    stored_schema: Schema,
+    /// The table's name for a column → the name this generation stores it
+    /// under, matched by field id. Kept as names because scan projections and
+    /// predicates refer to columns by name. Columns the table no longer has are
+    /// absent.
+    names: HashMap<String, String>,
+    /// The stored names that belong to one of the table's columns.
+    stored_columns: HashSet<String>,
+    /// Like `names`, but for full-text paths.
+    fts_names: HashMap<String, String>,
+    /// The table's schema, also carrying field ids.
+    table_schema: SchemaRef,
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    /// The columns this read produces, in order, each under the name the
+    /// table gives it. Not only what the caller asked for --
+    /// [`Self::also_produce`] adds what a deferred predicate needs.
+    projection: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+impl GenerationRead {
+    /// `projection` is what the caller asks for, under the table's names.
+    pub(super) fn new(
+        dataset_schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+        table_schema: &SchemaRef,
+        pk_columns: &[String],
+        projection: Vec<String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::from_stored(
+            arrow_schema_with_field_ids(dataset_schema),
+            table_schema,
+            pk_columns,
+            projection,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Read a memtable under the table's schema.
+    ///
+    /// A memtable keeps the schema it was created with, so one created before a
+    /// schema change resolves like a flushed generation does.
+    pub(super) fn for_memtable(
+        memtable_schema: &Schema,
+        table_schema: &SchemaRef,
+        pk_columns: &[String],
+        projection: Vec<String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::from_stored(
+            memtable_schema.clone(),
+            table_schema,
+            pk_columns,
+            projection,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn from_stored(
+        stored_schema: Schema,
+        table_schema: &SchemaRef,
+        pk_columns: &[String],
+        projection: Vec<String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let (names, fts_names) = stored_names(&stored_schema, table_schema);
+        let stored_columns = names.keys().cloned().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        // Invert once so a lookup is a map get, not a scan.
+        let invert = |m: HashMap<String, String>| {
+            m.into_iter()
+                .map(|(stored, in_table)| (in_table, stored))
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>()
+        };
+        let (names, fts_names) = (invert(names), invert(fts_names));
+        let (table_schema, pk_columns) = (Arc::clone(table_schema), pk_columns.to_vec());
+        Self {
+            stored_schema,
+            names,
+            fts_names,
+            stored_columns,
+            table_schema,
+            pk_columns,
+            projection,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The generation's name for `column`. `column` is the table's name for it.
+    pub(super) fn stored_name(&self, column: &str) -> Option<&str> {
+        self.names.get(column).map(String::as_str)
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::stored_name`] for a full-text path, which leaves out a list's
+    /// element name. A separate map because a struct child named `item` inside
+    /// a list has the same path as the list element.
+    pub(super) fn stored_fts_name(&self, column: &str) -> Option<&str> {
+        self.fts_names.get(column).map(String::as_str)
+    }
+
+    /// The primary key columns under this generation's names.
+    ///
+    /// Primary key columns cannot be added or dropped, so a missing one is an
+    /// error.
+    pub(super) fn stored_pk_columns(&self) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+        self.pk_columns
+            .iter()
+            .map(|pk| {
+                self.stored_name(pk).map(str::to_string).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "primary key column `{pk}` is not stored by a generation of this table"
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Also produce `column`, which the caller needs even though it did not ask
+    /// for it — a predicate that runs after reconciliation reads its columns
+    /// from this scan.
+    pub(super) fn also_produce(&mut self, column: &str) {
+        if !self.projection.iter().any(|w| w == column) {
+            self.projection.push(column.to_string());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// What to project from the file: the projected columns under the names it
+    /// has.
+    /// A column it never stored is dropped here and filled in by
+    /// [`Self::reconcile`].
+    pub(super) fn stored_projection(&self) -> Vec<&str> {
+        self.projection
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|name| {
+                self.stored_name(name)
+                    .or_else(|| self.stored_system_column(name))
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// A system column (`_tombstone`, `_rowaddr`) is not one of the table's, so
+    /// no field id relates it; the generation stores it under the name it is
+    /// asked for, or not at all.
+    fn stored_system_column(&self, name: &str) -> Option<&str> {
+        (is_system_column(name) || name == TOMBSTONE)
+            .then(|| self.stored_schema.field_with_name(name).ok())
+            .flatten()
+            .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+    }
+
+    /// `expr` with each column reference moved to the name this generation
+    /// stores it under, so it can be pushed into the generation's own scan.
+    ///
+    /// `None` when the generation does not store a referenced column, or stores
+    /// it under a different shape; the predicate then runs above the
+    /// reconciliation instead. A nested reference names its parent (`info.a`
+    /// refers to `info`), and a child rename does not move the parent's name, so
+    /// the parent's whole type is compared rather than its name.
+    pub(super) fn to_stored(&self, expr: &Expr) -> Option<Expr> {
+        let pushable = expr
+            .column_refs()
+            .iter()
+            .all(|c| self.stored_as_declared(&c.name));
+        if !pushable {
+            return None;
+        }
+        expr.clone()
+            .transform(|e| match e {
+                Expr::Column(mut c) => {
+                    // `stored_name` is total over the refs, checked above.
+                    c.name = self.stored_name(&c.name).expect("checked").to_string();
+                    Ok(Transformed::yes(Expr::Column(c)))
+                }
+                other => Ok(Transformed::no(other)),
+            })
+            .map(|t| t.data)
+            .ok()
+    }
+
+    /// Split `filter` into the part this generation can answer under its own
+    /// names and the part that has to run above the reconciliation.
+    ///
+    /// The deferred part reads its columns from this scan, so they are added to
+    /// what the scan produces whether the caller asked for them or not. At most
+    /// one of the two is `Some`: a predicate is pushed whole or deferred whole.
+    pub(super) fn split_filter(&mut self, filter: Option<&Expr>) -> (Option<Expr>, Option<Expr>) {
+        let pushed = filter.and_then(|expr| self.to_stored(expr));
+        let deferred = filter.filter(|_| pushed.is_none()).cloned();
+        if let Some(expr) = &deferred {
+            for column in expr.column_refs() {
+                self.also_produce(&column.name);
+            }
+        }
+        (pushed, deferred)
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the generation stores `column` exactly as the table declares
+    /// it, so a predicate naming it means the same thing pushed down.
+    ///
+    /// A nested column is where the two can differ without the name moving: a
+    /// reference names the parent (`info.a` refers to `info`) and a parent's
+    /// name does not move when a child is renamed. Comparing the shapes rather
+    /// than assuming the worst is what keeps an ordinary predicate on an
+    /// ordinary struct pushed down — the common case, where nothing moved.
+    fn stored_as_declared(&self, column: &str) -> bool {
+        let Some(stored_column) = self.stored_name(column) else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        let (Ok(stored_field), Ok(declared)) = (
+            self.stored_schema.field_with_name(stored_column),
+            self.table_schema.field_with_name(column),
+        ) else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        // The top-level ids matched already: `stored_name` resolved through a
+        // map keyed by them. This compares the children, whose ids live inside
+        // the parent's own type -- so a child dropped and added back under the
+        // same name and type is caught as the different column it is, rather
+        // than filtering on the retired child's values while the reconciliation
+        // above synthesizes nulls for the new one.
+        stored_field.data_type() == declared.data_type()
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::reconcile`], then apply a filter that could only run once rows
+    /// carry the table's names.
+    pub(super) fn reconcile_above(
+        &self,
+        scan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        above: &Option<Expr>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let reconciled = self.reconcile(scan)?;
+        match above {
+            Some(expr) => filter_above(reconciled, expr),
+            None => Ok(reconciled),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Bring the scan's output back to the table's names and shapes: renames
+    /// followed, columns the generation never stored filled with nulls, nested
+    /// columns rebuilt to the shape the table declares.
+    ///
+    /// `scan` may produce more than was asked for (`_rowaddr`, `_tombstone`);
+    /// those pass through untouched, as does anything the generation has that
+    /// the table does not.
+    pub(super) fn reconcile(&self, scan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let source =
+            self.with_only_table_field_ids(with_ids_from(&scan.schema(), &self.stored_schema));
+        let target = self.target(&source)?;
+        let plan = Plan::resolve(&source, &target, &self.pk_columns)?.emitting_plain_schema();
+        if plan.is_identity() {
+            return Ok(scan);
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(ReconcileExec::new(scan, Arc::new(plan))))
+    }
+
+    /// `source` keeping a field id only where the column is one of the
+    /// table's, and stripping it everywhere else.
+    ///
+    /// A generation numbers its own columns in its own schema — `_tombstone`,
+    /// and anything it holds that the table has since dropped — so those ids
+    /// collide with whatever the table gave those numbers. Left in place, a
+    /// column added to the table resolves to whichever of them happens to share
+    /// its id.
+    fn with_only_table_field_ids(&self, source: Schema) -> Schema {
+        let fields: Vec<Field> = source
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| match self.stored_columns.contains(field.name()) {
+                true => field.as_ref().clone(),
+                false => without_field_id(field),
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Schema::new_with_metadata(fields, source.metadata().clone())
+    }
+
+    /// The schema [`Self::reconcile`] produces: the projected columns under the
+    /// table's names, then whatever else the scan carries.
+    ///
+    /// Nullability comes from the source, not the table, because generations
+    /// store non-key columns as nullable so a strict table can hold a tombstone.
+    /// Each arm's canonical projection restores the table's nullability once
+    /// tombstones are dropped.
+    fn target(&self, source: &Schema) -> Result<SchemaRef> {
+        // Resolve like the canonical projection so both produce the same shape.
+        // Unknown names are dropped, not refused: a memtable can predate them.
+        let data_names: Vec<String> = self
+            .projection
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|name| !is_auto_managed(name))
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        let resolved = resolve_data_fields_or_drop(&data_names, &self.table_schema)?;
+        // The resolver renumbers field ids, and `Plan::resolve` matches by id,
+        // so put the table's ids back.
+        let resolved = with_ids_from(
+            &Schema::new(
+                resolved
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            ),
+            &self.table_schema,
+        );
+        let mut fields: Vec<Field> = resolved
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| {
+                // Absent from the source means synthesized, so nullable.
+                let nullable = self
+                    .stored_name(field.name())
+                    .and_then(|stored_column| source.field_with_name(stored_column).ok())
+                    .is_none_or(|f| f.is_nullable());
+                field.as_ref().clone().with_nullable(nullable)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        // A generation's own columns are not the table's, so they pass through
+        // as the generation has them.
+        for field in source.fields() {
+            let is_the_tables = self.stored_columns.contains(field.name());
+            if !is_the_tables && fields.iter().all(|f| f.name() != field.name()) {
+                fields.push(field.as_ref().clone());
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Schema::new(fields)))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether a memtable stores the table's columns exactly as the table declares
+/// them, so it can skip [`GenerationRead`].
+///
+/// Compared by position: same columns in the same order, then only `_tombstone`.
+pub(super) fn memtable_matches_table(memtable_schema: &Schema, table_schema: &Schema) -> bool {
+    let stored = memtable_schema.fields();
+    let declared = table_schema.fields();
+    let extra = &stored[declared.len().min(stored.len())..];
+    stored.len() >= declared.len()
+        && extra.iter().all(|f| f.name() == TOMBSTONE)
+        && stored
+            .iter()
+            .zip(declared.iter())
+            .all(|(stored, declared)| {
+                stored.name() == declared.name()
+                    && match (field_id_of(stored), field_id_of(declared)) {
+                        (Some(stored_id), Some(declared_id)) => {
+                            stored_id == declared_id && stored.data_type() == declared.data_type()
+                        }
+                        // Without ids on both sides, compare types ignoring nested ids.
+                        _ => stored.data_type().equals_datatype(declared.data_type()),
+                    }
+            })
+}
+
+/// Run `expr` above `plan`, for a predicate that could not be pushed into the
+/// generation's own scan.
+fn filter_above(plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, expr: &Expr) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    let schema = plan.schema();
+    let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema.as_ref().clone())
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("build a filter schema for `{expr}`: {e}")))?;
+    let props = ExecutionProps::new();
+    let physical = create_physical_expr(expr, &df_schema, &props)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("plan filter `{expr}`: {e}")))?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(
+        FilterExec::try_new(physical, plan).map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("filter: {e}")))?,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Each column the generation stores, keyed by the name it stores it under,
+/// mapped to the table's name for it. Paired by field id, since a rename
+/// changes the name and keeps the id.
+fn stored_names(
+    stored_schema: &Schema,
+    table_schema: &Schema,
+) -> (HashMap<String, String>, HashMap<String, String>) {
+    let table = field_paths(table_schema);
+    // Keyed by id and path style: a list element has a projection path and a
+    // full-text path, and mixing them would give the index a path it lacks.
+    let by_id: HashMap<(i32, bool), &String> = table
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|(id, elided, path)| id.map(|id| ((id, *elided), path)))
+        .collect();
+    // Without ids, match by name: a path maps to itself if the table has it.
+    if by_id.is_empty() {
+        let known: std::collections::HashSet<&String> =
+            table.iter().map(|(_, _, path)| path).collect();
+        let mut physical = HashMap::new();
+        let mut fts = HashMap::new();
+        for (_, elided, path) in field_paths(stored_schema) {
+            if !known.contains(&path) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let into = if elided { &mut fts } else { &mut physical };
+            into.insert(path.clone(), path);
+        }
+        return (physical, fts);
+    }
+    let mut physical = HashMap::new();
+    let mut fts = HashMap::new();
+    for (id, elided, stored_path) in field_paths(stored_schema) {
+        let Some(id) = id else { continue };
+        let Some(table_path) = by_id.get(&(id, elided)) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let into = if elided { &mut fts } else { &mut physical };
+        into.insert(stored_path, (*table_path).clone());
+    }
+    (physical, fts)
+}
+
+/// The fields nested inside `data_type`, each with its own field id.
+fn nested_children(data_type: &DataType) -> Vec<&Arc<Field>> {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::Struct(children) => children.iter().collect(),
+        DataType::List(element)
+        | DataType::LargeList(element)
+        | DataType::FixedSizeList(element, _)
+        | DataType::Map(element, _) => vec![element],
+        _ => Vec::new(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Every field in the schema, nested ones included, as (field id, is full-text
+/// path, dotted path).
+///
+/// Fields inside a list get both paths: a projection writes `tags.item.body`,
+/// full-text search writes `tags.body`. `_tombstone` and system columns are
+/// skipped because their ids collide with the table's.
+fn field_paths(schema: &Schema) -> Vec<(Option<i32>, bool, String)> {
+    /// `elided` is `physical` without the list element names.
+    fn walk(
+        field: &Field,
+        physical: &mut Vec<String>,
+        elided: &mut Vec<String>,
+        in_list: bool,
+        out: &mut Vec<(Option<i32>, bool, String)>,
+    ) {
+        physical.push(field.name().clone());
+        if !in_list {
+            elided.push(field.name().clone());
+        }
+        // Not the SQL form: its backtick quoting would stop matching the names
+        // used by index metadata and projections.
+        let id = field_id_of(field);
+        let as_path = |segments: &[String]| {
+            format_field_path_minimal(&segments.iter().map(String::as_str).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        };
+        let physical_path = as_path(physical);
+        // Every field gets a full-text path, so full-text lookups never need the
+        // projection map, where another field can have the same path.
+        if !in_list {
+            out.push((id, true, as_path(elided)));
+        }
+        out.push((id, false, physical_path));
+        let list = matches!(
+            field.data_type(),
+            DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_) | DataType::FixedSizeList(..)
+        );
+        for child in nested_children(field.data_type()) {
+            walk(child, physical, elided, list, out);
+        }
+        physical.pop();
+        if !in_list {
+            elided.pop();
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut out = Vec::new();
+    let (mut physical, mut elided) = (Vec::new(), Vec::new());
+    for field in schema
+        .fields()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| f.name() != TOMBSTONE && !is_system_column(f.name()))
+    {
+        walk(field, &mut physical, &mut elided, false, &mut out);
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+/// Put back the field ids a scan's output schema drops, so the reconciliation
+/// can resolve its columns by id.
+fn with_ids_from(schema: &Schema, stored_schema: &Schema) -> Schema {
+    fn restore(field: &Field, among: &Fields) -> Field {
+        let Some(source) = among.iter().find(|f| f.name() == field.name()) else {
+            return field.clone();
+        };
+        let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+        metadata.extend(source.metadata().clone());
+        let field = field.clone().with_metadata(metadata);
+        // A struct's children carry their own ids, and a child can be renamed
+        // while its parent's name does not move.
+        let data_type = field.data_type().clone();
+        match (&data_type, source.data_type()) {
+            (DataType::Struct(children), DataType::Struct(source_children)) => {
+                let children: Vec<Field> = children
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|child| restore(child, source_children))
+                    .collect();
+                field.with_data_type(DataType::Struct(children.into()))
+            }
+            // A list's element is a field with an id of its own, and so are its
+            // children in turn.
+            (DataType::List(element), DataType::List(source_element)) => {
+                let one: Fields = vec![source_element.as_ref().clone()].into();
+                field.with_data_type(DataType::List(Arc::new(restore(element, &one))))
+            }
+            (DataType::LargeList(element), DataType::LargeList(source_element)) => {
+                let one: Fields = vec![source_element.as_ref().clone()].into();
+                field.with_data_type(DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(restore(element, &one))))
+            }
+            (
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(element, size),
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(source_element, _),
+            ) => {
+                let size = *size;
+                let one: Fields = vec![source_element.as_ref().clone()].into();
+                field.with_data_type(DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(restore(element, &one)),
+                    size,
+                ))
+            }
+            (DataType::Map(entries, sorted), DataType::Map(source_entries, _)) => {
+                let sorted = *sorted;
+                let one: Fields = vec![source_entries.as_ref().clone()].into();
+                field.with_data_type(DataType::Map(Arc::new(restore(entries, &one)), sorted))
+            }
+            _ => field,
+        }
+    }
+    let fields: Vec<Field> = schema
+        .fields()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| restore(field, stored_schema.fields()))
+        .collect();
+    Schema::new_with_metadata(fields, schema.metadata().clone())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_schema::Fields;
+    use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+    use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY;
+    use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+
+    /// An Arrow field carrying a Lance field id, as a generation's schema and
+    /// the table's both do.
+    fn with_id(name: &str, data_type: DataType, id: i32) -> Field {
+        Field::new(name, data_type, true).with_metadata(
+            [(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), id.to_string())]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn schema(fields: Vec<Field>) -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(fields))
+    }
+
+    /// `GenerationRead` resolves against a generation's *Lance* schema, which
+    /// is where the stored ids come from.
+    fn generation(
+        stored_schema: SchemaRef,
+        table_schema: SchemaRef,
+        projection: &[&str],
+    ) -> GenerationRead {
+        let lance = LanceSchema::try_from(stored_schema.as_ref()).expect("a lance schema");
+        GenerationRead::new(
+            &lance,
+            &table_schema,
+            &["id".to_string()],
+            projection.iter().map(|s| s.to_string()).collect(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// The generation was sealed as `value`; the table has since renamed it.
+    fn renamed() -> GenerationRead {
+        generation(
+            schema(vec![
+                with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+                with_id("value", DataType::Int64, 1),
+            ]),
+            schema(vec![
+                with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+                with_id("amount", DataType::Int64, 1),
+            ]),
+            &["id", "amount"],
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// A predicate on a struct reaches the stored data only where the whole
+    /// struct still matches, child names included.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_struct_predicate_is_pushed_down_only_when_its_children_did_not_move() {
+        // The child as the generation stored it, as the table now declares it,
+        // and whether a predicate on the parent may reach the stored data.
+        let cases = [
+            // Deferring this one was the bug: a search takes its top-k first,
+            // so a predicate applied afterwards loses a lower-ranked row that
+            // should have won.
+            ("nothing moved", ("c", 2), ("c", 2), true),
+            ("the child was renamed", ("c", 2), ("d", 2), false),
+            // Same name, same type, different field id: a child dropped and
+            // added back is a different column wearing the old one's shape, so
+            // a predicate on it must not reach the retired values.
+            ("the child was replaced", ("c", 2), ("c", 9), false),
+        ];
+        for (case, stored_child, table_child, pushed_down) in cases {
+            let info = |(name, id): (&str, i32)| {
+                with_id(
+                    "info",
+                    DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![with_id(name, DataType::Int64, id)])),
+                    1,
+                )
+            };
+            let read = generation(
+                schema(vec![with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0), info(stored_child)]),
+                schema(vec![with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0), info(table_child)]),
+                &["id", "info"],
+            );
+            let expr = col("info").is_not_null();
+            let got = read.to_stored(&expr);
+            assert_eq!(
+                got,
+                pushed_down.then_some(expr),
+                "{case}: the predicate was pushed down when it should not have been, or the reverse"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_renamed_column_is_asked_for_under_the_name_the_generation_has() {
+        assert_eq!(renamed().stored_projection(), vec!["id", "value"]);
+        assert_eq!(renamed().stored_name("amount"), Some("value"));
+    }
+
+    /// What the [`GenerationRead`] field-id invariant costs when a caller does
+    /// not keep it: an id taken back by a later column reads as that column,
+    /// and `reconcile_batches` pairs them the same way, so a merge persists it.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_field_id_taken_back_after_a_drop_is_read_as_the_column_that_took_it() {
+        let read = generation(
+            // Sealed while id 1 was `retired`.
+            schema(vec![
+                with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+                with_id("retired", DataType::Int64, 1),
+            ]),
+            // `retired` was dropped and `added` took its id back.
+            schema(vec![
+                with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+                with_id("added", DataType::Int64, 1),
+            ]),
+            &["id", "added"],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            read.stored_name("added"),
+            Some("retired"),
+            "today the reused id pairs them; a fix makes this `None`, and the \
+             generation contributes null for `added` instead"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_column_the_generation_never_stored_is_left_out_of_the_projection() {
+        let read = generation(
+            schema(vec![with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0)]),
+            schema(vec![
+                with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+                with_id("added", DataType::Int64, 7),
+            ]),
+            &["id", "added"],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(read.stored_projection(), vec!["id"]);
+        assert_eq!(read.stored_name("added"), None);
+    }
+
+    /// A generation numbers its own columns in its own schema, so `_tombstone`
+    /// carries an id that collides with whatever the table gave that number.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_system_column_never_answers_for_one_of_the_tables() {
+        let read = generation(
+            schema(vec![
+                with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+                with_id(TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, 7),
+            ]),
+            schema(vec![
+                with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+                with_id("added", DataType::Int64, 7),
+            ]),
+            &["id", "added", TOMBSTONE],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(read.stored_name("added"), None, "not the tombstone's id");
+        assert_eq!(
+            read.stored_projection(),
+            vec!["id", TOMBSTONE],
+            "the tombstone is still asked for, under its own name"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_predicate_naming_a_renamed_column_is_rewritten_to_the_stored_name() {
+        let read = renamed();
+        assert_eq!(
+            read.to_stored(&col("amount").eq(lit(1i64))),
+            Some(col("value").eq(lit(1i64))),
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_predicate_naming_a_column_that_did_not_move_is_left_alone() {
+        let read = renamed();
+        let expr = col("id").eq(lit(1i64));
+        assert_eq!(read.to_stored(&expr), Some(expr));
+    }
+
+    /// A predicate on a column the generation never stored cannot be pushed
+    /// down; it belongs above the reconciliation, where the column exists as
+    /// nulls.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_predicate_naming_a_column_the_generation_lacks_is_not_pushable() {
+        let read = generation(
+            schema(vec![with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0)]),
+            schema(vec![
+                with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+                with_id("added", DataType::Int64, 7),
+            ]),
+            &["id", "added"],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(read.to_stored(&col("added").eq(lit(1i64))), None);
+    }
+
+    /// With no ids to match on, the table's own names are the only link — the
+    /// behaviour a caller that supplies no identity schema gets.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_table_without_ids_matches_by_name() {
+        let stored_schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            with_id("id", DataType::Int64, 0),
+            with_id("value", DataType::Int64, 1),
+            with_id(TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, 2),
+        ]);
+        let table_schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]);
+        let (names, _) = stored_names(&stored_schema, &table_schema);
+        assert_eq!(names.get("value"), Some(&"value".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(names.get(TOMBSTONE), None, "not one of the table's columns");
+    }
+
+    /// A full-text lookup of a renamed list child returns the stored name.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_full_text_alias_resolves_the_current_name_to_the_stored_one() {
+        let list = |child: &str, id: i32| {
+            let element = Arc::new(with_id(
+                "item",
+                DataType::Struct(vec![Arc::new(with_id(child, DataType::Utf8, id))].into()),
+                2,
+            ));
+            Schema::new(vec![with_id("tags", DataType::List(element), 1)])
+        };
+        let (_, fts) = stored_names(&list("body", 3), &list("text", 3));
+        let read = GenerationRead {
+            names: HashMap::new(),
+            stored_columns: HashSet::new(),
+            fts_names: fts
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(stored, in_table)| (in_table, stored))
+                .collect(),
+            stored_schema: Schema::empty(),
+            table_schema: Arc::new(Schema::empty()),
+            pk_columns: Vec::new(),
+            projection: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            read.stored_fts_name("tags.text"),
+            Some("tags.body"),
+            "the renamed child still has to find its stored index name"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A list element and a struct child named `item` inside it keep separate
+    /// mappings even though their paths match.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_list_element_and_a_child_named_item_do_not_share_a_mapping() {
+        let child = Arc::new(with_id("item", DataType::Utf8, 3));
+        let element = Arc::new(with_id(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![Arc::clone(&child)].into()),
+            2,
+        ));
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![with_id("tags", DataType::List(element), 1)]);
+        let (physical, fts) = stored_names(&schema, &schema);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            physical.get("tags.item").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("tags.item"),
+            "the element keeps the path a projection spells out"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            fts.get("tags.item").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("tags.item"),
+            "the child keeps the path a full-text query uses"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/planner.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/planner.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c58f8b9f7c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/planner.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2380 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Query planner for LSM scanner.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::coalesce_partitions::CoalescePartitionsExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::union::UnionExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, limit::GlobalLimitExec};
+use datafusion::prelude::{Expr, col};
+use lance_core::Result;
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::TOMBSTONE;
+
+use super::collector::LsmDataSourceCollector;
+use super::data_source::LsmDataSource;
+use super::exec::{MEMTABLE_GEN_COLUMN, MemtableGenTagExec, PkBlockFilterExec, ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN};
+use super::generation_read::{GenerationRead, memtable_matches_table};
+use super::projection::{
+    build_scanner_projection, canonical_output_schema, null_columns, project_to_canonical,
+    validate_projection_names,
+};
+use super::sstable_cache::{DatasetCache, SsTableWarmer, open_sstable};
+use crate::session::Session;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+/// Combine the user filter (if any) with `NOT _tombstone` so tombstone rows are
+/// dropped from a WAL-arm scan. Used only for sources whose schema carries the
+/// column (active / SSTables written since deletes existed).
+fn fold_not_tombstone(filter: Option<&Expr>) -> Expr {
+    let live = !col(TOMBSTONE);
+    match filter {
+        Some(expr) => expr.clone().and(live),
+        None => live,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Plans scan queries over LSM data.
+pub struct LsmScanPlanner {
+    /// Data source collector.
+    collector: LsmDataSourceCollector,
+    /// Primary key column names.
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    /// Schema of the base table.
+    base_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// The same schema with each field's id, which is what resolves a
+    /// generation's columns to the table's. Supplied by the caller rather than
+    /// read off whichever source happens to be present.
+    identity_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Session threaded into SSTable opens (shared caches).
+    session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+    /// Store params for opening SSTables, reusing the base dataset's store.
+    store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    /// Cache of opened SSTable datasets.
+    sstable_cache: Option<Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+    /// Optional warmer fired on first open of an SSTable.
+    warmer: Option<Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>>,
+}
+
+impl LsmScanPlanner {
+    /// Create a new planner.
+    pub fn new(
+        collector: LsmDataSourceCollector,
+        pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+        base_schema: SchemaRef,
+        identity_schema: SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            collector,
+            pk_columns,
+            base_schema,
+            identity_schema,
+            session: None,
+            store_params: None,
+            sstable_cache: None,
+            warmer: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the session used to open SSTables.
+    pub fn with_session(mut self, session: Arc<Session>) -> Self {
+        self.session = Some(session);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the store params used to open SSTables.
+    pub fn with_store_params(mut self, store_params: ObjectStoreParams) -> Self {
+        self.store_params = Some(store_params);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject a cache of opened SSTable datasets, making repeated
+    /// queries against the same generation a pure `Arc::clone`.
+    pub fn with_sstable_cache(mut self, cache: Arc<dyn DatasetCache>) -> Self {
+        self.sstable_cache = Some(cache);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject the warmer fired on first open of an SSTable.
+    pub fn with_warmer(mut self, warmer: Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>) -> Self {
+        self.warmer = Some(warmer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Create scan plan with deduplication.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `projection` - Columns to include in output (None = all columns)
+    /// * `filter` - Filter expression to apply
+    /// * `limit` - Maximum rows to return
+    /// * `offset` - Number of rows to skip
+    /// * `with_memtable_gen` - Whether to include _memtable_gen in output
+    /// * `keep_row_address` - Whether to include _rowaddr in output
+    ///
+    /// # Query plan
+    ///
+    /// Each source is independently newest-per-PK (active via the fused
+    /// [`MemTableDedupScanExec`](super::super::memtable::scanner), flushed via
+    /// its within-generation deletion vector) and a cross-generation block-list
+    /// ([`PkBlockFilterExec`]) drops any PK superseded by a newer generation.
+    /// Each PK therefore survives in exactly one source, so a plain
+    /// `UnionExec` carries at most one row per PK — no cross-source dedup,
+    /// sort, or merge needed. `_memtable_gen` / `_rowaddr` are output-only and
+    /// only produced when the caller opts in.
+    #[instrument(name = "lsm_plan_scan", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(has_filter = filter.is_some(), limit, offset))]
+    pub async fn plan_scan(
+        &self,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        filter: Option<&Expr>,
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+        offset: Option<usize>,
+        with_memtable_gen: bool,
+        keep_row_address: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        // If the caller explicitly listed `_rowaddr` in the projection, force
+        // dedup to retain it so the canonical projection can surface real
+        // values (instead of NULL-filling). Other system columns aren't
+        // produced by dedup and remain NULL across LSM sources.
+        let user_wants_rowaddr = projection
+            .map(|p| p.iter().any(|c| c == ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN))
+            .unwrap_or(false);
+        let keep_row_address = keep_row_address || user_wants_rowaddr;
+        validate_projection_names(projection, &self.base_schema, &[])?;
+
+        // 1. Collect all data sources
+        let sources = self.collector.collect()?;
+
+        if sources.is_empty() {
+            // Return empty plan
+            return self.empty_plan(projection, with_memtable_gen, keep_row_address);
+        }
+
+        // Cross-generation block-list keyed by source: a hit drops any row
+        // whose PK lives in a newer generation, applied before the union.
+        // `Box::pin` keeps the future off `clippy::large_futures`.
+        let block_lists = Box::pin(super::block_list::compute_source_block_lists(
+            &sources,
+            self.session.as_ref(),
+            self.store_params.as_ref(),
+            self.sstable_cache.as_ref(),
+        ))
+        .await?;
+
+        // Reverse so the union lists the newest generation first. This is
+        // cosmetic — correctness comes from the per-source dedup and the
+        // cross-gen block-list, not from output ordering.
+        let sources: Vec<_> = sources.into_iter().rev().collect();
+
+        // Per-source limit pushdown: an unordered LIMIT needs only
+        // `offset + limit` live rows from each source to fill the global limit
+        // (any-N semantics). However, a source with a cross-generation block
+        // list can lose any number of rows after its scan, so a finite fetch
+        // before that filter is not safe. Leave those scans unbounded and let
+        // the LocalLimitExec below pull until it sees `n_needed` live rows or
+        // reaches EOF. Sources without a block filter can still push the limit
+        // down safely. The active memtable is in-memory and is never capped.
+        let n_needed = limit.map(|l| l.saturating_add(offset.unwrap_or(0)));
+
+        let mut source_plans = Vec::new();
+        for source in sources {
+            let is_base = matches!(source, LsmDataSource::BaseTable { .. });
+            let is_active = matches!(source, LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable { .. });
+            let blocked = block_lists
+                .get(&(source.shard_id(), source.generation()))
+                .cloned();
+            let has_block_filter = blocked.is_some() && !self.pk_columns.is_empty();
+            let fetch = match (n_needed, is_active, has_block_filter) {
+                (Some(n), false, false) => Some(n),
+                _ => None,
+            };
+            // Type-erased, not merely boxed: the `Send` proof recurses
+            // through a boxed future's concrete type but stops at a trait
+            // object. An arm resolves a generation's schema before it
+            // scans, which nests deeply enough to need that.
+            let arm: futures::future::BoxFuture<'_, Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> =
+                Box::pin(self.build_source_scan(&source, projection, filter, fetch));
+            let scan = arm.await?;
+
+            // Drop cross-generation stale rows (PKs superseded by a newer gen).
+            // Plain scans refill exactly, so keep the approximate-search
+            // under-fetch warning disabled with k = 0.
+            let scan = match blocked {
+                Some(set) if !self.pk_columns.is_empty() => Arc::new(PkBlockFilterExec::new(
+                    scan,
+                    self.pk_columns.clone(),
+                    set,
+                    0,
+                ))
+                    as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+                _ => scan,
+            };
+
+            // Post-block-list cap: each source contributes at most `n_needed`
+            // live rows toward the global limit.
+            let scan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = match n_needed {
+                Some(n) if !is_active => Arc::new(
+                    datafusion::physical_plan::limit::LocalLimitExec::new(scan, n),
+                ),
+                _ => scan,
+            };
+
+            // When `_rowaddr` is surfaced, NULL it for non-base arms: only base
+            // values are meaningful (e.g. for `take_rows`); per-source addresses
+            // collide with base IDs.
+            let scan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = if !is_base && keep_row_address {
+                null_columns(scan, &[ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN])?
+            } else {
+                scan
+            };
+
+            // Tag with generation only if the caller wants `_memtable_gen`.
+            let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = if with_memtable_gen {
+                Arc::new(MemtableGenTagExec::new(scan, source.generation()))
+            } else {
+                scan
+            };
+
+            source_plans.push((plan, is_base));
+        }
+
+        // Every arm has to agree before the union: a generation is written under
+        // the schema the shard held when it was sealed, so one sealed before a
+        // column was added does not carry it. `UnionExec` requires schema
+        // equality and does not reconcile.
+        //
+        // The base arm is the authority when it is here — it is the only source
+        // the schema change was applied to. Otherwise the newest generation is,
+        // and sources arrive generation-DESC, so it is the first of them.
+        let target = source_plans
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(_, is_base)| *is_base)
+            .or_else(|| source_plans.first())
+            .map(|(plan, _)| plan.schema());
+        let mut source_plans = match target {
+            Some(target) => source_plans
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(plan, _)| {
+                    if plan.schema() == target {
+                        Ok(plan)
+                    } else {
+                        project_to_canonical(plan, &target)
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+            None => Vec::new(),
+        };
+
+        // Union, then coalesce into a single partition (UnionExec emits one
+        // per arm; downstream consumers only read partition 0).
+        let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = if source_plans.len() == 1 {
+            source_plans.remove(0)
+        } else {
+            let union = UnionExec::try_new(source_plans)?;
+            Arc::new(CoalescePartitionsExec::new(union))
+        };
+
+        // Project to the canonical output schema, dropping `_rowaddr` /
+        // `_memtable_gen` unless the caller opted in.
+        let mut plan = project_to_canonical(
+            plan,
+            &self.canonical_scan_schema(projection, with_memtable_gen, keep_row_address)?,
+        )?;
+
+        // 6. Add limit / offset if specified
+        if limit.is_some() || offset.unwrap_or(0) > 0 {
+            plan = Arc::new(GlobalLimitExec::new(plan, offset.unwrap_or(0), limit));
+        }
+
+        Ok(plan)
+    }
+
+    /// Canonical scan output: user projection (system cols at requested
+    /// positions) + `_rowaddr` / `_memtable_gen` when their flags are set.
+    fn canonical_scan_schema(
+        &self,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        with_memtable_gen: bool,
+        keep_row_address: bool,
+    ) -> Result<SchemaRef> {
+        let canonical = canonical_output_schema(
+            projection,
+            &self.base_schema,
+            &self.pk_columns,
+            false, // no _distance
+        )?;
+        let mut fields: Vec<Arc<Field>> = canonical.fields().iter().cloned().collect();
+        if keep_row_address && !fields.iter().any(|f| f.name() == ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN) {
+            fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new(
+                ROW_ADDRESS_COLUMN,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )));
+        }
+        if with_memtable_gen && !fields.iter().any(|f| f.name() == MEMTABLE_GEN_COLUMN) {
+            fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new(
+                MEMTABLE_GEN_COLUMN,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                false,
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Schema::new(fields)))
+    }
+
+    /// Build scan plan for a single data source.
+    async fn build_source_scan(
+        &self,
+        source: &LsmDataSource,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        filter: Option<&Expr>,
+        fetch: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match source {
+            LsmDataSource::BaseTable { dataset } => {
+                // Use Lance Scanner
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+
+                // Project columns + _rowaddr (needed for dedup)
+                let cols =
+                    build_scanner_projection(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns);
+                // Resolve against the *source* schema so a nested path narrows the
+                // struct rather than flattening it; expressions cannot express a
+                // partial nested projection, only a schema can.
+                scanner.project_with_schema(&dataset.schema().project(&cols)?)?;
+                scanner.with_row_address();
+                // No `with_row_id()`: opting in only for base would mismatch
+                // the union schema against flushed/active. `_rowid` stays NULL
+                // for every row via `project_to_canonical`.
+
+                if let Some(expr) = filter {
+                    scanner.filter_expr(expr.clone());
+                }
+                // Per-source limit pushdown (post-filter rows): bounds the
+                // physical scan instead of trimming above the union.
+                if let Some(fetch) = fetch {
+                    scanner.limit(Some(fetch as i64), None)?;
+                }
+
+                scanner.create_plan().await
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::SsTable { path, .. } => {
+                let dataset = open_sstable(
+                    path,
+                    self.session.as_ref(),
+                    self.store_params.as_ref(),
+                    self.sstable_cache.as_ref(),
+                    self.warmer.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+
+                // Asked of this generation under its own names, so an older
+                // file is only asked for columns it has. A column it never had
+                // is filled in after the scan.
+                let asked_for =
+                    build_scanner_projection(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns);
+                let mut generation = GenerationRead::new(
+                    dataset.schema(),
+                    &self.identity_schema,
+                    &self.pk_columns,
+                    asked_for,
+                );
+                // A predicate the generation can answer is pushed into its scan
+                // under the names it has. One it cannot — because it names a
+                // column sealed before it existed, or a nested one — runs above
+                // the reconciliation instead, reading its columns from this
+                // scan, so they have to be in it whether the caller asked or
+                // not.
+                let (stored_filter, above) = generation.split_filter(filter);
+                // Resolve against the *source* schema so a nested path narrows the
+                // struct rather than flattening it; expressions cannot express a
+                // partial nested projection, only a schema can.
+                scanner.project_with_schema(
+                    &dataset.schema().project(&generation.stored_projection())?,
+                )?;
+                scanner.with_row_address();
+
+                // Drop tombstones: fold `NOT _tombstone` into the predicate so
+                // it runs before the pushdown limit (counting only live rows).
+                // The older real row a tombstone supersedes is dropped by the
+                // cross-gen block-list, not by this filter. A generation written
+                // before deletes existed lacks the column, so nothing is folded
+                // and there is nothing to drop.
+                let folded;
+                let effective: Option<&Expr> = if dataset.schema().field(TOMBSTONE).is_some() {
+                    folded = fold_not_tombstone(stored_filter.as_ref());
+                    Some(&folded)
+                } else {
+                    stored_filter.as_ref()
+                };
+                if let Some(expr) = effective {
+                    scanner.filter_expr(expr.clone());
+                }
+                // A limit under a filter that has not run would cut rows the
+                // filter never saw.
+                if let Some(fetch) = fetch.filter(|_| above.is_none()) {
+                    scanner.limit(Some(fetch as i64), None)?;
+                }
+
+                // Boxed at the call site, as the point-lookup arms are: the
+                // generation's own planning nests deeply enough that leaving
+                // this future inlined pushes the `Send` proof past rustc's
+                // recursion limit for callers stacked above it.
+                generation.reconcile_above(Box::pin(scanner.create_plan()).await?, &above)
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store,
+                schema,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::MemTableScanner;
+
+                let mut scanner =
+                    MemTableScanner::new(batch_store.clone(), index_store.clone(), schema.clone());
+                let cols =
+                    build_scanner_projection(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns);
+
+                // `Some` only for a memtable created before a schema change;
+                // it resolves like a flushed generation.
+                let mut generation =
+                    (!memtable_matches_table(schema, &self.identity_schema)).then(|| {
+                        GenerationRead::for_memtable(
+                            schema,
+                            &self.identity_schema,
+                            &self.pk_columns,
+                            cols.clone(),
+                        )
+                    });
+                let (stored_filter, above) = match &mut generation {
+                    Some(generation) => generation.split_filter(filter),
+                    None => (filter.cloned(), None),
+                };
+
+                match &generation {
+                    Some(generation) => {
+                        scanner.project(&generation.stored_projection())?;
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        scanner.project(&cols.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect::<Vec<_>>())?;
+                    }
+                }
+                scanner.with_row_address();
+
+                // Filter after dedup: filtering the raw scan would bring back an
+                // older version of a key whose newest version fails the filter.
+                // Adding `NOT _tombstone` is safe: a tombstone still wins the
+                // dedup, hiding the older row, and is then dropped.
+                let folded;
+                let effective: Option<&Expr> = if schema.column_with_name(TOMBSTONE).is_some() {
+                    folded = fold_not_tombstone(stored_filter.as_ref());
+                    Some(&folded)
+                } else {
+                    stored_filter.as_ref()
+                };
+                if let Some(expr) = effective {
+                    scanner.filter_expr(expr.clone());
+                }
+
+                let pk_columns = match &generation {
+                    Some(generation) => generation.stored_pk_columns()?,
+                    None => self.pk_columns.clone(),
+                };
+                let deduped = Box::pin(scanner.create_dedup_plan(&pk_columns)).await?;
+                match generation {
+                    Some(generation) => generation.reconcile_above(deduped, &above),
+                    None => Ok(deduped),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create an empty execution plan with the canonical scan output schema.
+    fn empty_plan(
+        &self,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        with_memtable_gen: bool,
+        keep_row_address: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::empty::EmptyExec;
+
+        let schema = self.canonical_scan_schema(projection, with_memtable_gen, keep_row_address)?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(schema)))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+
+    fn create_test_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Float64, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_projection_with_rowaddr() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // Create a mock collector (we can't easily create a real one without a dataset)
+        // Instead, test the projection building logic directly
+
+        // When projection is Some, should include specified cols + PK
+        let pk_columns = vec!["id".to_string()];
+
+        let mut cols: Vec<String> = vec!["name".to_string()];
+        for pk in &pk_columns {
+            if !cols.contains(pk) {
+                cols.push(pk.clone());
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(cols.contains(&"name".to_string()));
+        assert!(cols.contains(&"id".to_string()));
+
+        // When projection is None, should include all schema fields
+        let cols_all: Vec<String> = schema.fields().iter().map(|f| f.name().clone()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(cols_all.len(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shard_snapshot() {
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(5)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string())
+            .with_sstable(2, "gen_2".to_string());
+
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.sstables.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.current_generation, 5);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Integration tests that verify LSM scanner behavior with real datasets.
+///
+/// These tests validate:
+/// - Query plan structure for different configurations
+/// - Deduplication correctness across multiple LSM levels
+/// - Both with and without BTree index optimization
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod integration_tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::{Array, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::LsmScanner;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+    use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+    use crate::utils::test::assert_plan_node_equals;
+
+    /// Create test schema with id as primary key.
+    fn create_pk_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
+
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a test batch with given ids and name prefix.
+    fn create_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, ids: &[i32], name_prefix: &str) -> RecordBatch {
+        let names: Vec<String> = ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| format!("{}_{}", name_prefix, id))
+            .collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Create a dataset at the given URI with the provided batches. Also writes
+    /// the standalone PK sidecar (on `id`) so an SSTable source can be
+    /// probed by the block-list; harmless for a base table (never probed).
+    async fn create_dataset(uri: &str, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let has_id = schema.column_with_name("id").is_some();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if has_id {
+            super::super::block_list::write_pk_sidecar(uri, &batches, &["id"])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    /// Build an in-memory memtable's `(batch_store, index_store)` with the PK
+    /// index enabled and populated (mirrors production — the block-list needs
+    /// the PK index to dedup in-memory generations).
+    fn pk_indexed(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> (Arc<BatchStore>, Arc<IndexStore>) {
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+        let mut index = IndexStore::new();
+        index.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        for b in batches {
+            let (bp, off, _) = batch_store.append(b.clone()).unwrap();
+            index.insert_with_batch_position(b, off, Some(bp)).unwrap();
+        }
+        (batch_store, Arc::new(index))
+    }
+
+    /// Setup a multi-level LSM structure with:
+    /// - Base table: ids 1-5 with "base" prefix
+    /// - SSTable gen1: ids 3,4 (updates) with "gen1" prefix
+    /// - SSTable gen2: ids 4,5 (updates) + id 6 (new) with "gen2" prefix
+    /// - Active memtable: ids 5,6 (updates) + id 7 (new) with "active" prefix
+    ///
+    /// Expected deduplication results:
+    /// - id=1: "base_1" (only in base)
+    /// - id=2: "base_2" (only in base)
+    /// - id=3: "gen1_3" (updated in gen1)
+    /// - id=4: "gen2_4" (updated in gen1 then gen2, keep gen2)
+    /// - id=5: "active_5" (updated in gen2 then active, keep active)
+    /// - id=6: "active_6" (added in gen2 then updated in active, keep active)
+    /// - id=7: "active_7" (added in active)
+    async fn setup_multi_level_lsm() -> (
+        Arc<Dataset>,
+        Vec<ShardSnapshot>,
+        Option<(Uuid, InMemoryMemTables)>,
+        Vec<String>,
+        String, // temp_dir path for cleanup
+    ) {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create base table
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4, 5], "base");
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        // Create SSTable gen1 as a separate dataset
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let gen1_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[3, 4], "gen1");
+        create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![gen1_batch]).await;
+
+        // Create SSTable gen2 as a separate dataset
+        let gen2_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_2", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let gen2_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[4, 5, 6], "gen2");
+        create_dataset(&gen2_uri, vec![gen2_batch]).await;
+
+        // Build shard snapshot
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(3)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string())
+            .with_sstable(2, "gen_2".to_string());
+
+        // Create active memtable
+        let (batch_store, index_store) =
+            pk_indexed(&[create_test_batch(&schema, &[5, 6, 7], "active")]);
+
+        let active_memtable = InMemoryMemTables {
+            active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store,
+                schema: schema.clone(),
+                generation: 3,
+            },
+            frozen: vec![],
+        };
+
+        let pk_columns = vec!["id".to_string()];
+
+        // Keep temp_dir alive by storing path
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.keep().to_string_lossy().to_string();
+
+        (
+            base_dataset,
+            vec![shard_snapshot],
+            Some((shard_id, active_memtable)),
+            pk_columns,
+            temp_path,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_query_plan_without_memtable_gen() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner without requesting _memtable_gen
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns);
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the plan (gen DESC order: active -> gen2 -> gen1 -> base):
+        // - plain UnionExec at top
+        // - active arm: MemTableDedupScanExec (newest gen, not block-listed)
+        // - older arms: PkBlockFilterExec (cross-gen block-list) -> LanceRead
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "ProjectionExec:...
+  CoalescePartitionsExec
+    UnionExec
+    MemTableDedupScanExec: projection=[id, name, _rowaddr], with_row_id=false, with_row_address=true
+    PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+      LanceRead:...gen_2...
+    PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+      LanceRead:...gen_1...
+    PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+      LanceRead:...base/data...refine_filter=--",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_query_plan_with_memtable_gen() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner requesting _memtable_gen
+        let mut scanner =
+            LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns).with_memtable_gen();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the plan with `_memtable_gen` tags (gen DESC order):
+        // - plain UnionExec at top
+        // - each arm: MemtableGenTagExec -> (PkBlockFilterExec ->) data source
+        //   - gen3 (active): MemtableGenTagExec -> MemTableDedupScanExec
+        //   - gen2/gen1/base: MemtableGenTagExec -> PkBlockFilterExec -> LanceRead
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "ProjectionExec:...
+  CoalescePartitionsExec
+    UnionExec
+    MemtableGenTagExec: gen=gen3
+      MemTableDedupScanExec: projection=[id, name, _rowaddr], with_row_id=false, with_row_address=true
+    MemtableGenTagExec: gen=gen2
+      PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+        LanceRead:...gen_2...
+    MemtableGenTagExec: gen=gen1
+      PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+        LanceRead:...gen_1...
+    MemtableGenTagExec: gen=base
+      PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+        LanceRead:...base/data...refine_filter=--",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_deduplication_results() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns);
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        // Execute and collect results
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Collect all results into a map for easy verification
+        let mut results: HashMap<i32, String> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                results.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Verify deduplication kept the newest version of each row
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 7, "Should have 7 unique rows after dedup");
+
+        // id=1: only in base
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&1), Some(&"base_1".to_string()));
+        // id=2: only in base
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&2), Some(&"base_2".to_string()));
+        // id=3: updated in gen1
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&3), Some(&"gen1_3".to_string()));
+        // id=4: updated in gen1, then gen2 -> keep gen2
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&4), Some(&"gen2_4".to_string()));
+        // id=5: updated in gen2, then active -> keep active
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&5), Some(&"active_5".to_string()));
+        // id=6: added in gen2, updated in active -> keep active
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&6), Some(&"active_6".to_string()));
+        // id=7: only in active
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&7), Some(&"active_7".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    /// The filtered-read plan applies the cross-generation block-list (older
+    /// generations whose PKs are superseded by a newer one are filtered), while
+    /// results stay newest-per-PK.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_filtered_read_applies_block_list() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns);
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        // base/gen1/gen2 all hold PKs superseded by a newer generation, so each
+        // is wrapped in a `PkBlockFilterExec`; the newest (active) arm is not.
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!(
+            "{}",
+            datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("PkBlockFilterExec"),
+            "filtered-read plan must apply the cross-gen block-list, got:\n{}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        // Results stay correct (newest-per-PK across generations).
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut results: HashMap<i32, String> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                results.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 7);
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&3), Some(&"gen1_3".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&4), Some(&"gen2_4".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&5), Some(&"active_5".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&6), Some(&"active_6".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    /// Regression for the concurrent-read-vs-flush hole: a sealed
+    /// (frozen-awaiting-flush) memtable is not yet recorded as an
+    /// SSTable, but its rows must still be in the scan's read union and
+    /// dedup correctly by generation across the active/frozen seam.
+    ///
+    /// Layout: base(0) ids 1-5, SSTable gen1 ids 3,4, SSTable gen2 ids
+    /// 4,5,6, frozen memtable gen3 ids 6,7, active memtable gen4 ids 7,8.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_frozen_memtable_in_read_union() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(
+                &base_uri,
+                vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4, 5], "base")],
+            )
+            .await,
+        );
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[3, 4], "gen1")]).await;
+        let gen2_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_2", base_uri, shard_id);
+        create_dataset(
+            &gen2_uri,
+            vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[4, 5, 6], "gen2")],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(4)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string())
+            .with_sstable(2, "gen_2".to_string());
+
+        // Frozen gen3 (sealed, NOT in the manifest) and active gen4.
+        let (frozen_store, frozen_index) =
+            pk_indexed(&[create_test_batch(&schema, &[6, 7], "frozen")]);
+        let frozen = InMemoryMemTableRef {
+            batch_store: frozen_store,
+            index_store: frozen_index,
+            schema: schema.clone(),
+            generation: 3,
+        };
+
+        let (active_store, active_index) =
+            pk_indexed(&[create_test_batch(&schema, &[7, 8], "active")]);
+        let in_memory = InMemoryMemTables {
+            active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                batch_store: active_store,
+                index_store: active_index,
+                schema: schema.clone(),
+                generation: 4,
+            },
+            frozen: vec![frozen],
+        };
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, vec![shard_snapshot], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, in_memory);
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut results: HashMap<i32, String> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                results.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 8, "ids 1-8 should all be present");
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&1), Some(&"base_1".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&3), Some(&"gen1_3".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&4), Some(&"gen2_4".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&5), Some(&"gen2_5".to_string()));
+        // id=6: in SSTable gen2 AND frozen gen3 -> frozen wins. This is the
+        // bug: pre-fix the frozen memtable fell out of the read union and
+        // id=6 resolved to "gen2_6".
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&6), Some(&"frozen_6".to_string()));
+        // id=7: in frozen gen3 AND active gen4 -> active wins across the seam.
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&7), Some(&"active_7".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&8), Some(&"active_8".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_with_projection() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner with projection (only id column)
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        // Execute and collect results
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify schema only has "id" column
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        assert_eq!(schema.fields().len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(schema.field(0).name(), "id");
+
+        // Count total rows
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 7, "Should have 7 unique rows after dedup");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_with_limit() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner with limit
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+            .limit(Some(3), None)
+            .unwrap();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        // Execute and collect results
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Count total rows
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 3, "Should have 3 rows due to limit");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_limit_offset_refills_after_update_shadow_across_fragments() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4], "base");
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(base_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                &base_uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            base.get_fragments().len(),
+            2,
+            "the stale prefix and live rows must occupy separate fragments"
+        );
+
+        // The newest values for ids 1 and 2 no longer match the predicate, so
+        // their matching base values are shadowed.  The second base fragment
+        // still contains the live matches that must fill offset + limit.
+        let (batch_store, index_store) =
+            pk_indexed(&[create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2], "active")]);
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema,
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            )
+            .filter("name LIKE 'base%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(1), Some(1))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![Some(4)],
+            "offset=1, limit=1 must skip id=3 after shadow filtering"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_with_offset_without_limit() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+            .limit(Some(3), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(None, Some(2))
+            .unwrap();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(
+            total_rows, 5,
+            "offset-only scan should skip 2 rows from the 7-row deduped result"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_base_only() {
+        let (base_dataset, _, _, pk_columns, _temp_path) = setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner with only base table (no shard snapshots or active memtable)
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset.clone(), vec![], pk_columns.clone());
+
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+        // A single source collapses to just its scan: no union, no block-list
+        // (nothing supersedes the base), no dedup.
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "ProjectionExec:...
+  LanceRead:...base/data...refine_filter=--",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // A base-only source has no cross-generation block filter, so its
+        // finite limit remains safe to push into the physical Lance read.
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, vec![], pk_columns)
+            .limit(Some(3), None)
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "GlobalLimitExec: skip=0, fetch=3
+  ProjectionExec:...
+    LocalLimitExec: fetch=3
+      LanceRead:...base/data...range_before=Some(0..3)...refine_filter=--",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Execute and verify all 5 base rows are returned
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(
+            Arc::new(
+                Dataset::open(&format!("{}/base", _temp_path))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            ),
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        );
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 5, "Should have 5 rows from base table");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_sstable_only_no_active() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, _, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner with base + flushed (no active memtable)
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns);
+
+        // Execute and collect results
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Collect all results into a map
+        let mut results: HashMap<i32, String> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                results.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Verify results (without active memtable)
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 6, "Should have 6 unique rows (no id=7)");
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&1), Some(&"base_1".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&2), Some(&"base_2".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&3), Some(&"gen1_3".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&4), Some(&"gen2_4".to_string()));
+        // Without active, gen2 is newest
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&5), Some(&"gen2_5".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&6), Some(&"gen2_6".to_string()));
+        // id=7 doesn't exist without active memtable
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&7), None);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_with_row_address() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner requesting _rowaddr
+        let mut scanner =
+            LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns).with_row_address();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify plan with keep_addr=true (no _memtable_gen, so no MemtableGenTagExec).
+        // Non-base arms wrap their scan in a ProjectionExec that NULLs `_rowaddr`:
+        // per-source addresses are not meaningful to the caller. The base arm
+        // leaves `_rowaddr` real. Older generations are block-list filtered.
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "ProjectionExec:...
+  CoalescePartitionsExec
+    UnionExec
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[id@0 as id, name@1 as name, NULL as _rowaddr]
+      MemTableDedupScanExec: projection=[id, name, _rowaddr], with_row_id=false, with_row_address=true
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[id@0 as id, name@1 as name, NULL as _rowaddr]
+      PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+        LanceRead:...gen_2...
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[id@0 as id, name@1 as name, NULL as _rowaddr]
+      PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+        LanceRead:...gen_1...
+    PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+      LanceRead:...base/data...refine_filter=--",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Execute and verify _rowaddr column is present
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(
+            Arc::new(
+                Dataset::open(&format!("{}/base", _temp_path))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            ),
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_row_address();
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify schema includes _rowaddr
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        assert!(
+            schema.column_with_name("_rowaddr").is_some(),
+            "Schema should include _rowaddr"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_with_both_memtable_gen_and_row_address() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner requesting both _memtable_gen and _rowaddr
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+            .with_memtable_gen()
+            .with_row_address();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify plan with both with_memtable_gen=true and keep_addr=true.
+        // Non-base arms wrap their SortExec in a ProjectionExec that NULLs
+        // `_rowaddr`; base leaves it real (so callers can still use it for
+        // `take_rows`). MemtableGenTagExec sits above the NULL projection.
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "ProjectionExec:...
+  CoalescePartitionsExec
+    UnionExec
+    MemtableGenTagExec: gen=gen3
+      ProjectionExec: expr=[id@0 as id, name@1 as name, NULL as _rowaddr]
+        MemTableDedupScanExec: projection=[id, name, _rowaddr], with_row_id=false, with_row_address=true
+    MemtableGenTagExec: gen=gen2
+      ProjectionExec: expr=[id@0 as id, name@1 as name, NULL as _rowaddr]
+        PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+          LanceRead:...gen_2...
+    MemtableGenTagExec: gen=gen1
+      ProjectionExec: expr=[id@0 as id, name@1 as name, NULL as _rowaddr]
+        PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+          LanceRead:...gen_1...
+    MemtableGenTagExec: gen=base
+      PkBlockFilterExec: pk_cols=[id]...
+        LanceRead:...base/data...refine_filter=--",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Setup LSM with BTree index on the primary key for filter optimization tests.
+    ///
+    /// Similar to setup_multi_level_lsm but:
+    /// - Active memtable has a BTree index on the `id` column
+    /// - SSTables have BTree index created (enabling ScalarIndexQuery)
+    async fn setup_multi_level_lsm_with_btree_index() -> (
+        Arc<Dataset>,
+        Vec<ShardSnapshot>,
+        Option<(Uuid, InMemoryMemTables)>,
+        Vec<String>,
+        String,
+    ) {
+        use crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create base table with BTree index
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4, 5], "base");
+        let mut base_dataset = create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await;
+
+        // Create BTree index on base table
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut base_dataset, &["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reload dataset to pick up the index
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(&base_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        // Create SSTable gen1 with BTree index
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let gen1_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[3, 4], "gen1");
+        let mut gen1_dataset = create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![gen1_batch]).await;
+        CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut gen1_dataset, &["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create SSTable gen2 with BTree index
+        let gen2_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_2", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let gen2_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[4, 5, 6], "gen2");
+        let mut gen2_dataset = create_dataset(&gen2_uri, vec![gen2_batch]).await;
+        CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut gen2_dataset, &["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Build shard snapshot
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(3)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string())
+            .with_sstable(2, "gen_2".to_string());
+
+        // Create active memtable with BTree index
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(100));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        // Add BTree index on id column (field_id=0)
+        index_store.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
+        // Reuse it as the PK index so the block-list can dedup this generation.
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+
+        let active_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[5, 6, 7], "active");
+        let _ = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone());
+
+        // Index the batch with row offset 0 and batch position 0
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let active_memtable = InMemoryMemTables {
+            active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store,
+                schema: schema.clone(),
+                generation: 3,
+            },
+            frozen: vec![],
+        };
+
+        let pk_columns = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let temp_path = temp_dir.keep().to_string_lossy().to_string();
+
+        (
+            base_dataset,
+            vec![shard_snapshot],
+            Some((shard_id, active_memtable)),
+            pk_columns,
+            temp_path,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_with_btree_index_filter() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm_with_btree_index().await;
+
+        // Use a range filter that is semantically `id = 5` but is NOT a
+        // point-lookup shape, so it exercises the union/block-list/dedup/
+        // pushdown structure asserted below. (The `id = 5` *equality* shape now
+        // routes to the fast point-lookup node — verified separately at the end
+        // of this test.)
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(
+            base_dataset.clone(),
+            shard_snapshots.clone(),
+            pk_columns.clone(),
+        )
+        .filter("id >= 5 AND id <= 5")
+        .unwrap();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable.clone() {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify plan structure with BTree index optimization.
+        // Instead of complex pattern matching, verify key components directly:
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::displayable;
+        let plan_str = format!("{}", displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true));
+
+        // 1. Verify overall structure
+        assert!(plan_str.contains("UnionExec"), "Should have UnionExec");
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("PkBlockFilterExec"),
+            "older generations should be block-list filtered"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("DeduplicateExec"),
+            "filtered read must not use a cross-source DeduplicateExec"
+        );
+
+        // 2. The active arm uses the fused dedup scan: it deduplicates to
+        //    newest-per-PK *before* applying the predicate, so it deliberately
+        //    forgoes the in-memory BTree skip (the dedup must see every
+        //    version). See MemTableDedupScanExec.
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("MemTableDedupScanExec"),
+            "Active memtable should use the fused dedup scan"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("BTreeIndexExec"),
+            "Active filtered read no longer uses the BTree skip"
+        );
+
+        // 3. Verify filter pushdown to flushed and base datasets
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("gen_2") && plan_str.contains("full_filter="),
+            "gen_2 should have filter pushed down"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("gen_1") && plan_str.contains("full_filter="),
+            "gen_1 should have filter pushed down"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("base/data") && plan_str.contains("full_filter="),
+            "base table should have filter pushed down"
+        );
+
+        // Execute and verify result - should return only id=5 (from active, as it's newest)
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Collect results
+        let mut results: HashMap<i32, String> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                results.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Should only have id=5 with the active version (newest wins dedup)
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1, "Filter should return only matching rows");
+        assert_eq!(
+            results.get(&5),
+            Some(&"active_5".to_string()),
+            "Should get newest version (active) for id=5"
+        );
+
+        // Equality shape `id = 5` routes to the fast point-lookup node and must
+        // return the identical newest (active) row across the LSM levels.
+        let mut routed = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+            .filter("id = 5")
+            .unwrap();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            routed = routed.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+        let routed_plan = routed.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            format!("{}", displayable(routed_plan.as_ref()).indent(true)).contains("OneShotStream"),
+            "id = 5 must route to the fast point-lookup node"
+        );
+        let routed_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = routed
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut routed_results: HashMap<i32, String> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in routed_batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                routed_results.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(routed_results.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            routed_results.get(&5),
+            Some(&"active_5".to_string()),
+            "routed point lookup must also return newest (active) id=5"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_with_filter_no_index() {
+        // Test that filter still works correctly even without BTree index
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Create scanner with SQL filter
+        // This tests that type coercion works correctly (Int64 literal -> Int32 column)
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+            .filter("id = 3")
+            .unwrap();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        // Execute and verify result
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut results: HashMap<i32, String> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                results.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // id=3 should return gen1 version (base had 3, gen1 updated it)
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&3), Some(&"gen1_3".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    /// End-to-end regression for the active within-generation phantom: a PK
+    /// inserted then updated in one memtable so its newest version fails the
+    /// predicate must NOT leak the older version that still passes.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_active_within_gen_phantom_suppressed() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Base has an unrelated matching row, to prove real matches survive.
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "base")]).await,
+        );
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id).with_current_generation(1);
+
+        // Active memtable: id=10 inserted ("keep") then updated to NULL within
+        // the same generation; id=20 ("active_20") is a control that matches.
+        let active_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 10])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    Some("keep"),
+                    Some("active_20"),
+                    None,
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let (batch_store, index_store) = pk_indexed(&[active_batch]);
+
+        let in_memory = InMemoryMemTables {
+            active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store,
+                schema: schema.clone(),
+                generation: 1,
+            },
+            frozen: vec![],
+        };
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, vec![shard_snapshot], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .filter("name IS NOT NULL")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, in_memory);
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut results: HashMap<i32, Option<String>> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let name = (!names.is_null(i)).then(|| names.value(i).to_string());
+                results.insert(ids.value(i), name);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // id=10's newest version is NULL, so it must be absent. Pre-fix the
+        // predicate dropped the NULL before dedup and the stale "keep" leaked.
+        assert!(
+            !results.contains_key(&10),
+            "id=10 newest is NULL; stale 'keep' must not leak under name IS NOT NULL, got {:?}",
+            results
+        );
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&1), Some(&Some("base_1".to_string())));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&20), Some(&Some("active_20".to_string())));
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_without_base_table() {
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        // Use the same base URI the SSTables were created under, so
+        // relative `gen_N` folders resolve to real datasets on disk.
+        let base_uri = base_dataset.uri().to_string();
+        let arrow_schema: arrow_schema::Schema = base_dataset.schema().into();
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
+
+        let mut scanner =
+            LsmScanner::without_base_table(schema, base_uri, shard_snapshots, pk_columns);
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        // Verify the plan does not include a LanceRead for the base table.
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!(
+            "{}",
+            datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("base/data"),
+            "Plan must not include base table scan, got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("gen_1") && plan_str.contains("gen_2"),
+            "Plan must scan SSTables, got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("MemTableDedupScanExec"),
+            "Plan must scan the active memtable, got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut results: HashMap<i32, String> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                results.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Without the base table, ids that only exist in base (1, 2) are gone.
+        // The fresh tier (gen1, gen2, active) supplies the rest with newest-wins.
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 5, "Fresh tier should yield 5 unique rows");
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&1), None);
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&2), None);
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&3), Some(&"gen1_3".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&4), Some(&"gen2_4".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&5), Some(&"active_5".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&6), Some(&"active_6".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&7), Some(&"active_7".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_without_base_table_with_filter() {
+        // Exercises filter() on a scanner built via without_base_table(): the
+        // filter must parse against the supplied schema (no base dataset to
+        // borrow one from) and push down to the fresh-tier sources.
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        let base_uri = base_dataset.uri().to_string();
+        let arrow_schema: arrow_schema::Schema = base_dataset.schema().into();
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema);
+
+        let mut scanner =
+            LsmScanner::without_base_table(schema, base_uri, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+                .filter("id > 3")
+                .unwrap();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut results: HashMap<i32, String> = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let names = batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                results.insert(ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // id<=3 excluded by filter; id=1,2 also absent because base is excluded.
+        // Fresh tier with newest-wins: gen2_4, active_5, active_6, active_7.
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&4), Some(&"gen2_4".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&5), Some(&"active_5".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&6), Some(&"active_6".to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(results.get(&7), Some(&"active_7".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_without_base_table_no_sstable_no_active() {
+        // No base, no SSTable, no active → empty result, valid plan.
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            schema,
+            "memory:///fresh-tier-empty",
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        );
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_projection_with_system_columns() {
+        // Regression: system columns in projection used to either error in
+        // the active-arm MemTableScanner or get silently dropped. Verify
+        // they're now surfaced at the requested position.
+        use lance_core::is_system_column;
+
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+            .project(&["id", "_rowoffset", "name", "_rowaddr", "_rowid"])
+            .unwrap();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .expect("plan must execute when system columns are in projection")
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .expect("collecting batches must not fail");
+
+        assert!(!batches.is_empty(), "expected at least one batch");
+        let out_schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = out_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            names,
+            vec!["id", "_rowoffset", "name", "_rowaddr", "_rowid"],
+            "system columns must appear at the user's requested position"
+        );
+        for sys in ["_rowoffset", "_rowaddr", "_rowid"] {
+            assert!(is_system_column(sys));
+        }
+
+        // setup_multi_level_lsm: base=[1,2,3,4,5], gen1=[3,4], gen2=[4,5,6],
+        // active=[5,6,7]. Dedup picks the newest generation per pk:
+        //   id=1,2 → base (2 rows, real `_rowaddr`)
+        //   id=3   → gen1   (1 row,  NULL  `_rowaddr`)
+        //   id=4   → gen2   (1 row,  NULL  `_rowaddr`)
+        //   id=5,6 → active (2 rows, NULL  `_rowaddr`)
+        //   id=7   → active (1 row,  NULL  `_rowaddr`)
+        // Total 7 rows, 2 real / 5 NULL `_rowaddr`. `_rowid` and
+        // `_rowoffset` are NULL everywhere (no opt-in / no scanner support).
+        let mut rowaddr_real = 0usize;
+        let mut rowaddr_null = 0usize;
+        let mut rowid_null = 0usize;
+        let mut rowoffset_null = 0usize;
+        let mut total = 0usize;
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let rowaddr = batch.column_by_name("_rowaddr").unwrap();
+            let rowid = batch.column_by_name("_rowid").unwrap();
+            let rowoffset = batch.column_by_name("_rowoffset").unwrap();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                total += 1;
+                if rowaddr.is_null(i) {
+                    rowaddr_null += 1;
+                } else {
+                    rowaddr_real += 1;
+                }
+                if rowid.is_null(i) {
+                    rowid_null += 1;
+                }
+                if rowoffset.is_null(i) {
+                    rowoffset_null += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(total, 7, "expected 7 unique pks after dedup");
+        assert_eq!(
+            rowaddr_real, 2,
+            "expected 2 rows (id=1,2) with real `_rowaddr` from base"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            rowaddr_null, 5,
+            "expected 5 rows (id=3-7) with NULL `_rowaddr` from non-base sources"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(rowid_null, total, "_rowid must be NULL for every row");
+        assert_eq!(
+            rowoffset_null, total,
+            "_rowoffset must be NULL for every row"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_projection_with_rowid_only_no_rowaddr() {
+        // Test 4: when only `_rowid` (not `_rowaddr`) is requested, the
+        // canonical-projection wrap activates (system column triggers it),
+        // but the per-arm `null_columns(_rowaddr)` wrap stays off
+        // (`keep_row_address` remains false). `_rowid` ends up NULL for
+        // every row because no arm opts into `with_row_id()` in this
+        // planner (a base-only opt-in would mismatch the union schema).
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, active_memtable, pk_columns, _temp_path) =
+            setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns)
+            .project(&["id", "_rowid", "name"])
+            .unwrap();
+        if let Some((shard_id, memtable)) = active_memtable {
+            scanner = scanner.with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtable);
+        }
+
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!(
+            "{}",
+            datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        // Canonical wrap activates for the user-requested `_rowid`.
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ProjectionExec"),
+            "expected canonical projection wrap, got:\n{plan_str}",
+        );
+        // The per-arm `null_columns(_rowaddr)` wrap is gated on
+        // `keep_row_address`, which stays false here. So no
+        // `NULL as _rowaddr` projection should appear.
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("NULL as _rowaddr"),
+            "no per-arm `_rowaddr` NULL'ing expected when caller didn't ask for `_rowaddr`, got:\n{plan_str}",
+        );
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut total = 0usize;
+        let mut rowid_null = 0usize;
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let rowid = batch.column_by_name("_rowid").unwrap();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                total += 1;
+                if rowid.is_null(i) {
+                    rowid_null += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(total, 7, "expected 7 unique pks after dedup");
+        assert_eq!(
+            rowid_null, total,
+            "_rowid must be NULL for every row (no opt-in)"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_empty_plan_with_system_columns() {
+        // Test 5 (planner.rs slice): with no sources, the empty plan must
+        // still expose user-requested system columns at the requested
+        // position in the canonical schema.
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let schema: super::SchemaRef = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let scanner =
+            LsmScanner::without_base_table(schema, base_uri, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .project(&["id", "_rowaddr", "name", "_rowid"])
+                .unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+        let names: Vec<String> = plan
+            .schema()
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            names,
+            vec![
+                "id".to_string(),
+                "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+                "name".to_string(),
+                "_rowid".to_string(),
+            ],
+            "empty plan must honor user column order including system columns"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_filter_referencing_rowaddr_is_rejected() {
+        // Test 6 (planner.rs slice): documents that `LsmScanner::filter()`
+        // rejects system-column references at parse time. The active-arm
+        // `MemTableScanner` couldn't handle `_rowaddr` in a filter anyway,
+        // and the higher-level builder validates the filter against the
+        // user schema before any per-arm planning happens. Pin this
+        // behavior so it doesn't silently regress to a panic deeper in the
+        // pipeline.
+        let (base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns, _temp_path) = {
+            let (b, s, _a, p, t) = setup_multi_level_lsm().await;
+            (b, s, p, t)
+        };
+
+        let result =
+            LsmScanner::new(base_dataset, shard_snapshots, pk_columns).filter("_rowaddr > 0");
+        let err = result.expect_err("filter referencing `_rowaddr` must be rejected");
+        let msg = format!("{err}");
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("_rowaddr"),
+            "rejection message should mention the offending column, got: {msg}",
+        );
+    }
+
+    // ----- tombstone (delete) filtered-read tests -----
+
+    /// Memtable / generation schema: base (`id`, `name`) + `_tombstone`.
+    fn ts_pk_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id,
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(crate::dataset::mem_wal::TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, false),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// Build a `_tombstone`-bearing batch from `(id, name, tombstone)` rows.
+    fn ts_batch(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, rows: &[(i32, Option<&str>, bool)]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = rows.iter().map(|(i, _, _)| *i).collect();
+        let names: Vec<Option<String>> = rows
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, n, _)| n.map(|s| s.to_string()))
+            .collect();
+        let ts: Vec<bool> = rows.iter().map(|(_, _, t)| *t).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::BooleanArray::from(ts)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn collect_sorted_ids(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in batches {
+            let arr = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            ids.extend((0..arr.len()).map(|i| arr.value(i)));
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_active_tombstone_masks_base() {
+        // Active gen tombstones id=2 (present in base) and adds real id=4. The
+        // result drops id=2 (block-list masks the base row; the active arm's
+        // folded `NOT _tombstone` drops the tombstone itself) and never
+        // surfaces the tombstone row.
+        let base_schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mem_schema = ts_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(
+                &base_uri,
+                vec![create_test_batch(&base_schema, &[1, 2, 3], "base")],
+            )
+            .await,
+        );
+
+        let active_batch = ts_batch(
+            &mem_schema,
+            &[(4, Some("active_4"), false), (2, None, true)],
+        );
+        let (bs, ix) = pk_indexed(&[active_batch]);
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store: bs,
+                        index_store: ix,
+                        schema: mem_schema,
+                        generation: 2,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            collect_sorted_ids(&batches),
+            vec![1, 3, 4],
+            "id=2 deleted; tombstone row not surfaced"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_limit_refills_after_active_tombstone_shadows_base() {
+        let base_schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mem_schema = ts_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(
+                &base_uri,
+                vec![create_test_batch(&base_schema, &[1, 2, 3], "base")],
+            )
+            .await,
+        );
+
+        let active_batch = ts_batch(&mem_schema, &[(1, None, true)]);
+        let (batch_store, index_store) = pk_indexed(&[active_batch]);
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![], vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: mem_schema,
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            )
+            .limit(Some(2), None)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            collect_sorted_ids(&[batch]),
+            vec![2, 3],
+            "the base scan must continue past the shadowed row to fill the limit"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_sstable_tombstone_masks_base() {
+        // A tombstone living in an SSTable masks the older base row by
+        // PK presence (block-list) and is itself dropped by the folded predicate.
+        let base_schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mem_schema = ts_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(
+                &base_uri,
+                vec![create_test_batch(&base_schema, &[1, 2, 3], "base")],
+            )
+            .await,
+        );
+
+        // SSTable gen 1 holds only a tombstone for id=2 (written with the
+        // `_tombstone` schema, so the SSTable arm folds `NOT _tombstone`).
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![ts_batch(&mem_schema, &[(2, None, true)])]).await;
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string());
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(base, vec![shard_snapshot], vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            collect_sorted_ids(&batches),
+            vec![1, 3],
+            "id=2 deleted via an SSTable tombstone"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lsm_scan_tombstone_does_not_consume_limit() {
+        // A single (newest) SSTable holds both tombstones and live
+        // rows. With LIMIT 2 the folded `NOT _tombstone` runs *before* the
+        // per-source pushdown limit, so the limit counts only live rows — we get
+        // 2 live rows, not 0 (which is what a post-limit tombstone filter, or a
+        // limit that counted the tombstones, would yield).
+        let base_schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mem_schema = ts_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        // gen_1 file order: two tombstones first, then two live rows.
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        create_dataset(
+            &gen1_uri,
+            vec![ts_batch(
+                &mem_schema,
+                &[
+                    (1, None, true),
+                    (2, None, true),
+                    (3, Some("live_3"), false),
+                    (4, Some("live_4"), false),
+                ],
+            )],
+        )
+        .await;
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string());
+
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            base_schema,
+            base_uri,
+            vec![shard_snapshot],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .limit(Some(2), None)
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids = collect_sorted_ids(&batches);
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids.len(),
+            2,
+            "limit honored with live rows only, got {:?}",
+            ids
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !ids.contains(&1) && !ids.contains(&2),
+            "deleted ids must not appear, got {:?}",
+            ids
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/point_lookup.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/point_lookup.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..42c1182a49e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/point_lookup.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2790 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Point lookup planner for LSM scanner.
+//!
+//! Provides efficient primary key-based point lookups across LSM levels.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, BooleanArray, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef, SortOptions};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::expressions::{Column, Literal, NotExpr};
+use datafusion::physical_expr::{LexOrdering, PhysicalExpr, PhysicalSortExpr};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::filter::FilterExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::limit::GlobalLimitExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::projection::ProjectionExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use datafusion::prelude::{Expr, SessionContext};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
+use lance_core::utils::bloomfilter::sbbf::Sbbf;
+use lance_core::{Result, is_system_column};
+use lance_datafusion::exec::OneShotExec;
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+use crate::dataset::blob::prepared_blob_batch_to_descriptors;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::{IndexStore, MemTableVisibility};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::batch_store::BatchStore;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::{TOMBSTONE, relax_non_pk_nullability};
+
+use super::collector::LsmDataSourceCollector;
+use super::data_source::LsmDataSource;
+use super::exec::{BloomFilterGuardExec, CoalesceFirstExec, compute_pk_hash_from_scalars};
+use super::generation_read::{GenerationRead, memtable_matches_table};
+use super::projection::{
+    DISTANCE_COLUMN, build_scanner_projection, canonical_output_schema, force_schema, null_columns,
+    project_to_canonical, validate_projection_names, wants_row_address, wants_row_id,
+};
+use super::sstable_cache::{DatasetCache, SsTableWarmer, open_sstable};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::reconcile::relabel_to;
+use crate::session::Session;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+/// Plans point lookup queries over LSM data.
+///
+/// Point lookups are optimized for primary key-based queries where we expect
+/// to find at most one row. The query plan uses:
+///
+/// 1. **Bloom filter guards**: Skip generations that definitely don't contain the key
+/// 2. **Short-circuit evaluation**: Stop after finding the first match
+/// 3. **Newest-first ordering**: Check newer generations before older ones
+///
+/// # Query Plan Structure
+///
+/// Since data is stored in reverse order (newest first), we use `GlobalLimitExec`
+/// with limit=1 to take the first (most recent) matching row.
+///
+/// ```text
+/// CoalesceFirstExec: return_first_non_null
+///   BloomFilterGuardExec: gen=3
+///     GlobalLimitExec: limit=1
+///       FilterExec: pk = target
+///         ScanExec: memtable_gen_3
+///   BloomFilterGuardExec: gen=2
+///     GlobalLimitExec: limit=1
+///       FilterExec: pk = target
+///         ScanExec: flushed_gen_2
+///   BloomFilterGuardExec: gen=1
+///     GlobalLimitExec: limit=1
+///       FilterExec: pk = target
+///         ScanExec: flushed_gen_1
+///   GlobalLimitExec: limit=1
+///     FilterExec: pk = target
+///       ScanExec: base_table
+/// ```
+///
+/// The base table doesn't use a bloom filter guard because:
+/// - It's the fallback when no memtable has the key
+/// - Bloom filters for the base table would be too large
+pub struct LsmPointLookupPlanner {
+    /// Data source collector.
+    collector: LsmDataSourceCollector,
+    /// Primary key column names.
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    /// Schema of the base table.
+    base_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Bloom filters for each memtable generation.
+    /// Map: generation -> bloom filter
+    bloom_filters: std::collections::HashMap<u64, Arc<Sbbf>>,
+    /// Session threaded into SSTable opens (shared caches).
+    session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+    /// Store params for opening SSTables, reusing the base dataset's store.
+    store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    /// Cache of opened SSTable datasets.
+    sstable_cache: Option<Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+    /// Optional warmer fired on first open of an SSTable.
+    warmer: Option<Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>>,
+    /// Precomputed canonical output schema for the no-projection case, so the
+    /// hot `lookup(.., None)` path clones an `Arc` instead of rebuilding the
+    /// schema on every call.
+    none_target: SchemaRef,
+    /// Shared DataFusion task context for plan execution. Built once and reused
+    /// across lookups: `SessionContext::new()` per lookup is a real fixed cost
+    /// on the plan fallback path (the part of point-lookup latency that doesn't
+    /// scale with generation count).
+    task_ctx: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    /// Prefix of the in-memory memtables this planner reads. Applies to the fast
+    /// BTree probe and the plan fallback alike, so both resolve a key the same.
+    visibility: MemTableVisibility,
+    /// `base_schema` with each field's id, which is what resolves a sealed
+    /// generation's columns to the table's. Defaults to `base_schema`, which
+    /// carries them when the caller built it from a Lance schema.
+    identity_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Whether every in-memory memtable uses the table's current schema. The
+    /// fast paths read columns by the table's names, so if any memtable was
+    /// created before a schema change, lookups take the slower plan path.
+    in_memory_matches_table: bool,
+}
+
+/// Whether every in-memory memtable `collector` holds matches `table_schema`.
+fn in_memory_matches_table(collector: &LsmDataSourceCollector, table_schema: &Schema) -> bool {
+    collector
+        .in_memory_refs_newest_first()
+        .iter()
+        .all(|m| memtable_matches_table(&m.schema, table_schema))
+}
+
+impl LsmPointLookupPlanner {
+    /// Create a new planner.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `collector` - Data source collector
+    /// * `pk_columns` - Primary key column names
+    /// * `base_schema` - Schema of the base table
+    pub fn new(
+        collector: LsmDataSourceCollector,
+        pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+        base_schema: SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let none_target = canonical_output_schema(None, &base_schema, &pk_columns, false)?;
+        let in_memory_matches_table = in_memory_matches_table(&collector, &base_schema);
+        Ok(Self {
+            collector,
+            pk_columns,
+            base_schema: Arc::clone(&base_schema),
+            bloom_filters: std::collections::HashMap::new(),
+            session: None,
+            store_params: None,
+            sstable_cache: None,
+            warmer: None,
+            none_target,
+            task_ctx: SessionContext::new().task_ctx(),
+            visibility: MemTableVisibility::Published,
+            identity_schema: base_schema,
+            in_memory_matches_table,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Supply the table's field ids, when `base_schema` was built without them.
+    pub fn with_identity_schema(mut self, identity_schema: SchemaRef) -> Self {
+        self.in_memory_matches_table = in_memory_matches_table(&self.collector, &identity_schema);
+        self.identity_schema = identity_schema;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Read the in-memory memtables at `visibility`. See
+    /// [`MemTableVisibility::Indexed`] for when a wider bound is sound.
+    pub fn with_visibility(mut self, visibility: MemTableVisibility) -> Self {
+        self.visibility = visibility;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the session used to open SSTables.
+    pub fn with_session(mut self, session: Arc<Session>) -> Self {
+        self.session = Some(session);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the store params used to open SSTables.
+    pub fn with_store_params(mut self, store_params: ObjectStoreParams) -> Self {
+        self.store_params = Some(store_params);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject a cache of opened SSTable datasets, making repeated
+    /// lookups against the same generation a pure `Arc::clone`. Populate it up
+    /// front during scan setup via
+    /// [`DatasetMemWalExt::prewarm_mem_wal`](crate::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt::prewarm_mem_wal)
+    /// so the first gen-key lookup does not pay the dataset open.
+    pub fn with_sstable_cache(mut self, cache: Arc<dyn DatasetCache>) -> Self {
+        self.sstable_cache = Some(cache);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject the warmer fired on first open of an SSTable.
+    pub fn with_warmer(mut self, warmer: Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>) -> Self {
+        self.warmer = Some(warmer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Add a bloom filter for a generation.
+    ///
+    /// Bloom filters are optional but improve performance by skipping
+    /// generations that definitely don't contain the target key.
+    pub fn with_bloom_filter(mut self, generation: u64, bloom_filter: Arc<Sbbf>) -> Self {
+        self.bloom_filters.insert(generation, bloom_filter);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Add multiple bloom filters.
+    pub fn with_bloom_filters(
+        mut self,
+        bloom_filters: impl IntoIterator<Item = (u64, Arc<Sbbf>)>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.bloom_filters.extend(bloom_filters);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Create a point lookup plan for the given primary key values.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `pk_values` - Primary key values to look up (one value per pk column)
+    /// * `projection` - Columns to include in output (None = all columns)
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// An execution plan that returns at most one row - the newest version
+    /// of the row with the given primary key.
+    #[instrument(name = "lsm_point_lookup", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(pk_column_count = self.pk_columns.len()))]
+    pub async fn plan_lookup(
+        &self,
+        pk_values: &[ScalarValue],
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match self.plan_lookup_coalesced(pk_values, projection).await? {
+            // Tombstones are dropped AFTER the coalesce, never per-source: the
+            // tombstone wins the newest-first coalesce (its source is the newest
+            // non-empty arm), so filtering it here yields "not found". Filtering
+            // per-source would empty the newest arm and let `CoalesceFirstExec`
+            // fall through to an older arm — resurrecting the deleted row. Then
+            // the carried `_tombstone` column is projected away.
+            Some(coalesced) => {
+                let canonical = canonical_output_schema(
+                    projection,
+                    &self.base_schema,
+                    &self.pk_columns,
+                    false,
+                )?;
+                filter_tombstones_after_coalesce(coalesced, &canonical)
+            }
+            None => self.empty_plan(projection),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build the coalesced point-lookup plan: each source scanned newest-first,
+    /// unioned under `CoalesceFirstExec`, output in the *carry* schema (canonical
+    /// output + the `_tombstone` marker). `None` when there are no sources at
+    /// all. [`Self::plan_lookup`] drops the tombstone on top of this;
+    /// [`Self::lookup_keep_tombstone`] keeps it so partial-update merge can tell
+    /// a fresh-deleted key from an absent one.
+    async fn plan_lookup_coalesced(
+        &self,
+        pk_values: &[ScalarValue],
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> {
+        validate_projection_names(projection, &self.base_schema, &[])?;
+        if pk_values.len() != self.pk_columns.len() {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Expected {} primary key values, got {}",
+                self.pk_columns.len(),
+                pk_values.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let pk_hash = compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(pk_values);
+        let filter_expr = self.build_pk_filter_expr(pk_values)?;
+        let sources = self.collector.collect()?;
+
+        if sources.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        // Sort by generation DESC (newest first)
+        let mut sources: Vec<_> = sources.into_iter().collect();
+        sources.sort_by_key(|b| std::cmp::Reverse(b.generation()));
+
+        let mut source_plans = Vec::new();
+
+        for source in sources {
+            let generation = source.generation().as_u64();
+
+            // Type-erased, not merely boxed: the `Send` proof recurses
+            // through a boxed future's concrete type but stops at a trait
+            // object. An arm resolves a generation's schema before it
+            // scans, which nests deeply enough to need that.
+            let arm: futures::future::BoxFuture<'_, Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> =
+                Box::pin(self.build_source_scan(&source, projection, &filter_expr));
+            let scan = arm.await?;
+
+            // Data is stored in reverse order, so first match is newest
+            let limited: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(GlobalLimitExec::new(scan, 0, Some(1)));
+
+            let guarded_plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+                if let Some(bf) = self.bloom_filters.get(&generation) {
+                    Arc::new(BloomFilterGuardExec::new(
+                        limited,
+                        bf.clone(),
+                        pk_hash,
+                        generation,
+                    ))
+                } else {
+                    limited
+                };
+
+            source_plans.push(guarded_plan);
+        }
+
+        // Always coalesce, even for a single source: besides picking the newest
+        // non-empty arm, `CoalesceFirstExec` normalizes child statistics to a
+        // schema-sized "unknown", which the downstream tombstone `FilterExec`
+        // needs (the in-memory mem_wal execs report empty column statistics, and
+        // datafusion's projection statistics would index out of bounds without
+        // this normalization).
+        Ok(Some(Arc::new(CoalesceFirstExec::new(source_plans))))
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::lookup`] but does NOT drop a tombstone: the returned 1-row
+    /// batch carries the `_tombstone` marker (`true` ⇒ the key's newest fresh
+    /// version is a delete); `None` still means the key is absent from every
+    /// source. Partial-update merge uses this to treat a fresh-deleted PK as
+    /// absent, so it never resurrects stale, not-yet-compacted base columns.
+    /// Always plans (no in-memory fast path) — used off the hot read path, on
+    /// small partial-update batches.
+    pub async fn lookup_keep_tombstone(
+        &self,
+        pk_values: &[ScalarValue],
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+        let Some(plan) = self.plan_lookup_coalesced(pk_values, projection).await? else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+            .execute(0, self.task_ctx.clone())?
+            .try_collect()
+            .await?;
+        for batch in batches {
+            if batch.num_rows() > 0 {
+                return Ok(Some(batch.slice(0, 1)));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Tombstone-preserving [`Self::lookup_many`] for single- or multi-column
+    /// keys: resolves each key with [`Self::lookup_keep_tombstone`] and
+    /// concatenates the hits in the carry schema (canonical output +
+    /// `_tombstone`); keys absent from every source are omitted. Per-key (no
+    /// batched fast path) — the partial-update batches that use it are small.
+    pub async fn lookup_many_keep_tombstone(
+        &self,
+        keys: &[Vec<ScalarValue>],
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let canonical =
+            canonical_output_schema(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns, false)?;
+        let target = carry_schema(&canonical, &self.pk_columns);
+        let mut out: Vec<RecordBatch> = Vec::with_capacity(keys.len());
+        for key in keys {
+            if let Some(b) = self.lookup_keep_tombstone(key, projection).await? {
+                out.push(b);
+            }
+        }
+        match out.len() {
+            0 => Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(target)),
+            1 => Ok(out.pop().unwrap()),
+            _ => Ok(arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&target, &out)?),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve a single-row point lookup, returning the newest matching row (a
+    /// 1-row batch with the canonical output schema) or `None`.
+    ///
+    /// For a single-column primary key this probes the in-memory memtables'
+    /// BTree index directly — no DataFusion plan — newest generation first, and
+    /// returns on the first hit. Only when the lookup must consult an on-disk
+    /// source (an SSTable or the base table), a memtable lacks a
+    /// BTree on the key, the key is multi-column, or the projection requests
+    /// system columns does it fall back to [`Self::plan_lookup`]. The result is
+    /// identical to executing `plan_lookup` and taking the first row; the fast
+    /// path just skips the per-lookup plan/stream construction that dominates
+    /// point-lookup latency.
+    #[instrument(name = "lsm_lookup", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    pub async fn lookup(
+        &self,
+        pk_values: &[ScalarValue],
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+        // Fast path: exactly one key value (which must match the single PK
+        // column), the key's scalar type exactly matches the PK column's Arrow
+        // type, and no system columns in the output. The length check is first
+        // so `pk_values[0]` is only indexed once it is known to exist (an empty
+        // slice falls through to the plan path, which returns a clean
+        // `invalid_input` error rather than panicking). The exact-type
+        // requirement avoids the `OrderableScalarValue` panic on comparing
+        // mismatched variants — the plan path coerces, so a coercible-but-
+        // different literal (e.g. `Int64` for an `Int32` PK) falls back.
+        let fast_eligible = self.in_memory_matches_table
+            && pk_values.len() == 1
+            && self.pk_columns.len() == 1
+            && self
+                .base_schema
+                .field_with_name(&self.pk_columns[0])
+                .ok()
+                .map(|f| f.data_type() == &pk_values[0].data_type())
+                .unwrap_or(false);
+        if fast_eligible {
+            // Borrow the cached schema for the common `None` case (no `Arc`
+            // clone — the clone would contend on a shared refcount under
+            // concurrency); only an explicit projection builds a fresh schema.
+            let projected;
+            let target: &SchemaRef = match projection {
+                None => &self.none_target,
+                Some(_) => {
+                    projected = canonical_output_schema(
+                        projection,
+                        &self.base_schema,
+                        &self.pk_columns,
+                        false,
+                    )?;
+                    &projected
+                }
+            };
+            if !target.fields().iter().any(|f| is_system_column(f.name())) {
+                // Probe in-memory memtables newest-first *by reference* (no
+                // source `Arc` clones / allocation in the single-memtable case),
+                // so concurrent readers don't contend on source refcounts.
+                let outcome = self.collector.find_in_memory_newest_first(
+                    |m| -> Result<Option<FastOutcome>> {
+                        match probe_memtable(
+                            &m.batch_store,
+                            &m.index_store,
+                            &self.pk_columns[0],
+                            &pk_values[0],
+                            target,
+                            self.visibility,
+                        )? {
+                            Probe::Hit(batch) => Ok(Some(FastOutcome::Hit(batch))),
+                            Probe::Deleted => Ok(Some(FastOutcome::Deleted)),
+                            Probe::Miss => Ok(None),
+                            Probe::NoIndex => Ok(Some(FastOutcome::NeedsFallback)),
+                        }
+                    },
+                )?;
+                match outcome {
+                    Some(FastOutcome::Hit(batch)) => return Ok(Some(batch)),
+                    // Newest version is a tombstone → deleted; do not consult
+                    // older (on-disk) sources.
+                    Some(FastOutcome::Deleted) => return Ok(None),
+                    Some(FastOutcome::NeedsFallback) => { /* fall through to plan */ }
+                    None => {
+                        // Every in-memory memtable missed. If there is no
+                        // on-disk source, the key does not exist; otherwise the
+                        // plan path consults the base table / SSTables.
+                        if !self.collector.has_on_disk_sources() {
+                            return Ok(None);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        self.lookup_via_plan(pk_values, projection).await
+    }
+
+    /// Fallback: build and execute the DataFusion plan, returning its first row.
+    async fn lookup_via_plan(
+        &self,
+        pk_values: &[ScalarValue],
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+        let plan = self.plan_lookup(pk_values, projection).await?;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+            .execute(0, self.task_ctx.clone())?
+            .try_collect()
+            .await?;
+        for batch in batches {
+            if batch.num_rows() > 0 {
+                return Ok(Some(batch.slice(0, 1)));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve many single-column keys in one pass, returning the found rows
+    /// (newest visible per key) as a single `RecordBatch` in the canonical
+    /// output schema. Missing keys are omitted; row order is not guaranteed to
+    /// match the input (a set result, like the scan path). Amortizes per-call
+    /// overhead and gathers rows columnar (one vectorized `take` per source
+    /// batch). Equivalent to N× [`Self::lookup`], minus the per-key plan/stream.
+    #[instrument(name = "lsm_lookup_many", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(n = keys.len()))]
+    pub async fn lookup_many(
+        &self,
+        keys: &[ScalarValue],
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let target = match projection {
+            None => self.none_target.clone(),
+            Some(_) => {
+                canonical_output_schema(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns, false)?
+            }
+        };
+        if keys.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(target));
+        }
+        // One key: the batch grouping (refs vec + hash map + pending) has
+        // nothing to amortize, so it's pure overhead — delegate to the cheaper
+        // single-lookup path. Keeps a one-element `lookup_many` (e.g. a routed
+        // `pk IN (x)`) as fast as `lookup`.
+        if keys.len() == 1 {
+            return Ok(self
+                .lookup(keys, projection)
+                .await?
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| RecordBatch::new_empty(target)));
+        }
+
+        // Fast path: single pk column, every key matches the pk Arrow type, no
+        // system columns in the output. Otherwise the per-key path (correct for
+        // multi-column keys, coercible types, system-column projections).
+        let pk_type = self
+            .pk_columns
+            .first()
+            .and_then(|c| self.base_schema.field_with_name(c).ok())
+            .map(|f| f.data_type().clone());
+        let fast_eligible = self.in_memory_matches_table
+            && self.pk_columns.len() == 1
+            && !target.fields().iter().any(|f| is_system_column(f.name()))
+            && pk_type
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|t| keys.iter().all(|k| &k.data_type() == t))
+                .unwrap_or(false);
+        if !fast_eligible {
+            return self
+                .lookup_many_via_per_key(keys, projection, &target)
+                .await;
+        }
+
+        let pk_col = &self.pk_columns[0];
+        let refs = self.collector.in_memory_refs_newest_first();
+        // Hits grouped by (memtable index, batch index) so each source batch is
+        // gathered with a single `take`.
+        let mut hits: HashMap<(usize, usize), Vec<u32>> = HashMap::new();
+        let mut pending: Vec<ScalarValue> = Vec::new();
+        for key in keys {
+            let mut resolved = false;
+            for (ri, m) in refs.iter().enumerate() {
+                match probe_position(&m.batch_store, &m.index_store, pk_col, key, self.visibility)?
+                {
+                    ProbePos::Found { batch_idx, row } => {
+                        // Newest version is a tombstone → the key is deleted:
+                        // resolve it as a miss (emit nothing) and do not fall
+                        // through to an older source.
+                        if !is_tombstone_at(&m.batch_store, batch_idx, row)? {
+                            hits.entry((ri, batch_idx)).or_default().push(row as u32);
+                        }
+                        resolved = true;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    ProbePos::Miss => continue,
+                    ProbePos::NoIndex => {
+                        // A memtable without the pk BTree can't be batch-probed;
+                        // fall back to the fully-correct per-key path.
+                        return self
+                            .lookup_many_via_per_key(keys, projection, &target)
+                            .await;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if !resolved {
+                pending.push(key.clone());
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut out: Vec<RecordBatch> = Vec::with_capacity(hits.len() + 1);
+        for ((ri, batch_idx), rows) in hits {
+            out.push(gather_rows(
+                &refs[ri].batch_store,
+                batch_idx,
+                &rows,
+                &target,
+            )?);
+        }
+        // Keys absent from every in-memory memtable may live on disk; resolve
+        // those via the plan path. (All-in-memory hit case: `pending` is empty.)
+        if !pending.is_empty() && self.collector.has_on_disk_sources() {
+            out.push(
+                self.lookup_many_via_per_key(&pending, projection, &target)
+                    .await?,
+            );
+        }
+
+        match out.len() {
+            0 => Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(target)),
+            1 => Ok(out.pop().unwrap()),
+            _ => Ok(arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&target, &out)?),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Correctness fallback for [`Self::lookup_many`]: resolve each key with
+    /// [`Self::lookup`] and concatenate.
+    async fn lookup_many_via_per_key(
+        &self,
+        keys: &[ScalarValue],
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        target: &SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let mut out: Vec<RecordBatch> = Vec::new();
+        for key in keys {
+            if let Some(b) = self.lookup(std::slice::from_ref(key), projection).await? {
+                out.push(b);
+            }
+        }
+        match out.len() {
+            0 => Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(target.clone())),
+            1 => Ok(out.pop().unwrap()),
+            _ => Ok(arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(target, &out)?),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build a composable one-shot `ExecutionPlan` that yields the point-lookup
+    /// result for `keys`, so the LSM scanner can place limit / projection / etc.
+    /// on top and use the fast path inside general query execution. A single
+    /// key uses [`Self::lookup`]; multiple keys use [`Self::lookup_many`].
+    pub async fn plan_point_lookup(
+        &self,
+        keys: &[ScalarValue],
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let batch = if keys.len() == 1 {
+            match self.lookup(keys, projection).await? {
+                Some(b) => b,
+                None => RecordBatch::new_empty(canonical_output_schema(
+                    projection,
+                    &self.base_schema,
+                    &self.pk_columns,
+                    false,
+                )?),
+            }
+        } else {
+            self.lookup_many(keys, projection).await?
+        };
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let stream = futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
+        let adapter = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream);
+        Ok(Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(Box::pin(adapter))))
+    }
+
+    /// Build the filter expression for primary key equality.
+    fn build_pk_filter_expr(&self, pk_values: &[ScalarValue]) -> Result<Expr> {
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+
+        let mut expr: Option<Expr> = None;
+
+        for (col_name, value) in self.pk_columns.iter().zip(pk_values.iter()) {
+            let eq_expr = col(col_name.as_str()).eq(lit(value.clone()));
+
+            expr = Some(match expr {
+                Some(e) => e.and(eq_expr),
+                None => eq_expr,
+            });
+        }
+
+        expr.ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input("No primary key columns specified"))
+    }
+
+    /// Build scan plan for a single data source.
+    ///
+    /// Output is projected to the canonical schema so user-requested system
+    /// columns appear at the requested position — NULL where the source
+    /// doesn't produce them or where per-source values aren't meaningful.
+    async fn build_source_scan(
+        &self,
+        source: &LsmDataSource,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        filter: &Expr,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let cols = build_scanner_projection(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns);
+        let target =
+            canonical_output_schema(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns, false)?;
+        let want_row_id = wants_row_id(projection);
+        let want_row_addr = wants_row_address(projection);
+        let scan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = match source {
+            LsmDataSource::BaseTable { dataset } => {
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+                // Resolve against the *source* schema so a nested path narrows the
+                // struct rather than flattening it; expressions cannot express a
+                // partial nested projection, only a schema can.
+                scanner.project_with_schema(&dataset.schema().project(&cols)?)?;
+                // Only the base produces row IDs callers can use against the
+                // dataset (e.g. `take_rows`); non-base arms NULL via canonical.
+                if want_row_id {
+                    scanner.with_row_id();
+                }
+                if want_row_addr {
+                    scanner.with_row_address();
+                }
+                scanner.filter_expr(filter.clone());
+                // Box at the call site: `create_plan`'s inlined async layout exceeds
+                // rustc's depth limit up this point-lookup chain, and boxing inside
+                // `create_plan` instead triggers a `Box<Future>: Send` solver overflow
+                // (E0275 downstream). Same for the other arms below.
+                Box::pin(scanner.create_plan()).await?
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::SsTable { path, .. } => {
+                let dataset = open_sstable(
+                    path,
+                    self.session.as_ref(),
+                    self.store_params.as_ref(),
+                    self.sstable_cache.as_ref(),
+                    self.warmer.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+                // A sealed generation holds the names the table had when it was
+                // sealed, so the projection, the key filter and the output all
+                // go through the same resolution the scanner uses.
+                let cols = cols_with_tombstone(&cols, dataset.schema().field(TOMBSTONE).is_some());
+                let generation = GenerationRead::new(
+                    dataset.schema(),
+                    &self.identity_schema,
+                    &self.pk_columns,
+                    cols,
+                );
+                // Every generation stores every primary key column — a key
+                // cannot be added or dropped — so the key filter always moves.
+                let stored_filter = generation.to_stored(filter).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                        "point lookup: `{filter}` names a column generation {} does not store",
+                        source.generation()
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                // Resolve against the *source* schema so a nested path narrows the
+                // struct rather than flattening it; expressions cannot express a
+                // partial nested projection, only a schema can.
+                scanner.project_with_schema(
+                    &dataset.schema().project(&generation.stored_projection())?,
+                )?;
+                scanner.filter_expr(stored_filter);
+                let scan = Box::pin(scanner.create_plan()).await?;
+                // `_tombstone` is carried through so the post-coalesce filter
+                // can drop a deleted key; a generation written before deletes
+                // existed lacks it and `project_to_carry` synthesizes `false`.
+                generation.reconcile(scan)?
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store,
+                schema,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::MemTableScanner;
+
+                let mut scanner = MemTableScanner::new_at_visibility(
+                    batch_store.clone(),
+                    index_store.clone(),
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    self.visibility,
+                );
+                // Carry `_tombstone` through so the post-coalesce filter can drop
+                // a deleted key; it survives the sort below.
+                let cols = cols_with_tombstone(&cols, schema.column_with_name(TOMBSTONE).is_some());
+                // A memtable created before a schema change still uses the old
+                // column names, so read it like a flushed generation of that age.
+                let generation =
+                    (!memtable_matches_table(schema, &self.identity_schema)).then(|| {
+                        GenerationRead::for_memtable(
+                            schema,
+                            &self.identity_schema,
+                            &self.pk_columns,
+                            cols.clone(),
+                        )
+                    });
+                match &generation {
+                    None => {
+                        scanner.project(&cols.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect::<Vec<_>>())?;
+                        scanner.filter_expr(filter.clone());
+                    }
+                    Some(generation) => {
+                        let stored_filter = generation.to_stored(filter).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                                "point lookup: `{filter}` names a column memtable {} does not store",
+                                source.generation()
+                            ))
+                        })?;
+                        scanner.project(&generation.stored_projection())?;
+                        scanner.filter_expr(stored_filter);
+                    }
+                }
+                // Expose `_rowid` (the BatchStore row offset, monotonic with
+                // insert order) so we can pick the most recently inserted
+                // duplicate below. Without this, a `FilterExec → LIMIT 1`
+                // over insert-ordered scan would return the *oldest* of
+                // multiple rows sharing the target primary key.
+                scanner.with_row_id();
+                let raw = Box::pin(scanner.create_plan()).await?;
+                // `_rowid` is not a table column; it passes through unchanged.
+                let raw = match &generation {
+                    None => raw,
+                    Some(generation) => generation.reconcile(raw)?,
+                };
+                // The filter already restricts to the exact PK value, so the
+                // scan yields that key's insert history. Within the active
+                // memtable larger `_rowid` = newer insert, so sorting `_rowid`
+                // DESC and keeping the first row picks the newest version — one
+                // row per (value-exact) PK.
+                let rowid_idx = raw.schema().index_of(lance_core::ROW_ID)?;
+                let ordering = LexOrdering::new(vec![PhysicalSortExpr {
+                    expr: Arc::new(Column::new(lance_core::ROW_ID, rowid_idx)),
+                    options: SortOptions {
+                        descending: true,
+                        nulls_first: false,
+                    },
+                }])
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    lance_core::Error::internal("point-lookup: failed to build _rowid ordering")
+                })?;
+                let newest: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+                    Arc::new(SortExec::new(ordering, raw).with_fetch(Some(1)));
+                // Per-source `_rowid` would collide with the base table's;
+                // NULL it before canonicalization (the value is internal to
+                // this arm). project_to_canonical drops it entirely when
+                // the user didn't request `_rowid` in the projection.
+                null_columns(newest, &[lance_core::ROW_ID])?
+            }
+        };
+        // Output carries `_tombstone` (canonical + the marker) so it survives
+        // the union/coalesce to the post-coalesce filter; base / legacy sources
+        // that lack the column get a synthesized `false`.
+        project_to_carry(scan, &target, &self.pk_columns)
+    }
+
+    /// Create an empty execution plan with the canonical output schema.
+    fn empty_plan(&self, projection: Option<&[String]>) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::empty::EmptyExec;
+
+        let schema =
+            canonical_output_schema(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns, false)?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(schema)))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Append `_tombstone` to a scanner projection when the source carries it, so
+/// the column survives to the post-coalesce tombstone filter. Sources without
+/// it (base table, generations written before deletes existed) are left alone
+/// and have `false` synthesized by [`project_to_carry`].
+fn cols_with_tombstone(cols: &[String], present: bool) -> Vec<String> {
+    if !present {
+        return cols.to_vec();
+    }
+    let mut out = cols.to_vec();
+    if !out.iter().any(|c| c == TOMBSTONE) {
+        out.push(TOMBSTONE.to_string());
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+/// Carry schema = canonical output widened to the storage schema's
+/// nullability, plus a trailing non-nullable `_tombstone` Boolean.
+///
+/// Widened because tombstone rows — null in every non-PK column — are still in
+/// flight; [`filter_tombstones_after_coalesce`] drops them past
+/// `CoalesceFirstExec`, and only then does the plan narrow back to the logical
+/// schema. `_tombstone` stays non-nullable so the base arm's synthesized
+/// `Literal(false)` matches the WAL arms' real column under
+/// `CoalesceFirstExec`'s exact-schema check.
+fn carry_schema(canonical: &SchemaRef, pk_columns: &[String]) -> SchemaRef {
+    let widened = relax_non_pk_nullability(canonical, pk_columns);
+    let mut fields: Vec<Arc<Field>> = widened.fields().iter().cloned().collect();
+    fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new(TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, false)));
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(fields))
+}
+
+/// Project a source scan to the carry schema: existing columns are forwarded, a
+/// missing `_tombstone` becomes `false` (base table / legacy generations carry
+/// no tombstones), and missing system / `_distance` columns are NULL-filled
+/// (mirroring [`project_to_canonical`]).
+fn project_to_carry(
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    canonical: &SchemaRef,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    let input = plan.schema();
+    let carry = carry_schema(canonical, pk_columns);
+    let mut project_exprs: Vec<(Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>, String)> =
+        Vec::with_capacity(carry.fields().len());
+    for field in carry.fields() {
+        let name = field.name();
+        let expr: Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr> = match input.column_with_name(name) {
+            Some((idx, _)) => Arc::new(Column::new(name, idx)),
+            None if name == TOMBSTONE => Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(false)))),
+            None if is_system_column(name) => Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::UInt64(None))),
+            None if name == DISTANCE_COLUMN => Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::Float32(None))),
+            None => {
+                return Err(lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Column '{}' missing from point-lookup carry source schema (have: {:?})",
+                    name,
+                    input
+                        .fields()
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        project_exprs.push((expr, name.clone()));
+    }
+    let projected = Arc::new(ProjectionExec::try_new(project_exprs, plan).map_err(|e| {
+        lance_core::Error::internal(format!("Failed to build carry ProjectionExec: {}", e))
+    })?);
+    // `CoalesceFirstExec` panics unless every arm lands on exactly `carry`.
+    Ok(force_schema(projected, &carry))
+}
+
+/// Drop tombstone rows after `CoalesceFirstExec` has already picked the newest
+/// source, then project the carried `_tombstone` column away (back to the
+/// canonical schema).
+fn filter_tombstones_after_coalesce(
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    canonical: &SchemaRef,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    let idx = plan.schema().index_of(TOMBSTONE).map_err(|e| {
+        lance_core::Error::internal(format!("point-lookup carry plan missing _tombstone: {}", e))
+    })?;
+    let predicate: Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr> =
+        Arc::new(NotExpr::new(Arc::new(Column::new(TOMBSTONE, idx))));
+    let filtered: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+        Arc::new(FilterExec::try_new(predicate, plan).map_err(|e| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal(format!("Failed to build tombstone FilterExec: {}", e))
+        })?);
+    project_to_canonical(filtered, canonical)
+}
+
+/// Whether the row at `(batch_idx, row)` of `batch_store` is a tombstone.
+/// Memtables without the `_tombstone` column (legacy / direct-construction
+/// tests) are treated as carrying no tombstones.
+fn is_tombstone_at(batch_store: &BatchStore, batch_idx: usize, row: usize) -> Result<bool> {
+    let stored = batch_store.get(batch_idx).ok_or_else(|| {
+        lance_core::Error::internal("point-lookup: tombstone-check batch missing")
+    })?;
+    let Some(col) = stored.data.column_by_name(TOMBSTONE) else {
+        return Ok(false);
+    };
+    let arr = col.as_any().downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>().ok_or_else(|| {
+        lance_core::Error::internal("point-lookup: _tombstone column is not Boolean")
+    })?;
+    Ok(arr.is_valid(row) && arr.value(row))
+}
+
+/// Result of probing the in-memory memtables newest-first in `lookup()`.
+enum FastOutcome {
+    /// A visible row was found; here it is, projected.
+    Hit(RecordBatch),
+    /// The newest visible version of the key is a tombstone — the key is
+    /// deleted. The search stops here (no fall-through to older sources) and
+    /// resolves to "not found".
+    Deleted,
+    /// A memtable could not be probed directly (no BTree on the key) — the
+    /// caller must fall back to the plan path.
+    NeedsFallback,
+}
+
+/// Outcome of a direct BTree probe against one in-memory memtable.
+enum Probe {
+    /// The key was found; here is the newest visible row, projected.
+    Hit(RecordBatch),
+    /// The newest visible version of the key is a tombstone — deleted. Stop the
+    /// search and return "not found".
+    Deleted,
+    /// The key is not present in this memtable (but may be in an older source).
+    Miss,
+    /// This memtable has no BTree on the key column, so it cannot be probed
+    /// directly — the caller must fall back to the plan path.
+    NoIndex,
+}
+
+/// Where a key's newest visible row lives within one in-memory memtable.
+enum ProbePos {
+    /// Found at `(batch_idx, row_in_batch)` in the memtable's `BatchStore`.
+    Found {
+        batch_idx: usize,
+        row: usize,
+    },
+    Miss,
+    NoIndex,
+}
+
+/// Resolve the `(batch_idx, row)` of a key's newest *visible* row in one
+/// in-memory memtable via a seek-and-stop on the ordered skiplist
+/// (`BTreeMemIndex::get_newest_visible`), honoring the MVCC watermark. No
+/// materialization.
+fn probe_position(
+    batch_store: &BatchStore,
+    index_store: &IndexStore,
+    pk_column: &str,
+    pk_value: &ScalarValue,
+    visibility: MemTableVisibility,
+) -> Result<ProbePos> {
+    // Visible batches are the committed prefix [0, last_visible_idx]; each
+    // `StoredBatch` carries its cumulative `row_offset`, so visibility and the
+    // position→batch mapping are O(1)/O(log) with no per-probe allocation.
+    let len = batch_store.len();
+    if len == 0 {
+        return Ok(ProbePos::Miss);
+    }
+    // The cursor is an exclusive count, so the last readable batch sits at
+    // `count - 1`. A count of 0 means nothing is readable yet — not "batch 0".
+    let readable_count = index_store.prefix_count(visibility).min(len);
+    let Some(last_visible_idx) = readable_count.checked_sub(1) else {
+        return Ok(ProbePos::Miss);
+    };
+    let last = batch_store.get(last_visible_idx).ok_or_else(|| {
+        lance_core::Error::internal("point-lookup: visible batch index out of range")
+    })?;
+    let visible_end = last.row_offset + last.num_rows as u64; // exclusive
+    if visible_end == 0 {
+        return Ok(ProbePos::Miss);
+    }
+    let max_visible_row = visible_end - 1;
+
+    // A single-column primary key always has a value-keyed BTree (reused or
+    // auto-created — see `IndexStore::enable_pk_index`): collision-free, so one
+    // seek yields the answer with no re-check. Absent only when the table has no
+    // PK index, where the caller falls back to the plan path.
+    let Some(btree) = index_store.get_btree_by_column(pk_column) else {
+        return Ok(ProbePos::NoIndex);
+    };
+    let Some(pos) = btree.get_newest_visible(pk_value, max_visible_row) else {
+        return Ok(ProbePos::Miss);
+    };
+    let (batch_idx, row) = resolve_position(batch_store, last_visible_idx, pos)?;
+    Ok(ProbePos::Found { batch_idx, row })
+}
+
+/// Map a global row `position` to its `(batch_idx, row_in_batch)` by binary
+/// searching the visible batch prefix on cumulative `row_offset` (batches are
+/// appended in order).
+fn resolve_position(
+    batch_store: &BatchStore,
+    last_visible_idx: usize,
+    position: u64,
+) -> Result<(usize, usize)> {
+    let (mut lo, mut hi) = (0usize, last_visible_idx);
+    while lo < hi {
+        let mid = lo + (hi - lo).div_ceil(2);
+        let off = batch_store.get(mid).map(|b| b.row_offset).ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal("point-lookup: batch index out of range during search")
+        })?;
+        if off <= position {
+            lo = mid;
+        } else {
+            hi = mid - 1;
+        }
+    }
+    let stored = batch_store
+        .get(lo)
+        .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::internal("point-lookup: resolved batch missing"))?;
+    Ok((lo, (position - stored.row_offset) as usize))
+}
+
+/// Gather `rows` from `batch_store`'s batch `batch_idx` into the `target`
+/// schema. A single row is a zero-copy `slice` (the common point-lookup case);
+/// multiple rows use one vectorized `take` per column.
+///
+/// Columns are stored whole, so a nested projection (`meta.a` -> `meta:
+/// Struct<a>`) leaves the gathered array wider than `target`. Those columns are
+/// narrowed with one `project_by_schema` pass; a projection that selects only
+/// whole columns matches the stored types and skips it.
+fn gather_rows(
+    batch_store: &BatchStore,
+    batch_idx: usize,
+    rows: &[u32],
+    target: &SchemaRef,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let stored = batch_store
+        .get(batch_idx)
+        .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::internal("point-lookup: gather batch missing"))?;
+    let indices = (rows.len() > 1).then(|| arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(rows.to_vec()));
+    // Borrow the stored schema once (no `Arc` clone): `schema()` clones the
+    // shared schema `Arc`, and under concurrency that refcount cache line
+    // ping-pongs across cores. `schema_ref()` borrows it.
+    let stored_schema = stored.data.schema_ref();
+    let mut cols: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = Vec::with_capacity(target.fields().len());
+    let mut stored_fields: Vec<Arc<Field>> = Vec::with_capacity(target.fields().len());
+    let mut differs = false;
+    for f in target.fields() {
+        let idx = stored_schema.index_of(f.name()).map_err(|_| {
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "point-lookup projection column '{}' not found in memtable batch",
+                f.name()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let stored_field = &stored_schema.fields()[idx];
+        differs |= stored_field.data_type() != f.data_type();
+        stored_fields.push(stored_field.clone());
+        let col = stored.data.column(idx);
+        // Single row: zero-copy `slice` (the common point-lookup case, and
+        // measurably faster than `take` — copying regressed single-thread
+        // ~30% with no N-thread gain). Multiple rows: one vectorized `take`.
+        cols.push(match &indices {
+            None => col.slice(rows[0] as usize, 1),
+            Some(idxs) => arrow_select::take::take(col.as_ref(), idxs, None)?,
+        });
+    }
+    if !differs {
+        return Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(target.clone(), cols)?);
+    }
+    // A stored column can differ from the target by the field ids the memtable
+    // keeps inside a nested type, by a narrower nested shape the caller asked
+    // for, or by both. Relabelling needs the two types to agree on their
+    // children, so the shape is settled first.
+    let gathered = RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(Schema::new(stored_fields)), cols)?;
+    let gathered = prepared_blob_batch_to_descriptors(&gathered)?;
+    let narrowed = gathered.project_by_schema(target)?;
+    let cols = narrowed
+        .columns()
+        .iter()
+        .zip(target.fields())
+        .map(|(col, f)| relabel_to(col, f.data_type()))
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(target.clone(), cols)?)
+}
+
+/// Probe one in-memory memtable for a single key and materialize the newest
+/// visible row into `target`. Thin wrapper over [`probe_position`] +
+/// [`gather_rows`] used by [`LsmPointLookupPlanner::lookup`].
+fn probe_memtable(
+    batch_store: &BatchStore,
+    index_store: &IndexStore,
+    pk_column: &str,
+    pk_value: &ScalarValue,
+    target: &SchemaRef,
+    visibility: MemTableVisibility,
+) -> Result<Probe> {
+    match probe_position(batch_store, index_store, pk_column, pk_value, visibility)? {
+        ProbePos::NoIndex => Ok(Probe::NoIndex),
+        ProbePos::Miss => Ok(Probe::Miss),
+        ProbePos::Found { batch_idx, row } => {
+            // The newest visible version is a tombstone → the key is deleted.
+            // Stop here rather than materializing or falling through to an
+            // older source.
+            if is_tombstone_at(batch_store, batch_idx, row)? {
+                return Ok(Probe::Deleted);
+            }
+            Ok(Probe::Hit(gather_rows(
+                batch_store,
+                batch_idx,
+                &[row as u32],
+                target,
+            )?))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::displayable;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+    use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+
+    fn create_pk_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
+
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, ids: &[i32], name_prefix: &str) -> RecordBatch {
+        let names: Vec<String> = ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| format!("{}_{}", name_prefix, id))
+            .collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn create_dataset(uri: &str, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_plan_structure() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create base table
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3], "base");
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        // Create collector without memtables
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]);
+
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema.clone()).unwrap();
+
+        let pk_values = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))];
+        let plan = planner.plan_lookup(&pk_values, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify plan structure
+        let plan_str = format!("{}", displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true));
+
+        // Should have GlobalLimitExec with limit=1 (data is stored in reverse order)
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("GlobalLimitExec"),
+            "Should have GlobalLimitExec in plan: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_with_memtables() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create base table
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3], "base");
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        // Create shard snapshot
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let gen1_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[2], "gen1"); // Update id=2
+        create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![gen1_batch]).await;
+
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string());
+
+        // Create collector
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![shard_snapshot]);
+
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema.clone()).unwrap();
+
+        let pk_values = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))];
+        let plan = planner.plan_lookup(&pk_values, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify plan structure - should have CoalesceFirstExec with multiple children
+        let plan_str = format!("{}", displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true));
+
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("CoalesceFirstExec") || plan_str.contains("GlobalLimitExec"),
+            "Should have CoalesceFirstExec or GlobalLimitExec in plan: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_with_bloom_filter() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create base table
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3], "base");
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        // Create collector
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]);
+
+        // Create a bloom filter for generation 1 (simulating a memtable)
+        let mut bf = Sbbf::with_ndv_fpp(100, 0.01).unwrap();
+        let pk_hash = compute_pk_hash_from_scalars(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))]);
+        bf.insert_hash(pk_hash);
+
+        let planner = LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema.clone())
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_bloom_filter(1, Arc::new(bf));
+
+        let pk_values = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))];
+        let plan = planner.plan_lookup(&pk_values, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Plan should be valid
+        assert!(plan.schema().field_with_name("id").is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_pk_filter_expr() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "base");
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]);
+
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let pk_values = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(42))];
+        let expr = planner.build_pk_filter_expr(&pk_values).unwrap();
+
+        // Verify expression is an equality
+        let expr_str = format!("{}", expr);
+        assert!(
+            expr_str.contains("id"),
+            "Expression should contain column name"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_without_base_table() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // No base dataset is created. We still need a base URI so the collector
+        // can resolve SSTable paths.
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+
+        // Create an SSTable under {base_uri}/_mem_wal/{shard}/gen_1
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let gen1_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[2, 3], "gen1");
+        create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![gen1_batch]).await;
+
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string());
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![shard_snapshot]);
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        // id=3 lives in the SSTable
+        let pk_values = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3))];
+        let plan = planner.plan_lookup(&pk_values, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let plan_str = format!("{}", displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true));
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("base/data"),
+            "Plan must not scan base table, got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+        assert!(plan_str.contains("gen_1"));
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 1);
+
+        // id=99 doesn't exist anywhere → empty
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(99))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_projection_with_system_columns() {
+        // Regression: system columns in projection used to error in the
+        // active-arm MemTableScanner or get silently dropped. Verify they're
+        // surfaced at the requested position with the correct NULL/real mix.
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_core::is_system_column;
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3], "base");
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]);
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        // User requests `_rowaddr` between `id` and `name`, plus `_rowoffset` at end.
+        let projection = vec![
+            "id".to_string(),
+            "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+            "name".to_string(),
+            "_rowoffset".to_string(),
+        ];
+        let pk_values = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))];
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_lookup(&pk_values, Some(&projection))
+            .await
+            .expect("planner must accept system columns in projection");
+
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 1, "expected exactly one matching row");
+
+        let out_schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let out_cols: Vec<String> = out_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            out_cols,
+            vec![
+                "id".to_string(),
+                "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+                "name".to_string(),
+                "_rowoffset".to_string(),
+            ],
+            "system columns must appear at the user's requested position"
+        );
+
+        // Hit row is from base → `_rowaddr` is real. `_rowoffset` stays
+        // NULL (no scanner produces it).
+        // (Test 5 — empty-plan with system columns — lives in the next
+        // test below.)
+        let rowaddr = batches[0].column_by_name("_rowaddr").unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !rowaddr.is_null(0),
+            "_rowaddr from base should be populated, got: {:?}",
+            rowaddr
+        );
+        let rowoffset = batches[0].column_by_name("_rowoffset").unwrap();
+        assert!(is_system_column("_rowoffset"));
+        assert!(
+            rowoffset.is_null(0),
+            "_rowoffset has no per-source flag, must be NULL across LSM, got: {:?}",
+            rowoffset
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_empty_plan_with_system_columns() {
+        // Test 5 (point_lookup slice): with no sources, the empty plan
+        // must still expose user-requested system columns at the
+        // requested position.
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let projection = vec![
+            "id".to_string(),
+            "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+            "name".to_string(),
+            "_rowid".to_string(),
+        ];
+        let pk_values = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))];
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_lookup(&pk_values, Some(&projection))
+            .await
+            .expect("empty plan must accept system columns in projection");
+
+        let names: Vec<String> = plan
+            .schema()
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            names,
+            vec![
+                "id".to_string(),
+                "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+                "name".to_string(),
+                "_rowid".to_string(),
+            ],
+            "empty point-lookup plan must honor user column order including system columns"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_rejects_missing_projection_column() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let projection = vec!["missing".to_string()];
+        let pk_values = vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))];
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_lookup(&pk_values, Some(&projection))
+            .await
+            .expect_err("unknown projection column should fail planning");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing"),
+            "unexpected missing-column projection error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_active_memtable_returns_newest_duplicate() {
+        // Regression: same primary key inserted twice into one active
+        // memtable must return the *newest* row. The bug was that
+        // `FilterExec → LIMIT 1` over an insert-ordered scan returned the
+        // first (oldest) match. The plan-path active arm now sorts `_rowid`
+        // DESC and keeps the first row (largest `_rowid` = newest insert).
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        // BTree on the PK: the point lookup resolves keys through the indexed PK
+        // path, which this exercises. (`indexed_count`/`visible_count` advance
+        // from the batch position regardless of whether any index is configured.)
+        index_store.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
+
+        // Two writes to pk=1, then an unrelated pk=2. The "new" row goes
+        // *second* so its `_rowid` is larger.
+        let b_old = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "old");
+        let b_new = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "new");
+        let b_other = create_test_batch(&schema, &[2], "two");
+        let (bp_old, off_old, _) = batch_store.append(b_old.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b_old, off_old, Some(bp_old))
+            .unwrap();
+        let (bp_new, off_new, _) = batch_store.append(b_new.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b_new, off_new, Some(bp_new))
+            .unwrap();
+        let (bp_other, off_other, _) = batch_store.append(b_other.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b_other, off_other, Some(bp_other))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 1, "expected exactly one row for pk=1");
+        let name_col = batches[0].column_by_name("name").unwrap();
+        let name_arr = name_col.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            name_arr.value(0),
+            "new_1",
+            "active-arm lookup must return the newer insert, not the oldest"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_probes_auto_created_pk_btree() {
+        // No user `add_btree` on the PK column — only `enable_pk_index`, which
+        // auto-creates a BTree on the primary key (the production default). The
+        // fast probe must resolve the newest visible version through that
+        // collision-free BTree rather than falling back to the plan path.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        // No `add_btree` — `enable_pk_index` auto-creates the PK BTree.
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+
+        // pk=1 written twice (the newer second), plus an unrelated pk=2.
+        let b_old = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "old");
+        let b_new = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "new");
+        let b_other = create_test_batch(&schema, &[2], "two");
+        let (bp_old, off_old, _) = batch_store.append(b_old.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b_old, off_old, Some(bp_old))
+            .unwrap();
+        let (bp_new, off_new, _) = batch_store.append(b_new.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b_new, off_new, Some(bp_new))
+            .unwrap();
+        let (bp_other, off_other, _) = batch_store.append(b_other.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b_other, off_other, Some(bp_other))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        // `lookup` takes the fast probe path (single-column PK, no system cols).
+        let hit = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("pk=1 must be found via the PK-position index probe");
+        assert_eq!(hit.num_rows(), 1);
+        let name = hit
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            name.value(0),
+            "new_1",
+            "probe must return the newest version"
+        );
+
+        // An absent key resolves to None (no on-disk sources to consult).
+        assert!(
+            planner
+                .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(999))], None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "absent key must miss"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The writer's own read at [`MemTableVisibility::Indexed`] resolves a row
+    /// whose WAL append is still outstanding, while the default `Published`
+    /// bound does not. The projection selects which read path runs: the fast
+    /// BTree probe, or the `MemTableScanner` plan fallback (a system column in
+    /// the output disqualifies the probe). Both must resolve the key alike.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::fast_btree_probe(None)]
+    #[case::scanner_fallback(Some(vec![
+        "id".to_string(),
+        "name".to_string(),
+        "_rowid".to_string(),
+    ]))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_visibility_reads_the_undurable_prefix(
+        #[case] projection: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::MemTableVisibility;
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::wal::WriterCursors;
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        // A writer whose durability cursor never advances: the batch indexes,
+        // but its append stays outstanding, so it never publishes.
+        index_store.set_durability(Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true)), 0);
+
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "pending");
+        let (bp, off, _) = batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, off, Some(bp))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index_store.indexed_count(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(index_store.visible_count(), 0, "the append is outstanding");
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+        let key = [ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))];
+
+        assert!(
+            planner
+                .lookup(&key, projection.as_deref())
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "a row whose append is outstanding must stay invisible at Published"
+        );
+
+        let planner = planner.with_visibility(MemTableVisibility::Indexed);
+        let hit = planner
+            .lookup(&key, projection.as_deref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("the writer must read its own indexed prefix");
+        assert_eq!(hit.num_rows(), 1);
+        let name = hit
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(name.value(0), "pending_1");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_point_lookup_sstable_returns_newest_duplicate() {
+        // Regression / invariant pin: when an SSTable contains two
+        // rows for the same PK, the lookup must return the newer one. The
+        // SSTable dataset is reverse-written (newest at the smallest
+        // physical position), so we simulate that here by writing the
+        // dataset with the new row first. The point-lookup plan today
+        // returns the first match (smallest `_rowid`) under reverse-write,
+        // and remains so after this change.
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+
+        // Simulated reverse-write: newest insert lives at row 0.
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let row_new = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "new");
+        let row_old = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "old");
+        create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![row_new, row_old]).await;
+
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string());
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![shard_snapshot]);
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 1, "expected exactly one row for pk=1");
+        let name_col = batches[0].column_by_name("name").unwrap();
+        let name_arr = name_col.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            name_arr.value(0),
+            "new_1",
+            "SSTable-arm lookup must return the row at the smallest _rowid (newest under reverse-write)"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Build an in-memory active memtable ref from batches, with a BTree on
+    /// `id` and the visibility watermark advanced so every row is visible.
+    fn active_memtable_ref(
+        schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+        batches: &[RecordBatch],
+        generation: u64,
+    ) -> crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTableRef {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTableRef;
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(64));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
+        for b in batches {
+            let (idx, row_offset, _) = batch_store.append(b.clone()).unwrap();
+            index_store
+                .insert_with_batch_position(b, row_offset, Some(idx))
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        InMemoryMemTableRef {
+            batch_store,
+            index_store: Arc::new(index_store),
+            schema: schema.clone(),
+            generation,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn id_at(batch: &RecordBatch) -> i32 {
+        batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .value(0)
+    }
+
+    fn name_at(batch: &RecordBatch) -> String {
+        batch
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .value(0)
+            .to_string()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_fast_path_active_hit_and_absent() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(
+            &schema,
+            &[create_test_batch(&schema, &[10, 20, 30], "v")],
+            1,
+        );
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active,
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema.clone()).unwrap();
+
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(20))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("hit");
+        assert_eq!(row.num_rows(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 20);
+
+        // Absent key, no on-disk source → fast path proves non-existence.
+        assert!(
+            planner
+                .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(99))], None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_fast_path_newest_duplicate() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        // Same pk inserted twice; the second (larger position) is newest.
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(
+            &schema,
+            &[
+                create_test_batch(&schema, &[5], "old"),
+                create_test_batch(&schema, &[5], "new"),
+            ],
+            1,
+        );
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active,
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(name_at(&row), "new_5", "must return the newest insert");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_miss_falls_back_to_base() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(
+                &base_uri,
+                vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3], "base")],
+            )
+            .await,
+        );
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(&schema, &[create_test_batch(&schema, &[99], "act")], 1);
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active,
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema.clone()).unwrap();
+
+        // In active only → fast-path hit.
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(99))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 99);
+
+        // Only in base → active misses, falls back to the plan path.
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("base hit via fallback");
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 2);
+        assert_eq!(name_at(&row), "base_2");
+
+        // Nowhere → None (fallback plan over base finds nothing).
+        assert!(
+            planner
+                .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1000))], None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_projection_regular_columns() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(
+            &schema,
+            &[create_test_batch(&schema, &[10, 20, 30], "v")],
+            1,
+        );
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active,
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(20))], Some(&["name".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        // The canonical point-lookup schema always includes the pk column, so
+        // a `name` projection yields `[name, id]` — matching the plan path.
+        let row_schema = row.schema();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = row_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(names, vec!["name", "id"]);
+        assert_eq!(name_at(&row), "v_20");
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 20);
+    }
+
+    /// `id` (PK) + `meta: Struct<a: Int64, b: Utf8>`, one row per id.
+    fn create_nested_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_metadata),
+            Field::new("meta", DataType::Struct(nested_meta_fields()), true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn nested_meta_fields() -> arrow_schema::Fields {
+        arrow_schema::Fields::from(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ])
+    }
+
+    fn create_nested_batch(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let a: Vec<i64> = ids.iter().map(|id| *id as i64 * 10).collect();
+        let b: Vec<String> = ids.iter().map(|id| format!("b_{}", id)).collect();
+        let meta = arrow_array::StructArray::new(
+            nested_meta_fields(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(a)) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(b)) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())), Arc::new(meta)],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn nested_planner(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, ids: &[i32]) -> LsmPointLookupPlanner {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(schema, &[create_nested_batch(schema, ids)], 1);
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active,
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema.clone()).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The children `meta` carries in `batch`, in order.
+    fn meta_children(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<String> {
+        let arrow_schema::DataType::Struct(fields) = batch
+            .schema()
+            .field_with_name("meta")
+            .unwrap()
+            .data_type()
+            .clone()
+        else {
+            panic!("meta is not a struct");
+        };
+        fields.iter().map(|f| f.name().clone()).collect()
+    }
+
+    /// A nested projection narrows the canonical schema to `meta: Struct<a>`,
+    /// but the memtable stores `meta` whole. The fast-path gather has to narrow
+    /// the stored column to match — handing the whole `Struct<a, b>` to
+    /// `RecordBatch::try_new` against a `Struct<a>` schema is a type error.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_nested_projection_narrows_struct() {
+        let schema = create_nested_schema();
+        let planner = nested_planner(&schema, &[1, 2]);
+
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(
+                &[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))],
+                Some(&["meta.a".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let row_schema = row.schema();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = row_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(names, vec!["meta", "id"]);
+        assert_eq!(meta_children(&row), vec!["a"]);
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 1);
+        let meta = row.column_by_name("meta").unwrap().as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(
+            meta.column_by_name("a")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int64Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(0),
+            10
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `lookup_many` reaches the same gather through the batched
+    /// group-by-source path, so it narrows identically.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_many_nested_projection_narrows_struct() {
+        let schema = create_nested_schema();
+        let planner = nested_planner(&schema, &[1, 2]);
+
+        let batch = planner
+            .lookup_many(
+                &[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)), ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))],
+                Some(&["meta.a".to_string()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(meta_children(&batch), vec!["a"]);
+        let a = batch
+            .column_by_name("meta")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_struct()
+            .column_by_name("a")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+        let mut values: Vec<i64> = (0..batch.num_rows()).map(|i| a.value(i)).collect();
+        values.sort();
+        assert_eq!(values, vec![10, 20]);
+    }
+
+    /// Control for the two tests above: projecting the whole struct leaves the
+    /// stored column untouched, so the narrowing pass must stay skipped.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_whole_struct_projection_passes_through() {
+        let schema = create_nested_schema();
+        let planner = nested_planner(&schema, &[1]);
+
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))], Some(&["meta".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(meta_children(&row), vec!["a", "b"]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_type_mismatch_falls_back_no_panic() {
+        // PK is Int32; an Int64 literal must NOT take the direct BTree probe
+        // (which could panic comparing mismatched OrderableScalarValue
+        // variants) — it falls back to the coercing plan path.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(
+            &schema,
+            &[create_test_batch(&schema, &[10, 20, 30], "v")],
+            1,
+        );
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active,
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int64(Some(20))], None)
+            .await
+            .expect("must not panic on a coercible-but-different key type")
+            .expect("plan path coerces Int64 → Int32 and finds id=20");
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 20);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_empty_pk_values_errors_not_panics() {
+        // Regression: the fast-path eligibility check must not index
+        // `pk_values[0]` before verifying the slice is non-empty. An empty
+        // slice falls through to the plan path's length validation.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(&schema, &[create_test_batch(&schema, &[1], "v")], 1);
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active,
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let err = planner.lookup(&[], None).await;
+        assert!(err.is_err(), "empty pk_values must error, not panic");
+    }
+
+    fn sorted_ids(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let arr = batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = (0..arr.len()).map(|i| arr.value(i)).collect();
+        v.sort_unstable();
+        v
+    }
+
+    fn active_planner(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> LsmPointLookupPlanner {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(&schema, batches, 1);
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active,
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_many_hits_and_misses() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let planner = active_planner(&[create_test_batch(&schema, &[10, 20, 30], "v")]);
+        // Mix present + absent keys; absent omitted, order not guaranteed.
+        let keys = [
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(30)),
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(10)),
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(999)),
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(20)),
+        ];
+        let batch = planner.lookup_many(&keys, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids(&batch), vec![10, 20, 30]);
+
+        // Empty input → empty batch with the canonical schema.
+        let empty = planner.lookup_many(&[], None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(empty.num_rows(), 0);
+        assert!(empty.schema().field_with_name("id").is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_many_newest_duplicate() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        // id=5 written twice; the batch get must return the newest ("new_5").
+        let planner = active_planner(&[
+            create_test_batch(&schema, &[5], "old"),
+            create_test_batch(&schema, &[5, 7], "new"),
+        ]);
+        let batch = planner
+            .lookup_many(
+                &[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(5)), ScalarValue::Int32(Some(7))],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2);
+        let names = batch
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut got: Vec<&str> = (0..names.len()).map(|i| names.value(i)).collect();
+        got.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(got, vec!["new_5", "new_7"]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_many_projection_and_equivalence_to_lookup() {
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let planner = active_planner(&[create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4], "v")]);
+        let keys = [
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2)),
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(4)),
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)),
+        ];
+        // Projected batch get == set of single lookups, same schema.
+        let proj = vec!["name".to_string()];
+        let batch = planner.lookup_many(&keys, Some(&proj)).await.unwrap();
+        let batch_schema = batch.schema();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = batch_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(names, vec!["name", "id"]); // pk always appended
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids(&batch), vec![1, 2, 4]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_plan_point_lookup_executes() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let planner = active_planner(&[create_test_batch(&schema, &[10, 20, 30], "v")]);
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_point_lookup(
+                &[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(10)), ScalarValue::Int32(Some(30))],
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+            .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_against_from_configs_built_index() {
+        // A point lookup against an index built the production way
+        // (`IndexStore::from_configs`) resolves correctly via the seek-and-stop
+        // skiplist probe.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::{BTreeIndexConfig, IndexStore, MemIndexConfig};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+
+        let schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[10, 20, 30], "v");
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let index_store = IndexStore::from_configs(
+            &[MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+                name: "id_idx".to_string(),
+                field_id: 0,
+                column: "id".to_string(),
+            })],
+            1000,
+            100,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let (idx, row_offset, _) = batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, row_offset, Some(idx))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(index_store),
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], schema).unwrap();
+
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(20))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("range fallback must find the row");
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 20);
+        assert!(
+            planner
+                .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(99))], None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "absent key must miss"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // ----- tombstone (delete) point-lookup tests -----
+
+    /// Memtable schema = base (`id`, `name`) + the `_tombstone` marker.
+    fn pk_ts_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id,
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new(TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, false),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn ts_real(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, ids: &[i32], prefix: &str) -> RecordBatch {
+        let names: Vec<String> = ids.iter().map(|i| format!("{}_{}", prefix, i)).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::BooleanArray::from(vec![false; ids.len()])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn ts_tomb(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let names: Vec<Option<String>> = ids.iter().map(|_| None).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::BooleanArray::from(vec![true; ids.len()])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Active-only planner whose memtable carries `_tombstone`; the planner's
+    /// base schema stays tombstone-free (as the base table is in production).
+    fn active_ts_planner(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> LsmPointLookupPlanner {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let base_schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mem_schema = pk_ts_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(&mem_schema, batches, 1);
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active,
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+        LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], base_schema).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Read the `_tombstone` marker from row 0 of a keep-tombstone result.
+    fn tombstone_at(b: &RecordBatch) -> bool {
+        let idx = b.schema().index_of(TOMBSTONE).expect("_tombstone column");
+        b.column(idx)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::BooleanArray>()
+            .expect("_tombstone is Boolean")
+            .value(0)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_keep_tombstone_returns_deleted_row_with_marker() {
+        // The tombstone-preserving variant keeps a deleted key that the filtered
+        // `lookup` would drop: id=1 deleted, id=2 live, id=99 absent.
+        let schema = pk_ts_schema();
+        let planner = active_ts_planner(&[ts_real(&schema, &[1, 2], "v"), ts_tomb(&schema, &[1])]);
+
+        // Deleted key: present with `_tombstone = true` (vs `None` from `lookup`).
+        let deleted = planner
+            .lookup_keep_tombstone(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("deleted key kept by lookup_keep_tombstone");
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&deleted), 1);
+        assert!(
+            tombstone_at(&deleted),
+            "deleted key carries _tombstone = true"
+        );
+
+        // Live key: present with `_tombstone = false`.
+        let live = planner
+            .lookup_keep_tombstone(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("live key found");
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&live), 2);
+        assert!(!tombstone_at(&live), "live key carries _tombstone = false");
+
+        // Absent key: still `None` — no fresh entry at all to distinguish.
+        assert!(
+            planner
+                .lookup_keep_tombstone(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(99))], None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "absent key has no fresh entry"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_many_keep_tombstone_includes_tombstoned_keys() {
+        // Batched variant: the tombstoned key is INCLUDED (carrying its marker),
+        // unlike `lookup_many` which omits it. id=2 deleted; 1 and 3 live.
+        let schema = pk_ts_schema();
+        let planner =
+            active_ts_planner(&[ts_real(&schema, &[1, 2, 3], "v"), ts_tomb(&schema, &[2])]);
+        let keys = vec![
+            vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))],
+            vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))],
+            vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3))],
+        ];
+        let batch = planner
+            .lookup_many_keep_tombstone(&keys, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            3,
+            "all three keys kept, including the tombstone"
+        );
+        // Exactly one row (id=2) is marked deleted.
+        let deleted: Vec<i32> = (0..batch.num_rows())
+            .map(|r| batch.slice(r, 1))
+            .filter(tombstone_at)
+            .map(|b| id_at(&b))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(deleted, vec![2], "only id=2 is marked deleted");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_tombstone_within_active_not_found() {
+        // Fast path: id=1 written then tombstoned (newer); id=2 is a control.
+        let schema = pk_ts_schema();
+        let planner = active_ts_planner(&[ts_real(&schema, &[1, 2], "v"), ts_tomb(&schema, &[1])]);
+
+        assert!(
+            planner
+                .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))], None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "deleted key must resolve to not-found, not the older real row"
+        );
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("untouched key still found");
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_tombstone_then_reinsert() {
+        // delete then re-insert the same key → the re-insert is newest.
+        let schema = pk_ts_schema();
+        let planner = active_ts_planner(&[
+            ts_real(&schema, &[1], "old"),
+            ts_tomb(&schema, &[1]),
+            ts_real(&schema, &[1], "new"),
+        ]);
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("re-inserted key must be found");
+        assert_eq!(name_at(&row), "new_1");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_tombstone_of_absent_key_is_noop() {
+        // Deleting a key that never existed is a no-op miss.
+        let schema = pk_ts_schema();
+        let planner = active_ts_planner(&[ts_real(&schema, &[1], "v"), ts_tomb(&schema, &[99])]);
+        assert!(
+            planner
+                .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(99))], None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))], None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("unrelated key unaffected");
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_tombstone_plan_path_resurrection_guard() {
+        // Force the plan path (project a system column) so the after-coalesce
+        // filter — not the fast-path short-circuit — must drop the tombstone.
+        // Real row lives in base; the newer active arm holds only its tombstone.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables;
+        let base_schema = create_pk_schema();
+        let mem_schema = pk_ts_schema();
+        let temp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(
+                &base_uri,
+                vec![create_test_batch(&base_schema, &[1, 2], "base")],
+            )
+            .await,
+        );
+        let active = active_memtable_ref(&mem_schema, &[ts_tomb(&mem_schema, &[1])], 2);
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active,
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+        let planner =
+            LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], base_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let proj = vec!["id".to_string(), "_rowid".to_string()];
+        assert!(
+            planner
+                .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))], Some(&proj))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "plan path must not fall through to the base row for a deleted key"
+        );
+        let row = planner
+            .lookup(&[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2))], Some(&proj))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("untouched base row found");
+        assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_lookup_many_skips_tombstoned_keys() {
+        // Batched lookup: a tombstoned key is omitted, others resolved.
+        let schema = pk_ts_schema();
+        let planner =
+            active_ts_planner(&[ts_real(&schema, &[1, 2, 3], "v"), ts_tomb(&schema, &[2])]);
+        let keys = [
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1)),
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(2)),
+            ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3)),
+        ];
+        let batch = planner.lookup_many(&keys, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2, "the tombstoned key is omitted");
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids(&batch), vec![1, 3]);
+    }
+
+    /// A lookup projecting a nested field still finds the row after an
+    /// unrelated column is added.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_nested_point_lookup_survives_an_unrelated_column_add() {
+        let stored_schema = create_nested_schema();
+        let mut fields = stored_schema.fields().to_vec();
+        fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new("extra", DataType::Int64, true)));
+        let evolved_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields));
+        for table_schema in [stored_schema.clone(), evolved_schema] {
+            let active = active_memtable_ref(
+                &stored_schema,
+                &[create_nested_batch(&stored_schema, &[1])],
+                1,
+            );
+            let collector =
+                LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table("memory://".to_string(), vec![])
+                    .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                        Uuid::new_v4(),
+                        crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables {
+                            active,
+                            frozen: vec![],
+                        },
+                    );
+            let planner =
+                LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], table_schema)
+                    .unwrap();
+            let row = planner
+                .lookup(
+                    &[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))],
+                    Some(&["meta.a".to_string()]),
+                )
+                .await
+                .expect("an unrelated added column must preserve a nested point lookup")
+                .expect("the row is still present");
+            assert_eq!(meta_children(&row), vec!["a"]);
+            assert_eq!(id_at(&row), 1);
+            let meta = row.column_by_name("meta").unwrap().as_struct();
+            assert_eq!(
+                meta.column_by_name("a")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>()
+                    .value(0),
+                10,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Struct children selected out of declaration order come back in the
+    /// selected order, so no child gets another child's values.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_nested_projection_keeps_selection_order() {
+        let stored_schema = create_nested_schema();
+        let mut fields = stored_schema.fields().to_vec();
+        fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new("extra", DataType::Int64, true)));
+        let evolved_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields));
+        for table_schema in [stored_schema.clone(), evolved_schema] {
+            let active = active_memtable_ref(
+                &stored_schema,
+                &[create_nested_batch(&stored_schema, &[1])],
+                1,
+            );
+            let collector =
+                LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table("memory://".to_string(), vec![])
+                    .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                        Uuid::new_v4(),
+                        crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::InMemoryMemTables {
+                            active,
+                            frozen: vec![],
+                        },
+                    );
+            let planner =
+                LsmPointLookupPlanner::new(collector, vec!["id".to_string()], table_schema)
+                    .unwrap();
+            let row = planner
+                .lookup(
+                    &[ScalarValue::Int32(Some(1))],
+                    Some(&["meta.b".to_string(), "meta.a".to_string()]),
+                )
+                .await
+                .expect("a reversed nested selection still resolves")
+                .expect("the row is still present");
+            assert_eq!(
+                meta_children(&row),
+                vec!["b", "a"],
+                "the output follows the selection, not the declaration"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/projection.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/projection.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e0f6e470712
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/projection.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,540 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Projection helpers shared by the LSM vector search, point lookup, and
+//! scan planners.
+//!
+//! `MemTableScanner::project()` only special-cases `_rowid`; passing other
+//! system columns through it errors. And cross-LSM values for system
+//! columns aren't comparable (a `_rowid` of 5 in the base and in an
+//! SSTable refer to different rows).
+//!
+//! - [`build_scanner_projection`] — strips system / `_distance` cols, appends PKs.
+//! - [`canonical_output_schema`] — final schema honoring user order; system
+//!   cols become nullable `UInt64`, `_distance` becomes nullable `Float32`.
+//! - [`project_to_canonical`] — wraps a plan to emit `target_schema`,
+//!   NULL-filling system / `_distance` cols missing from the source.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::physical_expr::PhysicalExpr;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::expressions::{CastExpr, Column, Literal};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::projection::ProjectionExec;
+use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{Schema as LanceSchema, parse_field_path};
+use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID, Result, is_system_column};
+
+use super::exec::SchemaRelabelExec;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::TOMBSTONE;
+
+/// Column name for distance in vector search results.
+pub const DISTANCE_COLUMN: &str = "_distance";
+
+/// Did the caller list `_rowid` in their projection?
+pub fn wants_row_id(projection: Option<&[String]>) -> bool {
+    projection
+        .map(|p| p.iter().any(|c| c == ROW_ID))
+        .unwrap_or(false)
+}
+
+/// Did the caller list `_rowaddr` in their projection?
+pub fn wants_row_address(projection: Option<&[String]>) -> bool {
+    projection
+        .map(|p| p.iter().any(|c| c == ROW_ADDR))
+        .unwrap_or(false)
+}
+
+/// Auto-managed by the planner; must never reach `scanner.project()`.
+pub(super) fn is_auto_managed(col: &str) -> bool {
+    col == DISTANCE_COLUMN || is_system_column(col)
+}
+
+/// Resolve projection names — dotted paths included — into the narrowed Arrow
+/// fields they select.
+///
+/// [`LanceSchema::project`] does the two things a flat name lookup cannot: it
+/// narrows a struct to the selected leaf (`meta.a` -> `meta: Struct<a>`) and
+/// merges sibling leaves of one parent into a single field (`meta.a` +
+/// `meta.c` -> `meta: Struct<a, c>`). Fields come back in first-mention order
+/// of their top-level column.
+pub(super) fn resolve_data_fields(
+    data_names: &[String],
+    base_schema: &SchemaRef,
+) -> Result<Vec<Arc<Field>>> {
+    if data_names.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+    let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(base_schema.as_ref())?;
+    let projected = lance_schema.project(data_names)?;
+    let arrow_schema = Schema::from(&projected);
+    Ok(arrow_schema.fields().iter().cloned().collect())
+}
+
+/// [`resolve_data_fields`], but skips names the schema does not have instead
+/// of failing.
+pub(super) fn resolve_data_fields_or_drop(
+    data_names: &[String],
+    base_schema: &SchemaRef,
+) -> Result<Vec<Arc<Field>>> {
+    if data_names.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+    let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(base_schema.as_ref())?;
+    let projected = lance_schema.project_or_drop(data_names)?;
+    let arrow_schema = Schema::from(&projected);
+    Ok(arrow_schema.fields().iter().cloned().collect())
+}
+
+/// Top-level column a (possibly dotted) projection name addresses.
+pub(super) fn top_level_of(name: &str) -> Result<String> {
+    parse_field_path(name)?
+        .into_iter()
+        .next()
+        .ok_or_else(|| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!("empty projection name: {}", name)))
+}
+
+/// Projection to pass to underlying scanners: user cols minus
+/// system/`_distance`, with PKs appended for dedup/staleness.
+pub fn build_scanner_projection(
+    user_projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    base_schema: &SchemaRef,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+) -> Vec<String> {
+    let mut cols: Vec<String> = if let Some(p) = user_projection {
+        p.iter().filter(|c| !is_auto_managed(c)).cloned().collect()
+    } else {
+        base_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+            .collect()
+    };
+
+    for pk in pk_columns {
+        if !cols.contains(pk) {
+            cols.push(pk.clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    cols
+}
+
+/// Validate user-facing projection names before constructing a canonical schema.
+pub fn validate_projection_names(
+    user_projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    base_schema: &SchemaRef,
+    extra_columns: &[&str],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let Some(user_projection) = user_projection else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+    let lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(base_schema.as_ref())?;
+    for name in user_projection {
+        if is_system_column(name) || extra_columns.contains(&name.as_str()) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        // `resolve` walks the dotted path and reports whether every segment
+        // exists. `project` is not a substitute: it errors on a missing
+        // top-level column but yields an empty struct for a missing *child*,
+        // so `meta.nope` would slip through.
+        if lance_schema.resolve(name.as_str()).is_none() {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column '{}' not found in schema",
+                name
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Canonical output schema honoring user column order.
+///
+/// System cols → nullable `UInt64` at user position (filled by
+/// `project_to_canonical`). `_distance` (when `include_distance`) →
+/// nullable `Float32` at user position, appended if absent. PKs appended.
+///
+/// Nested paths resolve to their narrowed struct: `meta.a` contributes
+/// `meta: Struct<a>`, and sibling leaves collapse into one field at the
+/// parent's first-mentioned position.
+pub fn canonical_output_schema(
+    user_projection: Option<&[String]>,
+    base_schema: &SchemaRef,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+    include_distance: bool,
+) -> Result<SchemaRef> {
+    let mut ordered: Vec<String> = if let Some(p) = user_projection {
+        p.to_vec()
+    } else {
+        base_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+            .collect()
+    };
+
+    for pk in pk_columns {
+        if !ordered.contains(pk) {
+            ordered.push(pk.clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    if include_distance && !ordered.iter().any(|c| c == DISTANCE_COLUMN) {
+        ordered.push(DISTANCE_COLUMN.to_string());
+    }
+
+    let data_names: Vec<String> = ordered
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|n| !is_auto_managed(n))
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    let mut by_name: HashMap<String, Arc<Field>> = resolve_data_fields(&data_names, base_schema)?
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|f| (f.name().clone(), f))
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut fields: Vec<Arc<Field>> = Vec::with_capacity(ordered.len());
+    for name in &ordered {
+        if name == DISTANCE_COLUMN {
+            if include_distance {
+                fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new(
+                    DISTANCE_COLUMN,
+                    DataType::Float32,
+                    true,
+                )));
+            }
+        } else if is_system_column(name) {
+            fields.push(Arc::new(Field::new(name.clone(), DataType::UInt64, true)));
+        } else if let Some(field) = by_name.remove(&top_level_of(name)?) {
+            // `remove` is what collapses a second mention of the same parent
+            // (`meta.a` then `meta.c`) into the single merged field.
+            fields.push(field);
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(Arc::new(Schema::new(fields)))
+}
+
+/// Wrap `plan` so the named columns become typed NULL literals; all
+/// other columns are forwarded unchanged. Schema is preserved (same
+/// fields, same dtypes). Useful for stripping the *value* of an
+/// internal column after it has served its purpose (e.g. `_rowaddr`
+/// after the per-arm local sort) without breaking downstream schema
+/// matching.
+pub fn null_columns(
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    names: &[&str],
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    let input_schema = plan.schema();
+    let mut project_exprs: Vec<(Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>, String)> =
+        Vec::with_capacity(input_schema.fields().len());
+    for (idx, field) in input_schema.fields().iter().enumerate() {
+        let name = field.name();
+        let expr: Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr> = if names.contains(&name.as_str()) {
+            Arc::new(Literal::new(
+                ScalarValue::try_from(field.data_type()).map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Cannot build NULL literal for {}: {}",
+                        field.data_type(),
+                        e
+                    ))
+                })?,
+            ))
+        } else {
+            Arc::new(Column::new(name, idx))
+        };
+        project_exprs.push((expr, name.clone()));
+    }
+    let projection_exec = ProjectionExec::try_new(project_exprs, plan).map_err(|e| {
+        lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+            "Failed to build null_columns ProjectionExec: {}",
+            e
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(projection_exec))
+}
+
+/// Force `plan` to report exactly `target_schema`; a no-op when they agree.
+///
+/// `ProjectionExec` derives its nullability from the expressions, so the
+/// storage schema's widened columns leave the WAL arms disagreeing with the
+/// base arm — which `CoalesceFirstExec` and `concat_batches` both reject.
+pub(super) fn force_schema(
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    target_schema: &SchemaRef,
+) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+    if plan.schema() == *target_schema {
+        return plan;
+    }
+    Arc::new(SchemaRelabelExec::new(plan, target_schema.clone()))
+}
+
+/// Wrap `plan` to emit exactly `target_schema`. Source columns are forwarded by
+/// name; anything the source lacks is filled with typed nulls.
+///
+/// The null fill exists for MemWAL generation arms, where a column the table
+/// declares really does hold nothing for rows written before it. Do not use it
+/// to normalise a plan whose columns should all be present: a missing column is
+/// then silently null instead of an error.
+///
+/// Reports `target_schema` exactly, nullability included — see [`force_schema`].
+pub fn project_to_canonical(
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    target_schema: &SchemaRef,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    let input_schema = plan.schema();
+    let mut project_exprs: Vec<(Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>, String)> =
+        Vec::with_capacity(target_schema.fields().len());
+    for field in target_schema.fields() {
+        let name = field.name();
+        let expr: Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr> = match input_schema.column_with_name(name) {
+            Some((idx, source)) if source.data_type() == field.data_type() => {
+                Arc::new(Column::new(name, idx))
+            }
+            // Arms reaching the union are already reconciled to the table's
+            // types, so this is the base arm meeting a canonical schema that
+            // widens one -- a cast the table itself declares.
+            Some((idx, _)) => Arc::new(CastExpr::new(
+                Arc::new(Column::new(name, idx)),
+                field.data_type().clone(),
+                None,
+            )),
+            None if is_system_column(name) => Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::UInt64(None))),
+            None if name == DISTANCE_COLUMN => Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::Float32(None))),
+            // A generation that predates deletes carries no tombstone column;
+            // its rows are all live. The column is non-nullable, so a null here
+            // fails the scan outright.
+            None if name == TOMBSTONE => Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(false)))),
+            // A source sealed before this column existed. Typed nulls are what
+            // it holds for those rows.
+            None => Arc::new(Literal::new(
+                ScalarValue::try_from(field.data_type()).map_err(|e| {
+                    lance_core::Error::internal(format!(
+                        "no null literal for column '{name}' of type {}: {e}",
+                        field.data_type()
+                    ))
+                })?,
+            )),
+        };
+        project_exprs.push((expr, name.clone()));
+    }
+    let projection_exec = ProjectionExec::try_new(project_exprs, plan).map_err(|e| {
+        lance_core::Error::internal(format!("Failed to build canonical ProjectionExec: {}", e))
+    })?;
+    Ok(force_schema(Arc::new(projection_exec), target_schema))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+    use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::test::TestMemoryExec;
+
+    fn schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("vector", DataType::Float32, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// [`schema`] as `relax_non_pk_nullability` would leave it: `id` widened.
+    fn widened_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("vector", DataType::Float32, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn plan_emitting(schema: SchemaRef) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
+        TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[vec![batch]], schema, None).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scanner_projection_strips_system_and_distance() {
+        let s = schema();
+        let pks = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let user = vec![
+            "_distance".to_string(),
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            "_rowid".to_string(),
+            "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+        ];
+        let cols = build_scanner_projection(Some(&user), &s, &pks);
+        assert_eq!(cols, vec!["vector".to_string(), "id".to_string()]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scanner_projection_default_uses_base_schema() {
+        let s = schema();
+        let pks = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let cols = build_scanner_projection(None, &s, &pks);
+        assert_eq!(
+            cols,
+            vec!["id".to_string(), "name".to_string(), "vector".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn canonical_schema_honors_user_order_for_distance() {
+        let s = schema();
+        let pks = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let user = vec!["_distance".to_string(), "vector".to_string()];
+        let out = canonical_output_schema(Some(&user), &s, &pks, true).unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = out.fields().iter().map(|f| f.name().as_str()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(names, vec!["_distance", "vector", "id"]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            out.field_with_name("_distance").unwrap().data_type(),
+            &DataType::Float32
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn canonical_schema_includes_system_cols_as_nullable_uint64() {
+        let s = schema();
+        let pks = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let user = vec![
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            "_rowid".to_string(),
+            "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+            "_rowoffset".to_string(),
+        ];
+        let out = canonical_output_schema(Some(&user), &s, &pks, false).unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = out.fields().iter().map(|f| f.name().as_str()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            names,
+            vec!["vector", "_rowid", "_rowaddr", "_rowoffset", "id"]
+        );
+        for sys in ["_rowid", "_rowaddr", "_rowoffset"] {
+            let field = out.field_with_name(sys).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(field.data_type(), &DataType::UInt64);
+            assert!(field.is_nullable(), "{sys} must be nullable for NULL fill");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn canonical_schema_appends_distance_when_missing() {
+        let s = schema();
+        let pks = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let user = vec!["vector".to_string()];
+        let out = canonical_output_schema(Some(&user), &s, &pks, true).unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = out.fields().iter().map(|f| f.name().as_str()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(names, vec!["vector", "id", "_distance"]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn canonical_schema_drops_distance_when_not_requested() {
+        let s = schema();
+        let pks = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let user = vec!["_distance".to_string(), "vector".to_string()];
+        let out = canonical_output_schema(Some(&user), &s, &pks, false).unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = out.fields().iter().map(|f| f.name().as_str()).collect();
+        // _distance dropped because include_distance=false (e.g. point lookup / scan).
+        assert_eq!(names, vec!["vector", "id"]);
+    }
+
+    /// `meta: Struct<a, b, c>` alongside flat columns.
+    fn nested_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        use arrow_schema::Fields;
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "meta",
+                DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                    Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, true),
+                    Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                    Field::new("c", DataType::Float64, true),
+                ])),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn struct_children(schema: &SchemaRef, name: &str) -> Vec<String> {
+        match schema.field_with_name(name).unwrap().data_type() {
+            DataType::Struct(fields) => fields.iter().map(|f| f.name().clone()).collect(),
+            other => panic!("{name} is not a struct: {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn canonical_schema_narrows_a_struct_to_the_selected_leaf() {
+        let s = nested_schema();
+        let pks = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let user = vec!["meta.a".to_string()];
+        let out = canonical_output_schema(Some(&user), &s, &pks, false).unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = out.fields().iter().map(|f| f.name().as_str()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(names, vec!["meta", "id"]);
+        assert_eq!(struct_children(&out, "meta"), vec!["a".to_string()]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn canonical_schema_merges_sibling_leaves_at_the_parents_position() {
+        let s = nested_schema();
+        let pks = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        // Two leaves of one parent must collapse into a single `meta` column,
+        // seated where the parent was first mentioned.
+        let user = vec!["meta.a".to_string(), "id".to_string(), "meta.c".to_string()];
+        let out = canonical_output_schema(Some(&user), &s, &pks, false).unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = out.fields().iter().map(|f| f.name().as_str()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(names, vec!["meta", "id"]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            struct_children(&out, "meta"),
+            vec!["a".to_string(), "c".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn canonical_schema_keeps_a_whole_struct_whole() {
+        let s = nested_schema();
+        let pks = vec!["id".to_string()];
+        let user = vec!["meta".to_string()];
+        let out = canonical_output_schema(Some(&user), &s, &pks, false).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            struct_children(&out, "meta"),
+            vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string(), "c".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn validate_accepts_a_nested_path_and_rejects_a_bogus_child() {
+        let s = nested_schema();
+        validate_projection_names(Some(&["meta.a".to_string()]), &s, &[]).unwrap();
+        let err = validate_projection_names(Some(&["meta.nope".to_string()]), &s, &[]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("meta.nope"),
+            "error should name the bad column, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn force_schema_leaves_a_matching_plan_alone() {
+        let plan = plan_emitting(schema());
+        let forced = force_schema(plan.clone(), &schema());
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&plan, &forced),
+            "a plan already reporting the target schema must not be wrapped"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn force_schema_relabels_a_nullability_mismatch() {
+        let forced = force_schema(plan_emitting(widened_schema()), &schema());
+        assert_eq!(forced.name(), "SchemaRelabelExec");
+        assert_eq!(forced.schema(), schema());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn project_to_canonical_reports_the_target_schema() {
+        // The ProjectionExec alone would follow its input and report `id` as
+        // nullable; the relabel is what pins the output to the target.
+        let target = schema();
+        let plan = project_to_canonical(plan_emitting(widened_schema()), &target).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.schema(), target);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/sstable_cache.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/sstable_cache.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9bb8dadcf02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/sstable_cache.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,415 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Cache of opened SSTable datasets for the LSM scanner.
+//!
+//! SSTables are written exactly once to a globally-unique,
+//! content-addressed path (see `memtable/flush.rs`): a fresh random hash per
+//! flush invocation means the same path always maps to the same immutable
+//! bytes. A cached `Arc<Dataset>` therefore can never go stale and needs no
+//! TTL or invalidation for correctness — pruning entries is a pure memory
+//! optimization driven by the consumer at compaction time.
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! query ──> open_sstable(path, session, cache)
+//!                                  │
+//!            cache.is_some() ──────┤────── cache.is_none()
+//!                  │                              │
+//!     SsTableCache::get_or_open      DatasetBuilder::from_uri
+//!     (single-flight, shared Arc)           (cold open every call)
+//! ```
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+use crate::dataset::{Dataset, DatasetBuilder};
+use crate::session::Session;
+
+/// Cache of opened SSTable datasets, keyed by resolved path.
+///
+/// SSTables live at a globally-unique, immutable path, so cached
+/// entries are never stale and require no TTL. Intended to be held by a
+/// long-lived owner (one per process or per table) and injected into
+/// per-request scanners via [`crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::LsmScanner`]
+/// (and the point-lookup / vector-search planners).
+///
+/// The key is the resolved absolute SSTable path
+/// (`{base}/_mem_wal/{shard}/{folder}`), which is globally unique, so a single
+/// cache can safely span multiple tables.
+///
+/// `store_params` is deliberately *not* part of the key: the first caller to
+/// open a path binds the store that every later hit reuses. Credential rotation
+/// still works — a vended-credential store holds the live
+/// `StorageOptionsAccessor` and re-resolves per request, so a cached handle
+/// never carries expired credentials. What this does assume is that a given
+/// path is only ever served under one store configuration. Serving one table
+/// through a single cache under two different `ObjectStoreParams` would hand
+/// every caller the store the first one opened with.
+pub struct SsTableCache {
+    // `moka`'s async cache gives a bounded size plus single-flight
+    // `try_get_with`, so concurrent first-queries on a just-flushed
+    // SSTable open the dataset exactly once. The opened dataset carries the
+    // session index cache, which also backs each generation's standalone PK
+    // dedup index (see `block_list::open_pk_index`) — no separate cache path.
+    inner: moka::future::Cache<String, Arc<Dataset>>,
+}
+
+impl SsTableCache {
+    /// Create a cache holding at most `max_entries` opened datasets.
+    ///
+    /// Eviction is size-only (no TTL): an evicted-then-re-requested generation
+    /// simply re-opens, which is always correct because the path is immutable.
+    pub fn new(max_entries: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: moka::future::Cache::builder()
+                .max_capacity(max_entries)
+                // Required for `retain_paths`: moka silently ignores
+                // `invalidate_entries_if` unless closure support is opted
+                // into at build time.
+                .support_invalidation_closures()
+                .build(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the dataset for `path`, opening it (exactly once) on a miss.
+    /// Concurrent callers share a single open via `moka`'s single-flight
+    /// `try_get_with`; hits are a pure `Arc::clone`. `session` / `store_params`
+    /// configure the open.
+    pub async fn get_or_open(
+        &self,
+        path: &str,
+        session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+        store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Dataset>> {
+        self.inner
+            .try_get_with(path.to_string(), async move {
+                let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(path);
+                if let Some(session) = session {
+                    builder = builder.with_session(session);
+                }
+                if let Some(store_params) = store_params {
+                    builder = builder.with_store_params(store_params);
+                }
+                builder.load().await.map(Arc::new)
+            })
+            .await
+            // `try_get_with` hands losing racers an `Arc<Error>`; the original
+            // error keeps full context, clones collapse to `Error::Cloned`.
+            .map_err(|e: Arc<Error>| Error::cloned(e.to_string()))
+    }
+
+    /// Drop cached entries whose path is not in `live_paths`.
+    ///
+    /// Called by the consumer after compaction retires generations. Purely a
+    /// memory optimization: stale entries are unobservable because a retired
+    /// generation's path never reappears in a shard snapshot, so correctness
+    /// never depends on this running. Invalidation is applied lazily by
+    /// `moka` during its next maintenance cycle.
+    pub fn retain_paths(&self, live_paths: &HashSet<String>) {
+        let live = live_paths.clone();
+        // The only error is exceeding moka's registered-predicate cap, which
+        // would just defer reclamation — never a correctness issue.
+        let _ = self
+            .inner
+            .invalidate_entries_if(move |path, _| !live.contains(path));
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for SsTableCache {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("SsTableCache")
+            .field("entry_count", &self.inner.entry_count())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Caching of opened SSTable datasets, keyed by immutable path. The
+/// opened dataset carries the session index cache, which also backs each
+/// generation's secondary indexes and its PK dedup sidecar (see
+/// `block_list::open_pk_index`) — so a single `get_or_open` is the
+/// whole caching surface. Implemented by [`SsTableCache`]; a
+/// [`SsTableWarmer`] composes one to warm through it, and a consumer may
+/// supply its own implementation.
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait DatasetCache: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
+    async fn get_or_open(
+        &self,
+        path: &str,
+        session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+        store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Dataset>>;
+
+    /// Drop cached entries whose path is not in `live_paths`. Async so an
+    /// implementation can evict retired generations' index objects (e.g.
+    /// `Session::invalidate_index_prefix`) without a later breaking signature
+    /// change; [`SsTableCache`]'s own eviction is synchronous.
+    async fn retain_paths(&self, live_paths: &HashSet<String>);
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl DatasetCache for SsTableCache {
+    async fn get_or_open(
+        &self,
+        path: &str,
+        session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+        store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Dataset>> {
+        Self::get_or_open(self, path, session, store_params).await
+    }
+
+    async fn retain_paths(&self, live_paths: &HashSet<String>) {
+        Self::retain_paths(self, live_paths)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Proactively warms an SSTable into the shared caches: open the
+/// dataset and pre-load its secondary indexes and PK dedup sidecar so the first
+/// query sees no cold reads. This is the **seam** the flush and read paths fire
+/// — lance defines it; the consumer (e.g. the WAL pod) implements it. `None` =>
+/// no warming, generations warm lazily on first read.
+///
+/// Everything a warmer touches is keyed by the immutable generation `path`
+/// (opened dataset, its secondary indexes, its PK dedup sidecar), so `path` is
+/// the only input it needs.
+///
+/// `warm` is fired fire-and-forget from every read path that opens a generation
+/// (all four LSM planners) as well as pre-commit on flush, so the same path may
+/// be warmed concurrently and repeatedly. Implementations **must be idempotent
+/// and cheap when the path is already warm** (e.g. dedup in-flight and
+/// completed paths) — a redundant call must not re-do work or fail.
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait SsTableWarmer: Send + Sync + std::fmt::Debug {
+    async fn warm(&self, path: &str) -> Result<()>;
+}
+
+/// Open an SSTable dataset, shared by all three LSM open sites
+/// (scan, point lookup, vector search).
+///
+/// - `cache` present: route through a [`DatasetCache`] (e.g.
+///   [`SsTableCache`]: single-flight, shared `Arc`, manifest read
+///   amortized across queries).
+/// - `cache` absent: cold open via [`DatasetBuilder`]. Passing `session`
+///   still reuses the shared index / metadata caches; `None`/`None`
+///   reproduces the original per-query cold-open behavior exactly.
+/// - `warmer` present: fire a fire-and-forget warm-on-open backstop behind the
+///   returned handle (the warmer dedups already-warm paths). `None` => no warming.
+pub async fn open_sstable(
+    path: &str,
+    session: Option<&Arc<Session>>,
+    store_params: Option<&ObjectStoreParams>,
+    cache: Option<&Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+    warmer: Option<&Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>>,
+) -> Result<Arc<Dataset>> {
+    let dataset = match cache {
+        Some(cache) => {
+            cache
+                .get_or_open(path, session.cloned(), store_params.cloned())
+                .await?
+        }
+        None => {
+            let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(path);
+            if let Some(session) = session {
+                builder = builder.with_session(session.clone());
+            }
+            if let Some(store_params) = store_params {
+                builder = builder.with_store_params(store_params.clone());
+            }
+            Arc::new(builder.load().await?)
+        }
+    };
+    if let Some(warmer) = warmer {
+        let warmer = Arc::clone(warmer);
+        let path = path.to_string();
+        tokio::spawn(async move {
+            if let Err(e) = warmer.warm(&path).await {
+                tracing::debug!(generation = %path, error = %e, "warm-on-open failed");
+            }
+        });
+    }
+    Ok(dataset)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+
+    async fn write_dataset(uri: &str, ids: &[i32]) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec()))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hit_returns_same_arc() {
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/gen_1", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        write_dataset(&uri, &[1, 2, 3]).await;
+
+        let cache = SsTableCache::new(8);
+        let first = cache.get_or_open(&uri, None, None).await.unwrap();
+        let second = cache.get_or_open(&uri, None, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &second),
+            "a cache hit must return the same Arc<Dataset>, not re-open"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(cache.inner.entry_count(), 0); // not yet flushed to count
+        cache.inner.run_pending_tasks().await;
+        assert_eq!(cache.inner.entry_count(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_get_or_open_single_flight() {
+        // moka's `try_get_with` must collapse concurrent first-queries on the
+        // same path into exactly one open. We can't count opens through the
+        // public API, so wrap the cache call: every task that observes the
+        // same returned Arc proves they shared one open.
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/gen_1", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        write_dataset(&uri, &[1, 2, 3]).await;
+
+        let cache = Arc::new(SsTableCache::new(8));
+        let calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+
+        let mut handles = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..16 {
+            let cache = cache.clone();
+            let uri = uri.clone();
+            let calls = calls.clone();
+            handles.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                cache.get_or_open(&uri, None, None).await.unwrap()
+            }));
+        }
+
+        let datasets: Vec<Arc<Dataset>> = futures::future::try_join_all(handles).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 16, "all tasks ran");
+        let first = &datasets[0];
+        for ds in &datasets {
+            assert!(
+                Arc::ptr_eq(first, ds),
+                "all concurrent callers must share one opened dataset"
+            );
+        }
+        cache.inner.run_pending_tasks().await;
+        assert_eq!(cache.inner.entry_count(), 1, "exactly one entry cached");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_retain_paths_drops_unreferenced() {
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let keep_uri = format!("{}/gen_1", base);
+        let drop_uri = format!("{}/gen_2", base);
+        write_dataset(&keep_uri, &[1]).await;
+        write_dataset(&drop_uri, &[2]).await;
+
+        let cache = SsTableCache::new(8);
+        cache.get_or_open(&keep_uri, None, None).await.unwrap();
+        cache.get_or_open(&drop_uri, None, None).await.unwrap();
+        cache.inner.run_pending_tasks().await;
+        assert_eq!(cache.inner.entry_count(), 2);
+
+        let live: HashSet<String> = [keep_uri.clone()].into_iter().collect();
+        cache.retain_paths(&live);
+        cache.inner.run_pending_tasks().await;
+
+        assert_eq!(cache.inner.entry_count(), 1, "only live path retained");
+        assert!(cache.inner.contains_key(&keep_uri));
+        assert!(!cache.inner.contains_key(&drop_uri));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_sstable_no_cache_matches_direct_open() {
+        // The `None`/`None` path must reproduce a plain cold open: same data,
+        // independent Arc per call (no caching).
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/gen_1", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        write_dataset(&uri, &[7, 8, 9]).await;
+
+        let a = open_sstable(&uri, None, None, None, None).await.unwrap();
+        let b = open_sstable(&uri, None, None, None, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !Arc::ptr_eq(&a, &b),
+            "no-cache path must cold-open each call"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(a.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+
+        // With a cache, the second call is a shared clone.
+        let cache: Arc<dyn DatasetCache> = Arc::new(SsTableCache::new(8));
+        let c = open_sstable(&uri, None, None, Some(&cache), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let d = open_sstable(&uri, None, None, Some(&cache), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&c, &d), "cached path must reuse the Arc");
+    }
+
+    /// A warmer that records calls and signals each one.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct NotifyingWarmer {
+        calls: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        notify: Arc<tokio::sync::Notify>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl SsTableWarmer for NotifyingWarmer {
+        async fn warm(&self, _path: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            self.calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            self.notify.notify_one();
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_sstable_fires_warm_on_open() {
+        // The warm-on-open backstop fires the warmer (fire-and-forget) when a
+        // generation is opened, so generations the flusher never warmed still
+        // get warmed lazily on first read.
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("{}/gen_1", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        write_dataset(&uri, &[1, 2, 3]).await;
+
+        let calls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let notify = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Notify::new());
+        let warmer: Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer> = Arc::new(NotifyingWarmer {
+            calls: calls.clone(),
+            notify: notify.clone(),
+        });
+
+        let ds = open_sstable(&uri, None, None, None, Some(&warmer))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+
+        // The warm is spawned fire-and-forget; wait (bounded) for it to run.
+        tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), notify.notified())
+            .await
+            .expect("warm-on-open must fire");
+        assert_eq!(calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 1, "warmer fired once on open");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/vector_search.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/vector_search.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..884c9b1067c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/scanner/vector_search.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,3832 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Vector search planner for LSM scanner.
+//!
+//! Provides KNN (K-Nearest Neighbors) search across LSM levels with staleness detection.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray;
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use arrow_schema::SortOptions;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::expressions::Column;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::{LexOrdering, PhysicalSortExpr};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+#[allow(deprecated)]
+use datafusion::physical_plan::coalesce_batches::CoalesceBatchesExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort_preserving_merge::SortPreservingMergeExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::union::UnionExec;
+use datafusion::prelude::Expr;
+use lance_core::datatypes::OnMissing;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::io::exec::TakeExec;
+
+use super::collector::LsmDataSourceCollector;
+use super::data_source::LsmDataSource;
+use super::generation_read::{GenerationRead, memtable_matches_table};
+use super::projection::{
+    DISTANCE_COLUMN, build_scanner_projection, canonical_output_schema, null_columns,
+    project_to_canonical, validate_projection_names, wants_row_id,
+};
+use super::sstable_cache::{DatasetCache, SsTableWarmer, open_sstable};
+use crate::session::Session;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) struct ProbeBounds {
+    pub minimum_nprobes: Option<usize>,
+    pub maximum_nprobes: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl ProbeBounds {
+    pub(super) fn exact(nprobes: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            minimum_nprobes: Some(nprobes),
+            maximum_nprobes: Some(nprobes),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Plans vector search queries over LSM data.
+///
+/// Each source is independently newest-per-PK before the union — the active
+/// memtable via exact brute-force KNN when PK rewrites or a filter require it
+/// (append-only active data can still use HNSW),
+/// SSTables via their within-generation deletion vector — and the
+/// cross-generation block-list ([`super::exec::PkBlockFilterExec`]) drops any
+/// PK superseded by a newer generation. So each PK reaches the union from
+/// exactly one source and a distance-ordered merge yields the global top-k; no
+/// cross-source dedup is needed.
+///
+/// # Query Plan Structure
+///
+/// ```text
+/// TakeExec (optional: fetch user-projected cols from base dataset)
+///   SortPreservingMergeExec: order_by=[_distance ASC], fetch=k
+///     SortExec: order_by=[_distance ASC], fetch=k          (per partition, parallel)
+///       UnionExec
+///         ProjectionExec (canonical output schema)
+///           SortExec(_distance, fetch=k)
+///               MemTableBruteForceVectorExec or VectorIndexExec: active memtable KNN
+///         ProjectionExec (canonical output schema)
+///           ProjectionExec (null_columns _rowid)
+///             PkBlockFilterExec: block-list                   (SSTable)
+///               KNNExec: SSTable gen N, fetch=ceil(k*overfetch) (fast_search)
+///         … one per SSTable gen …
+///         ProjectionExec (canonical output schema)
+///           PkBlockFilterExec: block-list                     (base)
+///             KNNExec: base table, k (fast_search)[.refine()?]
+/// ```
+///
+/// # Index-Only Search (fast_search)
+///
+/// For base table and SSTables we use `fast_search()` to only
+/// search indexed data. This is correct because:
+/// - Each SSTable has its own vector index built during flush.
+/// - The active memtable covers any unindexed data.
+/// - Searching unindexed data in base/SSTable would be redundant.
+pub struct LsmVectorSearchPlanner {
+    /// Data source collector.
+    collector: LsmDataSourceCollector,
+    /// Primary key column names (used by within-source dedup and block-list).
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    /// Schema of the base table.
+    base_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// The same schema with each field's id, which resolves a generation's
+    /// stored columns to the table's.
+    identity_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Vector column name.
+    vector_column: String,
+    /// Distance metric type (L2, Cosine, Dot, etc.).
+    distance_type: lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType,
+    /// Base dataset for the post-rerank take: after the cross-source distance
+    /// merge, `TakeExec` materializes user-projected columns that weren't in
+    /// the per-source KNN output. Memtable rows already carry all columns;
+    /// the take only fetches additional data for base rows (real `_rowid`).
+    dataset: Option<Arc<Dataset>>,
+    /// Session threaded into SSTable opens (shared caches).
+    session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+    /// Store params for opening SSTables, reusing the base dataset's store.
+    store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+    /// Cache of opened SSTable datasets.
+    sstable_cache: Option<Arc<dyn DatasetCache>>,
+    /// Optional warmer fired on first open of an SSTable.
+    warmer: Option<Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>>,
+    /// Optional prefilter predicate applied to every source arm before its KNN
+    /// search, so rows failing the predicate never enter the top-k. Base and
+    /// SSTable arms use the dataset scanner's native prefilter; memtable arms
+    /// route to a filtered brute-force scan.
+    filter: Option<Expr>,
+    /// Optional `lower <= _distance < upper` bound, applied inside every source
+    /// arm's KNN so an out-of-range row never consumes a top-k slot.
+    distance_range: (Option<f32>, Option<f32>),
+    /// Optional HNSW search-list size, forwarded to every arm. It bites on the
+    /// HNSW-backed ones — the active memtable's graph and each flushed
+    /// generation's `IVF_HNSW_SQ` — and is ignored by an arm whose index is not
+    /// a graph. `None` leaves each arm at its own default.
+    ef: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl LsmVectorSearchPlanner {
+    /// Create a new planner.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `collector` - Data source collector
+    /// * `pk_columns` - Primary key column names
+    /// * `base_schema` - Schema of the base table
+    /// * `vector_column` - Name of the vector column to search
+    /// * `distance_type` - Distance metric (L2, Cosine, etc.)
+    pub fn new(
+        collector: LsmDataSourceCollector,
+        pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+        base_schema: SchemaRef,
+        vector_column: String,
+        distance_type: lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            collector,
+            pk_columns,
+            identity_schema: base_schema.clone(),
+            base_schema,
+            vector_column,
+            distance_type,
+            dataset: None,
+            session: None,
+            store_params: None,
+            sstable_cache: None,
+            warmer: None,
+            filter: None,
+            distance_range: (None, None),
+            ef: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Attach an optional prefilter predicate. Every source arm restricts its
+    /// KNN to rows matching the predicate (true prefilter), so results match a
+    /// normal filtered vector scan over base ∪ SSTables ∪ in-memory data.
+    pub fn with_filter(mut self, filter: Option<Expr>) -> Self {
+        self.filter = filter;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Attach an optional distance range, `lower <= _distance < upper` — the
+    /// same half-open semantics as [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::distance_range`].
+    /// Every source arm applies it before its own top-k cut, so an out-of-range
+    /// row can't displace an in-range one.
+    pub fn with_distance_range(mut self, lower: Option<f32>, upper: Option<f32>) -> Self {
+        self.distance_range = (lower, upper);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the HNSW search-list size — the fresh tier's recall/latency knob.
+    ///
+    /// Not `nprobes`: flushed generations are written as single-partition IVF
+    /// and the memtable graph has no partitions at all, so a probe count has
+    /// nothing to probe on the fresh tier. `ef` is what widens the search.
+    pub fn with_ef(mut self, ef: Option<usize>) -> Self {
+        self.ef = ef;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// The table's schema carrying each field's id, which is what resolves a
+    /// generation's stored columns to the table's.
+    ///
+    /// Defaults to the base schema, so a caller that has no ids to give is
+    /// matched by name as it was.
+    pub fn with_identity_schema(mut self, schema: SchemaRef) -> Self {
+        self.identity_schema = schema;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the session used to open SSTables.
+    pub fn with_session(mut self, session: Arc<Session>) -> Self {
+        self.session = Some(session);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the store params used to open SSTables.
+    pub fn with_store_params(mut self, store_params: ObjectStoreParams) -> Self {
+        self.store_params = Some(store_params);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject a cache of opened SSTable datasets, making repeated
+    /// searches against the same generation a pure `Arc::clone`.
+    pub fn with_sstable_cache(mut self, cache: Arc<dyn DatasetCache>) -> Self {
+        self.sstable_cache = Some(cache);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Inject the warmer fired on first open of an SSTable.
+    pub fn with_warmer(mut self, warmer: Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>) -> Self {
+        self.warmer = Some(warmer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the base dataset for post-rerank take.
+    ///
+    /// After global PK dedup and sort, a `TakeExec` against this dataset
+    /// materializes any user-projected columns that were not part of the
+    /// per-source KNN output. This is necessary because per-source KNN
+    /// only returns the columns needed for dedup and ranking; the take
+    /// step fetches the full user projection for the final top-k rows.
+    pub fn with_dataset(mut self, dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Self {
+        self.dataset = Some(dataset);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Create a vector search plan.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `query_vector` - Query vector for KNN search
+    /// * `k` - Number of nearest neighbors to return
+    /// * `nprobes` - Exact number of IVF partitions to search (for IVF-based indexes)
+    /// * `projection` - Columns to include in output (None = all columns)
+    /// * `refine_base_table` - When true, the base-table arm re-ranks its
+    ///   candidates with exact distances (refine factor 1). Useful when the base
+    ///   table uses an approximate index (IVF-PQ) so cross-source distance
+    ///   comparison is exact. Memtable arms already use exact distances and
+    ///   never need refine. Auto-enabled whenever stale filtering is on (see
+    ///   below).
+    /// * `overfetch_factor` - Controls how aggressively sources over-fetch to
+    ///   backfill the rows dropped by stale-row filtering. Values below `1.0`
+    ///   are rejected; stale filtering is always enabled.
+    ///
+    ///   - `factor == 1.0`: **stale filtering on, no over-fetch.** Each source
+    ///     that has superseded rows fetches exactly `k` candidates, drops the
+    ///     stale ones, and may therefore return fewer than `k` live rows.
+    ///   - `factor > 1.0`: **stale filtering on, with over-fetch.** Such a source
+    ///     fetches `ceil(k * factor)` candidates so that dropping the stale ones
+    ///     still leaves `k` live rows for the merge.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// An execution plan that returns the top-K nearest neighbors across all
+    /// LSM levels, with stale results filtered out.
+    pub async fn plan_search(
+        &self,
+        query_vector: &FixedSizeListArray,
+        k: usize,
+        nprobes: usize,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        refine_base_table: bool,
+        overfetch_factor: f64,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if nprobes == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("nprobes must be positive".to_string()));
+        }
+        self.plan_search_with_probe_bounds(
+            query_vector,
+            k,
+            ProbeBounds::exact(nprobes),
+            projection,
+            refine_base_table,
+            overfetch_factor,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "lsm_vector_search", level = "info", skip_all, fields(k, minimum_nprobes = ?probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes, maximum_nprobes = ?probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes, vector_column = %self.vector_column, distance_type = ?self.distance_type))]
+    pub(super) async fn plan_search_with_probe_bounds(
+        &self,
+        query_vector: &FixedSizeListArray,
+        k: usize,
+        probe_bounds: ProbeBounds,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        refine_base_table: bool,
+        overfetch_factor: f64,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if k == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("k must be positive".to_string()));
+        }
+        if probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes == Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "minimum_nprobes must be positive".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes == Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "maximum_nprobes must be positive".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let (Some(minimum_nprobes), Some(maximum_nprobes)) =
+            (probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes, probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes)
+            && minimum_nprobes > maximum_nprobes
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "minimum_nprobes ({minimum_nprobes}) must not exceed maximum_nprobes ({maximum_nprobes})"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let sources = self.collector.collect()?;
+        validate_projection_names(projection, &self.base_schema, &[DISTANCE_COLUMN])?;
+        // The block-list is the sole cross-generation dedup mechanism, so it
+        // runs unconditionally; `overfetch_factor` only tunes the over-fetch
+        // multiple for blocked sources.
+        let overfetch_factor = super::validate_overfetch_factor(overfetch_factor)?;
+
+        if sources.is_empty() {
+            return self.empty_plan(projection);
+        }
+
+        // Per-source PK block sets (`NEWER(G)`; base = union of all gens).
+        // `Box::pin` keeps the future off `clippy::large_futures`.
+        let block_lists = Box::pin(super::block_list::compute_source_block_lists(
+            &sources,
+            self.session.as_ref(),
+            self.store_params.as_ref(),
+            self.sstable_cache.as_ref(),
+        ))
+        .await?;
+
+        let canonical_schema = canonical_output_schema(
+            projection,
+            &self.base_schema,
+            &self.pk_columns,
+            true, // include _distance — KNN always produces it
+        )?;
+
+        // Refine the base table when explicitly requested, or whenever the base
+        // is blocked (it then over-fetches its approximate-index candidates, so
+        // distances must be re-ranked to exact before the cross-source merge).
+        // `block_lists` is non-empty exactly when a newer generation exists.
+        let refine_base = refine_base_table || !block_lists.is_empty();
+
+        // Stage per-source over-fetch decisions, then build every KNN plan
+        // concurrently — the builds are independent and a sequential loop was
+        // the dominant serial planning cost at multiple generations.
+        let arm_inputs: Vec<_> = sources
+            .iter()
+            .map(|source| {
+                let generation = source.generation();
+                let is_base = matches!(source, LsmDataSource::BaseTable { .. });
+                let is_active = matches!(source, LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable { .. });
+                // Over-fetch when the post-source block-list can drop
+                // candidates. Active memtable PK recency is handled inside the
+                // exact brute-force exec before top-k, so it does not need
+                // source over-fetch.
+                let blocked = block_lists.get(&(source.shard_id(), generation));
+                let fetch_k = if blocked.is_some() && !self.pk_columns.is_empty() {
+                    ((k as f64) * overfetch_factor).ceil() as usize
+                } else {
+                    k
+                };
+                (source, is_base, is_active, blocked, fetch_k)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        // Type-erased, not merely boxed: the `Send` proof recurses through a
+        // boxed future's concrete type but stops at a trait object, and an arm
+        // resolves a generation's schema before it searches.
+        let built = futures::future::try_join_all(arm_inputs.iter().map(
+            |(source, is_base, _, _, fetch_k)| {
+                let arm: futures::future::BoxFuture<'_, Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> =
+                    Box::pin(self.build_knn_plan(
+                        source,
+                        query_vector,
+                        *fetch_k,
+                        probe_bounds,
+                        projection,
+                        *is_base && refine_base,
+                    ));
+                arm
+            },
+        ))
+        .await?;
+
+        let mut knn_plans = Vec::new();
+        for ((_, is_base, _, blocked, _), knn) in arm_inputs.iter().zip(built) {
+            let is_base = *is_base;
+            let blocked = *blocked;
+            // Make each source independently newest-per-PK before the union:
+            //  * active: append-only memtables can use HNSW directly; once a
+            //    PK rewrite is observed, `MemTableBruteForceVectorExec` drops
+            //    superseded versions before the top-k cut.
+            //  * SSTable/base: drop cross-gen superseded rows via the
+            //    block-list (within-gen is handled by the SSTable DV).
+            let knn = match blocked {
+                Some(_) if self.pk_columns.is_empty() => knn,
+                Some(set) => Arc::new(super::exec::PkBlockFilterExec::new(
+                    knn,
+                    self.pk_columns.clone(),
+                    set.clone(),
+                    k,
+                )) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+                None => knn,
+            };
+            // Lance's `fast_search()` and the active scan both produce a
+            // per-source `_rowid` that would collide with base row ids in the
+            // canonical output, so NULL it on non-base arms. The base arm keeps
+            // its real `_rowid` to drive the post-rerank take.
+            let after_null = if is_base {
+                knn
+            } else {
+                null_columns(knn, &[lance_core::ROW_ID])?
+            };
+            // Normalize each source to the canonical output schema.
+            let normalized = project_to_canonical(after_null, &canonical_schema)?;
+            knn_plans.push(normalized);
+        }
+
+        // No cross-source dedup needed (see struct doc): SortExec(per partition)
+        // + SortPreservingMerge does the p-way distance-ordered top-k merge.
+        // The downstream `SortPreservingMergeExec` already spawns one driver
+        // task per input partition (one per union arm) via `spawn_buffered`, so
+        // each arm's per-arm CPU (HNSW search, distance refine) runs on its own
+        // task without an extra repartition.
+        let merged = UnionExec::try_new(knn_plans)?;
+
+        let distance_idx = merged.schema().index_of(DISTANCE_COLUMN).map_err(|_| {
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column '{}' not found in schema",
+                DISTANCE_COLUMN
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        let sort_expr = vec![PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: Arc::new(Column::new(DISTANCE_COLUMN, distance_idx)),
+            options: SortOptions {
+                descending: false,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            },
+        }];
+
+        let lex_ordering = LexOrdering::new(sort_expr).ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal("Failed to create LexOrdering".to_string())
+        })?;
+
+        // Sort each partition's candidates in parallel, capped at k via `with_fetch`
+        // so each partition early-terminates instead of materializing every candidate
+        // into a global sort. SortPreservingMergeExec then does a p-way heap merge of
+        // the pre-sorted streams (also capped at k), producing the final top-k.
+        // This avoids serializing the merge on a single thread and pushes the k-limit
+        // into per-partition work, where it actually helps.
+        //
+        // `with_preserve_partitioning(true)` is load-bearing: without it, SortExec
+        // declares it needs a SinglePartition input but doesn't coalesce on its own —
+        // execute(0) silently reads only partition 0 of the union and drops the rest.
+        let per_partition_sorted: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(
+            SortExec::new(lex_ordering.clone(), merged)
+                .with_preserve_partitioning(true)
+                .with_fetch(Some(k)),
+        );
+        let merged_sorted: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(
+            SortPreservingMergeExec::new(lex_ordering, per_partition_sorted).with_fetch(Some(k)),
+        );
+
+        // After global rerank, take any user-projected columns that the
+        // per-source KNN didn't return. This fetches from the base dataset
+        // using `_rowid`; memtable rows (NULL `_rowid`) already carry all
+        // their data so the take is a no-op for them.
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        let result = if let Some(dataset) = &self.dataset {
+            let cols = build_scanner_projection(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns);
+            let output_projection = dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(cols, OnMissing::Ignore)?;
+            let coalesced: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+                Arc::new(CoalesceBatchesExec::new(merged_sorted.clone(), 8192));
+            if let Some(take_plan) =
+                TakeExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), coalesced, output_projection)?
+            {
+                Arc::new(take_plan) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>
+            } else {
+                merged_sorted
+            }
+        } else {
+            merged_sorted
+        };
+
+        // Under-fetch is warned per-source inside `PkBlockFilterExec`.
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+
+    /// Build KNN plan for a single data source.
+    ///
+    async fn build_knn_plan(
+        &self,
+        source: &LsmDataSource,
+        query_vector: &FixedSizeListArray,
+        k: usize,
+        probe_bounds: ProbeBounds,
+        projection: Option<&[String]>,
+        refine: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match source {
+            LsmDataSource::BaseTable { dataset } => {
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+                let cols =
+                    build_scanner_projection(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns);
+                // Resolve against the *source* schema so a nested path narrows the
+                // struct rather than flattening it; expressions cannot express a
+                // partial nested projection, only a schema can.
+                scanner.project_with_schema(&dataset.schema().project(&cols)?)?;
+                if let Some(ref filter) = self.filter {
+                    // Native scanner prefilter: the ANN runs over rows matching
+                    // the predicate, so the top-k holds only matching rows.
+                    // `prefilter(true)` is required — without it the scanner
+                    // post-filters the unfiltered top-k, dropping matching rows
+                    // that ranked below non-matching ones.
+                    scanner.filter_expr(filter.clone());
+                    scanner.prefilter(true);
+                }
+                // Only the base produces a meaningful `_rowid`. `_rowaddr`
+                // can't be combined with `fast_search()` — the IVF index
+                // doesn't preserve it and `TakeExec` refuses to insert it
+                // post-search — so it stays NULL across all arms.
+                if wants_row_id(projection) {
+                    scanner.with_row_id();
+                }
+                let query_arr = single_query_array(query_vector);
+                scanner.nearest(&self.vector_column, query_arr.as_ref(), k)?;
+                scanner.distance_range(self.distance_range.0, self.distance_range.1);
+                if let Some(minimum_nprobes) = probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes {
+                    scanner.minimum_nprobes(minimum_nprobes);
+                }
+                if let Some(maximum_nprobes) = probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes {
+                    scanner.maximum_nprobes(maximum_nprobes);
+                }
+                scanner.distance_metric(self.distance_type);
+                if let Some(ef) = self.ef {
+                    scanner.ef(ef);
+                }
+                // Memtables cover unindexed rows; only search indexed data here.
+                scanner.fast_search();
+                // Re-rank base candidates with exact distances so they're
+                // directly comparable to memtable distances in the merge.
+                if refine {
+                    scanner.refine(1);
+                }
+                scanner.create_plan().await
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::SsTable { path, .. } => {
+                let dataset = open_sstable(
+                    path,
+                    self.session.as_ref(),
+                    self.store_params.as_ref(),
+                    self.sstable_cache.as_ref(),
+                    self.warmer.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+                // Asked of this generation under its own names: a rename moved
+                // the table's name while the file still holds the old one, so
+                // projecting the table's names would ask for a column that is
+                // not there.
+                let asked_for =
+                    build_scanner_projection(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns);
+                let mut generation = GenerationRead::new(
+                    dataset.schema(),
+                    &self.identity_schema,
+                    &self.pk_columns,
+                    asked_for,
+                );
+                // The index is on this generation's own column, under the name
+                // it had when the generation was sealed.
+                let Some(vector_column) = generation.stored_name(&self.vector_column) else {
+                    // The table dropped the column the search names, so this
+                    // generation has no candidates to offer.
+                    return self.empty_plan(projection);
+                };
+                let vector_column = vector_column.to_string();
+                // A predicate this generation cannot answer as written runs
+                // above the reconciliation, where the columns it names exist.
+                let (stored_filter, above) = generation.split_filter(self.filter.as_ref());
+                // Resolve against the *source* schema so a nested path narrows the
+                // struct rather than flattening it; expressions cannot express a
+                // partial nested projection, only a schema can.
+                scanner.project_with_schema(
+                    &dataset.schema().project(&generation.stored_projection())?,
+                )?;
+                if let Some(ref stored) = stored_filter {
+                    // See the base arm: `prefilter(true)` makes this a true
+                    // prefilter rather than a lossy post-filter on the top-k.
+                    scanner.filter_expr(stored.clone());
+                    scanner.prefilter(true);
+                }
+                // No `with_row_id/address`: per-source IDs would collide with base.
+                let query_arr = single_query_array(query_vector);
+                // A predicate that could not be pushed down runs above the
+                // reconciliation, which is after the search has chosen its
+                // top-k. Cutting to `k` first would drop rows that pass the
+                // predicate behind rows that do not, so this arm does not cut:
+                // it ranks everything it holds and lets the filter, and then
+                // the union's own top-k, decide. Only a generation the
+                // predicate cannot be translated against pays for this.
+                let k = match above {
+                    None => k,
+                    Some(_) => {
+                        let all = Box::pin(dataset.count_rows(None)).await?.max(1);
+                        // Logged because it is invisible otherwise: the query
+                        // is correct and simply slow, and the cause -- one
+                        // column this generation cannot be asked about under
+                        // its current name -- cannot be read off the query. It
+                        // clears when compaction folds the generation into base.
+                        log::warn!(
+                            "mem_wal vector search: ranking all {all} rows of a generation                              because a predicate could not be translated against it;                              requested k was {k}"
+                        );
+                        all
+                    }
+                };
+                scanner.nearest(&vector_column, query_arr.as_ref(), k)?;
+                scanner.distance_range(self.distance_range.0, self.distance_range.1);
+                if let Some(minimum_nprobes) = probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes {
+                    scanner.minimum_nprobes(minimum_nprobes);
+                }
+                if let Some(maximum_nprobes) = probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes {
+                    scanner.maximum_nprobes(maximum_nprobes);
+                }
+                scanner.distance_metric(self.distance_type);
+                if let Some(ef) = self.ef {
+                    scanner.ef(ef);
+                }
+                scanner.fast_search();
+                // Boxed for the reason the scan planner's arm gives: a
+                // generation resolves its own schema before scanning, and
+                // the inlined future is too deep for the `Send` proof.
+                generation.reconcile_above(Box::pin(scanner.create_plan()).await?, &above)
+            }
+            LsmDataSource::ActiveMemTable {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store,
+                schema,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                use crate::dataset::mem_wal::memtable::scanner::MemTableScanner;
+
+                let mut scanner =
+                    MemTableScanner::new(batch_store.clone(), index_store.clone(), schema.clone());
+                // PK auto-included so the staleness filter retains its bloom hash key.
+                let cols =
+                    build_scanner_projection(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns);
+
+                // A memtable created before a schema change uses old column names.
+                let mut generation =
+                    (!memtable_matches_table(schema, &self.identity_schema)).then(|| {
+                        GenerationRead::for_memtable(
+                            schema,
+                            &self.identity_schema,
+                            &self.pk_columns,
+                            cols.clone(),
+                        )
+                    });
+                let vector_column = match &generation {
+                    Some(generation) => match generation.stored_name(&self.vector_column) {
+                        Some(stored) => stored.to_string(),
+                        // Created before the searched column existed: no candidates.
+                        None => return self.empty_plan(projection),
+                    },
+                    None => self.vector_column.clone(),
+                };
+                let (stored_filter, above) = match &mut generation {
+                    Some(generation) => generation.split_filter(self.filter.as_ref()),
+                    None => (self.filter.clone(), None),
+                };
+
+                // Supply PKs so the memtable scanner can choose HNSW for
+                // append-only data and exact newest-before-top-k search when
+                // PK rewrites or filters make stale suppression necessary.
+                match &generation {
+                    Some(generation) => {
+                        scanner.with_pk_columns(generation.stored_pk_columns()?);
+                        scanner.project(&generation.stored_projection())?;
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        scanner.with_pk_columns(self.pk_columns.clone());
+                        scanner.project(&cols.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect::<Vec<_>>())?;
+                    }
+                }
+                if let Some(stored) = stored_filter {
+                    // Routed to filtered brute-force (see `plan_vector_search`):
+                    // the predicate masks rows before the memtable top-k cut.
+                    scanner.filter_expr(stored);
+                }
+                // A filter applied after the scan would run after the top-k cut,
+                // so search every row exactly and let the filter cut instead.
+                let k = match above {
+                    None => k,
+                    Some(_) => {
+                        scanner.use_index(false);
+                        batch_store.total_rows().max(1)
+                    }
+                };
+                scanner.nearest(&vector_column, query_vector, k)?;
+                scanner.distance_range(self.distance_range.0, self.distance_range.1);
+                if let Some(minimum_nprobes) = probe_bounds.minimum_nprobes {
+                    scanner.minimum_nprobes(minimum_nprobes);
+                }
+                if let Some(maximum_nprobes) = probe_bounds.maximum_nprobes {
+                    scanner.maximum_nprobes(maximum_nprobes);
+                }
+                scanner.distance_metric(self.distance_type);
+                if let Some(ef) = self.ef {
+                    scanner.ef(ef);
+                }
+                let plan = Box::pin(scanner.create_plan()).await?;
+                match generation {
+                    Some(generation) => generation.reconcile_above(plan, &above),
+                    None => Ok(plan),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create an empty execution plan with the canonical KNN output schema.
+    fn empty_plan(&self, projection: Option<&[String]>) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::empty::EmptyExec;
+
+        let schema =
+            canonical_output_schema(projection, &self.base_schema, &self.pk_columns, true)?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(schema)))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert a (typically single-row) FixedSizeList query into the array shape
+/// `Scanner::nearest` expects:
+///
+/// - 1 row → the inner Float32Array (single-vector query). Passing the FSL
+///   directly would make the scanner treat it as a multivector query and
+///   reject it on a non-multivector column.
+/// - >1 row → the FSL itself (multivector query path).
+fn single_query_array(query_vector: &FixedSizeListArray) -> arrow_array::ArrayRef {
+    use arrow_array::Array;
+    if query_vector.len() == 1 {
+        query_vector.value(0)
+    } else {
+        std::sync::Arc::new(query_vector.clone()) as arrow_array::ArrayRef
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        BooleanArray, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, builder::FixedSizeListBuilder,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    fn create_vector_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
+
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                // Use nullable=true to match what FixedSizeListBuilder produces
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn create_vector_tombstone_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
+
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new(crate::dataset::mem_wal::TOMBSTONE, DataType::Boolean, false),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn create_query_vector() -> FixedSizeListArray {
+        use arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder;
+
+        let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        builder.values().append_value(0.1);
+        builder.values().append_value(0.2);
+        builder.values().append_value(0.3);
+        builder.values().append_value(0.4);
+        builder.append(true);
+
+        builder.finish()
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder;
+
+        let mut vector_builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for id in ids {
+            let base = *id as f32 * 0.1;
+            vector_builder.values().append_value(base);
+            vector_builder.values().append_value(base + 0.1);
+            vector_builder.values().append_value(base + 0.2);
+            vector_builder.values().append_value(base + 0.3);
+            vector_builder.append(true);
+        }
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(vector_builder.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// One row with an explicit `(id, vector)` — unlike [`create_test_batch`],
+    /// the vector is not derived from `id`, so the same PK can carry different
+    /// vectors across generations (an update / move-out-of-neighborhood).
+    fn create_id_vector_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, id: i32, vector: [f32; 4]) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder;
+        let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for v in vector {
+            builder.values().append_value(v);
+        }
+        builder.append(true);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![id])),
+                Arc::new(builder.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn tombstone_vector_batch(
+        schema: &ArrowSchema,
+        rows: &[(i32, Option<[f32; 4]>, bool)],
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder;
+
+        let mut vector_builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for (_, vector, _) in rows {
+            if let Some(vector) = vector {
+                for value in vector {
+                    vector_builder.values().append_value(*value);
+                }
+                vector_builder.append(true);
+            } else {
+                for _ in 0..4 {
+                    vector_builder.values().append_null();
+                }
+                vector_builder.append(false);
+            }
+        }
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = rows.iter().map(|(id, _, _)| *id).collect();
+        let tombstones: Vec<bool> = rows.iter().map(|(_, _, tombstone)| *tombstone).collect();
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(vector_builder.finish()),
+                Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(tombstones)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn create_dataset(uri: &str, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let has_id = schema.column_with_name("id").is_some();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Also write the standalone PK sidecar (on `id`) so an SSTable
+        // source can be probed by the block-list (harmless for a base table).
+        if has_id {
+            crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::block_list::write_pk_sidecar(uri, &batches, &["id"])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_plan_structure() {
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3]);
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]);
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema.clone(),
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner.plan_search(&query, 10, 8, None, false, 1.0).await;
+
+        // Plan construction must succeed. Execution against empty data is a
+        // separate concern handled by integration tests.
+        plan.expect("planner should produce a plan even when memtables are empty");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_validates_k_and_nprobes() {
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3]);
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]);
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 0, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("k must be positive"),
+            "expected k validation error, got {err}"
+        );
+
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 1, 0, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("nprobes must be positive"),
+            "expected nprobes validation error, got {err}"
+        );
+
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search_with_probe_bounds(
+                &query,
+                1,
+                ProbeBounds {
+                    minimum_nprobes: None,
+                    maximum_nprobes: Some(0),
+                },
+                None,
+                false,
+                1.0,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("maximum_nprobes must be positive"),
+            "expected maximum_nprobes validation error, got {err}"
+        );
+
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search_with_probe_bounds(
+                &query,
+                1,
+                ProbeBounds {
+                    minimum_nprobes: Some(2),
+                    maximum_nprobes: Some(1),
+                },
+                None,
+                false,
+                1.0,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("minimum_nprobes (2) must not exceed maximum_nprobes (1)"),
+            "expected probe-bound ordering error, got {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_projection_includes_pk() {
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1]);
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]);
+
+        let _planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema.clone(),
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        // Project only "vector" - should also include "id" for staleness detection
+        let cols =
+            build_scanner_projection(Some(&["vector".to_string()]), &schema, &["id".to_string()]);
+
+        assert!(cols.contains(&"vector".to_string()));
+        assert!(cols.contains(&"id".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    /// `ef` is the fresh tier's only meaningful recall knob — its arms are
+    /// HNSW-backed, and probe counts have nothing to probe here. Before
+    /// `with_ef` the planner had no way to express it at all, so every
+    /// fresh-tier search ran at the graph default while the base arm honored
+    /// whatever the caller asked for.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn with_ef_reaches_the_memtable_arm() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_dataset =
+            Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[10, 20])]).await);
+
+        let build_planner = || {
+            let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+            let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+            index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+            index_store.add_hnsw(
+                "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "vector".to_string(),
+                lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+                64,
+                8,
+            );
+            let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4]);
+            batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+            index_store
+                .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+                .unwrap();
+            let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset.clone(), vec![])
+                .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                    uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                    InMemoryMemTables {
+                        active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                            batch_store,
+                            index_store: Arc::new(index_store),
+                            schema: schema.clone(),
+                            generation: 1,
+                        },
+                        frozen: vec![],
+                    },
+                );
+            LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+                collector,
+                vec!["id".to_string()],
+                schema.clone(),
+                "vector".to_string(),
+                lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let render = |plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>| {
+            format!(
+                "{}",
+                datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(false)
+            )
+        };
+
+        let defaulted = render(
+            build_planner()
+                .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !defaulted.contains("ef="),
+            "unset ef must leave each arm at its own default: {defaulted}"
+        );
+
+        let widened = render(
+            build_planner()
+                .with_ef(Some(97))
+                .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert!(
+            widened.contains("ef=97"),
+            "with_ef must reach the memtable HNSW arm: {widened}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_base_plus_active_returns_distance() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[10, 20, 30]);
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        // Active memtable with HNSW index over the "vector" column.
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard_id,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a plan");
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert!(total > 0, "expected at least one result row");
+
+        let out_schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let out_cols: Vec<String> = out_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            out_schema.field_with_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN).is_ok(),
+            "output schema is missing `_distance` column. Got: {:?}",
+            out_cols
+        );
+        // Internal columns must not leak: `_rowid` (added by Lance's fast_search
+        // in the base/SSTable arms) and `_memtable_gen` (added by the LSM merge
+        // when bloom filters are present) are bookkeeping, not API.
+        assert!(
+            out_schema.field_with_name("_rowid").is_err(),
+            "`_rowid` leaked into output: {:?}",
+            out_cols
+        );
+        assert!(
+            out_schema
+                .field_with_name(super::super::exec::MEMTABLE_GEN_COLUMN)
+                .is_err(),
+            "`_memtable_gen` leaked into output: {:?}",
+            out_cols
+        );
+
+        // The nearest neighbor to the query vector should be id=1 (exact match),
+        // and its `_distance` must be ~0 — verifying both the column is present
+        // and the values are correct.
+        let id_col = batches[0]
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .expect("id column missing")
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .expect("id column should be Int32");
+        let dist_col = batches[0]
+            .column_by_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN)
+            .expect("_distance column missing")
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
+            .expect("_distance column should be Float32");
+        assert_eq!(id_col.value(0), 1, "expected id=1 as nearest neighbor");
+        assert!(
+            dist_col.value(0).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "expected near-zero distance for self-match, got {}",
+            dist_col.value(0)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_active_tombstone_masks_base_hit() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let base_schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let mem_schema = create_vector_tombstone_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let q = [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4];
+        let near = [0.12, 0.22, 0.32, 0.42];
+
+        let mut base_dataset = create_dataset(
+            &base_uri,
+            vec![batch_rows(&base_schema, &[(1, q), (2, near)])],
+        )
+        .await;
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2);
+        base_dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(base_dataset);
+
+        let active_tombstone = tombstone_vector_batch(&mem_schema, &[(1, None, true)]);
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(active_tombstone.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_tombstone, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: mem_schema,
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            base_schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 1, 1, None, false, 2.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, SessionContext::new().task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let rows = collect_id_dist(&batches);
+
+        assert_eq!(rows.len(), 1, "expected one backfilled hit, got {rows:?}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows[0].0, 2,
+            "active tombstone for id=1 must block the older base vector hit; got {rows:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A prefilter on a vector search must restrict the KNN to rows matching the
+    /// predicate, even though the nearest (and second-nearest) rows fail it. The
+    /// active memtable has an HNSW index, but a filtered search routes to the
+    /// brute-force arm, which masks rows before the top-k cut.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_prefilter_restricts_to_matching_rows() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::{SessionContext, col, lit};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        // Base rows are far from the query and unindexed, so `fast_search`
+        // contributes nothing; the test isolates the memtable prefilter.
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[100, 200])]).await,
+        );
+
+        // Active memtable with ids 0..=3 (id=1 is the exact match, id=0 ties id=2).
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[0, 1, 2, 3]);
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        // `id >= 2` excludes the two nearest rows (id=1 exact, id=0 tie).
+        .with_filter(Some(col("id").gt_eq(lit(2i32))));
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 10, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered plan");
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Only id=2 and id=3 satisfy `id >= 2`; the nearer id=0/id=1 are excluded.
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids.first().copied(),
+            Some(2),
+            "nearest matching row is id=2"
+        );
+        let mut sorted = ids.clone();
+        sorted.sort();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sorted,
+            vec![2, 3],
+            "prefilter must drop id=0 and id=1 (nearer but failing `id >= 2`)"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `distance_range` must bound the search itself, not its result.
+    ///
+    /// Vectors are `id -> [id*0.1, ..]` and the query is id=1's vector, so L2^2
+    /// distances are id=1: 0.0, id=0 and id=2: 0.04, id=3: 0.16, id=4: 0.36.
+    ///
+    /// The lower-bound probe is the sharp one. It excludes the *nearest* rows,
+    /// which `VectorIndexExec` cannot honor: its HNSW search cuts to k first, so
+    /// a `k = 2` search returns id=1 and id=0/id=2 and the bound then drops both,
+    /// yielding nothing. Only the brute-force arm — which filters the complete
+    /// candidate set before its cut — gets this right, so a lower bound must
+    /// route there (see `MemTableScanner::plan_vector_search`). Regression for
+    /// that routing guard.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_distance_range_bounds_the_search() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        // Base rows are far and unindexed, so `fast_search` contributes nothing;
+        // the test isolates the memtable arms.
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[100, 200])]).await,
+        );
+
+        let build_collector = || {
+            let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+            let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+            index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+            // An HNSW index must exist, or the arm falls back to brute force for
+            // an unrelated reason and the routing guard goes untested.
+            index_store.add_hnsw(
+                "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "vector".to_string(),
+                lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+                64,
+                8,
+            );
+            let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+            batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+            index_store
+                .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+                .unwrap();
+            LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset.clone(), vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store: Arc::new(index_store),
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            )
+        };
+
+        let run = async |lower: Option<f32>, upper: Option<f32>, k: usize| -> Vec<i32> {
+            let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+                build_collector(),
+                vec!["id".to_string()],
+                schema.clone(),
+                "vector".to_string(),
+                lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            )
+            .with_distance_range(lower, upper);
+            let plan = planner
+                .plan_search(&create_query_vector(), k, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+                .await
+                .expect("planner should produce a bounded plan");
+            let stream = plan.execute(0, SessionContext::new().task_ctx()).unwrap();
+            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+            let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+            for b in &batches {
+                let col = b
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                    ids.push(col.value(i));
+                }
+            }
+            ids.sort();
+            ids
+        };
+
+        // `_distance >= 0.1` keeps only id=3 (0.16) and id=4 (0.36). A top-k cut
+        // taken before the bound would have returned id=1/id=0/id=2 and then
+        // filtered them all away, leaving nothing.
+        assert_eq!(
+            run(Some(0.1), None, 2).await,
+            vec![3, 4],
+            "a lower bound must restrict the search: the two nearest in-range \
+             rows are id=3 and id=4, not an empty result"
+        );
+
+        // `_distance < 0.1` keeps id=0, id=1, id=2. Safe on the HNSW arm — it
+        // trims the far tail the top-k would have dropped anyway.
+        assert_eq!(
+            run(None, Some(0.1), 10).await,
+            vec![0, 1, 2],
+            "an upper bound must drop id=3 (0.16) and id=4 (0.36)"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_filtered_active_without_pk_keeps_all_matching_rows() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::{SessionContext, col, lit};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(
+            create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[100, 200])]).await,
+        );
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3]);
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec![],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        .with_filter(Some(col("id").gt_eq(lit(1i32))));
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered active plan");
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 2, 3],
+            "no-PK filtered active vector search must not collapse all rows into one key"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The *base* arm must apply the filter as a true prefilter, not a
+    /// post-filter on the unfiltered top-k. The base is vector-indexed (so
+    /// `fast_search` uses the index); the two rows nearest the query (id=1, id=2)
+    /// fail the predicate while matching rows (id>=3) are farther. Without
+    /// `scanner.prefilter(true)` the base arm runs the ANN unfiltered, takes the
+    /// top-`k`, then post-filters — dropping every row. A true prefilter restricts
+    /// the ANN to matching rows. Regression for a missing base-arm `prefilter(true)`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_base_prefilter_is_not_a_lossy_postfilter() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use datafusion::prelude::{SessionContext, col, lit};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        // L2 distance to the query grows monotonically with id (id=1 is the exact
+        // match), so the two nearest rows are id=1, id=2 — both excluded by `id>=3`.
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]);
+        let mut base_dataset = create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await;
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2);
+        base_dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(base_dataset);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset.clone(), vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        .with_dataset(base_dataset)
+        // Keeps only id>=3, the *farther* matches. A post-filter on the
+        // unfiltered top-2 (id=1, id=2) would drop everything.
+        .with_filter(Some(col("id").gt_eq(lit(3i32))));
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 2, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered base plan");
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let col = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                ids.push(col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids.first().copied(),
+            Some(3),
+            "nearest matching base row is id=3; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+        let mut sorted = ids.clone();
+        sorted.sort();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sorted,
+            vec![3, 4],
+            "base prefilter must return the two nearest matches (id=3, id=4), not \
+             post-filter the unfiltered top-2 (id=1, id=2) down to nothing; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The SSTable arm must also apply the filter as a true prefilter, and that
+    /// prefiltered candidate set must compose with cross-generation block-list
+    /// filtering plus over-fetch. Gen 1's closest predicate-matching row (id=3)
+    /// is superseded by gen 2; with over-fetch, gen 1 should still contribute
+    /// the next live predicate match (id=4).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_sstable_prefilter_composes_with_block_list() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use datafusion::prelude::{SessionContext, col, lit};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2);
+
+        let q = [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4];
+        let near = [0.12, 0.22, 0.32, 0.42];
+        let far = [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0];
+
+        // Gen 1: id=1 is nearest but fails the predicate. id=3 passes but is
+        // stale (blocked by gen 2). id=4 is the next live predicate match.
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let mut gen1 = create_dataset(
+            &gen1_uri,
+            vec![batch_rows(&schema, &[(1, q), (3, q), (4, near)])],
+        )
+        .await;
+        gen1.create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Gen 2: newer id=3 shadows gen 1's close copy but is far from query.
+        let gen2_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_2", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let mut gen2 = create_dataset(&gen2_uri, vec![batch_rows(&schema, &[(3, far)])]).await;
+        gen2.create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(3)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string())
+            .with_sstable(2, "gen_2".to_string());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![snapshot]);
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        .with_filter(Some(col("id").gt_eq(lit(3i32))));
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 1, 1, None, false, 2.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let rows = collect_id_dist(&batches);
+
+        assert_eq!(rows.len(), 1, "expected one result, got {:?}", rows);
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows[0].0, 4,
+            "SSTable prefilter should return live id=4 after stale id=3 is blocked; got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An in-memtable update whose *newest* version fails the prefilter must
+    /// exclude the PK entirely, not leak the stale older version that still
+    /// passes. Regression for filter-before-dedup on the active arm: the filter
+    /// is evaluated against the newest version of each PK.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_prefilter_excludes_pk_whose_newest_version_fails() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+        use datafusion::prelude::{SessionContext, col, lit};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let mut id_meta = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                false,
+            ),
+            Field::new("status", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        // Same PK id=5 appended twice (an in-memtable update): row0 "active"
+        // (passes), row1 "archived" (the current version, fails the filter). Both
+        // vectors are near the query.
+        let make_batch = |statuses: &[&str]| -> RecordBatch {
+            let mut vb = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+            for _ in statuses {
+                for d in 0..4 {
+                    vb.values().append_value(0.1 + d as f32 * 0.1);
+                }
+                vb.append(true);
+            }
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![5; statuses.len()])),
+                    Arc::new(vb.finish()),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(statuses.to_vec())),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Base is unindexed, so `fast_search` contributes nothing; the test
+        // isolates the active-memtable dedup-before-filter behavior. Use a
+        // non-conflicting id to avoid any PK confusion.
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let mut fb = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for d in 0..4 {
+            fb.values().append_value(100.0 + d as f32);
+        }
+        fb.append(true);
+        let far = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![999])),
+                Arc::new(fb.finish()),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["active"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![far]).await);
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let batch = make_batch(&["active", "archived"]);
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        .with_filter(Some(col("status").eq(lit("active"))));
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 10, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered plan");
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(
+            total, 0,
+            "pk=5's current version is 'archived' and must be excluded; a stale \
+             'active' older version must not leak (filter evaluated on newest)"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Cross-arm stale rows must be blocked even if the newer active row fails
+    /// the prefilter. The base copy of pk=5 matches `status = 'active'`, but the
+    /// newer active copy is `archived`; pk=5 must be absent from the result.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_prefilter_blocks_base_when_active_newest_fails() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+        use datafusion::prelude::{SessionContext, col, lit};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let mut id_meta = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        id_meta.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_meta),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                false,
+            ),
+            Field::new("status", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let make_batch = |rows: &[(i32, [f32; 4], &str)]| -> RecordBatch {
+            let mut vectors = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+            for (_, vector, _) in rows {
+                for value in vector {
+                    vectors.values().append_value(*value);
+                }
+                vectors.append(true);
+            }
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(
+                        rows.iter().map(|(id, _, _)| *id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )),
+                    Arc::new(vectors.finish()),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                        rows.iter()
+                            .map(|(_, _, status)| *status)
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let query = [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4];
+        let fallback = [0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5];
+
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = make_batch(&[(5, query, "active"), (6, fallback, "active")]);
+        let mut base_dataset = create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await;
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2);
+        base_dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(base_dataset);
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            16,
+            4,
+        );
+        let active_batch = make_batch(&[(5, query, "archived")]);
+        batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset.clone(), vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        .with_dataset(base_dataset)
+        .with_filter(Some(col("status").eq(lit("active"))));
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 10, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a filtered base+active plan");
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = collect_id_dist(&batches)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(id, _)| id)
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![6],
+            "base pk=5 passes the filter but is superseded by active archived pk=5; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cross_gen_stale_version_blocked_by_newer_memtable() {
+        // A PK updated ACROSS a freeze boundary: its old (near) version lives in
+        // a frozen memtable, its new (far) version in the active one. Both are
+        // in-memory `ActiveMemTable` sources, so each gets only a per-generation
+        // recency filter (`NewestPkFilterExec`) — which can't see the newer gen.
+        // The cross-generation block-list is the only thing that can drop the
+        // stale near copy; if the active arm discards it, the frozen near version
+        // leaks as a phantom near-neighbor. This is the residual wallop fuzz
+        // delete/update phantom: the cluster constantly freezes memtables
+        // (flush_interval ~250ms), so an insert and its later delete/update split
+        // across in-memory generations.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        // Base seed far from the query; id=1 is not in the base.
+        let base_dataset =
+            Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![create_test_batch(&schema, &[99])]).await);
+
+        // One in-memory memtable holding `id` at `vector`, with a PK + HNSW index.
+        let make_gen = |id: i32, vector: [f32; 4], generation: u64| {
+            let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+            let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+            index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+            index_store.add_hnsw(
+                "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+                1,
+                "vector".to_string(),
+                lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+                64,
+                8,
+            );
+            let batch = create_id_vector_batch(&schema, id, vector);
+            batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+            index_store
+                .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+                .unwrap();
+            InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                batch_store,
+                index_store: Arc::new(index_store),
+                schema: schema.clone(),
+                generation,
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Frozen gen=1: id=1 @ the query vector (distance ~0).
+        let frozen = make_gen(1, [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4], 1);
+        // Active gen=2: id=1 moved FAR — the newest version of the PK.
+        let active = make_gen(1, [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0], 2);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard_id,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active,
+                frozen: vec![frozen],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a plan");
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+            .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut id1_distances = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let ids = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let dist = b
+                .column_by_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                if ids.value(i) == 1 {
+                    id1_distances.push(dist.value(i));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // id=1 must surface at most once, and only at its NEWEST (far) distance —
+        // never the stale near ~0 copy the frozen generation still indexes.
+        assert!(
+            id1_distances.len() <= 1,
+            "id=1 leaked its stale frozen copy (appears {} times): {id1_distances:?}",
+            id1_distances.len()
+        );
+        if let Some(d) = id1_distances.first() {
+            assert!(
+                *d > 1.0,
+                "id=1 surfaced at the stale near distance {d}; its newest version is far"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_with_projection_returns_distance_and_pk() {
+        // Regression for: active arm previously did NOT call `build_projection_for_knn`,
+        // so when the caller passed `projection=Some([...])`, the active arm's output
+        // dropped the PK column (and the staleness/dedup pipeline lost its hash input).
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[10]);
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard_id,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        // Caller asks for ONLY "vector"; PK "id" must still be in output because
+        // canonical_output_schema auto-includes it.
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let projection = vec!["vector".to_string()];
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, Some(&projection), false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a plan");
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert!(total > 0, "expected at least one result row");
+
+        let out_schema = batches[0].schema();
+        assert!(
+            out_schema.field_with_name("id").is_ok(),
+            "PK column `id` should be auto-included even when user projects only `vector`"
+        );
+        assert!(out_schema.field_with_name("vector").is_ok());
+        assert!(out_schema.field_with_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_projection_with_explicit_distance_and_rowid() {
+        // Regression: `_distance` / `_rowid` in projection must not break
+        // the plan. `_distance` honored at requested position (no
+        // duplication); `_rowid` honored as nullable.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[10]);
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard_id,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        // Caller explicitly puts `_distance` and `_rowid` in projection.
+        let projection = vec![
+            "_distance".to_string(),
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            "_rowid".to_string(),
+        ];
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, Some(&projection), false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect(
+                "planner must accept `_distance`/`_rowid` in projection without breaking the plan",
+            );
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan
+            .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+            .expect("plan must execute when `_distance`/`_rowid` are in projection");
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert!(total > 0, "expected at least one result row");
+
+        let out_schema = batches[0].schema();
+        // `_distance` must appear exactly once — auto-managed, never duplicated.
+        let distance_count = out_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| f.name() == DISTANCE_COLUMN)
+            .count();
+        assert_eq!(
+            distance_count,
+            1,
+            "`_distance` must appear exactly once in output, got schema: {:?}",
+            out_schema
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        // User columns are still present.
+        assert!(out_schema.field_with_name("vector").is_ok());
+        // PK auto-included for staleness detection.
+        assert!(out_schema.field_with_name("id").is_ok());
+        // Top hit comes from the active memtable. Active-arm `_rowid` is
+        // NULL by design (BatchStore position, not a Lance row id). Real
+        // `_rowid` is only produced for base-table rows.
+        assert!(out_schema.field_with_name("_rowid").is_ok());
+        let rowid = batches[0].column_by_name("_rowid").unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            rowid.is_null(0),
+            "active-memtable `_rowid` must be NULL (not a real Lance row id), got: {:?}",
+            rowid
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_strips_internal_columns_and_preserves_active_rows() {
+        // Two regressions in one test:
+        // (1) The plan must not leak internal columns (`_memtable_gen`,
+        //     `_freshness`) into the user-visible output.
+        // (2) Active-memtable rows must reach the output — the UnionExec puts
+        //     them in non-zero partitions, and any downstream node that only
+        //     reads partition 0 would silently drop them.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[10]);
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await);
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard_id,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a plan");
+
+        // Each arm is independently newest-per-PK (active append-only data can
+        // use HNSW directly; rewritten active data falls back to exact search)
+        // and the block-list handles cross-gen, merged by a distance SPM. No
+        // global PK dedup or source tag node is involved.
+        let plan_str = format!(
+            "{}",
+            datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("LsmGlobalPkDedupExec") && !plan_str.contains("LsmSourceTagExec"),
+            "vector plan must not contain a global PK dedup or source tag node, got:\n{}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("VectorIndexExec") && plan_str.contains("SortPreservingMergeExec"),
+            "expected append-only active HNSW + distance merge, got:\n{}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert!(total > 0, "expected at least one result row");
+
+        let out_schema = batches[0].schema();
+        assert!(out_schema.field_with_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN).is_ok());
+        for internal in [super::super::exec::MEMTABLE_GEN_COLUMN, "_freshness"] {
+            assert!(
+                out_schema.field_with_name(internal).is_err(),
+                "`{}` leaked into output: {:?}",
+                internal,
+                out_schema
+                    .fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        // (2) Active-memtable rows must survive: the union emits base as
+        // partition 0 and the active memtable as partition 1+. The active
+        // memtable holds ids 1..=4; the base holds id 10. At least one id in
+        // 1..=4 must appear, otherwise the SortPreservingMerge dropped the
+        // non-zero partitions.
+        let mut all_ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let id_col = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .expect("id column missing")
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .expect("id column should be Int32");
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                all_ids.push(id_col.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(
+            all_ids.iter().any(|&id| (1..=4).contains(&id)),
+            "expected at least one active-memtable row (id in 1..=4) — none found, so \
+             active partitions were silently dropped. Got ids: {:?}",
+            all_ids
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_dedup_across_generations() {
+        // Regression: same primary key inserted into two sources (older
+        // SSTable gen and newer active memtable) with different vectors.
+        // Without the cross-source PK dedup the older SSTable row would
+        // still appear in top-k. The newer-generation row must win.
+        //
+        // We simulate a "SSTable gen 1" by writing a tiny Lance dataset
+        // under {base_uri}/_mem_wal/{shard}/gen_1 and pointing the
+        // collector at it. Real flush would reverse-write, but for this
+        // test we only have one row in the SSTable gen so order is moot.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_path = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", base_path);
+
+        // SSTable gen 1 holds an older version of pk=1 with a "wrong" vector.
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let old_pk1 = create_test_batch_with_vector(&schema, 1, [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0]);
+        create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![old_pk1]).await;
+
+        // Active memtable holds the newer version of pk=1 with the
+        // "right" vector close to the query, plus an unrelated pk=2.
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let new_pk1 = create_test_batch_with_vector(&schema, 1, [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4]);
+        let other = create_test_batch_with_vector(&schema, 2, [5.0, 5.0, 5.0, 5.0]);
+        let (_, _, bp1) = batch_store.append(new_pk1.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&new_pk1, 0, Some(bp1))
+            .unwrap();
+        let (_, _, bp2) = batch_store.append(other.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&other, 1, Some(bp2))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![shard_snapshot])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 2,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 5, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let pk1_count = ids.iter().filter(|i| **i == 1).count();
+        assert_eq!(
+            pk1_count, 1,
+            "pk=1 must appear exactly once in the merged top-k; got ids={:?}",
+            ids,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_system_columns_real_only_for_base() {
+        // Covers three properties of the per-source system columns:
+        //   1. base-hit `_rowid`/`_rowaddr` carry real values
+        //   2. SSTable arm runs without erroring
+        //   3. `_rowaddr` symmetry with `_rowid` (same code path, both are
+        //      surfaced when requested and NULL'd outside the base arm)
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        // Base: id=1 (vector closest to query). Index it so fast_search
+        // returns it.
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[1]);
+        let mut base_dataset = create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await;
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2);
+        base_dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(base_dataset);
+
+        // SSTable: id=2 (a separate Lance dataset under
+        // {base_uri}/_mem_wal/{shard}/gen_1) with its own vector index.
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let gen1_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[2]);
+        let mut gen1_dataset = create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![gen1_batch]).await;
+        gen1_dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Active memtable: id=3 with HNSW index.
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let active_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, &[3]);
+        batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(2)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string());
+
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![shard_snapshot])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 2,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        // Project both system columns alongside data columns.
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let projection = vec![
+            "id".to_string(),
+            "_rowid".to_string(),
+            "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+            "vector".to_string(),
+        ];
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, Some(&projection), false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a plan");
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        // Top-3 over 3 ids, one per source. All should appear.
+        assert_eq!(total, 3, "expected one row per source");
+
+        // Group by id → (rowid_null, rowaddr_null).
+        let mut seen: std::collections::HashMap<i32, (bool, bool)> =
+            std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let rowid = batch.column_by_name("_rowid").unwrap();
+            let rowaddr = batch.column_by_name("_rowaddr").unwrap();
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                seen.insert(ids.value(i), (rowid.is_null(i), rowaddr.is_null(i)));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // id=1 (base): `_rowid` real (the index produces it). `_rowaddr` is
+        // always NULL across vector_search — Lance's `fast_search()` can't
+        // be combined with `with_row_address()`.
+        let (rid_null, raddr_null) = seen.get(&1).expect("base row id=1 missing");
+        assert!(
+            !rid_null,
+            "base row `_rowid` must be real (Lance row id), got NULL"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            raddr_null,
+            "`_rowaddr` is incompatible with vector_search's fast_search; must be NULL"
+        );
+
+        // id=2 (SSTable): both NULL — per-source values would collide with base.
+        let (rid_null, raddr_null) = seen.get(&2).expect("SSTable row id=2 missing");
+        assert!(rid_null, "SSTable row `_rowid` must be NULL");
+        assert!(raddr_null, "SSTable row `_rowaddr` must be NULL");
+
+        // id=3 (active): both NULL — BatchStore position is not a Lance row id.
+        let (rid_null, raddr_null) = seen.get(&3).expect("active row id=3 missing");
+        assert!(rid_null, "active row `_rowid` must be NULL");
+        assert!(raddr_null, "active row `_rowaddr` must be NULL");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_empty_plan_with_system_columns() {
+        // Test 5 (vector_search slice): with no sources, the empty plan
+        // must still expose user-requested system columns at the requested
+        // position, plus `_distance` (always-on for KNN).
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let projection = vec![
+            "_rowid".to_string(),
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+        ];
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 5, 1, Some(&projection), false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("empty plan must accept system columns in projection");
+
+        let names: Vec<String> = plan
+            .schema()
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            names,
+            vec![
+                "_rowid".to_string(),
+                "vector".to_string(),
+                "_rowaddr".to_string(),
+                "id".to_string(),        // PK auto-appended
+                "_distance".to_string(), // always-on for KNN
+            ],
+            "empty KNN plan must honor user position for system cols and append PK + _distance"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_rejects_missing_projection_column() {
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let projection = vec!["missing".to_string()];
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 5, 1, Some(&projection), false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing"),
+            "unexpected missing-column projection error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_without_base_table() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        // No base dataset written. Plan construction must still succeed and
+        // exclude any base-table scan node.
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![]);
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 10, 8, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .expect("planner should produce a plan without a base table");
+
+        let plan_str = format!(
+            "{}",
+            datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("base/data"),
+            "Plan must not scan base table, got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        // Execute the plan so runtime issues (schema mismatches, missing
+        // sources, etc.) surface here rather than at the call site.
+        let ctx = datafusion::prelude::SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan
+            .execute(0, ctx.task_ctx())
+            .expect("plan should execute without a base table");
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .expect("collecting batches should succeed");
+        let total: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 0, "fresh tier with no sources should yield no rows");
+    }
+
+    /// Build a single-row batch with an explicit (id, vector) so tests can
+    /// pin the within-source dedup against same-PK / different-vector
+    /// inputs.
+    fn create_test_batch_with_vector(
+        schema: &ArrowSchema,
+        id: i32,
+        vector: [f32; 4],
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder;
+
+        let mut vector_builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for v in &vector {
+            vector_builder.values().append_value(*v);
+        }
+        vector_builder.append(true);
+        let vector_array = vector_builder.finish();
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![id])), Arc::new(vector_array)],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_dedup_within_active_memtable() {
+        // Regression: same PK inserted twice into one active memtable with
+        // *different* vectors. The exact active search must consider only the
+        // newest version of each PK before top-k. The newer insert must win.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+
+        // Two rows with pk=1, different vectors. b_new (last insert) is the
+        // newer version that the LSM contract says should win.
+        let b_old = create_test_batch_with_vector(&schema, 1, [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0]);
+        let b_new = create_test_batch_with_vector(&schema, 1, [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4]);
+        // An unrelated row so top-k has more than one PK to choose from.
+        let b_other = create_test_batch_with_vector(&schema, 2, [5.0, 5.0, 5.0, 5.0]);
+
+        let (_, _, bp_old) = batch_store.append(b_old.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b_old, 0, Some(bp_old))
+            .unwrap();
+        let (_, _, bp_new) = batch_store.append(b_new.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b_new, 1, Some(bp_new))
+            .unwrap();
+        let (_, _, bp_other) = batch_store.append(b_other.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b_other, 2, Some(bp_other))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        // Query is exactly the *newer* vector for pk=1. The exact active
+        // memtable arm should dedup before top-k so pk=1 appears exactly once.
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 5, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The active arm uses exact brute force when PK recency is configured;
+        // there is no cross-source dedup fallback.
+        let plan_str = format!(
+            "{}",
+            datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("MemTableBruteForceVectorExec"),
+            "active vector arm must use exact brute-force PK recency, got:\n{}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let pk1_count = ids.iter().filter(|i| **i == 1).count();
+        assert_eq!(
+            pk1_count, 1,
+            "pk=1 must appear exactly once after within-source dedup; got ids={:?}",
+            ids,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_active_stale_update_out_of_neighborhood() {
+        // BUG REPRODUCTION (vector case: a PK update that moves out of the neighborhood).
+        //
+        // Within a *single* active memtable, pk=1 is first inserted ON the query
+        // (distance ~0), then updated to a FAR vector. Exact brute force must
+        // compute newest-per-PK over the whole memtable before top-k, so the
+        // stale near row is dropped even though the fresh row is far away.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+
+        // First append: stale pk=1 ON the query, plus five filler rows strictly
+        // farther than pk=1 but far nearer than the eventual fresh pk=1.
+        let q = [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4];
+        let stale_then_fillers = batch_rows(
+            &schema,
+            &[
+                (1, q),
+                (10, [0.11, 0.21, 0.31, 0.41]),
+                (11, [0.13, 0.23, 0.33, 0.43]),
+                (12, [0.15, 0.25, 0.35, 0.45]),
+                (13, [0.17, 0.27, 0.37, 0.47]),
+                (14, [0.19, 0.29, 0.39, 0.49]),
+            ],
+        );
+        let (bp0, off0, _) = batch_store.append(stale_then_fillers.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&stale_then_fillers, off0, Some(bp0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Second append: the UPDATE — pk=1 moved far from the query. This is the
+        // newest version (largest row position) but it sits well outside top-k.
+        let fresh_pk1 = batch_rows(&schema, &[(1, [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0])]);
+        let (bp1, off1, _) = batch_store.append(fresh_pk1.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&fresh_pk1, off1, Some(bp1))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        // k=3, no over-fetch: exact active search still computes
+        // newest-per-PK across the whole memtable before top-k, so stale
+        // pk1@near cannot leak even though fresh pk1@far ranks 7th by distance.
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let rows = collect_id_dist(&batches);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows.len(),
+            3,
+            "active PK recency filtering must not underfill k after dropping stale candidates; \
+             results={:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !rows.iter().any(|&(id, d)| id == 1 && d.abs() < 1e-3),
+            "stale near pk=1 leaked: its live vector is far from the query, so it \
+             must not appear at distance ~0. results={:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_stale_read_when_fresh_falls_out_of_top_k() {
+        // Regression for the cross-generation stale-read gap that the
+        // PkBlockFilterExec block-list closes.
+        //
+        // Scenario:
+        //   * Base (gen 0): stale pk=1 sitting on the query (distance ~0).
+        //   * Active (gen 1): pk=1 updated to a far vector, plus pk=2 closer
+        //     to the query than fresh pk=1. With k=1 the active arm surfaces
+        //     pk=2 and drops fresh pk=1, so without the block-list the stale
+        //     base copy of pk=1 wins top-1.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        // Base table (gen 0): the stale copy of pk=1 sits exactly on the query.
+        let base_batch = create_test_batch_with_vector(&schema, 1, [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4]);
+        let mut base_dataset = create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await;
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2);
+        base_dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(base_dataset);
+
+        // Active memtable (gen 1): pk=1 updated to a far vector, plus a pk=2
+        // that is closer to the query than fresh pk=1 — so with k=1 the
+        // active arm surfaces pk=2 and drops fresh pk=1.
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let fresh_pk1 = create_test_batch_with_vector(&schema, 1, [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0]);
+        let pk2 = create_test_batch_with_vector(&schema, 2, [1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0]);
+        let (_, _, bp1) = batch_store.append(fresh_pk1.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&fresh_pk1, 0, Some(bp1))
+            .unwrap();
+        let (_, _, bp2) = batch_store.append(pk2.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&pk2, 1, Some(bp2))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard_id,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 1, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut rows: Vec<(i32, f32)> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let ids = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let dist = b
+                .column_by_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                rows.push((ids.value(i), dist.value(i)));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // pk=1 was updated to a far vector; it must never be served at the
+        // stale ~0 distance of the superseded base-table copy.
+        assert!(
+            rows.iter().all(|&(id, d)| !(id == 1 && d.abs() < 1e-3)),
+            "stale read: pk=1 was updated to a far vector in gen 1, but the \
+             stale base-table copy (distance ~0) was served because fresh \
+             pk=1 fell out of the active arm's top-k and never deduped it; \
+             got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+        // Positive check: with the stale copy suppressed, the nearest *live*
+        // neighbor is pk=2 — the top-1 result, not an empty or dropped-everything
+        // result.
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows.len(),
+            1,
+            "k=1 must return exactly one row, got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows[0].0, 2,
+            "expected nearest live neighbor pk=2, got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+
+        // The block-list is unconditional and cannot be disabled via
+        // overfetch_factor; invalid sub-1.0 values are rejected instead.
+        let err = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 1, 1, None, false, 0.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("overfetch_factor"),
+            "unexpected error for invalid overfetch factor: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Build a multi-row (id, vector) batch with explicit vectors, so a test can
+    /// place some rows on the query and others nearby.
+    fn batch_rows(schema: &ArrowSchema, rows: &[(i32, [f32; 4])]) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder;
+        let mut vb = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for (_, v) in rows {
+            for x in v {
+                vb.values().append_value(*x);
+            }
+            vb.append(true);
+        }
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = rows.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)), Arc::new(vb.finish())],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Collect (id, distance) pairs from a KNN result stream.
+    fn collect_id_dist(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Vec<(i32, f32)> {
+        let mut rows = Vec::new();
+        for b in batches {
+            let ids = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let dist = b
+                .column_by_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                rows.push((ids.value(i), dist.value(i)));
+            }
+        }
+        rows
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_overfetch_backfills_when_top_k_all_stale() {
+        // A source whose entire top-k is stale must still yield k live results
+        // from its next-nearest rows: the over-fetch backfills the dropped rows.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        // Base (gen 0): pk 1,2,3 sit ON the query (stale); pk 4,5,6 are nearby
+        // and live. The nearest 3 base rows are all about to be superseded.
+        let q = [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4];
+        let near = [0.12, 0.22, 0.32, 0.42];
+        let base_batch = batch_rows(
+            &schema,
+            &[(1, q), (2, q), (3, q), (4, near), (5, near), (6, near)],
+        );
+        let mut base_dataset = create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await;
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2);
+        base_dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(base_dataset);
+
+        // Active (gen 1): pk 1,2,3 re-inserted with a far vector (the fresh value).
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let far = [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0];
+        let active_batch = batch_rows(&schema, &[(1, far), (2, far), (3, far)]);
+        let (_, _, bp) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(bp))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard_id,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        // Over-fetch (2.5x) so the post-filter can backfill the all-stale top-k.
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 3, 1, None, false, 2.5)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let rows = collect_id_dist(&batches);
+
+        // No under-fill: still exactly k=3 rows, the next-nearest live ones.
+        assert_eq!(rows.len(), 3, "expected k=3 live results, got {:?}", rows);
+        let ids: std::collections::HashSet<i32> = rows.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            std::collections::HashSet::from([4, 5, 6]),
+            "expected the next-nearest live rows {{4,5,6}}, got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+        // No stale read: no pk in 1..=3 served at the superseded ~0 distance.
+        assert!(
+            rows.iter()
+                .all(|&(id, d)| !((1..=3).contains(&id) && d.abs() < 1e-3)),
+            "stale read: a superseded base row was served; got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_sstable_superseded_by_newer_sstable() {
+        // An older SSTable's stale row must be suppressed by a newer
+        // SSTable (cross-SSTable blocking, no base/active involved).
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::data_source::ShardSnapshot;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2);
+
+        let q = [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4];
+        let far = [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0];
+        let near = [0.12, 0.22, 0.32, 0.42];
+
+        // gen 1 (older): stale pk=1 sitting on the query.
+        let gen1_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_1", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let mut gen1 = create_dataset(&gen1_uri, vec![batch_rows(&schema, &[(1, q)])]).await;
+        gen1.create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // gen 2 (newer): fresh pk=1 (far) + an unrelated nearby pk=2.
+        let gen2_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/gen_2", base_uri, shard_id);
+        let mut gen2 =
+            create_dataset(&gen2_uri, vec![batch_rows(&schema, &[(1, far), (2, near)])]).await;
+        gen2.create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(3)
+            .with_sstable(1, "gen_1".to_string())
+            .with_sstable(2, "gen_2".to_string());
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![snapshot]);
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 1, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let rows = collect_id_dist(&batches);
+
+        // gen1's stale pk=1 (distance ~0) is blocked by gen2; the nearest live
+        // neighbor is the unrelated pk=2.
+        assert_eq!(rows.len(), 1, "expected one result, got {:?}", rows);
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows[0].0, 2,
+            "expected nearest live row pk=2, got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn create_multicol_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id1", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("id2", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn multicol_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, rows: &[((i32, i32), [f32; 4])]) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder;
+        let mut vb = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+        for (_, v) in rows {
+            for x in v {
+                vb.values().append_value(*x);
+            }
+            vb.append(true);
+        }
+        let id1: Vec<i32> = rows.iter().map(|((a, _), _)| *a).collect();
+        let id2: Vec<i32> = rows.iter().map(|((_, b), _)| *b).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(id1)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(id2)),
+                Arc::new(vb.finish()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_stale_read_with_composite_pk() {
+        // The block-list must key on the full composite PK: a base row updated in
+        // the active memtable (matched on (id1,id2)) must be suppressed.
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let schema = create_multicol_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let q = [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4];
+        let far = [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0];
+        let near = [0.12, 0.22, 0.32, 0.42];
+
+        // Base: composite pk (1,1) on the query (stale).
+        let base_batch = multicol_batch(&schema, &[((1, 1), q)]);
+        let mut base_dataset = create_dataset(&base_uri, vec![base_batch]).await;
+        let ivf_flat = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2);
+        base_dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &ivf_flat, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let base_dataset = Arc::new(base_dataset);
+
+        // Active: (1,1) re-inserted far (fresh) + an unrelated nearby (2,2).
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id1".to_string(), 0), ("id2".to_string(), 1)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        let active_batch = multicol_batch(&schema, &[((1, 1), far), ((2, 2), near)]);
+        let (_, _, bp) = batch_store.append(active_batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&active_batch, 0, Some(bp))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::new(base_dataset, vec![]).with_in_memory_memtables(
+            shard_id,
+            InMemoryMemTables {
+                active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                    batch_store,
+                    index_store,
+                    schema: schema.clone(),
+                    generation: 1,
+                },
+                frozen: vec![],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id1".to_string(), "id2".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 1, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        // The stale composite-key (1,1) at distance ~0 must not be served; the
+        // nearest live neighbor is (2,2).
+        let mut rows: Vec<(i32, i32, f32)> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let id1 = b
+                .column_by_name("id1")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let id2 = b
+                .column_by_name("id2")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let dist = b
+                .column_by_name(DISTANCE_COLUMN)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Float32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..b.num_rows() {
+                rows.push((id1.value(i), id2.value(i), dist.value(i)));
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(rows.len(), 1, "expected one result, got {:?}", rows);
+        assert_eq!(
+            (rows[0].0, rows[0].1),
+            (2, 2),
+            "expected nearest live composite key (2,2), got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_prefilter_excludes_composite_pk_newest_version() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use arrow_array::StringArray;
+        use arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder;
+        use datafusion::prelude::{SessionContext, col, lit};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id1", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("id2", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                false,
+            ),
+            Field::new("status", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+
+        fn batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, rows: &[((i32, i32), [f32; 4], &str)]) -> RecordBatch {
+            let mut vb = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), 4);
+            for (_, vector, _) in rows {
+                for value in vector {
+                    vb.values().append_value(*value);
+                }
+                vb.append(true);
+            }
+            let id1: Vec<i32> = rows.iter().map(|((id1, _), _, _)| *id1).collect();
+            let id2: Vec<i32> = rows.iter().map(|((_, id2), _, _)| *id2).collect();
+            let status: Vec<&str> = rows.iter().map(|(_, _, status)| *status).collect();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(id1)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(id2)),
+                    Arc::new(vb.finish()),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(status)),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        let q = [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4];
+        let near = [0.12, 0.22, 0.32, 0.42];
+        let far = [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0];
+        let batch = batch(
+            &schema,
+            &[
+                ((1, 1), q, "active"),
+                ((1, 1), far, "archived"),
+                ((2, 2), near, "active"),
+            ],
+        );
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id1".to_string(), 0), ("id2".to_string(), 1)]);
+        let (_, row_offset, batch_position) = batch_store.append(batch.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&batch, row_offset, Some(batch_position))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", tmp.path().to_str().unwrap());
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id1".to_string(), "id2".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        )
+        .with_filter(Some(col("status").eq(lit("active"))));
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 10, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, SessionContext::new().task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut ids = Vec::new();
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let id1 = batch
+                .column_by_name("id1")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let id2 = batch
+                .column_by_name("id2")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                ids.push((id1.value(row), id2.value(row)));
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![(2, 2)],
+            "composite PK (1,1)'s newest version is archived and must exclude \
+             the older active version; got {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_same_l0_override_newest_wins() {
+        // Ported from the #6844 spec. The DANGEROUS within-memtable direction:
+        // a PK is re-inserted in the SAME active memtable with a *farther* vector,
+        // while the stale earlier copy sits ON the query. Newest-wins must keep
+        // the newer far copy and exclude the stale near one — unlike
+        // `test_vector_search_dedup_within_active_memtable`, which keeps the newer
+        // copy only because it is also the closer one (a weaker check).
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::collector::{InMemoryMemTableRef, InMemoryMemTables};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::{BatchStore, IndexStore};
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = create_vector_schema();
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let base_uri = format!("{}/base", temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap());
+
+        let on_query = [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4]; // == query: the STALE copy of id=1
+        let far = [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0]; // the FRESH (newer) copy of id=1
+        let other = [1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0]; // unrelated id=2, not on the query
+
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(16));
+        let mut index_store = IndexStore::new();
+        index_store.enable_pk_index(&[("id".to_string(), 0)]);
+        index_store.add_hnsw(
+            "vector_hnsw".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            64,
+            8,
+        );
+        // Batch 0 @ positions 0,1: stale id=1 on the query, plus id=2.
+        let b0 = batch_rows(&schema, &[(1, on_query), (2, other)]);
+        let (_, _, bp0) = batch_store.append(b0.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b0, 0, Some(bp0))
+            .unwrap();
+        // Batch 1 @ position 2: id=1 re-inserted with the newer far vector.
+        let b1 = batch_rows(&schema, &[(1, far)]);
+        let (_, _, bp1) = batch_store.append(b1.clone()).unwrap();
+        index_store
+            .insert_with_batch_position(&b1, 2, Some(bp1))
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_store = Arc::new(index_store);
+
+        let shard_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let collector = LsmDataSourceCollector::without_base_table(base_uri, vec![])
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(
+                shard_id,
+                InMemoryMemTables {
+                    active: InMemoryMemTableRef {
+                        batch_store,
+                        index_store,
+                        schema: schema.clone(),
+                        generation: 1,
+                    },
+                    frozen: vec![],
+                },
+            );
+
+        let planner = LsmVectorSearchPlanner::new(
+            collector,
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+            schema,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        );
+
+        let query = create_query_vector();
+        let plan = planner
+            .plan_search(&query, 5, 1, None, false, 1.0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, ctx.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        let rows = collect_id_dist(&batches);
+
+        let id1: Vec<f32> = rows
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|&&(id, _)| id == 1)
+            .map(|&(_, d)| d)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            id1.len(),
+            1,
+            "newest-wins: id=1 must appear exactly once after a same-L0 override, got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+        assert!(
+            id1[0] > 1.0,
+            "newest-wins: surviving id=1 must be the newer far vector, not the stale near one — got distance {}",
+            id1[0]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            rows.iter().all(|&(_, d)| d.abs() >= 1e-3),
+            "newest-wins: the stale on-query copy (distance ~0) must be excluded, got {:?}",
+            rows
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/sharding.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/sharding.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..faf5a3f7990
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/sharding.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,542 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Arrow-native evaluation for MemWAL sharding specs.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::cast::as_primitive_array;
+use arrow_array::types::{
+    Date32Type, Float32Type, Float64Type, Int8Type, Int16Type, Int32Type, Int64Type,
+    Time32MillisecondType, Time32SecondType, Time64MicrosecondType, Time64NanosecondType,
+    TimestampMicrosecondType, TimestampMillisecondType, TimestampNanosecondType,
+    TimestampSecondType, UInt8Type, UInt16Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type,
+};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, Int32Array, LargeStringArray, RecordBatch, StringArray,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema};
+use lance_index::mem_wal::{ShardingField, ShardingSpec};
+
+const BUCKET_TRANSFORM: &str = "bucket";
+const IDENTITY_TRANSFORM: &str = "identity";
+const UNSHARDED_TRANSFORM: &str = "unsharded";
+const NUM_BUCKETS_PARAM: &str = "num_buckets";
+const COLUMN_PARAM: &str = "column";
+const MURMUR3_SEED: i32 = 0;
+
+/// Evaluate a MemWAL sharding specification against an Arrow record batch.
+///
+/// The returned batch has one column per [`ShardingField`] in `spec`, with the
+/// column names taken from `field_id`. Bucket sharding returns `Int32` bucket
+/// IDs. Identity sharding returns the source column unchanged. Unsharded
+/// sharding returns `Int32` zeros.
+pub fn evaluate_sharding_spec(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    spec: &ShardingSpec,
+    schema: &LanceSchema,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let source_id_to_column = source_id_to_column_map(schema);
+    evaluate_sharding_spec_with_source_columns(batch, spec, &source_id_to_column)
+}
+
+/// Evaluate a MemWAL sharding specification that embeds source column names.
+///
+/// Prefer [`evaluate_sharding_spec`] for table-bound evaluation. This helper is
+/// for specs that carry a `column` parameter for each source-dependent field.
+pub fn evaluate_sharding_spec_with_embedded_columns(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    spec: &ShardingSpec,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    evaluate_sharding_spec_with_source_columns(batch, spec, &HashMap::new())
+}
+
+/// Evaluate a MemWAL sharding specification with an explicit field-id mapping.
+///
+/// Prefer [`evaluate_sharding_spec`] for table-bound evaluation. This helper is
+/// intended for binding layers that have already derived the mapping from a
+/// table schema.
+pub fn evaluate_sharding_spec_with_source_columns(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    spec: &ShardingSpec,
+    source_id_to_column: &HashMap<i32, String>,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(spec.fields.len());
+    let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(spec.fields.len());
+
+    for field in &spec.fields {
+        let column = evaluate_sharding_field(batch, field, source_id_to_column)?;
+        fields.push(Field::new(
+            field.field_id.clone(),
+            column.data_type().clone(),
+            column.is_nullable(),
+        ));
+        columns.push(column);
+    }
+
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields)),
+        columns,
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn source_id_to_column_map(schema: &LanceSchema) -> HashMap<i32, String> {
+    schema
+        .fields_pre_order()
+        .map(|field| {
+            let column = schema
+                .field_ancestry_by_id(field.id)
+                .map(|path| {
+                    path.iter()
+                        .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        .join(".")
+                })
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| field.name.clone());
+            (field.id, column)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn evaluate_sharding_field(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    field: &ShardingField,
+    source_id_to_column: &HashMap<i32, String>,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    match field.transform.as_deref() {
+        Some(BUCKET_TRANSFORM) => evaluate_bucket_sharding(batch, field, source_id_to_column),
+        Some(IDENTITY_TRANSFORM) => evaluate_identity_sharding(batch, field, source_id_to_column),
+        Some(UNSHARDED_TRANSFORM) => Ok(Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0; batch.num_rows()]))),
+        other => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Unsupported MemWAL sharding transform for field '{}': {:?}",
+            field.field_id, other
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn evaluate_identity_sharding(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    field: &ShardingField,
+    source_id_to_column: &HashMap<i32, String>,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    let column_name = source_column_name(field, source_id_to_column)?;
+    Ok(batch
+        .column_by_name(&column_name)
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Sharding source column '{}' not found in batch",
+                column_name
+            ))
+        })?
+        .clone())
+}
+
+fn evaluate_bucket_sharding(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    field: &ShardingField,
+    source_id_to_column: &HashMap<i32, String>,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    let column_name = source_column_name(field, source_id_to_column)?;
+    let num_buckets = field
+        .parameters
+        .get(NUM_BUCKETS_PARAM)
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Bucket sharding field '{}' missing '{}' parameter",
+                field.field_id, NUM_BUCKETS_PARAM
+            ))
+        })?
+        .parse::<i32>()
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Bucket sharding field '{}' has invalid num_buckets '{}': {}",
+                field.field_id, field.parameters[NUM_BUCKETS_PARAM], e
+            ))
+        })?;
+    if num_buckets <= 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Bucket sharding field '{}' requires positive num_buckets, got {}",
+            field.field_id, num_buckets
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let column = batch.column_by_name(&column_name).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Sharding source column '{}' not found in batch",
+            column_name
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let mut bucket_ids = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
+    for row_idx in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+        let hash = hash_array_value(column.as_ref(), row_idx, MURMUR3_SEED)?;
+        bucket_ids.push((hash & i32::MAX) % num_buckets);
+    }
+    Ok(Arc::new(Int32Array::from(bucket_ids)))
+}
+
+fn source_column_name(
+    field: &ShardingField,
+    source_id_to_column: &HashMap<i32, String>,
+) -> Result<String> {
+    if let Some(column) = field.parameters.get(COLUMN_PARAM)
+        && !column.trim().is_empty()
+    {
+        return Ok(column.clone());
+    }
+    let Some(source_id) = field.source_ids.first() else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "MemWAL sharding field '{}' has no source column",
+            field.field_id
+        )));
+    };
+    source_id_to_column.get(source_id).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "MemWAL sharding field '{}' source id {} was not mapped to a batch column",
+            field.field_id, source_id
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn hash_array_value(array: &dyn Array, row_idx: usize, seed: i32) -> Result<i32> {
+    if array.is_null(row_idx) {
+        return Ok(seed);
+    }
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Boolean => {
+            let array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>().unwrap();
+            Ok(hash_int(if array.value(row_idx) { 1 } else { 0 }, seed))
+        }
+        DataType::Int8 => hash_primitive_int::<Int8Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v as i32),
+        DataType::Int16 => hash_primitive_int::<Int16Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v as i32),
+        DataType::Int32 => hash_primitive_int::<Int32Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v),
+        DataType::Date32 => hash_primitive_int::<Date32Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v),
+        DataType::Int64 => hash_primitive::<Int64Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v),
+        DataType::UInt8 => hash_primitive_int::<UInt8Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v as i32),
+        DataType::UInt16 => hash_primitive_int::<UInt16Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v as i32),
+        DataType::UInt32 => hash_primitive_int::<UInt32Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v as i32),
+        DataType::UInt64 => hash_primitive::<UInt64Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v as i64),
+        DataType::Float32 => hash_primitive_int::<Float32Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| {
+            canonical_f32_bits(v) as i32
+        }),
+        DataType::Float64 => {
+            hash_primitive::<Float64Type, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| canonical_f64_bits(v) as i64)
+        }
+        DataType::Timestamp(_, _) => hash_timestamp(array, row_idx, seed),
+        DataType::Time32(_) => hash_time32(array, row_idx, seed),
+        DataType::Time64(_) => hash_time64(array, row_idx, seed),
+        DataType::Utf8 => {
+            let array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>().unwrap();
+            Ok(hash_bytes(array.value(row_idx).as_bytes(), seed))
+        }
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
+            let array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>().unwrap();
+            Ok(hash_bytes(array.value(row_idx).as_bytes(), seed))
+        }
+        other => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Unsupported bucket sharding column type: {:?}",
+            other
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn hash_primitive_int<T, F>(array: &dyn Array, row_idx: usize, seed: i32, convert: F) -> Result<i32>
+where
+    T: arrow_array::types::ArrowPrimitiveType,
+    F: Fn(T::Native) -> i32,
+{
+    let array = as_primitive_array::<T>(array);
+    Ok(hash_int(convert(array.value(row_idx)), seed))
+}
+
+fn hash_primitive<T, F>(array: &dyn Array, row_idx: usize, seed: i32, convert: F) -> Result<i32>
+where
+    T: arrow_array::types::ArrowPrimitiveType,
+    F: Fn(T::Native) -> i64,
+{
+    let array = as_primitive_array::<T>(array);
+    Ok(hash_long(convert(array.value(row_idx)), seed))
+}
+
+fn hash_timestamp(array: &dyn Array, row_idx: usize, seed: i32) -> Result<i32> {
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Timestamp(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Second, _) => {
+            hash_primitive::<TimestampSecondType, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v)
+        }
+        DataType::Timestamp(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Millisecond, _) => {
+            hash_primitive::<TimestampMillisecondType, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v)
+        }
+        DataType::Timestamp(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Microsecond, _) => {
+            hash_primitive::<TimestampMicrosecondType, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v)
+        }
+        DataType::Timestamp(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Nanosecond, _) => {
+            hash_primitive::<TimestampNanosecondType, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v)
+        }
+        _ => unreachable!(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn hash_time32(array: &dyn Array, row_idx: usize, seed: i32) -> Result<i32> {
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Time32(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Second) => {
+            hash_primitive_int::<Time32SecondType, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v)
+        }
+        DataType::Time32(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Millisecond) => {
+            hash_primitive_int::<Time32MillisecondType, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v)
+        }
+        _ => unreachable!(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn hash_time64(array: &dyn Array, row_idx: usize, seed: i32) -> Result<i32> {
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Time64(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Microsecond) => {
+            hash_primitive::<Time64MicrosecondType, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v)
+        }
+        DataType::Time64(arrow_schema::TimeUnit::Nanosecond) => {
+            hash_primitive::<Time64NanosecondType, _>(array, row_idx, seed, |v| v)
+        }
+        _ => unreachable!(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn canonical_f32_bits(value: f32) -> u32 {
+    if value == 0.0 {
+        0
+    } else if value.is_nan() {
+        0x7fc0_0000
+    } else {
+        value.to_bits()
+    }
+}
+
+fn canonical_f64_bits(value: f64) -> u64 {
+    if value == 0.0 {
+        0
+    } else if value.is_nan() {
+        0x7ff8_0000_0000_0000
+    } else {
+        value.to_bits()
+    }
+}
+
+fn hash_int(value: i32, seed: i32) -> i32 {
+    fmix(mix_h1(seed, mix_k1(value)), 4)
+}
+
+fn hash_long(value: i64, seed: i32) -> i32 {
+    let low = value as i32;
+    let high = (value >> 32) as i32;
+    let h1 = mix_h1(seed, mix_k1(low));
+    let h1 = mix_h1(h1, mix_k1(high));
+    fmix(h1, 8)
+}
+
+fn hash_bytes(bytes: &[u8], seed: i32) -> i32 {
+    let mut h1 = seed;
+    let remainder = bytes.len() % 4;
+    let full_chunks_len = bytes.len() - remainder;
+    for chunk in bytes[..full_chunks_len].as_chunks::<4>().0 {
+        let k1 = i32::from_le_bytes(*chunk);
+        h1 = mix_h1(h1, mix_k1(k1));
+    }
+    for byte in &bytes[full_chunks_len..] {
+        h1 = mix_h1(h1, mix_k1((*byte as i8) as i32));
+    }
+
+    fmix(h1, bytes.len() as i32)
+}
+
+fn mix_k1(k1: i32) -> i32 {
+    let k1 = k1.wrapping_mul(0xcc9e_2d51u32 as i32);
+    k1.rotate_left(15).wrapping_mul(0x1b87_3593)
+}
+
+fn mix_h1(h1: i32, k1: i32) -> i32 {
+    let h1 = h1 ^ k1;
+    h1.rotate_left(13)
+        .wrapping_mul(5)
+        .wrapping_add(0xe654_6b64u32 as i32)
+}
+
+fn fmix(h1: i32, length: i32) -> i32 {
+    let mut h1 = h1 ^ length;
+    h1 ^= (h1 as u32 >> 16) as i32;
+    h1 = h1.wrapping_mul(0x85eb_ca6bu32 as i32);
+    h1 ^= (h1 as u32 >> 13) as i32;
+    h1 = h1.wrapping_mul(0xc2b2_ae35u32 as i32);
+    h1 ^ ((h1 as u32 >> 16) as i32)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::{
+        BooleanArray, Date32Array, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int32Array, StringArray,
+    };
+    use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+    use lance_index::mem_wal::ShardingField;
+
+    fn single_field_spec(field: ShardingField) -> ShardingSpec {
+        ShardingSpec {
+            spec_id: 1,
+            fields: vec![field],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn bucket_field(num_buckets: i32) -> ShardingField {
+        ShardingField {
+            field_id: "bucket".to_string(),
+            source_ids: vec![0],
+            transform: Some(BUCKET_TRANSFORM.to_string()),
+            expression: None,
+            result_type: "int32".to_string(),
+            parameters: HashMap::from([(NUM_BUCKETS_PARAM.to_string(), num_buckets.to_string())]),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn lance_schema(batch: &RecordBatch) -> LanceSchema {
+        LanceSchema::try_from(batch.schema().as_ref()).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn bucket_field_for_source(source_id: i32, num_buckets: i32) -> ShardingField {
+        ShardingField {
+            source_ids: vec![source_id],
+            ..bucket_field(num_buckets)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_evaluate_bucket_sharding_int32() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+            "id",
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), Some(2), None, Some(3)])) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let result = evaluate_sharding_spec(
+            &batch,
+            &single_field_spec(bucket_field(8)),
+            &lance_schema(&batch),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let buckets = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(result.column(0).as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(buckets.values(), &[2, 7, 0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_evaluate_bucket_sharding_date32() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+            "id",
+            Arc::new(Date32Array::from(vec![Some(1), Some(2), None, Some(3)])) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let result = evaluate_sharding_spec(
+            &batch,
+            &single_field_spec(bucket_field(8)),
+            &lance_schema(&batch),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let buckets = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(result.column(0).as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(buckets.values(), &[2, 7, 0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_evaluate_bucket_sharding_string() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+            "id",
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), None])) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let result = evaluate_sharding_spec(
+            &batch,
+            &single_field_spec(bucket_field(8)),
+            &lance_schema(&batch),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let buckets = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(result.column(0).as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(buckets.values(), &[1, 5, 0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_evaluate_bucket_sharding_scalar_types() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([
+            ("bool", Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![true])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "f32",
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.25_f32])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                "f64",
+                Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![1.25_f64])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = lance_schema(&batch);
+        let result = evaluate_sharding_spec(
+            &batch,
+            &single_field_spec(bucket_field_for_source(0, 8)),
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let buckets = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(result.column(0).as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(buckets.values(), &[2]);
+
+        let result = evaluate_sharding_spec(
+            &batch,
+            &single_field_spec(bucket_field_for_source(1, 8)),
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let buckets = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(result.column(0).as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(buckets.values(), &[0]);
+
+        let result = evaluate_sharding_spec(
+            &batch,
+            &single_field_spec(bucket_field_for_source(2, 8)),
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let buckets = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(result.column(0).as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(buckets.values(), &[0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_evaluate_identity_sharding() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+            "id",
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("a"), None, Some("b")])) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let spec = single_field_spec(ShardingField {
+            field_id: "identity".to_string(),
+            source_ids: vec![0],
+            transform: Some(IDENTITY_TRANSFORM.to_string()),
+            expression: None,
+            result_type: "utf8".to_string(),
+            parameters: HashMap::new(),
+        });
+        let result = evaluate_sharding_spec(&batch, &spec, &lance_schema(&batch)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.column(0).as_ref(), batch.column(0).as_ref());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_evaluate_bucket_sharding_embedded_column() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+            "key",
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), None])) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut field = bucket_field(8);
+        field.source_ids = Vec::new();
+        field
+            .parameters
+            .insert(COLUMN_PARAM.to_string(), "key".to_string());
+        let result =
+            evaluate_sharding_spec_with_embedded_columns(&batch, &single_field_spec(field))
+                .unwrap();
+        let buckets = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(result.column(0).as_ref());
+        assert_eq!(buckets.values(), &[1, 5, 0]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/test_util.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/test_util.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..abafbb7c68f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/test_util.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,253 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Test-only object store that injects WAL-write failures (for the WAL
+//! persistence-failure fencing path) and records the paths it serves (for
+//! asserting which opens actually resolved through a given `ObjectStoreParams`).
+
+use std::fmt::{Debug, Display, Formatter};
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::Mutex as StdMutex;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use object_store::{
+    CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+    ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult,
+    RenameOptions, Result as OSResult,
+};
+
+use lance_io::object_store::{
+    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry, WrappingObjectStore,
+};
+
+/// Knobs controlling injected WAL-entry write failures, shared with the test.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct FailControls {
+    /// Remaining WAL-entry `put_opts` calls to fail; saturates at 0. Set high to
+    /// "always fail", set to 0 to "recover".
+    wal_put_failures: AtomicUsize,
+    /// When failing, write to the inner store anyway before reporting the error,
+    /// simulating a lost acknowledgement (the PUT actually landed).
+    simulate_lost_ack: AtomicBool,
+    /// WAL-entry `put_opts` attempts observed, for assertions.
+    wal_put_attempts: AtomicUsize,
+    /// Every location written through this store.
+    put_paths: StdMutex<Vec<String>>,
+    /// Every location read through this store.
+    get_paths: StdMutex<Vec<String>>,
+}
+
+impl FailControls {
+    pub fn fail_wal_puts(&self, n: usize) {
+        self.wal_put_failures.store(n, Ordering::SeqCst);
+    }
+    pub fn recover(&self) {
+        self.wal_put_failures.store(0, Ordering::SeqCst);
+    }
+    pub fn set_lost_ack(&self, v: bool) {
+        self.simulate_lost_ack.store(v, Ordering::SeqCst);
+    }
+    pub fn attempts(&self) -> usize {
+        self.wal_put_attempts.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+    }
+
+    /// Did any write land on a path containing `needle`? An open that resolved
+    /// its store from other params never reaches this store, so a `false` here
+    /// means the params under test did not reach that open.
+    pub fn wrote_under(&self, needle: &str) -> bool {
+        self.put_paths
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|p| p.contains(needle))
+    }
+
+    /// Did any read land on a path containing `needle`? See [`Self::wrote_under`].
+    pub fn read_under(&self, needle: &str) -> bool {
+        self.get_paths
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|p| p.contains(needle))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Wraps the inner store with [`FailingObjectStore`] at construction.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FailingWrapper {
+    controls: Arc<FailControls>,
+}
+
+impl WrappingObjectStore for FailingWrapper {
+    fn wrap(&self, _prefix: &str, original: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>) -> Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> {
+        Arc::new(FailingObjectStore {
+            inner: original,
+            controls: self.controls.clone(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    // Injects behaviour into every request, so a listing must not go around it.
+    fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        _store_prefix: &str,
+        _original: Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// Delegates everything to `inner`, failing WAL-entry PUTs per [`FailControls`].
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FailingObjectStore {
+    inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+    controls: Arc<FailControls>,
+}
+
+impl FailingObjectStore {
+    /// WAL entries live under `.../wal/`; manifests (`.../manifest/`) are never
+    /// failed so `ShardWriter::open`/`claim_epoch` still work.
+    fn is_wal_entry(location: &Path) -> bool {
+        location.as_ref().contains("/wal/")
+    }
+
+    fn injected_error() -> object_store::Error {
+        object_store::Error::Generic {
+            store: "failing-test-store",
+            source: "injected transient WAL put failure".to_string().into(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Display for FailingObjectStore {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "FailingObjectStore({})", self.inner)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl OSObjectStore for FailingObjectStore {
+    async fn put_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        payload: PutPayload,
+        opts: PutOptions,
+    ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+        self.controls
+            .put_paths
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .push(location.to_string());
+        if Self::is_wal_entry(location) {
+            self.controls
+                .wal_put_attempts
+                .fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            if self.controls.wal_put_failures.load(Ordering::SeqCst) > 0 {
+                self.controls
+                    .wal_put_failures
+                    .fetch_sub(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                if self.controls.simulate_lost_ack.load(Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                    // The write lands but we still report failure (lost ack).
+                    let _ = self.inner.put_opts(location, payload, opts).await;
+                }
+                return Err(Self::injected_error());
+            }
+        }
+        self.inner.put_opts(location, payload, opts).await
+    }
+
+    async fn put_multipart_opts(
+        &self,
+        location: &Path,
+        opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+    ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+        // Data files (`*.lance`) are written multipart, not via `put_opts`.
+        self.controls
+            .put_paths
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .push(location.to_string());
+        self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+        self.controls
+            .get_paths
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .push(location.to_string());
+        self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await
+    }
+
+    async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+        self.controls
+            .get_paths
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .push(location.to_string());
+        self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+    }
+
+    fn delete_stream(
+        &self,
+        locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+        self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+    }
+
+    fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+        self.inner.list(prefix)
+    }
+
+    fn list_with_offset(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&Path>,
+        offset: &Path,
+    ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+        self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
+    }
+
+    async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+        self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+    }
+
+    async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+        self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+    }
+
+    async fn rename_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: RenameOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+        self.inner.rename_opts(from, to, opts).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// `ObjectStoreParams` carrying the observable store wrapper, plus the controls
+/// to drive and inspect it. Open a dataset with these and every store resolved
+/// *from these params* — the base and any derived URI they are threaded to —
+/// reports its traffic back through the controls.
+pub fn observable_store_params() -> (ObjectStoreParams, Arc<FailControls>) {
+    let controls = Arc::new(FailControls::default());
+    let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+        object_store_wrapper: Some(Arc::new(FailingWrapper {
+            controls: controls.clone(),
+        })),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    (params, controls)
+}
+
+/// Build an in-memory `ObjectStore` whose WAL-entry writes can be failed on
+/// demand. Returns the store, its base path, and the shared controls.
+pub async fn failing_memory_store() -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Path, Arc<FailControls>) {
+    let (params, controls) = observable_store_params();
+    let (store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+        Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+        "memory:///",
+        &params,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    (store, base, controls)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/util.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/util.rs
index 1f8eed7bf1c..a51f269cb67 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/util.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/util.rs
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 //! Utility functions for MemWAL operations.
 
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
@@ -71,14 +72,17 @@ impl<T: Clone + std::fmt::Debug> WatchableOnceCellReader<T> {
 
     /// Wait for a value to be written.
     ///
-    /// Returns immediately if a value is already present.
-    pub async fn await_value(&mut self) -> T {
-        self.rx
-            .wait_for(|v| v.is_some())
-            .await
-            .expect("watch channel closed")
-            .clone()
-            .expect("no value found")
+    /// Returns immediately if a value is already present. Returns
+    /// `None` if the underlying watch channel was closed before a
+    /// value was published — typically because the producing task
+    /// died (panicked or returned `Err`). Earlier this case used to
+    /// panic with `expect("watch channel closed")`, which turned a
+    /// dead-flusher consequence into a worker panic and made the
+    /// merge_insert call fail with a `RustPanic` instead of a
+    /// recoverable error.
+    pub async fn await_value(&mut self) -> Option<T> {
+        self.rx.wait_for(|v| v.is_some()).await.ok()?;
+        self.rx.borrow().clone()
     }
 }
 
@@ -88,7 +92,8 @@ impl<T: Clone + std::fmt::Debug> WatchableOnceCellReader<T> {
 /// optimizing S3 throughput by spreading sequential writes across internal partitions.
 ///
 /// # Example
-/// ```ignore
+/// ```
+/// # use lance::dataset::mem_wal::util::bit_reverse_u64;
 /// // 5 in binary: 000...101
 /// // Reversed:    101...000
 /// assert_eq!(bit_reverse_u64(5), 0xa000000000000000);
@@ -126,42 +131,72 @@ pub fn parse_bit_reversed_filename(filename: &str) -> Option<u64> {
     Some(bit_reverse_u64(reversed))
 }
 
-/// Base path for a region within the MemWAL directory.
+/// Adapt the store params a base dataset was opened with for use on a URI
+/// *derived* from it (an SSTable under `_mem_wal/`).
+///
+/// The deprecated `object_store` binding pins a store to one location: given
+/// `Some((store, url))`, both `ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params` and
+/// `DatasetBuilder::build_object_store` take the path from `url` and ignore the
+/// URI they were asked to open. Carried onto a generation URI it would silently
+/// redirect the open — and, on the flush path, the write — at the base table
+/// itself. Drop it so the generation URI resolves its own store; everything
+/// else (storage options, wrapper, credentials, block size) still carries over.
+///
+/// Only the base's *own* URI may reuse the params verbatim.
+pub(crate) fn derived_store_params(params: &ObjectStoreParams) -> ObjectStoreParams {
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    ObjectStoreParams {
+        object_store: None,
+        ..params.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Path to the MemWAL root directory.
+///
+/// Returns: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/`
+pub fn mem_wal_path(base_path: &Path) -> Path {
+    base_path.clone().join("_mem_wal")
+}
+
+/// Base path for a shard within the MemWAL directory.
 ///
-/// Returns: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/{region_id}/`
-pub fn region_base_path(base_path: &Path, region_id: &Uuid) -> Path {
-    base_path
-        .child("_mem_wal")
-        .child(region_id.as_hyphenated().to_string())
+/// Returns: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/{shard_id}/`
+pub fn shard_base_path(base_path: &Path, shard_id: &Uuid) -> Path {
+    mem_wal_path(base_path).join(shard_id.as_hyphenated().to_string())
 }
 
-/// Path to the WAL directory for a region.
+/// Path to the WAL directory for a shard.
 ///
-/// Returns: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/{region_id}/wal/`
-pub fn region_wal_path(base_path: &Path, region_id: &Uuid) -> Path {
-    region_base_path(base_path, region_id).child("wal")
+/// Returns: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/{shard_id}/wal/`
+pub fn shard_wal_path(base_path: &Path, shard_id: &Uuid) -> Path {
+    shard_base_path(base_path, shard_id).join("wal")
 }
 
-/// Path to the manifest directory for a region.
+/// Path to the manifest directory for a shard.
 ///
-/// Returns: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/{region_id}/manifest/`
-pub fn region_manifest_path(base_path: &Path, region_id: &Uuid) -> Path {
-    region_base_path(base_path, region_id).child("manifest")
+/// Returns: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/{shard_id}/manifest/`
+pub fn shard_manifest_path(base_path: &Path, shard_id: &Uuid) -> Path {
+    shard_base_path(base_path, shard_id).join("manifest")
 }
 
-/// Path to a flushed MemTable directory.
+/// Path to an SSTable directory.
 ///
-/// Returns: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/{region_id}/{random_hash}_gen_{generation}/`
-pub fn flushed_memtable_path(
-    base_path: &Path,
-    region_id: &Uuid,
-    random_hash: &str,
-    generation: u64,
-) -> Path {
-    region_base_path(base_path, region_id).child(format!("{}_gen_{}", random_hash, generation))
+/// Returns: `{base_path}/_mem_wal/{shard_id}/{random_hash}_gen_{generation}/`
+pub fn sstable_path(base_path: &Path, shard_id: &Uuid, random_hash: &str, generation: u64) -> Path {
+    shard_base_path(base_path, shard_id).join(format!("{}_gen_{}", random_hash, generation))
+}
+
+/// Subdirectory of an SSTable holding its standalone primary-key
+/// dedup index (a sidecar BTree, not registered in the manifest). Both the
+/// flush writer and the block-list probe join this onto the generation path.
+pub const PK_INDEX_DIR: &str = "_pk_index";
+
+/// Path to an SSTable's standalone primary-key dedup index.
+pub fn pk_index_path(gen_path: &Path) -> Path {
+    gen_path.clone().join(PK_INDEX_DIR)
 }
 
-/// Generate an 8-character random hex string for flushed MemTable directories.
+/// Generate an 8-character random hex string for SSTable directories.
 pub fn generate_random_hash() -> String {
     let bytes: [u8; 4] = rand::random();
     format!(
@@ -177,7 +212,7 @@ pub fn wal_entry_filename(wal_entry_position: u64) -> String {
     bit_reversed_filename(wal_entry_position, "arrow")
 }
 
-/// Region manifest filename.
+/// Shard manifest filename.
 ///
 /// Returns bit-reversed filename with .binpb extension.
 pub fn manifest_filename(version: u64) -> String {
@@ -241,34 +276,43 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_region_paths() {
+    fn test_mem_wal_path() {
+        let base_path = Path::from("my/dataset");
+        assert_eq!(mem_wal_path(&base_path).as_ref(), "my/dataset/_mem_wal");
+
+        let empty_base = Path::from("");
+        assert_eq!(mem_wal_path(&empty_base).as_ref(), "_mem_wal");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shard_paths() {
         let base_path = Path::from("my/dataset");
-        let region_id = Uuid::parse_str("550e8400-e29b-41d4-a716-446655440000").unwrap();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::parse_str("550e8400-e29b-41d4-a716-446655440000").unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(
-            region_base_path(&base_path, &region_id).as_ref(),
+            shard_base_path(&base_path, &shard_id).as_ref(),
             "my/dataset/_mem_wal/550e8400-e29b-41d4-a716-446655440000"
         );
 
         assert_eq!(
-            region_wal_path(&base_path, &region_id).as_ref(),
+            shard_wal_path(&base_path, &shard_id).as_ref(),
             "my/dataset/_mem_wal/550e8400-e29b-41d4-a716-446655440000/wal"
         );
 
         assert_eq!(
-            region_manifest_path(&base_path, &region_id).as_ref(),
+            shard_manifest_path(&base_path, &shard_id).as_ref(),
             "my/dataset/_mem_wal/550e8400-e29b-41d4-a716-446655440000/manifest"
         );
 
         assert_eq!(
-            flushed_memtable_path(&base_path, &region_id, "a1b2c3d4", 5).as_ref(),
+            sstable_path(&base_path, &shard_id, "a1b2c3d4", 5).as_ref(),
             "my/dataset/_mem_wal/550e8400-e29b-41d4-a716-446655440000/a1b2c3d4_gen_5"
         );
 
         // Test with empty base path
         let empty_base = Path::from("");
         assert_eq!(
-            region_wal_path(&empty_base, &region_id).as_ref(),
+            shard_wal_path(&empty_base, &shard_id).as_ref(),
             "_mem_wal/550e8400-e29b-41d4-a716-446655440000/wal"
         );
     }
@@ -312,7 +356,7 @@ mod tests {
         cell.write(123);
 
         let result = handle.await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result, 123);
+        assert_eq!(result, Some(123));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -328,7 +372,57 @@ mod tests {
 
         cell.write(456);
 
-        assert_eq!(h1.await.unwrap(), 456);
-        assert_eq!(h2.await.unwrap(), 456);
+        assert_eq!(h1.await.unwrap(), Some(456));
+        assert_eq!(h2.await.unwrap(), Some(456));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_watchable_once_cell_returns_none_on_close() {
+        let cell: WatchableOnceCell<i32> = WatchableOnceCell::new();
+        let mut reader = cell.reader();
+
+        // Drop the cell (and thereby the sender) without ever writing.
+        // Earlier this caused `await_value` to panic with
+        // "watch channel closed"; now it returns None so callers can
+        // surface the dead-producer condition as a recoverable error.
+        let handle = tokio::spawn(async move { reader.await_value().await });
+        drop(cell);
+        assert_eq!(handle.await.unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    /// The path-bound store binding is the only thing dropped — credentials and
+    /// storage options must still reach the generation's store.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_derived_store_params_drops_only_the_path_bound_store() {
+        let accessor = lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+            std::collections::HashMap::from([("access_key_id".to_string(), "key".to_string())]),
+        );
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        let params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            object_store: Some((
+                std::sync::Arc::new(object_store::memory::InMemory::new()),
+                url::Url::parse("memory:///base").unwrap(),
+            )),
+            block_size: Some(1234),
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(std::sync::Arc::new(accessor)),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let derived = derived_store_params(&params);
+
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        {
+            assert!(
+                derived.object_store.is_none(),
+                "a store pinned to the base path must not be reused for a generation URI"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(derived.block_size, Some(1234));
+        assert_eq!(
+            derived
+                .storage_options()
+                .and_then(|o| o.get("access_key_id")),
+            Some(&"key".to_string()),
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/wal.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/wal.rs
index 697b5df081c..bd37ca31e9a 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/wal.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/wal.rs
@@ -7,79 +7,319 @@
 //! WAL files use bit-reversed naming to distribute files evenly across S3 keyspace.
 
 use std::io::Cursor;
-use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
 use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::Mutex as StdMutex;
+use std::sync::MutexGuard as StdMutexGuard;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 use std::time::Instant;
 
+use std::time::Duration;
+
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_ipc::reader::StreamReader;
 use arrow_ipc::writer::StreamWriter;
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 use bytes::Bytes;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use futures::StreamExt;
+use lance_core::{Error, FenceReason, Result};
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
-use tokio::sync::{mpsc, watch};
+use tokio::sync::{Mutex, mpsc, watch};
 
+use tracing::instrument;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
-use super::util::{region_wal_path, wal_entry_filename, WatchableOnceCell};
+use super::MemTableDataTarget;
+use super::manifest::ShardManifestStore;
+use super::util::{
+    WatchableOnceCell, parse_bit_reversed_filename, shard_wal_path, wal_entry_filename,
+};
 
 use super::index::IndexStore;
 use super::memtable::batch_store::{BatchStore, StoredBatch};
 
 /// Key for storing writer epoch in Arrow IPC file schema metadata.
 pub const WRITER_EPOCH_KEY: &str = "writer_epoch";
+/// The memtable generation an entry's batches belong to. Absent in WAL-only
+/// mode.
+pub const GENERATION_KEY: &str = "generation";
+
+/// Metadata keys a WAL entry carries about itself rather than about its batches.
+const RESERVED_ENTRY_KEYS: &[&str] = &[
+    WRITER_EPOCH_KEY,
+    GENERATION_KEY,
+    FENCE_SENTINEL_KEY,
+    TARGET_GENERATION_KEY,
+    TARGET_GENERATION_DIR_KEY,
+    TARGET_DATA_FILE_KEY,
+    TARGET_CREATOR_EPOCH_KEY,
+    TARGET_BATCH_CAPACITY_KEY,
+];
+const TARGET_GENERATION_KEY: &str = "mem_wal_target_generation";
+const TARGET_GENERATION_DIR_KEY: &str = "mem_wal_target_generation_dir";
+const TARGET_DATA_FILE_KEY: &str = "mem_wal_target_data_file";
+const TARGET_CREATOR_EPOCH_KEY: &str = "mem_wal_target_creator_epoch";
+const TARGET_BATCH_CAPACITY_KEY: &str = "mem_wal_target_batch_capacity";
+
+/// Marks a WAL entry as a data-less fence sentinel (observability only;
+/// replay skips sentinels via their empty batch list).
+pub const FENCE_SENTINEL_KEY: &str = "fence_sentinel";
+
+/// True if `error` is a peer fence (a successor claimed a higher epoch).
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn is_fence_error(error: &Error) -> bool {
+    error.fence_reason() == Some(FenceReason::PeerClaimedEpoch)
+}
+
+/// True if `error` is terminal for the writer (either fence kind): the WAL will
+/// never advance, so durability waiters must be woken and later writes rejected.
+fn is_terminal_failure(error: &Error) -> bool {
+    error.fence_reason().is_some()
+}
+
+/// Cloneable carrier that ferries a flush error across the async completion
+/// channels (`WalFlusher::terminal_error` and the per-flush `done` cell), since
+/// `lance_core::Error` is not `Clone`. Preserves the [`FenceReason`] so the typed
+/// [`Error::Fenced`] can be rebuilt rather than flattened to a string.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct WalFlushFailure {
+    /// The fence reason if terminal; `None` for an ordinary flush error.
+    pub fence_reason: Option<FenceReason>,
+    /// The error message carrying details about the flush failure.
+    pub message: String,
+}
+
+impl WalFlushFailure {
+    pub(crate) fn from_error(error: &Error) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            fence_reason: error.fence_reason(),
+            message: error.to_string(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Rebuild a typed `Error`, restoring the fence reason when present.
+    pub(crate) fn into_error(self) -> Error {
+        match self.fence_reason {
+            Some(FenceReason::PeerClaimedEpoch) => Error::fenced_by_peer(self.message),
+            Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure) => Error::writer_poisoned(self.message),
+            None => Error::io(self.message),
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-/// Watcher for batch durability using watermark-based tracking.
+/// The writer's cursors, shared by the WAL-append task, the index-apply task,
+/// every memtable's `IndexStore`, and every `put` waiting to become visible.
 ///
-/// Uses a shared watch channel that broadcasts the durable watermark.
-/// The watcher waits until the watermark reaches or exceeds its target batch ID.
-#[derive(Clone)]
+/// Two cursors are stored, one view is derived:
+///
+/// - `durable` — writer-global count of WAL-durable batches, advanced by the
+///   WAL-append task. Exclusive; 0 means none.
+/// - `indexed` — per-memtable count of indexed batches, advanced by the
+///   index-apply task. It lives on the memtable's own `IndexStore`, not here,
+///   because each memtable has its own indexes.
+/// - `visible` — **derived, never stored**: a batch is visible once it is
+///   indexed and, under `durable_write`, also durable.
+///
+/// Deriving `visible` rather than caching it is deliberate. A cached
+/// `min(indexed, durable)` recomputed by two independent tasks is the classic
+/// store-buffer race: with `Release`/`Acquire` each task can read the other's
+/// *pre-store* value, so both compute a minimum below the true one, and a
+/// max-clamped publish then leaves the cached value permanently short. A `put`
+/// blocked on it would hang until some unrelated write happened to move a cursor
+/// again. With nothing cached there is nothing to leave stale — `notify` is a
+/// bare wake-up and every waiter recomputes from the cursors themselves.
+pub struct WriterCursors {
+    durable: AtomicUsize,
+    /// Bumped whenever a cursor advances or the writer poisons. Carries no
+    /// value; it exists only to wake waiters, which then recompute.
+    notify_tx: watch::Sender<u64>,
+    notify_rx: watch::Receiver<u64>,
+    /// First terminal failure. Shared so a poisoned writer wakes every waiter
+    /// with the typed error, instead of leaving it blocked on a cursor that can
+    /// never advance again.
+    terminal_error: Arc<StdMutex<Option<WalFlushFailure>>>,
+    /// Whether durability is part of visibility. Per-writer, not per-write:
+    /// `visible` is a writer-wide definition, so a mix would need two visibility
+    /// views over one memtable.
+    durable_write: bool,
+}
+
+impl WriterCursors {
+    pub fn new(durable_write: bool) -> Self {
+        let (notify_tx, notify_rx) = watch::channel(0);
+        Self {
+            durable: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            notify_tx,
+            notify_rx,
+            terminal_error: Arc::new(StdMutex::new(None)),
+            durable_write,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Writer-global count of WAL-durable batches.
+    pub fn durable(&self) -> usize {
+        self.durable.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+    }
+
+    pub fn durable_write(&self) -> bool {
+        self.durable_write
+    }
+
+    /// Advance the durability cursor. Monotonic, so an out-of-order completion
+    /// can never walk it backwards.
+    pub(crate) fn advance_durable(&self, global_count: usize) {
+        self.durable.fetch_max(global_count, Ordering::AcqRel);
+        self.wake();
+    }
+
+    /// Wake every waiter so it recomputes. Called after any cursor advances, and
+    /// after the writer poisons.
+    pub(crate) fn wake(&self) {
+        self.notify_tx.send_modify(|version| *version += 1);
+    }
+
+    /// The visible prefix of one memtable, given its indexed prefix and its
+    /// writer-global coordinate.
+    pub fn visible_count(&self, indexed_count: usize, global_offset: usize) -> usize {
+        if !self.durable_write {
+            return indexed_count;
+        }
+        indexed_count.min(self.durable().saturating_sub(global_offset))
+    }
+
+    /// Lock `terminal_error`, ignoring mutex poisoning.
+    ///
+    /// A panic under this lock cannot tear the `Option` it guards: the sole
+    /// writer builds the value first and assigns it whole, so a panic mid-section
+    /// leaves the slot exactly as it was. Surfacing poison as an error instead
+    /// would mask the latched `FenceReason` behind an unrelated "mutex poisoned"
+    /// precisely when a caller needs the real reason — and would strand
+    /// `mark_terminal_failure`, which has no error to return.
+    fn lock_terminal_error(&self) -> StdMutexGuard<'_, Option<WalFlushFailure>> {
+        self.terminal_error
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|poisoned| poisoned.into_inner())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn check_poisoned(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(failure) = self.lock_terminal_error().clone() {
+            return Err(failure.into_error());
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn mark_terminal_failure(&self, error: &Error) {
+        {
+            let mut slot = self.lock_terminal_error();
+            if slot.is_none() {
+                *slot = Some(WalFlushFailure::from_error(error));
+            }
+        }
+        // Wake waiters without advancing anything: each re-checks `terminal_error`
+        // and returns the error rather than blocking on a cursor that can no
+        // longer move.
+        self.wake();
+    }
+}
+
+/// Blocks a `put` until its batches are visible: indexed, and — in durable mode
+/// — WAL-durable too.
+///
+/// Recomputes the condition on every wake instead of comparing against a cached
+/// watermark. `notify` only says "something moved"; this decides what that means.
 pub struct BatchDurableWatcher {
-    /// Watch receiver for the durable watermark.
-    rx: watch::Receiver<usize>,
-    /// Target batch ID to wait for.
-    target_batch_position: usize,
+    cursors: Arc<WriterCursors>,
+    rx: watch::Receiver<u64>,
+    /// The memtable the batches landed in; its `indexed_count` is the apply
+    /// cursor being waited on. `None` in WAL-only mode, which has no indexes.
+    indexes: Option<Arc<IndexStore>>,
+    /// Local exclusive count this write needs indexed.
+    target_indexed: usize,
+    /// Writer-global exclusive count this write needs durable. Batch positions
+    /// restart at 0 in every memtable while the durability cursor spans the
+    /// writer's whole life, so the caller must globalize this.
+    target_durable: usize,
 }
 
 impl BatchDurableWatcher {
-    /// Create a new watcher for a specific batch ID.
-    pub fn new(rx: watch::Receiver<usize>, target_batch_position: usize) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(
+        cursors: Arc<WriterCursors>,
+        indexes: Option<Arc<IndexStore>>,
+        target_indexed: usize,
+        target_durable: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let rx = cursors.notify_rx.clone();
         Self {
+            cursors,
             rx,
-            target_batch_position,
+            indexes,
+            target_indexed,
+            target_durable,
         }
     }
 
-    /// Wait until the batch is durable.
-    ///
-    /// Returns Ok(()) when `durable_watermark >= target_batch_position`.
+    /// Whether the write's batches are indexed — the weaker half of
+    /// [`Self::is_visible`], with the append possibly still outstanding.
+    fn is_indexed(&self) -> bool {
+        // WAL-only mode has no indexes, so there is nothing to index-wait on.
+        let indexed = match &self.indexes {
+            Some(indexes) => indexes.indexed_count(),
+            None => self.target_indexed,
+        };
+        indexed >= self.target_indexed
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the write is readable yet.
+    fn is_visible(&self) -> bool {
+        self.is_indexed()
+            && (!self.cursors.durable_write() || self.cursors.durable() >= self.target_durable)
+    }
+
+    /// Wait until the write is visible, or until the writer poisons — in which
+    /// case no cursor will ever reach the target, so surface the typed error
+    /// rather than blocking forever.
     pub async fn wait(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.wait_until(Self::is_visible).await
+    }
+
+    /// Wait until the write is indexed, leaving durability outstanding. Pairs
+    /// with [`MemTableVisibility::Indexed`](crate::dataset::mem_wal::MemTableVisibility::Indexed)
+    /// on the read side.
+    ///
+    /// Not an acknowledgement: a caller promising durability must still await
+    /// [`Self::wait`].
+    pub async fn wait_indexed(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.wait_until(Self::is_indexed).await
+    }
+
+    async fn wait_until(&mut self, reached: fn(&Self) -> bool) -> Result<()> {
         loop {
-            let current = *self.rx.borrow();
-            if current >= self.target_batch_position {
+            // Mark the current version seen *before* testing, so a wake-up landing
+            // between the test and `changed()` below is not lost.
+            self.rx.borrow_and_update();
+            self.cursors.check_poisoned()?;
+            if reached(self) {
                 return Ok(());
             }
             self.rx
                 .changed()
                 .await
-                .map_err(|_| Error::io("Durable watermark channel closed", location!()))?;
+                .map_err(|_| Error::io("Writer cursor channel closed"))?;
         }
     }
 
-    /// Check if the batch is already durable (non-blocking).
+    /// Non-blocking check.
     pub fn is_durable(&self) -> bool {
-        *self.rx.borrow() >= self.target_batch_position
+        self.is_visible()
     }
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for BatchDurableWatcher {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         f.debug_struct("BatchDurableWatcher")
-            .field("target_batch_position", &self.target_batch_position)
-            .field("current_watermark", &*self.rx.borrow())
+            .field("target_indexed", &self.target_indexed)
+            .field("target_durable", &self.target_durable)
             .finish()
     }
 }
@@ -87,7 +327,7 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for BatchDurableWatcher {
 /// A single WAL entry representing a batch of batches.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct WalEntry {
-    /// WAL entry position (0-based, sequential).
+    /// WAL entry position (1-based, sequential — see `FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION`).
     pub position: u64,
     /// Writer epoch at the time of write.
     pub writer_epoch: u64,
@@ -95,76 +335,318 @@ pub struct WalEntry {
     pub num_batches: usize,
 }
 
-/// Result of a parallel WAL flush with index update.
+/// Result of a WAL flush. Append-only: index application runs on its own task
+/// (see `apply_index_range`), which records its own stats, so this no longer
+/// carries index-update timing or row counts.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct WalFlushResult {
     /// WAL entry that was written (if any).
     pub entry: Option<WalEntry>,
     /// Duration of WAL I/O operation.
     pub wal_io_duration: std::time::Duration,
-    /// Overall wall-clock duration of the index update operation.
-    /// This includes any overhead from thread scheduling and context switching.
-    pub index_update_duration: std::time::Duration,
-    /// Per-index update durations. Key is index name, value is duration.
-    pub index_update_duration_breakdown: std::collections::HashMap<String, std::time::Duration>,
-    /// Number of rows indexed.
-    pub rows_indexed: usize,
     /// Size of WAL data written in bytes.
     pub wal_bytes: usize,
 }
 
-/// Message to trigger a WAL flush for a specific batch store.
+/// Source for a WAL flush — either a `BatchStore` range (MemTable mode) or
+/// a drainable in-memory pending queue (WAL-only mode).
+pub enum WalFlushSource {
+    /// MemTable mode: append the `[durable, end_batch_position)` range of a
+    /// `BatchStore` to the WAL. Append-only — the index apply runs on its own
+    /// task, so a failed append can no longer publish rows through it.
+    BatchStore { batch_store: Arc<BatchStore> },
+    /// Timer-driven: append whichever store still owes the WAL an append,
+    /// resolved when the message is *handled*, not when it is enqueued.
+    ///
+    /// Carries no store on purpose. `MessageFactory` is synchronous and cannot
+    /// take the async state lock, and capturing an `Arc<BatchStore>` once at
+    /// handler construction would pin the first memtable forever.
+    ///
+    /// Resolution walks the live stores **oldest first** and takes the first with
+    /// `global_end() > durable`. It must not simply take "the active memtable":
+    /// a tick enqueued before a freeze is handled *after* it, would resolve to
+    /// the new memtable, and would append its batches ahead of the outgoing
+    /// memtable's tail. WAL entry positions are assigned in append-call order,
+    /// replay walks them ascending, row positions follow, and primary-key recency
+    /// is "newest visible row position wins" — so an out-of-order append silently
+    /// inverts dedup after a crash: the stale row wins. A full scan looks fine.
+    NextPending,
+    /// WAL-only mode: drain all pending batches from the shared
+    /// `WalOnlyState`. There are no in-memory indexes to update.
+    WalOnly { state: Arc<WalOnlyState> },
+}
+
+impl WalFlushSource {
+    fn kind(&self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Self::BatchStore { .. } => "BatchStore",
+            Self::WalOnly { .. } => "WalOnly",
+            Self::NextPending => "NextPending",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Message to trigger an index apply.
 ///
-/// This unified message handles both:
-/// - Normal periodic flushes (specific end_batch_position)
-/// - Freeze-time flushes (end_batch_position = usize::MAX to flush all)
-pub struct TriggerWalFlush {
-    /// The batch store to flush from.
+/// Carries the store the batches actually landed in, captured on the put path
+/// *before* any freeze can rotate the memtable — pairing a new store with an old
+/// store's end position would index the wrong range.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct TriggerIndexApply {
     pub batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
-    /// The indexes to update in parallel (for WAL-coupled index updates).
-    pub indexes: Option<Arc<IndexStore>>,
-    /// End batch position (exclusive) - flush batches after max_wal_flushed_batch_position up to this.
-    /// Use usize::MAX to flush all pending batches.
+    pub indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
+    /// Local exclusive end of the range to cover.
+    pub end_batch_position: usize,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for TriggerIndexApply {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("TriggerIndexApply")
+            .field("end_batch_position", &self.end_batch_position)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+/// What an `apply_index_range` call actually indexed. `rows_indexed == 0`
+/// marks a routine coalesced no-op (the range was already covered) that must
+/// not be recorded as an index update.
+#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct IndexApplyStats {
+    pub rows_indexed: usize,
+    /// Wall-clock time spent applying the range, including the thread-scheduling
+    /// overhead of the blocking hand-off.
+    pub duration: std::time::Duration,
+}
+
+/// Apply a contiguous range of batches to a memtable's in-memory indexes.
+///
+/// Runs on its own task, as the single sequential consumer of its own channel.
+/// Being a single consumer is what makes it safe: it guarantees in-order,
+/// contiguous ranges, which is exactly what `HnswGraph::insert_batch` requires —
+/// it hard-rejects any range whose start is not `indexed_len`. Ordering comes
+/// from the task, not from the flush interval, so triggering per-put is exactly
+/// as safe as triggering on a timer.
+///
+/// It has its own channel rather than sharing the WAL flusher's, because
+/// `TaskDispatcher::run` awaits `handle()` inline: a shared channel would put a
+/// ~100ms S3 PUT in front of every latency-sensitive index apply.
+pub async fn apply_index_range(
+    cursors: &Arc<WriterCursors>,
+    message: TriggerIndexApply,
+) -> Result<IndexApplyStats> {
+    let TriggerIndexApply {
+        batch_store,
+        indexes,
+        end_batch_position,
+    } = message;
+
+    // Self-batching: a message handled while more puts queue behind it covers
+    // everything committed so far, so the ones behind it find their range already
+    // applied. Redundant messages are therefore *routine*, not exceptional, and
+    // must be a clean no-op — never a call into `insert_batches`, whose HNSW arm
+    // hard-rejects a non-contiguous start, and which is now terminal for the
+    // writer.
+    let start = indexes.indexed_count();
+    if end_batch_position <= start {
+        return Ok(IndexApplyStats::default());
+    }
+
+    // Every position in the range must exist. `get` returns `None` only for a
+    // position past `committed_len`, so a hole means the caller asked to index a
+    // batch the store never committed. Silently skipping it would let
+    // `insert_batches` advance `indexed_count` past a never-indexed batch —
+    // rows counted visible but absent from every index. Fail loudly; the handler
+    // poisons and reopen rebuilds the indexes from the WAL.
+    let stored: Vec<StoredBatch> = (start..end_batch_position)
+        .map(|position| {
+            batch_store.get(position).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "index apply range [{start}, {end_batch_position}) is missing batch \
+                     position {position}; batch_store committed_len is {}",
+                    batch_store.len()
+                ))
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+
+    // `insert_batches` advances `indexed_count` itself, once every index has
+    // taken the batch. Time the whole hand-off so the recorded latency reflects
+    // the blocking-pool scheduling too, matching the old inline-flush measurement.
+    let rows_indexed: usize = stored.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows).sum();
+    let apply_start = Instant::now();
+    tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || indexes.insert_batches(&stored))
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Index apply task panicked: {e}")))??;
+    let duration = apply_start.elapsed();
+
+    // Wake anything waiting to become visible.
+    cursors.wake();
+    Ok(IndexApplyStats {
+        rows_indexed,
+        duration,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Message to trigger a WAL flush.
+///
+/// Carries a `source` describing where to read batches from (BatchStore range
+/// or pending queue) and an optional `done` cell for completion notification.
+pub struct TriggerWalFlush {
+    pub source: WalFlushSource,
+    /// End batch position (exclusive). For `BatchStore`, flush batches after
+    /// the writer-global durable cursor up to this. For `WalOnly`, indicates the
+    /// position the durability watermark must reach for callers waiting on
+    /// this flush. Use `usize::MAX` to flush all pending batches.
     pub end_batch_position: usize,
     /// Optional cell to write completion result.
-    /// Uses Result<WalFlushResult, String> since Error doesn't implement Clone.
-    pub done: Option<WatchableOnceCell<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, String>>>,
+    /// Uses `WalFlushFailure` (not `Error`) since `Error` doesn't implement
+    /// `Clone`; the carrier preserves the fence reason so callers waiting on
+    /// this cell still get a typed error.
+    pub done: Option<WatchableOnceCell<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, WalFlushFailure>>>,
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for TriggerWalFlush {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
         f.debug_struct("TriggerWalFlush")
-            .field(
-                "pending_batches",
-                &self.batch_store.pending_wal_flush_count(),
-            )
+            .field("source", &self.source.kind())
             .field("end_batch_position", &self.end_batch_position)
             .finish()
     }
 }
 
-/// Buffer for WAL operations.
+/// Drainable pending-batch queue used by `ShardWriter` in WAL-only mode.
+///
+/// Lives in `wal.rs` (not `write.rs`) so the WAL flush plumbing can name it
+/// without a circular dependency.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct WalOnlyState {
+    pub pending: StdMutex<PendingWalBatches>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct PendingWalBatches {
+    /// Batches accumulated since the last successful flush. Each entry
+    /// pairs the `RecordBatch` with its memory footprint so we can keep
+    /// `estimated_bytes` accurate when the front of the queue is committed
+    /// after a successful append.
+    batches: Vec<(RecordBatch, usize)>,
+    /// Sum of memory footprints of batches currently in `batches`. Drives
+    /// the size-based flush trigger.
+    estimated_bytes: usize,
+    /// Cumulative count of batches pushed since the writer was opened.
+    /// Drives the monotonic batch positions returned in `WriteResult`.
+    next_batch_position: usize,
+}
+
+/// Snapshot of the pending queue used by the flush handler to attempt a
+/// WAL append without removing the batches first. On success the handler
+/// calls `WalOnlyState::commit_flushed(snapshot.count)` to remove the front
+/// of the queue; on failure the batches stay in the queue so a later flush
+/// can retry them, instead of being silently lost.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct WalOnlySnapshot {
+    pub batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    pub count: usize,
+}
+
+impl WalOnlyState {
+    /// Push batches and return the assigned `[start, end)` position range.
+    /// Holds the lock for the entire push so position assignment is atomic.
+    pub fn push(&self, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> std::ops::Range<usize> {
+        let mut pending = self
+            .pending
+            .lock()
+            .expect("WalOnlyState pending mutex poisoned");
+        let start = pending.next_batch_position;
+        let count = batches.len();
+        for batch in batches.into_iter() {
+            let bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+            pending.estimated_bytes += bytes;
+            pending.batches.push((batch, bytes));
+        }
+        pending.next_batch_position += count;
+        start..pending.next_batch_position
+    }
+
+    /// Snapshot the pending queue for an attempted WAL append. Clones the
+    /// `RecordBatch` handles (cheap; `RecordBatch` is `Arc`-backed) without
+    /// removing them. The caller must call `commit_flushed(snapshot.count)`
+    /// on success; on failure, the batches remain in the queue for the next
+    /// flush attempt.
+    pub fn snapshot_pending(&self) -> WalOnlySnapshot {
+        let pending = self
+            .pending
+            .lock()
+            .expect("WalOnlyState pending mutex poisoned");
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = pending.batches.iter().map(|(b, _)| b.clone()).collect();
+        let count = batches.len();
+        WalOnlySnapshot { batches, count }
+    }
+
+    /// Remove the first `count` batches from the pending queue and decrement
+    /// `estimated_bytes` accordingly. Called by the flush handler after the
+    /// WAL append for those batches succeeded.
+    pub fn commit_flushed(&self, count: usize) {
+        if count == 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+        let mut pending = self
+            .pending
+            .lock()
+            .expect("WalOnlyState pending mutex poisoned");
+        let take = count.min(pending.batches.len());
+        let bytes_removed: usize = pending.batches.drain(0..take).map(|(_, bytes)| bytes).sum();
+        pending.estimated_bytes = pending.estimated_bytes.saturating_sub(bytes_removed);
+    }
+
+    /// Pending batch count (for stats / triggers).
+    pub fn batch_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.pending
+            .lock()
+            .ok()
+            .map(|p| p.batches.len())
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    /// Pending bytes (for size-based flush trigger).
+    pub fn queue_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.pending
+            .lock()
+            .ok()
+            .map(|p| p.estimated_bytes)
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    /// Position the next pushed batch will get. Equivalent to "total pushed
+    /// since open."
+    pub fn next_batch_position(&self) -> usize {
+        self.pending
+            .lock()
+            .ok()
+            .map(|p| p.next_batch_position)
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Background WAL flush coordinator for `ShardWriter`.
 ///
-/// Durability is tracked via a watch channel that broadcasts the durable watermark.
-/// The actual flush watermark is stored in `BatchStore.max_flushed_batch_position`.
+/// `WalFlusher` owns the durability watermark watch channel, the trigger
+/// channel for the background flush handler, and the wal-flush completion
+/// cell used by backpressure waiters. It does **not** own the object store,
+/// the writer epoch, or the next-position counter — those live on the
+/// shared `WalAppender`. The flusher delegates the actual WAL write to the
+/// appender, optionally running a parallel index update in MemTable mode.
 pub struct WalFlusher {
-    /// Watch channel sender for durable watermark.
-    /// Broadcasts the highest batch_position that is now durable.
-    durable_watermark_tx: watch::Sender<usize>,
-    /// Watch channel receiver for creating new watchers.
-    durable_watermark_rx: watch::Receiver<usize>,
-    /// Object store for writing WAL files.
-    object_store: Option<Arc<ObjectStore>>,
-    /// Region ID.
-    region_id: Uuid,
-    /// Writer epoch (stored in WAL entries for fencing).
-    writer_epoch: u64,
-    /// Next WAL entry ID to use.
-    next_wal_entry_position: AtomicU64,
+    /// The writer's cursors. Shared with the index-apply task and every
+    /// memtable's `IndexStore`, so all three agree on what is visible.
+    cursors: Arc<WriterCursors>,
+    /// Underlying WAL append primitive — owns object store, epoch, and
+    /// position discovery.
+    wal_appender: Arc<WalAppender>,
+    /// Shard ID (cached for tracing; same as `wal_appender.shard_id()`).
+    shard_id: Uuid,
     /// Channel to send flush messages.
     flush_tx: Option<mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>>,
-    /// WAL directory path.
-    wal_dir: Path,
     /// Cell for WAL flush completion notification.
     /// Created at construction and recreated after each flush.
     /// Used by backpressure to wait for WAL flushes.
@@ -172,41 +654,32 @@ pub struct WalFlusher {
 }
 
 impl WalFlusher {
-    /// Create a new WAL flusher.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
+    /// Create a new WAL flusher backed by an existing `WalAppender`.
     ///
-    /// * `base_path` - Base path within the object store (from ObjectStore::from_uri)
-    /// * `region_id` - Region UUID
-    /// * `writer_epoch` - Current writer epoch
-    /// * `next_wal_entry_position` - Next WAL entry ID (from recovery or 1 for new region)
-    pub fn new(
-        base_path: &Path,
-        region_id: Uuid,
-        writer_epoch: u64,
-        next_wal_entry_position: u64,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let wal_dir = region_wal_path(base_path, &region_id);
-        // Initialize durable watermark at 0 (no batches durable yet)
-        let (durable_watermark_tx, durable_watermark_rx) = watch::channel(0);
-        // Create initial WAL flush cell for backpressure
+    /// The appender owns object store, epoch, and position state. The
+    /// flusher adds the trigger channel and completion cell on top, and shares
+    /// the writer's cursors.
+    pub fn new(wal_appender: Arc<WalAppender>) -> Self {
+        // Defaults to durable visibility; the writer replaces this with cursors
+        // built from its own config.
+        Self::with_cursors(wal_appender, Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true)))
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_cursors(wal_appender: Arc<WalAppender>, cursors: Arc<WriterCursors>) -> Self {
+        let shard_id = wal_appender.shard_id();
         let wal_flush_cell = WatchableOnceCell::new();
         Self {
-            durable_watermark_tx,
-            durable_watermark_rx,
-            object_store: None,
-            region_id,
-            writer_epoch,
-            next_wal_entry_position: AtomicU64::new(next_wal_entry_position),
+            cursors,
+            wal_appender,
+            shard_id,
             flush_tx: None,
-            wal_dir,
             wal_flush_cell: std::sync::Mutex::new(Some(wal_flush_cell)),
         }
     }
 
-    /// Set the object store for WAL file operations.
-    pub fn set_object_store(&mut self, object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>) {
-        self.object_store = Some(object_store);
+    /// The writer's cursors, for the index-apply task and the memtables.
+    pub fn cursors(&self) -> &Arc<WriterCursors> {
+        &self.cursors
     }
 
     /// Set the flush channel for background flush handler.
@@ -214,19 +687,74 @@ impl WalFlusher {
         self.flush_tx = Some(tx);
     }
 
+    /// Underlying WAL appender (for tests and debug accessors).
+    pub fn wal_appender(&self) -> &Arc<WalAppender> {
+        &self.wal_appender
+    }
+
     /// Track a batch for WAL durability.
     ///
     /// Returns a `BatchDurableWatcher` that can be awaited for durability.
     /// The actual batch data is stored in the BatchStore.
-    pub fn track_batch(&self, batch_position: usize) -> BatchDurableWatcher {
-        // Return a watcher that waits for this batch to become durable
-        // batch_position is 0-indexed, so we wait for watermark > batch_position (i.e., >= batch_position + 1)
-        BatchDurableWatcher::new(self.durable_watermark_rx.clone(), batch_position + 1)
+    /// Watch a write until it becomes visible.
+    ///
+    /// `target_indexed` is a **memtable-local** exclusive count; `target_durable`
+    /// is a **writer-global** one. They are different coordinate spaces on
+    /// purpose: batch positions restart at 0 in every memtable, while the
+    /// durability cursor spans the writer's whole life. A local durable target
+    /// would already be satisfied by a *previous* memtable's appends, and would
+    /// ack a write that never reached the WAL. Callers globalize via
+    /// `BatchStore::global_offset`.
+    pub fn track_batch(
+        &self,
+        indexes: Option<Arc<IndexStore>>,
+        target_indexed: usize,
+        target_durable: usize,
+    ) -> BatchDurableWatcher {
+        BatchDurableWatcher::new(
+            Arc::clone(&self.cursors),
+            indexes,
+            target_indexed,
+            target_durable,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// The writer-global WAL durability cursor: how many batches of this
+    /// writer's batch sequence are durable. Exclusive count; 0 means none.
+    pub fn durable(&self) -> usize {
+        self.cursors.durable()
+    }
+
+    /// Advance the durability cursor and wake waiters.
+    pub(crate) fn advance_durable(&self, global_count: usize) {
+        self.cursors.advance_durable(global_count);
+    }
+
+    /// Latch a terminal flush failure and wake every waiter (no cursor will
+    /// advance again, so they must observe the error rather than block).
+    /// Idempotent: only the first failure is retained.
+    fn mark_terminal_failure(&self, error: &Error) {
+        self.cursors.mark_terminal_failure(error);
+    }
+
+    /// Latch a terminal failure from outside the flush path (the index-apply
+    /// task). Same effect: reads and writes fail fast, waiters wake with the
+    /// typed error, and recovery is reopen -> replay.
+    pub(crate) fn poison(&self, error: &Error) {
+        self.cursors.mark_terminal_failure(error);
+    }
+
+    /// Fail fast with the typed error if this writer has been fenced (by a peer
+    /// or its own persistence failure). Both the read and write paths call this
+    /// so a poisoned writer can neither diverge further nor serve a snapshot
+    /// that replay will not reproduce. Recovery is to reopen and replay.
+    pub fn check_poisoned(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.cursors.check_poisoned()
     }
 
     /// Get the current durable watermark.
     pub fn durable_watermark(&self) -> usize {
-        *self.durable_watermark_rx.borrow()
+        self.cursors.durable()
     }
 
     /// Get a watcher for WAL flush completion.
@@ -256,242 +784,207 @@ impl WalFlusher {
         *guard = Some(WatchableOnceCell::new());
     }
 
-    /// Trigger an immediate flush for a specific batch store up to a specific batch ID.
+    /// Trigger an immediate WAL flush.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
-    /// * `batch_store` - The batch store to flush from
-    /// * `indexes` - Optional indexes to update in parallel with WAL I/O
-    /// * `end_batch_position` - End batch ID (exclusive). Use usize::MAX to flush all pending.
-    /// * `done` - Optional cell to write completion result
+    /// * `source` - Where the flush should pull batches from (BatchStore range or pending queue).
+    /// * `end_batch_position` - End batch position (exclusive); for `BatchStore`, the
+    ///   range to flush; for `WalOnly`, the watermark callers are waiting for.
+    /// * `done` - Optional cell to write completion result.
     pub fn trigger_flush(
         &self,
-        batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
-        indexes: Option<Arc<IndexStore>>,
+        source: WalFlushSource,
         end_batch_position: usize,
-        done: Option<WatchableOnceCell<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, String>>>,
+        done: Option<WatchableOnceCell<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, WalFlushFailure>>>,
     ) -> Result<()> {
         if let Some(tx) = &self.flush_tx {
             tx.send(TriggerWalFlush {
-                batch_store,
-                indexes,
+                source,
                 end_batch_position,
                 done,
             })
-            .map_err(|_| Error::io("WAL flush channel closed", location!()))?;
+            .map_err(|_| Error::io("WAL flush channel closed"))?;
         }
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    /// Flush batches up to a specific end_batch_position with index updates.
-    ///
-    /// This method flushes batches from `(max_wal_flushed_batch_position + 1)` to `end_batch_position`,
-    /// allowing each trigger to flush only the batches that existed at trigger time.
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    ///
-    /// * `batch_store` - The BatchStore to read batches from
-    /// * `end_batch_position` - End batch ID (exclusive) - flush up to this batch
-    /// * `indexes` - Optional IndexStore to update
+    /// Flush from the given source up to `end_batch_position`, optionally
+    /// updating in-memory indexes in parallel with the WAL append.
     ///
-    /// # Returns
+    /// Delegates the actual WAL write to the underlying `WalAppender`
+    /// (atomic put-if-not-exists, conflict retry, fence-on-write).
     ///
-    /// A `WalFlushResult` with timing metrics and the WAL entry.
-    /// Returns empty result if nothing to flush (already flushed past end_batch_position).
-    pub async fn flush_to_with_index_update(
+    /// Returns an empty `WalFlushResult` if there is nothing to flush.
+    #[instrument(name = "wal_flush", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.shard_id, end_batch_position))]
+    pub async fn flush(
         &self,
-        batch_store: &BatchStore,
+        source: &WalFlushSource,
         end_batch_position: usize,
-        indexes: Option<Arc<IndexStore>>,
     ) -> Result<WalFlushResult> {
-        // Get current flush position from per-memtable watermark (inclusive)
-        // start_batch_position is the first batch to flush
-        let start_batch_position = batch_store
-            .max_flushed_batch_position()
-            .map(|w| w + 1)
-            .unwrap_or(0);
-
-        // If we've already flushed past this end, nothing to do
-        if start_batch_position >= end_batch_position {
-            return Ok(WalFlushResult {
-                entry: None,
-                wal_io_duration: std::time::Duration::ZERO,
-                index_update_duration: std::time::Duration::ZERO,
-                index_update_duration_breakdown: std::collections::HashMap::new(),
-                rows_indexed: 0,
-                wal_bytes: 0,
-            });
-        }
-
-        let object_store = self
-            .object_store
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("Object store not set on WAL flusher", location!()))?;
-
-        let wal_entry_position = self.next_wal_entry_position.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
-        let final_path = self.wal_entry_path(wal_entry_position);
-
-        // Collect batches in range [start_batch_position, end_batch_position)
-        let mut stored_batches: Vec<StoredBatch> =
-            Vec::with_capacity(end_batch_position - start_batch_position);
-
-        for batch_position in start_batch_position..end_batch_position {
-            if let Some(stored) = batch_store.get(batch_position) {
-                stored_batches.push(stored.clone());
+        let result = match source {
+            WalFlushSource::BatchStore { batch_store } => {
+                self.flush_from_batch_store(batch_store, end_batch_position)
+                    .await
             }
-        }
-
-        if stored_batches.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(WalFlushResult {
-                entry: None,
-                wal_io_duration: std::time::Duration::ZERO,
-                index_update_duration: std::time::Duration::ZERO,
-                index_update_duration_breakdown: std::collections::HashMap::new(),
-                rows_indexed: 0,
-                wal_bytes: 0,
-            });
-        }
-
-        let rows_to_index: usize = stored_batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows).sum();
-        let num_batches = stored_batches.len();
-
-        // Prepare WAL I/O data
-        let schema = stored_batches[0].data.schema();
-        let mut metadata = schema.metadata().clone();
-        metadata.insert(WRITER_EPOCH_KEY.to_string(), self.writer_epoch.to_string());
-        let schema_with_epoch = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
-            schema.fields().to_vec(),
-            metadata,
-        ));
-
-        // Serialize WAL data as IPC stream (schema at start, no footer)
-        let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+            WalFlushSource::WalOnly { state } => self.flush_from_wal_only(state).await,
+            // The handler resolves a tick to a concrete store before it gets
+            // here, because only it can take the async state lock.
+            WalFlushSource::NextPending => Err(Error::internal(
+                "WalFlushSource::NextPending must be resolved by the flush handler",
+            )),
+        };
+        // A terminal failure means the watermark can never advance; latch the
+        // poison so waiters wake with the typed error and later writes fail fast.
+        if let Err(e) = &result
+            && is_terminal_failure(e)
         {
-            let mut writer =
-                StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &schema_with_epoch).map_err(|e| {
-                    Error::io(
-                        format!("Failed to create Arrow IPC stream writer: {}", e),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })?;
-
-            for stored in &stored_batches {
-                writer.write(&stored.data).map_err(|e| {
-                    Error::io(
-                        format!("Failed to write batch to Arrow IPC stream: {}", e),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })?;
-            }
-
-            writer.finish().map_err(|e| {
-                Error::io(
-                    format!("Failed to finish Arrow IPC stream: {}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
-            })?;
+            self.mark_terminal_failure(e);
         }
+        result
+    }
 
-        let wal_bytes = buffer.len();
-
-        // WAL I/O and index update in parallel
-        let wal_path = final_path.clone();
-        let wal_data = Bytes::from(buffer);
-        let store = object_store.clone();
-
-        // Returns (overall_duration, per_index_durations)
-        let (wal_result, index_result) = if let Some(idx_registry) = indexes {
-            let wal_future = async {
-                let start = Instant::now();
-                store
-                    .inner
-                    .put(&wal_path, wal_data.into())
-                    .await
-                    .map_err(|e| {
-                        Error::io(format!("Failed to write WAL file: {}", e), location!())
-                    })?;
-                Ok::<_, Error>(start.elapsed())
-            };
+    /// Append this store's un-appended suffix to the WAL. **Append-only.**
+    ///
+    /// The index apply used to run here, concurrently, under a `tokio::join!`.
+    /// That was the source of the dirty read: `join!` runs both arms to
+    /// completion and does not cancel the index arm when the append fails, so a
+    /// failed append still advanced the cursor readers keyed off. The two
+    /// operations have nothing in common — one is an in-memory microsecond write,
+    /// the other a ~100ms S3 PUT billed per call — so they now run on separate
+    /// tasks with separate cursors, and this one only ever touches the WAL.
+    async fn flush_from_batch_store(
+        &self,
+        batch_store: &BatchStore,
+        end_batch_position: usize,
+    ) -> Result<WalFlushResult> {
+        // Where this store's un-appended suffix begins, derived from the
+        // writer-global durability cursor. `local_end` clamps a cursor that
+        // predates this memtable to 0 and one past its end to `committed_len`.
+        let start_batch_position = batch_store.local_end(self.durable());
+
+        // Already appended past this end: nothing to do. Redundant triggers are
+        // routine (a put and the freeze can both target the same range), so this
+        // is the common case, not an error.
+        if start_batch_position >= end_batch_position {
+            return Ok(empty_flush_result());
+        }
 
-            let index_future = async {
-                let start = Instant::now();
-                let per_index = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || {
-                    idx_registry.insert_batches_parallel(&stored_batches)
+        // Every position in the range must exist. `get` returns `None` only for a
+        // position past `committed_len`, so a hole means we were asked to append a
+        // batch the store never committed. Silently skipping it while still
+        // advancing durability to `end_batch_position` (below) would mark an
+        // un-appended batch durable and lose it on replay — a divergence that
+        // survives the crash and hides from a full scan. Return a terminal error
+        // so `flush` poisons the writer; reopen replays the WAL.
+        let stored_batches: Vec<StoredBatch> = (start_batch_position..end_batch_position)
+            .map(|batch_position| {
+                batch_store.get(batch_position).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::writer_poisoned(format!(
+                        "WAL flush range [{start_batch_position}, {end_batch_position}) is \
+                         missing batch position {batch_position}; batch_store committed_len is {}",
+                        batch_store.len()
+                    ))
                 })
-                .await
-                .map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Index update task panicked: {}", e),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })??;
-                Ok::<_, Error>((start.elapsed(), per_index))
-            };
-
-            tokio::join!(wal_future, index_future)
-        } else {
-            let wal_future = async {
-                let start = Instant::now();
-                store
-                    .inner
-                    .put(&wal_path, wal_data.into())
-                    .await
-                    .map_err(|e| {
-                        Error::io(format!("Failed to write WAL file: {}", e), location!())
-                    })?;
-                Ok::<_, Error>(start.elapsed())
-            };
-
-            (
-                wal_future.await,
-                Ok((std::time::Duration::ZERO, std::collections::HashMap::new())),
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+
+        let record_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> =
+            stored_batches.iter().map(|s| s.data.clone()).collect();
+
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let append_result = self
+            .wal_appender
+            .append_for_target(
+                record_batches,
+                batch_store.target(),
+                Some(batch_store.generation()),
             )
-        };
+            .await?;
+        let wal_io_duration = start.elapsed();
+
+        // Advance the writer-global durability cursor and wake waiters. The range
+        // just appended is `[start, end)` *local to this store*, so it must be
+        // lifted into the writer's coordinate space before it is published —
+        // otherwise a fresh memtable's small local end would be compared against a
+        // cursor carrying a previous memtable's larger one.
+        self.advance_durable(batch_store.global_offset() + end_batch_position);
+        self.signal_wal_flush_complete();
 
-        let wal_io_duration = wal_result?;
-        let (index_update_duration, index_update_duration_breakdown) = index_result?;
+        Ok(WalFlushResult {
+            entry: Some(WalEntry {
+                position: append_result.entry_position,
+                writer_epoch: self.wal_appender.writer_epoch(),
+                num_batches: append_result.num_batches,
+            }),
+            wal_io_duration,
+            wal_bytes: append_result.wal_bytes,
+        })
+    }
 
-        // Update per-memtable watermark (inclusive: last batch ID that was flushed)
-        batch_store.set_max_flushed_batch_position(end_batch_position - 1);
+    async fn flush_from_wal_only(&self, state: &Arc<WalOnlyState>) -> Result<WalFlushResult> {
+        // Snapshot the pending queue (clone-only; cheap because RecordBatch
+        // is Arc-backed). If the append fails the batches stay in the queue
+        // for the next flush attempt. If it succeeds we truncate the front.
+        let snapshot = state.snapshot_pending();
+        if snapshot.count == 0 {
+            return Ok(empty_flush_result());
+        }
 
-        // Notify durability waiters (global channel)
-        let _ = self.durable_watermark_tx.send(end_batch_position);
-        // Signal WAL flush completion for backpressure waiters
-        self.signal_wal_flush_complete();
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        let append_result = self.wal_appender.append(snapshot.batches).await?;
+        let wal_io_duration = start.elapsed();
 
-        let entry = WalEntry {
-            position: wal_entry_position,
-            writer_epoch: self.writer_epoch,
-            num_batches,
-        };
+        // Append succeeded — remove the flushed batches from the front of the
+        // queue, then advance the writer-global durability cursor so durable
+        // `put_wal_only` callers waiting on their `BatchDurableWatcher` wake.
+        // The queue is strict FIFO with contiguous positions and its front
+        // always sits at the current watermark, so the newly-durable suffix
+        // ends at `durable + count`. Flushes are serialized on the single
+        // handler task, so this read-then-advance cannot race another flush.
+        state.commit_flushed(snapshot.count);
+        self.advance_durable(self.durable() + snapshot.count);
 
         Ok(WalFlushResult {
-            entry: Some(entry),
+            entry: Some(WalEntry {
+                position: append_result.entry_position,
+                writer_epoch: self.wal_appender.writer_epoch(),
+                num_batches: append_result.num_batches,
+            }),
             wal_io_duration,
-            index_update_duration,
-            index_update_duration_breakdown,
-            rows_indexed: rows_to_index,
-            wal_bytes,
+            wal_bytes: append_result.wal_bytes,
         })
     }
 
-    /// Get the current WAL ID (last written + 1).
+    /// Stats accessor: best-effort next-position hint, mirrored from the
+    /// underlying appender.
     pub fn next_wal_entry_position(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.next_wal_entry_position.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+        self.wal_appender.next_entry_position_hint()
     }
 
-    /// Get the region ID.
-    pub fn region_id(&self) -> Uuid {
-        self.region_id
+    /// Get the shard ID.
+    pub fn shard_id(&self) -> Uuid {
+        self.shard_id
     }
 
-    /// Get the writer epoch.
+    /// Get the writer epoch (delegated to the underlying appender).
     pub fn writer_epoch(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.writer_epoch
+        self.wal_appender.writer_epoch()
     }
 
     /// Get the path for a WAL entry.
     pub fn wal_entry_path(&self, wal_entry_position: u64) -> Path {
-        let filename = wal_entry_filename(wal_entry_position);
-        self.wal_dir.child(filename.as_str())
+        self.wal_appender.wal_entry_path(wal_entry_position)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Sentinel "nothing to flush" result, shared by `WalFlusher` and the
+/// `WalFlushHandler` early-out path in `write.rs`.
+pub fn empty_flush_result() -> WalFlushResult {
+    WalFlushResult {
+        entry: None,
+        wal_io_duration: std::time::Duration::ZERO,
+        wal_bytes: 0,
     }
 }
 
@@ -515,25 +1008,22 @@ impl WalEntryData {
     /// # Returns
     ///
     /// The parsed WAL entry data, or an error if reading/parsing fails.
+    #[instrument(name = "wal_entry_read", level = "debug", skip_all, fields(path = %path))]
     pub async fn read(object_store: &ObjectStore, path: &Path) -> Result<Self> {
         // Read the file
         let data = object_store
             .inner
             .get(path)
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to read WAL file: {}", e), location!()))?
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to read WAL file: {}", e)))?
             .bytes()
             .await
-            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to get WAL file bytes: {}", e), location!()))?;
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to get WAL file bytes: {}", e)))?;
 
         // Parse as Arrow IPC stream
         let cursor = Cursor::new(data);
-        let reader = StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None).map_err(|e| {
-            Error::io(
-                format!("Failed to open Arrow IPC stream reader: {}", e),
-                location!(),
-            )
-        })?;
+        let reader = StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("Failed to open Arrow IPC stream reader: {}", e)))?;
 
         // Extract writer epoch from schema metadata (at start of stream)
         let schema = reader.schema();
@@ -542,15 +1032,11 @@ impl WalEntryData {
             .get(WRITER_EPOCH_KEY)
             .and_then(|s| s.parse::<u64>().ok())
             .unwrap_or(0);
-
         // Read all batches
         let mut batches = Vec::new();
         for batch_result in reader {
             let batch = batch_result.map_err(|e| {
-                Error::io(
-                    format!("Failed to read batch from Arrow IPC stream: {}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::io(format!("Failed to read batch from Arrow IPC stream: {}", e))
             })?;
             batches.push(batch);
         }
@@ -562,91 +1048,982 @@ impl WalEntryData {
     }
 }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-    use std::sync::Arc;
-    use tempfile::TempDir;
+// ============================================================================
+// Generic WAL Appender and Tailer
+// ============================================================================
+
+/// First valid WAL entry position. Positions are 1-based so that a
+/// `ShardManifest::replay_after_wal_entry_position` of 0 unambiguously means
+/// "no flush has ever stamped the cursor" — replay then starts at position 1
+/// without needing to consult `sstables`, which an external
+/// compactor may legitimately drain back to empty.
+const FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION: u64 = 1;
+const MAX_APPEND_CREATE_CONFLICTS: usize = 1024;
+const APPEND_CONFLICT_REFRESH_INTERVAL: usize = 16;
+const MAX_CURSOR_PROBE: u64 = 4096;
+
+/// Retry policy for transient WAL persistence failures before the writer
+/// self-fences. On a non-conflict object-store error the appender retries the
+/// *same* WAL position up to `max_retries` times with exponential backoff from
+/// `base_delay`; exhausting the budget poisons the writer
+/// ([`Error::writer_poisoned`]).
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct WalRetryConfig {
+    /// Maximum number of retries for a transient WAL write failure before the
+    /// writer self-fences.
+    pub max_retries: usize,
+    /// Base duration for exponential backoff between retry attempts.
+    pub base_delay: Duration,
+}
 
-    async fn create_local_store() -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Path, TempDir) {
-        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
-        let uri = format!("file://{}", temp_dir.path().display());
-        let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await.unwrap();
-        (store, path, temp_dir)
+impl Default for WalRetryConfig {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            max_retries: 3,
+            base_delay: Duration::from_millis(50),
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<Schema> {
-        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]))
+impl WalRetryConfig {
+    /// Backoff before retry `attempt` (1-based), capped so a wedged store can't
+    /// block the flush task indefinitely.
+    fn backoff(&self, attempt: usize) -> Duration {
+        const MAX_BACKOFF: Duration = Duration::from_secs(5);
+        let shift = attempt.saturating_sub(1).min(16) as u32;
+        self.base_delay
+            .checked_mul(1u32 << shift)
+            .unwrap_or(MAX_BACKOFF)
+            .min(MAX_BACKOFF)
     }
+}
 
-    fn create_test_batch(schema: &Schema, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
-        RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32)),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                    (0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("name_{}", i)),
-                )),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap()
-    }
+/// Result of appending a WAL entry.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct WalAppendResult {
+    pub shard_id: Uuid,
+    pub entry_position: u64,
+    pub num_batches: usize,
+    pub num_rows: usize,
+    pub wal_bytes: usize,
+}
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_wal_flusher_track_batch() {
-        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let mut buffer = WalFlusher::new(&base_path, region_id, 1, 1);
-        buffer.set_object_store(store);
+/// A WAL entry read from storage.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct WalReadEntry {
+    pub shard_id: Uuid,
+    pub entry_position: u64,
+    /// Writer epoch recorded in the WAL entry's IPC schema metadata.
+    /// Replay logic uses this to fence-check against the current epoch.
+    pub writer_epoch: u64,
+    pub(crate) target: Option<MemTableDataTarget>,
+    /// Generation the batches belong to, when the entry records one.
+    pub(crate) generation: Option<u64>,
+    pub batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+}
+
+/// WAL appender for a single MemWAL shard with epoch fencing.
+///
+/// Writes Arrow IPC entries atomically using put-if-not-exists. On conflict,
+/// retries with the next position. Checks fencing on conflict or PUT failure.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct WalAppender {
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    wal_dir: Path,
+    manifest_store: Arc<ShardManifestStore>,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    writer_epoch: u64,
+    next_entry_position: Mutex<Option<u64>>,
+    /// Mirrors `next_entry_position` for cheap sync observability (stats).
+    /// Seeded at construction from `manifest.wal_entry_position_last_seen + 1`
+    /// so reopened shards report the post-recovery cursor immediately;
+    /// updated after each successful append.
+    next_entry_position_hint: AtomicU64,
+    /// Retry budget for transient persistence failures before self-fencing.
+    retry: WalRetryConfig,
+}
+
+impl WalAppender {
+    /// Open a WAL appender and claim a new writer epoch.
+    pub async fn open(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        base_path: Path,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        shard_spec_id: u32,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            &base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            2,
+        ));
+        let (writer_epoch, manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(shard_spec_id).await?;
+        let position_hint = manifest
+            .wal_entry_position_last_seen
+            .max(manifest.replay_after_wal_entry_position)
+            .saturating_add(1);
+        Ok(Self::with_claimed_epoch(
+            object_store,
+            base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store,
+            writer_epoch,
+            position_hint,
+            WalRetryConfig::default(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a WAL appender for a shard whose epoch was already claimed by
+    /// the caller (e.g. `ShardWriter::open` claims once then injects the
+    /// resulting epoch into both the shard writer and its appender).
+    ///
+    /// `next_entry_position_hint_seed` should be
+    /// `manifest.wal_entry_position_last_seen + 1` so the sync observability
+    /// accessor (`next_entry_position_hint` / `WalFlusher::next_wal_entry_position`)
+    /// reflects the post-recovery cursor immediately after open instead of
+    /// reading 0 until the first append has discovered the true tip. The
+    /// authoritative position counter is still discovered lazily on the
+    /// first append.
+    pub(crate) fn with_claimed_epoch(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        base_path: Path,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        manifest_store: Arc<ShardManifestStore>,
+        writer_epoch: u64,
+        next_entry_position_hint_seed: u64,
+        retry: WalRetryConfig,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            object_store,
+            wal_dir: shard_wal_path(&base_path, &shard_id),
+            manifest_store,
+            shard_id,
+            writer_epoch,
+            next_entry_position: Mutex::new(None),
+            next_entry_position_hint: AtomicU64::new(next_entry_position_hint_seed),
+            retry,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Shard id.
+    pub fn shard_id(&self) -> Uuid {
+        self.shard_id
+    }
+
+    /// Writer epoch recorded in the shard manifest.
+    pub fn writer_epoch(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.writer_epoch
+    }
+
+    /// Resolved path for a WAL entry at `position`.
+    pub(crate) fn wal_entry_path(&self, position: u64) -> Path {
+        self.wal_dir.clone().join(wal_entry_filename(position))
+    }
+
+    /// Cheap sync accessor for the next entry position the appender will
+    /// assign on its next `append`. Seeded from the shard manifest at
+    /// construction (so reopened shards report the post-recovery cursor
+    /// immediately) and updated after each successful append. Used for
+    /// stats observability; not authoritative — the actual next position
+    /// is discovered lazily by `append`.
+    pub(crate) fn next_entry_position_hint(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.next_entry_position_hint.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+    }
+
+    /// Seed the appender's next-position counter from a known value
+    /// (e.g. one past the highest WAL entry observed during MemTable
+    /// replay on `ShardWriter::open`). Skips the first-append lazy
+    /// discovery probe.
+    pub(crate) async fn seed_next_position(&self, position: u64) {
+        let mut guard = self.next_entry_position.lock().await;
+        *guard = Some(position);
+        self.next_entry_position_hint
+            .store(position, Ordering::SeqCst);
+    }
+
+    /// Append batches as one durable WAL entry.
+    pub async fn append(&self, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Result<WalAppendResult> {
+        self.append_for_target(batches, None, None).await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn append_for_target(
+        &self,
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+        target: Option<&MemTableDataTarget>,
+        generation: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<WalAppendResult> {
+        validate_appender_batches(&batches)?;
+        let wal_data = Bytes::from(serialize_appender_batches(
+            &batches,
+            self.writer_epoch,
+            target,
+            generation,
+        )?);
+        let wal_bytes = wal_data.len();
+        let num_batches = batches.len();
+        let num_rows = batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum();
+
+        let mut next_pos = self.next_entry_position.lock().await;
+        if next_pos.is_none() {
+            *next_pos = Some(self.discover_next_position().await?);
+        }
+
+        // `conflicts` counts position races across the append; `io_attempts` is
+        // the per-position retry budget for transient PUT failures. The latter
+        // only grows while we sit on one position — the sole advancing branch is
+        // `io_attempts == 0`, so it never carries across positions.
+        let mut conflicts = 0;
+        let mut io_attempts = 0;
+        loop {
+            let pos = next_pos.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "missing cached WAL position for shard {}",
+                    self.shard_id
+                ))
+            })?;
+            match atomic_put(
+                self.object_store.as_ref(),
+                &self.wal_dir,
+                &wal_entry_filename(pos),
+                wal_data.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+            {
+                Ok(()) => {
+                    let next = pos.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::io(format!("WAL position overflow for shard {}", self.shard_id))
+                    })?;
+                    *next_pos = Some(next);
+                    self.next_entry_position_hint.store(next, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    return Ok(WalAppendResult {
+                        shard_id: self.shard_id,
+                        entry_position: pos,
+                        num_batches,
+                        num_rows,
+                        wal_bytes,
+                    });
+                }
+                Err(AtomicPutError::AlreadyExists) => {
+                    self.check_fenced().await?; // surfaces a peer takeover as a typed fence
+                    // A slot we already failed to PUT is now occupied — ambiguous
+                    // (our lost-ack, or a peer). We can't advance-and-rewrite (would
+                    // duplicate) nor blindly accept it, so poison and let replay
+                    // reconcile on reopen.
+                    if io_attempts > 0 {
+                        return Err(Error::writer_poisoned(format!(
+                            "WAL position {} for shard {} was taken after a failed PUT; \
+                             in-memory state may diverge from the durable WAL, reopen to replay",
+                            pos, self.shard_id
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    // First touch of this slot: an ordinary position conflict
+                    // (stale cursor, our own earlier entries, or contention).
+                    conflicts += 1;
+                    if conflicts >= MAX_APPEND_CREATE_CONFLICTS {
+                        return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                            "WAL append for shard {} failed after {} conflicts",
+                            self.shard_id, conflicts
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    if conflicts % APPEND_CONFLICT_REFRESH_INTERVAL == 0 {
+                        *next_pos = Some(self.discover_next_position().await?);
+                    } else {
+                        *next_pos = Some(pos.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::io(format!("WAL position overflow for shard {}", self.shard_id))
+                        })?);
+                    }
+                }
+                Err(AtomicPutError::Other(error)) => {
+                    // A successor fence is terminal — don't waste the retry budget.
+                    self.check_fenced().await?;
+                    if io_attempts >= self.retry.max_retries {
+                        return Err(Error::writer_poisoned(format!(
+                            "WAL persistence failed for shard {} at position {} after {} retries; \
+                             in-memory state may diverge from the durable WAL, reopen to replay: {}",
+                            self.shard_id, pos, self.retry.max_retries, error
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    io_attempts += 1;
+                    tokio::time::sleep(self.retry.backoff(io_attempts)).await;
+                    // Retry the same position (next_pos unchanged).
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Check that this writer's epoch has not been fenced.
+    pub async fn check_fenced(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.manifest_store.check_fenced(self.writer_epoch).await
+    }
+
+    /// Drop a data-less sentinel at the WAL tip so the predecessor's next
+    /// `append` collides on PUT-IF-NOT-EXISTS and learns it is fenced, rather
+    /// than succeeding into the empty next slot. Call *before* replay: any
+    /// predecessor entry below the sentinel is then recovered, not orphaned.
+    /// On a lost slot race, re-probes one past the winner. Seeds next position
+    /// past the sentinel; returns the sentinel position.
+    pub(crate) async fn write_fence_sentinel(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        let sentinel = Bytes::from(serialize_fence_sentinel(self.writer_epoch)?);
+        let mut next_pos = self.next_entry_position.lock().await;
+        let mut pos = match *next_pos {
+            Some(p) => p,
+            None => self.discover_next_position().await?,
+        };
+        let mut conflicts = 0;
+        loop {
+            match atomic_put(
+                self.object_store.as_ref(),
+                &self.wal_dir,
+                &wal_entry_filename(pos),
+                sentinel.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+            {
+                Ok(()) => {
+                    let next = pos.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::io(format!("WAL position overflow for shard {}", self.shard_id))
+                    })?;
+                    *next_pos = Some(next);
+                    self.next_entry_position_hint.store(next, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    return Ok(pos);
+                }
+                Err(AtomicPutError::AlreadyExists) => {
+                    conflicts += 1;
+                    if conflicts >= MAX_APPEND_CREATE_CONFLICTS {
+                        return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                            "fence sentinel write for shard {} failed after {} conflicts",
+                            self.shard_id, conflicts
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    pos = self.discover_next_position().await?;
+                }
+                Err(AtomicPutError::Other(error)) => return Err(error),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn discover_next_position(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        if let Ok(Some(manifest)) = self.manifest_store.latest().await {
+            let hint = manifest.wal_entry_position_last_seen;
+            if let Some(tip) = probe_forward_from(
+                self.object_store.as_ref(),
+                &self.wal_dir,
+                self.shard_id,
+                hint,
+            )
+            .await?
+            {
+                return Ok(tip);
+            }
+        }
+        scan_next_position(self.object_store.as_ref(), &self.wal_dir, self.shard_id).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Ordered reader for MemWAL entries from a single shard.
+///
+/// Uses `wal_entry_position_last_seen` from the shard manifest as a cursor
+/// hint for `next_position()`, probing forward from the hint to find the true
+/// tip before falling back to a full directory listing.
+///
+/// The highest position read is tracked in memory, so `next_position()` costs
+/// nothing after the first entry. Publishing that cursor for other processes is
+/// the epoch holder's job — a tailer holds no claim and writes no manifests.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct WalTailer {
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    wal_dir: Path,
+    manifest_store: Arc<ShardManifestStore>,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    /// Highest entry position this tailer has read; 0 until it reads one.
+    /// Shared across clones so they pool what they have seen.
+    highest_read: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+}
+
+impl WalTailer {
+    /// Create a WAL tailer for a shard.
+    pub fn new(object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>, base_path: Path, shard_id: Uuid) -> Self {
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            &base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            2,
+        ));
+        Self {
+            object_store,
+            wal_dir: shard_wal_path(&base_path, &shard_id),
+            manifest_store,
+            shard_id,
+            highest_read: Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Read a WAL entry at the given position. Returns `None` if no entry exists.
+    /// On success, records the position as this tailer's cursor.
+    pub async fn read_entry(&self, entry_position: u64) -> Result<Option<WalReadEntry>> {
+        let path = self
+            .wal_dir
+            .clone()
+            .join(wal_entry_filename(entry_position));
+        let data = match self.object_store.inner.get(&path).await {
+            Ok(data) => data,
+            Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. }) => return Ok(None),
+            Err(e) => {
+                return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                    "failed to read WAL entry {} for shard {}: {}",
+                    entry_position, self.shard_id, e
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        let bytes = data.bytes().await.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "failed to read WAL entry bytes at {} for shard {}: {}",
+                path, self.shard_id, e
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let DecodedEntry {
+            writer_epoch,
+            target,
+            generation,
+            batches,
+        } = deserialize_appender_batches(bytes)?;
+
+        self.highest_read
+            .fetch_max(entry_position, Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+        Ok(Some(WalReadEntry {
+            shard_id: self.shard_id,
+            entry_position,
+            writer_epoch,
+            target,
+            generation,
+            batches,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Find the next append position (one past the latest entry).
+    pub async fn next_position(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        if let Some(hint) = self.cursor_hint().await
+            && let Some(tip) = self.probe_forward(hint).await?
+        {
+            return Ok(tip);
+        }
+        scan_next_position(self.object_store.as_ref(), &self.wal_dir, self.shard_id).await
+    }
+
+    /// Find the earliest listed WAL position.
+    pub async fn first_position(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        scan_first_position(self.object_store.as_ref(), &self.wal_dir, self.shard_id).await
+    }
+
+    /// Where to start probing for the WAL tip: what this tailer has already
+    /// read, or the cursor a previous process published.
+    async fn cursor_hint(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        match self.highest_read.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+            0 => {
+                let manifest = self.manifest_store.latest().await.ok()??;
+                Some(manifest.wal_entry_position_last_seen)
+            }
+            read => Some(read),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn probe_forward(&self, hint: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        probe_forward_from(
+            self.object_store.as_ref(),
+            &self.wal_dir,
+            self.shard_id,
+            hint,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+}
+
+// --- helpers ---
+
+fn validate_appender_batches(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Result<()> {
+    if batches.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "cannot append an empty batch list to WAL",
+        ));
+    }
+    let schema = batches[0].schema();
+    for (idx, batch) in batches.iter().enumerate() {
+        if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cannot append empty batch at index {} to WAL",
+                idx
+            )));
+        }
+        if batch.schema_ref().fields() != schema.fields() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "batch at index {} has a different schema from the first batch",
+                idx
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn serialize_appender_batches(
+    batches: &[RecordBatch],
+    writer_epoch: u64,
+    target: Option<&MemTableDataTarget>,
+    generation: Option<u64>,
+) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let schema = batches[0].schema();
+    let mut metadata = schema.metadata().clone();
+    // Only the writer sets these keys. Drop any the caller's schema carries.
+    for reserved in RESERVED_ENTRY_KEYS {
+        metadata.remove(*reserved);
+    }
+    metadata.insert(WRITER_EPOCH_KEY.to_string(), writer_epoch.to_string());
+    if let Some(generation) = generation {
+        metadata.insert(GENERATION_KEY.to_string(), generation.to_string());
+    }
+    if let Some(target) = target {
+        metadata.insert(
+            TARGET_GENERATION_KEY.to_string(),
+            target.generation.to_string(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert(
+            TARGET_GENERATION_DIR_KEY.to_string(),
+            target.generation_dir.clone(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert(
+            TARGET_DATA_FILE_KEY.to_string(),
+            target.data_file_name.clone(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert(
+            TARGET_CREATOR_EPOCH_KEY.to_string(),
+            target.creator_epoch.to_string(),
+        );
+        metadata.insert(
+            TARGET_BATCH_CAPACITY_KEY.to_string(),
+            target.batch_capacity.to_string(),
+        );
+    }
+    let ipc_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        schema.fields().to_vec(),
+        metadata,
+    ));
+    let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+    {
+        let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &ipc_schema)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("failed to create Arrow IPC stream writer: {}", e)))?;
+        for batch in batches {
+            writer.write(batch).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io(format!("failed to write batch to WAL IPC stream: {}", e))
+            })?;
+        }
+        writer
+            .finish()
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("failed to finish WAL IPC stream: {}", e)))?;
+    }
+    Ok(buffer)
+}
+
+/// Data-less sentinel: an empty-schema Arrow IPC stream with the writer epoch
+/// and a marker flag, no batches. Reads back as `(epoch, [])` so replay skips
+/// it. See [`WalAppender::write_fence_sentinel`].
+fn serialize_fence_sentinel(writer_epoch: u64) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let mut metadata = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+    metadata.insert(WRITER_EPOCH_KEY.to_string(), writer_epoch.to_string());
+    metadata.insert(FENCE_SENTINEL_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
+    let ipc_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        arrow_schema::Fields::empty(),
+        metadata,
+    ));
+    let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+    {
+        let mut writer = StreamWriter::try_new(&mut buffer, &ipc_schema)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("failed to create fence sentinel IPC writer: {}", e)))?;
+        writer
+            .finish()
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("failed to finish fence sentinel IPC stream: {}", e)))?;
+    }
+    Ok(buffer)
+}
+
+struct DecodedEntry {
+    writer_epoch: u64,
+    target: Option<MemTableDataTarget>,
+    generation: Option<u64>,
+    batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+}
+
+fn deserialize_appender_batches(bytes: Bytes) -> Result<DecodedEntry> {
+    let cursor = Cursor::new(bytes);
+    let reader = StreamReader::try_new(cursor, None)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("failed to open WAL IPC stream reader: {}", e)))?;
+    let schema = reader.schema();
+    let writer_epoch = schema
+        .metadata()
+        .get(WRITER_EPOCH_KEY)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io(format!("WAL entry missing {} metadata", WRITER_EPOCH_KEY)))?
+        .parse::<u64>()
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "WAL entry has malformed {} metadata: {}",
+                WRITER_EPOCH_KEY, e
+            ))
+        })?;
+    let target = target_from_metadata(schema.metadata())?;
+    let generation = schema
+        .metadata()
+        .get(GENERATION_KEY)
+        .map(|value| {
+            value.parse::<u64>().map_err(|e| {
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "WAL entry has malformed {} metadata: {}",
+                    GENERATION_KEY, e
+                ))
+            })
+        })
+        .transpose()?;
+    let mut clean_metadata = schema.metadata().clone();
+    clean_metadata.remove(WRITER_EPOCH_KEY);
+    clean_metadata.remove(GENERATION_KEY);
+    clean_metadata.remove(TARGET_GENERATION_KEY);
+    clean_metadata.remove(TARGET_GENERATION_DIR_KEY);
+    clean_metadata.remove(TARGET_DATA_FILE_KEY);
+    clean_metadata.remove(TARGET_CREATOR_EPOCH_KEY);
+    clean_metadata.remove(TARGET_BATCH_CAPACITY_KEY);
+    let logical_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        schema.fields().to_vec(),
+        clean_metadata,
+    ));
+    let mut batches = Vec::new();
+    for batch in reader {
+        let batch =
+            batch.map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("failed to read WAL IPC stream batch: {}", e)))?;
+        let clean = RecordBatch::try_new(logical_schema.clone(), batch.columns().to_vec())
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("failed to strip WAL metadata: {}", e)))?;
+        batches.push(clean);
+    }
+    Ok(DecodedEntry {
+        writer_epoch,
+        target,
+        generation,
+        batches,
+    })
+}
+
+fn target_from_metadata(
+    metadata: &std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
+) -> Result<Option<MemTableDataTarget>> {
+    let values = [
+        metadata.get(TARGET_GENERATION_KEY),
+        metadata.get(TARGET_GENERATION_DIR_KEY),
+        metadata.get(TARGET_DATA_FILE_KEY),
+        metadata.get(TARGET_CREATOR_EPOCH_KEY),
+        metadata.get(TARGET_BATCH_CAPACITY_KEY),
+    ];
+    if values.iter().all(|value| value.is_none()) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    if values.iter().any(|value| value.is_none()) {
+        return Err(Error::io(
+            "WAL entry has incomplete MemTable target metadata".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let generation = values[0]
+        .expect("checked above")
+        .parse::<u64>()
+        .map_err(|error| Error::io(format!("invalid WAL target generation: {error}")))?;
+    let creator_epoch = values[3]
+        .expect("checked above")
+        .parse::<u64>()
+        .map_err(|error| Error::io(format!("invalid WAL target creator epoch: {error}")))?;
+    let batch_capacity = values[4]
+        .expect("checked above")
+        .parse::<usize>()
+        .map_err(|error| Error::io(format!("invalid WAL target batch capacity: {error}")))?;
+    let target = MemTableDataTarget {
+        generation,
+        generation_dir: values[1].expect("checked above").clone(),
+        data_file_name: values[2].expect("checked above").clone(),
+        creator_epoch,
+        batch_capacity,
+    };
+    target.validate()?;
+    Ok(Some(target))
+}
+
+enum AtomicPutError {
+    AlreadyExists,
+    Other(Error),
+}
+
+async fn atomic_put(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    dir: &Path,
+    filename: &str,
+    bytes: Bytes,
+) -> std::result::Result<(), AtomicPutError> {
+    let path = dir.clone().join(filename);
+    object_store
+        .put_if_absent(&path, bytes.into())
+        .await
+        .map_err(|error| match error {
+            object_store::Error::AlreadyExists { .. }
+            | object_store::Error::Precondition { .. } => AtomicPutError::AlreadyExists,
+            _ => AtomicPutError::Other(Error::io(format!(
+                "failed to create {} atomically: {}",
+                path, error
+            ))),
+        })
+}
+
+/// Probe forward from a hint position to find the next unwritten position.
+/// Returns `None` if the hint position itself doesn't exist (stale hint).
+async fn probe_forward_from(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    wal_dir: &Path,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    hint: u64,
+) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+    let path = wal_dir.clone().join(wal_entry_filename(hint));
+    match object_store.inner.head(&path).await {
+        Ok(_) => {}
+        Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. }) => return Ok(None),
+        Err(e) => {
+            return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                "failed to check WAL entry {} for shard {}: {}",
+                hint, shard_id, e
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    let mut pos = hint + 1;
+    while pos - hint <= MAX_CURSOR_PROBE {
+        let p = wal_dir.clone().join(wal_entry_filename(pos));
+        match object_store.inner.head(&p).await {
+            Ok(_) => pos += 1,
+            Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. }) => return Ok(Some(pos)),
+            Err(e) => {
+                return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                    "failed to check WAL entry {} for shard {}: {}",
+                    pos, shard_id, e
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(None)
+}
+
+async fn scan_next_position(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    wal_dir: &Path,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    let mut max_position = None::<u64>;
+    let mut stream = object_store.inner.list(Some(wal_dir));
+    while let Some(item) = stream.next().await {
+        let meta = item.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "failed to list WAL directory for shard {}: {}",
+                shard_id, e
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if let Some(filename) = meta.location.filename()
+            && let Some(position) = parse_bit_reversed_filename(filename)
+        {
+            max_position = Some(max_position.map_or(position, |max| max.max(position)));
+        }
+    }
+    match max_position {
+        Some(pos) => pos
+            .checked_add(1)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::io(format!("WAL position overflow for shard {}", shard_id))),
+        None => Ok(FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn scan_first_position(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    wal_dir: &Path,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+) -> Result<u64> {
+    let mut min_position = None::<u64>;
+    let mut stream = object_store.inner.list(Some(wal_dir));
+    while let Some(item) = stream.next().await {
+        let meta = item.map_err(|e| {
+            Error::io(format!(
+                "failed to list WAL directory for shard {}: {}",
+                shard_id, e
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if let Some(filename) = meta.location.filename()
+            && let Some(position) = parse_bit_reversed_filename(filename)
+        {
+            min_position = Some(min_position.map_or(position, |min| min.min(position)));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(min_position.unwrap_or(FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::MemTableVisibility;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::test_util::failing_memory_store;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use tempfile::TempDir;
+
+    async fn create_local_store() -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Path, TempDir) {
+        let temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("file://{}", temp_dir.path().display());
+        let (store, path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri).await.unwrap();
+        (store, path, temp_dir)
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<Schema> {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_batch(schema: &Schema, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("name_{}", i)),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn build_test_flusher(
+        store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        writer_epoch: u64,
+    ) -> WalFlusher {
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            2,
+        ));
+        let appender = Arc::new(WalAppender::with_claimed_epoch(
+            store,
+            base_path.clone(),
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store,
+            writer_epoch,
+            // Tests start with no entries, so seed the hint at 0.
+            0,
+            WalRetryConfig::default(),
+        ));
+        WalFlusher::new(appender)
+    }
+
+    fn batch_store_source(batch_store: &Arc<BatchStore>) -> WalFlushSource {
+        WalFlushSource::BatchStore {
+            batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Run the index-apply task's body, as the writer's index task would.
+    async fn apply_all(batch_store: &Arc<BatchStore>, indexes: &Arc<IndexStore>) -> Result<()> {
+        let cursors = Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true));
+        apply_index_range(
+            &cursors,
+            TriggerIndexApply {
+                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                indexes: indexes.clone(),
+                end_batch_position: batch_store.len(),
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .map(|_| ())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_flusher_track_batch() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let buffer = build_test_flusher(store, &base_path, shard_id, 1);
 
         // Track a batch
-        let watcher = buffer.track_batch(0);
+        let watcher = buffer.track_batch(None, 0, 1);
 
         // Watcher should not be durable yet
         assert!(!watcher.is_durable());
     }
 
+    // Regression test: track_batch must return a watcher wired to the real
+    // WAL watermark, NOT a pre-resolved watcher. A pre-resolved watcher would
+    // cause durable writes to return before the WAL is actually flushed.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_wal_flusher_flush_to_with_index_update() {
+    async fn test_track_batch_watcher_blocks_until_flush() {
         let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
         let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let mut buffer = WalFlusher::new(&base_path, region_id, 1, 1);
-        buffer.set_object_store(store);
+        let flusher = build_test_flusher(store, &base_path, region_id, 1);
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 10)).unwrap();
+
+        let mut watcher = flusher.track_batch(None, 0, 1);
+
+        // wait() must NOT resolve before the flush happens
+        let result =
+            tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(100), watcher.wait()).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "watcher resolved before WAL flush — durability guarantee broken"
+        );
+
+        // Flush, then the watcher should resolve
+        let source = batch_store_source(&batch_store);
+        flusher.flush(&source, batch_store.len()).await.unwrap();
+        watcher.wait().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(watcher.is_durable());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_flusher_flush_to_with_index_update() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let buffer = build_test_flusher(store, &base_path, shard_id, 1);
 
         // Create a BatchStore with some data
         let schema = create_test_schema();
         let batch1 = create_test_batch(&schema, 10);
         let batch2 = create_test_batch(&schema, 5);
 
-        let batch_store = BatchStore::with_capacity(10);
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
         batch_store.append(batch1).unwrap();
         batch_store.append(batch2).unwrap();
 
         // Track batch IDs in WAL flusher
-        let mut watcher1 = buffer.track_batch(0);
-        let mut watcher2 = buffer.track_batch(1);
+        let mut watcher1 = buffer.track_batch(None, 0, 1);
+        let mut watcher2 = buffer.track_batch(None, 0, 2);
 
         // Verify initial state
         assert!(!watcher1.is_durable());
         assert!(!watcher2.is_durable());
-        assert!(batch_store.max_flushed_batch_position().is_none());
+        assert_eq!(buffer.durable(), 0);
 
         // Flush all pending batches
-        let result = buffer
-            .flush_to_with_index_update(&batch_store, batch_store.len(), None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let source = batch_store_source(&batch_store);
+        let result = buffer.flush(&source, batch_store.len()).await.unwrap();
         let entry = result.entry.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(entry.position, 1);
+        // First entry from a freshly-discovered position lands at
+        // FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION (atomic-create path discovers the tip
+        // via list).
+        assert_eq!(entry.position, FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION);
         assert_eq!(entry.writer_epoch, 1);
         assert_eq!(entry.num_batches, 2);
-        // After flushing 2 batches (positions 0 and 1), max flushed position is 1 (inclusive)
-        assert_eq!(batch_store.max_flushed_batch_position(), Some(1));
+        // Two batches appended => the writer-global durable count is 2 (exclusive).
+        assert_eq!(buffer.durable(), 2);
 
         // Watchers should be notified
         watcher1.wait().await.unwrap();
@@ -655,26 +2032,234 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(watcher2.is_durable());
     }
 
+    // Regression test for the visibility-cursor bug: with an empty IndexStore
+    // (the common case for WAL-managed tables that mirror an index-less base
+    /// The index apply and the WAL append are separate tasks with separate
+    /// cursors. Appending makes a range durable; it does not index it. Indexing
+    /// makes it indexed; it does not make it durable. Only both together make it
+    /// visible.
+    ///
+    /// This also covers the empty-registry case (a memtable with no configured
+    /// indexes), which used to be skipped entirely by the flush's index arm and
+    /// so left the cursor stuck at 0 for the memtable's whole life.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::no_indexes(false)]
+    #[case::btree_index(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_and_index_advance_separate_cursors(#[case] with_btree: bool) {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let flusher = build_test_flusher(store, &base_path, shard_id, 1);
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 5)).unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let mut idx = IndexStore::new();
+        if with_btree {
+            idx.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
+        }
+        let indexes = Arc::new(idx);
+
+        // The append alone makes the range durable and indexes nothing.
+        flusher
+            .flush(&batch_store_source(&batch_store), batch_store.len())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(flusher.durable(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(indexes.indexed_count(), 0);
+
+        // The index apply alone advances the index cursor.
+        apply_all(&batch_store, &indexes).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indexes.indexed_count(), 3);
+    }
+
+    /// A WAL flush asked to cover a range past the store's committed length must
+    /// fail terminally, not silently short-append. The store is append-only, so
+    /// `get` returns `None` only past `committed_len`; skipping that position
+    /// while still advancing durability to `end_batch_position` would mark an
+    /// un-appended batch durable and lose it on replay. The flush must poison
+    /// instead, and durability must not move.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flush_rejects_range_past_committed_len() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let flusher = build_test_flusher(store, &base_path, shard_id, 1);
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 5)).unwrap();
+        batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 5)).unwrap();
+
+        // Two batches committed (positions 0, 1); ask to flush through position 2.
+        let err = flusher
+            .flush(&batch_store_source(&batch_store), batch_store.len() + 1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing batch position 2"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // Terminal: the flusher is poisoned and durability never advanced past
+        // what was actually appended.
+        assert!(flusher.check_poisoned().is_err());
+        assert_eq!(flusher.durable(), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// The index-apply path has the same invariant: a range past the committed
+    /// length must error rather than silently under-index and advance the cursor
+    /// past a batch that was never inserted.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_apply_rejects_range_past_committed_len() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 5)).unwrap();
+
+        let indexes = Arc::new(IndexStore::new());
+        let cursors = Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true));
+
+        // One batch committed (position 0); ask to index through position 1.
+        let err = apply_index_range(
+            &cursors,
+            TriggerIndexApply {
+                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                indexes: indexes.clone(),
+                end_batch_position: batch_store.len() + 1,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing batch position 1"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+        // The cursor did not advance past the hole.
+        assert_eq!(indexes.indexed_count(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_writer_cursors_advance_and_visibility() {
+        // The durable cursor starts at zero and advances to the value passed.
+        let cursors = WriterCursors::new(true);
+        assert_eq!(cursors.durable(), 0);
+        cursors.advance_durable(5);
+        assert_eq!(cursors.durable(), 5);
+
+        // fetch_max: a lower value never walks the cursor backwards.
+        cursors.advance_durable(3);
+        assert_eq!(cursors.durable(), 5);
+
+        // durable_write = true: visibility is clamped by the writer-global durable
+        // cursor, offset by this memtable's global coordinate.
+        assert!(cursors.durable_write());
+        // global_offset 0: min(indexed = 10, durable = 5) = 5.
+        assert_eq!(cursors.visible_count(10, 0), 5);
+        // global_offset 2: min(indexed = 10, durable 5 - 2 = 3) = 3.
+        assert_eq!(cursors.visible_count(10, 2), 3);
+        // A memtable that starts past the durable cursor sees nothing.
+        assert_eq!(cursors.visible_count(10, 8), 0);
+        // Indexing, not durability, is the tighter bound here.
+        assert_eq!(cursors.visible_count(2, 0), 2);
+
+        // durable_write = false: durability is not part of visibility, so the
+        // indexed count passes through unchanged regardless of the cursor.
+        let non_durable = WriterCursors::new(false);
+        assert!(!non_durable.durable_write());
+        assert_eq!(non_durable.visible_count(7, 0), 7);
+        non_durable.advance_durable(1);
+        assert_eq!(non_durable.visible_count(7, 0), 7);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_writer_cursors_advance_is_monotonic() {
+        let cursors = Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true));
+        let mut handles = Vec::new();
+        for target in [4usize, 1, 9, 3, 7, 2] {
+            let cursors = cursors.clone();
+            handles.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                let before = cursors.durable();
+                cursors.advance_durable(target);
+                // An advance can only move the cursor forward, never back — even
+                // when a smaller target races a larger one.
+                assert!(cursors.durable() >= before);
+            }));
+        }
+        for handle in handles {
+            handle.await.unwrap();
+        }
+        // Whatever order the concurrent advances landed in, the cursor ends at the
+        // largest target.
+        assert_eq!(cursors.durable(), 9);
+    }
+
+    /// The happy path of the index-apply task: a valid range advances the index
+    /// cursor to its end and reports exactly the rows it covered.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_apply_advances_cursor_and_counts_rows() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 5)).unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let mut idx = IndexStore::new();
+        idx.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
+        let indexes = Arc::new(idx);
+        let cursors = Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true));
+
+        let stats = apply_index_range(
+            &cursors,
+            TriggerIndexApply {
+                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                indexes: indexes.clone(),
+                end_batch_position: batch_store.len(),
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Three batches of five rows each were indexed, and the cursor advanced to
+        // cover them.
+        assert_eq!(indexes.indexed_count(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(stats.rows_indexed, 15);
+
+        // Re-applying the same range is a coalesced no-op: the cursor holds and no
+        // rows are recounted.
+        let repeat = apply_index_range(
+            &cursors,
+            TriggerIndexApply {
+                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                indexes: indexes.clone(),
+                end_batch_position: batch_store.len(),
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indexes.indexed_count(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(repeat.rows_indexed, 0);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_wal_entry_read() {
         let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let mut buffer = WalFlusher::new(&base_path, region_id, 42, 1);
-        buffer.set_object_store(store.clone());
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let buffer = build_test_flusher(store.clone(), &base_path, shard_id, 42);
 
         // Create a BatchStore with some data
         let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let batch_store = BatchStore::with_capacity(10);
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
         batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 10)).unwrap();
         batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 5)).unwrap();
 
         // Track batch IDs and flush all pending batches
-        let _watcher1 = buffer.track_batch(0);
-        let _watcher2 = buffer.track_batch(1);
-        let result = buffer
-            .flush_to_with_index_update(&batch_store, batch_store.len(), None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let _watcher1 = buffer.track_batch(None, 0, 1);
+        let _watcher2 = buffer.track_batch(None, 0, 2);
+        let source = batch_store_source(&batch_store);
+        let result = buffer.flush(&source, batch_store.len()).await.unwrap();
         let entry = result.entry.unwrap();
 
         // Read back the WAL entry
@@ -687,4 +2272,636 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(wal_data.batches[0].num_rows(), 10);
         assert_eq!(wal_data.batches[1].num_rows(), 5);
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_appender_and_tailer_round_trip() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let appender = WalAppender::open(store.clone(), base_path.clone(), shard_id, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(appender.shard_id(), shard_id);
+        assert_eq!(appender.writer_epoch(), 1);
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_a = create_test_batch(&schema, 4);
+        let batch_b = create_test_batch(&schema, 2);
+
+        let first = appender.append(vec![batch_a.clone()]).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.entry_position, FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION);
+        assert_eq!(first.num_rows, 4);
+        assert_eq!(first.num_batches, 1);
+        assert!(first.wal_bytes > 0);
+
+        let second = appender.append(vec![batch_b.clone()]).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.entry_position, FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION + 1);
+
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base_path, shard_id);
+        assert_eq!(tailer.first_position().await.unwrap(), first.entry_position);
+        assert_eq!(
+            tailer.next_position().await.unwrap(),
+            second.entry_position + 1
+        );
+
+        let read = tailer
+            .read_entry(first.entry_position)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(read.shard_id, shard_id);
+        assert_eq!(read.writer_epoch, appender.writer_epoch());
+        assert_eq!(read.batches.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(read.batches[0].num_rows(), 4);
+        // Writer-epoch IPC metadata must be stripped from logical batches.
+        assert!(
+            !read.batches[0]
+                .schema()
+                .metadata()
+                .contains_key(WRITER_EPOCH_KEY)
+        );
+
+        assert!(tailer.read_entry(999).await.unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_appender_fenced_by_newer_writer() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let first = WalAppender::open(store.clone(), base_path.clone(), shard_id, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.writer_epoch(), 1);
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 1);
+        first.append(vec![batch.clone()]).await.unwrap();
+
+        let second = WalAppender::open(store, base_path, shard_id, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.writer_epoch(), 2);
+        // Newer writer races first to position 2.
+        second.append(vec![batch.clone()]).await.unwrap();
+
+        let err = first.check_fenced().await.unwrap_err();
+        // A peer takeover is a typed peer fence, distinct from a self-poison.
+        assert_eq!(err.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PeerClaimedEpoch));
+
+        // Fenced writer's cached next_pos still points at 2; the conflict path
+        // must surface the fence error rather than silently advance.
+        let err = first.append(vec![batch]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PeerClaimedEpoch));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fence_sentinel_fences_predecessor_without_successor_write() {
+        // The race the sentinel closes: a successor claims a higher epoch but
+        // has NOT yet written any data batch. Without the sentinel, the
+        // predecessor's next append lands in the empty next slot, succeeds,
+        // and false-acks. With the sentinel, the predecessor collides.
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let first = WalAppender::open(store.clone(), base_path.clone(), shard_id, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 1);
+        first.append(vec![batch.clone()]).await.unwrap(); // position 1
+
+        // Successor claims epoch 2 and drops a sentinel at the tip (position 2)
+        // — but writes no data of its own.
+        let second = WalAppender::open(store.clone(), base_path.clone(), shard_id, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.writer_epoch(), 2);
+        let sentinel_pos = second.write_fence_sentinel().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sentinel_pos, 2, "sentinel should land at the tip");
+
+        // Predecessor's next append collides with the sentinel and is fenced.
+        let err = first.append(vec![batch.clone()]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Writer fenced"),
+            "expected fence error from append, got: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // The sentinel is data-less: a tailer reads it back as zero batches so
+        // replay skips it.
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store.clone(), base_path.clone(), shard_id);
+        let entry = tailer.read_entry(sentinel_pos).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(entry.writer_epoch, 2);
+        assert!(entry.batches.is_empty(), "sentinel must carry no batches");
+
+        // Successor's own writes land after the sentinel (position 3).
+        let res = second.append(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(res.entry_position, 3);
+    }
+
+    // Regression: a fenced WAL flush never advances the durability watermark.
+    // A `durable_write` put waits on a `BatchDurableWatcher`, so without
+    // terminal-failure propagation the watcher blocks forever (the predecessor
+    // pod's HTTP write hangs until the client times out). The flusher must
+    // surface the fence through the watcher so the caller fails fast with 410.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_durable_watcher_aborts_on_fence_instead_of_hanging() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // Predecessor claims epoch 1 and writes one entry (position 1), seeding
+        // its cached next position at 2. The flusher shares this appender.
+        let first = Arc::new(
+            WalAppender::open(store.clone(), base_path.clone(), shard_id, 0)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(first.writer_epoch(), 1);
+        first
+            .append(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let flusher = WalFlusher::new(Arc::clone(&first));
+
+        // Successor claims epoch 2 and drops a sentinel at the predecessor's
+        // next slot (position 2) — a rolling-restart pod replacement.
+        let second = WalAppender::open(store.clone(), base_path.clone(), shard_id, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.writer_epoch(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(second.write_fence_sentinel().await.unwrap(), 2);
+
+        // A durable put on the predecessor: stage a batch and track it.
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 1)).unwrap();
+        let mut watcher = flusher.track_batch(None, 0, 1);
+
+        // Flushing collides with the sentinel and fences. Both the flush result
+        // and the watcher must report the fence — and the watcher must resolve
+        // promptly, not block on a watermark that can never advance.
+        let source = batch_store_source(&batch_store);
+        let flush_err = flusher.flush(&source, batch_store.len()).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            is_fence_error(&flush_err),
+            "expected fence error from flush, got: {flush_err}"
+        );
+
+        let waited = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), watcher.wait()).await;
+        let err = waited
+            .expect("watcher.wait() hung after a fenced flush")
+            .expect_err("watcher must surface the fence, not report success");
+        assert!(
+            is_fence_error(&err),
+            "watcher must report the fence so the HTTP layer maps 410, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_appender_rejects_invalid_input() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let appender = WalAppender::open(store, base_path, shard_id, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = appender.append(vec![]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("empty batch list"));
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let zero = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema);
+        let err = appender.append(vec![zero]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("empty batch"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_tailer_hints_from_memory_without_writing() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let appender = WalAppender::open(store.clone(), base_path.clone(), shard_id, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            appender
+                .append(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+        let before = manifest_store
+            .refresh_latest()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .version;
+
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base_path, shard_id);
+        let entry = tailer.read_entry(1).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(entry.entry_position, 1);
+
+        // A tailer holds no claim, so it must not touch the manifest. Publishing
+        // the cursor is the epoch holder's job, on the replay path.
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_store
+                .refresh_latest()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+                .version,
+            before,
+            "a tailer must not write manifests"
+        );
+
+        // The hint now comes from what this tailer has read. Three entries from
+        // a fresh shard land at 1, 2, 3, so next is 4.
+        assert_eq!(tailer.next_position().await.unwrap(), 4);
+    }
+
+    // A transient PUT failure is retried at the same position and then succeeds.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_retries_transient_failure_then_succeeds() {
+        let (store, base, controls) = failing_memory_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        controls.fail_wal_puts(2); // 2 failures, under the default budget of 3
+        let appender = WalAppender::open(store, base, shard_id, 0).await.unwrap();
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let res = appender
+            .append(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(res.entry_position, FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION);
+        assert_eq!(controls.attempts(), 3); // 2 failed + 1 succeeded
+    }
+
+    // Exhausting the retry budget poisons the writer with a typed persistence
+    // failure (distinct from a peer fence).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_poisons_after_exhausting_retries() {
+        let (store, base, controls) = failing_memory_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        controls.fail_wal_puts(usize::MAX);
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base, shard_id, 2));
+        let (epoch, _) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        let appender = WalAppender::with_claimed_epoch(
+            store,
+            base,
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store,
+            epoch,
+            0,
+            WalRetryConfig {
+                max_retries: 2,
+                base_delay: Duration::from_millis(1),
+            },
+        );
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let err = appender
+            .append(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+        assert_eq!(controls.attempts(), 3); // io_attempts 0,1,2 then poison
+    }
+
+    // A lost acknowledgement (PUT errored but landed) poisons the writer without
+    // ever writing a duplicate entry at the next position.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_lost_ack_poisons_without_duplicate() {
+        let (store, base, controls) = failing_memory_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        controls.set_lost_ack(true);
+        controls.fail_wal_puts(1);
+        let appender = WalAppender::open(store.clone(), base.clone(), shard_id, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let err = appender
+            .append(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+
+        // The entry landed exactly once; the next slot stays empty.
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base, shard_id);
+        assert!(
+            tailer
+                .read_entry(FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tailer
+                .read_entry(FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION + 1)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A failed WAL append must not make rows visible, even when the index apply
+    /// has already taken them.
+    ///
+    /// The two now run on separate tasks, so an index apply that lands while the
+    /// append is failing advances `indexed_count` — which is fine, and
+    /// unavoidable: indexes are derived state and replay rebuilds them. What must
+    /// not happen is for that to make the rows *readable*, because they are not in
+    /// the WAL and replay will not reproduce them.
+    ///
+    /// Visibility is derived, not published, so this holds by construction: with
+    /// `durable_write`, `visible = min(indexed, durable)`, and a failed append
+    /// leaves `durable` at 0.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_failed_append_indexes_but_stays_invisible() {
+        let (store, base, controls) = failing_memory_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        controls.fail_wal_puts(usize::MAX);
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base, shard_id, 2));
+        let (epoch, _) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        let appender = Arc::new(WalAppender::with_claimed_epoch(
+            store,
+            base,
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store,
+            epoch,
+            0,
+            WalRetryConfig {
+                max_retries: 1,
+                base_delay: Duration::from_millis(1),
+            },
+        ));
+        let cursors = Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true));
+        let flusher = WalFlusher::with_cursors(appender, Arc::clone(&cursors));
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 1)).unwrap();
+
+        let mut idx = IndexStore::new();
+        idx.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
+        idx.set_durability(Arc::clone(&cursors), 0);
+        let indexes = Arc::new(idx);
+
+        // The index apply succeeds.
+        apply_index_range(
+            &cursors,
+            TriggerIndexApply {
+                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                indexes: indexes.clone(),
+                end_batch_position: 1,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indexes.indexed_count(), 1);
+
+        // The append does not.
+        let err = flusher
+            .flush(&batch_store_source(&batch_store), batch_store.len())
+            .await
+            .expect_err("the WAL PUT is failing, so the append must fail");
+        assert_eq!(err.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+
+        // Indexed, but not durable — so not visible.
+        assert_eq!(flusher.durable(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexes.visible_count(),
+            0,
+            "a row whose WAL append failed must never become readable"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `wait_indexed` clears on the index apply alone; `wait` still needs the
+    /// append.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wait_indexed_clears_before_durable() {
+        let cursors = Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true));
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 1)).unwrap();
+
+        let mut idx = IndexStore::new();
+        idx.add_btree("id_idx".to_string(), 0, "id".to_string());
+        idx.set_durability(Arc::clone(&cursors), 0);
+        let indexes = Arc::new(idx);
+
+        apply_index_range(
+            &cursors,
+            TriggerIndexApply {
+                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                indexes: indexes.clone(),
+                end_batch_position: 1,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Indexed but not durable: the two bounds diverge.
+        assert_eq!(indexes.indexed_count(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indexes.visible_count(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(indexes.prefix_count(MemTableVisibility::Published), 0);
+        assert_eq!(indexes.prefix_count(MemTableVisibility::Indexed), 1);
+
+        let mut watcher =
+            BatchDurableWatcher::new(Arc::clone(&cursors), Some(indexes.clone()), 1, 1);
+        watcher
+            .wait_indexed()
+            .await
+            .expect("the index apply has landed");
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(50), watcher.wait())
+                .await
+                .is_err(),
+            "durability is still outstanding, so `wait` must not return"
+        );
+
+        // The append lands: now both clear.
+        cursors.advance_durable(1);
+        watcher.wait().await.expect("the append has landed");
+        assert_eq!(indexes.visible_count(), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// A poisoned writer wakes an index waiter with the typed error: its rows
+    /// may be indexed, but they are never going to exist.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wait_indexed_surfaces_a_poisoned_writer() {
+        let cursors = Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true));
+        let mut watcher = BatchDurableWatcher::new(Arc::clone(&cursors), None, 1, 1);
+
+        cursors.mark_terminal_failure(&Error::io("the WAL PUT failed"));
+
+        watcher
+            .wait_indexed()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a poisoned writer must not hand back a clean index wait");
+    }
+
+    /// An index-apply failure poisons the writer.
+    ///
+    /// A partial apply cannot be rolled back — `insert_batches` joins every index
+    /// thread unconditionally, so a failure leaves the others fully applied, and
+    /// none of HNSW, FTS or BTree has a delete. Continuing would re-cover the
+    /// range on the next attempt and corrupt the indexes that *did* succeed. So
+    /// the failure is terminal: reads and writes fail fast, and recovery is
+    /// reopen -> replay, which rebuilds the indexes from the WAL.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_failure_poisons_the_writer() {
+        let (store, base_path, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let flusher = build_test_flusher(store, &base_path, shard_id, 1);
+        let cursors = Arc::clone(flusher.cursors());
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 1)).unwrap();
+
+        // An HNSW index on `id`, which is an Int32 and not a vector, so every
+        // insert of this batch fails deterministically. `validate_index_configs`
+        // rejects this at shard open — that is what makes poison-and-replay
+        // terminating — so the store has to be built by hand to reach it at all.
+        let mut idx = IndexStore::new();
+        idx.add_hnsw(
+            "bad_hnsw".to_string(),
+            0,
+            "id".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            128,
+            8,
+        );
+        let indexes = Arc::new(idx);
+
+        let err = apply_index_range(
+            &cursors,
+            TriggerIndexApply {
+                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                indexes: indexes.clone(),
+                end_batch_position: 1,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("indexing an Int32 column as a vector must fail");
+
+        // The index task latches it, exactly as `IndexApplyHandler` does.
+        flusher.poison(&err);
+        assert!(
+            flusher.check_poisoned().is_err(),
+            "the writer must be poisoned rather than limp on with a corrupt index"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(indexes.visible_count(), 0);
+    }
+
+    // A persistence failure during flush latches the poison: the flush result,
+    // `check_poisoned`, and the durability watcher all report the typed error
+    // (rather than the watcher hanging on a watermark that never advances).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flush_persistence_failure_poisons_and_wakes_waiter() {
+        let (store, base, controls) = failing_memory_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        controls.fail_wal_puts(usize::MAX);
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base, shard_id, 2));
+        let (epoch, _) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(0).await.unwrap();
+        let appender = Arc::new(WalAppender::with_claimed_epoch(
+            store,
+            base,
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store,
+            epoch,
+            0,
+            WalRetryConfig {
+                max_retries: 1,
+                base_delay: Duration::from_millis(1),
+            },
+        ));
+        let flusher = WalFlusher::new(appender);
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batch_store = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(10));
+        batch_store.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 1)).unwrap();
+        let mut watcher = flusher.track_batch(None, 0, 1);
+
+        let source = batch_store_source(&batch_store);
+        let flush_err = flusher.flush(&source, batch_store.len()).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(
+            flush_err.fence_reason(),
+            Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure)
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            flusher.check_poisoned().unwrap_err().fence_reason(),
+            Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure)
+        );
+
+        let waited = tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), watcher.wait())
+            .await
+            .expect("watcher hung after a poisoning flush")
+            .expect_err("watcher must surface the poison");
+        assert_eq!(waited.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+    }
+
+    // A panic under the `terminal_error` lock must not cost the writer its
+    // latched failure. Recovery is reopen -> replay, which is driven by the real
+    // `FenceReason`; reporting the mutex poisoning instead would bury it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_poisoned_terminal_error_mutex_still_reports_typed_failure() {
+        let cursors = Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(true));
+        cursors.mark_terminal_failure(&Error::writer_poisoned("injected persistence failure"));
+
+        let terminal_error = Arc::clone(&cursors.terminal_error);
+        let panicked = std::thread::spawn(move || {
+            let _guard = terminal_error.lock().unwrap();
+            panic!("poison the terminal error mutex");
+        })
+        .join();
+        assert!(panicked.is_err());
+        assert!(cursors.terminal_error.is_poisoned());
+
+        let error = cursors.check_poisoned().unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(error.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("injected persistence failure"));
+
+        // The latch still takes writes, and still keeps the first failure.
+        cursors.mark_terminal_failure(&Error::fenced_by_peer("later peer fence"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            cursors.check_poisoned().unwrap_err().fence_reason(),
+            Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure)
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Reserved keys in the caller's schema metadata are ignored; only the
+    /// writer sets them.
+    #[test]
+    fn an_entry_takes_its_generation_from_the_writer_not_the_batch() {
+        // Built from the list so newly reserved keys are covered too.
+        let forged: std::collections::HashMap<String, String> = RESERVED_ENTRY_KEYS
+            .iter()
+            .map(|key| (key.to_string(), "0".to_string()))
+            .collect();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new_with_metadata(
+            create_test_schema().fields().to_vec(),
+            forged,
+        ));
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 1);
+
+        let bytes =
+            serialize_appender_batches(std::slice::from_ref(&batch), 7, None, None).unwrap();
+        let decoded = deserialize_appender_batches(Bytes::from(bytes)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded.generation, None, "the batch cannot supply one");
+        assert_eq!(decoded.writer_epoch, 7, "nor speak for the writer's epoch");
+        assert_eq!(decoded.target, None, "nor hand it a blob payload directory");
+        assert_eq!(
+            decoded.batches.len(),
+            1,
+            "nor pass itself off as a fence sentinel, which carries no batches"
+        );
+
+        let bytes = serialize_appender_batches(&[batch], 7, None, Some(4)).unwrap();
+        let decoded = deserialize_appender_batches(Bytes::from(bytes)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded.generation, Some(4));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/write.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/write.rs
index 3329e027580..54f21efbe41 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/write.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/write.rs
@@ -6,63 +6,78 @@
 //! Write path for MemWAL.
 //!
 //! This module contains all components for the write path:
-//! - [`RegionWriter`] - Main writer interface for a single region
+//! - [`ShardWriter`] - Main writer interface for a single shard
 //! - [`MemTable`] - In-memory table storing Arrow RecordBatches
 //! - [`WalFlusher`] - Write-ahead log buffer for durability (Arrow IPC format)
 //! - [`IndexStore`] - In-memory index management
 //! - [`MemTableFlusher`] - Flush MemTable to storage as single Lance file
 
-use std::collections::VecDeque;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, VecDeque};
 use std::fmt::Debug;
 use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
 use std::sync::{Arc, RwLock as StdRwLock};
 use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 
-use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use super::reconcile::{Plan, without_field_ids};
+use arc_swap::ArcSwap;
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchOptions, new_null_array};
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::mem_wal::RegionManifest;
-use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_index::mem_wal::ShardManifest;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams};
 use log::{debug, error, info, warn};
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
-use tokio::sync::{mpsc, RwLock};
+use tokio::sync::{RwLock, mpsc};
 use tokio::task::JoinHandle;
-use tokio::time::{interval_at, Interval};
+use tokio::time::{Interval, interval_at};
 use tokio_util::sync::CancellationToken;
+use tracing::instrument;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
 pub use super::index::{
-    BTreeIndexConfig, BTreeMemIndex, FtsIndexConfig, IndexStore, IvfPqIndexConfig, MemIndexConfig,
+    BTreeIndexConfig, BTreeMemIndex, FtsIndexConfig, HnswIndexConfig, IndexStore, MemIndexConfig,
+    MemIndexKind, validate_index_configs,
 };
+pub use super::memtable::CacheConfig;
+pub use super::memtable::MemTable;
 pub use super::memtable::batch_store::{BatchStore, StoreFull, StoredBatch};
 pub use super::memtable::flush::MemTableFlusher;
 pub use super::memtable::scanner::MemTableScanner;
-pub use super::memtable::CacheConfig;
-pub use super::memtable::MemTable;
 pub use super::util::{WatchableOnceCell, WatchableOnceCellReader};
-pub use super::wal::{WalEntry, WalEntryData, WalFlushResult, WalFlusher};
+pub use super::wal::{WalEntry, WalEntryData, WalFlushFailure, WalFlushResult, WalFlusher};
 
 use super::memtable::flush::TriggerMemTableFlush;
-use super::wal::TriggerWalFlush;
-
-use super::manifest::RegionManifestStore;
-
+use super::observer::WalObserver;
+use super::scanner::InMemoryMemTableRef;
+use super::scanner::SsTableWarmer;
+use super::wal::{
+    BatchDurableWatcher, TriggerIndexApply, TriggerWalFlush, WalAppender, WalFlushSource,
+    WalOnlyState, WalRetryConfig, WalTailer, WriterCursors, apply_index_range, empty_flush_result,
+};
+use super::{MemTableDataTarget, TOMBSTONE, relax_non_pk_nullability, schema_with_tombstone};
+use crate::blob::logical_to_prepared_blob_schema;
+use crate::dataset::DATA_DIR;
+use crate::dataset::blob::{BlobPreprocessor, prepared_blob_ids};
+use crate::dataset::write::ExternalBlobMode;
+use crate::session::Session;
+
+use super::manifest::ShardManifestStore;
 // ============================================================================
 // Configuration
 // ============================================================================
 
-/// Configuration for a region writer.
+/// Configuration for a shard writer.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct RegionWriterConfig {
-    /// Unique identifier for this region (UUID v4).
-    pub region_id: Uuid,
+pub struct ShardWriterConfig {
+    /// Unique identifier for this shard (UUID v4).
+    pub shard_id: Uuid,
 
-    /// Region spec ID this region was created with.
-    /// A value of 0 indicates a manually-created region not governed by any spec.
-    pub region_spec_id: u32,
+    /// Shard spec ID this shard was created with.
+    /// A value of 0 indicates a manually-created shard not governed by any spec.
+    pub shard_spec_id: u32,
 
     /// Whether to wait for WAL flush before returning from writes.
     ///
@@ -77,17 +92,6 @@ pub struct RegionWriterConfig {
     /// - Lower latency, batched S3 operations
     pub durable_write: bool,
 
-    /// Whether to update indexes synchronously on each write.
-    ///
-    /// When true:
-    /// - Newly written data is immediately searchable via indexes
-    /// - Higher latency due to index update overhead
-    ///
-    /// When false:
-    /// - Index updates are deferred
-    /// - New data may not appear in index-accelerated queries immediately
-    pub sync_indexed_write: bool,
-
     /// Maximum WAL buffer size in bytes before triggering a flush.
     ///
     /// This is a soft threshold - write batches are atomic and won't be split.
@@ -103,6 +107,16 @@ pub struct RegionWriterConfig {
     /// Default: 100ms
     pub max_wal_flush_interval: Option<Duration>,
 
+    /// Times a failed WAL PUT is retried (same position, exponential backoff)
+    /// before the writer self-fences. On exhaustion the writer is poisoned
+    /// (`Error::writer_poisoned`) and must be reopened to replay. Absorbs
+    /// transient errors beyond `object_store`'s own retries. Default: 3.
+    pub max_wal_persist_retries: usize,
+
+    /// Base backoff before the first WAL persistence retry; subsequent retries
+    /// back off exponentially (capped). Default: 50ms.
+    pub wal_persist_retry_base_delay: Duration,
+
     /// Maximum MemTable size in bytes before triggering a flush to storage.
     ///
     /// MemTable size is checked every `max_wal_flush_interval` (during WAL flush ticks).
@@ -111,8 +125,9 @@ pub struct RegionWriterConfig {
 
     /// Maximum number of rows in a MemTable.
     ///
-    /// Used to pre-allocate index storage (e.g., IVF-PQ partition capacity).
-    /// When a partition reaches capacity, memtable will be flushed.
+    /// Sizes the in-memory index pre-allocation. The memtable seals before a
+    /// write that would carry it past this, and a single write larger than the
+    /// cap is rejected.
     /// Default: 100,000 rows
     pub max_memtable_rows: usize,
 
@@ -124,14 +139,6 @@ pub struct RegionWriterConfig {
     /// Default: 8,000 batches
     pub max_memtable_batches: usize,
 
-    /// Safety factor for IVF-PQ index partition capacity calculation.
-    ///
-    /// Accounts for non-uniform distribution of vectors across partitions.
-    /// Higher values use more memory but reduce overflow risk.
-    /// Partition capacity = min((max_rows / num_partitions) * safety_factor, max_rows)
-    /// Default: 8
-    pub ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor: usize,
-
     /// Batch size for parallel HEAD requests when scanning for manifest versions.
     ///
     /// Higher values scan faster but use more parallel requests.
@@ -157,67 +164,144 @@ pub struct RegionWriterConfig {
     /// Default: 30 seconds
     pub backpressure_log_interval: Duration,
 
-    /// Maximum rows to buffer before flushing to async indexes.
+    /// Interval for periodic stats logging.
     ///
-    /// Only applies when `sync_indexed_write` is false. Larger values enable
-    /// better vectorization (especially for IVF-PQ) but increase memory usage
-    /// and latency before data becomes searchable.
+    /// Stats (write throughput, backpressure events, memtable size) are logged
+    /// at this interval. Set to None to disable periodic stats logging.
     ///
-    /// Default: 10,000 rows
-    pub async_index_buffer_rows: usize,
+    /// Default: 60 seconds
+    pub stats_log_interval: Option<Duration>,
 
-    /// Maximum time to buffer before flushing to async indexes.
+    /// How long a frozen memtable lingers in memory after its flush commits,
+    /// before it is evicted and served only from the on-disk SSTable dataset.
+    ///
+    /// `Duration::ZERO` (the default) disables retention: evict on commit, no
+    /// sweep ticker. Correct for single-shot queries, which can't observe a
+    /// generation evicted mid-read.
     ///
-    /// Only applies when `sync_indexed_write` is false. Ensures bounded latency
-    /// for data to become searchable even during low write throughput.
+    /// A non-zero value is required only for queries split across reads (e.g.
+    /// fresh tier and base table read separately, then deduped): the SSTable
+    /// dataset loses the per-batch boundaries that bound as-of membership
+    /// (see [`crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::FreshTierWatermark`]), so a
+    /// generation evicted between a query's reads can serve a stale row. Set it
+    /// above the worst-case multi-part query latency, with margin.
+    pub frozen_memtable_grace: Duration,
+
+    /// Whether to maintain an in-memory MemTable on top of the WAL.
     ///
-    /// Default: 1 second
-    pub async_index_interval: Duration,
+    /// When `true` (default), the writer maintains an in-memory `MemTable`,
+    /// optionally with indexes, and asynchronously flushes frozen MemTables
+    /// to Lance files alongside the WAL.
+    ///
+    /// When `false`, the writer skips the MemTable layer entirely:
+    /// - No MemTable / BatchStore / IndexStore is allocated.
+    /// - `index_configs` must be empty (validated at open time).
+    /// - No MemTable freezing or Lance file flushing happens.
+    /// - `max_unflushed_memtable_bytes` is reused as the backpressure
+    ///   budget for the WAL-only pending-batch queue: `put` blocks while
+    ///   the queue's estimated bytes meet or exceed this threshold.
+    /// - The async batched WAL pipeline still runs, driven by the same
+    ///   `max_wal_buffer_size`, `max_wal_flush_interval`, and
+    ///   `durable_write` settings as MemTable mode.
+    ///
+    /// MemTable-tied tunables (`max_memtable_size`, `max_memtable_rows`,
+    /// `max_memtable_batches`) are ignored when `enable_memtable == false`.
+    ///
+    /// For raw single-entry synchronous atomic appends with no buffering and
+    /// no background tasks, use `WalAppender` directly — it is a strictly
+    /// lower-level primitive.
+    pub enable_memtable: bool,
 
-    /// Interval for periodic stats logging.
+    /// Per-index HNSW build-parameter overrides for maintained vector indexes,
+    /// keyed by index name.
     ///
-    /// Stats (write throughput, backpressure events, memtable size) are logged
-    /// at this interval. Set to None to disable periodic stats logging.
+    /// These control the in-memory HNSW graph this writer builds for its
+    /// MemTable (and, on flush, the on-disk graph serialized from it). They are
+    /// a property of the writer that builds the MemTable, not of the index
+    /// definition: each SSTable is independent, so different writers
+    /// may use different parameters. An index without an entry uses the default
+    /// build parameters. `num_edges` is the HNSW graph degree (level 0 retains
+    /// `2 * num_edges`), equivalent to FAISS's `M`.
     ///
-    /// Default: 60 seconds
-    pub stats_log_interval: Option<Duration>,
+    /// Default: empty.
+    pub hnsw_params: HashMap<String, HnswBuildParams>,
+
+    /// Optional warmer fired pre-commit for each new generation (zero cold reads
+    /// on first query). Wired to the flusher; supplied by the consumer (e.g. the
+    /// WAL pod). Default: `None`.
+    pub warmer: Option<Arc<dyn SsTableWarmer>>,
+
+    /// Optional sink for write-path events, currently flush latency. Wired to
+    /// the flush handlers; supplied by the consumer (e.g. the WAL pod), which
+    /// owns the aggregation Lance would otherwise have to pick for it.
+    /// Default: `None`.
+    pub observer: Option<Arc<dyn WalObserver>>,
+
+    /// Store params the base dataset was opened with, reused for the flusher's
+    /// opens + writes (base + generations). Injected by `mem_wal_writer`; set
+    /// these to the params of the dataset at `base_uri`, not to params bound to
+    /// some other path — generation URIs are derived from them.
+    /// Default: `None` (open by URI alone).
+    pub store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
+
+    /// Session for those opens, injected alongside `store_params`.
+    /// Default: `None`.
+    pub session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
+
+    /// Admission control for every `put`, **replacing** lance's built-in
+    /// per-shard valve ([`LocalBackpressureController`]).
+    ///
+    /// For embedders whose budgets lance cannot see: a process-wide memtable
+    /// total across shards, a page-cache working set. Because it replaces
+    /// rather than layers, the injected controller owns the whole policy — a
+    /// per-shard ceiling included, for which it is handed [`ShardMemory`].
+    /// Unlike the built-in valve it may also reject: see
+    /// [`Error::Backpressure`].
+    /// Default: `None` (use the built-in valve).
+    pub backpressure: Option<Arc<dyn BackpressureController>>,
 }
 
-impl Default for RegionWriterConfig {
+impl Default for ShardWriterConfig {
     fn default() -> Self {
         Self {
-            region_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
-            region_spec_id: 0,
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
             durable_write: true,
-            sync_indexed_write: true,
             max_wal_buffer_size: 10 * 1024 * 1024, // 10MB
             max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(100)), // 100ms
-            max_memtable_size: 256 * 1024 * 1024,  // 256MB
-            max_memtable_rows: 100_000,            // 100k rows
-            max_memtable_batches: 8_000,           // 8k batches
-            ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor: 8,
+            max_wal_persist_retries: 3,
+            wal_persist_retry_base_delay: Duration::from_millis(50),
+            max_memtable_size: 256 * 1024 * 1024, // 256MB
+            max_memtable_rows: 100_000,           // 100k rows
+            max_memtable_batches: 8_000,          // 8k batches
             manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
             max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: 1024 * 1024 * 1024, // 1GB
             backpressure_log_interval: Duration::from_secs(30),
-            async_index_buffer_rows: 10_000,
-            async_index_interval: Duration::from_secs(1),
             stats_log_interval: Some(Duration::from_secs(60)), // 1 minute
+            frozen_memtable_grace: Duration::ZERO,
+            enable_memtable: true,
+            hnsw_params: HashMap::new(),
+            warmer: None,
+            observer: None,
+            store_params: None,
+            session: None,
+            backpressure: None,
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl RegionWriterConfig {
-    /// Create a new configuration with the given region ID.
-    pub fn new(region_id: Uuid) -> Self {
+impl ShardWriterConfig {
+    /// Create a new configuration with the given shard ID.
+    pub fn new(shard_id: Uuid) -> Self {
         Self {
-            region_id,
+            shard_id,
             ..Default::default()
         }
     }
 
-    /// Set the region spec ID.
-    pub fn with_region_spec_id(mut self, spec_id: u32) -> Self {
-        self.region_spec_id = spec_id;
+    /// Set the shard spec ID.
+    pub fn with_shard_spec_id(mut self, spec_id: u32) -> Self {
+        self.shard_spec_id = spec_id;
         self
     }
 
@@ -227,12 +311,6 @@ impl RegionWriterConfig {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set indexed writes mode.
-    pub fn with_sync_indexed_write(mut self, indexed: bool) -> Self {
-        self.sync_indexed_write = indexed;
-        self
-    }
-
     /// Set maximum WAL buffer size.
     pub fn with_max_wal_buffer_size(mut self, size: usize) -> Self {
         self.max_wal_buffer_size = size;
@@ -245,6 +323,20 @@ impl RegionWriterConfig {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set the number of WAL persistence retries before the writer self-fences.
+    /// See [`ShardWriterConfig::max_wal_persist_retries`].
+    pub fn with_max_wal_persist_retries(mut self, retries: usize) -> Self {
+        self.max_wal_persist_retries = retries;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the base backoff before the first WAL persistence retry.
+    /// See [`ShardWriterConfig::wal_persist_retry_base_delay`].
+    pub fn with_wal_persist_retry_base_delay(mut self, delay: Duration) -> Self {
+        self.wal_persist_retry_base_delay = delay;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set maximum MemTable size.
     pub fn with_max_memtable_size(mut self, size: usize) -> Self {
         self.max_memtable_size = size;
@@ -263,12 +355,6 @@ impl RegionWriterConfig {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set partition capacity safety factor for IVF-PQ indexes.
-    pub fn with_ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor(mut self, factor: usize) -> Self {
-        self.ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor = factor;
-        self
-    }
-
     /// Set manifest scan batch size.
     pub fn with_manifest_scan_batch_size(mut self, size: usize) -> Self {
         self.manifest_scan_batch_size = size;
@@ -281,27 +367,50 @@ impl RegionWriterConfig {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Replace the built-in per-shard valve with `controller`. See
+    /// [`Self::backpressure`].
+    pub fn with_backpressure(mut self, controller: Arc<dyn BackpressureController>) -> Self {
+        self.backpressure = Some(controller);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set backpressure log interval.
     pub fn with_backpressure_log_interval(mut self, interval: Duration) -> Self {
         self.backpressure_log_interval = interval;
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set async index buffer rows.
-    pub fn with_async_index_buffer_rows(mut self, rows: usize) -> Self {
-        self.async_index_buffer_rows = rows;
+    /// Set stats logging interval. Use None to disable periodic stats logging.
+    pub fn with_stats_log_interval(mut self, interval: Option<Duration>) -> Self {
+        self.stats_log_interval = interval;
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set async index interval.
-    pub fn with_async_index_interval(mut self, interval: Duration) -> Self {
-        self.async_index_interval = interval;
+    /// Set how long an SSTable lingers in memory before eviction. MUST
+    /// exceed the maximum query elapsed time — see `frozen_memtable_grace`.
+    pub fn with_frozen_memtable_grace(mut self, grace: Duration) -> Self {
+        self.frozen_memtable_grace = grace;
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set stats logging interval. Use None to disable periodic stats logging.
-    pub fn with_stats_log_interval(mut self, interval: Option<Duration>) -> Self {
-        self.stats_log_interval = interval;
+    /// Toggle the in-memory MemTable layer. See `enable_memtable` for the
+    /// full WAL-only-mode contract. Defaults to `true`.
+    pub fn with_enable_memtable(mut self, enable: bool) -> Self {
+        self.enable_memtable = enable;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Override the HNSW build parameters for a maintained vector index.
+    ///
+    /// Applies to the in-memory HNSW graph this writer builds for `index_name`
+    /// (and the on-disk graph serialized from it on flush). Calling this
+    /// repeatedly for the same index replaces the previous value.
+    pub fn with_hnsw_params(
+        mut self,
+        index_name: impl Into<String>,
+        params: HnswBuildParams,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.hnsw_params.insert(index_name.into(), params);
         self
     }
 }
@@ -344,11 +453,23 @@ impl<T: Send + Debug + 'static> TaskDispatcher<T> {
         let mut ticker_intervals: Vec<(Interval, MessageFactory<T>)> = tickers
             .into_iter()
             .map(|(duration, factory)| {
-                let interval = interval_at(tokio::time::Instant::now() + duration, duration);
+                let mut interval = interval_at(tokio::time::Instant::now() + duration, duration);
+                // `Burst` (the default) replays every tick missed while `handle()`
+                // was running. A WAL append can easily outlast its own interval, so
+                // the missed ticks pile up, the ticker arm below is always ready,
+                // and — being `biased` — it starves `rx` indefinitely: freeze
+                // completion cells and `close()`'s final append never get handled.
+                interval.set_missed_tick_behavior(tokio::time::MissedTickBehavior::Delay);
                 (interval, factory)
             })
             .collect();
 
+        // A single failing message must not bring down the dispatcher:
+        // the WAL flusher and MemTable flusher both run on this loop,
+        // and dropping their channels deadlocks all subsequent puts
+        // (and panics any task waiting on the corresponding watch).
+        // Log and keep draining; the worst case for a transient flush
+        // failure is replay from the WAL on next open.
         let result = loop {
             if ticker_intervals.is_empty() {
                 tokio::select! {
@@ -362,7 +483,6 @@ impl<T: Send + Debug + 'static> TaskDispatcher<T> {
                             Some(message) => {
                                 if let Err(e) = self.handler.handle(message).await {
                                     error!("Task '{}' error handling message: {}", self.name, e);
-                                    break Err(e);
                                 }
                             }
                             None => {
@@ -382,19 +502,17 @@ impl<T: Send + Debug + 'static> TaskDispatcher<T> {
                         debug!("Task '{}' received cancellation", self.name);
                         break Ok(());
                     }
-                    _ = first_interval.tick() => {
-                        let message = (ticker_intervals[0].1)();
-                        if let Err(e) = self.handler.handle(message).await {
-                            error!("Task '{}' error handling ticker message: {}", self.name, e);
-                            break Err(e);
-                        }
-                    }
+                    // Explicit messages outrank the ticker. A tick is a backstop
+                    // — it only ever *adds* an append that a real trigger would
+                    // have made anyway — whereas a message may be a freeze's
+                    // completion cell or `close()`'s final append, which nothing
+                    // else will deliver. Polling the ticker first (as this did)
+                    // lets a ready tick starve them.
                     msg = self.rx.recv() => {
                         match msg {
                             Some(message) => {
                                 if let Err(e) = self.handler.handle(message).await {
                                     error!("Task '{}' error handling message: {}", self.name, e);
-                                    break Err(e);
                                 }
                             }
                             None => {
@@ -403,6 +521,12 @@ impl<T: Send + Debug + 'static> TaskDispatcher<T> {
                             }
                         }
                     }
+                    _ = first_interval.tick() => {
+                        let message = (ticker_intervals[0].1)();
+                        if let Err(e) = self.handler.handle(message).await {
+                            error!("Task '{}' error handling ticker message: {}", self.name, e);
+                        }
+                    }
                 }
             }
         };
@@ -447,20 +571,76 @@ impl TaskExecutor {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    /// Register periodic work that is **not** driven by a message.
+    ///
+    /// Runs `work` on its own task every `every`. Use it for work only the tick
+    /// performs: a ticker registered through [`MessageHandler::tickers`] shares
+    /// the handler's message loop, where a mailbox that never empties can keep
+    /// it from running.
+    ///
+    /// Cancellation and shutdown match [`Self::add_handler`]: the task observes
+    /// the same token and is joined by [`Self::shutdown_all`].
+    pub fn add_periodic<F, Fut>(&self, name: String, every: Duration, mut work: F) -> Result<()>
+    where
+        F: FnMut() -> Fut + Send + 'static,
+        Fut: std::future::Future<Output = ()> + Send,
+    {
+        let cancellation_token = self.cancellation_token.clone();
+        let task_name = name.clone();
+        let handle = tokio::spawn(async move {
+            let mut interval = interval_at(tokio::time::Instant::now() + every, every);
+            // Same reason as the dispatcher: `Burst` would replay every tick
+            // missed while `work` ran, which for a slow `work` means the timer
+            // is permanently ready and the cancellation arm never wins.
+            interval.set_missed_tick_behavior(tokio::time::MissedTickBehavior::Delay);
+            loop {
+                tokio::select! {
+                    biased;
+                    _ = cancellation_token.cancelled() => {
+                        debug!("Periodic task '{}' received cancellation", task_name);
+                        return Ok(());
+                    }
+                    _ = interval.tick() => work().await,
+                }
+            }
+        });
+        self.tasks.write().unwrap().push((name, handle));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Cancel and join every handler registered by [`Self::add_handler`].
+    ///
+    /// Cancellation causes each handler's dispatcher to stop accepting messages and call
+    /// [`MessageHandler::cleanup`]. This method waits for every dispatcher to finish, even if
+    /// cleanup fails or a dispatcher panics, and then returns the first such failure. It returns
+    /// `Ok(())` only after every registered handler has been cleaned up successfully.
     pub async fn shutdown_all(&self) -> Result<()> {
         info!("Shutting down all tasks");
         self.cancellation_token.cancel();
 
         let tasks = std::mem::take(&mut *self.tasks.write().unwrap());
+        let mut first_error = None;
         for (name, handle) in tasks {
             match handle.await {
                 Ok(Ok(())) => debug!("Task '{}' completed successfully", name),
-                Ok(Err(e)) => warn!("Task '{}' completed with error: {}", name, e),
-                Err(e) => error!("Task '{}' panicked: {}", name, e),
+                Ok(Err(e)) => {
+                    warn!("Task '{}' completed with error: {}", name, e);
+                    if first_error.is_none() {
+                        first_error = Some(e);
+                    }
+                }
+                Err(e) => {
+                    error!("Task '{}' panicked: {}", name, e);
+                    if first_error.is_none() {
+                        first_error = Some(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Task '{name}' panicked during shutdown: {e}"
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
             }
         }
 
-        Ok(())
+        first_error.map_or(Ok(()), Err)
     }
 }
 
@@ -505,7 +685,7 @@ impl DurabilityResult {
     pub fn into_result(self) -> Result<()> {
         match self {
             Self::Durable => Ok(()),
-            Self::Failed(msg) => Err(Error::io(msg, location!())),
+            Self::Failed(msg) => Err(Error::io(msg)),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -519,10 +699,12 @@ pub type DurabilityCell = WatchableOnceCell<DurabilityResult>;
 /// Statistics for backpressure monitoring.
 #[derive(Debug, Default)]
 pub struct BackpressureStats {
-    /// Total number of times backpressure was applied.
+    /// Total number of *completed* waits.
     total_count: AtomicU64,
-    /// Total time spent waiting on backpressure (in milliseconds).
+    /// Total time completed waits spent parked (in milliseconds).
     total_wait_ms: AtomicU64,
+    /// Writers parked in `maybe_apply_backpressure` right now.
+    active_count: AtomicU64,
 }
 
 impl BackpressureStats {
@@ -531,18 +713,26 @@ impl BackpressureStats {
         Self::default()
     }
 
-    /// Record a backpressure event.
+    /// Record a completed backpressure wait.
     pub fn record(&self, wait_ms: u64) {
         self.total_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
         self.total_wait_ms.fetch_add(wait_ms, Ordering::Relaxed);
     }
 
-    /// Get the total backpressure count.
+    /// Count a writer as parked until the returned guard drops. Drop-based
+    /// because the caller's future can be cancelled mid-wait, which would
+    /// otherwise strand a waiter that never returns.
+    pub fn begin_wait(&self) -> BackpressureWaitGuard<'_> {
+        self.active_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        BackpressureWaitGuard(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the completed-wait count.
     pub fn count(&self) -> u64 {
         self.total_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
     }
 
-    /// Get the total time spent waiting on backpressure.
+    /// Get the total time completed waits spent parked.
     pub fn total_wait_ms(&self) -> u64 {
         self.total_wait_ms.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
     }
@@ -552,32 +742,392 @@ impl BackpressureStats {
         BackpressureStatsSnapshot {
             total_count: self.total_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
             total_wait_ms: self.total_wait_ms.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            active_count: self.active_count.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
         }
     }
 }
 
+/// Keeps its writer counted in `active_count` for as long as it is held.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct BackpressureWaitGuard<'a>(&'a BackpressureStats);
+
+impl Drop for BackpressureWaitGuard<'_> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.0.active_count.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+}
+
 /// Snapshot of backpressure statistics.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
 pub struct BackpressureStatsSnapshot {
-    /// Total number of times backpressure was applied.
+    /// Number of waits that have *finished*. A wait in progress is not counted
+    /// here, and a cancelled one never is.
     pub total_count: u64,
-    /// Total time spent waiting on backpressure (in milliseconds).
+    /// Total time finished waits spent parked (in milliseconds), on the same
+    /// denominator as `total_count`.
     pub total_wait_ms: u64,
+    /// Writers parked right now. This is the field that answers "am I being
+    /// throttled at this instant" — the totals only move once a wait ends, so
+    /// they read zero throughout a first, still-ongoing stall.
+    pub active_count: u64,
+}
+
+/// A **live** view of what one shard is holding in memory.
+///
+/// The single place a shard's byte totals are computed. Everything that wants
+/// them — the admission controller, [`ShardWriter::memory`], an operator gauge
+/// — goes through this, so there is no second implementation to drift from it.
+///
+/// Re-read it on every poll rather than reading once: a controller that delays
+/// is waiting for exactly these numbers to fall, so a captured copy would never
+/// observe the drain and the wait would never end. A read is one `ArcSwap` load
+/// and a sum over the live memtables, so polling is cheap.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct ShardMemory {
+    source: ShardMemorySource,
+    /// Whether the put this reading was taken for can only land after a freeze.
+    /// `false` outside a put: the seal thresholds are per-table config only the
+    /// writer can evaluate.
+    seal_required: bool,
+}
+
+/// Where a [`ShardMemory`] reads from. A dispatch over the two write modes, not
+/// a second accounting: every arm is a field read, and the arithmetic that
+/// combines them lives once, in `ShardMemory`.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+enum ShardMemorySource {
+    /// Memtable mode: the published set of resident memtables.
+    MemTables(Arc<ArcSwap<ResidentMemTables>>),
+    /// WAL-only mode has no memtable; the pending queue is the whole pool, and
+    /// there is no flush to await, so a waiter falls back to a short sleep.
+    Queue(Arc<WalOnlyState>),
+    /// Test-only: synthetic unflushed bytes, re-read each poll, so a controller
+    /// can be driven without standing up a writer. Carries no watcher — a
+    /// waiter falls back to its sleep, which keeps one poll to one call so a
+    /// test can count them.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    Fake(Arc<dyn Fn() -> usize + Send + Sync>),
+}
+
+impl ShardMemory {
+    fn memtables(tables: Arc<ArcSwap<ResidentMemTables>>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            source: ShardMemorySource::MemTables(tables),
+            seal_required: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn queue(state: Arc<WalOnlyState>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            source: ShardMemorySource::Queue(state),
+            seal_required: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Mark this reading as taken for a put that cannot land without a freeze.
+    fn with_seal_required(mut self, seal_required: bool) -> Self {
+        self.seal_required = seal_required;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the put this reading was taken for can only land after a freeze.
+    ///
+    /// A put that still fits in the active memtable adds nothing to the tier
+    /// below; one that must seal first adds a whole generation to it. A
+    /// controller bounding that tier refuses only the latter.
+    pub fn seal_required(&self) -> bool {
+        self.seal_required
+    }
+
+    /// Resident bytes of the active memtable — row data plus its in-memory
+    /// indexes. In WAL-only mode, the pending queue's bytes.
+    pub fn active_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.source {
+            ShardMemorySource::MemTables(t) => t
+                .load()
+                .active
+                .as_ref()
+                .map_or(0, InMemoryMemTableRef::resident_bytes),
+            ShardMemorySource::Queue(q) => q.queue_bytes(),
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            ShardMemorySource::Fake(f) => f(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Row-data bytes of the active memtable: the flush unit, summed over the
+    /// windows the batches read through. In WAL-only mode, the pending queue's
+    /// bytes.
+    ///
+    /// Deliberately *not* `active_bytes() - index_bytes()`. That difference is
+    /// what the batches pin — whole parent buffers, unbounded above this figure
+    /// once any batch is a zero-copy slice — and is what the ceiling is built
+    /// on. Use this to reason about when a memtable seals, not about what it
+    /// costs.
+    pub fn row_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.source {
+            ShardMemorySource::MemTables(t) => t
+                .load()
+                .active
+                .as_ref()
+                .map_or(0, InMemoryMemTableRef::row_bytes),
+            ShardMemorySource::Queue(q) => q.queue_bytes(),
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            ShardMemorySource::Fake(f) => f(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The part of [`Self::active_bytes`] held by the active memtable's
+    /// in-memory indexes (its PK bloom filter included). A **subset** of that
+    /// figure, not another term to add. `0` in WAL-only mode, which has none.
+    ///
+    /// Broken out because it does not behave like row data and is usually what
+    /// explains a shard near its ceiling with few rows in it: an HNSW graph is
+    /// pre-allocated in full on the first insert.
+    pub fn index_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.source {
+            ShardMemorySource::MemTables(t) => t
+                .load()
+                .active
+                .as_ref()
+                .map_or(0, InMemoryMemTableRef::index_bytes),
+            ShardMemorySource::Queue(_) => 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            ShardMemorySource::Fake(_) => 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Resident bytes of sealed memtables whose flush has not committed.
+    /// Always `0` in WAL-only mode.
+    pub fn frozen_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.source {
+            ShardMemorySource::MemTables(t) => t
+                .load()
+                .frozen
+                .iter()
+                .map(InMemoryMemTableRef::resident_bytes)
+                .sum(),
+            ShardMemorySource::Queue(_) => 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            ShardMemorySource::Fake(_) => 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Resident bytes of sealed memtables that have flushed and are lingering
+    /// out `frozen_memtable_grace` so in-flight as-of reads stay batch-resolved.
+    ///
+    /// Real memory, but no flush reclaims it — the sweeper does, on a timer. A
+    /// waiter that blocks on this is waiting for the clock, not for a flush.
+    /// `0` in WAL-only mode, and `0` under the default zero grace.
+    pub fn grace_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.source {
+            ShardMemorySource::MemTables(t) => t
+                .load()
+                .grace
+                .iter()
+                .map(InMemoryMemTableRef::resident_bytes)
+                .sum(),
+            ShardMemorySource::Queue(_) => 0,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            ShardMemorySource::Fake(_) => 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Bytes only a flush can reclaim: the pool to bound against OOM.
+    ///
+    /// One load covers both terms, so this cannot cross a freeze and
+    /// double-count or lose a memtable the way two separate reads could — which
+    /// is why this is not `active_bytes() + frozen_bytes()`.
+    pub fn unflushed_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.source {
+            ShardMemorySource::MemTables(t) => {
+                let tables = t.load();
+                tables
+                    .active
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map_or(0, InMemoryMemTableRef::resident_bytes)
+                    + tables
+                        .frozen
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(InMemoryMemTableRef::resident_bytes)
+                        .sum::<usize>()
+            }
+            ShardMemorySource::Queue(q) => q.queue_bytes(),
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            ShardMemorySource::Fake(f) => f(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Every resident byte the shard is holding: [`Self::unflushed_bytes`] plus
+    /// the generations already flushed but still inside `frozen_memtable_grace`.
+    ///
+    /// This is the figure a process-wide budget wants. `unflushed_bytes` is the
+    /// narrower one — what a flush can still reclaim — and is what the per-shard
+    /// valve throttles on, because throttling on grace-retained memory would
+    /// stall the writer waiting for a sweeper tick. The two differ only when a
+    /// grace is configured; under the default zero grace they are equal.
+    pub fn retained_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        match &self.source {
+            ShardMemorySource::MemTables(t) => {
+                let tables = t.load();
+                tables
+                    .active
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map_or(0, InMemoryMemTableRef::resident_bytes)
+                    + tables
+                        .frozen
+                        .iter()
+                        .chain(tables.grace.iter())
+                        .map(InMemoryMemTableRef::resident_bytes)
+                        .sum::<usize>()
+            }
+            ShardMemorySource::Queue(q) => q.queue_bytes(),
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            ShardMemorySource::Fake(f) => f(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// What could reclaim memory here while a writer waits on it.
+    ///
+    /// A blocking controller must consult this rather than assume that waiting
+    /// eventually works: a shard can be over its ceiling with nothing running
+    /// that would bring it back down. See [`Drain`].
+    pub fn drain(&self) -> Drain {
+        match &self.source {
+            ShardMemorySource::MemTables(t) => {
+                let tables = t.load();
+                match tables.oldest_flush.clone() {
+                    Some(flush) => Drain::Flush(flush),
+                    // The sweeper will drop these once their grace elapses.
+                    None if !tables.grace.is_empty() => Drain::Background,
+                    None => Drain::Stalled,
+                }
+            }
+            // The WAL flusher drains the queue on its own schedule.
+            ShardMemorySource::Queue(_) => Drain::Background,
+            #[cfg(test)]
+            ShardMemorySource::Fake(_) => Drain::Background,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// What can bring a shard back under its ceiling while a writer waits.
+///
+/// Returned by [`ShardMemory::drain`] so a blocking controller can tell a wait
+/// that ends from one that cannot. The distinction is not academic: a flush
+/// that fails leaves its generation resident and charged with nothing queued to
+/// retry it, and index memory is charged to the ceiling while the seal trigger
+/// measures row bytes — either can put a shard over budget with no flush in
+/// flight, and only a new write would start one.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub enum Drain {
+    /// Park on this flush. Completing it retires a whole generation.
+    Flush(DurabilityWatcher),
+    /// Nothing to park on, but something is draining the shard on its own
+    /// schedule — the WAL flusher, or the grace sweeper. Poll.
+    Background,
+    /// Nothing outstanding. Only a new write would start a flush, and a waiter
+    /// here is precisely what is keeping writes out, so waiting cannot end.
+    Stalled,
+}
+
+impl Debug for ShardMemory {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("ShardMemory")
+            .field("active_bytes", &self.active_bytes())
+            .field("frozen_bytes", &self.frozen_bytes())
+            .field("grace_bytes", &self.grace_bytes())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Admission control for [`ShardWriter::put`], consulted before each write.
+///
+/// Two implementations ship in-tree and exactly one runs per writer:
+/// [`LocalBackpressureController`] by default, or whatever an embedder installs
+/// via [`ShardWriterConfig::backpressure`]. They do not layer — the injected
+/// one owns the whole policy, per-shard rules included, which is what
+/// [`ShardMemory`] is for.
+///
+/// An embedder replaces the default when it has budgets lance cannot see: a
+/// process-wide memtable total across shards, a page-cache working set. Because
+/// [`ShardMemory`] is self-sufficient, a replacement that also wants the
+/// built-in per-shard behaviour can call [`LocalBackpressureController`] from
+/// inside its own implementation rather than reimplementing it.
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+pub trait BackpressureController: Send + Sync + Debug {
+    /// Decide whether to admit a write into a shard currently holding `shard`.
+    ///
+    /// May await to delay the writer, or return [`Error::Backpressure`] to
+    /// refuse it. Any other error is a real failure.
+    ///
+    /// Deliberately not told the incoming batch's size. Batches are already
+    /// decoded and resident by the time this runs, so there is nothing to
+    /// reserve against — refusing does not un-allocate them. Bounding a single
+    /// write's memory is the ingress's job, not this one's.
+    async fn maybe_apply_backpressure(&self, shard: ShardMemory) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Whether a freeze may proceed right now. Read under the writer lock, so
+    /// it must answer from already-published state without blocking.
+    ///
+    /// `false` pins the active memtable at its cap and refuses the puts that
+    /// needed the freeze. Not consulted by [`ShardWriter::force_seal_active`],
+    /// which drain and drop rely on to seal whatever the tier below looks like.
+    fn may_seal_memtable(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    /// Throttling counters for [`ShardWriter::backpressure_stats`]. An injected
+    /// controller keeps its own metrics, so the default reports zeros rather
+    /// than requiring it to maintain lance's.
+    fn stats_snapshot(&self) -> BackpressureStatsSnapshot {
+        BackpressureStatsSnapshot::default()
+    }
+}
+
+/// The controller guarding this writer: the embedder's if one was injected,
+/// otherwise lance's own [`LocalBackpressureController`].
+fn resolve_backpressure(config: &ShardWriterConfig) -> Arc<dyn BackpressureController> {
+    match &config.backpressure {
+        Some(injected) => injected.clone(),
+        None => Arc::new(LocalBackpressureController::new(config)),
+    }
 }
 
-/// Backpressure controller for managing write flow.
-pub struct BackpressureController {
-    /// Configuration.
-    config: RegionWriterConfig,
-    /// Stats for monitoring.
+/// Poll cadence while a shard is over its ceiling and something other than a
+/// flush is expected to bring it back down — there is no watcher to park on.
+const DRAIN_POLL_INTERVAL: Duration = Duration::from_millis(10);
+
+/// How long a shard must keep reading as [`Drain::Stalled`] before the valve
+/// gives up on it rather than waiting.
+///
+/// The classification is momentarily wrong under concurrency: another writer
+/// holding the state lock has already grown the active memtable past the
+/// ceiling but has not yet reached the `freeze_memtable` that publishes a
+/// watcher, so a waiter sampling in between sees over-budget with nothing
+/// outstanding. That window is one locked section of in-memory work, orders of
+/// magnitude under this. A real stall never closes.
+const STALL_GRACE: Duration = Duration::from_secs(1);
+
+/// The per-shard memtable valve: lance's default when nothing is injected.
+///
+/// Soft and blocking — it stalls the producer until a flush drains the pool.
+/// It refuses a write only when the pool *cannot* drain (see [`Drain`]);
+/// waiting there would park the writer for good. Replaced wholesale by
+/// [`ShardWriterConfig::backpressure`], so an embedder that injects a
+/// controller takes on the per-shard ceiling this provides (see
+/// [`ShardMemory`]).
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct LocalBackpressureController {
+    max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: usize,
+    log_interval: Duration,
     stats: Arc<BackpressureStats>,
 }
 
-impl BackpressureController {
-    /// Create a new backpressure controller.
-    pub fn new(config: RegionWriterConfig) -> Self {
+impl LocalBackpressureController {
+    fn new(config: &ShardWriterConfig) -> Self {
         Self {
-            config,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+            log_interval: config.backpressure_log_interval,
             stats: Arc::new(BackpressureStats::new()),
         }
     }
@@ -586,31 +1136,44 @@ impl BackpressureController {
     pub fn stats(&self) -> &Arc<BackpressureStats> {
         &self.stats
     }
+}
 
-    /// Check and apply backpressure if needed.
-    ///
-    /// This method blocks if the system is under memory pressure, waiting for
-    /// frozen memtables to be flushed to storage until under threshold.
-    ///
-    /// Backpressure is applied when:
-    /// - `unflushed_memtable_bytes` >= `max_unflushed_memtable_bytes`
-    ///
-    /// # Arguments
-    /// - `get_state`: Closure that returns current (unflushed_memtable_bytes, oldest_memtable_watcher)
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl BackpressureController for LocalBackpressureController {
+    fn stats_snapshot(&self) -> BackpressureStatsSnapshot {
+        self.stats.snapshot()
+    }
+
+    /// Blocks while this shard's unflushed bytes are at or above
+    /// `max_unflushed_memtable_bytes`, waiting on the oldest flush.
     ///
-    /// The closure is called in a loop to get fresh state after each wait.
-    pub async fn maybe_apply_backpressure<F>(&self, mut get_state: F) -> Result<()>
-    where
-        F: FnMut() -> (usize, Option<DurabilityWatcher>),
-    {
+    /// Returns [`Error::Backpressure`] in the one case where blocking would
+    /// never end: over the ceiling with no flush outstanding and nothing
+    /// draining in the background, for `STALL_GRACE` running. Only a write
+    /// starts a flush, and this valve is what holds writes out, so the wait
+    /// would have no event to end on. The
+    /// error names the breakdown, because the two ways to get there — a flush
+    /// that failed and left its generation charged, or index memory carrying a
+    /// memtable past the ceiling while the seal trigger still sees small row
+    /// bytes — are both configuration or operational conditions an operator has
+    /// to act on rather than wait out.
+    async fn maybe_apply_backpressure(&self, shard: ShardMemory) -> Result<()> {
         let start = std::time::Instant::now();
         let mut iteration = 0u32;
+        // Held for the whole stall so an operator polling mid-wait sees it; the
+        // totals below cannot, since they only move once the wait ends.
+        let mut active_wait = None;
+        // When the shard first read as un-drainable, cleared the moment it
+        // stops. See `STALL_GRACE`.
+        let mut stalled_since: Option<std::time::Instant> = None;
 
         loop {
-            let (unflushed_memtable_bytes, oldest_watcher) = get_state();
+            // Re-read every iteration: this loop is waiting for exactly these
+            // bytes to fall, so a value captured once would never see the drain.
+            let unflushed_memtable_bytes = shard.unflushed_bytes();
 
             // Check if under threshold
-            if unflushed_memtable_bytes < self.config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes {
+            if unflushed_memtable_bytes < self.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes {
                 if iteration > 0 {
                     let wait_ms = start.elapsed().as_millis() as u64;
                     self.stats.record(wait_ms);
@@ -619,28 +1182,55 @@ impl BackpressureController {
             }
 
             iteration += 1;
+            if active_wait.is_none() {
+                active_wait = Some(self.stats.begin_wait());
+            }
 
             debug!(
                 "Backpressure triggered: unflushed_bytes={}, max={}, iteration={}",
-                unflushed_memtable_bytes, self.config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes, iteration
+                unflushed_memtable_bytes, self.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes, iteration
             );
 
-            // Wait for oldest memtable to flush
-            if let Some(mut mem_watcher) = oldest_watcher {
-                tokio::select! {
-                    _ = mem_watcher.await_value() => {}
-                    _ = tokio::time::sleep(self.config.backpressure_log_interval) => {
-                        warn!(
-                            "Backpressure wait timeout, continuing to wait: unflushed_bytes={}, interval={}s, iteration={}",
-                            unflushed_memtable_bytes,
-                            self.config.backpressure_log_interval.as_secs(),
-                            iteration
-                        );
+            match shard.drain() {
+                Drain::Flush(mut mem_watcher) => {
+                    stalled_since = None;
+                    tokio::select! {
+                        _ = mem_watcher.await_value() => {}
+                        _ = tokio::time::sleep(self.log_interval) => {
+                            warn!(
+                                "Backpressure wait timeout, continuing to wait: unflushed_bytes={}, interval={}s, iteration={}",
+                                unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+                                self.log_interval.as_secs(),
+                                iteration
+                            );
+                        }
                     }
                 }
-            } else {
-                // No watcher available - sleep briefly to avoid busy loop
-                tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10)).await;
+                // Someone else is draining on a schedule of their own; poll
+                // rather than busy-loop.
+                Drain::Background => {
+                    stalled_since = None;
+                    tokio::time::sleep(DRAIN_POLL_INTERVAL).await
+                }
+                Drain::Stalled => {
+                    let since = *stalled_since.get_or_insert_with(std::time::Instant::now);
+                    if since.elapsed() < STALL_GRACE {
+                        tokio::time::sleep(DRAIN_POLL_INTERVAL).await;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    return Err(Error::backpressure(format!(
+                        "shard is at its memtable ceiling with no flush outstanding, so waiting \
+                         cannot drain it: unflushed_bytes={}, max={}, active_bytes={} (of which \
+                         index_bytes={}), frozen_bytes={}. The active memtable seals on resident \
+                         bytes, so reaching here means a flush failed and left its generation \
+                         charged with nothing queued to retry it",
+                        unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+                        self.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+                        shard.active_bytes(),
+                        shard.index_bytes(),
+                        shard.frozen_bytes(),
+                    )));
+                }
             }
         }
     }
@@ -654,14 +1244,110 @@ pub struct WriteResult {
     pub batch_positions: std::ops::Range<usize>,
 }
 
-/// RegionWriter state shared across tasks.
+/// A sealed memtable kept queryable in memory. `flushed_at_ms` is `None` while
+/// the generation is still awaiting (or retrying) its flush, and `Some(t)` once
+/// the flush commits — after which it lingers for `frozen_memtable_grace` so
+/// in-flight as-of reads keep batch-resolved membership, then is swept.
+struct FrozenMemTable {
+    memtable: Arc<MemTable>,
+    flushed_at_ms: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+/// What one shard holds in memory: detached size handles, plus the flush a
+/// waiter should park on.
+///
+/// Data only. The byte arithmetic lives on [`ShardMemory`], which is the single
+/// place it exists — this is just what gets published.
+///
+/// Lives outside [`WriterState`] on purpose. A caller deciding whether to admit
+/// a write must read this *while* the writer holds the write lock, which is
+/// exactly when a `try_read()` on that lock fails — and tokio's `RwLock` is
+/// write-preferring, so it fails whenever a writer is merely queued. Reading
+/// through the lock would therefore report zero precisely under load.
+///
+/// Replaced wholesale by [`publish_memory`] at the moments the memtable set
+/// changes, and **derived** from `WriterState` each time rather than adjusted.
+/// So there is no counter to keep paired with anything, nothing on the per-put
+/// path, and no way for this and [`ShardWriter::memtable_stats`] to disagree
+/// about what the shard holds: they read the same memtables through the same
+/// filter.
+///
+/// The handles stay live, so byte totals track a memtable that is still growing
+/// without anyone republishing.
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct ResidentMemTables {
+    /// The active memtable, or `None` before the first publish.
+    active: Option<InMemoryMemTableRef>,
+    /// Sealed memtables whose flush has not committed — including any left
+    /// resident by a *failed* flush, which are the ones most worth metering.
+    frozen: Vec<InMemoryMemTableRef>,
+    /// Sealed memtables whose flush *did* commit, lingering out
+    /// `frozen_memtable_grace` before [`sweep_expired_frozen`] drops them.
+    ///
+    /// Held apart from `frozen` rather than dropped from the view: no flush can
+    /// reclaim these, so metering the flush valve on them would throttle against
+    /// memory that is going away on a timer. They are still resident, though,
+    /// and a process-wide budget has to see them — hence
+    /// [`ShardMemory::retained_bytes`] alongside
+    /// [`ShardMemory::unflushed_bytes`].
+    grace: Vec<InMemoryMemTableRef>,
+    /// The oldest flush still outstanding, or `None` when none is.
+    ///
+    /// Deliberately not backfilled with the active memtable's watcher. That
+    /// watcher only fires when the active memtable is sealed, which only a put
+    /// does — so offering it to a waiter that is itself holding puts out names
+    /// an event that cannot arrive. `None` is the honest answer, and
+    /// [`ShardMemory::drain`] turns it into one.
+    oldest_flush: Option<DurabilityWatcher>,
+}
+
+/// Re-derive a shard's resident-memtable set from its writer state.
+///
+/// Call under the write lock after any change to that set: `open`,
+/// `freeze_memtable`, a flush commit, and [`sweep_expired_frozen`] — which changes it by
+/// evicting grace-expired generations that are still counted until it runs.
+///
+/// Cheap: two `Arc` clones per live memtable, no byte walk — the totals are
+/// computed on read.
+fn publish_memory(memory: &ArcSwap<ResidentMemTables>, state: &WriterState) {
+    let (grace, frozen) = state
+        .frozen_memtables
+        .iter()
+        .partition::<Vec<_>, _>(|frozen| frozen.flushed_at_ms.is_some());
+    let refs = |tables: Vec<&FrozenMemTable>| {
+        tables
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|frozen| in_memory_ref(&frozen.memtable))
+            .collect()
+    };
+    memory.store(Arc::new(ResidentMemTables {
+        active: Some(in_memory_ref(&state.memtable)),
+        frozen: refs(frozen),
+        grace: refs(grace),
+        // Oldest first, so the front of the queue is what a waiter parks on.
+        oldest_flush: state.frozen_flush_watchers.front().cloned(),
+    }));
+}
+
+/// ShardWriter state shared across tasks.
 struct WriterState {
     memtable: MemTable,
+    /// The schema `memtable` was created under. Kept under the same lock so a
+    /// write is checked against the schema of the memtable it lands in.
+    schema: Arc<WriterSchema>,
     last_flushed_wal_entry_position: u64,
-    /// Total size of frozen memtables (for backpressure).
-    frozen_memtable_bytes: usize,
-    /// Flush watchers for frozen memtables (for backpressure).
-    frozen_flush_watchers: VecDeque<(usize, DurabilityWatcher)>,
+    /// Flush watchers for frozen memtables, oldest first. Carries no byte
+    /// count: sizes are read live off `frozen_memtables` (see
+    /// [`ResidentMemTables`]), so there is nothing here to keep paired.
+    frozen_flush_watchers: VecDeque<DurabilityWatcher>,
+    /// Sealed memtables, kept queryable so a concurrent reader sees no hole
+    /// between `freeze_memtable` and the flush task's manifest commit, and for
+    /// `frozen_memtable_grace` beyond it so as-of reads stay batch-resolved.
+    /// Pushed in `freeze_memtable`; stamped `flushed_at_ms` by `flush_memtable`
+    /// on commit success only (retained un-stamped on failure until a later
+    /// flush or WAL replay on reopen); swept after the grace by
+    /// [`sweep_expired_frozen`].
+    frozen_memtables: VecDeque<FrozenMemTable>,
     /// Flag to prevent duplicate memtable flush requests.
     flush_requested: bool,
     /// Counter for WAL flush threshold crossings.
@@ -670,6 +1356,24 @@ struct WriterState {
     last_wal_flush_trigger_time: u64,
 }
 
+/// Capture a point-in-time handle to one in-memory memtable (active or frozen
+/// — same shape).
+///
+/// The single projection of a memtable in this crate: the read path scans
+/// through it, and [`ShardMemory`] sizes through it. Everything it holds is an
+/// `Arc` or a copy, so a handle is cheap and stays live as the memtable grows —
+/// which is what lets the memory view be read without the writer lock.
+fn in_memory_ref(mt: &MemTable) -> InMemoryMemTableRef {
+    InMemoryMemTableRef {
+        batch_store: mt.batch_store(),
+        index_store: mt
+            .indexes_arc()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| Arc::new(IndexStore::new())),
+        schema: mt.scan_schema().clone(),
+        generation: mt.generation(),
+    }
+}
+
 fn start_time() -> std::time::Instant {
     use std::sync::OnceLock;
     static START: OnceLock<std::time::Instant> = OnceLock::new();
@@ -680,151 +1384,1099 @@ fn now_millis() -> u64 {
     start_time().elapsed().as_millis() as u64
 }
 
-/// Shared state for writer operations.
-struct SharedWriterState {
-    state: Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
-    wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
-    wal_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
-    memtable_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerMemTableFlush>,
-    config: RegionWriterConfig,
-    schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
-    pk_field_ids: Vec<i32>,
-    max_memtable_batches: usize,
-    max_memtable_rows: usize,
-    ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor: usize,
-    index_configs: Vec<MemIndexConfig>,
+/// Replay WAL entries written after the last successfully-flushed SSTable
+/// into the freshly-built MemTable. Updates any in-memory indexes attached to
+/// the MemTable so replayed rows are immediately searchable.
+///
+/// Returns the WAL position the next `WalAppender::append` should use — i.e.
+/// one past the highest replayed position, or the original start position if
+/// the loop found nothing (we proved that position is empty by getting
+/// `None` back from the tailer). The caller can pass this directly to
+/// `WalAppender::seed_next_position` unconditionally so the first post-open
+/// append skips its own discovery probe.
+///
+/// Aborts with an error if any replayed entry's `writer_epoch` is strictly
+/// greater than `our_epoch` — that indicates a successor writer claimed the
+/// shard between our `claim_epoch` and this replay, fencing us.
+/// Outcome of replaying a shard's WAL into memory.
+struct ReplayResult {
+    /// The active memtable — the final, partial one replay left unsealed. A fresh
+    /// shard yields an empty one; every sealed memtable was flushed to a Lance
+    /// generation during replay and is not returned.
+    active: MemTable,
+    /// One past the highest WAL entry position observed — the next write position.
+    next_wal_position: u64,
 }
 
-impl SharedWriterState {
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn new(
-        state: Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
-        wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
-        wal_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
-        memtable_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerMemTableFlush>,
-        config: RegionWriterConfig,
-        schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
-        pk_field_ids: Vec<i32>,
-        max_memtable_batches: usize,
-        max_memtable_rows: usize,
-        ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor: usize,
-        index_configs: Vec<MemIndexConfig>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            state,
-            wal_flusher,
-            wal_flush_tx,
-            memtable_flush_tx,
-            config,
-            schema,
-            pk_field_ids,
-            max_memtable_batches,
-            max_memtable_rows,
-            ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor,
-            index_configs,
-        }
-    }
+/// Replay a shard's WAL into memory, flushing sealed memtables as the batch store
+/// fills.
+///
+/// A single memtable holds at most `max_memtable_batches` batches, but a WAL is
+/// unbounded — so replay must rotate exactly as the live write path does. It
+/// seals a full memtable and, because the data is already durable, flushes it to
+/// a Lance generation right here (the same `MemTableFlusher::flush` the live path
+/// uses), rather than holding every sealed memtable in memory until open
+/// finishes. That bounds resident memory to ~two memtables and truncates the WAL
+/// as it goes, so a later reopen replays only the unflushed tail. Only the final
+/// partial memtable is returned, as the active one.
+///
+/// `make_memtable(generation, global_offset, target)` builds a fresh,
+/// cursor-bound memtable. Target-bearing entries are rotated at their persisted
+/// generation boundary, never by reconstructed size thresholds, so the data
+/// file descriptors always remain paired with the sidecars written before the
+/// WAL append.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn replay_memtable_from_wal(
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base_path: Path,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    our_epoch: u64,
+    manifest: &ShardManifest,
+    base_generation: u64,
+    mut make_memtable: impl FnMut(u64, usize, Option<MemTableDataTarget>) -> Result<MemTable>,
+    // Conforming a replayed entry needs these: a primary key the entry does not
+    // carry cannot be filled with a null.
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+    flusher: &MemTableFlusher,
+    wal_flusher: &WalFlusher,
+    index_configs: &[MemIndexConfig],
+    max_memtable_size: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: usize,
+    max_resident_bytes: usize,
+) -> Result<ReplayResult> {
+    // WAL positions are 1-based (see `FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION`), so a
+    // cursor of 0 means "no flush has ever stamped this shard" and replay
+    // starts at position 1. After flushing position N the cursor holds N
+    // and replay starts at N+1. The arithmetic collapses to a single
+    // saturating_add(1) in both cases — we deliberately do not consult
+    // `sstables` here, since an external compactor may
+    // legitimately drain that vector back to empty after merging its
+    // contents into the base table.
+    let start_position = manifest.replay_after_wal_entry_position.saturating_add(1);
+
+    let tailer = WalTailer::new(object_store, base_path, shard_id);
+    let mut position = start_position;
+
+    let mut active = make_memtable(base_generation, 0, None)?;
+
+    loop {
+        match tailer.read_entry(position).await? {
+            // The first NotFound proves the WAL tip is at `position`, which
+            // is the next write position to hand back.
+            None => break,
+            Some(entry) => {
+                if entry.writer_epoch > our_epoch {
+                    return Err(Error::fenced_by_peer(format!(
+                        "WAL replay aborted: entry at position {} has writer_epoch {} > our claimed epoch {} for shard {} (writer was fenced during open)",
+                        position, entry.writer_epoch, our_epoch, shard_id
+                    )));
+                }
+                if let Some(target) = entry.target.as_ref()
+                    && target.creator_epoch > entry.writer_epoch
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                        "WAL entry at position {} has writer_epoch {} older than target creator_epoch {}",
+                        position, entry.writer_epoch, target.creator_epoch
+                    )));
+                }
+                // Fence sentinels deserialize to zero batches and are skipped
+                // here — they carry only a position, no rows.
+                if !entry.batches.is_empty() {
+                    // Start a new memtable where the entry's recorded generation
+                    // changes. Entries with no generation use the size rule below.
+                    if let Some(generation) = entry.generation
+                        && generation > active.generation()
+                        && !active.batch_store().is_empty()
+                    {
+                        let global_end = active.batch_store().global_end();
+                        wal_flusher.advance_durable(global_end);
+                        flush_replayed_memtable(
+                            flusher,
+                            &active,
+                            our_epoch,
+                            position.saturating_sub(1),
+                            global_end,
+                            index_configs,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        active = make_memtable(generation, global_end, None)?;
+                    }
 
-    /// Freeze the current memtable and send it to the flush handler.
-    ///
-    /// Takes `&mut WriterState` directly since caller already holds the lock.
-    fn freeze_memtable(&self, state: &mut WriterState) -> Result<u64> {
-        let pending_wal_range = state.memtable.batch_store().pending_wal_flush_range();
+                    if let Some(target) = entry.target.as_ref()
+                        && active.target() != Some(target)
+                    {
+                        let expected_generation = if active.batch_store().is_empty() {
+                            active.generation()
+                        } else {
+                            active.generation() + 1
+                        };
+                        // The memtable takes the target's generation number. If
+                        // that number is not the next one, it was already used.
+                        if target.generation != expected_generation {
+                            return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                                "WAL target generation {} at position {} does not follow active generation {}; the memtable replaying this WAL is smaller than the one that wrote it",
+                                target.generation,
+                                position,
+                                active.generation()
+                            )));
+                        }
+                        let global_end = active.batch_store().global_end();
+                        if !active.batch_store().is_empty() {
+                            wal_flusher.advance_durable(global_end);
+                            flush_replayed_memtable(
+                                flusher,
+                                &active,
+                                our_epoch,
+                                position.saturating_sub(1),
+                                global_end,
+                                index_configs,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                        }
+                        active =
+                            make_memtable(target.generation, global_end, Some(target.clone()))?;
+                    }
+
+                    // Re-label to the current storage schema; entries written
+                    // before deletes existed also need `_tombstone = false`.
+                    let storage_schema = active.schema().clone();
+                    let batches = entry
+                        .batches
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|b| conform_to_storage_schema(b, &storage_schema, pk_columns))
+                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                    // Reconstruct the target's allocator state from the
+                    // prepared descriptors persisted in the WAL. Reservations
+                    // are idempotent across rows and batches that share a pack,
+                    // while the allocator skips every recovered ID for new
+                    // sidecars written by this successor.
+                    if active.target().is_some() {
+                        let allocator = active.blob_id_allocator();
+                        for batch in &batches {
+                            for blob_id in prepared_blob_ids(batch)? {
+                                allocator.reserve(blob_id)?;
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+
+                    let entry_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+                    // Replay cannot split a recorded generation: the rest would
+                    // reuse its number. Fail if the memtable cannot hold it.
+                    // Byte thresholds do not count here, since replay widens old
+                    // rows to the current schema.
+                    if let Some(generation) = entry.generation
+                        && !active.batch_store().is_empty()
+                        && memtable_cannot_take(
+                            &active,
+                            max_memtable_rows,
+                            batches.len(),
+                            entry_rows,
+                        )
+                    {
+                        return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                            "WAL entry at position {} continues generation {} past what the \
+                             memtable replaying it can hold ({} batches, {} rows); the shard \
+                             was written under a larger max_memtable_batches or \
+                             max_memtable_rows",
+                            position,
+                            generation,
+                            active.batch_store().capacity(),
+                            max_memtable_rows,
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    // Measured over the whole entry, so no entry spans two memtables.
+                    if entry.target.is_none()
+                        && entry.generation.is_none()
+                        && !active.batch_store().is_empty()
+                        && memtable_reached_flush_threshold(
+                            &active,
+                            max_memtable_size,
+                            max_memtable_rows,
+                            max_resident_bytes,
+                            batches.len(),
+                            entry_rows,
+                        )
+                    {
+                        let store = active.batch_store();
+                        // The last entry this memtable fully absorbed is the one
+                        // before the entry about to be inserted.
+                        let covered = position.saturating_sub(1);
+                        let generation = active.generation() + 1;
+                        let global_end = store.global_end();
+
+                        // The sealed data is already durable in the WAL — mark it
+                        // so the flush's `all_flushed_to_wal` precondition holds and
+                        // no WAL re-append is attempted.
+                        wal_flusher.advance_durable(global_end);
+                        flush_replayed_memtable(
+                            flusher,
+                            &active,
+                            our_epoch,
+                            covered,
+                            global_end,
+                            index_configs,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+
+                        active = make_memtable(generation, global_end, None)?;
+                    }
+
+                    active.insert_batches_only(batches).await?;
+                }
+                position = position.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::io(format!(
+                        "WAL position overflow during replay for shard {}",
+                        shard_id
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    index_replayed_batches(&active).await?;
+
+    Ok(ReplayResult {
+        active,
+        next_wal_position: position,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Whether the seal a put needed actually happened. Pre-insert callers turn
+/// `Blocked` into a refusal; the post-insert caller leaves the memtable full
+/// for the next put to be refused on.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum SealOutcome {
+    /// Nothing needed sealing, or the memtable was frozen.
+    Settled,
+    /// A freeze was required and the controller is holding it back.
+    Blocked,
+}
+
+/// The refusal a [`SealOutcome::Blocked`] turns into on a put that needed the
+/// freeze. Retryable: the controller admits freezes again once the tier drains.
+fn seal_blocked_error() -> Error {
+    Error::backpressure(
+        "memtable is full and sealing is held back because the tier below it has \
+         no room; retry once compaction drains it"
+            .to_string(),
+    )
+}
+
+/// Whether a memtable has reached the threshold at which it should be sealed and
+/// flushed.
+///
+/// The single source of truth for the flush trigger, shared by the live put path
+/// (`maybe_trigger_memtable_flush`) and by replay so the two cannot drift.
+///
+/// `incoming_batches` / `incoming_rows` are what is about to be inserted.
+/// Pre-insert callers pass the real counts; post-insert callers pass `(1, 1)`,
+/// asking whether there is room for one more batch.
+///
+/// Four arms, each answering a different question:
+///
+/// - **Row window** against `max_memtable_size`. The knob an operator sizes: it
+///   measures what a flush actually writes, so a generation stays a predictable
+///   fragment in the base dataset. Deliberately the *only* thing charged to this
+///   threshold — index memory and buffer padding are not, or fragment size would
+///   start depending on index configuration and Arrow's allocator.
+/// - **Resident total** against `max_resident_bytes`, the backpressure ceiling.
+///   The row window bounds neither what the batches *pin* (a one-row slice holds
+///   its whole parent) nor what the indexes hold, so without this arm a memtable
+///   can carry a shard past its ceiling with no seal reachable — and the valve,
+///   finding nothing outstanding to wait on, would refuse writes that can never
+///   succeed. This is the drain path that makes the ceiling live rather than a
+///   trap.
+/// - **Batch-store capacity**, room for `incoming_batches` more.
+/// - **Row count** against `max_memtable_rows`, room for `incoming_rows` more.
+///   A hard capacity rather than a target: the in-memory indexes are
+///   pre-allocated to exactly this many rows, so an overshoot fails the index
+///   apply. The live path checks this arm pre-insert as well.
+fn memtable_reached_flush_threshold(
+    memtable: &MemTable,
+    max_memtable_size: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: usize,
+    max_resident_bytes: usize,
+    incoming_batches: usize,
+    incoming_rows: usize,
+) -> bool {
+    fill_reached_flush_threshold(
+        &memtable.batch_store(),
+        memtable_resident_bytes(memtable),
+        max_memtable_size,
+        max_memtable_rows,
+        max_resident_bytes,
+        incoming_batches,
+        incoming_rows,
+    )
+}
+
+/// Whether a memtable has no room for `incoming` batches and rows.
+///
+/// Only the batch and row caps count. The byte limits in
+/// [`fill_reached_flush_threshold`] mean "time to seal", not "full".
+fn memtable_cannot_take(
+    memtable: &MemTable,
+    max_memtable_rows: usize,
+    incoming_batches: usize,
+    incoming_rows: usize,
+) -> bool {
+    let store = memtable.batch_store();
+    store.remaining_capacity() < incoming_batches
+        || store.total_rows().saturating_add(incoming_rows) > max_memtable_rows
+}
+
+/// [`memtable_reached_flush_threshold`] over a memtable's contents rather than
+/// the memtable itself, so admission can evaluate the same arms against the
+/// published snapshot without the write lock. One predicate, so a put cannot be
+/// refused for a seal the writer would not have made.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn fill_reached_flush_threshold(
+    store: &BatchStore,
+    resident_bytes: usize,
+    max_memtable_size: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: usize,
+    max_resident_bytes: usize,
+    incoming_batches: usize,
+    incoming_rows: usize,
+) -> bool {
+    store.row_bytes() >= max_memtable_size
+        || resident_bytes >= max_resident_bytes
+        || store.remaining_capacity() < incoming_batches
+        || store.total_rows().saturating_add(incoming_rows) > max_memtable_rows
+}
+
+/// What this memtable holds in memory: the heap its batches pin plus its
+/// in-memory indexes. The same quantity [`ShardMemory`] reports for the active
+/// memtable, so the seal trigger and the ceiling that gates writes measure the
+/// same thing.
+fn memtable_resident_bytes(memtable: &MemTable) -> usize {
+    memtable.batch_store().retained_bytes()
+        + memtable.indexes().map_or(0, IndexStore::resident_bytes)
+        + super::memtable::pk_bloom_filter_bytes()
+}
+
+/// Index the batches a replayed memtable holds.
+///
+/// Replay inserts without indexing, and the flush builds the primary-key
+/// sidecar from these indexes, so skipping this breaks lookup by key.
+async fn index_replayed_batches(memtable: &MemTable) -> Result<()> {
+    let Some(indexes) = memtable.indexes_arc() else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+    let batch_count = memtable.batch_count();
+    if batch_count == 0 {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let store = memtable.batch_store();
+    let stored: Vec<StoredBatch> = (0..batch_count)
+        .filter_map(|pos| store.get(pos).cloned())
+        .collect();
+    tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || indexes.insert_batches(&stored))
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("WAL replay index update task panicked: {}", e)))??;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Flush a sealed replay memtable to a generation, with its indexes if any.
+/// `covered` becomes the generation's `replay_after_wal_entry_position`.
+async fn flush_replayed_memtable(
+    flusher: &MemTableFlusher,
+    memtable: &MemTable,
+    epoch: u64,
+    covered: u64,
+    durable: usize,
+    index_configs: &[MemIndexConfig],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    index_replayed_batches(memtable).await?;
+    if index_configs.is_empty() {
+        flusher.flush(memtable, epoch, covered, durable).await?;
+    } else {
+        Box::pin(flusher.flush_with_indexes(memtable, epoch, index_configs, covered, durable))
+            .await?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Whether two maintained sets describe the same indexes.
+fn same_index_set(current: &[MemIndexConfig], next: &[MemIndexConfig]) -> bool {
+    if current.len() != next.len() {
+        return false;
+    }
+    // Names are unique within a set, so ordering by name is canonical.
+    fn by_name(configs: &[MemIndexConfig]) -> Vec<&MemIndexConfig> {
+        let mut configs: Vec<&MemIndexConfig> = configs.iter().collect();
+        configs.sort_unstable_by_key(|config| config.name());
+        configs
+    }
+    by_name(current) == by_name(next)
+}
+
+/// Pair each primary-key column name with its field id (both derived from the
+/// schema's primary key, in the same order) for [`IndexStore::enable_pk_index`].
+fn pk_index_columns(pk_columns: &[String], pk_field_ids: &[i32]) -> Vec<(String, i32)> {
+    pk_columns
+        .iter()
+        .cloned()
+        .zip(pk_field_ids.iter().copied())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Reject caller input whose columns or types differ from the logical schema,
+/// or that holds a null in a non-nullable column.
+///
+/// This is the only nullability check: nothing later rejects a bad null. It
+/// must run before the WAL append, or a bad batch would fail every replay.
+fn validate_against_logical_schema(
+    logical_schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    batches: &[RecordBatch],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    for (i, batch) in batches.iter().enumerate() {
+        // Later steps match columns by position, so check names here too.
+        for (col, (expected, actual)) in logical_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(batch.schema().fields())
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            if expected.name() != actual.name() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "batch {i} column {col} is named '{}', but the base table schema \
+                     declares '{}' at that position",
+                    actual.name(),
+                    expected.name()
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(logical_schema.clone(), batch.columns().to_vec()).map_err(|e| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "batch {i} does not match the base table schema: {e}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// A batch a caller just handed in, under the storage schema.
+///
+/// A live batch has already been validated against the logical schema, so its
+/// columns are the right ones in the right order, and any ids it carries are the
+/// caller's rather than the table's. Dropping them leaves matching by name.
+///
+/// A replayed entry is the opposite: its ids are the table's, and they are what
+/// survives a rename.
+fn conform_live_batch(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    storage_schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let plain = Arc::new(without_field_ids(batch.schema().as_ref()));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+        plain,
+        batch.columns().to_vec(),
+        &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(batch.num_rows())),
+    )
+    .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("bind a live batch to its own schema: {e}")))?;
+    conform_to_storage_schema(batch, storage_schema, pk_columns)
+}
+
+/// Re-label `batch` to the storage schema, matching columns by **field id**
+/// where both sides carry one, and by **name** otherwise.
+///
+/// A column the schema declares and the batch lacks is filled with typed nulls,
+/// `_tombstone` with `false`; a column the schema does not declare is dropped.
+/// This is what a replayed entry looks like once the schema has moved on.
+///
+/// Ids are tried first because a name match across a rename would null the new
+/// name and drop the old one, losing the values. Entries without ids fall back
+/// to names.
+///
+/// A column whose scalar type has moved is an error rather than a cast: a table
+/// with a MemWAL refuses a retype, so a disagreement here is one to surface.
+///
+/// A primary key the batch does not carry is an error — there is no value to
+/// invent.
+fn conform_to_storage_schema(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    storage_schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let plan = Plan::resolve(batch.schema().as_ref(), storage_schema, pk_columns)?;
+    if plan.is_identity() {
+        return Ok(batch);
+    }
+    plan.apply(&batch)
+}
+
+/// Build a tombstone batch from a key-only `keys` batch: primary keys carried
+/// through, `_tombstone` true, every other column null.
+///
+/// Non-PK columns are nullable in the storage schema however the base table
+/// declares them — that is what lets a strict table have tombstones at all.
+/// Primary keys are not, so the validation below still rejects a null,
+/// mistyped, or missing key.
+fn build_tombstone_batch(
+    keys: &RecordBatch,
+    storage_schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    pk_columns: &[String],
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let n = keys.num_rows();
+    let mut columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = Vec::with_capacity(storage_schema.fields().len());
+    for field in storage_schema.fields() {
+        let name = field.name();
+        if name == TOMBSTONE {
+            columns.push(Arc::new(BooleanArray::from(vec![true; n])));
+        } else if pk_columns.iter().any(|c| c == name) {
+            let col = keys.column_by_name(name).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "delete keys batch is missing primary key column '{}'",
+                    name
+                ))
+            })?;
+            columns.push(col.clone());
+        } else {
+            columns.push(new_null_array(field.data_type(), n));
+        }
+    }
+    RecordBatch::try_new(storage_schema.clone(), columns).map_err(|e| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "failed to build tombstone batch (do the delete keys match the primary key?): {}",
+            e
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+/// The schema a memtable-mode writer checks writes against, and what is
+/// derived from it.
+///
+/// Each memtable keeps the one it was created under, even after
+/// [`ShardWriter::evolve_schema`] or [`ShardWriter::replace_index_configs`].
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct WriterSchema {
+    /// The base table's schema as the caller passed it, without field ids.
+    /// Caller input is checked against it.
+    logical: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    /// What memtables, WAL entries and generations store: `logical` with field
+    /// ids, `_tombstone` added, and non-PK columns nullable.
+    storage: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    /// `storage` with Blob v2 payload columns replaced by their prepared
+    /// descriptors. Memtables are created under this one.
+    prepared: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    /// `storage` as a Lance schema, for validating index configs and resolving
+    /// FTS field ids.
+    lance_schema: Schema,
+    pk_field_ids: Vec<i32>,
+    /// Primary-key column names, for each memtable's PK-position index.
+    pk_columns: Vec<String>,
+    index_configs: Arc<[MemIndexConfig]>,
+}
+
+impl WriterSchema {
+    /// Derive the writer's schemas from the caller's, which should carry field
+    /// ids under `lance:field_id`.
+    fn try_new(schema: &ArrowSchema, index_configs: Vec<MemIndexConfig>) -> Result<Self> {
+        // lance owns `_tombstone` and appends it here — idempotent across reopens.
+        let tombstoned = schema_with_tombstone(schema);
+        let pk_fields = Schema::try_from(tombstoned.as_ref())?;
+        let pk_fields = pk_fields.unenforced_primary_key();
+        let pk_field_ids: Vec<i32> = pk_fields.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        let pk_columns: Vec<String> = pk_fields.iter().map(|f| f.name.clone()).collect();
+        // Widen only now that the primary key is known — a tombstone nulls
+        // every non-PK column, and PK detection needs the strict schema.
+        let storage = relax_non_pk_nullability(&tombstoned, &pk_columns);
+        let prepared = Arc::new(logical_to_prepared_blob_schema(storage.as_ref())?);
+        Self {
+            // No field ids: a caller's batch has none, and Arrow compares
+            // struct children in full.
+            logical: Arc::new(without_field_ids(schema)),
+            lance_schema: Schema::try_from(storage.as_ref())?,
+            storage,
+            prepared,
+            pk_field_ids,
+            pk_columns,
+            index_configs: Arc::from([]),
+        }
+        .with_index_configs(index_configs)
+    }
+
+    /// The same schema with `index_configs` instead.
+    ///
+    /// A bad config is rejected before any row is accepted, since it would
+    /// fail every insert, including WAL replay.
+    fn with_index_configs(&self, index_configs: Vec<MemIndexConfig>) -> Result<Self> {
+        validate_index_configs(
+            &index_configs,
+            self.storage.as_ref(),
+            &self.lance_schema,
+            &self.pk_columns,
+        )?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            index_configs: index_configs.into(),
+            ..self.clone()
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Whether memtables need a data target, so Blob v2 payloads can be
+    /// written before the WAL append.
+    fn preassigns_data_target(&self) -> bool {
+        self.storage != self.prepared
+    }
+
+    /// Whether switching between the two would change nothing stored or indexed.
+    fn is_equivalent(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.storage == other.storage
+            && self.logical == other.logical
+            && same_index_set(&self.index_configs, &other.index_configs)
+    }
+
+    /// A new memtable under this schema at the given generation and offset.
+    ///
+    /// Always binds an `IndexStore`, even with no indexes: readers use its
+    /// `indexed_count` to avoid showing rows before they are durable.
+    /// `target` is the one a replayed entry recorded; `None` makes a new one if needed.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn new_memtable(
+        &self,
+        generation: u64,
+        global_offset: usize,
+        target: Option<MemTableDataTarget>,
+        epoch: u64,
+        max_memtable_rows: usize,
+        max_memtable_batches: usize,
+        cursors: &Arc<WriterCursors>,
+    ) -> Result<MemTable> {
+        let target = target.or_else(|| {
+            self.preassigns_data_target()
+                .then(|| MemTableDataTarget::new(generation, epoch, max_memtable_batches))
+        });
+        let batch_capacity = target
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|target| target.batch_capacity)
+            .unwrap_or(max_memtable_batches)
+            .max(max_memtable_batches);
+        let mut memtable = MemTable::with_capacity_at_target(
+            self.prepared.clone(),
+            generation,
+            self.pk_field_ids.clone(),
+            CacheConfig::default(),
+            batch_capacity,
+            global_offset,
+            target,
+        )?;
+        let mut indexes =
+            IndexStore::from_configs(&self.index_configs, max_memtable_rows, batch_capacity)?;
+        if !self.pk_columns.is_empty() {
+            indexes.enable_pk_index(&pk_index_columns(&self.pk_columns, &self.pk_field_ids));
+        }
+        indexes.set_durability(Arc::clone(cursors), global_offset);
+        memtable.set_indexes_arc(Arc::new(indexes));
+        Ok(memtable)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A memtable-mode write, before it is shaped to its memtable's schema.
+///
+/// Shaped under the writer lock, so a write checked against one schema cannot
+/// land in a memtable with another.
+enum Incoming {
+    /// Rows in the logical schema.
+    Rows(Vec<RecordBatch>),
+    /// Key-only batches, each becoming one tombstone batch.
+    Tombstones(Vec<RecordBatch>),
+}
+
+impl Incoming {
+    /// Number of batches the insert will append.
+    fn batch_count(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Rows(batches) | Self::Tombstones(batches) => batches.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Number of rows the insert will append.
+    fn row_count(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Rows(batches) | Self::Tombstones(batches) => {
+                batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum()
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The batches to insert, under `schema`'s storage schema.
+    fn shape(self, schema: &WriterSchema) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Rows(batches) => {
+                validate_against_logical_schema(&schema.logical, &batches)?;
+                // Callers pass logical-shaped batches and never name
+                // `_tombstone`.
+                batches
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|b| conform_live_batch(b, &schema.storage, &schema.pk_columns))
+                    .collect()
+            }
+            Self::Tombstones(keys) => {
+                if schema.pk_columns.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "delete requires a primary key, but this shard has no primary key columns",
+                    ));
+                }
+                keys.iter()
+                    .map(|k| build_tombstone_batch(k, &schema.prepared, &schema.pk_columns))
+                    .collect()
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Shared state for writer operations.
+struct SharedWriterState {
+    /// Detached size handles for every memtable this shard holds, shared with
+    /// the memtable flush handler (which re-derives them on commit).
+    memory: Arc<ArcSwap<ResidentMemTables>>,
+    wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
+    wal_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
+    /// The index-apply task's channel. Separate from the WAL flusher's on
+    /// purpose: `TaskDispatcher::run` awaits `handle()` inline, so sharing one
+    /// would put a ~100ms S3 PUT in front of every latency-sensitive index apply.
+    index_apply_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerIndexApply>,
+    memtable_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerMemTableFlush>,
+    config: ShardWriterConfig,
+    epoch: u64,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base_path: Path,
+    shard_id: Uuid,
+    max_memtable_batches: usize,
+    max_memtable_rows: usize,
+}
+
+impl SharedWriterState {
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn new(
+        memory: Arc<ArcSwap<ResidentMemTables>>,
+        wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
+        wal_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
+        index_apply_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerIndexApply>,
+        memtable_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerMemTableFlush>,
+        config: ShardWriterConfig,
+        epoch: u64,
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        base_path: Path,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            memory,
+            wal_flusher,
+            wal_flush_tx,
+            index_apply_tx,
+            memtable_flush_tx,
+            max_memtable_batches: config.max_memtable_batches,
+            max_memtable_rows: config.max_memtable_rows,
+            config,
+            epoch,
+            object_store,
+            base_path,
+            shard_id,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn prepare_batches(
+        &self,
+        memtable: &MemTable,
+        schema: &WriterSchema,
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<(Vec<RecordBatch>, Option<BlobPreprocessor>)> {
+        let Some(target) = memtable.target() else {
+            return Ok((batches, None));
+        };
+        let logical_schema = Schema::try_from(schema.storage.as_ref())?;
+        let data_dir = target
+            .generation_path(&self.base_path, &self.shard_id)
+            .join(DATA_DIR);
+        let source_store_registry = self
+            .config
+            .session
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|session| session.store_registry())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let source_store_params = self.config.store_params.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+        let mut preprocessor = BlobPreprocessor::new(
+            self.object_store.as_ref().clone(),
+            data_dir,
+            target.data_file_key().to_string(),
+            &logical_schema,
+            None,
+            true,
+            ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+            source_store_registry,
+            source_store_params,
+            None,
+        )?
+        .for_mem_wal(memtable.blob_id_allocator());
+
+        for batch in &batches {
+            preprocessor.validate_batch(batch).await?;
+        }
+        let prepared = async {
+            let mut prepared = Vec::with_capacity(batches.len());
+            for batch in batches {
+                prepared.push(preprocessor.preprocess_batch(&batch).await?);
+            }
+            preprocessor.finish().await?;
+            Ok(prepared)
+        }
+        .await;
+        if prepared.is_err() {
+            preprocessor.abort();
+        }
+        prepared.map(|batches| (batches, Some(preprocessor)))
+    }
+
+    /// Ask the index-apply task to cover `[indexed, end_batch_position)` of this
+    /// store. Cheap and idempotent: a range already covered is a no-op, which is
+    /// the common case under load, since one apply coalesces the puts queued
+    /// behind it.
+    fn trigger_index_apply(
+        &self,
+        batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
+        indexes: Arc<IndexStore>,
+        end_batch_position: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.index_apply_tx
+            .send(TriggerIndexApply {
+                batch_store,
+                indexes,
+                end_batch_position,
+            })
+            .map_err(|_| Error::io("index apply channel closed"))
+    }
+
+    /// Freeze the current memtable and send it to the flush handler.
+    ///
+    /// Takes `&mut WriterState` directly since caller already holds the lock.
+    fn freeze_memtable(&self, state: &mut WriterState) -> Result<u64> {
+        let schema = Arc::clone(&state.schema);
+        self.rotate_memtable(state, schema)
+    }
+
+    /// Freeze the current memtable under its own schema, and start the next one
+    /// under `next_schema`.
+    fn rotate_memtable(
+        &self,
+        state: &mut WriterState,
+        next_schema: Arc<WriterSchema>,
+    ) -> Result<u64> {
+        let durable = self.wal_flusher.durable();
+        let pending_wal_range = state
+            .memtable
+            .batch_store()
+            .pending_wal_flush_range(durable);
         let last_wal_entry_position = state.last_flushed_wal_entry_position;
 
         let old_batch_store = state.memtable.batch_store();
-        let old_indexes = state.memtable.indexes_arc();
 
         let next_generation = state.memtable.generation() + 1;
-        let mut new_memtable = MemTable::with_capacity(
-            self.schema.clone(),
+        // The incoming memtable's batch 0 continues the writer's batch sequence
+        // where the outgoing one ends. Without this coordinate, local positions
+        // (which restart at 0 every rotation) cannot be mapped onto the
+        // writer-global durability cursor.
+        let next_global_offset = old_batch_store.global_end();
+        let new_memtable = next_schema.new_memtable(
             next_generation,
-            self.pk_field_ids.clone(),
-            CacheConfig::default(),
+            next_global_offset,
+            None,
+            self.epoch,
+            self.max_memtable_rows,
             self.max_memtable_batches,
+            self.wal_flusher.cursors(),
         )?;
 
-        if !self.index_configs.is_empty() {
-            let indexes = Arc::new(IndexStore::from_configs(
-                &self.index_configs,
-                self.max_memtable_rows,
-                self.ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor,
-            )?);
-            new_memtable.set_indexes_arc(indexes);
-        }
-
         let mut old_memtable = std::mem::replace(&mut state.memtable, new_memtable);
+        // The outgoing memtable flushes with the indexes it was built with.
+        let old_schema = std::mem::replace(&mut state.schema, next_schema);
         old_memtable.freeze(last_wal_entry_position);
-        let _memtable_flush_watcher = old_memtable.create_memtable_flush_completion();
 
-        if pending_wal_range.is_some() {
-            let completion_cell: WatchableOnceCell<std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, String>> =
-                WatchableOnceCell::new();
-            let completion_reader = completion_cell.reader();
-            old_memtable.set_wal_flush_completion(completion_reader);
+        // Set up completion tracking on the outgoing table before it is retained
+        // and before any fallible dispatch, so the retained table already carries
+        // its cells and a failed send below can poison-and-return without leaving
+        // partial state to unwind.
+        let _memtable_flush_watcher = old_memtable.create_memtable_flush_completion();
 
-            let end_batch_position = old_batch_store.len();
-            self.wal_flusher.trigger_flush(
-                old_batch_store,
-                old_indexes,
-                end_batch_position,
-                Some(completion_cell),
-            )?;
-        }
+        // The outgoing memtable may still owe an index apply — the puts that
+        // filled it triggered one, but the task need not have drained yet, and
+        // this is the last chance to name that store. Its L0 flush is gated on
+        // the WAL append (below), not on indexing, so without this its tail could
+        // stay unindexed and invisible for the rest of its life.
+        let pending_index_apply = match old_memtable.indexes_arc() {
+            Some(old_indexes) if old_indexes.indexed_count() < old_batch_store.len() => {
+                Some((old_batch_store.clone(), old_indexes, old_batch_store.len()))
+            }
+            _ => None,
+        };
 
-        let frozen_size = old_memtable.estimated_size();
-        state.frozen_memtable_bytes += frozen_size;
-        state.last_flushed_wal_entry_position = last_wal_entry_position;
+        let pending_wal_flush = if pending_wal_range.is_some() {
+            let completion_cell: WatchableOnceCell<
+                std::result::Result<WalFlushResult, WalFlushFailure>,
+            > = WatchableOnceCell::new();
+            old_memtable.set_wal_flush_completion(completion_cell.reader());
+            Some((old_batch_store.len(), completion_cell))
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
 
         let flush_watcher = old_memtable
             .get_memtable_flush_watcher()
             .expect("Flush watcher should exist after create_memtable_flush_completion");
-        state
-            .frozen_flush_watchers
-            .push_back((frozen_size, flush_watcher));
+        state.frozen_flush_watchers.push_back(flush_watcher);
 
         let frozen_memtable = Arc::new(old_memtable);
 
+        // Retain the outgoing table in the read view *before* the fallible
+        // dispatches below. `state.memtable` was already replaced, so a failed
+        // send that returned here without this push would drop the table and its
+        // accepted rows would silently vanish from every scan. Keep it queryable
+        // past its manifest commit too (swept after the grace by
+        // `sweep_expired_frozen`);
+        // Arc refcount, not a copy — the flush task holds it alive anyway.
+        state.frozen_memtables.push_back(FrozenMemTable {
+            memtable: frozen_memtable.clone(),
+            flushed_at_ms: None,
+        });
+
+        // The memtable set changed: re-derive. Before the fallible dispatches
+        // below, so a poisoned writer still reports the bytes it is holding.
+        publish_memory(&self.memory, state);
+
+        // Dispatch can only fail if a background task's channel is already closed,
+        // i.e. the writer is being torn down. Poison so the read path fails fast
+        // with the typed error instead of serving the retained-but-never-durable
+        // tail, then return — the table stays in the read view.
+        if let Some((batch_store, indexes, end_batch_position)) = pending_index_apply {
+            self.trigger_index_apply(batch_store, indexes, end_batch_position)
+                .inspect_err(|e| self.wal_flusher.poison(e))?;
+        }
+
+        if let Some((end_batch_position, completion_cell)) = pending_wal_flush {
+            self.wal_flusher
+                .trigger_flush(
+                    WalFlushSource::BatchStore {
+                        batch_store: old_batch_store,
+                    },
+                    end_batch_position,
+                    Some(completion_cell),
+                )
+                .inspect_err(|e| self.wal_flusher.poison(e))?;
+        }
+
         debug!(
             "Frozen memtable generation {}, pending_count = {}",
             next_generation - 1,
             state.frozen_flush_watchers.len()
         );
 
-        let _ = self.memtable_flush_tx.send(TriggerMemTableFlush {
+        let _ = self.memtable_flush_tx.send(TriggerMemTableFlush::Flush {
             memtable: frozen_memtable,
+            index_configs: Arc::clone(&old_schema.index_configs),
             done: None,
         });
 
         Ok(next_generation)
     }
 
-    /// Track batch for WAL durability.
-    fn track_batch_for_wal(&self, batch_position: usize) -> DurabilityWatcher {
-        let _wal_watcher = self.wal_flusher.track_batch(batch_position);
-        // Return pre-resolved watcher for non-durable case
-        let cell: WatchableOnceCell<DurabilityResult> = WatchableOnceCell::new();
-        cell.write(DurabilityResult::ok());
-        cell.reader()
+    /// Watch for a write to become visible: indexed, and — in durable mode —
+    /// WAL-durable too.
+    ///
+    /// `target_indexed` is memtable-local; `target_durable` is writer-global.
+    /// Different coordinate spaces on purpose — see `WalFlusher::track_batch`.
+    fn track_batch_for_wal(
+        &self,
+        indexes: Option<Arc<IndexStore>>,
+        target_indexed: usize,
+        target_durable: usize,
+    ) -> super::wal::BatchDurableWatcher {
+        self.wal_flusher
+            .track_batch(indexes, target_indexed, target_durable)
     }
 
     /// Check if memtable flush is needed and trigger if so.
     ///
+    /// `incoming_batches` / `incoming_rows`: see [`memtable_reached_flush_threshold`].
+    ///
     /// Takes `&mut WriterState` directly since caller already holds the lock.
-    fn maybe_trigger_memtable_flush(&self, state: &mut WriterState) -> Result<()> {
+    fn maybe_trigger_memtable_flush(
+        &self,
+        state: &mut WriterState,
+        incoming_batches: usize,
+        incoming_rows: usize,
+    ) -> Result<SealOutcome> {
         if state.flush_requested {
-            return Ok(());
+            return Ok(SealOutcome::Settled);
+        }
+
+        // An empty memtable has nothing to seal, and freezing one would spin: its
+        // indexes alone can sit above the ceiling.
+        if state.memtable.batch_count() == 0 {
+            return Ok(SealOutcome::Settled);
         }
 
-        let should_flush = state.memtable.estimated_size() >= self.config.max_memtable_size
-            || state.memtable.is_batch_store_full();
+        let should_flush = memtable_reached_flush_threshold(
+            &state.memtable,
+            self.config.max_memtable_size,
+            self.config.max_memtable_rows,
+            self.config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+            incoming_batches,
+            incoming_rows,
+        );
 
-        if should_flush {
-            state.flush_requested = true;
-            self.freeze_memtable(state)?;
-            state.flush_requested = false;
+        if !should_flush {
+            return Ok(SealOutcome::Settled);
         }
-        Ok(())
+
+        // The tier a flush lands in has no room for another generation. The
+        // memtable stays at its cap, so a put that needed this freeze is refused:
+        // its rows would overrun the capacity the indexes are allocated to.
+        if !self.may_seal_memtable() {
+            return Ok(SealOutcome::Blocked);
+        }
+
+        state.flush_requested = true;
+        self.freeze_memtable(state)?;
+        state.flush_requested = false;
+        Ok(SealOutcome::Settled)
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the installed controller is admitting freezes right now. An
+    /// unset one resolves to [`LocalBackpressureController`], which takes the
+    /// trait default and admits everything.
+    fn may_seal_memtable(&self) -> bool {
+        match &self.config.backpressure {
+            Some(controller) => controller.may_seal_memtable(),
+            None => true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether a put of this shape can only land after a freeze — the predicate
+    /// [`Self::maybe_trigger_memtable_flush`] acts on, off the published snapshot
+    /// so admission can decide without the write lock.
+    ///
+    /// Racy against a concurrent seal in both directions; the writer re-checks
+    /// under the lock and a parked controller re-reads on its next poll.
+    fn seal_required(&self, incoming_batches: usize, incoming_rows: usize) -> bool {
+        let tables = self.memory.load();
+        let Some(active) = tables.active.as_ref() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        // Matches the empty-memtable early-out above: nothing to seal.
+        if active.batch_store.is_empty() {
+            return false;
+        }
+        fill_reached_flush_threshold(
+            &active.batch_store,
+            active.resident_bytes(),
+            self.config.max_memtable_size,
+            self.config.max_memtable_rows,
+            self.config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+            incoming_batches,
+            incoming_rows,
+        )
     }
 
     /// Check if WAL flush is needed and trigger if so.
@@ -834,12 +2486,11 @@ impl SharedWriterState {
         let threshold = self.config.max_wal_buffer_size;
 
         let batch_count = state.memtable.batch_count();
-        let total_bytes = state.memtable.estimated_size();
+        let total_bytes = state.memtable.batch_store().row_bytes();
         let batch_store = state.memtable.batch_store();
-        let indexes = state.memtable.indexes_arc();
 
         // Check if there are any unflushed batches
-        let has_pending = batch_store.pending_wal_flush_count() > 0;
+        let has_pending = batch_store.pending_wal_flush_count(self.wal_flusher.durable()) > 0;
 
         // Check time-based trigger first
         let time_trigger = if let Some(interval) = self.config.max_wal_flush_interval {
@@ -868,8 +2519,7 @@ impl SharedWriterState {
         // If time trigger fired, send a flush message
         if time_trigger.is_some() {
             let _ = self.wal_flush_tx.send(TriggerWalFlush {
-                batch_store,
-                indexes,
+                source: WalFlushSource::BatchStore { batch_store },
                 end_batch_position: batch_count,
                 done: None,
             });
@@ -892,8 +2542,9 @@ impl SharedWriterState {
 
             // Trigger WAL flush with captured batch range
             let _ = self.wal_flush_tx.send(TriggerWalFlush {
-                batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
-                indexes: indexes.clone(),
+                source: WalFlushSource::BatchStore {
+                    batch_store: batch_store.clone(),
+                },
                 end_batch_position: batch_count,
                 done: None,
             });
@@ -901,194 +2552,608 @@ impl SharedWriterState {
     }
 }
 
-impl SharedWriterState {
-    fn unflushed_memtable_bytes(&self) -> usize {
-        // Total unflushed bytes = active memtable + all frozen memtables
-        self.state
-            .try_read()
-            .ok()
-            .map(|s| {
-                let active = s.memtable.estimated_size();
-                active + s.frozen_memtable_bytes
-            })
-            .unwrap_or(0)
-    }
-
-    fn oldest_memtable_watcher(&self) -> Option<DurabilityWatcher> {
-        // Return a watcher for the oldest frozen memtable's flush completion.
-        // If no frozen memtables, return the active memtable's watcher since it will
-        // eventually be frozen and flushed.
-        self.state.try_read().ok().and_then(|s| {
-            // First try frozen memtable watchers
-            s.frozen_flush_watchers
-                .front()
-                .map(|(_, watcher)| watcher.clone())
-                // If no frozen memtables, use active memtable's watcher
-                .or_else(|| s.memtable.get_memtable_flush_watcher())
-        })
-    }
+/// Trigger-tracking state for WAL-only mode (no MemTable).
+///
+/// MemTable mode keeps these counters inside `WriterState`. WAL-only mode
+/// has no `WriterState`, so the same counters live here, with one
+/// adjustment: instead of a monotonic threshold-crossing count (which
+/// can't decrement when the pending queue drains), we record the
+/// `pending_bytes` value at the time of the last size-trigger. A trigger
+/// fires whenever `pending_bytes` has grown by at least one
+/// `max_wal_buffer_size` since `last_trigger_pending_bytes`. When the
+/// pending queue is drained, `pending_bytes` drops below the recorded
+/// baseline, and the next push detects this via `pending_bytes < baseline`
+/// and resets the baseline.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct WalOnlyTriggerState {
+    /// `pending_bytes` value recorded the last time a size-based trigger
+    /// fired. Resets to 0 when `pending_bytes` drops below it (drain
+    /// happened since the last trigger).
+    last_trigger_pending_bytes: usize,
+    /// Last time a WAL flush was triggered (for time-based trigger).
+    last_wal_flush_trigger_time: u64,
+}
+
+/// Per-mode state for `ShardWriter`.
+enum WriterMode {
+    /// Default mode: MemTable + indexes + Lance file flushing on top of
+    /// the WAL.
+    MemTable {
+        state: Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
+        writer_state: Arc<SharedWriterState>,
+        backpressure: Arc<dyn BackpressureController>,
+    },
+    /// WAL-only mode: drainable pending-batch queue + WAL pipeline. No
+    /// MemTable, no indexes, no Lance file flushing.
+    WalOnly {
+        state: Arc<WalOnlyState>,
+        wal_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
+        trigger: StdRwLock<WalOnlyTriggerState>,
+        backpressure: Arc<dyn BackpressureController>,
+        /// The base table's schema as the caller passed it, without field ids.
+        /// Caller input is checked against it. Unlike memtable mode, it never
+        /// changes.
+        logical_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    },
 }
 
-/// Main writer for a MemWAL region.
-pub struct RegionWriter {
-    config: RegionWriterConfig,
+/// Main writer for a MemWAL shard.
+pub struct ShardWriter {
+    config: ShardWriterConfig,
     epoch: u64,
-    state: Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
     wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
     task_executor: Arc<TaskExecutor>,
-    manifest_store: Arc<RegionManifestStore>,
+    manifest_store: Arc<ShardManifestStore>,
     stats: SharedWriteStats,
-    writer_state: Arc<SharedWriterState>,
-    backpressure: BackpressureController,
+    mode: WriterMode,
 }
 
-impl RegionWriter {
-    /// Open or create a RegionWriter.
+impl ShardWriter {
+    /// Open or create a ShardWriter.
     ///
     /// The `base_path` should come from `ObjectStore::from_uri()` to ensure
     /// WAL files are written inside the dataset directory.
+    ///
+    /// `schema` should carry each field's id under `lance:field_id` in its
+    /// field metadata; without them a replayed entry is matched by name, which
+    /// a rename loses.
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_open", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %config.shard_id, index_count = index_configs.len()))]
     pub async fn open(
         object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
         base_path: Path,
         base_uri: impl Into<String>,
-        config: RegionWriterConfig,
+        config: ShardWriterConfig,
         schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
         index_configs: Vec<MemIndexConfig>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let base_uri = base_uri.into();
-        let region_id = config.region_id;
-        let manifest_store = Arc::new(RegionManifestStore::new(
-            object_store.clone(),
-            &base_path,
-            region_id,
-            config.manifest_scan_batch_size,
-        ));
-
-        // Claim the region (epoch-based fencing)
-        let (epoch, manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(config.region_spec_id).await?;
-
-        info!(
-            "Opened RegionWriter for region {} (epoch {}, generation {})",
-            region_id, epoch, manifest.current_generation
-        );
-
-        // Create MemTable with primary key field IDs from schema
-        let lance_schema = Schema::try_from(schema.as_ref())?;
-        let pk_field_ids: Vec<i32> = lance_schema
-            .unenforced_primary_key()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.id)
-            .collect();
-        let mut memtable = MemTable::with_capacity(
-            schema.clone(),
-            manifest.current_generation,
-            pk_field_ids.clone(),
-            CacheConfig::default(),
-            config.max_memtable_batches,
-        )?;
+        Box::pin(Self::open_inner(
+            object_store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri.into(),
+            config,
+            schema,
+            index_configs,
+        ))
+        .await
+    }
 
-        // Create indexes if configured and set them on the MemTable
-        // Indexes are always created when index_configs is non-empty
-        // (they will be updated either sync or async based on config)
-        if !index_configs.is_empty() {
-            let indexes = Arc::new(IndexStore::from_configs(
-                &index_configs,
-                config.max_memtable_rows,
-                config.ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor,
-            )?);
-            memtable.set_indexes_arc(indexes);
+    async fn open_inner(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        base_path: Path,
+        base_uri: String,
+        config: ShardWriterConfig,
+        schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+        index_configs: Vec<MemIndexConfig>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if !config.enable_memtable && !index_configs.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "indexes require enable_memtable = true; \
+                 WAL-only mode does not maintain in-memory indexes",
+            ));
         }
 
-        let state = Arc::new(RwLock::new(WriterState {
-            memtable,
-            last_flushed_wal_entry_position: manifest.wal_entry_position_last_seen,
-            frozen_memtable_bytes: 0,
-            frozen_flush_watchers: VecDeque::new(),
-            flush_requested: false,
-            wal_flush_trigger_count: 0,
-            last_wal_flush_trigger_time: 0,
-        }));
+        // A durable writer needs a flush ticker to make progress, in either
+        // mode. With `durable_write` on, a put becomes durable only once its WAL
+        // append lands, and neither mode self-triggers that append per put — the
+        // background ticker drives it. Without an interval (or with a zero one,
+        // which tokio cannot schedule), a small put that never fills the
+        // size-triggered buffer would block until close. Reject the config here
+        // rather than let a put hang.
+        if config.durable_write && config.max_wal_flush_interval.is_none_or(|d| d.is_zero()) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "durable_write requires a positive max_wal_flush_interval: with no \
+                 flush ticker a durable put has nothing to drive its WAL append and \
+                 would block until close",
+            ));
+        }
 
-        // Create WAL flusher
-        let mut wal_flusher = WalFlusher::new(
+        let shard_id = config.shard_id;
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            object_store.clone(),
             &base_path,
-            region_id,
-            epoch,
-            manifest.wal_entry_position_last_seen + 1,
-        );
-        wal_flusher.set_object_store(object_store.clone());
+            shard_id,
+            config.manifest_scan_batch_size,
+        ));
 
-        // Create channels for background tasks
-        let (wal_flush_tx, wal_flush_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
-        let (memtable_flush_tx, memtable_flush_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
+        // Derive PK metadata and run every side-effect-free validation *before*
+        // claiming the epoch. `claim_epoch` durably bumps the stored epoch and,
+        // for a successor, `write_fence_sentinel` fences the predecessor — so an
+        // open doomed by purely local input (an index config that disagrees with
+        // the schema) must fail here, before it can knock the healthy incumbent off
+        // the shard. Memtable-only: WAL-only mode has no indexes to validate.
+        let writer_schema = if config.enable_memtable {
+            let writer_schema = WriterSchema::try_new(&schema, index_configs)?;
+
+            // An HNSW graph reserves its whole capacity before the first insert,
+            // but the seal trigger only measures row bytes. A reservation with no
+            // room left under the ceiling puts the shard over budget at zero rows
+            // — nothing to seal, so nothing to flush, so every put stalls and then
+            // fails as `Error::Backpressure`, which is supposed to mean "retry
+            // later". Reject the config instead; only the built-in valve reads
+            // this ceiling.
+            if config.backpressure.is_none() {
+                // The headroom the check below reserves for rows. At zero it
+                // reserves nothing, so a fresh memtable's index reservation may
+                // *equal* the ceiling — over budget before its first row, with an
+                // empty memtable there is nothing to seal, and the writer refuses
+                // its first write forever. A zero threshold is degenerate anyway:
+                // it seals every memtable at every insert.
+                if config.max_memtable_size == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "max_memtable_size must be greater than zero: it is both the \
+                         seal threshold for row data and the headroom reserved for rows \
+                         under max_unflushed_memtable_bytes, and at zero a writer with \
+                         in-memory indexes can be at its ceiling before its first row",
+                    ));
+                }
 
-        wal_flusher.set_flush_channel(wal_flush_tx.clone());
-        let wal_flusher = Arc::new(wal_flusher);
+                // Built the way `make_bound_memtable` builds it below, so this is
+                // the figure the controller will actually read.
+                let mut indexes = IndexStore::from_configs(
+                    &writer_schema.index_configs,
+                    config.max_memtable_rows,
+                    config.max_memtable_batches,
+                )?;
+                if !writer_schema.pk_columns.is_empty() {
+                    indexes.enable_pk_index(&pk_index_columns(
+                        &writer_schema.pk_columns,
+                        &writer_schema.pk_field_ids,
+                    ));
+                }
+                let reserved = indexes.resident_bytes() + super::memtable::pk_bloom_filter_bytes();
+                // Room for a full memtable of rows on top, or the ceiling is
+                // crossed before `max_memtable_size` can seal.
+                let needed = reserved.saturating_add(config.max_memtable_size);
+                if needed > config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "in-memory indexes reserve {reserved} bytes at \
+                         max_memtable_rows={}, and max_memtable_size={} must fit alongside them, \
+                         needing {needed} bytes; max_unflushed_memtable_bytes={} is below that, \
+                         so the active memtable would cross the backpressure ceiling before \
+                         accruing enough row bytes to seal, stalling every write. Raise \
+                         max_unflushed_memtable_bytes to at least {needed}, or lower \
+                         max_memtable_rows / max_memtable_size",
+                        config.max_memtable_rows,
+                        config.max_memtable_size,
+                        config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+
+            Some(writer_schema)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
 
-        // Create flusher
-        let flusher = Arc::new(MemTableFlusher::new(
+        // Claim the shard (epoch-based fencing) — done once, then shared
+        // with the WalAppender via `with_claimed_epoch`.
+        let (epoch, manifest) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(config.shard_spec_id).await?;
+
+        info!(
+            "Opened ShardWriter for shard {} (epoch {}, generation {}, enable_memtable {})",
+            shard_id, epoch, manifest.current_generation, config.enable_memtable
+        );
+
+        // Create WAL appender (owns object store, epoch, and position
+        // state). Seed the appender's stats hint from the higher of the
+        // manifest's two cursors: `replay_after_wal_entry_position` is
+        // updated authoritatively at every MemTable flush, while
+        // `wal_entry_position_last_seen` is a best-effort hint that may
+        // lag behind. Either can lead the other depending on which was
+        // updated last, so take the max (then +1) to get the most
+        // accurate post-recovery cursor for `wal_stats()`.
+        let position_hint_seed = manifest
+            .wal_entry_position_last_seen
+            .max(manifest.replay_after_wal_entry_position)
+            .saturating_add(1);
+        let wal_appender = Arc::new(WalAppender::with_claimed_epoch(
             object_store.clone(),
-            base_path,
-            base_uri,
-            region_id,
+            base_path.clone(),
+            shard_id,
             manifest_store.clone(),
+            epoch,
+            position_hint_seed,
+            WalRetryConfig {
+                max_retries: config.max_wal_persist_retries,
+                base_delay: config.wal_persist_retry_base_delay,
+            },
         ));
 
-        // Create stats collector
-        let stats = new_shared_stats();
+        // Fence the predecessor before replay (see `write_fence_sentinel`).
+        // Epoch 1 is a fresh shard with no predecessor to fence.
+        if epoch >= 2 {
+            wal_appender.write_fence_sentinel().await?;
+        }
+
+        // Create WAL flusher backed by the shared appender.
+        // Build the cursors from *this writer's* config. `durable_write` is what
+        // decides whether durability is part of visibility, so a flusher that
+        // defaulted it would leave a non-durable put waiting on a durability
+        // cursor nothing ever advances.
+        let cursors = Arc::new(WriterCursors::new(config.durable_write));
+        let mut wal_flusher = WalFlusher::with_cursors(wal_appender, cursors);
 
-        let backpressure = BackpressureController::new(config.clone());
+        let (wal_flush_tx, wal_flush_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
+        wal_flusher.set_flush_channel(wal_flush_tx.clone());
+        let wal_flusher = Arc::new(wal_flusher);
 
-        // Create task executor
+        let stats = new_shared_stats();
         let task_executor = Arc::new(TaskExecutor::new());
 
-        // Start background WAL flush handler
-        // The WAL flush handler does parallel WAL I/O + index updates
-        let wal_handler = WalFlushHandler::new(wal_flusher.clone(), state.clone(), stats.clone());
+        let mode = if let Some(writer_schema) = writer_schema {
+            Box::pin(Self::open_memtable_mode(
+                &config,
+                Arc::new(writer_schema),
+                &manifest,
+                wal_flusher.clone(),
+                wal_flush_tx,
+                wal_flush_rx,
+                object_store.clone(),
+                base_path,
+                base_uri,
+                shard_id,
+                epoch,
+                manifest_store.clone(),
+                stats.clone(),
+                &task_executor,
+            ))
+            .await?
+        } else {
+            Self::open_wal_only_mode(
+                &config,
+                Arc::new(without_field_ids(&schema)),
+                wal_flusher.clone(),
+                wal_flush_tx,
+                wal_flush_rx,
+                stats.clone(),
+                &task_executor,
+            )?
+        };
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            config,
+            epoch,
+            wal_flusher,
+            task_executor,
+            manifest_store,
+            stats,
+            mode,
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn open_memtable_mode(
+        config: &ShardWriterConfig,
+        schema: Arc<WriterSchema>,
+        manifest: &ShardManifest,
+        wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
+        wal_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
+        wal_flush_rx: mpsc::UnboundedReceiver<TriggerWalFlush>,
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        base_path: Path,
+        base_uri: String,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        epoch: u64,
+        manifest_store: Arc<ShardManifestStore>,
+        stats: SharedWriteStats,
+        task_executor: &Arc<TaskExecutor>,
+    ) -> Result<WriterMode> {
+        // PK metadata and index/interval validation were resolved in `open`
+        // before the epoch was claimed (a doomed open must not fence the
+        // incumbent first).
+
+        // Replay creates every memtable under the schema the writer opens with.
+        // Entries written under an older schema are converted as they are read.
+        let make_bound_memtable = |generation: u64,
+                                   global_offset: usize,
+                                   target: Option<MemTableDataTarget>|
+         -> Result<MemTable> {
+            schema.new_memtable(
+                generation,
+                global_offset,
+                target,
+                epoch,
+                config.max_memtable_rows,
+                config.max_memtable_batches,
+                wal_flusher.cursors(),
+            )
+        };
+
+        // The flusher writes sealed memtables to Lance generations — both the
+        // ones replay seals below and the ones the live path freezes later.
+        let flusher = Arc::new(
+            MemTableFlusher::new(
+                object_store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                shard_id,
+                manifest_store.clone(),
+            )
+            .with_warmer(config.warmer.clone())
+            .with_storage_context(config.store_params.clone(), config.session.clone()),
+        );
+
+        // Replay any WAL entries written after the last successfully-flushed
+        // SSTable, flushing sealed memtables to Lance SSTables as the batch
+        // store fills. Each entry's writer_epoch is checked against ours; an entry
+        // with a strictly greater epoch means a successor claimed the shard
+        // between our `claim_epoch` and replay, so we abort with a fence error.
+        // Replay walks the tailer to the WAL tip and returns the discovered
+        // next-write position, so the appender's first append skips the
+        // discover_next_position probe.
+        let ReplayResult {
+            active: memtable,
+            next_wal_position,
+        } = replay_memtable_from_wal(
+            object_store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            shard_id,
+            epoch,
+            manifest,
+            manifest.current_generation,
+            make_bound_memtable,
+            &schema.pk_columns,
+            &flusher,
+            &wal_flusher,
+            &schema.index_configs,
+            config.max_memtable_size,
+            config.max_memtable_rows,
+            config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // Publish the read cursor once, now that replay knows the tip. The
+        // tailer used to write this per entry, but a tailer holds no claim;
+        // here it rides the epoch holder's normal commit path. Best-effort:
+        // it is a hint for other readers, and `position_hint_seed` already
+        // tolerates it lagging behind `replay_after_wal_entry_position`.
+        let replayed_through = next_wal_position.saturating_sub(1);
+        if replayed_through > manifest.wal_entry_position_last_seen
+            && let Err(error) = manifest_store
+                .commit_update(epoch, |current| ShardManifest {
+                    version: current.next_version(),
+                    wal_entry_position_last_seen: current
+                        .wal_entry_position_last_seen
+                        .max(replayed_through),
+                    ..current.clone()
+                })
+                .await
+        {
+            warn!(
+                "failed to publish WAL read cursor {} for shard {}: {}",
+                replayed_through, shard_id, error
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Mark the active memtable's replayed batches durable. They came *from*
+        // the WAL, and replay has already re-derived its indexes over them.
+        //
+        // Without this the durability cursor stays at the last sealed generation,
+        // so the next WAL flush re-covers the active tail: it re-appends the
+        // already-durable rows *and* re-inserts every replayed row into the
+        // indexes. None of the three in-memory indexes is idempotent (HNSW mints
+        // fresh node ids for the same row, FTS increments doc_count/df rather than
+        // recomputing them, BTree is a multiset), so a full scan keeps looking
+        // healthy while every index-accelerated query silently returns duplicates
+        // — and it compounds, because the WAL now holds those rows twice.
+        //
+        // `global_end()` is the writer-global batch count through this memtable,
+        // since its coordinate continues where the last sealed generation ended.
+        wal_flusher.advance_durable(memtable.batch_store().global_end());
+
+        wal_flusher
+            .wal_appender()
+            .seed_next_position(next_wal_position)
+            .await;
+
+        // Seed the writer's covered-WAL cursor from the post-replay tip:
+        // `next_wal_position` is one past the highest WAL entry we just
+        // replayed into the active memtable, so everything strictly below
+        // it is durably reflected in this writer's memtable. We can't
+        // seed from `manifest.wal_entry_position_last_seen` — that field
+        // is bumped on every successful tailer read by other readers, so
+        // it may sit above what's actually covered by any
+        // SSTable. Subtracting 1 from a fresh shard's `next_wal_position`
+        // of `FIRST_WAL_ENTRY_POSITION` (= 1) yields 0, which correctly
+        // means "no entry covered yet."
+        let initial_covered_wal_entry_position = next_wal_position.saturating_sub(1);
+
+        let memory = Arc::new(ArcSwap::<ResidentMemTables>::default());
+
+        let state = WriterState {
+            memtable,
+            schema,
+            last_flushed_wal_entry_position: initial_covered_wal_entry_position,
+            frozen_flush_watchers: VecDeque::new(),
+            frozen_memtables: VecDeque::new(),
+            flush_requested: false,
+            wal_flush_trigger_count: 0,
+            last_wal_flush_trigger_time: 0,
+        };
+        // Seed before the first freeze: replay above may already have filled the
+        // memtable, and nothing else publishes until it seals.
+        publish_memory(&memory, &state);
+        let state = Arc::new(RwLock::new(state));
+
+        let (memtable_flush_tx, memtable_flush_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
+
+        let flusher = Arc::new(
+            MemTableFlusher::new(
+                object_store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri,
+                shard_id,
+                manifest_store,
+            )
+            .with_warmer(config.warmer.clone())
+            .with_storage_context(config.store_params.clone(), config.session.clone()),
+        );
+
+        // Background WAL flush handler — parallel WAL I/O + index updates.
+        let wal_handler = WalFlushHandler::new(
+            wal_flusher.clone(),
+            Some(state.clone()),
+            None,
+            config.max_wal_flush_interval,
+            stats.clone(),
+            config.observer.clone(),
+        );
         task_executor.add_handler(
             "wal_flusher".to_string(),
             Box::new(wal_handler),
             wal_flush_rx,
         )?;
 
-        // Start background MemTable flush handler
-        let memtable_handler =
-            MemTableFlushHandler::new(state.clone(), flusher, epoch, stats.clone());
+        // Background MemTable flush handler — frozen memtable to Lance file.
+        // It rebuilds the same secondary indexes on each SSTable.
+        let memtable_handler = MemTableFlushHandler::new(
+            state.clone(),
+            memory.clone(),
+            flusher,
+            wal_flusher.clone(),
+            epoch,
+            stats.clone(),
+            config.observer.clone(),
+            config.frozen_memtable_grace,
+        );
         task_executor.add_handler(
             "memtable_flusher".to_string(),
             Box::new(memtable_handler),
             memtable_flush_rx,
         )?;
 
-        // Create shared writer state for put() operations
+        // On its own task: only this sweep reclaims a frozen memtable's bytes,
+        // and a ticker on the flush handler can be starved by its mailbox. See
+        // `TaskExecutor::add_periodic`.
+        //
+        // Zero grace evicts on flush commit, so there is nothing to sweep.
+        if !config.frozen_memtable_grace.is_zero() {
+            // Sweep often enough that eviction lags the grace by at most ~1/3,
+            // so a generation lives no more than ~grace * 4/3 past its commit.
+            let tick = (config.frozen_memtable_grace / 3).max(Duration::from_millis(100));
+            let sweep_state = state.clone();
+            let sweep_memory = memory.clone();
+            let grace = config.frozen_memtable_grace;
+            task_executor.add_periodic("memtable_grace_sweeper".to_string(), tick, move || {
+                let state = sweep_state.clone();
+                let memory = sweep_memory.clone();
+                async move { sweep_expired_frozen(&state, &memory, grace).await }
+            })?;
+        }
+
+        // The index-apply task. Its own channel and its own dispatcher: the
+        // dispatcher awaits `handle()` inline, so sharing the WAL flusher's
+        // channel would queue every index apply behind a ~100ms S3 PUT.
+        let (index_apply_tx, index_apply_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
+        let index_handler = IndexApplyHandler {
+            cursors: Arc::clone(wal_flusher.cursors()),
+            wal_flusher: wal_flusher.clone(),
+            stats,
+        };
+        task_executor.add_handler(
+            "index_applier".to_string(),
+            Box::new(index_handler),
+            index_apply_rx,
+        )?;
+
+        // Shared state used by `put()` to dispatch trigger checks.
         let writer_state = Arc::new(SharedWriterState::new(
-            state.clone(),
-            wal_flusher.clone(),
+            memory,
+            wal_flusher,
             wal_flush_tx,
+            index_apply_tx,
             memtable_flush_tx,
             config.clone(),
-            schema.clone(),
-            pk_field_ids,
-            config.max_memtable_batches,
-            config.max_memtable_rows,
-            config.ivf_index_partition_capacity_safety_factor,
-            index_configs,
+            epoch,
+            object_store,
+            base_path,
+            shard_id,
         ));
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            config,
-            epoch,
+        let backpressure = resolve_backpressure(config);
+
+        Ok(WriterMode::MemTable {
             state,
+            writer_state,
+            backpressure,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn open_wal_only_mode(
+        config: &ShardWriterConfig,
+        logical_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+        wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
+        wal_flush_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
+        wal_flush_rx: mpsc::UnboundedReceiver<TriggerWalFlush>,
+        stats: SharedWriteStats,
+        task_executor: &Arc<TaskExecutor>,
+    ) -> Result<WriterMode> {
+        // The pending queue is shared with the flush handler so a background
+        // tick can resolve to the batches still owed an append — the WAL-only
+        // analog of resolving a tick against the durability cursor in MemTable
+        // mode. A durable put waits on the durability cursor the handler's
+        // append advances, so the ticker must run (`open` rejects durable +
+        // no-interval); a non-durable writer may pass no interval and rely on
+        // the size/close triggers alone.
+        let state = Arc::new(WalOnlyState::default());
+
+        // Background WAL flush handler — no MemTable state to consult, so
+        // pass `None` for the frozen-vs-active detection; the pending queue and
+        // the flush interval drive the background append instead.
+        let wal_handler = WalFlushHandler::new(
             wal_flusher,
-            task_executor,
-            manifest_store,
+            None,
+            Some(state.clone()),
+            config.max_wal_flush_interval,
             stats,
-            writer_state,
+            config.observer.clone(),
+        );
+        task_executor.add_handler(
+            "wal_flusher".to_string(),
+            Box::new(wal_handler),
+            wal_flush_rx,
+        )?;
+
+        // Reuse the memtable valve (keyed off `max_unflushed_memtable_bytes`)
+        // as the WAL-only budget, fed `WalOnlyState::queue_bytes()`. Keeps
+        // the config knob meaningful in WAL-only mode and prevents the pending
+        // queue from growing unbounded under non-durable writes.
+        //
+        // The *same* `state` the flush handler was given above: a second
+        // `WalOnlyState` here would leave writes queuing on one and the
+        // background append draining the other, forever empty.
+        let backpressure = resolve_backpressure(config);
+
+        Ok(WriterMode::WalOnly {
+            state,
+            wal_flush_tx,
+            trigger: StdRwLock::new(WalOnlyTriggerState::default()),
             backpressure,
+            logical_schema,
         })
     }
 
-    /// Write record batches to the region.
+    /// Write record batches to the shard.
     ///
     /// All batches are inserted atomically with a single lock acquisition.
     /// This is more efficient than calling put() multiple times for Arrow IPC
@@ -1107,115 +3172,604 @@ impl RegionWriter {
     /// Fencing is detected lazily during WAL flush via atomic writes.
     /// If another writer has taken over, the WAL flush will fail with
     /// `AlreadyExists`, indicating this writer has been fenced.
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_put", level = "info", skip_all, fields(batch_count = batches.len(), shard_id = %self.config.shard_id))]
     pub async fn put(&self, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Result<WriteResult> {
-        if batches.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "Cannot write empty batch list",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+        Self::validate_non_empty(&batches)?;
+
+        match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable {
+                state,
+                writer_state,
+                backpressure,
+            } => {
+                self.put_memtable(Incoming::Rows(batches), state, writer_state, backpressure)
+                    .await
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly {
+                state,
+                wal_flush_tx,
+                trigger,
+                backpressure,
+                logical_schema,
+            } => {
+                validate_against_logical_schema(logical_schema, &batches)?;
+                self.put_wal_only(batches, state, wal_flush_tx, trigger, backpressure)
+                    .await
+            }
         }
+    }
 
-        // Validate no empty batches
-        for (i, batch) in batches.iter().enumerate() {
+    /// Delete rows by primary key.
+    ///
+    /// Each batch in `keys` must carry the shard's primary key column(s); other
+    /// columns are ignored. lance builds a tombstone row per key — the primary
+    /// key plus `_tombstone = true` and null in every other column — and
+    /// appends it like an ordinary write. The tombstone is the newest value for
+    /// its key: it wins newest-per-PK resolution (suppressing the older real
+    /// row) and is then dropped from query results.
+    ///
+    /// Only supported in memtable mode. Works against non-nullable base columns:
+    /// tombstones live in the storage schema, which widens them to nullable.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::Result;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::mem_wal::ShardWriter;
+    /// # use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+    /// # async fn doc(writer: &ShardWriter, keys: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// writer.delete(keys).await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_delete", level = "info", skip_all, fields(batch_count = keys.len(), shard_id = %self.config.shard_id))]
+    pub async fn delete(&self, keys: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        let (result, watcher) = self.delete_no_wait(keys).await?;
+        // Wait for durability if configured (mirrors `put` → `put_memtable`).
+        if let Some(mut watcher) = watcher {
+            watcher.wait().await?;
+        }
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::delete`], but returns the durability watcher *without*
+    /// awaiting it — the tombstone lands in the in-memory tier the instant this
+    /// returns, but the index-driven LSM read only folds it once the watcher
+    /// resolves the flush (which advances the visibility watermark and updates
+    /// the PK index). The delete analog of [`Self::put_no_wait`], so a caller
+    /// can hold an external lock across only the in-memory insert and await
+    /// durability after releasing it. MemTable mode only.
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_delete_no_wait", level = "info", skip_all, fields(batch_count = keys.len(), shard_id = %self.config.shard_id))]
+    pub async fn delete_no_wait(
+        &self,
+        keys: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<(WriteResult, Option<BatchDurableWatcher>)> {
+        if keys.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Cannot delete with empty key list"));
+        }
+        for (i, batch) in keys.iter().enumerate() {
             if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Batch {} is empty", i),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("Key batch {} is empty", i)));
             }
         }
 
-        // Apply backpressure if needed (before acquiring main lock)
-        let writer_state = &self.writer_state;
-        self.backpressure
-            .maybe_apply_backpressure(|| {
-                (
-                    writer_state.unflushed_memtable_bytes(),
-                    writer_state.oldest_memtable_watcher(),
+        match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable {
+                state,
+                writer_state,
+                backpressure,
+            } => {
+                self.put_memtable_no_wait(
+                    Incoming::Tombstones(keys),
+                    state,
+                    writer_state,
+                    backpressure,
                 )
-            })
+                .await
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "delete is only supported in memtable mode (enable_memtable = true)",
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::put`], but returns the durability watcher *without* awaiting
+    /// it. The row lands in the in-memory tier the instant this returns, but the
+    /// index-driven LSM read only surfaces it once the watcher resolves the
+    /// flush (which advances the visibility watermark and updates the indexes);
+    /// the caller awaits durability via the watcher (`None` when `durable_write`
+    /// is off).
+    ///
+    /// This lets a caller hold an *external* lock across only the in-memory
+    /// read-merge-insert and await durability after releasing it, so concurrent
+    /// flushes still coalesce. The insert stays guarded by the internal
+    /// `state_lock`, so `BatchStore`'s single-writer invariant holds regardless.
+    ///
+    /// MemTable mode only; errors in WAL-only mode (no in-memory tier).
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_put_no_wait", level = "info", skip_all, fields(batch_count = batches.len(), shard_id = %self.config.shard_id))]
+    pub async fn put_no_wait(
+        &self,
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<(WriteResult, Option<BatchDurableWatcher>)> {
+        Self::validate_non_empty(&batches)?;
+
+        match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable {
+                state,
+                writer_state,
+                backpressure,
+            } => {
+                self.put_memtable_no_wait(
+                    Incoming::Rows(batches),
+                    state,
+                    writer_state,
+                    backpressure,
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "put_no_wait is only supported in MemTable mode",
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validate_non_empty(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Result<()> {
+        if batches.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("Cannot write empty batch list"));
+        }
+        for (i, batch) in batches.iter().enumerate() {
+            if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("Batch {} is empty", i)));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn put_memtable(
+        &self,
+        incoming: Incoming,
+        state_lock: &Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
+        writer_state: &Arc<SharedWriterState>,
+        backpressure: &Arc<dyn BackpressureController>,
+    ) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        let (result, watcher) = self
+            .put_memtable_no_wait(incoming, state_lock, writer_state, backpressure)
+            .await?;
+        // Wait for durability if configured (outside the lock).
+        if let Some(mut watcher) = watcher {
+            watcher.wait().await?;
+        }
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+
+    /// In-memory half of [`Self::put_memtable`]: insert under `state_lock`,
+    /// trigger the WAL flush, and return the watcher un-awaited for the caller
+    /// to wait on. `None` when `durable_write` is off. See [`Self::put_no_wait`].
+    async fn put_memtable_no_wait(
+        &self,
+        incoming: Incoming,
+        state_lock: &Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
+        writer_state: &Arc<SharedWriterState>,
+        backpressure: &Arc<dyn BackpressureController>,
+    ) -> Result<(WriteResult, Option<BatchDurableWatcher>)> {
+        // Reject writes on a fenced writer before mutating the memtable, so a
+        // poisoned writer can't drift further from the durable WAL.
+        self.wal_flusher.check_poisoned()?;
+
+        // A write lands whole in one memtable, so one larger than the cap fits
+        // nowhere — a fresh memtable overflows the same way. Deletes arrive here
+        // as tombstone rows and are bounded the same way.
+        let incoming_batches = incoming.batch_count();
+        let incoming_rows = incoming.row_count();
+        if incoming_rows > self.config.max_memtable_rows {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "write of {incoming_rows} rows across {} batches exceeds \
+                 max_memtable_rows={}: a write is never split across memtables, and the \
+                 in-memory indexes are sized to that cap. Split the write, or raise \
+                 max_memtable_rows",
+                incoming_batches, self.config.max_memtable_rows,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // The seal check runs inside the lock immediately after an insert, but the
+        // index apply that follows it runs *outside* — and replay hands back a
+        // memtable whose indexes were built after its last check too. Either way
+        // the ceiling can be reached with nothing sealed, and the valve below
+        // would then refuse a write that a seal would have admitted. Re-run the
+        // check here so the wait has a flush to end on.
+        //
+        // The read is two relaxed loads; the lock is taken only when the shard is
+        // actually at its ceiling, which is the path already about to block.
+        if ShardMemory::memtables(writer_state.memory.clone()).unflushed_bytes()
+            >= self.config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes
+        {
+            let mut state = state_lock.write().await;
+            if writer_state.maybe_trigger_memtable_flush(&mut state, 1, 1)? == SealOutcome::Blocked
+            {
+                return Err(seal_blocked_error());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Apply backpressure if needed (before acquiring main lock). The reading
+        // carries whether this put needs a freeze, so a controller bounding the
+        // tier below can refuse only the puts that would grow it.
+        backpressure
+            .maybe_apply_backpressure(
+                ShardMemory::memtables(writer_state.memory.clone()).with_seal_required(
+                    writer_state.seal_required(incoming_batches, incoming_rows),
+                ),
+            )
             .await?;
 
         let start = std::time::Instant::now();
 
         // Acquire write lock for entire operation (atomic approach)
         let (batch_positions, durable_watcher, batch_store, indexes) = {
-            let mut state = self.state.write().await;
+            let mut state = state_lock.write().await;
+
+            // 0. Seal first if this put would not fit: the row cap is a hard
+            //    index capacity, so an overshoot cannot be undone afterwards.
+            //    A held-back freeze refuses the put; admission above catches
+            //    that first except when it read before the memtable filled.
+            if writer_state.maybe_trigger_memtable_flush(
+                &mut state,
+                incoming_batches,
+                incoming_rows,
+            )? == SealOutcome::Blocked
+            {
+                return Err(seal_blocked_error());
+            }
 
-            // 1. Insert all batches into memtable atomically
-            let results = state.memtable.insert_batches_only(batches).await?;
+            // 1. Shape the batches to the memtable's schema, spill Blob v2
+            //    payloads into the active target, then keep only prepared
+            //    descriptors in the memtable and WAL.
+            let batches = incoming.shape(&state.schema)?;
+            let (batches, mut blob_preprocessor) = writer_state
+                .prepare_batches(&state.memtable, &state.schema, batches)
+                .await?;
+
+            // 2. Insert all batches into memtable atomically
+            let results = match state.memtable.insert_batches_only(batches).await {
+                Ok(results) => results,
+                Err(error) => {
+                    if let Some(preprocessor) = blob_preprocessor.as_mut() {
+                        preprocessor.abort();
+                    }
+                    return Err(error);
+                }
+            };
+
+            // 2. Capture the store the batches actually landed in, *before* step
+            //    6 below can freeze and swap the active memtable. Reading it
+            //    afterwards hands the flush trigger the **new** store paired with
+            //    the **old** store's end position, so the new store's watermark
+            //    jumps past batches that were never appended.
+            let batch_store = state.memtable.batch_store();
+            let indexes = state.memtable.indexes_arc();
 
-            // Get batch position range
             let start_pos = results.first().map(|(pos, _, _)| *pos).unwrap_or(0);
             let end_pos = results.last().map(|(pos, _, _)| pos + 1).unwrap_or(0);
             let batch_positions = start_pos..end_pos;
 
-            // 2. Track last batch for WAL durability
-            let durable_watcher = self
-                .writer_state
-                .track_batch_for_wal(end_pos.saturating_sub(1));
+            // 4. Watch for this write to become *visible*: indexed, and — under
+            //    `durable_write` — WAL-durable too.
+            //
+            //    The two targets live in different coordinate spaces. `end_pos`
+            //    is memtable-local, which is what the index apply works in. The
+            //    durability cursor is writer-global, because batch positions
+            //    restart at 0 in every memtable while that cursor spans the
+            //    writer's whole life — a local durable target would already be
+            //    satisfied by a *previous* memtable's appends, so the first N
+            //    puts into every post-rotation memtable would ack as durable with
+            //    no WAL append ever happening.
+            let durable_watcher = writer_state.track_batch_for_wal(
+                indexes.clone(),
+                end_pos,
+                batch_store.global_offset() + end_pos,
+            );
 
-            // 3. Check if WAL flush should be triggered
-            self.writer_state.maybe_trigger_wal_flush(&mut state);
+            // 5. Check if WAL flush should be triggered
+            writer_state.maybe_trigger_wal_flush(&mut state);
 
-            // 4. Check if memtable flush is needed
-            if let Err(e) = self.writer_state.maybe_trigger_memtable_flush(&mut state) {
+            // 6. Check if memtable flush is needed (may freeze and rotate).
+            //    `Blocked` is fine here: the rows already landed, and the next
+            //    put is the one refused.
+            if let Err(e) = writer_state.maybe_trigger_memtable_flush(&mut state, 1, 1) {
                 warn!("Failed to trigger memtable flush: {}", e);
             }
 
-            // Get batch_store and indexes while we have the lock (for durable_write case)
-            let batch_store = state.memtable.batch_store();
-            let indexes = state.memtable.indexes_arc();
-
             (batch_positions, durable_watcher, batch_store, indexes)
         }; // Lock released here
 
         self.stats.record_put(start.elapsed());
 
-        // Wait for durability if configured (outside the lock)
-        if self.config.durable_write {
-            // Must trigger a flush to ensure durability (flush up to and including all batches)
-            self.wal_flusher
-                .trigger_flush(batch_store, indexes, batch_positions.end, None)?;
-            durable_watcher.clone().await_value().await.into_result()?;
+        // Trigger the index apply, in **both** modes. This is what makes reads
+        // read-your-writes regardless of `durable_write`: skipping durability now
+        // costs the caller durability only, not visibility. It is cheap
+        // (in-memory, ~ms), so there is no reason to batch it onto the WAL's
+        // schedule — that schedule exists to bound S3 API cost, which an
+        // in-memory index apply does not incur.
+        if let Some(indexes) = indexes {
+            writer_state.trigger_index_apply(batch_store, indexes, batch_positions.end)?;
         }
 
-        Ok(WriteResult { batch_positions })
+        // The WAL append is *not* triggered here. It happens on the background
+        // ticker (and on the size trigger, and at freeze/close), which is the only
+        // way the flush interval can mean anything: while every durable put
+        // triggered its own append, the interval could add a redundant trigger but
+        // never delay or batch one.
+        //
+        // The cost is real and accepted: a single client's sequential *durable*
+        // throughput drops from ~10 writes/sec (one PUT round-trip) to roughly one
+        // per tick. That is a policy choice — the interval should mean what it
+        // says, and S3 API cost should be bounded. Latency-sensitive callers want
+        // `durable_write: false`, which now costs them durability only, not
+        // visibility.
+
+        // The watcher is returned in both modes now. A non-durable put still
+        // waits — for its index apply (~ms), not for an S3 PUT (~100ms).
+        let watcher = Some(durable_watcher);
+
+        Ok((WriteResult { batch_positions }, watcher))
     }
 
-    /// Get a snapshot of current write statistics.
-    pub fn stats(&self) -> WriteStatsSnapshot {
-        self.stats.snapshot()
-    }
+    async fn put_wal_only(
+        &self,
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+        state: &Arc<WalOnlyState>,
+        wal_flush_tx: &mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
+        trigger: &StdRwLock<WalOnlyTriggerState>,
+        backpressure: &Arc<dyn BackpressureController>,
+    ) -> Result<WriteResult> {
+        // Reject writes on a fenced writer before enqueuing — see
+        // `put_memtable_no_wait`.
+        self.wal_flusher.check_poisoned()?;
+
+        // Apply backpressure against the pending queue before pushing. The
+        // budget reuses `max_unflushed_memtable_bytes` since WAL-only mode
+        // shares the same "in-memory bytes waiting for durable storage"
+        // shape as MemTable mode. WAL-only mode has no per-frozen-MemTable
+        // watcher, so the backpressure loop falls back to its short sleep.
+        backpressure
+            .maybe_apply_backpressure(ShardMemory::queue(state.clone()))
+            .await?;
 
-    /// Get the shared stats handle (for external monitoring).
-    pub fn stats_handle(&self) -> SharedWriteStats {
-        self.stats.clone()
-    }
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
 
-    /// Get the current region manifest.
-    pub async fn manifest(&self) -> Result<Option<RegionManifest>> {
-        self.manifest_store.read_latest().await
-    }
+        // Push batches into the pending queue and capture the assigned
+        // [start, end) range. `next_batch_position` is monotonic across the
+        // writer's lifetime; positions are not BatchStore indices but they
+        // are used the same way for durability tracking. Because the queue is
+        // strict FIFO with contiguous positions and its front always sits at
+        // the durability cursor, `end` is exactly the writer-global durable
+        // count this put reaches once its append lands — no globalizing offset
+        // as in MemTable mode, which restarts positions per generation.
+        let batch_positions = state.push(batches);
+
+        // Under `durable_write` the put becomes durable only once its WAL
+        // append lands. Track it on the writer-global durability cursor *before*
+        // triggering, so a flush that completes between here and the wait is not
+        // missed: the watcher recomputes visibility from the cursor rather than
+        // latching a one-shot wake. WAL-only mode has no indexes, so the
+        // index-visibility half of the watcher is a no-op (`None`, target 0).
+        let durable_watcher = self
+            .config
+            .durable_write
+            .then(|| self.wal_flusher.track_batch(None, 0, batch_positions.end));
+
+        // Time- and size-based triggers on the write path, for durable and
+        // non-durable puts alike — mirroring MemTable mode's
+        // `maybe_trigger_wal_flush`. The background ticker drives the append
+        // too; whichever fires first wins, and a redundant trigger is a cheap
+        // no-op because the flush snapshot/commit is idempotent.
+        self.maybe_trigger_wal_flush_wal_only(
+            state,
+            wal_flush_tx,
+            trigger,
+            batch_positions.end,
+            state.queue_bytes(),
+        );
 
-    /// Get the writer's epoch.
-    pub fn epoch(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.epoch
-    }
+        self.stats.record_put(start.elapsed());
 
-    /// Get the region ID.
-    pub fn region_id(&self) -> Uuid {
-        self.config.region_id
-    }
+        // Durable writes wait on the durability cursor, advanced by the append
+        // the ticker (or the trigger above) drives — the same watermark path
+        // MemTable mode uses. A terminal flush failure (a peer fence or an
+        // exhausted-retry persistence self-fence) poisons the writer and wakes
+        // the waiter with that typed error instead of leaving it to hang. This
+        // is why `open` rejects `durable_write` with no flush ticker: nothing
+        // else would advance the cursor a small put is parked on.
+        if let Some(mut watcher) = durable_watcher {
+            watcher.wait().await?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(WriteResult { batch_positions })
+    }
+
+    /// WAL-only-mode size+time trigger. Mirrors `SharedWriterState::maybe_trigger_wal_flush`
+    /// but reads its inputs from `WalOnlyState` (pending queue) instead of
+    /// the active MemTable.
+    fn maybe_trigger_wal_flush_wal_only(
+        &self,
+        state: &Arc<WalOnlyState>,
+        wal_flush_tx: &mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
+        trigger: &StdRwLock<WalOnlyTriggerState>,
+        end_batch_position: usize,
+        pending_bytes: usize,
+    ) {
+        let threshold = self.config.max_wal_buffer_size;
+        let has_pending = state.batch_count() > 0;
+
+        let mut t = trigger.write().unwrap();
+
+        // Time-based trigger.
+        if let Some(interval) = self.config.max_wal_flush_interval {
+            let interval_millis = interval.as_millis() as u64;
+            let now = now_millis();
+            if t.last_wal_flush_trigger_time == 0 {
+                t.last_wal_flush_trigger_time = now;
+            } else {
+                let elapsed = now.saturating_sub(t.last_wal_flush_trigger_time);
+                if elapsed >= interval_millis && has_pending {
+                    t.last_wal_flush_trigger_time = now;
+                    let _ = wal_flush_tx.send(TriggerWalFlush {
+                        source: WalFlushSource::WalOnly {
+                            state: state.clone(),
+                        },
+                        end_batch_position,
+                        done: None,
+                    });
+                    return;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if threshold == 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Size-based trigger: fire one trigger per `max_wal_buffer_size`
+        // crossed since the last time we triggered. If the pending queue
+        // shrank below the recorded baseline (a drain happened), reset the
+        // baseline first so the next crossing fires correctly.
+        if pending_bytes < t.last_trigger_pending_bytes {
+            t.last_trigger_pending_bytes = 0;
+        }
+        while pending_bytes >= t.last_trigger_pending_bytes + threshold {
+            t.last_trigger_pending_bytes += threshold;
+            t.last_wal_flush_trigger_time = now_millis();
+            let _ = wal_flush_tx.send(TriggerWalFlush {
+                source: WalFlushSource::WalOnly {
+                    state: state.clone(),
+                },
+                end_batch_position,
+                done: None,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get a snapshot of current write statistics.
+    pub fn stats(&self) -> WriteStatsSnapshot {
+        self.stats.snapshot()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the shared stats handle (for external monitoring).
+    pub fn stats_handle(&self) -> SharedWriteStats {
+        self.stats.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// What this writer is holding in memory, in both write modes.
+    ///
+    /// The same [`ShardMemory`] the admission controller is handed, so an
+    /// embedder ranking shards by size and the controller gating a write read
+    /// one implementation rather than two that can disagree.
+    ///
+    /// Only a flush reclaims `unflushed_bytes`, so that is the pool to bound
+    /// against OOM; `retained_bytes` adds what is resident but already flushed
+    /// and waiting out `frozen_memtable_grace`. Either can far exceed
+    /// `max_memtable_size`, which gates row data alone.
+    pub fn memory(&self) -> ShardMemory {
+        match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable { writer_state, .. } => {
+                ShardMemory::memtables(writer_state.memory.clone())
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { state, .. } => ShardMemory::queue(state.clone()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the current shard manifest.
+    ///
+    /// Served from this writer's own last manifest commit, so a peer's commit
+    /// may not appear. Fencing does not rely on this — [`Self::check_fenced`]
+    /// always reads storage.
+    pub async fn manifest(&self) -> Result<Option<ShardManifest>> {
+        self.manifest_store.latest().await
+    }
+
+    /// The shard's manifest store.
+    ///
+    /// Embedders must commit through this instance: a second
+    /// `ShardManifestStore` over the same shard keeps its own cache, and
+    /// neither would see the other's commits.
+    pub fn manifest_store(&self) -> Arc<ShardManifestStore> {
+        self.manifest_store.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the writer's epoch.
+    pub fn epoch(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.epoch
+    }
+
+    /// The configuration this writer was opened with.
+    pub fn config(&self) -> &ShardWriterConfig {
+        &self.config
+    }
+
+    /// The indexes memtables are currently built with, sorted.
+    ///
+    /// This is the set in force now, which a replacement can move; the one an
+    /// already-sealed memtable was built with is not reported here. Empty in
+    /// WAL-only mode, which holds no memtable to index.
+    pub async fn maintained_index_names(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable { state, .. } => {
+                let mut names: Vec<String> = state
+                    .read()
+                    .await
+                    .schema
+                    .index_configs
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|config| config.name().to_string())
+                    .collect();
+                names.sort_unstable();
+                names
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the shard ID.
+    pub fn shard_id(&self) -> Uuid {
+        self.config.shard_id
+    }
 
-    /// Get current MemTable statistics.
-    pub async fn memtable_stats(&self) -> MemTableStats {
-        let state = self.state.read().await;
-        MemTableStats {
+    /// Return `Err` if a successor writer has claimed a higher epoch.
+    pub async fn check_fenced(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.manifest_store.check_fenced(self.epoch).await
+    }
+
+    /// Get current MemTable statistics. Returns an error in WAL-only mode
+    /// (no MemTable exists).
+    ///
+    /// Deliberately does *not* `check_poisoned`, unlike the read and write
+    /// paths: a poisoned writer is exactly when an operator most needs to see
+    /// its state, and the caller deciding whether to evict reads these stats.
+    pub async fn memtable_stats(&self) -> Result<MemTableStats> {
+        let state_lock = self.memtable_state_lock()?;
+        let state = state_lock.read().await;
+        let batch_store = state.memtable.batch_store();
+        let durable = self.wal_flusher.durable();
+        let pending_wal = batch_store.pending_wal_flush_stats(durable);
+        Ok(MemTableStats {
             row_count: state.memtable.row_count(),
             batch_count: state.memtable.batch_count(),
-            estimated_size: state.memtable.estimated_size(),
             generation: state.memtable.generation(),
+            max_buffered_batch_position: batch_store.max_buffered_batch_position(),
+            durable_batch_count: durable,
+            global_offset: batch_store.global_offset(),
+            pending_wal_start_batch_position: pending_wal.start_batch_position,
+            pending_wal_end_batch_position: pending_wal.end_batch_position,
+            pending_wal_batch_count: pending_wal.batch_count,
+            pending_wal_row_count: pending_wal.row_count,
+            pending_wal_estimated_bytes: pending_wal.estimated_bytes,
+            frozen_count: state.frozen_memtables.len(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Snapshot of the backpressure counters. Both writer modes answer, so a
+    /// caller asking "am I throttled" need not know which mode it is in.
+    pub fn backpressure_stats(&self) -> BackpressureStatsSnapshot {
+        match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable { backpressure, .. }
+            | WriterMode::WalOnly { backpressure, .. } => backpressure.stats_snapshot(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -1224,15 +3778,63 @@ impl RegionWriter {
     /// The scanner provides read access to all data currently in the MemTable,
     /// with optional filtering, projection, and index support.
     ///
-    /// The scanner captures the current `max_indexed_batch_position` from the
+    /// The scanner captures the current `visible_count` from the
     /// `IndexStore` at construction time to ensure consistent visibility.
     ///
-    /// # Returns
+    /// Returns an error in WAL-only mode, or if the writer is poisoned.
+    pub async fn scan(&self) -> Result<MemTableScanner> {
+        self.wal_flusher.check_poisoned()?;
+        let state_lock = self.memtable_state_lock()?;
+        let state = state_lock.read().await;
+        Ok(state.memtable.scan())
+    }
+
+    /// A handle to just the active memtable, for unified LSM scanning.
+    /// Prefer [`Self::in_memory_memtable_refs`] on the read path — it also
+    /// carries frozen-awaiting-flush generations.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error in WAL-only mode, or if the writer is poisoned.
+    pub async fn active_memtable_ref(
+        &self,
+    ) -> Result<crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::InMemoryMemTableRef> {
+        self.wal_flusher.check_poisoned()?;
+        let state_lock = self.memtable_state_lock()?;
+        let state = state_lock.read().await;
+        Ok(in_memory_ref(&state.memtable))
+    }
+
+    /// The active memtable plus every frozen-awaiting-flush memtable,
+    /// captured atomically under one `state.read()` (no torn freeze).
+    /// Mirrors `WriterState { memtable, frozen_memtables }`. The WAL read
+    /// path uses this instead of [`Self::active_memtable_ref`] so a
+    /// concurrent reader sees no hole while a flush drains.
     ///
-    /// A `MemTableScanner` that can be used to execute queries.
-    pub async fn scan(&self) -> MemTableScanner {
-        let state = self.state.read().await;
-        state.memtable.scan()
+    /// Returns an error in WAL-only mode, or if the writer is poisoned.
+    pub async fn in_memory_memtable_refs(
+        &self,
+    ) -> Result<crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::InMemoryMemTables> {
+        self.wal_flusher.check_poisoned()?;
+        let state_lock = self.memtable_state_lock()?;
+        let state = state_lock.read().await;
+        Ok(crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::InMemoryMemTables {
+            active: in_memory_ref(&state.memtable),
+            frozen: state
+                .frozen_memtables
+                .iter()
+                .map(|m| in_memory_ref(&m.memtable))
+                .collect(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the MemTable-mode state lock or a clear invalid_input error
+    /// when running in WAL-only mode.
+    fn memtable_state_lock(&self) -> Result<&Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>> {
+        match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable { state, .. } => Ok(state),
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "MemTable accessor not available when enable_memtable = false (WAL-only mode)",
+            )),
+        }
     }
 
     /// Get WAL statistics.
@@ -1242,58 +3844,487 @@ impl RegionWriter {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Seal the active memtable and start the next under the schema `next` returns.
+    ///
+    /// `next` runs under the `state` write lock on the current schema, so a
+    /// caller changing only the schema or only the indexes keeps the other.
+    /// `Ok(None)` when nothing would change.
+    async fn replace_writer_schema(
+        &self,
+        op: &'static str,
+        next: impl FnOnce(&WriterSchema) -> Result<WriterSchema>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<SealFence>> {
+        let WriterMode::MemTable {
+            state,
+            writer_state,
+            ..
+        } = &self.mode
+        else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "{op} is not available in WAL-only mode (no MemTable)"
+            )));
+        };
+        self.check_fenced().await?;
+        self.wal_flusher.check_poisoned()?;
+
+        let mut state = state.write().await;
+        let current = Arc::clone(&state.schema);
+        let next = Arc::new(next(&current)?);
+        if next.is_equivalent(&current) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if next.pk_field_ids != current.pk_field_ids {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "{op} cannot change the primary key: the writer holds primary key field ids \
+                 {:?} ({:?}) and the new schema declares {:?} ({:?})",
+                current.pk_field_ids, current.pk_columns, next.pk_field_ids, next.pk_columns,
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let sealed_generation = if state.memtable.batch_count() == 0 {
+            // Nothing written yet: replace it in place under the same generation.
+            let generation = state.memtable.generation();
+            let global_offset = state.memtable.batch_store().global_end();
+            state.memtable = next.new_memtable(
+                generation,
+                global_offset,
+                None,
+                writer_state.epoch,
+                writer_state.max_memtable_rows,
+                writer_state.max_memtable_batches,
+                self.wal_flusher.cursors(),
+            )?;
+            state.schema = next;
+            publish_memory(&writer_state.memory, &state);
+            None
+        } else {
+            let sealed = state.memtable.generation();
+            writer_state.rotate_memtable(&mut state, next)?;
+            Some(sealed)
+        };
+        info!(
+            "{op} moved shard {} (epoch {}) onto a new schema: active generation {}, sealed {:?}",
+            self.config.shard_id,
+            self.epoch,
+            state.memtable.generation(),
+            sealed_generation,
+        );
+        Ok(Some(SealFence {
+            sealed_generation,
+            watchers: state.frozen_flush_watchers.iter().cloned().collect(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Switch this writer to `schema` and `index_configs` without reopening it.
+    ///
+    /// The active memtable is sealed and flushed under its old schema. Reads
+    /// match columns by field id, so older rows show up under the new names.
+    ///
+    /// `schema` should carry field ids under `lance:field_id`, as for
+    /// [`Self::open`]. The primary key cannot change. Repeating the same change
+    /// is a no-op, so concurrent callers seal only once.
+    ///
+    /// MemTable mode only. `Ok(None)` when nothing would change; otherwise a
+    /// [`SealFence`] covering whatever was sealed.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # use arrow_schema::Schema;
+    /// # use lance::Result;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::mem_wal::ShardWriter;
+    /// # async fn doc(writer: &ShardWriter, renamed: Arc<Schema>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// writer.evolve_schema(renamed, Vec::new()).await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_evolve_schema", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.config.shard_id, epoch = self.epoch))]
+    pub async fn evolve_schema(
+        &self,
+        schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+        index_configs: Vec<MemIndexConfig>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<SealFence>> {
+        self.replace_writer_schema("evolve_schema", |_current| {
+            WriterSchema::try_new(&schema, index_configs)
+        })
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Seal the active memtable so it's queued for L0 flush. Errors in
+    /// WAL-only mode or if this writer has been fenced by a successor.
+    ///
+    /// The returned [`SealFence`] is what makes a *bounded* wait possible:
+    /// a caller that needs "everything written before my seal is in L0"
+    /// awaits [`SealFence::wait`], which covers the flushes outstanding at
+    /// seal time and nothing else. [`Self::wait_for_flush_drain`] instead
+    /// loops until the frozen set is *empty*, re-collecting it each round,
+    /// so it also waits on every memtable frozen *while it waits*. Under
+    /// sustained writes that set may never empty.
+    ///
+    /// Beyond test setup where deterministic flush points are required,
+    /// this is the primary lever for callers that need to drive flushes
+    /// out-of-band from the size/interval triggers — for example, to cap
+    /// resident memtable bytes across many shards in a multi-table WAL
+    /// writer process, or to drain the WAL ahead of a format change so
+    /// the next epoch starts with no replayable entries from the old
+    /// layout.
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_force_seal_active", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.config.shard_id, epoch = self.epoch))]
+    pub async fn force_seal_active(&self) -> Result<SealFence> {
+        match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable {
+                state,
+                writer_state,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                self.check_fenced().await?;
+                self.wal_flusher.check_poisoned()?;
+                let mut state = state.write().await;
+                let sealed_generation = if state.memtable.batch_count() == 0 {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    let generation = state.memtable.generation();
+                    writer_state.freeze_memtable(&mut state)?;
+                    Some(generation)
+                };
+                // Capture the outstanding set under the same lock that froze,
+                // so no freeze can slip between the two and widen the fence.
+                // It covers more than the generation just sealed: a
+                // size/interval trigger freezes generations asynchronously, so
+                // an empty active memtable does *not* mean every pre-call write
+                // already reached L0. Watchers are popped as flushes settle, so
+                // whatever remains here is exactly what is still owed.
+                Ok(SealFence {
+                    sealed_generation,
+                    watchers: state.frozen_flush_watchers.iter().cloned().collect(),
+                })
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "force_seal_active not available in WAL-only mode (no MemTable)",
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Replace the indexes memtables are built with, and seal so the next one
+    /// carries them.
+    ///
+    /// The swap and the freeze happen under one hold of the `state` write lock,
+    /// the same lock a write takes, so a memtable is never built from a
+    /// half-applied set and no write lands in a memtable whose indexes have
+    /// already been superseded.
+    ///
+    /// The outgoing memtable keeps the indexes it was built with, and its L0
+    /// generation is written without the new vector or full-text ones, so its
+    /// rows answer neither search until compaction.
+    ///
+    /// `Ok(None)` when the set is already current; nothing is sealed.
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_replace_index_configs", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.config.shard_id, epoch = self.epoch, index_count = configs.len()))]
+    pub async fn replace_index_configs(
+        &self,
+        configs: Vec<MemIndexConfig>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<SealFence>> {
+        // Usually already current: check under the read lock and skip the
+        // fence check, which reads the manifest.
+        if let WriterMode::MemTable { state, .. } = &self.mode
+            && same_index_set(&state.read().await.schema.index_configs, &configs)
+        {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        self.replace_writer_schema("replace_index_configs", |current| {
+            current.with_index_configs(configs)
+        })
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// Block until every frozen memtable in the L0 flush queue has
+    /// landed and been recorded in the manifest. Does not wait on the
+    /// active memtable — call [`Self::force_seal_active`] first if you
+    /// want everything-on-disk. Errors in WAL-only mode, or if any
+    /// awaited flush reports `DurabilityResult::Failed`.
+    ///
+    /// Useful in tests for deterministic post-flush assertions. In
+    /// production prefer [`SealFence::wait`] from the seal itself: this
+    /// drains the queue to empty, including memtables frozen after the
+    /// call, so under sustained writes it may not return.
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_wait_for_flush_drain", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.config.shard_id, epoch = self.epoch))]
+    pub async fn wait_for_flush_drain(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let state_lock = match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable { state, .. } => state,
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "wait_for_flush_drain not available in WAL-only mode (no MemTable)",
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+
+        loop {
+            let watchers: Vec<DurabilityWatcher> = {
+                let st = state_lock.read().await;
+                st.frozen_flush_watchers.iter().cloned().collect()
+            };
+            if watchers.is_empty() {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            for mut w in watchers {
+                match w.await_value().await {
+                    Some(durability) => durability.into_result()?,
+                    None => {
+                        return Err(Error::io(
+                            "MemTable flush handler exited before reporting completion",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Abort the writer without flushing.
+    ///
+    /// Shuts down the background flush tasks and leaves all buffered
+    /// memtable state to be dropped with the writer. Unlike
+    /// [`Self::close`], no WAL/MemTable flush is issued: pending in-memory
+    /// rows are discarded, not made durable, and no object-store IO is
+    /// performed. Used on drop-table, where the dataset directory is about
+    /// to be removed and a flush would only race fresh files back into a
+    /// doomed path.
+    ///
+    /// Caller-quiesce contract: `abort` takes `&self` (so it can be called
+    /// through the `Arc<ShardWriter>` callers hold) and therefore cannot
+    /// structurally bar a concurrent or subsequent `put` the way consuming
+    /// `close(self)` does. After abort the dispatchers are gone, so a later
+    /// `put` would buffer data that never flushes. Callers MUST stop
+    /// issuing writes before calling abort.
+    ///
+    /// Blocks until any flush already mid-`handle()` settles —
+    /// cancellation only fires between messages — so no flush task lingers
+    /// after abort returns. Idempotent: a second call re-cancels an
+    /// already-cancelled token and joins an already-emptied task set.
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_abort", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.config.shard_id, epoch = self.epoch))]
+    pub async fn abort(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        info!(
+            "Aborting ShardWriter for shard {} (no flush)",
+            self.config.shard_id
+        );
+        self.task_executor.shutdown_all().await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Send the close-time final WAL flush and await its completion.
+    ///
+    /// Sends directly on the flush channel rather than via
+    /// [`WalFlusher::trigger_flush`]: the latter silently returns `Ok` when the
+    /// flusher's `flush_tx` is unset, which would let close report success
+    /// without ever persisting the final WAL entry. A closed send channel must
+    /// surface as an error here so close never acknowledges durability it did
+    /// not achieve.
+    async fn flush_final_wal(
+        wal_flush_tx: &mpsc::UnboundedSender<TriggerWalFlush>,
+        source: WalFlushSource,
+        end_batch_position: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let done = WatchableOnceCell::new();
+        let mut reader = done.reader();
+        if wal_flush_tx
+            .send(TriggerWalFlush {
+                source,
+                end_batch_position,
+                done: Some(done),
+            })
+            .is_err()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::io("WAL flush channel closed during close"));
+        }
+
+        match reader.await_value().await {
+            Some(Ok(_)) => Ok(()),
+            Some(Err(failure)) => Err(failure.into_error()),
+            None => Err(Error::io(
+                "WAL flush handler exited before reporting durability during close",
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn merge_close_stage(
+        close_result: Result<()>,
+        stage: &str,
+        stage_result: Result<()>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if let (Err(_), Err(stage_error)) = (&close_result, &stage_result) {
+            warn!("Close stage '{stage}' also failed: {stage_error}");
+        }
+        close_result.and(stage_result)
+    }
+
     /// Close the writer gracefully.
     ///
     /// Flushes pending data and shuts down background tasks.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if pending WAL data cannot be persisted, an active or
+    /// frozen MemTable cannot be flushed, a flush handler exits before reporting
+    /// completion, or background tasks cannot be shut down.
+    #[instrument(name = "sw_close", level = "info", skip_all, fields(shard_id = %self.config.shard_id, epoch = self.epoch))]
     pub async fn close(self) -> Result<()> {
-        info!("Closing RegionWriter for region {}", self.config.region_id);
+        info!("Closing ShardWriter for shard {}", self.config.shard_id);
+        let mut close_result: Result<()> = Ok(());
+
+        match &self.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable {
+                state,
+                writer_state,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                // Drain *both* tasks against the active memtable. The index apply
+                // and the WAL append are independent now, so closing has to
+                // settle both: the L0 flush below turns this memtable into a
+                // Lance generation, and a generation whose indexes never saw the
+                // tail is a generation with a hole in it.
+                let st = state.read().await;
+                let batch_store = st.memtable.batch_store();
+                let indexes = st.memtable.indexes_arc();
+                let batch_count = st.memtable.batch_count();
+                drop(st);
+
+                if batch_count > 0
+                    && let Some(indexes) = indexes
+                    && indexes.indexed_count() < batch_count
+                {
+                    let mut watcher = self.wal_flusher.track_batch(
+                        Some(Arc::clone(&indexes)),
+                        batch_count,
+                        0, // durability is settled by the WAL flush below
+                    );
+                    writer_state.trigger_index_apply(
+                        Arc::clone(&batch_store),
+                        indexes,
+                        batch_count,
+                    )?;
+                    watcher.wait().await?;
+                }
 
-        // Send final WAL flush message and wait for completion
-        let state = self.state.read().await;
-        let batch_store = state.memtable.batch_store();
-        let indexes = state.memtable.indexes_arc();
-        let batch_count = state.memtable.batch_count();
-        drop(state);
-
-        // Only send flush if there are batches to flush
-        if batch_count > 0 {
-            // Create a completion cell to wait for flush
-            let done = WatchableOnceCell::new();
-            let reader = done.reader();
-
-            // Send flush message with end_batch_position = batch_count to flush all pending
-            if self
-                .writer_state
-                .wal_flush_tx
-                .send(TriggerWalFlush {
-                    batch_store,
-                    indexes,
-                    end_batch_position: batch_count,
-                    done: Some(done),
-                })
-                .is_ok()
-            {
-                // Wait for flush to complete
-                let mut reader = reader;
-                let _ = reader.await_value().await;
+                if batch_count > 0 {
+                    // Append-only source: on this branch the index apply is a
+                    // separate task (drained above), so the final WAL flush carries
+                    // no indexes. #7769's failure propagation still applies.
+                    let stage_result = Self::flush_final_wal(
+                        &writer_state.wal_flush_tx,
+                        WalFlushSource::BatchStore { batch_store },
+                        batch_count,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                    close_result =
+                        Self::merge_close_stage(close_result, "final WAL flush", stage_result);
+                }
+
+                // Freeze the active memtable (if any rows) so it joins the
+                // pending-flush queue, then wait for every frozen
+                // memtable's flush to complete. Without this, close() left
+                // any rows that hadn't crossed the size/batch trigger
+                // sitting in memory at shutdown — they were durable in the
+                // WAL but never produced a Lance fragment, which is
+                // surprising for callers who reasonably expect close() to
+                // make all data fully durable in the LSM sense (and which
+                // makes flush-cost benchmarks impossible to measure).
+                //
+                // Propagate any freeze error: at close time the caller
+                // has explicitly asked for full durability, so silently
+                // dropping a freeze failure would lose data without any
+                // signal. If freeze fails, its error is recorded as the
+                // first causal failure, but close still drains any
+                // pre-existing frozen MemTable watchers so a successor
+                // failure is logged without replacing the first error.
+                let watchers: Vec<_> = {
+                    let mut st = state.write().await;
+                    if st.memtable.row_count() > 0 {
+                        let freeze_result = writer_state.freeze_memtable(&mut st).map(|_| ());
+                        close_result = Self::merge_close_stage(
+                            close_result,
+                            "active MemTable freeze",
+                            freeze_result,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    st.frozen_flush_watchers.iter().cloned().collect()
+                };
+                for mut watcher in watchers {
+                    let stage_result = match watcher.await_value().await {
+                        Some(durability) => durability.into_result(),
+                        None => Err(Error::io(
+                            "MemTable flush handler exited before reporting completion during close",
+                        )),
+                    };
+                    close_result = Self::merge_close_stage(
+                        close_result,
+                        "frozen MemTable flush watcher",
+                        stage_result,
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly {
+                state,
+                wal_flush_tx,
+                trigger: _,
+                backpressure: _,
+                logical_schema: _,
+            } => {
+                // Drain any pending batches via a final flush; wait for completion.
+                let pending = state.batch_count();
+                let end_position = state.next_batch_position();
+                if pending > 0 {
+                    let stage_result = Self::flush_final_wal(
+                        wal_flush_tx,
+                        WalFlushSource::WalOnly {
+                            state: state.clone(),
+                        },
+                        end_position,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                    close_result =
+                        Self::merge_close_stage(close_result, "final WAL flush", stage_result);
+                }
             }
         }
 
         // Shutdown background tasks
-        self.task_executor.shutdown_all().await?;
-
-        info!("RegionWriter closed for region {}", self.config.region_id);
-        Ok(())
+        let shutdown_result = self.task_executor.shutdown_all().await;
+        let close_result = Self::merge_close_stage(close_result, "task shutdown", shutdown_result);
+
+        match &close_result {
+            Ok(()) => info!("ShardWriter closed for shard {}", self.config.shard_id),
+            Err(error) => warn!(
+                "ShardWriter close for shard {} failed: {error}",
+                self.config.shard_id
+            ),
+        }
+        close_result
     }
 }
 
-/// MemTable statistics.
+/// MemTable statistics: rows, generation, and what the memtable still owes the
+/// WAL.
+///
+/// Deliberately carries **no byte totals**. [`ShardWriter::memory`] is the one
+/// way to ask what a shard is holding — it answers without the writer lock, and
+/// a second set of byte fields here would be a second implementation of the
+/// same filter and sum, free to disagree with the gate.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct MemTableStats {
     pub row_count: usize,
     pub batch_count: usize,
-    pub estimated_size: usize,
     pub generation: u64,
+    pub max_buffered_batch_position: Option<usize>,
+    /// Writer-global count of WAL-durable batches. Exclusive: 0 means none.
+    /// Compare against `global_offset + batch_count` to see what this memtable
+    /// still owes the WAL.
+    pub durable_batch_count: usize,
+    /// Writer-global coordinate of this memtable's batch 0.
+    pub global_offset: usize,
+    pub pending_wal_start_batch_position: Option<usize>,
+    pub pending_wal_end_batch_position: Option<usize>,
+    pub pending_wal_batch_count: usize,
+    pub pending_wal_row_count: usize,
+    pub pending_wal_estimated_bytes: usize,
+    /// Frozen memtables in the read view: sealed-awaiting-flush, plus flushed
+    /// ones still inside `frozen_memtable_grace`.
+    pub frozen_count: usize,
 }
 
 /// WAL statistics.
@@ -1303,47 +4334,219 @@ pub struct WalStats {
     pub next_wal_entry_position: u64,
 }
 
-/// Background handler for WAL flush operations.
+/// The L0 flushes outstanding when [`ShardWriter::force_seal_active`]
+/// returned — the exact predicate for "everything written before that call
+/// is in L0".
+///
+/// The set is fixed at seal time, so [`Self::wait`] is bounded no matter how
+/// many memtables freeze while it waits, and each entry reports the outcome of
+/// its own flush. That is why the fence is a captured watcher set and not a
+/// generation number compared against `ShardManifest::current_generation`: the
+/// manifest advances to `generation + 1` on every committed flush without
+/// checking for a gap, so a later generation's success moves it past a
+/// generation that failed and never reached L0 — the watermark would report
+/// durability that does not exist.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct SealFence {
+    sealed_generation: Option<u64>,
+    watchers: Vec<DurabilityWatcher>,
+}
+
+impl SealFence {
+    /// The generation the seal froze, or `None` when the active memtable
+    /// was empty (a no-op seal). Independent of what the fence covers: an
+    /// empty active memtable says nothing about generations frozen earlier
+    /// and still awaiting flush, which the fence still waits on.
+    pub fn sealed_generation(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.sealed_generation
+    }
+
+    /// Block until every flush this fence covers has landed in L0.
+    ///
+    /// Errors if any of them reports `DurabilityResult::Failed`, or if the
+    /// flush handler exited without reporting.
+    pub async fn wait(self) -> Result<()> {
+        for mut watcher in self.watchers {
+            match watcher.await_value().await {
+                Some(durability) => durability.into_result()?,
+                None => {
+                    return Err(Error::io(
+                        "MemTable flush handler exited before reporting completion",
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// The oldest store that still owes the WAL an append, or `None` when everything
+/// is durable.
+///
+/// Ordering is the whole point. WAL entry positions are assigned in append-call
+/// order; replay walks them ascending; row positions follow; and primary-key
+/// recency is "newest visible row position wins". So appending a newer memtable
+/// ahead of an older one's tail silently inverts dedup after a crash.
+///
+/// Taking "the active memtable" would do exactly that, because a timer tick
+/// enqueued before a freeze is handled after it and would resolve to the incoming
+/// memtable. Selecting by cursor instead makes the target a function of what is
+/// actually durable, not of when the timer happened to fire.
+fn next_pending_store(
+    frozen: impl Iterator<Item = Arc<BatchStore>>,
+    active: Arc<BatchStore>,
+    durable: usize,
+) -> Option<Arc<BatchStore>> {
+    frozen
+        .chain(std::iter::once(active))
+        .find(|store| store.global_end() > durable)
+}
+
+/// The index-apply task: one sequential consumer of the index-apply channel.
 ///
-/// This handler does parallel WAL I/O + index updates during flush.
-/// Indexes are passed through the TriggerWalFlush message.
+/// Sequential consumption is the safety property. `HnswGraph::insert_batch` hard-
+/// rejects any range whose start is not its `indexed_len`, so the apply must see
+/// contiguous, in-order ranges — and a single consumer guarantees that
+/// regardless of how many putters race behind it. Ordering comes from the task,
+/// not from a flush interval, which is why triggering per-put is exactly as safe
+/// as triggering on a timer, and lets a put become visible in milliseconds
+/// instead of waiting on an S3 round-trip.
+struct IndexApplyHandler {
+    cursors: Arc<WriterCursors>,
+    wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
+    stats: SharedWriteStats,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl MessageHandler<TriggerIndexApply> for IndexApplyHandler {
+    async fn handle(&mut self, message: TriggerIndexApply) -> Result<()> {
+        match apply_index_range(&self.cursors, message).await {
+            Ok(applied) => {
+                // A coalesced no-op indexes nothing (`rows_indexed == 0`);
+                // recording it would inflate the count and skew avg latency.
+                if applied.rows_indexed > 0 {
+                    self.stats
+                        .record_index_update(applied.duration, applied.rows_indexed);
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            // An index apply cannot be partially rolled back, so a failure is
+            // terminal: poison, and let reopen rebuild the indexes from the WAL.
+            // See the note in `WalFlusher::flush_from_batch_store`.
+            Err(e) => {
+                self.wal_flusher.poison(&e);
+                Err(e)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 struct WalFlushHandler {
     wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
-    state: Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
+    /// MemTable-mode writer state, used to detect "frozen vs active" flushes
+    /// via Arc::ptr_eq on the active batch_store. `None` when running in
+    /// WAL-only mode (no MemTable, no frozen-vs-active distinction).
+    memtable_state: Option<Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>>,
+    /// WAL-only-mode pending queue, so a background tick can resolve to the
+    /// batches still owed an append. `None` in MemTable mode. Exactly one of
+    /// `memtable_state` / `wal_only_state` is `Some`.
+    wal_only_state: Option<Arc<WalOnlyState>>,
+    /// How often to append in the background. `None` disables the ticker, leaving
+    /// the append size-triggered (and freeze/close-triggered) only.
+    flush_interval: Option<Duration>,
     stats: SharedWriteStats,
+    observer: Option<Arc<dyn WalObserver>>,
 }
 
 impl WalFlushHandler {
     fn new(
         wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
-        state: Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
+        memtable_state: Option<Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>>,
+        wal_only_state: Option<Arc<WalOnlyState>>,
+        flush_interval: Option<Duration>,
         stats: SharedWriteStats,
+        observer: Option<Arc<dyn WalObserver>>,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             wal_flusher,
-            state,
+            memtable_state,
+            wal_only_state,
+            flush_interval,
             stats,
+            observer,
         }
     }
 }
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl MessageHandler<TriggerWalFlush> for WalFlushHandler {
+    /// Append periodically in the background.
+    ///
+    /// This is what the flush interval was always supposed to mean. It routed to
+    /// a timer that was only ever *evaluated on the write path*, so it could add
+    /// a redundant trigger but never delay or batch one — with every durable put
+    /// triggering its own append, tuning the knob did nothing at all.
+    ///
+    /// The ticker exists to bound S3 API cost: an append is a PUT, billed per
+    /// call, and it is the only thing on this schedule. The index apply is not —
+    /// it is in-memory and free to batch, so it runs per-put on its own task.
+    fn tickers(&mut self) -> Vec<(Duration, MessageFactory<TriggerWalFlush>)> {
+        // No interval => no ticker. A zero interval would panic in tokio.
+        let Some(interval) = self.flush_interval.filter(|d| !d.is_zero()) else {
+            return vec![];
+        };
+        // The tick names no store: `MessageFactory` is synchronous and cannot take
+        // the async state lock. `handle()` resolves it against the cursor.
+        vec![(
+            interval,
+            Box::new(|| TriggerWalFlush {
+                source: WalFlushSource::NextPending,
+                end_batch_position: 0,
+                done: None,
+            }),
+        )]
+    }
+
     async fn handle(&mut self, message: TriggerWalFlush) -> Result<()> {
         let TriggerWalFlush {
-            batch_store,
-            indexes,
+            source,
             end_batch_position,
             done,
         } = message;
 
-        let result = self
-            .do_flush(batch_store, indexes, end_batch_position)
-            .await;
+        // A timer tick names no store — resolve it now, at handle time.
+        let (source, end_batch_position) = match source {
+            WalFlushSource::NextPending => match self.resolve_next_pending().await {
+                Some(resolved) => resolved,
+                // Everything is already durable; the tick has nothing to do.
+                None => return Ok(()),
+            },
+            other => (other, end_batch_position),
+        };
+
+        let result = self.do_flush(source, end_batch_position).await;
+
+        // Propagate the just-appended WAL entry position back into the
+        // writer state so a subsequent MemTable freeze can stamp the
+        // correct `covered_wal_entry_position` into the manifest. Without
+        // this, `replay_after_wal_entry_position` stays at 0 and replay
+        // re-reads already-flushed entries after restart.
+        //
+        // Always update state before signalling the completion cell so any
+        // waiter that reads state immediately after the cell fires sees
+        // the new position.
+        if let (Ok(flush_result), Some(state_lock)) = (&result, &self.memtable_state)
+            && let Some(entry) = &flush_result.entry
+        {
+            let mut state = state_lock.write().await;
+            state.last_flushed_wal_entry_position =
+                state.last_flushed_wal_entry_position.max(entry.position);
+        }
 
-        // Notify completion if requested
+        // Notify completion if requested. Carry the typed fence reason through
+        // the cell (not just a string) so a waiter rebuilds the right error.
         if let Some(cell) = done {
-            cell.write(result.map_err(|e| e.to_string()));
+            cell.write(result.map_err(|e| WalFlushFailure::from_error(&e)));
         }
 
         Ok(())
@@ -1351,52 +4554,104 @@ impl MessageHandler<TriggerWalFlush> for WalFlushHandler {
 }
 
 impl WalFlushHandler {
-    /// Unified flush method for both active and frozen memtables.
+    /// Pick the store the WAL still owes an append, oldest first.
     ///
-    /// Detects frozen vs active flush by comparing the passed batch_store with the
-    /// current active memtable's batch_store. If different, it's a frozen memtable flush.
+    /// **WAL entries must be appended in global batch-position order for the
+    /// writer's lifetime.** `WalAppender::append` assigns each entry's position
+    /// from its own counter, in call order; replay walks those positions
+    /// ascending and assigns row positions in that order; and primary-key recency
+    /// is "newest visible row position wins". So append order fixes dedup order.
+    /// Append two memtables out of order and replay silently hands the dedup to
+    /// the *stale* row — corruption that survives the crash that caused it, and
+    /// that a full scan cannot see.
     ///
-    /// # Arguments
+    /// Resolving to "the active memtable" would break exactly that: a tick
+    /// enqueued before a freeze is handled after it, resolves to the incoming
+    /// memtable, and appends its batches ahead of the outgoing memtable's tail.
+    /// So the target is a function of `durable`, not of when the timer fired.
+    ///
+    /// Safe to walk the frozen list because a store that still owes an append
+    /// cannot be swept: its L0 flush is blocked on the completion cell that only
+    /// that append fires.
+    ///
+    /// In WAL-only mode there is a single FIFO pending queue and no memtable
+    /// rotation, so the ordering hazard above cannot arise: the tick resolves to
+    /// the queue whenever it holds un-appended batches.
+    async fn resolve_next_pending(&self) -> Option<(WalFlushSource, usize)> {
+        if let Some(state_lock) = self.memtable_state.as_ref() {
+            let state = state_lock.read().await;
+            let durable = self.wal_flusher.durable();
+
+            return next_pending_store(
+                state
+                    .frozen_memtables
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|frozen| frozen.memtable.batch_store()),
+                state.memtable.batch_store(),
+                durable,
+            )
+            .map(|store| {
+                let end = store.len();
+                (WalFlushSource::BatchStore { batch_store: store }, end)
+            });
+        }
+
+        let state = self.wal_only_state.as_ref()?;
+        if state.batch_count() == 0 {
+            // Everything already appended; the tick has nothing to do.
+            return None;
+        }
+        // `flush_from_wal_only` snapshots the whole queue, so the end position
+        // is informational here; carry the next position for symmetry.
+        let end = state.next_batch_position();
+        Some((
+            WalFlushSource::WalOnly {
+                state: Arc::clone(state),
+            },
+            end,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Unified flush method for both active and frozen memtables and for
+    /// WAL-only mode.
     ///
-    /// * `batch_store` - The batch store to flush from
-    /// * `indexes` - Optional indexes to update in parallel with WAL I/O
-    /// * `end_batch_position` - End batch ID (exclusive). Flush batches in (max_flushed, end_batch_position).
+    /// For BatchStore sources, detects frozen vs active flush by comparing
+    /// the passed batch_store with the current active memtable's
+    /// batch_store. If different, it's a frozen memtable flush.
+    #[instrument(
+        name = "wal_do_flush",
+        level = "debug",
+        skip_all,
+        fields(end_batch_position)
+    )]
     async fn do_flush(
         &self,
-        batch_store: Arc<BatchStore>,
-        indexes: Option<Arc<IndexStore>>,
+        source: WalFlushSource,
         end_batch_position: usize,
     ) -> Result<WalFlushResult> {
         let start = Instant::now();
-        // Use batch_store's watermark - this is the authoritative source
-        let max_flushed = batch_store.max_flushed_batch_position();
-        // Convert to count-like value for comparison: number of batches already flushed
-        let flushed_up_to = max_flushed.map(|p| p + 1).unwrap_or(0);
-
-        // Detect if this is a frozen memtable flush by comparing batch_store pointers.
-        // If the batch_store is different from the current active memtable's, it's frozen.
-        let is_frozen_flush = {
-            let state = self.state.read().await;
-            !Arc::ptr_eq(&batch_store, &state.memtable.batch_store())
-        };
-
-        // Check if there's anything to flush (only skip for active memtable)
-        if !is_frozen_flush && flushed_up_to >= end_batch_position {
-            return Ok(WalFlushResult {
-                entry: None,
-                wal_io_duration: std::time::Duration::ZERO,
-                index_update_duration: std::time::Duration::ZERO,
-                index_update_duration_breakdown: std::collections::HashMap::new(),
-                rows_indexed: 0,
-                wal_bytes: 0,
-            });
+
+        // Early-out for BatchStore sources where the watermark already
+        // covers the requested end position. Detection of "frozen flush"
+        // requires the active memtable's batch_store; WAL-only handlers
+        // don't have one (`memtable_state` is `None`) and never receive a
+        // BatchStore source, so the early-out simplifies to the watermark
+        // comparison.
+        if let WalFlushSource::BatchStore { batch_store, .. } = &source {
+            let flushed_up_to = batch_store.local_end(self.wal_flusher.durable());
+            let is_frozen_flush = if let Some(state_lock) = &self.memtable_state {
+                let state = state_lock.read().await;
+                !Arc::ptr_eq(batch_store, &state.memtable.batch_store())
+            } else {
+                false
+            };
+            if !is_frozen_flush && flushed_up_to >= end_batch_position {
+                return Ok(empty_flush_result());
+            }
         }
 
-        // Flush batches up to end_batch_position
-        let flush_result = self
-            .wal_flusher
-            .flush_to_with_index_update(&batch_store, end_batch_position, indexes)
-            .await?;
+        // Delegate the actual flush to the WalFlusher.
+        let flush_result = self.wal_flusher.flush(&source, end_batch_position).await?;
 
         let batches_flushed = flush_result
             .entry
@@ -1404,18 +4659,15 @@ impl WalFlushHandler {
             .map(|e| e.num_batches)
             .unwrap_or(0);
 
-        // Note: WAL watermark is already updated by flush_to_with_index_update()
-        // via batch_store.set_max_flushed_batch_position(). No need for separate mapping.
-
-        // Record WAL flush stats
         if batches_flushed > 0 {
-            self.stats
-                .record_wal_flush(start.elapsed(), flush_result.wal_bytes);
+            // One reading for both sinks, so the cumulative total and the
+            // per-flush observation cannot disagree.
+            let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+            self.stats.record_wal_flush(elapsed, flush_result.wal_bytes);
             self.stats.record_wal_io(flush_result.wal_io_duration);
-            self.stats.record_index_update(
-                flush_result.index_update_duration,
-                flush_result.rows_indexed,
-            );
+            if let Some(observer) = &self.observer {
+                observer.on_wal_flush(elapsed, flush_result.wal_bytes);
+            }
         }
 
         Ok(flush_result)
@@ -1430,39 +4682,92 @@ impl WalFlushHandler {
 /// handler flushes in the background.
 struct MemTableFlushHandler {
     state: Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
+    /// Shared with `SharedWriterState`; this handler re-derives it once a
+    /// flush commits and the memtable set changes.
+    memory: Arc<ArcSwap<ResidentMemTables>>,
     flusher: Arc<MemTableFlusher>,
+    /// Source of the writer-global durability cursor, which the L0 flush asserts
+    /// covers the whole frozen memtable before it writes a generation.
+    wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
     epoch: u64,
     stats: SharedWriteStats,
+    observer: Option<Arc<dyn WalObserver>>,
+    /// How long a frozen memtable lingers in memory after its flush commits
+    /// before [`sweep_expired_frozen`] evicts it. See
+    /// `ShardWriterConfig::frozen_memtable_grace`.
+    grace: Duration,
 }
 
 impl MemTableFlushHandler {
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     fn new(
         state: Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
+        memory: Arc<ArcSwap<ResidentMemTables>>,
         flusher: Arc<MemTableFlusher>,
+        wal_flusher: Arc<WalFlusher>,
         epoch: u64,
         stats: SharedWriteStats,
+        observer: Option<Arc<dyn WalObserver>>,
+        grace: Duration,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             state,
+            memory,
             flusher,
+            wal_flusher,
             epoch,
             stats,
+            observer,
+            grace,
         }
     }
 }
 
+/// Evict frozen memtables whose post-flush grace has elapsed. Un-stamped
+/// (not-yet-flushed) entries are always kept.
+///
+/// A free function so the sweeper task can call it without owning the flush
+/// handler — see [`TaskExecutor::add_periodic`] for why it must not run there.
+async fn sweep_expired_frozen(
+    state: &Arc<RwLock<WriterState>>,
+    memory: &Arc<ArcSwap<ResidentMemTables>>,
+    grace: Duration,
+) {
+    let now = now_millis();
+    let grace_ms = grace.as_millis() as u64;
+    let mut state = state.write().await;
+    let before = state.frozen_memtables.len();
+    state
+        .frozen_memtables
+        .retain(|frozen| match frozen.flushed_at_ms {
+            Some(flushed_at) => now.saturating_sub(flushed_at) < grace_ms,
+            None => true,
+        });
+    // Eviction is the only thing that reclaims a grace-retained generation,
+    // so this is where its bytes leave the memory view.
+    if state.frozen_memtables.len() != before {
+        publish_memory(memory, &state);
+    }
+}
+
 #[async_trait]
 impl MessageHandler<TriggerMemTableFlush> for MemTableFlushHandler {
     async fn handle(&mut self, message: TriggerMemTableFlush) -> Result<()> {
-        let TriggerMemTableFlush { memtable, done } = message;
-
-        let result = self.flush_memtable(memtable).await;
-        if let Some(tx) = done {
-            // Send result through the channel - caller is waiting for it
-            let _ = tx.send(result);
-        } else {
-            // No done channel, propagate errors
-            result?;
+        match message {
+            TriggerMemTableFlush::Flush {
+                memtable,
+                index_configs,
+                done,
+            } => {
+                let result = self.flush_memtable(memtable, &index_configs).await;
+                if let Some(tx) = done {
+                    // Send result through the channel - caller is waiting for it
+                    let _ = tx.send(result);
+                } else {
+                    // No done channel, propagate errors
+                    result?;
+                }
+            }
         }
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -1474,46 +4779,161 @@ impl MemTableFlushHandler {
     /// This method waits for the WAL flush to complete (sent at freeze time),
     /// then flushes to Lance storage. The WAL flush is already queued by
     /// freeze_memtable to ensure strict ordering of WAL entries.
+    ///
+    /// Whether the flush succeeds or fails, the memtable's flush-completion
+    /// watcher is always signaled and the backpressure queue is always drained
+    /// for this memtable. Otherwise `wait_for_flush_drain` would observe a
+    /// dropped watch channel and return `Err` instead of the actual outcome.
+    ///
+    /// `index_configs` are the indexes the memtable was built with. They are
+    /// rebuilt on the generation, without which `fast_search` misses its rows.
+    #[instrument(name = "mt_flush", level = "info", skip_all, fields(generation = memtable.generation(), row_count = memtable.row_count()))]
     async fn flush_memtable(
         &mut self,
         memtable: Arc<MemTable>,
+        index_configs: &[MemIndexConfig],
     ) -> Result<super::memtable::flush::FlushResult> {
         let start = Instant::now();
-        let memtable_size = memtable.estimated_size();
-
-        // Step 1: Wait for WAL flush completion (already queued at freeze time)
-        // The TriggerWalFlush message was sent by freeze_memtable to ensure
-        // strict ordering of WAL entries.
-        if let Some(mut completion_reader) = memtable.take_wal_flush_completion() {
-            completion_reader
-                .await_value()
+
+        let flush_result = async {
+            // Step 1: Wait for WAL flush completion (already queued at freeze time).
+            // The TriggerWalFlush message was sent by freeze_memtable to ensure
+            // strict ordering of WAL entries. If the freeze didn't trigger a
+            // flush (no pending WAL range), there's no completion cell and the
+            // memtable was already WAL-flushed by an earlier put.
+            let wal_flushed_position =
+                if let Some(mut completion_reader) = memtable.take_wal_flush_completion() {
+                    match completion_reader.await_value().await {
+                        Some(Ok(flush_result)) => flush_result.entry.map(|e| e.position),
+                        // Rebuild the typed error so a fence/poison reason
+                        // propagates to the memtable-flush caller too.
+                        Some(Err(e)) => return Err(e.into_error()),
+                        None => {
+                            return Err(Error::io(
+                                "WAL flush handler exited before reporting completion",
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+
+            // Step 1b: Wait until index application covers this whole memtable.
+            //
+            // Freeze queues the apply and this flush on separate channels, so
+            // without waiting the export can run while the indexes are still
+            // behind the batch store. The generation's vector index would then
+            // be short of rows its own SSTable holds, and SSTable vector search
+            // is index-only -- `fast_search`, no brute-force scan -- so those
+            // rows stop answering once the frozen memtable retires.
+            //
+            // `batch_count` is fixed at freeze, so this waits for a target that
+            // cannot move, and the watcher surfaces a poisoned writer rather
+            // than blocking on a cursor that will never arrive.
+            if !index_configs.is_empty()
+                && let Some(indexes) = memtable.indexes_arc()
+            {
+                let target_indexed = memtable.batch_count();
+                self.wal_flusher
+                    .track_batch(Some(indexes), target_indexed, 0)
+                    .wait()
+                    .await?;
+            }
+
+            // Step 2: Flush the memtable to Lance storage. The covered WAL
+            // entry position is either the one we just appended (per-memtable,
+            // from the completion cell — authoritative even when concurrent
+            // flushes have raced ahead in `state.last_flushed_wal_entry_position`)
+            // or, when no flush was triggered at freeze time, the memtable's
+            // frozen-at marker captured at freeze. Stamping this into the
+            // manifest is what lets replay-on-reopen skip entries this
+            // generation covers.
+            let covered_wal_entry_position = wal_flushed_position
+                .or_else(|| memtable.frozen_at_wal_entry_position())
+                .unwrap_or(0);
+            // Rebuild secondary indexes on the SSTable so later
+            // queries hit an index instead of scanning. Skip the extra
+            // dataset open when there are no indexes to build. The indexed
+            // path's future is boxed to keep this async block's nesting
+            // under the type-layout recursion limit.
+            // Read the durability cursor *after* the WAL-append completion above,
+            // not before: the append that makes this memtable durable is the very
+            // thing we just waited on, so a cursor sampled earlier would still be
+            // short of it and trip the flush precondition.
+            let durable = self.wal_flusher.durable();
+
+            if index_configs.is_empty() {
+                self.flusher
+                    .flush(&memtable, self.epoch, covered_wal_entry_position, durable)
+                    .await
+            } else {
+                Box::pin(self.flusher.flush_with_indexes(
+                    &memtable,
+                    self.epoch,
+                    index_configs,
+                    covered_wal_entry_position,
+                    durable,
+                ))
                 .await
-                .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("WAL flush failed: {}", e), snafu::location!()))?;
+            }
         }
+        .await;
 
-        // Step 2: Flush the memtable to Lance storage
-        let result = self.flusher.flush(&memtable, self.epoch).await?;
-
-        // Step 3: Signal completion and update backpressure tracking
-        // Signal memtable flush completion for backpressure watchers
-        memtable.signal_memtable_flush_complete();
+        // Step 3: Always signal completion (with the outcome) and drain
+        // backpressure state for this memtable, even on failure.
+        let durability = match &flush_result {
+            Ok(_) => DurabilityResult::ok(),
+            Err(e) => DurabilityResult::err(e.to_string()),
+        };
+        memtable.signal_memtable_flush_complete(durability);
 
-        // Update backpressure tracking - remove the oldest watcher and decrement bytes
         {
             let mut state = self.state.write().await;
-            if let Some((_size, _watcher)) = state.frozen_flush_watchers.pop_front() {
-                state.frozen_memtable_bytes =
-                    state.frozen_memtable_bytes.saturating_sub(memtable_size);
+            // Backpressure drain: unconditional so `wait_for_flush_drain`
+            // sees the watcher's error signal, not a dropped channel. Which
+            // entry comes off the front does not matter — flushes complete out
+            // of order, and the snapshot re-derived at the end of this block
+            // reads the frozen queue itself rather than tracking a charge.
+            state.frozen_flush_watchers.pop_front();
+            // Retire the frozen handle on commit success, keyed by generation
+            // (non-FIFO completion is fine). Zero grace evicts here; otherwise
+            // stamp the grace clock so it lingers for multi-part as-of reads
+            // until the grace sweep. On failure leave it un-stamped: rows stay in
+            // the read union until a later flush or WAL replay, else a transient
+            // error reopens the hole.
+            if flush_result.is_ok() {
+                let sstable = memtable.generation();
+                if self.grace.is_zero() {
+                    state
+                        .frozen_memtables
+                        .retain(|frozen| frozen.memtable.generation() != sstable);
+                } else {
+                    let now = now_millis();
+                    for frozen in state.frozen_memtables.iter_mut() {
+                        if frozen.memtable.generation() == sstable {
+                            frozen.flushed_at_ms = Some(now);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
             }
+            // Re-derive after both branches above. A *failed* flush leaves its
+            // memtable un-stamped and so still counted, which is the point: its
+            // bytes are resident and only another flush can reclaim them.
+            publish_memory(&self.memory, &state);
         }
 
-        // Record stats
+        let result = flush_result?;
+
+        let elapsed = start.elapsed();
         self.stats
-            .record_memtable_flush(start.elapsed(), result.rows_flushed);
+            .record_memtable_flush(elapsed, result.rows_flushed);
+        if let Some(observer) = &self.observer {
+            observer.on_memtable_flush(elapsed, result.rows_flushed);
+        }
 
         info!(
             "Flushed frozen memtable generation {} ({} rows in {:?})",
-            result.generation.generation,
+            result.sstable.generation,
             result.rows_flushed,
             start.elapsed()
         );
@@ -1700,11 +5120,7 @@ impl WriteStatsSnapshot {
 
     /// Get average WAL flush size in bytes.
     pub fn avg_wal_flush_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
-        if self.wal_flush_count > 0 {
-            Some(self.wal_flush_bytes / self.wal_flush_count)
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
+        self.wal_flush_bytes.checked_div(self.wal_flush_count)
     }
 
     /// Get WAL write throughput (bytes per second based on WAL flush time).
@@ -1736,11 +5152,7 @@ impl WriteStatsSnapshot {
 
     /// Get average rows per index update.
     pub fn avg_index_update_rows(&self) -> Option<u64> {
-        if self.index_update_count > 0 {
-            Some(self.index_update_rows / self.index_update_count)
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
+        self.index_update_rows.checked_div(self.index_update_count)
     }
 
     /// Get average MemTable flush latency.
@@ -1754,11 +5166,8 @@ impl WriteStatsSnapshot {
 
     /// Get average MemTable flush size in rows.
     pub fn avg_memtable_flush_rows(&self) -> Option<u64> {
-        if self.memtable_flush_count > 0 {
-            Some(self.memtable_flush_rows / self.memtable_flush_count)
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
+        self.memtable_flush_rows
+            .checked_div(self.memtable_flush_count)
     }
 
     /// Log stats summary using tracing (for structured telemetry).
@@ -1813,8 +5222,25 @@ pub fn new_shared_stats() -> SharedWriteStats {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use crate::Dataset;
+    use crate::blob::{
+        BlobArrayBuilder, BlobFieldOptions, blob_field_with_options, blob_v2_layout,
+    };
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::test_util::failing_memory_store;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, StringArray, StructArray, UInt8Array,
+        UInt32Array,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::Field as ArrowField;
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_core::FenceReason;
+    use lance_core::datatypes::{BlobKind, BlobV2Layout, LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY};
+    use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
+    use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;
     use tempfile::TempDir;
 
     async fn create_local_store() -> (Arc<ObjectStore>, Path, String, TempDir) {
@@ -1824,381 +5250,6953 @@ mod tests {
         (store, path, uri, temp_dir)
     }
 
-    fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
-        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]))
-    }
-
-    fn create_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, start_id: i32, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+    fn create_blob_v2_batch(start_id: i32, values: &[BlobTestValue]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let field = blob_field_with_options(
+            "blob",
+            true,
+            BlobFieldOptions {
+                inline_size_threshold: Some(4),
+                dedicated_size_threshold: NonZeroUsize::new(8),
+            },
+        );
+        let id = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        )]));
+        let vector = Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 2),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![id, field, vector]));
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(values.len());
+        for value in values {
+            match value {
+                BlobTestValue::Bytes(bytes) => blobs.push_bytes(bytes).unwrap(),
+                BlobTestValue::Uri(uri) => blobs.push_uri(uri.clone()).unwrap(),
+                BlobTestValue::Empty => blobs.push_empty().unwrap(),
+                BlobTestValue::Null => blobs.push_null().unwrap(),
+            }
+        }
         RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            schema,
             vec![
                 Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
-                    start_id..start_id + num_rows as i32,
-                )),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                    (0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("name_{}", start_id as usize + i)),
+                    start_id..start_id + values.len() as i32,
                 )),
+                blobs.finish().unwrap(),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                            (0..values.len() * 2).map(|value| value as f32),
+                        ),
+                        2,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap()
     }
 
+    enum BlobTestValue {
+        Bytes(Vec<u8>),
+        Uri(String),
+        Empty,
+        Null,
+    }
+
+    async fn blob_sidecars(store: &ObjectStore, data_dir: &Path) -> Vec<Path> {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let mut paths = store
+            .inner
+            .list(Some(data_dir))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|metadata| metadata.location)
+            .filter(|path| path.as_ref().ends_with(".blob"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        paths.sort();
+        paths
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_region_writer_basic_write() {
+    async fn test_blob_v2_target_is_reused_across_replay_and_flush() {
         let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-
-        let config = RegionWriterConfig {
-            region_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
-            region_spec_id: 0,
-            durable_write: false,
-            sync_indexed_write: false,
-            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
-            max_wal_flush_interval: None,
-            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
-            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+        let external_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let external_path = external_dir.path().join("external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"external").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let first = create_blob_v2_batch(
+            0,
+            &[
+                BlobTestValue::Bytes(b"abc".to_vec()),
+                BlobTestValue::Bytes(b"de".to_vec()),
+                BlobTestValue::Bytes(b"12345".to_vec()),
+                BlobTestValue::Bytes(b"123456".to_vec()),
+                BlobTestValue::Bytes(vec![7; 1024 * 1024]),
+                BlobTestValue::Empty,
+                BlobTestValue::Null,
+                BlobTestValue::Uri(external_uri),
+            ],
+        );
+        let schema = first.schema();
+        let second = create_blob_v2_batch(8, &[BlobTestValue::Bytes(b"later".to_vec())]);
+        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(Box::new(HnswIndexConfig::new(
+            "vector_idx".to_string(),
+            4,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        )))];
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id,
+            durable_write: true,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
             ..Default::default()
         };
 
-        let writer = RegionWriter::open(
-            store,
-            base_path,
-            base_uri,
-            config.clone(),
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![],
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let (target, sidecars_before) = {
+            let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                config.clone(),
+                schema.clone(),
+                index_configs.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            writer.put(vec![first]).await.unwrap();
+            writer.put(vec![second]).await.unwrap();
+
+            let (target, row_bytes) = match &writer.mode {
+                WriterMode::MemTable { state, .. } => {
+                    let state = state.read().await;
+                    (
+                        state.memtable.target().unwrap().clone(),
+                        state.memtable.batch_store().row_bytes(),
+                    )
+                }
+                WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => unreachable!(),
+            };
+            assert!(
+                row_bytes < 128 * 1024,
+                "the 1 MiB payload must not remain resident: {row_bytes} bytes"
+            );
 
-        // Write a batch
-        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10);
-        let result = writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+            let tailer = WalTailer::new(store.clone(), base_path.clone(), config.shard_id);
+            for position in [1, 2] {
+                let entry = tailer.read_entry(position).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(entry.target.as_ref(), Some(&target));
+                assert_eq!(
+                    blob_v2_layout(entry.batches[0].schema().field(1)),
+                    Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared)
+                );
+            }
 
-        assert_eq!(result.batch_positions, 0..1);
+            let first_wal = store
+                .inner
+                .head(&writer.wal_flusher.wal_appender().wal_entry_path(1))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(first_wal.size < 128 * 1024);
+
+            let scanned = writer.scan().await.unwrap().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let descriptions = scanned
+                .column_by_name("blob")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let kinds = descriptions
+                .column_by_name("kind")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let blob_ids = descriptions
+                .column_by_name("blob_id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let sizes = descriptions
+                .column_by_name("size")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(kinds.value(0), BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+            assert_eq!(sizes.value(0), 3);
+            assert_eq!(kinds.value(1), BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+            assert_eq!(sizes.value(1), 2);
+            assert_eq!(kinds.value(2), BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+            assert_eq!(kinds.value(3), BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+            assert_eq!(blob_ids.value(2), blob_ids.value(3));
+            assert_eq!(kinds.value(4), BlobKind::Dedicated as u8);
+            assert_eq!(kinds.value(5), BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+            assert!(descriptions.is_null(6));
+            assert_eq!(kinds.value(7), BlobKind::External as u8);
+            assert_eq!(kinds.value(8), BlobKind::Packed as u8);
+            assert_ne!(blob_ids.value(2), blob_ids.value(8));
+
+            let mut point_lookup = writer.scan().await.unwrap();
+            point_lookup.filter("id = 0").unwrap();
+            let point_lookup = point_lookup.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(point_lookup.num_rows(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                blob_v2_layout(point_lookup.schema().field(1)),
+                Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor)
+            );
 
-        // Check stats
-        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.row_count, 10);
-        assert_eq!(stats.batch_count, 1);
+            let data_dir = target.generation_path(&base_path, &shard_id).join(DATA_DIR);
+            let sidecars = blob_sidecars(store.as_ref(), &data_dir).await;
+            assert_eq!(sidecars.len(), 3, "two packed puts plus one dedicated blob");
+            (target, sidecars)
+        };
+
+        // Reopening claims a new epoch. Replay reserves the predecessor's Blob
+        // IDs so this writer can safely continue the same target without an
+        // eager flush. The lower batch limit also verifies that both the batch
+        // store and HNSW storage retain the target's persisted capacity.
+        let replay_config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_memtable_batches: 1,
+            ..config
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            replay_config,
+            schema,
+            index_configs,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().row_count, 9);
+        let replayed_target = match &writer.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable { state, .. } => {
+                state.read().await.memtable.target().unwrap().clone()
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => unreachable!(),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(replayed_target, target);
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(manifest.sstables.is_empty());
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_blob_v2_batch(
+                9,
+                &[BlobTestValue::Bytes(b"successor".to_vec())],
+            )])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().row_count, 10);
+        let data_dir = target.generation_path(&base_path, &shard_id).join(DATA_DIR);
+        let sidecars_after_successor = blob_sidecars(store.as_ref(), &data_dir).await;
+        assert_eq!(sidecars_after_successor.len(), sidecars_before.len() + 1);
+        assert!(
+            sidecars_before
+                .iter()
+                .all(|path| sidecars_after_successor.contains(path)),
+            "successor must preserve every predecessor sidecar"
+        );
 
-        // Close writer
         writer.close().await.unwrap();
+        let manifest = ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base_path, shard_id, 10)
+            .latest()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(manifest.sstables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(manifest.sstables[0].path, target.generation_dir);
+
+        let generation_uri = format!(
+            "{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}",
+            base_uri.trim_end_matches('/'),
+            shard_id,
+            target.generation_dir
+        );
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&generation_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 10);
+        let fragment = dataset.get_fragments().pop().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fragment.metadata().files.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(fragment.metadata().files[0].path, target.data_file_name);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_sidecars(store.as_ref(), &data_dir).await,
+            sidecars_after_successor,
+            "flush must reuse every sidecar written before and after replay"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_region_writer_multiple_writes() {
+    async fn test_mem_wal_keeps_small_blobs_inline_without_sidecars() {
         let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let first = create_blob_v2_batch(0, &[BlobTestValue::Bytes(vec![1])]);
+        let schema = first.schema();
+        let second = create_blob_v2_batch(1, &[BlobTestValue::Bytes(vec![2])]);
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            ShardWriterConfig {
+                shard_id,
+                durable_write: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.put(vec![first]).await.unwrap();
+        writer.put(vec![second]).await.unwrap();
 
-        let config = RegionWriterConfig {
-            region_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
-            region_spec_id: 0,
-            durable_write: false,
-            sync_indexed_write: false,
-            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
-            max_wal_flush_interval: None,
-            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
-            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
-            ..Default::default()
+        let target = match &writer.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable { state, .. } => {
+                state.read().await.memtable.target().unwrap().clone()
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => unreachable!(),
         };
+        let data_dir = target.generation_path(&base_path, &shard_id).join(DATA_DIR);
+        assert!(blob_sidecars(store.as_ref(), &data_dir).await.is_empty());
 
-        let writer = RegionWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
-            .await
+        let scanned = writer.scan().await.unwrap().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let descriptions = scanned["blob"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Write multiple batches in a single put call
-        let batches: Vec<_> = (0..5)
-            .map(|i| create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10))
-            .collect();
-        let result = writer.put(batches).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result.batch_positions, 0..5);
-
-        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.row_count, 50);
-        assert_eq!(stats.batch_count, 5);
-
+        let kinds = descriptions
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let sizes = descriptions
+            .column_by_name("size")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(kinds.value(0), BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+        assert_eq!(kinds.value(1), BlobKind::Inline as u8);
+        assert_eq!(sizes.value(0), 1);
+        assert_eq!(sizes.value(1), 1);
         writer.close().await.unwrap();
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_region_writer_with_indexes() {
+    async fn test_rejected_blob_put_does_not_leave_sidecars() {
         let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let rejected = create_blob_v2_batch(
+            0,
+            &[
+                BlobTestValue::Bytes(vec![7; 9]),
+                BlobTestValue::Uri("relative-uri".to_string()),
+            ],
+        );
+        let schema = rejected.schema();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            ShardWriterConfig {
+                shard_id,
+                durable_write: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(writer.put(vec![rejected]).await.is_err());
 
-        let config = RegionWriterConfig {
-            region_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
-            region_spec_id: 0,
-            durable_write: false,
-            sync_indexed_write: true,
-            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
-            max_wal_flush_interval: None,
-            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
-            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
-            ..Default::default()
+        let target = match &writer.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable { state, .. } => {
+                state.read().await.memtable.target().unwrap().clone()
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => unreachable!(),
         };
+        let data_dir = target.generation_path(&base_path, &shard_id).join(DATA_DIR);
+        assert!(blob_sidecars(store.as_ref(), &data_dir).await.is_empty());
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_blob_v2_batch(
+                2,
+                &[BlobTestValue::Bytes(vec![8])],
+            )])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(blob_sidecars(store.as_ref(), &data_dir).await.is_empty());
+    }
 
-        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
-            name: "id_idx".to_string(),
-            field_id: 0,
-            column: "id".to_string(),
-        })];
-
-        let writer = RegionWriter::open(
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_descriptor_filter_on_fresh_vector_scan() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let batch =
+            create_blob_v2_batch(0, &[BlobTestValue::Bytes(vec![7; 9]), BlobTestValue::Empty]);
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
             store,
             base_path,
             base_uri,
-            config,
-            schema.clone(),
-            index_configs,
+            ShardWriterConfig {
+                durable_write: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            batch.schema(),
+            vec![],
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
-
-        // Write a batch
-        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10);
         writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
 
-        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await;
-        assert_eq!(stats.row_count, 10);
+        let mut full = writer.scan().await.unwrap();
+        full.filter("blob.size > 0").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(full.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 1);
 
+        let mut vector = writer.scan().await.unwrap();
+        vector.filter("blob.size > 0").unwrap();
+        vector
+            .nearest("vector", &Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 1.0]), 1)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(vector.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 1);
         writer.close().await.unwrap();
     }
 
-    /// Test memtable auto-flush triggered by size threshold.
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_region_writer_auto_flush_by_size() {
-        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-
-        // Use a small memtable size to trigger auto-flush
-        let config = RegionWriterConfig {
-            region_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
-            region_spec_id: 0,
-            durable_write: false,
-            sync_indexed_write: false,
-            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
-            max_wal_flush_interval: None,
-            max_memtable_size: 1024, // Very small - will trigger flush quickly
-            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let writer = RegionWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let initial_gen = writer.memtable_stats().await.generation;
-
-        // Write batches until auto-flush triggers
-        for i in 0..20 {
-            let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10);
-            writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
-        }
-
-        // Give time for background flush to process
-        tokio::time::sleep(tokio::time::Duration::from_millis(100)).await;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_close_stage_preserves_first_error() {
+        let result = ShardWriter::merge_close_stage(
+            Err(Error::io("primary close error")),
+            "secondary close stage",
+            Err(Error::io("secondary close error")),
+        );
 
-        // Check that generation increased (indicating flush happened)
-        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await;
+        let error = result.expect_err("close must preserve the first error");
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::IO { .. }));
         assert!(
-            stats.generation > initial_gen,
-            "Generation should increment after auto-flush"
+            error.to_string().contains("primary close error"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !error.to_string().contains("secondary close error"),
+            "secondary error replaced the primary error: {error}"
         );
+    }
 
-        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    /// Base schema with `id` marked as the unenforced primary key (delete needs
+    /// a PK). `name` is nullable so a tombstone can null it.
+    fn create_pk_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let mut id_metadata = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id,
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_no_backpressure_when_under_threshold() {
-        let config = RegionWriterConfig::default().with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(1024 * 1024); // 1MB
+    /// [`create_pk_test_schema`] with a non-nullable `name` — the shape that
+    /// used to make `delete` fail.
+    fn create_strict_pk_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        let fields: Vec<Field> = create_pk_test_schema()
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.as_ref().clone().with_nullable(false))
+            .collect();
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields))
+    }
 
-        let controller = BackpressureController::new(config);
+    fn id_only_keys(ids: &[i32]) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "id",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec()))],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
 
-        // Should return immediately - well under threshold (100 bytes < 1MB)
-        controller
-            .maybe_apply_backpressure(|| (100, None))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    /// Two same-typed columns handed over swapped pass every positional check
+    /// downstream, so the logical-schema gate has to catch them by name.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_put_rejects_swapped_same_typed_columns() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("email", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            ShardWriterConfig {
+                shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(controller.stats().count(), 0);
+        let swapped = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("email", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a@example.com"])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let error = writer.put(vec![swapped]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("column 0") && message.contains("email") && message.contains("name"),
+            "error should name the position and both columns: {message}"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_backpressure_loops_until_under_threshold() {
-        use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;
-        use std::time::Duration;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_conform_injects_tombstone_false() {
+        let base = create_test_schema();
+        let storage = schema_with_tombstone(&base);
+        let pk = ["id".to_string()];
+        let out = conform_to_storage_schema(create_test_batch(&base, 0, 3), &storage, &pk).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out.schema(), storage);
+        let ts = out
+            .column_by_name(TOMBSTONE)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            (0..3).all(|i| !ts.value(i)),
+            "put injects _tombstone = false"
+        );
+        // Idempotent: a batch already carrying the column passes through.
+        let again = conform_to_storage_schema(out.clone(), &storage, &pk).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(again.schema(), out.schema());
+    }
 
-        let config = RegionWriterConfig::default()
-            .with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(100) // Very low threshold
-            .with_backpressure_log_interval(Duration::from_millis(50));
+    /// A WAL entry written before a column was added still replays: the column
+    /// it never held becomes null rather than a width mismatch.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_conform_fills_a_column_added_since_the_entry() {
+        let pk = ["id".to_string()];
+        let entry = create_test_batch(&create_test_schema(), 0, 2);
 
-        let controller = BackpressureController::new(config);
+        let widened = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("added_later", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]);
+        let storage = schema_with_tombstone(&widened);
+
+        let out = conform_to_storage_schema(entry, &storage, &pk).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out.schema(), storage);
+        assert_eq!(out.num_rows(), 2);
+        let added = out.column_by_name("added_later").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(added.null_count(), 2, "the new column replays as all-null");
+        let ids = out
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ids.values(), &[0, 1], "the entry's own columns survive");
+    }
 
-        // Simulate: starts at 1000 bytes, drops by 400 each call (simulating memtable flushes)
-        let call_count = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
-        let call_count_clone = call_count.clone();
+    /// A WAL entry written before a column was dropped still replays: the
+    /// column the schema no longer declares is left behind, and the columns
+    /// that remain keep their own values rather than their neighbour's.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_conform_drops_a_column_removed_since_the_entry() {
+        let pk = ["id".to_string()];
+        let wide = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("dropped_later", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+        let entry = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(wide),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7, 8])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["gone", "gone"])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["kept-7", "kept-8"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        controller
-            .maybe_apply_backpressure(move || {
-                let count = call_count_clone.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
-                // 1000 -> 600 -> 200 -> under threshold (need 3 iterations)
-                let unflushed = 1000usize.saturating_sub(count * 400);
-                (unflushed, None)
-            })
-            .await
+        let storage = schema_with_tombstone(&create_test_schema());
+        let out = conform_to_storage_schema(entry, &storage, &pk).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out.schema(), storage);
+        let names = out
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            (names.value(0), names.value(1)),
+            ("kept-7", "kept-8"),
+            "positional re-labelling would have stored `dropped_later` as `name`"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Should have called get_state 4 times (initial + 3 waits until under 100)
-        assert_eq!(call_count.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed), 4);
-        // Should have recorded backpressure wait time (waited 3 times)
-        assert_eq!(controller.stats().count(), 1);
+    /// A primary key is the one column a null cannot stand in for.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_conform_refuses_an_entry_missing_a_primary_key() {
+        let storage = schema_with_tombstone(&create_test_schema());
+        let keyless = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "name",
+                DataType::Utf8,
+                true,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a"]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let error = conform_to_storage_schema(keyless, &storage, &["id".to_string()]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("id"),
+            "the error should name the missing key: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+    /// A column whose type has moved is refused rather than cast: a table with a
+    /// MemWAL does not accept a retype, so this is a disagreement to surface.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_conform_refuses_a_column_whose_type_moved() {
+        let widened = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("count", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]);
+        let storage = schema_with_tombstone(&widened);
+
+        let narrow = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                Field::new("count", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a"])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let err = conform_to_storage_schema(narrow, &storage, &["id".to_string()])
+            .expect_err("a column's type cannot change");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("count"),
+            "the refusal should name the column, got: {err}"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// A cast that would lose the value is an error, not a column of nulls.
     #[test]
-    fn test_record_put() {
-        let stats = WriteStats::new();
-        stats.record_put(Duration::from_millis(10));
-        stats.record_put(Duration::from_millis(20));
+    fn test_conform_refuses_a_lossy_retype() {
+        let numeric = schema_with_tombstone(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let textual = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["not a number"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let snapshot = stats.snapshot();
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.put_count, 2);
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.put_time, Duration::from_millis(30));
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.avg_put_latency(), Some(Duration::from_millis(15)));
+        let error = conform_to_storage_schema(textual, &numeric, &["id".to_string()]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("name"),
+            "the error should name the column: {error}"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// A struct column renamed at the top level is matched by the id on the
+    /// column itself, and taken whole.
+    ///
+    /// Only the parent moves here. Reconciliation is recursive — a child
+    /// carries its own id and is resolved on its own — which the nested cases
+    /// in `reconcile` cover.
     #[test]
-    fn test_record_wal_flush() {
-        let stats = WriteStats::new();
-        stats.record_wal_flush(Duration::from_millis(100), 1024);
-        stats.record_wal_flush(Duration::from_millis(200), 2048);
+    fn test_conform_matches_a_struct_column_by_its_own_id() {
+        fn with_id(field: ArrowField, id: i32) -> ArrowField {
+            let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+            metadata.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), id.to_string());
+            field.with_metadata(metadata)
+        }
 
-        let snapshot = stats.snapshot();
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.wal_flush_count, 2);
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.wal_flush_time, Duration::from_millis(300));
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.wal_flush_bytes, 3072);
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.avg_wal_flush_bytes(), Some(1536));
+        let child = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("inner", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let struct_type = DataType::Struct(vec![child.clone()].into());
+        let values: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![(
+            child,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![42])) as ArrayRef,
+        )]));
+
+        let entry = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                with_id(Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false), 0),
+                with_id(Field::new("before", struct_type.clone(), true), 1),
+            ])),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])), values],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // The column was renamed; its type, and so its children, are unchanged.
+        let storage = schema_with_tombstone(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            with_id(Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false), 0),
+            with_id(Field::new("after", struct_type, true), 1),
+        ]));
+
+        let out = conform_to_storage_schema(entry, &storage, &["id".to_string()]).unwrap();
+        let after = out.column_by_name("after").expect("renamed struct column");
+        assert_eq!(
+            after.null_count(),
+            0,
+            "the struct column should carry values"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(out.schema(), storage);
     }
 
+    /// A field id outlives a rename, so matching on it keeps the column's rows
+    /// where matching on the name would null them.
     #[test]
-    fn test_record_memtable_flush() {
-        let stats = WriteStats::new();
-        stats.record_memtable_flush(Duration::from_secs(1), 10000);
+    fn test_conform_follows_a_field_id_through_a_rename() {
+        fn with_id(field: ArrowField, id: i32) -> ArrowField {
+            let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+            metadata.insert(LANCE_FIELD_ID_KEY.to_string(), id.to_string());
+            field.with_metadata(metadata)
+        }
 
-        let snapshot = stats.snapshot();
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.memtable_flush_count, 1);
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.memtable_flush_time, Duration::from_secs(1));
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.memtable_flush_rows, 10000);
+        // The entry was written while field 1 was called `before`.
+        let entry = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                with_id(Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false), 0),
+                with_id(Field::new("before", DataType::Utf8, true), 1),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["kept"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // The schema now calls field 1 `after`.
+        let storage = schema_with_tombstone(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            with_id(Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false), 0),
+            with_id(Field::new("after", DataType::Utf8, true), 1),
+        ]));
+
+        let out = conform_to_storage_schema(entry, &storage, &["id".to_string()]).unwrap();
+        let after = out
+            .column_by_name("after")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            after.value(0),
+            "kept",
+            "the id should carry the value to the new name; a name match would null it"
+        );
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_stats_reset() {
-        let stats = WriteStats::new();
-        stats.record_put(Duration::from_millis(10));
-        stats.record_wal_flush(Duration::from_millis(100), 1024);
+    fn test_build_tombstone_batch_shape() {
+        let storage = schema_with_tombstone(&create_test_schema());
+        let tomb =
+            build_tombstone_batch(&id_only_keys(&[5, 7]), &storage, &["id".to_string()]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(tomb.schema(), storage);
+        assert_eq!(tomb.num_rows(), 2);
+        let ids = tomb
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ids.values(), &[5, 7]);
+        let name = tomb.column_by_name("name").unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            name.is_null(0) && name.is_null(1),
+            "non-PK columns are null in a tombstone"
+        );
+        let ts = tomb
+            .column_by_name(TOMBSTONE)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(ts.value(0) && ts.value(1), "_tombstone = true");
+    }
 
-        stats.reset();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_tombstone_batch_missing_pk_errors() {
+        let storage = schema_with_tombstone(&create_test_schema());
+        let keys = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "other",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(build_tombstone_batch(&keys, &storage, &["id".to_string()]).is_err());
+    }
 
-        let snapshot = stats.snapshot();
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.put_count, 0);
-        assert_eq!(snapshot.wal_flush_count, 0);
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_tombstone_batch_nulls_non_nullable_base_column() {
+        // The point of the storage schema: a tombstone nulls `v` even though the
+        // base table declares it non-nullable.
+        let pk = ["id".to_string()];
+        let base = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("v", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let storage = relax_non_pk_nullability(&schema_with_tombstone(&base), &pk);
+
+        let batch = build_tombstone_batch(&id_only_keys(&[1]), &storage, &pk).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(batch["v"].is_null(0), "the tombstone must null `v`");
+        assert!(!batch["id"].is_null(0), "the primary key survives");
+        assert!(
+            batch[TOMBSTONE]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .value(0)
+        );
     }
-}
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod region_writer_tests {
-    use std::sync::Arc;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_build_tombstone_batch_rejects_null_primary_key() {
+        // Primary keys are never relaxed, so the storage schema still rejects a
+        // null key — the delete path needs no separate check for it.
+        let pk = ["id".to_string()];
+        let base = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("v", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let storage = relax_non_pk_nullability(&schema_with_tombstone(&base), &pk);
+        let keys = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "id",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![None::<i32>]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-    use arrow_array::{
-        FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
-    };
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams;
-    use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-    use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
-    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
-    use uuid::Uuid;
+        let error = build_tombstone_batch(&keys, &storage, &pk).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("non-nullable"),
+            "error should name the nullability violation: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_delete_round_trip() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::LsmScanner;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_pk_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let shard_id = config.shard_id;
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // ids 0..5, then delete id=2.
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.delete(vec![id_only_keys(&[2])]).await.unwrap();
+
+        let refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            schema.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, refs);
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let arr = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            ids.extend((0..arr.len()).map(|i| arr.value(i)));
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![0, 1, 3, 4],
+            "id=2 deleted; tombstone not surfaced"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Delete works against a base table with non-nullable non-PK columns, and
+    /// survivors come back through the narrowing egress relabel intact.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_delete_against_non_nullable_base_column_round_trip() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::LsmScanner;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_strict_pk_test_schema();
+        assert!(
+            !schema.field_with_name("name").unwrap().is_nullable(),
+            "the point of this test is a non-nullable non-PK column"
+        );
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let shard_id = config.shard_id;
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.delete(vec![id_only_keys(&[2])]).await.unwrap();
+
+        let refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            schema.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, refs);
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut rows: Vec<(i32, String)> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            assert!(
+                !b.schema().field_with_name("name").unwrap().is_nullable(),
+                "egress must narrow back to the logical schema"
+            );
+            let ids = b["id"].as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+            let names = b["name"].as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>().unwrap();
+            rows.extend((0..ids.len()).map(|i| (ids.value(i), names.value(i).to_string())));
+        }
+        rows.sort_unstable();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows,
+            vec![
+                (0, "name_0".to_string()),
+                (1, "name_1".to_string()),
+                (3, "name_3".to_string()),
+                (4, "name_4".to_string()),
+            ],
+            "id=2 deleted; every survivor keeps its non-nullable value"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The storage schema no longer rejects a caller's null, so `put` is the
+    /// only thing standing between a null and a non-nullable base column.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_put_rejects_null_in_non_nullable_base_column() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_strict_pk_test_schema();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            ShardWriterConfig {
+                shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let error = writer.put(vec![null_name_batch()]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("base table schema"),
+            "error should point at the schema contract: {error}"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// WAL-only mode validates too — it has no memtable, so before this gate
+    /// nothing checked its input at all.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_put_rejects_null_in_non_nullable_base_column() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_strict_pk_test_schema();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(Uuid::new_v4()),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let error = writer.put(vec![null_name_batch()]).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A caller-shaped batch that declares `name` nullable and carries a null —
+    /// legal Arrow, illegal against a base table that declares it non-nullable.
+    fn null_name_batch() -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("a"), None])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// `delete_no_wait` lands the tombstone in the in-memory tier (visible at
+    /// the batch-store level the instant it returns) and hands back the
+    /// durability watcher *without* awaiting it. Index-driven LSM read
+    /// visibility — folding the tombstone out — follows once the watcher
+    /// resolves the flush that advances the visibility watermark and updates
+    /// the PK index. The delete analog of
+    /// `test_put_no_wait_durable_visible_then_durable`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_delete_no_wait_durable_visible_after_watcher() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::LsmScanner;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_pk_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let shard_id = config.shard_id;
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Tombstone id=2 without blocking on durability.
+        let (_result, watcher) = writer
+            .delete_no_wait(vec![id_only_keys(&[2])])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The tombstone is in the in-memory tier immediately (5 rows + 1
+        // tombstone), even though the index-driven read can't fold it until the
+        // flush behind the watcher lands. `durable_write` is on, so a watcher is
+        // returned to await.
+        assert_eq!(writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().row_count, 6);
+        let mut watcher = watcher.expect("durable_write returns a watcher");
+
+        // Awaiting the watcher waits for the flush, which advances the
+        // visibility watermark and updates the PK index — only then does the LSM
+        // read fold the delete.
+        watcher.wait().await.unwrap();
+
+        let refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            schema.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            vec![],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, refs);
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let arr = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            ids.extend((0..arr.len()).map(|i| arr.value(i)));
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![0, 1, 3, 4],
+            "delete folded by the LSM read once the watcher resolves"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// With `durable_write` off, `delete_no_wait` returns no watcher (nothing to
+    /// await), but the tombstone still lands in the in-memory tier. The delete
+    /// analog of `test_put_no_wait_non_durable_returns_no_watcher`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_non_durable_delete_is_read_your_writes() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_pk_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let (_result, watcher) = writer
+            .delete_no_wait(vec![id_only_keys(&[2])])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // As with a put: a non-durable delete awaits its index apply, not an S3
+        // round-trip. It is read-your-writes, just not durable.
+        let mut watcher = watcher.expect("a non-durable delete awaits its index apply");
+        watcher.wait().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Tombstone landed in the in-memory tier (5 rows + 1 tombstone).
+        assert_eq!(writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().row_count, 6);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Read every surviving `id` through the full LSM read path (which folds
+    /// `NOT _tombstone` per source) over the writer's *flushed* generations,
+    /// with an optional filter. Mirrors how a query reads a WAL table after a
+    /// flush — the path the wallop fuzz exercised when it caught a deleted row
+    /// resurfacing.
+    async fn read_sstable_ids_via_lsm(
+        writer: &ShardWriter,
+        schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+        base_uri: &str,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+        filter: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> Vec<i32> {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{LsmScanner, ShardSnapshot};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let mut snapshot =
+            ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id).with_current_generation(manifest.current_generation);
+        for sstable in &manifest.sstables {
+            snapshot = snapshot.with_sstable(sstable.generation, sstable.path.clone());
+        }
+        let mut scanner = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            schema,
+            base_uri.to_string(),
+            vec![snapshot],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        );
+        if let Some(predicate) = filter {
+            scanner = scanner.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+        }
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            let arr = b
+                .column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            ids.extend((0..arr.len()).map(|i| arr.value(i)));
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids
+    }
+
+    fn flush_test_config(shard_id: Uuid) -> ShardWriterConfig {
+        ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id,
+            durable_write: false,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Delete a key, then flush: the tombstone and the live row land in the
+    /// *same* SSTable, so flush-time dedup must keep the tombstone
+    /// (newest) and the read must fold it away. Regression for the wallop
+    /// phantom (deleted row resurfacing in a filtered read after flush).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_delete_then_flush_round_trip() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_pk_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            flush_test_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // ids 0..5, delete id=2, THEN flush (insert + tombstone in one gen).
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.delete(vec![id_only_keys(&[2])]).await.unwrap();
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_sstable_ids_via_lsm(&writer, schema.clone(), &base_uri, shard_id, None).await,
+            vec![0, 1, 3, 4],
+            "id=2 deleted before flush; tombstone must not surface in an SSTable scan"
+        );
+        // The filtered read path (folds NOT _tombstone into the predicate) must
+        // also drop it — this is the exact wallop failure shape (`id < 3`).
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_sstable_ids_via_lsm(&writer, schema.clone(), &base_uri, shard_id, Some("id < 3"))
+                .await,
+            vec![0, 1],
+            "filtered read after flush must not resurface deleted id=2"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Insert+flush, then delete+flush: the tombstone lands in a *newer*
+    /// generation than the live row, so the cross-generation block-list must
+    /// mask the older row by PK. This is the wallop scenario (seed flushed,
+    /// then delete, then flush).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_delete_across_sstables() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_pk_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            flush_test_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // gen 1: ids 0..5.
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        // gen 2: tombstone for id=0 (a later generation than the live row).
+        writer.delete(vec![id_only_keys(&[0])]).await.unwrap();
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_sstable_ids_via_lsm(&writer, schema.clone(), &base_uri, shard_id, None).await,
+            vec![1, 2, 3, 4],
+            "id=0 tombstoned in a newer gen must mask the older gen's live row"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_sstable_ids_via_lsm(&writer, schema.clone(), &base_uri, shard_id, Some("id < 1"))
+                .await,
+            Vec::<i32>::new(),
+            "filtered read 'id < 1' must not resurface cross-gen deleted id=0"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Same as the cross-generation case, but the SSTables carry a
+    /// BTree index on `id` (as every wallop table does). A filtered read
+    /// `id < 1` resolves through the scalar index; the `NOT _tombstone` residual
+    /// must still be applied or the deleted row leaks. This is the exact wallop
+    /// failure (BTree id + `FilteredRead 'id < 1'` resurfacing deleted id=0).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_delete_across_sstables_indexed() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_pk_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "id_idx".to_string(),
+            field_id: 0,
+            column: "id".to_string(),
+        })];
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            flush_test_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            index_configs,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // gen 1: ids 0..5 (indexed). gen 2: tombstone for id=0.
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+        writer.delete(vec![id_only_keys(&[0])]).await.unwrap();
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_sstable_ids_via_lsm(&writer, schema.clone(), &base_uri, shard_id, None).await,
+            vec![1, 2, 3, 4],
+            "indexed cross-gen: full scan must mask deleted id=0"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            read_sstable_ids_via_lsm(&writer, schema.clone(), &base_uri, shard_id, Some("id < 1"))
+                .await,
+            Vec::<i32>::new(),
+            "indexed filtered read 'id < 1' must not resurface deleted id=0 (wallop repro)"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_delete_validation_errors() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+
+        // No primary key on the schema → delete is rejected.
+        let no_pk = create_test_schema();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            ShardWriterConfig {
+                shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                durable_write: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            no_pk,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            writer.delete(vec![id_only_keys(&[1])]).await.is_err(),
+            "delete without a primary key must error"
+        );
+        // Empty key list is rejected.
+        assert!(writer.delete(vec![]).await.is_err());
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The compaction Phase-1 hard-delete primitive: a key-only `merge_insert`
+    /// with `WhenMatched::Delete` + `use_index` over a COMPOSITE join key
+    /// `(id, shard_key)` where only `id` carries a scalar index. The partial
+    /// index makes `indexed_join_keys` non-empty, so the scalar-index merge path
+    /// engages — and it must still delete exactly the `(0, 0)` row. If it
+    /// no-ops (or mismatches on the partial key), the compactor trims the WAL
+    /// tombstone while the base row survives → the wallop resurface phantom.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_composite_key_delete_removes_row() {
+        use crate::Dataset;
+        use crate::dataset::{WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched, WhenNotMatchedBySource};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("shard_key", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        // ids 0..5, shard_key = id % 8 (the wallop composite PK), value = id*100.
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..5)),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values((0..5).map(|i| i % 8))),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values((0..5).map(|i| i * 100))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let uri = format!("shared-memory://phase1-delete-{}/", Uuid::new_v4().simple());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            &uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        // Scalar index on `id` only — `shard_key` is unindexed, mirroring the
+        // WAL base table (BTree on `id`, composite PK `(id, shard_key)`).
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_btree".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Phase-1 call: key-only source `(id=0, shard_key=0)`, delete-when-matched.
+        let keys = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+                Field::new("shard_key", DataType::Int64, false),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![0_i64])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![0_i64])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut builder = crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            vec!["id".to_string(), "shard_key".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        builder
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep)
+            .use_index(true);
+        let job = builder.try_build().unwrap();
+        let keys_schema = keys.schema();
+        let (dataset, _stats) = job
+            .execute_reader(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(keys)], keys_schema))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // id=0 must be gone — both from a full scan and from an indexed filter.
+        let all = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i64> = all
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![1, 2, 3, 4],
+            "Phase-1 must hard-delete (0, 0) from base"
+        );
+
+        let filtered = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id < 1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            filtered.num_rows(),
+            0,
+            "indexed filter must not resurface the deleted composite key"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn create_test_batch(schema: &ArrowSchema, start_id: i32, num_rows: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    start_id..start_id + num_rows as i32,
+                )),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("name_{}", start_id as usize + i)),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_basic_write() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            config.clone(),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Write a batch
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10);
+        let result = writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.batch_positions, 0..1);
+
+        // Check stats
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.row_count, 10);
+        assert_eq!(stats.batch_count, 1);
+
+        // Close writer
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_put_no_wait_durable_visible_then_durable() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: true,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10);
+        let (result, watcher) = writer.put_no_wait(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.batch_positions, 0..1);
+
+        // Row is visible in memory before durability is awaited.
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.row_count, 10);
+
+        // durable_write is on, so a watcher is returned and resolves once the
+        // triggered flush lands.
+        let mut watcher = watcher.expect("durable_write returns a watcher");
+        watcher.wait().await.unwrap();
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_non_durable_put_is_read_your_writes() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10);
+        let (result, watcher) = writer.put_no_wait(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.batch_positions, 0..1);
+
+        // A non-durable put still has something to await: its *index apply*.
+        // Skipping durability now costs the caller durability only — not
+        // visibility. Before the index apply was split off the WAL flush, a
+        // non-durable write was not read-your-writes at all: the row stayed
+        // invisible until some later flush happened to index it.
+        let mut watcher = watcher.expect("a non-durable put awaits its index apply");
+        watcher.wait().await.unwrap();
+
+        let scanned = writer.scan().await.unwrap().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scanned.num_rows(),
+            10,
+            "a non-durable put must be readable as soon as it returns"
+        );
+
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.row_count, 10);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_multiple_writes() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Write multiple batches in a single put call
+        let batches: Vec<_> = (0..5)
+            .map(|i| create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10))
+            .collect();
+        let result = writer.put(batches).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.batch_positions, 0..5);
+
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.row_count, 50);
+        assert_eq!(stats.batch_count, 5);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_with_indexes() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "id_idx".to_string(),
+            field_id: 0,
+            column: "id".to_string(),
+        })];
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            index_configs,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Write a batch
+        let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10);
+        writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.row_count, 10);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A rebuild that changes only the distance metric is a different index.
+    ///
+    /// Name, kind, column and field id all survive it, so comparing those alone
+    /// would leave the writer on the old metric while queries use the new one.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_a_changed_metric_is_a_changed_index_set() {
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+        let old = MemIndexConfig::hnsw("vector_idx".into(), 1, "vector".into(), DistanceType::L2);
+        let new = MemIndexConfig::hnsw(
+            "vector_idx".into(),
+            1,
+            "vector".into(),
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+        );
+        assert!(!same_index_set(&[old], &[new]));
+    }
+
+    /// Swapping the set under a live write load neither loses a write nor
+    /// wedges one.
+    ///
+    /// The swap takes the same lock a write takes, so a writer that is mid-put
+    /// waits for it and every writer after it sees one complete set. This pins
+    /// that the wait is all that happens: no write fails, no swap fails, and
+    /// the writer is still usable afterwards with the set last installed.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 4)]
+    async fn test_replace_index_configs_under_concurrent_writes() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 256 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let id_idx = MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "id_idx".to_string(),
+            field_id: 0,
+            column: "id".to_string(),
+        });
+        let writer = Arc::new(
+            ShardWriter::open(
+                store,
+                base_path,
+                base_uri,
+                config,
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![id_idx.clone()],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        const WRITERS: i32 = 4;
+        const BATCHES: i32 = 25;
+        let writes = (0..WRITERS).map(|w| {
+            let writer = Arc::clone(&writer);
+            let schema = schema.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                for b in 0..BATCHES {
+                    let offset = (w * BATCHES + b) * 10;
+                    writer
+                        .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, offset, 10)])
+                        .await
+                        .expect("a write must not fail while the set is swapped");
+                }
+            })
+        });
+
+        let swaps = {
+            let writer = Arc::clone(&writer);
+            let id_idx = id_idx.clone();
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                for round in 0..10 {
+                    let configs = if round % 2 == 0 {
+                        Vec::new()
+                    } else {
+                        vec![id_idx.clone()]
+                    };
+                    writer
+                        .replace_index_configs(configs)
+                        .await
+                        .expect("a swap must not fail while writes are in flight");
+                    tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+                }
+            })
+        };
+
+        for write in writes {
+            write.await.unwrap();
+        }
+        swaps.await.unwrap();
+
+        // Ten rounds starting at 0 end on an odd round, which installs the index.
+        assert_eq!(
+            writer.maintained_index_names().await,
+            vec!["id_idx".to_string()]
+        );
+
+        // Still serving: the swaps left no lock held and no state half-applied.
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 100_000, 10)])
+            .await
+            .expect("the writer is usable after the swaps");
+        let refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            refs.active.index_store.get_btree("id_idx").is_some(),
+            "the memtable in force carries the set last installed"
+        );
+
+        Arc::into_inner(writer)
+            .expect("every task has finished, so this is the last handle")
+            .close()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Replacing the set reaches the next memtable.
+    ///
+    /// The memtable holding rows is sealed so the one that follows carries the
+    /// new index, and the writer keeps serving throughout.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replace_index_configs_reaches_the_next_memtable() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let id_idx = MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "id_idx".to_string(),
+            field_id: 0,
+            column: "id".to_string(),
+        });
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![id_idx.clone()],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Empty memtable: replaced in place, no new generation.
+        let generation = writer.active_memtable_ref().await.unwrap().generation;
+        for set in [Vec::new(), vec![id_idx.clone()]] {
+            let fence = writer
+                .replace_index_configs(set)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .expect("the set changed, so a fence is returned");
+            assert!(
+                fence.sealed_generation.is_none(),
+                "an empty memtable is not sealed"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                writer.active_memtable_ref().await.unwrap().generation,
+                generation,
+            );
+        }
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Narrowing to nothing seals the memtable that holds the rows.
+        let fence = writer
+            .replace_index_configs(Vec::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("the set changed, so a fence is returned");
+        assert!(
+            fence.sealed_generation.is_some(),
+            "a memtable holding rows is sealed so the next one carries the new set"
+        );
+
+        // The memtable that follows is built from the replacement.
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 10, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            refs.active.index_store.get_btree("id_idx").is_none(),
+            "the memtable opened after the replacement must not carry the dropped index"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            refs.frozen
+                .iter()
+                .any(|f| f.index_store.get_btree("id_idx").is_some()),
+            "the sealed memtable keeps the index it was written with"
+        );
+
+        // Re-applying the same set is a no-op: nothing is sealed.
+        assert!(
+            writer
+                .replace_index_configs(Vec::new())
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "an unchanged set seals nothing"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// End-to-end check that the background flush handler rebuilds secondary
+    /// indexes on every SSTable. Before this, the handler flushed
+    /// via plain `flush`, leaving SSTables unindexed — point
+    /// lookups had to full-scan and vector search's index-only `fast_search`
+    /// couldn't see the data at all.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sstable_is_indexed() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id,
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "id_idx".to_string(),
+            field_id: 0,
+            column: "id".to_string(),
+        })];
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            index_configs,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Freeze the active memtable and wait until it lands on disk.
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Resolve the SSTable recorded in the manifest.
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(manifest.sstables.len(), 1, "expected exactly one SSTable");
+        let gen_uri = format!(
+            "{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}",
+            base_uri, shard_id, manifest.sstables[0].path
+        );
+
+        // The SSTable must carry the BTree index built during flush.
+        let dataset = crate::Dataset::open(&gen_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1, "SSTable should have one index");
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "id_idx");
+
+        // A PK filter over it must resolve through the index, not a full scan.
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter("id = 5").unwrap();
+        scan.prefilter(true);
+        let plan = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        crate::utils::test::assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "LanceRead: ...full_filter=id = Int32(5)...
+  ScalarIndexQuery: query=[id = 5]@id_idx(BTree)",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // And the index returns the correct row.
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id = 5")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Test memtable auto-flush triggered by size threshold.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_auto_flush_by_size() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // Use a small memtable size to trigger auto-flush
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 1024, // Very small - will trigger flush quickly
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_gen = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+
+        // Write batches until auto-flush triggers
+        for i in 0..20 {
+            let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10);
+            writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Give time for background flush to process
+        tokio::time::sleep(tokio::time::Duration::from_millis(100)).await;
+
+        // Check that generation increased (indicating flush happened)
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stats.generation > initial_gen,
+            "Generation should increment after auto-flush"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// `MemTableStats::frozen_count` and `ShardMemory::frozen_bytes` count
+    /// different things on purpose: bytes drop on flush commit, the handle
+    /// lingers for `frozen_memtable_grace`. A long grace therefore leaves count
+    /// non-zero with bytes back at zero — and pins that the two surfaces are
+    /// answering different questions, not disagreeing about one.
+    /// A saturated handler starves its own ticker; `add_periodic` does not.
+    ///
+    /// `TaskDispatcher` biases a handler's mailbox ahead of its ticker, and the
+    /// `select!` is not evaluated while `handle()` awaits, so a mailbox that
+    /// never empties leaves the ticker no instant to win. Both halves are
+    /// asserted so the distinction holds.
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_saturated_handler_starves_its_ticker_but_not_a_periodic_task() {
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        enum Msg {
+            Work,
+            Tick,
+        }
+
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct SlowHandler {
+            worked: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+            ticked: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+            work: Duration,
+            tick: Duration,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl MessageHandler<Msg> for SlowHandler {
+            fn tickers(&mut self) -> Vec<(Duration, MessageFactory<Msg>)> {
+                vec![(self.tick, Box::new(|| Msg::Tick))]
+            }
+
+            async fn handle(&mut self, message: Msg) -> Result<()> {
+                match message {
+                    Msg::Work => {
+                        self.worked.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                        tokio::time::sleep(self.work).await;
+                    }
+                    Msg::Tick => {
+                        self.ticked.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+
+        // One unit of work outlasts the tick interval: that is what starves a
+        // ticker sharing the handler's loop.
+        let work = Duration::from_millis(100);
+        let tick = Duration::from_millis(10);
+        let run = Duration::from_millis(1000);
+        let expected_ticks = (run.as_millis() / tick.as_millis()) as usize;
+
+        let executor = TaskExecutor::new();
+        let worked = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let ticked = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let swept = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+
+        let (tx, rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
+        executor
+            .add_handler(
+                "slow".to_string(),
+                Box::new(SlowHandler {
+                    worked: worked.clone(),
+                    ticked: ticked.clone(),
+                    work,
+                    tick,
+                }),
+                rx,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The same cadence, on its own task rather than the handler's loop.
+        let swept_by_task = swept.clone();
+        executor
+            .add_periodic("sweeper".to_string(), tick, move || {
+                let swept = swept_by_task.clone();
+                async move {
+                    swept.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                }
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Enough queued work that the mailbox never empties during the run.
+        for _ in 0..(run.as_millis() / work.as_millis()) + 2 {
+            tx.send(Msg::Work).unwrap();
+        }
+        tokio::time::sleep(run).await;
+
+        let (worked, ticked, swept) = (
+            worked.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            ticked.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            swept.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+        );
+        assert!(worked > 0, "the handler must have been busy");
+        assert!(
+            ticked * 10 < expected_ticks,
+            "a ticker sharing a saturated handler's loop should be starved, but \
+             it ran {ticked} of ~{expected_ticks}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            swept * 2 >= expected_ticks,
+            "periodic task ran {swept} of ~{expected_ticks}"
+        );
+
+        executor.shutdown_all().await.ok();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_memtable_stats_frozen_count_outlives_frozen_bytes() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 1024, // small enough to seal within the loop below
+            frozen_memtable_grace: Duration::from_secs(600),
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fresh = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fresh.frozen_count, 0);
+        assert_eq!(writer.memory().frozen_bytes(), 0);
+
+        for i in 0..20 {
+            let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10);
+            writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stats.frozen_count > 0,
+            "flushed memtables must stay in the read view for the grace window"
+        );
+        let memory = writer.memory();
+        assert_eq!(
+            memory.frozen_bytes(),
+            0,
+            "every seal flushed, so nothing is owed to flush"
+        );
+
+        // Owing nothing to flush is not the same as holding nothing. Those
+        // generations stay resident for the whole grace window, and a
+        // process-wide budget has to see them even though the per-shard flush
+        // valve deliberately does not meter them.
+        assert!(
+            memory.grace_bytes() > 0,
+            "flushed-but-retained generations hold real memory"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            memory.retained_bytes(),
+            memory.unflushed_bytes() + memory.grace_bytes(),
+            "retained is the whole footprint; unflushed is only what a flush can reclaim"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The controller sits in a private `WriterMode` variant, reachable only
+    /// through the writer. Both modes must answer.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::memtable(true)]
+    #[case::wal_only(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_backpressure_stats_reachable_in_both_modes(#[case] enable_memtable: bool) {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            enable_memtable,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // A writer well under the threshold has never throttled.
+        let stats = writer.backpressure_stats();
+        assert_eq!(stats.total_count, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.total_wait_ms, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.active_count, 0);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Regression for #6713: a single failing `handle()` must not kill
+    /// the dispatcher. Earlier the loop would `break Err(e)` on the
+    /// first message error, dropping the rx side and stranding
+    /// subsequent senders. The flusher tasks need to survive transient
+    /// errors so the writer keeps making forward progress.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_task_dispatcher_survives_handle_error() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+        struct FlakyHandler {
+            call_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl MessageHandler<u32> for FlakyHandler {
+            async fn handle(&mut self, message: u32) -> Result<()> {
+                let n = self.call_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                if n == 0 {
+                    Err(Error::io("first message intentionally fails"))
+                } else {
+                    let _ = message;
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let executor = TaskExecutor::new();
+        let call_count = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let (tx, rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel::<u32>();
+        executor
+            .add_handler(
+                "flaky".to_string(),
+                Box::new(FlakyHandler {
+                    call_count: call_count.clone(),
+                }),
+                rx,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Send three messages: the first errors, the next two should
+        // still be delivered to the (still-alive) handler.
+        tx.send(1).unwrap();
+        tx.send(2).unwrap();
+        tx.send(3).unwrap();
+
+        for _ in 0..50 {
+            if call_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst) >= 3 {
+                break;
+            }
+            tokio::time::sleep(tokio::time::Duration::from_millis(20)).await;
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            call_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst) >= 3,
+            "dispatcher exited after the first error; only {} message(s) were handled",
+            call_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+        );
+
+        executor
+            .shutdown_all()
+            .await
+            .expect("dispatcher should shut down successfully");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_task_executor_shutdown_propagates_cleanup_error_and_joins_all_tasks() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+        struct CleanupHandler {
+            cleanup_count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+            error_message: Option<&'static str>,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl MessageHandler<u32> for CleanupHandler {
+            async fn handle(&mut self, _message: u32) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            async fn cleanup(&mut self, _shutdown_ok: bool) -> Result<()> {
+                self.cleanup_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                match self.error_message {
+                    Some(message) => Err(Error::io(message)),
+                    None => Ok(()),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let executor = TaskExecutor::new();
+        let cleanup_count = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let (_failing_tx, failing_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel::<u32>();
+        executor
+            .add_handler(
+                "failing-cleanup".to_string(),
+                Box::new(CleanupHandler {
+                    cleanup_count: cleanup_count.clone(),
+                    error_message: Some("intentional cleanup failure"),
+                }),
+                failing_rx,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let (_successful_tx, successful_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel::<u32>();
+        executor
+            .add_handler(
+                "successful-cleanup".to_string(),
+                Box::new(CleanupHandler {
+                    cleanup_count: cleanup_count.clone(),
+                    error_message: None,
+                }),
+                successful_rx,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = executor
+            .shutdown_all()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("shutdown must propagate the handler cleanup failure");
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::IO { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("intentional cleanup failure"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            cleanup_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            2,
+            "shutdown must join and clean up every task after the first failure"
+        );
+        assert!(executor.tasks.read().unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_task_executor_shutdown_propagates_task_panic() {
+        struct PanickingCleanupHandler;
+
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl MessageHandler<u32> for PanickingCleanupHandler {
+            async fn handle(&mut self, _message: u32) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            async fn cleanup(&mut self, _shutdown_ok: bool) -> Result<()> {
+                panic!("intentional cleanup panic");
+            }
+        }
+
+        let executor = TaskExecutor::new();
+        let (_tx, rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel::<u32>();
+        executor
+            .add_handler(
+                "panicking-cleanup".to_string(),
+                Box::new(PanickingCleanupHandler),
+                rx,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = executor
+            .shutdown_all()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("shutdown must propagate the task panic");
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("panicking-cleanup")
+                && error.to_string().contains("panicked during shutdown"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression for #6713 against memory://, which is closer to S3
+    /// semantics (conditional PUT and list-prefix consistency).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_auto_flush_repeatedly_memory_store() {
+        let base_uri = "memory:///bench_test_flush";
+        let (store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(base_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let base_uri = base_uri.to_string();
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: true,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_gen = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+
+        // The bug appeared on the second generation because repeated flushes
+        // reused the generation-1 path. Queue several flushes before draining
+        // so both path uniqueness and background sequencing are exercised.
+        for i in 0..8 {
+            let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10);
+            writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stats.generation >= initial_gen + 3,
+            "expected repeated successful flushes; generation went {} → {}",
+            initial_gen,
+            stats.generation
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Regression for #6713: with durable_write=true and a memtable
+    /// size threshold that fires frequently, the memtable flush task
+    /// hit "Dataset already exists: …_gen_1" once the second flush
+    /// started.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_auto_flush_repeatedly_local_store() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: true,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            // Tiny size threshold — every batch crosses it.
+            max_memtable_size: 64,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_gen = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+
+        // Queue multiple generations before waiting. The original failure was
+        // deterministic on the second flush, so three committed generations
+        // are sufficient to prove that paths and generation IDs advance.
+        for i in 0..8 {
+            let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10);
+            writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stats.generation >= initial_gen + 3,
+            "expected repeated successful flushes; generation went {} → {}",
+            initial_gen,
+            stats.generation
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Regression: `close()` must flush the active memtable (not just
+    /// drain the WAL). Earlier, with a `max_memtable_size` set well
+    /// above the workload, no auto-flush would fire and `close()`
+    /// would return without producing a Lance fragment — data was
+    /// durable in the WAL but no LSM-level generation existed,
+    /// surprising callers and making flush-cost benchmarks impossible.
+    ///
+    /// The test verifies, end-to-end:
+    /// 1. close() returns Ok (a freeze/flush error must propagate, not
+    ///    be silently dropped).
+    /// 2. The persisted shard manifest's `current_generation` has
+    ///    advanced past the initial generation — direct evidence that
+    ///    a MemTable flush + manifest commit happened during close()
+    ///    rather than the active memtable being dropped on the floor.
+    /// (Verifying replay's post-flush behavior is tangled with
+    /// independent replay logic and is exercised by the dedicated
+    /// `test_memtable_replay_*` tests.)
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_close_flushes_active_memtable() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // Reuse the same shard_id when reopening so we observe state
+        // produced by the first writer's `close()`.
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // Huge size threshold so puts never trigger an auto-flush.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id,
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: true,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: usize::MAX,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: usize::MAX,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            config.clone(),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_gen = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+
+        for i in 0..50 {
+            let batch = create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10);
+            writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Pre-close sanity: no auto-flush should have fired.
+        let stats_before = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats_before.generation, initial_gen,
+            "no flush should have fired during puts (size threshold is usize::MAX)"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            stats_before.row_count > 0,
+            "memtable should hold the rows we just inserted"
+        );
+
+        // close() must succeed; any freeze/flush error must propagate.
+        writer
+            .close()
+            .await
+            .expect("close() must succeed and propagate any freeze/flush error");
+
+        // Reopen the same shard and read the persisted manifest. The
+        // active memtable from the closed writer was frozen + flushed
+        // inside close(), which must have committed a new manifest
+        // recording the advanced generation.
+        let reopened =
+            ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        let manifest = reopened
+            .manifest()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("reopened shard must have a persisted manifest");
+        assert!(
+            manifest.current_generation > initial_gen,
+            "expected manifest current_generation to advance past {} after close() flushed the active memtable; got {}",
+            initial_gen,
+            manifest.current_generation,
+        );
+
+        reopened.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::memtable(true)]
+    #[case::wal_only(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_close_propagates_final_wal_persistence_failure(#[case] enable_memtable: bool) {
+        let (store, base_path, controls) = failing_memory_store().await;
+        let base_uri = "memory:///";
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            enable_memtable,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: usize::MAX,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: None,
+            max_wal_persist_retries: 0,
+            max_memtable_size: usize::MAX,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: usize::MAX,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let task_executor = writer.task_executor.clone();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        controls.fail_wal_puts(usize::MAX);
+
+        let error = writer
+            .close()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("close must propagate the final WAL persistence failure");
+        assert_eq!(error.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("injected transient WAL put failure"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            task_executor.tasks.read().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "close must join background tasks before returning an error"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Recompute what the shard is holding straight from `WriterState`, the
+    /// way [`ShardWriter::memtable_stats`] reads it — independent of the
+    /// publish mechanism, which is the thing that can drift.
+    async fn ground_truth(writer: &ShardWriter) -> (usize, usize) {
+        let state = writer.memtable_state_lock().unwrap().read().await;
+        let active = in_memory_ref(&state.memtable).resident_bytes();
+        let frozen = state
+            .frozen_memtables
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|frozen| frozen.flushed_at_ms.is_none())
+            .map(|frozen| in_memory_ref(&frozen.memtable).resident_bytes())
+            .sum();
+        (active, frozen)
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_no_drift(writer: &ShardWriter, after: &str) {
+        let (active, frozen) = ground_truth(writer).await;
+        let memory = writer.memory();
+        assert_eq!(
+            (memory.active_bytes(), memory.frozen_bytes()),
+            (active, frozen),
+            "published memory drifted from the writer state after {after}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            memory.unflushed_bytes(),
+            active + frozen,
+            "unflushed must be the sum of the two terms after {after}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The keystone invariant: the published snapshot is **derived** from
+    /// `WriterState`, never adjusted, so it cannot drift from it — across every
+    /// event that changes the memtable set.
+    ///
+    /// This is what replaced a pair of incremented counters. A counter has no
+    /// way back: one missed decrement is permanent, and the pod eventually
+    /// refuses every write with a memtable that reads empty. So this walks the
+    /// writer through open, puts, a seal, a flush commit, and puts into the
+    /// fresh memtable, checking the invariant after each.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::grace_keeps_handles(Duration::from_secs(600))]
+    #[case::zero_grace_evicts_on_commit(Duration::ZERO)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_memory_snapshot_never_drifts_from_writer_state(#[case] grace: Duration) {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            // Small enough that the loop below seals several times.
+            max_memtable_size: 2048,
+            frozen_memtable_grace: grace,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Seeded at open, before anything has been written.
+        assert_no_drift(&writer, "open").await;
+
+        for i in 0..24 {
+            writer
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_no_drift(&writer, &format!("put {i}")).await;
+        }
+
+        // Seals happened above; make sure at least one did, or this test proves
+        // nothing about the freeze path.
+        assert!(
+            writer.memory().frozen_bytes() > 0
+                || writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().frozen_count > 0,
+            "the loop must have sealed at least once for this to cover freeze"
+        );
+
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+        assert_no_drift(&writer, "flush drain").await;
+
+        // A long grace keeps the flushed handles in the read view and a zero
+        // grace evicts them on commit — two different publish paths. Either way
+        // they are reclaimable, so neither may keep metering.
+        assert_eq!(
+            writer.memory().frozen_bytes(),
+            0,
+            "flushed memtables are reclaimable and must stop metering (grace {grace:?})"
+        );
+
+        for i in 24..32 {
+            writer
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_no_drift(&writer, &format!("post-flush put {i}")).await;
+        }
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The bug the whole design exists to avoid: the old accounting read
+    /// `WriterState` through `try_read()`, which fails while a writer holds the
+    /// lock — and, because tokio's `RwLock` is write-preferring, also while one
+    /// is merely queued. It therefore reported **zero** on exactly the shards
+    /// taking writes, so a pod under load looked empty.
+    ///
+    /// Holding the write lock outright is the deterministic version of that
+    /// race.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_memory_is_readable_while_a_writer_holds_the_lock() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            ShardWriterConfig {
+                shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                durable_write: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 100)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let unlocked = writer.memory().unflushed_bytes();
+        assert!(unlocked > 0, "rows are resident, so this cannot be zero");
+
+        let state_lock = writer.memtable_state_lock().unwrap().clone();
+        let held = state_lock.write().await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            writer.memory().unflushed_bytes(),
+            unlocked,
+            "a writer holding the lock must not zero the memory view"
+        );
+        // The drain classification comes off the same published snapshot, so it
+        // answers under the lock as well. Nothing is frozen here, so the honest
+        // answer is that no flush is outstanding.
+        assert!(
+            matches!(writer.memory().drain(), Drain::Stalled),
+            "the drain classification is published too, so it reads under the lock"
+        );
+        drop(held);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Two seal predicates exist — `MemTable::should_flush` and
+    /// `memtable_reached_flush_threshold` — and their *row-window* arms must trip
+    /// at the same byte. They did not: one counted the PK bloom filter and the
+    /// other did not, so they disagreed by a fixed offset on every memtable.
+    ///
+    /// Only that arm is shared. `memtable_reached_flush_threshold` also seals on
+    /// resident bytes and row count, which `should_flush` knows nothing about, so
+    /// both are held out of range below to compare like with like.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_both_seal_predicates_share_one_byte_arm() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let mut memtable =
+            MemTable::with_capacity(schema.clone(), 1, vec![], CacheConfig::default(), 64).unwrap();
+        memtable
+            .insert(create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 50))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let at = memtable.batch_store().row_bytes();
+        assert!(at > 0, "the memtable must hold something to be a test");
+        // Owned batches, so the pinned footprint sits just under the window sum
+        // (no per-batch header in the allocation walk). Asserted rather than
+        // assumed: if it ever exceeded `at`, the retained arm would fire and this
+        // would be comparing something other than the row arm.
+
+        // `incoming_batches` of 1 against a capacity of 64 keeps the batch-count
+        // arm out of it, and the two `usize::MAX` limits keep the row-count and
+        // resident arms out, so only the row-window arms are being compared.
+        for (bytes, expected) in [(at, true), (at + 1, false)] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                memtable.should_flush(bytes),
+                expected,
+                "should_flush at {bytes}"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                memtable_reached_flush_threshold(&memtable, bytes, usize::MAX, usize::MAX, 1, 1),
+                expected,
+                "the two seal predicates disagree at {bytes}; a bloom-sized offset \
+                 between them makes every memtable seal early on one path"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A handle taken before any rows exist must still see them arrive: the
+    /// memory view is read without the writer lock, so a handle that captured a
+    /// value instead of a live counter would gate writes on a stale reading.
+    /// Index heap is counted, row bytes are not inflated by it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_memory_handle_tracks_the_live_memtable() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let mut memtable =
+            MemTable::with_capacity(schema.clone(), 1, vec![], CacheConfig::default(), 8).unwrap();
+
+        let handle = in_memory_ref(&memtable);
+        let empty_rows = handle.row_bytes();
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            memtable
+                .insert(create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            handle.row_bytes() > empty_rows,
+            "a handle taken before the writes must still see them"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            handle.row_bytes(),
+            in_memory_ref(&memtable).row_bytes(),
+            "a handle and a freshly taken one must agree"
+        );
+        // The bloom filter is fixed-size and lives in the index term, so it
+        // never moves the flush unit.
+        assert_eq!(
+            handle.row_bytes(),
+            memtable.batch_store().row_bytes(),
+            "row bytes are the flush unit: batches only"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            handle.index_bytes(),
+            super::super::memtable::pk_bloom_filter_bytes(),
+            "an unindexed memtable still holds its PK bloom filter"
+        );
+        // The ceiling is built on what the batches keep alive, not on the flush
+        // unit. The two row measures are close but never identical even for
+        // owned batches — buffer capacity is padded, and `row_bytes` charges a
+        // `RecordBatch` header per batch that an allocation walk does not see.
+        // How far they diverge for zero-copy slices, which is the case that
+        // matters, is pinned in `BatchStore`'s own tests.
+        assert_eq!(
+            handle.resident_bytes(),
+            handle.retained_row_bytes() + handle.index_bytes()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A `ShardMemory` backed by a closure instead of a live writer, re-read on
+    /// every poll exactly as the real one is.
+    fn fake_memory(read: impl Fn() -> usize + Send + Sync + 'static) -> ShardMemory {
+        ShardMemory {
+            source: ShardMemorySource::Fake(Arc::new(read)),
+            seal_required: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn fixed_memory(unflushed: usize) -> ShardMemory {
+        fake_memory(move || unflushed)
+    }
+
+    fn empty_shard_memory() -> ShardMemory {
+        fixed_memory(0)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_no_backpressure_when_under_threshold() {
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::default().with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(1024 * 1024); // 1MB
+
+        let controller = LocalBackpressureController::new(&config);
+
+        // Should return immediately - well under threshold (100 bytes < 1MB)
+        controller
+            .maybe_apply_backpressure(fixed_memory(100))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(controller.stats().count(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_backpressure_loops_until_under_threshold() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;
+        use std::time::Duration;
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::default()
+            .with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(100) // Very low threshold
+            .with_backpressure_log_interval(Duration::from_millis(50));
+
+        // Simulate: starts at 1000 bytes, drops by 400 each call (simulating memtable flushes)
+        let call_count = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let call_count_clone = call_count.clone();
+
+        let controller = LocalBackpressureController::new(&config);
+        let draining = fake_memory(move || {
+            let count = call_count_clone.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+            // 1000 -> 600 -> 200 -> under threshold (need 3 iterations)
+            1000usize.saturating_sub(count * 400)
+        });
+
+        controller.maybe_apply_backpressure(draining).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should have read the shard 4 times (initial + 3 waits until under 100)
+        assert_eq!(call_count.load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed), 4);
+        // Should have recorded backpressure wait time (waited 3 times)
+        assert_eq!(controller.stats().count(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            controller.stats().snapshot().active_count,
+            0,
+            "the wait is over, so nobody is parked"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The totals only move when a wait ends, so a first stall would be
+    /// invisible to a poller if `active_count` did not report it live.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_backpressure_in_progress_wait_is_observable() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;
+        use std::sync::atomic::Ordering as AtomicOrdering;
+        use std::time::Duration;
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::default()
+            .with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(100)
+            .with_backpressure_log_interval(Duration::from_millis(50));
+
+        let unflushed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(1000));
+        let release = unflushed.clone();
+
+        let controller = LocalBackpressureController::new(&config);
+        let stats = controller.stats().clone();
+
+        let parked = controller
+            .maybe_apply_backpressure(fake_memory(move || unflushed.load(AtomicOrdering::Relaxed)));
+
+        let observer = async {
+            // Bounded so a regression that never publishes the park fails here
+            // instead of hanging the suite.
+            let deadline = Instant::now() + Duration::from_secs(5);
+            while stats.snapshot().active_count == 0 {
+                assert!(
+                    Instant::now() < deadline,
+                    "an ongoing wait was never published"
+                );
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(5)).await;
+            }
+            let mid = stats.snapshot();
+            assert_eq!(mid.active_count, 1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                mid.total_count, 0,
+                "a wait still in progress is not a completed one"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(mid.total_wait_ms, 0);
+
+            release.store(0, AtomicOrdering::Relaxed);
+        };
+
+        let (result, ()) = tokio::join!(parked, observer);
+        result.unwrap();
+
+        let after = stats.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(after.active_count, 0, "the guard drops when the wait ends");
+        assert_eq!(after.total_count, 1);
+    }
+
+    /// A `put` whose caller times out drops the wait future mid-park. The gauge
+    /// must come back down, or a cancelled writer is throttled forever on paper.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_backpressure_cancelled_wait_does_not_leak_active_count() {
+        use std::time::Duration;
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::default()
+            .with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(100)
+            .with_backpressure_log_interval(Duration::from_millis(50));
+
+        let controller = LocalBackpressureController::new(&config);
+
+        // Never drops below the threshold, so the timeout is what ends the wait.
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(
+                Duration::from_millis(50),
+                controller.maybe_apply_backpressure(fixed_memory(1000)),
+            )
+            .await
+            .is_err()
+        );
+
+        let after = controller.stats().snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(after.active_count, 0, "cancellation must release the guard");
+        assert_eq!(
+            after.total_count, 0,
+            "a cancelled wait never completed, so it is not a completed wait"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Records what it saw and answers with a fixed verdict.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct SpyController {
+        seen: Arc<StdRwLock<Vec<(usize, usize)>>>,
+        reject: bool,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl BackpressureController for SpyController {
+        async fn maybe_apply_backpressure(&self, shard: ShardMemory) -> Result<()> {
+            self.seen
+                .write()
+                .unwrap()
+                .push((shard.active_bytes(), shard.frozen_bytes()));
+            if self.reject {
+                return Err(Error::backpressure("full"));
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// An injected controller *replaces* the built-in valve rather than
+    /// stacking on it, and is handed what the calling shard holds, split the
+    /// way relief cares about — everything it needs to own the whole policy,
+    /// per-shard rules included.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_injected_controller_replaces_default_and_sees_shard_memory() {
+        let seen = Arc::new(StdRwLock::new(Vec::new()));
+        let spy = Arc::new(SpyController {
+            seen: seen.clone(),
+            reject: false,
+        });
+        // A budget the built-in valve would trip on instantly, to prove it is
+        // not the thing being consulted.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::default()
+            .with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(1)
+            .with_backpressure(spy);
+
+        let controller = resolve_backpressure(&config);
+        controller
+            .maybe_apply_backpressure(fixed_memory(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            *seen.read().unwrap(),
+            vec![(1000, 0)],
+            "the injected controller ran, and the built-in valve did not park the write"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `ShardMemory` must stay live across polls: a controller that delays is
+    /// waiting for these bytes to fall, so a captured copy would spin forever.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_memory_reflects_drain_across_polls() {
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct DrainWaiter {
+            polls: AtomicUsize,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait::async_trait]
+        impl BackpressureController for DrainWaiter {
+            async fn maybe_apply_backpressure(&self, shard: ShardMemory) -> Result<()> {
+                while shard.unflushed_bytes() > 0 {
+                    self.polls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+
+        let resident = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(4_096));
+        let drain = resident.clone();
+        let view = fake_memory(move || resident.load(Ordering::Relaxed));
+
+        let controller = Arc::new(DrainWaiter {
+            polls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let gate = controller.clone();
+        let waiting = tokio::spawn(async move { gate.maybe_apply_backpressure(view).await });
+
+        // Let the gate observe the full pool, then drain it as a flush commit
+        // would. A stale copy would never see this and the task would hang.
+        tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+        drain.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+        waiting.await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(controller.polls.load(Ordering::Relaxed) > 0);
+    }
+
+    /// With nothing injected, lance keeps its own per-shard valve.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_default_backpressure_is_used_when_none_injected() {
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::default().with_max_unflushed_memtable_bytes(100);
+        let controller = resolve_backpressure(&config);
+
+        let polls = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let polls_clone = polls.clone();
+        controller
+            .maybe_apply_backpressure(fake_memory(move || {
+                polls_clone.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                0
+            }))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(polls.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// A rejecting controller surfaces as `Error::Backpressure`, which is
+    /// distinguishable from a real failure without matching on the message.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_injected_controller_rejects_with_backpressure_error() {
+        let spy = Arc::new(SpyController {
+            seen: Arc::new(StdRwLock::new(Vec::new())),
+            reject: true,
+        });
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::default().with_backpressure(spy);
+        let controller = resolve_backpressure(&config);
+
+        let err = controller
+            .maybe_apply_backpressure(empty_shard_memory())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.is_backpressure(), "expected backpressure, got {err:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_record_put() {
+        let stats = WriteStats::new();
+        stats.record_put(Duration::from_millis(10));
+        stats.record_put(Duration::from_millis(20));
+
+        let snapshot = stats.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.put_count, 2);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.put_time, Duration::from_millis(30));
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.avg_put_latency(), Some(Duration::from_millis(15)));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_record_wal_flush() {
+        let stats = WriteStats::new();
+        stats.record_wal_flush(Duration::from_millis(100), 1024);
+        stats.record_wal_flush(Duration::from_millis(200), 2048);
+
+        let snapshot = stats.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.wal_flush_count, 2);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.wal_flush_time, Duration::from_millis(300));
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.wal_flush_bytes, 3072);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.avg_wal_flush_bytes(), Some(1536));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_record_memtable_flush() {
+        let stats = WriteStats::new();
+        stats.record_memtable_flush(Duration::from_secs(1), 10000);
+
+        let snapshot = stats.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.memtable_flush_count, 1);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.memtable_flush_time, Duration::from_secs(1));
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.memtable_flush_rows, 10000);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_stats_reset() {
+        let stats = WriteStats::new();
+        stats.record_put(Duration::from_millis(10));
+        stats.record_wal_flush(Duration::from_millis(100), 1024);
+
+        stats.reset();
+
+        let snapshot = stats.snapshot();
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.put_count, 0);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.wal_flush_count, 0);
+    }
+
+    // ----- WAL-only mode (`enable_memtable = false`) -----
+
+    fn wal_only_config(shard_id: Uuid) -> ShardWriterConfig {
+        ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id,
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: true,
+            enable_memtable: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_durable_round_trip() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::wal::WalTailer;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Two durable puts → two WAL entries. Each `put` awaits its own append
+        // (driven by the background ticker) before returning, so the second
+        // batch is only pushed after the first is durable — they never coalesce.
+        let r1 = writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 4)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let r2 = writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 100, 2)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(r1.batch_positions, 0..1);
+        assert_eq!(r2.batch_positions, 1..2);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Read back via WalTailer. WAL positions are 1-based, so two
+        // entries from a fresh shard land at 1 and 2.
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base_path, shard_id);
+        assert_eq!(tailer.first_position().await.unwrap(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(tailer.next_position().await.unwrap(), 3);
+
+        let e0 = tailer.read_entry(1).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let e1 = tailer.read_entry(2).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(e0.batches.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(e0.batches[0].num_rows(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(e1.batches.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(e1.batches[0].num_rows(), 2);
+        // Both entries from the same writer should have the same epoch.
+        assert_eq!(e0.writer_epoch, e1.writer_epoch);
+        assert!(e0.writer_epoch >= 1);
+    }
+
+    /// A durable WAL-only put is driven by the background ticker, not an inline
+    /// per-put flush: `put().await` must not return until the ticker's append
+    /// advances the durability watermark it waits on. With a long interval and a
+    /// buffer the write cannot cross, the ticker is the *only* thing that can
+    /// make the put durable — so if the WAL entry is present the instant `put`
+    /// returns (before any `close()`), the watermark-wait is doing its job.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_durable_put_waits_for_ticker_append() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::wal::WalTailer;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let mut config = wal_only_config(shard_id);
+        config.max_wal_flush_interval = Some(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        config.max_wal_buffer_size = 100 * 1024 * 1024; // never crossed
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 4)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // `put` returned, so the batch must already be durable — read the WAL
+        // directly, without closing the writer.
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base_path, shard_id);
+        assert_eq!(tailer.next_position().await.unwrap(), 2);
+        let entry = tailer.read_entry(1).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(entry.batches.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(entry.batches[0].num_rows(), 4);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_rejects_index_configs() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "id_idx".to_string(),
+            field_id: 0,
+            column: "id".to_string(),
+        })];
+
+        let err = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(Uuid::new_v4()),
+            schema,
+            index_configs,
+        )
+        .await
+        .err()
+        .expect("expected invalid_input");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("indexes require enable_memtable"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_rejects_empty_batches() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(Uuid::new_v4()),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Empty list.
+        let err = writer.put(vec![]).await.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("empty batch list"));
+
+        // Single empty batch.
+        let zero = arrow_array::RecordBatch::new_empty(schema);
+        let err = writer.put(vec![zero]).await.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Batch 0 is empty"));
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_memtable_accessors_error() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(Uuid::new_v4()),
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let err = writer.memtable_stats().await.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("WAL-only mode"));
+        let err = writer.scan().await.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("WAL-only mode"));
+        let err = writer.active_memtable_ref().await.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("WAL-only mode"));
+        let err = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("WAL-only mode"));
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_async_batches_multiple_puts() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::wal::WalTailer;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let mut config = wal_only_config(Uuid::new_v4());
+        let shard_id = config.shard_id;
+        // Non-durable: puts should accumulate in the pending queue until
+        // close() drains them with a single WAL entry.
+        config.durable_write = false;
+        config.max_wal_flush_interval = None;
+        config.max_wal_buffer_size = 100 * 1024 * 1024; // never crossed
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        for i in 0..3 {
+            writer
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+
+        // All three puts should be in a single WAL entry at position 1
+        // (WAL positions are 1-based).
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base_path, shard_id);
+        assert_eq!(tailer.next_position().await.unwrap(), 2);
+        let entry = tailer.read_entry(1).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(entry.batches.len(), 3);
+        for (i, batch) in entry.batches.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 10, "batch {i}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_fencing() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            wal_only_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer_a
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Writer B claims a higher epoch and writes — fences A.
+        let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(writer_b.epoch() > writer_a.epoch());
+        writer_b
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // A's next durable put must fail with a fence error (the underlying
+        // WalAppender::append surfaces it via atomic_put).
+        let err = writer_a
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 2, 1)])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("expected fence error");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Writer fenced"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_check_fenced_detects_successor_claim() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            wal_only_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Not yet fenced.
+        writer_a.check_fenced().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Successor claims a higher epoch.
+        let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(writer_b.epoch() > writer_a.epoch());
+
+        // A's check_fenced surfaces the fence without needing a put round-trip.
+        let err = writer_a
+            .check_fenced()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("expected fence error");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Writer fenced"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // B is the current writer and is not fenced.
+        writer_b.check_fenced().await.unwrap();
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // ----- MemTable replay on open -----
+
+    fn memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id: Uuid) -> ShardWriterConfig {
+        ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id,
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: true,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn schema_with_pk() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        use arrow_schema::Field;
+        // Mark `id` as the unenforced primary key.
+        let pk_meta: std::collections::HashMap<String, String> = [(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "1".to_string(),
+        )]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(pk_meta);
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    // A durable write whose WAL PUT keeps failing poisons the writer with a
+    // typed persistence failure; the next write *and every read* fail fast with
+    // the same reason; and once storage heals, reopening replays the WAL and
+    // writes resume.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_writer_poisons_on_persistence_failure_and_recovers_on_reopen() {
+        let (store, base_path, controls) = failing_memory_store().await;
+        let base_uri = "memory:///";
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        controls.fail_wal_puts(usize::MAX);
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_wal_persist_retries: 1,
+            wal_persist_retry_base_delay: Duration::from_millis(1),
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            config.clone(),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // The durable put waits on the flush, which poisons after its retries.
+        let err = writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+
+        // A poisoned writer rejects further writes fast, same typed reason.
+        let err = writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.fence_reason(), Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+
+        // ...and rejects *reads* too. Batch 0 was committed to the BatchStore
+        // before its WAL PUT failed, so a poisoned writer that still served
+        // reads would hand out a row that is not durable and that replay will
+        // not reproduce — a divergent snapshot. Mirrors SlateDB's
+        // `check_closed()` at the top of every read.
+        for reason in [
+            writer.scan().await.err().and_then(|e| e.fence_reason()),
+            writer
+                .active_memtable_ref()
+                .await
+                .err()
+                .and_then(|e| e.fence_reason()),
+            writer
+                .in_memory_memtable_refs()
+                .await
+                .err()
+                .and_then(|e| e.fence_reason()),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(reason, Some(FenceReason::PersistenceFailure));
+        }
+
+        // Stats stay readable: this is what an operator (and the eviction path)
+        // inspects to decide what to do about the poisoned shard.
+        writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        drop(writer);
+
+        // Storage heals: reopening replays the WAL and accepts writes again.
+        controls.recover();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 2, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A doomed open must fail on local validation *before* it claims the epoch,
+    /// so it cannot fence the healthy writer already serving the shard. The
+    /// index-config check used to run *after* `claim_epoch` (and, for a successor,
+    /// after `write_fence_sentinel`), so a rejected open still bumped the stored
+    /// epoch and fenced the incumbent.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_doomed_open_does_not_fence_incumbent() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer_a
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // An index config that disagrees with the schema (FTS on the Int32 `id`
+        // column) is rejected on local validation. On the old path this rejection
+        // landed only after the epoch had already been claimed.
+        let bad_fts = MemIndexConfig::Fts(FtsIndexConfig::new(
+            "bad_fts".to_string(),
+            0,
+            "id".to_string(),
+        ));
+        let err = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![bad_fts],
+        )
+        .await
+        .map(|_| ())
+        .expect_err("an FTS index on a non-Utf8 column must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("bad_fts") && err.to_string().contains("Utf8"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // The incumbent is untouched: not fenced, still accepting writes.
+        writer_a.check_fenced().await.unwrap();
+        writer_a
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer_a.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A failed dispatch during `freeze_memtable` must not drop the outgoing
+    /// table's rows from the read view. The active memtable is replaced before
+    /// the WAL-flush and index-apply sends; a send that failed (background tasks
+    /// gone) used to return before the outgoing table was retained in
+    /// `frozen_memtables`, so its accepted rows silently vanished — a scan
+    /// returned 0 rows with no error. The writer must instead retain the table
+    /// and poison, so reads fail fast rather than serve a divergent snapshot.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_freeze_dispatch_failure_retains_rows_and_poisons() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Non-durable + no ticker: the put is read-your-writes (waits for its
+        // index apply) but nothing is WAL-flushed, so the freeze below still owes
+        // a WAL append.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: None,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().row_count, 10);
+
+        // Tear the background tasks down out from under the writer, so the
+        // freeze's dispatch sends hit closed channels.
+        writer.abort().await.unwrap();
+
+        let err = writer
+            .force_seal_active()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("force_seal_active must surface the failed dispatch");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("channel closed"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // The failure poisoned the writer: reads fail fast instead of returning a
+        // silent zero-row snapshot of a shard whose rows were dropped.
+        assert!(
+            writer.scan().await.is_err(),
+            "a poisoned writer must reject reads, not serve a divergent snapshot"
+        );
+        assert!(writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.is_err());
+    }
+
+    /// A WAL holding more batches than one memtable's capacity must reopen.
+    ///
+    /// WAL-only entries name no generation, so only this size rule splits them.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replay_rotates_when_wal_exceeds_one_memtable() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        const N: i32 = 8;
+
+        // Writer A is WAL-only, so its eight entries name no generation.
+        let writer_a_config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            enable_memtable: false,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+        // Writer B has a *two-batch* capacity, so replaying that eight-entry WAL is
+        // exactly what must rotate. Keeping the configs distinct isolates replay
+        // rotation from the live rotation writer A would otherwise do concurrently.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_memtable_batches: 2,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+
+        {
+            let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                writer_a_config,
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            for id in 0..N {
+                writer_a
+                    .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, id, 1)])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            // Drop without close: only the WAL survives, and it holds more batches
+            // than writer B's memtable can.
+        }
+
+        // Total rows across the active memtable plus every SSTable.
+        // Distinct ids, so no cross-generation dedup — a plain sum is exact.
+        async fn total_rows(writer: &ShardWriter, base_uri: &str, shard_id: Uuid) -> usize {
+            let mut rows = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().row_count;
+            let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+            for sstable in &manifest.sstables {
+                let gen_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}", base_uri, shard_id, sstable.path);
+                let dataset = crate::Dataset::open(&gen_uri).await.unwrap();
+                rows += dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+            }
+            rows
+        }
+
+        // Reopen. This used to fail with a full-batch-store error.
+        let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            config.clone(),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("a WAL larger than one memtable must still reopen");
+
+        // Rotation produced sealed memtables, and replay flushed each to a Lance
+        // generation rather than holding it in memory or leaving it in the WAL.
+        let manifest = writer_b.manifest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !manifest.sstables.is_empty(),
+            "replay must have sealed and flushed at least one full memtable"
+        );
+
+        // Every row survived, split between the SSTables and the
+        // active (partial) memtable.
+        assert_eq!(
+            total_rows(&writer_b, &base_uri, shard_id).await as i32,
+            N,
+            "every replayed row must be durable, across generations and the active memtable"
+        );
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Because the sealed memtables were flushed, the manifest's replay cursor
+        // advanced past their WAL entries — so a second reopen replays only the
+        // tail and still accounts for every row. The WAL truncates across reopens
+        // rather than growing without bound.
+        let writer_c =
+            ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri.clone(), config, schema, vec![])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows(&writer_c, &base_uri, shard_id).await as i32, N);
+        writer_c.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The same rotation, driven by `max_memtable_rows` instead of the batch cap.
+    ///
+    /// Replay sizes each memtable's HNSW graph to that cap, so a WAL holding more
+    /// rows than one memtable's capacity has to rotate for `open()` to succeed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replay_rotates_when_wal_exceeds_the_row_cap() {
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let dim = 8;
+        let schema = hnsw_schema(dim);
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let cap = 8;
+
+        let vector_batch = |start: i32, rows: usize| {
+            let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(
+                    (0..rows * dim as usize)
+                        .map(|v| v as f32 * 0.01)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                ),
+                dim,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(
+                        (start..start + rows as i32).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )),
+                    Arc::new(vectors),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Writer A is WAL-only, so its entries name no generation.
+        let writer_a_config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            enable_memtable: false,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+        // Writer B caps a memtable at 8 rows — and sizes its HNSW graph to match.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_memtable_rows: cap,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+
+        {
+            let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                writer_a_config,
+                schema.clone(),
+                // WAL-only mode builds no index; writer B carries the HNSW configs.
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            for round in 0..8i32 {
+                writer_a
+                    .put(vec![vector_batch(round * 4, 4)])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Replay has 32 rows to place into memtables capped at 8.
+        let writer_b =
+            ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema, hnsw_configs())
+                .await
+                .expect("a WAL holding more rows than the cap must still reopen");
+
+        let manifest = writer_b.manifest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !manifest.sstables.is_empty(),
+            "replay must have sealed and flushed the memtables it filled"
+        );
+        let stats = writer_b.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stats.row_count <= cap,
+            "replay left {} rows in a memtable capped at {cap}",
+            stats.row_count
+        );
+
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Replay-on-open recovers durable WAL entries that were never flushed
+    /// to a Lance generation. Setup: writer A durably writes batches, drops
+    /// without close (so MemTable freeze never runs); writer B reopens and
+    /// must see A's rows in its MemTable scan.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_memtable_replay_recovers_unflushed_writes() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Writer A: write two durable batches, then drop without close.
+        // The WAL files persist; the in-memory MemTable does not.
+        {
+            let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            writer_a
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            writer_a
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 100, 3)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // intentionally drop without close()
+        }
+
+        // Writer B reopens. Replay must rehydrate A's two batches into the
+        // active MemTable.
+        let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let stats = writer_b.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.row_count, 8,
+            "expected replay to insert 5 + 3 = 8 rows, got {}",
+            stats.row_count
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.batch_count, 2,
+            "expected replay to insert 2 batches, got {}",
+            stats.batch_count
+        );
+
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Replayed batches are already WAL-durable, so the first flush after a
+    /// reopen must not re-append them to the WAL or re-insert them into the
+    /// indexes. Before replay stamped the durability cursor it stayed at
+    /// "nothing flushed", so the next flush re-covered `[0, end)`: it appended
+    /// the already-durable rows a second time *and* re-indexed them. None of
+    /// the in-memory indexes is idempotent, so an indexed PK lookup returned
+    /// the row twice while a full scan still looked healthy.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replay_does_not_reappend_or_reindex() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::wal::WalTailer;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Writer A: two durable batches (5 + 3 = 8 rows), dropped without close.
+        {
+            let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            writer_a
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            writer_a
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 100, 3)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Writer B reopens and replays A's two batches.
+        let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let stats = writer_b.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.batch_count, 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.durable_batch_count, 2,
+            "replayed batches came from the WAL, so the durability cursor must already cover them"
+        );
+
+        // One more durable put. Its flush must cover only the new batch.
+        writer_b
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 200, 2)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base_path, shard_id);
+        let first = tailer.first_position().await.unwrap();
+        let next = tailer.next_position().await.unwrap();
+        let mut wal_rows = 0;
+        for position in first..next {
+            if let Some(entry) = tailer.read_entry(position).await.unwrap() {
+                wal_rows += entry.batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            wal_rows, 10,
+            "WAL must hold 8 replayed + 2 new rows; a re-covering flush re-appends the replayed 8"
+        );
+
+        // The indexed arm must not see a replayed row twice.
+        let mut scanner = writer_b.scan().await.unwrap();
+        scanner.filter("id = 0").unwrap();
+        let hit = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            hit.num_rows(),
+            1,
+            "indexed PK lookup returned the replayed row more than once"
+        );
+
+        let all = writer_b
+            .scan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(all.num_rows(), 10);
+
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A non-durable put is readable through the **index-backed** arms the moment
+    /// it returns, not just through a full scan.
+    ///
+    /// This is what splitting the index apply off the WAL flush buys. Before, the
+    /// index apply only ran as one arm of the flush, so with `durable_write:
+    /// false` nothing triggered it on the put path at all: the row sat in the
+    /// batch store, unindexed, until some later flush happened along. A full scan
+    /// (which reads the batch store directly) could still find it, while every
+    /// index-accelerated query could not — the tiers disagreed. Now the apply is
+    /// triggered per-put in both modes, so `put` returning means "indexed".
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_non_durable_put_is_visible_through_the_index() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            durable_write: false,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The indexed PK lookup must find it — this is the arm that saw nothing
+        // before, because the index apply had never run.
+        let mut scanner = writer.scan().await.unwrap();
+        scanner.filter("id = 3").unwrap();
+        let hit = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            hit.num_rows(),
+            1,
+            "an index-backed lookup must see a non-durable put as soon as it returns"
+        );
+
+        // ...and so must the unindexed full scan, i.e. the tiers agree.
+        let all = writer.scan().await.unwrap().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(all.num_rows(), 5);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The durability cursor is writer-global, so a put into a *post-rotation*
+    /// memtable must still wait for its own WAL append.
+    ///
+    /// Batch positions restart at 0 in every memtable, but the durability watch
+    /// channel spans the writer's whole life and is never reset. When the put
+    /// path targeted a memtable-local position, the first N puts into every
+    /// memtable after the first were already "satisfied" by the *previous*
+    /// memtable's N appends: they acked instantly, with no WAL append, and
+    /// `durable_write: true` silently degraded to non-durable. Worse, the next
+    /// append then sent a *smaller* value, walking the watermark backwards and
+    /// hanging any watcher still waiting on the old, higher one.
+    ///
+    /// The cursor is now a writer-global exclusive count and every target is
+    /// lifted through the store's `global_offset`, so it only ever moves forward
+    /// and a post-rotation put can only be acked by its own append.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_durable_ack_after_rotation_requires_its_own_wal_append() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::wal::WalTailer;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // A two-batch memtable, so the third put forces a freeze + rotation.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_memtable_batches: 2,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Fill and rotate the first memtable.
+        for i in 0..3 {
+            writer
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, i * 5, 5)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stats.global_offset > 0,
+            "expected a rotation; the active memtable is still the writer's first"
+        );
+
+        // Every batch acked so far must be genuinely durable, and the cursor must
+        // cover the active memtable's entire prefix rather than lagging inside it.
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stats.durable_batch_count >= stats.global_offset + stats.batch_count,
+            "durable_write acked a put the WAL never received: durable={} but the active \
+             memtable spans [{}, {})",
+            stats.durable_batch_count,
+            stats.global_offset,
+            stats.global_offset + stats.batch_count
+        );
+
+        // And the WAL really holds every row we acked (3 puts x 5 rows).
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base_path, shard_id);
+        let first = tailer.first_position().await.unwrap();
+        let next = tailer.next_position().await.unwrap();
+        let mut wal_rows = 0;
+        for position in first..next {
+            if let Some(entry) = tailer.read_entry(position).await.unwrap() {
+                wal_rows += entry.batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            wal_rows, 15,
+            "every acked row must be in the WAL; a post-rotation put that acked without an \
+             append would leave rows missing"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A background tick must append the **oldest** store that still owes the WAL,
+    /// never "whatever memtable is active".
+    ///
+    /// A tick carries no store: it is enqueued by a timer and resolved when it is
+    /// handled. So a tick enqueued before a freeze is handled *after* it, and
+    /// resolving to the active memtable would append the incoming memtable's
+    /// batches ahead of the outgoing memtable's tail. WAL entry positions are
+    /// assigned in append-call order, replay walks them ascending, row positions
+    /// follow, and primary-key recency is "newest visible row position wins" — so
+    /// that inverts dedup after a crash, handing the key to the stale row. It
+    /// survives the crash that caused it, and a full scan cannot see it.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_next_pending_store_picks_the_oldest_owing_an_append() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // A frozen store of 2 batches at coordinate 0, and the active store that
+        // rotated in behind it at coordinate 2.
+        let frozen = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity(4));
+        frozen.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 1)).unwrap();
+        frozen.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 1, 1)).unwrap();
+        let active = Arc::new(BatchStore::with_capacity_at(4, 2));
+        active.append(create_test_batch(&schema, 2, 1)).unwrap();
+
+        let frozen_list = || std::iter::once(Arc::clone(&frozen));
+
+        // Nothing durable: the frozen store owes the oldest append, so it wins —
+        // even though the active memtable also has un-appended batches.
+        let picked = next_pending_store(frozen_list(), Arc::clone(&active), 0).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&picked, &frozen),
+            "the outgoing memtable's tail must be appended before the incoming one's head"
+        );
+
+        // Still true partway through the frozen store.
+        let picked = next_pending_store(frozen_list(), Arc::clone(&active), 1).unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&picked, &frozen));
+
+        // Once the frozen store is fully durable, the active one is next.
+        let picked = next_pending_store(frozen_list(), Arc::clone(&active), 2).unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&picked, &active));
+
+        // Everything durable: nothing to do.
+        assert!(next_pending_store(frozen_list(), Arc::clone(&active), 3).is_none());
+    }
+
+    /// A durable writer with no flush ticker cannot make progress in either
+    /// mode — the ticker is the only thing that drives the WAL append the put
+    /// waits on — so `open()` rejects it rather than letting a put block forever.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::memtable(true)]
+    #[case::wal_only(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_rejects_durable_write_without_a_ticker(#[case] enable_memtable: bool) {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            durable_write: true,
+            enable_memtable,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: None,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+
+        let Err(err) = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema, vec![]).await
+        else {
+            panic!("durable_write with no ticker must be rejected");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("max_wal_flush_interval"),
+            "the error must name the knob, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// WAL entries must be appended in global batch-position order across a
+    /// memtable rotation, because append order *is* primary-key recency order.
+    ///
+    /// `WalAppender::append` assigns each entry's position from its own counter,
+    /// in call order. Replay walks those positions ascending and assigns row
+    /// positions in that order. Primary-key recency is "newest visible row
+    /// position wins". So an out-of-order append silently inverts dedup after a
+    /// crash — the stale row wins — and a full scan cannot see it.
+    ///
+    /// The hazard is the background ticker. If it resolved to "whatever memtable
+    /// is active" rather than to the oldest store still owing an append, a tick
+    /// enqueued before a freeze but handled after it would append the *incoming*
+    /// memtable's batches ahead of the outgoing memtable's tail. So the target is
+    /// resolved from the durability cursor, not from wall-clock timing.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_append_order_preserves_pk_recency_across_rotation() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::wal::WalTailer;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Two batches per memtable, so the second put fills it and rotates.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_memtable_batches: 2,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Memtable 1: ids 7 then 20 (the second fills it and triggers the freeze).
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 7, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 20, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Memtable 2 overwrites id=7 with a newer row. Its append must land in the
+        // WAL *after* memtable 1's, or replay would resolve id=7 to the stale copy.
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 30, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Walk the WAL in entry order and collect the ids as replay would see them.
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base_path, shard_id);
+        let first = tailer.first_position().await.unwrap();
+        let next = tailer.next_position().await.unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+        for position in first..next {
+            let Some(entry) = tailer.read_entry(position).await.unwrap() else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            for batch in &entry.batches {
+                let column = batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                ids.extend((0..column.len()).map(|i| column.value(i)));
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids,
+            vec![7, 20, 30],
+            "WAL entries must follow global batch-position order; memtable 1's rows must \
+             precede memtable 2's, or replay inverts primary-key recency"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An index config that disagrees with the schema fails `open()` outright.
+    /// It must not be allowed to accept writes: the insert would fail
+    /// deterministically on every batch, including batches replayed from the
+    /// WAL, so once a row was durable the shard could never reopen. Before this
+    /// check, an FTS index on a non-Utf8 column silently indexed nothing and the
+    /// shard reported healthy.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_rejects_index_config_that_disagrees_with_schema() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // `id` is Int32, not a string column.
+        let bad_fts = MemIndexConfig::Fts(FtsIndexConfig::new(
+            "bad_fts".to_string(),
+            0,
+            "id".to_string(),
+        ));
+
+        let Err(err) = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema,
+            vec![bad_fts],
+        )
+        .await
+        else {
+            panic!("open must reject an FTS index on a non-Utf8 column");
+        };
+
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("bad_fts") && message.contains("Utf8"),
+            "error must name the index and the constraint, got: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Replay is a no-op on a fresh shard: the MemTable starts empty.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_memtable_replay_no_op_on_fresh_shard() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.row_count, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.batch_count, 0);
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Regression for the OSS-WAL compactor-drain bug: after a flush
+    /// records its generation in the manifest and an external compactor
+    /// later drains `sstables` back to empty (the legitimate
+    /// outcome after compacting the SSTable into the base table), reopening
+    /// the writer must not re-replay the already-flushed WAL entry into
+    /// the active memtable.
+    ///
+    /// Under the pre-fix logic, replay disambiguated "fresh shard" from
+    /// "flushed-then-compacted" with `sstables.is_empty()`,
+    /// which collapsed both cases into start-at-0. With 1-based WAL
+    /// positions and a default cursor of 0 meaning "no flush stamped",
+    /// the flush-then-drain sequence leaves `replay_after_wal_entry_position`
+    /// pinned at the flushed position, so replay correctly starts past it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_memtable_replay_skips_entries_after_external_compaction() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::ShardManifestStore;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Writer A: write 5 rows, close (forces a flush of the active
+        // memtable). The manifest now records an SSTable and
+        // pins `replay_after_wal_entry_position` to the covered WAL entry.
+        {
+            let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            writer_a
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            writer_a.close().await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Simulate an external compactor compacting the SSTable.
+        // into the base table: drain `sstables` to empty via a
+        // direct manifest commit. The cursor stays where the flush put it.
+        let manifest_store = ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+        let pre = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !pre.sstables.is_empty(),
+            "writer A's close() should have stamped an SSTable"
+        );
+        let cursor_at_flush = pre.replay_after_wal_entry_position;
+        let old_generation_uri = format!(
+            "{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}",
+            base_uri.trim_end_matches('/'),
+            shard_id,
+            pre.sstables[0].path
+        );
+        assert!(Dataset::open(&old_generation_uri).await.is_ok());
+        assert!(
+            cursor_at_flush >= 1,
+            "expected cursor to land on a 1-based WAL position after flush, got {cursor_at_flush}"
+        );
+        // Bump the epoch (claim_epoch) so we can commit_update without
+        // being fenced; this also mirrors how a compactor process would
+        // hold its own writer claim.
+        let (compactor_epoch, _) = manifest_store.claim_epoch(pre.shard_spec_id).await.unwrap();
+        manifest_store
+            .commit_update(compactor_epoch, |current| ShardManifest {
+                version: current.next_version(),
+                sstables: vec![],
+                ..current.clone()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let post = manifest_store.latest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            post.sstables.is_empty(),
+            "compactor drain should have left sstables empty"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            post.replay_after_wal_entry_position, cursor_at_flush,
+            "compactor must not touch the replay cursor"
+        );
+
+        // Writer B reopens. Pre-fix: replay saw sstables empty,
+        // restarted at WAL position 0, and re-inserted writer A's rows.
+        // Post-fix: replay starts at cursor + 1, finds no entry, and the
+        // memtable stays empty.
+        let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            Dataset::open(&old_generation_uri).await.is_ok(),
+            "writer reopen removed an SSTable retained by the older shard manifest"
+        );
+        let stats = writer_b.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.row_count, 0,
+            "memtable must not re-replay compacted WAL entries; got {} rows",
+            stats.row_count
+        );
+        assert_eq!(stats.batch_count, 0);
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Replay aborts the open with a clear fence error if it encounters a
+    /// WAL entry written with an epoch strictly greater than ours. Simulate
+    /// the race where another writer wrote an entry with a higher epoch
+    /// between our `claim_epoch` and our replay by injecting a high-epoch
+    /// entry directly via `WalAppender::with_claimed_epoch` (which
+    /// bypasses `claim_epoch` and so does not bump the manifest).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_memtable_replay_fenced_aborts_open() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::ShardManifestStore;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Writer A: write one durable batch (claims epoch 1, writes entry at position 1).
+        {
+            let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            writer_a
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 1)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // drop without close
+        }
+
+        // Inject a WAL entry written with epoch 100 — far above whatever
+        // claim_epoch will hand the next opener. The manifest is not
+        // updated since we use `with_claimed_epoch` directly.
+        let manifest_store = Arc::new(ShardManifestStore::new(
+            store.clone(),
+            &base_path,
+            shard_id,
+            2,
+        ));
+        let high_epoch_appender = WalAppender::with_claimed_epoch(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            shard_id,
+            manifest_store,
+            100,
+            // hint seed irrelevant; the real position counter is discovered
+            // lazily on the first append.
+            0,
+            WalRetryConfig::default(),
+        );
+        high_epoch_appender
+            .append(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 999, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Writer B opens. claim_epoch returns 2 (manifest's writer_epoch
+        // was 1 before this open). Replay reads the injected entry, sees
+        // epoch 100 > 2, and aborts with a fence error.
+        let result = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await;
+        let Err(err) = result else {
+            panic!("expected open to fail with fence error during replay");
+        };
+        // Assert the *typed* fence reason, not just the message: a regression
+        // reverting this to `Error::io` would still carry a message containing
+        // "fenced" and slip past a string check, but must not report a
+        // `FenceReason`.
+        assert_eq!(
+            err.fence_reason(),
+            Some(FenceReason::PeerClaimedEpoch),
+            "replay must abort with a typed peer-fence error, got: {err}"
+        );
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("WAL replay aborted") && msg.contains("fenced"),
+            "unexpected error: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression: `wal_stats().next_wal_entry_position` must reflect the
+    /// post-recovery cursor immediately on reopen, not 0 until the first
+    /// append discovers the tip. Pre-fix the appender's hint was seeded at
+    /// 0 and only updated after the first successful append, so external
+    /// monitors saw 0 between open and first put on a shard with prior
+    /// entries.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_stats_seeded_from_manifest_on_reopen() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // First writer creates a shard, writes one entry, closes.
+        let writer1 = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            wal_only_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer1
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer1.close().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Reopen: stats must reflect the post-recovery cursor immediately,
+        // before any put has happened on this writer.
+        let writer2 = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(shard_id),
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let next = writer2.wal_stats().next_wal_entry_position;
+        assert!(
+            next >= 1,
+            "expected wal_stats to reflect post-recovery cursor (>= 1) on reopen, got {next}"
+        );
+
+        writer2.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for the size-based trigger after a drain.
+    ///
+    /// Earlier the WAL-only size trigger used a monotonic counter
+    /// (`wal_flush_trigger_count`) which never reset across drains. After
+    /// the first crossing the counter was >= 1 and `pending_bytes / threshold`
+    /// could never grow past 1 (because pending_bytes resets on drain), so
+    /// the size trigger silently stopped firing. This test pushes batches
+    /// to cross the size threshold multiple times across drains and asserts
+    /// every crossing produces a WAL entry.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_size_trigger_fires_repeatedly() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::wal::WalTailer;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let mut config = wal_only_config(Uuid::new_v4());
+        let shard_id = config.shard_id;
+        // Non-durable so puts don't auto-flush. Time trigger off so only
+        // the size trigger drives flushes.
+        config.durable_write = false;
+        config.max_wal_flush_interval = None;
+        // Pick a tiny threshold so a single batch crosses it.
+        config.max_wal_buffer_size = 1;
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Three puts, each large enough to cross the (1-byte) threshold.
+        // Without the fix, only the first would trigger; the rest would
+        // sit in the queue until close().
+        for i in 0..3 {
+            writer
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, i * 10, 10)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Yield, then sleep, so the background flush handler can
+            // drain the trigger queue before the next push — otherwise
+            // multiple pending triggers can coalesce into a single drain.
+            // 50ms historically failed on slow Windows CI runners; 250ms
+            // gives a comfortable margin without making the suite slow.
+            tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+            tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(250)).await;
+        }
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Each put should have produced its own WAL entry — three crossings,
+        // three entries. Without the regression fix, all three batches end
+        // up in a single entry written by `close()`.
+        let tailer = WalTailer::new(store, base_path, shard_id);
+        let next = tailer.next_position().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            next >= 3,
+            "expected at least 3 WAL entries (one per crossing), got next_position = {next}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for concurrent durable WAL-only puts on a fenced
+    /// writer. Earlier `flush_from_wal_only` did a destructive `drain()`
+    /// before calling `wal_appender.append`. If the append failed (e.g.
+    /// fence), the drained batches were dropped — the next concurrent put
+    /// would then see an empty pending queue and spuriously return Ok,
+    /// hiding the data loss. With the snapshot/commit fix, the failed flush
+    /// leaves the batches in the queue for retry, and — because the flush is
+    /// terminal — it poisons the writer, waking *both* parked durability
+    /// waiters with the typed fence error instead of either one hanging.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_fenced_concurrent_puts_do_not_silently_succeed() {
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Writer A claims epoch 1, writes one entry (takes WAL position 1,
+        // caches its next-position as 2 internally).
+        let writer_a = Arc::new(
+            ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                wal_only_config(shard_id),
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        writer_a
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Writer B claims epoch 2 and writes its own entry (takes WAL
+        // position 1). A is now fenced: A's next put will attempt WAL
+        // position 1 (its cached next), collide with B's entry, and
+        // surface a "Writer fenced" error from `check_fenced`.
+        let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer_b
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Two concurrent durable puts on the (now-fenced) writer A. With
+        // the destructive-drain bug, the first flush would consume both
+        // pending batches into a failing append; the second flush would
+        // see an empty queue and return spurious success, silently losing
+        // the second put's data. Now both puts park on the durability
+        // watermark; the ticker's append fails with the fence, poisons the
+        // writer, and both waiters wake with the fence error — batches intact
+        // in the queue.
+        let a1 = writer_a.clone();
+        let a2 = writer_a.clone();
+        let schema1 = schema.clone();
+        let schema2 = schema.clone();
+        let h1 = tokio::spawn(async move { a1.put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema1, 2, 1)]).await });
+        let h2 = tokio::spawn(async move { a2.put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema2, 3, 1)]).await });
+
+        let r1 = h1.await.unwrap();
+        let r2 = h2.await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            r1.is_err() && r2.is_err(),
+            "expected both concurrent puts on a fenced writer to fail, got r1={r1:?} r2={r2:?}",
+        );
+
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_wal_only_stats_no_memtable_flush() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            wal_only_config(Uuid::new_v4()),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 1)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stats_handle = writer.stats_handle();
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+
+        let snapshot = stats_handle.snapshot();
+        assert!(snapshot.put_count >= 1, "expected at least one put");
+        assert!(
+            snapshot.wal_flush_count >= 1,
+            "expected at least one WAL flush"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            snapshot.memtable_flush_count, 0,
+            "WAL-only mode must never trigger a memtable flush"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            snapshot.index_update_count, 0,
+            "WAL-only mode must never trigger an index update"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_memtable_stats_record_index_update() {
+        // MemTable mode with a BTree index: index application runs on its own
+        // task and must record an index-update stat. Regression for the stat
+        // silently reading zero after index apply moved off the WAL-flush path.
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_pk_test_schema();
+        let index_configs = vec![MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "id_idx".to_string(),
+            field_id: 0,
+            column: "id".to_string(),
+        })];
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            flush_test_config(Uuid::new_v4()),
+            schema.clone(),
+            index_configs,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 3)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stats_handle = writer.stats_handle();
+        // `close()` drains the index-apply task, so the apply is settled here.
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+
+        let snapshot = stats_handle.snapshot();
+        assert!(
+            snapshot.index_update_count >= 1,
+            "the index apply must record an index-update stat, got {}",
+            snapshot.index_update_count
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            snapshot.index_update_rows, 3,
+            "every indexed row must be counted exactly once, got {}",
+            snapshot.index_update_rows
+        );
+        assert!(
+            snapshot.avg_index_update_latency().is_some(),
+            "a recorded index update must expose an average latency"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_force_seal_active_and_wait_for_flush_drain() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // Thresholds high enough that auto-flush won't fire; the seal is
+        // the only thing that should rotate the memtable.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_gen = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+        let flushed_before = writer
+            .manifest()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|m| m.sstables.len())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let fence = writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fence.sealed_generation(), Some(initial_gen));
+        fence.wait().await.unwrap();
+
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.generation, initial_gen + 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.batch_count, 0);
+
+        let manifest = writer
+            .manifest()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("manifest should exist after flush");
+        assert_eq!(manifest.sstables.len(), flushed_before + 1);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A durable put returns only once its WAL flush landed, and the seal
+    /// fence resolves only once the sealed memtable reached L0 — so both
+    /// callbacks have fired by the time this asserts, without sleeping.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_observer_sees_both_flush_kinds() {
+        #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+        struct CountingObserver {
+            wal_flushes: AtomicU64,
+            wal_bytes: AtomicU64,
+            memtable_flushes: AtomicU64,
+            memtable_rows: AtomicU64,
+        }
+
+        impl WalObserver for CountingObserver {
+            fn on_wal_flush(&self, _duration: Duration, bytes: usize) {
+                self.wal_flushes.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                self.wal_bytes.fetch_add(bytes as u64, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            }
+
+            fn on_memtable_flush(&self, _duration: Duration, rows: usize) {
+                self.memtable_flushes.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                self.memtable_rows.fetch_add(rows as u64, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        let observer = Arc::new(CountingObserver::default());
+        let sink: Arc<dyn WalObserver> = observer.clone();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            observer: Some(sink),
+            ..seal_fence_test_config(Uuid::new_v4())
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .force_seal_active()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .wait()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(observer.wal_flushes.load(Ordering::Relaxed) > 0);
+        assert!(observer.wal_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed) > 0);
+        assert_eq!(observer.memtable_flushes.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        assert_eq!(observer.memtable_rows.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 10);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Durable writes so `put` returns only once the row is indexed and
+    /// WAL-durable. Both fence tests tear the background tasks down before
+    /// freezing, and a freeze still owing an index apply or a WAL append
+    /// would dispatch onto a closed channel and poison the writer.
+    fn seal_fence_test_config(shard_id: Uuid) -> ShardWriterConfig {
+        ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id,
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: true,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// An empty active memtable does not mean every pre-call write is in
+    /// L0: a size/interval trigger swaps generation N for an empty N+1
+    /// while N's flush is still in flight. The seal must fence that
+    /// generation anyway — reporting "nothing sealed, nothing to wait for"
+    /// lets a caller acknowledge a flush that has not happened.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_force_seal_active_fences_pending_generation_when_active_is_empty() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            seal_fence_test_config(Uuid::new_v4()),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Stop the flush tasks, then freeze by hand: this is the post-rotation
+        // state held still — generation N frozen and unflushed, N+1 active and
+        // empty.
+        writer.task_executor.shutdown_all().await.unwrap();
+        let pending_generation = match &writer.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable {
+                state,
+                writer_state,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let mut state = state.write().await;
+                writer_state.freeze_memtable(&mut state).unwrap() - 1
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => unreachable!("opened in memtable mode"),
+        };
+
+        let fence = writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            fence.sealed_generation(),
+            None,
+            "the active memtable was empty, so this seal froze nothing"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(200), fence.wait())
+                .await
+                .is_err(),
+            "generation {pending_generation} is still awaiting flush; the fence must not be satisfied"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The fence is tied to each flush's own outcome, never to
+    /// `ShardManifest::current_generation`. The manifest advances to
+    /// `generation + 1` on every committed flush without checking for a gap,
+    /// so a later generation's success moves it past one that failed — a
+    /// watermark comparison would report durability that does not exist.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_force_seal_active_fence_ignores_manifest_generation_advance() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            seal_fence_test_config(Uuid::new_v4()),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // No flush task, so the sealed generation never reaches L0.
+        writer.task_executor.shutdown_all().await.unwrap();
+        let fence = writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        let sealed = fence
+            .sealed_generation()
+            .expect("the active memtable held rows");
+
+        // Advance the manifest past the sealed generation, as a later
+        // generation's successful flush would.
+        writer
+            .manifest_store
+            .commit_update(writer.epoch(), |current| ShardManifest {
+                version: current.next_version(),
+                current_generation: sealed + 2,
+                ..current.clone()
+            })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(200), fence.wait())
+                .await
+                .is_err(),
+            "generation {sealed} never reached L0; a manifest advance past it must not satisfy its fence"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `abort` tears down the background flush tasks WITHOUT flushing —
+    /// buffered memtable rows are discarded, not sealed into an L0
+    /// generation the way `close` would. Idempotent on a second call.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_abort_discards_without_flushing_and_is_idempotent() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+
+        // Thresholds high enough that nothing auto-flushes; the rows stay
+        // in the active memtable until abort discards them.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let flushed_before = writer
+            .manifest()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|m| m.sstables.len())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+
+        writer.abort().await.unwrap();
+
+        // No generation was sealed — contrast with `close`, which flushes
+        // the 10 buffered rows into a new L0 generation.
+        let flushed_after = writer
+            .manifest()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|m| m.sstables.len())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            flushed_after, flushed_before,
+            "abort must not flush a new L0 generation"
+        );
+
+        // Idempotent: re-cancels the already-cancelled token, joins an
+        // already-emptied task set.
+        writer.abort().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// On a successful flush commit the sealed generation's rows land in the
+    /// manifest immediately, but the in-memory handle is NOT dropped — it
+    /// lingers for `frozen_memtable_grace` (so in-flight as-of reads keep
+    /// batch-resolved membership), then is swept by the grace sweep.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_frozen_retained_during_grace_then_swept() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            // Short grace so the sweep is observable without a slow test.
+            frozen_memtable_grace: Duration::from_millis(50),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_gen = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Recorded in the manifest at commit time.
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().expect("manifest exists");
+        assert!(
+            manifest
+                .sstables
+                .iter()
+                .any(|g| g.generation == initial_gen),
+            "SSTable must be recorded in the manifest"
+        );
+
+        // Still queryable in memory immediately after commit (within grace).
+        let refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(refs.active.generation, initial_gen + 1);
+        assert!(
+            refs.frozen.iter().any(|f| f.generation == initial_gen),
+            "SSTable must stay queryable during the grace window"
+        );
+
+        // After the grace elapses (plus a sweep tick) the handle is evicted.
+        tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(250)).await;
+        let refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            refs.frozen.is_empty(),
+            "frozen handle must be swept once the grace elapses"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// With zero grace (the default) a frozen handle is evicted synchronously on
+    /// flush commit — no sweep tick, no lingering window.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_frozen_evicted_immediately_with_zero_grace() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            shard_spec_id: 0,
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+            frozen_memtable_grace: Duration::ZERO,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_gen = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Rows are durably in the manifest...
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().expect("manifest exists");
+        assert!(
+            manifest
+                .sstables
+                .iter()
+                .any(|g| g.generation == initial_gen),
+            "SSTable must be recorded in the manifest"
+        );
+
+        // ...and the in-memory handle is already gone, no sweep tick needed.
+        let refs = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            refs.frozen.is_empty(),
+            "frozen handle must be evicted on commit when grace is zero"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_close_propagates_frozen_memtable_flush_failure() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        writer_a
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(writer_b.epoch() > writer_a.epoch());
+
+        let error = writer_a
+            .close()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("close must propagate the fenced MemTable flush");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("Writer fenced"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Regression: a transient flush failure must NOT reopen the
+    /// concurrent-read-vs-flush hole. The sealed generation stays in the
+    /// queryable set (rows intact) until a later flush or WAL replay.
+    /// Failure is induced deterministically by fencing the writer with a
+    /// successor before the seal, so the flush's `check_fenced` rejects it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_frozen_retained_after_failed_flush() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_gen = writer_a.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+        writer_a
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Successor claims a higher epoch, fencing A.
+        let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id),
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(writer_b.epoch() > writer_a.epoch());
+
+        // `force_seal_active` would reject up-front on a fenced writer;
+        // freeze directly so the failure surfaces at flush-commit time —
+        // exactly the freeze/flush race the fix guards.
+        match &writer_a.mode {
+            WriterMode::MemTable {
+                state,
+                writer_state,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let mut st = state.write().await;
+                writer_state.freeze_memtable(&mut st).unwrap();
+            }
+            WriterMode::WalOnly { .. } => unreachable!("opened in memtable mode"),
+        }
+
+        // The fenced flush fails; the drain surfaces that error.
+        assert!(
+            writer_a.wait_for_flush_drain().await.is_err(),
+            "fenced flush should fail the drain"
+        );
+
+        // The hole did not reopen: the sealed generation is still queryable
+        // with its rows, alongside the new (empty) active generation.
+        let refs = writer_a.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(refs.frozen.len(), 1, "sealed generation must be retained");
+        assert_eq!(refs.frozen[0].generation, initial_gen);
+        assert!(
+            !refs.frozen[0].batch_store.is_empty(),
+            "retained sealed memtable must still hold its rows"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(refs.active.generation, initial_gen + 1);
+
+        // Nor did it vanish from the accounting. A failed flush leaves its
+        // memtable un-stamped, so it stays in the owed-to-flush set and keeps
+        // metering — those bytes are resident and only another flush reclaims
+        // them. This is also what an operator reads to decide whether to evict.
+        let stats = writer_a.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.frozen_count, 1);
+        let frozen_bytes = writer_a.memory().frozen_bytes();
+        assert!(
+            frozen_bytes >= refs.frozen[0].batch_store.row_bytes(),
+            "a failed flush must keep owing its resident bytes, got {frozen_bytes}"
+        );
+
+        // Charging those bytes must not become a trap. Nothing retries the
+        // failed generation, and its watcher came off the queue when the flush
+        // reported, so there is no event left that would drain the pool — while
+        // the valve itself is what keeps the puts that could seal a new
+        // generation from arriving. Waiting here would never end, so the
+        // controller refuses instead.
+        assert!(
+            matches!(writer_a.memory().drain(), Drain::Stalled),
+            "a failed flush leaves nothing outstanding to wait on"
+        );
+        let controller = LocalBackpressureController::new(&ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: writer_a.memory().unflushed_bytes(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+        let refused = tokio::time::timeout(
+            STALL_GRACE * 10,
+            controller.maybe_apply_backpressure(writer_a.memory()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("a shard nothing can drain must refuse, not park the writer");
+        assert!(
+            refused.is_err_and(|e| e.is_backpressure()),
+            "the refusal must be the retryable backpressure signal"
+        );
+
+        writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A one-row slice pins its whole parent, so a memtable can hold megabytes
+    /// while its row window reads a few dozen bytes. With only the row arm the
+    /// shard crossed its ceiling with nothing sealed and no seal reachable — the
+    /// valve then found `Drain::Stalled` and refused every put, permanently.
+    /// The resident arm is what makes that shard drain instead.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_pinned_parents_seal_before_the_ceiling_traps_the_writer() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let chunk = 1_000_000; // ~4MB parent per put
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            // Far above anything the one-row windows will ever sum to, so the row
+            // arm cannot be what seals here.
+            max_memtable_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            // Never filled, so the capacity arm cannot be it either.
+            max_memtable_batches: 1024,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: 8 * 1024 * 1024,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for i in 0..6i32 {
+            let parent = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(
+                    (0..chunk).map(|v| v + i).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                ))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            tokio::time::timeout(STALL_GRACE * 10, writer.put(vec![parent.slice(0, 1)]))
+                .await
+                .expect("a shard the resident arm can seal must not park forever")
+                .unwrap_or_else(|e| {
+                    panic!("put {i} was refused, so the ceiling is still a trap: {e}")
+                });
+        }
+
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            stats.generation > 0,
+            "the pinned parents must have sealed a generation; row bytes never \
+             came close to max_memtable_size"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            writer.memory().row_bytes() < 1024,
+            "the row window must still be tiny — otherwise the row arm did the \
+             sealing and this proves nothing"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Index memory is not charged to `max_memtable_size`, so it is the resident
+    /// arm that has to notice a memtable whose indexes rather than its rows are
+    /// filling the ceiling.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_resident_arm_seals_on_index_memory() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let mut memtable =
+            MemTable::with_capacity(schema.clone(), 1, vec![], CacheConfig::default(), 64).unwrap();
+        memtable
+            .insert(create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 50))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let resident = memtable_resident_bytes(&memtable);
+        let rows = memtable.batch_store().row_bytes();
+        assert!(
+            resident > rows,
+            "the fixture needs non-row memory to be measuring anything: \
+             resident {resident} vs rows {rows}"
+        );
+
+        // Row arm way out of range; only the resident arm can fire.
+        assert!(
+            memtable_reached_flush_threshold(&memtable, usize::MAX, usize::MAX, resident, 1, 1),
+            "resident bytes at the ceiling must seal"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !memtable_reached_flush_threshold(
+                &memtable,
+                usize::MAX,
+                usize::MAX,
+                resident + 1,
+                1,
+                1
+            ),
+            "and must not seal below it"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The row arm answers for the rows about to arrive, not the rows already
+    /// inserted: the cap is a hard index capacity.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_arm_seals_on_max_memtable_rows() {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let mut memtable =
+            MemTable::with_capacity(schema.clone(), 1, vec![], CacheConfig::default(), 64).unwrap();
+        memtable
+            .insert(create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 50))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Byte and resident arms out of range; only the row arm can fire.
+        let row_arm = |cap, incoming| {
+            memtable_reached_flush_threshold(&memtable, usize::MAX, cap, usize::MAX, 1, incoming)
+        };
+        assert!(!row_arm(50, 0), "50 rows under a cap of 50 must not seal");
+        assert!(row_arm(50, 1), "no room for one more row must seal");
+        assert!(
+            !row_arm(60, 10),
+            "a put that exactly fills the cap must not seal"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            row_arm(60, 11),
+            "a put that would overflow the cap must seal"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A memtable stays within `max_memtable_rows` with the byte and batch arms
+    /// far out of reach, so only the row arm can seal it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_put_seals_on_max_memtable_rows() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _t) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let cap = 64;
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_memtable_rows: cap,
+            // Both far out of reach, so only the row arm can seal.
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_memtable_batches: 8_000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for round in 0..10i32 {
+            writer
+                .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, round * 10, 10)])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                stats.row_count <= cap,
+                "the active memtable holds {} rows, past the cap of {cap}",
+                stats.row_count
+            );
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation > 1,
+            "100 rows under a cap of {cap} must have rotated at least once"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A put is never split across memtables, so one larger than the cap is
+    /// rejected as invalid input rather than overflowing a fresh memtable.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_put_rejects_more_rows_than_a_memtable_holds() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _t) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_memtable_rows: 8,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Split across two batches: the cap is on the put, not on one batch.
+        let err = writer
+            .put(vec![
+                create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 5),
+                create_test_batch(&schema, 5, 4),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a put of 9 rows under a cap of 8 must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "an oversized put is caller error, not a writer fault: {err}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("max_memtable_rows=8"),
+            "the error must name the knob and its value, got: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // Exactly the cap still goes through, and the writer is unharmed.
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 8)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// An HNSW graph is sized to `max_memtable_rows`, so a shard that writes past
+    /// the cap has to keep sealing for the graph to never see a row it cannot
+    /// hold.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hnsw_index_survives_a_shard_that_outgrows_the_row_cap() {
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _t) = create_local_store().await;
+        let dim = 8;
+        let schema = hnsw_schema(dim);
+        let cap = 64;
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: false,
+            max_memtable_rows: cap,
+            max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+            max_memtable_batches: 8_000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            hnsw_configs(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        for round in 0..20i32 {
+            let ids: Vec<i32> = (0..10).map(|v| v + round * 10).collect();
+            let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(
+                    (0..10 * dim as usize)
+                        .map(|v| v as f32 * 0.01)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                ),
+                dim,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)), Arc::new(vectors)],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            writer
+                .put(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("put {round} was refused: {e}"));
+        }
+
+        // The index apply runs outside the put, so a poisoned writer surfaces here
+        // even when every put returned Ok.
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The post-insert seal check runs inside the writer lock; the index apply
+    /// that follows it runs outside. So a put's index growth is invisible to the
+    /// only check that put makes, and the *next* put is gated by the valve before
+    /// it can insert and check again — leaving a shard over its ceiling with
+    /// nothing sealed and every write refused. Replay reaches the same state by
+    /// building its final memtable's indexes after its last check.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_growth_after_the_seal_check_still_drains() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _t) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        // Keys long enough to spill out of the skiplist nodes, so the index heap
+        // grows with the column instead of staying a fixed reservation.
+        let btree = vec![MemIndexConfig::BTree(BTreeIndexConfig {
+            name: "text_idx".to_string(),
+            field_id: 1,
+            column: "text".to_string(),
+        })];
+
+        let rows = 2_000usize;
+        let width = 512usize;
+        let payload = rows * width;
+        let ceiling = payload + payload / 2;
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            // As high as the open-time check allows, keeping the row arm out of
+            // reach of the rows below so only the resident arm can seal.
+            max_memtable_size: ceiling - 64 * 1024,
+            max_memtable_batches: 1024,
+            // Above the rows alone, below rows plus the index heap they build.
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: ceiling,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), btree)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for i in 0..3i32 {
+            let ids: Vec<i32> = (0..rows as i32).map(|v| v + i * rows as i32).collect();
+            let texts: Vec<String> = ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|v| format!("{v:07}{}", "z".repeat(width - 7)))
+                .collect();
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                        texts.iter().map(|t| Some(t.as_str())).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            tokio::time::timeout(STALL_GRACE * 10, writer.put(vec![batch]))
+                .await
+                .expect("a shard with a sealable memtable must not park forever")
+                .unwrap_or_else(|e| {
+                    panic!("put {i} was refused; index growth outran the seal check: {e}")
+                });
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            writer.memory().index_bytes() > writer.memory().row_bytes(),
+            "the fixture must be index-dominated, or it is not testing this path"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// `max_memtable_size` is the headroom the reservation check reserves for
+    /// rows. At zero it reserves none, so a fresh memtable's index reservation
+    /// could equal the ceiling exactly — admissible by the check, yet over budget
+    /// before its first row, with an empty memtable offering nothing to seal. The
+    /// writer refused its first write and never recovered.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_rejects_a_zero_row_headroom() {
+        let sizing = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_memtable_rows: 2_000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reserved = reserved_index_bytes(&sizing, &hnsw_configs());
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _t) = create_local_store().await;
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            max_memtable_rows: sizing.max_memtable_rows,
+            max_memtable_size: 0,
+            // Exactly the fresh reservation: the boundary the old `>` admitted.
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: reserved,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let err = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            hnsw_schema(8),
+            hnsw_configs(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .err()
+        .expect("a zero row headroom must be rejected at open");
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("max_memtable_size must be greater than zero"),
+            "the error must name the knob, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Schema for the reservation tests: `vector` is field 1, the id 0 is `id`.
+    fn hnsw_schema(dim: i32) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), dim),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn hnsw_configs() -> Vec<MemIndexConfig> {
+        vec![MemIndexConfig::Hnsw(Box::new(HnswIndexConfig::new(
+            "vec_idx".to_string(),
+            1,
+            "vector".to_string(),
+            lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        )))]
+    }
+
+    /// What the configured indexes owe before a single row arrives — the figure
+    /// `open` validates against, computed the way the memtable will build them.
+    fn reserved_index_bytes(config: &ShardWriterConfig, configs: &[MemIndexConfig]) -> usize {
+        IndexStore::from_configs(
+            configs,
+            config.max_memtable_rows,
+            config.max_memtable_batches,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .resident_bytes()
+            + super::super::memtable::pk_bloom_filter_bytes()
+    }
+
+    /// An HNSW graph is charged from `max_memtable_rows` before the first
+    /// insert, while only row bytes seal a memtable. Sized past the ceiling it
+    /// would put the shard over budget at zero rows with nothing to seal and so
+    /// nothing to flush — every put stalling, then failing as `Backpressure`,
+    /// which means "retry later" and never comes true. That is a config error,
+    /// so it has to land at `open`, not on put #1.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_rejects_indexes_that_cannot_fit_under_the_ceiling() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            max_memtable_rows: 100_000,
+            max_memtable_size: 1024 * 1024,
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: 1024 * 1024,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reserved = reserved_index_bytes(&config, &hnsw_configs());
+        assert!(
+            reserved > config.max_unflushed_memtable_bytes,
+            "the fixture must actually over-subscribe the ceiling, got {reserved}"
+        );
+
+        let err = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            hnsw_schema(32),
+            hnsw_configs(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .err()
+        .expect("an over-subscribed ceiling must be rejected at open");
+
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        for fragment in [
+            "in-memory indexes reserve",
+            "max_unflushed_memtable_bytes",
+            "stalling every write",
+        ] {
+            assert!(
+                message.contains(fragment),
+                "the error must name {fragment}, got: {message}"
+            );
+        }
+        assert!(
+            !err.is_backpressure(),
+            "a config error must not masquerade as the retryable busy signal"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A controller that admits every write but refuses every freeze — the shape
+    /// a pod-wide controller takes once the tier its flushes land in is full.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct SealBlocker {
+        blocked: std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl BackpressureController for SealBlocker {
+        async fn maybe_apply_backpressure(&self, _shard: ShardMemory) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        fn may_seal_memtable(&self) -> bool {
+            !self.blocked.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A held-back freeze pins the active memtable at its cap and refuses the
+    /// put that could only have landed after the seal.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_blocked_seal_pins_the_memtable_and_refuses_the_put() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = create_pk_test_schema();
+        let blocker = Arc::new(SealBlocker {
+            blocked: std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool::new(true),
+        });
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: false,
+            // One put of this size carries row bytes past the window, so the
+            // put after it is one that can only land after a freeze.
+            max_memtable_size: 1024,
+            backpressure: Some(blocker.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema.clone(), vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let generation = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 200)])
+            .await
+            .expect("the first put fits and needs no seal");
+
+        let rows_before = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().row_count;
+        let err = writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 200, 200)])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a put that can only land after a blocked freeze must be refused");
+        assert!(
+            err.is_backpressure(),
+            "the refusal must be the retryable signal, not a hard failure: {err}"
+        );
+
+        let stats = writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.generation, generation,
+            "a blocked freeze must not rotate the memtable"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.row_count, rows_before,
+            "a refused put must not have landed any rows"
+        );
+
+        // Room again: the block is a stall, not a wedge.
+        blocker
+            .blocked
+            .store(false, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 200, 200)])
+            .await
+            .expect("the put admitted once the freeze is allowed");
+        // Not `+ 1`: at this memtable size the put seals on the way in and
+        // rotates again on the way out.
+        assert!(
+            writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation > generation,
+            "the seal the block was holding back must happen once it lifts"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The other side of the gate: a ceiling with room for the reservation *and*
+    /// a full memtable of rows on top opens, and keeps taking writes across a
+    /// seal — the frozen generation gives the valve a flush to park on, so the
+    /// wait ends instead of refusing.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_writer_with_indexes_under_the_ceiling_keeps_accepting_writes() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp) = create_local_store().await;
+        let dim = 8;
+        let sizing = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_memtable_rows: 2_000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reserved = reserved_index_bytes(&sizing, &hnsw_configs());
+        let max_memtable_size = 4 * 1024;
+
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            max_memtable_rows: sizing.max_memtable_rows,
+            max_memtable_size,
+            // Two generations' worth, so a seal does not immediately re-park the
+            // writer on a ceiling it cannot clear.
+            max_unflushed_memtable_bytes: 2 * (reserved + max_memtable_size),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let schema = hnsw_schema(dim);
+        let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+            store,
+            base_path,
+            base_uri,
+            config,
+            schema.clone(),
+            hnsw_configs(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("a reservation that leaves room under the ceiling must open");
+
+        // Enough rows to carry row bytes past `max_memtable_size` several times
+        // over, so the run spans seals rather than sitting in one memtable.
+        for round in 0..8i32 {
+            let rows = 64;
+            let ids: Vec<i32> = (0..rows).map(|i| round * rows + i).collect();
+            let values: Vec<f32> = (0..rows * dim).map(|i| i as f32).collect();
+            let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dim,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values)),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)), Arc::new(vectors)],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            tokio::time::timeout(STALL_GRACE * 10, writer.put(vec![batch]))
+                .await
+                .expect("a drainable shard must not park the writer indefinitely")
+                .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("put in round {round} was refused: {e}"));
+        }
+
+        // Without a seal this would only prove one memtable fits, which is not
+        // the case that stalls.
+        assert!(
+            writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation > 0,
+            "the run must cross a seal for the drain path to have been exercised"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    mod evolve_schema;
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod shard_writer_tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{InvertedIndexParams, InvertedListFormatVersion};
+    use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, ScalarIndexParams};
+    use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+    use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+
+    use super::super::ShardWriterConfig;
+
+    pub(super) fn create_test_schema(vector_dim: i32) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        id_metadata.insert(
+            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+            "true".to_string(),
+        );
+        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
+
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            id_field,
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    vector_dim,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn create_append_only_schema(vector_dim: i32) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    vector_dim,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn create_test_batch(
+        schema: &ArrowSchema,
+        start_id: i64,
+        num_rows: usize,
+        vector_dim: i32,
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        let vectors: Vec<f32> = (0..num_rows)
+            .flat_map(|i| {
+                let seed = (start_id as usize + i) as f32;
+                (0..vector_dim as usize).map(move |d| (seed * 0.1 + d as f32 * 0.01).sin())
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let vector_array =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vectors), vector_dim)
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let texts: Vec<String> = (0..num_rows)
+            .map(|i| format!("Sample text for row {}", start_id as usize + i))
+            .collect();
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    start_id..start_id + num_rows as i64,
+                )),
+                Arc::new(vector_array),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(texts)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_mem_wal_records_writer_config_defaults() {
+        let vector_dim = 128;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        let uri = format!("memory://test_writer_config_defaults_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
+
+        let initial_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 100, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+
+        let writer_config = ShardWriterConfig::default()
+            .with_durable_write(false)
+            .with_max_memtable_size(8 * 1024 * 1024);
+
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .writer_config_defaults(writer_config)
+            .add_writer_config_default("custom_knob", "custom_value")
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+        // Defaults must survive the manifest round-trip so all writers share them.
+        let details = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to read MemWAL index details")
+            .expect("MemWAL index details should exist");
+
+        let defaults = &details.writer_config_defaults;
+        // ShardWriterConfig tunables are recorded under their field names.
+        assert_eq!(
+            defaults.get("durable_write").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("false")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            defaults.get("max_memtable_size").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("8388608")
+        );
+        // Duration knobs are recorded in milliseconds with a `_ms` suffix.
+        assert_eq!(
+            defaults
+                .get("max_wal_flush_interval_ms")
+                .map(String::as_str),
+            Some("100")
+        );
+        // Every tunable field is present.
+        assert!(defaults.contains_key("enable_memtable"));
+        // add_writer_config_default records arbitrary keys.
+        assert_eq!(
+            defaults.get("custom_knob").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("custom_value")
+        );
+        // Shard identity is not a configuration default.
+        assert!(!defaults.contains_key("shard_id"));
+        assert!(!defaults.contains_key("shard_spec_id"));
+    }
+
+    /// A maintained index can be split across multiple physical segments once a
+    /// delta is appended over previously uncovered fragments (the distributed
+    /// indexer / `optimize_indices(append)` flow). `mem_wal_writer` must resolve
+    /// such an index by name without tripping the singular loader's "multiple
+    /// indices of the same name" error — it only reads the shared type/params,
+    /// which every segment carries identically.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_mem_wal_writer_with_multi_segment_index() {
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+        let vector_dim = 32;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        // The generation flusher reopens by URI, so this independent open must
+        // resolve to the same in-memory backend. The unique authority isolates the test.
+        let uri = format!(
+            "shared-memory://multi-segment-index-{}/",
+            Uuid::new_v4().simple()
+        );
+
+        // Initial fragment + an IVF vector index covering it.
+        let initial = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 256, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &vector_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create vector index");
+
+        // Append a second fragment and index it as a *delta* (no merge), so the
+        // index ends up with two physical segments sharing the name "vector_idx".
+        let appended = create_test_batch(&schema, 256, 256, vector_dim);
+        let append_batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(appended)], schema.clone());
+        dataset
+            .append(append_batches, None)
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to append fragment");
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to append index delta");
+
+        // Precondition: the index is genuinely multi-segment, so the singular
+        // `load_index_by_name` would error here.
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices_by_name("vector_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            2,
+            "expected two physical segments for the maintained index"
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .maintained_indexes(["vector_idx"])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+        // The regression: loading the multi-segment maintained index must succeed.
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(
+                shard_id,
+                ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id).with_durable_write(false),
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("mem_wal_writer must accept a multi-segment maintained index");
+
+        // And the resulting writer is functional.
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 200, 10, vector_dim)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(writer.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().row_count, 10);
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A generation of only tombstones (delete nulls the vector, and the HNSW
+    /// skips nulls) has an empty vector index. Flushing it must succeed —
+    /// writing the data with no HNSW index for that generation — not fail the
+    /// drain with "HnswMemIndex is empty". Regression for the wallop fuzz
+    /// `flush drain failed: HnswMemIndex is empty` on a delete-only memtable.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flush_all_tombstone_generation_skips_empty_hnsw() {
+        let vector_dim = 32;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        // `shared-memory` (not `memory`): the flush writes the generation dataset
+        // and the drain reopens it by URI, which a plain in-memory store wouldn't
+        // share across opens. A unique authority isolates this test.
+        let uri = format!("shared-memory://tombstone-{}/", Uuid::new_v4().simple());
+
+        // Base dataset + maintained vector index, so the writer carries an HNSW
+        // mem index.
+        let initial = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 256, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .maintained_indexes(["vector_idx"])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(
+                shard_id,
+                ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id).with_durable_write(false),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Delete only — the memtable holds a single tombstone with a null vector,
+        // so its HNSW index is empty.
+        let keys = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "id",
+                DataType::Int64,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![0_i64]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.delete(vec![keys]).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The drain must not error on the empty HNSW.
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+
+        // The tombstone-only generation still flushed (data without an HNSW index).
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().expect("manifest exists");
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest.sstables.len(),
+            1,
+            "the all-tombstone generation must still flush"
+        );
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_mem_wal_maintained_fts_v1_flush_preserves_format() {
+        use tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let vector_dim = 32;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        let temp_dir = TempDir::new().expect("Failed to create temp dir");
+        let uri = format!("file://{}", temp_dir.path().display());
+
+        let initial = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 16, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+
+        let fts_params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &fts_params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create v1 FTS index");
+        let base_indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(base_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(base_indices[0].index_version, 1);
+
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .maintained_indexes(["text_fts"])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id).with_durable_write(true);
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config)
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create MemWAL writer");
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1_000, 3, vector_dim)])
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to write MemWAL batch");
+        writer.close().await.expect("Failed to close writer");
+
+        let (store, base_path) = lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore::from_uri(&uri)
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to open store");
+        let manifest_store =
+            super::super::manifest::ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
+        let manifest = manifest_store
+            .latest()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to read manifest")
+            .expect("Manifest should exist");
+        assert_eq!(manifest.sstables.len(), 1);
+
+        let sstable = &manifest.sstables[0];
+        let gen_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}", uri, shard_id, sstable.path);
+        let sstable = Dataset::open(&gen_uri)
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to open SSTable");
+        let sstable_indices = sstable.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sstable_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(sstable_indices[0].name, "text_fts");
+        assert_eq!(
+            sstable_indices[0].index_version, 1,
+            "maintained v1 FTS index must flush as v1"
+        );
+
+        let results = sstable
+            .scan()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("Sample".to_owned()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_writer_hnsw_params_override() {
+        use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+
+        let vector_dim = 32;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        // The generation flusher reopens by URI, so this independent open must
+        // resolve to the same in-memory backend. The unique authority isolates the test.
+        let uri = format!(
+            "shared-memory://writer-hnsw-params-{}/",
+            Uuid::new_v4().simple()
+        );
+
+        let initial = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 256, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &vector_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create vector index");
+
+        // Persisting a ShardWriterConfig that carries HNSW params records them
+        // in the writer-config defaults map under `hnsw.<index>.<field>` keys.
+        let configured = ShardWriterConfig::new(Uuid::new_v4()).with_hnsw_params(
+            "vector_idx",
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(7).ef_construction(48),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .maintained_indexes(["vector_idx"])
+            .writer_config_defaults(configured)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+        let defaults = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("MemWAL details should exist")
+            .writer_config_defaults;
+        assert_eq!(
+            defaults
+                .get("hnsw.vector_idx.num_edges")
+                .map(String::as_str),
+            Some("7")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            defaults
+                .get("hnsw.vector_idx.ef_construction")
+                .map(String::as_str),
+            Some("48")
+        );
+
+        // The writer's per-index HNSW override flows into the in-memory index.
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id)
+            .with_durable_write(false)
+            .with_hnsw_params(
+                "vector_idx",
+                HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(7).ef_construction(48),
+            );
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config)
+            .await
+            .expect("mem_wal_writer must accept the HNSW-param override");
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 300, 10, vector_dim)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let active = writer.active_memtable_ref().await.unwrap();
+        let hnsw = active
+            .index_store
+            .get_hnsw("vector_idx")
+            .expect("maintained HNSW index should exist in the memtable");
+        assert_eq!(hnsw.build_params().m, 7);
+        assert_eq!(hnsw.build_params().ef_construction, 48);
+        drop(active);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_mem_wal_bucket_sharding() {
+        let vector_dim = 128;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        let uri = format!("memory://test_bucket_sharding_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
+
+        let initial_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 100, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+
+        // num_buckets out of range is rejected.
+        let result = dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .bucket_sharding("id", 0)
+            .execute()
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "num_buckets = 0 should be rejected");
+
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .bucket_sharding("text", 8)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+        let details = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to read MemWAL index details")
+            .expect("MemWAL index details should exist");
+
+        assert_eq!(details.num_shards, 8);
+        assert_eq!(details.sharding_specs.len(), 1);
+        let field = &details.sharding_specs[0].fields[0];
+        assert_eq!(field.transform.as_deref(), Some("bucket"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            field.parameters.get("num_buckets").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("8")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(field.source_ids.len(), 1);
+        let source_id = field.source_ids[0];
+        let source_field = dataset.schema().field("text").expect("text field exists");
+        assert_eq!(source_id, source_field.id);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_mem_wal_bucket_sharding_without_primary_key() {
+        let vector_dim = 128;
+        let schema = create_append_only_schema(vector_dim);
+        let uri = format!(
+            "memory://test_bucket_sharding_no_primary_key_{}",
+            Uuid::new_v4()
+        );
+
+        let initial_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 100, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .bucket_sharding("id", 8)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize append-only MemWAL");
+
+        let details = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to read MemWAL index details")
+            .expect("MemWAL index details should exist");
+
+        assert_eq!(details.num_shards, 8);
+        assert_eq!(details.sharding_specs.len(), 1);
+        let field = &details.sharding_specs[0].fields[0];
+        assert_eq!(field.transform.as_deref(), Some("bucket"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            field.parameters.get("num_buckets").map(String::as_str),
+            Some("8")
+        );
+    }
 
-    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::{DatasetMemWalExt, MemWalConfig};
-    use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
-    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_mem_wal_unsharded() {
+        let vector_dim = 128;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        let uri = format!("memory://test_unsharded_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
 
-    use super::super::RegionWriterConfig;
+        let initial_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 100, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
 
-    fn create_test_schema(vector_dim: i32) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
-        use std::collections::HashMap;
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
 
-        let mut id_metadata = HashMap::new();
-        id_metadata.insert(
-            "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
-            "true".to_string(),
+        let details = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to read MemWAL index details")
+            .expect("MemWAL index details should exist");
+
+        assert_eq!(details.num_shards, 1);
+        assert_eq!(details.sharding_specs.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.sharding_specs[0].fields[0].transform.as_deref(),
+            Some("unsharded")
         );
-        let id_field = Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(id_metadata);
-
-        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            id_field,
-            Field::new(
-                "vector",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                    vector_dim,
-                ),
-                true,
-            ),
-            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]))
     }
 
-    fn create_test_batch(
-        schema: &ArrowSchema,
-        start_id: i64,
-        num_rows: usize,
-        vector_dim: i32,
-    ) -> RecordBatch {
-        let vectors: Vec<f32> = (0..num_rows)
-            .flat_map(|i| {
-                let seed = (start_id as usize + i) as f32;
-                (0..vector_dim as usize).map(move |d| (seed * 0.1 + d as f32 * 0.01).sin())
-            })
-            .collect();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_mem_wal_identity_sharding() {
+        let vector_dim = 128;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        let uri = format!("memory://test_identity_sharding_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
 
-        let vector_array =
-            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vectors), vector_dim)
-                .unwrap();
+        let initial_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 100, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
 
-        let texts: Vec<String> = (0..num_rows)
-            .map(|i| format!("Sample text for row {}", start_id as usize + i))
-            .collect();
+        // A column that does not exist is rejected.
+        let result = dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .identity_sharding("nonexistent")
+            .execute()
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "an unknown identity column should be rejected"
+        );
 
-        RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(schema.clone()),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(
-                    start_id..start_id + num_rows as i64,
-                )),
-                Arc::new(vector_array),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(texts)),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap()
+        // A non-scalar column cannot be a shard key.
+        let result = dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .identity_sharding("vector")
+            .execute()
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "a non-scalar identity column should be rejected"
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .identity_sharding("text")
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+        let details = dataset
+            .mem_wal_index_details()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to read MemWAL index details")
+            .expect("MemWAL index details should exist");
+
+        // Identity sharding has an open-ended shard count.
+        assert_eq!(details.num_shards, 0);
+        assert_eq!(details.sharding_specs.len(), 1);
+        let field = &details.sharding_specs[0].fields[0];
+        assert_eq!(field.transform.as_deref(), Some("identity"));
+        assert_eq!(field.result_type.as_str(), "utf8");
+        assert_eq!(field.source_ids.len(), 1);
     }
 
-    /// Quick smoke test for region writer - runs against memory://
-    /// Run with: cargo test -p lance region_writer_tests::test_region_writer_smoke -- --nocapture
+    /// Quick smoke test for shard writer - runs against memory://
+    /// Run with: cargo test -p lance shard_writer_tests::test_shard_writer_smoke -- --nocapture
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_region_writer_smoke() {
+    async fn test_shard_writer_smoke() {
         let vector_dim = 128;
         let batch_size = 20;
         let num_batches = 100;
 
         let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
-        let uri = format!("memory://test_region_writer_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
+        let uri = format!("memory://test_shard_writer_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
 
         // Create initial dataset
         let initial_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 100, vector_dim);
@@ -2209,21 +12207,17 @@ mod region_writer_tests {
 
         // Initialize MemWAL (no indexes for smoke test)
         dataset
-            .initialize_mem_wal(MemWalConfig {
-                region_spec: None,
-                maintained_indexes: vec![],
-            })
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .execute()
             .await
             .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
 
-        // Create region writer
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let config = RegionWriterConfig::new(region_id)
-            .with_durable_write(false)
-            .with_sync_indexed_write(false);
+        // Create shard writer
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id).with_durable_write(false);
 
         let writer = dataset
-            .mem_wal_writer(region_id, config)
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config)
             .await
             .expect("Failed to create writer");
 
@@ -2238,11 +12232,102 @@ mod region_writer_tests {
         writer.close().await.expect("Failed to close");
     }
 
-    /// Test region writer against S3 with IVF-PQ, BTree, and FTS indexes (requires DATASET_PREFIX env var)
-    /// Run with: DATASET_PREFIX=s3://bucket/path cargo test -p lance --release region_writer_tests::test_region_writer_s3_ivfpq -- --nocapture --ignored
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shard_writer_with_vector_index_searches_active_memtable() {
+        let vector_dim = 32;
+        let batch_size = 20;
+        let target_id = 1_000i64 + 37;
+
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        // The generation flusher reopens by URI, so this independent open must
+        // resolve to the same in-memory backend. The unique authority isolates the test.
+        let uri = format!(
+            "shared-memory://shard-writer-hnsw-{}/",
+            Uuid::new_v4().simple()
+        );
+
+        let initial_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 256, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+
+        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &vector_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create base vector index");
+
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .maintained_indexes(["vector_idx"])
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id).with_durable_write(true);
+
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config)
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create writer");
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..4)
+            .map(|i| {
+                create_test_batch(
+                    &schema,
+                    1_000 + (i * batch_size) as i64,
+                    batch_size,
+                    vector_dim,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+        writer.put(batches).await.expect("Failed to write");
+
+        let query = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..vector_dim as usize).map(|d| (target_id as f32 * 0.1 + d as f32 * 0.01).sin()),
+        );
+        let mut scanner = writer.scan().await.unwrap();
+        scanner.nearest("vector", &query, 80).unwrap();
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.expect("Failed to scan");
+
+        assert!(result.num_rows() > 0, "vector query returned no rows");
+        let id_col = result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let dist_col = result
+            .column_by_name("_distance")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let target_idx = (0..result.num_rows())
+            .find(|&idx| id_col.value(idx) == target_id)
+            .expect("target vector was not returned by active MemTable HNSW search");
+        assert!(
+            dist_col.value(target_idx) < 1e-6,
+            "expected self-match distance near zero, got {}",
+            dist_col.value(target_idx)
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.expect("Failed to close");
+    }
+
+    /// Test shard writer against S3 with IVF-PQ, BTree, and FTS indexes (requires DATASET_PREFIX env var)
+    /// Run with: DATASET_PREFIX=s3://bucket/path cargo test -p lance --release shard_writer_tests::test_shard_writer_s3_ivfpq -- --nocapture --ignored
     #[tokio::test]
     #[ignore]
-    async fn test_region_writer_s3_ivfpq() {
+    async fn test_shard_writer_s3_ivfpq() {
         let prefix = std::env::var("DATASET_PREFIX").expect("DATASET_PREFIX not set");
 
         let vector_dim = 512;
@@ -2318,25 +12403,18 @@ mod region_writer_tests {
 
         // Initialize MemWAL with all three indexes
         dataset
-            .initialize_mem_wal(MemWalConfig {
-                region_spec: None,
-                maintained_indexes: vec![
-                    "id_btree".to_string(),
-                    "text_fts".to_string(),
-                    "vector_idx".to_string(),
-                ],
-            })
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .maintained_indexes(["id_btree", "text_fts", "vector_idx"])
+            .execute()
             .await
             .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
 
-        // Create region writer with default config
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let config = RegionWriterConfig::new(region_id)
-            .with_durable_write(false)
-            .with_sync_indexed_write(false);
+        // Create shard writer with default config
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id).with_durable_write(false);
 
         let writer = dataset
-            .mem_wal_writer(region_id, config)
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config)
             .await
             .expect("Failed to create writer");
 
@@ -2351,18 +12429,18 @@ mod region_writer_tests {
         writer.close().await.expect("Failed to close");
     }
 
-    /// End-to-end correctness test for RegionWriter with multiple memtable flushes.
+    /// End-to-end correctness test for ShardWriter with multiple memtable flushes.
     ///
     /// This test verifies:
     /// 1. Multiple memtable flushes are triggered via small memtable size
     /// 2. File system layout is correct (WAL files, manifest, generation directories)
     /// 3. WAL entries contain expected data
     /// 4. Data can be read after each flush cycle
-    /// 5. Manifest tracks flushed generations correctly
+    /// 5. Manifest tracks SSTables correctly
     ///
-    /// Run with: cargo test -p lance region_writer_tests::test_region_writer_e2e_correctness -- --nocapture
+    /// Run with: cargo test -p lance shard_writer_tests::test_shard_writer_e2e_correctness -- --nocapture
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_region_writer_e2e_correctness() {
+    async fn test_shard_writer_e2e_correctness() {
         use std::time::Duration;
         use tempfile::TempDir;
 
@@ -2400,24 +12478,22 @@ mod region_writer_tests {
 
         // Initialize MemWAL with BTree index only (simpler for this test)
         dataset
-            .initialize_mem_wal(MemWalConfig {
-                region_spec: None,
-                maintained_indexes: vec!["id_btree".to_string()],
-            })
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .maintained_indexes(["id_btree"])
+            .execute()
             .await
             .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
 
-        // Create region writer with small memtable size to trigger flushes
-        let region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let config = RegionWriterConfig::new(region_id)
+        // Create shard writer with small memtable size to trigger flushes
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id)
             .with_durable_write(true) // Ensure WAL files are written
-            .with_sync_indexed_write(true)
             .with_max_memtable_size(50 * 1024) // 50KB - triggers flush after ~8 batches
             .with_max_wal_buffer_size(10 * 1024) // 10KB WAL buffer
             .with_max_wal_flush_interval(Duration::from_millis(50)); // Fast flush
 
         let writer = dataset
-            .mem_wal_writer(region_id, config)
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, config)
             .await
             .expect("Failed to create writer");
 
@@ -2449,7 +12525,7 @@ mod region_writer_tests {
         writer.close().await.expect("Failed to close");
 
         // === VERIFY FILE SYSTEM LAYOUT ===
-        let mem_wal_dir = temp_dir.path().join("_mem_wal").join(region_id.to_string());
+        let mem_wal_dir = temp_dir.path().join("_mem_wal").join(shard_id.to_string());
         assert!(mem_wal_dir.exists(), "MemWAL directory should exist");
 
         // Check WAL directory
@@ -2481,31 +12557,31 @@ mod region_writer_tests {
             .await
             .expect("Failed to open store");
         let manifest_store =
-            super::super::manifest::RegionManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, region_id, 2);
+            super::super::manifest::ShardManifestStore::new(store, &base_path, shard_id, 2);
         let manifest = manifest_store
-            .read_latest()
+            .latest()
             .await
             .expect("Failed to read manifest")
             .expect("Manifest should exist");
 
-        // Verify flushed generations exist on disk
+        // Verify SSTables exist on disk
         assert!(
-            !manifest.flushed_generations.is_empty(),
-            "Should have at least one flushed generation"
+            !manifest.sstables.is_empty(),
+            "Should have at least one SSTable"
         );
-        for flushed_gen in &manifest.flushed_generations {
-            // The path stored in manifest is relative to the region directory
-            // Construct full path: temp_dir/_mem_wal/region_id/generation_folder
+        for sstable in &manifest.sstables {
+            // The path stored in manifest is relative to the shard directory
+            // Construct full path: temp_dir/_mem_wal/shard_id/generation_folder
             let gen_path = temp_dir
                 .path()
                 .join("_mem_wal")
-                .join(region_id.to_string())
-                .join(&flushed_gen.path);
+                .join(shard_id.to_string())
+                .join(&sstable.path);
 
             // The generation directory should exist
             assert!(
                 gen_path.exists(),
-                "Flushed generation directory should exist at {:?}",
+                "SSTable directory should exist at {:?}",
                 gen_path
             );
 
@@ -2534,30 +12610,377 @@ mod region_writer_tests {
         // === VERIFY DATA CAN BE READ FROM NEW WRITER ===
         // Re-open dataset and create new writer to verify recovery
         let dataset = Dataset::open(&uri).await.expect("Failed to reopen dataset");
-        let new_region_id = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let new_config = RegionWriterConfig::new(new_region_id)
-            .with_durable_write(false)
-            .with_sync_indexed_write(true);
+        let new_shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // `durable_write(true)` so the put waits for its flush, which is what
+        // currently publishes the rows. A non-durable put is *not* yet
+        // read-your-writes: the index apply is welded to the WAL flush, so the
+        // rows stay invisible until the next flush. This test used to pass with
+        // `durable_write(false)` only because an un-advanced cursor of 0 was
+        // misread as "batch 0 is visible" — it was asserting the dirty read.
+        let new_config = ShardWriterConfig::new(new_shard_id).with_durable_write(true);
 
         let new_writer = dataset
-            .mem_wal_writer(new_region_id, new_config)
+            .mem_wal_writer(new_shard_id, new_config)
             .await
             .expect("Failed to create new writer");
 
-        // Write a test batch to verify the new region works
+        // Write a test batch to verify the new shard works
         let verify_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 10000, 10, vector_dim);
         new_writer
             .put(vec![verify_batch])
             .await
-            .expect("Failed to write to new region");
+            .expect("Failed to write to new shard");
 
-        let scanner = new_writer.scan().await;
+        let scanner = new_writer.scan().await.unwrap();
         let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.expect("Failed to scan");
-        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 10, "New region should have 10 rows");
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 10, "New shard should have 10 rows");
 
         new_writer
             .close()
             .await
             .expect("Failed to close new writer");
     }
+
+    /// Regression: a base opened with a *path-bound* store binding (the
+    /// deprecated `ObjectStoreParams::object_store`) must still flush and read
+    /// generations at their own paths.
+    ///
+    /// The binding pins a store to one location, and both
+    /// `ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params` and `DatasetBuilder::build_object_store`
+    /// take the path from it while ignoring the URI they were handed. Reusing the
+    /// base's params verbatim therefore aimed every generation write and open at
+    /// the base table itself: the flush failed ("dataset already exists") and any
+    /// derived open returned base rows as generation rows.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flush_and_read_with_path_bound_object_store() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{LsmScanner, ShardSnapshot};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+        use tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let vector_dim = 8;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        let temp_dir = TempDir::new().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("file://{}", temp_dir.path().display());
+
+        let initial = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 16, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+        // Re-bind the base to a store pinned at the base's own path — what
+        // `DatasetBuilder::with_object_store` leaves on an opened dataset.
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            object_store: Some((
+                Arc::new(object_store::local::LocalFileSystem::new()),
+                url::Url::parse(&uri).unwrap(),
+            )),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = dataset.with_object_store(dataset.object_store.clone(), Some(store_params));
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create writer");
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1_000, 8, vector_dim)])
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to write");
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer
+            .wait_for_flush_drain()
+            .await
+            .expect("flush must not be redirected at the base table");
+
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().expect("manifest exists");
+        assert_eq!(manifest.sstables.len(), 1);
+        let sstable = manifest.sstables[0].clone();
+
+        // The generation landed under `_mem_wal/`, and the base table is untouched.
+        let gen_uri = format!("{}/_mem_wal/{}/{}", uri, shard_id, sstable.path);
+        let generation = Dataset::open(&gen_uri)
+            .await
+            .expect("generation must exist at its own path");
+        assert_eq!(generation.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 8);
+        let base = Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            base.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
+            16,
+            "the generation write must not land in the base table"
+        );
+
+        // The read path resolves the generation, not the base: 16 base + 8 flushed.
+        // Opening the base instead would dedup back down to 16 rows.
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(manifest.current_generation)
+            .with_sstable(sstable.generation, sstable.path.clone());
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(Arc::new(dataset), vec![snapshot], vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        let rows: usize = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .expect("scan must open the generation, not the base")
+            .iter()
+            .map(|batch| batch.num_rows())
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(rows, 24);
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The store params a base was opened with must reach every *derived* open:
+    /// the flush that writes a generation and the scan that reads it back.
+    ///
+    /// This is the point of threading them at all. A namespace-vended store
+    /// exists only on the params (credentials, endpoint, wrapper), so a
+    /// generation resolved by URI alone would silently sign with the ambient
+    /// identity instead — succeeding against a local store and failing against
+    /// the vended one. Asserting on the *generation folder* rather than
+    /// `_mem_wal/` is what makes this bite: WAL entries are written through the
+    /// base dataset's own store, so they would show up here either way.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_store_params_reach_generation_write_and_read() {
+        use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{LsmScanner, ShardSnapshot};
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::test_util::observable_store_params;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let vector_dim = 8;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        let temp_dir = TempDir::new().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("file://{}", temp_dir.path().display());
+
+        let initial = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 16, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+
+        // Open the base through an observable store, exactly as a namespace
+        // client would hand in a vended-credential store.
+        let (store_params, controls) = observable_store_params();
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+            .with_store_params(store_params)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to open dataset");
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create writer");
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1_000, 8, vector_dim)])
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to write");
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.expect("flush failed");
+
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().expect("manifest exists");
+        assert_eq!(manifest.sstables.len(), 1);
+        let sstable = manifest.sstables[0].clone();
+
+        // The generation's own Lance manifest is the signal to key on. Keying on
+        // the generation folder alone would pass vacuously: sidecars like
+        // `{gen}/bloom_filter.bin` are written through the *base* dataset's
+        // store, which is observable no matter what the params do. And the
+        // fragments can't be used either — `ObjectStore::create` writes local
+        // files through `tokio::fs`, bypassing the object store entirely, so
+        // `{gen}/data/` never reaches a wrapper under `file://`. The manifest
+        // goes through `put_opts`, and only the flusher's `Dataset::write` /
+        // `open_generation` writes it — both of which must carry the params.
+        let gen_manifest = format!("{}/_versions", sstable.path);
+
+        assert!(
+            controls.wrote_under(&gen_manifest),
+            "the flush must write the generation through the base's store params, \
+             not a store resolved from the generation URI alone"
+        );
+
+        // And the read path must resolve the generation through them too.
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(manifest.current_generation)
+            .with_sstable(sstable.generation, sstable.path.clone());
+        let scanner = LsmScanner::new(Arc::new(dataset), vec![snapshot], vec!["id".to_string()]);
+        let rows: usize = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .expect("scan failed")
+            .iter()
+            .map(|batch| batch.num_rows())
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(rows, 24);
+
+        // Reads key on the data files, not the manifest: the flusher already
+        // pulled the generation's manifest into the shared session cache, so the
+        // scan's open serves it from memory and never touches the store. The
+        // fragments are read through it (reads have no local bypass), as is the
+        // generation's standalone PK index.
+        assert!(
+            controls.read_under(&format!("{}/data/", sstable.path)),
+            "the scan must read the generation through the base's store params"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A fresh-tier-only scanner reaches its store params through
+    /// `with_store_params`, not `new()`, so the setter must strip the path-bound
+    /// store binding too. Left raw, it redirects the generation open at the base
+    /// table and the scan silently returns base rows as WAL rows.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fresh_tier_scan_with_path_bound_object_store() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{LsmScanner, ShardSnapshot};
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+        use tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let vector_dim = 8;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        let temp_dir = TempDir::new().unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("file://{}", temp_dir.path().display());
+
+        // 16 base rows with ids 0..16; the WAL gets 8 rows with ids 1000..1008,
+        // so a redirected generation open is unambiguous in the output.
+        let initial = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 16, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to initialize MemWAL");
+
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(shard_id, ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create writer");
+        writer
+            .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, 1_000, 8, vector_dim)])
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to write");
+        writer.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.expect("flush failed");
+
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().expect("manifest exists");
+        let sstable = manifest.sstables[0].clone();
+        let snapshot = ShardSnapshot::new(shard_id)
+            .with_current_generation(manifest.current_generation)
+            .with_sstable(sstable.generation, sstable.path.clone());
+
+        // What `DatasetBuilder::with_object_store` leaves on an opened dataset:
+        // a store pinned at the base's own path.
+        #[allow(deprecated)]
+        let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            object_store: Some((
+                Arc::new(object_store::local::LocalFileSystem::new()),
+                url::Url::parse(&uri).unwrap(),
+            )),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let arrow_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema> = schema.clone();
+        let batches = LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+            arrow_schema,
+            uri.clone(),
+            vec![snapshot],
+            vec!["id".to_string()],
+        )
+        .with_session(dataset.session())
+        .with_store_params(store_params)
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .expect("scan must open the generation, not the base");
+
+        let rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows, 8,
+            "fresh tier holds only the 8 WAL rows; 16 means the generation open \
+             was redirected at the base table"
+        );
+        let ids: Vec<i64> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            ids.iter().all(|id| (1_000..1_008).contains(id)),
+            "expected the WAL's own rows, got {ids:?}"
+        );
+
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The other paths now prevent a nullable key, so this forges one to stand
+    /// in for a table written before they were closed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_mem_wal_rejects_a_nullable_primary_key() {
+        let vector_dim = 128;
+        let schema = create_append_only_schema(vector_dim);
+        let uri = format!("memory://test_mem_wal_nullable_pk_{}", Uuid::new_v4());
+
+        let initial_batch = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 100, vector_dim);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .expect("Failed to create dataset");
+
+        {
+            let manifest = Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest);
+            let id_field = manifest
+                .schema
+                .fields
+                .iter_mut()
+                .find(|field| field.name == "id")
+                .expect("schema has an id column");
+            id_field.unenforced_primary_key_position = Some(1);
+            id_field.nullable = true;
+        }
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("MemWAL must not enable on a nullable primary key");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("must not be nullable"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/write/tests/evolve_schema.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/write/tests/evolve_schema.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..aa36088c530
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/mem_wal/write/tests/evolve_schema.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,698 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Moving a live writer onto a schema change, and the replay that has to
+//! rebuild the same generation boundaries afterwards.
+
+/// Replay starts each memtable where the WAL entry it reads says to.
+mod replay {
+    use super::super::*;
+
+    /// Replay starts a new memtable where the recorded generation changes, even
+    /// when no size limit or Blob v2 target would.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replay_rotates_on_a_recorded_generation_alone() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            shard_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            durable_write: true,
+            max_wal_buffer_size: 1,
+            max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+            max_memtable_rows: 100,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let before = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let after = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("note", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let row = |schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, id: i32| {
+            let mut columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![id]))];
+            if schema.fields().len() > 1 {
+                columns.push(Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>])));
+            }
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), columns).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let live_generation;
+        {
+            let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                config.clone(),
+                before.clone(),
+                Vec::new(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            writer.put(vec![row(&before, 0)]).await.unwrap();
+            writer
+                .evolve_schema(after.clone(), Vec::new())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            writer.put(vec![row(&after, 1)]).await.unwrap();
+            live_generation = writer.active_memtable_ref().await.unwrap().generation;
+            // Dropped without a flush, so only the WAL holds the rows.
+            std::mem::forget(writer);
+        }
+
+        let reopened = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, after, Vec::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            reopened.active_memtable_ref().await.unwrap().generation,
+            live_generation,
+            "replay rebuilds the generation the writer recorded"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            reopened.manifest().await.unwrap().unwrap().sstables.len(),
+            1,
+            "the generation it left must have been flushed, not folded into this one"
+        );
+        reopened.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    async fn manifest_generations(
+        store: &Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        shard_id: Uuid,
+    ) -> Vec<u64> {
+        ShardManifestStore::new(store.clone(), base_path, shard_id, 10)
+            .latest()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|m| m.sstables.iter().map(|s| s.generation).collect())
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
+    /// Rows that replay widened past the byte limit are not treated as a full
+    /// memtable.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replay_does_not_refuse_rows_a_schema_change_widened() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let narrow = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int64,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        // Only the widened rows cross this byte limit.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_memtable_size: 128,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+
+        {
+            let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                config.clone(),
+                narrow.clone(),
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            for id in 0..8i64 {
+                let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    narrow.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![id]))],
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+                writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+
+        // A column added since, so replay fills it with nulls.
+        let widened = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "embedding",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 64),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let reopened = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, widened, vec![])
+            .await
+            .expect("a widened replay must not be read as a full memtable");
+        reopened.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Replay refuses a recorded generation too big for the memtable, publishes
+    /// nothing, and succeeds again at the original size.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replay_refuses_a_recorded_generation_it_cannot_hold() {
+        let (store, base_path, base_uri, _temp_dir) = create_local_store().await;
+        let schema = schema_with_pk();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        // Large enough that all rows stay in one generation.
+        let config = ShardWriterConfig {
+            max_memtable_rows: 10_000,
+            ..memtable_config_with_pk(shard_id)
+        };
+
+        {
+            let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+                store.clone(),
+                base_path.clone(),
+                base_uri.clone(),
+                config.clone(),
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            for id in 0..4i32 {
+                writer
+                    .put(vec![create_test_batch(&schema, id, 1)])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            // Dropped without a close, so only the WAL survives.
+        }
+        assert!(
+            manifest_generations(&store, &base_path, shard_id)
+                .await
+                .is_empty(),
+            "the writer must have flushed nothing for this to be about replay"
+        );
+
+        // Room for two of the generation's four rows.
+        let err = ShardWriter::open(
+            store.clone(),
+            base_path.clone(),
+            base_uri.clone(),
+            ShardWriterConfig {
+                max_memtable_rows: 2,
+                ..config.clone()
+            },
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .err()
+        .expect("a recorded generation the memtable cannot hold must be refused");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("past what the memtable replaying it can hold"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            manifest_generations(&store, &base_path, shard_id)
+                .await
+                .is_empty(),
+            "the refusal must come before replay publishes a generation"
+        );
+
+        let reopened = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema, vec![])
+            .await
+            .expect("the shard is unchanged and reopens at its original cap");
+        assert_eq!(
+            reopened.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().row_count,
+            4,
+            "every row the WAL held must be back in the memtable"
+        );
+        reopened.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+}
+
+/// A live writer moved onto a new schema keeps writing and reading.
+mod evolve {
+    use super::super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+    use crate::dataset::mem_wal::write::shard_writer_tests::{
+        create_test_batch, create_test_schema,
+    };
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+    /// A writer on an `id`/`vector`/`text` table with an FTS index on `text`.
+    /// Frozen memtables stay in memory for an hour after flush. `maintained`
+    /// lists the maintained indexes; `None` maintains all of them.
+    async fn evolving_writer(
+        name: &str,
+        maintained: Option<&[&str]>,
+    ) -> (Dataset, ShardWriter, Uuid, Arc<ArrowSchema>) {
+        let vector_dim = 4;
+        let schema = create_test_schema(vector_dim);
+        // The test reopens the flushed generation by URI.
+        let uri = format!("shared-memory://{name}-{}/", Uuid::new_v4().simple());
+        let initial = create_test_batch(&schema, 0, 10, vector_dim);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone()),
+            &uri,
+            Some(WriteParams::default()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_fts".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let init = dataset.initialize_mem_wal();
+        match maintained {
+            Some(names) => init.maintained_indexes(names.iter().copied()),
+            None => init,
+        }
+        .execute()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let writer = dataset
+            .mem_wal_writer(
+                shard_id,
+                ShardWriterConfig::new(shard_id)
+                    .with_max_wal_flush_interval(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10))
+                    .with_frozen_memtable_grace(std::time::Duration::from_secs(3600)),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        (dataset, writer, shard_id, schema)
+    }
+
+    /// A batch of `(id, text)` rows under `schema`, whatever its column names.
+    fn rows_under(schema: &ArrowSchema, rows: &[(i64, &str)]) -> RecordBatch {
+        use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
+        let vector_dim = 4;
+        let columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| -> ArrayRef {
+                match field.data_type() {
+                    DataType::Int64 if field.name() == "id" => {
+                        Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(rows.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id)))
+                    }
+                    DataType::Int64 => Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(
+                        rows.iter().map(|(id, _)| id * 10),
+                    )),
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(..) => Arc::new(
+                        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                            Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                                rows.iter().flat_map(|(id, _)| vec![*id as f32; vector_dim]),
+                            ),
+                            vector_dim as i32,
+                        )
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    ),
+                    _ => Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                        rows.iter().map(|(_, text)| *text),
+                    )),
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(schema.clone()), columns).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The schema a writer is evolved to: the dataset's, carrying field ids.
+    fn writer_schema_of(dataset: &Dataset) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(crate::dataset::mem_wal::arrow_schema_with_field_ids(
+            dataset.schema(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// The dataset's FTS index as a writer index config.
+    async fn fts_config_of(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+    ) -> Vec<crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::MemIndexConfig> {
+        let meta = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("text_fts")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .remove(0);
+        vec![
+            crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::MemIndexConfig::fts_from_metadata(
+                &meta,
+                dataset.schema(),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_evolve_schema_seals_under_the_old_schema_and_writes_under_the_new() {
+        use crate::dataset::ColumnAlteration;
+
+        let (mut dataset, writer, shard_id, schema) =
+            evolving_writer("evolve-seal", Some(&["text_fts"])).await;
+        writer
+            .put(vec![rows_under(&schema, &[(100, "before")])])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("text".into()).rename("body".into())])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let renamed: ArrowSchema = dataset.schema().into();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![rows_under(&renamed, &[(101, "early")])])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a batch shaped to a schema the writer has not been evolved to");
+
+        let sealed_generation = writer.active_memtable_ref().await.unwrap().generation;
+        writer
+            .evolve_schema(writer_schema_of(&dataset), fts_config_of(&dataset).await)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let memtables = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(memtables.active.generation, sealed_generation + 1);
+        assert_eq!(memtables.frozen.len(), 1, "the old memtable is sealed");
+        assert!(
+            memtables.frozen[0]
+                .schema
+                .column_with_name("text")
+                .is_some()
+        );
+        assert!(memtables.active.schema.column_with_name("body").is_some());
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![rows_under(&renamed, &[(101, "after")])])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![rows_under(&schema, &[(102, "stale")])])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a batch shaped to the schema the writer has moved off");
+
+        // Same schema again: nothing is sealed.
+        writer
+            .evolve_schema(writer_schema_of(&dataset), fts_config_of(&dataset).await)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let memtables = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(memtables.active.generation, sealed_generation + 1);
+        assert_eq!(memtables.frozen.len(), 1);
+
+        // The sealed memtable flushes under its old schema and index.
+        writer.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+        let manifest = writer.manifest().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let sstable = manifest
+            .sstables
+            .iter()
+            .find(|s| s.generation == sealed_generation)
+            .expect("the sealed generation is in the manifest");
+        let generation = Dataset::open(&format!(
+            "{}/_mem_wal/{shard_id}/{}",
+            dataset.uri().trim_end_matches('/'),
+            sstable.path
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(generation.schema().field("text").is_some());
+        assert!(generation.schema().field("body").is_none());
+        let indices = generation.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            indices.iter().any(|index| index.name == "text_fts"),
+            "the generation carries the index its memtable was built with: {:?}",
+            indices.iter().map(|index| &index.name).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// When the table maintains every index (an empty name list), a schema
+    /// change keeps them all.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_evolve_to_keeps_every_index_when_the_table_maintains_all() {
+        use crate::dataset::ColumnAlteration;
+
+        let (mut dataset, writer, _, _) = evolving_writer("evolve-all", None).await;
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .mem_wal_index_details()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .expect("initialized")
+                .maintained_indexes
+                .is_empty(),
+            "maintaining every index carries no names"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            writer.maintained_index_names().await,
+            vec!["text_fts".to_string()]
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("text".into()).rename("body".into())])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.evolve_to(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            writer.maintained_index_names().await,
+            vec!["text_fts".to_string()],
+            "the index the table maintains survives the schema the writer moved onto"
+        );
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// `replace_index_configs` keeps the writer's evolved schema.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replace_index_configs_keeps_the_schema_the_writer_holds() {
+        use crate::dataset::ColumnAlteration;
+
+        let (mut dataset, writer, _, schema) =
+            evolving_writer("evolve-keep-schema", Some(&["text_fts"])).await;
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("text".into()).rename("body".into())])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.evolve_to(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let renamed: ArrowSchema = dataset.schema().into();
+
+        writer.replace_index_configs(Vec::new()).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(writer.maintained_index_names().await.is_empty());
+
+        writer
+            .put(vec![rows_under(&renamed, &[(200, "after")])])
+            .await
+            .expect("the evolved schema survives an index-set change");
+        writer
+            .put(vec![rows_under(&schema, &[(201, "stale")])])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("the schema the writer moved off is still refused");
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_evolve_schema_replaces_an_empty_memtable_and_keeps_the_key() {
+        use crate::dataset::ColumnAlteration;
+
+        let (mut dataset, writer, _, _) =
+            evolving_writer("evolve-empty", Some(&["text_fts"])).await;
+        let generation = writer.active_memtable_ref().await.unwrap().generation;
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("text".into()).rename("body".into())])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.evolve_to(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let memtables = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            memtables.active.generation, generation,
+            "nothing was sealed"
+        );
+        assert!(memtables.frozen.is_empty());
+        assert!(memtables.active.schema.column_with_name("body").is_some());
+        let renamed: ArrowSchema = dataset.schema().into();
+        writer
+            .put(vec![rows_under(&renamed, &[(100, "after")])])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Drop the primary-key metadata from `id`.
+        let keyless = ArrowSchema::new(
+            writer_schema_of(&dataset)
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| {
+                    let mut metadata = f.metadata().clone();
+                    metadata.remove("lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key");
+                    f.as_ref().clone().with_metadata(metadata)
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        let err = writer
+            .evolve_schema(Arc::new(keyless), Vec::new())
+            .await
+            .expect_err("the primary key cannot change under a live writer");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("cannot change the primary key"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Rows in a memtable written before a rename and an added column read back
+    /// under the new names, with the new column null, on every read path.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_reads_resolve_a_memtable_written_before_a_schema_change() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::LsmScanner;
+        use crate::dataset::{ColumnAlteration, NewColumnTransform};
+        use arrow_array::Array;
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int64Type;
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+
+        let (mut dataset, writer, shard_id, schema) =
+            evolving_writer("evolve-read", Some(&["text_fts"])).await;
+        writer
+            .put(vec![rows_under(
+                &schema,
+                &[(1, "alpha one"), (2, "beta two"), (3, "gamma three")],
+            )])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[
+                ColumnAlteration::new("text".into()).rename("body".into()),
+                ColumnAlteration::new("vector".into()).rename("embedding".into()),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .add_columns(
+                NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                    "extra",
+                    DataType::Int64,
+                    true,
+                )]))),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.evolve_to(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let evolved: ArrowSchema = dataset.schema().into();
+        // `extra` is `id * 10` for rows written from here on.
+        writer
+            .put(vec![rows_under(
+                &evolved,
+                &[(2, "delta two"), (4, "alpha four")],
+            )])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let memtables = writer.in_memory_memtable_refs().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            memtables.frozen.len(),
+            1,
+            "the pre-change memtable is still in memory"
+        );
+        let scanner = || {
+            LsmScanner::without_base_table(
+                Arc::new(evolved.clone()),
+                dataset.uri(),
+                vec![],
+                vec!["id".to_string()],
+            )
+            .with_identity_schema(writer_schema_of(&dataset))
+            .with_in_memory_memtables(shard_id, memtables.clone())
+        };
+        let rows = |batch: RecordBatch| {
+            let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int64Type>();
+            let bodies = batch["body"].as_string::<i32>();
+            let extras = batch["extra"].as_primitive::<Int64Type>();
+            let mut rows: Vec<(i64, String, Option<i64>)> = (0..batch.num_rows())
+                .map(|i| {
+                    (
+                        ids.value(i),
+                        bodies.value(i).to_string(),
+                        extras.is_valid(i).then(|| extras.value(i)),
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect();
+            rows.sort();
+            rows
+        };
+        let row = |id: i64, body: &str, extra: Option<i64>| (id, body.to_string(), extra);
+
+        // Scan: the newest version of each key wins.
+        let all = scanner().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows(all),
+            vec![
+                row(1, "alpha one", None),
+                row(2, "delta two", Some(20)),
+                row(3, "gamma three", None),
+                row(4, "alpha four", Some(40)),
+            ]
+        );
+
+        // Filter on a renamed column.
+        let gamma = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("body").eq(lit("gamma three")))
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rows(gamma), vec![row(3, "gamma three", None)]);
+
+        // Filter on the added column, which the old memtable lacks. It must
+        // apply after the newest version of key 2 wins.
+        let unset = scanner()
+            .filter_expr(col("extra").is_null())
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows(unset),
+            vec![row(1, "alpha one", None), row(3, "gamma three", None)]
+        );
+
+        // Point lookup on a key only in the old memtable, and one rewritten since.
+        for (id, expected) in [
+            (1, row(1, "alpha one", None)),
+            (2, row(2, "delta two", Some(20))),
+        ] {
+            let found = scanner()
+                .filter_expr(col("id").eq(lit(id)))
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(rows(found), vec![expected]);
+        }
+
+        // FTS on the renamed column uses the old memtable's index.
+        let alpha = scanner()
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_string())
+                    .with_column("body".to_string())
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut alpha_ids: Vec<i64> = alpha["id"].as_primitive::<Int64Type>().values().to_vec();
+        alpha_ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(alpha_ids, vec![1, 4]);
+
+        // Vector search with a filter the old memtable cannot answer.
+        let nearest = scanner()
+            .nearest("embedding", &Float32Array::from(vec![3.0f32; 4]), 1)
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter_expr(col("extra").is_null())
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            nearest["id"].as_primitive::<Int64Type>().values().to_vec(),
+            vec![3],
+            "the nearest row the predicate admits"
+        );
+        writer.close().await.unwrap();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/metadata.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/metadata.rs
index d800ccce61f..7ae1bd03514 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/metadata.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/metadata.rs
@@ -180,15 +180,34 @@ mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     use lance_core::Error;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
     use rstest::rstest;
 
     use super::*;
     use arrow_array::{
-        types::Int32Type, ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array,
+        ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array, types::Int32Type,
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 
+    /// A dataset whose columns are all **non-nullable**, so a primary key can be
+    /// installed on one. `gen_batch` produces nullable columns, and a primary
+    /// key column must not be nullable.
+    async fn dataset_with_non_nullable_columns(uri: &str, names: &[&str]) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(
+            names
+                .iter()
+                .map(|name| ArrowField::new(*name, DataType::Int32, false))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = names
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Arc::new(Int32Array::from((0..10).collect::<Vec<i32>>())) as ArrayRef)
+            .collect();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), columns).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap()
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_update_config() {
@@ -529,10 +548,195 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert!(result.is_err());
         let err = result.unwrap_err();
-        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
-        assert!(err
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Field 'non_existent_field' not found in schema"));
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::FieldNotFound { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Field 'non_existent_field' not found"),
+            "Expected error message to contain field name, got: {}",
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_field_metadata_syncs_unenforced_primary_key_position() {
+        // Installing the unenforced primary key via field metadata must keep
+        // the cached `unenforced_primary_key_position` in sync with the
+        // metadata HashMap, otherwise the next commit drops the marker because
+        // the protobuf is encoded from the cached option.
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION;
+
+        let tmp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_non_nullable_columns(uri, &["a"]).await;
+        assert!(dataset.schema().unenforced_primary_key().is_empty());
+
+        dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION, "1")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let a_field = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(a_field.unenforced_primary_key_position, Some(1));
+
+        // The marker is encoded from the cached option, so it must round-trip
+        // through reopen.
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        let pk = reopened.schema().unenforced_primary_key();
+        assert_eq!(pk.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(pk[0].name, "a");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_field_metadata_unenforced_primary_key_legacy_flag() {
+        // The legacy boolean-flag form installs the primary key and syncs the
+        // cached option; all accepted truthy spellings are recognized.
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY;
+
+        for truthy in ["true", "1", "yes", "TRUE", "Yes"] {
+            let mut dataset = dataset_with_non_nullable_columns("memory://", &["a"]).await;
+            dataset
+                .update_field_metadata()
+                .replace("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY, truthy)])
+                .unwrap()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let a_field = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                a_field.unenforced_primary_key_position,
+                Some(0),
+                "value {:?} should be treated as a PK marker",
+                truthy
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_field_metadata_unenforced_primary_key_non_numeric_position() {
+        // A non-numeric position value falls back to the boolean-flag path
+        // rather than panicking on parse.
+        use lance_core::datatypes::{
+            LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY, LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION,
+        };
+
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_non_nullable_columns("memory://", &["a"]).await;
+        dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .replace(
+                "a",
+                [
+                    (LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION, "not-a-number"),
+                    (LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY, "true"),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let a_field = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(a_field.unenforced_primary_key_position, Some(0));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unenforced_primary_key_is_immutable() {
+        // Once set, the unenforced primary key cannot be changed, re-set, or
+        // removed: any commit that writes its reserved metadata keys, or that
+        // alters the set of primary key columns, is rejected.
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION;
+
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_non_nullable_columns("memory://", &["a", "b"]).await;
+
+        // The first install of the primary key is allowed.
+        dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION, "1")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().unenforced_primary_key().len(), 1);
+
+        // Re-applying the primary key, even to the identical column, is
+        // rejected: the reserved key cannot be written once a key is set.
+        let err = dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION, "1")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+
+        // Adding a second primary key column is rejected.
+        let err = dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("b", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION, "2")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+
+        // Removing the primary key is rejected.
+        let err = dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .replace("a", [] as [UpdateMapEntry; 0])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+
+        // The primary key is unchanged after the rejected commits.
+        let pk = dataset.schema().unenforced_primary_key();
+        assert_eq!(pk.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(pk[0].name, "a");
+    }
+
+    /// Installing the key by field metadata skips the Arrow-schema conversion
+    /// that validates one, so a nullable target must be rejected here.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unenforced_primary_key_rejects_a_nullable_column() {
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION;
+
+        // `gen_batch` columns are nullable.
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION, "1")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("must not be nullable"),
+            "got {err:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(dataset.schema().unenforced_primary_key().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unenforced_primary_key_rejects_invalid_marker() {
+        // Writing a reserved primary key metadata key with a value that is not
+        // a valid marker (e.g. a non-truthy flag) is rejected rather than
+        // silently ignored.
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY;
+
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_non_nullable_columns("memory://", &["a"]).await;
+
+        for invalid in ["no", "false", "0", "anything-else"] {
+            let err = dataset
+                .update_field_metadata()
+                .replace("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY, invalid)])
+                .unwrap()
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+                "value {:?}: got {:?}",
+                invalid,
+                err
+            );
+            assert!(dataset.schema().unenforced_primary_key().is_empty());
+        }
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -554,4 +758,199 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert!(matches!(result, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })));
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_field_metadata_syncs_unenforced_clustering_key_position() {
+        // Installing the unenforced clustering key via field metadata must keep
+        // the cached `unenforced_clustering_key_position` in sync with the
+        // metadata HashMap, otherwise the next commit drops the marker because
+        // the protobuf is encoded from the cached option.
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION;
+
+        let tmp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_non_nullable_columns(uri, &["a"]).await;
+        assert!(dataset.schema().unenforced_clustering_key().is_empty());
+
+        dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION, "1")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let a_field = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(a_field.unenforced_clustering_key_position, Some(1));
+
+        // The marker is encoded from the cached option, so it must round-trip
+        // through reopen.
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        let ck = reopened.schema().unenforced_clustering_key();
+        assert_eq!(ck.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(ck[0].name, "a");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_field_metadata_unenforced_clustering_key_compound() {
+        // A compound clustering key installs all of its columns, ordered by
+        // position, and round-trips through reopen.
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION;
+
+        let tmp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp_dir.as_str();
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("b", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("b", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION, "1")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .update("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION, "2")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        let ck = reopened.schema().unenforced_clustering_key();
+        assert_eq!(ck.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(ck[0].name, "b");
+        assert_eq!(ck[1].name, "a");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unenforced_clustering_key_is_immutable() {
+        // Once set, the unenforced clustering key cannot be changed, re-set, or
+        // removed: any commit that writes its reserved metadata key, or that
+        // alters the set of clustering key columns, is rejected.
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION;
+
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("b", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The first install of the clustering key is allowed.
+        dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION, "1")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().unenforced_clustering_key().len(), 1);
+
+        // Re-applying the clustering key, even to the identical column, is
+        // rejected: the reserved key cannot be written once a key is set.
+        let err = dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION, "1")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+
+        // Adding a second clustering key column is rejected.
+        let err = dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .update("b", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION, "2")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+
+        // Removing the clustering key is rejected.
+        let err = dataset
+            .update_field_metadata()
+            .replace("a", [] as [UpdateMapEntry; 0])
+            .unwrap()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+
+        // The clustering key is unchanged after the rejected commits.
+        let ck = dataset.schema().unenforced_clustering_key();
+        assert_eq!(ck.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(ck[0].name, "a");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unenforced_clustering_key_rejects_invalid_marker() {
+        // Writing the reserved clustering key metadata key with a value that is
+        // not a valid position is rejected rather than silently ignored.
+        use lance_core::datatypes::LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION;
+
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_non_nullable_columns("memory://", &["a"]).await;
+
+        for invalid in ["not-a-number", "", "1.5"] {
+            let err = dataset
+                .update_field_metadata()
+                .replace("a", [(LANCE_UNENFORCED_CLUSTERING_KEY_POSITION, invalid)])
+                .unwrap()
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+                "value {:?}: got {:?}",
+                invalid,
+                err
+            );
+            assert!(dataset.schema().unenforced_clustering_key().is_empty());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A table that already carries a nullable primary key must stay writable,
+    /// including through the delete that repairs it.
+    ///
+    /// Released versions could install a key on a nullable column through this
+    /// metadata path, so such tables exist. Validating every manifest write
+    /// would make them read-only on upgrade and leave a full overwrite as the
+    /// only repair.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn nullable_primary_key_stays_repairable() {
+        let test_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri: &str = &test_dir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema), uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Forge the state a released version could persist: a key on a
+        // nullable column, without passing the checks that now prevent it.
+        {
+            let manifest = Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest);
+            let field = manifest
+                .schema
+                .fields
+                .iter_mut()
+                .find(|f| f.name == "id")
+                .unwrap();
+            field.unenforced_primary_key_position = Some(1);
+        }
+
+        // Unrelated writes must still go through.
+        dataset
+            .update_config([("unrelated".to_string(), "value".to_string())])
+            .await
+            .expect("an unrelated write must not be blocked by a pre-existing bad key");
+
+        // And so must the delete that removes the offending rows -- without it
+        // there is no way to tighten the column afterwards.
+        dataset
+            .delete("id IS NULL")
+            .await
+            .expect("the repairing delete must not be blocked");
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 1);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize.rs
index 321fa4dfa27..2efbf09f072 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize.rs
@@ -80,44 +80,138 @@
 //! the successful tasks can be committed. You can also commit in batches if
 //! you wish. As long as the tasks don't rewrite any of the same fragments,
 //! they can be committed in any order.
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::{GroupInput, RowAddrRemap};
 use std::borrow::Cow;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::io::Cursor;
 use std::ops::{AddAssign, Range};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use super::fragment::FileFragment;
-use super::index::DatasetIndexRemapperOptions;
-use super::rowids::load_row_id_sequences;
-use super::transaction::{Operation, RewriteGroup, RewrittenIndex, Transaction};
+use super::index::{DatasetIndexRemapperOptions, load_indices_for_remapping};
+use super::rowids::RowVersionKind;
+use super::rowids::{
+    RowLineage, RowLineagePlan, RowLineageSpill, inline_row_lineage_max_bytes,
+    load_row_id_sequences, load_row_version_sequence, place_row_lineage, plan_row_lineage_spill,
+};
+use super::transaction::{
+    Operation, RewriteGroup, RewrittenIndex, Transaction, TransactionBuilder,
+};
 use super::utils::make_rowid_capture_stream;
-use super::{write_fragments_internal, WriteMode, WriteParams};
-use crate::dataset::utils::CapturedRowIds;
-use crate::io::commit::{commit_transaction, migrate_fragments};
+use super::versions;
+use super::{
+    WriteMode, WriteParams, cleanup_data_fragments,
+    write::write_fragments_internal_with_file_row_counts,
+};
 use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::Result;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use crate::dataset::rowids::load_row_id_index_for_fragments;
+use crate::dataset::utils::CapturedRowIds;
+use crate::index::{DatasetIndexInternalExt, index_is_usable, load_all_indices};
+use crate::io::commit::{commit_transaction, default_commit_retry_timeout, migrate_fragments};
+use arrow::array::AsArray;
+use arrow::datatypes::{UInt8Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::builder::{LargeBinaryBuilder, PrimitiveBuilder, StringBuilder};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, GenericListArray, OffsetSizeTrait, RecordBatch, StructArray, UInt32Array,
+};
+use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+use arrow_schema::{
+    DataType as ArrowDataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef,
+};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_arrow::{list::ListArrayExt, r#struct::StructArrayExt};
+use lance_core::Error;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{
+    BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS, BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_TYPE, BlobHandling, BlobKind, BlobV2Layout,
+    Field as LanceField,
+};
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{DATASET_COMPACTING_EVENT, TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS};
-use lance_core::Error;
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseGroup;
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
-use lance_table::format::{Fragment, RowIdMeta};
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::{FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, FragReuseGroup};
+use lance_index::is_system_index;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_table::format::overlay::TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID;
+use lance_table::format::{
+    Fragment, IndexMetadata, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+    ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+};
+use lance_table::rowids::RowIdSequence;
 use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
-use tracing::info;
+use tracing::{info, warn};
 
-mod binary_copy;
+pub(super) mod binary_copy;
 pub mod remapping;
 
 use crate::index::frag_reuse::build_new_frag_reuse_index;
 use crate::io::deletion::read_dataset_deletion_file;
-use binary_copy::rewrite_files_binary_copy;
 pub use remapping::{IgnoreRemap, IndexRemapper, IndexRemapperOptions, RemappedIndex};
 
+/// Controls how data is rewritten during compaction.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub enum CompactionMode {
+    /// Decode and re-encode data (default).
+    Reencode,
+    /// Try binary copy if fragments are compatible, fall back to [`Reencode`](CompactionMode::Reencode) otherwise.
+    TryBinaryCopy,
+    /// Use binary copy or fail if fragments are not compatible.
+    ForceBinaryCopy,
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&str> for CompactionMode {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match value.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+            "reencode" => Ok(Self::Reencode),
+            "try_binary_copy" => Ok(Self::TryBinaryCopy),
+            "force_binary_copy" => Ok(Self::ForceBinaryCopy),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid compaction mode \"{}\". Valid values: \"reencode\", \"try_binary_copy\", \"force_binary_copy\"",
+                value
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Controls how the old-to-new row-address mapping is built when remapping
+/// indices during compaction.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize, Default)]
+pub enum IndexRemapMode {
+    /// Store a compact remap and compute row-address mappings during lookup.
+    ///
+    /// Best for large compactions where peak memory is the constraint. Uses
+    /// less memory, but each lookup does extra bitmap/range computation.
+    Compact,
+    /// Store the full row-address remap in memory for fast direct lookups.
+    ///
+    /// Best when the remap fits comfortably in memory and remap speed is the
+    /// priority. Uses more peak memory because every rewritten/deleted row has
+    /// a materialized mapping entry.
+    #[default]
+    Direct,
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&str> for IndexRemapMode {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: &str) -> std::result::Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match value.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+            "compact" => Ok(Self::Compact),
+            "direct" => Ok(Self::Direct),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid index remap mode \"{}\". Valid values: \"compact\", \"direct\"",
+                value
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// Options to be passed to [compact_files].
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 pub struct CompactionOptions {
@@ -155,29 +249,99 @@ pub struct CompactionOptions {
     /// specified then the default (see
     /// [`crate::dataset::Scanner::batch_size`]) will be used.
     pub batch_size: Option<usize>,
+    /// The number of bytes to allow to queue up in the I/O buffer when scanning
+    /// the input fragments.  If not specified then the default (see
+    /// [`crate::dataset::Scanner::io_buffer_size`]) will be used.
+    ///
+    /// Increasing this can avoid a deadlock that occurs when a single batch of
+    /// data is larger than the I/O buffer size.
+    pub io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
     /// Whether to defer remapping indices during compaction. If true, indices will
     /// not be remapped during this compaction operation. Instead, the fragment reuse index
     /// is updated and will be used to perform remapping later.
     pub defer_index_remap: bool,
-    /// Whether to enable binary copy optimization when eligible.
-    ///
-    /// This skips re-encoding the data and can lead to faster compaction
-    /// times.  However, it cannot merge pages together and should not be
-    /// used when compacting small files together because the pages in the
-    /// compacted file will be too small and this could lead to poor I/O patterns.
+    /// How the old-to-new row-address mapping used to remap indices is built.
+    /// Defaults to [`IndexRemapMode::Direct`].
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub index_remap_mode: IndexRemapMode,
+    /// The compaction mode to use. When set, this takes priority over the
+    /// deprecated `enable_binary_copy` and `enable_binary_copy_force` fields.
     ///
-    /// Defaults to false.
+    /// Defaults to `None` (falls back to legacy boolean fields).
+    pub compaction_mode: Option<CompactionMode>,
+    /// Deprecated: use `compaction_mode` instead.
+    #[deprecated(note = "Use `compaction_mode` instead")]
     pub enable_binary_copy: bool,
-    /// Whether to force binary copy optimization. If true, compaction will fail
-    /// if binary copy is not supported for the given fragments.
-    /// Defaults to false.
+    /// Deprecated: use `compaction_mode` instead.
+    #[deprecated(note = "Use `compaction_mode` instead")]
     pub enable_binary_copy_force: bool,
     /// The batch size in bytes for reading during binary copy operations.
     /// Controls how much data is read at once when performing binary copy.
     /// Defaults to 16MB (16 * 1024 * 1024).
     pub binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: Option<usize>,
+    /// Maximum number of source fragments to compact in a single run. When set,
+    /// tasks are included in the plan until adding the next task would exceed
+    /// this limit. This allows for incremental compaction (e.g., compact 20
+    /// fragments at a time).
+    /// Defaults to `None` (no limit, all eligible fragments are compacted).
+    pub max_source_fragments: Option<usize>,
+    /// Maximum number of source rows to compact in a single run. Rows are
+    /// counted as live rows (physical rows minus soft-deleted rows). When
+    /// set, tasks are included in the plan until adding the next task would
+    /// exceed this limit.
+    /// Defaults to `None` (no limit).
+    pub max_source_rows: Option<usize>,
+    /// Maximum number of source bytes to compact in a single run, measured as
+    /// the total size of the source fragments' data and overlay files. When
+    /// set, tasks are included in the plan until adding the next task would
+    /// exceed this limit.
+    /// Blob v2 payloads live in separate blob files and are not counted, so
+    /// this is not a cap on total compaction I/O for datasets with blob
+    /// columns.
+    /// Defaults to `None` (no limit).
+    pub max_source_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    /// Fragment IDs to exclude from compaction planning.
+    ///
+    /// Excluded fragments act as boundaries between adjacent compaction candidates,
+    /// so fragments on opposite sides of an exclusion are never combined into the
+    /// same task. IDs that are duplicated or absent from the dataset are ignored.
+    /// Defaults to an empty list.
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub excluded_fragment_ids: Vec<u32>,
+    /// Maximum number of data overlay files a fragment may carry before it is
+    /// fully compacted. When set, any fragment with more than this many overlays
+    /// is rewritten into a fresh fragment with its overlays (and deletions)
+    /// materialized into the base data, dropping the fragment from any index
+    /// left stale by those overlays.
+    /// Defaults to `Some(10)`. Set to `Some(0)` to compact every fragment that
+    /// carries any overlay, or `None` to disable the overlay-count trigger
+    /// entirely.
+    pub max_overlays_per_fragment: Option<usize>,
+    /// Exact data file version for compacted output.
+    ///
+    /// If omitted, use the dataset's default write version without changing it.
+    /// The planner resolves release selectors before distributing tasks.
+    /// Targets cannot cross the V1/V2 boundary.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions;
+    /// # use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    /// let options = CompactionOptions {
+    ///     data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+    ///     ..Default::default()
+    /// };
+    /// ```
+    pub data_storage_version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+    /// Transaction properties to store with this commit.
+    ///
+    /// These key-value pairs are stored in the transaction file
+    /// and can be read later to identify the source of the commit
+    /// (e.g., job_id for tracking completed compaction jobs).
+    #[serde(skip)]
+    pub transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
 }
 
+#[allow(deprecated)]
 impl Default for CompactionOptions {
     fn default() -> Self {
         Self {
@@ -189,40 +353,275 @@ impl Default for CompactionOptions {
             num_threads: None,
             max_bytes_per_file: None,
             batch_size: None,
+            io_buffer_size: None,
             defer_index_remap: false,
+            index_remap_mode: IndexRemapMode::Direct,
+            compaction_mode: None,
             enable_binary_copy: false,
             enable_binary_copy_force: false,
             binary_copy_read_batch_bytes: Some(16 * 1024 * 1024),
+            max_source_fragments: None,
+            max_source_rows: None,
+            max_source_bytes: None,
+            excluded_fragment_ids: Vec::new(),
+            max_overlays_per_fragment: Some(10),
+            data_storage_version: None,
+            transaction_properties: None,
         }
     }
 }
 
+/// Config key prefix for compaction options stored in the dataset manifest.
+pub const COMPACTION_CONFIG_PREFIX: &str = "lance.compaction.";
+
+#[allow(deprecated)]
 impl CompactionOptions {
-    pub fn validate(&mut self) {
+    /// Create [`CompactionOptions`] by starting with defaults and applying any
+    /// overrides found in the dataset manifest config.
+    ///
+    /// Config keys are prefixed with `lance.compaction.` and map to fields:
+    /// - `lance.compaction.target_rows_per_fragment`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.max_rows_per_group`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.max_bytes_per_file`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.materialize_deletions`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.materialize_deletions_threshold`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.defer_index_remap`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.index_remap_mode`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.batch_size`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.io_buffer_size`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.compaction_mode`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.max_source_fragments`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.max_source_rows`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.max_source_bytes`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.max_overlays_per_fragment`
+    /// - `lance.compaction.data_storage_version`
+    pub fn from_dataset_config(config: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut opts = Self::default();
+        opts.apply_dataset_config(config)?;
+        Ok(opts)
+    }
+
+    /// Apply overrides from the dataset manifest config to this options struct.
+    ///
+    /// Only fields with corresponding config keys are modified; other fields
+    /// retain their current values.
+    pub fn apply_dataset_config(&mut self, config: &HashMap<String, String>) -> Result<()> {
+        for (key, value) in config {
+            let Some(field) = key.strip_prefix(COMPACTION_CONFIG_PREFIX) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            match field {
+                "target_rows_per_fragment" => {
+                    self.target_rows_per_fragment = value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                }
+                "max_rows_per_group" => {
+                    self.max_rows_per_group = value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                }
+                "max_bytes_per_file" => {
+                    self.max_bytes_per_file = Some(value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?);
+                }
+                "materialize_deletions" => {
+                    self.materialize_deletions = match value.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+                        "true" => true,
+                        "false" => false,
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected 'true' or 'false')",
+                                key, value
+                            )));
+                        }
+                    };
+                }
+                "materialize_deletions_threshold" => {
+                    self.materialize_deletions_threshold = value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a float between 0.0 and 1.0)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                }
+                "defer_index_remap" => {
+                    self.defer_index_remap = match value.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+                        "true" => true,
+                        "false" => false,
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected 'true' or 'false')",
+                                key, value
+                            )));
+                        }
+                    };
+                }
+                "index_remap_mode" => {
+                    self.index_remap_mode = IndexRemapMode::try_from(value.as_str())?;
+                }
+                "batch_size" => {
+                    self.batch_size = Some(value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?);
+                }
+                "io_buffer_size" => {
+                    self.io_buffer_size = Some(value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?);
+                }
+                "compaction_mode" => {
+                    self.compaction_mode = Some(CompactionMode::try_from(value.as_str())?);
+                }
+                "data_storage_version" => {
+                    self.data_storage_version = Some(value.parse().map_err(|error| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}': {}",
+                            key, value, error
+                        ))
+                    })?);
+                }
+                "binary_copy_read_batch_bytes" => {
+                    self.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes = Some(value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?);
+                }
+                "max_source_fragments" => {
+                    self.max_source_fragments = Some(value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?);
+                }
+                "max_source_rows" => {
+                    self.max_source_rows = Some(value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?);
+                }
+                "max_source_bytes" => {
+                    self.max_source_bytes = Some(value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer)",
+                            key, value
+                        ))
+                    })?);
+                }
+                "max_overlays_per_fragment" => {
+                    // The default is `Some(10)`, so an explicit "none" is the only
+                    // way to disable the trigger through the manifest config.
+                    self.max_overlays_per_fragment = match value.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str() {
+                        "none" => None,
+                        _ => Some(value.parse().map_err(|_| {
+                            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "Invalid value for {}: '{}' (expected a non-negative integer or 'none')",
+                                key, value
+                            ))
+                        })?),
+                    };
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    warn!("Ignoring unknown compaction config key: {}", key);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn validate(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
         // If threshold is 100%, same as turning off deletion materialization.
         if self.materialize_deletions && self.materialize_deletions_threshold >= 1.0 {
             self.materialize_deletions = false;
         }
+
+        for (name, value) in [
+            (
+                "max_source_fragments",
+                self.max_source_fragments.map(|v| v as u64),
+            ),
+            ("max_source_rows", self.max_source_rows.map(|v| v as u64)),
+            ("max_source_bytes", self.max_source_bytes),
+        ] {
+            if value == Some(0) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "CompactionOptions::{} must be greater than 0 (use None for no limit)",
+                    name
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the effective [`CompactionMode`], preferring the new
+    /// `compaction_mode` field and falling back to the deprecated boolean
+    /// fields for backwards compatibility.
+    pub fn compaction_mode(&self) -> CompactionMode {
+        if let Some(mode) = self.compaction_mode {
+            return mode;
+        }
+        // Fall back to deprecated booleans
+        match (self.enable_binary_copy, self.enable_binary_copy_force) {
+            (true, true) => CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy,
+            (true, false) => CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy,
+            _ => CompactionMode::Reencode,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set transaction properties to store in the commit manifest.
+    pub fn transaction_properties(mut self, properties: HashMap<String, String>) -> Self {
+        self.transaction_properties = Some(Arc::new(properties));
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn write_version(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+        self.data_storage_version
+            .map(LanceFileVersion::resolve)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format())
     }
 }
 
 /// Determine if page-level binary copy can safely merge the provided fragments.
 ///
 /// Preconditions checked in order:
-/// - Feature flag `enable_binary_copy` is enabled
+/// - Compaction mode is not `Reencode`
 /// - Dataset storage format is non-legacy
 /// - Fragment list is non-empty
 /// - All data files share identical Lance file versions
 /// - No fragment has a deletion file
 ///   TODO: Need to support schema evolution case like add column and drop column
-/// - All data files share identical schema mappings (`fields`, `column_indices`)
+/// - All data files use an identical schema mapping (`fields`, `column_indices`) in dataset schema
+///   order
 /// - Input data files must not contain extra global buffers (beyond schema / file descriptor)
 async fn can_use_binary_copy(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     options: &CompactionOptions,
     fragments: &[Fragment],
 ) -> bool {
-    can_use_binary_copy_impl(dataset, options, fragments)
+    let version = options.write_version(dataset);
+    versions::can_use_binary_copy(version, dataset, options, fragments)
         .await
         .unwrap_or_else(|err| {
             log::warn!("Binary copy disabled due to error: {}", err);
@@ -230,17 +629,31 @@ async fn can_use_binary_copy(
         })
 }
 
-async fn can_use_binary_copy_impl(
+fn first_binary_copy_version_mismatch(
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+    target: ConcreteFileVersion,
+) -> Result<Option<(String, ConcreteFileVersion)>> {
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        for data_file in fragment.referenced_lance_files() {
+            let actual = data_file.file_version()?;
+            if actual != target {
+                return Ok(Some((data_file.path.clone(), actual)));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(None)
+}
+
+pub(super) async fn can_use_binary_copy_current(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     options: &CompactionOptions,
     fragments: &[Fragment],
 ) -> Result<bool> {
     use lance_file::reader::FileReader as LFReader;
-    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
     use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 
-    if !options.enable_binary_copy {
-        log::debug!("Binary copy disabled: enable_binary_copy config is false");
+    if matches!(options.compaction_mode(), CompactionMode::Reencode) {
+        log::debug!("Binary copy disabled: compaction mode is Reencode");
         return Ok(false);
     }
 
@@ -253,28 +666,11 @@ async fn can_use_binary_copy_impl(
         return Ok(false);
     }
 
-    let storage_ok = dataset
-        .manifest
-        .data_storage_format
-        .lance_file_version()
-        .map(|v| !matches!(v.resolve(), LanceFileVersion::Legacy))
-        .unwrap_or(false);
-    if !storage_ok {
-        log::debug!("Binary copy disabled: dataset uses legacy storage format");
-        return Ok(false);
-    }
-
     if fragments.is_empty() {
         log::debug!("Binary copy disabled: no fragments to compact");
         return Ok(false);
     }
 
-    let storage_file_version = dataset
-        .manifest
-        .data_storage_format
-        .lance_file_version()?
-        .resolve();
-
     if fragments[0].files.is_empty() {
         log::debug!(
             "Binary copy disabled: fragment {} has no data files",
@@ -284,9 +680,26 @@ async fn can_use_binary_copy_impl(
     }
     let ref_fields = &fragments[0].files[0].fields;
     let ref_cols = &fragments[0].files[0].column_indices;
-    let mut is_same_version = true;
-
+    let version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
+    let (schema_fields, schema_column_indices) =
+        lance_file::versions::data_file_columns(version, dataset.schema());
+    if ref_fields.as_ref() != schema_fields.as_slice()
+        || ref_cols.as_ref() != schema_column_indices.as_slice()
+    {
+        log::debug!(
+            "Binary copy disabled: data files do not use the dataset schema's physical column order"
+        );
+        return Ok(false);
+    }
     for fragment in fragments {
+        // Binary copy only reads base files; overlays must be materialized by the scanner.
+        if !fragment.overlays.is_empty() {
+            log::debug!(
+                "Binary copy disabled: fragment {} has data overlays",
+                fragment.id
+            );
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
         if fragment.deletion_file.is_some() {
             log::debug!(
                 "Binary copy disabled: fragment {} has a deletion file",
@@ -296,28 +709,19 @@ async fn can_use_binary_copy_impl(
         }
 
         for data_file in &fragment.files {
-            let version_ok = LanceFileVersion::try_from_major_minor(
-                data_file.file_major_version,
-                data_file.file_minor_version,
-            )
-            .map(|v| v.resolve())
-            .is_ok_and(|v| v == storage_file_version);
-
-            if !version_ok {
-                is_same_version = false;
-            }
             if data_file.fields != *ref_fields || data_file.column_indices != *ref_cols {
                 return Ok(false);
             }
 
             // check file global buffer
             let object_store = match data_file.base_id {
-                Some(base_id) => dataset.object_store_for_base(base_id).await?,
+                Some(base_id) => dataset.object_store(Some(base_id)).await?,
                 None => dataset.object_store.clone(),
             };
             let full_path = dataset
                 .data_file_dir(data_file)?
-                .child(data_file.path.as_str());
+                .clone()
+                .join(data_file.path.as_str());
             let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
                 object_store.clone(),
                 SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
@@ -341,11 +745,6 @@ async fn can_use_binary_copy_impl(
         }
     }
 
-    if !is_same_version {
-        log::debug!("Binary copy disabled: data files use different file versions");
-        return Ok(false);
-    }
-
     Ok(true)
 }
 
@@ -400,18 +799,30 @@ pub trait CompactionPlanner: Send + Sync {
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
 pub struct DefaultCompactionPlanner {
     options: CompactionOptions,
+    excluded_fragment_ids: RoaringBitmap,
 }
 
 impl DefaultCompactionPlanner {
-    pub fn new(mut options: CompactionOptions) -> Self {
-        options.validate();
-        Self { options }
+    pub fn new(mut options: CompactionOptions) -> Result<Self> {
+        options.validate()?;
+        let excluded_fragment_ids = options.excluded_fragment_ids.iter().copied().collect();
+        Ok(Self {
+            options,
+            excluded_fragment_ids,
+        })
     }
 }
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl CompactionPlanner for DefaultCompactionPlanner {
     async fn plan(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<CompactionPlan> {
+        let write_version = self.options.write_version(dataset);
+        versions::validate_write_version(
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            write_version,
+        )?;
+        reject_deferred_remap_with_row_id_indices(dataset, &self.options).await?;
+
         // get_fragments should be returning fragments in sorted order (by id)
         // and fragment ids should be unique
         let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
@@ -420,14 +831,47 @@ impl CompactionPlanner for DefaultCompactionPlanner {
             fragments.windows(2).all(|w| w[0].id() < w[1].id()),
             "fragments in manifest are not sorted"
         );
+        // Without stable row ids a rewrite moves every row address, so the
+        // indices over the rewritten fragments have to be remapped in the same
+        // commit. An index this build cannot open cannot be remapped, so its
+        // fragments join the caller's own exclusions and are left uncompacted -
+        // taking the same path, which terminates the current bin rather than
+        // letting the candidates on either side of the gap be planned together.
+        let mut excluded_fragment_ids = self.excluded_fragment_ids.clone();
+        if !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() && !self.options.defer_index_remap {
+            let unremappable = unremappable_index_coverage(dataset)
+                .await?
+                .into_iter()
+                .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut covered, (_, fragments)| {
+                    covered |= fragments;
+                    covered
+                });
+            if !unremappable.is_empty() {
+                // Otherwise a compaction that plans nothing looks like a
+                // compaction that found nothing to do.
+                log::info!(
+                    "holding {} fragment(s) back from compaction: they are covered by an index \
+                     this build cannot read, and so cannot be remapped here",
+                    unremappable.len(),
+                );
+            }
+            excluded_fragment_ids |= unremappable;
+        }
+        let excluded_fragment_ids = &excluded_fragment_ids;
+
         let mut fragment_metrics = futures::stream::iter(fragments)
             .map(|fragment| async move {
-                match collect_metrics(&fragment).await {
-                    Ok(metrics) => Ok((fragment.metadata, metrics)),
-                    Err(e) => Err(e),
+                if u32::try_from(fragment.id())
+                    .is_ok_and(|fragment_id| excluded_fragment_ids.contains(fragment_id))
+                {
+                    Ok(None)
+                } else {
+                    collect_metrics(&fragment)
+                        .await
+                        .map(|metrics| Some((fragment.metadata, metrics)))
                 }
             })
-            .buffered(dataset.object_store().io_parallelism());
+            .buffered(dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_parallelism());
 
         let index_fragmaps = load_index_fragmaps(dataset).await?;
         let indices_containing_frag = |frag_id: u32| {
@@ -439,14 +883,51 @@ impl CompactionPlanner for DefaultCompactionPlanner {
                 .collect::<Vec<_>>()
         };
 
+        let schema_field_ids = dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .map(|field| field.id)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        // Only reencoding reclaims a lineage carrier whose user columns are
+        // gone: its fields are not the schema's, so binary copy never applies
+        // to it, and under `ForceBinaryCopy` its task would fail the whole run.
+        let is_binary_copy_only = matches!(
+            self.options.compaction_mode(),
+            CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy
+        );
+
         let mut candidate_bins: Vec<CandidateBin> = Vec::new();
         let mut current_bin: Option<CandidateBin> = None;
         let mut i = 0;
 
         while let Some(res) = fragment_metrics.next().await {
-            let (fragment, metrics) = res?;
+            let Some((fragment, metrics)) = res? else {
+                // Exclusions preserve adjacency semantics: they terminate the
+                // current bin instead of allowing candidates on either side to
+                // be planned together.
+                if let Some(bin) = current_bin.take() {
+                    candidate_bins.push(bin);
+                }
+                i += 1;
+                continue;
+            };
+
+            let over_overlay_limit = self
+                .options
+                .max_overlays_per_fragment
+                .is_some_and(|max| fragment.overlays.len() > max);
 
-            let candidacy = if self.options.materialize_deletions
+            let candidacy = if over_overlay_limit {
+                // Too many overlays: fully compact this fragment on its own,
+                // regardless of its size or deletion count.
+                Some(CompactionCandidacy::CompactItself)
+            } else if !is_binary_copy_only
+                && pins_dead_user_columns_for_lineage(&fragment, &schema_field_ids)
+            {
+                // Only a rewrite moves the row lineage out of a file whose
+                // user columns are all gone and lets the file go.
+                Some(CompactionCandidacy::CompactItself)
+            } else if self.options.materialize_deletions
                 && metrics.deletion_percentage() > self.options.materialize_deletions_threshold
             {
                 Some(CompactionCandidacy::CompactItself)
@@ -508,17 +989,27 @@ impl CompactionPlanner for DefaultCompactionPlanner {
             candidate_bins.push(bin);
         }
 
-        let final_bins = candidate_bins
+        let all_tasks: Vec<(TaskData, usize)> = candidate_bins
             .into_iter()
             .filter(|bin| !bin.is_noop())
             .flat_map(|bin| bin.split_for_size(self.options.target_rows_per_fragment))
-            .map(|bin| TaskData {
-                fragments: bin.fragments,
-            });
+            .map(|bin| {
+                let live_rows = bin.row_counts.iter().sum();
+                (
+                    TaskData {
+                        fragments: bin.fragments,
+                    },
+                    live_rows,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let tasks = limit_tasks_to_source_budget(&self.options, dataset.schema(), all_tasks)?;
 
-        let mut compaction_plan =
-            CompactionPlan::new(dataset.manifest.version, self.options.clone());
-        compaction_plan.extend_tasks(final_bins);
+        let mut options = self.options.clone();
+        options.data_storage_version = Some(write_version.to_selector());
+        let mut compaction_plan = CompactionPlan::new(dataset.manifest.version, options);
+        compaction_plan.extend_tasks(tasks);
 
         Ok(compaction_plan)
     }
@@ -540,7 +1031,7 @@ pub async fn compact_files(
     remap_options: Option<Arc<dyn IndexRemapperOptions>>, // These will be deprecated later
 ) -> Result<CompactionMetrics> {
     info!(target: TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS, event=DATASET_COMPACTING_EVENT, uri = &dataset.uri);
-    let planner = DefaultCompactionPlanner::new(options);
+    let planner = DefaultCompactionPlanner::new(options)?;
     compact_files_with_planner(dataset, remap_options, &planner).await
 }
 
@@ -551,6 +1042,27 @@ pub async fn compact_files_with_planner(
 ) -> Result<CompactionMetrics> {
     let compaction_plan: CompactionPlan = planner.plan(dataset).await?;
 
+    // A tagged FRI history is maintained by appending transitions to the
+    // tagged entry, which only the deferred-remap commit path does; eager
+    // remapping would rewrite provenance the tagged reader depends on.
+    // Checked before any file is rewritten (commit_compaction re-checks for
+    // callers that commit externally planned results).
+    if !compaction_plan.options.defer_index_remap
+        && dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags
+            & lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX
+            != 0
+        && crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+            .await?
+            .iter()
+            .any(lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged)
+    {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Compacting a table with a tagged fragment reuse history requires \
+             defer_index_remap; set defer_index_remap, or upgrade to a writer that \
+             remaps tagged histories eagerly",
+        ));
+    }
+
     // If nothing to compact, don't make a commit.
     if compaction_plan.tasks().is_empty() {
         return Ok(CompactionMetrics::default());
@@ -558,7 +1070,7 @@ pub async fn compact_files_with_planner(
 
     let dataset_ref = &dataset.clone();
 
-    let result_stream = futures::stream::iter(compaction_plan.tasks.into_iter())
+    let result_stream = futures::stream::iter(compaction_plan.tasks)
         .map(|task| rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(dataset_ref), task, &compaction_plan.options))
         .buffer_unordered(
             compaction_plan
@@ -616,6 +1128,148 @@ async fn collect_metrics(fragment: &FileFragment) -> Result<FragmentMetrics> {
     })
 }
 
+/// Whether one of `fragment`'s data files is referenced only for the row
+/// lineage columns it carries, while the user columns next to them have all
+/// been dropped or replaced. `schema_field_ids` holds the ids of the schema's
+/// fields.
+///
+/// Compaction writes spilled lineage into the data file of each fragment it
+/// writes. Once every user column in that file is dropped, cast or replaced,
+/// the lineage alone keeps the file, and its dead bytes, referenced: cleanup
+/// cannot remove it and nothing else rewrites it. A lineage-only file, which
+/// binary copy and update write, holds no dead user column and never matches;
+/// nor does any file compaction writes, so compacting a fragment that matches
+/// cannot leave one that matches again.
+fn pins_dead_user_columns_for_lineage(
+    fragment: &Fragment,
+    schema_field_ids: &HashSet<i32>,
+) -> bool {
+    fragment.files.iter().any(|file| {
+        let mut holds_dead_user_column = false;
+        let mut holds_lineage = false;
+        for field_id in file.fields.iter() {
+            if schema_field_ids.contains(field_id) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            match *field_id {
+                ROW_ID_FIELD_ID
+                | ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID
+                | ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID => holds_lineage = true,
+                TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID => holds_dead_user_column = true,
+                // A user field the schema no longer has: dropping a column
+                // leaves the ids of the files it keeps as they are.
+                other => holds_dead_user_column |= other >= 0,
+            }
+        }
+        holds_dead_user_column && holds_lineage
+    })
+}
+
+/// Truncates a planned task list to the configured per-run source budgets
+/// (`max_source_fragments`, `max_source_rows`, `max_source_bytes`).
+///
+/// All configured budgets apply together: tasks are kept, in order, until
+/// adding the next task would exceed any one of them. The budgets are hard
+/// upper bounds, so if the first task already exceeds one of them the
+/// returned plan is empty and a warning is logged, since compaction would
+/// otherwise stall silently.
+///
+/// Each task is paired with the number of live rows in its source fragments.
+fn limit_tasks_to_source_budget(
+    options: &CompactionOptions,
+    schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+    all_tasks: Vec<(TaskData, usize)>,
+) -> Result<Vec<TaskData>> {
+    if options.max_source_fragments.is_none()
+        && options.max_source_rows.is_none()
+        && options.max_source_bytes.is_none()
+    {
+        return Ok(all_tasks.into_iter().map(|(task, _)| task).collect());
+    }
+
+    // Only needed for the bytes budget: files whose fields are all absent
+    // from the current schema only back dropped columns, which compaction
+    // does not read.
+    let schema_field_ids: HashSet<i32> = if options.max_source_bytes.is_some() {
+        schema.field_ids().into_iter().collect()
+    } else {
+        HashSet::new()
+    };
+
+    let num_candidate_tasks = all_tasks.len();
+    let mut total_fragments = 0_usize;
+    let mut total_rows = 0_usize;
+    let mut total_bytes = 0_u64;
+    let mut tasks = Vec::with_capacity(all_tasks.len());
+    for (task, live_rows) in all_tasks {
+        total_fragments += task.fragments.len();
+        total_rows = total_rows.saturating_add(live_rows);
+        if options.max_source_bytes.is_some() {
+            total_bytes = total_bytes.saturating_add(task_source_bytes(&task, &schema_field_ids)?);
+        }
+
+        let over_budget = options
+            .max_source_fragments
+            .is_some_and(|max| total_fragments > max)
+            || options.max_source_rows.is_some_and(|max| total_rows > max)
+            || options
+                .max_source_bytes
+                .is_some_and(|max| total_bytes > max);
+        if over_budget {
+            break;
+        }
+
+        tasks.push(task);
+    }
+
+    if tasks.is_empty() && num_candidate_tasks > 0 {
+        warn!(
+            "Compaction plan is empty: the first of {} candidate tasks already exceeds a source \
+             budget (max_source_fragments={:?}, max_source_rows={:?}, max_source_bytes={:?}); \
+             compaction cannot make progress until the budget is raised",
+            num_candidate_tasks,
+            options.max_source_fragments,
+            options.max_source_rows,
+            options.max_source_bytes
+        );
+    }
+
+    Ok(tasks)
+}
+
+/// Returns the total size in bytes of a task's source data and overlay files.
+///
+/// Files whose fields are all absent from `schema_field_ids` only back
+/// dropped columns; compaction does not read them, so they are neither
+/// counted nor required to have a recorded size.
+/// Only sizes recorded in the manifest are used: a missing size is an error
+/// rather than a metadata request against object storage, which would turn
+/// planning into one round trip per file. Deletion files are not counted.
+fn task_source_bytes(task: &TaskData, schema_field_ids: &HashSet<i32>) -> Result<u64> {
+    let mut total_bytes = 0_u64;
+    for fragment in &task.fragments {
+        let overlay_files = fragment.overlays.iter().map(|overlay| &overlay.data_file);
+        for data_file in fragment.files.iter().chain(overlay_files) {
+            if !data_file
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .any(|field_id| schema_field_ids.contains(field_id))
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let size = data_file.file_size_bytes.get().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "max_source_bytes is set but file '{}' of fragment {} has no size recorded \
+                     in the manifest; unset max_source_bytes to compact this dataset",
+                    data_file.path, fragment.id
+                ))
+            })?;
+            total_bytes = total_bytes.saturating_add(size.get());
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(total_bytes)
+}
+
 /// A plan for what groups of fragments to compact.
 ///
 /// See [plan_compaction()] for more details.
@@ -654,100 +1308,862 @@ impl CompactionPlan {
     }
 }
 
-/// Build a scan reader for rewrite and optionally capture row IDs.
+/// Classification for one blob v2 row during compaction.
 ///
-/// Parameters:
-/// - `dataset`: Dataset handle used to create the scanner.
-/// - `fragments`: When `with_frags` is true, restrict the scan to these old fragments
-///   and preserve insertion order.
-/// - `batch_size`: Optional batch size; if provided, set it on the scanner to control
-///   read batching.
-/// - `with_frags`: Whether to scan only the specified old fragments and force
-///   in-order reading.
-/// - `capture_row_ids`: When index remapping is needed, include and capture the
-///   `_rowid` column from the stream.
-///
-/// Returns:
-/// - `SendableRecordBatchStream`: The batch stream (with `_rowid` removed if captured)
-///   to feed the rewrite path.
-/// - `Option<Receiver<CapturedRowIds>>`: A receiver to obtain captured row IDs after the
-///   stream completes; `None` if not capturing.
-async fn prepare_reader(
-    dataset: &Dataset,
-    fragments: &[Fragment],
-    batch_size: Option<usize>,
-    with_frags: bool,
-    capture_row_ids: bool,
-) -> Result<(
-    SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    Option<std::sync::mpsc::Receiver<CapturedRowIds>>,
-)> {
-    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-    let has_blob_columns = dataset
-        .schema()
-        .fields_pre_order()
-        .any(|field| field.is_blob());
-    if has_blob_columns {
-        scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
-    }
-    if let Some(bs) = batch_size {
-        scanner.batch_size(bs);
-    }
-    if with_frags {
-        scanner
-            .with_fragments(fragments.to_vec())
-            .scan_in_order(true);
-    }
-    if capture_row_ids {
-        scanner.with_row_id();
-        let data = SendableRecordBatchStream::from(scanner.try_into_stream().await?);
-        let (data_no_row_ids, rx) =
-            make_rowid_capture_stream(data, dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids())?;
-        Ok((data_no_row_ids, Some(rx)))
-    } else {
-        Ok((
-            SendableRecordBatchStream::from(scanner.try_into_stream().await?),
-            None,
-        ))
-    }
+/// - `Null`: NULL row.
+/// - `External`: External blob referenced by URI.
+/// - `DataBlob`: Inline/Packed/Dedicated blob stored in Lance files.
+enum RowClass {
+    Null,
+    External,
+    DataBlob,
 }
 
-/// A single group of fragments to compact, which is a view into the compaction
-/// plan. We keep the `replace_range` indices so we can map the result of the
-/// compact back to the fragments it replaces.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-pub struct TaskData {
-    /// The fragments to compact.
-    pub fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+/// Column views for the 5 fields in a blob v2 descriptor struct.
+struct BlobV2Descriptor<'a> {
+    kind_col: &'a arrow::array::UInt8Array,
+    position_col: &'a arrow::array::UInt64Array,
+    size_col: &'a arrow::array::UInt64Array,
+    blob_uri_col: &'a arrow::array::StringArray,
+    blob_id_col: &'a arrow::array::UInt32Array,
 }
 
-/// A standalone task that can be serialized and sent to another machine for
-/// execution.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-pub struct CompactionTask {
-    pub task: TaskData,
-    pub read_version: u64,
-    pub options: CompactionOptions,
+impl<'a> BlobV2Descriptor<'a> {
+    /// Extract the 5 descriptor arrays from a blob v2 descriptor struct array.
+    fn try_from_struct(struct_arr: &'a StructArray, column_name: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        if BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_arr.fields()) != Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor) {
+            let actual = BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_arr.fields())
+                .map(|layout| layout.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| format!("unrecognized ({:?})", struct_arr.fields()));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Blob v2 column '{column_name}' has {actual} layout; expected descriptor layout before conversion to logical"
+            )));
+        }
+        let kind_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 descriptor for column '{}' missing `kind` field",
+                    column_name
+                ))
+            })?
+            .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+        let position_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("position")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 descriptor for column '{}' missing `position` field",
+                    column_name
+                ))
+            })?
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let size_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("size")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 descriptor for column '{}' missing `size` field",
+                    column_name
+                ))
+            })?
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let blob_uri_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("blob_uri")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 descriptor for column '{}' missing `blob_uri` field",
+                    column_name
+                ))
+            })?
+            .as_string::<i32>();
+        let blob_id_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("blob_id")
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 descriptor for column '{}' missing `blob_id` field",
+                    column_name
+                ))
+            })?
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        Ok(Self {
+            kind_col,
+            position_col,
+            size_col,
+            blob_uri_col,
+            blob_id_col,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
-impl CompactionTask {
-    /// Run the compaction task and return the result.
-    ///
-    /// This result should be later passed to [commit_compaction()] to commit
-    /// the changes to the dataset.
-    ///
-    /// Note: you should pass the version of the dataset that is the same as
-    /// the read version for this task (the same version from which the
-    /// compaction was planned).
-    pub async fn execute(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<RewriteResult> {
-        let dataset = if dataset.manifest.version == self.read_version {
-            Cow::Borrowed(dataset)
+/// Result of row classification for a blob v2 rewrite.
+struct RowClassification {
+    row_classes: Vec<RowClass>,
+    data_blob_indices: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+/// Classify each row of a blob v2 column as Null, External, or DataBlob.
+fn classify_rows(
+    struct_arr: &StructArray,
+    descriptor: &BlobV2Descriptor<'_>,
+    column_name: &str,
+) -> Result<RowClassification> {
+    let num_rows = struct_arr.len();
+    let mut row_classes = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+    let mut data_blob_indices = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows);
+
+    for i in 0..num_rows {
+        if struct_arr.is_null(i) || descriptor.kind_col.is_null(i) {
+            row_classes.push(RowClass::Null);
         } else {
-            Cow::Owned(dataset.checkout_version(self.read_version).await?)
-        };
-        rewrite_files(dataset, self.task.clone(), &self.options).await
+            let kind = BlobKind::try_from(descriptor.kind_col.value(i)).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 column '{}' has invalid kind at row {}: {e}",
+                    column_name, i
+                ))
+            })?;
+            if kind == BlobKind::External {
+                row_classes.push(RowClass::External);
+            } else {
+                row_classes.push(RowClass::DataBlob);
+                data_blob_indices.push(i);
+            }
+        }
     }
-}
+
+    Ok(RowClassification {
+        row_classes,
+        data_blob_indices,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Convert a blob v2 descriptor into the logical writer representation.
+///
+/// Reads blob data lazily using row addresses to avoid materializing all blob
+/// payloads in memory at once.
+async fn descriptor_to_logical_blob_array(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    blob_field_id: u32,
+    struct_arr: &StructArray,
+    descriptor: &BlobV2Descriptor<'_>,
+    classification: &RowClassification,
+    row_addrs: &[u64],
+    field_name: &str,
+) -> Result<StructArray> {
+    if struct_arr.len() != row_addrs.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Blob v2 field '{}' row count {} did not match row address count {}",
+            field_name,
+            struct_arr.len(),
+            row_addrs.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    let blob_files = if classification.data_blob_indices.is_empty() {
+        Vec::new()
+    } else {
+        let indices = classification
+            .data_blob_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| {
+                u32::try_from(*index).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Blob v2 row index {} in field '{}' does not fit in u32",
+                        index, field_name
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let indices = UInt32Array::from(indices);
+        let descriptions = arrow_select::take::take(struct_arr, &indices, None)?;
+        let descriptions = descriptions.as_struct();
+        let data_row_addrs = classification
+            .data_blob_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| row_addrs[*index])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        super::blob::collect_blob_v2_descriptor_files(
+            dataset,
+            blob_field_id,
+            descriptions,
+            &data_row_addrs,
+        )
+        .await?
+    };
+
+    let data_capacity =
+        classification
+            .data_blob_indices
+            .iter()
+            .try_fold(0usize, |data_capacity, row_idx| {
+                if descriptor.size_col.is_null(*row_idx) {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Non-null blob row {} in field '{}' is missing its size",
+                        row_idx, field_name
+                    )));
+                }
+                let size = usize::try_from(descriptor.size_col.value(*row_idx)).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Blob size {} at row {} in field '{}' does not fit in usize",
+                        descriptor.size_col.value(*row_idx),
+                        row_idx,
+                        field_name
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                data_capacity.checked_add(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Total blob size in field '{}' exceeds usize",
+                        field_name
+                    ))
+                })
+            })?;
+
+    let num_rows = struct_arr.len();
+    let mut data_builder = LargeBinaryBuilder::with_capacity(num_rows, data_capacity);
+    let mut uri_builder = StringBuilder::with_capacity(num_rows, 0);
+    let mut out_position_builder = PrimitiveBuilder::<UInt64Type>::with_capacity(num_rows);
+    let mut out_size_builder = PrimitiveBuilder::<UInt64Type>::with_capacity(num_rows);
+
+    let mut blob_file_idx = 0;
+    #[allow(clippy::needless_range_loop)]
+    for i in 0..num_rows {
+        match classification.row_classes[i] {
+            RowClass::Null => {
+                data_builder.append_null();
+                uri_builder.append_null();
+                out_position_builder.append_null();
+                out_size_builder.append_null();
+            }
+            RowClass::External => {
+                data_builder.append_null();
+                let base_id = descriptor.blob_id_col.value(i);
+                let uri_val = descriptor.blob_uri_col.value(i);
+                if base_id == 0 {
+                    uri_builder.append_value(uri_val);
+                } else {
+                    let base = dataset.manifest().base_paths.get(&base_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "External blob in column '{}' references unknown base_id {}",
+                            field_name, base_id
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    let absolute_uri = format!("{}/{}", base.path.trim_end_matches('/'), uri_val);
+                    uri_builder.append_value(&absolute_uri);
+                }
+                let position =
+                    (!descriptor.position_col.is_null(i)).then(|| descriptor.position_col.value(i));
+                let size = (!descriptor.size_col.is_null(i)).then(|| descriptor.size_col.value(i));
+                if position == Some(0) && size == Some(0) {
+                    // Stable descriptors use (0, 0) for the complete external object.
+                    // Logical input represents the same value by omitting the range.
+                    out_position_builder.append_null();
+                    out_size_builder.append_null();
+                } else {
+                    out_position_builder.append_option(position);
+                    out_size_builder.append_option(size);
+                }
+            }
+            RowClass::DataBlob => {
+                let blob_file = blob_files
+                    .get(blob_file_idx)
+                    .and_then(Option::as_ref)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Non-null blob row {} in field '{}' resolved to null",
+                            i, field_name
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                let data = blob_file.read().await?;
+                blob_file_idx += 1;
+                data_builder.append_value(data.as_ref());
+                uri_builder.append_null();
+                out_position_builder.append_null();
+                out_size_builder.append_null();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(StructArray::try_new(
+        BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(data_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(uri_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(out_position_builder.finish()),
+            Arc::new(out_size_builder.finish()),
+        ],
+        struct_arr.nulls().cloned(),
+    )?)
+}
+
+fn transformed_arrow_field(field: &LanceField, data_type: ArrowDataType) -> Arc<ArrowField> {
+    let arrow_field = ArrowField::from(field);
+    arrow_field_with_data_type(&arrow_field, data_type)
+}
+
+fn arrow_field_with_data_type(field: &ArrowField, data_type: ArrowDataType) -> Arc<ArrowField> {
+    Arc::new(
+        ArrowField::new(field.name(), data_type, field.is_nullable())
+            .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+    )
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn field_contains_blob_v2(field: &LanceField) -> bool {
+    field.is_blob_v2() || field.children.iter().any(field_contains_blob_v2)
+}
+
+enum BlobV2FieldRewritePlan {
+    Passthrough {
+        output_field: Arc<ArrowField>,
+    },
+    Blob {
+        field_id: u32,
+        field_name: String,
+        output_field: Arc<ArrowField>,
+    },
+    Struct {
+        field_name: String,
+        output_field: Arc<ArrowField>,
+        children: Vec<Self>,
+    },
+    List {
+        field_name: String,
+        output_field: Arc<ArrowField>,
+        child: Box<Self>,
+    },
+    LargeList {
+        field_name: String,
+        output_field: Arc<ArrowField>,
+        child: Box<Self>,
+    },
+}
+
+impl BlobV2FieldRewritePlan {
+    fn passthrough(field: &ArrowField) -> Self {
+        Self::Passthrough {
+            output_field: Arc::new(field.clone()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn try_new(
+        field: &LanceField,
+        input_field: &ArrowField,
+        preserve_managed: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if !field_contains_blob_v2(field) {
+            return Ok(Self::passthrough(input_field));
+        }
+
+        if field.is_blob_v2() {
+            let field_id = u32::try_from(field.id).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field id {} for '{}' does not fit in u32",
+                    field.id, field.name
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let ArrowDataType::Struct(input_children) = input_field.data_type() else {
+                // Legacy blob bytes: the writer converts them to Blob v2.
+                if matches!(
+                    input_field.data_type(),
+                    ArrowDataType::Binary | ArrowDataType::LargeBinary
+                ) {
+                    return Ok(Self::passthrough(input_field));
+                }
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Blob v2 field '{}' has non-struct input type {:?}",
+                    field.name,
+                    input_field.data_type()
+                )));
+            };
+            let output_field = match BlobV2Layout::classify(input_children) {
+                Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical) => Arc::new(input_field.clone()),
+                Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor) => transformed_arrow_field(
+                    field,
+                    if preserve_managed {
+                        lance_core::datatypes::BLOB_V2_PREPARED_TYPE.clone()
+                    } else {
+                        BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_TYPE.clone()
+                    },
+                ),
+                Some(actual) => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Blob v2 field '{}' has {actual} input layout; expected logical or descriptor layout during rewrite",
+                        field.name
+                    )));
+                }
+                None => {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Blob v2 field '{}' has unrecognized input layout {:?}; expected logical or descriptor layout during rewrite",
+                        field.name, input_children
+                    )));
+                }
+            };
+            return Ok(Self::Blob {
+                field_id,
+                field_name: field.name.clone(),
+                output_field,
+            });
+        }
+
+        match (field.data_type(), input_field.data_type()) {
+            (ArrowDataType::Struct(_), ArrowDataType::Struct(input_children)) => {
+                if field.children.len() != input_children.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Struct field '{}' expected {} children in blob rewrite plan, got {}",
+                        field.name,
+                        field.children.len(),
+                        input_children.len()
+                    )));
+                }
+                let children = field
+                    .children
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(input_children.iter())
+                    .map(|(child, input_child)| Self::try_new(child, input_child, preserve_managed))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                let output_children = children
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|child| child.output_field().clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                Ok(Self::Struct {
+                    field_name: field.name.clone(),
+                    output_field: arrow_field_with_data_type(
+                        input_field,
+                        ArrowDataType::Struct(output_children.into()),
+                    ),
+                    children,
+                })
+            }
+            (ArrowDataType::List(_), ArrowDataType::List(input_child)) => {
+                let child = field.children.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "List field '{}' is missing its child in blob rewrite plan",
+                        field.name
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let child = Box::new(Self::try_new(child, input_child, preserve_managed)?);
+                Ok(Self::List {
+                    field_name: field.name.clone(),
+                    output_field: arrow_field_with_data_type(
+                        input_field,
+                        ArrowDataType::List(child.output_field().clone()),
+                    ),
+                    child,
+                })
+            }
+            (ArrowDataType::LargeList(_), ArrowDataType::LargeList(input_child)) => {
+                let child = field.children.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Large list field '{}' is missing its child in blob rewrite plan",
+                        field.name
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let child = Box::new(Self::try_new(child, input_child, preserve_managed)?);
+                Ok(Self::LargeList {
+                    field_name: field.name.clone(),
+                    output_field: arrow_field_with_data_type(
+                        input_field,
+                        ArrowDataType::LargeList(child.output_field().clone()),
+                    ),
+                    child,
+                })
+            }
+            (logical_type, input_type) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Field '{}' contains blob v2 descendants but logical type {:?} and input type {:?} do not form a supported rewrite container",
+                field.name, logical_type, input_type
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn output_field(&self) -> &Arc<ArrowField> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Passthrough { output_field }
+            | Self::Blob { output_field, .. }
+            | Self::Struct { output_field, .. }
+            | Self::List { output_field, .. }
+            | Self::LargeList { output_field, .. } => output_field,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn transform<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        dataset: &'a Arc<Dataset>,
+        array: ArrayRef,
+        row_addrs: Arc<[u64]>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<ArrayRef>> {
+        async move {
+            match self {
+                Self::Passthrough { .. } => Ok(array),
+                Self::Blob {
+                    field_id,
+                    field_name,
+                    output_field,
+                } => {
+                    let struct_arr = array.as_struct();
+                    match BlobV2Layout::classify(struct_arr.fields()) {
+                        Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical) => Ok(array),
+                        Some(BlobV2Layout::Descriptor) => {
+                            if matches!(output_field.data_type(), ArrowDataType::Struct(fields) if BlobV2Layout::classify(fields) == Some(BlobV2Layout::Prepared)) {
+                                return super::blob::preserve_managed_descriptors(dataset, *field_id, struct_arr, &row_addrs, output_field).await;
+                            }
+                            let descriptor =
+                                BlobV2Descriptor::try_from_struct(struct_arr, field_name)?;
+                            let classification =
+                                classify_rows(struct_arr, &descriptor, field_name)?;
+                            let logical = descriptor_to_logical_blob_array(
+                                dataset,
+                                *field_id,
+                                struct_arr,
+                                &descriptor,
+                                &classification,
+                                row_addrs.as_ref(),
+                                field_name,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                            Ok(Arc::new(logical) as ArrayRef)
+                        }
+                        Some(actual) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Blob v2 field '{}' has {actual} layout; expected logical or descriptor layout during rewrite",
+                            field_name
+                        ))),
+                        None => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Blob v2 field '{}' has unrecognized layout {:?}; expected logical or descriptor layout during rewrite",
+                            field_name,
+                            struct_arr.fields()
+                        ))),
+                    }
+                }
+                Self::Struct {
+                    field_name,
+                    output_field,
+                    children,
+                } => {
+                    let struct_arr = array.as_struct().normalize_slicing()?;
+                    let parent_nulls = struct_arr.nulls().cloned();
+                    let struct_arr = struct_arr.pushdown_nulls()?;
+                    if children.len() != struct_arr.num_columns() {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Struct field '{}' expected {} children during blob rewrite, got {}",
+                            field_name,
+                            children.len(),
+                            struct_arr.num_columns()
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    let mut child_arrays = Vec::with_capacity(children.len());
+                    for (child, child_array) in children.iter().zip(struct_arr.columns()) {
+                        child_arrays.push(
+                            child
+                                .transform(dataset, child_array.clone(), row_addrs.clone())
+                                .await?,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    let ArrowDataType::Struct(output_fields) = output_field.data_type() else {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Struct field '{}' rewrite plan has non-struct output type {:?}",
+                            field_name,
+                            output_field.data_type()
+                        )));
+                    };
+                    Ok(Arc::new(StructArray::try_new(
+                        output_fields.clone(),
+                        child_arrays,
+                        parent_nulls,
+                    )?) as ArrayRef)
+                }
+                Self::List {
+                    field_name, child, ..
+                } => {
+                    transform_blob_v2_list_array::<i32>(
+                        dataset,
+                        field_name,
+                        child,
+                        array.as_list::<i32>(),
+                        row_addrs,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                }
+                Self::LargeList {
+                    field_name, child, ..
+                } => {
+                    transform_blob_v2_list_array::<i64>(
+                        dataset,
+                        field_name,
+                        child,
+                        array.as_list::<i64>(),
+                        row_addrs,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+}
+
+async fn transform_blob_v2_list_array<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    field_name: &str,
+    child: &BlobV2FieldRewritePlan,
+    list_array: &GenericListArray<O>,
+    row_addrs: Arc<[u64]>,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    let list_array = if list_array.null_count() > 0 {
+        list_array.filter_garbage_nulls()
+    } else {
+        list_array.clone()
+    };
+    let offsets = list_array.value_offsets();
+    let values_start = offsets[0].as_usize();
+    let values_end = offsets[list_array.len()].as_usize();
+    if values_end < values_start {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "List field '{}' has invalid offsets during blob rewrite",
+            field_name
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let values_len = values_end - values_start;
+    let mut normalized_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(list_array.len() + 1);
+    normalized_offsets.push(O::usize_as(0));
+    let mut child_row_addrs = Vec::with_capacity(values_len);
+    for row_idx in 0..list_array.len() {
+        let start = offsets[row_idx].as_usize();
+        let end = offsets[row_idx + 1].as_usize();
+        if end < start {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "List field '{}' has decreasing offsets during blob rewrite",
+                field_name
+            )));
+        }
+        let row_addr = row_addrs.get(row_idx).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "List field '{}' row address count {} did not match row count {}",
+                field_name,
+                row_addrs.len(),
+                list_array.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        child_row_addrs.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(row_addr, end - start));
+        normalized_offsets.push(O::usize_as(end - values_start));
+    }
+
+    let values = list_array.values().slice(values_start, values_len);
+    let values = child
+        .transform(dataset, values, Arc::<[u64]>::from(child_row_addrs))
+        .await?;
+    let list_array = GenericListArray::<O>::try_new(
+        child.output_field().clone(),
+        OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(normalized_offsets)),
+        values,
+        list_array.nulls().cloned(),
+    )?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(list_array))
+}
+
+pub(crate) struct BlobV2BatchRewritePlan {
+    row_addr_idx: usize,
+    columns: Vec<(usize, BlobV2FieldRewritePlan)>,
+    output_schema: SchemaRef,
+}
+
+impl BlobV2BatchRewritePlan {
+    pub(crate) fn try_new(
+        schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+        input_schema: &ArrowSchema,
+        keep_row_addr: bool,
+        preserve_managed: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let row_addr_idx = input_schema
+            .column_with_name(lance_core::ROW_ADDR)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "_rowaddr column missing from batch for blob v2 rewrite, columns: {:?}",
+                    input_schema
+                        .fields()
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|f| f.name())
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                ))
+            })?
+            .0;
+        let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(input_schema.fields().len());
+        let mut output_fields = Vec::with_capacity(input_schema.fields().len());
+        for (column_idx, input_field) in input_schema.fields().iter().enumerate() {
+            if input_field.name() == lance_core::ROW_ADDR && !keep_row_addr {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let field_plan = if let Some(field) = schema.field(input_field.name()) {
+                BlobV2FieldRewritePlan::try_new(field, input_field, preserve_managed)?
+            } else {
+                BlobV2FieldRewritePlan::passthrough(input_field)
+            };
+            output_fields.push(field_plan.output_field().as_ref().clone());
+            columns.push((column_idx, field_plan));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            row_addr_idx,
+            columns,
+            output_schema: Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+                output_fields,
+                input_schema.metadata().clone(),
+            )),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn output_schema(&self) -> &SchemaRef {
+        &self.output_schema
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn transform_batch(
+        &self,
+        dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let row_addrs: Arc<[u64]> = batch
+            .column(self.row_addr_idx)
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .into();
+        let mut output_columns = Vec::with_capacity(self.columns.len());
+        for (column_idx, field_plan) in &self.columns {
+            output_columns.push(
+                field_plan
+                    .transform(
+                        dataset,
+                        batch.column(*column_idx).clone(),
+                        row_addrs.clone(),
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            self.output_schema.clone(),
+            output_columns,
+        )?)
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) async fn transform_blob_v2_batch(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    keep_row_addr: bool,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let plan =
+        BlobV2BatchRewritePlan::try_new(schema, batch.schema().as_ref(), keep_row_addr, false)?;
+    plan.transform_batch(dataset, batch).await
+}
+
+/// Build a scan reader for rewrite and optionally capture row IDs.
+///
+/// Parameters:
+/// - `dataset`: Dataset handle used to create the scanner.
+/// - `fragments`: When `with_frags` is true, restrict the scan to these old fragments
+///   and preserve insertion order.
+/// - `batch_size`: Optional batch size; if provided, set it on the scanner to control
+///   read batching.
+/// - `io_buffer_size`: Optional I/O buffer size in bytes; if provided, set it on the
+///   scanner to control how much data is queued during reads.
+/// - `with_frags`: Whether to scan only the specified old fragments and force
+///   in-order reading.
+/// - `capture_row_ids`: When index remapping is needed, include and capture the
+///   `_rowid` column from the stream.
+///
+/// Returns:
+/// - `SendableRecordBatchStream`: The batch stream (with `_rowid` removed if captured)
+///   to feed the rewrite path.
+/// - `Option<Receiver<CapturedRowIds>>`: A receiver to obtain captured row IDs after the
+///   stream completes; `None` if not capturing.
+/// - `bool`: Whether the dataset has blob v2 columns and the stream includes `_rowaddr`.
+async fn prepare_reader(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+    batch_size: Option<usize>,
+    io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
+    with_frags: bool,
+    capture_row_ids: bool,
+) -> Result<(
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    Option<std::sync::mpsc::Receiver<CapturedRowIds>>,
+    bool,
+)> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    let has_legacy_blob_columns = dataset
+        .schema()
+        .fields_pre_order()
+        .any(|field| field.is_blob() && !field.is_blob_v2());
+    if has_legacy_blob_columns {
+        scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+    }
+    let has_blob_v2_columns = dataset
+        .schema()
+        .fields_pre_order()
+        .any(|field| field.is_blob_v2());
+    if has_blob_v2_columns {
+        scanner.with_row_address();
+    }
+    if let Some(bs) = batch_size {
+        scanner.batch_size(bs);
+    }
+    if let Some(io_buffer_size) = io_buffer_size {
+        scanner.io_buffer_size(io_buffer_size);
+    }
+    if with_frags {
+        scanner
+            .with_fragments(fragments.to_vec())
+            .scan_in_order(true);
+    }
+    if capture_row_ids {
+        scanner.with_row_id();
+        let data = SendableRecordBatchStream::from(scanner.try_into_stream().await?);
+        let (data_no_row_ids, rx) =
+            make_rowid_capture_stream(data, dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids())?;
+        Ok((data_no_row_ids, Some(rx), has_blob_v2_columns))
+    } else {
+        Ok((
+            SendableRecordBatchStream::from(scanner.try_into_stream().await?),
+            None,
+            has_blob_v2_columns,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+/// A single group of fragments to compact, which is a view into the compaction
+/// plan. We keep the `replace_range` indices so we can map the result of the
+/// compact back to the fragments it replaces.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct TaskData {
+    /// The fragments to compact.
+    pub fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+}
+
+/// A standalone task that can be serialized and sent to another machine for
+/// execution.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct CompactionTask {
+    pub task: TaskData,
+    pub read_version: u64,
+    pub options: CompactionOptions,
+}
+
+impl CompactionTask {
+    /// Run the compaction task and return the result.
+    ///
+    /// This result should be later passed to [commit_compaction()] to commit
+    /// the changes to the dataset.
+    ///
+    /// Note: you should pass the version of the dataset that is the same as
+    /// the read version for this task (the same version from which the
+    /// compaction was planned).
+    pub async fn execute(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<RewriteResult> {
+        let dataset = if dataset.manifest.version == self.read_version {
+            Cow::Borrowed(dataset)
+        } else {
+            Cow::Owned(dataset.checkout_version(self.read_version).await?)
+        };
+        rewrite_files(dataset, self.task.clone(), &self.options).await
+    }
+}
 
 impl CompactionPlan {
     fn new(read_version: u64, options: CompactionOptions) -> Self {
@@ -799,87 +2215,247 @@ impl CandidateBin {
     }
 
     /// Split into one or more bins with at least `min_num_rows` in them.
-    fn split_for_size(mut self, min_num_rows: usize) -> Vec<Self> {
-        let mut bins = Vec::new();
-
-        loop {
-            let mut bin_len = 0;
-            let mut bin_row_count = 0;
-            while bin_row_count < min_num_rows && bin_len < self.row_counts.len() {
-                bin_row_count += self.row_counts[bin_len];
-                bin_len += 1;
+    fn split_for_size(self, min_num_rows: usize) -> Vec<Self> {
+        let total_rows = self.row_counts.iter().sum::<usize>();
+        let mut remaining_rows = total_rows;
+        let mut current_rows = 0;
+        let mut current_len = 0;
+        let mut split_lengths = Vec::new();
+
+        for row_count in &self.row_counts {
+            current_rows += *row_count;
+            current_len += 1;
+            remaining_rows -= *row_count;
+
+            // Only split once the current bin is large enough and there is
+            // enough left over to form another worthwhile non-empty bin.
+            if current_rows >= min_num_rows && remaining_rows > 0 && remaining_rows >= min_num_rows
+            {
+                split_lengths.push(current_len);
+                current_rows = 0;
+                current_len = 0;
             }
+        }
 
-            // If there's enough remaining to make another worthwhile bin, then
-            // push what we have as a bin.
-            if self.row_counts[bin_len..].iter().sum::<usize>() >= min_num_rows {
-                bins.push(Self {
-                    fragments: self.fragments.drain(0..bin_len).collect(),
-                    pos_range: self.pos_range.start..(self.pos_range.start + bin_len),
-                    candidacy: self.candidacy.drain(0..bin_len).collect(),
-                    row_counts: self.row_counts.drain(0..bin_len).collect(),
-                    // By the time we are splitting for size we are done considering indices
-                    indices: Vec::new(),
-                });
-                self.pos_range.start += bin_len;
-            } else {
-                // Otherwise, just push the remaining fragments into the last bin
-                bins.push(self);
-                break;
-            }
+        if split_lengths.is_empty() {
+            return vec![self];
         }
 
+        let mut bins = Vec::with_capacity(split_lengths.len() + 1);
+        let mut fragments = self.fragments.into_iter();
+        let mut candidacy = self.candidacy.into_iter();
+        let mut row_counts = self.row_counts.into_iter();
+        let mut pos_start = self.pos_range.start;
+
+        for bin_len in split_lengths {
+            bins.push(Self {
+                fragments: fragments.by_ref().take(bin_len).collect(),
+                pos_range: pos_start..(pos_start + bin_len),
+                candidacy: candidacy.by_ref().take(bin_len).collect(),
+                row_counts: row_counts.by_ref().take(bin_len).collect(),
+                // By the time we are splitting for size we are done considering indices
+                indices: Vec::new(),
+            });
+            pos_start += bin_len;
+        }
+
+        bins.push(Self {
+            fragments: fragments.collect(),
+            pos_range: pos_start..self.pos_range.end,
+            candidacy: candidacy.collect(),
+            row_counts: row_counts.collect(),
+            indices: self.indices,
+        });
+
         bins
     }
 }
 
 async fn load_index_fragmaps(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Vec<RoaringBitmap>> {
-    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+    // Coverage, not usability: these bitmaps decide the rewrite groups. Under
+    // stable row ids `Transaction::recalculate_fragment_bitmap` then rejects any
+    // group that splits an index's coverage, and it walks every index the new
+    // manifest carries - including the ones this build cannot read. Binning from
+    // the filtered view fails that check outright on a dataset holding an index
+    // written by a newer Lance. The same bitmaps also decide, through
+    // `any_group_indexed`, whether a deferred compaction writes the
+    // fragment-reuse index that a build which can read that index needs to
+    // repair its coverage.
+    let indices = load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
     let mut index_fragmaps = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
-    for index in indices.iter() {
-        if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() {
-            index_fragmaps.push(fragment_bitmap.clone());
-        } else {
-            let dataset_at_index = dataset.checkout_version(index.dataset_version).await?;
-            let frags = 0..dataset_at_index.manifest.max_fragment_id.unwrap_or(0);
-            index_fragmaps.push(RoaringBitmap::from_sorted_iter(frags).unwrap());
-        }
+    // System indices (fragment-reuse, mem-wal) don't define data coverage and
+    // aren't remapped per rewrite group, so they must not constrain compaction
+    // bins -- otherwise deferred compaction's fragment-reuse index repeatedly
+    // splits the small-fragment run and they never coalesce.
+    for index in indices.iter().filter(|idx| !is_system_index(idx)) {
+        index_fragmaps.push(index_fragment_coverage(dataset, index).await?);
     }
     Ok(index_fragmaps)
 }
 
-pub async fn plan_compaction(
+/// The fragments an index segment covers, reconstructing the coverage of a
+/// legacy segment that predates the bitmap from the dataset it was written
+/// against.
+async fn index_fragment_coverage(
     dataset: &Dataset,
-    options: &CompactionOptions,
-) -> Result<CompactionPlan> {
-    let planner = DefaultCompactionPlanner::new(options.clone());
-    planner.plan(dataset).await
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+    if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() {
+        return Ok(fragment_bitmap.clone());
+    }
+    let dataset_at_index = dataset.checkout_version(index.dataset_version).await?;
+    // max_fragment_id is inclusive (the highest id); +1 for an exclusive
+    // upper bound so the last fragment is covered (None => empty range).
+    let frags = 0..dataset_at_index
+        .manifest
+        .max_fragment_id
+        .map_or(0, |m| m + 1);
+    let mut coverage = RoaringBitmap::from_sorted_iter(frags).unwrap();
+    // Reconstructed in the id space of the version the index was written
+    // against, which a later compaction has already moved on from.
+    // `load_all_indices` puts a stored bitmap into the current space by running
+    // it through the fragment-reuse index and leaves a `None` one alone, so a
+    // reconstruction has to take that step itself. Skipping it names the
+    // fragments a deferred compaction moved these rows out of, which is a set
+    // no rewrite can intersect - the guards below then wave through the rewrite
+    // of the fragment the rows actually live in.
+    if let Some(frag_reuse_index) = dataset.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await? {
+        frag_reuse_index.remap_fragment_bitmap(&mut coverage)?;
+    }
+    Ok(coverage)
 }
 
-/// The result of a single compaction task.
+/// Each index this build has no reader for, by name, and the fragments it covers.
 ///
-/// This should be passed to [commit_compaction()] to commit the operation.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq)]
-pub struct RewriteResult {
-    pub metrics: CompactionMetrics,
-    pub new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-    /// The version of the dataset that was read to perform this compaction.
-    pub read_version: u64,
-    /// The original fragments being replaced
-    pub original_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-    /// A HashMap of original row IDs to new row IDs or None (deleted)
-    /// Only set when index remap is done as a part of the compaction
-    pub row_id_map: Option<HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>>,
-    /// the changed row addresses in the original fragment
-    /// in the form of serialized RoaringTreemap
-    /// Only set when index remap is deferred after compaction
-    pub changed_row_addrs: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+/// A rewrite moves every row address in the fragments it touches, and putting an
+/// index back in step means opening it. A build that cannot open one cannot
+/// remap it, so compacting the fragments it covers would leave it addressing
+/// rows that are gone -- worse than the erase this whole path exists to prevent.
+/// They are held out of the plan instead, and the rest of the table still
+/// compacts.
+///
+/// Only the eager remap path needs this. Stable row ids keep the addresses
+/// across a rewrite, and `defer_index_remap` hands the repair to a build that
+/// can read the index, through the fragment-reuse index it writes.
+async fn unremappable_index_coverage(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Vec<(String, RoaringBitmap)>> {
+    let mut coverage = Vec::new();
+    for index in load_all_indices(dataset).await?.iter() {
+        if index_is_usable(index) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        coverage.push((
+            index.name.clone(),
+            index_fragment_coverage(dataset, index).await?,
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(coverage)
 }
 
-async fn reserve_fragment_ids(
-    dataset: &Dataset,
-    fragments: impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = &mut Fragment>,
-) -> Result<()> {
+/// Indexes that use the row ids instead of row addresses.
+///
+/// Row id indexes are a legacy we are migrating away from.  These are not compatible
+/// with stable row id and the fragment reuse index.
+async fn row_id_domain_indices(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    Ok(load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|index| !is_system_index(index) && !index.results_are_row_addrs())
+        .map(|index| index.name.clone())
+        .collect())
+}
+
+/// Refuse a deferred remap that would strand a row-id-domain index under an FRI.
+async fn reject_deferred_remap_with_row_id_indices(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    options: &CompactionOptions,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if !options.defer_index_remap || !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let blocked = row_id_domain_indices(dataset).await?;
+    if blocked.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "defer_index_remap=true is not supported on a dataset with stable row IDs that carries \
+         index(es) {:?}: those report matches as row ids, which a rewrite leaves valid, while the \
+         fragment-reuse index a deferred remap writes remaps row addresses. Applying it to them \
+         would corrupt them. Compact without defer_index_remap, which keeps their row ids and \
+         costs only the coverage of any address-domain index.",
+        blocked,
+    )))
+}
+
+/// Refuse a plan that rewrites fragments an index this build cannot read covers.
+///
+/// [`DefaultCompactionPlanner`] keeps those fragments out of the plan, but
+/// nothing forces a caller through it: `compact_files_with_planner` takes any
+/// planner, [`CompactionPlan`] is public and serializable, and a distributed
+/// driver hands [`commit_compaction`] results planned elsewhere. Committing such
+/// a plan strands the index on fragment ids the rewrite deleted, so the commit
+/// boundary refuses it rather than the planner alone.
+async fn reject_unremappable_rewrite(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    completed_tasks: &[RewriteResult],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let rewritten = completed_tasks
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|task| task.original_fragments.iter())
+        .filter_map(|fragment| u32::try_from(fragment.id).ok())
+        .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+
+    for (name, covered) in unremappable_index_coverage(dataset).await? {
+        let blocked = covered & &rewritten;
+        if !blocked.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "compaction would rewrite fragment(s) {:?}, which index {:?} covers. This build \
+                 has no reader for that index, so it cannot be remapped onto the rewritten \
+                 fragments and the commit would leave it addressing rows that no longer exist. \
+                 Plan with DefaultCompactionPlanner, which holds those fragments back, set \
+                 defer_index_remap, or compact from a build that can read the index.",
+                blocked.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                name,
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub async fn plan_compaction(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    options: &CompactionOptions,
+) -> Result<CompactionPlan> {
+    let planner = DefaultCompactionPlanner::new(options.clone())?;
+    planner.plan(dataset).await
+}
+
+/// The result of a single compaction task.
+///
+/// This should be passed to [commit_compaction()] to commit the operation.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq)]
+pub struct RewriteResult {
+    pub metrics: CompactionMetrics,
+    pub new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+    /// The version of the dataset that was read to perform this compaction.
+    pub read_version: u64,
+    /// The original fragments being replaced
+    pub original_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+    /// Serialized `RoaringTreemap` of the row addresses from the original
+    /// fragments that were read during compaction.
+    ///
+    /// - `None` when configured with stable row IDs because the row ID
+    ///   sequences are rechunked directly.
+    /// - `Some` then these addresses are either (1) written to storage for
+    ///   deferred index remap post-processing, or (2) used with reserved
+    ///   fragment IDs to build old-to-new mappings.
+    pub row_addrs: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+}
+
+/// Returns the version the reservation committed at; `dataset` is not moved to it.
+async fn reserve_fragment_ids(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragments: impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = &mut Fragment>,
+) -> Result<u64> {
     let transaction = Transaction::new(
         dataset.manifest.version,
         Operation::ReserveFragments {
@@ -890,11 +2466,12 @@ async fn reserve_fragment_ids(
 
     let (manifest, _) = commit_transaction(
         dataset,
-        dataset.object_store(),
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
         dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
         &transaction,
         &Default::default(),
         &Default::default(),
+        default_commit_retry_timeout(),
         dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
         None,
     )
@@ -908,7 +2485,7 @@ async fn reserve_fragment_ids(
         fragment.id = new_id as u64;
     }
 
-    Ok(())
+    Ok(manifest.version)
 }
 
 /// Rewrite the files in a single task.
@@ -920,6 +2497,11 @@ async fn rewrite_files(
     options: &CompactionOptions,
 ) -> Result<RewriteResult> {
     let mut metrics = CompactionMetrics::default();
+    let write_version = options.write_version(dataset.as_ref());
+    versions::validate_write_version(
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        write_version,
+    )?;
 
     if task.fragments.is_empty() {
         return Ok(RewriteResult {
@@ -927,8 +2509,7 @@ async fn rewrite_files(
             new_fragments: Vec::new(),
             read_version: dataset.manifest.version,
             original_fragments: task.fragments,
-            row_id_map: None,
-            changed_row_addrs: None,
+            row_addrs: None,
         });
     }
 
@@ -947,8 +2528,17 @@ async fn rewrite_files(
         .iter()
         .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64)
         .sum::<u64>();
-    // If we aren't using stable row ids, then we need to remap indices.
-    let needs_remapping = !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids();
+    // Capturing row addresses is only useful if something will consume them:
+    // a deferred remap through the FRI, or an address-domain index to remap
+    // immediately. Stable row ids keep indices valid across the rewrite
+    // without an immediate remap (see `commit_compaction`'s `needs_remapping`),
+    // so an eager, non-deferred compaction on a stable-row-id dataset never
+    // uses the addresses and capturing them would be pure waste.
+    let capture_row_addrs = options.defer_index_remap
+        || (!dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids()
+            && load_indices_for_remapping(dataset.as_ref())
+                .await?
+                .is_some());
     let mut new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>;
     let task_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
     log::info!(
@@ -957,23 +2547,33 @@ async fn rewrite_files(
         num_rows,
         fragments.len()
     );
+    let mode = options.compaction_mode();
     let can_binary_copy = can_use_binary_copy(dataset.as_ref(), options, &fragments).await;
-    if !can_binary_copy && options.enable_binary_copy_force {
-        return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: format!("compaction task {}: binary copy is not supported", task_id).into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+    if !can_binary_copy && matches!(mode, CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy) {
+        if let Some((path, actual)) = first_binary_copy_version_mismatch(&fragments, write_version)?
+        {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                format!(
+                    "compaction task {task_id}: binary copy target is {write_version}, but data file '{path}' uses {actual}"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            format!("compaction task {}: binary copy is not supported", task_id).into(),
+        ));
     }
     let mut row_ids_rx: Option<std::sync::mpsc::Receiver<CapturedRowIds>> = None;
     let mut reader: Option<SendableRecordBatchStream> = None;
 
     if !can_binary_copy {
-        let (prepared_reader, rx_initial) = prepare_reader(
+        let (prepared_reader, rx_initial, has_blob_v2_columns) = prepare_reader(
             dataset.as_ref(),
             &fragments,
             options.batch_size,
+            options.io_buffer_size,
             true,
-            needs_remapping,
+            capture_row_addrs,
         )
         .await?;
         row_ids_rx = rx_initial;
@@ -989,16 +2589,97 @@ async fn rewrite_files(
                 num_rows,
             );
         });
-        reader = Some(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema,
-            reader_with_progress,
-        )));
+
+        if has_blob_v2_columns {
+            let dataset_arc = Arc::new(dataset.as_ref().clone());
+            let rewrite_plan = Arc::new(BlobV2BatchRewritePlan::try_new(
+                dataset.schema(),
+                schema.as_ref(),
+                false,
+                matches!(
+                    write_version,
+                    ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+                ),
+            )?);
+            let transformed_schema = rewrite_plan.output_schema.clone();
+            let transformed = reader_with_progress.then(move |batch_result| {
+                let dataset = dataset_arc.clone();
+                let rewrite_plan = rewrite_plan.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let batch = batch_result?;
+                    rewrite_plan
+                        .transform_batch(&dataset, batch)
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|e| datafusion::error::DataFusionError::External(Box::new(e)))
+                }
+            });
+            reader = Some(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                transformed_schema,
+                transformed,
+            )));
+        } else {
+            reader = Some(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema,
+                reader_with_progress,
+            )));
+        }
     }
 
+    let surviving_rows = fragments.iter().try_fold(0_u64, |total, fragment| {
+        let fragment_rows = fragment.num_rows().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Fragment {} is missing row count metadata after migration",
+                fragment.id
+            ))
+        })?;
+        total.checked_add(fragment_rows as u64).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Compaction task surviving row count overflowed u64".to_string())
+        })
+    })?;
+
+    // Planner-sized tasks may exceed the target, but should remain one output
+    // instead of producing a target-sized fragment plus a stranded tail. For
+    // genuinely oversized tasks, choose a target-scale output count and spread
+    // the tail across those outputs.
+    let target_rows_per_fragment = options.target_rows_per_fragment as u64;
+    let output_fragment_count = surviving_rows
+        .checked_div(target_rows_per_fragment)
+        .unwrap_or(1)
+        .max(1);
+    let output_fragment_count_usize = usize::try_from(output_fragment_count).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::internal(format!(
+            "Compaction output fragment count {output_fragment_count} does not fit in usize"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let base_rows_per_file = surviving_rows / output_fragment_count;
+    let larger_file_count =
+        usize::try_from(surviving_rows % output_fragment_count).map_err(|_| {
+            Error::internal("Compaction larger output fragment count does not fit in usize")
+        })?;
+    let file_row_counts = if surviving_rows == 0 {
+        Vec::new()
+    } else {
+        (0..output_fragment_count_usize)
+            .map(|file_index| {
+                let file_rows = base_rows_per_file + u64::from(file_index < larger_file_count);
+                usize::try_from(file_rows).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Compaction output row count {file_rows} does not fit in usize"
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+    };
+    let max_rows_per_file = file_row_counts.first().copied().unwrap_or(1);
     let mut params = WriteParams {
-        max_rows_per_file: options.target_rows_per_fragment,
+        max_rows_per_file,
         max_rows_per_group: options.max_rows_per_group,
         mode: WriteMode::Append,
+        // External blobs may reference URIs outside the dataset's base_paths
+        // (e.g. absolute file:// URIs with base_id == 0). Without this flag
+        // the writer would reject such blobs.
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases: true,
+        data_storage_version: Some(write_version.to_selector()),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     if let Some(max_bytes_per_file) = options.max_bytes_per_file {
@@ -1009,8 +2690,9 @@ async fn rewrite_files(
         params.enable_stable_row_ids = true;
     }
 
-    if can_binary_copy {
-        new_fragments = rewrite_files_binary_copy(
+    let lineage_plan = if can_binary_copy {
+        new_fragments = versions::rewrite_files_binary_copy(
+            write_version,
             dataset.as_ref(),
             &fragments,
             &params,
@@ -1018,26 +2700,22 @@ async fn rewrite_files(
         )
         .await?;
 
-        if new_fragments.is_empty() && options.enable_binary_copy_force {
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: format!("compaction task {}: binary copy is not supported", task_id).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+        if new_fragments.is_empty() && matches!(mode, CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy) {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                format!("compaction task {}: binary copy is not supported", task_id).into(),
+            ));
         }
 
-        if needs_remapping {
+        if capture_row_addrs {
             let (tx, rx) = std::sync::mpsc::channel();
             let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
             for frag in &fragments {
                 let frag_id = frag.id as u32;
                 let count = u64::try_from(frag.physical_rows.unwrap_or(0)).map_err(|_| {
-                    Error::Internal {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Fragment {} has too many physical rows to represent as row addresses",
-                            frag.id
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    }
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Fragment {} has too many physical rows to represent as row addresses",
+                        frag.id
+                    ))
                 })?;
                 let start = u64::from(lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress::first_row(frag_id));
                 addrs.insert_range(start..start + count);
@@ -1046,63 +2724,119 @@ async fn rewrite_files(
             let _ = tx.send(captured);
             row_ids_rx = Some(rx);
         }
+        None
     } else {
-        let (frags, _) = write_fragments_internal(
+        let mut stream = reader.expect("reader must be prepared for non-binary-copy path");
+        let mut write_schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+        // On a table that can spill, the output fragments' lineage is computed
+        // before anything is written: the row ids and versions carry over from
+        // the inputs, so a sequence that leaves the manifest can ride along as
+        // a hidden column of the file being written rather than need a file of
+        // its own. Every other table carries its lineage over after the write,
+        // cut at the row counts actually written, and holds none of it while
+        // writing. Binary copy cannot add columns to the files it copies, so
+        // it always takes that path.
+        let spill_budget = if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            inline_row_lineage_max_bytes(dataset.as_ref())?
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let lineage_plan = match spill_budget {
+            Some(limit) => {
+                let planned_rows = file_row_counts
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|rows| *rows as u64)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                let mut lineages =
+                    compute_row_lineage(dataset.as_ref(), &fragments, &planned_rows).await?;
+                let plan = plan_row_lineage_spill(limit, &lineages);
+                if let RowLineagePlan::InFile(spill) = plan
+                    && spill.any()
+                {
+                    let fields = spill.schema_fields()?;
+                    let columns = spill.take_columns(&mut lineages);
+                    stream = append_row_lineage_columns(stream, &fields, columns);
+                    // The writer stores only the columns its schema lists.
+                    write_schema.fields.extend(fields);
+                }
+                Some(PlannedRowLineage {
+                    lineages,
+                    planned_rows,
+                    plan,
+                })
+            }
+            None => None,
+        };
+        let (frags, _) = write_fragments_internal_with_file_row_counts(
+            write_version,
             Some(dataset.as_ref()),
             dataset.object_store.clone(),
             &dataset.base,
-            dataset.schema().clone(),
-            reader.expect("reader must be prepared for non-binary-copy path"),
+            write_schema,
+            stream,
             params,
             None,
+            Some(file_row_counts),
         )
         .await?;
         new_fragments = frags;
-    }
+        lineage_plan
+    };
 
     log::info!("Compaction task {}: file written", task_id);
 
-    let (row_id_map, changed_row_addrs) = if let Some(row_ids_rx) = row_ids_rx {
-        let captured_ids = row_ids_rx.try_recv().map_err(|err| Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("Failed to receive row ids: {}", err),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-        // This code path is only when we use address style ids.
-        let row_addrs = captured_ids.row_addrs(None).into_owned();
-
-        log::info!(
-            "Compaction task {}: reserving fragment ids and transposing row addrs",
-            task_id
-        );
-        reserve_fragment_ids(&dataset, new_fragments.iter_mut()).await?;
-
-        if options.defer_index_remap {
-            let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::with_capacity(row_addrs.serialized_size());
-            row_addrs.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs)?;
-            (None, Some(changed_row_addrs))
-        } else {
-            let row_id_map = remapping::transpose_row_addrs(row_addrs, &fragments, &new_fragments);
-            (Some(row_id_map), None)
-        }
-    } else {
+    // Wrap in an async block so `?` returns into `row_addrs_result` and we can
+    // run cleanup before propagating the error.
+    let row_addrs_result: Result<Option<Vec<u8>>> = async {
+        // The new fragments need their own row-id sequences whether or not this
+        // task also captures addresses for the FRI.
         if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
             log::info!("Compaction task {}: rechunking stable row ids", task_id);
-            rechunk_stable_row_ids(dataset.as_ref(), &mut new_fragments, &fragments).await?;
-            recalc_versions_for_rewritten_fragments(
-                dataset.as_ref(),
-                &mut new_fragments,
-                &fragments,
-            )
-            .await?;
+            match lineage_plan {
+                Some(planned) => {
+                    place_planned_row_lineage(dataset.as_ref(), &mut new_fragments, planned).await?
+                }
+                None => {
+                    rechunk_row_lineage(dataset.as_ref(), &mut new_fragments, &fragments).await?
+                }
+            }
         }
 
-        if options.defer_index_remap {
-            let no_addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
-            let mut serialized_no_addrs = Vec::with_capacity(no_addrs.serialized_size());
-            no_addrs.serialize_into(&mut serialized_no_addrs)?;
-            (None, Some(serialized_no_addrs))
+        let Some(row_ids_rx) = row_ids_rx else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let captured_ids = row_ids_rx
+            .try_recv()
+            .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("Failed to receive row ids: {}", err)))?;
+        // Stable row ids are captured as a sequence, and only the row-id index
+        // knows the address each one sat at before the rewrite. Every id that
+        // was captured was read from `fragments` (this task's own original
+        // fragments), so an index scoped to just those -- rather than
+        // `get_row_id_index`'s whole-dataset index -- has everything needed
+        // to look them up, without paying to index fragments this rewrite
+        // never touches.
+        let row_id_index = if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            Some(load_row_id_index_for_fragments(dataset.as_ref(), &fragments).await?)
         } else {
-            (Some(HashMap::new()), None)
+            None
+        };
+        let mut row_addrs = captured_ids.row_addrs(row_id_index.as_ref())?.into_owned();
+        // Compaction reads whole fragments, so the captured addresses are
+        // dense per-fragment ranges; run containers (standard roaring
+        // format) shrink the persisted blob from O(rows) to O(runs) bytes.
+        row_addrs.optimize();
+        let mut serialized = Vec::with_capacity(row_addrs.serialized_size());
+        row_addrs.serialize_into(&mut serialized)?;
+        Ok(Some(serialized))
+    }
+    .await;
+
+    let row_addrs = match row_addrs_result {
+        Ok(v) => v,
+        Err(e) => {
+            cleanup_data_fragments(&dataset.object_store, &dataset.base, None, &new_fragments)
+                .await;
+            return Err(e);
         }
     };
 
@@ -1124,17 +2858,19 @@ async fn rewrite_files(
         metrics,
         new_fragments,
         read_version: dataset.manifest.version,
-        original_fragments: task.fragments,
-        row_id_map,
-        changed_row_addrs,
+        original_fragments: fragments,
+        row_addrs,
     })
 }
 
-async fn rechunk_stable_row_ids(
+/// Carry the stable row ids and per-row versions of `old_fragments` over to
+/// output fragments of `chunk_sizes` rows each, in order, which hold the same
+/// live rows in the same order.
+async fn compute_row_lineage(
     dataset: &Dataset,
-    new_fragments: &mut [Fragment],
     old_fragments: &[Fragment],
-) -> Result<()> {
+    chunk_sizes: &[u64],
+) -> Result<Vec<RowLineage>> {
     let mut old_sequences = load_row_id_sequences(dataset, old_fragments)
         .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
         .await?;
@@ -1146,148 +2882,340 @@ async fn rechunk_stable_row_ids(
             .expect("Fragment not found")
     });
 
+    // Load old per-row version sequences, defaulting the way readers do:
+    // created-at to version 1, last-updated-at to created-at.
+    let mut old_created_at_sequences = Vec::with_capacity(old_fragments.len());
+    let mut old_last_updated_sequences = Vec::with_capacity(old_fragments.len());
+    for (frag, (_, row_ids)) in old_fragments.iter().zip(old_sequences.iter()) {
+        let created_at =
+            match load_row_version_sequence(dataset, frag, RowVersionKind::CreatedAt).await? {
+                Some(sequence) => sequence.as_ref().clone(),
+                None => RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(row_ids.len(), 1),
+            };
+        let last_updated_at =
+            match load_row_version_sequence(dataset, frag, RowVersionKind::LastUpdatedAt).await? {
+                Some(sequence) => sequence.as_ref().clone(),
+                None => created_at.clone(),
+            };
+        old_created_at_sequences.push(created_at);
+        old_last_updated_sequences.push(last_updated_at);
+    }
+
     // Need to remove deleted rows
-    futures::stream::iter(old_sequences.iter_mut().zip(old_fragments.iter()))
-        .map(Ok)
-        .try_for_each(|((_, seq), frag)| async move {
-            if let Some(deletion_file) = &frag.deletion_file {
-                let deletions = read_dataset_deletion_file(dataset, frag.id, deletion_file).await?;
-
-                let mut new_seq = seq.as_ref().clone();
-                new_seq.mask(deletions.to_sorted_iter())?;
-                *seq = Arc::new(new_seq);
-            }
-            Ok::<(), crate::Error>(())
-        })
-        .await?;
+    for (index, frag) in old_fragments.iter().enumerate() {
+        if let Some(deletion_file) = &frag.deletion_file {
+            let deletions = read_dataset_deletion_file(dataset, frag.id, deletion_file).await?;
+
+            let mut new_seq = old_sequences[index].1.as_ref().clone();
+            new_seq.mask(deletions.to_sorted_iter())?;
+            old_sequences[index].1 = Arc::new(new_seq);
+            old_created_at_sequences[index].mask(deletions.to_sorted_iter())?;
+            old_last_updated_sequences[index].mask(deletions.to_sorted_iter())?;
+        }
+    }
 
     debug_assert_eq!(
         { old_sequences.iter().map(|(_, seq)| seq.len()).sum::<u64>() },
-        {
-            new_fragments
-                .iter()
-                .map(|frag| frag.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64)
-                .sum::<u64>()
-        },
+        { chunk_sizes.iter().sum::<u64>() },
         "{:?}",
         old_sequences
     );
 
-    let new_sequences = lance_table::rowids::rechunk_sequences(
+    let new_row_ids = lance_table::rowids::rechunk_sequences(
         old_sequences
             .into_iter()
             .map(|(_, seq)| seq.as_ref().clone()),
-        new_fragments
-            .iter()
-            .map(|frag| frag.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64),
+        chunk_sizes.iter().copied(),
+        false,
+    )?;
+    let new_created_at = lance_table::rowids::version::rechunk_version_sequences(
+        old_created_at_sequences,
+        chunk_sizes.iter().copied(),
+        false,
+    )?;
+    let new_last_updated_at = lance_table::rowids::version::rechunk_version_sequences(
+        old_last_updated_sequences,
+        chunk_sizes.iter().copied(),
         false,
     )?;
 
-    for (fragment, sequence) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(new_sequences) {
-        // TODO: if large enough, serialize to separate file
-        let serialized = lance_table::rowids::write_row_ids(&sequence);
-        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized));
-    }
+    Ok(new_row_ids
+        .into_iter()
+        .zip(new_created_at)
+        .zip(new_last_updated_at)
+        .map(|((row_ids, created_at), last_updated_at)| RowLineage {
+            row_ids,
+            created_at,
+            last_updated_at,
+        })
+        .collect())
+}
 
+/// Carry the lineage of `old_fragments` over to the already written
+/// `new_fragments` and place each one's sequences inline or in a separate
+/// lineage file, as the table's spill policy and their size call for. This is
+/// the path for tables that cannot spill, and for binary copy, whose output
+/// files cannot take the lineage as extra columns.
+async fn rechunk_row_lineage(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    new_fragments: &mut [Fragment],
+    old_fragments: &[Fragment],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let chunk_sizes: Vec<u64> = new_fragments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|frag| frag.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64)
+        .collect();
+    let lineages = compute_row_lineage(dataset, old_fragments, &chunk_sizes).await?;
+    for (fragment, lineage) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(lineages) {
+        place_row_lineage(dataset, &lineage).await?.apply(fragment);
+    }
     Ok(())
 }
 
-/// After row id rechunking, preserve per-row latest update versions by masking deletions and rechunking
-async fn recalc_versions_for_rewritten_fragments(
+/// The row lineage a compaction task computed for its planned output
+/// fragments before writing them, and how the task places it.
+struct PlannedRowLineage {
+    /// Each planned output fragment's lineage, in order. The sequences the
+    /// plan writes into the data files are empty: their values went into the
+    /// written columns.
+    lineages: Vec<RowLineage>,
+    /// Each planned output fragment's row count, which the writer only
+    /// follows until a byte limit closes a file early.
+    planned_rows: Vec<u64>,
+    plan: RowLineagePlan,
+}
+
+/// Place the lineage compaction planned before the write on the fragments it
+/// wrote.
+async fn place_planned_row_lineage(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     new_fragments: &mut [Fragment],
-    old_fragments: &[Fragment],
+    planned: PlannedRowLineage,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let PlannedRowLineage {
+        lineages,
+        planned_rows,
+        plan,
+    } = planned;
+    match plan {
+        RowLineagePlan::InFile(spill) => {
+            place_row_lineage_in_files(new_fragments, lineages, &planned_rows, spill)
+        }
+        RowLineagePlan::PerFragment => {
+            let lineages = fit_row_lineage_to_written(
+                new_fragments,
+                lineages,
+                &planned_rows,
+                RowLineageSpill::default(),
+            )?;
+            for (fragment, lineage) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(lineages) {
+                place_row_lineage(dataset, &lineage).await?.apply(fragment);
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Mark each written fragment's spilled sequences as living in its own data
+/// file, which was written with them as hidden columns, and place the rest
+/// inline.
+fn place_row_lineage_in_files(
+    new_fragments: &mut [Fragment],
+    lineages: Vec<RowLineage>,
+    planned_rows: &[u64],
+    spill: RowLineageSpill,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    // Load old per-row last_updated_at version sequences
-    let mut old_last_updated_sequences: Vec<lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionSequence> =
-        Vec::with_capacity(old_fragments.len());
-    // Load old per-row created_at version sequences
-    let mut old_created_at_sequences: Vec<lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionSequence> =
-        Vec::with_capacity(old_fragments.len());
-
-    for frag in old_fragments.iter() {
-        let row_count = if let Some(row_id_meta) = &frag.row_id_meta {
-            match row_id_meta {
-                RowIdMeta::Inline(data) => lance_table::rowids::read_row_ids(data)?.len(),
-                RowIdMeta::External(_file) => frag.physical_rows.unwrap_or(0) as u64,
+    let lineages = fit_row_lineage_to_written(new_fragments, lineages, planned_rows, spill)?;
+    for (fragment, lineage) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(&lineages) {
+        if spill.any() {
+            let [file] = fragment.files.as_slice() else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "compaction wrote {} data files for fragment {}; the row lineage columns \
+                     are in exactly one",
+                    fragment.files.len(),
+                    fragment.id
+                )));
+            };
+            let missing = spill
+                .field_ids()
+                .find(|field_id| !file.fields.contains(field_id));
+            if let Some(field_id) = missing {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "compaction wrote fragment {}'s data file {} without row lineage field {}",
+                    fragment.id, file.path, field_id
+                )));
             }
+        }
+        spill.place_in_file(lineage).apply(fragment);
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Fit the lineage planned for output fragments of `planned_rows` rows each to
+/// the fragments the writer actually produced, one lineage per fragment.
+///
+/// A byte limit can close a file before its planned row count, after which the
+/// writer spreads the remaining rows over files of other sizes, so the
+/// sequences kept inline are cut again at the written row counts. The types
+/// `in_file` names need nothing: their columns were appended to the written
+/// rows one by one, so they follow any split, and their sequences are empty.
+///
+/// The in-file plan was made for the planned sizes. A written fragment is
+/// never larger than the largest planned one, but it can join the tail of one
+/// planned fragment to the head of the next, so a sequence that plan keeps
+/// inline can end up over the budget, up to about twice it. That is acceptable
+/// because the budget only bounds manifest growth and is not a format limit.
+/// The per-fragment plan decides again on the cut sequences.
+fn fit_row_lineage_to_written(
+    new_fragments: &[Fragment],
+    lineages: Vec<RowLineage>,
+    planned_rows: &[u64],
+    in_file: RowLineageSpill,
+) -> Result<Vec<RowLineage>> {
+    let written_rows = new_fragments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| match fragment.physical_rows {
+            Some(rows) => Ok(rows as u64),
+            None => Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "compaction wrote fragment {} without a physical row count",
+                fragment.id
+            ))),
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    let planned_total = planned_rows.iter().sum::<u64>();
+    let written_total = written_rows.iter().sum::<u64>();
+    if written_total != planned_total {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "compaction wrote {written_total} rows, in fragments of {written_rows:?} rows, \
+             but planned row lineage for {planned_total} rows, in fragments of \
+             {planned_rows:?} rows"
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let lineages = if written_rows.as_slice() == planned_rows {
+        lineages
+    } else {
+        let cut_error = |error: Error| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "compaction could not cut the row lineage planned for fragments of \
+                 {planned_rows:?} rows at the written fragments of {written_rows:?} rows: \
+                 {error}"
+            ))
+        };
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(lineages.len());
+        let mut created_at = Vec::with_capacity(lineages.len());
+        let mut last_updated_at = Vec::with_capacity(lineages.len());
+        for lineage in lineages {
+            row_ids.push(lineage.row_ids);
+            created_at.push(lineage.created_at);
+            last_updated_at.push(lineage.last_updated_at);
+        }
+        let fragment_count = written_rows.len();
+        let written = || written_rows.iter().copied();
+        let row_ids = if in_file.row_ids {
+            vec![RowIdSequence::new(); fragment_count]
         } else {
-            frag.physical_rows.unwrap_or(0) as u64
+            lance_table::rowids::rechunk_sequences(row_ids, written(), false).map_err(cut_error)?
         };
-
-        // Load created_at sequence (default to version 1 if missing)
-        let mut created_at_seq = if let Some(version_meta) = &frag.created_at_version_meta {
-            version_meta.load_sequence().map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Failed to load created_at version sequence: {}", e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+        let created_at = if in_file.created_at {
+            vec![RowDatasetVersionSequence::new(); fragment_count]
         } else {
-            // Default: treat all rows as created at version 1
-            lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(row_count, 1)
+            lance_table::rowids::version::rechunk_version_sequences(created_at, written(), false)
+                .map_err(cut_error)?
         };
-
-        // Load last_updated_at sequence (default to same as created_at sequence)
-        let mut last_updated_seq = if let Some(version_meta) = &frag.last_updated_at_version_meta {
-            version_meta.load_sequence().map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Failed to load last_updated_at version sequence: {}", e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+        let last_updated_at = if in_file.last_updated_at {
+            vec![RowDatasetVersionSequence::new(); fragment_count]
         } else {
-            created_at_seq.clone()
+            lance_table::rowids::version::rechunk_version_sequences(
+                last_updated_at,
+                written(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .map_err(cut_error)?
         };
+        row_ids
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(created_at)
+            .zip(last_updated_at)
+            .map(|((row_ids, created_at), last_updated_at)| RowLineage {
+                row_ids,
+                created_at,
+                last_updated_at,
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    };
 
-        // Apply deletion mask if present (positions are local offsets)
-        if let Some(deletion_file) = &frag.deletion_file {
-            let deletions = read_dataset_deletion_file(dataset, frag.id, deletion_file).await?;
-            last_updated_seq.mask(deletions.to_sorted_iter())?;
-            created_at_seq.mask(deletions.to_sorted_iter())?;
-        }
-
-        old_last_updated_sequences.push(last_updated_seq);
-        old_created_at_sequences.push(created_at_seq);
+    if lineages.len() != new_fragments.len() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "compaction has row lineage for {} fragments but wrote {}",
+            lineages.len(),
+            new_fragments.len()
+        )));
     }
-
-    // Ensure row counts match new fragments total
-    let old_total: u64 = old_last_updated_sequences.iter().map(|s| s.len()).sum();
-    let new_total: u64 = new_fragments
-        .iter()
-        .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap_or(0) as u64)
-        .sum();
-    debug_assert_eq!(old_total, new_total);
-
-    // Rechunk version runs aligned to new fragment sizes
-    let chunk_sizes: Vec<u64> = new_fragments
-        .iter()
-        .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap_or(0) as u64)
-        .collect();
-
-    let new_last_updated_sequences = lance_table::rowids::version::rechunk_version_sequences(
-        old_last_updated_sequences,
-        chunk_sizes.clone(),
-        false,
-    )?;
-
-    let new_created_at_sequences = lance_table::rowids::version::rechunk_version_sequences(
-        old_created_at_sequences,
-        chunk_sizes,
-        false,
-    )?;
-
-    // Set both version metadata on new fragments
-    for ((fragment, last_updated_seq), created_at_seq) in new_fragments
-        .iter_mut()
-        .zip(new_last_updated_sequences.into_iter())
-        .zip(new_created_at_sequences.into_iter())
-    {
-        fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = Some(
-            lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&last_updated_seq).unwrap(),
-        );
-        fragment.created_at_version_meta = Some(
-            lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&created_at_seq).unwrap(),
-        );
+    for ((fragment, &rows), lineage) in new_fragments.iter().zip(&written_rows).zip(&lineages) {
+        let inline_lengths = [
+            (in_file.row_ids, "row ids", lineage.row_ids.len()),
+            (
+                in_file.created_at,
+                "created-at versions",
+                lineage.created_at.len(),
+            ),
+            (
+                in_file.last_updated_at,
+                "last-updated-at versions",
+                lineage.last_updated_at.len(),
+            ),
+        ];
+        let mismatch = inline_lengths
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|&(is_in_file, _, len)| !is_in_file && len != rows);
+        if let Some((_, sequence, len)) = mismatch {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "compaction has {len} inline {sequence} for fragment {} of {rows} physical rows",
+                fragment.id
+            )));
+        }
     }
+    Ok(lineages)
+}
 
-    Ok(())
+/// Append the hidden row lineage columns, `fields` with the matching entry of
+/// `columns` as each one's values, to the batches of `stream`, in row order,
+/// so the file writer stores them next to the user columns.
+fn append_row_lineage_columns(
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    fields: &[LanceField],
+    columns: Vec<Vec<u64>>,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let mut arrow_fields = stream.schema().fields().to_vec();
+    arrow_fields.extend(fields.iter().map(|field| Arc::new(ArrowField::from(field))));
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(arrow_fields));
+    let total_rows = columns.first().map_or(0, |values| values.len());
+    let batch_schema = schema.clone();
+    let mut offset = 0usize;
+    let batches = stream.map(move |batch| {
+        let batch = batch?;
+        let rows = batch.num_rows();
+        if offset + rows > total_rows {
+            return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::External(Box::new(
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "compaction read more rows than its row lineage covers ({total_rows})"
+                )),
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut arrays = batch.columns().to_vec();
+        // Each batch gets a buffer of its own. A slice would share the whole
+        // task's buffer, and the writer, which sizes pages by the memory an
+        // array holds, would then cut a tiny page for every batch.
+        for values in &columns {
+            let batch_values = values[offset..offset + rows].to_vec();
+            arrays.push(Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(batch_values)) as ArrayRef);
+        }
+        offset += rows;
+        RecordBatch::try_new(batch_schema.clone(), arrays)
+            .map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from)
+    });
+    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, batches))
 }
 
 /// Commit the results of file compaction.
@@ -1306,48 +3234,285 @@ pub async fn commit_compaction(
         return Ok(CompactionMetrics::default());
     }
 
-    // If we aren't using stable row ids, then we need to remap indices.
-    let needs_remapping = !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() && !options.defer_index_remap;
+    // A tagged FRI history stores row translation in the manifest entry and
+    // depends on index bitmaps keeping their retired provenance, so a
+    // compaction on a tagged table can only commit by appending transitions
+    // (the deferred path below). Refuse the eager path up front, before any
+    // remapping work runs into the commit gate.
+    let tagged_fri = load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .any(lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged);
+    if tagged_fri && !options.defer_index_remap {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Compacting a table with a tagged fragment reuse history requires \
+             defer_index_remap; set defer_index_remap, or upgrade to a writer that \
+             remaps tagged histories eagerly",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // Before anything is written or committed. The condition is the planner's,
+    // not `has_address_style`: a dataset whose only index is one this build
+    // cannot read captures no row addresses at all, which is exactly the plan
+    // that has to be refused here.
+    if !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() && !options.defer_index_remap {
+        reject_unremappable_rewrite(dataset, &completed_tasks).await?;
+    }
+    reject_deferred_remap_with_row_id_indices(dataset, options).await?;
+
+    let has_address_style = completed_tasks.iter().any(|t| t.row_addrs.is_some());
+    // Address-style results require immediate index remapping unless it is deferred.
+    let needs_remapping =
+        !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() && !options.defer_index_remap && has_address_style;
+
+    // Confirm there is a remapper before materializing the potentially very large row address map.
+    let index_remapper = if needs_remapping {
+        remap_options.create_remapper(dataset).await?
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    // Determine the earliest version at which compaction tasks were planned/executed.
+    //
+    // In distributed mode (e.g. Spark) the caller opens *two separate* Dataset
+    // handles: one for `plan_compaction` (at version V) and a fresh one for
+    // `commit_compaction` (at the latest version V+N).  Using `dataset.manifest.version`
+    // (= V+N) as the transaction's `read_version` would cause the conflict checker to
+    // scan only versions after V+N — finding nothing — and therefore silently skip any
+    // concurrent DELETE/UPDATE that landed between V and V+N, resurrecting deleted rows.
+    //
+    // By anchoring `read_version` to the minimum version carried in the RewriteResults
+    // we ensure the conflict checker covers the full range [V, V+N] and will reject the
+    // commit with a retryable conflict error if a concurrent write touched the same
+    // fragments.
+    let tasks_read_version = completed_tasks
+        .iter()
+        .map(|t| t.read_version)
+        .min()
+        .unwrap_or(dataset.manifest.version);
+
+    let mut completed_tasks = completed_tasks;
+
+    // Collect the rewritten fragments' file paths up front so every failure
+    // path below can clean them up (or deliberately keep them). Fragment ids
+    // may still be reassigned by reserve_fragment_ids; cleanup only needs the
+    // file paths, which never change.
+    let all_new_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = completed_tasks
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|t| t.new_fragments.iter().cloned())
+        .collect();
+
+    // Single reserve_fragment_ids for all address-style tasks
+    let mut reserved_version = None;
+    if has_address_style {
+        let frags: Vec<&mut Fragment> = completed_tasks
+            .iter_mut()
+            .filter(|t| t.row_addrs.is_some())
+            .flat_map(|t| t.new_fragments.iter_mut())
+            .collect();
+        match reserve_fragment_ids(dataset, frags.into_iter()).await {
+            Ok(version) => reserved_version = Some(version),
+            Err(e) => {
+                cleanup_compaction_files_after_reservation_failure(dataset, &all_new_fragments)
+                    .await;
+                return Err(e);
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
     let mut rewrite_groups = Vec::with_capacity(completed_tasks.len());
     let mut metrics = CompactionMetrics::default();
 
-    let mut row_id_map: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> = HashMap::default();
+    let mut remap_group_inputs: Vec<GroupInput> = Vec::new();
+    let mut direct_row_id_map: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> = HashMap::default();
     let mut frag_reuse_groups: Vec<FragReuseGroup> = Vec::new();
     let mut new_fragment_bitmap: RoaringBitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
 
+    // Write an FRI only when the compaction touches data an index must later
+    // remap: a rewrite group covered by a data index, or by the existing FRI's new
+    // fragments (the composed remap chain). Compacting only not-yet-indexed data
+    // needs no FRI (one written for it is un-drainable). Decide all-or-nothing per
+    // compaction, never per group -- a partial FRI is unsound: a concurrent reindex
+    // can make a skipped fragment indexed and the conflict resolver's FRI-present
+    // path won't re-check it.
+    //
+    // The same rule applies on tagged tables: a transition for fragments no
+    // index covers and no lineage reaches would grow the history for rows no
+    // reader ever has to translate, with no trim to reclaim it; when nothing
+    // is covered the commit is a plain rewrite, which the tagged-table gate
+    // admits exactly for this uncovered shape.
+    let indexed_frags: RoaringBitmap = if options.defer_index_remap {
+        let mut covered = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for bm in load_index_fragmaps(dataset).await? {
+            covered |= bm;
+        }
+        // The stored listing works for v0 and tagged entries alike (the
+        // filtered listing post-processes coverage on tagged tables).
+        if let Some(bm) = load_all_indices(dataset)
+            .await?
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .and_then(|fri| fri.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+        {
+            covered |= bm;
+        }
+        covered
+    } else {
+        RoaringBitmap::new()
+    };
+    let mut any_group_indexed = false;
+
     for task in completed_tasks {
         metrics += task.metrics;
+        // One source of truth: the deferred branch normalizes the source
+        // metadata (materialized physical and deleted row counts) and BOTH
+        // the rewrite group and the reuse digests are built from it, so the
+        // commit-side binding validation compares like with like.
+        let old_fragments = if index_remapper.is_none() && options.defer_index_remap {
+            normalize_source_fragments(dataset, &task.original_fragments).await?
+        } else {
+            task.original_fragments.clone()
+        };
         let rewrite_group = RewriteGroup {
-            old_fragments: task.original_fragments.clone(),
+            old_fragments: old_fragments.clone(),
             new_fragments: task.new_fragments.clone(),
         };
-        if needs_remapping {
-            row_id_map.extend(task.row_id_map.unwrap());
+
+        if index_remapper.is_some() {
+            if let Some(row_addrs_bytes) = task.row_addrs {
+                let row_addrs =
+                    RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(&mut Cursor::new(&row_addrs_bytes))?;
+                match options.index_remap_mode {
+                    IndexRemapMode::Direct => {
+                        let transposed = remapping::transpose_row_addrs(
+                            row_addrs,
+                            &task.original_fragments,
+                            &task.new_fragments,
+                        );
+                        direct_row_id_map.extend(transposed);
+                    }
+                    IndexRemapMode::Compact => {
+                        let new_frags = task
+                            .new_fragments
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|f| {
+                                let physical_rows = f.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+                                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                        "compacted fragment {} is missing physical_rows",
+                                        f.id
+                                    ))
+                                })?;
+                                let fragment_id = u32::try_from(f.id).map_err(|_| {
+                                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                        "compacted fragment id {} is outside the row-address range",
+                                        f.id
+                                    ))
+                                })?;
+                                let physical_rows = u32::try_from(physical_rows).map_err(|_| {
+                                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                        "compacted fragment {} has physical_rows={} outside the row-address range",
+                                        f.id, physical_rows
+                                    ))
+                                })?;
+                                Ok((fragment_id, physical_rows))
+                            })
+                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+                        remap_group_inputs.push(GroupInput {
+                            rewritten_old_row_addrs: row_addrs,
+                            old_frag_ids: task
+                                .original_fragments
+                                .iter()
+                                .map(|f| {
+                                    u32::try_from(f.id).map_err(|_| {
+                                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                            "compacted source fragment id {} is outside the row-address range",
+                                            f.id
+                                        ))
+                                    })
+                                })
+                                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
+                            new_frags,
+                        });
+                    }
+                }
+            }
         } else if options.defer_index_remap {
+            // Record every group; track whether any touches indexed/chain
+            // data. Ids beyond the row-address range cannot appear in any
+            // index bitmap, so they are uncovered by definition.
+            if old_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .any(|f| u32::try_from(f.id).is_ok_and(|id| indexed_frags.contains(id)))
+            {
+                any_group_indexed = true;
+            }
+            let changed_row_addrs = task.row_addrs.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(
+                    "defer_index_remap requires row_addrs but none were provided".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            // Digest construction must not panic on incomplete metadata (the
+            // tasks may be replayed results planned elsewhere); the counts
+            // were materialized by `normalize_source_fragments` above, from
+            // the same list the rewrite group carries.
+            let digest =
+                |frag: &Fragment| -> Result<lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::FragDigest> {
+                    Ok(lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::FragDigest {
+                        id: frag.id,
+                        physical_rows: frag.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "fragment {} has no physical row count for the fragment reuse record",
+                                frag.id
+                            ))
+                        })?,
+                        num_deleted_rows: frag
+                            .deletion_file
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .map(|deletion| {
+                                deletion.num_deleted_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+                                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                        "fragment {} has a deletion file without a materialized row count",
+                                        frag.id
+                                    ))
+                                })
+                            })
+                            .transpose()?
+                            .unwrap_or(0),
+                    })
+                };
             frag_reuse_groups.push(FragReuseGroup {
-                changed_row_addrs: task.changed_row_addrs.unwrap(),
-                old_frags: task.original_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.into()).collect(),
-                new_frags: task.new_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.into()).collect(),
-            });
-
-            task.new_fragments.iter().for_each(|frag| {
-                new_fragment_bitmap.insert(frag.id as u32);
+                changed_row_addrs,
+                old_frags: old_fragments.iter().map(digest).collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+                new_frags: task
+                    .new_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(digest)
+                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
             });
+            for frag in task.new_fragments.iter() {
+                new_fragment_bitmap.insert(u32::try_from(frag.id).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "compacted fragment id {} is outside the row-address range",
+                        frag.id
+                    ))
+                })?);
+            }
         }
         rewrite_groups.push(rewrite_group);
     }
 
-    let rewritten_indices = if needs_remapping {
-        let index_remapper = remap_options.create_remapper(dataset)?;
+    let rewritten_indices = if let Some(index_remapper) = index_remapper {
         let affected_ids = rewrite_groups
             .iter()
             .flat_map(|group| group.old_fragments.iter().map(|frag| frag.id))
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        let remapped_indices = index_remapper
-            .remap_indices(row_id_map, &affected_ids)
-            .await?;
+        let remap = match options.index_remap_mode {
+            IndexRemapMode::Direct => RowAddrRemap::direct(direct_row_id_map),
+            IndexRemapMode::Compact => RowAddrRemap::compact(remap_group_inputs)?,
+        };
+        let remapped_indices = index_remapper.remap_indices(remap, &affected_ids).await?;
         remapped_indices
             .into_iter()
             .map(|rewritten| RewrittenIndex {
@@ -1355,53 +3520,246 @@ pub async fn commit_compaction(
                 new_id: rewritten.new_id,
                 new_index_details: rewritten.index_details,
                 new_index_version: rewritten.index_version,
+                new_index_files: rewritten.files,
             })
             .collect()
-    } else if !options.defer_index_remap {
+    } else if !options.defer_index_remap && !has_address_style {
         // We need to reserve fragment ids here so that the fragment bitmap
-        // can be updated for each index.
+        // can be updated for each index. Only needed for stable row IDs
+        // since address-style IDs were already reserved above.
         let new_fragments = rewrite_groups
             .iter_mut()
             .flat_map(|group| group.new_fragments.iter_mut())
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        reserve_fragment_ids(dataset, new_fragments.into_iter()).await?;
+        if let Err(e) = reserve_fragment_ids(dataset, new_fragments.into_iter()).await {
+            cleanup_compaction_files_after_reservation_failure(dataset, &all_new_fragments).await;
+            return Err(e);
+        }
         Vec::new()
     } else {
         Vec::new()
     };
 
-    let frag_reuse_index = if options.defer_index_remap {
-        Some(build_new_frag_reuse_index(dataset, frag_reuse_groups, new_fragment_bitmap).await?)
-    } else {
+    // No indexed/chain data touched -> no record at all (all-or-nothing, see
+    // above); the commit is a plain rewrite the tagged gate admits for this
+    // uncovered shape. Otherwise the record's FORM -- a v0 entry, or tagged
+    // transitions riding the in-memory rewrite intent that
+    // `build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry` assembles onto the entry at every
+    // commit attempt -- is decided HERE, at commit time, from the freshest
+    // state this handle has (the id reservations above do not advance it), not
+    // from a sample taken when the compaction started: another writer may
+    // have tagged the table in between. The record's BASE, however, is the
+    // snapshot at `tasks_read_version`: the commit path works out what the
+    // entry adds by diffing it against the entry at the transaction's read
+    // version, so an entry built from this later handle would fold every
+    // transition other writers appended in between into this rewrite's own
+    // additions and fail the commit for good instead of merging the
+    // histories (`rewrite_reuse_state` refuses such an entry outright). The
+    // read version itself stays at V: raising it to the latest version would
+    // skip the concurrency checks against the writes that landed in between.
+    // The remaining race onto the manifest CAS itself is handled by the
+    // rebase, which converts a v0-shaped intent into tagged transitions when
+    // the current entry turns out tagged (see `finish_rewrite`); the commit
+    // gate still rejects a v0 entry spliced by a writer without that
+    // conversion.
+    let frag_reuse_index = if options.defer_index_remap && any_group_indexed {
+        // Once a table is v1, it stays v1: the sticky
+        // FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX is the final authority
+        // (`uses_tagged_fri`), never the entry's own index_version. With NO
+        // entry -- for example a fully drained history whose entry a trim
+        // deleted -- the flag alone decides, so a tagged table never
+        // restarts its history in the v0 format; with a v0 entry UNDER the
+        // flag (a legacy entry a concurrent upgrade left pending) the
+        // tagged assembly lifts that entry byte-verbatim instead of
+        // extending it in place. A table that never was tagged has neither
+        // flag nor tagged entry, and keeps creating the v0 entry byte
+        // identically.
+        let stored = load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+        let tagged_at_commit = lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::uses_tagged_fri(
+            &dataset.manifest,
+            stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME),
+        );
+        if tagged_at_commit {
+            // Materializing a data overlay breaks the reuse premise that a
+            // rewrite moves addresses, never values; on a tagged table the
+            // stale-index handling that v0 applies (dropping destination
+            // ids from swapped bitmaps) is a no-op because provenance never
+            // contains the destinations. Refuse rather than record a
+            // transition; see `build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry` for the same
+            // rule on the stable-partition path.
+            if let Some(overlaid) = rewrite_groups
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|group| group.old_fragments.iter())
+                .find(|frag| !frag.overlays.is_empty())
+            {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "source fragment {} carries data overlay files; deferred compaction on a \
+                     tagged fragment reuse table would materialize the overlaid values while \
+                     indices keep translated coverage over the old addresses. Compact the \
+                     overlays away or rebuild the covering indices eagerly first",
+                    overlaid.id
+                )));
+            }
+            use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details as pb_fri;
+            let transitions = frag_reuse_groups
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|group| pb_fri::Transition {
+                    sources: group
+                        .old_frags
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(pb_fri::FragmentDigest::from)
+                        .collect(),
+                    destinations: group
+                        .new_frags
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(pb_fri::FragmentDigest::from)
+                        .collect(),
+                    mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                        pb_fri::OrderedCompaction {
+                            changed_row_addrs: group.changed_row_addrs,
+                        },
+                    )),
+                })
+                .collect();
+            // The complete entry: the history at the read version plus this
+            // compaction's own transitions, built from the same snapshot the
+            // commit path diffs it against (see above). The commit path
+            // merges the additions onto the entry current at commit.
+            let read_snapshot = if dataset.manifest.version == tasks_read_version {
+                Cow::Borrowed(&*dataset)
+            } else {
+                // A cleaned-up read version fails here, explicitly, rather
+                // than guessing the base from a later snapshot.
+                Cow::Owned(dataset.checkout_version(tasks_read_version).await?)
+            };
+            Some(
+                crate::index::frag_reuse::frag_reuse_entry_appending(&read_snapshot, transitions)
+                    .await?,
+            )
+        } else {
+            // The rewrite publishes right after the reservation unless another commit
+            // lands in between, in which case `finish_rewrite` restamps it.
+            let dataset_version = reserved_version.unwrap_or(dataset.manifest.version);
+            Some(
+                build_new_frag_reuse_index(
+                    dataset,
+                    frag_reuse_groups,
+                    new_fragment_bitmap,
+                    dataset_version,
+                )
+                .await?,
+            )
+        }
+    } else {
+        if options.defer_index_remap {
+            log::debug!(
+                "skipping fragment reuse record: no rewritten fragments are covered by an index or the reuse lineage"
+            );
+        }
         None
     };
 
-    let transaction = Transaction::new(
-        dataset.manifest.version,
+    let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+        // Use the version at which the compaction tasks were *planned*, not the
+        // version of the dataset handle passed to this function.  In distributed
+        // mode the caller may open a fresh dataset at a later version (V+N), but
+        // the tasks were executed against an older snapshot (V).  Anchoring the
+        // transaction to V ensures the OCC conflict checker scans all writes that
+        // landed between V and the commit point, detecting concurrent DELETE
+        // transactions that would otherwise cause deleted rows to reappear.
+        tasks_read_version,
         Operation::Rewrite {
             groups: rewrite_groups,
             rewritten_indices,
             frag_reuse_index,
         },
-        None,
-    );
+    )
+    .transaction_properties(options.transaction_properties.clone())
+    .build();
 
-    dataset
+    if let Err(e) = dataset
         .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-        .await?;
+        .await
+    {
+        // RewriteResult is serializable and may be retried after an earlier
+        // ambiguous success. A conflict on this call therefore does not prove
+        // that the rewritten files are unreferenced. Leave them for dataset GC.
+        log::warn!(
+            "Compaction commit failed; leaving {} rewritten fragment(s) in place for GC: {}",
+            all_new_fragments.len(),
+            e
+        );
+        return Err(e);
+    }
 
     Ok(metrics)
 }
 
+/// Materialize the counts the fragment reuse digests and conservation
+/// validation depend on, without changing the fragment list. Unlike
+/// [`migrate_fragments`], fully-deleted fragments are KEPT: the rewrite
+/// group must still remove them from the manifest and the recorded
+/// transition must still consume them (they contribute zero live rows), so
+/// a silently shortened list would desynchronize the digests, the group and
+/// the manifest.
+async fn normalize_source_fragments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+    let mut normalized = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        let mut fragment = fragment.clone();
+        if fragment.physical_rows.is_none() {
+            let file_fragment = FileFragment::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), fragment.clone());
+            fragment.physical_rows = Some(file_fragment.physical_rows().await?);
+        }
+        if fragment
+            .deletion_file
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|deletion| deletion.num_deleted_rows.is_none())
+        {
+            let deletion_file = fragment.deletion_file.as_ref().unwrap();
+            let count = read_dataset_deletion_file(dataset, fragment.id, deletion_file)
+                .await?
+                .len();
+            fragment.deletion_file.as_mut().unwrap().num_deleted_rows = Some(count);
+        }
+        normalized.push(fragment);
+    }
+    Ok(normalized)
+}
+
+/// Remove rewritten files after fragment-id reservation fails. Reservation
+/// commits do not reference the rewritten files, so they are still owned by
+/// this uncommitted compaction attempt and are safe to delete.
+async fn cleanup_compaction_files_after_reservation_failure(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    all_new_fragments: &[Fragment],
+) {
+    cleanup_data_fragments(
+        &dataset.object_store,
+        &dataset.base,
+        None,
+        all_new_fragments,
+    )
+    .await;
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
 
     mod binary_copy;
     use self::remapping::RemappedIndex;
     use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::WriteDestination;
     use crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index;
     use crate::dataset::optimize::remapping::{transpose_row_addrs, transpose_row_ids_from_digest};
-    use crate::dataset::WriteDestination;
+    use crate::dataset::rowids::read_spilled_row_ids;
+    use crate::dataset::rowids::{
+        INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY, SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY,
+    };
+    use crate::dataset::scanner::ColumnOrdering;
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use crate::index::frag_reuse::{load_frag_reuse_index_details, open_frag_reuse_index};
     use crate::index::vector::{StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
     use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
@@ -1414,11 +3772,14 @@ mod tests {
     use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
     use async_trait::async_trait;
     use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
+    use lance_core::Error;
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD_ID;
     use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_core::Error;
     use lance_datagen::Dimension;
     use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::CompactFragReuseIndexHandle;
     use lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
     use lance_index::scalar::{
         BuiltinIndexType, FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams,
@@ -1426,8 +3787,17 @@ mod tests {
     use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
     use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
     use lance_index::{Index, IndexType};
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
     use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
+    use lance_table::format::Manifest;
+    use lance_table::format::RowIdMeta;
+    use lance_table::format::pb::transaction::Operation as PbOperation;
+    use lance_table::io::commit::{
+        CommitError, CommitHandler, ConditionalPutCommitHandler, ManifestLocation,
+        ManifestNamingScheme, ManifestWriter,
+    };
     use lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes;
+    use lance_table::rowids::read_row_ids;
     use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32, RandomVector};
     use rstest::rstest;
     use std::collections::HashSet;
@@ -1449,6 +3819,7 @@ mod tests {
         let fragment = Fragment {
             id: 0,
             files: vec![],
+            overlays: vec![],
             deletion_file: None,
             row_id_meta: None,
             physical_rows: Some(0),
@@ -1489,6 +3860,33 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(split[0].pos_range, 0..2);
         assert_eq!(split[1].pos_range, 2..5);
         assert_eq!(split[2].pos_range, 5..8);
+
+        let zero_min_split_bin = CandidateBin {
+            fragments: std::iter::repeat_n(
+                Fragment {
+                    id: 0,
+                    files: vec![],
+                    overlays: vec![],
+                    deletion_file: None,
+                    row_id_meta: None,
+                    physical_rows: Some(0),
+                    last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+                    created_at_version_meta: None,
+                },
+                3,
+            )
+            .collect(),
+            pos_range: 0..3,
+            candidacy: std::iter::repeat_n(CompactionCandidacy::CompactItself, 3).collect(),
+            row_counts: vec![100, 200, 300],
+            indices: vec![],
+        };
+        let split = zero_min_split_bin.split_for_size(0);
+        assert_eq!(split.len(), 3);
+        assert!(split.iter().all(|bin| !bin.fragments.is_empty()));
+        assert_eq!(split[0].pos_range, 0..1);
+        assert_eq!(split[1].pos_range, 1..2);
+        assert_eq!(split[2].pos_range, 2..3);
     }
 
     fn sample_data() -> RecordBatch {
@@ -1501,6 +3899,20 @@ mod tests {
         .unwrap()
     }
 
+    /// Build (or, with `replace`, rebuild) a scalar index named "scalar" on `col`.
+    async fn create_scalar_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, col: &str, replace: bool) {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[col],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("scalar".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                replace,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
     #[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, PartialEq)]
     struct MockIndexRemapperExpectation {
         expected: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
@@ -1549,18 +3961,31 @@ mod tests {
     impl IndexRemapper for MockIndexRemapper {
         async fn remap_indices(
             &self,
-            index_map: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+            index_map: RowAddrRemap,
             _: &[u64],
         ) -> Result<Vec<RemappedIndex>> {
             for expectation in &self.expectations {
-                if expectation.expected == index_map {
+                let matches = match &index_map {
+                    RowAddrRemap::Direct(map) => map == &expectation.expected,
+                    RowAddrRemap::Compact(_) => {
+                        let expected_frags: RoaringBitmap = expectation
+                            .expected
+                            .keys()
+                            .map(|addr| (addr >> 32) as u32)
+                            .collect();
+                        index_map.affected_fragments() == expected_frags
+                            && expectation
+                                .expected
+                                .iter()
+                                .all(|(k, v)| index_map.get(*k) == Some(*v))
+                    }
+                };
+                if matches {
                     return Ok(expectation.answer.clone());
                 }
             }
             panic!(
-                "Unexpected index map (len={}): {}\n  Options: {}",
-                index_map.len(),
-                Self::stringify_map(&index_map),
+                "Unexpected index map; expected one of:\n  {}",
                 self.expectations
                     .iter()
                     .map(|expectation| Self::stringify_map(&expectation.expected))
@@ -1570,9 +3995,10 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[async_trait]
     impl IndexRemapperOptions for MockIndexRemapper {
-        fn create_remapper(&self, _: &Dataset) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexRemapper>> {
-            Ok(Box::new(self.clone()))
+        async fn create_remapper(&self, _: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn IndexRemapper>>> {
+            Ok(Some(Box::new(self.clone())))
         }
     }
 
@@ -1613,6 +4039,255 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 1);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_v2_0_file_missing_evolved_struct_child() {
+        let old_child = Arc::new(Field::new("old", DataType::Int32, true));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(
+                "values",
+                DataType::Struct(vec![old_child.clone()].into()),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
+                    old_child,
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30, 40])) as ArrayRef,
+                )])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Model a snapshot whose nullable struct retained its field ID while its
+        // old child was replaced by a later-added child. Existing V2.0 files
+        // still record the struct header and old child IDs.
+        let mut evolved_schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+        let parent_id = evolved_schema.fields[0].id;
+        let mut later_child = LanceField::new_arrow("later", DataType::Int32, true).unwrap();
+        later_child.id = evolved_schema.max_field_id().unwrap() + 1;
+        later_child.parent_id = parent_id;
+        evolved_schema.fields[0].children = vec![later_child];
+        let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+        dataset = Dataset::commit(
+            WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+            Operation::Project {
+                schema: evolved_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+            Some(read_version),
+            None,
+            None,
+            Arc::new(Default::default()),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 4);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+
+        let compacted = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(compacted.num_rows(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            compacted["id"].as_ref(),
+            &Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])
+        );
+        let values = compacted["values"].as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(values.null_count(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(values.column_by_name("later").unwrap().null_count(), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::default(None, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)]
+    #[case::stable(Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable), LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+    #[case::next(Some(LanceFileVersion::Next), LanceFileVersion::V2_3)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn plan_compaction_freezes_storage_version_selector(
+        #[case] selector: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+        #[case] exact: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let data = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])).unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(data.clone())], data.schema()),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            data_storage_version: selector,
+            excluded_fragment_ids: vec![2],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(plan.options.data_storage_version, Some(exact));
+        let serialized = serde_json::to_value(&plan).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            serialized["options"]["data_storage_version"],
+            exact.to_string()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            serde_json::from_value::<CompactionPlan>(serialized).unwrap(),
+            plan
+        );
+        assert_eq!(plan.num_tasks(), 1);
+        let retained = dataset.manifest.fragments[2].clone();
+        let task = plan.compaction_tasks().next().unwrap();
+        let task: CompactionTask =
+            serde_json::from_slice(&serde_json::to_vec(&task).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        let result = task.execute(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .new_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(Fragment::referenced_lance_files)
+                .all(|file| file.file_version().unwrap() == exact.resolve())
+        );
+        let result: RewriteResult =
+            serde_json::from_slice(&serde_json::to_vec(&result).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            vec![result],
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .manifest
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .any(|fragment| fragment == &retained)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        );
+        let actual = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first("id".into())]))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, data);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)]
+    #[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::Legacy)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn compaction_rejects_cross_family_target(
+        #[case] source: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[case] target: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(source),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            data_storage_version: Some(target),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let error = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed")
+        );
+        // Standalone distributed tasks also validate, independently of the planner.
+        let mut task = plan_compaction(&dataset, &CompactionOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .compaction_tasks()
+            .next()
+            .unwrap();
+        task.options = options;
+        let error = task.execute(&dataset).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case("0.1", Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy))]
+    #[case("2.0", Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0))]
+    #[case("2.1", Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1))]
+    #[case("2.2", Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2))]
+    #[case("2.3", Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3))]
+    #[case("stable", Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable))]
+    #[case("next", Some(LanceFileVersion::Next))]
+    #[case("invalid", None)]
+    fn compaction_storage_version_config(
+        #[case] value: &str,
+        #[case] expected: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+    ) {
+        let config = HashMap::from([(
+            "lance.compaction.data_storage_version".to_string(),
+            value.to_string(),
+        )]);
+        let result = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config);
+        if let Some(expected) = expected {
+            let options = result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(options.data_storage_version, Some(expected));
+            let json = serde_json::to_value(&options).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(json["data_storage_version"], value);
+            assert_eq!(
+                serde_json::from_value::<CompactionOptions>(json).unwrap(),
+                options
+            );
+        } else {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(
+                error
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains("lance.compaction.data_storage_version")
+            );
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains(value));
+            let error =
+                serde_json::from_value::<LanceFileVersion>(serde_json::json!(value)).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains(value));
+        }
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_compact_all_good(
@@ -1662,54 +4337,413 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 0);
     }
 
+    fn list_data_files(uri: &str) -> std::collections::BTreeSet<String> {
+        std::fs::read_dir(std::path::Path::new(uri).join("data"))
+            .map(|rd| {
+                rd.filter_map(|e| e.ok())
+                    .map(|e| e.file_name().to_string_lossy().into_owned())
+                    .collect()
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
+    async fn execute_compaction_plan(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        options: &CompactionOptions,
+    ) -> Vec<RewriteResult> {
+        let plan = plan_compaction(dataset, options).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!plan.tasks.is_empty());
+        let snapshot = dataset.clone();
+        futures::stream::iter(plan.tasks)
+            .map(|task| rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&snapshot), task, options))
+            .buffer_unordered(1)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Distributed compaction on a tagged table: the tasks are planned at V,
+    /// another writer's disjoint deferred compaction lands at V+1, and the
+    /// driver commits the planned tasks from a fresh handle at the latest
+    /// version. The reuse entry is built from the snapshot at V (the
+    /// transaction's read version), so the two histories merge instead of
+    /// the other writer's transition being taken for this compaction's own.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_compact_blob_columns() {
+    async fn distributed_deferred_compaction_merges_with_a_disjoint_concurrent_rewrite() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, false)
-                .with_metadata([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())].into()),
-        ]));
-        let expected_payload: Vec<Vec<u8>> =
-            vec![vec![1, 2, 3], vec![4, 5, 6], vec![7, 8, 9, 10], vec![11]];
-        let id_column: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
-            0..expected_payload.len() as i32,
-        ));
-        let blob_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(
-            expected_payload.iter().map(|value| Some(value.as_slice())),
-        ));
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_column, blob_array]).unwrap();
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let fresh = |uri: &str| {
+            crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+                .with_session(Arc::new(crate::session::Session::default()))
+                .load()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(4), FragmentRowCount::from(8))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Tag the table: the sticky flag decides the entry's form.
+        let indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        {
+            let manifest = Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest);
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags |= lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags |= lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        }
+        crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            reader,
-            &test_dir,
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1,
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
+        // Planned and executed at V over fragments 0 and 1.
+        let ours = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 16,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            excluded_fragment_ids: vec![2, 3],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let planned = fresh(uri).await.unwrap();
+        let read_version = planned.manifest.version;
+        let completed = execute_compaction_plan(&planned, &ours).await;
+        assert_eq!(completed.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(completed[0].read_version, read_version);
+
+        // Another writer compacts fragments 2 and 3 at V+1.
+        let mut other = fresh(uri).await.unwrap();
+        let theirs = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 16,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            excluded_fragment_ids: vec![0, 1],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        compact_files(&mut other, theirs, None).await.unwrap();
+        // The other writer reserved ids and then committed its rewrite.
+        assert!(other.manifest.version > read_version);
+
+        // The driver commits from a handle at the latest version.
+        let mut driver = fresh(uri).await.unwrap();
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut driver,
+            completed,
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &ours,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
-        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
-        assert!(dataset.get_fragments().len() > 1);
-
-        compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
 
-        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
-        let row_indices: Vec<u64> = (0..expected_payload.len() as u64).collect();
-        let blobs = dataset
-            .take_blobs_by_indices(&row_indices, "blob")
+        let committed = fresh(uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.fragments().len(), 2);
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&committed).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .expect("both compactions recorded their transitions");
+        let ledger = crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&committed, entry)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), expected_payload.len());
-        for (blob, expected) in blobs.iter().zip(expected_payload.iter()) {
-            let bytes = blob.read().await.unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(bytes.as_ref(), expected.as_slice());
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 2);
+        let batch = committed.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|v| v.unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        values.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(values, (0..32).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        for predicate in ["i = 3", "i = 20", "i > 10"] {
+            let indexed = committed
+                .scan()
+                .filter(predicate)
+                .unwrap()
+                .use_scalar_index(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let scanned = committed
+                .scan()
+                .filter(predicate)
+                .unwrap()
+                .use_scalar_index(false)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(indexed, scanned, "{predicate}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// When the compaction commit's status is unknown (the commit errored and
+    /// verification was unavailable), the rewritten files must NOT be deleted:
+    /// if the commit landed they are referenced by the new version, and
+    /// deleting them would corrupt the table.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_retry_after_ambiguous_success_preserves_live_files() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let num_rows = data.num_rows();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 3_000,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let files_before = list_data_files(test_uri);
+        let options = CompactionOptions::default();
+        let completed = execute_compaction_plan(&dataset, &options).await;
+        let serialized = serde_json::to_vec(&completed).unwrap();
+        let retry_results: Vec<RewriteResult> = serde_json::from_slice(&serialized).unwrap();
+        let rewritten_files = list_data_files(test_uri)
+            .difference(&files_before)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(!rewritten_files.is_empty());
+
+        handler.fail_next_rewrite(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndError);
+        handler
+            .fail_resolve
+            .store(true, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+        let err = commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            completed,
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("unknown commit status must surface as an error");
+        assert!(
+            err.is_commit_status_unknown(),
+            "expected CommitStatusUnknown, got: {:?}",
+            err
+        );
+
+        handler
+            .fail_resolve
+            .store(false, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+
+        // Retrying the same serialized RewriteResult now conflicts with the
+        // Rewrite that already landed. The retry must not delete those files.
+        let retry_error = commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            retry_results,
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("the replayed rewrite must conflict with its landed predecessor");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(retry_error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "expected RetryableCommitConflict, got: {retry_error:?}"
+        );
+        let files_after_retry = list_data_files(test_uri);
+        assert!(
+            rewritten_files
+                .iter()
+                .all(|file| files_after_retry.contains(file)),
+            "a replayed RewriteResult must not delete files referenced by the landed rewrite"
+        );
+
+        let ds = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), num_rows);
+        let scanned = ds.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scanned.num_rows(), num_rows);
+    }
+
+    /// A deferred (v0 ReplaceEntry) compaction whose commit lands but reports
+    /// a conflict must be recognized as our own commit. The frag reuse
+    /// payload is intentionally not serialized, so commit-outcome
+    /// verification has to compare durable forms; comparing the in-memory
+    /// transaction would misclassify the landed commit as foreign, retry
+    /// against ourselves, and delete the landed commit's transaction file.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deferred_compaction_recognizes_ambiguous_commit_as_own() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(600),
+            "memory://test/deferred_ambiguous",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100, // 6 small files -> compaction has work
+                commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        // Indexed data, so the deferred compaction carries a frag reuse
+        // (ReplaceEntry) payload on its Rewrite transaction.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
+        let fragments_before = dataset.get_fragments().len();
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 100_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let completed = execute_compaction_plan(&dataset, &options).await;
+
+        // The commit lands, but the store reports a conflict.
+        handler.fail_next_rewrite(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndConflict);
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            completed,
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("verification must recognize the landed compaction as our own commit");
+
+        assert!(
+            dataset.get_fragments().len() < fragments_before,
+            "the landed compaction must be visible"
+        );
+        let fri = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("the deferred compaction installs the frag reuse entry");
+        assert_eq!(fri.index_version, 0);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 600);
+
+        // The landed manifest references its transaction file; it must not
+        // have been deleted by the (spurious) conflict cleanup.
+        let transaction_file = dataset
+            .manifest
+            .transaction_file
+            .as_deref()
+            .expect("the landed manifest records its transaction file");
+        let path = dataset
+            .base
+            .clone()
+            .join(crate::dataset::TRANSACTIONS_DIR)
+            .join(transaction_file);
+        assert!(dataset.object_store.exists(&path).await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    /// A failed ReserveFragments commit cannot reference the rewritten files,
+    /// so both stable-row-id reservation paths must still clean them up.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_cleans_up_files_when_fragment_reservation_fails() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let num_rows = data.num_rows();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 3_000,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let files_before = list_data_files(test_uri);
+        let options = CompactionOptions::default();
+        let completed = execute_compaction_plan(&dataset, &options).await;
+        assert!(list_data_files(test_uri).len() > files_before.len());
+
+        handler.fail_next_reserve(AmbiguousFailure::FailOutright);
+        let err = commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            completed,
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("fragment reservation that did not land must fail");
+        assert!(
+            !err.is_commit_status_unknown(),
+            "a verified-absent reservation is a definite failure, got: {:?}",
+            err
+        );
+
+        let files_after = list_data_files(test_uri);
+        let leftover: Vec<_> = files_after.difference(&files_before).collect();
+        assert!(
+            leftover.is_empty(),
+            "rewritten files must be cleaned up after reservation fails; leftover: {:?}",
+            leftover
+        );
+        let ds = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), num_rows);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_columns() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, false)
+                .with_metadata([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())].into()),
+        ]));
+        let expected_payload: Vec<Vec<u8>> =
+            vec![vec![1, 2, 3], vec![4, 5, 6], vec![7, 8, 9, 10], vec![11]];
+        let id_column: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+            0..expected_payload.len() as i32,
+        ));
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(
+            expected_payload.iter().map(|value| Some(value.as_slice())),
+        ));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_column, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(dataset.get_fragments().len() > 1);
+
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        let row_indices: Vec<u64> = (0..expected_payload.len() as u64).collect();
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&row_indices, "blob")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.len(), expected_payload.len());
+        for (blob, expected) in blobs.iter().zip(expected_payload.iter()) {
+            let bytes = blob.as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(bytes.as_ref(), expected.as_slice());
         }
     }
 
@@ -1803,49 +4837,44 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
         let first_new_frag_idx = 7;
-        // Predicting the remap is difficult.  One task will remap to fragments 7/8 and the other
-        // will remap to fragments 9/10 but we don't know which is which and so we just allow ourselves
-        // to expect both possibilities.
+        // The tasks execute concurrently, so either one may reserve the first
+        // output fragment id.
         let remap_a = expect_remap(
             &[
                 vec![
-                    // 3 small fragments are rewritten to frags 7 & 8
+                    // 3 small fragments are rewritten to frag 7
                     (row_addrs(0, 0..400), true),
                     (row_addrs(1, 0..400), true),
-                    (row_addrs(2, 0..200), true),
+                    (row_addrs(2, 0..400), true),
                 ],
-                vec![(row_addrs(2, 200..400), true)],
                 // frag 3 is skipped since it does not have enough missing data
-                // Frags 4, 5, and 6 are rewritten to frags 9 & 10
+                // Frags 4, 5, and 6 are rewritten to frag 8
                 vec![
-                    // Only 800 of the 1000 rows taken from frag 4
                     (row_addrs(4, 0..200), true),
                     (row_addrs(4, 200..400), false),
                     (row_addrs(4, 400..1000), true),
-                    // frags 5 compacted with frag 4
-                    (row_addrs(5, 0..200), true),
+                    (row_addrs(5, 0..300), true),
+                    (row_addrs(6, 0..300), true),
                 ],
-                vec![(row_addrs(5, 200..300), true), (row_addrs(6, 0..300), true)],
             ],
             first_new_frag_idx,
         );
         let remap_b = expect_remap(
             &[
-                // Frags 4, 5, and 6 are rewritten to frags 7 & 8
+                // Frags 4, 5, and 6 are rewritten to frag 7
                 vec![
                     (row_addrs(4, 0..200), true),
                     (row_addrs(4, 200..400), false),
                     (row_addrs(4, 400..1000), true),
-                    (row_addrs(5, 0..200), true),
+                    (row_addrs(5, 0..300), true),
+                    (row_addrs(6, 0..300), true),
                 ],
-                vec![(row_addrs(5, 200..300), true), (row_addrs(6, 0..300), true)],
-                // 3 small fragments rewritten to frags 9 & 10
+                // 3 small fragments rewritten to frag 8
                 vec![
                     (row_addrs(0, 0..400), true),
                     (row_addrs(1, 0..400), true),
-                    (row_addrs(2, 0..200), true),
+                    (row_addrs(2, 0..400), true),
                 ],
-                vec![(row_addrs(2, 200..400), true)],
             ],
             first_new_frag_idx,
         );
@@ -1886,868 +4915,1112 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Assert on metrics
         assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 6);
-        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 4);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 2);
         assert_eq!(metrics.files_removed, 7); // 6 data files + 1 deletion file
-        assert_eq!(metrics.files_added, 4);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.files_added, 2);
 
         let fragment_ids = dataset
             .get_fragments()
             .iter()
             .map(|f| f.id())
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        assert_eq!(fragment_ids, vec![3, 7, 8, 9, 10]);
+        assert_eq!(fragment_ids, vec![3, 7, 8]);
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_compact_data_files(
+    async fn test_compaction_does_not_strand_small_remainders(
         #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
         data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
     ) {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-
-        let data = sample_data();
-
-        // Create a table with 2 small fragments
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema());
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 5_000,
-            max_rows_per_group: 1_000,
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Add a column
-        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, false),
-            Field::new("x", DataType::Float32, false),
-        ]);
-
-        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(schema),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..10_000)),
-                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
-                    (0..10_000).map(|x| x as f32 * std::f32::consts::PI),
-                )),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let data = sample_data().slice(0, 2_000);
         let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema());
-
-        dataset.merge(reader, "a", "a").await.unwrap();
-
-        let expected_remap = expect_remap(
-            &[vec![
-                // 3 small fragments are rewritten entirely
-                (row_addrs(0, 0..5000), true),
-                (row_addrs(1, 0..5000), true),
-            ]],
-            2,
-        );
-
-        let plan = plan_compaction(
-            &dataset,
-            &CompactionOptions {
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 200,
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
                 ..Default::default()
-            },
+            }),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(plan.tasks()[0].fragments.len(), 2);
 
-        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, plan.options, Some(Arc::new(expected_remap)))
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 500,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options.clone(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(metrics.files_removed, 4); // 2 fragments with 2 data files
-        assert_eq!(metrics.files_added, 1); // 1 fragment with 1 data file
-        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
-        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
-
-        // Assert order unchanged and data is all there.
-        let scanner = dataset.scan();
-        let batches = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let scanned_data = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 10);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 3);
+        let mut fragment_sizes = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.metadata.physical_rows.unwrap())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        fragment_sizes.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(fragment_sizes, vec![600, 600, 800]);
 
-        assert_eq!(scanned_data, data);
+        let second_metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second_metrics, CompactionMetrics::default());
     }
 
     #[rstest]
+    #[case::legacy(LanceFileVersion::Legacy)]
+    #[case::stable(LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_compact_deletions(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    async fn test_compaction_rebalances_oversized_task(
+        #[case] data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
     ) {
-        // For files that have few rows, we don't want to compact just 1 since
-        // that won't do anything. But if there are deletions to materialize,
-        // we want to do groups of 1. This test checks that.
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let data = sample_data().slice(0, 5_100);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 5_000))], data.schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 5_000,
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(5_000, 100))], data.schema());
+        dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let data = sample_data();
+        dataset.delete("a < 1000").await.unwrap();
 
-        // Create a table with 1 fragment
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 1000))], data.schema());
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 1000,
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 1_000,
             ..Default::default()
         };
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks[0].fragments.len(), 2);
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options.clone(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        dataset.delete("a <= 500").await.unwrap();
-
-        // Threshold must be satisfied
-        let mut options = CompactionOptions {
-            materialize_deletions_threshold: 0.8,
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.metadata.physical_rows.unwrap())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![1_025; 4]
+        );
+
+        let second_metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second_metrics, CompactionMetrics::default());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_balances_non_divisible_stable_task() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let data = sample_data().slice(0, 121);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 121,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("a < 20").await.unwrap();
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 10,
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks[0].fragments.len(), 1);
 
-        // Ignore deletions if materialize_deletions is false
-        options.materialize_deletions_threshold = 0.1;
-        options.materialize_deletions = false;
-        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 0);
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options.clone(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 1);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 10);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.metadata.physical_rows.unwrap())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            [vec![11], vec![10; 9]].concat()
+        );
 
-        // Materialize deletions if threshold is met
-        options.materialize_deletions = true;
-        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 1);
+        let second_metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second_metrics, CompactionMetrics::default());
+    }
 
-        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 1);
-        assert_eq!(metrics.files_removed, 2);
-        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+    /// A byte limit can close a compaction output file before its planned row
+    /// count, and the writer then spreads the remaining rows over files of
+    /// other sizes. The lineage placed inline has to follow the written row
+    /// counts, and a written total that differs from the planned one is an
+    /// error rather than lineage shifted onto the wrong rows.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::extra_file(
+        &[10, 10],
+        &[9, 6, 5],
+        RowLineageSpill { row_ids: true, ..Default::default() },
+        None
+    )]
+    #[case::shifted(
+        &[101, 100, 100],
+        &[100, 101, 100],
+        RowLineageSpill { row_ids: true, ..Default::default() },
+        None
+    )]
+    #[case::shifted_all_inline(
+        &[101, 100, 100],
+        &[100, 101, 100],
+        RowLineageSpill::default(),
+        None
+    )]
+    #[case::mismatched_totals(
+        &[10, 10],
+        &[10, 9],
+        RowLineageSpill { row_ids: true, ..Default::default() },
+        Some("wrote 19 rows")
+    )]
+    fn place_row_lineage_in_files_follows_written_sizes(
+        #[case] planned_rows: &[u64],
+        #[case] written_rows: &[usize],
+        #[case] spill: RowLineageSpill,
+        #[case] expected_error: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let total_rows = planned_rows.iter().sum::<u64>();
+        // Every row has a version of its own, so a sequence cut at the wrong
+        // row cannot pass for the right one.
+        let versions = (1..=total_rows).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut lineages = Vec::with_capacity(planned_rows.len());
+        let mut start = 0_u64;
+        for rows in planned_rows {
+            let end = start + rows;
+            let created_at =
+                RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&versions[start as usize..end as usize]);
+            lineages.push(RowLineage {
+                row_ids: RowIdSequence::from(start..end),
+                last_updated_at: created_at.clone(),
+                created_at,
+            });
+            start = end;
+        }
+        let columns = spill.take_columns(&mut lineages);
+        if spill.row_ids {
+            assert_eq!(columns, vec![(0..total_rows).collect::<Vec<_>>()]);
+        } else {
+            assert!(columns.is_empty(), "{columns:?}");
+        }
+        // Each written file carries the user column and the spilled columns.
+        let fields = std::iter::once(0)
+            .chain(spill.field_ids())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let column_indices = (0..fields.len() as i32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut fragments = written_rows
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(id, rows)| {
+                Fragment::new(id as u64)
+                    .with_file(
+                        format!("{id}.lance"),
+                        fields.clone(),
+                        column_indices.clone(),
+                        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .with_physical_rows(*rows)
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
-        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
-        assert!(fragments[0].metadata.deletion_file.is_none());
+        let placed = place_row_lineage_in_files(&mut fragments, lineages, planned_rows, spill);
+        if let Some(expected) = expected_error {
+            let error = placed.unwrap_err();
+            let Error::Internal { message, .. } = &error else {
+                panic!("expected an internal error, got {error}");
+            };
+            assert!(message.contains(expected), "{message}");
+            return;
+        }
+        placed.unwrap();
+        let mut placed_row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(versions.len());
+        let mut placed_created_at = Vec::with_capacity(versions.len());
+        let mut placed_last_updated_at = Vec::with_capacity(versions.len());
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let physical_rows = fragment.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64;
+            match &fragment.row_id_meta {
+                Some(RowIdMeta::Column) if spill.row_ids => {}
+                Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(bytes)) if !spill.row_ids => {
+                    let row_ids = read_row_ids(bytes).unwrap();
+                    assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), physical_rows);
+                    placed_row_ids.extend(row_ids.iter());
+                }
+                other => panic!(
+                    "fragment {} has row id meta {other:?} under {spill:?}",
+                    fragment.id
+                ),
+            }
+            for (meta, collected) in [
+                (&fragment.created_at_version_meta, &mut placed_created_at),
+                (
+                    &fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta,
+                    &mut placed_last_updated_at,
+                ),
+            ] {
+                let sequence = meta.as_ref().unwrap().load_sequence().unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(sequence.len(), physical_rows);
+                collected.extend(sequence.versions());
+            }
+        }
+        if !spill.row_ids {
+            assert_eq!(placed_row_ids, (0..total_rows).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(placed_created_at, versions);
+        assert_eq!(placed_last_updated_at, versions);
     }
 
-    #[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-    struct IgnoreRemap {}
+    /// A sequence type over the budget in only some output fragments sends the
+    /// task down the per-fragment path: once the lineage is cut at the written
+    /// sizes, a fragment whose row ids fit keeps them inline, and only the ones
+    /// over the budget get a lineage file of their own.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn per_fragment_plan_spills_only_the_fragments_over_budget() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(1),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .update_config([
+                (SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY, "true"),
+                (INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY, "100"),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // A range encodes to a few bytes at any length. The scattered ids, a
+        // permutation of 500..1000 with no runs, take about two bytes a row,
+        // so any 250 of them are well over the 100-byte budget.
+        let scattered = (0..500_u64)
+            .map(|i| 500 + (i * 7919) % 500)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let row_ids = [
+            RowIdSequence::from(0..500),
+            RowIdSequence::from(scattered.as_slice()),
+        ];
+        let lineages = row_ids
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|row_ids| {
+                let created_at =
+                    RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(row_ids.len(), 1);
+                RowLineage {
+                    row_ids,
+                    last_updated_at: created_at.clone(),
+                    created_at,
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let plan = plan_row_lineage_spill(100, &lineages);
+        assert_eq!(plan, RowLineagePlan::PerFragment);
+        // Written as [250, 500, 250] rather than the planned [500, 500], so
+        // the middle fragment joins the tail of the range to the head of the
+        // scattered ids.
+        let mut fragments = [250, 500, 250]
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(id, rows)| {
+                Fragment::new(id as u64)
+                    .with_file(
+                        format!("{id}.lance"),
+                        vec![0],
+                        vec![0],
+                        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .with_physical_rows(rows)
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-    #[async_trait]
-    impl IndexRemapper for IgnoreRemap {
-        async fn remap_indices(
-            &self,
-            _: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
-            _: &[u64],
-        ) -> Result<Vec<RemappedIndex>> {
-            Ok(Vec::new())
+        place_planned_row_lineage(
+            &dataset,
+            &mut fragments,
+            PlannedRowLineage {
+                lineages,
+                planned_rows: vec![500, 500],
+                plan,
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(fragments[0].row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(_))),
+            "a fragment whose row ids fit must keep them inline, got {:?}",
+            fragments[0].row_id_meta
+        );
+        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files.len(), 1);
+        for fragment in &fragments[1..] {
+            assert!(
+                matches!(fragment.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column)),
+                "fragment {}'s row ids are over the budget, got {:?}",
+                fragment.id,
+                fragment.row_id_meta
+            );
+            assert_eq!(fragment.files.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(fragment.files[1].fields.as_ref(), [ROW_ID_FIELD_ID]);
+        }
+        let mut placed_row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(1000);
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let row_ids = match &fragment.row_id_meta {
+                Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(bytes)) => read_row_ids(bytes).unwrap(),
+                _ => read_spilled_row_ids(&dataset, fragment).await.unwrap(),
+            };
+            placed_row_ids.extend(row_ids.iter());
         }
+        assert_eq!(
+            placed_row_ids,
+            (0..500)
+                .chain(scattered.iter().copied())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
     }
 
-    impl IndexRemapperOptions for IgnoreRemap {
-        fn create_remapper(&self, _: &Dataset) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexRemapper>> {
-            Ok(Box::new(Self {}))
+    /// A fragment compacts on its own when one of its files is kept only for
+    /// the row lineage it carries next to user columns that are gone. Neither
+    /// layout compaction writes may qualify, or every compaction would plan
+    /// another. Field -2 is the tombstone and -3..=-5 are the lineage columns;
+    /// the schema holds fields 0 and 1, and 5 and 6 were dropped.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::in_file_carrier(vec![vec![0, 1, -3, -4, -5]], false)]
+    #[case::lineage_only_file(vec![vec![0, 1], vec![-3, -4, -5]], false)]
+    #[case::tombstoned_carrier(vec![vec![-2, -2, -3, -4, -5], vec![0, 1]], true)]
+    #[case::carrier_of_dropped_columns(vec![vec![5, 6, -3, -4, -5], vec![0, 1]], true)]
+    #[case::dead_file_without_lineage(vec![vec![-2, 6], vec![0, 1]], false)]
+    fn compaction_reclaims_lineage_carriers_of_dead_user_columns(
+        #[case] files: Vec<Vec<i32>>,
+        #[case] expected: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        for (index, fields) in files.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            let column_indices = (0..fields.len() as i32).collect();
+            fragment.add_file(
+                format!("{index}.lance"),
+                fields,
+                column_indices,
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+                None,
+            );
         }
+        let schema_field_ids = HashSet::from([0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            pins_dead_user_columns_for_lineage(&fragment, &schema_field_ids),
+            expected
+        );
     }
 
-    #[rstest::rstest]
+    /// The writer sizes a column's pages by the memory its arrays hold, so a
+    /// lineage array sharing one buffer with the whole task would make it cut
+    /// a tiny page for every batch.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_compact_distributed(
+    async fn append_row_lineage_columns_gives_each_batch_its_own_buffer() {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3])).unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let batches = vec![batch; 3]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(Ok::<_, datafusion::error::DataFusionError>);
+        let input: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::iter(batches),
+        ));
+        let spill = RowLineageSpill {
+            row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let fields = spill.schema_fields().unwrap();
+
+        let output = append_row_lineage_columns(input, &fields, vec![(0..12).collect()])
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(output.len(), 3);
+        for (index, batch) in output.iter().enumerate() {
+            let start = index as u64 * 4;
+            let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+            assert_eq!(
+                row_ids.values().to_vec(),
+                (start..start + 4).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+            assert!(
+                row_ids.get_buffer_memory_size() <= batch.num_rows() * 8,
+                "batch {index}'s row ids hold {} bytes for {} rows",
+                row_ids.get_buffer_memory_size(),
+                batch.num_rows()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_data_files(
         #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
         data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] use_stable_row_id: bool,
     ) {
-        // Can run the tasks independently
-        // Can provide subset of tasks to commit_compaction
-        // Once committed, can't commit remaining tasks
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
         let data = sample_data();
 
-        // Write dataset as 9 1k row fragments
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 9000))], data.schema());
+        // Create a table with 2 small fragments
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema());
         let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 1000,
+            max_rows_per_file: 5_000,
+            max_rows_per_group: 1_000,
             data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            enable_stable_row_ids: use_stable_row_id,
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Plan compaction with 3 tasks
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 3_000,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 3);
+        // Add a column
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("x", DataType::Float32, false),
+        ]);
 
-        let dataset_ref = &dataset;
-        let mut results = futures::stream::iter(plan.compaction_tasks())
-            .then(|task| async move { task.execute(dataset_ref).await.unwrap() })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await;
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(schema),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..10_000)),
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..10_000).map(|x| x as f32 * std::f32::consts::PI),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema());
 
-        assert_eq!(results.len(), 3);
+        dataset.merge(reader, "a", "a").await.unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(
-            results[0]
-                .original_fragments
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.id)
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            vec![0, 1, 2]
+        let expected_remap = expect_remap(
+            &[vec![
+                // 3 small fragments are rewritten entirely
+                (row_addrs(0, 0..5000), true),
+                (row_addrs(1, 0..5000), true),
+            ]],
+            2,
         );
-        assert_eq!(results[0].metrics.files_removed, 3);
-        assert_eq!(results[0].metrics.files_added, 1);
 
-        // Just commit the last task
-        commit_compaction(
-            &mut dataset,
-            vec![results.pop().unwrap()],
-            Arc::new(IgnoreRemap::default()),
-            &options,
+        let plan = plan_compaction(
+            &dataset,
+            &CompactionOptions {
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks()[0].fragments.len(), 2);
 
-        if use_stable_row_id {
-            // 1 commit for reserve fragments and 1 for final commit, both
-            // from the call to commit_compaction
-            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 3);
-        } else {
-            // 1 commit for each task's reserve fragments plus 1 for
-            // the call to commit_compaction
-            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 5);
-        }
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, plan.options, Some(Arc::new(expected_remap)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Can commit the remaining tasks
-        commit_compaction(
-            &mut dataset,
-            results,
-            Arc::new(IgnoreRemap::default()),
-            &options,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-        if use_stable_row_id {
-            // 1 commit for reserve fragments and 1 for final commit, both
-            // from the call to commit_compaction
-            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 5);
-        } else {
-            // The reserve fragments call already happened for this task
-            // and so we just see the bump from the commit_compaction
-            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 6);
-        }
+        assert_eq!(metrics.files_removed, 4); // 2 fragments with 2 data files
+        assert_eq!(metrics.files_added, 1); // 1 fragment with 1 data file
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids(), use_stable_row_id,);
+        // Assert order unchanged and data is all there.
+        let scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let batches = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let scanned_data = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(scanned_data, data);
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_stable_row_indices() {
-        // Validate behavior of indices after compaction with stable row ids.
-        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
-            .col(Box::new(
-                RandomVector::new().vec_width(16).named("vec".to_owned()),
-            ))
-            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(500),
-            "memory://test/table",
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
-                max_rows_per_file: 100, // 5 files
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+    async fn test_compact_with_io_buffer_size(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        // Compaction should succeed and produce correct results when an
+        // explicit io_buffer_size is provided via CompactionOptions.
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
-        // Delete first 110 rows so rowids != final rowaddrs
-        // First 100 rows deletes first file. Next 10 deletes part of second
-        // file, so we will trigger the with deletions code path.
-        dataset.delete("i < 110").await.unwrap();
+        let data = sample_data();
 
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["i"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                Some("scalar".into()),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
-            )
+        // Create a table with 2 small fragments so there is something to compact.
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 5_000,
+            max_rows_per_group: 1_000,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 1, MetricType::L2, 50);
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vec"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vector".into()),
-                &params,
-                false,
-            )
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            // A generous buffer so the read does not deadlock on large batches.
+            io_buffer_size: Some(256 * 1024 * 1024),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 1);
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+
+        // All rows are preserved after compaction.
+        let scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let batches = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let scanned_data = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scanned_data.num_rows(), data.num_rows());
+    }
 
-        async fn index_set(dataset: &Dataset) -> HashSet<Uuid> {
-            dataset
-                .load_indices()
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|index| index.uuid)
-                .collect()
-        }
-        let indices = index_set(&dataset).await;
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_deletions(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        // For files that have few rows, we don't want to compact just 1 since
+        // that won't do anything. But if there are deletions to materialize,
+        // we want to do groups of 1. This test checks that.
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
-        async fn vector_query(dataset: &Dataset) -> RecordBatch {
-            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let data = sample_data();
 
-            let query = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 16]);
-            scanner
-                .nearest("vec", &query, 10)
-                .unwrap()
-                .project(&["i"])
-                .unwrap();
+        // Create a table with 1 fragment
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 1000))], data.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1000,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
-        }
+        dataset.delete("a <= 500").await.unwrap();
 
-        async fn scalar_query(dataset: &Dataset) -> RecordBatch {
-            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        // Threshold must be satisfied
+        let mut options = CompactionOptions {
+            materialize_deletions_threshold: 0.8,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 0);
 
-            scanner.filter("i = 100").unwrap().project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        // Ignore deletions if materialize_deletions is false
+        options.materialize_deletions_threshold = 0.1;
+        options.materialize_deletions = false;
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 0);
 
-            scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
-        }
+        // Materialize deletions if threshold is met
+        options.materialize_deletions = true;
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 1);
 
-        let before_vec_result = vector_query(&dataset).await;
-        let before_scalar_result = scalar_query(&dataset).await;
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 1);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.files_removed, 2);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
 
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 180,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let _metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        assert!(fragments[0].metadata.deletion_file.is_none());
+    }
 
-        // The indices should be unchanged after compaction, since we are using
-        // stable row ids.
-        let current_indices = index_set(&dataset).await;
-        assert_eq!(indices, current_indices);
+    #[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+    struct IgnoreRemap {}
 
-        let after_vec_result = vector_query(&dataset).await;
-        assert_eq!(before_vec_result, after_vec_result);
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexRemapper for IgnoreRemap {
+        async fn remap_indices(&self, _: RowAddrRemap, _: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<RemappedIndex>> {
+            Ok(Vec::new())
+        }
+    }
 
-        let after_scalar_result = scalar_query(&dataset).await;
-        assert_eq!(before_scalar_result, after_scalar_result);
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl IndexRemapperOptions for IgnoreRemap {
+        async fn create_remapper(&self, _: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn IndexRemapper>>> {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::without_index(false)]
+    #[case::with_index(true)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_defer_index_remap() {
-        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
-            .col(Box::new(
-                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
-            ))
-            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
-
+    async fn test_row_addrs_only_used_with_remappable_index(#[case] has_index: bool) {
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 9_000))], data.schema());
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(6_000),
-            "memory://test/table",
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
             Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                max_rows_per_file: 3_000,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Create another same dataset to mimic behavior without deferred index remap
-        let mut data_gen2 = BatchGenerator::new()
-            .col(Box::new(
-                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
-            ))
-            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+        if has_index {
+            create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "a", false).await;
+        }
 
-        let mut dataset2 = Dataset::write(
-            data_gen2.batch(6_000),
-            "memory://test/table",
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 9_000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 1);
 
-        // Delete some rows to create deletions
-        dataset.delete("i < 500").await.unwrap();
-        dataset2.delete("i < 500").await.unwrap();
+        let mut result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), plan.tasks()[0].clone(), &options)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.row_addrs.is_some(), has_index);
 
-        // Create a scalar index to check this is not touched
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["i"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                Some("scalar".into()),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
+        if has_index {
+            let row_addrs_bytes = result
+                .row_addrs
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("indexed compaction should capture row addresses");
+            let row_addrs =
+                RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(&mut Cursor::new(row_addrs_bytes)).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(row_addrs.len(), 9_000);
+            // The captured addresses are contiguous per-fragment ranges, so the
+            // persisted blob must be run-optimized: O(fragments) bytes, not
+            // O(rows). Without run containers this serializes at ~2 bytes per
+            // address (~18 KB here), so under one byte per address proves the
+            // run form was written.
+            assert!(
+                row_addrs_bytes.len() < row_addrs.len() as usize,
+                "serialized row addrs ({} bytes for {} addresses) should be \
+                 run-optimized before persisting",
+                row_addrs_bytes.len(),
+                row_addrs.len()
+            );
+        } else {
+            // Simulate a stale worker result that captured row addresses before the
+            // dataset no longer needed a remapper. Invalid bytes ensure the commit
+            // does not attempt to deserialize or materialize the unused map.
+            result.row_addrs = Some(b"not a roaring treemap".to_vec());
+            commit_compaction(
+                &mut dataset,
+                vec![result],
+                Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+                &options,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Verify the initial state - no fragment reuse index should exist
-        let initial_indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(initial_indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(initial_indices[0].name, "scalar");
+    /// Eager (non-deferred) compaction on a stable-row-id dataset never remaps
+    /// an index by address -- stable row ids keep an index's row ids valid
+    /// across the rewrite (see `commit_compaction`'s `needs_remapping`, which
+    /// is unconditionally false under stable row ids unless deferred) -- so it
+    /// must not pay to capture addresses that nothing will consume, even when
+    /// a remappable index is present.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_stable_row_ids_eager_compaction_skips_row_addr_capture() {
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 9_000))], data.schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 3_000,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Store the original scalar index UUID for comparison
-        let original_scalar_uuid = initial_indices[0].uuid;
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "a", false).await;
 
-        // Plan and execute compaction manually
         let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-            defer_index_remap: true,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let options2 = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 9_000,
             defer_index_remap: false,
             ..Default::default()
         };
-
         let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
-        let plan2 = plan_compaction(&dataset2, &options2).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 1);
 
-        let mut expected_all_old_frag_ids = Vec::new();
-        let mut expected_all_new_frag_ids = Vec::new();
-        let mut expected_all_new_frag_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
-        let mut expected_all_row_id_map = HashMap::new();
-        let mut deferred_results = Vec::new();
+        let result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), plan.tasks()[0].clone(), &options)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            result.row_addrs.is_none(),
+            "eager stable-row-id compaction must not capture row addresses it will never use"
+        );
+    }
 
-        for (task, task2) in plan.tasks().iter().zip(plan2.tasks()) {
-            let deferred_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), task.clone(), &options)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            let immediate_result =
-                rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset2), task2.clone(), &options2)
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
-
-            // Verify RewriteResult for deferred index remap
-            assert!(deferred_result.row_id_map.is_none());
-            assert!(deferred_result.changed_row_addrs.is_some());
-            assert!(!deferred_result
-                .changed_row_addrs
-                .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
-                .is_empty());
-            assert!(!deferred_result.original_fragments.is_empty());
-            assert!(!deferred_result.new_fragments.is_empty());
-
-            // Verify RewriteResult for immediate index remap
-            assert!(immediate_result.changed_row_addrs.is_none());
-            assert!(!immediate_result.original_fragments.is_empty());
-            assert!(!immediate_result.new_fragments.is_empty());
-            assert!(immediate_result.row_id_map.is_some());
-
-            // Deserialize the changed_row_addrs from the deferred result
-            let changed_row_addrs_bytes = deferred_result.changed_row_addrs.as_ref().unwrap();
-            let mut cursor = Cursor::new(changed_row_addrs_bytes);
-            let changed_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(&mut cursor).unwrap();
-
-            // Use transpose_row_ids to convert changed_row_addrs to row_id_map
-            let transposed_map = transpose_row_addrs(
-                changed_row_addrs,
-                &deferred_result.original_fragments,
-                &deferred_result.new_fragments,
-            );
-
-            // Compare with the immediate result's row_id_map
-            let immediate_map = immediate_result.row_id_map.as_ref().unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(transposed_map.len(), immediate_map.len());
-            for (old_row_id, new_row_id) in &transposed_map {
-                assert_eq!(
-                    immediate_map.get(old_row_id),
-                    Some(new_row_id),
-                    "Row ID mapping should be identical: {} -> {:?}",
-                    old_row_id,
-                    new_row_id
-                );
-            }
-
-            // Store result for further comparison against frag reuse index
-            deferred_results.push(deferred_result);
-            immediate_result.new_fragments.iter().for_each(|frag| {
-                expected_all_new_frag_bitmap.insert(frag.id as u32);
-            });
-            expected_all_new_frag_ids.extend(
-                immediate_result
-                    .new_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|s| s.id)
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            );
-            expected_all_old_frag_ids.extend(
-                immediate_result
-                    .original_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|s| s.id)
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            );
-            expected_all_row_id_map.extend(immediate_result.row_id_map.unwrap());
-        }
-
-        // Now commit the first compaction (using deferred results)
-        let first_metrics = commit_compaction(
-            &mut dataset,
-            deferred_results.clone(),
-            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
-            &options,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_distributed(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_stable_row_id: bool,
+    ) {
+        // Can run the tasks independently
+        // Can provide subset of tasks to commit_compaction
+        // Once committed, can't commit remaining tasks
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
-        // Verify compaction happened
-        assert!(first_metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
-        assert!(first_metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+        let data = sample_data();
 
-        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
-        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
-            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-        else {
-            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        // Write dataset as 9 1k row fragments
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 9000))], data.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1000,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            enable_stable_row_ids: use_stable_row_id,
+            ..Default::default()
         };
-
-        assert_eq!(
-            frag_reuse_index_meta.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
-            expected_all_new_frag_bitmap
-        );
-        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let frag_reuse_index =
-            open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_details.as_ref())
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-        let stats = frag_reuse_index.statistics().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            serde_json::to_string(&stats).unwrap(),
-            dataset
-                .index_statistics(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-        );
 
-        // Verify the index has one version with the correct dataset version
-        let compaction_version = &frag_reuse_index.details.versions[0];
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.details.versions.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(
-            compaction_version.dataset_version,
-            frag_reuse_index_meta.dataset_version
-        );
+        // Plan compaction with 3 tasks
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 3_000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 3);
 
-        // Verify the index compaction version information matches the RewriteResults
-        let mut compacted_all_old_frag_digests = Vec::new();
-        let mut compacted_all_new_frag_digests = Vec::new();
-        let mut transposed_map = HashMap::new();
-        for group in compaction_version.groups.iter() {
-            let changed_row_addr_bytes = &group.changed_row_addrs;
-            let mut cursor = Cursor::new(&changed_row_addr_bytes);
-            let changed_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(&mut cursor).unwrap();
-            compacted_all_old_frag_digests.extend(group.old_frags.clone());
-            compacted_all_new_frag_digests.extend(group.new_frags.clone());
+        let dataset_ref = &dataset;
+        let mut results = futures::stream::iter(plan.compaction_tasks())
+            .then(|task| async move { task.execute(dataset_ref).await.unwrap() })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await;
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 3);
 
-            let group_transposed_map = transpose_row_ids_from_digest(
-                changed_row_addrs,
-                &group.old_frags,
-                &group.new_frags,
-            );
-            transposed_map.extend(group_transposed_map);
-        }
-        assert_eq!(transposed_map, expected_all_row_id_map);
-        assert_eq!(
-            compacted_all_old_frag_digests
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.id)
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            expected_all_old_frag_ids
-        );
         assert_eq!(
-            compacted_all_new_frag_digests
+            results[0]
+                .original_fragments
                 .iter()
                 .map(|f| f.id)
                 .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            expected_all_new_frag_ids
+            vec![0, 1, 2]
         );
+        assert_eq!(results[0].metrics.files_removed, 3);
+        assert_eq!(results[0].metrics.files_added, 1);
 
-        // Verify the scalar index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
-        let Some(current_scalar_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap() else {
-            panic!("scalar index must be available");
-        };
-        assert_eq!(current_scalar_index.uuid, original_scalar_uuid);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_defer_index_remap_multiple_compactions() {
-        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
-            .col(Box::new(
-                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
-            ))
-            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
-
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(6_000),
-            "memory://test/table",
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
+        // Just commit the last task
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            vec![results.pop().unwrap()],
+            Arc::new(IgnoreRemap::default()),
+            &options,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-            defer_index_remap: true,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let mut compact_read_versions = Vec::new();
-        for i in 0..10 {
-            dataset
-                .delete(&format!("i < {}", 500 * (i + 1)))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
-            compact_files(&mut dataset, options.clone(), None)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-
-            // Record the read version for verification if compaction has happened
-            if dataset.manifest.version > read_version {
-                compact_read_versions.push(read_version);
-            }
+        // 1 commit for reserve fragments and 1 for final commit, both
+        // from the call to commit_compaction
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 3);
 
-            // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
-            let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
-                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-            else {
-                panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
-            };
-            let frag_reuse_details =
-                load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
-            let frag_reuse_index =
-                open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_details.as_ref())
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
+        // Can commit the remaining tasks
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            results,
+            Arc::new(IgnoreRemap::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        // 1 commit for reserve fragments and 1 for final commit, both
+        // from the call to commit_compaction
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 5);
 
-            // Verify the index has one version with the correct dataset version
-            assert_eq!(
-                frag_reuse_index
-                    .details
-                    .versions
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|v| v.dataset_version)
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-                compact_read_versions
-            );
-        }
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids(), use_stable_row_id,);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_remap_index_after_compaction() {
+    async fn test_stable_row_indices() {
+        // Validate behavior of indices after compaction with stable row ids.
         let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
             .col(Box::new(
-                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
+                RandomVector::new().vec_width(16).named("vec".to_owned()),
             ))
             .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
-
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(6_000),
+            data_gen.batch(500),
             "memory://test/table",
             Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                max_rows_per_file: 100, // 5 files
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a index to be remapped
-        let index_name = Some("scalar".into());
+        // Delete first 110 rows so rowids != final rowaddrs
+        // First 100 rows deletes first file. Next 10 deletes part of second
+        // file, so we will trigger the with deletions code path.
+        dataset.delete("i < 110").await.unwrap();
+
         dataset
             .create_index(
                 &["i"],
                 IndexType::Scalar,
-                index_name.clone(),
+                Some("scalar".into()),
                 &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
                 false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 1, MetricType::L2, 50);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-            defer_index_remap: true,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        // Remap without a frag reuse index should yield unsupported
-        let Some(scalar_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap() else {
-            panic!("scalar index must be available");
+        async fn index_set(dataset: &Dataset) -> HashSet<Uuid> {
+            dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|index| index.uuid)
+                .collect()
+        }
+        let indices = index_set(&dataset).await;
+
+        async fn vector_query(dataset: &Dataset) -> RecordBatch {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+
+            let query = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 16]);
+            scanner
+                .nearest("vec", &query, 10)
+                .unwrap()
+                .project(&["i"])
+                .unwrap();
+
+            scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn scalar_query(dataset: &Dataset) -> RecordBatch {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+
+            scanner.filter("i = 100").unwrap().project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+            scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
+        }
+
+        let before_vec_result = vector_query(&dataset).await;
+        let before_scalar_result = scalar_query(&dataset).await;
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 180,
+            ..Default::default()
         };
+        let _metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let result = remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], index_name.clone()).await;
-        assert!(matches!(result, Err(Error::NotSupported { .. })));
+        // The indices should be unchanged after compaction, since we are using
+        // stable row ids.
+        let current_indices = index_set(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(indices, current_indices);
 
-        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        let after_vec_result = vector_query(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(before_vec_result, after_vec_result);
 
-        // Commit each rewrite task separately to simulate 3 compaction runs
-        // being accumulated in the fragment reuse index
-        for task in plan.tasks().iter() {
-            let rewrite_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), task.clone(), &options)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        let after_scalar_result = scalar_query(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(before_scalar_result, after_scalar_result);
+    }
 
-            commit_compaction(
-                &mut dataset,
-                Vec::from([rewrite_result]),
-                Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
-                &options,
+    /// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8076
+    ///
+    /// Zone map, bloom filter, and FM indices report matches as physical row addresses, so
+    /// compaction invalidates it even under stable row ids. Reusing it for the rewritten
+    /// fragments made a filtered scan fail with an internal error (a fragment referenced
+    /// by the index no longer existed) or, once translation tolerated that, silently drop
+    /// every match.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::zone_map(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap, IndexType::ZoneMap, "i", "i > 0", 199)]
+    #[case::bloom_filter(BuiltinIndexType::BloomFilter, IndexType::BloomFilter, "i", "i = 0", 1)]
+    #[case::fm(
+        BuiltinIndexType::Fm,
+        IndexType::Fm,
+        "text",
+        "contains(text, 'needle')",
+        100
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_addr_domain_index_after_compaction_with_stable_row_ids(
+        #[case] builtin: BuiltinIndexType,
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+        #[case] indexed_column: &str,
+        #[case] query: &str,
+        #[case] expected_rows: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "text",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["needle", "haystack"]),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(100),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 100,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        }
 
-        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
-        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
-            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-        else {
-            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
-        };
-        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[indexed_column],
+                index_type,
+                Some("addr_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(builtin),
+                false,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let frag_reuse_index =
-            open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_details.as_ref())
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.details.versions.len(), plan.tasks().len());
-
-        // Check auto-remap
-        let mut all_fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
-        dataset.fragments().iter().for_each(|f| {
-            all_fragment_bitmap.insert(f.id as u32);
-        });
-        let Some(scalar_index_before_remap) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap()
-        else {
-            panic!("scalar index must be available");
-        };
-        assert_eq!(
-            scalar_index_before_remap.fragment_bitmap.unwrap(),
-            all_fragment_bitmap
-        );
 
-        // Trigger index remap
-        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], index_name.clone())
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Compare against original index
-        let indices = read_manifest_indexes(
-            &dataset.object_store,
-            &dataset.manifest_location,
-            &dataset.manifest,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-        let Some(remapped_scalar_index) = indices.into_iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "scalar")
-        else {
-            panic!("scalar index must be available");
-        };
-        assert_ne!(remapped_scalar_index.uuid, scalar_index.uuid);
-        assert_eq!(
-            remapped_scalar_index.fragment_bitmap.unwrap(),
-            all_fragment_bitmap
+        // The index only knows the pre-compaction fragments, so it must not claim to
+        // cover the fragment they were rewritten into.
+        let live_fragments: RoaringBitmap =
+            dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+        let index = dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|index| index.name == "addr_idx")
+            .expect("index must survive compaction")
+            .clone();
+        assert!(
+            index
+                .effective_fragment_bitmap(&live_fragments)
+                .is_none_or(|covered| covered.is_empty()),
+            "compaction must not point an address-domain index at the fragments it wrote"
         );
+
+        // Every fragment therefore falls back to a full scan, and the filter is answered
+        // in full.
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter(query).unwrap();
+        let matched = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(matched.num_rows(), expected_rows);
     }
 
+    // Regression test for https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues/6161
+    // When FragReuseIndexDetails exceeds 204800 bytes it is written to an external
+    // file. Previously the file was silently dropped (temp file deleted) because
+    // tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt::shutdown was called instead of
+    // lance_io::traits::Writer::shutdown, which persists the temp file.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_concurrent_compaction_reindex_compaction_commit_first() {
-        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
-            .col(Box::new(
-                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
-            ))
-            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+    async fn test_defer_index_remap_large_external_file() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        // Create ~150 fragments × 1000 rows to produce a FragReuseIndexDetails
+        // that exceeds the 204800-byte inline threshold (~302 KB serialized).
+        let num_fragments = 150usize;
+        let rows_per_fragment = 1000usize;
+        let total_rows = num_fragments * rows_per_fragment;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("i", DataType::Int32, false)]));
 
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(6_000),
-            "memory://test/table",
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..total_rows as i32)) as ArrayRef],
+                )
+                .unwrap())],
+                schema.clone(),
+            ),
+            test_uri,
             Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                max_rows_per_file: rows_per_fragment,
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Create an index
-        let index_name = Some("scalar".into());
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["i"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                index_name.clone(),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), num_fragments);
 
-        // Write some more data for reindexing
-        Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(6_000),
-            WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())),
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
-                mode: WriteMode::Append,
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        // An FRI is only written for compactions that touch indexed data, so
+        // index the column being compacted.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
 
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-        let mut dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
+        // Delete a few rows from each fragment so compaction has something to do.
+        dataset.delete("i % 1000 = 0").await.unwrap();
 
-        // First commit a compaction with deferred remap
         compact_files(
             &mut dataset,
             CompactionOptions {
-                target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
                 defer_index_remap: true,
                 ..Default::default()
             },
@@ -2756,168 +6029,409 @@ mod tests {
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Concurrent reindex should succeed
-        dataset_clone
-            .create_index(
-                &["i"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                index_name.clone(),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                true,
-            )
+        // Loading the FragReuseIndex details must succeed even when the details
+        // were written to an external file.
+        let frag_reuse_meta = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
             .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Check new index does not cover the compacted files
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-
-        let Some(scalar_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap() else {
-            panic!("scalar index must be available");
-        };
-        let index_frags = scalar_index
-            .fragment_bitmap
             .unwrap()
-            .iter()
-            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-        assert_eq!(
-            index_frags,
-            dataset
-                .fragments()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.id as u32)
-                .collect::<HashSet<_>>()
-        )
+            .expect("fragment reuse index must exist after compaction");
+
+        load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_meta)
+            .await
+            .expect("loading large frag reuse index details must not fail");
     }
 
+    /// A shallow clone stamps its index metadata with a `base_id`, and the
+    /// entry's external `details.binpb` stays in the SOURCE dataset's indices
+    /// directory. Loading the details on the clone must resolve the file
+    /// through the entry's base instead of the clone's own dataset root,
+    /// which never contained the file.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_concurrent_compaction_reindex_reindex_commit_first() {
-        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
-            .col(Box::new(
-                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
-            ))
-            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+    async fn test_shallow_clone_loads_external_frag_reuse_details() {
+        // On disk: base-path resolution must reach the source dataset's
+        // store, which memory:// fixtures cannot demonstrate.
+        let source_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let clone_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", clone_dir);
 
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse::build_frag_reuse_index_metadata;
+        use lance_index::frag_reuse::{FragDigest, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("i", DataType::Int32, false)]));
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(6_000),
-            "memory://test/table",
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..8)) as ArrayRef],
+                )
+                .unwrap())],
+                schema.clone(),
+            ),
+            &source_dir,
             Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Create an index
-        let index_name = Some("scalar".into());
+        // An FRI entry whose details spill to the external file: real
+        // compactions produce run-compressed bitmaps far below the
+        // 204800-byte inline threshold, so synthesize enough reuse versions
+        // to cross it.
+        let digest = |id: u64| FragDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: 4,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let mut versions = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..3500u64 {
+            let old_id = 1_000 + i;
+            let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            for offset in 0..4u64 {
+                addrs.insert((old_id << 32) + offset);
+            }
+            let mut serialized = Vec::new();
+            addrs.serialize_into(&mut serialized).unwrap();
+            versions.push(FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: i + 1,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs: serialized,
+                    old_frags: vec![digest(old_id)],
+                    new_frags: vec![digest(100_000 + i)],
+                }],
+            });
+        }
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails { versions };
+        let bitmap: RoaringBitmap = (0..3500u32).map(|i| 100_000 + i).collect();
+        let entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(&dataset, None, details, bitmap)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
         dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["i"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                index_name.clone(),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![entry],
+                        removed_indices: vec![],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Write some more data for reindexing
-        Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(6_000),
-            WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())),
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
-                mode: WriteMode::Append,
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-        let mut dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
+        let source_meta = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("fragment reuse index must exist");
+        // Sanity: the details actually went external.
+        let proto = source_meta
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_msg::<lance_table::format::pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            proto.content,
+            Some(lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Content::External(_))
+        ));
+        let source_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &source_meta)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(source_details.versions.len(), 3500);
 
-        // Concurrent reindex should succeed
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["i"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                index_name.clone(),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                true,
-            )
+        let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let clone = dataset
+            .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let clone_meta = clone
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("the clone must carry the fragment reuse index");
+        assert!(clone_meta.base_id.is_some());
 
-        // First commit a compaction with deferred remap
-        compact_files(
-            &mut dataset_clone,
-            CompactionOptions {
-                target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-                defer_index_remap: true,
+        // Before the fix this failed with a not-found error: the loader
+        // looked for details.binpb under the clone's own indices dir.
+        let clone_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&clone, &clone_meta)
+            .await
+            .expect("the clone must load external FRI details through its base");
+        assert_eq!(clone_details, source_details);
+
+        // The dataset-level open path goes through the same loader.
+        let index = clone
+            .open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("the clone must open the fragment reuse index");
+        assert_eq!(index.details.versions, source_details.versions);
+
+        // Cached by the source's file: one read, then none, unless the cache is off.
+        let dir_name = |dir: &str| {
+            std::path::Path::new(dir)
+                .file_name()
+                .unwrap()
+                .to_string_lossy()
+                .into_owned()
+        };
+        let (source_name, clone_name) =
+            (dir_name(source_dir.as_str()), dir_name(clone_dir.as_str()));
+        for cached in [true, false] {
+            let session = if cached {
+                crate::session::Session::default()
+            } else {
+                crate::session::Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+                    Arc::new(lance_core::cache::MokaCacheBackend::no_cache()),
+                    128 * 1024 * 1024,
+                    Default::default(),
+                )
+            };
+            let fresh = crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(clone_uri.as_str())
+                .with_session(Arc::new(session))
+                .load()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let store = fresh.object_store(clone_meta.base_id).await.unwrap();
+            store.io_stats_incremental();
+            for load in 0..2 {
+                let details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&fresh, &clone_meta)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(details, source_details);
+                let reads: Vec<String> = store
+                    .io_stats_incremental()
+                    .requests
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|request| request.path.to_string())
+                    .filter(|path| {
+                        path.ends_with(lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME)
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                if cached && load > 0 {
+                    assert!(reads.is_empty(), "{reads:?}");
+                } else {
+                    assert_eq!(reads.len(), 1, "{reads:?}");
+                    assert!(
+                        reads[0].contains(&source_name) && !reads[0].contains(&clone_name),
+                        "{reads:?}"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_defer_index_remap_with_stable_row_ids_writes_no_pointless_fri() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 9000))], data.schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1000, // 9 fragments
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
                 ..Default::default()
-            },
-            None,
+            }),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
+        assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+        let rows_before = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Check new index is auto-remapped
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-        let Some(scalar_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap() else {
-            panic!("scalar index must be available");
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 3_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
         };
-        let index_frags = scalar_index
-            .fragment_bitmap
-            .unwrap()
-            .iter()
-            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-        assert_eq!(
-            index_frags,
+
+        // Stable row ids no longer refuse a deferred remap: an address-domain
+        // index needs one even here.
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks.len(), 3);
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 9);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 3);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), rows_before);
+
+        // This dataset has no index at all, so nothing would ever drain an FRI
+        // and none is written.
+        assert!(
             dataset
-                .fragments()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.id as u32)
-                .collect::<HashSet<_>>()
-        )
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_concurrent_cleanup_and_compaction_rebase_cleanup() {
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
-            )
-            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    async fn test_defer_index_remap() {
+        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
+            .col(Box::new(
+                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
+            ))
+            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(6_000),
+            "memory://test/table",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Create another same dataset to mimic behavior without deferred index remap
+        let mut data_gen2 = BatchGenerator::new()
+            .col(Box::new(
+                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
+            ))
+            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+
+        let mut dataset2 = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen2.batch(6_000),
+            "memory://test/table",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Delete some rows to create deletions
+        dataset.delete("i < 500").await.unwrap();
+        dataset2.delete("i < 500").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create the same scalar index on both datasets so deferred and immediate
+        // remapping are compared under the same conditions.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset2, "i", false).await;
+
+        // Verify the initial state - no fragment reuse index should exist
+        let initial_indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(initial_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(initial_indices[0].name, "scalar");
 
+        // Store the original scalar index UUID for comparison
+        let original_scalar_uuid = initial_indices[0].uuid;
+
+        // Plan and execute compaction manually
         let options = CompactionOptions {
             target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
             defer_index_remap: true,
             ..Default::default()
         };
+        let options2 = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            defer_index_remap: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
 
         let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
-        let tasks = plan.tasks();
+        let plan2 = plan_compaction(&dataset2, &options2).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Only compact the first task, record the state of the dataset
-        let rewrite_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), tasks[0].clone(), &options)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let mut expected_all_old_frag_ids = Vec::new();
+        let mut expected_all_new_frag_ids = Vec::new();
+        let mut expected_all_new_frag_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        let mut expected_all_row_id_map = HashMap::new();
+        let mut deferred_results = Vec::new();
+        let mut immediate_results = Vec::new();
 
-        commit_compaction(
+        for (task, task2) in plan.tasks().iter().zip(plan2.tasks()) {
+            let deferred_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), task.clone(), &options)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let immediate_result =
+                rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset2), task2.clone(), &options2)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            // Both should produce row_addrs (address-style row IDs)
+            assert!(deferred_result.row_addrs.is_some());
+            assert!(!deferred_result.row_addrs.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+            assert!(!deferred_result.row_addrs.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+            assert!(!deferred_result.original_fragments.is_empty());
+            assert!(!deferred_result.new_fragments.is_empty());
+
+            assert!(immediate_result.row_addrs.is_some());
+            assert!(!immediate_result.original_fragments.is_empty());
+            assert!(!immediate_result.new_fragments.is_empty());
+
+            // Both should capture the same row addresses
+            assert_eq!(deferred_result.row_addrs, immediate_result.row_addrs);
+
+            deferred_results.push(deferred_result);
+            immediate_results.push(immediate_result);
+        }
+
+        // Reserve fragment IDs for immediate results to build expected values
+        {
+            let frags: Vec<&mut Fragment> = immediate_results
+                .iter_mut()
+                .flat_map(|r| r.new_fragments.iter_mut())
+                .collect();
+            reserve_fragment_ids(&dataset2, frags.into_iter())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Build expected values by transposing using the immediate results
+        for immediate_result in &immediate_results {
+            let row_addrs_bytes = immediate_result.row_addrs.as_ref().unwrap();
+            let row_addrs =
+                RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(&mut Cursor::new(row_addrs_bytes)).unwrap();
+            let transposed = transpose_row_addrs(
+                row_addrs,
+                &immediate_result.original_fragments,
+                &immediate_result.new_fragments,
+            );
+            expected_all_row_id_map.extend(transposed);
+            immediate_result.new_fragments.iter().for_each(|frag| {
+                expected_all_new_frag_bitmap.insert(frag.id as u32);
+            });
+            expected_all_new_frag_ids.extend(
+                immediate_result
+                    .new_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|s| s.id)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+            expected_all_old_frag_ids.extend(
+                immediate_result
+                    .original_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|s| s.id)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Now commit the first compaction (using deferred results)
+        let first_metrics = commit_compaction(
             &mut dataset,
-            Vec::from([rewrite_result]),
+            deferred_results.clone(),
             Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
             &options,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let mut dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
+        // Verify compaction happened
+        assert!(first_metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(first_metrics.fragments_added > 0);
 
         // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
         let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
@@ -2928,208 +6442,386 @@ mod tests {
             panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
         };
 
+        assert_eq!(
+            frag_reuse_index_meta.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+            expected_all_new_frag_bitmap
+        );
         let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 1);
-
-        // First commit the remaining 2 compaction tasks.
-        let rewrite_result2 = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), tasks[1].clone(), &options)
-            .await
+        let frag_reuse_index =
+            open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_details.as_ref())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        let stats = CompactFragReuseIndexHandle(Arc::new(frag_reuse_index.clone()))
+            .statistics()
             .unwrap();
-        let rewritten_frags2 = rewrite_result2
-            .original_fragments
-            .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.id)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let new_frags2 = rewrite_result2
-            .new_fragments
-            .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.id)
-            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
-        commit_compaction(
-            &mut dataset,
-            Vec::from([rewrite_result2]),
-            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
-            &options,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            serde_json::to_string(&stats).unwrap(),
+            dataset
+                .index_statistics(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
 
-        let rewrite_result3 = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), tasks[2].clone(), &options)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let rewritten_frags3 = rewrite_result3
-            .original_fragments
-            .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.id)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let new_frags3 = rewrite_result3
-            .new_fragments
-            .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.id)
-            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
-        commit_compaction(
-            &mut dataset,
-            Vec::from([rewrite_result3]),
-            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
-            &options,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        // Verify the index has one version with the correct dataset version
+        let compaction_version = &frag_reuse_index.details.versions[0];
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.details.versions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            compaction_version.dataset_version,
+            frag_reuse_index_meta.dataset_version
+        );
 
-        // Concurrently commit a frag_reuse_index cleanup operation.
-        // Because there is no index, it should remove the first version.
-        // but after rebase it should contain the new compaction versions.
-        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset_clone).await.unwrap();
+        // Verify the index compaction version information matches the RewriteResults
+        let mut compacted_all_old_frag_digests = Vec::new();
+        let mut compacted_all_new_frag_digests = Vec::new();
+        let mut transposed_map = HashMap::new();
+        for group in compaction_version.groups.iter() {
+            let changed_row_addr_bytes = &group.changed_row_addrs;
+            let mut cursor = Cursor::new(&changed_row_addr_bytes);
+            let changed_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(&mut cursor).unwrap();
+            compacted_all_old_frag_digests.extend(group.old_frags.clone());
+            compacted_all_new_frag_digests.extend(group.new_frags.clone());
 
-        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
-            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-        else {
-            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
-        };
-        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 2);
+            let group_transposed_map = transpose_row_ids_from_digest(
+                changed_row_addrs,
+                &group.old_frags,
+                &group.new_frags,
+            );
+            transposed_map.extend(group_transposed_map);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(transposed_map, expected_all_row_id_map);
         assert_eq!(
-            frag_reuse_details.versions[0].old_frag_ids(),
-            rewritten_frags2
+            compacted_all_old_frag_digests
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected_all_old_frag_ids
         );
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions[0].new_frag_ids(), new_frags2);
         assert_eq!(
-            frag_reuse_details.versions[1].old_frag_ids(),
-            rewritten_frags3
+            compacted_all_new_frag_digests
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected_all_new_frag_ids
         );
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions[1].new_frag_ids(), new_frags3);
+
+        // Verify the scalar index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
+        let Some(current_scalar_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("scalar index must be available");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(current_scalar_index.uuid, original_scalar_uuid);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_concurrent_cleanup_and_compaction_rebase_compaction() {
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
-            )
-            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    async fn test_defer_index_remap_skips_fri_when_no_indexed_data() {
+        // A deferred compaction touching no indexed data must write no FRI --
+        // such a version is un-drainable (remap no-ops, trim retains it forever).
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(600),
+            "memory://test/noindex",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100, // 6 small files -> compaction has work
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // No index at all: nothing covers any fragment.
+        assert!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        let fragments_before = dataset.get_fragments().len();
+        assert!(fragments_before > 1, "need multiple fragments to compact");
 
         let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 100_000,
             defer_index_remap: true,
             ..Default::default()
         };
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
-        let tasks = plan.tasks();
+        // Compaction actually ran...
+        assert!(
+            dataset.get_fragments().len() < fragments_before,
+            "compaction should have merged fragments"
+        );
+        // ...but no fragment-reuse index was created.
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "deferred compaction with no indexed data must not create an FRI"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Only compact the first task, record the state of the dataset
-        let rewrite_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), tasks[0].clone(), &options)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_defer_index_remap_multiple_compactions() {
+        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
+            .col(Box::new(
+                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
+            ))
+            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
 
-        commit_compaction(
-            &mut dataset,
-            Vec::from([rewrite_result]),
-            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
-            &options,
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(6_000),
+            "memory://test/table",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let mut dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
+        // FRI is written only for compactions touching indexed data; index "i" so
+        // the successive deferred compactions build a chained fragment-reuse index.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
 
-        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
-        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
-            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-        else {
-            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
         };
-        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 1);
 
-        // First commit the frag_reuse_index cleanup
-        // Because there is no index, it should remove the first version.
-        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let mut prepublish_versions = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..10 {
+            dataset
+                .delete(&format!("i < {}", 500 * (i + 1)))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            compact_files(&mut dataset, options.clone(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
+            if dataset.manifest.version > read_version {
+                prepublish_versions.push(dataset.manifest.version - 1);
+            }
+
+            // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
+            let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+            else {
+                panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+            };
+            let frag_reuse_details =
+                load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            let frag_reuse_index =
+                open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_details.as_ref())
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            // Verify the index has one version with the correct dataset version
+            assert_eq!(
+                frag_reuse_index
+                    .details
+                    .versions
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|v| v.dataset_version)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                prepublish_versions
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_defer_index_remap_mixed_records_all_groups() {
+        // All-or-nothing: a compaction touching any indexed data records the full
+        // FRI, including the unindexed group (a per-group filter would drop it).
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(300),
+            "memory://test/mixed",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100, // 3 fragments
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Index the initial fragments, then append more that stay unindexed.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
+        Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(300),
+            WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100, // 3 more, unindexed
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
         dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
-            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+
+        // Fragments not covered by the scalar index are the "unindexed" ones.
+        let indexed: HashSet<u32> = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name("scalar")
             .await
             .unwrap()
-        else {
-            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
-        };
-        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 0);
-
-        // Concurrently commit a rewrite
-        // After rebase it should only contain the latest reuse version
-        let rewrite_result2 =
-            rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset_clone), tasks[1].clone(), &options)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-        let rewritten_frags2 = rewrite_result2
-            .original_fragments
+            .unwrap()
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .unwrap()
             .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.id)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let new_frags2 = rewrite_result2
-            .new_fragments
+            .collect();
+        let unindexed_frags: Vec<u64> = dataset
+            .fragments()
             .iter()
             .map(|f| f.id)
-            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
-        commit_compaction(
-            &mut dataset_clone,
-            Vec::from([rewrite_result2]),
-            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
-            &options,
+            .filter(|id| !indexed.contains(&(*id as u32)))
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            !unindexed_frags.is_empty(),
+            "expected some unindexed fragments"
+        );
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100_000,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
+        // All-or-nothing: because indexed fragments were compacted, the FRI is
+        // written AND records the unindexed group too (a per-group filter would
+        // have dropped it).
+        let fri_meta = dataset
             .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
             .await
             .unwrap()
-        else {
-            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+            .expect("mixed compaction must write an FRI");
+        let details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &fri_meta)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let recorded_old: HashSet<u64> = details
+            .versions
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|v| v.old_frag_ids())
+            .collect();
+        for f in &unindexed_frags {
+            assert!(
+                recorded_old.contains(f),
+                "unindexed fragment {f} must be recorded in the FRI (all-or-nothing)"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deferred_compaction_not_split_by_frag_reuse_index() {
+        // The fragment-reuse index is a system index and must be excluded from
+        // compaction bin planning; otherwise its covered fragment is isolated and
+        // the small fragments never coalesce back to one.
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
         };
-        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+
+        // Two small fragments -> deferred compaction folds them into one,
+        // creating the fragment-reuse index.
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 400))], data.schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 200,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Index "a" so the deferred compaction records an FRI (only written for
+        // compactions touching indexed data). The FRI is a system index and must
+        // still not split later compaction bins -- the property this test guards.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "a", false).await;
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options.clone(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some()
+        );
+
+        // Append two more small fragments, then compact again.
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(400, 400))], data.schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 200,
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        // Reindex so every fragment is data-indexed -- then the FRI (a system
+        // index, correctly excluded from bin planning) is the only thing that
+        // could split the bin.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "a", true).await;
+
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            frag_reuse_details.versions[0].old_frag_ids(),
-            rewritten_frags2
+            dataset.get_fragments().len(),
+            1,
+            "FRI (a system index) must not split the compaction bin; all fragments coalesce"
         );
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions[0].new_frag_ids(), new_frags2);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_concurrent_compactions_with_defer_index_remap() {
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
+    async fn test_remap_index_after_compaction() {
+        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
+            .col(Box::new(
+                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
+            ))
+            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(6_000),
+            "memory://test/table",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a index to be remapped
+        let index_name = Some("scalar".into());
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                index_name.clone(),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
             )
-            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -3139,24 +6831,32 @@ mod tests {
             ..Default::default()
         };
 
+        // Remap without a frag reuse index should yield unsupported
+        let Some(scalar_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("scalar index must be available");
+        };
+
+        let result = remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], index_name.clone()).await;
+        assert!(matches!(result, Err(Error::NotSupported { .. })));
+
         let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
-        let tasks = plan.tasks();
 
-        let mut dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
+        // Commit each rewrite task separately to simulate 3 compaction runs
+        // being accumulated in the fragment reuse index
+        for task in plan.tasks().iter() {
+            let rewrite_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), task.clone(), &options)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        // Only compact the first task, record the state of the dataset
-        let rewrite_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), tasks[0].clone(), &options)
+            commit_compaction(
+                &mut dataset,
+                Vec::from([rewrite_result]),
+                Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+                &options,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        commit_compaction(
-            &mut dataset,
-            Vec::from([rewrite_result]),
-            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
-            &options,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        }
 
         // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
         let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
@@ -3169,234 +6869,155 @@ mod tests {
         let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 1);
-
-        // Concurrently commit a rewrite should fail
-        let rewrite_result2 =
-            rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset_clone), tasks[1].clone(), &options)
+        let frag_reuse_index =
+            open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_details.as_ref())
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
-        let result = commit_compaction(
-            &mut dataset_clone,
-            Vec::from([rewrite_result2]),
-            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
-            &options,
+
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_index.details.versions.len(), plan.tasks().len());
+
+        // Check auto-remap
+        let mut all_fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        dataset.fragments().iter().for_each(|f| {
+            all_fragment_bitmap.insert(f.id as u32);
+        });
+        let Some(scalar_index_before_remap) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("scalar index must be available");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            scalar_index_before_remap.fragment_bitmap.unwrap(),
+            all_fragment_bitmap
+        );
+
+        // Trigger index remap
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], index_name.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Compare against original index
+        let indices = read_manifest_indexes(
+            &dataset.object_store,
+            &dataset.manifest_location,
+            &dataset.manifest,
         )
-        .await;
-        assert!(matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })));
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let Some(remapped_scalar_index) = indices.into_iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "scalar")
+        else {
+            panic!("scalar index must be available");
+        };
+        assert_ne!(remapped_scalar_index.uuid, scalar_index.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(
+            remapped_scalar_index.fragment_bitmap.unwrap(),
+            all_fragment_bitmap
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_read_bitmap_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
-        // Create a dataset with categorical values
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
-            )
-            .col(
-                "category",
-                lance_datagen::array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![1, 2, 3]),
-            )
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    async fn test_concurrent_compaction_reindex_compaction_commit_first() {
+        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
+            .col(Box::new(
+                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
+            ))
+            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
 
-        // Get initial counts for each category
-        let count1 = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("category = 1".to_owned()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let count2 = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("category = 2".to_owned()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let count3 = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("category = 3".to_owned()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(6_000),
+            "memory://test/table",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a bitmap index on the category column
-        let index_name = Some("category_idx".into());
+        // Create an index
+        let index_name = Some("scalar".into());
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["category"],
-                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
                 index_name.clone(),
                 &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
                 false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let original_index = indices
-            .iter()
-            .find(|idx| idx.name == "category_idx")
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-            defer_index_remap: true,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
 
-        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+        // Write some more data for reindexing
+        Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(6_000),
+            WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
-        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("category_idx").await.unwrap() else {
-            panic!("category index must be available");
-        };
-        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        let mut dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
 
-        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
-        assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("category = 1".to_owned()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count1
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("category = 2".to_owned()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count2
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("category = 3".to_owned()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count3
-        );
-
-        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses bitmap index scan
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.filter("category = 1").unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[category = 1]@category_idx"),
-            "Expected index query in plan: {}",
-            plan
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_read_btree_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
-        // Create a dataset with an incremental ID column
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
-            )
-            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(110), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Get initial counts for some ID ranges
-        let count_low = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("id < 1000".to_owned()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let count_mid = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("id >= 2000 and id < 3000".to_owned()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let count_high = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("id >= 5000".to_owned()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // First commit a compaction with deferred remap
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a btree index on the id column
-        let index_name = Some("id_idx".into());
-        dataset
+        // Concurrent reindex should succeed
+        dataset_clone
             .create_index(
-                &["id"],
-                IndexType::BTree,
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
                 index_name.clone(),
                 &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
+                true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "id_idx").unwrap();
-
-        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 50_000,
-            defer_index_remap: true,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
 
-        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+        // Check new index does not cover the compacted files
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
-        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap() else {
-            panic!("id index must be available");
+        let Some(scalar_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("scalar index must be available");
         };
-        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
-
-        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
-        assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("id < 1000".to_owned()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count_low
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("id >= 2000 and id < 3000".to_owned()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count_mid
-        );
+        let index_frags = scalar_index
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
         assert_eq!(
+            index_frags,
             dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("id >= 5000".to_owned()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count_high
-        );
-
-        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses btree index scan
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.filter("id >= 2000 and id < 3000").unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[id >= 2000 && id < 3000]@id_idx"),
-            "Expected scalar index query in plan: {}",
-            plan
-        );
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>()
+        )
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_read_inverted_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
-        // Generate random words using lance-datagen
-        let mut words_gen = lance_datagen::array::random_sentence(1, 100, true);
-        let doc_col = words_gen
-            .generate_default(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(6000))
-            .unwrap();
+    async fn test_concurrent_compaction_reindex_reindex_commit_first() {
+        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new()
+            .col(Box::new(
+                RandomVector::new().vec_width(128).named("vec".to_owned()),
+            ))
+            .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
 
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Schema::new(vec![Field::new("doc", DataType::LargeUtf8, false)]).into(),
-            vec![doc_col.clone()],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-        let schema_ref = batch.schema();
-        let stream = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema_ref);
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            stream,
+            data_gen.batch(6_000),
             "memory://test/table",
             Some(WriteParams {
                 max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
@@ -3406,535 +7027,6602 @@ mod tests {
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Get initial counts for some word searches
-        // Extract some test words from the generated documents
-        let large_string_array = doc_col.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>().unwrap();
-        let sample_words: Vec<String> = large_string_array
-            .value(0)
-            .split_whitespace()
-            .take(10)
-            .map(|s| s.to_string())
-            .collect();
-        let test_word1 = &sample_words[0];
-        let test_word2 = &sample_words[1];
-        let test_word3 = &sample_words[2];
-
-        // Create an inverted index on the doc column
-        let index_name = Some("doc_idx".into());
+        // Create an index
+        let index_name = Some("scalar".into());
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["doc"],
-                IndexType::Inverted,
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
                 index_name.clone(),
-                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
                 false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "doc_idx").unwrap();
-
-        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-            defer_index_remap: true,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
-
-        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
-        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("doc_idx").await.unwrap() else {
-            panic!("doc index must be available");
-        };
-        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
 
-        // Initial scan
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word1.clone()))
-            .unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let count1 = scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap();
-        scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word2.clone()))
-            .unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let count2 = scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap();
-        scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word3.clone()))
-            .unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let count3 = scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap();
+        // Write some more data for reindexing
+        Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(6_000),
+            WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses inverted index scan
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word1.clone()))
-            .unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("MatchQuery"),
-            "Expected inverted index scan in plan: {}",
-            plan
-        );
-        assert!(
-            !plan.contains("LanceScan"),
-            "Expected no fragment scan in plan: {}",
-            plan
-        );
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        let mut dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
 
-        // Reindex to the latest
+        // Concurrent reindex should succeed
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["doc"],
-                IndexType::Inverted,
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
                 index_name.clone(),
-                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word1.clone()))
-            .unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        assert_eq!(scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap(), count1);
-        scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word2.clone()))
-            .unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        assert_eq!(scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap(), count2);
-        scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word3.clone()))
-            .unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        assert_eq!(scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap(), count3);
+        // First commit a compaction with deferred remap
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset_clone,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Check new index is auto-remapped
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        let Some(scalar_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("scalar").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("scalar index must be available");
+        };
+        let index_frags = scalar_index
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            index_frags,
+            dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>()
+        )
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_read_ngram_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
-        // Generate random words using lance-datagen
-        let mut words_gen = lance_datagen::array::random_sentence(1, 100, true);
-        let doc_col = words_gen
-            .generate_default(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(6000))
+    async fn test_cleanup_after_a_stale_remap_keeps_later_compactions() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
+            )
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Schema::new(vec![Field::new("doc", DataType::LargeUtf8, false)]).into(),
-            vec![doc_col.clone()],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-        let schema_ref = batch.schema();
-        let stream = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema_ref);
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            stream,
-            "memory://test/table",
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
+        // Index "i" so the deferred compaction touches indexed data and writes an FRI.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        let tasks = plan.tasks();
+
+        // Only compact the first task, record the state of the dataset
+        let rewrite_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), tasks[0].clone(), &options)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            Vec::from([rewrite_result]),
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Get initial counts for some word searches
-        // Extract some test words from the generated documents
-        let large_string_array = doc_col.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>().unwrap();
-        let sample_words: Vec<String> = large_string_array
-            .value(0)
-            .split_whitespace()
-            .take(10)
-            .map(|s| s.to_string())
-            .collect();
-        let test_word1 = &sample_words[0];
-        let test_word2 = &sample_words[1];
-        let test_word3 = &sample_words[2];
+        let mut dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
 
-        // Create an inverted index on the doc column
-        let index_name = Some("doc_idx".into());
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["doc"],
-                IndexType::NGram,
-                index_name.clone(),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
-            )
+        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
+        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        };
+
+        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "doc_idx").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 1);
 
-        // Initial scan
-        let count1 = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word1)))
+        // First commit the remaining 2 compaction tasks.
+        let rewrite_result2 = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), tasks[1].clone(), &options)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let count2 = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word2)))
+        let rewritten_frags2 = rewrite_result2
+            .original_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            Vec::from([rewrite_result2]),
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Get the new fragment IDs from the frag_reuse_index after commit
+        let frag_reuse_index_meta2 = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
             .await
+            .unwrap()
             .unwrap();
-        let count3 = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word3)))
+        let frag_reuse_details2 = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta2)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let new_frags2 = frag_reuse_details2.versions.last().unwrap().new_frag_ids();
 
-        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-            defer_index_remap: true,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+        let rewrite_result3 = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), tasks[2].clone(), &options)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let rewritten_frags3 = rewrite_result3
+            .original_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            Vec::from([rewrite_result3]),
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+        // Get the new fragment IDs from the frag_reuse_index after commit
+        let frag_reuse_index_meta3 = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let frag_reuse_details3 = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta3)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let new_frags3 = frag_reuse_details3.versions.last().unwrap().new_frag_ids();
 
-        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
-        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("doc_idx").await.unwrap() else {
-            panic!("doc index must be available");
-        };
-        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+        // dataset_clone only knows the first reuse version. Its remap commits at the
+        // latest version, so the cleanup trims only that version.
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset_clone, &["i"], Some("scalar".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset_clone).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
-        assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word1)))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count1
-        );
+        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        };
+        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 2);
         assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word2)))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count2
+            frag_reuse_details.versions[0].old_frag_ids(),
+            rewritten_frags2
         );
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions[0].new_frag_ids(), new_frags2);
         assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word3)))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count3
-        );
-
-        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses inverted index scan
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .filter(&format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word1))
-            .unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[contains(doc, Utf8"),
-            "Expected scalar index query in plan: {}",
-            plan
+            frag_reuse_details.versions[1].old_frag_ids(),
+            rewritten_frags3
         );
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions[1].new_frag_ids(), new_frags3);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_read_label_list_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
-        // Create a dataset with list data for labels
+    async fn test_concurrent_cleanup_and_compaction_rebase_compaction() {
         let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
             .col(
                 "vec",
                 lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
             )
-            .col(
-                "labels",
-                lance_datagen::array::rand_list_any(
-                    lance_datagen::array::cycle::<Int64Type>(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]),
-                    false,
-                ),
-            )
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
             .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Get initial counts for different label values
-        let count1 = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [1])".to_owned()))
+        // Index "i" so the deferred compaction touches indexed data and writes an FRI.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        let tasks = plan.tasks();
+
+        // Only compact the first task, record the state of the dataset
+        let rewrite_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), tasks[0].clone(), &options)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let count2 = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [5])".to_owned()))
+
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            Vec::from([rewrite_result]),
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
+
+        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
+        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        };
+        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let count3 = dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [10])".to_owned()))
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 1);
+
+        // Catch the index up to the compaction (on `dataset` only; `dataset_clone`
+        // keeps the un-caught-up index for the concurrent rewrite below), then
+        // clean up: with the index caught up the trim removes the first version.
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("scalar".into()))
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Create a label list index on the labels column
-        let index_name = Some("labels_idx".into());
+        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        };
+        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 0);
+
+        // Concurrently commit a rewrite
+        // After rebase it should only contain the latest reuse version
+        let rewrite_result2 =
+            rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset_clone), tasks[1].clone(), &options)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        let rewritten_frags2 = rewrite_result2
+            .original_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset_clone,
+            Vec::from([rewrite_result2]),
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Load and verify the fragment reuse index content
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("Fragment reuse index must be available");
+        };
+        let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &frag_reuse_index_meta)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_details.versions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            frag_reuse_details.versions[0].old_frag_ids(),
+            rewritten_frags2
+        );
+        // Verify new fragment IDs are non-zero (allocated by commit_compaction)
+        let new_frags2 = frag_reuse_details.versions[0].new_frag_ids();
+        assert!(new_frags2.iter().all(|id| *id != 0));
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum CatchUp {
+        Remap,
+        MergeSegments,
+    }
+
+    async fn catch_up_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, name: &str, catch_up: CatchUp) {
+        match catch_up {
+            CatchUp::Remap => {
+                remapping::remap_column_index(dataset, &["i"], Some(name.into()))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            CatchUp::MergeSegments => {
+                let merged = dataset
+                    .merge_existing_index_segments(
+                        dataset.load_indices_by_name(name).await.unwrap(),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                dataset
+                    .commit_existing_index_segments(name, "i", vec![merged])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn frag_reuse_watermarks(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<u64> {
+        dataset
+            .frag_reuse_index()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|index| {
+                index
+                    .details
+                    .versions
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|version| version.dataset_version)
+                    .collect()
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
+    async fn stored_index(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> IndexMetadata {
+        read_manifest_indexes(
+            &dataset.object_store,
+            &dataset.manifest_location,
+            &dataset.manifest,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .into_iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == name)
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn rows_found_through_index(dataset: &Dataset) -> usize {
+        dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("i < 10 OR i = 70".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_built_before_the_rewrite_publishes_is_retained_and_caught_up(
+        #[values(CatchUp::Remap, CatchUp::MergeSegments)] catch_up: CatchUp,
+        #[values(false, true)] is_built_after_an_append: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(500),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("i >= 10 AND i < 60").await.unwrap();
+        // An existing index makes the compaction record an FRI.
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
+        let mut stale = dataset.clone();
+        if is_built_after_an_append {
+            dataset.append(data_gen.batch(100), None).await.unwrap();
+        }
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["labels"],
-                IndexType::LabelList,
-                index_name.clone(),
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("second".into()),
                 &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
                 false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "labels_idx").unwrap();
+        compact_files(
+            &mut stale,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        dataset.drop_index("scalar").await.unwrap();
+
+        let frag_reuse = dataset.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let watermark = frag_reuse.details.versions[0].dataset_version;
+        let second = stored_index(&dataset, "second").await;
+        assert!(second.dataset_version < watermark);
+        let coverage = second.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+        for new_frag in frag_reuse.details.versions[0].new_frag_ids() {
+            assert!(coverage.contains(new_frag as u32));
+        }
+        for old_frag in frag_reuse.details.versions[0].old_frag_ids() {
+            assert!(!coverage.contains(old_frag as u32));
+        }
 
-        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await, vec![watermark]);
+        assert_eq!(rows_found_through_index(&dataset).await, 11);
+
+        catch_up_index(&mut dataset, "second", catch_up).await;
+        let caught_up = dataset.load_index_by_name("second").await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(caught_up.uuid, second.uuid);
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(rows_found_through_index(&dataset).await, 11);
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum Race {
+        Append,
+        BuildIndex,
+        /// From another session, so the rebase reads its rewrite from the transaction file.
+        CompactElsewhere {
+            excluded: &'static [u32],
+        },
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+    struct RaceBeforeRewrite {
+        races: std::sync::Mutex<Vec<Race>>,
+        handle: std::sync::Mutex<Option<Dataset>>,
+        built: std::sync::Mutex<Option<(Dataset, IndexMetadata)>>,
+    }
+
+    impl RaceBeforeRewrite {
+        fn arm(&self, handle: &Dataset, races: Vec<Race>) {
+            *self.handle.lock().unwrap() = Some(handle.clone());
+            *self.races.lock().unwrap() = races.into_iter().rev().collect();
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl CommitHandler for RaceBeforeRewrite {
+        async fn commit(
+            &self,
+            manifest: &mut Manifest,
+            indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+            base_path: &object_store::path::Path,
+            object_store: &ObjectStore,
+            manifest_writer: ManifestWriter,
+            naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+            transaction: Option<lance_table::format::Transaction>,
+        ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+            let is_rewrite = transaction
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|transaction| transaction.as_pb().operation.as_ref())
+                .is_some_and(|operation| matches!(operation, PbOperation::Rewrite(_)));
+            let race = if is_rewrite {
+                self.races.lock().unwrap().pop()
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+            if let Some(race) = race {
+                let mut handle = self.handle.lock().unwrap().clone().unwrap();
+                handle.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+                match race {
+                    Race::Append => {
+                        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [9000, 9001])).unwrap();
+                        handle
+                            .append(
+                                RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                                None,
+                            )
+                            .await
+                            .unwrap();
+                    }
+                    Race::BuildIndex => {
+                        let index = handle
+                            .create_index_builder(
+                                &["i"],
+                                IndexType::BTree,
+                                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                            )
+                            .name("second".into())
+                            .execute_uncommitted()
+                            .await
+                            .unwrap();
+                        *self.built.lock().unwrap() = Some((handle, index));
+                    }
+                    Race::CompactElsewhere { excluded } => {
+                        let mut elsewhere = Dataset::open(handle.uri()).await.unwrap();
+                        compact_files(
+                            &mut elsewhere,
+                            deferred_compaction_excluding(excluded),
+                            None,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap();
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            ConditionalPutCommitHandler
+                .commit(
+                    manifest,
+                    indices,
+                    base_path,
+                    object_store,
+                    manifest_writer,
+                    naming_scheme,
+                    transaction,
+                )
+                .await
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn racing_dataset(uri: &str, handler: Arc<RaceBeforeRewrite>) -> Dataset {
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(500),
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100,
+                commit_handler: Some(handler),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("i >= 10 AND i < 60").await.unwrap();
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum Boundary {
+        AtWatermark,
+        AfterWatermark,
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::at_watermark_remap(Boundary::AtWatermark, CatchUp::Remap)]
+    #[case::at_watermark_merge(Boundary::AtWatermark, CatchUp::MergeSegments)]
+    #[case::after_watermark(Boundary::AfterWatermark, CatchUp::Remap)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_at_the_watermark_boundary(
+        #[case] boundary: Boundary,
+        #[case] catch_up: CatchUp,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let handler = Arc::new(RaceBeforeRewrite::default());
+        let mut dataset = racing_dataset(dir.as_str(), handler.clone()).await;
+        if matches!(boundary, Boundary::AtWatermark) {
+            handler.arm(&dataset, vec![Race::BuildIndex]);
+        }
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let watermark = frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await[0];
+        assert_eq!(watermark, dataset.manifest.version - 1);
+
+        match boundary {
+            Boundary::AtWatermark => {
+                let (mut handle, index) = handler.built.lock().unwrap().take().unwrap();
+                let read_version = index.dataset_version;
+                handle
+                    .apply_commit(
+                        Transaction::new(
+                            read_version,
+                            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                                new_indices: vec![index],
+                                removed_indices: vec![],
+                            },
+                            None,
+                        ),
+                        &Default::default(),
+                        &Default::default(),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            Boundary::AfterWatermark => {
+                dataset
+                    .create_index(
+                        &["i"],
+                        IndexType::BTree,
+                        Some("second".into()),
+                        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                        false,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        dataset.drop_index("scalar").await.unwrap();
+        let second = stored_index(&dataset, "second").await;
+        let is_at_watermark = matches!(boundary, Boundary::AtWatermark);
+        assert_eq!(
+            second.dataset_version,
+            watermark + u64::from(!is_at_watermark)
+        );
+
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await.len(),
+            usize::from(is_at_watermark)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(rows_found_through_index(&dataset).await, 11);
+        if is_at_watermark {
+            catch_up_index(&mut dataset, "second", catch_up).await;
+            let caught_up = dataset.load_index_by_name("second").await.unwrap().unwrap();
+            assert_ne!(caught_up.uuid, second.uuid);
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await.is_empty());
+            assert_eq!(rows_found_through_index(&dataset).await, 11);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum Publication {
+        Direct,
+        AfterRetries,
+        OverAConcurrentCleanup,
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::direct(Publication::Direct)]
+    #[case::after_repeated_retries(Publication::AfterRetries)]
+    #[case::over_a_concurrent_cleanup(Publication::OverAConcurrentCleanup)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_reuse_version_is_stamped_just_before_its_rewrite_publishes(
+        #[case] publication: Publication,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let handler = Arc::new(RaceBeforeRewrite::default());
+        let mut dataset = racing_dataset(dir.as_str(), handler.clone()).await;
         let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2000,
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
             defer_index_remap: true,
             ..Default::default()
         };
-        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
-
-        // Verify that the index UUID remains unchanged
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let current_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "labels_idx").unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options.clone(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let earlier = frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(earlier, vec![dataset.manifest.version - 1]);
+
+        dataset.delete("i >= 210 AND i < 260").await.unwrap();
+        let rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        match publication {
+            Publication::Direct => {
+                compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+            }
+            Publication::AfterRetries => {
+                handler.arm(&dataset, vec![Race::Append, Race::Append]);
+                compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+                assert!(handler.races.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
+            }
+            Publication::OverAConcurrentCleanup => {
+                let completed = execute_compaction_plan(&dataset, &options).await;
+                let mut cleaner = dataset.clone();
+                remapping::remap_column_index(&mut cleaner, &["i"], Some("scalar".into()))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut cleaner).await.unwrap();
+                assert!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&cleaner).await.is_empty());
+                commit_compaction(
+                    &mut dataset,
+                    completed,
+                    Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+                    &options,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
+        let retained = match publication {
+            Publication::OverAConcurrentCleanup => vec![],
+            _ => earlier,
+        };
         assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [1])".to_owned()))
+            frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await,
+            [retained, vec![dataset.manifest.version - 1]].concat()
+        );
+        let appended = match publication {
+            Publication::AfterRetries => 4,
+            _ => 0,
+        };
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), rows + appended);
+    }
+
+    fn stores_reuse_details_externally(entry: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+        let proto = entry
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_msg::<lance_table::format::pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails>()
+            .unwrap();
+        matches!(
+            proto.content,
+            Some(lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Content::External(_))
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// The index directories holding a reuse details file.
+    fn reuse_details_dirs(uri: &str) -> HashSet<String> {
+        std::fs::read_dir(format!("{uri}/_indices"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|entry| entry.unwrap().path())
+            .filter(|dir| {
+                dir.join(lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME)
+                    .exists()
+            })
+            .map(|dir| dir.file_name().unwrap().to_string_lossy().into_owned())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn reuse_details_requests(
+        stats: &lance_io::utils::tracking_store::IoStats,
+        method: &str,
+    ) -> usize {
+        stats
+            .requests
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|request| {
+                request.method.starts_with(method)
+                    && request
+                        .path
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .ends_with(lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME)
+            })
+            .count()
+    }
+
+    /// Two external entries of the same size each load their own details from one session.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_reuse_details_cache_keeps_entries_of_one_size_apart() {
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse::build_frag_reuse_index_metadata;
+        use crate::utils::test::{inline_padding_capacity, padding_reuse_versions};
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(1),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count = inline_padding_capacity() as u64 + 1;
+        let mut entries = Vec::new();
+        for stamp in [1, 2] {
+            let mut versions = padding_reuse_versions(count);
+            for version in &mut versions {
+                version.dataset_version = stamp;
+            }
+            let details = lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndexDetails { versions };
+            let entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+                &dataset,
+                None,
+                details.clone(),
+                RoaringBitmap::new(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            entries.push((entry, details));
+        }
+        let sizes: Vec<_> =
+            entries
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(entry, _)| {
+                    match entry
+                    .index_details
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .to_msg::<lance_table::format::pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .content
+                {
+                    Some(lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Content::External(
+                        file,
+                    )) => file.size,
+                    other => panic!("expected external details, got {other:?}"),
+                }
+                })
+                .collect();
+        assert_eq!(sizes[0], sizes[1]);
+        for (entry, details) in &entries {
+            let loaded = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, entry)
                 .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count1
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(loaded.as_ref(), details);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Versions written out of stamp order load from memory as a read of the file decodes them.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_reuse_details_cache_holds_what_a_read_decodes() {
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse::build_frag_reuse_index_metadata;
+        use crate::utils::test::{inline_padding_capacity, padding_reuse_versions};
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(1),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut versions = padding_reuse_versions(inline_padding_capacity() as u64 + 1);
+        let count = versions.len() as u64;
+        for (i, version) in versions.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            version.dataset_version = count - i as u64;
+        }
+        let entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            None,
+            lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndexDetails { versions },
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(stores_reuse_details_externally(&entry));
+
+        let cached = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &entry)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let uncached = crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(dir.as_str())
+            .with_session(Arc::new(crate::session::Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+                Arc::new(lance_core::cache::MokaCacheBackend::no_cache()),
+                128 * 1024 * 1024,
+                Default::default(),
+            )))
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let read = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&uncached, &entry)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cached, read);
+        assert!(
+            cached
+                .versions
+                .is_sorted_by_key(|version| version.dataset_version)
         );
+    }
+
+    /// An uncontended commit publishes right after its reservation, so its reuse
+    /// details are written once and no provisional copy is left behind. With a
+    /// cache, the history check reads nothing back; without one it reads the files
+    /// and reaches the same outcome.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deferred_compaction_writes_reuse_details_once(
+        #[values(true, false)] external_before: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] cached: bool,
+    ) {
+        use crate::utils::test::{commit_padding_reuse_history, inline_padding_capacity};
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(100),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 100,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "i", false).await;
+        // Scattered deletions make the compaction's own version larger than a padding one.
+        dataset.delete("i % 3 = 1").await.unwrap();
+        let capacity = inline_padding_capacity();
+        let history = commit_padding_reuse_history(
+            &mut dataset,
+            if external_before {
+                capacity + 1
+            } else {
+                capacity
+            },
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(stores_reuse_details_externally(&history), external_before);
+
+        let session = if cached {
+            crate::session::Session::default()
+        } else {
+            crate::session::Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+                Arc::new(lance_core::cache::MokaCacheBackend::no_cache()),
+                128 * 1024 * 1024,
+                Default::default(),
+            )
+        };
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 200,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            excluded_fragment_ids: fragments_except(&dataset, &[0, 1]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = plan_one_task(&dataset, &options).await;
+        // Committed through a session that has read nothing yet.
+        let mut dataset = crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(dir.as_str())
+            .with_session(Arc::new(session))
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dirs_before = reuse_details_dirs(dir.as_str());
+        dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        commit_one(&mut dataset, result, &options).await.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+
+        assert_eq!(reuse_details_requests(&stats, "put"), 1);
+        // With a cache, only the stored history is read, once.
+        let reads = reuse_details_requests(&stats, "get");
+        if cached {
+            assert_eq!(reads, usize::from(external_before));
+        } else {
+            assert!(reads > usize::from(external_before));
+        }
+        let entry = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(stores_reuse_details_externally(&entry));
+        let written: Vec<_> = reuse_details_dirs(dir.as_str())
+            .difference(&dirs_before)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(written, vec![entry.uuid.to_string()]);
+        let details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &entry)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(entry.fragment_bitmap, Some(details.new_frag_bitmap()));
+        let watermark = dataset.manifest.version - 1;
+        assert_eq!(entry.dataset_version, watermark);
         assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [5])".to_owned()))
+            frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await.last(),
+            Some(&watermark)
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The deletions sit at non-zero offsets, so a mistranslated address loses rows.
+    async fn indexed_dataset(uri: &str, index: BuiltinIndexType) -> Dataset {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                uri,
+                FragmentCount::from(6),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(index),
+            )
+            .name("i_idx".into())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("i IN (3, 24, 45)").await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    fn deferred_compaction_excluding(excluded_fragment_ids: &[u32]) -> CompactionOptions {
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 20,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            excluded_fragment_ids: excluded_fragment_ids.to_vec(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn plan_one_task(dataset: &Dataset, options: &CompactionOptions) -> RewriteResult {
+        let plan = plan_compaction(dataset, options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 1);
+        plan.compaction_tasks()
+            .next()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute(dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn commit_one(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        result: RewriteResult,
+        options: &CompactionOptions,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        commit_compaction(
+            dataset,
+            vec![result],
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .map(|_| ())
+    }
+
+    async fn values_by_address(dataset: &Dataset) -> HashMap<u64, i32> {
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["i"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_address()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let addrs = batch[lance_core::ROW_ADDR]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values();
+        let values = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
+        addrs.iter().copied().zip(values.iter().copied()).collect()
+    }
+
+    async fn values_matching(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        column: &str,
+        filter: &str,
+        use_scalar_index: bool,
+    ) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
+        scanner.project(&[column]).unwrap();
+        scanner.use_scalar_index(use_scalar_index);
+        let mut values = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()[column]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        values.sort_unstable();
+        values
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_index_is_used(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str, index_name: &str) {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains(&format!("@{index_name}(")),
+            "{filter}: {plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_index_answers_like_a_scan(dataset: &Dataset) {
+        for filter in ["i < 15", "i >= 20 AND i < 35", "i > 40"] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                values_matching(dataset, "i", filter, true).await,
+                values_matching(dataset, "i", filter, false).await,
+                "{filter}"
+            );
+            assert_index_is_used(dataset, filter, "i_idx").await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_mappings_intact(uri: &str, before: &HashMap<u64, i32>) {
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        let frag_reuse = dataset.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap();
+        let after = values_by_address(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(after.len(), before.len());
+        for (old_addr, value) in before {
+            let new_addr = frag_reuse
+                .as_ref()
+                .map_or(Some(*old_addr), |index| index.remap_row_id(*old_addr))
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("live row {value} at {old_addr} maps to a deletion"));
+            assert_eq!(after.get(&new_addr), Some(value), "moved from {old_addr}");
+        }
+        assert_index_answers_like_a_scan(&dataset).await;
+    }
+
+    fn fragments_except(dataset: &Dataset, compacted: &[u32]) -> Vec<u32> {
+        dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .filter(|id| !compacted.contains(id))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum ReuseHistoryChange {
+        Created,
+        Replaced,
+        Removed,
+    }
+
+    /// The second commit must conflict whether or not its session saw the first.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_compactions_with_defer_index_remap(
+        #[values(
+            ReuseHistoryChange::Created,
+            ReuseHistoryChange::Replaced,
+            ReuseHistoryChange::Removed
+        )]
+        change: ReuseHistoryChange,
+        #[values(false, true)] separate_session: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = indexed_dataset(dir.as_str(), BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap).await;
+        if !matches!(change, ReuseHistoryChange::Created) {
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                deferred_compaction_excluding(&[0, 1, 2, 3]),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+        let untouched: Vec<u32> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .filter(|id| *id > 3)
+            .collect();
+        let options_a = deferred_compaction_excluding(&[&[2, 3], untouched.as_slice()].concat());
+        let options_b = deferred_compaction_excluding(&[&[0, 1], untouched.as_slice()].concat());
+        let before = values_by_address(&dataset).await;
+        let result_a = plan_one_task(&dataset, &options_a).await;
+        let result_b = plan_one_task(&dataset, &options_b).await;
+        let open = async || {
+            if separate_session {
+                Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap()
+            } else {
+                dataset.clone()
+            }
+        };
+        let mut committer_a = open().await;
+        let mut committer_b = open().await;
+
+        if matches!(change, ReuseHistoryChange::Removed) {
+            committer_a.drop_index(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        } else {
+            commit_one(&mut committer_a, result_a, &options_a)
                 .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count2
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let error = commit_one(&mut committer_b, result_b.clone(), &options_b)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "{error}"
         );
+        let expected_versions = match change {
+            ReuseHistoryChange::Created => 1,
+            ReuseHistoryChange::Replaced => 2,
+            ReuseHistoryChange::Removed => 0,
+        };
+        let latest = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [10])".to_owned()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            count3
+            frag_reuse_watermarks(&latest).await.len(),
+            expected_versions
+        );
+        if !matches!(change, ReuseHistoryChange::Removed) {
+            assert_mappings_intact(dir.as_str(), &before).await;
+        }
+
+        let mut recommitter = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        commit_one(&mut recommitter, result_b, &options_b)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let latest = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            frag_reuse_watermarks(&latest).await.len(),
+            expected_versions + 1
+        );
+        if !matches!(change, ReuseHistoryChange::Removed) {
+            assert_mappings_intact(dir.as_str(), &before).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The race lands after the first attempt's check, so only the retry can catch it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deferred_compaction_rechecks_the_reuse_history_on_every_attempt() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = indexed_dataset(dir.as_str(), BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap).await;
+        let handler = Arc::new(RaceBeforeRewrite::default());
+        dataset.commit_handler = handler.clone();
+        let before = values_by_address(&dataset).await;
+        let options = deferred_compaction_excluding(&[2, 3, 4, 5]);
+        let result = plan_one_task(&dataset, &options).await;
+
+        handler.arm(&dataset, vec![Race::CompactElsewhere { excluded: &[0, 1] }]);
+        let error = commit_one(&mut dataset, result.clone(), &options)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        assert!(handler.races.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
+        let latest = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&latest).await.len(), 1);
+        assert_mappings_intact(dir.as_str(), &before).await;
+
+        let mut recommitter = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        commit_one(&mut recommitter, result, &options)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let latest = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&latest).await.len(), 2);
+        assert_mappings_intact(dir.as_str(), &before).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cleanup_racing_a_deferred_compaction_keeps_its_mappings(
+        #[values(false, true)] separate_session: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = indexed_dataset(dir.as_str(), BuiltinIndexType::BTree).await;
+        let before = values_by_address(&dataset).await;
+        let options = deferred_compaction_excluding(&fragments_except(&dataset, &[0, 1]));
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut cleaner = if separate_session {
+            Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap()
+        } else {
+            dataset.clone()
+        };
+        let options = deferred_compaction_excluding(&fragments_except(&dataset, &[2, 3]));
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let error = cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut cleaner).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        let latest = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&latest).await.len(), 2);
+        assert_mappings_intact(dir.as_str(), &before).await;
+
+        cleaner.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut cleaner).await.unwrap();
+        let latest = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            frag_reuse_watermarks(&latest).await,
+            frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await[1..]
+        );
+        assert_index_answers_like_a_scan(&latest).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deferred_compaction_over_a_partial_cleanup_keeps_the_remaining_mappings(
+        #[values(false, true)] separate_session: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = indexed_dataset(dir.as_str(), BuiltinIndexType::BTree).await;
+        let options = deferred_compaction_excluding(&fragments_except(&dataset, &[0, 1]));
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let before = values_by_address(&dataset).await;
+        let options = deferred_compaction_excluding(&fragments_except(&dataset, &[2, 3]));
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        let history = frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(history.len(), 2);
+        let open = async || {
+            if separate_session {
+                Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap()
+            } else {
+                dataset.clone()
+            }
+        };
+        let mut stale = open().await;
+        let options = deferred_compaction_excluding(&fragments_except(&stale, &[4, 5]));
+        let result = plan_one_task(&stale, &options).await;
+
+        let mut cleaner = open().await;
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut cleaner).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&cleaner).await, history[1..]);
+        commit_one(&mut stale, result, &options).await.unwrap();
+        let latest = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            frag_reuse_watermarks(&latest).await,
+            vec![history[1], latest.manifest.version - 1]
         );
+        assert_mappings_intact(dir.as_str(), &before).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_deferred_compaction_keeps_mappings_recorded_before_its_handle() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = indexed_dataset(dir.as_str(), BuiltinIndexType::BTree).await;
+        let options = deferred_compaction_excluding(&fragments_except(&dataset, &[0, 1]));
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        let before = values_by_address(&dataset).await;
+        let options_b = deferred_compaction_excluding(&fragments_except(&dataset, &[4, 5]));
+        let result_b = plan_one_task(&dataset, &options_b).await;
+
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&dataset).await.is_empty());
+        let options = deferred_compaction_excluding(&fragments_except(&dataset, &[2, 3]));
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut driver = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        commit_one(&mut driver, result_b, &options_b).await.unwrap();
+        let latest = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag_reuse_watermarks(&latest).await.len(), 2);
+        assert_mappings_intact(dir.as_str(), &before).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_bitmap_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
+        // Create a dataset with categorical values
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "category",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![1, 2, 3]),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Get initial counts for each category
+        let count1 = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("category = 1".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count2 = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("category = 2".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count3 = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("category = 3".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a bitmap index on the category column
+        let index_name = Some("category_idx".into());
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["category"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                index_name.clone(),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let original_index = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "category_idx")
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
+        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("category_idx").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("category index must be available");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+
+        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("category = 1".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("category = 2".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count2
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("category = 3".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count3
+        );
+
+        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses bitmap index scan
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("category = 1").unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[category = 1]@category_idx(Bitmap)"),
+            "Expected index query in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_bloom_filter_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(3))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BloomFilter,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BloomFilter),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.count_rows(Some("id = 2".to_owned())).await.unwrap(),
+            1
+        );
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("id = 2").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[id = 2]@id_idx(BloomFilter)"),
+            "Expected BloomFilter index query in plan: {plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A zone map is built over `_rowaddr`, so a rewrite invalidates every
+    /// address it stores. Stable row ids do not save it: they spare the
+    /// row-id-domain indices a remap, not this one.
+    ///
+    /// Without a deferred remap there is nothing to repair those addresses with,
+    /// so the rewritten fragments are dropped from its coverage and the scanner
+    /// falls back to a full scan. Answers stay correct; the index stops earning
+    /// its keep.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zonemap_loses_coverage_compacting_stable_row_ids() {
+        let mut dataset = zonemap_stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none(),
+            "an eager compaction writes no fragment-reuse index"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            zonemap_coverage(&dataset).await.is_empty(),
+            "coverage should have been dropped rather than followed"
+        );
+        assert_zonemap_answers_match_scan(&dataset).await;
+    }
+
+    /// The same compaction with `defer_index_remap` keeps the zone map covering
+    /// its data: the FRI records the address moves and the index applies them on
+    /// load, then bakes them in when the segments are merged.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_defer_index_remap_zonemap_with_stable_row_ids() {
+        let mut dataset = zonemap_stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        let coverage_before = zonemap_coverage(&dataset).await;
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 3);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some(),
+            "a deferred compaction over an address-domain index must write an FRI"
+        );
+
+        let coverage_after = zonemap_coverage(&dataset).await;
+        assert_ne!(coverage_after, coverage_before);
+        assert_eq!(
+            coverage_after.len(),
+            1,
+            "coverage followed to the new fragment"
+        );
+        assert_zonemap_answers_match_scan(&dataset).await;
+        assert_zonemap_is_used(&dataset).await;
+
+        // Draining the FRI into the index must not change any answer.
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(dataset.load_indices_by_name("value_idx").await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_idx", "value", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_zonemap_answers_match_scan(&dataset).await;
+        assert_zonemap_is_used(&dataset).await;
+    }
+
+    /// An FRI and a row-id-domain index cannot coexist on a stable-row-id
+    /// dataset: the FRI is applied to every index on load, and a stable row id
+    /// is numerically indistinguishable from an address into fragment 0, so it
+    /// would silently rewrite the btree's valid row ids.
+    ///
+    /// Compaction refuses to create that pair, at the plan boundary and again at
+    /// the commit boundary.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_defer_index_remap_rejected_while_row_id_index_present() {
+        let mut dataset = zonemap_stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let plan_err = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(plan_err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let msg = plan_err.to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains("defer_index_remap"), "{msg}");
+        assert!(msg.contains("id_idx"), "{msg}");
+
+        // Nothing is rewritten, and the zone map keeps the coverage it had.
+        let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let compact_err = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(compact_err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before);
+        assert_eq!(zonemap_coverage(&dataset).await.len(), 3);
+    }
+
+    /// The mirror image: once an FRI is live, a row-id-domain index cannot be
+    /// added, because the FRI would be applied to it on load.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_row_id_domain_index_rejected_under_frag_reuse() {
+        let mut dataset = zonemap_stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some()
+        );
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains("fragment reuse index"), "{msg}");
+
+        // An address-domain index is still allowed: the FRI repairs it.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BloomFilter,
+                Some("id_bloom".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BloomFilter),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_zonemap_answers_match_scan(&dataset).await;
+    }
+
+    /// Index creation and a deferred compaction race, and each one's guard looks
+    /// at a snapshot taken before the other committed.
+    ///
+    /// The compaction plans and rewrites while no row-id-domain index exists, so
+    /// its plan-time guard passes. A btree is then created and commits: no FRI
+    /// exists yet, so its guard passes too. The compaction finally commits from
+    /// the handle it planned on, which still cannot see the btree, and the
+    /// rewrite rebases on top of the `CreateIndex`.
+    ///
+    /// The result is the combination both guards exist to prevent: stable row
+    /// ids, an FRI, and a row-id-domain index whose row ids the FRI will rewrite
+    /// on load.
+    ///
+    /// Fails two ways, both real. In a debug build the invariant's
+    /// `debug_assert` in `manifest_build` trips first. In a release build there
+    /// is nothing to stop it: the commit returns `Ok` and the invalid
+    /// combination is durably committed, which the final assertion here catches.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_defer_index_remap_racing_row_id_index_creation() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = zonemap_stable_row_id_dataset(test_uri).await;
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        // Plan and rewrite against a dataset that carries no row-id-domain index.
+        let completed = execute_compaction_plan(&dataset, &options).await;
+
+        // A concurrent writer adds one and commits first. No FRI exists yet, so
+        // nothing refuses it.
+        let mut concurrent = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        concurrent
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(concurrent.manifest.version > dataset.manifest.version);
+
+        // The compaction commits from its own, now-stale handle.
+        let commit_result = commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            completed,
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        // Only the rebase can see both sides, so it is what must refuse.
+        let commit_err = commit_result.expect_err(
+            "the rewrite must conflict with the concurrently created row-id-domain index",
+        );
+        assert!(
+            matches!(commit_err, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "expected RetryableCommitConflict, got: {commit_err:?}"
+        );
+
+        // And the invalid combination must not be on disk.
+        let after = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(after.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+        let has_frag_reuse = after
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_some();
+        let row_id_indices = row_id_domain_indices(&after).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !has_frag_reuse || row_id_indices.is_empty(),
+            "committed the invalid combination: stable row ids + fragment reuse index + \
+             row-id-domain index(es) {row_id_indices:?}"
+        );
+        assert_btree_answers_every_row(&after).await;
+    }
+
+    /// The mirror ordering: the rewrite commits its FRI first, and the index
+    /// creation -- planned against a version with no FRI -- rebases on top of it.
+    /// The rebase is again the only place that sees both.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_id_index_creation_racing_defer_index_remap() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = zonemap_stable_row_id_dataset(test_uri).await;
+
+        // A second handle pinned to the pre-compaction version.
+        let mut concurrent = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some()
+        );
+
+        // `create_index` sees no FRI at its own version, so its guard passes and
+        // the transaction reaches the rebase.
+        let err = concurrent
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect_err("creating a row-id-domain index must conflict with the committed FRI");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                err,
+                Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. } | Error::InvalidInput { .. }
+            ),
+            "expected a conflict or a refusal, got: {err:?}"
+        );
+
+        let after = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            row_id_domain_indices(&after).await.unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "a row-id-domain index landed alongside the fragment reuse index"
+        );
+        assert_zonemap_answers_match_scan(&after).await;
+    }
+
+    /// The mirror ordering only conflicts today by accident: the rebase rejects
+    /// a `CreateIndex` whose coverage overlaps the rewritten fragments. An index
+    /// built over fragments the compaction left alone does not overlap, so
+    /// nothing stops it -- and the `Rewrite` transaction read back from its file
+    /// reports no fragment-reuse index at all, because the proto has no field
+    /// for one, so the rebase cannot even tell an FRI landed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_id_index_creation_racing_defer_index_remap_disjoint_coverage() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = zonemap_stable_row_id_dataset(test_uri).await;
+
+        let concurrent = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Compact only fragments 0 and 1, leaving 2 untouched.
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                excluded_fragment_ids: vec![2],
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some()
+        );
+
+        // A btree over only the untouched fragment. Its coverage is disjoint from
+        // the rewrite, so the incidental overlap rule does not fire.
+        let mut concurrent = concurrent;
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let result = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+            &mut concurrent,
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            &params,
+        )
+        .name("id_idx".into())
+        .fragments(vec![2])
+        .await;
+
+        let after = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let has_frag_reuse = after
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_some();
+        let row_id_indices = row_id_domain_indices(&after).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !has_frag_reuse || row_id_indices.is_empty(),
+            "committed the invalid combination: stable row ids + fragment reuse index + \
+             row-id-domain index(es) {row_id_indices:?} (create returned {result:?})"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Every row must be reachable through the btree, whose row ids no FRI may
+    /// have rewritten.
+    async fn assert_btree_answers_every_row(dataset: &Dataset) {
+        if !dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("id_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_empty()
+        {
+            for id in 0..12i32 {
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+                scanner.filter(&format!("id = {id}")).unwrap();
+                scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+                scanner.use_scalar_index(true);
+                let found = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()["id"]
+                    .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec();
+                assert_eq!(found, vec![id], "btree lost row {id}");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// 12 rows over 3 fragments with a zone map on `value`, stable row ids on.
+    async fn zonemap_stable_row_id_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, (0..12).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            (
+                "value",
+                Int64,
+                [
+                    Some(0),
+                    None,
+                    Some(20),
+                    Some(30),
+                    Some(40),
+                    None,
+                    Some(60),
+                    Some(70),
+                    Some(80),
+                    None,
+                    Some(100),
+                    Some(110)
+                ]
+            )
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                max_rows_per_group: 4,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["value"],
+                IndexType::ZoneMap,
+                Some("value_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_zonemap_answers_match_scan(&dataset).await;
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    async fn zonemap_coverage(dataset: &Dataset) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("value_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+            .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut acc, bm| {
+                acc |= bm;
+                acc
+            })
+    }
+
+    /// The index path and a full scan must agree, for a value predicate, a range
+    /// predicate and the null bitmap.
+    async fn assert_zonemap_answers_match_scan(dataset: &Dataset) {
+        async fn scan_ids(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str, use_scalar_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+            scanner.use_scalar_index(use_scalar_index);
+            scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()["id"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        }
+
+        for (filter, expected) in [
+            ("value IS NULL", vec![1, 5, 9]),
+            ("value = 20", vec![2]),
+            ("value > 90", vec![10, 11]),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(scan_ids(dataset, filter, false).await, expected, "{filter}");
+            assert_eq!(scan_ids(dataset, filter, true).await, expected, "{filter}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_zonemap_is_used(dataset: &Dataset) {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("value IS NULL").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[value IS NULL]@value_idx(ZoneMap)"),
+            "Expected ZoneMap index query in plan: {plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_zonemap_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, (0..12).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            (
+                "value",
+                Int64,
+                [
+                    Some(0),
+                    None,
+                    Some(20),
+                    Some(30),
+                    Some(40),
+                    None,
+                    Some(60),
+                    Some(70),
+                    Some(80),
+                    None,
+                    Some(100),
+                    Some(110)
+                ]
+            )
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                max_rows_per_group: 4,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["value"],
+                IndexType::ZoneMap,
+                Some("value_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 3);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+
+        async fn scan_ids(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str, use_scalar_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+            scanner.use_scalar_index(use_scalar_index);
+            scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()["id"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        }
+
+        for (filter, expected) in [
+            ("value IS NULL", vec![1, 5, 9]),
+            ("value = 20", vec![2]),
+            ("value > 90", vec![10, 11]),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(scan_ids(&dataset, filter, false).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(scan_ids(&dataset, filter, true).await, expected);
+        }
+
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(dataset.load_indices_by_name("value_idx").await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_idx", "value", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for (filter, expected) in [
+            ("value IS NULL", vec![1, 5, 9]),
+            ("value = 20", vec![2]),
+            ("value > 90", vec![10, 11]),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(scan_ids(&dataset, filter, false).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(scan_ids(&dataset, filter, true).await, expected);
+        }
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("value IS NULL").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[value IS NULL]@value_idx(ZoneMap)"),
+            "Expected ZoneMap index query in plan: {plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_btree_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
+        // Create a dataset with an incremental ID column
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
+            )
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(110), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Get initial counts for some ID ranges
+        let count_low = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("id < 1000".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count_mid = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("id >= 2000 and id < 3000".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count_high = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("id >= 5000".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a btree index on the id column
+        let index_name = Some("id_idx".into());
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                index_name.clone(),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "id_idx").unwrap();
+
+        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 50_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
+        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("id index must be available");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+
+        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("id < 1000".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count_low
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("id >= 2000 and id < 3000".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count_mid
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("id >= 5000".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count_high
+        );
+
+        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses btree index scan
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("id >= 2000 and id < 3000").unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[id >= 2000 && id < 3000]@id_idx(BTree)"),
+            "Expected scalar index query in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(IndexRemapMode::Compact)]
+    #[case(IndexRemapMode::Direct)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_btree_index_remap_after_compaction(#[case] index_remap_mode: IndexRemapMode) {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(32)),
+            )
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Delete rows scattered across fragments so the remap must drop some old
+        // addresses and shift the survivors.
+        dataset.delete("id % 10 == 0").await.unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let count_low = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("id < 1000".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count_mid = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("id >= 2000 and id < 3000".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count_high = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("id >= 5000".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 50_000,
+            index_remap_mode,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        // The index was remapped inline and must still drive scans.
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("id >= 2000 and id < 3000").unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[id >= 2000 && id < 3000]@id_idx(BTree)"),
+            "Expected scalar index query in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        // Counts resolved through the remapped index match the pre-compaction
+        // values in both remap modes.
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("id < 1000".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count_low
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("id >= 2000 and id < 3000".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count_mid
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("id >= 5000".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count_high
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(IndexRemapMode::Compact)]
+    #[case(IndexRemapMode::Direct)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_pq_index_remap_after_compaction(#[case] index_remap_mode: IndexRemapMode) {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+
+        const DIM: u32 = 32;
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(DIM)),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            PQBuildParams {
+                max_iters: 2,
+                num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let original_uuid = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name("vec_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .uuid;
+
+        // Delete rows scattered across fragments so the remap must drop some old
+        // addresses and shift the survivors.
+        dataset.delete("id % 10 == 0").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Sample queries from surviving vectors and capture the pre-compaction
+        // KNN answer and the surviving id set.
+        let mut survivors: Vec<(i32, Vec<f32>)> = Vec::new();
+        {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.project(&["id", "vec"]).unwrap();
+            let batches = scanner
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            for batch in &batches {
+                let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+                let vecs = batch["vec"].as_fixed_size_list();
+                for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                    let v = vecs.value(i);
+                    survivors.push((
+                        ids.value(i),
+                        v.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().to_vec(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let surviving_ids: std::collections::HashSet<i32> =
+            survivors.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+        let step = (survivors.len() / 16).max(1);
+        let queries: Vec<Vec<f32>> = survivors
+            .iter()
+            .step_by(step)
+            .map(|(_, v)| v.clone())
+            .collect();
+        let k = 10;
+        let mut baseline: Vec<Vec<i32>> = Vec::new();
+        for q in &queries {
+            baseline.push(vector_knn_ids(&dataset, q, k).await);
+        }
+
+        // Inline remap (defer_index_remap = false): compaction physically
+        // rebuilds the vector index through the configured remap mode.
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 50_000,
+                index_remap_mode,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        // The index was physically remapped inline, so its uuid must change.
+        assert_ne!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name("vec_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+                .uuid,
+            original_uuid,
+            "vector index must be physically remapped inline"
+        );
+
+        // The remap only relabels row addresses; it must not resurrect deleted
+        // rows, and KNN must stay close to the pre-compaction answer in both
+        // remap modes.
+        for (i, q) in queries.iter().enumerate() {
+            let after = vector_knn_ids(&dataset, q, k).await;
+            for id in &after {
+                assert!(
+                    surviving_ids.contains(id),
+                    "KNN returned id {id} that is not a surviving row (query #{i}, mode {index_remap_mode:?})"
+                );
+            }
+            let overlap = after.iter().filter(|id| baseline[i].contains(id)).count();
+            assert!(
+                overlap >= 8,
+                "KNN top-{k} diverged after compaction: overlap {overlap} < 8 (query #{i}, mode {index_remap_mode:?})"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(IndexRemapMode::Compact)]
+    #[case(IndexRemapMode::Direct)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_inverted_index_remap_after_compaction(#[case] index_remap_mode: IndexRemapMode) {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("doc", lance_datagen::array::random_sentence(1, 100, false))
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["doc"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("doc_idx".into()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let original_uuid = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name("doc_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .uuid;
+
+        // Sample a few words from a real document to drive full-text searches.
+        let words: Vec<String> = {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner
+                .project(&["doc"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(Some(1), None)
+                .unwrap();
+            let batches = scanner
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut words: Vec<String> = batches[0]["doc"]
+                .as_string::<i32>()
+                .value(0)
+                .split_whitespace()
+                .map(|s| s.to_string())
+                .collect();
+            words.sort();
+            words.dedup();
+            words.truncate(3);
+            words
+        };
+        assert!(!words.is_empty(), "sampled document must contain words");
+
+        // Delete rows scattered across fragments so the remap must drop some old
+        // addresses and shift the survivors.
+        dataset.delete("id % 10 == 0").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Capture the post-deletion full-text-search counts (resolved through the
+        // index + deletion vectors) before compaction physically remaps.
+        let mut before = Vec::new();
+        for word in &words {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.clone()))
+                .unwrap();
+            scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+            before.push(scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap());
+        }
+
+        // Inline remap (defer_index_remap = false): compaction physically rebuilds
+        // the inverted index through the configured remap mode.
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 50_000,
+            index_remap_mode,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        // The index was physically remapped inline, so its uuid must change.
+        assert_ne!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name("doc_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+                .uuid,
+            original_uuid,
+            "inverted index must be physically remapped inline (mode {index_remap_mode:?})"
+        );
+
+        // The remapped index must still drive full-text search.
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(words[0].clone()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("MatchQuery"),
+            "Expected inverted index scan in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        // Counts resolved through the remapped index match the pre-compaction
+        // values in both remap modes.
+        for (word, expected) in words.iter().zip(before) {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.clone()))
+                .unwrap();
+            scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+            assert_eq!(
+                scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap(),
+                expected,
+                "full-text count for {word:?} changed after compaction (mode {index_remap_mode:?})"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_inverted_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
+        // Generate random words using lance-datagen
+        let mut words_gen = lance_datagen::array::random_sentence(1, 100, true);
+        let doc_col = words_gen
+            .generate_default(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(6000))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Schema::new(vec![Field::new("doc", DataType::LargeUtf8, false)]).into(),
+            vec![doc_col.clone()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema_ref = batch.schema();
+        let stream = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema_ref);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            stream,
+            "memory://test/table",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Get initial counts for some word searches
+        // Extract some test words from the generated documents
+        let large_string_array = doc_col.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>().unwrap();
+        let sample_words: Vec<String> = large_string_array
+            .value(0)
+            .split_whitespace()
+            .take(10)
+            .map(|s| s.to_string())
+            .collect();
+        let test_word1 = &sample_words[0];
+        let test_word2 = &sample_words[1];
+        let test_word3 = &sample_words[2];
+
+        // Create an inverted index on the doc column
+        let index_name = Some("doc_idx".into());
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["doc"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                index_name.clone(),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "doc_idx").unwrap();
+
+        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
+        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("doc_idx").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("doc index must be available");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+
+        // Initial scan
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word1.clone()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let count1 = scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap();
+        scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word2.clone()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let count2 = scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap();
+        scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word3.clone()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let count3 = scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses inverted index scan
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word1.clone()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("MatchQuery"),
+            "Expected inverted index scan in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("LanceScan"),
+            "Expected no fragment scan in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        // Reindex to the latest
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["doc"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                index_name.clone(),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word1.clone()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        assert_eq!(scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap(), count1);
+        scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word2.clone()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        assert_eq!(scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap(), count2);
+        scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(test_word3.clone()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        assert_eq!(scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap(), count3);
+    }
+
+    /// Deferred compaction that materializes deletions must not corrupt an
+    /// inverted (FTS) index read through the fragment-reuse index. The index's
+    /// posting lists reference doc_ids positionally; if the load-time remap
+    /// dropped the deleted rows it would renumber the doc_ids and desync the
+    /// posting lists (out-of-bounds `num_tokens`, wrong/stale row ids). The
+    /// tombstone-preserve-positions load path must keep results correct in the
+    /// FRI window and after the physical remap + trim.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_inverted_index_with_defer_index_remap_and_deletions() {
+        // Enough surviving docs for several compressed posting-list blocks
+        // (BLOCK_SIZE = 128), split across several fragments so compaction has
+        // real work — but no larger.
+        const ROWS: i32 = 1200;
+        const DELETED: i32 = 400;
+
+        // Every row contains "lance", so the term matches all live rows; `id`
+        // tells us exactly which rows survive.
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..ROWS);
+        let docs = LargeStringArray::from_iter_values((0..ROWS).map(|_| "lance apple orange"));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("doc", DataType::LargeUtf8, false),
+            ])
+            .into(),
+            vec![Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(docs) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema_ref = batch.schema();
+        let stream = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema_ref);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            stream,
+            "memory://test/table",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 200, // 6 fragments
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["doc"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("doc_idx".into()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Delete a prefix, then deferred-compact so the deletions are
+        // materialized into the fragment-reuse index the index is read through.
+        dataset.delete(&format!("id < {DELETED}")).await.unwrap();
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some(),
+            "deferred compaction must leave a fragment-reuse index"
+        );
+
+        // FTS "lance" → sorted surviving ids. Projecting `id` forces a take, so
+        // a stale row address would error or return a wrong/dead row.
+        async fn search_ids(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_owned()))
+                .unwrap();
+            scanner.project::<&str>(&["id"]).unwrap();
+            let batches = scanner
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|b| {
+                    b.column_by_name("id")
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .as_any()
+                        .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .values()
+                        .to_vec()
+                })
+                .collect();
+            ids.sort_unstable();
+            ids
+        }
+
+        let expected = (DELETED..ROWS).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        // FRI window: index read through the reuse index.
+        let during = search_ids(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            during, expected,
+            "FRI-window FTS must return exactly the surviving rows (no resurrection, no loss, no stale rows)"
+        );
+
+        // Physical remap + trim: must still be correct.
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["doc"], Some("doc_idx".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let after = search_ids(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            after, expected,
+            "FTS must stay correct after physical remap + fragment-reuse trim"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_ngram_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
+        // Generate random words using lance-datagen
+        let mut words_gen = lance_datagen::array::random_sentence(1, 100, true);
+        let doc_col = words_gen
+            .generate_default(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(6000))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Schema::new(vec![Field::new("doc", DataType::LargeUtf8, false)]).into(),
+            vec![doc_col.clone()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema_ref = batch.schema();
+        let stream = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema_ref);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            stream,
+            "memory://test/table",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000, // 6 files
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Get initial counts for some word searches
+        // Extract some test words from the generated documents
+        let large_string_array = doc_col.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>().unwrap();
+        let sample_words: Vec<String> = large_string_array
+            .value(0)
+            .split_whitespace()
+            .take(10)
+            .map(|s| s.to_string())
+            .collect();
+        let test_word1 = &sample_words[0];
+        let test_word2 = &sample_words[1];
+        let test_word3 = &sample_words[2];
+
+        // Create an inverted index on the doc column
+        let index_name = Some("doc_idx".into());
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["doc"],
+                IndexType::NGram,
+                index_name.clone(),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "doc_idx").unwrap();
+
+        // Initial scan
+        let count1 = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word1)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count2 = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word2)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count3 = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word3)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
+        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("doc_idx").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("doc index must be available");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+
+        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word1)))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word2)))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count2
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some(format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word3)))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count3
+        );
+
+        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses inverted index scan
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .filter(&format!("contains(doc, '{}')", test_word1))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[contains(doc, Utf8"),
+            "Expected scalar index query in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_label_list_index_with_defer_index_remap() {
+        // Create a dataset with list data for labels
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "labels",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_list_any(
+                    lance_datagen::array::cycle::<Int64Type>(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]),
+                    false,
+                ),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Get initial counts for different label values
+        let count1 = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [1])".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count2 = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [5])".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count3 = dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [10])".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a label list index on the labels column
+        let index_name = Some("labels_idx".into());
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["labels"],
+                IndexType::LabelList,
+                index_name.clone(),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "labels_idx").unwrap();
+
+        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        // Verify that the index UUID remains unchanged
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let current_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "labels_idx").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+
+        // Verify that scans still work correctly and return the same counts
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [1])".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [5])".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count2
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels, [10])".to_owned()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            count3
+        );
+
+        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses label list index scan
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("array_has_any(labels, [1])").unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains(
+                "ScalarIndexQuery: query=[array_has_any(labels, List([1]))]@labels_idx(LabelList)",
+            ),
+            "Expected scalar index query in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_ivf_pq_index_v3_with_defer_index_remap() {
+        // Create a dataset with vector data
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Get some query vectors for KNN search
+        let query_vec1: PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> =
+            PrimitiveArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(0.0, 128));
+        let query_vec2: PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> =
+            PrimitiveArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(1.1, 128));
+        let query_vec3: PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> =
+            PrimitiveArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(2.2, 128));
+
+        // Get initial KNN search results
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec1, 10).unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let results1 = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count1 = results1.len();
+
+        scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec2, 10).unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let results2 = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count2 = results2.len();
+
+        scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec3, 10).unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let results3 = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let count3 = results3.len();
+
+        // Create an IVF-PQ index on the vec column
+        let index_name = Some("vec_idx".into());
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                index_name.clone(),
+                &VectorIndexParams {
+                    metric_type: DistanceType::L2,
+                    stages: vec![
+                        StageParams::Ivf(IvfBuildParams {
+                            max_iters: 2,
+                            num_partitions: Some(2),
+                            sample_rate: 2,
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        }),
+                        StageParams::PQ(PQBuildParams {
+                            max_iters: 2,
+                            num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        }),
+                    ],
+                    version: crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::V3,
+                    skip_transpose: false,
+                    runtime_hints: Default::default(),
+                },
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx").unwrap();
+
+        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
+        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("vec_idx").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("vec index must be available");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+
+        // Verify that KNN searches still work correctly and return the same counts
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec1, 10).unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let new_results1 = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(new_results1.len(), count1);
+
+        scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec2, 10).unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let new_results2 = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(new_results2.len(), count2);
+
+        scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec3, 10).unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let new_results3 = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(new_results3.len(), count3);
+
+        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses vector index scan
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec1, 10).unwrap();
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+            "Expected vector index scan in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("LanceScan"),
+            "Expected no fragment scan in plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_ivf_rq_index_v3_with_defer_index_remap() {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use lance_index::vector::bq::RQBuildParams;
+
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stored: Vec<Vec<f32>> = {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.project(&["vec"]).unwrap();
+            let batches = scanner
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut out = Vec::new();
+            for batch in &batches {
+                let vecs = batch["vec"].as_fixed_size_list();
+                for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                    let values = vecs.value(i);
+                    let values = values.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+                    out.push(values.values().to_vec());
+                }
+            }
+            out
+        };
+
+        let index_name = Some("vec_idx".into());
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                index_name.clone(),
+                &VectorIndexParams {
+                    metric_type: DistanceType::L2,
+                    stages: vec![
+                        StageParams::Ivf(IvfBuildParams {
+                            max_iters: 2,
+                            num_partitions: Some(2),
+                            sample_rate: 2,
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        }),
+                        StageParams::RQ(RQBuildParams::new(1)),
+                    ],
+                    version: crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::V3,
+                    skip_transpose: false,
+                    runtime_hints: Default::default(),
+                },
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx").unwrap();
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("vec_idx").await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("vec index must be available");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+
+        let frag_reuse_present = dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        assert!(
+            frag_reuse_present,
+            "defer_index_remap must record a {} index",
+            FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME
+        );
+
+        let sample_step = (stored.len() / 8).max(1);
+        let mut checked = 0;
+        for query in stored.iter().step_by(sample_step) {
+            let query_vec = PrimitiveArray::<Float32Type>::from_iter_values(query.iter().copied());
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec, 5).unwrap();
+            scanner.project(&["vec"]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+            let batches = scanner
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(!batches.is_empty(), "query returned no batches");
+            let top = &batches[0];
+            assert!(top.num_rows() > 0, "query returned empty top batch");
+            let top_vec = top["vec"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+            let top_vec = top_vec.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(
+                top_vec.values(),
+                query.as_slice(),
+                "top-1 self-recall returned a different vector than the query"
+            );
+            checked += 1;
+        }
+        assert!(checked > 0, "expected to check at least one stored vector");
+    }
+
+    /// Build an `id` + `vec` dataset, create the given IVF vector index,
+    /// optionally delete rows, then run deferred compaction (which materializes
+    /// the deletions into the fragment-reuse index) and assert that KNN over
+    /// surviving vectors during the FRI window (a) never returns a deleted row
+    /// and (b) stays consistent with the pre-compaction answer.
+    ///
+    /// The deletion path is the interesting one: materialized deletions drop
+    /// rows from the quantization storage at load time, which shifts storage
+    /// positions. Flat storage (FLAT/PQ/SQ/RQ) is scanned linearly so this is
+    /// fine, but the HNSW graph addresses storage positionally and is not
+    /// frag-reuse aware, so a desync would surface here as recall collapse or a
+    /// resurrected/again-deleted row.
+    /// Top-k `id`s for a KNN query against the `vec` column.
+    async fn vector_knn_ids(dataset: &Dataset, query: &[f32], k: usize) -> Vec<i32> {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
+        let qa = PrimitiveArray::<Float32Type>::from_iter_values(query.iter().copied());
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &qa, k).unwrap();
+        scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+        let batches = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut ids = Vec::new();
+        for b in &batches {
+            ids.extend(b["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().iter().copied());
+        }
+        ids
+    }
+
+    async fn check_vector_defer_compaction(
+        params: VectorIndexParams,
+        delete_predicate: Option<&str>,
+        k: usize,
+        min_overlap: usize,
+    ) {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
+        use lance_datagen::Dimension;
+
+        const DIM: u32 = 32;
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(DIM)),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let original_uuid = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name("vec_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .uuid;
+
+        if let Some(pred) = delete_predicate {
+            dataset.delete(pred).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Collect surviving (id, vec) pairs and the set of surviving ids.
+        let mut survivors: Vec<(i32, Vec<f32>)> = Vec::new();
+        {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.project(&["id", "vec"]).unwrap();
+            let batches = scanner
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            for batch in &batches {
+                let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+                let vecs = batch["vec"].as_fixed_size_list();
+                for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                    let v = vecs.value(i);
+                    let v = v.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().to_vec();
+                    survivors.push((ids.value(i), v));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(!survivors.is_empty());
+        let surviving_ids: std::collections::HashSet<i32> =
+            survivors.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+
+        // Sample queries from survivors and capture the pre-compaction answer.
+        let step = (survivors.len() / 16).max(1);
+        let queries: Vec<(i32, Vec<f32>)> = survivors.iter().step_by(step).cloned().collect();
+        let mut baseline: Vec<Vec<i32>> = Vec::new();
+        for (_, q) in &queries {
+            baseline.push(vector_knn_ids(&dataset, q, k).await);
+        }
+
+        // Deferred compaction materializes the deletions into the frag-reuse index.
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME),
+            "deferred compaction must record a frag-reuse index"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name("vec_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+                .uuid,
+            original_uuid,
+            "index must not be physically remapped yet (FRI window)"
+        );
+
+        // During the FRI window: no deleted rows, and stable vs the baseline.
+        for (i, (_, q)) in queries.iter().enumerate() {
+            let after = vector_knn_ids(&dataset, q, k).await;
+            for id in &after {
+                assert!(
+                    surviving_ids.contains(id),
+                    "KNN returned id {id} that is not a surviving row (query #{i})"
+                );
+            }
+            let overlap = after.iter().filter(|id| baseline[i].contains(id)).count();
+            assert!(
+                overlap >= min_overlap,
+                "KNN top-{k} diverged after deferred compaction: overlap {overlap} < {min_overlap} (query #{i})"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn small_ivf() -> lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams {
+        lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams {
+            max_iters: 2,
+            num_partitions: Some(2),
+            sample_rate: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_flat_defer_compaction_with_deletions() {
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, small_ivf());
+        // Flat storage is scanned linearly; dropping deleted rows is exact.
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the compaction future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_defer_compaction(
+            params,
+            Some("id < 1500"),
+            10,
+            10,
+        ))
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_hnsw_sq_defer_compaction_merge_only() {
+        use lance_index::vector::{hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams, sq::builder::SQBuildParams};
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        // No deletions: storage positions are stable, so the graph stays aligned.
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the compaction future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_defer_compaction(params, None, 10, 9)).await;
+    }
+
+    // NOTE: IVF_HNSW_* under materialized deletions is a known gap (lance#3993,
+    // HNSW auto-remap not implemented) — the HNSW graph isn't realigned after the
+    // frag-reuse drop. Deferred remap is gated off for HNSW tables, so there is
+    // no lance-level reproducer here; the gate is tested in the data plane.
+    // Merge-only HNSW is covered (see the *_remap_and_trim tests).
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_pq_defer_compaction_with_deletions() {
+        use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            PQBuildParams {
+                max_iters: 2,
+                num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the compaction future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_defer_compaction(
+            params,
+            Some("id < 1500"),
+            10,
+            8,
+        ))
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_sq_defer_compaction_with_deletions() {
+        use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the compaction future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_defer_compaction(
+            params,
+            Some("id < 1500"),
+            10,
+            8,
+        ))
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_rq_defer_compaction_with_deletions() {
+        use lance_index::vector::bq::RQBuildParams;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            RQBuildParams::new(1),
+        );
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the compaction future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_defer_compaction(
+            params,
+            Some("id < 1500"),
+            10,
+            8,
+        ))
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    /// Merge-only deferred compaction, then a PHYSICAL remap + FRI trim. Asserts
+    /// the index is rebuilt, the fragment-reuse index trims to zero versions,
+    /// and KNN stays consistent with the pre-compaction answer through both the
+    /// FRI window and the physical remap. (HNSW rebuilds its graph on physical
+    /// remap, so the overlap is recall-tolerant.)
+    async fn check_vector_remap_and_trim(
+        params: VectorIndexParams,
+        k: usize,
+        window_overlap: usize,
+        post_remap_overlap: Option<usize>,
+    ) {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
+        use lance_datagen::Dimension;
+
+        const DIM: u32 = 8;
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(DIM)),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(64))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let original_uuid = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name("vec_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .uuid;
+
+        // Sample queries from stored vectors + capture the pre-compaction answer.
+        let mut rows: Vec<Vec<f32>> = Vec::new();
+        {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.project(&["vec"]).unwrap();
+            let batches = scanner
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            for batch in &batches {
+                let vecs = batch["vec"].as_fixed_size_list();
+                for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                    let v = vecs.value(i);
+                    rows.push(v.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().to_vec());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let step = (rows.len() / 4).max(1);
+        let queries: Vec<Vec<f32>> = rows.iter().step_by(step).cloned().collect();
+        let mut baseline: Vec<Vec<i32>> = Vec::new();
+        for q in &queries {
+            baseline.push(vector_knn_ids(&dataset, q, k).await);
+        }
+
+        // Merge-only deferred compaction.
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 128,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name("vec_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+                .uuid,
+            original_uuid,
+            "index must not be physically remapped yet (FRI window)"
+        );
+        for (i, q) in queries.iter().enumerate() {
+            let window = vector_knn_ids(&dataset, q, k).await;
+            let overlap = window.iter().filter(|id| baseline[i].contains(id)).count();
+            assert!(
+                overlap >= window_overlap,
+                "FRI-window KNN diverged: overlap {overlap} < {window_overlap} (query #{i})"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Physical remap + trim the fragment-reuse index.
+        remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["vec"], Some("vec_idx".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+        let remapped_uuid = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name("vec_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .uuid;
+        assert_ne!(
+            remapped_uuid, original_uuid,
+            "index should have been physically remapped"
+        );
+        if let Some(meta) = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        {
+            let versions = load_frag_reuse_index_details(&dataset, &meta)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .versions
+                .len();
+            assert_eq!(versions, 0, "frag-reuse index must trim to zero versions");
+        }
+
+        for (i, q) in queries.iter().enumerate() {
+            let after = vector_knn_ids(&dataset, q, k).await;
+            // No stale/desynced addresses (a bad address fails the take above).
+            assert!(
+                !after.is_empty(),
+                "post-remap KNN returned no rows (query #{i})"
+            );
+            // Physical remap rebuilds the HNSW graph, so recall is only compared
+            // for the exact (non-HNSW) types.
+            if let Some(min_overlap) = post_remap_overlap {
+                let overlap = after.iter().filter(|id| baseline[i].contains(id)).count();
+                assert!(
+                    overlap >= min_overlap,
+                    "post-remap KNN diverged: overlap {overlap} < {min_overlap} (query #{i})"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_flat_remap_and_trim() {
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, small_ivf());
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the remap future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_remap_and_trim(params, 10, 8, Some(8))).await;
+    }
+
+    // Regression: PQ storage used to remap its codes through the frag-reuse
+    // index but keep the pre-remap `row_ids` field, so search returned stale
+    // (compacted-away) addresses and the take failed with "fragment ... does
+    // not exist" — even merge-only, and only observable when the query fetches
+    // row content (the existing `test_read_ivf_pq_index_v3_with_defer_index_remap`
+    // projects no columns, so it never takes and missed this).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_pq_remap_and_trim() {
+        use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            PQBuildParams {
+                max_iters: 2,
+                num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the remap future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_remap_and_trim(params, 10, 8, Some(8))).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_sq_remap_and_trim() {
+        use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the remap future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_remap_and_trim(params, 10, 8, Some(8))).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_rq_remap_and_trim() {
+        use lance_index::vector::bq::RQBuildParams;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            RQBuildParams::new(1),
+        );
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the remap future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_remap_and_trim(params, 10, 8, Some(8))).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_hnsw_sq_remap_and_trim() {
+        use lance_index::vector::{hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams, sq::builder::SQBuildParams};
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        // Physical remap rebuilds the HNSW graph, so use a recall-tolerant overlap.
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the remap future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_remap_and_trim(params, 10, 7, None)).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_hnsw_pq_remap_and_trim() {
+        use lance_index::vector::{hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams, pq::PQBuildParams};
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            small_ivf(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default()
+                .max_level(2)
+                .num_edges(4)
+                .ef_construction(16),
+            PQBuildParams {
+                max_iters: 2,
+                num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                num_bits: 4,
+                sample_rate: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the remap future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(check_vector_remap_and_trim(params, 10, 7, None)).await;
+    }
+
+    // Scalar index correctness across deferred compaction WITH materialized
+    // deletions. The existing test_read_*_index_with_defer_index_remap tests are
+    // merge-only and project no columns (count-only), so they never take and
+    // never exercise the deletion drop path. These add an `id` column, delete a
+    // prefix, defer-compact, then run the indexed query *projecting id* (a take)
+    // and assert no deleted row is returned. Bitmap/BTree have no positional
+    // internal structure so the drop path is exact; the Inverted (FTS) index
+    // does (see its test below), and currently desyncs under deletions.
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_index_defer_compaction_with_deletions() {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "category",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![1, 2, 3]),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["category"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                Some("category_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("id < 1500").await.unwrap();
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME),
+            "deferred compaction must record a frag-reuse index"
+        );
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("category = 3").unwrap();
+        scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+        let batches = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut returned = 0;
+        for b in &batches {
+            for id in b["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values() {
+                assert!(
+                    *id >= 1500,
+                    "bitmap returned deleted id {id} in the FRI window"
+                );
+                returned += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(returned > 0, "expected surviving category=3 rows");
+    }
+
+    // NOTE: Inverted/FTS under materialized deletions is broken (BM25 scores
+    // via positional num_tokens[doc_id]; the frag-reuse drop shifts doc_id
+    // positions -> out-of-bounds). It is gated off defer in the data plane
+    // until fixed, so there is no lance-level reproducer here. Merge-only FTS
+    // is covered by test_read_inverted_index_with_defer_index_remap.
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_default_compaction_planner() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let schema = data.schema();
+
+        // Create dataset with multiple small fragments
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], schema.clone());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 5);
+
+        // Test default planner
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 5000,
+            materialize_deletions_threshold: 2.0,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let planner = DefaultCompactionPlanner::new(options).unwrap();
+        let plan = planner.plan(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Should create tasks to compact small fragments
+        assert!(!plan.tasks.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(plan.read_version, dataset.manifest.version);
+        // make sure options.validate() worked
+        assert!(!plan.options.materialize_deletions);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_dataset_config() {
+        let config = HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.target_rows_per_fragment".to_string(),
+                "500000".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.max_rows_per_group".to_string(),
+                "2048".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.max_bytes_per_file".to_string(),
+                "1000000".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.materialize_deletions".to_string(),
+                "false".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.materialize_deletions_threshold".to_string(),
+                "0.25".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.defer_index_remap".to_string(),
+                "true".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.batch_size".to_string(),
+                "4096".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.io_buffer_size".to_string(),
+                "1073741824".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.compaction_mode".to_string(),
+                "try_binary_copy".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes".to_string(),
+                "8388608".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.index_remap_mode".to_string(),
+                "compact".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.max_source_fragments".to_string(),
+                "20".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.max_source_rows".to_string(),
+                "1000000".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.max_source_bytes".to_string(),
+                "1073741824".to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let opts = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(opts.target_rows_per_fragment, 500_000);
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_rows_per_group, 2048);
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_bytes_per_file, Some(1_000_000));
+        assert!(!opts.materialize_deletions);
+        assert!((opts.materialize_deletions_threshold - 0.25).abs() < f32::EPSILON);
+        assert!(opts.defer_index_remap);
+        assert_eq!(opts.batch_size, Some(4096));
+        assert_eq!(opts.io_buffer_size, Some(1_073_741_824));
+        assert_eq!(opts.compaction_mode, Some(CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy));
+        assert_eq!(opts.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes, Some(8_388_608));
+        // A non-default value proves the config string was actually parsed.
+        assert_eq!(opts.index_remap_mode, IndexRemapMode::Compact);
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_source_fragments, Some(20));
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_source_rows, Some(1_000_000));
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_source_bytes, Some(1_073_741_824));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_dataset_config_empty() {
+        let config = HashMap::new();
+        let opts = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config).unwrap();
+        let defaults = CompactionOptions::default();
+        assert_eq!(
+            opts.target_rows_per_fragment,
+            defaults.target_rows_per_fragment
+        );
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_rows_per_group, defaults.max_rows_per_group);
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_bytes_per_file, defaults.max_bytes_per_file);
+        assert_eq!(opts.materialize_deletions, defaults.materialize_deletions);
+        assert_eq!(
+            opts.materialize_deletions_threshold,
+            defaults.materialize_deletions_threshold
+        );
+        assert_eq!(opts.defer_index_remap, defaults.defer_index_remap);
+        assert_eq!(opts.index_remap_mode, defaults.index_remap_mode);
+        assert_eq!(opts.index_remap_mode, IndexRemapMode::Direct);
+        assert_eq!(opts.batch_size, defaults.batch_size);
+        assert_eq!(opts.compaction_mode, defaults.compaction_mode);
+        assert_eq!(
+            opts.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+            defaults.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_dataset_config_partial() {
+        let config = HashMap::from([(
+            "lance.compaction.target_rows_per_fragment".to_string(),
+            "500000".to_string(),
+        )]);
+
+        let opts = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(opts.target_rows_per_fragment, 500_000);
+        // Other fields should remain at defaults
+        let defaults = CompactionOptions::default();
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_rows_per_group, defaults.max_rows_per_group);
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_bytes_per_file, defaults.max_bytes_per_file);
+        assert_eq!(opts.materialize_deletions, defaults.materialize_deletions);
+        assert_eq!(opts.defer_index_remap, defaults.defer_index_remap);
+        assert_eq!(opts.batch_size, defaults.batch_size);
+        assert_eq!(opts.compaction_mode, defaults.compaction_mode);
+        assert_eq!(
+            opts.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes,
+            defaults.binary_copy_read_batch_bytes
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_dataset_config_ignores_other_keys() {
+        let config = HashMap::from([
+            (
+                "lance.compaction.target_rows_per_fragment".to_string(),
+                "500000".to_string(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "lance.auto_cleanup.interval".to_string(),
+                "3600".to_string(),
+            ),
+            ("some.other.key".to_string(), "value".to_string()),
+        ]);
+
+        let opts = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(opts.target_rows_per_fragment, 500_000);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_dataset_config_invalid_value() {
+        let config = HashMap::from([(
+            "lance.compaction.target_rows_per_fragment".to_string(),
+            "not_a_number".to_string(),
+        )]);
+
+        let result = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config);
+        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("target_rows_per_fragment"));
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("not_a_number"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_dataset_config_invalid_bool() {
+        let config = HashMap::from([(
+            "lance.compaction.materialize_deletions".to_string(),
+            "yes".to_string(),
+        )]);
+
+        let result = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config);
+        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("materialize_deletions"));
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("yes"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_dataset_config_unknown_compaction_key() {
+        // Unknown keys should be ignored (with a warning) for forwards compatibility
+        let config = HashMap::from([(
+            "lance.compaction.unknown_key".to_string(),
+            "value".to_string(),
+        )]);
+
+        let opts = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config).unwrap();
+        // Should return defaults since the unknown key is skipped
+        let defaults = CompactionOptions::default();
+        assert_eq!(
+            opts.target_rows_per_fragment,
+            defaults.target_rows_per_fragment
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_dataset_config_invalid_compaction_mode() {
+        let config = HashMap::from([(
+            "lance.compaction.compaction_mode".to_string(),
+            "invalid_mode".to_string(),
+        )]);
+
+        let result = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config);
+        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("invalid_mode"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_from_dataset_config_max_overlays_per_fragment() {
+        let key = "lance.compaction.max_overlays_per_fragment".to_string();
+
+        // An integer sets the threshold.
+        let config = HashMap::from([(key.clone(), "3".to_string())]);
+        let opts = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_overlays_per_fragment, Some(3));
+
+        // "none" (case-insensitive) disables the trigger, overriding the Some(10) default.
+        let config = HashMap::from([(key.clone(), "None".to_string())]);
+        let opts = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_overlays_per_fragment, None);
+
+        // Anything else is rejected.
+        let config = HashMap::from([(key, "not_a_number".to_string())]);
+        let err_msg = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&config)
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("max_overlays_per_fragment"));
+        assert!(err_msg.contains("not_a_number"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_dataset_config_overrides() {
+        let config = HashMap::from([(
+            "lance.compaction.target_rows_per_fragment".to_string(),
+            "500000".to_string(),
+        )]);
+
+        let mut opts = CompactionOptions {
+            max_rows_per_group: 4096,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        opts.apply_dataset_config(&config).unwrap();
+
+        // Config value should be applied
+        assert_eq!(opts.target_rows_per_fragment, 500_000);
+        // Explicitly set value should be preserved (config didn't have this key)
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_rows_per_group, 4096);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_dataset_config_overwrites_matching_field() {
+        let config = HashMap::from([(
+            "lance.compaction.max_rows_per_group".to_string(),
+            "2048".to_string(),
+        )]);
+
+        let mut opts = CompactionOptions {
+            max_rows_per_group: 4096,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        opts.apply_dataset_config(&config).unwrap();
+
+        // Config value should overwrite the pre-set value
+        assert_eq!(opts.max_rows_per_group, 2048);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_max_source_fragments() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = dataset_with_ten_small_fragments(&test_dir).await;
+
+        // Plan without limit - all 10 fragments should be candidates.
+        // Use a target that splits the 10 fragments into multiple tasks.
+        let opts_no_limit = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 250,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan_all = plan_compaction(&dataset, &opts_no_limit).await.unwrap();
+        let total_source_frags: usize = plan_all.tasks().iter().map(|t| t.fragments.len()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_source_frags, 10);
+        assert!(
+            plan_all.num_tasks() > 2,
+            "need multiple tasks to test bounding, got {}",
+            plan_all.num_tasks()
+        );
+
+        // Plan with max_source_fragments=4 should include tasks covering <= 4
+        // source fragments
+        let opts_bounded = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 250,
+            max_source_fragments: Some(4),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan_bounded = plan_compaction(&dataset, &opts_bounded).await.unwrap();
+        let bounded_source_frags: usize =
+            plan_bounded.tasks().iter().map(|t| t.fragments.len()).sum();
+        assert!(
+            bounded_source_frags <= 4,
+            "expected at most 4 source fragments, got {bounded_source_frags}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            bounded_source_frags > 0,
+            "expected at least 1 source fragment in bounded plan"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_bounded.num_tasks() < plan_all.num_tasks(),
+            "bounded plan ({}) should have fewer tasks than unbounded ({})",
+            plan_bounded.num_tasks(),
+            plan_all.num_tasks()
+        );
+
+        // Execute bounded compaction incrementally
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, opts_bounded, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let after_first = dataset.get_fragments().len();
+        assert!(
+            after_first < 10,
+            "expected fewer than 10 fragments after first compaction, got {after_first}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            after_first > 1,
+            "expected partial compaction (not fully compacted), got {after_first}"
+        );
+
+        // Run again to make more progress
+        let opts_bounded = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 250,
+            max_source_fragments: Some(4),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, opts_bounded, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let after_second = dataset.get_fragments().len();
+        assert!(
+            after_second <= after_first,
+            "expected progress: {after_second} should be <= {after_first}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Writes `sample_data` as 10 fragments of 100 rows each, deletes half of
+    /// fragment 0's rows, and puts a one-cell data overlay on it, so every
+    /// `max_source_*` planning budget is exercised against a dataset that
+    /// carries deleted rows and overlay files.
+    async fn dataset_with_ten_small_fragments(test_uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 100,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 100))], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(write_params.clone()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        for i in 1..10 {
+            let mut append_params = write_params.clone();
+            append_params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(i * 100, 100))], schema.clone()),
+                test_uri,
+                Some(append_params),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 10);
+        // Fragment 0 keeps 100 physical rows but only 50 live rows.
+        dataset.delete("a < 50").await.unwrap();
+        // The overlay shadows one surviving base value (offset 60, kept clear
+        // of the delete predicate) without adding any rows.
+        let dataset = commit_overlay(
+            dataset,
+            0,
+            &[0],
+            OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([60])),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![60_000_i64]))],
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap().metadata().overlays.len(),
+            1
+        );
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_excluded_fragments_are_planning_boundaries() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_ten_small_fragments(&test_dir).await;
+        let excluded_fragment_id = 4;
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 250,
+            excluded_fragment_ids: vec![excluded_fragment_id, excluded_fragment_id, u32::MAX],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        let planned_fragment_ids = plan
+            .tasks()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|task| {
+                task.fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            planned_fragment_ids,
+            vec![vec![0, 1, 2, 3], vec![5, 6, 7, 8, 9]]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            planned_fragment_ids
+                .iter()
+                .flatten()
+                .all(|fragment_id| *fragment_id != excluded_fragment_id)
+        );
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 9);
+        let remaining_fragment_ids = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(remaining_fragment_ids.contains(&excluded_fragment_id));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_max_source_rows() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = dataset_with_ten_small_fragments(&test_dir).await;
+
+        // The first task covers fragments 0..=2: 250 live rows (fragment 0
+        // keeps 50 after the deletes, and its overlay adds none) but 300
+        // physical rows. A budget between the two admits it and only it,
+        // proving the budget is enforced against live rows.
+        let opts = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 250,
+            max_source_rows: Some(270),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &opts).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.num_tasks(), 1);
+        let physical_rows: usize = plan
+            .tasks()
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|t| &t.fragments)
+            .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap())
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(physical_rows, 300);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_max_source_bytes() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = dataset_with_ten_small_fragments(&test_dir).await;
+
+        let first_task_base_bytes: u64 = dataset.get_fragments()[..3]
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter())
+            .map(|df| df.file_size_bytes.get().unwrap().get())
+            .sum();
+        let overlay_bytes = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap().metadata().overlays[0]
+            .data_file
+            .file_size_bytes
+            .get()
+            .unwrap()
+            .get();
+        assert!(first_task_base_bytes > 0 && overlay_bytes > 0);
+
+        // The first task covers fragments 0..=2 (target 250 rows). A budget of
+        // exactly their base bytes is exceeded once fragment 0's overlay file
+        // is counted, so the plan is empty: the budget is a hard upper bound,
+        // overlay bytes are part of a task's source, and deletion files are
+        // never counted.
+        let opts = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 250,
+            max_source_bytes: Some(first_task_base_bytes),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &opts).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.num_tasks(), 0);
+
+        // Widening the budget by the overlay's bytes admits exactly the first
+        // task and nothing more.
+        let budget = first_task_base_bytes + overlay_bytes;
+        let opts = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 250,
+            max_source_bytes: Some(budget),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &opts).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.num_tasks(), 1);
+        let source_bytes: u64 = plan
+            .tasks()
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|t| &t.fragments)
+            .flat_map(|f| {
+                f.files
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(f.overlays.iter().map(|o| &o.data_file))
+            })
+            .map(|df| df.file_size_bytes.get().unwrap().get())
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(source_bytes, budget);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_uses_manifest_config() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let schema = data.schema();
+
+        // Create dataset with small fragments
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], schema.clone());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 5);
+
+        // Set compaction config in manifest
+        dataset
+            .update_config([
+                ("lance.compaction.target_rows_per_fragment", "5000"),
+                ("lance.compaction.materialize_deletions_threshold", "2.0"),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Build options from the dataset config (as the bindings do)
+        let opts = CompactionOptions::from_dataset_config(&dataset.manifest.config).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(opts.target_rows_per_fragment, 5000);
+        assert!((opts.materialize_deletions_threshold - 2.0).abs() < f32::EPSILON);
+
+        // Verify the config flows through plan_compaction
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &opts).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!plan.tasks.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(plan.options.target_rows_per_fragment, 5000);
+        // validate() should have turned off materialize_deletions since threshold >= 1.0
+        assert!(!plan.options.materialize_deletions);
+    }
+
+    // check_rewrite_txn takes the (None, Some(_)) branch when a Rewrite with
+    // defer_index_remap=true is committed against a previously committed
+    // CreateIndex, declaring COMPATIBLE without verifying that the Rewrite's
+    // FRI groups don't straddle the CreateIndex's fragment bitmap. When a
+    // group mixes indexed and unindexed fragments, commit succeeds and later
+    // queries fail at load_indices with "split of indexed and non-indexed
+    // data".
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_rewrite_fri_vs_create_index_conflict() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+        async fn append_fragment(uri: &str, rows: u64) -> Dataset {
+            let reader = gen_batch()
+                .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(16)))
+                .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(rows), BatchCount::from(1));
+            let params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: rows as usize,
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap()
+        }
+
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        // frag0 (256 rows) with a base IVF index.
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(16)))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(256), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 256,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let index_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 50);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Append frag1 (unindexed), snapshot a stale handle pointing here,
+        // then append frag2 (also unindexed).
+        dataset = append_fragment(&uri, 64).await;
+        let mut stale = dataset.clone();
+        dataset = append_fragment(&uri, 64).await;
+
+        // Plan + execute compaction of frag1+frag2 with deferred remap.
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!plan.tasks.is_empty());
+        let snapshot = dataset.clone();
+        let completed: Vec<RewriteResult> = futures::stream::iter(plan.tasks.into_iter())
+            .map(|task| rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&snapshot), task, &options))
+            .buffer_unordered(1)
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // optimize_indices on the stale handle indexes frag1 only (frag2
+        // didn't exist at that version), commits as CreateIndex. `dataset`
+        // stays at its pre-optimize version so the Rewrite commit has to
+        // conflict-check against this CreateIndex.
+        stale
+            .optimize_indices(&lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Commit the pre-executed Rewrite. The FRI group [frag1, frag2]
+        // straddles the new CreateIndex bitmap (frag1 indexed, frag2 not), so
+        // check_rewrite_txn must reject this as a retryable conflict rather
+        // than letting it commit into a broken state that fails queries.
+        let err = commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            completed,
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("commit should fail with retryable conflict");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Reproduce the distributed-compaction concurrent-delete data-resurrection bug.
+    ///
+    /// In the distributed (Spark) path the caller opens **two separate** `Dataset` handles:
+    ///
+    /// 1. dataset_plan  — used for `plan_compaction` (version = V)
+    /// 2. dataset_commit — opened **fresh** for `commit_compaction` (version = V+N)
+    ///
+    /// Because `commit_compaction` builds the `Rewrite` transaction with
+    /// `dataset.manifest.version` (= V+N), `load_and_sort_new_transactions` only
+    /// scans versions after V+N and finds nothing.  Any concurrent DELETE that
+    /// happened between V and V+N is silently ignored, causing the deleted rows to
+    /// reappear in the compacted fragment.
+    ///
+    /// After the fix, `commit_compaction` uses `min(tasks.read_version)` (= V) as
+    /// the transaction `read_version`, so the conflict checker correctly loads and
+    /// rejects the DELETE, returning a retryable conflict error instead of silently
+    /// resurrecting data.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_compact_concurrent_delete_no_resurrection() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        // Write 4 fragments × 1 000 rows each (a=0..4000).
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int64, false)]));
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..4_000))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset_plan = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset_plan.manifest.version, 1);
+        assert_eq!(dataset_plan.get_fragments().len(), 4);
+
+        // ── Step 1: plan compaction at version V=1 ───────────────────────────────
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 10_000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset_plan, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks().len(), 1, "expected one compaction task");
+
+        // ── Step 2: execute tasks (simulating distributed executors at V=1) ──────
+        // Clone dataset_plan so the closure can own its copy while the original
+        // remains available for the concurrent DELETE in Step 3.
+        let dataset_for_tasks = dataset_plan.clone();
+        let results: Vec<RewriteResult> = futures::stream::iter(plan.compaction_tasks())
+            .then(|task| {
+                let ds = dataset_for_tasks.clone();
+                async move {
+                    // Executors open the dataset at the planned read_version
+                    task.execute(&ds).await.unwrap()
+                }
+            })
+            .collect()
+            .await;
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            results[0].read_version, 1,
+            "tasks must carry read_version=1"
+        );
+
+        // ── Step 3: concurrent DELETE commits at V=2 ─────────────────────────────
+        // Delete rows where a < 1000 (the first 1 000 rows in fragment 0).
+        dataset_plan.delete("a < 1000").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset_plan.manifest.version, 2);
+
+        // ── Step 4: the Spark driver opens a *fresh* dataset (latest = V=2) ──────
+        // This is exactly what OptimizeExec.scala does for commitCompaction.
+        let mut dataset_commit = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset_commit.manifest.version, 2,
+            "fresh dataset must be at the post-delete version"
+        );
+
+        // ── Step 5: commit_compaction with the stale results ─────────────────────
+        let commit_result = commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset_commit,
+            results,
+            Arc::new(IgnoreRemap::default()),
+            &options,
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        // ── Step 6: assert correct behaviour ─────────────────────────────────────
+        // BEFORE fix: commit_result is Ok(…) and the deleted rows are resurrected.
+        // AFTER  fix: commit_result is Err(retryable conflict), protecting data integrity.
+        assert!(
+            commit_result.is_err(),
+            "commit_compaction must fail with a conflict error when a concurrent \
+             DELETE touched the same fragments; got Ok instead — deleted rows were \
+             silently resurrected"
+        );
+        let err_msg = commit_result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            err_msg.contains("retryable")
+                || err_msg.contains("conflict")
+                || err_msg.contains("preempted"),
+            "expected a retryable conflict error, got: {err_msg}"
+        );
+
+        // The on-disk table must still reflect the DELETE (a < 1000 remains absent).
+        let latest = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let row_count = latest
+            .count_rows(Some("a < 1000".to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_count, 0,
+            "rows deleted before compaction must not be resurrected; found {row_count}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn count_all_files_in(dir: &std::path::Path) -> std::io::Result<usize> {
+        if !dir.exists() {
+            return Ok(0);
+        }
+        let mut count = 0;
+        for entry in std::fs::read_dir(dir)? {
+            let path = entry?.path();
+            if path.is_dir() {
+                count += count_all_files_in(&path)?;
+            } else if path.is_file() {
+                // Ignore macOS system files if any
+                if path
+                    .file_name()
+                    .and_then(|name| name.to_str())
+                    .is_some_and(|file_name| !file_name.starts_with('.'))
+                {
+                    count += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(count)
+    }
+
+    fn count_data_files_in(base_dir: &str) -> usize {
+        let data_dir = std::path::Path::new(base_dir).join("data");
+        count_all_files_in(&data_dir).unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    /// Once `commit_compaction` reaches the Rewrite commit, its input may be a
+    /// replay of a result whose earlier commit landed ambiguously. A failure on
+    /// this call must therefore leave data files for GC instead of deleting
+    /// files that an existing version may reference.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_compaction_leaves_data_for_gc_on_commit_failure() {
+        use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use crate::utils::test::FailingProxyStore;
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        // Prefix `/` so Windows drive letters (e.g. `C:`) don't get parsed as
+        // the URL authority.
+        let path_prefix = if test_uri.starts_with('/') { "" } else { "/" };
+        let routed_uri = format!("file-object-store://{path_prefix}{test_uri}");
+
+        let data = sample_data();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.slice(0, 200))], data.schema());
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &routed_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let baseline_files = count_data_files_in(test_uri);
+
+        let failing = Arc::new(FailingProxyStore::new());
+        // `commit_compaction` first calls `reserve_fragment_ids` (which writes a
+        // ReserveFragments transaction) and then calls `apply_commit` for the
+        // rewrite itself. Skip the first transaction write so the reserve
+        // succeeds, and fail the second so `apply_commit` errors out — that's
+        // the branch we want to exercise cleanup for.
+        failing.fail_after_n("put", "_transactions", 1, "injected commit failure");
+        failing.fail_after_n(
+            "put_multipart",
+            "_transactions",
+            1,
+            "injected commit failure",
+        );
+
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&routed_uri)
+            .with_read_params(crate::dataset::ReadParams {
+                store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(failing.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 1000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Compaction should fail when transaction commit fails"
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            count_data_files_in(test_uri) > baseline_files,
+            "Compaction data files should be retained for GC after the Rewrite commit fails"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_compaction_leaves_blob_v2_sidecars_for_gc_on_commit_failure() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use crate::utils::test::FailingProxyStore;
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let path_prefix = if test_uri.starts_with('/') { "" } else { "/" };
+        let routed_uri = format!("file-object-store://{path_prefix}{test_uri}");
+
+        let id_array = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef;
+        // Use one packed blob and one dedicated blob to verify both sidecar layouts.
+        let packed_data = vec![0u8; 100 * 1024];
+        let dedicated_data = vec![1u8; 5 * 1024 * 1024];
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&packed_data).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&dedicated_data).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &routed_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1, // Create 2 fragments
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let baseline_files = count_data_files_in(test_uri);
+
+        let failing = Arc::new(FailingProxyStore::new());
+        failing.fail_after_n("put", "_transactions", 1, "injected commit failure");
+        failing.fail_after_n(
+            "put_multipart",
+            "_transactions",
+            1,
+            "injected commit failure",
+        );
+
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&routed_uri)
+            .with_read_params(crate::dataset::ReadParams {
+                store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(failing.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 1000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Compaction should fail when transaction commit fails"
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            count_data_files_in(test_uri) > baseline_files,
+            "Blob v2 sidecars should be retained for GC after the Rewrite commit fails"
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn read_blob_bytes_by_index(
+        dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+        column: &str,
+    ) -> Vec<(i32, Option<Vec<u8>>)> {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.with_row_id();
+        let batch = scanner
+            .project(&["id", column])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids = batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let row_ids = batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+
+        let mut result = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
+        for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            let row_id = row_ids.value(i);
+            let id = ids.value(i);
+            let blobs = dataset.take_blobs(&[row_id], column).await.unwrap();
+            match blobs.into_iter().next().flatten() {
+                Some(blob) => {
+                    let data = blob.read().await.unwrap();
+                    result.push((id, Some(data.to_vec())));
+                }
+                None => result.push((id, None)),
+            }
+        }
+        result
+    }
+
+    fn mixed_blob_values() -> Vec<(i32, Option<Vec<u8>>)> {
+        vec![
+            (0, Some(vec![b'0'; 80])),
+            (1, None),
+            (2, Some(Vec::new())),
+            (3, Some(vec![b'3'; 80])),
+            (4, Some(vec![b'4'; 80])),
+            (5, Some(vec![b'5'; 80])),
+        ]
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_compaction_preserves_blob_values(
+        mut dataset: Dataset,
+        expected: &[(i32, Option<Vec<u8>>)],
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        let mut before = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        before.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(before, expected);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let mut after = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset), "blob").await;
+        after.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(after, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_blob_v2_rewrite_plan_skips_non_blob_list_subtree() {
+        let items_field = Field::new(
+            "items",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+            true,
+        );
+        let info_field = Field::new(
+            "info",
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(items_field),
+                    Arc::new(crate::blob_field("blob", true)),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            true,
+        );
+        let logical_arrow_schema = Schema::new(vec![info_field]);
+        let logical_schema =
+            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&logical_arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        let mut input_schema = logical_schema.clone();
+        input_schema.fields[0].unload_blobs_recursive();
+        let input_field = Field::from(&input_schema.fields[0]);
+
+        let plan = BlobV2FieldRewritePlan::try_new(&logical_schema.fields[0], &input_field, false)
+            .unwrap();
+        let BlobV2FieldRewritePlan::Struct { children, .. } = &plan else {
+            panic!("nested blob field should produce a struct rewrite plan");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(
+            children[0],
+            BlobV2FieldRewritePlan::Passthrough { .. }
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(children[1], BlobV2FieldRewritePlan::Blob { .. }));
+
+        let DataType::Struct(output_children) = plan.output_field().data_type() else {
+            panic!("nested blob rewrite plan should declare a struct output");
+        };
+        let DataType::Struct(input_children) = input_field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("nested blob input should be a struct");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(output_children[0], input_children[0]);
+        let DataType::Struct(blob_children) = output_children[1].data_type() else {
+            panic!("blob rewrite plan should declare a struct blob output");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            BlobV2Layout::classify(blob_children),
+            Some(BlobV2Layout::Logical)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v1_preserves_null_empty_and_payload_order() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let expected = mixed_blob_values();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true)
+                .with_metadata([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())].into()),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..expected.len() as i32)),
+                Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(
+                    expected.iter().map(|(_, value)| value.as_deref()),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_compaction_preserves_blob_values(dataset, &expected).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_preserves_null_empty_and_payload_order() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let expected = mixed_blob_values();
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(expected.len());
+        for (_, value) in &expected {
+            match value {
+                Some(value) => blob_builder.push_bytes(value).unwrap(),
+                None => blob_builder.push_null().unwrap(),
+            }
+        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..expected.len() as i32)),
+                blob_builder.finish().unwrap(),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_compaction_preserves_blob_values(dataset, &expected).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_preserves_external_references() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+        use lance_table::format::BasePath;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"external-data").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+        let base_uri = format!("file://{}", external_dir.std_path().display());
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri.clone()).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"inline-data").unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    name: Some("external".to_string()),
+                    path: base_uri,
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        for frag in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            let rows = frag.physical_rows().await.unwrap();
+            assert!(rows > 0, "fragment {} should have rows", frag.id());
+        }
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plan.tasks().is_empty(),
+            "compaction plan should have tasks, got {} tasks",
+            plan.tasks().len()
+        );
+
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let scan_result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id", "blob"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_result.num_rows(), 2);
+
+        let ids = scan_result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let mut id_values: Vec<i32> = ids.iter().map(|v| v.unwrap()).collect();
+        id_values.sort();
+        assert_eq!(id_values, vec![0, 1]);
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(b"external-data".to_vec())),
+                (1, Some(b"inline-data".to_vec()))
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_packed_and_dedicated() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_arrow::BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+
+        let inline_data = b"small-inline-blob".as_slice();
+        let packed_data: Vec<u8> = (0..64 * 1024 + 1024).map(|i| (i % 256) as u8).collect();
+        let dedicated_data: Vec<u8> = (0..4 * 1024 * 1024 + 512)
+            .map(|i| ((i + 97) % 256) as u8)
+            .collect();
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(inline_data).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&packed_data).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&dedicated_data).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2]));
+        let mut blob_field = crate::blob_field("blob", true);
+        {
+            let metadata = blob_field.metadata().clone();
+            let mut new_metadata = metadata;
+            new_metadata.insert(
+                BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                (4 * 1024 * 1024).to_string(),
+            );
+            blob_field = blob_field.with_metadata(new_metadata);
+        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            blob_field,
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let scan_result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id", "blob"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_result.num_rows(), 3);
+
+        let ids = scan_result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let id_values: Vec<i32> = ids.iter().map(|v| v.unwrap()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(id_values, vec![0, 1, 2]);
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(inline_data.to_vec())),
+                (1, Some(packed_data)),
+                (2, Some(dedicated_data))
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_with_null_rows() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(4);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"inline-0").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"inline-2").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef =
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(0), Some(1), Some(2), Some(3)]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let scan_result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id", "blob"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_result.num_rows(), 4);
+
+        let ids = scan_result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let id_values: Vec<i32> = ids.iter().map(|v| v.unwrap()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(id_values, vec![0, 1, 2, 3]);
+
+        let blob_col = scan_result.column_by_name("blob").unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(blob_col.data_type(), DataType::Struct(_)),
+            "blob column should be a struct after compaction"
+        );
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(b"inline-0".to_vec())),
+                (1, None),
+                (2, Some(b"inline-2".to_vec())),
+                (3, None)
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_deleted_rows_not_resurrected() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(4);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"blob-0").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"blob-1").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"blob-2").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"blob-3").unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        dataset.delete("id = 1").await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("id = 2").await.unwrap();
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                materialize_deletions_threshold: 0.0,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let scan_result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id", "blob"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_result.num_rows(), 2);
+
+        let ids = scan_result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let mut id_values: Vec<i32> = ids.iter().map(|v| v.unwrap()).collect();
+        id_values.sort();
+        assert_eq!(id_values, vec![0, 3]);
+
+        let blob_col = scan_result.column_by_name("blob").unwrap();
+        let struct_arr = blob_col.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().unwrap();
+        let kind_col = struct_arr
+            .column_by_name("kind")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt8Type>();
+
+        for i in 0..kind_col.len() {
+            assert!(
+                !kind_col.is_null(i),
+                "row {} should have a non-null kind after compaction of deleted rows",
+                i
+            );
+        }
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![(0, Some(b"blob-0".to_vec())), (3, Some(b"blob-3".to_vec()))]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_external_and_data_blob_mixed() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_arrow::BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+        use lance_table::format::BasePath;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"external-payload").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+        let base_uri = format!("file://{}", external_dir.std_path().display());
+
+        let packed_data: Vec<u8> = (0..64 * 1024 + 512).map(|i| (i % 256) as u8).collect();
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(4);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri.clone()).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&packed_data).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"inline-small").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri.clone()).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3]));
+        let mut blob_field = crate::blob_field("blob", true);
+        {
+            let mut new_metadata = blob_field.metadata().clone();
+            new_metadata.insert(
+                BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                (4 * 1024 * 1024).to_string(),
+            );
+            blob_field = blob_field.with_metadata(new_metadata);
+        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            blob_field,
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    name: Some("external".to_string()),
+                    path: base_uri,
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(b"external-payload".to_vec())),
+                (1, Some(packed_data)),
+                (2, Some(b"inline-small".to_vec())),
+                (3, Some(b"external-payload".to_vec()))
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_multiple_blob_columns() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+
+        let mut image_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+        image_builder.push_bytes(b"image-0").unwrap();
+        image_builder.push_bytes(b"image-1").unwrap();
+        image_builder.push_bytes(b"image-2").unwrap();
+        let image_array: ArrayRef = image_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let mut thumb_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+        thumb_builder.push_bytes(b"thumb-0").unwrap();
+        thumb_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        thumb_builder.push_bytes(b"thumb-2").unwrap();
+        let thumb_array: ArrayRef = thumb_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("image", true),
+            crate::blob_field("thumbnail", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, image_array, thumb_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let mut image_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "image").await;
+        image_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            image_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(b"image-0".to_vec())),
+                (1, Some(b"image-1".to_vec())),
+                (2, Some(b"image-2".to_vec()))
+            ]
+        );
+
+        let mut thumb_values =
+            read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "thumbnail").await;
+        thumb_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            thumb_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(b"thumb-0".to_vec())),
+                (1, None),
+                (2, Some(b"thumb-2".to_vec()))
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_external_and_null_mixed() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+        use lance_table::format::BasePath;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("mixed-external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"external-mixed-data").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+        let base_uri = format!("file://{}", external_dir.std_path().display());
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(4);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri.clone()).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_uri(external_uri.clone()).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    name: Some("external".to_string()),
+                    path: base_uri,
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(b"external-mixed-data".to_vec())),
+                (1, None),
+                (2, Some(b"external-mixed-data".to_vec())),
+                (3, None)
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_all_null_and_all_external_fragments() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+        use lance_table::format::BasePath;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let external_path = external_dir.std_path().join("all-ext.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"all-external-data").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+        let base_uri = format!("file://{}", external_dir.std_path().display());
+
+        let mut null_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        null_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        null_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        let null_array: ArrayRef = null_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let mut ext_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        ext_builder.push_uri(external_uri.clone()).unwrap();
+        ext_builder.push_uri(external_uri.clone()).unwrap();
+        let ext_array: ArrayRef = ext_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_null_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1]));
+        let null_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+        let null_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(null_schema.clone(), vec![id_null_array, null_array]).unwrap();
+
+        let id_ext_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 3]));
+        let ext_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+        let ext_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(ext_schema.clone(), vec![id_ext_array, ext_array]).unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![null_batch, ext_batch].into_iter().map(Ok),
+                null_schema.clone(),
+            ),
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    name: Some("external".to_string()),
+                    path: base_uri,
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, None),
+                (1, None),
+                (2, Some(b"all-external-data".to_vec())),
+                (3, Some(b"all-external-data".to_vec()))
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_external_with_multiple_base_ids() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+        use lance_table::format::BasePath;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let base_a_dir = TempDir::default();
+        let base_b_dir = TempDir::default();
+
+        let path_a = base_a_dir.std_path().join("data-a.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&path_a, b"from-base-a").unwrap();
+        let uri_a = format!("file://{}", path_a.display());
+        let base_uri_a = format!("file://{}", base_a_dir.std_path().display());
+
+        let path_b = base_b_dir.std_path().join("data-b.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&path_b, b"from-base-b").unwrap();
+        let uri_b = format!("file://{}", path_b.display());
+        let base_uri_b = format!("file://{}", base_b_dir.std_path().display());
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(4);
+        blob_builder.push_uri(uri_a.clone()).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_uri(uri_b).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"inline-data").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_uri(uri_a).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![
+                    BasePath {
+                        id: 1,
+                        name: Some("base_a".to_string()),
+                        path: base_uri_a,
+                        is_dataset_root: false,
+                    },
+                    BasePath {
+                        id: 2,
+                        name: Some("base_b".to_string()),
+                        path: base_uri_b,
+                        is_dataset_root: false,
+                    },
+                ]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(b"from-base-a".to_vec())),
+                (1, Some(b"from-base-b".to_vec())),
+                (2, Some(b"inline-data".to_vec())),
+                (3, Some(b"from-base-a".to_vec()))
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_large_blobs() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+
+        let large_blob_a: Vec<u8> = (0..512 * 1024).map(|i| (i % 256) as u8).collect();
+        let large_blob_b: Vec<u8> = (0..256 * 1024).map(|i| ((i + 42) % 256) as u8).collect();
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&large_blob_a).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&large_blob_b).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"small-blob").unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(large_blob_a)),
+                (1, Some(large_blob_b)),
+                (2, Some(b"small-blob".to_vec()))
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_blob_kind_reclassification() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_arrow::BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+
+        let medium_data: Vec<u8> = (0..32 * 1024).map(|i| (i % 256) as u8).collect();
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&medium_data).unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(&medium_data).unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1]));
+        let mut blob_field = crate::blob_field("blob", true);
+        {
+            let mut new_metadata = blob_field.metadata().clone();
+            new_metadata.insert(
+                BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                (16 * 1024).to_string(),
+            );
+            blob_field = blob_field.with_metadata(new_metadata);
+        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            blob_field,
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(medium_data.clone())),
+                (1, Some(medium_data.clone()))
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compact_blob_v2_multi_batch() {
+        use crate::BlobArrayBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+
+        let mut blob_builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(6);
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"batch-0-row-0").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"batch-0-row-1").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"batch-1-row-0").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_null().unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"batch-1-row-2").unwrap();
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"batch-1-row-3").unwrap();
+        let blob_array: ArrayRef = blob_builder.finish().unwrap();
+
+        let id_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            crate::blob_field("blob", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![id_array, blob_array]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir.path_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1024 * 1024,
+                batch_size: Some(2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let mut blob_values = read_blob_bytes_by_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "blob").await;
+        blob_values.sort_by_key(|(id, _)| *id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            blob_values,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(b"batch-0-row-0".to_vec())),
+                (1, Some(b"batch-0-row-1".to_vec())),
+                (2, Some(b"batch-1-row-0".to_vec())),
+                (3, None),
+                (4, Some(b"batch-1-row-2".to_vec())),
+                (5, Some(b"batch-1-row-3".to_vec()))
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+    // ---- `max_overlays_per_fragment` compaction trigger ----
+    //
+    // Tests for the trigger that fully compacts a fragment carrying too many data
+    // overlay files into a fresh fragment with the overlays (and deletions)
+    // materialized into the base data.
+    use arrow_array::record_batch;
+    use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+    use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+    use lance_table::format::DataFile;
+    use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+    use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+
+    use crate::dataset::DATA_DIR;
+    use crate::dataset::transaction::DataOverlayGroup;
+
+    /// Two-fragment Int32 dataset: `id` (field 0) = 0..12 and `val` (field 1) =
+    /// id * 10, six rows per fragment (fragments 0 and 1).
+    async fn create_base_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, (0..12).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            ("val", Int32, (0..12).map(|v| v * 10).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 6,
+            max_rows_per_group: 6,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn i32_array(values: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<i32>>) -> ArrayRef {
+        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter(values))
+    }
+
+    fn bitmap(offsets: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter(offsets)
+    }
+
+    /// Write a dense overlay covering `fields` of `fragment_id` with `columns`
+    /// as the per-field value columns, then commit it as a `DataOverlay`.
+    async fn commit_overlay(
+        dataset: Dataset,
+        fragment_id: u64,
+        fields: &[i32],
+        coverage: OverlayCoverage,
+        columns: Vec<ArrayRef>,
+    ) -> Dataset {
+        let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+        let overlay_schema = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(fields, true);
+        let filename = format!("{}.lance", Uuid::new_v4());
+        let path = dataset.base.clone().join(DATA_DIR).join(filename.as_str());
+        let obj_writer = dataset.object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let file_version = LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve();
+        let mut writer = lance_file::versions::create_writer(
+            file_version,
+            obj_writer,
+            overlay_schema,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        for (column_index, array) in columns.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            writer.write_column(column_index, array).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let summary = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut data_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(filename, file_version);
+        data_file.fields = writer
+            .field_id_to_column_indices()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(f, _)| *f as i32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .into();
+        data_file.column_indices = writer
+            .field_id_to_column_indices()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, c)| *c as i32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .into();
+        data_file.file_size_bytes = CachedFileSize::new(summary.size_bytes);
+
+        Dataset::commit(
+            WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+            Operation::DataOverlay {
+                groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                    fragment_id,
+                    overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                        data_file,
+                        coverage,
+                        committed_version: 0,
+                    }],
+                }],
+            },
+            Some(read_version),
+            None,
+            None,
+            Arc::new(Default::default()),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Commit `n` distinct single-cell overlays to fragment 0 (offset `i`, val
+    /// column set to `1000 + i`), so the fragment ends up with `n` overlays. The
+    /// `1000 +` offset keeps overlaid values clear of the base `id * 10` values.
+    async fn commit_n_overlays(mut dataset: Dataset, n: u32) -> Dataset {
+        for i in 0..n {
+            dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                0,
+                &[1],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([i])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(1000 + i as i32)])],
+            )
+            .await;
+        }
+        dataset
+    }
 
-        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses label list index scan
+    /// Options whose only compaction trigger is the overlay limit: base
+    /// fragments here are far below the default 1M-row target, which would
+    /// otherwise make them size-based compaction candidates on their own.
+    fn overlay_only_options(max_overlays_per_fragment: usize) -> CompactionOptions {
+        CompactionOptions {
+            max_overlays_per_fragment: Some(max_overlays_per_fragment),
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 6,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Scan `id` and `val` and return an `id -> val` map (order-independent).
+    async fn id_val_map(dataset: &Dataset) -> BTreeMap<i32, Option<i32>> {
         let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.filter("array_has_any(labels, [1])").unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery: query=[array_has_any(labels, List([1]))]@labels_idx"),
-            "Expected scalar index query in plan: {}",
-            plan
-        );
+        scanner.project(&["id", "val"]).unwrap();
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut out = BTreeMap::new();
+        let ids = batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let vals = batch
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            let v = if vals.is_null(i) {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(vals.value(i))
+            };
+            out.insert(ids.value(i), v);
+        }
+        out
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::default_target(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, None)]
+    #[case::explicit_target(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2))]
+    #[case::non_default_target(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2))]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_read_ivf_pq_index_v3_with_defer_index_remap() {
-        // Create a dataset with vector data
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(128)),
+    async fn test_compaction_target_preserves_overlays(
+        #[case] default_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[case] target: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+        #[values(
+            CompactionMode::Reencode,
+            CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy,
+            CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy
+        )]
+        mode: CompactionMode,
+    ) {
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3]),
+            ("val", Int32, [10, 20, 30, 40])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(batch.schema()))], batch.schema()),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(default_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
             )
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(6), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        // The first fragment is clean; eligibility must inspect every fragment.
+        let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+            dataset,
+            1,
+            &[1],
+            OverlayCoverage::dense(bitmap([0, 1])),
+            vec![i32_array([Some(999), None])],
+        )
+        .await;
+        let expected = BTreeMap::from([(0, Some(10)), (1, Some(20)), (2, Some(999)), (3, None)]);
+        assert_eq!(id_val_map(&dataset).await, expected);
+        let manifest = dataset.manifest.clone();
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+            data_storage_version: target,
+            compaction_mode: Some(mode),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let result = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await;
+        if mode == CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("binary copy is not supported"));
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest, manifest);
+        } else {
+            let metrics = result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+            assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+            assert!(dataset.manifest.fragments[0].overlays.is_empty());
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.manifest.fragments[0].files[0]
+                    .file_version()
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(id_val_map(&dataset).await, expected);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            default_version.resolve()
+        );
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
 
-        // Get some query vectors for KNN search
-        let query_vec1: PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> =
-            PrimitiveArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(0.0, 128));
-        let query_vec2: PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> =
-            PrimitiveArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(1.1, 128));
-        let query_vec3: PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> =
-            PrimitiveArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(2.2, 128));
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_max_overlays_triggers_full_compaction() {
+        // Fragment 0 gets 3 overlays; fragment 1 stays clean.
+        let dataset = create_base_dataset("memory://").await;
+        let mut dataset = commit_n_overlays(dataset, 3).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap().metadata().overlays.len(),
+            3
+        );
 
-        // Get initial KNN search results
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec1, 10).unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let results1 = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        // Threshold 2: only fragment 0 (3 > 2) is compacted.
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, overlay_only_options(2), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let count1 = results1.len();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 1);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
 
-        scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec2, 10).unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let results2 = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+        // The compacted fragment is a fresh single-data-file fragment with no
+        // overlays; fragment 1 is untouched.
+        let compacted = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .find(|f| f.id() != 1)
+            .expect("a new fragment id was assigned");
+        assert!(compacted.metadata().overlays.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(compacted.metadata().files.len(), 1);
+
+        // The overlaid values were materialized: id i in 0..3 -> 1000 + i.
+        let values = id_val_map(&dataset).await;
+        let expected: BTreeMap<i32, Option<i32>> = (0..12)
+            .map(|id| {
+                let v = if id < 3 { 1000 + id } else { id * 10 };
+                (id, Some(v))
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(values, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_below_threshold_is_a_noop() {
+        let dataset = create_base_dataset("memory://").await;
+        let mut dataset = commit_n_overlays(dataset, 2).await;
+
+        // 2 overlays, threshold 2: `overlays > max` is false, so no compaction.
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, overlay_only_options(2), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let count2 = results2.len();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 0);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap().metadata().overlays.len(),
+            2
+        );
+    }
 
-        scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec3, 10).unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let results3 = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_overlay_compaction_materializes_deletions() {
+        let dataset = create_base_dataset("memory://").await;
+        let mut dataset = commit_n_overlays(dataset, 3).await;
+        // Delete a row from the overlaid fragment (id 2 is at offset 2).
+        dataset.delete("id = 2").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .get_fragment(0)
+                .unwrap()
+                .metadata()
+                .deletion_file
+                .is_some()
+        );
+
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, overlay_only_options(2), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let count3 = results3.len();
 
-        // Create an IVF-PQ index on the vec column
-        let index_name = Some("vec_idx".into());
+        // The deletion was materialized: no deletion file remains and id 2 is gone.
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            assert!(fragment.metadata().deletion_file.is_none());
+            assert!(fragment.metadata().overlays.is_empty());
+        }
+        let values = id_val_map(&dataset).await;
+        assert!(!values.contains_key(&2));
+        // Surviving overlaid cells still carry their materialized values.
+        assert_eq!(values.get(&0), Some(&Some(1000)));
+        assert_eq!(values.get(&1), Some(&Some(1001)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_overlay_compaction_reconciles_stale_index() {
+        let mut dataset = create_base_dataset("memory://").await;
+        // Index `val` before any overlay -> the index is stale once val is overlaid.
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["vec"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                index_name.clone(),
-                &VectorIndexParams {
-                    metric_type: DistanceType::L2,
-                    stages: vec![
-                        StageParams::Ivf(IvfBuildParams {
-                            max_iters: 2,
-                            num_partitions: Some(2),
-                            sample_rate: 2,
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        }),
-                        StageParams::PQ(PQBuildParams {
-                            max_iters: 2,
-                            num_sub_vectors: 2,
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        }),
-                    ],
-                    version: crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::V3,
-                },
-                false,
+                &["val"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let original_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx").unwrap();
-
-        // Run compaction with deferred index remapping
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-            defer_index_remap: true,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0);
-        assert!(metrics.fragments_added > 0);
 
-        // Verify the index UUID is unchanged (it should not be remapped yet)
-        let Some(current_index) = dataset.load_index_by_name("vec_idx").await.unwrap() else {
-            panic!("vec index must be available");
-        };
-        assert_eq!(current_index.uuid, original_index.uuid);
+        // Overlay val[0] 0 -> 100 (committed after the index) and push fragment 0
+        // over the overlay limit.
+        let mut dataset = commit_n_overlays(dataset, 3).await;
 
-        // Verify that KNN searches still work correctly and return the same counts
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec1, 10).unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let new_results1 = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
+        let val_index_before = dataset
+            .load_indices()
             .await
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|i| i.fields == vec![1])
+            .expect("val index present")
+            .clone();
+        assert!(
+            val_index_before
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .contains(0)
+        );
+
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, overlay_only_options(2), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(new_results1.len(), count1);
 
-        scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec2, 10).unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let new_results2 = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
+        // The stale val index no longer covers the compacted fragment, so its
+        // rows fall back to a flat scan instead of serving stale values.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let val_index = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|i| i.fields == vec![1])
+            .expect("val index present");
+        let compacted_id = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+            .find(|id| *id != 1)
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(new_results2.len(), count2);
+        assert!(
+            !val_index
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .contains(compacted_id),
+            "stale index must drop the compacted fragment from its coverage"
+        );
 
-        scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec3, 10).unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let new_results3 = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
+        // The indexed query is correct: the materialized value is found and the
+        // stale pre-overlay value is gone.
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .filter("val = 1000")
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
+            .project(&["id"])
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(new_results3.len(), count3);
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ids.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(ids.value(0), 0);
 
-        // Verify that after index creation and compaction, scan uses vector index scan
         let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vec1, 10).unwrap();
-        scanner.project::<String>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
-        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
-            "Expected vector index scan in plan: {}",
-            plan
-        );
-        assert!(
-            !plan.contains("LanceScan"),
-            "Expected no fragment scan in plan: {}",
-            plan
-        );
+        scanner.filter("val = 0").unwrap().project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0, "stale value 0 must no longer match");
     }
 
+    /// Round 6: unlike `migrate_fragments`, the reuse-record normalization
+    /// must keep a fully-deleted fragment: the rewrite group still removes
+    /// it from the manifest and the transition still consumes it (zero live
+    /// rows), so a silently shortened source list would desynchronize the
+    /// digests, the group and the manifest.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_default_compaction_planner() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-
-        let data = sample_data();
-        let schema = data.schema();
-
-        // Create dataset with multiple small fragments
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], schema.clone());
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 2000,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+    async fn test_normalize_source_fragments_keeps_fully_deleted() {
+        use lance_table::format::{DeletionFile, DeletionFileType};
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 5);
-
-        // Test default planner
-        let options = CompactionOptions {
-            target_rows_per_fragment: 5000,
-            materialize_deletions_threshold: 2.0,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        let planner = DefaultCompactionPlanner::new(options);
-        let plan = planner.plan(&dataset).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Should create tasks to compact small fragments
-        assert!(!plan.tasks.is_empty());
-        assert_eq!(plan.read_version, dataset.manifest.version);
-        // make sure options.validate() worked
-        assert!(!plan.options.materialize_deletions);
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(7);
+        fragment.physical_rows = Some(4);
+        fragment.deletion_file = Some(DeletionFile {
+            read_version: 1,
+            id: 1,
+            file_type: DeletionFileType::Array,
+            num_deleted_rows: Some(4),
+            base_id: None,
+        });
+        let normalized = normalize_source_fragments(&dataset, &[fragment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(normalized.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(normalized[0].id, 7);
+        assert_eq!(normalized[0].physical_rows, Some(4));
+        assert_eq!(
+            normalized[0]
+                .deletion_file
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .num_deleted_rows,
+            Some(4)
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/binary_copy.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/binary_copy.rs
index 2a51e8aca9b..c76e0ea300f 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/binary_copy.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/binary_copy.rs
@@ -1,98 +1,50 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::dataset::fragment::write::generate_random_filename;
-use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
-use crate::dataset::DATA_DIR;
-use crate::datatypes::Schema;
 use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::Result;
-use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
+use crate::dataset::DATA_DIR;
+use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+use crate::dataset::fragment::write::generate_random_filename;
+use crate::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::Error;
-use lance_encoding::decoder::{ColumnInfo, PageEncoding, PageInfo as DecPageInfo};
-use lance_encoding::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_file::format::pbfile;
+use lance_encoding::decoder::{ColumnInfo, PageInfo as DecPageInfo};
 use lance_file::reader::FileReader as LFReader;
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_file::versions as file_versions;
 use lance_file::writer::{FileWriter, FileWriterOptions};
-use lance_io::object_writer::ObjectWriter;
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
-use lance_io::traits::Writer;
 use lance_table::format::{DataFile, Fragment};
 use prost::Message;
 use prost_types::Any;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::Arc;
-use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
-
-const ALIGN: usize = 64;
-
-/// Apply 64-byte alignment padding for V2.1+ files.
-///
-/// For V2.1+, writes padding bytes to align the current position to a 64-byte boundary.
-/// For V2.0 and earlier, no padding is applied as alignment is not required.
-///
-/// Returns the new position after padding (if any).
-async fn apply_alignment_padding(
-    writer: &mut ObjectWriter,
-    current_pos: u64,
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
-) -> Result<u64> {
-    if version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1 {
-        static ZERO_BUFFER: std::sync::OnceLock<Vec<u8>> = std::sync::OnceLock::new();
-        let zero_buf = ZERO_BUFFER.get_or_init(|| vec![0u8; ALIGN]);
-
-        let pad = (ALIGN - (current_pos as usize % ALIGN)) % ALIGN;
-        if pad != 0 {
-            writer.write_all(&zero_buf[..pad]).await?;
-            return Ok(current_pos + pad as u64);
-        }
-    }
-    Ok(current_pos)
-}
 
 async fn init_writer_if_necessary(
     dataset: &Dataset,
-    current_writer: &mut Option<ObjectWriter>,
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    current_writer: &mut Option<FileWriter>,
     current_filename: &mut Option<String>,
 ) -> Result<bool> {
     if current_writer.is_none() {
         let filename = format!("{}.lance", generate_random_filename());
-        let path = dataset.base.child(DATA_DIR).child(filename.as_str());
-        let writer = dataset.object_store.create(&path).await?;
-        *current_writer = Some(writer);
+        let path = dataset.base.clone().join(DATA_DIR).join(filename.as_str());
+        let object_writer = dataset.object_store.create(&path).await?;
+        *current_writer = Some(file_versions::create_lazy_writer(
+            version,
+            object_writer,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )?);
         *current_filename = Some(filename);
         return Ok(true);
     }
     Ok(false)
 }
 
-/// v2_0 vs v2_1+ field-to-column index mapping
-///  - v2_1+ stores only leaf columns; non-leaf fields get `-1` in the mapping
-///  - v2_0 includes structural headers as columns; non-leaf fields map to a concrete index
-fn compute_field_column_indices(
-    schema: &Schema,
-    full_field_ids_len: usize,
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
-) -> Vec<i32> {
-    let is_structural = version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_1;
-    let mut field_column_indices: Vec<i32> = Vec::with_capacity(full_field_ids_len);
-    let mut curr_col_idx: i32 = 0;
-    for field in schema.fields_pre_order() {
-        if field.is_packed_struct() || field.is_leaf() || !is_structural {
-            field_column_indices.push(curr_col_idx);
-            curr_col_idx += 1;
-        } else {
-            field_column_indices.push(-1);
-        }
-    }
-    field_column_indices
-}
-
 /// Finalize the current output file and return it as a single [Fragment].
 /// - Ensures an output writer / filename is present (creates a new file if needed).
 /// - Converts the in-memory `col_pages` / `col_buffers` into `ColumnInfo` metadata, draining them.
-/// - Applies v2_0 structural header rules (single page, normalized `num_rows` and `priority`).
+/// - Lets the exact file version normalize copied column metadata.
 /// - Writes the Lance footer via [flush_footer] and registers the resulting [DataFile] in a [Fragment].
 ///
 /// PAY ATTENTION current function will:
@@ -101,28 +53,24 @@ fn compute_field_column_indices(
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 async fn finalize_current_output_file(
     schema: &Schema,
-    full_field_ids: &[i32],
-    current_writer: &mut Option<ObjectWriter>,
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    current_writer: &mut Option<FileWriter>,
     current_filename: &mut Option<String>,
     current_page_table: &[ColumnInfo],
     col_pages: &mut [Vec<DecPageInfo>],
     col_buffers: &mut [Vec<(u64, u64)>],
-    is_non_leaf_column: &[bool],
     total_rows_in_current: u64,
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
 ) -> Result<Fragment> {
     let mut final_cols: Vec<Arc<ColumnInfo>> = Vec::with_capacity(current_page_table.len());
     for (i, column_info) in current_page_table.iter().enumerate() {
         let mut pages_vec = std::mem::take(&mut col_pages[i]);
-        // For v2_0 struct headers, force a single page and set num_rows to total
-        if version == LanceFileVersion::V2_0
-            && is_non_leaf_column.get(i).copied().unwrap_or(false)
-            && !pages_vec.is_empty()
-        {
-            pages_vec[0].num_rows = total_rows_in_current;
-            pages_vec[0].priority = 0;
-            pages_vec.truncate(1);
-        }
+        file_versions::finalize_external_metadata_column(
+            version,
+            schema,
+            i,
+            &mut pages_vec,
+            total_rows_in_current,
+        )?;
         let pages_arc = Arc::from(pages_vec.into_boxed_slice());
         let buffers_vec = std::mem::take(&mut col_buffers[i]);
         final_cols.push(Arc::new(ColumnInfo::new(
@@ -132,15 +80,20 @@ async fn finalize_current_output_file(
             column_info.encoding.clone(),
         )));
     }
-    let writer = current_writer.take().unwrap();
-    flush_footer(writer, schema, &final_cols, total_rows_in_current, version).await?;
+    let mut writer = current_writer
+        .take()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("binary copy output writer was not initialized"))?;
+    flush_footer(&mut writer, schema, &final_cols, total_rows_in_current).await?;
 
     // Register the newly closed output file as a fragment data file
-    let (maj, min) = version.to_numbers();
     let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
-    let mut data_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(current_filename.take().unwrap(), maj, min);
-    data_file.fields = full_field_ids.to_vec();
-    data_file.column_indices = compute_field_column_indices(schema, full_field_ids.len(), version);
+    let (field_ids, field_column_indices) = file_versions::data_file_columns(version, schema);
+    let filename = current_filename
+        .take()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("binary copy output filename was not initialized"))?;
+    let mut data_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(filename, version);
+    data_file.fields = field_ids.into();
+    data_file.column_indices = field_column_indices.into();
     fragment.files.push(data_file);
     fragment.physical_rows = Some(total_rows_in_current as usize);
     Ok(fragment)
@@ -158,11 +111,9 @@ async fn finalize_current_output_file(
 ///   └── final flush for remaining rows
 ///
 /// Behavior highlights:
-/// - Assumes all input files share the same Lance file version; version drives column-count
-///   calculation (v2.0 includes structural headers, v2.1+ only leaf columns).
+/// - Assumes all input files share the same Lance file version.
 /// - Preserves stable row ids by concatenating row-id sequences when enabled.
-/// - Enforces 64-byte alignment for page and buffer writes in V2.1+ files (V2.0 does not require alignment).
-/// - For v2.0, preserves single-page structural headers and normalizes their row counts/priority.
+/// - Delegates physical-column mapping and copied metadata normalization to the exact file version.
 /// - Flushes an output file once `max_rows_per_file` rows are accumulated, then repeats.
 ///
 /// Parameters:
@@ -171,6 +122,7 @@ async fn finalize_current_output_file(
 /// - `params`: write parameters (uses `max_rows_per_file`).
 /// - `read_batch_bytes_opt`: optional I/O batch size when coalescing page reads.
 pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
     dataset: &Dataset,
     fragments: &[Fragment],
     params: &WriteParams,
@@ -179,7 +131,6 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
     if fragments.is_empty() || fragments.iter().any(|fragment| fragment.files.is_empty()) {
         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
             "binary copy requires at least one data file",
-            location!(),
         ));
     }
 
@@ -187,54 +138,19 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
     // - Reads page and buffer regions directly from source files in bounded batches
     // - Appends them to a new output file with alignment, updating offsets
     // - Recomputes page priorities by adding the cumulative row count to preserve order
-    // - For v2_0, enforces single-page structural header columns when closing a file
     // - Writes a new footer (schema descriptor, column metadata, offset tables, version)
     // - Optionally carries forward stable row ids and persists them inline in fragment metadata
     // Merge small Lance files into larger ones by page-level binary copy.
     let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
-    let full_field_ids = schema.field_ids();
-
-    // The previous checks have ensured that the file versions of all files are consistent.
-    let version = LanceFileVersion::try_from_major_minor(
-        fragments[0].files[0].file_major_version,
-        fragments[0].files[0].file_minor_version,
-    )
-    .unwrap()
-    .resolve();
-    // v2.0 and v2.1+ handle structural headers differently during file writing:
-    // - v2_0 materializes ALL fields in pre-order traversal (leaf fields + non-leaf struct headers),
-    //   which means the ColumnInfo set includes all fields in pre-order traversal.
-    // - v2_1+ materializes fields that are either leaf columns OR packed structs. Non-leaf structural
-    //   headers (unpacked structs with children) are not stored as columns.
-    //   As a result, the ColumnInfo set contains leaf fields and packed structs.
-    // To correctly align copy layout, we derive `column_count` by version:
-    // - v2_0: use total number of fields in pre-order (leaf + non-leaf headers)
-    // - v2_1+: use only the number of leaf fields plus packed structs
-    let column_count = if version == LanceFileVersion::V2_0 {
-        schema.fields_pre_order().count()
-    } else {
-        schema
-            .fields_pre_order()
-            .filter(|f| f.is_packed_struct() || f.is_leaf())
-            .count()
-    };
-
-    // v2_0 compatibility: build a map to identify non-leaf structural header columns
-    // - In v2_0 these headers exist as columns and must have a single page
-    // - In v2_1+ these headers are not stored as columns and this map is unused
-    let mut is_non_leaf_column: Vec<bool> = vec![false; column_count];
-    if version == LanceFileVersion::V2_0 {
-        for (col_idx, field) in schema.fields_pre_order().enumerate() {
-            // Only mark non-packed Struct fields (lists remain as leaf data carriers)
-            let is_non_leaf = field.data_type().is_struct() && !field.is_packed_struct();
-            is_non_leaf_column[col_idx] = is_non_leaf;
-        }
-    }
+    let column_count = schema
+        .fields
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| file_versions::physical_column_count(version, field))
+        .sum();
 
     let mut out: Vec<Fragment> = Vec::new();
-    let mut current_writer: Option<ObjectWriter> = None;
+    let mut current_writer: Option<FileWriter> = None;
     let mut current_filename: Option<String> = None;
-    let mut current_pos: u64 = 0;
     let mut current_page_table: Vec<ColumnInfo> = Vec::new();
     // Baseline column encodings captured from the first source file; all subsequent
     // files must match per-column to safely concatenate column-level buffers.
@@ -252,11 +168,11 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
     for frag in fragments.iter() {
         for df in frag.files.iter() {
             let object_store = if let Some(base_id) = df.base_id {
-                dataset.object_store_for_base(base_id).await?
+                dataset.object_store(Some(base_id)).await?
             } else {
                 dataset.object_store.clone()
             };
-            let full_path = dataset.data_file_dir(df)?.child(df.path.as_str());
+            let full_path = dataset.data_file_dir(df)?.clone().join(df.path.as_str());
             let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
                 object_store.clone(),
                 SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
@@ -281,38 +197,34 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
                     .collect();
                 baseline_col_encoding_bytes = src_column_infos
                     .iter()
-                    .map(|ci| Any::from_msg(&ci.encoding).unwrap().encode_to_vec())
-                    .collect();
+                    .map(|ci| Ok(Any::from_msg(&ci.encoding)?.encode_to_vec()))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
             }
 
             // Iterate through each column of the current data file of the current fragment
             for (col_idx, src_column_info) in src_column_infos.iter().enumerate() {
-                // v2_0 compatibility: special handling for non-leaf structural header columns
-                // - v2_0 expects structural header columns to have a SINGLE page; they carry layout
-                //   metadata only and are not true data carriers.
-                // - When merging multiple input files via binary copy, naively appending pages would
-                //   yield multiple pages for the same structural header column, violating v2_0 rules.
-                // - To preserve v2_0 invariants, we skip pages beyond the first one for these columns.
-                // - During finalization we also normalize the single remaining page’s `num_rows` to the
-                //   total number of rows in the output file and reset `priority` to 0.
-                // - For v2_1+ this logic does not apply because non-leaf headers are not stored as columns.
-                let is_non_leaf = col_idx < is_non_leaf_column.len() && is_non_leaf_column[col_idx];
-                if is_non_leaf && !col_pages[col_idx].is_empty() {
-                    continue;
-                }
-
-                if init_writer_if_necessary(dataset, &mut current_writer, &mut current_filename)
-                    .await?
-                {
-                    current_pos = 0;
-                }
+                let has_existing_pages = !col_pages[col_idx].is_empty();
+                file_versions::copy_external_metadata_column(
+                    version,
+                    &schema,
+                    col_idx,
+                    has_existing_pages,
+                    || async {
+                        init_writer_if_necessary(
+                            dataset,
+                            version,
+                            &mut current_writer,
+                            &mut current_filename,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
 
-                let read_batch_bytes: u64 = read_batch_bytes_opt.unwrap_or(16 * 1024 * 1024) as u64;
+                        let read_batch_bytes: u64 =
+                            read_batch_bytes_opt.unwrap_or(16 * 1024 * 1024) as u64;
 
-                let mut page_index = 0;
+                        let mut page_index = 0;
 
-                // Iterate through each page of the current column in the current data file of the current fragment
-                while page_index < src_column_info.page_infos.len() {
+                        // Iterate through each page of the current column in the current data file of the current fragment
+                        while page_index < src_column_info.page_infos.len() {
                     let mut batch_ranges: Vec<Range<u64>> = Vec::new();
                     let mut batch_counts: Vec<usize> = Vec::new();
                     let mut batch_bytes: u64 = 0;
@@ -339,7 +251,9 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
                         }
                         batch_counts.push(current_page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.len());
                         for (offset, size) in current_page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter() {
-                            batch_ranges.push((*offset)..(*offset + *size));
+                            if *size > 0 {
+                                batch_ranges.push((*offset)..(*offset + *size));
+                            }
                         }
                         batch_bytes += page_bytes;
                         batch_pages += 1;
@@ -362,71 +276,94 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
                         // Therefore `page_index - batch_pages + local_idx` yields the exact
                         // source page we are currently materializing, allowing us to access
                         // its metadata (encoding, row count, buffers) for the new page entry.
-                        let page =
-                            &src_column_info.page_infos[page_index - batch_pages + local_idx];
+                        let page_idx = page_index - batch_pages + local_idx;
+                        let page = &src_column_info.page_infos[page_idx];
                         let mut new_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(*buffer_count);
-                        for _ in 0..*buffer_count {
-                            if let Some(bytes) = bytes_iter.next() {
-                                let writer = current_writer.as_mut().unwrap();
-                                current_pos =
-                                    apply_alignment_padding(writer, current_pos, version).await?;
-                                let start = current_pos;
-                                writer.write_all(&bytes).await?;
-                                current_pos += bytes.len() as u64;
-                                new_offsets.push((start, bytes.len() as u64));
-                            }
+                        for (buffer_idx, (_, size)) in
+                            page.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().enumerate()
+                        {
+                            let writer = current_writer.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::internal("binary copy output writer was not initialized")
+                            })?;
+                            let bytes = if *size == 0 {
+                                None
+                            } else {
+                                Some(bytes_iter.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                                    Error::execution(format!(
+                                        "binary copy: missing page buffer bytes while rewriting data file \
+                                         (column {col_idx}, page {page_idx}, buffer {buffer_idx}, expected size {size})",
+                                    ))
+                                })?)
+                            };
+                            let (start, written) = writer
+                                .write_external_buffer(bytes.as_deref().unwrap_or_default())
+                                .await?;
+                            new_offsets.push((start, written));
                         }
 
-                        // manual clone encoding
-                        let encoding = if page.encoding.is_structural() {
-                            PageEncoding::Structural(page.encoding.as_structural().clone())
-                        } else {
-                            PageEncoding::Legacy(page.encoding.as_legacy().clone())
-                        };
                         // `priority` acts as the global row offset for this page, ensuring
                         // downstream iterators maintain the correct logical order across
                         // merged inputs.
                         let new_page_info = DecPageInfo {
                             num_rows: page.num_rows,
                             priority: page.priority + total_rows_in_current,
-                            encoding,
+                            encoding: page.encoding.clone(),
                             buffer_offsets_and_sizes: Arc::from(new_offsets.into_boxed_slice()),
                         };
                         col_pages[col_idx].push(new_page_info);
                     }
-                } // finished scheduling & copying pages for this column in the current source file
+                        } // finished scheduling & copying pages for this column in the current source file
 
-                if !src_column_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.is_empty() {
+                        if !src_column_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.is_empty() {
                     // Validate column-level encoding compatibility before copying buffers
-                    let src_col_encoding_bytes = Any::from_msg(&src_column_info.encoding)
-                        .unwrap()
-                        .encode_to_vec();
+                    let src_col_encoding_bytes =
+                        Any::from_msg(&src_column_info.encoding)?.encode_to_vec();
                     let baseline_bytes = &baseline_col_encoding_bytes[col_idx];
                     if src_col_encoding_bytes != *baseline_bytes {
-                        return Err(Error::Execution {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "binary copy: The ColumnEncoding of column {} is incompatible with the first file, \
-                                making it impossible to safely concatenate buffers",
-                                col_idx
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::execution(format!(
+                            "binary copy: The ColumnEncoding of column {} is incompatible with the first file, \
+                            making it impossible to safely concatenate buffers",
+                            col_idx
+                        )));
                     }
                     let ranges: Vec<Range<u64>> = src_column_info
                         .buffer_offsets_and_sizes
                         .iter()
+                        .filter(|(_, size)| *size > 0)
                         .map(|(offset, size)| (*offset)..(*offset + *size))
                         .collect();
-                    let bytes_vec = file_scheduler.submit_request(ranges, 0).await?;
-                    for bytes in bytes_vec.into_iter() {
-                        let writer = current_writer.as_mut().unwrap();
-                        current_pos = apply_alignment_padding(writer, current_pos, version).await?;
-                        let start = current_pos;
-                        writer.write_all(&bytes).await?;
-                        current_pos += bytes.len() as u64;
-                        col_buffers[col_idx].push((start, bytes.len() as u64));
+                    let bytes_vec = if ranges.is_empty() {
+                        Vec::new()
+                    } else {
+                        file_scheduler.submit_request(ranges, 0).await?
+                    };
+                    let mut bytes_iter = bytes_vec.into_iter();
+                    for (buffer_idx, (_, size)) in
+                        src_column_info.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().enumerate()
+                    {
+                        let writer = current_writer.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal("binary copy output writer was not initialized")
+                        })?;
+                        let bytes = if *size == 0 {
+                            None
+                        } else {
+                            Some(bytes_iter.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::execution(format!(
+                                    "binary copy: missing column buffer bytes while rewriting data file \
+                                     (column {col_idx}, buffer {buffer_idx}, expected size {size})",
+                                ))
+                            })?)
+                        };
+                        let (start, written) = writer
+                            .write_external_buffer(bytes.as_deref().unwrap_or_default())
+                            .await?;
+                        col_buffers[col_idx].push((start, written));
                     }
-                }
+                        }
+                        Ok(())
+                    },
+                )
+                .await?;
             } // finished all columns in the current source file
 
             // Accumulate rows for the current output file and flush when reaching the threshold
@@ -434,21 +371,18 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
             if total_rows_in_current >= max_rows_per_file {
                 let fragment_out = finalize_current_output_file(
                     &schema,
-                    &full_field_ids,
+                    version,
                     &mut current_writer,
                     &mut current_filename,
                     &current_page_table,
                     &mut col_pages,
                     &mut col_buffers,
-                    &is_non_leaf_column,
                     total_rows_in_current,
-                    version,
                 )
                 .await?;
 
                 // Reset state for next output file
                 current_writer = None;
-                current_pos = 0;
                 current_page_table.clear();
                 for v in col_pages.iter_mut() {
                     v.clear();
@@ -464,18 +398,17 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
 
     if total_rows_in_current > 0 {
         // Flush remaining rows as a final output file
-        init_writer_if_necessary(dataset, &mut current_writer, &mut current_filename).await?;
+        init_writer_if_necessary(dataset, version, &mut current_writer, &mut current_filename)
+            .await?;
         let frag = finalize_current_output_file(
             &schema,
-            &full_field_ids,
+            version,
             &mut current_writer,
             &mut current_filename,
             &current_page_table,
             &mut col_pages,
             &mut col_buffers,
-            &is_non_leaf_column,
             total_rows_in_current,
-            version,
         )
         .await?;
         out.push(frag);
@@ -487,9 +420,7 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
 ///
 /// This function does not manually craft the footer. Instead it:
 /// - Pads the current `ObjectWriter` position to a 64‑byte boundary (required for v2_1+ readers).
-/// - Converts the collected per‑column info (`final_cols`) into `ColumnMetadata`.
-/// - Constructs a `lance_file::writer::FileWriter` with the active `schema`, column metadata,
-///   and `total_rows_in_current`.
+/// - Initializes the active `FileWriter` from the collected column metadata.
 /// - Calls `FileWriter::finish()` to emit column metadata, offset tables, global buffers
 ///   (schema descriptor), version, and to close the writer.
 ///
@@ -497,81 +428,14 @@ pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
 /// - All page data and column‑level buffers referenced by `final_cols` have already been written
 ///   to `writer`; otherwise offsets in the footer will be invalid.
 ///
-/// Version notes:
-/// - v2_0 structural single‑page enforcement is handled when building `final_cols`; this function
-///   only performs consistent finalization.
 async fn flush_footer(
-    mut writer: ObjectWriter,
+    writer: &mut FileWriter,
     schema: &Schema,
     final_cols: &[Arc<ColumnInfo>],
     total_rows_in_current: u64,
-    version: LanceFileVersion,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let pos = writer.tell().await? as u64;
-    let _new_pos = apply_alignment_padding(&mut writer, pos, version).await?;
-
-    let mut col_metadatas = Vec::with_capacity(final_cols.len());
-    for col in final_cols {
-        let pages = col
-            .page_infos
-            .iter()
-            .map(|page_info| {
-                let encoded_encoding = match &page_info.encoding {
-                    PageEncoding::Legacy(array_encoding) => {
-                        Any::from_msg(array_encoding)?.encode_to_vec()
-                    }
-                    PageEncoding::Structural(page_layout) => {
-                        Any::from_msg(page_layout)?.encode_to_vec()
-                    }
-                };
-                let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = page_info
-                    .buffer_offsets_and_sizes
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .iter()
-                    .cloned()
-                    .unzip();
-                Ok(pbfile::column_metadata::Page {
-                    buffer_offsets,
-                    buffer_sizes,
-                    encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
-                        location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(
-                            pbfile::DirectEncoding {
-                                encoding: encoded_encoding,
-                            },
-                        )),
-                    }),
-                    length: page_info.num_rows,
-                    priority: page_info.priority,
-                })
-            })
-            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-        let (buffer_offsets, buffer_sizes): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =
-            col.buffer_offsets_and_sizes.iter().cloned().unzip();
-        let encoded_col_encoding = Any::from_msg(&col.encoding)?.encode_to_vec();
-        let column = pbfile::ColumnMetadata {
-            pages,
-            buffer_offsets,
-            buffer_sizes,
-            encoding: Some(pbfile::Encoding {
-                location: Some(pbfile::encoding::Location::Direct(pbfile::DirectEncoding {
-                    encoding: encoded_col_encoding,
-                })),
-            }),
-        };
-        col_metadatas.push(column);
-    }
-    let mut file_writer = FileWriter::new_lazy(
-        writer,
-        FileWriterOptions {
-            format_version: Some(version),
-            ..Default::default()
-        },
-    );
-    file_writer.initialize_with_external_metadata(
-        schema.clone(),
-        col_metadatas,
-        total_rows_in_current,
-    );
-    file_writer.finish().await?;
+    writer.write_external_buffer(&[]).await?;
+    writer.initialize_with_external_columns(schema.clone(), final_cols, total_rows_in_current)?;
+    writer.finish().await?;
     Ok(())
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/remapping.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/remapping.rs
index ee3e8301319..f58c89c7438 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/remapping.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/remapping.rs
@@ -4,20 +4,28 @@
 //! Utilities for remapping row ids. Necessary before stable row ids.
 //!
 
-use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-use crate::index::frag_reuse::{load_frag_reuse_index_details, open_frag_reuse_index};
 use crate::Result;
-use crate::{index, Dataset};
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use crate::index::frag_reuse::{
+    MissingCoverageReason, decode_frag_reuse_ledger, load_frag_reuse_index_details,
+    open_frag_reuse_index,
+};
+use crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::{CachedMapping, open_mapping};
+use crate::{Dataset, index};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::Error;
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::{FragDigest, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME};
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
-use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::{FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, FragDigest};
+use lance_index::scalar::{
+    BatchRowIdRemapper, DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES, RemapUnavailable, RowAddrTranslator,
+};
+use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexFile, IndexMetadata};
 use lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes;
-use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::{FragReuseLedger, Mapping};
+use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use snafu::location;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use uuid::Uuid;
@@ -40,6 +48,8 @@ pub struct RemappedIndex {
     pub new_id: Uuid,
     pub index_details: prost_types::Any,
     pub index_version: u32,
+    /// List of files in the index with their sizes.
+    pub files: Option<Vec<IndexFile>>,
 }
 
 /// When compaction runs the row ids will change.  This typically means that
@@ -50,7 +60,7 @@ pub struct RemappedIndex {
 pub trait IndexRemapper: Send + Sync {
     async fn remap_indices(
         &self,
-        index_map: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        index_map: RowAddrRemap,
         affected_fragment_ids: &[u64],
     ) -> Result<Vec<RemappedIndex>>;
 }
@@ -59,8 +69,13 @@ pub trait IndexRemapper: Send + Sync {
 ///
 /// Currently we don't have any options but we may need options in the future and so we
 /// want to keep a placeholder
+#[async_trait]
 pub trait IndexRemapperOptions: Send + Sync {
-    fn create_remapper(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexRemapper>>;
+    /// Creates a remapper when the dataset has indices that need row address remapping.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` when no remappable indices exist, allowing compaction to avoid
+    /// materializing an unused row address map.
+    async fn create_remapper(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn IndexRemapper>>>;
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, PartialEq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
@@ -68,18 +83,15 @@ pub struct IgnoreRemap {}
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl IndexRemapper for IgnoreRemap {
-    async fn remap_indices(
-        &self,
-        _: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
-        _: &[u64],
-    ) -> Result<Vec<RemappedIndex>> {
+    async fn remap_indices(&self, _: RowAddrRemap, _: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<RemappedIndex>> {
         Ok(Vec::new())
     }
 }
 
+#[async_trait]
 impl IndexRemapperOptions for IgnoreRemap {
-    fn create_remapper(&self, _: &Dataset) -> Result<Box<dyn IndexRemapper>> {
-        Ok(Box::new(Self {}))
+    async fn create_remapper(&self, _: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn IndexRemapper>>> {
+        Ok(None)
     }
 }
 
@@ -122,10 +134,9 @@ impl<I: Iterator<Item = u64>> Iterator for MissingAddrs<'_, I> {
                 self.last = None;
                 last
             } else {
-                // If we've exhausted row_addrs but we aren't done then use 0 which
-                // is guaranteed to not match because that would mean that row_addrs
-                // was empty and we check for that earlier.
-                self.row_addrs.next().unwrap_or(0)
+                // The tombstone fragment id cannot match a real fragment, so all
+                // remaining expected addresses are reported as missing.
+                self.row_addrs.next().unwrap_or(RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW)
             };
 
             let current_fragment = &self.fragments[self.current_fragment_idx];
@@ -199,46 +210,62 @@ pub fn transpose_row_ids_from_digest(
 /// If the frag reuse index does not exist, the operation fails with [Error::NotSupported]
 /// If the frag reuse index exists but is empty, the operation succeeds without a commit.
 async fn remap_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, index_id: &Uuid) -> Result<()> {
-    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
     let frag_reuse_index_meta = match indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME) {
-        None => Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "Fragment reuse index not found, cannot remap an index post compaction".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        None => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            "Fragment reuse index not found, cannot remap an index post compaction".into(),
+        )),
         Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) => Ok(frag_reuse_index_meta),
     }?;
 
-    let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, frag_reuse_index_meta)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+    // Hard fork by index_version: a tagged history remaps per-segment through
+    // compaction-only chains in fresh code below, while the v0 path stays
+    // exactly as it was.
+    if frag_reuse_index_meta.index_version != 0 {
+        return remap_index_tagged(dataset, index_id).await;
+    }
+
+    let frag_reuse_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, frag_reuse_index_meta).await?;
     let frag_reuse_index =
-        open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_details.as_ref())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_details.as_ref()).await?;
 
-    if frag_reuse_index.row_id_maps.is_empty() {
+    if frag_reuse_index.is_empty() {
         return Ok(());
     }
 
-    // Sequentially apply the row addr maps from oldest to latest
-    let mut curr_index_id = *index_id;
-    for (i, row_id_map) in frag_reuse_index.row_id_maps.iter().enumerate() {
-        let version = &frag_reuse_index.details.versions[i];
-        // load on-disk index metadata before auto-remap
-        let curr_index_meta = read_manifest_indexes(
-            &dataset.object_store,
-            &dataset.manifest_location,
-            &dataset.manifest,
-        )
-        .await?
-        .into_iter()
-        .find(|idx| idx.uuid == curr_index_id)
-        .unwrap();
+    // Read the index's on-disk metadata once. Its stored row addresses are at
+    // this baseline; we compose all reuse versions into a single remap so the
+    // index file is rebuilt and committed exactly once, rather than once per
+    // version (the reuse index can accumulate many versions before remap runs).
+    let curr_index_meta = read_manifest_indexes(
+        &dataset.object_store,
+        &dataset.manifest_location,
+        &dataset.manifest,
+    )
+    .await?
+    .into_iter()
+    .find(|idx| idx.uuid == *index_id)
+    .ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "index {index_id} not found in manifest; it may have been concurrently dropped"
+        ))
+    })?;
 
-        let maybe_index_bitmap = curr_index_meta.fragment_bitmap.clone();
-        let (should_remap, bitmap_after_remap) = match maybe_index_bitmap {
-            Some(mut index_frag_bitmap) => {
-                let mut should_remap = false;
+    // Compose the coverage (fragment bitmap) remap across every reuse version in
+    // one pass. Chaining is automatic: a version inserts its new fragments,
+    // which a later version then sees as its old fragments. `data_predates_version`
+    // is evaluated against the fixed baseline (there are no intermediate
+    // commits), and the new-fragment branch handles a bitmap that was already
+    // coverage-remapped + persisted before the data was remapped (e.g. while
+    // remapping a *sibling* index). The comparison is inclusive: an index built
+    // at a version's dataset_version predates its rewrite.
+    let baseline_version = curr_index_meta.dataset_version;
+    let has_unknown_coverage = curr_index_meta.fragment_bitmap.is_none();
+    let (should_remap, mut bitmap_after_remap) = match curr_index_meta.fragment_bitmap.clone() {
+        Some(mut index_frag_bitmap) => {
+            let mut should_remap = false;
+            for version in frag_reuse_index.details.versions.iter() {
+                let data_predates_version = baseline_version <= version.dataset_version;
                 for group in version.groups.iter() {
                     let mut old_frag_in_index = 0;
                     for old_frag in group.old_frags.iter() {
@@ -253,197 +280,4710 @@ async fn remap_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, index_id: &Uuid) -> Result<()> {
                             // and we always reindex either the entire group or nothing.
                             // We use invalid input to be consistent with
                             // dataset::transaction::recalculate_fragment_bitmap
-                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                                format!("The compaction plan included a rewrite group that was a split of indexed and non-indexed data: {:?}", group.old_frags),
-                                location!()));
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "The compaction plan included a rewrite group that was a split of indexed and non-indexed data: {:?}",
+                                group.old_frags
+                            )));
                         }
-                        index_frag_bitmap
-                            .extend(group.new_frags.clone().into_iter().map(|f| f.id as u32));
+                        index_frag_bitmap.extend(group.new_frags.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32));
                         should_remap = true;
+                    } else if data_predates_version
+                        && group
+                            .new_frags
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|new_frag| index_frag_bitmap.contains(new_frag.id as u32))
+                    {
+                        // The bitmap was already coverage-remapped onto this
+                        // group's new fragments and persisted before the data was
+                        // remapped, so the old fragments are gone from the bitmap
+                        // but the index data still needs remapping.
+                        should_remap = true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            (should_remap, Some(index_frag_bitmap))
+        }
+        None => (true, None),
+    };
+
+    if !should_remap {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    // Apply the compact version chain directly while rebuilding the index. The
+    // remapper passes intermediate moved addresses into later FRI versions and
+    // leaves missing mappings unchanged, so no composed per-row map is needed.
+    // This also handles the sibling-coverage-remap case: remapping is driven by
+    // the row addresses stored in the index, not by its already-advanced bitmap.
+    let remap_result = index::remap_index(
+        dataset,
+        index_id,
+        &RowAddrTranslator::sync(frag_reuse_index.row_addr_remap().clone()),
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    // Remapping advances the index watermark for fragment-reuse cleanup, but it
+    // does not incorporate overlays committed after the source index was built.
+    // Exclude those fragments so queries scan their current values instead.
+    if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = &mut bitmap_after_remap {
+        for fragment in dataset.manifest.fragments.iter() {
+            let has_newer_indexed_overlay = fragment.overlays.iter().any(|overlay| {
+                overlay.committed_version > curr_index_meta.dataset_version
+                    && overlay
+                        .data_file
+                        .fields
+                        .iter()
+                        .any(|field_id| curr_index_meta.fields.contains(field_id))
+            });
+            if has_newer_indexed_overlay {
+                fragment_bitmap.remove(fragment.id as u32);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let new_dataset_version = if has_unknown_coverage {
+        curr_index_meta.dataset_version
+    } else {
+        dataset.manifest.version
+    };
+
+    let new_index_meta = match remap_result {
+        // Nothing to commit: either the composed remap emptied the index (every
+        // row deleted), matching the prior per-version behavior, or
+        // `index::remap_index` withdrew a covered index it cannot carry payload
+        // through. Either way the existing entry is left untouched.
+        //
+        // The withdrawal case is unreachable here today: the only caller is
+        // `remap_column_index`, which refuses a covered index first. Compaction
+        // reaches that withdrawal through `DatasetIndexRemapper`, which handles
+        // `RemapResult::Drop` in `dataset/index.rs` rather than through here.
+        RemapResult::Drop => return Ok(()),
+        RemapResult::Keep(new_id) => IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: new_id,
+            name: curr_index_meta.name.clone(),
+            fields: curr_index_meta.fields.clone(),
+            covering_fields: curr_index_meta.covering_fields.clone(),
+            dataset_version: new_dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap: bitmap_after_remap,
+            index_details: curr_index_meta.index_details.clone(),
+            index_version: curr_index_meta.index_version,
+            created_at: curr_index_meta.created_at,
+            base_id: curr_index_meta.base_id,
+            files: curr_index_meta.files.clone(),
+        },
+        RemapResult::Remapped(remapped_index) => IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: remapped_index.new_id,
+            name: curr_index_meta.name.clone(),
+            fields: curr_index_meta.fields.clone(),
+            covering_fields: curr_index_meta.covering_fields.clone(),
+            dataset_version: new_dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap: bitmap_after_remap,
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(remapped_index.index_details)),
+            index_version: remapped_index.index_version as i32,
+            created_at: curr_index_meta.created_at,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: remapped_index.files,
+        },
+    };
+
+    let transaction = Transaction::new(
+        dataset.manifest.version,
+        Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![new_index_meta],
+            removed_indices: vec![curr_index_meta],
+        },
+        None,
+    );
+
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+        .await?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// One planned hop of a segment's forward walk: an ordered compaction's
+/// ready-made remap, or a stable-partition transition whose per-row
+/// translation is materialized later (it needs row-map IO, and planning is
+/// synchronous).
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum PlannedHop {
+    Compaction(RowAddrRemap),
+    /// A stable-partition hop. `position` indexes `ledger.transitions()`;
+    /// `enter_fragments` is the subset of that transition's SOURCE fragments
+    /// the segment's addresses actually occupy when they reach this hop
+    /// (its provenance pushed forward through the preceding hops, intersected
+    /// with the transition's sources). It is the hop's source filter when
+    /// batches are translated: only addresses in these fragments enter the
+    /// row map, everything else passes through.
+    StablePartition {
+        position: usize,
+        enter_fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+    },
+}
+
+/// The outcome of walking a segment's stored provenance forward through a
+/// tagged history's consumer edges.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum TaggedRemapPlan {
+    /// No transition consumes any covered fragment; the segment is current.
+    Identity,
+    /// Every applied hop was fully covered: the ordered hops compose into
+    /// one remap and the swapped bitmap claims `coverage`. A fully-covered
+    /// stable-partition hop takes this path too (the free case): the segment
+    /// owns every source, so the destinations are wholly its rows and the
+    /// bitmap restamp arithmetic is exactly the compaction one.
+    Remap {
+        hops: Vec<PlannedHop>,
+        coverage: RoaringBitmap,
+        /// Every fragment the segment's rows may sit in along the retained
+        /// lineage: the stored provenance plus the destinations of every
+        /// applied hop, intermediates included. A merged segment keeps its
+        /// sources' provenance while its pages hold the addresses the
+        /// translating loader produced, so its rows can be anywhere on that
+        /// path. A withdrawn source's transition is never applied, so
+        /// nothing past it is admitted.
+        admitted: RoaringBitmap,
+    },
+    /// A stable-partition hop is only partially covered: no coverage
+    /// arithmetic can restamp the bitmap and full-coverage remap does not
+    /// apply, so the segment cannot be remapped and is skipped cleanly
+    /// (queries keep translating through the ledger; a rebuild catches the
+    /// segment up). Also the verdict for a retired fragment the history once
+    /// recorded but no longer maps: its addresses cannot be translated, and
+    /// they are never treated as deletions.
+    Blocked { fragment: u32 },
+}
+
+/// Walk FORWARD from the segment's provenance along consumer edges. A hop
+/// with `sources ⊆ coverage` (compaction or stable partition) applies:
+/// coverage evolves to the hop's destinations. A partial-overlap compaction
+/// takes the v0 straddle fallback, but only before any stable-partition hop
+/// has been applied: that coverage is dropped from the bitmap (sources
+/// removed, destinations NOT added) and the walk continues; the dropped rows
+/// are served by scan. A partial-overlap stable partition cannot be restamped
+/// and blocks the whole plan ([`TaggedRemapPlan::Blocked`]): the segment is
+/// skipped cleanly and a rebuild catches it up. Once a stable-partition hop
+/// has been applied, ANY later partial overlap blocks as well: the fallback is
+/// only sound while the segment's stored addresses are untouched. A restamped
+/// file would carry addresses inside a fragment the later hop consumes while
+/// its bitmap no longer names the partition's sources, so nothing would pin
+/// the partition and a later trim could drop the mapping those addresses need.
+/// A remap is published whole or not at all.
+///
+/// What the walk leaves retired in the coverage was consumed by no recorded
+/// transition. On a tagged table a covered fragment leaves the manifest only
+/// through a recorded transition or a whole-fragment delete, so such a
+/// fragment is gone (deleted, or a destination deleted since; the bitmap
+/// swap narrows to what the reader still serves), unless `lineage` (the
+/// entry's cumulative bitmap) records it while the ledger no longer mentions
+/// it: its mapping was trimmed away, the addresses that need it cannot be
+/// translated, and the plan blocks rather than treating them as deletions.
+///
+/// Iron law (asserted, `Remap` plans): a swapped bitmap only ever claims
+/// destination fragments the segment fully owns -- destinations are added
+/// only by a hop applied with ALL of its sources covered, so no destination
+/// mixing rows from uncovered sources can be claimed.
+fn plan_tagged_remap(
+    ledger: &FragReuseLedger,
+    provenance: &RoaringBitmap,
+    live: &RoaringBitmap,
+    lineage: &RoaringBitmap,
+) -> TaggedRemapPlan {
+    let mut coverage = provenance.clone();
+    let mut admitted = provenance.clone();
+    let mut hops: Vec<PlannedHop> = Vec::new();
+    let mut applied = vec![false; ledger.transitions().len()];
+    let mut changed = false;
+    // Set once a stable-partition hop is applied: from then on the segment's
+    // stored addresses are being moved, and no partial hop may be skipped.
+    let mut restamped = false;
+    // Transitions are in lineage order (producers before consumers), so one
+    // pass reaches a fixpoint.
+    for (position, transition) in ledger.transitions().iter().enumerate() {
+        let sources: RoaringBitmap = transition
+            .sources()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|digest| digest.id as u32)
+            .collect();
+        let overlap = &sources & &coverage;
+        if overlap.is_empty() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if overlap == sources {
+            coverage -= &sources;
+            let destinations: RoaringBitmap = transition
+                .destinations()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|digest| digest.id as u32)
+                .collect();
+            coverage |= &destinations;
+            admitted |= &destinations;
+            hops.push(match transition.mapping() {
+                Mapping::OrderedCompaction(remap) => PlannedHop::Compaction(remap.as_ref().clone()),
+                // Fully covered: the segment owns every source of this
+                // transition, so its entering fragment set is exactly the
+                // sources (the free / restamp case).
+                Mapping::StablePartition(_) => {
+                    restamped = true;
+                    PlannedHop::StablePartition {
+                        position,
+                        enter_fragments: overlap.clone(),
                     }
                 }
-                (should_remap, Some(index_frag_bitmap))
+            });
+            applied[position] = true;
+        } else {
+            match transition.mapping() {
+                // The v0 straddle fallback is only sound while the segment's
+                // stored addresses are untouched.
+                Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_) if !restamped => {
+                    coverage -= &overlap;
+                }
+                // A partially covered stable partition cannot be restamped,
+                // and a partial hop of any kind after a restamp would publish
+                // a file whose addresses depend on a mapping its bitmap no
+                // longer pins: skip the segment cleanly and let a rebuild
+                // catch it up.
+                Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_) | Mapping::StablePartition(_) => {
+                    return TaggedRemapPlan::Blocked {
+                        fragment: overlap.min().unwrap(),
+                    };
+                }
             }
-            // if there is no fragment bitmap for the index,
-            // we attempt remapping but will not update the fragment bitmap.
-            None => (true, None),
+        }
+        changed = true;
+    }
+    // Iron law: any destination fragment the final bitmap claims comes from
+    // an applied (fully-covered) hop or was directly covered to begin with.
+    debug_assert!(
+        ledger
+            .transitions()
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .all(|(position, transition)| {
+                applied[position]
+                    || transition.destinations().iter().all(|digest| {
+                        !coverage.contains(digest.id as u32)
+                            || provenance.contains(digest.id as u32)
+                    })
+            }),
+        "a remapped fragment bitmap may only claim destinations the segment fully owns"
+    );
+    for fragment in (&coverage - live).iter() {
+        let mentioned = ledger.transitions().iter().any(|transition| {
+            transition
+                .sources()
+                .iter()
+                .chain(transition.destinations())
+                .any(|digest| digest.id as u32 == fragment)
+        });
+        if lineage.contains(fragment) && !mentioned {
+            return TaggedRemapPlan::Blocked { fragment };
+        }
+    }
+    if !changed {
+        TaggedRemapPlan::Identity
+    } else {
+        TaggedRemapPlan::Remap {
+            hops,
+            coverage,
+            admitted,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The fragments a segment's FILE still addresses, recovered from its
+/// stored bitmap.
+///
+/// Under the v0 reuse index a deferred compaction left an index file holding
+/// SOURCE addresses while `load_all_indices` swapped the segment's stored
+/// `fragment_bitmap` to the group's DESTINATIONS and the next commit
+/// persisted that swap; the v0 remap planner compensates with its
+/// `data_predates_version` rule (`index.dataset_version <
+/// version.dataset_version` means the data still needs the group). A tagged
+/// table lifts the v0 bytes verbatim and treats the stored bitmap as
+/// provenance, so a segment that predates a lifted compaction would either
+/// be skipped as already caught up, or, once a later transition consumes the
+/// destinations, enter the remap with an `admitted` set that rejects every
+/// address its file actually holds.
+///
+/// This walks the lifted legacy transitions in REVERSE lineage order and,
+/// for each transition stamped `v_t` (`legacy_dataset_version`) where
+/// `segment_dataset_version <= v_t`, whose destinations are all in the bitmap
+/// and whose sources are absent from it, replaces the destinations by the
+/// sources (`B = (B - destinations) | sources`). A segment stamped
+/// after `v_t` is left alone (it was remapped, or built, after that
+/// compaction), so nothing is reversed blindly. Reverse order unwinds
+/// multi-round chains: with v1 `{2,3} -> D`, v2 `{0,1,D} -> X` and a stored
+/// `{X}`, the v2 transition first yields `{0,1,D}`, then the v1 transition
+/// `{0,1,2,3}`.
+///
+/// The result only seeds the plan; nothing about the stored bitmap is
+/// persisted from it, the plan's `coverage` is what gets committed. Should a
+/// file already hold destination addresses despite the stamp, a compaction
+/// hop passes an address already in its destination through unchanged
+/// (`remap.get(addr).unwrap_or(Some(addr))`), so it cannot be damaged.
+fn effective_provenance(
+    ledger: &FragReuseLedger,
+    stored: &RoaringBitmap,
+    segment_dataset_version: u64,
+) -> RoaringBitmap {
+    let mut bitmap = stored.clone();
+    for transition in ledger.transitions().iter().rev() {
+        let Some(legacy_version) = transition.legacy_dataset_version() else {
+            continue;
         };
+        // The legacy watermark is the version immediately before the rewrite
+        // committed (#9620), so a segment stamped at it still predates the
+        // compaction and holds source addresses: the boundary is inclusive,
+        // as in the v0 remap (`data_predates_version`) and cleanup rules.
+        if segment_dataset_version > legacy_version {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let destinations: RoaringBitmap = transition
+            .destinations()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|digest| digest.id as u32)
+            .collect();
+        let sources: RoaringBitmap = transition
+            .sources()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|digest| digest.id as u32)
+            .collect();
+        if destinations.is_empty()
+            || !destinations.is_subset(&bitmap)
+            || !(&sources & &bitmap).is_empty()
+        {
+            continue;
+        }
+        bitmap -= &destinations;
+        bitmap |= &sources;
+    }
+    bitmap
+}
 
-        if should_remap {
-            let remap_result = index::remap_index(dataset, &curr_index_id, row_id_map).await?;
-
-            let new_index_meta = match remap_result {
-                RemapResult::Drop => continue,
-                RemapResult::Keep(new_id) => IndexMetadata {
-                    uuid: new_id,
-                    name: curr_index_meta.name.clone(),
-                    fields: curr_index_meta.fields.clone(),
-                    dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
-                    fragment_bitmap: bitmap_after_remap,
-                    index_details: curr_index_meta.index_details.clone(),
-                    index_version: curr_index_meta.index_version,
-                    created_at: curr_index_meta.created_at,
-                    base_id: None,
-                },
-                RemapResult::Remapped(remapped_index) => IndexMetadata {
-                    uuid: remapped_index.new_id,
-                    name: curr_index_meta.name.clone(),
-                    fields: curr_index_meta.fields.clone(),
-                    dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
-                    fragment_bitmap: bitmap_after_remap,
-                    index_details: Some(Arc::new(remapped_index.index_details)),
-                    index_version: remapped_index.index_version as i32,
-                    created_at: curr_index_meta.created_at,
-                    base_id: None,
-                },
-            };
+/// One hop of a planned tagged remap, applied to a batch of addresses.
+enum HopStep {
+    /// A compaction's compact remap: an address it does not cover passes
+    /// through unchanged.
+    Compaction(Arc<RowAddrRemap>),
+    /// A stable-partition hop. Only addresses in `sources` (the fragments
+    /// the segment's rows occupy when they reach this hop) enter the row
+    /// map, which is opened through the reader's chunk cache; every other
+    /// address passes through unchanged.
+    StablePartition {
+        sources: RoaringBitmap,
+        mapping: Arc<CachedMapping>,
+    },
+}
 
-            let new_id = new_index_meta.uuid;
+/// The planned hops of one segment, applied to each batch of addresses in
+/// ledger order. Nothing is materialized up front: a batch is pushed through
+/// the hops one hop at a time, so memory is the batch itself plus what the
+/// stable-partition reader holds (one decoded block per request and the
+/// shared chunk cache), never a map sized to the source rows.
+///
+/// Per batch and per hop: an address whose fragment the hop does not consume
+/// passes through unchanged; a row a hop deletes becomes `None` and stays
+/// `None`; input order and duplicates are preserved one to one. Hops are
+/// applied strictly in ledger order, so a compaction after a stable
+/// partition sees the partition's output and is never hoisted ahead of it.
+///
+/// The per-hop source filter is also what makes a second translation of an
+/// already-translated address impossible: a destination address is never a
+/// source of the hop that produced it, so a bitmap-family segment whose rows
+/// were already translated at load (`V1Translate`) passes through every hop
+/// unchanged.
+///
+/// An address enters the hops only if its fragment is `admitted`: the
+/// segment's stored provenance or a destination of an applied hop, where a
+/// row a merge already translated may sit (a merged segment keeps its
+/// sources' provenance while its pages hold translated addresses). Any
+/// other address, in a fragment the bitmap no longer claims (withdrawn after
+/// an in-place column rewrite) or never covered, is dropped before the first
+/// hop. After the last hop an
+/// address is kept only if its fragment is `claimed`, the coverage the
+/// replacement segment publishes: a row a partial compaction ceded to the
+/// scan, a row a direct sibling took over, or a row in a fragment deleted
+/// since is dropped even though its source was admitted. The remapped file
+/// therefore carries no contribution its bitmap does not claim.
+struct PlannedHopRemapper {
+    steps: Vec<HopStep>,
+    admitted: RoaringBitmap,
+    claimed: RoaringBitmap,
+    /// Physical row counts of every fragment the history or the manifest
+    /// knows (live fragments from the manifest, retired and produced ones
+    /// from the transitions' digests): what an index whose `remap` predates
+    /// batch translation needs to enumerate the addresses it stores.
+    fragment_rows: HashMap<u32, u64>,
+    /// What that index's in-memory fallback may allocate.
+    materialization_budget_bytes: u64,
+}
 
-            let transaction = Transaction::new(
-                dataset.manifest.version,
-                Operation::CreateIndex {
-                    new_indices: vec![new_index_meta],
-                    removed_indices: vec![curr_index_meta.clone()],
-                },
-                None,
+impl std::fmt::Debug for PlannedHopRemapper {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("PlannedHopRemapper")
+            .field("hops", &self.steps.len())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl BatchRowIdRemapper for PlannedHopRemapper {
+    fn fragment_physical_rows(&self, fragment: u32) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.fragment_rows.get(&fragment).copied()
+    }
+
+    fn materialization_budget_bytes(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.materialization_budget_bytes
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_row_ids(&self, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        let mut current: Vec<Option<u64>> = row_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&address| {
+                self.admitted
+                    .contains(RowAddress::from(address).fragment_id())
+                    .then_some(address)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        for step in &self.steps {
+            match step {
+                HopStep::Compaction(remap) => {
+                    for slot in current.iter_mut() {
+                        if let Some(addr) = *slot {
+                            *slot = remap.get(addr).unwrap_or(Some(addr));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                HopStep::StablePartition { sources, mapping } => {
+                    let positions: Vec<usize> = current
+                        .iter()
+                        .enumerate()
+                        .filter(|(_, slot)| {
+                            slot.is_some_and(|addr| {
+                                sources.contains(RowAddress::from(addr).fragment_id())
+                            })
+                        })
+                        .map(|(position, _)| position)
+                        .collect();
+                    if positions.is_empty() {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let addrs: Vec<u64> = positions
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|&position| current[position].expect("filtered to Some"))
+                        .collect();
+                    let translated = mapping.remap_row_ids(&addrs).await?;
+                    if translated.len() != addrs.len() {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(
+                            "stable-partition mapping changed the translation batch length",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    for (position, address) in positions.into_iter().zip(translated) {
+                        current[position] = address;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        for slot in current.iter_mut() {
+            if slot.is_some_and(|address| {
+                !self
+                    .claimed
+                    .contains(RowAddress::from(address).fragment_id())
+            }) {
+                *slot = None;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(current)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Bind the planned hops to their readers: a compaction hop carries its
+/// compact remap, a stable-partition hop opens the transition's row map
+/// through the reader's chunk cache. Nothing is translated here; the index
+/// rewrite pulls batches through the returned translator.
+async fn materialize_hops(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    ledger: &FragReuseLedger,
+    hops: Vec<PlannedHop>,
+    admitted: RoaringBitmap,
+    claimed: RoaringBitmap,
+) -> Result<RowAddrTranslator> {
+    let mut steps = Vec::with_capacity(hops.len());
+    for hop in hops {
+        steps.push(match hop {
+            PlannedHop::Compaction(remap) => HopStep::Compaction(Arc::new(remap)),
+            PlannedHop::StablePartition {
+                position,
+                enter_fragments,
+            } => HopStep::StablePartition {
+                sources: enter_fragments,
+                mapping: open_mapping(dataset, &ledger.transitions()[position]).await?,
+            },
+        });
+    }
+    Ok(RowAddrTranslator::Batch(Arc::new(PlannedHopRemapper {
+        steps,
+        admitted,
+        claimed,
+        fragment_rows: known_fragment_rows(dataset, ledger),
+        materialization_budget_bytes: DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES,
+    })))
+}
+
+/// The physical row count of every fragment the manifest or the history
+/// knows: live fragments from the manifest, retired sources and produced
+/// destinations from the transitions' digests. A digest records the count
+/// at the transition, which is the physical size the fragment keeps.
+fn known_fragment_rows(dataset: &Dataset, ledger: &FragReuseLedger) -> HashMap<u32, u64> {
+    let mut rows = HashMap::new();
+    for transition in ledger.transitions() {
+        for digest in transition
+            .sources()
+            .iter()
+            .chain(transition.destinations().iter())
+        {
+            if let Ok(id) = u32::try_from(digest.id) {
+                rows.insert(id, digest.physical_rows);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    for fragment in dataset.fragments().iter() {
+        if let (Ok(id), Some(physical_rows)) = (u32::try_from(fragment.id), fragment.physical_rows)
+        {
+            rows.insert(id, physical_rows as u64);
+        }
+    }
+    rows
+}
+
+/// Remap one segment of a user index through a tagged history's
+/// compaction-only chain. Stable-partition-touching segments are skipped
+/// cleanly (logged, not an error) so a maintenance pipeline proceeds to the
+/// other segments and indices.
+async fn remap_index_tagged(dataset: &mut Dataset, index_id: &Uuid) -> Result<()> {
+    // Stored metadata: the segment's provenance bitmap and the entry, never
+    // the query-rewritten listing `load_indices` produces on tagged tables.
+    let stored = read_manifest_indexes(
+        &dataset.object_store,
+        &dataset.manifest_location,
+        &dataset.manifest,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let entry = stored
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index("the fragment reuse index entry disappeared during remap".to_string())
+        })?;
+    let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(dataset, entry).await?;
+    if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "the tagged FRI history carries transitions this client cannot interpret; \
+             upgrade to a newer version of Lance before remapping",
+        ));
+    }
+    let curr_index_meta = stored
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.uuid == *index_id)
+        .cloned()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "index {index_id} not found in manifest; it may have been concurrently dropped"
+            ))
+        })?;
+    // Eligibility is decided at the plan level, before any file is read: a
+    // segment the reader derives no coverage for is skipped when it will be
+    // replaced anyway (withdrawn, superseded) or cannot be translated by
+    // this build (nothing to restamp), and refused when its metadata cannot
+    // be interpreted. A remap never publishes a bitmap for rows it did not
+    // translate.
+    match crate::index::frag_reuse::segment_coverage_reason(dataset, &curr_index_meta).await? {
+        None => {}
+        Some(
+            reason @ (MissingCoverageReason::Withdrawn
+            | MissingCoverageReason::NoDerivedCoverage
+            | MissingCoverageReason::Unsupported),
+        ) => {
+            log::info!(
+                "Skipping remap of index {} ({}): {reason}. A rebuild (optimize) replaces it; \
+                 queries are unaffected",
+                curr_index_meta.name,
+                curr_index_meta.uuid
+            );
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        Some(MissingCoverageReason::Corrupt) => {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "index {} ({}) has metadata this build cannot interpret; rebuild the index",
+                curr_index_meta.name, curr_index_meta.uuid
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    let Some(stored_bitmap) = curr_index_meta.fragment_bitmap.clone() else {
+        log::warn!(
+            "Index {} ({}) has no stored fragment bitmap; its lineage through the tagged \
+             history cannot be determined, skipping remap. Consider rebuilding the index",
+            curr_index_meta.name,
+            curr_index_meta.uuid
+        );
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+    // A segment that predates a lifted v0 deferred compaction still holds
+    // the group's source addresses behind a bitmap v0 swapped to the
+    // destinations; plan from the fragments the file really addresses.
+    let provenance = effective_provenance(&ledger, &stored_bitmap, curr_index_meta.dataset_version);
+
+    let lineage = entry.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+    let (hops, mut coverage, admitted) = match plan_tagged_remap(
+        &ledger,
+        &provenance,
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref(),
+        &lineage,
+    ) {
+        TaggedRemapPlan::Identity => return Ok(()),
+        TaggedRemapPlan::Blocked { fragment } => {
+            log::info!(
+                "Skipping remap of index {} ({}): at fragment {} its coverage reaches a \
+                 transition it only partially covers (a stable partition, or any hop after \
+                 a stable-partition restamp) or a retired fragment the history no longer \
+                 maps. Queries keep translating through the reuse index; rebuild the index \
+                 to catch it up",
+                curr_index_meta.name,
+                curr_index_meta.uuid,
+                fragment
             );
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        TaggedRemapPlan::Remap {
+            hops,
+            coverage,
+            admitted,
+        } => (hops, coverage, admitted),
+    };
 
-            dataset
-                .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-                .await?;
+    if !hops.is_empty() {
+        // The rewrite streams the segment through the reader's loading path,
+        // and for index types that materialize their state at load (e.g.
+        // bitmap) that path applies direct-coverage-wins: rows whose
+        // translated destination is directly covered by a sibling segment
+        // are ceded to it and absent from the loaded state. Publish only the
+        // coverage the reader attributes to this segment, so the swapped
+        // bitmap never claims rows the remapped file may not contain -- an
+        // over-claim would later let segment pruning remove the sibling that
+        // actually holds those rows. (For types that stream raw pages, e.g.
+        // BTree, the rows the reader cedes are dropped by the translator's
+        // claim filter below, so file and bitmap agree.)
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        if let Some(listed) = dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await?
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.uuid == *index_id)
+            && let Some(servable) = &listed.fragment_bitmap
+        {
+            coverage &= servable;
+        }
+    }
 
-            curr_index_id = new_id;
+    // Overlays committed after the source index was built are not
+    // incorporated by the remap; exclude those fragments so queries scan
+    // their current values instead (mirrors the v0 path).
+    for fragment in dataset.manifest.fragments.iter() {
+        let has_newer_indexed_overlay = fragment.overlays.iter().any(|overlay| {
+            overlay.committed_version > curr_index_meta.dataset_version
+                && overlay
+                    .data_file
+                    .fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|field_id| curr_index_meta.fields.contains(field_id))
+        });
+        if has_newer_indexed_overlay {
+            coverage.remove(fragment.id as u32);
         }
     }
 
+    // Straddle-only outcome: coverage was dropped but no address moves, so
+    // the index files stay as they are and only the swapped bitmap (plus the
+    // advanced dataset_version) is committed. This also avoids opening the
+    // index, which the query planner may refuse for a straddled segment.
+    let remap_result = if hops.is_empty() {
+        RemapResult::Keep(*index_id)
+    } else {
+        // Addresses enter the hops from anywhere on the retained lineage
+        // (the plan's admitted set: provenance and every applied hop's
+        // destinations); what the hops leave outside the published coverage
+        // is dropped.
+        let translator =
+            materialize_hops(dataset, &ledger, hops, admitted, coverage.clone()).await?;
+        match index::remap_index(dataset, index_id, &translator).await {
+            Ok(result) => result,
+            // The index only knows the legacy in-memory remap and this build
+            // cannot prepare a complete mapping for it within budget: not an
+            // error in the index or the history. The segment stays as it is,
+            // with the history it translates through, and the rest of the
+            // maintenance proceeds. Any other error (I/O, corrupt data, a
+            // translation failure) propagates and nothing is published.
+            Err(error) => match RemapUnavailable::from_error(&error) {
+                Some(reason) => {
+                    log::info!(
+                        "Skipping remap of index {} ({}): {reason}. The segment keeps translating \
+                         through the reuse index; rebuild the index to catch it up",
+                        curr_index_meta.name,
+                        curr_index_meta.uuid
+                    );
+                    return Ok(());
+                }
+                None => return Err(error),
+            },
+        }
+    };
+
+    let new_index_meta = match remap_result {
+        // The index type cannot be remapped (or the segment is otherwise
+        // withdrawn by `remap_index`). On a tagged table that is not a drop:
+        // the segment is kept as it is and queries keep translating through
+        // the reuse index, exactly like a blocked hop.
+        RemapResult::Drop => {
+            log::info!(
+                "Skipping remap of index {} ({}): its index type cannot be remapped. \
+                 Queries keep translating through the reuse index; rebuild the index \
+                 to catch it up",
+                curr_index_meta.name,
+                curr_index_meta.uuid
+            );
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        RemapResult::Keep(new_id) => IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: new_id,
+            name: curr_index_meta.name.clone(),
+            fields: curr_index_meta.fields.clone(),
+            covering_fields: curr_index_meta.covering_fields.clone(),
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(coverage),
+            index_details: curr_index_meta.index_details.clone(),
+            index_version: curr_index_meta.index_version,
+            created_at: curr_index_meta.created_at,
+            // The files are reused as-is; for a segment inherited through a
+            // shallow clone they live in the source base, so the storage
+            // base is carried along with them. (The Remapped arm below
+            // correctly resets to None: its files are freshly written into
+            // this dataset's own index directory.)
+            base_id: curr_index_meta.base_id,
+            files: curr_index_meta.files.clone(),
+        },
+        RemapResult::Remapped(remapped_index) => IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: remapped_index.new_id,
+            name: curr_index_meta.name.clone(),
+            fields: curr_index_meta.fields.clone(),
+            covering_fields: curr_index_meta.covering_fields.clone(),
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(coverage),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(remapped_index.index_details)),
+            index_version: remapped_index.index_version as i32,
+            created_at: curr_index_meta.created_at,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: remapped_index.files,
+        },
+    };
+
+    let transaction = Transaction::new(
+        dataset.manifest.version,
+        Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![new_index_meta],
+            removed_indices: vec![curr_index_meta],
+        },
+        None,
+    );
+
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+        .await?;
+
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Remap every stored segment of the index named `name` (default
+/// `{column}_idx`) on `columns[0]` through the fragment reuse history.
+///
+/// Segments are visited in manifest order and each one is committed on its
+/// own, so the manifest may advance several times in one call. A segment that
+/// is already caught up, blocked by a partial compaction, withdrawn or without
+/// coverage, bitmap-less, over the remap budget or of a type this build cannot
+/// remap is skipped with a log and the pass continues. Corrupt metadata, a
+/// history this build cannot interpret, and I/O or translation failures return
+/// `Err`; commits of earlier segments in the pass have already landed then.
 pub async fn remap_column_index(
     dataset: &mut Dataset,
     columns: &[&str],
     name: Option<String>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
     if columns.len() != 1 {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Only support remapping index on 1 column at the moment".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "Only support remapping index on 1 column at the moment".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     let column = columns[0];
     let Some(field) = dataset.schema().field(column) else {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("RemapIndex: column '{column}' does not exist"),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "RemapIndex: column '{column}' does not exist"
+        )));
     };
 
-    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
     let index_name = name.unwrap_or(format!("{column}_idx"));
-    let index = match indices.iter().find(|i| i.name == index_name) {
-        None => {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Index with name {} not found", index_name),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+
+    // Every stored segment of the name is visited. A committed remap appends
+    // its replacement at the end of the list and the per-segment remap
+    // re-reads the manifest by uuid, so the uuids taken here stay valid.
+    // Tagged tables resolve from the stored list: the query listing may
+    // exclude a straddled segment that maintenance must still reach.
+    let tagged = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME && idx.index_version != 0);
+    let segments: Vec<IndexMetadata> = if tagged {
+        crate::index::load_all_indices_by_name(dataset, &index_name).await?
+    } else {
+        dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await?
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == index_name)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect()
+    };
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Index with name {} not found",
+            index_name
+        )));
+    }
+    for index in &segments {
+        // The real question is "does this index belong to this column",
+        // i.e. its one keyed field is `field.id`. Carried fields are
+        // irrelevant here, same as in `index::remap_index`.
+        if index.keyed_field() != Some(field.id) {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index name {} already exists with fields {:?} (carried fields {:?}); \
+                 expected a single keyed field {}",
+                index_name, index.fields, index.covering_fields, field.id
+            )));
         }
-        Some(index) => {
-            if index.fields != [field.id] {
-                Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Index name {} already exists with different fields",
-                        index_name
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
-            } else {
-                Ok(index)
-            }
+        if !index.covering_fields.is_empty() {
+            // Same rule as `optimize_indices`, and for the same reason: no
+            // index type carries the declared payload through a remap, so the
+            // result would still claim values its storage does not hold. The
+            // caller named this index, so refuse out loud -- compaction
+            // withdraws instead only because it must not block a table-level
+            // operation over one index it cannot remap.
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Remapping index '{}' is not supported: it declares covering \
+                 fields {:?}, which no index builder writes or preserves yet",
+                index_name, index.covering_fields,
+            )));
         }
-    }?;
+    }
 
-    remap_index(dataset, &index.uuid).await
+    for index in &segments {
+        if tagged {
+            remap_index_tagged(dataset, &index.uuid).await?;
+        } else {
+            remap_index(dataset, &index.uuid).await?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::build_frag_reuse_index_metadata;
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+    use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::{FragReuseGroup, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion};
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_missing_indices() {
-        // Sanity test to make sure MissingIds works.  Does not test actual functionality so
-        // feel free to remove if it becomes inconvenient
-        let frags = vec![
-            FragDigest {
-                id: 0,
-                physical_rows: 5,
-                num_deleted_rows: 0,
-            },
-            FragDigest {
-                id: 3,
-                physical_rows: 3,
-                num_deleted_rows: 0,
-            },
-        ];
-        let rows = [(0, 1), (0, 3), (0, 4), (3, 0), (3, 2)]
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into());
+    /// A-rows: per-segment eligibility of the tagged remap walk.
+    mod tagged_remap_plan {
+        use super::*;
+        use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details as pb_fri;
+        use prost::Message;
 
-        let missing = MissingAddrs::new(rows, &frags).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let expected_missing = [(0, 0), (0, 2), (3, 1)]
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into())
-            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
-        assert_eq!(missing, expected_missing);
-    }
+        fn digest(id: u64, rows: u64, deleted: u64) -> pb_fri::FragmentDigest {
+            pb_fri::FragmentDigest {
+                id,
+                physical_rows: rows,
+                num_deleted_rows: deleted,
+            }
+        }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_missing_ids() {
-        // test with missing first row
-        // test with missing last row
-        // test fragment ids out of order
+        fn addr(fragment: u32, offset: u32) -> u64 {
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment, offset).into()
+        }
 
-        let fragments = vec![
-            FragDigest {
-                id: 0,
-                physical_rows: 5,
-                num_deleted_rows: 0,
-            },
-            FragDigest {
-                id: 3,
-                physical_rows: 3,
-                num_deleted_rows: 0,
-            },
-            FragDigest {
-                id: 1,
-                physical_rows: 3,
-                num_deleted_rows: 0,
-            },
-        ];
+        /// An ordered-compaction transition moving every (live) row of
+        /// `sources` into `destinations`, in scan order.
+        fn ordered(sources: &[u64], destinations: &[u64]) -> pb_fri::Transition {
+            let rows_per_fragment = 4u64;
+            let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            for source in sources {
+                for offset in 0..rows_per_fragment as u32 {
+                    addrs.insert(addr(*source as u32, offset));
+                }
+            }
+            let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+            addrs.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+            let total = rows_per_fragment * sources.len() as u64;
+            let per_destination = total / destinations.len() as u64;
+            pb_fri::Transition {
+                sources: sources
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|id| digest(*id, rows_per_fragment, 0))
+                    .collect(),
+                destinations: destinations
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|id| digest(*id, per_destination, 0))
+                    .collect(),
+                mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                    pb_fri::OrderedCompaction { changed_row_addrs },
+                )),
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Written as pairs of (fragment_id, offset)
-        let row_addrs = vec![
-            (0, 1),
-            (0, 3),
-            (0, 4),
-            (3, 0),
-            (3, 2),
-            (1, 0),
-            (1, 1),
-            (1, 2),
-        ];
-        let row_addrs = row_addrs
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into());
-        let result = MissingAddrs::new(row_addrs, &fragments).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        fn partition(sources: &[u64], destinations: &[u64]) -> pb_fri::Transition {
+            let rows_per_fragment = 4u64;
+            let total = rows_per_fragment * sources.len() as u64;
+            let per_destination = total / destinations.len() as u64;
+            pb_fri::Transition {
+                sources: sources
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|id| digest(*id, rows_per_fragment, 0))
+                    .collect(),
+                destinations: destinations
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|id| digest(*id, per_destination, 0))
+                    .collect(),
+                mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::StablePartition(
+                    pb_fri::StablePartition {
+                        map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                        map_size_bytes: 1,
+                        base_id: None,
+                    },
+                )),
+            }
+        }
 
-        let expected = vec![(0, 0), (0, 2), (3, 1)];
-        let expected = expected
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into())
-            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
-        assert_eq!(result, expected);
+        async fn ledger(transitions: Vec<pb_fri::Transition>) -> FragReuseLedger {
+            let content = pb_fri::InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions: vec![],
+                transitions,
+            }
+            .encode_to_vec();
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(1, &content)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        fn coverage(fragments: &[u32]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+            fragments.iter().copied().collect()
+        }
+
+        /// Plan against a table where only the ledger retires fragments:
+        /// live is everything named minus every source, the lineage is
+        /// everything the ledger names.
+        fn plan(ledger: &FragReuseLedger, provenance: &[u32]) -> TaggedRemapPlan {
+            let mut lineage = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            let mut sources = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            for transition in ledger.transitions() {
+                sources.extend(transition.sources().iter().map(|digest| digest.id as u32));
+                lineage.extend(
+                    transition
+                        .sources()
+                        .iter()
+                        .chain(transition.destinations())
+                        .map(|digest| digest.id as u32),
+                );
+            }
+            let provenance = coverage(provenance);
+            let live = (&provenance | &lineage) - &sources;
+            plan_tagged_remap(ledger, &provenance, &live, &lineage)
+        }
+
+        /// Compose a compaction-only hop list; plan-level tests have no
+        /// dataset to materialize stable-partition hops against.
+        fn compose(hops: Vec<PlannedHop>) -> RowAddrRemap {
+            RowAddrRemap::chained(hops.into_iter().map(|hop| match hop {
+                PlannedHop::Compaction(remap) => remap,
+                PlannedHop::StablePartition { position, .. } => {
+                    panic!("hop {position} needs row-map IO; not composable in a plan test")
+                }
+            }))
+        }
+
+        fn digests(fragments: &[(u64, u64)]) -> Vec<pb_fri::FragmentDigest> {
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&(id, rows)| digest(id, rows, 0))
+                .collect()
+        }
+
+        /// The serialized changed-row bitmap of a compaction moving every
+        /// row of `sources` (`(id, rows)` pairs).
+        fn changed_rows(sources: &[(u64, u64)]) -> Vec<u8> {
+            let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            for &(id, rows) in sources {
+                for offset in 0..rows as u32 {
+                    addrs.insert(addr(id as u32, offset));
+                }
+            }
+            let mut bytes = Vec::new();
+            addrs.serialize_into(&mut bytes).unwrap();
+            bytes
+        }
+
+        /// A v0 reuse version stamped `dataset_version` with one compaction
+        /// group; fragments are `(id, rows)` pairs.
+        fn legacy_version(
+            dataset_version: u64,
+            sources: &[(u64, u64)],
+            destinations: &[(u64, u64)],
+        ) -> pb_fri::Version {
+            pb_fri::Version {
+                dataset_version,
+                groups: vec![pb_fri::Group {
+                    changed_row_addrs: changed_rows(sources),
+                    old_fragments: digests(sources),
+                    new_fragments: digests(destinations),
+                }],
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// A stable partition with explicit `(id, rows)` fragments.
+        fn partition_rows(
+            sources: &[(u64, u64)],
+            destinations: &[(u64, u64)],
+        ) -> pb_fri::Transition {
+            pb_fri::Transition {
+                sources: digests(sources),
+                destinations: digests(destinations),
+                mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::StablePartition(
+                    pb_fri::StablePartition {
+                        map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                        map_size_bytes: 1,
+                        base_id: None,
+                    },
+                )),
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// A tagged ledger lifting v0 `legacy_versions` beside its own
+        /// `transitions`.
+        async fn ledger_with_legacy(
+            legacy_versions: Vec<pb_fri::Version>,
+            transitions: Vec<pb_fri::Transition>,
+        ) -> FragReuseLedger {
+            let content = pb_fri::InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions,
+                transitions,
+            }
+            .encode_to_vec();
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(1, &content)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// Two lifted v0 rounds (v10 `{2,3} -> D`, v12 `{0,1,D} -> X`) and a
+        /// tagged partition of X: the effective provenance of a segment whose
+        /// bitmap v0 swapped to `{X}` depends on which rounds its stamp
+        /// predates, unwound newest first.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn effective_provenance_unwinds_legacy_swaps_by_stamp() {
+            const D: u64 = 20;
+            const X: u64 = 30;
+            const Y: u64 = 40;
+            let ledger = ledger_with_legacy(
+                vec![
+                    legacy_version(10, &[(2, 4), (3, 4)], &[(D, 8)]),
+                    legacy_version(12, &[(0, 4), (1, 4), (D, 8)], &[(X, 16)]),
+                ],
+                vec![partition_rows(&[(X, 16)], &[(Y, 16)])],
+            )
+            .await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                ledger
+                    .transitions()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|transition| transition.legacy_dataset_version())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![Some(10), Some(12), None]
+            );
+            let stored = coverage(&[X as u32]);
+            // Built before both rounds: the file holds the original
+            // fragments' addresses.
+            assert_eq!(
+                effective_provenance(&ledger, &stored, 5),
+                coverage(&[0, 1, 2, 3])
+            );
+            // Built after the second round: the bitmap is the truth.
+            assert_eq!(effective_provenance(&ledger, &stored, 13), stored);
+            // Built at the second round's watermark (the version right before
+            // that compaction committed): it still predates the round, so the
+            // second swap is unwound like for any earlier stamp.
+            assert_eq!(
+                effective_provenance(&ledger, &stored, 12),
+                effective_provenance(&ledger, &stored, 11)
+            );
+            // Built between the rounds: only the second swap is unwound.
+            assert_eq!(
+                effective_provenance(&ledger, &stored, 11),
+                coverage(&[0, 1, D as u32])
+            );
+            // A bitmap that already names the sources is left alone.
+            let sources = coverage(&[0, 1, 2, 3]);
+            assert_eq!(effective_provenance(&ledger, &sources, 5), sources);
+            // The tagged partition is never unwound, whatever the stamp.
+            let restamped = coverage(&[Y as u32]);
+            assert_eq!(effective_provenance(&ledger, &restamped, 0), restamped);
+        }
+
+        /// A segment stamped after the lifted version was remapped (or built)
+        /// after that compaction: its destination bitmap is kept.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn caught_up_destination_bitmap_is_left_alone() {
+            const D: u64 = 20;
+            let ledger = ledger_with_legacy(
+                vec![legacy_version(10, &[(2, 4), (3, 4)], &[(D, 8)])],
+                vec![],
+            )
+            .await;
+            let stored = coverage(&[D as u32]);
+            assert_eq!(effective_provenance(&ledger, &stored, 11), stored);
+            // Stamped at the watermark itself: still predates the compaction.
+            assert_eq!(
+                effective_provenance(&ledger, &stored, 10),
+                coverage(&[2, 3])
+            );
+            // A bitmap naming only part of the destinations, or one of the
+            // sources beside them, is not a v0 swap and is kept too.
+            let mixed = coverage(&[2, D as u32]);
+            assert_eq!(effective_provenance(&ledger, &mixed, 5), mixed);
+            // The swap itself is unwound for a predating segment.
+            assert_eq!(effective_provenance(&ledger, &stored, 9), coverage(&[2, 3]));
+        }
+
+        /// A1: coverage disjoint from the ledger is already current.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn all_live_is_identity() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![ordered(&[1], &[2])]).await;
+            assert!(matches!(plan(&ledger, &[7]), TaggedRemapPlan::Identity));
+        }
+
+        /// A2: a single ordered hop with sources within coverage remaps and
+        /// swaps the bitmap onto the destinations.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn single_hop_compaction_remaps() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![ordered(&[1, 2], &[5, 6])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap { hops, coverage, .. } = plan(&ledger, &[1, 2]) else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(coverage, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([5u32, 6]));
+            let remap = compose(hops);
+            assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(1, 0)), Some(Some(addr(5, 0))));
+            assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(2, 3)), Some(Some(addr(6, 3))));
+            assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(9, 0)), None);
+        }
+
+        /// A3: multi-hop ordered chains compose into one remap.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn multi_hop_compaction_composes() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![ordered(&[1], &[2]), ordered(&[2], &[3])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap { hops, coverage, .. } = plan(&ledger, &[1]) else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(coverage, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3u32]));
+            assert_eq!(compose(hops).get(addr(1, 2)), Some(Some(addr(3, 2))));
+        }
+
+        /// A4 (revised): a fully covered stable-partition hop is the free
+        /// case -- applied like a compaction hop, bitmap restamped onto the
+        /// destinations, the hop left for materialization.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn fully_covered_stable_partition_remaps() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![partition(&[1], &[2])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap { hops, coverage, .. } = plan(&ledger, &[1]) else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(coverage, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32]));
+            assert!(matches!(
+                hops.as_slice(),
+                [PlannedHop::StablePartition { position: 0, .. }]
+            ));
+        }
+
+        /// A partially-covered stable partition cannot be restamped (the
+        /// segment owns only part of the destinations) and there is no
+        /// address-only path, so the whole plan blocks: the segment is left
+        /// untouched and keeps deriving coverage through the ledger until a
+        /// rebuild catches it up.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn partially_covered_stable_partition_blocks() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![partition(&[5, 6], &[7, 8])]).await;
+            let plan = plan(&ledger, &[5]);
+            assert!(
+                matches!(plan, TaggedRemapPlan::Blocked { fragment: 5 }),
+                "expected Blocked on fragment 5, got {plan:?}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A partial compaction reached AFTER a fully covered stable partition
+        /// blocks: the restamped file would hold addresses inside a fragment
+        /// the compaction consumes, while its bitmap no longer names the
+        /// partition's sources, so nothing would pin the mapping those
+        /// addresses need. The chain is connected: the compaction consumes a
+        /// destination of the partition.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn partial_compaction_after_restamp_blocks() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![partition(&[1, 2], &[3, 4]), ordered(&[3, 5], &[6])]).await;
+            let plan = plan(&ledger, &[1, 2]);
+            assert!(
+                matches!(plan, TaggedRemapPlan::Blocked { fragment: 3 }),
+                "expected Blocked on fragment 3, got {plan:?}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Order is not a dependency: a partial compaction BEFORE a stable
+        /// partition blocks only when the chain is connected. Here the
+        /// partition's sources include the compaction's destination, which
+        /// the straddle fallback removed from coverage, so the partition is
+        /// no longer fully covered and blocks.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn connected_partial_compaction_before_stable_partition_blocks() {
+            // The compaction packs the eight rows of 1 and 5 into 9; the
+            // partition then consumes 9 (eight rows) together with 2, so its
+            // digests must agree with the compaction's output.
+            let partition_after_compaction = pb_fri::Transition {
+                sources: vec![digest(9, 8, 0), digest(2, 4, 0)],
+                destinations: vec![digest(3, 6, 0), digest(4, 6, 0)],
+                mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::StablePartition(
+                    pb_fri::StablePartition {
+                        map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                        map_size_bytes: 1,
+                        base_id: None,
+                    },
+                )),
+            };
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![ordered(&[1, 5], &[9]), partition_after_compaction]).await;
+            let plan = plan(&ledger, &[1, 2]);
+            assert!(
+                matches!(plan, TaggedRemapPlan::Blocked { fragment: 2 }),
+                "expected Blocked on fragment 2, got {plan:?}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// The same two hops on DISCONNECTED fragment branches do not
+        /// interact: the compaction straddle drops its coverage and the
+        /// unrelated stable partition still applies in full.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn disconnected_partial_compaction_does_not_block_stable_partition() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![ordered(&[5, 7], &[8]), partition(&[1, 2], &[3, 4])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap { hops, coverage, .. } = plan(&ledger, &[1, 2, 5]) else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(coverage, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3u32, 4]));
+            assert!(matches!(
+                hops.as_slice(),
+                [PlannedHop::StablePartition { position: 1, .. }]
+            ));
+        }
+
+        /// A5 (revised): the free case composes downstream of a compaction
+        /// hop, in chain order.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn downstream_stable_partition_composes() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![ordered(&[1], &[2]), partition(&[2], &[3])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap { hops, coverage, .. } = plan(&ledger, &[1]) else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(coverage, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3u32]));
+            assert!(matches!(
+                hops.as_slice(),
+                [
+                    PlannedHop::Compaction(_),
+                    PlannedHop::StablePartition { position: 1, .. }
+                ]
+            ));
+        }
+
+        /// A8: the owner's example. A segment covering only {3} of the chain
+        /// 3,4 -> 5,6 -> 7,8 straddles the first hop: the group's coverage is
+        /// dropped from the bitmap (sources removed, destinations NOT added)
+        /// and nothing downstream applies, leaving an empty coverage and no
+        /// address movement -- the rows are served by scan (A9).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn straddled_first_hop_drops_group_coverage() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![ordered(&[3, 4], &[5, 6]), ordered(&[5, 6], &[7, 8])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap { hops, coverage, .. } = plan(&ledger, &[3]) else {
+                panic!("expected a (coverage-only) remap plan");
+            };
+            assert!(coverage.is_empty());
+            assert_eq!(
+                compose(hops).get(addr(3, 0)),
+                None,
+                "dropped rows are not moved"
+            );
+
+            // The same chain with full coverage composes both hops (A10: the
+            // swapped bitmap claims exactly the fully-owned destinations).
+            let full = plan(&ledger, &[3, 4]);
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap { hops, coverage, .. } = full else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(coverage, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([7u32, 8]));
+            assert_eq!(compose(hops).get(addr(3, 0)), Some(Some(addr(7, 0))));
+        }
+
+        /// Straddling mid-chain drops only that hop's coverage while the
+        /// other lineage keeps composing.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn straddle_drop_is_per_group() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![ordered(&[1], &[2]), ordered(&[5, 6], &[7, 8])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap { hops, coverage, .. } = plan(&ledger, &[1, 5]) else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            // Fragment 5's coverage dropped (straddle), fragment 1 remapped.
+            assert_eq!(coverage, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32]));
+            let remap = compose(hops);
+            assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(1, 0)), Some(Some(addr(2, 0))));
+            assert_eq!(remap.get(addr(5, 0)), None);
+        }
+
+        /// A retired fragment the entry's lineage records but the ledger no
+        /// longer mentions has lost its mapping: the segment's addresses
+        /// there can be neither translated nor proven gone, so the plan
+        /// blocks instead of treating them as deletions.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn retired_provenance_without_a_mapping_blocks() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![ordered(&[1], &[2])]).await;
+            let plan = plan_tagged_remap(
+                &ledger,
+                &coverage(&[1, 5]),
+                &coverage(&[2]),
+                &coverage(&[1, 2, 5]),
+            );
+            assert!(
+                matches!(plan, TaggedRemapPlan::Blocked { fragment: 5 }),
+                "expected Blocked on fragment 5, got {plan:?}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// The admitted set spans the retained lineage: provenance plus the
+        /// destinations of every applied hop, intermediates included, so a
+        /// merged segment's already-translated pages enter the later hops.
+        /// A withdrawn source's transition is never applied, so nothing past
+        /// it is admitted.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn admitted_spans_the_retained_lineage() {
+            let chain = ledger(vec![partition(&[1, 2], &[3, 4]), ordered(&[3, 4], &[5, 6])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap {
+                coverage, admitted, ..
+            } = plan(&chain, &[1, 2])
+            else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(coverage, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([5u32, 6]));
+            assert_eq!(admitted, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]));
+
+            // Fragment 1's transition was withdrawn from this segment: the
+            // walk never applies it, so 3 and 4 stay out; the other lineage
+            // is admitted whole.
+            let two_lineages = ledger(vec![ordered(&[1], &[3]), ordered(&[7], &[8])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap { admitted, .. } = plan(&two_lineages, &[7]) else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(admitted, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([7u32, 8]));
+        }
+
+        /// A retired fragment the ledger still names (a destination deleted
+        /// wholesale since) or never recorded (deleted before any transition
+        /// touched it) is gone, not unmapped: the walk proceeds and the
+        /// bitmap swap narrows to what the reader still serves.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn deleted_fragments_do_not_block() {
+            let ledger = ledger(vec![partition(&[1], &[2, 3])]).await;
+            let TaggedRemapPlan::Remap {
+                coverage: claimed, ..
+            } = plan_tagged_remap(
+                &ledger,
+                &coverage(&[1, 7]),
+                &coverage(&[3]),
+                &coverage(&[1, 2, 3]),
+            )
+            else {
+                panic!("expected a remap plan");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(claimed, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 3, 7]));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A/C-rows end to end: eligibility, clean skips, and the remap-then-trim
+    /// pipeline on a real tagged table.
+    mod planned_hop_remapper {
+        use super::*;
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::CachedMapping;
+        use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+        use lance_core::utils::fragment_reuse::MappingReader;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BatchRowIdRemapper, RowAddrTranslator};
+        use std::sync::Mutex;
+
+        /// A row map over an explicit table; an address outside it is an
+        /// error, exactly like the real stable-partition reader.
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct TableMapping {
+            table: HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+            batches: Mutex<Vec<usize>>,
+        }
+
+        impl DeepSizeOf for TableMapping {
+            fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _: &mut Context) -> usize {
+                0
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait]
+        impl MappingReader for TableMapping {
+            async fn remap_row_id(&self, row_id: u64) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+                self.table.get(&row_id).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("address {row_id} is outside the mapping"))
+                })
+            }
+
+            async fn remap_row_ids(&self, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+                self.batches.lock().unwrap().push(row_ids.len());
+                let mut mapped = Vec::with_capacity(row_ids.len());
+                for &row_id in row_ids {
+                    mapped.push(self.remap_row_id(row_id).await?);
+                }
+                Ok(mapped)
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn addr(fragment: u32, offset: u32) -> u64 {
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment, offset).into()
+        }
+
+        fn table(entries: impl IntoIterator<Item = (u64, Option<u64>)>) -> Arc<TableMapping> {
+            Arc::new(TableMapping {
+                table: entries.into_iter().collect(),
+                batches: Mutex::new(Vec::new()),
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn partition_hop(sources: &[u32], mapping: &Arc<TableMapping>) -> HopStep {
+            HopStep::StablePartition {
+                sources: sources.iter().copied().collect(),
+                mapping: CachedMapping::uncached(mapping.clone()),
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// C -> SP -> C -> SP: hops apply in ledger order per batch (a
+        /// compaction after the partition sees the partition's output),
+        /// addresses outside a hop's sources pass through, deleted rows stay
+        /// deleted, and input order and duplicates survive one to one.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn hops_apply_in_ledger_order_per_batch() {
+            // C1: F0 -> F2, row order kept.
+            let c1 = RowAddrRemap::direct((0..4).map(|i| (addr(0, i), Some(addr(2, i)))).collect());
+            // SP1 over F2: even rows compact into F4, odd rows are deleted.
+            let sp1 = table((0..4).map(|i| (addr(2, i), (i % 2 == 0).then(|| addr(4, i / 2)))));
+            // C2: F4 -> F6, meaningful only on SP1's output.
+            let c2 = RowAddrRemap::direct((0..2).map(|j| (addr(4, j), Some(addr(6, j)))).collect());
+            // SP2 over F6: shifts every row by one into F8.
+            let sp2 = table((0..2).map(|j| (addr(6, j), Some(addr(8, j + 1)))));
+            let remapper = PlannedHopRemapper {
+                steps: vec![
+                    HopStep::Compaction(Arc::new(c1)),
+                    partition_hop(&[2], &sp1),
+                    HopStep::Compaction(Arc::new(c2)),
+                    partition_hop(&[6], &sp2),
+                ],
+                admitted: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 9]),
+                claimed: RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0u32..10),
+                fragment_rows: HashMap::new(),
+                materialization_budget_bytes: DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES,
+            };
+            let input = vec![addr(0, 0), addr(0, 1), addr(9, 5), addr(0, 0), addr(0, 2)];
+            let output = remapper.remap_row_ids(&input).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                output,
+                vec![
+                    Some(addr(8, 1)),
+                    None,
+                    Some(addr(9, 5)),
+                    Some(addr(8, 1)),
+                    Some(addr(8, 2)),
+                ]
+            );
+            // Each partition hop saw exactly the addresses in its sources (the
+            // untouched F9 address never reached either), in one batch.
+            assert_eq!(sp1.batches.lock().unwrap().as_slice(), &[4]);
+            assert_eq!(sp2.batches.lock().unwrap().as_slice(), &[3]);
+        }
+
+        /// Only admitted addresses enter the hops: a fragment the segment's
+        /// bitmap no longer claims (withdrawn after an in-place rewrite, or
+        /// never covered) is dropped before any hop, whether the stored
+        /// address is an old source address or an already translated live
+        /// one; admitted addresses outside every hop pass through untouched.
+        /// After the hops only claimed fragments survive: an admitted
+        /// address the hops leave outside the published coverage (a retired
+        /// fragment deleted since, a ceded destination) is dropped too.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn addresses_outside_the_admitted_or_claimed_fragments_are_dropped() {
+            let sp = table((0..4).map(|i| (addr(2, i), Some(addr(4, i)))));
+            let remapper = PlannedHopRemapper {
+                steps: vec![partition_hop(&[2], &sp)],
+                admitted: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 4, 7, 8]),
+                claimed: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([4u32, 7]),
+                fragment_rows: HashMap::new(),
+                materialization_budget_bytes: DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES,
+            };
+            let input = vec![
+                addr(2, 1),
+                addr(7, 0),
+                addr(4, 3),
+                addr(0, 0),
+                addr(9, 5),
+                addr(8, 2),
+            ];
+            let output = remapper.remap_row_ids(&input).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                output,
+                vec![
+                    Some(addr(4, 1)),
+                    Some(addr(7, 0)),
+                    Some(addr(4, 3)),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                    None
+                ]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sp.batches.lock().unwrap().as_slice(), &[1]);
+        }
+
+        /// Driven through the translator, a large request reaches the hops in
+        /// batches of at most 64K addresses, and `resolve` builds a map of
+        /// exactly one unit of work: nothing sized to the source rows exists.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn translator_bounds_batches_and_resolves_one_unit() {
+            const ROWS: u32 = 150_000;
+            let sp = table((0..ROWS).map(|i| (addr(1, i), Some(addr(3, i)))));
+            let translator = RowAddrTranslator::Batch(Arc::new(PlannedHopRemapper {
+                steps: vec![partition_hop(&[1], &sp)],
+                admitted: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32]),
+                claimed: RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3u32]),
+                fragment_rows: HashMap::new(),
+                materialization_budget_bytes: DEFAULT_MATERIALIZATION_BUDGET_BYTES,
+            }));
+            assert!(!translator.is_empty());
+            let input: Vec<u64> = (0..ROWS).map(|i| addr(1, i)).collect();
+            let output = translator.remap_row_addrs(&input).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(output.len(), ROWS as usize);
+            assert!(
+                output
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .all(|(i, out)| *out == Some(addr(3, i as u32)))
+            );
+            let batches = sp.batches.lock().unwrap().clone();
+            assert_eq!(batches.iter().sum::<usize>(), ROWS as usize);
+            assert!(batches.iter().all(|&len| len <= 64 * 1024), "{batches:?}");
+            assert!(batches.len() >= 3, "{batches:?}");
+
+            let page: Vec<u64> = (10..20).map(|i| addr(1, i)).collect();
+            let resolved = translator.resolve(page.iter().copied()).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(resolved.get(addr(1, 15)), Some(Some(addr(3, 15))));
+            assert_eq!(resolved.get(addr(1, 25)), None, "not part of the unit");
+        }
+    }
+
+    mod tagged_remap_integration {
+        use super::*;
+        use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index;
+        use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+        use crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder;
+        use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger;
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests as reader_tests;
+        use crate::utils::test::FailingProxyStore;
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+        use lance_table::transaction::RewriteGroup;
+
+        /// `i` indexed by `i_idx` over every fragment; `w`, an unindexed copy
+        /// of `i`, keys in-place rewrites; `v` is the column a partial-schema
+        /// source leaves alone (RewriteColumns needs one to skip).
+        async fn keyed_dataset(fragments: u32) -> Dataset {
+            use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+            let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .col("v", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(fragments), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+        }
+
+        /// Rewrite `i` of the row keyed `w = key` in place (merge-insert
+        /// RewriteColumns): an Update with `fields_modified`, the shape that
+        /// withdraws index coverage on a tagged table.
+        async fn rewrite_in_place(dataset: Dataset, key: i32, value: i32) -> Dataset {
+            use crate::dataset::{
+                MergeInsertBuilder, MergeInsertWriteMode, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched,
+            };
+            let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::from(
+                &dataset.schema().project(&["w", "i"]).unwrap(),
+            ));
+            let source = arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![key])),
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![value])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let (dataset, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["w".into()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_batches(vec![source])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            Arc::try_unwrap(dataset).unwrap_or_else(|dataset| dataset.as_ref().clone())
+        }
+
+        /// The fragments whose addresses the stored `i_idx` segment itself
+        /// returns for `i = value`, read straight from its files (no
+        /// planner, no bitmap filter): what the remapped file holds.
+        async fn segment_fragments_for(dataset: &Dataset, value: i32) -> Vec<u32> {
+            use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+            use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+            use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, SearchResult};
+            let segment = stored_index(dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let index = dataset
+                .open_scalar_index("i", &segment.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let SearchResult::Exact(rows) = index
+                .search(
+                    &SargableQuery::Equals(datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(value))),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+            else {
+                panic!("expected an exact scalar search result");
+            };
+            let mut fragments: Vec<u32> = rows
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+                .collect();
+            fragments.sort_unstable();
+            fragments.dedup();
+            fragments
+        }
+
+        async fn reserve_fragments(dataset: &mut Dataset, num_fragments: u32) {
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        async fn commit_stable_partition(
+            dataset: Dataset,
+            source_ids: &[u64],
+            dest_base_id: u64,
+        ) -> Dataset {
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = source_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| {
+                    dataset
+                        .fragments()
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .clone()
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) =
+                reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, source_ids, dest_base_id).await;
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let frag_reuse_index = Some(
+                crate::index::frag_reuse::frag_reuse_entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .execute(Transaction::new(
+                    read_version,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                            old_fragments,
+                            new_fragments: destinations,
+                        }],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// Commit an ordered compaction of `source_ids` into one new fragment
+        /// `dest_id`, appending the transition to the tagged history. The
+        /// planner never bins indexed fragments with unindexed ones, so a
+        /// compaction that consumes a stable-partition destination together
+        /// with an unrelated fragment has to be assembled by hand.
+        async fn commit_ordered_compaction(
+            dataset: Dataset,
+            source_ids: &[u64],
+            dest_id: u64,
+        ) -> Dataset {
+            use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details as pb_fri;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = source_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| {
+                    dataset
+                        .fragments()
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .clone()
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let batch = {
+                let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+                scan.with_fragments(old_fragments.clone());
+                scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
+            };
+            let total_rows = batch.num_rows() as u64;
+            let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let Operation::Append {
+                fragments: mut new_fragments,
+            } = transaction.operation
+            else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            assert_eq!(new_fragments.len(), 1);
+            new_fragments[0].id = dest_id;
+            let mut changed = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            let mut sources = Vec::new();
+            for fragment in &old_fragments {
+                let rows = fragment.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64;
+                for offset in 0..rows as u32 {
+                    changed.insert(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment.id as u32, offset).into());
+                }
+                sources.push(pb_fri::FragmentDigest {
+                    id: fragment.id,
+                    physical_rows: rows,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                });
+            }
+            let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+            changed.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+            let transition = pb_fri::Transition {
+                sources,
+                destinations: vec![pb_fri::FragmentDigest {
+                    id: dest_id,
+                    physical_rows: total_rows,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                }],
+                mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                    pb_fri::OrderedCompaction { changed_row_addrs },
+                )),
+            };
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let frag_reuse_index = Some(
+                crate::index::frag_reuse::frag_reuse_entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .execute(Transaction::new(
+                    read_version,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                            old_fragments,
+                            new_fragments,
+                        }],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn stored_index(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> IndexMetadata {
+            read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == name)
+            .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// Replace an index's stored bitmap with an under-claim; the segment
+        /// then only answers for `covered` and everything else is scanned.
+        async fn narrow_index_bitmap(dataset: &mut Dataset, name: &str, covered: &[u32]) {
+            let original = stored_index(dataset, name).await;
+            let mut narrowed = original.clone();
+            narrowed.fragment_bitmap = Some(covered.iter().copied().collect());
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![narrowed],
+                            removed_indices: vec![original],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        async fn append_two_fragments(dataset: Dataset) -> Dataset {
+            let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+                .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(8))
+                .unwrap();
+            InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn sorted_values(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: Option<&str>) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            if let Some(predicate) = predicate {
+                scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+            }
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|value| value.unwrap())
+                .collect();
+            values.sort_unstable();
+            values
+        }
+
+        /// C2 + the pipeline: on one tagged table, a compaction-only segment
+        /// remaps (bitmap swapped, version advanced), a segment owning ALL
+        /// sources of the stable partition takes the free case (full remap
+        /// through the whole chain, bitmap restamped onto the fully-owned
+        /// destinations), and the following cleanup trims the drained
+        /// history.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn remap_free_case_and_trim_pipeline() {
+            // Fragments {0,1} indexed by i_idx; {2,3} appended after, with a
+            // second index narrowed onto them.
+            let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            let mut dataset = append_two_fragments(dataset).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("b_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            narrow_index_bitmap(&mut dataset, "b_idx", &[2, 3]).await;
+            let all_values: Vec<i32> = (0..16).collect();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+
+            // The table becomes tagged: {0,1} -> {10,11} by stable partition.
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+
+            // A deferred tagged compaction rewrites the small fragments in
+            // two groups: the SP destinations and the appended pair.
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 8,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_index(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await;
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 3, "one SP and two OC groups");
+
+            // i_idx owns BOTH stable-partition sources: the free case. The
+            // whole chain (SP then the compaction of its destinations)
+            // composes into one remap, and the swapped bitmap claims exactly
+            // the fully-owned final destination (A14).
+            let i_before = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before + 1);
+            let i_after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(i_after.uuid, i_before.uuid);
+            assert!(i_after.dataset_version > i_before.dataset_version);
+            let i_destination = ledger.transitions()[ledger
+                .consumer(10)
+                .expect("the SP destinations must be consumed by a compaction")]
+            .destinations()[0]
+                .id as u32;
+            assert_eq!(
+                i_after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([i_destination])
+            );
+
+            // b_idx's lineage is compaction-only: remapped, bitmap swapped to
+            // the destination, dataset_version advanced.
+            let b_before = stored_index(&dataset, "b_idx").await;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("b_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let b_after = stored_index(&dataset, "b_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(b_after.uuid, b_before.uuid);
+            // Advanced to the version the remap was built on (the commit
+            // itself is one version later), same as the v0 path.
+            assert_eq!(b_after.dataset_version, dataset.manifest.version - 1);
+            assert!(b_after.dataset_version > b_before.dataset_version);
+            let destination = ledger.transitions()[ledger
+                .consumer(2)
+                .expect("fragment 2 must be consumed by a compaction")]
+            .destinations()[0]
+                .id as u32;
+            assert_eq!(
+                b_after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([destination])
+            );
+
+            // Queries still return the exact values through every path.
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i >= 8 AND i < 12")).await,
+                (8..12).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 3")).await, vec![3]);
+
+            // The pipeline's release: with both segments remapped, no index
+            // needs any transition anymore, so cleanup trims the whole
+            // history away.
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let remaining = read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .count();
+            assert_eq!(remaining, 0, "the fully drained history is trimmed away");
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+        }
+
+        /// A14: a segment covering ALL sources of a stable partition takes
+        /// the free case -- a full remap with the bitmap restamped onto the
+        /// destinations it now wholly owns (the iron-law assertion runs in
+        /// this build), and queries stay correct.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn fully_covered_stable_partition_remaps_and_restamps() {
+            let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            let mut dataset = append_two_fragments(dataset).await; // {2,3} uncovered
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let all_values: Vec<i32> = (0..16).collect();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert!(after.dataset_version > before.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11]),
+                "the swapped bitmap must claim exactly the SP destinations"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 5")).await, vec![5]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i < 4")).await,
+                (0..4).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// The bitmap family translates its rows at load and again through
+        /// the write-side hops; the per-hop source filter makes the second
+        /// pass a no-op, so the streamed remap over a stable partition ends
+        /// with exactly the rows a scan sees.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn fully_covered_stable_partition_remaps_bitmap_index() {
+            let dataset = reader_tests::fixture_with_index(IndexType::Bitmap).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_two_fragments(dataset).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let all_values: Vec<i32> = (0..16).collect();
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+            for value in 0..8 {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    sorted_values(&dataset, Some(&format!("i = {value}"))).await,
+                    vec![value]
+                );
+            }
+            let plan = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter("i = 5")
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+        }
+
+        /// A segment whose index type cannot be remapped is kept as it is on
+        /// a tagged table (queries keep translating through the reuse index),
+        /// never dropped the way the compaction path withdraws it.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn non_remappable_segment_is_kept_on_tagged_table() {
+            let dataset = reader_tests::fixture_with_index(IndexType::ZoneMap).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_two_fragments(dataset).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing to commit");
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(after.fragment_bitmap, before.fragment_bitmap);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 5")).await, vec![5]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, None).await,
+                (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Deletes after tagging (a row of F11, then every row of F10, which
+        /// drops the fragment) precede a full-coverage remap: the remapped
+        /// segment claims only the surviving destination, the dropped rows
+        /// translate to nothing, and every query equals the index-disabled
+        /// scan.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deletes_after_tagging_then_remap_keeps_results() {
+            let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            let mut dataset = append_two_fragments(dataset).await; // {2,3} uncovered
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            dataset.delete("i = 5").await.unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .delete("i = 0 OR i = 2 OR i = 4 OR i = 6")
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(!dataset.fragments().iter().any(|f| f.id == 10));
+            let expected: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15];
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([11u32]),
+                "the remapped segment claims only the surviving destination"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 3")).await, vec![3]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 5")).await,
+                Vec::<i32>::new()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 4")).await,
+                Vec::<i32>::new()
+            );
+            let plan = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter("i = 3")
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+        }
+
+        /// A18: a stable-partition rewrite commit on a tagged table
+        /// (deferred remap, no index work) leaves the covering user index's
+        /// dataset_version AND fragment_bitmap untouched: nothing advances a
+        /// user segment's version stamp except a remap swap or a rebuild,
+        /// while every ledger append rewrites the FRI entry's stamp.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn stable_partition_commit_leaves_user_index_stamp_alone() {
+            let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            let mut dataset = append_two_fragments(dataset).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[1, 2], 10).await;
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(after.dataset_version, before.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(after.fragment_bitmap, before.fragment_bitmap);
+            // And the append stamped the FRI entry past the segment, which
+            // is what arms (and later closes) the address-only gate.
+            let entry = stored_index(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await;
+            assert!(entry.dataset_version > after.dataset_version);
+        }
+
+        /// A segment straddling a compaction (it covers only some of the
+        /// group's sources) derives no coverage for the group's destination:
+        /// the plan skips its remap outright and the manifest is untouched.
+        /// The rows it covered come back through scans; a rebuild catches it
+        /// up. (A segment that straddles one group while owning other coverage
+        /// still remaps, dropping only the straddled group's coverage.)
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn straddled_segment_is_skipped_and_scans() {
+            let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            let mut dataset = append_two_fragments(dataset).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            // Tag the table via a stable partition on the OTHER fragments.
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[2, 3], 10).await;
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 8,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            // i_idx now claims only fragment 0 of the compacted {0,1} group.
+            narrow_index_bitmap(&mut dataset, "i_idx", &[0]).await;
+
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.manifest.version, version_before,
+                "nothing committed"
+            );
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(after.fragment_bitmap, before.fragment_bitmap);
+
+            // The straddled rows come back correct through scans.
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i < 4")).await,
+                (0..4).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, None).await,
+                (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A2 integration: a segment fully covering a stable partition whose
+        /// destination is then partially consumed by a compaction is Blocked,
+        /// not half-remapped. The index is left untouched (nothing is
+        /// committed), trim keeps the mappings the segment still needs, and
+        /// queries stay correct through translation.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn partial_compaction_after_restamp_blocks_remap_and_keeps_mappings() {
+            let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            let mut dataset = append_two_fragments(dataset).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            // {0,1} (all of i_idx) -> {10,11}, then {3,10} -> {20}: the
+            // compaction consumes one partition destination together with an
+            // unindexed fragment, so i_idx covers it only partially. (A
+            // rewrite group must name its fragments in manifest order, which
+            // is [2, 3, 10, 11] after the partition.)
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_ordered_compaction(dataset, &[3, 10], 20).await;
+            let all_values: Vec<i32> = (0..16).collect();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Blocked is a clean skip: no commit, same segment, same bitmap.
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before);
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(after.fragment_bitmap, before.fragment_bitmap);
+            assert_eq!(after.dataset_version, before.dataset_version);
+
+            // Trim keeps both transitions: the segment's provenance names the
+            // partition's sources and its rows reach the compaction through it.
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_index(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await;
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                ledger.transitions().len(),
+                2,
+                "both mappings are still needed"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i < 8")).await,
+                (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Retired addresses left by a withdrawal: an in-place rewrite of a
+        /// partition destination withdrew that transition's sources from a
+        /// segment with two lineages. The remap translates what the bitmap
+        /// still claims, drops the withdrawn sources' addresses (not
+        /// admitted), claims only the surviving lineage's destination, and
+        /// the rewritten value comes from the scan; trim then releases the
+        /// history nothing pins.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn remap_drops_withdrawn_sources_and_translates_the_rest() {
+            let mut dataset = keyed_dataset(4).await; // i_idx over {0,1,2,3}
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let dataset = commit_ordered_compaction(dataset, &[2, 3], 12).await;
+            // i = 3 (w = 3) lives in F11 (the odd rows), a partition destination.
+            let mut dataset = rewrite_in_place(dataset, 3, 333).await;
+            let withdrawn = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                withdrawn.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 3]),
+                "the partition's sources are withdrawn, the compaction's kept"
+            );
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..16).map(|i| if i == 3 { 333 } else { i }).collect();
+            expected.sort_unstable();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(after.uuid, withdrawn.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([12u32])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 333")).await, vec![333]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 3")).await,
+                Vec::<i32>::new()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i >= 8")).await,
+                (8..16).chain([333]).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+            let plan = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter("i = 9")
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 333")).await, vec![333]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i >= 8")).await,
+                (8..16).chain([333]).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+            // The history is drained, so the segment's files are read as they
+            // are: the withdrawn sources' addresses are gone from them, the
+            // compaction's rows were translated.
+            let entries = read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .count();
+            assert_eq!(entries, 0, "the drained history is trimmed away");
+            assert_eq!(segment_fragments_for(&dataset, 3).await, Vec::<u32>::new());
+            assert_eq!(segment_fragments_for(&dataset, 0).await, Vec::<u32>::new());
+            assert_eq!(segment_fragments_for(&dataset, 9).await, vec![12]);
+        }
+
+        /// Segments the reader derives no coverage for are not remapped: the
+        /// plan decides before any file is read and the manifest is left
+        /// alone. A translating segment a newer direct sibling superseded, the
+        /// last segment of a name emptied by an in-place rewrite, and a
+        /// legacy-format vector segment this build cannot translate.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn ineligible_segments_are_skipped_at_the_plan_level() {
+            // Superseded: a direct sibling over both destinations.
+            let mut dataset = keyed_dataset(2).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let superseded = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let direct = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            )
+            .name("i_idx".into())
+            .replace(true)
+            .fragments(vec![10, 11])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![direct.clone()],
+                            removed_indices: vec![],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                !dataset
+                    .load_indices()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|idx| idx.uuid == superseded.uuid),
+                "the direct sibling supersedes the translating segment"
+            );
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing committed");
+            let stored = read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert!(stored.iter().any(|idx| idx.uuid == superseded.uuid));
+            assert!(stored.iter().any(|idx| idx.uuid == direct.uuid));
+
+            // Withdrawn: the last segment of its name emptied by a rewrite.
+            let mut dataset = keyed_dataset(2).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let mut dataset = rewrite_in_place(dataset, 2, 222).await;
+            let withdrawn = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert!(withdrawn.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing committed");
+            assert_eq!(stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await.uuid, withdrawn.uuid);
+
+            // Unsupported: a legacy-format vector segment cannot be translated.
+            use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+            let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .col(
+                    "vector",
+                    lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(4.into()),
+                )
+                .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(64))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(
+                1,
+                4,
+                2,
+                lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+                10,
+            );
+            params.version(crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::Legacy);
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["vector"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    Some("vector_idx".into()),
+                    &params,
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let legacy = stored_index(&dataset, "vector_idx").await;
+            assert!(
+                !dataset
+                    .load_indices()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|idx| idx.uuid == legacy.uuid),
+                "excluded: this build cannot translate a legacy-format segment"
+            );
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["vector"], Some("vector_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing committed");
+            assert_eq!(stored_index(&dataset, "vector_idx").await.uuid, legacy.uuid);
+        }
+
+        /// A merged segment keeps its sources' provenance while its pages hold
+        /// the addresses the translating loader produced. Remapping it across
+        /// a later rewrite must admit those intermediate addresses into the
+        /// hops: stable partition, index merge with new data, compaction of
+        /// the partition's destinations, remap. The remapped file holds the
+        /// merged rows at the compaction's destination and every query
+        /// equals the scan.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn remap_admits_a_merged_segment_translated_pages() {
+            use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+            let mut dataset = keyed_dataset(2).await; // i_idx over {0,1}
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_two_fragments(dataset).await;
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let merged = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let appended: Vec<u32> = dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+                .filter(|id| *id > 11)
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(appended.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1].into_iter().chain(appended.iter().copied())),
+                "the merge keeps the sources' provenance"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                segment_fragments_for(&dataset, 3).await,
+                vec![11],
+                "and its pages hold translated addresses"
+            );
+
+            let mut dataset = commit_ordered_compaction(dataset, &[10, 11], 20).await;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(after.uuid, merged.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([20u32].into_iter().chain(appended.iter().copied()))
+            );
+            let expected: Vec<i32> = (0..16).collect();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 3")).await, vec![3]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i < 8")).await,
+                (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 9")).await, vec![9]);
+            let plan = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter("i = 3")
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 3")).await, vec![3]);
+            assert_eq!(segment_fragments_for(&dataset, 3).await, vec![20]);
+            assert_eq!(segment_fragments_for(&dataset, 0).await, vec![20]);
+        }
+
+        /// Live addresses left by a withdrawal: a segment restamped by an
+        /// earlier remap holds live addresses; an in-place rewrite of one of
+        /// its fragments withdraws that fragment from the bitmap. The next
+        /// remap (a compaction of the other fragment) drops the withdrawn
+        /// fragment's addresses, live but no longer admitted, and claims
+        /// only the compaction's destination.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn remap_drops_live_addresses_withdrawn_by_a_rewrite() {
+            let mut dataset = keyed_dataset(2).await; // i_idx over {0,1}
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let restamped = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                restamped.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])
+            );
+            let dataset = commit_ordered_compaction(dataset, &[11], 20).await;
+            // i = 0 (w = 0) lives in F10 (the even rows).
+            let mut dataset = rewrite_in_place(dataset, 0, 100).await;
+            let withdrawn = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                withdrawn.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([11u32])
+            );
+            let expected: Vec<i32> = (1..8).chain([100]).collect();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(after.uuid, withdrawn.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([20u32])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 100")).await, vec![100]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 0")).await,
+                Vec::<i32>::new()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 1")).await, vec![1]);
+            let plan = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter("i = 1")
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, expected);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 100")).await, vec![100]);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 1")).await, vec![1]);
+            // Read as they are: the withdrawn fragment's live addresses are
+            // gone from the files, the compaction's rows were translated.
+            assert_eq!(segment_fragments_for(&dataset, 0).await, Vec::<u32>::new());
+            assert_eq!(segment_fragments_for(&dataset, 1).await, vec![20]);
+        }
+
+        /// A partial direct takeover must not let the remap publish more
+        /// coverage than the remapped file contains. Bitmap-family indexes
+        /// stream through the reader's loading path, which cedes rows whose
+        /// translated destination a sibling covers directly -- so the swapped
+        /// bitmap must claim only what the reader attributes to the segment,
+        /// else pruning later removes the sibling that actually holds those
+        /// rows and queries silently lose them.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn partial_direct_takeover_preserves_ceded_rows() {
+            use crate::utils::test::DatagenExt;
+            use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+            // Four indexed fragments so the deferred compaction forms two
+            // ordered groups ({0,1} -> C and {2,3} -> D) both consumed from
+            // the segment's coverage.
+            let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_ram_dataset(
+                    crate::utils::test::FragmentCount::from(4),
+                    crate::utils::test::FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Bitmap,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(16, 1))
+                .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(8))
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = dataset;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[4, 5], 10).await;
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 8,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_index(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await;
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            let ceded = ledger.transitions()[ledger.consumer(0).expect("fragment 0 compacted")]
+                .destinations()[0]
+                .id as u32;
+            let kept = ledger.transitions()[ledger.consumer(2).expect("fragment 2 compacted")]
+                .destinations()[0]
+                .id as u32;
+            assert_ne!(ceded, kept, "the test needs two separate destinations");
+
+            // A sibling takes over the first destination directly.
+            let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+            let mut sibling = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                &params,
+            )
+            .name("i_idx_delta".into())
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            sibling.name = "i_idx".into();
+            sibling.fragment_bitmap = Some([ceded].into_iter().collect());
+            let sibling_uuid = sibling.uuid;
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![sibling],
+                            removed_indices: vec![],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // The remapped segment claims only the destination it still
+            // serves; the ceded one belongs to the sibling.
+            let remapped: Vec<IndexMetadata> = read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx" && idx.uuid != sibling_uuid)
+            .collect();
+            assert_eq!(remapped.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                remapped[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([kept]),
+                "the swapped bitmap must not claim the ceded destination"
+            );
+
+            // Segment pruning must therefore keep the sibling, and every row
+            // of the ceded destination stays reachable.
+            crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let segments = read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx")
+            .count();
+            assert_eq!(segments, 2, "the ceded destination's owner must survive");
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i < 8")).await,
+                (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                "the ceded destination's rows must all be answered"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, None).await,
+                (0..24).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A straddle-only remap keeps the original files; for a segment
+        /// inherited through a shallow clone those files live in the source
+        /// base, so the committed metadata must carry the storage base along.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn keep_arm_preserves_clone_storage_base() {
+            use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+            use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let source_uri = format!("{}/source", dir.as_str());
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", dir.as_str());
+
+            // Source: fragments {0,1} of 4 rows, fragment {2} of 8 rows (at
+            // the compaction target, so it stays untouched), indexed by
+            // i_idx.
+            let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(8))
+                .unwrap();
+            let schema = batch.schema();
+            let source = Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+                &source_uri,
+                Some(crate::dataset::WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+                .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(8))
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut source = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(source.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 8,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            source
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let dataset = source
+                .shallow_clone(&clone_uri, source.manifest.version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let inherited = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert!(
+                inherited.base_id.is_some(),
+                "precondition: the cloned segment's files live in the source base"
+            );
+
+            // Tag the clone through fragments the index does not cover.
+            let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(16, 1))
+                .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(8))
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = dataset;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let appended: Vec<u64> = dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id)
+                .filter(|id| *id > 2)
+                .collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &appended, 10).await;
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 8,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            // The compaction consumed {0,1}; narrow the inherited segment so
+            // the remap straddles that group while keeping live coverage of
+            // the untouched fragment {2}.
+            narrow_index_bitmap(&mut dataset, "i_idx", &[0, 2]).await;
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.uuid, inherited.uuid,
+                "straddle-only remap keeps the files"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.base_id, inherited.base_id,
+                "the storage base must travel with the reused files"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32])
+            );
+
+            // The surviving coverage is served by opening the files from the
+            // source base.
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 9")).await,
+                vec![9],
+                "queries must still open the inherited files from the source base"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, None).await,
+                (0..24).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+        }
+
+        // ------------------------------------------------------------------
+        // A v0 deferred remap carried into a tagged history.
+        //
+        // Under v0 a deferred compaction leaves the segment's file holding
+        // the SOURCE addresses while its stored bitmap is swapped to the
+        // DESTINATION; the tagged planner must remap such a segment from the
+        // fragments its file really addresses. `remap_column_index` visits
+        // every stored segment of the name in manifest order, so tests with
+        // several segments pin the order and check each segment's outcome.
+        // ------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+        async fn fresh(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+            use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+            use crate::session::Session;
+            DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+                .with_session(Arc::new(Session::default()))
+                .load()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// Append `values` as one new fragment of the single-column table.
+        async fn append_values(dataset: &Dataset, values: std::ops::Range<i32>) -> Dataset {
+            let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::from(dataset.schema()));
+            let batch = arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema,
+                vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from_iter_values(values))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// A v0 table: `i_idx` over fragments {0,1} (i 0..8, four rows
+        /// each) and the pair {2,3} (i 100..104, two rows each), then a v0
+        /// compaction of the pair into one destination at target 4. Stops
+        /// there: with `defer` the segment keeps the pair's addresses in its
+        /// file while its stored bitmap is swapped to the destination; without
+        /// it the segment is remapped eagerly under v0.
+        async fn v0_compacted_fixture(uri: &str, defer: bool) -> Dataset {
+            use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+            let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = append_values(&dataset, 100..102).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_values(&dataset, 102..104).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                    defer_index_remap: defer,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            dataset
+        }
+
+        /// The lifted v0 versions the reuse entry still carries (none once
+        /// the entry is gone).
+        async fn legacy_versions(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+        ) -> Vec<lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version> {
+            let Some(entry) = read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME) else {
+                return vec![];
+            };
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::load_frag_reuse_records(dataset, &entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .legacy_versions
+        }
+
+        /// The one destination of a single-group v0 version.
+        fn v0_destination(
+            version: &lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version,
+        ) -> u32 {
+            assert_eq!(version.groups.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(version.groups[0].new_fragments.len(), 1);
+            version.groups[0].new_fragments[0].id as u32
+        }
+
+        /// The bitmap of `name` as `load_all_indices` serves it: on a v0
+        /// table the bitmap a deferred compaction swapped in memory.
+        async fn loaded_bitmap(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> RoaringBitmap {
+            crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == name)
+                .unwrap()
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .clone()
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// Every stored segment of `name`, in manifest order.
+        async fn segments_named(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+            read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == name)
+            .collect()
+        }
+
+        /// The fragments a scalar segment's FILE addresses for `i = value`,
+        /// read straight from the index store with no reuse-index
+        /// translation and no bitmap filter: what the bytes on disk hold.
+        async fn raw_file_fragments_for(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            segment: &IndexMetadata,
+            value: i32,
+        ) -> Vec<u32> {
+            use crate::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
+            use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+            use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+            use lance_index::scalar::btree::BTreeIndexPlugin;
+            use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+            use lance_index::scalar::registry::ScalarIndexPlugin;
+            use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, SearchResult};
+            let store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(dataset, segment)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let index = BTreeIndexPlugin
+                .load_index(
+                    Arc::new(store),
+                    &prost_types::Any::default(),
+                    segment.index_version as u32,
+                    None,
+                    &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let SearchResult::Exact(rows) = index
+                .search(
+                    &SargableQuery::Equals(datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(value))),
+                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+            else {
+                panic!("expected an exact scalar search result");
+            };
+            let mut fragments: Vec<u32> = rows
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+                .collect();
+            fragments.sort_unstable();
+            fragments.dedup();
+            fragments
+        }
+
+        /// Sorted `i` for `predicate`, with the scalar index enabled or not.
+        async fn values_with(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str, use_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+            scan.use_scalar_index(use_index);
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|value| value.unwrap())
+                .collect();
+            values.sort_unstable();
+            values
+        }
+
+        /// Every `value` answered through the index equals the plain scan,
+        /// by identity and multiplicity, and the index is what answers.
+        async fn assert_index_matches_scan(dataset: &Dataset, values: impl Iterator<Item = i32>) {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter("i = 0").unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                scan.explain_plan(true)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+                "the scalar index must answer the predicate"
+            );
+            for value in values {
+                let predicate = format!("i = {value}");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    values_with(dataset, &predicate, true).await,
+                    values_with(dataset, &predicate, false).await,
+                    "indexed result for {predicate}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Upgrade a v0 table to a tagged history without touching the
+        /// indexed lineage: append two unindexed fragments and stable-partition
+        /// them. Returns the table and the partition's source ids.
+        async fn upgrade_via_unindexed_partition(dataset: Dataset) -> (Dataset, [u64; 2]) {
+            let dataset = append_values(&dataset, 500..504).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_values(&dataset, 504..508).await;
+            let fragments = dataset.fragments();
+            let pair = [
+                fragments[fragments.len() - 2].id,
+                fragments[fragments.len() - 1].id,
+            ];
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &pair, 10).await;
+            assert_ne!(
+                stored_index(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .await
+                    .index_version,
+                0
+            );
+            (dataset, pair)
+        }
+
+        /// The upgraded T1 table: the v0 destination, the legacy stamp and
+        /// the segment as stored before any tagged remap.
+        async fn upgraded_deferred_table(uri: &str) -> (Dataset, u32, u64, IndexMetadata) {
+            // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the fixture future grew past 16 KiB.
+            let dataset = Box::pin(v0_compacted_fixture(uri, true)).await;
+            let entry = stored_index(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 0);
+            let legacy = legacy_versions(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(legacy.len(), 1);
+            let destination = v0_destination(&legacy[0]);
+            let stamp = legacy[0].dataset_version;
+            let segment = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            // v0 swaps the segment's bitmap to the destination as it loads
+            // the indices (the manifest still says the sources until the
+            // next commit persists the swap) ...
+            assert_eq!(
+                segment.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, 2, 3])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                loaded_bitmap(&dataset, "i_idx").await,
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, destination])
+            );
+            // ... while the file still addresses the sources, and the
+            // segment predates the compaction's stamp.
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &segment, 100).await,
+                vec![2]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &segment, 103).await,
+                vec![3]
+            );
+            assert!(segment.dataset_version < stamp);
+
+            // The upgrade's commits persist the swap; the file is unchanged.
+            let (dataset, _) = upgrade_via_unindexed_partition(dataset).await;
+            let segment = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                segment.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, destination])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &segment, 100).await,
+                vec![2]
+            );
+            assert!(segment.dataset_version < stamp);
+            (dataset, destination, stamp, segment)
+        }
+
+        /// T1 (control, the liveness half): after the upgrade the tagged
+        /// remap moves the deferred segment's file onto the v0 destination
+        /// and advances its stamp, after which cleanup retires the legacy
+        /// version. Without the fix the remap is an Identity no-op (the
+        /// version does not advance) and the file keeps the source addresses.
+        /// The legacy watermark is the version immediately before the v0
+        /// compaction committed (#9620), so a segment built at exactly that
+        /// version still holds source addresses behind its swapped bitmap.
+        /// The boundary is inclusive: the remap recovers its provenance and a
+        /// later partition of the destination keeps every row indexed.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn legacy_watermark_equality_preserves_indexed_rows() {
+            use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, destination, stamp, before) =
+                Box::pin(upgraded_deferred_table(uri)).await;
+
+            // Model the watermark boundary: the old file still holds source
+            // addresses and its build version equals the rewrite's preceding
+            // version. Metadata only; the file is untouched.
+            let mut boundary = before.clone();
+            boundary.dataset_version = stamp;
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![boundary],
+                            removed_indices: vec![before],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await.dataset_version, stamp);
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await, 100).await,
+                vec![2]
+            );
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[destination as u64], 20).await;
+            assert_index_matches_scan(&dataset, (0..8).chain(100..104)).await;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_index_matches_scan(&fresh(uri).await, (0..8).chain(100..104)).await;
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn v0_deferred_segment_is_remapped_to_its_destinations_after_upgrade() {
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, destination, stamp, before) =
+                Box::pin(upgraded_deferred_table(uri)).await;
+
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                version_before + 1,
+                "the deferred segment must be remapped, not skipped as caught up"
+            );
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert!(after.dataset_version > before.dataset_version);
+            assert!(after.dataset_version >= stamp);
+            assert_eq!(after.fragment_bitmap, before.fragment_bitmap);
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &after, 100).await,
+                vec![destination]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &after, 103).await,
+                vec![destination]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &after, 5).await, vec![1]);
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(legacy_versions(&dataset).await.is_empty());
+
+            let reopened = fresh(uri).await;
+            assert_index_matches_scan(&reopened, (0..8).chain(100..104)).await;
+        }
+
+        /// T2 (the reported row loss): a later stable partition consumes the
+        /// v0 destination. The deferred segment's file still holds the source
+        /// addresses; the remap must carry them through the compaction hop
+        /// into the partition. Without the fix the plan admits only the
+        /// destination, every source address is dropped at the entry gate,
+        /// and i = 100..104 vanish from the indexed result while the scan
+        /// still returns them. A newer segment over an appended fragment is
+        /// left untouched throughout.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn v0_deferred_segment_survives_a_later_stable_partition_of_its_destination() {
+            use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            let (dataset, destination, stamp, old) = Box::pin(upgraded_deferred_table(uri)).await;
+
+            // A second segment over an appended fragment (and the upgrade
+            // partition's destinations, unindexed until now).
+            let mut dataset = append_values(&dataset, 300..304).await;
+            let appended = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().id as u32;
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let segments = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments[0].uuid, old.uuid,
+                "the old segment is stored first, the delta after it"
+            );
+            // The delta covers everything unindexed: the appended fragment
+            // and the upgrade partition's destinations.
+            let new = segments[1].clone();
+            assert_eq!(
+                new.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10, 11, appended])
+            );
+
+            // The v0 destination is partitioned: {D} -> {20, 21} by parity.
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[destination as u64], 20).await;
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let segments = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2);
+            let old_after = segments
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid != new.uuid)
+                .unwrap()
+                .clone();
+            let new_after = segments
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid == new.uuid)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(new_after.fragment_bitmap, new.fragment_bitmap);
+            assert_eq!(new_after.dataset_version, new.dataset_version);
+            assert_ne!(old_after.uuid, old.uuid);
+            assert!(old_after.dataset_version >= stamp);
+            assert_eq!(
+                old_after.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, 20, 21])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &old_after, 100).await,
+                vec![20]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &old_after, 101).await,
+                vec![21]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &old_after, 5).await,
+                vec![1]
+            );
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(legacy_versions(&dataset).await.is_empty());
+
+            let reopened = fresh(uri).await;
+            assert_index_matches_scan(
+                &reopened,
+                (0..8).chain(100..104).chain(300..304).chain(500..508),
+            )
+            .await;
+        }
+
+        /// T5: two deferred v0 rounds before the upgrade (the second bins
+        /// the first destination with the other indexed fragments), then a
+        /// partition of the final destination. Both swaps are unwound,
+        /// newest first, before planning, and both legacy versions retire.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn two_v0_deferred_rounds_are_unwound_before_a_later_partition() {
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the fixture future grew past 16 KiB.
+            let mut dataset = Box::pin(v0_compacted_fixture(uri, true)).await;
+            let first = v0_destination(&legacy_versions(&dataset).await[0]);
+            // Round two: {0, 1, first} -> one fragment of 12 rows.
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 12,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let legacy = legacy_versions(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(legacy.len(), 2);
+            let second = v0_destination(&legacy[1]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                legacy[1].groups[0]
+                    .old_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|digest| digest.id as u32)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![0, 1, first]
+            );
+            let (dataset, _) = upgrade_via_unindexed_partition(dataset).await;
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                before.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([second])
+            );
+            assert!(before.dataset_version < legacy[0].dataset_version);
+            // The file still holds the original addresses of both rounds.
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &before, 100).await,
+                vec![2]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &before, 103).await,
+                vec![3]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &before, 5).await, vec![1]);
+
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[second as u64], 20).await;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert!(after.dataset_version >= legacy[1].dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([20, 21])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &after, 100).await,
+                vec![20]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &after, 5).await, vec![21]);
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(legacy_versions(&dataset).await.is_empty());
+
+            let reopened = fresh(uri).await;
+            assert_index_matches_scan(&reopened, (0..8).chain(100..104)).await;
+        }
+
+        /// T6: a segment stamped at or after the lifted version is left
+        /// alone: remapping again after T1's remap commits nothing, and a
+        /// segment remapped eagerly under v0 before the upgrade is an
+        /// Identity for the tagged remap.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn caught_up_segments_are_left_alone_by_the_remap() {
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, _, _, _) = Box::pin(upgraded_deferred_table(uri)).await;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let remapped = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "no second remap");
+            let again = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(again.uuid, remapped.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(again.dataset_version, remapped.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(again.fragment_bitmap, remapped.fragment_bitmap);
+
+            // Eagerly remapped under v0: the file already holds the
+            // destination, the bitmap is the truth.
+            let eager_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let eager_uri = eager_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the fixture future grew past 16 KiB.
+            let dataset = Box::pin(v0_compacted_fixture(eager_uri, false)).await;
+            let destination = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().id as u32;
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                before.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, destination])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &before, 100).await,
+                vec![destination]
+            );
+            let (mut dataset, _) = upgrade_via_unindexed_partition(dataset).await;
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "identity remap");
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(after.dataset_version, before.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(after.fragment_bitmap, before.fragment_bitmap);
+            let reopened = fresh(eager_uri).await;
+            assert_index_matches_scan(&reopened, (0..8).chain(100..104)).await;
+        }
+
+        // ---- the vector twin ----
+
+        const VEC_DIM: u32 = 8;
+
+        /// Append `rows` vectors keyed `i = start..` as one fragment, seeded
+        /// so the batch differs from every other generated one.
+        async fn append_vectors(dataset: &Dataset, start: i32, rows: u32, seed: u64) -> Dataset {
+            use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+            use lance_datagen::{Dimension, RowCount, Seed};
+            let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .with_seed(Seed(seed))
+                .col(
+                    "i",
+                    lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(start, 1),
+                )
+                .col(
+                    "vec",
+                    lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(VEC_DIM)),
+                )
+                .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(rows as u64))
+                .unwrap();
+            InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// The stored vector of the row keyed `i = key`.
+        async fn vector_of(dataset: &Dataset, key: i32) -> Vec<f32> {
+            use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(&format!("i = {key}")).unwrap();
+            scan.project(&["vec"]).unwrap();
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+            let vecs = batch["vec"].as_fixed_size_list();
+            vecs.value(0)
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        }
+
+        /// `i` of the `k` nearest rows, in rank order, and the plan text.
+        async fn knn_keys(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            query: &[f32],
+            k: usize,
+            use_index: bool,
+        ) -> (Vec<i32>, String) {
+            let query = arrow_array::Float32Array::from_iter_values(query.iter().copied());
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.nearest("vec", &query, k).unwrap();
+            scan.nprobes(2);
+            scan.use_index(use_index);
+            scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+            let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let keys = batch["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .collect();
+            (keys, plan)
+        }
+
+        /// T4: the vector twin of T2. An IVF_FLAT segment over two 64-row
+        /// fragments and an appended pair of 8-row fragments, the pair
+        /// compacted under v0 with the remap deferred, then the upgrade, a
+        /// partition of the v0 destination, the remap and the trim. A query
+        /// vector taken from a compacted row must come back at top-1 through
+        /// the index, with the full ranking equal to the index-disabled one.
+        ///
+        /// This scenario passed even before the provenance fix: the vector
+        /// remap opens the old segment through the query-purpose reader,
+        /// which on a tagged table translates its addresses through the
+        /// reuse history before the maintenance translator sees them, so the
+        /// entry gate never met a source address. It pins that the vector
+        /// path stays correct under the shared planner.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn v0_deferred_vector_segment_survives_a_later_stable_partition() {
+            use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+            use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+            use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+            use lance_datagen::Dimension;
+            use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+            use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .col(
+                    "vec",
+                    lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(VEC_DIM)),
+                )
+                .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(64))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = append_vectors(&dataset, 128, 8, 1).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_vectors(&dataset, 136, 8, 2).await;
+            let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams {
+                    max_iters: 2,
+                    num_partitions: Some(2),
+                    sample_rate: 2,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            );
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["vec"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    Some("vec_idx".into()),
+                    &params,
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let original = stored_index(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                original.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, 2, 3])
+            );
+
+            // Deferred v0 compaction of the pair.
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 64,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let legacy = legacy_versions(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(legacy.len(), 1);
+            let destination = v0_destination(&legacy[0]);
+            let stamp = legacy[0].dataset_version;
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(before.uuid, original.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(before.fragment_bitmap, original.fragment_bitmap);
+            assert_eq!(
+                loaded_bitmap(&dataset, "vec_idx").await,
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, destination])
+            );
+            assert!(before.dataset_version < stamp);
+
+            // Upgrade through an unindexed partition, then partition the
+            // v0 destination itself.
+            let dataset = append_vectors(&dataset, 200, 8, 3).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_vectors(&dataset, 208, 8, 4).await;
+            let fragments = dataset.fragments();
+            let pair = [
+                fragments[fragments.len() - 2].id,
+                fragments[fragments.len() - 1].id,
+            ];
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &pair, 10).await;
+            let before = stored_index(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(before.uuid, original.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(
+                before.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, destination])
+            );
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[destination as u64], 20).await;
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["vec"], Some("vec_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let after = stored_index(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+            assert_ne!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+            assert!(after.dataset_version >= stamp);
+            assert_eq!(
+                after.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, 20, 21])
+            );
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(legacy_versions(&dataset).await.is_empty());
+
+            let reopened = fresh(uri).await;
+            for key in [130, 139, 5] {
+                let query = vector_of(&reopened, key).await;
+                let (indexed, plan) = knn_keys(&reopened, &query, 10, true).await;
+                assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+                assert_eq!(indexed.first(), Some(&key), "top-1 for i = {key}");
+                let (exact, plan) = knn_keys(&reopened, &query, 10, false).await;
+                assert!(!plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+                assert_eq!(indexed, exact, "ranking for i = {key}");
+            }
+        }
+
+        // ------------------------------------------------------------------
+        // One call visits every stored segment of the name.
+        // ------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+        /// A disk table whose `i_idx` has two segments stored as [A, B]: A
+        /// over the fixture's fragments {0,1} (i 0..8) and the delta B that
+        /// `optimize_indices(append)` builds over one appended fragment
+        /// (i 100..104). Returns the table and the appended fragment's id.
+        async fn two_segment_table(uri: &str) -> (Dataset, u32) {
+            let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = append_values(&dataset, 100..104).await;
+            let appended = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().id as u32;
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let segments = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments[0].fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments[1].fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([appended])
+            );
+            (dataset, appended)
+        }
+
+        /// Stored order [A, B] with A already caught up (its lineage is
+        /// untouched, an Identity plan) and B needing a hop: one call reaches
+        /// B. Before the fix the pass ended at A's Identity, B kept its
+        /// source addresses, its transition stayed pinned in the ledger and
+        /// trim could never release it.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn later_segment_is_remapped_when_the_first_is_caught_up() {
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, appended) = Box::pin(two_segment_table(uri)).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            // Only the appended fragment is partitioned: {appended} -> {10, 11}.
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[appended as u64], 10).await;
+            let before = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let (a_before, b_before) = (&before[0], &before[1]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                b_before.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([appended])
+            );
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                version_before + 1,
+                "exactly one segment (B) is committed"
+            );
+            let after = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.len(), 2);
+            let a_after = after
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid == a_before.uuid)
+                .expect("the caught-up segment is left in place");
+            assert_eq!(a_after.dataset_version, a_before.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(a_after.fragment_bitmap, a_before.fragment_bitmap);
+            let b_after = after
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid != a_before.uuid)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_ne!(b_after.uuid, b_before.uuid, "B must be remapped");
+            assert!(b_after.dataset_version > b_before.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(
+                b_after.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10, 11]),
+                "B's bitmap is restamped onto the partition destinations"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, b_after, 100).await,
+                vec![10]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, b_after, 101).await,
+                vec![11]
+            );
+
+            // Nothing needs the partition any more: trim drains the history.
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments_named(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await.len(),
+                0,
+                "the released transition leaves an empty history, trimmed away"
+            );
+
+            let reopened = fresh(uri).await;
+            assert_index_matches_scan(&reopened, (0..8).chain(100..104)).await;
+        }
+
+        /// Both segments need a hop (A: {0,1} -> {10,11}, B: {42} ->
+        /// {20,21}): one call remaps both, a second call commits nothing.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn one_call_remaps_every_segment_that_needs_a_hop() {
+            let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_values(&dataset, 100..104).await;
+            let appended = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().id as u32;
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let before = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(before.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                before[0].fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                before[1].fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([appended]),
+                "the delta covers only the appended fragment"
+            );
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[appended as u64], 20).await;
+            let all_values: Vec<i32> = (0..8).chain(100..104).collect();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                version_before + 2,
+                "each remapped segment is one commit"
+            );
+            let after = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.len(), 2);
+            for segment in &before {
+                assert!(
+                    after.iter().all(|remapped| remapped.uuid != segment.uuid),
+                    "segment {} must be replaced",
+                    segment.uuid
+                );
+            }
+            // Remapped in stored order, each landing at the end of the list.
+            let bitmaps: Vec<RoaringBitmap> = after
+                .iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap())
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(
+                bitmaps,
+                vec![
+                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10, 11]),
+                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([20, 21])
+                ]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 5")).await, vec![5]);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 101")).await, vec![101]);
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing left to remap");
+            let again: Vec<Uuid> = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx")
+                .await
+                .iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(
+                again,
+                after.iter().map(|segment| segment.uuid).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments_named(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await.len(),
+                0,
+                "with every segment caught up the history is trimmed away"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+        }
+
+        /// A segment the pass cannot remap does not end it. Stored order
+        /// [A, B]: A fully covers a partition whose destination a later
+        /// compaction consumes only partially (Blocked, kept as it is, the
+        /// shape of `partial_compaction_after_restamp_blocks_remap_and_keeps_mappings`),
+        /// B owns all sources of its own partition. One call skips A and
+        /// remaps B; trim keeps the two transitions A still needs and
+        /// releases B's.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn blocked_segment_does_not_end_the_pass() {
+            let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+            let mut dataset = append_values(&dataset, 100..104).await; // F2
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+                .await
+                .unwrap(); // B over {2}
+            let mut dataset = append_values(&dataset, 200..204).await; // F3, unindexed
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            // A's lineage: {0,1} -> {10,11}, then {3,10} -> {20} consumes one
+            // destination together with the unindexed fragment (manifest
+            // order after the partition is [2, 3, 10, 11]).
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let dataset = commit_ordered_compaction(dataset, &[3, 10], 20).await;
+            // B's lineage: {2} -> {30, 31}, fully owned.
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[2], 30).await;
+            let all_values: Vec<i32> = (0..8).chain(100..104).chain(200..204).collect();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+            let before = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(before.len(), 2);
+            let (a_before, b_before) = (&before[0], &before[1]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                a_before.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                b_before.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2])
+            );
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                version_before + 1,
+                "only B is committed"
+            );
+            let after = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.len(), 2);
+            let a_after = after
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid == a_before.uuid)
+                .expect("the blocked segment is kept as it is");
+            assert_eq!(a_after.fragment_bitmap, a_before.fragment_bitmap);
+            assert_eq!(a_after.dataset_version, a_before.dataset_version);
+            let b_after = after
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid != a_before.uuid)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_ne!(b_after.uuid, b_before.uuid, "B must be remapped");
+            assert!(b_after.dataset_version > b_before.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(
+                b_after.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([30, 31])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, b_after, 100).await,
+                vec![30]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, b_after, 101).await,
+                vec![31]
+            );
+
+            // Trim: A still needs its partition and, through it, the
+            // compaction; B's partition is released.
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_index(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await;
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                ledger.transitions().len(),
+                2,
+                "A's two transitions stay, B's is released"
+            );
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(0).is_some(), "A's partition is kept");
+            assert!(
+                ledger.consumer(10).is_some(),
+                "the compaction after it is kept"
+            );
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(2).is_none(), "B's partition is released");
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i < 8")).await,
+                (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, Some("i = 102")).await, vec![102]);
+        }
+
+        /// An untagged table whose `i_idx` has two segments stored as [A, B]:
+        /// A over fragments {0,1} (i 0..8) and the delta B over the two-row
+        /// pair {2,3} (i 100..104). A v0 deferred compaction of the pair at
+        /// target 4 leaves A disjoint from the reuse chain (caught up) and B
+        /// holding the pair's addresses behind its swapped bitmap. Returns the
+        /// table and the compaction's destination fragment.
+        async fn v0_two_segment_table(uri: &str) -> (Dataset, u32) {
+            let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = append_values(&dataset, 100..102).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_values(&dataset, 102..104).await;
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let segments = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments[0].fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments[1].fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2, 3])
+            );
+            compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                    defer_index_remap: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_index(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 0, "the table stays v0");
+            let legacy = legacy_versions(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(legacy.len(), 1);
+            let destination = v0_destination(&legacy[0]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                loaded_bitmap(&dataset, "i_idx").await,
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1]),
+                "the first segment of the name is served as it is"
+            );
+            (dataset, destination)
+        }
+
+        /// The v0 branch of the same walk: stored order [A, B] with A
+        /// disjoint from the reuse chain (no remap, no commit) and B the
+        /// deferred segment. One call reaches B. Before the fix the name
+        /// resolved to A alone, B's file kept the pair's addresses and the
+        /// legacy version could never be trimmed.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn v0_later_segment_is_remapped_when_the_first_is_caught_up() {
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, destination) = Box::pin(v0_two_segment_table(uri)).await;
+            let before = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            let (a_before, b_before) = (&before[0], &before[1]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, b_before, 100).await,
+                vec![2]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, b_before, 103).await,
+                vec![3]
+            );
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                version_before + 1,
+                "exactly one segment (B) is committed"
+            );
+            let after = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.len(), 2);
+            let a_after = after
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid == a_before.uuid)
+                .expect("the caught-up segment is left in place");
+            assert_eq!(a_after.dataset_version, a_before.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(a_after.fragment_bitmap, a_before.fragment_bitmap);
+            let b_after = after
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid != a_before.uuid)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_ne!(b_after.uuid, b_before.uuid, "B must be remapped");
+            assert!(b_after.dataset_version > b_before.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(
+                b_after.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([destination])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, b_after, 100).await,
+                vec![destination]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, b_after, 103).await,
+                vec![destination]
+            );
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                legacy_versions(&dataset).await.is_empty(),
+                "with B caught up the legacy version is trimmed"
+            );
+            let reopened = fresh(uri).await;
+            assert_index_matches_scan(&reopened, (0..8).chain(100..104)).await;
+        }
+
+        /// Both segments need a hop (A: {0,1} -> {10,11}, B: {appended} ->
+        /// {20,21}) and B's commit hits an injected store error: the pass
+        /// ends after A's commit with B untouched, and a retry once the store
+        /// recovers commits B alone.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn io_error_on_a_later_segment_is_finished_by_a_retry() {
+            let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+            let (mut dataset, appended) = Box::pin(two_segment_table(uri)).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[appended as u64], 20).await;
+            let all_values: Vec<i32> = (0..8).chain(100..104).collect();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset, None).await, all_values);
+            let before = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(before.len(), 2);
+            let (a_before, b_before) = (&before[0], &before[1]);
+            let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            // Each remapped segment is one commit, so the second transaction
+            // write of the pass is B's.
+            let failing = Arc::new(FailingProxyStore::new());
+            failing.fail_after_n("put", "_transactions", 1, "injected store failure");
+            failing.fail_after_n(
+                "put_multipart",
+                "_transactions",
+                1,
+                "injected store failure",
+            );
+            let slashed = uri.replace('\\', "/");
+            let prefix = if slashed.starts_with('/') { "" } else { "/" };
+            let routed = format!("file-object-store://{prefix}{slashed}");
+            let mut faulted = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&routed)
+                .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                    store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                        object_store_wrapper: Some(failing),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .load()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let error = remap_column_index(&mut faulted, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains("injected store failure"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                faulted.manifest.version,
+                version_before + 1,
+                "A's commit landed, B's did not"
+            );
+            let partial = segments_named(&faulted, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(partial.len(), 2);
+            let b_kept = partial
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid == b_before.uuid)
+                .expect("B is untouched");
+            assert_eq!(b_kept.dataset_version, b_before.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(
+                b_kept.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([appended])
+            );
+            let a_after = partial
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid != b_before.uuid)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_ne!(a_after.uuid, a_before.uuid, "A is replaced");
+            assert_eq!(
+                a_after.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap(),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10, 11])
+            );
+
+            // The store has recovered: a session without the fault finishes
+            // the pass.
+            let mut dataset = fresh(uri).await;
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before + 1);
+            remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                version_before + 2,
+                "only B is committed by the retry"
+            );
+            let after = segments_named(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+            assert_eq!(after.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(after[0].uuid, a_after.uuid, "A is left alone");
+            assert_ne!(after[1].uuid, b_before.uuid, "B is replaced");
+            let bitmaps: Vec<RoaringBitmap> = after
+                .iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap())
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(
+                bitmaps,
+                vec![
+                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10, 11]),
+                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([20, 21])
+                ]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &after[1], 100).await,
+                vec![20]
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                raw_file_fragments_for(&dataset, &after[1], 103).await,
+                vec![21]
+            );
+
+            cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                segments_named(&dataset, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await.len(),
+                0,
+                "with every segment caught up the history is trimmed away"
+            );
+            let reopened = fresh(uri).await;
+            assert_index_matches_scan(&reopened, all_values.iter().copied()).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compact_matches_transpose() {
+        use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::GroupInputWithLayout;
+        // Ascending old fragments (compaction's scan order), with deletions.
+        let old = vec![
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 0,
+                physical_rows: 5,
+                num_deleted_rows: 2,
+            },
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 1,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 1,
+            },
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 3,
+                physical_rows: 3,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+        ];
+        // 9 rewritten rows (offsets that survived in each old fragment).
+        let rewritten = [
+            (0, 1),
+            (0, 2),
+            (0, 4),
+            (1, 0),
+            (1, 1),
+            (1, 3),
+            (3, 0),
+            (3, 1),
+            (3, 2),
+        ];
+        let addrs = RoaringTreemap::from_iter(
+            rewritten
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(f, o)| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(*f, *o))),
+        );
+        // 9 rewritten rows split across two new fragments.
+        let new = vec![
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 10,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 11,
+                physical_rows: 5,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let expected = transpose_row_ids_from_digest(addrs.clone(), &old, &new);
+        let compact = RowAddrRemap::compact_with_layout([GroupInputWithLayout {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: addrs,
+            old_frags: old
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| (f.id as u32, f.physical_rows as u32))
+                .collect(),
+            new_frags: new
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| (f.id as u32, f.physical_rows as u32))
+                .collect(),
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Every real address in the old fragments must map identically.
+        for f in &old {
+            for o in 0..f.physical_rows as u32 {
+                let a = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(f.id as u32, o));
+                assert_eq!(
+                    compact.get(a),
+                    expected.get(&a).copied(),
+                    "mismatch at ({}, {})",
+                    f.id,
+                    o
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        // A fragment outside the group is unaffected by both.
+        let outside = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(99, 0));
+        assert_eq!(compact.get(outside), expected.get(&outside).copied());
+
+        // A fully deleted rewrite group has no rewritten addresses. Direct and
+        // compact remapping must still report every old address as deleted,
+        // including fragment 0 offset 0.
+        let old = vec![FragDigest {
+            id: 0,
+            physical_rows: 3,
+            num_deleted_rows: 3,
+        }];
+        let expected = transpose_row_ids_from_digest(RoaringTreemap::new(), &old, &[]);
+        let compact = RowAddrRemap::compact_with_layout([GroupInputWithLayout {
+            rewritten_old_row_addrs: RoaringTreemap::new(),
+            old_frags: vec![(0, 3)],
+            new_frags: vec![],
+        }])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        for offset in 0..3 {
+            let addr = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, offset));
+            assert_eq!(
+                compact.get(addr),
+                expected.get(&addr).copied(),
+                "mismatch at (0, {offset})"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_missing_indices() {
+        // Sanity test to make sure MissingIds works.  Does not test actual functionality so
+        // feel free to remove if it becomes inconvenient
+        let frags = vec![
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 0,
+                physical_rows: 5,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 3,
+                physical_rows: 3,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+        ];
+        let rows = [(0, 1), (0, 3), (0, 4), (3, 0), (3, 2)]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into());
+
+        let missing = MissingAddrs::new(rows, &frags).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected_missing = [(0, 0), (0, 2), (3, 1)]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into())
+            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+        assert_eq!(missing, expected_missing);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_missing_ids() {
+        // test with missing first row
+        // test with missing last row
+        // test fragment ids out of order
+
+        let fragments = vec![
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 0,
+                physical_rows: 5,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 3,
+                physical_rows: 3,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+            FragDigest {
+                id: 1,
+                physical_rows: 3,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            },
+        ];
+
+        // Written as pairs of (fragment_id, offset)
+        let row_addrs = vec![
+            (0, 1),
+            (0, 3),
+            (0, 4),
+            (3, 0),
+            (3, 2),
+            (1, 0),
+            (1, 1),
+            (1, 2),
+        ];
+        let row_addrs = row_addrs
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into());
+        let result = MissingAddrs::new(row_addrs, &fragments).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let expected = vec![(0, 0), (0, 2), (3, 1)];
+        let expected = expected
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(frag, offset)| RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset).into())
+            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+        assert_eq!(result, expected);
+    }
+
+    /// A *physical* remap through the real production entry point,
+    /// `remap_column_index`, must refuse a covered index rather than quietly do
+    /// nothing. No index type carries the declared payload through a remap, and
+    /// the caller named this index, so a silent no-op would hand back an index
+    /// that covers nothing with no indication why.
+    ///
+    /// Asserting on committed metadata here would prove nothing: the flow is
+    /// `remap_column_index` -> the private `remap_index` -> `index::remap_index`,
+    /// which withdraws a covered index before the fully-deleted `Keep` check, and
+    /// the `Drop` arm returns without committing. The `Keep`/`Remapped` arms are
+    /// therefore unreachable for a covered index, so a "declaration preserved"
+    /// assertion would pass even if those arms stopped preserving it. Assert the
+    /// refusal instead.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_column_index_refuses_a_covered_index() {
+        use crate::dataset::index::DatasetIndexRemapperOptions;
+        use crate::dataset::optimize::{
+            CompactionOptions, commit_compaction, plan_compaction, rewrite_files,
+        };
+        use crate::utils::test::covering;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+        use std::borrow::Cow;
+
+        let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+        // Two fragments, so compaction has something to merge.
+        let mut dataset = covering::write_vector_payload_dataset(&test_uri).await;
+        covering::append_vector_payload_rows(&mut dataset, covering::ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT).await;
+        covering::create_ivf_pq_index(&mut dataset, "vec").await;
+
+        let (_, id_field_id) = covering::declare_covering(&mut dataset, "vec", "payload").await;
+        let index_name = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].name.clone();
+
+        // Delete some (not all) rows so the remap has real work to do and does
+        // not take the all-fragments-deleted `RemapResult::Keep` shortcut.
+        dataset.delete("payload < 100").await.unwrap();
+
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plan.tasks().is_empty(),
+            "compaction plan must have work to do, or this test proves nothing"
+        );
+        for task in plan.tasks().iter() {
+            let rewrite_result = rewrite_files(Cow::Borrowed(&dataset), task.clone(), &options)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            commit_compaction(
+                &mut dataset,
+                Vec::from([rewrite_result]),
+                Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+                &options,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let before = dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == index_name)
+            .cloned()
+            .expect("precondition: the covered index exists");
+
+        // `remap_column_index` is user-directed -- the caller named this index --
+        // so it must refuse rather than no-op. Refusing is also what makes this
+        // test meaningful: the `Keep`/`Remapped` arms below are unreachable for a
+        // covered index, so asserting on the committed metadata instead would
+        // pass whether or not those arms preserved `covering_fields`.
+        let error = remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["vec"], Some(index_name.clone()))
+            .await
+            .expect_err("remapping a covered index must be refused");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("declares covering fields"),
+            "unexpected message: {error}"
+        );
+
+        // Refused, not half-applied.
+        let after = dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == index_name)
+            .cloned()
+            .expect("a refused remap must leave the index in place");
+        assert_eq!(
+            after.uuid, before.uuid,
+            "a refused remap replaced the index"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(after.covering_fields, vec![id_field_id]);
+        assert_eq!(after.fragment_bitmap, before.fragment_bitmap);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_keep_preserves_base_id() {
+        let source_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let clone_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let clone_uri = format!("{clone_dir}/clone");
+
+        let mut source = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                &source_dir,
+                FragmentCount::from(1),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(100),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        source
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let version = source.manifest.version;
+        let mut clone = source
+            .shallow_clone(&clone_uri, version, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let cloned_index = clone.load_index_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(cloned_index.base_id.is_some());
+
+        // Dropping every indexed row makes `index::remap_index` return `Keep`.
+        let mut no_survivors = Vec::new();
+        RoaringTreemap::new()
+            .serialize_into(&mut no_survivors)
+            .unwrap();
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: clone.manifest.version,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs: no_survivors,
+                    old_frags: vec![FragDigest::from(&clone.manifest.fragments[0])],
+                    new_frags: vec![],
+                }],
+            }],
+        };
+        let frag_reuse_index =
+            build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(&clone, None, details, RoaringBitmap::new())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        clone
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    clone.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![frag_reuse_index],
+                        removed_indices: vec![],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        remap_column_index(&mut clone, &["i"], Some("i_idx".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(&clone_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let kept = reopened.load_index_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(kept.uuid, cloned_index.uuid);
+        assert!(kept.dataset_version > cloned_index.dataset_version);
+        assert_eq!(kept.base_id, cloned_index.base_id);
+        reopened
+            .open_scalar_index("i", &kept.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/tests/binary_copy.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/tests/binary_copy.rs
index 6418b34455f..9dba0de02f0 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/tests/binary_copy.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/optimize/tests/binary_copy.rs
@@ -2,10 +2,18 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use super::*;
+use arrow_array::{Decimal128Array, UInt64Array};
+
+const NON_LEGACY_VERSIONS: [LanceFileVersion; 4] = [
+    LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+    LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+    LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+    LanceFileVersion::V2_3,
+];
 
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_binary_copy_merge_small_files() {
-    for version in LanceFileVersion::iter_non_legacy() {
+    for version in NON_LEGACY_VERSIONS {
         do_test_binary_copy_merge_small_files(version).await;
     }
 }
@@ -32,8 +40,7 @@ async fn do_test_binary_copy_merge_small_files(version: LanceFileVersion) {
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
         target_rows_per_fragment: 100_000_000,
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
-        enable_binary_copy_force: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
@@ -46,16 +53,310 @@ async fn do_test_binary_copy_merge_small_files(version: LanceFileVersion) {
     assert_eq!(before, after);
 }
 
+#[rstest]
+#[case::default_inputs(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)]
+#[case::non_default_inputs(LanceFileVersion::V2_1, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)]
+#[case::mixed_inputs(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_compaction_exact_target(
+    #[case] first: LanceFileVersion,
+    #[case] second: LanceFileVersion,
+    #[values(
+        None,
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3)
+    )]
+    target: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+    #[values(
+        CompactionMode::Reencode,
+        CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy,
+        CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy
+    )]
+    mode: CompactionMode,
+) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(batch.schema()))], batch.schema()),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    for version in [first, second] {
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+    let before = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let options = CompactionOptions {
+        target_rows_per_fragment: 8,
+        compaction_mode: Some(mode),
+        data_storage_version: target,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let expected = target.unwrap_or(LanceFileVersion::V2_0).resolve();
+    let versions_match = first.resolve() == expected && second.resolve() == expected;
+    assert_eq!(
+        can_use_binary_copy(&dataset, &options, &dataset.manifest.fragments).await,
+        versions_match && mode != CompactionMode::Reencode,
+    );
+    let result = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await;
+    if mode == CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy && !versions_match {
+        let error = result.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains(&format!("target is {expected}")));
+        assert!(message.contains("uses"));
+        assert!(message.contains(".lance"));
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, read_version);
+    } else {
+        result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .manifest
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(Fragment::referenced_lance_files)
+                .all(|file| file.file_version().unwrap() == expected)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(), before);
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_binary_copy_falls_back_for_non_schema_column_order() {
+    let decimal_type = DataType::Decimal128(38, 10);
+    let dataset_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("v_dec", decimal_type.clone(), true),
+        Field::new("v_u64", DataType::UInt64, true),
+    ]));
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: 1,
+        data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let empty_batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(dataset_schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(empty_batch)], dataset_schema),
+        &test_dir,
+        Some(write_params.clone()),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let decimal_values = Decimal128Array::from_iter_values([
+        201_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_i128,
+        202_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_i128,
+    ])
+    .with_precision_and_scale(38, 10)
+    .unwrap();
+    let swapped_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("v_u64", DataType::UInt64, true),
+        Field::new("v_dec", decimal_type, true),
+    ]));
+    let swapped_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        swapped_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![201, 202])),
+            Arc::new(decimal_values),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(swapped_batch)], swapped_schema),
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(Into::into)
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+    for fragment in &fragments {
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[1, 0]);
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].column_indices.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    let options = CompactionOptions {
+        target_rows_per_fragment: 8,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    assert!(!can_use_binary_copy(&dataset, &options, &fragments).await);
+    let before = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+    compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let after = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(before, after);
+    let compacted_file = &dataset.manifest.fragments[0].files[0];
+    assert_eq!(compacted_file.fields.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
+    assert_eq!(compacted_file.column_indices.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_binary_copy_packed_struct_column_mapping() {
+    for version in NON_LEGACY_VERSIONS {
+        do_test_binary_copy_packed_struct_column_mapping(version).await;
+    }
+}
+
+async fn do_test_binary_copy_packed_struct_column_mapping(version: LanceFileVersion) {
+    use arrow_array::StructArray;
+    use arrow_schema::Fields;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    let packed_fields = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("child", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+    let packed_field = Field::new("packed", DataType::Struct(packed_fields.clone()), true)
+        .with_metadata(HashMap::from([("packed".to_string(), "true".to_string())]));
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        packed_field,
+        Field::new("tail", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]));
+    let packed: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+        packed_fields,
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4]))],
+        None,
+    ));
+    let tail: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30, 40]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![packed, tail]).unwrap();
+
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+        &test_dir,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(version),
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+    let before = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 100_000,
+            compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let after = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(before, after);
+
+    let data_file = &dataset.manifest.fragments[0].files[0];
+    assert_eq!(data_file.fields.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(data_file.column_indices.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_binary_copy_empty_string_scalar_index() {
+    for version in NON_LEGACY_VERSIONS {
+        do_test_binary_copy_empty_string_scalar_index(version).await;
+    }
+}
+
+async fn do_test_binary_copy_empty_string_scalar_index(version: LanceFileVersion) {
+    use arrow_array::StringArray;
+
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+    let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+            std::iter::repeat_n("", 4_000),
+        ))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data)], schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &test_dir,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1_000,
+            data_storage_version: Some(version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let before = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+    let options = CompactionOptions {
+        target_rows_per_fragment: 100_000,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Scanning the compacted data must round-trip the zero-length buffers
+    // untouched; a corrupted offsets table would surface as mismatched data here.
+    let after = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(before, after);
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            Some("text_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // The scalar index over the empty strings must also return the full set.
+    let indexed = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("text = ''")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(indexed.num_rows(), 4_000);
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_binary_copy_with_defer_remap() {
-    for version in LanceFileVersion::iter_non_legacy() {
+    for version in NON_LEGACY_VERSIONS {
         do_test_binary_copy_with_defer_remap(version).await;
     }
 }
 
 async fn do_test_binary_copy_with_defer_remap(version: LanceFileVersion) {
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, TimeUnit};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     let fixed_list_dt =
@@ -108,8 +409,7 @@ async fn do_test_binary_copy_with_defer_remap(version: LanceFileVersion) {
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
         defer_index_remap: true,
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
-        enable_binary_copy_force: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let _metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
@@ -119,11 +419,14 @@ async fn do_test_binary_copy_with_defer_remap(version: LanceFileVersion) {
     assert_eq!(before_batch, after_batch);
 }
 
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_0)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_3)]
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_binary_copy_preserves_stable_row_ids() {
-    for version in LanceFileVersion::iter_non_legacy() {
-        do_binary_copy_preserves_stable_row_ids(version).await;
-    }
+async fn test_binary_copy_preserves_stable_row_ids(#[case] version: LanceFileVersion) {
+    do_binary_copy_preserves_stable_row_ids(version).await;
 }
 
 async fn do_binary_copy_preserves_stable_row_ids(version: LanceFileVersion) {
@@ -135,17 +438,18 @@ async fn do_binary_copy_preserves_stable_row_ids(version: LanceFileVersion) {
         .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
 
     let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-        data_gen.batch(4_000),
+        data_gen.batch(1_024),
         format!("memory://test/binary_copy_stable_row_ids_{}", version).as_str(),
         Some(WriteParams {
             enable_stable_row_ids: true,
             data_storage_version: Some(version),
-            max_rows_per_file: 500,
+            max_rows_per_file: 256,
             ..Default::default()
         }),
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
 
     dataset
         .create_index(
@@ -210,9 +514,8 @@ async fn do_binary_copy_preserves_stable_row_ids(version: LanceFileVersion) {
         .unwrap();
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
-        target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
-        enable_binary_copy_force: true,
+        target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let _metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
@@ -253,11 +556,14 @@ async fn do_binary_copy_preserves_stable_row_ids(version: LanceFileVersion) {
     assert_eq!(before, after);
 }
 
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_0)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_3)]
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_binary_copy_remaps_unstable_row_ids() {
-    for version in LanceFileVersion::iter_non_legacy() {
-        do_binary_copy_remaps_unstable_row_ids(version).await;
-    }
+async fn test_binary_copy_remaps_unstable_row_ids(#[case] version: LanceFileVersion) {
+    do_binary_copy_remaps_unstable_row_ids(version).await;
 }
 
 async fn do_binary_copy_remaps_unstable_row_ids(version: LanceFileVersion) {
@@ -268,17 +574,18 @@ async fn do_binary_copy_remaps_unstable_row_ids(version: LanceFileVersion) {
         .col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
 
     let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-        data_gen.batch(4_000),
-        "memory://test/binary_copy_no_stable",
+        data_gen.batch(1_024),
+        format!("memory://test/binary_copy_no_stable_{version}").as_str(),
         Some(WriteParams {
             enable_stable_row_ids: false,
             data_storage_version: Some(version),
-            max_rows_per_file: 500,
+            max_rows_per_file: 256,
             ..Default::default()
         }),
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
 
     dataset
         .create_index(
@@ -330,9 +637,8 @@ async fn do_binary_copy_remaps_unstable_row_ids(version: LanceFileVersion) {
         .unwrap();
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
-        target_rows_per_fragment: 2_000,
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
-        enable_binary_copy_force: true,
+        target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let _metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
@@ -397,8 +703,7 @@ async fn test_binary_copy_preserves_zonemap_queries() {
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
         target_rows_per_fragment: 100_000,
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
-        enable_binary_copy_force: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
@@ -466,8 +771,7 @@ async fn test_binary_copy_preserves_bloom_filter_queries() {
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
         target_rows_per_fragment: 100_000,
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
-        enable_binary_copy_force: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
@@ -502,7 +806,7 @@ async fn test_binary_copy_fallback_to_common_compaction() {
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
         target_rows_per_fragment: 100_000,
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
 
@@ -536,8 +840,7 @@ async fn test_can_use_binary_copy_schema_consistency_ok() {
     dataset.append(reader2, Some(write_params)).await.unwrap();
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
-        enable_binary_copy_force: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let frags: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
@@ -563,7 +866,7 @@ async fn test_can_use_binary_copy_schema_mismatch() {
         .unwrap();
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let mut frags: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
@@ -573,11 +876,13 @@ async fn test_can_use_binary_copy_schema_mismatch() {
         .collect();
     // Introduce a column index mismatch in the first data file
     if let Some(df) = frags.get_mut(0).and_then(|f| f.files.get_mut(0)) {
-        if let Some(first) = df.column_indices.get_mut(0) {
+        let mut indices = df.column_indices.to_vec();
+        if let Some(first) = indices.get_mut(0) {
             *first = -*first - 1;
         } else {
-            df.column_indices.push(-1);
+            indices.push(-1);
         }
+        df.column_indices = indices.into();
     }
     assert!(!can_use_binary_copy(&dataset, &options, &frags).await);
 
@@ -608,7 +913,7 @@ async fn test_can_use_binary_copy_version_mismatch() {
     dataset.append(reader_append, None).await.unwrap();
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let mut frags: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
@@ -622,7 +927,8 @@ async fn test_can_use_binary_copy_version_mismatch() {
     );
 
     // Simulate mixed file versions by marking the second fragment as v2.1.
-    let (v21_major, v21_minor) = LanceFileVersion::V2_1.to_numbers();
+    let (v21_major, v21_minor) =
+        lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1.to_data_file_numbers();
     for file in &mut frags[1].files {
         file.file_major_version = v21_major;
         file.file_minor_version = v21_minor;
@@ -647,7 +953,7 @@ async fn test_can_use_binary_copy_reject_deletions() {
     dataset.delete("a < 10").await.unwrap();
 
     let options = CompactionOptions {
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::TryBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let frags: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
@@ -658,19 +964,39 @@ async fn test_can_use_binary_copy_reject_deletions() {
     assert!(!can_use_binary_copy(&dataset, &options, &frags).await);
 }
 
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_0)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_3)]
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_binary_copy_compaction_with_complex_schema() {
-    for version in LanceFileVersion::iter_non_legacy() {
-        do_test_binary_copy_compaction_with_complex_schema(version).await;
-    }
+async fn test_binary_copy_compaction_with_complex_schema(#[case] version: LanceFileVersion) {
+    // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the compaction future grew past 16 KiB.
+    Box::pin(do_test_binary_copy_compaction_with_complex_schema(version)).await;
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_binary_copy_complex_schema_covers_every_non_legacy_version() {
+    assert_eq!(
+        [
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_3
+        ],
+        NON_LEGACY_VERSIONS
+    );
 }
 
 async fn do_test_binary_copy_compaction_with_complex_schema(version: LanceFileVersion) {
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields, TimeUnit};
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
 
-    let row_num = 1_000;
+    let row_num: u64 = 1_000;
+    let batches: u32 = 10;
+    const NUM_FRAGMENTS: usize = 100;
+    let rows_per_file = (row_num as usize * batches as usize) / NUM_FRAGMENTS;
 
     let inner_fields = Fields::from(vec![
         Field::new("x", DataType::UInt32, true),
@@ -731,7 +1057,7 @@ async fn do_test_binary_copy_compaction_with_complex_schema(version: LanceFileVe
             "events",
             array::rand_list_any(array::rand_struct(event_fields.clone()), true),
         )
-        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(row_num), BatchCount::from(10));
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(row_num), BatchCount::from(batches));
 
     let full_dir = TempStrDir::default();
     let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
@@ -740,20 +1066,25 @@ async fn do_test_binary_copy_compaction_with_complex_schema(version: LanceFileVe
         Some(WriteParams {
             enable_stable_row_ids: true,
             data_storage_version: Some(version),
-            max_rows_per_file: (row_num / 100) as usize,
+            max_rows_per_file: rows_per_file,
             ..Default::default()
         }),
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
 
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.get_fragments().len(),
+        NUM_FRAGMENTS,
+        "compaction must have many input fragments to merge"
+    );
+
     let opt_full = CompactionOptions {
-        enable_binary_copy: false,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::Reencode),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let opt_binary = CompactionOptions {
-        enable_binary_copy: true,
-        enable_binary_copy_force: true,
+        compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
         ..Default::default()
     };
 
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/overlay.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/overlay.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..36d8d3b9197
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/overlay.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1073 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Resolution of data overlay files on read.
+//!
+//! An overlay supplies replacement values for some `(row, field)` cells without
+//! rewriting the base data. Resolving a read means, for each row we return,
+//! deciding whether its value comes from the base column or from an overlay.
+//!
+//! Three coordinate spaces show up throughout this module; keeping them straight
+//! is most of the work:
+//!
+//! - `offset_in_frag`: a row's physical position in the fragment (0-based over all
+//!   physical rows, ignoring deletions). This is how a cell is addressed on disk
+//!   and in an overlay's coverage bitmap.
+//! - `offset_in_batch`: a row's position within the batch we are currently
+//!   assembling (0-based). The output column is indexed by this.
+//! - `offset_in_overlay`: the position of a value in an overlay's value column.
+//!   An overlay stores its values densely — one per covered cell, in ascending
+//!   `offset_in_frag` order — so a covered cell's value is found by counting how
+//!   many covered cells come before it. (That count is what a roaring bitmap calls
+//!   the cell's "rank".)
+//!
+//! For a given field, the overlays covering it are consulted newest to oldest: the
+//! first overlay that covers a row wins, and its value is read at that row's
+//! `offset_in_overlay`. A row that no overlay covers keeps its base value.
+//!
+//! The rows to resolve are passed in as a list of `offset_in_frag` (one per output
+//! row), so a single code path serves both scans (a contiguous range of offsets)
+//! and `take` (arbitrary offsets).
+//!
+//! Deletions win over overlays, but nothing here handles that: the merge runs on
+//! physical rows *before* deletions are applied, so an overlay value computed for a
+//! deleted row is simply dropped along with the row. This matches the spec with no
+//! special casing.
+
+pub mod writer;
+
+use std::collections::{BTreeSet, HashMap};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch, StructArray};
+use arrow_select::interleave::interleave;
+use futures::StreamExt;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+use lance_table::format::DataFile;
+use lance_table::utils::stream::ReadBatchFut;
+
+use crate::dataset::fragment::{FileFragment, FragReadConfig, GenericFileReader};
+
+// Deciding which rows an overlay makes stale needs only fragment and index metadata,
+// so it lives at the table layer; this module resolves the reads that consume it.
+pub use lance_table::format::overlay::staleness::{
+    collect_overlay_stale_frags, collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment, overlaid_fragments,
+};
+
+/// The plan for merging one field's overlays into one batch: which source (base or
+/// a particular overlay) supplies each output row, and which overlay values must be
+/// fetched to do it.
+///
+/// Built by [`route_overlays`] from the coverage bitmaps alone — before any value
+/// column is read — so the caller can fetch only the overlay values it will
+/// actually use (its `offsets_in_overlay`) rather than whole columns, then build the
+/// merged column with [`assemble_overlay_column`].
+struct OverlayRouting {
+    /// One `(source, position)` pair per output row, ready to hand to `interleave`.
+    /// Source `0` is the base column, with `position` = the row's `offset_in_batch`;
+    /// source `k + 1` is overlay `k`'s fetched values, with `position` = the row's
+    /// index into those fetched values.
+    indices: Vec<(usize, usize)>,
+    /// Per overlay (newest-first): the sorted, deduplicated `offset_in_overlay`
+    /// values this batch needs from that overlay — i.e. exactly which entries of its
+    /// value column to fetch.
+    offsets_in_overlay: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+    /// Whether any row is covered by an overlay at all (false ⇒ every row falls
+    /// through to the base column, so the base is already the answer and no overlay
+    /// values need to be read).
+    any_overlay: bool,
+}
+
+/// For each row in `offsets_in_frag`, decide whether its value comes from the base
+/// column or from an overlay — and if from an overlay, at which `offset_in_overlay`.
+///
+/// Only the coverage bitmaps are consulted (newest-first), so this runs before any
+/// value column is read and reports exactly which overlay values the caller must
+/// fetch.
+///
+/// A scan asks for a contiguous, ascending range of offsets, which enables a faster
+/// bitmap-driven path ([`route_contiguous`]); `take` asks for arbitrary offsets and
+/// uses the general path ([`route_arbitrary`]). Both produce identical routing.
+fn route_overlays(
+    offsets_in_frag: &[u32],
+    coverages_newest_first: &[&RoaringBitmap],
+) -> OverlayRouting {
+    match contiguous_frag_start(offsets_in_frag) {
+        Some(frag_start) => {
+            route_contiguous(frag_start, offsets_in_frag.len(), coverages_newest_first)
+        }
+        None => route_arbitrary(offsets_in_frag, coverages_newest_first),
+    }
+}
+
+/// If `offsets_in_frag` is a contiguous ascending run `[start, start + 1, ...]`,
+/// return `start`; otherwise `None` (including when empty).
+fn contiguous_frag_start(offsets_in_frag: &[u32]) -> Option<u32> {
+    let start = *offsets_in_frag.first()?;
+    offsets_in_frag
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .all(|(i, &offset)| offset as u64 == start as u64 + i as u64)
+        .then_some(start)
+}
+
+/// Fast path for a scan, where the batch is a contiguous run of offsets starting at
+/// `frag_start`. Because the offsets are contiguous, a row's `offset_in_batch` is
+/// just `offset_in_frag - frag_start`, so a coverage's set bits map straight to
+/// output rows — no need to test each row against each coverage.
+///
+/// For each coverage we intersect it with the batch's offset range. Roaring does
+/// this a block at a time, so a coverage that does not overlap the batch (e.g. a
+/// scan batch past the last cell this overlay touches) is skipped cheaply without
+/// inspecting individual bits.
+///
+/// Within the batch a coverage's cells appear in ascending order, so their
+/// `offset_in_overlay` values are consecutive: the first in-batch cell sits at
+/// `offset_in_overlay = <cells this coverage has before the batch>` (a single
+/// `rank` lookup), and each following cell is one more. Coverages are applied
+/// newest-first, and the first overlay to claim a row wins.
+fn route_contiguous(
+    frag_start: u32,
+    len: usize,
+    coverages_newest_first: &[&RoaringBitmap],
+) -> OverlayRouting {
+    let mut offsets_in_overlay: Vec<Vec<u32>> = vec![Vec::new(); coverages_newest_first.len()];
+    // Indexed by offset_in_batch: which (overlay, fetch position) supplies the row.
+    let mut routed: Vec<Option<(usize, usize)>> = vec![None; len];
+    let range_end = (frag_start as u64 + len as u64).min(u32::MAX as u64) as u32;
+    let mut batch_range = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    batch_range.insert_range(frag_start..range_end);
+
+    for (k, coverage) in coverages_newest_first.iter().enumerate() {
+        let covered_in_batch = *coverage & &batch_range;
+        if covered_in_batch.is_empty() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        // offset_in_overlay of this coverage's first in-batch cell = the number of
+        // its cells that lie before the batch.
+        let first_offset_in_overlay = if frag_start == 0 {
+            0
+        } else {
+            coverage.rank(frag_start - 1) as u32
+        };
+        for (nth_in_batch, offset_in_frag) in covered_in_batch.iter().enumerate() {
+            let offset_in_batch = (offset_in_frag - frag_start) as usize;
+            if routed[offset_in_batch].is_none() {
+                routed[offset_in_batch] = Some((k, offsets_in_overlay[k].len()));
+                offsets_in_overlay[k].push(first_offset_in_overlay + nth_in_batch as u32);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut any_overlay = false;
+    let indices = routed
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(offset_in_batch, routed)| match routed {
+            None => (0, offset_in_batch),
+            Some((k, fetch_pos)) => {
+                any_overlay = true;
+                (k + 1, fetch_pos)
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    OverlayRouting {
+        indices,
+        offsets_in_overlay,
+        any_overlay,
+    }
+}
+
+/// General path for arbitrary offsets (e.g. `take`): test each row's
+/// `offset_in_frag` against the coverages newest-first. `take` batches are small,
+/// so this `O(rows * overlays)` probing is not a concern.
+fn route_arbitrary(
+    offsets_in_frag: &[u32],
+    coverages_newest_first: &[&RoaringBitmap],
+) -> OverlayRouting {
+    // Per overlay: the distinct offset_in_overlay values this batch needs, sorted.
+    let mut offset_sets: Vec<BTreeSet<u32>> = vec![BTreeSet::new(); coverages_newest_first.len()];
+    // Per output row: the (overlay, offset_in_overlay) that supplies it, if any.
+    let mut routed_per_row: Vec<Option<(usize, u32)>> = Vec::with_capacity(offsets_in_frag.len());
+    for &offset_in_frag in offsets_in_frag {
+        let mut routed = None;
+        for (k, coverage) in coverages_newest_first.iter().enumerate() {
+            if coverage.contains(offset_in_frag) {
+                // offset_in_overlay = number of covered cells before this one.
+                let offset_in_overlay = coverage.rank(offset_in_frag) as u32 - 1;
+                offset_sets[k].insert(offset_in_overlay);
+                routed = Some((k, offset_in_overlay));
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        routed_per_row.push(routed);
+    }
+
+    let offsets_in_overlay: Vec<Vec<u32>> = offset_sets
+        .iter()
+        .map(|offsets| offsets.iter().copied().collect())
+        .collect();
+    // For each overlay, map an offset_in_overlay to its position in the fetched
+    // (sorted, deduplicated) value list.
+    let fetch_positions: Vec<HashMap<u32, usize>> = offsets_in_overlay
+        .iter()
+        .map(|offsets| {
+            offsets
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .map(|(pos, &o)| (o, pos))
+                .collect()
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut any_overlay = false;
+    let indices = routed_per_row
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(offset_in_batch, routed)| match routed {
+            None => (0, offset_in_batch),
+            Some((k, offset_in_overlay)) => {
+                any_overlay = true;
+                (k + 1, fetch_positions[k][&offset_in_overlay])
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    OverlayRouting {
+        indices,
+        offsets_in_overlay,
+        any_overlay,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build the merged column from `base` and the overlay values fetched for the
+/// `offset_in_overlay` values [`route_overlays`] asked for.
+///
+/// `fetched_newest_first[k]` holds overlay `k`'s values for `routing`'s
+/// `offsets_in_overlay[k]`, in that order. The result has the same length and
+/// type as `base`. A covered row whose overlay value is NULL resolves **to** NULL
+/// (distinct from a fall-through, which keeps the base value).
+fn assemble_overlay_column(
+    base: &ArrayRef,
+    routing: &OverlayRouting,
+    fetched_newest_first: &[ArrayRef],
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    if !routing.any_overlay {
+        return Ok(base.clone());
+    }
+    if fetched_newest_first.len() != routing.offsets_in_overlay.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "overlay assembly got {} value columns but routing expects {}",
+            fetched_newest_first.len(),
+            routing.offsets_in_overlay.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    for (k, values) in fetched_newest_first.iter().enumerate() {
+        if values.len() != routing.offsets_in_overlay[k].len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "overlay value column {} has {} values but {} were requested",
+                k,
+                values.len(),
+                routing.offsets_in_overlay[k].len()
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut sources: Vec<&dyn Array> = Vec::with_capacity(fetched_newest_first.len() + 1);
+    sources.push(base.as_ref());
+    for values in fetched_newest_first {
+        sources.push(values.as_ref());
+    }
+    interleave(&sources, &routing.indices).map_err(Error::from)
+}
+
+/// One overlay's contribution to one projected atomic field, with its file reader opened.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct LoadedAtomicFieldOverlay {
+    /// The `offset_in_frag` cells this overlay covers for the atomic field.
+    coverage: Arc<RoaringBitmap>,
+    /// Reader over the overlay data file, projected to the covered atomic fields; shared
+    /// across the atomic fields that the same file covers.
+    reader: Arc<dyn GenericFileReader>,
+}
+
+/// The overlays that apply to a single projected atomic field — a per-row field an overlay
+/// can replace as a unit (a primitive leaf, or a whole list/map field; structs are
+/// recursed through, not treated as atomic fields). Ordered newest-first, with readers opened
+/// and pruned to a specific read. Produced by [`resolve_overlays`] and consumed by
+/// [`merge_overlay_batch`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct LoadedAtomicField {
+    /// The top-level output column the atomic field lives in (its name locates the batch
+    /// column; its field tree drives the descend/splice into that column).
+    top_field: Arc<Field>,
+    /// Child field ids from `top_field` down to the atomic field (empty when the atomic
+    /// field *is* the top-level column). Drives descending to, and splicing back, the
+    /// atomic field.
+    ancestor_ids: Vec<i32>,
+    /// Projection of exactly the atomic field (its ancestor path pruned to the atomic
+    /// field subtree), used to fetch the atomic field's values from the overlay file.
+    fetch_projection: Arc<Schema>,
+    overlays_newest_first: Vec<LoadedAtomicFieldOverlay>,
+}
+
+/// One overlay file that may contribute to a read, before it is opened. Opened
+/// lazily by [`resolve_overlays`], and only if the read actually touches it.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct PlannedOverlayFile {
+    data_file: DataFile,
+    /// The covered ∩ projected atomic fields to project when the file is opened, so a single
+    /// reader serves every atomic field the file contributes to.
+    open_projection: Arc<Schema>,
+}
+
+/// One overlay's contribution to one projected atomic field, before the file is opened.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct PlannedAtomicFieldOverlay {
+    /// Index into [`OverlayReadPlanner::files`] of the file that supplies the value.
+    file: usize,
+    coverage: Arc<RoaringBitmap>,
+}
+
+/// The overlays that apply to a single projected atomic field, ordered newest-first, before
+/// any file is opened.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct PlannedAtomicField {
+    top_field: Arc<Field>,
+    ancestor_ids: Vec<i32>,
+    fetch_projection: Arc<Schema>,
+    overlays_newest_first: Vec<PlannedAtomicFieldOverlay>,
+}
+
+/// A fragment's overlay-resolution plan for a projection, derived from coverage
+/// metadata alone — no file opened, no IO. [`resolve_overlays`] turns it into opened
+/// [`LoadedAtomicField`]s for one specific read, opening only the files whose cells
+/// the read's rows actually touch.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct OverlayReadPlanner {
+    files: Vec<PlannedOverlayFile>,
+    atomic_fields: Vec<PlannedAtomicField>,
+}
+
+impl OverlayReadPlanner {
+    /// True when no projected atomic field has any overlay, so there is nothing to resolve.
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.atomic_fields.is_empty()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Plan `fragment`'s overlay resolution for a projection from coverage metadata
+/// alone. No files are opened here (see [`resolve_overlays`]) — this only reads the
+/// already-parsed coverage bitmaps, so it is cheap enough to run on every open.
+///
+/// Overlays are stored oldest-first (sorted newest-last on load, see
+/// `sort_overlays_newest_last`), so walking them in reverse gives newest-first
+/// precedence.
+///
+/// Resolution is per *atomic field* — a per-row field that an overlay replaces as a unit: a
+/// primitive leaf, or a whole list/map field. Structs are internal nodes, so each
+/// leaf of a struct is its own atomic field and can be overlaid independently of its
+/// siblings. An overlay is written against the leaf ids it stores (the V2_1
+/// structural encoding records only leaves), so an overlay contributes to a projected
+/// atomic field when any id in its `data_file.fields` falls in that atomic field's leaf
+/// set. At merge time the atomic field's value is fetched and spliced into its output
+/// column, so an overlay on a sub-field never disturbs the column's other leaves. Each
+/// contributing overlay *file* appears once in `files`, shared by every atomic field it
+/// covers.
+pub fn plan_overlays(fragment: &FileFragment, projection: &Schema) -> Result<OverlayReadPlanner> {
+    let overlays = &fragment.metadata.overlays;
+    debug_assert!(
+        overlays
+            .windows(2)
+            .all(|w| w[0].committed_version <= w[1].committed_version),
+        "overlays must be sorted newest-last (see sort_overlays_newest_last)"
+    );
+
+    // The projection's atomic fields, and a leaf-id -> atomic-field-index map so an
+    // overlay's stored leaf ids resolve to the atomic field they belong to in O(1).
+    struct AtomicFieldInfo<'a> {
+        top_field: &'a Field,
+        ancestor_ids: Vec<i32>,
+        atomic_field_id: i32,
+    }
+    let mut atomic_field_infos: Vec<AtomicFieldInfo> = Vec::new();
+    let mut leaf_to_atomic_field: HashMap<i32, usize> = HashMap::new();
+    for top in &projection.fields {
+        for (atomic_field, ancestor_ids) in enumerate_atomic_fields(top) {
+            let idx = atomic_field_infos.len();
+            let mut value_leaf_ids = Vec::new();
+            collect_leaf_ids(atomic_field, &mut value_leaf_ids);
+            for leaf in value_leaf_ids {
+                leaf_to_atomic_field.insert(leaf, idx);
+            }
+            atomic_field_infos.push(AtomicFieldInfo {
+                top_field: top,
+                ancestor_ids,
+                atomic_field_id: atomic_field.id,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Walk overlays newest-first. For each overlay, find the atomic fields it covers and push
+    // (newest-first, for free) into their per-atomic field overlay lists.
+    let mut files = Vec::new();
+    let mut atomic_field_overlays: Vec<Vec<PlannedAtomicFieldOverlay>> =
+        vec![Vec::new(); atomic_field_infos.len()];
+    for overlay in overlays.iter().rev() {
+        // atomic field index -> the `data_file.fields` position whose coverage to read. An
+        // overlay writes one value per row per atomic field, so its leaves share a coverage;
+        // the first leaf of each atomic field to appear wins.
+        let mut covered: HashMap<usize, usize> = HashMap::new();
+        for (field_pos, &field_id) in overlay.data_file.fields.iter().enumerate() {
+            if let Some(&atomic_field_idx) = leaf_to_atomic_field.get(&field_id) {
+                covered.entry(atomic_field_idx).or_insert(field_pos);
+            }
+        }
+        if covered.is_empty() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let file = files.len();
+        let covered_ids: Vec<i32> = covered
+            .keys()
+            .map(|&i| atomic_field_infos[i].atomic_field_id)
+            .collect();
+        files.push(PlannedOverlayFile {
+            data_file: overlay.data_file.clone(),
+            open_projection: Arc::new(projection.project_by_ids(&covered_ids, true)),
+        });
+        for (atomic_field_idx, field_pos) in covered {
+            atomic_field_overlays[atomic_field_idx].push(PlannedAtomicFieldOverlay {
+                file,
+                coverage: overlay.coverage_for_field(field_pos)?,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Emit one PlannedAtomicField per projected atomic field that has overlays, in
+    // atomic field order.
+    let mut atomic_fields = Vec::new();
+    for (idx, info) in atomic_field_infos.iter().enumerate() {
+        let overlays_newest_first = std::mem::take(&mut atomic_field_overlays[idx]);
+        if overlays_newest_first.is_empty() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        atomic_fields.push(PlannedAtomicField {
+            top_field: Arc::new(info.top_field.clone()),
+            ancestor_ids: info.ancestor_ids.clone(),
+            fetch_projection: Arc::new(projection.project_by_ids(&[info.atomic_field_id], true)),
+            overlays_newest_first,
+        });
+    }
+    Ok(OverlayReadPlanner {
+        files,
+        atomic_fields,
+    })
+}
+
+/// The per-row atomic fields of a projected top-level field, each with the child-id path from
+/// the top-level field down to it. Structs are recursed through; a primitive leaf or a
+/// whole list/map field is an atomic field (values are one-per-row). A top-level primitive or
+/// list yields a single atomic field with an empty path.
+fn enumerate_atomic_fields(top: &Field) -> Vec<(&Field, Vec<i32>)> {
+    fn recurse<'a>(field: &'a Field, path: &mut Vec<i32>, out: &mut Vec<(&'a Field, Vec<i32>)>) {
+        if field.logical_type.is_struct() {
+            for child in &field.children {
+                path.push(child.id);
+                recurse(child, path, out);
+                path.pop();
+            }
+        } else {
+            out.push((field, path.clone()));
+        }
+    }
+    let mut out = Vec::new();
+    let mut path = Vec::new();
+    recurse(top, &mut path, &mut out);
+    out
+}
+
+/// Collect the leaf field ids in `field`'s subtree — the ids an overlay stores for
+/// this atomic field (its own id if primitive; its item leaves if a list/map).
+fn collect_leaf_ids(field: &Field, out: &mut Vec<i32>) {
+    if field.children.is_empty() {
+        out.push(field.id);
+    } else {
+        for child in &field.children {
+            collect_leaf_ids(child, out);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Follow a path of child field ids from `field` down through nested structs, taking
+/// the corresponding child array at each step. Returns the array at the end of the
+/// path (the whole `array` when `ancestor_ids` is empty).
+fn descend_by_ids(array: &ArrayRef, field: &Field, ancestor_ids: &[i32]) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    let mut arr = array.clone();
+    let mut fld = field;
+    for &id in ancestor_ids {
+        let child_pos = fld
+            .children
+            .iter()
+            .position(|c| c.id == id)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "overlay descend: field id {id} not found under '{}'",
+                    fld.name
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let structs = arr.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "overlay descend: expected a struct at '{}'",
+                fld.name
+            ))
+        })?;
+        arr = structs.column(child_pos).clone();
+        fld = &fld.children[child_pos];
+    }
+    Ok(arr)
+}
+
+/// Rebuild `array` with the array at `ancestor_ids` replaced by `new_atomic_field`, cloning
+/// the struct spine along the path and preserving each struct's null buffer and other
+/// children. With an empty path this is just `new_atomic_field` (whole-column replacement).
+fn splice_by_ids(
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+    field: &Field,
+    ancestor_ids: &[i32],
+    new_atomic_field: ArrayRef,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    let Some((&id, rest)) = ancestor_ids.split_first() else {
+        return Ok(new_atomic_field);
+    };
+    let child_pos = field
+        .children
+        .iter()
+        .position(|c| c.id == id)
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "overlay splice: field id {id} not found under '{}'",
+                field.name
+            ))
+        })?;
+    let structs = array
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "overlay splice: expected a struct at '{}'",
+                field.name
+            ))
+        })?;
+    let len = structs.len();
+    let (fields, mut children, nulls) = structs.clone().into_parts();
+    children[child_pos] = splice_by_ids(
+        &children[child_pos],
+        &field.children[child_pos],
+        rest,
+        new_atomic_field,
+    )?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(StructArray::try_new_with_length(
+        fields, children, nulls, len,
+    )?))
+}
+
+/// Open the overlay readers a specific read needs and return the per-field plans to
+/// merge, pruned to that read.
+///
+/// `offsets_in_frag` are the rows the read will return. An overlay whose coverage is
+/// disjoint from those rows contributes nothing, so it is dropped and its file is
+/// never opened — a `take` that misses an overlay's cells pays no IO for it. Each
+/// surviving file is opened once, concurrently, projected to the covered fields; the
+/// value bytes are still not read here (the per-batch [`merge_overlay_batch`] fetches
+/// only the values it needs).
+pub async fn resolve_overlays(
+    planner: &OverlayReadPlanner,
+    offsets_in_frag: &[u32],
+    fragment: &FileFragment,
+    read_config: &FragReadConfig,
+) -> Result<Vec<LoadedAtomicField>> {
+    let read_offsets = read_offsets_bitmap(offsets_in_frag);
+
+    // A file is opened only if some atomic field it covers has cells among the requested rows.
+    // This is the row-selection pruning: overlays outside the read are skipped.
+    let mut file_needed = vec![false; planner.files.len()];
+    for atomic_field in &planner.atomic_fields {
+        for overlay in &atomic_field.overlays_newest_first {
+            if !overlay.coverage.is_disjoint(&read_offsets) {
+                file_needed[overlay.file] = true;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Open each needed file once, concurrently. The reader is shared (via `Arc`) by
+    // every atomic field that file covers.
+    //
+    // These reads use priority 0 (highest): they are issued only when a ready
+    // consumer polls the batch task (see `merge_overlay_batch`), so we have already
+    // committed to reading this batch and the overlay reads cannot clog the
+    // backpressure queue ahead of work we are not ready for. (A future optimization
+    // could start the overlay fetches earlier to fill compute bubbles, which would
+    // want a priority tied to the base read.)
+    let opened: Vec<Option<Arc<dyn GenericFileReader>>> =
+        futures::future::try_join_all(planner.files.iter().enumerate().map(|(i, file)| {
+            let needed = file_needed[i];
+            async move {
+                if !needed {
+                    return Ok::<_, Error>(None);
+                }
+                Ok(fragment
+                    .open_reader(&file.data_file, Some(&file.open_projection), read_config)
+                    .await?
+                    .map(Arc::from))
+            }
+        }))
+        .await?;
+
+    let mut plans = Vec::new();
+    for atomic_field in &planner.atomic_fields {
+        let mut overlays_newest_first = Vec::new();
+        for overlay in &atomic_field.overlays_newest_first {
+            let Some(reader) = &opened[overlay.file] else {
+                continue; // pruned: coverage disjoint from the read
+            };
+            overlays_newest_first.push(LoadedAtomicFieldOverlay {
+                coverage: overlay.coverage.clone(),
+                reader: reader.clone(),
+            });
+        }
+        if !overlays_newest_first.is_empty() {
+            plans.push(LoadedAtomicField {
+                top_field: atomic_field.top_field.clone(),
+                ancestor_ids: atomic_field.ancestor_ids.clone(),
+                fetch_projection: atomic_field.fetch_projection.clone(),
+                overlays_newest_first,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(plans)
+}
+
+/// The set of `offset_in_frag` a read will return, as a bitmap for cheap
+/// intersection against overlay coverages. Contiguous scans build a single range;
+/// arbitrary `take` offsets (small batches) are inserted individually.
+fn read_offsets_bitmap(offsets_in_frag: &[u32]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+    let mut bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    match contiguous_frag_start(offsets_in_frag) {
+        Some(start) => {
+            let end = (start as u64 + offsets_in_frag.len() as u64).min(u32::MAX as u64) as u32;
+            bitmap.insert_range(start..end);
+        }
+        None => bitmap.extend(offsets_in_frag.iter().copied()),
+    }
+    bitmap
+}
+
+/// Resolve overlays for one base batch: route each projected atomic field against the batch's
+/// `offsets_in_frag`, fetch only the overlay values the batch needs (concurrently with
+/// the base read), assemble the merged atomic field, and splice it into its output column.
+/// AtomicFields with no covered rows, and columns with no plan, pass through.
+pub async fn merge_overlay_batch(
+    base: ReadBatchFut,
+    offsets_in_frag: &[u32],
+    plans: &[LoadedAtomicField],
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let atomic_field_work = futures::future::try_join_all(plans.iter().map(|plan| async move {
+        let coverages: Vec<&RoaringBitmap> = plan
+            .overlays_newest_first
+            .iter()
+            .map(|overlay| overlay.coverage.as_ref())
+            .collect();
+        let routing = route_overlays(offsets_in_frag, &coverages);
+        if !routing.any_overlay {
+            return Ok::<_, Error>((plan, None));
+        }
+        // Fetch each overlay's values and descend to the atomic field array. The fetch is
+        // projected to the atomic field's ancestor path, so the fetched column is the pruned
+        // top-level column; `descend_by_ids` walks it down to the atomic field.
+        let atomic_field = &plan.fetch_projection.fields[0];
+        let fetched = futures::future::try_join_all(
+            plan.overlays_newest_first
+                .iter()
+                .zip(&routing.offsets_in_overlay)
+                .map(|(overlay, offsets_in_overlay)| async move {
+                    let column = fetch_overlay_values(
+                        overlay.reader.as_ref(),
+                        plan.fetch_projection.clone(),
+                        offsets_in_overlay,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                    descend_by_ids(&column, atomic_field, &plan.ancestor_ids)
+                }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        Ok((plan, Some((routing, fetched))))
+    }));
+
+    // The base read and every overlay value read proceed concurrently.
+    let (batch, resolved) = futures::future::try_join(base, atomic_field_work).await?;
+
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut columns = batch.columns().to_vec();
+    for (plan, work) in resolved {
+        let Some((routing, fetched)) = work else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let Some(idx) = schema.index_of(&plan.top_field.name).ok() else {
+            // The plan's column is not in this batch's projection; skip it.
+            continue;
+        };
+        let base_atomic_field = descend_by_ids(&columns[idx], &plan.top_field, &plan.ancestor_ids)?;
+        let merged_atomic_field = assemble_overlay_column(&base_atomic_field, &routing, &fetched)?;
+        columns[idx] = splice_by_ids(
+            &columns[idx],
+            &plan.top_field,
+            &plan.ancestor_ids,
+            merged_atomic_field,
+        )?;
+    }
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?)
+}
+
+/// Fetch one overlay's values at the given `offsets_in_overlay` (sorted, unique):
+/// the corresponding entries of its value column, as the top-level column pruned to
+/// `projection`. Returns `offsets_in_overlay.len()` rows in the same order; empty
+/// input reads nothing and returns an empty column.
+async fn fetch_overlay_values(
+    reader: &dyn GenericFileReader,
+    projection: Arc<Schema>,
+    offsets_in_overlay: &[u32],
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    if offsets_in_overlay.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(arrow_array::new_empty_array(
+            &projection.fields[0].data_type(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let mut tasks = reader
+        .take_all_tasks(
+            offsets_in_overlay,
+            offsets_in_overlay.len() as u32,
+            projection,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await?;
+    let mut chunks: Vec<ArrayRef> = Vec::new();
+    while let Some(task) = tasks.next().await {
+        let batch = task.task.await?;
+        chunks.push(batch.column(0).clone());
+    }
+    let chunk_refs: Vec<&dyn arrow_array::Array> = chunks.iter().map(|a| a.as_ref()).collect();
+    Ok(arrow_select::concat::concat(&chunk_refs)?)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, StringArray, UInt32Array};
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    fn i32_array(values: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<i32>>) -> ArrayRef {
+        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter(values))
+    }
+
+    fn bitmap(offsets: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter(offsets)
+    }
+
+    /// Physical offsets for a contiguous range `[start, start + len)`.
+    fn offsets(start: u32, len: usize) -> Vec<u32> {
+        (start..start + len as u32).collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Drive the production flow purely in memory: route against the coverage
+    /// bitmaps, then fetch just the requested `offset_in_overlay` entries from each
+    /// overlay's *full* value column (exactly what the value-pushdown `take` does on
+    /// disk), then assemble. `overlays_newest_first` holds each overlay's
+    /// `(coverage, full value column indexed by offset_in_overlay)`.
+    fn resolve(
+        base: &ArrayRef,
+        offsets: &[u32],
+        overlays_newest_first: &[(RoaringBitmap, ArrayRef)],
+    ) -> ArrayRef {
+        let coverages: Vec<&RoaringBitmap> = overlays_newest_first.iter().map(|(c, _)| c).collect();
+        let routing = route_overlays(offsets, &coverages);
+        let fetched: Vec<ArrayRef> = overlays_newest_first
+            .iter()
+            .zip(&routing.offsets_in_overlay)
+            .map(|((_, full), offsets_in_overlay)| {
+                let indices = UInt32Array::from(offsets_in_overlay.clone());
+                arrow_select::take::take(full.as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assemble_overlay_column(base, &routing, &fetched).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn assert_i32_eq(actual: &ArrayRef, expected: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<i32>>) {
+        let actual = actual.as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, &Int32Array::from_iter(expected));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_no_overlays_returns_base() {
+        let base = i32_array([Some(1), Some(2), Some(3)]);
+        let resolved = resolve(&base, &offsets(0, 3), &[]);
+        assert_i32_eq(&resolved, [Some(1), Some(2), Some(3)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_single_overlay_value_offset() {
+        // Base ages [30, 25, 40, 22]; overlay sets offset_in_frag 1 -> 26, whose
+        // value sits at offset_in_overlay 0.
+        let base = i32_array([Some(30), Some(25), Some(40), Some(22)]);
+        let overlay = (bitmap([1]), i32_array([Some(26)]));
+        let resolved = resolve(&base, &offsets(0, 4), &[overlay]);
+        assert_i32_eq(&resolved, [Some(30), Some(26), Some(40), Some(22)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_value_offsets_multiple_cells() {
+        // Coverage {0, 2, 3} -> values at offset_in_overlay 0, 1, 2.
+        let base = i32_array([Some(10), Some(11), Some(12), Some(13)]);
+        let overlay = (
+            bitmap([0, 2, 3]),
+            i32_array([Some(100), Some(120), Some(130)]),
+        );
+        let resolved = resolve(&base, &offsets(0, 4), &[overlay]);
+        assert_i32_eq(&resolved, [Some(100), Some(11), Some(120), Some(130)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_newest_overlay_wins() {
+        // Two overlays both cover offset_in_frag 1; the newest (first in the slice)
+        // wins.
+        let base = i32_array([Some(0), Some(1), Some(2)]);
+        let newest = (bitmap([1]), i32_array([Some(999)]));
+        let older = (bitmap([1, 2]), i32_array([Some(111), Some(222)]));
+        let resolved = resolve(&base, &offsets(0, 3), &[newest, older]);
+        // offset 1 -> newest (999); offset 2 -> only older covers it (222).
+        assert_i32_eq(&resolved, [Some(0), Some(999), Some(222)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_null_override_vs_fall_through() {
+        // A covered offset with a NULL value overrides the cell to NULL; an
+        // absent offset falls through to the base.
+        let base = i32_array([Some(1), Some(2), Some(3)]);
+        let overlay = (bitmap([0]), i32_array([None]));
+        let resolved = resolve(&base, &offsets(0, 3), &[overlay]);
+        assert_i32_eq(&resolved, [None, Some(2), Some(3)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_physical_start_offset() {
+        // The batch covers physical rows [10, 13); the overlay covers offset 11.
+        let base = i32_array([Some(0), Some(0), Some(0)]);
+        let overlay = (bitmap([11]), i32_array([Some(7)]));
+        let resolved = resolve(&base, &offsets(10, 3), &[overlay]);
+        assert_i32_eq(&resolved, [Some(0), Some(7), Some(0)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_string_column_merge() {
+        let base: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"]));
+        let overlay = (
+            bitmap([0, 2]),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A", "C"])) as ArrayRef,
+        );
+        let resolved = resolve(&base, &offsets(0, 3), &[overlay]);
+        let expected: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A", "b", "C"]));
+        assert_eq!(&resolved, &expected);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_non_contiguous_offsets() {
+        // `take` supplies arbitrary, non-contiguous offsets_in_frag. The base rows
+        // correspond to offsets 5, 1, 8 (in that order); the overlay covers offsets
+        // {1, 8}, whose values sit at offset_in_overlay 0, 1.
+        let base = i32_array([Some(50), Some(10), Some(80)]);
+        let overlay = (bitmap([1, 8]), i32_array([Some(11), Some(88)]));
+        let resolved = resolve(&base, &[5, 1, 8], &[overlay]);
+        // offset 5 uncovered -> base 50; offset 1 -> offset_in_overlay 0 (11);
+        // offset 8 -> offset_in_overlay 1 (88).
+        assert_i32_eq(&resolved, [Some(50), Some(11), Some(88)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_routing_dedups_repeated_offsets() {
+        // A `take` may request the same offset twice; both rows must route to the
+        // same overlay value, and that value is fetched only once.
+        let coverage = bitmap([2, 5]);
+        let routing = route_overlays(&[5, 2, 5], &[&coverage]);
+        // offset_in_frag 5 is offset_in_overlay 1, offset_in_frag 2 is
+        // offset_in_overlay 0: distinct values {0, 1}, sorted.
+        assert_eq!(routing.offsets_in_overlay, vec![vec![0, 1]]);
+        let full = i32_array([Some(20), Some(50)]); // values at offset_in_overlay 0, 1
+        let fetched = vec![
+            arrow_select::take::take(
+                full.as_ref(),
+                &UInt32Array::from(routing.offsets_in_overlay[0].clone()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let base = i32_array([Some(0), Some(0), Some(0)]);
+        let resolved = assemble_overlay_column(&base, &routing, &fetched).unwrap();
+        assert_i32_eq(&resolved, [Some(50), Some(20), Some(50)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assemble_value_count_mismatch_errors() {
+        let coverage = bitmap([0, 1]);
+        let routing = route_overlays(&[0, 1], &[&coverage]);
+        let base = i32_array([Some(1), Some(2)]);
+        // One value supplied for two requested offsets is a caller bug.
+        let fetched = vec![i32_array([Some(9)])];
+        assert!(assemble_overlay_column(&base, &routing, &fetched).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_contiguous_fast_path_matches_general() {
+        // The contiguous fast path must produce byte-for-byte identical routing to
+        // the general offset-major path for any contiguous batch. Fuzz a range of
+        // fragment starts, lengths, overlay counts, and coverage densities —
+        // including bits outside the batch range — and compare both paths.
+        let mut state = 0x9e3779b97f4a7c15u64;
+        let mut next = || {
+            state = state
+                .wrapping_mul(6364136223846793005)
+                .wrapping_add(1442695040888963407);
+            (state >> 33) as u32
+        };
+        for _ in 0..500 {
+            let frag_start = next() % 64;
+            let len = (next() % 48 + 1) as usize;
+            let num_overlays = (next() % 5) as usize;
+            let coverages: Vec<RoaringBitmap> = (0..num_overlays)
+                .map(|_| {
+                    let density = next() % 101;
+                    let mut b = RoaringBitmap::new();
+                    for off in frag_start.saturating_sub(3)..frag_start + len as u32 + 3 {
+                        if next() % 100 < density {
+                            b.insert(off);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    b
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let refs: Vec<&RoaringBitmap> = coverages.iter().collect();
+            let contiguous_offsets: Vec<u32> = (frag_start..frag_start + len as u32).collect();
+
+            let fast = route_contiguous(frag_start, len, &refs);
+            let general = route_arbitrary(&contiguous_offsets, &refs);
+            assert_eq!(fast.indices, general.indices, "indices differ");
+            assert_eq!(
+                fast.offsets_in_overlay, general.offsets_in_overlay,
+                "offsets_in_overlay differ"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(fast.any_overlay, general.any_overlay, "any_overlay differs");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `outer { middle { a, b } }` for exercising the descend/splice helpers.
+    fn nested_struct() -> (Schema, ArrayRef) {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        let mid = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        let outer_fields =
+            Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("middle", DataType::Struct(mid), true)]);
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "outer",
+            DataType::Struct(outer_fields),
+            true,
+        )]);
+        let mut schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+        schema.set_field_id(None);
+        let middle = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                i32_array([Some(1), Some(2), Some(3)]),
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                i32_array([Some(10), Some(20), Some(30)]),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let outer: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("middle", middle.data_type().clone(), true)),
+            Arc::new(middle) as ArrayRef,
+        )]));
+        (schema, outer)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_descend_and_splice_roundtrip() {
+        let (schema, outer_arr) = nested_struct();
+        let outer_field = &schema.fields[0];
+        let middle_id = outer_field.children[0].id;
+        let a_id = outer_field.children[0].children[0].id;
+        let path = [middle_id, a_id];
+
+        // Descend to the deep leaf `outer.middle.a`.
+        let a = descend_by_ids(&outer_arr, outer_field, &path).unwrap();
+        assert_i32_eq(&a, [Some(1), Some(2), Some(3)]);
+
+        // Splice a replacement in; only `a` changes, `b` is preserved.
+        let spliced = splice_by_ids(
+            &outer_arr,
+            outer_field,
+            &path,
+            i32_array([Some(7), Some(8), Some(9)]),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let middle = spliced
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+        assert_i32_eq(&middle.column(0).clone(), [Some(7), Some(8), Some(9)]);
+        assert_i32_eq(&middle.column(1).clone(), [Some(10), Some(20), Some(30)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_splice_preserves_struct_nulls() {
+        use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+        let (schema, base) = nested_struct();
+        let outer_field = &schema.fields[0];
+        // Rebuild `outer` with a null at row 1 (a null struct value).
+        let base = base.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().unwrap();
+        let (fields, children, _) = base.clone().into_parts();
+        let outer_arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+            StructArray::try_new(
+                fields,
+                children,
+                Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, true])),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let path = [
+            outer_field.children[0].id,
+            outer_field.children[0].children[0].id,
+        ];
+        let spliced = splice_by_ids(
+            &outer_arr,
+            outer_field,
+            &path,
+            i32_array([Some(7), Some(8), Some(9)]),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let spliced = spliced.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().unwrap();
+        // The outer struct's null buffer survives the splice.
+        assert!(!spliced.is_null(0));
+        assert!(spliced.is_null(1));
+        assert!(!spliced.is_null(2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/overlay/writer.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/overlay/writer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e02da6db41e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/overlay/writer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1621 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Writing data overlay files.
+//!
+//! An overlay supplies new values for a subset of a fragment's
+//! `(offset_in_frag, field)` cells without rewriting its base data files. This
+//! module stages one: [`OverlayWriter`] takes batches of values keyed by
+//! `_rowaddr`, writes them into a value file, and accumulates the coverage the
+//! read path resolves them by. See the [module documentation](super) for the
+//! coordinate spaces involved.
+//!
+//! Two invariants are the caller's to satisfy and this writer's to enforce,
+//! because nothing downstream can:
+//!
+//! - **Values are addressed by rank.** An overlay stores a field's values
+//!   densely, in ascending `offset_in_frag` order, and a covered cell's value is
+//!   found by counting the covered cells below it. A stream that revisited an
+//!   offset it had passed would put its values on the wrong rows, and every
+//!   later value with them. Offsets must therefore strictly ascend, per field,
+//!   across the writer's whole lifetime.
+//! - **Coverage is not value-nullness.** A covered offset holding NULL overrides
+//!   that cell *to* NULL; an offset absent from the coverage falls through to
+//!   the base value. Passing a null to mean "leave this cell alone" silently
+//!   erases live data.
+//!
+//! Neither the commit path nor the read path can catch a violation of either:
+//! `build_manifest` checks that an overlay's target fragment exists and that a
+//! fragment's overlays are ordered newest-last, and resolution trusts the
+//! coverage it is handed. This writer is where they are checked.
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, FieldRef as ArrowFieldRef, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use snafu::Snafu;
+
+use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{
+    NullabilityComparison, Schema, Schema as LanceSchema, SchemaCompareOptions,
+};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ADDR};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::fragment::{
+    FileFragment, discard_staged_file, duplicate_field_path, relax_nullability,
+};
+use crate::dataset::transaction::DataOverlayGroup;
+use crate::dataset::versions;
+use crate::dataset::write::GenericWriter;
+
+/// Why staging a data overlay failed.
+#[derive(Debug, Snafu)]
+pub enum WriteOverlayError {
+    /// The declared schema names a field the dataset does not define, or defines
+    /// differently. `source` names the field and the difference.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "overlay for fragment {fragment_id} declared a schema the dataset does not match: {source}"
+    ))]
+    SchemaMismatch { fragment_id: u64, source: Error },
+
+    /// Overlays address cells by physical offset within a V2 file. The legacy
+    /// reader pairs a fragment's files by batch boundary and has no notion of
+    /// per-field coverage.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "cannot write an overlay for fragment {fragment_id}: the dataset uses the legacy file format"
+    ))]
+    LegacyFileFormat { fragment_id: u64 },
+
+    /// Blob v2 columns carry external descriptors that overlay resolution does
+    /// not read.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "cannot overlay field '{name}' of fragment {fragment_id}: blob columns are not supported"
+    ))]
+    BlobField { fragment_id: u64, name: String },
+
+    /// Overlay resolution is per *atomic field*: a struct is recursed through
+    /// and only its leaves are replaced, so the merge rebuilds the base struct
+    /// with the base's own validity (`splice_by_ids` in the parent module).
+    /// A nullable struct's cell could therefore be covered without its NULL-ness
+    /// changing, in either direction, which is the opposite of what coverage
+    /// means. Refused until the read path can carry ancestor validity; see
+    /// <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/9077>.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "cannot overlay fragment {fragment_id} through nullable struct '{name}': replacing a \
+         struct cell's NULL-ness is not supported yet \
+         (https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/9077)"
+    ))]
+    NullableStructAncestor { fragment_id: u64, name: String },
+
+    /// A batch arrived without the `_rowaddr` column naming the cells its values
+    /// apply to.
+    #[snafu(display("overlay batch for fragment {fragment_id} has no '{ROW_ADDR}' column"))]
+    MissingRowAddr { fragment_id: u64 },
+
+    /// `_rowaddr` was present but not `UInt64`, so it holds something other than
+    /// row addresses.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "overlay batch for fragment {fragment_id} has a '{ROW_ADDR}' of type {data_type}, \
+         expected {expected}"
+    ))]
+    RowAddrType {
+        fragment_id: u64,
+        data_type: DataType,
+        expected: DataType,
+    },
+
+    /// `_rowaddr` is nullable — scans use its validity bitmap as a selection
+    /// vector, so a deleted row can read back as a null address. Skipping those
+    /// rows would drop a value the caller computed and shift every later value's
+    /// rank by one, so they are refused instead.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "overlay batch for fragment {fragment_id} has a null '{ROW_ADDR}' at batch offset \
+         {offset_in_batch}; filter deleted rows out before staging them"
+    ))]
+    NullRowAddr {
+        fragment_id: u64,
+        offset_in_batch: usize,
+    },
+
+    /// An address belongs to a different fragment. Reached when one scan spans a
+    /// range of fragments and its batches are not split before being staged.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "overlay for fragment {fragment_id} received a row address for fragment {}: {row_addr}",
+        RowAddress::new_from_u64(*row_addr).fragment_id()
+    ))]
+    ForeignRowAddr { fragment_id: u64, row_addr: u64 },
+
+    /// An address names an offset past the end of the fragment.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "overlay for fragment {fragment_id} received offset {offset_in_frag}, but the fragment has \
+         {physical_rows} physical rows"
+    ))]
+    OffsetOutOfRange {
+        fragment_id: u64,
+        offset_in_frag: u32,
+        physical_rows: u64,
+    },
+
+    /// Offsets did not strictly ascend, so values would be stored at a rank
+    /// other than the one they will be read back at. `name` is the field the
+    /// ordering broke for, or `_rowaddr` when a single batch is out of order.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "overlay for fragment {fragment_id} received offset {offset_in_frag} for '{name}' after \
+         offset {previous}; offsets must strictly ascend per field"
+    ))]
+    OffsetNotAscending {
+        fragment_id: u64,
+        name: String,
+        previous: u32,
+        offset_in_frag: u32,
+    },
+
+    /// A batch carried a column the overlay was not opened for. An overlay's
+    /// fields are fixed when it opens, because its value file's columns are.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "overlay batch for fragment {fragment_id} has column '{name}', which the overlay was not \
+         opened for"
+    ))]
+    UndeclaredColumn { fragment_id: u64, name: String },
+
+    /// A batch named the same column twice, at the top level or under a struct.
+    /// Columns and their children are matched to fields by name, so a repeat has
+    /// no single field to stage against and projection would silently keep the
+    /// first. `name` is the dotted path to the repeated name.
+    #[snafu(display("overlay batch for fragment {fragment_id} has column '{name}' twice"))]
+    DuplicateColumn { fragment_id: u64, name: String },
+
+    /// A batch's columns matched the overlay's fields by name but not by shape.
+    /// Projection descends by name and downcasts by the *target's* type, so a
+    /// mismatch below the top level would panic in the Arrow cast rather than
+    /// surface here. The whole tree is compared before projecting so it does
+    /// not. `source` names the field and the difference.
+    #[snafu(display(
+        "overlay batch for fragment {fragment_id} does not match the fields it was staged \
+         for: {source}"
+    ))]
+    BatchSchemaMismatch { fragment_id: u64, source: Error },
+
+    /// Anything not overlay-specific: I/O, encoding, or values that do not match
+    /// the field they are staged for.
+    #[snafu(display("{source}"))]
+    Other { source: Error },
+}
+
+impl From<Error> for WriteOverlayError {
+    fn from(source: Error) -> Self {
+        Self::Other { source }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<WriteOverlayError> for Error {
+    fn from(error: WriteOverlayError) -> Self {
+        match error {
+            // Already a lance error, and one that already names the fragment
+            // and the offending field. Re-wrapping would bury the variant
+            // behind an InvalidInput that says less than the error it holds,
+            // and restate what the message already carries.
+            WriteOverlayError::Other { source } => source,
+            WriteOverlayError::SchemaMismatch { source, .. } => source,
+            WriteOverlayError::LegacyFileFormat { .. }
+            | WriteOverlayError::BlobField { .. }
+            | WriteOverlayError::NullableStructAncestor { .. } => {
+                Self::not_supported(error.to_string())
+            }
+            caller_error => Self::invalid_input(caller_error.to_string()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, WriteOverlayError>;
+
+/// Stages one data overlay file for one fragment.
+///
+/// Open it with [`FileFragment::write_overlay`], feed it batches keyed by
+/// `_rowaddr`, and [`finish`](Self::finish) it into a [`DataOverlayGroup`] ready
+/// for `Operation::DataOverlay`. On an error of the caller's own,
+/// [`abort`](Self::abort) discards the staged file. If an error occurs during
+/// the call to [`finish`](Self::finish), the staged file is cleaned up automatically.
+///
+/// # The overlay is bound to the dataset version it was opened on
+///
+/// Coverage is addressed by physical offset, so a staged overlay only means
+/// what it says against the fragment layout it was staged over: `open` range-
+/// checks every address against that snapshot's `physical_rows`, and the read
+/// path resolves the offsets literally. The writer does not track a read
+/// version of its own — the caller commits one, and it must be the version of
+/// the `Dataset` this writer was opened on, not the latest version at commit
+/// time. That is what makes the conflict resolver replay the intervening
+/// commits and reject a concurrent `Rewrite`, `Merge`, or row-moving `Update`
+/// that moved the rows out from under these offsets. Committing a newer read
+/// version skips those checks and lands values on the wrong rows.
+///
+/// A caller staging several fragments, or several groups, commits them under
+/// one read version, so every writer in that batch must be opened on the same
+/// `Dataset` snapshot.
+pub struct OverlayWriter {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    fragment_id: u64,
+    physical_rows: u64,
+    /// The overlay's fields, resolved against the manifest. Column `i` of the
+    /// value file stores `schema.fields[i]`.
+    schema: Schema,
+    /// `schema` as Arrow fields with nullability relaxed, for projecting an
+    /// incoming batch onto the field it is staged for. Built once.
+    arrow_fields: Vec<ArrowFieldRef>,
+    writer: Box<dyn GenericWriter>,
+    staged_path: Path,
+    /// Coverage accumulated per field, indexed as `schema.fields`.
+    coverage: Vec<RoaringBitmap>,
+    /// The last offset staged for each field, for the strict-ascension check.
+    /// `None` until that field is first written.
+    last_offset_in_frag: Vec<Option<u32>>,
+}
+
+impl OverlayWriter {
+    pub(crate) async fn open(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        fragment: &FileFragment,
+        schema: &Schema,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let fragment_id = fragment.id() as u64;
+
+        let file_version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
+        if file_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+            return Err(WriteOverlayError::LegacyFileFormat { fragment_id });
+        }
+
+        let schema = fragment.resolve_writer_schema(schema).map_err(|source| {
+            WriteOverlayError::SchemaMismatch {
+                fragment_id,
+                source,
+            }
+        })?;
+        if let Some(blob) = schema.fields_pre_order().find(|field| field.is_blob_v2()) {
+            return Err(WriteOverlayError::BlobField {
+                fragment_id,
+                name: blob.name.clone(),
+            });
+        }
+        // Only structs are recursed into by resolution, so only they can end up
+        // with a covered leaf under an un-covered parent. A list or map -- even
+        // of structs -- is an atomic field, replaced whole with its own
+        // validity, and a non-nullable struct has no validity to replace.
+        if let Some(parent) = schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .find(|field| field.logical_type.is_struct() && field.nullable)
+        {
+            return Err(WriteOverlayError::NullableStructAncestor {
+                fragment_id,
+                name: parent.name.clone(),
+            });
+        }
+
+        let physical_rows = fragment.physical_rows().await? as u64;
+        // Blob v2 is rejected above, so no external base resolution is needed.
+        let writer =
+            versions::open_update_writer(file_version, dataset.as_ref(), &schema, false).await?;
+        let staged_path = {
+            let (file_name, _) = writer.data_file_path();
+            dataset.data_dir().join(file_name)
+        };
+
+        let arrow_fields = ArrowSchema::from(&schema)
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| Arc::new(relax_nullability(field)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let field_count = schema.fields.len();
+        Ok(Self {
+            dataset,
+            fragment_id,
+            physical_rows,
+            schema,
+            arrow_fields,
+            writer,
+            staged_path,
+            coverage: vec![RoaringBitmap::new(); field_count],
+            last_offset_in_frag: vec![None; field_count],
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Supply values for some of the overlay's fields.
+    ///
+    /// `_rowaddr` is required and names the cell each row's values apply to. The
+    /// addresses must belong to this fragment and strictly ascend. Every other
+    /// column must be one of the fields the overlay was opened for, and a batch
+    /// may carry any subset of them — a field's coverage is the offsets it is
+    /// given, accumulated across batches.
+    ///
+    /// Passing a NULL value covers that cell *with* NULL, overriding the base
+    /// value. To leave a cell alone, omit its row.
+    pub async fn write_batch(&mut self, data: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        let offsets_in_frag = self.validated_offsets(data)?;
+        let positions = self.validated_columns(data)?;
+        let Some(&first_offset_in_frag) = offsets_in_frag.first() else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+
+        for &position in &positions {
+            if let Some(previous) = self.last_offset_in_frag[position]
+                && previous >= first_offset_in_frag
+            {
+                return Err(WriteOverlayError::OffsetNotAscending {
+                    fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+                    name: self.schema.fields[position].name.clone(),
+                    previous,
+                    offset_in_frag: first_offset_in_frag,
+                });
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Project rather than take columns as they arrive: a struct's children
+        // may be in any order, and values that do not match the field they are
+        // staged for are rejected here instead of being encoded.
+        let projection = ArrowSchema::new(
+            positions
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&position| self.arrow_fields[position].clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        let projected = data.project_by_schema(&projection).map_err(Error::from)?;
+
+        for (projected_index, &position) in positions.iter().enumerate() {
+            self.writer
+                .write_column(position, projected.column(projected_index).clone())
+                .await?;
+            self.coverage[position].extend(offsets_in_frag.iter().copied());
+            self.last_offset_in_frag[position] = offsets_in_frag.last().copied();
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Finish the overlay.
+    ///
+    /// Fields given identical coverage yield a dense overlay
+    /// ([`OverlayCoverage::Shared`]); otherwise coverage is recorded per field.
+    /// A field that was never written keeps an empty coverage and a zero-length
+    /// value column, contributing nothing on read.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `Ok(None)` when no cell was staged at all: the file is discarded
+    /// and there is nothing to commit. The returned overlay's
+    /// `committed_version` is a placeholder — the commit stamps the version it
+    /// produces, and re-stamps it on a conflict retry.
+    ///
+    /// The group carries no read version. Commit it with the version of the
+    /// `Dataset` this writer was opened on; see the [type
+    /// documentation](Self) for why a later one is unsafe.
+    pub async fn finish(mut self) -> Result<Option<DataOverlayGroup>> {
+        let coverage_by_schema_field = std::mem::take(&mut self.coverage);
+        if coverage_by_schema_field.iter().all(RoaringBitmap::is_empty) {
+            self.discard().await;
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        // Either shape resolves correctly; a shared bitmap is the cheaper one,
+        // storing a single bitmap in the manifest instead of N identical copies
+        // of it. Most overlays fill every declared field on the rows they touch.
+        let is_dense = coverage_by_schema_field
+            .windows(2)
+            .all(|pair| pair[0] == pair[1]);
+
+        let (_, data_file) = match self.writer.finish().await {
+            Ok(finished) => finished,
+            Err(error) => {
+                self.discard().await;
+                return Err(error.into());
+            }
+        };
+
+        let coverage = if is_dense {
+            // `windows(2)` is vacuously true for one field, and the zero-field
+            // case returned above, so there is always a first bitmap here.
+            let Some(shared) = coverage_by_schema_field.into_iter().next() else {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "overlay for fragment {} staged values for no field at all",
+                    self.fragment_id
+                ))
+                .into());
+            };
+            OverlayCoverage::dense(shared)
+        } else {
+            // Sparse coverage is indexed by position in `data_file.fields`, which
+            // lists every field the file holds -- a struct's children as well as
+            // the struct itself -- in the encoder's order, not the schema's. A
+            // column is staged whole, so every field under a top-level column
+            // shares that column's coverage.
+            let mut coverage_by_file_field = Vec::with_capacity(data_file.fields.len());
+            for &field_id in data_file.fields.iter() {
+                let position = self
+                    .schema
+                    .fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .position(|top| top.id == field_id || top.field_by_id(field_id).is_some());
+                let Some(position) = position else {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "overlay for fragment {} staged a file holding field id {field_id}, which \
+                         is not one of the fields it was opened for",
+                        self.fragment_id
+                    ))
+                    .into());
+                };
+                coverage_by_file_field.push(coverage_by_schema_field[position].clone());
+            }
+            OverlayCoverage::sparse(coverage_by_file_field)
+        };
+
+        Ok(Some(DataOverlayGroup {
+            fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+            overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file,
+                coverage,
+                committed_version: 0,
+            }],
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Discard the staged file without committing anything.
+    ///
+    /// Best effort: a file left behind is unreferenced either way, and cleanup reclaims it.
+    ///
+    /// This is not callable after calling [`finish`](Self::finish). That method
+    /// will invoke the cleanup in the case of errors automatically.
+    pub async fn abort(self) {
+        self.discard().await
+    }
+
+    async fn discard(self) {
+        let Self {
+            dataset,
+            writer,
+            staged_path,
+            ..
+        } = self;
+        // The writer may still hold the file open (a buffered upload, an
+        // unflushed local handle); release it before deleting.
+        drop(writer);
+        discard_staged_file(dataset.as_ref(), &staged_path).await;
+    }
+
+    /// The batch's addresses as fragment-local offsets, checked for nullness,
+    /// fragment, range, and strict ascension within the batch.
+    fn validated_offsets(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Vec<u32>> {
+        let column = batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ADDR)
+            .ok_or(WriteOverlayError::MissingRowAddr {
+                fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+            })?;
+        let addrs = column.as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>().ok_or_else(|| {
+            WriteOverlayError::RowAddrType {
+                fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+                data_type: column.data_type().clone(),
+                expected: DataType::UInt64,
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        let mut offsets_in_frag = Vec::with_capacity(addrs.len());
+        let mut previous: Option<u32> = None;
+        for offset_in_batch in 0..addrs.len() {
+            if addrs.is_null(offset_in_batch) {
+                return Err(WriteOverlayError::NullRowAddr {
+                    fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+                    offset_in_batch,
+                });
+            }
+            let row_addr = addrs.value(offset_in_batch);
+            let address = RowAddress::new_from_u64(row_addr);
+            if u64::from(address.fragment_id()) != self.fragment_id {
+                return Err(WriteOverlayError::ForeignRowAddr {
+                    fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+                    row_addr,
+                });
+            }
+            let offset_in_frag = address.row_offset();
+            if u64::from(offset_in_frag) >= self.physical_rows {
+                return Err(WriteOverlayError::OffsetOutOfRange {
+                    fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+                    offset_in_frag,
+                    physical_rows: self.physical_rows,
+                });
+            }
+            if let Some(previous) = previous
+                && previous >= offset_in_frag
+            {
+                return Err(WriteOverlayError::OffsetNotAscending {
+                    fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+                    name: ROW_ADDR.to_string(),
+                    previous,
+                    offset_in_frag,
+                });
+            }
+            previous = Some(offset_in_frag);
+            offsets_in_frag.push(offset_in_frag);
+        }
+        Ok(offsets_in_frag)
+    }
+
+    /// The overlay-field positions this batch supplies, in schema order.
+    ///
+    /// Admits the batch before anything downcasts it: a duplicate name anywhere
+    /// in the tree, a column the overlay was not opened for, and any shape
+    /// difference against the fields it was opened for are all rejected here.
+    /// `write_batch` projects by name and Arrow's projection then downcasts to
+    /// the *target's* type, so a nested mismatch left to it would panic instead
+    /// of returning an error, and a duplicate child would be resolved to
+    /// whichever came first.
+    fn validated_columns(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
+        if let Some(duplicate) = duplicate_field_path(batch.schema_ref().fields(), "") {
+            return Err(WriteOverlayError::DuplicateColumn {
+                fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+                name: duplicate,
+            });
+        }
+
+        let mut present = HashSet::with_capacity(batch.num_columns());
+        for field in batch.schema_ref().fields() {
+            if field.name() == ROW_ADDR {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if !self
+                .schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .any(|declared| &declared.name == field.name())
+            {
+                return Err(WriteOverlayError::UndeclaredColumn {
+                    fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+                    name: field.name().clone(),
+                });
+            }
+            present.insert(field.name().clone());
+        }
+
+        let positions = self
+            .schema
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(_, field)| present.contains(&field.name))
+            .map(|(position, _)| position)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        // Compare the whole tree, not just the names checked above. A column is
+        // staged whole, so a struct must arrive with every child the overlay was
+        // opened for -- a partial struct would encode NULLs into the children it
+        // omitted while claiming coverage for them. Field order is the caller's
+        // to choose, and nullability is enforced by the writer against the data
+        // rather than against the declared schema.
+        let staged = ArrowSchema::new(
+            batch
+                .schema_ref()
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|field| field.name() != ROW_ADDR)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        let expected = ArrowSchema::new(
+            positions
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&position| self.arrow_fields[position].clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        LanceSchema::try_from(&staged)
+            .and_then(|staged| {
+                staged.check_compatible(
+                    &LanceSchema::try_from(&expected)?,
+                    &SchemaCompareOptions {
+                        compare_nullability: NullabilityComparison::Ignore,
+                        ignore_field_order: true,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    },
+                )
+            })
+            .map_err(|source| WriteOverlayError::BatchSchemaMismatch {
+                fragment_id: self.fragment_id,
+                source,
+            })?;
+
+        Ok(positions)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StructArray, UInt64Array, record_batch,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::Field as ArrowField;
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use tempfile::{TempDir, tempdir};
+
+    use crate::dataset::transaction::Operation;
+    use crate::dataset::{DATA_DIR, WriteDestination, WriteParams};
+
+    /// Two six-row fragments of `id` (field 0) = 0..12, `val` (field 1) = id * 10,
+    /// and `tag` (field 2) = id * 100. Backed by a temp dir so tests can count the
+    /// files left in `data/`.
+    async fn test_dataset() -> (TempDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+        test_dataset_with(None).await
+    }
+
+    async fn test_dataset_with(
+        data_storage_version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+    ) -> (TempDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+        let test_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+        let batch = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, (0..12).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            ("val", Int32, (0..12).map(|v| v * 10).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            ("tag", Int32, (0..12).map(|v| v * 100).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 6,
+            max_rows_per_group: 6,
+            data_storage_version,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+        (test_dir, Arc::new(dataset))
+    }
+
+    /// The overlay schema for `val` alone, or for `val` and `tag`.
+    fn overlay_schema(dataset: &Dataset, ids: &[i32]) -> Schema {
+        dataset.schema().project_by_ids(ids, true)
+    }
+
+    fn addrs(fragment_id: u32, offsets: &[u32]) -> Vec<u64> {
+        offsets
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, offset)))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn int32(values: Vec<Option<i32>>) -> ArrayRef {
+        Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values))
+    }
+
+    /// `_rowaddr` for `offsets` of `fragment_id`, alongside the given columns.
+    fn batch(fragment_id: u32, offsets: &[u32], columns: Vec<(&str, ArrayRef)>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let addrs: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(addrs(fragment_id, offsets)));
+        let columns = std::iter::once((ROW_ADDR, addrs, true))
+            .chain(columns.into_iter().map(|(name, array)| (name, array, true)));
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter_with_nullable(columns).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn val_batch(offsets: &[u32], values: Vec<Option<i32>>) -> RecordBatch {
+        batch(0, offsets, vec![("val", int32(values))])
+    }
+
+    fn tag_batch(offsets: &[u32], values: Vec<Option<i32>>) -> RecordBatch {
+        batch(0, offsets, vec![("tag", int32(values))])
+    }
+
+    async fn open_writer(dataset: &Arc<Dataset>, ids: &[i32]) -> OverlayWriter {
+        open_writer_on(dataset, 0, ids).await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_writer_on(
+        dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+        fragment_id: usize,
+        ids: &[i32],
+    ) -> OverlayWriter {
+        let schema = overlay_schema(dataset, ids);
+        dataset
+            .get_fragment(fragment_id)
+            .unwrap()
+            .write_overlay(&schema)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn commit(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, group: DataOverlayGroup) -> Dataset {
+        commit_groups(dataset, vec![group]).await
+    }
+
+    async fn commit_groups(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, groups: Vec<DataOverlayGroup>) -> Dataset {
+        let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+        Dataset::commit(
+            WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset),
+            Operation::DataOverlay { groups },
+            Some(read_version),
+            None,
+            None,
+            Arc::new(Default::default()),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// `id -> (val, tag)`, nulls included, ordered by `id`.
+    async fn scanned(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<(i32, Option<i32>, Option<i32>)> {
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id", "val", "tag"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let column = |name: &str| batch[name].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().clone();
+        let (ids, vals, tags) = (column("id"), column("val"), column("tag"));
+        let mut rows = (0..batch.num_rows())
+            .map(|i| {
+                (
+                    ids.value(i),
+                    vals.is_valid(i).then(|| vals.value(i)),
+                    tags.is_valid(i).then(|| tags.value(i)),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        rows.sort_by_key(|row| row.0);
+        rows
+    }
+
+    /// Every entry in `data/`, in-progress temp files included: on local storage
+    /// a file being written lives there under a temporary name until it is
+    /// finished, so this catches a leak whether or not the writer got as far as
+    /// publishing the `.lance` path.
+    fn staged_file_count(test_dir: &TempDir) -> usize {
+        std::fs::read_dir(test_dir.path().join(DATA_DIR))
+            .unwrap()
+            .count()
+    }
+
+    fn shared_coverage(group: &DataOverlayGroup) -> &RoaringBitmap {
+        match &group.overlays[0].coverage {
+            OverlayCoverage::Shared(bitmap) => bitmap,
+            other => panic!("expected shared coverage, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The coverage the read path will resolve for `field_id`, looked up the way
+    /// `plan_overlays` looks it up: by the field's position in `data_file.fields`.
+    fn coverage_of(group: &DataOverlayGroup, field_id: i32) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        let overlay = &group.overlays[0];
+        let position = overlay
+            .data_file
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .position(|&id| id == field_id)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                panic!(
+                    "field {field_id} is not in the overlay's fields {:?}",
+                    overlay.data_file.fields
+                )
+            });
+        (*overlay.coverage_for_field(position).unwrap()).clone()
+    }
+
+    fn field_id(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> i32 {
+        dataset.schema().field(name).unwrap().id
+    }
+
+    /// Every V2 file version the dataset can be written at. 2.2 and 2.3 route
+    /// through the blob writer, which refuses `write_column` when it has a
+    /// sidecar to prepare; a blob-free schema must not get one, or no overlay
+    /// can be written at those versions at all.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v2_0(LanceFileVersion::V2_0)]
+    #[case::v2_1(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)]
+    #[case::v2_2(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+    #[case::v2_3(LanceFileVersion::V2_3)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_overlay_overrides_covered_cells(#[case] version: LanceFileVersion) {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset_with(Some(version)).await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[1, 3], vec![Some(-1), Some(-3)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(group.fragment_id, 0);
+        assert_eq!(*shared_coverage(&group), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 3]));
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let rows = scanned(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(rows[1], (1, Some(-1), Some(100)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[3], (3, Some(-3), Some(300)));
+        // Uncovered rows keep their base values, in this fragment and the next.
+        assert_eq!(rows[2], (2, Some(20), Some(200)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[7], (7, Some(70), Some(700)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_covering_a_cell_with_null_overrides_it() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[2], vec![None]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        assert_eq!(scanned(&dataset).await[2], (2, None, Some(200)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batches_accumulate_coverage() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[0, 1], vec![Some(-1), Some(-2)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[4], vec![Some(-5)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *shared_coverage(&group),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1, 4])
+        );
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let vals = scanned(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(_, val, _)| val)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            vals[..6],
+            [Some(-1), Some(-2), Some(20), Some(30), Some(-5), Some(50)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fields_covered_alike_share_one_bitmap() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1, 2]).await;
+        let both = batch(
+            0,
+            &[0, 2],
+            vec![
+                ("val", int32(vec![Some(-1), Some(-3)])),
+                ("tag", int32(vec![Some(-10), Some(-30)])),
+            ],
+        );
+        writer.write_batch(&both).await.unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*shared_coverage(&group), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 2]));
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let rows = scanned(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(rows[0], (0, Some(-1), Some(-10)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[2], (2, Some(-3), Some(-30)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[1], (1, Some(10), Some(100)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fields_covered_differently_get_their_own_bitmaps() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1, 2]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[0, 1], vec![Some(-1), Some(-2)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&tag_batch(&[5], vec![Some(-50)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        assert!(matches!(
+            group.overlays[0].coverage,
+            OverlayCoverage::PerField(_)
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(
+            coverage_of(&group, field_id(&dataset, "val")),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            coverage_of(&group, field_id(&dataset, "tag")),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([5])
+        );
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let rows = scanned(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(rows[0], (0, Some(-1), Some(0)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[1], (1, Some(-2), Some(100)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[5], (5, Some(50), Some(-50)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_declared_field_may_go_unwritten() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1, 2]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[3], vec![Some(-4)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        // `tag` still gets a column in the value file, covering nothing -- the
+        // shape resolution has to tolerate an empty bitmap rather than a missing
+        // field.
+        assert_eq!(
+            coverage_of(&group, field_id(&dataset, "val")),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3])
+        );
+        assert!(coverage_of(&group, field_id(&dataset, "tag")).is_empty());
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        assert_eq!(scanned(&dataset).await[3], (3, Some(-4), Some(300)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nothing_staged_leaves_nothing_behind() {
+        let (test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let before = staged_file_count(&test_dir);
+        let writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        assert!(writer.finish().await.unwrap().is_none());
+        assert_eq!(staged_file_count(&test_dir), before);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_abort_leaves_nothing_behind() {
+        let (test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let before = staged_file_count(&test_dir);
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[0], vec![Some(-1)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.abort().await;
+        assert_eq!(staged_file_count(&test_dir), before);
+    }
+
+    /// Batches an overlay must refuse. Each case writes its batches in turn and
+    /// expects the last to be rejected, so a case can first set up the state --
+    /// accumulated coverage, a per-field cursor -- that makes it wrong.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::no_row_addr(
+        vec![record_batch!(("val", Int32, vec![Some(-1)])).unwrap()],
+        |error| matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::MissingRowAddr { .. }),
+        "has no '_rowaddr' column"
+    )]
+    #[case::row_addr_of_the_wrong_type(
+        vec![record_batch!(
+            (ROW_ADDR, Int32, vec![Some(0)]),
+            ("val", Int32, vec![Some(-1)])
+        ).unwrap()],
+        |error| matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::RowAddrType { .. }),
+        "has a '_rowaddr' of type Int32, expected UInt64"
+    )]
+    #[case::null_row_addr(
+        vec![record_batch!(
+            (ROW_ADDR, UInt64, vec![Some(addrs(0, &[0])[0]), None]),
+            ("val", Int32, vec![Some(-1), Some(-2)])
+        ).unwrap()],
+        |error| matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::NullRowAddr { offset_in_batch: 1, .. }),
+        "null '_rowaddr' at batch offset 1"
+    )]
+    #[case::row_addr_from_another_fragment(
+        vec![batch(1, &[0], vec![("val", int32(vec![Some(-1)]))])],
+        |error| matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::ForeignRowAddr { .. }),
+        "overlay for fragment 0 received a row address for fragment 1"
+    )]
+    #[case::offset_past_the_end_of_the_fragment(
+        vec![val_batch(&[6], vec![Some(-1)])],
+        |error| matches!(
+            error,
+            WriteOverlayError::OffsetOutOfRange { offset_in_frag: 6, physical_rows: 6, .. }
+        ),
+        "received offset 6, but the fragment has 6 physical rows"
+    )]
+    #[case::offsets_descending_within_a_batch(
+        vec![val_batch(&[3, 1], vec![Some(-1), Some(-2)])],
+        |error| matches!(
+            error,
+            WriteOverlayError::OffsetNotAscending { previous: 3, offset_in_frag: 1, .. }
+        ),
+        "received offset 1 for '_rowaddr' after offset 3"
+    )]
+    #[case::offset_repeated_across_batches(
+        vec![
+            val_batch(&[1, 3], vec![Some(-1), Some(-2)]),
+            val_batch(&[3], vec![Some(-3)]),
+        ],
+        |error| matches!(
+            error,
+            WriteOverlayError::OffsetNotAscending { previous: 3, offset_in_frag: 3, .. }
+        ),
+        "received offset 3 for 'val' after offset 3"
+    )]
+    #[case::undeclared_column(
+        vec![tag_batch(&[0], vec![Some(-1)])],
+        |error| matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::UndeclaredColumn { .. }),
+        "has column 'tag', which the overlay was not opened for"
+    )]
+    #[case::duplicate_column(
+        vec![record_batch!(
+            (ROW_ADDR, UInt64, addrs(0, &[0])),
+            ("val", Int32, vec![Some(-1)]),
+            ("val", Int32, vec![Some(-2)])
+        ).unwrap()],
+        |error| matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::DuplicateColumn { .. }),
+        "has column 'val' twice"
+    )]
+    #[case::value_of_the_wrong_type(
+        vec![record_batch!(
+            (ROW_ADDR, UInt64, addrs(0, &[0])),
+            ("val", Utf8, vec![Some("not an int")])
+        ).unwrap()],
+        |error| matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::BatchSchemaMismatch { .. }),
+        "val"
+    )]
+    #[case::duplicate_row_addr(
+        vec![record_batch!(
+            (ROW_ADDR, UInt64, addrs(0, &[0])),
+            (ROW_ADDR, UInt64, addrs(0, &[1])),
+            ("val", Int32, vec![Some(-1)])
+        ).unwrap()],
+        |error| matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::DuplicateColumn { .. }),
+        "has column '_rowaddr' twice"
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bad_batch_is_rejected(
+        #[case] batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+        #[case] expected: fn(WriteOverlayError) -> bool,
+        #[case] message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        let (last, accepted) = batches.split_last().unwrap();
+        for batch in accepted {
+            writer.write_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let error = writer.write_batch(last).await.unwrap_err();
+        let display = error.to_string();
+        assert!(display.contains(message), "{display}");
+        assert!(expected(error), "unexpected variant: {display}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_undeclared_field_id_is_rejected_at_open() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut schema = overlay_schema(&dataset, &[1]);
+        schema.fields[0].id = 99;
+        let Err(error) = dataset
+            .get_fragment(0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .write_overlay(&schema)
+            .await
+        else {
+            panic!("expected opening the overlay to fail");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::SchemaMismatch { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("names field id 99 ('val') that the dataset schema does not define"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_legacy_file_format_is_rejected() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset_with(Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy)).await;
+        let schema = overlay_schema(&dataset, &[1]);
+        let Err(error) = dataset
+            .get_fragment(0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .write_overlay(&schema)
+            .await
+        else {
+            panic!("expected opening the overlay to fail");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::LegacyFileFormat { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("the dataset uses the legacy file format"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(Error::from(error), Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_offsets_are_local_to_the_fragment() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer_on(&dataset, 1, &[1]).await;
+        let values = batch(1, &[0, 2], vec![("val", int32(vec![Some(-1), Some(-3)]))]);
+        writer.write_batch(&values).await.unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(group.fragment_id, 1);
+        assert_eq!(*shared_coverage(&group), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 2]));
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let rows = scanned(&dataset).await;
+        // Fragment 1 holds ids 6..12, so its offsets 0 and 2 are ids 6 and 8 --
+        // not the dataset's rows 0 and 2, which belong to fragment 0.
+        assert_eq!(rows[6], (6, Some(-1), Some(600)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[8], (8, Some(-3), Some(800)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[0], (0, Some(0), Some(0)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[2], (2, Some(20), Some(200)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_one_commit_can_overlay_several_fragments() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        // Both open at once, as a scan spanning the fragments would leave them.
+        let mut first = open_writer_on(&dataset, 0, &[1]).await;
+        let mut second = open_writer_on(&dataset, 1, &[1]).await;
+        first
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[1], vec![Some(-1)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        second
+            .write_batch(&batch(1, &[1], vec![("val", int32(vec![Some(-2)]))]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let groups = vec![
+            first.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap(),
+            second.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap(),
+        ];
+
+        let dataset = commit_groups(dataset, groups).await;
+        let rows = scanned(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(rows[1], (1, Some(-1), Some(100)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[7], (7, Some(-2), Some(700)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_offsets_are_physical_so_deletions_do_not_shift_them() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut dataset = Arc::try_unwrap(dataset).unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("id = 1").await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        // Physical offsets, so the deleted row still occupies offset 1: id 2 is
+        // at offset 2, not at the offset 1 it would hold if deletions closed up.
+        // Offset 1 itself stays addressable -- it is in range, and its value is
+        // simply unreachable while the row is deleted.
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[1, 2, 5], vec![Some(-2), Some(-3), Some(-6)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            *shared_coverage(&group),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 5])
+        );
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let rows = scanned(&dataset).await;
+        assert!(!rows.iter().any(|row| row.0 == 1), "id 1 is deleted");
+        assert_eq!(rows[1], (2, Some(-3), Some(200)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[4], (5, Some(-6), Some(500)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[0], (0, Some(0), Some(0)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_range_is_bounded_by_physical_rows_not_live_rows() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut dataset = Arc::try_unwrap(dataset).unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("id < 3").await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        // Three of six rows are deleted, but the last physical offset is still 5.
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[5], vec![Some(-6)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let error = writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[6], vec![Some(-7)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            error,
+            WriteOverlayError::OffsetOutOfRange {
+                offset_in_frag: 6,
+                physical_rows: 6,
+                ..
+            }
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ascension_is_tracked_per_field() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1, 2]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[5], vec![Some(-6)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // A lower offset for a different field is legal: each field has its own
+        // cursor. A single shared cursor would reject this.
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&tag_batch(&[0], vec![Some(-10)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let rows = scanned(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(rows[5], (5, Some(-6), Some(500)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[0], (0, Some(0), Some(-10)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_newest_overlay_wins() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[2], vec![Some(-1)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(commit(dataset, writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap()).await);
+        assert_eq!(scanned(&dataset).await[2], (2, Some(-1), Some(200)));
+
+        // Overlaying an already-overlaid fragment stacks a second file on it.
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[2], vec![Some(-2)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap()).await;
+        assert_eq!(scanned(&dataset).await[2], (2, Some(-2), Some(200)));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_empty_batch_is_a_no_op() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = test_dataset().await;
+        let mut writer = open_writer(&dataset, &[1]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[3], vec![Some(-4)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Neither an empty batch nor one carrying no values disturbs the
+        // coverage or the per-field cursor already accumulated.
+        writer.write_batch(&val_batch(&[], vec![])).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_batch(&batch(0, &[4], vec![])).await.unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&val_batch(&[5], vec![Some(-6)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*shared_coverage(&group), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3, 5]));
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let rows = scanned(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(rows[3], (3, Some(-4), Some(300)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[4], (4, Some(40), Some(400)));
+        assert_eq!(rows[5], (5, Some(-6), Some(500)));
+    }
+
+    fn nested_array(a: Vec<i32>, b: Vec<i32>) -> ArrayRef {
+        let field = |name| Arc::new(ArrowField::new(name, DataType::Int32, true));
+        Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
+            (field("a"), Arc::new(Int32Array::from(a)) as ArrayRef),
+            (field("b"), Arc::new(Int32Array::from(b)) as ArrayRef),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// One four-row fragment of `val` = 0..4 and `nested: struct<a: i32, b: i32>`
+    /// with `a` = 0..4 and `b` = a * 10.
+    ///
+    /// `nested` is non-nullable: an overlay through a *nullable* struct is
+    /// refused at open (see `test_nullable_struct_ancestor_is_rejected`), so a
+    /// nullable fixture could not reach the behavior these tests are about.
+    async fn nested_dataset() -> (TempDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+        nested_dataset_with_nullable_struct(false).await
+    }
+
+    async fn nested_dataset_with_nullable_struct(nullable: bool) -> (TempDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+        let test_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+        let base = RecordBatch::try_from_iter_with_nullable(vec![
+            ("val", int32((0..4).map(Some).collect()), true),
+            (
+                "nested",
+                nested_array((0..4).collect(), (0..4).map(|v| v * 10).collect()),
+                nullable,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+        let arrow_schema = base.schema();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(base)], arrow_schema);
+        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap());
+        (test_dir, dataset)
+    }
+
+    /// Resolution rebuilds a struct with the *base's* validity, so a covered
+    /// nullable struct cell would keep its old NULL-ness. Refused at open until
+    /// https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/9077 lands, rather than
+    /// silently writing an overlay the read path will not honor.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nullable_struct_ancestor_is_rejected() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = nested_dataset_with_nullable_struct(true).await;
+        let schema = overlay_schema(&dataset, &[field_id(&dataset, "nested")]);
+        let Err(error) = dataset
+            .get_fragment(0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .write_overlay(&schema)
+            .await
+        else {
+            panic!("expected opening the overlay to fail");
+        };
+        let display = error.to_string();
+        assert!(display.contains("nullable struct 'nested'"), "{display}");
+        assert!(display.contains("issues/9077"), "{display}");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::NullableStructAncestor { .. }),
+            "unexpected variant: {display}"
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(Error::from(error), Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_struct_column_shares_its_coverage_with_its_children() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = nested_dataset().await;
+
+        let val_id = field_id(&dataset, "val");
+        let nested_id = field_id(&dataset, "nested");
+        let child_ids = dataset
+            .schema()
+            .field("nested")
+            .unwrap()
+            .children
+            .iter()
+            .map(|child| child.id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(child_ids.len(), 2);
+
+        let mut writer = open_writer_on(&dataset, 0, &[val_id, nested_id]).await;
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&batch(0, &[0], vec![("val", int32(vec![Some(-1)]))]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&batch(
+                0,
+                &[2],
+                vec![("nested", nested_array(vec![-7], vec![-70]))],
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        // The value file lists leaves, so `nested` contributes two entries
+        // rather than one: sparse coverage is longer than the overlay's two
+        // declared fields, and a child's bitmap has to be found through its
+        // parent.
+        let overlay = &group.overlays[0];
+        assert_eq!(
+            overlay.data_file.fields.len(),
+            1 + child_ids.len(),
+            "expected leaf fields in {:?}",
+            overlay.data_file.fields
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(overlay.coverage, OverlayCoverage::PerField(_)));
+        assert_eq!(coverage_of(&group, val_id), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0]));
+        for id in child_ids {
+            assert_eq!(
+                coverage_of(&group, id),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2]),
+                "field {id} should carry the struct's coverage"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let read_back = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["val", "nested"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vals = read_back["val"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        assert_eq!((vals.value(0), vals.value(2)), (-1, 2));
+        let nested = read_back["nested"].as_struct();
+        let child = |i: usize| {
+            nested
+                .column(i)
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        };
+        assert_eq!((child(0)[2], child(1)[2]), (-7, -70));
+        assert_eq!((child(0)[0], child(1)[0]), (0, 0));
+    }
+
+    /// A struct array of the given `(name, values)` children, in the order given.
+    fn struct_of(children: Vec<(&str, Vec<i32>)>) -> ArrayRef {
+        Arc::new(StructArray::from(
+            children
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(name, values)| {
+                    (
+                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new(name, DataType::Int32, true)),
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef,
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Projection descends by name and downcasts to the *target's* type, so
+    /// every one of these reached an Arrow cast and panicked before the batch
+    /// was admitted against the whole field tree.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::struct_arrived_as_a_primitive(
+        vec![("nested", int32(vec![Some(99)]))],
+        "nested"
+    )]
+    #[case::struct_child_of_the_wrong_type(
+        vec![("nested", Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Utf8, true)),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec![Some("x")])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])) as ArrayRef)],
+        "a"
+    )]
+    #[case::struct_missing_a_child(
+        vec![("nested", struct_of(vec![("a", vec![1])]))],
+        "b"
+    )]
+    #[case::struct_with_an_extra_child(
+        vec![("nested", struct_of(vec![("a", vec![1]), ("b", vec![2]), ("c", vec![3])]))],
+        "c"
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_malformed_nested_batch_is_rejected(
+        #[case] columns: Vec<(&str, ArrayRef)>,
+        #[case] message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = nested_dataset().await;
+        let nested_id = field_id(&dataset, "nested");
+        let mut writer = open_writer_on(&dataset, 0, &[nested_id]).await;
+
+        let error = writer
+            .write_batch(&batch(0, &[0], columns))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        let display = error.to_string();
+        assert!(display.contains(message), "{display}");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::BatchSchemaMismatch { .. }),
+            "unexpected variant: {display}"
+        );
+        writer.abort().await;
+    }
+
+    /// Duplicate siblings are invisible to a name-set comparison, and projection
+    /// would silently keep whichever came first.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_duplicate_struct_child_is_rejected() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = nested_dataset().await;
+        let nested_id = field_id(&dataset, "nested");
+        let mut writer = open_writer_on(&dataset, 0, &[nested_id]).await;
+
+        let duplicated = struct_of(vec![("a", vec![1]), ("a", vec![2]), ("b", vec![3])]);
+        let error = writer
+            .write_batch(&batch(0, &[0], vec![("nested", duplicated)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        let display = error.to_string();
+        assert!(display.contains("'nested.a' twice"), "{display}");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::DuplicateColumn { .. }),
+            "unexpected variant: {display}"
+        );
+        writer.abort().await;
+    }
+
+    /// The admission pass compares the tree, not the child order: a struct whose
+    /// children arrive reversed is projected back into the manifest's order
+    /// rather than landing under the wrong field ids.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_struct_children_may_arrive_in_any_order() {
+        let (_test_dir, dataset) = nested_dataset().await;
+        let nested_id = field_id(&dataset, "nested");
+        let mut writer = open_writer_on(&dataset, 0, &[nested_id]).await;
+
+        let reversed = struct_of(vec![("b", vec![-70]), ("a", vec![-7])]);
+        writer
+            .write_batch(&batch(0, &[2], vec![("nested", reversed)]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let group = writer.finish().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = commit(dataset, group).await;
+        let read_back = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["nested"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let nested = read_back["nested"].as_struct();
+        let child = |i: usize| nested.column(i).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(2);
+        assert_eq!((child(0), child(1)), (-7, -70));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_field_is_rejected() {
+        let test_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap().to_string();
+        let field = |name, data_type| Arc::new(ArrowField::new(name, data_type, true));
+        let descriptor: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                field("data", DataType::LargeBinary),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(
+                    b"hello".as_slice(),
+                )])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                field("uri", DataType::Utf8),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                field("position", DataType::UInt64),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![None::<u64>])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+            (
+                field("size", DataType::UInt64),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![None::<u64>])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let blob = ArrowField::new("blob", descriptor.data_type().clone(), true).with_metadata(
+            [(
+                lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+                lance_arrow::BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+            )]
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect(),
+        );
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![blob]));
+        let base = RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![descriptor]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(base)], arrow_schema);
+        // Blob v2 columns need a 2.2 or newer file.
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap());
+
+        let schema = overlay_schema(&dataset, &[field_id(&dataset, "blob")]);
+        let Err(error) = dataset
+            .get_fragment(0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .write_overlay(&schema)
+            .await
+        else {
+            panic!("expected opening the overlay to fail");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(error, WriteOverlayError::BlobField { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("blob columns are not supported"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        assert!(matches!(Error::from(error), Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/progress.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/progress.rs
index 1e489d0b768..e970adc47ee 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/progress.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/progress.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use lance_table::format::Fragment;
 
@@ -26,6 +28,47 @@ pub trait WriteFragmentProgress: std::fmt::Debug + Sync + Send {
     async fn complete(&self, fragment: &Fragment) -> Result<()>;
 }
 
+/// Statistics reported to the write progress callback set via
+/// [`InsertBuilder::progress`](crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::progress) or
+/// [`WriteParams::write_progress`](crate::dataset::WriteParams::write_progress).
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct WriteStats {
+    /// Cumulative bytes handed to the writer so far.
+    ///
+    /// For local storage this closely tracks bytes flushed to disk. For cloud
+    /// object stores (S3, GCS, Azure) this reflects bytes handed to the
+    /// multipart-upload buffer; actual network I/O may lag slightly.
+    pub bytes_written: u64,
+    /// Cumulative rows written so far.
+    pub rows_written: u64,
+    /// Number of files (fragments) whose writes have completed so far.
+    pub files_written: u32,
+}
+
+/// An opaque wrapper around a write-progress closure.
+///
+/// Stored inside [`WriteParams::write_progress`](crate::dataset::WriteParams::write_progress).
+/// Construct via [`InsertBuilder::progress`](crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::progress) or
+/// directly with [`WriteProgressFn::new`].
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct WriteProgressFn(Arc<dyn Fn(WriteStats) + Send + Sync>);
+
+impl WriteProgressFn {
+    pub fn new(f: impl Fn(WriteStats) + Send + Sync + 'static) -> Self {
+        Self(Arc::new(f))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn call(&self, stats: WriteStats) {
+        (self.0)(stats);
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for WriteProgressFn {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("WriteProgressFn").finish_non_exhaustive()
+    }
+}
+
 /// By default, Progress tracker is Noop.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
 pub struct NoopFragmentWriteProgress {}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/refs.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/refs.rs
index 4044da9f60e..852eb11f53c 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/refs.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/refs.rs
@@ -3,24 +3,25 @@
 
 use std::ops::Range;
 
+use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
 use futures::stream::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use lance_table::io::commit::CommitHandler;
-use object_store::path::Path;
+use object_store::{Error as ObjectStoreError, path::Path};
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use crate::dataset::branch_location::BranchLocation;
 use crate::dataset::refs::Ref::{Tag, Version, VersionNumber};
+use crate::utils::temporal::utc_now;
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 use serde::de::DeserializeOwned;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::cmp::Ordering;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::fmt;
 use std::fmt::Formatter;
-use std::io::ErrorKind;
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
 pub const MAIN_BRANCH: &str = "main";
 
@@ -143,6 +144,25 @@ impl Branches<'_> {
     }
 }
 
+async fn put_ref_if_absent(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    path: &Path,
+    contents: Vec<u8>,
+    conflict_message: String,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    object_store
+        .put_if_absent(path, contents.into())
+        .await
+        .map_err(|error| match error {
+            ObjectStoreError::AlreadyExists { .. } | ObjectStoreError::Precondition { .. } => {
+                Error::RefConflict {
+                    message: conflict_message,
+                }
+            }
+            error => error.into(),
+        })
+}
+
 impl Tags<'_> {
     pub async fn fetch_tags(&self) -> Result<Vec<(String, TagContents)>> {
         let root_location = self.refs.root()?;
@@ -216,20 +236,18 @@ impl Tags<'_> {
         let root_location = self.refs.root()?;
         let tag_file = tag_path(&root_location.path, tag);
 
-        if self.object_store().exists(&tag_file).await? {
-            return Err(Error::RefConflict {
-                message: format!("tag {} already exists", tag),
-            });
-        }
-        let tag_contents = self.build_tag_content_by_ref(reference).await?;
+        let now = utc_now();
+        let tag_contents = self
+            .build_tag_content_by_ref(reference, Some(now), Some(now))
+            .await?;
 
-        self.object_store()
-            .put(
-                &tag_file,
-                serde_json::to_string_pretty(&tag_contents)?.as_bytes(),
-            )
-            .await
-            .map(|_| ())
+        put_ref_if_absent(
+            self.object_store(),
+            &tag_file,
+            serde_json::to_vec_pretty(&tag_contents)?,
+            format!("tag {} already exists", tag),
+        )
+        .await
     }
 
     pub async fn delete(&self, tag: &str) -> Result<()> {
@@ -257,7 +275,15 @@ impl Tags<'_> {
                 message: format!("tag {} does not exist", tag),
             });
         }
-        let tag_contents = self.build_tag_content_by_ref(reference).await?;
+        let mut tag_contents = TagContents::from_path(&tag_file, self.object_store()).await?;
+        let updated_reference = self
+            .build_tag_content_by_ref(reference, tag_contents.created_at, Some(utc_now()))
+            .await?;
+        tag_contents.branch = updated_reference.branch;
+        tag_contents.version = updated_reference.version;
+        tag_contents.created_at = updated_reference.created_at;
+        tag_contents.updated_at = updated_reference.updated_at;
+        tag_contents.manifest_size = updated_reference.manifest_size;
 
         self.object_store()
             .put(
@@ -268,7 +294,39 @@ impl Tags<'_> {
             .map(|_| ())
     }
 
-    async fn build_tag_content_by_ref(&self, reference: impl Into<Ref>) -> Result<TagContents> {
+    pub async fn replace_metadata(
+        &self,
+        tag: &str,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        check_valid_tag(tag)?;
+
+        let root_location = self.refs.root()?;
+        let tag_file = tag_path(&root_location.path, tag);
+        if !self.object_store().exists(&tag_file).await? {
+            return Err(Error::RefNotFound {
+                message: format!("tag {} does not exist", tag),
+            });
+        }
+
+        let mut tag_contents = TagContents::from_path(&tag_file, self.object_store()).await?;
+        tag_contents.metadata = metadata;
+
+        self.object_store()
+            .put(
+                &tag_file,
+                serde_json::to_string_pretty(&tag_contents)?.as_bytes(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .map(|_| ())
+    }
+
+    async fn build_tag_content_by_ref(
+        &self,
+        reference: impl Into<Ref>,
+        created_at: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
+        updated_at: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
+    ) -> Result<TagContents> {
         let reference = reference.into();
         let (branch, version_number) = match reference {
             Version(branch, version_number) => (branch, version_number),
@@ -281,6 +339,9 @@ impl Tags<'_> {
             }
         };
 
+        // Direct Ref::Version construction bypasses normalization in the tuple conversions.
+        let branch = branch.as_deref().and_then(standardize_branch);
+
         let branch_location = self.refs.base_location.find_branch(branch.as_deref())?;
         let manifest_file = if let Some(version_number) = version_number {
             self.refs
@@ -313,7 +374,10 @@ impl Tags<'_> {
         let tag_contents = TagContents {
             branch,
             version: manifest_file.version,
+            created_at,
+            updated_at,
             manifest_size,
+            metadata: HashMap::new(),
         };
         Ok(tag_contents)
     }
@@ -350,6 +414,7 @@ impl Branches<'_> {
                 let contents = BranchContents::from_path(
                     &branch_contents_path(branch_path, &name),
                     self.object_store(),
+                    &name,
                 )
                 .await?;
                 Ok((name, contents))
@@ -377,11 +442,21 @@ impl Branches<'_> {
             });
         }
 
-        let branch_contents = BranchContents::from_path(&branch_file, self.object_store()).await?;
+        let branch_contents =
+            BranchContents::from_path(&branch_file, self.object_store(), branch).await?;
 
         Ok(branch_contents)
     }
 
+    pub async fn get_identifier(&self, branch: Option<&str>) -> Result<BranchIdentifier> {
+        if let Some(branch_name) = branch {
+            let branch_contents = self.get(branch_name).await?;
+            Ok(branch_contents.identifier)
+        } else {
+            Ok(BranchIdentifier::main())
+        }
+    }
+
     // Only create branch metadata
     pub(crate) async fn create(
         &self,
@@ -394,11 +469,6 @@ impl Branches<'_> {
         let source_branch = source_branch.and_then(standardize_branch);
         let root_location = self.refs.root()?;
         let branch_file = branch_contents_path(&root_location.path, branch_name);
-        if self.object_store().exists(&branch_file).await? {
-            return Err(Error::RefConflict {
-                message: format!("branch {} already exists", branch_name),
-            });
-        }
 
         let branch_location = self
             .refs
@@ -417,12 +487,28 @@ impl Branches<'_> {
 
         if !self.object_store().exists(&manifest_file.path).await? {
             return Err(Error::VersionNotFound {
-                message: format!("Manifest file {} does not exist", &manifest_file.path),
+                message: format!("Manifest file {} does not exist", manifest_file.path),
             });
         };
 
+        let parent_branch_id = if let Some(ref parent_branch) = source_branch {
+            let parent_file = branch_contents_path(&root_location.path, parent_branch);
+            if self.object_store().exists(&parent_file).await? {
+                BranchContents::from_path(&parent_file, self.object_store(), parent_branch)
+                    .await?
+                    .identifier
+            } else {
+                return Err(Error::RefNotFound {
+                    message: format!("Parent branch {} does not exist", branch_name),
+                });
+            }
+        } else {
+            BranchIdentifier::main()
+        };
+
         let branch_contents = BranchContents {
             parent_branch: source_branch,
+            identifier: BranchIdentifier::new(&parent_branch_id, version_number),
             parent_version: version_number,
             create_at: chrono::Utc::now().timestamp() as u64,
             manifest_size: if let Some(size) = manifest_file.size {
@@ -430,8 +516,37 @@ impl Branches<'_> {
             } else {
                 self.object_store().size(&manifest_file.path).await? as usize
             },
+            metadata: HashMap::new(),
         };
 
+        put_ref_if_absent(
+            self.object_store(),
+            &branch_file,
+            serde_json::to_vec_pretty(&branch_contents)?,
+            format!("branch {} already exists", branch_name),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn replace_metadata(
+        &self,
+        branch: &str,
+        metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        check_valid_branch(branch)?;
+
+        let root_location = self.refs.root()?;
+        let branch_file = branch_contents_path(&root_location.path, branch);
+        if !self.object_store().exists(&branch_file).await? {
+            return Err(Error::RefNotFound {
+                message: format!("branch {} does not exist", branch),
+            });
+        }
+
+        let mut branch_contents =
+            BranchContents::from_path(&branch_file, self.object_store(), branch).await?;
+        branch_contents.metadata = metadata;
+
         self.object_store()
             .put(
                 &branch_file,
@@ -448,16 +563,54 @@ impl Branches<'_> {
     pub async fn delete(&self, branch: &str, force: bool) -> Result<()> {
         check_valid_branch(branch)?;
 
+        let all_branches = self.list().await?;
+        let branch_id = all_branches
+            .get(branch)
+            .map(|contents| contents.identifier.clone());
+        if let Some(branch_id) = branch_id {
+            let referenced_versions = branch_id.collect_referenced_versions(&all_branches);
+            if !referenced_versions.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::RefConflict {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Branch {} is referenced by {:?} versions, can not delete",
+                        branch, referenced_versions
+                    ),
+                });
+            }
+        } else if !force {
+            return Err(Error::RefNotFound {
+                message: format!("Branch {} does not exist", branch),
+            });
+        } else {
+            log::warn!("BranchContents of {} does not exist", branch);
+        }
+
+        // Tags identify snapshots by (branch, version). Deleting a branch removes its entire version chain,
+        // so any tag whose branch matches the deletion target blocks the operation, regardless of the tagged
+        // version.
+        let referenced_tags = self
+            .refs
+            .tags()
+            .fetch_tags()
+            .await?
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter_map(|(name, contents)| {
+                (contents.branch.as_deref() == Some(branch)).then_some((name, contents.version))
+            })
+            .collect_vec();
+        if !referenced_tags.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::RefConflict {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Branch {} is referenced by tags {:?}, can not delete",
+                    branch, referenced_tags
+                ),
+            });
+        }
+
         let root_location = self.refs.root()?;
         let branch_file = branch_contents_path(&root_location.path, branch);
         if self.object_store().exists(&branch_file).await? {
             self.object_store().delete(&branch_file).await?;
-        } else if force {
-            log::warn!("BranchContents of {} does not exist", branch);
-        } else {
-            return Err(Error::RefNotFound {
-                message: format!("Branch {} does not exist", branch),
-            });
         }
 
         // Clean up branch directories
@@ -488,22 +641,13 @@ impl Branches<'_> {
 
         if let Some(delete_path) =
             Self::get_cleanup_path(branch, &remaining_branches, &self.refs.base_location)?
+            && let Err(e) = self.refs.object_store.remove_dir_all(delete_path).await
         {
-            if let Err(e) = self.refs.object_store.remove_dir_all(delete_path).await {
-                match &e {
-                    Error::IO { source, .. } => {
-                        if let Some(io_err) = source.downcast_ref::<std::io::Error>() {
-                            if io_err.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound {
-                                log::debug!("Branch directory already deleted: {}", io_err);
-                            } else {
-                                return Err(e);
-                            }
-                        } else {
-                            return Err(e);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    _ => return Err(e),
+            match &e {
+                Error::NotFound { .. } => {
+                    log::debug!("Branch directory already deleted");
                 }
+                _ => return Err(e),
             }
         }
         Ok(())
@@ -614,33 +758,180 @@ impl<'a> BranchRelativePath<'a> {
 pub struct TagContents {
     pub branch: Option<String>,
     pub version: u64,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub created_at: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub updated_at: Option<DateTime<Utc>>,
     pub manifest_size: usize,
+    /// Metadata associated with this tag.
+    ///
+    /// Missing metadata is deserialized as an empty map.
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 #[serde(rename_all = "camelCase")]
 pub struct BranchContents {
     pub parent_branch: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(default = "BranchIdentifier::missing_identifier_sentinel")]
+    pub identifier: BranchIdentifier,
     pub parent_version: u64,
     pub create_at: u64, // unix timestamp
     pub manifest_size: usize,
+    /// Metadata associated with this branch.
+    ///
+    /// Missing metadata is deserialized as an empty map.
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct BranchIdentifier {
+    pub version_mapping: Vec<(u64, String)>,
+}
+
+impl BranchIdentifier {
+    pub fn new(parent: &Self, parent_version: u64) -> Self {
+        let mut version_mapping = parent.version_mapping.clone();
+        version_mapping.push((parent_version, Uuid::new_v4().simple().to_string()));
+        Self { version_mapping }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a sentinel identifier for legacy branch metadata that lacks an explicit
+    /// identifier.
+    ///
+    /// `BranchContents::from_path` replaces this value with a deterministic synthetic
+    /// identifier. Keeping this sentinel stable lets us distinguish missing identifiers from
+    /// persisted identifiers without changing this field to `Option<BranchIdentifier>`.
+    pub fn missing_identifier_sentinel() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            version_mapping: vec![(0, Uuid::nil().simple().to_string())],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn synthetic_identifier(
+        branch_name: &str,
+        parent_branch: Option<&str>,
+        parent_version: u64,
+        create_at: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let identifier_input = format!(
+            "branch_name={branch_name}\nparent_branch={}\nparent_version={parent_version}\ncreate_at={create_at}",
+            parent_branch.unwrap_or("")
+        );
+        Self {
+            version_mapping: vec![(
+                0,
+                Uuid::from_bytes(Self::synthetic_identifier_bytes(
+                    identifier_input.as_bytes(),
+                ))
+                .simple()
+                .to_string(),
+            )],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn synthetic_identifier_bytes(input: &[u8]) -> [u8; 16] {
+        // Use fixed, local hashing so legacy fallback identifiers stay deterministic without
+        // enabling extra UUID generation features.
+        const FNV_OFFSET: u64 = 0xcbf29ce484222325;
+        const FNV_PRIME: u64 = 0x100000001b3;
+
+        fn hash_with_seed(input: &[u8], seed: u64) -> u64 {
+            input.iter().fold(seed, |hash, byte| {
+                (hash ^ u64::from(*byte)).wrapping_mul(FNV_PRIME)
+            })
+        }
+
+        let first = hash_with_seed(input, FNV_OFFSET);
+        let second = hash_with_seed(input, FNV_OFFSET ^ 0x9e3779b97f4a7c15);
+        let mut bytes = [0; 16];
+        bytes[..8].copy_from_slice(&first.to_be_bytes());
+        bytes[8..].copy_from_slice(&second.to_be_bytes());
+        bytes
+    }
+
+    pub fn main() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            version_mapping: vec![],
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn parse(identifier: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        let parts: Vec<&str> = identifier.split(':').collect();
+        if !parts.len().is_multiple_of(2) {
+            return Err(Error::InvalidRef {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Invalid branch identifier: {}, format should be 'ver1:uuid1:ver2:uuid2:...:final_uuid'",
+                    parts.len()
+                ),
+            });
+        }
+
+        let version_mapping = parts
+            .as_chunks::<2>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .map(|chunk| {
+                let version = chunk[0].parse::<u64>().map_err(|e| Error::InvalidRef {
+                    message: format!("Invalid version number '{}': {}", chunk[0], e),
+                })?;
+                let uuid = chunk[1].to_string();
+                Ok((version, uuid))
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        Ok(Self { version_mapping })
+    }
+
+    pub fn find_referenced_version(&self, referenced_branch: &Self) -> Option<u64> {
+        let ref_mapping = &referenced_branch.version_mapping;
+        let next_idx = ref_mapping.len();
+
+        (self.version_mapping.len() > next_idx && self.version_mapping[..next_idx] == *ref_mapping)
+            .then(|| self.version_mapping[next_idx].0)
+            .filter(|&version| version > 0)
+    }
+
+    /// Collects all branches that reference this branch, returning (branch_name, version) tuples.
+    /// Results are in post-order traversal (deepest branches first).
+    pub fn collect_referenced_versions(
+        &self,
+        branches: &HashMap<String, BranchContents>,
+    ) -> Vec<(String, u64)> {
+        let mut branch_ids = branches
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(name, branch)| (branch.identifier.clone(), name.clone()))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        // Sort by BranchIdentifier desc to implement post-order traversal.
+        branch_ids.sort_by(|a, b| b.cmp(a));
+        branch_ids
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter_map(|(branch_id, name)| {
+                branch_id
+                    .find_referenced_version(self)
+                    .map(|version| (name, version))
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
 }
 
 pub fn base_tags_path(base_path: &Path) -> Path {
-    base_path.child("_refs").child("tags")
+    base_path.clone().join("_refs").join("tags")
 }
 
 pub fn base_branches_contents_path(base_path: &Path) -> Path {
-    base_path.child("_refs").child("branches")
+    base_path.clone().join("_refs").join("branches")
 }
 
 pub fn tag_path(base_path: &Path, branch: &str) -> Path {
-    base_tags_path(base_path).child(format!("{}.json", branch))
+    base_tags_path(base_path).join(format!("{}.json", branch))
 }
 
 // Note: child will encode '/' to '%2F'
 pub fn branch_contents_path(base_path: &Path, branch: &str) -> Path {
-    base_branches_contents_path(base_path).child(format!("{}.json", branch))
+    base_branches_contents_path(base_path).join(format!("{}.json", branch))
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn normalize_branch(branch: Option<&str>) -> String {
@@ -669,7 +960,7 @@ where
         })
         .await?;
     let json_str = String::from_utf8(tag_bytes.to_vec())
-        .map_err(|e| Error::corrupt_file(path.clone(), e.to_string(), location!()))?;
+        .map_err(|e| Error::corrupt_file(path.clone(), e.to_string()))?;
     Ok(serde_json::from_str(&json_str)?)
 }
 
@@ -680,8 +971,24 @@ impl TagContents {
 }
 
 impl BranchContents {
-    pub async fn from_path(path: &Path, object_store: &ObjectStore) -> Result<Self> {
-        from_path(path, object_store).await
+    pub async fn from_path(
+        path: &Path,
+        object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        branch_name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut contents: Self = from_path(path, object_store).await?;
+        if contents.identifier == BranchIdentifier::missing_identifier_sentinel() {
+            // Legacy branch files do not store an identifier. Derive a deterministic fallback
+            // from stable branch metadata so repeated reads expose the same public
+            // branch_identifier.
+            contents.identifier = BranchIdentifier::synthetic_identifier(
+                branch_name,
+                contents.parent_branch.as_deref(),
+                contents.parent_version,
+                contents.create_at,
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(contents)
     }
 }
 
@@ -724,7 +1031,10 @@ pub fn check_valid_branch(branch_name: &str) -> Result<()> {
             .all(|c| c.is_alphanumeric() || c == '.' || c == '-' || c == '_')
         {
             return Err(Error::InvalidRef {
-                message: format!("Branch segment '{}' contains invalid characters. Only alphanumeric, '.', '-', '_' are allowed.", segment),
+                message: format!(
+                    "Branch segment '{}' contains invalid characters. Only alphanumeric, '.', '-', '_' are allowed.",
+                    segment
+                ),
             });
         }
     }
@@ -737,7 +1047,8 @@ pub fn check_valid_branch(branch_name: &str) -> Result<()> {
 
     if branch_name.eq("main") {
         return Err(Error::InvalidRef {
-            message: "Branch name cannot be 'main'".to_string(),
+            message: "\"main\" is reserved for the default branch; use a different branch name"
+                .to_string(),
         });
     }
     Ok(())
@@ -941,9 +1252,11 @@ mod tests {
     async fn test_branch_contents_serialization() {
         let branch_contents = BranchContents {
             parent_branch: Some("main".to_string()),
+            identifier: BranchIdentifier::missing_identifier_sentinel(),
             parent_version: 42,
             create_at: 1234567890,
             manifest_size: 1024,
+            metadata: HashMap::from([("description".to_string(), "production branch".to_string())]),
         };
 
         // Test serialization
@@ -952,6 +1265,7 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(json.contains("parentVersion"));
         assert!(json.contains("createAt"));
         assert!(json.contains("manifestSize"));
+        assert!(json.contains("metadata"));
 
         // Test deserialization
         let deserialized: BranchContents = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
@@ -959,6 +1273,53 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(deserialized.parent_version, branch_contents.parent_version);
         assert_eq!(deserialized.create_at, branch_contents.create_at);
         assert_eq!(deserialized.manifest_size, branch_contents.manifest_size);
+        assert_eq!(deserialized.metadata, branch_contents.metadata);
+
+        // Backward compatibility: older serialized content does not include metadata.
+        let legacy_json = r#"{"parentBranch":"main","parentVersion":42,"createAt":1234567890,"manifestSize":1024}"#;
+        let legacy_deserialized: BranchContents = serde_json::from_str(legacy_json).unwrap();
+        assert!(legacy_deserialized.metadata.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_branch_synthetic_uuid_is_stable() {
+        let legacy_json = r#"{"parentBranch":"main","parentVersion":42,"createAt":1234567890,"manifestSize":1024}"#;
+        let store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("dataset");
+        let first_path = branch_contents_path(&base_path, "legacy_branch");
+        store
+            .put(&first_path, legacy_json.as_bytes())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let second_path = branch_contents_path(&base_path, "legacy_branch_other");
+        store
+            .put(&second_path, legacy_json.as_bytes())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let first = BranchContents::from_path(&first_path, &store, "legacy_branch")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let second = BranchContents::from_path(&first_path, &store, "legacy_branch")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.identifier, second.identifier);
+        assert_ne!(
+            first.identifier,
+            BranchIdentifier::missing_identifier_sentinel()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(first.identifier.version_mapping[0].1.len(), 32);
+        assert!(
+            first.identifier.version_mapping[0]
+                .1
+                .chars()
+                .all(|ch| ch.is_ascii_hexdigit() && !ch.is_ascii_uppercase())
+        );
+
+        let other = BranchContents::from_path(&second_path, &store, "legacy_branch_other")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(first.identifier, other.identifier);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -966,20 +1327,59 @@ mod tests {
         let tag_contents = TagContents {
             branch: Some("feature".to_string()),
             version: 10,
+            created_at: Some(chrono::DateTime::from_timestamp(1_234_567_000, 456_000_000).unwrap()),
+            updated_at: Some(chrono::DateTime::from_timestamp(1_234_567_890, 123_000_000).unwrap()),
             manifest_size: 2048,
+            metadata: HashMap::from([("channel".to_string(), "release".to_string())]),
         };
 
         // Test serialization
         let json = serde_json::to_string(&tag_contents).unwrap();
         assert!(json.contains("branch"));
         assert!(json.contains("version"));
+        assert!(json.contains("createdAt"));
+        assert!(json.contains("updatedAt"));
         assert!(json.contains("manifestSize"));
+        assert!(json.contains("metadata"));
 
         // Test deserialization
         let deserialized: TagContents = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(deserialized.branch, tag_contents.branch);
         assert_eq!(deserialized.version, tag_contents.version);
+        assert_eq!(deserialized.created_at, tag_contents.created_at);
+        assert_eq!(deserialized.updated_at, tag_contents.updated_at);
         assert_eq!(deserialized.manifest_size, tag_contents.manifest_size);
+        assert_eq!(deserialized.metadata, tag_contents.metadata);
+
+        let tag_contents_without_created_at = TagContents {
+            branch: Some("feature".to_string()),
+            version: 10,
+            created_at: None,
+            updated_at: Some(chrono::DateTime::from_timestamp(1_234_567_890, 123_000_000).unwrap()),
+            manifest_size: 2048,
+            metadata: HashMap::new(),
+        };
+        let json_without_created_at =
+            serde_json::to_string(&tag_contents_without_created_at).unwrap();
+        assert!(!json_without_created_at.contains("createdAt"));
+        assert!(json_without_created_at.contains("updatedAt"));
+
+        // Backward compatibility: older serialized content does not include timestamps or metadata.
+        let legacy_json = r#"{"branch":"feature","version":10,"manifestSize":2048}"#;
+        let legacy_deserialized: TagContents = serde_json::from_str(legacy_json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(legacy_deserialized.created_at, None);
+        assert_eq!(legacy_deserialized.updated_at, None);
+        assert!(legacy_deserialized.metadata.is_empty());
+
+        let legacy_updated_only_json = r#"{"branch":"feature","version":10,"updatedAt":"2009-02-13T23:31:30.123Z","manifestSize":2048}"#;
+        let legacy_updated_only_deserialized: TagContents =
+            serde_json::from_str(legacy_updated_only_json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(legacy_updated_only_deserialized.created_at, None);
+        assert_eq!(
+            legacy_updated_only_deserialized.updated_at,
+            Some(chrono::DateTime::from_timestamp(1_234_567_890, 123_000_000).unwrap())
+        );
+        assert!(legacy_updated_only_deserialized.metadata.is_empty());
     }
 
     #[rstest]
@@ -1033,4 +1433,105 @@ mod tests {
             }
         }
     }
+
+    /// Build a reusable mocked BranchContents map mirroring cleanup::lineage_tests::build_lineage_datasets.
+    ///
+    /// Structure:
+    ///    main:v1 ──▶ branch1:v1 ──▶ dev/branch2:v2 ──▶ feature/nathan/branch3:v3
+    ///        │
+    ///    (main:v2) ──▶ branch4:v2
+    ///
+    /// Notes:
+    /// - The "main" root is virtual (no BranchContents entry).
+    /// - Version numbers are representative and monotonically increasing along the chain.
+    /// - Tests reuse this builder to ensure consistent lineage and deterministic assertions.
+    fn build_mock_branch_contents() -> HashMap<String, BranchContents> {
+        fn build(
+            parent_name: Option<&str>,
+            parent_branch: Option<&BranchContents>,
+            parent_ver: u64,
+        ) -> BranchContents {
+            let parent_branch_id = if let Some(parent_branch) = parent_branch {
+                parent_branch.identifier.clone()
+            } else {
+                BranchIdentifier::main()
+            };
+            BranchContents {
+                parent_branch: parent_name.map(String::from),
+                identifier: BranchIdentifier::new(&parent_branch_id, parent_ver),
+                parent_version: parent_ver,
+                create_at: 0,
+                manifest_size: 1,
+                metadata: HashMap::new(),
+            }
+        }
+        let mut contents = HashMap::new();
+        contents.insert("branch1".to_string(), build(None, None, 1));
+        contents.insert(
+            "dev/branch2".to_string(),
+            build(Some("branch1"), contents.get("branch1"), 2),
+        );
+        contents.insert(
+            "feature/nathan/branch3".to_string(),
+            build(Some("dev/branch2"), contents.get("dev/branch2"), 3),
+        );
+        contents.insert("branch4".to_string(), build(None, None, 5));
+        contents
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_children_for_branch3() {
+        let all_branches = build_mock_branch_contents();
+        let root_id = all_branches
+            .get("feature/nathan/branch3")
+            .unwrap()
+            .identifier
+            .clone();
+        assert!(
+            root_id
+                .collect_referenced_versions(&all_branches)
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_children_for_branch2() {
+        let all_branches = build_mock_branch_contents();
+        let root_id = all_branches.get("dev/branch2").unwrap().identifier.clone();
+        let children = root_id.collect_referenced_versions(&all_branches);
+
+        assert_eq!(children.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(children[0].0.as_str(), "feature/nathan/branch3");
+        assert_eq!(children[0].1, 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_children_for_branch1() {
+        let all_branches = build_mock_branch_contents();
+        let root_id = all_branches.get("branch1").unwrap().identifier.clone();
+        let children = root_id.collect_referenced_versions(&all_branches);
+
+        assert_eq!(children.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(children[0].0.as_str(), "feature/nathan/branch3");
+        assert_eq!(children[1].0.as_str(), "dev/branch2");
+        assert_eq!(children[0].1, 2);
+        assert_eq!(children[1].1, 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_children_for_main() {
+        let all_branches = build_mock_branch_contents();
+        let root_id = BranchIdentifier::main();
+        let children = root_id.collect_referenced_versions(&all_branches);
+
+        assert_eq!(children.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(children[0].0.as_str(), "branch4");
+        assert_eq!(children[1].0.as_str(), "feature/nathan/branch3");
+        assert_eq!(children[2].0.as_str(), "dev/branch2");
+        assert_eq!(children[3].0.as_str(), "branch1");
+        assert_eq!(children[0].1, 5);
+        assert_eq!(children[1].1, 1);
+        assert_eq!(children[2].1, 1);
+        assert_eq!(children[3].1, 1);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids.rs
index 93feaf07673..78c849f723c 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids.rs
@@ -1,62 +1,190 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+mod spill;
+mod validate;
+
 use super::Dataset;
-use crate::session::caches::{RowIdIndexKey, RowIdSequenceKey};
+use crate::io::deletion::read_dataset_deletion_file;
+use crate::session::caches::{RowIdIndexKey, RowIdSequenceKey, RowVersionSequenceKey};
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
+use lance_core::utils::{address::RowAddress, deletion::DeletionVector};
+use lance_select::{RowAddrSelection, RowAddrTreeMap};
 use lance_table::{
-    format::{Fragment, RowIdMeta},
-    rowids::{read_row_ids, FragmentRowIdIndex, RowIdIndex, RowIdSequence},
+    format::{
+        Fragment, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+        ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, RowDatasetVersionMeta, RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+        RowIdMeta,
+    },
+    rowids::{
+        FragmentRowIdIndex, RowIdIndex, RowIdSequence, read_row_ids,
+        version::{LoadedRowLineage, SpilledRowLineage},
+    },
 };
-use snafu::location;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
+pub(crate) use spill::place_carried_row_lineage;
+pub use spill::{
+    DEFAULT_INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES, INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY,
+    PlacedRowLineage, RowLineage, SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY, inline_row_lineage_max_bytes,
+    place_row_lineage, read_spilled_row_ids, read_spilled_versions,
+};
+pub(crate) use spill::{RowLineagePlan, RowLineageSpill, plan_row_lineage_spill};
+pub(super) use validate::validate_stable_row_ids;
+
 /// Load a row id sequence from the given dataset and fragment.
 pub async fn load_row_id_sequence(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     fragment: &Fragment,
 ) -> Result<Arc<RowIdSequence>> {
-    // Virtual path to prevent collisions in the cache.
+    let Some(row_id_meta) = &fragment.row_id_meta else {
+        return Err(Error::internal("Missing row id meta"));
+    };
+    let key = RowIdSequenceKey {
+        fragment_id: fragment.id,
+        row_id_meta,
+        lineage_file: fragment.row_lineage_file(ROW_ID_FIELD_ID)?,
+    };
+    dataset
+        .metadata_cache
+        .get_or_insert_with_key(key, || read_row_id_sequence(dataset, fragment))
+        .await
+}
+
+/// Decode the row id sequence of `fragment`, bypassing every cache.
+async fn read_row_id_sequence(dataset: &Dataset, fragment: &Fragment) -> Result<RowIdSequence> {
     match &fragment.row_id_meta {
-        None => Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: "Missing row id meta".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
-        Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => {
-            let data = data.clone();
-            let key = RowIdSequenceKey {
-                fragment_id: fragment.id,
-            };
-            dataset
-                .metadata_cache
-                .get_or_insert_with_key(key, || async move { read_row_ids(&data) })
-                .await
+        None => Err(Error::internal("Missing row id meta")),
+        Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => read_row_ids(data),
+        Some(RowIdMeta::Column) => spill::read_spilled_row_ids(dataset, fragment).await,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Which of a fragment's two per-row version sequences is meant.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum RowVersionKind {
+    /// The dataset version each row first appeared at.
+    CreatedAt,
+    /// The dataset version each row was last written at.
+    LastUpdatedAt,
+}
+
+impl RowVersionKind {
+    fn meta(self, fragment: &Fragment) -> Option<&RowDatasetVersionMeta> {
+        match self {
+            Self::CreatedAt => fragment.created_at_version_meta.as_ref(),
+            Self::LastUpdatedAt => fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta.as_ref(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The reserved field id of the hidden column a spilled sequence lives in.
+    pub fn field_id(self) -> i32 {
+        match self {
+            Self::CreatedAt => ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+            Self::LastUpdatedAt => ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
         }
-        Some(RowIdMeta::External(file_slice)) => {
-            let file_slice = file_slice.clone();
-            let dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
-            let key = RowIdSequenceKey {
+    }
+}
+
+/// Load one of `fragment`'s per-row version sequences, wherever it is stored.
+///
+/// `None` when the fragment carries no such metadata, which readers treat as
+/// every row being at version 1. A sequence spilled to a data file is cached
+/// per fragment and file; an inline one is decoded from the manifest bytes.
+pub async fn load_row_version_sequence(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment: &Fragment,
+    kind: RowVersionKind,
+) -> Result<Option<Arc<RowDatasetVersionSequence>>> {
+    let Some(meta) = kind.meta(fragment) else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    match meta {
+        RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column => {
+            let data_file = fragment.row_lineage_file(kind.field_id())?.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file(
+                    dataset.base.clone(),
+                    format!(
+                        "fragment {} marks its {kind:?} versions as spilled but none of its \
+                         data files carries field {}",
+                        fragment.id,
+                        kind.field_id()
+                    ),
+                )
+            })?;
+            let key = RowVersionSequenceKey {
                 fragment_id: fragment.id,
+                field_id: kind.field_id(),
+                data_file,
             };
             dataset
                 .metadata_cache
-                .get_or_insert_with_key(key, || async move {
-                    let path = dataset_clone.base.child(file_slice.path.as_str());
-                    let range = file_slice.offset as usize
-                        ..(file_slice.offset as usize + file_slice.size as usize);
-                    let data = dataset_clone
-                        .object_store
-                        .open(&path)
-                        .await?
-                        .get_range(range)
-                        .await?;
-                    read_row_ids(&data)
+                .get_or_insert_with_key(key, || {
+                    spill::read_spilled_versions(dataset, fragment, kind.field_id())
                 })
                 .await
+                .map(Some)
+        }
+        RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(_) => meta
+            .load_sequence()
+            .map(|sequence| Some(Arc::new(sequence))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Read ahead every lineage sequence of `fragments` that lives outside the
+/// manifest, for a commit that will need to consult them.
+///
+/// Building a manifest is synchronous and cannot read a data file, so the
+/// commit path calls this first, over the whole manifest, and hands the result
+/// over in `ManifestBuildConfig::spilled_row_lineage`. Only spilled sequences
+/// are loaded; when none is, this returns an empty map without IO.
+pub async fn load_spilled_row_lineage<'a>(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragments: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a Fragment>,
+) -> Result<Arc<SpilledRowLineage>> {
+    // A `for` loop rather than `map`: a closure returning a future that borrows
+    // its argument trips the higher-ranked lifetime check on the outer future.
+    let mut loads = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        if fragment.has_spilled_row_lineage() {
+            loads.push(load_fragment_spilled_lineage(dataset, fragment));
+        }
+    }
+    let loaded: SpilledRowLineage = futures::stream::iter(loads)
+        .buffer_unordered(dataset.object_store.io_parallelism())
+        .try_collect()
+        .await?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(loaded))
+}
+
+/// The spilled sequences of one fragment, for [`load_spilled_row_lineage`].
+async fn load_fragment_spilled_lineage(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment: &Fragment,
+) -> Result<(u64, LoadedRowLineage)> {
+    let row_ids = match &fragment.row_id_meta {
+        Some(RowIdMeta::Column) => Some(load_row_id_sequence(dataset, fragment).await?),
+        _ => None,
+    };
+    let mut versions = [None, None];
+    for (slot, kind) in versions
+        .iter_mut()
+        .zip([RowVersionKind::CreatedAt, RowVersionKind::LastUpdatedAt])
+    {
+        if let Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column) = kind.meta(fragment) {
+            *slot = load_row_version_sequence(dataset, fragment, kind).await?;
         }
     }
+    let [created_at, last_updated_at] = versions;
+    Ok((
+        fragment.id,
+        LoadedRowLineage {
+            row_ids,
+            created_at,
+            last_updated_at,
+        },
+    ))
 }
 
 /// Load row id sequences from the given dataset and fragments.
@@ -74,76 +202,248 @@ pub fn load_row_id_sequences<'a>(
         .buffer_unordered(dataset.object_store.io_parallelism())
 }
 
-pub async fn get_row_id_index(
+pub async fn get_row_id_index(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<Arc<RowIdIndex>>> {
+    if !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    // The cache is shared by every dataset opened at this URI, and one dropped
+    // and recreated there restarts at version 1. Without a token for this
+    // manifest generation a cached index could be the old generation's, so
+    // build a private one instead of sharing.
+    let Some(e_tag) = dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref() else {
+        return Ok(Some(Arc::new(load_row_id_index(dataset).await?)));
+    };
+    let key = RowIdIndexKey {
+        version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        e_tag: Some(e_tag),
+    };
+    let index = dataset
+        .metadata_cache
+        .get_or_insert_with_key(key, || load_row_id_index(dataset))
+        .await?;
+    Ok(Some(index))
+}
+
+/// Map a set of physical row addresses to their stable row ids
+///
+/// A fragment's [`RowIdSequence`] holds one id per physical row in offset order;
+/// deletions are tracked by the deletion vector and do not compact the sequence,
+/// so a physical offset indexes the sequence directly (see [`RowIdIndex`], which
+/// maps ids to `start_address + position` and filters deletions separately).
+/// Addresses that no longer have a live counterpart are dropped, which is correct:
+/// those rows are not part of the answer. That covers both a deleted row and a
+/// whole fragment that a maintenance operation replaced — an address-domain index
+/// is not remapped by compaction or `update` (neither the zone map nor the bloom
+/// filter index supports remap), so its results outlive the fragments they address.
+/// The replacement fragments are absent from the index's fragment bitmap, so the
+/// scanner routes them to a full scan and no match is lost.
+pub(crate) async fn translate_addr_treemap_to_row_ids(
     dataset: &Dataset,
-) -> Result<Option<Arc<lance_table::rowids::RowIdIndex>>> {
-    if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
-        let key = RowIdIndexKey {
-            version: dataset.manifest.version,
+    addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap,
+) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    let mut row_ids = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+    for (fragment_id, selection) in addrs.iter() {
+        let Some(file_fragment) = dataset.get_fragment(*fragment_id as usize) else {
+            continue;
         };
-        let index = dataset
-            .metadata_cache
-            .get_or_insert_with_key(key, || load_row_id_index(dataset))
-            .await?;
-        Ok(Some(index))
-    } else {
-        Ok(None)
+        let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(dataset, file_fragment.metadata()).await?;
+
+        match selection {
+            RowAddrSelection::Full => {
+                // The whole fragment is selected: every live row's id qualifies.
+                row_ids |= RowAddrTreeMap::from(sequence.as_ref());
+            }
+            RowAddrSelection::Partial(offsets) => {
+                let deletion_vector = file_fragment.get_deletion_vector().await?;
+                for physical_offset in offsets.iter() {
+                    // A deletion does not compact the row id sequence; the deleted row keeps
+                    // its slot (the deletion vector tracks it separately). So a physical offset
+                    // is a direct index into the sequence, regardless of any deletions below it.
+                    // A stale offset that points at a deleted row has no live counterpart and is
+                    // not part of any answer, so it contributes no id to the block/take set.
+                    let deleted = deletion_vector
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .is_some_and(|dv| dv.contains(physical_offset));
+                    if deleted {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    // A selected offset with no sequence entry points past the fragment's rows.
+                    // Silently dropping it would let a stale index result escape masking, so
+                    // treat the mismatch as corruption.
+                    let id = sequence.get(physical_offset as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "fragment_id={fragment_id} row-id sequence has no entry at \
+                             physical_offset={physical_offset} (sequence len={})",
+                            sequence.len()
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    row_ids.insert(id);
+                }
+            }
+        }
     }
+    Ok(row_ids)
 }
 
-async fn load_row_id_index(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<lance_table::rowids::RowIdIndex> {
-    let sequences = load_row_id_sequences(dataset, &dataset.manifest.fragments)
-        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        .await?;
+/// Resolve row addresses to row ids, positionally: `addr = (fragment << 32) | offset`
+/// looks up `offset` in the fragment's [`RowIdSequence`]. The inverse companion of
+/// [`get_row_id_index`].
+///
+/// Returns one entry per input address, in order. Addresses that no longer
+/// resolve — a missing fragment, an out-of-range offset, or a `None` input —
+/// yield `None`. On datasets without stable row ids, addresses are the row
+/// ids, so the input is returned unchanged.
+pub async fn row_addrs_to_row_ids(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    addrs: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<u64>>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+    row_addrs_to_row_ids_impl(dataset, addrs, DeletedRowBehavior::Include).await
+}
 
-    let fragment_indices: Vec<_> =
-        futures::future::try_join_all(sequences.into_iter().map(|(fragment_id, sequence)| {
-            let dataset = dataset.clone();
-            async move {
-                let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
-                let fragment = fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .find(|f| f.id() as u32 == fragment_id)
-                    .expect("Fragment should exist");
+/// Resolve physical row addresses to stable row ids only for live physical slots.
+///
+/// When stable row ids are enabled, missing fragments, out-of-range offsets,
+/// deleted physical slots, and `None` inputs yield `None`. This prevents a
+/// deleted slot's stable id from selecting a replacement row written by an
+/// update. Without stable row ids, the input is returned unchanged.
+pub(crate) async fn live_row_addrs_to_row_ids(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    addrs: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<u64>>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+    row_addrs_to_row_ids_impl(dataset, addrs, DeletedRowBehavior::Exclude).await
+}
 
-                let deletion_vector = match fragment.get_deletion_vector().await {
-                    Ok(Some(dv)) => dv,
-                    Ok(None) | Err(_) => Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
-                };
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+enum DeletedRowBehavior {
+    Include,
+    Exclude,
+}
 
-                Ok::<FragmentRowIdIndex, Error>(FragmentRowIdIndex {
-                    fragment_id,
-                    row_id_sequence: sequence,
-                    deletion_vector,
-                })
+async fn row_addrs_to_row_ids_impl(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    addrs: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<u64>>,
+    deleted_row_behavior: DeletedRowBehavior,
+) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+    let addrs: Vec<Option<u64>> = addrs.into_iter().collect();
+    if !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+        return Ok(addrs);
+    }
+
+    let mut positions_by_fragment: std::collections::HashMap<u32, Vec<usize>> =
+        std::collections::HashMap::new();
+    for (position, addr) in addrs.iter().enumerate() {
+        if let Some(addr) = addr {
+            positions_by_fragment
+                .entry(RowAddress::from(*addr).fragment_id())
+                .or_default()
+                .push(position);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut ids: Vec<Option<u64>> = vec![None; addrs.len()];
+    for (fragment_id, positions) in positions_by_fragment {
+        let Some(fragment) = dataset.get_fragment(fragment_id as usize) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(dataset, fragment.metadata()).await?;
+        let deletion_vector = match deleted_row_behavior {
+            DeletedRowBehavior::Include => None,
+            DeletedRowBehavior::Exclude => fragment.get_deletion_vector().await?,
+        };
+        for position in positions {
+            let offset = RowAddress::from(addrs[position].expect("grouped from Some")).row_offset();
+            if deletion_vector
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|deletions| deletions.contains(offset))
+            {
+                continue;
             }
-        }))
-        .await?;
+            ids[position] = sequence.get(offset as usize);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(ids)
+}
 
-    let index = RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices)?;
+/// Build the index from freshly decoded sequences. The index then owns their
+/// memory alone, so its cache charge is exact and it stays cached whenever it
+/// fits; reading them through the sequence cache instead would charge each
+/// sequence twice and leave a large table's index too heavy to keep. A scan
+/// that needs a sequence still caches its own copy under `RowIdSequenceKey`,
+/// keyed by the fragment's content; the index is keyed by manifest generation
+/// and cannot stand in for it.
+async fn load_row_id_index(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<RowIdIndex> {
+    load_row_id_index_for_fragments(dataset, &dataset.manifest.fragments).await
+}
 
-    Ok(index)
+/// Build a row id index covering only `fragments`, not the whole dataset.
+///
+/// A caller that already knows the row ids it will look up were all read from
+/// a known, small set of fragments -- compaction rewriting a handful of
+/// fragments out of a much larger table, for instance -- gets no benefit from
+/// [`get_row_id_index`]'s whole-dataset index and pays for reading every other
+/// fragment's row id sequence and deletion vector for nothing. This builds an
+/// index scoped to just those fragments instead.
+pub(crate) async fn load_row_id_index_for_fragments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+) -> Result<RowIdIndex> {
+    // A `for` loop rather than `map`: a closure returning a future that borrows
+    // its argument trips the higher-ranked lifetime check on the outer future.
+    let mut loads = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+    for fragment in fragments.iter() {
+        loads.push(read_fragment_row_id_index(dataset, fragment));
+    }
+    let fragment_indices: Vec<FragmentRowIdIndex> = futures::stream::iter(loads)
+        .buffer_unordered(dataset.object_store.io_parallelism())
+        .try_collect()
+        .await?;
+    RowIdIndex::new(&fragment_indices)
+}
+
+async fn read_fragment_row_id_index(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment: &Fragment,
+) -> Result<FragmentRowIdIndex> {
+    let row_id_sequence = Arc::new(read_row_id_sequence(dataset, fragment).await?);
+    let deletion_vector = match &fragment.deletion_file {
+        None => Arc::new(DeletionVector::default()),
+        Some(deletion_file) => {
+            read_dataset_deletion_file(dataset, fragment.id, deletion_file).await?
+        }
+    };
+    Ok(FragmentRowIdIndex {
+        fragment_id: fragment.id as u32,
+        row_id_sequence,
+        deletion_vector,
+    })
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
     use std::ops::Range;
 
-    use crate::dataset::{builder::DatasetBuilder, UpdateBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::dataset::{
+        ProjectionRequest, ReadParams, UpdateBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+        builder::DatasetBuilder,
+    };
 
     use super::*;
 
-    use crate::dataset::optimize::{compact_files, CompactionOptions};
-    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use crate::session::Session;
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FailingProxyStore, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
     use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
     use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type, UInt64Type};
     use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt64Array};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
     use futures::Future;
     use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
-    use lance_core::{utils::address::RowAddress, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID};
+    use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID, utils::address::RowAddress};
     use lance_datagen::Dimension;
-    use lance_index::{scalar::ScalarIndexParams, DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
+    use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+    use lance_table::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
     use std::collections::HashMap;
     use std::collections::HashSet;
 
@@ -171,7 +471,7 @@ mod test {
         assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
 
         let index = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
-        assert!(index.get(0).is_none());
+        assert!(index.get(0).unwrap().is_none());
 
         assert_eq!(dataset.manifest().next_row_id, 0);
     }
@@ -225,7 +525,7 @@ mod test {
         let index = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
 
         let found_addresses = (0..num_rows)
-            .map(|i| index.get(i).unwrap())
+            .map(|i| index.get(i).unwrap().unwrap())
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let expected_addresses = (0..num_rows)
             .map(|i| {
@@ -238,6 +538,171 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(dataset.manifest().next_row_id, num_rows);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_id_index_owns_the_sequences_it_caches() {
+        let batch = sequence_batch(0..30);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            max_rows_per_file: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let session = dataset.session();
+
+        // Building the index adds one cache entry: the index, which holds its
+        // sequences itself rather than reading them through their own entries.
+        let entries_before = session.metadata_cache_stats().await.num_entries;
+        let index = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            session.metadata_cache_stats().await.num_entries,
+            entries_before + 1
+        );
+        let again = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&index, &again));
+
+        // A sequence lookup keeps its own content-keyed entry.
+        let fragment = &dataset.manifest.fragments[1];
+        let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(&dataset, fragment).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            (10..20).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            session.metadata_cache_stats().await.num_entries,
+            entries_before + 2
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_id_index_is_not_shared_without_a_generation_token() {
+        let batch = sequence_batch(0..10);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Without an e-tag the version-only key could alias a dataset recreated
+        // at the same URI, so the index must be built privately, never cached.
+        dataset.manifest_location.e_tag = None;
+        let session = dataset.session();
+        let entries_before = session.metadata_cache_stats().await.num_entries;
+        let first = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let second = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &second));
+        assert_eq!(
+            session.metadata_cache_stats().await.num_entries,
+            entries_before
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            second.get(9).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 9))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_id_index_propagates_deletion_vector_read_error() {
+        let batch = sequence_batch(0..10);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = temp_dir.as_str();
+        let path_prefix = if test_uri.starts_with('/') { "" } else { "/" };
+        let routed_uri = format!("file-object-store://{path_prefix}{test_uri}");
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &routed_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("id = 3").await.unwrap();
+        drop(dataset);
+
+        let failing_store = Arc::new(FailingProxyStore::new());
+        failing_store.fail_when(
+            "get_opts",
+            "_deletions",
+            "injected deletion-vector read failure",
+        );
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&routed_uri)
+            .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(failing_store.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(&error, Error::IO { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("injected deletion-vector read failure")
+        );
+
+        failing_store.clear_fail_when("get_opts", "_deletions");
+        let index = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(index.get(2).unwrap().is_some());
+        assert!(index.get(3).unwrap().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_addrs_to_row_ids() {
+        let num_rows = 25u64;
+        let batch = sequence_batch(0..num_rows as i32);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            max_rows_per_file: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Sequential assignment: row n lives at (n / 10, n % 10) with id n
+        let addr = |frag: u64, offset: u64| Some((frag << 32) | offset);
+        let addrs = vec![
+            addr(2, 1),   // id 21
+            addr(0, 3),   // id 3
+            None,         // null stays null
+            addr(0, 3),   // duplicates allowed
+            addr(9, 0),   // missing fragment
+            addr(1, 100), // out-of-range offset
+        ];
+        let ids = row_addrs_to_row_ids(&dataset, addrs).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![Some(21), Some(3), None, Some(3), None, None]);
+
+        // Without stable row ids, addresses are the ids: input passes through
+        let batch = sequence_batch(0..num_rows as i32);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let plain = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let addrs = vec![addr(1, 2), None];
+        let ids = row_addrs_to_row_ids(&plain, addrs.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ids, addrs);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_row_ids_overwrite() {
         // Validate we don't re-use after overwriting
@@ -268,18 +733,148 @@ mod test {
 
         // Overwriting should NOT reset the row id counter.
         assert_eq!(dataset.manifest().next_row_id, 2 * num_rows);
+        // Nor the fragment id counter: ids are a high water mark, so the
+        // overwritten fragment cannot alias the one it replaced.
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments[0].id, 1);
+
+        let index = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(index.get(0).unwrap().is_none());
+        assert!(index.get(num_rows).unwrap().is_some());
+    }
+
+    /// Fragment ids are a high water mark within one dataset, but a dataset
+    /// dropped and recreated at the same URI restarts them at 0 while sharing the
+    /// cache namespace of its predecessor (see #7645). The two generations must
+    /// still be told apart.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_ids_recreate_at_same_uri() {
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let tmp_path = &temp_dir;
+        // Shared so the cache stays warm across the drop, as it would for a host
+        // that keeps one session open for the lifetime of the process.
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+        let write = |rows: Range<i32>| {
+            let batch = sequence_batch(rows);
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+            let params = WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                session: Some(session.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            async move {
+                Dataset::write(reader, tmp_path, Some(params))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            }
+        };
+
+        let dataset = write(0..100).await;
+        let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(&dataset, &dataset.manifest.fragments[0])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 100);
+        // Leave this generation's index in the session cache: `RowIdIndexKey`
+        // is scoped by version alone, so the recreated dataset below reaches
+        // the same key, and no sequence load may be answered from it.
+        get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
+
+        // Reloading the unchanged fragment must still hit: keying on contents has
+        // to leave the sequence cacheable, not just make it distinguishable.
+        let hits_before = session.metadata_cache_stats().await.hits;
+        load_row_id_sequence(&dataset, &dataset.manifest.fragments[0])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(session.metadata_cache_stats().await.hits, hits_before + 1);
 
+        drop(dataset);
+        std::fs::remove_dir_all(tmp_path.as_str()).unwrap();
+
+        // Shorter than the dataset it replaces, so a stale hit is observable: an
+        // equal-length sequence would be byte-identical and harmless.
+        let dataset = write(0..60).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments[0].id, 0);
+
+        let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(&dataset, &dataset.manifest.fragments[0])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sequence.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            (0..60).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+
+        // The same goes for the index: row id 60 exists only in the dropped
+        // generation, whose index is still in the session cache.
         let index = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
-        assert!(index.get(0).is_none());
-        assert!(index.get(num_rows).is_some());
+        assert!(index.get(60).unwrap().is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(59).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 59))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_after_recreate() {
+        // Compaction rechunks the row id sequences of the fragments it merges, so
+        // a sequence cached for a dropped dataset does not just misreport ids, it
+        // writes ids the fragments do not hold back into the manifest.
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let tmp_path = &temp_dir;
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            session: Some(session.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let write = |rows: Range<i32>, mode: WriteMode| {
+            let batch = sequence_batch(rows);
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+            let params = WriteParams {
+                mode,
+                ..params.clone()
+            };
+            async move {
+                Dataset::write(reader, tmp_path, Some(params))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            }
+        };
+
+        let dataset = write(0..100, WriteMode::Create).await;
+        load_row_id_sequence(&dataset, &dataset.manifest.fragments[0])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        drop(dataset);
+        std::fs::remove_dir_all(tmp_path.as_str()).unwrap();
+
+        // The recreated dataset holds 60 rows in fragment 0, not the 100 cached
+        // above, and a second fragment so compaction has something to merge.
+        write(0..60, WriteMode::Create).await;
+        let mut dataset = write(0..100, WriteMode::Append).await;
+
+        compact(&mut dataset, 1024).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 160);
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        // A stale 100-long sequence would rechunk 0..100 onto the 60 rows of
+        // fragment 0 and shift everything after it.
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, (0..160).collect::<HashSet<_>>());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_row_ids_append() {
         // Validate we handle row ids well when appending concurrently.
-        fn write_batch<'a>(uri: &'a str, start: &mut i32) -> impl Future<Output = Result<()>> + 'a {
-            let batch = sequence_batch(*start..(*start + 10));
-            *start += 10;
+        fn write_batch(uri: &str, start: i32) -> impl Future<Output = Result<()>> + '_ {
+            let batch = sequence_batch(start..(start + 10));
             let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
             let write_params = WriteParams {
                 enable_stable_row_ids: true,
@@ -296,10 +891,11 @@ mod test {
         let tmp_path = &temp_dir;
         let mut start = 0;
         // Just do one first to create the dataset.
-        write_batch(tmp_path, &mut start).await.unwrap();
+        write_batch(tmp_path, start).await.unwrap();
+        start += 10;
         // Now do the rest concurrently.
         let futures = (0..5)
-            .map(|_| write_batch(tmp_path, &mut start))
+            .map(|offset| write_batch(tmp_path, start + offset * 10))
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         futures::future::try_join_all(futures).await.unwrap();
 
@@ -308,8 +904,8 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(dataset.manifest().next_row_id, 60);
 
         let index = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
-        assert!(index.get(0).is_some());
-        assert!(index.get(60).is_none());
+        assert!(index.get(0).unwrap().is_some());
+        assert!(index.get(60).unwrap().is_none());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -455,11 +1051,61 @@ mod test {
 
         let dataset = update_result.new_dataset;
         let index = get_row_id_index(&dataset).await.unwrap().unwrap();
-        assert!(index.get(0).is_some());
+        assert!(index.get(0).unwrap().is_some());
         // the updated row ids mapping to new address
-        assert_eq!(index.get(3), Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            index.get(3).unwrap(),
+            Some(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 0))
+        );
         // there is no new row id
-        assert_eq!(index.get(5), None);
+        assert_eq!(index.get(5).unwrap(), None);
+    }
+
+    /// 100 sequential rows across 4 fragments with every third row deleted.
+    async fn deleted_thirds_dataset(enable_stable_row_ids: bool) -> Dataset {
+        let batch = sequence_batch(0..100);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids,
+            max_rows_per_file: 25,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("id % 3 = 0").await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::interleaved((0..100).collect(), (0..100).filter(|id| id % 3 != 0).collect())]
+    #[case::all_deleted(vec![0, 3, 9], vec![])]
+    #[case::all_live(vec![1, 2, 50, 98], vec![1, 2, 50, 98])]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_deleted_ids_with_stable_row_ids(
+        #[case] ids: Vec<u64>,
+        #[case] expected: Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        // Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7701:
+        // filter_deleted_ids must return exactly the live ids, in order.
+        // Sequential inserts, so stable row id == id column value.
+        let dataset = deleted_thirds_dataset(true).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.filter_deleted_ids(&ids).await.unwrap(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_deleted_ids_without_stable_row_ids() {
+        // Non-stable: ids are row addresses; only deleted rows drop out.
+        let dataset = deleted_thirds_dataset(false).await;
+
+        // Row addresses: fragment (id / 25) << 32 | offset (id % 25).
+        let addr = |id: u64| (id / 25) << 32 | (id % 25);
+        let ids = (0..100).map(addr).collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+        let expected = (0..100)
+            .filter(|id| id % 3 != 0)
+            .map(addr)
+            .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.filter_deleted_ids(&ids).await.unwrap(), expected);
     }
 
     fn build_rowid_to_i_map(row_ids: &UInt64Array, i_array: &Int32Array) -> HashMap<u64, i32> {
@@ -484,7 +1130,7 @@ mod test {
         build_rowid_to_i_map(row_ids, i)
     }
 
-    async fn compact(dataset: &mut Dataset, target_rows: usize) {
+    pub(super) async fn compact(dataset: &mut Dataset, target_rows: usize) {
         let options = CompactionOptions {
             target_rows_per_fragment: target_rows,
             ..Default::default()
@@ -492,10 +1138,121 @@ mod test {
         let _ = compact_files(dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
     }
 
-    async fn delete(dataset: &mut Dataset, expr: &str) {
+    pub(super) async fn delete(dataset: &mut Dataset, expr: &str) {
         dataset.delete(expr).await.unwrap();
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_range_segments_are_opt_in() {
+        use lance_table::format::pb;
+        use lance_table::transaction::RANGE_SEGMENTS_CONFIG_KEY;
+        use prost::Message;
+
+        /// Wire-level segment kinds of every fragment, and whether the decoded
+        /// form folded any of them into a compact `Ranges` segment.
+        fn segment_shapes(dataset: &Dataset) -> (Vec<&'static str>, bool) {
+            let mut kinds = Vec::new();
+            let mut folded = false;
+            for fragment in dataset.manifest.fragments.iter() {
+                let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragment.row_id_meta else {
+                    panic!("expected inline row ids, got {:?}", fragment.row_id_meta);
+                };
+                let wire = pb::RowIdSequence::decode(&data[..]).unwrap();
+                kinds.extend(wire.segments.iter().map(|segment| match segment.segment {
+                    Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::Range(_)) => "range",
+                    Some(pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(_)) => "bitmap",
+                    _ => "other",
+                }));
+                folded |= read_row_ids(&data[..])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .segments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|segment| matches!(segment, U64Segment::Ranges { .. }));
+            }
+            (kinds, folded)
+        }
+
+        // Deleting a contiguous block inside every fragment leaves each row id
+        // sequence as a range with one long run of holes, which `delete`
+        // encodes as a bitmap segment; compaction carries those segments over.
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(500),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 500,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        delete(&mut dataset, "i % 500 >= 100 and i % 500 < 400").await;
+        compact(&mut dataset, 5000).await;
+        let map_before = scan_rowid_map(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(map_before.len(), 800);
+
+        // Without the opt-in the bitmaps stay.
+        let (kinds, folded) = segment_shapes(&dataset);
+        assert!(kinds.contains(&"bitmap") && !folded, "{kinds:?}");
+
+        // Opting in re-encodes every eligible fragment in the same commit: on
+        // the wire only plain `Range` segments, folded back when decoded.
+        dataset
+            .update_config([(RANGE_SEGMENTS_CONFIG_KEY, "true")])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let (kinds, folded) = segment_shapes(&dataset);
+        assert!(kinds.iter().all(|kind| *kind == "range"), "{kinds:?}");
+        assert!(
+            folded,
+            "fragments with 300 contiguous holes each should fold into Ranges"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest().reader_feature_flags,
+            lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS,
+            "the wire format did not change, so no new reader flag"
+        );
+
+        // Reads see the same row ids; a take by row id resolves through the
+        // compact segments.
+        let map_after = scan_rowid_map(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(map_before, map_after);
+        let mut sample: Vec<u64> = map_before.keys().copied().collect();
+        sample.sort_unstable();
+        let sample: Vec<u64> = sample.into_iter().step_by(97).collect();
+        let taken = dataset
+            .take_rows(
+                &sample,
+                ProjectionRequest::from_columns(["i"], dataset.schema()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(taken.num_rows(), sample.len());
+        let index = get_row_id_index(&Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        for row_id in &sample {
+            assert!(index.get(*row_id).unwrap().is_some(), "row id {row_id}");
+        }
+
+        // Later commits keep re-encoding only what changed, and the manifest
+        // re-read from storage folds the same way.
+        delete(&mut dataset, "i = 10").await;
+        let reopened = dataset
+            .checkout_version(dataset.manifest().version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let (kinds, folded) = segment_shapes(&reopened);
+        assert!(
+            kinds.iter().all(|kind| *kind == "range") && folded,
+            "{kinds:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(scan_rowid_map(&reopened).await.len(), 799);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_stable_row_id_after_multiple_deletion_and_compaction() {
         async fn delete(dataset: &mut Dataset, expr: &str) {
@@ -554,7 +1311,7 @@ mod test {
         let expected: Vec<i32> = (0..60)
             .filter(|&i| i != 2 && i != 3 && i != 5 && i != 9)
             .collect();
-        assert_eq!(id_set, expected.iter().cloned().collect());
+        assert_eq!(id_set, expected.iter().cloned().collect::<HashSet<_>>());
 
         // get the row_id where i == 15
         let mut scan = dataset.scan();
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids/spill.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids/spill.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e9e5fff33a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids/spill.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2278 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Spilling a fragment's row lineage sequences -- its row ids and its
+//! created-at and last-updated-at versions -- out of the manifest and into
+//! hidden columns of a Lance data file.
+//!
+//! A row id sequence is run-encoded, so an appended fragment costs about 20
+//! bytes of manifest and never needs to leave it. A fragment whose rows came
+//! from many places -- the output of compacting a shuffled table, for instance
+//! -- has no runs to exploit and falls back to 8 bytes per row. The version
+//! sequences are run-length encoded and degrade the same way once a fragment
+//! interleaves rows written at many versions. Inline, that cost is paid again
+//! in every manifest version, so the manifest grows with the table and every
+//! commit rewrites all of it.
+//!
+//! Spilled, each sequence is an ordinary `UInt64` column carrying one of the
+//! reserved field ids [`ROW_ID_FIELD_ID`], [`ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID`]
+//! or [`ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID`], written with the same encodings
+//! and read with the same reader as user data. The file is one of the
+//! fragment's own data files, found by that field id; the fragment's metadata
+//! only marks the sequence as spilled. A fragment's spilled sequences written
+//! here share one such file.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+use lance_core::{ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION};
+use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
+use lance_file::LanceEncodingsIo;
+use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, ProjectedFileReader, ReaderProjection};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_file::versions;
+use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
+use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_table::format::{
+    DataFile, Fragment, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+    ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID, RowDatasetVersionMeta, RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+    RowIdMeta,
+};
+use lance_table::rowids::version::write_dataset_versions;
+use lance_table::rowids::{RowIdSequence, write_row_ids};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+
+use super::super::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::fragment::write::generate_random_filename;
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+/// Rows per batch handed to the file writer and read back from it.
+const SPILL_BATCH_ROWS: usize = 64 * 1024;
+
+/// Encoded sequences at or below this size stay in the manifest, unless
+/// [`INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY`] says otherwise.
+///
+/// Matches the inline limit the format has always documented for the
+/// lineage oneofs. A `Range` row id sequence -- every appended fragment --
+/// encodes to a few dozen bytes and is nowhere near it, and so does a
+/// single-run version sequence.
+pub const DEFAULT_INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES: usize = 200 * 1024;
+
+/// Table config key that turns spilling on: `"true"` lets compaction and
+/// update move the oversized lineage sequences they carry over from existing
+/// rows out of the manifest -- row ids and created-at versions, and at
+/// compaction last-updated-at versions too; an update's last-updated-at
+/// version is the commit's and stays inline. Absent or anything else, every
+/// sequence stays inline however large it grows, which is what every released
+/// build does; a table that never sets it stays readable by them.
+pub const SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY: &str = "lance.row_lineage.spill";
+
+/// Table config key overriding [`DEFAULT_INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES`], as a
+/// byte count. Only consulted when [`SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY`] is on.
+pub const INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY: &str = "lance.row_lineage.inline_max_bytes";
+
+/// The largest encoded lineage sequence `dataset` keeps inline, or `None` when
+/// the table does not spill at all.
+///
+/// Spilling needs the table's opt-in, a build that understands the feature
+/// flag (a build that does not would write a dataset it then refuses to
+/// open), and v2 data files: the format allows the columns only there, since
+/// a legacy v1 file has no `column_indices` to locate them by.
+pub fn inline_row_lineage_max_bytes(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<usize>> {
+    let config = dataset.config();
+    let enabled = config
+        .get(SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY)
+        .is_some_and(|value| value.eq_ignore_ascii_case("true"));
+    if !enabled
+        || !lance_table::feature_flags::spilled_row_lineage_enabled()
+        || dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format() == ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+    {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let Some(value) = config.get(INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY) else {
+        return Ok(Some(DEFAULT_INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES));
+    };
+    value.parse().map(Some).map_err(|error| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "table config {INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY}={value:?} is not a byte \
+             count: {error}"
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+/// The hidden row lineage columns by name and reserved field id, in the order
+/// a data file written by compaction stores them.
+const LINEAGE_COLUMNS: [(&str, i32); 3] = [
+    (ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID),
+    (ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID),
+    (
+        ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
+        ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+    ),
+];
+
+/// Which of a compaction task's sequences leave the manifest as hidden columns
+/// of the data files it writes. Every file the task writes carries the same
+/// columns, so this holds for all of its output fragments.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct RowLineageSpill {
+    pub row_ids: bool,
+    pub created_at: bool,
+    pub last_updated_at: bool,
+}
+
+impl RowLineageSpill {
+    pub fn any(&self) -> bool {
+        self.row_ids || self.created_at || self.last_updated_at
+    }
+
+    /// The reserved field ids of the spilled columns, in column order.
+    pub fn field_ids(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = i32> {
+        let flags = [self.row_ids, self.created_at, self.last_updated_at];
+        LINEAGE_COLUMNS
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(flags)
+            .filter_map(|((_, field_id), spilled)| spilled.then_some(field_id))
+    }
+
+    /// Move the spilled sequences out of `lineages` as the values of the
+    /// hidden columns, one vector per column in column order, concatenated
+    /// over `lineages`. The spilled sequences are left empty: nothing places
+    /// them inline, and their run-length form would otherwise stay alive
+    /// through the write next to the values built from it.
+    pub fn take_columns(&self, lineages: &mut [RowLineage]) -> Vec<Vec<u64>> {
+        let total_rows = lineages
+            .iter()
+            .map(|lineage| lineage.row_ids.len() as usize)
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        self.field_ids()
+            .map(|field_id| {
+                let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows);
+                for lineage in lineages.iter_mut() {
+                    match field_id {
+                        ROW_ID_FIELD_ID => {
+                            let row_ids = std::mem::take(&mut lineage.row_ids);
+                            values.extend(row_ids.iter());
+                        }
+                        ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID => {
+                            let created_at = std::mem::take(&mut lineage.created_at);
+                            values.extend(created_at.versions());
+                        }
+                        // The only other id `field_ids` yields.
+                        _ => {
+                            let last_updated_at = std::mem::take(&mut lineage.last_updated_at);
+                            values.extend(last_updated_at.versions());
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                values
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// The spilled columns as write-schema fields, in column order and under
+    /// their reserved ids.
+    pub fn schema_fields(&self) -> Result<Vec<lance_core::datatypes::Field>> {
+        self.field_ids().map(lineage_field).collect()
+    }
+
+    /// The placement for one fragment whose own data file was written with
+    /// the spilled columns: those sequences are marked as spilled, the rest
+    /// are placed inline. There is no lineage file to add to the fragment.
+    pub fn place_in_file(&self, lineage: &RowLineage) -> PlacedRowLineage {
+        PlacedRowLineage {
+            row_ids: if self.row_ids {
+                RowIdMeta::Column
+            } else {
+                RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&lineage.row_ids).into())
+            },
+            created_at: if self.created_at {
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column
+            } else {
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(write_dataset_versions(&lineage.created_at).into())
+            },
+            last_updated_at: if self.last_updated_at {
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column
+            } else {
+                RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(
+                    write_dataset_versions(&lineage.last_updated_at).into(),
+                )
+            },
+            file: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The hidden column a spilled lineage sequence is stored in: a non-nullable
+/// `UInt64` named after the sequence in [`LINEAGE_COLUMNS`], under its
+/// reserved `field_id`.
+fn lineage_field(field_id: i32) -> Result<lance_core::datatypes::Field> {
+    let (name, _) = LINEAGE_COLUMNS
+        .into_iter()
+        .find(|(_, id)| *id == field_id)
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "field id {field_id} is not a reserved row lineage field id"
+            ))
+        })?;
+    let mut field =
+        lance_core::datatypes::Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new(name, DataType::UInt64, false))?;
+    field.id = field_id;
+    Ok(field)
+}
+
+/// How a compaction task places the lineage of the fragments it writes.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum RowLineagePlan {
+    /// Each sequence type the spill names is over the inline budget in every
+    /// output fragment and is written into the data files as a hidden column;
+    /// every other type is under the budget in all of them and stays inline.
+    InFile(RowLineageSpill),
+    /// Some sequence type is over the budget in some output fragments but not
+    /// in others. A column in every file would also spill the sequences that
+    /// fit inline, and their readers would then pay a read per row for what a
+    /// few bytes of manifest hold. The task writes no hidden columns instead,
+    /// and after the write places each fragment's lineage on its own with
+    /// [`place_row_lineage`], which spills only what is over the budget, to a
+    /// separate lineage file.
+    PerFragment,
+}
+
+/// Plan how the lineage of a compaction task's output fragments, `lineages`,
+/// is placed when every encoded sequence over `limit` bytes has to leave the
+/// manifest (see [`inline_row_lineage_max_bytes`]).
+pub fn plan_row_lineage_spill(limit: usize, lineages: &[RowLineage]) -> RowLineagePlan {
+    let over = |encoded: Vec<u8>| encoded.len() > limit;
+    let row_ids = over_in_all_or_none(lineages.iter().map(|l| over(write_row_ids(&l.row_ids))));
+    let created_at = over_in_all_or_none(
+        lineages
+            .iter()
+            .map(|l| over(write_dataset_versions(&l.created_at))),
+    );
+    let last_updated_at = over_in_all_or_none(
+        lineages
+            .iter()
+            .map(|l| over(write_dataset_versions(&l.last_updated_at))),
+    );
+    match (row_ids, created_at, last_updated_at) {
+        (Some(row_ids), Some(created_at), Some(last_updated_at)) => {
+            RowLineagePlan::InFile(RowLineageSpill {
+                row_ids,
+                created_at,
+                last_updated_at,
+            })
+        }
+        _ => RowLineagePlan::PerFragment,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether one sequence type is over the budget in every output fragment
+/// (`Some(true)`) or in none (`Some(false)`), given each output's verdict in
+/// `over`; `None` when the outputs disagree. It stops encoding at the first
+/// disagreement.
+fn over_in_all_or_none(mut over: impl Iterator<Item = bool>) -> Option<bool> {
+    let Some(first) = over.next() else {
+        return Some(false);
+    };
+    over.all(|next| next == first).then_some(first)
+}
+
+/// The per-row lineage of one fragment, in row offset order.
+pub struct RowLineage {
+    pub row_ids: RowIdSequence,
+    pub created_at: RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+    pub last_updated_at: RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+}
+
+/// Where each of a fragment's lineage sequences ended up, and the data file
+/// the spilled ones were written to, which the fragment has to list among its
+/// files. [`Self::apply`] does both.
+pub struct PlacedRowLineage {
+    pub row_ids: RowIdMeta,
+    pub created_at: RowDatasetVersionMeta,
+    pub last_updated_at: RowDatasetVersionMeta,
+    pub file: Option<DataFile>,
+}
+
+impl PlacedRowLineage {
+    /// Put the placement on `fragment`: its three lineage arms, and the
+    /// lineage file, if any, as one more of its data files.
+    pub fn apply(self, fragment: &mut Fragment) {
+        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(self.row_ids);
+        fragment.created_at_version_meta = Some(self.created_at);
+        fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = Some(self.last_updated_at);
+        if let Some(file) = self.file {
+            fragment.files.push(file);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Place each sequence of `lineage` either inline in the manifest or in a
+/// hidden column of a new data file, as the table's spill policy (see
+/// [`inline_row_lineage_max_bytes`]) and the sequence's encoded size call for.
+/// Every sequence that spills goes into one file, which the caller adds to the
+/// fragment's data files (see [`PlacedRowLineage::apply`]).
+///
+/// Only correct for lineage that a commit conflict cannot change: row ids and
+/// versions carried over from existing rows. Lineage assigned at commit time --
+/// an appended fragment's row ids, an inserted row's created-at version -- has
+/// to stay inline, where the commit can still rewrite it.
+pub async fn place_row_lineage(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    lineage: &RowLineage,
+) -> Result<PlacedRowLineage> {
+    let (can_spill, limit) = match inline_row_lineage_max_bytes(dataset)? {
+        Some(limit) => (true, limit),
+        None => (false, usize::MAX),
+    };
+    let inline_row_ids = write_row_ids(&lineage.row_ids);
+    let inline_created_at = write_dataset_versions(&lineage.created_at);
+    let inline_last_updated_at = write_dataset_versions(&lineage.last_updated_at);
+
+    // Materialized up front rather than streamed from the sequence iterators:
+    // `RowIdSequence::iter` returns a boxed `dyn DoubleEndedIterator`, which is
+    // not `Send`, so holding it across the write below would make this future
+    // non-`Send` and every caller of `compact_files` along with it --
+    // including the Python bindings, which spawn that future.
+    let mut columns: Vec<(i32, &str, ArrayRef)> = Vec::with_capacity(3);
+    if can_spill && inline_row_ids.len() > limit {
+        let ids = UInt64Array::from(lineage.row_ids.iter().collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+        columns.push((ROW_ID_FIELD_ID, ROW_ID, Arc::new(ids)));
+    }
+    if can_spill && inline_created_at.len() > limit {
+        let versions = UInt64Array::from(lineage.created_at.versions().collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+        columns.push((
+            ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+            ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+            Arc::new(versions),
+        ));
+    }
+    if can_spill && inline_last_updated_at.len() > limit {
+        let versions = UInt64Array::from(lineage.last_updated_at.versions().collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+        columns.push((
+            ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+            ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
+            Arc::new(versions),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let spilled = if columns.is_empty() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(write_lineage_file(dataset, &columns).await?)
+    };
+    let holds = |field_id: i32| {
+        spilled
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|file| file.fields.contains(&field_id))
+    };
+
+    Ok(PlacedRowLineage {
+        row_ids: if holds(ROW_ID_FIELD_ID) {
+            RowIdMeta::Column
+        } else {
+            RowIdMeta::Inline(inline_row_ids.into())
+        },
+        created_at: if holds(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID) {
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column
+        } else {
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(inline_created_at.into())
+        },
+        last_updated_at: if holds(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID) {
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column
+        } else {
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(inline_last_updated_at.into())
+        },
+        file: spilled,
+    })
+}
+
+/// The lineage an update carries over into one of its new fragments, as
+/// [`place_carried_row_lineage`] placed it.
+///
+/// `pub` rather than `pub(crate)` only because `clippy::redundant_pub_crate`
+/// fires inside the private `spill` module; the crate-private re-export of
+/// [`place_carried_row_lineage`] keeps it off the public API.
+pub struct CarriedRowLineage {
+    row_ids: RowIdMeta,
+    /// `None` when neither sequence spilled: the commit then resolves the
+    /// created-at versions from the inline row ids, as on a table that has not
+    /// opted in. `Some`, inline or spilled, once either sequence spilled.
+    created_at: Option<RowDatasetVersionMeta>,
+    /// The lineage file holding the spilled sequences, `None` when nothing
+    /// spilled.
+    file: Option<DataFile>,
+}
+
+impl CarriedRowLineage {
+    /// Put the placement on `fragment`: its row ids, its created-at versions
+    /// when they were placed, and the lineage file, if any, as one more of its
+    /// data files. The last-updated-at versions are left for the commit.
+    pub fn apply(self, fragment: &mut Fragment) {
+        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(self.row_ids);
+        fragment.created_at_version_meta = self.created_at;
+        fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = None;
+        if let Some(file) = self.file {
+            fragment.files.push(file);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Place the row ids and created-at versions that rewritten rows carry over
+/// into a new fragment, spilling each whose encoding exceeds `limit` into a
+/// hidden column of one new data file.
+///
+/// When neither exceeds `limit`, only the row ids are placed, inline, and the
+/// created-at versions are left for the commit to resolve from them, as it
+/// does on a table that has not opted in. Once either spills the commit can no
+/// longer resolve them, since it cannot read spilled row ids, so the created-at
+/// versions are placed as well, spilled or inline.
+///
+/// The last-updated-at version is never placed: it is the commit's, and a
+/// conflict retry moves it.
+pub async fn place_carried_row_lineage(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    limit: usize,
+    row_ids: &RowIdSequence,
+    created_at: &RowDatasetVersionSequence,
+) -> Result<CarriedRowLineage> {
+    let inline_row_ids = write_row_ids(row_ids);
+    let inline_created_at = write_dataset_versions(created_at);
+    let spill_row_ids = inline_row_ids.len() > limit;
+    let spill_created_at = inline_created_at.len() > limit;
+    if !spill_row_ids && !spill_created_at {
+        return Ok(CarriedRowLineage {
+            row_ids: RowIdMeta::Inline(inline_row_ids.into()),
+            created_at: None,
+            file: None,
+        });
+    }
+
+    // Materialized before the write, as in `place_row_lineage`, so the future
+    // stays `Send`.
+    let mut columns: Vec<(i32, &str, ArrayRef)> = Vec::with_capacity(2);
+    if spill_row_ids {
+        let ids = UInt64Array::from(row_ids.iter().collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+        columns.push((ROW_ID_FIELD_ID, ROW_ID, Arc::new(ids)));
+    }
+    if spill_created_at {
+        let versions = UInt64Array::from(created_at.versions().collect::<Vec<u64>>());
+        columns.push((
+            ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+            ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+            Arc::new(versions),
+        ));
+    }
+    let file = write_lineage_file(dataset, &columns).await?;
+
+    Ok(CarriedRowLineage {
+        row_ids: if spill_row_ids {
+            RowIdMeta::Column
+        } else {
+            RowIdMeta::Inline(inline_row_ids.into())
+        },
+        created_at: Some(if spill_created_at {
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column
+        } else {
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(inline_created_at.into())
+        }),
+        file: Some(file),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Write `columns` as the hidden columns of one new data file and return the
+/// [`DataFile`] that locates them, listing the columns' field ids in order.
+async fn write_lineage_file(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    columns: &[(i32, &str, ArrayRef)],
+) -> Result<DataFile> {
+    let file_version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.version;
+    let filename = format!("{}.lance", generate_random_filename());
+    let full_path = dataset.data_dir().join(filename.as_str());
+
+    let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(
+        columns
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, name, _)| ArrowField::new(*name, DataType::UInt64, false))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    ));
+    let schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref())?;
+    let object_writer = dataset.object_store.create(&full_path).await?;
+    let mut writer = versions::create_writer(
+        file_version,
+        object_writer,
+        schema,
+        FileWriterOptions::default(),
+    )?;
+
+    let num_rows = columns[0].2.len();
+    for offset in (0..num_rows).step_by(SPILL_BATCH_ROWS) {
+        let len = SPILL_BATCH_ROWS.min(num_rows - offset);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            columns
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(_, _, array)| array.slice(offset, len))
+                .collect(),
+        )?;
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await?;
+    }
+    let summary = writer.finish().await?;
+
+    Ok(DataFile::new(
+        filename,
+        columns.iter().map(|(field_id, _, _)| *field_id).collect(),
+        (0..columns.len() as i32).collect(),
+        file_version,
+        std::num::NonZero::new(summary.size_bytes),
+        None,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Read back `fragment`'s row id sequence from the data file that carries it.
+pub async fn read_spilled_row_ids(dataset: &Dataset, fragment: &Fragment) -> Result<RowIdSequence> {
+    let ids = read_spilled_column(dataset, fragment, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID)
+        .boxed()
+        .await?;
+    Ok(RowIdSequence::from(ids.as_slice()))
+}
+
+/// Read back one of `fragment`'s version sequences from the data file that
+/// carries it; `field_id` says which of the two it is.
+pub async fn read_spilled_versions(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment: &Fragment,
+    field_id: i32,
+) -> Result<RowDatasetVersionSequence> {
+    let versions = read_spilled_column(dataset, fragment, field_id)
+        .boxed()
+        .await?;
+    Ok(RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&versions))
+}
+
+/// Read the hidden `UInt64` column `field_id` of `fragment` in full: one
+/// value per physical row, from the one data file that carries the id.
+///
+/// Callers box this future: it drives the data file reader, and inlined
+/// into the row id index build (reached from `take`, and from there from index
+/// builds and `optimize_indices`) it makes those futures too deep for the trait
+/// solver to prove `Send`/`Sync` (E0275).
+async fn read_spilled_column(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment: &Fragment,
+    field_id: i32,
+) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
+    let data_file = fragment.row_lineage_file(field_id)?.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::corrupt_file(
+            dataset.base.clone(),
+            format!(
+                "fragment {} marks row lineage field {field_id} as spilled but none of its \
+                 data files carries it",
+                fragment.id
+            ),
+        )
+    })?;
+    let column_index = data_file
+        .fields
+        .iter()
+        .position(|field| *field == field_id)
+        .and_then(|position| data_file.column_indices.get(position))
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                &data_file.path,
+                format!("spilled row lineage file does not carry field id {field_id}"),
+            )
+        })?;
+    let column_index = u32::try_from(*column_index).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            &data_file.path,
+            format!("field id {field_id} has no column index in the spilled row lineage file"),
+        )
+    })?;
+
+    // The projected field is built from the reserved id rather than taken
+    // from the file schema. A column index counts physical columns -- one per
+    // leaf, and in 2.0 one per list or struct as well -- so once the lineage
+    // columns follow nested user columns, as in a compaction output, it is no
+    // longer the field's position among the file's top-level fields. Nor can
+    // the file schema be searched by id: a lineage-only file stores its
+    // fields under ids 0, 1 and 2.
+    let projection = ReaderProjection {
+        schema: Arc::new(Schema {
+            fields: vec![lineage_field(field_id)?],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        }),
+        column_indices: vec![column_index],
+    };
+
+    // Resolved through `data_file_dir` rather than `data_dir` so a shallow
+    // clone, which rewrites `base_id` on every referenced file, still finds it.
+    let path: Path = dataset
+        .data_file_dir(data_file)?
+        .join(data_file.path.as_str());
+    let object_store = dataset.object_store_for_data_file(data_file).await?;
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+        object_store.clone(),
+        SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
+    );
+    let file = scheduler
+        .open_file(&path, &data_file.file_size_bytes)
+        .await?;
+    let options = dataset.file_reader_options.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+    let cache = dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&path);
+    let io =
+        Arc::new(LanceEncodingsIo::new(file.clone()).with_read_chunk_size(options.read_chunk_size));
+    // An index past the file's columns means the data file entry and the file
+    // disagree. The reader would reject the projection as invalid input without
+    // naming the file, so it is checked here, once the column count is known.
+    let check_column_index = |num_columns: usize| {
+        if (column_index as usize) < num_columns {
+            Ok(())
+        } else {
+            Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                &data_file.path,
+                format!(
+                    "spilled row lineage column {field_id} is at column index {column_index}, \
+                     but the file has only {num_columns} columns"
+                ),
+            ))
+        }
+    };
+    // A compaction output holds the lineage next to every user column, and
+    // decoding all their metadata to read one column would cost as much as
+    // opening the file for a scan. Past a few columns, only the one read here
+    // has its metadata fetched, by the same threshold the fragment reader uses.
+    let live_columns = data_file
+        .column_indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|column_index| **column_index >= 0)
+        .count();
+    let reader = versions::open_projected_reader(
+        data_file.file_version()?,
+        &projection,
+        projection.column_indices.len().saturating_mul(4) < live_columns,
+        || async {
+            let metadata_index = FileReader::read_metadata_index(&file).await?;
+            check_column_index(metadata_index.num_columns() as usize)?;
+            let reader = ProjectedFileReader::try_open_with_metadata_index(
+                io.clone(),
+                path.clone(),
+                Some(projection.clone()),
+                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                Arc::new(metadata_index),
+                &cache,
+                options.clone(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            Ok(Some(reader))
+        },
+        || async {
+            let metadata = FileReader::read_all_metadata(&file).await?;
+            check_column_index(metadata.column_infos.len())?;
+            ProjectedFileReader::try_open_with_file_metadata(
+                io.clone(),
+                path.clone(),
+                Some(projection.clone()),
+                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                Arc::new(metadata),
+                &cache,
+                options.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+        },
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    let mut values: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(reader.num_rows() as usize);
+    let mut batches = reader
+        .read_tasks(
+            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+            SPILL_BATCH_ROWS as u32,
+            None,
+            FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await?
+        .map(|task| task.task)
+        .buffered(8);
+    while let Some(batch) = batches.try_next().await? {
+        let column = batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    &data_file.path,
+                    format!("spilled row lineage column {field_id} is not UInt64"),
+                )
+            })?;
+        // A null has no row id or version to stand for; the format requires a
+        // value for every physical row.
+        if column.null_count() > 0 {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                &data_file.path,
+                format!("spilled row lineage column {field_id} holds nulls"),
+            ));
+        }
+        values.extend_from_slice(column.values());
+    }
+    if let Some(physical_rows) = fragment.physical_rows
+        && values.len() != physical_rows
+    {
+        return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            &data_file.path,
+            format!(
+                "spilled row lineage column {field_id} holds {} values for a fragment of {} \
+                 physical rows",
+                values.len(),
+                physical_rows
+            ),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    Ok(values)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::cleanup::{CleanupPolicyBuilder, cleanup_old_versions};
+    use crate::dataset::fragment::FileFragment;
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{
+        CompactionMode, CompactionOptions, compact_files, plan_compaction,
+    };
+    use crate::dataset::rowids::{RowVersionKind, load_row_id_sequence, load_row_version_sequence};
+    use crate::dataset::transaction::Operation;
+    use crate::dataset::{
+        ColumnAlteration, NewColumnTransform, UpdateBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+    };
+    use arrow_array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray};
+    use arrow_schema::Field;
+    use chrono::Utc;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_core::{ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION};
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE;
+    use lance_table::format::overlay::TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    /// A sequence with no runs to exploit, which is what a globally shuffled
+    /// table produces and what forces the spill path.
+    fn scattered_row_ids(len: u64) -> RowIdSequence {
+        // A stride coprime with `len` visits every id exactly once in an order
+        // with no ascending run longer than one.
+        let ids: Vec<u64> = (0..len).map(|i| (i * 7919) % len).collect();
+        RowIdSequence::from(ids.as_slice())
+    }
+
+    /// A version per row that alternates, so every row is its own run.
+    fn alternating_versions(len: u64, first: u64) -> RowDatasetVersionSequence {
+        let versions: Vec<u64> = (0..len).map(|i| first + i % 2).collect();
+        RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&versions)
+    }
+
+    fn test_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]))
+    }
+
+    async fn tiny_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+        tiny_dataset_with_version(uri, LanceFileVersion::default()).await
+    }
+
+    async fn tiny_dataset_with_version(uri: &str, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = test_schema();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn versions_of(sequence: &RowDatasetVersionSequence) -> Vec<u64> {
+        sequence.versions().collect()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn spilled_lineage_shares_one_file_and_round_trips() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = tiny_dataset(dir.as_str()).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+
+        let lineage = RowLineage {
+            row_ids: scattered_row_ids(20_000),
+            created_at: alternating_versions(20_000, 1),
+            last_updated_at: alternating_versions(20_000, 3),
+        };
+        let placed = place_row_lineage(&dataset, &lineage).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(placed.row_ids, RowIdMeta::Column)
+                && matches!(placed.created_at, RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+                && matches!(placed.last_updated_at, RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column),
+            "expected every sequence to spill"
+        );
+        // One file carries all three, and it becomes one of the fragment's
+        // data files; the metadata only marks the sequences as spilled.
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(0);
+        fragment.physical_rows = Some(20_000);
+        placed.apply(&mut fragment);
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            fragment.files[0].fields.as_ref(),
+            [
+                ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+                ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+                ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID
+            ]
+        );
+
+        let row_ids = read_spilled_row_ids(&dataset, &fragment).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            lineage.row_ids.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        let created_at =
+            read_spilled_versions(&dataset, &fragment, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(versions_of(&created_at), versions_of(&lineage.created_at));
+        let last_updated_at =
+            read_spilled_versions(&dataset, &fragment, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            versions_of(&last_updated_at),
+            versions_of(&lineage.last_updated_at)
+        );
+
+        // A data file entry that points past the file's columns is corruption
+        // of that file, not a bad projection from the caller.
+        fragment.files[0].column_indices = vec![3, 1, 2].into();
+        let error = read_spilled_row_ids(&dataset, &fragment).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("is at column index 3, but the file has only 3 columns"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn only_the_sequences_over_the_limit_spill() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = tiny_dataset(dir.as_str()).await;
+        // An appended fragment's row ids are a single `Range` and its versions
+        // a single run, so they encode to a few dozen bytes and must never
+        // leave the manifest, even next to a sequence that does.
+        let lineage = RowLineage {
+            row_ids: RowIdSequence::from(0..20_000),
+            created_at: alternating_versions(20_000, 1),
+            last_updated_at: RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(20_000, 1),
+        };
+
+        // A table that has not opted in never spills, whatever the size.
+        let placed = place_row_lineage(&dataset, &lineage).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            placed.created_at,
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(placed.file.is_none());
+
+        dataset
+            .update_config([(SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY, "true")])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let placed = place_row_lineage(&dataset, &lineage).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(placed.row_ids, RowIdMeta::Inline(_)),
+            "a range sequence must stay inline, got {:?}",
+            placed.row_ids
+        );
+        assert!(
+            matches!(placed.last_updated_at, RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(_)),
+            "a single-run sequence must stay inline, got {:?}",
+            placed.last_updated_at
+        );
+        assert!(
+            matches!(placed.created_at, RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column),
+            "an alternating version sequence encodes past 200 KiB"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            placed.file.as_ref().unwrap().fields.as_ref(),
+            [ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// What an update carries over is placed in full only once something
+    /// spills: the commit resolves created-at versions from inline row ids but
+    /// cannot from spilled ones, and it always stamps last-updated-at itself.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::nothing_spills(false, false)]
+    #[case::row_ids_spill(true, false)]
+    #[case::created_at_spills(false, true)]
+    #[case::both_spill(true, true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn carried_lineage_places_created_at_once_anything_spills(
+        #[case] spill_row_ids: bool,
+        #[case] spill_created_at: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = tiny_dataset(dir.as_str()).await;
+        // Under a 100-byte budget a scattered or alternating sequence of 1,000
+        // rows spills, and a range or a single run stays inline.
+        let row_ids = if spill_row_ids {
+            scattered_row_ids(1_000)
+        } else {
+            RowIdSequence::from(0..1_000)
+        };
+        let created_at = if spill_created_at {
+            alternating_versions(1_000, 1)
+        } else {
+            RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(1_000, 1)
+        };
+
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(42);
+        fragment.physical_rows = Some(1_000);
+        place_carried_row_lineage(&dataset, 100, &row_ids, &created_at)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .apply(&mut fragment);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            matches!(fragment.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column)),
+            spill_row_ids
+        );
+        assert_eq!(fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta, None);
+        let placed_row_ids = load_row_id_sequence(&dataset, &fragment).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            placed_row_ids.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            row_ids.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        if !spill_row_ids && !spill_created_at {
+            assert_eq!(fragment.created_at_version_meta, None);
+            assert!(fragment.files.is_empty());
+        } else {
+            let spilled = [
+                (spill_row_ids, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID),
+                (spill_created_at, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID),
+            ]
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter_map(|(spills, field_id)| spills.then_some(field_id))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert_eq!(fragment.files.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].fields.as_ref(), spilled.as_slice());
+            assert_eq!(
+                matches!(
+                    fragment.created_at_version_meta,
+                    Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+                ),
+                spill_created_at
+            );
+            let placed_created_at =
+                load_row_version_sequence(&dataset, &fragment, RowVersionKind::CreatedAt)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .expect("created-at versions are placed once anything spills");
+            assert_eq!(versions_of(&placed_created_at), versions_of(&created_at));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The format allows the columns only in v2 files, so a legacy v1 table
+    /// keeps everything inline however it is configured.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_legacy_v1_table_never_spills() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = tiny_dataset_with_version(dir.as_str(), LanceFileVersion::Legacy).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(inline_row_lineage_max_bytes(&dataset).unwrap(), None);
+
+        let lineage = RowLineage {
+            row_ids: RowIdSequence::from(0..20_000),
+            created_at: alternating_versions(20_000, 1),
+            last_updated_at: RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(20_000, 1),
+        };
+        let placed = place_row_lineage(&dataset, &lineage).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(placed.row_ids, RowIdMeta::Inline(_)));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            placed.created_at,
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            placed.last_updated_at,
+            RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(placed.file.is_none());
+    }
+
+    /// Compaction writes a sequence type into its data files only when it is
+    /// over the budget in every output fragment. A type over it in only some
+    /// of them sends the task down the per-fragment path, so the sequences
+    /// that fit stay inline.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::all_over(
+        vec![scattered_row_ids(500), scattered_row_ids(500)],
+        RowLineagePlan::InFile(RowLineageSpill { row_ids: true, ..Default::default() })
+    )]
+    #[case::none_over(
+        vec![RowIdSequence::from(0..500), RowIdSequence::from(500..1000)],
+        RowLineagePlan::InFile(RowLineageSpill::default())
+    )]
+    #[case::mixed(
+        vec![RowIdSequence::from(0..500), scattered_row_ids(500)],
+        RowLineagePlan::PerFragment
+    )]
+    fn plan_row_lineage_spill_decides_per_kind(
+        #[case] row_ids: Vec<RowIdSequence>,
+        #[case] expected: RowLineagePlan,
+    ) {
+        // Single-run version sequences encode to a few bytes, far under the
+        // budget, so the row ids alone decide.
+        let lineages = row_ids
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|row_ids| {
+                let created_at =
+                    RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(row_ids.len(), 1);
+                RowLineage {
+                    row_ids,
+                    last_updated_at: created_at.clone(),
+                    created_at,
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(plan_row_lineage_spill(100, &lineages), expected);
+    }
+
+    /// Opt the table into spilling, at a zero inline budget so every sequence
+    /// spills regardless of size: reaching the natural 200 KiB threshold needs
+    /// ~25k scattered rows, more than these tests need to prove.
+    async fn spill_everything(dataset: &mut Dataset) {
+        dataset
+            .update_config([
+                (SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY, "true"),
+                (INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY, "0"),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The user columns of a test table: its key column `i`, and possibly one
+    /// more column next to it.
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum UserColumns {
+        KeyOnly,
+        /// Adds `meta: struct<a: int32, b: utf8>`, which from 2.1 on takes one
+        /// physical column per child and none for the struct itself.
+        WithStruct,
+        /// Adds `tags: list<utf8>`, which in 2.0 takes one physical column for
+        /// the list and one for its items.
+        WithList,
+        /// Adds `j: int32` holding the key again, so a schema change has a
+        /// column to rename, drop or cast while `i` still identifies every
+        /// row.
+        WithCopy,
+    }
+
+    /// A batch of `columns` holding `keys` in column `i`.
+    fn keyed_batch(columns: UserColumns, keys: std::ops::Range<i32>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let mut fields = vec![Field::new("i", DataType::Int32, false)];
+        let mut arrays: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(keys.clone()))];
+        match columns {
+            UserColumns::KeyOnly => {}
+            UserColumns::WithStruct => {
+                let a: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(keys.clone()));
+                let b: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    keys.map(|key| format!("b{key}")),
+                ));
+                let meta = StructArray::from(vec![
+                    (Arc::new(Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)), a),
+                    (Arc::new(Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true)), b),
+                ]);
+                fields.push(Field::new("meta", meta.data_type().clone(), true));
+                arrays.push(Arc::new(meta));
+            }
+            UserColumns::WithList => {
+                let mut tags = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+                for key in keys {
+                    tags.values().append_value(format!("t{key}"));
+                    tags.append(true);
+                }
+                let tags = tags.finish();
+                fields.push(Field::new("tags", tags.data_type().clone(), true));
+                arrays.push(Arc::new(tags));
+            }
+            UserColumns::WithCopy => {
+                fields.push(Field::new("j", DataType::Int32, true));
+                arrays.push(Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(keys)));
+            }
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields)), arrays).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// A stable-row-id dataset built from `chunks` separate appends, so
+    /// compacting it has several sequences to concatenate.
+    async fn appended_dataset(uri: &str, chunks: i32, rows_per_chunk: i32) -> Dataset {
+        appended_dataset_with(uri, chunks, rows_per_chunk, UserColumns::KeyOnly, None).await
+    }
+
+    /// [`appended_dataset`] with the given user columns, written in `version`,
+    /// or the default version when that is `None`.
+    async fn appended_dataset_with(
+        uri: &str,
+        chunks: i32,
+        rows_per_chunk: i32,
+        columns: UserColumns,
+        version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+    ) -> Dataset {
+        let mut dataset: Option<Dataset> = None;
+        for chunk in 0..chunks {
+            let keys = (chunk * rows_per_chunk)..((chunk + 1) * rows_per_chunk);
+            let batch = keyed_batch(columns, keys);
+            let schema = batch.schema();
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+            dataset = Some(
+                Dataset::write(
+                    reader,
+                    uri,
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                        data_storage_version: version,
+                        mode: if chunk == 0 {
+                            WriteMode::Create
+                        } else {
+                            WriteMode::Append
+                        },
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn one_fragment() -> CompactionOptions {
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 1_000,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The lineage columns of every row, in scan order.
+    async fn collect_lineage(dataset: &Dataset) -> (Vec<u64>, Vec<u64>, Vec<u64>) {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .project(&[ROW_ID, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION])
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let column = |name: &str| {
+            batch
+                .column_by_name(name)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        };
+        (
+            column(ROW_ID),
+            column(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION),
+            column(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// The table [`compaction_spills_and_reads_back_row_lineage`] compacts,
+    /// and the fragments the compaction writes from it.
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum CompactionShape {
+        /// Four appends of 250 rows, compacted into one fragment.
+        OneOutput,
+        /// Three appends of 250 rows under a 300-row target. They make one
+        /// task, which writes them as two fragments of 375 rows, so the
+        /// hidden columns have to break at the row the writer ends a file.
+        TwoOutputs,
+        /// Four appends of 250 rows with every seventh row deleted, compacted
+        /// into one fragment of the 857 left. A deleted row leaves the lineage
+        /// sequences at the offset it leaves the data.
+        WithDeletions,
+    }
+
+    /// Compaction writes the spilled columns after the user columns of each
+    /// file it writes. A column index counts physical columns, so after a
+    /// struct, or a list in 2.0, a lineage column's index no longer matches
+    /// its position among the file's top-level fields.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::flat(UserColumns::KeyOnly, None, CompactionShape::OneOutput)]
+    #[case::nested_v2_2(
+        UserColumns::WithStruct,
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+        CompactionShape::OneOutput
+    )]
+    #[case::list_v2_0(
+        UserColumns::WithList,
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+        CompactionShape::OneOutput
+    )]
+    #[case::multi_output(UserColumns::KeyOnly, None, CompactionShape::TwoOutputs)]
+    #[case::with_deletions(UserColumns::KeyOnly, None, CompactionShape::WithDeletions)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn compaction_spills_and_reads_back_row_lineage(
+        #[case] columns: UserColumns,
+        #[case] version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+        #[case] shape: CompactionShape,
+    ) {
+        let (appends, target_rows_per_fragment, output_rows) = match shape {
+            CompactionShape::OneOutput => (4, 1_000, vec![1_000]),
+            CompactionShape::TwoOutputs => (3, 300, vec![375, 375]),
+            CompactionShape::WithDeletions => (4, 1_000, vec![857]),
+        };
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = appended_dataset_with(uri, appends, 250, columns, version).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        if matches!(shape, CompactionShape::WithDeletions) {
+            dataset.delete("i % 7 = 0").await.unwrap();
+        }
+        // One version per append, so the compacted created-at sequence has a
+        // run per append rather than one.
+        let before = collect_rows(&dataset).await;
+        let created_at_versions = before
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, _, created_at, _)| *created_at)
+            .collect::<std::collections::BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(created_at_versions.len(), appends as usize);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let written_rows = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.metadata().physical_rows.unwrap())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(written_rows, output_rows);
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let metadata = fragment.metadata();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(metadata.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column))
+                    && matches!(
+                        metadata.created_at_version_meta,
+                        Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+                    )
+                    && matches!(
+                        metadata.last_updated_at_version_meta,
+                        Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+                    ),
+                "compaction must spill every sequence under a zero budget, got {metadata:?}"
+            );
+            // The three columns ride in the fragment's own data file, after
+            // the user columns, so the fragment has no extra file to
+            // reference. Their column indices continue from the last physical
+            // user column.
+            assert_eq!(metadata.files.len(), 1);
+            let data_file = &metadata.files[0];
+            let (user_fields, lineage_fields) =
+                data_file.fields.split_at(data_file.fields.len() - 3);
+            assert!(
+                user_fields.iter().all(|field| *field >= 0),
+                "unexpected data file fields {:?}",
+                data_file.fields
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                lineage_fields,
+                [
+                    ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+                    ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+                    ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID
+                ]
+            );
+            let (user_columns, lineage_columns) =
+                data_file.column_indices.split_at(user_fields.len());
+            let next = user_columns.iter().filter(|column| **column >= 0).count() as i32;
+            assert_eq!(lineage_columns, [next, next + 1, next + 2]);
+            for field_id in data_file.fields.iter().filter(|id| **id < 0) {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    metadata.row_lineage_file(*field_id).unwrap(),
+                    Some(data_file)
+                );
+            }
+            // Each fragment's columns hold its own rows and no others.
+            let row_ids = load_row_id_sequence(&dataset, metadata).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(Some(row_ids.len() as usize), metadata.physical_rows);
+        }
+        assert_ne!(
+            dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE,
+            0,
+            "a spilled sequence must set the reader feature flag"
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE,
+            0,
+            "a spilled sequence must set the writer feature flag"
+        );
+
+        // The lineage survives the rewrite and is still served through the
+        // ordinary scan path, now from the data file columns.
+        assert_eq!(collect_rows(&dataset).await, before);
+        // `validate_stable_row_ids` reads every fragment's sequences back and
+        // checks them against the fragment length, so this covers the loaders
+        // independently of the scan.
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Re-opened cold, so nothing is served from this process's caches.
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collect_rows(&reopened).await, before);
+        let mut row_ids = Vec::with_capacity(before.len());
+        let mut created_at = Vec::with_capacity(before.len());
+        for fragment in reopened.get_fragments() {
+            let metadata = fragment.metadata();
+            let row_id_sequence = load_row_id_sequence(&reopened, metadata).await.unwrap();
+            row_ids.extend(row_id_sequence.iter());
+            let kind = RowVersionKind::CreatedAt;
+            let created_at_sequence = load_row_version_sequence(&reopened, metadata, kind)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .expect("a compacted fragment carries created-at versions");
+            created_at.extend(created_at_sequence.versions());
+        }
+        let expected_row_ids = before.iter().map(|(_, row_id, _, _)| *row_id);
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, expected_row_ids.collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let expected_created_at = before.iter().map(|(_, _, created, _)| *created);
+        assert_eq!(created_at, expected_created_at.collect::<Vec<_>>());
+
+        // A take by row id resolves each id through the index built from the
+        // loaded sequences, so a sequence cut at the wrong row returns the
+        // wrong key.
+        let (sample_keys, sample_ids): (Vec<i32>, Vec<u64>) = before
+            .iter()
+            .step_by(61)
+            .map(|(key, row_id, _, _)| (*key, *row_id))
+            .unzip();
+        let taken = reopened
+            .take_rows(&sample_ids, reopened.schema().project(&["i"]).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let taken_keys = taken["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(taken_keys, sample_keys);
+    }
+
+    /// Binary-copy compaction copies the input files page by page and cannot
+    /// add columns to them, so its spilled lineage goes to a separate file.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn binary_copy_compaction_spills_to_a_separate_file() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = appended_dataset(uri, 4, 250).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        let before = collect_lineage(&dataset).await;
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
+                ..one_fragment()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        let metadata = fragments[0].metadata();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(metadata.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column)),
+            "compaction must spill the row ids under a zero inline budget, got {metadata:?}"
+        );
+        // The copied data file carries only the user column; the lineage
+        // follows it as a file of its own.
+        assert_eq!(metadata.files.len(), 2);
+        assert!(metadata.files[0].fields.iter().all(|field| *field >= 0));
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata.files[1].fields.as_ref(),
+            [
+                ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+                ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+                ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(collect_lineage(&dataset).await, before);
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        // The lineage-only file holds no dead user column, so it is no reason
+        // to compact the fragment again.
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &one_fragment()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.num_tasks(), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// A second compaction reads the lineage back from the columns the first
+    /// one wrote into the data file. Its scan must not return those columns
+    /// with the user data: the task appends the lineage columns itself, and a
+    /// second copy would clash by name.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn compact_twice_reads_back_in_file_lineage() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = appended_dataset(uri, 4, 250).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, one_fragment(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Deleting every seventh row makes the compacted fragment compact
+        // again on its own, which masks the sequences read back from its file.
+        dataset.delete("i % 7 = 0").await.unwrap();
+        let before = collect_rows(&dataset).await;
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, one_fragment(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 1);
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        let metadata = fragments[0].metadata();
+        assert_eq!(metadata.physical_rows, Some(before.len()));
+        assert_eq!(metadata.files.len(), 1, "{metadata:?}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata.files[0].fields.as_ref(),
+            [
+                0,
+                ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+                ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+                ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(collect_rows(&dataset).await, before);
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collect_rows(&reopened).await, before);
+    }
+
+    /// Cleanup decides what to delete by walking
+    /// [`Fragment::referenced_lance_files`], so the file carrying a spilled
+    /// sequence has to be reachable from there. If it were not, an ordinary
+    /// cleanup would delete a live file and leave the fragment claiming row
+    /// ids it can no longer read. A reencoding compaction writes the lineage
+    /// into the fragment's data file, which cleanup keeps for the user columns
+    /// anyway; binary copy writes a file holding nothing but lineage, which
+    /// only the lineage keeps.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::in_file(CompactionMode::Reencode)]
+    #[case::lineage_file(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn cleanup_keeps_a_live_spilled_file(#[case] mode: CompactionMode) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = appended_dataset(uri, 4, 250).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        let before = collect_lineage(&dataset).await;
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                compaction_mode: Some(mode),
+                ..one_fragment()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Pin the layout, so each case keeps covering the file it is named
+        // after.
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let metadata = fragments[0].metadata();
+        let carrier = metadata
+            .row_lineage_file(ROW_ID_FIELD_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("compaction must spill under a zero inline budget");
+        if matches!(mode, CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy) {
+            assert_eq!(metadata.files.len(), 2, "{metadata:?}");
+            assert_eq!(carrier, &metadata.files[1]);
+            assert!(
+                carrier.fields.iter().all(|field| *field < 0),
+                "binary copy must write a lineage-only file: {metadata:?}"
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(metadata.files.len(), 1, "{metadata:?}");
+            assert_eq!(carrier, &metadata.files[0]);
+        }
+        let on_disk = std::path::Path::new(uri).join("data").join(&carrier.path);
+        assert!(on_disk.exists(), "no spilled file written at {on_disk:?}");
+
+        // Everything written so far is older than this instant, so the
+        // pre-compaction versions and their data files are all candidates.
+        let removed = cleanup_old_versions(
+            &dataset,
+            CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                .before_timestamp(Utc::now())
+                .delete_unverified(true)
+                .build(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            removed.old_versions > 0,
+            "expected the pre-compaction versions to be cleaned up"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            on_disk.exists(),
+            "cleanup deleted the live spilled row lineage file at {on_disk:?}"
+        );
+
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collect_lineage(&reopened).await, before);
+    }
+    /// Every row's key, row id, created-at and last-updated-at version.
+    async fn collect_rows(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<(i32, u64, u64, u64)> {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .project(&[
+                "i",
+                ROW_ID,
+                ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+                ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
+            ])
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let u64s = |name: &str| {
+            batch
+                .column_by_name(name)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        };
+        let keys = batch
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        let (ids, created, updated) = (
+            u64s(ROW_ID),
+            u64s(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION),
+            u64s(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION),
+        );
+        keys.into_iter()
+            .zip(ids)
+            .zip(created)
+            .zip(updated)
+            .map(|(((key, id), created), updated)| (key, id, created, updated))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn by_key(rows: &[(i32, u64, u64, u64)]) -> std::collections::BTreeMap<i32, (u64, u64, u64)> {
+        rows.iter()
+            .map(|(key, id, created, updated)| (*key, (*id, *created, *updated)))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Updating rows whose lineage is spilled keeps every row's created-at
+    /// version. The update's scan reads each rewritten row's created-at
+    /// version, spilled column included. When what the update carries over
+    /// spills again, the writer places those versions and the commit only
+    /// stamps last-updated-at; when it fits inline, the commit resolves them
+    /// from the row ids, reading the source fragment's spilled sequences ahead
+    /// of the build. Deleted rows and a selection across the compacted
+    /// fragment's created-at runs mean a version read at the wrong offset
+    /// would show up as a neighbour's.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::writer_spills(true)]
+    #[case::commit_resolves(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn updating_rows_with_spilled_lineage_keeps_their_created_at(
+        #[case] update_spills: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = appended_dataset(uri, 4, 250).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, one_fragment(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Deleted rows move the compacted fragment's scan positions away from
+        // its physical offsets, which its lineage is indexed by.
+        dataset.delete("i % 7 = 0").await.unwrap();
+        if !update_spills {
+            // A budget the update's carried-over lineage fits in, which leaves
+            // resolving the created-at versions to the commit.
+            dataset
+                .update_config([(INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY, "1000000")])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let before = by_key(&collect_rows(&dataset).await);
+        let selected = |key: i32| (240..260).contains(&key) || (745..755).contains(&key);
+        // The selection spans the run boundaries at 250, between the first
+        // and second appends, and at 750, between the third and fourth.
+        assert_eq!(
+            before
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|(key, _)| selected(**key))
+                .map(|(_, (_, created, _))| *created)
+                .collect::<std::collections::BTreeSet<_>>(),
+            std::collections::BTreeSet::from([1, 2, 3, 4])
+        );
+
+        let updated = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("(i >= 240 AND i < 260) OR (i >= 745 AND i < 755)")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("i", "i + 10000")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let updated = updated.new_dataset.as_ref();
+        let update_version = updated.version().version;
+        let rewritten = updated
+            .manifest
+            .fragments
+            .last()
+            .expect("the update adds a fragment");
+        assert_eq!(
+            matches!(rewritten.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column)),
+            update_spills,
+            "{rewritten:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            matches!(
+                rewritten.created_at_version_meta,
+                Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+            ),
+            update_spills,
+            "{rewritten:?}"
+        );
+
+        // Each rewritten row keeps its id and its created-at, and is stamped
+        // with the update's version; every other row is untouched.
+        let after = by_key(&collect_rows(updated).await);
+        assert_eq!(after.len(), before.len());
+        for (key, (id, created, updated_at)) in before.iter() {
+            if selected(*key) {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    after[&(key + 10000)],
+                    (*id, *created, update_version),
+                    "row {key}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(after[key], (*id, *created, *updated_at), "row {key}");
+            }
+        }
+        updated.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// merge_insert rewrites the matched rows and appends the inserted ones in
+    /// one fragment; the former keep their lineage, the latter start at the
+    /// commit version. Both resolve through the read-ahead spilled sequences.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn merge_insert_on_spilled_table_keeps_matched_lineage() {
+        use crate::dataset::{MergeInsertBuilder, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched};
+
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = appended_dataset(uri, 4, 250).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, one_fragment(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let before = by_key(&collect_rows(&dataset).await);
+
+        // Keys 300 and 700 exist and were appended at different versions;
+        // 5000 does not exist and is inserted.
+        let schema = test_schema();
+        let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![300, 700, 5000]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let (merged, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["i".into()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source)], schema)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!((stats.num_updated_rows, stats.num_inserted_rows), (2, 1));
+        let merge_version = merged.version().version;
+        let after = by_key(&collect_rows(&merged).await);
+
+        for key in [300, 700] {
+            let (id, created, _) = before[&key];
+            assert_eq!(after[&key], (id, created, merge_version), "row {key}");
+        }
+        let (_, created, updated) = after[&5000];
+        assert_eq!((created, updated), (merge_version, merge_version));
+        for (key, lineage) in before.iter().filter(|(key, _)| ![300, 700].contains(key)) {
+            assert_eq!(after[key], *lineage, "row {key} must be untouched");
+        }
+        merged.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// A partial column rewrite patches an existing fragment in place and
+    /// stamps only the patched rows' last-updated-at, which means overlaying
+    /// the fragment's existing sequence; on a spilled fragment that sequence
+    /// is read ahead of the commit and the refreshed one goes back inline.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn partial_column_rewrite_on_spilled_fragment_stamps_only_matched_rows() {
+        use crate::dataset::{
+            MergeInsertBuilder, MergeInsertWriteMode, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched,
+        };
+
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        // A third column keeps the patch source a strict subset of the schema,
+        // which is what makes this an in-place column rewrite.
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("other", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let mut dataset: Option<Dataset> = None;
+        for chunk in 0..4 {
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                        (chunk * 250)..((chunk + 1) * 250),
+                    )),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["t"; 250])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["o"; 250])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            dataset = Some(
+                Dataset::write(
+                    reader,
+                    uri,
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                        mode: if chunk == 0 {
+                            WriteMode::Create
+                        } else {
+                            WriteMode::Append
+                        },
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        let mut dataset = dataset.unwrap();
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, one_fragment(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+                    .metadata()
+                    .last_updated_at_version_meta,
+                Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+            ),
+            "the fixture must start with spilled last-updated-at versions"
+        );
+        let before = by_key(&collect_rows(&dataset).await);
+
+        let source_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            source_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![300, 700])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["patched"; 2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let (patched, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["i".into()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(source)],
+                source_schema,
+            )))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            patched.get_fragments().len(),
+            1,
+            "in-place patches add no fragment"
+        );
+        let patch_version = patched.version().version;
+        let after = by_key(&collect_rows(&patched).await);
+
+        for key in [300, 700] {
+            let (id, created, _) = before[&key];
+            assert_eq!(after[&key], (id, created, patch_version), "row {key}");
+        }
+        for (key, lineage) in before.iter().filter(|(key, _)| ![300, 700].contains(key)) {
+            assert_eq!(after[key], *lineage, "row {key} must be untouched");
+        }
+        patched.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// An update carries the rewritten rows' ids and created-at versions over
+    /// and the commit stamps their last-updated-at version. On an opted-in
+    /// table what the update carries over spills at write time -- it is known
+    /// before the commit and a retry cannot change it -- while the commit's
+    /// stamp stays inline. Without the opt-in everything stays inline, as
+    /// every release has, and the lineage is the same.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::opted_in(true)]
+    #[case::not_opted_in(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn update_places_the_rewritten_rows_lineage(#[case] opted_in: bool) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = appended_dataset(uri, 4, 250).await;
+        if opted_in {
+            spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        }
+        let before = by_key(&collect_rows(&dataset).await);
+
+        let updated = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("i >= 500")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("i", "i + 10000")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let updated = updated.new_dataset.as_ref();
+        let update_version = updated.version().version;
+
+        if opted_in {
+            let rewritten = updated
+                .get_fragments()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.metadata().clone())
+                .find(|metadata| matches!(metadata.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Column)))
+                .expect("the rewritten rows' fragment must spill its row ids");
+            assert!(
+                matches!(
+                    rewritten.created_at_version_meta,
+                    Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Column)
+                ),
+                "the created-at versions must spill with the row ids"
+            );
+            // The lineage file is one of the fragment's files, after its data,
+            // and holds only what the update carried over.
+            assert_eq!(rewritten.files.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                rewritten.files[1].fields.as_ref(),
+                [ROW_ID_FIELD_ID, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID]
+            );
+            assert!(
+                matches!(
+                    rewritten.last_updated_at_version_meta,
+                    Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::Inline(_))
+                ),
+                "the commit stamps last-updated-at inline, got {:?}",
+                rewritten.last_updated_at_version_meta
+            );
+            // The source fragments were plain appends, so this update is the
+            // commit that first spills anything and has to raise the flag.
+            assert_ne!(
+                updated.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE,
+                0,
+                "a spilled sequence must set the reader feature flag"
+            );
+            assert_ne!(
+                updated.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_UNSTABLE_SPILLED_ROW_LINEAGE,
+                0,
+                "a spilled sequence must set the writer feature flag"
+            );
+        } else {
+            for fragment in updated.get_fragments() {
+                assert!(
+                    !fragment.metadata().has_spilled_row_lineage(),
+                    "fragment {} spilled without the table opting in",
+                    fragment.id()
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        let after = by_key(&collect_rows(updated).await);
+        for (key, (id, created, updated_at)) in before.iter() {
+            if *key >= 500 {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    after[&(key + 10000)],
+                    (*id, *created, update_version),
+                    "row {key}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(after[key], (*id, *created, *updated_at), "row {key}");
+            }
+        }
+        updated.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Re-opened cold, so the lineage is read through the committed
+        // manifest rather than from this process's caches.
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(by_key(&collect_rows(&reopened).await), after);
+        reopened.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The write that spills the fixture's lineage ahead of a schema change.
+    /// Both leave it in a lineage-only file next to the fragment's data.
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+    enum SpillingWrite {
+        /// An update rewriting the rows with `i >= 500`.
+        Update,
+        /// A binary-copy compaction into a single fragment. A reencoding one
+        /// would write the lineage next to `i` in the data file, which the
+        /// schema change keeps for `i` alone.
+        Compaction,
+    }
+
+    /// A change to column `j` that adds or removes no rows.
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+    enum SchemaChange {
+        Rename,
+        Drop,
+        Cast,
+    }
+
+    /// A schema change keeps only the data files that still hold a schema
+    /// field, and the reserved ids of spilled lineage never are one. Renames
+    /// and drops commit a projection and a cast rewrites the column; each must
+    /// keep the file carrying the lineage, which is its only copy. A data file
+    /// holding the lineage next to user columns the change removes is covered
+    /// by [`dropping_every_column_of_a_lineage_carrier_keeps_lineage_until_compaction`].
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::update_then_rename(SpillingWrite::Update, SchemaChange::Rename)]
+    #[case::update_then_drop(SpillingWrite::Update, SchemaChange::Drop)]
+    #[case::update_then_cast(SpillingWrite::Update, SchemaChange::Cast)]
+    #[case::compact_then_drop(SpillingWrite::Compaction, SchemaChange::Drop)]
+    #[case::compact_then_cast(SpillingWrite::Compaction, SchemaChange::Cast)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn schema_change_keeps_spilled_lineage(
+        #[case] spilling_write: SpillingWrite,
+        #[case] change: SchemaChange,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = appended_dataset_with(uri, 4, 250, UserColumns::WithCopy, None).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        match spilling_write {
+            SpillingWrite::Update => {
+                let updated = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                    .update_where("i >= 500")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .set("i", "i + 10000")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                dataset = updated.new_dataset.as_ref().clone();
+            }
+            SpillingWrite::Compaction => {
+                let options = CompactionOptions {
+                    compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
+                    ..one_fragment()
+                };
+                compact_files(&mut dataset, options, None).await.unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+        // Each spilled fragment keeps its lineage in a file of its own, which
+        // nothing but the lineage keeps alive through the schema change.
+        let spilled = dataset
+            .manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|fragment| fragment.has_spilled_row_lineage())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(
+            !spilled.is_empty(),
+            "the fixture must spill before the schema change"
+        );
+        for fragment in spilled {
+            assert_eq!(fragment.files.len(), 2, "{fragment:?}");
+            assert!(
+                fragment.files[1].fields.iter().all(|field| *field < 0),
+                "expected a lineage-only file: {fragment:?}"
+            );
+        }
+        let before = by_key(&collect_rows(&dataset).await);
+
+        let j = || ColumnAlteration::new("j".to_string());
+        let changed = match change {
+            SchemaChange::Rename => dataset.alter_columns(&[j().rename("k".to_string())]).await,
+            SchemaChange::Drop => dataset.drop_columns(&["j"]).await,
+            SchemaChange::Cast => dataset.alter_columns(&[j().cast_to(DataType::Int64)]).await,
+        };
+        changed.unwrap();
+
+        let mut expected = before;
+        if matches!(change, SchemaChange::Cast) {
+            // A cast rewrites `j` in every fragment, which the commit records
+            // as an update of every row; ids and created-at stay.
+            let cast_version = dataset.version().version;
+            for (_, _, updated_at) in expected.values_mut() {
+                *updated_at = cast_version;
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(by_key(&collect_rows(&dataset).await), expected);
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Re-opened cold, so the lineage is read back from the committed files.
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(by_key(&collect_rows(&reopened).await), expected);
+    }
+
+    /// How [`dropping_every_column_of_a_lineage_carrier_keeps_lineage_until_compaction`]
+    /// takes every user column away from the data file that compaction wrote
+    /// the lineage into.
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+    enum CarrierChange {
+        /// `k` is added in a file of its own and `i` and `j` are dropped. A
+        /// drop leaves the files it keeps as they are, so the data file still
+        /// lists the ids of `i` and `j`, which the schema no longer has.
+        Drop,
+        /// `i` and `j` are cast. A cast rewrites the columns under new field
+        /// ids into a new file and leaves their old ids, now dead, in the data
+        /// file.
+        Cast,
+        /// `i` and `j` are rewritten under their own field ids by a
+        /// `DataReplacement`, which tombstones them in the data file.
+        Replace,
+    }
+
+    /// Compaction writes the lineage into the fragment's data file, which
+    /// then outlives its user columns. It stays, as the lineage's only copy,
+    /// and neither reads nor `validate` open it for user data. The next
+    /// compaction rewrites the fragment, which moves the lineage next to the
+    /// live columns and lets the old file go. Binary copy cannot rewrite it,
+    /// so a compaction restricted to binary copy leaves the fragment alone
+    /// rather than planning a task that fails.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::drop(CarrierChange::Drop)]
+    #[case::cast(CarrierChange::Cast)]
+    #[case::replace(CarrierChange::Replace)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn dropping_every_column_of_a_lineage_carrier_keeps_lineage_until_compaction(
+        #[case] change: CarrierChange,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = appended_dataset_with(uri, 4, 250, UserColumns::WithCopy, None).await;
+        spill_everything(&mut dataset).await;
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, one_fragment(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let (row_ids, created_at, _) = collect_lineage(&dataset).await;
+
+        // The ids the data file lists for `i` and `j` once the change is made.
+        let carrier_user_fields = match change {
+            CarrierChange::Drop => {
+                // `k` lives in a file of its own, so dropping `i` and `j`
+                // leaves the compacted file with no field in the schema.
+                dataset
+                    .add_columns(
+                        NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![("k".into(), "i + 1".into())]),
+                        None,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                dataset.drop_columns(&["i", "j"]).await.unwrap();
+                [0, 1]
+            }
+            CarrierChange::Cast => {
+                let alterations = [
+                    ColumnAlteration::new("i".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64),
+                    ColumnAlteration::new("j".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64),
+                ];
+                dataset.alter_columns(&alterations).await.unwrap();
+                [0, 1]
+            }
+            CarrierChange::Replace => {
+                let batch = keyed_batch(UserColumns::WithCopy, 0..1_000);
+                let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+                let replacement = fragments[0]
+                    .write_columns(futures::stream::iter([Ok(batch)]), dataset.schema())
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+                let operation = Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![replacement],
+                };
+                dataset = Dataset::commit(
+                    Arc::new(dataset),
+                    operation,
+                    Some(read_version),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                    Arc::new(Default::default()),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                [TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID, TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID]
+            }
+        };
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        let metadata = fragments[0].metadata();
+        let carrier = metadata
+            .row_lineage_file(ROW_ID_FIELD_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("the schema change must keep the lineage carrier");
+        let (user_fields, lineage_fields) = carrier.fields.split_at(2);
+        assert_eq!(user_fields, carrier_user_fields, "{metadata:?}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            lineage_fields,
+            [
+                ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+                ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+                ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID
+            ]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            carrier
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .all(|field_id| dataset.schema().field_by_id(*field_id).is_none()),
+            "the carrier must have lost every user column: {metadata:?}"
+        );
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+        // A change may stamp every row as updated, so only the row ids and
+        // created-at versions are compared.
+        let changed = collect_lineage(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!((&changed.0, &changed.1), (&row_ids, &created_at));
+
+        let binary_copy_only = CompactionOptions {
+            compaction_mode: Some(CompactionMode::ForceBinaryCopy),
+            ..one_fragment()
+        };
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &binary_copy_only).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.num_tasks(), 0);
+
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, one_fragment(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        let metadata = fragments[0].metadata();
+        let mut expected_fields = dataset.schema().field_ids();
+        expected_fields.extend([
+            ROW_ID_FIELD_ID,
+            ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+            ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID,
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(metadata.files.len(), 1, "{metadata:?}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata.files[0].fields.as_ref(),
+            expected_fields.as_slice()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(collect_lineage(&dataset).await, changed);
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(collect_lineage(&reopened).await, changed);
+
+        // What compaction wrote holds no dead user column, so it plans no
+        // further rewrite.
+        let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &one_fragment()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.num_tasks(), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// `FileFragment::validate` leaves a file without a schema field unopened
+    /// only when the fragment keeps it for a spilled sequence it carries, as
+    /// it keeps a lineage carrier whose user columns are gone. Any other file
+    /// whose user fields are all outside the schema is opened and reported, as
+    /// it always was, even when it lists a lineage id the fragment does not
+    /// spill.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::stale_user_file(vec![7], false)]
+    #[case::dead_lineage_carrier(vec![7, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID], true)]
+    #[case::unspilled_lineage_id(vec![7, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID], false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn validate_skips_only_files_kept_for_spilled_lineage(
+        #[case] fields: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] spills_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = tiny_dataset(dir.as_str()).await;
+        let mut fragment = dataset.manifest.fragments[0].clone();
+        // A second entry for the fragment's data file, under field ids the
+        // schema does not have.
+        let mut extra = fragment.files[0].clone();
+        extra.column_indices = (0..fields.len() as i32).collect();
+        extra.fields = fields.into();
+        fragment.files.push(extra);
+        if spills_row_ids {
+            fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Column);
+        }
+
+        let result = FileFragment::new(Arc::new(dataset), fragment)
+            .validate()
+            .await;
+        if spills_row_ids {
+            result.unwrap();
+        } else {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                error
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains("did not have any fields in common with the dataset schema"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids/validate.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids/validate.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..42d4044bd39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/rowids/validate.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,466 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Integrity checks for the stable row id invariants that the row id index and the write
+//! paths rely on. Reached through [`Dataset::validate`].
+
+use super::{RowVersionKind, load_row_id_sequence, load_row_version_sequence};
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::fragment::FileFragment;
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
+use lance_table::rowids::RowIdSequence;
+use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+/// The per-fragment state a stable row id invariant is checked against.
+type FragmentRowIds = (
+    FileFragment,
+    Arc<RowIdSequence>,
+    Option<Arc<DeletionVector>>,
+);
+
+/// Check the invariants that the stable row id machinery relies on.
+///
+/// A no-op on datasets that don't use stable row ids. See [`Dataset::validate`].
+pub async fn validate_stable_row_ids(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+    if !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let corrupt = |message: String| Error::corrupt_file(dataset.base.clone(), message);
+
+    for fragment in dataset.manifest.fragments.iter() {
+        if fragment.row_id_meta.is_none() {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "Fragment {} has no row id metadata, but dataset {:?} uses stable row ids",
+                fragment.id, dataset.base
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // `buffered` preserves manifest order, which the uniqueness check below relies on to
+    // report the earlier of the two fragments holding a duplicate id.
+    let fragments: Vec<FragmentRowIds> = futures::stream::iter(dataset.get_fragments())
+        .map(|fragment| async move {
+            let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(dataset, fragment.metadata()).await?;
+            let deletion_vector = fragment.get_deletion_vector().await?;
+            Result::Ok((fragment, sequence, deletion_vector))
+        })
+        .buffered(dataset.object_store.io_parallelism())
+        .try_collect()
+        .await?;
+
+    let mut live_row_ids = RoaringTreemap::new();
+    let mut max_row_id: Option<u64> = None;
+
+    for (index, (fragment, sequence, deletion_vector)) in fragments.iter().enumerate() {
+        let metadata = fragment.metadata();
+        let physical_rows = metadata.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+            corrupt(format!(
+                "Fragment {} has an unknown physical row count, but dataset {:?} uses stable row ids",
+                metadata.id, dataset.base
+            ))
+        })? as u64;
+
+        if sequence.len() != physical_rows {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "Fragment {} has {} row ids, but {} physical rows, in dataset {:?}",
+                metadata.id,
+                sequence.len(),
+                physical_rows,
+                dataset.base
+            )));
+        }
+
+        for (name, kind) in [
+            ("created_at", RowVersionKind::CreatedAt),
+            ("last_updated_at", RowVersionKind::LastUpdatedAt),
+        ] {
+            // The external form is a valid encoding nothing writes and nothing
+            // can read yet, so it is the one placement not checked here.
+            if let Some(versions) = load_row_version_sequence(dataset, metadata, kind)
+                .await
+                .or_else(|error| match error {
+                    Error::NotSupported { .. } => Ok(None),
+                    other => Err(other),
+                })?
+            {
+                let versions = versions.len();
+                if versions != physical_rows {
+                    return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                        "Fragment {} has {} {} versions, but {} physical rows, in dataset {:?}",
+                        metadata.id, versions, name, physical_rows, dataset.base
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // The bounding range covers tombstoned slots too: their ids are retired and must
+        // not be handed out again either.
+        if let Some(range) = sequence.row_id_range() {
+            max_row_id = max_row_id.max(Some(*range.end()));
+        }
+
+        for (offset, row_id) in sequence.iter().enumerate() {
+            // An update rewrites a row into a new fragment under the same id and tombstones
+            // the original slot, so only live ids are required to be unique.
+            if deletion_vector
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|deletions| deletions.contains(offset as u32))
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if !live_row_ids.insert(row_id) {
+                return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                    "Row id {} is live in both {} and fragment {} at offset {} in dataset {:?}",
+                    row_id,
+                    describe_first_live_slot(&fragments[..=index], row_id),
+                    metadata.id,
+                    offset,
+                    dataset.base
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if let Some(max_row_id) = max_row_id
+        && dataset.manifest.next_row_id <= max_row_id
+    {
+        return Err(corrupt(format!(
+            "Dataset {:?} will hand out row id {} next, but row id {} is already in use",
+            dataset.base, dataset.manifest.next_row_id, max_row_id
+        )));
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Describe where `row_id` is first live, so a uniqueness failure can name both of the
+/// slots involved. Only runs on the failure path, hence the linear rescan.
+fn describe_first_live_slot(fragments: &[FragmentRowIds], row_id: u64) -> String {
+    for (fragment, sequence, deletion_vector) in fragments {
+        // A bounding range that excludes the id rules the whole fragment out.
+        if sequence
+            .row_id_range()
+            .is_none_or(|range| !range.contains(&row_id))
+        {
+            continue;
+        }
+        for (offset, candidate) in sequence.iter().enumerate() {
+            if candidate == row_id
+                && !deletion_vector
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|deletions| deletions.contains(offset as u32))
+            {
+                return format!("fragment {} at offset {}", fragment.id(), offset);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    "an earlier fragment".to_string()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionMeta;
+
+    // Shared with the row id tests next door, which cover the same operations.
+    use super::super::test::{compact, delete};
+
+    use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+    use crate::dataset::{
+        MergeInsertBuilder, UpdateBuilder, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+    };
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+    use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+    use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+    use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+    use lance_table::format::{Fragment, RowIdMeta, pb};
+    use lance_table::rowids::version::RowDatasetVersionSequence;
+    use lance_table::rowids::write_row_ids;
+    use prost::Message;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn encode_segments(segments: Vec<pb::u64_segment::Segment>) -> Vec<u8> {
+        pb::RowIdSequence {
+            segments: segments
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|segment| pb::U64Segment {
+                    segment: Some(segment),
+                })
+                .collect(),
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec()
+    }
+
+    fn range_segment(start: u64, end: u64) -> pb::u64_segment::Segment {
+        pb::u64_segment::Segment::Range(pb::u64_segment::Range { start, end })
+    }
+
+    fn empty_encoded_array() -> pb::EncodedU64Array {
+        pb::EncodedU64Array {
+            array: Some(pb::encoded_u64_array::Array::U64Array(
+                pb::encoded_u64_array::U64Array { values: Vec::new() },
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn empty_array_segment() -> pb::u64_segment::Segment {
+        pb::u64_segment::Segment::Array(empty_encoded_array())
+    }
+
+    fn empty_sorted_array_segment() -> pb::u64_segment::Segment {
+        pb::u64_segment::Segment::SortedArray(empty_encoded_array())
+    }
+
+    fn empty_range_with_holes_segment() -> pb::u64_segment::Segment {
+        pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithHoles(pb::u64_segment::RangeWithHoles {
+            start: 0,
+            end: 0,
+            holes: Some(empty_encoded_array()),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn empty_range_with_bitmap_segment() -> pb::u64_segment::Segment {
+        pb::u64_segment::Segment::RangeWithBitmap(pb::u64_segment::RangeWithBitmap {
+            start: 0,
+            end: 0,
+            bitmap: Vec::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Two `Range` segments that each fit a `usize` but whose lengths sum past `u64`.
+    /// Decoding accepts them, so `validate()` must report corruption rather than
+    /// overflowing while measuring the sequence.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_rejects_row_id_count_overflow() {
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = validation_fixture(&temp_dir).await;
+        let encoded = encode_segments(vec![range_segment(0, u64::MAX), range_segment(0, u64::MAX)]);
+        edit_fragments(&mut dataset, |fragments| {
+            fragments[1].row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(encoded.into()));
+        });
+
+        assert_invalid(&dataset, "total length exceeding u64::MAX").await;
+    }
+
+    /// An empty segment carries no minimum or maximum, and decoding accepts an empty
+    /// encoding of every variant. Neither the cardinality check nor the `next_row_id`
+    /// bound may unwind on one.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::array(empty_array_segment())]
+    #[case::sorted_array(empty_sorted_array_segment())]
+    #[case::range_with_holes(empty_range_with_holes_segment())]
+    #[case::range_with_bitmap(empty_range_with_bitmap_segment())]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_tolerates_empty_segment(#[case] empty: pb::u64_segment::Segment) {
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = validation_fixture(&temp_dir).await;
+        // Ten ids across two segments matches the fragment's ten physical rows, and the
+        // ids stay clear of fragment 0's, so this dataset is well-formed.
+        let encoded = encode_segments(vec![range_segment(10, 20), empty]);
+        edit_fragments(&mut dataset, |fragments| {
+            fragments[1].row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(encoded.into()));
+        });
+
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Write a two-fragment dataset with stable row ids to `uri`, then reopen it with a
+    /// fresh session so the row id sequence cache is empty. Tests that doctor a
+    /// fragment's `row_id_meta` need that: the cache is keyed by fragment id alone, so a
+    /// sequence loaded before the mutation would shadow the doctored one.
+    async fn validation_fixture(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+        lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                uri,
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri).load().await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn edit_fragments(dataset: &mut Dataset, edit: impl FnOnce(&mut Vec<Fragment>)) {
+        let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+        let mut fragments = manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone();
+        edit(&mut fragments);
+        manifest.fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+        dataset.manifest = Arc::new(manifest);
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_invalid(dataset: &Dataset, expected_message: &str) {
+        let err = dataset.validate().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }),
+            "expected a corrupt file error, got {err:?}"
+        );
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(expected_message),
+            "expected {expected_message:?} in {message:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_rejects_missing_row_id_meta() {
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = validation_fixture(&temp_dir).await;
+        edit_fragments(&mut dataset, |fragments| fragments[1].row_id_meta = None);
+
+        assert_invalid(&dataset, "Fragment 1 has no row id metadata").await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_rejects_row_id_sequence_length_mismatch() {
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = validation_fixture(&temp_dir).await;
+        edit_fragments(&mut dataset, |fragments| {
+            let short = RowIdSequence::from(&[100u64, 101, 102][..]);
+            fragments[1].row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&short).into()));
+        });
+
+        assert_invalid(&dataset, "Fragment 1 has 3 row ids, but 10 physical rows").await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_rejects_duplicate_live_row_ids() {
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = validation_fixture(&temp_dir).await;
+        edit_fragments(&mut dataset, |fragments| {
+            fragments[1].row_id_meta = fragments[0].row_id_meta.clone();
+        });
+
+        assert_invalid(
+            &dataset,
+            "Row id 0 is live in both fragment 0 at offset 0 and fragment 1 at offset 0",
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_rejects_reused_next_row_id() {
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = validation_fixture(&temp_dir).await;
+        let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+        manifest.next_row_id = 19;
+        dataset.manifest = Arc::new(manifest);
+
+        assert_invalid(
+            &dataset,
+            "will hand out row id 19 next, but row id 19 is already in use",
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_rejects_misaligned_version_sequence() {
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = validation_fixture(&temp_dir).await;
+        edit_fragments(&mut dataset, |fragments| {
+            let too_long = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_uniform_row_count(11, 1);
+            fragments[1].created_at_version_meta =
+                Some(RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(&too_long).unwrap());
+        });
+
+        assert_invalid(
+            &dataset,
+            "Fragment 1 has 11 created_at versions, but 10 physical rows",
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    /// Number of sequence entries whose row id already appeared in an earlier fragment,
+    /// tombstoned slots included.
+    async fn count_repeated_row_ids(dataset: &Dataset) -> usize {
+        let mut seen = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        let mut repeated = 0;
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            let sequence = load_row_id_sequence(dataset, fragment.metadata())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            repeated += sequence.iter().filter(|id| !seen.insert(*id)).count();
+        }
+        repeated
+    }
+
+    /// A tombstoned slot keeps its row id, so after an update the same id lives in the
+    /// rewritten fragment and lingers, deleted, in the original. Only live ids must be
+    /// unique — this asserts the checks agree with that.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_across_write_operations() {
+        let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = validation_fixture(&temp_dir).await;
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(20, 1))
+            .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(10))
+            .unwrap();
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], arrow_schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &temp_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        delete(&mut dataset, "i = 4 or i = 12").await;
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("i >= 15")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("i", "i + 1000")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .new_dataset;
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            count_repeated_row_ids(&dataset).await > 0,
+            "update should leave rewritten row ids behind in tombstoned slots"
+        );
+
+        let merge_source = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+            .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(6))
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = merge_source.schema();
+        let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["i".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let source = lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(merge_source)],
+            schema,
+        )));
+        let (dataset, _stats) = merge_job.execute(source).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+        compact(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/scanner.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/scanner.rs
index a9265517fe5..50793189c8b 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/scanner.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/scanner.rs
@@ -1,41 +1,48 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+
+use datafusion::config::ConfigOptions;
+use lance_select::result::IndexExprResultWireFormat;
 use std::ops::Range;
 use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
 use std::task::{Context, Poll};
 
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::{Array, Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef, SortOptions};
 use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
 use async_recursion::async_recursion;
 use chrono::Utc;
-use datafusion::common::{exec_datafusion_err, DFSchema, JoinType, NullEquality, SchemaExt};
+use datafusion::catalog::Session;
+use datafusion::common::{DFSchema, JoinType, NullEquality, exec_datafusion_err};
 use datafusion::functions_aggregate;
-use datafusion::functions_aggregate::count::count_udaf;
-use datafusion::logical_expr::{col, lit, Expr, ScalarUDF};
+use datafusion::logical_expr::{Expr, ScalarUDF, col, lit};
 use datafusion::physical_expr::PhysicalSortExpr;
+#[allow(deprecated)]
 use datafusion::physical_plan::coalesce_batches::CoalesceBatchesExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::coalesce_partitions::CoalescePartitionsExec;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::expressions;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::projection::ProjectionExec as DFProjectionExec;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream,
     aggregates::{AggregateExec, AggregateMode, PhysicalGroupBy},
     display::DisplayableExecutionPlan,
-    expressions::Literal,
     limit::GlobalLimitExec,
     repartition::RepartitionExec,
     union::UnionExec,
-    ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream,
 };
 use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
-use datafusion_expr::execution_props::ExecutionProps;
 use datafusion_expr::ExprSchemable;
+use datafusion_expr::execution_props::ExecutionProps;
 use datafusion_functions::core::getfield::GetFieldFunc;
-use datafusion_physical_expr::{aggregate::AggregateExprBuilder, expressions::Column};
-use datafusion_physical_expr::{create_physical_expr, LexOrdering, Partitioning, PhysicalExpr};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::aggregate::LoweredAggregateBuilder;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::expressions::{Column, Literal};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{LexOrdering, Partitioning, PhysicalExpr, create_physical_expr};
 use datafusion_physical_plan::joins::PartitionMode;
 use datafusion_physical_plan::projection::ProjectionExec;
 use datafusion_physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
@@ -43,64 +50,449 @@ use datafusion_physical_plan::{empty::EmptyExec, joins::HashJoinExec};
 use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 use futures::stream::{Stream, StreamExt};
 use futures::{FutureExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_arrow::floats::{coerce_float_vector, FloatType};
+use lance_arrow::floats::{FloatType, coerce_float_vector};
 use lance_arrow::{DataTypeExt, SchemaExt as ArrowSchemaExt};
 use lance_core::datatypes::{
-    escape_field_path_for_project, format_field_path, BlobHandling, Field, OnMissing, Projection,
+    BlobHandling, Field, OnMissing, Projection, escape_field_path_for_project,
 };
 use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
 use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID, ROW_OFFSET};
+use lance_datafusion::aggregate::Aggregate;
 use lance_datafusion::exec::{
-    analyze_plan, execute_plan, LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, StrictBatchSizeExec,
+    LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, StrictBatchSizeExec, analyze_plan, execute_plan,
 };
 use lance_datafusion::expr::safe_coerce_scalar;
 use lance_datafusion::projection::ProjectionPlan;
 use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
-use lance_index::scalar::expression::{IndexExprResult, PlannerIndexExt, INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA};
+use lance_index::IndexCriteria;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::expression::PlannerIndexExt;
+use lance_index::scalar::expression::ScalarIndexExpr;
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
-    fill_fts_query_column, FtsQuery, FtsQueryNode, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery, PhraseQuery,
+    CombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery, FtsQueryNode, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery, Operator,
+    PhraseQuery, fill_fts_query_column,
 };
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{SCORE_COL, SCORE_FIELD};
-use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
-use lance_index::vector::{Query, DIST_COL};
-use lance_index::IndexCriteria;
-use lance_index::{metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector, scalar::inverted::FTS_SCHEMA};
-use lance_index::{scalar::expression::ScalarIndexExpr, DatasetIndexExt};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
+    CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer, DOC_INDEX_COL, DOC_INDEX_FIELD, DocumentGranularity,
+    INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2, INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3, SCORE_COL, SCORE_FIELD, fts_schema,
+};
+use lance_index::scalar::minhash_lsh::{MinHashLshIndexParams, MinHashQuery};
+use lance_index::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
+use lance_index::vector::{ApproxMode, DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM, DIST_COL, Query};
 use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream;
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+use lance_select::IndexExprResult;
+// Re-exported so callers of `Scanner::with_row_addr_prefilter` can name the mask
+// type without depending on `lance-select` directly.
+pub use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
 use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata};
+use prost::Message;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use tracing::{info_span, instrument, Span};
+use tracing::{Span, info_span, instrument};
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
 use super::Dataset;
+use super::versions;
+use crate::dataset::overlay::{collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment, overlaid_fragments};
 use crate::dataset::row_offsets_to_row_addresses;
+use crate::dataset::rowids::{live_row_addrs_to_row_ids, translate_addr_treemap_to_row_ids};
 use crate::dataset::utils::SchemaAdapter;
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+use crate::index::scalar::inverted::{
+    fts_index_fragment_bitmap, load_segment_details, load_segments, normalize_inverted_details,
+    resolve_fts_field, resolve_query_document_granularity, validate_combined_fields_target_column,
+};
+use crate::index::scalar::{IndexDetails, fetch_index_details};
+use crate::index::scalar_logical::{load_named_scalar_segments, scalar_index_fragment_bitmap};
 use crate::index::vector::utils::{
     default_distance_type_for, get_vector_dim, get_vector_type, validate_distance_type_for,
 };
-use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
-use crate::io::exec::filtered_read::{FilteredReadExec, FilteredReadOptions};
-use crate::io::exec::fts::{BoostQueryExec, FlatMatchQueryExec, MatchQueryExec, PhraseQueryExec};
+use crate::io::exec::filtered_read::{
+    FilteredReadExec, FilteredReadOptions, FilteredReadThreadingMode,
+};
+use crate::io::exec::fts::{
+    BoostQueryExec, CombinedFieldsQueryExec, CompoundQueryExec, CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec,
+    FlatCombinedFieldsExec, FlatMatchFilterExec, FlatMatchQueryExec, FlatStatsCoverage,
+    FlatStatsScope, FtsDocumentExec, HybridCompoundQueryExec, MatchQueryExec, PhraseQueryExec,
+    SharedFtsScorer,
+};
 use crate::io::exec::knn::MultivectorScoringExec;
 use crate::io::exec::scalar_index::{MaterializeIndexExec, ScalarIndexExec};
-use crate::io::exec::{get_physical_optimizer, AddRowOffsetExec, LanceFilterExec, LanceScanConfig};
 use crate::io::exec::{
-    knn::new_knn_exec, project, AddRowAddrExec, FilterPlan as ExprFilterPlan,
-    KNNVectorDistanceExec, LancePushdownScanExec, LanceScanExec, Planner, PreFilterSource,
-    ScanConfig, TakeExec,
+    AddRowAddrExec, FilterPlan as ExprFilterPlan, FlatMinHashExec, KNNVectorDistanceExec,
+    LancePushdownScanExec, LanceScanExec, MinHashSearchExec, Planner, PreFilterSource,
+    RowAddrMaskFilterExec, ScanConfig, TakeExec,
+    knn::{
+        KnnBatchParams, QUERY_INDEX_COL, knn_empty_result_schema, new_knn_batch_exec, new_knn_exec,
+        query_index_field,
+    },
+    project,
+};
+use crate::io::exec::{
+    AddRowOffsetExec, LANCE_RELATIONAL_ALGEBRA_VERSION, LanceFilterExec, LanceScanConfig,
+    get_physical_optimizer,
 };
-use crate::{datatypes::Schema, io::exec::fts::BooleanQueryExec};
 use crate::{Error, Result};
+use crate::{
+    datatypes::Schema,
+    io::exec::fts::{BoolSlot, BooleanQueryExec, build_boolean_query_children_with_schema},
+};
 
 pub use lance_datafusion::exec::{ExecutionStatsCallback, ExecutionSummaryCounts};
 #[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
 use lance_datafusion::substrait::parse_substrait;
-use snafu::location;
 
-pub(crate) const BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK: usize = 8192;
+/// Rows per output batch when neither the scan options nor
+/// `LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE` specify one.
+pub const BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK: usize = 8192;
+
+pub(crate) fn validate_batch_size(batch_size: usize) -> Result<u32> {
+    let validated = u32::try_from(batch_size).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "batch_size must be between 1 and {}, got {batch_size}",
+            u32::MAX
+        ))
+    })?;
+    if validated == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "batch_size must be between 1 and {}, got {batch_size}",
+            u32::MAX
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(validated)
+}
+
+enum FtsOverlayPlan {
+    Unchanged(Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>),
+    RowLevel {
+        stale_rows: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    },
+    FullScan,
+}
+
+fn collect_fts_columns_in_order(query: &FtsQuery) -> Vec<String> {
+    fn visit(query: &FtsQuery, columns: &mut Vec<String>, seen: &mut HashSet<String>) {
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+                if let Some(column) = &query.column
+                    && seen.insert(column.clone())
+                {
+                    columns.push(column.clone());
+                }
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
+                if let Some(column) = &query.column
+                    && seen.insert(column.clone())
+                {
+                    columns.push(column.clone());
+                }
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                visit(&query.positive, columns, seen);
+                visit(&query.negative, columns, seen);
+            }
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                for match_query in &query.match_queries {
+                    if let Some(column) = &match_query.column
+                        && seen.insert(column.clone())
+                    {
+                        columns.push(column.clone());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                for child in query
+                    .should
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(&query.must)
+                    .chain(&query.must_not)
+                {
+                    visit(child, columns, seen);
+                }
+            }
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query) => {
+                for column in query.column_names() {
+                    if seen.insert(column.to_string()) {
+                        columns.push(column.to_string());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut columns = Vec::new();
+    let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+    visit(query, &mut columns, &mut seen);
+    columns
+}
+
+fn collect_phrase_columns(query: &FtsQuery, columns: &mut HashSet<String>) {
+    match query {
+        FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
+            if let Some(column) = &query.column {
+                columns.insert(column.clone());
+            }
+        }
+        FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+            collect_phrase_columns(&query.positive, columns);
+            collect_phrase_columns(&query.negative, columns);
+        }
+        FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+            for child in query
+                .should
+                .iter()
+                .chain(&query.must)
+                .chain(&query.must_not)
+            {
+                collect_phrase_columns(child, columns);
+            }
+        }
+        // combined_fields is term-based; it never needs positions.
+        FtsQuery::Match(_) | FtsQuery::MultiMatch(_) | FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {}
+    }
+}
+
+async fn load_physical_fts_details(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    segment: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<InvertedIndexDetails> {
+    let details = fetch_index_details(dataset, column, segment).await?;
+    let details = InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details.value.as_slice()).map_err(|err| {
+        Error::io(format!(
+            "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails payload: {err}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    normalize_inverted_details(segment, details)
+}
+
+fn supports_compound_scorer(query: &FtsQuery) -> bool {
+    fn supports_shape(query: &FtsQuery) -> bool {
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(_) | FtsQuery::Phrase(_) | FtsQuery::MultiMatch(_) => true,
+            // BM25F blends term statistics across columns, so it cannot be a leaf
+            // of the single-index compound scorer. Such trees keep the
+            // union/sort plan built by `plan_combined_fields_query`.
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => false,
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                (!query.should.is_empty() || !query.must.is_empty())
+                    && query
+                        .should
+                        .iter()
+                        .chain(&query.must)
+                        .chain(&query.must_not)
+                        .all(supports_shape)
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                supports_shape(&query.positive) && supports_shape(&query.negative)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if matches!(query, FtsQuery::Match(_) | FtsQuery::Phrase(_)) || !supports_shape(query) {
+        return false;
+    }
+    let columns = collect_fts_columns_in_order(query);
+    !columns.is_empty() && (!matches!(query, FtsQuery::MultiMatch(_)) || columns.len() == 1)
+}
+
+fn supports_indexed_stats_residual_compound(query: &FtsQuery) -> bool {
+    match query {
+        FtsQuery::Match(query) => query.fuzziness == Some(0),
+        // MemWAL phrase matching currently collapses tokenizer position gaps.
+        // Keep phrase queries on the established fallback until it can retain
+        // those gaps exactly (notably when stop words are configured).
+        FtsQuery::Phrase(_) => false,
+        FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+            supports_indexed_stats_residual_compound(&query.positive)
+                && supports_indexed_stats_residual_compound(&query.negative)
+        }
+        FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => query
+            .match_queries
+            .iter()
+            .all(|query| query.fuzziness == Some(0)),
+        FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => query
+            .should
+            .iter()
+            .chain(&query.must)
+            .chain(&query.must_not)
+            .all(supports_indexed_stats_residual_compound),
+        // The compound scorer scores each leaf from one column's index, which a
+        // cross-field blend cannot be expressed as.
+        FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => false,
+    }
+}
+
+const MAX_QUERY_LOCAL_RESIDUAL_ROWS: usize = 100_000;
+
+fn has_bounded_query_local_residual_rows(fragments: &[Fragment]) -> bool {
+    fragments
+        .iter()
+        .try_fold(0usize, |total, fragment| {
+            total.checked_add(fragment.physical_rows?)
+        })
+        .is_some_and(|total| total <= MAX_QUERY_LOCAL_RESIDUAL_ROWS)
+}
+
+fn has_complete_hybrid_fts_coverage(
+    segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+    residual_fragments: &[Fragment],
+    target_fragments: &[Fragment],
+) -> bool {
+    let Some(target) = target_fragments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| u32::try_from(fragment.id).ok())
+        .collect::<Option<RoaringBitmap>>()
+    else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    let Some(residual) = residual_fragments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| u32::try_from(fragment.id).ok())
+        .collect::<Option<RoaringBitmap>>()
+    else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    let mut indexed = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for segment in segments {
+        let Some(coverage) = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        if !indexed.is_disjoint(coverage) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        indexed |= coverage;
+    }
+    if !indexed.is_subset(&target) || !indexed.is_disjoint(&residual) {
+        return false;
+    }
+    indexed | residual == target
+}
+
+fn validate_fts_query_contract(query: &FtsQuery) -> Result<()> {
+    fn validate_multiplier(name: &str, value: f32) -> Result<()> {
+        if value.is_finite() && value >= 0.0 {
+            Ok(())
+        } else {
+            Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "{name} must be finite and non-negative, got {value}"
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+
+    match query {
+        FtsQuery::Match(query) => validate_multiplier("MatchQuery boost", query.boost),
+        FtsQuery::Phrase(_) => Ok(()),
+        // Nothing to re-check: the weights are private and every constructor,
+        // including `Deserialize`, goes through `try_with_boosts`, which enforces a
+        // finite value in `[MIN_BOOST, MAX_BOOST]`, stricter than the non-negative
+        // contract checked here.
+        FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => Ok(()),
+        FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+            validate_multiplier("BoostQuery negative_boost", query.negative_boost)?;
+            validate_fts_query_contract(&query.positive)?;
+            validate_fts_query_contract(&query.negative)
+        }
+        FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+            for match_query in &query.match_queries {
+                validate_multiplier("MultiMatchQuery boost", match_query.boost)?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+            if query.should.is_empty() && query.must.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "boolean query must have at least one should/must query",
+                ));
+            }
+            for child in query
+                .should
+                .iter()
+                .chain(&query.must)
+                .chain(&query.must_not)
+            {
+                validate_fts_query_contract(child)?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn normalize_fts_zero_boosts(query: &mut FtsQuery) {
+    fn normalize_zero(value: &mut f32) {
+        if *value == 0.0 {
+            *value = 0.0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    match query {
+        FtsQuery::Match(query) => normalize_zero(&mut query.boost),
+        // combined_fields weights are validated into `[1.0, 2^20]`, so no zero
+        // to normalize.
+        FtsQuery::Phrase(_) | FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {}
+        FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+            normalize_zero(&mut query.negative_boost);
+            normalize_fts_zero_boosts(&mut query.positive);
+            normalize_fts_zero_boosts(&mut query.negative);
+        }
+        FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+            for match_query in &mut query.match_queries {
+                normalize_zero(&mut match_query.boost);
+            }
+        }
+        FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+            for child in query
+                .should
+                .iter_mut()
+                .chain(&mut query.must)
+                .chain(&mut query.must_not)
+            {
+                normalize_fts_zero_boosts(child);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Keep AUTO fuzziness exact at the public dataset-planning boundary.
+///
+/// Low-level index preparation already understands `fuzziness=None`, but a
+/// partial dataset plan must prepare one vocabulary across indexed and current
+/// unindexed rows. AUTO activation is deferred until OSS-2105 lands that
+/// current-row preparation atomically. Until then, recursively rewrite AUTO to
+/// exact while preserving explicit positive fuzziness.
+fn apply_dataset_planner_auto_fuzziness_compatibility_gate(query: &mut FtsQuery) {
+    match query {
+        FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+            query.fuzziness.get_or_insert(0);
+        }
+        // combined_fields matches terms exactly; it has no fuzziness setting.
+        FtsQuery::Phrase(_) | FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {}
+        FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+            apply_dataset_planner_auto_fuzziness_compatibility_gate(&mut query.positive);
+            apply_dataset_planner_auto_fuzziness_compatibility_gate(&mut query.negative);
+        }
+        FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+            for match_query in &mut query.match_queries {
+                match_query.fuzziness.get_or_insert(0);
+            }
+        }
+        FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+            for child in query
+                .should
+                .iter_mut()
+                .chain(&mut query.must)
+                .chain(&mut query.must_not)
+            {
+                apply_dataset_planner_auto_fuzziness_compatibility_gate(child);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
 
 /// Parse an environment variable as a specific type, logging a warning on parse failure.
 fn parse_env_var<T: std::str::FromStr>(env_var_name: &str, default_val: &str) -> Option<T>
@@ -162,6 +554,18 @@ pub static DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE: LazyLock<u64> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE_VALUE)
 });
 
+/// The user-set value of `LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE`, or `None` if the env var
+/// is unset or unparsable. Consult this from paths that have a sensible non-fixed
+/// default (e.g. `SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth`) so the env var still takes
+/// precedence over that default. Re-reads the env var on each call so tests can
+/// mutate it.
+pub fn get_default_io_buffer_size_override() -> Option<u64> {
+    parse_env_var(
+        "LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE",
+        &DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE_VALUE.to_string(),
+    )
+}
+
 /// Defines an ordering for a single column
 ///
 /// Floats are sorted using the IEEE 754 total ordering
@@ -255,10 +659,16 @@ impl MaterializationStyle {
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
-struct PlannedFilteredScan {
-    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-    limit_pushed_down: bool,
-    filter_pushed_down: bool,
+pub(super) struct PlannedFilteredScan {
+    pub(super) plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    pub(super) limit_pushed_down: bool,
+    pub(super) filter_pushed_down: bool,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ScanRangePlan {
+    fragments: Option<Arc<Vec<Fragment>>>,
+    range: Range<u64>,
 }
 
 pub struct FilterPlan {
@@ -316,7 +726,7 @@ impl FilterPlan {
         if self.refine_query_filter {
             match &self.query_filter {
                 Some(QueryFilter::Fts(fts_query)) => {
-                    let cols = if fts_query.columns().is_empty() {
+                    let cols = if fts_query.query.is_missing_column() {
                         let indexed_columns = fts_indexed_columns(dataset.clone()).await?;
                         let q = fill_fts_query_column(&fts_query.query, &indexed_columns, false)?;
                         q.columns()
@@ -344,13 +754,14 @@ impl FilterPlan {
         &self,
         input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
         scanner: &Scanner,
+        session: Option<&dyn Session>,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         let mut plan = input;
 
         if self.refine_query_filter {
             match &self.query_filter {
                 Some(QueryFilter::Fts(fts_query)) => {
-                    plan = scanner.flat_fts(plan, fts_query).await?;
+                    plan = scanner.flat_fts_filter(plan, fts_query).await?;
                 }
                 Some(QueryFilter::Vector(vector_query)) => {
                     plan = scanner.flat_knn(plan, vector_query)?;
@@ -360,9 +771,12 @@ impl FilterPlan {
         }
 
         if let Some(refine_expr) = &self.expr_filter_plan.refine_expr {
-            // We create a new planner specific to the node's schema, since
-            // physical expressions reference column by index rather than by name.
-            plan = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(refine_expr.clone(), plan)?);
+            plan = Arc::new(match session {
+                Some(session) => {
+                    LanceFilterExec::try_new_with_session(refine_expr.clone(), plan, session)?
+                }
+                None => LanceFilterExec::try_new(refine_expr.clone(), plan)?,
+            });
         }
 
         Ok(plan)
@@ -418,25 +832,22 @@ impl ExprFilter {
                 let filter = planner.parse_filter(sql)?;
 
                 let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema)?;
-                let (ret_type, _) = filter.data_type_and_nullable(&df_schema)?;
-                if ret_type != DataType::Boolean {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("The filter {} does not return a boolean", filter).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                let ret_field = filter.to_field(&df_schema)?.1;
+                let ret_type = ret_field.data_type();
+                if ret_type != &DataType::Boolean {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                        format!("The filter {} does not return a boolean", filter).into(),
+                    ));
                 }
 
                 let optimized = planner.optimize_expr(filter).map_err(|e| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Error optimizing sql filter: {sql} ({e})"),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("Error optimizing sql filter: {sql} ({e})"))
                 })?;
                 Ok(optimized)
             }
             #[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
             Self::Substrait(expr) => {
-                use lance_datafusion::exec::{get_session_context, LanceExecutionOptions};
+                use lance_datafusion::exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, get_session_context};
 
                 let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
                 let state = ctx.state();
@@ -446,22 +857,237 @@ impl ExprFilter {
                     .expect("could not parse the Substrait filter in a synchronous fashion")?;
                 let planner = Planner::new(schema);
                 planner.optimize_expr(expr.clone()).map_err(|e| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Error optimizing substrait filter: {expr:?} ({e})"),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Error optimizing substrait filter: {expr:?} ({e})"
+                    ))
                 })
             }
             #[cfg(not(feature = "substrait"))]
-            Self::Substrait(_) => Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "Substrait filter is not supported in this build".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            Self::Substrait(_) => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "Substrait filter is not supported in this build".into(),
+            )),
             Self::Datafusion(expr) => Ok(expr.clone()),
         }
     }
 }
 
+/// Aggregate expression from Substrait or DataFusion.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub enum AggregateExpr {
+    #[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
+    Substrait(Vec<u8>),
+    Datafusion {
+        group_by: Vec<Expr>,
+        aggregates: Vec<Expr>,
+    },
+}
+
+impl AggregateExpr {
+    /// Create a new builder for aggregate expressions.
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    /// ```ignore
+    /// let agg = AggregateExpr::builder()
+    ///     .group_by("category")
+    ///     .count_star().alias("total_count")
+    ///     .sum("amount").alias("total_amount")
+    ///     .avg("price")
+    ///     .build();
+    /// scanner.aggregate(agg);
+    /// ```
+    pub fn builder() -> AggregateExprBuilder<false> {
+        AggregateExprBuilder::new()
+    }
+
+    /// Create from Substrait Plan bytes.
+    #[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
+    pub fn substrait(bytes: impl Into<Vec<u8>>) -> Self {
+        Self::Substrait(bytes.into())
+    }
+
+    /// Create from DataFusion expressions.
+    /// Use `.alias()` on expressions to set output column names.
+    pub fn datafusion(group_by: Vec<Expr>, aggregates: Vec<Expr>) -> Self {
+        Self::Datafusion {
+            group_by,
+            aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Parse into a unified Aggregate structure.
+    ///
+    /// For Substrait, this parses the bytes into DataFusion expressions.
+    /// For DataFusion, this just wraps the expressions.
+    ///
+    /// The schema is used to resolve field references in Substrait expressions.
+    fn parse(self, #[allow(unused_variables)] schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>) -> Result<Aggregate> {
+        match self {
+            #[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
+            Self::Substrait(bytes) => {
+                use lance_datafusion::exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, get_session_context};
+                use lance_datafusion::substrait::parse_substrait_aggregate;
+
+                let ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions::default());
+                parse_substrait_aggregate(&bytes, schema, &ctx.state())
+                    .now_or_never()
+                    .expect("could not parse the Substrait aggregate in a synchronous fashion")
+            }
+            Self::Datafusion {
+                group_by,
+                aggregates,
+            } => Ok(Aggregate::new(group_by, aggregates)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Builder for creating aggregate expressions without using DataFusion or Substrait directly.
+///
+/// The const generic `HAS_PENDING` tracks whether there's a pending aggregate that can be aliased.
+/// When `HAS_PENDING` is `true`, the last item in `aggregates` is the pending aggregate.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct AggregateExprBuilder<const HAS_PENDING: bool> {
+    group_by: Vec<Expr>,
+    aggregates: Vec<Expr>,
+}
+
+impl Default for AggregateExprBuilder<false> {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            group_by: Vec::new(),
+            aggregates: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AggregateExprBuilder<false> {
+    /// Create a new builder.
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::default()
+    }
+
+    /// Build the aggregate expression.
+    pub fn build(self) -> AggregateExpr {
+        AggregateExpr::Datafusion {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<const HAS_PENDING: bool> AggregateExprBuilder<HAS_PENDING> {
+    /// Add a column to group by.
+    ///
+    /// Multiple invocations will add to the list (not replace it).
+    /// E.g. `.group_by("x").group_by("y")` will group by both `x` and `y`.
+    pub fn group_by(mut self, column: impl Into<String>) -> AggregateExprBuilder<false> {
+        self.group_by.push(col(column.into()));
+        AggregateExprBuilder {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add multiple columns to group by.
+    ///
+    /// Multiple invocations will add to the list (not replace it).
+    /// E.g. `.group_by("x").group_by_columns(["y", "z"])` will group by `x`, `y`, and `z`.
+    pub fn group_by_columns(
+        mut self,
+        columns: impl IntoIterator<Item = impl Into<String>>,
+    ) -> AggregateExprBuilder<false> {
+        for column in columns {
+            self.group_by.push(col(column.into()));
+        }
+        AggregateExprBuilder {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add COUNT(*) aggregate that counts all rows.
+    pub fn count_star(mut self) -> AggregateExprBuilder<true> {
+        self.aggregates
+            .push(functions_aggregate::count::count(lit(1)));
+        AggregateExprBuilder {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add COUNT(column) aggregate.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike `count_star`, this will only count the number of rows where `column`
+    /// is not NULL.
+    pub fn count(mut self, column: impl Into<String>) -> AggregateExprBuilder<true> {
+        self.aggregates
+            .push(functions_aggregate::count::count(col(column.into())));
+        AggregateExprBuilder {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add SUM(column) aggregate.
+    pub fn sum(mut self, column: impl Into<String>) -> AggregateExprBuilder<true> {
+        self.aggregates
+            .push(functions_aggregate::sum::sum(col(column.into())));
+        AggregateExprBuilder {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add AVG(column) aggregate.
+    pub fn avg(mut self, column: impl Into<String>) -> AggregateExprBuilder<true> {
+        self.aggregates
+            .push(functions_aggregate::average::avg(col(column.into())));
+        AggregateExprBuilder {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add MIN(column) aggregate.
+    pub fn min(mut self, column: impl Into<String>) -> AggregateExprBuilder<true> {
+        self.aggregates
+            .push(functions_aggregate::min_max::min(col(column.into())));
+        AggregateExprBuilder {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Add MAX(column) aggregate.
+    pub fn max(mut self, column: impl Into<String>) -> AggregateExprBuilder<true> {
+        self.aggregates
+            .push(functions_aggregate::min_max::max(col(column.into())));
+        AggregateExprBuilder {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AggregateExprBuilder<true> {
+    /// Set an alias for the pending aggregate (the last added aggregate).
+    pub fn alias(mut self, name: impl Into<String>) -> AggregateExprBuilder<false> {
+        let pending = self.aggregates.pop().expect("pending aggregate must exist");
+        self.aggregates.push(pending.alias(name.into()));
+        AggregateExprBuilder {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build the aggregate expression.
+    pub fn build(self) -> AggregateExpr {
+        AggregateExpr::Datafusion {
+            group_by: self.group_by,
+            aggregates: self.aggregates,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// Dataset Scanner
 ///
 /// ```rust,ignore
@@ -475,6 +1101,13 @@ impl ExprFilter {
 ///   .buffered(16)
 ///   .sum()
 /// ```
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct ScalarIndexSelection {
+    index_name: String,
+    segments: Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+    segment_uuids: Option<Arc<HashSet<Uuid>>>,
+}
+
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct Scanner {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
@@ -491,6 +1124,14 @@ pub struct Scanner {
     /// If true then the filter will be applied before an index scan
     prefilter: bool,
 
+    /// Optional external allow/block mask keyed in `_rowid` space. On a vector
+    /// search it is combined with the index-side prefilter and applied to the
+    /// flat branch for fragments not covered by the index; on a plain scan it is
+    /// the row source (see `use_external_mask`). Held behind an Arc so cloning it
+    /// into the ANN sub-plans and the flat-branch filter is cheap regardless of
+    /// mask size.
+    external_row_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+
     /// Materialization style controls when columns are fetched
     materialization_style: MaterializationStyle,
 
@@ -500,10 +1141,19 @@ pub struct Scanner {
     /// Optional full text search query
     full_text_query: Option<FullTextSearchQuery>,
 
+    /// MinHash similarity search. The scan source is the index lookup and the
+    /// output gains a `_distance` column.
+    minhash_query: Option<MinHashQuery>,
+
     /// The batch size controls the maximum size of rows to return for each read.
     batch_size: Option<usize>,
 
-    /// Number of batches to prefetch
+    /// If set, the scanner will produce batches whose total size in bytes
+    /// is approximately this value. When both limits are set, the scanner uses
+    /// the smaller row count selected by either limit.
+    batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+
+    /// Number of batches to decode concurrently
     batch_readahead: usize,
 
     /// Number of fragments to read concurrently
@@ -512,6 +1162,9 @@ pub struct Scanner {
     /// Number of bytes to allow to queue up in the I/O buffer
     io_buffer_size: Option<u64>,
 
+    /// Total bytes reserved by asynchronously materialized blob v2 batches
+    materialization_readahead_bytes: Option<u64>,
+
     limit: Option<i64>,
     offset: Option<i64>,
 
@@ -526,6 +1179,10 @@ pub struct Scanner {
     ordering: Option<Vec<ColumnOrdering>>,
 
     nearest: Option<Query>,
+    nearest_query_count: usize,
+    /// True when the query shape represents a batch of single-vector queries
+    /// (list-like query on a fixed-size vector column, or multiple concatenated vectors).
+    is_batch_nearest: bool,
 
     /// If false, do not use any scalar indices for the scan
     ///
@@ -547,6 +1204,12 @@ pub struct Scanner {
     /// If set, this scanner serves only these fragments.
     fragments: Option<Vec<Fragment>>,
 
+    /// If set, scalar-index planning is restricted to this logical index and optional segment set.
+    scalar_index_selection: Option<ScalarIndexSelection>,
+
+    /// If set, this scanner will only search the specified vector index segments.
+    index_segments: Option<Vec<Uuid>>,
+
     /// Only search the data being indexed (weak consistency search).
     ///
     /// Default value is false.
@@ -570,6 +1233,20 @@ pub struct Scanner {
     /// File reader options to use when reading data files.
     file_reader_options: Option<FileReaderOptions>,
 
+    aggregate: Option<Aggregate>,
+
+    /// Which version of the relational algebra to use when generating the physical plan
+    relational_algebra_version: u32,
+
+    /// Target degree of parallelism for the physical optimizer.
+    ///
+    /// This is passed as `ConfigOptions::execution::target_partitions` to the
+    /// physical optimizer (e.g. `EnforceDistribution`), which uses it to decide
+    /// how many parallel partitions to target when inserting exchange nodes.
+    ///
+    /// Defaults to `get_num_compute_intensive_cpus()`.
+    target_parallelism: Option<usize>,
+
     // Legacy fields to help migrate some old projection behavior to new behavior
     //
     // There are two behaviors we are moving away from:
@@ -709,17 +1386,15 @@ impl TakeOperation {
                     // Check for _rowid = literal
                     if let (Expr::Column(col), Expr::Literal(lit, _)) =
                         (binary.left.as_ref(), binary.right.as_ref())
-                    {
-                        if let Some(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(val))) =
+                        && let Some(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(val))) =
                             safe_coerce_scalar(lit, &DataType::UInt64)
-                        {
-                            if col.name == ROW_ID {
-                                return Some((Self::RowIds(vec![val]), None));
-                            } else if col.name == ROW_ADDR {
-                                return Some((Self::RowAddrs(vec![val]), None));
-                            } else if col.name == ROW_OFFSET {
-                                return Some((Self::RowOffsets(vec![val]), None));
-                            }
+                    {
+                        if col.name == ROW_ID {
+                            return Some((Self::RowIds(vec![val]), None));
+                        } else if col.name == ROW_ADDR {
+                            return Some((Self::RowAddrs(vec![val]), None));
+                        } else if col.name == ROW_OFFSET {
+                            return Some((Self::RowOffsets(vec![val]), None));
                         }
                     }
                 }
@@ -741,56 +1416,282 @@ impl TakeOperation {
                 }
                 _ => {}
             }
-        } else if let Expr::InList(in_expr) = expr {
-            if let Expr::Column(col) = in_expr.expr.as_ref() {
-                if let Some(u64s) = Self::extract_u64_list(&in_expr.list) {
-                    if col.name == ROW_ID {
-                        return Some((Self::RowIds(u64s), None));
-                    } else if col.name == ROW_ADDR {
-                        return Some((Self::RowAddrs(u64s), None));
-                    } else if col.name == ROW_OFFSET {
-                        return Some((Self::RowOffsets(u64s), None));
-                    }
-                }
+        } else if let Expr::InList(in_expr) = expr
+            // A negated InList (`_rowid NOT IN (...)`) is the complement of
+            // the listed ids, not a take of them. Small lists are expanded
+            // into `!=` conjunctions by the expression simplifier before they
+            // get here, but larger ones arrive as `negated: true`.
+            && !in_expr.negated
+            && let Expr::Column(col) = in_expr.expr.as_ref()
+            && let Some(u64s) = Self::extract_u64_list(&in_expr.list)
+        {
+            if col.name == ROW_ID {
+                return Some((Self::RowIds(u64s), None));
+            } else if col.name == ROW_ADDR {
+                return Some((Self::RowAddrs(u64s), None));
+            } else if col.name == ROW_OFFSET {
+                return Some((Self::RowOffsets(u64s), None));
             }
         }
         None
     }
 }
 
-impl Scanner {
-    pub fn new(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Self {
-        let projection_plan = ProjectionPlan::full(dataset.clone()).unwrap();
+impl Dataset {
+    /// Count rows matching `filter` while pinning scalar-index planning to `index_name`.
+    ///
+    /// When `segment_uuids` is present, only those physical index segments are opened and their
+    /// current fragment coverage defines the count scope. That coverage is accepted only when the
+    /// selection includes every segment that contributes to it. After a fragment-reuse rewrite, one
+    /// source segment can advertise every destination fragment while still depending on sibling
+    /// segments; an incomplete selection is rejected. A supplied `fragment_ids` list must exactly
+    /// equal the selected segments' current coverage.
+    #[instrument(skip_all)]
+    pub async fn count_indexed_rows(
+        &self,
+        index_name: &str,
+        filter: &str,
+        segment_uuids: Option<&[Uuid]>,
+        fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+    ) -> Result<u64> {
+        if index_name.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("index_name must not be empty"));
+        }
+        if filter.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("filter must not be empty"));
+        }
+
+        let requested_fragments = fragment_ids
+            .map(|fragment_ids| {
+                let fragment_set = fragment_ids.iter().copied().collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+                if fragment_set.len() != fragment_ids.len() as u64 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "fragment_ids contains duplicate fragment IDs: {fragment_ids:?}"
+                    )));
+                }
+                let unknown = &fragment_set - self.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+                if !unknown.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "fragment_ids contains unknown fragment IDs: {:?}",
+                        unknown.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    )));
+                }
+                Ok(fragment_set)
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+
+        let all_indices = self.load_indices().await?;
+        let (selected_segments, selected_segment_uuids, fragment_scope) = if let Some(
+            segment_uuids,
+        ) = segment_uuids
+        {
+            if segment_uuids.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "segment_uuids must contain at least one UUID",
+                ));
+            }
+            let selected_uuid_set = segment_uuids.iter().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+            if selected_uuid_set.len() != segment_uuids.len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "segment_uuids contains duplicate UUIDs: {segment_uuids:?}"
+                )));
+            }
+
+            let mut selected_segments = Vec::with_capacity(segment_uuids.len());
+            let mut selected_coverage = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            for segment_uuid in segment_uuids {
+                let segment = all_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|segment| segment.uuid == *segment_uuid)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Scalar index segment {segment_uuid} does not exist"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                if segment.name != index_name {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Scalar index segment {segment_uuid} belongs to index '{}', not requested index '{index_name}'",
+                        segment.name
+                    )));
+                }
+                let Some(field_id) = segment.keyed_field() else {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Scalar index '{index_name}' segment {segment_uuid} has no keyed field"
+                    )));
+                };
+                let field = self.schema().field_by_id(field_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Scalar index '{index_name}' segment {segment_uuid} references missing field ID {field_id}"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                let field_path =
+                    if let Some(ancestors) = self.schema().field_ancestry_by_id(field.id) {
+                        let field_refs = ancestors
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                        lance_core::datatypes::format_field_path(&field_refs)
+                    } else {
+                        field.name.clone()
+                    };
+                let details = IndexDetails(fetch_index_details(self, &field_path, segment).await?);
+                if details.is_vector() || details.get_plugin().is_err() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Index '{index_name}' segment {segment_uuid} is not a usable scalar index segment"
+                    )));
+                }
+                let coverage = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "Scalar index '{index_name}' segment {segment_uuid} is missing fragment coverage"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                let current_coverage = coverage & self.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+                if current_coverage.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Scalar index '{index_name}' segment {segment_uuid} does not cover any current dataset fragments"
+                    )));
+                }
+                selected_coverage |= current_coverage;
+                selected_segments.push(segment.clone());
+            }
+            // Rewritten coverage is the contributor closure: a sibling whose bitmap
+            // overlaps this scope still owns rows in those fragments. Opening only
+            // the requested UUIDs would publish that scope and then under-count.
+            reject_incomplete_segment_contributors(
+                index_name,
+                all_indices.as_ref(),
+                &selected_uuid_set,
+                &selected_coverage,
+            )?;
+
+            if let Some(requested_fragments) = requested_fragments.as_ref()
+                && requested_fragments != &selected_coverage
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "fragment_ids {:?} do not match selected segment coverage {:?} for scalar index '{index_name}'",
+                    requested_fragments.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    selected_coverage.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                )));
+            }
+
+            (
+                selected_segments,
+                Some(Arc::new(selected_uuid_set)),
+                Some(selected_coverage),
+            )
+        } else {
+            let selected_segments = all_indices
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|segment| segment.name == index_name)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            if selected_segments.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Scalar index '{index_name}' does not exist or has no usable segments"
+                )));
+            }
+            (selected_segments, None, requested_fragments)
+        };
+
+        let mut scanner = self.scan();
+        scanner.filter(filter)?;
+        scanner.project::<String>(&[])?;
+        scanner.with_row_id();
+        scanner.with_scalar_index_selection(
+            index_name.to_string(),
+            selected_segments,
+            selected_segment_uuids,
+        );
+        if let Some(fragment_scope) = fragment_scope {
+            let fragments = self
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|fragment| fragment_scope.contains(fragment.id as u32))
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            scanner.with_fragments(fragments);
+        }
+        scanner.count_rows().await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Reject a UUID selection whose advertised fragments still depend on an unselected segment.
+fn reject_incomplete_segment_contributors(
+    index_name: &str,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    selected_uuids: &HashSet<Uuid>,
+    selected_coverage: &RoaringBitmap,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut missing = Vec::new();
+    let mut shared_fragments = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for segment in indices {
+        if segment.name != index_name || selected_uuids.contains(&segment.uuid) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let Some(coverage) = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let overlap = coverage & selected_coverage;
+        if overlap.is_empty() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        shared_fragments |= overlap;
+        missing.push(segment.uuid);
+    }
+    if missing.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    missing.sort_unstable();
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "Scalar index '{index_name}' selection omits contributing segments {missing:?} for fragments {:?}. Select every segment that covers those fragments",
+        shared_fragments.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    )))
+}
+
+impl Scanner {
+    pub fn new(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Self {
+        let projection_plan = ProjectionPlan::full(dataset.clone()).unwrap();
         let file_reader_options = dataset.file_reader_options.clone();
         let mut scanner = Self {
             dataset,
             projection_plan,
             blob_handling: BlobHandling::default(),
             prefilter: false,
+            external_row_mask: None,
             materialization_style: MaterializationStyle::Heuristic,
             filter: LanceFilter::default(),
             full_text_query: None,
+            minhash_query: None,
             batch_size: None,
+            batch_size_bytes: None,
             batch_readahead: get_num_compute_intensive_cpus(),
             fragment_readahead: None,
             io_buffer_size: None,
+            materialization_readahead_bytes: None,
             limit: None,
             offset: None,
             ordering: None,
             nearest: None,
+            nearest_query_count: 1,
+            is_batch_nearest: false,
             use_stats: true,
             ordered: true,
             fragments: None,
+            scalar_index_selection: None,
+            index_segments: None,
             fast_search: false,
             use_scalar_index: true,
             include_deleted_rows: false,
             scan_stats_callback: None,
             strict_batch_size: false,
             file_reader_options,
+            aggregate: None,
             legacy_with_row_addr: false,
             legacy_with_row_id: false,
             explicit_projection: false,
             autoproject_scoring_columns: true,
+            relational_algebra_version: LANCE_RELATIONAL_ALGEBRA_VERSION,
+            target_parallelism: None,
         };
         scanner.apply_blob_handling();
         scanner
@@ -826,6 +1727,37 @@ impl Scanner {
         self
     }
 
+    fn with_scalar_index_selection(
+        &mut self,
+        index_name: String,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        segment_uuids: Option<Arc<HashSet<Uuid>>>,
+    ) -> &mut Self {
+        self.scalar_index_selection = Some(ScalarIndexSelection {
+            index_name,
+            segments: Arc::new(segments),
+            segment_uuids,
+        });
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Restrict vector index search to the specified index segments.
+    ///
+    /// This setting is only supported for vector search.
+    ///
+    /// If [`Self::with_fragments`] is also set then rows from those fragments that are not covered
+    /// by the selected index segments will still be searched with flat KNN. Otherwise, unindexed
+    /// fragments outside the selected index segments are not searched.
+    pub fn with_index_segments(&mut self, segments: Vec<Uuid>) -> Result<&mut Self> {
+        if segments.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "with_index_segments does not accept an empty segment list".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.index_segments = Some(segments);
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
     fn get_batch_size(&self) -> usize {
         // Default batch size to be large enough so that a i32 column can be
         // read in a single range request. For the object store default of
@@ -835,7 +1767,7 @@ impl Scanner {
         get_default_batch_size().unwrap_or_else(|| {
             self.batch_size.unwrap_or_else(|| {
                 std::cmp::max(
-                    self.dataset.object_store().block_size() / 4,
+                    self.dataset.object_store.as_ref().block_size() / 4,
                     BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK,
                 )
             })
@@ -846,7 +1778,6 @@ impl Scanner {
         if self.is_fragment_scan() {
             Err(Error::not_supported(
                 "This operation is not supported for fragment scan".to_string(),
-                location!(),
             ))
         } else {
             Ok(())
@@ -895,6 +1826,48 @@ impl Scanner {
         Ok(self)
     }
 
+    /// Projection by a (possibly partial) schema.
+    ///
+    /// Unlike [`Self::project`], which routes through expressions, this can
+    /// select *part* of a nested field — `meta` narrowed to just its `a` child.
+    /// Expressions cannot express that, so a nested projection must come
+    /// through here.
+    ///
+    /// `projection` must be a subset of the dataset schema. Fields are matched
+    /// by name, nested children included, and their types must agree; anything
+    /// the dataset does not have is an error rather than a silently narrower
+    /// projection. Field ids are resolved against the dataset, so a schema
+    /// numbered independently of it is accepted as long as the names and types
+    /// line up.
+    ///
+    /// The resulting plan contains no complex expressions. See
+    /// [`ProjectionPlan::from_schema`].
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+    /// # use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
+    /// # fn example(dataset: &Dataset, projection: &Schema) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    /// scan.project_with_schema(projection)?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn project_with_schema(
+        &mut self,
+        projection: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+    ) -> Result<&mut Self> {
+        self.explicit_projection = true;
+        self.projection_plan = ProjectionPlan::from_schema(self.dataset.clone(), projection)?;
+        if self.legacy_with_row_id {
+            self.projection_plan.include_row_id();
+        }
+        if self.legacy_with_row_addr {
+            self.projection_plan.include_row_addr();
+        }
+        self.apply_blob_handling();
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
     /// Should the filter run before the vector index is applied
     ///
     /// If true then the filter will be applied before the vector index.  This
@@ -908,6 +1881,47 @@ impl Scanner {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set an external [`RowAddrMask`] allow/block prefilter.
+    ///
+    /// Build the mask with [`RowAddrMask::from_allowed`] to keep only the listed
+    /// rows or [`RowAddrMask::from_block`] to drop them. On a vector
+    /// ([`nearest`](Self::nearest)) search the mask is combined with any
+    /// filter-derived prefilter on the index branch and applied to the flat
+    /// branch for fragments not covered by the vector index. On a
+    /// [`full_text_search`](Self::full_text_search) (match or phrase query) the
+    /// mask is combined into the FTS prefilter so BM25 top-k is computed over
+    /// masked rows, and the flat branch that scores unindexed fragments
+    /// (plan_flat_match_query) is masked with RowAddrMaskFilterExec. On a plain
+    /// scan the mask is used directly as the row source, with any
+    /// [`filter`](Self::filter) applied as a refine on top.
+    ///
+    /// The mask is keyed in the dataset's `_rowid` space, so build it from the
+    /// same dataset you query. That space is the row address when stable row ids
+    /// are disabled and the stable row id when they are enabled; both are handled
+    /// (index prefilter and filtered read branch on `uses_stable_row_ids`), so no
+    /// caller-side translation is needed either way.
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```no_run
+    /// # use lance::dataset::Dataset;
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: &Dataset) -> lance::Result<()> {
+    /// use lance::dataset::scanner::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+    ///
+    /// // Restrict the scan to rows whose _rowid is 0, 2, or 4.
+    /// let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0u64, 2, 4]));
+    /// let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    /// scanner.with_row_addr_prefilter(mask);
+    /// let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await?;
+    /// # let _ = batch;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn with_row_addr_prefilter(&mut self, mask: RowAddrMask) -> &mut Self {
+        self.external_row_mask = Some(Arc::new(mask));
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set the callback to be called after the scan with summary statistics
     pub fn scan_stats_callback(&mut self, callback: ExecutionStatsCallback) -> &mut Self {
         self.scan_stats_callback = Some(callback);
@@ -987,22 +2001,26 @@ impl Scanner {
     ///    .into_stream();
     /// ```
     pub fn full_text_search(&mut self, query: FullTextSearchQuery) -> Result<&mut Self> {
-        let fields = query.columns();
-        if !fields.is_empty() {
-            for field in fields.iter() {
-                if self.dataset.schema().field(field).is_none() {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Column {} not found", field),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
         self.full_text_query = Some(query);
         Ok(self)
     }
 
+    /// Return the rows of `query.column` most similar to `query.text` under
+    /// the column's MinHash LSH index.
+    ///
+    /// The number of rows is the scan [`limit`](Self::limit), which is
+    /// required. Results are ordered by ascending `_distance`
+    /// (`1 - estimated Jaccard similarity`), which is added to the output.
+    pub fn minhash_search(&mut self, query: MinHashQuery) -> Result<&mut Self> {
+        if query.column.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "MinHash search requires the column to search".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.minhash_query = Some(query);
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
     /// Set a filter using a Substrait ExtendedExpression message
     ///
     /// The message must contain exactly one expression and that expression
@@ -1017,12 +2035,45 @@ impl Scanner {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set the batch size.
+    /// Set aggregation.
+    ///
+    /// The aggregate expression is parsed immediately using the dataset schema.
+    /// For Substrait aggregates, this converts them to DataFusion expressions.
+    pub fn aggregate(&mut self, aggregate: AggregateExpr) -> Result<&mut Self> {
+        let schema: Arc<ArrowSchema> = Arc::new(self.dataset.schema().into());
+        let parsed = aggregate.parse(schema)?;
+        self.aggregate = Some(parsed);
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum number of rows per batch.
+    ///
+    /// The batch size must be between 1 and [`u32::MAX`], inclusive.
+    ///
+    /// When a byte limit is also configured through [`Self::batch_size_bytes`] or
+    /// [`ReadParams::file_reader_options`](crate::dataset::ReadParams::file_reader_options),
+    /// both limits apply and the one reached first determines the batch size.
     pub fn batch_size(&mut self, batch_size: usize) -> &mut Self {
         self.batch_size = Some(batch_size);
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set the target batch size in bytes.
+    ///
+    /// When set, the scanner will produce batches whose total size in bytes
+    /// is approximately this value. When a row-based `batch_size` is also set,
+    /// both limits apply and the one reached first determines the batch size.
+    /// This cannot be combined with [`Self::strict_batch_size`] because strict
+    /// row batching can merge batches beyond the byte limit.
+    ///
+    /// This can also be configured at the dataset level via
+    /// [`ReadParams::file_reader_options`](crate::dataset::ReadParams::file_reader_options).  A scanner-level setting takes
+    /// precedence over the dataset-level default.
+    pub fn batch_size_bytes(&mut self, batch_size_bytes: u64) -> &mut Self {
+        self.batch_size_bytes = Some(batch_size_bytes);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Include deleted rows
     ///
     /// These are rows that have been deleted from the dataset but are still present in the
@@ -1045,37 +2096,71 @@ impl Scanner {
     /// used by the scanner.  If the buffer is full then the scanner will block until
     /// the buffer is processed.
     ///
-    /// Generally this should scale with the number of concurrent I/O threads.  The
-    /// default is 2GiB which comfortably provides enough space for somewhere between
-    /// 32 and 256 concurrent I/O threads.
+    /// Generally this should scale with the number of concurrent I/O threads.  If
+    /// unset, v2 scans choose a default based on the object store and
+    /// `LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE` can override that default.
     ///
     /// This value is not a hard cap on the amount of RAM the scanner will use.  Some
     /// space is used for the compute (which can be controlled by the batch size) and
     /// Lance does not keep track of memory after it is returned to the user.
     ///
-    /// Currently, if there is a single batch of data which is larger than the io buffer
-    /// size then the scanner will deadlock.  This is a known issue and will be fixed in
-    /// a future release.
     pub fn io_buffer_size(&mut self, size: u64) -> &mut Self {
         self.io_buffer_size = Some(size);
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set the prefetch size.
-    /// Ignored in v2 and newer format
+    /// Set the memory budget for asynchronous blob v2 materialization.
+    ///
+    /// Blob descriptors are decoded before their payloads are fetched. When this
+    /// budget is set, payload materialization may run ahead while the aggregate
+    /// descriptor arrays, output offsets, and payload bytes awaiting ordered
+    /// emission stay within `size`. Admission follows output order, and each
+    /// reservation is retained until its batch is emitted. A single oversized
+    /// batch is admitted when no other materialization is reserved, which
+    /// guarantees forward progress. External descriptors without a stored size
+    /// resolve the complete object length before admission.
+    ///
+    /// This budget is separate from [`Self::io_buffer_size`], which controls the
+    /// storage I/O scheduler, and [`Self::batch_size_bytes`], which targets the
+    /// size of individual decoded batches. If this setting is not provided,
+    /// Blob v2 materialization has no independent memory bound. A size of zero
+    /// is rejected when the scan plan is built.
+    pub fn materialization_readahead_bytes(&mut self, size: u64) -> &mut Self {
+        self.materialization_readahead_bytes = Some(size);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the number of batches to decode concurrently.
+    ///
+    /// This bounds the decode fan-out of the scan: at most this many batch-decode
+    /// tasks run in flight at once. Defaults to `get_num_compute_intensive_cpus()`.
+    ///
+    /// `nbatches` must be greater than zero.
     pub fn batch_readahead(&mut self, nbatches: usize) -> &mut Self {
         self.batch_readahead = nbatches;
         self
     }
 
-    /// Set the fragment readahead.
+    /// Set the number of fragments whose reads may be scheduled concurrently.
     ///
-    /// This is only used if ``scan_in_order`` is set to false.
+    /// This applies to both ordered and unordered scans. [`Self::scan_in_order`]
+    /// controls result ordering, not whether fragment I/O overlaps. Set this to
+    /// `1` to read one fragment at a time.
     pub fn fragment_readahead(&mut self, nfragments: usize) -> &mut Self {
         self.fragment_readahead = Some(nfragments);
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set the target number of partitions for the physical optimizer.
+    ///
+    /// Overrides the default (`get_num_compute_intensive_cpus()`). Used by
+    /// `EnforceDistribution` and similar rules to decide how many parallel
+    /// partitions to use. Set to 1 in tests that assert specific plan shapes.
+    pub fn target_parallelism(&mut self, n: usize) -> &mut Self {
+        self.target_parallelism = Some(n);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set whether to read data in order (default: true)
     ///
     /// A scan will always read from the disk concurrently.  If this property
@@ -1110,6 +2195,10 @@ impl Scanner {
     /// By default, this is False and output batches are allowed to have fewer than `batch_size` rows
     /// Setting this to True will require us to merge batches, incurring a data copy, for a minor performance
     /// penalty.
+    ///
+    /// This cannot be enabled when a byte limit is configured through
+    /// [`Self::batch_size_bytes`] or
+    /// [`ReadParams::file_reader_options`](crate::dataset::ReadParams::file_reader_options).
     pub fn strict_batch_size(&mut self, strict_batch_size: bool) -> &mut Self {
         self.strict_batch_size = strict_batch_size;
         self
@@ -1125,22 +2214,33 @@ impl Scanner {
         if limit.unwrap_or_default() < 0 {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Limit must be non-negative".to_string(),
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
-        if let Some(off) = offset {
-            if off < 0 {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "Offset must be non-negative".to_string(),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
+        if let Some(off) = offset
+            && off < 0
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Offset must be non-negative".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
         self.limit = limit;
         self.offset = offset;
         Ok(self)
     }
 
+    /// Returns true when `q` is a batch of single-vector queries.
+    ///
+    /// List-like queries against a [`DataType::List`] vector column are treated as one
+    /// multivector query. The same list-like query against a fixed-size vector column is
+    /// treated as a batch of single-vector queries.
+    fn is_batch_nearest_query(vector_type: &DataType, query_type: &DataType) -> bool {
+        matches!(vector_type, DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _))
+            && matches!(
+                query_type,
+                DataType::List(_) | DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _)
+            )
+    }
+
     /// Find k-nearest neighbor within the vector column.
     /// the query can be a Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array, UInt8Array,
     /// or a ListArray/FixedSizeListArray of the above types.
@@ -1152,81 +2252,82 @@ impl Scanner {
         }
 
         if k == 0 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "k must be positive".to_string(),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("k must be positive".to_string()));
         }
         if q.is_empty() {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Query vector must have non-zero length".to_string(),
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
         // make sure the field exists
         let (vector_type, element_type) = get_vector_type(self.dataset.schema(), column)?;
         let dim = get_vector_dim(self.dataset.schema(), column)?;
+        let query_type = q.data_type().clone();
 
-        let q = match q.data_type() {
+        let (q, query_count) = match &query_type {
             DataType::List(_) | DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => {
-                if !matches!(vector_type, DataType::List(_)) {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "Query is multivector but column {}({})is not multivector",
-                            column, vector_type,
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-
                 if let Some(list_array) = q.as_list_opt::<i32>() {
                     for i in 0..list_array.len() {
                         let vec = list_array.value(i);
                         if vec.len() != dim {
-                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                                format!(
-                                    "query dim({}) doesn't match the column {} vector dim({})",
-                                    vec.len(),
-                                    column,
-                                    dim,
-                                ),
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
+                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "query dim({}) doesn't match the column {} vector dim({})",
+                                vec.len(),
+                                column,
+                                dim,
+                            )));
                         }
                     }
-                    list_array.values().clone()
+                    // A list-like query against a multivector column is one multivector query.
+                    // The same list-like query against a fixed-size vector column is a batch
+                    // of single-vector queries.
+                    let query_count = if matches!(vector_type, DataType::List(_)) {
+                        1
+                    } else {
+                        list_array.len()
+                    };
+                    (list_array.values().clone(), query_count)
                 } else {
                     let fsl = q.as_fixed_size_list();
                     if fsl.value_length() as usize != dim {
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!(
-                                "query dim({}) doesn't match the column {} vector dim({})",
-                                fsl.value_length(),
-                                column,
-                                dim,
-                            ),
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "query dim({}) doesn't match the column {} vector dim({})",
+                            fsl.value_length(),
+                            column,
+                            dim,
+                        )));
                     }
-                    fsl.values().clone()
+                    // A list-like query against a multivector column is one multivector query.
+                    // The same list-like query against a fixed-size vector column is a batch
+                    // of single-vector queries.
+                    let query_count = if matches!(vector_type, DataType::List(_)) {
+                        1
+                    } else {
+                        fsl.len()
+                    };
+                    (fsl.values().clone(), query_count)
                 }
             }
             _ => {
                 if q.len() != dim {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "query dim({}) doesn't match the column {} vector dim({})",
-                            q.len(),
-                            column,
-                            dim,
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "query dim({}) doesn't match the column {} vector dim({})",
+                        q.len(),
+                        column,
+                        dim,
+                    )));
                 }
-                q.slice(0, q.len())
+                (q.slice(0, q.len()), 1)
             }
         };
 
+        let is_batch_nearest = Self::is_batch_nearest_query(&vector_type, &query_type);
+        if is_batch_nearest && self.dataset.schema().field(QUERY_INDEX_COL).is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "batch nearest neighbor search cannot be used on datasets with column '{QUERY_INDEX_COL}'"
+            )));
+        }
+
         let key = match &element_type {
             dt if dt == q.data_type() => q,
             dt if dt.is_floating() => coerce_float_vector(
@@ -1234,15 +2335,12 @@ impl Scanner {
                 FloatType::try_from(dt)?,
             )?,
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Column {} has element type {} and the query vector is {}",
-                        column,
-                        element_type,
-                        q.data_type(),
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column {} has element type {} and the query vector is {}",
+                    column,
+                    element_type,
+                    q.data_type(),
+                )));
             }
         };
 
@@ -1258,8 +2356,12 @@ impl Scanner {
             refine_factor: None,
             metric_type: None,
             use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
             dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: Default::default(),
         });
+        self.nearest_query_count = query_count;
+        self.is_batch_nearest = is_batch_nearest;
         Ok(self)
     }
 
@@ -1281,10 +2383,10 @@ impl Scanner {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Configures how many partititions will be searched in the vector index.
+    /// Configures how many partitions are searched in the vector index.
     ///
-    /// This method is a convenience method that sets both [Self::minimum_nprobes] and
-    /// [Self::maximum_nprobes] to the same value.
+    /// This sets both [`Self::minimum_nprobes`] and [`Self::maximum_nprobes`]
+    /// to the same value. With neither setter called, adaptive defaults apply.
     pub fn nprobes(&mut self, n: usize) -> &mut Self {
         if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
             q.minimum_nprobes = n;
@@ -1295,10 +2397,7 @@ impl Scanner {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Configures how many partititions will be searched in the vector index.
-    ///
-    /// This method is a convenience method that sets both [Self::minimum_nprobes] and
-    /// [Self::maximum_nprobes] to the same value.
+    /// Configures how many partitions are searched in the vector index.
     #[deprecated(note = "Use nprobes instead")]
     pub fn nprobs(&mut self, n: usize) -> &mut Self {
         if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
@@ -1358,12 +2457,12 @@ impl Scanner {
     /// Default value is false.
     ///
     /// This is essentially a weak consistency search, only on the indexed data.
+    /// Row IDs are used internally but are only returned when explicitly requested.
     pub fn fast_search(&mut self) -> &mut Self {
         if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
             q.use_index = true;
         }
         self.fast_search = true;
-        self.projection_plan.include_row_id(); // fast search requires _rowid
         self
     }
 
@@ -1407,10 +2506,10 @@ impl Scanner {
                 self.dataset
                     .schema()
                     .field(&column.column_name)
-                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Column {} not found", &column.column_name),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))?;
+                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Column {} not found",
+                        column.column_name
+                    )))?;
             }
         }
         self.ordering = ordering;
@@ -1425,6 +2524,38 @@ impl Scanner {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Configure the speed / accuracy tradeoff for approximate vector search.
+    ///
+    /// This setting is currently used by RQ-quantized indexes (such as
+    /// IVF_RQ) and by prefiltered search on HNSW indexes, where `Fast`
+    /// enables the ACORN traversal. Other index types ignore this setting.
+    pub fn approx_mode(&mut self, approx_mode: ApproxMode) -> &mut Self {
+        if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
+            q.approx_mode = approx_mode;
+        } else {
+            log::warn!("approx_mode is not set because nearest has not been called yet");
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Configure partition-search concurrency for each vector query.
+    ///
+    /// The default is 0.
+    /// Value 0 selects the automatic policy; today this resolves to 1 for the
+    /// sequential fast path unless an index implementation overrides it.
+    /// Value -1 uses the CPU pool size.
+    /// Value 1 uses the single-worker sequential partition search path.
+    /// Values >= 2 use the partition-parallel path and are clamped to the CPU
+    /// pool size by the execution layer.
+    pub fn query_parallelism(&mut self, query_parallelism: i32) -> &mut Self {
+        if let Some(q) = self.nearest.as_mut() {
+            q.query_parallelism = query_parallelism;
+        } else {
+            log::warn!("query_parallelism is not set because nearest has not been called yet");
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Instruct the scanner to return the `_rowid` meta column from the dataset.
     pub fn with_row_id(&mut self) -> &mut Self {
         self.legacy_with_row_id = true;
@@ -1465,6 +2596,28 @@ impl Scanner {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Compute the resolved file reader options, merging the scanner's explicit
+    /// `file_reader_options`, the dataset-level defaults, and the `batch_size_bytes`
+    /// setting.
+    fn resolved_file_reader_options(&self) -> Option<FileReaderOptions> {
+        let base = self
+            .file_reader_options
+            .clone()
+            .or_else(|| self.dataset.file_reader_options.clone());
+        match (base, self.batch_size_bytes) {
+            (Some(mut opts), Some(bsb)) => {
+                opts.batch_size_bytes = Some(bsb);
+                Some(opts)
+            }
+            (Some(opts), None) => Some(opts),
+            (None, Some(bsb)) => Some(FileReaderOptions {
+                batch_size_bytes: Some(bsb),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+            (None, None) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Create a physical expression for a column that may be nested
     fn create_column_expr(
         column_name: &str,
@@ -1475,20 +2628,16 @@ impl Scanner {
         let field_path = lance_schema
             .resolve_case_insensitive(column_name)
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Field '{}' not found in schema", column_name),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input(format!("Field '{}' not found in schema", column_name))
             })?;
 
         if field_path.len() == 1 {
             // Simple top-level column
-            expressions::col(&field_path[0].name, arrow_schema).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
+            expressions::col(&field_path[0].name, arrow_schema).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
                     "Failed to create column expression for '{}': {}",
                     column_name, e
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
+                ))
             })
         } else {
             // Nested field - build a chain of GetFieldFunc calls
@@ -1506,16 +2655,47 @@ impl Scanner {
             // Convert logical to physical expression
             let df_schema = Arc::new(DFSchema::try_from(arrow_schema.clone())?);
             let execution_props = ExecutionProps::new().with_query_execution_start_time(Utc::now());
-            create_physical_expr(&expr, &df_schema, &execution_props).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
+            create_physical_expr(&expr, &df_schema, &execution_props).map_err(|e| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
                     "Failed to create physical expression for nested field '{}': {}",
                     column_name, e
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
+                ))
             })
         }
     }
 
+    /// Ensure `input` exposes `column_name` as a top-level column.
+    ///
+    /// Nested FTS flat-search paths read the projected struct column from storage
+    /// but the FTS executor consumes a single document column by name.
+    fn ensure_column_alias(
+        &self,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        column_name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let input_schema = input.schema();
+        if input_schema.column_with_name(column_name).is_some() {
+            return Ok(input);
+        }
+
+        let mut projection_exprs = Vec::with_capacity(input_schema.fields().len() + 1);
+        for field in input_schema.fields() {
+            projection_exprs.push((
+                Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(
+                    field.name(),
+                    input_schema.as_ref(),
+                )?) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+                field.name().clone(),
+            ));
+        }
+        projection_exprs.push((
+            Self::create_column_expr(column_name, self.dataset.as_ref(), input_schema.as_ref())?,
+            column_name.to_string(),
+        ));
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(ProjectionExec::try_new(projection_exprs, input)?))
+    }
+
     /// Set whether to use statistics to optimize the scan (default: true)
     ///
     /// This is used for debugging or benchmarking purposes.
@@ -1548,15 +2728,31 @@ impl Scanner {
         }
     }
 
-    fn add_extra_columns(&self, schema: Schema) -> Result<Schema> {
+    fn add_extra_columns(
+        &self,
+        schema: Schema,
+        fts_document_granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+    ) -> Result<Schema> {
         let mut extra_columns = vec![ArrowField::new(ROW_OFFSET, DataType::UInt64, true)];
 
-        if self.nearest.as_ref().is_some() {
+        if self.nearest.is_some() || self.minhash_query.is_some() {
             extra_columns.push(ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true));
-        };
+        }
+        if self.is_batch_nearest {
+            extra_columns.push(query_index_field());
+        }
 
         if self.full_text_query.is_some() {
             extra_columns.push(ArrowField::new(SCORE_COL, DataType::Float32, true));
+            if fts_document_granularity
+                .map(DocumentGranularity::is_list_element)
+                // `get_expr_filter` is synchronous, so an omitted granularity
+                // cannot be resolved from index metadata here. Include the
+                // column conservatively; `create_plan` uses the resolved value.
+                .unwrap_or(true)
+            {
+                extra_columns.push(DOC_INDEX_FIELD.clone());
+            }
         }
 
         schema.merge(&ArrowSchema::new(extra_columns))
@@ -1567,6 +2763,17 @@ impl Scanner {
     /// This is the schema of the dataset, any metadata columns like _rowid or _rowaddr
     /// and any extra columns like _distance or _score
     fn filterable_schema(&self) -> Result<Arc<Schema>> {
+        let fts_document_granularity = self
+            .full_text_query
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|query| self.fts_document_granularity(&query.query).ok());
+        self.filterable_schema_with_fts_granularity(fts_document_granularity)
+    }
+
+    fn filterable_schema_with_fts_granularity(
+        &self,
+        fts_document_granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<Schema>> {
         let base_schema = Projection::full(self.dataset.clone())
             .with_row_id()
             .with_row_addr()
@@ -1574,7 +2781,10 @@ impl Scanner {
             .with_row_created_at_version()
             .to_schema();
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(self.add_extra_columns(base_schema)?))
+        Ok(Arc::new(self.add_extra_columns(
+            base_schema,
+            fts_document_granularity,
+        )?))
     }
 
     /// This takes the current output, and the user's requested projection, and calculates the
@@ -1589,12 +2799,26 @@ impl Scanner {
         // of all available columns if the user did not specify a projection)
         let mut output_expr = self.projection_plan.to_physical_exprs(current_schema)?;
 
+        if self.full_text_query.is_some()
+            && current_schema.field_with_name(DOC_INDEX_COL).is_ok()
+            && output_expr.iter().all(|(_, name)| name != DOC_INDEX_COL)
+        {
+            output_expr.push((
+                expressions::col(DOC_INDEX_COL, current_schema)?,
+                DOC_INDEX_COL.to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
         // Make sure _distance and _score are _always_ in the output unless user has opted out of the legacy
         // projection behavior
         if self.autoproject_scoring_columns {
-            if self.nearest.is_some() && output_expr.iter().all(|(_, name)| name != DIST_COL) {
+            if (self.nearest.is_some() || self.minhash_query.is_some())
+                && output_expr.iter().all(|(_, name)| name != DIST_COL)
+            {
                 if self.explicit_projection {
-                    log::warn!("Deprecation warning, this behavior will change in the future. This search specified output columns but did not include `_distance`.  Currently the `_distance` column will be included.  In the future it will not.  Call `disable_scoring_autoprojection` to adopt the future behavior and avoid this warning");
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "Deprecation warning, this behavior will change in the future. This search specified output columns but did not include `_distance`.  Currently the `_distance` column will be included.  In the future it will not.  Call `disable_scoring_autoprojection` to adopt the future behavior and avoid this warning"
+                    );
                 }
                 let vector_expr = expressions::col(DIST_COL, current_schema)?;
                 output_expr.push((vector_expr, DIST_COL.to_string()));
@@ -1603,22 +2827,41 @@ impl Scanner {
                 && output_expr.iter().all(|(_, name)| name != SCORE_COL)
             {
                 if self.explicit_projection {
-                    log::warn!("Deprecation warning, this behavior will change in the future. This search specified output columns but did not include `_score`.  Currently the `_score` column will be included.  In the future it will not.  Call `disable_scoring_autoprojection` to adopt the future behavior and avoid this warning");
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "Deprecation warning, this behavior will change in the future. This search specified output columns but did not include `_score`.  Currently the `_score` column will be included.  In the future it will not.  Call `disable_scoring_autoprojection` to adopt the future behavior and avoid this warning"
+                    );
                 }
                 let score_expr = expressions::col(SCORE_COL, current_schema)?;
                 output_expr.push((score_expr, SCORE_COL.to_string()));
             }
         }
 
+        // Batch nearest queries expose the synthetic `query_index` discriminator as
+        // the first output column for compatibility with LanceDB batch vector search.
+        if self.is_batch_nearest {
+            let query_index_expr = if let Some(pos) = output_expr
+                .iter()
+                .position(|(_, name)| name == QUERY_INDEX_COL)
+            {
+                output_expr.remove(pos)
+            } else {
+                (
+                    expressions::col(QUERY_INDEX_COL, current_schema)?,
+                    QUERY_INDEX_COL.to_string(),
+                )
+            };
+            output_expr.insert(0, query_index_expr);
+        }
+
         if self.legacy_with_row_id {
             let row_id_pos = output_expr
                 .iter()
                 .position(|(_, name)| name == ROW_ID)
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                    message:
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(
                         "user specified with_row_id but the _rowid column was not in the output"
                             .to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
+                    )
                 })?;
             if row_id_pos != output_expr.len() - 1 {
                 // Row id is not last column.  Need to rotate it to the last spot.
@@ -1629,10 +2872,7 @@ impl Scanner {
 
         if self.legacy_with_row_addr {
             let row_addr_pos = output_expr.iter().position(|(_, name)| name == ROW_ADDR).ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::Internal {
-                    message: "user specified with_row_address but the _rowaddr column was not in the output".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }
+                Error::internal("user specified with_row_address but the _rowaddr column was not in the output".to_string())
             })?;
             if row_addr_pos != output_expr.len() - 1 {
                 // Row addr is not last column.  Need to rotate it to the last spot.
@@ -1677,64 +2917,19 @@ impl Scanner {
         execute_plan(plan, options)
     }
 
-    pub async fn try_into_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let stream = self.try_into_stream().await?;
-        let schema = stream.schema();
-        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
-        Ok(concat_batches(&schema, &batches)?)
+    pub(crate) fn execution_options(&self) -> LanceExecutionOptions {
+        LanceExecutionOptions {
+            batch_size: self.batch_size,
+            execution_stats_callback: self.scan_stats_callback.clone(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
     }
 
-    pub fn create_count_plan(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> {
-        // Future intentionally boxed here to avoid large futures on the stack
-        async move {
-            if self.projection_plan.physical_projection.is_empty() {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input("count_rows called but with_row_id is false".to_string(), location!()));
-            }
-            if !self.projection_plan.physical_projection.is_metadata_only() {
-                let physical_schema = self.projection_plan.physical_projection.to_schema();
-                let columns: Vec<&str> = physical_schema.fields
-                .iter()
-                .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
-                .collect();
-
-                let msg = format!(
-                    "count_rows should not be called on a plan selecting columns. selected columns: [{}]",
-                    columns.join(", ")
-                );
-
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(msg, location!()));
-            }
-
-            if self.limit.is_some() || self.offset.is_some() {
-                log::warn!(
-                    "count_rows called with limit or offset which could have surprising results"
-                );
-            }
-
-            let plan = self.create_plan().await?;
-            // Datafusion interprets COUNT(*) as COUNT(1)
-            let one = Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::UInt8(Some(1))));
-
-            let input_phy_exprs: &[Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>] = &[one];
-            let schema = plan.schema();
-
-            let mut builder = AggregateExprBuilder::new(count_udaf(), input_phy_exprs.to_vec());
-            builder = builder.schema(schema);
-            builder = builder.alias("count_rows".to_string());
-
-            let count_expr = builder.build()?;
-
-            let plan_schema = plan.schema();
-            Ok(Arc::new(AggregateExec::try_new(
-                AggregateMode::Single,
-                PhysicalGroupBy::new_single(Vec::new()),
-                vec![Arc::new(count_expr)],
-                vec![None],
-                plan,
-                plan_schema,
-            )?) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>)
-        }
-        .boxed()
+    pub async fn try_into_batch(&self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let stream = self.try_into_stream().await?;
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
+        Ok(concat_batches(&schema, &batches)?)
     }
 
     /// Scan and return the number of matching rows
@@ -1745,8 +2940,11 @@ impl Scanner {
     pub fn count_rows(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<u64>> {
         // Future intentionally boxed here to avoid large futures on the stack
         async move {
-            let count_plan = self.create_count_plan().await?;
-            let mut stream = execute_plan(count_plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default())?;
+            let mut scanner = self.clone();
+            scanner.aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())?;
+
+            let plan = scanner.create_plan().await?;
+            let mut stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default())?;
 
             // A count plan will always return a single batch with a single row.
             if let Some(first_batch) = stream.next().await {
@@ -1756,8 +2954,7 @@ impl Scanner {
                     .as_any()
                     .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
                     .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "Count plan did not return a UInt64Array".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
+                        "Count plan did not return an Int64Array".to_string(),
                     ))?;
                 Ok(array.value(0) as u64)
             } else {
@@ -1767,6 +2964,180 @@ impl Scanner {
         .boxed()
     }
 
+    /// Create an execution plan with aggregation.
+    ///
+    /// Requires `aggregate()` to be called first.
+    #[deprecated(note = "Use create_plan() instead, which now applies aggregate automatically")]
+    pub fn create_aggregate_plan(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> {
+        async move {
+            if self.aggregate.is_none() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "create_aggregate_plan called but no aggregate was set",
+                ));
+            }
+            // create_plan() now applies aggregate automatically when set
+            self.create_plan().await
+        }
+        .boxed()
+    }
+
+    async fn apply_aggregate(
+        &self,
+        plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        agg: &Aggregate,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        use datafusion_physical_expr::aggregate::AggregateFunctionExpr;
+
+        let schema = plan.schema();
+        let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema.as_ref().clone())?;
+
+        let group_exprs: Vec<(Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>, String)> = agg
+            .group_by
+            .iter()
+            .map(|expr| {
+                let name = expr.schema_name().to_string();
+                let physical_expr =
+                    create_physical_expr(expr, &df_schema, &ExecutionProps::default())?;
+                Ok((physical_expr, name))
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+
+        #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
+        let aggr_results: Vec<(Arc<AggregateFunctionExpr>, Option<Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>>)> = agg
+            .aggregates
+            .iter()
+            .map(|expr| self.build_physical_aggregate_expr(expr, &df_schema, &schema))
+            .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+
+        let (aggr_exprs, filters): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = aggr_results.into_iter().unzip();
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(AggregateExec::try_new(
+            AggregateMode::Single,
+            PhysicalGroupBy::new_single(group_exprs),
+            aggr_exprs,
+            filters,
+            plan,
+            schema,
+        )?) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>)
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
+    fn build_physical_aggregate_expr(
+        &self,
+        expr: &Expr,
+        df_schema: &DFSchema,
+        input_schema: &SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Result<(
+        Arc<datafusion_physical_expr::aggregate::AggregateFunctionExpr>,
+        Option<Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>>,
+    )> {
+        let coerced_expr = self.coerce_aggregate_expr(expr, df_schema)?;
+
+        // Name and display the aggregate the way the deprecated
+        // `create_aggregate_expr_and_maybe_filter` did, so plans and their
+        // output column names stay the same.
+        let (name, human_display) = match &coerced_expr {
+            Expr::Alias(alias) => (
+                Some(alias.name.clone()),
+                coerced_expr.human_display().to_string(),
+            ),
+            Expr::AggregateFunction(_) => (
+                Some(coerced_expr.schema_name().to_string()),
+                coerced_expr.human_display().to_string(),
+            ),
+            _ => (None, String::new()),
+        };
+        let execution_props = ExecutionProps::default();
+        let mut builder = LoweredAggregateBuilder::new(
+            &coerced_expr,
+            df_schema,
+            input_schema.as_ref(),
+            &execution_props,
+        )
+        .with_human_display(human_display);
+        if let Some(name) = name {
+            builder = builder.with_name(name);
+        }
+
+        // Note: order_by is already embedded in the AggregateFunctionExpr for ordered aggregates
+        let lowered = builder.build()?;
+        Ok((lowered.aggregate, lowered.filter))
+    }
+
+    /// Apply type coercion to aggregate arguments for UserDefined signature functions.
+    ///
+    /// Most aggregate functions (SUM, COUNT, MIN, MAX) have explicit type signatures that
+    /// DataFusion handles automatically. However, some functions like AVG use UserDefined
+    /// type signatures in the Substrait consumer, which means DataFusion doesn't know the
+    /// expected input types and won't perform automatic coercion. We must explicitly coerce
+    /// arguments to the types returned by `func.coerce_types()`.
+    fn coerce_aggregate_expr(&self, expr: &Expr, schema: &DFSchema) -> Result<Expr> {
+        Self::coerce_aggregate_expr_impl(expr, schema)
+    }
+
+    fn coerce_aggregate_expr_impl(expr: &Expr, schema: &DFSchema) -> Result<Expr> {
+        use datafusion::logical_expr::Expr;
+        use datafusion::logical_expr::expr::AggregateFunction;
+        use datafusion::logical_expr::type_coercion::functions::fields_with_udf;
+
+        match expr {
+            Expr::AggregateFunction(agg_func) => {
+                let func = &agg_func.func;
+                let args = &agg_func.params.args;
+
+                if args.is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(expr.clone());
+                }
+
+                let current_fields: Vec<arrow_schema::FieldRef> = args
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(|(i, e)| {
+                        let dt = e.get_type(schema)?;
+                        Ok(Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                            format!("arg_{i}"),
+                            dt,
+                            true,
+                        )))
+                    })
+                    .collect::<std::result::Result<_, datafusion::common::DataFusionError>>()?;
+
+                let coerced_fields = fields_with_udf(&current_fields, func.as_ref())?;
+                let coerced_args: Vec<Expr> = args
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(coerced_fields.iter())
+                    .map(|(arg, target_field)| {
+                        let arg_type = arg.get_type(schema)?;
+                        let target_type = target_field.data_type();
+                        if arg_type == *target_type {
+                            Ok(arg.clone())
+                        } else {
+                            arg.clone().cast_to(target_type, schema)
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect::<std::result::Result<_, _>>()?;
+
+                Ok(Expr::AggregateFunction(AggregateFunction::new_udf(
+                    func.clone(),
+                    coerced_args,
+                    agg_func.params.distinct,
+                    agg_func.params.filter.clone(),
+                    agg_func.params.order_by.clone(),
+                    agg_func.params.null_treatment,
+                )))
+            }
+            Expr::Alias(alias) => {
+                // Recursively coerce the inner expression and preserve the alias
+                let coerced_inner = Self::coerce_aggregate_expr_impl(&alias.expr, schema)?;
+                Ok(coerced_inner.alias(&alias.name))
+            }
+            other => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Expected aggregate function expression, got {:?}",
+                other.variant_name()
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+
     // A "narrow" field is a field that is so small that we are better off reading the
     // entire column and filtering in memory rather than "take"ing the column.
     //
@@ -1793,16 +3164,17 @@ impl Scanner {
             MaterializationStyle::AllLate => false,
             MaterializationStyle::AllEarlyExcept(ref cols) => !cols.contains(&(field.id as u32)),
             MaterializationStyle::Heuristic => {
-                if field.is_blob() {
-                    // By default, blobs are loaded as descriptions, and so should be early
-                    //
-                    // TODO: Once we make blob handling configurable, we should use the blob
-                    // handling setting here.
+                if field.is_blob() && self.blob_handling.returns_description(field) {
+                    // A blob returned as a description (offset + size) is tiny, so it is
+                    // cheaper to read eagerly. When blob_handling materializes the full
+                    // binary value instead (e.g. `all_binary`), fall through to the
+                    // width-based heuristic so a selective filter can late-materialize it
+                    // rather than reading the whole column.
                     return true;
                 }
 
                 let byte_width = field.data_type().byte_width_opt();
-                let is_cloud = self.dataset.object_store().is_cloud();
+                let is_cloud = self.dataset.object_store.as_ref().is_cloud();
                 if is_cloud {
                     byte_width.is_some_and(|bw| bw < 1000)
                 } else {
@@ -1835,34 +3207,116 @@ impl Scanner {
             .union_columns(filter_columns, OnMissing::Error)?
             .into_schema();
 
+        let mut late_ids = HashSet::new();
+        for field in self.dataset.schema().fields.iter() {
+            self.collect_late_field_ids(field, false, &mut late_ids);
+        }
+
         // Start with the desired fields
         Ok(desired_projection
             .clone()
             // Subtract columns that are expensive
-            .subtract_predicate(|f| !self.is_early_field(f))
+            .subtract_predicate(|f| late_ids.contains(&f.id))
             // Add back columns that we need for filtering
             .union_schema(&filter_schema))
     }
 
+    // Collects the ids of the fields that should be materialized late (see calc_eager_projection).
+    //
+    // `forced` is true when a non-struct ancestor is late, in which case this field and all of
+    // its descendants are late regardless of their own width.
+    fn collect_late_field_ids(&self, field: &Field, forced: bool, late_ids: &mut HashSet<i32>) {
+        let is_late = forced || !self.is_early_field(field);
+        if is_late {
+            late_ids.insert(field.id);
+        }
+        let force_children = forced || (is_late && !field.logical_type.is_struct());
+        for child in field.children.iter() {
+            self.collect_late_field_ids(child, force_children, late_ids);
+        }
+    }
+
     fn validate_options(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.batch_readahead == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "batch_readahead must be greater than 0, got 0".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        if self.materialization_readahead_bytes == Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "materialization_readahead_bytes must be greater than 0, got 0".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        if let Some(batch_size) = self.batch_size {
+            validate_batch_size(batch_size)?;
+        }
+
+        if self.strict_batch_size
+            && let Some(batch_size_bytes) = self
+                .resolved_file_reader_options()
+                .and_then(|options| options.batch_size_bytes)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "strict_batch_size=true cannot be combined with batch_size_bytes={batch_size_bytes}; strict row batching can merge batches beyond the byte limit"
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
         if self.include_deleted_rows && !self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_id {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "include_deleted_rows is set but with_row_id is false".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "include_deleted_rows is set but with_row_id is false".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        if self.aggregate.is_some() {
+            if self.limit.is_some() || self.offset.is_some() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Cannot use limit/offset with aggregate. Apply limit to the result instead."
+                        .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if self.ordering.is_some() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Cannot use order_by with aggregate. Apply ordering to the result instead."
+                        .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        if self.index_segments.is_some() && self.nearest.is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "with_index_segments is only supported for vector search".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    async fn create_filter_plan(&self, use_scalar_index: bool) -> Result<FilterPlan> {
-        let filter_schema = self.filterable_schema()?;
+    async fn create_filter_plan(
+        &self,
+        use_scalar_index: bool,
+        query_filter: Option<QueryFilter>,
+        fts_document_granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+    ) -> Result<FilterPlan> {
+        let filter_schema =
+            self.filterable_schema_with_fts_granularity(fts_document_granularity)?;
         let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(filter_schema.as_ref().into()));
 
         // Check expr filter
         let filter_plan = if let Some(filter) = self.filter.expr_filter.as_ref() {
             let expr = filter.to_datafusion(self.dataset.schema(), filter_schema.as_ref())?;
-            let index_info = self.dataset.scalar_index_info().await?;
+            let index_info = match self.scalar_index_selection.as_ref() {
+                Some(selection) => {
+                    self.dataset
+                        .scalar_index_info_for_segments(selection.segments.as_ref())
+                        .await?
+                }
+                None => self.dataset.scalar_index_info().await?,
+            };
             let filter_plan =
                 planner.create_filter_plan(expr.clone(), &index_info, use_scalar_index)?;
 
@@ -1886,45 +3340,111 @@ impl Scanner {
                     // fallback to a non-indexed filter
                     let filter_plan =
                         planner.create_filter_plan(expr.clone(), &index_info, false)?;
-                    FilterPlan::new(self.filter.query_filter.clone(), filter_plan)
+                    FilterPlan::new(query_filter.clone(), filter_plan)
                 } else {
-                    FilterPlan::new(self.filter.query_filter.clone(), filter_plan)
+                    FilterPlan::new(query_filter.clone(), filter_plan)
                 }
             } else {
-                FilterPlan::new(self.filter.query_filter.clone(), filter_plan)
+                FilterPlan::new(query_filter.clone(), filter_plan)
             }
         } else {
-            FilterPlan::new(self.filter.query_filter.clone(), ExprFilterPlan::default())
+            FilterPlan::new(query_filter, ExprFilterPlan::default())
         };
 
+        if let Some(selection) = self.scalar_index_selection.as_ref()
+            && filter_plan.expr_filter_plan.index_query.is_none()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Filter cannot be planned using scalar index '{}'",
+                selection.index_name
+            )));
+        }
+
         // Check query filter
         if filter_plan.query_filter.is_some()
             && self.nearest.is_none()
             && self.full_text_query.is_none()
         {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Query filter can only be used with full text search or vector search"
-                    .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Query filter can only be used with full text search or vector search".into(),
+            ));
         }
         if self.nearest.is_some() && filter_plan.vector_filter().is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Query filter can't be used with vector search".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Query filter can't be used with vector search".into(),
+            ));
         }
         if self.full_text_query.is_some() && filter_plan.fts_filter().is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Fts filter can't be used with fts search".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Fts filter can't be used with fts search".into(),
+            ));
         }
 
         Ok(filter_plan)
     }
 
-    async fn get_scan_range(&self, filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan) -> Result<Option<Range<u64>>> {
+    fn requested_scan_range(&self, total_rows: u64) -> Option<Range<u64>> {
+        let offset = u64::try_from(self.offset.unwrap_or(0)).ok()?;
+        let start = offset.min(total_rows);
+        let end = match self.limit {
+            Some(limit) => offset
+                .checked_add(u64::try_from(limit).ok()?)?
+                .min(total_rows),
+            None => total_rows,
+        };
+        Some(start..end)
+    }
+
+    fn plan_metadata_scan_range(&self) -> Option<ScanRangePlan> {
+        self.dataset.manifest().writer_version.as_ref()?;
+
+        let fragments = self
+            .fragments
+            .as_deref()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments());
+        let mut visible_prefix = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len() + 1);
+        visible_prefix.push(0_u64);
+
+        for fragment in fragments {
+            // Metadata-only pruning is an optimization. Any missing or inconsistent count must
+            // preserve the unpruned path instead of guessing where a visible ordinal lands.
+            let physical_rows = u64::try_from(fragment.physical_rows?).ok()?;
+            let deleted_rows = match fragment.deletion_file.as_ref() {
+                Some(deletion_file) => u64::try_from(deletion_file.num_deleted_rows?).ok()?,
+                None => 0,
+            };
+            let visible_rows = physical_rows.checked_sub(deleted_rows)?;
+            visible_prefix.push(visible_prefix.last()?.checked_add(visible_rows)?);
+        }
+
+        let requested_range = self.requested_scan_range(*visible_prefix.last()?)?;
+        let start = requested_range.start;
+        let end = requested_range.end;
+
+        if start == end {
+            return Some(ScanRangePlan {
+                fragments: Some(Arc::new(Vec::new())),
+                range: 0..0,
+            });
+        }
+
+        let first_fragment = visible_prefix
+            .windows(2)
+            .position(|window| window[1] > start)?;
+        let final_visible_ordinal = end.checked_sub(1)?;
+        let last_fragment = visible_prefix
+            .windows(2)
+            .position(|window| window[1] > final_visible_ordinal)?;
+        let visible_before_first = visible_prefix[first_fragment];
+        let selected_fragments = fragments[first_fragment..=last_fragment].to_vec();
+        Some(ScanRangePlan {
+            fragments: Some(Arc::new(selected_fragments)),
+            range: start.checked_sub(visible_before_first)?
+                ..end.checked_sub(visible_before_first)?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn plan_scan_range(&self, filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan) -> Result<Option<ScanRangePlan>> {
         if filter_plan.has_any_filter() {
             // If there is a filter we can't pushdown limit / offset
             Ok(None)
@@ -1932,24 +3452,47 @@ impl Scanner {
             // If there is ordering, we can't pushdown limit / offset
             // because we need to sort all data first before applying the limit
             Ok(None)
+        } else if self.include_deleted_rows || (self.limit.is_none() && self.offset.is_none()) {
+            // FilteredReadOptions does not support scan ranges when deleted rows are included.
+            Ok(None)
         } else {
-            match (self.limit, self.offset) {
-                (None, None) => Ok(None),
-                (Some(limit), None) => {
-                    let num_rows = self.dataset.count_all_rows().await? as i64;
-                    Ok(Some(0..limit.min(num_rows) as u64))
-                }
-                (None, Some(offset)) => {
-                    let num_rows = self.dataset.count_all_rows().await? as i64;
-                    Ok(Some(offset.min(num_rows) as u64..num_rows as u64))
-                }
-                (Some(limit), Some(offset)) => {
-                    let num_rows = self.dataset.count_all_rows().await? as i64;
-                    Ok(Some(
-                        offset.min(num_rows) as u64..(offset + limit).min(num_rows) as u64,
-                    ))
-                }
+            let fragments = self
+                .fragments
+                .as_deref()
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments());
+            let has_deletions = fragments
+                .iter()
+                .any(|fragment| fragment.deletion_file.is_some());
+            let is_v1 = self
+                .dataset
+                .manifest()
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format()
+                == lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V1;
+
+            // V2 range planning is independent of row-ID encoding. Manifest live-row counts
+            // remove whole fragments first; filtered read loads deletion vectors only for the
+            // retained fragments and trims the residual logical range inside them.
+            if !is_v1 && let Some(plan) = self.plan_metadata_scan_range() {
+                return Ok(Some(plan));
+            }
+
+            // Keep V1 behavior unchanged. For V2 fragments with deletions, incomplete metadata
+            // cannot safely locate the requested visible ordinals, so retain the non-pushdown
+            // fallback instead of guessing.
+            if has_deletions && (!is_v1 || self.dataset.manifest().uses_stable_row_ids()) {
+                return Ok(None);
             }
+
+            let total_rows = u64::try_from(self.dataset.count_all_rows().await?).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::internal("Dataset row count does not fit in u64".to_string())
+            })?;
+            Ok(self
+                .requested_scan_range(total_rows)
+                .map(|range| ScanRangePlan {
+                    fragments: self.fragments.clone().map(Arc::new),
+                    range,
+                }))
         }
     }
 
@@ -1998,21 +3541,60 @@ impl Scanner {
     /// 3. Sort
     /// 4. Limit / Offset
     /// 5. Take remaining columns / Projection
+    pub fn create_plan(&self) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> {
+        Box::pin(self.create_plan_impl(None))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn create_plan_with_session<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        session: &'a dyn Session,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> {
+        Box::pin(self.create_plan_impl(Some(session)))
+    }
+
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    pub async fn create_plan(&self) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    async fn create_plan_impl(
+        &self,
+        session: Option<&dyn Session>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         log::trace!("creating scanner plan");
         self.validate_options()?;
 
+        let full_text_query = match &self.full_text_query {
+            Some(query) => Some(self.resolve_full_text_search_query(query).await?),
+            None => None,
+        };
+        let query_filter = match &self.filter.query_filter {
+            Some(QueryFilter::Fts(query)) => Some(QueryFilter::Fts(
+                self.resolve_full_text_search_query(query).await?,
+            )),
+            Some(QueryFilter::Vector(query)) => Some(QueryFilter::Vector(query.clone())),
+            None => None,
+        };
+        let fts_document_granularity = full_text_query
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|query| self.fts_document_granularity(&query.query))
+            .transpose()?;
+
         // Scalar indices are only used when prefiltering
         let use_scalar_index = self.use_scalar_index && (self.prefilter || self.nearest.is_none());
-        let mut filter_plan = self.create_filter_plan(use_scalar_index).await?;
+        let mut filter_plan = self
+            .create_filter_plan(use_scalar_index, query_filter, fts_document_granularity)
+            .await?;
 
         let mut use_limit_node = true;
-        // Stage 1: source (either an (K|A)NN search, full text search or or a (full|indexed) scan)
-        let mut plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = match (&self.nearest, &self.full_text_query) {
-            (Some(_), None) => self.vector_search_source(&mut filter_plan).await?,
-            (None, Some(query)) => self.fts_search_source(&mut filter_plan, query).await?,
-            (None, None) => {
+        // Source: either a (K|A)NN search, full text search, or a (full|indexed) scan
+        let mut plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = match (
+            &self.nearest,
+            &full_text_query,
+            &self.minhash_query,
+        ) {
+            (Some(_), None, None) => self.vector_search_source(&mut filter_plan).await?,
+            (None, Some(query), None) => self.fts_search_source(&mut filter_plan, query).await?,
+            (None, None, Some(query)) => {
+                self.minhash_search_source(&mut filter_plan, query).await?
+            }
+            (None, None, None) => {
                 if self.projection_plan.has_output_cols()
                     && self.projection_plan.physical_projection.is_empty()
                 {
@@ -2027,10 +3609,7 @@ impl Scanner {
                     // SELECT 1 FROM t (not supported error)
                     // SELECT non_existent_column FROM t (column not found error)
                     let output_expr = self.calculate_final_projection(&ArrowSchema::empty())?;
-                    return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                        source: format!("Scans must request at least one column.  Received only dynamic expressions: {:?}", output_expr).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported_source(format!("Scans must request at least one column.  Received only dynamic expressions: {:?}", output_expr).into()));
                 }
 
                 let take_op = filter_plan
@@ -2047,7 +3626,7 @@ impl Scanner {
                     self.take_source(take_op).await?
                 } else {
                     let planned_read = self
-                        .filtered_read_source(&mut filter_plan.expr_filter_plan)
+                        .filtered_read_source(&mut filter_plan.expr_filter_plan, session)
                         .await?;
                     if planned_read.limit_pushed_down {
                         use_limit_node = false;
@@ -2058,16 +3637,19 @@ impl Scanner {
                     planned_read.plan
                 }
             }
+            (Some(_), Some(_), None) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Cannot have both nearest and full text search".into(),
+                ));
+            }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Cannot have both nearest and full text search".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Cannot combine a MinHash search with nearest or full text search".into(),
+                ));
             }
         };
 
-        // Stage 1.5 load columns needed for stages 2 & 3
-        // Calculate the schema needed for the filter and ordering.
+        // Load columns needed for filter and ordering
         let mut pre_filter_projection = self.dataset.empty_projection();
 
         // We may need to take filter columns if we are going to refine
@@ -2093,10 +3675,37 @@ impl Scanner {
 
         plan = self.take(plan, pre_filter_projection)?;
 
-        // Stage 2: filter
-        plan = filter_plan.refine_filter(plan, self).await?;
+        // Filter
+        plan = filter_plan.refine_filter(plan, self, session).await?;
+
+        // Aggregate (if set, applies aggregate and returns early)
+        if let Some(agg) = &self.aggregate {
+            // Take only columns needed by the aggregate, not the full projection.
+            // For COUNT(*), this is empty. For SUM(x), this is just [x].
+            let required_columns = agg.required_columns();
+            let agg_projection = if required_columns.is_empty() {
+                self.dataset.empty_projection()
+            } else {
+                self.dataset
+                    .empty_projection()
+                    .union_columns(&required_columns, OnMissing::Error)?
+            };
+            plan = self.take(plan, agg_projection)?;
+            plan = self.apply_aggregate(plan, agg).await?;
+
+            let optimizer = get_physical_optimizer();
+            let mut options = ConfigOptions::default();
+            options.execution.target_partitions = self
+                .target_parallelism
+                .unwrap_or_else(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus);
+            for rule in optimizer.rules {
+                plan = rule.optimize(plan, &options)?;
+            }
+
+            return Ok(plan);
+        }
 
-        // Stage 3: sort
+        // Sort
         if let Some(ordering) = &self.ordering {
             let ordering_columns = ordering.iter().map(|col| &col.column_name);
             let projection_with_ordering = self
@@ -2128,31 +3737,34 @@ impl Scanner {
             ));
         }
 
-        // Stage 4: limit / offset
-        if use_limit_node && (self.limit.unwrap_or(0) > 0 || self.offset.is_some()) {
+        // Limit / offset
+        if use_limit_node && (self.limit.is_some() || self.offset.is_some()) {
             plan = self.limit_node(plan);
         }
 
-        // Stage 5: take remaining columns required for projection
+        // Take remaining columns required for projection
         plan = self.take(plan, self.projection_plan.physical_projection.clone())?;
 
-        // Stage 6: Add system columns, if requested
+        // Add system columns, if requested
         if self.projection_plan.must_add_row_offset {
             plan = Arc::new(AddRowOffsetExec::try_new(plan, self.dataset.clone()).await?);
         }
 
-        // Stage 7: final projection
+        // Final projection
         let final_projection = self.calculate_final_projection(plan.schema().as_ref())?;
 
         plan = Arc::new(DFProjectionExec::try_new(final_projection, plan)?);
 
-        // Stage 8: If requested, apply a strict batch size to the final output
+        // If requested, apply a strict batch size to the final output
         if self.strict_batch_size {
             plan = Arc::new(StrictBatchSizeExec::new(plan, self.get_batch_size()));
         }
 
         let optimizer = get_physical_optimizer();
-        let options = Default::default();
+        let mut options = ConfigOptions::default();
+        options.execution.target_partitions = self
+            .target_parallelism
+            .unwrap_or_else(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus);
         for rule in optimizer.rules {
             plan = rule.optimize(plan, &options)?;
         }
@@ -2180,7 +3792,7 @@ impl Scanner {
     // Do not call this directly, use filtered_read instead
     //
     // First return value is the plan, second is whether the limit was pushed down
-    async fn legacy_filtered_read(
+    pub(super) async fn legacy_filtered_read(
         &self,
         filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
         projection: Projection,
@@ -2194,10 +3806,9 @@ impl Scanner {
 
         let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = if filter_plan.has_index_query() {
             if self.include_deleted_rows {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "Cannot include deleted rows in a scalar indexed scan".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "Cannot include deleted rows in a scalar indexed scan".into(),
+                ));
             }
             self.scalar_indexed_scan(projection, filter_plan, fragments)
                 .await
@@ -2273,19 +3884,64 @@ impl Scanner {
         })
     }
 
+    fn index_expr_result_format(&self) -> IndexExprResultWireFormat {
+        if self.relational_algebra_version > 1 {
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask
+        } else {
+            // In version 1 we used the legacy three-variant format for index expr results
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::ThreeVariant
+        }
+    }
+
+    // A plain-scan external row mask is fed as the FilteredReadExec row source so
+    // only masked rows are read, with any SQL filter applied as a refine on top.
+    // Vector and full-text searches apply the mask via their own prefilter paths
+    // (KNN external_mask / FTS build_prefilter / MinHash search node and its
+    // flat branch), so this plain-scan source is scoped to scans that are none
+    // of them. FTS and MinHash in particular have nearest.is_none(), so excluding
+    // them here keeps their prefilter's own filtered read unmasked.
+    fn use_external_mask(&self) -> bool {
+        self.nearest.is_none()
+            && self.full_text_query.is_none()
+            && self.minhash_query.is_none()
+            && self.external_row_mask.is_some()
+    }
+
+    // The filter plan actually handed to the filtered read. With an external mask
+    // active the mask is the row source, so any SQL filter is demoted to a refine
+    // on top of it; otherwise the plan is used as-is. Projection and scan-range
+    // planning must be done against this, not the raw filter_plan, so refine
+    // columns are retained and limit/offset is not pushed down before masking.
+    fn effective_filter_plan(&self, filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan) -> ExprFilterPlan {
+        if self.use_external_mask() {
+            match filter_plan.full_expr.clone() {
+                Some(expr) => ExprFilterPlan::new_refine_only(expr),
+                None => ExprFilterPlan::default(),
+            }
+        } else {
+            filter_plan.clone()
+        }
+    }
+
     // Helper function for filtered_read
     //
     // Do not call this directly, use filtered_read instead
-    async fn new_filtered_read(
+    pub(super) async fn new_filtered_read(
         &self,
         filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
         projection: Projection,
         make_deletions_null: bool,
         fragments: Option<Arc<Vec<Fragment>>>,
         scan_range: Option<Range<u64>>,
+        session: Option<&dyn Session>,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        // Kept for the overlay stale-Take path below, which re-evaluates blocked stale rows.
+        let user_projection = projection.clone();
+        let use_external_mask = self.use_external_mask();
+        let effective_filter = self.effective_filter_plan(filter_plan);
+
         let mut read_options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&self.dataset)
-            .with_filter_plan(filter_plan.clone())
+            .with_filter_plan(effective_filter)
             .with_projection(projection);
 
         if let Some(fragments) = fragments {
@@ -2297,7 +3953,16 @@ impl Scanner {
         }
 
         if let Some(batch_size) = self.batch_size {
-            read_options = read_options.with_batch_size(batch_size as u32);
+            read_options = read_options.with_batch_size(validate_batch_size(batch_size)?);
+        }
+
+        // Bound the decode fan-out by `batch_readahead`.
+        read_options = read_options.with_threading_mode(
+            FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(self.batch_readahead),
+        );
+
+        if let Some(file_reader_options) = self.resolved_file_reader_options() {
+            read_options = read_options.with_file_reader_options(file_reader_options);
         }
 
         if let Some(fragment_readahead) = self.fragment_readahead {
@@ -2312,94 +3977,221 @@ impl Scanner {
             read_options = read_options.with_io_buffer_size(io_buffer_size_bytes);
         }
 
-        let index_input = filter_plan.index_query.clone().map(|index_query| {
-            Arc::new(ScalarIndexExec::new(self.dataset.clone(), index_query))
-                as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>
-        });
+        if let Some(materialization_readahead_bytes) = self.materialization_readahead_bytes {
+            read_options =
+                read_options.with_materialization_readahead_bytes(materialization_readahead_bytes);
+        }
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+        if self.fast_search && filter_plan.has_index_query() {
+            read_options = read_options.with_only_indexed_fragments();
+        }
+
+        if let Some(session) = session {
+            read_options = read_options.with_physical_filters(session)?;
+        }
+
+        // Mask data overlay files: a row with an overlay committed after an index it relies on
+        // touched an indexed field can no longer be trusted to that index. Block just those rows
+        // from the index result (their fragments stay indexed, so non-stale rows keep the index)
+        // and re-evaluate them on a targeted take path below — O(stale_rows), not O(fragment).
+        let mut overlay_stale_rows: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap> = HashMap::new();
+        if let Some(index_query) = filter_plan.index_query.as_ref() {
+            let candidate_frags = read_options
+                .fragments
+                .clone()
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments().clone());
+            overlay_stale_rows = self
+                .overlay_stale_index_rows(index_query, &candidate_frags)
+                .await?;
+            if let Some(block) = self.stale_rows_block_mask(&overlay_stale_rows).await? {
+                read_options = read_options.with_overlay_block(block);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let result_format = self.index_expr_result_format();
+        let index_input = match self.external_row_mask.as_deref() {
+            Some(mask) if use_external_mask => Some(self.mask_as_take_input(mask.clone())?),
+            _ => {
+                if let Some(index_query) = filter_plan.index_query.clone() {
+                    let target_fragments = read_options
+                        .fragments
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments())
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+                        .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+                    let fragment_scope = ScalarIndexExec::fragments_covered_by_index_query(
+                        &index_query,
+                        self.dataset.as_ref(),
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                        & target_fragments;
+                    let mut exec =
+                        ScalarIndexExec::new(self.dataset.clone(), index_query, result_format)
+                            .with_fragment_scope(fragment_scope);
+                    if let Some(segment_uuids) = self
+                        .scalar_index_selection
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .and_then(|selection| selection.segment_uuids.clone())
+                    {
+                        exec = exec.with_segment_uuids(segment_uuids);
+                    }
+                    Some(Arc::new(exec) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            }
+        };
+
+        let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(FilteredReadExec::try_new(
             self.dataset.clone(),
             read_options,
             index_input,
+        )?);
+
+        if overlay_stale_rows.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(plan);
+        }
+
+        // Stale-Take path: take the stale rows' current (overlay-merged) values and re-apply the
+        // full filter, then union with the indexed read. These rows were blocked from the index
+        // result above, so this is the only path that can surface them.
+        let filter = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref().expect_ok()?;
+        let filter_cols = Planner::column_names_in_expr(filter);
+        let take_projection = user_projection.union_columns(filter_cols, OnMissing::Error)?;
+
+        let stale_node = self
+            .stale_rows_take(&overlay_stale_rows, take_projection)
+            .await?;
+        let planner = Planner::new(stale_node.schema());
+        let optimized_filter = planner.optimize_expr(filter.clone())?;
+        let filtered = Arc::new(match session {
+            Some(session) => {
+                LanceFilterExec::try_new_with_session(optimized_filter, stale_node, session)?
+            }
+            None => LanceFilterExec::try_new(optimized_filter, stale_node)?,
+        });
+        let stale_path: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+            Arc::new(project(filtered, plan.schema().as_ref())?);
+
+        let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(vec![plan, stale_path])?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
+            unioned,
+            datafusion::physical_plan::Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
         )?))
     }
 
     // Helper function for filtered read
     //
     // Delegates to legacy or new filtered read based on dataset storage version
-    async fn filtered_read(
-        &self,
-        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn filtered_read<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        filter_plan: &'a ExprFilterPlan,
         projection: Projection,
         make_deletions_null: bool,
         fragments: Option<Arc<Vec<Fragment>>>,
         scan_range: Option<Range<u64>>,
         is_prefilter: bool,
-    ) -> Result<PlannedFilteredScan> {
-        // Use legacy path if dataset uses legacy storage format
-        if self.dataset.is_legacy_storage() {
-            self.legacy_filtered_read(
-                filter_plan,
-                projection,
-                make_deletions_null,
-                fragments,
-                scan_range,
-                is_prefilter,
-            )
-            .await
-        } else {
-            let limit_pushed_down = scan_range.is_some();
-            let plan = self
-                .new_filtered_read(
-                    filter_plan,
-                    projection,
-                    make_deletions_null,
-                    fragments,
-                    scan_range,
-                )
-                .await?;
-            Ok(PlannedFilteredScan {
-                filter_pushed_down: true,
-                limit_pushed_down,
-                plan,
-            })
+        session: Option<&'a dyn Session>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<PlannedFilteredScan>> {
+        // The plain-scan mask path lives in new_filtered_read; legacy_filtered_read
+        // has no equivalent, so a masked plain scan there would silently drop the
+        // mask and return every row. Fail loudly instead. Vector and full-text
+        // searches apply the mask via their own prefilter paths (ANN prefilter /
+        // FTS build_prefilter) plus the RowAddrMaskFilterExec flat wrap, so they
+        // are unaffected -- use_external_mask() is false for them.
+        let is_legacy = self
+            .dataset
+            .manifest()
+            .data_storage_format
+            .lance_file_format()
+            == lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V1;
+        if is_legacy && self.use_external_mask() {
+            return std::future::ready(Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "with_row_addr_prefilter is not supported for plain scans on \
+                 legacy-storage datasets",
+            )))
+            .boxed();
         }
+        versions::filtered_read(
+            self.dataset
+                .manifest()
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format(),
+            self,
+            filter_plan,
+            projection,
+            make_deletions_null,
+            fragments,
+            scan_range,
+            is_prefilter,
+            session,
+        )
+        .boxed()
     }
 
-    fn u64s_as_take_input(&self, u64s: Vec<u64>) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let row_addrs = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(u64s);
-        let row_addr_mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(row_addrs);
-        let index_result = IndexExprResult::Exact(row_addr_mask);
-        let fragments_covered =
-            RoaringBitmap::from_iter(self.dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32));
-        let batch = index_result.serialize_to_arrow(&fragments_covered)?;
+    fn row_ids_as_take_input(&self, row_ids: RowAddrTreeMap) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        self.mask_as_take_input(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(row_ids))
+    }
+
+    // Wrap a row-address mask as a one-shot index input for FilteredReadExec, so a
+    // plain scan reads only the rows the mask selects.
+    //
+    // Every take-shaped row source funnels through here: plain takes, the
+    // _rowid/_rowaddr predicate shortcut, and the overlay stale-row replay under
+    // both scan and ANN. Intersecting the caller's mask once at this boundary is
+    // what keeps the invariant on all of them; applying it per branch is how
+    // branches get missed. Idempotent, so the branch that passes the external
+    // mask itself is unaffected.
+    fn mask_as_take_input(&self, mask: RowAddrMask) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let mask = match self.external_row_mask.as_deref() {
+            Some(external) => mask.intersect(external.clone()),
+            None => mask,
+        };
+        let index_result = IndexExprResult::exact(mask);
+        let fragments_covered = self.dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone();
+        let format = self.index_expr_result_format();
+        let batch = index_result.serialize(&fragments_covered, format)?;
+        let schema = batch.schema();
         let stream = futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
-        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone(),
-            stream,
-        ));
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
         Ok(Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream)))
     }
 
+    async fn row_addrs_as_take_input(&self, row_addrs: Vec<u64>) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let row_ids =
+            live_row_addrs_to_row_ids(&self.dataset, row_addrs.into_iter().map(Some)).await?;
+        self.row_ids_as_take_input(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(row_ids.into_iter().flatten()))
+    }
+
     async fn take_source(&self, take_op: TakeOperation) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         // We generally assume that late materialization does not make sense for take operations
         // so we can just use the physical projection
         let projection = self.projection_plan.physical_projection.clone();
 
         let input = match take_op {
-            TakeOperation::RowIds(ids) => self.u64s_as_take_input(ids),
-            TakeOperation::RowAddrs(addrs) => self.u64s_as_take_input(addrs),
+            TakeOperation::RowIds(ids) => {
+                self.row_ids_as_take_input(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(ids))
+            }
+            TakeOperation::RowAddrs(addrs) => self.row_addrs_as_take_input(addrs).await,
             TakeOperation::RowOffsets(offsets) => {
                 let mut addrs =
-                    row_offsets_to_row_addresses(self.dataset.as_ref(), &offsets).await?;
+                    row_offsets_to_row_addresses(&self.dataset.get_fragments(), &offsets).await?;
                 addrs.retain(|addr| *addr != RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW);
-                self.u64s_as_take_input(addrs)
+                self.row_addrs_as_take_input(addrs).await
             }
         }?;
 
+        let mut filtered_read_options = FilteredReadOptions::new(projection);
+        if let Some(fragment) = self.fragments.as_ref() {
+            filtered_read_options =
+                filtered_read_options.with_fragments(Arc::new(fragment.clone()));
+        }
+
         Ok(Arc::new(FilteredReadExec::try_new(
             self.dataset.clone(),
-            FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+            filtered_read_options,
             Some(input),
         )?))
     }
@@ -2407,18 +4199,42 @@ impl Scanner {
     async fn filtered_read_source(
         &self,
         filter_plan: &mut ExprFilterPlan,
+        session: Option<&dyn Session>,
     ) -> Result<PlannedFilteredScan> {
         log::trace!("source is a filtered read");
-        let mut projection = if filter_plan.has_refine() {
+
+        // Compute the effective projection based on what's actually needed.
+        // If we have an aggregate, we only need the columns referenced by the aggregate,
+        // not all the columns from the projection plan.
+        let effective_projection = if let Some(agg) = &self.aggregate {
+            let required_columns = agg.required_columns();
+            if required_columns.is_empty() {
+                // COUNT(*) or similar - no columns needed
+                self.dataset.empty_projection()
+            } else {
+                // Aggregate needs specific columns
+                self.dataset
+                    .empty_projection()
+                    .union_columns(&required_columns, OnMissing::Error)?
+            }
+        } else {
+            self.projection_plan.physical_projection.clone()
+        };
+
+        // Plan against the effective filter: with an external mask the SQL filter
+        // becomes a refine, so its columns must be retained even when the original
+        // plan resolved to an exact scalar-index query (has_refine() == false).
+        let effective_filter = self.effective_filter_plan(filter_plan);
+        let mut projection = if effective_filter.has_refine() {
             // If the filter plan has two steps (a scalar indexed portion and a refine portion) then
             // it makes sense to grab cheap columns during the first step to avoid taking them for
             // the second step.
-            self.calc_eager_projection(filter_plan, &self.projection_plan.physical_projection)?
+            self.calc_eager_projection(&effective_filter, &effective_projection)?
                 .with_row_id()
         } else {
             // If the filter plan only has one step then we just do a filtered read of all the
             // columns that the user asked for.
-            self.projection_plan.physical_projection.clone()
+            effective_projection
         };
 
         if projection.is_empty() {
@@ -2427,20 +4243,29 @@ impl Scanner {
             projection.with_row_addr = true;
         }
 
-        let scan_range = if filter_plan.is_empty() {
+        // An external mask is applied as the row source inside new_filtered_read, so
+        // limit/offset must not be pushed down as a pre-mask range (that would limit
+        // rows before masking). Leaving scan_range None keeps limit_pushed_down false
+        // so the limit is applied by a node above the masked source instead.
+        let scan_range_plan = if filter_plan.is_empty() && !self.use_external_mask() {
             log::trace!("pushing scan_range into filtered_read");
-            self.get_scan_range(filter_plan).await?
+            self.plan_scan_range(filter_plan).await?
         } else {
             None
         };
+        let (fragments, scan_range) = match scan_range_plan {
+            Some(plan) => (plan.fragments, Some(plan.range)),
+            None => (self.fragments.clone().map(Arc::new), None),
+        };
 
         self.filtered_read(
             filter_plan,
             projection,
             self.include_deleted_rows,
-            self.fragments.clone().map(Arc::new),
+            fragments,
             scan_range,
             /*is_prefilter= */ false,
+            session,
         )
         .await
     }
@@ -2452,20 +4277,20 @@ impl Scanner {
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         log::trace!("source is an fts search");
         if self.include_deleted_rows {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Cannot include deleted rows in an FTS search".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Cannot include deleted rows in an FTS search".into(),
+            ));
         }
 
         // The source is an FTS search
         if self.prefilter {
             let source: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = match &filter_plan.vector_filter() {
                 Some(vector_query) => {
+                    // Perform vector search first then rerank according to BM25 scores
                     let vector_plan = self
                         .vector_search(&filter_plan.expr_filter_plan, vector_query)
                         .await?;
-                    self.flat_fts(vector_plan, query).await?
+                    self.fts_rerank(vector_plan, query).await?
                 }
                 None => self.fts(&filter_plan.expr_filter_plan, query).await?,
             };
@@ -2480,21 +4305,301 @@ impl Scanner {
         }
     }
 
-    async fn vector_search_source(
+    /// The source plan of a scan whose `nearest` is a MinHash search.
+    ///
+    /// With prefiltering the search node applies the whole filter before
+    /// ranking, so `filter_plan` is left with nothing to refine; otherwise the
+    /// search ranks unfiltered rows and the filter is kept as a refine step
+    /// over the ranked output. Deleted rows cannot be included: a deleted row
+    /// has no current text to rank.
+    async fn minhash_search_source(
         &self,
         filter_plan: &mut FilterPlan,
+        query: &MinHashQuery,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        log::trace!("source is a minhash search");
         if self.include_deleted_rows {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "Cannot include deleted rows in a nearest neighbor search".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Cannot include deleted rows in a MinHash search".into(),
+            ));
         }
-        let Some(query) = self.nearest.as_ref() else {
+
+        if self.prefilter {
+            let source = self.minhash(&filter_plan.expr_filter_plan, query).await?;
+            // The search node applies the filter before ranking; nothing is left to refine
+            filter_plan.disable_refine();
+            Ok(source)
+        } else {
+            // Postfiltering runs the filter in memory on the ranked rows
+            filter_plan.make_refine_only();
+            self.minhash(&ExprFilterPlan::default(), query).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create an execution plan for a MinHash similarity search over every
+    /// segment of the column's MinHash LSH index.
+    async fn minhash(
+        &self,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        query: &MinHashQuery,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let Some(limit) = self.limit else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "No nearest query".to_string(),
-                location!(),
+                "MinHash search requires a limit (the number of most similar rows to return)"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        };
+        // Offset rows are skipped by the limit node, so the search must produce them too
+        let search_limit = limit
+            .checked_add(self.offset.unwrap_or(0))
+            .and_then(|search_limit| usize::try_from(search_limit).ok())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "MinHash search limit {limit} plus offset {:?} is out of range",
+                    self.offset
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+        let index = self
+            .dataset
+            .load_scalar_index(
+                IndexCriteria::default()
+                    .for_column(&query.column)
+                    .supports_minhash(),
+            )
+            .await?
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "No MinHash LSH index found for column {}; create a \"minhashlsh\" scalar index on the column before running a MinHash search",
+                    query.column
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let segments = self.dataset.load_indices_by_name(&index.name).await?;
+        let details = segments
+            .first()
+            .and_then(|segment| segment.index_details.as_deref())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "MinHash LSH index {} on column {} has no segment with index details",
+                    index.name, query.column
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let params = MinHashLshIndexParams::from_details_any(details)?;
+
+        let target_fragments: &[Fragment] = self
+            .fragments
+            .as_deref()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments());
+        if target_fragments.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(knn_empty_result_schema(false))));
+        }
+        let unindexed_fragments =
+            self.retain_target_fragments(self.dataset.unindexed_fragments(&index.name).await?);
+        let all_unindexed = unindexed_fragments.len() == target_fragments.len();
+
+        // Rows whose value was replaced by a data overlay newer than the index
+        // have stale signatures: the index branch blocks them and the flat
+        // branch re-scores them from their current value.
+        let mut stale_rows: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap> = HashMap::new();
+        if target_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .any(|fragment| !fragment.overlays.is_empty())
+        {
+            let overlaid_frags = overlaid_fragments(target_fragments);
+            for segment in &segments {
+                collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment(
+                    segment,
+                    &overlaid_frags,
+                    &mut stale_rows,
+                    self.dataset.schema(),
+                )?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let indexed_plan = if all_unindexed {
+            None
+        } else {
+            let overlay_block = self.stale_rows_block_mask(&stale_rows).await?;
+            let prefilter_source = self
+                .prefilter_source(filter_plan, self.get_indexed_frags(&segments))
+                .await?;
+            Some(Arc::new(MinHashSearchExec::new(
+                self.dataset.clone(),
+                query.clone(),
+                search_limit,
+                segments,
+                prefilter_source,
+                overlay_block,
+                self.external_row_mask.clone(),
+            )) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>)
+        };
+        // fast_search trades the unindexed rows for the index-only cost
+        let flat_plan =
+            if !self.fast_search && (!unindexed_fragments.is_empty() || !stale_rows.is_empty()) {
+                Some(
+                    self.plan_flat_minhash(
+                        unindexed_fragments,
+                        stale_rows,
+                        query,
+                        &params,
+                        search_limit,
+                        filter_plan,
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+                )
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+        let plan = match (indexed_plan, flat_plan) {
+            (Some(indexed_plan), Some(flat_plan)) => {
+                UnionExec::try_new(vec![indexed_plan, flat_plan])?
+            }
+            // Each branch already emits its top-k in distance order
+            (Some(indexed_plan), None) => return Ok(indexed_plan),
+            (None, Some(flat_plan)) => return Ok(flat_plan),
+            (None, None) => {
+                return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(knn_empty_result_schema(false))));
+            }
+        };
+        let plan = Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
+            plan,
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+        )?);
+        let schema = plan.schema();
+        let sort_exprs = [
+            PhysicalSortExpr {
+                expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, schema.as_ref())?,
+                options: SortOptions {
+                    descending: false,
+                    nulls_first: false,
+                },
+            },
+            PhysicalSortExpr {
+                expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, schema.as_ref())?,
+                options: SortOptions {
+                    descending: false,
+                    nulls_first: false,
+                },
+            },
+        ];
+        Ok(Arc::new(
+            SortExec::new(sort_exprs.into(), plan).with_fetch(Some(search_limit)),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// One plan over the rows an index does not cover: whole unindexed
+    /// fragments (filtered while reading) and stale rows of a data overlay
+    /// (taken by address, then filtered), projected to `_rowid` plus
+    /// `columns` and the filter's columns.
+    async fn plan_uncovered_rows_scan(
+        &self,
+        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        stale_rows: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+        mut columns: Vec<String>,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let filter_expr = if stale_rows.is_empty() {
+            filter_plan.refine_expr.as_ref()
+        } else {
+            filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref()
+        };
+        if let Some(filter_expr) = filter_expr {
+            columns.extend(Planner::column_names_in_expr(filter_expr));
+        }
+        let scan_projection = self
+            .dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .union_columns(&columns, OnMissing::Error)?;
+
+        let mut inputs = Vec::with_capacity(2);
+        if !fragments.is_empty() {
+            // A prefilter read applies the whole filter plan, refine included
+            let PlannedFilteredScan { plan, .. } = self
+                .filtered_read(
+                    filter_plan,
+                    scan_projection.clone(),
+                    /*make_deletions_null=*/ false,
+                    Some(Arc::new(fragments)),
+                    None,
+                    /*is_prefilter=*/ true,
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            inputs.push(plan);
+        }
+        if !stale_rows.is_empty() {
+            // A take by address applies no filter, so the whole plan runs here
+            let mut plan = self.stale_rows_take(&stale_rows, scan_projection).await?;
+            if let Some(filter) = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref() {
+                let planner = Planner::new(plan.schema());
+                let filter = planner.optimize_expr(filter.clone())?;
+                plan = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(filter, plan)?);
+            }
+            inputs.push(plan);
+        }
+        match inputs.len() {
+            0 => Err(Error::internal(
+                "an uncovered-rows scan requires unindexed fragments or stale rows",
+            )),
+            1 => inputs
+                .pop()
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("uncovered-rows scan input vanished")),
+            _ => Ok(UnionExec::try_new(inputs)?),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The flat branch of a MinHash search: rows the index does not cover
+    /// (`fragments` indexed by no segment, and `stale_rows` whose text a data
+    /// overlay replaced after the index was built) are read with the filter
+    /// and the external row mask applied, signed with the index `params` on
+    /// the fly, kept when they share a band with the query, and ranked to
+    /// `limit` hits. The caller merges them with the index hits;
+    /// `fast_search` skips this branch.
+    async fn plan_flat_minhash(
+        &self,
+        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        stale_rows: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+        query: &MinHashQuery,
+        params: &MinHashLshIndexParams,
+        limit: usize,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let plan = self
+            .plan_uncovered_rows_scan(
+                fragments,
+                stale_rows,
+                vec![query.column.clone()],
+                filter_plan,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let mut plan = self.ensure_column_alias(plan, &query.column)?;
+        // Unindexed rows never reach the index-side prefilter, so the external
+        // mask is applied here, before the flat search keeps its top `limit`
+        // rows: a masked row must not take one of those slots.
+        if let Some(mask) = self.external_row_mask.clone() {
+            plan = Arc::new(RowAddrMaskFilterExec::new(plan, mask));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(FlatMinHashExec::new(
+            plan,
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            limit,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    async fn vector_search_source(
+        &self,
+        filter_plan: &mut FilterPlan,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if self.include_deleted_rows {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "Cannot include deleted rows in a nearest neighbor search".into(),
             ));
+        }
+        let Some(query) = self.nearest.as_ref() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("No nearest query".to_string()));
         };
 
         if self.prefilter {
@@ -2502,7 +4607,10 @@ impl Scanner {
             // If we are prefiltering then the ann / knn node will take care of the filter
             let source: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = match &filter_plan.fts_filter() {
                 Some(fts_query) => {
-                    let fts_plan = self.fts(&filter_plan.expr_filter_plan, fts_query).await?;
+                    let mut fts_plan = self.fts(&filter_plan.expr_filter_plan, fts_query).await?;
+                    if fts_plan.schema().field_with_name(DOC_INDEX_COL).is_ok() {
+                        fts_plan = self.deduplicate_fts_filter_rows(fts_plan)?;
+                    }
                     let projection = self
                         .dataset
                         .empty_projection()
@@ -2528,25 +4636,45 @@ impl Scanner {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Convert element-document hits into the row-selection semantics required
+    /// when FTS is used as a filter for another query.
+    fn deduplicate_fts_filter_rows(
+        &self,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let schema = input.schema();
+        let group_expr = vec![(
+            expressions::col(ROW_ID, schema.as_ref())?,
+            ROW_ID.to_string(),
+        )];
+        let input = Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
+            input,
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+        )?);
+        Ok(Arc::new(AggregateExec::try_new(
+            AggregateMode::Single,
+            PhysicalGroupBy::new_single(group_expr),
+            Vec::new(),
+            Vec::new(),
+            input,
+            schema,
+        )?))
+    }
+
     async fn fragments_covered_by_fts_leaf(
         &self,
         column: &str,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
         accum: &mut RoaringBitmap,
     ) -> Result<bool> {
-        let index = self
-            .dataset
-            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column(column).supports_fts())
-            .await?;
-        match index {
-            Some(index) => match &index.fragment_bitmap {
-                Some(fragmap) => {
-                    *accum |= fragmap;
-                    Ok(true)
-                }
-                None => Ok(false),
-            },
-            None => Ok(false),
-        }
+        let Some(fragment_bitmap) =
+            fts_index_fragment_bitmap(&self.dataset, column, document_granularity).await?
+        else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        *accum |= fragment_bitmap;
+
+        Ok(true)
     }
 
     #[async_recursion]
@@ -2557,11 +4685,14 @@ impl Scanner {
     ) -> Result<bool> {
         match query {
             FtsQuery::Match(match_query) => {
+                let document_granularity = match_query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("FTS Match query granularity was not resolved".to_string())
+                })?;
                 self.fragments_covered_by_fts_leaf(
                     match_query.column.as_ref().ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
                         "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
                     ))?,
+                    document_granularity,
                     accum,
                 )
                 .await
@@ -2574,12 +4705,17 @@ impl Scanner {
                     .await?),
             FtsQuery::MultiMatch(multi_match) => {
                 for mq in &multi_match.match_queries {
+                    let document_granularity = mq.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(
+                            "FTS MultiMatch query granularity was not resolved".to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
                     if !self
                         .fragments_covered_by_fts_leaf(
                             mq.column.as_ref().ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
                                 "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
-                                location!(),
                             ))?,
+                            document_granularity,
                             accum,
                         )
                         .await?
@@ -2590,25 +4726,38 @@ impl Scanner {
                 Ok(true)
             }
             FtsQuery::Phrase(phrase_query) => {
+                let document_granularity = phrase_query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("FTS Phrase query granularity was not resolved".to_string())
+                })?;
                 self.fragments_covered_by_fts_leaf(
                     phrase_query.column.as_ref().ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
                         "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
                     ))?,
+                    document_granularity,
                     accum,
                 )
                 .await
             }
-            FtsQuery::Boolean(bool_query) => {
-                for query in bool_query.must.iter() {
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(combined) => {
+                // A doc's fragment must be covered by every target column's index
+                // for the prefilter to be exact, mirroring MultiMatch.
+                for column in combined.column_names() {
                     if !self
-                        .fragments_covered_by_fts_query_helper(query, accum)
+                        .fragments_covered_by_fts_leaf(column, DocumentGranularity::Row, accum)
                         .await?
                     {
                         return Ok(false);
                     }
                 }
-                for query in &bool_query.should {
+                Ok(true)
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(bool_query) => {
+                for query in bool_query
+                    .must
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(&bool_query.should)
+                    .chain(&bool_query.must_not)
+                {
                     if !self
                         .fragments_covered_by_fts_query_helper(query, accum)
                         .await?
@@ -2637,3245 +4786,4985 @@ impl Scanner {
         }
     }
 
-    // Create an execution plan to do full text search
-    async fn fts(
-        &self,
-        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
-        query: &FullTextSearchQuery,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let columns = query.columns();
-        let mut params = query.params();
-        if params.limit.is_none() {
-            let search_limit = match (self.limit, self.offset) {
-                (Some(limit), Some(offset)) => Some((limit + offset) as usize),
-                (Some(limit), None) => Some(limit as usize),
-                (None, Some(_)) => None, // No limit but has offset - fetch all and let limit_node handle
-                (None, None) => None,
-            };
-            params = params.with_limit(search_limit);
+    fn fts_document_granularity(&self, query: &FtsQuery) -> Result<DocumentGranularity> {
+        #[derive(Default)]
+        struct TargetState {
+            granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+            list_element_field_id: Option<i32>,
         }
-        let query = if columns.is_empty() {
-            // the field is not specified,
-            // try to search over all indexed fields including nested ones
-            let indexed_columns = fts_indexed_columns(self.dataset.clone()).await?;
-            fill_fts_query_column(&query.query, &indexed_columns, false)?
-        } else {
-            query.query.clone()
-        };
-
-        // TODO: Could maybe walk the query here to find all the indices that will be
-        // involved in the query to calculate a more accuarate required_fragments than
-        // get_fragments_as_bitmap but this is safe for now.
-        let prefilter_source = self
-            .prefilter_source(
-                filter_plan,
-                self.fragments_covered_by_fts_query(&query).await?,
-            )
-            .await?;
-        let fts_exec = self
-            .plan_fts(&query, &params, filter_plan, &prefilter_source)
-            .await?;
-        Ok(fts_exec)
-    }
-
-    async fn plan_fts(
-        &self,
-        query: &FtsQuery,
-        params: &FtsSearchParams,
-        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
-        prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = match query {
-            FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
-                self.plan_match_query(query, params, filter_plan, prefilter_source)
-                    .await?
-            }
-            FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
-                self.plan_phrase_query(query, params, prefilter_source)
-                    .await?
-            }
 
-            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
-                // for boost query, we need to erase the limit so that we can find
-                // the documents that are not in the top-k results of the positive query,
-                // but in the final top-k results.
-                let unlimited_params = params.clone().with_limit(None);
-                let positive_exec = Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
-                    &query.positive,
-                    &unlimited_params,
-                    filter_plan,
-                    prefilter_source,
-                ));
-                let negative_exec = Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
-                    &query.negative,
-                    &unlimited_params,
-                    filter_plan,
-                    prefilter_source,
+        fn add_leaf(
+            schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+            column: Option<&str>,
+            document_granularity: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+            state: &mut TargetState,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            let document_granularity = document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("FTS query document granularity was not resolved".to_string())
+            })?;
+            if let Some(existing) = state.granularity
+                && existing != document_granularity
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "FTS queries cannot mix Row and ListElement document granularities".to_string(),
                 ));
-                let (positive_exec, negative_exec) =
-                    futures::future::try_join(positive_exec, negative_exec).await?;
-                Arc::new(BoostQueryExec::new(
-                    query.clone(),
-                    params.clone(),
-                    positive_exec,
-                    negative_exec,
-                ))
             }
+            state.granularity = Some(document_granularity);
 
-            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
-                let mut children = Vec::with_capacity(query.match_queries.len());
-                for match_query in &query.match_queries {
-                    let child =
-                        self.plan_match_query(match_query, params, filter_plan, prefilter_source);
-                    children.push(child);
+            let Some(column) = column else {
+                if document_granularity.is_list_element() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "ListElement FTS queries must explicitly specify a field path".to_string(),
+                    ));
                 }
-                let children = futures::future::try_join_all(children).await?;
-
-                let schema = children[0].schema();
-                let group_expr = vec![(
-                    expressions::col(ROW_ID, schema.as_ref())?,
-                    ROW_ID.to_string(),
-                )];
-
-                let fts_node = UnionExec::try_new(children)?;
-                let fts_node = Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
-                    fts_node,
-                    Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-                )?);
-                // dedup by row_id and return the max score as final score
-                let fts_node = Arc::new(AggregateExec::try_new(
-                    AggregateMode::Single,
-                    PhysicalGroupBy::new_single(group_expr),
-                    vec![Arc::new(
-                        AggregateExprBuilder::new(
-                            functions_aggregate::min_max::max_udaf(),
-                            vec![expressions::col(SCORE_COL, &schema)?],
-                        )
-                        .schema(schema.clone())
-                        .alias(SCORE_COL)
-                        .build()?,
-                    )],
-                    vec![None],
-                    fts_node,
-                    schema,
-                )?);
-                let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
-                    expr: expressions::col(SCORE_COL, fts_node.schema().as_ref())?,
-                    options: SortOptions {
-                        descending: true,
-                        nulls_first: false,
-                    },
-                };
-
-                Arc::new(
-                    SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), fts_node)
-                        .with_fetch(self.limit.map(|l| l as usize)),
-                )
+                return Ok(());
+            };
+            let resolved = resolve_fts_field(schema, column, document_granularity)?;
+            if document_granularity.is_list_element() {
+                if let Some(existing) = state.list_element_field_id
+                    && existing != resolved.final_field_id
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "all leaves in a ListElement FTS query must use the same final field"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                state.list_element_field_id = Some(resolved.final_field_id);
             }
-            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
-                // TODO: rewrite the query for better performance
-
-                // we need to remove the limit from the params,
-                // so that we won't miss possible matches
-                let unlimited_params = params.clone().with_limit(None);
+            Ok(())
+        }
 
-                // For should queries, union the results of each subquery
-                let mut should = Vec::with_capacity(query.should.len());
-                for subquery in &query.should {
-                    let plan = Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
-                        subquery,
-                        &unlimited_params,
-                        filter_plan,
-                        prefilter_source,
-                    ))
-                    .await?;
-                    should.push(plan);
+        fn visit(
+            schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+            query: &FtsQuery,
+            state: &mut TargetState,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            match query {
+                FtsQuery::Match(query) => add_leaf(
+                    schema,
+                    query.column.as_deref(),
+                    query.document_granularity,
+                    state,
+                ),
+                FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => add_leaf(
+                    schema,
+                    query.column.as_deref(),
+                    query.document_granularity,
+                    state,
+                ),
+                FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                    visit(schema, &query.positive, state)?;
+                    visit(schema, &query.negative, state)
                 }
-                let should = if should.is_empty() {
-                    Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()))
-                } else if should.len() == 1 {
-                    should.pop().unwrap()
-                } else {
-                    let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(should)?;
-                    Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
-                        unioned,
-                        Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-                    )?)
-                };
-
-                // For must queries, inner join the results of each subquery on row_id
-                let mut must = None;
-                for query in &query.must {
-                    let plan = Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
-                        query,
-                        &unlimited_params,
-                        filter_plan,
-                        prefilter_source,
-                    ))
-                    .await?;
-                    if let Some(joined_plan) = must {
-                        must = Some(Arc::new(HashJoinExec::try_new(
-                            joined_plan,
-                            plan,
-                            vec![(
-                                Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, &FTS_SCHEMA)?),
-                                Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, &FTS_SCHEMA)?),
-                            )],
-                            None,
-                            &datafusion_expr::JoinType::Inner,
-                            None,
-                            datafusion_physical_plan::joins::PartitionMode::CollectLeft,
-                            NullEquality::NullEqualsNothing,
-                        )?) as _);
-                    } else {
-                        must = Some(plan);
+                FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                    for child in query
+                        .must
+                        .iter()
+                        .chain(&query.should)
+                        .chain(&query.must_not)
+                    {
+                        visit(schema, child, state)?;
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+                FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                    for child in &query.match_queries {
+                        if child
+                            .document_granularity
+                            .is_some_and(|value| value.is_list_element())
+                        {
+                            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                                "MultiMatch does not support ListElement document granularity"
+                                    .to_string(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        add_leaf(
+                            schema,
+                            child.column.as_deref(),
+                            child.document_granularity,
+                            state,
+                        )?;
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+                FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query) => {
+                    // BM25F sums each target column's contribution for one row,
+                    // so combined_fields is row-granular by construction. A
+                    // target column that only has a list-element index was
+                    // already rejected by
+                    // `resolve_fts_query_document_granularity`.
+                    for column in query.column_names() {
+                        add_leaf(schema, Some(column), Some(DocumentGranularity::Row), state)?;
                     }
+                    Ok(())
                 }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut state = TargetState::default();
+        visit(self.dataset.schema(), query, &mut state)?;
+        state.granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("FTS query must contain at least one leaf query".to_string())
+        })
+    }
 
-                // For must_not queries, union the results of each subquery
+    #[async_recursion]
+    async fn resolve_fts_query_document_granularity(&self, query: FtsQuery) -> Result<FtsQuery> {
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(mut query) => {
+                let column = query.column.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input("the column must be specified in the query".to_string())
+                })?;
+                query.document_granularity = Some(
+                    resolve_query_document_granularity(
+                        self.dataset.as_ref(),
+                        column,
+                        query.document_granularity,
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+                );
+                Ok(FtsQuery::Match(query))
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(mut query) => {
+                let column = query.column.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input("the column must be specified in the query".to_string())
+                })?;
+                query.document_granularity = Some(
+                    resolve_query_document_granularity(
+                        self.dataset.as_ref(),
+                        column,
+                        query.document_granularity,
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+                );
+                Ok(FtsQuery::Phrase(query))
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boost(mut query) => {
+                query.positive = Box::new(
+                    self.resolve_fts_query_document_granularity(*query.positive)
+                        .await?,
+                );
+                query.negative = Box::new(
+                    self.resolve_fts_query_document_granularity(*query.negative)
+                        .await?,
+                );
+                Ok(FtsQuery::Boost(query))
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(mut query) => {
+                let mut must = Vec::with_capacity(query.must.len());
+                for child in query.must {
+                    must.push(self.resolve_fts_query_document_granularity(child).await?);
+                }
+                let mut should = Vec::with_capacity(query.should.len());
+                for child in query.should {
+                    should.push(self.resolve_fts_query_document_granularity(child).await?);
+                }
                 let mut must_not = Vec::with_capacity(query.must_not.len());
-                for query in &query.must_not {
-                    let plan = Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
-                        query,
-                        &unlimited_params,
-                        filter_plan,
-                        prefilter_source,
-                    ))
-                    .await?;
-                    must_not.push(plan);
+                for child in query.must_not {
+                    must_not.push(self.resolve_fts_query_document_granularity(child).await?);
                 }
-                let must_not = if must_not.is_empty() {
-                    Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()))
-                } else if must_not.len() == 1 {
-                    must_not.pop().unwrap()
-                } else {
-                    let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(must_not)?;
-                    Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
-                        unioned,
-                        Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-                    )?)
-                };
+                query.must = must;
+                query.should = should;
+                query.must_not = must_not;
+                Ok(FtsQuery::Boolean(query))
+            }
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(mut query) => {
+                for child in &mut query.match_queries {
+                    let column = child.column.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(
+                            "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    child.document_granularity = Some(
+                        resolve_query_document_granularity(
+                            self.dataset.as_ref(),
+                            column,
+                            child.document_granularity,
+                        )
+                        .await?,
+                    );
+                }
+                Ok(FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query))
+            }
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query) => {
+                // There is nothing to resolve: a combined_fields query carries no
+                // granularity because BM25F only makes sense over row documents.
+                // Reject a target column that cannot supply them.
+                for column in query.column_names() {
+                    validate_combined_fields_target_column(self.dataset.as_ref(), column).await?;
+                }
+                Ok(FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query))
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-                if query.should.is_empty() && must.is_none() {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "boolean query must have at least one should/must query".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+    fn set_missing_query_granularity(
+        query: &mut FtsQuery,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    ) {
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+                query
+                    .document_granularity
+                    .get_or_insert(document_granularity);
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
+                query
+                    .document_granularity
+                    .get_or_insert(document_granularity);
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                Self::set_missing_query_granularity(&mut query.positive, document_granularity);
+                Self::set_missing_query_granularity(&mut query.negative, document_granularity);
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                for child in query
+                    .must
+                    .iter_mut()
+                    .chain(&mut query.should)
+                    .chain(&mut query.must_not)
+                {
+                    Self::set_missing_query_granularity(child, document_granularity);
+                }
+            }
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                for child in &mut query.match_queries {
+                    child
+                        .document_granularity
+                        .get_or_insert(document_granularity);
                 }
+            }
+            // Row-granular by construction, and it carries no field to fill in.
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {}
+        }
+    }
 
-                Arc::new(BooleanQueryExec::new(
-                    query.clone(),
-                    params.clone(),
-                    should,
-                    must,
-                    must_not,
-                ))
+    fn query_requests_list_element(query: &FtsQuery) -> bool {
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(query) => query
+                .document_granularity
+                .is_some_and(DocumentGranularity::is_list_element),
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => query
+                .document_granularity
+                .is_some_and(DocumentGranularity::is_list_element),
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                Self::query_requests_list_element(&query.positive)
+                    || Self::query_requests_list_element(&query.negative)
             }
-        };
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => query
+                .must
+                .iter()
+                .chain(&query.should)
+                .chain(&query.must_not)
+                .any(Self::query_requests_list_element),
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => query.match_queries.iter().any(|query| {
+                query
+                    .document_granularity
+                    .is_some_and(DocumentGranularity::is_list_element)
+            }),
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => false,
+        }
+    }
 
-        Ok(plan)
+    async fn resolve_full_text_search_query(
+        &self,
+        query: &FullTextSearchQuery,
+    ) -> Result<FullTextSearchQuery> {
+        let mut resolved = query.clone();
+        normalize_fts_zero_boosts(&mut resolved.query);
+        if resolved.query.is_missing_column() {
+            if Self::query_requests_list_element(&resolved.query) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "ListElement FTS queries must explicitly specify a field path".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let indexed_columns = fts_indexed_columns(self.dataset.clone()).await?;
+            resolved.query = fill_fts_query_column(&resolved.query, &indexed_columns, false)?;
+            Self::set_missing_query_granularity(&mut resolved.query, DocumentGranularity::Row);
+        }
+        apply_dataset_planner_auto_fuzziness_compatibility_gate(&mut resolved.query);
+        resolved.query = self
+            .resolve_fts_query_document_granularity(resolved.query)
+            .await?;
+        self.fts_document_granularity(&resolved.query)?;
+        Ok(resolved)
     }
 
-    async fn plan_phrase_query(
+    // Create an execution plan to do full text search
+    async fn fts(
         &self,
-        query: &PhraseQuery,
-        params: &FtsSearchParams,
-        prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        query: &FullTextSearchQuery,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let column = query.column.clone().ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-            "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
-            location!(),
-        ))?;
-
-        let index_meta = self
-            .dataset
-            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column(&column).supports_fts())
-            .await?
-            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("No Inverted index found for column {}", column),
-                location!(),
-            ))?;
-
-        let details_any =
-            crate::index::scalar::fetch_index_details(&self.dataset, &column, &index_meta).await?;
-        let details = details_any
-            .as_ref()
-            .to_msg::<lance_index::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails>()?;
-        if !details.with_position {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position"
-                    .to_string(),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+        let mut params = query.params();
+        if params.limit.is_none() {
+            let search_limit = match (self.limit, self.offset) {
+                (Some(limit), Some(offset)) => Some((limit + offset) as usize),
+                (Some(limit), None) => Some(limit as usize),
+                (None, Some(_)) => None, // No limit but has offset - fetch all and let limit_node handle
+                (None, None) => None,
+            };
+            params = params.with_limit(search_limit);
         }
+        let query = &query.query;
+        validate_fts_query_contract(query)?;
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(PhraseQueryExec::new(
-            self.dataset.clone(),
-            query.clone(),
-            params.clone(),
-            prefilter_source.clone(),
-        )))
+        // TODO: Could maybe walk the query here to find all the indices that will be
+        // involved in the query to calculate a more accuarate required_fragments than
+        // get_fragments_as_bitmap but this is safe for now.
+        let prefilter_source = self
+            .prefilter_source(
+                filter_plan,
+                self.fragments_covered_by_fts_query(query).await?,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        // Data overlay masking blocks stale rows from indexed leaves and re-evaluates only those
+        // rows from their current values on the flat-text path.
+        let fts_exec = self
+            .plan_fts(query, &params, filter_plan, &prefilter_source)
+            .await?;
+        Ok(fts_exec)
     }
 
-    async fn plan_match_query(
+    async fn plan_compound_scorer(
         &self,
-        query: &MatchQuery,
+        query: &FtsQuery,
         params: &FtsSearchParams,
         filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
         prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let column = query
-            .column
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
-                location!(),
-            ))?
-            .clone();
-
-        let index = self
-            .dataset
-            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column(&column).supports_fts())
-            .await?;
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> {
+        let columns = collect_fts_columns_in_order(query);
+        if columns.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let cross_column = columns.len() > 1;
+        if cross_column && params.limit.is_none() {
+            // Candidate-driven cross-column execution requires a bounded top-k
+            // collector. The existing DataFusion plan remains the exact path
+            // for callers that request the full result set.
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
 
-        let (match_plan, flat_match_plan) = match &index {
-            Some(index) => {
-                let match_plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(MatchQueryExec::new(
-                    self.dataset.clone(),
-                    query.clone(),
-                    params.clone(),
-                    prefilter_source.clone(),
-                ));
+        let target_fragments: &[Fragment] = self
+            .fragments
+            .as_deref()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments());
+        if target_fragments.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let mut phrase_columns = HashSet::new();
+        collect_phrase_columns(query, &mut phrase_columns);
+        // Query-local residual scoring intentionally reuses committed-index
+        // BM25 statistics. Matching remains exact for the supported leaf
+        // shapes, but ranking is approximate until the appended rows are
+        // incorporated into a persistent index.
+        let allow_indexed_stats_residual = !cross_column
+            && !self.fast_search
+            && self.fragments.is_none()
+            && filter_plan.is_empty()
+            && self.external_row_mask.is_none()
+            && params.limit.is_some()
+            && document_granularity == DocumentGranularity::Row
+            && target_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .all(|fragment| fragment.deletion_file.is_none())
+            && supports_indexed_stats_residual_compound(query);
 
-                let unindexed_fragments = self.dataset.unindexed_fragments(&index.name).await?;
-                if unindexed_fragments.is_empty() {
-                    (Some(match_plan), None)
-                } else {
-                    let flat_match_plan = self
-                        .plan_flat_match_query(unindexed_fragments, query, params, filter_plan)
-                        .await?;
-                    (Some(match_plan), Some(flat_match_plan))
-                }
-            }
-            None => {
-                let unindexed_fragments = self.dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
-                let flat_match_plan = self
-                    .plan_flat_match_query(unindexed_fragments, query, params, filter_plan)
+        let segment_groups = futures::future::try_join_all(columns.into_iter().map(|column| {
+            let phrase_columns = &phrase_columns;
+            async move {
+                let index = self
+                    .dataset
+                    .load_scalar_index(
+                        IndexCriteria::default()
+                            .for_column(&column)
+                            .supports_fts()
+                            .with_fts_document_granularity(document_granularity),
+                    )
                     .await?;
-                (None, Some(flat_match_plan))
-            }
-        };
-
-        // Combine plans
-        let plan = match (match_plan, flat_match_plan) {
-            (Some(match_plan), Some(flat_match_plan)) => {
-                let match_plan = UnionExec::try_new(vec![match_plan, flat_match_plan])?;
-                let match_plan = Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
-                    match_plan,
-                    Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-                )?);
-                let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
-                    expr: expressions::col(SCORE_COL, match_plan.schema().as_ref())?,
-                    options: SortOptions {
-                        descending: true,
-                        nulls_first: false,
-                    },
+                let Some(index) = index else {
+                    return Ok(None);
                 };
-                Arc::new(SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), match_plan).with_fetch(params.limit))
-            }
-            (Some(match_plan), None) => match_plan,
-            (None, Some(flat_match_plan)) => flat_match_plan,
-            (None, None) => unreachable!(),
-        };
 
-        Ok(plan)
-    }
+                let (unindexed_fragments, overlay_plan) = futures::future::try_join(
+                    self.dataset.unindexed_fragments(&index.name),
+                    self.fts_overlay_plan(&column, document_granularity, target_fragments),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let unindexed_fragments = self.retain_target_fragments(unindexed_fragments);
+                let has_bounded_residual = allow_indexed_stats_residual
+                    && has_bounded_query_local_residual_rows(&unindexed_fragments);
+                if !unindexed_fragments.is_empty()
+                    && (!self.fast_search || unindexed_fragments.len() == target_fragments.len())
+                    && !(has_bounded_residual
+                        && unindexed_fragments.len() < target_fragments.len())
+                {
+                    // Flat and posting-backed leaves do not share a document
+                    // domain, so preserve the exact fallback for partial index
+                    // coverage. Fast search deliberately excludes unindexed
+                    // fragments, so its indexed-only domain remains valid for
+                    // the compound scorer when at least one target fragment is
+                    // indexed.
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                let segments = match overlay_plan {
+                    FtsOverlayPlan::Unchanged(Some(segments)) => segments,
+                    FtsOverlayPlan::Unchanged(None) => {
+                        load_segments(&self.dataset, &column, document_granularity)
+                            .await?
+                            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                    "No Inverted index found for column {column}"
+                                ))
+                            })?
+                    }
+                    FtsOverlayPlan::RowLevel { .. } | FtsOverlayPlan::FullScan => return Ok(None),
+                };
+                if has_bounded_residual && !unindexed_fragments.is_empty() {
+                    if !has_complete_hybrid_fts_coverage(
+                        &segments,
+                        &unindexed_fragments,
+                        target_fragments,
+                    ) {
+                        return Ok(None);
+                    }
+                    if segments.is_empty() {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(
+                            "hybrid compound FTS requires one indexed segment",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    // Preserve the established semantic mismatch error before
+                    // constructing query-local postings with the same tokenizer.
+                    load_segment_details(&self.dataset, &column, &segments).await?;
+                }
 
-    /// Plan match query on unindexed fragments
-    async fn plan_flat_match_query(
-        &self,
-        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-        query: &MatchQuery,
-        params: &FtsSearchParams,
-        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let column = query
-            .column
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
-                location!(),
-            ))?
-            .clone();
+                if cross_column {
+                    let details = futures::future::try_join_all(
+                        segments.iter().map(|segment| {
+                            load_physical_fts_details(&self.dataset, &column, segment)
+                        }),
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                    if phrase_columns.contains(&column)
+                        && details.iter().any(|details| !details.with_position)
+                    {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position"
+                                .to_string(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    let all_modern = details.iter().all(|details| {
+                        matches!(
+                            details.posting_format_version,
+                            Some(INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2 | INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3)
+                        )
+                    });
+                    if !all_modern {
+                        return Ok(None);
+                    }
+                } else if phrase_columns.contains(&column) {
+                    let details = load_segment_details(&self.dataset, &column, &segments).await?;
+                    if !details.with_position {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position"
+                                .to_string(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
 
-        let mut columns = vec![column];
-        if let Some(expr) = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref() {
-            let filter_columns = Planner::column_names_in_expr(expr);
-            columns.extend(filter_columns);
-        }
-        let flat_fts_scan_schema = Arc::new(self.dataset.schema().project(&columns).unwrap());
-        let mut scan_node = self.scan_fragments(
-            true,
-            false,
-            false,
-            false,
-            false,
-            flat_fts_scan_schema,
-            Arc::new(fragments),
-            None,
-            false,
-        );
+                Ok(Some((column, segments, unindexed_fragments)))
+            }
+        }))
+        .await?;
+        let Some(segment_groups) = segment_groups.into_iter().collect::<Option<Vec<_>>>() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
 
-        if let Some(expr) = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref() {
-            // If there is a prefilter we need to manually apply it to the new data
-            scan_node = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(expr.clone(), scan_node)?);
+        if !cross_column {
+            let (column, segments, unindexed_fragments) =
+                segment_groups.into_iter().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("compound scorer requires one column".to_string())
+                })?;
+            if allow_indexed_stats_residual && !unindexed_fragments.is_empty() {
+                let resolved =
+                    resolve_fts_field(self.dataset.schema(), &column, document_granularity)?;
+                let scan_column = if resolved.has_lists() {
+                    resolved.root_column.clone()
+                } else {
+                    resolved.canonical_path.clone()
+                };
+                let scan_projection = self
+                    .dataset
+                    .empty_projection()
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .union_columns(&[scan_column], OnMissing::Error)?;
+                let PlannedFilteredScan { plan, .. } = self
+                    .filtered_read(
+                        &ExprFilterPlan::default(),
+                        scan_projection,
+                        /* make_deletions_null */ false,
+                        Some(Arc::new(unindexed_fragments)),
+                        None,
+                        /* is_prefilter */ true,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                return Ok(Some(Arc::new(HybridCompoundQueryExec::new(
+                    self.dataset.clone(),
+                    query.clone(),
+                    params.clone(),
+                    column,
+                    segments,
+                    plan,
+                ))));
+            }
+            return Ok(Some(Arc::new(
+                CompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+                    self.dataset.clone(),
+                    query.clone(),
+                    params.clone(),
+                    prefilter_source.clone(),
+                    segments,
+                )
+                .with_external_mask(self.external_row_mask.clone()),
+            )));
         }
 
-        let flat_match_plan = Arc::new(FlatMatchQueryExec::new(
+        let mut coverage_groups = segment_groups.iter();
+        let Some((_, _, first_unindexed_fragments)) = coverage_groups.next() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let first_unindexed_fragment_ids = first_unindexed_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+        if coverage_groups.any(|(_, _, unindexed_fragments)| {
+            unindexed_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+                .collect::<RoaringBitmap>()
+                != first_unindexed_fragment_ids
+        }) {
+            // The cross-column scorer builds one shared prefilter. If column
+            // coverage differs, that prefilter's union can re-admit stale
+            // postings from a fragment invalidated only for another column.
+            // Keep the field-local fallback, which preserves each column's
+            // own index domain.
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let segment_groups = segment_groups
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(column, segments, _)| (column, segments))
+            .collect();
+        let exec = CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
             self.dataset.clone(),
             query.clone(),
             params.clone(),
-            scan_node,
-            FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
-        ));
-        Ok(flat_match_plan)
+            prefilter_source.clone(),
+            segment_groups,
+        )?
+        .with_external_mask(self.external_row_mask.clone());
+        Ok(Some(Arc::new(exec)))
     }
 
-    // ANN/KNN search execution node with optional prefilter
-    async fn vector_search(
+    async fn plan_fts(
         &self,
+        query: &FtsQuery,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
         filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
-        q: &Query,
+        prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let mut q = q.clone();
-
-        // Sanity check
-        let (vector_type, element_type) = get_vector_type(self.dataset.schema(), &q.column)?;
-
-        let column_id = self.dataset.schema().field_id(q.column.as_str())?;
-        let use_index = q.use_index;
-        let indices = if use_index {
-            self.dataset.load_indices().await?
-        } else {
-            Arc::new(vec![])
-        };
-        // Find an index for the column and check if metric is compatible
-        let matching_index = if let Some(index) =
-            indices.iter().find(|i| i.fields.contains(&column_id))
-        {
-            // TODO: Once we do https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/5231, we
-            // should be able to get the metric type directly from the index metadata,
-            // at least for newer indexes.
-            let idx = self
-                .dataset
-                .open_vector_index(
-                    q.column.as_str(),
-                    &index.uuid.to_string(),
-                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        let document_granularity = self.fts_document_granularity(query)?;
+        if !document_granularity.is_list_element()
+            && supports_compound_scorer(query)
+            && let Some(plan) = self
+                .plan_compound_scorer(
+                    query,
+                    params,
+                    filter_plan,
+                    prefilter_source,
+                    document_granularity,
                 )
-                .await?;
-            let index_metric = idx.metric_type();
-
-            // Check if user's requested metric is compatible with index
-            let use_this_index = match q.metric_type {
-                Some(user_metric) => {
-                    if user_metric == index_metric {
-                        true
-                    } else {
-                        log::warn!(
-                            "Requested metric {:?} is incompatible with index metric {:?}, falling back to brute-force search",
-                            user_metric,
-                            index_metric
-                        );
-                        false
-                    }
-                }
-                None => true, // No preference, use index's metric
-            };
-
-            if use_this_index {
-                Some((index, idx, index_metric))
-            } else {
-                None
-            }
-        } else {
-            None
-        };
-
-        if let Some((index, _idx, index_metric)) = matching_index {
-            log::trace!("index found for vector search");
-            // Use the index's metric type
-            q.metric_type = Some(index_metric);
-            validate_distance_type_for(index_metric, &element_type)?;
+                .await?
+        {
+            return Ok(plan);
+        }
 
-            if matches!(q.refine_factor, Some(0)) {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "Refine factor cannot be zero".to_string(),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+        // Unsupported, unbounded, partial-index, and overlay-backed cross-column
+        // shapes retain the exact DataFusion fallback.
+        let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+                self.plan_match_query(query, params, filter_plan, prefilter_source)
+                    .await?
             }
-
-            // Find all deltas with the same index name.
-            let deltas = self.dataset.load_indices_by_name(&index.name).await?;
-            let ann_node = match vector_type {
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => self.ann(&q, &deltas, filter_plan).await?,
-                DataType::List(_) => self.multivec_ann(&q, &deltas, filter_plan).await?,
-                _ => unreachable!(),
-            };
-
-            let mut knn_node = if q.refine_factor.is_some() {
-                let vector_projection = self
-                    .dataset
-                    .empty_projection()
-                    .union_column(&q.column, OnMissing::Error)
-                    .unwrap();
-                let knn_node_with_vector = self.take(ann_node, vector_projection)?;
-                self.flat_knn(knn_node_with_vector, &q)?
-            } else {
-                ann_node
-            }; // vector, _distance, _rowid
-
-            if !self.fast_search {
-                knn_node = self.knn_combined(&q, index, knn_node, filter_plan).await?;
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
+                self.plan_phrase_query(query, params, filter_plan, prefilter_source)
+                    .await?
             }
 
-            Ok(knn_node)
-        } else {
-            // Resolve metric type for flat search (use default if not specified)
-            let metric = q
-                .metric_type
-                .unwrap_or_else(|| default_distance_type_for(&element_type));
-            q.metric_type = Some(metric);
-            validate_distance_type_for(metric, &element_type)?;
-            // No index found. use flat search.
-            let mut columns = vec![q.column.clone()];
-            if let Some(refine_expr) = filter_plan.refine_expr.as_ref() {
-                columns.extend(Planner::column_names_in_expr(refine_expr));
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                // for boost query, we need to erase the limit so that we can find
+                // the documents that are not in the top-k results of the positive query,
+                // but in the final top-k results.
+                let unlimited_params = params.clone().with_limit(None);
+                let positive_exec = Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
+                    &query.positive,
+                    &unlimited_params,
+                    filter_plan,
+                    prefilter_source,
+                ));
+                let negative_exec = Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
+                    &query.negative,
+                    &unlimited_params,
+                    filter_plan,
+                    prefilter_source,
+                ));
+                let (positive_exec, negative_exec) =
+                    futures::future::try_join(positive_exec, negative_exec).await?;
+                Arc::new(BoostQueryExec::new(
+                    query.clone(),
+                    params.clone(),
+                    positive_exec,
+                    negative_exec,
+                ))
             }
-            let mut vector_scan_projection = self
-                .dataset
-                .empty_projection()
-                .with_row_id()
-                .union_columns(&columns, OnMissing::Error)?;
 
-            vector_scan_projection.with_row_addr =
-                self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_addr;
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                // A top-level cross-column MultiMatch scores each field independently and takes
+                // the maximum score for each row. A field's bounded compound top-k is therefore
+                // sufficient to determine the global top-k independently of the other fields.
+                // Preserve that bounded plan for every eligible field, while planning only
+                // partial-index and overlay-backed fields through the exhaustive leaf fallback.
+                let unlimited_params = params.clone().with_limit(None);
+                let can_use_bounded_compound =
+                    !document_granularity.is_list_element() && params.limit.is_some();
+                let field_prefilter_sources =
+                    prefilter_source.shared_for_multimatch_fields(query.match_queries.len());
+                let children = futures::future::try_join_all(
+                    query
+                        .match_queries
+                        .iter()
+                        .zip(field_prefilter_sources.iter())
+                        .map(|(match_query, field_prefilter_source)| {
+                            let unlimited_params = &unlimited_params;
+                            async move {
+                                if can_use_bounded_compound {
+                                    let child_query = FtsQuery::Match(match_query.clone());
+                                    if let Some(plan) = self
+                                        .plan_compound_scorer(
+                                            &child_query,
+                                            params,
+                                            filter_plan,
+                                            field_prefilter_source,
+                                            document_granularity,
+                                        )
+                                        .await?
+                                    {
+                                        return Ok(plan);
+                                    }
+                                }
 
-            let PlannedFilteredScan { mut plan, .. } = self
-                .filtered_read(
-                    filter_plan,
-                    vector_scan_projection,
-                    /*include_deleted_rows=*/ true,
-                    None,
-                    None,
-                    /*is_prefilter= */ true,
+                                self.plan_match_query(
+                                    match_query,
+                                    unlimited_params,
+                                    filter_plan,
+                                    field_prefilter_source,
+                                )
+                                .await
+                            }
+                        }),
                 )
                 .await?;
 
-            if let Some(refine_expr) = &filter_plan.refine_expr {
-                plan = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(refine_expr.clone(), plan)?);
-            }
-            Ok(self.flat_knn(plan, &q)?)
-        }
-    }
+                let schema = children[0].schema();
+                let group_expr = vec![(
+                    expressions::col(ROW_ID, schema.as_ref())?,
+                    ROW_ID.to_string(),
+                )];
 
-    /// Combine ANN results with KNN results for data appended after index creation
-    async fn knn_combined(
-        &self,
-        q: &Query,
-        index: &IndexMetadata,
-        mut knn_node: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        // Check if we've created new versions since the index was built.
-        let unindexed_fragments = self.dataset.unindexed_fragments(&index.name).await?;
-        if !unindexed_fragments.is_empty() {
-            // need to set the metric type to be the same as the index
-            // to make sure the distance is comparable.
-            let idx = self
-                .dataset
-                .open_vector_index(
-                    q.column.as_str(),
-                    &index.uuid.to_string(),
-                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-                )
-                .await?;
-            let mut q = q.clone();
-            q.metric_type = Some(idx.metric_type());
+                let fts_node = UnionExec::try_new(children)?;
+                let fts_node = Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
+                    fts_node,
+                    Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+                )?);
+                // dedup by row_id and return the max score as final score
+                let fts_node = Arc::new(AggregateExec::try_new(
+                    AggregateMode::Single,
+                    PhysicalGroupBy::new_single(group_expr),
+                    vec![Arc::new(
+                        datafusion_physical_expr::aggregate::AggregateExprBuilder::new(
+                            functions_aggregate::min_max::max_udaf(),
+                            vec![expressions::col(SCORE_COL, &schema)?],
+                        )
+                        .schema(schema.clone())
+                        .alias(SCORE_COL)
+                        .build()?,
+                    )],
+                    vec![None],
+                    fts_node,
+                    schema,
+                )?);
+                let sort_exprs = Self::fts_score_sort_exprs(fts_node.schema().as_ref())?;
 
-            // If the vector column is not present, we need to take the vector column, so
-            // that the distance value is comparable with the flat search ones.
-            if knn_node.schema().column_with_name(&q.column).is_none() {
-                let vector_projection = self
-                    .dataset
-                    .empty_projection()
-                    .union_column(&q.column, OnMissing::Error)
-                    .unwrap();
-                knn_node = self.take(knn_node, vector_projection)?;
+                // `params.limit` is the recursive planning contract. Compound
+                // parents pass `None` when they require every candidate.
+                Arc::new(SortExec::new(sort_exprs.into(), fts_node).with_fetch(params.limit))
             }
-
-            let mut columns = vec![q.column.clone()];
-            if let Some(expr) = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref() {
-                let filter_columns = Planner::column_names_in_expr(expr);
-                columns.extend(filter_columns);
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query) => {
+                self.plan_combined_fields_query(query, params, filter_plan, prefilter_source)
+                    .await?
             }
-            let vector_scan_projection = Arc::new(self.dataset.schema().project(&columns).unwrap());
-            // Note: we could try and use the scalar indices here to reduce the scope of this scan but the
-            // most common case is that fragments that are newer than the vector index are going to be newer
-            // than the scalar indices anyways
-            let mut scan_node = self.scan_fragments(
-                true,
-                false,
-                false,
-                false,
-                false,
-                vector_scan_projection,
-                Arc::new(unindexed_fragments),
-                // Can't pushdown limit/offset in an ANN search
-                None,
-                // We are re-ordering anyways, so no need to get data in data
-                // in a deterministic order.
-                false,
-            );
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                // TODO: rewrite the query for better performance
 
-            if let Some(expr) = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref() {
-                // If there is a prefilter we need to manually apply it to the new data
-                scan_node = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(expr.clone(), scan_node)?);
-            }
-            // first we do flat search on just the new data
-            let topk_appended = self.flat_knn(scan_node, &q)?;
+                // we need to remove the limit from the params,
+                // so that we won't miss possible matches
+                let unlimited_params = params.clone().with_limit(None);
 
-            // To do a union, we need to make the schemas match. Right now
-            // knn_node: _distance, _rowid, vector
-            // topk_appended: vector, <filter columns?>, _rowid, _distance
-            let topk_appended = project(topk_appended, knn_node.schema().as_ref())?;
-            assert!(topk_appended
-                .schema()
-                .equivalent_names_and_types(&knn_node.schema()));
-            // union
-            let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(vec![Arc::new(topk_appended), knn_node])?;
-            // Enforce only 1 partition.
-            let unioned = RepartitionExec::try_new(
-                unioned,
-                datafusion::physical_plan::Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-            )?;
-            // then we do a flat search on KNN(new data) + ANN(indexed data)
-            return self.flat_knn(Arc::new(unioned), &q);
-        }
+                let mut should = Vec::with_capacity(query.should.len());
+                for subquery in &query.should {
+                    should.push(
+                        Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
+                            subquery,
+                            &unlimited_params,
+                            filter_plan,
+                            prefilter_source,
+                        ))
+                        .await?,
+                    );
+                }
+                let mut must = Vec::with_capacity(query.must.len());
+                for subquery in &query.must {
+                    must.push(
+                        Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
+                            subquery,
+                            &unlimited_params,
+                            filter_plan,
+                            prefilter_source,
+                        ))
+                        .await?,
+                    );
+                }
+                let mut must_not = Vec::with_capacity(query.must_not.len());
+                for subquery in &query.must_not {
+                    must_not.push(
+                        Box::pin(self.plan_fts(
+                            subquery,
+                            &unlimited_params,
+                            filter_plan,
+                            prefilter_source,
+                        ))
+                        .await?,
+                    );
+                }
 
-        Ok(knn_node)
-    }
+                let boolean_schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+                let should = build_boolean_query_children_with_schema(
+                    BoolSlot::Should,
+                    should,
+                    boolean_schema.clone(),
+                )?
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(
+                        "boolean should planning returned no execution plan".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                let must = build_boolean_query_children_with_schema(
+                    BoolSlot::Must,
+                    must,
+                    boolean_schema.clone(),
+                )?;
+                let must_not = build_boolean_query_children_with_schema(
+                    BoolSlot::MustNot,
+                    must_not,
+                    boolean_schema,
+                )?
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(
+                        "boolean must-not planning returned no execution plan".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
 
-    #[async_recursion]
-    async fn fragments_covered_by_index_query(
-        &self,
-        index_expr: &ScalarIndexExpr,
-    ) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
-        match index_expr {
-            ScalarIndexExpr::And(lhs, rhs) => {
-                Ok(self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(lhs).await?
-                    & self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(rhs).await?)
-            }
-            ScalarIndexExpr::Or(lhs, rhs) => Ok(self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(lhs).await?
-                & self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(rhs).await?),
-            ScalarIndexExpr::Not(expr) => self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(expr).await,
-            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search) => {
-                let idx = self
-                    .dataset
-                    .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name(&search.index_name))
-                    .await?
-                    .expect("Index not found even though it must have been found earlier");
-                Ok(idx
-                    .fragment_bitmap
-                    .expect("scalar indices should always have a fragment bitmap"))
+                if query.should.is_empty() && must.is_none() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "boolean query must have at least one should/must query".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+
+                Arc::new(BooleanQueryExec::new(
+                    query.clone(),
+                    params.clone(),
+                    should,
+                    must,
+                    must_not,
+                ))
             }
-        }
+        };
+
+        Ok(plan)
     }
 
-    /// Given an index query, split the fragments into two sets
-    ///
-    /// The first set is the relevant fragments, which are covered by ALL indices in the query
-    /// The second set is the missing fragments, which are missed by at least one index
-    ///
-    /// There is no point in handling the case where a fragment is covered by some (but not all)
-    /// of the indices.  If we have to do a full scan of the fragment then we do it
-    async fn partition_frags_by_coverage(
+    async fn plan_phrase_query(
         &self,
-        index_expr: &ScalarIndexExpr,
-        fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
-    ) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Vec<Fragment>)> {
-        let covered_frags = self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(index_expr).await?;
-        let mut relevant_frags = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
-        let mut missing_frags = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
-        for fragment in fragments.iter() {
-            if covered_frags.contains(fragment.id as u32) {
-                relevant_frags.push(fragment.clone());
-            } else {
-                missing_frags.push(fragment.clone());
-            }
+        query: &PhraseQuery,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let column = query.column.clone().ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
+            "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
+        ))?;
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("FTS Phrase query granularity was not resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        resolve_fts_field(self.dataset.schema(), &column, document_granularity)?;
+        let output_schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+        let index = self
+            .dataset
+            .load_scalar_index(
+                IndexCriteria::default()
+                    .for_column(&column)
+                    .supports_fts()
+                    .with_fts_document_granularity(document_granularity),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let target_fragments: &[Fragment] = self
+            .fragments
+            .as_deref()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments());
+        if self.fragments.as_ref().is_some_and(Vec::is_empty) {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
         }
-        Ok((relevant_frags, missing_frags))
+        let flat_query = MatchQuery::new(query.terms.clone())
+            .with_column(Some(column.clone()))
+            .with_operator(Operator::And)
+            .with_document_granularity(document_granularity);
+        let flat_params = params.clone().with_phrase_slop(Some(query.slop));
+
+        let (phrase_plan, flat_phrase_plan) = match &index {
+            Some(index) => {
+                let unindexed_fragments = self
+                    .retain_target_fragments(self.dataset.unindexed_fragments(&index.name).await?);
+                if !target_fragments.is_empty()
+                    && unindexed_fragments.len() == target_fragments.len()
+                {
+                    if self.fast_search {
+                        return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
+                    }
+                    let flat_phrase_plan = self
+                        .plan_flat_match_query(
+                            unindexed_fragments,
+                            HashMap::new(),
+                            &flat_query,
+                            &flat_params,
+                            filter_plan,
+                            None,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                    return Self::combine_fts_leaf_plans(None, Some(flat_phrase_plan), params);
+                }
+
+                let (stale_rows, preset_segments) = match self
+                    .fts_overlay_plan(&column, document_granularity, target_fragments)
+                    .await?
+                {
+                    FtsOverlayPlan::Unchanged(segments) => (HashMap::new(), segments),
+                    FtsOverlayPlan::RowLevel {
+                        stale_rows,
+                        segments,
+                    } => (stale_rows, Some(segments)),
+                    FtsOverlayPlan::FullScan => {
+                        if self.fast_search {
+                            return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
+                        }
+                        let flat_phrase_plan = self
+                            .plan_flat_match_query(
+                                target_fragments.to_vec(),
+                                HashMap::new(),
+                                &flat_query,
+                                &flat_params,
+                                filter_plan,
+                                None,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                        return Self::combine_fts_leaf_plans(None, Some(flat_phrase_plan), params);
+                    }
+                };
+                let overlay_block = self.stale_rows_block_mask(&stale_rows).await?;
+                let segments = match preset_segments {
+                    Some(segments) => segments,
+                    None => load_segments(&self.dataset, &column, document_granularity)
+                        .await?
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal(format!(
+                                "FTS metadata routed column {column} without loadable segments"
+                            ))
+                        })?,
+                };
+                let details = load_segment_details(&self.dataset, &column, &segments).await?;
+                if !details.with_position {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input("position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position"
+                        .to_string()));
+                }
+
+                let has_flat_path = !self.fast_search
+                    && (!unindexed_fragments.is_empty() || !stale_rows.is_empty());
+                let shared_scorer = (has_flat_path && document_granularity.is_list_element())
+                    .then(|| Arc::new(SharedFtsScorer::new()));
+                let mut phrase_exec = PhraseQueryExec::new_with_segments_and_document_granularity(
+                    self.dataset.clone(),
+                    query.clone(),
+                    params.clone(),
+                    prefilter_source.clone(),
+                    segments,
+                    document_granularity,
+                );
+                if let Some(overlay_block) = overlay_block {
+                    phrase_exec = phrase_exec.with_overlay_block(overlay_block);
+                }
+                if let Some(shared_scorer) = &shared_scorer {
+                    phrase_exec = phrase_exec.with_shared_scorer(shared_scorer.clone());
+                }
+                phrase_exec = phrase_exec.with_external_mask(self.external_row_mask.clone());
+                let phrase_plan = Some(Arc::new(phrase_exec) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>);
+                let flat_phrase_plan = if has_flat_path {
+                    Some(
+                        self.plan_flat_match_query(
+                            unindexed_fragments,
+                            stale_rows,
+                            &flat_query,
+                            &flat_params,
+                            filter_plan,
+                            shared_scorer,
+                        )
+                        .await?,
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+                (phrase_plan, flat_phrase_plan)
+            }
+            None => {
+                if target_fragments.is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
+                }
+                if self.fast_search {
+                    return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
+                }
+                let flat_phrase_plan = self
+                    .plan_flat_match_query(
+                        target_fragments.to_vec(),
+                        HashMap::new(),
+                        &flat_query,
+                        &flat_params,
+                        filter_plan,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                (None, Some(flat_phrase_plan))
+            }
+        };
+
+        Self::combine_fts_leaf_plans(phrase_plan, flat_phrase_plan, params)
     }
 
-    // First perform a lookup in a scalar index for ids and then perform a take on the
-    // target fragments with those ids
-    async fn scalar_indexed_scan(
+    async fn plan_match_query(
         &self,
-        projection: Projection,
+        query: &MatchQuery,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
         filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
-        fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
+        prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        log::trace!("scalar indexed scan");
-        // One or more scalar indices cover this data and there is a filter which is
-        // compatible with the indices.  Use that filter to perform a take instead of
-        // a full scan.
-
-        // If this unwrap fails we have a bug because we shouldn't be using this function unless we've already
-        // checked that there is an index query
-        let index_expr = filter_plan.index_query.as_ref().unwrap();
-
-        let needs_recheck = index_expr.needs_recheck();
+        let column = query
+            .column
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
+                "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
+            ))?
+            .clone();
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("FTS Match query granularity was not resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        resolve_fts_field(self.dataset.schema(), &column, document_granularity)?;
+        let output_schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
 
-        // Figure out which fragments are covered by ALL indices
-        let (relevant_frags, missing_frags) = self
-            .partition_frags_by_coverage(index_expr, fragments)
+        let index = self
+            .dataset
+            .load_scalar_index(
+                IndexCriteria::default()
+                    .for_column(&column)
+                    .supports_fts()
+                    .with_fts_document_granularity(document_granularity),
+            )
             .await?;
 
-        let mut plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(MaterializeIndexExec::new(
-            self.dataset.clone(),
-            index_expr.clone(),
-            Arc::new(relevant_frags),
-        ));
+        // Get target fragments
+        let target_fragments: &[Fragment] = self
+            .fragments
+            .as_deref()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments());
+        if self.fragments.as_ref().is_some_and(Vec::is_empty) {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
+        }
 
-        let refine_expr = filter_plan.refine_expr.as_ref();
+        let (match_plan, flat_match_plan) = match &index {
+            Some(index) => {
+                let unindexed_fragments = self
+                    .retain_target_fragments(self.dataset.unindexed_fragments(&index.name).await?);
+                if !target_fragments.is_empty()
+                    && unindexed_fragments.len() == target_fragments.len()
+                {
+                    if self.fast_search {
+                        return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
+                    }
+                    let flat_match_plan = self
+                        .plan_flat_match_query(
+                            unindexed_fragments,
+                            HashMap::new(),
+                            query,
+                            params,
+                            filter_plan,
+                            None,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                    return Self::combine_fts_leaf_plans(None, Some(flat_match_plan), params);
+                }
 
-        // If all we want is the row ids then we can skip the take.  However, if there is a refine
-        // or a recheck then we still need to do a take because we need filter columns.
-        let needs_take =
-            needs_recheck || projection.has_data_fields() || filter_plan.refine_expr.is_some();
-        if needs_take {
-            let mut take_projection = projection.clone();
-            if needs_recheck {
-                // If we need to recheck then we need to also take the columns used for the filter
-                let filter_expr = index_expr.to_expr();
-                let filter_cols = Planner::column_names_in_expr(&filter_expr);
-                take_projection = take_projection.union_columns(filter_cols, OnMissing::Error)?;
-            }
-            if let Some(refine_expr) = refine_expr {
-                let refine_cols = Planner::column_names_in_expr(refine_expr);
-                take_projection = take_projection.union_columns(refine_cols, OnMissing::Error)?;
+                let (stale_rows, preset_segments) = match self
+                    .fts_overlay_plan(&column, document_granularity, target_fragments)
+                    .await?
+                {
+                    FtsOverlayPlan::Unchanged(segments) => (HashMap::new(), segments),
+                    FtsOverlayPlan::RowLevel {
+                        stale_rows,
+                        segments,
+                    } => (stale_rows, Some(segments)),
+                    FtsOverlayPlan::FullScan => {
+                        if self.fast_search {
+                            return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
+                        }
+                        let flat_match_plan = self
+                            .plan_flat_match_query(
+                                target_fragments.to_vec(),
+                                HashMap::new(),
+                                query,
+                                params,
+                                filter_plan,
+                                None,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                        return Self::combine_fts_leaf_plans(None, Some(flat_match_plan), params);
+                    }
+                };
+                let overlay_block = self.stale_rows_block_mask(&stale_rows).await?;
+                let has_flat_path = !self.fast_search
+                    && (!unindexed_fragments.is_empty() || !stale_rows.is_empty());
+                let shared_scorer = (has_flat_path && document_granularity.is_list_element())
+                    .then(|| Arc::new(SharedFtsScorer::new()));
+                let mut match_exec = match preset_segments {
+                    Some(segments) => MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments_and_document_granularity(
+                        self.dataset.clone(),
+                        query.clone(),
+                        params.clone(),
+                        prefilter_source.clone(),
+                        segments,
+                        document_granularity,
+                    ),
+                    None => MatchQueryExec::new_with_document_granularity(
+                        self.dataset.clone(),
+                        query.clone(),
+                        params.clone(),
+                        prefilter_source.clone(),
+                        document_granularity,
+                    ),
+                };
+                if let Some(overlay_block) = overlay_block {
+                    match_exec = match_exec.with_overlay_block(overlay_block);
+                }
+                if let Some(shared_scorer) = &shared_scorer {
+                    match_exec = match_exec.with_shared_scorer(shared_scorer.clone());
+                }
+                match_exec = match_exec.with_external_mask(self.external_row_mask.clone());
+                let match_plan = Some(Arc::new(match_exec) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>);
+                let flat_match_plan = if has_flat_path {
+                    Some(
+                        self.plan_flat_match_query(
+                            unindexed_fragments,
+                            stale_rows,
+                            query,
+                            params,
+                            filter_plan,
+                            shared_scorer,
+                        )
+                        .await?,
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+                (match_plan, flat_match_plan)
             }
-            log::trace!("need to take additional columns for scalar_indexed_scan");
-            plan = self.take(plan, take_projection)?;
-        }
-
-        let post_take_filter = match (needs_recheck, refine_expr) {
-            (false, None) => None,
-            (true, None) => {
-                // If we need to recheck then we need to apply the filter to the results
-                Some(index_expr.to_expr())
+            None => {
+                if target_fragments.is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
+                }
+                if self.fast_search {
+                    return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(output_schema)));
+                }
+                // No index: flat search all target fragments
+                let flat_match_plan = self
+                    .plan_flat_match_query(
+                        target_fragments.to_vec(),
+                        HashMap::new(),
+                        query,
+                        params,
+                        filter_plan,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                (None, Some(flat_match_plan))
             }
-            (true, Some(_)) => Some(filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref().unwrap().clone()),
-            (false, Some(refine_expr)) => Some(refine_expr.clone()),
         };
 
-        if let Some(post_take_filter) = post_take_filter {
-            let planner = Planner::new(plan.schema());
-            let optimized_filter = planner.optimize_expr(post_take_filter)?;
+        Self::combine_fts_leaf_plans(match_plan, flat_match_plan, params)
+    }
 
-            log::trace!("applying post-take filter to indexed scan");
-            plan = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(optimized_filter, plan)?);
-        }
+    fn combine_fts_leaf_plans(
+        indexed_plan: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+        flat_plan: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let plan = match (indexed_plan, flat_plan) {
+            (Some(indexed_plan), Some(flat_plan)) => {
+                UnionExec::try_new(vec![indexed_plan, flat_plan])?
+            }
+            (Some(indexed_plan), None) => return Ok(indexed_plan),
+            (None, Some(flat_plan)) if params.limit.is_none() => return Ok(flat_plan),
+            (None, Some(flat_plan)) => flat_plan,
+            (None, None) => {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "FTS leaf planning produced neither an indexed nor a flat plan".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+        let plan = Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
+            plan,
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+        )?);
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: expressions::col(SCORE_COL, plan.schema().as_ref())?,
+            options: SortOptions {
+                descending: true,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            },
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(
+            SortExec::new([sort_expr].into(), plan).with_fetch(params.limit),
+        ))
+    }
 
-        if self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_addr {
-            plan = Arc::new(AddRowAddrExec::try_new(plan, self.dataset.clone(), 0)?);
-        }
-
-        let new_data_path: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = if !missing_frags.is_empty() {
-            log::trace!(
-                "scalar_indexed_scan will need full scan of {} missing fragments",
-                missing_frags.len()
-            );
-
-            // If there is new data then we need this:
-            //
-            // MaterializeIndexExec(old_frags) -> Take -> Union
-            // Scan(new_frags) -> Filter -> Project    -|
-            //
-            // The project is to drop any columns we had to include
-            // in the full scan merely for the sake of fulfilling the
-            // filter.
-            //
-            // If there were no extra columns then we still need the project
-            // because Materialize -> Take puts the row id at the left and
-            // Scan puts the row id at the right
-            let filter = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref().unwrap();
-            let filter_cols = Planner::column_names_in_expr(filter);
-            let scan_projection = projection.union_columns(filter_cols, OnMissing::Error)?;
-
-            let scan_schema = Arc::new(scan_projection.to_bare_schema());
-            let scan_arrow_schema = Arc::new(scan_schema.as_ref().into());
-            let planner = Planner::new(scan_arrow_schema);
-            let optimized_filter = planner.optimize_expr(filter.clone())?;
-
-            let new_data_scan = self.scan_fragments(
-                true,
-                self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_addr,
-                self.projection_plan
-                    .physical_projection
-                    .with_row_last_updated_at_version,
-                self.projection_plan
-                    .physical_projection
-                    .with_row_created_at_version,
-                false,
-                scan_schema,
-                missing_frags.into(),
-                // No pushdown of limit/offset when doing scalar indexed scan
-                None,
-                false,
-            );
-            let filtered = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(optimized_filter, new_data_scan)?);
-            Some(Arc::new(project(filtered, plan.schema().as_ref())?))
+    /// Plan match query on unindexed fragments
+    async fn plan_flat_match_query(
+        &self,
+        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        stale_rows: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+        query: &MatchQuery,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        shared_scorer: Option<Arc<SharedFtsScorer>>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let column = query
+            .column
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
+                "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
+            ))?
+            .clone();
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("FTS Match query granularity was not resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let resolved = resolve_fts_field(self.dataset.schema(), &column, document_granularity)?;
+        let scan_column = if resolved.has_lists() {
+            resolved.root_column.clone()
         } else {
-            log::trace!("scalar_indexed_scan will not need full scan of any missing fragments");
-            None
+            resolved.canonical_path.clone()
         };
-
-        if let Some(new_data_path) = new_data_path {
-            let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(vec![plan, new_data_path])?;
-            // Enforce only 1 partition.
-            let unioned = Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
-                unioned,
-                datafusion::physical_plan::Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-            )?);
-            Ok(unioned)
+        let document_column = if resolved.has_lists() {
+            VALUE_COLUMN_NAME.to_string()
         } else {
-            Ok(plan)
+            resolved.canonical_path.clone()
+        };
+        let mut plan = self
+            .plan_uncovered_rows_scan(fragments, stale_rows, vec![scan_column], filter_plan)
+            .await?;
+        if resolved.has_lists() {
+            plan = Arc::new(FtsDocumentExec::new(plan, resolved.clone()));
+        } else {
+            plan = self.ensure_column_alias(plan, &document_column)?;
+        }
+        let mut flat_match_plan = FlatMatchQueryExec::new_with_document_granularity(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            plan,
+            document_granularity,
+            document_column,
+        );
+        if let Some(shared_scorer) = shared_scorer {
+            flat_match_plan = flat_match_plan.with_shared_scorer(shared_scorer);
+        }
+        let flat_match_plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(flat_match_plan);
+        // Unindexed fragments and stale rows never reach the index-side prefilter,
+        // so apply the external row-address mask to the flat FTS results here
+        // (mirrors the ANN flat branch). Applied before the caller's top-k so
+        // masked-out rows do not consume result slots.
+        if let Some(mask) = self.external_row_mask.clone() {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(RowAddrMaskFilterExec::new(flat_match_plan, mask)));
         }
+        Ok(flat_match_plan)
     }
 
-    fn get_io_buffer_size(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.io_buffer_size.unwrap_or(*DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE)
+    /// Sort keys for an FTS plan whose scores come from more than one source, or
+    /// from a source that does not sort.
+    ///
+    /// `row_id ASC` is a required second key, not a nicety: a score-only sort over
+    /// concurrently read sources breaks ties by arrival order, so equal-scoring
+    /// documents would come back in a different order run to run and
+    /// `limit`/`offset` pagination could skip and repeat rows. `combined_fields`
+    /// needs it for the same reason: `combined_fields_search` visits candidates in
+    /// ascending row-id order, so its top-k is reproducible, but it does not order
+    /// ties itself (`ScoredDoc` compares on score alone), so this sort is what
+    /// decides which of two equal-scoring rows comes first.
+    fn fts_score_sort_exprs(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> Result<[PhysicalSortExpr; 2]> {
+        Ok([
+            PhysicalSortExpr {
+                expr: expressions::col(SCORE_COL, schema)?,
+                options: SortOptions {
+                    descending: true,
+                    nulls_first: false,
+                },
+            },
+            PhysicalSortExpr {
+                expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, schema)?,
+                options: SortOptions {
+                    descending: false,
+                    nulls_first: false,
+                },
+            },
+        ])
     }
 
-    /// Create an Execution plan with a scan node
+    /// Plan a cross-field (BM25F) `combined_fields` query.
     ///
-    /// Setting `with_make_deletions_null` will use the validity of the _rowid
-    /// column as a selection vector. Read more in [crate::io::FileReader].
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    pub(crate) fn scan(
+    /// Unlike a single-column match, coverage here is per column: a BM25F score is
+    /// only complete when every target column's index covers the row's fragment,
+    /// because `dl'` sums each column's document length and the per-column lookup
+    /// (`AddressKeyedDocuments::doc_length_at` over that partition's `DocLengths`)
+    /// returns 0 for a row that column's index holds no document for. So the
+    /// fragments the index scan must not touch are the union of the per-column
+    /// unindexed sets, not their intersection: a fragment indexed for `title` but
+    /// not `body` would otherwise be emitted with a partial `tf'`/`dl'`.
+    ///
+    /// Those fragments are routed to [`FlatCombinedFieldsExec`] instead, and the
+    /// two sides are unioned and re-sorted by score, mirroring
+    /// [`Self::plan_match_query`].
+    ///
+    /// Rows whose index entries a newer data overlay made stale, in any target
+    /// column, are routed the same way but one row at a time: the indexed scan
+    /// blocks them, so it neither returns a pre-overlay hit nor hides a new one,
+    /// and the flat side takes them by address. See [`Self::fts_overlay_plan`].
+    async fn plan_combined_fields_query(
         &self,
-        with_row_id: bool,
-        with_row_address: bool,
-        with_row_last_updated_at_version: bool,
-        with_row_created_at_version: bool,
-        with_make_deletions_null: bool,
-        range: Option<Range<u64>>,
-        projection: Arc<Schema>,
-    ) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
-        let fragments = if let Some(fragment) = self.fragments.as_ref() {
-            Arc::new(fragment.clone())
+        query: &CombinedFieldsQuery,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let target_fragments: &[Fragment] = self
+            .fragments
+            .as_deref()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments());
+        // An explicitly empty fragment list selects no rows. The prefilter would
+        // already reject every row, but without this the fully covered branch below
+        // still opens the segments, builds the scorer and runs a full scan to return
+        // nothing. `plan_match_query` and `plan_phrase_query` short-circuit the same way.
+        if self.fragments.as_ref().is_some_and(Vec::is_empty) {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(fts_schema(
+                DocumentGranularity::Row,
+            ))));
+        }
+
+        // Kept per column; see `FlatStatsCoverage`.
+        let mut per_column_coverage = Vec::with_capacity(query.column_names().len());
+        let mut uncovered = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        // Stale rows of every target column, by fragment id and row offset.
+        let mut stale_addresses: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap> = HashMap::new();
+        let mut any_indexed = false;
+        let mut needs_whole_corpus = false;
+        for column in query.column_names() {
+            let column_uncovered: RoaringBitmap = match self
+                .dataset
+                .load_scalar_index(
+                    IndexCriteria::default()
+                        .for_column(column)
+                        .supports_fts()
+                        .with_fts_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+                )
+                .await?
+            {
+                Some(index) => {
+                    any_indexed = true;
+                    self.dataset
+                        .unindexed_fragments(&index.name)
+                        .await?
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+                        .collect()
+                }
+                // No index on this column at all, so no fragment is covered for it.
+                None => target_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+                    .collect(),
+            };
+
+            // Rows this column's index does hold documents for, but whose entries a
+            // newer data overlay made stale. A row's BM25F score needs every target
+            // column's `tf_f`/`dl_f`, so a row stale in any column is scored wholly on
+            // the flat side from its current values, and the indexed side blocks it.
+            // The rows also join this column's fold, so a term the overlay introduced
+            // reaches `docFreq_f`.
+            let mut column_stale_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+            match self
+                .fts_overlay_plan(column, DocumentGranularity::Row, target_fragments)
+                .await?
+            {
+                FtsOverlayPlan::Unchanged(_) => {}
+                FtsOverlayPlan::RowLevel { stale_rows, .. } => {
+                    column_stale_rows = self.stale_rows_in_id_domain(&stale_rows).await?;
+                    for (fragment_id, offsets) in stale_rows {
+                        *stale_addresses.entry(fragment_id).or_default() |= offsets;
+                    }
+                }
+                // A legacy segment reports no fragment coverage, so no target fragment
+                // can be proven free of stale entries and no row can be named as one.
+                FtsOverlayPlan::FullScan => {
+                    uncovered.extend(target_fragments.iter().map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32));
+                    needs_whole_corpus = true;
+                }
+            }
+
+            uncovered |= &column_uncovered;
+            per_column_coverage.push(FlatStatsCoverage {
+                fragments: column_uncovered,
+                stale_rows: Arc::new(column_stale_rows),
+            });
+        }
+
+        // BM25F needs one shared tokenizer configuration across the target columns
+        // (`validate_combined_tokenizers`), and it is read off an index. Error out
+        // when no target column has one rather than silently falling back to a
+        // default tokenizer that may not match the data.
+        if !any_indexed {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "combined_fields requires an inverted index on at least one of {:?}",
+                query.column_names().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // A stale row in a fragment the flat side reads whole is already read there.
+        stale_addresses.retain(|fragment_id, _| !uncovered.contains(*fragment_id));
+        let overlay_block = self.stale_rows_block_mask(&stale_addresses).await?;
+
+        let uncovered_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = target_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|fragment| uncovered.contains(fragment.id as u32))
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        // The complement: fragments every target column indexes, and so the only
+        // ones the indexed scan can score completely.
+        let covered: RoaringBitmap = target_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+            .filter(|fragment_id| !uncovered.contains(*fragment_id))
+            .collect();
+
+        // The only construction site for the indexed side, so the options every
+        // shape needs cannot be set on one path and forgotten on another.
+        //
+        // `covered` restricts the scan to the fragments every target column indexes;
+        // `None` means there is nothing to restrict. The overlay block keeps the
+        // stale rows in those fragments out of the results. Segments stay
+        // unrestricted either way: dropping a segment would drop its documents from
+        // the corpus statistics too.
+        //
+        // `shared_scorer` is set only when a flat sibling exists: that side alone
+        // sees the rows no index covers, so it publishes the corpus statistics both
+        // children must score against.
+        let index_exec = |covered: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+                          shared_scorer: Option<Arc<SharedFtsScorer<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer>>>|
+         -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+            let mut exec = CombinedFieldsQueryExec::new(
+                self.dataset.clone(),
+                query.clone(),
+                params.clone(),
+                prefilter_source.clone(),
+            )
+            .with_external_mask(self.external_row_mask.clone());
+            if let Some(covered) = covered {
+                exec = exec.with_covered_fragments(covered);
+            }
+            if let Some(overlay_block) = overlay_block.clone() {
+                exec = exec.with_overlay_block(overlay_block);
+            }
+            if let Some(shared_scorer) = shared_scorer {
+                exec = exec.with_shared_scorer(shared_scorer);
+            }
+            Arc::new(exec)
+        };
+
+        // Every target column covers every target fragment, with no overlay-stale
+        // entries anywhere: one unified scan that already emits merged hits sorted
+        // by score with the top-k limit applied, so no union/sort is needed, and
+        // there are no fragments to restrict the prefilter to.
+        if uncovered_fragments.is_empty() && stale_addresses.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(index_exec(None, None));
+        }
+        // `fast_search` is index-only by contract, but must still drop the
+        // partially covered fragments and the stale rows so no partial or
+        // pre-overlay score is emitted. When no
+        // fragment is covered the answer is definitionally empty, and the index
+        // exec would instead fail on the target column that has no segments.
+        if self.fast_search {
+            if covered.is_empty() {
+                return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(fts_schema(
+                    DocumentGranularity::Row,
+                ))));
+            }
+            return Ok(index_exec(Some(covered), None));
+        }
+
+        // A legacy segment names no stale rows, so nothing can be folded on top of the
+        // index and the corpus has to be re-measured from every target fragment. That
+        // is a full scan, so it stays confined to that case.
+        let (flat_fragments, stats_scope) = if needs_whole_corpus {
+            (target_fragments.to_vec(), FlatStatsScope::WholeCorpus)
         } else {
-            self.dataset.fragments().clone()
+            (
+                uncovered_fragments,
+                FlatStatsScope::PerColumn(per_column_coverage),
+            )
         };
-        let ordered = if self.ordering.is_some() || self.nearest.is_some() {
-            // If we are sorting the results there is no need to scan in order
-            false
+        let mut scanned_fragments: RoaringBitmap = flat_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+            .collect();
+        scanned_fragments.extend(stale_addresses.keys().copied());
+        // The flat side reads unfiltered and applies the filter only to the rows it
+        // emits, as the indexed side does, so every row it reads counts toward the
+        // corpus. Pushing the filter into the scan would make the corpus depend on
+        // the filter, and on which rows an overlay routed onto this side.
+        //
+        // The emission prefilter is built over the fragments this scan reads, not
+        // reused from the indexed child. `prefilter_source` spans the fragments the
+        // target columns' indexes cover, so it names no row in an unindexed fragment,
+        // and an allow-list can only be narrowed afterwards
+        // (`build_prefilter_restricted_to_fragments`), never widened. Reusing it would
+        // drop every match an unindexed fragment holds.
+        let emit_prefilter = self
+            .prefilter_source(filter_plan, scanned_fragments.clone())
+            .await?;
+        // Only a plan with both children needs the two to agree on a corpus, and a
+        // whole-corpus scan leaves no fragment for an indexed child.
+        let is_mixed = !needs_whole_corpus && flat_fragments.len() != target_fragments.len();
+        let shared_scorer = is_mixed.then(|| Arc::new(SharedFtsScorer::new()));
+        let flat_plan = self
+            .plan_flat_combined_fields_query(
+                flat_fragments,
+                stale_addresses,
+                scanned_fragments,
+                stats_scope,
+                emit_prefilter,
+                query,
+                params,
+                shared_scorer.clone(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        // The flat exec emits in scan order and applies no limit, so even with no
+        // index child the plan still needs the score sort and top-k fetch.
+        let scored_plan = if !is_mixed {
+            flat_plan
         } else {
-            self.ordered
+            let union =
+                UnionExec::try_new(vec![index_exec(Some(covered), shared_scorer), flat_plan])?;
+            Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
+                union,
+                Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            )?)
         };
-        self.scan_fragments(
-            with_row_id,
-            with_row_address,
-            with_row_last_updated_at_version,
-            with_row_created_at_version,
-            with_make_deletions_null,
-            projection,
-            fragments,
-            range,
-            ordered,
-        )
+        Ok(Arc::new(
+            SortExec::new(
+                Self::fts_score_sort_exprs(scored_plan.schema().as_ref())?.into(),
+                scored_plan,
+            )
+            .with_fetch(params.limit),
+        ))
     }
 
+    /// Plan the flat (unindexed) side of a `combined_fields` query: one scan over
+    /// `fragments` and the `stale_rows` taken by address, projecting every target
+    /// column, scored as one virtual field. `scanned_fragments` names every
+    /// fragment either input reads from.
+    ///
+    /// The scan is unfiltered; `emit_prefilter` picks the rows it emits.
+    ///
+    /// Emits in scan order with no limit applied; the caller supplies the score
+    /// sort and top-k fetch.
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn scan_fragments(
+    async fn plan_flat_combined_fields_query(
         &self,
-        with_row_id: bool,
-        with_row_address: bool,
-        with_row_last_updated_at_version: bool,
-        with_row_created_at_version: bool,
-        with_make_deletions_null: bool,
-        projection: Arc<Schema>,
-        fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
-        range: Option<Range<u64>>,
-        ordered: bool,
-    ) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
-        log::trace!("scan_fragments covered {} fragments", fragments.len());
-        let config = LanceScanConfig {
-            batch_size: self.get_batch_size(),
-            batch_readahead: self.batch_readahead,
-            fragment_readahead: self.fragment_readahead,
-            io_buffer_size: self.get_io_buffer_size(),
-            with_row_id,
-            with_row_address,
-            with_row_last_updated_at_version,
-            with_row_created_at_version,
-            with_make_deletions_null,
-            ordered_output: ordered,
-        };
-        Arc::new(LanceScanExec::new(
+        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        stale_rows: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+        scanned_fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+        stats_scope: FlatStatsScope,
+        emit_prefilter: PreFilterSource,
+        query: &CombinedFieldsQuery,
+        params: &FtsSearchParams,
+        shared_scorer: Option<Arc<SharedFtsScorer<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer>>>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        // A path that continues past a `List` is not addressable by a projection,
+        // so such a column is scanned through its list root and walked down to the
+        // leaf by `FlatCombinedFieldsExec`, exactly as `plan_flat_match_query`
+        // does for a single column.
+        let resolved_fields = query
+            .column_names()
+            .map(|column| {
+                resolve_fts_field(self.dataset.schema(), column, DocumentGranularity::Row)
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let columns = resolved_fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|resolved| {
+                if resolved.has_lists() {
+                    resolved.root_column.clone()
+                } else {
+                    resolved.canonical_path.clone()
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut plan = self
+            .plan_uncovered_rows_scan(fragments, stale_rows, columns, &ExprFilterPlan::default())
+            .await?;
+        // A nested target column needs a flat alias so the exec can resolve it by
+        // name in the batch schema. A list-bearing one gets its flat column from
+        // the exec instead, since no projection can produce it.
+        for (column, resolved) in query.column_names().zip(&resolved_fields) {
+            if !resolved.has_lists() {
+                plan = self.ensure_column_alias(plan, column)?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut flat_plan = FlatCombinedFieldsExec::try_new(
             self.dataset.clone(),
-            fragments,
-            range,
-            projection,
-            config,
-        ))
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            plan,
+            scanned_fragments,
+            resolved_fields,
+            stats_scope,
+            emit_prefilter,
+        )?;
+        if let Some(shared_scorer) = shared_scorer {
+            flat_plan = flat_plan.with_shared_scorer(shared_scorer);
+        }
+        let flat_plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(flat_plan);
+        // The rows this side scores never reach an index-side prefilter, so the
+        // external row-address mask is applied to its output here, as the flat
+        // MatchQuery branch does. It restricts what is emitted, not the corpus the
+        // scores are computed against, so both children of a mixed plan keep
+        // scoring against the same statistics.
+        if let Some(mask) = self.external_row_mask.clone() {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(RowAddrMaskFilterExec::new(flat_plan, mask)));
+        }
+        Ok(flat_plan)
     }
 
-    fn pushdown_scan(
+    // ANN/KNN search execution node with optional prefilter
+    #[async_recursion]
+    async fn vector_search(
         &self,
-        make_deletions_null: bool,
         filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        q: &Query,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        log::trace!("pushdown_scan");
+        let mut q = q.clone();
 
-        let config = ScanConfig {
-            batch_readahead: self.batch_readahead,
-            fragment_readahead: self
-                .fragment_readahead
-                .unwrap_or(LEGACY_DEFAULT_FRAGMENT_READAHEAD),
-            with_row_id: self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_id,
-            with_row_address: self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_addr,
-            make_deletions_null,
-            ordered_output: self.ordered,
-            file_reader_options: self
-                .file_reader_options
-                .clone()
-                .or_else(|| self.dataset.file_reader_options.clone()),
-        };
+        // Sanity check
+        let (vector_type, element_type) = get_vector_type(self.dataset.schema(), &q.column)?;
 
-        let fragments = if let Some(fragment) = self.fragments.as_ref() {
-            Arc::new(fragment.clone())
-        } else {
-            self.dataset.fragments().clone()
-        };
-
-        Ok(Arc::new(LancePushdownScanExec::try_new(
-            self.dataset.clone(),
-            fragments,
-            Arc::new(self.projection_plan.physical_projection.to_bare_schema()),
-            filter_plan.refine_expr.clone().unwrap(),
-            config,
-        )?))
-    }
-
-    async fn flat_fts(
-        &self,
-        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-        q: &FullTextSearchQuery,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let fts_query = if q.columns().is_empty() {
-            let indexed_columns = fts_indexed_columns(self.dataset.clone()).await?;
-            fill_fts_query_column(&q.query, &indexed_columns, false)?
+        let column_id = self.dataset.schema().field_id(q.column.as_str())?;
+        let use_index = q.use_index;
+        let indices = if use_index {
+            self.dataset.load_indices().await?
         } else {
-            q.query.clone()
+            Arc::new(vec![])
         };
+        let mut index_and_segments = if use_index {
+            if let Some(requested_segments) = self.index_segments.as_ref() {
+                let requested_segment_set =
+                    requested_segments.iter().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                let requested_index_segments = indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|idx| requested_segment_set.contains(&idx.uuid))
+                    .cloned()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+                if requested_index_segments.len() != requested_segment_set.len() {
+                    let found_segment_set = requested_index_segments
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|idx| idx.uuid)
+                        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                    let missing_segments = requested_segment_set
+                        .difference(&found_segment_set)
+                        .map(ToString::to_string)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "with_index_segments referenced unknown index segments: {missing_segments:?}",
+                    )));
+                }
 
-        match &fts_query {
-            FtsQuery::Match(match_query) => {
-                let schema = Arc::new((input.schema()).try_with_column(SCORE_FIELD.clone())?);
+                if requested_index_segments
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|idx| idx.fields.first() != Some(&column_id))
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "with_index_segments contained a segment that does not belong to vector column '{}'",
+                        q.column
+                    )));
+                }
 
-                let column = match_query
-                    .column
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    ))?
-                    .clone();
-                let input = if schema.column_with_name(&column).is_none() {
-                    let projection = self
+                let index_name = requested_index_segments[0].name.clone();
+                if requested_index_segments
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|idx| idx.name != index_name)
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "with_index_segments must reference segments from a single logical index"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+
+                let selected_index_segments =
+                    self.retain_relevant_index_segments(requested_index_segments);
+                if selected_index_segments.is_empty() {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    let idx = self
                         .dataset
-                        .empty_projection()
-                        .union_column(&column, OnMissing::Error)?;
-                    self.take(input, projection)?
+                        .open_vector_index(
+                            q.column.as_str(),
+                            &selected_index_segments[0].uuid,
+                            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                    let index_metric = idx.metric_type();
+                    let use_this_index = match q.metric_type {
+                        Some(user_metric) => {
+                            if user_metric == index_metric {
+                                true
+                            } else {
+                                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                    "with_index_segments requested metric {:?} but the selected index segments use {:?}",
+                                    user_metric, index_metric
+                                )));
+                            }
+                        }
+                        None => true,
+                    };
+                    if use_this_index {
+                        Some((index_name, selected_index_segments, index_metric))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            // An index can only answer a query on the column it is keyed on, which is
+            // always `fields[0]`. Not `contains`: `fields` also lists columns the index
+            // merely carries values for, which it cannot search. Not a boundary derived
+            // from `covering_fields` either -- that is computed from a field older
+            // writers drop, so it would widen to the carried columns exactly when the
+            // declaration is lost.
+            else if let Some(index) = indices.iter().find(|i| {
+                i.fields.first() == Some(&column_id) && crate::index::index_type_is_known(i)
+            }) {
+                // Try to get metric type from index metadata first (fast path for newer indices)
+                let index_metric = if let Some(metric) =
+                    crate::index::vector::details::metric_type_from_index_metadata(index)
+                {
+                    metric
                 } else {
-                    input
+                    // Fall back to opening the index for legacy indices without details
+                    let idx = self
+                        .dataset
+                        .open_vector_index(q.column.as_str(), &index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                        .await?;
+                    idx.metric_type()
                 };
 
-                Ok(Arc::new(FlatMatchQueryExec::new(
-                    self.dataset.clone(),
-                    match_query.clone(),
-                    q.params(),
-                    input,
-                    schema,
-                )))
-            }
-            _ => {
-                let default_filter = ExprFilterPlan::default();
-                let fts_plan = self.fts(&default_filter, q).await?;
-
-                let vector_row_id = Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, input.schema().as_ref())?;
-                let fts_row_id = Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, fts_plan.schema().as_ref())?;
-                let join = HashJoinExec::try_new(
-                    input,
-                    fts_plan,
-                    vec![(Arc::new(vector_row_id), Arc::new(fts_row_id))],
-                    None,
-                    &JoinType::Inner,
-                    None,
-                    PartitionMode::CollectLeft,
-                    NullEquality::NullEqualsNull,
-                )?;
-
-                let schema = join.schema();
-                let mut projection_exprs = Vec::new();
-                let mut contain_rowid = false;
-                for field in schema.fields() {
-                    if field.name() == ROW_ID {
-                        if contain_rowid {
-                            continue;
+                let use_this_index = match q.metric_type {
+                    Some(user_metric) => {
+                        if user_metric == index_metric {
+                            true
+                        } else {
+                            log::warn!(
+                                "Requested metric {:?} is incompatible with index metric {:?}, falling back to brute-force search",
+                                user_metric,
+                                index_metric
+                            );
+                            false
                         }
-                        contain_rowid = true;
                     }
-                    projection_exprs.push((
-                        Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(field.name(), schema.as_ref())?)
-                            as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
-                        field.name().clone(),
-                    ));
+                    None => true,
+                };
+
+                if use_this_index {
+                    let index_segments = self.retain_relevant_index_segments(
+                        self.dataset.load_indices_by_name(&index.name).await?,
+                    );
+                    let index_frags = self.get_indexed_frags(&index_segments);
+                    if !index_segments.is_empty() && !index_frags.is_empty() {
+                        Some((index.name.clone(), index_segments, index_metric))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    None
                 }
+            } else {
+                None
+            }
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
 
-                let projection_exec = ProjectionExec::try_new(projection_exprs, Arc::new(join))?;
-                Ok(Arc::new(projection_exec))
+        // Explicit segment selection may remove a contributor to FRI-derived coverage.
+        // When fragments are requested, they must still be searched completely.
+        // Segment-only search intentionally permits partial results and is unchanged.
+        if self.index_segments.is_some()
+            && self.fragments.is_some()
+            && indices
+                .iter()
+                .any(lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged)
+            && let Some((name, segments, _)) = &index_and_segments
+        {
+            let selected: HashSet<_> = segments.iter().map(|segment| segment.uuid).collect();
+            let covered = self.get_indexed_frags(segments);
+            let missing_contributor = indices.iter().any(|index| {
+                index.name == *name
+                    && !selected.contains(&index.uuid)
+                    && index
+                        .fragment_bitmap
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .is_some_and(|bitmap| !bitmap.is_disjoint(&covered))
+            });
+            if missing_contributor {
+                index_and_segments = None;
             }
         }
-    }
 
-    /// Add a knn search node to the input plan
-    fn flat_knn(&self, input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, q: &Query) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        // Resolve metric_type if not set (use default for the column's element type)
-        let metric_type = match q.metric_type {
-            Some(m) => m,
-            None => {
-                let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(self.dataset.schema(), &q.column)?;
-                default_distance_type_for(&element_type)
+        if let Some((index_name, index_segments, index_metric)) = index_and_segments {
+            if self.is_batch_nearest {
+                validate_distance_type_for(index_metric, &element_type)?;
+                return self
+                    .batch_indexed_vector_search(
+                        filter_plan,
+                        &q,
+                        &index_name,
+                        &index_segments,
+                        index_metric,
+                    )
+                    .await;
             }
-        };
-        let flat_dist = Arc::new(KNNVectorDistanceExec::try_new(
-            input,
-            &q.column,
-            q.key.clone(),
-            metric_type,
-        )?);
 
-        let lower: Option<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>)> = q
-            .lower_bound
-            .map(|v| -> Result<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>)> {
-                let logical = col(DIST_COL).gt_eq(lit(v));
-                let schema = flat_dist.schema();
-                let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema)?;
-                let physical = create_physical_expr(&logical, &df_schema, &ExecutionProps::new())?;
-                Ok::<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>), _>((logical, physical))
-            })
-            .transpose()?;
+            log::trace!("index found for vector search");
+            // Use the index's metric type
+            q.metric_type = Some(index_metric);
+            validate_distance_type_for(index_metric, &element_type)?;
 
-        let upper = q
-            .upper_bound
-            .map(|v| -> Result<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>)> {
-                let logical = col(DIST_COL).lt(lit(v));
-                let schema = flat_dist.schema();
-                let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema)?;
-                let physical = create_physical_expr(&logical, &df_schema, &ExecutionProps::new())?;
-                Ok::<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>), _>((logical, physical))
-            })
-            .transpose()?;
+            if matches!(q.refine_factor, Some(0)) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "Refine factor cannot be zero".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            // Mask data overlay files: compute which row addresses within each segment have
+            // been updated by a newer overlay so their ANN entries may be stale.
+            // These stale rows are blocked from ANN results via the prefilter and re-scored
+            // on the targeted flat path below — only the specific stale rows, not the whole
+            // fragment, so sparse overlays incur near-zero overhead.
+            let stale_rows = self.overlay_stale_vector_rows(&index_segments)?;
+            // Build a prefilter block mask for stale rows (empty = no-op fast path).
+            let overlay_block = self.stale_rows_block_mask(&stale_rows).await?;
 
-        let filter_expr = match (lower, upper) {
-            (Some((llog, _)), Some((ulog, _))) => {
-                let logical = llog.and(ulog);
-                let schema = flat_dist.schema();
-                let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema)?;
-                let physical = create_physical_expr(&logical, &df_schema, &ExecutionProps::new())?;
-                Some((logical, physical))
+            let ann_node = match vector_type {
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => {
+                    self.ann(&q, &index_segments, filter_plan, overlay_block.clone())
+                        .await?
+                }
+                DataType::List(_) => {
+                    self.multivec_ann(&q, &index_segments, filter_plan, overlay_block.clone())
+                        .await?
+                }
+                _ => unreachable!(),
+            };
+
+            let mut knn_node = if q.refine_factor.is_some() {
+                let vector_projection = self
+                    .dataset
+                    .empty_projection()
+                    .union_column(&q.column, OnMissing::Error)
+                    .unwrap();
+                let knn_node_with_vector = self.take(ann_node, vector_projection)?;
+                self.flat_knn(knn_node_with_vector, &q)?
+            } else {
+                ann_node
+            }; // vector, _distance, _rowid
+
+            if !self.fast_search {
+                knn_node = self
+                    .knn_combined(
+                        &q,
+                        &index_name,
+                        &index_segments,
+                        &stale_rows,
+                        knn_node,
+                        filter_plan,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
             }
-            (Some((llog, lphys)), None) => Some((llog, lphys)),
-            (None, Some((ulog, uphys))) => Some((ulog, uphys)),
-            (None, None) => None,
-        };
 
-        let knn_plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = if let Some(filter_expr) = filter_expr {
-            Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(filter_expr.0, flat_dist)?)
+            Ok(knn_node)
         } else {
-            flat_dist
-        };
+            if self.fast_search {
+                return Ok(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(knn_empty_result_schema(
+                    self.is_batch_nearest,
+                ))));
+            }
+            // Resolve metric type for flat search (use default if not specified)
+            let metric = q
+                .metric_type
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| default_distance_type_for(&element_type));
+            q.metric_type = Some(metric);
+            validate_distance_type_for(metric, &element_type)?;
+            // No index found. use flat search.
+            let mut columns = vec![q.column.clone()];
+            if let Some(refine_expr) = filter_plan.refine_expr.as_ref() {
+                columns.extend(Planner::column_names_in_expr(refine_expr));
+            }
+            let mut vector_scan_projection = self
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .with_row_id()
+                .union_columns(&columns, OnMissing::Error)?;
 
-        // Use DataFusion's [SortExec] for Top-K search
-        let sort = SortExec::new(
-            [
-                PhysicalSortExpr {
-                    expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, knn_plan.schema().as_ref())?,
-                    options: SortOptions {
-                        descending: false,
-                        nulls_first: false,
-                    },
-                },
-                PhysicalSortExpr {
-                    expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, knn_plan.schema().as_ref())?,
-                    options: SortOptions {
-                        descending: false,
-                        nulls_first: false,
-                    },
-                },
-            ]
-            .into(),
-            knn_plan,
-        )
-        .with_fetch(Some(q.k));
+            vector_scan_projection.with_row_addr =
+                self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_addr;
 
-        let logical_not_null = col(DIST_COL).is_not_null();
-        let not_nulls = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(logical_not_null, Arc::new(sort))?);
+            let PlannedFilteredScan { mut plan, .. } = self
+                .filtered_read(
+                    filter_plan,
+                    vector_scan_projection,
+                    /*include_deleted_rows=*/ true,
+                    self.fragments.clone().map(Arc::new),
+                    None,
+                    /*is_prefilter= */ true,
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await?;
 
-        Ok(not_nulls)
+            if let Some(refine_expr) = &filter_plan.refine_expr {
+                plan = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(refine_expr.clone(), plan)?);
+            }
+            // The flat branch never reaches the index-side prefilter, so apply
+            // the external row-address mask here against the scanned _rowid.
+            if let Some(mask) = self.external_row_mask.clone() {
+                plan = Arc::new(RowAddrMaskFilterExec::new(plan, mask));
+            }
+            Ok(self.flat_knn(plan, &q)?)
+        }
     }
 
-    fn get_fragments_as_bitmap(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
-        if let Some(fragments) = &self.fragments {
-            RoaringBitmap::from_iter(fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32))
-        } else {
-            RoaringBitmap::from_iter(self.dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32))
+    /// Whether a batch (multi-query) vector search can use the shared-scan
+    /// indexed fast path ([`new_knn_batch_exec`]) instead of running one indexed
+    /// search per query vector.
+    ///
+    /// Requires all of:
+    /// - no refine step (the batch path does not yet rerank);
+    /// - fixed nprobes (`minimum_nprobes == maximum_nprobes`) — see below;
+    /// - every segment an IVF index with a flat-style sub-index (i.e. not HNSW);
+    /// - every target fragment covered by the *selected* `index_segments` (or
+    ///   `fast_search`, which searches only the selected segments anyway).
+    ///
+    /// The fixed-nprobes requirement is a *correctness* gate, not just an
+    /// optimization. The shared-scan path searches exactly `minimum_nprobes`
+    /// partitions per query, but the single-query path is adaptive: it applies a
+    /// k-dependent `early_pruning` floor and then expands probes up to
+    /// `maximum_nprobes` (late search) when a query has fewer than `k` results.
+    /// When `minimum_nprobes == maximum_nprobes` neither adjustment can fire
+    /// (pruning is capped at the maximum, and the late-search range is empty), so
+    /// the batch result is provably identical to repeated single-query search.
+    /// With adaptive nprobes the two would diverge, so we fall back to the
+    /// per-query loop, which reuses the real adaptive search and stays exact.
+    ///
+    /// Extending the shared-scan path to adaptive nprobes (a batched early/late
+    /// search) is left as a follow-up.
+    async fn batch_index_search_supported(
+        &self,
+        index_name: &str,
+        index_segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+        q: &Query,
+    ) -> Result<bool> {
+        // Any refine factor sends the query onto a reranking path that the
+        // shared batch scan does not implement: the single-query path reranks
+        // with the original vectors even when the factor is 1, and rejects a
+        // factor of 0 outright (`Refine factor cannot be zero`). The batch path
+        // does neither, so fall back to the per-query loop for every `Some(_)`.
+        if q.refine_factor.is_some() {
+            return Ok(false);
         }
-    }
-
-    fn get_indexed_frags(&self, index: &[IndexMetadata]) -> RoaringBitmap {
-        let all_fragments = self.get_fragments_as_bitmap();
-
-        let mut all_indexed_frags = RoaringBitmap::new();
-        for idx in index {
-            if let Some(fragmap) = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() {
-                all_indexed_frags |= fragmap;
-            } else {
-                // If any index is missing the fragment bitmap it is safest to just assume we
-                // need all fragments
-                return all_fragments;
-            }
+        // Only fixed nprobes is provably equivalent to single-query search; see
+        // the method docs. Adaptive nprobes falls back to the per-query loop.
+        if q.maximum_nprobes != Some(q.minimum_nprobes) {
+            return Ok(false);
         }
-
-        all_indexed_frags & all_fragments
+        // `nprobes(0)` is not rejected by the query builder, so `min == max == 0`
+        // slips past the fixed-nprobes check above. The single-query path probes
+        // nothing and returns an empty result, whereas the batch node would probe
+        // one partition's worth of neighbors — a silent divergence. Fall back so
+        // the per-query loop defines the semantics of `nprobes(0)`.
+        if q.minimum_nprobes == 0 {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        // The per-query path threads a caller-supplied external row-address mask
+        // (`with_row_addr_prefilter`) into each query's prefilter via
+        // `with_external_mask`; the shared batch path builds one prefilter across
+        // the batch and does not carry that mask. Rather than silently returning
+        // masked-out rows, fall back to the per-query loop whenever a mask is set.
+        if self.external_row_mask.is_some() {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        // Decide from the index metadata (no I/O) rather than opening the index
+        // to call `supports_batch_partition_search()`: this is a planning-time
+        // gate and the single-query path likewise avoids opening the index here.
+        // An IVF index with a flat-style sub-index (i.e. not HNSW) is exactly the
+        // set for which `supports_batch_partition_search()` is true; the exec
+        // re-checks that trait as a defensive invariant. Legacy segments without
+        // details fall back.
+        let all_ivf_flat_style = index_segments.iter().all(|index| {
+            index
+                .index_details
+                .as_ref()
+                .filter(|details| !details.value.is_empty())
+                .map(|details| {
+                    let index_type =
+                        crate::index::vector::details::derive_vector_index_type(details);
+                    index_type.starts_with("IVF_") && !index_type.contains("HNSW")
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(false)
+        });
+        if !all_ivf_flat_style {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        // The batch node searches only the index's own entries; unlike the
+        // single-query path it does not reconcile data overlays (which block
+        // overlay-stale rows from the ANN result and re-score them on a flat
+        // take path — see `overlay_stale_vector_rows` in `vector_search`). If any
+        // indexed row was updated by a newer overlay, the batch path would return
+        // that row's stale index entry, so fall back to the per-query loop. This
+        // must precede the `fast_search` shortcut below because the single-query
+        // path applies the overlay block even in fast-search mode. Cheap in the
+        // common case: returns an empty map when no target fragment has overlays.
+        if !self.overlay_stale_vector_rows(index_segments)?.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        if self.fast_search {
+            return Ok(true);
+        }
+        // The batch node only searches the selected `index_segments`, so any
+        // target fragment those segments do not cover would silently drop rows
+        // (the single-query path re-scores such fragments on a flat fallback in
+        // `knn_combined`). Measure coverage against the selected segments -- not
+        // the whole logical index -- so a subset selected via
+        // `with_index_segments` cannot hide a fragment that an unselected
+        // segment happens to cover; fall back whenever any remain.
+        let uncovered_fragments = self
+            .fragments_missing_from_index_segments(index_name, index_segments)
+            .await?;
+        Ok(uncovered_fragments.is_empty())
     }
 
-    /// Create an Execution plan to do indexed ANN search
-    async fn ann(
+    /// Target fragments the given `index_segments` do not cover.
+    ///
+    /// The ANN scan reads only the selected segments' partitions, so these are
+    /// exactly the fragments the single-query path re-scores on a flat fallback
+    /// in [`Self::knn_combined`]. Coverage is measured against the *selected*
+    /// segments rather than every segment of the logical index (which
+    /// `Dataset::unindexed_fragments` would do): a caller may select a subset
+    /// via [`with_index_segments`](Self::with_index_segments) while another,
+    /// unselected segment covers one of the requested fragments.
+    async fn fragments_missing_from_index_segments(
         &self,
-        q: &Query,
-        index: &[IndexMetadata],
-        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let prefilter_source = self
-            .prefilter_source(filter_plan, self.get_indexed_frags(index))
-            .await?;
-        let inner_fanout_search = new_knn_exec(self.dataset.clone(), index, q, prefilter_source)?;
-        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
-            expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, inner_fanout_search.schema().as_ref())?,
-            options: SortOptions {
-                descending: false,
-                nulls_first: false,
-            },
-        };
-        let sort_expr_row_id = PhysicalSortExpr {
-            expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, inner_fanout_search.schema().as_ref())?,
-            options: SortOptions {
-                descending: false,
-                nulls_first: false,
-            },
-        };
-        Ok(Arc::new(
-            SortExec::new([sort_expr, sort_expr_row_id].into(), inner_fanout_search)
-                .with_fetch(Some(q.k * q.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize)),
-        ))
+        index_name: &str,
+        index_segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+        if let Some(target_fragments) = &self.fragments {
+            let indexed_fragments = self.get_indexed_frags(index_segments);
+            Ok(target_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|fragment| !indexed_fragments.contains(fragment.id as u32))
+                .cloned()
+                .collect())
+        } else if self.index_segments.is_some() {
+            // An explicit segment selection with no fragment restriction searches
+            // exactly those segments; there is nothing to fall back for.
+            Ok(Vec::new())
+        } else {
+            self.dataset.unindexed_fragments(index_name).await
+        }
     }
 
-    // Create an Execution plan to do ANN over multivectors
-    async fn multivec_ann(
+    async fn batch_indexed_vector_search(
         &self,
-        q: &Query,
-        index: &[IndexMetadata],
         filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        q: &Query,
+        index_name: &str,
+        index_segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+        index_metric: MetricType,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        // we split the query procedure into two steps:
-        // 1. collect the candidates by vector searching on each query vector
-        // 2. scoring the candidates
+        // Fast path: when every index segment is an IVF index with a flat-style
+        // sub-index (IVF_FLAT/PQ/SQ/RQ), search all query vectors in a single
+        // pass that reads each partition's storage once and shares the prefilter
+        // across the batch. HNSW, refine, and mixed indexed/unindexed scans fall
+        // back to the per-query loop below, which never regresses behavior.
+        if self
+            .batch_index_search_supported(index_name, index_segments, q)
+            .await?
+        {
+            let mut batch_query = q.clone();
+            batch_query.metric_type = Some(index_metric);
+            let prefilter_source = self
+                .ann_prefilter_source(filter_plan, index_segments)
+                .await?;
+            return new_knn_batch_exec(
+                self.dataset.clone(),
+                index_segments,
+                &batch_query,
+                self.nearest_query_count,
+                prefilter_source,
+            );
+        }
 
-        let over_fetch_factor = *DEFAULT_XTR_OVERFETCH;
+        let query_dim = q.key.len() / self.nearest_query_count;
+        let mut query_plans = Vec::with_capacity(self.nearest_query_count);
 
-        let prefilter_source = self
-            .prefilter_source(filter_plan, self.get_indexed_frags(index))
-            .await?;
-        let dim = get_vector_dim(self.dataset.schema(), &q.column)?;
+        for query_index in 0..self.nearest_query_count {
+            let mut single_query = q.clone();
+            single_query.key = q.key.slice(query_index * query_dim, query_dim);
 
-        let num_queries = q.key.len() / dim;
-        let new_queries = (0..num_queries)
-            .map(|i| q.key.slice(i * dim, dim))
-            .map(|query_vec| {
-                let mut new_query = q.clone();
-                new_query.key = query_vec;
-                // with XTR, we don't need to refine the result with original vectors,
-                // but here we really need to over-fetch the candidates to reach good enough recall.
-                // TODO: improve the recall with WARP, expose this parameter to the users.
-                new_query.refine_factor = Some(over_fetch_factor);
-                new_query
-            });
-        let mut ann_nodes = Vec::with_capacity(new_queries.len());
-        for query in new_queries {
-            // this produces `nprobes * k * over_fetch_factor * num_indices` candidates
-            let ann_node = new_knn_exec(
-                self.dataset.clone(),
-                index,
-                &query,
-                prefilter_source.clone(),
-            )?;
-            let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
-                expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, ann_node.schema().as_ref())?,
-                options: SortOptions {
-                    descending: false,
-                    nulls_first: false,
-                },
-            };
-            let sort_expr_row_id = PhysicalSortExpr {
-                expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, ann_node.schema().as_ref())?,
-                options: SortOptions {
-                    descending: false,
-                    nulls_first: false,
-                },
-            };
-            let ann_node = Arc::new(
-                SortExec::new([sort_expr, sort_expr_row_id].into(), ann_node)
-                    .with_fetch(Some(q.k * over_fetch_factor as usize)),
-            );
-            ann_nodes.push(ann_node as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>);
+            let mut single_scanner = self.clone();
+            single_scanner.nearest_query_count = 1;
+            single_scanner.is_batch_nearest = false;
+            single_scanner.nearest = Some(single_query.clone());
+
+            let single_plan = single_scanner
+                .vector_search(filter_plan, &single_query)
+                .await?;
+            query_plans.push(Self::add_query_index_column(
+                single_plan,
+                query_index as i32,
+            )?);
         }
 
-        let ann_node = Arc::new(MultivectorScoringExec::try_new(ann_nodes, q.clone())?);
+        let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(query_plans)?;
+        let unioned = Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
+            unioned,
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+        )?) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>;
 
-        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
-            expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, ann_node.schema().as_ref())?,
+        let query_index_sort = PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: expressions::col(QUERY_INDEX_COL, unioned.schema().as_ref())?,
             options: SortOptions {
                 descending: false,
                 nulls_first: false,
             },
         };
-        let sort_expr_row_id = PhysicalSortExpr {
-            expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, ann_node.schema().as_ref())?,
+        let distance_sort = PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, unioned.schema().as_ref())?,
+            options: SortOptions {
+                descending: false,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            },
+        };
+        let row_id_sort = PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, unioned.schema().as_ref())?,
             options: SortOptions {
                 descending: false,
                 nulls_first: false,
             },
         };
-        let ann_node = Arc::new(
-            SortExec::new([sort_expr, sort_expr_row_id].into(), ann_node)
-                .with_fetch(Some(q.k * q.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize)),
-        );
 
-        Ok(ann_node)
+        Ok(Arc::new(SortExec::new(
+            [query_index_sort, distance_sort, row_id_sort].into(),
+            unioned,
+        )))
     }
 
-    /// Create prefilter source from filter plan
-    ///
-    /// A prefilter is an input to a vector or fts search.  It tells us which rows are eligible
-    /// for the search.  A prefilter is calculated by doing a filtered read of the row id column.
-    async fn prefilter_source(
+    fn add_query_index_column(
+        plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        query_index: i32,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let schema = plan.schema();
+        let mut projection_exprs = Vec::with_capacity(schema.fields().len() + 1);
+        projection_exprs.push((
+            Arc::new(Literal::new(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(query_index)))) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+            QUERY_INDEX_COL.to_string(),
+        ));
+        for field in schema.fields() {
+            projection_exprs.push((
+                Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(field.name(), schema.as_ref())?)
+                    as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+                field.name().clone(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(ProjectionExec::try_new(projection_exprs, plan)?))
+    }
+
+    /// Combine ANN results with KNN results for data appended after index creation
+    async fn knn_combined(
         &self,
+        q: &Query,
+        index_name: &str,
+        indexed_segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+        stale_rows: &HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+        mut knn_node: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
         filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
-        required_frags: RoaringBitmap,
-    ) -> Result<PreFilterSource> {
-        if filter_plan.is_empty() {
-            log::trace!("no filter plan, no prefilter");
-            return Ok(PreFilterSource::None);
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let fallback_fragments = self
+            .fragments_missing_from_index_segments(index_name, indexed_segments)
+            .await?;
+
+        let has_fallback = !fallback_fragments.is_empty();
+        let has_stale = !stale_rows.is_empty();
+
+        if !has_fallback && !has_stale {
+            return Ok(knn_node);
         }
 
-        let fragments = Arc::new(
-            self.dataset
-                .manifest
-                .fragments
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|f| required_frags.contains(f.id as u32))
-                .cloned()
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-        );
+        let q = q.clone();
+        debug_assert!(q.metric_type.is_some());
 
-        // Can only use ScalarIndexExec when the scalar index is exact and we are not scanning
-        // a subset of the fragments.
-        //
-        // TODO: We could enhance ScalarIndexExec with a fragment bitmap to filter out rows that
-        // are not in the fragments we are scanning.
-        if filter_plan.is_exact_index_search() && self.fragments.is_none() {
-            let index_query = filter_plan.index_query.as_ref().expect_ok()?;
-            let (_, missing_frags) = self
-                .partition_frags_by_coverage(index_query, fragments.clone())
-                .await?;
+        // Ensure the vector column is present for distance computation.
+        if knn_node.schema().column_with_name(&q.column).is_none() {
+            let vector_projection = self
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_column(&q.column, OnMissing::Error)?;
+            knn_node = self.take(knn_node, vector_projection)?;
+        }
 
-            if missing_frags.is_empty() {
-                log::trace!("prefilter entirely satisfied by exact index search");
-                // We can only avoid materializing the index for a prefilter if:
-                // 1. The search is indexed
-                // 2. The index search is an exact search with no recheck or refine
-                // 3. The indices cover at least the same fragments as the vector index
-                return Ok(PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(Arc::new(
-                    ScalarIndexExec::new(self.dataset.clone(), index_query.clone()),
-                )));
-            } else {
-                log::trace!("exact index search did not cover all fragments");
-            }
+        let mut columns = vec![q.column.clone()];
+        if let Some(expr) = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref() {
+            let filter_columns = Planner::column_names_in_expr(expr);
+            columns.extend(filter_columns);
         }
 
-        // If one of our criteria is not met, we need to do a filtered read of just the row id column
-        log::trace!(
-            "prefilter is a filtered read of {} fragments",
-            fragments.len()
-        );
-        let PlannedFilteredScan { plan, .. } = self
-            .filtered_read(
-                filter_plan,
-                self.dataset.empty_projection().with_row_id(),
+        // Collect flat-path plans; union order matches original (flat before ANN) so test snapshots
+        // and downstream plan analyses remain stable.
+        let mut flat_inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = Vec::new();
+
+        // Flat KNN for unindexed (new-data) fragments.
+        if has_fallback {
+            let vector_scan_projection = Arc::new(self.dataset.schema().project(&columns)?);
+            // Note: we could try and use the scalar indices here to reduce the scope of this scan
+            // but the most common case is that fragments newer than the vector index are also
+            // newer than the scalar indices.
+            let mut scan_node = self.scan_fragments(
+                true,
                 false,
-                Some(fragments),
+                false,
+                false,
+                false,
+                vector_scan_projection,
+                Arc::new(fallback_fragments),
+                // Can't pushdown limit/offset in an ANN search
                 None,
-                /*is_prefilter= */ true,
-            )
-            .await?;
-        Ok(PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(plan))
-    }
+                // We are re-ordering anyways, so no need to get data in a deterministic order.
+                false,
+            );
+            if let Some(expr) = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref() {
+                scan_node = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(expr.clone(), scan_node)?);
+            }
+            // Appended fragments are not covered by the index, so the external
+            // row-address mask must be applied to them here.
+            let scan_node = match self.external_row_mask.clone() {
+                Some(mask) => Arc::new(RowAddrMaskFilterExec::new(scan_node, mask)) as _,
+                None => scan_node,
+            };
+            let topk_fallback = self.flat_knn(scan_node, &q)?;
+            let topk_fallback: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+                Arc::new(project(topk_fallback, knn_node.schema().as_ref())?);
+            flat_inputs.push(topk_fallback);
+        }
 
-    /// Take row indices produced by input plan from the dataset (with projection)
-    fn take(
-        &self,
-        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-        output_projection: Projection,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let coalesced = Arc::new(CoalesceBatchesExec::new(
-            input.clone(),
-            self.get_batch_size(),
-        ));
-        if let Some(take_plan) =
-            TakeExec::try_new(self.dataset.clone(), coalesced, output_projection)?
-        {
-            Ok(Arc::new(take_plan))
-        } else {
-            // No new columns needed
-            Ok(input)
+        // Flat KNN for stale rows only (row-level precision).
+        // Only specific row addresses need re-scoring, not the whole fragment, so sparse overlays
+        // incur near-zero overhead.
+        if has_stale {
+            // Fetch vector + filter columns for the stale rows. `flat_knn` sorts by row id, so the
+            // take must carry it (the fallback scan above gets it via `scan_fragments`).
+            let mut take_proj = self
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .with_row_id()
+                .union_column(&q.column, OnMissing::Error)?;
+            if let Some(expr) = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref() {
+                let filter_columns = Planner::column_names_in_expr(expr);
+                take_proj = take_proj.union_columns(filter_columns, OnMissing::Error)?;
+            }
+            let mut stale_node = self.stale_rows_take(stale_rows, take_proj).await?;
+            if let Some(expr) = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref() {
+                stale_node = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(expr.clone(), stale_node)?);
+            }
+            let topk_stale = self.flat_knn(stale_node, &q)?;
+            let topk_stale: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+                Arc::new(project(topk_stale, knn_node.schema().as_ref())?);
+            flat_inputs.push(topk_stale);
         }
-    }
 
-    /// Global offset-limit of the result of the input plan
-    fn limit_node(&self, plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
-        Arc::new(GlobalLimitExec::new(
-            plan,
-            *self.offset.as_ref().unwrap_or(&0) as usize,
-            self.limit.map(|l| l as usize),
-        ))
+        // Union: flat paths first (matching original order), then ANN results.
+        flat_inputs.push(knn_node);
+        let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(flat_inputs)?;
+        let unioned = RepartitionExec::try_new(
+            unioned,
+            datafusion::physical_plan::Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+        )?;
+        self.flat_knn(Arc::new(unioned), &q)
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "info", skip(self))]
-    pub async fn analyze_plan(&self) -> Result<String> {
-        let plan = self.create_plan().await?;
-        let res = analyze_plan(
-            plan,
-            LanceExecutionOptions {
-                batch_size: self.batch_size,
-                ..Default::default()
-            },
-        )
-        .await;
-        res
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "info", skip(self))]
-    pub async fn explain_plan(&self, verbose: bool) -> Result<String> {
-        let plan = self.create_plan().await?;
-        let display = DisplayableExecutionPlan::new(plan.as_ref());
-
-        Ok(format!("{}", display.indent(verbose)))
+    #[async_recursion]
+    async fn fragments_covered_by_index_query(
+        &self,
+        index_expr: &ScalarIndexExpr,
+    ) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        match index_expr {
+            ScalarIndexExpr::And(lhs, rhs) => {
+                Ok(self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(lhs).await?
+                    & self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(rhs).await?)
+            }
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Or(lhs, rhs) => Ok(self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(lhs).await?
+                & self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(rhs).await?),
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Not(expr) => self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(expr).await,
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search) => scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(
+                self.dataset.as_ref(),
+                &search.column,
+                &search.index_name,
+            )
+            .await?
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                crate::Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Index not found even though it must have been found earlier: {}",
+                    search.index_name
+                ))
+            }),
+        }
     }
-}
 
-// Search over all indexed fields including nested ones, collecting columns that have an
-// inverted index
-async fn fts_indexed_columns(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
-    let mut indexed_columns = Vec::new();
-    for field in dataset.schema().fields_pre_order() {
-        // Check if this field is a string type that could have an inverted index
-        let is_string_field = match field.data_type() {
-            DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 => true,
-            DataType::List(inner_field) | DataType::LargeList(inner_field) => {
-                matches!(
-                    inner_field.data_type(),
-                    DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8
-                )
+    /// Given an index query, split the fragments into two groups and collect per-row stale data.
+    ///
+    /// - `relevant_frags`: covered by ALL indices. Stale rows within them are returned separately
+    ///   so callers can block them from `MaterializeIndexExec` and re-score via a targeted take.
+    /// - `missing_frags`: not covered by at least one index; fall back to full scan + filter.
+    /// - `stale_rows`: per-fragment row offsets whose indexed values are stale due to a data
+    ///   overlay committed after the index was built (field-aware, version-gated). Empty when no
+    ///   overlays are present.
+    ///
+    /// There is no point in partially indexing a fragment (some indices cover it, others do not).
+    /// If we have to do a full scan of a fragment for any reason, we do it entirely.
+    async fn partition_frags_by_coverage(
+        &self,
+        index_expr: &ScalarIndexExpr,
+        fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
+    ) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Vec<Fragment>, HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>)> {
+        let covered_frags = self.fragments_covered_by_index_query(index_expr).await?;
+        let stale_rows = self
+            .overlay_stale_index_rows(index_expr, &fragments)
+            .await?;
+        let mut relevant_frags = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        let mut missing_frags = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        for fragment in fragments.iter() {
+            if covered_frags.contains(fragment.id as u32) {
+                // Indexed fragments stay on the indexed path. Stale rows within them are blocked
+                // from the index result and re-evaluated separately via a targeted take.
+                relevant_frags.push(fragment.clone());
+            } else {
+                missing_frags.push(fragment.clone());
             }
-            _ => false,
-        };
+        }
+        Ok((relevant_frags, missing_frags, stale_rows))
+    }
 
-        if is_string_field {
-            // Build the full field path for nested fields
-            let column_path =
-                if let Some(ancestors) = dataset.schema().field_ancestry_by_id(field.id) {
-                    let field_refs: Vec<&str> = ancestors.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
-                    format_field_path(&field_refs)
-                } else {
-                    continue; // Skip if we can't find the field ancestry
-                };
+    /// Per-row stale offsets for each fragment whose indexed values may be stale because an
+    /// overlay committed *after* an index was built touches a field that index covers.
+    ///
+    /// The check is field-aware (an overlay touching only unindexed fields excludes nothing) and
+    /// version-gated (an overlay with `committed_version <= index.dataset_version` is already
+    /// incorporated by the index), via
+    /// [`lance_table::format::overlay::staleness::overlay_exclusion_offsets`].
+    async fn overlay_stale_index_rows(
+        &self,
+        index_expr: &ScalarIndexExpr,
+        fragments: &[Fragment],
+    ) -> Result<HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>> {
+        // Overlays are rare; skip all index loading when none of the candidate fragments has one.
+        let overlaid_frags = overlaid_fragments(fragments);
+        if overlaid_frags.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(HashMap::new());
+        }
 
-            // Check if this field has an inverted index
-            let has_fts_index = dataset
-                .load_scalar_index(
-                    IndexCriteria::default()
-                        .for_column(&column_path)
-                        .supports_fts(),
-                )
-                .await?
-                .is_some();
+        // Walk the (boolean) index expression tree to collect leaf searches.
+        let mut searches = Vec::new();
+        let mut stack = vec![index_expr];
+        while let Some(expr) = stack.pop() {
+            match expr {
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner) => stack.push(inner),
+                ScalarIndexExpr::And(lhs, rhs) | ScalarIndexExpr::Or(lhs, rhs) => {
+                    stack.push(lhs);
+                    stack.push(rhs);
+                }
+                ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search) => searches.push(search),
+            }
+        }
 
-            if has_fts_index {
-                indexed_columns.push(column_path);
+        // `load_named_scalar_segments` returns cached index metadata — no disk I/O on the hot
+        // path. Even without the cache, this code is only reached when at least one fragment has
+        // overlays (rare), so the per-leaf cost is acceptable.
+        let mut stale: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap> = HashMap::new();
+        for search in searches {
+            let segments = load_named_scalar_segments(
+                self.dataset.as_ref(),
+                &search.column,
+                &search.index_name,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            for segment in &segments {
+                collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment(
+                    segment,
+                    &overlaid_frags,
+                    &mut stale,
+                    self.dataset.schema(),
+                )?;
             }
         }
+        Ok(stale)
     }
-    Ok(indexed_columns)
-}
 
-/// [`DatasetRecordBatchStream`] wraps the dataset into a [`RecordBatchStream`] for
-/// consumption by the user.
-///
-#[pin_project::pin_project]
-pub struct DatasetRecordBatchStream {
-    #[pin]
-    exec_node: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    span: Span,
-}
+    /// Compute per-row stale data for a vector index's segments.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a map from fragment_id to the set of row offsets within that fragment that are stale
+    /// (their vector values have been updated by a newer overlay since the index was built). An
+    /// empty map means no stale rows — the fast path where no masking is needed.
+    fn overlay_stale_vector_rows(
+        &self,
+        segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+    ) -> Result<HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>> {
+        // Scope to the query's target fragments (all dataset fragments if unscoped).
+        let dataset_frags = self.dataset.fragments();
+        let fragments: &[Fragment] = match self.fragments.as_ref() {
+            Some(f) => f.as_slice(),
+            None => dataset_frags.as_slice(),
+        };
+        let overlaid_frags = overlaid_fragments(fragments);
+        if overlaid_frags.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(HashMap::new());
+        }
+        let mut stale: HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap> = HashMap::new();
+        for segment in segments {
+            collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment(
+                segment,
+                &overlaid_frags,
+                &mut stale,
+                self.dataset.schema(),
+            )?;
+        }
+        Ok(stale)
+    }
 
-impl DatasetRecordBatchStream {
-    pub fn new(exec_node: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Self {
-        let schema = exec_node.schema();
-        let adapter = SchemaAdapter::new(schema.clone());
-        let exec_node = if SchemaAdapter::requires_logical_conversion(&schema) {
-            adapter.to_logical_stream(exec_node)
-        } else {
-            exec_node
+    /// Plan FTS overlay handling at row granularity.
+    ///
+    /// Modern segments remain searchable while their overlay-stale rows are blocked and
+    /// re-evaluated from current values. A legacy segment without fragment coverage falls back
+    /// to a full target scan when a relevant overlay exists because its indexed row set is
+    /// unknown.
+    async fn fts_overlay_plan(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+        target_fragments: &[Fragment],
+    ) -> Result<FtsOverlayPlan> {
+        if target_fragments.iter().all(|f| f.overlays.is_empty()) {
+            return Ok(FtsOverlayPlan::Unchanged(None));
+        }
+
+        let Some(segments) = load_segments(&self.dataset, column, document_granularity).await?
+        else {
+            return Ok(FtsOverlayPlan::Unchanged(None));
         };
 
-        let span = info_span!("DatasetRecordBatchStream");
-        Self { exec_node, span }
-    }
-}
+        let overlaid_frags = overlaid_fragments(target_fragments);
+        let mut stale_rows = HashMap::new();
+        for segment in &segments {
+            if segment.fragment_bitmap.is_none() {
+                let mut legacy_stale_rows = HashMap::new();
+                collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment(
+                    segment,
+                    &overlaid_frags,
+                    &mut legacy_stale_rows,
+                    self.dataset.schema(),
+                )?;
+                if !legacy_stale_rows.is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(FtsOverlayPlan::FullScan);
+                }
+            } else {
+                collect_overlay_stale_rows_for_segment(
+                    segment,
+                    &overlaid_frags,
+                    &mut stale_rows,
+                    self.dataset.schema(),
+                )?;
+            }
+        }
 
-impl RecordBatchStream for DatasetRecordBatchStream {
-    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
-        self.exec_node.schema()
+        if stale_rows.is_empty() {
+            Ok(FtsOverlayPlan::Unchanged(Some(segments)))
+        } else {
+            Ok(FtsOverlayPlan::RowLevel {
+                stale_rows,
+                segments,
+            })
+        }
     }
-}
 
-impl Stream for DatasetRecordBatchStream {
-    type Item = Result<RecordBatch>;
+    /// Collect the stale rows into a [`RowAddrTreeMap`] in the domain the index results use.
+    ///
+    /// Index results are in the row-id domain (see `ScalarQuery::evaluate_nullable`), and a
+    /// physical row address equals its row id only when the dataset does not use stable row ids.
+    /// Under stable row ids the addresses are translated to their row ids so the result lines up
+    /// with the index output it is combined with (block mask) or taken against.
+    async fn stale_rows_in_id_domain(
+        &self,
+        stale_rows: &HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+    ) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+        let mut tree_map = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        for (&frag_id, offsets) in stale_rows {
+            tree_map.insert_bitmap(frag_id, offsets.clone());
+        }
+        if self.dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            tree_map = translate_addr_treemap_to_row_ids(&self.dataset, &tree_map).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(tree_map)
+    }
 
-    fn poll_next(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
-        let mut this = self.project();
-        let _guard = this.span.enter();
-        match this.exec_node.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
-            Poll::Ready(result) => Poll::Ready(result.map(|r| Ok(r?))),
-            Poll::Pending => Poll::Pending,
+    /// Build a block-list mask over stale rows, or `None` when there are none.
+    ///
+    /// The mask removes these rows from an index result so the index never emits them; they
+    /// are re-evaluated against their current (overlay-merged) values on a targeted take path
+    /// (see [`Self::stale_rows_take`]).
+    async fn stale_rows_block_mask(
+        &self,
+        stale_rows: &HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<RowAddrMask>> {
+        if stale_rows.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
         }
+        let tree_map = self.stale_rows_in_id_domain(stale_rows).await?;
+        Ok(Some(RowAddrMask::from_block(tree_map)))
     }
-}
 
-impl From<DatasetRecordBatchStream> for SendableRecordBatchStream {
-    fn from(stream: DatasetRecordBatchStream) -> Self {
-        stream.exec_node
+    /// Take the stale rows by physical address, projecting `projection`, to re-evaluate only
+    /// those rows (rather than their whole fragments) against their current overlay-merged values.
+    ///
+    /// The rows are identified by an address allow list routed through `FilteredReadExec`, not a
+    /// `_rowid` column (`_rowid` and row address diverge under stable row ids — see
+    /// [`Self::stale_rows_in_id_domain`]).
+    async fn stale_rows_take(
+        &self,
+        stale_rows: &HashMap<u32, RoaringBitmap>,
+        projection: Projection,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let take_id_map = self.stale_rows_in_id_domain(stale_rows).await?;
+        let index_input = self.row_ids_as_take_input(take_id_map)?;
+        let mut read_options = FilteredReadOptions::new(projection);
+        if let Some(fragments) = self.fragments.as_ref() {
+            read_options = read_options.with_fragments(Arc::new(fragments.clone()));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            read_options,
+            Some(index_input),
+        )?))
     }
-}
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-pub mod test_dataset {
+    // First perform a lookup in a scalar index for ids and then perform a take on the
+    // target fragments with those ids
+    async fn scalar_indexed_scan(
+        &self,
+        projection: Projection,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        log::trace!("scalar indexed scan");
+        // One or more scalar indices cover this data and there is a filter which is
+        // compatible with the indices.  Use that filter to perform a take instead of
+        // a full scan.
 
-    use super::*;
+        // If this unwrap fails we have a bug because we shouldn't be using this function unless we've already
+        // checked that there is an index query
+        let index_expr = filter_plan.index_query.as_ref().unwrap();
 
-    use std::{collections::HashMap, vec};
+        let needs_recheck = index_expr.needs_recheck();
 
-    use arrow_array::{
-        ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
-    };
-    use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
-    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-    use lance_index::{
-        scalar::{inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams},
-        IndexType,
-    };
+        // Figure out which fragments are covered by ALL indices, and which rows within
+        // covered fragments are stale due to data overlay files.
+        let (relevant_frags, missing_frags, stale_rows) = self
+            .partition_frags_by_coverage(index_expr, fragments)
+            .await?;
 
-    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
-    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        // Build the MaterializeIndexExec, blocking stale row addresses so the index never
+        // emits them. Stale rows are re-scored separately via a targeted take below.
+        let mut mat_exec = MaterializeIndexExec::new(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            index_expr.clone(),
+            Arc::new(relevant_frags),
+        );
+        if let Some(segment_uuids) = self
+            .scalar_index_selection
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|selection| selection.segment_uuids.clone())
+        {
+            mat_exec = mat_exec.with_segment_uuids(segment_uuids);
+        }
+        let mat_exec = match self.stale_rows_block_mask(&stale_rows).await? {
+            Some(block) => mat_exec.with_overlay_block(block),
+            None => mat_exec,
+        };
+        let mut plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(mat_exec);
 
-    // Creates a dataset with 5 batches where each batch has 80 rows
-    //
-    // The dataset has the following columns:
-    //
-    //  i   - i32      : [0, 1, ..., 399]
-    //  s   - &str     : ["s-0", "s-1", ..., "s-399"]
-    //  vec - [f32; 32]: [[0, 1, ... 31], [32, ..., 63], ... [..., (80 * 5 * 32) - 1]]
-    //
-    // An IVF-PQ index with 2 partitions is trained on this data
-    pub struct TestVectorDataset {
-        pub tmp_dir: TempStrDir,
-        pub schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
-        pub dataset: Dataset,
-        dimension: u32,
-    }
+        let refine_expr = filter_plan.refine_expr.as_ref();
 
-    impl TestVectorDataset {
-        pub async fn new(
-            data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-            stable_row_ids: bool,
-        ) -> Result<Self> {
-            Self::new_with_dimension(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids, 32).await
+        // If all we want is the row ids then we can skip the take.  However, if there is a refine
+        // or a recheck then we still need to do a take because we need filter columns.
+        let needs_take =
+            needs_recheck || projection.has_data_fields() || filter_plan.refine_expr.is_some();
+        if needs_take {
+            let mut take_projection = projection.clone();
+            if needs_recheck {
+                // If we need to recheck then we need to also take the columns used for the filter
+                let filter_expr = index_expr.to_expr();
+                let filter_cols = Planner::column_names_in_expr(&filter_expr);
+                take_projection = take_projection.union_columns(filter_cols, OnMissing::Error)?;
+            }
+            if let Some(refine_expr) = refine_expr {
+                let refine_cols = Planner::column_names_in_expr(refine_expr);
+                take_projection = take_projection.union_columns(refine_cols, OnMissing::Error)?;
+            }
+            log::trace!("need to take additional columns for scalar_indexed_scan");
+            plan = self.take(plan, take_projection)?;
         }
 
-        pub async fn new_with_dimension(
-            data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-            stable_row_ids: bool,
-            dimension: u32,
-        ) -> Result<Self> {
-            let path = TempStrDir::default();
+        let post_take_filter = match (needs_recheck, refine_expr) {
+            (false, None) => None,
+            (true, None) => {
+                // If we need to recheck then we need to apply the filter to the results
+                Some(index_expr.to_expr())
+            }
+            (true, Some(_)) => Some(filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref().unwrap().clone()),
+            (false, Some(refine_expr)) => Some(refine_expr.clone()),
+        };
 
-            // Make sure the schema has metadata so it tests all paths that re-construct the schema along the way
-            let metadata: HashMap<String, String> =
-                vec![("dataset".to_string(), "vector".to_string())]
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .collect();
+        if let Some(post_take_filter) = post_take_filter {
+            let planner = Planner::new(plan.schema());
+            let optimized_filter = planner.optimize_expr(post_take_filter)?;
 
-            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
-                vec![
-                    ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
-                    ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
-                    ArrowField::new(
-                        "vec",
-                        DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                            dimension as i32,
-                        ),
-                        true,
-                    ),
-                ],
-                metadata,
-            ));
-
-            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
-                .map(|i| {
-                    let vector_values: Float32Array =
-                        (0..dimension * 80).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
-                    let vectors =
-                        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, dimension as i32)
-                            .unwrap();
-                    RecordBatch::try_new(
-                        schema.clone(),
-                        vec![
-                            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 80..(i + 1) * 80)),
-                            Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                                (i * 80..(i + 1) * 80).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-                            )),
-                            Arc::new(vectors),
-                        ],
-                    )
-                })
-                .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, ArrowError>>()?;
-
-            let params = WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_group: 10,
-                max_rows_per_file: 200,
-                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
-                ..Default::default()
-            };
-            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-
-            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &path, Some(params)).await?;
-
-            Ok(Self {
-                tmp_dir: path,
-                schema,
-                dataset,
-                dimension,
-            })
+            log::trace!("applying post-take filter to indexed scan");
+            plan = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(optimized_filter, plan)?);
         }
 
-        pub async fn make_vector_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-            let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
-            self.dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["vec"],
-                    IndexType::Vector,
-                    Some("idx".to_string()),
-                    &params,
-                    true,
-                )
-                .await?;
-            Ok(())
+        if self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_addr {
+            plan = Arc::new(AddRowAddrExec::try_new(plan, self.dataset.clone(), 0)?);
         }
 
-        pub async fn make_scalar_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-            self.dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["i"],
-                    IndexType::Scalar,
-                    None,
-                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                    true,
+        // Both the missing-fragments path (full scan) and the stale-rows path (targeted take)
+        // need the user's projection extended with any filter columns. Compute it once.
+        let fallback_projection: Option<Projection> =
+            if !missing_frags.is_empty() || !stale_rows.is_empty() {
+                let filter = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref().expect_ok()?;
+                let filter_cols = Planner::column_names_in_expr(filter);
+                Some(
+                    projection
+                        .clone()
+                        .union_columns(filter_cols, OnMissing::Error)?,
                 )
-                .await?;
-            Ok(())
-        }
-
-        pub async fn make_fts_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-            let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true);
-            self.dataset
-                .create_index(&["s"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
-                .await?;
-            Ok(())
-        }
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
 
-        pub async fn append_new_data(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
-            let vector_values: Float32Array = (0..10)
-                .flat_map(|i| vec![i as f32; self.dimension as usize].into_iter())
-                .collect();
-            let new_vectors =
-                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, self.dimension as i32)
-                    .unwrap();
-            let new_data: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(400..410)), // 5 * 80
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                    (400..410).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-                )),
-                Arc::new(new_vectors),
-            ];
-            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                vec![RecordBatch::try_new(self.schema.clone(), new_data).unwrap()]
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(Ok),
-                self.schema.clone(),
+        let new_data_path: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = if !missing_frags.is_empty() {
+            log::trace!(
+                "scalar_indexed_scan will need full scan of {} missing fragments",
+                missing_frags.len()
             );
-            self.dataset.append(reader, None).await?;
-            Ok(())
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod test {
-
-    use std::collections::BTreeSet;
-    use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
-    use std::vec;
-
-    use arrow::array::as_primitive_array;
-    use arrow::datatypes::{Float64Type, Int32Type, Int64Type};
-    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-    use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, UInt64Type};
-    use arrow_array::{
-        ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float16Array, Int32Array, LargeStringArray, PrimitiveArray,
-        RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray, UInt8Array,
-    };
-
-    use arrow_ord::sort::sort_to_indices;
-    use arrow_schema::Fields;
-    use arrow_select::take;
-    use datafusion::logical_expr::{col, lit};
-    use half::f16;
-    use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, SchemaExt};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_core::{ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION};
-    use lance_datagen::{
-        array, gen_batch, ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, ByteCount, Dimension, RowCount,
-    };
-    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
-    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{MatchQuery, PhraseQuery};
-    use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::{scalar::ScalarIndexParams, IndexType};
-    use lance_io::assert_io_gt;
-    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
 
-    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
-    use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32, RandomVector};
-    use object_store::throttle::ThrottleConfig;
-    use rstest::rstest;
+            // If there is new data then we need this:
+            //
+            // MaterializeIndexExec(old_frags) -> Take -> Union
+            // Scan(new_frags) -> Filter -> Project    -|
+            //
+            // The project is to drop any columns we had to include
+            // in the full scan merely for the sake of fulfilling the
+            // filter.
+            //
+            // If there were no extra columns then we still need the project
+            // because Materialize -> Take puts the row id at the left and
+            // Scan puts the row id at the right
+            let scan_projection = fallback_projection.clone().expect_ok()?;
+            let filter = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref().expect_ok()?;
+            let scan_schema = Arc::new(scan_projection.to_bare_schema());
+            let scan_arrow_schema = Arc::new(scan_schema.as_ref().into());
+            let planner = Planner::new(scan_arrow_schema);
+            let optimized_filter = planner.optimize_expr(filter.clone())?;
 
-    use super::*;
-    use crate::dataset::optimize::{compact_files, CompactionOptions};
-    use crate::dataset::scanner::test_dataset::TestVectorDataset;
-    use crate::dataset::WriteMode;
-    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
-    use crate::index::vector::{StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
-    use crate::utils::test::{
-        assert_plan_node_equals, DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, ThrottledStoreWrapper,
-    };
+            let new_data_scan = self.scan_fragments(
+                true,
+                self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_addr,
+                self.projection_plan
+                    .physical_projection
+                    .with_row_last_updated_at_version,
+                self.projection_plan
+                    .physical_projection
+                    .with_row_created_at_version,
+                false,
+                scan_schema,
+                missing_frags.into(),
+                // No pushdown of limit/offset when doing scalar indexed scan
+                None,
+                false,
+            );
+            let filtered = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(optimized_filter, new_data_scan)?);
+            Some(Arc::new(project(filtered, plan.schema().as_ref())?))
+        } else {
+            log::trace!("scalar_indexed_scan will not need full scan of any missing fragments");
+            None
+        };
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_env_var_parsing() {
-        // Test that invalid environment variable values don't panic
+        // Stale-Take path: re-evaluate only the stale row addresses against the full filter
+        // (row-level optimization). These rows were blocked from the index result above;
+        // here we take their current (overlay-merged) values and re-apply the predicate.
+        // The schema matches `plan` via `project(…, plan.schema())`.
+        let stale_take_path: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = if stale_rows.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            let filter = filter_plan.full_expr.as_ref().expect_ok()?;
+            let take_projection = fallback_projection.expect_ok()?;
 
-        // Test invalid LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE
-        std::env::set_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE", "not_a_number");
-        let result = get_default_batch_size();
-        assert_eq!(result, None, "Should return None for invalid batch size");
+            let stale_node = self.stale_rows_take(&stale_rows, take_projection).await?;
 
-        // Test valid LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE
-        std::env::set_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE", "2048");
-        let result = get_default_batch_size();
-        assert_eq!(result, Some(2048), "Should parse valid batch size");
+            let planner = Planner::new(stale_node.schema());
+            let optimized_filter = planner.optimize_expr(filter.clone())?;
+            let filtered = Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(optimized_filter, stale_node)?);
+            Some(Arc::new(project(filtered, plan.schema().as_ref())?))
+        };
 
-        // Test unset LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE
-        std::env::remove_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE");
-        let result = get_default_batch_size();
-        assert_eq!(result, None, "Should return None when env var is not set");
+        let extra_paths: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = [new_data_path, stale_take_path]
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect();
+        if extra_paths.is_empty() {
+            Ok(plan)
+        } else {
+            let all_paths = std::iter::once(plan).chain(extra_paths).collect();
+            let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(all_paths)?;
+            Ok(Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
+                unioned,
+                datafusion::physical_plan::Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            )?))
+        }
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_parse_env_var() {
-        // Test parse_env_var with different types to ensure full coverage
-
-        // Test with a unique env var name to avoid conflicts
-        let test_var = "LANCE_TEST_PARSE_ENV_VAR_USIZE";
-
-        // Test valid usize parsing
-        std::env::set_var(test_var, "12345");
-        let result: Option<usize> = parse_env_var(test_var, "Using default.");
-        assert_eq!(result, Some(12345));
-
-        // Test invalid usize parsing (triggers warning log)
-        std::env::set_var(test_var, "not_a_number");
-        let result: Option<usize> = parse_env_var(test_var, "Using default.");
-        assert_eq!(result, None);
-
-        // Test unset env var
-        std::env::remove_var(test_var);
-        let result: Option<usize> = parse_env_var(test_var, "Using default.");
-        assert_eq!(result, None);
-
-        // Test with u32 type
-        let test_var_u32 = "LANCE_TEST_PARSE_ENV_VAR_U32";
-        std::env::set_var(test_var_u32, "42");
-        let result: Option<u32> = parse_env_var(test_var_u32, "Using default value.");
-        assert_eq!(result, Some(42));
-
-        std::env::set_var(test_var_u32, "invalid");
-        let result: Option<u32> = parse_env_var(test_var_u32, "Using default value.");
-        assert_eq!(result, None);
-
-        std::env::remove_var(test_var_u32);
-
-        // Test with u64 type
-        let test_var_u64 = "LANCE_TEST_PARSE_ENV_VAR_U64";
-        std::env::set_var(test_var_u64, "9999999999");
-        let result: Option<u64> = parse_env_var(test_var_u64, "Using default value.");
-        assert_eq!(result, Some(9999999999));
+    fn get_io_buffer_size(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.io_buffer_size.unwrap_or(*DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE)
+    }
 
-        std::env::set_var(test_var_u64, "-1");
-        let result: Option<u64> = parse_env_var(test_var_u64, "Using default value.");
-        assert_eq!(result, None);
+    /// Create an Execution plan with a scan node
+    ///
+    /// Setting `with_make_deletions_null` will use the validity of the _rowid
+    /// column as a selection vector. Read more in [crate::io::FileReader].
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(crate) fn scan(
+        &self,
+        with_row_id: bool,
+        with_row_address: bool,
+        with_row_last_updated_at_version: bool,
+        with_row_created_at_version: bool,
+        with_make_deletions_null: bool,
+        range: Option<Range<u64>>,
+        projection: Arc<Schema>,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        let fragments = if let Some(fragment) = self.fragments.as_ref() {
+            Arc::new(fragment.clone())
+        } else {
+            self.dataset.fragments().clone()
+        };
+        let ordered = if self.ordering.is_some() || self.nearest.is_some() {
+            // If we are sorting the results there is no need to scan in order
+            false
+        } else {
+            self.ordered
+        };
+        self.scan_fragments(
+            with_row_id,
+            with_row_address,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version,
+            with_row_created_at_version,
+            with_make_deletions_null,
+            projection,
+            fragments,
+            range,
+            ordered,
+        )
+    }
 
-        std::env::remove_var(test_var_u64);
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn scan_fragments(
+        &self,
+        with_row_id: bool,
+        with_row_address: bool,
+        with_row_last_updated_at_version: bool,
+        with_row_created_at_version: bool,
+        with_make_deletions_null: bool,
+        projection: Arc<Schema>,
+        fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
+        range: Option<Range<u64>>,
+        ordered: bool,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        log::trace!("scan_fragments covered {} fragments", fragments.len());
+        let config = LanceScanConfig {
+            batch_size: self.get_batch_size(),
+            batch_readahead: self.batch_readahead,
+            fragment_readahead: self.fragment_readahead,
+            io_buffer_size: self.get_io_buffer_size(),
+            materialization_readahead_bytes: self.materialization_readahead_bytes,
+            with_row_id,
+            with_row_address,
+            with_row_last_updated_at_version,
+            with_row_created_at_version,
+            with_make_deletions_null,
+            ordered_output: ordered,
+            file_reader_options: self.resolved_file_reader_options(),
+            parallelism_cap: None,
+        };
+        Arc::new(LanceScanExec::new(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            fragments,
+            range,
+            projection,
+            config,
+        ))
     }
 
-    async fn make_binary_vector_dataset() -> Result<(TempStrDir, Dataset)> {
-        let tmp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let dim = 4;
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new(
-                "bin",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
-                    dim,
-                ),
-                false,
-            ),
-        ]));
+    fn pushdown_scan(
+        &self,
+        make_deletions_null: bool,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        log::trace!("pushdown_scan");
 
-        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-            UInt8Array::from(vec![
-                0b0000_1111u8,
-                0,
-                0,
-                0, //
-                0b0000_0011u8,
-                0,
-                0,
-                0, //
-                0u8,
-                0,
-                0,
-                0,
-            ]),
-            dim,
-        )?;
-        let ids = Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2]);
+        let config = ScanConfig {
+            batch_readahead: self.batch_readahead,
+            fragment_readahead: self
+                .fragment_readahead
+                .unwrap_or(LEGACY_DEFAULT_FRAGMENT_READAHEAD),
+            with_row_id: self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_id,
+            with_row_address: self.projection_plan.physical_projection.with_row_addr,
+            make_deletions_null,
+            ordered_output: self.ordered,
+            file_reader_options: self.resolved_file_reader_options(),
+        };
 
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(vectors)])?;
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
-        Dataset::write(reader, &tmp_dir, None).await?;
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(&tmp_dir).await?;
-        Ok((tmp_dir, dataset))
+        let fragments = if let Some(fragment) = self.fragments.as_ref() {
+            Arc::new(fragment.clone())
+        } else {
+            self.dataset.fragments().clone()
+        };
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(LancePushdownScanExec::try_new(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            fragments,
+            Arc::new(self.projection_plan.physical_projection.to_bare_schema()),
+            filter_plan.refine_expr.clone().unwrap(),
+            config,
+        )?))
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_batch_size() {
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
-            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]));
+    /// Here we use a full text search as a post-filter. Rows are retained
+    /// according to the match query's token operator.
+    ///
+    /// Only valid (currently) for match queries.
+    async fn flat_fts_filter(
+        &self,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        q: &FullTextSearchQuery,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let fts_query = &q.query;
 
-        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
-            .map(|i| {
-                RecordBatch::try_new(
-                    schema.clone(),
-                    vec![
-                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20)),
-                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-                        )),
-                    ],
-                )
-                .unwrap()
-            })
-            .collect();
+        match fts_query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(match_query) => {
+                let schema = Arc::new((input.schema()).try_with_column(SCORE_FIELD.clone())?);
 
-        for use_filter in [false, true] {
-            let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-            let test_uri = &test_dir;
-            let write_params = WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 40,
-                max_rows_per_group: 10,
-                ..Default::default()
-            };
-            let batches =
-                RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-            Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+                let column = match_query
+                    .column
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
+                    ))?
+                    .clone();
+                let document_granularity = match_query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("FTS Match query granularity was not resolved".to_string())
+                })?;
+                let resolved =
+                    resolve_fts_field(self.dataset.schema(), &column, document_granularity)?;
+                let scan_column = if resolved.has_lists() {
+                    resolved.root_column.clone()
+                } else {
+                    resolved.canonical_path.clone()
+                };
+                let input = if schema.column_with_name(&scan_column).is_none() {
+                    let projection = self
+                        .dataset
+                        .empty_projection()
+                        .union_column(&scan_column, OnMissing::Error)?;
+                    let input = self.take(input, projection)?;
+                    if resolved.has_lists() {
+                        input
+                    } else {
+                        self.ensure_column_alias(input, &scan_column)?
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    input
+                };
 
-            let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-            let mut builder = dataset.scan();
-            builder.batch_size(8);
-            if use_filter {
-                builder.filter("i IS NOT NULL").unwrap();
-            }
-            let mut stream = builder.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-            let mut rows_read = 0;
-            while let Some(next) = stream.next().await {
-                let next = next.unwrap();
-                let expected = 8.min(100 - rows_read);
-                assert_eq!(next.num_rows(), expected);
-                rows_read += next.num_rows();
+                Ok(Arc::new(FlatMatchFilterExec::new_with_resolved_field(
+                    input,
+                    self.dataset.clone(),
+                    match_query.clone(),
+                    q.params(),
+                    resolved,
+                )))
             }
+            _ => Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "Only Match queries are supported currently when using FTS as a post-filter",
+            )),
         }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_strict_batch_size() {
-        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .anon_col(array::step::<Int64Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(7), FragmentRowCount::from(6))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.batch_size(10)
-            .strict_batch_size(true)
-            .filter("x % 2 == 0")
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let batches = scan
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let batch_sizes = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        assert_eq!(batch_sizes, vec![10, 10, 1]);
-    }
+    /// Here we consume all input (as unindexed) and rerank according to BM25 scores
+    ///
+    /// If there is an index on the column then we still use the index to determine the
+    /// tokenizer and inform the BM25 scoring (e.g. avg doc length, token frequency, etc.)
+    async fn fts_rerank(
+        &self,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        q: &FullTextSearchQuery,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let fts_query = &q.query;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_column_not_exist() {
-        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(7), FragmentRowCount::from(6))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        match fts_query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(match_query) => {
+                let schema = Arc::new((input.schema()).try_with_column(SCORE_FIELD.clone())?);
 
-        let check_err_msg = |r: Result<DatasetRecordBatchStream>| {
-            let Err(err) = r else {
-                panic!(
-                    "Expected an error to be raised saying column y is not found but got no error"
-                )
-            };
+                let column = match_query
+                    .column
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "the column must be specified in the query".to_string(),
+                    ))?
+                    .clone();
+                let document_granularity = match_query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("FTS Match query granularity was not resolved".to_string())
+                })?;
+                let resolved =
+                    resolve_fts_field(self.dataset.schema(), &column, document_granularity)?;
+                let scan_column = if resolved.has_lists() {
+                    resolved.root_column.clone()
+                } else {
+                    resolved.canonical_path.clone()
+                };
+                let document_column = if resolved.has_lists() {
+                    VALUE_COLUMN_NAME.to_string()
+                } else {
+                    resolved.canonical_path.clone()
+                };
+                let input = if schema.column_with_name(&scan_column).is_none() {
+                    let projection = self
+                        .dataset
+                        .empty_projection()
+                        .union_column(&scan_column, OnMissing::Error)?;
+                    let input = self.take(input, projection)?;
+                    if resolved.has_lists() {
+                        input
+                    } else {
+                        self.ensure_column_alias(input, &document_column)?
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    input
+                };
+                let input = if resolved.has_lists() {
+                    Arc::new(FtsDocumentExec::new(input, resolved)) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>
+                } else {
+                    input
+                };
 
-            assert!(
-                err.to_string().contains("No field named y"),
-                "Expected error to contain 'No field named y' but got {}",
-                err
-            );
-        };
+                Ok(Arc::new(FlatMatchQueryExec::new_with_document_granularity(
+                    self.dataset.clone(),
+                    match_query.clone(),
+                    q.params(),
+                    input,
+                    document_granularity,
+                    document_column,
+                )))
+            }
+            _ => {
+                let default_filter = ExprFilterPlan::default();
+                let fts_plan = self.fts(&default_filter, q).await?;
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.project(&["x", "y"]).unwrap();
-        check_err_msg(scan.try_into_stream().await);
+                let vector_row_id = Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, input.schema().as_ref())?;
+                let fts_row_id = Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, fts_plan.schema().as_ref())?;
+                let join = HashJoinExec::try_new(
+                    input,
+                    fts_plan,
+                    vec![(Arc::new(vector_row_id), Arc::new(fts_row_id))],
+                    None,
+                    &JoinType::Inner,
+                    None,
+                    PartitionMode::CollectLeft,
+                    NullEquality::NullEqualsNull,
+                    false,
+                )?;
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.project(&["y"]).unwrap();
-        check_err_msg(scan.try_into_stream().await);
+                let schema = join.schema();
+                let mut projection_exprs = Vec::new();
+                let mut contain_rowid = false;
+                for field in schema.fields() {
+                    if field.name() == ROW_ID {
+                        if contain_rowid {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        contain_rowid = true;
+                    }
+                    projection_exprs.push((
+                        Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(field.name(), schema.as_ref())?)
+                            as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+                        field.name().clone(),
+                    ));
+                }
 
-        // This represents a query like `SELECT 1 AS foo` which we could _technically_ satisfy
-        // but it is not supported today
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.project_with_transform(&[("foo", "1")]).unwrap();
-        match scan.try_into_stream().await {
-            Ok(_) => panic!("Expected an error to be raised saying not supported"),
-            Err(e) => {
-                assert!(
-                    e.to_string().contains("Received only dynamic expressions"),
-                    "Expected error to contain 'Received only dynamic expressions' but got {}",
-                    e
-                );
+                let projection_exec = ProjectionExec::try_new(projection_exprs, Arc::new(join))?;
+                Ok(Arc::new(projection_exec))
             }
         }
     }
 
-    #[cfg(not(windows))]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_local_object_store() {
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
-            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]));
+    /// Add a knn search node to the input plan
+    fn flat_knn(&self, input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, q: &Query) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        // Resolve metric_type if not set (use default for the column's element type)
+        let metric_type = match q.metric_type {
+            Some(m) => m,
+            None => {
+                let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(self.dataset.schema(), &q.column)?;
+                default_distance_type_for(&element_type)
+            }
+        };
+        let input = if self.is_batch_nearest {
+            Arc::new(CoalescePartitionsExec::new(input)) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>
+        } else {
+            input
+        };
+        let retain_vector = if self.is_batch_nearest {
+            let vector_field_id = self.dataset.schema().field_id(q.column.as_str())?;
+            self.projection_plan
+                .physical_projection
+                .contains_field_id(vector_field_id)
+        } else {
+            false
+        };
+        let flat_dist = Arc::new(KNNVectorDistanceExec::try_new_batch(
+            input,
+            &q.column,
+            q.key.clone(),
+            KnnBatchParams {
+                is_batch: self.is_batch_nearest,
+                query_count: self.nearest_query_count,
+                k: q.k,
+                lower_bound: q.lower_bound,
+                upper_bound: q.upper_bound,
+                distance_type: metric_type,
+                retain_vector,
+            },
+        )?);
 
-        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
-            .map(|i| {
-                RecordBatch::try_new(
-                    schema.clone(),
-                    vec![
-                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20)),
-                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-                        )),
-                    ],
-                )
-                .unwrap()
+        if self.is_batch_nearest {
+            return Ok(flat_dist);
+        }
+
+        let lower: Option<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>)> = q
+            .lower_bound
+            .map(|v| -> Result<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>)> {
+                let logical = col(DIST_COL).gt_eq(lit(v));
+                let schema = flat_dist.schema();
+                let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema)?;
+                let physical = create_physical_expr(&logical, &df_schema, &ExecutionProps::new())?;
+                Ok::<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>), _>((logical, physical))
             })
-            .collect();
+            .transpose()?;
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 40,
-            max_rows_per_group: 10,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let upper = q
+            .upper_bound
+            .map(|v| -> Result<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>)> {
+                let logical = col(DIST_COL).lt(lit(v));
+                let schema = flat_dist.schema();
+                let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema)?;
+                let physical = create_physical_expr(&logical, &df_schema, &ExecutionProps::new())?;
+                Ok::<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>), _>((logical, physical))
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(&format!("file-object-store://{}", test_uri))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let mut builder = dataset.scan();
-        builder.batch_size(8);
-        let mut stream = builder.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        let mut rows_read = 0;
-        while let Some(next) = stream.next().await {
-            let next = next.unwrap();
-            let expected = 8.min(100 - rows_read);
-            assert_eq!(next.num_rows(), expected);
-            rows_read += next.num_rows();
-        }
-    }
+        let filter_expr = match (lower, upper) {
+            (Some((llog, _)), Some((ulog, _))) => {
+                let logical = llog.and(ulog);
+                let schema = flat_dist.schema();
+                let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(schema)?;
+                let physical = create_physical_expr(&logical, &df_schema, &ExecutionProps::new())?;
+                Some((logical, physical))
+            }
+            (Some((llog, lphys)), None) => Some((llog, lphys)),
+            (None, Some((ulog, uphys))) => Some((ulog, uphys)),
+            (None, None) => None,
+        };
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_filter_parsing() -> Result<()> {
-        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false).await?;
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let knn_plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = if let Some(filter_expr) = filter_expr {
+            Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(filter_expr.0, flat_dist)?)
+        } else {
+            flat_dist
+        };
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        assert!(scan.filter.is_none());
+        // Use DataFusion's [SortExec] for Top-K search
+        let sort = SortExec::new(
+            [
+                PhysicalSortExpr {
+                    expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, knn_plan.schema().as_ref())?,
+                    options: SortOptions {
+                        descending: false,
+                        nulls_first: false,
+                    },
+                },
+                PhysicalSortExpr {
+                    expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, knn_plan.schema().as_ref())?,
+                    options: SortOptions {
+                        descending: false,
+                        nulls_first: false,
+                    },
+                },
+            ]
+            .into(),
+            knn_plan,
+        )
+        .with_fetch(Some(q.k));
 
-        scan.filter("i > 50")?;
-        assert_eq!(scan.get_expr_filter().unwrap(), Some(col("i").gt(lit(50))));
+        Self::flat_knn_not_null_filter(Arc::new(sort))
+    }
 
-        for use_stats in [false, true] {
-            let batches = scan
-                .project(&["s"])?
-                .use_stats(use_stats)
-                .try_into_stream()
-                .await?
-                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                .await?;
-            let batch = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches)?;
+    fn flat_knn_not_null_filter(
+        knn_plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let logical_not_null = col(DIST_COL).is_not_null();
+        Ok(Arc::new(LanceFilterExec::try_new(
+            logical_not_null,
+            knn_plan,
+        )?))
+    }
 
-            let expected_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                // Projected just "s"
-                Arc::new(test_ds.schema.project(&[1])?),
-                vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                    (51..400).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-                ))],
-            )?;
-            assert_eq!(batch, expected_batch);
+    fn get_fragments_as_bitmap(&self) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        if let Some(fragments) = &self.fragments {
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter(fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32))
+        } else {
+            self.dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
         }
-        Ok(())
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scan_regexp_match_and_non_empty_captions() {
-        // Build a small dataset with three Utf8 columns and verify the full
-        // scan().filter(...) path handles regexp_match combined with non-null/non-empty checks.
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("keywords", DataType::Utf8, true),
-            ArrowField::new("natural_caption", DataType::Utf8, true),
-            ArrowField::new("poetic_caption", DataType::Utf8, true),
-        ]));
+    fn retain_relevant_index_segments(
+        &self,
+        index_segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+        if let Some(fragments) = &self.fragments {
+            let target_fragments = RoaringBitmap::from_iter(fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32));
+            index_segments
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter(|idx| {
+                    idx.fragment_bitmap
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .is_some_and(|fragmap| !(fragmap & &target_fragments).is_empty())
+                })
+                .collect()
+        } else {
+            index_segments
+        }
+    }
 
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
-                    Some("Liberty for all"),
-                    Some("peace"),
-                    Some("revolution now"),
-                    Some("Liberty"),
-                    Some("revolutionary"),
-                    Some("none"),
-                ])) as ArrayRef,
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
-                    Some("a"),
-                    Some("b"),
-                    None,
-                    Some(""),
-                    Some("c"),
-                    Some("d"),
-                ])) as ArrayRef,
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
-                    Some("x"),
-                    Some(""),
-                    Some("y"),
-                    Some("z"),
-                    None,
-                    Some("w"),
-                ])) as ArrayRef,
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+    /// Retain only fragments that are in the user-specified fragment list.
+    /// If no fragment list is specified, returns the fragments unchanged.
+    fn retain_target_fragments(&self, mut fragments: Vec<Fragment>) -> Vec<Fragment> {
+        if let Some(target) = &self.fragments {
+            let bitmap = RoaringBitmap::from_iter(target.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32));
+            fragments.retain(|f| bitmap.contains(f.id as u32));
+        }
+        fragments
+    }
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone());
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+    fn get_indexed_frags(&self, index: &[IndexMetadata]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+        let all_fragments = self.get_fragments_as_bitmap();
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.filter(
-            "regexp_match(keywords, 'Liberty|revolution') AND \
-             (natural_caption IS NOT NULL AND natural_caption <> '' AND \
-              poetic_caption IS NOT NULL AND poetic_caption <> '')",
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let mut all_indexed_frags = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for idx in index {
+            if let Some(fragmap) = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() {
+                all_indexed_frags |= fragmap;
+            } else {
+                // If any index is missing the fragment bitmap it is safest to just assume we
+                // need all fragments
+                return all_fragments;
+            }
+        }
 
-        let out = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(out.num_rows(), 1);
+        all_indexed_frags & all_fragments
+    }
 
-        let out_keywords = out
-            .column_by_name("keywords")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_string::<i32>()
-            .value(0);
-        let out_nat = out
-            .column_by_name("natural_caption")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_string::<i32>()
-            .value(0);
-        let out_poetic = out
-            .column_by_name("poetic_caption")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_string::<i32>()
-            .value(0);
+    /// Choose the prefilter source for an indexed ANN scan.
+    ///
+    /// Skip the row-ID allow-list when there is no predicate and every selected
+    /// segment has known coverage with no currently visible fragment outside the
+    /// scan scope. The scope cannot reject an indexed row in that case.
+    /// `DatasetPreFilter` still enforces deletions and missing fragments, while
+    /// ANN retains overlay and external masks.
+    ///
+    /// Check the segments' raw bitmaps: [`Self::get_indexed_frags`] intersects
+    /// coverage with the scan scope and would hide excluded fragments. Obsolete
+    /// fragment IDs do not block this optimization because they are not visible
+    /// in the current snapshot. Predicates, unknown coverage, partial coverage,
+    /// and an empty segment list fall back to [`Self::prefilter_source`].
+    async fn ann_prefilter_source(
+        &self,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    ) -> Result<PreFilterSource> {
+        if filter_plan.is_empty() && !indices.is_empty() {
+            let excluded_fragments =
+                self.dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() - &self.get_fragments_as_bitmap();
+            let has_full_index_coverage = indices.iter().all(|index| {
+                index
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|fragments| fragments.is_disjoint(&excluded_fragments))
+            });
+            if has_full_index_coverage {
+                return Ok(PreFilterSource::None);
+            }
+        }
+        self.prefilter_source(filter_plan, self.get_indexed_frags(indices))
+            .await
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(out_keywords, "Liberty for all");
-        assert_eq!(out_nat, "a");
-        assert_eq!(out_poetic, "x");
+    /// Create an Execution plan to do indexed ANN search
+    async fn ann(
+        &self,
+        q: &Query,
+        index: &[IndexMetadata],
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let prefilter_source = self.ann_prefilter_source(filter_plan, index).await?;
+        let inner_fanout_search = new_knn_exec(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            index,
+            q,
+            prefilter_source,
+            overlay_block,
+            self.external_row_mask.clone(),
+        )?;
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, inner_fanout_search.schema().as_ref())?,
+            options: SortOptions {
+                descending: false,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            },
+        };
+        let sort_expr_row_id = PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, inner_fanout_search.schema().as_ref())?,
+            options: SortOptions {
+                descending: false,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            },
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(
+            SortExec::new([sort_expr, sort_expr_row_id].into(), inner_fanout_search)
+                .with_fetch(Some(q.k * q.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize)),
+        ))
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_nested_projection() {
-        let point_fields: Fields = vec![
-            ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Float32, true),
-            ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Float32, true),
-        ]
-        .into();
-        let metadata_fields: Fields = vec![
-            ArrowField::new("location", DataType::Struct(point_fields), true),
-            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, true),
-        ]
-        .into();
-        let metadata_field = ArrowField::new("metadata", DataType::Struct(metadata_fields), true);
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            metadata_field,
-            ArrowField::new("idx", DataType::Int32, true),
-        ]));
-        let data = lance_datagen::rand(&schema)
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(7), FragmentRowCount::from(6))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    // Create an Execution plan to do ANN over multivectors
+    async fn multivec_ann(
+        &self,
+        q: &Query,
+        index: &[IndexMetadata],
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        // we split the query procedure into two steps:
+        // 1. collect the candidates by vector searching on each query vector
+        // 2. scoring the candidates
 
-        let mut scan = data.scan();
-        scan.project(&["metadata.location.x", "metadata.age"])
-            .unwrap();
-        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let over_fetch_factor = *DEFAULT_XTR_OVERFETCH;
 
-        assert_eq!(
-            batch.schema().as_ref(),
-            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-                ArrowField::new("metadata.location.x", DataType::Float32, true),
-                ArrowField::new("metadata.age", DataType::Int32, true),
-            ])
-        );
+        let prefilter_source = self.ann_prefilter_source(filter_plan, index).await?;
+        let dim = get_vector_dim(self.dataset.schema(), &q.column)?;
 
-        // 0 - metadata
-        // 2 - x
-        // 4 - age
-        let take_schema = data.schema().project_by_ids(&[0, 2, 4], false);
+        let num_queries = q.key.len() / dim;
+        let new_queries = (0..num_queries)
+            .map(|i| q.key.slice(i * dim, dim))
+            .map(|query_vec| {
+                let mut new_query = q.clone();
+                new_query.key = query_vec;
+                // with XTR, we don't need to refine the result with original vectors,
+                // but here we really need to over-fetch the candidates to reach good enough recall.
+                // TODO: improve the recall with WARP, expose this parameter to the users.
+                new_query.refine_factor = Some(over_fetch_factor);
+                new_query
+            });
+        let mut ann_nodes = Vec::with_capacity(new_queries.len());
+        for query in new_queries {
+            // this produces `nprobes * k * over_fetch_factor * num_indices` candidates
+            let ann_node = new_knn_exec(
+                self.dataset.clone(),
+                index,
+                &query,
+                prefilter_source.clone(),
+                overlay_block.clone(),
+                self.external_row_mask.clone(),
+            )?;
+            let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
+                expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, ann_node.schema().as_ref())?,
+                options: SortOptions {
+                    descending: false,
+                    nulls_first: false,
+                },
+            };
+            let sort_expr_row_id = PhysicalSortExpr {
+                expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, ann_node.schema().as_ref())?,
+                options: SortOptions {
+                    descending: false,
+                    nulls_first: false,
+                },
+            };
+            let ann_node = Arc::new(
+                SortExec::new([sort_expr, sort_expr_row_id].into(), ann_node)
+                    .with_fetch(Some(q.k * over_fetch_factor as usize)),
+            );
+            ann_nodes.push(ann_node as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>);
+        }
 
-        let taken = data.take_rows(&[0, 5], take_schema).await.unwrap();
+        let ann_node = Arc::new(MultivectorScoringExec::try_new(ann_nodes, q.clone())?);
 
-        // The expected schema drops y from the location field
-        let part_point_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Float32, true)]);
-        let part_metadata_fields = Fields::from(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("location", DataType::Struct(part_point_fields), true),
-            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, true),
-        ]);
-        let part_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "metadata",
-            DataType::Struct(part_metadata_fields),
-            true,
-        )]));
+        let sort_expr = PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: expressions::col(DIST_COL, ann_node.schema().as_ref())?,
+            options: SortOptions {
+                descending: false,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            },
+        };
+        let sort_expr_row_id = PhysicalSortExpr {
+            expr: expressions::col(ROW_ID, ann_node.schema().as_ref())?,
+            options: SortOptions {
+                descending: false,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            },
+        };
+        let ann_node = Arc::new(
+            SortExec::new([sort_expr, sort_expr_row_id].into(), ann_node)
+                .with_fetch(Some(q.k * q.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize)),
+        );
 
-        assert_eq!(taken.schema(), part_schema);
+        Ok(ann_node)
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_limit(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, false).await?;
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
-
-        let full_data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?.slice(19, 2);
+    /// Create prefilter source from filter plan
+    ///
+    /// A prefilter is an input to a vector or fts search.  It tells us which rows are eligible
+    /// for the search.  A prefilter is calculated by doing a filtered read of the row id column.
+    async fn prefilter_source(
+        &self,
+        filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+        required_frags: RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Result<PreFilterSource> {
+        if filter_plan.is_empty() {
+            let has_full_fragment_coverage = self.fragments.as_ref().is_none_or(|fragments| {
+                let selected: HashSet<_> = fragments.iter().map(|fragment| fragment.id).collect();
+                selected.len() == self.dataset.manifest.fragments.len()
+                    && self
+                        .dataset
+                        .manifest
+                        .fragments
+                        .iter()
+                        .all(|fragment| selected.contains(&fragment.id))
+            });
+            // A full-snapshot scope cannot reject any live row. Avoid materializing its row IDs,
+            // but retain self.fragments for unindexed fallback and leave deletion/overlay masks
+            // to DatasetPreFilter. Comparing IDs also prevents duplicate fragments hiding a gap.
+            if has_full_fragment_coverage {
+                log::trace!("no filter plan or effective fragment restriction, no prefilter");
+                return Ok(PreFilterSource::None);
+            }
+        }
 
-        let actual = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .limit(Some(2), Some(19))?
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await?;
+        // get fragments covered by index
+        let fragments: Vec<Fragment> = self
+            .dataset
+            .manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| required_frags.contains(f.id as u32))
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
 
-        assert_eq!(actual.num_rows(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(actual, full_data);
-        Ok(())
-    }
+        // If explicitly specified fragments with .with_fragments(), intersect with those
+        let fragments = Arc::new(self.retain_target_fragments(fragments));
 
-    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_limit_cancel() {
-        // If there is a filter and a limit and we can't use the index to satisfy
-        // the filter, then we have to read until we have enough matching rows and
-        // then cancel the scan.
+        // Can only use ScalarIndexExec when the scalar index is exact and we are not scanning
+        // a subset of the fragments.
         //
-        // This test regresses the case where we fail to cancel the scan for whatever
-        // reason.
+        // TODO: We could enhance ScalarIndexExec with a fragment bitmap to filter out rows that
+        // are not in the fragments we are scanning.
+        if filter_plan.is_exact_index_search() && self.fragments.is_none() {
+            let index_query = filter_plan.index_query.as_ref().expect_ok()?;
+            let (relevant_frags, missing_frags, stale_rows) = self
+                .partition_frags_by_coverage(index_query, fragments.clone())
+                .await?;
 
-        // Make the store slow so that if we don't cancel the scan, it will take a loooong time.
-        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
-            config: ThrottleConfig {
-                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_secs(1),
-                ..Default::default()
-            },
-        });
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
-                object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-            max_rows_per_file: 1,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+            // Overlay-stale rows must never reach the direct ScalarIndexExec path: it would hand
+            // ANN/FTS a selection vector containing rows whose indexed values are now stale. When
+            // any exist, fall through to the filtered-read prefilter, which masks them.
+            if stale_rows.is_empty() && (missing_frags.is_empty() || self.fast_search) {
+                log::trace!("prefilter entirely satisfied by exact index search");
+                let result_format = self.index_expr_result_format();
+                // We can only avoid materializing the index for a prefilter if:
+                // 1. The search is indexed
+                // 2. The index search is an exact search with no recheck or refine
+                // 3. The indices cover at least the same fragments as the vector index,
+                //    unless fast_search allows skipping uncovered fragments.
+                let mut exec =
+                    ScalarIndexExec::new(self.dataset.clone(), index_query.clone(), result_format);
+                if let Some(segment_uuids) = self
+                    .scalar_index_selection
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|selection| selection.segment_uuids.clone())
+                {
+                    exec = exec.with_segment_uuids(segment_uuids);
+                }
+                if missing_frags.is_empty() && !relevant_frags.is_empty() {
+                    exec = exec.with_fragment_scope(
+                        relevant_frags
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+                            .collect(),
+                    );
+                }
+                return Ok(PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(Arc::new(exec)));
+            } else {
+                log::trace!("exact index search did not cover all fragments");
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Make a dataset with lots of tiny fragments, that will make it more obvious if we fail to cancel the scan.
-        let dataset = gen_batch()
-            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>().with_random_nulls(0.1))
-            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
-                FragmentCount::from(2000),
-                FragmentRowCount::from(1),
-                Some(write_params),
+        // If one of our criteria is not met, we need to do a filtered read of just the row id column
+        log::trace!(
+            "prefilter is a filtered read of {} fragments",
+            fragments.len()
+        );
+        let PlannedFilteredScan { plan, .. } = self
+            .filtered_read(
+                filter_plan,
+                self.dataset.empty_projection().with_row_id(),
+                false,
+                Some(fragments),
+                None,
+                /*is_prefilter= */ true,
+                None,
             )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.filter("i IS NOT NULL").unwrap();
-        scan.limit(Some(10), None).unwrap();
+            .await?;
+        Ok(PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(plan))
+    }
 
-        let start = Instant::now();
-        scan.try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let duration = start.elapsed();
+    /// Take row indices produced by input plan from the dataset (with projection)
+    ///
+    /// Planned as a [`FilteredReadExec`] row-stream read; legacy (v1) storage
+    /// keeps using [`TakeExec`].
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    fn take(
+        &self,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        output_projection: Projection,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let fields_to_take = output_projection
+            .clone()
+            .subtract_arrow_schema(input.schema().as_ref(), OnMissing::Ignore)?;
+        if !fields_to_take.has_data_fields()
+            && !fields_to_take.with_row_id
+            && !fields_to_take.with_row_addr
+        {
+            // No new columns needed
+            return Ok(input);
+        }
 
-        // This test is a timing test, which is unfortunate, as it may be flaky.  I'm hoping
-        // we have enough wiggle room here.  The failure case is 30s on my machine and the pass
-        // case is 2-3s.
-        assert!(duration < Duration::from_secs(10));
+        versions::take(
+            self.dataset
+                .manifest()
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format(),
+            self,
+            input,
+            output_projection,
+        )
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_knn_nodes(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
-        #[values(false, true)] build_index: bool,
-    ) {
-        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        if build_index {
-            test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+    pub(super) fn take_current(
+        &self,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        output_projection: Projection,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let input_schema = input.schema();
+        let has_row_id = input_schema.column_with_name(ROW_ID).is_some();
+        let has_row_addr = input_schema.column_with_name(ROW_ADDR).is_some();
+        if has_row_id || has_row_addr {
+            // Pass the full (un-subtracted) target so a rebuild against a
+            // different child re-derives what to fetch, and preserve carried
+            // identity columns (downstream nodes may key off them; the final
+            // ProjectionExec trims for free)
+            let mut projection = output_projection;
+            projection.with_row_id |= has_row_id;
+            projection.with_row_addr |= has_row_addr;
+            let mut read_options = FilteredReadOptions::new(projection);
+            if self.include_deleted_rows {
+                // Forwarded so the row-stream read rejects it: deleted rows
+                // carry a null row id, which the take would silently drop
+                read_options = read_options.with_deleted_rows()?;
+            }
+            if let Some(batch_size) = self.batch_size {
+                read_options = read_options.with_batch_size(validate_batch_size(batch_size)?);
+            }
+            if let Some(fragments) = &self.fragments {
+                read_options = read_options.with_fragments(Arc::new(fragments.clone()));
+            }
+            read_options = read_options.with_threading_mode(
+                FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(self.batch_readahead),
+            );
+            if let Some(file_reader_options) = self.resolved_file_reader_options() {
+                read_options = read_options.with_file_reader_options(file_reader_options);
+            }
+            if let Some(fragment_readahead) = self.fragment_readahead {
+                read_options = read_options.with_fragment_readahead(fragment_readahead);
+            }
+            if let Some(io_buffer_size_bytes) = self.io_buffer_size {
+                read_options = read_options.with_io_buffer_size(io_buffer_size_bytes);
+            }
+            if let Some(materialization_readahead_bytes) = self.materialization_readahead_bytes {
+                read_options = read_options
+                    .with_materialization_readahead_bytes(materialization_readahead_bytes);
+            }
+            return Ok(Arc::new(FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                self.dataset.clone(),
+                read_options,
+                Some(input),
+            )?));
         }
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
-
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
-        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-        scan.refine(5);
 
-        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        self.take_legacy(input, output_projection)
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 5);
-        assert_eq!(
-            batch.schema().as_ref(),
-            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
-                ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
-                ArrowField::new(
-                    "vec",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                        32,
-                    ),
-                    true,
-                ),
-                ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
-            ])
-            .with_metadata([("dataset".into(), "vector".into())].into())
-        );
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    pub(super) fn take_legacy(
+        &self,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        output_projection: Projection,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let coalesced = Arc::new(CoalesceBatchesExec::new(
+            input.clone(),
+            self.get_batch_size(),
+        ));
+        if let Some(take_plan) = TakeExec::try_new_with_batch_size(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            coalesced,
+            output_projection,
+            self.resolved_file_reader_options()
+                .and_then(|o| o.batch_size_bytes),
+        )? {
+            Ok(Arc::new(take_plan))
+        } else {
+            // No new columns needed
+            Ok(input)
+        }
+    }
 
-        let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![1, 81, 161, 241, 321]);
-        let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-        let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .collect();
-        assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+    /// Global offset-limit of the result of the input plan
+    fn limit_node(&self, plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        Arc::new(GlobalLimitExec::new(
+            plan,
+            *self.offset.as_ref().unwrap_or(&0) as usize,
+            self.limit.map(|l| l as usize),
+        ))
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_can_project_distance() {
-        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+    #[instrument(level = "info", skip(self))]
+    pub async fn analyze_plan(&self) -> Result<String> {
+        let plan = self.create_plan().await?;
+        analyze_plan(
+            plan,
+            LanceExecutionOptions {
+                batch_size: self.batch_size,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+    }
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
-        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-        scan.refine(5);
-        scan.project(&["_distance"]).unwrap();
+    #[instrument(level = "info", skip(self))]
+    pub async fn explain_plan(&self, verbose: bool) -> Result<String> {
+        // Box the plan-building future at the call site: `create_plan`'s inlined async
+        // layout otherwise exceeds rustc's depth limit here. It has to be boxed at the
+        // call site rather than inside `create_plan` — boxing internally turns the
+        // future's `Send` check into a `Box<Future>: Send` trait obligation that
+        // overflows the solver through the cache types (E0275 in downstream crates).
+        let plan = Box::pin(self.create_plan()).await?;
+        let display = DisplayableExecutionPlan::new(plan.as_ref());
 
-        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        Ok(format!("{}", display.indent(verbose)))
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 5);
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
+    /// Run [`Self::count_rows`]'s underlying plan and return it formatted with
+    /// runtime metrics. Equivalent to [`Self::analyze_plan`] but with a
+    /// `COUNT(*)` aggregate auto-applied first — the only way for callers
+    /// without a hand-built `AggregateExpr` (e.g. the Python bindings) to
+    /// inspect the plan that `count_rows` actually executed.
+    #[instrument(level = "info", skip(self))]
+    pub async fn analyze_count_plan(&self) -> Result<String> {
+        let mut scanner = self.clone();
+        scanner.aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())?;
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await?;
+        analyze_plan(
+            plan,
+            LanceExecutionOptions {
+                batch_size: self.batch_size,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await
     }
+}
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_knn_with_new_data(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
-    ) {
-        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
-        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
-
-        // Create a bunch of queries
-        let key: Float32Array = [0f32; 32].into_iter().collect();
-        // Set as larger than the number of new rows that aren't in the index to
-        // force result sets to be combined between index and flat scan.
-        let k = 20;
-
-        #[derive(Debug)]
-        struct TestCase {
-            filter: Option<&'static str>,
-            limit: Option<i64>,
-            use_index: bool,
+// Search over all indexed fields including nested ones, collecting columns that have an
+// inverted index. Automatic discovery is intentionally restricted to Row
+// granularity because ListElement queries require an explicit field path.
+async fn fts_indexed_columns(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let mut indexed_columns = Vec::new();
+    for index in dataset.load_indices().await?.iter() {
+        let Some(field_id) = index.fields.first().copied() else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let Ok(preliminary_path) = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let details =
+            crate::index::scalar::fetch_index_details(dataset.as_ref(), &preliminary_path, index)
+                .await?;
+        if !details.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails") {
+            continue;
         }
-
-        let mut cases = vec![];
-        for filter in [Some("i > 100"), None] {
-            for limit in [None, Some(10)] {
-                for use_index in [true, false] {
-                    cases.push(TestCase {
-                        filter,
-                        limit,
-                        use_index,
-                    });
-                }
-            }
+        let details = lance_index::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details.value.as_slice())
+            .map_err(|error| {
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails payload: {error}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        if DocumentGranularity::try_from(details.document_granularity)? != DocumentGranularity::Row
+        {
+            continue;
         }
+        let resolved = crate::index::scalar::inverted::resolve_fts_field_by_id(
+            dataset.schema(),
+            field_id,
+            DocumentGranularity::Row,
+        )?;
+        indexed_columns.push(resolved.canonical_path);
+    }
+    indexed_columns.sort();
+    indexed_columns.dedup();
+    Ok(indexed_columns)
+}
 
-        // Validate them all.
-        for case in cases {
-            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-            scanner
-                .nearest("vec", &key, k)
-                .unwrap()
-                .limit(case.limit, None)
-                .unwrap()
-                .refine(3)
-                .use_index(case.use_index);
-            if let Some(filter) = case.filter {
-                scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
-            }
+/// [`DatasetRecordBatchStream`] wraps the dataset into a [`RecordBatchStream`] for
+/// consumption by the user.
+///
+#[pin_project::pin_project]
+pub struct DatasetRecordBatchStream {
+    #[pin]
+    exec_node: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    span: Span,
+}
 
-            let result = scanner
-                .try_into_stream()
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            assert!(!result.is_empty());
-            let result = concat_batches(&result[0].schema(), result.iter()).unwrap();
+impl DatasetRecordBatchStream {
+    pub fn new(exec_node: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Self {
+        let schema = exec_node.schema();
+        let adapter = SchemaAdapter::new(schema.clone());
+        let exec_node = if SchemaAdapter::requires_logical_conversion(&schema) {
+            adapter.to_logical_stream(exec_node)
+        } else {
+            exec_node
+        };
 
-            if case.filter.is_some() {
-                let result_rows = result.num_rows();
-                let expected_rows = case.limit.unwrap_or(k as i64) as usize;
-                assert!(
-                    result_rows <= expected_rows,
-                    "Expected less than {} rows, got {}",
-                    expected_rows,
-                    result_rows
-                );
-            } else {
-                // Exactly equal count
-                assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), case.limit.unwrap_or(k as i64) as usize);
-            }
+        let span = info_span!("DatasetRecordBatchStream");
+        Self { exec_node, span }
+    }
+}
 
-            // Top one should be the first value of new data
-            assert_eq!(
-                as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(result.column(0).as_ref()).value(0),
-                400
-            );
+impl RecordBatchStream for DatasetRecordBatchStream {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.exec_node.schema()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Stream for DatasetRecordBatchStream {
+    type Item = Result<RecordBatch>;
+
+    fn poll_next(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        let mut this = self.project();
+        let _guard = this.span.enter();
+        match this.exec_node.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
+            Poll::Ready(result) => Poll::Ready(result.map(|r| Ok(r?))),
+            Poll::Pending => Poll::Pending,
         }
     }
+}
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_knn_with_prefilter(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
-    ) {
-        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+impl From<DatasetRecordBatchStream> for SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    fn from(stream: DatasetRecordBatchStream) -> Self {
+        stream.exec_node
+    }
+}
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
-        scan.filter("i > 100").unwrap();
-        scan.prefilter(true);
-        scan.project(&["i", "vec"]).unwrap();
-        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-        scan.use_index(false);
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub mod test_dataset {
 
-        let results = scan
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    use super::*;
 
-        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
-        let batch = &results[0];
+    use std::{collections::HashMap, vec};
 
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 5);
-        assert_eq!(
-            batch.schema().as_ref(),
-            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
-                ArrowField::new(
-                    "vec",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                        32,
-                    ),
-                    true,
-                ),
-                ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
-            ])
-            .with_metadata([("dataset".into(), "vector".into())].into())
-        );
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+        types::Float32Type,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use lance_index::{
+        IndexType,
+        scalar::{ScalarIndexParams, inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams},
+        vector::{
+            hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams,
+            ivf::IvfBuildParams,
+            kmeans::{KMeansParams, train_kmeans},
+            sq::builder::SQBuildParams,
+        },
+    };
+    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
 
-        // These match the query exactly.  The 5 results must include these 3.
-        let exact_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![161, 241, 321]);
-        // These also include those 1 off from the query.  The remaining 2 results must be in this set.
-        let close_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![161, 241, 321, 160, 162, 240, 242, 320, 322]);
-        let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-        let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .collect();
-        assert!(exact_i.is_subset(&actual_i));
-        assert!(actual_i.is_subset(&close_i));
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+    use crate::index::vector::{StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
+
+    // Creates a dataset with 5 batches where each batch has 80 rows
+    //
+    // The dataset has the following columns:
+    //
+    //  i   - i32      : [0, 1, ..., 399]
+    //  s   - &str     : ["s-0", "s-1", ..., "s-399"]
+    //  vec - [f32; 32]: [[0, 1, ... 31], [32, ..., 63], ... [..., (80 * 5 * 32) - 1]]
+    //
+    // An IVF-PQ index with 2 partitions is trained on this data
+    pub struct TestVectorDataset {
+        pub tmp_dir: TempStrDir,
+        pub schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+        pub dataset: Dataset,
+        dimension: u32,
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_knn_filter_new_data(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
-    ) {
-        // This test verifies that a filter (prefilter or postfilter) gets applied to the flat KNN results
-        // in a combined KNN scan (a scan that combines results from an indexed ANN with an unindexed flat
-        // search of new data)
-        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
-        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+    impl TestVectorDataset {
+        pub async fn new(
+            data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+            stable_row_ids: bool,
+        ) -> Result<Self> {
+            Self::new_with_dimension(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids, 32).await
+        }
 
-        // This query will match exactly the new row with i = 400 which should be excluded by the prefilter
-        let key: Float32Array = [0f32; 32].into_iter().collect();
+        pub async fn new_with_dimension(
+            data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+            stable_row_ids: bool,
+            dimension: u32,
+        ) -> Result<Self> {
+            let path = TempStrDir::default();
 
-        let mut query = dataset.scan();
-        query.nearest("vec", &key, 20).unwrap();
+            // Make sure the schema has metadata so it tests all paths that re-construct the schema along the way
+            let metadata: HashMap<String, String> =
+                vec![("dataset".to_string(), "vector".to_string())]
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .collect();
 
-        // Sanity check that 400 is in our results
-        let results = query
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let results_i = results[0]["i"]
-            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+                vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+                    ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                    ArrowField::new(
+                        "vec",
+                        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                            dimension as i32,
+                        ),
+                        true,
+                    ),
+                ],
+                metadata,
+            ));
 
-        assert!(results_i.contains(&400));
+            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
+                .map(|i| {
+                    let vector_values: Float32Array =
+                        (0..dimension * 80).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+                    let vectors =
+                        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, dimension as i32)
+                            .unwrap();
+                    RecordBatch::try_new(
+                        schema.clone(),
+                        vec![
+                            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 80..(i + 1) * 80)),
+                            Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                                (i * 80..(i + 1) * 80).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                            )),
+                            Arc::new(vectors),
+                        ],
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, ArrowError>>()?;
 
-        // Both prefilter and postfilter should remove 400 from our results
-        for prefilter in [false, true] {
-            let mut query = dataset.scan();
-            query
-                .filter("i != 400")
-                .unwrap()
-                .prefilter(prefilter)
-                .nearest("vec", &key, 20)
-                .unwrap();
+            let params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_group: 10,
+                max_rows_per_file: 200,
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
 
-            let results = query
-                .try_into_stream()
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &path, Some(params)).await?;
 
-            let results_i = results[0]["i"]
-                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
-                .values()
-                .iter()
-                .copied()
-                .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+            Ok(Self {
+                tmp_dir: path,
+                schema,
+                dataset,
+                dimension,
+            })
+        }
 
-            assert!(!results_i.contains(&400));
+        pub async fn make_vector_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            self.make_vector_index_with_metric(MetricType::L2).await
         }
-    }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_knn_with_filter(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
-    ) {
-        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        pub async fn make_vector_index_with_metric(&mut self, metric: MetricType) -> Result<()> {
+            let mut params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, metric, 2);
+            // Two partitions over 400 vectors only holds at a sample rate this
+            // fixture can cover: the trained count is capped at the vectors
+            // available per centroid.
+            if let Some(StageParams::Ivf(ivf)) = params.stages.first_mut() {
+                ivf.sample_rate = 200;
+            }
+            self.dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["vec"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    Some("idx".to_string()),
+                    &params,
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
-        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-        scan.filter("i > 100").unwrap();
-        scan.project(&["i", "vec"]).unwrap();
-        scan.refine(5);
+        pub async fn make_ivf_hnsw_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+                MetricType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+                HnswBuildParams::default(),
+                SQBuildParams::default(),
+            );
+            self.dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["vec"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    Some("idx".to_string()),
+                    &params,
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
 
-        let results = scan
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
+        pub async fn make_segmented_vector_index(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<Uuid>> {
+            let batch = self
+                .dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["vec"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await?;
+            let vectors = batch
+                .column_by_name("vec")
+                .expect("vector column should exist")
+                .as_fixed_size_list();
+            let values = vectors.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+            let centroids = train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(
+                values,
+                KMeansParams::new(None, 10, 1, DistanceType::L2),
+                self.dimension as usize,
+                2,
+                2,
+            )
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .centroids
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .clone();
+            let centroids = Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, self.dimension as i32).unwrap(),
+            );
+            let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, centroids).unwrap(),
+            );
+            let fragment_ids = self
+                .dataset
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
-        let batch = &results[0];
+            let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+            for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+                let mut builder =
+                    self.dataset
+                        .create_index_builder(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, &params);
+                builder = builder.name("idx".to_string()).fragments(vec![fragment_id]);
+                segments.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await?);
+            }
 
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
-        assert_eq!(
-            batch.schema().as_ref(),
-            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
-                ArrowField::new(
-                    "vec",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                        32,
-                    ),
-                    true,
-                ),
-                ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
-            ])
-            .with_metadata([("dataset".into(), "vector".into())].into())
-        );
+            let segment_ids = segments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            self.dataset
+                .commit_existing_index_segments("idx", "vec", segments)
+                .await?;
+            Ok(segment_ids)
+        }
 
-        let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![161, 241, 321]);
-        let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-        let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .collect();
-        assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
-    }
+        pub async fn make_scalar_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            self.dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_refine_factor(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
-    ) {
-        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        pub async fn make_segmented_scalar_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+            let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(self.dataset.get_fragments().len());
+            for fragment in self.dataset.get_fragments() {
+                segments.push(
+                    self.dataset
+                        .create_index_builder(&["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                        .name("i_idx".to_string())
+                        .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                        .execute_uncommitted()
+                        .await?,
+                );
+            }
+            self.dataset
+                .commit_existing_index_segments("i_idx", "i", segments)
+                .await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
-        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-        scan.refine(5);
+        fn fts_index_params() -> InvertedIndexParams {
+            // These scanner tests search for the token "s" (from the `s-{N}`
+            // column values) to exercise fragment/append coverage, and "s" is
+            // in the full English stop-word list. Keep the token searchable;
+            // stop-word behavior itself is covered by the tokenizer tests.
+            InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                .with_position(true)
+                .remove_stop_words(false)
+        }
 
-        let results = scan
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        pub async fn make_fts_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            let params = Self::fts_index_params();
+            self.dataset
+                .create_index(&["s"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+                .await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
 
-        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
-        let batch = &results[0];
+        pub async fn make_segmented_fts_index(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            let params = Self::fts_index_params();
+            let fragments = self.dataset.get_fragments();
+            let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+            for fragment in fragments {
+                let segment = self
+                    .dataset
+                    .create_index_builder(&["s"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+                    .name("s_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await?;
+                segments.push(segment);
+            }
+            self.dataset
+                .commit_existing_index_segments("s_idx", "s", segments)
+                .await
+        }
 
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 5);
-        assert_eq!(
-            batch.schema().as_ref(),
-            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
-                ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
-                ArrowField::new(
-                    "vec",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                        32,
-                    ),
-                    true,
-                ),
-                ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
-            ])
-            .with_metadata([("dataset".into(), "vector".into())].into())
-        );
+        pub async fn append_new_data(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+            self.append_data_with_range(400, 410).await
+        }
 
-        let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![1, 81, 161, 241, 321]);
-        let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-        let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .collect();
-        assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+        pub async fn append_data_with_range(&mut self, start: i32, end: i32) -> Result<()> {
+            let count = (end - start) as usize;
+            let vector_values: Float32Array = (0..count)
+                .flat_map(|i| vec![i as f32; self.dimension as usize].into_iter())
+                .collect();
+            let new_vectors =
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, self.dimension as i32)
+                    .unwrap();
+            let new_data: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(start..end)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (start..end).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(new_vectors),
+            ];
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![RecordBatch::try_new(self.schema.clone(), new_data).unwrap()]
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(Ok),
+                self.schema.clone(),
+            );
+            self.dataset.append(reader, None).await?;
+            Ok(())
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_binary_vectors_default_to_hamming() {
-        let (_tmp_dir, dataset) = make_binary_vector_dataset().await.unwrap();
-        let query = UInt8Array::from(vec![0b0000_1111u8, 0, 0, 0]);
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod test {
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.nearest("bin", &query, 3).unwrap();
+    use std::collections::BTreeSet;
+    use std::sync::Mutex;
+    use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
+    use std::vec;
 
-        // metric_type is None initially; it will be resolved to Hamming during search
-        assert_eq!(scan.nearest.as_ref().unwrap().metric_type, None);
+    use arrow::array::as_primitive_array;
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Float64Type, Int32Type, Int64Type};
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, BooleanArray, FixedSizeListArray, Float16Array, Int32Array, LargeStringArray,
+        PrimitiveArray, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray, UInt8Array, UInt32Array,
+    };
 
-        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        let ids = batch
-            .column_by_name("id")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
-            .values();
-        assert_eq!(ids, &[0, 1, 2]);
-        let distances = batch
-            .column_by_name(DIST_COL)
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .values();
-        assert_eq!(distances, &[0.0, 2.0, 4.0]);
-    }
+    use arrow_ord::sort::sort_to_indices;
+    use arrow_schema::Fields;
+    use arrow_select::take;
+    use datafusion::logical_expr::{col, lit};
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlanProperties;
+    use half::f16;
+    use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, SchemaExt};
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_core::{ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION};
+    use lance_datagen::{
+        ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, ByteCount, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch,
+    };
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+        BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, FtsQuery, MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Occur, PhraseQuery,
+    };
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
+    use lance_io::assert_io_gt;
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_binary_vectors_invalid_distance_error() {
-        let (_tmp_dir, dataset) = make_binary_vector_dataset().await.unwrap();
-        let query = UInt8Array::from(vec![0b0000_1111u8, 0, 0, 0]);
+    use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+    use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32, RandomVector};
+    use object_store::throttle::ThrottleConfig;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.nearest("bin", &query, 1).unwrap();
-        scan.distance_metric(DistanceType::L2);
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::blob::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+    use crate::dataset::WriteMode;
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+    use crate::dataset::scanner::test_dataset::TestVectorDataset;
+    use crate::dataset::{NewColumnTransform, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::vector::{StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
+    // Imported through the public `io::exec` re-export rather than the crate-private
+    // `knn` module, so the tests below cover that surface too.
+    use crate::io::exec::{ANNIvfBatchExec, QUERY_INDEX_COL};
+    use crate::utils::test::{
+        DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, ThrottledStoreWrapper, assert_plan_node_equals,
+    };
 
-        let err = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
-        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
-        let message = err.to_string();
-        assert!(
-            message.contains("l2") && message.contains("UInt8"),
-            "unexpected message: {message}"
-        );
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fts_query_contract_rejects_invalid_values() {
+        let negative_match = FtsQuery::Match(MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string()).with_boost(-1.0));
+        let error = validate_fts_query_contract(&negative_match).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("finite and non-negative"));
+
+        let empty_boolean = FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new(Vec::<(Occur, FtsQuery)>::new()));
+        let error = validate_fts_query_contract(&empty_boolean).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("at least one should/must query"));
+
+        let infinite_boost = FtsQuery::Boost(BoostQuery::new(
+            MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string()).into(),
+            MatchQuery::new("world".to_string()).into(),
+            Some(f32::INFINITY),
+        ));
+        let error = validate_fts_query_contract(&infinite_boost).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("BoostQuery negative_boost"));
     }
 
-    /// Test that when query specifies a metric different from the index,
-    /// we fall back to flat search and return correct distances.
-    /// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/5608
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_knn_metric_mismatch_falls_back_to_flat_search() {
-        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        // Create IVF_PQ index with L2 metric
-        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
-
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
-        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_local_residual_row_bound() {
+        let fragment_with_rows = |id, physical_rows| {
+            let mut fragment = Fragment::new(id);
+            fragment.physical_rows = physical_rows;
+            fragment
+        };
 
-        // Query with Dot metric (different from the L2 index)
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-        scan.distance_metric(DistanceType::Dot);
+        assert!(has_bounded_query_local_residual_rows(&[
+            fragment_with_rows(0, Some(40_000)),
+            fragment_with_rows(1, Some(60_000)),
+        ]));
+        assert!(!has_bounded_query_local_residual_rows(&[
+            fragment_with_rows(0, Some(40_000)),
+            fragment_with_rows(1, Some(60_001)),
+        ]));
+        assert!(!has_bounded_query_local_residual_rows(&[
+            fragment_with_rows(0, Some(1)),
+            fragment_with_rows(1, None),
+        ]));
+    }
 
-        // Verify the explain plan does NOT show ANNSubIndex (should use flat search)
-        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            !plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
-            "Expected flat search, but got ANN index in plan:\n{}",
-            plan
-        );
-        // Should show flat KNN with Dot metric (metric is displayed lowercase)
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("KNNVectorDistance") && plan.to_lowercase().contains("dot"),
-            "Expected flat KNN with Dot metric in plan:\n{}",
-            plan
-        );
+    #[test]
+    fn test_normalize_fts_zero_boosts_recurses_and_preserves_nonzero_values() {
+        fn boost_bits(query: &FtsQuery) -> Vec<u32> {
+            match query {
+                FtsQuery::Match(query) => vec![query.boost.to_bits()],
+                FtsQuery::Phrase(_) | FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => Vec::new(),
+                FtsQuery::Boost(query) => std::iter::once(query.negative_boost.to_bits())
+                    .chain(boost_bits(&query.positive))
+                    .chain(boost_bits(&query.negative))
+                    .collect(),
+                FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => query
+                    .match_queries
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|query| query.boost.to_bits())
+                    .collect(),
+                FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => query
+                    .should
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(&query.must)
+                    .chain(&query.must_not)
+                    .flat_map(boost_bits)
+                    .collect(),
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Also verify the distances are different from L2 results
-        let dot_batch = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest("vec", &key, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .distance_metric(DistanceType::Dot)
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let match_query =
+            |terms: &str, boost| MatchQuery::new(terms.to_string()).with_boost(boost).into();
+        let multi_match = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            "needle".to_string(),
+            vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_with_boosts(vec![-0.0, 2.5])
+        .unwrap();
+        let negative = BooleanQuery::new([
+            (Occur::Should, multi_match.into()),
+            (Occur::Must, match_query("required", 3.5)),
+            (Occur::MustNot, match_query("blocked", -0.0)),
+        ]);
+        let boost = BoostQuery::new(match_query("positive", -0.0), negative.into(), Some(-0.0));
+        let mut query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+            (Occur::Should, match_query("outer", -0.0)),
+            (Occur::Must, boost.into()),
+            (Occur::MustNot, match_query("unchanged", 4.5)),
+        ])
+        .into();
 
-        let l2_batch = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest("vec", &key, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .distance_metric(DistanceType::L2)
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let nz = (-0.0_f32).to_bits();
+        let pz = 0.0_f32.to_bits();
+        let b2 = 2.5_f32.to_bits();
+        let b3 = 3.5_f32.to_bits();
+        let b4 = 4.5_f32.to_bits();
+        assert_eq!(boost_bits(&query), vec![nz, nz, nz, nz, b2, b3, nz, b4]);
+        normalize_fts_zero_boosts(&mut query);
+        assert_eq!(boost_bits(&query), vec![pz, pz, pz, pz, b2, b3, pz, b4]);
+    }
 
-        let dot_distances: Vec<f32> = dot_batch
-            .column_by_name(DIST_COL)
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .to_vec();
-        let l2_distances: Vec<f32> = l2_batch
-            .column_by_name(DIST_COL)
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .to_vec();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_dataset_planner_defers_auto_fuzziness_recursively() {
+        fn collect_fuzziness(query: &FtsQuery, values: &mut Vec<Option<u32>>) {
+            match query {
+                FtsQuery::Match(query) => values.push(query.fuzziness),
+                FtsQuery::Phrase(_) | FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {}
+                FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                    collect_fuzziness(&query.positive, values);
+                    collect_fuzziness(&query.negative, values);
+                }
+                FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                    values.extend(query.match_queries.iter().map(|query| query.fuzziness));
+                }
+                FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                    for child in query
+                        .should
+                        .iter()
+                        .chain(&query.must)
+                        .chain(&query.must_not)
+                    {
+                        collect_fuzziness(child, values);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Dot and L2 distances should be different (this verifies we're using the correct metric)
-        assert_ne!(dot_distances, l2_distances);
-    }
+        let auto_match = |terms: &str| {
+            MatchQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+                .with_fuzziness(None)
+                .into()
+        };
+        let mut multi_match = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            "multi".to_owned(),
+            vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        multi_match.match_queries[0].fuzziness = None;
+        multi_match.match_queries[1].fuzziness = Some(1);
+        let boost = BoostQuery::new(
+            auto_match("positive"),
+            MatchQuery::new("negative".to_owned())
+                .with_fuzziness(Some(0))
+                .into(),
+            None,
+        );
+        let mut query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+            (Occur::Should, auto_match("root")),
+            (Occur::Must, FtsQuery::MultiMatch(multi_match)),
+            (Occur::MustNot, boost.into()),
+        ])
+        .into();
 
-    /// Test that when query does not specify a metric, we use the index's metric.
-    /// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/5608
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_knn_no_metric_uses_index_metric() {
-        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        // Create IVF_PQ index with L2 metric
-        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        apply_dataset_planner_auto_fuzziness_compatibility_gate(&mut query);
 
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
-        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        let mut fuzziness = Vec::new();
+        collect_fuzziness(&query, &mut fuzziness);
+        assert_eq!(
+            fuzziness,
+            [Some(0), Some(0), Some(1), Some(0), Some(0)],
+            "AUTO must become exact without changing explicit fuzzy or exact leaves"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Query without specifying metric
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-        // Don't call distance_metric() - should use index's L2
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compound_scorer_shape_supports_cross_column_boolean_queries() {
+        let query = FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new([
+            (
+                Occur::Should,
+                MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("title".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+            (
+                Occur::Must,
+                MatchQuery::new("beta".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("body".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+            (
+                Occur::MustNot,
+                MatchQuery::new("gamma".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("summary".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+        ]));
 
-        // Verify the explain plan shows ANNSubIndex with L2 metric
-        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex") && plan.to_lowercase().contains("l2"),
-            "Expected ANN index with L2 metric in plan:\n{}",
-            plan
+        assert!(supports_compound_scorer(&query));
+        assert_eq!(
+            collect_fts_columns_in_order(&query),
+            ["title", "body", "summary"]
         );
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_only_row_id(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compound_scorer_leaves_top_level_cross_column_multi_match_on_existing_path() {
+        let single_column = FtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            MultiMatchQuery::try_new("alpha".to_string(), vec!["title".to_string()]).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let cross_column = FtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+                "alpha".to_string(),
+                vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
 
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.project::<&str>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+        assert!(supports_compound_scorer(&single_column));
+        assert!(!supports_compound_scorer(&cross_column));
+    }
 
-        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_collect_phrase_columns_traverses_prohibited_subtrees() {
+        let phrase =
+            PhraseQuery::new("exact phrase".to_string()).with_column(Some("body".to_string()));
+        let query = FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new([
+            (
+                Occur::Must,
+                MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("title".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+            (Occur::MustNot, phrase.into()),
+        ]));
+        let mut columns = HashSet::new();
 
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 400);
-        let expected_schema =
-            ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true)])
-                .with_metadata(dataset.schema().metadata.clone());
-        assert_eq!(batch.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema,);
+        collect_phrase_columns(&query, &mut columns);
 
-        let expected_row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..200_u64).chain((1 << 32)..((1 << 32) + 200)).collect();
-        let actual_row_ids: Vec<u64> = as_primitive_array::<UInt64Type>(batch.column(0).as_ref())
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .collect();
-        assert_eq!(expected_row_ids, actual_row_ids);
+        assert_eq!(columns, HashSet::from(["body".to_string()]));
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scan_unordered_with_row_id() {
-        // This test doesn't make sense for v2 files, there is no way to get an out-of-order scan
-        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
-
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.with_row_id();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_env_var_parsing() {
+        // Test that invalid environment variable values don't panic
 
-        let ordered_batches = scan
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<RecordBatch>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert!(ordered_batches.len() > 2);
-        let ordered_batch =
-            concat_batches(&ordered_batches[0].schema(), ordered_batches.iter()).unwrap();
+        // Test invalid LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE", "not_a_number");
+        }
+        let result = get_default_batch_size();
+        assert_eq!(result, None, "Should return None for invalid batch size");
 
-        // Attempt to get out-of-order scan, but that might take multiple attempts.
-        scan.scan_in_order(false);
-        for _ in 0..10 {
-            let unordered_batches = scan
-                .try_into_stream()
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_collect::<Vec<RecordBatch>>()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            let unordered_batch =
-                concat_batches(&unordered_batches[0].schema(), unordered_batches.iter()).unwrap();
+        // Test valid LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE", "2048");
+        }
+        let result = get_default_batch_size();
+        assert_eq!(result, Some(2048), "Should parse valid batch size");
 
-            assert_eq!(ordered_batch.num_rows(), unordered_batch.num_rows());
+        // Test unset LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::remove_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE");
+        }
+        let result = get_default_batch_size();
+        assert_eq!(result, None, "Should return None when env var is not set");
+    }
 
-            // If they aren't equal, they should be equal if we sort by row id
-            if ordered_batch != unordered_batch {
-                let sort_indices = sort_to_indices(&unordered_batch[ROW_ID], None, None).unwrap();
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_env_var() {
+        // Test parse_env_var with different types to ensure full coverage
 
-                let ordered_i = ordered_batch["i"].clone();
-                let sorted_i = take::take(&unordered_batch["i"], &sort_indices, None).unwrap();
+        // Test with a unique env var name to avoid conflicts
+        let test_var = "LANCE_TEST_PARSE_ENV_VAR_USIZE";
 
-                assert_eq!(&ordered_i, &sorted_i);
+        // Test valid usize parsing
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var(test_var, "12345");
+        }
+        let result: Option<usize> = parse_env_var(test_var, "Using default.");
+        assert_eq!(result, Some(12345));
 
-                break;
-            }
+        // Test invalid usize parsing (triggers warning log)
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var(test_var, "not_a_number");
         }
-    }
+        let result: Option<usize> = parse_env_var(test_var, "Using default.");
+        assert_eq!(result, None);
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scan_with_wildcard() {
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col("x", array::step::<Float64Type>())
-            .col("y", array::step::<Float64Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(100))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Test unset env var
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::remove_var(test_var);
+        }
+        let result: Option<usize> = parse_env_var(test_var, "Using default.");
+        assert_eq!(result, None);
 
-        let check_cols = async |projection: &[&str], expected_cols: &[&str]| {
-            let mut scan = data.scan();
-            scan.project(projection).unwrap();
-            let stream = scan.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-            let schema = stream.schema();
-            let field_names = schema.field_names();
-            assert_eq!(field_names, expected_cols);
-        };
+        // Test with u32 type
+        let test_var_u32 = "LANCE_TEST_PARSE_ENV_VAR_U32";
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var(test_var_u32, "42");
+        }
+        let result: Option<u32> = parse_env_var(test_var_u32, "Using default value.");
+        assert_eq!(result, Some(42));
 
-        check_cols(&["*"], &["x", "y"]).await;
-        check_cols(&["x", "y"], &["x", "y"]).await;
-        check_cols(&["x"], &["x"]).await;
-        check_cols(&["_rowid", "*"], &["_rowid", "x", "y"]).await;
-        check_cols(&["*", "_rowid"], &["x", "y", "_rowid"]).await;
-        check_cols(
-            &["_rowid", "*", "_rowoffset"],
-            &["_rowid", "x", "y", "_rowoffset"],
-        )
-        .await;
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var(test_var_u32, "invalid");
+        }
+        let result: Option<u32> = parse_env_var(test_var_u32, "Using default value.");
+        assert_eq!(result, None);
 
-        let check_exprs = async |exprs: &[&str], expected_cols: &[&str]| {
-            let mut scan = data.scan();
-            let projection = exprs
-                .iter()
-                .map(|e| (e.to_string(), e.to_string()))
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            scan.project_with_transform(&projection).unwrap();
-            let stream = scan.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-            let schema = stream.schema();
-            let field_names = schema.field_names();
-            assert_eq!(field_names, expected_cols);
-        };
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::remove_var(test_var_u32);
+        }
 
-        // Make sure we can reference * fields in exprs and add new columns
-        check_exprs(&["_rowid", "*", "x * 2"], &["_rowid", "x", "y", "x * 2"]).await;
+        // Test with u64 type
+        let test_var_u64 = "LANCE_TEST_PARSE_ENV_VAR_U64";
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var(test_var_u64, "9999999999");
+        }
+        let result: Option<u64> = parse_env_var(test_var_u64, "Using default value.");
+        assert_eq!(result, Some(9999999999));
 
-        let check_fails = |projection: &[&str]| {
-            let mut scan = data.scan();
-            assert!(scan.project(projection).is_err());
-        };
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var(test_var_u64, "-1");
+        }
+        let result: Option<u64> = parse_env_var(test_var_u64, "Using default value.");
+        assert_eq!(result, None);
 
-        // Would duplicate x
-        check_fails(&["x", "*"]);
-        check_fails(&["_rowid", "_rowid"]);
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::remove_var(test_var_u64);
+        }
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scan_order(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "i",
-            DataType::Int32,
-            true,
-        )]));
-
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]))],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+    async fn make_binary_vector_dataset() -> Result<(TempStrDir, Dataset)> {
+        let tmp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dim = 4;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "bin",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                    dim,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
 
-        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![6, 7, 8]))],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            UInt8Array::from(vec![
+                0b0000_1111u8,
+                0,
+                0,
+                0, //
+                0b0000_0011u8,
+                0,
+                0,
+                0, //
+                0u8,
+                0,
+                0,
+                0,
+            ]),
+            dim,
+        )?;
+        let ids = Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2]);
 
-        let params = WriteParams {
-            mode: WriteMode::Append,
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(vectors)])?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(reader, &tmp_dir, None).await?;
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&tmp_dir).await?;
+        Ok((tmp_dir, dataset))
+    }
 
-        let write_batch = |batch: RecordBatch| async {
-            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
-            Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(params)).await
-        };
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_size() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
 
-        write_batch.clone()(batch1.clone()).await.unwrap();
-        write_batch(batch2.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
+            .map(|i| {
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20)),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                        )),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
 
-        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap());
-        let fragment1 = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap().metadata().clone();
-        let fragment2 = dataset.get_fragment(1).unwrap().metadata().clone();
+        for use_filter in [false, true] {
+            let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let test_uri = &test_dir;
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 40,
+                max_rows_per_group: 10,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let batches =
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+            Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        // 1 then 2
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragment1.clone(), fragment2.clone()]);
-        let output = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
+            let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+            let mut builder = dataset.scan();
+            builder.batch_size(8);
+            if use_filter {
+                builder.filter("i IS NOT NULL").unwrap();
+            }
+            let mut stream = builder.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+            let mut rows_read = 0;
+            while let Some(next) = stream.next().await {
+                let next = next.unwrap();
+                let expected = 8.min(100 - rows_read);
+                assert_eq!(next.num_rows(), expected);
+                rows_read += next.num_rows();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn batch_row_ids(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<u64> {
+        batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::without_stable_row_ids(false)]
+    #[case::with_stable_row_ids(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn row_addr_mask_plain_scan_allow_block_refine(#[case] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, stable_row_ids)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(output.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(output[0], batch1);
-        assert_eq!(output[1], batch2);
+        let ds = &test_ds.dataset;
 
-        // 2 then 1
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragment2, fragment1]);
-        let output = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let all_ids = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        let all_set: BTreeSet<u64> = all_ids.iter().copied().collect();
+        let allow: Vec<u64> = all_ids.iter().copied().step_by(2).collect();
+        let allow_set: BTreeSet<u64> = allow.iter().copied().collect();
+
+        // Allow-mask plain scan returns exactly the allowed rows.
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            allow.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let got: BTreeSet<u64> = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap())
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(got, allow_set);
+
+        // Block-mask plain scan returns every row except the blocked ones, which
+        // also exercises FilteredReadExec index-input serialization of a BlockList.
+        let block: Vec<u64> = all_ids.iter().copied().step_by(3).collect();
+        let block_set: BTreeSet<u64> = block.iter().copied().collect();
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            block.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let got: BTreeSet<u64> = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap())
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        let expected: BTreeSet<u64> = all_set.difference(&block_set).copied().collect();
+        assert_eq!(got, expected);
+
+        // With a SQL refine, the result is the allowed rows that also match the filter.
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            allow.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.filter("i >= 200").unwrap();
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let refined = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let refined_ids: BTreeSet<u64> = batch_row_ids(&refined).into_iter().collect();
+        assert!(refined_ids.is_subset(&allow_set) && !refined_ids.is_empty());
+        let is = refined
+            .column_by_name("i")
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        assert!(is.values().iter().all(|v| *v >= 200));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn row_addr_mask_plain_scan_rejected_on_legacy() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(output.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(output[0], batch2);
-        assert_eq!(output[1], batch1);
+        let ds = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0u64])));
+        let Err(err) = scan.try_into_stream().await else {
+            panic!("expected legacy-storage masked plain scan to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("legacy-storage"),
+            "unexpected: {err}"
+        );
     }
 
     #[rstest]
+    #[case::without_stable_row_ids(false)]
+    #[case::with_stable_row_ids(true)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scan_sort(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![5, 4, 1, 2, 3]))
-            .col(
-                "str",
-                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c", "e", "d"]),
-            );
-
-        let sorted_by_int = gen_batch()
-            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]))
-            .col(
-                "str",
-                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["c", "e", "d", "b", "a"]),
-            )
-            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let sorted_by_str = gen_batch()
-            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![5, 4, 1, 3, 2]))
-            .col(
-                "str",
-                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"]),
-            )
-            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
+    async fn row_addr_mask_ann_search_only_allowed(#[case] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
             .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        // Append after indexing so the appended fragment is unindexed (flat branch).
+        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
+        let ds = &test_ds.dataset;
 
-        Dataset::write(
-            data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(5), BatchCount::from(1)),
-            test_uri,
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap());
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let all_ids = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        let allow: Vec<u64> = all_ids.iter().copied().step_by(3).collect();
+        let allow_set: BTreeSet<u64> = allow.iter().copied().collect();
+
+        let key: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 15).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            allow.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let got = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        assert!(!got.is_empty());
+        for id in got {
+            assert!(
+                allow_set.contains(&id),
+                "returned _rowid {id} not in allowlist"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        let batches_by_int = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
-                "int".to_string(),
-            )]))
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn row_addr_mask_plain_scan_with_limit() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let ds = &test_ds.dataset;
 
-        assert_eq!(batches_by_int[0], sorted_by_int);
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let all_ids = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        let allow: Vec<u64> = all_ids.iter().copied().step_by(2).collect();
+        let allow_set: BTreeSet<u64> = allow.iter().copied().collect();
+
+        // limit must apply AFTER masking: 5 rows, all from the allowlist.
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            allow.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.limit(Some(5), None).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let got = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(got.len(), 5, "masked limit should yield 5 masked rows");
+        for id in &got {
+            assert!(allow_set.contains(id), "returned {id} not allowed");
+        }
+    }
 
-        let batches_by_str = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
-                "str".to_string(),
-            )]))
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn row_addr_mask_plain_scan_filter_unprojected_column() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let ds = &test_ds.dataset;
 
-        assert_eq!(batches_by_str[0], sorted_by_str);
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let all_ids = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+
+        // Allow everything; filter on `i` but project only `s` (unrelated column).
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            all_ids.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.filter("i >= 200").unwrap();
+        scan.project(&["s"]).unwrap();
+        let out = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out.num_rows(), 200, "expected 200 rows with i>=200");
+    }
 
-        // Ensure an empty sort vec does not break anything (sorting is disabled)
-        dataset
-            .scan()
-            .order_by(Some(vec![]))
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn row_addr_mask_plain_scan_exact_index_filter_unprojected_column() {
+        // A scalar index on `i` turns `i >= 200` into an exact index query with no
+        // refine. Under an external mask that predicate is demoted to a refine over
+        // the masked rows, so `i` must still be projected for the read even though
+        // the user only asked for `s`.
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_scalar_index().await.unwrap();
+        let ds = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let all_ids = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            all_ids.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.filter("i >= 200").unwrap();
+        scan.project(&["s"]).unwrap();
+        let out = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out.num_rows(), 200, "expected 200 rows with i>=200");
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
+    /// A `_rowid` predicate is recognized as a TakeOperation and short-circuits
+    /// straight to `take_source`, which used to skip the mask entirely.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_sort_multi_columns(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+    async fn row_addr_mask_take_shortcut_respects_mask() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ds = &test_ds.dataset;
 
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![5, 5, 1, 1, 3]))
-            .col(
-                "float",
-                array::cycle::<Float32Type>(vec![7.3, -f32::NAN, f32::NAN, 4.3, f32::INFINITY]),
-            );
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let all_ids = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        let target = all_ids[0];
 
-        let sorted_by_int_then_float = gen_batch()
-            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![1, 1, 3, 5, 5]))
-            .col(
-                "float",
-                // floats should be sorted using total order so -NAN is before all and NAN is after all
-                array::cycle::<Float32Type>(vec![4.3, f32::NAN, f32::INFINITY, -f32::NAN, 7.3]),
-            )
-            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
-            .unwrap();
+        // Sanity: unmasked, the shortcut returns the row.
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.filter(&format!("_rowid = {target}")).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 1);
 
-        Dataset::write(
-            data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(5), BatchCount::from(1)),
-            test_uri,
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        // Masked to nothing, it must return nothing.
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.filter(&format!("_rowid = {target}")).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::allow_nothing());
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+            0,
+            "the take shortcut must not return rows the mask excludes"
+        );
 
-        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap());
+        // And an allow-list restricts it rather than being ignored.
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.filter(&format!("_rowid = {target}")).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([
+            target,
+        ])));
+        assert_eq!(scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 1);
+    }
 
-        let batches_by_int_then_float = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .order_by(Some(vec![
-                ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first("int".to_string()),
-                ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first("float".to_string()),
-            ]))
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    /// A same-column compound query (Boost here) is optimized into
+    /// CompoundFtsScorer, a scorer that built its prefilter without the mask.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn row_addr_mask_compound_fts_respects_mask() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_fts_index().await.unwrap();
+        let ds = &test_ds.dataset;
 
-        assert_eq!(batches_by_int_then_float[0], sorted_by_int_then_float);
+        let compound = || {
+            let positive = MatchQuery::new("4".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s".to_owned()));
+            let negative = MatchQuery::new("9".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s".to_owned()));
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                BoostQuery::new(positive.into(), negative.into(), Some(1.0)).into(),
+            )
+        };
+
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(compound()).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+            "expected the compound scorer path, got:\n{plan}"
+        );
+        let base = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        assert!(!base.is_empty(), "compound query matched nothing");
+
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(compound()).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::allow_nothing());
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+            0,
+            "the compound scorer must not return rows the mask excludes"
+        );
+
+        // Allow exactly one baseline hit; only that one may come back.
+        let keep = base[0];
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(compound()).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([keep])));
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()),
+            vec![keep]
+        );
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
+    /// A cross-column boolean query plans into CrossColumnCompoundFtsScorer,
+    /// which is a different exec from the same-column CompoundFtsScorer and
+    /// builds its own prefilter, so it needs the mask threaded separately.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_ann_prefilter(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
-        #[values(
-            VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2),
-            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
-                MetricType::L2,
-                IvfBuildParams::new(2),
-                HnswBuildParams::default(),
-                SQBuildParams::default()
-            )
-        )]
-        index_params: VectorIndexParams,
-    ) {
-        use lance_arrow::{fixed_size_list_type, FixedSizeListArrayExt};
-
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+    async fn row_addr_mask_cross_column_fts_respects_mask() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
 
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("filterable", DataType::Int32, true),
-            ArrowField::new("vector", fixed_size_list_type(2, DataType::Float32), true),
+            ArrowField::new("title", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new("body", DataType::Utf8, true),
         ]));
-
-        let vector_values = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..600).map(|x| x as f32));
-
-        let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..300)),
-                Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, 2).unwrap()),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..64).map(|v| format!("alpha title {v}")),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..64).map(|v| format!("alpha body {v}")),
+                )),
             ],
         )
-        .unwrap()];
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            max_rows_per_file: 300, // At least two files to make sure stable row ids make a difference
-            enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let path = TempStrDir::default();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &path, None).await.unwrap();
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .with_position(true)
+            .remove_stop_words(false);
+        for column in ["title", "body"] {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(&[column], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
 
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Two leaves on different columns is what selects the cross-column
+        // scorer; a bounded limit is required by that exec.
+        let cross_column = || {
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Boolean(BooleanQuery::new([
+                (
+                    Occur::Should,
+                    MatchQuery::new("title".to_string())
+                        .with_column(Some("title".to_string()))
+                        .into(),
+                ),
+                (
+                    Occur::Should,
+                    MatchQuery::new("body".to_string())
+                        .with_column(Some("body".to_string()))
+                        .into(),
+                ),
+            ])))
+            .limit(Some(10))
+        };
 
-        let query_key = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..2).map(|x| x as f32)));
         let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.filter("filterable > 5").unwrap();
-        scan.nearest("vector", query_key.as_ref(), 1).unwrap();
-        scan.minimum_nprobes(100);
-        scan.ef(100);
+        scan.full_text_search(cross_column()).unwrap();
         scan.with_row_id();
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("CrossColumnCompoundFtsScorer"),
+            "expected the cross-column compound scorer path, got:\n{plan}"
+        );
+        let base = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        assert!(!base.is_empty(), "cross-column query matched nothing");
 
-        let batches = scan
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 0);
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(cross_column()).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::allow_nothing());
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+            0,
+            "the cross-column scorer must not return rows the mask excludes"
+        );
 
-        scan.prefilter(true);
+        let keep = base[0];
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(cross_column()).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([keep])));
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()),
+            vec![keep]
+        );
+    }
 
-        let batches = scan
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn row_addr_mask_fts_search_only_allowed() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        test_ds.make_fts_index().await.unwrap();
+        // Re-append the low-i rows AFTER indexing so token "4" matches both an
+        // indexed row (index prefilter path) and an unindexed one (flat FTS branch).
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(0, 10).await.unwrap();
+        let ds = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        // Baseline: the row ids an unmasked FTS query matches.
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("4".into()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let base_ids = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        let base_set: BTreeSet<u64> = base_ids.iter().copied().collect();
+        assert!(
+            base_ids.len() >= 2,
+            "expected indexed + unindexed matches for token 4, got {base_ids:?}"
+        );
 
-        let first_match = batches[0][ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values()[0];
+        // Allow only every other matching row; the mask must prefilter BM25 so the
+        // result is exactly the allowed subset of the baseline matches.
+        let allow: Vec<u64> = base_ids.iter().copied().step_by(2).collect();
+        let allow_set: BTreeSet<u64> = allow.iter().copied().collect();
 
-        assert_eq!(6, first_match);
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("4".into()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            allow.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let got: BTreeSet<u64> = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap())
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        let expected: BTreeSet<u64> = base_set.intersection(&allow_set).copied().collect();
+        assert_eq!(got, expected, "masked FTS must return allowed matches only");
+        assert!(!got.is_empty());
+
+        // Block every match -> empty, proving the mask actually filters FTS results
+        // on both the indexed and flat branches.
+        let mut scan = ds.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("4".into()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            base_ids.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let blocked = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        assert!(blocked.is_empty(), "block-mask must drop all FTS matches");
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_filter_on_large_utf8(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-
+    async fn test_batch_size_bytes_across_data_files() {
+        let num_rows = 300;
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "ls",
-            DataType::LargeUtf8,
-            true,
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int64,
+            false,
         )]));
-
-        let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from_iter_values(
-                (0..10).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-            ))],
+            vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                max_rows_per_file: num_rows as usize + 1,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
         )
-        .unwrap()];
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+        let wide_value = "abcdefghij".repeat(6);
+        let wide_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "wide",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let wide_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            wide_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                (0..num_rows).map(|_| wide_value.as_str()),
+            ))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .add_columns(
+                NewColumnTransform::Reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    [Ok(wide_batch)],
+                    wide_schema,
+                ))),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap().num_data_files(), 2);
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let target_bytes = 8 * 1024;
         let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.filter("ls = 's-8'").unwrap();
-
+        scan.project(&["id", "wide"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .batch_size_bytes(target_bytes);
         let batches = scan
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
@@ -5883,408 +9772,484 @@ mod test {
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let batch = &batches[0];
-
-        let expected = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from_iter_values(
-                (8..9).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-            ))],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(batch, &expected);
-    }
-
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_filter_with_regex(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "ls",
-            DataType::Utf8,
-            true,
-        )]));
-
-        let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                (0..20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-            ))],
-        )
-        .unwrap()];
+        assert_eq!(
+            batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>(),
+            num_rows as usize
+        );
+        for batch in &batches {
+            let wide = batch["wide"].as_string::<i32>();
+            let values_bytes = (*wide.value_offsets().last().unwrap()
+                - *wide.value_offsets().first().unwrap()) as usize;
+            let logical_bytes = batch.num_rows() * std::mem::size_of::<i64>()
+                + std::mem::size_of_val(wide.value_offsets())
+                + values_bytes;
+            assert!(
+                logical_bytes <= target_bytes as usize,
+                "batch has {logical_bytes} logical bytes, target is {target_bytes}"
+            );
+        }
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.project(&["id", "wide"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .batch_size(10)
+            .batch_size_bytes(target_bytes);
+        let batches = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert!(batches.iter().all(|batch| batch.num_rows() <= 10));
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
         let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.filter("regexp_match(ls, 's-1.')").unwrap();
-
-        let stream = scan.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
-        let batch = &batches[0];
-
-        let expected = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                (10..=19).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-            ))],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        scan.project(&["id", "wide"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .batch_size(200)
+            .batch_size_bytes(target_bytes)
+            .strict_batch_size(true);
+        let error = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .err()
+            .expect("strict row and byte batch limits should be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("strict_batch_size=true cannot be combined with batch_size_bytes=8192"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(batch, &expected);
+    // Builds a genuine `lance.blob.v2` logical array of `rows` 8KiB payloads.
+    // Payloads vary per row so they do not collapse under compression.
+    // The legacy `lance-encoding:blob` metadata marker is rejected for file
+    // version >= 2.2, so fixtures must use the v2 logical array.
+    fn v2_blob_array(rows: usize, base: usize) -> ArrayRef {
+        let mut builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(rows);
+        for r in 0..rows {
+            let seed = (base + r).wrapping_mul(2654435761);
+            let payload: Vec<u8> = (0usize..8 * 1024)
+                .map(|i| (i.wrapping_mul(31).wrapping_add(seed) & 0xff) as u8)
+                .collect();
+            builder.push_bytes(&payload).unwrap();
+        }
+        builder.finish().unwrap()
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_filter_proj_bug() {
-        let struct_i_field = ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true);
-        let struct_o_field = ArrowField::new("o", DataType::Utf8, true);
+    async fn test_batch_size_bytes_blob_v2_late_materialization() {
+        use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::RenameCommitHandler;
+
+        let rows_per_batch = 500usize;
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new(
-                "struct",
-                DataType::Struct(vec![struct_i_field.clone(), struct_o_field.clone()].into()),
-                true,
-            ),
-            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new("filterme", DataType::Int32, false),
+            blob_field("blobs", true),
         ]));
-
-        let input_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
-            .map(|i| {
-                let struct_i_arr: Arc<Int32Array> =
-                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20));
-                let struct_o_arr: Arc<StringArray> = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                    (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("o-{:02}", v)),
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..8)
+            .map(|b| {
+                let base = b * rows_per_batch;
+                let filterme = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (base as i32)..(base as i32 + rows_per_batch as i32),
                 ));
                 RecordBatch::try_new(
                     schema.clone(),
-                    vec![
-                        Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
-                            (Arc::new(struct_i_field.clone()), struct_i_arr as ArrayRef),
-                            (Arc::new(struct_o_field.clone()), struct_o_arr as ArrayRef),
-                        ])),
-                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-                        )),
-                    ],
+                    vec![filterme, v2_blob_array(rows_per_batch, base)],
                 )
                 .unwrap()
             })
             .collect();
-        let batches =
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(input_batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 40,
-            max_rows_per_group: 10,
-            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let data = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let batches = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("struct.i >= 20")
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            "memory://test",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let target_bytes = 8 * 1024;
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .filter("filterme < 100")
             .unwrap()
+            .batch_size_bytes(target_bytes);
+        let batches = scan
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
             .unwrap()
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let batch = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
 
-        let expected_batch = concat_batches(&schema, &input_batches.as_slice()[1..]).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(batch, expected_batch);
+        assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), 100);
+        for batch in &batches {
+            assert!(
+                batch.get_array_memory_size() <= (target_bytes * 2) as usize,
+                "batch has {} bytes, limit is {}",
+                batch.get_array_memory_size(),
+                target_bytes * 2
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        // different order
-        let batches = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("struct.o >= 'o-20'")
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let batch = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(batch, expected_batch);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_size_bytes_blob_v2_vector_search() {
+        use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::RenameCommitHandler;
 
-        // other reported bug with nested top level column access
-        let batches = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .project(vec!["struct"].as_slice())
+        let rows_per_batch = 500usize;
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("vec", DataType::FixedSizeList(item_field.clone(), 32), true),
+            blob_field("blobs", true),
+        ]));
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..8)
+            .map(|b| {
+                let base = b * rows_per_batch;
+                let i = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (base as i32)..(base as i32 + rows_per_batch as i32),
+                ));
+                let vec = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::new(
+                    item_field.clone(),
+                    32,
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                        (0..rows_per_batch * 32).map(|v| ((base + v) % 1024) as f32),
+                    )),
+                    None,
+                ));
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![i, vec, v2_blob_array(rows_per_batch, base)],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let data = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            "memory://test",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let query = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..32).map(|v| v as f32));
+        let target_bytes = 8 * 1024;
+        let k = 20;
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &query, k)
             .unwrap()
+            .use_index(false)
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .batch_size_bytes(target_bytes);
+        let batches = scan
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
             .unwrap()
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), k);
+        for batch in &batches {
+            assert!(
+                batch.get_array_memory_size() <= (target_bytes * 2) as usize,
+                "batch has {} bytes, limit is {}",
+                batch.get_array_memory_size(),
+                target_bytes * 2
+            );
+        }
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_ann_with_deletion(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
-    ) {
-        let vec_params = vec![
-            // TODO: re-enable diskann test when we can tune to get reproducible results.
-            // VectorIndexParams::with_diskann_params(MetricType::L2, DiskANNParams::new(10, 1.5, 10)),
-            VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2),
-        ];
-        for params in vec_params {
-            use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-
-            let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-            let test_uri = &test_dir;
+    async fn test_strict_batch_size() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .anon_col(array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(7), FragmentRowCount::from(6))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            // make dataset
-            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
-                ArrowField::new(
-                    "vec",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                        32,
-                    ),
-                    true,
-                ),
-            ]));
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.batch_size(10)
+            .strict_batch_size(true)
+            .filter("x % 2 == 0")
+            .unwrap();
 
-            // vectors are [1, 1, 1, ...] [2, 2, 2, ...]
-            let vector_values: Float32Array =
-                (0..32 * 512).map(|v| (v / 32) as f32 + 1.0).collect();
-            let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, 32).unwrap();
+        let batches = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-                schema.clone(),
-                vec![
-                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..512)),
-                    Arc::new(vectors.clone()),
-                ],
-            )
-            .unwrap()];
+        let batch_sizes = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(batch_sizes, vec![10, 10, 1]);
+    }
 
-            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-                reader,
-                test_uri,
-                Some(WriteParams {
-                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                    enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-            )
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_column_not_exist() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(7), FragmentRowCount::from(6))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-            assert_eq!(dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await, 0);
-            dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["vec"],
-                    IndexType::Vector,
-                    Some("idx".to_string()),
-                    &params,
-                    true,
+        let check_err_msg = |r: Result<DatasetRecordBatchStream>| {
+            let Err(err) = r else {
+                panic!(
+                    "Expected an error to be raised saying column y is not found but got no error"
                 )
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-
-            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-            // closest be i = 0..5
-            let key: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|_v| 1.0_f32).collect();
-            scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-            scan.refine(100);
-            scan.minimum_nprobes(100);
+            };
 
-            assert_eq!(
-                dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await,
-                2, // 2 for index metadata at version 1 and 2.
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string().contains("No field named y"),
+                "Expected error to contain 'No field named y' but got {}",
+                err
             );
-            let results = scan
-                .try_into_stream()
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        };
 
-            assert_eq!(
-                dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await,
-                5 + dataset.versions().await.unwrap().len()
-            );
-            assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
-            let batch = &results[0];
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.project(&["x", "y"]).unwrap();
+        check_err_msg(scan.try_into_stream().await);
 
-            let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
-            let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-            let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
-                .values()
-                .iter()
-                .copied()
-                .collect();
-            assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.project(&["y"]).unwrap();
+        check_err_msg(scan.try_into_stream().await);
 
-            // DELETE top result and search again
+        // This represents a query like `SELECT 1 AS foo` which we could _technically_ satisfy
+        // but it is not supported today
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.project_with_transform(&[("foo", "1")]).unwrap();
+        match scan.try_into_stream().await {
+            Ok(_) => panic!("Expected an error to be raised saying not supported"),
+            Err(e) => {
+                assert!(
+                    e.to_string().contains("Received only dynamic expressions"),
+                    "Expected error to contain 'Received only dynamic expressions' but got {}",
+                    e
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-            dataset.delete("i = 1").await.unwrap();
-            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-            scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-            scan.refine(100);
-            scan.minimum_nprobes(100);
+    #[cfg(not(windows))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_local_object_store() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
 
-            let results = scan
-                .try_into_stream()
-                .await
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
+            .map(|i| {
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20)),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                        )),
+                    ],
+                )
                 .unwrap()
-                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+            })
+            .collect();
 
-            assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
-            let batch = &results[0];
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 40,
+            max_rows_per_group: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            // i=1 was deleted, and 5 is the next best, the reset shouldn't change
-            let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![0, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
-            let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-            let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
-                .values()
-                .iter()
-                .copied()
-                .collect();
-            assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&format!("file-object-store://{}", test_uri))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut builder = dataset.scan();
+        builder.batch_size(8);
+        let mut stream = builder.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+        let mut rows_read = 0;
+        while let Some(next) = stream.next().await {
+            let next = next.unwrap();
+            let expected = 8.min(100 - rows_read);
+            assert_eq!(next.num_rows(), expected);
+            rows_read += next.num_rows();
+        }
+    }
 
-            // Add a second fragment and test the case where there are no deletion
-            // files but there are missing fragments.
-            let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-                schema.clone(),
-                vec![
-                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(512..1024)),
-                    Arc::new(vectors),
-                ],
-            )
-            .unwrap()];
-
-            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-                reader,
-                test_uri,
-                Some(WriteParams {
-                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
-                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-            dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["vec"],
-                    IndexType::Vector,
-                    Some("idx".to_string()),
-                    &params,
-                    true,
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_parsing() -> Result<()> {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false).await?;
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
 
-            dataset.delete("i < 512").await.unwrap();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        assert!(scan.filter.is_none());
 
-            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-            scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
-            scan.refine(100);
-            scan.minimum_nprobes(100);
+        scan.filter("i > 50")?;
+        assert_eq!(scan.get_expr_filter().unwrap(), Some(col("i").gt(lit(50))));
 
-            let results = scan
+        for use_stats in [false, true] {
+            let batches = scan
+                .project(&["s"])?
+                .use_stats(use_stats)
                 .try_into_stream()
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
+                .await?
                 .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-
-            assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
-            let batch = &results[0];
+                .await?;
+            let batch = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches)?;
 
-            // It should not pick up any results from the first fragment
-            let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![512, 513, 514, 515, 516]);
-            let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-            let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
-                .values()
-                .iter()
-                .copied()
-                .collect();
-            assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+            let expected_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                // Projected just "s"
+                Arc::new(test_ds.schema.project(&[1])?),
+                vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (51..400).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                ))],
+            )?;
+            assert_eq!(batch, expected_batch);
         }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
+    // Regression for #6580: a scan with `filter` + `project` of a
+    // `(Large)List<Struct>` column used to panic in `merge_with_schema`
+    // (called from `TakeStream::map_batch`) because the filtered batch arrived
+    // as a sliced view of a larger batch and the cloned list offsets did not
+    // start at zero. The trigger requires (a) a `(Large)List<Struct>`
+    // projection where the struct is split across `filtered_read` and
+    // `TakeExec` and (b) a sparse-tail selectivity pattern so the trailing
+    // filter result lands deep inside the values buffer of its source batch.
+    // Parametrized over `List`/`LargeList` since the fix touches both offset
+    // widths in `merge_with_schema`.
+    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_projection_order() {
-        let vec_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
-        let mut data = gen_batch()
-            .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(4)))
-            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(100))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        data.create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &vec_params, true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    async fn test_filter_project_list_struct_sparse_tail(
+        // The panic is specific to v2.x storage; the legacy reader takes a
+        // different code path. V2_0 and V2_2 are the versions called out in
+        // the original report.
+        #[values(
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_2
+        )]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] large_list: bool,
+    ) {
+        use arrow_array::{LargeListArray, ListArray, UInt16Array};
+        use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
 
-        let mut scan = data.scan();
-        scan.nearest("vec", &Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0]), 5)
-            .unwrap();
-        scan.with_row_id().project(&["text"]).unwrap();
+        let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)),
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true)),
+        ]);
+        let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let items_dtype = if large_list {
+            DataType::LargeList(item_field.clone())
+        } else {
+            DataType::List(item_field.clone())
+        };
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("grp", DataType::UInt16, false),
+            ArrowField::new("items", items_dtype, false),
+        ]));
 
-        let results = scan
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
+        let make_batch = |start: i32, n: usize, group: u16| -> RecordBatch {
+            let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(start..start + n as i32);
+            let groups = UInt16Array::from(vec![group; n]);
+
+            let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(n + 1);
+            let mut a_vals: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+            let mut b_vals: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+            offsets.push(0i64);
+            for i in 0..n {
+                // Variable-length lists (1..=18) so offsets don't land on
+                // batch-row boundaries.
+                let len = 1 + (i % 18);
+                for j in 0..len {
+                    a_vals.push(j as i32);
+                    b_vals.push(-(j as i32));
+                }
+                offsets.push(a_vals.len() as i64);
+            }
+            let struct_arr = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                struct_fields.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(a_vals)) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(b_vals)) as ArrayRef,
+                ],
+                None,
+            ));
+            let items: ArrayRef = if large_list {
+                Arc::new(LargeListArray::new(
+                    item_field.clone(),
+                    OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+                    struct_arr,
+                    None,
+                ))
+            } else {
+                let offsets_i32: Vec<i32> = offsets.iter().map(|&o| o as i32).collect();
+                Arc::new(ListArray::new(
+                    item_field.clone(),
+                    OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets_i32)),
+                    struct_arr,
+                    None,
+                ))
+            };
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(groups) as ArrayRef,
+                    items,
+                ],
+            )
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        };
 
-        assert_eq!(
-            results[0].schema().field_names(),
-            vec!["text", "_distance", "_rowid"]
-        );
-    }
+        // Sparse-tail selectivity (matching the original report's shape at a
+        // smaller scale): a large leading block of matches, a large gap of
+        // non-matches, then a small trailing match. Single fragment.
+        let batches = vec![
+            make_batch(0, 20_000, 7),
+            make_batch(20_000, 80_000, 1),
+            make_batch(100_000, 1_500, 7),
+        ];
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_count_rows_with_filter(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(
-            IncrementingInt32::new().named("Filter_me".to_owned()),
-        ));
-        Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(32),
-            test_uri,
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
             Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1_000_000,
                 data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
@@ -6292,2791 +10257,10171 @@ mod test {
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(32, dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap());
-        assert_eq!(
-            16,
-            dataset
-                .count_rows(Some("`Filter_me` > 15".to_string()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-        );
+        // Force a column split inside the `items` struct by marking `items.b`
+        // as a late-materialized field: `filtered_read` returns the batch with
+        // `items.a`, and `TakeExec` adds `items.b`. `merge_with_schema` then
+        // takes its `List<Struct>` branch, which is where the panic was.
+        let items_b_field_id = dataset
+            .schema()
+            .field("items")
+            .unwrap()
+            .child("item")
+            .unwrap()
+            .child("b")
+            .unwrap()
+            .id as u32;
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter("grp = 7").unwrap();
+        scan.project(&["id", "items"]).unwrap();
+        scan.materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllEarlyExcept(vec![items_b_field_id]));
+        let result = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 21_500);
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_dynamic_projection(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut data_gen =
-            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
-        Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(32),
-            test_uri,
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
+    async fn test_scan_regexp_match_and_non_empty_captions() {
+        // Build a small dataset with three Utf8 columns and verify the full
+        // scan().filter(...) path handles regexp_match combined with non-null/non-empty checks.
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("keywords", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new("natural_caption", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new("poetic_caption", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    Some("Liberty for all"),
+                    Some("peace"),
+                    Some("revolution now"),
+                    Some("Liberty"),
+                    Some("revolutionary"),
+                    Some("none"),
+                ])) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    Some("a"),
+                    Some("b"),
+                    None,
+                    Some(""),
+                    Some("c"),
+                    Some("d"),
+                ])) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    Some("x"),
+                    Some(""),
+                    Some("y"),
+                    Some("z"),
+                    None,
+                    Some("w"),
+                ])) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
         )
-        .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 32);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter(
+            "regexp_match(keywords, 'Liberty|revolution') AND \
+             (natural_caption IS NOT NULL AND natural_caption <> '' AND \
+              poetic_caption IS NOT NULL AND poetic_caption <> '')",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let scan_res = scanner
-            .project_with_transform(&[("bool", "i > 15")])
+        let out = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out.num_rows(), 1);
+
+        let out_keywords = out
+            .column_by_name("keywords")
             .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .as_string::<i32>()
+            .value(0);
+        let out_nat = out
+            .column_by_name("natural_caption")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_string::<i32>()
+            .value(0);
+        let out_poetic = out
+            .column_by_name("poetic_caption")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_string::<i32>()
+            .value(0);
 
-        assert_eq!(1, scan_res.num_columns());
+        assert_eq!(out_keywords, "Liberty for all");
+        assert_eq!(out_nat, "a");
+        assert_eq!(out_poetic, "x");
+    }
 
-        let bool_col = scan_res
-            .column_by_name("bool")
-            .expect("bool column should exist");
-        let bool_arr = bool_col.as_boolean();
-        for i in 0..32 {
-            if i > 15 {
-                assert!(bool_arr.value(i));
-            } else {
-                assert!(!bool_arr.value(i));
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_column_casting_function(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut data_gen =
-            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(RandomVector::new().named("vec".to_owned())));
-        Dataset::write(
-            data_gen.batch(32),
-            test_uri,
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+    async fn test_nested_projection() {
+        let point_fields: Fields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Float32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Float32, true),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let metadata_fields: Fields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("location", DataType::Struct(point_fields), true),
+            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let metadata_field = ArrowField::new("metadata", DataType::Struct(metadata_fields), true);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            metadata_field,
+            ArrowField::new("idx", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let data = lance_datagen::rand(&schema)
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(7), FragmentRowCount::from(6))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 32);
+        let mut scan = data.scan();
+        scan.project(&["metadata.location.x", "metadata.age"])
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
 
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.schema().as_ref(),
+            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("metadata.location.x", DataType::Float32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("metadata.age", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])
+        );
 
-        let scan_res = scanner
-            .project_with_transform(&[("f16", "_cast_list_f16(vec)")])
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
+        // 0 - metadata
+        // 2 - x
+        // 4 - age
+        let take_schema = data.schema().project_by_ids(&[0, 2, 4], false);
+
+        let taken = data.take_rows(&[0, 5], take_schema).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The expected schema drops y from the location field
+        let part_point_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Float32, true)]);
+        let part_metadata_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("location", DataType::Struct(part_point_fields), true),
+            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        let part_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "metadata",
+            DataType::Struct(part_metadata_fields),
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        assert_eq!(taken.schema(), part_schema);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_project_with_schema() {
+        let point_fields: Fields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Float32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Float32, true),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let metadata_fields: Fields = vec![
+            ArrowField::new("location", DataType::Struct(point_fields), true),
+            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("metadata", DataType::Struct(metadata_fields), true),
+            ArrowField::new("idx", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let data = lance_datagen::rand(&schema)
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(7), FragmentRowCount::from(6))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(1, scan_res.num_columns());
-        assert_eq!(32, scan_res.num_rows());
-        assert_eq!("f16", scan_res.schema().field(0).name());
+        // 0 - metadata
+        // 2 - x
+        // 4 - age
+        // A partial struct that keeps `location` but drops `y` from it.
+        let projection = data.schema().project_by_ids(&[0, 2, 4], false);
 
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        let scan_res_original = scanner
-            .project(&["vec"])
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
+        let mut scan = data.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id()
+            .with_row_address()
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .project_with_schema(&projection)
             .unwrap();
+        // The blob handling configured before the projection must survive it,
+        // as it does for `project_with_transform`.
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan.projection_plan.physical_projection.blob_handling,
+            BlobHandling::AllBinary
+        );
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
 
-        let f32_col: &Float32Array = scan_res_original
-            .column_by_name("vec")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_fixed_size_list()
-            .values()
-            .as_primitive();
-        let f16_col: &Float16Array = scan_res
-            .column_by_name("f16")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_fixed_size_list()
-            .values()
-            .as_primitive();
+        // Unlike the expression form, the output keeps the nested shape of the schema.
+        let part_point_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Float32, true)]);
+        let part_metadata_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("location", DataType::Struct(part_point_fields), true),
+            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.schema().field_names(),
+            vec!["metadata", ROW_ID, ROW_ADDR]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch["metadata"].data_type(),
+            &DataType::Struct(part_metadata_fields)
+        );
 
-        for (f32_val, f16_val) in f32_col.iter().zip(f16_col.iter()) {
-            let f32_val = f32_val.unwrap();
-            let f16_val = f16_val.unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(f16::from_f32(f32_val), f16_val);
-        }
+        let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values().to_vec();
+        let taken = data.take_rows(&row_ids, projection).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(&batch["metadata"], &taken["metadata"]);
     }
 
-    struct ScalarIndexTestFixture {
-        _test_dir: TempStrDir,
-        dataset: Dataset,
-        sample_query: Arc<dyn Array>,
-        delete_query: Arc<dyn Array>,
-        // The original version of the data, two fragments, rows 0-1000
-        original_version: u64,
-        // The original version of the data, 1 row deleted, compacted to a single fragment
-        compact_version: u64,
-        // The original version of the data + an extra 1000 unindexed
-        append_version: u64,
-        // The original version of the data + an extra 1000 rows, with indices updated so all rows indexed
-        updated_version: u64,
-        // The original version of the data with 1 deleted row
-        delete_version: u64,
-        // The original version of the data + an extra 1000 uindexed + 1 deleted row
-        append_then_delete_version: u64,
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_project_with_schema_row_id_without_row_address() {
+        // `_rowid` named in the schema, with no `_rowaddr` alongside it. Only `_rowoffset`
+        // needs `AddRowOffsetExec`; asking for that node here would leave it without the
+        // address column it reads, and the scan would fail to plan.
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "idx",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let data = lance_datagen::rand(&schema)
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(3))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let requested = Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("idx", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true),
+        ]))
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scan = data.scan();
+        scan.project_with_schema(&requested).unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.schema().field_names(), vec!["idx", ROW_ID]);
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 6);
     }
 
-    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
-    struct ScalarTestParams {
-        use_index: bool,
-        use_projection: bool,
-        use_deleted_data: bool,
-        use_new_data: bool,
-        with_row_id: bool,
-        use_compaction: bool,
-        use_updated: bool,
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_limit(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids).await?;
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        let full_data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?.slice(19, 2);
+
+        let actual = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .limit(Some(2), Some(19))?
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await?;
+
+        assert_eq!(actual.num_rows(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(actual, full_data);
+
+        for filter in [None, Some("i > 2")] {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            if let Some(filter) = filter {
+                scan.filter(filter)?;
+            }
+            let actual = scan.limit(Some(0), None)?.try_into_batch().await?;
+            assert_eq!(actual.num_rows(), 0);
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    impl ScalarIndexTestFixture {
-        async fn new(data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion, use_stable_row_ids: bool) -> Self {
-            let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-            let test_uri = &test_dir;
+    async fn assert_scan_slice_matches(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        fragments: Option<&[Fragment]>,
+        offset: usize,
+        limit: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut full_scan = dataset.scan();
+        if let Some(fragments) = fragments {
+            full_scan.with_fragments(fragments.to_vec());
+        }
+        let full = full_scan.try_into_batch().await?;
+        let expected_offset = offset.min(full.num_rows());
+        let expected_len = limit.min(full.num_rows() - expected_offset);
+        let expected = full.slice(expected_offset, expected_len);
 
-            // Write 1000 rows.  Train indices.  Then write 1000 new rows with the same vector data.
-            // Then delete a row from the trained data.
-            //
-            // The first row where indexed == 50 is our sample query.
-            // The first row where indexed == 75 is our deleted row (and delete query)
-            let data = gen_batch()
-                .col(
-                    "vector",
-                    array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(32)),
-                )
-                .col("indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-                .col("not_indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-                .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(1000))
-                .unwrap();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        if let Some(fragments) = fragments {
+            scan.with_fragments(fragments.to_vec());
+        }
+        scan.limit(Some(limit as i64), Some(offset as i64))?;
+        let actual = scan.try_into_batch().await?;
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected, "offset={offset}, limit={limit}");
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-            // Write as two batches so we can later compact
-            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema().clone()),
-                test_uri,
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_limit_pushdown_correctness(
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] with_deletions: bool,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
                 Some(WriteParams {
-                    max_rows_per_file: 500,
-                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                    enable_stable_row_ids: use_stable_row_ids,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
                     ..Default::default()
                 }),
             )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .await?;
+        if with_deletions {
+            dataset.delete("idx % 10 = 0").await?;
+        }
 
-            dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["vector"],
-                    IndexType::Vector,
-                    None,
-                    &VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2),
-                    false,
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        for (offset, limit) in [
+            (0, 5),
+            (8, 8),
+            (9, 3),
+            (17, 10),
+            (35, 10),
+            (100, 5),
+            (15, 0),
+        ] {
+            assert_scan_slice_matches(&dataset, None, offset, limit).await?;
+        }
 
-            dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["indexed"],
-                    IndexType::Scalar,
-                    None,
-                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                    false,
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        let fragments = dataset.fragments();
+        let reordered = vec![fragments[3].clone(), fragments[1].clone()];
+        assert_scan_slice_matches(&dataset, Some(&reordered), 8, 10).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-            let original_version = dataset.version().version;
-            let sample_query = data["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(50);
-            let delete_query = data["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(75);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_stable_row_id_limit_pushdown_with_deletions() -> Result<()> {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true).await?;
+        let mut dataset = test_ds.dataset;
 
-            // APPEND DATA
+        assert_scan_slice_matches(&dataset, None, 19, 2).await?;
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.limit(Some(2), Some(19))?;
+        let scan_range_plan = scan
+            .plan_scan_range(&ExprFilterPlan::default())
+            .await?
+            .expect("scan range");
+        assert_eq!(scan_range_plan.range, 19..21);
 
-            // Re-use the vector column in the new batch but add 1000 to the indexed/not_indexed columns so
-            // they are distinct.  This makes our checks easier.
-            let new_indexed =
-                arrow_arith::numeric::add(&data["indexed"], &Int32Array::new_scalar(1000)).unwrap();
-            let new_not_indexed =
-                arrow_arith::numeric::add(&data["indexed"], &Int32Array::new_scalar(1000)).unwrap();
-            let append_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                data.schema(),
-                vec![data["vector"].clone(), new_indexed, new_not_indexed],
-            )
-            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .delete("i IN (0, 20, 25, 198, 200, 205, 399)")
+            .await?;
 
-            dataset
-                .append(
-                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_data)], data.schema()),
-                    Some(WriteParams {
-                        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    }),
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        // Deletions before OFFSET, within the boundary fragment, at the LIMIT endpoint,
+        // and a LIMIT spanning fragments all match full-scan slice semantics.
+        for (offset, limit) in [
+            (0, 10),
+            (19, 2),
+            (20, 10),
+            (190, 20),
+            (196, 10),
+            (200, 10),
+            (390, 10),
+            (500, 10),
+            (196, 0),
+        ] {
+            assert_scan_slice_matches(&dataset, None, offset, limit).await?;
+        }
 
-            let append_version = dataset.version().version;
+        // Fragment 0 has 196 visible rows, so an offset on that exact boundary can
+        // discard it and express the remaining range relative to fragment 1.
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.limit(Some(10), Some(196))?;
+        let scan_range_plan = scan
+            .plan_scan_range(&ExprFilterPlan::default())
+            .await?
+            .expect("scan range");
+        assert_eq!(scan_range_plan.range, 0..10);
+        let plan = scan.create_plan().await?;
+        let filtered = find_filtered_read(plan.as_ref()).expect("filtered read");
+        let selected = filtered
+            .options()
+            .fragments
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("pruned fragments");
+        assert_eq!(selected.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(selected[0].id, 1);
+
+        // Explicit fragment subsets and order define scan order; stable row IDs need not be
+        // contiguous or increasing.
+        let fragments = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        assert_scan_slice_matches(&dataset, Some(&fragments[1..]), 10, 10).await?;
+        let reversed = vec![fragments[1].clone(), fragments[0].clone()];
+        assert_scan_slice_matches(&dataset, Some(&reversed), 197, 10).await?;
+        let mut reversed_scan = dataset.scan();
+        reversed_scan.with_fragments(reversed);
+        reversed_scan.limit(Some(10), Some(197))?;
+        let reversed_plan = reversed_scan.create_plan().await?;
+        let filtered = find_filtered_read(reversed_plan.as_ref()).expect("filtered read");
+        let selected = filtered
+            .options()
+            .fragments
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("pruned fragments");
+        assert_eq!(selected.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(selected[0].id, 0);
+
+        // A zero-live-row fragment does not consume visible ordinals and can be pruned.
+        let mut fully_deleted = fragments[0].clone();
+        let physical_rows = fully_deleted.physical_rows;
+        fully_deleted
+            .deletion_file
+            .as_mut()
+            .expect("deletion file")
+            .num_deleted_rows = physical_rows;
+        let mut fully_deleted_scan = dataset.scan();
+        fully_deleted_scan.with_fragments(vec![fully_deleted, fragments[1].clone()]);
+        fully_deleted_scan.limit(Some(10), Some(0))?;
+        let fully_deleted_plan = fully_deleted_scan
+            .plan_scan_range(&ExprFilterPlan::default())
+            .await?
+            .expect("scan range");
+        assert_eq!(fully_deleted_plan.range, 0..10);
+        assert_eq!(
+            fully_deleted_plan.fragments.expect("pruned fragments")[0].id,
+            1
+        );
 
-            // UPDATE
+        // Unknown or inconsistent metadata conservatively preserves the fallback.
+        let mut unknown_count = dataset.fragments()[0].clone();
+        unknown_count
+            .deletion_file
+            .as_mut()
+            .expect("deletion file")
+            .num_deleted_rows = None;
+        let mut unknown_scan = dataset.scan();
+        unknown_scan.with_fragments(vec![unknown_count]);
+        unknown_scan.limit(Some(10), Some(1))?;
+        assert!(
+            unknown_scan
+                .plan_scan_range(&ExprFilterPlan::default())
+                .await?
+                .is_none()
+        );
 
-            dataset
-                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            let updated_version = dataset.version().version;
+        let mut missing_physical_rows = dataset.fragments()[0].clone();
+        missing_physical_rows.physical_rows = None;
+        let mut missing_rows_scan = dataset.scan();
+        missing_rows_scan.with_fragments(vec![missing_physical_rows]);
+        missing_rows_scan.limit(Some(10), Some(1))?;
+        assert!(
+            missing_rows_scan
+                .plan_scan_range(&ExprFilterPlan::default())
+                .await?
+                .is_none()
+        );
 
-            // APPEND -> DELETE
+        let mut invalid_deleted_rows = dataset.fragments()[0].clone();
+        let physical_rows = invalid_deleted_rows.physical_rows.expect("physical rows");
+        invalid_deleted_rows
+            .deletion_file
+            .as_mut()
+            .expect("deletion file")
+            .num_deleted_rows = physical_rows.checked_add(1);
+        let mut invalid_rows_scan = dataset.scan();
+        invalid_rows_scan.with_fragments(vec![invalid_deleted_rows]);
+        invalid_rows_scan.limit(Some(10), Some(1))?;
+        assert!(
+            invalid_rows_scan
+                .plan_scan_range(&ExprFilterPlan::default())
+                .await?
+                .is_none()
+        );
 
-            dataset.checkout_version(append_version).await.unwrap();
-            dataset.restore().await.unwrap();
+        let mut include_deleted_scan = dataset.scan();
+        include_deleted_scan.with_row_id().include_deleted_rows();
+        include_deleted_scan.limit(Some(10), Some(1))?;
+        assert!(
+            include_deleted_scan
+                .plan_scan_range(&ExprFilterPlan::default())
+                .await?
+                .is_none()
+        );
 
-            dataset.delete("not_indexed = 75").await.unwrap();
+        let mut untrusted_dataset = dataset.clone();
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut untrusted_dataset.manifest).writer_version = None;
+        let mut untrusted_scan = untrusted_dataset.scan();
+        untrusted_scan.limit(Some(10), Some(1))?;
+        assert!(
+            untrusted_scan
+                .plan_scan_range(&ExprFilterPlan::default())
+                .await?
+                .is_none()
+        );
 
-            let append_then_delete_version = dataset.version().version;
+        let legacy_test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, true).await?;
+        let mut legacy_dataset = legacy_test_ds.dataset;
+        legacy_dataset.delete("i = 0").await?;
+        let mut legacy_scan = legacy_dataset.scan();
+        legacy_scan.limit(Some(10), Some(1))?;
+        assert!(
+            legacy_scan
+                .plan_scan_range(&ExprFilterPlan::default())
+                .await?
+                .is_none()
+        );
+        assert_scan_slice_matches(&legacy_dataset, None, 1, 10).await?;
 
-            // DELETE
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-            let mut dataset = dataset.checkout_version(original_version).await.unwrap();
-            dataset.restore().await.unwrap();
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_limit_pushdown_prunes_fragments(
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] with_deletions: bool,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(32),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let offset = if with_deletions {
+            dataset.delete("idx % 10 = 0").await?;
+            25 * 9
+        } else {
+            25 * 10
+        };
 
-            dataset.delete("not_indexed = 75").await.unwrap();
+        let candidate_fragments = dataset.fragments().len();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.limit(Some(3), Some(offset))?;
+        let plan = scan.create_plan().await?;
+        let filtered = find_filtered_read(plan.as_ref()).expect("filtered read");
+        let planned_fragments = filtered
+            .options()
+            .fragments
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("pruned fragments")
+            .len();
 
-            let delete_version = dataset.version().version;
+        assert_eq!(candidate_fragments, 32);
+        assert_eq!(planned_fragments, 1);
+        assert_scan_slice_matches(&dataset, None, offset as usize, 3).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-            // COMPACT (this should materialize the deletion)
-            compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            let compact_version = dataset.version().version;
-            dataset.checkout_version(original_version).await.unwrap();
-            dataset.restore().await.unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_stable_row_id_limit_pushdown_after_update() -> Result<()> {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(3),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let dataset = crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("idx IN (1, 11, 21)")?
+            .set("idx", "idx + 1000")?
+            .build()?
+            .execute()
+            .await?
+            .new_dataset;
+        let mut dataset =
+            Arc::try_unwrap(dataset).unwrap_or_else(|dataset| dataset.as_ref().clone());
 
-            Self {
-                _test_dir: test_dir,
-                dataset,
-                sample_query,
-                delete_query,
-                original_version,
-                compact_version,
-                append_version,
-                updated_version,
-                delete_version,
-                append_then_delete_version,
-            }
+        for (offset, limit) in [(0, 5), (8, 8), (18, 8), (27, 3)] {
+            assert_scan_slice_matches(&dataset, None, offset, limit).await?;
         }
 
-        fn sample_query(&self) -> &PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> {
-            self.sample_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None).await?;
+        for (offset, limit) in [(0, 5), (8, 8), (18, 8), (27, 3)] {
+            assert_scan_slice_matches(&dataset, None, offset, limit).await?;
         }
 
-        fn delete_query(&self) -> &PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> {
-            self.delete_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-        async fn get_dataset(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) -> Dataset {
-            let version = if params.use_compaction {
-                // These combinations should not be possible
-                if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
-                    panic!(
-                        "There is no test data combining new/deleted/updated data with compaction"
-                    );
-                } else {
-                    self.compact_version
-                }
-            } else if params.use_updated {
-                // These combinations should not be possible
-                if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_new_data || params.use_compaction {
-                    panic!(
-                        "There is no test data combining updated data with new/deleted/compaction"
-                    );
-                } else {
-                    self.updated_version
-                }
-            } else {
-                match (params.use_new_data, params.use_deleted_data) {
-                    (false, false) => self.original_version,
-                    (false, true) => self.delete_version,
-                    (true, false) => self.append_version,
-                    (true, true) => self.append_then_delete_version,
-                }
-            };
-            self.dataset.checkout_version(version).await.unwrap()
-        }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_limit_with_scalar_index_and_refine_filter() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("topic", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("is_night", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(1, 20))),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..20).map(|i| if i < 10 { 0 } else { 1 }),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["topic"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        async fn run_query(
-            &self,
-            query: &str,
-            vector: Option<&PrimitiveArray<Float32Type>>,
-            params: &ScalarTestParams,
-        ) -> (String, RecordBatch) {
-            let dataset = self.get_dataset(params).await;
-            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-            if let Some(vector) = vector {
-                scan.nearest("vector", vector, 10).unwrap();
-            }
-            if params.use_projection {
-                scan.project(&["indexed"]).unwrap();
-            }
-            if params.with_row_id {
-                scan.with_row_id();
-            }
-            scan.scan_in_order(true);
-            scan.use_index(params.use_index);
-            scan.filter(query).unwrap();
-            scan.prefilter(true);
+        let actual = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("topic = 1 AND is_night = 1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(10), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
-            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual.num_rows(), 10);
+        let ids = actual
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values();
+        assert_eq!(ids, &(10..20).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+    }
 
-            if params.use_projection {
-                // 1 projected column
-                let mut expected_columns = 1;
-                if vector.is_some() {
-                    // distance column if included always (TODO: it shouldn't)
-                    expected_columns += 1;
-                }
-                if params.with_row_id {
-                    expected_columns += 1;
-                }
-                assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), expected_columns);
-            } else {
-                let mut expected_columns = 3;
-                if vector.is_some() {
-                    // distance column
-                    expected_columns += 1;
-                }
-                if params.with_row_id {
-                    expected_columns += 1;
-                }
-                // vector, indexed, not_indexed, _distance
-                assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), expected_columns);
-            }
-
-            (plan, batch)
-        }
-
-        fn assert_none<F: Fn(i32) -> bool>(
-            &self,
-            batch: &RecordBatch,
-            predicate: F,
-            message: &str,
-        ) {
-            let indexed = batch["indexed"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
-            if indexed.iter().map(|val| val.unwrap()).any(predicate) {
-                panic!("{}", message);
-            }
-        }
-
-        fn assert_one<F: Fn(i32) -> bool>(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, predicate: F, message: &str) {
-            let indexed = batch["indexed"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
-            if !indexed.iter().map(|val| val.unwrap()).any(predicate) {
-                panic!("{}", message);
-            }
-        }
-
-        async fn check_vector_scalar_indexed_and_refine(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
-            let (query_plan, batch) = self
-                .run_query(
-                    "indexed != 50 AND ((not_indexed < 100) OR (not_indexed >= 1000 AND not_indexed < 1100))",
-                    Some(self.sample_query()),
-                    params,
-                )
-                .await;
-            // Materialization is always required if there is a refine
-            if self.dataset.is_legacy_storage() {
-                assert!(query_plan.contains("MaterializeIndex"));
-            }
-            // The result should not include the sample query
-            self.assert_none(
-                &batch,
-                |val| val == 50,
-                "The query contained 50 even though it was filtered",
-            );
-            if !params.use_new_data {
-                // Refine should have been applied
-                self.assert_none(
-                    &batch,
-                    |val| (100..1000).contains(&val) || (val >= 1100),
-                    "The non-indexed refine filter was not applied",
-                );
-            }
-
-            // If there is new data then the dupe of row 50 should be in the results
-            if params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
-                self.assert_one(
-                    &batch,
-                    |val| val == 1050,
-                    "The query did not contain 1050 from the new data",
-                );
-            }
-        }
-
-        async fn check_vector_scalar_indexed_only(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
-            let (query_plan, batch) = self
-                .run_query("indexed != 50", Some(self.sample_query()), params)
-                .await;
-            if self.dataset.is_legacy_storage() {
-                if params.use_index {
-                    // An ANN search whose prefilter is fully satisfied by the index should be
-                    // able to use a ScalarIndexQuery
-                    assert!(query_plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"));
-                } else {
-                    // A KNN search requires materialization of the index
-                    assert!(query_plan.contains("MaterializeIndex"));
-                }
-            }
-            // The result should not include the sample query
-            self.assert_none(
-                &batch,
-                |val| val == 50,
-                "The query contained 50 even though it was filtered",
-            );
-            // If there is new data then the dupe of row 50 should be in the results
-            if params.use_new_data {
-                self.assert_one(
-                    &batch,
-                    |val| val == 1050,
-                    "The query did not contain 1050 from the new data",
-                );
-                if !params.use_new_data {
-                    // Let's also make sure our filter can target something in the new data only
-                    let (_, batch) = self
-                        .run_query("indexed == 1050", Some(self.sample_query()), params)
-                        .await;
-                    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
-                }
-            }
-            if params.use_deleted_data {
-                let (_, batch) = self
-                    .run_query("indexed == 75", Some(self.delete_query()), params)
-                    .await;
-                if !params.use_new_data {
-                    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        async fn check_vector_queries(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
-            self.check_vector_scalar_indexed_only(params).await;
-            self.check_vector_scalar_indexed_and_refine(params).await;
-        }
-
-        async fn check_simple_indexed_only(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
-            let (query_plan, batch) = self.run_query("indexed != 50", None, params).await;
-            // Materialization is always required for non-vector search
-            if self.dataset.is_legacy_storage() {
-                assert!(query_plan.contains("MaterializeIndex"));
-            } else {
-                assert!(query_plan.contains("LanceRead"));
-            }
-            // The result should not include the targeted row
-            self.assert_none(
-                &batch,
-                |val| val == 50,
-                "The query contained 50 even though it was filtered",
-            );
-            let mut expected_num_rows = if params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
-                1999
-            } else {
-                999
-            };
-            if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_compaction {
-                expected_num_rows -= 1;
-            }
-            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), expected_num_rows);
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_limit_cancel() {
+        // If there is a filter and a limit and we can't use the index to satisfy
+        // the filter, then we have to read until we have enough matching rows and
+        // then cancel the scan.
+        //
+        // This test regresses the case where we fail to cancel the scan for whatever
+        // reason.
 
-            // Let's also make sure our filter can target something in the new data only
-            if params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
-                let (_, batch) = self.run_query("indexed == 1050", None, params).await;
-                assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
-            }
+        // Make the store slow so that if we don't cancel the scan, it will take a loooong time.
+        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
+            config: ThrottleConfig {
+                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(100),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        });
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
 
-            // Also make sure we don't return deleted data
-            if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_compaction {
-                let (_, batch) = self.run_query("indexed == 75", None, params).await;
-                assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
-            }
-        }
+        // Make a dataset with lots of tiny fragments, that will make it more obvious if we fail to cancel the scan.
+        let dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>().with_random_nulls(0.1))
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2000),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(1),
+                Some(write_params),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        async fn check_simple_indexed_and_refine(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
-            let (query_plan, batch) = self.run_query(
-                "indexed != 50 AND ((not_indexed < 100) OR (not_indexed >= 1000 AND not_indexed < 1100))",
-                None,
-                params
-            ).await;
-            // Materialization is always required for non-vector search
-            if self.dataset.is_legacy_storage() {
-                assert!(query_plan.contains("MaterializeIndex"));
-            } else {
-                assert!(query_plan.contains("LanceRead"));
-            }
-            // The result should not include the targeted row
-            self.assert_none(
-                &batch,
-                |val| val == 50,
-                "The query contained 50 even though it was filtered",
-            );
-            // The refine should be applied
-            self.assert_none(
-                &batch,
-                |val| (100..1000).contains(&val) || (val >= 1100),
-                "The non-indexed refine filter was not applied",
-            );
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter("i IS NOT NULL").unwrap();
+        scan.limit(Some(10), None).unwrap();
 
-            let mut expected_num_rows = if params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
-                199
-            } else {
-                99
-            };
-            if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_compaction {
-                expected_num_rows -= 1;
-            }
-            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), expected_num_rows);
-        }
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        scan.try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let duration = start.elapsed();
 
-        async fn check_simple_queries(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
-            self.check_simple_indexed_only(params).await;
-            self.check_simple_indexed_and_refine(params).await;
-        }
+        // This test is a timing test, which is unfortunate, as it may be flaky.  I'm hoping
+        // we have enough wiggle room here.  The failure case is 30s on my machine and the pass
+        // case is a few hundred milliseconds.
+        assert!(duration < Duration::from_secs(3));
     }
 
-    // There are many different ways that a query can be run and they all have slightly different
-    // effects on the plan that gets built.  This test attempts to run the same queries in various
-    // different configurations to ensure that we get consistent results
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_secondary_index_scans(
+    async fn test_knn_nodes(
         #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
         data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] use_stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] build_index: bool,
     ) {
-        let fixture = Box::pin(ScalarIndexTestFixture::new(
-            data_storage_version,
-            use_stable_row_ids,
-        ))
-        .await;
-
-        for use_index in [false, true] {
-            for use_projection in [false, true] {
-                for use_deleted_data in [false, true] {
-                    for use_new_data in [false, true] {
-                        // Don't test compaction in conjunction with deletion and new data, it's too
-                        // many combinations with no clear benefit.  Feel free to update if there is
-                        // a need
-                        // TODO: enable compaction for stable row id once supported.
-                        let compaction_choices =
-                            if use_deleted_data || use_new_data || use_stable_row_ids {
-                                vec![false]
-                            } else {
-                                vec![false, true]
-                            };
-                        for use_compaction in compaction_choices {
-                            let updated_choices =
-                                if use_deleted_data || use_new_data || use_compaction {
-                                    vec![false]
-                                } else {
-                                    vec![false, true]
-                                };
-                            for use_updated in updated_choices {
-                                for with_row_id in [false, true] {
-                                    let params = ScalarTestParams {
-                                        use_index,
-                                        use_projection,
-                                        use_deleted_data,
-                                        use_new_data,
-                                        with_row_id,
-                                        use_compaction,
-                                        use_updated,
-                                    };
-                                    fixture.check_vector_queries(&params).await;
-                                    fixture.check_simple_queries(&params).await;
-                                }
-                            }
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if build_index {
+            test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
         }
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn can_filter_row_id() {
-        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
 
         let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        scan.with_row_id();
-        scan.project::<&str>(&[]).unwrap();
-        scan.filter("_rowid == 50").unwrap();
+        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+        scan.refine(5);
+
         let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values()[0], 50);
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.schema().as_ref(),
+            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "vec",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                        32,
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
+            ])
+            .with_metadata([("dataset".into(), "vector".into())].into())
+        );
+
+        let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![1, 81, 161, 241, 321]);
+        let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+        let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_index_take_batch_size() {
-        let fixture = Box::pin(ScalarIndexTestFixture::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)).await;
-        let stream = fixture
-            .dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("indexed > 0")
-            .unwrap()
-            .batch_size(16)
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let batches = stream.collect::<Vec<_>>().await;
-        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1000_usize.div_ceil(16));
+    fn batch_knn_two_queries() -> (FixedSizeListArray, Vec<f32>) {
+        let query_values = (32..96).map(|v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let queries =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(query_values.clone()), 32)
+                .unwrap();
+        (queries, query_values)
     }
 
-    /// Assert that the plan when formatted matches the expected string.
-    ///
-    /// Within expected, you can use `...` to match any number of characters.
-    async fn assert_plan_equals(
+    async fn nested_vector_test_dataset(dim: u32) -> (TempStrDir, Dataset) {
+        let path = TempStrDir::default();
+        let vec_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dim as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        );
+        let payload_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "payload",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![vec_field.clone()].into()),
+            true,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            payload_field.clone(),
+        ]));
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
+            .map(|batch_idx| {
+                let vector_values: Float32Array = (0..dim * 80).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+                let vectors =
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, dim as i32).unwrap();
+                let payload = StructArray::from(vec![(
+                    Arc::new(vec_field.clone()),
+                    Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef,
+                )]);
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                            batch_idx * 80..(batch_idx + 1) * 80,
+                        )),
+                        Arc::new(payload),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_group: 10,
+            max_rows_per_file: 200,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &path, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+        (path, dataset)
+    }
+
+    async fn escaped_nested_vector_test_dataset(dim: u32) -> (TempStrDir, Dataset) {
+        let path = TempStrDir::default();
+        let vec_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "vec.with.dot",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dim as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        );
+        let payload_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "payload",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![vec_field.clone()].into()),
+            true,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            payload_field.clone(),
+        ]));
+
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
+            .map(|batch_idx| {
+                let vector_values: Float32Array = (0..dim * 80).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+                let vectors =
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, dim as i32).unwrap();
+                let payload = StructArray::from(vec![(
+                    Arc::new(vec_field.clone()),
+                    Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef,
+                )]);
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                            batch_idx * 80..(batch_idx + 1) * 80,
+                        )),
+                        Arc::new(payload),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_group: 10,
+            max_rows_per_file: 200,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &path, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+        (path, dataset)
+    }
+
+    fn assert_query_index_field(batch: &RecordBatch) {
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let field = schema.field(0);
+        assert_eq!(field.name(), QUERY_INDEX_COL);
+        assert_eq!(field.data_type(), &DataType::Int32);
+        assert!(!field.is_nullable());
+    }
+
+    fn assert_batch_knn_output_has_no_vector(batch: &RecordBatch, vector_column: &str) {
+        assert!(
+            batch.schema().column_with_name(vector_column).is_none(),
+            "batch flat KNN output must not include vector column '{vector_column}' when it is not projected; columns: {:?}",
+            batch.schema().field_names()
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_batch_matches_single_queries(
         dataset: &Dataset,
-        plan: impl Fn(&mut Scanner) -> Result<&mut Scanner>,
-        expected: &str,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
-        plan(&mut scan)?;
-        let exec_plan = scan.create_plan().await?;
-        assert_plan_node_equals(exec_plan, expected).await
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        query_values: &[f32],
+        k: usize,
+        use_index: bool,
+        distance_range: Option<(Option<f32>, Option<f32>)>,
+        fixed_nprobes: Option<usize>,
+    ) {
+        let query_count = query_values.len() / 32;
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), query_count * k);
+
+        for query_index in 0..query_count {
+            let query =
+                Float32Array::from(query_values[query_index * 32..(query_index + 1) * 32].to_vec());
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.nearest("vec", &query, k).unwrap();
+            scan.use_index(use_index);
+            // Pin nprobes to match the batch query: the single-query indexed path
+            // otherwise adaptively expands nprobes, which would make equivalence
+            // depend on data distribution rather than be guaranteed.
+            if let Some(nprobes) = fixed_nprobes {
+                scan.minimum_nprobes(nprobes).maximum_nprobes(nprobes);
+            }
+            if let Some((lower, upper)) = distance_range {
+                scan.distance_range(lower, upper);
+            }
+            scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+            let single = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+            let query_indices = batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+            let mask = BooleanArray::from_iter(
+                query_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|value| value.map(|value| value == query_index as i32)),
+            );
+            let batch_slice = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(batch, &mask).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch_slice["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+                single["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch_slice[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+                single[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values()
+            );
+        }
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_count_plan() {
-        // A count rows operation should load the minimal amount of data
-        let dim = 256;
-        let fixture = TestVectorDataset::new_with_dimension(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true, dim)
+    async fn test_batch_knn_flat() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let k = 2;
 
-        // By default, all columns are returned, this is bad for a count_rows op
-        let err = fixture
-            .dataset
-            .scan()
-            .create_count_plan()
-            .await
-            .unwrap_err();
-        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
-
-        let mut scan = fixture.dataset.scan();
-        scan.project(&Vec::<String>::default()).unwrap();
-
-        // with_row_id needs to be specified
-        let err = scan.create_count_plan().await.unwrap_err();
-        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
 
-        scan.with_row_id();
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("KNNVectorDistance: queries=2"),
+            "expected flat batch KNN plan, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+            "flat batch KNN should not use ANN index, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("SortExec: TopK(fetch="),
+            "batch flat KNN must not truncate to k rows globally, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
 
-        let plan = scan.create_count_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_batch_knn_output_has_no_vector(&batch, "vec");
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            2 * k,
+            "batch flat KNN must return k rows per query vector"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+            &[0, 0, 1, 1]
+        );
+        let query_indices = batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        for query_index in 0..2 {
+            let rows_for_query = query_indices
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|value| *value == Some(query_index))
+                .count();
+            assert_eq!(
+                rows_for_query, k,
+                "query_index {query_index} should have exactly {k} rows"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(dataset, &batch, &query_values, k, false, None, None)
+            .await;
+
+        let mut scan_with_vec = dataset.scan();
+        scan_with_vec.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan_with_vec.use_index(false);
+        scan_with_vec.project(&["i", "vec"]).unwrap();
+        let batch_with_vec = scan_with_vec.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            batch_with_vec.schema().column_with_name("vec").is_some(),
+            "batch flat KNN should return vector column when projected"
+        );
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(
+            dataset,
+            &batch_with_vec,
+            &query_values,
+            k,
+            false,
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await;
 
-        assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "AggregateExec: mode=Single, gby=[], aggr=[count_rows]
-  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--",
+        let query_values_one = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let queries_one = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(query_values_one.clone()),
+            32,
         )
-        .await
         .unwrap();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries_one, k).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
 
-        scan.filter("s == ''").unwrap();
-
-        let plan = scan.create_count_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("KNNVectorDistance: queries=1"),
+            "single-vector batch query should use batch KNN path, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("SortExec: TopK(fetch="),
+            "batch KNN must not apply per-query SortExec top-k, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
 
-        assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "AggregateExec: mode=Single, gby=[], aggr=[count_rows]
-  ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@1 as _rowid]
-    LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=s = Utf8(\"\"), refine_filter=s = Utf8(\"\")",
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_batch_knn_output_has_no_vector(&batch, "vec");
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+            &[0, 0]
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inexact_scalar_index_plans() {
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col("ngram", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(5), false))
-            .col("exact", array::rand_type(&DataType::UInt32))
-            .col("no_index", array::rand_type(&DataType::UInt32))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(5));
-
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["ngram"],
-                IndexType::NGram,
-                None,
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                true,
-            )
+    async fn test_batch_knn_flat_omits_vector_without_projection() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["exact"],
-                IndexType::BTree,
-                None,
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                true,
-            )
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let k = 2;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_batch_knn_output_has_no_vector(&batch, "vec");
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert!(batch.schema().column_with_name("i").is_some());
+        assert!(batch.schema().column_with_name(DIST_COL).is_some());
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(dataset, &batch, &query_values, k, false, None, None)
+            .await;
+
+        let mut scan_rowid_only = dataset.scan();
+        scan_rowid_only.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan_rowid_only.use_index(false);
+        scan_rowid_only.project(&[ROW_ID]).unwrap();
+        let batch_rowid_only = scan_rowid_only.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_batch_knn_output_has_no_vector(&batch_rowid_only, "vec");
+        assert!(batch_rowid_only.schema().column_with_name(ROW_ID).is_some());
+        assert!(batch_rowid_only.schema().column_with_name("i").is_none());
+
+        let mut scan_with_vec = dataset.scan();
+        scan_with_vec.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan_with_vec.use_index(false);
+        scan_with_vec.project(&["vec"]).unwrap();
+        let batch_with_vec = scan_with_vec.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            batch_with_vec.schema().column_with_name("vec").is_some(),
+            "batch flat KNN must include vector column when vec is projected"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_flat_filter_keeps_non_vector_columns() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let k = 2;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
 
-        // Simple in-exact filter
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset,
-            |scanner| scanner.filter("contains(ngram, 'test string')"),
-            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[ngram, exact, no_index], num_fragments=1, \
-             range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, \
-             full_filter=contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\")), refine_filter=--
-               ScalarIndexQuery: query=[contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\"))]@ngram_idx",
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+        scan.filter("i >= 0").unwrap();
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
 
-        // Combined with exact filter
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset,
-            |scanner| scanner.filter("contains(ngram, 'test string') and exact < 50"),
-            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[ngram, exact, no_index], num_fragments=1, \
-            range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, \
-            full_filter=contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\")) AND exact < UInt32(50), \
-            refine_filter=--
-              ScalarIndexQuery: query=AND([contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\"))]@ngram_idx,[exact < 50]@exact_idx)",
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // All three filters
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset,
-            |scanner| {
-                scanner.filter("contains(ngram, 'test string') and exact < 50 AND no_index > 100")
-            },
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[ngram@0 as ngram, exact@1 as exact, no_index@2 as no_index]
-  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[ngram, exact, no_index], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, \
-  range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\")) AND exact < UInt32(50) AND no_index > UInt32(100), \
-  refine_filter=no_index > UInt32(100)
-    ScalarIndexQuery: query=AND([contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\"))]@ngram_idx,[exact < 50]@exact_idx)",
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_batch_knn_output_has_no_vector(&batch, "vec");
+        assert!(batch.schema().column_with_name("i").is_some());
+
+        let query_indices = batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        for query_index in 0..2 {
+            let query =
+                Float32Array::from(query_values[query_index * 32..(query_index + 1) * 32].to_vec());
+            let mut single = dataset.scan();
+            single.nearest("vec", &query, k).unwrap();
+            single.use_index(false);
+            single.filter("i >= 0").unwrap();
+            single.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+            let single_batch = single.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+            let mask = BooleanArray::from_iter(
+                query_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|value| value.map(|value| value == query_index as i32)),
+            );
+            let batch_slice = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &mask).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch_slice["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+                single_batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values()
+            );
+        }
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_late_materialization(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        use lance_io::assert_io_lt;
-        // Create a large dataset with a scalar indexed column and a sorted but not scalar
-        // indexed column
-        use lance_table::io::commit::RenameCommitHandler;
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vector",
-                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(32)),
-            )
-            .col("indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("not_indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(20));
+    async fn test_batch_knn_flat_nested_vector_projection() {
+        const VECTOR_COLUMN: &str = "payload.vec";
+        let (_tmp, dataset) = nested_vector_test_dataset(32).await;
+        let k = 2;
+        let (queries, _query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            data,
-            "memory://test",
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
-                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["indexed"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                None,
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest(VECTOR_COLUMN, &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_batch_knn_output_has_no_vector(&batch, VECTOR_COLUMN);
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2 * k);
+        assert!(batch.schema().column_with_name("i").is_some());
+
+        let mut scan_with_vec = dataset.scan();
+        scan_with_vec.nearest(VECTOR_COLUMN, &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan_with_vec.use_index(false);
+        scan_with_vec.project(&[VECTOR_COLUMN]).unwrap();
+        let batch_with_vec = scan_with_vec.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            batch_with_vec
+                .schema()
+                .column_with_name(VECTOR_COLUMN)
+                .is_some(),
+            "batch flat KNN must include nested vector column when projected; columns: {:?}",
+            batch_with_vec.schema().field_names()
+        );
+    }
 
-        // First run a full scan to get a baseline
-        let _ = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
-        dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        let full_scan_bytes = io_stats.read_bytes;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_flat_escaped_nested_vector_projection() {
+        const VECTOR_COLUMN: &str = "payload.`vec.with.dot`";
+        let (_tmp, dataset) = escaped_nested_vector_test_dataset(32).await;
+        let k = 2;
+        let (queries, _) = batch_knn_two_queries();
 
-        // Next do a scan without pushdown, we should still see a benefit from late materialization
-        dataset
-            .scan()
-            .use_stats(false)
-            .filter("not_indexed = 50")
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest(VECTOR_COLUMN, &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_batch_knn_output_has_no_vector(&batch, VECTOR_COLUMN);
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2 * k);
+        assert!(batch.schema().column_with_name("i").is_some());
+
+        let mut scan_with_vec = dataset.scan();
+        scan_with_vec.nearest(VECTOR_COLUMN, &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan_with_vec.use_index(false);
+        scan_with_vec.project(&[VECTOR_COLUMN]).unwrap();
+        let batch_with_vec = scan_with_vec.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            batch_with_vec
+                .schema()
+                .column_with_name(VECTOR_COLUMN)
+                .is_some(),
+            "batch flat KNN must include escaped nested vector column when projected; columns: {:?}",
+            batch_with_vec.schema().field_names()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_flat_projects_row_id_and_row_addr_without_vector() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, full_scan_bytes);
-        let filtered_scan_bytes = io_stats.read_bytes;
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let k = 2;
+        let (queries, _) = batch_knn_two_queries();
 
-        // Now do a scan with pushdown, the benefit should be even greater
-        // Pushdown only works with the legacy format for now.
-        if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            dataset
-                .scan()
-                .filter("not_indexed = 50")
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-            assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, filtered_scan_bytes);
-        }
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+        scan.project(&[ROW_ID]).unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_address();
 
-        // Now do a scalar index scan, this should be better than a
-        // full scan but since we have to load the index might be more
-        // expensive than late / pushdown scan
-        dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("indexed = 50")
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, full_scan_bytes);
-        let index_scan_bytes = io_stats.read_bytes;
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_batch_knn_output_has_no_vector(&batch, "vec");
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2 * k);
+        assert!(batch.schema().column_with_name(ROW_ID).is_some());
+        assert!(batch.schema().column_with_name(ROW_ADDR).is_some());
+        assert!(batch.schema().column_with_name(DIST_COL).is_some());
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch[ROW_ADDR].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().null_count(),
+            0,
+            "row addresses should be materialized for all top-k rows"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // A second scalar index scan should be cheaper than the first
-        // since we should have the index in cache
-        dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("indexed = 50")
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_primitive_query_length_multiple_of_dim_is_rejected() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, index_scan_bytes);
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let q: Float32Array = (32..96).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+
+        let err = match dataset.scan().nearest("vec", &q, 2) {
+            Err(err) => err.to_string(),
+            Ok(_) => panic!("expected primitive query length mismatch error"),
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.contains("query dim(64) doesn't match the column vec vector dim(32)"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_project_nested(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let struct_i_field = ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true);
-        let struct_o_field = ArrowField::new("o", DataType::Utf8, true);
+    async fn dataset_with_query_index_column() -> (TempStrDir, Dataset) {
+        let path = TempStrDir::default();
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
             ArrowField::new(
-                "struct",
-                DataType::Struct(vec![struct_i_field.clone(), struct_o_field.clone()].into()),
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    32,
+                ),
                 true,
             ),
-            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new(QUERY_INDEX_COL, DataType::UInt32, true),
         ]));
+        let vector_values: Float32Array = (0..32 * 80).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, 32).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..80)),
+                Arc::new(vectors),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter((0..80).map(|v| v as u32))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(std::iter::once(Ok(batch)), schema.clone()),
+            &path,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        (path, dataset)
+    }
 
-        let input_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
-            .map(|i| {
-                let struct_i_arr: Arc<Int32Array> =
-                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20));
-                let struct_o_arr: Arc<StringArray> = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                    (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("o-{:02}", v)),
-                ));
-                RecordBatch::try_new(
-                    schema.clone(),
-                    vec![
-                        Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
-                            (Arc::new(struct_i_field.clone()), struct_i_arr as ArrayRef),
-                            (Arc::new(struct_o_field.clone()), struct_o_arr as ArrayRef),
-                        ])),
-                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
-                        )),
-                    ],
-                )
-                .unwrap()
-            })
-            .collect();
-        let batches =
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(input_batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 40,
-            max_rows_per_group: 10,
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            ..Default::default()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_rejects_dataset_query_index_column() {
+        let (_tmp, dataset) = dataset_with_query_index_column().await;
+        let (queries, _) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        let err = match dataset.scan().nearest("vec", &queries, 2) {
+            Err(err) => err.to_string(),
+            Ok(_) => panic!("expected reserved query_index column error"),
         };
-        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+        assert!(err.contains(QUERY_INDEX_COL), "unexpected error: {err}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_single_knn_projects_dataset_query_index_column() {
+        let (_tmp, dataset) = dataset_with_query_index_column().await;
+        let q: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &q, 2).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        let without_query_index = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &q, 2).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+        scan.project(&["i", QUERY_INDEX_COL]).unwrap();
+        let with_query_index = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(without_query_index.num_rows(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            without_query_index["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values(),
+            with_query_index["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            with_query_index[QUERY_INDEX_COL]
+                .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+                .null_count(),
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_flat_respects_distance_range() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-
-        let batches = dataset
+        let batch = dataset
             .scan()
-            .project(&["struct.i"])
+            .nearest("vec", &queries, 2)
             .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
+            .use_index(false)
+            .distance_range(Some(1.0), None)
+            .project(&["i"])
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let batch = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
-        assert!(batch.column_by_name("struct.i").is_some());
-        Ok(())
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+            &[0, 0, 1, 1]
+        );
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(
+            dataset,
+            &batch,
+            &query_values,
+            2,
+            false,
+            Some((Some(1.0), None)),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await;
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_plans(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_id: bool,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        // Create a vector dataset
-
-        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::BoostQuery;
-        let dim = 256;
-        let mut dataset =
-            TestVectorDataset::new_with_dimension(data_storage_version, stable_row_id, dim).await?;
-        let lance_schema = dataset.dataset.schema();
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
 
-        // Scans
-        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-        // V2 writer does not use LancePushdownScan
-        if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            log::info!("Test case: Pushdown scan");
-            assert_plan_equals(
-                &dataset.dataset,
-                |scan| scan.project(&["s"])?.filter("i > 10 and i < 20"),
-                "LancePushdownScan: uri=..., projection=[s], predicate=i > Int32(10) AND i < Int32(20), row_id=false, row_addr=false, ordered=true"
-            ).await?;
-        }
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, 2).unwrap();
+        // Probe both partitions (minimum == maximum) so the per-query top-k is
+        // merged across multiple partitions and the batch result is
+        // deterministically equivalent to repeated single-query search (which
+        // would otherwise adaptively expand nprobes).
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(2).maximum_nprobes(2);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Project and filter");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s]
-  Take: columns=\"i, _rowid, (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: i@0 > 10 AND i@0 < 20
-        LanceScan: uri..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s]
-  Take: columns=\"i, _rowid, (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      LanceRead: ..., projection=[i], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10) AND i < Int32(20), refine_filter=i > Int32(10) AND i < Int32(20)"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.use_stats(false)
-                    .project(&["s"])?
-                    .filter("i > 10 and i < 20")
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "IVF batch KNN should use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+            "IVF batch KNN should not fall back to per-query ANN search, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("KNNVectorDistance: queries=2"),
+            "indexed batch KNN should not force the flat batch path, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
 
-        // Integer fields will be eagerly materialized while string/vec fields
-        // are not.
-        log::info!("Test case: Late materialization");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@0 as i, s@1 as s, vec@3 as vec]
-            Take: columns=\"i, s, _rowid, (vec)\"
-              CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-                FilterExec: s@1 IS NOT NULL
-                  LanceScan: uri..., projection=[i, s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@0 as i, s@1 as s, vec@3 as vec]
-  Take: columns=\"i, s, _rowid, (vec)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
-      row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=s IS NOT NULL, refine_filter=s IS NOT NULL"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| scan.use_stats(false).filter("s IS NOT NULL"),
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        // The batch node loads each probed partition once and scores every query
+        // that probes it, so it must report the *distinct* partitions read: with
+        // 2 partitions and fixed bounds of 2, both queries probe both partitions, so the
+        // union is 2 -- not the per-query sum (2 queries x 2 = 4), and never 0
+        // (which is what a dropped metric would show). This guards the observed
+        // `partitions_searched` against silently regressing to either.
+        let analyzed = scan.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let batch_line = analyzed
+            .lines()
+            .find(|line| line.contains("ANNIvfBatch"))
+            .expect("analyzed plan should contain the ANNIvfBatch node");
+        assert!(
+            batch_line.contains("partitions_searched=2"),
+            "batch node must report the distinct partitions searched, got:\n{}",
+            batch_line
+        );
 
-        // Custom materialization
-        log::info!("Test case: Custom materialization (all early)");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@0 as i, s@1 as s, vec@2 as vec]
-  FilterExec: s@1 IS NOT NULL
-    LanceScan: uri..., projection=[i, s, vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@0 as i, s@1 as s, vec@2 as vec]
-  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s, vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, \
-  range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=s IS NOT NULL, refine_filter=s IS NOT NULL"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.use_stats(false)
-                    .materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllEarly)
-                    .filter("s IS NOT NULL")
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+            &[0, 0, 1, 1]
+        );
+        // Shared-scan batch search must return the same rows/distances as
+        // issuing the queries one at a time against the index.
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(dataset, &batch, &query_values, 2, true, None, Some(2))
+            .await;
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Custom materialization 2 (all late)");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@0 as s, vec@3 as vec]
-  Take: columns=\"s, _rowid, (i), (vec)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: s@0 IS NOT NULL
-        LanceScan: uri..., projection=[s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@0 as s, vec@3 as vec]
-  Take: columns=\"s, _rowid, (i), (vec)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, \
-      range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=s IS NOT NULL, refine_filter=s IS NOT NULL"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.use_stats(false)
-                    .materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllLate)
-                    .filter("s IS NOT NULL")
-            },
-            expected,
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", &queries, 2)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(2)
+            .maximum_nprobes(2)
+            .distance_range(Some(1.0), None)
+            .project(&["i"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(
+            dataset,
+            &batch,
+            &query_values,
+            2,
+            true,
+            Some((Some(1.0), None)),
+            Some(2),
         )
-        .await?;
+        .await;
+    }
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Custom materialization 3 (mixed)");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@0 as s, vec@1 as vec]
-  Take: columns=\"s, vec, _rowid, (i)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: s@0 IS NOT NULL
-        LanceScan: uri..., projection=[s, vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@0 as s, vec@1 as vec]
-  Take: columns=\"s, vec, _rowid, (i)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s, vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
-      row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=s IS NOT NULL, refine_filter=s IS NOT NULL"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.use_stats(false)
-                    .materialization_style(
-                        MaterializationStyle::all_early_except(&["i"], lance_schema).unwrap(),
-                    )
-                    .filter("s IS NOT NULL")
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+    /// End-to-end contract: equal-distance neighbors come back in a canonical,
+    /// deterministic order — ascending row id within a distance tie — and the
+    /// shared-scan batch path returns exactly what repeated single-query search
+    /// does. A single-partition exact (IVF_FLAT) index queried with a vector that
+    /// matches a row duplicated once per fragment yields five neighbors tied at
+    /// distance 0; `k = 5` returns all of them, so their order is fixed solely by
+    /// the tie-break, which orders ties by ascending row id (here ascending `i`,
+    /// since the data is written in `i` order).
+    ///
+    /// This pins the user-visible ordering guarantee; it does not isolate a
+    /// single internal sort. The final `(distance, row_id)` order is enforced by
+    /// the downstream consumer, and the stable partition scan order in
+    /// `search_partitions_batch` only changes *which* tied row survives when a tie
+    /// is truncated across partitions — which this single-partition,
+    /// all-ties-fit-within-`k` case deliberately does not exercise.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_orders_ties_by_row_id(
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Single partition + exact (flat) storage: distances are exact, so the
+        // vectors duplicated across fragments tie at distance 0, and both the
+        // batch and single-query paths scan the one partition. That isolates the
+        // tie-break as the only thing determining the emitted order.
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Scan out of order");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, \
-            row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| Ok(scan.project(&["s"])?.with_row_id().scan_in_order(false)),
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        // Each query exactly matches a vector that appears once per 80-row
+        // fragment (5 copies), all at distance 0. `k = 5` returns every tied
+        // copy, so no truncation can hide the ordering.
+        let k = 5;
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(1).maximum_nprobes(1);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
 
-        // KNN
-        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-        let q: Float32Array = (32..32 + dim).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
-        log::info!("Test case: Basic KNN");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"vec, _rowid, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"vec, _rowid, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
-            row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 5),
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "single-partition IVF batch KNN should use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
 
-        // KNN + Limit (arguably the user, or us, should fold the limit into the KNN but we don't today)
-        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-        let q: Float32Array = (32..32 + dim).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
-        log::info!("Test case: KNN with extraneous limit");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"vec, _rowid, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      GlobalLimitExec: skip=0, fetch=1
-        FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
-          SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-            KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-              LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"vec, _rowid, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      GlobalLimitExec: skip=0, fetch=1
-        FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
-          SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-            KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-              LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
-              row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 5)?.limit(Some(1), None),
-            expected,
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        // The batch node must return the same rows/distances as issuing each
+        // query on its own against the index.
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(dataset, &batch, &query_values, k, true, None, Some(1))
+            .await;
+
+        // Query 0 matches vector index 1, stored at i = 1, 81, 161, 241, 321
+        // (once per fragment). All tie at distance 0, so the canonical
+        // (distance, row_id) order surfaces them by ascending row id, which here
+        // is ascending `i`.
+        let query_indices = batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let q0 = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(
+            &batch,
+            &BooleanArray::from_iter(query_indices.iter().map(|value| Some(value == Some(0)))),
         )
-        .await?;
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            q0["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+            &[1, 81, 161, 241, 321]
+        );
+        let q0_dists = q0[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        assert!(
+            q0_dists
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|dist| *dist == q0_dists.value(0)),
+            "the five duplicated neighbors must be genuine ties, got distances {:?}",
+            q0_dists.values()
+        );
+    }
 
-        // ANN
-        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-        dataset.make_vector_index().await?;
-        log::info!("Test case: Basic ANN");
-        let expected =
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
+    /// Any `refine_factor` sends the query onto a reranking path the shared-scan
+    /// batch node does not implement, so the scanner must fall back to the
+    /// per-query indexed loop and still produce correctly grouped results.
+    ///
+    /// All of `refine(0)`, `refine(1)`, and `refine(2)` must fall back:
+    /// `refine(1)` still reranks on the single-query path (a factor of 1 is not
+    /// a no-op), and `refine(0)` is rejected there with `Refine factor cannot be
+    /// zero` — the batch path would instead return empty results. Covering the
+    /// boundary factors guards the `refine_factor.is_some()` gate against
+    /// regressing back to a `> 1` check.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_refine_falls_back() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let (queries, _query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+
+        for refine_factor in [1u32, 2] {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.nearest("vec", &queries, 2).unwrap();
+            scan.refine(refine_factor);
+            scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+            let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                !plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+                "refine({refine_factor}) must not use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{plan}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+                "refine({refine_factor}) batch search should fall back to the per-query \
+                 indexed loop, got:\n{plan}"
+            );
+
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+                &[0, 0, 1, 1],
+                "refine({refine_factor}) should still group results per query"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // refine(0) is rejected on the fallback (per-query) path; the batch path
+        // must not silently accept it and return empty results instead.
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, 2).unwrap();
+        scan.refine(0);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        let result = scan.try_into_batch().await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "refine(0) must error rather than fall through to an empty batch result"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Without pinned nprobes the shared-scan fast path is not equivalent to
+    /// single-query search (the single-query path applies an adaptive
+    /// `early_pruning` floor and late-search expansion that the batch path does
+    /// not), so the scanner must fall back to the per-query loop, which reuses
+    /// the real adaptive search and stays exact.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_adaptive_nprobes_falls_back() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        let k = 2;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        // No nprobes() call: adaptive (minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None).
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "adaptive nprobes must not use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+            "adaptive nprobes batch search should fall back to the per-query loop, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        // The fallback runs real single-query searches, so it stays exact even
+        // with adaptive nprobes.
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(dataset, &batch, &query_values, k, true, None, None)
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    /// `nprobes(0)` is not rejected by the query builder, so both probe bounds
+    /// become zero. The single-query
+    /// path then probes nothing and returns an empty result, whereas the batch
+    /// node would clamp `nprobes` up to one partition — a silent divergence. The
+    /// scanner must fall back so the per-query loop defines the semantics of
+    /// `nprobes(0)`, and the grouped batch result must equal repeated single-query
+    /// search (both empty here).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_zero_nprobes_falls_back() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        let k = 2;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.nprobes(0);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "nprobes(0) must not use the shared-scan batch node (which would clamp \
+             to one partition), got:\n{plan}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+            "nprobes(0) batch search should fall back to the per-query indexed loop, got:\n{plan}"
+        );
+
+        // The fallback runs the real single-query path per query, so the grouped
+        // batch result must match issuing each query on its own with nprobes(0).
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        let query_count = query_values.len() / 32;
+        for query_index in 0..query_count {
+            let query =
+                Float32Array::from(query_values[query_index * 32..(query_index + 1) * 32].to_vec());
+            let mut single_scan = dataset.scan();
+            single_scan.nearest("vec", &query, k).unwrap();
+            single_scan.nprobes(0);
+            single_scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+            let single = single_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+            let query_indices = batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+            let mask = BooleanArray::from_iter(
+                query_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|value| value.map(|value| value == query_index as i32)),
+            );
+            let batch_slice = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &mask).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch_slice["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+                single["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+                "nprobes(0) query {query_index}: batch rows must match single-query rows"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A caller-supplied external row-address mask (`with_row_addr_prefilter`) is
+    /// applied per query on the single-query prefilter path (`with_external_mask`)
+    /// but is not carried by the shared batch scan. An otherwise batch-eligible
+    /// query must therefore fall back to the per-query loop when a mask is present,
+    /// and every returned row must honor the mask — otherwise the batch path would
+    /// silently return masked-out rows.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_external_mask_falls_back() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let (queries, _query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        let k = 15;
+
+        // Same query shape as `test_batch_knn_indexed`: without a mask it is
+        // batch-eligible, so the mask is the only thing that forces the fallback.
+        let mut unmasked = dataset.scan();
+        unmasked.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        unmasked.minimum_nprobes(2).maximum_nprobes(2);
+        unmasked.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        let unmasked_plan = unmasked.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            unmasked_plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "without a mask this query should use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{unmasked_plan}"
+        );
+
+        // Build an allowlist from the dataset's row addresses (freshly created
+        // single fragment, so _rowid == row address).
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        let all_ids = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        let allow: Vec<u64> = all_ids.iter().copied().step_by(2).collect();
+        let allow_set: BTreeSet<u64> = allow.iter().copied().collect();
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(2).maximum_nprobes(2);
+        scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+            allow.iter().copied(),
+        )));
+        scan.with_row_id();
+
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "an external row mask must not use the shared-scan batch node, which \
+             does not carry the mask, got:\n{plan}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+            "a masked batch query should fall back to the per-query indexed loop, got:\n{plan}"
+        );
+
+        // The fallback must honor the mask: every returned row is in the allowlist.
+        let got = batch_row_ids(&scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+        assert!(
+            !got.is_empty(),
+            "masked batch KNN should still return allowed rows"
+        );
+        for id in got {
+            assert!(
+                allow_set.contains(&id),
+                "returned _rowid {id} not in allowlist"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The shared-scan fast path is only equivalent to repeated single-query
+    /// search when the selected `index_segments` cover every requested fragment.
+    /// With one segment per fragment, requesting both fragments but selecting
+    /// only the first segment leaves fragment 1 covered solely by the
+    /// *unselected* segment: the batch node would search just the selected
+    /// segment and silently drop it. Eligibility must be computed from the
+    /// selected segments' coverage (as `knn_combined` does), not the whole
+    /// logical index, so the scanner falls back to the per-query loop, which
+    /// re-scores the uncovered fragment on the flat path and returns every row.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_partial_segment_selection_falls_back() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // One segment per fragment: segment_ids[0] covers fragment 0 (i=0..200),
+        // segment_ids[1] covers fragment 1 (i=200..400).
+        let segment_ids = test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let fragments = dataset.fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2, "base dataset should have two fragments");
+
+        let (queries, _query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        // k covers every row in both requested fragments (200 each), so a
+        // complete search returns 400 rows per query.
+        let k = 400;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(2).maximum_nprobes(2);
+        // Request both indexed fragments but select only the segment covering
+        // fragment 0; fragment 1 is covered only by the unselected segment.
+        scan.with_fragments(vec![fragments[0].clone(), fragments[1].clone()]);
+        scan.with_index_segments(vec![segment_ids[0]]).unwrap();
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "a requested fragment outside the selected segments must force a fallback, \
+             not a shared scan that drops it, got:\n{plan}"
+        );
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            2 * k,
+            "each query must return all 400 rows across both requested fragments"
+        );
+        let query_indices = batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        for query_index in 0..2 {
+            let rows_for_query = query_indices
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|value| *value == Some(query_index))
+                .count();
+            assert_eq!(
+                rows_for_query, k,
+                "query_index {query_index} must cover both fragments (got {rows_for_query})"
+            );
+        }
+        // Fragment 0 (i in 0..200) comes from the selected segment; fragment 1
+        // (i in 200..400) must appear via the flat fallback.
+        let i_array = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        assert!(
+            i_array
+                .iter()
+                .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (0..200).contains(&val)))
+                && i_array
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (200..400).contains(&val))),
+            "results must include rows from both the selected segment and the flat-fallback fragment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A wide batch probes more distinct partitions than one streaming chunk holds
+    /// (`STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE` = 16), so `search_partitions_batch` scores
+    /// them in several `spawn_cpu` dispatches, threading the per-query top-k heaps
+    /// across chunk boundaries. The small indexes in the other tests fit in a
+    /// single chunk and never exercise that seam; here an exact (flat) index with
+    /// more partitions than the chunk size, probed in full, pins the multi-chunk
+    /// path to repeated single-query search.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_streams_multiple_chunks() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // More partitions than one streaming chunk so scoring spans multiple
+        // chunks; exact (flat) storage with every partition probed keeps the batch
+        // result an exact match for single-query search.
+        let num_partitions = 20;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(num_partitions, MetricType::L2);
+        test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        // Guard the premise of this test: `nprobes(num_partitions)` probes every
+        // partition, so the batch spans multiple streaming chunks only if the
+        // partition count exceeds the chunk size. If the default chunk size is
+        // ever raised past `num_partitions`, fail loudly here rather than let the
+        // test silently collapse to a single chunk and stop covering the seam.
+        let chunk_size = *crate::index::vector::ivf::v2::STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE;
+        assert!(
+            num_partitions > chunk_size,
+            "test needs more partitions ({num_partitions}) than the streaming chunk size \
+             ({chunk_size}) to span multiple chunks",
+        );
+
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        let k = 2;
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        // Probe every partition so both paths are exact regardless of centroid
+        // proximity, and so the batch spans multiple streaming chunks.
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(num_partitions)
+            .maximum_nprobes(num_partitions);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "wide IVF batch KNN should use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{plan}"
+        );
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(
+            dataset,
+            &batch,
+            &query_values,
+            k,
+            true,
+            None,
+            Some(num_partitions),
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    /// IVF_HNSW is an unsupported index type for the shared-scan batch path (its
+    /// graph sub-index has no global top-k heap), so batch search must fall back
+    /// to the per-query indexed loop and still produce correct grouped results.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_hnsw_falls_back() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_ivf_hnsw_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        let k = 2;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(2).maximum_nprobes(2);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "HNSW batch search must not use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+            "HNSW batch search should fall back to the per-query indexed loop, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(dataset, &batch, &query_values, k, true, None, Some(2))
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for cosine batch search: each query vector must be
+    /// normalized independently. The two queries below have very different
+    /// magnitudes, so normalizing the concatenated batch key by a single global
+    /// norm (the bug) would scale them unequally and diverge from per-query
+    /// single search.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_cosine_normalizes_per_query() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds
+            .make_vector_index_with_metric(MetricType::Cosine)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        // q0: small-magnitude constant direction; q1: large-magnitude ramp.
+        let mut query_values = vec![0.05f32; 32];
+        query_values.extend((1..=32).map(|v| v as f32 * 3.0));
+        let queries =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(query_values.clone()), 32)
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, 2).unwrap();
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(2).maximum_nprobes(2);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "cosine IVF batch KNN should use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(dataset, &batch, &query_values, 2, true, None, Some(2))
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    /// Batch indexed search builds a single shared prefilter for all queries;
+    /// results must match per-query single search with the same prefilter.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_with_prefilter() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        let k = 2;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(2).maximum_nprobes(2);
+        scan.filter("i > 100").unwrap();
+        scan.prefilter(true);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "prefiltered IVF batch KNN should use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        // The shared prefilter must exclude i <= 100 for every query.
+        assert!(
+            batch["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|i| *i > 100),
+            "shared prefilter should remove rows with i <= 100"
+        );
+
+        let query_indices = batch[QUERY_INDEX_COL].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        for query_index in 0..2 {
+            let query =
+                Float32Array::from(query_values[query_index * 32..(query_index + 1) * 32].to_vec());
+            let single = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .nearest("vec", &query, k)
+                .unwrap()
+                .minimum_nprobes(2)
+                .maximum_nprobes(2)
+                .filter("i > 100")
+                .unwrap()
+                .prefilter(true)
+                .project(&["i"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mask = BooleanArray::from_iter(
+                query_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|v| v.map(|v| v == query_index as i32)),
+            );
+            let slice = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &mask).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                slice["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+                single["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+                "prefiltered batch query {query_index} should match single-query search"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Finds the batch vector-search node in a physical plan.
+    fn find_ann_ivf_batch_exec(plan: &dyn ExecutionPlan) -> Option<&ANNIvfBatchExec> {
+        if let Some(batch_exec) = plan.downcast_ref::<ANNIvfBatchExec>() {
+            return Some(batch_exec);
+        }
+        plan.children()
+            .into_iter()
+            .find_map(|child| find_ann_ivf_batch_exec(child.as_ref()))
+    }
+
+    /// A caller that matches the batch node in a plan reads the search back out
+    /// of it through the public `io::exec` surface, so the accessors must return
+    /// what the scanner fed the constructor.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::no_prefilter(None)]
+    #[case::prefilter(Some("i > 100"))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_exposes_plan_inputs(#[case] filter: Option<&str>) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, 2).unwrap();
+        scan.nprobes(2);
+        if let Some(filter) = filter {
+            scan.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            scan.prefilter(true);
+        }
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let batch_exec = find_ann_ivf_batch_exec(plan.as_ref())
+            .expect("indexed batch KNN should plan an ANNIvfBatchExec");
+
+        let query = batch_exec.query();
+        assert_eq!(query.column, "vec");
+        assert_eq!(query.k, 2);
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 2);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(query.metric_type, Some(DistanceType::L2));
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.key.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+            query_values.as_slice(),
+            "query key must hold both query vectors concatenated"
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(batch_exec.query_count(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            query.key.len() / batch_exec.query_count(),
+            32,
+            "query count must divide the key into the column's vectors"
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(batch_exec.dataset().uri(), dataset.uri());
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch_exec.dataset().version().version,
+            dataset.version().version
+        );
+
+        let expected_indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!expected_indices.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch_exec
+                .indices()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|index| index.uuid)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected_indices
+                .iter()
+                .map(|index| index.uuid)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+
+        match (filter, batch_exec.prefilter_source()) {
+            (None, PreFilterSource::None) => {}
+            (Some(_), PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(_)) => {}
+            (_, source) => panic!("unexpected prefilter source {source:?} for filter {filter:?}"),
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(batch_exec.schema().field(0).name(), QUERY_INDEX_COL);
+    }
+
+    /// Batch indexed search must merge each query's top-k across multiple delta
+    /// indices, not just within a single delta.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_knn_indexed_multiple_deltas() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        // Append new data and optimize with `append` to add a second delta
+        // index (rather than merging into the existing one).
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(400, 480).await.unwrap();
+        test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name("idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            segments.len() >= 2,
+            "expected multiple delta index segments to exercise cross-delta merge, got {}",
+            segments.len()
+        );
+
+        let (queries, query_values) = batch_knn_two_queries();
+        let k = 3;
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &queries, k).unwrap();
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(2).maximum_nprobes(2);
+        scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+            "multi-delta IVF batch KNN should use the shared-scan batch node, got:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+        assert_batch_matches_single_queries(dataset, &batch, &query_values, k, true, None, Some(2))
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_can_project_distance() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+        scan.refine(5);
+        scan.project(&["_distance"]).unwrap();
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_with_new_data(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        // Create a bunch of queries
+        let key: Float32Array = [0f32; 32].into_iter().collect();
+        // Set as larger than the number of new rows that aren't in the index to
+        // force result sets to be combined between index and flat scan.
+        let k = 20;
+
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct TestCase {
+            filter: Option<&'static str>,
+            limit: Option<i64>,
+            use_index: bool,
+        }
+
+        let mut cases = vec![];
+        for filter in [Some("i > 100"), None] {
+            for limit in [None, Some(10)] {
+                for use_index in [true, false] {
+                    cases.push(TestCase {
+                        filter,
+                        limit,
+                        use_index,
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Validate them all.
+        for case in cases {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner
+                .nearest("vec", &key, k)
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(case.limit, None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .refine(3)
+                .use_index(case.use_index);
+            if let Some(filter) = case.filter {
+                scanner.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            }
+
+            let result = scanner
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(!result.is_empty());
+            let result = concat_batches(&result[0].schema(), result.iter()).unwrap();
+
+            if case.filter.is_some() {
+                let result_rows = result.num_rows();
+                let expected_rows = case.limit.unwrap_or(k as i64) as usize;
+                assert!(
+                    result_rows <= expected_rows,
+                    "Expected less than {} rows, got {}",
+                    expected_rows,
+                    result_rows
+                );
+            } else {
+                // Exactly equal count
+                assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), case.limit.unwrap_or(k as i64) as usize);
+            }
+
+            // Top one should be the first value of new data
+            assert_eq!(
+                as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(result.column(0).as_ref()).value(0),
+                400
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_with_prefilter(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        scan.filter("i > 100").unwrap();
+        scan.prefilter(true);
+        scan.project(&["i", "vec"]).unwrap();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+        scan.use_index(false);
+
+        let results = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        let batch = &results[0];
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.schema().as_ref(),
+            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "vec",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                        32,
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
+            ])
+            .with_metadata([("dataset".into(), "vector".into())].into())
+        );
+
+        // These match the query exactly.  The 5 results must include these 3.
+        let exact_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![161, 241, 321]);
+        // These also include those 1 off from the query.  The remaining 2 results must be in this set.
+        let close_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![161, 241, 321, 160, 162, 240, 242, 320, 322]);
+        let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+        let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        assert!(exact_i.is_subset(&actual_i));
+        assert!(actual_i.is_subset(&close_i));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_filter_new_data(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        // This test verifies that a filter (prefilter or postfilter) gets applied to the flat KNN results
+        // in a combined KNN scan (a scan that combines results from an indexed ANN with an unindexed flat
+        // search of new data)
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        // This query will match exactly the new row with i = 400 which should be excluded by the prefilter
+        let key: Float32Array = [0f32; 32].into_iter().collect();
+
+        let mut query = dataset.scan();
+        query.nearest("vec", &key, 20).unwrap();
+
+        // Sanity check that 400 is in our results
+        let results = query
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let results_i = results[0]["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+
+        assert!(results_i.contains(&400));
+
+        // Both prefilter and postfilter should remove 400 from our results
+        for prefilter in [false, true] {
+            let mut query = dataset.scan();
+            query
+                .filter("i != 400")
+                .unwrap()
+                .prefilter(prefilter)
+                .nearest("vec", &key, 20)
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let results = query
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let results_i = results[0]["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+
+            assert!(!results_i.contains(&400));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_with_filter(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+        scan.filter("i > 100").unwrap();
+        scan.project(&["i", "vec"]).unwrap();
+        scan.refine(5);
+
+        let results = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        let batch = &results[0];
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.schema().as_ref(),
+            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "vec",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                        32,
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
+            ])
+            .with_metadata([("dataset".into(), "vector".into())].into())
+        );
+
+        let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![161, 241, 321]);
+        let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+        let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::nearest_only(false, None, false)]
+    #[case::late_materialization(true, None, false)]
+    #[case::late_materialization_limit(true, Some(0), false)]
+    #[case::late_materialization_offset(true, Some(37), false)]
+    #[case::nulls_and_ties(true, Some(37), true)]
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_flat_knn_large_limit_preserves_global_order(
+        #[case] materialize_id: bool,
+        #[case] offset: Option<usize>,
+        #[case] nulls_and_ties: bool,
+    ) {
+        // Cover both the root merge (#7865) and a merge below GlobalLimitExec
+        // followed by late materialization (lancedb/lancedb#4214).
+        let rows = 12_288usize;
+        let k = 9_000usize; // Span multiple default-sized output batches.
+        let vector_value = |id: usize| {
+            if nulls_and_ties {
+                (rows - id).div_ceil(2)
+            } else {
+                rows - id
+            }
+        };
+        let mut vectors = array::cycle_vec(
+            array::cycle::<Float32Type>((0..rows).map(|id| vector_value(id) as f32).collect()),
+            Dimension::from(1),
+        );
+        if nulls_and_ties {
+            vectors = vectors.with_nulls(&[false, false, false, true]);
+        }
+        let dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("vec", vectors)
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(4_096))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0]);
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &query, k + offset.unwrap_or(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        scan.target_parallelism(8);
+        if materialize_id {
+            scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+        } else {
+            scan.project(&["vec"]).unwrap();
+        }
+        if let Some(offset) = offset {
+            scan.limit(Some(k as i64), Some(offset as i64)).unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let plan = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let displayed = DisplayableExecutionPlan::new(plan.as_ref())
+            .indent(true)
+            .to_string();
+        assert_eq!(displayed.matches("SortExec:").count(), 1, "{displayed}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            displayed.contains("source=stream(_rowid)"),
+            materialize_id,
+            "{displayed}"
+        );
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), k);
+        let distances = batch[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        assert_eq!(distances.null_count(), 0);
+        let mut expected_ids = (0..rows)
+            .filter(|id| !nulls_and_ties || id % 4 != 3)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        expected_ids.sort_by_key(|id| (vector_value(*id), *id));
+        for (rank, id) in expected_ids
+            .into_iter()
+            .skip(offset.unwrap_or(0))
+            .take(k)
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            let value = vector_value(id) as f32;
+            assert_eq!(distances.value(rank), value * value);
+            if materialize_id {
+                // Distances decrease with row id; ties use ascending row id.
+                assert_eq!(
+                    batch["id"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(rank),
+                    id as u32
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        // Catch the ordering contract deterministically even if this execution
+        // happened to receive the parallel batches in distance order.
+        assert!(
+            plan.output_ordering().is_some(),
+            "flat KNN must retain its output ordering:\n{displayed}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_refine_factor(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+        scan.refine(5);
+
+        let results = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        let batch = &results[0];
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 5);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.schema().as_ref(),
+            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "vec",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                        32,
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
+            ])
+            .with_metadata([("dataset".into(), "vector".into())].into())
+        );
+
+        let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![1, 81, 161, 241, 321]);
+        let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+        let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_binary_vectors_default_to_hamming() {
+        let (_tmp_dir, dataset) = make_binary_vector_dataset().await.unwrap();
+        let query = UInt8Array::from(vec![0b0000_1111u8, 0, 0, 0]);
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("bin", &query, 3).unwrap();
+
+        // metric_type is None initially; it will be resolved to Hamming during search
+        assert_eq!(scan.nearest.as_ref().unwrap().metric_type, None);
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values();
+        assert_eq!(ids, &[0, 1, 2]);
+        let distances = batch
+            .column_by_name(DIST_COL)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values();
+        assert_eq!(distances, &[0.0, 2.0, 4.0]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_binary_vectors_invalid_distance_error() {
+        let (_tmp_dir, dataset) = make_binary_vector_dataset().await.unwrap();
+        let query = UInt8Array::from(vec![0b0000_1111u8, 0, 0, 0]);
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("bin", &query, 1).unwrap();
+        scan.distance_metric(DistanceType::L2);
+
+        let err = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("l2") && message.contains("UInt8"),
+            "unexpected message: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Test that when query specifies a metric different from the index,
+    /// we fall back to flat search and return correct distances.
+    /// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/5608
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_metric_mismatch_falls_back_to_flat_search() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Create IVF_PQ index with L2 metric
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+
+        // Query with Dot metric (different from the L2 index)
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+        scan.distance_metric(DistanceType::Dot);
+
+        // Verify the explain plan does NOT show ANNSubIndex (should use flat search)
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+            "Expected flat search, but got ANN index in plan:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+        // Should show flat KNN with Dot metric (metric is displayed lowercase)
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("KNNVectorDistance") && plan.to_lowercase().contains("dot"),
+            "Expected flat KNN with Dot metric in plan:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        // Also verify the distances are different from L2 results
+        let dot_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", &key, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .distance_metric(DistanceType::Dot)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let l2_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", &key, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .distance_metric(DistanceType::L2)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dot_distances: Vec<f32> = dot_batch
+            .column_by_name(DIST_COL)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        let l2_distances: Vec<f32> = l2_batch
+            .column_by_name(DIST_COL)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+
+        // Dot and L2 distances should be different (this verifies we're using the correct metric)
+        assert_ne!(dot_distances, l2_distances);
+    }
+
+    /// Test that when query does not specify a metric, we use the index's metric.
+    /// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/5608
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_no_metric_uses_index_metric() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Create IVF_PQ index with L2 metric
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+        let key: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+
+        // Query without specifying metric
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+        // Don't call distance_metric() - should use index's L2
+
+        // Verify the explain plan shows ANNSubIndex with L2 metric
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex") && plan.to_lowercase().contains("l2"),
+            "Expected ANN index with L2 metric in plan:\n{}",
+            plan
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_only_row_id(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.project::<&str>(&[]).unwrap().with_row_id();
+
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 400);
+        let expected_schema =
+            ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true)])
+                .with_metadata(dataset.schema().metadata.clone());
+        assert_eq!(batch.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema,);
+
+        let expected_row_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..200_u64).chain((1 << 32)..((1 << 32) + 200)).collect();
+        let actual_row_ids: Vec<u64> = as_primitive_array::<UInt64Type>(batch.column(0).as_ref())
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(expected_row_ids, actual_row_ids);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_legacy_dataset_with_stable_row_ids() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .batch_readahead(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .project(&["vec"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .filter_expr(col("vec").is_not_null())
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let unique_row_ids = row_ids.values().iter().copied().collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(unique_row_ids.len(), 400);
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), unique_row_ids.len());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scan_unordered_with_row_id() {
+        // This test doesn't make sense for v2 files, there is no way to get an out-of-order scan
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = &test_ds.dataset;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+
+        let ordered_batches = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<RecordBatch>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(ordered_batches.len() > 2);
+        let ordered_batch =
+            concat_batches(&ordered_batches[0].schema(), ordered_batches.iter()).unwrap();
+
+        // Attempt to get out-of-order scan, but that might take multiple attempts.
+        scan.scan_in_order(false);
+        for _ in 0..10 {
+            let unordered_batches = scan
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<RecordBatch>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let unordered_batch =
+                concat_batches(&unordered_batches[0].schema(), unordered_batches.iter()).unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(ordered_batch.num_rows(), unordered_batch.num_rows());
+
+            // If they aren't equal, they should be equal if we sort by row id
+            if ordered_batch != unordered_batch {
+                let sort_indices = sort_to_indices(&unordered_batch[ROW_ID], None, None).unwrap();
+
+                let ordered_i = ordered_batch["i"].clone();
+                let sorted_i = take::take(&unordered_batch["i"], &sort_indices, None).unwrap();
+
+                assert_eq!(&ordered_i, &sorted_i);
+
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scan_with_wildcard() {
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Float64Type>())
+            .col("y", array::step::<Float64Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(100))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let check_cols = async |projection: &[&str], expected_cols: &[&str]| {
+            let mut scan = data.scan();
+            scan.project(projection).unwrap();
+            let stream = scan.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+            let schema = stream.schema();
+            let field_names = schema.field_names();
+            assert_eq!(field_names, expected_cols);
+        };
+
+        check_cols(&["*"], &["x", "y"]).await;
+        check_cols(&["x", "y"], &["x", "y"]).await;
+        check_cols(&["x"], &["x"]).await;
+        check_cols(&["_rowid", "*"], &["_rowid", "x", "y"]).await;
+        check_cols(&["*", "_rowid"], &["x", "y", "_rowid"]).await;
+        check_cols(
+            &["_rowid", "*", "_rowoffset"],
+            &["_rowid", "x", "y", "_rowoffset"],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let check_exprs = async |exprs: &[&str], expected_cols: &[&str]| {
+            let mut scan = data.scan();
+            let projection = exprs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|e| (e.to_string(), e.to_string()))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            scan.project_with_transform(&projection).unwrap();
+            let stream = scan.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+            let schema = stream.schema();
+            let field_names = schema.field_names();
+            assert_eq!(field_names, expected_cols);
+        };
+
+        // Make sure we can reference * fields in exprs and add new columns
+        check_exprs(&["_rowid", "*", "x * 2"], &["_rowid", "x", "y", "x * 2"]).await;
+
+        let check_fails = |projection: &[&str]| {
+            let mut scan = data.scan();
+            assert!(scan.project(projection).is_err());
+        };
+
+        // Would duplicate x
+        check_fails(&["x", "*"]);
+        check_fails(&["_rowid", "_rowid"]);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scan_order(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![6, 7, 8]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let write_batch = |batch: RecordBatch| async {
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(params)).await
+        };
+
+        write_batch.clone()(batch1.clone()).await.unwrap();
+        write_batch(batch2.clone()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap());
+        let fragment1 = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap().metadata().clone();
+        let fragment2 = dataset.get_fragment(1).unwrap().metadata().clone();
+
+        // 1 then 2
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragment1.clone(), fragment2.clone()]);
+        let output = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(output.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(output[0], batch1);
+        assert_eq!(output[1], batch2);
+
+        // 2 then 1
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragment2, fragment1]);
+        let output = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(output.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(output[0], batch2);
+        assert_eq!(output[1], batch1);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scan_sort(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![5, 4, 1, 2, 3]))
+            .col(
+                "str",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c", "e", "d"]),
+            );
+
+        let sorted_by_int = gen_batch()
+            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]))
+            .col(
+                "str",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["c", "e", "d", "b", "a"]),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let sorted_by_str = gen_batch()
+            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![5, 4, 1, 3, 2]))
+            .col(
+                "str",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"]),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        Dataset::write(
+            data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(5), BatchCount::from(1)),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let batches_by_int = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
+                "int".to_string(),
+            )]))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches_by_int[0], sorted_by_int);
+
+        let batches_by_str = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
+                "str".to_string(),
+            )]))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches_by_str[0], sorted_by_str);
+
+        // Ensure an empty sort vec does not break anything (sorting is disabled)
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .order_by(Some(vec![]))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sort_multi_columns(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![5, 5, 1, 1, 3]))
+            .col(
+                "float",
+                array::cycle::<Float32Type>(vec![7.3, -f32::NAN, f32::NAN, 4.3, f32::INFINITY]),
+            );
+
+        let sorted_by_int_then_float = gen_batch()
+            .col("int", array::cycle::<Int32Type>(vec![1, 1, 3, 5, 5]))
+            .col(
+                "float",
+                // floats should be sorted using total order so -NAN is before all and NAN is after all
+                array::cycle::<Float32Type>(vec![4.3, f32::NAN, f32::INFINITY, -f32::NAN, 7.3]),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        Dataset::write(
+            data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(5), BatchCount::from(1)),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap());
+
+        let batches_by_int_then_float = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .order_by(Some(vec![
+                ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first("int".to_string()),
+                ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first("float".to_string()),
+            ]))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches_by_int_then_float[0], sorted_by_int_then_float);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ann_prefilter(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(ApproxMode::Normal, ApproxMode::Fast)] approx_mode: ApproxMode,
+        #[values(
+            VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 4, 2, MetricType::L2, 2),
+            VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+                MetricType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+                HnswBuildParams::default()
+                    .max_level(2)
+                    .num_edges(4)
+                    .ef_construction(16)
+            ),
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+                MetricType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams {
+                    num_partitions: Some(2),
+                    max_iters: 2,
+                    sample_rate: 2,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                HnswBuildParams::default()
+                    .max_level(2)
+                    .num_edges(4)
+                    .ef_construction(16),
+                PQBuildParams {
+                    num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                    num_bits: 4,
+                    max_iters: 2,
+                    sample_rate: 2,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }
+            ),
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+                MetricType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+                HnswBuildParams::default()
+                    .max_level(2)
+                    .num_edges(4)
+                    .ef_construction(16),
+                SQBuildParams::default()
+            )
+        )]
+        index_params: VectorIndexParams,
+    ) {
+        use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, fixed_size_list_type};
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("filterable", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("vector", fixed_size_list_type(2, DataType::Float32), true),
+        ]));
+
+        let vector_values = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..64).map(|x| x as f32));
+
+        let batches = vec![
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..32)),
+                    Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, 2).unwrap()),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            max_rows_per_file: 16, // At least two files to make sure stable row ids make a difference
+            enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query_key = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..2).map(|x| x as f32)));
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter("filterable > 5").unwrap();
+        scan.nearest("vector", query_key.as_ref(), 1).unwrap();
+        scan.minimum_nprobes(2);
+        scan.ef(16);
+        scan.approx_mode(approx_mode);
+        scan.with_row_id();
+
+        let batches = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 0);
+
+        scan.prefilter(true);
+
+        let batches = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+
+        let first_match = batches[0][ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values()[0];
+
+        // HNSW+SQ is an approximate index; this test validates *prefiltering*, so
+        // every row failing `filterable > 5` (row ids 0..=5) must be excluded.
+        // HNSW recall is covered by dedicated vector-index tests elsewhere.
+        assert!(
+            first_match > 5,
+            "prefilter not honored: returned row id {first_match} should satisfy `filterable > 5`"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_on_large_utf8(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "ls",
+            DataType::LargeUtf8,
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        let batches = vec![
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..10).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                ))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter("ls = 's-8'").unwrap();
+
+        let batches = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = &batches[0];
+
+        let expected = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from_iter_values(
+                (8..9).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+            ))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch, &expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_with_regex(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "ls",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        let batches = vec![
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                ))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter("regexp_match(ls, 's-1.')").unwrap();
+
+        let stream = scan.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let batch = &batches[0];
+
+        let expected = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                (10..=19).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+            ))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch, &expected);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_proj_bug() {
+        let struct_i_field = ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true);
+        let struct_o_field = ArrowField::new("o", DataType::Utf8, true);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "struct",
+                DataType::Struct(vec![struct_i_field.clone(), struct_o_field.clone()].into()),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let input_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
+            .map(|i| {
+                let struct_i_arr: Arc<Int32Array> =
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20));
+                let struct_o_arr: Arc<StringArray> = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("o-{:02}", v)),
+                ));
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
+                            (Arc::new(struct_i_field.clone()), struct_i_arr as ArrayRef),
+                            (Arc::new(struct_o_field.clone()), struct_o_arr as ArrayRef),
+                        ])),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                        )),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let batches =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(input_batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 40,
+            max_rows_per_group: 10,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let batches = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("struct.i >= 20")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+
+        let expected_batch = concat_batches(&schema, &input_batches.as_slice()[1..]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch, expected_batch);
+
+        // different order
+        let batches = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("struct.o >= 'o-20'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch, expected_batch);
+
+        // other reported bug with nested top level column access
+        let batches = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(vec!["struct"].as_slice())
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ann_with_deletion(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        const PARTITIONS: usize = 4;
+        // A partition is trained only when the data can give it a codebook's
+        // worth of vectors, so the fixture has to cover every partition it asks
+        // for; the cached-entry count below counts per partition.
+        const ROWS: usize = PARTITIONS * 256;
+
+        let vec_params = vec![
+            // TODO: re-enable diskann test when we can tune to get reproducible results.
+            // VectorIndexParams::with_diskann_params(MetricType::L2, DiskANNParams::new(10, 1.5, 10)),
+            VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(PARTITIONS, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2),
+        ];
+        for params in vec_params {
+            use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+            let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+            // make dataset
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "vec",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                        32,
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+            ]));
+
+            // vectors are [1, 1, 1, ...] [2, 2, 2, ...]
+            let vector_values: Float32Array =
+                (0..32 * ROWS).map(|v| (v / 32) as f32 + 1.0).collect();
+            let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, 32).unwrap();
+
+            let batches = vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..ROWS as i32)),
+                        Arc::new(vectors.clone()),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ];
+
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                test_uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await, 0);
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["vec"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    Some("idx".to_string()),
+                    &params,
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            // closest be i = 0..5
+            let key: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|_v| 1.0_f32).collect();
+            scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+            scan.refine(100);
+            scan.minimum_nprobes(100);
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await,
+                2, // 2 for index metadata at version 1 and 2.
+            );
+            let results = scan
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await,
+                5 + dataset.versions().await.unwrap().len()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+            let batch = &results[0];
+
+            let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+            let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+            let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+
+            // DELETE top result and search again
+
+            dataset.delete("i = 1").await.unwrap();
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+            scan.refine(100);
+            scan.minimum_nprobes(100);
+
+            let results = scan
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+            let batch = &results[0];
+
+            // i=1 was deleted, and 5 is the next best, the reset shouldn't change
+            let expected_i = BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![0, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
+            let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+            let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+
+            // Add a second fragment and test the case where there are no deletion
+            // files but there are missing fragments.
+            let batches = vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(ROWS as i32..2 * ROWS as i32)),
+                        Arc::new(vectors),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ];
+
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                test_uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["vec"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    Some("idx".to_string()),
+                    &params,
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            dataset.delete(&format!("i < {ROWS}")).await.unwrap();
+
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.nearest("vec", &key, 5).unwrap();
+            scan.refine(100);
+            scan.minimum_nprobes(100);
+
+            let results = scan
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+            let batch = &results[0];
+
+            // It should not pick up any results from the first fragment
+            let first = ROWS as i32;
+            let expected_i =
+                BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![first, first + 1, first + 2, first + 3, first + 4]);
+            let column_i = batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+            let actual_i: BTreeSet<i32> = as_primitive_array::<Int32Type>(column_i.as_ref())
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(expected_i, actual_i);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_projection_order() {
+        let vec_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
+        let mut data = gen_batch()
+            .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(4)))
+            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(100))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        data.create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &vec_params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scan = data.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vec", &Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0]), 5)
+            .unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id().project(&["text"]).unwrap();
+
+        let results = scan
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            results[0].schema().field_names(),
+            vec!["text", "_distance", "_rowid"]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_count_rows_with_filter(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut data_gen = BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(
+            IncrementingInt32::new().named("Filter_me".to_owned()),
+        ));
+        Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(32),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(32, dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(
+            16,
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("`Filter_me` > 15".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dynamic_projection(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("i".to_owned())));
+        Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(32),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 32);
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+
+        let scan_res = scanner
+            .project_with_transform(&[("bool", "i > 15")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(1, scan_res.num_columns());
+
+        let bool_col = scan_res
+            .column_by_name("bool")
+            .expect("bool column should exist");
+        let bool_arr = bool_col.as_boolean();
+        for i in 0..32 {
+            if i > 15 {
+                assert!(bool_arr.value(i));
+            } else {
+                assert!(!bool_arr.value(i));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_column_casting_function(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(RandomVector::new().named("vec".to_owned())));
+        Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(32),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 32);
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+
+        let scan_res = scanner
+            .project_with_transform(&[("f16", "_cast_list_f16(vec)")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(1, scan_res.num_columns());
+        assert_eq!(32, scan_res.num_rows());
+        assert_eq!("f16", scan_res.schema().field(0).name());
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let scan_res_original = scanner
+            .project(&["vec"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let f32_col: &Float32Array = scan_res_original
+            .column_by_name("vec")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive();
+        let f16_col: &Float16Array = scan_res
+            .column_by_name("f16")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive();
+
+        for (f32_val, f16_val) in f32_col.iter().zip(f16_col.iter()) {
+            let f32_val = f32_val.unwrap();
+            let f16_val = f16_val.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(f16::from_f32(f32_val), f16_val);
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct ScalarIndexTestFixture {
+        _test_dir: TempStrDir,
+        dataset: Dataset,
+        sample_query: Arc<dyn Array>,
+        delete_query: Arc<dyn Array>,
+        // The original version of the data, two fragments, rows 0-1000
+        original_version: u64,
+        // The original version of the data, 1 row deleted, compacted to a single fragment
+        compact_version: u64,
+        // The original version of the data + an extra 1000 unindexed
+        append_version: u64,
+        // The original version of the data + an extra 1000 rows, with indices updated so all rows indexed
+        updated_version: u64,
+        // The original version of the data with 1 deleted row
+        delete_version: u64,
+        // The original version of the data + an extra 1000 uindexed + 1 deleted row
+        append_then_delete_version: u64,
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+    struct ScalarTestParams {
+        use_index: bool,
+        use_projection: bool,
+        use_deleted_data: bool,
+        use_new_data: bool,
+        with_row_id: bool,
+        use_compaction: bool,
+        use_updated: bool,
+    }
+
+    impl ScalarIndexTestFixture {
+        async fn new(data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion, use_stable_row_ids: bool) -> Self {
+            let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+            // Write 1000 rows.  Train indices.  Then write 1000 new rows with the same vector data.
+            // Then delete a row from the trained data.
+            //
+            // The first row where indexed == 50 is our sample query.
+            // The first row where indexed == 75 is our deleted row (and delete query)
+            let data = gen_batch()
+                .col(
+                    "vector",
+                    array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(32)),
+                )
+                .col("indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .col("not_indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(1000))
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Write as two batches so we can later compact
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data.clone())], data.schema().clone()),
+                test_uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 500,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: use_stable_row_ids,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["vector"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    None,
+                    &VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["indexed"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let original_version = dataset.version().version;
+            let sample_query = data["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(50);
+            let delete_query = data["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(75);
+
+            // APPEND DATA
+
+            // Re-use the vector column in the new batch but add 1000 to the indexed/not_indexed columns so
+            // they are distinct.  This makes our checks easier.
+            let new_indexed =
+                arrow_arith::numeric::add(&data["indexed"], &Int32Array::new_scalar(1000)).unwrap();
+            let new_not_indexed =
+                arrow_arith::numeric::add(&data["indexed"], &Int32Array::new_scalar(1000)).unwrap();
+            let append_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                data.schema(),
+                vec![data["vector"].clone(), new_indexed, new_not_indexed],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            dataset
+                .append(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_data)], data.schema()),
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let append_version = dataset.version().version;
+
+            // UPDATE
+
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let updated_version = dataset.version().version;
+
+            // APPEND -> DELETE
+
+            dataset.checkout_version(append_version).await.unwrap();
+            dataset.restore().await.unwrap();
+
+            dataset.delete("not_indexed = 75").await.unwrap();
+
+            let append_then_delete_version = dataset.version().version;
+
+            // DELETE
+
+            let mut dataset = dataset.checkout_version(original_version).await.unwrap();
+            dataset.restore().await.unwrap();
+
+            dataset.delete("not_indexed = 75").await.unwrap();
+
+            let delete_version = dataset.version().version;
+
+            // COMPACT (this should materialize the deletion)
+            compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let compact_version = dataset.version().version;
+            dataset.checkout_version(original_version).await.unwrap();
+            dataset.restore().await.unwrap();
+
+            Self {
+                _test_dir: test_dir,
+                dataset,
+                sample_query,
+                delete_query,
+                original_version,
+                compact_version,
+                append_version,
+                updated_version,
+                delete_version,
+                append_then_delete_version,
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn sample_query(&self) -> &PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> {
+            self.sample_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        }
+
+        fn delete_query(&self) -> &PrimitiveArray<Float32Type> {
+            self.delete_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        }
+
+        async fn get_dataset(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) -> Dataset {
+            let version = if params.use_compaction {
+                // These combinations should not be possible
+                if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
+                    panic!(
+                        "There is no test data combining new/deleted/updated data with compaction"
+                    );
+                } else {
+                    self.compact_version
+                }
+            } else if params.use_updated {
+                // These combinations should not be possible
+                if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_new_data || params.use_compaction {
+                    panic!(
+                        "There is no test data combining updated data with new/deleted/compaction"
+                    );
+                } else {
+                    self.updated_version
+                }
+            } else {
+                match (params.use_new_data, params.use_deleted_data) {
+                    (false, false) => self.original_version,
+                    (false, true) => self.delete_version,
+                    (true, false) => self.append_version,
+                    (true, true) => self.append_then_delete_version,
+                }
+            };
+            self.dataset.checkout_version(version).await.unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn run_query(
+            &self,
+            query: &str,
+            vector: Option<&PrimitiveArray<Float32Type>>,
+            params: &ScalarTestParams,
+        ) -> (String, RecordBatch) {
+            let dataset = self.get_dataset(params).await;
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            if let Some(vector) = vector {
+                scan.nearest("vector", vector, 10).unwrap();
+            }
+            if params.use_projection {
+                scan.project(&["indexed"]).unwrap();
+            }
+            if params.with_row_id {
+                scan.with_row_id();
+            }
+            scan.scan_in_order(true);
+            scan.use_index(params.use_index);
+            scan.filter(query).unwrap();
+            scan.prefilter(true);
+
+            let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+            if params.use_projection {
+                // 1 projected column
+                let mut expected_columns = 1;
+                if vector.is_some() {
+                    // distance column if included always (TODO: it shouldn't)
+                    expected_columns += 1;
+                }
+                if params.with_row_id {
+                    expected_columns += 1;
+                }
+                assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), expected_columns);
+            } else {
+                let mut expected_columns = 3;
+                if vector.is_some() {
+                    // distance column
+                    expected_columns += 1;
+                }
+                if params.with_row_id {
+                    expected_columns += 1;
+                }
+                // vector, indexed, not_indexed, _distance
+                assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), expected_columns);
+            }
+
+            (plan, batch)
+        }
+
+        fn assert_none<F: Fn(i32) -> bool>(
+            &self,
+            batch: &RecordBatch,
+            predicate: F,
+            message: &str,
+        ) {
+            let indexed = batch["indexed"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+            if indexed.iter().map(|val| val.unwrap()).any(predicate) {
+                panic!("{}", message);
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn assert_one<F: Fn(i32) -> bool>(&self, batch: &RecordBatch, predicate: F, message: &str) {
+            let indexed = batch["indexed"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+            if !indexed.iter().map(|val| val.unwrap()).any(predicate) {
+                panic!("{}", message);
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn uses_legacy_scan(&self) -> bool {
+            self.dataset
+                .manifest()
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format()
+                == lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+        }
+
+        async fn check_vector_scalar_indexed_and_refine(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
+            let (query_plan, batch) = self
+                .run_query(
+                    "indexed != 50 AND ((not_indexed < 100) OR (not_indexed >= 1000 AND not_indexed < 1100))",
+                    Some(self.sample_query()),
+                    params,
+                )
+                .await;
+            // Materialization is always required if there is a refine
+            if self.uses_legacy_scan() {
+                assert!(query_plan.contains("MaterializeIndex"));
+            }
+            // The result should not include the sample query
+            self.assert_none(
+                &batch,
+                |val| val == 50,
+                "The query contained 50 even though it was filtered",
+            );
+            if !params.use_new_data {
+                // Refine should have been applied
+                self.assert_none(
+                    &batch,
+                    |val| (100..1000).contains(&val) || (val >= 1100),
+                    "The non-indexed refine filter was not applied",
+                );
+            }
+
+            // If there is new data then the dupe of row 50 should be in the results
+            if params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
+                self.assert_one(
+                    &batch,
+                    |val| val == 1050,
+                    "The query did not contain 1050 from the new data",
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn check_vector_scalar_indexed_only(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
+            let (query_plan, batch) = self
+                .run_query("indexed != 50", Some(self.sample_query()), params)
+                .await;
+            if self.uses_legacy_scan() {
+                if params.use_index {
+                    // An ANN search whose prefilter is fully satisfied by the index should be
+                    // able to use a ScalarIndexQuery
+                    assert!(query_plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"));
+                } else {
+                    // A KNN search requires materialization of the index
+                    assert!(query_plan.contains("MaterializeIndex"));
+                }
+            }
+            // The result should not include the sample query
+            self.assert_none(
+                &batch,
+                |val| val == 50,
+                "The query contained 50 even though it was filtered",
+            );
+            // If there is new data then the dupe of row 50 should be in the results
+            if params.use_new_data {
+                self.assert_one(
+                    &batch,
+                    |val| val == 1050,
+                    "The query did not contain 1050 from the new data",
+                );
+                if !params.use_new_data {
+                    // Let's also make sure our filter can target something in the new data only
+                    let (_, batch) = self
+                        .run_query("indexed == 1050", Some(self.sample_query()), params)
+                        .await;
+                    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+                }
+            }
+            if params.use_deleted_data {
+                let (_, batch) = self
+                    .run_query("indexed == 75", Some(self.delete_query()), params)
+                    .await;
+                if !params.use_new_data {
+                    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn check_vector_queries(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
+            self.check_vector_scalar_indexed_only(params).await;
+            self.check_vector_scalar_indexed_and_refine(params).await;
+        }
+
+        async fn check_simple_indexed_only(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
+            let (query_plan, batch) = self.run_query("indexed != 50", None, params).await;
+            // Materialization is always required for non-vector search
+            if self.uses_legacy_scan() {
+                assert!(query_plan.contains("MaterializeIndex"));
+            } else {
+                assert!(query_plan.contains("LanceRead"));
+            }
+            // The result should not include the targeted row
+            self.assert_none(
+                &batch,
+                |val| val == 50,
+                "The query contained 50 even though it was filtered",
+            );
+            let mut expected_num_rows = if params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
+                1999
+            } else {
+                999
+            };
+            if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_compaction {
+                expected_num_rows -= 1;
+            }
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), expected_num_rows);
+
+            // Let's also make sure our filter can target something in the new data only
+            if params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
+                let (_, batch) = self.run_query("indexed == 1050", None, params).await;
+                assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+            }
+
+            // Also make sure we don't return deleted data
+            if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_compaction {
+                let (_, batch) = self.run_query("indexed == 75", None, params).await;
+                assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn check_simple_indexed_and_refine(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
+            let (query_plan, batch) = self.run_query(
+                "indexed != 50 AND ((not_indexed < 100) OR (not_indexed >= 1000 AND not_indexed < 1100))",
+                None,
+                params
+            ).await;
+            // Materialization is always required for non-vector search
+            if self.uses_legacy_scan() {
+                assert!(query_plan.contains("MaterializeIndex"));
+            } else {
+                assert!(query_plan.contains("LanceRead"));
+            }
+            // The result should not include the targeted row
+            self.assert_none(
+                &batch,
+                |val| val == 50,
+                "The query contained 50 even though it was filtered",
+            );
+            // The refine should be applied
+            self.assert_none(
+                &batch,
+                |val| (100..1000).contains(&val) || (val >= 1100),
+                "The non-indexed refine filter was not applied",
+            );
+
+            let mut expected_num_rows = if params.use_new_data || params.use_updated {
+                199
+            } else {
+                99
+            };
+            if params.use_deleted_data || params.use_compaction {
+                expected_num_rows -= 1;
+            }
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), expected_num_rows);
+        }
+
+        async fn check_simple_queries(&self, params: &ScalarTestParams) {
+            self.check_simple_indexed_only(params).await;
+            self.check_simple_indexed_and_refine(params).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // There are many different ways that a query can be run and they all have slightly different
+    // effects on the plan that gets built.  This test attempts to run the same queries in various
+    // different configurations to ensure that we get consistent results
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_secondary_index_scans(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_index: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] use_projection: bool,
+    ) {
+        let fixture = Box::pin(ScalarIndexTestFixture::new(
+            data_storage_version,
+            use_stable_row_ids,
+        ))
+        .await;
+
+        for use_deleted_data in [false, true] {
+            for use_new_data in [false, true] {
+                // Don't test compaction in conjunction with deletion and new data, it's too
+                // many combinations with no clear benefit.  Feel free to update if there is
+                // a need
+                // TODO: enable compaction for stable row id once supported.
+                let compaction_choices = if use_deleted_data || use_new_data || use_stable_row_ids {
+                    vec![false]
+                } else {
+                    vec![false, true]
+                };
+                for use_compaction in compaction_choices {
+                    let updated_choices = if use_deleted_data || use_new_data || use_compaction {
+                        vec![false]
+                    } else {
+                        vec![false, true]
+                    };
+                    for use_updated in updated_choices {
+                        for with_row_id in [false, true] {
+                            let params = ScalarTestParams {
+                                use_index,
+                                use_projection,
+                                use_deleted_data,
+                                use_new_data,
+                                with_row_id,
+                                use_compaction,
+                                use_updated,
+                            };
+                            fixture.check_vector_queries(&params).await;
+                            fixture.check_simple_queries(&params).await;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn can_filter_row_id() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(1000))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.project::<&str>(&[]).unwrap();
+        scan.filter("_rowid == 50").unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values()[0], 50);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_take_batch_size() {
+        let fixture = Box::pin(ScalarIndexTestFixture::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)).await;
+        let stream = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("indexed > 0")
+            .unwrap()
+            .batch_size(16)
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.collect::<Vec<_>>().await;
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1000_usize.div_ceil(16));
+    }
+
+    /// Assert that the plan when formatted matches the expected string.
+    ///
+    /// Within expected, you can use `...` to match any number of characters.
+    async fn assert_plan_equals(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        plan: impl Fn(&mut Scanner) -> Result<&mut Scanner>,
+        expected: &str,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        // Pin target_parallelism=1 so EnforceDistribution produces deterministic plans
+        // regardless of the machine's CPU count.
+        scan.target_parallelism(1);
+        plan(&mut scan)?;
+        let exec_plan = scan.create_plan().await?;
+        assert_plan_node_equals(exec_plan, expected).await
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_inexact_scalar_index_plans() {
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("ngram", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(5), false))
+            .col("exact", array::rand_type(&DataType::UInt32))
+            .col("no_index", array::rand_type(&DataType::UInt32))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(32), BatchCount::from(2));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["ngram"],
+                IndexType::NGram,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["exact"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Simple in-exact filter
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset,
+            |scanner| scanner.filter("contains(ngram, 'test string')"),
+            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[ngram, exact, no_index], num_fragments=1, \
+             range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, \
+             full_filter=contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\")), refine_filter=--
+               ScalarIndexQuery: query=[contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\"))]@ngram_idx(NGram)",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Combined with exact filter
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset,
+            |scanner| scanner.filter("contains(ngram, 'test string') and exact < 50"),
+            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[ngram, exact, no_index], num_fragments=1, \
+            range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, \
+            full_filter=contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\")) AND exact < UInt32(50), \
+            refine_filter=--
+              ScalarIndexQuery: query=AND([contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\"))]@ngram_idx(NGram),[exact < 50]@exact_idx(BTree))",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // All three filters
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset,
+            |scanner| {
+                scanner.filter("contains(ngram, 'test string') and exact < 50 AND no_index > 100")
+            },
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[ngram@0 as ngram, exact@1 as exact, no_index@2 as no_index]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[ngram, exact, no_index], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, \
+  range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\")) AND exact < UInt32(50) AND no_index > UInt32(100), \
+  refine_filter=no_index > UInt32(100)
+    ScalarIndexQuery: query=AND([contains(ngram, Utf8(\"test string\"))]@ngram_idx(NGram),[exact < 50]@exact_idx(BTree))",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fm_index_with_stable_row_ids() {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+            (
+                "text",
+                Utf8,
+                [
+                    "alpha",
+                    "needle in first",
+                    "beta",
+                    "first needle suffix",
+                    "delta",
+                    "needle in second",
+                    "epsilon",
+                    "second needle suffix"
+                ]
+            ),
+            ("id", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://test_fm_index_with_stable_row_ids",
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Fm);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Fm, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut indexed_scan = dataset.scan();
+        indexed_scan.filter("contains(text, 'needle')").unwrap();
+        let indexed_plan = indexed_scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            indexed_plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery") && indexed_plan.contains("Fm"),
+            "expected the FM index in the plan, got:\n{indexed_plan}"
+        );
+        let indexed = indexed_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        let unindexed = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .use_scalar_index(false)
+            .filter("contains(text, 'needle')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indexed_ids = indexed["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        let unindexed_ids = unindexed["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+
+        assert_eq!(unindexed_ids, BTreeSet::from([1, 3, 5, 7]));
+        assert_eq!(indexed_ids, unindexed_ids);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ngram_regex_index_scan() {
+        use arrow::array::AsArray;
+
+        // A small, fixed corpus written across multiple fragments so the ngram
+        // index spans fragment boundaries.
+        let values = [
+            "rhino",       // 0
+            "rhinos nose", // 1
+            "cat",         // 2
+            "dog",         // 3
+            "cat dog",     // 4
+            "elephant",    // 5
+            "catalog",     // 6
+            "scatter",     // 7
+            "rhino horn",  // 8
+            "mouse",       // 9
+            "category",    // 10
+            "dogma",       // 11
+        ];
+        let array = StringArray::from_iter_values(values);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4, // 12 rows -> 3 fragments
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_ngram_regex", Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["s"],
+                IndexType::NGram,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset.get_fragments().len() > 1,
+            "expected a multi-fragment dataset"
+        );
+
+        // Scan with `filter` and return the matched `s` values, sorted.
+        async fn matched(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str) -> Vec<String> {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            let batches = scan
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut out = Vec::new();
+            for batch in batches {
+                let col = batch.column_by_name("s").unwrap().as_string::<i32>();
+                out.extend(col.iter().flatten().map(|s| s.to_string()));
+            }
+            out.sort();
+            out
+        }
+
+        // `regexp_like`: a plain literal substring.
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "regexp_like(s, 'rhino')").await,
+            ["rhino", "rhino horn", "rhinos nose"]
+        );
+        // `regexp_match` (coerced to `IsNotNull(regexp_match(...))`) accelerates too.
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "regexp_match(s, 'rhino')").await,
+            ["rhino", "rhino horn", "rhinos nose"]
+        );
+        // Anchored: recheck must drop trigram false positives -- the `cat`
+        // trigram also occurs in cat dog / catalog / scatter / category.
+        assert_eq!(matched(&dataset, "regexp_like(s, 'cat$')").await, ["cat"]);
+        // AND across `.*`: row 8 ("rhino horn") shares the rhino trigrams but
+        // lacks the nose trigrams, so only "rhinos nose" survives.
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "regexp_like(s, 'rhino.*nose')").await,
+            ["rhinos nose"]
+        );
+        // Alternation.
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "regexp_like(s, '(catalog|elephant)')").await,
+            ["catalog", "elephant"]
+        );
+        // A non-accelerable pattern (no trigram derivable) still returns correct
+        // results via a full recheck.
+        assert_eq!(matched(&dataset, "regexp_like(s, 'o.m')").await, ["dogma"]);
+        // A case-insensitive flag is not accelerated (the index normalization
+        // disagrees with Unicode case folding) but must still return correct
+        // results via a full recheck -- here matching despite the upper-case
+        // pattern. This exercises the three-argument `regexp_like` flags path.
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "regexp_like(s, 'RHINO', 'i')").await,
+            ["rhino", "rhino horn", "rhinos nose"]
+        );
+
+        // Infix LIKE is accelerated through the same machinery (a plain-literal
+        // `regexp_like` is rewritten to LIKE before it reaches the index).
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "s LIKE '%rhino%'").await,
+            ["rhino", "rhino horn", "rhinos nose"]
+        );
+        // Prefix LIKE: recheck drops "scatter", which contains the `cat` trigram
+        // but does not start with "cat".
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "s LIKE 'cat%'").await,
+            ["cat", "cat dog", "catalog", "category"]
+        );
+
+        // The ngram index is actually engaged for every accelerated form.
+        for filter in [
+            "regexp_like(s, 'rhino')",
+            "regexp_match(s, 'rhino')",
+            "s LIKE '%rhino%'",
+        ] {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            let plan = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+            let plan_str = format!(
+                "{}",
+                datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+            );
+            assert!(
+                plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexQuery") && plan_str.contains("NGram"),
+                "expected ngram index usage for `{filter}`, got plan:\n{plan_str}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // contains with >= 3 characters (uses index)
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "contains(s, 'rhino')").await,
+            ["rhino", "rhino horn", "rhinos nose"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "contains(s, 'cat')").await,
+            ["cat", "cat dog", "catalog", "category", "scatter"]
+        );
+
+        // contains with < 3 characters (must NOT use index, i.e., falls back to full scan, and returns correct results)
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "contains(s, 'ca')").await,
+            ["cat", "cat dog", "catalog", "category", "scatter"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            matched(&dataset, "contains(s, 'a')").await,
+            [
+                "cat", "cat dog", "catalog", "category", "dogma", "elephant", "scatter"
+            ]
+        );
+
+        // Verify index is used for contains >= 3 characters, but NOT used for < 3 characters
+        for filter in ["contains(s, 'rhino')", "contains(s, 'cat')"] {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            let plan = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+            let plan_str = format!(
+                "{}",
+                datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+            );
+            assert!(
+                plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexQuery") && plan_str.contains("NGram"),
+                "expected ngram index usage for `{filter}`, got plan:\n{plan_str}"
+            );
+        }
+        for filter in ["contains(s, 'ca')", "contains(s, 'a')"] {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            let plan = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+            let plan_str = format!(
+                "{}",
+                datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+            );
+            assert!(
+                !plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+                "expected NO ngram index usage for `{filter}`, got plan:\n{plan_str}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ngram_regex_non_accelerable_recheck() {
+        // `a.b` yields no trigram, so the index returns "recheck everything".
+        // This must still produce ALL correct matches across fragments, not an
+        // empty set (a regression test for the AtLeast recheck path, which a
+        // single-match case would not catch).
+        let unit = ["acb", "dog", "axb", "cat", "qqq", "rhino"];
+        let values: Vec<&str> = unit.iter().copied().cycle().take(60).collect();
+        let array = StringArray::from_iter_values(values);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "text",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 20, // 60 rows -> 3 fragments
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset =
+            Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_ngram_regex_ne", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::NGram,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        async fn count(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str) -> usize {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            let batches = scan
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum()
+        }
+
+        // "acb" and "axb" each appear 10 times in the 60 rows -> 20 matches.
+        assert_eq!(count(&dataset, "regexp_match(text, 'a.b')").await, 20);
+        assert_eq!(count(&dataset, "regexp_like(text, 'a.b')").await, 20);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ngram_contains_untokenizable_needle() {
+        // A needle the tokenizer cannot turn into a trigram must fall back to a
+        // full recheck rather than silently matching nothing.  Byte length is
+        // not a usable proxy for this: "éé" is two characters but four bytes.
+        let unit = ["ééb", "aéé", "abc", "dog", "éab"];
+        let values: Vec<&str> = unit.iter().copied().cycle().take(60).collect();
+        let array = StringArray::from_iter_values(values);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "text",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 20, // 60 rows -> 3 fragments
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://test_ngram_contains_utf8",
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::NGram,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        async fn count(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str) -> usize {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            let batches = scan
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum()
+        }
+
+        async fn plan_of(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str) -> String {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(filter).unwrap();
+            let plan = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+            format!(
+                "{}",
+                datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+            )
+        }
+
+        // Each unit value appears 12 times in the 60 rows.
+        // Two characters (four bytes): shorter than a trigram, so the index is
+        // bypassed and "ééb" / "aéé" are still found.
+        assert_eq!(count(&dataset, "contains(text, 'éé')").await, 24);
+        let plan_str = plan_of(&dataset, "contains(text, 'éé')").await;
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+            "expected NO ngram index usage for a two character needle, got plan:\n{plan_str}"
+        );
+
+        // Three characters: long enough to tokenize, so the index is used.
+        assert_eq!(count(&dataset, "contains(text, 'ééb')").await, 12);
+        let plan_str = plan_of(&dataset, "contains(text, 'ééb')").await;
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexQuery") && plan_str.contains("NGram"),
+            "expected ngram index usage for a three character needle, got plan:\n{plan_str}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_with_btree_index() {
+        // Create dataset with string data that has various prefixes
+        // Avoid LIKE special characters (%, _) in data to keep tests simple
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "name",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&[
+                    "apple",
+                    "application",
+                    "app",
+                    "banana",
+                    "band",
+                    "testns1",
+                    "testns2",
+                    "test",
+                    "testing",
+                    "zoo",
+                ]),
+            )
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://test_like", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create BTree index on string column
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["name"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test 1: Verify LIKE 'app%' uses scalar index and returns correct results
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset,
+            |scanner| scanner.filter("name LIKE 'app%'"),
+            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[name, id], num_fragments=1, \
+             range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, \
+             full_filter=name LIKE Utf8(\"app%\"), refine_filter=--
+               ScalarIndexQuery: query=[name LIKE 'app%']@name_idx(BTree)",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify correct results for LIKE 'app%'
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name LIKE 'app%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = results
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        // Should match: apple, application, app (repeated in cycle)
+        assert!(names.iter().all(|n| n.starts_with("app")));
+        assert!(!names.is_empty());
+
+        // Test 2: Verify starts_with() uses scalar index (simple prefix without special chars)
+        // Note: DataFusion optimizes starts_with() to LIKE before our index planning
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset,
+            |scanner| scanner.filter("starts_with(name, 'ban')"),
+            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[name, id], num_fragments=1, \
+             range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, \
+             full_filter=name LIKE Utf8(\"ban%\"), refine_filter=--
+               ScalarIndexQuery: query=[name LIKE 'ban%']@name_idx(BTree)",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify correct results for starts_with
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("starts_with(name, 'ban')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = results
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        // Should match: banana, band
+        assert!(names.iter().all(|n| n.starts_with("ban")));
+        assert!(!names.is_empty());
+
+        // Test 3: LIKE with pattern requiring refine (e.g., 'test%2')
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset,
+            |scanner| scanner.filter("name LIKE 'test%2'"),
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[name@0 as name, id@1 as id]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[name, id], num_fragments=1, \
+range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, \
+full_filter=name LIKE Utf8(\"test%2\"), refine_filter=name LIKE Utf8(\"test%2\")
+    ScalarIndexQuery: query=[name LIKE 'test%']@name_idx(BTree)",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify correct results for LIKE 'test%2' (needs refine)
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name LIKE 'test%2'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = results
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        // Should match: testns2 (ends with '2')
+        assert!(
+            names
+                .iter()
+                .all(|n| n.starts_with("test") && n.ends_with("2"))
+        );
+
+        // Test 4: LIKE starting with wildcard should NOT use scalar index for pruning
+        // Verify by checking the plan does NOT have ScalarIndexQuery
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("name LIKE '%app%'").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", plan);
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+            "LIKE '%app%' should not use scalar index, but got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        // Verify correct results for LIKE '%app%'
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name LIKE '%app%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = results
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        // Should match: apple, application, app (contain 'app')
+        assert!(names.iter().all(|n| n.contains("app")));
+
+        // Test 5: NOT LIKE should NOT use scalar index
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("name NOT LIKE 'app%'").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", plan);
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+            "NOT LIKE should not use scalar index, but got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_correctness_with_btree_index() {
+        // Create dataset with deterministic string data for exact result verification
+        let names: Vec<&str> = vec![
+            "alpha", "alphabet", "beta", "gamma", "delta", "epsilon", "eta", "theta", "iota",
+            "kappa",
+        ];
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names.clone())),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(data)],
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ])),
+        );
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_like_correctness", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create BTree index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["name"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test with index
+        let with_index = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name LIKE 'alpha%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test without index (for comparison)
+        let without_index = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .use_scalar_index(false)
+            .filter("name LIKE 'alpha%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Both should return same results: alpha, alphabet
+        assert_eq!(with_index.num_rows(), without_index.num_rows());
+        assert_eq!(with_index.num_rows(), 2);
+
+        let with_index_names: BTreeSet<String> = with_index
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap().to_string())
+            .collect();
+
+        let without_index_names: BTreeSet<String> = without_index
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap().to_string())
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(with_index_names, without_index_names);
+        assert_eq!(
+            with_index_names,
+            BTreeSet::from(["alpha".to_string(), "alphabet".to_string()])
+        );
+
+        // Test starts_with correctness
+        let starts_with_result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("starts_with(name, 'e')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let starts_with_names: BTreeSet<String> = starts_with_result
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap().to_string())
+            .collect();
+
+        // Should match: epsilon, eta
+        assert_eq!(
+            starts_with_names,
+            BTreeSet::from(["epsilon".to_string(), "eta".to_string()])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_with_zone_map() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+        // Create dataset with string data that has various prefixes
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "name",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&[
+                    "apple",
+                    "application",
+                    "app",
+                    "banana",
+                    "band",
+                    "testns1",
+                    "testns2",
+                    "test",
+                    "testing",
+                    "zoo",
+                ]),
+            )
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://test_like_zonemap", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create ZoneMap index on string column
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["name"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("name_zonemap".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test 1: Verify LIKE 'app%' uses zone map index
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("name LIKE 'app%'").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", plan);
+        // Zone map uses ScalarIndexExec with LikePrefix query
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexExec") && plan_str.contains("LikePrefix"),
+            "LIKE 'app%' should use zone map index with LikePrefix, but got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        // Verify correct results for LIKE 'app%'
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name LIKE 'app%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = results
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        assert!(names.iter().all(|n| n.starts_with("app")));
+        assert!(!names.is_empty());
+
+        // Test 2: Verify starts_with() uses zone map index
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("starts_with(name, 'ban')").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", plan);
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexExec") && plan_str.contains("LikePrefix"),
+            "starts_with should use zone map index with LikePrefix, but got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        // Verify correct results
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("starts_with(name, 'ban')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = results
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        assert!(names.iter().all(|n| n.starts_with("ban")));
+
+        // Test 3: LIKE with refine pattern still uses zone map for prefix pruning
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("name LIKE 'test%2'").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", plan);
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexExec") && plan_str.contains("LikePrefix"),
+            "LIKE 'test%2' should use zone map index for prefix, but got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        // Test 4: LIKE starting with wildcard should NOT use zone map
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("name LIKE '%app%'").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", plan);
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("LikePrefix"),
+            "LIKE '%app%' should not use LikePrefix index, but got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression for over-matching on the zone-map recheck path: a literal prefix
+    /// containing LIKE metacharacters (`_`, `%`) must be matched literally, not as
+    /// wildcards. The indexed (recheck) result must equal the unindexed ground truth.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_zone_map_escapes_metacharacters() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+        let names: Vec<&str> = vec!["a_b", "a_c", "axb", "a1c", "b%c", "bxc", "bcc", "zoo"];
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names.clone())),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..names.len() as i32)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_like_zonemap_escape", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["name"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("name_zonemap".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let collect_names = |batch: &RecordBatch| -> BTreeSet<String> {
+            batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|s| s.unwrap().to_string())
+                .collect()
+        };
+
+        // Ensure the predicate actually exercises the zone-map LikePrefix recheck path.
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("starts_with(name, 'a_')").unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap());
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("LikePrefix"),
+            "expected a zone-map LikePrefix plan, got: {plan_str}"
+        );
+
+        // `_` and `%` in the prefix are literal characters; the indexed result must match
+        // the unindexed evaluation for each predicate (no wildcard over-match).
+        for predicate in ["starts_with(name, 'a_')", "starts_with(name, 'b%')"] {
+            let with_index = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(predicate)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let without_index = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .use_scalar_index(false)
+                .filter(predicate)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                collect_names(&with_index),
+                collect_names(&without_index),
+                "indexed result over-matched for predicate `{predicate}`"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Explicit expectation so the intended (non-over-matching) result is obvious.
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("starts_with(name, 'a_')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            collect_names(&result),
+            BTreeSet::from(["a_b".to_string(), "a_c".to_string()])
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A bitmap index cannot answer prefix queries, so `LIKE 'prefix%'` / `starts_with`
+    /// must fall back to ordinary filtering (returning correct results) instead of being
+    /// planned as a `LikePrefix` index scan that bitmap search would reject.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_bitmap_falls_back_to_filter() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+        let names: Vec<&str> = vec!["apple", "app", "application", "banana", "band", "zoo"];
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names.clone())),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..names.len() as i32)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_like_bitmap_fallback", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["name"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("name_bitmap".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The predicate must not be planned as a LikePrefix index scan (bitmap rejects it).
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("name LIKE 'app%'").unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap());
+        assert!(
+            !plan_str.contains("LikePrefix"),
+            "bitmap LIKE must not use a LikePrefix index scan, got: {plan_str}"
+        );
+
+        let collect_names = |batch: &RecordBatch| -> BTreeSet<String> {
+            batch
+                .column_by_name("name")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|s| s.unwrap().to_string())
+                .collect()
+        };
+
+        // And it must execute successfully with correct results (previously errored).
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name LIKE 'app%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            collect_names(&result),
+            BTreeSet::from([
+                "apple".to_string(),
+                "app".to_string(),
+                "application".to_string(),
+            ])
+        );
+
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("starts_with(name, 'ban')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            collect_names(&result),
+            BTreeSet::from(["banana".to_string(), "band".to_string()])
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Build an in-memory dataset with a single `Dictionary(Int16, Utf8)` column.
+    /// The dictionary cycles through "a", "b", "c" so each value appears in a
+    /// predictable, repeated pattern.
+    async fn dictionary_string_dataset() -> Dataset {
+        use arrow_array::{Int16Array, Int16DictionaryArray};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "etld",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int16), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let dictionary = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"]));
+        let indices = Int16Array::from((0..30).map(|i| i % 3).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let dict_array = Int16DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary).unwrap();
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(dict_array)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_dict_filter", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for filtering a dictionary-encoded string column via the
+    /// SQL string path (`Scanner::filter`). This used to fail to plan with
+    /// "could not convert to literal of type 'Dictionary(Int16, Utf8)'".
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_on_dictionary_string_column() {
+        let dataset = dictionary_string_dataset().await;
+
+        // Equality predicate.
+        let count = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("etld = 'a'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_rows();
+        assert_eq!(count, 10);
+
+        // IN-list predicate.
+        let count = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("etld IN ('a', 'b')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_rows();
+        assert_eq!(count, 20);
+    }
+
+    /// An `IN`/`=` predicate on a dictionary column with a scalar index should be
+    /// pushed down to the index rather than falling back to a full scan.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dictionary_string_column_uses_scalar_index() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+        let mut dataset = dictionary_string_dataset().await;
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["etld"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("etld IN ('a', 'b')").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", plan);
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexExec") || plan_str.contains("MaterializeIndex"),
+            "IN on a dictionary column should use the scalar index, but got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        let count = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("etld IN ('a', 'b')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_rows();
+        assert_eq!(count, 20);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_with_segmented_zone_map() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "name",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&[
+                    "apple",
+                    "application",
+                    "app",
+                    "banana",
+                    "band",
+                    "testns1",
+                    "testns2",
+                    "test",
+                    "testing",
+                    "zoo",
+                ]),
+            )
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(150), BatchCount::from(6));
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 25,
+            max_rows_per_group: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            "memory://test_like_segmented_zonemap",
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() > 1, "expected multiple fragments");
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let mut builder = dataset.create_index_builder(&["name"], IndexType::Scalar, &params);
+            builder = builder
+                .name("name_zonemap".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32]);
+            segments.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("name_zonemap", "name", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("name_zonemap").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), fragments.len());
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("name LIKE 'app%'").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", plan);
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexExec") && plan_str.contains("LikePrefix"),
+            "segmented zonemap should use LikePrefix pruning, but got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        let with_index = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name LIKE 'app%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let without_index = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .use_scalar_index(false)
+            .filter("name LIKE 'app%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let with_index_ids = with_index
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        let without_index_ids = without_index
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(with_index_ids, without_index_ids);
+        assert!(!with_index_ids.is_empty());
+
+        let names = with_index
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|value| value.unwrap())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(names.iter().all(|name| name.starts_with("app")));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_with_segmented_btree() {
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "name",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&[
+                    "apple",
+                    "application",
+                    "app",
+                    "banana",
+                    "band",
+                    "testns1",
+                    "testns2",
+                    "test",
+                    "testing",
+                    "zoo",
+                ]),
+            )
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(150), BatchCount::from(6));
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 25,
+            max_rows_per_group: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            "memory://test_like_segmented_btree",
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() > 1, "expected multiple fragments");
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let mut builder = dataset.create_index_builder(&["name"], IndexType::BTree, &params);
+            builder = builder
+                .name("name_btree".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32]);
+            segments.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("name_btree", "name", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("name_btree").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), fragments.len());
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("name LIKE 'app%'").unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let plan_str = format!("{:?}", plan);
+        assert!(
+            plan_str.contains("ScalarIndexExec") && plan_str.contains("LikePrefix(Utf8(\"app\"))"),
+            "segmented btree should use scalar index pruning, but got: {}",
+            plan_str
+        );
+
+        let with_index = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name LIKE 'app%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let without_index = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .use_scalar_index(false)
+            .filter("name LIKE 'app%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let with_index_ids = with_index
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        let without_index_ids = without_index
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(with_index_ids, without_index_ids);
+        assert!(!with_index_ids.is_empty());
+
+        let names = with_index
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|value| value.unwrap())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(names.iter().all(|name| name.starts_with("app")));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_like_prefix_correctness_with_zone_map() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+        // Create dataset with deterministic string data for exact result verification
+        let names: Vec<&str> = vec![
+            "alpha", "alphabet", "beta", "gamma", "delta", "epsilon", "eta", "theta", "iota",
+            "kappa",
+        ];
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(names.clone())),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(data)],
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ])),
+        );
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_like_correctness_zonemap", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create ZoneMap index
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["name"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("name_zonemap".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test with zone map index
+        let with_index = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("name LIKE 'alpha%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Test without index (for comparison)
+        let without_index = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .use_scalar_index(false)
+            .filter("name LIKE 'alpha%'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Both should return same results: alpha, alphabet
+        assert_eq!(with_index.num_rows(), without_index.num_rows());
+        assert_eq!(with_index.num_rows(), 2);
+
+        let with_index_names: BTreeSet<String> = with_index
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap().to_string())
+            .collect();
+
+        let without_index_names: BTreeSet<String> = without_index
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap().to_string())
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(with_index_names, without_index_names);
+        assert_eq!(
+            with_index_names,
+            BTreeSet::from(["alpha".to_string(), "alphabet".to_string()])
+        );
+
+        // Test starts_with correctness with zone map
+        let starts_with_result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("starts_with(name, 'e')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let starts_with_names: BTreeSet<String> = starts_with_result
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|s| s.unwrap().to_string())
+            .collect();
+
+        // Should match: epsilon, eta
+        assert_eq!(
+            starts_with_names,
+            BTreeSet::from(["epsilon".to_string(), "eta".to_string()])
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A physical deleted-row scan cannot late-materialize: the take would
+    /// silently drop the tombstone rows (null row id), so the row-stream
+    /// read must reject the forwarded flag at plan time
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_include_deleted_rows_rejects_late_materialization() {
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("payload", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("i = 5").await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.project(&["payload"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter("i > 2")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .include_deleted_rows()
+            .materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllLate);
+        let err = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("with_deleted_rows"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_late_materialize_list_as_unit() {
+        // A list's `item` child is narrow, so deciding per field kept it eager and pulled the
+        // whole list back in.  A list must be deferred together with its children.
+        let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("count", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "tokens",
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("toks", array::rand_list(&DataType::Int32, false))
+            .col("st", array::rand_struct(struct_fields))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::write(data, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap());
+        let scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(dataset.schema().into()));
+        let eager = |filter: &str, project: [&str; 1]| {
+            let filter_plan =
+                ExprFilterPlan::new_refine_only(planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap());
+            let desired = dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(project, OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap();
+            scanner
+                .calc_eager_projection(&filter_plan, &desired)
+                .unwrap()
+                .to_bare_schema()
+        };
+
+        // Top-level list: only the narrow filter column is read eagerly
+        let schema = eager("i > 5", ["toks"]);
+        assert!(schema.field("i").is_some(), "{schema:?}");
+        assert!(schema.field("toks").is_none(), "{schema:?}");
+
+        // List nested in a struct: the narrow sibling is still read eagerly
+        let schema = eager("st.count IS NOT NULL", ["st.tokens"]);
+        let eager_children = schema.field("st").map(|st| {
+            st.children
+                .iter()
+                .map(|c| c.name.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        });
+        assert_eq!(eager_children, Some(vec!["count"]), "{schema:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_late_materialization(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        use lance_io::assert_io_lt;
+        // Create a large dataset with a scalar indexed column and a sorted but not scalar
+        // indexed column
+        use lance_table::io::commit::RenameCommitHandler;
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(32)),
+            )
+            .col("indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("not_indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(20));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            "memory://test",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["indexed"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // First run a full scan to get a baseline
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
+        dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        let full_scan_bytes = io_stats.read_bytes;
+
+        // Next do a scan without pushdown, we should still see a benefit from late materialization
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .use_stats(false)
+            .filter("not_indexed = 50")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, full_scan_bytes);
+        let filtered_scan_bytes = io_stats.read_bytes;
+
+        // Now do a scan with pushdown, the benefit should be even greater
+        // Pushdown only works with the legacy format for now.
+        if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter("not_indexed = 50")
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+            assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, filtered_scan_bytes);
+        }
+
+        // Now do a scalar index scan, this should be better than a
+        // full scan but since we have to load the index might be more
+        // expensive than late / pushdown scan
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("indexed = 50")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, full_scan_bytes);
+        let index_scan_bytes = io_stats.read_bytes;
+
+        // A second scalar index scan should be cheaper than the first
+        // since we should have the index in cache
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("indexed = 50")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, index_scan_bytes);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_blob_all_binary_late_materialization() {
+        // A selective filter that projects a blob column with `blob_handling=all_binary`
+        // must late-materialize the blob (take only the matched rows) rather than eagerly
+        // reading the whole column. Blobs returned as descriptions stay eager (they are
+        // tiny), but full binary values should follow the width-based heuristic like any
+        // other wide column.
+        use lance_io::assert_io_lt;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::RenameCommitHandler;
+
+        // 8KB stays under the 64KB inline threshold, so the blob is a normal column in
+        // the data file rather than a dedicated blob file.
+        let blob_meta = HashMap::from([("lance-encoding:blob".to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let blobs = array::rand_fixedbin(ByteCount::from(8 * 1024), true).with_metadata(blob_meta);
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("filterme", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col("blobs", blobs)
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(500), BatchCount::from(8));
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            "memory://test",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Baseline: read the blob column as binary for the whole table.
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let full_scan_bytes = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .io_stats_incremental()
+            .read_bytes;
+
+        // A filter matching a single row out of 4000 should read far less than the whole
+        // column: only the filter leaf plus the one materialized blob.
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["blobs"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .filter("filterme = 100")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, full_scan_bytes);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nested_blob_all_binary_late_materialization() {
+        // Same as above, but the blob is a leaf *inside* a struct and the filter is on a
+        // sibling leaf. Materialization is decided per leaf (fields_pre_order), so the
+        // nested blob must late-materialize under `all_binary` just like a top-level one.
+        use lance_io::assert_io_lt;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::RenameCommitHandler;
+
+        let blob_meta = HashMap::from([("lance-encoding:blob".to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let a_field = ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false);
+        let blob_field =
+            ArrowField::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, false).with_metadata(blob_meta);
+        let struct_fields: Fields = vec![a_field, blob_field].into();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let rows_per_batch = 500usize;
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..8)
+            .map(|b| {
+                let base = (b * rows_per_batch) as i32;
+                let a = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    base..base + rows_per_batch as i32,
+                ));
+                // Vary the payload per row so it does not collapse under compression.
+                let blobs: Vec<Vec<u8>> = (0..rows_per_batch)
+                    .map(|r| {
+                        let seed = (base as usize + r).wrapping_mul(2654435761);
+                        (0usize..8 * 1024)
+                            .map(|i| (i.wrapping_mul(31).wrapping_add(seed) & 0xff) as u8)
+                            .collect()
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+                let blob = Arc::new(arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray::from_iter_values(
+                    blobs.iter().map(|v| v.as_slice()),
+                ));
+                let s = StructArray::new(struct_fields.clone(), vec![a, blob as ArrayRef], None);
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(s)]).unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://test",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["s"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let full_scan_bytes = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .io_stats_incremental()
+            .read_bytes;
+
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["s"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .filter("s.a = 100")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_lt!(io_stats, read_bytes, full_scan_bytes);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_project_nested(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let struct_i_field = ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true);
+        let struct_o_field = ArrowField::new("o", DataType::Utf8, true);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "struct",
+                DataType::Struct(vec![struct_i_field.clone(), struct_o_field.clone()].into()),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let input_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5)
+            .map(|i| {
+                let struct_i_arr: Arc<Int32Array> =
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 20..(i + 1) * 20));
+                let struct_o_arr: Arc<StringArray> = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("o-{:02}", v)),
+                ));
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
+                            (Arc::new(struct_i_field.clone()), struct_i_arr as ArrayRef),
+                            (Arc::new(struct_o_field.clone()), struct_o_arr as ArrayRef),
+                        ])),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                            (i * 20..(i + 1) * 20).map(|v| format!("s-{}", v)),
+                        )),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let batches =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(input_batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 40,
+            max_rows_per_group: 10,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+
+        let batches = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["struct.i"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+        assert!(batch.column_by_name("struct.i").is_some());
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_plans(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_id: bool,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // Create a vector dataset
+
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::BoostQuery;
+        let dim = 256;
+        let mut dataset =
+            TestVectorDataset::new_with_dimension(data_storage_version, stable_row_id, dim).await?;
+        let lance_schema = dataset.dataset.schema();
+
+        // Scans
+        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+        // V2 writer does not use LancePushdownScan
+        if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            log::info!("Test case: Pushdown scan");
+            assert_plan_equals(
+                &dataset.dataset,
+                |scan| scan.project(&["s"])?.filter("i > 10 and i < 20"),
+                "LancePushdownScan: uri=..., projection=[s], predicate=i > Int32(10) AND i < Int32(20), row_id=false, row_addr=false, ordered=true"
+            ).await?;
+        }
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Project and filter");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s]
+  Take: columns=\"i, _rowid, (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: i@0 > 10 AND i@0 < 20
+        LanceScan: uri..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    LanceRead: ..., projection=[i], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10) AND i < Int32(20), refine_filter=i > Int32(10) AND i < Int32(20)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.use_stats(false)
+                    .project(&["s"])?
+                    .filter("i > 10 and i < 20")
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // Integer fields will be eagerly materialized while string/vec fields
+        // are not.
+        log::info!("Test case: Late materialization");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@0 as i, s@1 as s, vec@3 as vec]
+            Take: columns=\"i, s, _rowid, (vec)\"
+              CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+                FilterExec: s@1 IS NOT NULL
+                  LanceScan: uri..., projection=[i, s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@0 as i, s@1 as s, vec@3 as vec]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+    LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
+    row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=s IS NOT NULL, refine_filter=s IS NOT NULL"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| scan.use_stats(false).filter("s IS NOT NULL"),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // Custom materialization
+        log::info!("Test case: Custom materialization (all early)");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@0 as i, s@1 as s, vec@2 as vec]
+  FilterExec: s@1 IS NOT NULL
+    LanceScan: uri..., projection=[i, s, vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@0 as i, s@1 as s, vec@2 as vec]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s, vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, \
+  range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=s IS NOT NULL, refine_filter=s IS NOT NULL"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.use_stats(false)
+                    .materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllEarly)
+                    .filter("s IS NOT NULL")
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Custom materialization 2 (all late)");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@0 as s, vec@3 as vec]
+  Take: columns=\"s, _rowid, (i), (vec)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: s@0 IS NOT NULL
+        LanceScan: uri..., projection=[s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@0 as s, vec@3 as vec]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+    LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, \
+    range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=s IS NOT NULL, refine_filter=s IS NOT NULL"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.use_stats(false)
+                    .materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllLate)
+                    .filter("s IS NOT NULL")
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Custom materialization 3 (mixed)");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@0 as s, vec@1 as vec]
+  Take: columns=\"s, vec, _rowid, (i)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: s@0 IS NOT NULL
+        LanceScan: uri..., projection=[s, vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@0 as s, vec@1 as vec]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i], source=stream(_rowid)
+    LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s, vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
+    row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=s IS NOT NULL, refine_filter=s IS NOT NULL"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.use_stats(false)
+                    .materialization_style(
+                        MaterializationStyle::all_early_except(&["i"], lance_schema).unwrap(),
+                    )
+                    .filter("s IS NOT NULL")
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Scan out of order");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, \
+            row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| Ok(scan.project(&["s"])?.with_row_id().scan_in_order(false)),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // KNN
+        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+        let q: Float32Array = (32..32 + dim).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        log::info!("Test case: Basic KNN");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"vec, _rowid, _distance, (i), (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
+        SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+            LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+        KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+          LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
+          row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 5),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // KNN + Limit (arguably the user, or us, should fold the limit into the KNN but we don't today)
+        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+        let q: Float32Array = (32..32 + dim).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        log::info!("Test case: KNN with extraneous limit");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"vec, _rowid, _distance, (i), (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      GlobalLimitExec: skip=0, fetch=1
+        FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
+          SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+            KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+              LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    GlobalLimitExec: skip=0, fetch=1
+      FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
+        SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+            LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
+            row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 5)?.limit(Some(1), None),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // ANN
+        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+        dataset.make_vector_index().await?;
+        log::info!("Test case: Basic ANN");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=42), expr=...
+        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=42, deltas=1, metric=L2
+          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s, vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+    SortExec: TopK(fetch=42), expr=...
+      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=42, deltas=1, metric=L2
+        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 42),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: ANN with refine");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+        SortExec: TopK(fetch=10), expr=...
+          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+            Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
+              CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+                SortExec: TopK(fetch=40), expr=...
+                  ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=40, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                    ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=10), expr=...
+        KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+          LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+            SortExec: TopK(fetch=40), expr=...
+              ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=40, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| Ok(scan.nearest("vec", &q, 10)?.refine(4)),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // use_index = False -> same plan as KNN
+        log::info!("Test case: ANN with index disabled");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"vec, _rowid, _distance, (i), (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+        SortExec: TopK(fetch=13), expr=...
+          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+            LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=13), expr=...
+        KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+          LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
+          row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| Ok(scan.nearest("vec", &q, 13)?.use_index(false)),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: ANN with postfilter");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid]
+  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, i, (s), (vec)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: i@2 > 10
+        Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i)\"
+          CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+            SortExec: TopK(fetch=17), expr=...
+              ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=17, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s, vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+    FilterExec: i@2 > 10
+      LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i], source=stream(_rowid)
+        SortExec: TopK(fetch=17), expr=...
+          ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=17, deltas=1, metric=L2
+            ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                Ok(scan
+                    .nearest("vec", &q, 17)?
+                    .filter("i > 10")?
+                    .project(&["s", "vec"])?
+                    .with_row_id())
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: ANN with prefilter");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=17), expr=...
+        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=17, deltas=1, metric=L2
+          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+          FilterExec: i@0 > 10
+            LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s, vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+    SortExec: TopK(fetch=17), expr=...
+      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=17, deltas=1, metric=L2
+        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+        LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
+        row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=i > Int32(10)
+"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                Ok(scan
+                    .nearest("vec", &q, 17)?
+                    .filter("i > 10")?
+                    .prefilter(true))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        dataset.append_new_data().await?;
+        log::info!("Test case: Combined KNN/ANN");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+        SortExec: TopK(fetch=6), expr=...
+          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+            CoalescePartitionsExec
+              UnionExec
+                ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                  FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=6), expr=...
+                      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                        LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+                Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
+                  CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=6), expr=...
+                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=6, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=6), expr=...
+        KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+          CoalescePartitionsExec
+            UnionExec
+              ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                  SortExec: TopK(fetch=6), expr=...
+                    KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                      LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+              LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+                SortExec: TopK(fetch=6), expr=...
+                  ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=6, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                    ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 6),
+            // TODO: we could write an optimizer rule to eliminate the last Projection
+            // by doing it as part of the last Take. This would likely have minimal impact though.
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // new data and with filter
+        log::info!("Test case: Combined KNN/ANN with postfilter");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, i, (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: i@3 > 10
+        Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i)\"
+          CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+            FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+              SortExec: TopK(fetch=15), expr=...
+                KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                  CoalescePartitionsExec
+                    UnionExec
+                      ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                        FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                          SortExec: TopK(fetch=15), expr=...
+                            KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                              LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+                      Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
+                        CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+                          SortExec: TopK(fetch=15), expr=...
+                            ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=15, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                              ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    FilterExec: i@3 > 10
+      LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i], source=stream(_rowid)
+        FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+          SortExec: TopK(fetch=15), expr=...
+            KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+              CoalescePartitionsExec
+                UnionExec
+                  ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                    FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                      SortExec: TopK(fetch=15), expr=...
+                        KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+                  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=15), expr=...
+                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=15, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 15)?.filter("i > 10"),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // new data and with prefilter
+        log::info!("Test case: Combined KNN/ANN with prefilter");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+        SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+            CoalescePartitionsExec
+              UnionExec
+                ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                  FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+                      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                        FilterExec: i@1 > 10
+                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+                Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
+                  CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+                        FilterExec: i@0 > 10
+                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+        KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+          CoalescePartitionsExec
+            UnionExec
+              ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                  SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+                    KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                      FilterExec: i@1 > 10
+                        LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+              LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+                SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+                  ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                    ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+                    LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
+                      row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=i > Int32(10)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                Ok(scan
+                    .nearest("vec", &q, 5)?
+                    .filter("i > 10")?
+                    .prefilter(true))
+            },
+            // TODO: i is scanned on both sides but is projected away mid-plan
+            // only to be taken again later. We should fix this.
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // ANN with scalar index
+        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+        // Make sure both indices are up-to-date to start
+        dataset.make_vector_index().await?;
+        dataset.make_scalar_index().await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: ANN with scalar index");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
+          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+          ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s, vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+    SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
+        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+        ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                Ok(scan
+                    .nearest("vec", &q, 5)?
+                    .filter("i > 10")?
+                    .prefilter(true))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: ANN with scalar index disabled");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
+          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+          FilterExec: i@0 > 10
+            LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s, vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+    SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
+      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
+        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+        LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=3, range_before=None, \
+        range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=i > Int32(10)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                Ok(scan
+                    .nearest("vec", &q, 5)?
+                    .use_scalar_index(false)
+                    .filter("i > 10")?
+                    .prefilter(true))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        dataset.append_new_data().await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Combined KNN/ANN with scalar index");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+        SortExec: TopK(fetch=8), expr=...
+          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+            CoalescePartitionsExec
+              UnionExec
+                ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                  FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=8), expr=...
+                      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                        FilterExec: i@1 > 10
+                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+                Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
+                  CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=8), expr=...
+                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=8, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+                        ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=8), expr=...
+        KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+          CoalescePartitionsExec
+            UnionExec
+              ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                  SortExec: TopK(fetch=8), expr=...
+                    KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                      FilterExec: i@1 > 10
+                        LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+              LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+                SortExec: TopK(fetch=8), expr=...
+                  ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=8, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                    ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+                    ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                Ok(scan
+                    .nearest("vec", &q, 8)?
+                    .filter("i > 10")?
+                    .prefilter(true))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // Update scalar index but not vector index
+        log::info!(
+            "Test case: Combined KNN/ANN with updated scalar index and outdated vector index"
+        );
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+        SortExec: TopK(fetch=11), expr=...
+          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+            CoalescePartitionsExec
+              UnionExec
+                ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                  FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=11), expr=...
+                      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                        FilterExec: i@1 > 10
+                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+                Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
+                  CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=11), expr=...
+                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=11, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+                        ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i, s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+      SortExec: TopK(fetch=11), expr=...
+        KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+          CoalescePartitionsExec
+            UnionExec
+              ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+                FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
+                  SortExec: TopK(fetch=11), expr=...
+                    KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                      FilterExec: i@1 > 10
+                        LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+              LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+                SortExec: TopK(fetch=11), expr=...
+                  ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=11, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                    ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
+                    ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        };
+        dataset.make_scalar_index().await?;
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                Ok(scan
+                    .nearest("vec", &q, 11)?
+                    .filter("i > 10")?
+                    .prefilter(true))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // Scans with scalar index
+        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+        log::info!("Test case: Filtered read with scalar index");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@1 as s]
+  Take: columns=\"_rowid, (s)\"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        } else {
+            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=4, range_before=None, \
+            range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
+              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| scan.project(&["s"])?.filter("i > 10"),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        if data_storage_version != LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            log::info!(
+                "Test case: Filtered read with scalar index disabled (late materialization)"
+            );
+            assert_plan_equals(
+                &dataset.dataset,
+                |scan| {
+                    scan.project(&["s"])?
+                        .use_scalar_index(false)
+                        .filter("i > 10")
+                },
+                "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i], num_fragments=4, range_before=None, \
+    range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=i > Int32(10)",
+            )
+            .await?;
+        }
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Empty projection");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowaddr@0 as _rowaddr]
+  AddRowAddrExec
+    MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        } else {
+            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=4, range_before=None, \
+            range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=true, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
+              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.filter("i > 10")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .with_row_address()
+                    .project::<&str>(&[])
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        dataset.append_new_data().await?;
+        log::info!("Test case: Combined Scalar/non-scalar filtered read");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@1 as s]
+  UnionExec
+    Take: columns=\"_rowid, (s)\"
+      CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+        MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@2 as _rowid, s@1 as s]
+      FilterExec: i@0 > 10
+        LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i, s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, \
+            range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
+              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| scan.project(&["s"])?.filter("i > 10"),
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Combined Scalar/non-scalar filtered read with empty projection");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowaddr@0 as _rowaddr]
+  UnionExec
+    AddRowAddrExec
+      MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowaddr@2 as _rowaddr, _rowid@1 as _rowid]
+      FilterExec: i@0 > 10
+        LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=true, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, \
+            range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=true, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
+              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.filter("i > 10")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .with_row_address()
+                    .project::<&str>(&[])
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // Scans with dynamic projection
+        // When an expression is specified in the projection, the plan should include a ProjectionExec
+        log::info!("Test case: Dynamic projection");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[regexp_match(s@1, .*) as matches]
+  UnionExec
+    Take: columns=\"_rowid, (s)\"
+      CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+        MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@2 as _rowid, s@1 as s]
+      FilterExec: i@0 > 10
+        LanceScan: uri=..., row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
+        } else {
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[regexp_match(s@0, .*) as matches]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, \
+  range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
+    ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.project_with_transform(&[("matches", "regexp_match(s, \".*\")")])?
+                    .filter("i > 10")
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // FTS
+        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+        // All rows are indexed
+        dataset.make_fts_index().await?;
+        log::info!("Test case: Full text search (match query)");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
     CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      SortExec: TopK(fetch=42), expr=...
-        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=42, deltas=1, metric=L2
-          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1";
+      MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]"#
+        } else {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]"#
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.project(&["s"])?
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Full text search (phrase query)");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      PhraseQuery: column=s, query=hello world"#
+        } else {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    PhraseQuery: column=s, query=hello world"#
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                let query = PhraseQuery::new("hello world".to_owned());
+                scan.project(&["s"])?
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Full text search (boost query)");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      CompoundFtsScorer: query=Boosting(positive=Match(MatchQuery { column: Some("s"), terms: "hello", ... }), negative=Match(MatchQuery { column: Some("s"), terms: "world", ... }), negative_boost=1)"#
+        } else {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    CompoundFtsScorer: query=Boosting(positive=Match(MatchQuery { column: Some("s"), terms: "hello", ... }), negative=Match(MatchQuery { column: Some("s"), terms: "world", ... }), negative_boost=1)"#
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                let positive =
+                    MatchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s".to_owned()));
+                let negative =
+                    MatchQuery::new("world".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s".to_owned()));
+                let query = BoostQuery::new(positive.into(), negative.into(), Some(1.0));
+                scan.project(&["s"])?
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Full text search with prefilter");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]
+        CoalescePartitionsExec
+          UnionExec
+            MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)
+            ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@1 as _rowid]
+              FilterExec: i@0 > 10
+                LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"#
+        } else {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]
+      LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
+        ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"#
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.project(&["s"])?
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .filter("i > 10")?
+                    .prefilter(true)
+                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Full text search with unindexed rows");
+        // The flat-FTS path now reads through `FilteredReadExec`, matching the
+        // brute-force KNN path. With no prefilter the scan still produces no
+        // pushdown, but the operator differs by storage version: legacy emits
+        // a `LanceScan`, v2 emits a `LanceRead` with empty filters.
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      SortExec: expr=[_score@1 DESC NULLS LAST], preserve_partitioning=[false]
+        CoalescePartitionsExec
+          UnionExec
+            MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]
+            FlatMatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
+              LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=true, range=None"#
+        } else {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    SortExec: expr=[_score@1 DESC NULLS LAST], preserve_partitioning=[false]
+      CoalescePartitionsExec
+        UnionExec
+          MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]
+          FlatMatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
+            LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--"#
+        };
+        dataset.append_new_data().await?;
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.project(&["s"])?
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Full text search with unindexed rows and fast_search");
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]"#
+        } else {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]"#
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                let scan = scan
+                    .project(&["s"])?
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))?;
+                scan.fast_search();
+                Ok(scan)
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        log::info!("Test case: Full text search with unindexed rows and prefilter");
+        // After routing flat FTS through `FilteredReadExec`, the BTree on `i`
+        // pushes into the unindexed-fragment scan too — no more `FilterExec` on
+        // top of an unfiltered `LanceScan`. Legacy uses the `MaterializeIndex`
+        // shape, v2 uses `LanceRead` with `full_filter` set.
+        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
+    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+      SortExec: expr=[_score@1 DESC NULLS LAST], preserve_partitioning=[false]
+        CoalescePartitionsExec
+          UnionExec
+            MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]
+              CoalescePartitionsExec
+                UnionExec
+                  MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)
+                  ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@1 as _rowid]
+                    FilterExec: i@0 > 10
+                      LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+            FlatMatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
+              CoalescePartitionsExec
+                UnionExec
+                  Take: columns="_rowid, (s)"
+                    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
+                      MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)
+                  ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@2 as _rowid, s@1 as s]
+                    FilterExec: i@0 > 10
+                      LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i, s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"#
+        } else {
+            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], source=stream(_rowid)
+    SortExec: expr=[_score@1 DESC NULLS LAST], preserve_partitioning=[false]
+      CoalescePartitionsExec
+        UnionExec
+          MatchQuery: column=s, query=[hello]
+            LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
+              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)
+          FlatMatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
+            LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
+              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx(BTree)"#
+        };
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.project(&["s"])?
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .filter("i > 10")?
+                    .prefilter(true)
+                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
+            },
+            expected,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_search_plan() {
+        // Create a vector dataset
+        let mut dataset = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        dataset.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let q: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+
         assert_plan_equals(
             &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 42),
-            expected,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.nearest("vec", &q, 32)?
+                    .fast_search()
+                    .project(&["_distance", "_rowid"])
+            },
+            "SortExec: TopK(fetch=32), expr=[_distance@0 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@1 ASC NULLS LAST]...
+    ANNSubIndex: name=idx, k=32, deltas=1, metric=L2
+      ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.nearest("vec", &q, 33)?
+                    .fast_search()
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .project(&["_distance", "_rowid"])
+            },
+            "SortExec: TopK(fetch=33), expr=[_distance@0 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@1 ASC NULLS LAST]...
+    ANNSubIndex: name=idx, k=33, deltas=1, metric=L2
+      ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Not `fast_scan` case
+        assert_plan_equals(
+            &dataset.dataset,
+            |scan| {
+                scan.nearest("vec", &q, 34)?
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .project(&["_distance", "_rowid"])
+            },
+            "ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
+  FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
+    SortExec: TopK(fetch=34), expr=[_distance@2 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@0 ASC NULLS LAST]...
+      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+        CoalescePartitionsExec
+          UnionExec
+            ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
+              FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
+                SortExec: TopK(fetch=34), expr=[_distance@2 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@1 ASC NULLS LAST]...
+                  KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
+                    LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
+            LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], source=stream(_rowid)
+              SortExec: TopK(fetch=34), expr=[_distance@0 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@1 ASC NULLS LAST]...
+                ANNSubIndex: name=idx, k=34, deltas=1, metric=L2
+                  ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::vector(IndexType::Vector, DIST_COL, vec![2, 1])]
+    #[case::fts(IndexType::Inverted, SCORE_COL, vec![0, 2])]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_search_projection(
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+        #[case] scoring_column: &str,
+        #[case] expected_ids: Vec<i32>,
+        #[values(false, true)] has_projection: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] is_row_id_requested: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] has_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("text", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["quick", "slow"]))
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                array::cycle_vec(array::step::<Float32Type>(), Dimension::from(2)),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(2),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: has_stable_row_ids,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        if index_type == IndexType::Vector {
+            let centroids = Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 1.0]), 2)
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+                MetricType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(1, centroids).unwrap(),
+            );
+            dataset
+                .create_index(&["vec"], index_type, None, &params, true)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        } else {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["text"],
+                    index_type,
+                    None,
+                    &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        if index_type == IndexType::Vector {
+            scanner
+                .nearest("vec", &Float32Array::from(vec![4.0, 5.0]), 2)
+                .unwrap();
+        } else {
+            scanner
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("quick".to_owned()))
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let mut expected_columns = if has_projection {
+            scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+            vec!["id"]
+        } else {
+            vec!["id", "text", "vec"]
+        };
+        expected_columns.push(scoring_column);
+        if is_row_id_requested {
+            scanner.with_row_id();
+            expected_columns.push(ROW_ID);
+        }
+        scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+        let normal_batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        scanner.fast_search();
+        let fast_batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            fast_batch
+                .schema()
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected_columns
+        );
+        assert_eq!(fast_batch, normal_batch);
+        assert_eq!(fast_batch.num_rows(), 2);
+        let recall = fast_batch["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|id| expected_ids.contains(id))
+            .count() as f64
+            / expected_ids.len() as f64;
+        assert_eq!(recall, 1.0);
+
+        scanner.project(&["id", ROW_ID]).unwrap();
+        let explicit_row_id_batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            explicit_row_id_batch
+                .schema()
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            if is_row_id_requested {
+                vec!["id", scoring_column, ROW_ID]
+            } else {
+                vec!["id", ROW_ID, scoring_column]
+            }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(&explicit_row_id_batch["id"], &fast_batch["id"]);
+        assert_eq!(explicit_row_id_batch[ROW_ID].null_count(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_search_requires_row_id_for_deleted_rows(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_row_id_requested: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("id = 1").await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .fast_search()
+            .include_deleted_rows();
+        if is_row_id_requested {
+            scanner.with_row_id();
+        }
+
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await;
+        if is_row_id_requested {
+            let batch = result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 4);
+            assert_eq!(batch[ROW_ID].null_count(), 1);
+        } else {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(
+                error
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains("include_deleted_rows is set but with_row_id is false")
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_search_without_vector_index_returns_empty() {
+        let dataset = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let q: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &q, 10).unwrap();
+        let normal_rows = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows();
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &q, 10).unwrap().fast_search();
+        let fast_rows = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows();
+
+        assert_eq!(normal_rows, 10);
+        assert_eq!(fast_rows, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_fast_search_without_index_returns_empty_with_query_index() {
+        let dataset = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let query_values = (32..96).map(|v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let queries =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(query_values), 32).unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &queries, 2).unwrap().fast_search();
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
+        assert_query_index_field(&batch);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_fts_multiple_unindexed_appends() {
+        // An FTS query over an indexed dataset plus more than one unindexed append
+        // must return matches from every unindexed fragment, not just the first. The
+        // flat search over unindexed data reads only a single input partition, so when
+        // the default parallelism splits the scan across partitions it used to drop
+        // every append but the first.
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_fts_index().await.unwrap();
+        // Two separate appends -> two unindexed fragments, each large enough that the
+        // physical optimizer parallelizes the flat scan across partitions.
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(400, 5400).await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(5400, 10400).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Every row's `s` value contains the token "s", so FTS("s") matches all rows.
+        let total = test_ds.dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        let returned = test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("s".to_owned()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_fold(
+                0usize,
+                |acc, batch| async move { Ok(acc + batch.num_rows()) },
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(returned, total);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_search_scalar_index_skips_unindexed_fragments(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Stable)] data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let mut dataset = TestVectorDataset::new(data_storage_version, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.make_scalar_index().await.unwrap();
+        dataset.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("i >= 395").unwrap().project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        let normal_batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .filter("i >= 395")
+            .unwrap()
+            .fast_search()
+            .project(&["i"])
+            .unwrap();
+        let fast_batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(normal_batch.num_rows(), 15);
+        assert_eq!(fast_batch.num_rows(), 5);
+
+        let mut project_first_scanner = dataset.dataset.scan();
+        project_first_scanner
+            .filter("i >= 395")
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["i"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .fast_search();
+        assert_eq!(
+            project_first_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap(),
+            scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            project_first_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap(),
+            fast_batch
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn make_scalar_filter_test_batch(schema: SchemaRef, start: i32, end: i32) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(start..end)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(start..end)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn make_scalar_filter_test_dataset(
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> (TempStrDir, SchemaRef, Dataset) {
+        let tmp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = make_scalar_filter_test_batch(schema.clone(), 0, 100);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &tmp_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100,
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        (tmp_dir, schema, dataset)
+    }
+
+    async fn append_scalar_filter_test_data(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        start: i32,
+        end: i32,
+    ) {
+        let batch = make_scalar_filter_test_batch(schema.clone(), start, end);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    async fn create_scalar_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, column: &str) {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[column],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    async fn scan_count(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str, fast_search: bool) -> usize {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .filter(filter)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["a", "b"])
+            .unwrap();
+        if fast_search {
+            scanner.fast_search();
+        }
+        scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows()
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_search_scalar_index_filter_coverage_cases(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Stable)] data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let (_tmp_dir, schema, mut dataset) =
+            make_scalar_filter_test_dataset(data_storage_version).await;
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "a").await;
+        append_scalar_filter_test_data(&mut dataset, schema, 100, 110).await;
+
+        // a is indexed and b is not. The indexed side finds candidates in covered
+        // fragments and b is applied as a refine filter.
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 95 AND b >= 95", false).await, 15);
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 95 AND b >= 95", true).await, 5);
+
+        // OR cannot safely skip unindexed fragments: a row in an unindexed fragment
+        // may satisfy `b >= 105` even if `a` is not indexed there. Skipping it would
+        // silently drop valid results, so fast_search has no effect on OR queries where
+        // any branch lacks a scalar index.
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 105 OR b >= 105", false).await, 5);
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 105 OR b >= 105", true).await, 5);
+
+        // A single-column indexed filter skips the appended fragment in fast mode.
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 95", false).await, 15);
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 95", true).await, 5);
+
+        let (_tmp_dir, schema, mut dataset) =
+            make_scalar_filter_test_dataset(data_storage_version).await;
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "a").await;
+        append_scalar_filter_test_data(&mut dataset, schema, 100, 110).await;
+        create_scalar_index(&mut dataset, "b").await;
+
+        // a and b are both indexed, but a only covers the original fragment while b
+        // covers both fragments. Fast search only reads the shared indexed coverage.
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 95 AND b >= 95", false).await, 15);
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 95 AND b >= 95", true).await, 5);
+
+        let (_tmp_dir, schema, mut dataset) =
+            make_scalar_filter_test_dataset(data_storage_version).await;
+        append_scalar_filter_test_data(&mut dataset, schema, 100, 110).await;
+
+        // With no scalar index query, fast_search must not enable indexed-fragment
+        // pruning. This guards against treating any ordinary filter as indexed.
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 95", false).await, 15);
+        assert_eq!(scan_count(&dataset, "a >= 95", true).await, 15);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    pub async fn test_scan_planning_io(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        // Create a large dataset with a scalar indexed column and a sorted but not scalar
+        // indexed column
+
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+        use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(32)),
+            )
+            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(4), false))
+            .col("indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("not_indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(5));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            "memory://test",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
         )
-        .await?;
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["indexed"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                None,
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                None,
+                &VectorIndexParams {
+                    metric_type: DistanceType::L2,
+                    stages: vec![
+                        StageParams::Ivf(IvfBuildParams {
+                            max_iters: 2,
+                            num_partitions: Some(2),
+                            sample_rate: 2,
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        }),
+                        StageParams::PQ(PQBuildParams {
+                            max_iters: 2,
+                            num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        }),
+                    ],
+                    version: crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::Legacy,
+                    skip_transpose: false,
+                    runtime_hints: Default::default(),
+                },
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // First planning cycle needs to do some I/O to determine what scalar indices are available
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .filter("indexed > 10")
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // First pass will need to perform some IOPs to determine what scalar indices are available
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_gt!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
+
+        // Second planning cycle should not perform any I/O
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .filter("indexed > 10")
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
+
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .filter("true")
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
+
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllEarly)
+            .filter("true")
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
+
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllLate)
+            .filter("true")
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    pub async fn test_row_meta_columns(
+        #[values(
+            (true, false),  // Test row_id only
+            (false, true),  // Test row_address only
+            (true, true)    // Test both
+        )]
+        columns: (bool, bool),
+    ) {
+        let (with_row_id, with_row_address) = columns;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("data_item_id", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("a", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1001, 1002, 1003])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data)], schema.clone()),
+            uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Test explicit projection
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+
+        let mut projection = vec!["data_item_id".to_string()];
+        if with_row_id {
+            scanner.with_row_id();
+            projection.push(ROW_ID.to_string());
+        }
+        if with_row_address {
+            scanner.with_row_address();
+            projection.push(ROW_ADDR.to_string());
+        }
+
+        scanner.project(&projection).unwrap();
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+        let batch = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap().pop().unwrap();
+
+        // Verify column existence and data type
+        if with_row_id {
+            let column = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(column.data_type(), &DataType::UInt64);
+        }
+        if with_row_address {
+            let column = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ADDR).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(column.data_type(), &DataType::UInt64);
+        }
+
+        // Test implicit inclusion
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        if with_row_id {
+            scanner.with_row_id();
+        }
+        if with_row_address {
+            scanner.with_row_address();
+        }
+        scanner.project(&["data_item_id"]).unwrap();
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+        let batch = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap().pop().unwrap();
+        let meta_column = batch.column_by_name(if with_row_id { ROW_ID } else { ROW_ADDR });
+        assert!(meta_column.is_some());
+
+        // Test error case
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        if with_row_id {
+            scanner.project(&[ROW_ID]).unwrap();
+        } else {
+            scanner.project(&[ROW_ADDR]).unwrap();
+        };
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stream.schema().fields().len(), 1);
+        if with_row_id {
+            assert!(stream.schema().field_with_name(ROW_ID).is_ok());
+        } else {
+            assert!(stream.schema().field_with_name(ROW_ADDR).is_ok());
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn limit_offset_equivalency_test(scanner: &Scanner) {
+        async fn test_one(
+            scanner: &Scanner,
+            full_result: &RecordBatch,
+            limit: Option<i64>,
+            offset: Option<i64>,
+        ) {
+            let mut new_scanner = scanner.clone();
+            new_scanner.limit(limit, offset).unwrap();
+            if let Some(nearest) = new_scanner.nearest_mut() {
+                nearest.k = offset.unwrap_or(0).saturating_add(limit.unwrap_or(10_000)) as usize;
+            }
+            let result = new_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+            let resolved_offset = offset.unwrap_or(0).min(full_result.num_rows() as i64);
+            let resolved_length = limit
+                .unwrap_or(i64::MAX)
+                .min(full_result.num_rows() as i64 - resolved_offset);
+
+            let expected = full_result.slice(resolved_offset as usize, resolved_length as usize);
+
+            if expected != result {
+                let plan = new_scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    &expected, &result,
+                    "Limit: {:?}, Offset: {:?}, Plan: \n{}",
+                    limit, offset, plan
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut scanner_full = scanner.clone();
+        if let Some(nearest) = scanner_full.nearest_mut() {
+            nearest.k = 500;
+        }
+        let full_results = scanner_full.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
 
-        log::info!("Test case: ANN with refine");
-        let expected =
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=10), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
-              CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-                SortExec: TopK(fetch=40), expr=...
-                  ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=40, deltas=1, metric=L2
-                    ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1";
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| Ok(scan.nearest("vec", &q, 10)?.refine(4)),
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(1), None).await;
+        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(1), Some(1)).await;
+        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(1), Some(2)).await;
+        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(1), Some(10)).await;
 
-        // use_index = False -> same plan as KNN
-        log::info!("Test case: ANN with index disabled");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"vec, _rowid, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=13), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@0 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"vec, _rowid, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=13), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[vec], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
-            row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| Ok(scan.nearest("vec", &q, 13)?.use_index(false)),
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(3), None).await;
+        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(3), Some(2)).await;
+        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(3), Some(4)).await;
 
-        log::info!("Test case: ANN with postfilter");
-        let expected = "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid]
-  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, i, (s), (vec)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: i@2 > 10
-        Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i)\"
-          CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-            SortExec: TopK(fetch=17), expr=...
-              ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=17, deltas=1, metric=L2
-                ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1";
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                Ok(scan
-                    .nearest("vec", &q, 17)?
-                    .filter("i > 10")?
-                    .project(&["s", "vec"])?
-                    .with_row_id())
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        test_one(scanner, &full_results, None, Some(3)).await;
+        test_one(scanner, &full_results, None, Some(10)).await;
+    }
 
-        log::info!("Test case: ANN with prefilter");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      SortExec: TopK(fetch=17), expr=...
-        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=17, deltas=1, metric=L2
-          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
-          FilterExec: i@0 > 10
-            LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      SortExec: TopK(fetch=17), expr=...
-        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=17, deltas=1, metric=L2
-          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
-          LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
-          row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=i > Int32(10)
-"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                Ok(scan
-                    .nearest("vec", &q, 17)?
-                    .filter("i > 10")?
-                    .prefilter(true))
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scan_limit_offset() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        limit_offset_equivalency_test(&scanner).await;
+    }
 
-        dataset.append_new_data().await?;
-        log::info!("Test case: Combined KNN/ANN");
-        let expected = "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=6), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-              UnionExec
-                ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
-                  FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=6), expr=...
-                      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-                        LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
-                Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
-                  CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=6), expr=...
-                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=6, deltas=1, metric=L2
-                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1";
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 6),
-            // TODO: we could write an optimizer rule to eliminate the last Projection
-            // by doing it as part of the last Take. This would likely have minimal impact though.
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_limit_offset() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]);
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .nearest("vec", &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["i"])
+            .unwrap();
+        limit_offset_equivalency_test(&scanner).await;
+    }
 
-        // new data and with filter
-        log::info!("Test case: Combined KNN/ANN with postfilter");
-        let expected = "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, i, (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: i@3 > 10
-        Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i)\"
-          CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-            FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-              SortExec: TopK(fetch=15), expr=...
-                KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-                  RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-                    UnionExec
-                      ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
-                        FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-                          SortExec: TopK(fetch=15), expr=...
-                            KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-                              LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
-                      Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
-                        CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-                          SortExec: TopK(fetch=15), expr=...
-                            ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=15, deltas=1, metric=L2
-                              ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1";
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| scan.nearest("vec", &q, 15)?.filter("i > 10"),
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_query_parallelism_defaults_and_setter() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]);
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vector, 5).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scanner.nearest_mut().unwrap().query_parallelism,
+            DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM
+        );
 
-        // new data and with prefilter
-        log::info!("Test case: Combined KNN/ANN with prefilter");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-              UnionExec
-                ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
-                  FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-                      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-                        FilterExec: i@1 > 10
-                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
-                Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
-                  CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
-                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
-                        FilterExec: i@0 > 10
-                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-              UnionExec
-                ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
-                  FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-                      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-                        FilterExec: i@1 > 10
-                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
-                Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
-                  CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
-                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
-                        LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=2, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
-                          row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=i > Int32(10)"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                Ok(scan
-                    .nearest("vec", &q, 5)?
-                    .filter("i > 10")?
-                    .prefilter(true))
-            },
-            // TODO: i is scanned on both sides but is projected away mid-plan
-            // only to be taken again later. We should fix this.
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        scanner.query_parallelism(4);
+        assert_eq!(scanner.nearest_mut().unwrap().query_parallelism, 4);
+
+        scanner.query_parallelism(-1);
+        assert_eq!(scanner.nearest_mut().unwrap().query_parallelism, -1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_approx_mode_defaults_and_setter() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]);
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vector, 5).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scanner.nearest_mut().unwrap().approx_mode,
+            ApproxMode::Normal
+        );
+
+        scanner.approx_mode(ApproxMode::Accurate);
+        assert_eq!(
+            scanner.nearest_mut().unwrap().approx_mode,
+            ApproxMode::Accurate
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_knn_probe_setters_preserve_independent_fields() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]);
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vector, 5).unwrap();
+
+        scanner.nprobes(20);
+        let query = scanner.nearest_mut().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 20);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, Some(20));
+
+        scanner.minimum_nprobes(5);
+        let query = scanner.nearest_mut().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 5);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, Some(20));
+
+        scanner.maximum_nprobes(10);
+        let query = scanner.nearest_mut().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 5);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, Some(10));
+    }
 
-        // ANN with scalar index
-        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-        // Make sure both indices are up-to-date to start
-        dataset.make_vector_index().await?;
-        dataset.make_scalar_index().await?;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_pq_query_parallelism_returns_same_results() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
 
-        log::info!("Test case: ANN with scalar index");
-        let expected =
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
-          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
-          ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx";
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                Ok(scan
-                    .nearest("vec", &q, 5)?
-                    .filter("i > 10")?
-                    .prefilter(true))
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]);
 
-        log::info!("Test case: ANN with scalar index disabled");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
-          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
-          FilterExec: i@0 > 10
-            LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@2 as i, s@3 as s, vec@4 as vec, _distance@0 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (i), (s), (vec)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      SortExec: TopK(fetch=5), expr=...
-        ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=5, deltas=1, metric=L2
-          ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
-          LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=3, range_before=None, \
-          range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=i > Int32(10)"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                Ok(scan
-                    .nearest("vec", &q, 5)?
-                    .use_scalar_index(false)
-                    .filter("i > 10")?
-                    .prefilter(true))
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let mut sequential = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        sequential.nearest("vec", &query_vector, 50).unwrap();
+        let sequential_results = sequential.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
 
-        dataset.append_new_data().await?;
+        let mut parallel = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        parallel
+            .nearest("vec", &query_vector, 50)
+            .unwrap()
+            .query_parallelism(4);
+        let parallel_results = parallel.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Combined KNN/ANN with scalar index");
-        let expected = "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=8), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-              UnionExec
-                ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
-                  FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=8), expr=...
-                      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-                        FilterExec: i@1 > 10
-                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
-                Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
-                  CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=8), expr=...
-                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=8, deltas=1, metric=L2
-                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
-                        ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx";
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                Ok(scan
-                    .nearest("vec", &q, 8)?
-                    .filter("i > 10")?
-                    .prefilter(true))
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        assert_eq!(sequential_results, parallel_results);
+    }
 
-        // Update scalar index but not vector index
-        log::info!(
-            "Test case: Combined KNN/ANN with updated scalar index and outdated vector index"
-        );
-        let expected = "ProjectionExec: expr=[i@3 as i, s@4 as s, vec@1 as vec, _distance@2 as _distance]
-  Take: columns=\"_rowid, vec, _distance, (i), (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-        SortExec: TopK(fetch=11), expr=...
-          KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-            RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-              UnionExec
-                ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@3 as _distance, _rowid@2 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
-                  FilterExec: _distance@... IS NOT NULL
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=11), expr=...
-                      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-                        FilterExec: i@1 > 10
-                          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
-                Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
-                  CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-                    SortExec: TopK(fetch=11), expr=...
-                      ANNSubIndex: name=..., k=11, deltas=1, metric=L2
-                        ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1
-                        ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx";
-        dataset.make_scalar_index().await?;
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                Ok(scan
-                    .nearest("vec", &q, 11)?
-                    .filter("i > 10")?
-                    .prefilter(true))
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_pq_limit_offset() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
+        let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]);
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vector, 500).unwrap();
+        limit_offset_equivalency_test(&scanner).await;
+    }
 
-        // Scans with scalar index
-        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-        log::info!("Test case: Filtered read with scalar index");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@1 as s]
-  Take: columns=\"_rowid, (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx"
-        } else {
-            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=4, range_before=None, \
-            range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
-              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| scan.project(&["s"])?.filter("i > 10"),
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fts_limit_offset() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_fts_index().await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("4".into()))
+            .unwrap();
+        limit_offset_equivalency_test(&scanner).await;
+    }
 
-        if data_storage_version != LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            log::info!(
-                "Test case: Filtered read with scalar index disabled (late materialization)"
-            );
-            assert_plan_equals(
-                &dataset.dataset,
-                |scan| {
-                    scan.project(&["s"])?
-                        .use_scalar_index(false)
-                        .filter("i > 10")
-                },
-                "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s]
-  Take: columns=\"i, _rowid, (s)\"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[i], num_fragments=4, range_before=None, \
-      range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=i > Int32(10)",
-            )
-            .await?;
-        }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fts_fast_search_excludes_unindexed_rows() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_fts_index().await.unwrap();
+        // Append rows after index build so they stay unindexed.
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(10, 20).await.unwrap();
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Empty projection");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowaddr@0 as _rowaddr]
-  AddRowAddrExec
-    MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx"
-        } else {
-            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=4, range_before=None, \
-            range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=true, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
-              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.filter("i > 10")
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .with_row_address()
-                    .project::<&str>(&[])
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                MatchQuery::new("15".to_owned())
+                    .with_column(Some("s".to_owned()))
+                    .into(),
+            ))
+            .unwrap();
+        let normal_rows = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows();
+
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                MatchQuery::new("15".to_owned())
+                    .with_column(Some("s".to_owned()))
+                    .into(),
+            ))
+            .unwrap()
+            .fast_search();
+        let fast_rows = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows();
+
+        assert_eq!(normal_rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(fast_rows, 1);
+    }
+
+    async fn test_row_offset_read_helper(
+        ds: &Dataset,
+        scan_builder: impl FnOnce(&mut Scanner) -> &mut Scanner,
+        expected_cols: &[&str],
+        expected_row_offsets: &[u64],
+    ) {
+        let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+        let scanner = scan_builder(&mut scanner);
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let actual_cols = schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(&actual_cols, expected_cols);
+
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let batch = arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+
+        let row_offsets = batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_OFFSET)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values();
+        assert_eq!(row_offsets.as_ref(), expected_row_offsets);
+    }
 
-        dataset.append_new_data().await?;
-        log::info!("Test case: Combined Scalar/non-scalar filtered read");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[s@1 as s]
-  RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-    UnionExec
-      Take: columns=\"_rowid, (s)\"
-        CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-          MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx
-      ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@2 as _rowid, s@1 as s]
-        FilterExec: i@0 > 10
-          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i, s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, \
-            range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
-              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| scan.project(&["s"])?.filter("i > 10"),
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_offset_read() {
+        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(3))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // [0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5], [6, 7, 8]
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Combined Scalar/non-scalar filtered read with empty projection");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowaddr@0 as _rowaddr]
-  RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-    UnionExec
-      AddRowAddrExec
-        MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx
-      ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowaddr@2 as _rowaddr, _rowid@1 as _rowid]
-        FilterExec: i@0 > 10
-          LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=true, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, \
-            range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=true, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
-              ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.filter("i > 10")
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .with_row_address()
-                    .project::<&str>(&[])
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        // Delete [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
+        ds.delete("idx >= 2 AND idx <= 6").await.unwrap();
 
-        // Scans with dynamic projection
-        // When an expression is specified in the projection, the plan should include a ProjectionExec
-        log::info!("Test case: Dynamic projection");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[regexp_match(s@1, .*) as matches]
-  RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-    UnionExec
-      Take: columns=\"_rowid, (s)\"
-        CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-          MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx
-      ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@2 as _rowid, s@1 as s]
-        FilterExec: i@0 > 10
-          LanceScan: uri=..., row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"
-        } else {
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[regexp_match(s@0, .*) as matches]
-  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[s], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, \
-  range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
-    ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx"
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.project_with_transform(&[("matches", "regexp_match(s, \".*\")")])?
-                    .filter("i > 10")
-            },
-            expected,
+        // Normal read, all columns plus row offset
+        test_row_offset_read_helper(
+            &ds,
+            |scanner| scanner.project(&["idx", ROW_OFFSET]).unwrap(),
+            &["idx", ROW_OFFSET],
+            &[0, 1, 2, 3],
         )
-        .await?;
+        .await;
 
-        // FTS
-        // ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-        // All rows are indexed
-        dataset.make_fts_index().await?;
-        log::info!("Test case: Full text search (match query)");
-        let expected = r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
-  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      MatchQuery: column=s, query=hello"#;
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.project(&["s"])?
-                    .with_row_id()
-                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
-            },
-            expected,
+        // Read with row offset only
+        test_row_offset_read_helper(
+            &ds,
+            |scanner| scanner.project(&[ROW_OFFSET]).unwrap(),
+            &[ROW_OFFSET],
+            &[0, 1, 2, 3],
         )
-        .await?;
+        .await;
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Full text search (phrase query)");
-        let expected = r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
-  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      PhraseQuery: column=s, query=hello world"#;
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                let query = PhraseQuery::new("hello world".to_owned());
-                scan.project(&["s"])?
-                    .with_row_id()
-                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
+        // Filtered read of row offset
+        test_row_offset_read_helper(
+            &ds,
+            |scanner| {
+                scanner
+                    .filter("idx > 1")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .project(&[ROW_OFFSET])
+                    .unwrap()
             },
-            expected,
+            &[ROW_OFFSET],
+            &[2, 3],
         )
-        .await?;
+        .await;
+    }
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Full text search (boost query)");
-        let expected = r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
-  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      BoostQuery: negative_boost=1
-        MatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
-        MatchQuery: column=s, query=world"#;
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                let positive =
-                    MatchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s".to_owned()));
-                let negative =
-                    MatchQuery::new("world".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s".to_owned()));
-                let query = BoostQuery::new(positive.into(), negative.into(), Some(1.0));
-                scan.project(&["s"])?
-                    .with_row_id()
-                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+    // Unit-level companion to the NOT IN case in
+    // test_filter_to_take_with_stable_row_ids: exercises the lowering directly,
+    // independent of the expression simplifier's InList expansion threshold
+    // (which the end-to-end test depends on to keep the list unexpanded).
+    #[test]
+    fn take_operation_rejects_negated_in_list() {
+        // All three virtual columns share the one InList arm, so the guard has
+        // to hold for each of them.
+        for column in [ROW_ID, ROW_ADDR, ROW_OFFSET] {
+            let positive = col(column).in_list(vec![lit(0u64), lit(1u64)], false);
+            let lowered = TakeOperation::try_from_expr(&positive);
+            let ids = match lowered {
+                Some((TakeOperation::RowIds(ids), None))
+                | Some((TakeOperation::RowAddrs(ids), None))
+                | Some((TakeOperation::RowOffsets(ids), None)) => ids,
+                other => panic!("{column} IN (0, 1) must lower into a take, got {other:?}"),
+            };
+            assert_eq!(ids, vec![0, 1], "wrong ids lowered for {column}");
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Full text search with prefilter");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
-  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      MatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
-        RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-          UnionExec
-            MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx
-            ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@1 as _rowid]
-              FilterExec: i@0 > 10
-                LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"#
-        } else {
-            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
-  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      MatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
-        LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
-          ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx"#
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.project(&["s"])?
-                    .with_row_id()
-                    .filter("i > 10")?
-                    .prefilter(true)
-                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+            let negated = col(column).in_list(vec![lit(0u64), lit(1u64)], true);
+            assert!(
+                TakeOperation::try_from_expr(&negated).is_none(),
+                "a negated InList on {column} is the complement of the listed ids \
+                 and must not lower into a take of them"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Full text search with unindexed rows");
-        let expected = r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
-  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      SortExec: expr=[_score@1 DESC NULLS LAST], preserve_partitioning=[false]
-        RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-          UnionExec
-            MatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
-            FlatMatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
-              LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[s], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"#;
-        dataset.append_new_data().await?;
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.project(&["s"])?
-                    .with_row_id()
-                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_to_take_with_stable_row_ids() {
+        let ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(3),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        log::info!("Test case: Full text search with unindexed rows and prefilter");
-        let expected = if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
-  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      SortExec: expr=[_score@1 DESC NULLS LAST], preserve_partitioning=[false]
-        RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-          UnionExec
-            MatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
-              RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-                UnionExec
-                  MaterializeIndex: query=[i > 10]@i_idx
-                  ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@1 as _rowid]
-                    FilterExec: i@0 > 10
-                      LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
-            FlatMatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
-              FilterExec: i@1 > 10
-                LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[s, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"#
-        } else {
-            r#"ProjectionExec: expr=[s@2 as s, _score@1 as _score, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
-  Take: columns="_rowid, _score, (s)"
-    CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-      SortExec: expr=[_score@1 DESC NULLS LAST], preserve_partitioning=[false]
-        RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-          UnionExec
-            MatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
-              LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=5, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=i > Int32(10), refine_filter=--
-                ScalarIndexQuery: query=[i > 10]@i_idx
-            FlatMatchQuery: column=s, query=hello
-              FilterExec: i@1 > 10
-                LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[s, i], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None"#
-        };
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.project(&["s"])?
-                    .with_row_id()
-                    .filter("i > 10")?
-                    .prefilter(true)
-                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
-            },
-            expected,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let row_addrs = [
+            (u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 1)), 1),
+            (u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 1)), 5),
+            (u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(2, 1)), 9),
+        ];
+        for (row_addr, expected_idx) in row_addrs {
+            let batch = ds
+                .scan()
+                .filter(&format!("{ROW_ADDR} = {row_addr}"))
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch["idx"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+                &[expected_idx]
+            );
+        }
 
-        Ok(())
+        let batch = ds
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&format!(
+                "{ROW_ADDR} IN ({}, {})",
+                row_addrs[1].0, row_addrs[2].0
+            ))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch["idx"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(), &[5, 9]);
+
+        let batch = ds
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&format!("{ROW_ADDR} = 5"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
+
+        let batch = ds
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&format!("{ROW_OFFSET} IN (5, 9)"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch["idx"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(), &[5, 9]);
+
+        // NOT IN is the complement of IN and must not be lowered into a take
+        // of the listed ids. The list must be large enough that DataFusion's
+        // expression simplifier does not expand it into a conjunction of
+        // `!=` comparisons first (it only expands small lists) — with the
+        // pre-fix code the negated InList reached the lowering and returned
+        // exactly the listed rows.
+        let not_in_list = (0..10)
+            .map(|i| i.to_string())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(", ");
+        let batch = ds
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&format!("{ROW_ID} NOT IN ({not_in_list})"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch["idx"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(), &[10, 11]);
+
+        // `_rowoffset` shares the arm, and the contract that matters is that a
+        // negated list never turns into a take of the listed values. It cannot
+        // be answered as a scan filter either: `_rowoffset` is only reachable
+        // through this lowering, so it is absent from the filterable read
+        // schema and any predicate that survives to the planner is rejected.
+        // Pin that it fails rather than returning the complement. Plain
+        // comparisons such as `_rowoffset > 2` fail the same way, so this is
+        // the column's existing limit, not something the guard introduced.
+        let err = ds
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&format!("{ROW_OFFSET} NOT IN (0, 1, 2, 4)"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a negated _rowoffset list must not be answered from a take");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains(ROW_OFFSET),
+            "the error should name the column, got: {err}"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_fast_search_plan() {
-        // Create a vector dataset
-        let mut dataset = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true)
+    async fn test_stale_row_address_does_not_follow_stable_id_after_update() {
+        let ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        dataset.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
-        dataset.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
-
-        let q: Float32Array = (32..64).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
-
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.nearest("vec", &q, 32)?
-                    .fast_search()
-                    .project(&["_distance", "_rowid"])
-            },
-            "SortExec: TopK(fetch=32), expr=[_distance@0 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@1 ASC NULLS LAST]...
-    ANNSubIndex: name=idx, k=32, deltas=1, metric=L2
-      ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1",
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
 
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.nearest("vec", &q, 33)?
-                    .fast_search()
-                    .with_row_id()
-                    .project(&["_distance", "_rowid"])
-            },
-            "SortExec: TopK(fetch=33), expr=[_distance@0 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@1 ASC NULLS LAST]...
-    ANNSubIndex: name=idx, k=33, deltas=1, metric=L2
-      ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1",
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let old_row_addr = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 1));
+        let ds = crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(ds))
+            .update_where("idx = 1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("idx", "101")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .new_dataset;
 
-        // Not `fast_scan` case
-        assert_plan_equals(
-            &dataset.dataset,
-            |scan| {
-                scan.nearest("vec", &q, 34)?
-                    .with_row_id()
-                    .project(&["_distance", "_rowid"])
-            },
-            "ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@0 as _rowid]
-  FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
-    SortExec: TopK(fetch=34), expr=[_distance@2 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@0 ASC NULLS LAST]...
-      KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-        RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(1), input_partitions=2
-          UnionExec
-            ProjectionExec: expr=[_distance@2 as _distance, _rowid@1 as _rowid, vec@0 as vec]
-              FilterExec: _distance@2 IS NOT NULL
-                SortExec: TopK(fetch=34), expr=[_distance@2 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@1 ASC NULLS LAST]...
-                  KNNVectorDistance: metric=l2
-                    LanceScan: uri=..., projection=[vec], row_id=true, row_addr=false, ordered=false, range=None
-            Take: columns=\"_distance, _rowid, (vec)\"
-              CoalesceBatchesExec: target_batch_size=8192
-                SortExec: TopK(fetch=34), expr=[_distance@0 ASC NULLS LAST, _rowid@1 ASC NULLS LAST]...
-                  ANNSubIndex: name=idx, k=34, deltas=1, metric=L2
-                    ANNIvfPartition: uuid=..., minimum_nprobes=1, maximum_nprobes=None, deltas=1",
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let batch = ds
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&format!("{ROW_ADDR} = {old_row_addr}"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    pub async fn test_scan_planning_io(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        // Create a large dataset with a scalar indexed column and a sorted but not scalar
-        // indexed column
-
-        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
-        use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vector",
-                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(32)),
-            )
-            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(4), false))
-            .col("indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("not_indexed", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(5));
-
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            data,
-            "memory://test",
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["indexed"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                None,
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
-            )
+    async fn test_filter_to_take() {
+        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(100))
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["text"],
-                IndexType::Inverted,
-                None,
-                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
-            )
+
+        let row_ids = ds
+            .scan()
+            .project(&Vec::<&str>::default())
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_stream()
             .await
-            .unwrap();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vector"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                None,
-                &VectorIndexParams {
-                    metric_type: DistanceType::L2,
-                    stages: vec![
-                        StageParams::Ivf(IvfBuildParams {
-                            max_iters: 2,
-                            num_partitions: Some(2),
-                            sample_rate: 2,
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        }),
-                        StageParams::PQ(PQBuildParams {
-                            max_iters: 2,
-                            num_sub_vectors: 2,
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        }),
-                    ],
-                    version: crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::Legacy,
-                },
-                false,
-            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let schema = row_ids[0].schema();
+        let row_ids = concat_batches(&schema, row_ids.iter()).unwrap();
+        let row_ids = row_ids.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().clone();
 
-        // First planning cycle needs to do some I/O to determine what scalar indices are available
-        dataset
+        let row_addrs = ds
             .scan()
-            .prefilter(true)
-            .filter("indexed > 10")
+            .project(&Vec::<&str>::default())
             .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(true)
+            .with_row_address()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let schema = row_addrs[0].schema();
+        let row_addrs = concat_batches(&schema, row_addrs.iter()).unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = row_addrs.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().clone();
+
+        ds.delete("idx >= 190 AND idx < 210").await.unwrap();
+
+        let ds_copy = ds.clone();
+        let do_check = async move |filt: &str, expected_idx: &[i32], applies_optimization: bool| {
+            let mut scanner = ds_copy.scan();
+            scanner.filter(filt).unwrap();
+            // Verify the optimization is applied
+            let plan = scanner.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+            if applies_optimization {
+                assert!(
+                    plan.contains("OneShotStream"),
+                    "expected take optimization to be applied. Filter: '{}'.  Plan:\n{}",
+                    filt,
+                    plan
+                );
+            } else {
+                assert!(
+                    !plan.contains("OneShotStream"),
+                    "expected take optimization to not be applied. Filter: '{}'.  Plan:\n{}",
+                    filt,
+                    plan
+                );
+            }
+
+            // Verify the results
+            let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+            let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+            let idx = batches
+                .iter()
+                .map(|b| b.column_by_name("idx").unwrap().as_ref())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            if idx.is_empty() {
+                assert!(expected_idx.is_empty());
+                return;
+            }
+
+            let idx = arrow::compute::concat(&idx).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(idx.as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(), expected_idx);
+        };
+        let check =
+            async |filt: &str, expected_idx: &[i32]| do_check(filt, expected_idx, true).await;
+        let check_no_opt = async |filt: &str, expected_idx: &[i32]| {
+            do_check(filt, expected_idx, false).await;
+        };
+
+        // Simple case, no deletions yet
+        check("_rowid = 50", &[50]).await;
+        check("_rowaddr = 50", &[50]).await;
+        check("_rowoffset = 50", &[50]).await;
+
+        check(
+            "_rowid = 50 OR _rowid = 51 OR _rowid = 52 OR _rowid = 49",
+            &[49, 50, 51, 52],
+        )
+        .await;
+        check(
+            "_rowaddr = 50 OR _rowaddr = 51 OR _rowaddr = 52 OR _rowaddr = 49",
+            &[49, 50, 51, 52],
+        )
+        .await;
+        check(
+            "_rowoffset = 50 OR _rowoffset = 51 OR _rowoffset = 52 OR _rowoffset = 49",
+            &[49, 50, 51, 52],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        check("_rowid IN (52, 51, 50, 17)", &[17, 50, 51, 52]).await;
+        check("_rowaddr IN (52, 51, 50, 17)", &[17, 50, 51, 52]).await;
+        check("_rowoffset IN (52, 51, 50, 17)", &[17, 50, 51, 52]).await;
+
+        // Taking _rowid / _rowaddr of deleted row
 
-        // First pass will need to perform some IOPs to determine what scalar indices are available
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_gt!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
+        // When using rowid / rowaddr we get an empty
+        check(&format!("_rowid = {}", row_ids.value(190)), &[]).await;
+        check(&format!("_rowaddr = {}", row_addrs.value(190)), &[]).await;
+        // When using rowoffset it just skips the deleted rows (impossible to create an offset
+        // into a deleted row)
+        check("_rowoffset = 190", &[210]).await;
 
-        // Second planning cycle should not perform any I/O
-        dataset
-            .scan()
-            .prefilter(true)
-            .filter("indexed > 10")
-            .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Grabbing after the deleted rows
+        check(&format!("_rowid = {}", row_ids.value(250)), &[250]).await;
+        check(&format!("_rowaddr = {}", row_addrs.value(250)), &[250]).await;
+        check("_rowoffset = 250", &[270]).await;
 
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
+        // Grabbing past the end
+        check("_rowoffset = 1000", &[]).await;
 
-        dataset
-            .scan()
-            .prefilter(true)
-            .filter("true")
-            .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Combine take and filter
+        check("_rowid IN (5, 10, 15) AND idx > 10", &[15]).await;
+        check("_rowaddr IN (5, 10, 15) AND idx > 10", &[15]).await;
+        check("_rowoffset IN (5, 10, 15) AND idx > 10", &[15]).await;
+        check("idx > 10 AND _rowid IN (5, 10, 15)", &[15]).await;
+        check("idx > 10 AND _rowaddr IN (5, 10, 15)", &[15]).await;
+        check("idx > 10 AND _rowoffset IN (5, 10, 15)", &[15]).await;
+        // Get's simplified into _rowid = 50 and so we catch it
+        check("_rowid = 50 AND _rowid = 50", &[50]).await;
 
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
+        // Filters that cannot be converted into a take
+        check_no_opt("_rowid = 50 AND _rowid = 51", &[]).await;
+        check_no_opt("(_rowid = 50 AND idx < 100) OR _rowid = 51", &[50, 51]).await;
 
-        dataset
-            .scan()
-            .prefilter(true)
-            .materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllEarly)
-            .filter("true")
-            .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(true)
-            .await
+        // Dynamic projection
+        let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+        scanner.filter("_rowoffset = 77").unwrap();
+        scanner
+            .project_with_transform(&[("foo", "idx * 2")])
             .unwrap();
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].schema().field(0).name(), "foo");
+        let val = batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values()[0];
+        assert_eq!(val, 154);
+    }
 
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
-
-        dataset
-            .scan()
-            .prefilter(true)
-            .materialization_style(MaterializationStyle::AllLate)
-            .filter("true")
-            .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(true)
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filter_not_in_is_not_inverted() {
+        let ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(10))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
+        let ds_copy = ds.clone();
+        let check = async move |filt: &str, expected_idx: &[i32]| {
+            let mut scanner = ds_copy.scan();
+            scanner.filter(filt).unwrap();
+            let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let idx = batch.column_by_name("idx").unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                idx.as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+                expected_idx,
+                "wrong rows for filter '{filt}'"
+            );
+        };
+
+        // Single fragment, so _rowid == _rowaddr == idx.
+        let complement: &[i32] = &[0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9];
+        check("_rowid NOT IN (2, 4, 6, 8)", complement).await;
+        check("_rowaddr NOT IN (2, 4, 6, 8)", complement).await;
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    pub async fn test_row_meta_columns(
-        #[values(
-            (true, false),  // Test row_id only
-            (false, true),  // Test row_address only
-            (true, true)    // Test both
-        )]
-        columns: (bool, bool),
-    ) {
-        let (with_row_id, with_row_address) = columns;
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let uri = &test_dir;
+    async fn test_nested_field_ordering() {
+        use arrow_array::StructArray;
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            arrow_schema::Field::new("data_item_id", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
-            arrow_schema::Field::new("a", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
+        // Create test data with nested structs
+        let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![3, 1, 2]);
+        let nested_values = Int32Array::from(vec![30, 10, 20]);
+        let nested_struct = StructArray::from(vec![(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, false)),
+            Arc::new(nested_values) as ArrayRef,
+        )]);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "nested",
+                DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
+                false,
+            ),
         ]));
 
-        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1001, 1002, 1003])),
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
-            ],
+            vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(nested_struct)],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(data)], schema.clone()),
-            uri,
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
 
-        // Test explicit projection
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let mut projection = vec!["data_item_id".to_string()];
-        if with_row_id {
-            scanner.with_row_id();
-            projection.push(ROW_ID.to_string());
-        }
-        if with_row_address {
-            scanner.with_row_address();
-            projection.push(ROW_ADDR.to_string());
-        }
+        // Test ordering by nested field
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering {
+                column_name: "nested.value".to_string(),
+                ascending: true,
+                nulls_first: true,
+            }]))
+            .unwrap(); // ascending order
 
-        scanner.project(&projection).unwrap();
         let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        let batch = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap().pop().unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify column existence and data type
-        if with_row_id {
-            let column = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(column.data_type(), &DataType::UInt64);
-        }
-        if with_row_address {
-            let column = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ADDR).unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(column.data_type(), &DataType::UInt64);
-        }
+        // Check that results are sorted by nested.value
+        let sorted_ids = batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[0], 1); // id=1 has nested.value=10
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[1], 2); // id=2 has nested.value=20
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[2], 3); // id=3 has nested.value=30
+    }
 
-        // Test implicit inclusion
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        if with_row_id {
-            scanner.with_row_id();
-        }
-        if with_row_address {
-            scanner.with_row_address();
-        }
-        scanner.project(&["data_item_id"]).unwrap();
-        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        let batch = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap().pop().unwrap();
-        let meta_column = batch.column_by_name(if with_row_id { ROW_ID } else { ROW_ADDR });
-        assert!(meta_column.is_some());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_limit_with_ordering_not_pushed_down() {
+        // This test verifies the fix for a bug where limit/offset could be pushed down
+        // even when ordering was specified. When ordering is present, we need to load
+        // all data first to sort it before applying limits.
 
-        // Test error case
+        // Create test data with specific ordering
+        let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![5, 2, 8, 1, 3, 7, 4, 6]);
+        let value_array = Int32Array::from(vec![50, 20, 80, 10, 30, 70, 40, 60]);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(value_array)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Test 1: limit with ordering should return top N after sorting
         let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        if with_row_id {
-            scanner.project(&[ROW_ID]).unwrap();
-        } else {
-            scanner.project(&[ROW_ADDR]).unwrap();
-        };
-        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stream.schema().fields().len(), 1);
-        if with_row_id {
-            assert!(stream.schema().field_with_name(ROW_ID).is_ok());
-        } else {
-            assert!(stream.schema().field_with_name(ROW_ADDR).is_ok());
-        }
-    }
+        scanner
+            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering {
+                column_name: "value".to_string(),
+                ascending: true,
+                nulls_first: true,
+            }]))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.limit(Some(3), None).unwrap();
 
-    async fn limit_offset_equivalency_test(scanner: &Scanner) {
-        async fn test_one(
-            scanner: &Scanner,
-            full_result: &RecordBatch,
-            limit: Option<i64>,
-            offset: Option<i64>,
-        ) {
-            let mut new_scanner = scanner.clone();
-            new_scanner.limit(limit, offset).unwrap();
-            if let Some(nearest) = new_scanner.nearest_mut() {
-                nearest.k = offset.unwrap_or(0).saturating_add(limit.unwrap_or(10_000)) as usize;
-            }
-            let result = new_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
 
-            let resolved_offset = offset.unwrap_or(0).min(full_result.num_rows() as i64);
-            let resolved_length = limit
-                .unwrap_or(i64::MAX)
-                .min(full_result.num_rows() as i64 - resolved_offset);
+        // Results should be sorted by value and limited to 3
+        let sorted_ids = batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
+        let sorted_values = batches[0].column(1).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[0], 1); // value=10
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[1], 2); // value=20
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[2], 3); // value=30
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values[0], 10);
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values[1], 20);
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values[2], 30);
 
-            let expected = full_result.slice(resolved_offset as usize, resolved_length as usize);
+        // Test 2: offset with ordering should skip first N after sorting
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering {
+                column_name: "value".to_string(),
+                ascending: true,
+                nulls_first: true,
+            }]))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.limit(Some(3), Some(2)).unwrap(); // Skip first 2, take next 3
 
-            if expected != result {
-                let plan = new_scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
-                assert_eq!(
-                    &expected, &result,
-                    "Limit: {:?}, Offset: {:?}, Plan: \n{}",
-                    limit, offset, plan
-                );
-            }
-        }
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
 
-        let mut scanner_full = scanner.clone();
-        if let Some(nearest) = scanner_full.nearest_mut() {
-            nearest.k = 500;
-        }
-        let full_results = scanner_full.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let sorted_ids = batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
+        let sorted_values = batches[0].column(1).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[0], 3); // value=30 (skipped 10, 20)
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[1], 4); // value=40
+        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[2], 5); // value=50
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values[0], 30);
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values[1], 40);
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values[2], 50);
 
-        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(1), None).await;
-        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(1), Some(1)).await;
-        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(1), Some(2)).await;
-        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(1), Some(10)).await;
+        // Test 3: without ordering, limit can be pushed down (different behavior)
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.limit(Some(3), None).unwrap();
 
-        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(3), None).await;
-        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(3), Some(2)).await;
-        test_one(scanner, &full_results, Some(3), Some(4)).await;
+        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
 
-        test_one(scanner, &full_results, None, Some(3)).await;
-        test_one(scanner, &full_results, None, Some(10)).await;
+        // Should get first 3 rows in storage order (not sorted)
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 3);
+        let unsorted_values = batches[0].column(1).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
+        // These will be in original insertion order, not sorted
+        assert_eq!(unsorted_values[0], 50);
+        assert_eq!(unsorted_values[1], 20);
+        assert_eq!(unsorted_values[2], 80);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scan_limit_offset() {
-        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
-        limit_offset_equivalency_test(&scanner).await;
-    }
+    async fn test_scan_with_version_columns() {
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_knn_limit_offset() {
-        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+        // Create a simple dataset
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let test_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]);
-        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+
         scanner
-            .nearest("vec", &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .project(&["i"])
+            .project(&[ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION])
             .unwrap();
-        limit_offset_equivalency_test(&scanner).await;
-    }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_ivf_pq_limit_offset() {
-        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+        // Check that the schema includes version columns
+        let output_schema = scanner.schema().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            output_schema
+                .column_with_name("_row_last_updated_at_version")
+                .is_some(),
+            "Schema should include _row_last_updated_at_version"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            output_schema
+                .column_with_name("_row_created_at_version")
+                .is_some(),
+            "Schema should include _row_created_at_version"
+        );
+
+        // Actually read the data to ensure version columns are materialized
+        let batches = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
-        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
-        let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]);
-        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
-        scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vector, 500).unwrap();
-        limit_offset_equivalency_test(&scanner).await;
-    }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_fts_limit_offset() {
-        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
-            .await
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        let batch = &batches[0];
+
+        // Verify version columns exist in the output
+        let last_updated = batch
+            .column_by_name("_row_last_updated_at_version")
+            .expect("Should have _row_last_updated_at_version column");
+        let created_at = batch
+            .column_by_name("_row_created_at_version")
+            .expect("Should have _row_created_at_version column");
+
+        // Verify they have the correct values (all rows created in version 1)
+        let last_updated_array = last_updated
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
             .unwrap();
-        test_ds.make_fts_index().await.unwrap();
-        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
-        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("4".into()))
+        let created_at_array = created_at
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
             .unwrap();
-        limit_offset_equivalency_test(&scanner).await;
+
+        for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                last_updated_array.value(i),
+                1,
+                "All rows last updated at version 1"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                created_at_array.value(i),
+                1,
+                "All rows created at version 1"
+            );
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn test_row_offset_read_helper(
-        ds: &Dataset,
-        scan_builder: impl FnOnce(&mut Scanner) -> &mut Scanner,
-        expected_cols: &[&str],
-        expected_row_offsets: &[u64],
-    ) {
-        let mut scanner = ds.scan();
-        let scanner = scan_builder(&mut scanner);
-        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
+    #[test_log::test(test)]
+    fn test_scan_finishes_all_tasks() {
+        // Need to use multi-threaded runtime otherwise tasks don't run unless someone is polling somewhere
+        let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+            .enable_time()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let schema = stream.schema();
-        let actual_cols = schema
-            .fields()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        assert_eq!(&actual_cols, expected_cols);
+        runtime.block_on(async move {
+            let ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1000), FragmentRowCount::from(10))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
-        let batch = arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+            // This scan with has a small I/O buffer size and batch size to mimic a real-world situation
+            // that required a lot of data.  Many fragments will be scheduled at low priority and the data
+            // buffer will fill up with data reads.  When the scan is abandoned, the tasks to read the fragment
+            // metadata were left behind and would never finish because the data was never decoded to drain the
+            // backpressure queue.
+            //
+            // The fix (that this test verifies) is to ensure we close the I/O scheduler when the scan is abandoned.
+            let mut stream = ds
+                .scan()
+                .fragment_readahead(1000)
+                .batch_size(1)
+                .io_buffer_size(1)
+                .batch_readahead(1)
+                .try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            stream.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        });
 
-        let row_offsets = batch
-            .column_by_name(ROW_OFFSET)
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
-            .values();
-        assert_eq!(row_offsets.as_ref(), expected_row_offsets);
+        let start = Instant::now();
+        while start.elapsed() < Duration::from_secs(10) {
+            if runtime.handle().metrics().num_alive_tasks() == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
+            std::thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100));
+        }
+
+        assert!(
+            runtime.handle().metrics().num_alive_tasks() == 0,
+            "Tasks should have finished within 10 seconds but there are still {} tasks running",
+            runtime.handle().metrics().num_alive_tasks()
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn find_filtered_read(plan: &dyn ExecutionPlan) -> Option<&FilteredReadExec> {
+        if let Some(f) = plan.downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>() {
+            return Some(f);
+        }
+        for child in plan.children() {
+            if let Some(f) = find_filtered_read(child.as_ref()) {
+                return Some(f);
+            }
+        }
+        None
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_row_offset_read() {
-        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(3))
+    async fn test_io_buffer_size_explicit_propagated() {
+        // Sanity check: an explicit .io_buffer_size(N) call must reach the
+        // FilteredReadExec options unchanged, and the absence of one must leave
+        // io_buffer_size_bytes as None so FilteredReadExec can pick its own
+        // fallback (env var or max_bandwidth).
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(8), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://test_io_buffer_explicit", None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        // [0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5], [6, 7, 8]
-
-        // Delete [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
-        ds.delete("idx >= 2 AND idx <= 6").await.unwrap();
-
-        // Normal read, all columns plus row offset
-        test_row_offset_read_helper(
-            &ds,
-            |scanner| scanner.project(&["idx", ROW_OFFSET]).unwrap(),
-            &["idx", ROW_OFFSET],
-            &[0, 1, 2, 3],
-        )
-        .await;
 
-        // Read with row offset only
-        test_row_offset_read_helper(
-            &ds,
-            |scanner| scanner.project(&[ROW_OFFSET]).unwrap(),
-            &[ROW_OFFSET],
-            &[0, 1, 2, 3],
-        )
-        .await;
+        let plan = dataset.scan().create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let filtered = find_filtered_read(plan.as_ref())
+            .expect("expected a FilteredReadExec in the scan plan");
+        assert_eq!(filtered.options().io_buffer_size_bytes, None);
 
-        // Filtered read of row offset
-        test_row_offset_read_helper(
-            &ds,
-            |scanner| {
-                scanner
-                    .filter("idx > 1")
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .project(&[ROW_OFFSET])
-                    .unwrap()
-            },
-            &[ROW_OFFSET],
-            &[2, 3],
-        )
-        .await;
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.io_buffer_size(7777);
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let filtered = find_filtered_read(plan.as_ref())
+            .expect("expected a FilteredReadExec in the scan plan");
+        assert_eq!(filtered.options().io_buffer_size_bytes, Some(7777));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_filter_to_take() {
-        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(100))
+    async fn test_materialization_readahead_bytes_propagated() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(8), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://test_materialization_readahead_bytes", None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let row_ids = ds
-            .scan()
-            .project(&Vec::<&str>::default())
-            .unwrap()
-            .with_row_id()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.materialization_readahead_bytes(7777);
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let filtered = find_filtered_read(plan.as_ref())
+            .expect("expected a FilteredReadExec in the scan plan");
+        assert_eq!(
+            filtered.options().materialization_readahead_bytes,
+            Some(7777)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zero_materialization_readahead_bytes_rejected() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(8), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://test_zero_materialization_budget", None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let schema = row_ids[0].schema();
-        let row_ids = concat_batches(&schema, row_ids.iter()).unwrap();
-        let row_ids = row_ids.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().clone();
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.materialization_readahead_bytes(0);
+        let err = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("materialization_readahead_bytes must be greater than 0")
+        );
+    }
 
-        let row_addrs = ds
-            .scan()
-            .project(&Vec::<&str>::default())
-            .unwrap()
-            .with_row_address()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_batch_readahead_bounds_decode_concurrency() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(8), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://test_batch_readahead_concurrency", None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let schema = row_addrs[0].schema();
-        let row_addrs = concat_batches(&schema, row_addrs.iter()).unwrap();
-        let row_addrs = row_addrs.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().clone();
 
-        ds.delete("idx >= 190 AND idx < 210").await.unwrap();
+        // Default: threading mode falls back to get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().
+        let plan = dataset.scan().create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let filtered = find_filtered_read(plan.as_ref())
+            .expect("expected a FilteredReadExec in the scan plan");
+        assert_eq!(
+            filtered.options().threading_mode,
+            FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus()),
+        );
 
-        let ds_copy = ds.clone();
-        let do_check = async move |filt: &str, expected_idx: &[i32], applies_optimization: bool| {
-            let mut scanner = ds_copy.scan();
-            scanner.filter(filt).unwrap();
-            // Verify the optimization is applied
-            let plan = scanner.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
-            if applies_optimization {
-                assert!(
-                    plan.contains("OneShotStream"),
-                    "expected take optimization to be applied. Filter: '{}'.  Plan:\n{}",
-                    filt,
-                    plan
-                );
-            } else {
-                assert!(
-                    !plan.contains("OneShotStream"),
-                    "expected take optimization to not be applied. Filter: '{}'.  Plan:\n{}",
-                    filt,
-                    plan
-                );
-            }
+        // Explicit batch_readahead(N) bounds the decode fan-out to N.
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.batch_readahead(3);
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let filtered = find_filtered_read(plan.as_ref())
+            .expect("expected a FilteredReadExec in the scan plan");
+        assert_eq!(
+            filtered.options().threading_mode,
+            FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(3),
+        );
 
-            // Verify the results
-            let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-            let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
-            let idx = batches
-                .iter()
-                .map(|b| b.column_by_name("idx").unwrap().as_ref())
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.batch_readahead(0);
+        let Err(Error::InvalidInput { source, .. }) = scanner.create_plan().await else {
+            panic!("expected batch_readahead=0 to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            source
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("batch_readahead must be greater than 0")
+        );
+    }
 
-            if idx.is_empty() {
-                assert!(expected_idx.is_empty());
-                return;
-            }
+    // The env var key scopes serial_test's lock so this test only blocks others
+    // that touch LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE — unrelated tests still run in
+    // parallel.
+    #[test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE)]
+    fn test_default_io_buffer_size_override_env_var() {
+        // Force the sibling LazyLock to evaluate before we mutate the env var.
+        // It caches forever on first read, so another test concurrently reading
+        // *DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE during our mutation window would otherwise
+        // cache one of our test values and poison the rest of the suite.
+        let _ = *DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE;
+
+        // FilteredReadExec consults this when no explicit io_buffer_size was set
+        // on the scanner, so the LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE env var takes
+        // precedence over the max_bandwidth fallback.
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE", "4096");
+        }
+        assert_eq!(get_default_io_buffer_size_override(), Some(4096));
 
-            let idx = arrow::compute::concat(&idx).unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(idx.as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(), expected_idx);
-        };
-        let check =
-            async |filt: &str, expected_idx: &[i32]| do_check(filt, expected_idx, true).await;
-        let check_no_opt = async |filt: &str, expected_idx: &[i32]| {
-            do_check(filt, expected_idx, false).await;
-        };
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE", "not_a_number");
+        }
+        assert_eq!(get_default_io_buffer_size_override(), None);
 
-        // Simple case, no deletions yet
-        check("_rowid = 50", &[50]).await;
-        check("_rowaddr = 50", &[50]).await;
-        check("_rowoffset = 50", &[50]).await;
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::remove_var("LANCE_DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE");
+        }
+        assert_eq!(get_default_io_buffer_size_override(), None);
+    }
 
-        check(
-            "_rowid = 50 OR _rowid = 51 OR _rowid = 52 OR _rowid = 49",
-            &[49, 50, 51, 52],
-        )
-        .await;
-        check(
-            "_rowaddr = 50 OR _rowaddr = 51 OR _rowaddr = 52 OR _rowaddr = 49",
-            &[49, 50, 51, 52],
-        )
-        .await;
-        check(
-            "_rowoffset = 50 OR _rowoffset = 51 OR _rowoffset = 52 OR _rowoffset = 49",
-            &[49, 50, 51, 52],
-        )
-        .await;
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::covered(vec![Some(vec![0])], true)]
+    #[case::partial(vec![Some(vec![0, 1])], false)]
+    #[case::removed_fragment(vec![Some(vec![0, 100])], true)]
+    #[case::unknown(vec![None], false)]
+    #[case::mixed_unknown(vec![Some(vec![0]), None], false)]
+    #[case::multiple_segments(vec![Some(vec![0]), Some(vec![1])], false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_segment_prefilter_coverage(
+        #[case] coverage: Vec<Option<Vec<u32>>>,
+        #[case] no_prefilter: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let metadata = test_ds.dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let indices: Vec<_> = coverage
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|fragments| {
+                let mut index = metadata[0].clone();
+                index.fragment_bitmap = fragments.map(|ids| ids.into_iter().collect());
+                index
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.with_fragments(vec![test_ds.dataset.manifest.fragments[0].clone()]);
+        let source = scanner
+            .ann_prefilter_source(&ExprFilterPlan::default(), &indices)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(matches!(source, PreFilterSource::None), no_prefilter);
+    }
 
-        check("_rowid IN (52, 51, 50, 17)", &[17, 50, 51, 52]).await;
-        check("_rowaddr IN (52, 51, 50, 17)", &[17, 50, 51, 52]).await;
-        check("_rowoffset IN (52, 51, 50, 17)", &[17, 50, 51, 52]).await;
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_segment_prefilter_execution(
+        #[values(false, true)] segmented: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] filtered: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] has_unindexed: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let segments = if segmented {
+            test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap()
+        } else {
+            test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+            vec![test_ds.dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].uuid]
+        };
+        let indices = test_ds.dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let selected_segment = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|index| index.uuid == segments[0])
+            .unwrap();
+        // The unsegmented index spans both fragments; selecting only fragment 0 must
+        // retain the prefilter even without a predicate or unindexed fallback.
+        let expected_coverage: RoaringBitmap = if segmented { vec![0] } else { vec![0, 1] }
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            selected_segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref(),
+            Some(&expected_coverage)
+        );
+        test_ds.dataset.delete("i = 7").await.unwrap();
+        if has_unindexed {
+            test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let fragments = test_ds.dataset.manifest.fragments.clone();
+        let mut scope = vec![fragments[0].clone()];
+        if has_unindexed {
+            scope.push(fragments[2].clone());
+        }
+        let stats = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let collected = stats.clone();
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .with_fragments(scope)
+            .with_index_segments(vec![segments[0]])
+            .unwrap()
+            .scan_stats_callback(Arc::new(move |summary| {
+                *collected.lock().unwrap() = Some(summary.clone());
+            }));
+        scanner
+            .nearest("vec", &Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]), 500)
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.nprobes(2);
+        if filtered {
+            scanner.filter("i >= 100").unwrap();
+        }
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let actual: BTreeSet<i32> = batch["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        let expected: BTreeSet<i32> = (0..200)
+            .chain((400..410).filter(|_| has_unindexed))
+            .filter(|i| *i != 7 && (!filtered || *i >= 100))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), expected.len());
+        let summary = stats.lock().unwrap().take().unwrap();
+        let loads = summary
+            .all_counts
+            .get("prefilter_loads")
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        assert_eq!(loads, if filtered || !segmented { 1 } else { 0 });
+        for name in [
+            "ANNSubIndexExec_elapsed_compute",
+            "index_open_time",
+            "index_partition_load_time",
+            "index_partition_prepare_time",
+            "index_cpu_queue_wait_time",
+            "index_search_time",
+            "index_query_prepare_time",
+            "index_distance_topk_time",
+            "index_result_materialize_time",
+        ] {
+            assert!(
+                summary.all_times.get(name).is_some_and(|time| *time > 0),
+                "missing ANN stage timing: {name}: {:?}",
+                summary.all_times
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Taking _rowid / _rowaddr of deleted row
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::all(vec![0, 1], false, true)]
+    #[case::reordered(vec![1, 0], false, true)]
+    #[case::duplicates(vec![0, 0], false, false)]
+    #[case::subset(vec![0], false, false)]
+    #[case::empty(vec![], false, false)]
+    #[case::filtered(vec![0, 1], true, false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_full_snapshot_prefilter(
+        #[case] selected: Vec<usize>,
+        #[case] has_filter: bool,
+        #[case] no_prefilter: bool,
+    ) {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let fragments = &test_ds.dataset.manifest.fragments;
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.with_fragments(selected.iter().map(|i| fragments[*i].clone()).collect());
+        let filter = if has_filter {
+            ExprFilterPlan::new_refine_only(col("i").gt(lit(100)))
+        } else {
+            ExprFilterPlan::default()
+        };
+        let source = scanner
+            .prefilter_source(&filter, fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(matches!(source, PreFilterSource::None), no_prefilter);
+        // Planning must preserve the explicit scope used by unindexed-fragment fallback.
+        assert_eq!(scanner.fragments.as_ref().unwrap().len(), selected.len());
+    }
 
-        // When using rowid / rowaddr we get an empty
-        check(&format!("_rowid = {}", row_ids.value(190)), &[]).await;
-        check(&format!("_rowaddr = {}", row_addrs.value(190)), &[]).await;
-        // When using rowoffset it just skips the deleted rows (impossible to create an offset
-        // into a deleted row)
-        check("_rowoffset = 190", &[210]).await;
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_full_snapshot_prefilter_preserves_deleted_and_unindexed_rows(
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] pin_segment: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        let indexed_snapshot = test_ds.dataset.clone();
+        test_ds.dataset.delete("i = 7").await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_new_data().await.unwrap();
+        for dataset in [&indexed_snapshot, &test_ds.dataset] {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.prefilter(true);
+            scanner.with_fragments(dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone());
+            scanner
+                .nearest("vec", &Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]), 500)
+                .unwrap();
+            scanner.nprobes(2);
+            if pin_segment {
+                let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+                scanner.with_index_segments(vec![indices[0].uuid]).unwrap();
+            }
+            let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let actual: BTreeSet<i32> = batch["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .collect();
+            let expected: BTreeSet<i32> =
+                if dataset.version().version == indexed_snapshot.version().version {
+                    (0..400).collect()
+                } else {
+                    (0..410).filter(|i| *i != 7).collect()
+                };
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), expected.len());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_full_snapshot_prefilter_4bit_pq_recall(
+        #[values(MetricType::L2, MetricType::Dot)] metric: MetricType,
+        #[values(false, true)] postfilter: bool,
+    ) {
+        const DIM: usize = 8;
+        const K: usize = 10;
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(lance_datagen::Seed(42))
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>((DIM as u32).into()))
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(256))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let centroids = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; DIM]), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let codebook = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..DIM).flat_map(|_| (0..16).map(|i| i as f32 / 15.0)),
+        ));
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            metric,
+            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(1, centroids).unwrap(),
+            PQBuildParams::with_codebook(DIM, 4, codebook),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let vectors = data["vec"].as_fixed_size_list();
+
+        // One 512-row partition and k=10 leave most rows to the bulk scan's
+        // quantized screening; a large refinement budget would hide rows it
+        // wrongly drops.
+        for query_row in [240, 360, 480] {
+            let query = vectors.value(query_row);
+            let make_scanner = |use_index| {
+                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+                scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+                scanner
+                    .nearest("vec", query.as_ref(), K)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .distance_metric(metric)
+                    .nprobes(1)
+                    .use_index(use_index);
+                if postfilter {
+                    // Postfilter predicates are not passed to the ANN prefilter.
+                    scanner.filter("id >= 16").unwrap();
+                } else {
+                    scanner.prefilter(true);
+                }
+                scanner
+            };
+            let expected = make_scanner(false).try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let implicit = make_scanner(true).try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut scoped = make_scanner(true);
+            scoped.with_fragments(dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone());
+            let plan = scoped.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"), "{plan}");
+            let actual = scoped.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(actual, implicit);
+            let ids = |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+                batch["id"]
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>()
+            };
+            let expected = ids(&expected);
+            assert!(!expected.is_empty());
+            let actual = ids(&actual);
+            let recall = actual.intersection(&expected).count() as f64 / expected.len() as f64;
+            assert!(
+                recall >= 0.5,
+                "{metric:?}, postfilter={postfilter}, query={query_row}: {recall}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Grabbing after the deleted rows
-        check(&format!("_rowid = {}", row_ids.value(250)), &[250]).await;
-        check(&format!("_rowaddr = {}", row_addrs.value(250)), &[250]).await;
-        check("_rowoffset = 250", &[270]).await;
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::single("single")]
+    #[case::batch("batch")]
+    #[case::fts("fts")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_full_snapshot_prefilter_execution_metrics(
+        #[values(false, true)] filtered: bool,
+        #[case] search_type: &str,
+    ) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if search_type == "fts" {
+            test_ds.make_fts_index().await.unwrap();
+        } else {
+            test_ds.make_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let stats = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let collected = stats.clone();
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .with_fragments(test_ds.dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone())
+            .scan_stats_callback(Arc::new(move |summary| {
+                *collected.lock().unwrap() = Some(summary.clone());
+            }));
+        if search_type == "batch" {
+            let queries =
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 64]), 32)
+                    .unwrap();
+            scanner.nearest("vec", &queries, 100).unwrap();
+        } else if search_type == "fts" {
+            scanner
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("s".to_owned()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(Some(100), None)
+                .unwrap();
+        } else {
+            scanner
+                .nearest("vec", &Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]), 100)
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        scanner.nprobes(2);
+        if filtered {
+            scanner.filter("i >= 200").unwrap();
+        }
+        if search_type == "batch" {
+            assert!(
+                scanner
+                    .explain_plan(false)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .contains("ANNIvfBatch")
+            );
+        }
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            if search_type == "batch" { 200 } else { 100 }
+        );
+        let summary = stats.lock().unwrap().take().unwrap();
+        // The batch node must materialize the shared filter once, not once per query.
+        for (name, expected) in [
+            ("prefilter_loads", 1),
+            ("prefilter_input_rows", 200),
+            ("prefilter_row_ids", 200),
+        ] {
+            let value = summary.all_counts.get(name).copied().unwrap_or_default();
+            assert_eq!(value, if filtered { expected } else { 0 }, "{name}");
+        }
+        let batches = summary
+            .all_counts
+            .get("prefilter_input_batches")
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        assert_eq!(batches > 0, filtered);
+        for name in [
+            "prefilter_load_time",
+            "prefilter_input_time",
+            "prefilter_build_time",
+        ] {
+            let value = summary.all_times.get(name).copied().unwrap_or_default();
+            assert_eq!(value > 0, filtered, "{name}: {value}");
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Grabbing past the end
-        check("_rowoffset = 1000", &[]).await;
+    fn assert_values_in_range(array: &Int32Array, range: std::ops::Range<i32>, msg: &str) {
+        assert!(!array.is_empty(), "Expected some results but got none");
+        assert!(
+            array
+                .iter()
+                .all(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| range.contains(&val))),
+            "{msg} (expected range {range:?})"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Combine take and filter
-        check("_rowid IN (5, 10, 15) AND idx > 10", &[15]).await;
-        check("_rowaddr IN (5, 10, 15) AND idx > 10", &[15]).await;
-        check("_rowoffset IN (5, 10, 15) AND idx > 10", &[15]).await;
-        check("idx > 10 AND _rowid IN (5, 10, 15)", &[15]).await;
-        check("idx > 10 AND _rowaddr IN (5, 10, 15)", &[15]).await;
-        check("idx > 10 AND _rowoffset IN (5, 10, 15)", &[15]).await;
-        // Get's simplified into _rowid = 50 and so we catch it
-        check("_rowid = 50 AND _rowid = 50", &[50]).await;
+    // Helper to assert that results exist from all fragment ranges
+    fn assert_has_all_fragments(array: &Int32Array) {
+        assert!(
+            array
+                .iter()
+                .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (0..200).contains(&val)))
+                && array
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (200..400).contains(&val)))
+                && array
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (400..410).contains(&val)))
+                && array
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (410..420).contains(&val))),
+            "Expected results from all fragments"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Filters that cannot be converted into a take
-        check_no_opt("_rowid = 50 AND _rowid = 51", &[]).await;
-        check_no_opt("(_rowid = 50 AND idx < 100) OR _rowid = 51", &[50, 51]).await;
+    // Common test function for fragment list filtering (unindexed + indexed fragments)
+    async fn test_fragment_list_filtering(
+        test_ds: &TestVectorDataset,
+        fragments: &[Fragment],
+        mut build_scanner: impl FnMut(&Dataset) -> Scanner,
+    ) {
+        // Test 1: Query without fragment filter - should get results from all fragments
+        let batch = build_scanner(&test_ds.dataset)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let i_array = batch
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_has_all_fragments(i_array);
+
+        // A complete explicit scope must preserve indexed hits and unindexed fallback.
+        let mut scanner = build_scanner(&test_ds.dataset);
+        scanner.with_fragments(fragments.to_vec());
+        let scoped = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut expected = i_array.values().to_vec();
+        let mut actual = scoped["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+        expected.sort_unstable();
+        actual.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+
+        // Test 2: Query only one unindexed fragment (fragment 2), excluding fragment 3
+        let mut scanner = build_scanner(&test_ds.dataset);
+        scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragments[2].clone()]);
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let i_array = batch
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_values_in_range(i_array, 400..410, "Should only get results from fragment 2");
+
+        // Test 3: Query a single indexed fragment (fragment 0 only)
+        let mut scanner = build_scanner(&test_ds.dataset);
+        scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragments[0].clone()]);
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let i_array = batch
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_values_in_range(i_array, 0..200, "Should only get results from fragment 0");
+
+        // Test 4: Query all indexed fragments (0, 1) plus one unindexed fragment (2), excluding fragment 3
+        let mut scanner = build_scanner(&test_ds.dataset);
+        scanner.with_fragments(vec![
+            fragments[0].clone(),
+            fragments[1].clone(),
+            fragments[2].clone(),
+        ]);
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let i_array = batch
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_values_in_range(
+            i_array,
+            0..410,
+            "Should get results from fragments 0, 1, and 2, excluding fragment 3",
+        );
 
-        // Dynamic projection
-        let mut scanner = ds.scan();
-        scanner.filter("_rowoffset = 77").unwrap();
-        scanner
-            .project_with_transform(&[("foo", "idx * 2")])
+        // Test 5: One indexed fragment (0) + one unindexed fragment (2), skipping indexed fragment 1 and unindexed fragment 3
+        let mut scanner = build_scanner(&test_ds.dataset);
+        scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragments[0].clone(), fragments[2].clone()]);
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let i_array = batch
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
             .unwrap();
-        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(batches[0].schema().field(0).name(), "foo");
-        let val = batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values()[0];
-        assert_eq!(val, 154);
+        assert!(
+            i_array
+                .iter()
+                .all(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (0..200).contains(&val) || (400..410).contains(&val)))
+                && i_array
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (0..200).contains(&val)))
+                && i_array
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (400..410).contains(&val))),
+            "Should only get results from fragment 0 (indexed) and fragment 2 (unindexed)"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_nested_field_ordering() {
-        use arrow_array::StructArray;
-
-        // Create test data with nested structs
-        let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![3, 1, 2]);
-        let nested_values = Int32Array::from(vec![30, 10, 20]);
-        let nested_struct = StructArray::from(vec![(
-            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, false)),
-            Arc::new(nested_values) as ArrayRef,
-        )]);
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new(
-                "nested",
-                DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
-                false,
-            ),
-        ]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(nested_struct)],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+    async fn test_vector_search_respects_fragment_list() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
+        // Create one segment per indexed fragment so fragment filtering must prune ANN fan-out.
+        test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let query: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
 
-        // Test ordering by nested field
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering {
-                column_name: "nested.value".to_string(),
-                ascending: true,
-                nulls_first: true,
-            }]))
-            .unwrap(); // ascending order
+        // Append two more unindexed fragments
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(400, 410).await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(410, 420).await.unwrap();
 
-        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        // Fragment 0: i=0..200 (indexed), Fragment 1: i=200..400 (indexed)
+        // Fragment 2: i=400..410 (unindexed), Fragment 3: i=410..420 (unindexed)
+        let fragments = test_ds.dataset.fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 4);
 
-        // Check that results are sorted by nested.value
-        let sorted_ids = batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
-        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[0], 1); // id=1 has nested.value=10
-        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[1], 2); // id=2 has nested.value=20
-        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[2], 3); // id=3 has nested.value=30
+        test_fragment_list_filtering(&test_ds, fragments, |dataset| {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner.nearest("vec", &query, 420).unwrap();
+            scanner
+        })
+        .await;
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_limit_with_ordering_not_pushed_down() {
-        // This test verifies the fix for a bug where limit/offset could be pushed down
-        // even when ordering was specified. When ordering is present, we need to load
-        // all data first to sort it before applying limits.
-
-        // Create test data with specific ordering
-        let id_array = Int32Array::from(vec![5, 2, 8, 1, 3, 7, 4, 6]);
-        let value_array = Int32Array::from(vec![50, 20, 80, 10, 30, 70, 40, 60]);
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, false),
-        ]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(value_array)],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+    async fn test_vector_search_fragment_filter_prunes_segment_fanout() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap();
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
+        let query: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(400, 410).await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(410, 420).await.unwrap();
+        let fragments = test_ds.dataset.fragments();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vec", &query, 420).unwrap();
+        let full_plan = scanner.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            full_plan.contains("ANNSubIndex: name=idx, k=420, deltas=2, metric=L2"),
+            "expected two ANN deltas without fragment filter, plan was:\n{full_plan}"
+        );
 
-        // Test 1: limit with ordering should return top N after sorting
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
         scanner
-            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering {
-                column_name: "value".to_string(),
-                ascending: true,
-                nulls_first: true,
-            }]))
-            .unwrap();
-        scanner.limit(Some(3), None).unwrap();
-
-        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+            .nearest("vec", &query, 420)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_fragments(vec![fragments[0].clone()]);
+        let filtered_plan = scanner.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            filtered_plan.contains("ANNSubIndex: name=idx, k=420, deltas=1, metric=L2"),
+            "expected one ANN delta with fragment filter, plan was:\n{filtered_plan}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Results should be sorted by value and limited to 3
-        let sorted_ids = batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
-        let sorted_values = batches[0].column(1).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
-        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 3);
-        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[0], 1); // value=10
-        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[1], 2); // value=20
-        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[2], 3); // value=30
-        assert_eq!(sorted_values[0], 10);
-        assert_eq!(sorted_values[1], 20);
-        assert_eq!(sorted_values[2], 30);
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_prefilter_prunes_scalar_segments(
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] explicit_fragments: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vector_segments = test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_segmented_scalar_index().await.unwrap();
+        let fragments = test_ds.dataset.fragments();
+        let query: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|value| value as f32).collect();
 
-        // Test 2: offset with ordering should skip first N after sorting
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
         scanner
-            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering {
-                column_name: "value".to_string(),
-                ascending: true,
-                nulls_first: true,
-            }]))
+            .nearest("vec", &query, 200)
+            .unwrap()
+            .nprobes(2)
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .with_index_segments(vec![vector_segments[1]])
             .unwrap();
-        scanner.limit(Some(3), Some(2)).unwrap(); // Skip first 2, take next 3
+        if explicit_fragments {
+            scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragments[1].clone()]);
+        }
+        scanner.filter("NOT (i < 250)").unwrap();
 
-        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let analyzed = scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let scalar_index_node = analyzed
+            .lines()
+            .find(|line| line.trim_start().starts_with("ScalarIndexQuery:"))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("expected a scalar index query, plan was:\n{analyzed}"));
+        assert!(
+            scalar_index_node.contains("indices_loaded=1,"),
+            "expected one scalar segment to be loaded, plan was:\n{analyzed}"
+        );
+        if explicit_fragments {
+            assert!(
+                analyzed.contains("projection=[], num_fragments=1"),
+                "segment pruning must preserve the FilteredRead row-ID path, plan was:\n{analyzed}"
+            );
+        }
 
-        let sorted_ids = batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
-        let sorted_values = batches[0].column(1).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
-        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 3);
-        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[0], 3); // value=30 (skipped 10, 20)
-        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[1], 4); // value=40
-        assert_eq!(sorted_ids[2], 5); // value=50
-        assert_eq!(sorted_values[0], 30);
-        assert_eq!(sorted_values[1], 40);
-        assert_eq!(sorted_values[2], 50);
+        let actual = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let actual = actual["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+
+        let mut oracle = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        oracle.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        oracle
+            .nearest("vec", &query, 200)
+            .unwrap()
+            .nprobes(2)
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .use_index(false)
+            .use_scalar_index(false)
+            .with_fragments(vec![fragments[1].clone()]);
+        oracle.filter("NOT (i < 250)").unwrap();
+        let expected = oracle.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let expected = expected["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
 
-        // Test 3: without ordering, limit can be pushed down (different behavior)
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.limit(Some(3), None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+        assert!(!expected.is_empty());
+        let recall = actual.intersection(&expected).count() as f64 / expected.len() as f64;
+        assert_eq!(recall, 1.0);
+    }
 
-        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap();
-        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::plain_all(false, false)]
+    #[case::plain_fragment(false, true)]
+    #[case::fts_fragment(true, true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_filtered_read_prunes_scalar_segments(
+        #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[case] full_text_search: bool,
+        #[case] explicit_fragments: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, stable_row_ids)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_segmented_scalar_index().await.unwrap();
+        if full_text_search {
+            test_ds.make_fts_index().await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let fragments = test_ds.dataset.fragments();
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        scanner.filter("NOT (i < 150)").unwrap();
+        if explicit_fragments {
+            scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragments[1].clone()]);
+        }
+        if full_text_search {
+            // Every fixture row contains the token "s", so the scalar-only scan is an oracle.
+            scanner
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("s".to_owned()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .prefilter(true);
+        }
+        let analyzed = scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let scalar_index_node = analyzed
+            .lines()
+            .find(|line| line.trim_start().starts_with("ScalarIndexQuery:"))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("expected a scalar index query, plan was:\n{analyzed}"));
+        let expected_segments = if explicit_fragments {
+            1
+        } else {
+            fragments.len()
+        };
+        assert!(
+            scalar_index_node.contains(&format!("indices_loaded={expected_segments},")),
+            "unexpected scalar segment count, plan was:\n{analyzed}"
+        );
+        let actual = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let actual = actual["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
 
-        // Should get first 3 rows in storage order (not sorted)
-        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 3);
-        let unsorted_values = batches[0].column(1).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
-        // These will be in original insertion order, not sorted
-        assert_eq!(unsorted_values[0], 50);
-        assert_eq!(unsorted_values[1], 20);
-        assert_eq!(unsorted_values[2], 80);
+        let mut oracle = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        oracle.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+        oracle.filter("NOT (i < 150)").unwrap();
+        oracle.use_scalar_index(false);
+        if explicit_fragments {
+            oracle.with_fragments(vec![fragments[1].clone()]);
+        }
+        let expected = oracle.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let expected = expected["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert!(!expected.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scan_with_version_columns() {
-        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
-        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-
-        // Create a simple dataset
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "id",
-            DataType::Int32,
-            false,
-        )]));
+    async fn test_vector_search_respects_index_segments() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let segment_ids = test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap();
 
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let query: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(400, 410).await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(410, 420).await.unwrap();
 
-        let test_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .nearest("vec", &query, 420)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_index_segments(vec![segment_ids[0]])
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let i_array = batch
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 200);
+        assert_values_in_range(
+            i_array,
+            0..200,
+            "Should only get results from the selected index segment",
+        );
+    }
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_intersects_fragments_and_index_segments() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let segment_ids = test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let query: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(400, 410).await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(410, 420).await.unwrap();
+        let fragments = test_ds.dataset.fragments();
 
+        let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
         scanner
-            .project(&[ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION])
+            .nearest("vec", &query, 420)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_fragments(vec![fragments[0].clone(), fragments[2].clone()])
+            .with_index_segments(vec![segment_ids[0]])
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let i_array = batch
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Check that the schema includes version columns
-        let output_schema = scanner.schema().await.unwrap();
         assert!(
-            output_schema
-                .column_with_name("_row_last_updated_at_version")
-                .is_some(),
-            "Schema should include _row_last_updated_at_version"
+            i_array
+                .iter()
+                .all(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (0..200).contains(&val) || (400..410).contains(&val)))
+                && i_array
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (0..200).contains(&val)))
+                && i_array
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|v| v.is_some_and(|val| (400..410).contains(&val))),
+            "Should get selected segment rows plus flat fallback for target fragments outside the selected segments"
         );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_rejects_unknown_index_segment() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+
+        let query: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        let err = test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", &query, 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_index_segments(vec![Uuid::new_v4()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
         assert!(
-            output_schema
-                .column_with_name("_row_created_at_version")
-                .is_some(),
-            "Schema should include _row_created_at_version"
+            err.to_string().contains("unknown index segments"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
         );
+    }
 
-        // Actually read the data to ensure version columns are materialized
-        let batches = scanner
-            .try_into_stream()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_search_rejects_metric_mismatch_for_index_segments() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
             .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let segment_ids = test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap();
+
+        let query: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
+        let err = test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", &query, 10)
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .distance_metric(DistanceType::Dot)
+            .with_index_segments(vec![segment_ids[0]])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("with_index_segments requested metric"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
-        let batch = &batches[0];
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_with_index_segments_rejects_empty_list() {
+        let test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let query: Float32Array = (0..32).map(|v| v as f32).collect();
 
-        // Verify version columns exist in the output
-        let last_updated = batch
-            .column_by_name("_row_last_updated_at_version")
-            .expect("Should have _row_last_updated_at_version column");
-        let created_at = batch
-            .column_by_name("_row_created_at_version")
-            .expect("Should have _row_created_at_version column");
+        let Err(err) = test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", &query, 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_index_segments(vec![])
+        else {
+            panic!("expected empty index segments to be rejected");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("with_index_segments does not accept an empty segment list"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Verify they have the correct values (all rows created in version 1)
-        let last_updated_array = last_updated
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
-            .unwrap();
-        let created_at_array = created_at
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_with_index_segments_rejected_for_non_vector_query() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
             .unwrap();
+        let segment_ids = test_ds.make_segmented_vector_index().await.unwrap();
 
-        for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
-            assert_eq!(
-                last_updated_array.value(i),
-                1,
-                "All rows last updated at version 1"
-            );
-            assert_eq!(
-                created_at_array.value(i),
-                1,
-                "All rows created at version 1"
-            );
-        }
+        let err = test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["i"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_index_segments(vec![segment_ids[0]])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("with_index_segments is only supported for vector search"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
     }
 
-    #[test_log::test(test)]
-    fn test_scan_finishes_all_tasks() {
-        // Need to use multi-threaded runtime otherwise tasks don't run unless someone is polling somewhere
-        let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
-            .enable_time()
-            .build()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fts_respects_fragment_list() {
+        let mut test_ds = TestVectorDataset::new(LanceFileVersion::Stable, false)
+            .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        runtime.block_on(async move {
-            let ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-                .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
-                .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1000), FragmentRowCount::from(10))
+        // Create one FTS physical segment per indexed fragment.
+        test_ds.make_segmented_fts_index().await.unwrap();
+        let expected_index_coverage = test_ds
+            .dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+        let fragment_bitmap =
+            fts_index_fragment_bitmap(&test_ds.dataset, "s", DocumentGranularity::Row)
                 .await
-                .unwrap();
+                .unwrap()
+                .expect("segmented FTS index");
+        assert_eq!(fragment_bitmap, expected_index_coverage);
 
-            // This scan with has a small I/O buffer size and batch size to mimic a real-world situation
-            // that required a lot of data.  Many fragments will be scheduled at low priority and the data
-            // buffer will fill up with data reads.  When the scan is abandoned, the tasks to read the fragment
-            // metadata were left behind and would never finish because the data was never decoded to drain the
-            // backpressure queue.
-            //
-            // The fix (that this test verifies) is to ensure we close the I/O scheduler when the scan is abandoned.
-            let mut stream = ds
-                .scan()
-                .fragment_readahead(1000)
-                .batch_size(1)
-                .io_buffer_size(1)
-                .batch_readahead(1)
-                .try_into_stream()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            stream.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
-        });
+        // Append two more unindexed fragments
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(400, 410).await.unwrap();
+        test_ds.append_data_with_range(410, 420).await.unwrap();
 
-        let start = Instant::now();
-        while start.elapsed() < Duration::from_secs(10) {
-            if runtime.handle().metrics().num_alive_tasks() == 0 {
-                break;
+        // Fragment 0: i=0..200 (indexed), Fragment 1: i=200..400 (indexed)
+        // Fragment 2: i=400..410 (unindexed), Fragment 3: i=410..420 (unindexed)
+        let fragments = test_ds.dataset.fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 4);
+
+        // "s-5" matches: s-5, s-50..s-59, s-150..s-159 (frag 0), s-250..s-259, s-350..s-359 (frag 1), s-405 (frag 2), s-415 (frag 3)
+        async fn fts_ids(dataset: &Dataset, fragments: Option<Vec<Fragment>>) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("s-5".into()))
+                .unwrap();
+            if let Some(fragments) = fragments {
+                scanner.with_fragments(fragments);
             }
-            std::thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100));
+            let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut ids = batch
+                .column_by_name("i")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec();
+            ids.sort_unstable();
+            ids
         }
 
-        assert!(
-            runtime.handle().metrics().num_alive_tasks() == 0,
-            "Tasks should have finished within 10 seconds but there are still {} tasks running",
-            runtime.handle().metrics().num_alive_tasks()
-        );
+        let global_ids = fts_ids(&test_ds.dataset, None).await;
+        let mut fragmented_ids = Vec::with_capacity(global_ids.len());
+        for (fragment, expected_range) in
+            fragments.iter().zip([0..200, 200..400, 400..410, 410..420])
+        {
+            let ids = fts_ids(&test_ds.dataset, Some(vec![fragment.clone()])).await;
+            assert!(
+                !ids.is_empty() && ids.iter().all(|id| expected_range.contains(id)),
+                "fragment {} should return only matching rows in {expected_range:?}",
+                fragment.id,
+            );
+            fragmented_ids.extend(ids);
+        }
+        fragmented_ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(fragmented_ids, global_ids);
+
+        test_fragment_list_filtering(&test_ds, fragments, |dataset| {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("s-5".into()))
+                .unwrap();
+            scanner
+        })
+        .await;
+        for (fragment, (phrase, expected_i)) in
+            fragments[..2].iter().zip([("s 5", 5), ("s 205", 205)])
+        {
+            let mut scanner = test_ds.dataset.scan();
+            scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragment.clone()]);
+            scanner
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                    PhraseQuery::new(phrase.to_string())
+                        .with_column(Some("s".to_string()))
+                        .into(),
+                ))
+                .unwrap();
+            let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let i_array = batch
+                .column_by_name("i")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(i_array.values(), &[expected_i]);
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/schema_evolution.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/schema_evolution.rs
index 86752a28b94..73cf82598e3 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/schema_evolution.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/schema_evolution.rs
@@ -1,40 +1,45 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{collections::HashSet, sync::Arc};
+use std::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    sync::Arc,
+};
 
 use super::fragment::FileFragment;
+use super::hash_joiner::HashJoiner;
 use super::{
-    transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
     Dataset,
+    transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
+    write::cleanup_data_fragments,
 };
-use crate::{io::exec::Planner, Error, Result};
-use arrow::compute::can_cast_types;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+use crate::index::load_all_indices;
+use crate::{Error, Result, io::exec::Planner};
 use arrow::compute::CastOptions;
+use arrow::compute::can_cast_types;
 use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader};
+use arrow_cast::cast_with_options;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::logical_expr::Expr;
 use futures::stream::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::SchemaExt;
 use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema};
+use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
 use lance_datafusion::utils::StreamingWriteSource;
 use lance_encoding::constants::{PACKED_STRUCT_LEGACY_META_KEY, PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY};
-use lance_encoding::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_table::format::Fragment;
-use snafu::location;
+#[cfg(test)]
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_table::format::{Fragment, overlay::TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID};
 
-mod optimize;
+pub mod optimize;
 
-use optimize::{
-    ChainedNewColumnTransformOptimizer, NewColumnTransformOptimizer, SqlToAllNullsOptimizer,
-};
+use optimize::{ChainedNewColumnTransformOptimizer, NewColumnTransformOptimizer};
 
 async fn validate_no_nulls_before_making_non_nullable(dataset: &Dataset, path: &str) -> Result<()> {
     let field = dataset.schema().field(path).ok_or_else(|| {
-        Error::invalid_input(
-            format!("Column \"{}\" does not exist in the dataset", path),
-            location!(),
-        )
+        Error::invalid_input(format!("Column \"{}\" does not exist in the dataset", path))
     })?;
 
     if !field.nullable {
@@ -48,24 +53,18 @@ async fn validate_no_nulls_before_making_non_nullable(dataset: &Dataset, path: &
         // `path` can be a nested path (e.g. "b.c") which will not be found by
         // `RecordBatch::column_by_name`. We project exactly one column and validate it directly.
         if batch.num_columns() != 1 {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Expected exactly one column in validation scan for {}, got {}",
-                    path,
-                    batch.num_columns()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Expected exactly one column in validation scan for {}, got {}",
+                path,
+                batch.num_columns()
+            )));
         }
         let col = batch.column(0);
         if col.null_count() > 0 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Column \"{}\" contains NULL values and cannot be made non-nullable",
-                    path
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column \"{}\" contains NULL values and cannot be made non-nullable",
+                path
+            )));
         }
     }
 
@@ -152,48 +151,33 @@ impl ColumnAlteration {
     }
 }
 
-/// Limit casts to same type. This is mostly to filter out weird casts like
-/// casting a string to a boolean or float to string.
-fn is_upcast_downcast(from_type: &DataType, to_type: &DataType) -> bool {
-    use DataType::*;
-    match from_type {
-        from_type if from_type.is_integer() => to_type.is_integer(),
-        from_type if from_type.is_floating() => to_type.is_floating(),
-        from_type if from_type.is_temporal() => to_type.is_temporal(),
-        Boolean => matches!(to_type, Boolean),
-        Utf8 | LargeUtf8 => matches!(to_type, Utf8 | LargeUtf8),
-        Binary | LargeBinary => matches!(to_type, Binary | LargeBinary),
-        Decimal128(_, _) | Decimal256(_, _) => {
-            matches!(to_type, Decimal128(_, _) | Decimal256(_, _))
-        }
-        List(from_field) | LargeList(from_field) | FixedSizeList(from_field, _) => match to_type {
-            List(to_field) | LargeList(to_field) | FixedSizeList(to_field, _) => {
-                is_upcast_downcast(from_field.data_type(), to_field.data_type())
-            }
-            _ => false,
-        },
-        _ => false,
-    }
-}
-
 trait ArrowFieldExt {
     fn is_packed(&self) -> bool;
 }
 
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn is_upcast_downcast(
+    from_type: &DataType,
+    to_type: &DataType,
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+) -> bool {
+    super::versions::is_upcast_downcast(version, from_type, to_type)
+}
+
 impl ArrowFieldExt for ArrowField {
     fn is_packed(&self) -> bool {
         let metadata = self.metadata();
         metadata
             .get(PACKED_STRUCT_LEGACY_META_KEY)
-            .map(|v| v == "true")
+            .map(|v| str_is_truthy(v))
             .unwrap_or(metadata.contains_key(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY))
     }
 }
 
-fn check_field_conflict(
+pub fn check_field_conflict_with(
     left: &ArrowField,
     right: &ArrowField,
-    version: &LanceFileVersion,
+    validate_nested_column_add: fn(&ArrowField) -> Result<()>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
     if left.name() != right.name() {
         return Ok(());
@@ -201,67 +185,72 @@ fn check_field_conflict(
 
     match (left.data_type(), right.data_type()) {
         (DataType::Struct(fl), DataType::Struct(fr)) => {
-            if !version.support_add_sub_column() {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Column {} is a struct col, add sub column is not supported in Lance file version {}", left.name(), version),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
+            validate_nested_column_add(left)?;
 
             if left.is_packed() || right.is_packed() {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Column {} is packed struct and already exists in the dataset",
-                        left.name()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column {} is packed struct and already exists in the dataset",
+                    left.name()
+                )));
             }
 
             for l_field in fl.iter() {
                 if let Some((_, r_field)) = fr.find(l_field.name()) {
-                    check_field_conflict(l_field, r_field, version)?;
+                    check_field_conflict_with(l_field, r_field, validate_nested_column_add)?;
                 }
             }
             Ok(())
         }
-        (DataType::List(fl), DataType::List(fr)) => check_field_conflict(fl, fr, version),
-        (DataType::LargeList(fl), DataType::LargeList(fr)) => check_field_conflict(fl, fr, version),
+        (DataType::List(fl), DataType::List(fr)) => {
+            check_field_conflict_with(fl, fr, validate_nested_column_add)
+        }
+        (DataType::LargeList(fl), DataType::LargeList(fr)) => {
+            check_field_conflict_with(fl, fr, validate_nested_column_add)
+        }
         (DataType::FixedSizeList(fl, _), DataType::FixedSizeList(fr, _)) => {
-            check_field_conflict(fl, fr, version)
+            check_field_conflict_with(fl, fr, validate_nested_column_add)
         }
-        (l_type, r_type) if l_type == r_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!("Column {} already exists in the dataset", left.name()),
-            location!(),
-        )),
-        (_, _) => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Type conflicts between {}({}) and {}({})",
-                left.name(),
-                left.data_type(),
-                right.name(),
-                right.data_type()
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        )),
+        (l_type, r_type) if l_type == r_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Column {} already exists in the dataset",
+            left.name()
+        ))),
+        (_, _) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Type conflicts between {}({}) and {}({})",
+            left.name(),
+            left.data_type(),
+            right.name(),
+            right.data_type()
+        ))),
     }
 }
 
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn check_field_conflict(
+    left: &ArrowField,
+    right: &ArrowField,
+    version: &ConcreteFileVersion,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    super::versions::check_field_conflict(*version, left, right)
+}
+
 pub(super) async fn add_columns_to_fragments(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     transforms: NewColumnTransform,
     read_columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
     fragments: &[FileFragment],
     batch_size: Option<u32>,
-) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Schema)> {
+) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Schema, Vec<Fragment>, bool)> {
+    let only_nulls = adds_only_nulls(dataset, &transforms)?;
+    reject_partial_add_on_mem_wal(dataset, only_nulls).await?;
+
     // Check names early (before calling add_columns_impl) to avoid extra work if
     // the names are wrong.
-    let version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()?;
+    let version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
     let check_names = |output_schema: &ArrowSchema| {
         for field in &dataset.schema().fields {
             if let Ok(out_field) = output_schema.field_with_name(&field.name) {
                 let ds_field = ArrowField::from(field);
-                check_field_conflict(&ds_field, out_field, &version)?;
+                super::versions::check_field_conflict(version, &ds_field, out_field)?;
             }
         }
         Ok::<(), Error>(())
@@ -269,16 +258,13 @@ pub(super) async fn add_columns_to_fragments(
 
     // Optimize the transforms
     let mut optimizer = ChainedNewColumnTransformOptimizer::new(vec![]);
-    // ALlNull transform can not performed on legacy files
-    if !dataset.is_legacy_storage() {
-        optimizer.add_optimizer(Box::new(SqlToAllNullsOptimizer::new()));
-    }
+    super::versions::configure_new_column_optimizers(version, &mut optimizer);
     let transforms = optimizer.optimize(dataset, transforms)?;
 
-    let (output_schema, fragments) = match transforms {
+    let (output_schema, new_fragments, fragments_to_cleanup) = match transforms {
         NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(udf) => {
             check_names(udf.output_schema.as_ref())?;
-            let fragments = add_columns_impl(
+            let result = add_columns_impl(
                 fragments,
                 read_columns,
                 udf.mapper,
@@ -287,7 +273,11 @@ pub(super) async fn add_columns_to_fragments(
                 None,
             )
             .await?;
-            Result::Ok((udf.output_schema, fragments))
+            Result::Ok((
+                udf.output_schema,
+                result.fragments,
+                result.fragments_to_cleanup,
+            ))
         }
         NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(expressions) => {
             // We just transform the SQL expression into a UDF backed by DataFusion
@@ -350,33 +340,36 @@ pub(super) async fn add_columns_to_fragments(
             let mapper = Box::new(mapper);
 
             let read_columns = Some(read_schema.field_names().into_iter().cloned().collect());
-            let fragments =
+            let result =
                 add_columns_impl(fragments, read_columns, mapper, batch_size, None, None).await?;
-            Ok((output_schema, fragments))
+            Ok((output_schema, result.fragments, result.fragments_to_cleanup))
         }
         NewColumnTransform::Stream(stream) => {
             let output_schema = stream.schema();
             check_names(output_schema.as_ref())?;
             let fragments = add_columns_from_stream(fragments, stream, None, batch_size).await?;
-            Ok((output_schema, fragments))
+            Ok((output_schema, fragments.clone(), fragments))
         }
         NewColumnTransform::Reader(reader) => {
             let output_schema = reader.schema();
             check_names(output_schema.as_ref())?;
             let stream = reader.into_stream();
             let fragments = add_columns_from_stream(fragments, stream, None, batch_size).await?;
-            Ok((output_schema, fragments))
+            Ok((output_schema, fragments.clone(), fragments))
         }
         NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(output_schema) => {
             check_names(output_schema.as_ref())?;
 
-            // Check that the schema is compatible considering all the new columns must be nullable
-            let schema = Schema::try_from(output_schema.as_ref())?;
-            if !schema.all_fields_nullable() {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "All-null columns must be nullable.".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+            // AllNulls is metadata-only; missing columns are synthesized as nulls at
+            // read time, so only each new top-level column needs to be nullable.
+            if let Some(field) = output_schema.fields().iter().find(|f| !f.is_nullable()) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "All-null columns must be nullable, but field '{}' is not.",
+                        field.name()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
             }
 
             let fragments = fragments
@@ -384,25 +377,73 @@ pub(super) async fn add_columns_to_fragments(
                 .map(|f| f.metadata.clone())
                 .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-            // Check if any of the fragment's files are using the legacy dataset version if so, we
-            // can't add all-null columns as a metadata-only operation. The reason is because we
-            // use the NullReader for fragments that have missing columns and we can't mix legacy
-            // and non-legacy readers when reading the fragment.
-            if dataset.is_legacy_storage() {
-                return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                    source: "Cannot add all-null columns to legacy dataset version.".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
+            super::versions::validate_metadata_only_null_columns(version)?;
 
-            Ok((output_schema, fragments))
+            Ok((output_schema, fragments, Vec::new()))
         }
     }?;
 
-    let mut schema = dataset.schema().merge(output_schema.as_ref())?;
+    let mut schema = match dataset.schema().merge(output_schema.as_ref()) {
+        Ok(schema) => schema,
+        Err(e) => {
+            cleanup_new_column_data_files(fragments, &fragments_to_cleanup).await;
+            return Err(e);
+        }
+    };
     schema.set_field_id(Some(dataset.manifest.max_field_id()));
 
-    Ok((fragments, schema))
+    let preserves_nullability = !merge_introduces_required_field(dataset.schema(), &schema);
+
+    Ok((
+        new_fragments,
+        schema,
+        fragments_to_cleanup,
+        preserves_nullability,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Whether `merged` introduces a field that data staged against `old` cannot
+/// safely omit. The first new node on each path decides: a non-nullable new
+/// field beneath an existing ancestor reads as unmasked null for stale rows,
+/// which do supply the ancestor, while a nullable new field masks its whole
+/// subtree whatever the nullability inside, the same rule the AllNulls
+/// transform enforces at the top level.
+///
+/// A new node under a non-nullable top-level column claims even when the node
+/// itself is nullable. The reader can synthesize such a child for stale
+/// fragments, so this is deliberately conservative: it keeps the
+/// conflict-resolution rule independent of how the reader fills the gap.
+pub(super) fn merge_introduces_required_field(old: &Schema, merged: &Schema) -> bool {
+    /// (any node in `merged` is new, any first-new node is non-nullable)
+    fn subtree_new_nodes(old: &[Field], merged: &[Field]) -> (bool, bool) {
+        let mut any_new = false;
+        let mut any_required = false;
+        for field in merged {
+            match old.iter().find(|o| o.name == field.name) {
+                Some(old_field) => {
+                    let (new, required) = subtree_new_nodes(&old_field.children, &field.children);
+                    any_new |= new;
+                    any_required |= required;
+                }
+                None => {
+                    any_new = true;
+                    any_required |= !field.nullable;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        (any_new, any_required)
+    }
+
+    merged.fields.iter().any(
+        |field| match old.fields.iter().find(|o| o.name == field.name) {
+            Some(old_field) => {
+                let (any_new, any_required) =
+                    subtree_new_nodes(&old_field.children, &field.children);
+                any_required || (any_new && !field.nullable)
+            }
+            None => !field.nullable,
+        },
+    )
 }
 
 pub(super) async fn add_columns(
@@ -411,22 +452,195 @@ pub(super) async fn add_columns(
     read_columns: Option<Vec<String>>,
     batch_size: Option<u32>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let (fragments, schema) = add_columns_to_fragments(
-        dataset,
-        transforms,
-        read_columns,
-        &dataset.get_fragments(),
-        batch_size,
-    )
-    .await?;
+    let (fragments, schema, _fragments_to_cleanup, preserves_nullability) =
+        add_columns_to_fragments(
+            dataset,
+            transforms,
+            read_columns,
+            &dataset.get_fragments(),
+            batch_size,
+        )
+        .await?;
 
-    let operation = Operation::Merge { fragments, schema };
+    let operation = Operation::Merge {
+        fragments,
+        schema,
+        preserves_nullability,
+    };
     let transaction = Transaction::new(dataset.manifest.version, operation, None);
+    // Once the manifest commit has been attempted, an error does not prove
+    // that the new files are unreferenced: the commit may have landed and only
+    // its response (or a post-commit callback) may have failed. Leave files
+    // from failed attempts for dataset GC instead of risking live-data loss.
     dataset
         .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-        .await?;
+        .await
+}
 
-    Ok(())
+/// What `alter_columns` refuses on a table with a MemWAL, and why.
+///
+/// Each is an alteration whose meaning depends on rows the commit cannot see.
+enum Unsupported {
+    /// A cast takes a new field id, which rows still in the WAL cannot be
+    /// matched to.
+    Retype,
+    /// Tightening a column to non-null is validated against the committed
+    /// fragments, and a row still in the MemWAL is not among them. Flushing
+    /// first does not close the window: a flush covers the generations open
+    /// when it starts, and writes keep arriving into the next one, so a null
+    /// can be accepted after the check and before the commit. That row is then
+    /// in a table whose schema forbids it, and every later merge of it fails.
+    Tightening,
+    /// Writers cache the primary key by name. A writer that has not seen the
+    /// rename can send a row to the wrong shard or store values under the
+    /// wrong field ids, and nothing later repairs it.
+    RenameKey,
+}
+
+/// Refuse `unsupported` when the table has a MemWAL attached.
+///
+/// A table without one is unaffected: the presence of a MemWAL is the only
+/// thing this looks at.
+///
+/// Takes the decision already made rather than the alterations themselves: a
+/// reference to them held across the await would have to be `Sync`.
+async fn reject_on_mem_wal(dataset: &Dataset, unsupported: Option<Unsupported>) -> Result<()> {
+    let Some(unsupported) = unsupported else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+    if dataset.mem_wal_index_details().await?.is_none() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(match unsupported {
+        Unsupported::Retype => {
+            "cannot change a column's type on a table with a MemWAL attached: a cast takes a \
+             new field id, which rows still in the WAL cannot be matched to. Drop the MemWAL, \
+             or add a column of the new type and backfill it."
+        }
+        Unsupported::Tightening => {
+            "cannot make a column non-nullable on a table with a MemWAL attached: the check \
+             runs against the base table, and a write admitted into the WAL while it runs is \
+             not there to be checked. Drop the MemWAL first."
+        }
+        Unsupported::RenameKey => {
+            "cannot rename a primary key column on a table with a MemWAL attached: the key is \
+             how a writer identifies a row, and one that has not yet seen the new name reads \
+             the same batch differently. Drop the MemWAL first."
+        }
+    }))
+}
+
+/// Whether `transforms` gives every row the same null.
+///
+/// The value is computed over the committed fragments, and a row still in the
+/// MemWAL is not among them: it takes a null when it merges down. A transform
+/// that writes nulls everywhere agrees with that. One that writes anything else
+/// leaves rows of the same age holding different values, and no later pass
+/// corrects it.
+///
+/// An expression is allowed only if simplifying it gives a null constant. One
+/// that reads a column, or that changes from call to call like `random()`, does
+/// not simplify to a constant at all, so it never qualifies.
+fn adds_only_nulls(dataset: &Dataset, transforms: &NewColumnTransform) -> Result<bool> {
+    match transforms {
+        NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(_) => Ok(true),
+        NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(expressions) => {
+            let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema())));
+            for (_, expression) in expressions {
+                let expr = planner.optimize_expr(planner.parse_expr(expression)?)?;
+                if !matches!(&expr, Expr::Literal(value, _) if value.is_null()) {
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(true)
+        }
+        _ => Ok(false),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Refuse an `add_columns` that would leave the MemWAL's rows behind, whether it
+/// names the dataset or one fragment.
+///
+/// A table without a MemWAL is unaffected: its presence is the only thing this
+/// looks at. Having drained the WAL first is not an exemption, because nothing
+/// here can see that: the sealed generations are in the manifest but the active
+/// memtable is in its writer's memory. Drop the MemWAL to add a computed column.
+///
+/// Takes the decision already made rather than the transform: a reference to it
+/// held across the await would have to be `Sync`, which its boxed reader is not.
+async fn reject_partial_add_on_mem_wal(dataset: &Dataset, only_nulls: bool) -> Result<()> {
+    if only_nulls {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if dataset.mem_wal_index_details().await?.is_none() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(
+        "cannot add a computed column to a table with a MemWAL attached: rows still in the \
+         WAL would read null for it. Add it as all-nulls, or drop the MemWAL first.",
+    ))
+}
+
+async fn cleanup_new_column_data_files(fragments: &[FileFragment], new_fragments: &[Fragment]) {
+    let Some(first_fragment) = fragments.first() else {
+        return;
+    };
+
+    // add_columns rewrites fragment metadata in place, so cleanup must delete
+    // only files created by the current attempt and must not touch pre-existing
+    // files that still belong to the fragment.
+    let original_files_by_fragment = fragments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| {
+            let files = fragment
+                .metadata
+                .files
+                .iter()
+                .map(|file| (file.base_id, file.path.clone()))
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+            (fragment.id() as u64, files)
+        })
+        .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+
+    let fragments_to_cleanup = new_fragments
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|fragment| {
+            let original_files = original_files_by_fragment.get(&fragment.id)?;
+            let files = fragment
+                .files
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|file| !original_files.contains(&(file.base_id, file.path.clone())))
+                .cloned()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            if files.is_empty() {
+                None
+            } else {
+                let mut fragment = fragment.clone();
+                fragment.files = files;
+                Some(fragment)
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let dataset = first_fragment.dataset();
+    cleanup_data_fragments(
+        &dataset.object_store,
+        &dataset.base,
+        None,
+        &fragments_to_cleanup,
+    )
+    .await;
+}
+
+struct AddColumnFragments {
+    /// Fragments produced by the add-columns operation and returned to the
+    /// caller for the final merge commit.
+    fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+    /// Uncommitted fragments whose newly written data files must be removed if
+    /// the operation fails before the merge commit completes.
+    fragments_to_cleanup: Vec<Fragment>,
 }
 
 #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
@@ -437,63 +651,96 @@ async fn add_columns_impl(
     batch_size: Option<u32>,
     result_cache: Option<Arc<dyn UDFCheckpointStore>>,
     schemas: Option<(Schema, Schema)>,
-) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+) -> Result<AddColumnFragments> {
     let read_columns_ref = read_columns.as_deref();
     let mapper_ref = mapper.as_ref();
-    let fragments = futures::stream::iter(fragments)
-        .then(|fragment| {
-            let cache_ref = result_cache.clone();
-            let schemas_ref = &schemas;
-            async move {
-                if let Some(cache) = &cache_ref {
-                    let fragment_id = fragment.id() as u32;
-                    let fragment = cache.get_fragment(fragment_id)?;
-                    if let Some(fragment) = fragment {
-                        return Ok(fragment);
-                    }
+
+    let mut new_fragments = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+    let mut fragments_to_cleanup = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        if let Some(cache) = &result_cache {
+            let fragment_id = fragment.id() as u32;
+            let fragment = match cache.get_fragment(fragment_id) {
+                Ok(fragment) => fragment,
+                Err(e) => {
+                    cleanup_new_column_data_files(fragments, &fragments_to_cleanup).await;
+                    return Err(e);
                 }
+            };
+            if let Some(fragment) = fragment {
+                new_fragments.push(fragment);
+                continue;
+            }
+        }
 
-                let mut updater = fragment
-                    .updater(read_columns_ref, schemas_ref.clone(), batch_size)
-                    .await?;
-
-                let mut batch_index = 0;
-                // TODO: the structure of the updater prevents batch-level parallelism here,
-                //       but there is no reason why we couldn't do this in parallel.
-                while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await? {
-                    let batch_info = BatchInfo {
-                        fragment_id: fragment.id() as u32,
-                        batch_index,
-                    };
+        let mut updater = match fragment
+            .updater(read_columns_ref, schemas.clone(), batch_size, None)
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(updater) => updater,
+            Err(e) => {
+                cleanup_new_column_data_files(fragments, &fragments_to_cleanup).await;
+                return Err(e);
+            }
+        };
+        let fragment_result = async {
+            let mut batch_index = 0;
+            // TODO: the structure of the updater prevents batch-level parallelism here,
+            //       but there is no reason why we couldn't do this in parallel.
+            while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await? {
+                let batch_info = BatchInfo {
+                    fragment_id: fragment.id() as u32,
+                    batch_index,
+                };
 
-                    let new_batch = if let Some(cache) = &cache_ref {
-                        if let Some(batch) = cache.get_batch(&batch_info)? {
-                            batch
-                        } else {
-                            let new_batch = mapper_ref(batch)?;
-                            cache.insert_batch(batch_info, new_batch.clone())?;
-                            new_batch
-                        }
+                let new_batch = if let Some(cache) = &result_cache {
+                    if let Some(batch) = cache.get_batch(&batch_info)? {
+                        batch
                     } else {
-                        mapper_ref(batch)?
-                    };
+                        let new_batch = mapper_ref(batch)?;
+                        cache.insert_batch(batch_info, new_batch.clone())?;
+                        new_batch
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    mapper_ref(batch)?
+                };
 
-                    updater.update(new_batch).await?;
-                    batch_index += 1;
-                }
+                updater.update(new_batch).await?;
+                batch_index += 1;
+            }
 
-                let fragment = updater.finish().await?;
+            let new_fragment = updater.finish().await?;
+            fragments_to_cleanup.push(new_fragment.clone());
 
-                if let Some(cache) = &cache_ref {
-                    cache.insert_fragment(fragment.clone())?;
-                }
+            if let Some(cache) = &result_cache {
+                // Once the checkpoint store owns this fragment, retries may load
+                // it back instead of rewriting it. Removing it from the cleanup
+                // set avoids deleting data that has already been checkpointed.
+                cache.insert_fragment(new_fragment.clone())?;
+                fragments_to_cleanup.pop();
+            }
+
+            Ok::<_, Error>(new_fragment)
+        }
+        .await;
 
-                Ok::<_, Error>(fragment)
+        match fragment_result {
+            Ok(new_fragment) => {
+                new_fragments.push(new_fragment);
             }
-        })
-        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        .await?;
-    Ok(fragments)
+            Err(e) => {
+                updater.cleanup_unfinished_writer().await;
+                cleanup_new_column_data_files(fragments, &fragments_to_cleanup).await;
+                return Err(e);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(AddColumnFragments {
+        fragments: new_fragments,
+        fragments_to_cleanup,
+    })
 }
 
 async fn add_columns_from_stream(
@@ -505,54 +752,90 @@ async fn add_columns_from_stream(
     let mut new_fragments = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
     let mut last_seen_batch: Option<RecordBatch> = None;
     for fragment in fragments {
-        let mut updater = fragment
-            .updater::<String>(Some(&[]), schemas.clone(), batch_size)
-            .await?;
-        while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await? {
-            debug_assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
-            let mut rows_remaining = batch.num_rows();
+        let mut updater = match fragment
+            .updater::<String>(Some(&[]), schemas.clone(), batch_size, None)
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(updater) => updater,
+            Err(e) => {
+                cleanup_new_column_data_files(fragments, &new_fragments).await;
+                return Err(e);
+            }
+        };
+        let result: Result<Fragment> = async {
+            while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await? {
+                debug_assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
+                let mut rows_remaining = batch.num_rows();
+
+                // The updater yields an empty batch when every row in a read batch
+                // has been deleted (e.g. a whole batch falls within the deletion
+                // vector). There is nothing to pull from the stream in that case, so
+                // feed an empty batch back to keep the updater in sync and continue.
+                if rows_remaining == 0 {
+                    updater
+                        .update(RecordBatch::new_empty(stream.schema()))
+                        .await?;
+                    continue;
+                }
 
-            let mut batches = Vec::new();
+                let mut batches = Vec::new();
 
-            while rows_remaining > 0 {
-                let next_batch = if let Some(last_seen_batch) = last_seen_batch {
-                    last_seen_batch
-                } else {
-                    stream.next().await.ok_or_else(|| {
-                        Error::invalid_input(
-                            "Stream ended before producing values for all rows in dataset",
-                            location!(),
-                        )
-                    })??
-                };
-                let num_rows = next_batch.num_rows();
-                if num_rows > rows_remaining {
-                    let new_batch = next_batch.slice(0, rows_remaining);
-                    batches.push(new_batch);
-                    last_seen_batch =
-                        Some(next_batch.slice(rows_remaining, num_rows - rows_remaining));
-                    rows_remaining = 0;
-                } else {
-                    batches.push(next_batch);
-                    rows_remaining -= num_rows;
-                    last_seen_batch = None;
+                while rows_remaining > 0 {
+                    let next_batch = if let Some(last_seen) = last_seen_batch.take() {
+                        last_seen
+                    } else {
+                        stream.next().await.ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input(
+                                "Stream ended before producing values for all rows in dataset",
+                            )
+                        })??
+                    };
+                    let num_rows = next_batch.num_rows();
+                    if num_rows > rows_remaining {
+                        let new_batch = next_batch.slice(0, rows_remaining);
+                        batches.push(new_batch);
+                        last_seen_batch =
+                            Some(next_batch.slice(rows_remaining, num_rows - rows_remaining));
+                        rows_remaining = 0;
+                    } else {
+                        batches.push(next_batch);
+                        rows_remaining -= num_rows;
+                        last_seen_batch = None;
+                    }
                 }
-            }
 
-            let new_batch =
-                arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), batches.iter())?;
+                let new_batch =
+                    arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), batches.iter())?;
+
+                // Reject nulls the dataset's file format cannot store (e.g. integer
+                // nulls on Legacy), matching the hash-join based merge path, instead
+                // of silently writing them as default values.
+                for (field, column) in new_batch.schema().fields().iter().zip(new_batch.columns()) {
+                    HashJoiner::check_lance_support_null(field.name(), column, updater.dataset())?;
+                }
 
-            updater.update(new_batch).await?;
+                updater.update(new_batch).await?;
+            }
+            updater.finish().await
+        }
+        .await;
+
+        match result {
+            Ok(new_fragment) => new_fragments.push(new_fragment),
+            Err(e) => {
+                updater.cleanup_unfinished_writer().await;
+                cleanup_new_column_data_files(fragments, &new_fragments).await;
+                return Err(e);
+            }
         }
-        new_fragments.push(updater.finish().await?);
     }
 
     // Ensure the stream is fully consumed
     if last_seen_batch.is_some() || stream.next().await.is_some() {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: "Stream produced more values than expected for dataset".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        cleanup_new_column_data_files(fragments, &new_fragments).await;
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Stream produced more values than expected for dataset".into(),
+        ));
     }
 
     Ok(new_fragments)
@@ -565,30 +848,59 @@ pub(super) async fn alter_columns(
     dataset: &mut Dataset,
     alterations: &[ColumnAlteration],
 ) -> Result<()> {
+    let unsupported = if alterations.iter().any(|a| a.data_type.is_some()) {
+        Some(Unsupported::Retype)
+    } else if alterations.iter().any(|a| {
+        // Only a column that can currently hold a null is being tightened.
+        // Restating `nullable: false` on one that already forbids them asks
+        // for nothing, and is answered the same way on any table.
+        a.nullable == Some(false)
+            && dataset
+                .schema()
+                .field(&a.path)
+                .is_none_or(|field| field.nullable)
+    }) {
+        Some(Unsupported::Tightening)
+    } else if alterations.iter().any(|a| {
+        a.rename.is_some()
+            && dataset
+                .schema()
+                .field(&a.path)
+                .is_some_and(|field| field.is_unenforced_primary_key())
+    }) {
+        Some(Unsupported::RenameKey)
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    reject_on_mem_wal(dataset, unsupported).await?;
+
     // Validate referenced columns exist and enforce NOT NULL when tightening
     // a column from nullable to non-nullable.
     let mut new_schema = dataset.schema().clone();
 
     // Mapping of old to new fields that need to be casted.
     let mut cast_fields: Vec<(Field, Field)> = Vec::new();
+    let mut tightens_nullability = false;
 
     let mut next_field_id = dataset.manifest.max_field_id() + 1;
+    let fallback_version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
 
     for alteration in alterations {
         let field_src = dataset.schema().field(&alteration.path).ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Column \"{}\" does not exist in the dataset",
-                    alteration.path
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column \"{}\" does not exist in the dataset",
+                alteration.path
+            ))
         })?;
 
-        if let Some(nullable) = alteration.nullable {
-            if field_src.nullable && !nullable {
-                validate_no_nulls_before_making_non_nullable(dataset, &alteration.path).await?;
-            }
+        if let Some(nullable) = alteration.nullable
+            && field_src.nullable
+            && !nullable
+        {
+            validate_no_nulls_before_making_non_nullable(dataset, &alteration.path).await?;
+            // A write since this version can falsify it, so withhold the
+            // preserves_nullability assertion from the transaction.
+            tightens_nullability = true;
         }
 
         let field_dest = new_schema.mut_field_by_id(field_src.id).unwrap();
@@ -600,18 +912,20 @@ pub(super) async fn alter_columns(
         }
 
         if let Some(data_type) = &alteration.data_type {
+            // Casts rewrite the column using the default output version.
             if !(can_cast_types(&field_src.data_type(), data_type)
-                && is_upcast_downcast(&field_src.data_type(), data_type))
+                && super::versions::is_upcast_downcast(
+                    fallback_version,
+                    &field_src.data_type(),
+                    data_type,
+                ))
             {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Cannot cast column \"{}\" from {:?} to {:?}",
-                        alteration.path,
-                        field_src.data_type(),
-                        data_type
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Cannot cast column \"{}\" from {:?} to {:?}",
+                    alteration.path,
+                    field_src.data_type(),
+                    data_type
+                )));
             }
 
             let arrow_field = ArrowField::new(
@@ -627,57 +941,159 @@ pub(super) async fn alter_columns(
     }
 
     new_schema.validate()?;
+    new_schema.verify_primary_key()?;
+
+    // If any column being cast has an attached index, fail fast. Cast operations
+    // rewrite the underlying column data and silently invalidate any index on the
+    // affected column(s). The current behavior is to drop such indices without
+    // warning, which has caused production incidents where vector search silently
+    // regressed to brute-force scan. We require users to explicitly drop the
+    // index before altering the column type, so the action is never silent. That
+    // includes an index this build has no reader for: the cast reassigns the
+    // field id, so carrying it forward is impossible and staying quiet about it
+    // is the silent drop this guard exists to abolish.
+    if !cast_fields.is_empty() {
+        let indices = load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+        let affected: Vec<&lance_table::format::IndexMetadata> = indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| {
+                cast_fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|(old, _)| idx.fields.contains(&old.id))
+            })
+            .collect();
+        if !affected.is_empty() {
+            let affected_cols: Vec<String> = cast_fields
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|(old, _)| affected.iter().any(|i| i.fields.contains(&old.id)))
+                .map(|(old, _)| old.name.clone())
+                .collect();
+            let affected_idx_names: Vec<String> = affected.iter().map(|i| i.name.clone()).collect();
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Cannot cast column(s) [{}] to a new type: they have {} index(es) \
+                 attached: [{}]. Cast rewrites column data and invalidates any index \
+                 on the affected column(s). Drop the index(es) with drop_index() \
+                 before altering, then recreate them after the cast completes.",
+                affected_cols.join(", "),
+                affected.len(),
+                affected_idx_names.join(", "),
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    if tightens_nullability && !cast_fields.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "cannot make a column non-nullable and cast columns in the same call: \
+             apply the cast first, then the nullability change",
+        ));
+    }
 
     // If we aren't casting a column, we don't need to touch the fragments.
     let transaction = if cast_fields.is_empty() {
         Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version,
-            Operation::Project { schema: new_schema },
+            Operation::Project {
+                schema: new_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: !tightens_nullability,
+            },
             // TODO: Make it possible to alter blob columns
             /*blob_op= */ None,
         )
     } else {
         // Otherwise, we need to re-write the relevant fields.
-        let read_columns = cast_fields
+        let field_order = dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(position, field)| (field.id, position))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let mut ordered_cast_fields = cast_fields
             .iter()
-            .map(|(old, _new)| {
-                let parts = dataset.schema().field_ancestry_by_id(old.id).unwrap();
-                let part_names = parts.iter().map(|p| p.name.clone()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                part_names.join(".")
+            .map(|(old, new)| {
+                let position = field_order.get(&old.id).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Could not find field id {} for column {} while casting",
+                        old.id, old.name
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                Ok((position, old, new))
             })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        ordered_cast_fields.sort_by_key(|(position, _, _)| *position);
+
+        let read_columns = ordered_cast_fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, old, _)| dataset.schema().field_path_minimal(old.id))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
 
-        let new_ids = cast_fields
+        let new_ids = ordered_cast_fields
             .iter()
-            .map(|(_old, new)| new.id)
+            .map(|(_, _, new)| new.id)
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         // This schema contains the exact field ids we want to write the new fields with.
         let new_col_schema = new_schema.project_by_ids(&new_ids, true);
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(&new_col_schema));
+
+        // A cast rewrites the column under a new field id, so data staged
+        // against the pre-cast schema omits that id. A required recast field
+        // reads as unmasked null. Even when a nested field is nullable, a
+        // required top-level ancestor cannot safely synthesize the missing
+        // child, following the same rule as `merge_introduces_required_field`.
+        let cast_touches_required = cast_fields.iter().try_fold(
+            false,
+            |touches_required, (_old, new)| -> Result<bool> {
+                if touches_required || !new.nullable {
+                    return Ok(true);
+                }
+                let top_level = new_schema
+                    .field_ancestry_by_id(new.id)
+                    .and_then(|ancestry| ancestry.first().copied())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Could not find field id {} for column {} while determining cast nullability",
+                            new.id, new.name
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                Ok(!top_level.nullable)
+            },
+        )?;
 
         let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
-            let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(cast_fields.len());
-            let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_columns());
-            for (old, new) in &cast_fields {
-                let old_column = batch[&old.name].clone();
-                let new_column = lance_arrow::cast::cast_with_options(
-                    &old_column,
-                    &new.data_type(),
-                    // Safe: false means it will error if the cast is lossy.
-                    &CastOptions {
-                        safe: false,
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    },
-                )?;
-                columns.push(new_column);
-                fields.push(Arc::new(ArrowField::from(new)));
+            if batch.num_columns() != output_schema.fields().len() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Expected {} columns while casting dataset fields, got {}",
+                    output_schema.fields().len(),
+                    batch.num_columns()
+                )));
             }
-            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields));
-            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?)
+
+            let columns = batch
+                .columns()
+                .iter()
+                .zip(output_schema.fields())
+                .map(|(old_column, new_field)| {
+                    cast_with_options(
+                        old_column,
+                        new_field.data_type(),
+                        // Safe: false means it will error if the cast is lossy.
+                        &CastOptions {
+                            safe: false,
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        },
+                    )
+                })
+                .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(output_schema.clone(), columns)?)
         };
         let mapper = Box::new(mapper);
 
-        let fragments = add_columns_impl(
-            &dataset.get_fragments(),
+        let source_fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let original_file_counts = source_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| (fragment.id() as u64, fragment.metadata.files.len()))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let result = add_columns_impl(
+            &source_fragments,
             Some(read_columns),
             mapper,
             None,
@@ -689,23 +1105,57 @@ pub(super) async fn alter_columns(
         // Some data files may no longer contain any columns in the dataset (e.g. if every
         // remaining column has been altered into a different data file) and so we remove them
         let schema_field_ids = new_schema.field_ids().into_iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let fragments = fragments
+        let fragments = result
+            .fragments
             .into_iter()
             .map(|mut frag| {
+                let original_file_count =
+                    original_file_counts.get(&frag.id).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Could not find source fragment {} after casting columns",
+                            frag.id
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                let rewritten_field_ids = frag
+                    .files
+                    .iter()
+                    .skip(original_file_count)
+                    .flat_map(|file| file.fields.iter().copied())
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                // V1 files record struct ancestor ids, so a child rewrite also
+                // supersedes those ancestor entries in the original file.
+                for file in frag.files.iter_mut().take(original_file_count) {
+                    file.fields = file
+                        .fields
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|field_id| {
+                            if rewritten_field_ids.contains(field_id) {
+                                TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID
+                            } else {
+                                *field_id
+                            }
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        .into();
+                }
+                // A file carrying a spilled row lineage sequence stays: its
+                // reserved ids are never in the schema, and it is the only copy.
+                let spilled = frag.spilled_row_lineage_field_ids();
                 frag.files.retain(|f| {
                     f.fields
                         .iter()
-                        .any(|field| schema_field_ids.contains(field))
+                        .any(|field| schema_field_ids.contains(field) || spilled.contains(field))
                 });
-                frag
+                Ok(frag)
             })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
 
         Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version,
             Operation::Merge {
                 schema: new_schema,
                 fragments,
+                preserves_nullability: !cast_touches_required,
             },
             /*blob_op= */ None,
         )
@@ -726,31 +1176,94 @@ pub(super) async fn alter_columns(
 /// underlying storage. In order to remove the data, you must subsequently
 /// call `compact_files` to rewrite the data without the removed columns and
 /// then call `cleanup_old_versions` to remove the old files.
-pub(super) async fn drop_columns(dataset: &mut Dataset, columns: &[&str]) -> Result<()> {
+/// The schema a [`drop_columns`] of `columns` would project to, with every
+/// validation that drop performs and no mutation of its own.
+///
+/// Split out for a caller that must not write anything until the whole
+/// projection is known to be valid against this revision: approximating the
+/// rules here is easy to get wrong, because dropping a struct's last child
+/// removes the struct, and a field whose data files disagree on metadata
+/// semantics is refused outright.
+pub fn plan_drop_columns(dataset: &Dataset, columns: &[&str]) -> Result<Schema> {
     // Check if columns are present in the dataset and construct the new schema.
     for col in columns {
         if dataset.schema().field(col).is_none() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Column {} does not exist in the dataset", col),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Column {} does not exist in the dataset",
+                col
+            )));
         }
     }
 
-    let version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()?;
     let columns_to_remove = dataset.manifest.schema.project(columns)?;
-    let new_schema = exclude(&dataset.manifest.schema, &columns_to_remove, &version)?;
+    let fallback_version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
+    let mut new_schema = dataset.manifest.schema.clone();
+    for field in &columns_to_remove.fields {
+        let source = dataset.manifest.schema.project_by_ids(&[field.id], true);
+        let removed = columns_to_remove.project_by_ids(&[field.id], true);
+        let mut projected = None;
+        for data_file in dataset
+            .manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(Fragment::referenced_lance_files)
+            .filter(|file| {
+                file.fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|id| source.field_by_id(*id).is_some())
+            })
+        {
+            let file_version = data_file.file_version()?;
+            let candidate = super::versions::exclude_schema(file_version, &source, &removed)?;
+            if projected
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|schema| schema != &candidate)
+            {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "Dropping columns from '{}' has different metadata semantics for data file '{}' using exact version {}",
+                        field.name, data_file.path, file_version
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            projected = Some(candidate);
+        }
+        let projected = match projected {
+            Some(schema) => schema,
+            None => super::versions::exclude_schema(fallback_version, &source, &removed)?,
+        };
+        new_schema.fields.retain_mut(|existing| {
+            if existing.id != field.id {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if let Some(replacement) = projected.fields.first() {
+                *existing = replacement.clone();
+                true
+            } else {
+                false
+            }
+        });
+    }
 
     if new_schema.fields.is_empty() {
         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
             "Cannot drop all columns from a dataset",
-            location!(),
         ));
     }
 
+    Ok(new_schema)
+}
+
+pub(super) async fn drop_columns(dataset: &mut Dataset, columns: &[&str]) -> Result<()> {
+    let new_schema = plan_drop_columns(dataset, columns)?;
+
     let transaction = Transaction::new(
         dataset.manifest.version,
-        Operation::Project { schema: new_schema },
+        Operation::Project {
+            schema: new_schema,
+            preserves_nullability: true,
+        },
         /*blob_op= */ None,
     );
 
@@ -761,19 +1274,20 @@ pub(super) async fn drop_columns(dataset: &mut Dataset, columns: &[&str]) -> Res
     Ok(())
 }
 
-/// Exclude the fields from `other` Schema, and returns a new Schema.
-pub fn exclude(source: &Schema, other: &Schema, version: &LanceFileVersion) -> Result<Schema> {
-    let other: Schema = other.try_into().map_err(|_| Error::Schema {
-        message: "The other schema is not compatible with this schema".to_string(),
-        location: location!(),
+/// Exclude the fields from `other` Schema using the selected nested-field rule.
+pub fn exclude_with(
+    source: &Schema,
+    other: &Schema,
+    exclude_nested_field: fn(&Field, &Field) -> Option<Field>,
+) -> Result<Schema> {
+    let other: Schema = other.try_into().map_err(|_| {
+        Error::schema("The other schema is not compatible with this schema".to_string())
     })?;
     let mut fields = vec![];
     for field in source.fields.iter() {
         if let Some(other_field) = other.field(&field.name) {
-            if version.support_remove_sub_column(field) {
-                if let Some(f) = field.exclude(other_field) {
-                    fields.push(f)
-                }
+            if let Some(f) = exclude_nested_field(field, other_field) {
+                fields.push(f)
             }
         } else {
             fields.push(field.clone());
@@ -786,35 +1300,492 @@ pub fn exclude(source: &Schema, other: &Schema, version: &LanceFileVersion) -> R
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-mod test {
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-    use std::sync::Mutex;
-
-    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
-    use arrow_array::{
-        ArrayRef, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray,
-    };
-
-    use super::*;
-    use arrow_schema::Fields as ArrowFields;
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-    use rstest::rstest;
-
-    // Used to validate that futures returned are Send.
-    fn require_send<T: Send>(t: T) -> T {
-        t
-    }
+fn exclude(source: &Schema, other: &Schema, version: &ConcreteFileVersion) -> Result<Schema> {
+    super::versions::exclude_schema(*version, source, other)
+}
 
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod test {
+    use std::{collections::HashMap, fs, num::NonZero, path::Path as StdPath, sync::Mutex};
+
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+
+    /// What the `add_columns` guard refuses, and what it lets through.
+    ///
+    /// Only a value that is null for every row is allowed: the WAL's rows are
+    /// not there to be computed and take a null when they merge down, so
+    /// anything else would leave them differing from the base table's rows.
+    /// Folding decides it — an expression that reads a column or is volatile
+    /// does not fold, and one that folds to a non-null literal is a value the
+    /// WAL's rows would not get.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_append_columns_exprs() -> Result<()> {
-        let num_rows = 5;
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "id",
-            DataType::Int32,
-            false,
-        )]));
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+    async fn add_columns_on_a_mem_wal_table_allows_only_an_always_null_value() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+        use arrow_array::Int64Array;
+
+        // (expression, allowed, what the case is)
+        let cases: &[(&str, bool, &str)] = &[
+            ("cast(NULL as bigint)", true, "a typed null"),
+            (
+                "cast(NULL as timestamp)",
+                true,
+                "a typed null whose type carries a unit",
+            ),
+            (
+                "arrow_cast(NULL, 'Timestamp(Microsecond, None)')",
+                true,
+                "the arrow_cast spelling of the same",
+            ),
+            (
+                "cast(cast(NULL as int) as bigint)",
+                true,
+                "nested casts still fold to a null",
+            ),
+            ("NULL + 1", true, "arithmetic over a null folds to a null"),
+            (
+                "cast(true as boolean)",
+                false,
+                "a non-null constant: the base table's rows would get `true` and \
+                 the WAL's rows a null",
+            ),
+            ("coalesce(NULL, 5)", false, "reads as null but folds to 5"),
+            ("NULL IS NULL", false, "reads as null but folds to true"),
+            ("value * 2", false, "reads a column, so it is per-row"),
+            ("random()", false, "volatile, so it does not fold"),
+            ("now()", false, "folds, but to a non-null timestamp"),
+        ];
+
+        for (expression, allowed, case) in cases {
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+                ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int64, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1i64])),
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(10i64)])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let uri = format!("memory://mem_wal_add_guard_{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4());
+            let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .initialize_mem_wal()
+                .unsharded()
+                .execute()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let result = dataset
+                .add_columns(
+                    NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![(
+                        "added".into(),
+                        (*expression).to_string(),
+                    )]),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await;
+
+            if *allowed {
+                result.unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("`{expression}` ({case}) must be allowed: {e}"));
+            } else {
+                let err = result
+                    .err()
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("`{expression}` ({case}) must be refused"));
+                assert!(
+                    err.to_string().contains("cannot add a computed column"),
+                    "`{expression}` ({case}) refused for the wrong reason: {err}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The fragment-level route is guarded too.
+    ///
+    /// It reaches `add_columns_to_fragments` without passing through
+    /// `Dataset::add_columns`, so a guard on the dataset alone would let a
+    /// caller compute the column a fragment at a time and commit the results
+    /// as a `Merge` — the same wrong value by a longer road.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn add_columns_on_a_fragment_of_a_mem_wal_table_is_refused() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+        use arrow_array::Int64Array;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1i64])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(10i64)])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("memory://mem_wal_frag_guard_{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4());
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragment = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .into_iter()
+            .next()
+            .expect("fragment");
+        let err = fragment
+            .add_columns(
+                NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![("doubled".into(), "value * 2".into())]),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect_err("the fragment route must be refused too");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("cannot add a computed column"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // The all-null case is allowed here as well.
+        fragment
+            .add_columns(
+                NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![(
+                    "empty".into(),
+                    "cast(NULL as bigint)".into(),
+                )]),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("an always-null value must be allowed on a fragment too");
+    }
+
+    /// The guard reads nothing but the MemWAL's presence: every expression it
+    /// refuses above is still allowed on a table without one.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn add_columns_without_a_mem_wal_is_untouched_by_the_guard() {
+        use arrow_array::Int64Array;
+
+        for expression in ["cast(true as boolean)", "coalesce(NULL, 5)", "value * 2"] {
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+                ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int64, true),
+            ]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1i64])),
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(10i64)])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let uri = format!("memory://no_mem_wal_add_{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4());
+            let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            dataset
+                .add_columns(
+                    NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![(
+                        "added".into(),
+                        expression.to_string(),
+                    )]),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("`{expression}` must be unaffected: {e}"));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Renaming a primary key column is refused; other columns rename freely.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn alter_columns_on_a_mem_wal_table_refuses_renaming_the_key() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+        use arrow_array::Int64Array;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::{
+            LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY, LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION,
+        };
+
+        let key_meta = HashMap::from([
+            (LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string()),
+            (
+                LANCE_UNENFORCED_PRIMARY_KEY_POSITION.to_string(),
+                "0".to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int64, false).with_metadata(key_meta),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1i64])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(10i64)])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("memory://mem_wal_rename_key_{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4());
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !dataset.schema().unenforced_primary_key().is_empty(),
+            "the test table must declare a key for the guard to have anything to refuse"
+        );
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("id".into()).rename("key".into())])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("renaming the key must be refused");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("cannot rename a primary key column"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).rename("amount".into())])
+            .await
+            .expect("renaming any other column must still be allowed");
+        assert!(dataset.schema().field("amount").is_some());
+    }
+
+    /// What the MemWAL guard refuses, and what it lets through.
+    ///
+    /// A retype and a genuine tightening are refused. Restating `nullable:
+    /// false` on a column that already forbids nulls asks for nothing, so it
+    /// is answered the same way a table without a MemWAL answers it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn alter_columns_on_a_mem_wal_table_refuses_only_what_it_must() {
+        use crate::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+        use arrow_array::Int64Array;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1i64])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(10i64)])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("memory://mem_wal_alter_guard_{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4());
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int32)])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a retype must be refused");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("cannot change a column's type"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("tightening a nullable column must be refused");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("cannot make a column non-nullable"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // `id` already forbids nulls, so this asks for nothing.
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("id".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .await
+            .expect("restating a column's existing nullability must be allowed");
+
+        // A rename is untouched by the guard.
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).rename("amount".into())])
+            .await
+            .expect("a rename must be allowed");
+        assert!(dataset.schema().field("amount").is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_introduces_required_field() {
+        let schema = |fields: Vec<ArrowField>| Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(fields)).unwrap();
+        let strukt = |name: &str, nullable: bool, children: Vec<ArrowField>| {
+            ArrowField::new(
+                name,
+                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(children)),
+                nullable,
+            )
+        };
+        let int = |name: &str, nullable: bool| ArrowField::new(name, DataType::Int32, nullable);
+
+        let old = schema(vec![
+            strukt("s", true, vec![int("a", true)]),
+            strukt("r", false, vec![int("a", true)]),
+        ]);
+        // The first new node on each path decides, at any depth; any new node
+        // under a non-nullable top-level column claims regardless.
+        for (merged, expected) in [
+            // A nullable new child under a non-nullable top-level column claims
+            // by design, even though the reader can synthesize it.
+            (
+                schema(vec![
+                    strukt("s", true, vec![int("a", true)]),
+                    strukt("r", false, vec![int("a", true), int("b", true)]),
+                ]),
+                true,
+            ),
+            // Required new child under an existing parent: stale rows supply
+            // the parent, so the child would read as unmasked null.
+            (
+                schema(vec![strukt(
+                    "s",
+                    true,
+                    vec![int("a", true), int("b", false)],
+                )]),
+                true,
+            ),
+            (
+                schema(vec![strukt(
+                    "s",
+                    true,
+                    vec![int("a", true), int("b", true)],
+                )]),
+                false,
+            ),
+            // A wholly new nullable container masks its required inside.
+            (
+                schema(vec![
+                    strukt("s", true, vec![int("a", true)]),
+                    strukt("t", true, vec![int("c", false)]),
+                ]),
+                false,
+            ),
+            // Same, when the new container hangs under an existing parent.
+            (
+                schema(vec![strukt(
+                    "s",
+                    true,
+                    vec![int("a", true), strukt("t", true, vec![int("c", false)])],
+                )]),
+                false,
+            ),
+            (
+                schema(vec![
+                    strukt("s", true, vec![int("a", true)]),
+                    int("b", false),
+                ]),
+                true,
+            ),
+            (schema(vec![strukt("s", true, vec![int("a", true)])]), false),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                merge_introduces_required_field(&old, &merged),
+                expected,
+                "merged={merged:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray,
+    };
+
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_schema::Fields as ArrowFields;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+    use lance_table::format::{BasePath, DataFile};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    // Used to validate that futures returned are Send.
+    fn require_send<T: Send>(t: T) -> T {
+        t
+    }
+
+    fn file_paths_in(dir: impl AsRef<StdPath>) -> Vec<String> {
+        fn collect_files(
+            base_dir: &StdPath,
+            dir: &StdPath,
+            files: &mut Vec<String>,
+        ) -> std::io::Result<()> {
+            if !dir.exists() {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            for entry in std::fs::read_dir(dir)? {
+                let path = entry?.path();
+                if path.is_dir() {
+                    collect_files(base_dir, &path, files)?;
+                } else if path.is_file()
+                    && path
+                        .file_name()
+                        .and_then(|name| name.to_str())
+                        .is_some_and(|file_name| !file_name.starts_with('.'))
+                {
+                    files.push(
+                        path.strip_prefix(base_dir)
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .to_string_lossy()
+                            .to_string(),
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        let base_dir = dir.as_ref();
+        let mut files = Vec::new();
+        collect_files(base_dir, base_dir, &mut files).unwrap();
+        files.sort();
+        files
+    }
+
+    fn data_file_paths_in(base_dir: &str) -> Vec<String> {
+        file_paths_in(StdPath::new(base_dir).join("data"))
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_columns_exprs() -> Result<()> {
+        let num_rows = 5;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32))],
         )?;
@@ -889,13 +1860,9 @@ mod test {
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_append_columns_udf(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        use arrow_array::Float64Array;
+    async fn test_add_columns_preserves_files_when_commit_status_is_unknown() -> Result<()> {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
 
         let num_rows = 5;
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
@@ -903,10 +1870,87 @@ mod test {
             DataType::Int32,
             false,
         )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let files_before = data_file_paths_in(test_uri);
+
+        handler.fail_next(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndError);
+        handler
+            .fail_resolve
+            .store(true, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+        let error = dataset
+            .add_columns(
+                NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![("double_id".into(), "2 * id".into())]),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect_err("unverifiable commit outcome must be reported");
+        assert!(
+            error.is_commit_status_unknown(),
+            "expected CommitStatusUnknown, got: {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(data_file_paths_in(test_uri).len() > files_before.len());
+
+        handler
+            .fail_resolve
+            .store(false, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(test_uri).await?;
+        let data = reopened.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        let double_id = data
+            .column_by_name("double_id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(double_id, &Int32Array::from(vec![0, 2, 4, 6, 8]));
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
+    /// Regression test: when an entire read batch has been deleted, the updater
+    /// yields a 0-row batch and the deleted rows must still be restored, because
+    /// every data file in a fragment has to keep the same physical row count.
+    ///
+    /// A single fragment holds 150 rows and 50 consecutive rows are deleted. Read
+    /// with batch_size=50 the deleted run lines up exactly with one read batch,
+    /// which therefore arrives empty. The run is placed at the start, in the
+    /// middle, and at the end because the restorer treats those positions
+    /// differently: a deleted run that trails a live batch is greedily appended to
+    /// it, while a run starting at row 0 has no preceding batch to absorb it.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::leading("i < 50", (50..150).collect::<Vec<i32>>())]
+    #[case::middle("i >= 50 AND i < 100", (0..50).chain(100..150).collect::<Vec<i32>>())]
+    #[case::trailing("i >= 100", (0..100).collect::<Vec<i32>>())]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_columns_with_fully_deleted_batch(
+        #[case] delete_predicate: &str,
+        #[case] expected_live_ids: Vec<i32>,
+        #[values(true, false)] new_column_nullable: bool,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32))],
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..150))],
         )?;
         let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
 
@@ -916,101 +1960,102 @@ mod test {
             reader,
             test_uri,
             Some(WriteParams {
-                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                max_rows_per_file: 200, // keep all rows in a single fragment
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
 
-        // Adding a duplicate column name will break
-        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
-            mapper: Box::new(|_| unimplemented!()),
-            output_schema: Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                "id",
-                DataType::Int32,
-                false,
-            )])),
-            result_checkpoint: None,
-        });
-        let res = dataset.add_columns(transforms, None, None).await;
-        assert!(matches!(res, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })));
+        dataset.delete(delete_predicate).await?;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await?, 100);
 
-        // Can add a column that independent (empty read_schema)
-        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "value",
-            DataType::Float64,
-            true,
-        )]));
-        let output_schema_ref = output_schema.clone();
-        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
-            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
-                output_schema_ref.clone(),
-                vec![Arc::new(Float64Array::from_iter_values(
-                    (0..batch.num_rows()).map(|i| i as f64),
-                ))],
-            )?)
-        };
-        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
-            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
-            output_schema,
-            result_checkpoint: None,
-        });
-        dataset.add_columns(transforms, None, None).await?;
-
-        // Can add a column that depends on another column (double id)
-        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "double_id",
+        let new_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "j",
             DataType::Int32,
-            false,
+            new_column_nullable,
         )]));
-        let output_schema_ref = output_schema.clone();
-        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
-            let id = batch
-                .column(0)
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
-                .unwrap();
-            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
-                output_schema_ref.clone(),
-                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
-                    id.values().iter().map(|i| i * 2),
-                ))],
-            )?)
-        };
-        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
-            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
-            output_schema,
-            result_checkpoint: None,
-        });
-        dataset.add_columns(transforms, None, None).await?;
-        // These can be read back, the dataset is valid
+        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            new_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(new_batch)], new_schema.clone());
+
+        // Read with batch_size=50 so the deleted rows form a full empty batch.
+        dataset
+            .add_columns(NewColumnTransform::Reader(Box::new(reader)), None, Some(50))
+            .await?;
         dataset.validate().await?;
 
         let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
-        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Float64, true),
-            ArrowField::new("double_id", DataType::Int32, false),
-        ]);
-        assert_eq!(data.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema);
-        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), num_rows);
+        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), 100);
+        assert_eq!(
+            data.column_by_name("i").unwrap().as_ref(),
+            &Int32Array::from(expected_live_ids)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            data.column_by_name("j").unwrap().as_ref(),
+            &Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)
+        );
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    /// A zero batch size cannot slice the fragment read into batches, so it must be
+    /// rejected as invalid input instead of panicking in the read planner.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_append_columns_udf_cache() -> Result<()> {
-        let num_rows = 100;
+    async fn test_add_columns_rejects_zero_batch_size() -> Result<()> {
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "id",
+            "i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await?;
+
+        let new_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "j",
             DataType::Int32,
             false,
         )]));
+        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            new_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(new_batch)], new_schema);
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(NewColumnTransform::Reader(Box::new(reader)), None, Some(0))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("batch_size must be greater than zero"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
+    /// A legacy fragment whose trailing row group is entirely deleted cannot defer its
+    /// blanks: that batch reaches `add_blanks` with no live row to copy, so the update
+    /// is refused rather than writing a data file short of the deleted rows. Deferring
+    /// is what a v2 fragment does instead, which
+    /// `test_add_columns_with_fully_deleted_batch`'s trailing case covers.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_columns_legacy_trailing_deleted_batch_errors() -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..105))],
         )?;
         let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
 
@@ -1020,425 +2065,1574 @@ mod test {
             reader,
             test_uri,
             Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 50,
-                max_rows_per_group: 25,
+                max_rows_per_file: 200,
+                max_rows_per_group: 50,
                 data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
-
-        #[derive(Default)]
-        struct RequestCounter {
-            pub get_batch_requests: Mutex<Vec<BatchInfo>>,
-            pub insert_batch_requests: Mutex<Vec<BatchInfo>>,
-            pub get_fragment_requests: Mutex<Vec<u32>>,
-            pub insert_fragment_requests: Mutex<Vec<u32>>,
-        }
-
-        impl UDFCheckpointStore for RequestCounter {
-            fn get_batch(&self, info: &BatchInfo) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
-                self.get_batch_requests.lock().unwrap().push(info.clone());
-
-                if info.fragment_id == 1 && info.batch_index == 0 {
-                    Ok(Some(RecordBatch::try_new(
-                        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                            "double_id",
-                            DataType::Int32,
-                            false,
-                        )])),
-                        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(50..75))],
-                    )?))
-                } else {
-                    Ok(None)
-                }
-            }
-
-            fn insert_batch(&self, info: BatchInfo, _value: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
-                self.insert_batch_requests.lock().unwrap().push(info);
-                Ok(())
-            }
-
-            fn get_fragment(&self, fragment_id: u32) -> Result<Option<Fragment>> {
-                self.get_fragment_requests.lock().unwrap().push(fragment_id);
-                if fragment_id == 0 {
-                    Ok(Some(Fragment {
-                        files: vec![],
-                        id: 0,
-                        deletion_file: None,
-                        row_id_meta: None,
-                        physical_rows: Some(50),
-                        last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
-                        created_at_version_meta: None,
-                    }))
-                } else {
-                    Ok(None)
-                }
-            }
-
-            fn insert_fragment(&self, fragment: Fragment) -> Result<()> {
-                self.insert_fragment_requests
-                    .lock()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .push(fragment.id as u32);
-                Ok(())
-            }
-        }
 
-        let request_counter = Arc::new(RequestCounter::default());
+        // The last row group is [100, 105); deleting all of it leaves a trailing read
+        // batch with no live rows, which legacy files cannot defer past.
+        dataset.delete("i >= 100").await?;
 
-        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "double_id",
+        let new_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "j",
             DataType::Int32,
-            false,
+            true,
         )]));
-        let output_schema_ref = output_schema.clone();
-        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
-            let id = batch
-                .column(0)
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
-                .unwrap();
-            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
-                output_schema_ref.clone(),
-                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
-                    id.values().iter().map(|i| i * 2),
-                ))],
-            )?)
-        };
-        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
-            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
-            output_schema,
-            result_checkpoint: Some(request_counter.clone()),
-        });
-        dataset.add_columns(transforms, None, None).await?;
+        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            new_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(new_batch)], new_schema.clone());
 
-        // Should have requested both fragments
-        assert_eq!(
-            request_counter
-                .get_fragment_requests
-                .lock()
-                .unwrap()
-                .as_slice(),
-            &[0, 1]
-        );
-        // Should have only inserted the second fragment, since the first one was already cached
-        assert_eq!(
-            request_counter
-                .insert_fragment_requests
-                .lock()
-                .unwrap()
-                .as_slice(),
-            &[1]
-        );
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(NewColumnTransform::Reader(Box::new(reader)), None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
 
-        // Should have only requested the second two batches, since the first fragment was already cached
-        assert_eq!(
-            request_counter
-                .get_batch_requests
-                .lock()
-                .unwrap()
-                .as_slice(),
-            &[
-                BatchInfo {
-                    fragment_id: 1,
-                    batch_index: 0,
-                },
-                BatchInfo {
-                    fragment_id: 1,
-                    batch_index: 1,
-                },
-            ]
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }),
+            "expected NotSupported, got {err:?}"
         );
-        // Should have only saved the last batch, since the first batch of second fragment was already cached
-        assert_eq!(
-            request_counter
-                .insert_batch_requests
-                .lock()
-                .unwrap()
-                .as_slice(),
-            &[BatchInfo {
-                fragment_id: 1,
-                batch_index: 1,
-            },]
+        // Match add_blanks' own wording, not the shared "run compaction" tail: the
+        // stream-ended error in Updater::next carries that tail too, and this case
+        // fails before the stream ever runs out.
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing too many rows in merge"),
+            "expected the add_blanks rejection, got: {err}"
         );
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_column_all_nulls() -> Result<()> {
-        let num_rows = 100;
+    async fn test_add_columns_cleans_up_blob_v2_data_on_stream_error(
+        #[values(
+            ("inline", b"inline".to_vec()),
+            ("packed", vec![1u8; 128 * 1024]),
+            ("dedicated", vec![2u8; 5 * 1024 * 1024]),
+            ("external", b"external".to_vec())
+        )]
+        blob_case: (&str, Vec<u8>),
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let (blob_kind, payload) = blob_case;
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
             "id",
             DataType::Int32,
             false,
         )]));
-
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..1))],
         )?;
         let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let external_dir = tempfile::tempdir()?;
+        let external_path = external_dir.path().join("blob.bin");
+        fs::write(&external_path, &payload)?;
+        let external_baseline_files = file_paths_in(external_dir.path());
+        let external_baseline_payload = fs::read(&external_path)?;
+
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
             reader,
             test_uri,
             Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 50,
-                max_rows_per_group: 25,
-                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath::new(
+                    1,
+                    external_dir.path().to_string_lossy().to_string(),
+                    Some("external".to_string()),
+                    false,
+                )]),
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
+        let baseline_files = data_file_paths_in(test_uri);
 
-        dataset
-            .add_columns(
-                NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                    "nulls",
-                    DataType::Int32,
-                    true,
-                )]))),
-                None,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await?;
+        let mut blob_builder = crate::BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        if blob_kind == "external" {
+            blob_builder.push_uri(external_path.to_string_lossy())?;
+        } else {
+            blob_builder.push_bytes(payload)?;
+        }
+        blob_builder.push_bytes(b"extra")?;
+        let blob_array = blob_builder.finish()?;
+        let blob_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let blob_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(blob_schema.clone(), vec![blob_array])?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(blob_batch)], blob_schema);
 
-        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
-        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("nulls", DataType::Int32, true),
-        ]);
-        assert_eq!(data.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema);
-        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), num_rows as usize);
-
-        // check that can't add non-nullable columns
-        let err =
-            dataset
-                .add_columns(
-                    NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-                        ArrowField::new("non_nulls", DataType::Int32, false),
-                    ]))),
-                    None,
-                    None,
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap_err();
-        assert!(err
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("All-null columns must be nullable."));
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(NewColumnTransform::Reader(Box::new(reader)), None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Stream produced more values than expected for dataset")
+        );
 
-        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
-        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("nulls", DataType::Int32, true),
-        ]);
-        assert_eq!(data.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema);
-        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), num_rows as usize);
+        assert_eq!(
+            data_file_paths_in(test_uri),
+            baseline_files,
+            "add_columns should clean up new data files and blob v2 sidecars on failure"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            file_paths_in(external_dir.path()),
+            external_baseline_files,
+            "cleanup must not delete external files"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            fs::read(&external_path)?,
+            external_baseline_payload,
+            "cleanup must not modify external files"
+        );
+        dataset.validate().await?;
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_column_all_nulls_legacy() -> Result<()> {
-        let num_rows = 100;
+    async fn test_cleanup_preserves_checkpointed_fragment_files() -> Result<()> {
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
             "id",
             DataType::Int32,
             false,
         )]));
-
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..2))],
         )?;
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
             reader,
             test_uri,
             Some(WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 50,
-                max_rows_per_group: 25,
-                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
+        let original_fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(original_fragments.len(), 2);
+
+        let data_dir = StdPath::new(test_uri).join("data");
+        let cached_file = data_dir.join("checkpointed.lance");
+        let cached_blob_dir = data_dir.join("checkpointed");
+        fs::write(&cached_file, b"checkpointed data")?;
+        fs::create_dir_all(&cached_blob_dir)?;
+        fs::write(
+            cached_blob_dir.join("00000000000000000000000000000001.blob"),
+            b"blob",
+        )?;
 
-        let err =
-            dataset
-                .add_columns(
-                    NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-                        ArrowField::new("nulls", DataType::Int32, true),
-                    ]))),
-                    None,
-                    None,
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap_err();
-        assert!(err
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Cannot add all-null columns to legacy dataset version"));
+        let mut checkpointed_fragment = original_fragments[0].metadata().clone();
+        checkpointed_fragment.files.push(DataFile::new(
+            "checkpointed.lance",
+            vec![dataset.manifest.max_field_id() + 1],
+            vec![0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+            NonZero::new(17),
+            None,
+        ));
 
-        Ok(())
-    }
+        #[derive(Default)]
+        struct CheckpointedFragmentStore {
+            fragment: Mutex<Option<Fragment>>,
+        }
 
-    async fn prepare_dataset(version: LanceFileVersion) -> Result<Dataset> {
-        // id: int32
-        // people: list<struct<name: utf8, age: int32, city: utf8>>
-        let person_struct_type = DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
-            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("city", DataType::Utf8, false),
-        ]));
+        impl UDFCheckpointStore for CheckpointedFragmentStore {
+            fn get_batch(&self, _info: &BatchInfo) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+                Ok(None)
+            }
 
-        let list_of_struct_type = DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
-            "item",
-            person_struct_type.clone(),
-            false,
-        )));
+            fn insert_batch(&self, _info: BatchInfo, _batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
-            vec![
-                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-                ArrowField::new("people", list_of_struct_type.clone(), false),
-            ],
-            HashMap::<String, String>::new(),
-        ));
+            fn get_fragment(&self, fragment_id: u32) -> Result<Option<Fragment>> {
+                if fragment_id == 0 {
+                    Ok(self.fragment.lock().unwrap().clone())
+                } else {
+                    Ok(None)
+                }
+            }
 
-        // Data: 3 rows, people is a list of 2, 3, 1 structs
-        let all_names = StringArray::from(vec!["Alice", "Bob", "Charlie", "David", "Eve", "Frank"]);
-        let all_ages = Int32Array::from(vec![25, 30, 35, 28, 32, 40]);
-        let all_cities = StringArray::from(vec![
-            "Beijing",
-            "Shanghai",
-            "Guangzhou",
-            "Shenzhen",
-            "Hangzhou",
-            "Chengdu",
-        ]);
-        let all_struct = StructArray::new(
-            ArrowFields::from(vec![
-                ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, false),
-                ArrowField::new("city", DataType::Utf8, false),
-            ]),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(all_names) as ArrayRef,
-                Arc::new(all_ages) as ArrayRef,
-                Arc::new(all_cities) as ArrayRef,
-            ],
-            None,
-        );
+            fn insert_fragment(&self, _fragment: Fragment) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
 
-        let all_people = ListArray::new(
-            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", person_struct_type, false)),
-            arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer::new(arrow_buffer::ScalarBuffer::from(vec![
-                0i32, 2i32, 5i32, 6i32,
-            ])),
-            Arc::new(all_struct),
-            None,
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(|_| Err(Error::invalid_input("injected UDF failure"))),
+            output_schema: Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "checkpointed",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            )])),
+            result_checkpoint: Some(Arc::new(CheckpointedFragmentStore {
+                fragment: Mutex::new(Some(checkpointed_fragment)),
+            })),
+        });
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(transforms, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("injected UDF failure"));
+
+        assert!(
+            cached_file.exists(),
+            "cleanup must not delete fragment files restored from a checkpoint"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            cached_blob_dir.exists(),
+            "cleanup must not delete blob sidecars restored from a checkpoint"
         );
 
-        let ids = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_columns_cleans_current_blob_v2_writer_on_udf_error() -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(all_people) as ArrayRef],
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..2))],
         )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
             reader,
-            "memory://test",
+            test_uri,
             Some(WriteParams {
-                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await?;
+        let baseline_files = data_file_paths_in(test_uri);
 
-        // Verify schema
-        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields[0].name, "id");
-        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields[1].name, "people");
-
-        Ok(dataset)
-    }
-
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_drop_list_struct_sub_columns_legacy(
-        #[values(
-            LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
-            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
-        )]
-        version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut dataset = prepare_dataset(version).await?;
+        let call_count = Arc::new(Mutex::new(0usize));
+        let mapper_call_count = call_count.clone();
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            let mut call_count = mapper_call_count.lock().unwrap();
+            *call_count += 1;
+            if *call_count == 2 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input("injected UDF failure"));
+            }
 
-        // drop sub-column city from list(struct)
-        dataset.drop_columns(&["people.item.city"]).await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
+            let mut blob_builder = crate::BlobArrayBuilder::new(batch.num_rows());
+            for _ in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![7u8; 5 * 1024 * 1024])?;
+            }
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)])),
+                vec![blob_builder.finish()?],
+            )?)
+        };
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
+            output_schema,
+            result_checkpoint: None,
+        });
 
-        // people column has been fully removed
-        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields[0].name, "id");
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(transforms, None, Some(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("injected UDF failure"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            data_file_paths_in(test_uri),
+            baseline_files,
+            "add_columns should clean files written by the current unfinished writer"
+        );
+        let blob_dir = StdPath::new(test_uri).join("_blobs");
+        assert!(!file_paths_in(&blob_dir).is_empty());
+        // Failed uploads use the existing orphan policy. There is no concurrent
+        // writer in this test, so explicit unverified cleanup can reclaim them.
+        dataset
+            .cleanup_with_policy(super::super::cleanup::CleanupPolicy {
+                delete_unverified: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .await?;
+        assert!(file_paths_in(&blob_dir).is_empty());
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_drop_list_struct_sub_columns(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)] version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut dataset = prepare_dataset(version).await?;
+    async fn test_add_columns_preserves_checkpointed_blob_v2_fragment_on_checkpoint_lookup_error()
+    -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..2))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
 
-        // drop sub-column city from list(struct)
-        dataset.drop_columns(&["people.item.city"]).await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
 
-        // people.item only contains name, age
-        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
-            vec![
-                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-                ArrowField::new(
-                    "people",
-                    DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
-                        "item",
-                        DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
-                            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, false),
-                        ])),
-                        false,
-                    ))),
-                    false,
-                ),
-            ],
-            HashMap::<String, String>::new(),
-        );
-        assert_eq!(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), expected_schema);
+        struct FailingLookupStore {
+            inserted: Arc<Mutex<Option<Fragment>>>,
+        }
 
-        // Verify data
-        let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 2);
+        impl UDFCheckpointStore for FailingLookupStore {
+            fn get_batch(&self, _info: &BatchInfo) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+                Ok(None)
+            }
 
-        let list_array = batch
-            .column(1)
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<ListArray>()
-            .unwrap();
+            fn insert_batch(&self, _info: BatchInfo, _batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            fn get_fragment(&self, fragment_id: u32) -> Result<Option<Fragment>> {
+                if fragment_id == 1 {
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input("injected checkpoint lookup failure"))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(None)
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn insert_fragment(&self, fragment: Fragment) -> Result<()> {
+                *self.inserted.lock().unwrap() = Some(fragment);
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+
+        let inserted = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            let mut blob_builder = crate::BlobArrayBuilder::new(batch.num_rows());
+            for _ in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![7u8; 5 * 1024 * 1024])?;
+            }
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)])),
+                vec![blob_builder.finish()?],
+            )?)
+        };
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
+            output_schema,
+            result_checkpoint: Some(Arc::new(FailingLookupStore {
+                inserted: inserted.clone(),
+            })),
+        });
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(transforms, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("injected checkpoint lookup failure")
+        );
+        let inserted = inserted.lock().unwrap().clone().unwrap();
+        let new_file = inserted
+            .files
+            .iter()
+            .find(|file| {
+                file.fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|field| *field > dataset.manifest.max_field_id())
+            })
+            .expect("checkpoint should record the newly written data file");
+        let new_file_path = StdPath::new(test_uri).join("data").join(&new_file.path);
+        let new_blob_dir = StdPath::new(test_uri).join("_blobs");
+        assert!(
+            new_file_path.exists(),
+            "cleanup must not delete data files after checkpoint takes ownership"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !file_paths_in(&new_blob_dir).is_empty(),
+            "cleanup must not delete blob sidecars after checkpoint takes ownership"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_columns_cleans_finished_blob_v2_writer_on_checkpoint_insert_error()
+    -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..1))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let baseline_files = data_file_paths_in(test_uri);
+
+        struct FailingInsertStore;
+
+        impl UDFCheckpointStore for FailingInsertStore {
+            fn get_batch(&self, _info: &BatchInfo) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+                Ok(None)
+            }
+
+            fn insert_batch(&self, _info: BatchInfo, _batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            fn get_fragment(&self, _fragment_id: u32) -> Result<Option<Fragment>> {
+                Ok(None)
+            }
+
+            fn insert_fragment(&self, _fragment: Fragment) -> Result<()> {
+                Err(Error::invalid_input("injected checkpoint insert failure"))
+            }
+        }
+
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            let mut blob_builder = crate::BlobArrayBuilder::new(batch.num_rows());
+            for _ in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![7u8; 5 * 1024 * 1024])?;
+            }
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)])),
+                vec![blob_builder.finish()?],
+            )?)
+        };
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
+            output_schema,
+            result_checkpoint: Some(Arc::new(FailingInsertStore)),
+        });
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(transforms, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("injected checkpoint insert failure")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            data_file_paths_in(test_uri),
+            baseline_files,
+            "add_columns should clean finished writer files when checkpoint insert fails"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_columns_cleans_blob_v2_files_on_declared_schema_merge_error() -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..1))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let baseline_files = data_file_paths_in(test_uri);
+
+        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            let mut blob_builder = crate::BlobArrayBuilder::new(batch.num_rows());
+            for _ in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![7u8; 5 * 1024 * 1024])?;
+            }
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)])),
+                vec![blob_builder.finish()?],
+            )?)
+        };
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
+            output_schema: Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("declared", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new("declared", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            result_checkpoint: None,
+        });
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(transforms, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::Schema { .. }));
+        assert_eq!(
+            data_file_paths_in(test_uri),
+            baseline_files,
+            "add_columns should clean files written before declared schema merge fails"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_columns_preserves_checkpointed_blob_v2_fragment_after_later_failure()
+    -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..2))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        struct InsertThenFailStore {
+            inserted: Arc<Mutex<Option<Fragment>>>,
+        }
+
+        impl UDFCheckpointStore for InsertThenFailStore {
+            fn get_batch(&self, info: &BatchInfo) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+                if info.fragment_id == 1 {
+                    Err(Error::invalid_input("injected later checkpoint failure"))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(None)
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn insert_batch(&self, _info: BatchInfo, _batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            fn get_fragment(&self, _fragment_id: u32) -> Result<Option<Fragment>> {
+                Ok(None)
+            }
+
+            fn insert_fragment(&self, fragment: Fragment) -> Result<()> {
+                *self.inserted.lock().unwrap() = Some(fragment);
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+
+        let inserted = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            let mut blob_builder = crate::BlobArrayBuilder::new(batch.num_rows());
+            for _ in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                blob_builder.push_bytes(vec![7u8; 5 * 1024 * 1024])?;
+            }
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![crate::blob_field("blob", true)])),
+                vec![blob_builder.finish()?],
+            )?)
+        };
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
+            output_schema,
+            result_checkpoint: Some(Arc::new(InsertThenFailStore {
+                inserted: inserted.clone(),
+            })),
+        });
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(transforms, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("injected later checkpoint failure")
+        );
+
+        let inserted = inserted.lock().unwrap().clone().unwrap();
+        let new_file = inserted
+            .files
+            .iter()
+            .find(|file| {
+                file.fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|field| *field > dataset.manifest.max_field_id())
+            })
+            .expect("checkpoint should record the newly written data file");
+        let new_file_path = StdPath::new(test_uri).join("data").join(&new_file.path);
+        let new_blob_dir = StdPath::new(test_uri).join("_blobs");
+        assert!(
+            new_file_path.exists(),
+            "cleanup must not delete data files after checkpoint takes ownership"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !file_paths_in(&new_blob_dir).is_empty(),
+            "cleanup must not delete blob sidecars after checkpoint takes ownership"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_columns_udf(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::Float64Array;
+
+        let num_rows = 5;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        // Adding a duplicate column name will break
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(|_| unimplemented!()),
+            output_schema: Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "id",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            result_checkpoint: None,
+        });
+        let res = dataset.add_columns(transforms, None, None).await;
+        assert!(matches!(res, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })));
+
+        // Can add a column that independent (empty read_schema)
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "value",
+            DataType::Float64,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let output_schema_ref = output_schema.clone();
+        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                output_schema_ref.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Float64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..batch.num_rows()).map(|i| i as f64),
+                ))],
+            )?)
+        };
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
+            output_schema,
+            result_checkpoint: None,
+        });
+        dataset.add_columns(transforms, None, None).await?;
+
+        // Can add a column that depends on another column (double id)
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "double_id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let output_schema_ref = output_schema.clone();
+        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            let id = batch
+                .column(0)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                output_schema_ref.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    id.values().iter().map(|i| i * 2),
+                ))],
+            )?)
+        };
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
+            output_schema,
+            result_checkpoint: None,
+        });
+        dataset.add_columns(transforms, None, None).await?;
+        // These can be read back, the dataset is valid
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Float64, true),
+            ArrowField::new("double_id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(data.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema);
+        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), num_rows);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_columns_udf_cache() -> Result<()> {
+        let num_rows = 100;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                max_rows_per_group: 25,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        #[derive(Default)]
+        struct RequestCounter {
+            pub get_batch_requests: Mutex<Vec<BatchInfo>>,
+            pub insert_batch_requests: Mutex<Vec<BatchInfo>>,
+            pub get_fragment_requests: Mutex<Vec<u32>>,
+            pub insert_fragment_requests: Mutex<Vec<u32>>,
+        }
+
+        impl UDFCheckpointStore for RequestCounter {
+            fn get_batch(&self, info: &BatchInfo) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+                self.get_batch_requests.lock().unwrap().push(info.clone());
+
+                if info.fragment_id == 1 && info.batch_index == 0 {
+                    Ok(Some(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                            "double_id",
+                            DataType::Int32,
+                            false,
+                        )])),
+                        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(50..75))],
+                    )?))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(None)
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn insert_batch(&self, info: BatchInfo, _value: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+                self.insert_batch_requests.lock().unwrap().push(info);
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            fn get_fragment(&self, fragment_id: u32) -> Result<Option<Fragment>> {
+                self.get_fragment_requests.lock().unwrap().push(fragment_id);
+                if fragment_id == 0 {
+                    Ok(Some(Fragment {
+                        files: vec![],
+                        id: 0,
+                        overlays: vec![],
+                        deletion_file: None,
+                        row_id_meta: None,
+                        physical_rows: Some(50),
+                        last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+                        created_at_version_meta: None,
+                    }))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(None)
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn insert_fragment(&self, fragment: Fragment) -> Result<()> {
+                self.insert_fragment_requests
+                    .lock()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .push(fragment.id as u32);
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+
+        let request_counter = Arc::new(RequestCounter::default());
+
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "double_id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let output_schema_ref = output_schema.clone();
+        let mapper = move |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            let id = batch
+                .column(0)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                output_schema_ref.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    id.values().iter().map(|i| i * 2),
+                ))],
+            )?)
+        };
+        let transforms = NewColumnTransform::BatchUDF(BatchUDF {
+            mapper: Box::new(mapper),
+            output_schema,
+            result_checkpoint: Some(request_counter.clone()),
+        });
+        dataset.add_columns(transforms, None, None).await?;
+
+        // Should have requested both fragments
+        assert_eq!(
+            request_counter
+                .get_fragment_requests
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_slice(),
+            &[0, 1]
+        );
+        // Should have only inserted the second fragment, since the first one was already cached
+        assert_eq!(
+            request_counter
+                .insert_fragment_requests
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_slice(),
+            &[1]
+        );
+
+        // Should have only requested the second two batches, since the first fragment was already cached
+        assert_eq!(
+            request_counter
+                .get_batch_requests
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_slice(),
+            &[
+                BatchInfo {
+                    fragment_id: 1,
+                    batch_index: 0,
+                },
+                BatchInfo {
+                    fragment_id: 1,
+                    batch_index: 1,
+                },
+            ]
+        );
+        // Should have only saved the last batch, since the first batch of second fragment was already cached
+        assert_eq!(
+            request_counter
+                .insert_batch_requests
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_slice(),
+            &[BatchInfo {
+                fragment_id: 1,
+                batch_index: 1,
+            },]
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_column_all_nulls() -> Result<()> {
+        let num_rows = 100;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                max_rows_per_group: 25,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        dataset
+            .add_columns(
+                NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    "nulls",
+                    DataType::Int32,
+                    true,
+                )]))),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await?;
+
+        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("nulls", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(data.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema);
+        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), num_rows as usize);
+
+        // check that can't add non-nullable columns
+        let err =
+            dataset
+                .add_columns(
+                    NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                        ArrowField::new("non_nulls", DataType::Int32, false),
+                    ]))),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("nulls", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(data.schema().as_ref(), &expected_schema);
+        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), num_rows as usize);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// `AllNulls` accepts any nullable top-level column whatever its inner-field
+    /// nullability (Map/List/Struct with non-null children); non-nullable ones are rejected.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_column_all_nulls_nested() -> Result<()> {
+        let num_rows = 100;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                max_rows_per_group: 25,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let map_with_non_null_entries = DataType::Map(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                "entries",
+                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Float64, true),
+                ])),
+                false,
+            )),
+            false,
+        );
+        let list_with_non_null_items =
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Utf8, false)));
+        let struct_with_non_null_child =
+            DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "a",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                false,
+            )]));
+
+        dataset
+            .add_columns(
+                NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("cutoffs", map_with_non_null_entries.clone(), true),
+                    ArrowField::new("tags", list_with_non_null_items.clone(), true),
+                    ArrowField::new("info", struct_with_non_null_child.clone(), true),
+                ]))),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await?;
+
+        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), num_rows as usize);
+        for (name, expected_type) in [
+            ("cutoffs", &map_with_non_null_entries),
+            ("tags", &list_with_non_null_items),
+            ("info", &struct_with_non_null_child),
+        ] {
+            let column = data.column_by_name(name).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                column.data_type(),
+                expected_type,
+                "type mismatch for {name}"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                column.null_count(),
+                num_rows as usize,
+                "column {name} should be all-null"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // A non-nullable top-level field is still rejected, and the error names it.
+        let err =
+            dataset
+                .add_columns(
+                    NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                        ArrowField::new("non_null_cutoffs", map_with_non_null_entries, false),
+                    ]))),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// A schema-only child added under a `list<struct>` parent must read back
+    /// with the parent's offsets, validity and siblings intact, without
+    /// weakening the parent's declared nullability, and alongside later
+    /// fragments that do carry the child. A NOT NULL parent, alone or inside
+    /// a NOT NULL struct, used to panic in the placeholder reader.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::required_parent(false, false)]
+    #[case::nullable_parent(true, false)]
+    #[case::required_struct_wrapper(false, true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_nested_child_under_parent_nullability(
+        #[case] parent_nullable: bool,
+        #[case] wrap_in_struct: bool,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        use arrow_buffer::{NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer};
+
+        fn list_of(item: DataType) -> DataType {
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", item, true)))
+        }
+        fn top_field(items: ArrowField, wrap: bool, wrapper_nullable: bool) -> ArrowField {
+            if wrap {
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "wrapper",
+                    DataType::Struct(vec![items].into()),
+                    wrapper_nullable,
+                )
+            } else {
+                items
+            }
+        }
+        fn top_column(items: ArrayRef, items_field: ArrowField, wrap: bool) -> ArrayRef {
+            if wrap {
+                Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                    vec![items_field].into(),
+                    vec![items],
+                    None,
+                ))
+            } else {
+                items
+            }
+        }
+        fn items_column(batch: &RecordBatch, wrap: bool) -> &ListArray {
+            let column = if wrap {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("wrapper")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_struct()
+                    .column_by_name("items")
+                    .unwrap()
+            } else {
+                batch.column_by_name("items").unwrap()
+            };
+            column.as_list::<i32>()
+        }
+
+        let name_fields = ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true)]);
+        let old_items_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "items",
+            list_of(DataType::Struct(name_fields.clone())),
+            parent_nullable,
+        );
+        let old_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![top_field(
+            old_items_field.clone(),
+            wrap_in_struct,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        // Rows: [{a}, {b}, null], [] and, for a nullable parent, null.
+        let mut offsets = vec![0i32, 3, 3];
+        let mut list_validity = None;
+        if parent_nullable {
+            offsets.push(3);
+            list_validity = Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, false]));
+        }
+        let old_structs = StructArray::new(
+            name_fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("a"), Some("b"), None])) as ArrayRef],
+            Some(vec![true, true, false].into()),
+        );
+        let old_items = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::Struct(name_fields.clone()),
+                true,
+            )),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(offsets.clone().into()),
+            Arc::new(old_structs),
+            list_validity,
+        );
+        let num_old_rows = old_items.len();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            old_schema.clone(),
+            vec![top_column(
+                Arc::new(old_items),
+                old_items_field,
+                wrap_in_struct,
+            )],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], old_schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                // One fragment per row so the placeholder is exercised per fragment.
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), num_old_rows);
+
+        let collections_field = ArrowField::new("collections", list_of(DataType::Int32), true);
+        let added = ArrowField::new(
+            "items",
+            list_of(DataType::Struct(vec![collections_field.clone()].into())),
+            true,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .add_columns(
+                NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![top_field(
+                    added,
+                    wrap_in_struct,
+                    true,
+                )]))),
+                None,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await?;
+
+        // Only the placeholder batch is nullable; the dataset schema keeps the
+        // parent's declared nullability.
+        let merged_fields = ArrowFields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            collections_field,
+        ]);
+        let items_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "items",
+            list_of(DataType::Struct(merged_fields.clone())),
+            parent_nullable,
+        );
+        let expected_schema =
+            ArrowSchema::new(vec![top_field(items_field.clone(), wrap_in_struct, false)]);
+        assert_eq!(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), expected_schema);
+
+        let check_old_rows = |items: &ListArray| {
+            assert_eq!(&items.value_offsets()[..offsets.len()], offsets.as_slice());
+            assert_eq!(items.null_count(), usize::from(parent_nullable));
+            if parent_nullable {
+                assert!(items.is_null(2));
+            }
+            let structs = items.values().as_struct();
+            assert!(structs.is_valid(0) && structs.is_valid(1) && structs.is_null(2));
+            let names = structs.column_by_name("name").unwrap().as_string::<i32>();
+            assert_eq!(names.value(0), "a");
+            assert_eq!(names.value(1), "b");
+            let collections = structs.column_by_name("collections").unwrap();
+            assert!(collections.is_null(0) && collections.is_null(1) && collections.is_null(2));
+        };
+
+        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), num_old_rows);
+        assert_eq!(data.schema().fields(), expected_schema.fields());
+        check_old_rows(items_column(&data, wrap_in_struct));
+
+        // A fragment written after the addition carries real child values.
+        let new_structs = StructArray::new(
+            merged_fields.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["c"])) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(vec![
+                    Some(vec![Some(1), Some(2)]),
+                ])),
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let new_items = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::Struct(merged_fields.clone()),
+                true,
+            )),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(vec![0, 1].into()),
+            Arc::new(new_structs),
+            None,
+        );
+        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(expected_schema.clone()),
+            vec![top_column(Arc::new(new_items), items_field, wrap_in_struct)],
+        )?;
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![new_batch])
+            .await?;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), num_old_rows + 1);
+
+        let check_new_row = |items: &ListArray, row: usize, element: usize| {
+            assert_eq!(items.value_length(row), 1);
+            let structs = items.values().as_struct();
+            assert_eq!(
+                structs
+                    .column_by_name("name")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_string::<i32>()
+                    .value(element),
+                "c"
+            );
+            let collections = structs
+                .column_by_name("collections")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_list::<i32>();
+            assert_eq!(
+                collections
+                    .value(element)
+                    .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                    .values(),
+                &[1, 2]
+            );
+        };
+
+        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), num_old_rows + 1);
+        assert_eq!(data.schema().fields(), expected_schema.fields());
+        let items = items_column(&data, wrap_in_struct);
+        check_old_rows(items);
+        check_new_row(items, num_old_rows, 3);
+
+        // `take` shares the placeholder builder with the scan path.
+        let taken = dataset
+            .take(&[num_old_rows as u64, 0], dataset.schema().clone())
+            .await?;
+        assert_eq!(taken.schema().fields(), expected_schema.fields());
+        let items = items_column(&taken, wrap_in_struct);
+        assert_eq!(items.value_offsets(), &[0, 1, 4]);
+        check_new_row(items, 0, 0);
+        let collections = items
+            .values()
+            .as_struct()
+            .column_by_name("collections")
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(collections.is_null(1) && collections.is_null(2) && collections.is_null(3));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_column_all_nulls_legacy() -> Result<()> {
+        let num_rows = 100;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))],
+        )?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                max_rows_per_group: 25,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        let err =
+            dataset
+                .add_columns(
+                    NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                        ArrowField::new("nulls", DataType::Int32, true),
+                    ]))),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Cannot add all-null columns to legacy dataset version")
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn prepare_dataset(version: LanceFileVersion) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        // id: int32
+        // people: list<struct<name: utf8, age: int32, city: utf8>>
+        let person_struct_type = DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("city", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let list_of_struct_type = DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+            "item",
+            person_struct_type.clone(),
+            false,
+        )));
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                ArrowField::new("people", list_of_struct_type.clone(), false),
+            ],
+            HashMap::<String, String>::new(),
+        ));
+
+        // Data: 3 rows, people is a list of 2, 3, 1 structs
+        let all_names = StringArray::from(vec!["Alice", "Bob", "Charlie", "David", "Eve", "Frank"]);
+        let all_ages = Int32Array::from(vec![25, 30, 35, 28, 32, 40]);
+        let all_cities = StringArray::from(vec![
+            "Beijing",
+            "Shanghai",
+            "Guangzhou",
+            "Shenzhen",
+            "Hangzhou",
+            "Chengdu",
+        ]);
+        let all_struct = StructArray::new(
+            ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, false),
+                ArrowField::new("city", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ]),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(all_names) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(all_ages) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(all_cities) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let all_people = ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", person_struct_type, false)),
+            arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer::new(arrow_buffer::ScalarBuffer::from(vec![
+                0i32, 2i32, 5i32, 6i32,
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(all_struct),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let ids = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(all_people) as ArrayRef],
+        )?;
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://test",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // Verify schema
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields[0].name, "id");
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields[1].name, "people");
+
+        Ok(dataset)
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_list_struct_sub_columns_legacy(
+        #[values(
+            LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_1
+        )]
+        version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut dataset = prepare_dataset(version).await?;
+
+        // drop sub-column city from list(struct)
+        dataset.drop_columns(&["people.item.city"]).await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        // people column has been fully removed
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields[0].name, "id");
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_list_struct_sub_columns(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut dataset = prepare_dataset(version).await?;
+
+        // drop sub-column city from list(struct)
+        dataset.drop_columns(&["people.item.city"]).await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        // people.item only contains name, age
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "people",
+                    DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                        "item",
+                        DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                            ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, false),
+                        ])),
+                        false,
+                    ))),
+                    false,
+                ),
+            ],
+            HashMap::<String, String>::new(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), expected_schema);
+
+        // Verify data
+        let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 2);
+
+        let list_array = batch
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<ListArray>()
+            .unwrap();
         let list_value = list_array.value(0);
         let struct_array = list_value.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>().unwrap();
         assert!(struct_array.column_by_name("city").is_none());
@@ -1446,86 +3640,475 @@ mod test {
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_exclude_fields() {
-        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new(
-                "b",
-                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
-                    ArrowField::new("f1", DataType::Utf8, true),
-                    ArrowField::new("f2", DataType::Boolean, false),
-                    ArrowField::new("f3", DataType::Float32, false),
-                ])),
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn mixed_exact_versions_reject_ambiguous_nested_drop() -> Result<()> {
+        let dataset = prepare_dataset(LanceFileVersion::V2_0).await?;
+        let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&params)
+            .execute(vec![batch])
+            .await?;
+
+        let error = dataset
+            .drop_columns(&["people.item.city"])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("different metadata semantics"));
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2, true)]
+    #[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn nested_drop_uses_only_affected_file_versions(
+        #[case] default: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[case] target: ConcreteFileVersion,
+        #[case] preserves_people: bool,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let dataset = prepare_dataset(default).await?;
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["people"])?
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await?;
+        let schema = dataset.schema().project(&["people"])?;
+        let replacement = dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+            .write_column_with_version(futures::stream::iter([Ok(batch)]), &schema, target)
+            .await?;
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            Operation::DataReplacement {
+                replacements: vec![replacement],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let mut dataset = crate::dataset::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(transaction)
+            .await?;
+        dataset.drop_columns(&["people.item.city"]).await?;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.schema().field("people").is_some(), preserves_people);
+        assert!(dataset.schema().field("people.item.city").is_none());
+        assert_eq!(dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?.num_rows(), 3);
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_exclude_fields() {
+        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "b",
+                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("f1", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                    ArrowField::new("f2", DataType::Boolean, false),
+                    ArrowField::new("f3", DataType::Float32, false),
+                ])),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Float64, false),
+        ]);
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+
+        let projection = schema.project(&["a", "b.f2", "b.f3"]).unwrap();
+        let excluded = exclude(&schema, &projection, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).unwrap();
+
+        let expected_arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "b",
+                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    "f1",
+                    DataType::Utf8,
+                    true,
+                )])),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Float64, false),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(ArrowSchema::from(&excluded), expected_arrow_schema);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_rename_columns(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StructArray};
+
+        let metadata: HashMap<String, String> = [("k1".into(), "v1".into())].into();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            vec![
+                ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "b",
+                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                        "c",
+                        DataType::Int32,
+                        true,
+                    )])),
+                    true,
+                ),
+            ],
+            metadata.clone(),
+        ));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+                )])),
+            ],
+        )?;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            batches,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let original_fragments = dataset.fragments().to_vec();
+
+        // Rename a top-level column
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("a".into())
+                .rename("x".into())
+                .set_nullable(true)])
+            .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().as_ref(), &original_fragments);
+
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            vec![
+                ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "b",
+                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                        "c",
+                        DataType::Int32,
+                        true,
+                    )])),
+                    true,
+                ),
+            ],
+            metadata.clone(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
+
+        // Rename to duplicate name fails
+        let err = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b".into()).rename("x".into())])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Duplicate field name \"x\""));
+
+        // Rename a nested column.
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b.c".into()).rename("d".into())])
+            .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 3);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().as_ref(), &original_fragments);
+
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            vec![
+                ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+                ArrowField::new(
+                    "b",
+                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                        "d",
+                        DataType::Int32,
+                        true,
+                    )])),
+                    true,
+                ),
+            ],
+            metadata.clone(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_set_not_null_succeeds(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "a",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values([1, 2, 3]))],
+        )?;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let original_fragments = dataset.fragments().to_vec();
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("a".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().as_ref(), &original_fragments);
+        assert_eq!(
+            &ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()),
+            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)])
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_set_not_null_succeeds_nested(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StructArray};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "b",
+            DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "c",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            )])),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])) as ArrayRef,
+            )]))],
+        )?;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let original_fragments = dataset.fragments().to_vec();
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b.c".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().as_ref(), &original_fragments);
+        assert_eq!(
+            &ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()),
+            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "b",
+                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    "c",
+                    DataType::Int32,
+                    false
+                )])),
+                false
+            )])
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_set_not_null_fails_with_nulls(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Stable)] data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "a",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)]))],
+        )?;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("a".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("contains NULL values"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            &ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()),
+            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)])
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_set_not_null_fails_with_nulls_nested(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Stable)] data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StructArray};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "b",
+            DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "c",
+                DataType::Int32,
                 true,
-            ),
-            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Float64, false),
-        ]);
-        let schema = Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+            )])),
+            false,
+        )]));
 
-        let projection = schema.project(&["a", "b.f2", "b.f3"]).unwrap();
-        let excluded = exclude(&schema, &projection, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)])) as ArrayRef,
+            )]))],
+        )?;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
 
-        let expected_arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new(
+        let err = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b.c".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("contains NULL values"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            &ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()),
+            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
                 "b",
                 DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                    "f1",
-                    DataType::Utf8,
-                    true,
+                    "c",
+                    DataType::Int32,
+                    true
                 )])),
-                true,
-            ),
-            ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Float64, false),
-        ]);
-        assert_eq!(ArrowSchema::from(&excluded), expected_arrow_schema);
+                false
+            )])
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_rename_columns(
+    async fn test_cast_column(
         #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
         data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        use std::collections::HashMap;
-
-        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StructArray};
+        // Create a table with 2 scalar columns, 1 vector column
 
-        let metadata: HashMap<String, String> = [("k1".into(), "v1".into())].into();
+        use arrow::datatypes::{Int32Type, Int64Type};
+        use arrow_array::{Float16Array, Float32Array, Int64Array, ListArray};
+        use half::f16;
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+        use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+        use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
-            vec![
-                ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
-                ArrowField::new(
-                    "b",
-                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                        "c",
-                        DataType::Int32,
-                        true,
-                    )])),
-                    true,
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("f", DataType::Float32, false),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    128,
                 ),
-            ],
-            metadata.clone(),
-        ));
+                false,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("l", DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true), true),
+        ]));
 
+        let nrows = 512;
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
-                Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
-                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true)),
-                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
-                )])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..nrows)),
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..nrows).map(|i| i as f32))),
+                Arc::new(
+                    <arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray as FixedSizeListArrayExt>::try_new_from_values(
+                        generate_random_array(128 * nrows as usize),
+                        128,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+                Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(
+                    (0..nrows).map(|i| Some(vec![Some(i), Some(i + 1)])),
+                )),
             ],
         )?;
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            batches,
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone()),
             test_uri,
             Some(WriteParams {
                 data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
@@ -1534,243 +4117,305 @@ mod test {
         )
         .await?;
 
-        let original_fragments = dataset.fragments().to_vec();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 50);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await?;
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
 
-        // Rename a top-level column
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+
+        // Cast a scalar column to another type, nullability
         dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("a".into())
-                .rename("x".into())
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("f".into())
+                .cast_to(DataType::Float16)
                 .set_nullable(true)])
             .await?;
         dataset.validate().await?;
-        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 2);
-        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().as_ref(), &original_fragments);
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("f", DataType::Float16, true),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    128,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("l", DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true), true),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
 
-        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
-            vec![
-                ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
-                ArrowField::new(
-                    "b",
-                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                        "c",
-                        DataType::Int32,
-                        true,
-                    )])),
-                    true,
+        // Each fragment gains a file with the new columns
+        dataset.fragments().iter().for_each(|f| {
+            assert_eq!(f.files.len(), 2);
+        });
+
+        // Cast scalar column with index. The index must be dropped first; cast
+        // is now a fail-fast operation when an index is attached, see
+        // test_alter_columns_cast_fails_with_attached_index for that path.
+        dataset.drop_index("i_idx").await?;
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("i".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+            .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int64, false),
+            ArrowField::new("f", DataType::Float16, true),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    128,
                 ),
-            ],
-            metadata.clone(),
-        );
+                false,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("l", DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true), true),
+        ]);
         assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
 
-        // Rename to duplicate name fails
-        let err = dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b".into()).rename("x".into())])
-            .await
-            .unwrap_err();
-        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Duplicate field name \"x\""));
+        // The scalar index on `i` is gone (we dropped it); the vector index on
+        // `vec` is still present.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+
+        // Each fragment gains a file with the new columns
+        dataset.fragments().iter().for_each(|f| {
+            assert_eq!(f.files.len(), 3);
+        });
+
+        // Cast vector column. Drop its index first (same reason as above).
+        dataset.drop_index("vec_idx").await?;
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[
+                ColumnAlteration::new("vec".into()).cast_to(DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                    128,
+                )),
+            ])
+            .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        // Finally, case list column to show we can handle children.
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("l".into())
+                .cast_to(DataType::new_list(DataType::Int64, true))])
+            .await?;
+        dataset.validate().await?;
+
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int64, false),
+            ArrowField::new("f", DataType::Float16, true),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                    128,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("l", DataType::new_list(DataType::Int64, true), true),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
+
+        // We currently lose the index when casting a column
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 0);
 
-        // Rename a nested column.
-        dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b.c".into()).rename("d".into())])
-            .await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
-        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 3);
-        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().as_ref(), &original_fragments);
+        // Each fragment gains a file with the new columns, but then the original file is dropped
+        dataset.fragments().iter().for_each(|f| {
+            assert_eq!(f.files.len(), 4);
+        });
 
-        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        let expected_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(expected_schema),
             vec![
-                ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
-                ArrowField::new(
-                    "b",
-                    DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                        "d",
-                        DataType::Int32,
-                        true,
-                    )])),
-                    true,
-                ),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..nrows as i64)),
+                Arc::new(Float16Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..nrows).map(|i| f16::from_f32(i as f32)),
+                )),
+                cast_with_options(
+                    batch["vec"].as_ref(),
+                    &DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                        128,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )?,
+                Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int64Type, _, _>(
+                    (0..nrows as i64).map(|i| Some(vec![Some(i), Some(i + 1)])),
+                )),
             ],
-            metadata.clone(),
-        );
-        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
+        )?;
+        let actual_data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        assert_eq!(actual_data, expected_data);
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_set_not_null_succeeds(
+    async fn test_cast_columns_reversed_order(
         #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
         data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "a",
-            DataType::Int32,
-            true,
-        )]));
+        use arrow_array::Int64Array;
 
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values([1, 2, 3]))],
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20])),
+            ],
         )?;
+
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
-            test_uri,
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &test_dir,
             Some(WriteParams {
                 data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await?;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 2);
 
-        let original_fragments = dataset.fragments().to_vec();
         dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("a".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .alter_columns(&[
+                ColumnAlteration::new("b".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64),
+                ColumnAlteration::new("a".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64),
+            ])
             .await?;
         dataset.validate().await?;
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 2);
-        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().as_ref(), &original_fragments);
-        assert_eq!(
-            &ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()),
-            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)])
-        );
+        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        assert_eq!(data["a"].as_ref(), &Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2]));
+        assert_eq!(data["b"].as_ref(), &Int64Array::from(vec![10, 20]));
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_set_not_null_succeeds_nested(
+    async fn test_cast_nested_column(
         #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
         data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StructArray};
+        use arrow_array::{Int64Array, cast::AsArray};
 
+        let child_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, false));
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
             "b",
-            DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                "c",
-                DataType::Int32,
-                true,
-            )])),
+            DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![child_field.clone()])),
             false,
         )]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
-                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true)),
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])) as ArrayRef,
-            )]))],
+        let struct_array = StructArray::try_new(
+            ArrowFields::from(vec![child_field]),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+            None,
         )?;
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(struct_array)])?;
+
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
-            test_uri,
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &test_dir,
             Some(WriteParams {
                 data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
         .await?;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 2);
 
-        let original_fragments = dataset.fragments().to_vec();
         dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b.c".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b.c".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
             .await?;
         dataset.validate().await?;
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().as_ref(), &original_fragments);
-        assert_eq!(
-            &ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()),
-            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                "b",
-                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                    "c",
-                    DataType::Int32,
-                    false
-                )])),
-                false
-            )])
-        );
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_set_not_null_fails_with_nulls(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Stable)] data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "a",
-            DataType::Int32,
-            true,
-        )]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)]))],
-        )?;
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
-            test_uri,
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "b",
+            DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "c",
+                DataType::Int64,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            false,
+        )]);
+        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
 
-        let err = dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("a".into()).set_nullable(false)])
-            .await
-            .unwrap_err();
-        assert!(err.to_string().contains("contains NULL values"));
+        let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        let struct_array = data["b"].as_struct();
         assert_eq!(
-            &ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()),
-            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)])
+            struct_array.column_by_name("c").unwrap().as_ref(),
+            &Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])
         );
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    /// Cast on a column with an attached index must fail fast rather than
+    /// silently dropping the index. This guards against the historical behavior
+    /// where cast would rewrite column data and the index would vanish without
+    /// any error or warning, causing vector search to silently regress to a
+    /// brute-force scan.
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_set_not_null_fails_with_nulls_nested(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Stable)] data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    async fn test_alter_columns_cast_fails_with_attached_index(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StructArray};
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+        use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
 
+        // Build a small dataset with one indexed vector column.
         let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "b",
-            DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                "c",
-                DataType::Int32,
-                true,
-            )])),
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                64,
+            ),
             false,
         )]));
-
+        let nrows = 256;
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
-                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true)),
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)])) as ArrayRef,
-            )]))],
+            vec![Arc::new(
+                <arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray as FixedSizeListArrayExt>::try_new_from_values(
+                    generate_random_array(64 * nrows as usize),
+                    64,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            )],
         )?;
+
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
             RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
-            test_uri,
+            &test_dir,
             Some(WriteParams {
                 data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
                 ..Default::default()
@@ -1778,76 +4423,136 @@ mod test {
         )
         .await?;
 
-        let err = dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b.c".into()).set_nullable(false)])
-            .await
-            .unwrap_err();
-        assert!(err.to_string().contains("contains NULL values"));
-        assert_eq!(
-            &ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()),
-            &ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                "b",
-                DataType::Struct(ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                    "c",
-                    DataType::Int32,
-                    true
-                )])),
-                false
-            )])
-        );
-
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cast_column(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        // Create a table with 2 scalar columns, 1 vector column
+        // Any attached vector index blocks the cast; IVF_FLAT exercises that
+        // ownership contract without unrelated quantizer training.
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await?;
 
-        use arrow::datatypes::{Int32Type, Int64Type};
-        use arrow_array::{Float16Array, Float32Array, Int64Array, ListArray};
-        use half::f16;
-        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-        use lance_index::{scalar::ScalarIndexParams, DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
-        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
-        use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+        let indices_before = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+        assert_eq!(indices_before.len(), 1, "precondition: index exists");
+        let index_name = indices_before[0].name.clone();
 
-        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("f", DataType::Float32, false),
-            ArrowField::new(
-                "vec",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                    128,
-                ),
-                false,
-            ),
-            ArrowField::new("l", DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true), true),
-        ]));
+        // Attempting to cast the indexed column must fail with a clear message
+        // that names the offending index(es).
+        let result = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[
+                ColumnAlteration::new("vec".into()).cast_to(DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                    64,
+                )),
+            ])
+            .await;
+        let err = result.expect_err("cast on indexed column should fail");
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("vec") && msg.contains(&index_name),
+            "error should mention column and index name, got: {msg}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("drop_index"),
+            "error should suggest the remediation, got: {msg}"
+        );
 
-        let nrows = 512;
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..nrows)),
-                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..nrows).map(|i| i as f32))),
-                Arc::new(
-                    <arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray as FixedSizeListArrayExt>::try_new_from_values(
-                        generate_random_array(128 * nrows as usize),
-                        128,
-                    )
-                    .unwrap(),
-                ),
-                Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(
-                    (0..nrows).map(|i| Some(vec![Some(i), Some(i + 1)])),
+        // The dataset must be unchanged: schema is still float32, index still present.
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.schema().field("vec").unwrap().data_type(),
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                64,
+            ),
+        );
+        let indices_after = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+        assert_eq!(indices_after.len(), 1, "index should still exist");
+        assert_eq!(indices_after[0].name, index_name);
+
+        // Sanity check: after dropping the index, the same cast should succeed.
+        dataset.drop_index(&index_name).await?;
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[
+                ColumnAlteration::new("vec".into()).cast_to(DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                    64,
                 )),
-            ],
-        )?;
+            ])
+            .await?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.schema().field("vec").unwrap().data_type(),
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                64,
+            ),
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_is_upcast_downcast_dictionary() {
+        use DataType::*;
+
+        let dict_i32_utf8 = Dictionary(Box::new(Int32), Box::new(Utf8));
+        let dict_i16_utf8 = Dictionary(Box::new(Int16), Box::new(Utf8));
+        let dict_i32_large_utf8 = Dictionary(Box::new(Int32), Box::new(LargeUtf8));
+        let dict_i32_int64 = Dictionary(Box::new(Int32), Box::new(Int64));
+        let stable = LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve();
+        let legacy = LanceFileVersion::Legacy.resolve();
+
+        // Dict(_, Utf8) -> Utf8 / LargeUtf8 (decode direction): both versions.
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_utf8, &Utf8, stable));
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_utf8, &LargeUtf8, stable));
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_utf8, &Utf8, legacy));
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_utf8, &LargeUtf8, legacy));
+
+        // Utf8 / LargeUtf8 -> Dict(_, Utf8) (encode direction): stable only.
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&Utf8, &dict_i32_utf8, stable));
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&LargeUtf8, &dict_i32_utf8, stable));
+        assert!(!is_upcast_downcast(&Utf8, &dict_i32_utf8, legacy));
+        assert!(!is_upcast_downcast(&LargeUtf8, &dict_i32_utf8, legacy));
+
+        // Dict -> Dict with compatible value types, including different index
+        // types. Stable only; Legacy can't materialize a fresh dictionary.
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_utf8, &dict_i16_utf8, stable));
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(
+            &dict_i32_utf8,
+            &dict_i32_large_utf8,
+            stable
+        ));
+        assert!(!is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_utf8, &dict_i16_utf8, legacy));
+
+        // Dict(_, Int64) <-> integer types (peel applies to non-string families).
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_int64, &Int32, stable));
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&Int32, &dict_i32_int64, stable));
+        assert!(is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_int64, &Int32, legacy));
+        assert!(!is_upcast_downcast(&Int32, &dict_i32_int64, legacy));
+
+        // Cross-family casts must still be rejected after peeling.
+        assert!(!is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_utf8, &Int32, stable));
+        assert!(!is_upcast_downcast(&Int32, &dict_i32_utf8, stable));
+        assert!(!is_upcast_downcast(&dict_i32_utf8, &Boolean, stable));
+        assert!(!is_upcast_downcast(&Boolean, &dict_i32_utf8, stable));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cast_dictionary_to_string(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::DictionaryArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+
+        let dict_type = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "d",
+            dict_type.clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let values = ["alpha", "beta", "gamma", "alpha", "beta"];
+        let dict_array: DictionaryArray<Int32Type> = values.iter().copied().collect();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(dict_array)])?;
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = &test_dir;
@@ -1862,146 +4567,139 @@ mod test {
         )
         .await?;
 
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 50);
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
-            .await?;
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["i"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                None,
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
-            )
-            .await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
-
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
-
-        // Cast a scalar column to another type, nullability
-        dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("f".into())
-                .cast_to(DataType::Float16)
-                .set_nullable(true)])
-            .await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
-        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("f", DataType::Float16, true),
-            ArrowField::new(
-                "vec",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                    128,
-                ),
-                false,
-            ),
-            ArrowField::new("l", DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true), true),
-        ]);
-        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
-
-        // Each fragment gains a file with the new columns
-        dataset.fragments().iter().for_each(|f| {
-            assert_eq!(f.files.len(), 2);
-        });
-
-        // Cast scalar column with index, should not keep index (TODO: keep it)
         dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("i".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("d".into()).cast_to(DataType::Utf8)])
             .await?;
         dataset.validate().await?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.schema().field("d").unwrap().data_type(),
+            DataType::Utf8
+        );
+        let scanned = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+        let decoded = scanned.column_by_name("d").unwrap();
+        let expected_decoded = StringArray::from(values.to_vec());
+        assert_eq!(
+            decoded.as_ref(),
+            &expected_decoded as &dyn arrow_array::Array
+        );
 
-        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int64, false),
-            ArrowField::new("f", DataType::Float16, true),
-            ArrowField::new(
-                "vec",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                    128,
-                ),
-                false,
-            ),
-            ArrowField::new("l", DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true), true),
-        ]);
-        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
+        // Cross-family casts must still be rejected even through a dictionary.
+        let err = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("d".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int32)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Cannot cast column"));
 
-        // We currently lose the index when casting a column
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-        // Each fragment gains a file with the new columns
-        dataset.fragments().iter().for_each(|f| {
-            assert_eq!(f.files.len(), 3);
-        });
+    // Stable can materialize a fresh Dictionary column via alter; Legacy
+    // cannot, because its writer requires `field.dictionary` metadata to be
+    // pre-populated, so the cast is rejected upfront with a clean error.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cast_string_to_dictionary(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::DictionaryArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
 
-        // Cast vector column, should not keep index (TODO: keep it)
-        dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[
-                ColumnAlteration::new("vec".into()).cast_to(DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
-                    128,
-                )),
-            ])
-            .await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
+        let dict_type = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
 
-        // Finally, case list column to show we can handle children.
-        dataset
-            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("l".into())
-                .cast_to(DataType::new_list(DataType::Int64, true))])
-            .await?;
-        dataset.validate().await?;
+        let values = ["alpha", "beta", "gamma", "alpha", "beta"];
+        let string_array = StringArray::from(values.to_vec());
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(string_array)])?;
 
-        let expected_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int64, false),
-            ArrowField::new("f", DataType::Float16, true),
-            ArrowField::new(
-                "vec",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
-                    128,
-                ),
-                false,
-            ),
-            ArrowField::new("l", DataType::new_list(DataType::Int64, true), true),
-        ]);
-        assert_eq!(&ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()), &expected_schema);
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
-        // We currently lose the index when casting a column
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 0);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await?;
 
-        // Each fragment gains a file with the new columns, but then the original file is dropped
-        dataset.fragments().iter().for_each(|f| {
-            assert_eq!(f.files.len(), 4);
-        });
+        let result = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("s".into()).cast_to(dict_type.clone())])
+            .await;
+
+        match data_storage_version {
+            LanceFileVersion::Legacy => {
+                let err = result.unwrap_err();
+                assert!(
+                    err.to_string().contains("Cannot cast column"),
+                    "expected upfront rejection on Legacy, got: {err}"
+                );
+            }
+            _ => {
+                result?;
+                dataset.validate().await?;
+                assert_eq!(
+                    dataset.schema().field("s").unwrap().data_type(),
+                    dict_type.clone()
+                );
+                let scanned = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
+                let encoded = scanned.column_by_name("s").unwrap();
+                let expected_encoded: DictionaryArray<Int32Type> = values.iter().copied().collect();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    encoded.as_ref(),
+                    &expected_encoded as &dyn arrow_array::Array
+                );
+            }
+        }
 
-        let expected_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(expected_schema),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..nrows as i64)),
-                Arc::new(Float16Array::from_iter_values(
-                    (0..nrows).map(|i| f16::from_f32(i as f32)),
-                )),
-                lance_arrow::cast::cast_with_options(
-                    batch["vec"].as_ref(),
-                    &DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
-                        128,
-                    ),
-                    &Default::default(),
-                )?,
-                Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int64Type, _, _>(
-                    (0..nrows as i64).map(|i| Some(vec![Some(i), Some(i + 1)])),
-                )),
-            ],
-        )?;
-        let actual_data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await?;
-        assert_eq!(actual_data, expected_data);
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
+    /// Planning validates without writing, which is what a caller relying on
+    /// it to gate an earlier commit depends on. A struct's last child taking
+    /// the struct with it is the case a survivor approximation gets wrong.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_plan_drop_columns_validates_without_committing() -> Result<()> {
+        use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, StructArray};
+        use arrow_schema::Fields;
+
+        let inner = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]));
+        let nested = StructArray::from(vec![(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("only", DataType::Int32, true)),
+            inner as ArrayRef,
+        )]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "parent",
+            DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "only",
+                DataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            )])),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(nested)])?;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await?;
+        let version = dataset.version().version;
+
+        // Dropping the struct's only child empties the struct, so this is the
+        // all-columns case even though no top-level name was mentioned.
+        let err = dataset.plan_drop_columns(&["parent.only"]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Cannot drop all columns"), "{err}");
+        let err = dataset.plan_drop_columns(&["nope"]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("does not exist"), "{err}");
+
+        // Nothing was written by either attempt.
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, version);
+        assert_eq!(Dataset::open(uri).await?.version().version, version);
         Ok(())
     }
 
@@ -2337,7 +5035,7 @@ mod test {
             DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // different struct
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2350,7 +5048,7 @@ mod test {
             DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
 
         // same nested struct
         let inner_struct1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2365,22 +5063,22 @@ mod test {
         );
         let field1 = ArrowField::new("test", DataType::Struct(vec![inner_struct1].into()), false);
         let field2 = ArrowField::new("test", DataType::Struct(vec![inner_struct2].into()), false);
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // basic type with different name
         let field1 = ArrowField::new("test1", DataType::Int32, false);
         let field2 = ArrowField::new("test2", DataType::Int32, false);
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
 
         // basic type with same name
         let field1 = ArrowField::new("test", DataType::Int32, false);
         let field2 = ArrowField::new("test", DataType::Int32, false);
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // different basic type
         let field1 = ArrowField::new("test", DataType::Int32, false);
         let field2 = ArrowField::new("test", DataType::Float64, false);
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // partial conflict
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2405,7 +5103,7 @@ mod test {
             ),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // same list
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2418,7 +5116,7 @@ mod test {
             DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // list with struct
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2439,7 +5137,7 @@ mod test {
             ))),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // list with different struct
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2460,7 +5158,7 @@ mod test {
             ))),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
 
         // list of struct and basic
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2477,7 +5175,7 @@ mod test {
             DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // FixedSizeList with struct
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2504,7 +5202,7 @@ mod test {
             ),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // FixedSizeList with different struct
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2531,7 +5229,7 @@ mod test {
             ),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
 
         // LargeList with struct
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2552,7 +5250,7 @@ mod test {
             ))),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
 
         // LargeList with different struct
         let field1 = ArrowField::new(
@@ -2573,7 +5271,7 @@ mod test {
             ))),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
 
         // packed struct
         let mut packed_meta = HashMap::new();
@@ -2592,7 +5290,7 @@ mod test {
             DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field2, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
 
         let new_packed_field = ArrowField::new(
             "new_packed",
@@ -2605,7 +5303,7 @@ mod test {
             DataType::Struct(vec![new_packed_field].into()),
             false,
         );
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field3, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field3, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_ok());
 
         let conflict_field = ArrowField::new(
             "packed",
@@ -2614,6 +5312,111 @@ mod test {
         )
         .with_metadata(packed_meta);
         let field4 = ArrowField::new("test", DataType::Struct(vec![conflict_field].into()), false);
-        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field4, &LanceFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+        assert!(check_field_conflict(&field1, &field4, &ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).is_err());
+    }
+
+    /// Table creation rejects a nullable primary key; altering one afterwards
+    /// reached the same state without passing that check.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_alter_columns_cannot_make_a_primary_key_nullable() -> Result<()> {
+        let pk = ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false).with_metadata(
+            [(
+                "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key:position".to_string(),
+                "1".to_string(),
+            )]
+            .into(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            pk,
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20])),
+            ],
+        )?;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &test_dir,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("id".into()).set_nullable(true)])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("making a primary key nullable must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("must not be nullable"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        // Specific to the key: other columns may still be altered.
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).rename("val".into())])
+            .await?;
+        assert!(!dataset.schema().unenforced_primary_key()[0].nullable);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::reader(false)]
+    #[case::stream(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_columns_via_stream_rejects_unsupported_nulls(#[case] use_stream: bool) {
+        // Legacy files cannot store integer nulls: a new column of [1, NULL, 3] must
+        // fail, matching the hash-join based merge path, instead of being silently
+        // written and read back as [1, 0, 3].
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..3))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let values =
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [Some(1), None, Some(3)])).unwrap();
+        let values_schema = values.schema();
+        // `Reader` and `Stream` share `add_columns_from_stream` today, but a future
+        // refactor could split them, so both variants are exercised directly.
+        let values_reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> =
+            Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(values)], values_schema));
+        let transform = if use_stream {
+            NewColumnTransform::Stream(values_reader.into_stream())
+        } else {
+            NewColumnTransform::Reader(values_reader)
+        };
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .add_columns(transform, None, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("Column 'value'") && message.contains("not supported"),
+            "unexpected error: {}",
+            message
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/schema_evolution/optimize.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/schema_evolution/optimize.rs
index cdfdb82b87b..5be44626821 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/schema_evolution/optimize.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/schema_evolution/optimize.rs
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ use crate::Result;
 use super::NewColumnTransform;
 
 /// Optimizes a `NewColumnTransform` into
-pub(super) trait NewColumnTransformOptimizer: Send + Sync {
+pub trait NewColumnTransformOptimizer: Send + Sync {
     /// Optimize the passed `NewColumnTransform` to a more efficient form.
     fn optimize(
         &self,
@@ -24,16 +24,16 @@ pub(super) trait NewColumnTransformOptimizer: Send + Sync {
 }
 
 /// A `NewColumnTransformOptimizer` that chains multiple `NewColumnTransformOptimizer`s together.
-pub(super) struct ChainedNewColumnTransformOptimizer {
+pub struct ChainedNewColumnTransformOptimizer {
     optimizers: Vec<Box<dyn NewColumnTransformOptimizer>>,
 }
 
 impl ChainedNewColumnTransformOptimizer {
-    pub(super) fn new(optimizers: Vec<Box<dyn NewColumnTransformOptimizer>>) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(optimizers: Vec<Box<dyn NewColumnTransformOptimizer>>) -> Self {
         Self { optimizers }
     }
 
-    pub(super) fn add_optimizer(&mut self, optimizer: Box<dyn NewColumnTransformOptimizer>) {
+    pub fn add_optimizer(&mut self, optimizer: Box<dyn NewColumnTransformOptimizer>) {
         self.optimizers.push(optimizer);
     }
 }
@@ -59,10 +59,10 @@ impl NewColumnTransformOptimizer for ChainedNewColumnTransformOptimizer {
 /// would be optimized to
 /// `NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("new_col", DataType::Int)]))`.
 ///
-pub(super) struct SqlToAllNullsOptimizer;
+pub struct SqlToAllNullsOptimizer;
 
 impl SqlToAllNullsOptimizer {
-    pub(super) fn new() -> Self {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
         Self
     }
 
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ impl SqlToAllNullsOptimizer {
         match expr {
             Expr::Cast(cast) => {
                 if matches!(cast.expr.as_ref(), Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Null, _)) {
-                    let data_type = cast.data_type.clone();
+                    let data_type = cast.field.data_type().clone();
                     AllNullsResult::AllNulls(data_type)
                 } else {
                     AllNullsResult::NotAllNulls
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/sql.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/sql.rs
index 2e5ec9f42bb..e8f1f65ec36 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/sql.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/sql.rs
@@ -1,14 +1,23 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::datafusion::LanceTableProvider;
+use crate::dataset::scanner::validate_batch_size;
 use crate::dataset::utils::SchemaAdapter;
-use crate::Dataset;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use datafusion::common::DataFusionError;
 use datafusion::dataframe::DataFrame;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+use datafusion::logical_expr::{Expr as LogicalExpr, LogicalPlan};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::execute_stream;
+use datafusion::prelude::{SessionConfig, SessionContext};
+use datafusion::sql::{
+    parser::Statement as DFStatement,
+    sqlparser::ast::{Expr, Ident, SelectItem, SetExpr, Statement},
+};
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID, datatypes::BlobHandling};
 use lance_datafusion::udf::register_functions;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
@@ -29,6 +38,15 @@ pub struct SqlQueryBuilder {
 
     /// If true, the query result will include the internal row address
     pub(crate) with_row_addr: bool,
+
+    /// Override how blob columns are materialized for this query.
+    pub(crate) blob_handling: Option<BlobHandling>,
+
+    /// Override the maximum number of rows in each scan batch.
+    pub(crate) batch_size: Option<usize>,
+
+    /// Override the approximate maximum bytes in each scan batch.
+    pub(crate) batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
 }
 
 impl SqlQueryBuilder {
@@ -39,6 +57,9 @@ impl SqlQueryBuilder {
             table_name: "dataset".to_string(),
             with_row_id: false,
             with_row_addr: false,
+            blob_handling: None,
+            batch_size: None,
+            batch_size_bytes: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -53,6 +74,10 @@ impl SqlQueryBuilder {
 
     /// Specify if the query result should include the internal row id.
     /// If true, the query result will include an additional column named "_rowid".
+    ///
+    /// The column is appended only when output rows map one-to-one to dataset
+    /// rows. For other queries (DISTINCT, GROUP BY, aggregates, ...) it is not
+    /// appended, but can still be referenced explicitly in the SQL text.
     pub fn with_row_id(mut self, row_id: bool) -> Self {
         self.with_row_id = row_id;
         self
@@ -60,44 +85,254 @@ impl SqlQueryBuilder {
 
     /// Specify if the query result should include the internal row address.
     /// If true, the query result will include an additional column named "_rowaddr".
+    ///
+    /// The column is appended only when output rows map one-to-one to dataset
+    /// rows. For other queries (DISTINCT, GROUP BY, aggregates, ...) it is not
+    /// appended, but can still be referenced explicitly in the SQL text.
     pub fn with_row_addr(mut self, row_addr: bool) -> Self {
         self.with_row_addr = row_addr;
         self
     }
 
+    /// Override how blob columns are materialized for this query.
+    ///
+    /// When unset, the underlying dataset scan uses its default
+    /// [`BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions`] policy.
+    pub fn blob_handling(mut self, blob_handling: BlobHandling) -> Self {
+        self.blob_handling = Some(blob_handling);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum number of rows produced by each query batch.
+    ///
+    /// The batch size must be between 1 and [`u32::MAX`], inclusive.
+    ///
+    /// When [`Self::batch_size_bytes`] is also set, both limits apply and the
+    /// one reached first determines the scan batch size.
+    pub fn batch_size(mut self, batch_size: usize) -> Self {
+        self.batch_size = Some(batch_size);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the approximate maximum number of bytes produced by each scan batch.
+    ///
+    /// When [`Self::batch_size`] is also set, both limits apply and the one
+    /// reached first determines the scan batch size.
+    pub fn batch_size_bytes(mut self, batch_size_bytes: u64) -> Self {
+        self.batch_size_bytes = Some(batch_size_bytes);
+        self
+    }
+
     pub async fn build(self) -> lance_core::Result<SqlQuery> {
-        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        if let Some(batch_size) = self.batch_size {
+            validate_batch_size(batch_size)?;
+        }
+
+        let ctx = if let Some(batch_size) = self.batch_size {
+            SessionContext::new_with_config(SessionConfig::new().with_batch_size(batch_size))
+        } else {
+            SessionContext::new()
+        };
         let row_id = self.with_row_id;
         let row_addr = self.with_row_addr;
-        ctx.register_table(
-            self.table_name,
-            Arc::new(LanceTableProvider::new(
-                self.dataset.clone(),
-                row_id,
-                row_addr,
-            )),
-        )?;
+        let mut provider = LanceTableProvider::new(self.dataset.clone(), row_id, row_addr);
+        if let Some(blob_handling) = self.blob_handling {
+            provider = provider.with_blob_handling(blob_handling);
+        }
+        if let Some(batch_size) = self.batch_size {
+            provider = provider.with_batch_size(batch_size);
+        }
+        if let Some(batch_size_bytes) = self.batch_size_bytes {
+            provider = provider.with_batch_size_bytes(batch_size_bytes);
+        }
+        ctx.register_table(self.table_name, Arc::new(provider))?;
         register_functions(&ctx);
-        let df = ctx.sql(&self.sql).await?;
+        let state = ctx.state();
+        let dialect = state.config_options().sql_parser.dialect;
+        let statement = state
+            .sql_to_statement(&self.sql, &dialect)
+            .map_err(planning_error)?;
+        let mut projected = statement.clone();
+        let columns = [(self.with_row_id, ROW_ID), (self.with_row_addr, ROW_ADDR)];
+        let plan = state
+            .statement_to_plan(statement)
+            .await
+            .map_err(planning_error)?;
+        let plan = if safe_to_inject_system_columns(&plan, &columns)
+            && project_system_columns(&mut projected, &columns)
+        {
+            // Fall back to the original plan when the rewritten statement
+            // fails to plan (e.g. another expression aliased to a system
+            // column name), so the query still runs without the extra columns.
+            state.statement_to_plan(projected).await.unwrap_or(plan)
+        } else {
+            plan
+        };
+        let df = ctx
+            .execute_logical_plan(plan)
+            .await
+            .map_err(planning_error)?;
         Ok(SqlQuery::new(df))
     }
 }
 
+/// Returns true when appending the enabled system columns to the query's
+/// top-level SELECT list is provably safe:
+///
+/// 1. Row identity: every output row maps to exactly one scanned source row
+///    (whitelist of row-preserving operators; aggregates, DISTINCT, joins,
+///    unions, ... collapse, duplicate, or synthesize rows), so the injection
+///    cannot change the other columns' values or cardinality.
+/// 2. Name lineage: no intermediate projection redefines an enabled system
+///    column name (e.g. `SELECT (_rowid + 1) AS _rowid` in a subquery), so
+///    the injected identifiers can only bind to the real scan columns.
+fn safe_to_inject_system_columns(plan: &LogicalPlan, columns: &[(bool, &str)]) -> bool {
+    match plan {
+        LogicalPlan::TableScan(_) => true,
+        LogicalPlan::Projection(projection) => {
+            let shadows_system_column = projection
+                .schema
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .zip(&projection.expr)
+                .filter(|(field, _)| {
+                    columns
+                        .iter()
+                        .any(|&(enabled, name)| enabled && field.name().as_str() == name)
+                })
+                .any(|(field, expr)| {
+                    let mut expr = expr;
+                    while let LogicalExpr::Alias(alias) = expr {
+                        expr = &alias.expr;
+                    }
+                    !matches!(expr, LogicalExpr::Column(column) if &column.name == field.name())
+                });
+            !shadows_system_column && safe_to_inject_system_columns(&projection.input, columns)
+        }
+        LogicalPlan::Filter(_)
+        | LogicalPlan::Sort(_)
+        | LogicalPlan::Limit(_)
+        | LogicalPlan::SubqueryAlias(_) => plan
+            .inputs()
+            .iter()
+            .all(|input| safe_to_inject_system_columns(input, columns)),
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Appends each enabled system column in `columns` to the statement's SELECT
+/// list unless the query already projects it (directly or via a wildcard).
+/// Returns true if the statement was modified.
+///
+/// Only rewrites top-level `SELECT` statements; the caller must separately
+/// verify that the injection is safe (see [`safe_to_inject_system_columns`])
+/// before planning the rewritten statement.
+fn project_system_columns(statement: &mut DFStatement, columns: &[(bool, &str)]) -> bool {
+    let DFStatement::Statement(statement) = statement else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    let Statement::Query(query) = statement.as_mut() else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    let SetExpr::Select(select) = query.body.as_mut() else {
+        return false;
+    };
+
+    let mut changed = false;
+    for &(enabled, name) in columns {
+        if !enabled {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let already_projected = select
+            .projection
+            .iter()
+            .any(|item| projects_column(item, name));
+        if already_projected {
+            continue;
+        }
+        select
+            .projection
+            .push(SelectItem::UnnamedExpr(Expr::Identifier(Ident::new(name))));
+        changed = true;
+    }
+    changed
+}
+
+/// Returns true if the SELECT item already yields the column `name`, either
+/// as a bare/qualified identifier (e.g. `_rowid`, `t._rowid`) or through a
+/// wildcard (`*`, `t.*`), so injecting it again would duplicate the column.
+///
+/// Expressions that merely reference the column (e.g. `_rowid + 1`, aliases)
+/// intentionally don't count: they produce a different output column.
+fn projects_column(item: &SelectItem, name: &str) -> bool {
+    match item {
+        SelectItem::Wildcard(_) | SelectItem::QualifiedWildcard(_, _) => true,
+        SelectItem::UnnamedExpr(Expr::Identifier(ident)) => ident_matches(ident, name),
+        SelectItem::UnnamedExpr(Expr::CompoundIdentifier(idents)) => idents
+            .last()
+            .is_some_and(|ident| ident_matches(ident, name)),
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+fn ident_matches(ident: &Ident, name: &str) -> bool {
+    if ident.quote_style.is_some() {
+        ident.value == name
+    } else {
+        ident.value.eq_ignore_ascii_case(name)
+    }
+}
+
 pub struct SqlQuery {
     dataframe: DataFrame,
 }
 
+/// Classify a failure raised while DataFusion was building a plan.
+///
+/// A query that fails to plan is malformed input, but DataFusion does not
+/// report these under a consistent error variant: `get_field` rejects an
+/// unsupported base type with `exec_err!`, and the analyzer wraps that in
+/// `Context`, so it would otherwise reach callers as an internal failure.
+///
+/// Only the execution category is re-classified. Every other category is either
+/// already accurate or describes a failure the caller did not cause: an
+/// unreachable object store is not a malformed query, and any other SQL would
+/// have hit it too.
+///
+/// Errors Lance itself raised reach DataFusion through `External` and keep the
+/// category they came with. Lance uses the execution category for its own
+/// internal failures as well — a spill file that cannot be created, a poisoned
+/// lock — and those are not bad input either.
+fn planning_error(error: DataFusionError) -> lance_core::Error {
+    let raised_by_lance = matches!(error.find_root(), DataFusionError::External(_));
+    let error = lance_core::Error::from(error);
+    if raised_by_lance {
+        return error;
+    }
+    match error {
+        error @ lance_core::Error::Execution { .. } => {
+            lance_core::Error::invalid_input_source(Box::new(error))
+        }
+        error => error,
+    }
+}
+
 impl SqlQuery {
     pub fn new(dataframe: DataFrame) -> Self {
         Self { dataframe }
     }
 
     pub async fn into_stream(self) -> lance_core::Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let exec_node = self
+        // Physical planning runs the analyzer, so a malformed query can still
+        // fail here rather than in `SqlQueryBuilder::build`. Keep it separate
+        // from execution so the two phases can be classified differently.
+        let task_ctx = Arc::new(self.dataframe.task_ctx());
+        let plan = self
             .dataframe
-            .execute_stream()
+            .create_physical_plan()
             .await
-            .map_err(lance_core::Error::from)?;
+            .map_err(planning_error)?;
+        let exec_node = execute_stream(plan, task_ctx).map_err(lance_core::Error::from)?;
         let schema = exec_node.schema();
         if SchemaAdapter::requires_logical_conversion(&schema) {
             let adapter = SchemaAdapter::new(schema);
@@ -122,20 +357,31 @@ impl SqlQuery {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use crate::utils::test::{assert_string_matches, DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, assert_string_matches};
+    use crate::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
     use std::collections::HashMap;
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
-    use crate::Dataset;
+    use super::planning_error;
+    use crate::dataset::ReadParams;
+    use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+    use crate::dataset::write::WriteParams;
+    use crate::{Dataset, Error};
     use all_asserts::assert_true;
     use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
     use arrow_array::types::{Int32Type, Int64Type, UInt64Type};
     use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
     use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+    use datafusion::common::DataFusionError;
     use lance_arrow::json::ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME;
-    use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+    use lance_arrow::{ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, SchemaExt};
+    use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_sql_execute() {
@@ -186,6 +432,319 @@ mod tests {
         assert_true!(results.column(3).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0) > 100);
     }
 
+    /// Requested system columns are appended after the user's columns when
+    /// injection is safe, are not duplicated when already projected under any
+    /// accepted spelling, and are skipped when a subquery alias shadows them
+    /// (the injected identifiers would bind to the derived expressions and
+    /// return arbitrary values as row metadata).
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::plain("SELECT x FROM dataset", vec!["x", "_rowid", "_rowaddr"], vec![0, 1])]
+    #[case::filter_sort_limit(
+        "SELECT x FROM dataset WHERE x >= 0 ORDER BY x DESC LIMIT 2",
+        vec!["x", "_rowid", "_rowaddr"],
+        vec![1, 0]
+    )]
+    #[case::wildcard("SELECT * FROM dataset", vec!["x", "_rowid", "_rowaddr"], vec![0, 1])]
+    #[case::already_projected(
+        "SELECT x, _rowid, _rowaddr FROM dataset",
+        vec!["x", "_rowid", "_rowaddr"],
+        vec![0, 1]
+    )]
+    #[case::unquoted_uppercase(
+        "SELECT x, _ROWID, _ROWADDR FROM dataset",
+        vec!["x", "_rowid", "_rowaddr"],
+        vec![0, 1]
+    )]
+    #[case::quoted(
+        r#"SELECT x, "_rowid", "_rowaddr" FROM dataset"#,
+        vec!["x", "_rowid", "_rowaddr"],
+        vec![0, 1]
+    )]
+    #[case::table_qualified(
+        "SELECT x, dataset._rowid, dataset._rowaddr FROM dataset",
+        vec!["x", "_rowid", "_rowaddr"],
+        vec![0, 1]
+    )]
+    #[case::expression_reference(
+        "SELECT _rowid + 1 AS y FROM dataset",
+        vec!["y", "_rowid", "_rowaddr"],
+        vec![0, 1]
+    )]
+    #[case::system_columns_only("SELECT _rowid FROM dataset", vec!["_rowid", "_rowaddr"], vec![0, 1])]
+    #[case::passthrough_subquery(
+        "SELECT x FROM (SELECT x, _rowid, _rowaddr FROM dataset) s",
+        vec!["x", "_rowid", "_rowaddr"],
+        vec![0, 1]
+    )]
+    #[case::shadowed_subquery(
+        "SELECT x FROM (SELECT x, (_rowid + 1) AS _rowid, (_rowaddr + 1) AS _rowaddr FROM dataset) s",
+        vec!["x"],
+        vec![]
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sql_system_column_injection(
+        #[case] sql: &str,
+        #[case] expected_columns: Vec<&str>,
+        #[case] expected_row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    ) {
+        let ds = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                "memory://test_sql_system_column_injection",
+                FragmentCount::from(1),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(2),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batches = ds
+            .sql(sql)
+            .with_row_id(true)
+            .with_row_addr(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_batch_records()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = &batches[0];
+        assert_eq!(batch.schema().field_names(), expected_columns);
+        for name in ["_rowid", "_rowaddr"] {
+            if expected_columns.contains(&name) {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    batch[name].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values().as_ref(),
+                    expected_row_ids.as_slice(),
+                    "unexpected values for column {name}",
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// System columns must never be injected into queries whose output rows
+    /// are not one-to-one with dataset rows: under GROUP BY ALL or DISTINCT
+    /// the injected columns would become extra grouping/dedup keys and change
+    /// the relational results.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::group_by_all("SELECT x % 1 AS k, COUNT(*) AS n FROM dataset GROUP BY ALL ORDER BY k")]
+    #[case::group_by_expr("SELECT x % 1 AS k, COUNT(*) AS n FROM dataset GROUP BY k ORDER BY k")]
+    #[case::distinct("SELECT DISTINCT x % 1 AS k FROM dataset ORDER BY k")]
+    #[case::distinct_in_subquery(
+        "SELECT k FROM (SELECT DISTINCT x % 1 AS k FROM dataset) ORDER BY k"
+    )]
+    #[case::bare_aggregate("SELECT COUNT(*) AS n FROM dataset")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sql_system_columns_skip_cardinality_changing_queries(#[case] sql: &str) {
+        let ds = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                "memory://test_sql_system_columns_cardinality",
+                FragmentCount::from(1),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(2),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let baseline = ds
+            .sql(sql)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_batch_records()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let with_system_columns = ds
+            .sql(sql)
+            .with_row_id(true)
+            .with_row_addr(true)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_batch_records()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        pretty_assertions::assert_eq!(with_system_columns, baseline);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sql_batch_size() {
+        let ds = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                "memory://test_sql_batch_size",
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(25),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batches = ds
+            .sql("SELECT x FROM dataset")
+            .batch_size(7)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_batch_records()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>(), 50);
+        assert!(batches.iter().all(|batch| batch.num_rows() <= 7));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sql_rejects_invalid_batch_size() {
+        let ds = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                "memory://test_sql_rejects_invalid_batch_size",
+                FragmentCount::from(1),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for batch_size in [0, u32::MAX as usize + 1] {
+            let error = ds
+                .sql("SELECT x FROM dataset")
+                .batch_size(batch_size)
+                .build()
+                .await
+                .err()
+                .expect("invalid batch size should be rejected");
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            assert!(
+                error
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains(&format!("batch_size must be between 1 and {}", u32::MAX))
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sql_batch_size_bytes_overrides_dataset_default() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "x",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..1000))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_dir)
+            .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                file_reader_options: Some(FileReaderOptions {
+                    batch_size_bytes: Some(8_000),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batches = dataset
+            .sql("SELECT x FROM dataset")
+            .batch_size_bytes(64)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_batch_records()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            batches.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>(),
+            1000
+        );
+        assert!(batches.iter().all(|batch| batch.num_rows() <= 16));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sql_blob_all_binary() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"foo").unwrap();
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"bar").unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blobs.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            "memory://test_sql_blob_all_binary",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batches = dataset
+            .sql("SELECT blob FROM dataset")
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_batch_records()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let blobs = batches[0].column(0).as_binary::<i64>();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(0), b"foo");
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(1), b"bar");
+
+        // Expressions over the blob column require the planner to see the
+        // materialized LargeBinary type instead of the blob descriptor struct.
+        let batches = dataset
+            .sql("SELECT blob = X'666f6f' FROM dataset")
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_batch_records()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let is_foo = batches[0].column(0).as_boolean();
+        assert!(is_foo.value(0));
+        assert!(!is_foo.value(1));
+
+        let batches = dataset
+            .sql("SELECT blob, _rowid, _rowaddr FROM dataset")
+            .with_row_id(true)
+            .with_row_addr(true)
+            .blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary)
+            .build()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_batch_records()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = &batches[0];
+        let blobs = batch.column(0).as_binary::<i64>();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(0), b"foo");
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(1), b"bar");
+        let row_ids = batch.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.value(1), 1);
+        let row_addrs = batch.column(2).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        assert_eq!(row_addrs.value(0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(row_addrs.value(1), 1);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_sql_count() {
         let ds = gen_batch()
@@ -365,4 +924,106 @@ mod tests {
         pretty_assertions::assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 1);
         pretty_assertions::assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 1);
     }
+
+    /// A malformed query is user error and must surface as [`Error::InvalidInput`]
+    /// so that bindings and servers can map it to a client error rather than a
+    /// generic failure.
+    ///
+    /// The cases differ in how DataFusion reports them: a syntax error is a
+    /// `SQL` error, an unknown function is a `Plan` error wrapped in
+    /// `Diagnostic`, and a subscript on a non-struct column is `exec_err!`
+    /// wrapped in `Context`. Only the first is classified as user input on its
+    /// own; the other two would otherwise read as internal failures.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::syntax_error("SELEC id FROM dataset", "found: SELEC at")]
+    #[case::unknown_function(
+        "SELECT id FROM dataset WHERE no_such_function(data) = 'Alice'",
+        "no_such_function"
+    )]
+    #[case::subscript_on_json_column(
+        "SELECT id FROM dataset WHERE data['user'] = 'Alice'",
+        "Cannot access field"
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sql_malformed_query_is_invalid_input(
+        #[case] sql: &str,
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("data", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(metadata),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some(r#"{"user": "Alice"}"#)])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let ds = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_sql_malformed_query", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = async { ds.sql(sql).build().await?.into_batch_records().await }.await;
+        let Err(error) = result else {
+            panic!("expected `{sql}` to fail");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(expected_message),
+            "expected the message to name {expected_message:?}, got: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `LanceTableProvider::scan` runs during physical planning and reports
+    /// every Lance failure as `DataFusionError::External`. Lance raises
+    /// [`Error::Execution`] for its own internal failures, which is the one
+    /// category `planning_error` re-classifies, so these must be recognized as
+    /// Lance's own and left alone rather than blamed on the query.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_planning_error_keeps_lance_error_category() {
+        let df_error = DataFusionError::Context(
+            "while scanning".to_string(),
+            Box::new(DataFusionError::from(Error::execution(
+                "failed to create spill file",
+            ))),
+        );
+
+        match planning_error(df_error) {
+            Error::Execution { message, .. } => assert!(
+                message.contains("failed to create spill file"),
+                "expected the original message, got: {message}"
+            ),
+            other => panic!("expected the original execution error, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A failure that is neither the caller's fault nor Lance's own — DataFusion
+    /// hitting a resource limit while planning — must not be reported as a
+    /// malformed query just because it surfaced during planning.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_planning_error_keeps_internal_datafusion_error() {
+        let df_error = DataFusionError::Context(
+            "while planning".to_string(),
+            Box::new(DataFusionError::ResourcesExhausted(
+                "failed to allocate memory".to_string(),
+            )),
+        );
+
+        let error = planning_error(df_error);
+        assert!(
+            !matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected the error not to be blamed on the query, got {error:?}"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/statistics.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/statistics.rs
index e2dfa34e353..749c58e04d9 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/statistics.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/statistics.rs
@@ -5,10 +5,17 @@
 
 use std::{collections::HashMap, future::Future, sync::Arc};
 
-use lance_core::Result;
+use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapIndex;
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 
-use super::{fragment::FileFragment, Dataset};
+use super::overlay::{collect_overlay_stale_frags, overlaid_fragments};
+use super::{Dataset, fragment::FileFragment, versions};
+use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
 
 /// Statistics about a single field in the dataset
 pub struct FieldStatistics {
@@ -46,18 +53,12 @@ impl DatasetStatisticsExt for Dataset {
                     },
                 )
             }));
-        if !self.is_legacy_storage() {
-            let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
-                self.object_store.clone(),
-                SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(self.object_store.as_ref()),
-            );
-            for fragment in self.fragments().as_ref() {
-                let file_fragment = FileFragment::new(self.clone(), fragment.clone());
-                file_fragment
-                    .update_storage_stats(&mut field_stats, self.schema(), scan_scheduler.clone())
-                    .await?;
-            }
-        }
+        versions::collect_data_stats(
+            self.manifest().data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            self,
+            &mut field_stats,
+        )
+        .await?;
         let field_stats = field_ids
             .into_iter()
             .map(|id| field_stats.remove(&(id as u32)).unwrap())
@@ -67,3 +68,211 @@ impl DatasetStatisticsExt for Dataset {
         })
     }
 }
+
+pub(super) async fn collect_current_data_stats(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    field_stats: &mut HashMap<u32, FieldStatistics>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+        dataset.object_store.clone(),
+        SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(dataset.object_store.as_ref()),
+    );
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let fragments = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+    futures::stream::iter(fragments)
+        .map(|fragment| {
+            let file_fragment = FileFragment::new(dataset.clone(), fragment);
+            let schema = schema.clone();
+            let scan_scheduler = scan_scheduler.clone();
+            async move { file_fragment.storage_stats(&schema, scan_scheduler).await }
+        })
+        .buffer_unordered(dataset.object_store.io_parallelism())
+        .try_for_each(|fragment_stats| {
+            for (field_id, bytes) in fragment_stats {
+                if let Some(stats) = field_stats.get_mut(&field_id) {
+                    stats.bytes_on_disk += bytes;
+                }
+            }
+            futures::future::ready(Ok(()))
+        })
+        .await
+}
+
+/// A read-only handle for cheap, index-derived statistics about a [`Dataset`].
+///
+/// Obtained via [`Dataset::statistics`]. Groups statistics accessors behind one
+/// handle instead of accreting one-off methods on [`Dataset`]. Every accessor is
+/// served from index metadata and never scans data.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct DatasetStatistics<'a> {
+    dataset: &'a Dataset,
+}
+
+impl<'a> DatasetStatistics<'a> {
+    pub(crate) fn new(dataset: &'a Dataset) -> Self {
+        Self { dataset }
+    }
+
+    /// Global `[min, max]` for `column` from its min/max-capable scalar index
+    /// (currently ZoneMap), without a scan.
+    ///
+    /// `None` unless the column's index segments *jointly* cover every live
+    /// fragment and the column can be soundly bounded — fragments appended after
+    /// the index was built, a data overlay committed after a segment was built,
+    /// or a NaN-bearing column all yield `None`. The disjoint segments of a
+    /// multi-segment index are folded together.
+    ///
+    /// When `Some`, the range is a superset of live values, conservative under
+    /// deletion vectors: safe to prune with. See [`ScalarIndex::value_range`].
+    ///
+    /// [`ScalarIndex::value_range`]: lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex::value_range
+    pub async fn column_value_range(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Option<(ScalarValue, ScalarValue)>> {
+        let dataset = self.dataset;
+        let Some(field) = dataset.schema().field(column) else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "column_value_range: column '{column}' not found in dataset schema"
+            )));
+        };
+        let field_id = field.id;
+        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+
+        // A multi-segment ZoneMap is several index entries over the same column,
+        // each covering a disjoint fragment subset. Match the field, then the
+        // details type (the column may also carry e.g. a BTree).
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+        let segments: Vec<_> = indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| {
+                // A covered index still answers for its keyed column; only
+                // the keyed prefix decides whether this index matches, not
+                // the full `fields` vector including carried columns.
+                idx.keyed_field() == Some(field_id)
+            })
+            .filter(|idx| {
+                idx.index_details
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|d| d.type_url.ends_with("ZoneMapIndexDetails"))
+            })
+            .collect();
+        if segments.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        // Soundness: the segments must *jointly* cover every live fragment, else
+        // the fold sees only a subset and could prune live rows (e.g. fragments
+        // appended after the index was built). Extra dead fragments are harmless.
+        let mut covered = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for idx in &segments {
+            let Some(bitmap) = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            covered |= bitmap.clone();
+        }
+        if !dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().is_subset(&covered) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        // Soundness: a data overlay committed after a segment was built can move a value
+        // outside that segment's summaries without the ZoneMap ever seeing it, so the fold
+        // would no longer bound the live values. There is no way to widen the range without
+        // reading the overlay, so report "unknown" instead.
+        let overlaid = overlaid_fragments(&dataset.manifest.fragments);
+        if !overlaid.is_empty() {
+            let mut stale = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            for idx in &segments {
+                collect_overlay_stale_frags(idx, &overlaid, &mut stale, dataset.schema())?;
+            }
+            if !stale.is_disjoint(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()) {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Keep the opened indices alive so the `ZoneMapIndex` refs we fold over
+        // stay borrowed.
+        let mut opened = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+        for idx in &segments {
+            opened.push(
+                dataset
+                    .open_generic_index(&field_path, &idx.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                    .await?,
+            );
+        }
+        let Some(zonemaps) = opened
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| index.as_any().downcast_ref::<ZoneMapIndex>())
+            .collect::<Option<Vec<_>>>()
+        else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        Ok(ZoneMapIndex::value_range_over(zonemaps))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_calculate_data_stats_after_dropping_wide_dataset_columns() {
+        let num_columns = 64;
+        let num_rows = 128;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(
+            (0..num_columns)
+                .map(|idx| ArrowField::new(format!("col_{idx}"), DataType::Int32, true))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            (0..num_columns)
+                .map(|column_idx| {
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                        (0..num_rows).map(|row_idx| row_idx + column_idx),
+                    )) as ArrayRef
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let columns_to_drop = (1..num_columns)
+            .map(|idx| format!("col_{idx}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let column_refs = columns_to_drop
+            .iter()
+            .map(String::as_str)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        dataset.drop_columns(&column_refs).await.unwrap();
+
+        let stats = Arc::new(dataset).calculate_data_stats().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.fields.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.fields[0].id, 0);
+        assert!(
+            stats.fields[0].bytes_on_disk > 0,
+            "bytes_on_disk should include the remaining column after drop_columns"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/take.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/take.rs
index 9d182acc207..7defe769b8e 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/take.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/take.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::{collections::BTreeMap, ops::Range, pin::Pin, sync::Arc};
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, collections::HashMap, ops::Range, pin::Pin, sync::Arc};
 
 use crate::dataset::fragment::FragReadConfig;
 use crate::dataset::rowids::get_row_id_index;
@@ -18,15 +18,15 @@ use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion_expr::Expr;
 use futures::{Future, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
+use lance_arrow::json::convert_lance_json_to_arrow;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::OffsetMapper;
 use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_OFFSET};
 use lance_datafusion::projection::{OutputColumn, ProjectionPlan};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use super::ProjectionRequest;
-use super::{fragment::FileFragment, scanner::DatasetRecordBatchStream, Dataset};
+use super::{Dataset, fragment::FileFragment, scanner::DatasetRecordBatchStream};
 
 /// Convert a list of row offsets to a list of row addresses
 ///
@@ -44,12 +44,10 @@ use super::{fragment::FileFragment, scanner::DatasetRecordBatchStream, Dataset};
 /// to the address (1, 10), assuming the second fragment starts with 10 undeleted rows.
 ///
 /// If any offsets are beyond the end of the dataset, they will be mapped to a tombstone row address.
-pub(super) async fn row_offsets_to_row_addresses(
-    dataset: &Dataset,
+pub async fn row_offsets_to_row_addresses(
+    fragments: &[FileFragment],
     row_indices: &[u64],
 ) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
-    let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
-
     let mut perm = permutation::sort(row_indices);
     let sorted_offsets = perm.apply_slice(row_indices);
 
@@ -110,13 +108,14 @@ pub async fn take(
 ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
     let projection = projection.into_projection_plan(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))?;
     if offsets.is_empty() {
-        return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(
+        return to_logical_json_batch(RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(
             projection.output_schema()?,
         )));
     }
 
     // First, convert the dataset offsets into row addresses
-    let addrs = row_offsets_to_row_addresses(dataset, offsets).await?;
+    let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+    let addrs = row_offsets_to_row_addresses(&fragments, offsets).await?;
 
     let builder = TakeBuilder::try_new_from_addresses(
         Arc::new(dataset.clone()),
@@ -171,9 +170,11 @@ async fn do_take_rows(
             let row_addr_col = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(Vec::<u64>::new()));
             let row_addr_field =
                 ArrowField::new(ROW_ADDR, arrow::datatypes::DataType::UInt64, false);
-            return Ok(empty_batch.try_with_column(row_addr_field, row_addr_col)?);
+            return to_logical_json_batch(
+                empty_batch.try_with_column(row_addr_field, row_addr_col)?,
+            );
         }
-        return Ok(empty_batch);
+        return to_logical_json_batch(empty_batch);
     }
 
     let row_addr_stats = check_row_addrs(&row_addrs);
@@ -215,13 +216,10 @@ async fn do_take_rows(
         let range = range_start..(range_end + 1);
 
         let fragment = builder.dataset.get_fragment(fragment_id).ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "rowaddr start: {} belongs to non-existent fragment: {}",
-                    start, fragment_id
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "rowaddr start: {} belongs to non-existent fragment: {}",
+                start, fragment_id
+            ))
         })?;
 
         let read_config = FragReadConfig::default()
@@ -230,7 +228,7 @@ async fn do_take_rows(
             .with_row_created_at_version(with_row_created_at_version_in_projection)
             .with_row_last_updated_at_version(with_row_last_updated_at_version_in_projection);
         let reader = fragment.open(&physical_schema, read_config).await?;
-        reader.legacy_read_range_as_batch(range).await
+        reader.read_range_as_batch(range).await
     } else if row_addr_stats.sorted {
         // Don't need to re-arrange data, just concatenate
         let mut batches: Vec<_> = Vec::new();
@@ -260,13 +258,10 @@ async fn do_take_rows(
                 .dataset
                 .get_fragment(fragment_id as usize)
                 .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "rowaddr {} belongs to non-existent fragment: {}",
-                            row_addrs[range.start], fragment_id
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "rowaddr {} belongs to non-existent fragment: {}",
+                        row_addrs[range.start], fragment_id
+                    ))
                 })?;
             let row_offsets: Vec<u32> = row_addrs[range].iter().map(|x| *x as u32).collect();
 
@@ -304,7 +299,10 @@ async fn do_take_rows(
                 .or_insert_with(|| vec![offset]);
         });
 
-        let fragments = builder.dataset.get_fragments();
+        let addressed_ids: Vec<u32> = row_addrs_per_fragment.keys().copied().collect();
+        let fragments = builder
+            .dataset
+            .get_existing_fragments_from_ids(&addressed_ids);
         let fragment_and_indices = fragments.into_iter().filter_map(|f| {
             let row_offset = row_addrs_per_fragment.remove(&(f.id() as u32))?;
             Some((f, row_offset))
@@ -337,21 +335,18 @@ async fn do_take_rows(
 
         let returned_row_addr = one_batch
             .column_by_name(ROW_ADDR)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "_rowaddr column not found".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("_rowaddr column not found"))?
             .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
             .values();
 
+        let addr_to_pos: HashMap<u64, u64> = returned_row_addr
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(i, addr)| (*addr, i as u64))
+            .collect();
         let remapping_index: UInt64Array = row_addrs
             .iter()
-            .filter_map(|o| {
-                returned_row_addr
-                    .iter()
-                    .position(|id| id == o)
-                    .map(|pos| pos as u64)
-            })
+            .filter_map(|o| addr_to_pos.get(o).copied())
             .collect();
 
         // remapping_index may be greater than the number of rows in one_batch
@@ -369,14 +364,11 @@ async fn do_take_rows(
     if builder.with_row_address || projection.must_add_row_offset {
         // compile `ROW_ADDR` column
         if batch.num_rows() != row_addrs.len() {
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported  {
-            source: format!(
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(format!(
                 "Expected {} rows, got {}.  A take operation that includes row addresses must not target deleted rows.",
                 row_addrs.len(),
                 batch.num_rows()
-            ).into(),
-            location: location!(),
-            });
+            ).into()));
         }
 
         let row_addr_col: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_addrs));
@@ -387,23 +379,27 @@ async fn do_take_rows(
                 AddRowOffsetExec::compute_row_offset_array(&row_addr_col, builder.dataset).await?;
             let row_offset_field =
                 ArrowField::new(ROW_OFFSET, arrow::datatypes::DataType::UInt64, false);
-            batch = batch.try_with_column(row_offset_field, row_offset_col)?;
+            if batch.schema().column_with_name(ROW_OFFSET).is_none() {
+                batch = batch.try_with_column(row_offset_field, row_offset_col)?;
+            }
         }
 
         if builder.with_row_address {
             // inject `ROW_ADDR` column
             let row_addr_field =
                 ArrowField::new(ROW_ADDR, arrow::datatypes::DataType::UInt64, false);
-            batch = batch.try_with_column(row_addr_field, row_addr_col)?;
+            if batch.schema().column_with_name(ROW_ADDR).is_none() {
+                batch = batch.try_with_column(row_addr_field, row_addr_col)?;
+            }
         }
     }
 
-    Ok(projection.project_batch(batch).await?)
+    to_logical_json_batch(projection.project_batch(batch).await?)
 }
 
 async fn take_rows(builder: TakeBuilder) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
     if builder.is_empty() {
-        return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(
+        return to_logical_json_batch(RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(
             builder.projection.output_schema()?,
         )));
     }
@@ -413,6 +409,10 @@ async fn take_rows(builder: TakeBuilder) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
     do_take_rows(builder, projection).await
 }
 
+fn to_logical_json_batch(batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    Ok(convert_lance_json_to_arrow(&batch)?)
+}
+
 /// Get a stream of batches based on iterator of ranges of row numbers.
 ///
 /// This is an experimental API. It may change at any time.
@@ -463,7 +463,7 @@ fn check_row_addrs(row_addrs: &[u64]) -> RowAddressStats {
     let first_fragment_id = row_addrs[0] >> 32;
 
     for addr in row_addrs.iter().skip(1) {
-        sorted &= *addr > last_offset;
+        sorted &= *addr >= last_offset;
         contiguous &= *addr == last_offset + 1;
         // Contiguous also requires the fragment ids are all the same
         contiguous &= (*addr >> 32) == first_fragment_id;
@@ -481,6 +481,14 @@ pub struct TakeBuilder {
     row_addrs: Option<Vec<u64>>,
     projection: Arc<ProjectionPlan>,
     with_row_address: bool,
+    missing_row_policy: MissingRowPolicy,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(super) enum MissingRowPolicy {
+    #[default]
+    Ignore,
+    Error,
 }
 
 impl TakeBuilder {
@@ -496,6 +504,7 @@ impl TakeBuilder {
             projection: Arc::new(projection.into_projection_plan(dataset.clone())?),
             dataset,
             with_row_address: false,
+            missing_row_policy: MissingRowPolicy::default(),
         })
     }
 
@@ -511,6 +520,7 @@ impl TakeBuilder {
             projection,
             dataset,
             with_row_address: false,
+            missing_row_policy: MissingRowPolicy::default(),
         })
     }
 
@@ -520,6 +530,11 @@ impl TakeBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    pub(super) fn with_missing_row_policy(mut self, policy: MissingRowPolicy) -> Self {
+        self.missing_row_policy = policy;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Execute the take operation and return a single batch
     pub async fn execute(self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         take_rows(self).await
@@ -540,11 +555,23 @@ impl TakeBuilder {
                 .as_ref()
                 .expect("row_ids must be set if row_addrs is not");
             let addrs = if let Some(row_id_index) = get_row_id_index(&self.dataset).await? {
-                let addresses = row_ids
-                    .iter()
-                    .filter_map(|id| row_id_index.get(*id).map(|address| address.into()))
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                addresses
+                let resolved = row_id_index.get_many(row_ids)?;
+                if self.missing_row_policy == MissingRowPolicy::Error
+                    && let Some(first_missing_index) =
+                        resolved.iter().position(|address| address.is_none())
+                {
+                    let missing_count = resolved.iter().filter(|address| address.is_none()).count();
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Could not resolve all requested row IDs: requested {}, resolved {}; first missing row ID {} was deleted or not found",
+                        row_ids.len(),
+                        row_ids.len() - missing_count,
+                        row_ids[first_missing_index]
+                    )));
+                }
+                resolved
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .filter_map(|opt| opt.map(|address| address.into()))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
             } else {
                 row_ids.clone()
             };
@@ -592,15 +619,24 @@ fn take_struct_array(array: &StructArray, indices: &UInt64Array) -> Result<Struc
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, LargeBinaryArray, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Int32Array, LargeBinaryArray, ListArray, MapArray, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+        StructArray,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+    use lance_arrow::json::{ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME, is_arrow_json_field, is_json_field};
     use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID_FIELD};
     use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
     use pretty_assertions::assert_eq;
     use rstest::rstest;
     use std::collections::HashMap;
 
-    use crate::dataset::{scanner::test_dataset::TestVectorDataset, WriteParams};
+    use crate::dataset::{
+        MergeInsertBuilder, UpdateBuilder, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched, WriteParams,
+        scanner::test_dataset::TestVectorDataset,
+    };
 
     use super::*;
 
@@ -626,6 +662,129 @@ mod test {
         .unwrap()
     }
 
+    /// How a nested field carries one Arrow JSON document per row.
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum NestedJson {
+        /// `struct<doc: json>`
+        Struct,
+        /// `list<struct<doc: json>>` with one element per row
+        ListOfStruct,
+        /// `map<string, json>` with one entry per row
+        Map,
+    }
+
+    fn arrow_json_field(name: &str) -> ArrowField {
+        ArrowField::new(name, DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        )]))
+    }
+
+    fn nested_json_array(shape: NestedJson, docs: &[String]) -> ArrayRef {
+        let docs: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(docs));
+        let one_per_row = || OffsetBuffer::from_lengths(std::iter::repeat_n(1, docs.len()));
+        let doc_struct = || {
+            StructArray::new(
+                Fields::from(vec![arrow_json_field("doc")]),
+                vec![docs.clone()],
+                None,
+            )
+        };
+        match shape {
+            NestedJson::Struct => Arc::new(doc_struct()),
+            NestedJson::ListOfStruct => {
+                let values = doc_struct();
+                let item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", values.data_type().clone(), true));
+                Arc::new(ListArray::new(item, one_per_row(), Arc::new(values), None))
+            }
+            NestedJson::Map => {
+                let keys: ArrayRef = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
+                    "k",
+                    docs.len(),
+                )));
+                let entry_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    arrow_json_field("value"),
+                ]);
+                let entries = StructArray::new(entry_fields, vec![keys, docs.clone()], None);
+                let entries_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                    "entries",
+                    entries.data_type().clone(),
+                    false,
+                ));
+                Arc::new(MapArray::new(
+                    entries_field,
+                    one_per_row(),
+                    entries,
+                    None,
+                    false,
+                ))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The JSON leaf of `payload`, which a read must return as Arrow JSON.
+    fn nested_json_leaf(shape: NestedJson, payload: &ArrowField) -> ArrowField {
+        let child = |data_type: &DataType| match data_type {
+            DataType::Struct(fields) => fields.clone(),
+            other => panic!("expected struct, got {other}"),
+        };
+        match (shape, payload.data_type()) {
+            (NestedJson::Struct, DataType::Struct(fields)) => fields[0].as_ref().clone(),
+            (NestedJson::ListOfStruct, DataType::List(item)) => {
+                child(item.data_type())[0].as_ref().clone()
+            }
+            (NestedJson::Map, DataType::Map(entries, _)) => {
+                child(entries.data_type())[1].as_ref().clone()
+            }
+            (shape, other) => panic!("unexpected {shape:?} payload type {other}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn nested_json_doc(shape: NestedJson, payload: &ArrayRef, row: usize) -> String {
+        let docs = match shape {
+            NestedJson::Struct => payload.as_struct().column(0).clone(),
+            NestedJson::ListOfStruct => payload
+                .as_list::<i32>()
+                .value(row)
+                .as_struct()
+                .column(0)
+                .clone(),
+            NestedJson::Map => payload.as_map().value(row).column(1).clone(),
+        };
+        let row = if matches!(shape, NestedJson::Struct) {
+            row
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        docs.as_string::<i32>().value(row).to_string()
+    }
+
+    /// Rows `(id, label, payload)` whose payload holds `{"v":<version>}`.
+    fn nested_json_batch(shape: NestedJson, ids: &[i32], version: i32) -> RecordBatch {
+        let docs = ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| format!(r#"{{"v":{}}}"#, version + id))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let payload = nested_json_array(shape, &docs);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("label", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new("payload", payload.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    ids.iter().map(|_| "original"),
+                )),
+                payload,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_take(
@@ -682,6 +841,111 @@ mod test {
         );
     }
 
+    /// Nested Arrow JSON must be stored as JSONB by every write path and read
+    /// back as Arrow JSON. Maps need file format 2.2.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::struct_json(NestedJson::Struct)]
+    #[case::list_struct_json(NestedJson::ListOfStruct)]
+    #[case::map_string_json(NestedJson::Map)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nested_arrow_json_write_paths(
+        #[case] shape: NestedJson,
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let created = nested_json_batch(shape, &[0, 1], 0);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(created.clone())], created.schema()),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(write_params.clone()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let appended = nested_json_batch(shape, &[2, 3], 0);
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+                Some(write_params),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stored_schema = ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema());
+        assert!(is_json_field(&nested_json_leaf(
+            shape,
+            stored_schema.field_with_name("payload").unwrap()
+        )));
+
+        // Rewrites the row with id 1, JSON payload included, into a new fragment.
+        let dataset = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("id = 1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("label", "'updated'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .new_dataset;
+
+        // A sub-schema source rewrites the payload column in place: every row of
+        // the appended fragment, and one row of the created fragment.
+        let source = nested_json_batch(shape, &[0, 2, 3], 100)
+            .project(&[0, 2])
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut merge = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()]).unwrap();
+        merge
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing);
+        let (dataset, stats) = merge
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(source.clone())],
+                source.schema(),
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 3);
+
+        let projection = Schema::try_from(created.schema().as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let values = dataset
+            .take(&[0, 1, 2, 3], projection.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let values_schema = values.schema();
+        let payload_field = values_schema.field_with_name("payload").unwrap();
+        assert!(is_arrow_json_field(&nested_json_leaf(shape, payload_field)));
+        let ids = values["id"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+        let labels = values["label"].as_string::<i32>();
+        let mut rows = (0..values.num_rows())
+            .map(|row| {
+                (
+                    ids.value(row),
+                    labels.value(row).to_string(),
+                    nested_json_doc(shape, &values["payload"], row),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        rows.sort();
+        let expected = [
+            (0, "original", r#"{"v":100}"#),
+            (1, "updated", r#"{"v":1}"#),
+            (2, "original", r#"{"v":102}"#),
+            (3, "original", r#"{"v":103}"#),
+        ]
+        .map(|(id, label, doc)| (id, label.to_string(), doc.to_string()));
+        assert_eq!(rows, expected);
+
+        let empty = dataset.take(&[], projection).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(empty.num_rows(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(empty.schema(), values_schema);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_take_with_deletion() {
         let data = test_batch(0..120);
@@ -777,16 +1041,13 @@ mod test {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_reject_legacy_blob_schema_on_v2_2() {
+    async fn test_take_legacy_blob_input_on_v2_2() {
         let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
         metadata.insert(lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-            "blob",
-            DataType::LargeBinary,
-            true,
-        )
-        .with_metadata(metadata)]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(metadata),
+        ]));
 
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
@@ -801,12 +1062,16 @@ mod test {
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema);
-        let err = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://", Some(write_params))
-            .await
-            .unwrap_err();
-        let msg = err.to_string();
-        assert!(msg.contains("Legacy blob columns"));
-        assert!(msg.contains("lance.blob.v2"));
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(batches, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"hello"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -842,6 +1107,46 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(struct_arr.fields()[4].name(), "blob_uri");
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_projection_plan_accepts_unloaded_legacy_blob_schema() {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string());
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("blob", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(metadata),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(
+                b"hello".as_slice(),
+            )]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut projection = dataset.schema().project(&["blob"]).unwrap();
+        projection.fields[0].unloaded_mut();
+
+        let projection = ProjectionRequest::from_schema(projection)
+            .into_projection_plan(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let output_schema = projection.output_schema().unwrap();
+        let blob_field = output_schema.field_with_name("blob").unwrap();
+        let DataType::Struct(fields) = blob_field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected blob output schema to be a struct, got {blob_field:?}");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(fields.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(fields[0].name(), "position");
+        assert_eq!(fields[1].name(), "size");
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_take_rowid_rowaddr_with_projection_enable_stable_row_ids_projection_from_sql(
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/data_file_part.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/data_file_part.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..90b612a0058
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/data_file_part.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,888 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::{collections::HashMap, fs, ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow::array::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, LargeBinaryArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray,
+    UInt64Array, types::Int32Type,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::{TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_arrow::{ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME};
+use lance_core::{
+    Error,
+    datatypes::{BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS, BlobHandling},
+    utils::{blob::blob_path, tempfile::TempDir},
+};
+use lance_file::concat::EncodedFileInput;
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_table::format::BasePath;
+use rstest::rstest;
+
+use crate::blob::{BlobArrayBuilder, BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+use crate::dataset::fragment::FileFragment;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataReplacementGroup, Operation};
+use crate::dataset::write::WriteParams;
+use crate::dataset::{DataFilePart, DataFileTarget, WriteDestination};
+use crate::{Dataset, Result};
+
+async fn dataset_of(batch: RecordBatch, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn complete_logical_blob_batch(uri: &str, position: u64, size: u64) -> RecordBatch {
+    let field = Field::new(
+        "blob",
+        DataType::Struct(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.clone()),
+        true,
+    )
+    .with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+        ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+        BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+    )]));
+    let array = StructArray::try_new(
+        BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![None::<&[u8]>])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some(uri)])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![Some(position)])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![Some(size)])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+        None,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![field])),
+        vec![Arc::new(array)],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn only_fragment(dataset: &Dataset) -> FileFragment {
+    dataset.get_fragments().into_iter().next().unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn write_part(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    target: &DataFileTarget,
+    blob_ids: Option<Range<u32>>,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+) -> DataFilePart {
+    dataset
+        .write_data_file_part(target, blob_ids, stream::iter([Ok(batch)]))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn commit(dataset: &Dataset, replacement: DataReplacementGroup) -> Result<Dataset> {
+    Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())),
+        Operation::DataReplacement {
+            replacements: vec![replacement],
+        },
+        Some(dataset.version_id()),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn concatenates_parts_in_caller_order_without_reusing_staging_files() {
+    let original = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3])).unwrap();
+    let dataset = dataset_of(original, LanceFileVersion::V2_1).await;
+    let target = DataFileTarget::new(
+        None,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let first = write_part(
+        &dataset,
+        &target,
+        None,
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [10, 11])).unwrap(),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let second = write_part(
+        &dataset,
+        &target,
+        None,
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [12, 13])).unwrap(),
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    let ordered_parts = [second, first];
+    // The caller checks fragment coverage before assembling its replacement.
+    assert_eq!(
+        ordered_parts
+            .iter()
+            .map(DataFilePart::num_rows)
+            .sum::<u64>(),
+        only_fragment(&dataset).physical_rows().await.unwrap() as u64,
+    );
+    let data_file = dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&target, &ordered_parts)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let replacement = DataReplacementGroup(only_fragment(&dataset).id() as u64, data_file);
+    assert_eq!(replacement.1.path, target.file_name.as_str());
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, replacement).await.unwrap();
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+        &[12, 13, 10, 11]
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn target_uses_an_ordinary_generated_data_file_name() {
+    let original = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [0, 1])).unwrap();
+    let dataset = dataset_of(original, LanceFileVersion::V2_1).await;
+    let first = DataFileTarget::new(
+        None,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let second = DataFileTarget::new(
+        None,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert_ne!(first.file_name.as_str(), second.file_name.as_str());
+    assert_eq!(first.file_name.len(), 56);
+    assert!(first.file_name.ends_with(".lance"));
+    assert!(!first.file_name.contains('/'));
+
+    let restored =
+        serde_json::from_slice::<DataFileTarget>(&serde_json::to_vec(&first).unwrap()).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(restored.file_name.as_str(), first.file_name.as_str());
+    assert_eq!(restored.base_id, first.base_id);
+    assert_eq!(restored.schema, first.schema);
+    assert_eq!(restored.version, first.version);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn target_serialization_preserves_schema_and_rejects_invalid_identity() {
+    let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(
+            "nested",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true)].into()),
+            true,
+        ),
+        Field::new(
+            "category",
+            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::UInt32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8)),
+            true,
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let mut schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+    schema
+        .metadata
+        .insert("owner".to_string(), "test".to_string());
+    schema.fields[0].id = 10;
+    schema.fields[0].children[0].id = 11;
+    schema.fields[0].children[0].parent_id = 10;
+    schema.fields[0].children[0]
+        .metadata
+        .insert("unit".to_string(), "count".to_string());
+    schema.fields[1].id = 20;
+    schema.fields[1].dictionary = Some(lance_core::datatypes::Dictionary {
+        offset: 12,
+        length: 2,
+        values: Some(Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"]))),
+    });
+    let target = DataFileTarget::new(Some(7), Arc::new(schema), ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2).unwrap();
+    let value = serde_json::to_value(&target).unwrap();
+    let restored: DataFileTarget = serde_json::from_value(value.clone()).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(restored.schema, target.schema);
+    assert_eq!(restored.file_name.as_str(), target.file_name.as_str());
+    assert_eq!(restored.base_id, target.base_id);
+    let dictionary = restored.schema.fields[1].dictionary.as_ref().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!((dictionary.offset, dictionary.length), (12, 2));
+    for (key, replacement, message) in [
+        (
+            "format_version",
+            serde_json::json!(99),
+            "checkpoint version",
+        ),
+        ("file_version", serde_json::json!("stable"), "version"),
+        (
+            "file_name",
+            serde_json::json!("../outside.lance"),
+            "target identity",
+        ),
+        ("file_name", serde_json::json!(""), "target identity"),
+        ("file_name", serde_json::json!(".lance"), "target identity"),
+        ("file_name", serde_json::json!(".."), "target identity"),
+        ("base_id", serde_json::json!(0), "base_id"),
+    ] {
+        let mut invalid = value.clone();
+        invalid[key] = replacement;
+        let error = serde_json::from_value::<DataFileTarget>(invalid).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(message), "{error}");
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::rows("num_rows", serde_json::json!(3), "physical rows")]
+#[case::size("size_bytes", serde_json::json!(1), "bytes")]
+#[case::missing("file_name", serde_json::json!("missing.part"), "missing.part")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn managed_part_checks_real_file_before_creating_output(
+    #[case] field: &str,
+    #[case] value: serde_json::Value,
+    #[case] message: &str,
+) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let dataset = dataset_of(batch.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+    let target = DataFileTarget::new(
+        None,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let part = write_part(&dataset, &target, None, batch).await;
+    let mut description = serde_json::to_value(&part).unwrap();
+    description[field] = value;
+    let invalid = serde_json::from_value::<DataFilePart>(description).unwrap();
+    let error = dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&target, &[invalid])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    if field == "file_name" {
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotFound { .. }), "{error}");
+    } else {
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+    }
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains(message), "{error}");
+    assert!(
+        !dataset
+            .object_store
+            .exists(&dataset.data_dir().join(target.file_name.as_str()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn managed_part_rejects_invalid_descriptions_and_duplicate_inputs() {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1])).unwrap();
+    let dataset = dataset_of(batch.clone(), LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+    let target = DataFileTarget::new(
+        None,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let part = write_part(&dataset, &target, None, batch).await;
+    let description = serde_json::to_value(&part).unwrap();
+    let mut zero_size = description.clone();
+    zero_size["size_bytes"] = serde_json::json!(0);
+    let error = serde_json::from_value::<DataFilePart>(zero_size).unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("nonzero"), "{error}");
+    for (key, replacement, message) in [
+        (
+            "file_name",
+            serde_json::json!("../outside.part"),
+            "part identity",
+        ),
+        ("file_name", serde_json::json!(""), "child object"),
+        (
+            "target_file_name",
+            serde_json::json!("../outside.lance"),
+            "belongs to target",
+        ),
+        (
+            "blob_ids",
+            serde_json::json!({"start": 0, "end": 1}),
+            "Blob ID range",
+        ),
+        (
+            "blob_ids",
+            serde_json::json!({"start": 2, "end": 2}),
+            "Blob ID range",
+        ),
+        ("base_id", serde_json::json!(0), "belongs to target"),
+    ] {
+        let mut invalid = description.clone();
+        invalid[key] = replacement;
+        let part = serde_json::from_value::<DataFilePart>(invalid).unwrap();
+        let error = dataset
+            .concat_data_file_parts(&target, &[part])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(message), "{error}");
+    }
+    let error = dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&target, &[part.clone(), part])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("duplicate part"), "{error}");
+    assert!(
+        !dataset
+            .object_store
+            .exists(&dataset.data_dir().join(target.file_name.as_str()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::plain_primary(false, None)]
+#[case::plain_registered(false, Some(7))]
+#[case::blob_primary(true, None)]
+#[case::blob_registered(true, Some(7))]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn abandoned_target_cleanup_includes_failed_writes_and_preserves_other_targets(
+    #[case] has_blob: bool,
+    #[case] base_id: Option<u32>,
+) {
+    let dir = TempDir::default();
+    let batch = if has_blob {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+        let mut values = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        values.push_bytes(b"payload").unwrap();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![values.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap()
+    } else {
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1])).unwrap()
+    };
+    let lease = |start| has_blob.then_some(start..start + 10);
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+        format!("{}/dataset", dir.path_str()).as_str(),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            initial_bases: base_id.map(|id| {
+                vec![BasePath {
+                    id,
+                    name: Some("output".to_string()),
+                    path: format!("{}/output", dir.path_str()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }]
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let target = DataFileTarget::new(
+        base_id,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut neighbor = serde_json::to_value(&target).unwrap();
+    neighbor["file_name"] = serde_json::json!(format!("{}.neighbor.lance", target.file_name));
+    let neighbor: DataFileTarget = serde_json::from_value(neighbor).unwrap();
+    let first = write_part(&dataset, &target, lease(1), batch.clone()).await;
+    let assembled = dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&target, std::slice::from_ref(&first))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let assembled_path = dataset
+        .data_file_dir_for_base(base_id)
+        .unwrap()
+        .join(assembled.path.as_str());
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .object_store(base_id)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .exists(&assembled_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    );
+    let other = write_part(&dataset, &neighbor, lease(1), batch.clone()).await;
+    let error = dataset
+        .write_data_file_part(
+            &target,
+            lease(20),
+            stream::iter([
+                Ok(batch),
+                Err(Error::invalid_input("injected input failure")),
+            ]),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("injected input failure"));
+    let store = dataset.object_store(base_id).await.unwrap();
+    let data_dir = dataset.data_file_dir_for_base(base_id).unwrap();
+    let staging = data_dir
+        .clone()
+        .join("_parts")
+        .join(target.file_name.as_str());
+    // Simulate durable objects left when a worker exits without returning a part.
+    store
+        .put(&staging.clone().join("incomplete.part"), b"incomplete")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let blob_dir = data_dir
+        .clone()
+        .join(target.file_name.strip_suffix(".lance").unwrap());
+    if has_blob {
+        let orphan = blob_path(&data_dir, target.data_file_key(), 99);
+        store.put(&orphan, b"orphan").await.unwrap();
+    }
+    assert!(
+        store
+            .exists(&staging.clone().join(first.file_name.as_str()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        !store
+            .list(Some(blob_dir.clone()))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_empty(),
+        has_blob,
+    );
+    let restored: DataFileTarget =
+        serde_json::from_slice(&serde_json::to_vec(&target).unwrap()).unwrap();
+    restored.cleanup(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!store.exists(&assembled_path).await.unwrap());
+    restored.cleanup(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        store
+            .list(Some(staging))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_empty()
+    );
+    let prefix = format!("{blob_dir}/");
+    assert!(
+        !store
+            .list(Some(blob_dir))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|object| object.location.as_ref().starts_with(&prefix))
+    );
+    let data_file = dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&neighbor, &[other])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let replacement = DataReplacementGroup(only_fragment(&dataset).id() as u64, data_file);
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, replacement).await.unwrap();
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+    let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    if has_blob {
+        assert_eq!(result["blob"].as_binary::<i64>().value(0), b"payload");
+    } else {
+        assert_eq!(result["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 1);
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::plain_primary(false, None)]
+#[case::plain_registered(false, Some(7))]
+#[case::blob_primary(true, None)]
+#[case::blob_registered(true, Some(7))]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn restores_target_and_completed_parts_from_checkpoint(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_2, LanceFileVersion::V2_3)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    #[case] has_blob: bool,
+    #[case] base_id: Option<u32>,
+) {
+    let dir = TempDir::default();
+    let dataset_uri = format!("{}/dataset", dir.path_str());
+    let make_batch = |ids: Vec<i32>| {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, ids.clone())).unwrap();
+        if !has_blob {
+            return batch;
+        }
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(ids.len());
+        for id in ids {
+            blobs.push_bytes(format!("blob-{id}").as_bytes()).unwrap();
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                batch.schema().field(0).clone(),
+                blob_field("blob", true),
+            ])),
+            vec![batch["id"].clone(), blobs.finish().unwrap()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+    let lease = |start| has_blob.then_some(start..start + 10);
+
+    let checkpoint = {
+        let original = make_batch(vec![0, 1, 2, 3]);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(original.clone())], original.schema()),
+            dataset_uri.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                initial_bases: base_id.map(|id| {
+                    vec![BasePath {
+                        id,
+                        name: Some("output".to_string()),
+                        path: format!("{}/output", dir.path_str()),
+                        is_dataset_root: false,
+                    }]
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+        let target = DataFileTarget::new(
+            base_id,
+            Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let part = write_part(&dataset, &target, lease(1), make_batch(vec![10])).await;
+        serde_json::to_vec(&(target, part, dataset.version_id())).unwrap()
+    };
+
+    let (target, first, snapshot): (DataFileTarget, DataFilePart, u64) =
+        serde_json::from_slice(&checkpoint).unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&dataset_uri)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .checkout_version(snapshot)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(target.schema.as_ref(), dataset.schema());
+    assert_eq!(target.base_id, base_id);
+    let data_dir = dataset.data_file_dir_for_base(base_id).unwrap();
+    let store = dataset.object_store(base_id).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !store
+            .exists(&data_dir.clone().join(target.file_name.as_str()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    );
+    let second = write_part(&dataset, &target, lease(11), make_batch(vec![11])).await;
+    assert_ne!(first.file_name.as_str(), second.file_name.as_str());
+    let checkpoint = serde_json::to_vec(&(target, vec![first, second], snapshot)).unwrap();
+    drop(store);
+    drop(dataset);
+
+    // Assembly reconstructs its own target and opens files only from descriptors.
+    let (target, parts, snapshot): (DataFileTarget, Vec<DataFilePart>, u64) =
+        serde_json::from_slice(&checkpoint).unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&dataset_uri)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .checkout_version(snapshot)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let store = dataset.object_store(base_id).await.unwrap();
+    let blob_dir = data_dir
+        .clone()
+        .join(target.file_name.strip_suffix(".lance").unwrap());
+    let blobs_before = store
+        .list(Some(blob_dir.clone()))
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let data_file = dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&target, &parts)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let replacement = DataReplacementGroup(dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u64, data_file);
+    assert_eq!(replacement.1.path, target.file_name.as_str());
+    assert_eq!(replacement.1.base_id, base_id);
+    assert_eq!(
+        blobs_before,
+        store
+            .list(Some(blob_dir))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    );
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, replacement).await.unwrap();
+    target.finish(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    target.finish(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let staging_dir = data_dir
+        .clone()
+        .join("_parts")
+        .join(target.file_name.as_str());
+    assert!(
+        store
+            .list(Some(staging_dir))
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_empty()
+    );
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+        &[10, 11, 2, 3]
+    );
+    if has_blob {
+        let values = batch["blob"].as_binary::<i64>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            values.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![
+                Some(b"blob-10".as_slice()),
+                Some(b"blob-11".as_slice()),
+                Some(b"blob-2".as_slice()),
+                Some(b"blob-3".as_slice()),
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn blob_part_requires_an_id_lease_before_writing() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+    let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+    blobs.push_bytes(b"old").unwrap();
+    let original = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blobs.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+    let dataset = dataset_of(original, LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+    let target = DataFileTarget::new(
+        None,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut replacement = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+    replacement.push_bytes(b"new").unwrap();
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![replacement.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+
+    let error = dataset
+        .write_data_file_part(&target, None, stream::iter([Ok(batch)]))
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        error
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("requires a non-empty Blob ID range"),
+        "{error}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn data_file_part_rejects_non_empty_file_relative_inline_blob() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+    let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+    blobs.push_bytes(b"ordinary-inline").unwrap();
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![blobs.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+    let dataset = dataset_of(batch, LanceFileVersion::V2_2).await;
+    let data_file = &only_fragment(&dataset).metadata.files[0];
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+        dataset.object_store.clone(),
+        SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing(),
+    );
+    let file = scheduler
+        .open_file(
+            &dataset.data_dir().join(data_file.path.as_str()),
+            &data_file.file_size_bytes,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let error = lance_file::concat::DataFilePart::open(EncodedFileInput::new(file), None, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("non-empty Inline"), "{error}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn complete_logical_blob_schema_and_external_range_survive_assembly() {
+    let test_dir = TempDir::default();
+    let dataset_path = test_dir.std_path().join("dataset");
+    let external_base = test_dir.std_path().join("external");
+    let external_objects = external_base.join("objects");
+    fs::create_dir_all(&external_objects).unwrap();
+    let external_path = external_objects.join("blob.bin");
+    fs::write(&external_path, b"prefix-selected-suffix").unwrap();
+    let external_uri = format!("file://{}", external_path.display());
+    let external_base_uri = format!("file://{}", external_base.display());
+    let original = complete_logical_blob_batch(&external_uri, 7, 8);
+    let schema = original.schema();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(original)], schema),
+        dataset_path.to_str().unwrap(),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath {
+                id: 1,
+                name: Some("external".to_string()),
+                path: external_base_uri,
+                is_dataset_root: false,
+            }]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let target = DataFileTarget::new(
+        None,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        target.schema.fields[0]
+            .children
+            .iter()
+            .map(|child| child.name.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ["data", "uri", "position", "size"]
+    );
+
+    let part = write_part(
+        &dataset,
+        &target,
+        Some(1..10),
+        complete_logical_blob_batch(&external_uri, 7, 8),
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(part.num_rows(), 1);
+    let data_file = dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&target, &[part])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let replacement = DataReplacementGroup(only_fragment(&dataset).id() as u64, data_file);
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, replacement).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields[0].children.len(), 4);
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let values = batch["blob"].as_binary::<i64>();
+    assert_eq!(values.value(0), b"selected");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn blob_parts_write_sidecars_in_final_namespace_and_concat_descriptors() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        blob_field("blob", true),
+    ]));
+    let make_batch = |ids: Vec<i32>, values: Vec<&'static [u8]>| {
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(values.len());
+        for value in values {
+            blobs.push_bytes(value).unwrap();
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(ids)),
+                blobs.finish().unwrap(),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+    let make_prepared_batch = |id: i32, value: &'static [u8]| {
+        let mut blobs = BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder::new("blob");
+        blobs.push_inline(Bytes::from_static(value)).unwrap();
+        let (blob_field, blob_array) = blobs.finish().unwrap().into_parts();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                blob_field,
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![id])),
+                blob_array,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+    let dataset = dataset_of(
+        make_batch(vec![0, 1], vec![b"old-0", b"old-1"]),
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+    )
+    .await;
+    let target = DataFileTarget::new(
+        None,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let first = write_part(
+        &dataset,
+        &target,
+        Some(1..10),
+        make_prepared_batch(10, b"replacement-0"),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let mut invalid = serde_json::to_value(&first).unwrap();
+    invalid["blob_ids"] = serde_json::json!({"start": 20, "end": 30});
+    let invalid: DataFilePart = serde_json::from_value(invalid).unwrap();
+    // Managed references use base IDs, so their identity is independent of the
+    // file-local sidecar lease recorded in the checkpoint.
+    dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&target, &[invalid])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let second = write_part(
+        &dataset,
+        &target,
+        Some(10..20),
+        make_batch(vec![11], vec![b"replacement-1"]),
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    let other_target = DataFileTarget::new(
+        None,
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let error = dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&other_target, &[first.clone(), second.clone()])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("belongs to target"), "{error}");
+    assert!(
+        !dataset
+            .object_store
+            .exists(&dataset.data_dir().join(other_target.file_name.as_str()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    );
+
+    let target =
+        serde_json::from_slice::<DataFileTarget>(&serde_json::to_vec(&target).unwrap()).unwrap();
+    let data_file = dataset
+        .concat_data_file_parts(&target, &[first, second])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let replacement = DataReplacementGroup(only_fragment(&dataset).id() as u64, data_file);
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, replacement).await.unwrap();
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let values = batch["blob"].as_binary::<i64>();
+    assert_eq!(values.value(0), b"replacement-0");
+    assert_eq!(values.value(1), b"replacement-1");
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_aggregate.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_aggregate.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..81aa945527d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_aggregate.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1643 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Tests for Substrait aggregate
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::{Float64Type, Int64Type};
+use arrow_array::{
+    FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::{
+    AggregateFunction, AggregateRel, Expression, FunctionArgument, Plan, PlanRel, Rel, RelRoot,
+    SortField, Version,
+    aggregate_function::AggregationInvocation,
+    aggregate_rel::{Grouping, Measure},
+    expression::{
+        FieldReference, ReferenceSegment, RexType,
+        field_reference::{ReferenceType, RootReference, RootType},
+        reference_segment::{self, StructField},
+    },
+    extensions::{
+        SimpleExtensionDeclaration, SimpleExtensionUrn,
+        simple_extension_declaration::{ExtensionFunction, MappingType},
+    },
+    function_argument::ArgType,
+    rel::RelType,
+    sort_field::SortKind,
+};
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_datafusion::exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, execute_plan};
+use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch};
+use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+use prost::Message;
+use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::scanner::AggregateExpr;
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, assert_plan_node_equals};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams;
+use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+/// Helper to create a field reference expression for a column index
+fn field_ref(field_index: i32) -> Expression {
+    Expression {
+        rex_type: Some(RexType::Selection(Box::new(FieldReference {
+            reference_type: Some(ReferenceType::DirectReference(ReferenceSegment {
+                reference_type: Some(reference_segment::ReferenceType::StructField(Box::new(
+                    StructField {
+                        field: field_index,
+                        child: None,
+                    },
+                ))),
+            })),
+            root_type: Some(RootType::RootReference(RootReference {})),
+        }))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Helper to create a Substrait AggregateRel with given measures and groupings
+fn create_aggregate_rel(
+    measures: Vec<Measure>,
+    grouping_expressions: Vec<Expression>,
+    groupings: Vec<Grouping>,
+    extensions: Vec<SimpleExtensionDeclaration>,
+    output_names: Vec<String>,
+) -> Vec<u8> {
+    let aggregate_rel = AggregateRel {
+        common: None,
+        input: None, // Input is ignored for pushdown
+        groupings,
+        measures,
+        grouping_expressions,
+        advanced_extension: None,
+    };
+
+    let rel = Rel {
+        rel_type: Some(RelType::Aggregate(Box::new(aggregate_rel))),
+    };
+
+    // Wrap in a Plan to include extensions
+    let plan = Plan {
+        version: Some(Version {
+            major_number: 0,
+            minor_number: 63,
+            patch_number: 0,
+            git_hash: String::new(),
+            producer: "lance-test".to_string(),
+        }),
+        extensions,
+        relations: vec![PlanRel {
+            rel_type: Some(datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::plan_rel::RelType::Root(
+                RelRoot {
+                    input: Some(rel),
+                    names: output_names,
+                },
+            )),
+        }],
+        advanced_extensions: None,
+        expected_type_urls: vec![],
+        extension_urns: vec![
+            SimpleExtensionUrn {
+                extension_urn_anchor: 1,
+                urn: "https://github.com/substrait-io/substrait/blob/main/extensions/functions_aggregate_generic.yaml".to_string(),
+            },
+            SimpleExtensionUrn {
+                extension_urn_anchor: 2,
+                urn: "https://github.com/substrait-io/substrait/blob/main/extensions/functions_arithmetic.yaml".to_string(),
+            },
+        ],
+        parameter_bindings: vec![],
+        type_aliases: vec![],
+    };
+
+    plan.encode_to_vec()
+}
+
+/// Create extension declaration for an aggregate function
+fn agg_extension(anchor: u32, name: &str) -> SimpleExtensionDeclaration {
+    SimpleExtensionDeclaration {
+        mapping_type: Some(MappingType::ExtensionFunction(ExtensionFunction {
+            extension_urn_reference: 1,
+            function_anchor: anchor,
+            name: name.to_string(),
+        })),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create a COUNT(*) measure
+fn count_star_measure(function_ref: u32) -> Measure {
+    Measure {
+        measure: Some(AggregateFunction {
+            function_reference: function_ref,
+            arguments: vec![], // COUNT(*) has no arguments
+            options: vec![],
+            output_type: None,
+            phase: 0,
+            sorts: vec![],
+            invocation: AggregationInvocation::All as i32,
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            args: vec![],
+        }),
+        filter: None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create a SUM/AVG/MIN/MAX measure on a column
+fn simple_agg_measure(function_ref: u32, column_index: i32) -> Measure {
+    Measure {
+        measure: Some(AggregateFunction {
+            function_reference: function_ref,
+            arguments: vec![FunctionArgument {
+                arg_type: Some(ArgType::Value(field_ref(column_index))),
+            }],
+            options: vec![],
+            output_type: None,
+            phase: 0,
+            sorts: vec![],
+            invocation: AggregationInvocation::All as i32,
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            args: vec![],
+        }),
+        filter: None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create an ordered aggregate measure (e.g., FIRST_VALUE with ORDER BY)
+fn ordered_agg_measure(
+    function_ref: u32,
+    column_index: i32,
+    sort_column_index: i32,
+    ascending: bool,
+) -> Measure {
+    use datafusion_substrait::substrait::proto::sort_field::SortDirection;
+
+    let sort_direction = if ascending {
+        SortDirection::AscNullsLast
+    } else {
+        SortDirection::DescNullsLast
+    };
+
+    Measure {
+        measure: Some(AggregateFunction {
+            function_reference: function_ref,
+            arguments: vec![FunctionArgument {
+                arg_type: Some(ArgType::Value(field_ref(column_index))),
+            }],
+            options: vec![],
+            output_type: None,
+            phase: 0,
+            sorts: vec![SortField {
+                expr: Some(field_ref(sort_column_index)),
+                sort_kind: Some(SortKind::Direction(sort_direction as i32)),
+            }],
+            invocation: AggregationInvocation::All as i32,
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            args: vec![],
+        }),
+        filter: None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Execute aggregate plan and collect results
+async fn execute_aggregate(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    aggregate_bytes: &[u8],
+) -> crate::Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(aggregate_bytes))?;
+
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await?;
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default())?;
+    stream.try_collect().await.map_err(|e| e.into())
+}
+
+/// Execute aggregate plan on specific fragments
+async fn execute_aggregate_on_fragments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    aggregate_bytes: &[u8],
+    fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+) -> crate::Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.with_fragments(fragments);
+    scanner.aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(aggregate_bytes))?;
+
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await?;
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default())?;
+    stream.try_collect().await.map_err(|e| e.into())
+}
+
+/// Create a test dataset with numeric columns
+async fn create_numeric_dataset(uri: &str, num_fragments: u32, rows_per_fragment: u32) -> Dataset {
+    gen_batch()
+        .col("x", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+        .col("y", array::step_custom::<Int64Type>(0, 2))
+        .col("category", array::cycle::<Int64Type>(vec![1, 2, 3]))
+        .into_dataset(
+            uri,
+            FragmentCount::from(num_fragments),
+            FragmentRowCount::from(rows_per_fragment),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_count_star_single_fragment() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 1, 100).await;
+
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![count_star_measure(1)],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "count")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    // COUNT(*) is rewritten by CountPushdown into a Final aggregate
+    // over CountFromMaskExec, which answers from manifest metadata + the
+    // deletion mask instead of scanning column data.
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(agg_bytes.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan,
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Final, gby=[], aggr=[count(...)]
+  CountFromMask",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 100);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_count_star_multiple_fragments() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 5, 100).await;
+
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![count_star_measure(1)],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "count")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+    // 5 fragments * 100 rows = 500 total
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 500);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_count_star_subset_fragments() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 5, 100).await;
+
+    // Get only first 2 fragments
+    let all_fragments = ds.get_fragments();
+    let subset: Vec<Fragment> = all_fragments
+        .into_iter()
+        .take(2)
+        .map(|f| f.metadata)
+        .collect();
+
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![count_star_measure(1)],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "count")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate_on_fragments(&ds, &agg_bytes, subset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+    // 2 fragments * 100 rows = 200 total
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 200);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_sum_single_fragment() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 1, 100).await;
+
+    // SUM(x) where x = 0..99
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![simple_agg_measure(1, 0)], // column 0 = x
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "sum")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    // Verify SUM(x) only reads column x
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(agg_bytes.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan,
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Single, gby=[], aggr=[sum(...)]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[x], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+    // SUM(0..99) = 99*100/2 = 4950
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 4950);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_sum_multiple_fragments() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 4, 25).await;
+
+    // SUM(x) where x = 0..99 across 4 fragments
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![simple_agg_measure(1, 0)],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "sum")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    // SUM(0..99) = 4950
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 4950);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_min_max() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 4, 25).await;
+
+    // MIN(x) and MAX(x)
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![
+            simple_agg_measure(1, 0), // MIN(x)
+            simple_agg_measure(2, 0), // MAX(x)
+        ],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "min"), agg_extension(2, "max")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 2);
+    // MIN should be 0, MAX should be 99
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 0);
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(1).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 99);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_avg() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 4, 25).await;
+
+    // AVG(x) where x = 0..99
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![simple_agg_measure(1, 0)],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "avg")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    // AVG(0..99) = 49.5
+    let avg = batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Float64Type>().value(0);
+    assert!((avg - 49.5).abs() < 0.001);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_multiple_aggregates() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 4, 25).await;
+
+    // COUNT(*), SUM(x), MIN(x), MAX(x), AVG(x)
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![
+            count_star_measure(1),
+            simple_agg_measure(2, 0), // SUM(x)
+            simple_agg_measure(3, 0), // MIN(x)
+            simple_agg_measure(4, 0), // MAX(x)
+            simple_agg_measure(5, 0), // AVG(x)
+        ],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![
+            agg_extension(1, "count"),
+            agg_extension(2, "sum"),
+            agg_extension(3, "min"),
+            agg_extension(4, "max"),
+            agg_extension(5, "avg"),
+        ],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_columns(), 5);
+
+    // Verify all aggregates
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 100); // COUNT
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(1).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 4950); // SUM
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(2).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 0); // MIN
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(3).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 99); // MAX
+    let avg = batch.column(4).as_primitive::<Float64Type>().value(0);
+    assert!((avg - 49.5).abs() < 0.001); // AVG
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_group_by_with_count() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 4, 30).await;
+
+    // COUNT(*) GROUP BY category
+    // category cycles through 1, 2, 3
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![count_star_measure(1)],
+        vec![field_ref(2)], // category is column index 2
+        vec![Grouping {
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            grouping_expressions: vec![],
+            expression_references: vec![0], // Reference to first grouping expression
+        }],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "count")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    // Verify GROUP BY category only reads category column
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(agg_bytes.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan,
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Single, gby=[category@0 as category], aggr=[count(...)]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[category], num_fragments=4, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=false, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!results.is_empty());
+
+    let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&results[0].schema(), &results).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3); // 3 categories
+
+    // Each category should have 40 rows (120 total / 3 categories)
+    let counts: Vec<i64> = batch
+        .column(1) // count column
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+
+    for count in counts {
+        assert_eq!(count, 40);
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_group_by_with_sum() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 1, 9).await;
+
+    // SUM(x) GROUP BY category
+    // x = 0..8, category cycles 1,2,3,1,2,3,1,2,3
+    // category 1: sum(0,3,6) = 9
+    // category 2: sum(1,4,7) = 12
+    // category 3: sum(2,5,8) = 15
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![simple_agg_measure(1, 0)], // SUM(x)
+        vec![field_ref(2)],             // GROUP BY category
+        vec![Grouping {
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            grouping_expressions: vec![],
+            expression_references: vec![0],
+        }],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "sum")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!results.is_empty());
+
+    let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&results[0].schema(), &results).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3); // 3 categories
+
+    // Collect results into a map for verification
+    let categories: Vec<i64> = batch
+        .column(0) // category column
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    let sums: Vec<i64> = batch
+        .column(1) // sum column
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+
+    let mut results_map = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+    for (cat, sum) in categories.iter().zip(sums.iter()) {
+        results_map.insert(*cat, *sum);
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(results_map.get(&1), Some(&9));
+    assert_eq!(results_map.get(&2), Some(&12));
+    assert_eq!(results_map.get(&3), Some(&15));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_aggregate_specific_fragments() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 10, 10).await;
+
+    // Get fragments 3, 5, 7 (0-indexed)
+    let all_fragments = ds.get_fragments();
+    let subset: Vec<Fragment> = all_fragments
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter(|(i, _)| *i == 3 || *i == 5 || *i == 7)
+        .map(|(_, f)| f.metadata)
+        .collect();
+
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![count_star_measure(1)],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "count")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate_on_fragments(&ds, &agg_bytes, subset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    // 3 fragments * 10 rows = 30 total
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 30);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_sum_specific_fragments() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+    // Create dataset where each fragment has distinct values
+    // Fragment 0: x = 0..9 (sum = 45)
+    // Fragment 1: x = 10..19 (sum = 145)
+    // Fragment 2: x = 20..29 (sum = 245)
+    // Fragment 3: x = 30..39 (sum = 345)
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 4, 10).await;
+
+    // Only scan fragments 1 and 2
+    let all_fragments = ds.get_fragments();
+    let subset: Vec<Fragment> = all_fragments
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter(|(i, _)| *i == 1 || *i == 2)
+        .map(|(_, f)| f.metadata)
+        .collect();
+
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![simple_agg_measure(1, 0)], // SUM(x)
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "sum")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate_on_fragments(&ds, &agg_bytes, subset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    // Fragment 1: sum(10..19) = 145
+    // Fragment 2: sum(20..29) = 245
+    // Total = 390
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 390);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_aggregate_with_filter() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 1, 100).await;
+
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner.filter("x >= 50").unwrap();
+
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![
+            count_star_measure(1),
+            simple_agg_measure(2, 0), // SUM(x)
+            simple_agg_measure(3, 0), // MIN(x)
+            simple_agg_measure(4, 0), // MAX(x)
+        ],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![
+            agg_extension(1, "count"),
+            agg_extension(2, "sum"),
+            agg_extension(3, "min"),
+            agg_extension(4, "max"),
+        ],
+        vec![],
+    );
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(agg_bytes))
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let results: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    // Filter x >= 50 matches rows 50..99 (50 rows)
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 50); // COUNT
+    // SUM(50..99) = (50+99)*50/2 = 3725
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(1).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 3725); // SUM
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(2).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 50); // MIN
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(3).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 99); // MAX
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_aggregate_empty_result() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 1, 100).await;
+
+    // Apply filter that matches no rows, then aggregate
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner.project::<&str>(&[]).unwrap();
+    scanner.with_row_id();
+    scanner.filter("x > 1000").unwrap(); // No rows match
+
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![count_star_measure(1)],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "count")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(agg_bytes))
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let results: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+    // COUNT(*) of empty result should be 0
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_aggregate_single_row() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+    // Create dataset with single row using Int64 to avoid type coercion issues
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "x",
+        DataType::Int64,
+        false,
+    )]));
+
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![42]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let ds = Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![
+            count_star_measure(1),
+            simple_agg_measure(2, 0), // SUM(x)
+            simple_agg_measure(3, 0), // MIN(x)
+            simple_agg_measure(4, 0), // MAX(x)
+        ],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![
+            agg_extension(1, "count"),
+            agg_extension(2, "sum"),
+            agg_extension(3, "min"),
+            agg_extension(4, "max"),
+        ],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 1); // COUNT
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(1).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 42); // SUM
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(2).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 42); // MIN
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(3).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 42); // MAX
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_aggregate_with_aliases() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 1, 100).await;
+
+    // COUNT(*), SUM(x), MIN(x) with custom aliases
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![
+            count_star_measure(1),
+            simple_agg_measure(2, 0),
+            simple_agg_measure(3, 0),
+        ],
+        vec![],
+        vec![],
+        vec![
+            agg_extension(1, "count"),
+            agg_extension(2, "sum"),
+            agg_extension(3, "min"),
+        ],
+        vec![
+            "total_count".to_string(),
+            "sum_of_x".to_string(),
+            "min_x".to_string(),
+        ],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+    let batch = &results[0];
+
+    // Verify output schema has the expected aliases
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    assert_eq!(schema.fields().len(), 3);
+    assert_eq!(schema.field(0).name(), "total_count");
+    assert_eq!(schema.field(1).name(), "sum_of_x");
+    assert_eq!(schema.field(2).name(), "min_x");
+
+    // Verify values are correct
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 100);
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(1).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 4950);
+    assert_eq!(batch.column(2).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_group_by_with_aliases() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 1, 9).await;
+
+    // SUM(x) GROUP BY category with aliases
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![simple_agg_measure(1, 0)],
+        vec![field_ref(2)],
+        vec![Grouping {
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            grouping_expressions: vec![],
+            expression_references: vec![0],
+        }],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "sum")],
+        vec!["group_key".to_string(), "total_sum".to_string()],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!results.is_empty());
+
+    let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&results[0].schema(), &results).unwrap();
+
+    // Verify output schema has the expected aliases
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    assert_eq!(schema.fields().len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(schema.field(0).name(), "group_key");
+    assert_eq!(schema.field(1).name(), "total_sum");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_first_value_with_order_by() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 1, 9).await;
+
+    // FIRST_VALUE(x) ORDER BY x ASC GROUP BY category
+    // x = 0..8, category cycles 1,2,3,1,2,3,1,2,3
+    // category 1 has x values: 0, 3, 6 -> first_value(ORDER BY x ASC) = 0
+    // category 2 has x values: 1, 4, 7 -> first_value(ORDER BY x ASC) = 1
+    // category 3 has x values: 2, 5, 8 -> first_value(ORDER BY x ASC) = 2
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![ordered_agg_measure(1, 0, 0, true)], // FIRST_VALUE(x) ORDER BY x ASC
+        vec![field_ref(2)],                       // GROUP BY category
+        vec![Grouping {
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            grouping_expressions: vec![],
+            expression_references: vec![0],
+        }],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "first_value")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!results.is_empty());
+
+    let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&results[0].schema(), &results).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
+
+    let categories: Vec<i64> = batch
+        .column(0)
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    let first_values: Vec<i64> = batch
+        .column(1)
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+
+    let mut results_map = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+    for (cat, val) in categories.iter().zip(first_values.iter()) {
+        results_map.insert(*cat, *val);
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(results_map.get(&1), Some(&0));
+    assert_eq!(results_map.get(&2), Some(&1));
+    assert_eq!(results_map.get(&3), Some(&2));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_first_value_with_order_by_desc() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 1, 9).await;
+
+    // FIRST_VALUE(x) ORDER BY x DESC GROUP BY category
+    // category 1 has x values: 0, 3, 6 -> first_value(ORDER BY x DESC) = 6
+    // category 2 has x values: 1, 4, 7 -> first_value(ORDER BY x DESC) = 7
+    // category 3 has x values: 2, 5, 8 -> first_value(ORDER BY x DESC) = 8
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![ordered_agg_measure(1, 0, 0, false)], // FIRST_VALUE(x) ORDER BY x DESC
+        vec![field_ref(2)],                        // GROUP BY category
+        vec![Grouping {
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            grouping_expressions: vec![],
+            expression_references: vec![0],
+        }],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "first_value")],
+        vec![],
+    );
+
+    let results = execute_aggregate(&ds, &agg_bytes).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!results.is_empty());
+
+    let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&results[0].schema(), &results).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
+
+    let categories: Vec<i64> = batch
+        .column(0)
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    let first_values: Vec<i64> = batch
+        .column(1)
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+
+    let mut results_map = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+    for (cat, val) in categories.iter().zip(first_values.iter()) {
+        results_map.insert(*cat, *val);
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(results_map.get(&1), Some(&6));
+    assert_eq!(results_map.get(&2), Some(&7));
+    assert_eq!(results_map.get(&3), Some(&8));
+}
+
+/// Create a dataset with vectors, text, and category for vector search and FTS aggregate tests.
+/// Schema: id (i64), vec (fixed_size_list<f32>[4]), text (utf8), category (utf8)
+async fn create_vector_text_dataset(uri: &str, num_rows: i64) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+        Field::new(
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+            true,
+        ),
+        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+
+    let ids: Vec<i64> = (0..num_rows).collect();
+    let vectors: Vec<f32> = (0..num_rows).flat_map(|i| vec![i as f32; 4]).collect();
+    let texts: Vec<String> = (0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("document {}", i)).collect();
+    let categories: Vec<String> = (0..num_rows)
+        .map(|i| match i % 3 {
+            0 => "category_a".to_string(),
+            1 => "category_b".to_string(),
+            _ => "category_c".to_string(),
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)),
+            Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vectors), 4).unwrap(),
+            ),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(categories)),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_vector_search_with_aggregate() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = create_vector_text_dataset(uri, 100).await;
+
+    // Create vector index
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Vector search for top 30 results, then aggregate by category with COUNT(*)
+    // Query vector close to id=50 (vec=[50,50,50,50])
+    let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![50.0f32, 50.0, 50.0, 50.0]);
+
+    // COUNT(*) GROUP BY category (column index 3)
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![count_star_measure(1)],
+        vec![field_ref(3)], // GROUP BY category
+        vec![Grouping {
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            grouping_expressions: vec![],
+            expression_references: vec![0],
+        }],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "count")],
+        vec!["category".to_string(), "count".to_string()],
+    );
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .nearest("vec", &query_vector, 30)
+        .unwrap()
+        .project(&["id", "category"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(agg_bytes))
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let results = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Should have 3 categories (or fewer if search results don't cover all)
+    assert!(
+        results.num_rows() >= 1 && results.num_rows() <= 3,
+        "Expected 1-3 rows but got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+
+    // Total count should be 30 (top K results)
+    let counts: Vec<i64> = results
+        .column(1)
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    let total: i64 = counts.iter().sum();
+    assert_eq!(total, 30);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_with_aggregate() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = create_vector_text_dataset(uri, 100).await;
+
+    // Create FTS index on text column
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // FTS search for "document", then aggregate by category with COUNT(*)
+    // All documents match "document" so we should get all 100 rows
+    // COUNT(*) GROUP BY category (column index 3)
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![count_star_measure(1)],
+        vec![field_ref(3)], // GROUP BY category
+        vec![Grouping {
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            grouping_expressions: vec![],
+            expression_references: vec![0],
+        }],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "count")],
+        vec!["category".to_string(), "count".to_string()],
+    );
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("document".to_string()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .project(&["id", "category"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(agg_bytes))
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let results = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Should have 3 categories
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        3,
+        "Expected 3 rows but got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+
+    // Total count should be 100 (all documents match "document")
+    let counts: Vec<i64> = results
+        .column(1)
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    let total: i64 = counts.iter().sum();
+    assert_eq!(total, 100);
+
+    // Each category should have ~33 rows (100/3)
+    for count in &counts {
+        assert!(*count >= 33 && *count <= 34);
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_vector_search_with_sum_aggregate() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = create_vector_text_dataset(uri, 100).await;
+
+    // Create vector index
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Vector search for top 10 results, then SUM(id) GROUP BY category
+    let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![50.0f32, 50.0, 50.0, 50.0]);
+
+    // SUM(id) GROUP BY category
+    let agg_bytes = create_aggregate_rel(
+        vec![simple_agg_measure(1, 0)], // SUM(id) - column 0
+        vec![field_ref(3)],             // GROUP BY category
+        vec![Grouping {
+            #[allow(deprecated)]
+            grouping_expressions: vec![],
+            expression_references: vec![0],
+        }],
+        vec![agg_extension(1, "sum")],
+        vec!["category".to_string(), "sum_id".to_string()],
+    );
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .nearest("vec", &query_vector, 10)
+        .unwrap()
+        .project(&["id", "category"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::substrait(agg_bytes))
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let results = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Should have results grouped by category (1-3 depending on which categories are in top K)
+    assert!(
+        results.num_rows() >= 1 && results.num_rows() <= 3,
+        "Expected 1-3 rows but got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+
+    // Verify we have 2 columns: category and sum_id
+    assert_eq!(results.num_columns(), 2);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows() {
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset("memory://test_count_rows", 2, 50).await;
+
+    // Check plan structure
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+    // COUNT(*) is rewritten by CountPushdown into a Final aggregate
+    // over CountFromMaskExec.
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan.clone(),
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Final, gby=[], aggr=[count(Int32(1))]
+  CountFromMask",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Execute and verify result
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0),
+        100 // 2 fragments * 50 rows
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows_with_filter() {
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset("memory://test_count_rows_filter", 1, 100).await;
+
+    // Check plan structure
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner.filter("x >= 50").unwrap();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+    // COUNT(*) with filter: filter columns are needed, but no data columns for the aggregate
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan.clone(),
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Single, gby=[], aggr=[count(Int32(1))]
+  LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[x], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=false, full_filter=x >= Int64(50), refine_filter=x >= Int64(50)",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Execute and verify result
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+    // x ranges from 0 to 99, so x >= 50 matches rows 50..99 (50 rows)
+    assert_eq!(
+        batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0),
+        50
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows_with_indexed_filter() {
+    // When the filter is fully evaluable by a scalar index that covers
+    // every dataset fragment, the rule rewrites COUNT(*) into a Final
+    // aggregate over CountFromMaskExec, with the ScalarIndexExec
+    // wired in as the prefilter — no LanceRead, no column scan.
+    let mut ds = create_numeric_dataset("memory://test_count_indexed", 2, 50).await;
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["x"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        None,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner.filter("x < 50").unwrap();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan.clone(),
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Final, gby=[], aggr=[count(Int32(1))]
+  CountFromMask
+    ScalarIndexQuery: query=[x < 50]@x_idx(BTree)",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0),
+        50,
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows_with_indexed_filter_stable_row_ids() {
+    // Indexed-filter count under stable row ids, with deletions in both
+    // fragments. The rule fires and the cross-fragment count stays correct.
+    let tmp = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut ds = gen_batch()
+        .col("x", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+        .col("y", array::step_custom::<Int64Type>(0, 2))
+        .col("category", array::cycle::<Int64Type>(vec![1, 2, 3]))
+        .into_dataset_with_params(
+            uri,
+            FragmentCount::from(2),
+            FragmentRowCount::from(50),
+            Some(crate::dataset::WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["x"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        None,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    // Delete one row from each fragment (x=10 in frag 0, x=70 in frag 1).
+    ds.delete("x = 10 OR x = 70").await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner.filter("x < 100").unwrap();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan.clone(),
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Final, gby=[], aggr=[count(Int32(1))]
+  CountFromMask
+    ScalarIndexQuery: query=[x < 100]@x_idx(BTree)",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+    // 100 rows match `x < 100`, minus the two deletions.
+    assert_eq!(
+        batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0),
+        98,
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows_indexed_filter_stable_row_ids_after_compaction() {
+    // Update rewrites a scattered subset of rows under stable row ids; the
+    // rewritten copies keep their stable ids, so compaction folds the surviving
+    // and rewritten halves of a fragment into row-id segments whose ranges
+    // overlap. The indexed-filter count must still see every live row.
+    let tmp = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let ds = gen_batch()
+        .col("x", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+        .col("category", array::cycle::<Int64Type>(vec![1, 2, 3]))
+        .into_dataset_with_params(
+            uri,
+            FragmentCount::from(2),
+            FragmentRowCount::from(50),
+            Some(crate::dataset::WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // Update every third row (category == 1), scattered across stable ids.
+    let res = crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(ds))
+        .update_where("category = 1")
+        .unwrap()
+        .set("category", "0")
+        .unwrap()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut ds = res.new_dataset.as_ref().clone();
+    // Compaction merges the surviving and rewritten fragments, producing a
+    // fragment whose row-id sequence has overlapping segments.
+    crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(&mut ds, Default::default(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // Index after compaction: it covers every fragment and no deletions remain,
+    // so the count is answered from the stable-id universe (the path the
+    // overlapping segments corrupt).
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["x"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        None,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner.filter("x < 100").unwrap();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan.clone(),
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Final, gby=[], aggr=[count(Int32(1))]
+  CountFromMask
+    ScalarIndexQuery: query=[x < 100]@x_idx(BTree)",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+    // No deletions remain after compaction; all 100 rows match `x < 100`.
+    assert_eq!(
+        batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0),
+        100,
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows_with_partial_index_coverage() {
+    // Index covers the first two fragments, then a third fragment is
+    // appended. The rule cannot answer the count from the index alone for
+    // the appended fragment, so it emits a split plan: CountFromMaskExec
+    // over the indexed fragments + AggregateExec(Partial)/FilteredReadExec
+    // over the rest, both unioned and summed by AggregateExec(Final).
+    let tmp = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut ds = create_numeric_dataset(uri, 2, 50).await;
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["x"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        None,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Append a third fragment that the index does not cover.
+    let reader = gen_batch()
+        .col("x", array::step_custom::<Int64Type>(100, 1))
+        .col("y", array::step_custom::<Int64Type>(0, 2))
+        .col("category", array::cycle::<Int64Type>(vec![1, 2, 3]))
+        .into_reader_rows(
+            lance_datagen::RowCount::from(50),
+            lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(1),
+        );
+    let ds = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        uri,
+        Some(crate::dataset::WriteParams {
+            mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+            max_rows_per_file: 50,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(ds.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    // `x < 1000` matches every row (values are 0..100 + 100..150). The
+    // pushdown branch contributes the first 100 from the indexed fragments;
+    // the scan branch contributes the 50 rows from the appended fragment.
+    scanner.filter("x < 1000").unwrap();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())
+        .unwrap();
+    // Pin target_parallelism=1 so EnforceDistribution produces a deterministic
+    // plan snapshot regardless of the machine's CPU count.
+    scanner.target_parallelism(1);
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan.clone(),
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Final, gby=[], aggr=[count(Int32(1))]
+  CoalescePartitionsExec
+    UnionExec
+      CountFromMask
+        ScalarIndexQuery: query=[x < 1000]@x_idx(BTree)
+      AggregateExec: mode=Partial, gby=[], aggr=[count(Int32(1))]
+        LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=false, row_addr=true, full_filter=x < Int64(1000), refine_filter=--",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0),
+        150,
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows_empty_result() {
+    let ds = create_numeric_dataset("memory://test_count_rows_empty", 1, 100).await;
+
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner.filter("x > 1000").unwrap(); // No rows match
+    let count = scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(count, 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows_with_vector_search() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = create_vector_text_dataset(uri, 100).await;
+
+    // Create vector index
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![50.0f32, 50.0, 50.0, 50.0]);
+
+    // Check plan structure
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.nearest("vec", &query_vector, 30).unwrap();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan.clone(),
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Single, gby=[], aggr=[count(Int32(1))]
+  SortExec: TopK(fetch=30), ...
+    ANNSubIndex: ...
+      ANNIvfPartition: ...deltas=1",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Execute and verify result
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0),
+        30 // top K results
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows_with_fts() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = create_vector_text_dataset(uri, 100).await;
+
+    // Create FTS index on text column
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Check plan structure
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("document".to_string()))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner
+        .aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_plan_node_equals(
+        plan.clone(),
+        "AggregateExec: mode=Single, gby=[], aggr=[count(Int32(1))]
+  MatchQuery: column=text, query=[document]",
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Execute and verify result
+    let stream = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default()).unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+    // All 100 documents contain "document"
+    assert_eq!(
+        batches[0].column(0).as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0),
+        100
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scanner_count_rows_with_vector_search_and_filter() {
+    let tmp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = create_vector_text_dataset(uri, 100).await;
+
+    // Create vector index
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Vector search for top 50 results, then filter by category
+    let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![50.0f32, 50.0, 50.0, 50.0]);
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .nearest("vec", &query_vector, 50)
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter("category = 'category_a'")
+        .unwrap();
+    let count = scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Only ~1/3 of the top 50 results should be in category_a
+    assert!(count > 0 && count <= 50);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_common.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_common.rs
index 88fc419067d..f160b4e9d94 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_common.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_common.rs
@@ -16,9 +16,9 @@ use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
 use lance_table::format::WriterVersion;
 
-use crate::dataset::write::WriteParams;
-use crate::dataset::WriteMode;
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::WriteMode;
+use crate::dataset::write::WriteParams;
 
 // Used to validate that futures returned are Send.
 pub(super) fn require_send<T: Send>(t: T) -> T {
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_concurrency_store.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_concurrency_store.rs
index cb445347ab3..92bfc8f1b19 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_concurrency_store.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_concurrency_store.rs
@@ -8,13 +8,13 @@ use crate::dataset::WriteDestination;
 use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result};
 
 use crate::dataset::write::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
-use lance_index::{scalar::ScalarIndexParams, IndexType};
+use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
 
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn concurrent_create() {
@@ -192,7 +192,7 @@ async fn test_add_bases() {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     // Create a test dataset
-    let test_uri = "memory://add_bases_test";
+    let test_uri = "shared-memory://add_bases_test/primary";
     let mut data_gen =
         BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
 
@@ -213,13 +213,13 @@ async fn test_add_bases() {
     let new_bases = vec![
         BasePath::new(
             0,
-            "memory://bucket1".to_string(),
+            "shared-memory://add_bases_test/bucket1".to_string(),
             Some("bucket1".to_string()),
             false,
         ),
         BasePath::new(
             0,
-            "memory://bucket2".to_string(),
+            "shared-memory://add_bases_test/bucket2".to_string(),
             Some("bucket2".to_string()),
             true,
         ),
@@ -243,9 +243,9 @@ async fn test_add_bases() {
         .find(|bp| bp.name == Some("bucket2".to_string()))
         .expect("bucket2 not found");
 
-    assert_eq!(bucket1.path, "memory://bucket1");
+    assert_eq!(bucket1.path, "shared-memory://add_bases_test/bucket1");
     assert!(!bucket1.is_dataset_root);
-    assert_eq!(bucket2.path, "memory://bucket2");
+    assert_eq!(bucket2.path, "shared-memory://add_bases_test/bucket2");
     assert!(bucket2.is_dataset_root);
 
     let updated_dataset = Arc::new(updated_dataset);
@@ -253,32 +253,36 @@ async fn test_add_bases() {
     // Test conflict detection - try to add a base with the same name
     let conflicting_bases = vec![BasePath::new(
         0,
-        "memory://bucket3".to_string(),
+        "shared-memory://add_bases_test/bucket3".to_string(),
         Some("bucket1".to_string()),
         false,
     )];
 
     let result = updated_dataset.add_bases(conflicting_bases, None).await;
     assert!(result.is_err());
-    assert!(result
-        .unwrap_err()
-        .to_string()
-        .contains("Conflict detected"));
+    assert!(
+        result
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("Conflict detected")
+    );
 
     // Test conflict detection - try to add a base with the same path
     let conflicting_bases = vec![BasePath::new(
         0,
-        "memory://bucket1".to_string(),
+        "shared-memory://add_bases_test/bucket1".to_string(),
         Some("bucket3".to_string()),
         false,
     )];
 
     let result = updated_dataset.add_bases(conflicting_bases, None).await;
     assert!(result.is_err());
-    assert!(result
-        .unwrap_err()
-        .to_string()
-        .contains("Conflict detected"));
+    assert!(
+        result
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("Conflict detected")
+    );
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
@@ -288,7 +292,7 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_conflict() {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     // Create a test dataset
-    let test_uri = "memory://concurrent_add_bases_test";
+    let test_uri = "shared-memory://concurrent_add_bases_test/primary";
     let mut data_gen =
         BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
 
@@ -310,7 +314,7 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_conflict() {
     // First transaction adds base1
     let new_bases1 = vec![BasePath::new(
         0,
-        "memory://bucket1".to_string(),
+        "shared-memory://concurrent_add_bases_test/bucket1".to_string(),
         Some("base1".to_string()),
         false,
     )];
@@ -321,7 +325,7 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_conflict() {
     // This should succeed as there's no conflict
     let new_bases2 = vec![BasePath::new(
         0,
-        "memory://bucket2".to_string(),
+        "shared-memory://concurrent_add_bases_test/bucket2".to_string(),
         Some("base2".to_string()),
         false,
     )];
@@ -356,7 +360,7 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_name_conflict() {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     // Create a test dataset
-    let test_uri = "memory://concurrent_name_conflict_test";
+    let test_uri = "shared-memory://concurrent_name_conflict_test/primary";
     let mut data_gen =
         BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
 
@@ -379,7 +383,7 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_name_conflict() {
     // First transaction adds base with name "shared_base"
     let new_bases1 = vec![BasePath::new(
         0,
-        "memory://bucket1".to_string(),
+        "shared-memory://concurrent_name_conflict_test/bucket1".to_string(),
         Some("shared_base".to_string()),
         false,
     )];
@@ -390,17 +394,19 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_name_conflict() {
     // This should fail due to name conflict
     let new_bases2 = vec![BasePath::new(
         0,
-        "memory://bucket2".to_string(),
+        "shared-memory://concurrent_name_conflict_test/bucket2".to_string(),
         Some("shared_base".to_string()),
         false,
     )];
 
     let result = dataset_clone.add_bases(new_bases2, None).await;
     assert!(result.is_err());
-    assert!(result
-        .unwrap_err()
-        .to_string()
-        .contains("incompatible with concurrent transaction"));
+    assert!(
+        result
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("incompatible with concurrent transaction")
+    );
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
@@ -410,7 +416,7 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_path_conflict() {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     // Create a test dataset
-    let test_uri = "memory://concurrent_path_conflict_test";
+    let test_uri = "shared-memory://concurrent_path_conflict_test/primary";
     let mut data_gen =
         BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
 
@@ -430,10 +436,10 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_path_conflict() {
     let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
     let dataset_clone = Arc::new(dataset_clone);
 
-    // First transaction adds base with path "memory://shared_path"
+    // First transaction adds a base at the shared path
     let new_bases1 = vec![BasePath::new(
         0,
-        "memory://shared_path".to_string(),
+        "shared-memory://concurrent_path_conflict_test/shared_path".to_string(),
         Some("base1".to_string()),
         false,
     )];
@@ -444,17 +450,19 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_path_conflict() {
     // This should fail due to path conflict
     let new_bases2 = vec![BasePath::new(
         0,
-        "memory://shared_path".to_string(),
+        "shared-memory://concurrent_path_conflict_test/shared_path".to_string(),
         Some("base2".to_string()),
         false,
     )];
 
     let result = dataset_clone.add_bases(new_bases2, None).await;
     assert!(result.is_err());
-    assert!(result
-        .unwrap_err()
-        .to_string()
-        .contains("incompatible with concurrent transaction"));
+    assert!(
+        result
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("incompatible with concurrent transaction")
+    );
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
@@ -464,7 +472,7 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_with_data_write() {
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     // Create a test dataset
-    let test_uri = "memory://concurrent_write_test";
+    let test_uri = "shared-memory://concurrent_write_test/primary";
     let mut data_gen =
         BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
 
@@ -486,7 +494,7 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_with_data_write() {
     // First transaction adds a new base
     let new_bases = vec![BasePath::new(
         0,
-        "memory://bucket1".to_string(),
+        "shared-memory://concurrent_write_test/bucket1".to_string(),
         Some("base1".to_string()),
         false,
     )];
@@ -513,11 +521,13 @@ async fn test_concurrent_add_bases_with_data_write() {
 
     // Should have the new base
     assert_eq!(final_dataset.manifest.base_paths.len(), 1);
-    assert!(final_dataset
-        .manifest
-        .base_paths
-        .values()
-        .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base1".to_string())));
+    assert!(
+        final_dataset
+            .manifest
+            .base_paths
+            .values()
+            .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base1".to_string()))
+    );
 
     // Should have both data writes (10 rows total)
     assert_eq!(final_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 10);
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_fts_combined_fields.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_fts_combined_fields.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8691ab03089
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_fts_combined_fields.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2398 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::vec;
+
+use super::dataset_index::nested_fts_batch;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+
+use crate::dataset::write::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp;
+use arrow::array::{AsArray, GenericListBuilder, GenericStringBuilder};
+use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_array::record_batch;
+use arrow_array::{Array, GenericStringArray, ListArray, StructArray};
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+    types::{Float32Type, Int32Type, Int64Type},
+};
+use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields as ArrowFields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
+    Language,
+    query::{MatchQuery, Operator},
+    tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams,
+};
+use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::BLOCK_SIZE;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::oracle::{brute_force_bm25f, brute_force_ids};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{CombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery, MultiMatchQuery};
+use rstest::rstest;
+
+/// Whitespace-tokenizing index params, so `brute_force_bm25f` can mirror them.
+fn combined_fields_test_params() -> InvertedIndexParams {
+    InvertedIndexParams::new("simple".to_string(), Language::English)
+        .lower_case(true)
+        .stem(false)
+        .remove_stop_words(false)
+        .ascii_folding(false)
+        .max_token_length(None)
+}
+
+/// The standard `id`/`title`/`body` batch these tests score over.
+fn combined_fields_batch(ids: Vec<i32>, titles: Vec<&str>, bodies: Vec<&str>) -> RecordBatch {
+    record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, ids),
+        ("title", Utf8, titles),
+        ("body", Utf8, bodies)
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Write one batch to `uri`, creating the dataset or appending to it.
+///
+/// `write_params` of `None` takes the write defaults: one fragment, row addresses
+/// rather than stable row ids. Pass a [`WriteParams`] to pick a fragment layout
+/// (`max_rows_per_file`), append instead of create (`mode`), or switch row-id
+/// scheme (`enable_stable_row_ids`).
+async fn write_fts_dataset(
+    uri: &str,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    write_params: Option<WriteParams>,
+) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        uri,
+        write_params,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Append one batch to an existing dataset. The appended fragments carry no
+/// index, which is what routes their rows to the flat scan.
+///
+/// `max_rows_per_file` of `None` takes the write default, i.e. one fragment for
+/// the whole batch; `Some(n)` spreads it over several.
+async fn append_fts_dataset(
+    uri: &str,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    max_rows_per_file: Option<usize>,
+) -> Dataset {
+    let mut params = WriteParams {
+        mode: WriteMode::Append,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    if let Some(max_rows_per_file) = max_rows_per_file {
+        params.max_rows_per_file = max_rows_per_file;
+    }
+    write_fts_dataset(uri, batch, Some(params)).await
+}
+
+/// Build one inverted index per column in `columns`, at the dataset's current
+/// version. Call sites list the columns explicitly because which ones carry an
+/// index, and at which version, is what the coverage-skew tests vary.
+async fn create_inverted_indices(
+    dataset: &mut Dataset,
+    columns: &[&str],
+    params: &InvertedIndexParams,
+) {
+    for &column in columns {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&[column], IndexType::Inverted, None, params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+}
+
+/// Write `titles`/`bodies` as the standard `id`/`title`/`body` batch, ids running
+/// `0..titles.len()`, and index both text columns with [`combined_fields_test_params`].
+/// `max_rows_per_file` picks the fragment layout, `None` taking the default of one.
+///
+/// The returned [`TempStrDir`] owns the dataset directory, so the caller has to keep it
+/// bound while it reads the dataset; it is also what [`append_fts_dataset`] appends to.
+async fn indexed_two_column_dataset(
+    titles: &[&str],
+    bodies: &[&str],
+    max_rows_per_file: Option<usize>,
+) -> (TempStrDir, Dataset) {
+    let ids = (0..titles.len() as i32).collect();
+    let batch = combined_fields_batch(ids, titles.to_vec(), bodies.to_vec());
+    let write_params = max_rows_per_file.map(|max_rows_per_file| WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file,
+        ..Default::default()
+    });
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, write_params).await;
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title", "body"], &params).await;
+    (test_uri, dataset)
+}
+
+fn combined_query(terms: &str, operator: Operator) -> FtsQuery {
+    combined_query_with_boosts(terms, operator, None)
+}
+
+/// `boosts` of `None` leaves every weight at the default `1.0`. Explicit weights
+/// exercise the `w_f` factors in `tf'`/`dl'`, which are invisible at 1.0: an
+/// implementation that dropped `weight` still scores correctly with unit weights.
+fn combined_query_with_boosts(
+    terms: &str,
+    operator: Operator,
+    boosts: Option<Vec<f32>>,
+) -> FtsQuery {
+    combined_query_over(&["title", "body"], terms, operator, boosts)
+}
+
+/// Like [`combined_query_with_boosts`] but over an explicit column list, for the
+/// datasets that are not the two-column `title`/`body` shape.
+fn combined_query_over(
+    columns: &[&str],
+    terms: &str,
+    operator: Operator,
+    boosts: Option<Vec<f32>>,
+) -> FtsQuery {
+    let query = CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+        terms.to_string(),
+        columns.iter().map(|c| c.to_string()).collect(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let query = match boosts {
+        Some(boosts) => query.try_with_boosts(boosts).unwrap(),
+        None => query,
+    };
+    FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query.with_operator(operator))
+}
+
+/// Run an unlimited full-text query and return the matched `id`s in result order.
+async fn fts_result_ids(dataset: &Dataset, query: FtsQuery) -> Vec<i32> {
+    fts_result_id_scores(dataset, query, None)
+        .await
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|(id, _)| id)
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Run a full-text query and return `(id, score)` pairs in result order.
+///
+/// `limit` is the query's top-k: `Some(k)` arms the pruning path, `None` takes the
+/// exact scan over every match.
+async fn fts_result_id_scores(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    query: FtsQuery,
+    limit: Option<i64>,
+) -> Vec<(i32, f32)> {
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query).limit(limit))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let scores = batch["_score"].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+    (0..batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|i| (ids.value(i), scores.value(i)))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// The scan's ids as a set. A set compare on its own would hide a duplicate
+/// emission, so the count is pinned here.
+fn unique_ids(ids: Vec<i32>) -> HashSet<i32> {
+    let set: HashSet<i32> = ids.iter().copied().collect();
+    assert_eq!(set.len(), ids.len(), "duplicate row ids emitted: {ids:?}");
+    set
+}
+
+/// Assert a scan's `(id, score)` results are exactly the documents
+/// [`brute_force_bm25f`] matched, with scores equal to within 1e-3.
+///
+/// `context` names the invariant the call site is pinning down and is appended to
+/// every failure message, so a failure says which one broke.
+fn assert_matches_brute_force(actual: &[(i32, f32)], expected: &[Option<f32>], context: &str) {
+    let expected_ids = brute_force_ids(expected);
+    let actual_ids: HashSet<i32> = actual.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+    // A set compare would hide a duplicate emission, so pin the row count too.
+    assert_eq!(
+        actual.len(),
+        expected_ids.len(),
+        "duplicate row emitted ({context}): {actual:?}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(actual_ids, expected_ids, "matched ids differ ({context})");
+    for (id, score) in actual {
+        let want = expected[*id as usize].expect("scan returned an unmatched doc");
+        assert!(
+            (score - want).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "score mismatch for id {id} ({context}): scan={score}, brute force={want}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Assert `actual` is a valid exact top-`k` of `expected`: the right hit count, the exact
+/// ranking's scores, each returned doc carrying its own score, no duplicate or
+/// below-cutoff id. Identity is membership rather than an exact id set because ties at
+/// the k-th score make the winning set ambiguous.
+fn assert_topk_matches_brute_force(
+    actual: &[(i32, f32)],
+    expected: &[Option<f32>],
+    k: usize,
+    context: &str,
+) {
+    let mut expected_ranked: Vec<f32> = expected.iter().filter_map(|score| *score).collect();
+    expected_ranked.sort_by(|a, b| b.partial_cmp(a).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    // Not an early return: an all-empty comparison satisfies everything below.
+    assert!(
+        !expected_ranked.is_empty(),
+        "the oracle matched nothing, so there is nothing to compare ({context})"
+    );
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        actual.len(),
+        expected_ranked.len().min(k),
+        "hit count mismatch for k={k} ({context})"
+    );
+
+    let mut actual_scores: Vec<f32> = actual.iter().map(|(_, score)| *score).collect();
+    actual_scores.sort_by(|a, b| b.partial_cmp(a).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    for (got, want) in actual_scores.iter().zip(&expected_ranked) {
+        assert!(
+            (got - want).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "top-{k} score mismatch ({context}): pruned={actual_scores:?} exact={expected_ranked:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Per id: sorted scores alone accept ids and scores paired up wrongly.
+    for (id, score) in actual {
+        let want = expected[*id as usize].expect("scan returned an unmatched doc");
+        assert!(
+            (score - want).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "score mismatch for id {id} at k={k} ({context}): scan={score}, brute force={want}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    let returned_ids = unique_ids(actual.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect());
+    let cutoff = expected_ranked[actual.len() - 1];
+    for id in &returned_ids {
+        let want = expected[*id as usize].expect("scan returned an unmatched doc");
+        assert!(
+            want >= cutoff - 1e-3,
+            "id {id} scores {want}, below the top-{k} cutoff {cutoff} ({context})"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_cross_field_and() {
+    // combined_fields (BM25F) treats the target columns as one virtual field, so an
+    // AND query matches when each term appears in at least one field. best_fields
+    // (MultiMatch) evaluates AND per field, so it only matches a single field that
+    // contains every term.
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    // row 0: the two terms are split across the fields;
+    // row 1: both terms live in a single field;
+    // row 2: only one of the two terms appears anywhere.
+    let batch = combined_fields_batch(
+        vec![0, 1, 2],
+        vec!["john", "john smith", "john"],
+        vec!["smith", "foo", "alice"],
+    );
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    // Spread the rows across fragments so the merged scan exercises multi-fragment
+    // row-id resolution.
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(
+        &test_uri,
+        batch,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title", "body"], &params).await;
+
+    let columns = vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()];
+    let combined = |op| combined_query("john smith", op);
+    let multi = |op| {
+        FtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            MultiMatchQuery::try_new("john smith".to_string(), columns.clone())
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_operator(op),
+        )
+    };
+
+    // AND over the virtual field: row 0 (john|title + smith|body) and row 1
+    // (both terms in title) match; row 2 (no "smith" anywhere) does not.
+    assert_eq!(
+        unique_ids(fts_result_ids(&dataset, combined(Operator::And)).await),
+        HashSet::from([0, 1])
+    );
+    // best_fields AND matches only row 1, where a single field holds both terms.
+    assert_eq!(
+        unique_ids(fts_result_ids(&dataset, multi(Operator::And)).await),
+        HashSet::from([1])
+    );
+
+    // OR matches any doc containing either term: every row has "john".
+    assert_eq!(
+        unique_ids(fts_result_ids(&dataset, combined(Operator::Or)).await),
+        HashSet::from([0, 1, 2])
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        unique_ids(fts_result_ids(&dataset, multi(Operator::Or)).await),
+        HashSet::from([0, 1, 2])
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_boost_ranking() {
+    // Per-column boosts move a document up the ranking in the BM25F direction:
+    // boosting the field a term lives in counts that term more. Stemming and
+    // stop words are disabled so the filler tokens contribute to document length
+    // ("other" is an English stop word).
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::new("simple".to_string(), Language::English)
+        .stem(false)
+        .remove_stop_words(false);
+    // id 0 has the term only in `title`; id 1 has it only in the shorter `body`.
+    let batch = combined_fields_batch(
+        vec![0, 1],
+        vec!["lance", "other"],
+        vec!["other other other", "lance"],
+    );
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, None).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title", "body"], &params).await;
+
+    let combined =
+        |boosts: Vec<f32>| combined_query_with_boosts("lance", Operator::Or, Some(boosts));
+    // Compare by score rather than result row-order (FTS batch order is not a
+    // guaranteed ranking; only the scores are).
+    let scores = |ids: Vec<(i32, f32)>| ids.into_iter().collect::<HashMap<i32, f32>>();
+
+    // Equal weights: the shorter document (id 1, term in the 1-token body) wins.
+    let equal = scores(fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, combined(vec![1.0, 1.0]), None).await);
+    assert!(
+        equal[&1] > equal[&0],
+        "equal weights: {equal:?} should rank id 1 above id 0"
+    );
+    // Boosting `title` 3x lifts id 0 (term in title) above id 1.
+    let boosted = scores(fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, combined(vec![3.0, 1.0]), None).await);
+    assert!(
+        boosted[&0] > boosted[&1],
+        "title-boosted: {boosted:?} should rank id 0 above id 1"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_nulls() {
+    // NULL edge cases: a doc null in one field is still scored via the other; a
+    // doc null in every field never matches; an entirely-null column is a no-op.
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    let batch = record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3]),
+        ("title", Utf8, [Some("lance"), None, None, Some("lance")]),
+        ("body", Utf8, [None, Some("lance"), None, Some("lance")]),
+        ("empty", Utf8, [None::<&str>, None, None, None])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, None).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title", "body", "empty"], &params).await;
+
+    // Null in one field (0, 1) is scored via the other; null in both (2) never
+    // matches; present in both (3) matches once.
+    let query = combined_query("lance", Operator::Or);
+    assert_eq!(
+        unique_ids(fts_result_ids(&dataset, query).await),
+        HashSet::from([0, 1, 3])
+    );
+
+    // An entirely-null column contributes nothing (docCount' uses the max), so
+    // combining it with `title` matches exactly the `title` hits.
+    let with_empty = combined_query_over(&["title", "empty"], "lance", Operator::Or, None);
+    assert_eq!(
+        unique_ids(fts_result_ids(&dataset, with_empty).await),
+        HashSet::from([0, 3])
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_matches_brute_force_bm25f() {
+    // Validate the combined-fields scan against an independent brute-force BM25F
+    // reference (the primary correctness oracle). Stemming and stop words are
+    // disabled so the reference can tokenize by whitespace.
+    let titles = vec!["aa bb", "aa", "cc dd", "aa aa bb", "cc"];
+    let bodies = vec!["cc", "bb cc dd", "aa", "dd", "aa bb"];
+    let (_test_uri, dataset) = indexed_two_column_dataset(&titles, &bodies, None).await;
+
+    let weights = [2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+    let query = combined_query_with_boosts("aa bb", Operator::Or, Some(weights.to_vec()));
+
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+        &[(weights[0], titles.clone()), (weights[1], bodies.clone())],
+        "aa bb",
+        false,
+    );
+    let actual = fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, query, None).await;
+    assert_matches_brute_force(&actual, &expected, "the fully-indexed two-column scan");
+}
+
+/// `combined_fields` against a real released-format index read from disk rather
+/// than a synthetic fixture, so the row-granularity statistics path
+/// ([`lance_index::scalar::inverted::index::InvertedIndex::bm25_row_stats_for_terms`])
+/// is exercised on actual V1 and V2 files.
+///
+/// The checked-in fixtures index a plain `Utf8` column, so every row owns exactly
+/// one document and they cannot reproduce the list-element multiplicity the
+/// row-granularity path exists for (that lives in `combined/search.rs`'s unit tests).
+/// What they do pin is that a released-format index scores against the
+/// brute-force BM25F reference.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::v1("v3.0.1/fts_v1", 1)]
+#[case::v2("v4.0.1/fts_v2", 2)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_on_released_format_fixture(
+    #[case] fixture_path: &str,
+    #[case] expected_version: i32,
+) {
+    let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp(fixture_path).unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(indices[0].index_version, expected_version);
+
+    // `test_data/{v3.0.1,v4.0.1}/datagen.py` writes 300 rows of
+    // "lance database compatibility shared" for id % 3 == 0 and
+    // "database lance compatibility shared" otherwise.
+    const NUM_ROWS: usize = 300;
+    let texts: Vec<&str> = (0..NUM_ROWS)
+        .map(|id| {
+            if id % 3 == 0 {
+                "lance database compatibility shared"
+            } else {
+                "database lance compatibility shared"
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(&[(1.0, texts)], "lance compatibility", false);
+
+    let query = combined_query_over(&["text"], "lance compatibility", Operator::Or, None);
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = batch
+        .column_by_name("id")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_primitive::<Int64Type>();
+    let scores = batch
+        .column_by_name("_score")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), NUM_ROWS);
+    for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+        let id = ids.value(i) as usize;
+        let want = expected[id].expect("every fixture row carries both query terms");
+        assert!(
+            (scores.value(i) - want).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "score mismatch for id {id}: scan={}, brute force={want}",
+            scores.value(i),
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Drive the top-k path end-to-end through the scanner and confirm the pruned
+/// top-k equals the exact brute-force BM25F top-k for OR and AND across every k.
+///
+/// Only a limited query arms MAXSCORE pruning; an unlimited one takes the exact
+/// scan. The corpus is skewed, mixing a rare high-idf term ("zeta") with a common
+/// low-idf term ("beta"), so MAXSCORE makes "beta" non-essential. The OR query
+/// additionally carries an absent term ("missingterm", idf' == 0) to check the
+/// clamped-ceiling handling.
+///
+/// `max_rows_per_file` picks the partition layout, so the multi-partition case also
+/// exercises the cursors' cross-partition row-id merge.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::single_partition(None)]
+#[case::multi_partition(Some(7))]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_topk_matches_brute_force(
+    #[case] max_rows_per_file: Option<usize>,
+) {
+    let n = 40usize;
+    let titles: Vec<String> = (0..n)
+        .map(|i| {
+            if i % 9 == 0 {
+                "zeta gamma".to_string()
+            } else {
+                "gamma".to_string()
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let bodies: Vec<String> = (0..n)
+        .map(|i| {
+            // "beta" fills every body with a growing count (common, low idf);
+            // one body also carries the rare "zeta" so a doc can hold it in
+            // either field.
+            let beta = vec!["beta"; 1 + i % 3].join(" ");
+            if i == 3 { format!("{beta} zeta") } else { beta }
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let title_refs: Vec<&str> = titles.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+    let body_refs: Vec<&str> = bodies.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+    let (_test_uri, dataset) =
+        indexed_two_column_dataset(&title_refs, &body_refs, max_rows_per_file).await;
+
+    let weights = [2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+
+    for operator in [Operator::Or, Operator::And] {
+        let require_all = operator == Operator::And;
+        // The absent term is only valid for OR (AND with an absent term matches
+        // nothing); keep it out of the AND case.
+        let query_str = if require_all {
+            "zeta beta"
+        } else {
+            "zeta beta missingterm"
+        };
+        let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+            &[
+                (weights[0], title_refs.clone()),
+                (weights[1], body_refs.clone()),
+            ],
+            query_str,
+            require_all,
+        );
+        for k in [1usize, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50] {
+            let query = combined_query_with_boosts(query_str, operator, Some(weights.to_vec()));
+            let actual = fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, query, Some(k as i64)).await;
+            assert_topk_matches_brute_force(&actual, &expected, k, &format!("op={operator:?}"));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Top-k recall where a term's postings span several [`BLOCK_SIZE`] blocks, so the
+/// cursors decode and merge across block boundaries. `beta` sits under `docCount'`
+/// (at equality its ceiling is 0 and pruning is trivial) with fewer `zeta`
+/// documents than `beta` has blocks.
+///
+/// `alpha` has no such margin and covers the same paths with pruning that cannot
+/// fire. `max_rows_per_file` varies fragments, not partitions.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::single_fragment(None)]
+#[case::multi_fragment(Some(BLOCK_SIZE))]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_topk_matches_brute_force_across_blocks(
+    #[case] max_rows_per_file: Option<usize>,
+) {
+    const CORPUS_BLOCKS: usize = 16;
+    let num_docs = CORPUS_BLOCKS * BLOCK_SIZE;
+
+    // Also derive the expected match counts, so corpus and expectations cannot drift.
+    // Three `zeta` probes leave most of `beta`'s ten blocks untouched, and the first is
+    // early so the threshold rises before much is decoded.
+    let has_zeta = |doc: usize| [3, 703, 1403].contains(&doc);
+    let has_beta = |doc: usize| doc % 5 >= 2;
+    let has_alpha = |doc: usize| doc.is_multiple_of(7);
+    // A subset, so its cursor merges two sources and no match count changes.
+    let has_beta_in_title = |doc: usize| doc % 5 == 3;
+    let count = |carries: &dyn Fn(usize) -> bool| (0..num_docs).filter(|&d| carries(d)).count();
+
+    // `gamma` and `delta` are filler: no query uses them, they just vary `dl'`.
+    let titles: Vec<String> = (0..num_docs)
+        .map(|doc| {
+            let mut title = if has_zeta(doc) {
+                "zeta gamma".to_string()
+            } else {
+                "gamma".to_string()
+            };
+            if has_beta_in_title(doc) {
+                title.push_str(" beta");
+            }
+            title
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let bodies: Vec<String> = (0..num_docs)
+        .map(|doc| {
+            let mut body = if has_beta(doc) {
+                vec!["beta"; 1 + doc % 3].join(" ")
+            } else {
+                "delta".to_string()
+            };
+            if has_alpha(doc) {
+                body.push_str(" alpha");
+            }
+            body
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    // `beta` multi-block with a real ceiling, and rarer terms above it by ceiling.
+    let beta_docs = count(&has_beta);
+    let zeta_docs = count(&has_zeta);
+    let alpha_docs = count(&has_alpha);
+    assert!(
+        beta_docs > 4 * BLOCK_SIZE && beta_docs < num_docs,
+        "beta must span several blocks without covering the corpus, got {beta_docs} of {num_docs}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        zeta_docs < beta_docs / BLOCK_SIZE,
+        "zeta ({zeta_docs} docs) must stay under beta's block count ({})",
+        beta_docs / BLOCK_SIZE
+    );
+    assert!(
+        2 * alpha_docs < beta_docs && 2 * zeta_docs < beta_docs,
+        "the rare terms must stay well below beta ({beta_docs}): zeta={zeta_docs} alpha={alpha_docs}"
+    );
+    let beta_title_docs = count(&has_beta_in_title);
+    assert!(
+        beta_title_docs > 0 && count(&|doc| has_beta_in_title(doc) && !has_beta(doc)) == 0,
+        "beta needs a second source in `title`, drawn from its own documents, got {beta_title_docs}"
+    );
+
+    let title_refs: Vec<&str> = titles.iter().map(|title| title.as_str()).collect();
+    let body_refs: Vec<&str> = bodies.iter().map(|body| body.as_str()).collect();
+    let (_test_uri, dataset) =
+        indexed_two_column_dataset(&title_refs, &body_refs, max_rows_per_file).await;
+
+    let weights = vec![2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+
+    for (terms, operator, want_matches) in [
+        (
+            "zeta beta",
+            Operator::Or,
+            count(&|doc| has_zeta(doc) || has_beta(doc)),
+        ),
+        (
+            "alpha beta",
+            Operator::Or,
+            count(&|doc| has_alpha(doc) || has_beta(doc)),
+        ),
+        (
+            "zeta beta",
+            Operator::And,
+            count(&|doc| has_zeta(doc) && has_beta(doc)),
+        ),
+    ] {
+        let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+            &[
+                (weights[0], title_refs.clone()),
+                (weights[1], body_refs.clone()),
+            ],
+            terms,
+            operator == Operator::And,
+        );
+        // The oracle has to agree with the predicates the corpus was built from.
+        assert_eq!(
+            brute_force_ids(&expected).len(),
+            want_matches,
+            "corpus no longer matches as intended for {terms:?} {operator:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(want_matches > 0, "no matches for {terms:?} {operator:?}");
+        // Below, at, and above the match count, to cover the exhausted-cursor path.
+        for k in [1usize, 10, 100, num_docs] {
+            let query = combined_query_with_boosts(terms, operator, Some(weights.clone()));
+            let actual = fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, query, Some(k as i64)).await;
+            assert_topk_matches_brute_force(
+                &actual,
+                &expected,
+                k,
+                &format!("terms={terms:?} op={operator:?}"),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_tokenizer_validation() {
+    // combined_fields accepts columns that differ only in storage-only params
+    // (e.g. with_position) but rejects columns configured with different
+    // tokenizers.
+    let with_pos = InvertedIndexParams::new("simple".to_string(), Language::English)
+        .with_position(true)
+        .stem(false)
+        .remove_stop_words(false);
+    let without_pos = InvertedIndexParams::new("simple".to_string(), Language::English)
+        .with_position(false)
+        .stem(false)
+        .remove_stop_words(false);
+    let whitespace = InvertedIndexParams::new("whitespace".to_string(), Language::English)
+        .stem(false)
+        .remove_stop_words(false);
+
+    let batch = record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, [0, 1]),
+        ("title", Utf8, ["aa", "bb"]),
+        ("body", Utf8, ["bb", "aa"]),
+        ("alt", Utf8, ["aa", "aa"])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, None).await;
+    // One index per column, each with its own tokenizer configuration, which is
+    // what the query-time validation reads back.
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title"], &with_pos).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["body"], &without_pos).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["alt"], &whitespace).await;
+
+    // title (with positions) and body (without) tokenize identically: accepted.
+    let accepted = combined_query("aa", Operator::Or);
+    assert_eq!(
+        unique_ids(fts_result_ids(&dataset, accepted).await),
+        HashSet::from([0, 1])
+    );
+
+    // title (simple) and alt (whitespace) use different tokenizers: rejected.
+    let rejected = combined_query_over(&["title", "alt"], "aa", Operator::Or, None);
+    let result = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(rejected))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await;
+    let message = result
+        .expect_err("expected a tokenizer-mismatch error")
+        .to_string();
+    assert!(
+        message.contains("combined_fields") && message.contains("tokenizer"),
+        "unexpected error: {message}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_concatenation_identity() {
+    // With integer weights, BM25F over (title^w_t, body^w_b) is identical to plain
+    // BM25 over a single column that concatenates title repeated w_t times with body
+    // repeated w_b times, as long as every title token also appears in body so the
+    // max-based docFreq' blend matches the concatenated union. This cross-checks the
+    // combined scan against Lance's own single-field BM25, an independent code path,
+    // catching spec-interpretation errors.
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    let titles = ["cat", "dog", "bird", "cat dog"];
+    let bodies = ["cat dog", "dog bird cat", "bird cat", "cat dog bird"];
+    let (w_title, w_body) = (2usize, 1usize);
+    let concat: Vec<String> = titles
+        .iter()
+        .zip(&bodies)
+        .map(|(title, body)| {
+            let mut parts: Vec<&str> = Vec::with_capacity(w_title + w_body);
+            for _ in 0..w_title {
+                parts.push(title);
+            }
+            for _ in 0..w_body {
+                parts.push(body);
+            }
+            parts.join(" ")
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let concat_refs: Vec<&str> = concat.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect();
+    let batch = record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, (0..titles.len() as i32).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+        ("title", Utf8, titles.to_vec()),
+        ("body", Utf8, bodies.to_vec()),
+        ("concat", Utf8, concat_refs)
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, None).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title", "body", "concat"], &params).await;
+
+    let combined = combined_query_with_boosts(
+        "cat dog",
+        Operator::Or,
+        Some(vec![w_title as f32, w_body as f32]),
+    );
+    let plain = FtsQuery::Match(
+        MatchQuery::new("cat dog".to_string()).with_column(Some("concat".to_string())),
+    );
+
+    let combined_scores: HashMap<i32, f32> = fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, combined, None)
+        .await
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+    let plain_scores: HashMap<i32, f32> = fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, plain, None)
+        .await
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        combined_scores.keys().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+        plain_scores.keys().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+    );
+    for (id, combined_score) in &combined_scores {
+        let plain_score = plain_scores[id];
+        assert!(
+            (combined_score - plain_score).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "id {id}: combined={combined_score}, concatenated single-field={plain_score}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::or(Operator::Or)]
+#[case::and(Operator::And)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_covers_unindexed_fragments(#[case] operator: Operator) {
+    // A combined_fields query must not silently drop rows appended after the indexes
+    // were built. The indexed scan cannot score them (their fragment is in no
+    // index), so the planner has to union in a flat scan the same way a single
+    // MatchQuery does.
+    //
+    // Every row here matches, so both children of the union emit and the exact
+    // scores also pin down that they scored against a single shared corpus. Only the
+    // flat side sees the appended rows, so an indexed child that folded its own
+    // statistics would score row 0 on a 1-document corpus while rows 1 and 2 were
+    // scored on a 3-document one.
+    let titles = vec!["alpha", "alpha alpha", "gamma"];
+    let bodies = vec!["omega", "omega", "omega omega"];
+
+    let (test_uri, mut dataset) =
+        indexed_two_column_dataset(&titles[..1], &bodies[..1], None).await;
+
+    // Two appended fragments, so the flat side has to cover more than one.
+    for row in 1..3 {
+        let batch = combined_fields_batch(vec![row as i32], vec![titles[row]], vec![bodies[row]]);
+        dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, Some(1)).await;
+    }
+
+    // A single-column match already falls back to a flat scan; combined_fields
+    // must reach the same rows.
+    let match_ids = fts_result_ids(
+        &dataset,
+        FtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_string()).with_column(Some("title".to_string())),
+        ),
+    )
+    .await;
+    // Score order, so compare as a set: both alpha-bearing rows must be reached.
+    assert_eq!(
+        match_ids.iter().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+        HashSet::from([0, 1])
+    );
+
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+        &[(1.0, titles.clone()), (1.0, bodies.clone())],
+        "alpha omega",
+        operator == Operator::And,
+    );
+    let actual =
+        fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, combined_query("alpha omega", operator), None).await;
+    // Row 0 comes from the indexed child and rows 1 and 2 from the flat one, so
+    // matching the reference on all three proves the two share a corpus: the flat
+    // scan publishes the blend that folds in the appended rows, and the indexed scan
+    // waits for it instead of using its own `docCount'`/`docFreq'`/`avgdl'`.
+    assert_matches_brute_force(
+        &actual,
+        &expected,
+        "rows in unindexed fragments must be reached exactly once through the index/flat union",
+    );
+}
+
+/// An external row-address prefilter
+/// ([`Scanner::with_row_addr_prefilter`](crate::dataset::Scanner::with_row_addr_prefilter))
+/// must restrict a `combined_fields` result.
+///
+/// The two plan shapes reach it by different routes and are both checked: the
+/// fully covered one is a single indexed scan that ANDs the mask into its
+/// prefilter, while the mixed one adds a flat child whose rows never reach an
+/// index-side prefilter and so is masked on its output instead.
+///
+/// The mask picks what is emitted, not the corpus the scores are measured
+/// against, so the surviving rows keep the scores the unmasked query gave them.
+/// Folding it into the statistics would make a masked query rank its results
+/// differently from the same rows in an unmasked one.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::fully_indexed(false)]
+#[case::mixed_index_and_flat(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_respects_external_row_mask(#[case] append_unindexed: bool) {
+    let titles = vec!["alpha", "alpha alpha", "gamma"];
+    let bodies = vec!["omega", "omega", "omega omega"];
+
+    let (_test_uri, mut dataset) = if append_unindexed {
+        // Index only row 0, then append the rest so the planner unions an indexed
+        // scan with a flat one.
+        let (test_uri, mut dataset) =
+            indexed_two_column_dataset(&titles[..1], &bodies[..1], None).await;
+        for row in 1..3 {
+            let batch =
+                combined_fields_batch(vec![row as i32], vec![titles[row]], vec![bodies[row]]);
+            dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, Some(1)).await;
+        }
+        (test_uri, dataset)
+    } else {
+        indexed_two_column_dataset(&titles, &bodies, None).await
+    };
+    // Reload so the scanner sees the indices written above.
+    dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Row ids paired with the `id` values they carry, so the mask can be built in
+    // `_rowid` space while the assertions stay in terms of `id`.
+    let baseline = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query(
+            "alpha omega",
+            Operator::Or,
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let baseline_ids = baseline["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let baseline_row_ids = baseline[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let baseline_scores = baseline["_score"].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+    let baseline: Vec<(i32, u64, f32)> = (0..baseline.num_rows())
+        .map(|i| {
+            (
+                baseline_ids.value(i),
+                baseline_row_ids.value(i),
+                baseline_scores.value(i),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(
+        baseline.iter().map(|(id, ..)| *id).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+        HashSet::from([0, 1, 2]),
+        "every row matches this query, so all three must be in the baseline"
+    );
+
+    let masked = |allowed: Vec<u64>| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        async move {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query(
+                    "alpha omega",
+                    Operator::Or,
+                )))
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(
+                    allowed,
+                )));
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+            let scores = batch["_score"].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+            (0..batch.num_rows())
+                .map(|i| (ids.value(i), scores.value(i)))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        }
+    };
+
+    assert!(
+        masked(vec![]).await.is_empty(),
+        "an empty allow list must drop every combined_fields match"
+    );
+
+    // One row at a time, so both the indexed row (0) and the flat ones (1, 2) are
+    // each checked on their own.
+    for &(id, row_id, score) in &baseline {
+        let actual = masked(vec![row_id]).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual.len(),
+            1,
+            "allowing only _rowid {row_id} must return exactly id {id}, got {actual:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(actual[0].0, id);
+        assert!(
+            (actual[0].1 - score).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "masking must not move id {id}'s score: {} vs the unmasked {score}",
+            actual[0].1
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Per-column index skew, over both row-id schemes.
+///
+/// The indexed scan is restricted to fragments every target column covers. That
+/// restriction has to be expressed in the same id space the index stores, and the
+/// inverted index trains with `_rowid` (`TrainingCriteria::with_row_id`), which is a
+/// logical stable id when the dataset uses stable row ids and a row address
+/// otherwise. A fragment-address block list therefore matches nothing under stable
+/// row ids, letting the indexed scan emit the very rows the flat scan also emits,
+/// the same duplicate-across-a-UNION failure `do_create_deletion_mask_row_id`
+/// documents for issue #6877.
+///
+/// `Operator::And` is checked here too: it decides matching across the virtual field
+/// as a whole, so a row whose terms are split between an indexed and a stale-indexed
+/// column must still be admitted, and the flat side has to evaluate the operator over
+/// the same blended `tf'` the indexed side does.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::or_row_addresses(false, Operator::Or)]
+#[case::or_stable_row_ids(true, Operator::Or)]
+#[case::and_row_addresses(false, Operator::And)]
+#[case::and_stable_row_ids(true, Operator::And)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_per_column_index_skew(
+    #[case] stable_row_ids: bool,
+    #[case] operator: Operator,
+) {
+    // Columns indexed at different dataset versions: `title` covers every
+    // fragment, `body` only the first. A fragment indexed for some target columns
+    // but not others cannot be scored by the indexed scan at all, `dl'` sums each
+    // column's document length and a row missing from a column's DocSet
+    // contributes 0, so those fragments must be routed to the flat scan whole,
+    // not emitted with a partial `tf'`/`dl'`.
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    // Fragment 0 (rows 0-1) ends up indexed for both columns. Fragment 1 (rows
+    // 2-3) is indexed for `title` only: row 2 carries the term in `title`, which a
+    // partial score would rank wrongly, and row 3 carries it only in `body`, which
+    // a partial score would miss entirely.
+    let titles = vec!["aa bb", "cc", "aa aa", "dd"];
+    let bodies = vec!["cc dd", "aa bb", "dd", "aa bb bb"];
+    let write_params = |mode: WriteMode| WriteParams {
+        mode,
+        max_rows_per_file: 2,
+        enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    let first = combined_fields_batch(
+        vec![0, 1],
+        vec![titles[0], titles[1]],
+        vec![bodies[0], bodies[1]],
+    );
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset =
+        write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, first, Some(write_params(WriteMode::Create))).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title", "body"], &params).await;
+
+    let second = combined_fields_batch(
+        vec![2, 3],
+        vec![titles[2], titles[3]],
+        vec![bodies[2], bodies[3]],
+    );
+    let mut dataset =
+        write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, second, Some(write_params(WriteMode::Append))).await;
+    // Re-index `title` only, so the two columns disagree on fragment coverage.
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title"], &params).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids(),
+        stable_row_ids,
+        "row-id scheme precondition"
+    );
+
+    // Non-unit weights so `tf'`/`dl'` actually depend on `w_f` on the flat path.
+    // Two terms so `And` differs from `Or`: row 2 carries only "aa", so it drops out
+    // under `And` while every other matching row keeps both terms somewhere.
+    let weights = [3.0f32, 1.0f32];
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+        &[(weights[0], titles.clone()), (weights[1], bodies.clone())],
+        "aa bb",
+        operator == Operator::And,
+    );
+    let expected_ids = brute_force_ids(&expected);
+
+    let actual = fts_result_id_scores(
+        &dataset,
+        combined_query_with_boosts("aa bb", operator, Some(weights.to_vec())),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    let actual_ids: HashSet<i32> = actual.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect();
+    assert_eq!(
+        actual.len(),
+        expected_ids.len(),
+        "row emitted twice by both sides of the union: {actual:?}"
+    );
+    // Row 3 has "aa" only in `body`, whose index is missing fragment 1; an
+    // index-only plan cannot see it at all.
+    assert!(
+        actual_ids.contains(&3),
+        "row matching only through the column with stale index coverage was dropped: {actual_ids:?}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(actual_ids, expected_ids);
+
+    // Rows 2 and 3 are scored by the flat side, which folds `body`'s missing
+    // fragment into the blended statistics, so it reaches the exact BM25F score.
+    // A partial `dl'` (missing `body`) would inflate row 2's score instead.
+    let scores: HashMap<i32, f32> = actual.into_iter().collect();
+    for id in [2, 3] {
+        match expected[id as usize] {
+            Some(want) => {
+                let got = scores[&id];
+                assert!(
+                    (got - want).abs() < 1e-3,
+                    "id {id} scored with partial cross-field data: scan={got}, brute force={want}"
+                );
+            }
+            None => assert!(
+                !scores.contains_key(&id),
+                "id {id} does not carry every term but {operator:?} returned it"
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_partially_indexed_columns() {
+    // Only `title` is indexed. Every fragment is then uncovered for `body`, so the
+    // whole scan takes the flat-only planner branch, with no index child at all. That
+    // branch is the only one that builds a `CombinedFieldColumn` with no segments,
+    // and the only one where a column contributes zero index statistics and its
+    // entire contribution comes from the flat scan.
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    let titles = vec!["aa bb", "cc", "aa aa", "dd"];
+    let bodies = vec!["cc dd", "aa bb", "dd", "aa bb bb"];
+    let batch = combined_fields_batch(vec![0, 1, 2, 3], titles.clone(), bodies.clone());
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(
+        &test_uri,
+        batch,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title"], &params).await;
+
+    let weights = [2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+    let mut plan_scan = dataset.scan();
+    plan_scan
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query_with_boosts(
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+            Some(weights.to_vec()),
+        )))
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = plan_scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("FlatCombinedFields"),
+        "the flat-only branch must carry a flat child:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains("CombinedFieldsQuery"),
+        "no fragment is covered for `body`, so nothing can be scored by an index \
+         child:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+        &[(weights[0], titles.clone()), (weights[1], bodies.clone())],
+        "aa",
+        false,
+    );
+    let actual = fts_result_id_scores(
+        &dataset,
+        combined_query_with_boosts("aa", Operator::Or, Some(weights.to_vec())),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    // The flat scan owns the entire corpus for `body` and reads `title` from its
+    // index, so the blended statistics are exact.
+    assert_matches_brute_force(
+        &actual,
+        &expected,
+        "the flat-only plan must score against the blend of its own corpus and \
+         `title`'s index",
+    );
+
+    // The flat exec emits in scan order and applies no limit, so this branch needs
+    // its own score sort: without one the rows come back unordered and `limit`
+    // truncates positionally instead of taking the top-k.
+    let scores: Vec<f32> = actual.iter().map(|(_, score)| *score).collect();
+    assert!(
+        scores.windows(2).all(|w| w[0] >= w[1]),
+        "flat-only plan is not score-ordered: {actual:?}"
+    );
+
+    let best = actual
+        .iter()
+        .max_by(|a, b| a.1.partial_cmp(&b.1).unwrap())
+        .map(|(id, _)| *id)
+        .unwrap();
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query_with_boosts(
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+            Some(weights.to_vec()),
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(1), None)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let top = batch
+        .column_by_name("id")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    assert_eq!(
+        top,
+        vec![best],
+        "limit=1 on the flat-only plan did not return the top-scoring row"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Every row scores identically, so the whole result is one tie and
+/// `(score DESC, row_id ASC)` fixes the answer completely: the top-5 is the five
+/// lowest row ids.
+///
+/// Both plan shapes are covered because they settle ties in different places, and
+/// only one of them has a sort at all:
+///
+/// - **mixed coverage** unions an indexed child with a flat scan, so ties would
+///   otherwise break by fragment arrival order. The plan's `row_id ASC` second
+///   sort key decides them.
+/// - **fully indexed** returns `CombinedFieldsQueryExec` directly with no
+///   `SortExec` above it, so nothing downstream can reorder or recover a row.
+///   `combined_fields_search`'s own `(score, row_id)` heap ordering has to be
+///   right, and its bounded heap must not evict a tied row that belongs in the
+///   top-k.
+///
+/// Without either, `limit`/`offset` pagination could skip and repeat rows.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::fully_indexed(true)]
+#[case::mixed_coverage(false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_tied_scores_are_deterministic(#[case] fully_indexed: bool) {
+    let rows = 24usize;
+    // Spread the rows over several fragments either way: on the mixed plan that
+    // makes the flat scan's arrival order genuinely nondeterministic, and on the
+    // fully indexed one it spreads the postings over several index partitions.
+    let (_test_uri, dataset) = if fully_indexed {
+        indexed_two_column_dataset(&vec!["aa"; rows], &vec!["aa"; rows], Some(3)).await
+    } else {
+        let (test_uri, _indexed) =
+            indexed_two_column_dataset(&["aa", "aa"], &["aa", "aa"], None).await;
+        let second = combined_fields_batch(
+            (2..rows as i32).collect(),
+            vec!["aa"; rows - 2],
+            vec!["aa"; rows - 2],
+        );
+        let dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, second, Some(3)).await;
+        (test_uri, dataset)
+    };
+
+    // The two shapes must really be the two shapes, or the fully indexed case
+    // silently gains a sort that would mask the heap's own ordering.
+    let mut plan_scan = dataset.scan();
+    plan_scan
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query(
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(5), None)
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = plan_scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        plan.contains("FlatCombinedFields"),
+        !fully_indexed,
+        "wrong plan shape for fully_indexed={fully_indexed}:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        plan.contains("SortExec"),
+        !fully_indexed,
+        "fully indexed plan must settle ties in the search, not in a sort:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    // Rows were written in id order across fragments, so row-id order is id order.
+    // Asserting the five lowest ids pins the specification, rather than observing
+    // that repeated runs happen to agree.
+    let expected_top: Vec<i32> = (0..5).collect();
+    let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+    for _ in 0..8 {
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query(
+                "aa",
+                Operator::Or,
+            )))
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(5), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids = batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids, expected_top,
+            "tied scores must break by ascending row id"
+        );
+        seen.insert(ids);
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        seen.len(),
+        1,
+        "top-k over tied scores is nondeterministic across runs: {seen:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_fast_search_without_full_coverage_is_empty() {
+    // `fast_search` is index-only. When a target column has no index at all no
+    // fragment is fully covered, so the answer is definitionally empty, and the
+    // indexed exec must not be built, because it requires every target column to
+    // have segments. Mirrors `plan_match_query`, which returns `EmptyExec` here.
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    let batch = combined_fields_batch(vec![0, 1], vec!["aa", "bb"], vec!["bb", "aa"]);
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, None).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title"], &params).await;
+
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query(
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .fast_search()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .expect("fast_search without full coverage should be empty, not an error");
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_unindexed_row_wins_topk() {
+    // The union applies the top-k limit after re-sorting both sides, so a row in an
+    // unindexed fragment must be able to take the single top slot. A plan that pushed
+    // the limit into the indexed side only would return the best row the index holds
+    // instead.
+    let titles = ["filler", "filler", "aa aa aa"];
+    let bodies = ["aa", "filler", "aa aa aa"];
+
+    let (test_uri, _indexed) = indexed_two_column_dataset(&titles[..2], &bodies[..2], None).await;
+
+    // Row 2 is the strongest match for "aa" but lands in an unindexed fragment.
+    let second = combined_fields_batch(vec![2], vec![titles[2]], vec![bodies[2]]);
+    let dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, second, None).await;
+
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query(
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(1), None)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = batch
+        .column_by_name("id")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    assert_eq!(ids, vec![2], "top-1 was taken from the indexed side only");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_fast_search_skips_uncovered_fragments() {
+    // `fast_search` is index-only by contract, so appended rows stay invisible. It
+    // must still exclude a fragment that not every target column indexes, otherwise
+    // those rows come back with a partial `tf'`/`dl'`.
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    let (test_uri, _indexed) = indexed_two_column_dataset(&["aa"], &["aa"], None).await;
+
+    let second = combined_fields_batch(vec![1], vec!["aa"], vec!["aa"]);
+    let mut dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, second, None).await;
+    // `title` now covers both fragments, `body` only the first.
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title"], &params).await;
+
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query(
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .fast_search()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = batch
+        .column_by_name("id")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids,
+        vec![0],
+        "fast_search returned a row whose cross-field data is only partly indexed"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_empty_fragment_list_is_empty() {
+    // An explicitly empty fragment list selects no rows. The fully indexed plan
+    // carries no fragment restriction, so without an explicit short circuit the
+    // indexed scan answers from every fragment the index holds.
+    let (_test_uri, dataset) = indexed_two_column_dataset(&["aa", "bb"], &["bb", "aa"], None).await;
+
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query(
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_fragments(vec![]);
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("EmptyExec"), "unexpected plan: {plan}");
+    assert_eq!(scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_requires_an_index() {
+    // BM25F reads its shared tokenizer configuration off an index, so a query
+    // whose target columns are all unindexed is rejected rather than scored with a
+    // default tokenizer that may not match how the data would be indexed.
+    let batch = combined_fields_batch(vec![0, 1], vec!["aa", "bb"], vec!["bb", "aa"]);
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, None).await;
+
+    let result = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query(
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await;
+    let message = result.expect_err("expected an error").to_string();
+    assert!(
+        message.contains("combined_fields") && message.contains("inverted index"),
+        "unexpected error: {message}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Like [`combined_fields_batch`] but with optional text values, so a row can be
+/// NULL in one target column or in every one of them.
+fn nullable_combined_fields_batch(
+    ids: Vec<i32>,
+    titles: Vec<Option<&str>>,
+    bodies: Vec<Option<&str>>,
+) -> RecordBatch {
+    record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, ids),
+        ("title", Utf8, titles),
+        ("body", Utf8, bodies)
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_flat_nulls_and_empty_strings() {
+    // NULL / empty-string handling on the flat path, which has its own counting
+    // code: `count_column_into` leaves a row's slots at zero for a NULL,
+    // `tokenize_and_blend_multi` drops a row that is empty in all target columns,
+    // and `FlatFieldStats::fold_row` skips a column whose `dl_f == 0` so the row
+    // raises neither that column's `docCount_f` nor its `docFreq_f`. Unlike
+    // `test_fts_combined_fields_nulls`, which covers the fully-indexed path, this
+    // one also pins the exact scores, where a miscounted `docCount'` shows up.
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    // Rows 0-1 are indexed for both columns and carry no query term, so the indexed
+    // child emits nothing and every returned row comes from the flat scan, whose
+    // blended statistics must still fold in the indexed rows.
+    let titles = vec![
+        Some("zz zz"),
+        Some("zz"),
+        None,          // NULL in one column
+        Some("aa aa"), // paired with an empty string in the other column
+        None,          // NULL in every column: never scored
+        Some(""),      // empty in every column: never scored
+        Some("aa"),
+        None, // NULL in one column, and no query term anywhere
+    ];
+    let bodies = vec![
+        Some("zz"),
+        Some("zz zz"),
+        Some("aa"),
+        Some(""),
+        None,
+        Some(""),
+        Some("aa zz"),
+        Some("zz"),
+    ];
+
+    let first =
+        nullable_combined_fields_batch(vec![0, 1], titles[..2].to_vec(), bodies[..2].to_vec());
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, first, None).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title", "body"], &params).await;
+
+    // Spread the appended rows over several fragments, one of which holds only
+    // rows that tokenize to nothing at all.
+    let second = nullable_combined_fields_batch(
+        (2..titles.len() as i32).collect(),
+        titles[2..].to_vec(),
+        bodies[2..].to_vec(),
+    );
+    let dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, second, Some(2)).await;
+
+    // A NULL and an empty string both tokenize to nothing, so the reference models
+    // either as `""`.
+    fn as_text<'a>(values: &[Option<&'a str>]) -> Vec<&'a str> {
+        values.iter().map(|v| v.unwrap_or("")).collect()
+    }
+    let weights = [2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+        &[
+            (weights[0], as_text(&titles)),
+            (weights[1], as_text(&bodies)),
+        ],
+        "aa",
+        false,
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        brute_force_ids(&expected),
+        HashSet::from([2, 3, 6]),
+        "reference corpus changed; the null rows must stay unmatched"
+    );
+
+    let actual = fts_result_id_scores(
+        &dataset,
+        combined_query_with_boosts("aa", Operator::Or, Some(weights.to_vec())),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_matches_brute_force(
+        &actual,
+        &expected,
+        "a row empty in every target column must not be scored, and docCount' must \
+         count only rows with tokens in that column",
+    );
+}
+
+/// An `id` + `tags` (a list of strings) + `body` batch, for the list-valued target
+/// column cases. `ListOffset` picks `List` vs `LargeList` and `StringOffset` picks
+/// `Utf8` vs `LargeUtf8`, both for the list elements and for `body`. A `None` entry
+/// in `tags` is a NULL list, an empty `Vec` an empty one.
+fn list_column_batch<
+    ListOffset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
+    StringOffset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
+>(
+    ids: &[i32],
+    tags: &[Option<Vec<&str>>],
+    bodies: &[&str],
+) -> RecordBatch {
+    let mut builder =
+        GenericListBuilder::<ListOffset, _>::new(GenericStringBuilder::<StringOffset>::new());
+    for row in tags {
+        match row {
+            Some(elements) => {
+                for element in elements {
+                    builder.values().append_value(element);
+                }
+                builder.append(true);
+            }
+            None => builder.append(false),
+        }
+    }
+    let tags_col = Arc::new(builder.finish()) as ArrayRef;
+    let bodies_col =
+        Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<StringOffset>::from(bodies.to_vec())) as ArrayRef;
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("tags", tags_col.data_type().clone(), true),
+            ArrowField::new("body", bodies_col.data_type().clone(), false),
+        ])),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())) as ArrayRef,
+            tags_col,
+            bodies_col,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_flat_list_column() {
+    assert_combined_fields_flat_list_column::<i32, i32>().await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_flat_large_list_column() {
+    assert_combined_fields_flat_list_column::<i64, i64>().await;
+}
+
+/// The flat scan must reduce a list column to a row's document text the same way
+/// the index builder does, which is to join the elements with a space.
+///
+/// Under `simple` the two readings agree, because counting each element on its own
+/// yields the same tokens as counting them joined; only a tokenizer that is
+/// sensitive to the element boundary can tell them apart. `raw` emits one token
+/// per document, so a 2-element list is `dl_f = 1` when joined and `dl_f = 2` when
+/// counted per element.
+///
+/// Scoring the same rows once through each side pins the agreement down without a
+/// hand-computed reference: with `tags` indexed the statistics come from the
+/// index, and with only `body` indexed they come from the flat fold instead.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_flat_list_matches_index_under_raw_tokenizer() {
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::new("raw".to_string(), Language::English)
+        .lower_case(false)
+        .stem(false)
+        .remove_stop_words(false);
+
+    // Row 1 is the discriminator: joined, its tags are the single token
+    // "alpha beta gamma", which does not match, but counted per element it holds
+    // the token "alpha beta", which does. Rows 0 and 2 match either way and pin
+    // down the scores.
+    let tags: Vec<Option<Vec<&str>>> = vec![
+        Some(vec!["alpha beta"]),
+        Some(vec!["alpha beta", "gamma"]),
+        Some(vec!["gamma", "delta"]),
+    ];
+    let bodies = vec!["alpha beta", "gamma", "alpha beta"];
+
+    let build = |indexed_columns: &'static [&'static str]| {
+        let params = params.clone();
+        let tags = tags.clone();
+        let bodies = bodies.clone();
+        async move {
+            let batch = list_column_batch::<i32, i32>(
+                &(0..tags.len() as i32).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                &tags,
+                &bodies,
+            );
+            let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+            let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch, None).await;
+            create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, indexed_columns, &params).await;
+            let scored = fts_result_id_scores(
+                &dataset,
+                combined_query_over(&["tags", "body"], "alpha beta", Operator::Or, None),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await;
+            // Keep the temporary directory alive until the scan has finished.
+            drop(test_uri);
+            scored
+        }
+    };
+
+    // `tags` indexed: its statistics and per-row lengths come from the index.
+    let indexed = build(&["tags", "body"]).await;
+    // `tags` unindexed: every fragment is uncovered for it, so the flat scan reads
+    // the raw list and folds its own statistics in.
+    let flat = build(&["body"]).await;
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        indexed.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![0, 2],
+        "row 1 only matches when its tag elements are counted separately"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        indexed.len(),
+        flat.len(),
+        "flat={flat:?} indexed={indexed:?}"
+    );
+    for ((indexed_id, indexed_score), (flat_id, flat_score)) in indexed.iter().zip(&flat) {
+        assert_eq!(indexed_id, flat_id, "flat={flat:?} indexed={indexed:?}");
+        assert!(
+            (indexed_score - flat_score).abs() < 1e-5,
+            "id {indexed_id}: indexed={indexed_score}, flat={flat_score}; the flat scan must \
+             join a row's list elements the way the index builder does"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// A list-valued target column on the flat path: the scan reduces the list to the
+/// row's document text and counts it as one document, so every element lands in
+/// the row's single `dl_f`/`tf_f`.
+async fn assert_combined_fields_flat_list_column<
+    ListOffset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
+    StringOffset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
+>() {
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    // `tags` is the list column. Row 2 spreads one term over two elements of
+    // differing length and row 3 repeats the term in two elements, so a reader that
+    // took only the first element, or treated each element as its own document,
+    // lands on a different `dl_f`/`tf_f` and a different score.
+    let tags: Vec<Option<Vec<&str>>> = vec![
+        Some(vec!["zz"]),
+        Some(vec!["zz", "zz"]),
+        Some(vec!["aa", "bb cc"]),
+        Some(vec!["aa", "aa"]),
+        None,         // NULL list
+        Some(vec![]), // empty list
+        Some(vec!["zz"]),
+    ];
+    let bodies = vec!["zz", "zz zz", "zz", "zz zz", "aa", "aa aa", "zz"];
+
+    // Rows 0-1 are indexed for both columns and match nothing, so every returned
+    // row is scored by the flat scan.
+    let first = list_column_batch::<ListOffset, StringOffset>(&[0, 1], &tags[..2], &bodies[..2]);
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, first, None).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["tags", "body"], &params).await;
+
+    let second = list_column_batch::<ListOffset, StringOffset>(
+        &(2..tags.len() as i32).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        &tags[2..],
+        &bodies[2..],
+    );
+    let dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, second, Some(2)).await;
+
+    // The index joins list elements with a space before tokenizing, so the
+    // reference sees the same token counts either way.
+    let flattened: Vec<String> = tags
+        .iter()
+        .map(|row| row.as_ref().map(|e| e.join(" ")).unwrap_or_default())
+        .collect();
+    let weights = [2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+        &[
+            (weights[0], flattened.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect()),
+            (weights[1], bodies.clone()),
+        ],
+        "aa",
+        false,
+    );
+    assert_eq!(brute_force_ids(&expected), HashSet::from([2, 3, 4, 5]));
+
+    let actual = fts_result_id_scores(
+        &dataset,
+        combined_query_over(
+            &["tags", "body"],
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+            Some(weights.to_vec()),
+        ),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_matches_brute_force(
+        &actual,
+        &expected,
+        "a row's list elements must sum into one dl_f",
+    );
+}
+
+/// A target column reached through a list (`List<Struct<Utf8>>`) is a shape a Lance
+/// projection cannot address by its public path, so the flat side scans the list
+/// root and walks down to the leaf itself.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_column_under_a_list() {
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    // Rows 0-1 are indexed and match "aa" nowhere, so every "aa" hit comes from
+    // the flat side and its score is the exact blended BM25F. Row 2 spreads the
+    // term over two struct elements and row 4 pairs an empty list with a matching
+    // title, so a reader that stopped at the first element, treated each element
+    // as its own document, or skipped empty lists lands on a different score.
+    let docs: Vec<Vec<&str>> = vec![
+        vec!["zz"],
+        vec!["zz zz"],
+        vec!["aa", "bb aa"],
+        vec!["aa aa"],
+        vec![],
+    ];
+    let titles = vec!["zz", "zz", "zz", "aa", "aa aa"];
+
+    let nested_batch = |ids: &[i32], docs: &[Vec<&str>], titles: &[&str]| {
+        let content_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("content", DataType::Utf8, true));
+        let struct_fields = ArrowFields::from(vec![content_field]);
+        let contents = docs.iter().flatten().copied().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let struct_values = StructArray::new(
+            struct_fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(contents)) as ArrayRef],
+            None,
+        );
+        let item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::Struct(struct_fields),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let mut offsets = Vec::with_capacity(docs.len() + 1);
+        offsets.push(0i32);
+        for row in docs {
+            offsets.push(offsets.last().unwrap() + row.len() as i32);
+        }
+        let docs_col = Arc::new(ListArray::new(
+            item,
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(offsets)),
+            Arc::new(struct_values),
+            None,
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+                ArrowField::new("docs", docs_col.data_type().clone(), true),
+                ArrowField::new("title", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())) as ArrayRef,
+                docs_col,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(titles.to_vec())) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+
+    let first = nested_batch(&[0, 1], &docs[..2], &titles[..2]);
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, first, None).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["docs.content", "title"], &params).await;
+
+    let weights = [2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+    // The index joins a row's list elements with a space before tokenizing, so the
+    // reference counts the same tokens either way.
+    let joined: Vec<String> = docs.iter().map(|row| row.join(" ")).collect();
+    let assert_scored_like_reference = |dataset: Dataset, terms: &'static str, rows: usize| {
+        let joined = joined.clone();
+        let titles = titles.clone();
+        async move {
+            let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+                &[
+                    (
+                        weights[0],
+                        joined[..rows].iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect(),
+                    ),
+                    (weights[1], titles[..rows].to_vec()),
+                ],
+                terms,
+                false,
+            );
+            assert!(
+                !brute_force_ids(&expected).is_empty(),
+                "the reference must match something"
+            );
+            let actual = fts_result_id_scores(
+                &dataset,
+                combined_query_over(
+                    &["docs.content", "title"],
+                    terms,
+                    Operator::Or,
+                    Some(weights.to_vec()),
+                ),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await;
+            assert_matches_brute_force(
+                &actual,
+                &expected,
+                "a target column reached through a list must be walked down to its leaf",
+            );
+        }
+    };
+
+    // Fully indexed, so the indexed child owns every hit.
+    assert_scored_like_reference(dataset.clone(), "zz", 2).await;
+
+    // Appending fragments no index covers routes the new rows to the flat sibling,
+    // which has to reach `docs.content` without projecting it.
+    let second = nested_batch(
+        &(2..docs.len() as i32).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        &docs[2..],
+        &titles[2..],
+    );
+    let dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, second, Some(2)).await;
+
+    assert_scored_like_reference(dataset, "aa", docs.len()).await;
+}
+
+/// A `title`/`body`/`tags` batch, for the three-column stride case.
+fn three_column_batch(
+    ids: Vec<i32>,
+    titles: Vec<&str>,
+    bodies: Vec<&str>,
+    tags: Vec<&str>,
+) -> RecordBatch {
+    record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, ids),
+        ("title", Utf8, titles),
+        ("body", Utf8, bodies),
+        ("tags", Utf8, tags)
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Three columns and two terms, with distinct per-column weights.
+///
+/// Every per-row count is addressed as `(row * num_columns + column) * num_terms +
+/// term`. With two columns and two terms that stride is symmetric enough for a
+/// transposition to survive. The corpus places each term in a different column per
+/// row, so swapping the column and term strides permutes `tf'` and changes the
+/// scores.
+///
+/// Both cases share one corpus and one expected answer: the `flat_side` case only
+/// moves where the rows are scored, which also asserts that the flat scan
+/// reproduces the fully-indexed scores exactly.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::fully_indexed(false)]
+#[case::flat_side(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_three_columns_two_terms(#[case] append_unindexed: bool) {
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    // Rows 0-1 carry no query term, so they are never returned and the `flat_side`
+    // case can be compared against the same exact scores as the indexed one.
+    let titles = vec!["zz", "zz zz", "aa", "bb bb", "zz", "aa aa"];
+    let bodies = vec!["zz zz", "zz", "bb", "zz", "aa bb", "zz zz"];
+    let tags = vec!["zz", "zz zz", "zz", "aa", "bb", "aa bb"];
+    let columns = ["title", "body", "tags"];
+    let weights = [3.0f32, 2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let write_params = |mode: WriteMode| WriteParams {
+        mode,
+        max_rows_per_file: 2,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let indexed_rows = if append_unindexed { 2 } else { titles.len() };
+    let first = three_column_batch(
+        (0..indexed_rows as i32).collect(),
+        titles[..indexed_rows].to_vec(),
+        bodies[..indexed_rows].to_vec(),
+        tags[..indexed_rows].to_vec(),
+    );
+    let mut dataset =
+        write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, first, Some(write_params(WriteMode::Create))).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &columns, &params).await;
+
+    let dataset = if append_unindexed {
+        let second = three_column_batch(
+            (indexed_rows as i32..titles.len() as i32).collect(),
+            titles[indexed_rows..].to_vec(),
+            bodies[indexed_rows..].to_vec(),
+            tags[indexed_rows..].to_vec(),
+        );
+        write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, second, Some(write_params(WriteMode::Append))).await
+    } else {
+        dataset
+    };
+
+    for operator in [Operator::Or, Operator::And] {
+        let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+            &[
+                (weights[0], titles.clone()),
+                (weights[1], bodies.clone()),
+                (weights[2], tags.clone()),
+            ],
+            "aa bb",
+            operator == Operator::And,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            brute_force_ids(&expected),
+            HashSet::from([2, 3, 4, 5]),
+            "reference corpus changed; rows 0-1 must stay unmatched"
+        );
+
+        let actual = fts_result_id_scores(
+            &dataset,
+            combined_query_over(&columns, "aa bb", operator, Some(weights.to_vec())),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_matches_brute_force(
+            &actual,
+            &expected,
+            &format!("op={operator:?}: the three-column, two-term stride must not transpose"),
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// A `combined_fields` query with a filter, over a mixed-coverage dataset.
+///
+/// The filter restricts which rows are returned, not the corpus they are scored
+/// against: the flat scan reads every row of the unindexed fragments and the
+/// filter is applied only to the rows it emits, just as the index statistics
+/// count the filtered-out indexed rows.
+///
+/// Both cases filter to the same rows through different plan shapes: `id >= 4`
+/// resolves entirely through the scalar index (no refine), while `category` has no
+/// index so the whole predicate becomes a refine expression.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::scalar_index_prefilter("id >= 4", true)]
+#[case::refine_expression("category = 'keep'", false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_with_filter(
+    #[case] filter: &str,
+    #[case] index_filter_column: bool,
+) {
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    // Rows 0-1 are indexed for both text columns and match nothing, so every
+    // returned row comes from the flat side and its score can be checked exactly.
+    // Rows 2-3 match but are filtered out. They are not returned, but still count
+    // toward the corpus statistics.
+    let titles = vec!["zz zz", "zz", "aa", "zz", "aa aa", "zz"];
+    let bodies = vec!["zz", "zz zz", "zz", "aa aa", "zz", "aa"];
+    let categories = ["keep", "keep", "drop", "drop", "keep", "keep"];
+    // `category` is placed ahead of the document columns, so the refine expression
+    // pulling it into the projection shifts their positions.
+    let batch = |ids: Vec<i32>, rows: std::ops::Range<usize>| {
+        record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, ids),
+            ("category", Utf8, categories[rows.clone()].to_vec()),
+            ("title", Utf8, titles[rows.clone()].to_vec()),
+            ("body", Utf8, bodies[rows].to_vec())
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch(vec![0, 1], 0..2), None).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["title", "body"], &params).await;
+    if index_filter_column {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, batch((2..6).collect(), 2..6), Some(2)).await;
+
+    // The corpus is every row, filtered out or not. Only the kept rows are returned.
+    let weights = [2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+        &[(weights[0], titles.clone()), (weights[1], bodies.clone())],
+        "aa",
+        false,
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        expected
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter_map(|(row, score)| score.map(|_| row))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![2, 3, 4, 5],
+        "reference corpus changed; the filtered-out rows 2-3 must match too, or \
+         counting them would not change the kept rows' scores"
+    );
+    let expected_scores: HashMap<i32, f32> = [4usize, 5]
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|row| (row as i32, expected[row].unwrap()))
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .prefilter(true)
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query_with_boosts(
+            "aa",
+            Operator::Or,
+            Some(weights.to_vec()),
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter(filter)
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("FlatCombinedFields"),
+        "filtered plan lost its flat child:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        plan.lines()
+            .any(|line| line.contains("projection=[title, body]")
+                && line.contains("full_filter=--, refine_filter=--")),
+        "the flat scan must read its fragments unfiltered:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    // Confirm the two cases really took the two different branches, rather than
+    // both landing on the same one.
+    if index_filter_column {
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery") && !plan.contains("category"),
+            "expected the filter to resolve entirely through the scalar index:\n{plan}"
+        );
+    } else {
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("refine_filter=category"),
+            "expected the filter to become a refine expression:\n{plan}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("FilterExec"),
+            "the prefilter already applies the refine expression, so no second \
+             filter:\n{plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    let scan_batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let ids = scan_batch
+        .column_by_name("id")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let scores = scan_batch
+        .column_by_name("_score")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+    let actual: Vec<(i32, f32)> = (0..scan_batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|i| (ids.value(i), scores.value(i)))
+        .collect();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        actual.len(),
+        expected_scores.len(),
+        "filter did not restrict the result set:\n{plan}\n{actual:?}"
+    );
+    for (id, score) in actual {
+        let want = *expected_scores
+            .get(&id)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("filtered-out row {id} was returned:\n{plan}"));
+        assert!(
+            (score - want).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "id {id}: scan={score}, brute force={want}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_deletions_then_optimize() {
+    // Deleted rows must disappear from both sides of the union: the indexed child
+    // sees them through the restricted deletion mask, and the flat child through
+    // its filtered read. The surviving scores must then be unchanged by
+    // `optimize_indices`, because folding a fragment's flat statistics in has to
+    // produce exactly the totals that indexing it produces.
+    let titles = vec!["aa", "aa aa", "zz", "aa aa aa", "aa", "zz zz"];
+    let bodies = vec!["zz", "zz", "aa aa", "zz", "aa aa", "aa"];
+
+    let (test_uri, _indexed) = indexed_two_column_dataset(&titles[..3], &bodies[..3], None).await;
+    let second = combined_fields_batch(vec![3, 4, 5], titles[3..].to_vec(), bodies[3..].to_vec());
+    let mut dataset = append_fts_dataset(&test_uri, second, None).await;
+
+    // One deletion in the indexed fragment, one in the appended (flat) fragment.
+    dataset.delete("id in (1, 4)").await.unwrap();
+
+    // Row 1 stays in the index's own statistics, because a delete does not rewrite
+    // the `DocSet`, while row 4 never reaches the flat counter, so it drops out of
+    // the corpus entirely.
+    let stats_rows = [0usize, 1, 2, 3, 5];
+    let pick = |values: &[&'static str]| {
+        stats_rows
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&row| values[row])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    };
+    let weights = [2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+        &[(weights[0], pick(&titles)), (weights[1], pick(&bodies))],
+        "aa",
+        false,
+    );
+    let expected_scores: HashMap<i32, f32> = stats_rows
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter_map(|(slot, &row)| expected[slot].map(|score| (row as i32, score)))
+        .collect();
+
+    let query = || combined_query_with_boosts("aa", Operator::Or, Some(weights.to_vec()));
+    let live_ids = HashSet::from([0, 2, 3, 5]);
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query()))
+        .unwrap();
+    let mixed_plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        mixed_plan.contains("FlatCombinedFields"),
+        "the appended fragment is unindexed, so the plan must have a flat child:\n{mixed_plan}"
+    );
+
+    let mixed = fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, query(), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        mixed.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+        live_ids,
+        "deleted rows leaked into the mixed index/flat plan: {mixed:?}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(mixed.len(), live_ids.len(), "duplicate row: {mixed:?}");
+    // Rows 3 and 5 are the ones the flat child scores, so they see the blended
+    // statistics in full. Rows 0 and 2 come from the indexed child, which still
+    // scores against index-only statistics (a known gap documented at the union).
+    let mixed_scores: HashMap<i32, f32> = mixed.into_iter().collect();
+    for id in [3, 5] {
+        let want = expected_scores[&id];
+        let got = mixed_scores[&id];
+        assert!(
+            (got - want).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "id {id} after delete: scan={got}, brute force={want}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Indexing the appended fragment must leave those scores untouched, and the
+    // plan must collapse back to a single indexed scan.
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query()))
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("CombinedFieldsQuery"),
+        "expected an indexed combined-fields scan:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains("FlatCombinedFields"),
+        "every fragment is indexed but the plan still has a flat child:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    let optimized = fts_result_id_scores(&dataset, query(), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        optimized.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+        live_ids,
+        "deleted rows came back after optimize: {optimized:?}"
+    );
+    // Now that every row is indexed there is a single corpus, so every score has to
+    // match the reference, including the rows the mixed plan scored from the index
+    // only.
+    for (id, score) in optimized {
+        let want = expected_scores[&id];
+        assert!(
+            (score - want).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "id {id} after optimize: scan={score}, brute force={want}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_nested_columns() {
+    // Nested target columns: the flat plan projects the struct column from storage,
+    // so it calls `ensure_column_alias` once per target column to expose `s.a` and
+    // `s.b` as top-level names the exec can resolve. Both aliases survive only
+    // because one projection is nested inside the other.
+    let params = combined_fields_test_params();
+    let a_values = [
+        Some("zz zz"),
+        Some("zz"),
+        Some("aa"),
+        Some("zz"),
+        Some("aa aa"),
+    ];
+    let b_values = [
+        Some("zz"),
+        Some("zz zz"),
+        Some("zz"),
+        Some("aa aa"),
+        Some("aa"),
+    ];
+
+    let first = nested_fts_batch(vec![0, 1], a_values[..2].to_vec(), b_values[..2].to_vec());
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_fts_dataset(&test_uri, first, None).await;
+    create_inverted_indices(&mut dataset, &["s.a", "s.b"], &params).await;
+    // Rows 0-1 are indexed and match nothing, so the appended rows are the ones
+    // returned and the flat path owns every score.
+    let second = nested_fts_batch(
+        vec![2, 3, 4],
+        a_values[2..].to_vec(),
+        b_values[2..].to_vec(),
+    );
+    let schema = second.schema();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![second].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let weights = [2.0f32, 1.0f32];
+    let expected = brute_force_bm25f(
+        &[
+            (
+                weights[0],
+                a_values.iter().map(|v| v.unwrap_or("")).collect(),
+            ),
+            (
+                weights[1],
+                b_values.iter().map(|v| v.unwrap_or("")).collect(),
+            ),
+        ],
+        "aa",
+        false,
+    );
+    let expected_ids: HashSet<u64> = (0..expected.len())
+        .filter(|&i| expected[i].is_some())
+        .map(|i| i as u64)
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(expected_ids, HashSet::from([2, 3, 4]));
+
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(combined_query_over(
+        &["s.a", "s.b"],
+        "aa",
+        Operator::Or,
+        Some(weights.to_vec()),
+    )))
+    .unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("FlatCombinedFields"),
+        "the appended fragment is unindexed, so the nested columns must be aliased \
+         for a flat child:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let scores = batch["_score"].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+    let actual: Vec<(u64, f32)> = (0..batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|i| (ids.value(i), scores.value(i)))
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(
+        actual.len(),
+        expected_ids.len(),
+        "duplicate row: {actual:?}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        actual.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+        expected_ids
+    );
+    for (id, score) in actual {
+        let want = expected[id as usize].expect("scan returned an unmatched doc");
+        assert!(
+            (score - want).abs() < 1e-3,
+            "id {id}: scan={score}, brute force={want}"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_geo.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_geo.rs
index 2d7fb4f9c9b..a43718dd7d4 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_geo.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_geo.rs
@@ -4,23 +4,24 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::vec;
 
-use crate::dataset::tests::dataset_transactions::execute_sql;
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::tests::dataset_transactions::execute_sql;
 
-use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-use arrow_array::types::Float64Type;
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::Float64Type;
 use datafusion::common::{assert_contains, assert_not_contains};
-use geo_types::{coord, line_string, Rect};
+use geo_types::{Rect, coord, line_string};
 use geoarrow_array::{
-    builder::{LineStringBuilder, PointBuilder, PolygonBuilder},
     GeoArrowArray,
+    builder::{LineStringBuilder, PointBuilder, PolygonBuilder},
 };
 use geoarrow_schema::{Dimension, LineStringType, PointType, PolygonType};
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
 use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
 
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_geo_types() {
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_index.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_index.rs
index 9ee0144af67..cc44fced886 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_index.rs
@@ -2,47 +2,68 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 use std::vec;
 
+use crate::dataset::ROW_ID;
+use crate::dataset::WriteDestination;
+use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
 use crate::dataset::tests::dataset_migrations::scan_dataset;
 use crate::dataset::tests::dataset_transactions::{assert_results, execute_sql};
-use crate::dataset::ROW_ID;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataReplacementGroup, Operation, Transaction};
 use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+use crate::session::Session;
+use crate::utils::test::covering;
 use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result};
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 
 use crate::dataset::write::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use arrow::array::{AsArray, GenericListBuilder, GenericStringBuilder};
 use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_array::{Array, GenericStringArray, LargeListArray, ListArray, StructArray, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_array::{
-    builder::StringDictionaryBuilder,
-    types::{Float32Type, Int32Type},
     ArrayRef, Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+    builder::StringDictionaryBuilder,
+    types::{Float32Type, Int32Type, Int64Type},
 };
-use arrow_array::{Array, GenericStringArray, StructArray, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{
     DataType, Field as ArrowField, Field, Fields as ArrowFields, Schema as ArrowSchema,
 };
 use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+use lance_core::cache::{
+    CacheBackend, CacheCodec, CacheEntry, InternalCacheKey, LanceCache, QuickCacheBackend,
+};
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount};
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_datafusion::exec::ExecutionSummaryCounts;
+use lance_datafusion::utils::PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC;
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
-    query::{BooleanQuery, MatchQuery, Occur, Operator, PhraseQuery},
+    DocumentGranularity, InvertedListFormatVersion, SCORE_COL,
+    query::{BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, MatchQuery, Occur, Operator, PhraseQuery},
     tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams,
 };
-use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
-use lance_index::{scalar::ScalarIndexParams, vector::DIST_COL, IndexType};
+use lance_index::scalar::registry::StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry;
+use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, ScalarIndex};
+use lance_index::{FtsPrewarmOptions, PrewarmOptions};
+use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams, vector::DIST_COL};
+use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 
 use datafusion::common::{assert_contains, assert_not_contains};
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use lance_arrow::json::ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME;
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery, MultiMatchQuery};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{CombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery, MultiMatchQuery};
+use lance_table::format::BasePath;
 use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
 use rand::Rng;
 use rstest::rstest;
@@ -65,7 +86,7 @@ async fn test_create_index(
         false,
     )]));
 
-    let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimension as usize);
+    let float_arr = generate_random_array(2560 * dimension as usize);
     let vectors = Arc::new(
         <arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray as FixedSizeListArrayExt>::try_new_from_values(
             float_arr, dimension,
@@ -160,6 +181,280 @@ async fn test_create_index(
     assert!(fragment_bitmap.contains(0));
 }
 
+/// An index that merely *carries* a vector column must not be selected to
+/// answer an ANN query against that column.
+///
+/// Two traps this test is written to avoid:
+///   - `early_pruning` raises `minimum_nprobes`, which can mask selection
+///     differences behind a full scan of the partitions.
+///   - `num_partitions = 1` means the probe path is never reached at all (the
+///     fixture uses [`covering::NUM_PARTITIONS`]).
+/// Both make a broken selection rule look correct, so this asserts on the
+/// plan the scanner actually built, never on query results.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_covered_vector_column_is_not_selected_for_ann() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = covering::write_two_vector_column_dataset(&test_uri).await;
+    covering::create_ivf_pq_index(&mut dataset, "vec").await;
+    covering::declare_covering(&mut dataset, "vec", "payload_vec").await;
+
+    let query = generate_random_array(covering::DIMENSION as usize);
+
+    // An ANN query on the carried column must fall back to a flat scan.
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    // `use_index` stays on: the point is that selection declines this
+    // index, not that the caller disabled indexing.
+    scan.nearest("payload_vec", &query, 10).unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("KNNVectorDistance"),
+        "expected a flat KNN plan for the covered column, got:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains("ANNIvfPartition"),
+        "the covered column must not be served by the ANN index:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    // The keyed column still uses the index -- without this, the test would
+    // pass just as well against an index that was never selected at all.
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.nearest("vec", &query, 10).unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("ANNIvfPartition"),
+        "the keyed column must still use the index:\n{plan}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A filtered `describe_indices` must still find a covered index by its keyed
+/// column. The matcher compares the caller's resolved field slice against the one
+/// column named by `for_column`, so a caller that passes all of `index.fields` --
+/// carried columns included -- pushes that slice past length one and gets a silent
+/// "no match" for every covered index.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_describe_indices_filters_a_covered_index_by_its_keyed_field() {
+    use lance_index::IndexCriteria;
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = covering::write_vector_payload_dataset(&test_uri).await;
+    covering::create_ivf_pq_index(&mut dataset, "vec").await;
+
+    // Baseline: the plain index is found, so a later miss is about covering.
+    let found = dataset
+        .describe_indices(Some(IndexCriteria::default().for_column("vec")))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(found.len(), 1, "precondition: the plain index is findable");
+
+    let (vec_id, _) = covering::declare_covering(&mut dataset, "vec", "payload").await;
+
+    let found = dataset
+        .describe_indices(Some(IndexCriteria::default().for_column("vec")))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        found.len(),
+        1,
+        "a covered index must still be findable by its keyed column"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        found[0].field_ids(),
+        &[vec_id as u32],
+        "and must advertise only the keyed column"
+    );
+
+    // The carried column is not searchable, so it must not match.
+    let carried = dataset
+        .describe_indices(Some(IndexCriteria::default().for_column("payload")))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        carried.is_empty(),
+        "a carried column must not advertise an index"
+    );
+}
+
+/// An unfiltered `optimize_indices()` is a table-wide request, so a covered index
+/// must not abort it -- that would block optimization of every other index on the
+/// table over one this build merely cannot rebuild. It is skipped with a warning.
+/// Only a caller that names the covered index gets an error (see
+/// `test_optimize_indices_rejects_a_covered_index`).
+///
+/// Both the current and the stale case are covered: erroring on the stale one
+/// aborts the loop before the replacements accumulated for the other groups are
+/// committed, leaving an unrelated index stale too.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::current(false)]
+#[case::stale(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_optimize_skips_a_covered_index_without_blocking_others(#[case] stale: bool) {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = covering::write_vector_payload_dataset(&test_uri).await;
+
+    // A covered vector index, and a plain scalar index that optimize may touch.
+    covering::create_ivf_pq_index(&mut dataset, "vec").await;
+    covering::create_btree_index(&mut dataset, "payload", Some("payload_idx")).await;
+
+    let (_, payload_id) = covering::declare_covering(&mut dataset, "vec", "payload").await;
+    let covered_uuid = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| !idx.covering_fields.is_empty())
+        .expect("the covered index should exist")
+        .uuid;
+
+    if stale {
+        // Now *both* groups have an unindexed fragment, so the covered group
+        // would genuinely be rebuilt -- this is where the refusal used to fire.
+        covering::append_vector_payload_rows(&mut dataset, 256).await;
+    }
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .expect("a covered index must not abort an unfiltered optimize");
+
+    let after = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        after
+            .iter()
+            .any(|idx| idx.uuid == covered_uuid && idx.covering_fields == vec![payload_id]),
+        "the covered index must be left exactly as it was"
+    );
+
+    if stale {
+        let payload_idx = after
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == "payload_idx")
+            .filter_map(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+            .fold(roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut acc, bitmap| {
+                acc |= bitmap;
+                acc
+            });
+        assert!(
+            payload_idx.contains(1),
+            "the unrelated index must still have been optimized onto the new fragment, got {payload_idx:?}"
+        );
+    } else {
+        assert_eq!(after.len(), 2, "both indices must survive");
+    }
+}
+
+/// The same skip, for a *scalar* covered index. The rule does not branch on index
+/// type, but scalar groups take their own no-work path a few lines below the
+/// covering gate, so a covered scalar index reaching that gate first is worth
+/// pinning separately from the vector case above.
+///
+/// The append is what gives this test teeth. Without it the covered group has no
+/// work either way, so the scalar no-work path below the gate produces the same
+/// observable outcome as the gate itself and the test passes with the gate
+/// removed entirely.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_optimize_skips_a_stale_covered_scalar_index() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = covering::write_three_int_column_dataset(&test_uri).await;
+    covering::create_btree_index(&mut dataset, "a", None).await;
+    covering::create_btree_index(&mut dataset, "b", None).await;
+
+    let (_, carried_id) = covering::declare_covering(&mut dataset, "a", "carried").await;
+    let covered_uuid = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| !idx.covering_fields.is_empty())
+        .expect("the covered index should exist")
+        .uuid;
+
+    // Both scalar groups now have an unindexed fragment, so the covered one
+    // would genuinely be rebuilt if the gate did not skip it first.
+    covering::append_three_int_column_rows(&mut dataset, 64).await;
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .expect("a stale covered scalar index must not abort optimize");
+
+    let after = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        after
+            .iter()
+            .any(|idx| idx.uuid == covered_uuid && idx.covering_fields == vec![carried_id]),
+        "the covered scalar index must be left exactly as it was, not rebuilt"
+    );
+    // The unrelated scalar index was still maintained, so the skip is scoped to
+    // the covered group rather than aborting the loop.
+    let b_id = dataset.schema().field_id("b").unwrap();
+    let b_coverage = after
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| idx.fields == vec![b_id])
+        .filter_map(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+        .fold(roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut acc, bitmap| {
+            acc |= bitmap;
+            acc
+        });
+    assert!(
+        b_coverage.contains(1),
+        "the unrelated scalar index must still have been optimized onto the new fragment, got {b_coverage:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A caller that names the covered index asked for it specifically, so the
+/// refusal is loud rather than a skip.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_optimize_indices_rejects_a_covered_index() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = covering::write_vector_payload_dataset(&test_uri).await;
+    covering::create_ivf_pq_index(&mut dataset, "vec").await;
+
+    // Nothing writes carried values, so the storage does not contain `payload`
+    // -- which is exactly why optimize must refuse: it rebuilds from a scan
+    // projecting the keyed field and `_rowid` only, and would republish the
+    // declaration on a segment that still has no payload.
+    let (vec_id, payload_id) = covering::declare_covering(&mut dataset, "vec", "payload").await;
+
+    // Append AFTER declaring covering, so the group really would be rebuilt.
+    // Without it this would assert the refusal against an index optimize had no
+    // work for, and would keep passing if the refusal moved behind a no-work
+    // check.
+    covering::append_vector_payload_rows(&mut dataset, 256).await;
+
+    let before = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let before_uuid = before[0].uuid;
+    let covered_name = before[0].name.clone();
+
+    // Name the covered index: the refusal is reserved for a caller that targeted
+    // it. An unfiltered call skips it instead, which
+    // `test_optimize_skips_a_covered_index_without_blocking_others` covers.
+    let err = dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default().index_names(vec![covered_name]))
+        .await
+        .expect_err("optimizing a targeted covered index must be refused");
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("declares covering fields"),
+        "unexpected message: {err}"
+    );
+
+    // Refused, not partially applied: the index is exactly as it was.
+    let after = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(after.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        after[0].uuid, before_uuid,
+        "a refused optimize must not replace the index"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(after[0].covering_fields, vec![payload_id]);
+    assert_eq!(after[0].fields, vec![vec_id, payload_id]);
+
+    // The appended data above is unindexed, so this really is a case optimize
+    // would otherwise have merged -- the refusal is not the no-op path.
+    assert!(
+        after.iter().all(|idx| !idx.covering_fields.is_empty()),
+        "precondition: the only index is still the covered one"
+    );
+}
+
 #[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_create_scalar_index(
@@ -206,6 +501,90 @@ async fn test_create_scalar_index(
     dataset.index_statistics(&index_name).await.unwrap();
 }
 
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_btree_nullable_filters_match_unindexed_scan() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let num_rows = 10_000u64;
+    let values: Int32Array = (0..num_rows).map(|id| (id % 5 == 0).then_some(7)).collect();
+    let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("value", Arc::new(values) as ArrayRef),
+        ("id", Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2_500,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert!(dataset.get_fragments().len() > 1);
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["value"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("value_btree".to_string()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    for predicate in [
+        "value = 7",
+        "value IN (7, 99)",
+        "NOT (value = 99)",
+        "NOT (value = 7)",
+        "NOT (value = 99 OR value = 7)",
+        "NOT (NOT (value = 7))",
+        "value = 99 OR value = 7",
+    ] {
+        let mut indexed_scan = dataset.scan();
+        indexed_scan
+            .filter(predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan = indexed_scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery") && plan.contains("BTree"),
+            "Expected BTree scalar index query for {predicate}:\n{plan}"
+        );
+        let indexed = indexed_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut baseline_scan = dataset.scan();
+        baseline_scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+        baseline_scan
+            .filter(predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap();
+        let baseline = baseline_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+        let sorted_ids = |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            let mut ids = batch
+                .column(0)
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec();
+            ids.sort_unstable();
+            ids
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            sorted_ids(&indexed),
+            sorted_ids(&baseline),
+            "indexed result differs for {predicate}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
 async fn create_bad_file(data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion) -> Result<Dataset> {
     let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
 
@@ -288,7 +667,7 @@ async fn test_create_int8_index(
         false,
     )]));
 
-    let int8_arr = generate_random_int8_array(512 * dimension as usize);
+    let int8_arr = generate_random_int8_array(2560 * dimension as usize);
     let vectors = Arc::new(
         <arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray as FixedSizeListArrayExt>::try_new_from_values(
             int8_arr, dimension,
@@ -393,11 +772,13 @@ async fn test_create_fts_index_with_empty_strings() {
         false,
     )]));
 
-    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["", "", ""]))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["", "", ""]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
     let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
     let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &test_uri, None)
         .await
@@ -759,7 +1140,7 @@ async fn test_fts_fuzzy_query() {
             "food".to_owned(), // 1 insertion       # spellchecker:disable-line
         ]
         .into_iter()
-        .collect()
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>()
     );
 }
 
@@ -852,403 +1233,4232 @@ async fn test_fts_on_multiple_columns() {
     assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
 }
 
-#[tokio::test]
-async fn test_fts_unindexed_data() {
-    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
-    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["title hello", "title lance", "title common"]);
-    let content_col =
-        StringArray::from(vec!["content world", "content database", "content common"]);
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
-            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
-        ])
-        .into(),
-        vec![
-            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
-            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
-        ],
-    )
-    .unwrap();
-    let schema = batch.schema();
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://test.lance", None)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-    dataset
-        .create_index(&["title"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-    let results = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("title".to_owned()))
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 3);
+async fn create_fragmented_fts_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, column: &str, with_position: bool) {
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(dataset, column, with_position, false).await;
+}
 
-    // write new data
-    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["new title"]);
-    let content_col = StringArray::from(vec!["new content"]);
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
-            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
-        ])
-        .into(),
-        vec![
-            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
-            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
-        ],
-    )
-    .unwrap();
-    let schema = batch.schema();
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+async fn create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(
+    dataset: &mut Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    with_position: bool,
+    reverse_segments: bool,
+) {
+    let mut fragment_groups = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    if reverse_segments {
+        fragment_groups.reverse();
+    }
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_groups(dataset, column, with_position, fragment_groups).await;
+}
 
-    let results = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("title".to_owned()))
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+async fn create_fragmented_fts_index_with_groups(
+    dataset: &mut Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    with_position: bool,
+    fragment_groups: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+) {
+    let index_name = format!("{column}_idx");
+    let columns = [column];
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(with_position);
+    let expected_segments = fragment_groups.len();
+    let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(expected_segments);
+    for fragment_ids in fragment_groups {
+        let mut builder = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&columns, IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name(index_name.clone())
+            .fragments(fragment_ids);
+        segments.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+    }
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments(&index_name, column, segments)
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 4);
 
-    let results = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("new".to_owned()))
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+    let segments =
+        crate::index::scalar::inverted::load_segments(dataset, column, DocumentGranularity::Row)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), expected_segments);
 }
 
-#[tokio::test]
-async fn test_fts_unindexed_data_with_stop_words() {
-    // When indexed data has avg_doc_length < 1.0 (e.g. single-word stop words
-    // that get filtered), the BM25 scorer must still produce non-zero scores
-    // for unindexed rows. Regression test for #5871.
-    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
-    let text_col = StringArray::from(vec!["a", "is", "the", "bug"]);
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]).into(),
-        vec![Arc::new(text_col) as ArrayRef],
+/// Three fragments over two indexed text columns, each column indexed as one
+/// segment per fragment.
+///
+/// Rows 3 and 4 carry the same text in both columns, so any query that scores
+/// them symmetrically produces an exact score tie and exposes tie ordering.
+async fn compound_fts_dataset() -> Dataset {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        (
+            "title",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                "common",
+                "common filler filler filler filler filler filler filler",
+                "irrelevant",
+                "common tie",
+                "common tie",
+                "irrelevant"
+            ]
+        ),
+        (
+            "body",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                "penalty",
+                "special",
+                "common",
+                "neutral",
+                "neutral",
+                "common filler filler filler penalty"
+            ]
+        )
     )
     .unwrap();
     let schema = batch.schema();
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://stop_words.lance", None)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", false).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", false).await;
     dataset
-        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+}
 
-    // Append unindexed rows with a term not in the index
-    let unindexed: Vec<String> = (0..10).map(|i| format!("hello_{i}")).collect();
-    let text_col = StringArray::from(unindexed);
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]).into(),
-        vec![Arc::new(text_col) as ArrayRef],
+fn compound_multimatch_query() -> FtsQuery {
+    MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        "common".to_owned(),
+        vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
     )
-    .unwrap();
-    let schema = batch.schema();
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+    .unwrap()
+    .try_with_boosts(vec![10.0, 1.0])
+    .unwrap()
+    .into()
+}
 
-    let results = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
-        .await
+fn compound_combined_fields_query() -> FtsQuery {
+    CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+        "common".to_owned(),
+        vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .try_with_boosts(vec![10.0, 1.0])
+    .unwrap()
+    .into()
+}
+
+fn compound_match_query(term: &str, column: &str, boost: f32) -> FtsQuery {
+    MatchQuery::new(term.to_owned())
+        .with_column(Some(column.to_owned()))
+        .with_boost(boost)
+        .into()
+}
+
+async fn compound_fts_results(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    query: FtsQuery,
+    limit: Option<i64>,
+) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 10);
+    if let Some(limit) = limit {
+        scan.limit(Some(limit), None).unwrap();
+    }
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    let scores = batch[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    row_ids
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .zip(scores.iter().copied())
+        .collect()
 }
 
-#[tokio::test]
-async fn test_fts_unindexed_data_on_empty_index() {
-    // Empty dataset with fts index
-    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
-    let title_col = StringArray::from(Vec::<&str>::new());
-    let content_col = StringArray::from(Vec::<&str>::new());
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+fn scored_row_bits(rows: &[(u64, f32)]) -> Vec<(u64, u32)> {
+    rows.iter()
+        .map(|(row_id, score)| (*row_id, score.to_bits()))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn compound_fts_result_bits(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<(u64, u32)> {
+    let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    let scores = batch[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    row_ids
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .zip(scores.iter().map(|score| score.to_bits()))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+async fn assert_compound_fts_top_k(dataset: &Dataset, query: FtsQuery, limit: usize) {
+    let exhaustive = compound_fts_results(dataset, query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert!(
+        exhaustive.len() > limit,
+        "the exhaustive result must contain candidates beyond k"
+    );
+    let limited = compound_fts_results(dataset, query, Some(limit as i64)).await;
+    assert_eq!(limited, exhaustive[..limit]);
+}
+
+fn expected_must_score_sum(left: Vec<(u64, f32)>, right: Vec<(u64, f32)>) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
+    let right = right.into_iter().collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+    let mut expected = left
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter_map(|(row_id, left_score)| {
+            right
+                .get(&row_id)
+                .map(|right_score| (row_id, left_score + right_score))
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    expected.sort_unstable_by(|(left_row_id, left_score), (right_row_id, right_score)| {
+        right_score
+            .total_cmp(left_score)
+            .then_with(|| left_row_id.cmp(right_row_id))
+    });
+    expected
+}
+
+const CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER: &str = "CrossColumnCompoundFtsScorer";
+
+fn independent_compound_fts_oracle<'a>(
+    dataset: &'a Dataset,
+    query: &'a FtsQuery,
+) -> Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = HashMap<u64, f32>> + Send + 'a>> {
+    Box::pin(async move {
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(_) | FtsQuery::Phrase(_) => {
+                compound_fts_results(dataset, query.clone(), None)
+                    .await
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .collect()
+            }
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                let mut result = HashMap::new();
+                for match_query in &query.match_queries {
+                    let leaf = FtsQuery::Match(match_query.clone());
+                    for (row_id, score) in independent_compound_fts_oracle(dataset, &leaf).await {
+                        result
+                            .entry(row_id)
+                            .and_modify(|current| {
+                                if score.total_cmp(current).is_gt() {
+                                    *current = score;
+                                }
+                            })
+                            .or_insert(score);
+                    }
+                }
+                result
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                let mut result =
+                    independent_compound_fts_oracle(dataset, query.positive.as_ref()).await;
+                let negative =
+                    independent_compound_fts_oracle(dataset, query.negative.as_ref()).await;
+                for (row_id, negative_score) in negative {
+                    if let Some(score) = result.get_mut(&row_id) {
+                        *score -= query.negative_boost * negative_score;
+                    }
+                }
+                result
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                let mut required = None::<HashMap<u64, f32>>;
+                for clause in &query.must {
+                    let clause = independent_compound_fts_oracle(dataset, clause).await;
+                    if let Some(required) = required.as_mut() {
+                        required.retain(|row_id, score| {
+                            clause.get(row_id).is_some_and(|clause_score| {
+                                *score += *clause_score;
+                                true
+                            })
+                        });
+                    } else {
+                        required = Some(clause);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                let has_required = required.is_some();
+                let mut result = required.unwrap_or_default();
+                for clause in &query.should {
+                    let clause = independent_compound_fts_oracle(dataset, clause).await;
+                    for (row_id, clause_score) in clause {
+                        if has_required {
+                            if let Some(score) = result.get_mut(&row_id) {
+                                *score += clause_score;
+                            }
+                        } else {
+                            *result.entry(row_id).or_insert(0.0) += clause_score;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                for clause in &query.must_not {
+                    for row_id in independent_compound_fts_oracle(dataset, clause)
+                        .await
+                        .keys()
+                    {
+                        result.remove(row_id);
+                    }
+                }
+                result
+            }
+            // This oracle scores each leaf against its own column's statistics,
+            // which is exactly what BM25F does not do. combined_fields never
+            // reaches the cross-column compound path.
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {
+                unreachable!("combined_fields is not a cross-column compound leaf")
+            }
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+fn sorted_compound_fts_oracle(result: HashMap<u64, f32>) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
+    result
+        .into_iter()
+        .sorted_unstable_by(|(left_row_id, left_score), (right_row_id, right_score)| {
+            right_score
+                .total_cmp(left_score)
+                .then_with(|| left_row_id.cmp(right_row_id))
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn assert_scored_rows_close(case_name: &str, actual: &[(u64, f32)], expected: &[(u64, f32)]) {
+    assert_eq!(
+        actual.len(),
+        expected.len(),
+        "{case_name} returned a different number of rows"
+    );
+    for ((actual_row_id, actual_score), (expected_row_id, expected_score)) in
+        actual.iter().zip(expected)
+    {
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual_row_id, expected_row_id,
+            "{case_name} returned rows in the wrong order"
+        );
+        let tolerance = 1.0e-5 * expected_score.abs().max(1.0);
+        assert!(
+            (actual_score - expected_score).abs() <= tolerance,
+            "{case_name} returned score {actual_score} for row {actual_row_id}, expected {expected_score}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+async fn assert_compound_matches_independent_oracle(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    case_name: &str,
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    limit: usize,
+) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
+    let mut expected =
+        sorted_compound_fts_oracle(independent_compound_fts_oracle(dataset, query).await);
+    assert!(
+        expected.len() > limit,
+        "{case_name} must have candidates beyond k"
+    );
+    expected.truncate(limit);
+    let actual = compound_fts_results(dataset, query.clone(), Some(limit as i64)).await;
+    assert_scored_rows_close(case_name, &actual, &expected);
+    actual
+}
+
+async fn compound_fts_plan(dataset: &Dataset, query: FtsQuery, limit: usize) -> String {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(limit as i64), None).unwrap();
+    scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn write_cross_column_compound_dataset() -> Dataset {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        (
+            "title",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                "alpha quick brown fox",
+                "alpha quick fox brown",
+                "quick brown fox",
+                "tie",
+                "alpha blocked",
+                "noise",
+                "alpha quick brown",
+                "tie",
+                "alpha",
+                "noise"
+            ]
+        ),
+        (
+            "body",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                "gamma",
+                "gamma gamma optional",
+                "gamma",
+                "tiebody",
+                "gamma blocked",
+                "gamma optional",
+                "noise",
+                "tiebody",
+                "optional",
+                "blocked"
+            ]
+        ),
+        ("id", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+    dataset
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cross_column_compound_scorer_matches_independent_leaf_oracle() {
+    let mut dataset = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", true).await;
+
+    let phrase = || {
+        PhraseQuery::new("quick brown".to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("title".to_owned()))
+            .into()
+    };
+    let phrase_approximation: FtsQuery = MatchQuery::new("quick brown".to_owned())
+        .with_column(Some("title".to_owned()))
+        .with_operator(Operator::And)
+        .into();
+    let phrase_query = phrase();
+    let phrase_matches = independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &phrase_query).await;
+    let approximation_matches =
+        independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &phrase_approximation).await;
+    assert!(
+        approximation_matches.len() > phrase_matches.len(),
+        "the fixture must include an approximation hit rejected by phrase confirmation"
+    );
+
+    let nested_required: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0)),
+        (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("gamma", "body", 3.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let staged_required_optional: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("alpha", "title", 1.0)),
+        (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("optional", "body", 4.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let cases: Vec<(&str, FtsQuery, usize)> = vec![
+        (
+            "must_sum",
+            BooleanQuery::new([
+                (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0)),
+                (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("gamma", "body", 3.0)),
+            ])
+            .into(),
+            2,
+        ),
+        (
+            "should_sum",
+            BooleanQuery::new([
+                (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0)),
+                (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("gamma", "body", 3.0)),
+            ])
+            .into(),
+            3,
+        ),
+        ("required_optional", staged_required_optional.clone(), 3),
+        (
+            "must_not",
+            BooleanQuery::new([
+                (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("gamma", "body", 3.0)),
+                (
+                    Occur::MustNot,
+                    compound_match_query("blocked", "title", 1_000_000.0),
+                ),
+            ])
+            .into(),
+            3,
+        ),
+        (
+            "phrase_two_phase",
+            BooleanQuery::new([
+                (Occur::Must, phrase()),
+                (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("gamma", "body", 1.0)),
+            ])
+            .into(),
+            1,
+        ),
+        (
+            "boost",
+            BoostQuery::new(
+                compound_match_query("gamma", "body", 3.0),
+                compound_match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0),
+                Some(0.5),
+            )
+            .into(),
+            3,
+        ),
+        (
+            "nested",
+            BooleanQuery::new([
+                (Occur::Must, nested_required),
+                (Occur::Should, phrase()),
+                (Occur::MustNot, compound_match_query("blocked", "body", 1.0)),
+            ])
+            .into(),
+            3,
+        ),
+    ];
+
+    let mut plans = Vec::with_capacity(cases.len());
+    for (case_name, query, limit) in cases {
+        assert_compound_matches_independent_oracle(&dataset, case_name, &query, limit).await;
+        plans.push((case_name, compound_fts_plan(&dataset, query, limit).await));
+    }
+
+    for (case_name, plan) in plans {
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+            "{case_name} should use the cross-column scorer:\n{plan}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("HashJoinExec"),
+            "{case_name} should not materialize an intermediate hash join:\n{plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+            staged_required_optional.clone(),
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(3), None).unwrap();
+    let staged_results = compound_fts_result_bits(&scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+
+    dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options(
+            "title_idx",
+            &PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::default()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options(
+            "body_idx",
+            &PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::default()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(staged_required_optional))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(3), None).unwrap();
+    let resident_results = compound_fts_result_bits(&scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+    assert_eq!(
+        resident_results, staged_results,
+        "resident and staged cross-column scans must return identical ordered row ids and score bits"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_top_level_cross_column_multimatch_uses_field_local_compound_scorers() {
+    const LIMIT: usize = 2;
+
+    let mut dataset = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", true).await;
+
+    let explicit_query: FtsQuery = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        "noise".to_owned(),
+        vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .into();
+    let explicit_oracle = sorted_compound_fts_oracle(
+        independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &explicit_query).await,
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        explicit_oracle[1].1, explicit_oracle[2].1,
+        "the fixture should exercise an equal-score tie at the top-k boundary"
+    );
+    assert!(explicit_oracle[1].0 < explicit_oracle[2].0);
+    let explicit_results = assert_compound_matches_independent_oracle(
+        &dataset,
+        "top_level_cross_column_multimatch",
+        &explicit_query,
+        LIMIT,
+    )
+    .await;
+    let explicit_plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, explicit_query.clone(), LIMIT).await;
+    assert!(
+        !explicit_plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "top-level MultiMatch should keep field scoring independent:\n{explicit_plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        explicit_plan.matches("CompoundFtsScorer").count() >= 2,
+        "each indexed field should use its own bounded compound scorer:\n{explicit_plan}"
+    );
+    let inferred_query = FtsQuery::Match(MatchQuery::new("noise".to_owned()));
+    let inferred_results =
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, inferred_query.clone(), Some(LIMIT as i64)).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        inferred_results, explicit_results,
+        "a fieldless Match expanded across all FTS columns should match an explicit MultiMatch"
+    );
+    let inferred_plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, inferred_query, LIMIT).await;
+    assert!(
+        !inferred_plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "a fieldless Match expanded to MultiMatch should keep field scoring independent:\n{inferred_plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        inferred_plan.matches("CompoundFtsScorer").count() >= 2,
+        "each inferred field should use its own bounded compound scorer:\n{inferred_plan}"
+    );
+
+    let blocked_query = |boosts: Vec<f32>| -> FtsQuery {
+        MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            "blocked".to_owned(),
+            vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_with_boosts(boosts)
+        .unwrap()
+        .into()
+    };
+    let signed_zero = compound_fts_results(&dataset, blocked_query(vec![-0.0, 0.0]), Some(1)).await;
+    let normalized = compound_fts_results(&dataset, blocked_query(vec![0.0, 0.0]), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(signed_zero, normalized[..1]);
+    assert_eq!(signed_zero[0].0, 4);
+    assert_eq!(signed_zero[0].1.to_bits(), 0.0_f32.to_bits());
+
+    let unbounded_results = compound_fts_results(&dataset, explicit_query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert_scored_rows_close(
+        "unbounded_top_level_cross_column_multimatch",
+        &unbounded_results,
+        &explicit_oracle,
+    );
+    let mut unbounded_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    unbounded_scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(explicit_query.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    let unbounded_plan = unbounded_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !unbounded_plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "an unbounded MultiMatch should retain exhaustive leaf planning:\n{unbounded_plan}"
+    );
+
+    let mut partial_dataset = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut partial_dataset, "body", true).await;
+    let appended = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("title", Utf8, ["noise"]),
+        ("body", Utf8, ["noise"]),
+        ("id", Int32, [10])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = appended.schema();
+    partial_dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![appended].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // Index only the title after the append so it can retain a bounded plan
+    // while the partially covered body uses a query-local hybrid scorer.
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut partial_dataset, "title", true).await;
+    partial_dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let partial_results =
+        compound_fts_results(&partial_dataset, explicit_query.clone(), Some(LIMIT as i64)).await;
+    let partial_plan = compound_fts_plan(&partial_dataset, explicit_query.clone(), LIMIT).await;
+    assert!(
+        !partial_plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "top-level MultiMatch should keep field scoring independent:\n{partial_plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        partial_plan.matches("CompoundFtsScorer").count(),
+        2,
+        "both fields should retain field-local bounded compound scorers:\n{partial_plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        partial_plan.matches("HybridCompoundFtsScorer").count(),
+        1,
+        "only the partially covered body should use a query-local hybrid scorer:\n{partial_plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !partial_plan.contains("FlatMatchQuery"),
+        "the hybrid body scorer should replace the indexed-plus-flat fallback:\n{partial_plan}"
+    );
+
+    let mut fast_scanner = partial_dataset.scan();
+    fast_scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(explicit_query.clone()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .fast_search();
+    fast_scanner.limit(Some(LIMIT as i64), None).unwrap();
+    let fast_plan = fast_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !fast_plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "top-level MultiMatch should keep field scoring independent:\n{fast_plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fast_plan.matches("CompoundFtsScorer").count(),
+        2,
+        "fast search should use a field-local compound scorer for both fields:\n{fast_plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !fast_plan.contains("FlatMatchQuery"),
+        "fast search must skip the partially covered body's flat path:\n{fast_plan}"
+    );
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        partial_results.len(),
+        LIMIT,
+        "the approximate residual path must still return a bounded top-k"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        partial_results.iter().all(|(_, score)| score.is_finite()),
+        "committed-index statistics must produce finite residual scores"
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_multimatch_shared_prefilter(#[values(false, true)] use_scalar_index: bool) {
+    const FILTER: &str = "id IN (0, 2, 5, 6, 8)";
+    const LIMIT: usize = 3;
+
+    let mut dataset = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", true).await;
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query: FtsQuery = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        "noise".to_owned(),
+        vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .into();
+
+    let mut allowed_scan = dataset.scan();
+    allowed_scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+    allowed_scan.with_row_id().filter(FILTER).unwrap();
+    let allowed = allowed_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let allowed_row_ids = allowed[ROW_ID]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    let mut expected = independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &query).await;
+    expected.retain(|row_id, _| allowed_row_ids.contains(row_id));
+    let mut expected = sorted_compound_fts_oracle(expected);
+    expected.truncate(LIMIT);
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .prefilter(true)
+        .use_scalar_index(use_scalar_index)
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter(FILTER)
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(LIMIT as i64), None)
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        plan.matches("CompoundFtsScorer").count(),
+        2,
+        "both fields should keep their bounded scorer:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        plan.matches("ScalarIndexQuery").count(),
+        usize::from(use_scalar_index) * 2,
+        "each field should declare the shared prefilter dependency:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let actual = batch[ROW_ID]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .zip(
+            batch[SCORE_COL]
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied(),
+        )
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_scored_rows_close("shared_multimatch_prefilter", &actual, &expected);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_multimatch_shared_prefilter_preserves_deletes() {
+    let mut dataset = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", true).await;
+    dataset.delete("id = 1").await.unwrap();
+    let query: FtsQuery = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        "noise".to_owned(),
+        vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .into();
+    let mut expected =
+        sorted_compound_fts_oracle(independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &query).await);
+    expected.truncate(3);
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .prefilter(true)
+        .use_scalar_index(false)
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter("id >= 0")
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(3), None)
+        .unwrap();
+    let actual = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let actual = actual[ROW_ID]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .zip(
+            actual[SCORE_COL]
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied(),
+        )
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_scored_rows_close("shared_prefilter_deletes", &actual, &expected);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_multimatch_shared_prefilter_when_first_field_is_flat_only() {
+    let mut dataset = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", true).await;
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query: FtsQuery = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        "noise".to_owned(),
+        vec!["body".to_owned(), "title".to_owned()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .into();
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .prefilter(true)
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter("id >= 0")
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(3), None)
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("FlatMatchQuery") && plan.contains("SharedMultiMatchPrefilter"),
+        "the later indexed field must retain the declared shared source:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_multimatch_fields_have_independent_fuzzy_expansion_budgets() {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("title", Utf8, ["alpha", "nothing"]),
+        ("body", Utf8, ["nothing", "alphi"]),
+        ("id", Int32, [0, 1])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", true).await;
+
+    let fuzzy_multimatch = || {
+        let mut query = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            "alphx".to_owned(),
+            vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        for field in &mut query.match_queries {
+            field.fuzziness = Some(1);
+            field.max_expansions = 1;
+        }
+        query
+    };
+
+    let top_level: FtsQuery = fuzzy_multimatch().into();
+    let top_level_plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, top_level.clone(), 10).await;
+    assert!(top_level_plan.matches("CompoundFtsScorer").count() >= 2);
+    assert!(!top_level_plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER));
+    let top_level_results = compound_fts_results(&dataset, top_level, Some(10)).await;
+    assert_eq!(top_level_results.len(), 2);
+
+    let nested: FtsQuery =
+        BooleanQuery::new([(Occur::Must, FtsQuery::MultiMatch(fuzzy_multimatch()))]).into();
+    let nested_plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, nested.clone(), 10).await;
+    assert!(nested_plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER));
+    let nested_results = compound_fts_results(&dataset, nested, Some(10)).await;
+    assert_scored_rows_close(
+        "multimatch_independent_fuzzy_budgets",
+        &nested_results,
+        &top_level_results,
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_dataset_planner_defers_auto_fuzziness_for_partial_indices() {
+    let indexed = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("title", Utf8, ["alpha"]),
+        ("body", Utf8, ["alpha"]),
+        ("id", Int32, [0])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = indexed.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![indexed].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", true).await;
+
+    let unindexed = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("title", Utf8, ["alpha"]),
+        ("body", Utf8, ["alpha"]),
+        ("id", Int32, [1])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = unindexed.schema();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![unindexed].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let auto_match = |terms: &str| -> FtsQuery {
+        MatchQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("title".to_owned()))
+            .with_fuzziness(None)
+            .into()
+    };
+    let auto_multimatch = |terms: &str| {
+        let mut query = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            terms.to_owned(),
+            vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        for match_query in &mut query.match_queries {
+            match_query.fuzziness = None;
+        }
+        query
+    };
+
+    for (case_name, query, expected_ids) in [
+        ("match_exact", auto_match("ALPHA"), &[0, 1][..]),
+        ("match_typo", auto_match("alphx"), &[][..]),
+        (
+            "multimatch_exact",
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(auto_multimatch("ALPHA")),
+            &[0, 1][..],
+        ),
+        (
+            "multimatch_typo",
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(auto_multimatch("alphx")),
+            &[][..],
+        ),
+        (
+            "nested_multimatch_exact",
+            BooleanQuery::new([(Occur::Must, FtsQuery::MultiMatch(auto_multimatch("ALPHA")))])
+                .into(),
+            &[0, 1][..],
+        ),
+        (
+            "nested_multimatch_typo",
+            BooleanQuery::new([(Occur::Must, FtsQuery::MultiMatch(auto_multimatch("alphx")))])
+                .into(),
+            &[][..],
+        ),
+    ] {
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query).limit(Some(10)))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+            expected_ids,
+            "indexed and unindexed rows diverged for {case_name}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::empty(0)]
+#[case::underfilled(5)]
+#[case::high_hits(544)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_root_match_and_modern_bulk(
+    #[values(4, 16)] num_terms: usize,
+    #[case] expected_matches: usize,
+) {
+    const NUM_DOCS: usize = 544;
+    const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = NUM_DOCS / 2;
+    const DOC_LENGTH: usize = 64;
+    const LIMIT: usize = 10;
+    const TERMS: [&str; 16] = [
+        "alpha", "bravo", "charlie", "delta", "echo", "foxtrot", "golf", "hotel", "india",
+        "juliet", "kilo", "lima", "mike", "november", "oscar", "papa",
+    ];
+    let terms = &TERMS[..num_terms];
+    let is_high_hits = expected_matches == NUM_DOCS;
+    let matching_rows = [
+        0,
+        ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT - 1,
+        ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+        NUM_DOCS - 2,
+        NUM_DOCS - 1,
+    ];
+    let frequencies = (0..NUM_DOCS)
+        .map(|row| {
+            let is_match = is_high_hits || (expected_matches == 5 && matching_rows.contains(&row));
+            (0..num_terms)
+                .map(|term| {
+                    if !is_match && row % num_terms == term {
+                        0_usize
+                    } else if is_high_hits && row >= NUM_DOCS - LIMIT {
+                        2
+                    } else {
+                        1
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let documents = frequencies
+        .iter()
+        .map(|frequencies| {
+            let mut tokens = terms
+                .iter()
+                .zip(frequencies)
+                .flat_map(|(&term, &frequency)| std::iter::repeat_n(term, frequency))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert!(tokens.len() <= DOC_LENGTH);
+            tokens.resize(DOC_LENGTH, "padding");
+            tokens.join(" ")
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("text", Utf8, documents),
+        ("id", UInt64, (0..NUM_DOCS as u64).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .with_position(false)
+        .stem(false)
+        .remove_stop_words(false)
+        .block_size(256)
+        .unwrap()
+        .format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V3);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let row_mapping = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = row_mapping["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let row_ids = row_mapping[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+
+    // Every document has the same exactly representable byte-norm length.
+    // Compute BM25 independently from the fixture's corpus-wide term counts.
+    let weights = (0..num_terms)
+        .map(|term| {
+            let document_frequency = frequencies.iter().filter(|row| row[term] > 0).count() as f32;
+            ((NUM_DOCS as f32 - document_frequency + 0.5) / (document_frequency + 0.5) + 1.0).ln()
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut expected = ids
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .zip(row_ids.values())
+        .filter_map(|(&id, &row_id)| {
+            let frequencies = &frequencies[id as usize];
+            if frequencies.contains(&0) {
+                return None;
+            }
+            let score = weights
+                .iter()
+                .zip(frequencies)
+                .fold(0.0_f32, |sum, (&weight, &freq)| {
+                    let freq = freq as f32;
+                    sum + weight * ((1.2_f32 + 1.0) * freq / (freq + 1.2))
+                });
+            Some((row_id, score))
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let rank = |left: &(u64, f32), right: &(u64, f32)| {
+        right
+            .1
+            .total_cmp(&left.1)
+            .then_with(|| left.0.cmp(&right.0))
+    };
+    expected.sort_unstable_by(rank);
+    assert_eq!(expected.len(), expected_matches);
+    if is_high_hits {
+        assert!(expected[LIMIT - 1].1 > expected[LIMIT].1);
+    }
+    expected.truncate(LIMIT);
+
+    let query: FtsQuery = MatchQuery::new(terms.join(" "))
+        .with_column(Some("text".to_owned()))
+        .with_operator(Operator::And)
+        .with_fuzziness(Some(0))
+        .into();
+    let plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, query.clone(), LIMIT).await;
+    assert!(plan.contains("MatchQuery: column=text"), "{plan}");
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains("FlatMatchQuery") && !plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "{plan}"
+    );
+    let mut actual = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query, Some(LIMIT as i64)).await;
+    actual.sort_unstable_by(rank);
+    assert_eq!(scored_row_bits(&actual), scored_row_bits(&expected));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_field_local_match_wand_exactness_certificates() {
+    let mut dataset = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "title", true, true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "body", true, true).await;
+
+    let field_local_query = |term: &str| -> FtsQuery {
+        MultiMatchQuery::try_new(term.to_owned(), vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .into()
+    };
+
+    let strict_query = field_local_query("alpha");
+    let strict_plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, strict_query.clone(), 1).await;
+    assert!(
+        strict_plan.matches("CompoundFtsScorer").count() >= 2
+            && !strict_plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "certificate coverage must execute through field-local compound children:\n{strict_plan}"
+    );
+    let strict_oracle =
+        sorted_compound_fts_oracle(independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &strict_query).await);
+    assert!(strict_oracle[0].1.total_cmp(&strict_oracle[1].1).is_gt());
+    let strict = compound_fts_results(&dataset, strict_query, Some(1)).await;
+    assert_scored_rows_close("wand_certificate_strict", &strict, &strict_oracle[..1]);
+
+    let exhaustive_query = field_local_query("tiebody");
+    let exhaustive_oracle = sorted_compound_fts_oracle(
+        independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &exhaustive_query).await,
+    );
+    let exhaustive = compound_fts_results(&dataset, exhaustive_query, Some(3)).await;
+    assert_scored_rows_close(
+        "wand_certificate_exhaustive",
+        &exhaustive,
+        &exhaustive_oracle,
+    );
+
+    let tied_query = field_local_query("tie");
+    let tied_oracle =
+        sorted_compound_fts_oracle(independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &tied_query).await);
+    assert_eq!(tied_oracle.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(tied_oracle[0].1, tied_oracle[1].1);
+    assert!(tied_oracle[0].0 < tied_oracle[1].0);
+    let tied = compound_fts_results(&dataset, tied_query, Some(1)).await;
+    assert_scored_rows_close("wand_certificate_tie_completion", &tied, &tied_oracle[..1]);
+
+    let mixed_query = field_local_query("noise");
+    let mixed_oracle =
+        sorted_compound_fts_oracle(independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &mixed_query).await);
+    let mixed = compound_fts_results(&dataset, mixed_query, Some(1)).await;
+    assert_scored_rows_close("wand_certificate_mixed_fields", &mixed, &mixed_oracle[..1]);
+
+    for (case_name, exact_term, fuzzy_term, limit) in [
+        ("strict", "alpha", "alphx", 1),
+        ("exhaustive", "tiebody", "tiebodx", 3),
+        ("ambiguous", "tie", "tix", 1),
+    ] {
+        let exact =
+            compound_fts_results(&dataset, field_local_query(exact_term), Some(limit)).await;
+        let mut fuzzy = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+            fuzzy_term.to_owned(),
+            vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        for query in &mut fuzzy.match_queries {
+            query.fuzziness = Some(1);
+        }
+        let actual = compound_fts_results(&dataset, fuzzy.into(), Some(limit)).await;
+        assert_scored_rows_close(
+            &format!("fuzzy_wand_certificate_{case_name}"),
+            &actual,
+            &exact,
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+async fn write_wand_tie_dataset(num_ties: usize) -> Dataset {
+    let reader = gen_batch()
+        .col("title", array::fill_utf8("token".to_owned()))
+        .col("body", array::fill_utf8("unrelated".to_owned()))
+        .into_reader_rows(
+            RowCount::from(u64::try_from(num_ties).unwrap()),
+            BatchCount::from(1),
+        );
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: num_ties.div_ceil(2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+    dataset
+}
+
+fn wand_tie_multimatch(terms: &str, boost: f32, fuzziness: Option<u32>) -> FtsQuery {
+    let mut query = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        terms.to_owned(),
+        vec!["title".to_owned(), "body".to_owned()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .try_with_boosts(vec![boost, 1.0])
+    .unwrap();
+    for match_query in &mut query.match_queries {
+        match_query.fuzziness = fuzziness;
+    }
+    query.into()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_wand_tie_completion_recovers_reversed_segment_row_id() {
+    let mut dataset = write_wand_tie_dataset(6).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "title", true, true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "body", true, true).await;
+    let query = wand_tie_multimatch("token", 1.0, Some(0));
+    let oracle = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(oracle.len(), 6);
+    assert_eq!(oracle[0].0, 0);
+
+    let actual = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query, Some(1)).await;
+
+    assert_scored_rows_close(
+        "wand_tie_completion_reversed_segments",
+        &actual,
+        &oracle[..1],
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_wand_tie_overflow_uses_seeded_fuzzy_boosted_fallback() {
+    const NUM_TIES: usize = 131;
+    let mut dataset = write_wand_tie_dataset(NUM_TIES).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "title", true, true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "body", true, true).await;
+    let query = wand_tie_multimatch("tiken", 2.5, Some(1));
+    let oracle = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(oracle.len(), NUM_TIES);
+    assert_eq!(oracle[0].0, 0);
+
+    let actual = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query, Some(1)).await;
+
+    assert_scored_rows_close("wand_tie_seeded_fuzzy_boost", &actual, &oracle[..1]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cross_column_compound_uses_one_scalar_prefilter_mask() {
+    const FILTER: &str = "id IN (0, 2, 5, 6, 8)";
+    const LIMIT: usize = 3;
+
+    let mut dataset = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", true).await;
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0)),
+        (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("gamma", "body", 3.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let mut allowed_scan = dataset.scan();
+    allowed_scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+    allowed_scan.with_row_id().filter(FILTER).unwrap();
+    let allowed_batch = allowed_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let allowed_row_ids = allowed_batch[ROW_ID]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    let mut expected = independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &query).await;
+    expected.retain(|row_id, _| allowed_row_ids.contains(row_id));
+    let mut expected = sorted_compound_fts_oracle(expected);
+    assert!(expected.len() > LIMIT);
+    expected.truncate(LIMIT);
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .prefilter(true)
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter(FILTER)
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(LIMIT as i64), None)
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "filtered cross-column search should use the cross-column scorer:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery") && plan.contains("BTree"),
+        "the shared prefilter should be built from the BTree scalar index:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        plan.matches("ScalarIndexQuery").count(),
+        1,
+        "the cross-column scorer should have one shared scalar prefilter:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    let actual = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let actual = actual[ROW_ID]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .zip(
+            actual[SCORE_COL]
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied(),
+        )
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_scored_rows_close("scalar_prefilter", &actual, &expected);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cross_column_compound_tie_uses_final_row_id() {
+    let mut dataset = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "title", true, true).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "body", true, true).await;
+
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("tie", "title", 1.0)),
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("tiebody", "body", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let expected =
+        sorted_compound_fts_oracle(independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &query).await);
+    assert_eq!(expected.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(expected[0].1, expected[1].1);
+    assert!(expected[0].0 < expected[1].0);
+
+    let actual = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query.clone(), Some(1)).await;
+    assert_scored_rows_close("equal_score_row_id_tie", &actual, &expected[..1]);
+    let plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, query, 1).await;
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "equal-score cross-column search should use the cross-column scorer:\n{plan}"
+    );
+}
+
+async fn assert_cross_column_layout_uses_fast_path(dataset: &Dataset, case_name: &str) {
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0)),
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("gamma", "body", 3.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    assert_compound_matches_independent_oracle(dataset, case_name, &query, 2).await;
+    let plan = compound_fts_plan(dataset, query, 2).await;
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "{case_name} should align independent segment layouts by row address:\n{plan}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cross_column_compound_handles_independent_segment_layouts() {
+    let mut reordered = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    let fragment_ids = reordered
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_groups(
+        &mut reordered,
+        "title",
+        true,
+        vec![vec![fragment_ids[0]], vec![fragment_ids[1]]],
+    )
+    .await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_groups(
+        &mut reordered,
+        "body",
+        true,
+        vec![vec![fragment_ids[1]], vec![fragment_ids[0]]],
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_cross_column_layout_uses_fast_path(&reordered, "reordered_segments").await;
+
+    let mut differently_split = write_cross_column_compound_dataset().await;
+    let fragment_ids = differently_split
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_groups(
+        &mut differently_split,
+        "title",
+        true,
+        vec![vec![fragment_ids[0]], vec![fragment_ids[1]]],
+    )
+    .await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_groups(
+        &mut differently_split,
+        "body",
+        true,
+        vec![fragment_ids],
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_cross_column_layout_uses_fast_path(&differently_split, "differently_split_segments")
+        .await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cross_column_compound_incomplete_coverage_uses_exact_fallback() {
+    let initial = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("title", Utf8, ["old alpha", "old noise"]),
+        ("body", Utf8, ["old gamma", "old noise"])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = initial.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![initial].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", true).await;
+
+    let appended = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("title", Utf8, ["fresh alpha"]),
+        ("body", Utf8, ["fresh gamma"])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = appended.schema();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![appended].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", true).await;
+
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("fresh", "title", 1.0)),
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("fresh", "body", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let expected =
+        sorted_compound_fts_oracle(independent_compound_fts_oracle(&dataset, &query).await);
+    assert_eq!(expected.len(), 1, "the appended row must be the only hit");
+    let actual = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query.clone(), Some(1)).await;
+    assert_scored_rows_close("incomplete_coverage", &actual, &expected);
+
+    let plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, query.clone(), 1).await;
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "incomplete column coverage must not use the cross-column scorer:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("BooleanQuery"),
+        "incomplete column coverage should retain the exact fallback:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    let mut fast_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    fast_scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap()
+        .fast_search();
+    fast_scanner.limit(Some(1), None).unwrap();
+    let fast_plan = fast_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !fast_plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "different per-column coverage must retain field-local masking:\n{fast_plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        fast_plan.contains("BooleanQuery"),
+        "different per-column coverage should retain the field-local fallback:\n{fast_plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fast_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+        0,
+        "the only hit is unindexed in body and must be excluded by fast search"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_same_column_compound_fast_search_excludes_unindexed_rows() {
+    let initial = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("text", Utf8, ["fresh alpha", "old noise"]),
+        ("id", Int32, [0, 1])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = initial.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![initial].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "text", true).await;
+
+    let appended =
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("text", Utf8, ["fresh alpha"]), ("id", Int32, [2])).unwrap();
+    let schema = appended.schema();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![appended].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("fresh", "text", 1.0)),
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("alpha", "text", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+
+    let mut hybrid_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    hybrid_scanner
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    hybrid_scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    let hybrid_plan = hybrid_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        hybrid_plan.contains("HybridCompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "partial coverage should build one indexed-statistics query-local residual index:\n{hybrid_plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !hybrid_plan.contains("FlatMatchQuery"),
+        "hybrid compound scoring must not scan the residual once per leaf:\n{hybrid_plan}"
+    );
+    let hybrid = hybrid_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        hybrid["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+        &[0, 2],
+        "approximate residual search should include the appended hit"
+    );
+
+    let empty_terms_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("", "text", 1.0)),
+        (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("   ", "text", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let empty_terms_plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, empty_terms_query.clone(), 2).await;
+    assert!(
+        empty_terms_plan.contains("HybridCompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "the empty analyzed-term case must exercise the hybrid short circuit:\n{empty_terms_plan}"
+    );
+    let empty_results = compound_fts_results(&dataset, empty_terms_query, Some(2)).await;
+    assert!(empty_results.is_empty());
+
+    let mut filtered_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    filtered_scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .filter("id >= 0")
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    filtered_scanner.prefilter(true);
+    filtered_scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    let filtered_plan = filtered_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !filtered_plan.contains("HybridCompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "prefiltered residual scoring must retain the exact fallback:\n{filtered_plan}"
+    );
+
+    let phrase_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (
+            Occur::Must,
+            PhraseQuery::new("fresh alpha".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                .into(),
+        ),
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("fresh", "text", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let phrase_plan = compound_fts_plan(&dataset, phrase_query, 2).await;
+    assert!(
+        !phrase_plan.contains("HybridCompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "phrase position gaps are not yet supported by the residual index:\n{phrase_plan}"
+    );
+
+    let mut fast_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    fast_scanner
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.clone()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .fast_search();
+    fast_scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    let fast_plan = fast_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        fast_plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "fast search should keep the same-column compound scorer:\n{fast_plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !fast_plan.contains("FlatMatchQuery"),
+        "fast search must not plan a flat scan for unindexed rows:\n{fast_plan}"
+    );
+    let fast = fast_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        fast["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+        &[0],
+        "fast search should return only the indexed hit"
+    );
+
+    let unindexed_fragment = dataset.get_fragments().last().unwrap().clone();
+    let mut unindexed_only_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    unindexed_only_scanner
+        .with_fragments(vec![unindexed_fragment.into()])
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap()
+        .fast_search();
+    unindexed_only_scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    let unindexed_only_plan = unindexed_only_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !unindexed_only_plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "an entirely unindexed target must not build a compound scorer:\n{unindexed_only_plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        unindexed_only_scanner
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_rows(),
+        0
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_partial_compound_hybrid_prunes_same_path_different_base_rewrite() {
+    let primary = TempStrDir::default();
+    let base_one = TempStrDir::default();
+    let base_two = TempStrDir::default();
+    let initial = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("text", Utf8, ["stable alpha", "stale alpha"]),
+        ("id", Int32, [0, 1])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = initial.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![initial].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone()),
+        &primary,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            initial_bases: Some(vec![
+                BasePath::new(1, base_one.to_string(), None, false),
+                BasePath::new(2, base_two.to_string(), None, false),
+            ]),
+            target_bases: Some(vec![1]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .all(|fragment| { fragment.metadata().files[0].base_id == Some(1) })
+    );
+    let segment = dataset
+        .create_index_builder(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true),
+        )
+        .name("text_idx".to_string())
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let relative_path = dataset.get_fragment(1).unwrap().metadata().files[0]
+        .path
+        .clone();
+    let replacement =
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("text", Utf8, ["current beta"]), ("id", Int32, [1])).unwrap();
+    let replacement_path = dataset
+        .data_file_dir_for_base(Some(2))
+        .unwrap()
+        .join(relative_path.as_str());
+    let object_writer = dataset
+        .object_store(Some(2))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .create(&replacement_path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+        object_writer,
+        schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+        Default::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    writer.write_batch(&replacement).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    let replacement_file = dataset
+        .create_data_file(&relative_path, Some(2))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(replacement_file.path, relative_path);
+    assert_eq!(replacement_file.base_id, Some(2));
+
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::DataReplacement {
+            replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(1, replacement_file)],
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("text_idx", "text", vec![segment])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let committed = dataset
+        .load_index_by_name("text_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+    let coverage = committed.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        coverage.contains(0),
+        "the unchanged physical file must remain covered"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !coverage.contains(1),
+        "the same path on a different registered base must be pruned"
+    );
+
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("beta", "text", 1.0)),
+        (Occur::MustNot, compound_match_query("alpha", "text", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("HybridCompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "the physically pruned fragment should use hybrid residual scoring:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    let results = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        results["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+        &[1],
+        "the current beta row must be visible without leaking stale alpha membership"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        results[SCORE_COL]
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .all(|score| score.is_finite())
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_partial_compound_hybrid_uses_mixed_approximate_statistics() {
+    let initial = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("text", Utf8, ["fresh alpha", "blocked fresh alpha"]),
+        ("id", Int32, [0, 1])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = initial.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![initial].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "text", true).await;
+
+    let appended = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        (
+            "text",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                "fresh alpha",
+                "fresh beta",
+                "fresh alpha",
+                "fresh beta beta",
+                "fresh beta blocked"
+            ]
+        ),
+        ("id", Int32, [2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = appended.schema();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![appended].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                // Keep the residual rows in separate fragments; execution may
+                // rechunk their scan batches before query-local indexing.
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let positive: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("fresh", "text", 1.0)),
+        (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("alpha", "text", 1.0)),
+        (Occur::MustNot, compound_match_query("blocked", "text", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let boost_query: FtsQuery = BoostQuery::new(
+        positive,
+        compound_match_query("alpha", "text", 1.0),
+        Some(0.25),
+    )
+    .into();
+    let partial_boost = compound_fts_results(&dataset, boost_query.clone(), Some(10)).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        partial_boost.len(),
+        5,
+        "MUST_NOT must exclude the blocked row"
+    );
+    let multimatch_query: FtsQuery = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        "fresh alpha".to_string(),
+        vec!["text".to_string(), "text".to_string()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .try_with_boosts(vec![1.0, 2.0])
+    .unwrap()
+    .into();
+    for (query_name, query) in [
+        ("Boost", boost_query.clone()),
+        ("MultiMatch", multimatch_query.clone()),
+    ] {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+            .unwrap();
+        scanner.limit(Some(10), None).unwrap();
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values();
+        let scores = batch[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+        let score_bits = ids
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .zip(scores.iter().map(|score| score.to_bits()))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let positions = ids
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(position, row_id)| (*row_id, position))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            score_bits.get(&2),
+            score_bits.get(&4),
+            "{query_name} must preserve equal scores within the residual arm"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            positions[&2] < positions[&4],
+            "{query_name} must preserve the row-id tie break within the residual arm"
+        );
+    }
+
+    let mut indexed_only_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    indexed_only_scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(boost_query.clone()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .fast_search();
+    indexed_only_scanner.limit(Some(10), None).unwrap();
+    let indexed_only =
+        compound_fts_result_bits(&indexed_only_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap())
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+    let partial_boost_bits = scored_row_bits(&partial_boost)
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+    for (row_id, score) in indexed_only {
+        assert_eq!(
+            partial_boost_bits.get(&row_id),
+            Some(&score),
+            "hybrid scoring must preserve committed-index scores for indexed row {row_id}"
+        );
+    }
+    // The residual arm intentionally uses committed + query-local statistics,
+    // so its scores are not expected to equal either indexed-arm scores or a
+    // fully rebuilt index's exact global scores.
+
+    let residual_only_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_match_query("beta", "text", 1.0)),
+        (Occur::MustNot, compound_match_query("blocked", "text", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let mut residual_only_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    residual_only_scanner
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(residual_only_query))
+        .unwrap();
+    residual_only_scanner.limit(Some(10), None).unwrap();
+    let residual_only_plan = residual_only_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        residual_only_plan.contains("HybridCompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "residual-only term membership must use the indexed-statistics hybrid path:\n{residual_only_plan}"
+    );
+    let residual_only = residual_only_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        residual_only["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+        &[5, 3],
+        "residual beta TF must rank id=5 first while MUST_NOT excludes id=6"
+    );
+    let residual_only_scores = residual_only[SCORE_COL]
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        .values();
+    assert!(
+        residual_only_scores.iter().all(|score| score.is_finite())
+            && residual_only_scores[0] > residual_only_scores[1],
+        "residual-only terms must retain membership and use query-local TF/DF scoring"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_boolean_must_scores_sum_across_execution_paths() {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        (
+            "title",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                "alpha beta delta",
+                "alpha alpha beta delta delta",
+                "alpha delta",
+                "beta delta",
+                "alpha beta beta delta delta delta"
+            ]
+        ),
+        (
+            "body",
+            Utf8,
+            ["gamma", "gamma gamma", "gamma", "gamma", "other"]
+        )
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 3,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "title", false).await;
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "body", false).await;
+    const LIMIT: usize = 2;
+
+    let match_query = |term: &str, column: &str, boost: f32| -> FtsQuery {
+        MatchQuery::new(term.to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some(column.to_owned()))
+            .with_boost(boost)
+            .into()
+    };
+
+    let same_column_left = match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0);
+    let same_column_right = match_query("beta", "title", 3.0);
+    let expected = expected_must_score_sum(
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, same_column_left.clone(), None).await,
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, same_column_right.clone(), None).await,
+    );
+    assert!(expected.len() > LIMIT);
+    let same_column_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, same_column_left.clone()),
+        (Occur::Must, same_column_right.clone()),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let actual =
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, same_column_query.clone(), Some(LIMIT as i64)).await;
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected[..LIMIT]);
+    let reversed_same_column_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, same_column_right),
+        (Occur::Must, same_column_left),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    assert_eq!(
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, reversed_same_column_query, Some(LIMIT as i64)).await,
+        expected[..LIMIT]
+    );
+
+    let nested_left = match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0);
+    let nested_middle = match_query("beta", "title", 3.0);
+    let nested_right = match_query("delta", "title", 5.0);
+    let expected = expected_must_score_sum(
+        expected_must_score_sum(
+            compound_fts_results(&dataset, nested_left.clone(), None).await,
+            compound_fts_results(&dataset, nested_middle.clone(), None).await,
+        ),
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, nested_right.clone(), None).await,
+    );
+    assert!(expected.len() > LIMIT);
+    let nested_pair: FtsQuery =
+        BooleanQuery::new([(Occur::Must, nested_left), (Occur::Must, nested_middle)]).into();
+    let nested_query: FtsQuery =
+        BooleanQuery::new([(Occur::Must, nested_pair), (Occur::Must, nested_right)]).into();
+    assert_eq!(
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, nested_query, Some(LIMIT as i64)).await,
+        expected[..LIMIT]
+    );
+    let reversed_nested_pair: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, match_query("beta", "title", 3.0)),
+        (Occur::Must, match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let reversed_nested_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, match_query("delta", "title", 5.0)),
+        (Occur::Must, reversed_nested_pair),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    assert_eq!(
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, reversed_nested_query, Some(LIMIT as i64)).await,
+        expected[..LIMIT]
+    );
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(same_column_query))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(LIMIT as i64), None).unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "same-column MUST should exercise the composable scorer:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    let cross_column_left = match_query("alpha", "title", 2.0);
+    let cross_column_right = match_query("gamma", "body", 3.0);
+    let expected = expected_must_score_sum(
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, cross_column_left.clone(), None).await,
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, cross_column_right.clone(), None).await,
+    );
+    assert!(expected.len() > LIMIT);
+    let cross_column_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, cross_column_left.clone()),
+        (Occur::Must, cross_column_right.clone()),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let actual =
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, cross_column_query.clone(), Some(LIMIT as i64)).await;
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected[..LIMIT]);
+    let reversed_cross_column_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, cross_column_right),
+        (Occur::Must, cross_column_left),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    assert_eq!(
+        compound_fts_results(&dataset, reversed_cross_column_query, Some(LIMIT as i64)).await,
+        expected[..LIMIT]
+    );
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(cross_column_query))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(LIMIT as i64), None).unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "cross-column MUST should exercise the cross-column scorer:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains("HashJoinExec"),
+        "cross-column MUST should not materialize an intermediate hash join:\n{plan}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_nested_multimatch_limit_propagation() {
+    let dataset = compound_fts_dataset().await;
+
+    let must_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_multimatch_query()),
+        (
+            Occur::Should,
+            compound_match_query("special", "body", 100.0),
+        ),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let must_results = compound_fts_results(&dataset, must_query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert!(
+        must_results
+            .windows(2)
+            .any(|rows| rows[0].1 == rows[1].1 && rows[0].0 < rows[1].0),
+        "the exhaustive result should include a deterministic score tie"
+    );
+    assert_compound_matches_independent_oracle(&dataset, "nested_multimatch_must", &must_query, 2)
+        .await;
+    let mut staged_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    staged_scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(must_query.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    staged_scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    staged_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+    let should_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Should, compound_multimatch_query()),
+        (
+            Occur::Should,
+            compound_match_query("special", "body", 100.0),
+        ),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    assert_compound_matches_independent_oracle(
+        &dataset,
+        "nested_multimatch_should",
+        &should_query,
+        2,
+    )
+    .await;
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(should_query))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains(CROSS_COLUMN_COMPOUND_FTS_SCORER),
+        "cross-column compound FTS should use the cross-column scorer:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains("HashJoinExec"),
+        "cross-column compound FTS should not materialize intermediate joins:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    let boost_query: FtsQuery = BoostQuery::new(
+        compound_multimatch_query(),
+        compound_match_query("penalty", "body", 100.0),
+        Some(1.0),
+    )
+    .into();
+    assert_compound_matches_independent_oracle(
+        &dataset,
+        "nested_multimatch_boost",
+        &boost_query,
+        2,
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    let multimatch_query = compound_multimatch_query();
+    assert_compound_matches_independent_oracle(
+        &dataset,
+        "cross_column_multimatch",
+        &multimatch_query,
+        1,
+    )
+    .await;
+}
+
+/// `combined_fields` is planned recursively like every other FTS node, so it owes
+/// a compound parent the same contract a nested `MultiMatch` does (see
+/// `test_nested_multimatch_limit_propagation`): `FtsSearchParams::limit` decides
+/// completeness, and the ambient scanner limit must not reach the child. A child
+/// that applied the scanner limit itself would drop candidates before the parent
+/// finished composing scores.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_nested_combined_fields_limit_propagation() {
+    let dataset = compound_fts_dataset().await;
+
+    let must_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, compound_combined_fields_query()),
+        (
+            Occur::Should,
+            compound_match_query("special", "body", 100.0),
+        ),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let must_results = compound_fts_results(&dataset, must_query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert!(
+        must_results
+            .windows(2)
+            .any(|rows| rows[0].1 == rows[1].1 && rows[0].0 < rows[1].0),
+        "the exhaustive result should include a deterministic score tie"
+    );
+    assert_compound_fts_top_k(&dataset, must_query, 2).await;
+
+    let should_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Should, compound_combined_fields_query()),
+        (
+            Occur::Should,
+            compound_match_query("special", "body", 100.0),
+        ),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    assert_compound_fts_top_k(&dataset, should_query, 2).await;
+
+    let boost_query: FtsQuery = BoostQuery::new(
+        compound_combined_fields_query(),
+        compound_match_query("penalty", "body", 100.0),
+        Some(1.0),
+    )
+    .into();
+    assert_compound_fts_top_k(&dataset, boost_query, 2).await;
+
+    assert_compound_fts_top_k(&dataset, compound_combined_fields_query(), 1).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_same_column_compound_scorer_is_exact_and_bounded() {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!((
+        "text",
+        Utf8,
+        [
+            "common",
+            "common filler filler filler",
+            "irrelevant",
+            "common tie",
+            "common tie",
+            "common filler"
+        ]
+    ))
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "text", true).await;
+
+    let match_query = |term: &str| {
+        MatchQuery::new(term.to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("text".to_owned()))
+            .into()
+    };
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, match_query("common")),
+        (
+            Occur::Should,
+            BoostQuery::new(match_query("tie"), match_query("filler"), Some(0.5)).into(),
+        ),
+        (
+            Occur::Should,
+            PhraseQuery::new("common tie".to_owned())
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_owned()))
+                .into(),
+        ),
+        (Occur::MustNot, match_query("irrelevant")),
+    ])
+    .into();
+
+    assert_compound_fts_top_k(&dataset, query.clone(), 2).await;
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "same-column compound FTS should use the scorer tree:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains("HashJoinExec"),
+        "same-column compound FTS should not materialize intermediate joins:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    let same_column_multimatch: FtsQuery = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        "common".to_owned(),
+        vec!["text".to_owned(), "text".to_owned()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .try_with_boosts(vec![1.0, 0.5])
+    .unwrap()
+    .into();
+    assert_compound_fts_top_k(&dataset, same_column_multimatch.clone(), 2).await;
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(same_column_multimatch))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "bounded same-column MultiMatch should use posting-backed scorers:\n{plan}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_pure_should_maxscore_is_exact_across_fragments() {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!((
+        "text",
+        Utf8,
+        [
+            "alpha beta rare blocked",
+            "alpha beta rare",
+            "alpha beta",
+            "alpha gamma",
+            "beta gamma",
+            "alpha beta rare",
+            "alpha beta",
+            "gamma",
+            "alpha beta rare",
+            "alpha beta",
+            "beta",
+            "alpha"
+        ]
+    ))
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 3,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "text", true, true).await;
+
+    let match_query = |term: &str, boost: f32| {
+        MatchQuery::new(term.to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("text".to_owned()))
+            .with_boost(boost)
+            .into()
+    };
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Should, match_query("alpha", 0.25)),
+        (Occur::Should, match_query("beta", 0.25)),
+        (Occur::Should, match_query("rare", 4.0)),
+        (
+            Occur::Should,
+            PhraseQuery::new("alpha beta".to_owned())
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_owned()))
+                .into(),
+        ),
+        (Occur::MustNot, match_query("blocked", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+
+    let exhaustive = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert!(!exhaustive.iter().any(|(row_id, _)| *row_id == 0));
+    assert!(exhaustive.len() >= 3);
+    assert!(
+        exhaustive[..3]
+            .iter()
+            .all(|(_, score)| *score == exhaustive[0].1)
+            && exhaustive[..3].windows(2).all(|rows| rows[0].0 < rows[1].0),
+        "the top three identical rows should tie in ascending row-id order"
+    );
+    let limited = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query.clone(), Some(2)).await;
+    assert_eq!(limited, exhaustive[..2]);
+
+    let collected_stats = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None::<ExecutionSummaryCounts>));
+    let stats_setter = collected_stats.clone();
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .scan_stats_callback(Arc::new(move |stats| {
+            *stats_setter.lock().unwrap() = Some(stats.clone());
+        }))
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let stats = collected_stats.lock().unwrap().take().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        stats.all_counts.get(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC),
+        Some(&(4 * 5)),
+        "four index partitions should be searched once for each of five query leaves"
+    );
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(2), None).unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "same-column pure SHOULD should use the compound scorer:\n{plan}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_compound_phrase_confirmation_short_circuit_is_exact() {
+    let texts = (0..100)
+        .map(|row| {
+            if row % 10 == 0 {
+                "high cost phrase check cheap reject bonus"
+            } else if row % 5 == 0 {
+                "high cost phrase check cheap reject"
+            } else {
+                "high cost phrase check cheap filler reject"
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("text", Utf8, texts)).unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 25,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
+    create_fragmented_fts_index(&mut dataset, "text", true).await;
+
+    let phrase_query = |terms: &str| -> FtsQuery {
+        PhraseQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("text".to_owned()))
+            .into()
+    };
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, phrase_query("high cost phrase check")),
+        (Occur::Must, phrase_query("cheap reject")),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    assert_compound_fts_top_k(&dataset, query.clone(), 10).await;
+
+    let nested: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, query.clone()),
+        (Occur::Should, compound_match_query("bonus", "text", 1.0)),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    assert_compound_fts_top_k(&dataset, nested, 10).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_compound_tie_uses_resolved_row_id() {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("text", Utf8, vec!["common"; 384])).unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 256,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    create_fragmented_fts_index_with_order(&mut dataset, "text", false, true).await;
+
+    let query: FtsQuery = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        "common".to_owned(),
+        vec!["text".to_owned(), "text".to_owned()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .into();
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.limit(Some(1), None).unwrap();
+    let limited = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let limited_row_id = limited[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0);
+
+    let exhaustive = compound_fts_results(&dataset, query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(limited_row_id, exhaustive[0].0);
+    assert_eq!(exhaustive.len(), 384);
+}
+
+pub(super) fn nested_fts_batch(
+    ids: Vec<u64>,
+    a_values: Vec<Option<&str>>,
+    b_values: Vec<Option<&str>>,
+) -> RecordBatch {
+    let a_values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(a_values)) as ArrayRef;
+    let b_values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(b_values)) as ArrayRef;
+    let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
+        (
+            Arc::new(Field::new("a", DataType::Utf8, true)),
+            a_values.clone(),
+        ),
+        (
+            Arc::new(Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true)),
+            b_values.clone(),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let struct_type = struct_array.data_type().clone();
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("s", struct_type, true),
+        ])),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(ids)) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(struct_array) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn nested_fts_result_ids(dataset: &Dataset, query: FullTextSearchQuery) -> Vec<u64> {
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(query)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values().to_vec();
+    ids.sort_unstable();
+    ids
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_on_nested_fields() {
+    let batch = nested_fts_batch(
+        vec![0, 1, 2, 3],
+        vec![
+            Some("lance nested alpha"),
+            Some("plain text"),
+            None,
+            Some("phrase target here"),
+        ],
+        vec![
+            Some("metadata only"),
+            Some("database nested beta"),
+            Some("lance beta"),
+            Some("other"),
+        ],
+    );
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["s.a"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["s.b"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let indexed_fields = indices
+        .iter()
+        .map(|index| dataset.schema().field_path(index.fields[0]).unwrap())
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(
+        indexed_fields,
+        HashSet::from(["s.a".to_string(), "s.b".to_string()])
+    );
+
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+        MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s.a".to_owned())),
+    ));
+    assert_eq!(nested_fts_result_ids(&dataset, query).await, vec![0]);
+
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+        MatchQuery::new("beta".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s.b".to_owned())),
+    ));
+    assert_eq!(nested_fts_result_ids(&dataset, query).await, vec![1, 2]);
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        nested_fts_result_ids(&dataset, FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_owned())).await,
+        vec![0, 2]
+    );
+
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::MultiMatch(MultiMatchQuery {
+        match_queries: vec![
+            MatchQuery::new("nested".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s.a".to_owned())),
+            MatchQuery::new("nested".to_owned()).with_column(Some("s.b".to_owned())),
+        ],
+    }));
+    assert_eq!(nested_fts_result_ids(&dataset, query).await, vec![0, 1]);
+
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+        PhraseQuery::new("phrase target".to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("s.a".to_owned()))
+            .into(),
+    );
+    assert_eq!(nested_fts_result_ids(&dataset, query).await, vec![3]);
+
+    let append_batch = nested_fts_batch(
+        vec![4, 5],
+        vec![Some("fresh lance append"), Some("plain append")],
+        vec![Some("other"), Some("fresh beta append")],
+    );
+    let schema = append_batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![append_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        nested_fts_result_ids(&dataset, FullTextSearchQuery::new("fresh".to_owned())).await,
+        vec![4, 5]
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_unindexed_data() {
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["title hello", "title lance", "title common"]);
+    let content_col =
+        StringArray::from(vec!["content world", "content database", "content common"]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://test.lance", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["title"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("title".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 3);
+
+    // write new data
+    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["new title"]);
+    let content_col = StringArray::from(vec!["new content"]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("title".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 4);
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("new".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_v1_remains_queryable_after_append_optimize() {
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().format_version(InvertedListFormatVersion::V1);
+    let text_col = StringArray::from(vec!["alpha original", "beta original"]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "text",
+            text_col.data_type().to_owned(),
+            false,
+        )])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(text_col) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://test.lance", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].index_version, 1);
+
+    let appended = StringArray::from(vec!["alpha appended"]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "text",
+            appended.data_type().to_owned(),
+            false,
+        )])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(appended) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 2);
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .all(|index| index.index_version == 1)
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_unindexed_data_with_stop_words() {
+    // When indexed data has avg_doc_length < 1.0 (e.g. single-word stop words
+    // that get filtered), the BM25 scorer must still produce non-zero scores
+    // for unindexed rows. Regression test for #5871.
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    let text_col = StringArray::from(vec!["a", "is", "the", "bug"]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]).into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(text_col) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://stop_words.lance", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Append unindexed rows with a term not in the index
+    let unindexed: Vec<String> = (0..10).map(|i| format!("hello_{i}")).collect();
+    let text_col = StringArray::from(unindexed);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]).into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(text_col) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 10);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_unindexed_data_on_empty_index() {
+    // Empty dataset with fts index
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    let title_col = StringArray::from(Vec::<&str>::new());
+    let content_col = StringArray::from(Vec::<&str>::new());
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://test.lance", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["title"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Test fts search
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("title".to_owned()).with_column(Some("title".to_owned())),
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 0);
+
+    // write new data
+    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["title hello", "title lance", "title common"]);
+    let content_col =
+        StringArray::from(vec!["content world", "content database", "content common"]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("title".to_owned()).with_column(Some("title".to_owned())),
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 3);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_without_index() {
+    // create table without index
+    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["title hello", "title lance", "title common"]);
+    let content_col =
+        StringArray::from(vec!["content world", "content database", "content common"]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://test.lance", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // match query on title and content
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("title".to_owned())
+                .with_columns(&["title".to_string(), "content".to_string()])
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 3);
+
+    // write new data
+    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["new title"]);
+    let content_col = StringArray::from(vec!["new content"]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
             Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
         ])
         .into(),
-        vec![
-            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
-            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
-        ],
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    // match query on title and content
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("title".to_owned())
+                .with_columns(&["title".to_string(), "content".to_string()])
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 4);
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("new".to_owned())
+                .with_columns(&["title".to_string(), "content".to_string()])
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_without_index_uses_scalar_index_for_prefilter() {
+    // Verify that flat FTS (no inverted index on text) routes its prefilter
+    // through `FilteredReadExec` so a scalar index on the filter column is
+    // actually used. Six rows with two distinct ids: a prefilter of `id = 1`
+    // must match exactly the three text rows tagged with id=1.
+    let text = StringArray::from(vec![
+        "alpha bravo",
+        "charlie delta",
+        "alpha echo",
+        "foxtrot",
+        "alpha golf",
+        "hotel india",
+    ]);
+    let ids = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("text", text.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+            Field::new("id", ids.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(text) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Scalar index on `id` only — no FTS index on `text`.
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.prefilter(true)
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_owned())
+                .with_columns(&["text".to_string()])
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter("id = 1")
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let plan = scan.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+    // The flat-FTS path now reads via `FilteredReadExec` (prints as `LanceRead`)
+    // with the prefilter plumbed into it, so the scalar index on `id` is used.
+    assert_contains!(&plan, "FlatMatchQuery");
+    assert_contains!(&plan, "LanceRead");
+    assert_contains!(&plan, "full_filter=id = Int32(1)");
+    // The legacy plan ran a `LanceScan` wrapped in a manual `LanceFilterExec`;
+    // make sure we did not regress to that shape.
+    assert_not_contains!(&plan, "LanceScan:");
+
+    let results = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    // Only rows with id=1 AND text matching "alpha": rows 0 ("alpha bravo")
+    // and 2 ("alpha echo"). Row 4 ("alpha golf") has id=2 and must be excluded.
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        2,
+        "expected the two id=1 rows that match `alpha`, got plan:\n{plan}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_rank() {
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    let text_col =
+        GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(vec!["score", "find score", "try to find score"]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "text",
+            text_col.data_type().to_owned(),
+            false,
+        )])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(text_col) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("score".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(3), None)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 3);
+    let row_ids = results[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, &[0, 1, 2]);
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("score".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(2), None)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 2);
+    let row_ids = results[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, &[0, 1]);
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("score".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .limit(Some(1), None)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+    let row_ids = results[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert_eq!(row_ids, &[0]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_unfiltered_after_filtered_returns_real_row_ids() {
+    // After a filtered FTS scan populates the per-partition cache,
+    // the next unfiltered scan must still return real row_ids, not
+    // partition-local doc_ids. Needs >1 fragment so the two differ
+    // (fragment N's row_ids start at N << 32).
+    let text_col = GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(vec![
+        "alpha first",
+        "alpha second",
+        "alpha third",
+        "alpha fourth",
+    ]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "text",
+            text_col.data_type().to_owned(),
+            false,
+        )])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(text_col) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let fts = |ds: &Dataset, filter: Option<&str>| {
+        let mut s = ds.scan();
+        s.with_row_id()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_owned()))
+            .unwrap();
+        if let Some(f) = filter {
+            s.prefilter(true).filter(f).unwrap();
+        }
+        s
+    };
+    let sorted_row_ids = |b: &RecordBatch| {
+        let mut v: Vec<u64> = b[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values().to_vec();
+        v.sort();
+        v
+    };
+
+    let fresh = sorted_row_ids(&fts(&dataset, None).try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+    assert_eq!(fresh.len(), 4);
+
+    // Reopen so the baseline scan's cached LazyDocSet doesn't mask
+    // the regression -- the filtered scan needs to be the first
+    // thing that touches the DocSet.
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    fts(&dataset, Some("text LIKE 'alpha first%'"))
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let after = sorted_row_ids(&fts(&dataset, None).try_into_batch().await.unwrap());
+    assert_eq!(after, fresh);
+}
+
+async fn create_fts_dataset<
+    Offset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
+    ListOffset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
+>(
+    is_list: bool,
+    with_position: bool,
+    params: InvertedIndexParams,
+) -> Dataset {
+    let tempdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tempdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tempdir);
+
+    let params = params.with_position(with_position);
+    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = if is_list {
+        let string_builder = GenericStringBuilder::<Offset>::new();
+        let mut list_col = GenericListBuilder::<ListOffset, _>::new(string_builder);
+        // Create a list of strings
+        list_col.values().append_value("lance database the search"); // for testing phrase query
+        list_col.append(true);
+        list_col.values().append_value("lance database"); // for testing phrase query
+        list_col.append(true);
+        list_col.values().append_value("lance search");
+        list_col.append(true);
+        list_col.values().append_value("database");
+        list_col.values().append_value("search");
+        list_col.append(true);
+        list_col.values().append_value("unrelated doc");
+        list_col.append(true);
+        list_col.values().append_value("unrelated");
+        list_col.append(true);
+        list_col.values().append_value("mots");
+        list_col.values().append_value("accentués");
+        list_col.append(true);
+        list_col
+            .values()
+            .append_value("lance database full text search");
+        list_col.append(true);
+
+        // for testing null
+        list_col.append(false);
+
+        Arc::new(list_col.finish())
+    } else {
+        Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<Offset>::from(vec![
+            "lance database the search",
+            "lance database",
+            "lance search",
+            "database search",
+            "unrelated doc",
+            "unrelated",
+            "mots accentués",
+            "lance database full text search",
+        ]))
+    };
+    let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..doc_col.len() as u64);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("doc", doc_col.data_type().to_owned(), true),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(doc_col) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["doc"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+}
+
+async fn test_fts_index<
+    Offset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
+    ListOffset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
+>(
+    is_list: bool,
+) {
+    let ds =
+        create_fts_dataset::<Offset, ListOffset>(is_list, false, InvertedIndexParams::default())
+            .await;
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3, "{:?}", result);
+    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&2), "{:?}", result);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("database".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3);
+    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&3), "{:?}", result);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                MatchQuery::new("lance database".to_owned())
+                    .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                    .into(),
+            )
+            .limit(Some(5)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3, "{:?}", result);
+    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&7), "{:?}", result);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("unknown null".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+
+    // test phrase query
+    // for non-phrasal query, the order of the tokens doesn't matter
+    // so there should be 4 documents that contain "database" or "lance"
+
+    // we built the index without position, so the phrase query will not work
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("lance database".to_owned()).into())
+                .limit(Some(10)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await;
+    let err = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+    assert!(err.contains("position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position"),"{}",err);
+
+    // recreate the index with position
+    let ds =
+        create_fts_dataset::<Offset, ListOffset>(is_list, true, InvertedIndexParams::default())
+            .await;
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance database".to_owned()).limit(Some(10)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 5, "{:?}", result);
+    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert!(ids.contains(&0));
+    assert!(ids.contains(&1));
+    assert!(ids.contains(&2));
+    assert!(ids.contains(&3));
+    assert!(ids.contains(&7));
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("lance database".to_owned()).into())
+                .limit(Some(10)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3, "{:?}", ids);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&0));
+    assert!(ids.contains(&1));
+    assert!(ids.contains(&7));
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("database lance".to_owned()).into())
+                .limit(Some(10)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("lance unknown".to_owned()).into())
+                .limit(Some(10)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("unknown null".to_owned()).into())
+                .limit(Some(3)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned()).into())
+                .limit(Some(3)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned())
+                    .with_slop(2)
+                    .into(),
+            )
+            .limit(Some(3)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                PhraseQuery::new("search lance".to_owned())
+                    .with_slop(2)
+                    .into(),
+            )
+            .limit(Some(3)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            // must contain "lance" and "database", and may contain "search"
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                BooleanQuery::new([
+                    (
+                        Occur::Should,
+                        MatchQuery::new("search".to_owned())
+                            .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                            .into(),
+                    ),
+                    (
+                        Occur::Must,
+                        MatchQuery::new("lance database".to_owned())
+                            .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                            .into(),
+                    ),
+                ])
+                .into(),
+            )
+            .limit(Some(3)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3, "{:?}", result);
+    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&7), "{:?}", result);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(
+            // must contain "lance" and "database", and may contain "search"
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                BooleanQuery::new([
+                    (
+                        Occur::Should,
+                        MatchQuery::new("search".to_owned())
+                            .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                            .into(),
+                    ),
+                    (
+                        Occur::Must,
+                        MatchQuery::new("lance database".to_owned())
+                            .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                            .into(),
+                    ),
+                    (
+                        Occur::MustNot,
+                        MatchQuery::new("full text".to_owned()).into(),
+                    ),
+                ])
+                .into(),
+            )
+            .limit(Some(3)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2, "{:?}", result);
+    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
+    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_index_with_string() {
+    test_fts_index::<i32, i32>(false).await;
+    test_fts_index::<i32, i32>(true).await;
+    test_fts_index::<i32, i64>(true).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_index_with_large_string() {
+    test_fts_index::<i64, i32>(false).await;
+    test_fts_index::<i64, i32>(true).await;
+    test_fts_index::<i64, i64>(true).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_list_index_uses_row_level_documents() {
+    let tempdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tempdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tempdir);
+
+    let mut list_col = GenericListBuilder::<i32, _>::new(GenericStringBuilder::<i32>::new());
+    list_col.values().append_value("lance");
+    list_col.values().append_value("lance database");
+    list_col.append(true);
+    list_col.values().append_value("database");
+    list_col.append(true);
+    list_col.append(true);
+    list_col.values().append_null();
+    list_col.append(true);
+    list_col.append(false);
+
+    let docs = Arc::new(list_col.finish()) as ArrayRef;
+    let ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..docs.len() as u64)) as ArrayRef;
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("doc", docs.data_type().clone(), true),
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ])),
+        vec![docs, ids],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["doc"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let result = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_owned()).limit(Some(10)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values(), &[0]);
+
+    let result = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("database".to_owned()).limit(Some(10)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut ids = result["id"]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(ids, vec![0, 1], "{:?}", result);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_list_phrase_query_can_cross_elements() {
+    assert_fts_list_phrase_query_can_cross_elements::<i32>().await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_large_list_phrase_query_can_cross_elements() {
+    assert_fts_list_phrase_query_can_cross_elements::<i64>().await;
+}
+
+async fn assert_fts_list_phrase_query_can_cross_elements<Offset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait>() {
+    let tempdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tempdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tempdir);
+
+    let mut list_col = GenericListBuilder::<Offset, _>::new(GenericStringBuilder::<Offset>::new());
+    let rows: &[&[&str]] = &[
+        &["alpha", "beta"],
+        &["want the", "apple"],
+        &["want", "apple"],
+    ];
+    for values in rows.iter().copied() {
+        for value in values {
+            list_col.values().append_value(value);
+        }
+        list_col.append(true);
+    }
+
+    let docs = Arc::new(list_col.finish()) as ArrayRef;
+    let ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1, 2])) as ArrayRef;
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("doc", docs.data_type().clone(), true),
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ])),
+        vec![docs, ids],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let cases: [(&str, &[u64]); 3] = [
+        ("alpha beta", &[0]),
+        ("want the apple", &[1]),
+        ("want apple", &[2]),
+    ];
+    let mut flat_results = Vec::with_capacity(cases.len());
+    for (terms, expected) in cases {
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                    PhraseQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+                        .with_column(Some("doc".to_owned()))
+                        .into(),
+                )
+                .limit(Some(10)),
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values(), expected);
+        flat_results.push(result);
+    }
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .with_position(true)
+        .remove_stop_words(true);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["doc"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    for ((terms, expected), flat_result) in cases.into_iter().zip(flat_results) {
+        let indexed_result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .full_text_search(
+                FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                    PhraseQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+                        .with_column(Some("doc".to_owned()))
+                        .into(),
+                )
+                .limit(Some(10)),
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed_result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values(),
+            expected
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed_result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values(),
+            flat_result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values(),
+            "query={terms}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_accented_chars() {
+    let ds = create_fts_dataset::<i32, i32>(false, false, InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("accentués".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("accentues".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+
+    // with ascii folding enabled, the search should be accent-insensitive
+    let ds = create_fts_dataset::<i32, i32>(
+        false,
+        false,
+        InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .stem(false)
+            .ascii_folding(true),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("accentués".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    let result = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("accentues".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_phrase_query() {
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    let words = ["lance", "full", "text", "search"];
+    let mut lance_search_count = 0;
+    let mut full_text_count = 0;
+    let mut doc_array = (0..256)
+        .map(|_| {
+            let mut rng = rand::rng();
+            let mut text = String::with_capacity(128);
+            let len = rng.random_range(31..128);
+            for i in 0..len {
+                if i > 0 {
+                    text.push(' ');
+                }
+                text.push_str(words[rng.random_range(0..words.len())]);
+            }
+            if text.contains("lance search") {
+                lance_search_count += 1;
+            }
+            if text.contains("full text") {
+                full_text_count += 1;
+            }
+            text
+        })
+        .collect_vec();
+    // Ensure at least one doc matches each phrase deterministically
+    doc_array.push("lance search".to_owned());
+    lance_search_count += 1;
+    doc_array.push("full text".to_owned());
+    full_text_count += 1;
+    doc_array.push("position for phrase query".to_owned());
+
+    // 1) Build index without positions and assert phrase query errors
+    let params_no_pos = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(false);
+    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(doc_array.clone()));
+    let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..doc_col.len() as u64);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("doc", doc_col.data_type().to_owned(), true),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(doc_col) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef],
     )
     .unwrap();
     let schema = batch.schema();
     let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://test.lance", None)
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["doc"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params_no_pos, true)
         .await
         .unwrap();
+
+    let err = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+            PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned()).into(),
+        ))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err()
+        .to_string();
+    assert!(err.contains("position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position"), "{}", err);
+    assert!(err.starts_with("Invalid user input: "), "{}", err);
+
+    // 2) Recreate index with positions and assert phrase query works
+    let params_with_pos = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true);
     dataset
-        .create_index(&["title"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .create_index(&["doc"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params_with_pos, true)
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    // Test fts search
-    let results = dataset
+    let result = dataset
         .scan()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
-            MatchQuery::new("title".to_owned()).with_column(Some("title".to_owned())),
-        )))
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+            PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned()).into(),
+        ))
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 0);
-
-    // write new data
-    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["title hello", "title lance", "title common"]);
-    let content_col =
-        StringArray::from(vec!["content world", "content database", "content common"]);
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
-            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
-        ])
-        .into(),
-        vec![
-            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
-            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
-        ],
-    )
-    .unwrap();
-    let schema = batch.schema();
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), lance_search_count);
 
-    let results = dataset
+    let result = dataset
         .scan()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
-            MatchQuery::new("title".to_owned()).with_column(Some("title".to_owned())),
-        )))
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+            PhraseQuery::new("full text".to_owned()).into(),
+        ))
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 3);
-}
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), full_text_count);
 
-#[tokio::test]
-async fn test_fts_without_index() {
-    // create table without index
-    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["title hello", "title lance", "title common"]);
-    let content_col =
-        StringArray::from(vec!["content world", "content database", "content common"]);
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
-            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
-        ])
-        .into(),
-        vec![
-            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
-            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
-        ],
-    )
-    .unwrap();
-    let schema = batch.schema();
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, "memory://test.lance", None)
+    let result = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+            PhraseQuery::new("phrase query".to_owned()).into(),
+        ))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
 
-    // match query on title and content
-    let results = dataset
+    let result = dataset
         .scan()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new("title".to_owned())
-                .with_columns(&["title".to_string(), "content".to_string()])
-                .unwrap(),
-        )
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+            PhraseQuery::new("".to_owned()).into(),
+        ))
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 3);
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+}
 
-    // write new data
-    let title_col = StringArray::from(vec!["new title"]);
-    let content_col = StringArray::from(vec!["new content"]);
+async fn open_dataset_with_fresh_session(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+        .with_session(Arc::new(Session::new(1 << 20, 1 << 20, Default::default())))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_prewarm_with_position_controls_phrase_query_cache() {
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(vec![
+        "lance search",
+        "lance search with tail",
+        "phrase query",
+    ]));
+    let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..doc_col.len() as u64);
     let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
         arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("title", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
-            Field::new("content", title_col.data_type().to_owned(), false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("doc", doc_col.data_type().to_owned(), true),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
         ])
         .into(),
-        vec![
-            Arc::new(title_col) as ArrayRef,
-            Arc::new(content_col) as ArrayRef,
-        ],
+        vec![Arc::new(doc_col) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef],
     )
     .unwrap();
     let schema = batch.schema();
     let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-    dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["doc"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("fts_idx".to_owned()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-    // match query on title and content
-    let results = dataset
+    let dataset = open_dataset_with_fresh_session(&uri).await;
+    dataset.prewarm_index("fts_idx").await.unwrap();
+    let cache_entries_after_prewarm = dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await;
+    let result = dataset
         .scan()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new("title".to_owned())
-                .with_columns(&["title".to_string(), "content".to_string()])
-                .unwrap(),
-        )
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+            PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned()).into(),
+        ))
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 4);
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2);
+    let cache_entries_after_query = dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await;
+    assert!(
+        cache_entries_after_query > cache_entries_after_prewarm,
+        "phrase query should populate positions cache when prewarm skipped positions"
+    );
 
-    let results = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new("new".to_owned())
-                .with_columns(&["title".to_string(), "content".to_string()])
-                .unwrap(),
+    let dataset = open_dataset_with_fresh_session(&uri).await;
+    dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options(
+            "fts_idx",
+            &PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::new().with_position(true)),
         )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let cache_entries_after_prewarm = dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await;
+    let result = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+            PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned()).into(),
+        ))
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2);
+    let cache_entries_after_query = dataset.index_cache_entry_count().await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        cache_entries_after_query, cache_entries_after_prewarm,
+        "phrase query should not add cache entries after prewarming positions"
+    );
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_fts_rank() {
-    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
-    let text_col =
-        GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(vec!["score", "find score", "try to find score"]);
+async fn test_prewarm_index_with_position_validation() {
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(vec![
+        "lance search",
+        "phrase query",
+    ]));
+    let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..doc_col.len() as u64);
     let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
-            "text",
-            text_col.data_type().to_owned(),
-            false,
-        )])
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("doc", doc_col.data_type().to_owned(), true),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ])
         .into(),
-        vec![Arc::new(text_col) as ArrayRef],
+        vec![Arc::new(doc_col) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef],
     )
     .unwrap();
     let schema = batch.schema();
     let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
-    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
     dataset
-        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .create_index(
+            &["doc"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("fts_idx".to_owned()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(false),
+            true,
+        )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    let results = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .with_row_id()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("score".to_owned()))
-        .unwrap()
-        .limit(Some(3), None)
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    let dataset = open_dataset_with_fresh_session(&uri).await;
+    let err = dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options(
+            "fts_idx",
+            &PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::new().with_position(true)),
+        )
         .await
-        .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 3);
-    let row_ids = results[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert_eq!(row_ids, &[0, 1, 2]);
+        .unwrap_err()
+        .to_string();
+    assert_contains!(
+        err,
+        "cannot prewarm positions for an inverted index that was built without positions"
+    );
 
-    let results = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .with_row_id()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("score".to_owned()))
-        .unwrap()
-        .limit(Some(2), None)
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![(
+        "id",
+        Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])) as ArrayRef,
+    )])
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("id_idx".to_owned()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 2);
-    let row_ids = results[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert_eq!(row_ids, &[0, 1]);
 
-    let results = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .with_row_id()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("score".to_owned()))
-        .unwrap()
-        .limit(Some(1), None)
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    let dataset = open_dataset_with_fresh_session(&uri).await;
+    let err = dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options("id_idx", &PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::default()))
         .await
-        .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
-    let row_ids = results[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert_eq!(row_ids, &[0]);
+        .unwrap_err()
+        .to_string();
+    assert_contains!(
+        err,
+        "FTS prewarm options are only supported for inverted indices"
+    );
 }
 
-async fn create_fts_dataset<
-    Offset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
-    ListOffset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
->(
-    is_list: bool,
-    with_position: bool,
-    params: InvertedIndexParams,
-) -> Dataset {
-    let tempdir = TempStrDir::default();
-    let uri = tempdir.to_owned();
-    drop(tempdir);
-
-    let params = params.with_position(with_position);
-    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = if is_list {
-        let string_builder = GenericStringBuilder::<Offset>::new();
-        let mut list_col = GenericListBuilder::<ListOffset, _>::new(string_builder);
-        // Create a list of strings
-        list_col.values().append_value("lance database the search"); // for testing phrase query
-        list_col.append(true);
-        list_col.values().append_value("lance database"); // for testing phrase query
-        list_col.append(true);
-        list_col.values().append_value("lance search");
-        list_col.append(true);
-        list_col.values().append_value("database");
-        list_col.values().append_value("search");
-        list_col.append(true);
-        list_col.values().append_value("unrelated doc");
-        list_col.append(true);
-        list_col.values().append_value("unrelated");
-        list_col.append(true);
-        list_col.values().append_value("mots");
-        list_col.values().append_value("accentués");
-        list_col.append(true);
-        list_col
-            .values()
-            .append_value("lance database full text search");
-        list_col.append(true);
-
-        // for testing null
-        list_col.append(false);
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_best_effort_prewarm_result_reports_dataset_partial_residency() {
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
 
-        Arc::new(list_col.finish())
-    } else {
-        Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<Offset>::from(vec![
-            "lance database the search",
-            "lance database",
-            "lance search",
-            "database search",
-            "unrelated doc",
-            "unrelated",
-            "mots accentués",
-            "lance database full text search",
-        ]))
-    };
+    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<i32>::from_iter_values(
+        (0..4096).map(|row| format!("cache pressure token {row}")),
+    ));
     let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..doc_col.len() as u64);
     let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
         arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
@@ -1262,421 +5472,810 @@ async fn create_fts_dataset<
     let schema = batch.schema();
     let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
     let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
-
     dataset
-        .create_index(&["doc"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .create_index(
+            &["doc"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("fts_idx".to_owned()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    dataset
-}
-
-async fn test_fts_index<
-    Offset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
-    ListOffset: arrow::array::OffsetSizeTrait,
->(
-    is_list: bool,
-) {
-    let ds =
-        create_fts_dataset::<Offset, ListOffset>(is_list, false, InvertedIndexParams::default())
-            .await;
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+        Arc::new(QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(8 * 1024)),
+        8 * 1024,
+        Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+    ));
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+        .with_session(session)
+        .load()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3, "{:?}", result);
-    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&2), "{:?}", result);
+    let options = PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::default().best_effort());
 
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("database".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options("fts_idx", &options)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let result = dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options_result("fts_idx", &options)
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3);
-    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&3), "{:?}", result);
 
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-                MatchQuery::new("lance database".to_owned())
-                    .with_operator(Operator::And)
-                    .into(),
-            )
-            .limit(Some(5)),
+    assert!(
+        !result.fully_resident,
+        "tiny cache should make best-effort dataset prewarm report partial residency"
+    );
+    let diagnostics = result
+        .diagnostics
+        .expect("partial dataset prewarm should return aggregate diagnostics");
+    assert!(diagnostics.partition_count > 0);
+    assert!(!diagnostics.failing_segments.is_empty() || !diagnostics.failing_partitions.is_empty());
+    assert!(
+        diagnostics
+            .failing_partitions
+            .iter()
+            .all(|partition| partition.segment_id.is_some()),
+        "dataset aggregation should attach segment ids to partition diagnostics"
+    );
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SingleScalarContainerCacheBackend {
+    inner: QuickCacheBackend,
+    scalar_container_inserts: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl SingleScalarContainerCacheBackend {
+    fn new(capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: QuickCacheBackend::with_capacity(capacity),
+            scalar_container_inserts: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn rejects_scalar_container(entry: &CacheEntry, codec: Option<&CacheCodec>) -> bool {
+        // Whole-container entries are stored as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex> by custom plugin
+        // paths and as StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry by the default cache path.
+        codec.is_none()
+            && (entry.as_ref().is::<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>()
+                || entry.as_ref().is::<Arc<StoreBoundScalarIndexCacheEntry>>())
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl CacheBackend for SingleScalarContainerCacheBackend {
+    async fn get(&self, key: &InternalCacheKey, codec: Option<CacheCodec>) -> Option<CacheEntry> {
+        self.inner.get(key, codec).await
+    }
+
+    async fn insert(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        entry: CacheEntry,
+        size_bytes: usize,
+        codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) {
+        if Self::rejects_scalar_container(&entry, codec.as_ref())
+            && self
+                .scalar_container_inserts
+                .fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed)
+                > 0
+        {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.inner.insert(key, entry, size_bytes, codec).await;
+    }
+
+    async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+        codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) -> Result<(CacheEntry, bool)> {
+        if codec.is_none() {
+            if let Some(entry) = self.inner.get(key, None).await {
+                return Ok((entry, true));
+            }
+            let (entry, size_bytes) = loader.await?;
+            if Self::rejects_scalar_container(&entry, None)
+                && self
+                    .scalar_container_inserts
+                    .fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed)
+                    > 0
+            {
+                return Ok((entry, false));
+            }
+            self.inner
+                .insert(key, entry.clone(), size_bytes, codec)
+                .await;
+            return Ok((entry, false));
+        }
+        self.inner.get_or_insert(key, loader, codec).await
+    }
+
+    async fn clear(&self) {
+        self.inner.clear().await;
+    }
+
+    async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.num_entries().await
+    }
+
+    async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.size_bytes().await
+    }
+
+    fn approx_num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.approx_num_entries()
+    }
+
+    fn approx_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        self.inner.approx_size_bytes()
+    }
+}
+
+async fn two_segment_fts_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+        arrow_schema::Field::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        arrow_schema::Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]));
+    let make_batch = |fragment: u64| {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<i32>::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..32u64).map(|row| format!("segment {fragment} token {row}")),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..32u64).map(|row| fragment * 32 + row),
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
         )
         .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    };
+
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![make_batch(0)].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone()),
+        uri,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["doc"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("fts_idx".to_owned()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3, "{:?}", result);
-    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&7), "{:?}", result);
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![make_batch(1)].into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.load_indices_by_name("fts_idx").await.unwrap().len(),
+        2
+    );
+    dataset
+}
 
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("unknown null".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+async fn open_with_single_scalar_container_cache(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+        Arc::new(SingleScalarContainerCacheBackend::new(128 * 1024 * 1024)),
+        128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+    ));
+    DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+        .with_session(session)
+        .load()
+        .await
         .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_best_effort_prewarm_reports_missing_scalar_container() {
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    two_segment_fts_dataset(&uri).await;
+    let dataset = open_with_single_scalar_container_cache(&uri).await;
+    let options = PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::default().best_effort());
+
+    let result = dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options_result("fts_idx", &options)
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
 
-    // test phrase query
-    // for non-phrasal query, the order of the tokens doesn't matter
-    // so there should be 4 documents that contain "database" or "lance"
+    assert!(
+        !result.fully_resident,
+        "dataset prewarm must be partial when a selected segment's scalar index \
+         container is not cache-resident"
+    );
+    let diagnostics = result
+        .diagnostics
+        .expect("missing scalar container should produce aggregate diagnostics");
+    assert_eq!(
+        diagnostics.failing_segments.len(),
+        1,
+        "only the rejected scalar container should be reported as missing"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        diagnostics.failing_partitions.is_empty(),
+        "a missing scalar container should not be represented as a partition failure"
+    );
+    let failure = &diagnostics.failing_segments[0];
+    assert!(!failure.scalar_index_container_resident);
+    assert!(!failure.scalar_index_container_matches_prewarmed);
+}
 
-    // we built the index without position, so the phrase query will not work
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("lance database".to_owned()).into())
-                .limit(Some(10)),
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_strict_prewarm_fails_missing_scalar_container() {
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    two_segment_fts_dataset(&uri).await;
+    let dataset = open_with_single_scalar_container_cache(&uri).await;
+    let options = PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::default());
+
+    let err = dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options_result("fts_idx", &options)
+        .await
+        .expect_err("strict prewarm should fail after final scalar-container audit");
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("resident scalar index container"),
+        "strict error should describe the missing scalar container: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Validates the OSS-741 contract: after FTS prewarm through a serializing
+/// cache backend, FTS queries serve results without any further IO. The
+/// serializing backend forces every cache hit through the new
+/// `CacheCodec` impls, so this also smoke-tests the round-trip path under
+/// realistic data shapes (compressed posting blocks + shared position
+/// stream when positions are enabled).
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_prewarm_with_serializing_backend_serves_query_with_no_io() {
+    use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
+
+    use crate::utils::test::serializing_cache::SerializingCacheBackend;
+
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(vec![
+        "lance search engine",
+        "lance search with tail",
+        "phrase query example",
+        "search query terms",
+    ]));
+    let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..doc_col.len() as u64);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("doc", doc_col.data_type().to_owned(), true),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(doc_col) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["doc"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("fts_idx".to_owned()),
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true),
+            true,
         )
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
-        .await;
-    let err = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
-    assert!(err.contains("position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position"),"{}",err);
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-    // recreate the index with position
-    let ds =
-        create_fts_dataset::<Offset, ListOffset>(is_list, true, InvertedIndexParams::default())
-            .await;
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance database".to_owned()).limit(Some(10)))
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    // Re-open the dataset on a session whose cache backend serializes every
+    // entry through its codec. Set a generous capacity so nothing is evicted
+    // before we query.
+    let backend = Arc::new(SerializingCacheBackend::new());
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+        backend.clone(),
+        128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+    ));
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+        .with_session(session)
+        .load()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 5, "{:?}", result);
-    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert!(ids.contains(&0));
-    assert!(ids.contains(&1));
-    assert!(ids.contains(&2));
-    assert!(ids.contains(&3));
-    assert!(ids.contains(&7));
 
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("lance database".to_owned()).into())
-                .limit(Some(10)),
+    // Reset IO counters to isolate prewarm + query traffic from open/load.
+    dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+    dataset
+        .prewarm_index_with_options(
+            "fts_idx",
+            &PrewarmOptions::Fts(FtsPrewarmOptions::new().with_position(true)),
         )
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3, "{:?}", ids);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&0));
-    assert!(ids.contains(&1));
-    assert!(ids.contains(&7));
 
-    let result = ds
+    // The FTS codec must have been exercised. Posting lists and positions
+    // enter the serialized store; non-FTS entries (e.g. the unsized
+    // `ScalarIndexCacheKey` for the index itself) legitimately fall through
+    // to the in-memory passthrough — those cannot have a codec by design.
+    let serialized_after_prewarm = backend.serialized_entry_count().await;
+    assert!(
+        serialized_after_prewarm > 0,
+        "prewarm should have routed FTS entries (PostingList / Positions) through CacheCodec, \
+         but the serializing store was empty"
+    );
+
+    // After prewarm, a phrase query (which exercises both posting lists and
+    // positions, deserializing them from bytes via the codec) must not hit
+    // disk.
+    dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+    // Project `_rowid` so the scan does not need to read a data column from
+    // the dataset's parquet/lance files; the index path alone determines
+    // whether the FTS cache is doing its job.
+    let result = dataset
         .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
+        .project(&[ROW_ID])
         .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("database lance".to_owned()).into())
-                .limit(Some(10)),
-        )
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+            PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned()).into(),
+        ))
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.num_rows(),
+        2,
+        "phrase query should still return correct results after deserialization"
+    );
 
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("lance unknown".to_owned()).into())
-                .limit(Some(10)),
+    let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    assert_io_eq!(
+        stats,
+        read_iops,
+        0,
+        "FTS query should not perform IO after prewarm; the serializing cache \
+         backend must serve every posting list and positions entry from memory"
+    );
+}
+
+/// BTree analogue of `test_fts_prewarm_with_serializing_backend_serves_query_with_no_io`:
+/// after prewarming a BTree scalar index through a serializing cache backend,
+/// an indexed-filter query serves results without any further IO. The
+/// serializing backend forces every cache hit through the `BTreeIndexState`
+/// and `FlatIndex` `CacheCodec` impls, so this also smoke-tests those
+/// round-trip paths on a multi-page index.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_btree_prewarm_with_serializing_backend_serves_query_with_no_io() {
+    use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
+
+    use crate::utils::test::serializing_cache::SerializingCacheBackend;
+
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    // Enough rows to span several BTree pages (default page size is 4096) so
+    // the query has to consult more than one cached `FlatIndex`.
+    let num_rows = 16_384;
+    let values = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
+    let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(values) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["value"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("value_idx".to_owned()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
         )
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
 
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("unknown null".to_owned()).into())
-                .limit(Some(3)),
-        )
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    // Re-open on a session whose cache backend serializes every entry through
+    // its codec, with a generous capacity so nothing is evicted before we query.
+    let backend = Arc::new(SerializingCacheBackend::new());
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+        backend.clone(),
+        128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+    ));
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+        .with_session(session)
+        .load()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
 
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned()).into())
-                .limit(Some(3)),
-        )
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    // Reset IO counters to isolate prewarm + query traffic from open/load.
+    dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+    dataset.prewarm_index("value_idx").await.unwrap();
+
+    // Prewarm opens the index (serializing `BTreeIndexState`) and loads every
+    // page (serializing each `FlatIndex`), so the serialized store must be
+    // non-empty. The unsized fallback keys cannot have a codec by design.
+    let serialized_after_prewarm = backend.serialized_entry_count().await;
+    assert!(
+        serialized_after_prewarm > 0,
+        "prewarm should have routed the BTree state and pages through CacheCodec, \
+         but the serializing store was empty"
+    );
+
+    drop(dataset);
+    let backend = Arc::new(backend.restart());
+    assert_eq!(
+        backend.l1_entry_count().await,
+        0,
+        "restarting must discard the in-memory L1"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        backend.serialized_entry_count().await,
+        serialized_after_prewarm,
+        "restarting must retain only the serialized entries"
+    );
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+        backend,
+        128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+    ));
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+        .with_session(session)
+        .load()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
 
-    let result = ds
+    // After recreating the backend, an indexed-filter query must reconstruct
+    // the index and every page it touches from serialized bytes, with no disk
+    // IO. Project only `_rowid` so the scan does not read a data column.
+    dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+    let result = dataset
         .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
+        .project(&[ROW_ID])
         .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-                PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned())
-                    .with_slop(2)
-                    .into(),
-            )
-            .limit(Some(3)),
-        )
+        .filter("value >= 100 AND value < 200")
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.num_rows(),
+        100,
+        "indexed filter should still return correct results after deserialization"
+    );
 
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-                PhraseQuery::new("search lance".to_owned())
-                    .with_slop(2)
-                    .into(),
-            )
-            .limit(Some(3)),
+    let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    assert_io_eq!(
+        stats,
+        read_iops,
+        0,
+        "BTree filter query should not perform IO after prewarm; the serializing \
+         cache backend must serve the index state and every page from memory"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Bitmap analogue of `test_btree_prewarm_with_serializing_backend_serves_query_with_no_io`:
+/// after prewarming a Bitmap scalar index through a serializing cache backend,
+/// an indexed-filter query serves results without any further IO. The
+/// serializing backend forces every cache hit through the `BitmapIndexState`
+/// (top-level state) and `RowAddrTreeMap` (per-value bitmap) `CacheCodec`
+/// impls, so this exercises both round-trip paths.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_bitmap_prewarm_with_serializing_backend_serves_query_with_no_io() {
+    use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
+
+    use crate::utils::test::serializing_cache::SerializingCacheBackend;
+
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    // Low-cardinality column so the index has several per-value bitmaps to
+    // round-trip through the per-key codec.
+    let num_rows: i32 = 8_000;
+    let values = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| i % 16));
+    let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(values) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["value"],
+            IndexType::Bitmap,
+            Some("value_idx".to_owned()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
         )
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
 
-    let result = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            // must contain "lance" and "database", and may contain "search"
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-                BooleanQuery::new([
-                    (
-                        Occur::Should,
-                        MatchQuery::new("search".to_owned())
-                            .with_operator(Operator::And)
-                            .into(),
-                    ),
-                    (
-                        Occur::Must,
-                        MatchQuery::new("lance database".to_owned())
-                            .with_operator(Operator::And)
-                            .into(),
-                    ),
-                ])
-                .into(),
-            )
-            .limit(Some(3)),
-        )
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+    let backend = Arc::new(SerializingCacheBackend::new());
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+        backend.clone(),
+        128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+    ));
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+        .with_session(session)
+        .load()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3, "{:?}", result);
-    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&7), "{:?}", result);
 
-    let result = ds
+    dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    dataset.prewarm_index("value_idx").await.unwrap();
+
+    let serialized_after_prewarm = backend.serialized_entry_count().await;
+    assert!(
+        serialized_after_prewarm > 0,
+        "prewarm should have routed the bitmap state and per-value bitmaps through \
+         CacheCodec, but the serializing store was empty"
+    );
+
+    dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    let result = dataset
         .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
+        .project(&[ROW_ID])
         .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(
-            // must contain "lance" and "database", and may contain "search"
-            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-                BooleanQuery::new([
-                    (
-                        Occur::Should,
-                        MatchQuery::new("search".to_owned())
-                            .with_operator(Operator::And)
-                            .into(),
-                    ),
-                    (
-                        Occur::Must,
-                        MatchQuery::new("lance database".to_owned())
-                            .with_operator(Operator::And)
-                            .into(),
-                    ),
-                    (
-                        Occur::MustNot,
-                        MatchQuery::new("full text".to_owned()).into(),
-                    ),
-                ])
-                .into(),
-            )
-            .limit(Some(3)),
-        )
+        .filter("value = 7")
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2, "{:?}", result);
-    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "{:?}", result);
-    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "{:?}", result);
-}
+    let expected = (num_rows as usize) / 16;
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.num_rows(),
+        expected,
+        "indexed bitmap filter should return correct results after deserialization"
+    );
 
-#[tokio::test]
-async fn test_fts_index_with_string() {
-    test_fts_index::<i32, i32>(false).await;
-    test_fts_index::<i32, i32>(true).await;
-    test_fts_index::<i32, i64>(true).await;
+    let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    assert_io_eq!(
+        stats,
+        read_iops,
+        0,
+        "Bitmap filter query should not perform IO after prewarm; the serializing \
+         cache backend must serve the index state and every per-value bitmap from memory"
+    );
 }
 
+#[rstest]
+#[case::list(false)]
+#[case::large_list(true)]
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_fts_index_with_large_string() {
-    test_fts_index::<i64, i32>(false).await;
-    test_fts_index::<i64, i32>(true).await;
-    test_fts_index::<i64, i64>(true).await;
-}
+async fn test_label_list_index_types(#[case] large_list: bool) {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let label_values = vec![
+        Some(vec![Some(1), Some(2)]),
+        Some(vec![Some(2)]),
+        Some(vec![Some(1)]),
+        Some(vec![Some(3)]),
+    ];
+    let labels: ArrayRef = if large_list {
+        Arc::new(LargeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int64Type, _, _>(
+            label_values,
+        ))
+    } else {
+        Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int64Type, _, _>(
+            label_values,
+        ))
+    };
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("labels", labels.data_type().clone(), true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])), labels],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-#[tokio::test]
-async fn test_fts_accented_chars() {
-    let ds = create_fts_dataset::<i32, i32>(false, false, InvertedIndexParams::default()).await;
-    let result = ds
+    let expected = dataset
         .scan()
         .project(&["id"])
         .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("accentués".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .filter("array_has_any(labels, [1])")
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+    let expected_ids = expected
+        .column(0)
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    assert_eq!(expected_ids, vec![0, 2]);
 
-    let result = ds
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["labels"],
+            IndexType::LabelList,
+            Some("labels_idx".to_owned()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let result = dataset
         .scan()
         .project(&["id"])
         .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("accentues".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .filter("array_has_any(labels, [1])")
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+    let result_ids = result
+        .column(0)
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    assert_eq!(result_ids, expected_ids);
+
+    let plan = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("array_has_any(labels, [1])")
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery") && plan.contains("LabelList"),
+        "Expected LabelList scalar index query in plan: {plan}"
+    );
+}
 
-    // with ascii folding enabled, the search should be accent-insensitive
-    let ds = create_fts_dataset::<i32, i32>(
-        false,
-        false,
-        InvertedIndexParams::default()
-            .stem(false)
-            .ascii_folding(true),
-    )
-    .await;
-    let result = ds
+/// LabelList analogue: after prewarming, an `array_has_any` query against a
+/// `LabelList` index serves results without any further IO. Exercises the
+/// `LabelListIndexState` codec (which embeds the inner bitmap state and the
+/// list-nulls bitmap) plus the same per-value bitmap codec.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_label_list_prewarm_with_serializing_backend_serves_query_with_no_io() {
+    use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
+
+    use crate::utils::test::serializing_cache::SerializingCacheBackend;
+
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+
+    let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+        .col(
+            "labels",
+            lance_datagen::array::rand_list_any(
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle::<arrow::datatypes::Int64Type>(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]),
+                false,
+            ),
+        )
+        .into_dataset(&uri, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(2000))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["labels"],
+            IndexType::LabelList,
+            Some("labels_idx".to_owned()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let expected = dataset
         .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
+        .project(&[ROW_ID])
         .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("accentués".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .filter("array_has_any(labels, [3])")
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .num_rows();
+    assert!(
+        expected > 0,
+        "test dataset must contain at least one row whose labels include 3"
+    );
+
+    let backend = Arc::new(SerializingCacheBackend::new());
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+        backend.clone(),
+        128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+    ));
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
+        .with_session(session)
+        .load()
+        .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
 
-    let result = ds
+    dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    dataset.prewarm_index("labels_idx").await.unwrap();
+
+    let serialized_after_prewarm = backend.serialized_entry_count().await;
+    assert!(
+        serialized_after_prewarm > 0,
+        "prewarm should have routed the label-list state and per-value bitmaps through \
+         CacheCodec, but the serializing store was empty"
+    );
+
+    dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    let result = dataset
         .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
+        .project(&[ROW_ID])
         .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("accentues".to_owned()).limit(Some(3)))
+        .filter("array_has_any(labels, [3])")
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.num_rows(),
+        expected,
+        "indexed label-list filter should return correct results after deserialization"
+    );
+
+    let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    assert_io_eq!(
+        stats,
+        read_iops,
+        0,
+        "LabelList filter query should not perform IO after prewarm; the serializing \
+         cache backend must serve the index state and every per-value bitmap from memory"
+    );
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_fts_phrase_query() {
+async fn test_fts_phrase_query_with_removed_stop_words() {
     let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
     let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
     drop(tmpdir);
 
-    let words = ["lance", "full", "text", "search"];
-    let mut lance_search_count = 0;
-    let mut full_text_count = 0;
-    let mut doc_array = (0..4096)
-        .map(|_| {
-            let mut rng = rand::rng();
-            let mut text = String::with_capacity(512);
-            let len = rng.random_range(127..512);
-            for i in 0..len {
-                if i > 0 {
-                    text.push(' ');
-                }
-                text.push_str(words[rng.random_range(0..words.len())]);
-            }
-            if text.contains("lance search") {
-                lance_search_count += 1;
-            }
-            if text.contains("full text") {
-                full_text_count += 1;
-            }
-            text
-        })
-        .collect_vec();
-    // Ensure at least one doc matches each phrase deterministically
-    doc_array.push("lance search".to_owned());
-    lance_search_count += 1;
-    doc_array.push("full text".to_owned());
-    full_text_count += 1;
-    doc_array.push("position for phrase query".to_owned());
-
-    // 1) Build index without positions and assert phrase query errors
-    let params_no_pos = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(false);
-    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(doc_array.clone()));
+    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(vec![
+        "want the apple",
+        "want an apple",
+        "want green apple",
+        "apple want the",
+    ]));
     let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..doc_col.len() as u64);
     let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
         arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
@@ -1690,84 +6289,431 @@ async fn test_fts_phrase_query() {
     let schema = batch.schema();
     let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
     let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
     dataset
-        .create_index(&["doc"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params_no_pos, true)
+        .create_index(
+            &["doc"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                .with_position(true)
+                .remove_stop_words(true),
+            true,
+        )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    let err = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
+    for query in ["want the apple", "want an apple"] {
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                PhraseQuery::new(query.to_owned()).into(),
+            ))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3, "query={query}, ids={ids:?}");
+        assert!(ids.contains(&0), "query={query}, ids={ids:?}");
+        assert!(ids.contains(&1), "query={query}, ids={ids:?}");
+        assert!(ids.contains(&2), "query={query}, ids={ids:?}");
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_without_index_on_zero_fragment_dataset_is_empty() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ArrowField::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+    let empty_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![], schema);
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(empty_reader, "memory://", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(dataset.fragments().is_empty());
+
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    scan.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+        MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("doc".to_owned()))
+            .into(),
+    ))
+    .unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("EmptyExec"), "unexpected plan: {plan}");
+    assert_eq!(scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+
+    let mut phrase_scan = dataset.scan();
+    phrase_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    phrase_scan
         .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-            PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned()).into(),
+            PhraseQuery::new("alpha beta".to_owned())
+                .with_column(Some("doc".to_owned()))
+                .into(),
         ))
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+        .unwrap();
+    let phrase_plan = phrase_scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        phrase_plan.contains("EmptyExec"),
+        "unexpected phrase plan: {phrase_plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(phrase_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_phrase_query_normalizes_leading_stop_word_position() {
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    let initial = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![99])) as ArrayRef),
+        (
+            "doc",
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["placeholder"])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let initial_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], initial.schema());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(initial_reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    let index_params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+        .with_position(true)
+        .remove_stop_words(true);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["doc"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &index_params, true)
         .await
-        .unwrap_err()
-        .to_string();
-    assert!(err.contains("position is not found but required for phrase queries, try recreating the index with position"), "{}", err);
-    assert!(err.starts_with("Invalid user input: "), "{}", err);
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])) as ArrayRef),
+        (
+            "doc",
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "alpha beta",
+                "the alpha beta",
+                "alpha gap beta",
+            ])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let appended_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema());
+    dataset = Dataset::write(
+        appended_reader,
+        Arc::new(dataset),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let appended_fragment = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().clone();
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+        PhraseQuery::new("the alpha beta".to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("doc".to_owned()))
+            .into(),
+    );
+
+    let mut flat_scan = dataset.scan();
+    flat_scan.with_fragments(vec![appended_fragment.clone()]);
+    flat_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    flat_scan.full_text_search(query.clone()).unwrap();
+    let flat_result = flat_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut flat_ids = flat_result["id"]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    flat_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(flat_ids, vec![0, 1]);
 
-    // 2) Recreate index with positions and assert phrase query works
-    let params_with_pos = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true);
     dataset
-        .create_index(&["doc"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params_with_pos, true)
+        .create_index(&["doc"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &index_params, true)
         .await
         .unwrap();
+    let mut indexed_scan = dataset.scan();
+    indexed_scan.with_fragments(vec![appended_fragment]);
+    indexed_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    indexed_scan.full_text_search(query).unwrap();
+    let indexed_result = indexed_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut indexed_ids = indexed_result["id"]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    indexed_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(indexed_ids, flat_ids);
+}
 
-    let result = dataset
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-            PhraseQuery::new("lance search".to_owned()).into(),
-        ))
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_batch()
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_phrase_query_preserves_stop_word_gaps() {
+    let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = tmpdir.to_owned();
+    drop(tmpdir);
+
+    let doc_col: Arc<dyn Array> = Arc::new(GenericStringArray::<i32>::from(vec![
+        "the united states of america",
+        "the united states and america",
+        "united states america",
+        "the united states of north america",
+    ]));
+    let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..doc_col.len() as u64);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("doc", doc_col.data_type().to_owned(), true),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ])
+        .into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(doc_col) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["doc"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                .with_position(true)
+                .remove_stop_words(true),
+            true,
+        )
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), lance_search_count);
 
     let result = dataset
         .scan()
         .project(&["id"])
         .unwrap()
         .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-            PhraseQuery::new("full text".to_owned()).into(),
+            PhraseQuery::new("the united states of america".to_owned()).into(),
         ))
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), full_text_count);
+
+    let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2, "ids={ids:?}");
+    assert!(ids.contains(&0), "ids={ids:?}");
+    assert!(ids.contains(&1), "ids={ids:?}");
+    assert!(!ids.contains(&2), "ids={ids:?}");
+    assert!(!ids.contains(&3), "ids={ids:?}");
+}
+
+fn json_batch(values: Vec<&str>) -> RecordBatch {
+    let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+    metadata.insert(
+        ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+        ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+    );
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("json", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata),
+    ]));
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(values))]).unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn json_btree_dataset(initial_values: Vec<&str>) -> Dataset {
+    let initial = json_batch(initial_values);
+    let initial_schema = initial.schema();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], initial_schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::new("json".to_string()).with_params(&serde_json::json!({
+        "target_index_type": "btree",
+        "path": "val",
+    }));
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["json"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            Some("json_idx".to_string()),
+            &params,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_json_btree_index_statistics() {
+    let dataset = json_btree_dataset(vec![
+        r#"{"val": 1000}"#,
+        r#"{"val": 2000}"#,
+        r#"{"val": 3000}"#,
+    ])
+    .await;
+
+    let stats: serde_json::Value =
+        serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("json_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(stats["name"], "json_idx");
+    assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+    assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 3);
+    assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+    assert_eq!(stats["indices"][0]["min"], "1000");
+    assert_eq!(stats["indices"][0]["max"], "3000");
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::merge(false)]
+#[case::append_rebuild(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_optimize_json_btree_index(#[case] append_rebuild: bool) {
+    let mut dataset = json_btree_dataset(vec![r#"{"val": 1000}"#]).await;
+
+    for values in [
+        vec![r#"{"val": null}"#, r#"{"val": 2000}"#],
+        vec![r#"{"other": 1}"#, r#"{"val": 3000}"#],
+    ] {
+        let batch = json_batch(values);
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        dataset
+            .append(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let options = if append_rebuild {
+        OptimizeOptions::append()
+    } else {
+        OptimizeOptions::default()
+    };
+    dataset.optimize_indices(&options).await.unwrap();
+
+    let indexed_fragments = dataset
+        .load_indices_by_name("json_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|index| index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().iter())
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(indexed_fragments, HashSet::from([0, 1, 2]));
 
     let result = dataset
         .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-            PhraseQuery::new("phrase query".to_owned()).into(),
-        ))
+        .filter("json_get_int(json, 'val') >= 2000")
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2);
+}
 
-    let result = dataset
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_optimize_append_json_btree_preserves_float_type() {
+    let mut dataset = json_btree_dataset(vec![r#"{"val": 1.5}"#]).await;
+    let appended = json_batch(vec![r#"{"val": 2}"#]);
+    let schema = appended.schema();
+    dataset
+        .append(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(appended)], schema), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let predicate = "json_get_float(json, 'val') = 2.0";
+    let indexed = dataset
         .scan()
-        .project(&["id"])
+        .filter(predicate)
         .unwrap()
-        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
-            PhraseQuery::new("".to_owned()).into(),
-        ))
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut baseline_scan = dataset.scan();
+    baseline_scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+    let baseline = baseline_scan
+        .filter(predicate)
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_batch()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+
+    assert_eq!(baseline.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(indexed.num_rows(), baseline.num_rows());
+}
+
+/// `json_extract` evaluates to serialized JSON text (`"click"`, `9`) while a JSON-path
+/// index stores decoded native values (`click`, `9`). The index must decline these
+/// predicates instead of answering them against a different representation.
+///
+/// The cases run sequentially rather than as separate `rstest` cases because each
+/// index build reserves a fixed slice of the shared DataFusion memory pool, and
+/// several concurrent builds exhaust it.
+///
+/// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8806.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_json_extract_matches_unindexed_results() {
+    let cases = [
+        (
+            vec![
+                r#"{"val": "click"}"#,
+                r#"{"val": "view"}"#,
+                r#"{"val": "click"}"#,
+            ],
+            r#"json_extract(json, 'val') = '"click"'"#,
+        ),
+        (
+            vec![r#"{"val": "a"}"#, r#"{"val": "m"}"#, r#"{"val": "z"}"#],
+            r#"json_extract(json, 'val') > '"m"'"#,
+        ),
+        (
+            vec![r#"{"val": 9}"#, r#"{"val": 10}"#, r#"{"val": 9}"#],
+            "json_extract(json, 'val') = '9'",
+        ),
+        (
+            vec![r#"{"val": 9}"#, r#"{"val": 10}"#, r#"{"val": 100}"#],
+            "json_extract(json, 'val') < '100'",
+        ),
+    ];
+
+    fn sorted_matches(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut rows = batch
+            .column_by_name("json")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_string::<i32>()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|value| value.unwrap().to_string())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        rows.sort();
+        rows
+    }
+
+    for (values, predicate) in cases {
+        let dataset = json_btree_dataset(values).await;
+
+        let indexed = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter(predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut baseline_scan = dataset.scan();
+        baseline_scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+        let baseline = baseline_scan
+            .filter(predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Guard against both scans matching nothing, which would pass vacuously.
+        assert!(baseline.num_rows() > 0, "no rows matched {predicate}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            sorted_matches(&indexed),
+            sorted_matches(&baseline),
+            "index changed results for {predicate}"
+        );
+    }
 }
 
 async fn prepare_json_dataset() -> (Dataset, String) {
@@ -1797,7 +6743,7 @@ async fn prepare_json_dataset() -> (Dataset, String) {
     );
     let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
         arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new(&json_col, DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata)
+            Field::new(&json_col, DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata),
         ])
         .into(),
         vec![text_col.clone()],
@@ -2062,7 +7008,7 @@ async fn test_json_inverted_flat_match_query() {
     );
     let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
         arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new(&json_col, DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata)
+            Field::new(&json_col, DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(metadata),
         ])
         .into(),
         vec![text_col.clone()],
@@ -2508,3 +7454,400 @@ async fn test_auto_infer_lance_tokenizer() {
         .unwrap();
     assert_eq!(1, batch.num_rows());
 }
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_index_inherits_dataset_file_version() {
+    // Test that index files use the same format version as the dataset
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+
+    let dimension = 16;
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "embeddings",
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            dimension,
+        ),
+        false,
+    )]));
+
+    let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimension as usize);
+    let vectors = Arc::new(
+        <arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray as FixedSizeListArrayExt>::try_new_from_values(
+            float_arr, dimension,
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vectors.clone()]).unwrap()];
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+    // Create dataset with V2_1 file version
+    let dataset_version = LanceFileVersion::V2_1;
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(dataset_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Create a vector index
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 50);
+    let index_meta = dataset
+        .create_index(&["embeddings"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Get the index directory
+    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(index_meta.uuid.to_string());
+
+    // Open the index file and check its version
+    let index_path = index_dir.clone().join("index.idx");
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+        dataset.object_store.clone(),
+        SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&dataset.object_store),
+    );
+
+    let file_handle = scheduler
+        .open_file(&index_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let index_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+        file_handle,
+        None,
+        Arc::default(),
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        FileReaderOptions::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Verify that the index file uses the same version as the dataset
+    assert_eq!(
+        index_reader.metadata().version(),
+        dataset_version.resolve(),
+        "Index file should use the same format version as the dataset"
+    );
+
+    // Also check the auxiliary file if it exists
+    let aux_path = index_dir.clone().join("auxiliary.idx");
+    if dataset
+        .object_store
+        .exists(&aux_path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_or(false)
+    {
+        let aux_handle = scheduler
+            .open_file(&aux_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let aux_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            aux_handle,
+            None,
+            Arc::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            aux_reader.metadata().version(),
+            dataset_version.resolve(),
+            "Auxiliary index file should use the same format version as the dataset"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_legacy_dataset_uses_v2_0_for_indexes() {
+    // Test that datasets with legacy format still use V2_0 for indexes (not legacy)
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+
+    let dimension = 16;
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "embeddings",
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            dimension,
+        ),
+        false,
+    )]));
+
+    let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimension as usize);
+    let vectors = Arc::new(
+        <arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray as FixedSizeListArrayExt>::try_new_from_values(
+            float_arr, dimension,
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vectors.clone()]).unwrap()];
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+    // Create dataset with legacy file version
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Create a vector index
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 50);
+    let index_meta = dataset
+        .create_index(&["embeddings"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Get the index directory
+    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(index_meta.uuid.to_string());
+
+    // Open the index file and check its version
+    let index_path = index_dir.clone().join("index.idx");
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+        dataset.object_store.clone(),
+        SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&dataset.object_store),
+    );
+
+    let file_handle = scheduler
+        .open_file(&index_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let index_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+        file_handle,
+        None,
+        Arc::default(),
+        &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        FileReaderOptions::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Verify that the index file uses V2_0 (not legacy)
+    assert_eq!(
+        index_reader.metadata().version(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+        "Index files should never use legacy format, even for legacy datasets"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_manifest_read_recovers_from_stale_size() {
+    // A cached `ManifestLocation.size` can lag the real object: a reader may pick
+    // up a size from a stale listing/hint while another writer is committing
+    // concurrently. Reading the manifest (or its index section) with that stale
+    // size must not fail with a spurious "file size is too small" error. The
+    // reader should drop the cached size, fetch the true size, and succeed.
+    use crate::session::Session;
+    use lance_table::io::commit::ManifestLocation;
+    use lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes;
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "id",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from((0..100).collect::<Vec<i32>>()))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let real_location = dataset.manifest_location().clone();
+    assert!(real_location.size.is_some());
+
+    // A deliberately-too-small size stands in for a stale cached size. Without the
+    // retry, both reads below decode a bogus footer offset and fail with
+    // "file size is too small".
+    let stale_location = ManifestLocation {
+        size: Some(1),
+        ..real_location.clone()
+    };
+
+    let session = Session::default();
+    let manifest = Dataset::load_manifest(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &stale_location,
+        test_uri.as_ref(),
+        &session,
+    )
+    .await
+    .expect("load_manifest should recover from a stale manifest size");
+    assert_eq!(manifest.version, real_location.version);
+
+    let indices = read_manifest_indexes(dataset.object_store.as_ref(), &stale_location, &manifest)
+        .await
+        .expect("read_manifest_indexes should recover from a stale manifest size");
+    assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "id_idx");
+}
+
+/// `load_segment_params` must match the fully opened segment's params,
+/// including `custom_stop_words` — the field `InvertedIndexDetails` loses.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_load_segment_params_full_fidelity() {
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{DocumentGranularity, InvertedIndex};
+
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]).into(),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+            "the quick brown fox",
+            "lazy dogs sleep",
+        ]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let stream = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(stream, "memory://test/segment_params", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().custom_stop_words(Some(vec!["quick".to_string()]));
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let segments = crate::index::scalar::load_segments(&dataset, "text", DocumentGranularity::Row)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .expect("FTS index segments");
+    let read = crate::index::scalar::load_segment_params(&dataset, &segments[0])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let generic = dataset
+        .open_generic_index("text", &segments[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let opened = generic
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+        .expect("inverted index");
+    assert_eq!(&read, opened.params());
+}
+
+/// Compaction of a covered index must succeed. `remap_index` rejected any
+/// index with more than one field, so this failed outright -- a covered
+/// dataset could be created but never compacted.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_compaction_withdraws_a_covered_index_without_failing() {
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dimension = 16;
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new(
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimension,
+            ),
+            false,
+        ),
+        ArrowField::new("payload", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+
+    let make_batch = |offset: i32| {
+        let vectors = Arc::new(
+            <arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray as FixedSizeListArrayExt>::try_new_from_values(
+                generate_random_array(256 * dimension as usize),
+                dimension,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let payload = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(offset..offset + 256));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vectors, payload]).unwrap()
+    };
+
+    // Two fragments, so compaction has something to compact.
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(0))], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(256))], schema.clone());
+    dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 50);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let vec_id = dataset.schema().field_id("vec").unwrap();
+    let payload_id = dataset.schema().field_id("payload").unwrap();
+    let current = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let mut covered = current[0].clone();
+    covered.fields = vec![vec_id, payload_id];
+    covered.covering_fields = vec![payload_id];
+
+    let transaction = Transaction::new(
+        dataset.manifest.version,
+        Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![covered],
+            removed_indices: current.to_vec(),
+        },
+        None,
+    );
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let fragments_before: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+    assert!(
+        fragments_before.len() > 1,
+        "precondition: there must be something to compact"
+    );
+
+    // Compaction of the table must not be blocked by an index it cannot remap.
+    compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+        .await
+        .expect("compaction of a covered index must succeed");
+
+    let fragments_after: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+    assert_ne!(
+        fragments_after, fragments_before,
+        "compaction rewrote nothing, so the remap path never ran"
+    );
+
+    // The entry survives untouched -- withdrawal skips remapping rather than
+    // deleting metadata -- but it now covers none of the rewritten fragments, so
+    // no query can be answered from a payload the storage never held.
+    let after = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(after.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(after[0].covering_fields, vec![payload_id]);
+    let live: roaring::RoaringBitmap = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+    let effective = after[0].effective_fragment_bitmap(&live);
+    assert!(
+        effective.is_none_or(|bitmap| bitmap.is_empty()),
+        "a withdrawn covered index must stop covering fragments, got {:?}",
+        after[0].fragment_bitmap
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_io.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_io.rs
index 5aade47d9e1..9791358e2a1 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_io.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_io.rs
@@ -1,49 +1,112 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
+use std::sync::{
+    Arc,
+    atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+};
 use std::vec;
 
 use super::dataset_common::{create_file, require_send};
 
-use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
 use crate::dataset::WriteDestination;
 use crate::dataset::WriteMode::Overwrite;
-use crate::dataset::{write_manifest_file, ManifestWriteConfig};
+use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::DatasetMemWalExt;
+use crate::dataset::schema_evolution::ColumnAlteration;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::Operation;
+use crate::dataset::{
+    ManifestWriteConfig, deep_clone_copy_parallelism, parse_deep_clone_stream_concurrency,
+    validate_dataset_root_for_drop, write_manifest_file,
+};
 use crate::session::Session;
-use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result};
+use crate::session::caches::ManifestKey;
+use crate::{BlobArrayBuilder, BlobFieldOptions, Dataset, Error, Result, blob_field_with_options};
 use lance_table::format::DataStorageFormat;
 
-use crate::dataset::write::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use crate::dataset::write::{CommitBuilder, InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use arrow::array::as_struct_array;
 use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatchReader;
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, Int16Array, Int16DictionaryArray, StructArray};
 use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, BooleanArray, Decimal128Array, Int8Array, Int8DictionaryArray, Int32Array,
+    Int64Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, UInt8Array, UInt8DictionaryArray,
     cast::as_string_array,
     types::{Float32Type, Int32Type},
-    ArrayRef, BooleanArray, Int32Array, Int64Array, Int8Array, Int8DictionaryArray,
-    RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
 };
-use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, Int16Array, Int16DictionaryArray, StructArray};
 use arrow_ord::sort::sort_to_indices;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use lance_arrow::bfloat16::{self, BFLOAT16_EXT_NAME};
 use lance_arrow::{ARROW_EXT_META_KEY, ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY};
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempStdDir, TempStrDir};
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, RowCount};
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+use lance_file::{
+    version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion},
+    writer::FileWriterOptions,
+};
 use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
 use lance_table::feature_flags;
+use lance_table::format::{BasePath, Fragment, pb};
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+use prost::Message;
 
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
 use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
-use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_io::object_store::{
+    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptionsAccessor, WrappingObjectStore,
+};
+use lance_io::utils::tracking_store::IOTracker;
+use lance_table::io::commit::write_manifest_file_to_path;
 use lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use rstest::rstest;
 
+fn file_object_store_uri(path: &std::path::Path) -> String {
+    let path = path.to_str().unwrap().replace('\\', "/");
+    let path_prefix = if path.starts_with('/') { "" } else { "/" };
+    format!("file-object-store://{path_prefix}{path}")
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::empty("")]
+#[case::zero("0")]
+#[case::negative("-1")]
+#[case::not_a_number("many")]
+fn test_parse_deep_clone_stream_concurrency_rejects_invalid_values(#[case] value: &str) {
+    let error = parse_deep_clone_stream_concurrency(value).unwrap_err();
+    let message = error.to_string();
+    assert!(message.contains("LANCE_DEEP_CLONE_STREAM_CONCURRENCY"));
+    assert!(message.contains(&format!("{value:?}")));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_parse_deep_clone_stream_concurrency_accepts_positive_value() {
+    assert_eq!(parse_deep_clone_stream_concurrency("17").unwrap(), 17);
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::direct_local_copy(64, false, None, 64)]
+#[case::streaming_default_cap(64, true, None, 4)]
+#[case::streaming_configured_below_cap(2, true, None, 2)]
+#[case::streaming_override(64, true, Some(17), 17)]
+fn test_deep_clone_copy_parallelism(
+    #[case] configured: usize,
+    #[case] uses_streaming_copy: bool,
+    #[case] stream_override: Option<usize>,
+    #[case] expected: usize,
+) {
+    assert_eq!(
+        deep_clone_copy_parallelism(configured, uses_streaming_copy, stream_override),
+        expected
+    );
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_truncate_table() {
     let tmpdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
@@ -73,539 +136,2352 @@ async fn test_truncate_table() {
     assert_eq!(&actual_schema, expected_schema.as_ref());
 }
 
-#[rstest]
-#[lance_test_macros::test(tokio::test)]
-async fn test_create_dataset(
-    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-) {
-    // Appending / Overwriting a dataset that does not exist is treated as Create
-    for mode in [WriteMode::Create, WriteMode::Append, Overwrite] {
-        let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-        create_file(&test_dir, mode, data_storage_version).await
-    }
+async fn drain_scan(dataset: &Dataset) {
+    dataset
+        .scan()
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 }
 
-#[rstest]
-#[lance_test_macros::test(tokio::test)]
-async fn test_create_and_fill_empty_dataset(
-    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-) {
-    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
-    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-        "i",
-        DataType::Int32,
-        false,
-    )]));
-    let i32_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::new(vec![].into(), None));
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("i", i32_array)]).unwrap();
-    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-    // check schema of reader and original is same
-    assert_eq!(schema.as_ref(), reader.schema().as_ref());
-    let result = Dataset::write(
-        reader,
-        &test_uri,
-        Some(WriteParams {
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            ..Default::default()
-        }),
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_with_object_store_clone_preserves_shared_state_and_overrides_store_binding() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    create_file(&test_dir, WriteMode::Create, LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+    let uri = test_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+
+    let io_tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+        object_store_wrapper: Some(io_tracker),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let (wrapped_store, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+        dataset.session().store_registry(),
+        dataset.uri(),
+        &store_params,
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
+    let wrapped_dataset = dataset.with_object_store(wrapped_store, Some(store_params));
+    assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&dataset.session(), &wrapped_dataset.session()));
+    assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(
+        &dataset.object_store.as_ref().inner,
+        &wrapped_dataset.object_store.as_ref().inner
+    ));
+}
 
-    // check dataset empty
-    assert_eq!(result.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
-    // Since the dataset is empty, will return None.
-    assert_eq!(result.manifest.max_fragment_id(), None);
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_with_object_store_enables_isolated_per_request_io_tracking() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    create_file(&test_dir, WriteMode::Create, LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+    let uri = test_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
 
-    // append rows to dataset
-    let mut write_params = WriteParams {
-        max_rows_per_file: 40,
-        max_rows_per_group: 10,
-        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+    let tracker_a = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let store_params_a = ObjectStoreParams {
+        object_store_wrapper: Some(tracker_a.clone()),
         ..Default::default()
     };
-    // We should be able to append even if the metadata doesn't exactly match.
-    let schema_with_meta = Arc::new(
-        schema
-            .as_ref()
-            .clone()
-            .with_metadata([("key".to_string(), "value".to_string())].into()),
-    );
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema_with_meta,
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+    let (wrapped_store_a, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+        dataset.session().store_registry(),
+        dataset.uri(),
+        &store_params_a,
     )
-    .unwrap()];
-    write_params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-    Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, Some(write_params))
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let wrapped_a = dataset.with_object_store(wrapped_store_a, Some(store_params_a));
 
-    let expected_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+    let tracker_b = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let store_params_b = ObjectStoreParams {
+        object_store_wrapper: Some(tracker_b.clone()),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let (wrapped_store_b, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+        dataset.session().store_registry(),
+        dataset.uri(),
+        &store_params_b,
     )
+    .await
     .unwrap();
+    let wrapped_b = dataset.with_object_store(wrapped_store_b, Some(store_params_b));
 
-    // get actual dataset
-    let actual_ds = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
-    // confirm schema is same
-    let actual_schema = ArrowSchema::from(actual_ds.schema());
-    assert_eq!(&actual_schema, schema.as_ref());
-    // check num rows is 10
-    assert_eq!(actual_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 10);
-    // Max fragment id is still 0 since we only have 1 fragment.
-    assert_eq!(actual_ds.manifest.max_fragment_id(), Some(0));
-    // check expected batch is correct
-    let actual_batches = actual_ds
-        .scan()
-        .try_into_stream()
-        .await
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-    // sort
-    let actual_batch = concat_batches(&schema, &actual_batches).unwrap();
-    let idx_arr = actual_batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-    let sorted_indices = sort_to_indices(idx_arr, None, None).unwrap();
-    let struct_arr: StructArray = actual_batch.into();
-    let sorted_arr = arrow_select::take::take(&struct_arr, &sorted_indices, None).unwrap();
-    let expected_struct_arr: StructArray = expected_batch.into();
-    assert_eq!(&expected_struct_arr, as_struct_array(sorted_arr.as_ref()));
+    let _ = tracker_a.incremental_stats(); // reset
+    let _ = tracker_b.incremental_stats(); // reset
+
+    // Request A uses only wrapper A.
+    drain_scan(&wrapped_a).await;
+    assert!(tracker_a.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0);
+    assert_eq!(tracker_b.incremental_stats().read_iops, 0);
+
+    // Request B uses only wrapper B.
+    drain_scan(&wrapped_b).await;
+    assert_eq!(tracker_a.incremental_stats().read_iops, 0);
+    assert!(tracker_b.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0);
+
+    // Base dataset does not use request-specific wrappers.
+    drain_scan(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(tracker_a.incremental_stats().read_iops, 0);
+    assert_eq!(tracker_b.incremental_stats().read_iops, 0);
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_scan_constant_boolean_inline_value_v2_2() {
-    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
-    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-        "flag",
-        DataType::Boolean,
-        false,
-    )]));
+async fn test_with_object_store_wrappers_wraps_primary_store() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    create_file(&test_dir, WriteMode::Create, LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+    let uri = test_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
 
-    let rows = 1024usize;
-    let flags: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BooleanArray::from_iter(std::iter::repeat_n(true, rows)));
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![flags]).unwrap();
-    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
+    let tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let wrapped =
+        dataset.with_object_store_wrappers(vec![tracker.clone() as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>]);
 
-    Dataset::write(
-        reader,
-        &test_uri,
-        Some(WriteParams {
-            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
-            ..Default::default()
-        }),
-    )
-    .await
-    .unwrap();
+    let _ = tracker.incremental_stats();
+    drain_scan(&wrapped).await;
+    assert!(tracker.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0);
+}
 
-    let ds = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
-    let batches = ds
-        .scan()
-        .project(&["flag"])
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_into_stream()
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_with_object_store_wrappers_wraps_base_store_params() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    create_file(&test_dir, WriteMode::Create, LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+    let uri = test_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap());
+
+    let base_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let base_uri = file_object_store_uri(base_dir.path());
+    let base = BasePath::new(1, base_uri, Some("base".to_string()), true);
+    dataset.add_bases(vec![base.clone()], None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let existing_tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let base_store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+        object_store_wrapper: Some(existing_tracker.clone()),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+        .with_base_store_params(&base.path, base_store_params)
+        .load()
         .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let request_tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let wrapped = dataset
+        .with_object_store_wrappers(vec![request_tracker.clone() as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>]);
+    let base_store = wrapped.object_store(Some(1)).await.unwrap();
+    let base_location = base
+        .extract_path(wrapped.session().store_registry())
         .unwrap()
-        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .join("data")
+        .join("probe.lance");
+
+    base_store.put(&base_location, b"hello").await.unwrap();
+    let _ = existing_tracker.incremental_stats();
+    let _ = request_tracker.incremental_stats();
+
+    base_store
+        .inner
+        .get_range(&base_location, 0..1)
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
-    assert_eq!(total_rows, rows);
-    for batch in batches {
-        let flags = batch
-            .column_by_name("flag")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
-            .unwrap();
-        for i in 0..flags.len() {
-            assert!(flags.value(i));
-        }
-    }
+    assert!(existing_tracker.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0);
+    assert!(request_tracker.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0);
 }
 
-#[rstest]
-#[lance_test_macros::test(tokio::test)]
-async fn test_create_with_empty_iter(
-    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-) {
-    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
-    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-        "i",
-        DataType::Int32,
-        false,
-    )]));
-    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-    // check schema of reader and original is same
-    assert_eq!(schema.as_ref(), reader.schema().as_ref());
-    let write_params = Some(WriteParams {
-        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-        ..Default::default()
-    });
-    let result = Dataset::write(reader, &test_uri, write_params)
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_store_params_for_base_resolves_base_scoped_options() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    create_file(&test_dir, WriteMode::Create, LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+    let uri = test_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap());
+
+    let base_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let base_uri = file_object_store_uri(base_dir.path());
+    let base = BasePath::new(1, base_uri, Some("base".to_string()), true);
+    dataset.add_bases(vec![base.clone()], None).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Reopen with a single flat storage options map carrying base-scoped
+    // entries (`base_<id>.<key>`) next to shared defaults.
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+        .with_storage_options(HashMap::from([
+            ("shared_option".to_string(), "shared".to_string()),
+            (
+                "base_1.scoped_option".to_string(),
+                "base1-value".to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]))
+        .load()
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    // check dataset empty
-    assert_eq!(result.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
-    // Since the dataset is empty, will return None.
-    assert_eq!(result.manifest.max_fragment_id(), None);
+    // The registered base resolves the scoped entry on top of shared defaults.
+    let base_path = dataset.manifest.base_paths.get(&1).unwrap().clone();
+    let params = dataset.store_params_for_base(Some(&base_path));
+    assert_eq!(
+        params.storage_options().unwrap(),
+        &HashMap::from([
+            ("shared_option".to_string(), "shared".to_string()),
+            ("scoped_option".to_string(), "base1-value".to_string()),
+        ])
+    );
+
+    // The default scope keeps only the shared defaults.
+    let params = dataset.store_params_for_base(None);
+    assert_eq!(
+        params.storage_options().unwrap(),
+        &HashMap::from([("shared_option".to_string(), "shared".to_string())])
+    );
+
+    // The base store resolved from scoped options is usable end to end.
+    let base_store = dataset.object_store(Some(1)).await.unwrap();
+    let probe = base
+        .extract_path(dataset.session().store_registry())
+        .unwrap()
+        .join("data")
+        .join("probe.lance");
+    base_store.put(&probe, b"hello").await.unwrap();
+    let read = base_store.inner.get_range(&probe, 0..5).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(read.as_ref(), b"hello");
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_load_manifest_iops() {
-    // Use consistent session so memory store can be reused.
-    let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
-    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-        "i",
-        DataType::Int32,
-        false,
-    )]));
-    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
-    )
-    .unwrap();
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
-    let _original_ds = Dataset::write(
-        batches,
-        "memory://test",
-        Some(WriteParams {
-            session: Some(session.clone()),
-            ..Default::default()
-        }),
+async fn test_with_object_store_wrappers_wraps_refs_store() {
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = file_object_store_uri(test_dir.path());
+    let batch = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(2))
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+        &uri,
+        None,
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
-
-    let _ = _original_ds.object_store().io_stats_incremental(); //reset
-
-    let _dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://test")
-        .with_session(session)
-        .load()
+    dataset
+        .tags()
+        .create("v1", dataset.manifest().version)
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    // There should be only two IOPS:
-    // 1. List _versions directory to get the latest manifest location
-    // 2. Read the manifest file. (The manifest is small enough to be read in one go.
-    //    Larger manifests would result in more IOPS.)
-    let io_stats = _dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-    assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 2);
+    let tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let wrapped =
+        dataset.with_object_store_wrappers(vec![tracker.clone() as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>]);
+
+    let _ = tracker.incremental_stats();
+    wrapped.tags().get("v1").await.unwrap();
+    assert!(tracker.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0);
 }
 
-#[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_write_params(
-    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-) {
-    use crate::dataset::fragment::FragReadConfig;
+async fn test_create_data_file_uses_base_object_store() {
+    let primary_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let source_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let primary_uri = file_object_store_uri(primary_dir.path());
+    let source_uri = file_object_store_uri(source_dir.path());
 
+    let source_batch = gen_batch()
+        .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(8))
+        .unwrap();
+    let source = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(source_batch.clone())], source_batch.schema()),
+        &source_uri,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let primary = Arc::new(
+        Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(source_batch.clone())], source_batch.schema()),
+            &primary_uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+
+    let base = BasePath::new(1, source_uri.clone(), Some("source".to_string()), true);
+    primary.add_bases(vec![base.clone()], None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&primary_uri)
+        .with_base_store_params(
+            &base.path,
+            ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(tracker.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .with_session(Arc::new(Session::default()))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let source_file = &source.manifest().fragments[0].files[0];
+
+    let _ = tracker.incremental_stats();
+    let data_file = dataset
+        .create_data_file(&source_file.path, Some(base.id))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(data_file.base_id, Some(base.id));
+    assert!(tracker.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_create_data_file_rejects_nested_schema_mismatch() {
+    let dataset_uri = format!(
+        "memory://test_create_data_file_rejects_nested_schema_mismatch/{}",
+        uuid::Uuid::new_v4()
+    );
+
+    let dataset_struct_fields = vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ];
+    let dataset_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "s",
+        DataType::Struct(dataset_struct_fields.clone().into()),
+        true,
+    )]));
+    let dataset_struct = StructArray::try_new(
+        dataset_struct_fields.clone().into(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+        None,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let dataset_batch =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(dataset_schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(dataset_struct)]).unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(dataset_batch)], dataset_schema),
+        &dataset_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    async fn write_replacement_file(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        file_name: &str,
+        struct_fields: Vec<ArrowField>,
+    ) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone().into()),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let values = struct_fields
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(idx, _)| Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![idx as i32])) as ArrayRef)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let struct_array = StructArray::try_new(struct_fields.into(), values, None).unwrap();
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(struct_array) as ArrayRef]).unwrap();
+
+        let object_writer = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .create(&dataset.data_dir().join(file_name))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+            object_writer,
+            crate::datatypes::Schema::try_from(schema.as_ref()).unwrap(),
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    write_replacement_file(
+        &dataset,
+        "nested_reordered.lance",
+        vec![
+            ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ],
+    )
+    .await;
+    let err = dataset
+        .create_data_file("nested_reordered.lance", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("Schema mismatch"),
+        "unexpected error: {err}"
+    );
+
+    write_replacement_file(
+        &dataset,
+        "nested_unknown.lance",
+        vec![
+            ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ],
+    )
+    .await;
+    let err = dataset
+        .create_data_file("nested_unknown.lance", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("Schema mismatch"),
+        "unexpected error: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+async fn write_multi_fragment_source(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let batch = gen_batch()
+        .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(64))
+        .unwrap();
+    Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 8,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn tag_and_shallow_clone(source: &mut Dataset, clone_uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    source
+        .tags()
+        .create("to_clone", source.version().version)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    source
+        .shallow_clone(clone_uri, "to_clone", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn registry_attempts(dataset: &Dataset) -> u64 {
+    let stats = dataset.session.store_registry().stats();
+    stats.hits + stats.misses
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct CountingObjectStoreWrapper {
+    wraps: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl WrappingObjectStore for CountingObjectStoreWrapper {
+    fn wrap(
+        &self,
+        _store_prefix: &str,
+        original: Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
+        self.wraps.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        original
+    }
+
+    // Passes requests straight through, so a listing may keep going around it. Only `wrap` is
+    // counted, since the count is what the caching assertions are written against.
+    fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        _store_prefix: &str,
+        original: Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>> {
+        Some(original)
+    }
+}
+
+impl CountingObjectStoreWrapper {
+    fn wraps(&self) -> usize {
+        self.wraps.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+}
+
+fn first_base_id(dataset: &Dataset) -> u32 {
+    dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata().files[0]
+        .base_id
+        .expect("shallow clone data files must reference the source base")
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_shallow_clone_base_artifacts_use_base_object_store() {
+    let source_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let clone_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let source_uri = file_object_store_uri(source_dir.path());
+    let clone_uri = file_object_store_uri(clone_dir.path());
+
+    let mut source = write_multi_fragment_source(&source_uri).await;
+    source
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    source.delete("id < 4").await.unwrap();
+    let cloned = tag_and_shallow_clone(&mut source, &clone_uri).await;
+    let base = cloned
+        .manifest()
+        .base_paths
+        .values()
+        .next()
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    let tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let cloned = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&clone_uri)
+        .with_base_store_params(
+            &base.path,
+            ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(tracker.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .with_session(Arc::new(Session::default()))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let fragment = cloned
+        .get_fragments()
+        .into_iter()
+        .find(|fragment| fragment.metadata.deletion_file.is_some())
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        fragment.metadata.deletion_file.as_ref().unwrap().base_id,
+        Some(base.id)
+    );
+
+    let _ = tracker.incremental_stats();
+    fragment.get_deletion_vector().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    assert!(tracker.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0);
+
+    let indices = cloned.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(indices[0].base_id, Some(base.id));
+
+    let _ = tracker.incremental_stats();
+    cloned.index_statistics("id_idx").await.unwrap();
+    assert!(tracker.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_shallow_clone_reuses_base_object_store() {
+    let source_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let clone_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let source_uri = file_object_store_uri(source_dir.path());
+    let clone_uri = file_object_store_uri(clone_dir.path());
+
+    let mut source = write_multi_fragment_source(&source_uri).await;
+    let cloned = tag_and_shallow_clone(&mut source, &clone_uri).await;
+    let base_id = first_base_id(&cloned);
+
+    let first = cloned.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    let second = cloned.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &second),
+        "repeated lookups must reuse the cached base object store"
+    );
+
+    let third = cloned.clone().object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &third),
+        "dataset clones must share the base object store cache"
+    );
+
+    let tracker = Arc::new(IOTracker::default());
+    let wrapped =
+        cloned.with_object_store_wrappers(vec![tracker.clone() as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>]);
+    let wrapped_store = wrapped.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &wrapped_store),
+        "the wrapped clone must not serve the undecorated store"
+    );
+    let _ = tracker.incremental_stats();
+    wrapped.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        tracker.incremental_stats().read_iops > 0,
+        "reads on the wrapped clone must go through the wrapper"
+    );
+
+    let fresh = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&clone_uri)
+        .with_session(Arc::new(Session::default()))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let attempts_before = registry_attempts(&fresh);
+    let stores = futures::future::try_join_all((0..8).map(|_| fresh.object_store(Some(base_id))))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        stores.iter().all(|store| Arc::ptr_eq(store, &stores[0])),
+        "concurrent resolutions must share one store"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        registry_attempts(&fresh) - attempts_before,
+        1,
+        "concurrent resolutions must resolve the store exactly once"
+    );
+
+    // A caller can derive wrapper-scoped datasets by applying the same shared
+    // wrapper to a cached dataset. Each derived dataset must retain one base
+    // store for its own lifetime without sharing it with another scope.
+    let shared_wrapper = Arc::new(CountingObjectStoreWrapper::default());
+    let scope_a =
+        fresh.with_object_store_wrappers([shared_wrapper.clone() as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>]);
+    let scope_b =
+        fresh.with_object_store_wrappers([shared_wrapper.clone() as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>]);
+    let wraps_before = shared_wrapper.wraps();
+    let attempts_before = registry_attempts(&fresh);
+
+    let scope_a_first = scope_a.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    let scope_a_second = scope_a.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        Arc::ptr_eq(&scope_a_first, &scope_a_second),
+        "one wrapper scope must reuse its resolved base store"
+    );
+
+    let scope_b_first = scope_b.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    let scope_b_second = scope_b.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        Arc::ptr_eq(&scope_b_first, &scope_b_second),
+        "one wrapper scope must reuse its resolved base store"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !Arc::ptr_eq(&scope_a_first, &scope_b_first),
+        "separate wrapper scopes must not share a stateful base store"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !Arc::ptr_eq(&scope_a_first.inner, &scope_b_first.inner),
+        "separate wrapper scopes must not share provider-local layers"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        registry_attempts(&fresh) - attempts_before,
+        0,
+        "wrapper-scoped base stores must bypass the global registry cache"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        shared_wrapper.wraps() - wraps_before,
+        2,
+        "each wrapper scope must build its base store exactly once"
+    );
+
+    let read = cloned.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(read.num_rows(), 64);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_base_files_share_one_scheduler_per_scan() {
+    use crate::dataset::fragment::{BaseSchedulers, FragReadConfig};
+    use futures::StreamExt;
+
+    // A shallow clone whose data files all reference the source base.
+    let source_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let clone_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let source_uri = file_object_store_uri(source_dir.path());
+    let clone_uri = file_object_store_uri(clone_dir.path());
+
+    let mut source = write_multi_fragment_source(&source_uri).await;
+    let cloned = tag_and_shallow_clone(&mut source, &clone_uri).await;
+    let fragments = cloned.get_fragments();
+    assert!(
+        fragments.len() > 1,
+        "need multiple base fragments to exercise sharing"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        fragments
+            .iter()
+            .all(|f| f.metadata().files.iter().all(|df| df.base_id.is_some())),
+        "shallow clone data files must reference the source base"
+    );
+
+    // Open every base fragment through one shared cache, as a scan does.
+    let cache = BaseSchedulers::new(4 * 1024 * 1024);
+    let projection = cloned.schema().clone();
+    for fragment in &fragments {
+        let read_config = FragReadConfig::default().with_base_schedulers(cache.clone());
+        let reader = fragment.open(&projection, read_config).await.unwrap();
+        // Drive the read so the base file is actually opened and its scheduler
+        // resolved through the cache.
+        reader
+            .read_all(1024)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .buffered(1)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // Every fragment shares the source base, so opening all of them built
+    // exactly one scheduler. Reverting the open_current_file_reader change
+    // (a fresh scheduler per file) leaves the cache empty and fails this.
+    assert_eq!(
+        cache.len(),
+        1,
+        "all files of one base must share a single scheduler"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_base_object_store_cache_invalidation() {
+    let source_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let clone_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let extra_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let source_uri = file_object_store_uri(source_dir.path());
+    let clone_uri = file_object_store_uri(clone_dir.path());
+
+    let mut source = write_multi_fragment_source(&source_uri).await;
+    let mut cloned = tag_and_shallow_clone(&mut source, &clone_uri).await;
+    let base_id = first_base_id(&cloned);
+    let store = cloned.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+
+    let rebound = cloned.with_object_store(
+        cloned.object_store.clone(),
+        Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+            block_size: Some(32 * 1024),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    );
+    let rebound_store = rebound.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !Arc::ptr_eq(&store, &rebound_store),
+        "changed store params must not serve the previously cached base store"
+    );
+
+    cloned.delete("id = 0").await.unwrap();
+    let attempts_before = registry_attempts(&cloned);
+    let retained = cloned.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        Arc::ptr_eq(&store, &retained),
+        "commits that keep base_paths must keep the cache"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        registry_attempts(&cloned) - attempts_before,
+        0,
+        "commits that keep base_paths must not re-resolve the store"
+    );
+
+    let with_extra = Arc::new(cloned)
+        .add_bases(
+            vec![lance_table::format::BasePath::new(
+                0,
+                file_object_store_uri(extra_dir.path()),
+                Some("extra".to_string()),
+                true,
+            )],
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let attempts_before = registry_attempts(&with_extra);
+    with_extra.object_store(Some(base_id)).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        registry_attempts(&with_extra) - attempts_before,
+        1,
+        "base_paths changes must reset the cache and re-resolve the store"
+    );
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_object_store_uses_runtime_base_store_params() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    create_file(&test_dir, WriteMode::Create, LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+    let uri = test_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap());
+
+    let base_a = BasePath::new(
+        1,
+        "az://container/path-a".to_string(),
+        Some("base-a".to_string()),
+        true,
+    );
+    let base_b = BasePath::new(
+        2,
+        "az://container/path-b".to_string(),
+        Some("base-b".to_string()),
+        true,
+    );
+    dataset
+        .add_bases(vec![base_a.clone(), base_b.clone()], None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let base_a_store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+        storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+            HashMap::from([
+                ("account_name".to_string(), "account-a".to_string()),
+                ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+            ]),
+        ))),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let default_store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+        storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+            HashMap::from([
+                ("account_name".to_string(), "account-b".to_string()),
+                ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+            ]),
+        ))),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+        .with_store_params(default_store_params)
+        .with_base_store_params(&base_a.path, base_a_store_params)
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let store_a = dataset.object_store(Some(1)).await.unwrap();
+    let store_a_again = dataset.object_store(Some(1)).await.unwrap();
+    let store_b = dataset.object_store(Some(2)).await.unwrap();
+
+    assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&store_a, &store_a_again));
+    assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&store_a, &store_b));
+    assert_eq!(store_a.store_prefix, "az$container@account-a");
+    assert_eq!(store_b.store_prefix, "az$container@account-b");
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[lance_test_macros::test(tokio::test)]
+async fn test_create_dataset(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    // Appending / Overwriting a dataset that does not exist is treated as Create
+    for mode in [WriteMode::Create, WriteMode::Append, Overwrite] {
+        let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+        create_file(&test_dir, mode, data_storage_version).await
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[lance_test_macros::test(tokio::test)]
+async fn test_create_and_fill_empty_dataset(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let i32_array: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::new(vec![].into(), None));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("i", i32_array)]).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    // check schema of reader and original is same
+    assert_eq!(schema.as_ref(), reader.schema().as_ref());
+    let result = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // check dataset empty
+    assert_eq!(result.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+    // Since the dataset is empty, will return None.
+    assert_eq!(result.manifest.max_fragment_id(), None);
+
+    // append rows to dataset
+    let mut write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: 40,
+        max_rows_per_group: 10,
+        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    // We should be able to append even if the metadata doesn't exactly match.
+    let schema_with_meta = Arc::new(
+        schema
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone()
+            .with_metadata([("key".to_string(), "value".to_string())].into()),
+    );
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema_with_meta,
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+    write_params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let expected_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // get actual dataset
+    let actual_ds = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    // confirm schema is same
+    let actual_schema = ArrowSchema::from(actual_ds.schema());
+    assert_eq!(&actual_schema, schema.as_ref());
+    // check num rows is 10
+    assert_eq!(actual_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 10);
+    // Max fragment id is still 0 since we only have 1 fragment.
+    assert_eq!(actual_ds.manifest.max_fragment_id(), Some(0));
+    // check expected batch is correct
+    let actual_batches = actual_ds
+        .scan()
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // sort
+    let actual_batch = concat_batches(&schema, &actual_batches).unwrap();
+    let idx_arr = actual_batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+    let sorted_indices = sort_to_indices(idx_arr, None, None).unwrap();
+    let struct_arr: StructArray = actual_batch.into();
+    let sorted_arr = arrow_select::take::take(&struct_arr, &sorted_indices, None).unwrap();
+    let expected_struct_arr: StructArray = expected_batch.into();
+    assert_eq!(&expected_struct_arr, as_struct_array(sorted_arr.as_ref()));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scan_constant_boolean_inline_value_v2_2() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "flag",
+        DataType::Boolean,
+        false,
+    )]));
+
+    let rows = 1024usize;
+    let flags: ArrayRef = Arc::new(BooleanArray::from_iter(std::iter::repeat_n(true, rows)));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![flags]).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
+
+    Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let ds = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    let batches = ds
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["flag"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+    assert_eq!(total_rows, rows);
+    for batch in batches {
+        let flags = batch
+            .column_by_name("flag")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        for i in 0..flags.len() {
+            assert!(flags.value(i));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[lance_test_macros::test(tokio::test)]
+async fn test_create_with_empty_iter(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    // check schema of reader and original is same
+    assert_eq!(schema.as_ref(), reader.schema().as_ref());
+    let write_params = Some(WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+        ..Default::default()
+    });
+    let result = Dataset::write(reader, &test_uri, write_params)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // check dataset empty
+    assert_eq!(result.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+    // Since the dataset is empty, will return None.
+    assert_eq!(result.manifest.max_fragment_id(), None);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_load_manifest_iops() {
+    // Use consistent session so memory store can be reused.
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let _original_ds = Dataset::write(
+        batches,
+        "memory://test",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            session: Some(session.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let _ = _original_ds.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); //reset
+
+    let _dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://test")
+        .with_session(session)
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // The write above committed on this same Session, so the manifest is already
+    // in the metadata cache. Opening therefore issues a single IOP:
+    // 1. List _versions directory to resolve the latest manifest location.
+    // The manifest body is served from the cache instead of being read from storage.
+    let io_stats = _dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 1);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_checkout_removed_version_not_served_from_cache() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            session: Some(session.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let version = dataset.manifest().version;
+    let location = dataset.manifest_location().clone();
+    let cache = session.metadata_cache.for_dataset(&dataset.uri);
+
+    assert!(
+        cache
+            .get_with_key(&ManifestKey {
+                version,
+                e_tag: location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+            })
+            .await
+            .is_some(),
+        "manifest should be cached after the write"
+    );
+    dataset.checkout_version(version).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Remove the version from storage, as cleanup (or a manual delete) would.
+    dataset.object_store.delete(&location.path).await.unwrap();
+
+    let resolved = dataset
+        .commit_handler
+        .resolve_version_location(&dataset.base, version, &dataset.object_store.inner)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        resolved.size.is_none(),
+        "resolving a removed version must fall back to a size-less location, got {:?}",
+        resolved.size
+    );
+
+    cache
+        .insert_with_key(
+            &ManifestKey {
+                version,
+                e_tag: None,
+            },
+            Arc::new(dataset.manifest().clone()),
+        )
+        .await;
+    assert!(
+        dataset.checkout_version(version).await.is_err(),
+        "checkout of a version removed from storage must not be served from cache"
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_write_params(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    use crate::dataset::fragment::FragReadConfig;
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let num_rows: usize = 1_000;
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: 100,
+        max_rows_per_group: 10,
+        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), num_rows);
+
+    let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+    assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 10);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_fragments(), 10);
+    for fragment in &fragments {
+        assert_eq!(fragment.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 100);
+        // No group / batch concept in v2
+        if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+            let reader = crate::dataset::versions::open_v1_fragment_reader(
+                fragment,
+                dataset.schema(),
+                &FragReadConfig::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(reader.num_batches(), 10);
+            for i in 0..reader.num_batches() as u32 {
+                assert_eq!(reader.num_rows_in_batch(i).unwrap(), 10);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_write_manifest(
+    #[values(
+        LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
+        LanceFileVersion::Stable,
+        LanceFileVersion::Next
+    )]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    let write_fut = Dataset::write(
+        batches,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            auto_cleanup: None,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    );
+    let write_fut = require_send(write_fut);
+    let mut dataset = write_fut.await.unwrap();
+
+    // Check it has no flags
+    let manifest = read_manifest(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &dataset
+            .commit_handler
+            .resolve_latest_location(&dataset.base, dataset.object_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .path,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        manifest.data_storage_format,
+        DataStorageFormat::new(data_storage_version.resolve())
+    );
+    assert!(!matches!(
+        manifest.data_storage_format.version.to_manifest_string(),
+        "stable" | "next"
+    ));
+    assert_eq!(manifest.reader_feature_flags, 0);
+
+    // Create one with deletions
+    dataset.delete("i < 10").await.unwrap();
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Check it set the flag
+    let mut manifest = read_manifest(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &dataset
+            .commit_handler
+            .resolve_latest_location(&dataset.base, dataset.object_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .path,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags,
+        feature_flags::FLAG_DELETION_FILES
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags,
+        feature_flags::FLAG_DELETION_FILES
+    );
+
+    // Write with custom manifest
+    manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNKNOWN; // Set another flag
+    manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+    manifest.version += 1;
+    write_manifest_file(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+        &dataset.base,
+        &mut manifest,
+        None,
+        &ManifestWriteConfig {
+            auto_set_feature_flags: false,
+            timestamp: None,
+            use_stable_row_ids: false,
+            use_legacy_format: None,
+            storage_format: None,
+            disable_transaction_file: false,
+            migration_next_row_id: None,
+            tagged_frag_reuse_trim: false,
+        },
+        dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+        None,
+        // Previously classified from a None inline copy, which validated.
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Check it rejects reading it
+    let read_result = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await;
+    assert!(matches!(read_result, Err(Error::NotSupported { .. })));
+
+    // Check it rejects writing to it.
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    let write_result = Dataset::write(
+        batches,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    assert!(matches!(write_result, Err(Error::NotSupported { .. })));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn open_rejects_mixed_file_versions_without_capability() {
+    let uri = TempStdDir::default();
+    create_file(&uri, WriteMode::Create, LanceFileVersion::V2_0).await;
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(uri.to_str().unwrap()).await.unwrap();
+    let mut manifest = read_manifest(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &dataset.manifest_location.path,
+        dataset.manifest_location.size,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let file = &mut Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments)[0].files[0];
+    file.file_major_version = 2;
+    file.file_minor_version = 1;
+    manifest.version += 1;
+
+    dataset
+        .commit_handler
+        .commit(
+            &mut manifest,
+            None,
+            &dataset.base,
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+            write_manifest_file_to_path,
+            dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let err = Dataset::open(uri.to_str().unwrap()).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("not enabled"), "{err}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn mixed_v2_snapshot_supports_scan_filter_and_take() {
+    let uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let first =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1]))]).unwrap();
+    let second =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 3]))]).unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(first.clone())], schema.clone()),
+        &uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let file_name = "mixed-v2_1.lance";
+    let object_writer = dataset
+        .object_store
+        .create(&dataset.data_dir().join(file_name))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::create_lazy_writer(
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        object_writer,
+        FileWriterOptions::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    writer.write_batch(&second).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+    let data_file = dataset.create_data_file(file_name, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments).push(Fragment {
+        id: 1,
+        files: vec![data_file],
+        overlays: vec![],
+        deletion_file: None,
+        row_id_meta: None,
+        physical_rows: Some(second.num_rows()),
+        last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        created_at_version_meta: None,
+    });
+    manifest.reader_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+    manifest.writer_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+    manifest.version += 1;
+    write_manifest_file(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+        &dataset.base,
+        &mut manifest,
+        None,
+        &ManifestWriteConfig {
+            auto_set_feature_flags: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+        None,
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mixed = Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap();
+    let actual = mixed.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let expected = concat_batches(&schema, &[first, second]).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+
+    let mut filtered_scan = mixed.scan();
+    filtered_scan.filter("i >= 2").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(filtered_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 2);
+
+    let taken = mixed
+        .take(&[0, 3], Arc::new(mixed.schema().clone()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(taken.num_rows(), 2);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn same_fragment_mixed_v2_files_validate_and_scan() {
+    let uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 0])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 0])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone()),
+        &uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let columns = [
+        (
+            "mixed-a-v2_0.lance",
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    "a",
+                    DataType::Int32,
+                    false,
+                )])),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ),
+        (
+            "mixed-b-v2_1.lance",
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    "b",
+                    DataType::Int32,
+                    false,
+                )])),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3, 4]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ),
+    ];
+    let mut data_files = Vec::with_capacity(columns.len());
+    for (file_name, version, batch) in columns {
+        let object_writer = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .create(&dataset.data_dir().join(file_name))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer = lance_file::versions::create_lazy_writer(
+            version,
+            object_writer,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
+        writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        data_files.push(dataset.create_data_file(file_name, None).await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments)[0].files = data_files;
+    manifest.reader_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+    manifest.writer_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+    manifest.version += 1;
+    write_manifest_file(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+        &dataset.base,
+        &mut manifest,
+        None,
+        &ManifestWriteConfig {
+            auto_set_feature_flags: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+        None,
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mixed = Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap();
+    mixed.validate().await.unwrap();
+    let actual = mixed.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let expected = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3, 4])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_restore_rejects_unknown_target_flags() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(data, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let write_config = ManifestWriteConfig {
+        auto_set_feature_flags: false,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let mut unknown_manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    unknown_manifest.version = 2;
+    unknown_manifest.reader_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+    unknown_manifest.writer_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+    write_manifest_file(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+        &dataset.base,
+        &mut unknown_manifest,
+        None,
+        &write_config,
+        dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+        None,
+        // No inline transaction to classify from, so validate.
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut supported_manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    supported_manifest.version = 3;
+    write_manifest_file(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+        &dataset.base,
+        &mut supported_manifest,
+        None,
+        &write_config,
+        dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+        None,
+        // No inline transaction to classify from, so validate.
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let error = Dataset::commit(
+        &test_uri,
+        Operation::Restore { version: 2 },
+        Some(3),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Default::default(),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap_err();
+
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_checkout_latest_rejects_unsupported_reader_before_caching() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    let original_version = dataset.version().version;
+
+    let mut unsupported_manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    unsupported_manifest.version += 1;
+    unsupported_manifest.reader_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+    unsupported_manifest.writer_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+    let location = write_manifest_file(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+        &dataset.base,
+        &mut unsupported_manifest,
+        None,
+        &ManifestWriteConfig {
+            auto_set_feature_flags: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+        None,
+        // No inline transaction to classify from, so validate.
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let error = dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+    assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, original_version);
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .metadata_cache
+            .get_with_key(&ManifestKey {
+                version: location.version,
+                e_tag: location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+            })
+            .await
+            .is_none(),
+        "unsupported manifest must not be cached"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_serialized_manifest_rejects_unsupported_reader() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(data, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut unsupported_manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    unsupported_manifest.reader_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+    unsupported_manifest.writer_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN;
+    let serialized_manifest = pb::Manifest::from(&unsupported_manifest).encode_to_vec();
+
+    let error = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_uri)
+        .with_serialized_manifest(&serialized_manifest)
+        .unwrap()
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_serialized_manifest_rejects_missing_mixed_version_capability() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(data, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    manifest.data_storage_format = DataStorageFormat::new(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0);
+    let serialized_manifest = pb::Manifest::from(&manifest).encode_to_vec();
+
+    let error = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_uri)
+        .with_serialized_manifest(&serialized_manifest)
+        .unwrap()
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+    assert!(
+        error.to_string().contains("not enabled"),
+        "unexpected message: {error}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rle_v2_v23_write_and_append() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7; 1000]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        batches,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let manifest = read_manifest(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &dataset
+            .commit_handler
+            .resolve_latest_location(&dataset.base, dataset.object_store.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .path,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+    );
+
+    let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![9; 1000]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let append_batches =
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_batch)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
+    dataset = Dataset::write(
+        append_batches,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+    );
+
+    let actual = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let expected = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(
+            [vec![7; 1000], vec![9; 1000]].concat(),
+        ))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rle_v2_uncommitted_create_commits_v23_storage() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7; 1000]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(test_uri.as_str())
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(test_uri.as_str())
+        .execute(transaction)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rle_v2_shallow_clone_preserves_v23_storage() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let clone_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7; 1000]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema),
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.base_paths.is_empty());
+    assert!(!dataset.manifest.has_managed_blobs());
+
+    let clone = dataset
+        .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), dataset.version().version, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        clone.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn append_dataset(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
     let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
 
-    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-        "i",
-        DataType::Int32,
-        false,
-    )]));
-    let num_rows: usize = 1_000;
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+
+    let mut write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: 40,
+        max_rows_per_group: 10,
+        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, Some(write_params.clone()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(20..40))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+    write_params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, Some(write_params.clone()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let expected_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..40))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let actual_ds = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(actual_ds.version().version, 2);
+    let actual_schema = ArrowSchema::from(actual_ds.schema());
+    assert_eq!(&actual_schema, schema.as_ref());
+
+    let actual_batches = actual_ds
+        .scan()
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // sort
+    let actual_batch = concat_batches(&schema, &actual_batches).unwrap();
+    let idx_arr = actual_batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+    let sorted_indices = sort_to_indices(idx_arr, None, None).unwrap();
+    let struct_arr: StructArray = actual_batch.into();
+    let sorted_arr = arrow_select::take::take(&struct_arr, &sorted_indices, None).unwrap();
+
+    let expected_struct_arr: StructArray = expected_batch.into();
+    assert_eq!(&expected_struct_arr, as_struct_array(sorted_arr.as_ref()));
+
+    // Each fragments has different fragment ID
+    assert_eq!(
+        actual_ds
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        (0..2).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    )
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_deep_clone(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    // Setup source and target dirs
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let base_dir = test_dir.join("base_ds");
+    let test_uri = base_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let clone_dir = test_dir.join("clone_ds");
+    let cloned_uri = clone_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+
+    // Generate test data
+    let data_reader = gen_batch()
+        .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col("val", array::fill_utf8("deep".to_string()))
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(64), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+    // Create source dataset
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        data_reader,
+        test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 64,
+            max_rows_per_group: 16,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut branch = dataset
+        .create_branch("branch", dataset.version().version, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Create a scalar index to validate index copy
+    branch
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Create a deletion file by deleting some rows
+    branch.delete("id < 10").await.unwrap();
+
+    let original_version = branch.version().version;
+    branch
+        .tags()
+        .create("tag", ("branch", original_version))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Perform deep clone
+    let cloned_dataset = branch.deep_clone(cloned_uri, "tag", None).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Validate target dataset rows
+    let batches = cloned_dataset
+        .scan()
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+    assert_eq!(total_rows, 54); // 64 rows - 10 deletions
+    assert_eq!(cloned_dataset.version().version, original_version);
+    assert!(cloned_dataset.manifest().base_paths.is_empty());
+
+    // Validate internal file counts are equal between source and cloned datasets
+    let store = branch.object_store.as_ref();
+    let src_root = dataset.base.clone();
+    let branch_root = branch.base.clone();
+    let dst_root = cloned_dataset.base.clone();
+
+    let src_data = count_files(store, &src_root, "data").await;
+    let dst_data = count_files(store, &dst_root, "data").await;
+    assert_eq!(src_data, dst_data);
+
+    let src_idx = count_files(store, &branch_root, "_indices").await;
+    let dst_idx = count_files(store, &dst_root, "_indices").await;
+    assert_eq!(src_idx, dst_idx);
+
+    let src_del = count_files(store, &branch_root, "_deletions").await;
+    let dst_del = count_files(store, &dst_root, "_deletions").await;
+    assert_eq!(src_del, dst_del);
+
+    // Validate index exists in cloned dataset
+    let cloned_indices = cloned_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!cloned_indices.is_empty());
+    assert_eq!(cloned_indices.first().unwrap().name, "id_idx");
+
+    // Verify base_id cleared in cloned manifest and indices
+    for frag in cloned_dataset.manifest().fragments.iter() {
+        for df in &frag.files {
+            assert!(df.base_id.is_none());
+        }
+        if let Some(del) = &frag.deletion_file {
+            assert!(del.base_id.is_none());
+        }
+    }
+    for idx in cloned_indices.iter() {
+        assert!(idx.base_id.is_none());
+    }
+
+    // Attempt cloning again to the same target should error
+    let res = dataset.deep_clone(cloned_uri, "tag", None).await;
+    assert!(matches!(res, Err(Error::DatasetAlreadyExists { .. })));
 
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    // Invalid tag should error
+    let res_invalid = dataset
+        .deep_clone(&format!("{}/clone_invalid", test_uri), "no_such_tag", None)
+        .await;
+    assert!(matches!(res_invalid, Err(Error::RefNotFound { .. })));
 
-    let write_params = WriteParams {
-        max_rows_per_file: 100,
-        max_rows_per_group: 10,
-        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-        ..Default::default()
-    };
-    let dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, Some(write_params))
+    // deep_clone version before the deletion
+    let clone_dir = test_dir.join("clone_ds_old_ver");
+    let cloned_ds = clone_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let cloned_dataset = branch
+        .deep_clone(cloned_ds, ("branch", original_version - 1), None)
         .await
         .unwrap();
+    let store = branch.object_store.as_ref();
+    let dst_root = cloned_dataset.base.clone();
 
-    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), num_rows);
-
-    let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
-    assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 10);
-    assert_eq!(dataset.count_fragments(), 10);
-    for fragment in &fragments {
-        assert_eq!(fragment.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 100);
-        let reader = fragment
-            .open(dataset.schema(), FragReadConfig::default())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        // No group / batch concept in v2
-        if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            assert_eq!(reader.legacy_num_batches(), 10);
-            for i in 0..reader.legacy_num_batches() as u32 {
-                assert_eq!(reader.legacy_num_rows_in_batch(i).unwrap(), 10);
-            }
-        }
-    }
+    // Validate target dataset rows
+    let batches = cloned_dataset
+        .scan()
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+    assert_eq!(total_rows, 64);
+    assert_eq!(cloned_dataset.version().version, original_version - 1);
+    assert!(cloned_dataset.manifest().base_paths.is_empty());
+    assert_eq!(count_files(store, &dst_root, "_deletions").await, 0);
 }
 
-#[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_write_manifest(
-    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-) {
-    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN;
-
-    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
-
-    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-        "i",
-        DataType::Int32,
+async fn test_deep_clone_copies_blob_v2_sidecars() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let source_dir = test_dir.join("blob_source");
+    let clone_dir = test_dir.join("blob_clone");
+    let expected_blobs: [&[u8]; 2] = [b"packed!!", b"this payload uses a dedicated sidecar"];
+    let blob_field = blob_field_with_options(
+        "blob",
         false,
-    )]));
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
+        BlobFieldOptions::default()
+            .with_inline_size_threshold(4)
+            .with_dedicated_size_threshold(NonZeroUsize::new(12).unwrap()),
+    );
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        blob_field,
+    ]));
+    let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+    for value in expected_blobs {
+        blobs.push_bytes(value).unwrap();
+    }
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
         schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            blobs.finish().unwrap(),
+        ],
     )
-    .unwrap()];
+    .unwrap();
 
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-    let write_fut = Dataset::write(
-        batches,
-        &test_uri,
+    let mut source = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        source_dir.to_str().unwrap(),
         Some(WriteParams {
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            auto_cleanup: None,
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            max_rows_per_group: 1,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
             ..Default::default()
         }),
-    );
-    let write_fut = require_send(write_fut);
-    let mut dataset = write_fut.await.unwrap();
-
-    // Check it has no flags
-    let manifest = read_manifest(
-        dataset.object_store(),
-        &dataset
-            .commit_handler
-            .resolve_latest_location(&dataset.base, dataset.object_store())
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .path,
-        None,
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(source.count_fragments(), 2);
+    source
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let source_index_file_count =
+        count_files(source.object_store.as_ref(), &source.base, "_indices").await;
 
+    let cloned = Arc::new(
+        source
+            .deep_clone(clone_dir.to_str().unwrap(), source.version().version, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+    );
+    let cloned_indices = cloned.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(cloned_indices.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(cloned_indices[0].name, "id_idx");
     assert_eq!(
-        manifest.data_storage_format,
-        DataStorageFormat::new(data_storage_version)
+        count_files(cloned.object_store.as_ref(), &cloned.base, "_indices").await,
+        source_index_file_count
     );
-    assert_eq!(manifest.reader_feature_flags, 0);
 
-    // Create one with deletions
-    dataset.delete("i < 10").await.unwrap();
-    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    let cloned_blobs = cloned.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1], "blob").await.unwrap();
+    for (blob, expected) in cloned_blobs.into_iter().zip(expected_blobs) {
+        let actual = blob.unwrap().read().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(actual.as_ref(), expected);
+    }
+}
 
-    // Check it set the flag
-    let mut manifest = read_manifest(
-        dataset.object_store(),
-        &dataset
-            .commit_handler
-            .resolve_latest_location(&dataset.base, dataset.object_store())
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .path,
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_deep_clone_rejects_unsupported_writer_before_copying() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let source_dir = test_dir.join("source");
+    let target_dir = test_dir.join("target");
+    let mut source = Dataset::write(
+        gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(32), BatchCount::from(1)),
+        source_dir.to_str().unwrap(),
         None,
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(
-        manifest.writer_feature_flags,
-        feature_flags::FLAG_DELETION_FILES
-    );
-    assert_eq!(
-        manifest.reader_feature_flags,
-        feature_flags::FLAG_DELETION_FILES
-    );
 
-    // Write with custom manifest
-    manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNKNOWN; // Set another flag
-    manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_UNKNOWN;
-    manifest.version += 1;
+    let mut unsupported_manifest = source.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    unsupported_manifest.version += 1;
+    unsupported_manifest.writer_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN << 1;
     write_manifest_file(
-        dataset.object_store(),
-        dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
-        &dataset.base,
-        &mut manifest,
+        source.object_store.as_ref(),
+        source.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+        &source.base,
+        &mut unsupported_manifest,
         None,
         &ManifestWriteConfig {
             auto_set_feature_flags: false,
-            timestamp: None,
-            use_stable_row_ids: false,
-            use_legacy_format: None,
-            storage_format: None,
-            disable_transaction_file: false,
+            ..Default::default()
         },
-        dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+        source.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
         None,
+        // No inline transaction to classify from, so validate.
+        true,
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
 
-    // Check it rejects reading it
-    let read_result = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await;
-    assert!(matches!(read_result, Err(Error::NotSupported { .. })));
-
-    // Check it rejects writing to it.
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-    let write_result = Dataset::write(
-        batches,
-        &test_uri,
-        Some(WriteParams {
-            mode: WriteMode::Append,
-            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-            ..Default::default()
-        }),
-    )
-    .await;
-
-    assert!(matches!(write_result, Err(Error::NotSupported { .. })));
+    let error = source
+        .deep_clone(
+            target_dir.to_str().unwrap(),
+            unsupported_manifest.version,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+    assert!(!target_dir.exists());
 }
 
-#[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn append_dataset(
-    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-) {
-    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+async fn test_shallow_clone_rejects_unsupported_writer_before_writing_target() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let source_dir = test_dir.join("source");
+    let target_dir = test_dir.join("target");
+    let mut source = Dataset::write(
+        gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(32), BatchCount::from(1)),
+        source_dir.to_str().unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
 
-    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-        "i",
-        DataType::Int32,
-        false,
-    )]));
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
+    let mut unsupported_manifest = source.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    unsupported_manifest.version += 1;
+    unsupported_manifest.writer_feature_flags |= feature_flags::FLAG_UNKNOWN << 1;
+    write_manifest_file(
+        source.object_store.as_ref(),
+        source.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+        &source.base,
+        &mut unsupported_manifest,
+        None,
+        &ManifestWriteConfig {
+            auto_set_feature_flags: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        source.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+        None,
+        // No inline transaction to classify from, so validate.
+        true,
     )
-    .unwrap()];
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
 
-    let mut write_params = WriteParams {
-        max_rows_per_file: 40,
-        max_rows_per_group: 10,
-        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-        ..Default::default()
-    };
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-    Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, Some(write_params.clone()))
+    let error = source
+        .shallow_clone(
+            target_dir.to_str().unwrap(),
+            unsupported_manifest.version,
+            None,
+        )
         .await
-        .unwrap();
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+    assert!(!target_dir.exists());
+}
 
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(20..40))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
-    write_params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
-    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-    Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, Some(write_params.clone()))
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_deep_clone_recognizes_ambiguous_commit_as_own() {
+    use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
 
-    let expected_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..40))],
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let source_dir = test_dir.join("source");
+    let source_uri = source_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let target_dir = test_dir.join("target");
+    let target_uri = target_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+    let data_reader = gen_batch()
+        .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(32), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let mut source = Dataset::write(
+        data_reader,
+        source_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
     )
+    .await
     .unwrap();
+    let source_transaction_file = source.manifest().transaction_file.clone();
 
-    let actual_ds = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(actual_ds.version().version, 2);
-    let actual_schema = ArrowSchema::from(actual_ds.schema());
-    assert_eq!(&actual_schema, schema.as_ref());
-
-    let actual_batches = actual_ds
-        .scan()
-        .try_into_stream()
-        .await
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-    // sort
-    let actual_batch = concat_batches(&schema, &actual_batches).unwrap();
-    let idx_arr = actual_batch.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
-    let sorted_indices = sort_to_indices(idx_arr, None, None).unwrap();
-    let struct_arr: StructArray = actual_batch.into();
-    let sorted_arr = arrow_select::take::take(&struct_arr, &sorted_indices, None).unwrap();
-
-    let expected_struct_arr: StructArray = expected_batch.into();
-    assert_eq!(&expected_struct_arr, as_struct_array(sorted_arr.as_ref()));
+    handler.fail_next(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndConflict);
+    let cloned = source
+        .deep_clone(target_uri, source.version().version, None)
+        .await
+        .expect("readback must identify the deep-clone transaction that landed");
 
-    // Each fragments has different fragment ID
-    assert_eq!(
-        actual_ds
-            .fragments()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.id)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-        (0..2).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-    )
+    assert_eq!(cloned.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 32);
+    assert_ne!(cloned.manifest().transaction_file, source_transaction_file);
+    assert!(cloned.manifest().transaction_section.is_some());
 }
 
+// Uses an in-memory source store to force a cross-store copy. The in-memory store has
+// known platform-specific quirks on Windows (it reads back empty there; see the note in
+// tests/resource_tests.rs), so this test is gated to non-Windows. The local write side is
+// covered on Windows by `test_deep_clone`, and streaming copies against real cloud stores
+// use platform-agnostic std/tokio I/O.
+#[cfg(not(windows))]
 #[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_deep_clone(
+async fn test_deep_clone_cross_store(
     #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
     data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
 ) {
-    // Setup source and target dirs
+    // Source lives in an in-memory store while the target is a local directory. Their
+    // different `store_prefix`es exercise separate source and destination implementations.
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
     let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-    let base_dir = test_dir.join("base_ds");
-    let test_uri = base_dir.to_str().unwrap();
     let clone_dir = test_dir.join("clone_ds");
     let cloned_uri = clone_dir.to_str().unwrap();
 
-    // Generate test data
+    // 64 rows across 4 files exercises the multi-fragment copy path.
     let data_reader = gen_batch()
         .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
         .col("val", array::fill_utf8("deep".to_string()))
         .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(64), BatchCount::from(1));
 
-    // Create source dataset
     let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
         data_reader,
-        test_uri,
+        "memory://cross_store_src",
         Some(WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 64,
+            max_rows_per_file: 16,
             max_rows_per_group: 16,
             data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            session: Some(session.clone()),
             ..Default::default()
         }),
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
+    assert_ne!(dataset.object_store.store_prefix, "");
 
-    let mut branch = dataset
-        .create_branch("branch", dataset.version().version, None)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-    // Create a scalar index to validate index copy
-    branch
+    // Create a scalar index so the index files and the manifest index section are also
+    // copied across stores (the index section is read through the source store at commit).
+    dataset
         .create_index(
             &["id"],
             IndexType::Scalar,
@@ -616,21 +2492,24 @@ async fn test_deep_clone(
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    // Create a deletion file by deleting some rows
-    branch.delete("id < 10").await.unwrap();
-
-    let original_version = branch.version().version;
-    branch
-        .tags()
-        .create("tag", ("branch", original_version))
+    // Delete some rows so a deletion file is also streamed across stores.
+    dataset.delete("id < 10").await.unwrap();
+    let cloned_dataset = dataset
+        .deep_clone(cloned_uri, dataset.version().version, None)
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    // Perform deep clone
-    let cloned_dataset = branch.deep_clone(cloned_uri, "tag", None).await.unwrap();
+    // The clone targets a local store, distinct from the in-memory source.
+    assert_ne!(
+        cloned_dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+        dataset.object_store.store_prefix
+    );
+    assert!(cloned_dataset.manifest().base_paths.is_empty());
 
-    // Validate target dataset rows
-    let batches = cloned_dataset
+    // Re-open the clone from a fresh session to prove the files were physically copied
+    // into the target store and the clone is fully independent of the source store.
+    let reopened = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(cloned_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+    let batches = reopened
         .scan()
         .try_into_stream()
         .await
@@ -640,85 +2519,19 @@ async fn test_deep_clone(
         .unwrap();
     let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
     assert_eq!(total_rows, 54); // 64 rows - 10 deletions
-    assert_eq!(cloned_dataset.version().version, original_version);
-    assert!(cloned_dataset.manifest().base_paths.is_empty());
-
-    // Validate internal file counts are equal between source and cloned datasets
-    let store = branch.object_store();
-    let src_root = dataset.base.clone();
-    let branch_root = branch.base.clone();
-    let dst_root = cloned_dataset.base.clone();
-
-    let src_data = count_files(store, &src_root, "data").await;
-    let dst_data = count_files(store, &dst_root, "data").await;
-    assert_eq!(src_data, dst_data);
-
-    let src_idx = count_files(store, &branch_root, "_indices").await;
-    let dst_idx = count_files(store, &dst_root, "_indices").await;
-    assert_eq!(src_idx, dst_idx);
-
-    let src_del = count_files(store, &branch_root, "_deletions").await;
-    let dst_del = count_files(store, &dst_root, "_deletions").await;
-    assert_eq!(src_del, dst_del);
 
-    // Validate index exists in cloned dataset
-    let cloned_indices = cloned_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-    assert!(!cloned_indices.is_empty());
+    // The scalar index must have been copied and resolve against the target store, with its
+    // base reference normalized to local (no external base_paths).
+    let cloned_indices = reopened.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(cloned_indices.len(), 1);
     assert_eq!(cloned_indices.first().unwrap().name, "id_idx");
-
-    // Verify base_id cleared in cloned manifest and indices
-    for frag in cloned_dataset.manifest().fragments.iter() {
-        for df in &frag.files {
-            assert!(df.base_id.is_none());
-        }
-        if let Some(del) = &frag.deletion_file {
-            assert!(del.base_id.is_none());
-        }
-    }
-    for idx in cloned_indices.iter() {
-        assert!(idx.base_id.is_none());
-    }
-
-    // Attempt cloning again to the same target should error
-    let res = dataset.deep_clone(cloned_uri, "tag", None).await;
-    assert!(matches!(res, Err(Error::DatasetAlreadyExists { .. })));
-
-    // Invalid tag should error
-    let res_invalid = dataset
-        .deep_clone(&format!("{}/clone_invalid", test_uri), "no_such_tag", None)
-        .await;
-    assert!(matches!(res_invalid, Err(Error::RefNotFound { .. })));
-
-    // deep_clone version before the deletion
-    let clone_dir = test_dir.join("clone_ds_old_ver");
-    let cloned_ds = clone_dir.to_str().unwrap();
-    let cloned_dataset = branch
-        .deep_clone(cloned_ds, ("branch", original_version - 1), None)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-    let store = branch.object_store();
-    let dst_root = cloned_dataset.base.clone();
-
-    // Validate target dataset rows
-    let batches = cloned_dataset
-        .scan()
-        .try_into_stream()
-        .await
-        .unwrap()
-        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-    let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
-    assert_eq!(total_rows, 64);
-    assert_eq!(cloned_dataset.version().version, original_version - 1);
-    assert!(cloned_dataset.manifest().base_paths.is_empty());
-    assert_eq!(count_files(store, &dst_root, "_deletions").await, 0);
+    assert!(cloned_indices.iter().all(|idx| idx.base_id.is_none()));
 }
 
 // Helper: count files under a dataset directory (data/_indices/_deletions)
 async fn count_files(store: &ObjectStore, root: &Path, prefix: &str) -> usize {
     use futures::StreamExt;
-    let dir = root.child(prefix);
+    let dir = root.clone().join(prefix);
     let mut stream = store.read_dir_all(&dir, None);
     let mut count: usize = 0;
     while stream.next().await.transpose().unwrap().is_some() {
@@ -965,6 +2778,94 @@ async fn test_shallow_clone_multiple_times(
     validate_dataset(&original, 36, 1, 0).await;
 }
 
+/// A chained shallow clone (A -> B -> C) must not restamp an index entry that
+/// already references an earlier base. `Manifest::shallow_clone` carries the
+/// source's `base_paths` over under the same ids, so an index whose files live
+/// in A keeps `base_id = 0` through every hop; unconditionally restamping it
+/// to the newly assigned id would point C at B's `_indices/`, where the files
+/// do not exist, and break indexed queries of every index type.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_chained_shallow_clone_keeps_index_base() {
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let a_uri = format!("{}/a", test_dir.as_str());
+    let b_uri = format!("{}/b", test_dir.as_str());
+    let c_uri = format!("{}/c", test_dir.as_str());
+
+    // A: two fragments with a committed scalar index; the index files live
+    // only in A's `_indices/`.
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(8), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let mut dataset_a = Dataset::write(
+        data,
+        a_uri.as_str(),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset_a
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            Some("i_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let index_base = |dataset: &Dataset, indices: &[lance_table::format::IndexMetadata]| {
+        let index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap();
+        (index.base_id, dataset.manifest().base_paths.clone())
+    };
+
+    // First hop: A's own entry gets the newly assigned base (the control).
+    let a_version = dataset_a.version().version;
+    let mut dataset_b = dataset_a
+        .shallow_clone(b_uri.as_str(), a_version, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let b_indices = dataset_b.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let (b_base_id, b_base_paths) = index_base(&dataset_b, &b_indices);
+    assert_eq!(b_base_id, Some(0));
+    assert_eq!(b_base_paths.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(b_base_paths[&0].path, a_uri);
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset_b
+            .count_rows(Some("i = 3".to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        1
+    );
+
+    // Second hop: the already-stamped entry keeps referencing A through the
+    // carried base path instead of being restamped onto B.
+    let b_version = dataset_b.version().version;
+    let dataset_c = dataset_b
+        .shallow_clone(c_uri.as_str(), b_version, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let c_indices = dataset_c.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let (c_base_id, c_base_paths) = index_base(&dataset_c, &c_indices);
+    assert_eq!(c_base_id, Some(0));
+    assert_eq!(c_base_paths.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(c_base_paths[&0].path, a_uri);
+    assert_eq!(c_base_paths[&1].path, b_uri);
+
+    // The indexed query resolves the index files from A.
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset_c
+            .count_rows(Some("i = 3".to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        1
+    );
+    assert_eq!(dataset_c.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 8);
+}
+
 #[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_self_dataset_append(
@@ -978,11 +2879,13 @@ async fn test_self_dataset_append(
         DataType::Int32,
         false,
     )]));
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
 
     let mut write_params = WriteParams {
         max_rows_per_file: 40,
@@ -995,11 +2898,13 @@ async fn test_self_dataset_append(
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(20..40))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(20..40))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
     write_params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
     let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
 
@@ -1063,22 +2968,26 @@ async fn test_self_dataset_append_schema_different(
         DataType::Int32,
         false,
     )]));
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
 
     let other_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
         "i",
         DataType::Int64,
         false,
     )]));
-    let other_batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        other_schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let other_batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            other_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
 
     let mut write_params = WriteParams {
         max_rows_per_file: 40,
@@ -1116,13 +3025,15 @@ async fn append_dictionary(
     )]));
     let dictionary = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"]));
     let indices = Int8Array::from(vec![0, 1, 0]);
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(
-            Int8DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary.clone()).unwrap(),
-        )],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(
+                Int8DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary.clone()).unwrap(),
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
 
     let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
     let mut write_params = WriteParams {
@@ -1138,13 +3049,15 @@ async fn append_dictionary(
 
     // create a new one with same dictionary
     let indices = Int8Array::from(vec![1, 0, 1]);
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(
-            Int8DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary).unwrap(),
-        )],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(
+                Int8DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary).unwrap(),
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
 
     // Write to dataset (successful)
     write_params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
@@ -1156,13 +3069,15 @@ async fn append_dictionary(
     // Create a new one with *different* dictionary
     let dictionary = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["d", "c"]));
     let indices = Int8Array::from(vec![1, 0, 1]);
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(
-            Int8DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary).unwrap(),
-        )],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(
+                Int8DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary).unwrap(),
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
 
     // Try write to dataset (fails with legacy format)
     let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
@@ -1174,6 +3089,82 @@ async fn append_dictionary(
     }
 }
 
+#[rstest]
+#[case::appended_null_value(
+    (0..=i8::MAX)
+        .map(|value| Some(format!("value-{value}")))
+        .collect(),
+    (0..=i8::MAX).map(Some).chain([None]).collect()
+)]
+#[case::existing_unaddressable_null_value(
+    (0..130)
+        .map(|value| (value != 129).then(|| format!("value-{value}")))
+        .collect(),
+    vec![Some(0_i8), None]
+)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn write_rejects_dictionary_null_index_outside_declared_key_range(
+    #[case] values: Vec<Option<String>>,
+    #[case] indices: Vec<Option<i8>>,
+) {
+    let dictionary = Arc::new(StringArray::from(values));
+    let indices = Int8Array::from(indices);
+    let dictionary = Int8DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary).unwrap();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "d",
+        dictionary.data_type().clone(),
+        true,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(dictionary)]).unwrap();
+
+    let error = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .expect_err("the widened indices cannot be represented by Int8");
+
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        error
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("dictionary indices use 32 bits but the declared Int8 key type uses 8 bits")
+    );
+}
+
+/// `dict:{value}:{index}:false` cannot express a value type whose own logical
+/// string carries ':', so `Schema::try_from` used to panic on the way in rather
+/// than rejecting the write.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn write_rejects_dictionary_value_type_that_has_no_logical_type() {
+    let values = Decimal128Array::from(vec![Some(100), Some(200), Some(300)])
+        .with_precision_and_scale(10, 2)
+        .unwrap();
+    let indices = UInt8Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 1]);
+    let dictionary = UInt8DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, Arc::new(values)).unwrap();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "d",
+        dictionary.data_type().clone(),
+        true,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(dictionary)]).unwrap();
+
+    let error = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://",
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .expect_err("a decimal-valued dictionary has no parseable logical type");
+
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::Schema { .. }));
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("does not parse back"));
+}
+
 #[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn overwrite_dataset(
@@ -1187,11 +3178,13 @@ async fn overwrite_dataset(
         DataType::Int32,
         false,
     )]));
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
 
     let mut write_params = WriteParams {
         max_rows_per_file: 40,
@@ -1213,13 +3206,15 @@ async fn overwrite_dataset(
         DataType::Utf8,
         false,
     )]));
-    let new_batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        new_schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
-            (20..40).map(|v| v.to_string()),
-        ))],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let new_batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            new_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                (20..40).map(|v| v.to_string()),
+            ))],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
     write_params.mode = Overwrite;
     let new_batch_reader =
         RecordBatchIterator::new(new_batches.into_iter().map(Ok), new_schema.clone());
@@ -1229,9 +3224,10 @@ async fn overwrite_dataset(
 
     let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
     assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
-    // Fragment ids reset after overwrite.
-    assert_eq!(fragments[0].id(), 0);
-    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id(), Some(0));
+    // Fragment ids continue from the dataset's high water mark after an
+    // overwrite; they are never reused.
+    assert_eq!(fragments[0].id(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id(), Some(1));
 
     let actual_ds = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
     assert_eq!(actual_ds.version().version, 2);
@@ -1314,6 +3310,118 @@ async fn test_fast_count_rows(
     );
 }
 
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_sample_with_fragment_ids(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(12), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        data,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            max_rows_per_group: 2,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    dataset.delete("i IN (1, 9)").await.unwrap();
+
+    let projection = dataset.schema().project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+    let sampled = dataset
+        .sample(8, &projection, Some(&[0, 0, 2]))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let sampled_values = sampled
+        .column_by_name("i")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+        .unwrap()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+
+    assert_eq!(sampled_values, vec![0, 2, 3, 8, 10, 11]);
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_sample_with_empty_fragment_ids_rejected(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(8), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        data,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            max_rows_per_group: 2,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let projection = dataset.schema().project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+    let err = dataset.sample(1, &projection, Some(&[])).await.unwrap_err();
+
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("does not accept an empty fragment_ids list")
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_sample_with_unknown_fragment_ids_rejected(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(8), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        data,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            max_rows_per_group: 2,
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let projection = dataset.schema().project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+    let err = dataset
+        .sample(1, &projection, Some(&[0, 999]))
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("not part of the current dataset version")
+    );
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("999"));
+}
+
 #[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_bfloat16_roundtrip(
@@ -1386,12 +3494,8 @@ async fn test_overwrite_mixed_version() {
     .unwrap();
 
     assert_eq!(
-        dataset
-            .manifest
-            .data_storage_format
-            .lance_file_version()
-            .unwrap(),
-        LanceFileVersion::Legacy
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1
     );
 
     let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
@@ -1407,12 +3511,8 @@ async fn test_overwrite_mixed_version() {
     .unwrap();
 
     assert_eq!(
-        dataset
-            .manifest
-            .data_storage_format
-            .lance_file_version()
-            .unwrap(),
-        LanceFileVersion::Legacy
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1
     );
 }
 
@@ -1443,13 +3543,15 @@ async fn test_manifest_partially_fits() {
         (0..1000).map(|i| i.to_string()),
     ));
     let indices = Int16Array::from_iter_values(0..1000);
-    let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-        schema.clone(),
-        vec![Arc::new(
-            Int16DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary.clone()).unwrap(),
-        )],
-    )
-    .unwrap()];
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(
+                Int16DictionaryArray::try_new(indices, dictionary.clone()).unwrap(),
+            )],
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
 
     let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
     let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
@@ -1491,3 +3593,614 @@ async fn test_dataset_uri_roundtrips() {
         dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap()
     );
 }
+
+/// A commit handler whose resolve_latest_location always returns an IO error.
+/// Used to verify that non-NotFound errors from resolve_latest_location are
+/// propagated as-is rather than being wrapped as DatasetNotFound.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ErroringCommitHandler;
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl lance_table::io::commit::CommitHandler for ErroringCommitHandler {
+    async fn resolve_latest_location(
+        &self,
+        _base_path: &Path,
+        _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    ) -> Result<lance_table::io::commit::ManifestLocation> {
+        Err(Error::io("simulated I/O error".to_string()))
+    }
+
+    async fn commit(
+        &self,
+        _manifest: &mut lance_table::format::Manifest,
+        _indices: Option<Vec<lance_table::format::IndexMetadata>>,
+        _base_path: &Path,
+        _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+        _manifest_writer: lance_table::io::commit::ManifestWriter,
+        _naming_scheme: lance_table::io::commit::ManifestNamingScheme,
+        _transaction: Option<lance_table::format::Transaction>,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<
+        lance_table::io::commit::ManifestLocation,
+        lance_table::io::commit::CommitError,
+    > {
+        unimplemented!()
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_open_dataset_non_not_found_error_is_not_masked() {
+    // When resolve_latest_location returns an IO error, it should propagate
+    // as an IO error, not be wrapped as DatasetNotFound.
+    let store = Arc::new(object_store::memory::InMemory::new());
+    let location = url::Url::parse("memory://test").unwrap();
+
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    let result = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://test")
+        .with_object_store(store, location, Arc::new(ErroringCommitHandler))
+        .load()
+        .await;
+
+    let err = result.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(err, Error::IO { .. }),
+        "Expected IO error but got: {:?}",
+        err,
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_get_fragment_by_id() {
+    // 4 fragments of 10 rows each, ids 0..=3.
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(4));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        data,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 4);
+
+    for id in 0..4 {
+        let fragment = dataset.get_fragment(id).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fragment.id(), id);
+    }
+    assert!(dataset.get_fragment(4).is_none());
+    assert!(dataset.get_fragment(usize::MAX).is_none());
+
+    // Deleting all rows of fragment 1 leaves a hole in the id space.
+    dataset.delete("i >= 10 AND i < 20").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 3);
+    assert!(dataset.get_fragment(1).is_none());
+    for id in [0, 2, 3] {
+        let fragment = dataset.get_fragment(id).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fragment.id(), id);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Replace the manifest fragments, rebuilding the derived state exactly as
+/// opening a dataset does, so the lookups see a manifest Lance would read off
+/// disk rather than one it just built.
+fn install_fragments(dataset: &mut Dataset, fragments: Vec<Fragment>) {
+    let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    manifest.fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+    dataset.manifest = Arc::new(manifest);
+    dataset.fragment_bitmap = Arc::new(
+        dataset
+            .manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+            .collect(),
+    );
+}
+
+/// Manifests written before fragments were forced into id order (Lance 0.10 and
+/// earlier) and manifests with duplicate fragment ids (Lance 0.16 and earlier)
+/// are still readable -- neither is rejected on open. A lookup that trusted the
+/// sorted-by-id invariant would hand back a different fragment's data.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::unsorted(vec![3, 1, 2, 0])]
+#[case::duplicate_ids(vec![0, 0, 2, 3])]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_get_fragment_on_legacy_manifest(#[case] ids: Vec<u64>) {
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(4));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        data,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let by_id: HashMap<u64, Fragment> = dataset
+        .manifest
+        .fragments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| (fragment.id, fragment.clone()))
+        .collect();
+    let fragments: Vec<Fragment> = ids.iter().map(|id| by_id[id].clone()).collect();
+    install_fragments(&mut dataset, fragments);
+
+    for id in ids.iter().map(|id| *id as usize) {
+        let fragment = dataset.get_fragment(id).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            fragment.id(),
+            id,
+            "get_fragment({id}) returned the wrong fragment"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            fragment.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
+            10,
+            "get_fragment({id}) returned unreadable metadata"
+        );
+    }
+    assert!(dataset.get_fragment(4).is_none());
+}
+
+async fn write_tiny_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1]))]).unwrap();
+    Dataset::write(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema), uri, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// `drop` deletes whatever path it is handed, so the guard must accept a real dataset
+/// even when the user keeps unmanaged files beside it.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::committed_dataset(&[], true)]
+// `cleanup_preserves_unmanaged_dirs_and_files` establishes that a dataset may sit
+// alongside unmanaged files, so those must not block a drop either.
+#[case::dataset_with_unmanaged_files(&["images/clip.mp4", "misc/notes.txt"], true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_validate_dataset_root_for_drop_accepts_committed_dataset(
+    #[case] extra_entries: &[&str],
+    #[case] expected_ok: bool,
+) {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let dataset_dir = test_dir.as_ref().join("t.lance");
+    write_tiny_dataset(dataset_dir.to_str().unwrap()).await;
+    for entry in extra_entries {
+        let path = dataset_dir.join(entry);
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(path.parent().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        std::fs::write(&path, b"unmanaged").unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let (object_store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(dataset_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let result = validate_dataset_root_for_drop(&object_store, &base).await;
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.is_ok(),
+        expected_ok,
+        "unexpected outcome: {result:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A manifest under a detached version name is still a manifest, so a root holding only
+/// one is a dataset root.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_validate_dataset_root_for_drop_accepts_detached_manifest() {
+    let source_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let source = source_dir.as_ref().join("t.lance");
+    let dataset = write_tiny_dataset(source.to_str().unwrap()).await;
+    let manifest_name = dataset
+        .manifest_location()
+        .path
+        .filename()
+        .unwrap()
+        .to_string();
+    let manifest_bytes = std::fs::read(source.join("_versions").join(manifest_name)).unwrap();
+
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let detached_dir = test_dir.as_ref().join("_versions");
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&detached_dir).unwrap();
+    std::fs::write(
+        detached_dir.join("d9223372036854775808.manifest"),
+        &manifest_bytes,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let (object_store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(test_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    validate_dataset_root_for_drop(&object_store, &base)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// A namespace may reserve a table name without ever writing a manifest, and dropping
+/// that reservation has to keep working.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::declared(".lance-reserved")]
+#[case::deregistered(".lance-deregistered")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_validate_dataset_root_for_drop_accepts_namespace_marker(#[case] marker: &str) {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    std::fs::write(test_dir.as_ref().join(marker), b"table t").unwrap();
+
+    let (object_store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(test_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    validate_dataset_root_for_drop(&object_store, &base)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Anything short of a readable manifest must fail closed, because the delete this
+/// guards is recursive and unrecoverable. A file merely sitting under `_versions/`, or
+/// merely named like a manifest, is not evidence: either is trivial to end up with in a
+/// storage root that holds irreplaceable data.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::unrelated_file_under_versions(&["_versions/README", "reports/q1.csv"])]
+#[case::unreadable_manifest(&["_versions/1.manifest", "reports/q1.csv"])]
+#[case::unreadable_v2_manifest(&["_versions/00000000000000000001.manifest", "reports/q1.csv"])]
+#[case::unreadable_detached_manifest(&["_versions/d9223372036854775808.manifest"])]
+#[case::staged_manifest(&["_versions/1.manifest-2e1f0c3a", "data/0.lance"])]
+#[case::data_files_only(&["data/0.lance"])]
+#[case::layout_dirs_only(&["data/0.lance", "tree/branch/data/0.lance"])]
+#[case::home_directory(&["data/0.lance", "notes.txt"])]
+#[case::unrelated_directory(&["reports/q1.csv"])]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_validate_dataset_root_for_drop_rejects_paths_without_a_readable_manifest(
+    #[case] entries: &[&str],
+) {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    for entry in entries {
+        let path = test_dir.as_ref().join(entry);
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(path.parent().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        std::fs::write(&path, b"not a manifest").unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let (object_store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(test_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = validate_dataset_root_for_drop(&object_store, &base)
+        .await
+        .expect_err("must not authorize a recursive delete without a readable manifest");
+
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err:?}");
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("no readable Lance manifest"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A zero-length manifest reads as corrupt rather than as I/O failure, so it must be
+/// reported as "not a dataset root" like any other unreadable manifest.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_validate_dataset_root_for_drop_rejects_empty_manifest() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let versions = test_dir.as_ref().join("_versions");
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&versions).unwrap();
+    std::fs::write(versions.join("1.manifest"), b"").unwrap();
+
+    let (object_store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(test_dir.to_str().unwrap())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = validate_dataset_root_for_drop(&object_store, &base)
+        .await
+        .expect_err("an empty manifest is not evidence of a dataset");
+
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err:?}");
+}
+
+/// The parent of a dataset is not a dataset, however Lance-looking its children are.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_validate_dataset_root_for_drop_rejects_warehouse_root() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let warehouse = test_dir.as_ref().join("warehouse");
+    write_tiny_dataset(warehouse.join("t.lance").to_str().unwrap()).await;
+
+    let (object_store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(warehouse.to_str().unwrap())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = validate_dataset_root_for_drop(&object_store, &base)
+        .await
+        .expect_err("a warehouse root must not be droppable");
+
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err:?}");
+}
+
+/// A path that does not exist must stay a not-found error from the delete itself
+/// rather than becoming a validation error, so callers keep the error kind they
+/// already handle.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_validate_dataset_root_for_drop_allows_missing_path() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let missing = test_dir.as_ref().join("does_not_exist");
+
+    let (object_store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri(missing.to_str().unwrap())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    validate_dataset_root_for_drop(&object_store, &base)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Restore and clone rebuild a manifest from a stored one, never passing
+/// through the Arrow-schema conversion that validates a primary key. Both write
+/// through `write_manifest_file`, so the invariant is enforced there — a schema
+/// that reached a manifest before the write paths were validated cannot be
+/// carried forward into a new version.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn write_manifest_file_rejects_a_nullable_primary_key() {
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "id",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]))]).unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+        &test_dir,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Stand in for a manifest stored before the write paths were validated.
+    let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    let id_field = manifest
+        .schema
+        .fields
+        .iter_mut()
+        .find(|field| field.name == "id")
+        .expect("schema has an id column");
+    id_field.unenforced_primary_key_position = Some(1);
+    id_field.nullable = true;
+    manifest.version += 1;
+
+    let err = write_manifest_file(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+        &dataset.base,
+        &mut manifest,
+        None,
+        &ManifestWriteConfig {
+            auto_set_feature_flags: false,
+            timestamp: None,
+            use_stable_row_ids: false,
+            use_legacy_format: None,
+            storage_format: None,
+            disable_transaction_file: false,
+            migration_next_row_id: None,
+            tagged_frag_reuse_trim: false,
+        },
+        dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+        None,
+        // Previously classified from a None inline copy, which validated.
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .expect_err("a nullable primary key must not reach a manifest");
+    assert!(
+        format!("{err:?}").contains("must not be nullable"),
+        "unexpected error: {err:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Stand in for a table written by a released version, where the metadata path
+/// could install a primary key on a column that permits nulls. The forging goes
+/// through `write_manifest_file` classified as schema-preserving, which is
+/// precisely the hole those versions had, so the resulting manifest is the one
+/// an upgrade actually finds on disk.
+///
+/// The two rows are `[1, NULL]`, so the null the key must not hold is really
+/// present and the repairing delete has something to remove.
+async fn write_dataset_with_a_legacy_nullable_primary_key(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    forge_legacy_nullable_primary_key(uri, false).await
+}
+
+/// The originally reported sequence initialised MemWAL *before* the key was
+/// installed, so `initialize_mem_wal`'s own check never saw it. That ordering
+/// matters: a MemWAL transaction carries mem-table state, so it is far more
+/// likely to outgrow the inline limit than a bare config update.
+async fn forge_legacy_nullable_primary_key(uri: &str, with_mem_wal: bool) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "id",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        true,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema), uri, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    if with_mem_wal {
+        dataset
+            .initialize_mem_wal()
+            .unsharded()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .expect("MemWAL initialises while the key is still valid");
+    }
+
+    // Carried forward explicitly: passing None here would drop the MemWAL index
+    // the fixture just installed.
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+
+    let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+    let id_field = manifest
+        .schema
+        .fields
+        .iter_mut()
+        .find(|field| field.name == "id")
+        .expect("schema has an id column");
+    id_field.unenforced_primary_key_position = Some(1);
+    manifest.version += 1;
+
+    // Committed below `write_manifest_file` on purpose. Going through it would
+    // make building the fixture depend on the very validation these tests
+    // exercise, so a regression would show up as a fixture that cannot be
+    // built rather than as the behaviour under test changing.
+    manifest.set_timestamp(crate::dataset::timestamp_to_nanos(None));
+    manifest.update_max_fragment_id();
+    dataset
+        .commit_handler
+        .commit(
+            &mut manifest,
+            (!indices.is_empty()).then_some(indices),
+            &dataset.base,
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+            lance_table::io::commit::write_manifest_file_to_path,
+            dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("forging a legacy manifest must not itself be blocked");
+
+    Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap()
+}
+
+/// An unrelated config update leaves the key exactly as it found it, so it is
+/// exempt -- and must stay exempt no matter how large its payload is. The
+/// disposition comes from the operation; only the inline copy depends on size.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn an_exempt_operation_stays_exempt_when_its_transaction_spills() {
+    use crate::io::commit::MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_dataset_with_a_legacy_nullable_primary_key(&test_dir).await;
+
+    dataset
+        .update_config([("unrelated".to_string(), "small".to_string())])
+        .await
+        .expect("a small unrelated config update must be exempt");
+    let after_small = dataset.version().version;
+
+    dataset
+        .update_config([(
+            "large-unrelated".to_string(),
+            "x".repeat(2 * MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES),
+        )])
+        .await
+        .expect("the same update must stay exempt once its bytes stop inlining");
+
+    assert!(
+        dataset.version().version > after_small,
+        "the spilling update must have committed a new version"
+    );
+}
+
+/// The repair path: drop the offending rows, then tighten the column. Both have
+/// to be reachable on a table that already carries the bad key, or the only
+/// remaining fix is a full overwrite.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn a_legacy_nullable_primary_key_can_be_repaired_in_place() {
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_dataset_with_a_legacy_nullable_primary_key(&test_dir).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 2);
+
+    dataset
+        .delete("id IS NULL")
+        .await
+        .expect("removing the offending rows must not be blocked");
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 1);
+
+    dataset
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("id".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+        .await
+        .expect("tightening the column completes the repair");
+
+    let id_field = dataset
+        .schema()
+        .fields
+        .iter()
+        .find(|field| field.name == "id")
+        .expect("schema has an id column");
+    assert!(
+        !id_field.nullable,
+        "the key column must end up non-nullable"
+    );
+}
+
+/// The MemWAL variant of the repair path. This is the state the original report
+/// was about, and the one a size-coupled gate blocks: its transactions carry
+/// An overlay attaches files to existing fragments; it carries no schema, so a
+/// dataset that already holds a nullable primary key must still be able to
+/// commit one. `DataOverlay` was missing from the exempt classifier, which
+/// closed that path for exactly the legacy datasets this validation is meant to
+/// leave repairable.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn an_overlay_commits_on_a_legacy_nullable_primary_key() {
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_table::transaction::Operation;
+
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = write_dataset_with_a_legacy_nullable_primary_key(&test_dir).await;
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::DataOverlay { groups: vec![] },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .expect("an overlay leaves the schema alone, so the legacy key must not block it");
+
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, read_version + 1);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 2);
+}
+
+/// mem-table state, so they stop inlining long before a config update does.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn a_legacy_nullable_primary_key_can_be_repaired_under_mem_wal() {
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = forge_legacy_nullable_primary_key(&test_dir, true).await;
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|index| index.name == lance_index::mem_wal::MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME),
+        "the fixture must really have MemWAL initialised"
+    );
+
+    dataset
+        .update_config([("unrelated".to_string(), "small".to_string())])
+        .await
+        .expect("an unrelated config update must be exempt");
+
+    dataset
+        .delete("id IS NULL")
+        .await
+        .expect("removing the offending rows must not be blocked under MemWAL");
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 1);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_merge_update.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_merge_update.rs
index aa35f1b6408..bb310f373b7 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_merge_update.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_merge_update.rs
@@ -1,36 +1,51 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::collections::HashSet;
 use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
 use std::vec;
 
-use crate::dataset::optimize::{compact_files, CompactionOptions};
-use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataReplacementGroup, Operation};
-use crate::dataset::WriteDestination;
+use crate::dataset::CommitBuilder;
 use crate::dataset::ROW_ID;
-use crate::dataset::{AutoCleanupParams, ProjectionRequest};
+use crate::dataset::WriteDestination;
+use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+use crate::dataset::schema_evolution::ColumnAlteration;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataReplacementGroup, Operation};
+use crate::dataset::{AutoCleanupParams, MergeInsertBuilder, ProjectionRequest, UpdateBuilder};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use crate::{Dataset, Error};
-use lance_core::ROW_ADDR;
+use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{BooleanQuery, FtsQuery, MatchQuery, Occur};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
 use mock_instant::thread_local::MockClock;
 
 use crate::dataset::write::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
+use arrow::array::builder::{LargeListBuilder, LargeStringBuilder};
 use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_array::{Array, LargeBinaryArray, MapArray, StructArray};
 use arrow_array::{
-    types::Int32Type, ArrayRef, Float32Array, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatchIterator,
-    StringArray,
+    ArrayRef, Float32Array, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, UInt64Array,
+    types::{Int32Type, UInt64Type},
 };
-use arrow_array::{Array, LargeBinaryArray, StructArray};
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempDir, TempStrDir};
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, RowCount};
+use lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream;
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_file::writer::FileWriter;
+
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
-use lance_table::format::DataFile;
+use lance_table::format::{BasePath, DataFile, Fragment};
 
+use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::{WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched};
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use lance_datafusion::datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
@@ -370,7 +385,7 @@ async fn test_insert_subschema() {
     let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
     assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
     assert_eq!(fragments[0].metadata.files.len(), 1);
-    assert_eq!(&fragments[0].metadata.files[0].fields, &[0]);
+    assert_eq!(fragments[0].metadata.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[0]);
 
     // When reading back, columns that are missing are null
     let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
@@ -418,7 +433,7 @@ async fn test_insert_subschema() {
     let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
     assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
     assert_eq!(fragments[0].metadata.files.len(), 1);
-    assert_eq!(&fragments[0].metadata.files[0].fields, &[0, 1]);
+    assert_eq!(fragments[0].metadata.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[0, 1]);
 
     // Can scan and get expected data.
     let data = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
@@ -474,8 +489,11 @@ async fn test_insert_nested_subschemas() {
     let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
     assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
     assert_eq!(fragments[0].metadata.files.len(), 1);
-    assert_eq!(&fragments[0].metadata.files[0].fields, &[0, 2, 1]);
-    assert_eq!(&fragments[0].metadata.files[0].column_indices, &[0, 1, 2]);
+    assert_eq!(fragments[0].metadata.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[2, 1]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        fragments[0].metadata.files[0].column_indices.as_ref(),
+        &[0, 1]
+    );
 
     // Can insert c, b
     let just_c_b = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
@@ -502,8 +520,11 @@ async fn test_insert_nested_subschemas() {
     let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
     assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
     assert_eq!(fragments[1].metadata.files.len(), 1);
-    assert_eq!(&fragments[1].metadata.files[0].fields, &[0, 3, 2]);
-    assert_eq!(&fragments[1].metadata.files[0].column_indices, &[0, 1, 2]);
+    assert_eq!(fragments[1].metadata.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[3, 2]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        fragments[1].metadata.files[0].column_indices.as_ref(),
+        &[0, 1]
+    );
 
     // Can't insert a, c (b is non-nullable)
     let just_a_c = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
@@ -588,6 +609,7 @@ async fn test_insert_balanced_subschemas() {
     let options = WriteParams {
         enable_stable_row_ids: true,
         enable_v2_manifest_paths: true,
+        data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
         ..Default::default()
     };
     let mut dataset = Dataset::write(empty_reader, &test_uri, Some(options))
@@ -606,7 +628,7 @@ async fn test_insert_balanced_subschemas() {
     let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
     assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
     assert_eq!(fragments[0].metadata.files.len(), 1);
-    assert_eq!(&fragments[0].metadata.files[0].fields, &[0]);
+    assert_eq!(fragments[0].metadata.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[0]);
 
     // Insert right side
     let just_b = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![field_b.clone()]));
@@ -622,7 +644,7 @@ async fn test_insert_balanced_subschemas() {
     let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
     assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
     assert_eq!(fragments[1].metadata.files.len(), 1);
-    assert_eq!(&fragments[1].metadata.files[0].fields, &[1]);
+    assert_eq!(fragments[1].metadata.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[1]);
 
     let data = dataset
         .take(
@@ -729,7 +751,7 @@ async fn test_datafile_replacement() {
         .create(&Path::from("data/test.lance"))
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
         object_writer,
         schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
         Default::default(),
@@ -814,6 +836,7 @@ async fn test_datafile_partial_replacement() {
         Operation::Merge {
             fragments: vec![fragment],
             schema: extended_schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+            preserves_nullability: true,
         },
         Some(2),
         None,
@@ -836,7 +859,7 @@ async fn test_datafile_partial_replacement() {
         .create(&Path::from("data/test.lance"))
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
         object_writer,
         partial_schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
         Default::default(),
@@ -848,15 +871,15 @@ async fn test_datafile_partial_replacement() {
     writer.write_batch(&batch).await.unwrap();
     writer.finish().await.unwrap();
 
-    let (major, minor) = lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::Stable.to_numbers();
+    let (major, minor) = LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve().to_data_file_numbers();
 
     // find the datafile we want to replace
     let new_data_file = DataFile {
         path: "test.lance".to_string(),
         // the second column in the dataset
-        fields: vec![1],
+        fields: Arc::from([1]),
         // is located in the first column of this datafile
-        column_indices: vec![0],
+        column_indices: Arc::from([0]),
         file_major_version: major,
         file_minor_version: minor,
         file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::unknown(),
@@ -880,8 +903,14 @@ async fn test_datafile_partial_replacement() {
     assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 4);
     assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
     assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata.files.len(), 2);
-    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata.files[0].fields, vec![0]);
-    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata.files[1].fields, vec![1]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata.files[0].fields.as_ref(),
+        &[0]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata.files[1].fields.as_ref(),
+        &[1]
+    );
 
     let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
     assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
@@ -909,9 +938,9 @@ async fn test_datafile_partial_replacement() {
     let new_data_file = DataFile {
         path: "test.lance".to_string(),
         // the first column in the dataset
-        fields: vec![0],
+        fields: Arc::from([0]),
         // is located in the first column of this datafile
-        column_indices: vec![0],
+        column_indices: Arc::from([0]),
         file_major_version: major,
         file_minor_version: minor,
         file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::unknown(),
@@ -994,6 +1023,7 @@ async fn test_datafile_replacement_error() {
         Operation::Merge {
             fragments: vec![fragment],
             schema: extended_schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+            preserves_nullability: true,
         },
         Some(2),
         None,
@@ -1008,9 +1038,9 @@ async fn test_datafile_replacement_error() {
     let new_data_file = DataFile {
         path: "test.lance".to_string(),
         // the second column in the dataset
-        fields: vec![1],
+        fields: Arc::from([1]),
         // is located in the first column of this datafile
-        column_indices: vec![0],
+        column_indices: Arc::from([0]),
         file_major_version: 2,
         file_minor_version: 0,
         file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::unknown(),
@@ -1018,7 +1048,7 @@ async fn test_datafile_replacement_error() {
     };
 
     let new_data_file = DataFile {
-        fields: vec![0, 1],
+        fields: Arc::from([0, 1]),
         ..new_data_file
     };
 
@@ -1027,7 +1057,8 @@ async fn test_datafile_replacement_error() {
         Operation::DataReplacement {
             replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, new_data_file)],
         },
-        Some(2),
+        // read at the current version (after the Merge above)
+        Some(dataset.manifest.version),
         None,
         None,
         Arc::new(Default::default()),
@@ -1060,7 +1091,11 @@ async fn test_replace_dataset() {
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-    ds.object_store().remove_dir_all(test_path).await.unwrap();
+    ds.object_store
+        .as_ref()
+        .remove_dir_all(test_path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
     let ds2 = InsertBuilder::new(&test_uri)
         .execute(vec![data2.clone()])
@@ -1490,3 +1525,4196 @@ async fn test_issue_4429_nested_struct_encoding_v2_1_with_over_65k_structs() {
     dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
     assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
 }
+
+/// Regression test for https://github.com/lancedb/lance/issues/5321
+///
+/// A partial merge_insert triggers the RewriteColumns path, which prunes the
+/// index bitmap. After compact + optimize_indices, the old stale B-tree data
+/// was being merged back in, causing "non-existent fragment" errors on
+/// subsequent queries.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_with_reordered_columns_and_index() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ArrowField::new("untouched", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+
+    // Step 1: Create dataset with one row {id: 1, value: "a"}
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["x", "a"])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["u", "v"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://test_5321",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1, // Force multiple fragments for testing
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 2: Create BTree index on 'id'
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 3: merge_insert with a partial schema in reversed column order
+    // (value, id). Omitting `untouched` triggers the RewriteColumns path,
+    // which prunes the index bitmap.
+    let reversed_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        reversed_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["b", "c"])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source_batch)],
+        reversed_schema.clone(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, _stats) = merge_job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+
+    // Step 4: compact_files
+    compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 5: optimize_indices
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 6: Another merge_insert should NOT error
+    let source_batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["d"])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["v"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let merge_job2 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let reader2 = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source_batch2)],
+        schema.clone(),
+    ));
+    let (final_dataset, _) = merge_job2.execute(reader_to_stream(reader2)).await.unwrap();
+    final_dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Reordered merge_insert sources invalidate LabelList coverage for both full-row
+/// and in-place column rewrites. Complete sources are also canonicalized before
+/// reaching both the current and frozen Legacy writers.
+///
+/// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8502.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::legacy_full(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, true, 2)]
+#[case::stable_full(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true, 2)]
+#[case::v2_1_partial(LanceFileVersion::V2_1, false, 1)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_reordered_schema_invalidates_label_list_index(
+    #[case] data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    #[case] is_full_schema: bool,
+    #[case] expected_fragments: usize,
+) {
+    let list_field = ArrowField::new(
+        "labels",
+        DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::LargeUtf8, true))),
+        true,
+    );
+    let untouched_field = ArrowField::new("untouched", DataType::Utf8, true);
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        list_field.clone(),
+        untouched_field.clone(),
+    ]));
+
+    let make_labels = |values: &[&str]| {
+        let mut builder = LargeListBuilder::new(LargeStringBuilder::new())
+            .with_field(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::LargeUtf8, true)));
+        for value in values {
+            builder.values().append_value(value);
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        Arc::new(builder.finish()) as ArrayRef
+    };
+
+    let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+            make_labels(&["a", "b"]),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["u", "v"])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::Bitmap,
+            Some("id_idx".to_owned()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["labels"],
+            IndexType::LabelList,
+            Some("labels_idx".to_owned()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::LabelList),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut update_fields = vec![list_field, ArrowField::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false)];
+    let mut update_columns = vec![
+        make_labels(&["z"]),
+        Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![2])) as ArrayRef,
+    ];
+    if is_full_schema {
+        update_fields.push(untouched_field);
+        update_columns.push(Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["v"])) as ArrayRef);
+    }
+    let reordered_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(update_fields));
+    let update = RecordBatch::try_new(reordered_schema.clone(), update_columns).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(update)], reordered_schema);
+    let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_owned()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (dataset, _) = merge_job
+        .execute(reader_to_stream(Box::new(reader)))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.get_fragments().len(),
+        expected_fragments,
+        "the source width must select the expected rewrite path"
+    );
+
+    async fn matching_ids(dataset: &Dataset, use_scalar_index: bool) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+        scanner.filter("array_has(labels, 'z')").unwrap();
+        scanner.use_scalar_index(use_scalar_index);
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        batch["id"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec()
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(matching_ids(&dataset, false).await, vec![2]);
+    assert_eq!(matching_ids(&dataset, true).await, vec![2]);
+
+    let row = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("id = 2")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        row["untouched"].as_string::<i32>().value(0),
+        "v",
+        "a partial rewrite must preserve omitted columns"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A complete source is matched recursively by field name before it reaches
+/// either merge execution path, so reordered struct children keep their values.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_nested_reorder_preserves_values(#[values(false, true)] use_index: bool) {
+    let target_struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]);
+    let target_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(target_struct_fields.clone()), false),
+    ]));
+    let initial_struct = StructArray::new(
+        target_struct_fields,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+        None,
+    );
+    let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        target_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(initial_struct) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], target_schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+    if use_index {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".to_owned()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let source_struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]);
+    let source_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(source_struct_fields.clone()), false),
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let source_struct = StructArray::new(
+        source_struct_fields,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![400])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![300])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+        None,
+    );
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        source_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(source_struct) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source)], source_schema);
+    let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_owned()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (dataset, _) = merge_job
+        .execute(reader_to_stream(Box::new(reader)))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let row = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("id = 2")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(row.num_rows(), 1);
+    let values = row["s"].as_struct();
+    assert_eq!(
+        values
+            .column_by_name("a")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .value(0),
+        300
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        values
+            .column_by_name("b")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .value(0),
+        400
+    );
+}
+
+/// Map entries participate in the same recursive name-based merge contract as
+/// structs and lists, including when the map value is itself a struct.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_map_value_reorder_preserves_values(
+    #[values(false, true)] use_index: bool,
+) {
+    let map_field = |value_fields: &Fields| {
+        let entry_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Struct(value_fields.clone()), true),
+        ]);
+        let entries = ArrowField::new("entries", DataType::Struct(entry_fields), false);
+        ArrowField::new("m", DataType::Map(Arc::new(entries), false), false)
+    };
+    let map_array = |value_fields: &Fields, keys: Vec<&str>, a: Vec<i32>, b: Vec<i32>| {
+        let value_columns = value_fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| {
+                let values = if field.name() == "a" {
+                    a.clone()
+                } else {
+                    b.clone()
+                };
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let values = StructArray::new(value_fields.clone(), value_columns, None);
+        let entry_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Struct(value_fields.clone()), true),
+        ]);
+        let entries = StructArray::new(
+            entry_fields.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(keys)) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(values) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let offsets = (0..=entries.len() as i32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        Arc::new(MapArray::new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+                "entries",
+                DataType::Struct(entry_fields),
+                false,
+            )),
+            arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer::new(offsets.into()),
+            entries,
+            None,
+            false,
+        )) as ArrayRef
+    };
+
+    let target_value_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]);
+    let target_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        map_field(&target_value_fields),
+    ]));
+    let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        target_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+            map_array(
+                &target_value_fields,
+                vec!["k1", "k2"],
+                vec![100, 200],
+                vec![10, 20],
+            ),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], target_schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    if use_index {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".to_owned()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let source_value_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]);
+    let source_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        map_field(&source_value_fields),
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        source_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            map_array(&source_value_fields, vec!["k2"], vec![300], vec![400]),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source)], source_schema);
+    let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_owned()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (dataset, _) = merge_job
+        .execute(reader_to_stream(Box::new(reader)))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let row = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("id = 2")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(row.num_rows(), 1);
+    let map = row["m"].as_map();
+    assert_eq!(map.value_length(0), 1);
+    let entries = map.value(0);
+    let values = entries["value"].as_struct();
+    assert_eq!(values["a"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 300);
+    assert_eq!(values["b"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 400);
+}
+
+/// With stable row ids, updating a top-level struct column keeps a scalar index on a
+/// nested child field correct. The update API rejects nested column references, so a
+/// nested field can only be changed by setting its whole struct column; that update must
+/// not wrongly extend the child-field index over the rewritten fragment (which would
+/// leave the updated value unscanned and silently dropped).
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_update_struct_column_keeps_nested_index() {
+    let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()), true),
+    ]));
+    let s_arr = StructArray::new(
+        struct_fields.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])) as ArrayRef],
+        None,
+    );
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(s_arr) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://test_update_nested_index",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // BTree index on the NESTED field `s.x`.
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["s.x"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let pre = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("s.x = 20")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(pre.num_rows(), 1, "precondition: s.x=20 should match id=2");
+
+    // Nested column references are rejected by `set`, so update the whole struct column
+    // `s` for id=2, changing s.x 20 -> 999.
+    let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+        .update_where("id = 2")
+        .unwrap()
+        .set("s", "named_struct('x', cast(999 as int))")
+        .unwrap()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = update_result.new_dataset;
+
+    // The nested `s.x` index must NOT be extended to the rewritten fragment: its
+    // effective coverage stays {0}, so the rewritten fragment is left unindexed and
+    // fully scanned.
+    let sx_idx = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|i| i.fields.len() == 1)
+        .expect("nested s.x index")
+        .clone();
+    let effective = sx_idx
+        .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+        .expect("index has a fragment bitmap");
+    assert_eq!(
+        effective.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![0],
+        "nested-field index must not be extended to the rewritten fragment"
+    );
+
+    // The updated value must be found, and the stale value gone.
+    let new = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("s.x = 999")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        new.num_rows(),
+        1,
+        "updated value s.x=999 must be found after the struct-column update"
+    );
+    let old = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("s.x = 20")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(old.num_rows(), 0, "s.x=20 should no longer match any row");
+}
+
+/// Sum a named execution metric (e.g. `fragments_scanned`) across every node of a
+/// physical plan. Used to observe FilteredReadExec data-scan behavior.
+fn sum_scan_metric(plan: &Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan>, name: &str) -> usize {
+    let mut total = plan
+        .metrics()
+        .and_then(|m| m.sum_by_name(name))
+        .map(|v| v.as_usize())
+        .unwrap_or(0);
+    for child in plan.children() {
+        total += sum_scan_metric(child, name);
+    }
+    total
+}
+
+/// Control: with stable row ids, a merge_insert full-row update of a *flat*
+/// indexed column is handled correctly. The flat field's id is in
+/// `fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap`, so the RewriteRows index-maintenance path
+/// does NOT extend the index bitmap to the rewritten fragment; that fragment stays
+/// unindexed and is fully scanned, so the new value is found and the old is not.
+/// Contrast with `test_merge_insert_nested_index_stable_row_id`.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_flat_index_stable_row_id() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("val", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://test_mi_flat_index",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // BTree index on the flat indexed column `val`.
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["val"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Sanity: index returns id=2 for val=20 before the update.
+    let pre = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("val = 20")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(pre.num_rows(), 1, "precondition: val=20 should match id=2");
+
+    // Full-row update of id=2 changing val 20 -> 999. Only id=2 is in the source
+    // (all matched, no inserts) so the new fragment is a pure rewrite-rows fragment.
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![999])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(source)], schema.clone()));
+    let (dataset, _stats) = merge_job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Index bitmap coverage: the guard did NOT extend the bitmap, so the index
+    // still covers only the original fragment 0, not the rewritten fragment.
+    let val_idx = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|i| i.name == "val_idx")
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    assert_eq!(
+        val_idx
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![0],
+        "flat index must not be extended to the rewritten fragment"
+    );
+
+    // The scan is PARTIALLY indexed, not fully indexed: the index's effective
+    // coverage ({0}) is a strict subset of the live fragments ({0, 1}), so the
+    // rewritten fragment is left to a full scan.
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![0, 1],
+        "the update should have produced a second fragment"
+    );
+    let effective = val_idx
+        .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+        .expect("index has a fragment bitmap");
+    assert_eq!(
+        effective.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![0],
+        "index effectively covers only fragment 0"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        effective.len() < dataset.fragment_bitmap.len(),
+        "scan must be partially indexed: the rewritten fragment is not covered by the index"
+    );
+
+    // Project only _rowid. The scan is PARTIALLY indexed: because the rewritten
+    // fragment is not covered by the index, FilteredReadExec must DATA-SCAN it to
+    // surface the moved value, which shows up in its `fragments_scanned` metric.
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .empty_project()
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .filter("val = 999")
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+    let batches = datafusion::physical_plan::collect(
+        plan.clone(),
+        Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default()),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    // Exactly one fragment — the uncovered (rewritten) one — is data-scanned.
+    let fragments_scanned = sum_scan_metric(&plan, "fragments_scanned");
+    assert_eq!(
+        fragments_scanned, 1,
+        "partially-indexed scan must data-scan exactly the one uncovered fragment, but fragments_scanned={fragments_scanned}"
+    );
+    let val999_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+    assert_eq!(
+        val999_rows, 1,
+        "val=999 lives only in the unindexed fragment and must be found by the full scan"
+    );
+
+    // The stale old value is gone (the index-covered fragment's row was moved out).
+    let val20_rows = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .empty_project()
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .filter("val = 20")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .num_rows();
+    assert_eq!(val20_rows, 0, "val=20 should no longer match any row");
+}
+
+/// With stable row ids, a full-row merge_insert update of a column covered by a
+/// NESTED-field scalar index keeps that index correct.
+///
+/// The updated row keeps its row id and moves to a new fragment.
+/// `register_pure_rewrite_rows_update_frags_in_indices` decides whether to extend each
+/// index's bitmap to that new fragment by testing `index.fields` against
+/// `fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap`, which merge_insert builds via `fields_pre_order()`
+/// so that nested leaf ids are included. The nested `s.x` index must therefore NOT be
+/// extended over the rewritten fragment: that fragment stays unindexed and is fully
+/// scanned, so the updated value is found.
+///
+/// Regression guard: before the fix the set was built from top-level `schema().fields`,
+/// omitting the nested leaf id, so the index was wrongly extended over the rewritten
+/// fragment and the updated value was silently dropped.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_nested_index_stable_row_id() {
+    let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()), false),
+    ]));
+    let make_batch = |ids: Vec<i32>, xs: Vec<i32>| {
+        let s = StructArray::new(
+            struct_fields.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(xs)) as ArrayRef],
+            None,
+        );
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(s) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(make_batch(vec![1, 2, 3], vec![10, 20, 30]))],
+        schema.clone(),
+    );
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://test_mi_nested_index",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // BTree index on the NESTED field `s.x`.
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["s.x"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // Force the indexed slow merge path whose rewrite metadata must include
+    // nested leaf ids as well as top-level fields.
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("id_idx".to_owned()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Sanity: index finds id=2 for s.x = 20.
+    let pre = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("s.x = 20")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(pre.num_rows(), 1, "precondition: s.x=20 should match id=2");
+
+    // Full-row merge_insert update of id=2 changing s.x 20 -> 999. Supplying
+    // `(s, id)` also verifies reordered complete sources stay on RewriteRows.
+    let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reordered_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()), false),
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let updated_struct = StructArray::new(
+        struct_fields,
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![999])) as ArrayRef],
+        None,
+    );
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        reordered_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(updated_struct) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2])) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(source)], reordered_schema));
+    let (dataset, _stats) = merge_job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+
+    // The rewritten fragment must NOT be covered by the nested `s.x` index, so
+    // FilteredReadExec data-scans exactly that one fragment and finds the updated value.
+    // (Before the fix the index was wrongly extended over the rewritten fragment, so it
+    // was never data-scanned — fragments_scanned == 0 — and the value was dropped.)
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .empty_project()
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .filter("s.x = 999")
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+    let batches = datafusion::physical_plan::collect(
+        plan.clone(),
+        Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default()),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let fragments_scanned = sum_scan_metric(&plan, "fragments_scanned");
+    assert_eq!(
+        fragments_scanned, 1,
+        "the rewritten fragment must be data-scanned exactly once, but fragments_scanned={fragments_scanned}"
+    );
+    let sx999_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+    assert_eq!(
+        sx999_rows, 1,
+        "updated value s.x=999 must be found after the nested-field merge_insert update"
+    );
+}
+
+/// With stable row ids, a merge_insert full-row update invalidates EVERY column index
+/// for the rewritten rows — not only indices on columns that actually changed — because
+/// merge_insert treats the whole schema as modified (it does not detect which columns
+/// changed). Here `col1` is updated and `col2` is left unchanged, yet both `col1_idx`
+/// and `col2_idx` drop the rewritten fragment from their coverage.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_flat_index_stable_row_id_multiple_indexes() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("col1", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("col2", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://test_mi_flat_multi_index",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    for col in ["col1", "col2"] {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[col],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // Full-row update of id=1: col1 10 -> 999, col2 left unchanged (100).
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![999])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(source)], schema.clone()));
+    let (dataset, _stats) = merge_job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+
+    // The update produced a second fragment holding the rewritten row id=1.
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![0, 1],
+        "update should have produced a second fragment"
+    );
+
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let covered = |name: &str| {
+        indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|i| i.name == name)
+            .unwrap()
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    };
+
+    // The index on the CHANGED column is invalidated (the rewritten fragment is not
+    // covered) -- expected.
+    assert_eq!(
+        covered("col1_idx"),
+        vec![0],
+        "col1 index must drop the rewritten fragment (col1 changed)"
+    );
+
+    // ALL column indexes are invalidated, not only the changed ones: the index on the
+    // UNCHANGED column `col2` also drops the rewritten fragment.
+    //
+    // TODO(stable-row-id optimization): merge_insert treats the whole schema as modified
+    // because it does not detect which columns actually changed, so every index is
+    // invalidated for the rewritten rows. With stable row ids the moved rows keep their
+    // row ids and col2's values are unchanged, so `col2_idx` could instead be EXTENDED to
+    // the rewritten fragment (preserving its coverage) rather than invalidated, avoiding
+    // an unnecessary reindex. See `register_pure_rewrite_rows_update_frags_in_indices`.
+    assert_eq!(
+        covered("col2_idx"),
+        vec![0],
+        "col2 index is also invalidated even though col2 was not changed (see TODO)"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_data_replacement_advances_row_lineage() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "value",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        true,
+    )]));
+    let batch =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]))]).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let replacement = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let object_writer = dataset
+        .object_store
+        .create(&Path::from("data/lineage_replacement.lance"))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+        object_writer,
+        schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+        Default::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    writer.write_batch(&replacement).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+    let mut new_data_file = frag.data_file_for_field(0).unwrap().clone();
+    new_data_file.path = "lineage_replacement.lance".to_string();
+
+    let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::DataReplacement {
+            replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, new_data_file)],
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 2);
+
+    // The rows read differently now, so their last-updated stamp has to name
+    // the version that changed them or get_updated_rows will never see them.
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["value", ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION])
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch["value"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+        &[10, 20]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch[ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[2, 2]
+    );
+}
+
+/// DataReplacement should invalidate index fragment bitmaps for replaced fields.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_data_replacement_invalidates_index_bitmap() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]));
+
+    // Create dataset with 2 columns
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_replacement_idx", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Create scalar index on column 'a'
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["a"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Verify fragment 0 is in the index bitmap
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let a_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "a_idx").unwrap();
+    assert!(a_index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(0));
+
+    // Write a replacement data file for column 'a'
+    let single_col_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "a",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        true,
+    )]));
+    let replacement_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        single_col_schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let object_writer = dataset
+        .object_store
+        .create(&Path::from("data/replacement.lance"))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+        object_writer,
+        single_col_schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+        Default::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    writer.write_batch(&replacement_batch).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Build replacement DataFile matching the existing data file for column 'a'
+    let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+    let data_file = frag.data_file_for_field(0).unwrap();
+    let mut new_data_file = data_file.clone();
+    new_data_file.path = "replacement.lance".to_string();
+
+    // Commit DataReplacement
+    let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::DataReplacement {
+            replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, new_data_file)],
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // The index bitmap for 'a' should no longer contain fragment 0
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let a_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "a_idx").unwrap();
+    let effective = a_index
+        .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !effective.contains(0),
+        "Fragment 0 should be removed from index bitmap after DataReplacement on indexed column"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Run a predicate over `col` twice -- once index-served, once via a forced flat scan
+/// (`use_scalar_index(false)`) -- assert the two agree, and return the matching `col`
+/// values sorted. Equality is the index-consistency invariant: a divergence means the
+/// index served rows that disagree with the underlying data.
+async fn index_consistent_values(dataset: &Dataset, col: &str, predicate: &str) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let sorted = |batch: &RecordBatch| -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut v: Vec<i32> = batch
+            .column_by_name(col)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect();
+        v.sort();
+        v
+    };
+
+    let indexed = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter(predicate)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let flat = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .use_scalar_index(false)
+        .filter(predicate)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let indexed_vals = sorted(&indexed);
+    let flat_vals = sorted(&flat);
+    assert_eq!(
+        indexed_vals, flat_vals,
+        "index-served `{predicate}` disagrees with a flat scan"
+    );
+    indexed_vals
+}
+
+/// Build a Merge overlay fragment that rewrites a single `field_id` in place: tombstone
+/// (-2) the field in `prev`'s existing data files and back it with `new_file` (a new
+/// single-column file) instead. A file left with no live field is dropped. This is the
+/// manifest shape an in-place column rewrite produces when it falls back from a
+/// DataReplacement to a Merge.
+fn build_overlay_frag(prev: &Fragment, field_id: i32, new_file: &str) -> Fragment {
+    let mut overlay = prev.clone();
+    overlay.files = prev
+        .files
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|df| {
+            let masked: Vec<i32> = df
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&f| if f == field_id { -2 } else { f })
+                .collect();
+            if masked.iter().all(|&f| f == -2) {
+                return None; // file holds only the tombstoned field
+            }
+            let mut m = df.clone();
+            m.fields = masked.into();
+            Some(m)
+        })
+        .collect();
+    overlay.add_file(
+        new_file,
+        vec![field_id],
+        vec![0],
+        LanceFileVersion::default().resolve(),
+        None,
+    );
+    overlay
+}
+
+/// A `Merge` that rewrites an indexed column's data in place must keep that column's
+/// index consistent: a query the index serves must return the same rows as a flat scan
+/// of the rewritten data. The overlay fragment tombstones (-2) the column's field id in
+/// the existing data file and appends a new file for it, so the field stays in the
+/// schema and its index is retained -- the rewritten fragment must be pruned from that
+/// index. This is the shape produced when an in-place column rewrite cannot be expressed
+/// as a DataReplacement (e.g. an `update` has merged the fragment's column files) and
+/// falls back to a Merge overlay.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_rewriting_indexed_column_keeps_index_consistent() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30, 40])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://merge_index_rewrite", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["a"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Baseline: the index serves correct results before the rewrite.
+    assert_eq!(
+        index_consistent_values(&dataset, "a", "a >= 3").await,
+        vec![3, 4]
+    );
+
+    let a_field_id = 0i32;
+
+    // Write a new single-column file holding `a`'s replacement values.
+    let a_only = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "a",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        true,
+    )]));
+    let new_a = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        a_only.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![91, 92, 93, 94]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let new_a_path = dataset.data_dir().join("merge_new_a.lance");
+    let object_writer = dataset.object_store.create(&new_a_path).await.unwrap();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+        object_writer,
+        a_only.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+        Default::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    writer.write_batch(&new_a).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Overlay that file onto fragment 0, rewriting `a` in place.
+    let prev = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap().metadata().clone();
+    let overlay = build_overlay_frag(&prev, a_field_id, "merge_new_a.lance");
+
+    let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::Merge {
+            fragments: vec![overlay],
+            schema: schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+            preserves_nullability: true,
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // `a` now holds [91, 92, 93, 94]; an index-served query must reflect that.
+    assert_eq!(
+        index_consistent_values(&dataset, "a", "a >= 90").await,
+        vec![91, 92, 93, 94],
+        "index-served `a >= 90` must return the rewritten values"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        index_consistent_values(&dataset, "a", "a < 90")
+            .await
+            .is_empty(),
+        "no row satisfies `a < 90` after the rewrite"
+    );
+}
+
+/// DataReplacement on an indexed column should remove the fragment from
+/// fragment_bitmap AND add it to invalidated_fragment_bitmap so that
+/// stale index entries are blocked at query time.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_data_replacement_populates_invalidated_bitmap() {
+    use object_store::path::Path;
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]));
+
+    // Create dataset with one fragment
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_replacement_invalidated", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Create BTree index on 'value'
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["value"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Verify initial state: fragment 0 in bitmap, no invalidated fragments
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let idx = indices.iter().find(|i| i.name == "value_idx").unwrap();
+    assert!(idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(0));
+
+    // Write a replacement data file for column 'value'
+    let value_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "value",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        true,
+    )]));
+    let replacement_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        value_schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![40, 50, 60]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let object_writer = dataset
+        .object_store
+        .create(&Path::from("data/replacement_inv.lance"))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+        object_writer,
+        value_schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+        Default::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    writer.write_batch(&replacement_batch).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Build replacement DataFile
+    let frag = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+    let lance_schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema = schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap();
+    let value_field_id = lance_schema.field("value").unwrap().id;
+    let data_file = frag.data_file_for_field(value_field_id as u32).unwrap();
+    let mut new_data_file = data_file.clone();
+    new_data_file.path = "replacement_inv.lance".to_string();
+
+    // Commit DataReplacement
+    let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::DataReplacement {
+            replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, new_data_file)],
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Check: fragment 0 removed from fragment_bitmap
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let idx = indices.iter().find(|i| i.name == "value_idx").unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(0),
+        "Fragment 0 should be removed from fragment_bitmap"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Regression test (lance-format/lance#6283): after in-place update via
+/// DataReplacement, stale FTS index entries for the replaced fragment must
+/// be blocked at query time so searches reflect the new data.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_stale_entries_after_data_replacement() {
+    use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, inverted::InvertedIndexParams};
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+
+    // Step 1: Create dataset with 2 rows in separate fragments
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "the quick brown fox",
+                "the lazy dog",
+            ])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://test_fts_incremental_reindex",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1, // Force 2 fragments
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 2: Create FTS inverted index on 'text'
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Sanity check: "quick" and "lazy" should each return 1 result
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("quick".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lazy".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    // Step 3: Replace fragment 1's data file via DataReplacement.
+    // The fragment ID stays the same, but the text changes from
+    // "the lazy dog" to "a speedy cat". This prunes fragment 1
+    // from the FTS index's fragment_bitmap.
+    let frag1 = dataset.get_fragment(1).unwrap();
+    let old_data_file = frag1.metadata().files[0].clone();
+
+    // Write replacement data file with updated text
+    let replacement_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a speedy cat"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let replacement_path = dataset.data_dir().join("replacement.lance");
+    let object_writer = dataset
+        .object_store
+        .create(&replacement_path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+        object_writer,
+        schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+        Default::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    writer.write_batch(&replacement_batch).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut new_data_file = old_data_file.clone();
+    new_data_file.path = "replacement.lance".to_string();
+
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::DataReplacement {
+            replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(1, new_data_file)],
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Verify the replacement worked — fragment 1 now has the new text
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2);
+
+    // Step 4: FTS search should reflect the new data, not the old.
+    // Fragment 1 is unindexed (pruned from fragment_bitmap), so the
+    // scanner does a flat FTS scan on it and uses the index for fragment 0.
+
+    // "speedy" is in the new text for fragment 1 — found via flat scan.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("speedy".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    // "lazy" was in the OLD text for fragment 1. The index has stale
+    // posting entries for it, but fragment 1 was pruned from the
+    // fragment_bitmap. Flat scan of fragment 1 sees "a speedy cat"
+    // which doesn't match. So 0 results.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lazy".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        0,
+        "Expected 0 results for 'lazy' (stale data, fragment 1 pruned from index)"
+    );
+
+    // "quick" is in fragment 0 which is still indexed — should still work.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("quick".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+}
+
+/// Cross-column compound fast search must not combine different column-local
+/// fragment domains after a partial data replacement.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cross_column_fast_search_blocks_column_local_stale_postings() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("title", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ArrowField::new("body", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["noise", "target"])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["noise", "stale"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://cross_column_fast_search_replacement",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    for column in ["title", "body"] {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[column],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                None,
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let body_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "body",
+        DataType::Utf8,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let replacement = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        body_schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["fresh"]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let replacement_path = dataset.data_dir().join("body_replacement.lance");
+    let object_writer = dataset
+        .object_store
+        .create(&replacement_path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_1::create_writer(
+        object_writer,
+        body_schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+        Default::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    writer.write_batch(&replacement).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    let (file_major_version, file_minor_version) =
+        LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve().to_data_file_numbers();
+    let replacement_file = DataFile {
+        path: "body_replacement.lance".to_string(),
+        fields: Arc::from([2]),
+        column_indices: Arc::from([0]),
+        file_major_version,
+        file_minor_version,
+        file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::unknown(),
+        base_id: None,
+    };
+    let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::DataReplacement {
+            replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(1, replacement_file)],
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let match_query = |term: &str, column: &str| {
+        MatchQuery::new(term.to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some(column.to_owned()))
+            .into()
+    };
+    let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, match_query("target", "title")),
+        (Occur::Must, match_query("stale", "body")),
+    ])
+    .into();
+
+    let mut exact_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    exact_scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.clone()))
+        .unwrap();
+    exact_scanner.limit(Some(10), None).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        exact_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+        0,
+        "the current body value must not match the stale term"
+    );
+
+    let mut fast_scanner = dataset.scan();
+    fast_scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap()
+        .fast_search();
+    fast_scanner.limit(Some(10), None).unwrap();
+    let fast_plan = fast_scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !fast_plan.contains("CrossColumnCompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "different per-column coverage must retain field-local masking:\n{fast_plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fast_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+        0,
+        "the title index must not re-admit the body's stale physical posting"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Same scenario as test_fts_index_incremental_reindex_after_in_place_update
+/// but with a vector (IVF_PQ) index instead of FTS.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_vector_index_after_data_replacement() {
+    use arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_index::vector::{ivf::IvfBuildParams, pq::PQBuildParams};
+    use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+
+    const DIM: usize = 32;
+    const ROWS_PER_FRAG: usize = 256;
+    const TOTAL: usize = ROWS_PER_FRAG * 2;
+
+    let fsl_field = ArrowField::new(
+        "vector",
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            DIM as i32,
+        ),
+        true,
+    );
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        fsl_field,
+    ]));
+
+    // Step 1: Create dataset with TOTAL rows in 2 fragments.
+    let vectors = generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM);
+    let vector_array =
+        Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, DIM as i32).unwrap());
+    let ids: Vec<i32> = (0..TOTAL as i32).collect();
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids)), vector_array.clone()],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://test_vec_data_replacement",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAG,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+    // Step 2: Create IVF_PQ vector index
+    let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
+    let pq_params = PQBuildParams {
+        num_sub_vectors: 1,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+        lance_linalg::distance::MetricType::L2,
+        ivf_params,
+        pq_params,
+    );
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Sanity: nearest to all-zeros query with refine should return
+    // results from both fragments.
+    let query_zeros = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32; DIM]);
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .nearest("vector", &query_zeros, 10)
+        .unwrap()
+        .refine(10)
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 10);
+
+    // Step 3: DataReplacement — replace fragment 1's data.
+    // Write all-999.0 vectors so they are very far from origin.
+    let frag1 = dataset.get_fragment(1).unwrap();
+    let frag1_id = frag1.id() as u64;
+    let old_data_file = frag1.metadata().files[0].clone();
+
+    let far_values: Vec<f32> = vec![999.0_f32; ROWS_PER_FRAG * DIM];
+    let far_vectors = Float32Array::from(far_values);
+    let far_vector_array =
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(far_vectors, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+    let replacement_ids: Vec<i32> = (ROWS_PER_FRAG as i32..(TOTAL as i32)).collect();
+    let replacement_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(replacement_ids)),
+            Arc::new(far_vector_array),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let replacement_path = dataset.data_dir().join("replacement.lance");
+    let object_writer = dataset
+        .object_store
+        .create(&replacement_path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_2::create_writer(
+        object_writer,
+        schema.as_ref().try_into().unwrap(),
+        Default::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    writer.write_batch(&replacement_batch).await.unwrap();
+    writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut new_data_file = old_data_file.clone();
+    new_data_file.path = "replacement.lance".to_string();
+
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::DataReplacement {
+            replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(frag1_id, new_data_file)],
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 4: Search — nearest to all-zeros WITHOUT refine.
+    // Fragment 1's vectors are now all-999.0 (very far from origin).
+    // The top-10 nearest should all come from fragment 0.
+    // If stale index entries leak through, results from fragment 1
+    // would appear with their old (closer) PQ-approximated distances.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .nearest("vector", &query_zeros, 10)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = results["id"].as_any().downcast_ref::<Int32Array>().unwrap();
+    for i in 0..results.num_rows() {
+        assert!(
+            (ids.value(i) as usize) < ROWS_PER_FRAG,
+            "Result {} has id={} which is from fragment 1 (stale index entry leaked through)",
+            i,
+            ids.value(i)
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Regression test: inverted (FTS) index should not carry stale data after
+/// merge_insert + compact + optimize_indices.
+///
+/// This is the FTS equivalent of test_merge_insert_with_reordered_columns_and_index.
+/// The inverted index's update() ignores the valid_old_fragments filter, so stale
+/// posting list entries from pruned fragments survive the merge and cause errors
+/// when queries try to resolve the old row addresses.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_index_stale_data_after_merge_insert_compact_optimize() {
+    use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, inverted::InvertedIndexParams};
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ArrowField::new("untouched", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+
+    // Step 1: Create dataset with 2 rows in separate fragments
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "the quick brown fox",
+                "the lazy dog",
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["u", "v"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://test_fts_stale",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1, // Force 2 fragments
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 2: Create FTS inverted index on 'text'
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Sanity check: searching "quick" should return 1 result
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("quick".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    // Step 3: merge_insert with a partial schema in reversed column order
+    // (text, id). Omitting `untouched` triggers the RewriteColumns/DataReplacement
+    // path, which prunes the index fragment bitmap for the 'text' column.
+    let reversed_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        reversed_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "updated fox text",
+                "new entry here",
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source_batch)],
+        reversed_schema.clone(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, _stats) = merge_job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+
+    // Step 4: compact_files — moves rows to new fragment(s)
+    compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 5: optimize_indices — should rebuild the FTS index without stale data.
+    // With the current bug, the inverted index ignores valid_old_fragments and
+    // merges stale posting list entries pointing at now-deleted fragments.
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 6: FTS search should not error and should return correct results.
+    // "quick" appeared in the original data for id=0 (never updated), so it
+    // should still be found.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("quick".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        1,
+        "Expected 1 result for 'quick' after optimize, got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+
+    // "lazy" was in the original text for id=1, but id=1 was updated to
+    // "updated fox text". The old posting for "lazy" should have been filtered
+    // out during the index update.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lazy".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        0,
+        "Expected 0 results for 'lazy' (stale data should be filtered), got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+
+    // "updated" should be found (new text for id=1)
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("updated".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    // "entry" should be found (new row id=2)
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("entry".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    // Step 7: Another merge_insert should NOT error
+    let source_batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["final text"])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["v"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let merge_job2 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let reader2 = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source_batch2)],
+        schema.clone(),
+    ));
+    let (final_dataset, _) = merge_job2.execute(reader_to_stream(reader2)).await.unwrap();
+    final_dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Regression test: when rows are updated in-place, the FTS index must
+/// invalidate old entries and allow re-indexing incrementally.
+///
+/// Sequence:
+/// 1. Write fragments 1 and 2.
+/// 2. Create FTS index covering fragments 1 and 2.
+/// 3. Update fragment 1 in-place via merge_insert (DataReplacement path).
+///    This removes fragment 1 from the index's fragment_bitmap.
+/// 4. Call optimize_indices (append) to create a new index segment covering
+///    the updated fragment 1.
+/// 5. Call optimize_indices (merge) to merge both segments. The first segment
+///    contains the old, invalidated values for fragment 1; the second segment
+///    contains the new, valid values. We must keep only the new values.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_index_incremental_reindex_after_in_place_update() {
+    use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, inverted::InvertedIndexParams};
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ArrowField::new("untouched", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+
+    // Step 1: Create dataset with 2 rows in separate fragments
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "the quick brown fox",
+                "the lazy dog",
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["u", "v"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://test_fts_incremental_reindex",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1, // Force 2 fragments
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 2: Create FTS inverted index on 'text'
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Sanity check: "quick" and "lazy" should each return 1 result
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("quick".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lazy".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    // Step 3: merge_insert with a partial schema in reversed column order.
+    // Omitting `untouched` triggers the RewriteColumns/DataReplacement path,
+    // which prunes the index fragment bitmap for the updated fragment.
+    // Update id=1 ("the lazy dog" -> "a speedy cat")
+    let reversed_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        reversed_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a speedy cat"])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source_batch)],
+        reversed_schema.clone(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, _stats) = merge_job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+
+    // Step 4: First optimize_indices (append) — creates a new index segment
+    // covering the updated (previously unindexed) fragment.
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // At this point we have two index segments:
+    //  - Segment 1: original index (has old data for fragment with id=1)
+    //  - Segment 2: new delta index (has new data for the updated fragment)
+
+    // Step 5: Second optimize_indices (merge all) — merges both segments.
+    // The merge must discard old invalidated entries from segment 1 for
+    // the updated fragment and keep only the new entries from segment 2.
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Step 6: Verify search correctness after merge.
+
+    // "quick" was in the original data for id=0 (not updated), should still be found.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("quick".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        1,
+        "Expected 1 result for 'quick' (id=0 was not updated), got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+
+    // "lazy" was in the old text for id=1 which was updated to "a speedy cat".
+    // The old posting for "lazy" must have been filtered out during the merge.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("lazy".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        0,
+        "Expected 0 results for 'lazy' (stale data should be filtered), got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+
+    // "speedy" is in the new text for id=1, should be found.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("speedy".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        1,
+        "Expected 1 result for 'speedy' (new text for id=1), got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+
+    // "cat" is in the new text for id=1, should be found.
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("cat".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        1,
+        "Expected 1 result for 'cat' (new text for id=1), got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+}
+
+/// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/6338
+/// Sub-schema merge_insert with binary columns on v2.2 causes data corruption
+/// when the binary values are >= 256 bytes.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_sub_schema_merge_insert_binary_v2_2() {
+    use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::WhenMatched;
+    use arrow_array::BinaryArray;
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Binary, true),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+
+    // Initial write: 2 rows with null binary values
+    let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(vec![None::<&[u8]>, None])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>, None])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![initial_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    Dataset::write(batches, &test_uri, Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let sub_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Binary, true),
+    ]));
+
+    // Sub-schema merge_insert for row 0 (binary value >= 256 bytes)
+    let data_a: Vec<u8> = (0..256).map(|i| (i % 251) as u8).collect();
+    {
+        let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            sub_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![0])),
+                Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(vec![Some(data_a.as_slice())])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![update_batch].into_iter().map(Ok),
+            sub_schema.clone(),
+        ));
+        MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.into(), vec!["id".into()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(source)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // Read back and verify first merge worked
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    let table = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id", "a"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let table = concat_batches(&table[0].schema(), &table).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(table.num_rows(), 2);
+
+    // Sub-schema merge_insert for row 1 (binary value >= 256 bytes)
+    let data_b: Vec<u8> = (0..256).map(|i| ((i + 100) % 251) as u8).collect();
+    {
+        let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            sub_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int64Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(vec![Some(data_b.as_slice())])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![update_batch].into_iter().map(Ok),
+            sub_schema.clone(),
+        ));
+        MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.into(), vec!["id".into()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(source)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // Read back and verify - this is where the bug manifests
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    let table = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["id", "a"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let table = concat_batches(&table[0].schema(), &table).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(table.num_rows(), 2);
+
+    let a_col = table.column_by_name("a").unwrap();
+    let binary_arr = a_col.as_any().downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(binary_arr.value(0), data_a.as_slice());
+    assert_eq!(binary_arr.value(1), data_b.as_slice());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_unfiltered_after_compaction_returns_remapped_row_ids() {
+    // After `compact_files` with `defer_index_remap = true`, queries
+    // read the old FTS index but must apply the dataset's
+    // FragReuseIndex remap. Otherwise the deferred-row_id path
+    // returns pre-compaction row_ids that no longer exist.
+    use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "alpha first",
+                "alpha second",
+                "alpha third",
+                "alpha fourth",
+            ])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://test_fts_frag_reuse",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1, // 4 fragments -> 4 partitions
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 1000,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let after = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(after.num_rows(), 4);
+    let returned: Vec<u64> = after[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values().to_vec();
+    let live: std::collections::HashSet<u64> =
+        dataset.scan().with_row_id().try_into_batch().await.unwrap()[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+    for id in &returned {
+        assert!(live.contains(id), "stale row_id {id}");
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Multi-base tests: merge insert on datasets whose data lives across multiple
+// registered base paths, with and without routing new fragments to bases.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Fixture: primary storage plus two external bases. base1 is a dataset-root
+/// style base (files under `{base1}/data/`), base2 is a plain data directory
+/// (files directly under `{base2}/`). Initial data: ids 0..6 in two fragments
+/// in base1, ids 6..9 in one fragment in primary storage.
+struct MultiBaseFixture {
+    _tmp: TempDir,
+    dataset: Dataset,
+    base1_dir: std::path::PathBuf,
+    base2_dir: std::path::PathBuf,
+}
+
+fn multi_base_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]))
+}
+
+fn multi_base_batch(ids: &[i32], a_offset: i32, b_prefix: &str) -> RecordBatch {
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        multi_base_schema(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.to_vec())),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(
+                ids.iter().map(|id| id + a_offset).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+                ids.iter()
+                    .map(|id| format!("{}{}", b_prefix, id))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn multi_base_fixture(indexed: bool) -> MultiBaseFixture {
+    let tmp = TempDir::default();
+    let primary_dir = tmp.std_path().join("primary");
+    let base1_dir = tmp.std_path().join("base1");
+    let base2_dir = tmp.std_path().join("base2");
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&base1_dir).unwrap();
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&base2_dir).unwrap();
+    let primary_uri = format!("file://{}", primary_dir.display());
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(multi_base_batch(&[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 100, "orig"))],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    );
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &primary_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Create,
+            max_rows_per_file: 3,
+            initial_bases: Some(vec![
+                BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: true,
+                    path: format!("file://{}", base1_dir.display()),
+                },
+                BasePath {
+                    id: 2,
+                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                    path: format!("file://{}", base2_dir.display()),
+                },
+            ]),
+            target_bases: Some(vec![1]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(multi_base_batch(&[6, 7, 8], 100, "orig"))],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    );
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        Arc::new(dataset),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    if indexed {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+    assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 3);
+    for fragment in &fragments[..2] {
+        for file in &fragment.metadata.files {
+            assert_eq!(file.base_id, Some(1));
+        }
+    }
+    for file in &fragments[2].metadata.files {
+        assert_eq!(file.base_id, None);
+    }
+
+    MultiBaseFixture {
+        _tmp: tmp,
+        dataset,
+        base1_dir,
+        base2_dir,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Collect (id, a, b) rows sorted by id.
+async fn collect_multi_base_rows(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<(i32, i32, Option<String>)> {
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.project(&["id", "a", "b"]).unwrap();
+    let batches = scan
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut rows = vec![];
+    for batch in batches {
+        let ids = batch.column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let a = batch.column(1).as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let b = batch.column(2).as_string::<i32>();
+        for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            let b_val = if b.is_null(i) {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(b.value(i).to_string())
+            };
+            rows.push((ids.value(i), a.value(i), b_val));
+        }
+    }
+    rows.sort_unstable();
+    rows
+}
+
+fn expected_row(id: i32, a_offset: i32, b_prefix: &str) -> (i32, i32, Option<String>) {
+    (id, id + a_offset, Some(format!("{}{}", b_prefix, id)))
+}
+
+/// Merge insert against a multi-base table without routing: every path must
+/// read fragments from external bases correctly and write all new files to
+/// primary storage with no base id. `indexed` toggles the v2 plan path
+/// (false) vs the legacy indexed-scan path (true).
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_on_multi_base_table(#[values(false, true)] indexed: bool) {
+    let fixture = multi_base_fixture(indexed).await;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(fixture.dataset);
+
+    // Update one row in each existing fragment (two in base1, one in
+    // primary), insert two new rows.
+    let source = multi_base_batch(&[1, 4, 7, 10, 11], 1000, "new");
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source)],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, stats) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 3);
+    assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 2);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 11);
+
+    for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+        let metadata = &fragment.metadata;
+        if metadata.id >= 3 {
+            // Fragments written by the merge live in primary storage.
+            for file in &metadata.files {
+                assert_eq!(file.base_id, None);
+            }
+        } else {
+            // Pre-existing fragments keep their base and get local deletion
+            // files for the rewritten rows.
+            let expected_base = if metadata.id < 2 { Some(1) } else { None };
+            for file in &metadata.files {
+                assert_eq!(file.base_id, expected_base);
+            }
+            let deletion = metadata.deletion_file.as_ref().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(deletion.base_id, None);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut expected = vec![];
+    for id in [0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8] {
+        expected.push(expected_row(id, 100, "orig"));
+    }
+    for id in [1, 4, 7, 10, 11] {
+        expected.push(expected_row(id, 1000, "new"));
+    }
+    expected.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(collect_multi_base_rows(&dataset).await, expected);
+
+    // Re-open from scratch to make sure the result is readable without any
+    // cached state.
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dataset.uri()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(collect_multi_base_rows(&dataset).await, expected);
+}
+
+/// Merge insert routing new fragments to target bases, by id and by name,
+/// covering both base layouts (dataset-root and plain data directory).
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_route_to_target_bases(#[values(false, true)] indexed: bool) {
+    let fixture = multi_base_fixture(indexed).await;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(fixture.dataset);
+
+    let source = multi_base_batch(&[1, 4, 10, 11], 1000, "new");
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_bases(vec![2])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source)],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, stats) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 2);
+    assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 2);
+
+    // New fragments land in base2, which is a plain data directory, so the
+    // files sit directly under it.
+    let mut merge_files = 0;
+    for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+        let metadata = &fragment.metadata;
+        if metadata.id >= 3 {
+            for file in &metadata.files {
+                assert_eq!(file.base_id, Some(2));
+                let on_disk = fixture.base2_dir.join(file.path.as_str());
+                assert!(on_disk.exists(), "missing data file {:?}", on_disk);
+                merge_files += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    assert!(merge_files > 0);
+
+    let max_fragment_id = dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id().unwrap();
+
+    // A second merge referencing a base by name: base1 is a dataset-root
+    // base, so files go under `{base1}/data/`.
+    let source = multi_base_batch(&[12, 13], 1000, "new");
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_base_names_or_paths(vec!["base1".to_string()])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source)],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, stats) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 2);
+
+    let mut merge_files = 0;
+    for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+        let metadata = &fragment.metadata;
+        if metadata.id > max_fragment_id {
+            for file in &metadata.files {
+                assert_eq!(file.base_id, Some(1));
+                let on_disk = fixture.base1_dir.join("data").join(file.path.as_str());
+                assert!(on_disk.exists(), "missing data file {:?}", on_disk);
+                merge_files += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    assert!(merge_files > 0);
+
+    let mut expected = vec![];
+    for id in [0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8] {
+        expected.push(expected_row(id, 100, "orig"));
+    }
+    for id in [1, 4, 10, 11, 12, 13] {
+        expected.push(expected_row(id, 1000, "new"));
+    }
+    expected.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(collect_multi_base_rows(&dataset).await, expected);
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dataset.uri()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(collect_multi_base_rows(&dataset).await, expected);
+}
+
+/// Partial-schema merge insert on a multi-base table: column patches for
+/// existing fragments stay in primary storage (mixing with data files in
+/// external bases within the same fragment) while inserted rows route to the
+/// requested base. Requires an index on the join key to reach the in-place
+/// update path.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_partial_schema_multi_base() {
+    let fixture = multi_base_fixture(true).await;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(fixture.dataset);
+
+    // Update column `a` for all rows of fragment 0 (full column rewrite) and
+    // one row of fragment 1 (incremental update), insert ids 10 and 11.
+    let partial_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let ids = vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11];
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        partial_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids.clone())),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(
+                ids.iter().map(|id| id + 1000).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_bases(vec![2])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(source)], partial_schema));
+    let (dataset, stats) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 4);
+    assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 2);
+
+    for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+        let metadata = &fragment.metadata;
+        match metadata.id {
+            0 | 1 => {
+                // Patched fragments: the original file in base1 plus a column
+                // patch written to primary storage.
+                assert_eq!(metadata.files.len(), 2);
+                assert_eq!(metadata.files[0].base_id, Some(1));
+                assert_eq!(metadata.files[1].base_id, None);
+            }
+            2 => {
+                assert_eq!(metadata.files.len(), 1);
+                assert_eq!(metadata.files[0].base_id, None);
+            }
+            _ => {
+                // Inserted rows route to base2.
+                for file in &metadata.files {
+                    assert_eq!(file.base_id, Some(2));
+                    let on_disk = fixture.base2_dir.join(file.path.as_str());
+                    assert!(on_disk.exists(), "missing data file {:?}", on_disk);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Updated rows keep their `b` values, inserted rows have no `b`.
+    let mut expected = vec![];
+    for id in [4, 5, 6, 7, 8] {
+        expected.push(expected_row(id, 100, "orig"));
+    }
+    for id in [0, 1, 2, 3] {
+        expected.push((id, id + 1000, Some(format!("orig{}", id))));
+    }
+    for id in [10, 11] {
+        expected.push((id, id + 1000, None));
+    }
+    expected.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(collect_multi_base_rows(&dataset).await, expected);
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dataset.uri()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(collect_multi_base_rows(&dataset).await, expected);
+}
+
+/// Round-robin distribution across multiple target bases within a single
+/// merge insert. New data files are cut at `max_rows_per_file` (the write
+/// default of 1Mi rows), so inserting more rows than that produces multiple
+/// files, which must alternate between the target bases.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_round_robin_target_bases() {
+    let tmp = TempDir::default();
+    let primary_dir = tmp.std_path().join("primary");
+    let base1_dir = tmp.std_path().join("base1");
+    let base2_dir = tmp.std_path().join("base2");
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&base1_dir).unwrap();
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&base2_dir).unwrap();
+    let primary_uri = format!("file://{}", primary_dir.display());
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "id",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+        )
+        .unwrap())],
+        schema.clone(),
+    );
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &primary_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Create,
+            initial_bases: Some(vec![
+                BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: true,
+                    path: format!("file://{}", base1_dir.display()),
+                },
+                BasePath {
+                    id: 2,
+                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                    path: format!("file://{}", base2_dir.display()),
+                },
+            ]),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // 1.2Mi new rows -> two data files -> one per base.
+    const BATCH_ROWS: i32 = 100_000;
+    let batches: Vec<_> = (0..12)
+        .map(|i| {
+            let start = 1000 + i * BATCH_ROWS;
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    start..start + BATCH_ROWS,
+                ))],
+            )
+            .unwrap())
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .target_bases(vec![1, 2])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema.clone()));
+    let (dataset, stats) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1_200_000);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 1_200_010);
+
+    let merge_file_bases: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|fragment| fragment.metadata.id >= 1)
+        .flat_map(|fragment| fragment.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(merge_file_bases, vec![Some(1), Some(2)]);
+}
+
+/// Target base validation across build and execution paths.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_target_bases_validation() {
+    let fixture = multi_base_fixture(false).await;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(fixture.dataset);
+
+    // Both selectors set fails at build time.
+    let err = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_bases(vec![1])
+        .target_base_names_or_paths(vec!["base2".to_string()])
+        .try_build()
+        .err()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("Cannot specify both target_base_names_or_paths and target_bases"),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        err
+    );
+
+    // Unknown base id fails at execution.
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_bases(vec![99])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(multi_base_batch(&[1], 1000, "new"))],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let err = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("Target base ID 99 not found in available bases"),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        err
+    );
+
+    // An empty target base list is rejected rather than silently ignored.
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_bases(vec![])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(multi_base_batch(&[1], 1000, "new"))],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let err = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("target_bases cannot be empty"),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        err
+    );
+
+    // Unknown base name fails at execution.
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_base_names_or_paths(vec!["nonexistent".to_string()])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(multi_base_batch(&[1], 1000, "new"))],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let err = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("Base reference 'nonexistent' not found in available bases"),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        err
+    );
+
+    // Delete-only merges write no data files but still validate target bases.
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .target_bases(vec![99])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(multi_base_batch(&[1], 1000, "new"))],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let err = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("Target base ID 99 not found in available bases"),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        err
+    );
+
+    // Valid target bases on a delete-only merge are a no-op.
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .target_bases(vec![2])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(multi_base_batch(&[5], 1000, "new"))],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, stats) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 1);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 8);
+
+    // Datasets with no registered bases reject target bases.
+    let plain_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(multi_base_batch(&[0, 1], 100, "orig"))],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    );
+    let plain_dataset = Dataset::write(reader, plain_dir.as_str(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(plain_dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_bases(vec![1])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(multi_base_batch(&[1], 1000, "new"))],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let err = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("Target base ID 1 not found in available bases"),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        err
+    );
+}
+
+/// Base id 0 and the dataset URI include primary storage in the merge insert
+/// target rotation.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_target_bases_include_primary() {
+    let fixture = multi_base_fixture(false).await;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(fixture.dataset);
+    let primary_uri = dataset.uri().to_string();
+
+    // Single new file: the first slot (primary) receives it.
+    let source = multi_base_batch(&[1, 10], 1000, "new");
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_bases(vec![0, 2])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source)],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, _) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    let new_files: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| f.metadata.id >= 3)
+        .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(new_files, vec![None]);
+
+    // Flipped order: the first slot is base 2.
+    let max_id = dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id().unwrap();
+    let source = multi_base_batch(&[11], 1000, "new");
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_bases(vec![2, 0])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source)],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, _) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    let new_files: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| f.metadata.id > max_id)
+        .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(new_files, vec![Some(2)]);
+
+    // Names variant: the dataset's URI selects primary storage.
+    let max_id = dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id().unwrap();
+    let source = multi_base_batch(&[12], 1000, "new");
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_base_names_or_paths(vec![primary_uri])
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source)],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, _) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    let new_files: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| f.metadata.id > max_id)
+        .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(new_files, vec![None]);
+
+    let mut expected = vec![];
+    for id in [0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8] {
+        expected.push(expected_row(id, 100, "orig"));
+    }
+    for id in [1, 10, 11, 12] {
+        expected.push(expected_row(id, 1000, "new"));
+    }
+    expected.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(collect_multi_base_rows(&dataset).await, expected);
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dataset.uri()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(collect_multi_base_rows(&dataset).await, expected);
+}
+
+/// Merge insert attempts discarded by a retryable commit conflict must clean
+/// up the data files they routed to target bases; after concurrent merges the
+/// bases must contain only files referenced by the final manifest.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_conflict_retry_cleans_routed_files() {
+    let fixture = multi_base_fixture(false).await;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(fixture.dataset);
+    let concurrency: u32 = 5;
+
+    let barrier = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Barrier::new(concurrency as usize));
+    let mut handles = Vec::new();
+    for i in 0..concurrency {
+        // Every task starts from the same dataset version and updates the same
+        // row, so all but one attempt per round hit a retryable conflict.
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let barrier = barrier.clone();
+        handles.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+            barrier.wait().await;
+            let source = multi_base_batch(&[1, 100 + i as i32], 1000 + i as i32, "new");
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .conflict_retries(20)
+                .retry_timeout(Duration::from_secs(60))
+                .target_bases(vec![1, 2])
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(source)],
+                multi_base_schema(),
+            ));
+            job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap()
+        }));
+    }
+    let mut total_attempts = 0;
+    for handle in handles {
+        let (_dataset, stats) = handle.await.unwrap();
+        total_attempts += stats.num_attempts;
+    }
+    assert!(
+        total_attempts > concurrency,
+        "expected at least one conflicted attempt, got {} attempts",
+        total_attempts
+    );
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dataset.uri()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
+        9 + concurrency as usize
+    );
+
+    let mut referenced: HashSet<(Option<u32>, String)> = HashSet::new();
+    for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+        for file in &fragment.metadata.files {
+            referenced.insert((file.base_id, file.path.to_string()));
+        }
+    }
+    let list_files = |dir: &std::path::Path| -> Vec<String> {
+        if !dir.exists() {
+            return vec![];
+        }
+        std::fs::read_dir(dir)
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter_map(|entry| {
+                let path = entry.unwrap().path();
+                if path.extension().is_some_and(|ext| ext == "lance") {
+                    Some(path.file_name().unwrap().to_string_lossy().to_string())
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            })
+            .collect()
+    };
+    for name in list_files(&fixture.base1_dir.join("data")) {
+        assert!(
+            referenced.contains(&(Some(1), name.clone())),
+            "orphaned file in base1: {}",
+            name
+        );
+    }
+    for name in list_files(&fixture.base2_dir) {
+        assert!(
+            referenced.contains(&(Some(2), name.clone())),
+            "orphaned file in base2: {}",
+            name
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// `target_all_bases` on merge insert resolves to every registered base at
+/// execution time, with primary storage first when included.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_insert_target_all_bases() {
+    let fixture = multi_base_fixture(false).await;
+    let dataset = Arc::new(fixture.dataset);
+
+    // Single new file: with primary included it takes the first slot.
+    let source = multi_base_batch(&[20], 1000, "new");
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_all_bases(true)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source)],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, _) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    let new_files: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| f.metadata.id >= 3)
+        .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(new_files, vec![None]);
+
+    // Without primary the first slot is the lowest registered base id.
+    let max_id = dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id().unwrap();
+    let source = multi_base_batch(&[21], 1000, "new");
+    let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_all_bases(false)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+    let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(source)],
+        multi_base_schema(),
+    ));
+    let (dataset, _) = job.execute(reader_to_stream(reader)).await.unwrap();
+    let new_files: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| f.metadata.id > max_id)
+        .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(new_files, vec![Some(1)]);
+
+    // Cannot be combined with explicit target bases.
+    let err = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .target_bases(vec![1])
+        .target_all_bases(true)
+        .try_build()
+        .err()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("Cannot specify target_all_bases together with"),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        err
+    );
+
+    let expected_new: Vec<_> = [20, 21]
+        .iter()
+        .map(|id| expected_row(*id, 1000, "new"))
+        .collect();
+    let all_rows = collect_multi_base_rows(&dataset).await;
+    for row in expected_new {
+        assert!(all_rows.contains(&row), "missing row {:?}", row);
+    }
+}
+
+/// A write landing between the tightening scan and its commit falsifies the
+/// claim, leaving a table that validates but cannot be scanned.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::tightening_conflicts(true, true)]
+#[case::rename_does_not(false, false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_alter_columns_conflicts_only_when_asserting(
+    #[case] tighten: bool,
+    #[case] expect_conflict: bool,
+) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Leave the first handle a version behind, so the alteration commits stale.
+    let appended = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [3])).unwrap(),
+        ])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(appended.version().version, 2);
+
+    let mut stale = dataset;
+    let alteration = if tighten {
+        ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).set_nullable(false)
+    } else {
+        ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).rename("renamed".into())
+    };
+    let result = stale.alter_columns(&[alteration]).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        expect_conflict,
+        "tighten={tighten}: got {result:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// read_version is the version the data was validated against. Declaring it
+/// honestly puts a later tightening inside the conflict window; declaring a
+/// later version skips the checks, which is a caller bug, not a guarantee.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::honest_read_version_conflicts(1, true)]
+#[case::misdeclared_read_version_commits(2, false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stale_append_protection_follows_read_version(
+    #[case] declared: u64,
+    #[case] expect_conflict: bool,
+) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap());
+
+    let mut tightened = dataset.schema().clone();
+    tightened.fields[0].nullable = false;
+    let tightened = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset.clone()),
+        Operation::Project {
+            schema: tightened,
+            preserves_nullability: false,
+        },
+        Some(dataset.version().version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(tightened.version().version, 2);
+
+    let mut append = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset.clone()))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    append.read_version = declared;
+
+    let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(tightened))
+        .execute(append)
+        .await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        expect_conflict,
+        "declared={declared}: got {result:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A field added and tightened after the write snapshot: the tightening's
+/// claim is in the honest conflict window, so the operation-wide barrier
+/// rejects the stale append. Added-but-nullable commits, since synthesized
+/// nulls are legal there.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::added_then_tightened(true, true)]
+#[case::added_still_nullable(false, false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stale_append_vs_field_added_since(
+    #[case] tighten: bool,
+    #[case] expect_conflict: bool,
+) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap());
+
+    let append = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset.clone()))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut latest = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+    latest
+        .add_columns(
+            crate::dataset::NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![(
+                "new_value".to_string(),
+                "value".to_string(),
+            )]),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    if tighten {
+        latest
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("new_value".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(latest)).execute(append).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        expect_conflict,
+        "tighten={tighten}: got {result:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_alter_columns_rejects_cast_with_tightening() {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let err = dataset
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into())
+            .set_nullable(false)
+            .cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("same call"), "got: {err}");
+
+    // Separately, both succeed.
+    dataset
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// A merge introducing a non-nullable column claims non-null, so a stale
+/// append, whose fragments omit the column and would read as null, conflicts.
+/// A nullable column keeps the long-standing behavior: the append commits and
+/// its rows legally read as null.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::required_column_conflicts("1", true)]
+#[case::nullable_column_commits("value", false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stale_append_vs_column_added_by_merge(
+    #[case] expression: &str,
+    #[case] expect_conflict: bool,
+) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap());
+
+    let append = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset.clone()))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // A literal is non-nullable; a projection of a nullable column is nullable.
+    let mut latest = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+    latest
+        .add_columns(
+            crate::dataset::NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![(
+                "new_value".to_string(),
+                expression.to_string(),
+            )]),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(latest)).execute(append).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        expect_conflict,
+        "expression={expression}: got {result:?}"
+    );
+    if let Ok(committed) = result {
+        committed.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    }
+}
+
+/// A cast rewrites the column under a new field id, so a stale append omits it
+/// and its rows read as null. Casting a non-nullable column therefore claims
+/// non-null and conflicts; casting a nullable one does not.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::cast_of_required_conflicts(true, true)]
+#[case::cast_of_nullable_commits(false, false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stale_append_vs_cast(#[case] tighten_first: bool, #[case] expect_conflict: bool) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+    if tighten_first {
+        dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // Stage against the pre-cast schema, so the cast lands inside the window.
+    let staged = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
+    let append = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(staged.clone()))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset)).execute(append).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        expect_conflict,
+        "tighten_first={tighten_first}: got {result:?}"
+    );
+    if let Ok(committed) = result {
+        committed.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    }
+}
+
+/// A nested cast assigns a new field id to the child. An append staged before
+/// the cast still writes the old id, and transaction rebasing does not rewrite
+/// its data through the cast. Under a required parent, accepting that append
+/// would make the replacement child unreadable, so it must conflict. Supporting
+/// that case requires smarter rebasing, not a file-format change. A nullable
+/// parent can mask the missing child, so that append remains compatible.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::nullable_child_required_parent_conflicts(false, true)]
+#[case::nullable_child_nullable_parent_commits(true, false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stale_append_vs_nested_cast(
+    #[case] parent_nullable: bool,
+    #[case] expect_conflict: bool,
+) {
+    let child = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true));
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "b",
+        DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![child.clone()])),
+        parent_nullable,
+    )]));
+    let struct_batch = |values: Vec<i32>| {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
+                child.clone(),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef,
+            )]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(struct_batch(vec![1, 2]))], schema.clone()),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let append = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![struct_batch(vec![3])])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b.c".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset)).execute(append).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        expect_conflict,
+        "parent_nullable={parent_nullable}: got {result:?}"
+    );
+    if let Ok(committed) = result {
+        let batch = committed.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch["b"]
+                .as_struct()
+                .column_by_name("c")
+                .unwrap()
+                .null_count(),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// A subcolumn addition (V2.2+) merges a new child into an existing struct.
+/// Stale rows supply the parent, so a required new child would read as
+/// unmasked null: the merge claims and the stale append conflicts. A nullable
+/// new child under a nullable parent masks itself and keeps appends flowing.
+/// Under a non-nullable parent even a nullable child claims: the reader
+/// synthesizes missing subcolumns against the column's declared nullability,
+/// so the stale fragment could not be read at all.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::required_child_conflicts(true, false, true)]
+#[case::required_child_nullable_parent_conflicts(true, true, true)]
+#[case::nullable_child_nullable_parent_commits(false, true, false)]
+#[case::nullable_child_required_parent_conflicts(false, false, true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stale_append_vs_sub_column_added_by_merge(
+    #[case] child_required: bool,
+    #[case] parent_nullable: bool,
+    #[case] expect_conflict: bool,
+) {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "b",
+        DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "c",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )])),
+        parent_nullable,
+    )]));
+    let struct_batch = |values: Vec<i32>| {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef,
+            )]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+    let dataset = Arc::new(
+        Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(struct_batch(vec![1, 2]))], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+
+    let append = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset.clone()))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![struct_batch(vec![3])])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let new_child = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("d", DataType::Int32, !child_required));
+    let sub_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "b",
+        DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![new_child.as_ref().clone()])),
+        parent_nullable,
+    )]));
+    let sub_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        sub_schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
+            new_child,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20])) as ArrayRef,
+        )]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut latest = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+    latest
+        .add_columns(
+            crate::dataset::NewColumnTransform::Reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(sub_batch)],
+                sub_schema,
+            ))),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(latest)).execute(append).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        expect_conflict,
+        "child_required={child_required} parent_nullable={parent_nullable}: got {result:?}"
+    );
+    if let Ok(committed) = result {
+        // The stale rows keep their parent values; the new child reads null.
+        let batch = committed.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 3);
+        let parent = batch["b"].as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(parent.null_count(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(parent.column_by_name("d").unwrap().null_count(), 1);
+    }
+}
+
+/// The barrier is operation-wide, so a tightening of a nested field conflicts
+/// with a concurrent write exactly like a top-level one.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_alter_columns_nested_tightening_conflicts() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "b",
+        DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "c",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            true,
+        )])),
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+        )]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone()),
+        "memory://",
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Leave the first handle a version behind, so the tightening commits stale.
+    InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut stale = dataset;
+    stale
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("b.c".into()).set_nullable(false)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+}
+
+/// The invariant every piece of the tightening barrier serves: no interleaving
+/// of honest writers and schema changes may commit a dataset that validates
+/// but cannot be scanned.
+#[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 4)]
+async fn test_concurrent_tightening_stress() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = dir.as_str().to_string();
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    Dataset::write(reader, uri.as_str(), None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut tasks = tokio::task::JoinSet::new();
+
+    // Appenders: honest read versions, half the batches carry nulls. A null
+    // append must either land while the column is nullable or be refused --
+    // by the writer against a non-null schema, or by the claim barrier when a
+    // tightening won the race after the write.
+    for a in 0..4u8 {
+        let uri = uri.clone();
+        tasks.spawn(async move {
+            let mut outcomes = [0u32; 2];
+            for i in 0..12u32 {
+                let with_null = (a as u32 + i).is_multiple_of(2);
+                let batch = if with_null {
+                    arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [None, Some(3)])).unwrap()
+                } else {
+                    arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [4, 5])).unwrap()
+                };
+                let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+                let result = Dataset::write(
+                    reader,
+                    uri.as_str(),
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await;
+                outcomes[result.is_ok() as usize] += 1;
+            }
+            outcomes
+        });
+    }
+
+    // The tightener alternates NOT NULL and back. Either step may lose to
+    // concurrent writes; losing is an acceptable outcome, corruption is not.
+    {
+        let uri = uri.clone();
+        tasks.spawn(async move {
+            let mut outcomes = [0u32; 2];
+            for i in 0..10u32 {
+                let Ok(mut dataset) = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri.as_str()).load().await else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                let result = dataset
+                    .alter_columns(
+                        &[ColumnAlteration::new("value".into()).set_nullable(i % 2 == 1)],
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                outcomes[result.is_ok() as usize] += 1;
+            }
+            outcomes
+        });
+    }
+
+    let mut totals = [0u32; 2];
+    while let Some(res) = tasks.join_next().await {
+        let [err, ok] = res.unwrap();
+        totals[0] += err;
+        totals[1] += ok;
+    }
+
+    // The oracle: whatever interleaving happened, the final dataset must be
+    // internally consistent -- validation and scanning agree.
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri.as_str()).load().await.unwrap();
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    let scanned = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(scanned.num_rows() >= 2);
+    // And every historical version must scan too: a corrupt intermediate
+    // commit would have been the bug even if later commits papered over it.
+    for version in 1..=dataset.version().version {
+        let at = dataset.checkout_version(version).await.unwrap();
+        at.validate().await.unwrap();
+        at.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    }
+    assert!(totals[1] > 0, "nothing succeeded: {totals:?}");
+}
+
+/// A Merge commit may introduce staged fragments (write_fragments output:
+/// placeholder id 0, no row id metadata) alongside the existing fragments.
+/// They must receive fresh fragment ids and, on stable row id datasets, row
+/// ids -- the same treatment Append gives them. Regression test for
+/// https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7702.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::no_stable_row_ids(false)]
+#[case::stable_row_ids(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_commits_staged_new_fragments(#[case] use_stable_row_id: bool) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [1, 2, 3, 4])).unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: use_stable_row_id,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 2);
+    let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+    let existing: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+
+    // Stage new fragments without committing, like Python's write_fragments.
+    let batch2 = arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [5, 6])).unwrap();
+    let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let Operation::Append { fragments: staged } = transaction.operation else {
+        panic!("expected an Append transaction from execute_uncommitted");
+    };
+    assert!(
+        staged.iter().all(|f| f.id == 0 && f.row_id_meta.is_none()),
+        "staged fragments arrive with placeholder id 0 and no row ids"
+    );
+
+    let mut merge_list = existing.clone();
+    merge_list.extend(staged);
+    let merge_schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::Merge {
+            fragments: merge_list,
+            schema: merge_schema,
+            preserves_nullability: true,
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+    // The staged fragment received a fresh, non-duplicate id.
+    let ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+    assert_eq!(ids, vec![0, 1, 2]);
+
+    // Existing fragments keep their row id metadata byte-identical.
+    for prev in &existing {
+        let frag = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|f| f.id == prev.id)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frag.row_id_meta, prev.row_id_meta);
+    }
+
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+    values.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(values, vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]);
+
+    if use_stable_row_id {
+        let new_frag = dataset.fragments().iter().find(|f| f.id == 2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            new_frag.row_id_meta.is_some(),
+            "staged fragment must be assigned row ids at commit time"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.next_row_id, 6);
+
+        // Row ids are unique and the staged rows got the next allocation block.
+        let batch = dataset.scan().with_row_id().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let row_ids: HashSet<u64> = batch[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, (0..6).collect::<HashSet<u64>>());
+    } else {
+        assert!(dataset.fragments().iter().all(|f| f.row_id_meta.is_none()));
+    }
+}
+
+/// A concurrent Append between the Merge's read version and its commit must
+/// fail the Merge with a retryable conflict instead of committing overlapping
+/// fragment or row ids.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_staged_new_fragments_concurrent_append_conflicts() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+    let existing: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+
+    // The merging writer holds a handle at the read version.
+    let merge_handle = dataset.clone();
+
+    let batch2 =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![5, 6]))]).unwrap();
+    let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let Operation::Append { fragments: staged } = transaction.operation else {
+        panic!("expected an Append transaction from execute_uncommitted");
+    };
+
+    // Concurrent Append lands between the Merge's read version and its commit.
+    let batch3 =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7, 8]))]).unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch3)], schema.clone()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut merge_list = existing;
+    merge_list.extend(staged);
+    let merge_schema = merge_handle.schema().clone();
+    let err = Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(merge_handle)),
+        Operation::Merge {
+            fragments: merge_list,
+            schema: merge_schema,
+            preserves_nullability: true,
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(err, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        err
+    );
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("preempted by concurrent transaction"),
+        "unexpected message: {}",
+        err
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_migrations.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_migrations.rs
index 0f02425b0dd..4615d1559d7 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_migrations.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_migrations.rs
@@ -4,18 +4,23 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::vec;
 
-use crate::dataset::optimize::{compact_files, CompactionOptions};
+use crate::dataset::InsertBuilder;
+use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp;
 use crate::{Dataset, Result};
-use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+use lance_index::{IndexCriteria, IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
+use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata, RowIdMeta};
+use lance_table::rowids::read_row_ids;
 
 use crate::dataset::write::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-use arrow_array::{Float32Array, Int64Array, RecordBatchIterator};
-use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+use arrow_array::{Array, Float32Array, Int64Array, ListArray, RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
 
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use rstest::rstest;
@@ -181,10 +186,11 @@ async fn test_fix_v0_8_0_broken_migration() {
 }
 
 #[rstest]
+#[case::legacy(LanceFileVersion::Legacy)]
+#[case::v1_v2_mixed_rejected(LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_v0_8_14_invalid_index_fragment_bitmap(
-    #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
-    data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    #[case] data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
 ) {
     // Old versions of lance could create an index whose fragment bitmap was
     // invalid because it did not include fragments that were part of the index
@@ -229,7 +235,7 @@ async fn test_v0_8_14_invalid_index_fragment_bitmap(
     let broken_version = dataset.version().version;
 
     // Any transaction, no matter how simple, should trigger the fragment bitmap to be recalculated
-    dataset
+    let append_result = dataset
         .append(
             data,
             Some(WriteParams {
@@ -237,8 +243,24 @@ async fn test_v0_8_14_invalid_index_fragment_bitmap(
                 ..Default::default()
             }),
         )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        .await;
+
+    if matches!(data_storage_version, LanceFileVersion::Stable) {
+        let error = append_result.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap().version().version,
+            broken_version
+        );
+        return;
+    }
+    append_result.unwrap();
 
     for idx in dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().iter() {
         // The corrupt fragment_bitmap does not contain 0 but the
@@ -264,7 +286,8 @@ async fn test_v0_8_14_invalid_index_fragment_bitmap(
     let batches = scan
         .nearest("vector", &query_vec, 2000)
         .unwrap()
-        .nprobes(4)
+        .minimum_nprobes(4)
+        .maximum_nprobes(4)
         .prefilter(true)
         .try_into_stream()
         .await
@@ -277,6 +300,43 @@ async fn test_v0_8_14_invalid_index_fragment_bitmap(
     assert_eq!(row_count, 1900);
 }
 
+/// The repair above is triggered by the writer version of the manifest being
+/// committed *from*, and a successful commit stamps the current one. So a
+/// commit that cannot open the index has exactly one chance at the corrupt
+/// bitmap, and carrying it through unverified would hand a later build a
+/// bitmap that looks migrated.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_v0_8_14_invalid_index_fragment_bitmap_repair_is_not_lost() {
+    let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.8.14/corrupt_index").unwrap();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+
+    let indices_dir = test_dir.std_path().join("_indices");
+    let stashed_dir = test_dir.std_path().join("_indices_stashed");
+    std::fs::rename(&indices_dir, &stashed_dir).unwrap();
+
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap();
+
+    for idx in dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().iter() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            idx.fragment_bitmap, None,
+            "a bitmap the migration could not verify must be recorded as unknown"
+        );
+    }
+
+    std::fs::rename(&stashed_dir, &indices_dir).unwrap();
+
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap();
+
+    for idx in dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().iter() {
+        assert!(
+            idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(0),
+            "the first build that can open the index must repair the coverage"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_fix_v0_10_5_corrupt_schema() {
     // Schemas could be corrupted by successive calls to `add_columns` and
@@ -350,6 +410,97 @@ async fn test_fix_v0_21_0_corrupt_fragment_bitmap() {
     assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&indices[1]), vec![1]);
 }
 
+/// Unlike the pre-0.8.15 trigger, an overlap is re-derived from the index
+/// metadata on every commit, so it asks to be recalculated again on its own. A
+/// commit that cannot open the index has nothing to preserve and must leave the
+/// coverage alone: `None` is a state modern indices are not built to recover
+/// from, since `calculate_included_frags` exists only for old manifests.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_v0_21_0_corrupt_fragment_bitmap_kept_when_index_cannot_be_opened() {
+    let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.21.0/bad_index_fragment_bitmap").unwrap();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+
+    std::fs::rename(
+        test_dir.std_path().join("_indices"),
+        test_dir.std_path().join("_indices_stashed"),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    fn coverage(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> Vec<(String, Option<Vec<u32>>)> {
+        let mut coverage = indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|idx| {
+                (
+                    idx.uuid.to_string(),
+                    idx.fragment_bitmap
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|bitmap| bitmap.iter().collect()),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        coverage.sort();
+        coverage
+    }
+
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    let before = coverage(&dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap());
+
+    dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        coverage(&dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()),
+        before,
+        "coverage the overlap check will ask about again must be left as it stands"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_v8_decimal_zonemap_missing_extrema() {
+    async fn query_ids(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        predicate: &str,
+        use_scalar_index: bool,
+    ) -> (String, Vec<i64>) {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .use_scalar_index(use_scalar_index)
+            .filter(predicate)
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["id"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        (plan, ids)
+    }
+
+    let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap").unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+
+    for predicate in [
+        "value = arrow_cast(2.00, 'Decimal128(10, 2)')",
+        "value >= arrow_cast(2.00, 'Decimal128(10, 2)') AND \
+         value < arrow_cast(3.00, 'Decimal128(10, 2)')",
+        "value IN (arrow_cast(2.00, 'Decimal128(10, 2)'), \
+         arrow_cast(4.00, 'Decimal128(10, 2)'))",
+    ] {
+        let (indexed_plan, indexed_ids) = query_ids(&dataset, predicate, true).await;
+        let (flat_plan, flat_ids) = query_ids(&dataset, predicate, false).await;
+
+        assert!(indexed_plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{indexed_plan}");
+        assert!(!flat_plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{flat_plan}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed_ids, flat_ids,
+            "indexed query diverged for {predicate}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(flat_ids, vec![2]);
+    }
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_max_fragment_id_migration() {
     // v0.5.9 and earlier did not store the max fragment id in the manifest.
@@ -376,6 +527,128 @@ async fn test_max_fragment_id_migration() {
     }
 }
 
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_index_without_file_sizes() {
+    // Test that we can open indices created before the `files` field was added
+    // to IndexMetadata. The index should still work correctly, falling back to
+    // HEAD calls for file sizes.
+
+    let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("pre_file_sizes/index_without_file_sizes").unwrap();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+
+    // Open the dataset
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Verify the index exists and has no file size info
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+    let index = &indices[0];
+    assert_eq!(index.name, "values_idx");
+    assert!(
+        index.files.is_none() || index.files.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "Index should not have file size info (created with old version)"
+    );
+    // A manifest predating `covering_fields` decodes it as empty, so the keyed
+    // prefix is the whole of `fields` -- exactly what selection assumed before
+    // covering existed.
+    assert!(
+        index.covering_fields.is_empty(),
+        "Index from old version should declare no covered columns"
+    );
+
+    // Selection derives the keyed count as `fields.len() - covering_fields.len()`.
+    // On this old metadata it must still resolve to the one indexed column;
+    // otherwise the filter below would quietly fall back to a full scan and
+    // still return the right row.
+    let selected = dataset
+        .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column("values"))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        selected.map(|idx| idx.name),
+        Some("values_idx".to_string()),
+        "an old single-field index must still be selected for its column"
+    );
+
+    // Verify the index still works - scan with a filter that uses the index
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("values = 'value_42'")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+
+    // Verify describe_indices returns None for total_size_bytes for old indices
+    let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(descriptions.len(), 1);
+    assert!(
+        descriptions[0].total_size_bytes().is_none(),
+        "Old index without file sizes should return None for total_size_bytes"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_index_file_size_migration() {
+    // Test that file sizes are migrated when a write operation is performed
+    // on a dataset with an index missing file sizes.
+
+    let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("pre_file_sizes/index_without_file_sizes").unwrap();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+
+    // Open the dataset and verify the index has no file sizes
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        indices[0].files.is_none() || indices[0].files.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "Index should not have file size info before migration"
+    );
+
+    // Perform a write operation (append) to trigger migration
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int64, [100, 101]),
+        ("values", Utf8, ["value_100", "value_101"])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Verify the index now has file sizes after migration
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let index = &indices[0];
+    assert!(
+        index.files.is_some() && !index.files.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "Index should have file size info after migration"
+    );
+
+    // Verify each file has a positive size
+    for file in index.files.as_ref().unwrap() {
+        assert!(
+            file.size_bytes > 0,
+            "File {} should have positive size after migration",
+            file.path
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Verify describe_indices now returns total_size_bytes
+    let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        descriptions[0].total_size_bytes().is_some(),
+        "Index should have total_size_bytes after migration"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        descriptions[0].total_size_bytes().unwrap() > 0,
+        "Total size should be positive after migration"
+    );
+}
+
 /// Regression test for issue #5702: project_by_schema should reorder fields inside List<Struct>.
 ///
 /// This test reads a dataset with:
@@ -409,3 +682,471 @@ async fn test_list_struct_field_reorder_issue_5702() {
     // Verify schema has expected columns
     assert_eq!(batch.schema().fields().len(), 3); // id, data, extra
 }
+
+/// Regression test for issue #6936: v6.0.1 truncated a miniblock's structural
+/// level count to u16 while retaining the complete RLE payload.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_v6_0_1_miniblock_level_count_overflow() {
+    let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance").unwrap();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 66_049);
+
+    let captions = batch["captions"]
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<ListArray>()
+        .unwrap();
+    let values = captions
+        .values()
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(values.len(), 16_416);
+    assert_eq!(values.values().as_ref(), (0..16_416).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+
+    let offsets = captions.value_offsets();
+    assert_eq!(offsets[513], 16_416);
+    assert!(offsets[513..].iter().all(|offset| *offset == 16_416));
+    assert_eq!(captions.null_count(), 32_768);
+    assert!(captions.is_valid(513));
+    assert_eq!(captions.value(513).len(), 0);
+    assert!(captions.is_null(514));
+    assert!(captions.is_valid(66_047));
+    assert_eq!(captions.value(66_047).len(), 0);
+    assert!(captions.is_null(66_048));
+}
+
+// Helper: create a simple dataset with one fragment of `n` rows at the given URI.
+async fn make_simple_dataset(uri: &str, n: i64) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "id",
+        DataType::Int64,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..n))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    Dataset::write(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema), uri, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_migrate_to_stable_row_ids_basic() {
+    // Create a dataset without stable row IDs (the default).
+    let mut dataset = make_simple_dataset("memory://migrate_basic", 10).await;
+    assert!(
+        !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids(),
+        "should not have stable row IDs yet"
+    );
+
+    // Append a second batch using InsertBuilder so we share the same object store.
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+    let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(10..20))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+    // Run the migration.
+    dataset.migrate_to_stable_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+
+    // FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS must be set in both reader and writer flags.
+    assert_ne!(
+        dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS,
+        0,
+        "reader_feature_flags should have FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS"
+    );
+    assert_ne!(
+        dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS,
+        0,
+        "writer_feature_flags should have FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS"
+    );
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+
+    // All fragments must have row_id_meta set.
+    for frag in dataset.manifest.fragments.iter() {
+        assert!(
+            frag.row_id_meta.is_some(),
+            "fragment {} should have row_id_meta after migration",
+            frag.id
+        );
+    }
+
+    // next_row_id should equal the total number of physical rows (10 + 10 = 20).
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.next_row_id, 20);
+
+    // Appending after migration should correctly assign row IDs from next_row_id.
+    let batch3 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema())),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(20..25))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let dataset_after_append = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch3])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // The new fragment should also have row_id_meta.
+    let new_frag = dataset_after_append.manifest.fragments.last().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        new_frag.row_id_meta.is_some(),
+        "new fragment after migration should have row_id_meta"
+    );
+    // next_row_id should have advanced by the 5 newly appended rows.
+    assert_eq!(dataset_after_append.manifest.next_row_id, 25);
+
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_migrate_to_stable_row_ids_ignores_system_indices() {
+    // Compaction with deferred index remap registers the fragment-reuse
+    // system index (`__lance_frag_reuse`) for rewritten, indexed fragments.
+    // It is internal bookkeeping, not a user index the migration would
+    // invalidate, and the user may have already dropped every user index —
+    // the migration must not be gated on it.
+    let uri = "memory://migrate_system_idx";
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "values",
+        DataType::Int64,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["values"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        CompactionOptions {
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Drop the user index; only the bookkeeping system index remains.
+    let user_index_name = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|idx| idx.name.clone())
+        .find(|name| name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .expect("user index should exist after compaction");
+    dataset.drop_index(&user_index_name).await.unwrap();
+    let index_names: Vec<String> = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|idx| idx.name.clone())
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(
+        index_names,
+        vec![FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string()],
+        "precondition: only the fragment-reuse system index remains"
+    );
+
+    dataset.migrate_to_stable_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids(),
+        "migration must succeed with only the fragment-reuse index present"
+    );
+
+    // The migration must drop the fragment-reuse index rather than carry it
+    // forward. It maps old row addresses to new ones, and the read path
+    // attaches it to every index it opens, so a survivor would rewrite the
+    // freshly issued stable row ids as if they were addresses.
+    let remaining: Vec<String> = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|idx| idx.name.clone())
+        .collect();
+    assert!(
+        remaining.is_empty(),
+        "migration must leave no indices behind, got {remaining:?}"
+    );
+
+    // An index built after the migration must return the row it covers. With
+    // the fragment-reuse index still attached this lookup finds nothing: the
+    // remapper rewrites row id 0 into the compacted fragment's address space,
+    // which no live row carries.
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["values"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let matched = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("values = 0")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .num_rows();
+    assert_eq!(
+        matched, 1,
+        "an index built after the migration must find the row it covers"
+    );
+
+    // Deleting enough rows to materialize a compaction task (the default
+    // materialize-deletions threshold is 10%) exercises the commit path once
+    // more on the migrated dataset.
+    dataset.delete("values >= 7").await.unwrap();
+    let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        metrics.fragments_removed > 0,
+        "precondition: the compaction must do real work, got metrics {metrics:?}"
+    );
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_migrate_to_stable_row_ids_already_migrated() {
+    // Create a dataset that already uses stable row IDs.
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "id",
+        DataType::Int64,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..5))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://already_migrated",
+        Some(write_params),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+    let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+    // Calling migrate on an already-migrated dataset should be a no-op.
+    dataset.migrate_to_stable_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Version must not have changed.
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.version, version_before,
+        "migrate should be a no-op when already migrated"
+    );
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_migrate_to_stable_row_ids_empty() {
+    // Create an empty dataset (schema-only, no fragments).
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "id",
+        DataType::Int64,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let empty_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        std::iter::empty::<std::result::Result<RecordBatch, arrow_schema::ArrowError>>(),
+        schema.clone(),
+    );
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(empty_reader, "memory://migrate_empty", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert!(!dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 0);
+
+    // Migration on an empty dataset should succeed without error.
+    dataset.migrate_to_stable_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.next_row_id, 0);
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_migrate_to_stable_row_ids_with_deletions() {
+    // Create a single-fragment dataset of 10 rows then soft-delete 3 of them.
+    let mut dataset = make_simple_dataset("memory://migrate_deletions", 10).await;
+    dataset.delete("id < 3").await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 7);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_deleted_rows().await.unwrap(), 3);
+
+    // physical_rows counts the pre-deletion slots; row IDs must cover all of
+    // them so that the deleted rows' IDs are never reused.
+    let physical_rows = dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata.physical_rows.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(physical_rows, 10);
+
+    dataset.migrate_to_stable_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.fragments[0].row_id_meta.is_some());
+
+    // next_row_id must equal physical_rows (10), not logical rows (7).
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.next_row_id, 10);
+
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_migrate_to_stable_row_ids_blocked_by_index() {
+    // Create a 2-fragment dataset and build a BTree index on it.
+    let mut dataset = make_simple_dataset("memory://btree_blocked", 10).await;
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+    let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(10..20))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("my_btree".to_string()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Migration must be rejected because the BTree index exists.
+    let err = dataset
+        .migrate_to_stable_row_ids()
+        .await
+        .expect_err("migration should fail when indexes exist");
+
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("my_btree"),
+        "error should name the blocking index, got: {err}"
+    );
+
+    // After dropping the index the migration succeeds.
+    dataset.drop_index("my_btree").await.unwrap();
+    dataset.migrate_to_stable_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+
+    // Re-create the index and verify it works correctly.
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("id = 15")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+    let id_col = results["id"].as_any().downcast_ref::<Int64Array>().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(id_col.value(0), 15);
+}
+
+/// The migration numbers from the mark it is handed, so any manifest carrying a
+/// non-zero one cannot reissue ids the earlier versions still hold.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::fresh(0, vec![0..4, 4..10])]
+#[case::carried_mark(30, vec![30..34, 34..40])]
+fn test_migration_allocates_from_the_given_mark(
+    #[case] start: u64,
+    #[case] expected: Vec<std::ops::Range<u64>>,
+) {
+    let mut fragments: Vec<Fragment> = [4usize, 6]
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, rows)| {
+            let mut f = Fragment::new(i as u64);
+            f.physical_rows = Some(*rows);
+            f
+        })
+        .collect();
+
+    let next = Dataset::assign_stable_row_ids_for_migration(&mut fragments, start).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(next, expected.last().unwrap().end);
+
+    let sequences: Vec<Vec<u64>> = fragments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| {
+            let RowIdMeta::Inline(data) = f.row_id_meta.as_ref().unwrap() else {
+                panic!("migration writes inline row id meta");
+            };
+            read_row_ids(data).unwrap().iter().collect()
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let expected: Vec<Vec<u64>> = expected.into_iter().map(|r| r.collect()).collect();
+    assert_eq!(sequences, expected);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_overlay_index_masking.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_overlay_index_masking.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f6eb0886336
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_overlay_index_masking.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,3166 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! End-to-end tests for data-overlay index masking: a scalar index masks data overlay files so that
+//! queries stay correct while overlays remain (stale index hits are dropped and new
+//! matches are added by re-evaluating overlay-covered rows on the flat path).
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+use arrow_array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+    BooleanQuery, FtsQuery, MatchQuery, MultiMatchQuery, Occur, PhraseQuery,
+};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{DocumentGranularity, InvertedIndexParams};
+use lance_index::scalar::minhash_lsh::MinHashQuery;
+use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+use lance_table::format::DataFile;
+use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use rstest::rstest;
+
+use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files, remapping};
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, Operation};
+use crate::dataset::{WriteDestination, WriteParams};
+use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+use crate::index::{CreateIndexBuilder, DatasetIndexExt};
+use crate::io::exec::filtered_read::FilteredReadExec;
+use crate::io::exec::fts::FlatMatchQueryExec;
+
+/// Two-fragment Int32 dataset: `id` (field 0) = 0..12 and `age` (field 1) = id * 10,
+/// six rows per file (fragments 0 and 1). In-memory store so overlay files can be written
+/// with a store-relative `data/<name>.lance` path and committed against the dataset.
+async fn create_base_dataset() -> Dataset {
+    create_base_dataset_with(false).await
+}
+
+async fn create_base_dataset_with(stable_row_ids: bool) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..12)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..12).map(|v| v * 10))),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: 6,
+        enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn build_age_index(dataset: &mut Dataset) {
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["age"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Write an overlay file covering `fields` of `fragment_id` with `coverage` and the given
+/// per-field value columns, then commit it as a `DataOverlay` transaction. `name` makes
+/// the overlay file unique.
+async fn commit_overlay(
+    dataset: Dataset,
+    name: &str,
+    fragment_id: u64,
+    fields: &[i32],
+    coverage: OverlayCoverage,
+    columns: Vec<ArrayRef>,
+) -> Dataset {
+    let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+    let overlay_schema = dataset.schema().project_by_ids(fields, true);
+
+    let filename = format!("{name}.lance");
+    // Use dataset.base so the path is absolute for file:// stores.
+    // to_local_path() prepends '/' to the object_store path, so a bare
+    // "data/foo.lance" would resolve to /data/foo.lance (root fs). With
+    // base we get e.g. tmp/lance-bench/data/foo.lance → /tmp/lance-bench/data/foo.lance.
+    // For memory:// stores base is empty so the result is the same as before.
+    let path = dataset.base.clone().join("data").join(filename.as_str());
+    let obj_writer = dataset.object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+    let file_version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
+    let mut writer = lance_file::versions::create_writer(
+        file_version,
+        obj_writer,
+        overlay_schema,
+        FileWriterOptions::default(),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    for (i, array) in columns.into_iter().enumerate() {
+        writer.write_column(i, array).await.unwrap();
+    }
+    let summary = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut data_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(filename, file_version);
+    data_file.fields = writer
+        .field_id_to_column_indices()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(field_id, _)| *field_id as i32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .into();
+    data_file.column_indices = writer
+        .field_id_to_column_indices()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(_, column_index)| *column_index as i32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .into();
+    data_file.file_size_bytes = CachedFileSize::new(summary.size_bytes);
+
+    let overlay = DataOverlayFile {
+        data_file,
+        coverage,
+        committed_version: 0,
+    };
+    Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset)),
+        Operation::DataOverlay {
+            groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                fragment_id,
+                overlays: vec![overlay],
+            }],
+        },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Sorted `id` values returned by a filtered scan.
+async fn ids_matching(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str) -> Vec<i32> {
+    ids_matching_opts(dataset, filter, false).await
+}
+
+/// Like [`ids_matching`] but lets a test enable `fast_search()`, which skips unindexed
+/// fragments. Overlay masking on indexed fragments must still apply regardless.
+async fn ids_matching_opts(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str, fast_search: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.filter(filter).unwrap().project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    if fast_search {
+        scanner.fast_search();
+    }
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut ids = ids_from_batches(std::slice::from_ref(&batch));
+    ids.sort_unstable();
+    ids
+}
+
+/// Concatenate the `id` (Int32) column from each batch, in batch order.
+fn ids_from_batches(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Vec<i32> {
+    batches
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|b| {
+            b.column_by_name("id")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec()
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn i32_array(values: impl IntoIterator<Item = Option<i32>>) -> ArrayRef {
+    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter(values))
+}
+
+fn string_lists(rows: &[&[&str]]) -> ArrayRef {
+    let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+    for row in rows {
+        for value in *row {
+            builder.values().append_value(value);
+        }
+        builder.append(true);
+    }
+    Arc::new(builder.finish())
+}
+
+fn fsl(rows: Vec<Vec<f32>>, dim: i32) -> ArrayRef {
+    let flat: Vec<f32> = rows.into_iter().flatten().collect();
+    let item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+    Arc::new(
+        arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            item,
+            dim,
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Float32Array::from(flat)),
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    )
+}
+
+/// A newer overlay on the indexed field drops stale index hits (the old value no longer
+/// matches) and surfaces new matches (the new value is found even though the index never
+/// saw it). Mirrors the spec's Bob 25 -> 26 worked example.
+///
+/// Parametrized over `stable_row_ids` to cover the address-based stale-Take path under both
+/// row-id schemes.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_overlay_stale_drop_and_new_match(#[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset_with(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Fragment 0, offset 1 is id=1, age=10. The overlay (committed after the index)
+    // changes its age to 999.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Stale-drop: the index still holds age=10 for id=1, but its current value is 999,
+    // so it must not be returned.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    // New-match: the index never saw age=999, but re-evaluation finds it.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 999").await, vec![1]);
+    // An untouched indexed value is unaffected.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 20").await, vec![2]);
+}
+
+/// Row-level BTree precision: when one row in a covered fragment is stale, only that row is
+/// blocked from the index result and re-evaluated on the stale-Take path. Non-stale rows in
+/// the same fragment (including one that matches the predicate) remain on the indexed path.
+///
+/// Setup: fragment 0 has id=5 → age=50 (not stale). Overlay id=1 → age=50 (stale).
+/// After the overlay two rows in fragment 0 have age=50. The row-level optimization must
+/// return both: id=5 from the index and id=1 from the stale-Take path.
+///
+/// Parametrized over `stable_row_ids`: with stable row ids enabled the stale-Take path must
+/// identify rows by physical address, not `_rowid`, or it would take the wrong rows.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_btree_overlay_row_level_precision(#[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset_with(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Fragment 0: ids 0-5, ages 0,10,20,30,40,50. Overlay offset 1 (id=1): age 10→50.
+    // After this both id=1 and id=5 have age=50, in the same fragment.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_row_level",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(50)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Stale drop: id=1's old age=10 entry must not appear.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+
+    // id=5 via index + id=1 via stale-Take path — both in fragment 0.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 50").await, vec![1, 5]);
+
+    // Non-stale rows in the same fragment still return correctly.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 20").await, vec![2]);
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 30").await, vec![3]);
+}
+
+/// `fast_search` skips *unindexed fragments*, but overlay masking on indexed fragments must
+/// still apply: the drop-stale block and the stale-Take re-eval both run regardless of
+/// `fast_search` on the scalar path. A regression that gated overlay masking behind
+/// `!fast_search` would leak id=1's stale age=10 hit here.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_btree_overlay_masked_under_fast_search() {
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset().await;
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Fragment 0, offset 1 is id=1, age=10. Overlay (committed after the index) → age=999.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_fast_search",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Stale hit dropped even under fast_search — the block is not gated by fast_search.
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching_opts(&dataset, "age = 10", true).await,
+        Vec::<i32>::new()
+    );
+    // The scalar re-eval path is likewise not gated, so the new value is still surfaced.
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching_opts(&dataset, "age = 999", true).await,
+        vec![1]
+    );
+    // An untouched indexed value on the same fragment is unaffected.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching_opts(&dataset, "age = 20", true).await, vec![2]);
+}
+
+/// An overlay touching only a non-indexed field excludes nothing from the index on `age`.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_overlay_on_unrelated_field_excludes_nothing() {
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset().await;
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Overlay field 0 (`id`), not the indexed `age`. The age index stays fully trusted.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "id_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[0],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(777)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // The age index is still trusted: age=10 finds the offset-1 row, whose id now reads
+    // through the overlay as 777. The fragment was not routed to the flat path on account
+    // of an overlay that touches no indexed field.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await, vec![777]);
+    // An untouched row is unaffected.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 20").await, vec![2]);
+    // The overlaid id is the new value on read, and the old one is gone.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "id = 777").await, vec![777]);
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "id = 1").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+}
+
+/// An overlay whose `committed_version <= index.dataset_version` is already incorporated by
+/// the index (the index was built reading merged values) and is not excluded.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_overlay_older_than_index_not_excluded() {
+    let dataset = create_base_dataset().await;
+
+    // Commit the overlay first (age of id=1 becomes 999), then build the index on top.
+    let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_overlay_old",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // The index incorporates the overlay, so it returns the merged value directly.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 999").await, vec![1]);
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+}
+
+/// A covered offset whose overlay value is NULL overrides the cell to NULL, so the stale
+/// index hit for its old value is dropped.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_overlay_null_override() {
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset().await;
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // id=1 (age=10) is overridden to NULL.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_overlay_null",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([None])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age IS NULL").await, vec![1]);
+}
+
+/// Overlays on a non-first fragment are masked correctly, and a query spanning both
+/// fragments returns the right rows.
+///
+/// Parametrized over `stable_row_ids`, and crucially overlays fragment 1 (ids 6..12), where a
+/// physical address diverges from the stable row id — so this exercises the address-vs-row-id
+/// distinction that a fragment-0 overlay cannot.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_overlay_multi_fragment(#[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset_with(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Fragment 1 holds ids 6..12 (ages 60..110). Offset 2 within fragment 1 is id=8,
+    // age=80; change it to 60 (a value that also legitimately exists at id=6).
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_overlay_frag1",
+        1,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(60)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // id=8 no longer has age=80 (stale-drop on fragment 1).
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 80").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    // Both id=6 (base) and id=8 (overlay) now have age=60 (new-match added to base hit).
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 60").await, vec![6, 8]);
+    // A value in the untouched fragment 0 is still served correctly.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 30").await, vec![3]);
+}
+
+/// A deletion below an overlaid row must not corrupt the physical-offset → stable-row-id
+/// translation used to build the overlay block mask.
+///
+/// Under stable row ids the stale-row block/take set is computed by mapping each stale
+/// *physical offset* to its stable row id via the fragment's `RowIdSequence`. The sequence
+/// keeps one entry per physical row (deleted rows are tracked separately by the deletion
+/// vector, not compacted out), so the correct mapping is `sequence.get(offset)`. A regression
+/// that instead advanced a `sequence.iter()` cursor only for non-deleted offsets desynced the
+/// cursor after any deletion at an offset *below* the stale one, blocking/taking the wrong row
+/// id: the stale index hit then leaked and the new value was never surfaced.
+///
+/// Setup (stable row ids): fragment 1 holds ids 6..12 at offsets 0..6. Delete id=6 (offset 0),
+/// then overlay offset 2 (id=8, age 80 → 999). The deletion at offset 0 sits below the stale
+/// offset 2, so a cursor-based translation would map offset 2 to id=7 instead of id=8.
+///
+/// Parametrized over `stable_row_ids`: only the stable-row-id path translates offsets to row
+/// ids, so the bug is specific to it; the non-stable case (addresses are row ids) is a control.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_btree_overlay_stale_row_with_prior_deletion(
+    #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset_with(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Delete id=6 (fragment 1, offset 0) — a deletion hole below the row the overlay marks stale.
+    dataset.delete("id = 6").await.unwrap();
+
+    // Fragment 1, offset 2 is id=8 (age 80). The overlay (committed after the index) → age 999.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_overlay_del",
+        1,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Stale-drop: id=8's old age=80 index entry must not be returned.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 80").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    // New-match: id=8's current age=999 is found by re-evaluating the stale row.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 999").await, vec![8]);
+    // A non-stale row in the same deletion-bearing fragment is still served by the index.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 70").await, vec![7]);
+    // The deleted row is gone.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 60").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+}
+
+const VEC_DIM: i32 = 8;
+
+fn vec_query() -> Vec<f32> {
+    vec![1.0_f32, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0]
+}
+
+/// 64-row two-fragment vector dataset with a single-partition IVF_FLAT index and no overlay.
+/// id=35 equals the query; every other base vector is orthogonal to and far from the query.
+async fn create_vector_index_dataset(stable_row_ids: bool) -> Dataset {
+    let query = vec_query();
+
+    let mut vectors: Vec<Vec<f32>> = Vec::with_capacity(64);
+    for i in 0..64 {
+        if i == 35 {
+            vectors.push(query.clone());
+        } else {
+            let mut v = vec![0.0_f32; VEC_DIM as usize];
+            v[1] = (i + 2) as f32; // orthogonal to the query, distinct, far
+            vectors.push(v);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new(
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                VEC_DIM,
+            ),
+            true,
+        ),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..64)),
+            fsl(vectors, VEC_DIM),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: 32,
+        enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Single-partition IVF_FLAT: the ANN searches every indexed row with exact distances.
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+}
+
+/// [`create_vector_index_dataset`] plus an overlay on fragment 1 that moves id=35 (offset 3)
+/// onto `far` (away from the query) and id=40 (offset 8) onto the query. Built before the
+/// overlay, the index still believes id=35 is the query and has never seen id=40 near it.
+///
+/// Overlaying fragment 1 (ids 32..64) is deliberate: a physical address diverges from the
+/// stable row id there, so both the ANN prefilter block and the flat re-score take must operate
+/// in the row-id domain when `stable_row_ids` is enabled.
+async fn create_vector_overlay_dataset(stable_row_ids: bool) -> Dataset {
+    let query = vec_query();
+    let far = vec![0.0_f32, 100.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0];
+    let dataset = create_vector_index_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+
+    commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "vec_overlay",
+        1,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3, 8])),
+        vec![fsl(vec![far, query], VEC_DIM)],
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Run a top-`k` ANN search for the standard query vector and return the returned `id`s,
+/// optionally with `fast_search()` enabled.
+async fn vector_query_ids(dataset: &Dataset, k: usize, fast_search: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .nearest("vec", &arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec_query()), k)
+        .unwrap()
+        .minimum_nprobes(1)
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap();
+    if fast_search {
+        scanner.fast_search();
+    }
+    let results = scanner
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    ids_from_batches(&results)
+}
+
+/// A vector index masks overlays: a row whose vector was moved (by a newer overlay) away
+/// from the query is dropped from results, and a row moved *onto* the query is found by
+/// re-scoring its current vector on the flat path — even though the index never saw it.
+///
+/// Parametrized over `stable_row_ids` to cover the row-id domain for both block and re-score.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_vector_index_rescore_on_overlay(#[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+    let dataset = create_vector_overlay_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    let ids = vector_query_ids(&dataset, 3, false).await;
+
+    // id=40 was moved onto the query and is found by re-scoring (new-match recall).
+    assert!(
+        ids.contains(&40),
+        "expected id=40 (re-scored to query) in {ids:?}"
+    );
+    // id=35's stale index entry (the query) must not resurface: its current vector is far.
+    assert!(
+        !ids.contains(&35),
+        "stale vector for id=35 should be dropped, got {ids:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// The ANN prefilter block that drops stale overlay rows runs regardless of `fast_search`;
+/// only the flat re-score is gated by it. So under `fast_search` id=35's stale hit must still
+/// be dropped, while id=40 (moved onto the query) is intentionally not re-scored — the same
+/// recall tradeoff `fast_search` already makes for unindexed data. A regression that moved the
+/// `overlay_block` computation inside the `!fast_search` guard would leak id=35's stale vector.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_vector_overlay_stale_dropped_under_fast_search() {
+    let dataset = create_vector_overlay_dataset(false).await;
+    let ids = vector_query_ids(&dataset, 3, true).await;
+
+    // Correctness: the stale index hit is dropped even though the re-score is skipped.
+    assert!(
+        !ids.contains(&35),
+        "stale vector for id=35 must be dropped under fast_search, got {ids:?}"
+    );
+    // Recall tradeoff: fast_search skips the flat re-score, so the moved-on match is not surfaced.
+    assert!(
+        !ids.contains(&40),
+        "fast_search skips re-score, so id=40 should be absent, got {ids:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A batch (multi-vector) nearest query must fall back to the per-query indexed loop when a
+/// data overlay makes indexed vector rows stale. The shared-scan batch node (`ANNIvfBatch`)
+/// does not apply the overlay block or re-score moved rows, so `batch_index_search_supported`
+/// returns false and the per-query loop — which reconciles the overlay exactly as single-query
+/// search does — runs instead.
+///
+/// The no-overlay control confirms the shared-scan node *is* chosen otherwise (nprobes is
+/// pinned so no other gate fires), so the fallback is attributable to the overlay alone.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_vector_batch_falls_back_on_overlay(#[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+    // Two copies of the standard query, packed as a batch (multi-vector) nearest input.
+    let queries = fsl(vec![vec_query(), vec_query()], VEC_DIM);
+
+    // Control: without an overlay the shared-scan batch node handles the batch query.
+    let base = create_vector_index_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    let mut scanner = base.scan();
+    scanner
+        .nearest("vec", queries.as_ref(), 3)
+        .unwrap()
+        .minimum_nprobes(1)
+        .maximum_nprobes(1)
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+        "without an overlay the batch query should use the shared-scan node, got:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    // With an overlay on indexed vector rows the gate must fall back to the per-query loop.
+    let dataset = create_vector_overlay_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .nearest("vec", queries.as_ref(), 3)
+        .unwrap()
+        .minimum_nprobes(1)
+        .maximum_nprobes(1)
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains("ANNIvfBatch"),
+        "an overlay on indexed rows must disable the shared-scan node, got:\n{plan}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("ANNSubIndex"),
+        "the batch query should fall back to the per-query indexed loop, got:\n{plan}"
+    );
+
+    // Correctness: the fallback reconciles the overlay for the batch — id=40 (moved onto the
+    // query) is found and id=35 (moved away) is dropped, just like single-query search.
+    let results = scanner
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = ids_from_batches(&results);
+    assert!(
+        ids.contains(&40),
+        "overlay-moved id=40 should be found via the fallback path, got {ids:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !ids.contains(&35),
+        "stale id=35 should be dropped via the fallback path, got {ids:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A compound boolean predicate (age AND id) exercises the ScalarIndexExpr tree-walk in
+/// `overlay_stale_index_rows`. An overlay on `age` marks fragment 0 stale from the `age`
+/// index's perspective, so the compound query must re-evaluate fragment 0 on the flat path.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_overlay_stale_with_compound_index_expression() {
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset().await;
+    // Build BTree indexes on both columns so a compound filter can use both.
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Fragment 0 covers id=0..5, age=0..50. Overlay changes id=1's age from 10 to 999.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_compound",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Compound query: both the `age` and `id` index are involved. The overlay on `age`
+    // makes fragment 0 stale for the `age` index; it falls to the flat path, which uses
+    // the merged (overlay) value. Result: the stale age=10 hit is gone, age=999 appears.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 999").await, vec![1]);
+    // A pure `id` query on an unaffected fragment still works correctly.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "id = 2").await, vec![2]);
+}
+
+/// A `RewriteRows` update (under stable row ids) that touches only a *non-indexed* column moves
+/// the matched rows to a new fragment and, because the scalar index's field was not modified,
+/// extends that index's fragment coverage onto the new fragment
+/// (`register_pure_rewrite_rows_update_frags_in_indices`) so its existing entries are reused.
+///
+/// That reuse is unsound when a moved row carried a data overlay on the *indexed* field: the
+/// update materializes the overlay's current value into the new fragment, but the reused index
+/// entry still holds the stale pre-overlay value, and the new fragment (now marked covered) no
+/// longer falls to the flat path that previously served the correct value via overlay masking.
+///
+/// Here `age` is indexed and overlaid (id=1: age 10 -> 999); the update sets the non-indexed
+/// `id` column on that row. After it, `age = 10` must stay dropped and `age = 999` must still
+/// find the row — otherwise the stale index entry has resurfaced.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_update_nonindexed_column_preserves_overlay_masking() {
+    use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset_with(true).await;
+    build_age_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Overlay fragment 0, offset 1 (id=1): age 10 -> 999, committed after the index.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_update",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Masking works before the update.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 999").await, vec![1]);
+
+    // Update only the non-indexed `id` column of the overlaid row. This is a rewrite-rows move:
+    // the row (with age materialized to 999) is written to a new fragment and deleted from
+    // fragment 0, keeping its stable row id.
+    let dataset = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .update_where("id = 1")
+        .unwrap()
+        .set("id", "100")
+        .unwrap()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .new_dataset;
+
+    // Still masked: the stale age=10 entry must stay dropped and the overlaid age=999 value must
+    // still be found (now on the moved row, whose id is 100).
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await,
+        Vec::<i32>::new(),
+        "stale index entry age=10 resurfaced after updating a non-indexed column"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 999").await,
+        vec![100],
+        "overlaid value age=999 lost after updating a non-indexed column"
+    );
+    // A row untouched by the overlay is unaffected.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 20").await, vec![2]);
+}
+
+/// Text dataset: two fragments, 6 rows each. Schema: id (Int32), text (Utf8).
+/// Texts are unique tokens so each row can be identified by its term.
+async fn create_text_dataset(stable_row_ids: bool) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+    let texts: Vec<&str> = vec![
+        "apple pie",
+        "apple banana", // row 1, fragment 0 — will be overlaid in tests
+        "cherry cake",
+        "banana split",
+        "orange juice",
+        "grape vine",
+        "mango sorbet", // fragment 1 starts here
+        "pear tart",
+        "lemon curd",
+        "peach cobbler",
+        "plum pudding",
+        "fig newton",
+    ];
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..12)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: 6,
+        enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn build_text_fts_index(dataset: &mut Dataset) {
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// FTS index with token positions stored, required for phrase queries.
+async fn build_text_fts_index_with_positions(dataset: &mut Dataset) {
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Collect sorted IDs of rows returned by an FTS query.
+async fn fts_ids(dataset: &Dataset, query: FullTextSearchQuery) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let results = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(query)
+        .unwrap()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_stream()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut ids = ids_from_batches(&results);
+    ids.sort_unstable();
+    ids
+}
+
+async fn fts_ids_matching(dataset: &Dataset, term: &str) -> Vec<i32> {
+    fts_ids(dataset, FullTextSearchQuery::new(term.to_owned())).await
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_ngram_optimize_preserves_overlay_staleness() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::NGram);
+    let fragment_ids = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+    for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::NGram, &params)
+                .name("text_ngram".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment_id])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    let source_version = segments[0].dataset_version;
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("text_ngram", "text", segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "ngram_text_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("text_ngram").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(committed[0].dataset_version, source_version);
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "contains(text, 'apple')").await,
+        vec![0]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "contains(text, 'mango')").await,
+        vec![1, 6]
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_btree_physical_merge_preserves_overlay_staleness() {
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset().await;
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["age"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                .name("age_btree".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    let source_version = segments[0].dataset_version;
+    let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "btree_before_merge",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    let merged = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(merged.dataset_version, source_version);
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("age_btree", "age", vec![merged])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 999").await, vec![1]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_ngram_remap_excludes_newer_overlay_fragments() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::NGram);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::NGram,
+            Some("text_ngram".to_string()),
+            &params,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let source_version =
+        dataset.load_indices_by_name("text_ngram").await.unwrap()[0].dataset_version;
+
+    compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 12,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let compacted_fragment_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id();
+    let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "ngram_after_compaction",
+        compacted_fragment_id as u64,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    remapping::remap_column_index(&mut dataset, &["text"], Some("text_ngram".to_string()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("text_ngram").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+    assert!(committed[0].dataset_version > source_version);
+    assert!(
+        !committed[0]
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .contains(compacted_fragment_id as u32)
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "contains(text, 'apple')").await,
+        vec![0]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "contains(text, 'mango')").await,
+        vec![1, 6]
+    );
+}
+
+async fn fts_phrase_ids_matching(dataset: &Dataset, phrase: &str) -> Vec<i32> {
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery, PhraseQuery};
+
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+        PhraseQuery::new(phrase.to_owned()).with_column(Some("text".to_owned())),
+    ));
+    fts_ids(dataset, query).await
+}
+
+/// An overlay committed after the FTS index is built replaces a row's text. Searching for
+/// the old term must not return the stale row; searching for the new term must find it.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_overlay_stale_drop_and_new_match(#[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // fragment 0, row offset 1 (id=1): "apple banana" → "cherry mango"
+    // field ID 1 is the `text` column.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "text_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // "apple" now matches only id=0 ("apple pie"); id=1's stale index entry must be dropped.
+    assert_eq!(fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "apple").await, vec![0]);
+
+    // "banana" matched id=1 and id=3 before; after overlay id=1's stale entry must be gone.
+    assert_eq!(fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "banana").await, vec![3]);
+
+    // "cherry" now matches id=1 (via flat path on stale fragment) and id=2 ("cherry cake").
+    let cherry_ids = fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "cherry").await;
+    assert!(
+        cherry_ids.contains(&1),
+        "id=1 overlay→cherry mango should be found: {cherry_ids:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        cherry_ids.contains(&2),
+        "id=2 cherry cake should still be found: {cherry_ids:?}"
+    );
+
+    // "mango" now matches id=1 (overlay) and id=6 ("mango sorbet" in fragment 1).
+    let mango_ids = fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "mango").await;
+    assert!(
+        mango_ids.contains(&1),
+        "id=1 overlay→cherry mango should be found: {mango_ids:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        mango_ids.contains(&6),
+        "id=6 mango sorbet should still be found: {mango_ids:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_multimatch_shared_prefilter_preserves_field_overlay_masks() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("text_a", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ArrowField::new("text_b", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+    // Row 0 matches text_a, row 1 matches both fields before its overlay,
+    // and row 2 is a negative control.
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["apple", "apple", "none"])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["none", "apple", "none"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://",
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    for column in ["text_a", "text_b"] {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[column],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                None,
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+    // Only text_a is stale for row 1. text_b must retain its indexed match,
+    // while text_a's stale posting is blocked and re-evaluated separately.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "multimatch_text_a_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["none"]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+    let query: FtsQuery = MultiMatchQuery::try_new(
+        "apple".to_owned(),
+        vec!["text_a".to_owned(), "text_b".to_owned()],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .into();
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .prefilter(true)
+        .use_scalar_index(false)
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query))
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter("id >= 0")
+        .unwrap()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap();
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+    ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(ids, vec![0, 1]);
+}
+
+/// A phrase query must drop stale indexed positions and re-evaluate the current
+/// overlay value on the flat phrase path.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_phrase_overlay_stale_drop(#[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_text_fts_index_with_positions(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Before any overlay the phrase "apple banana" matches only id=1.
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_phrase_ids_matching(&dataset, "apple banana").await,
+        vec![1]
+    );
+
+    // Overlay id=1's text (field 1) so the phrase no longer applies to its current value.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "phrase_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // The stale inverted-index positions for "apple banana" on id=1 must not be returned.
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_phrase_ids_matching(&dataset, "apple banana").await,
+        Vec::<i32>::new()
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_phrase_ids_matching(&dataset, "cherry mango").await,
+        vec![1]
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_empty_fragment_selection_is_empty() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    build_text_fts_index_with_positions(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    let mut match_scan = dataset.scan();
+    match_scan.with_fragments(Vec::new());
+    match_scan
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("apple".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap();
+    match_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    let match_plan = match_scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        match_plan.contains("EmptyExec"),
+        "explicit empty fragment selection should produce EmptyExec: {match_plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(match_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+
+    let mut phrase_scan = dataset.scan();
+    phrase_scan.with_fragments(Vec::new());
+    phrase_scan
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+            PhraseQuery::new("apple pie".to_owned()).with_column(Some("text".to_owned())),
+        )))
+        .unwrap();
+    phrase_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    let phrase_plan = phrase_scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        phrase_plan.contains("EmptyExec"),
+        "explicit empty fragment selection should produce EmptyExec: {phrase_plan}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(phrase_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combines_indexed_overlay_stale_and_unindexed_rows(
+    #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_text_fts_index_with_positions(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    let batch =
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [12]), ("text", Utf8, ["cherry mango"])).unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        Arc::new(dataset),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: crate::dataset::write::WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "fts_combined_flat_paths",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    assert_eq!(fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "mango").await, vec![1, 6, 12]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_phrase_ids_matching(&dataset, "cherry mango").await,
+        vec![1, 12]
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_overlay_row_level_masking_under_fast_search(
+    #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_text_fts_index_with_positions(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "fts_row_level_fast_search",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    let mut match_scan = dataset.scan();
+    match_scan
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("apple".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap();
+    match_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    match_scan.fast_search();
+    let match_result = match_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_from_batches(std::slice::from_ref(&match_result)),
+        vec![0]
+    );
+
+    let mut indexed_phrase_scan = dataset.scan();
+    indexed_phrase_scan
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+            PhraseQuery::new("apple pie".to_owned()).with_column(Some("text".to_owned())),
+        )))
+        .unwrap();
+    indexed_phrase_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    indexed_phrase_scan.fast_search();
+    let indexed_phrase_result = indexed_phrase_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_from_batches(std::slice::from_ref(&indexed_phrase_result)),
+        vec![0]
+    );
+
+    let mut new_phrase_scan = dataset.scan();
+    new_phrase_scan
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+            PhraseQuery::new("cherry mango".to_owned()).with_column(Some("text".to_owned())),
+        )))
+        .unwrap();
+    new_phrase_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    new_phrase_scan.fast_search();
+    assert_eq!(
+        new_phrase_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+        0
+    );
+
+    let match_query = |terms: &str| {
+        MatchQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("text".to_owned()))
+            .into()
+    };
+    let compound_query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, match_query("apple")),
+        (Occur::Should, match_query("pie")),
+    ])
+    .into();
+    let mut compound_scan = dataset.scan();
+    compound_scan
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(compound_query))
+        .unwrap();
+    compound_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    compound_scan.fast_search();
+    compound_scan.limit(Some(10), None).unwrap();
+    let compound_plan = compound_scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !compound_plan.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"),
+        "overlay-stale rows must keep compound fast search on the masked fallback:\n{compound_plan}"
+    );
+    let compound_result = compound_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_from_batches(std::slice::from_ref(&compound_result)),
+        vec![0]
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_overlay_flat_path_takes_only_stale_rows(
+    #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "fts_targeted_take",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("cherry".to_owned()))
+        .unwrap();
+    scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut nodes = vec![plan];
+    let mut flat_path_uses_targeted_take = false;
+    while let Some(node) = nodes.pop() {
+        if node.downcast_ref::<FlatMatchQueryExec>().is_some() {
+            let mut flat_nodes = node.children().into_iter().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            while let Some(flat_node) = flat_nodes.pop() {
+                if flat_node
+                    .downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>()
+                    .is_some_and(|read| read.index_input().is_some())
+                {
+                    flat_path_uses_targeted_take = true;
+                    break;
+                }
+                flat_nodes.extend(flat_node.children().into_iter().cloned());
+            }
+        }
+        nodes.extend(node.children().into_iter().cloned());
+    }
+
+    assert!(
+        flat_path_uses_targeted_take,
+        "overlay-stale FTS rows must be re-evaluated through a targeted take"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_phrase_searches_unindexed_fragments_unless_fast_search() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    build_text_fts_index_with_positions(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, [12, 13, 14]),
+        (
+            "text",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                "kiwi berry",
+                "kiwi berry filling",
+                "kiwi berry filling filling"
+            ]
+        )
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        Arc::new(dataset),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: crate::dataset::write::WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+        PhraseQuery::new("kiwi berry".to_owned()).with_column(Some("text".to_owned())),
+    ));
+    assert_eq!(fts_ids(&dataset, query.clone()).await, vec![12, 13, 14]);
+
+    let mut limited_scan = dataset.scan();
+    limited_scan.with_fragments(vec![dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().clone()]);
+    limited_scan
+        .full_text_search(query.clone().limit(Some(1)))
+        .unwrap();
+    limited_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    let limited_result = limited_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_from_batches(std::slice::from_ref(&limited_result)),
+        vec![12]
+    );
+
+    let mut filtered_scan = dataset.scan();
+    filtered_scan.full_text_search(query.clone()).unwrap();
+    filtered_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    filtered_scan.filter("id < 12").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(filtered_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+
+    let mut fast_scan = dataset.scan();
+    fast_scan.full_text_search(query).unwrap();
+    fast_scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    fast_scan.fast_search();
+    assert_eq!(fast_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_phrase_stale_rows_honor_query_limit() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    build_text_fts_index_with_positions(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "phrase_limit_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some(
+            "apple banana filling filling",
+        )]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+        PhraseQuery::new("apple".to_owned()).with_column(Some("text".to_owned())),
+    ))
+    .limit(Some(1));
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.with_fragments(vec![dataset.fragments()[0].clone()]);
+    scan.full_text_search(query).unwrap();
+    scan.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+
+    let result = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(ids_from_batches(std::slice::from_ref(&result)), vec![0]);
+}
+
+/// Overlay routing must select FTS segments by both field and document
+/// granularity when Row and ListElement indexes coexist.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_list_element_fts_overlay_uses_exact_index_and_flat_fallback() {
+    let ids = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4)) as ArrayRef;
+    let tags = string_lists(&[
+        &["old phrase", "keep"],
+        &["other"],
+        &["new phrase"],
+        &["unrelated"],
+    ]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("id", ids), ("tags", tags)]).unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["tags"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default()
+                .with_position(true)
+                .document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["tags"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "list_element_text_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0])),
+        vec![string_lists(&[&["new phrase", "keep"]])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    let list_element_match = |terms: &str| {
+        FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+                .with_column(Some("tags".to_owned()))
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+        ))
+    };
+    let list_element_phrase = |terms: &str| {
+        FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+            PhraseQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+                .with_column(Some("tags".to_owned()))
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+        ))
+    };
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_ids(&dataset, list_element_match("old")).await,
+        Vec::<i32>::new()
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_ids(&dataset, list_element_match("new")).await,
+        vec![0, 2]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_ids(&dataset, list_element_phrase("new phrase")).await,
+        vec![0, 2]
+    );
+}
+
+/// An overlay on a non-FTS field must not exclude the fragment from phrase search.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_phrase_overlay_unrelated_field_not_excluded() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    build_text_fts_index_with_positions(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Overlay field 0 (`id`), not the FTS-indexed `text` column: phrase coverage is untouched.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "id_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[0],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(777)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_phrase_ids_matching(&dataset, "apple banana").await,
+        vec![777]
+    );
+}
+
+/// An overlay on a field the FTS index does NOT cover must not exclude anything.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_overlay_unrelated_field_not_excluded() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // Overlay field 0 (id) — not covered by the FTS index on `text`.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "id_overlay_for_fts",
+        0,
+        &[0],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // FTS coverage must be unchanged — both rows containing "apple" are still returned.
+    // The `id` overlay changes row offset 1's id from 1 to 999, so the projected id column
+    // reflects the overlay even though the FTS index correctly returned that row.
+    assert_eq!(fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "apple").await, vec![0, 999]);
+    assert_eq!(fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "banana").await, vec![3, 999]);
+}
+
+fn combined_fields_query(terms: &str, columns: &[&str]) -> FullTextSearchQuery {
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{CombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery};
+
+    FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::CombinedFields(
+        CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+            terms.to_owned(),
+            columns.iter().map(|column| column.to_string()).collect(),
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Optional settings for a `combined_fields` query in these tests.
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct CombinedScan<'a> {
+    /// Applied as a prefilter.
+    filter: Option<&'a str>,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&'a [u32]>,
+    limit: Option<i64>,
+    fast_search: bool,
+}
+
+/// `(id, score)` of every cross-field (BM25F) `combined_fields` hit, in score
+/// order. Scores are bit patterns, so a corpus that shifted by one document shows
+/// up instead of passing a tolerance.
+async fn fts_combined_hits(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    terms: &str,
+    columns: &[&str],
+    scan: CombinedScan<'_>,
+) -> Vec<(i32, u32)> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    if let Some(fragment_ids) = scan.fragment_ids {
+        scanner.with_fragments(
+            dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|fragment| fragment_ids.contains(&(fragment.id as u32)))
+                .cloned()
+                .collect(),
+        );
+    }
+    if let Some(filter) = scan.filter {
+        scanner.prefilter(true).filter(filter).unwrap();
+    }
+    if scan.fast_search {
+        scanner.fast_search();
+    }
+    scanner
+        .full_text_search(combined_fields_query(terms, columns).limit(scan.limit))
+        .unwrap()
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap();
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let scores = batch["_score"].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+    (0..batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|i| (ids.value(i), scores.value(i).to_bits()))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Sorted ids of [`fts_combined_hits`].
+async fn fts_combined_ids(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    terms: &str,
+    columns: &[&str],
+    scan: CombinedScan<'_>,
+) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let mut ids: Vec<i32> = fts_combined_hits(dataset, terms, columns, scan)
+        .await
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|(id, _)| id)
+        .collect();
+    ids.sort_unstable();
+    ids
+}
+
+/// Sorted `id` values a single-column `MatchQuery` returns. This is the reference
+/// answer `combined_fields` must agree with: an `Or` combined-fields query matches
+/// a document when a query term appears in at least one target column, so the
+/// combined result is the union of the per-column match results.
+async fn fts_match_ids(dataset: &Dataset, term: &str, column: &str) -> Vec<i32> {
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery, MatchQuery};
+
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+        MatchQuery::new(term.to_owned()).with_column(Some(column.to_owned())),
+    ));
+    fts_ids(dataset, query).await
+}
+
+/// Union of the per-column `MatchQuery` results for `term`, sorted.
+async fn fts_match_union_ids(dataset: &Dataset, term: &str, columns: &[&str]) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let mut ids = Vec::new();
+    for column in columns {
+        ids.extend(fts_match_ids(dataset, term, column).await);
+    }
+    ids.sort_unstable();
+    ids.dedup();
+    ids
+}
+
+/// Build an FTS index on `column` as one segment per fragment, the multi-segment
+/// counterpart of the whole-index single segment `build_text_fts_index` produces.
+/// An overlay-stale row is blocked from the indexed scan either way, so both
+/// layouts run the indexed and the flat side; only the number of segments the
+/// indexed side opens differs.
+async fn build_per_fragment_fts_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, column: &str) {
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    let name = format!("{column}_fts");
+    let fragment_ids = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+    for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(dataset, &[column], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+                .name(name.clone())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment_id])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments(&name, column, segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// `combined_fields` must honour the same data-overlay contract as `match`: an
+/// overlay-stale row is dropped from the indexed scan and re-evaluated on the flat
+/// path. Without that the indexed scan answers from the pre-overlay index, so it
+/// both returns stale hits and misses new matches.
+///
+/// Parametrized over the segment layout: one segment for the whole index, and one
+/// segment per fragment.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_agrees_with_match(
+    #[values(false, true)] per_fragment_segments: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    if per_fragment_segments {
+        build_per_fragment_fts_index(&mut dataset, "text").await;
+    } else {
+        build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    }
+
+    // fragment 0, row offset 1 (id=1): "apple banana" → "cherry mango".
+    // Field ID 1 is the `text` column.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_text_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Both directions: "apple"/"banana" must lose the stale id=1 hit, and
+    // "cherry"/"mango" must gain it.
+    for (term, expected) in [
+        ("apple", vec![0]),
+        ("banana", vec![3]),
+        ("cherry", vec![1, 2]),
+        ("mango", vec![1, 6]),
+    ] {
+        let combined = fts_combined_ids(&dataset, term, &["text"], CombinedScan::default()).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            combined,
+            fts_match_ids(&dataset, term, "text").await,
+            "combined_fields disagrees with match for '{term}'"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(combined, expected, "wrong rows for '{term}'");
+    }
+}
+
+/// The overlay term must be findable even when no indexed posting list holds it.
+///
+/// Taking the column's `docFreq_f` from the pre-overlay index alone leaves a term the
+/// overlay introduced at `docFreq' == 0`, so `query_weight` is `0.0`, the row scores
+/// zero and the flat scan drops it.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_new_term_absent_from_index_stats() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // fragment 0, row offset 1 (id=1): "apple banana" → "quasarunique", a term that
+    // occurs in no other row and so in no indexed posting list.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_unique_text_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("quasarunique")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_match_ids(&dataset, "quasarunique", "text").await,
+        vec![1]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_ids(&dataset, "quasarunique", &["text"], CombinedScan::default()).await,
+        vec![1]
+    );
+}
+
+/// Text dataset with an `id` column holding the row offset plus one `Utf8` column per
+/// entry of `columns`, laid out `rows_per_file` rows to a fragment. `id` is field 0 and
+/// the text columns take the following field IDs in order.
+async fn create_text_dataset_with(columns: &[(&str, &[&str])], rows_per_file: usize) -> Dataset {
+    let num_rows = columns[0].1.len() as i32;
+    let mut fields = vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true)];
+    let mut arrays: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows))];
+    for (name, values) in columns {
+        fields.push(ArrowField::new(*name, DataType::Utf8, true));
+        arrays.push(Arc::new(StringArray::from(values.to_vec())));
+    }
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), arrays).unwrap();
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: rows_per_file,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// A same-value overlay must not move top-k: it leaves every searchable value alone, so
+/// the corpus the ranking is measured against must not change either.
+///
+/// The prefilter prunes the flat scan, so statistics folded from that scan describe the
+/// filtered subset, while the indexed plan an overlay-free dataset takes uses the whole index.
+/// Globally `beta` is the rare term, so id 1 wins; the overlay rewrites a row the filter
+/// excludes.
+///
+/// - `tie`: over the filtered pair the two terms have equal `docFreq`, so the scores tie,
+///   which is enough to lose id 1.
+/// - `strict`: over ids 0..2, `df(alpha) = 1` against `df(beta) = 2` puts id 0 ahead by
+///   roughly 2x, so the ranking flips on a strict inequality rather than on tie order.
+///   Id 2 carries filler tokens purely to lengthen it, so it never ties with id 1.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::tie("alpha", "id < 2", 2)]
+#[case::strict("beta gamma delta", "id < 3", 5)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_preserves_prefilter_corpus(
+    #[case] third_text: &str,
+    #[case] filter: &str,
+    #[case] overwritten_row: u32,
+) {
+    let mut texts = vec!["alpha"; 12];
+    texts[1] = "beta";
+    texts[2] = third_text;
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset_with(&[("text", &texts)], 12).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    let scan = || CombinedScan {
+        filter: Some(filter),
+        limit: Some(1),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_ids(&dataset, "alpha beta", &["text"], scan()).await,
+        vec![1]
+    );
+
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_prefilter_same_value_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([overwritten_row])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("alpha")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_ids(&dataset, "alpha beta", &["text"], scan()).await,
+        vec![1]
+    );
+}
+
+/// A same-value overlay must not change any score of a filtered query whose flat
+/// side also reads an appended fragment.
+///
+/// The flat scan counts the appended rows the filter excludes whether or not an
+/// overlay exists. If the filter were pushed into the scan until an overlay
+/// appeared, the overlay would add the excluded `alpha` row (id 4) to the corpus
+/// and move every score.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_preserves_filtered_appended_scores() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset_with(&[("text", &["alpha", "beta", "gamma"])], 3).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, [3, 4, 5, 6]),
+        ("text", Utf8, ["alpha", "alpha", "beta", "alpha"])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        Arc::new(dataset),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: crate::dataset::write::WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let scan = || CombinedScan {
+        filter: Some("id != 4"),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let before = fts_combined_hits(&dataset, "alpha beta", &["text"], scan()).await;
+    let mut before_ids = before.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    before_ids.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(before_ids, vec![0, 1, 3, 5, 6]);
+
+    // Row 2 rewritten with the value it already holds.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_filtered_appended_same_value_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("gamma")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_hits(&dataset, "alpha beta", &["text"], scan()).await,
+        before
+    );
+}
+
+/// Fragment selection must restrict which rows are returned, not which corpus they
+/// are scored against. A same-value overlay inside the selection leaves every
+/// searchable value alone, so top-k must not move.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_preserves_fragment_corpus() {
+    // Fragment 0 holds the only `beta` rows; the nine `alpha` rows behind it are what
+    // make `beta` the rare term, and they are outside the selection.
+    let texts: &[&str] = &[
+        "alpha",
+        "beta",
+        "beta gamma delta",
+        "alpha",
+        "alpha",
+        "alpha",
+        "alpha",
+        "alpha",
+        "alpha",
+        "alpha",
+        "alpha",
+        "alpha",
+    ];
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset_with(&[("text", texts)], 3).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_ids(
+            &dataset,
+            "alpha beta",
+            &["text"],
+            CombinedScan {
+                fragment_ids: Some(&[0]),
+                limit: Some(1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await,
+        vec![1]
+    );
+
+    // Row offset 2 rewritten with the value it already holds.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_fragment_same_value_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("beta gamma delta")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_ids(
+            &dataset,
+            "alpha beta",
+            &["text"],
+            CombinedScan {
+                fragment_ids: Some(&[0]),
+                limit: Some(1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await,
+        vec![1]
+    );
+}
+
+/// An overlay that rewrites rows with the values they already hold has to leave
+/// every score alone, not just the order.
+///
+/// The index counts a stale row's old value and the flat scan folds in its current
+/// one, so the row is counted twice unless the old value is subtracted. Here that
+/// makes `alpha` look commoner than `beta` and flips the ranking. Ids alone would
+/// not catch it, because the same rows come back either way.
+///
+/// `multi_block` spreads the stale rows over several posting blocks of each term,
+/// including the first and the tail, so the subtraction has to find each one in
+/// the block that holds it.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::single_block(2, 3, &[0, 1])]
+#[case::multi_block(300, 400, &[0, 130, 299, 300, 520, 699])]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_preserves_every_score(
+    #[case] num_alpha: usize,
+    #[case] num_beta: usize,
+    #[case] stale_rows: &[u32],
+) {
+    let mut texts = vec!["alpha"; num_alpha];
+    texts.extend(vec!["beta"; num_beta]);
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset_with(&[("text", &texts)], texts.len()).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    let before =
+        fts_combined_hits(&dataset, "alpha beta", &["text"], CombinedScan::default()).await;
+    // `alpha` is the rarer term, so its rows lead.
+    assert_eq!(before.len(), texts.len());
+    assert!(
+        before[..num_alpha]
+            .iter()
+            .all(|(id, _)| (*id as usize) < num_alpha)
+    );
+
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_same_value_overlay_scores",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(stale_rows.iter().copied())),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(
+            stale_rows
+                .iter()
+                .map(|row| Some(texts[*row as usize]))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_hits(&dataset, "alpha beta", &["text"], CombinedScan::default()).await,
+        before
+    );
+}
+
+/// An overlay must cost only the rows it touched: the flat side takes the stale
+/// row by address, and the rest of its fragment stays on the indexed side.
+///
+/// The overlay sits in fragment 1, where row ids and row addresses differ under
+/// stable row ids, so both the indexed side's block and the flat side's take have
+/// to land in the right id domain.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_routes_only_stale_rows(
+    #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    // Fragment 1, row offset 1 (id=7): "pear tart" → "mango tart".
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_row_level_overlay",
+        1,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("mango tart")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    for (term, expected) in [
+        ("pear", vec![]),
+        ("mango", vec![6, 7]),
+        ("tart", vec![7]),
+        // An untouched row of the stale fragment, answered by the indexed side.
+        ("lemon", vec![8]),
+    ] {
+        let combined = fts_combined_ids(&dataset, term, &["text"], CombinedScan::default()).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            combined,
+            fts_match_ids(&dataset, term, "text").await,
+            "combined_fields disagrees with match for '{term}'"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(combined, expected, "wrong rows for '{term}'");
+    }
+
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .full_text_search(combined_fields_query("mango", &["text"]))
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+    let flat_read = plan
+        .lines()
+        .skip_while(|line| !line.contains("FlatCombinedFields"))
+        .find(|line| line.contains("LanceRead"))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("no flat read in the plan:\n{plan}"));
+    assert!(
+        flat_read.contains("rows_scanned=1,"),
+        "the flat side must read only the stale row:\n{plan}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// An overlay must not cost the flat scan the rows only it can return.
+///
+/// The flat scan is read unfiltered and its emitted rows are picked by a
+/// prefilter instead, so that the filter cannot move the corpus (see
+/// `test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_preserves_filtered_appended_scores`). That
+/// prefilter has to span the fragments the flat scan reads. The indexed
+/// child's own prefilter does not: it is built over the fragments the target
+/// columns' indexes cover, so it names no row in an appended fragment, and an
+/// allow-list can only be narrowed afterwards, never widened.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_keeps_unindexed_selected_match() {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // `mango` now sits both in indexed fragment 1 (id 6) and in an appended
+    // fragment no index covers, so the two sides of the union are told apart.
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [12]), ("text", Utf8, ["mango"])).unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        Arc::new(dataset),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: crate::dataset::write::WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let appended_fragment_id = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().id as u32;
+    // A fragment selection is what makes the prefilter fragment-scoped in the first
+    // place; with no filter and no selection it allows every row.
+    let selected_fragments = [0, appended_fragment_id];
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_ids(
+            &dataset,
+            "mango",
+            &["text"],
+            CombinedScan {
+                fragment_ids: Some(&selected_fragments),
+                limit: Some(10),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await,
+        vec![12],
+        "precondition: the appended match is returned before any overlay exists"
+    );
+
+    // Fragment 0 holds no `mango`, so this overlay changes no answer. All it does is
+    // move fragment 0 from the indexed side onto the flat side.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_unindexed_selected_match_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("apple pie")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_ids(&dataset, "mango", &["text"], CombinedScan::default()).await,
+        vec![6, 12],
+        "unselected control: both matches are still reachable"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_combined_ids(
+            &dataset,
+            "mango",
+            &["text"],
+            CombinedScan {
+                fragment_ids: Some(&selected_fragments),
+                limit: Some(10),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await,
+        vec![12],
+        "the overlay dropped a match from a selected unindexed fragment"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Two-fragment dataset with two indexable text columns: `id`, `title`, `body`.
+/// Field IDs are 0 (`id`), 1 (`title`), 2 (`body`).
+async fn create_two_column_text_dataset() -> Dataset {
+    let titles: &[&str] = &[
+        "apple pie",
+        "apple banana", // row 1, fragment 0, overlaid in tests
+        "cherry cake",
+        "banana split",
+        "orange juice",
+        "grape vine",
+        "mango sorbet", // fragment 1 starts here
+        "pear tart",
+        "lemon curd",
+        "peach cobbler",
+        "plum pudding",
+        "fig newton",
+    ];
+    // `dessert` spans both fragments, and `fruit` sits on the overlaid row plus a
+    // row in the other fragment, so a body term exercises the flat and the indexed
+    // side of the union at once.
+    let bodies: &[&str] = &[
+        "sweet dessert",
+        "yellow fruit",
+        "red dessert",
+        "frozen treat",
+        "citrus drink",
+        "purple cluster",
+        "tropical ice",
+        "green fruit",
+        "sour spread",
+        "warm bake",
+        "dark dessert",
+        "dry biscuit",
+    ];
+    create_text_dataset_with(&[("title", titles), ("body", bodies)], 6).await
+}
+
+/// The multi-column shape of the contract above. An overlay on one target column
+/// makes the row unscorable from the indexes: a stale row poisons the blended
+/// `dl'`/`tf'` of every target column, not just the overlaid one, so the row has
+/// to be re-evaluated flat across all of them.
+///
+/// Only `title` is overlaid, so `body`'s index still holds the row. The indexed
+/// scan has to skip it for both columns anyway, or the row would be emitted twice,
+/// once per side of the union.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_multi_column_overlay_agrees_with_match(
+    #[values(false, true)] per_fragment_segments: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = create_two_column_text_dataset().await;
+    for column in ["title", "body"] {
+        if per_fragment_segments {
+            build_per_fragment_fts_index(&mut dataset, column).await;
+        } else {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &[column],
+                    IndexType::Inverted,
+                    None,
+                    &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Overlay `title` (field 1) of fragment 0, row offset 1 (id=1):
+    // "apple banana" → "cherry mango". `body` is untouched.
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_title_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    let columns = ["title", "body"];
+    for (term, expected) in [
+        // Stale title hits are dropped.
+        ("apple", vec![0]),
+        ("banana", vec![3]),
+        // New title matches are found.
+        ("cherry", vec![1, 2]),
+        ("mango", vec![1, 6]),
+        // A term of the untouched target column still resolves on both sides of the
+        // union: id=1 comes from the flat path, id=7 from the indexed path.
+        ("fruit", vec![1, 7]),
+        ("dessert", vec![0, 2, 10]),
+    ] {
+        let combined = fts_combined_ids(&dataset, term, &columns, CombinedScan::default()).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            combined,
+            fts_match_union_ids(&dataset, term, &columns).await,
+            "combined_fields disagrees with match for '{term}'"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(combined, expected, "wrong rows for '{term}'");
+    }
+}
+
+/// `fast_search` is index-only, so an overlay-stale row is dropped instead of
+/// re-evaluated: its stale hit must not come back, and its new value stays
+/// invisible until compaction folds the overlay into the base. Only that row is
+/// dropped, as for a single-column match: the rest of its fragment and every other
+/// fragment keep answering, whichever segment layout holds them.
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_combined_fields_overlay_under_fast_search(
+    #[values(false, true)] per_fragment_segments: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    if per_fragment_segments {
+        build_per_fragment_fts_index(&mut dataset, "text").await;
+    } else {
+        build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    }
+    // Row 1 "apple banana" becomes "cherry mango".
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "combined_fast_search_overlay",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    for (term, expected) in [
+        // Row 1's stale hits are gone; its fragment's other rows still answer.
+        ("apple", vec![0]),
+        ("banana", vec![3]),
+        // Row 1's new value is invisible to the index.
+        ("cherry", vec![2]),
+        ("mango", vec![6]),
+    ] {
+        assert_eq!(
+            fts_combined_ids(
+                &dataset,
+                term,
+                &["text"],
+                CombinedScan {
+                    fast_search: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            )
+            .await,
+            expected,
+            "wrong fast_search rows for '{term}'"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Benchmark: measure query latency for BTree, FTS, and vector ANN with 0/4/16 overlay layers.
+///
+/// Run with:
+/// cargo test -p lance --lib --profile release-with-debug -- overlay_index_masking::bench --ignored --nocapture
+#[tokio::test]
+#[ignore = "benchmark"]
+#[allow(clippy::print_stdout)]
+async fn bench_index_query_overlay_overhead() {
+    use std::time::Instant;
+
+    use arrow_array::Float32Array;
+
+    const DIM: i32 = 32;
+    const ROWS: i32 = 1_000_000;
+    const ROWS_PER_FRAG: i32 = 100_000; // 10 fragments
+    const ITERS: u32 = 10; // large scans — 10 is enough for stable averages
+
+    // Fixed disk path so timings are comparable across runs. Deleted and recreated fresh.
+    let uri = "/tmp/lance-bench-overlay-oss1325";
+    if std::path::Path::new(uri).exists() {
+        std::fs::remove_dir_all(uri).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    // --- Build 1M-row dataset on local disk --------------------------------
+    // Schema: id, age, vec, text. Resolve field IDs from the Lance schema instead of
+    // assuming how nested Arrow child fields are numbered.
+
+    println!("Building {ROWS}-row dataset at {uri} (this takes ~30 s)...");
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new(
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                DIM,
+            ),
+            false,
+        ),
+        ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+    ]));
+
+    let row_ids: Vec<i32> = (0..ROWS).collect();
+    let ages: Vec<i32> = row_ids.iter().map(|&i| i * 10).collect();
+    // Build the 128 MB flat float array directly (avoids 1M per-row Vec allocations).
+    let flat_vecs: Vec<f32> = (0..(ROWS as usize * DIM as usize))
+        .map(|j| (j / DIM as usize) as f32 % 1000.0)
+        .collect();
+    let vec_col = Arc::new(
+        arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            DIM,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(flat_vecs)),
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    let text_col = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+        (0..ROWS).map(|row| if row == 42 { "needle" } else { "common" }),
+    ));
+
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(row_ids)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ages)),
+            vec_col,
+            text_col,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAG as usize,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let text_field_id = dataset.schema().field_id("text").unwrap();
+
+    println!("Building BTree index on age...");
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["age"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    println!("Building IVF_FLAT(1 partition) index on vec...");
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["vec"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            None,
+            &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    println!("Building FTS index on text...");
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    println!("Indexes built.\n");
+
+    // --- Timing helper ---------------------------------------------------
+
+    async fn timeit<F, Fut>(iters: u32, mut f: F) -> f64
+    where
+        F: FnMut() -> Fut,
+        Fut: std::future::Future<Output = ()>,
+    {
+        f().await; // warmup
+        let t0 = Instant::now();
+        for _ in 0..iters {
+            f().await;
+        }
+        t0.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0 / iters as f64
+    }
+
+    // === Scenario A: BTree query overhead ================================
+    //
+    // Overlay on `age` (field 1), covering only offset 0 of fragment 0. The stale row is
+    // blocked from the BTree and re-evaluated by targeted take.
+    //
+    // btree_same_fragment: `age = 420` → id=42 → in fragment 0 (rows 0..99999).
+    //   The matching row stays indexed even though another row in the fragment is stale.
+    //
+    // btree_other_fragment: `age = 1000420` → id=100042 → in fragment 1.
+    //   This isolates the index-lookup baseline outside the overlaid fragment.
+    println!("=== Scenario A: BTree (one stale row in fragment 0) ===");
+    println!(
+        "{:>10}  {:>14}  {:>14}",
+        "overlays", "same_frag_ms", "other_frag_ms"
+    );
+
+    let mut committed_a = 0u32;
+    for num_overlays in [0u32, 1, 4, 16] {
+        // Commit only the delta since the last iteration.
+        for layer in committed_a..num_overlays {
+            dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                &format!("age_ol{layer}"),
+                0,    // fragment 0
+                &[1], // field 1 = age
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+            )
+            .await;
+        }
+        committed_a = num_overlays;
+
+        let ds = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
+
+        // Same-fragment indexed match plus targeted re-evaluation of the stale row.
+        let ds2 = ds.clone();
+        let same_fragment_ms = timeit(ITERS, || {
+            let ds = ds2.clone();
+            async move {
+                ds.scan()
+                    .filter("age = 420")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .project(&["age"])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        // Fragment 1 never has a stale row and stays entirely index-served.
+        let ds2 = ds.clone();
+        let other_fragment_ms = timeit(ITERS, || {
+            let ds = ds2.clone();
+            async move {
+                ds.scan()
+                    .filter("age = 1000420")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .project(&["age"])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        println!("{num_overlays:>10}  {same_fragment_ms:>14.1}  {other_fragment_ms:>14.1}");
+    }
+
+    // === Scenario B: Vector ANN overhead =================================
+    //
+    // Overlay on `vec` (field 2), covering only offset 0 of fragment 0.
+    // The field-aware check means the 16 age overlays from Scenario A do NOT affect
+    // the vector index (they touch field 1, not field 2). Only a vec overlay (field 2)
+    // marks fragment 0 stale for the vector index.
+    //
+    // With a vec overlay, only the stale row is excluded from ANN and re-scored exactly.
+    println!("\n=== Scenario B: Vector ANN (one stale row re-scored) ===");
+    println!("{:>12}  {:>10}", "vec_overlays", "ann_ms");
+
+    let query_vec = Float32Array::from(vec![0.5f32; DIM as usize]);
+
+    for num_vec_overlays in [0u32, 1] {
+        if num_vec_overlays == 1 {
+            dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "vec_ol0",
+                0,    // fragment 0
+                &[2], // field 2 = vec (FixedSizeList top-level field)
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                vec![fsl(vec![vec![0.0f32; DIM as usize]], DIM)],
+            )
+            .await;
+        }
+
+        let ds = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
+        let ds2 = ds.clone();
+        let qv = query_vec.clone();
+        let ann_ms = timeit(ITERS, || {
+            let ds = ds2.clone();
+            let q = qv.clone();
+            async move {
+                ds.scan()
+                    .nearest("vec", &q, 10)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .minimum_nprobes(1)
+                    .project(&["id"])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        println!("{num_vec_overlays:>12}  {ann_ms:>10.1}");
+    }
+
+    // === Scenario C: FTS overhead ========================================
+    //
+    // The FTS index has one segment spanning all 10 fragments. An overlay on one text row must
+    // keep that segment indexed, block just the stale row, and re-evaluate that row by targeted
+    // take. `needle` belongs to an unaffected row in the same fragment as the stale row.
+    println!("\n=== Scenario C: FTS (one stale row in a 1M-row segment) ===");
+    println!("{:>13}  {:>10}", "text_overlays", "fts_ms");
+
+    for num_text_overlays in [0u32, 1] {
+        if num_text_overlays == 1 {
+            dataset = commit_overlay(
+                dataset,
+                "text_ol0",
+                0,
+                &[text_field_id],
+                OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("updated")]))],
+            )
+            .await;
+        }
+
+        let ds = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
+        let ds2 = ds.clone();
+        let fts_ms = timeit(ITERS, || {
+            let ds = ds2.clone();
+            async move {
+                let result = ds
+                    .scan()
+                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("needle".to_owned()))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .project(&["id"])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+            }
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        println!("{num_text_overlays:>13}  {fts_ms:>10.1}");
+    }
+}
+
+async fn append_age_fragment(dataset: &mut Dataset, ids: std::ops::Range<i32>) {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("age", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(ids.clone())),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(ids.map(|v| v * 10))),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+// `OptimizeIndices` merges an index's delta segments without re-reading data overlays, so the
+// merged segment carries the old segments' pre-overlay entries. What keeps those entries masked
+// is that the merge stamps the new segment with the *oldest* merged segment's `dataset_version`
+// rather than the current one, leaving the mask's version gate
+// (`overlay.committed_version > segment.dataset_version`) on.
+//
+// That invariant is easy to break by accident -- stamping the current version un-masks every
+// carried-over entry -- and nothing else asserts it end to end. The following tests pin it down
+// for each index type.
+
+/// Scalar (BTree, Bitmap, ZoneMap): a range query over the indexed column after an overlay +
+/// optimize must still drop the stale value and surface the overlaid one.
+///
+/// ZoneMap is the case worth having: it ignores `OldIndexDataFilter`, so nothing scrubs the
+/// pre-overlay zone summaries out of the merged segment. Breaking the version gate shows up here
+/// as a false *negative* -- the stale zone prunes the overlaid value -- rather than the resurfaced
+/// stale entry the other two produce.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::btree(IndexType::BTree)]
+#[case::bitmap(IndexType::Bitmap)]
+#[case::zonemap(IndexType::ZoneMap)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_optimize_preserves_scalar_overlay_masking(#[case] index_type: IndexType) {
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+    use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+    let params = match index_type {
+        IndexType::Bitmap => ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+        IndexType::ZoneMap => ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+        _ => ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    };
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset().await;
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["age"], index_type, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Overlay fragment 0, offset 1 (id=1): age 10 -> 999, committed after the index.
+    let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_opt",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Masking works before optimize.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 999").await, vec![1]);
+
+    // Append an unindexed fragment so the merge does real work, then merge all deltas.
+    append_age_fragment(&mut dataset, 12..18).await;
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(10))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Still masked: the stale age=10 entry stays dropped and the overlaid age=999 value stays
+    // visible, because the merged segment kept the old segment's `dataset_version`.
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 10").await,
+        Vec::<i32>::new(),
+        "stale index entry age=10 for id=1 resurfaced after optimize"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 999").await,
+        vec![1],
+        "overlaid value age=999 dropped after optimize"
+    );
+    // A row untouched by the overlay is unaffected.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "age = 20").await, vec![2]);
+}
+
+/// ZoneMap seed path: an *unindexed* fragment carrying an overlay gets folded into the merged
+/// segment from its data file's seed buffer. A seed is a zone summary captured while the base
+/// data file was written, so it describes pre-overlay values -- the merged segment ends up
+/// holding zones that never saw the overlay.
+///
+/// That is only safe because the merge keeps the old `dataset_version`, so the mask still covers
+/// those rows. Stamp the current version (or teach the seed path to claim freshness) and the
+/// overlaid value becomes unfindable, since its stale zone prunes it.
+///
+/// `name` is Utf8, for which seeds are on by default (`default_use_seeds`).
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_optimize_seed_path_respects_overlay() {
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+    use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+    let names: Vec<String> = (0..12).map(|i| format!("n{i:02}")).collect();
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..12)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(names)),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 6,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["name"],
+            IndexType::ZoneMap,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Append fragment 2. The index already exists, so the write emits a zone-map seed buffer
+    // into the new data file.
+    let appended: Vec<String> = (12..18).map(|i| format!("n{i:02}")).collect();
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(12..18)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(appended)),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Overlay fragment 2, offset 1 (id=13): "n13" -> "zzz", well outside the seed's zone range.
+    let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "name_seed",
+        2,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("zzz")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Fragment 2 is unindexed, so the overlaid value is visible via the flat path.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "name = 'zzz'").await, vec![13]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "name = 'n13'").await,
+        Vec::<i32>::new()
+    );
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(10))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "name = 'zzz'").await,
+        vec![13],
+        "overlaid value dropped after optimize: the merged segment took pre-overlay zones \
+         from fragment 2's seed buffer"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids_matching(&dataset, "name = 'n13'").await,
+        Vec::<i32>::new(),
+        "stale pre-overlay value resurfaced after optimize"
+    );
+    // Rows the overlay never touched keep working through the index.
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "name = 'n14'").await, vec![14]);
+    assert_eq!(ids_matching(&dataset, "name = 'n03'").await, vec![3]);
+}
+
+/// `DatasetStatistics::column_value_range` folds ZoneMap summaries into a global `[min, max]`
+/// that callers may prune with, so it must be a superset of the live values. An overlay can
+/// move a value outside the summarised range, and the ZoneMap never saw it.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_column_value_range_none_under_overlay() {
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+    use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+    let mut dataset = create_base_dataset().await;
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["age"],
+            IndexType::ZoneMap,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .statistics()
+            .column_value_range("age")
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        Some((ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0)), ScalarValue::Int32(Some(110))))
+    );
+
+    // age 10 -> 999 on fragment 0, committed after the index: 999 is outside [0, 110].
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "age_range",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![i32_array([Some(999)])],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .statistics()
+            .column_value_range("age")
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        None,
+        "ZoneMap range must not be reported once an overlay may have moved a value outside it"
+    );
+}
+
+/// FTS: after an overlay replaces a row's text and the index is optimized, searching for the old
+/// terms must not return the stale row, and the new terms must find it.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_optimize_preserves_fts_overlay_masking() {
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(false).await;
+    build_text_fts_index(&mut dataset).await;
+
+    // fragment 0, offset 1 (id=1): "apple banana" -> "cherry mango".
+    let mut dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "text_opt",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // Masking works before optimize: id=1 no longer matches "banana"/"apple".
+    assert_eq!(fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "banana").await, vec![3]);
+    assert_eq!(fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "apple").await, vec![0]);
+
+    // Append an unindexed fragment of new text, then merge all deltas.
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(12..18)),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                "kiwi", "melon", "date", "guava", "papaya", "lychee",
+            ])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(10))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Still masked: id=1's stale "apple"/"banana" postings stay dropped.
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "banana").await,
+        vec![3],
+        "stale FTS posting for id=1 (banana) resurfaced after optimize"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "apple").await,
+        vec![0],
+        "stale FTS posting for id=1 (apple) resurfaced after optimize"
+    );
+    // The overlaid terms are found via the flat path.
+    assert!(fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "cherry").await.contains(&1));
+    assert!(fts_ids_matching(&dataset, "mango").await.contains(&1));
+}
+
+/// Vector (IVF): after an overlay moves a row's vector and the index is optimized, the ANN must
+/// not resurface the stale vector, and the moved-onto-query row is found by flat re-scoring.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_optimize_preserves_vector_overlay_masking() {
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    // Overlay on fragment 1 moves id=35 away from the query and id=40 onto it.
+    let mut dataset = create_vector_overlay_dataset(false).await;
+
+    // Masking works before optimize.
+    let before = vector_query_ids(&dataset, 3, false).await;
+    assert!(
+        !before.contains(&35),
+        "pre-optimize id=35 should be dropped: {before:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        before.contains(&40),
+        "pre-optimize id=40 should be found: {before:?}"
+    );
+
+    // Append an unindexed fragment of far vectors, then merge all deltas.
+    let far_vecs: Vec<Vec<f32>> = (0..32)
+        .map(|i| {
+            let mut v = vec![0.0_f32; VEC_DIM as usize];
+            v[1] = (i + 200) as f32;
+            v
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new(
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                VEC_DIM,
+            ),
+            true,
+        ),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(64..96)),
+            fsl(far_vecs, VEC_DIM),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(10))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Still masked: id=35's stale vector stays dropped and id=40 is still found via re-scoring.
+    let after = vector_query_ids(&dataset, 3, false).await;
+    assert!(
+        !after.contains(&35),
+        "stale index vector for id=35 resurfaced after optimize: {after:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        after.contains(&40),
+        "overlaid vector for id=40 dropped after optimize: {after:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Ids returned by a MinHash search for `text`, or the error it raises.
+async fn minhash_ids(dataset: &Dataset, text: &str, fast_search: bool) -> crate::Result<Vec<i32>> {
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.minhash_search(MinHashQuery::new(text, "text"))?
+        .limit(Some(12), None)?
+        .project(&["id"])?;
+    if fast_search {
+        scan.fast_search();
+    }
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await?;
+    Ok(ids_from_batches(std::slice::from_ref(&batch)))
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_minhash_overlay_rows_are_rescored_unless_fast_search(
+    #[values(false, true)] stable_row_ids: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = create_text_dataset(stable_row_ids).await;
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::MinHashLsh)
+        .with_params(&serde_json::json!({"num_hashes": 32, "num_bands": 8, "shingle_size": 1}));
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::MinHashLsh, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        minhash_ids(&dataset, "apple banana", false).await.unwrap()[0],
+        1
+    );
+
+    let dataset = commit_overlay(
+        dataset,
+        "minhash_row_level",
+        0,
+        &[1],
+        OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("cherry mango")]))],
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // The overlaid row is scored from its current value, not its stale signature
+    let ids = minhash_ids(&dataset, "apple banana", false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!ids.contains(&1), "{ids:?}");
+    assert_eq!(
+        minhash_ids(&dataset, "cherry mango", false).await.unwrap()[0],
+        1
+    );
+
+    // fast_search skips the stale row entirely
+    let ids = minhash_ids(&dataset, "apple banana", true).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!ids.contains(&1), "{ids:?}");
+    let ids = minhash_ids(&dataset, "cherry mango", true).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!ids.contains(&1), "{ids:?}");
+    // Rows in fragments without overlays are unaffected
+    assert_eq!(
+        minhash_ids(&dataset, "mango sorbet", true).await.unwrap()[0],
+        6
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_scanner.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_scanner.rs
index 3ebaf6da8f7..b4fa29a57b1 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_scanner.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_scanner.rs
@@ -6,38 +6,260 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::vec;
 
 use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
-use lance_arrow::json::{is_arrow_json_field, json_field, JsonArray};
-use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_arrow::json::{ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME, JsonArray, is_arrow_json_field, json_field};
+use lance_arrow::{ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, FixedSizeListArrayExt};
 
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
-use arrow_array::UInt64Array;
-use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray};
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, LargeListArray, ListArray, StructArray};
 use arrow_array::{Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef};
+use arrow_array::{Int64Array, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_buffer::{NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef};
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use lance_arrow::SchemaExt;
 use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
 use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderPlugins;
-use lance_file::reader::{describe_encoding, FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
+use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions, describe_encoding};
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
-    query::PhraseQuery, tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams, SCORE_FIELD,
+    SCORE_FIELD,
+    query::{FtsQuery, MatchQuery, Operator, PhraseQuery},
+    tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams,
 };
-use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
-use lance_index::{vector::DIST_COL, DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
+use lance_index::{IndexType, vector::DIST_COL};
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
 use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
+use crate::dataset::NewColumnTransform;
 use crate::dataset::scanner::{DatasetRecordBatchStream, QueryFilter};
 use crate::dataset::write::WriteParams;
-use crate::Dataset;
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::FtsQuery;
+use crate::{Dataset, Error};
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
-use lance_index::vector::Query;
+use lance_index::vector::{DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM, Query};
 use pretty_assertions::assert_eq;
+use rstest::rstest;
+
+/// A null struct must not read back as a valid struct with null children.
+///
+/// A scan merges the per-column batches with `lance_arrow::merge`, which used to read an all-null
+/// validity buffer as "this side carries no validity" and drop it. A filter that selects only null
+/// rows leaves exactly that shape, so the scan reported those rows as valid while `IS NULL`
+/// counted them as null. The dataset is created empty and then appended to because that is the
+/// path this was found on, and the version is pinned because 2.0 does not encode struct validity.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_filtered_scan_preserves_nullable_struct_validity() {
+    let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+    ]);
+    let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+        "item",
+        DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()),
+        true,
+    ));
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()), true),
+        ArrowField::new("l", DataType::List(item_field.clone()), true),
+    ]));
+
+    let empty = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone());
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(empty)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ..WriteParams::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Rows 100 and 177 are null in both nested columns while their children still carry values,
+    // so losing the top-level validity turns them into valid values instead of null ones.
+    let validity = NullBuffer::from(vec![false, true, false]);
+    let structs = StructArray::new(
+        struct_fields.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(10), Some(11), Some(12)])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("x"), Some("y"), Some("z")])),
+        ],
+        Some(validity.clone()),
+    );
+    let items = StructArray::new(
+        struct_fields.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![Some(20), Some(21), Some(22)])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("p"), Some("q"), Some("r")])),
+        ],
+        None,
+    );
+    let lists = ListArray::new(
+        item_field,
+        OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+        Arc::new(items),
+        Some(validity),
+    );
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![100, 116, 177])),
+            Arc::new(structs),
+            Arc::new(lists),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema)),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    for (id, expected_is_null) in [(100, true), (116, false), (177, true)] {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter(&format!("id = {id}")).unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let structs = batch["s"].as_struct();
+        assert_eq!(structs.is_null(0), expected_is_null, "s, row id {id}");
+        // A null struct masks its children, so both levels have to agree.
+        assert_eq!(
+            structs.column(0).is_null(0),
+            expected_is_null,
+            "s.a, row id {id}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch["l"].as_list::<i32>().is_null(0),
+            expected_is_null,
+            "l, row id {id}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("s IS NULL".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        2
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("l IS NULL".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        2
+    );
+
+    // A struct column added as all-nulls reaches the same merge through schema evolution, where
+    // every row is null and there is no other side to recover the validity from.
+    dataset
+        .add_columns(
+            NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "t",
+                DataType::Struct(struct_fields),
+                true,
+            )]))),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.filter("id = 116").unwrap();
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(batch["t"].as_struct().is_null(0));
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("t IS NULL".to_owned()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        3
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scan_wide_fixed_size_list_at_batch_boundary() {
+    const DIM_A: usize = 140_000;
+    const DIM_B: usize = 4_096;
+    const SHORT_ROWS: usize = 68;
+    const LONG_ROWS: usize = 128;
+
+    fn make_batch(schema: SchemaRef, rows: usize, base: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        let values_a = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..rows * DIM_A).map(|idx| ((idx + base) % 1009) as f32 / 1009.0),
+        );
+        let values_b = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+            (0..rows * DIM_B).map(|idx| ((idx + base) % 251) as f32 / 251.0),
+        );
+        let arr_a = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values_a, DIM_A as i32).unwrap();
+        let arr_b = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values_b, DIM_B as i32).unwrap();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(arr_a), Arc::new(arr_b)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new(
+            "a",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                DIM_A as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        ),
+        ArrowField::new(
+            "b",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                DIM_B as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        ),
+    ]));
+
+    let batches = vec![
+        make_batch(schema.clone(), SHORT_ROWS, 0),
+        make_batch(schema.clone(), LONG_ROWS, 17),
+    ];
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+        ..WriteParams::default()
+    };
+    let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // The first column splits into 9 read chunks. The second column is a
+    // higher-priority request that can reserve the remaining buffer while the
+    // first column is still awaited.
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.io_buffer_size(70 * 1024 * 1024);
+    scanner
+        .limit(Some(LONG_ROWS as i64), Some(SHORT_ROWS as i64))
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut stream = tokio::time::timeout(
+        std::time::Duration::from_secs(20),
+        scanner.try_into_stream(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .expect("stream creation timed out")
+    .unwrap();
+    let batch = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(20), stream.try_next())
+        .await
+        .expect("first batch timed out")
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), LONG_ROWS);
+}
 
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_vector_filter_fts_search() {
@@ -57,7 +279,9 @@ async fn test_vector_filter_fts_search() {
         refine_factor: None,
         metric_type: Some(MetricType::L2),
         use_index: true,
+        query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
         dist_q_c: 0.0,
+        approx_mode: Default::default(),
     };
 
     // Case 1: search with prefilter=true, query_filter=vector([300,300,300,300])
@@ -188,12 +412,15 @@ async fn test_fts_filter_vector_search() {
     let dataset = prepare_query_filter_dataset().await;
     let schema: ArrowSchema = dataset.schema().into();
 
+    // Assert filtering and exact distance order without depending on PQ's
+    // approximate distances, which can tie for adjacent vectors.
     // Case 1: search with prefilter=true, query_filter=match("text")
     let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![300f32, 300f32, 300f32, 300f32]);
     let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
     let stream = scanner
         .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
         .unwrap()
+        .refine(1)
         .prefilter(true)
         .filter_query(QueryFilter::Fts(FullTextSearchQuery::new(
             "text".to_string(),
@@ -217,6 +444,7 @@ async fn test_fts_filter_vector_search() {
     let stream = scanner
         .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
         .unwrap()
+        .refine(1)
         .prefilter(true)
         .filter("category='geography'")
         .unwrap()
@@ -242,6 +470,7 @@ async fn test_fts_filter_vector_search() {
     let stream = scanner
         .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
         .unwrap()
+        .refine(1)
         .prefilter(false)
         .filter_query(QueryFilter::Fts(FullTextSearchQuery::new(
             "text".to_string(),
@@ -265,6 +494,7 @@ async fn test_fts_filter_vector_search() {
     let stream = scanner
         .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
         .unwrap()
+        .refine(1)
         .prefilter(false)
         .filter("category='geography'")
         .unwrap()
@@ -298,17 +528,8 @@ async fn test_fts_filter_vector_search() {
         )))
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_stream()
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-    check_results(
-        stream,
-        schema
-            .try_with_column(ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true))
-            .unwrap()
-            .into(),
-        &[299, 300],
-    )
-    .await;
+        .await;
+    assert!(stream.is_err());
 
     // Case 6: search with prefilter=false, query_filter=phrase("text")
     let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
@@ -325,17 +546,214 @@ async fn test_fts_filter_vector_search() {
         )))
         .unwrap()
         .try_into_stream()
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-    check_results(
-        stream,
-        schema
-            .try_with_column(ArrowField::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true))
+        .await;
+    assert!(stream.is_err());
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case::list(false)]
+#[case::large_list(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_list_postfilter_vector_search(#[case] is_large_list: bool) {
+    async fn indexed_ids(dataset: &Dataset, query: FullTextSearchQuery) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
             .unwrap()
-            .into(),
-        &[300],
+            .full_text_search(query)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut ids = result["id"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids
+    }
+
+    async fn postfilter_ids(dataset: &Dataset, query: FullTextSearchQuery) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0]);
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .prefilter(false)
+            .filter_query(QueryFilter::Fts(query))
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        let post_filter_position = plan
+            .find("FlatMatchFilter: column=docs")
+            .expect("expected FTS to run as a flat match filter");
+        let vector_search_position = plan
+            .find("ANNSubIndex")
+            .expect("expected the query to use the vector index");
+        assert!(
+            post_filter_position < vector_search_position,
+            "expected FTS to wrap the vector search as a post-filter, got:\n{plan}"
+        );
+        let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut ids = result["id"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids
+    }
+
+    fn match_query(terms: &str, operator: Operator) -> FullTextSearchQuery {
+        FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+                .with_column(Some("docs".to_owned()))
+                .with_operator(operator),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    let item_field = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true));
+    let values = Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+        Some("target"),
+        Some("alpha"),
+        Some("beta"),
+        Some(""),
+        None,
+        Some("target"),
+    ])) as ArrayRef;
+    let validity = Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, true, true, false]));
+    let docs: ArrayRef = if is_large_list {
+        Arc::new(LargeListArray::new(
+            item_field.clone(),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i64, 2, 3, 3, 6, 6])),
+            values,
+            validity,
+        ))
+    } else {
+        Arc::new(ListArray::new(
+            item_field,
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0_i32, 2, 3, 3, 6, 6])),
+            values,
+            validity,
+        ))
+    };
+    let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 1.0, 2.0, 2.0, 3.0, 3.0, 4.0, 4.0]),
+        2,
     )
-    .await;
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("vector", vectors.data_type().clone(), false),
+        ArrowField::new("docs", docs.data_type().clone(), true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..5)),
+            Arc::new(vectors),
+            docs,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["docs"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["vector"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            None,
+            &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let query = match_query("target", Operator::Or);
+    assert_eq!(indexed_ids(&dataset, query.clone()).await, [0, 3]);
+    assert_eq!(postfilter_ids(&dataset, query).await, [0, 3]);
+
+    let query = match_query("target alpha", Operator::And);
+    assert_eq!(indexed_ids(&dataset, query.clone()).await, [0]);
+    assert_eq!(postfilter_ids(&dataset, query).await, [0]);
+
+    let query = match_query("target missing", Operator::And);
+    assert!(indexed_ids(&dataset, query.clone()).await.is_empty());
+    assert!(postfilter_ids(&dataset, query).await.is_empty());
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["docs"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::default().base_tokenizer("raw".to_owned()),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = match_query("target", Operator::Or);
+    assert_eq!(indexed_ids(&dataset, query.clone()).await, [3]);
+    assert_eq!(postfilter_ids(&dataset, query).await, [3]);
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["docs"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &InvertedIndexParams::code()
+                .split_identifiers(true)
+                .preserve_original(true),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = match_query("targetAlpha", Operator::And);
+    assert_eq!(indexed_ids(&dataset, query.clone()).await, [0]);
+    assert_eq!(postfilter_ids(&dataset, query).await, [0]);
+
+    let fuzzy_query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+        MatchQuery::new("targets".to_owned())
+            .with_column(Some("docs".to_owned()))
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1)),
+    ));
+    let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0]);
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
+        .unwrap()
+        .prefilter(false)
+        .filter_query(QueryFilter::Fts(fuzzy_query))
+        .unwrap();
+    let error = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(&error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        error
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("Fuzzy MatchQuery is not supported when FTS is used as a post-filter"),
+        "unexpected error: {error}"
+    );
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
@@ -376,6 +794,80 @@ async fn test_scan_limit_offset_preserves_json_extension_metadata() {
     assert_eq!(batch_no_offset.schema(), batch_with_offset.schema());
 }
 
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scan_nested_arrow_json_extension_v2() {
+    let mut json_metadata = HashMap::new();
+    json_metadata.insert(
+        ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+        ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+    );
+    let item_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("uri", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+        Arc::new(ArrowField::new("extra", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(json_metadata)),
+    ]);
+    let item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+        "item",
+        DataType::Struct(item_fields.clone()),
+        true,
+    ));
+    let media_field = ArrowField::new("media", DataType::List(item.clone()), true);
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![media_field]));
+
+    for version in [
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+        LanceFileVersion::V2_3,
+    ] {
+        let values = StructArray::new(
+            item_fields.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("a.jpg"), Some("b.jpg")])) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    Some(r#"{"codec":"h264"}"#),
+                    None::<&str>,
+                ])) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let media = ListArray::new(
+            item.clone(),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+            Arc::new(values),
+            None,
+        );
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(media)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema.clone());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(version),
+            ..WriteParams::default()
+        };
+        let uri = format!("memory://{}", Uuid::new_v4());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let batch_schema = batch.schema();
+        let DataType::List(item) = batch_schema.field(0).data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected media list field");
+        };
+        let DataType::Struct(fields) = item.data_type() else {
+            panic!("expected media item struct");
+        };
+        assert!(is_arrow_json_field(&fields[1]));
+
+        let media: &ListArray = batch.column(0).as_list();
+        let items = media.values().as_struct();
+        let extra = items
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(extra.value(0).contains("h264"));
+        assert!(extra.is_null(1));
+    }
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_scan_miniblock_dictionary_out_of_line_bitpacking_does_not_panic() {
     let rows: usize = 10_000;
@@ -392,12 +884,9 @@ async fn test_scan_miniblock_dictionary_out_of_line_bitpacking_does_not_panic()
         "0.99".to_string(),
     );
 
-    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-        "d",
-        DataType::UInt64,
-        false,
-    )
-    .with_metadata(field_meta)]));
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("d", DataType::UInt64, false).with_metadata(field_meta),
+    ]));
 
     let values = (0..rows)
         .map(|i| (i % unique_values) as u64)
@@ -426,7 +915,7 @@ async fn test_scan_miniblock_dictionary_out_of_line_bitpacking_does_not_panic()
         .unwrap();
     let column_idx = data_file.column_indices[field_pos] as usize;
 
-    let file_path = dataset.data_dir().child(data_file.path.as_str());
+    let file_path = dataset.data_dir().join(data_file.path.as_str());
     let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
         dataset.object_store.clone(),
         SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&dataset.object_store),
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_schema_evolution.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_schema_evolution.rs
index fd988978991..6a81b2d8f7a 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_schema_evolution.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_schema_evolution.rs
@@ -1,16 +1,16 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::dataset::{NewColumnTransform, WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::{NewColumnTransform, WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use arrow_array::{
-    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
-    StringArray, StructArray,
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, ListArray, NullArray, RecordBatch,
+    RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{
     DataType, Field as ArrowField, Field, Fields as ArrowFields, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema,
 };
-use lance_encoding::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
 use rstest::rstest;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
@@ -54,9 +54,11 @@ async fn test_add_sub_column_to_packed_struct_col(
         )
         .await
         .unwrap_err();
-    assert!(error
-        .to_string()
-        .contains("Column animal is packed struct and already exists in the dataset"));
+    assert!(
+        error
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("Column animal is packed struct and already exists in the dataset")
+    );
 }
 
 #[rstest]
@@ -86,9 +88,10 @@ async fn test_add_sub_column_to_struct_col_unsupported(
         )
         .await
         .unwrap_err();
-    assert!(err
-        .to_string()
-        .contains("is a struct col, add sub column is not supported in Lance file version"));
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("is a struct col, add sub column is not supported in Lance file version")
+    );
 }
 
 #[rstest]
@@ -314,13 +317,12 @@ async fn prepare_initial_dataset_with_struct_col(
     assert_eq!(dataset.schema().fields.len(), 1);
 
     // add conflict sub-column
-    let res = dataset
-        .add_columns(
-            NewColumnTransform::Reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema))),
-            None,
-            None,
-        )
-        .await;
+    let res = Box::pin(dataset.add_columns(
+        NewColumnTransform::Reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema))),
+        None,
+        None,
+    ))
+    .await;
     assert!(res.is_err());
 
     dataset
@@ -546,3 +548,91 @@ async fn prepare_initial_dataset_with_list_struct_col(version: LanceFileVersion)
 
     dataset
 }
+
+/// Reproduces ENT-990: panic in `adjust_child_validity` when reading a dataset where:
+/// - Fragment 0 has `meta.extra: Null` (Arrow infers DataType::Null when the user inserts
+///   rows where every value in `extra` is null, e.g. from Python/pandas with an all-None column)
+/// - Fragment 1 (appended later) has a nullable `meta` struct with null rows, but no `extra`
+///   sub-field (Lance allows this because `extra: Null` is nullable in the dataset schema)
+///
+/// When Fragment 1 is read, Lance adds a `NullReader` for the missing `meta.extra: Null`
+/// sub-field. `MergeStream` calls `RecordBatchExt::merge` on the real batch (with null `meta`
+/// rows) and the `NullReader` batch (all-null `meta` struct). The recursive merge descends into
+/// `meta`, where the parent's null validity is non-empty and the child column has `DataType::Null`
+/// — causing `ArrayData::try_new` to panic.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_scan_with_null_typed_struct_subfield_across_fragments() {
+    // Fragment 0: struct column with an `extra` sub-field of DataType::Null.
+    // This simulates a user inserting rows from Python/pandas where `extra` is all None.
+    let meta0 = StructArray::new(
+        ArrowFields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new("extra", DataType::Null, true),
+        ]),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("alice"), Some("bob")])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(NullArray::new(2)) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+        None,
+    );
+    let schema0 = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("meta", meta0.data_type().clone(), true),
+    ]));
+    let batch0 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema0.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(meta0) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch0)], schema0),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams::default()),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Fragment 1: same struct column but WITHOUT `extra`. Lance's `allow_missing_if_nullable`
+    // permits omitting `extra` (it's nullable), so a NullReader will fill it when reading
+    // Fragment 1. The struct has null rows, which is what exposes the bug.
+    let meta1 = StructArray::new(
+        ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true)]),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("charlie"), None])) as ArrayRef],
+        Some(vec![true, false].into()), // row 1 is a null struct
+    );
+    let schema1 = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("meta", meta1.data_type().clone(), true),
+    ]));
+    let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema1.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3, 4])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(meta1) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    ds.append(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch1)], schema1),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Scanning reads both fragments. Fragment 1 is missing `meta.extra: Null`, so Lance adds
+    // a NullReader for it. MergeStream merges the real batch (with null struct rows) and the
+    // NullReader batch (all-null `meta` struct). The recursive merge in `merge()` descends into
+    // `meta`, where `right_validity` (from the all-null NullReader struct) has non-zero null
+    // count and the child column has DataType::Null — previously panicked:
+    // "Arrays of type Null cannot contain a null bitmask".
+    let result = ds.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 4);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_transactions.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_transactions.rs
index cf135a9518e..6a1aafff5b2 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_transactions.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_transactions.rs
@@ -6,26 +6,44 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::vec;
 
 use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
-use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-use crate::dataset::{write_manifest_file, ManifestWriteConfig, TRANSACTIONS_DIR};
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction, UpdateMode, UpdatedFragmentOffsets};
+use crate::dataset::{
+    ColumnAlteration, ManifestWriteConfig, NewColumnTransform, TRANSACTIONS_DIR,
+    write_manifest_file,
+};
 use crate::io::ObjectStoreParams;
 use crate::session::Session;
 use crate::{Dataset, Result};
+use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
 use lance_table::io::commit::ManifestNamingScheme;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
 use crate::dataset::write::{CommitBuilder, InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use arrow_array::Array;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-use arrow_array::{types::Int32Type, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray,
+    types::{Int32Type, Int64Type},
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use lance_core::Error;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{Field as LanceCoreField, LogicalType, Schema as LanceSchema};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempDir, TempStrDir};
-use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION};
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
 use crate::datafusion::LanceTableProvider;
 use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use lance_datafusion::udf::register_functions;
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
 
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_read_transaction_properties() {
@@ -175,8 +193,8 @@ async fn test_session_store_registry() {
         .unwrap();
     assert_eq!(registry.active_stores().len(), 1);
     assert_eq!(
-        Arc::as_ptr(&dataset.object_store().inner),
-        Arc::as_ptr(&dataset2.object_store().inner)
+        Arc::as_ptr(&dataset.object_store.as_ref().inner),
+        Arc::as_ptr(&dataset2.object_store.as_ref().inner)
     );
 
     // If we create another with **different parameters**, it should create a new store.
@@ -195,8 +213,8 @@ async fn test_session_store_registry() {
         .unwrap();
     assert_eq!(registry.active_stores().len(), 2);
     assert_ne!(
-        Arc::as_ptr(&dataset.object_store().inner),
-        Arc::as_ptr(&dataset3.object_store().inner)
+        Arc::as_ptr(&dataset.object_store.as_ref().inner),
+        Arc::as_ptr(&dataset3.object_store.as_ref().inner)
     );
 
     // Remove both datasets
@@ -207,6 +225,229 @@ async fn test_session_store_registry() {
     assert_eq!(registry.active_stores().len(), 0);
 }
 
+#[test]
+fn test_decode_inline_transaction_tolerates_unknown_operations() {
+    use crate::dataset::decode_inline_transaction;
+    use lance_table::format::pb;
+    use prost::Message;
+
+    // A transaction written by a newer version of Lance may carry an operation
+    // this version cannot decode; prost surfaces it as a missing oneof. It
+    // decodes as `Operation::Unknown` rather than failing.
+    let unknown_operation = pb::Transaction {
+        read_version: 1,
+        uuid: "test".to_string(),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let decoded = decode_inline_transaction(&unknown_operation.encode_to_vec(), 42).unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(decoded.operation, Operation::Unknown { .. }));
+
+    // Corrupt bytes are likewise tolerated.
+    assert!(decode_inline_transaction(&[0xff, 0xff, 0xff], 42).is_none());
+
+    // A decodable transaction is returned.
+    let known = pb::Transaction::try_from(&Transaction::new(
+        1,
+        Operation::Append { fragments: vec![] },
+        None,
+    ))
+    .unwrap();
+    let decoded = decode_inline_transaction(&known.encode_to_vec(), 42).unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(decoded.operation, Operation::Append { .. }));
+}
+
+/// A transaction as a future Lance might write it: the `operation` oneof holds
+/// a field number this version does not know. 199 is the top of the reserved
+/// operation range, the number least likely to be assigned; if it ever is, the
+/// `Unknown` assertions in these tests fail and a new number must be picked.
+#[derive(Clone, PartialEq, prost::Message)]
+struct FutureTransaction {
+    #[prost(uint64, tag = "1")]
+    read_version: u64,
+    #[prost(string, tag = "2")]
+    uuid: String,
+    #[prost(message, optional, tag = "199")]
+    future_operation: Option<()>,
+}
+
+fn future_transaction(uuid: &str) -> FutureTransaction {
+    FutureTransaction {
+        read_version: 1,
+        uuid: uuid.to_string(),
+        future_operation: Some(()),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Rewrite the latest manifest of `dataset` in place so its inline transaction
+/// section holds `inline_tx`, stored in the deprecated field 21 if
+/// `deprecated_field` is set and in field 23 otherwise.
+async fn rewrite_inline_transaction(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    inline_tx: &impl prost::Message,
+    deprecated_field: bool,
+) {
+    use lance_file::format::{MAGIC, MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION};
+    use lance_io::object_writer::ObjectWriter;
+    use lance_io::traits::{WriteExt, Writer};
+    use lance_table::format::pb;
+
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.index_section.is_none());
+    let path = &dataset.manifest_location().path;
+    let mut writer = ObjectWriter::new(dataset.object_store.as_ref(), path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let tx_pos = writer.write_protobuf(inline_tx).await.unwrap() as u64;
+    let mut manifest = pb::Manifest::from(dataset.manifest.as_ref());
+    if deprecated_field {
+        manifest.transaction_section = None;
+        manifest.transaction_section_deprecated = Some(tx_pos);
+    } else {
+        manifest.transaction_section = Some(tx_pos);
+        manifest.transaction_section_deprecated = None;
+    }
+    let pos = writer.write_protobuf(&manifest).await.unwrap();
+    writer
+        .write_magics(pos, MAJOR_VERSION, MINOR_VERSION, MAGIC)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    Writer::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+async fn two_version_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+
+    let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(10))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(10))
+        .unwrap();
+    InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_open_version_with_unknown_operation() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = two_version_dataset(&test_uri).await;
+    rewrite_inline_transaction(&dataset, &future_transaction("future"), false).await;
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 2);
+    let tx = dataset.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(tx.operation, Operation::Unknown { .. }));
+    assert_eq!(tx.uuid, "future");
+
+    // It can be neither re-encoded nor committed.
+    assert!(lance_table::format::pb::Transaction::try_from(&tx).is_err());
+    assert!(
+        CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(tx)
+            .await
+            .is_err()
+    );
+
+    // A concurrent writer cannot tell what the unknown operation touched, so
+    // it must not commit over it.
+    let stale = dataset.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
+    let append = Transaction::new(1, Operation::Append { fragments: vec![] }, None);
+    let err = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(stale))
+        .execute(append)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(err, Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. }),
+        "unexpected error: {err:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_inline_transaction_written_to_new_field() {
+    use lance_table::format::pb;
+    use prost::Message;
+
+    // Lance v1.0-v11.0 fail to open a version whose field 21 holds an
+    // operation they don't know, so it must never be written again.
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = two_version_dataset(&test_uri).await;
+    let bytes = dataset
+        .object_store
+        .read_one_all(&dataset.manifest_location().path)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let footer = &bytes[bytes.len() - 16..];
+    let pos = u64::from_le_bytes(footer[..8].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+    let len = u32::from_le_bytes(bytes[pos..pos + 4].try_into().unwrap()) as usize;
+    let manifest = pb::Manifest::decode(&bytes[pos + 4..pos + 4 + len]).unwrap();
+    assert!(manifest.transaction_section_deprecated.is_none());
+    assert!(manifest.transaction_section.is_some());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_inline_transaction_from_deprecated_field() {
+    use lance_table::format::pb;
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = two_version_dataset(&test_uri).await;
+    let expected = dataset.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    rewrite_inline_transaction(
+        &dataset,
+        &pb::Transaction::try_from(&expected).unwrap(),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await;
+    // Remove the external copy so only field 21 can supply the transaction.
+    let tx_path = dataset
+        .base
+        .clone()
+        .join(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)
+        .join(dataset.manifest.transaction_file.as_deref().unwrap());
+    dataset.object_store.inner.delete(&tx_path).await.unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_uri).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.transaction_section.is_some());
+    assert_eq!(dataset.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap(), expected);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_inline_transaction_from_released_deprecated_field() {
+    use crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp;
+
+    // Written by Lance v1.0.1, which stores the inline transaction in field 21.
+    let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v1.0.1/list_struct_reorder.lance").unwrap();
+    // Remove the external copies so only field 21 can supply the transactions.
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(test_dir.std_path().join(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)).unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(test_dir.path_str().as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(dataset.manifest.transaction_section.is_some());
+    let tx = dataset.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(tx.uuid, "87766aea-beb2-4942-8830-df51d2f17492");
+    assert_eq!(tx.read_version, 1);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_distinct_unknown_transactions_are_not_equal() {
+    use crate::dataset::decode_inline_transaction;
+    use prost::Message;
+
+    // Commit-outcome detection compares transactions for equality; two
+    // unknown operations must not be mistaken for the same commit.
+    let decode = |uuid: &str| {
+        decode_inline_transaction(&future_transaction(uuid).encode_to_vec(), 2).unwrap()
+    };
+    assert_eq!(decode("a"), decode("a"));
+    assert_ne!(decode("a"), decode("b"));
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_migrate_v2_manifest_paths() {
     let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
@@ -271,6 +512,39 @@ pub(super) fn assert_results<T: Array + PartialEq + 'static>(
     )
 }
 
+fn gen_rows() -> impl arrow_array::RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static {
+    lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("key", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1))
+}
+
+/// Write a dataset with `versions` versions of 10 rows each.
+async fn write_versions(uri: &str, versions: usize, enable_v2_manifest_paths: bool) -> Dataset {
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        gen_rows(),
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            enable_v2_manifest_paths,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    for _ in 1..versions {
+        ds.append(
+            gen_rows(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                enable_v2_manifest_paths,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+    ds
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_inline_transaction() {
     use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
@@ -306,7 +580,11 @@ async fn test_inline_transaction() {
 
     async fn delete_external_tx_file(ds: &Dataset) {
         if let Some(tx_file) = ds.manifest.transaction_file.as_ref() {
-            let tx_path = ds.base.child(TRANSACTIONS_DIR).child(tx_file.as_str());
+            let tx_path = ds
+                .base
+                .clone()
+                .join(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)
+                .join(tx_file.as_str());
             let _ = ds.object_store.inner.delete(&tx_path).await; // ignore errors
         }
     }
@@ -331,12 +609,12 @@ async fn test_inline_transaction() {
         .load()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    let stats = read_ds2.object_store().io_stats_incremental(); // Reset
+    let stats = read_ds2.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // Reset
     assert!(stats.read_bytes < 64 * 1024);
     // Because the manifest is so small, we should have opportunistically
     // cached the transaction in memory already.
     let inline_tx = read_ds2.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap();
-    let stats = read_ds2.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+    let stats = read_ds2.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
     assert_eq!(stats.read_iops, 0);
     assert_eq!(stats.read_bytes, 0);
     assert_eq!(inline_tx, tx);
@@ -344,19 +622,23 @@ async fn test_inline_transaction() {
     // Case 3: manifest does not contain inline transaction, read should fall back to external transaction file
     let ds = create_dataset(2).await;
     let tx = make_tx(ds.manifest().version);
-    let tx_file = crate::io::commit::write_transaction_file(ds.object_store(), &ds.base, &tx)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+    let tx_file = crate::io::commit::write_transaction_file(
+        ds.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &ds.base,
+        &lance_table::format::pb::Transaction::try_from(&tx).unwrap(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
     let (mut manifest, indices) = tx
         .build_manifest(
             Some(ds.manifest.as_ref()),
             ds.load_indices().await.unwrap().as_ref().clone(),
             &tx_file,
-            &ManifestWriteConfig::default(),
+            &ManifestWriteConfig::default().to_build_config(),
         )
         .unwrap();
     let location = write_manifest_file(
-        ds.object_store(),
+        ds.object_store.as_ref(),
         ds.commit_handler.as_ref(),
         &ds.base,
         &mut manifest,
@@ -368,6 +650,8 @@ async fn test_inline_transaction() {
         &ManifestWriteConfig::default(),
         ds.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
         None,
+        // Previously classified from a None inline copy, which validated.
+        true,
     )
     .await
     .unwrap();
@@ -376,4 +660,1262 @@ async fn test_inline_transaction() {
     assert!(ds_new.manifest.transaction_file.is_some());
     let read_tx = ds_new.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap();
     assert_eq!(read_tx, tx);
+
+    // The direct read takes the same external-file fallback.
+    let version_transaction = ds_new
+        .read_version_transaction(location.version)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(version_transaction.transaction, Some(tx));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_version_transaction_does_not_populate_caches() {
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = write_versions(&test_uri, 1, true).await;
+    // Index the table so historical manifests carry an IndexSection that a
+    // caching read path would decode.
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["key"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(); // version 2
+    for _ in 0..18 {
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                gen_rows(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+    let latest_version = dataset.version().version;
+    assert_eq!(latest_version, 20);
+
+    // Fresh session so any cache insertion by the API under test shows as growth.
+    let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+    let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_uri)
+        .with_session(session.clone())
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let metadata_stats_before = session.metadata_cache_stats().await;
+    let index_stats_before = session.index_cache_stats().await;
+
+    let mut actual = Vec::with_capacity(latest_version as usize);
+    for version in 1..=latest_version {
+        let version_transaction = dataset.read_version_transaction(version).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(version_transaction.version, version);
+        actual.push(version_transaction);
+    }
+
+    let metadata_stats_after = session.metadata_cache_stats().await;
+    let index_stats_after = session.index_cache_stats().await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        metadata_stats_after.num_entries,
+        metadata_stats_before.num_entries
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        metadata_stats_after.size_bytes,
+        metadata_stats_before.size_bytes
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        index_stats_after.num_entries,
+        index_stats_before.num_entries
+    );
+    assert_eq!(index_stats_after.size_bytes, index_stats_before.size_bytes);
+
+    // Results match a full checkout.
+    for version_transaction in &actual {
+        let checked_out = dataset
+            .checkout_version(version_transaction.version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            version_transaction.transaction,
+            checked_out.read_transaction().await.unwrap()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            version_transaction.timestamp,
+            checked_out.version().timestamp
+        );
+        assert!(version_transaction.transaction.is_some());
+    }
+
+    // A missing (e.g. cleaned up) version errors as DatasetNotFound, matching
+    // the historical checkout_version-based contract of the public API.
+    let err = dataset.read_version_transaction(9999).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(err, crate::Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }),
+        "expected DatasetNotFound for a missing version, got {err:?}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_transaction_recovers_from_stale_manifest_size() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let ds = write_versions(&test_uri, 1, true).await;
+    let manifest = ds.manifest().clone();
+    // Only meaningful for the inline path; a plain write inlines the transaction.
+    assert!(manifest.transaction_section.is_some());
+
+    // A size at/under the transaction offset makes the first read_message fail
+    // "file size is too small"; only the retry at the true size can recover.
+    let mut stale = ds.manifest_location().clone();
+    stale.size = Some(1);
+    let recovered = ds
+        .read_transaction_from_storage(&manifest, &stale)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(recovered, ds.read_transaction().await.unwrap());
+    assert!(recovered.is_some());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_version_transaction_v1_manifest_naming() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let ds = write_versions(&test_uri, 3, false).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        ds.manifest_location().naming_scheme,
+        ManifestNamingScheme::V1
+    );
+
+    for version in 1..=3 {
+        let version_transaction = ds.read_version_transaction(version).await.unwrap();
+        let checked_out = ds.checkout_version(version).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            version_transaction.transaction,
+            checked_out.read_transaction().await.unwrap()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            version_transaction.timestamp,
+            checked_out.version().timestamp
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_read_version_transaction_on_branch() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut main_ds = write_versions(&test_uri, 1, true).await;
+    let branch_ds = main_ds.create_branch("dev", 1, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Commit on the branch.
+    let branch_ds = Dataset::write(
+        gen_rows(),
+        branch_ds.uri(),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(branch_ds.manifest().branch.as_deref(), Some("dev"));
+
+    // Versions resolve against the branch chain and match a full checkout.
+    for version in branch_ds.versions().await.unwrap() {
+        let version_transaction = branch_ds
+            .read_version_transaction(version.version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(version_transaction.version, version.version);
+        assert_eq!(version_transaction.timestamp, version.timestamp);
+        let checked_out = branch_ds.checkout_version(version.version).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(checked_out.manifest().branch.as_deref(), Some("dev"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            version_transaction.transaction,
+            checked_out.read_transaction().await.unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    // The append on the branch is the branch's own transaction.
+    let latest = branch_ds.version().version;
+    let version_transaction = branch_ds.read_version_transaction(latest).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(
+        version_transaction.transaction,
+        Some(Transaction {
+            operation: Operation::Append { .. },
+            ..
+        })
+    ));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_list_detached_manifests() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+
+    // Create initial dataset
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "id",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = Arc::new(
+        Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            &test_uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+
+    // Initially there should be no detached manifests
+    let detached = dataset.list_detached_manifests().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(detached.is_empty());
+
+    // Create a detached transaction with properties
+    let mut properties = HashMap::new();
+    properties.insert("detached_key".to_string(), "detached_value".to_string());
+
+    let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Use execute_uncommitted + CommitBuilder with_detached(true)
+    let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            transaction_properties: Some(Arc::new(properties.clone())),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+        .with_detached(true)
+        .execute(transaction)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Now there should be one detached manifest
+    let detached = dataset.list_detached_manifests().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(detached.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .version_refs()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|version| version.version)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![1]
+    );
+
+    // The detached version should have the high bit set
+    let detached_version = detached[0].version;
+    assert!(lance_table::format::is_detached_version(detached_version));
+
+    // We should be able to checkout the detached version and read transaction properties
+    let checked_out = dataset.checkout_version(detached_version).await.unwrap();
+    let tx = checked_out.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    let tx_props = tx.transaction_properties.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        tx_props.get("detached_key"),
+        Some(&"detached_value".to_string())
+    );
+
+    // The detached dataset should have more rows
+    assert_eq!(checked_out.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 6);
+
+    // Create another detached transaction
+    let batch3 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![7, 8, 9]))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut properties2 = HashMap::new();
+    properties2.insert("second_key".to_string(), "second_value".to_string());
+
+    let transaction2 = InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            transaction_properties: Some(Arc::new(properties2)),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch3])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+        .with_detached(true)
+        .execute(transaction2)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Now there should be two detached manifests
+    let detached = dataset.list_detached_manifests().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(detached.len(), 2);
+
+    // Both should be detached versions
+    for loc in &detached {
+        assert!(lance_table::format::is_detached_version(loc.version));
+    }
+
+    // Regular versions() should not include detached manifests
+    let versions = dataset.versions().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(versions.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(versions[0].version, 1);
+}
+
+/// Transaction properties large enough to push the transaction over the
+/// inline threshold.
+fn large_props(key: &str) -> Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>> {
+    use crate::io::commit::MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES;
+    let mut props = HashMap::new();
+    props.insert(
+        key.to_string(),
+        "x".repeat(2 * MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES),
+    );
+    Some(Arc::new(props))
+}
+
+fn spill_test_batch() -> (Arc<ArrowSchema>, RecordBatch) {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::Int32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    (schema, batch)
+}
+
+/// Load the dataset with a fresh session so assertions hit storage, not caches.
+async fn reopen(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+        .with_session(Arc::new(Session::default()))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_large_transaction_spills_to_external_file() {
+    use crate::io::commit::MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES;
+
+    let (schema, batch) = spill_test_batch();
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+
+    // New-dataset commit path: a transaction too large to inline is written
+    // only to the external transaction file.
+    Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone()),
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            transaction_properties: large_props("payload"),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let ds = reopen(&test_uri).await;
+    assert!(ds.manifest.transaction_section.is_none());
+    assert!(matches!(ds.manifest.transaction_file.as_deref(), Some(f) if !f.is_empty()));
+    let tx = ds.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        tx.transaction_properties
+            .unwrap()
+            .get("payload")
+            .unwrap()
+            .len(),
+        2 * MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES
+    );
+
+    // Normal commit path: a small append is still inlined.
+    Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let ds = reopen(&test_uri).await;
+    assert!(ds.manifest.transaction_section.is_some());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_spilled_restore_and_deep_clone_read_own_transaction() {
+    // Restore and deep clone both rebuild the new manifest from an existing
+    // manifest file, inheriting its inline transaction offset and external
+    // transaction file name. When the new transaction is too large to inline,
+    // readers fall back to exactly those fields, so the stale inherited values
+    // must not leak into the new manifest.
+    use crate::dataset::transaction::TransactionBuilder;
+
+    let (schema, batch) = spill_test_batch();
+    let source_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone()),
+        &source_uri,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let ds = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        &source_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    // The manifests restored from / cloned from below carry an inline
+    // transaction offset and their own transaction file.
+    assert!(ds.manifest.transaction_section.is_some());
+    let source_version = ds.manifest().version;
+    let source_ref_path = ds.uri().to_string();
+    let source_tx_file = ds.manifest.transaction_file.clone();
+    assert!(matches!(source_tx_file.as_deref(), Some(f) if !f.is_empty()));
+
+    // Restore with a spilled transaction: the stale inline offset must be
+    // cleared and the transaction read back from the external file.
+    let restore_tx = TransactionBuilder::new(source_version, Operation::Restore { version: 1 })
+        .transaction_properties(large_props("payload"))
+        .build();
+    CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(ds))
+        .execute(restore_tx.clone())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let restored = reopen(&source_uri).await;
+    assert!(restored.manifest.transaction_section.is_none());
+    assert_eq!(
+        restored.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap(),
+        restore_tx
+    );
+
+    // Deep clone with a spilled transaction: the manifest must reference the
+    // clone's own transaction file, not the source's.
+    let clone_tx = TransactionBuilder::new(
+        source_version,
+        Operation::Clone {
+            is_shallow: false,
+            ref_name: None,
+            ref_version: source_version,
+            ref_path: source_ref_path,
+            branch_name: None,
+        },
+    )
+    .transaction_properties(large_props("payload"))
+    .build();
+    let clone_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    // Only the manifest is checked here, so skipping the file copy is fine.
+    CommitBuilder::new(&clone_uri)
+        .with_deep_clone_files_copied()
+        .execute(clone_tx.clone())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let cloned = reopen(&clone_uri).await;
+    assert!(cloned.manifest.transaction_section.is_none());
+    assert_ne!(cloned.manifest.transaction_file, source_tx_file);
+    assert_eq!(cloned.read_transaction().await.unwrap().unwrap(), clone_tx);
+}
+
+/// Partial RewriteColumns refresh in `build_manifest`: only matched physical
+/// rows get `last_updated_at_version` bumped; same-fragment unmatched rows and
+/// untouched fragments keep both version sequences.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_build_manifest_partial_last_updated_rewrite_columns_stable_row_ids() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = dir.as_str();
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch0 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..8)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0_i32; 8])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader0 = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch0)], schema.clone());
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+        data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Stable),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader0, uri, Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(100..108)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0_i32; 8])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader1 = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch1)], schema.clone());
+    dataset.append(reader1, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let frags = dataset.get_fragments();
+    assert_eq!(
+        frags.len(),
+        2,
+        "expected two fragments (append creates a new fragment)"
+    );
+
+    async fn scan_row_versions(ds: &Dataset) -> HashMap<(u32, u32), (u64, u64)> {
+        let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+        scanner
+            .project(&[
+                ROW_ADDR,
+                ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION,
+                ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION,
+            ])
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches = scanner
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut out = HashMap::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let addrs = batch
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ADDR)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+            let last = batch
+                .column_by_name(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+            let created = batch
+                .column_by_name(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+            for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let addr = RowAddress::from(addrs.value(row));
+                out.insert(
+                    (addr.fragment_id(), addr.row_offset()),
+                    (last.value(row), created.value(row)),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        out
+    }
+
+    let before = scan_row_versions(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(before.len(), 16);
+
+    // Update only rows i in {2, 4, 6} within fragment 0 (physical offsets 2, 4, 6).
+    let update_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        update_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 4, 6])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![99, 99, 99])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let right: Box<dyn arrow_array::RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+        vec![Ok(update_batch)].into_iter(),
+        update_schema,
+    ));
+
+    let mut frag0 = dataset.get_fragment(0).unwrap();
+    let u = frag0
+        .update_columns_with_offsets(right, "i", "i")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(u.matched_offsets.iter().count(), 3);
+    for off in [2_u32, 4, 6] {
+        assert!(u.matched_offsets.contains(off));
+    }
+
+    let updated_fragment_offsets = Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(HashMap::from([(
+        u.fragment.id,
+        u.matched_offsets,
+    )])));
+
+    let op = Operation::Update {
+        removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+        updated_fragments: vec![u.fragment],
+        new_fragments: vec![],
+        fields_modified: u.fields_modified,
+        compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+        fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+        update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+        inserted_rows_filter: None,
+        updated_fragment_offsets,
+    };
+
+    let read_v = dataset.version().version;
+    let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+        uri,
+        op,
+        Some(read_v),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Session::default()),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let new_v = dataset.version().version;
+    assert_eq!(new_v, read_v + 1);
+
+    let after = scan_row_versions(&dataset).await;
+    for off in 0..8_u32 {
+        let key = (0, off);
+        let (last_before, created_before) = before[&key];
+        let (last_after, created_after) = after[&key];
+        assert_eq!(created_after, created_before);
+        if off == 2 || off == 4 || off == 6 {
+            assert_eq!(
+                last_after, new_v,
+                "matched row offset {off} should advance last_updated to new version"
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(
+                last_after, last_before,
+                "unmatched row offset {off} in fragment 0 should keep last_updated"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    for off in 0..8_u32 {
+        let key = (1, off);
+        assert_eq!(
+            after[&key], before[&key],
+            "fragment 1 row offset {off}: both version columns unchanged"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// Repro shape for issue 7700: write a, b, c; drop one column; add d. The
+/// dropped id stays referenced by the data files and max_field_id stays 3.
+async fn dataset_with_dropped_column(uri: &str, dropped: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("c", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], arrow_schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset.drop_columns(&[dropped]).await.unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .add_columns(
+            NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![("d".into(), "CAST(5 AS INT)".into())]),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dropped_id = ["a", "b", "c"].iter().position(|c| *c == dropped).unwrap() as i32;
+    let mut expected_ids: Vec<i32> = (0..3).filter(|id| *id != dropped_id).collect();
+    expected_ids.push(3);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.schema().field_ids(), expected_ids);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.max_field_id(), 3);
+    dataset
+}
+
+/// Expected values of every column surviving `dropped`, plus d.
+fn surviving_columns(dropped: &str) -> Vec<(&'static str, [i32; 2])> {
+    [
+        ("a", [1, 2]),
+        ("b", [10, 20]),
+        ("c", [100, 200]),
+        ("d", [5, 5]),
+    ]
+    .into_iter()
+    .filter(|(name, _)| *name != dropped)
+    .collect()
+}
+
+fn assert_columns(batch: &RecordBatch, cols: &[(&str, [i32; 2])]) {
+    for (name, expected) in cols {
+        let col = &batch[*name];
+        assert_eq!(
+            col.as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+            expected,
+            "column {}",
+            name
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+async fn commit_merge(dataset: &Dataset, schema: LanceSchema) -> Result<Dataset> {
+    let fragments = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
+        .collect();
+    Dataset::commit(
+        Arc::new(dataset.clone()),
+        Operation::Merge {
+            fragments,
+            schema,
+            preserves_nullability: true,
+        },
+        Some(dataset.manifest.version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        dataset.session(),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+// Which clause rejects the lossy round-trip depends on the hole's
+// position: a hole before the last field remaps a shared id, while a
+// hole at the end reuses the dropped id for the new field.
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::drop_a_remaps_shared_id("a", "remaps field id 1 from \"b\" to \"c\"")]
+#[case::drop_b_remaps_shared_id("b", "remaps field id 2 from \"c\" to \"d\"")]
+#[case::drop_c_reuses_dropped_id("c", "assigns id 2 to new field \"d\"")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_rejects_renumbered_field_ids(#[case] dropped: &str, #[case] expected: &str) {
+    let dataset = dataset_with_dropped_column("memory://", dropped).await;
+
+    let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema());
+    let renumbered = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(renumbered.field_ids(), vec![0, 1, 2]);
+
+    let err = commit_merge(&dataset, renumbered).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+    let message = err.to_string();
+    assert!(message.contains(expected), "unexpected error: {}", message);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_rejects_dropped_field_id_reuse() {
+    // Deliberate reuse of a tombstoned id, as opposed to the renumbering
+    // accident covered above.
+    let dataset = dataset_with_dropped_column("memory://", "b").await;
+
+    let mut schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let mut field = LanceCoreField::try_from(&ArrowField::new("e", DataType::Int32, true)).unwrap();
+    field.id = 1;
+    schema.fields.push(field);
+
+    let err = commit_merge(&dataset, schema).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+    let message = err.to_string();
+    assert!(
+        message.contains("assigns id 1 to new field \"e\"")
+            && message.contains("must use ids of at least 4"),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        message
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_rejects_renumbered_nested_field_ids() {
+    // A hole inside a struct shifts a nested leaf's id onto a field
+    // outside the struct on renumbering; the full-path comparison must
+    // catch the cross-parent remap.
+    let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]);
+    let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()), true),
+        ArrowField::new("z", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        arrow_schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                struct_fields,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20])),
+                ],
+                None,
+            )),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], arrow_schema);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+    dataset.drop_columns(&["s.x"]).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.schema().field_ids(), vec![0, 2, 3]);
+
+    let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema());
+    let renumbered = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(renumbered.field_ids(), vec![0, 1, 2]);
+
+    let err = commit_merge(&dataset, renumbered).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+    let message = err.to_string();
+    assert!(
+        message.contains("remaps field id 2 from \"s.y\" to \"z\""),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        message
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::drop_a("a")]
+#[case::drop_b("b")]
+#[case::drop_c("c")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_allows_id_preserving_schema_change(#[case] dropped: &str) {
+    let dataset = dataset_with_dropped_column("memory://", dropped).await;
+
+    let survivors = surviving_columns(dropped);
+    let first_id = dataset.schema().field(survivors[0].0).unwrap().id;
+    let mut schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    schema
+        .mut_field_by_id(first_id)
+        .unwrap()
+        .metadata
+        .insert("wm".into(), "42".into());
+
+    let dataset = commit_merge(&dataset, schema).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .schema()
+            .field(survivors[0].0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .metadata
+            .get("wm"),
+        Some(&"42".to_string())
+    );
+
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_columns(&batch, &survivors);
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::drop_a("a")]
+#[case::drop_b("b")]
+#[case::drop_c("c")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_allows_dropping_field(#[case] dropped: &str) {
+    let dataset = dataset_with_dropped_column("memory://", dropped).await;
+
+    let mut survivors = surviving_columns(dropped);
+    let omitted = survivors.remove(0);
+    let names: Vec<&str> = survivors.iter().map(|(n, _)| *n).collect();
+    let schema = dataset.schema().project(&names).unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = commit_merge(&dataset, schema).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(dataset.schema().field(omitted.0).is_none());
+
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_columns(&batch, &survivors);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_rejects_schema_only_path_remap() {
+    let dataset = dataset_with_dropped_column("memory://", "c").await;
+    let prior_id = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap().id;
+    let fresh_id = dataset.manifest.max_field_id() + 1;
+
+    let mut schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    schema.mut_field_by_id(prior_id).unwrap().id = fresh_id;
+
+    let err = commit_merge(&dataset, schema).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+    let message = err.to_string();
+    assert!(
+        message.contains(&format!(
+            "remaps existing field \"a\" from id {} to id {}",
+            prior_id, fresh_id
+        )) && message.contains("base data file"),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        message
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::logical_type(DataType::Float32, true, "logical type")]
+#[case::nullability(DataType::Int32, false, "nullable")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_merge_rejects_shared_id_type_or_nullability_change(
+    #[case] data_type: DataType,
+    #[case] nullable: bool,
+    #[case] expected: &str,
+) {
+    let dataset = dataset_with_dropped_column("memory://", "c").await;
+    let field_id = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap().id;
+
+    let mut schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let field = schema.mut_field_by_id(field_id).unwrap();
+    field.logical_type = LogicalType::try_from(&data_type).unwrap();
+    field.nullable = nullable;
+
+    let err = commit_merge(&dataset, schema).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {:?}", err);
+    let message = err.to_string();
+    assert!(
+        message.contains(&format!("changes field id {} (\"a\")", field_id))
+            && message.contains(expected),
+        "unexpected error: {}",
+        message
+    );
+}
+
+/// The pure schema/fragment-shape half of this check lives in
+/// `lance_table::transaction`'s `test_merge_allows_rewritten_fresh_field_id`;
+/// this covers the `Dataset`-level effect of a rewrite that assigns a fresh
+/// field id.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_alter_columns_materializes_fresh_field_id_in_every_fragment() {
+    let mut dataset = dataset_with_dropped_column("memory://", "c").await;
+    let prior_id = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap().id;
+    dataset
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("a".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let new_id = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap().id;
+    assert_ne!(new_id, prior_id);
+    assert!(
+        dataset.get_fragments().iter().all(|fragment| {
+            fragment
+                .metadata()
+                .files
+                .iter()
+                .any(|file| file.fields.contains(&new_id))
+        }),
+        "alter_columns must materialize the fresh id in every fragment base file"
+    );
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch["a"].as_primitive::<Int64Type>().values(), &[1, 2]);
+}
+
+/// A covering declaration that is not a suffix of `fields` must be refused
+/// at commit, not silently accepted and later misread as a keyed column.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_create_index_rejects_non_suffix_covering_fields() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = dir.as_str();
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..8)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0_i32; 8])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    // fields = [0, 1] with covering = [0]: field 0 is the leading entry,
+    // not the trailing one, so this claims the keyed column is covered.
+    let bad_index = IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+        name: "bad_idx".to_string(),
+        fields: vec![0, 1],
+        covering_fields: vec![0],
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+        index_details: None,
+        index_version: 0,
+        created_at: None,
+        base_id: None,
+        files: None,
+    };
+
+    let transaction = Transaction::new(
+        dataset.manifest.version,
+        Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![bad_index],
+            removed_indices: vec![],
+        },
+        None,
+    );
+
+    let err = dataset
+        .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+        .await
+        .expect_err("a non-suffix covering declaration must not commit");
+    assert!(
+        matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+        "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("must come last"),
+        "unexpected message: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A shallow clone copies the index metadata wholesale, `covering_fields`
+/// included, but `Manifest::shallow_clone` builds the new manifest directly --
+/// `Operation::Clone` is refused by `build_manifest` -- so the fence is not
+/// recomputed there and has to be carried explicitly. Without that, a clone of
+/// a covered table comes back unfenced and a build predating covering can open
+/// it and read carried columns as keyed ones.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_shallow_clone_preserves_the_covering_fence() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = dir.as_str();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..8)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0_i32; 8])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    let index = IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+        name: "covered_idx".to_string(),
+        fields: vec![0, 1],
+        covering_fields: vec![1],
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+        index_details: None,
+        index_version: 0,
+        created_at: None,
+        base_id: None,
+        files: None,
+    };
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            Transaction::new(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![index],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            &Default::default(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_ne!(
+        dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "precondition: the source table is fenced"
+    );
+
+    let clone_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let cloned = dataset
+        .shallow_clone(clone_dir.as_str(), dataset.version().version, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // The clone really does carry the covering declaration, so it really does
+    // need the fence -- assert that first, or the flag check below could pass
+    // for a clone that simply dropped the index.
+    let cloned_indices = cloned.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        cloned_indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|i| i.name == "covered_idx")
+            .map(|i| i.covering_fields.clone()),
+        Some(vec![1]),
+        "precondition: the clone carries the covering declaration"
+    );
+    assert_ne!(
+        cloned.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "a clone of a covered table must stay fenced for readers"
+    );
+    assert_ne!(
+        cloned.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "a clone of a covered table must stay fenced for writers"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Covering redefines what `fields` means, so a build that predates it would
+/// select a vector index by membership of `fields` and answer a query on a
+/// merely-carried column with an index keyed on a different one. The fence is
+/// the feature flag: a covering commit must set it in both words so such a
+/// build refuses the table outright, and dropping the last covering index
+/// must clear it again rather than fence the table forever.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_covering_commit_fences_the_table_with_a_feature_flag() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let uri = dir.as_str();
+
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..8)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0_i32; 8])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "precondition: a plain dataset carries no covering fence"
+    );
+
+    let index = IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+        name: "covered_idx".to_string(),
+        fields: vec![0, 1],
+        covering_fields: vec![1],
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+        index_details: None,
+        index_version: 0,
+        created_at: None,
+        base_id: None,
+        files: None,
+    };
+    let uuid = index.uuid;
+
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            Transaction::new(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![index.clone()],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            &Default::default(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Both words: a reader would select the wrong index, a writer would
+    // mismaintain it.
+    assert_ne!(
+        dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "a covering commit must fence readers"
+    );
+    assert_ne!(
+        dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "a covering commit must fence writers"
+    );
+
+    // The flag has to survive the reload, not just the in-memory manifest:
+    // `apply_feature_flags` runs a second time in `write_manifest_file` and
+    // resets both words.
+    let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+    assert_ne!(
+        reopened.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "the fence must be persisted, not only set in memory"
+    );
+
+    // An ordinary commit that has nothing to do with indices must not drop the
+    // fence. `Manifest::new_from_previous` zeroes both flag words, so the bit
+    // survives only because `build_manifest` re-derives it from the surviving
+    // index list on every commit rather than inheriting it -- an append is the
+    // cheapest way to pin that.
+    let mut dataset = reopened;
+    let more = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(8..16)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1_i32; 8])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(more)], schema.clone()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_ne!(
+        dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "an ordinary append must not lift the covering fence"
+    );
+    assert_ne!(
+        dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "an ordinary append must not lift the writer half of the fence"
+    );
+
+    // Dropping the last covering index lifts the fence. Nothing clears the bit
+    // explicitly -- the words start zeroed and it is simply not set again -- so
+    // this is the pin against someone making the fence sticky via an inherit
+    // step, the way MemWAL catch-up is.
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            Transaction::new(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![],
+                    removed_indices: vec![IndexMetadata { uuid, ..index }],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            &Default::default(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_COVERED_INDEX_METADATA,
+        0,
+        "dropping the last covering index must clear the fence"
+    );
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_versioning.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_versioning.rs
index 2e2fcdf6601..768e58b6534 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_versioning.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/dataset_versioning.rs
@@ -1,27 +1,34 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::vec;
 
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
 use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
 use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
 use crate::datatypes::Schema;
-use crate::Dataset;
 use lance_table::io::commit::ManifestNamingScheme;
 
 use crate::dataset::write::{CommitBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use arrow_array::RecordBatchReader;
-use arrow_array::{types::Int32Type, RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array, types::Int32Type};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempDir, TempStdDir, TempStrDir};
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, RowCount};
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use mock_instant::thread_local::MockClock;
+use tokio::sync::Barrier;
 
 use crate::dataset::refs::branch_contents_path;
+use crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance_core::Error;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use rstest::rstest;
 use std::cmp::Ordering;
@@ -32,6 +39,8 @@ fn assert_all_manifests_use_scheme(test_dir: &TempStdDir, scheme: ManifestNaming
         .read_dir()
         .unwrap()
         .map(|entry| entry.unwrap().file_name().into_string().unwrap())
+        // Ignore the version hint file, which is not a manifest.
+        .filter(|name| !name.starts_with("latest_version_hint"))
         .collect::<Vec<_>>();
     assert!(
         entries_names
@@ -42,6 +51,23 @@ fn assert_all_manifests_use_scheme(test_dir: &TempStdDir, scheme: ManifestNaming
     );
 }
 
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_list_manifest_locations_rejects_explicit_refs() {
+    let test_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.to_str().unwrap();
+    let builders = [
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).with_version(1),
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).with_branch("dev", None),
+        DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).with_tag("release"),
+    ];
+
+    for builder in builders {
+        let err = builder.list_manifest_locations().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("does not support an explicit"));
+    }
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_v2_manifest_path_create() {
     // Can create a dataset, using V2 paths
@@ -160,6 +186,212 @@ async fn test_strict_overwrite() {
         .expect("Unstrict overwrite should succeed when committing to a stale version");
 }
 
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_version_id_fast_path() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::UInt32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+
+    let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..5))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+    let original = Dataset::write(reader, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(original.version_id(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(original.version_id(), original.version().version);
+    assert_eq!(original.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(), 1);
+
+    let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(5..10))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let updated = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(updated.version_id(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(updated.version_id(), updated.version().version);
+    assert_eq!(updated.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(), 2);
+
+    let historical = updated.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(historical.version_id(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(historical.version_id(), historical.version().version);
+    assert_eq!(historical.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(), 2);
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stale_checks_cover_fast_successor_and_latest_version(
+    #[values(false, true)] enable_v2_manifest_paths: bool,
+) {
+    let expected_scheme = if enable_v2_manifest_paths {
+        ManifestNamingScheme::V2
+    } else {
+        ManifestNamingScheme::V1
+    };
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::UInt32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+
+    let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..5))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+    let original = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            enable_v2_manifest_paths,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(original.manifest_location().naming_scheme, expected_scheme);
+    assert!(!original.is_stale().await.unwrap());
+    assert!(!original.has_successor_version().await.unwrap());
+
+    let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(5..10))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![data].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let updated = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            enable_v2_manifest_paths,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    assert!(original.is_stale().await.unwrap());
+    assert!(original.has_successor_version().await.unwrap());
+    assert_eq!(updated.manifest_location().naming_scheme, expected_scheme);
+    assert!(!updated.is_stale().await.unwrap());
+    assert!(!updated.has_successor_version().await.unwrap());
+
+    let historical = updated.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        historical.manifest_location().naming_scheme,
+        expected_scheme
+    );
+    assert!(historical.is_stale().await.unwrap());
+    assert!(historical.has_successor_version().await.unwrap());
+}
+
+/// All row ids visible in `dataset`, in scan order.
+async fn scan_row_ids(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<u64> {
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .with_row_id()
+        .project(&["i"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    batch["_rowid"]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec()
+}
+
+fn u32_batch(values: std::ops::Range<u32>) -> RecordBatch {
+    arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", UInt32, values.collect::<Vec<u32>>())).unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Restoring past activation would turn stable row ids off, putting row
+/// addresses back into a namespace this table has already issued ids from.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_restore_rejects_crossing_stable_id_activation() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let batch = u32_batch(0..10);
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+        test_uri.as_str(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset.migrate_to_stable_row_ids().await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut restored = dataset.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
+    let err = restored.restore().await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("stable row ids were enabled after"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A restore must not rewind the row-id high-water mark, or the next append reuses old ids.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_restore_preserves_row_id_high_water_mark() {
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let write = |values: std::ops::Range<u32>, mode| {
+        let uri = test_uri.as_str().to_string();
+        async move {
+            let batch = u32_batch(values);
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                &uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        }
+    };
+
+    write(0..10, WriteMode::Create).await;
+    let appended = write(10..20, WriteMode::Append).await;
+    let mark = appended.manifest.next_row_id;
+
+    let mut restored = appended.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
+    restored.restore().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        restored.manifest.next_row_id >= mark,
+        "restore rewound the row id high-water mark: {} < {mark}",
+        restored.manifest.next_row_id
+    );
+
+    // The rows appended after the restore must not reuse the dropped rows' ids.
+    let reused = write(20..30, WriteMode::Append).await;
+    let ids = scan_row_ids(&reused).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids.iter().filter(|id| **id >= mark).count(),
+        10,
+        "appended rows did not all take fresh ids past {mark}: {ids:?}"
+    );
+}
+
 #[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_restore(
@@ -276,7 +508,12 @@ async fn test_tag(
         "Ref not found error: tag tag1 does not exist"
     );
 
+    MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(1));
     dataset.tags().create("tag1", 1).await.unwrap();
+    let mut tag_map = dataset.tags().list().await.unwrap();
+    let tag1_meta = tag_map.remove("tag1").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(tag1_meta.created_at, tag1_meta.updated_at);
+    assert!(tag1_meta.created_at.is_some());
 
     assert_eq!(dataset.tags().list().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
 
@@ -357,15 +594,83 @@ async fn test_tag(
         "Version not found error: version main:3 does not exist"
     );
 
+    let tag1_before_update = dataset.tags().get("tag1").await.unwrap();
+    MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(2));
     dataset.tags().update("tag1", 2).await.unwrap();
+    let tag1_after_update = dataset.tags().get("tag1").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(tag1_after_update.created_at, tag1_before_update.created_at);
+    assert!(tag1_after_update.updated_at > tag1_before_update.updated_at);
     dataset = dataset.checkout_version("tag1").await.unwrap();
     assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 2);
 
+    let tag1_before_second_update = dataset.tags().get("tag1").await.unwrap();
+    MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(3));
     dataset.tags().update("tag1", 1).await.unwrap();
+    let tag1_after_second_update = dataset.tags().get("tag1").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        tag1_after_second_update.created_at,
+        tag1_before_second_update.created_at
+    );
+    assert!(tag1_after_second_update.updated_at > tag1_before_second_update.updated_at);
     dataset = dataset.checkout_version("tag1").await.unwrap();
     assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 1);
 }
 
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_concurrent_tag_creation_conflict() {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "i",
+        DataType::UInt32,
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..10))],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(data)], schema),
+        &test_uri,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset.delete("i >= 5").await.unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+    let concurrency = 32;
+    let barrier = Arc::new(Barrier::new(concurrency));
+    let handles = (0..concurrency)
+        .map(|attempt| {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let barrier = barrier.clone();
+            let version = (attempt % 2 + 1) as u64;
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                barrier.wait().await;
+                (version, dataset.tags().create("race", version).await)
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let mut successful_version = None;
+    let mut conflicts = 0;
+    for handle in handles {
+        let (version, result) = handle.await.unwrap();
+        match result {
+            Ok(()) => successful_version = Some(version),
+            Err(Error::RefConflict { .. }) => conflicts += 1,
+            Err(error) => panic!("unexpected tag creation error: {error}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    assert_eq!(conflicts, concurrency - 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.tags().get_version("race").await.unwrap(),
+        successful_version.unwrap()
+    );
+}
+
 #[rstest]
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_fragment_id_zero_not_reused() {
@@ -496,6 +801,283 @@ async fn test_fragment_id_never_reset() {
     assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id(), Some(4));
 }
 
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_overwrite_does_not_reuse_fragment_ids() {
+    // An overwrite replaces every fragment, but the ids it hands out must still
+    // continue from the dataset's high water mark: an id that named one set of
+    // rows must never name another.
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let write = |mode: WriteMode, rows: u64| {
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(rows), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode,
+            max_rows_per_file: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), Some(params))
+    };
+    let fragment_ids = |dataset: &Dataset| {
+        dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    };
+
+    let dataset = write(WriteMode::Create, 30).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(fragment_ids(&dataset), vec![0, 1, 2]);
+
+    let dataset = write(WriteMode::Overwrite, 20).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(fragment_ids(&dataset), vec![3, 4]);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id(), Some(4));
+
+    let dataset = write(WriteMode::Append, 10).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(fragment_ids(&dataset), vec![3, 4, 5]);
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_overwrite_rejects_fragment_with_deletion_file(
+    // Every form of the operation must be rejected: upserting config alongside
+    // the overwrite does not make renumbering the fragment any safer.
+    #[values(None, Some(HashMap::from([("key".to_string(), "value".to_string())])))]
+    config_upsert_values: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+) {
+    // A deletion file's path embeds the fragment id, so it cannot follow its
+    // fragment to the fresh id an overwrite assigns. Such a fragment belongs to
+    // the dataset being replaced, so the operation is rejected rather than
+    // silently losing the deletions.
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let reader = gen_batch()
+        .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset.delete("i < 3").await.unwrap();
+
+    let fragment = dataset.manifest.fragments[0].clone();
+    assert!(fragment.deletion_file.is_some());
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+    let err = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .execute(Transaction::new(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::Overwrite {
+                fragments: vec![fragment],
+                schema,
+                config_upsert_values,
+                initial_bases: None,
+            },
+            None,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+        "expected invalid input, got {err:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("must be newly written"),
+        "unexpected message: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_commit_rejects_duplicate_fragment_ids() {
+    // Append honors an id a fragment arrives with, so a caller can still hand in
+    // one that an existing fragment already uses. Committing that would leave two
+    // fragments sharing everything keyed by the id.
+    let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let write = |mode: WriteMode| {
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode,
+            max_rows_per_file: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), Some(params))
+    };
+    let dataset = write(WriteMode::Create).await.unwrap();
+    let existing = dataset.manifest.fragments[1].clone();
+    assert_eq!(existing.id, 1);
+
+    let err = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .execute(Transaction::new(
+            1,
+            Operation::Append {
+                fragments: vec![existing],
+            },
+            None,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("two fragments with id 1"),
+        "unexpected message: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_commit_on_dataset_with_mixed_file_versions() {
+    // A v0.16 dataset that has both v1 and v2 files also has two fragments with
+    // id 1, because the id allocation of that era could hand out an id a caller
+    // had already supplied. The mixture is the more actionable diagnosis, so the
+    // duplicate check must not preempt it during commit.
+    let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.16.0/wrong_data_version_no_fix.lance").unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&test_dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let ids = dataset
+        .manifest
+        .fragments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(ids, vec![0, 1, 1, 2]);
+
+    let err = dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("The dataset contains a mixture of file versions"),
+        "unexpected message: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// create_branch and shallow_clone must read the SOURCE ref's chain, not the
+/// receiver's. Both chains get a version 2 with diverged row counts so a clone
+/// that wrongly resolves the version under the receiver succeeds silently with
+/// the wrong data.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_create_branch_and_shallow_clone_from_other_branch() {
+    let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+    let test_uri = tempdir.path_str();
+
+    let gen_rows = |start: i32, rows: u64| {
+        gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(start, 1))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(rows), BatchCount::from(1))
+    };
+    let write = |uri: String, start: i32, rows: u64, mode: WriteMode| async move {
+        Dataset::write(
+            gen_rows(start, rows),
+            uri.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    };
+
+    // main v1: 50 rows.
+    let mut main_ds = write(test_uri.clone(), 0, 50, WriteMode::Create).await;
+    // dev: forked at v1, appended 30 rows -> dev v2 has 80 rows.
+    let dev_ds = main_ds.create_branch("dev", 1, None).await.unwrap();
+    write(dev_ds.uri().to_string(), 1000, 30, WriteMode::Append).await;
+    // Diverge main to the same version number with a different row count.
+    let mut main_ds = write(test_uri.clone(), 5000, 10, WriteMode::Append).await; // main v2: 60 rows
+
+    // Cross-source create_branch: receiver is main, source is dev.
+    let child_ds = main_ds
+        .create_branch("child", ("dev", 2), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        child_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
+        80,
+        "child must clone dev@2, not main@2"
+    );
+
+    // Cross-source shallow_clone: same rule.
+    let clone_uri = format!("{}_clone", test_uri);
+    let cloned_ds = main_ds
+        .shallow_clone(&clone_uri, ("dev", 2), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        cloned_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
+        80,
+        "shallow clone must read dev@2, not main@2"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_main_branch_management() {
+    let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+    let test_uri = tempdir.path_str();
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let main_branch = dataset.checkout_branch("main").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(main_branch.version().version, dataset.version().version);
+    assert_eq!(main_branch.manifest.branch, None);
+
+    let main_ref = dataset.checkout_version(("main", None)).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(main_ref.version().version, dataset.version().version);
+    assert_eq!(main_ref.manifest.branch, None);
+
+    let Err(create_branch_err) = dataset.create_branch("main", ("main", None), None).await else {
+        panic!("creating a branch named main should fail");
+    };
+    assert!(matches!(create_branch_err, Error::InvalidRef { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        create_branch_err
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("\"main\" is reserved"),
+        "{create_branch_err}"
+    );
+
+    assert!(!tempdir.std_path().join("tree").join("main").exists());
+    assert!(dataset.list_branches().await.unwrap().is_empty());
+
+    let get_branch_err = dataset.branches().get("main").await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(get_branch_err, Error::InvalidRef { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        get_branch_err.to_string().contains("\"main\" is reserved"),
+        "{get_branch_err}"
+    );
+
+    let delete_branch_err = dataset.delete_branch("main").await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(delete_branch_err, Error::InvalidRef { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        delete_branch_err
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("\"main\" is reserved"),
+        "{delete_branch_err}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cannot_delete_branch_referenced_by_tag() {
+    let tempdir = TempDir::default();
+    let test_uri = tempdir.path_str();
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    let branch = dataset
+        .create_branch("dev", /*version=*/ 1, /*store_params=*/ None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .tags()
+        .create("keep-dev", ("dev", branch.version().version))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let error = dataset.delete_branch("dev").await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(&error, Error::RefConflict { .. }));
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("keep-dev"));
+    dataset.checkout_version("keep-dev").await.unwrap();
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_branch() {
     let tempdir = TempDir::default();
@@ -622,12 +1204,39 @@ async fn test_branch() {
     let (main_rows, _) = collect_rows(&main_dataset).await;
     assert_eq!(main_rows, 50); // only batch1
     assert_eq!(main_dataset.version().version, 1);
+    let main_versions = main_dataset.version_refs().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        main_versions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|version| version.version)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![1]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        main_dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(),
+        main_versions.last().unwrap().version
+    );
 
     // branch1 has data 1 + 2 (80 rows)
     let updated_branch1 = Dataset::open(branch1_dataset.uri()).await.unwrap();
     let (branch1_rows, _) = collect_rows(&updated_branch1).await;
     assert_eq!(branch1_rows, 80); // batch1+batch2
     assert_eq!(updated_branch1.version().version, 2);
+    let _ = updated_branch1.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    let branch1_versions = updated_branch1.version_refs().await.unwrap();
+    let io_stats = updated_branch1.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    assert_eq!(io_stats.read_bytes, 0);
+    assert_eq!(
+        branch1_versions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|version| version.version)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![1, 2]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        updated_branch1.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(),
+        branch1_versions.last().unwrap().version
+    );
 
     // branch2 has data 1 + 2 + 3 (100 rows)
     let updated_branch2 = Dataset::open(branch2_dataset.uri()).await.unwrap();
@@ -728,10 +1337,142 @@ async fn test_branch() {
         "branch1"
     );
 
+    // Opening a branch version that main does not have (main only has version 1)
+    // must resolve the version on the branch chain.
+    let branch_version_open = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_uri)
+        .with_branch("feature/nathan/branch3", Some(3))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        branch_version_open.manifest.branch.as_deref(),
+        Some("feature/nathan/branch3")
+    );
+    assert_eq!(branch_version_open.version().version, 3);
+    assert_eq!(
+        branch_version_open.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
+        checkout_branch3_at_version3.count_rows(None).await.unwrap()
+    );
+    // A version the branch does not have is still an error, not its latest version.
+    let err = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_uri)
+        .with_branch("feature/nathan/branch3", Some(99))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(err, Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }), "{err}");
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("feature/nathan/branch3"), "{err}");
+
+    // From the branch's own directory, an older version of that branch is checked out on it.
+    let branch_dir_open = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(branch1_dataset.uri())
+        .with_branch("branch1", Some(1))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(branch_dir_open.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("branch1"));
+    assert_eq!(branch_dir_open.version().version, 1);
+    assert_eq!(branch_dir_open.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 50);
+
+    // Opening at a branch-pointing tag through the builder must check out the
+    // tag's branch chain, not main's chain at the tag's version number.
+    let tag_open = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_uri)
+        .with_tag("tag1")
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(tag_open.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("dev/branch2"));
+    assert_eq!(tag_open.version().version, 3);
+    assert_eq!(tag_open.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 100);
+
+    // Opening a branch URI with a tag pointing to a non-latest version on that same branch must check out the tag's version.
+    main_dataset
+        .tags()
+        .create("tag_branch1_v1", ("branch1", 1))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let branch_tag_open = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(branch1_dataset.uri())
+        .with_tag("tag_branch1_v1")
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(branch_tag_open.manifest.branch.as_deref(), Some("branch1"));
+    assert_eq!(branch_tag_open.version().version, 1);
+    assert_eq!(branch_tag_open.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 50);
+
+    // Malformed branch names are rejected at the boundary
+    for bad_name in ["", "branch1/"] {
+        let err = main_dataset
+            .checkout_version((Some(bad_name), None::<u64>))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidRef { .. }),
+            "checkout of {:?} must be rejected as InvalidRef, got: {}",
+            bad_name,
+            err
+        );
+        let err = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_uri)
+            .with_branch(bad_name, None)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, Error::InvalidRef { .. }),
+            "open of {:?} must be rejected as InvalidRef, got: {}",
+            bad_name,
+            err
+        );
+    }
+
+    // "main" stays a valid spelling of the main branch on checkout; the JNI
+    // bindings construct Ref::Version(Some("main"), _) directly.
+    let main_by_name = checkout_branch1.checkout_branch("main").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(main_by_name.manifest.branch, None);
+    assert_eq!(main_by_name.version().version, 1);
+    let main_by_ref = checkout_branch1
+        .checkout_version(crate::dataset::refs::Ref::Version(
+            Some("main".to_string()),
+            None,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(main_by_ref.manifest.branch, None);
+
+    // A checkout whose resolved manifest is not on the requested branch must
+    // error loudly instead of handing back another branch's data: stage main's
+    // manifest under a branch path that was never created, so resolution finds
+    // a manifest belonging to main.
+    use object_store::ObjectStoreExt as _;
+    let staged_manifest = main_dataset.manifest_location().path.clone();
+    let staged_copy = Path::parse(format!(
+        "{}/tree/ghost/_versions/{}",
+        test_uri,
+        staged_manifest.filename().unwrap()
+    ))
+    .unwrap();
+    main_dataset
+        .object_store
+        .inner
+        .copy(&staged_manifest, &staged_copy)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = main_dataset.checkout_branch("ghost").await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("resolved a manifest belonging to"),
+        "expected the branch-mismatch guardrail, got: {}",
+        err
+    );
+    main_dataset
+        .object_store
+        .remove_dir_all(Path::parse(format!("{}/tree/ghost", test_uri)).unwrap())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
     let mut dataset = main_dataset;
     // Finally delete all branches
-    dataset.delete_branch("branch1").await.unwrap();
-    dataset.delete_branch("dev/branch2").await.unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(
+        dataset.delete_branch("branch1").await,
+        Err(Error::RefConflict { message: _ })
+    ));
     // Test deleting zombie branch
     let root_location = dataset.refs.root().unwrap();
     let branch_file = branch_contents_path(&root_location.path, "feature/nathan/branch3");
@@ -745,6 +1486,11 @@ async fn test_branch() {
     let cleaned_path = Path::parse(format!("{}/tree/feature", test_uri)).unwrap();
     assert!(!dataset.object_store.exists(&cleaned_path).await.unwrap());
 
+    dataset.tags().delete("tag1").await.unwrap();
+    dataset.tags().delete("tag_branch1_v1").await.unwrap();
+    dataset.delete_branch("dev/branch2").await.unwrap();
+    dataset.delete_branch("branch1").await.unwrap();
+
     // Verify list_branches is empty
     let branches_after_delete = dataset.list_branches().await.unwrap();
     assert!(branches_after_delete.is_empty());
@@ -753,7 +1499,7 @@ async fn test_branch() {
     let test_path = tempdir.obj_path();
     let branches = dataset
         .object_store
-        .read_dir(test_path.child("tree"))
+        .read_dir(test_path.clone().join("tree"))
         .await
         .unwrap();
     assert!(branches.is_empty());
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/fragment_validate_tombstones.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/fragment_validate_tombstones.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..41c672ff5e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/fragment_validate_tombstones.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatchIterator, record_batch};
+use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use rstest::rstest;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+use crate::dataset::fragment::FileFragment;
+
+/// Rewriting a column with `update_columns` tombstones the field in the file
+/// that held it, leaving `-2` behind while a new file answers for it.
+/// Validation has to accept that: a tombstone marks a superseded field, not a
+/// corrupt one. Legacy files are checked by a separate sort rule, so both
+/// storage versions are covered.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::legacy(LanceFileVersion::Legacy)]
+#[case::stable(LanceFileVersion::Stable)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_validate_accepts_tombstoned_fields(#[case] version: LanceFileVersion) {
+    let batch = record_batch!(("i", Int32, [1, 2]), ("v", Int64, [10, 20])).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let dataset = Arc::new(
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+
+    let update = record_batch!(("i1", Int32, [1, 2]), ("v", Int64, [99, 99])).unwrap();
+    let right = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(update.clone())], update.schema());
+
+    let mut fragment = dataset.get_fragments().into_iter().next().unwrap();
+    let updated = fragment
+        .update_columns_with_offsets(right, "i", "i1")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let layout: Vec<Vec<i32>> = updated
+        .fragment
+        .files
+        .iter()
+        .map(|file| file.fields.as_ref().to_vec())
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(layout, vec![vec![0, -2], vec![1]]);
+
+    FileFragment::new(dataset, updated.fragment)
+        .validate()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/fragment_write_columns.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/fragment_write_columns.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ad0e184d721
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/fragment_write_columns.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1142 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Per-fragment column writes: staging columns' data as a standalone file with
+//! `FileFragment::write_columns`, and committing it as a `DataReplacement`
+//! whose coverage may not line up with any single file -- the case a computed
+//! column reaches once compaction folds it into a shared base file.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::array::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::{Int32Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, ListArray, MapArray, RecordBatch,
+    RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray,
+};
+use arrow_buffer::{NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION};
+use lance_encoding::constants::PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY;
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+use rstest::rstest;
+
+use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+use crate::dataset::schema_evolution::NewColumnTransform;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataReplacementGroup, Operation};
+use crate::dataset::write::WriteParams;
+use crate::dataset::{WriteDestination, fragment::FileFragment};
+use crate::{Dataset, Result};
+
+fn batch_of(fields: Vec<ArrowField>, columns: Vec<ArrayRef>) -> RecordBatch {
+    RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields)), columns).unwrap()
+}
+
+fn ints(values: Vec<i32>) -> ArrayRef {
+    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef
+}
+
+async fn dataset_of(batch: RecordBatch, version: Option<LanceFileVersion>) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let params = version.map(|data_storage_version| WriteParams {
+        data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+        ..Default::default()
+    });
+    Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://",
+        params,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// A one-fragment dataset holding a single non-null `id` column of `[1, 2]`.
+async fn id_dataset() -> Dataset {
+    id_dataset_of(2, 1024).await
+}
+
+fn only_fragment(dataset: &Dataset) -> FileFragment {
+    dataset.get_fragments().into_iter().next().unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Lance schema for a column the dataset does not define, with a fresh id.
+fn new_column_schema(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> LanceSchema {
+    let mut schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        name,
+        DataType::Int32,
+        true,
+    )]))
+    .unwrap();
+    schema.fields[0].id = dataset.manifest.max_field_id() + 1;
+    schema
+}
+
+/// Lance schema naming just the declared column `name`.
+fn declared_schema(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> LanceSchema {
+    LanceSchema {
+        fields: vec![dataset.schema().field(name).unwrap().clone()],
+        metadata: Default::default(),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn stage(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    schema: &LanceSchema,
+) -> Result<DataReplacementGroup> {
+    only_fragment(dataset)
+        .write_columns(stream::iter([Ok(batch)]), schema)
+        .await
+}
+
+async fn commit(dataset: &Dataset, replacements: Vec<DataReplacementGroup>) -> Result<Dataset> {
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    Dataset::commit(
+        WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())),
+        Operation::DataReplacement { replacements },
+        Some(read_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Default::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn replacement_uses_exact_version(
+    #[values(
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+    )]
+    target: ConcreteFileVersion,
+) {
+    let dataset = dataset_of(
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2]), ("value", Int32, [3, 4])).unwrap(),
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let values = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [7, 8])).unwrap();
+    let replacement = only_fragment(&dataset)
+        .write_column_with_version(
+            stream::iter([Ok(values.clone())]),
+            &declared_schema(&dataset, "value"),
+            target,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, vec![replacement]).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+    );
+    let files = &dataset.manifest.fragments[0].files;
+    assert!(
+        files
+            .iter()
+            .any(|file| file.file_version().unwrap() == target)
+    );
+    let actual = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["value"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(actual, values);
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)]
+#[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V1)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn replacement_rejects_cross_family_target(
+    #[case] source: LanceFileVersion,
+    #[case] target: ConcreteFileVersion,
+) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap();
+    let dataset = dataset_of(batch.clone(), Some(source)).await;
+    let error = only_fragment(&dataset)
+        .write_column_with_version(
+            stream::iter([Ok(batch)]),
+            &declared_schema(&dataset, "id"),
+            target,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+    assert!(
+        error
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed")
+    );
+}
+
+/// A multi-fragment dataset of `rows` sequential ids, with stable row ids so
+/// replacements can be checked against row lineage.
+async fn id_dataset_of(rows: i32, max_rows_per_file: usize) -> Dataset {
+    let batch = batch_of(
+        vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)],
+        vec![ints((1..=rows).collect())],
+    );
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn declare_all_null(dataset: &mut Dataset, name: &str) {
+    let arrow = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        name,
+        DataType::Int32,
+        true,
+    )]));
+    dataset
+        .add_columns(NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(arrow), None, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_compact_metadata_only_all_null_dictionary() {
+    let batch = batch_of(
+        vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)],
+        vec![ints(vec![1, 2])],
+    );
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3),
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let dictionary_type = DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::Utf8));
+    dataset
+        .add_columns(
+            NewColumnTransform::AllNulls(Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "category",
+                dictionary_type.clone(),
+                true,
+            )]))),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(batch["category"].data_type(), &dictionary_type);
+    assert_eq!(batch["category"].null_count(), 2);
+}
+
+/// Stage `values` for an existing `column` of one fragment.
+async fn stage_column(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment_id: u64,
+    column: &str,
+    values: Vec<i32>,
+) -> DataReplacementGroup {
+    let schema = declared_schema(dataset, column);
+    let batch = batch_of(
+        vec![ArrowField::new(column, DataType::Int32, true)],
+        vec![ints(values)],
+    );
+    dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .into_iter()
+        .find(|fragment| fragment.id() as u64 == fragment_id)
+        .expect("fragment to stage for")
+        .write_columns(stream::iter([Ok(batch)]), &schema)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn values(batch: &RecordBatch, name: &str) -> Vec<Option<i32>> {
+    let col = batch[name].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    (0..batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|i| (!col.is_null(i)).then(|| col.value(i)))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// A `point` struct of two non-null Int32 children, packed or not.
+fn point_schema(packed: bool) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    let mut point = ArrowField::new("point", DataType::Struct(point_children()), false);
+    if packed {
+        point.set_metadata([(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())].into());
+    }
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![point]))
+}
+
+fn point_children() -> Fields {
+    Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ])
+}
+
+/// `xs` and `ys` are matched to `schema`'s children by name, so a schema that
+/// orders them y-then-x still receives each child's own values.
+fn points(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, xs: [i32; 2], ys: [i32; 2]) -> RecordBatch {
+    let DataType::Struct(children) = schema.field(0).data_type().clone() else {
+        unreachable!("point schema is a struct")
+    };
+    let columns = children
+        .iter()
+        .map(|child| ints(if child.name() == "x" { xs } else { ys }.to_vec()))
+        .collect();
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(StructArray::new(children, columns, None)) as ArrayRef],
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Commit `group` and read the `point` column back as its two children.
+async fn committed_points(dataset: &Dataset, group: DataReplacementGroup) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
+    let batch = commit(dataset, vec![group])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .scan()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let child = |i: usize| {
+        batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_struct()
+            .column(i)
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec()
+    };
+    (child(0), child(1))
+}
+
+#[rstest]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_records_writer_layout(
+    #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = dataset_of(
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap(),
+        Some(version),
+    )
+    .await;
+    declare_all_null(&mut dataset, "value").await;
+    let schema = declared_schema(&dataset, "value");
+    let fragment = only_fragment(&dataset);
+
+    // Streamed as two batches: the DataFile must record the writer's
+    // field/column layout and the dataset's file version.
+    let DataReplacementGroup(replaced, data_file) = fragment
+        .write_columns(
+            stream::iter([
+                Ok(arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1])).unwrap()),
+                Ok(arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [2])).unwrap()),
+            ]),
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(replaced, fragment.id() as u64);
+    assert_eq!(data_file.fields.as_ref(), &[schema.fields[0].id]);
+    assert_eq!(data_file.fields.len(), data_file.column_indices.len());
+    assert!(data_file.path.ends_with(".lance"));
+    assert_eq!(
+        (data_file.file_major_version, data_file.file_minor_version),
+        version.resolve().to_data_file_numbers()
+    );
+}
+
+/// Input `write_columns` turns down before anything can be committed. The
+/// container cases matter twice over: projection reorders by name but downcasts
+/// by shape, so an unchecked batch is dropped silently or panics.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::too_few_rows("short", "physical rows")]
+#[case::too_many_rows("long", "physical rows")]
+#[case::unrequested_column("extra", "unexpected=[unrequested]")]
+#[case::wrong_container("struct", "should have type int32 but type was struct")]
+#[case::reserved_system_name("rowid", "reserved column")]
+// The commit publishes data files, never schema, so a field the manifest does
+// not define would commit as coverage no live field answers for.
+#[case::undeclared_field("undeclared", "does not define")]
+// The reader takes type, nullability and nested layout from the manifest, so a
+// staged field reusing an id but differing in any of them would be decoded as
+// the manifest's version rather than rejected -- `validate()` would not notice.
+#[case::field_type_mismatch("wrong_type", "does not match dataset field id")]
+#[case::field_nullability_mismatch("wrong_nullability", "does not match dataset field id")]
+// Projection picks children by name, so a duplicate makes the choice arbitrary.
+// The schema check compares name sets and cannot see one.
+#[case::duplicate_column("duplicate", "appears twice")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rejects_bad_input(#[case] shape: &str, #[case] expected: &str) {
+    let mut dataset = id_dataset().await;
+    declare_all_null(&mut dataset, "value").await;
+    let value = ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, true);
+    let mut schema = declared_schema(&dataset, "value");
+
+    let values = match shape {
+        "short" => batch_of(vec![value], vec![ints(vec![7])]),
+        "long" => batch_of(vec![value], vec![ints(vec![7, 8, 9])]),
+        "extra" => batch_of(
+            vec![value, ArrowField::new("unrequested", DataType::Int32, true)],
+            vec![ints(vec![1, 2]), ints(vec![3, 4])],
+        ),
+        "struct" => {
+            let inner = Fields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true)]);
+            batch_of(
+                vec![ArrowField::new(
+                    "value",
+                    DataType::Struct(inner.clone()),
+                    true,
+                )],
+                vec![Arc::new(StructArray::new(inner, vec![ints(vec![1, 2])], None)) as ArrayRef],
+            )
+        }
+        "rowid" => {
+            schema = new_column_schema(&dataset, ROW_ID);
+            batch_of(
+                vec![ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, DataType::Int32, true)],
+                vec![ints(vec![1, 2])],
+            )
+        }
+        "undeclared" => {
+            schema = new_column_schema(&dataset, "novel");
+            batch_of(
+                vec![ArrowField::new("novel", DataType::Int32, true)],
+                vec![ints(vec![1, 2])],
+            )
+        }
+        "duplicate" => batch_of(
+            vec![value.clone(), value],
+            vec![ints(vec![1, 2]), ints(vec![3, 4])],
+        ),
+        "wrong_type" | "wrong_nullability" => {
+            let existing = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap();
+            let staged = if shape == "wrong_type" {
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Float32, existing.nullable)
+            } else {
+                ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, !existing.nullable)
+            };
+            schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![staged])).unwrap();
+            schema.fields[0].id = existing.id;
+            batch_of(
+                vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true)],
+                vec![ints(vec![1, 2])],
+            )
+        }
+        other => unreachable!("unknown case {other}"),
+    };
+
+    let err = stage(&dataset, values, &schema).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains(expected),
+        "expected '{expected}' in error, got: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Nested containers the projector would otherwise reshape or unwind on: a
+/// fixed-size list of the wrong width silently becomes a different row count,
+/// and nulls under a required item panic instead of erroring.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::fixed_size_list_reshape(
+    true,
+    "fixed_size_list:int32:2 but type was fixed_size_list:int32:4"
+)]
+#[case::nulls_under_required_item(false, "non-null")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rejects_bad_nested_input(#[case] reshape: bool, #[case] expected: &str) {
+    let item = |nullable| Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, nullable));
+    let nest = |kind: DataType, values: ArrayRef| {
+        batch_of(vec![ArrowField::new("v", kind, true)], vec![values])
+    };
+    // Fixed-size list: the same eight values, four rows of two against two of
+    // four. List: four values, one of them null under a required item.
+    let fsl = |width: i32| {
+        let array = FixedSizeListArray::new(item(true), width, ints((1..=8).collect()), None);
+        nest(
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(item(true), width),
+            Arc::new(array) as ArrayRef,
+        )
+    };
+    let list = |values: Vec<Option<i32>>, nullable| {
+        let array = ListArray::new(
+            item(nullable),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(vec![0, 2, 4].into()),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values)) as ArrayRef,
+            None,
+        );
+        nest(DataType::List(item(nullable)), Arc::new(array) as ArrayRef)
+    };
+    let (seed, staged) = if reshape {
+        (fsl(2), fsl(4))
+    } else {
+        (
+            list(vec![Some(1), Some(2), Some(3), Some(4)], false),
+            list(vec![Some(10), None, Some(30), Some(40)], true),
+        )
+    };
+
+    let dataset = dataset_of(seed, None).await;
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let err = stage(&dataset, staged, &schema).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains(expected),
+        "expected '{expected}' in error, got: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Requesting the same declared field twice must be rejected inside the
+/// staging contract: the per-field identity check cannot see it, and the
+/// set-based batch comparison would match one column against both copies.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rejects_duplicate_requested_field() {
+    let mut dataset = id_dataset().await;
+    declare_all_null(&mut dataset, "value").await;
+    let mut schema = declared_schema(&dataset, "value");
+    schema.fields.push(schema.fields[0].clone());
+
+    let batch = batch_of(
+        vec![ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, true)],
+        vec![ints(vec![1, 2])],
+    );
+    let before = count_files(&dataset).await;
+    let err = stage(&dataset, batch, &schema).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("more than once"), "got: {err}");
+    assert_eq!(count_files(&dataset).await, before);
+}
+
+/// An empty stream fails the row-count gate and leaves nothing staged,
+/// including the footer-only file the eagerly-opened writer creates.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rejects_empty_stream() {
+    let mut dataset = id_dataset().await;
+    declare_all_null(&mut dataset, "value").await;
+    let schema = declared_schema(&dataset, "value");
+
+    let before = count_files(&dataset).await;
+    let err = only_fragment(&dataset)
+        .write_columns(stream::iter(Vec::<Result<RecordBatch>>::new()), &schema)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("physical rows"), "got: {err}");
+    assert_eq!(count_files(&dataset).await, before);
+}
+
+/// A visible null under a required child -- the parent is valid there, so the
+/// slot is a value of the field -- is still rejected at the writer.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rejects_visible_null_under_required_child() {
+    let dataset = dataset_of(points(&point_schema(false), [1, 2], [10, 20]), None).await;
+
+    // The batch declares its children nullable, which staging tolerates; the
+    // manifest's non-null rule is enforced against the data instead.
+    let staged_children = Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]);
+    let staged = batch_of(
+        vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "point",
+            DataType::Struct(staged_children.clone()),
+            false,
+        )],
+        vec![Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+            staged_children,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None])) as ArrayRef,
+                ints(vec![10, 20]),
+            ],
+            None,
+        )) as ArrayRef],
+    );
+
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let err = stage(&dataset, staged, &schema).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("non-null"),
+        "expected a nullability rejection, got: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Field metadata decides physical layout -- a packed struct is one column, an
+/// unpacked one a column per child -- so a caller's metadata must not be able to
+/// stage a file whose coverage describes a different field set.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_takes_layout_from_manifest() {
+    let arrow_schema = point_schema(true);
+    let dataset = dataset_of(
+        points(&arrow_schema, [1, 2], [10, 20]),
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let packed_field_id = dataset.schema().field("point").unwrap().id;
+
+    // Identical to the manifest field but for the packed marker, which the
+    // field-identity comparison does not look at.
+    let mut staged_schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    staged_schema.fields[0]
+        .metadata
+        .remove(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY);
+    assert!(!staged_schema.fields[0].is_packed_struct());
+
+    let group = stage(
+        &dataset,
+        points(&arrow_schema, [3, 4], [30, 40]),
+        &staged_schema,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    // Unpacked, the file would cover x and y instead, and DataReplacement would
+    // see coverage the packed field never had.
+    assert_eq!(group.1.fields.as_ref(), &[packed_field_id]);
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        committed_points(&dataset, group).await,
+        (vec![3, 4], vec![30, 40])
+    );
+}
+
+/// Struct encoders consume children positionally, so a batch whose children are
+/// ordered differently from the manifest would be written under the wrong field
+/// ids. Batches are matched by name at every level instead.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_reorders_struct_children_by_name() {
+    let dataset = dataset_of(points(&point_schema(false), [1, 2], [10, 20]), None).await;
+
+    // Names its children y-then-x: written positionally, y's values land in x.
+    let reordered = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+        "point",
+        DataType::Struct(point_children().into_iter().rev().cloned().collect()),
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let group = stage(&dataset, points(&reordered, [30, 40], [300, 400]), &schema)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        committed_points(&dataset, group).await,
+        (vec![30, 40], vec![300, 400]),
+        "each child keeps its own values"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A Map is projected as a whole: its entries field carries metadata Lance
+/// preserves in the schema, and a struct value's children may arrive
+/// name-reordered. Projection must rebuild the map -- entries metadata intact,
+/// children reordered by name -- rather than reject it.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stages_map_with_reordered_value_children() {
+    let value_children = Fields::from(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+    ]);
+    let entry_fields = |value_children: &Fields| {
+        Fields::from(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Struct(value_children.clone()), true),
+        ])
+    };
+    let entries_field = |value_children: &Fields| {
+        ArrowField::new(
+            "entries",
+            DataType::Struct(entry_fields(value_children)),
+            false,
+        )
+        .with_metadata([("entry-semantic".to_string(), "kept".to_string())].into())
+    };
+    let map_batch = |value_children: &Fields,
+                     a: [i32; 2],
+                     b: [i32; 2],
+                     offsets: Vec<i32>,
+                     nulls: Option<NullBuffer>| {
+        let children: Vec<ArrayRef> = value_children
+            .iter()
+            .map(|child| ints(if child.name() == "a" { a } else { b }.to_vec()))
+            .collect();
+        let value = StructArray::new(value_children.clone(), children, None);
+        let entries = StructArray::new(
+            entry_fields(value_children),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["k0", "k1"])) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(value) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+            None,
+        );
+        let map = MapArray::new(
+            Arc::new(entries_field(value_children)),
+            OffsetBuffer::new(offsets.into()),
+            entries,
+            nulls,
+            false,
+        );
+        batch_of(
+            vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "m",
+                DataType::Map(Arc::new(entries_field(value_children)), false),
+                true,
+            )],
+            vec![Arc::new(map) as ArrayRef],
+        )
+    };
+
+    // Pinned to 2.2, the first version whose encoders accept Map.
+    let dataset = dataset_of(
+        map_batch(&value_children, [1, 2], [10, 20], vec![0, 1, 2], None),
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    // The staged batch orders the value's children b-then-a, holds both
+    // entries in slot 0, and leaves slot 1 null: map validity has to
+    // survive the rebuild alongside the reordering.
+    let reordered: Fields = value_children.iter().rev().cloned().collect();
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let group = stage(
+        &dataset,
+        map_batch(
+            &reordered,
+            [3, 4],
+            [30, 40],
+            vec![0, 2, 2],
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false])),
+        ),
+        &schema,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, vec![group]).await.unwrap();
+
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let map = batch.column(0).as_map();
+    assert!(map.is_valid(0), "slot 0 keeps its entries");
+    assert!(map.is_null(1), "slot 1 stays null");
+    let value = map.entries().column(1).as_struct();
+    let child = |name: &str| {
+        value
+            .column_by_name(name)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec()
+    };
+    assert_eq!(child("a"), vec![3, 4], "each child keeps its own values");
+    assert_eq!(child("b"), vec![30, 40]);
+}
+
+/// Blob columns arrive logical and must be prepared into sidecars and
+/// descriptors before the V2.2+ structural encoders accept them, which is what
+/// the per-version update writer does.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stages_blob_column() {
+    use crate::blob::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+
+    let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+    let blobs = |values: [&[u8]; 2]| {
+        let mut builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        for value in values {
+            builder.push_bytes(value).unwrap();
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![builder.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap()
+    };
+    let dataset = dataset_of(blobs([b"one", b"two"]), Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)).await;
+
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let group = stage(&dataset, blobs([b"three", b"four"]), &schema)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !group.1.fields.as_ref().is_empty(),
+        "staged file must cover the blob field"
+    );
+}
+
+/// The computed-column lifecycle: declare all null, backfill, compact, and
+/// refresh again. The refresh after compaction is the case that previously
+/// failed with "no changes were made".
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_replacement_survives_compaction() {
+    let mut dataset = id_dataset_of(4, 2).await;
+    declare_all_null(&mut dataset, "v").await;
+    let v_id = dataset.schema().field("v").unwrap().id;
+
+    let frag_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| f.id() as u64)
+        .collect();
+    let mut replacements = Vec::new();
+    for (i, frag_id) in frag_ids.iter().enumerate() {
+        let base = i as i32 * 100;
+        replacements.push(stage_column(&dataset, *frag_id, "v", vec![base + 1, base + 2]).await);
+    }
+    let mut dataset = commit(&dataset, replacements).await.unwrap();
+
+    compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let files = dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata().files.clone();
+    assert_eq!(files.len(), 1, "compaction folded the column into one file");
+    assert!(files[0].fields.len() > 1);
+
+    // Refresh the compacted fragment, repeatedly: every round must land its own
+    // values and reuse the appended file rather than stacking another one.
+    let fragment_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u64;
+    let rows = dataset.get_fragments()[0].physical_rows().await.unwrap();
+    for round in 0..3i32 {
+        let refreshed: Vec<i32> = (0..rows as i32).map(|r| round * 1000 + r).collect();
+        let replacement = stage_column(&dataset, fragment_id, "v", refreshed.clone()).await;
+        dataset = commit(&dataset, vec![replacement]).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            values(&batch, "v"),
+            refreshed.iter().map(|v| Some(*v)).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            values(&batch, "id"),
+            (1..=rows as i32).map(Some).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            "round {round} disturbed a sibling column of the tombstoned file"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata().files.len(),
+            2,
+            "round {round} changed the file count"
+        );
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.schema().field("v").unwrap().id,
+        v_id,
+        "field id preserved"
+    );
+
+    let files = dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata().files.clone();
+    let covering: Vec<&[i32]> = files
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| f.fields.contains(&v_id))
+        .map(|f| f.fields.as_ref())
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(covering.as_slice(), &[[v_id].as_slice()]);
+
+    // Tombstoning into a wider file has to advance row lineage like any other
+    // replacement, or a delta consumer never learns the refresh happened.
+    let version = dataset.version().version;
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["v", ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION])
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch[ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values(),
+        vec![version; rows].as_slice()
+    );
+}
+
+/// The existing uncovered (all-null backfill) and exact-match paths must be
+/// unchanged.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_existing_paths_unchanged() {
+    // Uncovered -> push.
+    let mut dataset = id_dataset_of(2, 1024).await;
+    declare_all_null(&mut dataset, "v").await;
+    let frag_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u64;
+    let r = stage_column(&dataset, frag_id, "v", vec![10, 20]).await;
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, vec![r]).await.unwrap();
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        values(&dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(), "v"),
+        vec![Some(10), Some(20)]
+    );
+    let files_after_first = dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata().files.len();
+
+    // Exact match -> in-place swap, no new file.
+    let r = stage_column(&dataset, frag_id, "v", vec![30, 40]).await;
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, vec![r]).await.unwrap();
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        values(&dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(), "v"),
+        vec![Some(30), Some(40)]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata().files.len(),
+        files_after_first,
+        "exact-match replacement swaps in place rather than appending"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Dropping a sibling that shares the wider file must not leave that file
+/// answering for dead ids only: every data file has to share at least one
+/// field with the dataset schema, or validate() reports it as corrupt and
+/// cleanup can never collect it.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_replacement_after_sibling_drop_stays_valid() {
+    let batch = batch_of(
+        vec![
+            ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new("v", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ],
+        vec![ints(vec![1, 2]), ints(vec![10, 20])],
+    );
+    let mut dataset = dataset_of(batch, None).await;
+    dataset.drop_columns(&["a"]).await.unwrap();
+
+    let frag_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u64;
+    let r = stage_column(&dataset, frag_id, "v", vec![30, 40]).await;
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, vec![r]).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        values(&dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(), "v"),
+        vec![Some(30), Some(40)]
+    );
+}
+
+/// The mirror ordering: a stale handle drops the column after the
+/// replacement has committed. The projection rebases over the replacement,
+/// wins by commit order, and its pruning must leave no file behind that
+/// answers only for the dropped field.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_stale_column_drop_prunes_committed_replacement() {
+    let mut dataset = id_dataset_of(2, 1024).await;
+    declare_all_null(&mut dataset, "v").await;
+    let frag_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u64;
+    let r = stage_column(&dataset, frag_id, "v", vec![10, 20]).await;
+    commit(&dataset, vec![r]).await.unwrap();
+
+    // The stale handle predates the replacement; its commit rebases over it.
+    dataset.drop_columns(&["v"]).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(dataset.schema().field("v").is_none());
+    let live_ids: Vec<i32> = dataset.schema().fields.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+    for file in &dataset.get_fragments()[0].metadata().files {
+        assert!(
+            file.fields.iter().any(|f| live_ids.contains(f)),
+            "file {} answers for no live field: {:?}",
+            file.path,
+            file.fields
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// The staged file is positionally aligned with physical rows, so a fragment
+/// with deletions takes a value for every physical slot and the deletion
+/// vector keeps masking the deleted ones afterwards.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_replacement_preserves_deletions() {
+    let mut dataset = id_dataset_of(4, 1024).await;
+    declare_all_null(&mut dataset, "v").await;
+    dataset.delete("id = 2").await.unwrap();
+    let frag_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u64;
+
+    // Physical row count is still 4: the staged data covers deleted slots too.
+    let r = stage_column(&dataset, frag_id, "v", vec![10, 20, 30, 40]).await;
+    let dataset = commit(&dataset, vec![r]).await.unwrap();
+    dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+    let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(values(&batch, "id"), vec![Some(1), Some(3), Some(4)]);
+    assert_eq!(values(&batch, "v"), vec![Some(10), Some(30), Some(40)]);
+}
+
+/// A projection that drops the staged column between staging and commit must
+/// fail the commit: rebased over the drop, the staged file would answer for no
+/// live schema field.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_concurrent_column_drop_fails_commit() {
+    let mut dataset = id_dataset_of(2, 1024).await;
+    declare_all_null(&mut dataset, "v").await;
+    let frag_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u64;
+    let staged = stage_column(&dataset, frag_id, "v", vec![10, 20]).await;
+
+    // Lands after our snapshot: at commit time the field is gone.
+    let mut dropper = dataset.clone();
+    dropper.drop_columns(&["v"]).await.unwrap();
+
+    let err = commit(&dataset, vec![staged]).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("dropped by concurrent"),
+        "expected a field-dropped conflict, got: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// The legacy reader pairs a fragment's files by batch boundary, so a staged
+/// file chunked to the caller's batches would leave the fragment unreadable.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_rejects_legacy_format() {
+    let dataset = dataset_of(
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2])).unwrap(),
+        Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let schema = declared_schema(&dataset, "id");
+    let batch = batch_of(
+        vec![ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, true)],
+        vec![ints(vec![1, 2])],
+    );
+    let err = stage(&dataset, batch, &schema).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("legacy file format"),
+        "expected a legacy-format rejection, got: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// Blob v2 spills sidecars into `data/<file-stem>/`; a rejected stage that
+/// leaves them behind orphans arbitrarily large objects.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_discards_blob_sidecars_on_failure() {
+    use crate::blob::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+
+    let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", true)]));
+    let blobs = |count: usize| {
+        let mut builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(count);
+        for _ in 0..count {
+            builder.push_bytes(vec![7u8; 128 * 1024]).unwrap();
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![builder.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap()
+    };
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(blobs(2))], arrow_schema.clone()),
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let before = count_files(&dataset).await;
+    // Three rows against a two-row fragment: rejected only after the sidecars
+    // have been spilled.
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    stage(&dataset, blobs(3), &schema).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert_eq!(
+        count_files(&dataset).await,
+        before,
+        "a rejected stage must not leave sidecars behind"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A stream error after a batch was already written exits through the same
+/// cleanup as a rejected batch: the staged data file and any Blob sidecars a
+/// finished pack already spilled are discarded, not orphaned. The pack-file
+/// threshold is pinned to one blob's size so the first batch finalizes packs
+/// before the error arrives.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_discards_staged_artifacts_on_stream_error() {
+    use crate::blob::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+    use lance_arrow::BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY;
+
+    let field = blob_field("blob", true);
+    let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
+    metadata.insert(
+        BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY.to_string(),
+        (128 * 1024).to_string(),
+    );
+    let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![field.with_metadata(metadata)]));
+    let blobs = |count: usize| {
+        let mut builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(count);
+        for _ in 0..count {
+            builder.push_bytes(vec![7u8; 128 * 1024]).unwrap();
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(arrow_schema.clone(), vec![builder.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap()
+    };
+    let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(blobs(2))], arrow_schema.clone()),
+        &test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let before = count_files(&dataset).await;
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let err = only_fragment(&dataset)
+        .write_columns(
+            stream::iter([
+                Ok(blobs(2)),
+                Err(Error::invalid_input("stream failed".to_string())),
+            ]),
+            &schema,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("stream failed"), "got: {err}");
+    assert_eq!(
+        count_files(&dataset).await,
+        before,
+        "a stream error must not leave staged artifacts behind"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_physical_slice_read_preserves_deleted_positions() {
+    let mut dataset = id_dataset_of(4, 1024).await;
+    dataset.delete("id = 2").await.unwrap();
+    let fragment = only_fragment(&dataset);
+    let schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+    let batches = fragment
+        .read_physical_slice(0..4, &schema, 2)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .buffered(1)
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let batch =
+        arrow::compute::concat_batches(&Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(&schema)), &batches).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(),
+        &[1, 2, 3, 4]
+    );
+}
+
+async fn count_files(dataset: &Dataset) -> usize {
+    dataset
+        .object_store
+        .read_dir_all(&dataset.data_dir(), None)
+        .try_fold(0usize, |count, _| async move { Ok(count + 1) })
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/mod.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/mod.rs
index a1197dcc198..b26ae565eee 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/mod.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/tests/mod.rs
@@ -1,14 +1,22 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+mod data_file_part;
+#[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
+mod dataset_aggregate;
 mod dataset_common;
 mod dataset_concurrency_store;
+mod dataset_fts_combined_fields;
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
 mod dataset_geo;
 mod dataset_index;
 mod dataset_io;
 mod dataset_merge_update;
 mod dataset_migrations;
+mod dataset_overlay_index_masking;
 mod dataset_scanner;
 mod dataset_schema_evolution;
 mod dataset_transactions;
 mod dataset_versioning;
+mod fragment_validate_tombstones;
+mod fragment_write_columns;
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/transaction.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/transaction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 52dfd070fd5..00000000000
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/transaction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,4352 +0,0 @@
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-
-//! Transaction definitions for updating datasets
-//!
-//! Prior to creating a new manifest, a transaction must be created representing
-//! the changes being made to the dataset. By representing them as incremental
-//! changes, we can detect whether concurrent operations are compatible with
-//! one another. We can also rebuild manifests when retrying committing a
-//! manifest.
-//!
-//! ## Conflict Resolution
-//!
-//! Transactions are compatible with one another if they don't conflict.
-//! Currently, conflict resolution always assumes a Serializable isolation
-//! level.
-//!
-//! Below are the compatibilities between conflicting transactions. The columns
-//! represent the operation that has been applied, while the rows represent the
-//! operation that is being checked for compatibility to see if it can retry.
-//! ✅ indicates that the operation is compatible, while ❌ indicates that it is
-//! a conflict. Some operations have additional conditions that must be met for
-//! them to be compatible.
-//!
-//! NOTE/TODO(rmeng): DataReplacement conflict resolution is not fully implemented
-//!
-//! |                  | Append | Delete / Update | Overwrite/Create | Create Index | Rewrite | Merge | Project | UpdateConfig | DataReplacement |
-//! |------------------|--------|-----------------|------------------|--------------|---------|-------|---------|--------------|-----------------|
-//! | Append           | ✅     | ✅              | ❌                | ✅           | ✅      | ❌     | ❌      | ✅           | ✅
-//! | Delete / Update  | ✅     | 1️⃣              | ❌                | ✅           | 1️⃣      | ❌     | ❌      | ✅           | ✅
-//! | Overwrite/Create | ✅     | ✅              | ✅                | ✅           | ✅      | ✅     | ✅      | 2️⃣           | ✅
-//! | Create index     | ✅     | ✅              | ❌                | ✅           | ✅      | ✅     | ✅      | ✅           | 3️⃣
-//! | Rewrite          | ✅     | 1️⃣              | ❌                | ❌           | 1️⃣      | ❌     | ❌      | ✅           | 3️⃣
-//! | Merge            | ❌     | ❌              | ❌                | ❌           | ✅      | ❌     | ❌      | ✅           | ✅
-//! | Project          | ✅     | ✅              | ❌                | ❌           | ✅      | ❌     | ✅      | ✅           | ✅
-//! | UpdateConfig     | ✅     | ✅              | 2️⃣                | ✅           | ✅      | ✅     | ✅      | 2️⃣           | ✅
-//! | DataReplacement  | ✅     | ✅              | ❌                | 3️⃣           | 1️⃣      | ✅     | 3️⃣      | ✅           | 3️⃣
-//!
-//! 1️⃣ Delete, update, and rewrite are compatible with each other and themselves only if
-//! they affect distinct fragments. Otherwise, they conflict.
-//! 2️⃣ Operations that mutate the config conflict if one of the operations upserts a key
-//! that if referenced by another concurrent operation or if both operations modify the schema
-//! metadata or the same field metadata.
-//! 3️⃣ DataReplacement on a column without index is compatible with any operation AS LONG AS
-//! the operation does not modify the region of the column being replaced.
-//!
-
-use super::write::merge_insert::inserted_rows::KeyExistenceFilter;
-use super::ManifestWriteConfig;
-use crate::dataset::transaction::UpdateMode::RewriteRows;
-use crate::index::mem_wal::update_mem_wal_index_merged_generations;
-use crate::utils::temporal::timestamp_to_nanos;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Schema, Error, Result};
-use lance_file::{datatypes::Fields, version::LanceFileVersion};
-use lance_index::mem_wal::MergedGeneration;
-use lance_index::{frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, is_system_index};
-use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-use lance_table::feature_flags::{apply_feature_flags, FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS};
-use lance_table::rowids::read_row_ids;
-use lance_table::{
-    format::{
-        pb, BasePath, DataFile, DataStorageFormat, Fragment, IndexMetadata, Manifest, RowIdMeta,
-    },
-    io::{
-        commit::CommitHandler,
-        manifest::{read_manifest, read_manifest_indexes},
-    },
-    rowids::{write_row_ids, RowIdSequence},
-};
-use object_store::path::Path;
-use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
-use std::cmp::Ordering;
-use std::{
-    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-    sync::Arc,
-};
-use uuid::Uuid;
-
-/// A change to a dataset that can be retried
-///
-/// This contains enough information to be able to build the next manifest,
-/// given the current manifest.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
-pub struct Transaction {
-    /// The version of the table this transaction is based off of. If this is
-    /// the first transaction, this should be 0.
-    pub read_version: u64,
-    pub uuid: String,
-    pub operation: Operation,
-    pub tag: Option<String>,
-    pub transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
-pub struct DataReplacementGroup(pub u64, pub DataFile);
-
-/// An entry for a map update. If value is None, the key will be removed from the map.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
-pub struct UpdateMapEntry {
-    /// The key of the map entry to update.
-    pub key: String,
-    /// The value to set for the key.
-    pub value: Option<String>,
-}
-
-impl From<(String, Option<String>)> for UpdateMapEntry {
-    fn from((key, value): (String, Option<String>)) -> Self {
-        Self { key, value }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<(String, String)> for UpdateMapEntry {
-    fn from((key, value): (String, String)) -> Self {
-        Self::from((key, Some(value)))
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<(&str, Option<&str>)> for UpdateMapEntry {
-    fn from((key, value): (&str, Option<&str>)) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            key: key.to_string(),
-            value: value.map(str::to_owned),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<(&str, &str)> for UpdateMapEntry {
-    fn from((key, value): (&str, &str)) -> Self {
-        Self::from((key, Some(value)))
-    }
-}
-
-/// Represents updates to a map (either incremental or replacement)
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
-pub struct UpdateMap {
-    pub update_entries: Vec<UpdateMapEntry>,
-    /// If true, the map will be replaced entirely with the new entries.
-    /// If false, the new entries will be merged with the existing map.
-    pub replace: bool,
-}
-
-/// An operation on a dataset.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub enum Operation {
-    /// Adding new fragments to the dataset. The fragments contained within
-    /// haven't yet been assigned a final ID.
-    Append { fragments: Vec<Fragment> },
-    /// Updated fragments contain those that have been modified with new deletion
-    /// files. The deleted fragment IDs are those that should be removed from
-    /// the manifest.
-    Delete {
-        updated_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-        deleted_fragment_ids: Vec<u64>,
-        predicate: String,
-    },
-    /// Overwrite the entire dataset with the given fragments. This is also
-    /// used when initially creating a table.
-    Overwrite {
-        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-        schema: Schema,
-        config_upsert_values: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
-        initial_bases: Option<Vec<BasePath>>,
-    },
-    /// A new index has been created.
-    CreateIndex {
-        /// The new secondary indices,
-        /// any existing indices with the same name will be replaced.
-        new_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
-        /// The indices that have been modified.
-        removed_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
-    },
-    /// Data is rewritten but *not* modified. This is used for things like
-    /// compaction or re-ordering. Contains the old fragments and the new
-    /// ones that have been replaced.
-    ///
-    /// This operation will modify the row addresses of existing rows and
-    /// so any existing index covering a rewritten fragment will need to be
-    /// remapped.
-    Rewrite {
-        /// Groups of fragments that have been modified
-        groups: Vec<RewriteGroup>,
-        /// Indices that have been updated with the new row addresses
-        rewritten_indices: Vec<RewrittenIndex>,
-        /// The fragment reuse index to be created or updated to
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<IndexMetadata>,
-    },
-    /// Replace data in a column in the dataset with new data. This is used for
-    /// null column population where we replace an entirely null column with a
-    /// new column that has data.
-    ///
-    /// This operation will only allow replacing files that contain the same schema
-    /// e.g. if the original files contain columns A, B, C and the new files contain
-    /// only columns A, B then the operation is not allowed. As we would need to split
-    /// the original files into two files, one with column A, B and the other with column C.
-    ///
-    /// Corollary to the above: the operation will also not allow replacing files unless the
-    /// affected columns all have the same datafile layout across the fragments being replaced.
-    ///
-    /// e.g. if fragments being replaced contain files with different schema layouts on
-    /// the column being replaced, the operation is not allowed.
-    /// say `frag_1: [A] [B, C]` and `frag_2: [A, B] [C]` and we are trying to replace column A
-    /// with a new column A, the operation is not allowed.
-    DataReplacement {
-        replacements: Vec<DataReplacementGroup>,
-    },
-    /// Merge a new column in
-    /// 'fragments' is the final fragments include all data files, the new fragments must align with old ones at rows.
-    /// 'schema' is not forced to include existed columns, which means we could use Merge to drop column data
-    Merge {
-        fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-        schema: Schema,
-    },
-    /// Restore an old version of the database
-    Restore { version: u64 },
-    /// Reserves fragment ids for future use
-    /// This can be used when row ids need to be known before a transaction
-    /// has been committed.  It is used during a rewrite operation to allow
-    /// indices to be remapped to the new row ids as part of the operation.
-    ReserveFragments { num_fragments: u32 },
-
-    /// Update values in the dataset.
-    ///
-    /// Updates are generally vertical or horizontal.
-    ///
-    /// A vertical update adds new rows.  In this case, the updated_fragments
-    /// will only have existing rows deleted and will not have any new fields added.
-    /// All new data will be contained in new_fragments.
-    /// This is what is used by a merge_insert that matches the whole schema and what
-    /// is used by the dataset updater.
-    ///
-    /// A horizontal update adds new columns.  In this case, the updated fragments
-    /// may have fields removed or added.  It is even possible for a field to be tombstoned
-    /// and then added back in the same update. (which is a field modification).  If any
-    /// fields are modified in this way then they need to be added to the fields_modified list.
-    /// This way we can correctly update the indices.
-    /// This is what is used by a merge insert that does not match the whole schema.
-    Update {
-        /// Ids of fragments that have been moved
-        removed_fragment_ids: Vec<u64>,
-        /// Fragments that have been updated
-        updated_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-        /// Fragments that have been added
-        new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-        /// The fields that have been modified
-        fields_modified: Vec<u32>,
-        /// List of MemWAL region generations to mark as merged after this transaction
-        merged_generations: Vec<MergedGeneration>,
-        /// The fields that used to judge whether to preserve the new frag's id into
-        /// the frag bitmap of the specified indices.
-        fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: Vec<u32>,
-        /// The mode of update
-        update_mode: Option<UpdateMode>,
-        /// Optional filter for detecting conflicts on inserted row keys.
-        /// Only tracks keys from INSERT operations during merge insert, not updates.
-        inserted_rows_filter: Option<KeyExistenceFilter>,
-    },
-
-    /// Project to a new schema. This only changes the schema, not the data.
-    Project { schema: Schema },
-
-    /// Update the dataset configuration.
-    UpdateConfig {
-        config_updates: Option<UpdateMap>,
-        table_metadata_updates: Option<UpdateMap>,
-        schema_metadata_updates: Option<UpdateMap>,
-        field_metadata_updates: HashMap<i32, UpdateMap>,
-    },
-    /// Update merged generations in MemWAL index.
-    /// This is used during merge-insert to atomically record which
-    /// generations have been merged to the base table.
-    UpdateMemWalState {
-        merged_generations: Vec<MergedGeneration>,
-    },
-
-    /// Clone a dataset.
-    Clone {
-        is_shallow: bool,
-        ref_name: Option<String>,
-        ref_version: u64,
-        ref_path: String,
-        branch_name: Option<String>,
-    },
-
-    // Update base paths in the dataset (currently only supports adding new bases).
-    UpdateBases {
-        /// The new base paths to add to the manifest.
-        new_bases: Vec<BasePath>,
-    },
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub enum UpdateMode {
-    /// rows are deleted in current fragments and rewritten in new fragments.
-    /// This is most optimal when the majority of columns are being rewritten
-    /// or only a few rows are being updated.
-    RewriteRows,
-
-    /// within each fragment, columns are fully rewritten and inserted as new data files.
-    /// Old versions of columns are tombstoned. This is most optimal when most rows are affected
-    /// but a small subset of columns are affected.
-    RewriteColumns,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for Operation {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        match self {
-            Self::Append { .. } => write!(f, "Append"),
-            Self::Delete { .. } => write!(f, "Delete"),
-            Self::Overwrite { .. } => write!(f, "Overwrite"),
-            Self::CreateIndex { .. } => write!(f, "CreateIndex"),
-            Self::Rewrite { .. } => write!(f, "Rewrite"),
-            Self::Merge { .. } => write!(f, "Merge"),
-            Self::Restore { .. } => write!(f, "Restore"),
-            Self::ReserveFragments { .. } => write!(f, "ReserveFragments"),
-            Self::Update { .. } => write!(f, "Update"),
-            Self::Project { .. } => write!(f, "Project"),
-            Self::UpdateConfig { .. } => write!(f, "UpdateConfig"),
-            Self::DataReplacement { .. } => write!(f, "DataReplacement"),
-            Self::Clone { .. } => write!(f, "Clone"),
-            Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => write!(f, "UpdateMemWalState"),
-            Self::UpdateBases { .. } => write!(f, "UpdateBases"),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&Transaction> for lance_table::format::Transaction {
-    fn from(value: &Transaction) -> Self {
-        let pb_transaction: pb::Transaction = value.into();
-        Self {
-            inner: pb_transaction,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl PartialEq for Operation {
-    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        // Many of the operations contain `Vec<T>` where the order of the
-        // elements don't matter. So we need to compare them in a way that
-        // ignores the order of the elements.
-        // TODO: we can make it so the vecs are always constructed in order.
-        // Then we can use `==` instead of `compare_vec`.
-        fn compare_vec<T: PartialEq>(a: &[T], b: &[T]) -> bool {
-            a.len() == b.len() && a.iter().all(|f| b.contains(f))
-        }
-        match (self, other) {
-            (Self::Append { fragments: a }, Self::Append { fragments: b }) => compare_vec(a, b),
-            (
-                Self::Clone {
-                    is_shallow: a_is_shallow,
-                    ref_name: a_ref_name,
-                    ref_version: a_ref_version,
-                    ref_path: a_source_path,
-                    branch_name: a_branch_name,
-                },
-                Self::Clone {
-                    is_shallow: b_is_shallow,
-                    ref_name: b_ref_name,
-                    ref_version: b_ref_version,
-                    ref_path: b_source_path,
-                    branch_name: b_branch_name,
-                },
-            ) => {
-                a_is_shallow == b_is_shallow
-                    && a_ref_name == b_ref_name
-                    && a_ref_version == b_ref_version
-                    && a_source_path == b_source_path
-                    && a_branch_name == b_branch_name
-            }
-            (
-                Self::Delete {
-                    updated_fragments: a_updated,
-                    deleted_fragment_ids: a_deleted,
-                    predicate: a_predicate,
-                },
-                Self::Delete {
-                    updated_fragments: b_updated,
-                    deleted_fragment_ids: b_deleted,
-                    predicate: b_predicate,
-                },
-            ) => {
-                compare_vec(a_updated, b_updated)
-                    && compare_vec(a_deleted, b_deleted)
-                    && a_predicate == b_predicate
-            }
-            (
-                Self::Overwrite {
-                    fragments: a_fragments,
-                    schema: a_schema,
-                    config_upsert_values: a_config,
-                    initial_bases: a_initial,
-                },
-                Self::Overwrite {
-                    fragments: b_fragments,
-                    schema: b_schema,
-                    config_upsert_values: b_config,
-                    initial_bases: b_initial,
-                },
-            ) => {
-                compare_vec(a_fragments, b_fragments)
-                    && a_schema == b_schema
-                    && a_config == b_config
-                    && a_initial == b_initial
-            }
-            (
-                Self::CreateIndex {
-                    new_indices: a_new,
-                    removed_indices: a_removed,
-                },
-                Self::CreateIndex {
-                    new_indices: b_new,
-                    removed_indices: b_removed,
-                },
-            ) => compare_vec(a_new, b_new) && compare_vec(a_removed, b_removed),
-            (
-                Self::Rewrite {
-                    groups: a_groups,
-                    rewritten_indices: a_indices,
-                    frag_reuse_index: a_frag_reuse_index,
-                },
-                Self::Rewrite {
-                    groups: b_groups,
-                    rewritten_indices: b_indices,
-                    frag_reuse_index: b_frag_reuse_index,
-                },
-            ) => {
-                compare_vec(a_groups, b_groups)
-                    && compare_vec(a_indices, b_indices)
-                    && a_frag_reuse_index == b_frag_reuse_index
-            }
-            (
-                Self::Merge {
-                    fragments: a_fragments,
-                    schema: a_schema,
-                },
-                Self::Merge {
-                    fragments: b_fragments,
-                    schema: b_schema,
-                },
-            ) => compare_vec(a_fragments, b_fragments) && a_schema == b_schema,
-            (Self::Restore { version: a }, Self::Restore { version: b }) => a == b,
-            (
-                Self::ReserveFragments { num_fragments: a },
-                Self::ReserveFragments { num_fragments: b },
-            ) => a == b,
-            (
-                Self::Update {
-                    removed_fragment_ids: a_removed,
-                    updated_fragments: a_updated,
-                    new_fragments: a_new,
-                    fields_modified: a_fields,
-                    merged_generations: a_merged_generations,
-                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: a_fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
-                    update_mode: a_update_mode,
-                    inserted_rows_filter: a_inserted_rows_filter,
-                },
-                Self::Update {
-                    removed_fragment_ids: b_removed,
-                    updated_fragments: b_updated,
-                    new_fragments: b_new,
-                    fields_modified: b_fields,
-                    merged_generations: b_merged_generations,
-                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: b_fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
-                    update_mode: b_update_mode,
-                    inserted_rows_filter: b_inserted_rows_filter,
-                },
-            ) => {
-                compare_vec(a_removed, b_removed)
-                    && compare_vec(a_updated, b_updated)
-                    && compare_vec(a_new, b_new)
-                    && compare_vec(a_fields, b_fields)
-                    && compare_vec(a_merged_generations, b_merged_generations)
-                    && compare_vec(
-                        a_fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
-                        b_fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
-                    )
-                    && a_update_mode == b_update_mode
-                    && a_inserted_rows_filter == b_inserted_rows_filter
-            }
-            (Self::Project { schema: a }, Self::Project { schema: b }) => a == b,
-            (
-                Self::UpdateConfig {
-                    config_updates: a_config,
-                    table_metadata_updates: a_table_metadata,
-                    schema_metadata_updates: a_schema,
-                    field_metadata_updates: a_field,
-                },
-                Self::UpdateConfig {
-                    config_updates: b_config,
-                    table_metadata_updates: b_table_metadata,
-                    schema_metadata_updates: b_schema,
-                    field_metadata_updates: b_field,
-                },
-            ) => {
-                a_config == b_config
-                    && a_table_metadata == b_table_metadata
-                    && a_schema == b_schema
-                    && a_field == b_field
-            }
-            (
-                Self::DataReplacement { replacements: a },
-                Self::DataReplacement { replacements: b },
-            ) => a.len() == b.len() && a.iter().all(|r| b.contains(r)),
-            // Handle all remaining combinations.
-            // We spell out all combinations explicitly to prevent
-            // us accidentally handling a new case in the wrong way.
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (
-                Self::UpdateMemWalState {
-                    merged_generations: a_merged,
-                },
-                Self::UpdateMemWalState {
-                    merged_generations: b_merged,
-                },
-            ) => compare_vec(a_merged, b_merged),
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::UpdateBases { new_bases: a }, Self::UpdateBases { new_bases: b }) => {
-                compare_vec(a, b)
-            }
-
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Append { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Delete { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Overwrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::CreateIndex { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Rewrite { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Merge { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Restore { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::ReserveFragments { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Update { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Project { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::UpdateConfig { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::DataReplacement { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateBases { .. }, Self::Clone { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-
-            (Self::Append { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Delete { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Overwrite { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::CreateIndex { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Rewrite { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Merge { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Restore { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::ReserveFragments { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Update { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Project { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateConfig { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::DataReplacement { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-            (Self::Clone { .. }, Self::UpdateBases { .. }) => {
-                std::mem::discriminant(self) == std::mem::discriminant(other)
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
-pub struct RewrittenIndex {
-    pub old_id: Uuid,
-    pub new_id: Uuid,
-    pub new_index_details: prost_types::Any,
-    pub new_index_version: u32,
-}
-
-impl DeepSizeOf for RewrittenIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.new_index_details
-            .type_url
-            .deep_size_of_children(context)
-            + self.new_index_details.value.deep_size_of_children(context)
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf)]
-pub struct RewriteGroup {
-    pub old_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-    pub new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
-}
-
-impl PartialEq for RewriteGroup {
-    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        fn compare_vec<T: PartialEq>(a: &[T], b: &[T]) -> bool {
-            a.len() == b.len() && a.iter().all(|f| b.contains(f))
-        }
-        compare_vec(&self.old_fragments, &other.old_fragments)
-            && compare_vec(&self.new_fragments, &other.new_fragments)
-    }
-}
-
-impl Operation {
-    /// Returns the config keys that have been upserted by this operation.
-    fn get_upsert_config_keys(&self) -> Vec<String> {
-        match self {
-            Self::Overwrite {
-                config_upsert_values: Some(upsert_values),
-                ..
-            } => {
-                let vec: Vec<String> = upsert_values.keys().cloned().collect();
-                vec
-            }
-            Self::UpdateConfig {
-                config_updates: Some(config_updates),
-                ..
-            } => config_updates
-                .update_entries
-                .iter()
-                .filter_map(|entry| {
-                    if entry.value.is_some() {
-                        Some(entry.key.clone())
-                    } else {
-                        None
-                    }
-                })
-                .collect(),
-            _ => Vec::<String>::new(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the config keys that have been deleted by this operation.
-    fn get_delete_config_keys(&self) -> Vec<String> {
-        match self {
-            Self::UpdateConfig {
-                config_updates: Some(config_updates),
-                ..
-            } => config_updates
-                .update_entries
-                .iter()
-                .filter_map(|entry| {
-                    if entry.value.is_none() {
-                        Some(entry.key.clone())
-                    } else {
-                        None
-                    }
-                })
-                .collect(),
-            _ => Vec::<String>::new(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) fn modifies_same_metadata(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        match (self, other) {
-            (
-                Self::UpdateConfig {
-                    schema_metadata_updates,
-                    field_metadata_updates,
-                    ..
-                },
-                Self::UpdateConfig {
-                    schema_metadata_updates: other_schema_metadata,
-                    field_metadata_updates: other_field_metadata,
-                    ..
-                },
-            ) => {
-                if schema_metadata_updates.is_some() && other_schema_metadata.is_some() {
-                    return true;
-                }
-                if !field_metadata_updates.is_empty() && !other_field_metadata.is_empty() {
-                    for field in field_metadata_updates.keys() {
-                        if other_field_metadata.contains_key(field) {
-                            return true;
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-                false
-            }
-            _ => false,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Check whether another operation upserts a key that is referenced by another operation
-    pub(crate) fn upsert_key_conflict(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        let self_upsert_keys = self.get_upsert_config_keys();
-        let other_upsert_keys = other.get_upsert_config_keys();
-
-        let self_delete_keys = self.get_delete_config_keys();
-        let other_delete_keys = other.get_delete_config_keys();
-
-        self_upsert_keys
-            .iter()
-            .any(|x| other_upsert_keys.contains(x) || other_delete_keys.contains(x))
-            || other_upsert_keys
-                .iter()
-                .any(|x| self_upsert_keys.contains(x) || self_delete_keys.contains(x))
-    }
-
-    pub fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        match self {
-            Self::Append { .. } => "Append",
-            Self::Delete { .. } => "Delete",
-            Self::Overwrite { .. } => "Overwrite",
-            Self::CreateIndex { .. } => "CreateIndex",
-            Self::Rewrite { .. } => "Rewrite",
-            Self::Merge { .. } => "Merge",
-            Self::ReserveFragments { .. } => "ReserveFragments",
-            Self::Restore { .. } => "Restore",
-            Self::Update { .. } => "Update",
-            Self::Project { .. } => "Project",
-            Self::UpdateConfig { .. } => "UpdateConfig",
-            Self::DataReplacement { .. } => "DataReplacement",
-            Self::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => "UpdateMemWalState",
-            Self::Clone { .. } => "Clone",
-            Self::UpdateBases { .. } => "UpdateBases",
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Helper function to apply UpdateMap changes to a HashMap<String, String>
-fn apply_update_map(
-    target: &mut std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
-    update_map: &UpdateMap,
-) {
-    if update_map.replace {
-        // Full replacement - clear existing and replace with new entries that have values
-        target.clear();
-        for entry in &update_map.update_entries {
-            if let Some(value) = &entry.value {
-                target.insert(entry.key.clone(), value.clone());
-            }
-        }
-    } else {
-        // Incremental update - merge entries
-        for entry in &update_map.update_entries {
-            if let Some(value) = &entry.value {
-                target.insert(entry.key.clone(), value.clone());
-            } else {
-                target.remove(&entry.key);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Helper function to translate old-style config updates to new UpdateMap format
-pub fn translate_config_updates(
-    upsert_values: &std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
-    delete_keys: &[String],
-) -> UpdateMap {
-    let mut update_entries = Vec::new();
-
-    // Add upsert entries (with values)
-    for (key, value) in upsert_values {
-        update_entries.push(UpdateMapEntry {
-            key: key.clone(),
-            value: Some(value.clone()),
-        });
-    }
-
-    // Add delete entries (without values)
-    for key in delete_keys {
-        update_entries.push(UpdateMapEntry {
-            key: key.clone(),
-            value: None,
-        });
-    }
-
-    UpdateMap {
-        update_entries,
-        replace: false, // Old style was always incremental
-    }
-}
-
-/// Helper function to translate old-style schema metadata to new UpdateMap format
-pub fn translate_schema_metadata_updates(
-    schema_metadata: &std::collections::HashMap<String, String>,
-) -> UpdateMap {
-    let update_entries = schema_metadata
-        .iter()
-        .map(|(key, value)| UpdateMapEntry {
-            key: key.clone(),
-            value: Some(value.clone()),
-        })
-        .collect();
-
-    UpdateMap {
-        update_entries,
-        replace: true, // Old style schema metadata was full replacement
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&UpdateMap> for pb::transaction::UpdateMap {
-    fn from(update_map: &UpdateMap) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            update_entries: update_map
-                .update_entries
-                .iter()
-                .map(|entry| pb::transaction::UpdateMapEntry {
-                    key: entry.key.clone(),
-                    value: entry.value.clone(),
-                })
-                .collect(),
-            replace: update_map.replace,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&pb::transaction::UpdateMap> for UpdateMap {
-    fn from(pb_update_map: &pb::transaction::UpdateMap) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            update_entries: pb_update_map
-                .update_entries
-                .iter()
-                .map(|entry| UpdateMapEntry {
-                    key: entry.key.clone(),
-                    value: entry.value.clone(),
-                })
-                .collect(),
-            replace: pb_update_map.replace,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Add TransactionBuilder for flexibly setting option without using `mut`
-pub struct TransactionBuilder {
-    read_version: u64,
-    // uuid is optional for builder since it can autogenerate
-    uuid: Option<String>,
-    operation: Operation,
-    tag: Option<String>,
-    transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
-}
-
-impl TransactionBuilder {
-    pub fn new(read_version: u64, operation: Operation) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            read_version,
-            uuid: None,
-            operation,
-            tag: None,
-            transaction_properties: None,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn uuid(mut self, uuid: String) -> Self {
-        self.uuid = Some(uuid);
-        self
-    }
-
-    pub fn tag(mut self, tag: Option<String>) -> Self {
-        self.tag = tag;
-        self
-    }
-
-    pub fn transaction_properties(
-        mut self,
-        transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        self.transaction_properties = transaction_properties;
-        self
-    }
-
-    pub fn build(self) -> Transaction {
-        let uuid = self
-            .uuid
-            .unwrap_or_else(|| Uuid::new_v4().hyphenated().to_string());
-        Transaction {
-            read_version: self.read_version,
-            uuid,
-            operation: self.operation,
-            tag: self.tag,
-            transaction_properties: self.transaction_properties,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl Transaction {
-    pub fn new_from_version(read_version: u64, operation: Operation) -> Self {
-        TransactionBuilder::new(read_version, operation).build()
-    }
-
-    pub fn new(read_version: u64, operation: Operation, tag: Option<String>) -> Self {
-        TransactionBuilder::new(read_version, operation)
-            .tag(tag)
-            .build()
-    }
-
-    fn fragments_with_ids<'a, T>(
-        new_fragments: T,
-        fragment_id: &'a mut u64,
-    ) -> impl Iterator<Item = Fragment> + 'a
-    where
-        T: IntoIterator<Item = Fragment> + 'a,
-    {
-        new_fragments.into_iter().map(move |mut f| {
-            if f.id == 0 {
-                f.id = *fragment_id;
-                *fragment_id += 1;
-            }
-            f
-        })
-    }
-
-    fn data_storage_format_from_files(
-        fragments: &[Fragment],
-        user_requested: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
-    ) -> Result<DataStorageFormat> {
-        if let Some(file_version) = Fragment::try_infer_version(fragments)? {
-            // Ensure user-requested matches data files
-            if let Some(user_requested) = user_requested {
-                if user_requested != file_version {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("User requested data storage version ({}) does not match version in data files ({})", user_requested, file_version),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-            }
-            Ok(DataStorageFormat::new(file_version))
-        } else {
-            // If no files use user-requested or default
-            Ok(user_requested
-                .map(DataStorageFormat::new)
-                .unwrap_or_default())
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) async fn restore_old_manifest(
-        object_store: &ObjectStore,
-        commit_handler: &dyn CommitHandler,
-        base_path: &Path,
-        version: u64,
-        config: &ManifestWriteConfig,
-        tx_path: &str,
-        current_manifest: &Manifest,
-    ) -> Result<(Manifest, Vec<IndexMetadata>)> {
-        let location = commit_handler
-            .resolve_version_location(base_path, version, &object_store.inner)
-            .await?;
-        let mut manifest = read_manifest(object_store, &location.path, location.size).await?;
-        manifest.set_timestamp(timestamp_to_nanos(config.timestamp));
-        manifest.transaction_file = Some(tx_path.to_string());
-        let indices = read_manifest_indexes(object_store, &location, &manifest).await?;
-        manifest.max_fragment_id = manifest
-            .max_fragment_id
-            .max(current_manifest.max_fragment_id);
-        Ok((manifest, indices))
-    }
-
-    /// Create a new manifest from the current manifest and the transaction.
-    ///
-    /// `current_manifest` should only be None if the dataset does not yet exist.
-    pub(crate) fn build_manifest(
-        &self,
-        current_manifest: Option<&Manifest>,
-        current_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
-        transaction_file_path: &str,
-        config: &ManifestWriteConfig,
-    ) -> Result<(Manifest, Vec<IndexMetadata>)> {
-        if config.use_stable_row_ids
-            && current_manifest
-                .map(|m| !m.uses_stable_row_ids())
-                .unwrap_or_default()
-        {
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "Cannot enable stable row ids on existing dataset".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-        let mut reference_paths = match current_manifest {
-            Some(m) => m.base_paths.clone(),
-            None => HashMap::new(),
-        };
-
-        if let Operation::Overwrite {
-            initial_bases: Some(initial_bases),
-            ..
-        } = &self.operation
-        {
-            if current_manifest.is_none() {
-                // CREATE mode: registering base paths
-                // Base IDs should have been assigned during write operation
-                // Validate uniqueness and insert them into the manifest
-                for base_path in initial_bases.iter() {
-                    if reference_paths.contains_key(&base_path.id) {
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!(
-                                "Duplicate base path ID {} detected. Base path IDs must be unique.",
-                                base_path.id
-                            ),
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
-                    }
-                    reference_paths.insert(base_path.id, base_path.clone());
-                }
-            } else {
-                // OVERWRITE mode with initial_bases should have been rejected by validation
-                // This branch should never be reached
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "OVERWRITE mode cannot register new bases. This should have been caught by validation.",
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Get the schema and the final fragment list
-        let schema = match self.operation {
-            Operation::Overwrite { ref schema, .. } => schema.clone(),
-            Operation::Merge { ref schema, .. } => schema.clone(),
-            Operation::Project { ref schema, .. } => schema.clone(),
-            _ => {
-                if let Some(current_manifest) = current_manifest {
-                    current_manifest.schema.clone()
-                } else {
-                    return Err(Error::Internal {
-                        message: "Cannot create a new dataset without a schema".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-            }
-        };
-
-        let mut fragment_id = if matches!(self.operation, Operation::Overwrite { .. }) {
-            0
-        } else {
-            current_manifest
-                .and_then(|m| m.max_fragment_id())
-                .map(|id| id + 1)
-                .unwrap_or(0)
-        };
-        let mut final_fragments = Vec::new();
-        let mut final_indices = current_indices;
-
-        let mut next_row_id = {
-            // Only use row ids if the feature flag is set already or
-            match (current_manifest, config.use_stable_row_ids) {
-                (Some(manifest), _) if manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS != 0 => {
-                    Some(manifest.next_row_id)
-                }
-                (None, true) => Some(0),
-                (_, false) => None,
-                (Some(_), true) => {
-                    return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                        source: "Cannot enable stable row ids on existing dataset".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-            }
-        };
-
-        let maybe_existing_fragments =
-            current_manifest
-                .map(|m| m.fragments.as_ref())
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "No current manifest was provided while building manifest for operation {}",
-                        self.operation.name()
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-
-        match &self.operation {
-            Operation::Clone { .. } => {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "Clone operation should not enter build_manifest.".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
-            }
-            Operation::Append { ref fragments } => {
-                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
-                let mut new_fragments =
-                    Self::fragments_with_ids(fragments.clone(), &mut fragment_id)
-                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                if let Some(next_row_id) = &mut next_row_id {
-                    Self::assign_row_ids(next_row_id, new_fragments.as_mut_slice())?;
-                    // Add version metadata for all new fragments
-                    let new_version = current_manifest.map(|m| m.version + 1).unwrap_or(1);
-                    for fragment in new_fragments.iter_mut() {
-                        let version_meta =
-                            lance_table::rowids::version::build_version_meta(fragment, new_version);
-                        fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = version_meta.clone();
-                        fragment.created_at_version_meta = version_meta;
-                    }
-                }
-                final_fragments.extend(new_fragments);
-            }
-            Operation::Delete {
-                ref updated_fragments,
-                ref deleted_fragment_ids,
-                ..
-            } => {
-                // Remove the deleted fragments
-                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
-                final_fragments.retain(|f| !deleted_fragment_ids.contains(&f.id));
-                final_fragments.iter_mut().for_each(|f| {
-                    for updated in updated_fragments {
-                        if updated.id == f.id {
-                            *f = updated.clone();
-                        }
-                    }
-                });
-                Self::retain_relevant_indices(&mut final_indices, &schema, &final_fragments)
-            }
-            Operation::Update {
-                removed_fragment_ids,
-                updated_fragments,
-                new_fragments,
-                fields_modified,
-                merged_generations,
-                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
-                update_mode,
-                ..
-            } => {
-                // Extract existing fragments once for reuse
-                let existing_fragments = maybe_existing_fragments?;
-
-                // Apply updates to existing fragments
-                let updated_frags: Vec<Fragment> = existing_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .filter_map(|f| {
-                        if removed_fragment_ids.contains(&f.id) {
-                            return None;
-                        }
-                        if let Some(updated) = updated_fragments.iter().find(|uf| uf.id == f.id) {
-                            Some(updated.clone())
-                        } else {
-                            Some(f.clone())
-                        }
-                    })
-                    .collect();
-
-                // Update version metadata for updated fragments if stable row IDs are enabled
-                // Note: We don't update version metadata for fragments with deletion vectors
-                // because the version sequences are indexed by physical row position, not logical position.
-                // Version metadata for deleted rows will be filtered out during scan using the deletion vector.
-                if next_row_id.is_some() {
-                    // Version metadata will be properly set during compaction when deletions are materialized
-                }
-
-                final_fragments.extend(updated_frags);
-
-                // If we updated any fields, remove those fragments from indices covering those fields
-                Self::prune_updated_fields_from_indices(
-                    &mut final_indices,
-                    updated_fragments,
-                    fields_modified,
-                );
-
-                let mut new_fragments =
-                    Self::fragments_with_ids(new_fragments.clone(), &mut fragment_id)
-                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-                // Assign row IDs to any fragments that don't have them yet
-                // (e.g., inserted rows from merge_insert operations)
-                if let Some(next_row_id) = &mut next_row_id {
-                    Self::assign_row_ids(next_row_id, new_fragments.as_mut_slice())?;
-                }
-
-                // Set version metadata for newly created fragments (updated rows)
-                // Preserve created_at from original fragments, set last_updated to new version
-                if next_row_id.is_some() {
-                    let new_version = current_manifest.map(|m| m.version + 1).unwrap_or(1);
-
-                    // Build a map of original fragment ID -> original fragment for lookup
-                    let original_frags_map: std::collections::HashMap<u64, &Fragment> =
-                        existing_fragments.iter().map(|f| (f.id, f)).collect();
-
-                    for fragment in new_fragments.iter_mut() {
-                        // For update operations with RewriteRows mode:
-                        // - Rows are deleted from old fragments and rewritten to new fragments
-                        // - last_updated_at should be the current version (when update happened)
-                        // - created_at should be preserved from the original fragment
-
-                        // Read row IDs from this fragment to find original fragments
-                        let row_ids = if let Some(row_id_meta) = &fragment.row_id_meta {
-                            match row_id_meta {
-                                lance_table::format::RowIdMeta::Inline(data) => {
-                                    lance_table::rowids::read_row_ids(data).ok()
-                                }
-                                lance_table::format::RowIdMeta::External(_) => None,
-                            }
-                        } else {
-                            None
-                        };
-
-                        if let Some(row_ids) = row_ids {
-                            // Extract created_at version for each row from original fragments
-                            let physical_rows = fragment.physical_rows.unwrap_or(0);
-                            let mut created_at_versions = Vec::with_capacity(physical_rows);
-
-                            for row_id in row_ids.iter() {
-                                // Row ID format: upper 32 bits = fragment ID, lower 32 bits = row offset
-                                let orig_frag_id = row_id >> 32;
-                                let row_offset = (row_id & 0xFFFFFFFF) as usize;
-
-                                // Look up the original fragment
-                                if let Some(orig_frag) = original_frags_map.get(&orig_frag_id) {
-                                    // Get created_at version from original fragment's metadata
-                                    let created_version = if let Some(created_meta) =
-                                        &orig_frag.created_at_version_meta
-                                    {
-                                        // Load and index into the version sequence
-                                        match created_meta.load_sequence() {
-                                            Ok(seq) => {
-                                                let versions: Vec<u64> = seq.versions().collect();
-                                                versions.get(row_offset).copied().unwrap_or(1)
-                                            }
-                                            Err(_e) => {
-                                                1 // Default to version 1 on error
-                                            }
-                                        }
-                                    } else {
-                                        // No metadata on original fragment, default to version 1
-                                        1
-                                    };
-                                    created_at_versions.push(created_version);
-                                } else {
-                                    // Original fragment not found, default to version 1
-                                    created_at_versions.push(1);
-                                }
-                            }
-
-                            // Build version metadata from the collected versions
-                            // Compress into runs: consecutive identical versions become one run
-                            let mut runs = Vec::new();
-                            if !created_at_versions.is_empty() {
-                                let mut current_version = created_at_versions[0];
-                                let mut run_start = 0u64;
-
-                                for (i, &version) in created_at_versions.iter().enumerate().skip(1)
-                                {
-                                    if version != current_version {
-                                        // End current run, start new one
-                                        runs.push(lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionRun {
-                                            span: lance_table::rowids::segment::U64Segment::Range(
-                                                run_start..i as u64,
-                                            ),
-                                            version: current_version,
-                                        });
-                                        current_version = version;
-                                        run_start = i as u64;
-                                    }
-                                }
-                                // Add final run
-                                runs.push(lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionRun {
-                                    span: lance_table::rowids::segment::U64Segment::Range(
-                                        run_start..created_at_versions.len() as u64,
-                                    ),
-                                    version: current_version,
-                                });
-                            }
-
-                            let created_at_seq =
-                                lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionSequence { runs };
-                            fragment.created_at_version_meta = Some(
-                                lance_table::format::RowDatasetVersionMeta::from_sequence(
-                                    &created_at_seq,
-                                )
-                                .map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                                    message: format!(
-                                        "Failed to create created_at version metadata: {}",
-                                        e
-                                    ),
-                                    location: location!(),
-                                })?,
-                            );
-
-                            // Set last_updated_at to the new version for all rows
-                            let last_updated_meta =
-                                lance_table::rowids::version::build_version_meta(
-                                    fragment,
-                                    new_version,
-                                );
-                            fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = last_updated_meta;
-                        } else {
-                            // Fallback: can't read row IDs, set both to new version
-                            let version_meta = lance_table::rowids::version::build_version_meta(
-                                fragment,
-                                new_version,
-                            );
-                            fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = version_meta.clone();
-                            fragment.created_at_version_meta = version_meta;
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-
-                if config.use_stable_row_ids
-                    && update_mode.is_some()
-                    && *update_mode == Some(RewriteRows)
-                {
-                    let pure_updated_frag_ids =
-                        Self::collect_pure_rewrite_row_update_frags_ids(&new_fragments)?;
-
-                    // collect all the original frag ids that contains the updated rows
-                    let original_fragment_ids: Vec<u64> = removed_fragment_ids
-                        .iter()
-                        .chain(updated_fragments.iter().map(|f| &f.id))
-                        .copied()
-                        .collect();
-
-                    Self::register_pure_rewrite_rows_update_frags_in_indices(
-                        &mut final_indices,
-                        &pure_updated_frag_ids,
-                        &original_fragment_ids,
-                        fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
-                    );
-                }
-
-                if let Some(next_row_id) = &mut next_row_id {
-                    Self::assign_row_ids(next_row_id, new_fragments.as_mut_slice())?;
-                    // Note: Version metadata is already set above (lines 1627-1755)
-                    // for Update operations, preserving created_at from original fragments.
-                    // Don't overwrite it here.
-                }
-                // Identify fragments that were updated or newly created in this update
-                let mut target_ids: HashSet<u64> = HashSet::new();
-                target_ids.extend(new_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id));
-                final_fragments.extend(new_fragments);
-                Self::retain_relevant_indices(&mut final_indices, &schema, &final_fragments);
-
-                if !merged_generations.is_empty() {
-                    update_mem_wal_index_merged_generations(
-                        &mut final_indices,
-                        current_manifest.map_or(1, |m| m.version + 1),
-                        merged_generations.clone(),
-                    )?;
-                }
-            }
-            Operation::Overwrite { ref fragments, .. } => {
-                let mut new_fragments =
-                    Self::fragments_with_ids(fragments.clone(), &mut fragment_id)
-                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                if let Some(next_row_id) = &mut next_row_id {
-                    Self::assign_row_ids(next_row_id, new_fragments.as_mut_slice())?;
-                    // Add version metadata for all new fragments
-                    let new_version = current_manifest.map(|m| m.version + 1).unwrap_or(1);
-                    for fragment in new_fragments.iter_mut() {
-                        let version_meta =
-                            lance_table::rowids::version::build_version_meta(fragment, new_version);
-                        fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta = version_meta.clone();
-                        fragment.created_at_version_meta = version_meta;
-                    }
-                }
-                final_fragments.extend(new_fragments);
-                final_indices = Vec::new();
-            }
-            Operation::Rewrite {
-                ref groups,
-                ref rewritten_indices,
-                ref frag_reuse_index,
-            } => {
-                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
-                let current_version = current_manifest.map(|m| m.version).unwrap_or_default();
-                Self::handle_rewrite_fragments(
-                    &mut final_fragments,
-                    groups,
-                    &mut fragment_id,
-                    current_version,
-                    next_row_id.as_ref(),
-                )?;
-
-                if next_row_id.is_some() {
-                    // We can re-use indices, but need to rewrite the fragment bitmaps
-                    debug_assert!(rewritten_indices.is_empty());
-                    for index in final_indices.iter_mut() {
-                        if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = &mut index.fragment_bitmap {
-                            *fragment_bitmap =
-                                Self::recalculate_fragment_bitmap(fragment_bitmap, groups)?;
-                        }
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    Self::handle_rewrite_indices(&mut final_indices, rewritten_indices, groups)?;
-                }
-
-                if let Some(frag_reuse_index) = frag_reuse_index {
-                    final_indices.retain(|idx| idx.name != frag_reuse_index.name);
-                    final_indices.push(frag_reuse_index.clone());
-                }
-            }
-            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices,
-                removed_indices,
-            } => {
-                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
-                final_indices.retain(|existing_index| {
-                    !new_indices
-                        .iter()
-                        .any(|new_index| new_index.name == existing_index.name)
-                        && !removed_indices
-                            .iter()
-                            .any(|old_index| old_index.uuid == existing_index.uuid)
-                });
-                final_indices.extend(new_indices.clone());
-            }
-            Operation::ReserveFragments { .. } | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. } => {
-                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
-            }
-            Operation::Merge { ref fragments, .. } => {
-                final_fragments.extend(fragments.clone());
-
-                // Some fields that have indices may have been removed, so we should
-                // remove those indices as well.
-                Self::retain_relevant_indices(&mut final_indices, &schema, &final_fragments)
-            }
-            Operation::Project { .. } => {
-                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
-
-                // We might have removed all fields for certain data files, so
-                // we should remove the data files that are no longer relevant.
-                let remaining_field_ids = schema
-                    .fields_pre_order()
-                    .map(|f| f.id)
-                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-                for fragment in final_fragments.iter_mut() {
-                    fragment.files.retain(|file| {
-                        file.fields
-                            .iter()
-                            .any(|field_id| remaining_field_ids.contains(field_id))
-                    });
-                }
-
-                // Some fields that have indices may have been removed, so we should
-                // remove those indices as well.
-                Self::retain_relevant_indices(&mut final_indices, &schema, &final_fragments)
-            }
-            Operation::Restore { .. } => {
-                unreachable!()
-            }
-            Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => {
-                log::warn!("Building manifest with DataReplacement operation. This operation is not stable yet, please use with caution.");
-
-                let (old_fragment_ids, new_datafiles): (Vec<&u64>, Vec<&DataFile>) = replacements
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|DataReplacementGroup(fragment_id, new_file)| (fragment_id, new_file))
-                    .unzip();
-
-                // 1. make sure the new files all have the same fields / or empty
-                // NOTE: arguably this requirement could be relaxed in the future
-                // for the sake of simplicity, we require the new files to have the same fields
-                if new_datafiles
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|f| f.fields.clone())
-                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>()
-                    .len()
-                    > 1
-                {
-                    let field_info = new_datafiles
-                        .iter()
-                        .enumerate()
-                        .map(|(id, f)| (id, f.fields.clone()))
-                        .fold("".to_string(), |acc, (id, fields)| {
-                            format!("{}File {}: {:?}\n", acc, id, fields)
-                        });
-
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "All new data files must have the same fields, but found different fields:\n{field_info}"
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-
-                let existing_fragments = maybe_existing_fragments?;
-
-                // 2. check that the fragments being modified have isomorphic layouts along the columns being replaced
-                // 3. add modified fragments to final_fragments
-                for (frag_id, new_file) in old_fragment_ids.iter().zip(new_datafiles) {
-                    let frag = existing_fragments
-                        .iter()
-                        .find(|f| f.id == **frag_id)
-                        .ok_or_else(|| {
-                            Error::invalid_input(
-                                "Fragment being replaced not found in existing fragments",
-                                location!(),
-                            )
-                        })?;
-                    let mut new_frag = frag.clone();
-
-                    // TODO(rmeng): check new file and fragment are the same length
-
-                    let mut columns_covered = HashSet::new();
-                    for file in &mut new_frag.files {
-                        if file.fields == new_file.fields
-                            && file.file_major_version == new_file.file_major_version
-                            && file.file_minor_version == new_file.file_minor_version
-                        {
-                            // assign the new file path / size to the fragment
-                            file.path = new_file.path.clone();
-                            file.file_size_bytes = new_file.file_size_bytes.clone();
-                        }
-                        columns_covered.extend(file.fields.iter());
-                    }
-                    // SPECIAL CASE: if the column(s) being replaced are not covered by the fragment
-                    // Then it means it's a all-NULL column that is being replaced with real data
-                    // just add it to the final fragments
-                    if columns_covered.is_disjoint(&new_file.fields.iter().collect()) {
-                        new_frag.add_file(
-                            new_file.path.clone(),
-                            new_file.fields.clone(),
-                            new_file.column_indices.clone(),
-                            &LanceFileVersion::try_from_major_minor(
-                                new_file.file_major_version,
-                                new_file.file_minor_version,
-                            )
-                            .expect("Expected valid file version"),
-                            new_file.file_size_bytes.get(),
-                        );
-                    }
-
-                    // Nothing changed in the current fragment, which is not expected -- error out
-                    if &new_frag == frag {
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            "Expected to modify the fragment but no changes were made. This means the new data files does not align with any exiting datafiles. Please check if the schema of the new data files matches the schema of the old data files including the file major and minor versions",
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
-                    }
-                    final_fragments.push(new_frag);
-                }
-
-                let fragments_changed = old_fragment_ids
-                    .iter()
-                    .cloned()
-                    .cloned()
-                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-
-                // 4. push fragments that didn't change back to final_fragments
-                let unmodified_fragments = existing_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .filter(|f| !fragments_changed.contains(&f.id))
-                    .cloned()
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-                final_fragments.extend(unmodified_fragments);
-            }
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState { merged_generations } => {
-                update_mem_wal_index_merged_generations(
-                    &mut final_indices,
-                    current_manifest.map_or(1, |m| m.version + 1),
-                    merged_generations.clone(),
-                )?;
-            }
-            Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => {
-                // UpdateBases operation doesn't modify fragments or indices
-                // Base paths are handled in the manifest creation section below
-                final_fragments.extend(maybe_existing_fragments?.clone());
-            }
-        };
-
-        // If a fragment was reserved then it may not belong at the end of the fragments list.
-        final_fragments.sort_by_key(|frag| frag.id);
-
-        // Clean up data files that only contain tombstoned fields
-        Self::remove_tombstoned_data_files(&mut final_fragments);
-
-        let user_requested_version = match (&config.storage_format, config.use_legacy_format) {
-            (Some(storage_format), _) => Some(storage_format.lance_file_version()?),
-            (None, Some(true)) => Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
-            (None, Some(false)) => Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
-            (None, None) => None,
-        };
-
-        let mut manifest = if let Some(current_manifest) = current_manifest {
-            // OVERWRITE with initial_bases on existing dataset is not allowed (caught by validation)
-            // So we always use new_from_previous which preserves base_paths
-            let mut prev_manifest =
-                Manifest::new_from_previous(current_manifest, schema, Arc::new(final_fragments));
-
-            if let (Some(user_requested_version), Operation::Overwrite { .. }) =
-                (user_requested_version, &self.operation)
-            {
-                // If this is an overwrite operation and the user has requested a specific version
-                // then overwrite with that version.  Otherwise, if the user didn't request a specific
-                // version, then overwrite with whatever version we had before.
-                prev_manifest.data_storage_format = DataStorageFormat::new(user_requested_version);
-            }
-
-            prev_manifest
-        } else {
-            let data_storage_format =
-                Self::data_storage_format_from_files(&final_fragments, user_requested_version)?;
-            Manifest::new(
-                schema,
-                Arc::new(final_fragments),
-                data_storage_format,
-                reference_paths,
-            )
-        };
-
-        manifest.tag.clone_from(&self.tag);
-
-        if config.auto_set_feature_flags {
-            apply_feature_flags(
-                &mut manifest,
-                config.use_stable_row_ids,
-                config.disable_transaction_file,
-            )?;
-        }
-        manifest.set_timestamp(timestamp_to_nanos(config.timestamp));
-
-        manifest.update_max_fragment_id();
-
-        match &self.operation {
-            Operation::Overwrite {
-                config_upsert_values: Some(tm),
-                ..
-            } => {
-                manifest.config_mut().extend(tm.clone());
-            }
-            Operation::UpdateConfig {
-                config_updates,
-                table_metadata_updates,
-                schema_metadata_updates,
-                field_metadata_updates,
-            } => {
-                if let Some(config_updates) = config_updates {
-                    let mut config = manifest.config.clone();
-                    apply_update_map(&mut config, config_updates);
-                    manifest.config = config;
-                }
-                if let Some(table_metadata_updates) = table_metadata_updates {
-                    let mut table_metadata = manifest.table_metadata.clone();
-                    apply_update_map(&mut table_metadata, table_metadata_updates);
-                    manifest.table_metadata = table_metadata;
-                }
-                if let Some(schema_metadata_updates) = schema_metadata_updates {
-                    let mut schema_metadata = manifest.schema.metadata.clone();
-                    apply_update_map(&mut schema_metadata, schema_metadata_updates);
-                    manifest.schema.metadata = schema_metadata;
-                }
-                for (field_id, field_metadata_update) in field_metadata_updates {
-                    if let Some(field) = manifest.schema.field_by_id_mut(*field_id) {
-                        apply_update_map(&mut field.metadata, field_metadata_update);
-                    } else {
-                        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                            source: format!("Field with id {} does not exist", field_id).into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            _ => {}
-        }
-
-        // Handle UpdateBases operation to update manifest base_paths
-        if let Operation::UpdateBases { new_bases } = &self.operation {
-            // Validate and add new base paths to the manifest
-            for new_base in new_bases {
-                // Check for conflicts with existing base paths
-                if let Some(existing_base) = manifest
-                    .base_paths
-                    .values()
-                    .find(|bp| bp.name == new_base.name || bp.path == new_base.path)
-                {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "Conflict detected: Base path with name '{:?}' or path '{}' already exists. Existing: name='{:?}', path='{}'",
-                            new_base.name, new_base.path, existing_base.name, existing_base.path
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-
-                // Assign a new ID if not already assigned
-                let mut base_to_add = new_base.clone();
-                if base_to_add.id == 0 {
-                    let next_id = manifest
-                        .base_paths
-                        .keys()
-                        .max()
-                        .map(|&id| id + 1)
-                        .unwrap_or(1);
-                    base_to_add.id = next_id;
-                }
-
-                manifest.base_paths.insert(base_to_add.id, base_to_add);
-            }
-        }
-
-        if let Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments } = self.operation {
-            manifest.max_fragment_id = Some(manifest.max_fragment_id.unwrap_or(0) + num_fragments);
-        }
-
-        manifest.transaction_file = Some(transaction_file_path.to_string());
-
-        if let Some(next_row_id) = next_row_id {
-            manifest.next_row_id = next_row_id;
-        }
-
-        Ok((manifest, final_indices))
-    }
-
-    fn register_pure_rewrite_rows_update_frags_in_indices(
-        indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
-        pure_update_frag_ids: &[u64],
-        original_fragment_ids: &[u64],
-        fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: &[u32],
-    ) {
-        if pure_update_frag_ids.is_empty() {
-            return;
-        }
-
-        let value_updated_field_set = fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap
-            .iter()
-            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-
-        for index in indices.iter_mut() {
-            let index_covers_modified_field = index.fields.iter().any(|field_id| {
-                value_updated_field_set.contains(&u32::try_from(*field_id).unwrap())
-            });
-
-            if !index_covers_modified_field {
-                if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = &mut index.fragment_bitmap {
-                    // check if all the original fragments contains the updating rows are covered
-                    // by the index(index fragment bitmap contains these frag ids).
-                    // if not, that means not all the updating rows are indexed, so we could not
-                    // index them.
-                    let index_covers_all_original_fragments = original_fragment_ids
-                        .iter()
-                        .all(|&fragment_id| fragment_bitmap.contains(fragment_id as u32));
-
-                    if index_covers_all_original_fragments {
-                        for fragment_id in pure_update_frag_ids.iter().map(|f| *f as u32) {
-                            fragment_bitmap.insert(fragment_id);
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// If an operation modifies one or more fields in a fragment then we need to remove
-    /// that fragment from any indices that cover one of the modified fields.
-    fn prune_updated_fields_from_indices(
-        indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
-        updated_fragments: &[Fragment],
-        fields_modified: &[u32],
-    ) {
-        if fields_modified.is_empty() {
-            return;
-        }
-
-        // If we modified any fields in the fragments then we need to remove those fragments
-        // from the index if the index covers one of those modified fields.
-        let fields_modified_set = fields_modified.iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-        for index in indices.iter_mut() {
-            if index
-                .fields
-                .iter()
-                .any(|field_id| fields_modified_set.contains(&u32::try_from(*field_id).unwrap()))
-            {
-                if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = &mut index.fragment_bitmap {
-                    for fragment_id in updated_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32) {
-                        fragment_bitmap.remove(fragment_id);
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn is_vector_index(index: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
-        if let Some(details) = &index.index_details {
-            details.type_url.ends_with("VectorIndexDetails")
-        } else {
-            false
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Remove data files that only contain tombstoned fields (-2)
-    /// These files no longer contain any live data and can be safely dropped
-    fn remove_tombstoned_data_files(fragments: &mut [Fragment]) {
-        for fragment in fragments {
-            fragment.files.retain(|file| {
-                // Keep file if it has at least one non-tombstoned field
-                file.fields.iter().any(|&field_id| field_id != -2)
-            });
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn retain_relevant_indices(
-        indices: &mut Vec<IndexMetadata>,
-        schema: &Schema,
-        fragments: &[Fragment],
-    ) {
-        let field_ids = schema
-            .fields_pre_order()
-            .map(|f| f.id)
-            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-
-        // Remove indices for fields no longer in schema
-        indices.retain(|existing_index| {
-            existing_index
-                .fields
-                .iter()
-                .all(|field_id| field_ids.contains(field_id))
-                || is_system_index(existing_index)
-        });
-
-        // Fragment bitmaps are now immutable and always represent the fragments that
-        // the index contains row IDs for, regardless of whether those fragments still exist.
-        // This ensures consistent prefiltering behavior and clear semantics.
-
-        // Apply retention logic for indices with empty bitmaps per index name
-        // (except for fragment reuse indices which are always kept)
-        let mut indices_by_name: std::collections::HashMap<String, Vec<&IndexMetadata>> =
-            std::collections::HashMap::new();
-
-        // Group indices by name
-        for index in indices.iter() {
-            if index.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME {
-                indices_by_name
-                    .entry(index.name.clone())
-                    .or_default()
-                    .push(index);
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Build a set of UUIDs to keep based on retention rules
-        let mut uuids_to_keep = std::collections::HashSet::new();
-
-        let existing_fragments = fragments
-            .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.id as u32)
-            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
-
-        // For each group of indices with the same name
-        for (_, same_name_indices) in indices_by_name {
-            if same_name_indices.len() > 1 {
-                // Separate empty and non-empty indices
-                let (empty_indices, non_empty_indices): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =
-                    same_name_indices.iter().partition(|index| {
-                        index
-                            .effective_fragment_bitmap(&existing_fragments)
-                            .as_ref()
-                            .is_none_or(|bitmap| bitmap.is_empty())
-                    });
-
-                if non_empty_indices.is_empty() {
-                    // All indices are empty - for scalar indices, keep only the first (oldest) one
-                    // For vector indices, remove all of them
-                    let mut sorted_indices = empty_indices;
-                    sorted_indices.sort_by_key(|index: &&IndexMetadata| index.dataset_version); // Sort by ascending dataset_version
-
-                    // Keep only the first (oldest) if it's not a vector index
-                    if let Some(oldest) = sorted_indices.first() {
-                        if !Self::is_vector_index(oldest) {
-                            uuids_to_keep.insert(oldest.uuid);
-                        }
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    // At least one index has non-empty bitmap - keep all non-empty indices
-                    for index in non_empty_indices {
-                        uuids_to_keep.insert(index.uuid);
-                    }
-                }
-            } else {
-                // Single index - keep it unless it's an empty vector index
-                if let Some(index) = same_name_indices.first() {
-                    let is_empty = index
-                        .effective_fragment_bitmap(&existing_fragments)
-                        .as_ref()
-                        .is_none_or(|bitmap| bitmap.is_empty());
-                    let is_vector = Self::is_vector_index(index);
-
-                    // Keep the index unless it's an empty vector index
-                    if !is_empty || !is_vector {
-                        uuids_to_keep.insert(index.uuid);
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Use Vec::retain to safely remove indices
-        indices.retain(|index| {
-            index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME || uuids_to_keep.contains(&index.uuid)
-        });
-    }
-
-    fn recalculate_fragment_bitmap(
-        old: &RoaringBitmap,
-        groups: &[RewriteGroup],
-    ) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
-        let mut new_bitmap = old.clone();
-        for group in groups {
-            let any_in_index = group
-                .old_fragments
-                .iter()
-                .any(|frag| old.contains(frag.id as u32));
-            let all_in_index = group
-                .old_fragments
-                .iter()
-                .all(|frag| old.contains(frag.id as u32));
-            // Any rewrite group may or may not be covered by the index.  However, if any fragment
-            // in a rewrite group was previously covered by the index then all fragments in the rewrite
-            // group must have been previously covered by the index.  plan_compaction takes care of
-            // this for us so this should be safe to assume.
-            if any_in_index {
-                if all_in_index {
-                    for frag_id in group.old_fragments.iter().map(|frag| frag.id as u32) {
-                        new_bitmap.remove(frag_id);
-                    }
-                    new_bitmap.extend(group.new_fragments.iter().map(|frag| frag.id as u32));
-                } else {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input("The compaction plan included a rewrite group that was a split of indexed and non-indexed data", location!()));
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(new_bitmap)
-    }
-
-    fn handle_rewrite_indices(
-        indices: &mut [IndexMetadata],
-        rewritten_indices: &[RewrittenIndex],
-        groups: &[RewriteGroup],
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut modified_indices = HashSet::new();
-
-        for rewritten_index in rewritten_indices {
-            if !modified_indices.insert(rewritten_index.old_id) {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("An invalid compaction plan must have been generated because multiple tasks modified the same index: {}", rewritten_index.old_id), location!()));
-            }
-
-            // Skip indices that no longer exist (may have been removed by concurrent operation)
-            let Some(index) = indices
-                .iter_mut()
-                .find(|idx| idx.uuid == rewritten_index.old_id)
-            else {
-                continue;
-            };
-
-            index.fragment_bitmap = Some(Self::recalculate_fragment_bitmap(
-                index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "Cannot rewrite index {} which did not store fragment bitmap",
-                            index.uuid
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })?,
-                groups,
-            )?);
-            index.uuid = rewritten_index.new_id;
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    fn handle_rewrite_fragments(
-        final_fragments: &mut Vec<Fragment>,
-        groups: &[RewriteGroup],
-        fragment_id: &mut u64,
-        version: u64,
-        _next_row_id: Option<&u64>,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        for group in groups {
-            // If the old fragments are contiguous, find the range
-            let replace_range = {
-                let start = final_fragments.iter().enumerate().find(|(_, f)| f.id == group.old_fragments[0].id)
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::CommitConflict { version, source:
-                    format!("dataset does not contain a fragment a rewrite operation wants to replace: id={}", group.old_fragments[0].id).into() , location:location!()})?.0;
-
-                // Verify old_fragments matches contiguous range
-                let mut i = 1;
-                loop {
-                    if i == group.old_fragments.len() {
-                        break Some(start..start + i);
-                    }
-                    if final_fragments[start + i].id != group.old_fragments[i].id {
-                        break None;
-                    }
-                    i += 1;
-                }
-            };
-
-            let new_fragments = Self::fragments_with_ids(group.new_fragments.clone(), fragment_id)
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-            // Version metadata for rewritten fragments is handled by the compaction code
-            // (recalc_versions_for_rewritten_fragments) which preserves version information
-            // from the original fragments. We don't modify it here.
-
-            if let Some(replace_range) = replace_range {
-                // Efficiently path using slice
-                final_fragments.splice(replace_range, new_fragments);
-            } else {
-                // Slower path for non-contiguous ranges
-                for fragment in group.old_fragments.iter() {
-                    final_fragments.retain(|f| f.id != fragment.id);
-                }
-                final_fragments.extend(new_fragments);
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    /// collect the pure(the num of row IDs are equal to the physical rows) "rewrite rows" updated fragment ids
-    fn collect_pure_rewrite_row_update_frags_ids(fragments: &[Fragment]) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
-        let mut pure_update_frag_ids = Vec::new();
-
-        for fragment in fragments {
-            let physical_rows = fragment.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Fragment does not have physical rows".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })? as u64;
-
-            if let Some(row_id_meta) = &fragment.row_id_meta {
-                let existing_row_count = match row_id_meta {
-                    RowIdMeta::Inline(data) => {
-                        let sequence = read_row_ids(data)?;
-                        sequence.len() as u64
-                    }
-                    _ => 0,
-                };
-
-                // only filter the fragments that match: all the rows have row id,
-                // which means it does not contain inserted rows in this fragment
-                if existing_row_count == physical_rows {
-                    pure_update_frag_ids.push(fragment.id);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        Ok(pure_update_frag_ids)
-    }
-
-    fn assign_row_ids(next_row_id: &mut u64, fragments: &mut [Fragment]) -> Result<()> {
-        for fragment in fragments {
-            let physical_rows = fragment.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Fragment does not have physical rows".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })? as u64;
-
-            if fragment.row_id_meta.is_some() {
-                // we may meet merge insert case, it only has partial row ids.
-                // so here, we need to check if the row ids match the physical rows
-                // if yes, continue
-                // if not, fill the remaining row ids to the physical rows, then update row_id_meta
-
-                // Check if existing row IDs match the physical rows count
-                let existing_row_count = match &fragment.row_id_meta {
-                    Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => {
-                        // Parse the serialized row ID sequence to get the count
-                        let sequence = read_row_ids(data)?;
-                        sequence.len() as u64
-                    }
-                    _ => 0,
-                };
-
-                match existing_row_count.cmp(&physical_rows) {
-                    Ordering::Equal => {
-                        // Row IDs already match physical rows, continue to next fragment
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    Ordering::Less => {
-                        // Partial row IDs - need to fill the remaining ones
-                        let remaining_rows = physical_rows - existing_row_count;
-                        let new_row_ids = *next_row_id..(*next_row_id + remaining_rows);
-
-                        // Merge existing and new row IDs
-                        let combined_sequence = match &fragment.row_id_meta {
-                            Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) => read_row_ids(data)?,
-                            _ => {
-                                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                                    message: "Failed to deserialize existing row ID sequence"
-                                        .into(),
-                                    location: location!(),
-                                })
-                            }
-                        };
-
-                        let mut row_ids: Vec<u64> = combined_sequence.iter().collect();
-                        for row_id in new_row_ids {
-                            row_ids.push(row_id);
-                        }
-                        let combined_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(row_ids.as_slice());
-
-                        let serialized = write_row_ids(&combined_sequence);
-                        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized));
-                        *next_row_id += remaining_rows;
-                    }
-                    Ordering::Greater => {
-                        // More row IDs than physical rows - this shouldn't happen
-                        return Err(Error::Internal {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "Fragment has more row IDs ({}) than physical rows ({})",
-                                existing_row_count, physical_rows
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
-                    }
-                }
-            } else {
-                let row_ids = *next_row_id..(*next_row_id + physical_rows);
-                let sequence = RowIdSequence::from(row_ids);
-                // TODO: write to a separate file if large. Possibly share a file with other fragments.
-                let serialized = write_row_ids(&sequence);
-                fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized));
-                *next_row_id += physical_rows;
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(())
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&DataReplacementGroup> for pb::transaction::DataReplacementGroup {
-    fn from(DataReplacementGroup(fragment_id, new_file): &DataReplacementGroup) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            fragment_id: *fragment_id,
-            new_file: Some(new_file.into()),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Convert a protobug DataReplacementGroup to a rust native DataReplacementGroup
-/// this is unfortunately TryFrom instead of From because of the Option in the pb::DataReplacementGroup
-impl TryFrom<pb::transaction::DataReplacementGroup> for DataReplacementGroup {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(message: pb::transaction::DataReplacementGroup) -> Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self(
-            message.fragment_id,
-            message
-                .new_file
-                .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "DataReplacementGroup must have a new_file",
-                    location!(),
-                ))?
-                .try_into()?,
-        ))
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<pb::Transaction> for Transaction {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(message: pb::Transaction) -> Result<Self> {
-        let operation = match message.operation {
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Append(pb::transaction::Append { fragments })) => {
-                Operation::Append {
-                    fragments: fragments
-                        .into_iter()
-                        .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-                }
-            }
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Clone(pb::transaction::Clone {
-                is_shallow,
-                ref_name,
-                ref_version,
-                ref_path,
-                branch_name,
-            })) => Operation::Clone {
-                is_shallow,
-                ref_name,
-                ref_version,
-                ref_path,
-                branch_name,
-            },
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Delete(pb::transaction::Delete {
-                updated_fragments,
-                deleted_fragment_ids,
-                predicate,
-            })) => Operation::Delete {
-                updated_fragments: updated_fragments
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-                deleted_fragment_ids,
-                predicate,
-            },
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Overwrite(pb::transaction::Overwrite {
-                fragments,
-                schema,
-                schema_metadata: _schema_metadata, // TODO: handle metadata
-                config_upsert_values,
-                initial_bases,
-            })) => {
-                let config_upsert_option = if config_upsert_values.is_empty() {
-                    None
-                } else {
-                    Some(config_upsert_values)
-                };
-
-                Operation::Overwrite {
-                    fragments: fragments
-                        .into_iter()
-                        .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-                    schema: Schema::from(&Fields(schema)),
-                    config_upsert_values: config_upsert_option,
-                    initial_bases: if initial_bases.is_empty() {
-                        None
-                    } else {
-                        Some(initial_bases.into_iter().map(BasePath::from).collect())
-                    },
-                }
-            }
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::ReserveFragments(
-                pb::transaction::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
-            )) => Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Rewrite(pb::transaction::Rewrite {
-                old_fragments,
-                new_fragments,
-                groups,
-                rewritten_indices,
-            })) => {
-                let groups = if !groups.is_empty() {
-                    groups
-                        .into_iter()
-                        .map(RewriteGroup::try_from)
-                        .collect::<Result<_>>()?
-                } else {
-                    vec![RewriteGroup {
-                        old_fragments: old_fragments
-                            .into_iter()
-                            .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-                        new_fragments: new_fragments
-                            .into_iter()
-                            .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-                    }]
-                };
-                let rewritten_indices = rewritten_indices
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(RewrittenIndex::try_from)
-                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
-
-                Operation::Rewrite {
-                    groups,
-                    rewritten_indices,
-                    frag_reuse_index: None,
-                }
-            }
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::CreateIndex(pb::transaction::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices,
-                removed_indices,
-            })) => Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices: new_indices
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(IndexMetadata::try_from)
-                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
-                removed_indices: removed_indices
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(IndexMetadata::try_from)
-                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?,
-            },
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Merge(pb::transaction::Merge {
-                fragments,
-                schema,
-                schema_metadata: _schema_metadata, // TODO: handle metadata
-            })) => Operation::Merge {
-                fragments: fragments
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-                schema: Schema::from(&Fields(schema)),
-            },
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Restore(pb::transaction::Restore { version })) => {
-                Operation::Restore { version }
-            }
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Update(pb::transaction::Update {
-                removed_fragment_ids,
-                updated_fragments,
-                new_fragments,
-                fields_modified,
-                merged_generations,
-                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
-                update_mode,
-                inserted_rows,
-            })) => Operation::Update {
-                removed_fragment_ids,
-                updated_fragments: updated_fragments
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-                new_fragments: new_fragments
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-                fields_modified,
-                merged_generations: merged_generations
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|m| MergedGeneration::try_from(m).unwrap())
-                    .collect(),
-                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
-                update_mode: match update_mode {
-                    0 => Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows),
-                    1 => Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
-                    _ => Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows),
-                },
-                inserted_rows_filter: inserted_rows
-                    .map(|ik| KeyExistenceFilter::try_from(&ik))
-                    .transpose()?,
-            },
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::Project(pb::transaction::Project { schema })) => {
-                Operation::Project {
-                    schema: Schema::from(&Fields(schema)),
-                }
-            }
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateConfig(update_config)) => {
-                // Check if new-style fields are present
-                let has_new_fields = update_config.config_updates.is_some()
-                    || update_config.table_metadata_updates.is_some()
-                    || update_config.schema_metadata_updates.is_some()
-                    || !update_config.field_metadata_updates.is_empty();
-
-                // Check if old-style fields are present
-                let has_old_fields = !update_config.upsert_values.is_empty()
-                    || !update_config.delete_keys.is_empty()
-                    || !update_config.schema_metadata.is_empty()
-                    || !update_config.field_metadata.is_empty();
-
-                // Error if both are present
-                if has_new_fields && has_old_fields {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: "Cannot mix old and new style UpdateConfig fields".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-
-                if has_old_fields {
-                    // Translate old-style to new-style
-                    let config_updates = if !update_config.upsert_values.is_empty()
-                        || !update_config.delete_keys.is_empty()
-                    {
-                        Some(translate_config_updates(
-                            &update_config.upsert_values,
-                            &update_config.delete_keys,
-                        ))
-                    } else {
-                        None
-                    };
-
-                    let schema_metadata_updates = if !update_config.schema_metadata.is_empty() {
-                        Some(translate_schema_metadata_updates(
-                            &update_config.schema_metadata,
-                        ))
-                    } else {
-                        None
-                    };
-
-                    let field_metadata_updates = update_config
-                        .field_metadata
-                        .into_iter()
-                        .map(|(field_id, field_meta_update)| {
-                            (
-                                field_id as i32,
-                                translate_schema_metadata_updates(&field_meta_update.metadata),
-                            )
-                        })
-                        .collect();
-
-                    Operation::UpdateConfig {
-                        config_updates,
-                        table_metadata_updates: None,
-                        schema_metadata_updates,
-                        field_metadata_updates,
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    // Use new-style fields directly (convert from protobuf)
-                    Operation::UpdateConfig {
-                        config_updates: update_config.config_updates.as_ref().map(UpdateMap::from),
-                        table_metadata_updates: update_config
-                            .table_metadata_updates
-                            .as_ref()
-                            .map(UpdateMap::from),
-                        schema_metadata_updates: update_config
-                            .schema_metadata_updates
-                            .as_ref()
-                            .map(UpdateMap::from),
-                        field_metadata_updates: update_config
-                            .field_metadata_updates
-                            .iter()
-                            .map(|(field_id, pb_update_map)| {
-                                (*field_id, UpdateMap::from(pb_update_map))
-                            })
-                            .collect(),
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::DataReplacement(
-                pb::transaction::DataReplacement { replacements },
-            )) => Operation::DataReplacement {
-                replacements: replacements
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(DataReplacementGroup::try_from)
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-            },
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateMemWalState(
-                pb::transaction::UpdateMemWalState { merged_generations },
-            )) => Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: merged_generations
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|m| MergedGeneration::try_from(m).unwrap())
-                    .collect(),
-            },
-            Some(pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateBases(pb::transaction::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases,
-            })) => Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: new_bases.into_iter().map(BasePath::from).collect(),
-            },
-            None => {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "Transaction message did not contain an operation".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-        };
-        Ok(Self {
-            read_version: message.read_version,
-            uuid: message.uuid.clone(),
-            operation,
-            tag: if message.tag.is_empty() {
-                None
-            } else {
-                Some(message.tag.clone())
-            },
-            transaction_properties: if message.transaction_properties.is_empty() {
-                None
-            } else {
-                Some(Arc::new(message.transaction_properties))
-            },
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<&pb::transaction::rewrite::RewrittenIndex> for RewrittenIndex {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(message: &pb::transaction::rewrite::RewrittenIndex) -> Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            old_id: message
-                .old_id
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(Uuid::try_from)
-                .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        "required field (old_id) missing from message".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })??,
-            new_id: message
-                .new_id
-                .as_ref()
-                .map(Uuid::try_from)
-                .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        "required field (new_id) missing from message".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })??,
-            new_index_details: message
-                .new_index_details
-                .as_ref()
-                .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        "new_index_details is a required field".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
-                })?
-                .clone(),
-            new_index_version: message.new_index_version,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<pb::transaction::rewrite::RewriteGroup> for RewriteGroup {
-    type Error = Error;
-
-    fn try_from(message: pb::transaction::rewrite::RewriteGroup) -> Result<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            old_fragments: message
-                .old_fragments
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-            new_fragments: message
-                .new_fragments
-                .into_iter()
-                .map(Fragment::try_from)
-                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&Transaction> for pb::Transaction {
-    fn from(value: &Transaction) -> Self {
-        let operation = match &value.operation {
-            Operation::Append { fragments } => {
-                pb::transaction::Operation::Append(pb::transaction::Append {
-                    fragments: fragments.iter().map(pb::DataFragment::from).collect(),
-                })
-            }
-            Operation::Clone {
-                is_shallow,
-                ref_name,
-                ref_version,
-                ref_path,
-                branch_name,
-            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Clone(pb::transaction::Clone {
-                is_shallow: *is_shallow,
-                ref_name: ref_name.clone(),
-                ref_version: *ref_version,
-                ref_path: ref_path.clone(),
-                branch_name: branch_name.clone(),
-            }),
-            Operation::Delete {
-                updated_fragments,
-                deleted_fragment_ids,
-                predicate,
-            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Delete(pb::transaction::Delete {
-                updated_fragments: updated_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(pb::DataFragment::from)
-                    .collect(),
-                deleted_fragment_ids: deleted_fragment_ids.clone(),
-                predicate: predicate.clone(),
-            }),
-            Operation::Overwrite {
-                fragments,
-                schema,
-                config_upsert_values,
-                initial_bases,
-            } => {
-                pb::transaction::Operation::Overwrite(pb::transaction::Overwrite {
-                    fragments: fragments.iter().map(pb::DataFragment::from).collect(),
-                    schema: Fields::from(schema).0,
-                    schema_metadata: Default::default(), // TODO: handle metadata
-                    config_upsert_values: config_upsert_values
-                        .clone()
-                        .unwrap_or(Default::default()),
-                    initial_bases: initial_bases
-                        .as_ref()
-                        .map(|paths| {
-                            paths
-                                .iter()
-                                .cloned()
-                                .map(|bp: BasePath| -> pb::BasePath { bp.into() })
-                                .collect::<Vec<pb::BasePath>>()
-                        })
-                        .unwrap_or_default(),
-                })
-            }
-            Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments } => {
-                pb::transaction::Operation::ReserveFragments(pb::transaction::ReserveFragments {
-                    num_fragments: *num_fragments,
-                })
-            }
-            Operation::Rewrite {
-                groups,
-                rewritten_indices,
-                frag_reuse_index: _,
-            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Rewrite(pb::transaction::Rewrite {
-                groups: groups
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(pb::transaction::rewrite::RewriteGroup::from)
-                    .collect(),
-                rewritten_indices: rewritten_indices
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|rewritten| rewritten.into())
-                    .collect(),
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices,
-                removed_indices,
-            } => pb::transaction::Operation::CreateIndex(pb::transaction::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices: new_indices.iter().map(pb::IndexMetadata::from).collect(),
-                removed_indices: removed_indices
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(pb::IndexMetadata::from)
-                    .collect(),
-            }),
-            Operation::Merge { fragments, schema } => {
-                pb::transaction::Operation::Merge(pb::transaction::Merge {
-                    fragments: fragments.iter().map(pb::DataFragment::from).collect(),
-                    schema: Fields::from(schema).0,
-                    schema_metadata: Default::default(), // TODO: handle metadata
-                })
-            }
-            Operation::Restore { version } => {
-                pb::transaction::Operation::Restore(pb::transaction::Restore { version: *version })
-            }
-            Operation::Update {
-                removed_fragment_ids,
-                updated_fragments,
-                new_fragments,
-                fields_modified,
-                merged_generations,
-                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
-                update_mode,
-                inserted_rows_filter,
-            } => pb::transaction::Operation::Update(pb::transaction::Update {
-                removed_fragment_ids: removed_fragment_ids.clone(),
-                updated_fragments: updated_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(pb::DataFragment::from)
-                    .collect(),
-                new_fragments: new_fragments.iter().map(pb::DataFragment::from).collect(),
-                fields_modified: fields_modified.clone(),
-                merged_generations: merged_generations
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(pb::MergedGeneration::from)
-                    .collect(),
-                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap.clone(),
-                update_mode: update_mode
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .map(|mode| match mode {
-                        UpdateMode::RewriteRows => 0,
-                        UpdateMode::RewriteColumns => 1,
-                    })
-                    .unwrap_or(0),
-                inserted_rows: inserted_rows_filter.as_ref().map(|ik| ik.into()),
-            }),
-            Operation::Project { schema } => {
-                pb::transaction::Operation::Project(pb::transaction::Project {
-                    schema: Fields::from(schema).0,
-                })
-            }
-            Operation::UpdateConfig {
-                config_updates,
-                table_metadata_updates,
-                schema_metadata_updates,
-                field_metadata_updates,
-            } => pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateConfig(pb::transaction::UpdateConfig {
-                config_updates: config_updates
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .map(pb::transaction::UpdateMap::from),
-                table_metadata_updates: table_metadata_updates
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .map(pb::transaction::UpdateMap::from),
-                schema_metadata_updates: schema_metadata_updates
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .map(pb::transaction::UpdateMap::from),
-                field_metadata_updates: field_metadata_updates
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|(field_id, update_map)| {
-                        (*field_id, pb::transaction::UpdateMap::from(update_map))
-                    })
-                    .collect(),
-                // Leave old fields empty - we only write new-style fields
-                upsert_values: Default::default(),
-                delete_keys: Default::default(),
-                schema_metadata: Default::default(),
-                field_metadata: Default::default(),
-            }),
-            Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => {
-                pb::transaction::Operation::DataReplacement(pb::transaction::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: replacements
-                        .iter()
-                        .map(pb::transaction::DataReplacementGroup::from)
-                        .collect(),
-                })
-            }
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState { merged_generations } => {
-                pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateMemWalState(pb::transaction::UpdateMemWalState {
-                    merged_generations: merged_generations
-                        .iter()
-                        .map(pb::MergedGeneration::from)
-                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-                })
-            }
-            Operation::UpdateBases { new_bases } => {
-                pb::transaction::Operation::UpdateBases(pb::transaction::UpdateBases {
-                    new_bases: new_bases
-                        .iter()
-                        .cloned()
-                        .map(|bp: BasePath| -> pb::BasePath { bp.into() })
-                        .collect::<Vec<pb::BasePath>>(),
-                })
-            }
-        };
-
-        let transaction_properties = value
-            .transaction_properties
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|arc| arc.as_ref().clone())
-            .unwrap_or_default();
-        Self {
-            read_version: value.read_version,
-            uuid: value.uuid.clone(),
-            operation: Some(operation),
-            tag: value.tag.clone().unwrap_or("".to_string()),
-            transaction_properties,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&RewrittenIndex> for pb::transaction::rewrite::RewrittenIndex {
-    fn from(value: &RewrittenIndex) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            old_id: Some((&value.old_id).into()),
-            new_id: Some((&value.new_id).into()),
-            new_index_details: Some(value.new_index_details.clone()),
-            new_index_version: value.new_index_version,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&RewriteGroup> for pb::transaction::rewrite::RewriteGroup {
-    fn from(value: &RewriteGroup) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            old_fragments: value
-                .old_fragments
-                .iter()
-                .map(pb::DataFragment::from)
-                .collect(),
-            new_fragments: value
-                .new_fragments
-                .iter()
-                .map(pb::DataFragment::from)
-                .collect(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Validate the operation is valid for the given manifest.
-pub fn validate_operation(manifest: Option<&Manifest>, operation: &Operation) -> Result<()> {
-    let manifest = match (manifest, operation) {
-        (
-            None,
-            Operation::Overwrite {
-                fragments, schema, ..
-            },
-        ) => {
-            // Validate here because we are going to return early.
-            schema_fragments_valid(None, schema, fragments)?;
-
-            return Ok(());
-        }
-        (None, Operation::Clone { .. }) => return Ok(()),
-        (Some(manifest), _) => manifest,
-        (None, _) => {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Cannot apply operation {} to non-existent dataset",
-                    operation.name()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        }
-    };
-
-    match operation {
-        Operation::Append { fragments } => {
-            // Fragments must contain all fields in the schema
-            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), &manifest.schema, fragments)
-        }
-        Operation::Project { schema } => {
-            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), schema, manifest.fragments.as_ref())
-        }
-        Operation::Merge { fragments, schema } => {
-            merge_fragments_valid(manifest, fragments)?;
-            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), schema, fragments)
-        }
-        Operation::Overwrite {
-            fragments,
-            schema,
-            config_upsert_values: None,
-            initial_bases: _,
-        } => schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), schema, fragments),
-        Operation::Update {
-            updated_fragments,
-            new_fragments,
-            ..
-        } => {
-            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), &manifest.schema, updated_fragments)?;
-            schema_fragments_valid(Some(manifest), &manifest.schema, new_fragments)
-        }
-        _ => Ok(()),
-    }
-}
-
-fn schema_fragments_valid(
-    manifest: Option<&Manifest>,
-    schema: &Schema,
-    fragments: &[Fragment],
-) -> Result<()> {
-    if let Some(manifest) = manifest {
-        if manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()? == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-            return schema_fragments_legacy_valid(schema, fragments);
-        }
-    }
-    // validate that each data file at least contains one field.
-    for fragment in fragments {
-        for data_file in &fragment.files {
-            if data_file.fields.iter().len() == 0 {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!("Datafile {} does not contain any fields", data_file.path),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
-        }
-    }
-    Ok(())
-}
-
-/// Check that each fragment contains all fields in the schema.
-/// It is not required that the schema contains all fields in the fragment.
-/// There may be masked fields.
-fn schema_fragments_legacy_valid(schema: &Schema, fragments: &[Fragment]) -> Result<()> {
-    // TODO: add additional validation. Consider consolidating with various
-    // validate() methods in the codebase.
-    for fragment in fragments {
-        for field in schema.fields_pre_order() {
-            if !fragment
-                .files
-                .iter()
-                .flat_map(|f| f.fields.iter())
-                .any(|f_id| f_id == &field.id)
-            {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Fragment {} does not contain field {:?}",
-                        fragment.id, field
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
-        }
-    }
-    Ok(())
-}
-
-/// Validate that Merge operations preserve all original fragments.
-/// Merge operations should only add columns or rows, not reduce fragments.
-/// This ensures fragments correspond at one-to-one with the original fragment list.
-fn merge_fragments_valid(manifest: &Manifest, new_fragments: &[Fragment]) -> Result<()> {
-    let original_fragments = manifest.fragments.as_ref();
-
-    // Additional validation: ensure we're not accidentally reducing the fragment count
-    if new_fragments.len() < original_fragments.len() {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Merge operation reduced fragment count from {} to {}. \
-                 Merge operations should only add columns, not reduce fragments.",
-                original_fragments.len(),
-                new_fragments.len()
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ));
-    }
-
-    // Collect new fragment IDs
-    let new_fragment_map: HashMap<u64, &Fragment> =
-        new_fragments.iter().map(|f| (f.id, f)).collect();
-
-    // Check that all original fragments are preserved in the new fragments list
-    // Validate that each original fragment's metadata is preserved
-    let mut missing_fragments: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
-    for original_fragment in original_fragments {
-        if let Some(new_fragment) = new_fragment_map.get(&original_fragment.id) {
-            // Validate physical_rows (row count) hasn't changed
-            if original_fragment.physical_rows != new_fragment.physical_rows {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Merge operation changed row count for fragment {}. \
-                         Original: {:?}, New: {:?}. \
-                         Merge operations should preserve fragment row counts and only add new columns.",
-                        original_fragment.id,
-                        original_fragment.physical_rows,
-                        new_fragment.physical_rows
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
-        } else {
-            missing_fragments.push(original_fragment.id);
-        }
-    }
-
-    if !missing_fragments.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Merge operation is missing original fragments: {:?}. \
-                 Merge operations should preserve all original fragments and only add new columns. \
-                 Expected fragments: {:?}, but got: {:?}",
-                missing_fragments,
-                original_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-                new_fragment_map.keys().copied().collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ));
-    }
-
-    Ok(())
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_rewrite_fragments() {
-        let existing_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = (0..10).map(Fragment::new).collect();
-
-        let mut final_fragments = existing_fragments;
-        let rewrite_groups = vec![
-            // Since these are contiguous, they will be put in the same location
-            // as 1 and 2.
-            RewriteGroup {
-                old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2)],
-                // These two fragments were previously reserved
-                new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(15), Fragment::new(16)],
-            },
-            // These are not contiguous, so they will be inserted at the end.
-            RewriteGroup {
-                old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(5), Fragment::new(8)],
-                // We pretend this id was not reserved.  Does not happen in practice today
-                // but we want to leave the door open.
-                new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
-            },
-        ];
-
-        let mut fragment_id = 20;
-        let version = 0;
-
-        Transaction::handle_rewrite_fragments(
-            &mut final_fragments,
-            &rewrite_groups,
-            &mut fragment_id,
-            version,
-            None,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(fragment_id, 21);
-
-        let expected_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = vec![
-            Fragment::new(0),
-            Fragment::new(15),
-            Fragment::new(16),
-            Fragment::new(3),
-            Fragment::new(4),
-            Fragment::new(6),
-            Fragment::new(7),
-            Fragment::new(9),
-            Fragment::new(20),
-        ];
-
-        assert_eq!(final_fragments, expected_fragments);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_merge_fragments_valid() {
-        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-        use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
-        use lance_table::format::Manifest;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
-
-        // Create a simple schema for testing
-        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
-        ]);
-
-        // Create original fragments
-        let original_fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2), Fragment::new(3)];
-
-        // Create a manifest with original fragments
-        let manifest = Manifest::new(
-            LanceSchema::try_from(&schema).unwrap(),
-            Arc::new(original_fragments),
-            DataStorageFormat::new(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
-            HashMap::new(),
-        );
-
-        // Test 1: Empty fragments should fail
-        let empty_fragments = vec![];
-        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &empty_fragments);
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("reduced fragment count"));
-
-        // Test 2: Missing original fragments should fail
-        let missing_fragments = vec![
-            Fragment::new(1),
-            Fragment::new(2),
-            // Fragment 3 is missing
-            Fragment::new(4), // New fragment
-        ];
-        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &missing_fragments);
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("missing original fragments"));
-
-        // Test 3: Reduced fragment count should fail
-        let reduced_fragments = vec![
-            Fragment::new(1),
-            Fragment::new(2),
-            // Fragment 3 is missing, no new fragments added
-        ];
-        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &reduced_fragments);
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("reduced fragment count"));
-
-        // Test 4: Valid merge with all original fragments plus new ones should succeed
-        let valid_fragments = vec![
-            Fragment::new(1),
-            Fragment::new(2),
-            Fragment::new(3),
-            Fragment::new(4), // New fragment
-            Fragment::new(5), // Another new fragment
-        ];
-        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &valid_fragments);
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-
-        // Test 5: Same fragments (no new ones) should succeed
-        let same_fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2), Fragment::new(3)];
-        let result = merge_fragments_valid(&manifest, &same_fragments);
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_remove_tombstoned_data_files() {
-        // Create a fragment with mixed data files: some normal, some fully tombstoned
-        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(1);
-
-        // Add a normal data file with valid field IDs
-        fragment.files.push(DataFile {
-            path: "normal.lance".to_string(),
-            fields: vec![1, 2, 3],
-            column_indices: vec![],
-            file_major_version: 2,
-            file_minor_version: 0,
-            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(1000),
-            base_id: None,
-        });
-
-        // Add a data file with all fields tombstoned
-        fragment.files.push(DataFile {
-            path: "all_tombstoned.lance".to_string(),
-            fields: vec![-2, -2, -2],
-            column_indices: vec![],
-            file_major_version: 2,
-            file_minor_version: 0,
-            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(500),
-            base_id: None,
-        });
-
-        // Add a data file with mixed tombstoned and valid fields
-        fragment.files.push(DataFile {
-            path: "mixed.lance".to_string(),
-            fields: vec![4, -2, 5],
-            column_indices: vec![],
-            file_major_version: 2,
-            file_minor_version: 0,
-            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(750),
-            base_id: None,
-        });
-
-        // Add another fully tombstoned file
-        fragment.files.push(DataFile {
-            path: "another_tombstoned.lance".to_string(),
-            fields: vec![-2],
-            column_indices: vec![],
-            file_major_version: 2,
-            file_minor_version: 0,
-            file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(250),
-            base_id: None,
-        });
-
-        let mut fragments = vec![fragment];
-
-        // Apply the cleanup
-        Transaction::remove_tombstoned_data_files(&mut fragments);
-
-        // Should have removed the two fully tombstoned files
-        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[0].path, "normal.lance");
-        assert_eq!(fragments[0].files[1].path, "mixed.lance");
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_assign_row_ids_new_fragment() {
-        // Test assigning row IDs to a fragment without existing row IDs
-        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
-            id: 1,
-            physical_rows: Some(100),
-            row_id_meta: None,
-            files: vec![],
-            deletion_file: None,
-            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
-            created_at_version_meta: None,
-        }];
-        let mut next_row_id = 0;
-
-        Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments).unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(next_row_id, 100);
-        assert!(fragments[0].row_id_meta.is_some());
-
-        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[0].row_id_meta {
-            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 100);
-            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
-            assert_eq!(row_ids, (0..100).collect::<Vec<u64>>());
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata");
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_assign_row_ids_existing_complete() {
-        // Test with fragment that already has complete row IDs
-        let existing_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(0..50);
-        let serialized = write_row_ids(&existing_sequence);
-
-        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
-            id: 1,
-            physical_rows: Some(50),
-            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized)),
-            files: vec![],
-            deletion_file: None,
-            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
-            created_at_version_meta: None,
-        }];
-        let mut next_row_id = 100;
-
-        Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments).unwrap();
-
-        // next_row_id should not change
-        assert_eq!(next_row_id, 100);
-
-        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[0].row_id_meta {
-            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 50);
-            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
-            assert_eq!(row_ids, (0..50).collect::<Vec<u64>>());
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata");
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_assign_row_ids_partial_existing() {
-        // Test with fragment that has partial row IDs (merge insert case)
-        let existing_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(0..30);
-        let serialized = write_row_ids(&existing_sequence);
-
-        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
-            id: 1,
-            physical_rows: Some(50), // More physical rows than existing row IDs
-            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized)),
-            files: vec![],
-            deletion_file: None,
-            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
-            created_at_version_meta: None,
-        }];
-        let mut next_row_id = 100;
-
-        Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments).unwrap();
-
-        // next_row_id should advance by 20 (50 - 30)
-        assert_eq!(next_row_id, 120);
-
-        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[0].row_id_meta {
-            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 50);
-            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
-            // Should contain original 0-29 plus new 100-119
-            let mut expected = (0..30).collect::<Vec<u64>>();
-            expected.extend(100..120);
-            assert_eq!(row_ids, expected);
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata");
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_assign_row_ids_excess_row_ids() {
-        // Test error case where fragment has more row IDs than physical rows
-        let existing_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(0..60);
-        let serialized = write_row_ids(&existing_sequence);
-
-        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
-            id: 1,
-            physical_rows: Some(50), // Less physical rows than existing row IDs
-            row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized)),
-            files: vec![],
-            deletion_file: None,
-            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
-            created_at_version_meta: None,
-        }];
-        let mut next_row_id = 100;
-
-        let result = Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments);
-
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        if let Err(Error::Internal { message, .. }) = result {
-            assert!(message.contains("more row IDs (60) than physical rows (50)"));
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected Internal error about excess row IDs");
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_assign_row_ids_multiple_fragments() {
-        // Test with multiple fragments, some with existing row IDs, some without
-        let existing_sequence = RowIdSequence::from(500..520);
-        let serialized = write_row_ids(&existing_sequence);
-
-        let mut fragments = vec![
-            Fragment {
-                id: 1,
-                physical_rows: Some(30), // No existing row IDs
-                row_id_meta: None,
-                files: vec![],
-                deletion_file: None,
-                last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
-                created_at_version_meta: None,
-            },
-            Fragment {
-                id: 2,
-                physical_rows: Some(25), // Partial existing row IDs
-                row_id_meta: Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized)),
-                files: vec![],
-                deletion_file: None,
-                last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
-                created_at_version_meta: None,
-            },
-        ];
-        let mut next_row_id = 1000;
-
-        Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments).unwrap();
-
-        // Should advance by 30 (first fragment) + 5 (second fragment partial)
-        assert_eq!(next_row_id, 1035);
-
-        // Check first fragment
-        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[0].row_id_meta {
-            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 30);
-            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
-            assert_eq!(row_ids, (1000..1030).collect::<Vec<u64>>());
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata for first fragment");
-        }
-
-        // Check second fragment
-        if let Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(data)) = &fragments[1].row_id_meta {
-            let sequence = read_row_ids(data).unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(sequence.len(), 25);
-            let row_ids: Vec<u64> = sequence.iter().collect();
-            // Should contain original 500-519 plus new 1030-1034
-            let mut expected = (500..520).collect::<Vec<u64>>();
-            expected.extend(1030..1035);
-            assert_eq!(row_ids, expected);
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected inline row ID metadata for second fragment");
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_assign_row_ids_missing_physical_rows() {
-        // Test error case where fragment doesn't have physical_rows set
-        let mut fragments = vec![Fragment {
-            id: 1,
-            physical_rows: None,
-            row_id_meta: None,
-            files: vec![],
-            deletion_file: None,
-            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
-            created_at_version_meta: None,
-        }];
-        let mut next_row_id = 0;
-
-        let result = Transaction::assign_row_ids(&mut next_row_id, &mut fragments);
-
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        if let Err(Error::Internal { message, .. }) = result {
-            assert!(message.contains("Fragment does not have physical rows"));
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected Internal error about missing physical rows");
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Helper functions for retain_relevant_indices tests
-    fn create_test_index(
-        name: &str,
-        field_id: i32,
-        dataset_version: u64,
-        fragment_bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
-        is_vector: bool,
-    ) -> IndexMetadata {
-        use prost_types::Any;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
-        use uuid::Uuid;
-
-        let index_details = if is_vector {
-            Some(Arc::new(Any {
-                type_url: "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.VectorIndexDetails".to_string(),
-                value: vec![],
-            }))
-        } else {
-            Some(Arc::new(Any {
-                type_url: "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.ScalarIndexDetails".to_string(),
-                value: vec![],
-            }))
-        };
-
-        IndexMetadata {
-            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
-            fields: vec![field_id],
-            name: name.to_string(),
-            dataset_version,
-            fragment_bitmap,
-            index_details,
-            index_version: 1,
-            created_at: None,
-            base_id: None,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn create_system_index(name: &str, field_id: i32) -> IndexMetadata {
-        use prost_types::Any;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
-        use uuid::Uuid;
-
-        IndexMetadata {
-            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
-            fields: vec![field_id],
-            name: name.to_string(),
-            dataset_version: 1,
-            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2])),
-            index_details: Some(Arc::new(Any {
-                type_url: "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.SystemIndexDetails".to_string(),
-                value: vec![],
-            })),
-            index_version: 1,
-            created_at: None,
-            base_id: None,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn create_test_schema(field_ids: &[i32]) -> Schema {
-        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-        use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
-
-        let fields: Vec<ArrowField> = field_ids
-            .iter()
-            .map(|id| ArrowField::new(format!("field_{}", id), DataType::Int32, false))
-            .collect();
-
-        let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(fields);
-        let mut lance_schema = LanceSchema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap();
-
-        // Assign field IDs
-        for (i, field_id) in field_ids.iter().enumerate() {
-            lance_schema.mut_field_by_id(i as i32).unwrap().id = *field_id;
-        }
-
-        lance_schema
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_indices_removes_missing_fields() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1, 2]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            create_test_index("idx1", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false),
-            create_test_index("idx2", 2, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false),
-            create_test_index("idx3", 99, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Field doesn't exist
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
-        assert!(indices.iter().all(|idx| idx.fields[0] != 99));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_indices_keeps_system_indices() {
-        use lance_index::mem_wal::MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME;
-
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1, 2]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            create_system_index(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 99), // Field doesn't exist but should be kept
-            create_system_index(MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, 99), // Field doesn't exist but should be kept
-            create_test_index("regular_idx", 99, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Should be removed
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
-        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME));
-        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_indices_keeps_fragment_reuse_index() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            create_system_index(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 1),
-            create_test_index("other_idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Fragment reuse index should always be kept
-        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_single_empty_scalar_index() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![create_test_index(
-            "scalar_idx",
-            1,
-            1,
-            Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), // Empty bitmap
-            false,
-        )];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Single empty scalar index should be kept
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_single_empty_vector_index() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![create_test_index(
-            "vector_idx",
-            1,
-            1,
-            Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), // Empty bitmap
-            true,
-        )];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Single empty vector index should be removed
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 0);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_single_nonempty_index() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut scalar_indices = vec![create_test_index(
-            "scalar_idx",
-            1,
-            1,
-            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
-            false,
-        )];
-
-        let mut vector_indices = vec![create_test_index(
-            "vector_idx",
-            1,
-            1,
-            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])),
-            true,
-        )];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut scalar_indices, &schema, &fragments);
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut vector_indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Both should be kept
-        assert_eq!(scalar_indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(vector_indices.len(), 1);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_single_index_with_none_bitmap() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut scalar_indices = vec![create_test_index("scalar_idx", 1, 1, None, false)];
-        let mut vector_indices = vec![create_test_index("vector_idx", 1, 1, None, true)];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut scalar_indices, &schema, &fragments);
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut vector_indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Scalar should be kept, vector should be removed
-        assert_eq!(scalar_indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(vector_indices.len(), 0);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_multiple_empty_scalar_indices_keeps_oldest() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            create_test_index("idx", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
-            create_test_index("idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Oldest
-            create_test_index("idx", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Should keep only the oldest (dataset_version = 1)
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(indices[0].dataset_version, 1);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_multiple_empty_vector_indices_removes_all() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
-            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
-            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // All empty vector indices should be removed
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 0);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_mixed_empty_nonempty_keeps_nonempty() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            create_test_index("idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Empty
-            create_test_index("idx", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Non-empty
-            create_test_index("idx", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Empty
-            create_test_index("idx", 1, 4, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Non-empty
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Should keep only non-empty indices
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
-        assert!(indices
-            .iter()
-            .all(|idx| idx.dataset_version == 2 || idx.dataset_version == 4));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_mixed_empty_nonempty_vector_keeps_nonempty() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true), // Empty
-            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), true), // Non-empty
-            create_test_index("vec_idx", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),          // Empty
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Should keep only non-empty index
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(indices[0].dataset_version, 2);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_fragment_bitmap_with_nonexistent_fragments() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2)]; // Only fragments 1 and 2 exist
-
-        let mut indices = vec![create_test_index(
-            "idx",
-            1,
-            1,
-            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 3, 4])), // References non-existent fragments 3, 4
-            false,
-        )];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Should still keep the index (effective bitmap will be intersection with existing)
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        // Original bitmap should be unchanged
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
-            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 3, 4])
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_effective_empty_bitmap_single_index() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(5), Fragment::new(6)];
-
-        // Bitmap references fragments that don't exist, so effective bitmap is empty
-        let mut scalar_indices = vec![create_test_index(
-            "scalar_idx",
-            1,
-            1,
-            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 3])),
-            false,
-        )];
-
-        let mut vector_indices = vec![create_test_index(
-            "vector_idx",
-            1,
-            1,
-            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2, 3])),
-            true,
-        )];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut scalar_indices, &schema, &fragments);
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut vector_indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Scalar should be kept (single index, even if effective bitmap is empty)
-        // Vector should be removed (empty effective bitmap)
-        assert_eq!(scalar_indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(vector_indices.len(), 0);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_different_index_names() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
-            create_test_index("idx_b", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
-            create_test_index("idx_c", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false),
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // idx_a (empty scalar) should be kept, idx_b (empty vector) removed, idx_c (non-empty) kept
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
-        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_a"));
-        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_c"));
-        assert!(!indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_b"));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_empty_indices_vec() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = vec![];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 0);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_all_indices_removed() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            create_test_index("vec1", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
-            create_test_index("vec2", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
-            create_test_index("idx3", 99, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Bad field
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 0);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_retain_complex_scenario() {
-        let schema = create_test_schema(&[1, 2]);
-        let fragments = vec![Fragment::new(1), Fragment::new(2)];
-
-        let mut indices = vec![
-            // System index - should always be kept
-            create_system_index(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, 1),
-            // Group "idx_a" - all empty scalars, keep oldest
-            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
-            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false), // Oldest
-            create_test_index("idx_a", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
-            // Group "vec_b" - all empty vectors, remove all
-            create_test_index("vec_b", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
-            create_test_index("vec_b", 1, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), true),
-            // Group "idx_c" - mixed empty/non-empty, keep non-empty
-            create_test_index("idx_c", 2, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::new()), false),
-            create_test_index("idx_c", 2, 2, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false), // Keep
-            create_test_index("idx_c", 2, 3, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2])), false), // Keep
-            // Single non-empty - keep
-            create_test_index("idx_d", 1, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2])), false),
-            // Index with bad field - remove
-            create_test_index("idx_e", 99, 1, Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])), false),
-        ];
-
-        Transaction::retain_relevant_indices(&mut indices, &schema, &fragments);
-
-        // Expected: frag_reuse, idx_a (oldest), idx_c (2 non-empty), idx_d = 5 total
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 5);
-
-        // Verify system index kept
-        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME));
-
-        // Verify idx_a kept oldest only
-        let idx_a_indices: Vec<_> = indices.iter().filter(|idx| idx.name == "idx_a").collect();
-        assert_eq!(idx_a_indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(idx_a_indices[0].dataset_version, 1);
-
-        // Verify vec_b all removed
-        assert!(!indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "vec_b"));
-
-        // Verify idx_c kept non-empty only
-        let idx_c_indices: Vec<_> = indices.iter().filter(|idx| idx.name == "idx_c").collect();
-        assert_eq!(idx_c_indices.len(), 2);
-        assert!(idx_c_indices
-            .iter()
-            .all(|idx| idx.dataset_version == 2 || idx.dataset_version == 3));
-
-        // Verify idx_d kept
-        assert!(indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_d"));
-
-        // Verify idx_e removed (bad field)
-        assert!(!indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == "idx_e"));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_handle_rewrite_indices_skips_missing_index() {
-        use uuid::Uuid;
-
-        // Create an empty indices list
-        let mut indices = vec![];
-
-        // Create rewritten_indices referring to a non-existent index
-        let rewritten_indices = vec![RewrittenIndex {
-            old_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
-            new_id: Uuid::new_v4(),
-            new_index_details: prost_types::Any {
-                type_url: String::new(),
-                value: vec![],
-            },
-            new_index_version: 1,
-        }];
-
-        // Should succeed (skip missing index) instead of error
-        let result = Transaction::handle_rewrite_indices(&mut indices, &rewritten_indices, &[]);
-        assert!(result.is_ok());
-        assert!(indices.is_empty());
-    }
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/udtf.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/udtf.rs
index 118aa64719c..2144b108859 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/udtf.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/udtf.rs
@@ -10,11 +10,9 @@ use datafusion_expr::{Expr, TableType};
 use datafusion_physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
 use lance_arrow::SchemaExt;
 use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID_FIELD};
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::parser::from_json;
 use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::parser::from_json;
 use serde_json::Value;
-use snafu::location;
-use std::any::Any;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::fmt::Debug;
 use std::sync::Arc;
@@ -62,10 +60,6 @@ impl FtsTableProvider {
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl TableProvider for FtsTableProvider {
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         self.full_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -219,7 +213,7 @@ impl TableFunctionImpl for FtsQueryUDTF {
 
 fn parse_query_options(options: &str) -> datafusion::common::Result<(bool, bool, bool)> {
     let value: Value = serde_json::from_str(options)
-        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid json options: {}", e), location!()))?;
+        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(format!("invalid json options: {}", e)))?;
     let with_row_id = value
         .get("with_row_id")
         .is_some_and(|v| v.as_bool().unwrap_or(false));
@@ -257,16 +251,17 @@ impl FtsQueryUDTFBuilder {
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
-    use crate::dataset::udtf::FtsQueryUDTFBuilder;
+mod tests {
     use crate::Dataset;
+    use crate::dataset::udtf::FtsQueryUDTFBuilder;
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use arrow_array::{
         Array, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, UInt64Array,
     };
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
     use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
     use lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams;
-    use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
     use std::sync::Arc;
 
     #[tokio::test]
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/updater.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/updater.rs
index 7197f877943..5f2edb96477 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/updater.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/updater.rs
@@ -5,15 +5,16 @@ use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
 use futures::StreamExt;
 use lance_core::datatypes::{OnMissing, OnTypeMismatch};
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Schema, Error, Result};
-use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_table::format::{DataFile, Fragment};
 use lance_table::utils::stream::ReadBatchFutStream;
-use snafu::location;
 
+use super::Dataset;
 use super::fragment::FragmentReader;
 use super::scanner::get_default_batch_size;
-use super::write::{open_writer, GenericWriter};
-use super::Dataset;
+use super::versions;
+use super::write::{GenericWriter, cleanup_data_fragments};
 use crate::dataset::FileFragment;
 
 /// Update or insert a new column.
@@ -43,6 +44,10 @@ pub struct Updater {
     /// The schema the new files will be written in. This only contains new columns.
     write_schema: Option<Schema>,
 
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool,
+
+    write_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+
     finished: bool,
 
     deletion_restorer: DeletionRestorer,
@@ -56,20 +61,41 @@ impl Updater {
     ///
     /// If the schemas are not known, they can be None and will be inferred from
     /// the first batch of results.
-    pub(super) fn try_new(
+    pub(super) async fn try_new(
         fragment: FileFragment,
         reader: FragmentReader,
         deletion_vector: DeletionVector,
         schemas: Option<(Schema, Schema)>,
         batch_size: Option<u32>,
+        write_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if batch_size == Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "batch_size must be greater than zero, got 0 for fragment {}",
+                fragment.id()
+            )));
+        }
         let (write_schema, final_schema) = if let Some((write_schema, final_schema)) = schemas {
             (Some(write_schema), Some(final_schema))
         } else {
             (None, None)
         };
 
-        let legacy_batch_size = reader.legacy_num_rows_in_batch(0);
+        let source_version = fragment
+            .metadata()
+            .referenced_lance_files()
+            .next()
+            .map(|file| file.file_version())
+            .transpose()?
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                fragment
+                    .dataset()
+                    .manifest()
+                    .data_storage_format
+                    .lance_file_format()
+            });
+        let legacy_batch_size =
+            versions::row_group_size_for_rewrite(source_version, &fragment).await?;
 
         let batch_size = match (&legacy_batch_size, batch_size) {
             // If this is a v1 dataset we must use the row group size of the file
@@ -80,7 +106,7 @@ impl Updater {
             (None, None) => get_default_batch_size().unwrap_or(1024) as u32,
         };
 
-        let input_stream = reader.read_all(batch_size)?;
+        let input_stream = reader.read_all(batch_size).await?;
 
         Ok(Self {
             fragment,
@@ -89,6 +115,10 @@ impl Updater {
             writer: None,
             write_schema,
             final_schema,
+            // The schema adapter needs the data schema, not the logical schema, so it can't be
+            // created until after the first batch is read.
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases: false,
+            write_version,
             finished: false,
             deletion_restorer: DeletionRestorer::new(deletion_vector, legacy_batch_size),
         })
@@ -103,6 +133,10 @@ impl Updater {
     }
 
     /// Returns the next [`RecordBatch`] as input for updater.
+    ///
+    /// Every batch this hands out must be passed back to [`Self::update`] before the
+    /// next call: the deletion restorer advances there, so skipping it would leave
+    /// deleted rows unaccounted for and fail the stream at its end.
     pub async fn next(&mut self) -> Result<Option<&RecordBatch>> {
         if self.finished {
             return Ok(None);
@@ -111,12 +145,26 @@ impl Updater {
         match batch {
             None => {
                 if !self.deletion_restorer.is_exhausted() {
-                    // This can happen only if there is a batch size (e.g. v1 file) and the
-                    // last batch(es) are entirely deleted.
-                    return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                        source: "Missing too many rows in merge, run compaction to materialize deletions first".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    // The stream cannot supply rows the restorer still needs. In
+                    // practice that means the deletion vector points at rows the
+                    // stream never produced — an id past the fragment's physical row
+                    // count, or fewer rows read than the fragment claims to have.
+                    //
+                    // Deferred blanks can also be outstanding here, but only if no
+                    // batch after the deferral had a live row, i.e. the whole fragment
+                    // is deleted; `write_deletions` drops such a fragment before it
+                    // reaches an updater, so that path is defensive. A legacy file
+                    // cannot defer at all — its fully deleted batch is refused
+                    // earlier, by `add_blanks`.
+                    //
+                    // Don't name a count: the deletion-vector case owes no blanks yet,
+                    // so a number here would read as zero rows owed.
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                        "Fragment Updater: the input stream for fragment {} ended while \
+                         deleted rows were still unaccounted for, run compaction to \
+                         materialize deletions first",
+                        self.fragment.id(),
+                    )));
                 }
                 self.finished = true;
                 Ok(None)
@@ -137,39 +185,35 @@ impl Updater {
     ///
     /// Internal use only.
     async fn new_writer(&mut self, schema: Schema) -> Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>> {
-        let data_storage_version = self
-            .dataset()
-            .manifest()
-            .data_storage_format
-            .lance_file_version()?;
-
-        open_writer(
-            &self.fragment.dataset().object_store,
+        versions::open_update_writer(
+            self.write_version,
+            self.dataset(),
             &schema,
-            &self.fragment.dataset().base,
-            data_storage_version,
+            self.allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
         )
         .await
     }
 
+    /// Allow trusted existing external blob references to pass through an update rewrite.
+    /// Callers must separately validate any newly supplied references before writing.
+    pub(super) fn allow_external_blob_outside_bases(&mut self) {
+        self.allow_external_blob_outside_bases = true;
+    }
+
     /// Update one batch.
     pub async fn update(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
         let Some(last) = self.last_input.as_ref() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "Fragment Updater: no input data is available before update".to_string(),
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
 
         if last.num_rows() != batch.num_rows() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "Fragment Updater: new batch has different size with the source batch: {} != {}",
-                    last.num_rows(),
-                    batch.num_rows()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Fragment Updater: new batch has different size with the source batch: {} != {}",
+                last.num_rows(),
+                batch.num_rows()
+            )));
         };
 
         // Add back in deleted rows
@@ -213,6 +257,40 @@ impl Updater {
         Ok(self.fragment.metadata().clone())
     }
 
+    /// Clean up any data file and blob sidecars created by the current unfinished writer.
+    pub(super) async fn cleanup_unfinished_writer(&mut self) {
+        let Some(writer) = self.writer.take() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let (path, base_id) = writer.data_file_path();
+        let path = path.to_string();
+        drop(writer);
+
+        if path.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let mut fragment = Fragment::new(self.fragment.id() as u64);
+        // cleanup_data_fragments only needs path/base_id to remove the unfinished
+        // data file and any blob sidecars. Build a minimal synthetic fragment so
+        // we can reuse the shared cleanup path without fabricating full metadata.
+        fragment.files.push(DataFile::new(
+            path,
+            vec![],
+            vec![],
+            self.write_version,
+            None,
+            base_id,
+        ));
+        cleanup_data_fragments(
+            &self.dataset().object_store,
+            &self.dataset().base,
+            None,
+            &[fragment],
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
     /// Get the final schema of the fragment after the update.
     ///
     /// This may be None if the schema is not known. This can happen if it was
@@ -233,6 +311,10 @@ impl Updater {
 ///
 /// To do this we scan through the deletion vector in sorted order, merging deleted rows
 /// in as appropriate.
+///
+/// Any method returning an error leaves the restorer mid-batch: the deletion vector
+/// has been walked past rows that never made it into an output batch. Drop it and
+/// start over rather than calling it again.
 struct DeletionRestorer {
     current_row_id: u32,
 
@@ -242,6 +324,12 @@ struct DeletionRestorer {
     deletion_vector_iter: Option<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u32> + Send>>,
 
     last_deleted_row_id: Option<u32>,
+
+    /// Blank rows owed to batches that had no live row to copy a placeholder from
+    ///
+    /// See [`Self::restore`] for why they are deferred instead of materialized.
+    /// Only ever non-zero for non-legacy files, which are the only ones that defer.
+    pending_blank_rows: u32,
 }
 
 impl DeletionRestorer {
@@ -251,11 +339,12 @@ impl DeletionRestorer {
             legacy_batch_size,
             deletion_vector_iter: Some(deletion_vector.into_sorted_iter()),
             last_deleted_row_id: None,
+            pending_blank_rows: 0,
         }
     }
 
     fn is_exhausted(&self) -> bool {
-        self.deletion_vector_iter.is_none()
+        self.deletion_vector_iter.is_none() && self.pending_blank_rows == 0
     }
 
     fn is_full(batch_size: Option<u32>, num_rows: u32) -> bool {
@@ -298,11 +387,14 @@ impl DeletionRestorer {
         let deletion_vector_iter = self.deletion_vector_iter.as_mut().unwrap();
 
         // Now we need to walk through our deletion vector and figure out where to insert blanks
-        let mut next_deleted_id = if self.last_deleted_row_id.is_some() {
-            self.last_deleted_row_id
-        } else {
-            deletion_vector_iter.next()
-        };
+        // Take the stashed id rather than peeking at it: leaving a consumed id in the
+        // field relies on the early return above to never read it again. `or_else` has
+        // to stay lazy — `or` would pull from the iterator even when a stash is waiting,
+        // silently dropping a deleted row.
+        let mut next_deleted_id = self
+            .last_deleted_row_id
+            .take()
+            .or_else(|| deletion_vector_iter.next());
         loop {
             if let Some(next_deleted_id) = next_deleted_id {
                 if next_deleted_id > last_row_id
@@ -322,40 +414,96 @@ impl DeletionRestorer {
             } else {
                 // Deleted row ids iterator is exhausted
                 self.deletion_vector_iter = None;
+                // `is_exhausted` reads these two together, so a stash left behind here
+                // would make it report exhaustion while a deleted row is still owed.
+                debug_assert!(self.last_deleted_row_id.is_none());
                 return deleted;
             }
             next_deleted_id = deletion_vector_iter.next();
         }
     }
 
+    /// Restore the deleted rows for one batch of live rows.
+    ///
+    /// Blanks are materialized by copying the batch's first live row (see
+    /// [`add_blanks`]), so a batch with no live rows has nothing to copy from. That
+    /// happens when a deleted run starts at physical row 0: there is no preceding
+    /// batch for [`Self::deleted_batch_offsets_in_range`] to append the run to, so
+    /// the run arrives as an empty batch carrying every one of its offsets.
+    ///
+    /// Rather than invent placeholder values for an arbitrary schema, we remember
+    /// how many blanks we owe and prepend them to the next batch that does have a
+    /// live row. Deleted rows sort before the live rows that follow them, so the
+    /// physical row order is preserved either way.
     fn restore(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        // Holds by construction today — deferring is the only thing that sets
+        // pending_blank_rows and it is gated on non-legacy — so this documents the
+        // invariant the legacy row-count check below depends on rather than guarding
+        // against a state we can reach.
+        debug_assert!(self.pending_blank_rows == 0 || self.legacy_batch_size.is_none());
+
         // Because of deleted rows, the number of row ids in the batch might not
         // match the length.
         let deleted_batch_offsets = self.deleted_batch_offsets_in_range(batch.num_rows() as u32);
-        let batch = add_blanks(batch, &deleted_batch_offsets)?;
+
+        // Legacy files must reproduce the original row group size, which deferring
+        // would break, so they keep reporting the pre-existing error instead.
+        if batch.num_rows() == 0 && self.legacy_batch_size.is_none() {
+            let deferred = deleted_batch_offsets.len() as u32;
+            self.pending_blank_rows += deferred;
+            self.current_row_id += deferred;
+            return Ok(batch);
+        }
+
+        let pending_blank_rows = self.pending_blank_rows;
+        let batch_offsets = if pending_blank_rows == 0 {
+            deleted_batch_offsets
+        } else {
+            // The deferred blanks take the front of the batch, pushing the offsets
+            // computed for this batch back by that many rows.
+            let mut batch_offsets =
+                Vec::with_capacity(pending_blank_rows as usize + deleted_batch_offsets.len());
+            batch_offsets.extend(0..pending_blank_rows);
+            batch_offsets.extend(
+                deleted_batch_offsets
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|offset| offset + pending_blank_rows),
+            );
+            batch_offsets
+        };
+
+        let batch = add_blanks(batch, &batch_offsets)?;
 
         if let Some(batch_size) = self.legacy_batch_size {
             // validation just in case, when the input has a fixed batch size then the
             // output should have the same fixed batch size (except the last batch)
             let is_last = self.is_exhausted();
             if batch.num_rows() != batch_size as usize && !is_last {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Fragment Updater: batch size mismatch: {} != {}",
-                        batch.num_rows(),
-                        batch_size
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Fragment Updater: batch size mismatch: {} != {}",
+                    batch.num_rows(),
+                    batch_size
+                )));
             }
         }
 
-        self.current_row_id += batch.num_rows() as u32;
+        // The deferred blanks were counted when they were deferred.
+        self.current_row_id += batch.num_rows() as u32 - pending_blank_rows;
+        self.pending_blank_rows = 0;
         Ok(batch)
     }
 }
 
 /// Add blank rows where there are deleted rows
+///
+/// `batch_offsets` must be strictly increasing, and no offset may require more
+/// live rows before it than the batch has left: an offset is the position a blank
+/// takes in the output, so either kind of violation asks for an impossible number
+/// of live rows in between.
+///
+/// Blanks copy the batch's first row, so the batch must have at least one row.
+/// [`DeletionRestorer::restore`] defers blanks past an empty batch to keep that
+/// true; only legacy files, which cannot defer, can still reach the error below.
 pub(crate) fn add_blanks(batch: RecordBatch, batch_offsets: &[u32]) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
     // Fast early return
     if batch_offsets.is_empty() {
@@ -363,20 +511,38 @@ pub(crate) fn add_blanks(batch: RecordBatch, batch_offsets: &[u32]) -> Result<Re
     }
 
     if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-        // TODO: implement adding blanks for an empty batch.
-        // This is difficult because we need to create a batch for arbitrary schemas.
-        return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "Missing too many rows in merge, run compaction to materialize deletions first"
-                .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Fragment Updater: missing too many rows in merge, run compaction to materialize \
+             deletions first",
+        ));
     }
 
+    let num_live_rows = batch.num_rows() as u32;
     let mut selection_vector = Vec::<u32>::with_capacity(batch.num_rows() + batch_offsets.len());
     let mut batch_pos = 0;
     let mut next_id = 0;
-    for batch_offset in batch_offsets {
-        let num_rows = *batch_offset - next_id;
+    for (idx, batch_offset) in batch_offsets.iter().enumerate() {
+        // A non-increasing offset panics in debug and wraps in release; reject it
+        // up front so the error names the real problem.
+        let num_rows = batch_offset.checked_sub(next_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Fragment Updater: blank offsets must be strictly increasing, but offset \
+                 {batch_offset} (entry {idx} of {}) is below the expected minimum {next_id}",
+                batch_offsets.len()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        // An offset needing more live rows than remain would index past the batch:
+        // `take` runs unchecked below, so catch it here rather than letting it
+        // panic inside arrow or, worse, read the wrong rows.
+        if num_rows > num_live_rows - batch_pos {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Fragment Updater: blank offset {batch_offset} (entry {idx} of \
+                 {}) needs {num_rows} more live rows before it, but {} of the batch's \
+                 {num_live_rows} are still unused",
+                batch_offsets.len(),
+                num_live_rows - batch_pos
+            )));
+        }
         selection_vector.extend(batch_pos..batch_pos + num_rows);
         // For simplicity, we just use the first value for deleted rows
         // TODO: optimize this to use small value for each column.
@@ -384,19 +550,15 @@ pub(crate) fn add_blanks(batch: RecordBatch, batch_offsets: &[u32]) -> Result<Re
         next_id = *batch_offset + 1;
         batch_pos += num_rows;
     }
-    selection_vector.extend(batch_pos..batch.num_rows() as u32);
+    selection_vector.extend(batch_pos..num_live_rows);
     let selection_vector = UInt32Array::from(selection_vector);
 
     let arrays = batch
         .columns()
         .iter()
         .map(|array| {
-            arrow::compute::take(array.as_ref(), &selection_vector, None).map_err(|e| {
-                Error::Arrow {
-                    message: format!("Failed to add blanks: {}", e),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }
-            })
+            arrow::compute::take(array.as_ref(), &selection_vector, None)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::arrow(format!("Failed to add blanks: {}", e)))
         })
         .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
 
@@ -409,8 +571,9 @@ pub(crate) fn add_blanks(batch: RecordBatch, batch_offsets: &[u32]) -> Result<Re
 mod tests {
     use arrow::{array::AsArray, datatypes::Int32Type};
     use lance_datagen::RowCount;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-    use super::add_blanks;
+    use super::{Error, add_blanks};
 
     #[test]
     fn test_restore_deletes() {
@@ -455,6 +618,159 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Rows 0..10 are deleted, so the first read batch has no live rows. A legacy file
+    /// cannot defer the blanks and reports the error instead;
+    /// [`test_restore_deletes_leading_empty_batch`] covers the v2 side. Row 15 is here
+    /// only to keep the deletion vector identical between the two tests — legacy fails
+    /// on the first batch, so 15 is never reached.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_restore_deletes_leading_empty_batch_legacy() {
+        let mut restorer = super::DeletionRestorer::new((0..10).chain([15]).collect(), Some(10));
+
+        let empty = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Assert the source, not just is_err: the batch-size check further down
+        // returns Internal, and the two are different failures.
+        let err = restorer.restore(empty).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{err:?}");
+    }
+
+    /// The v2 side of the same deletion vector: blanks owed by a batch with no live
+    /// row are deferred to a later batch that has one to copy.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_restore_deletes_leading_empty_batch() {
+        let mut restorer = super::DeletionRestorer::new((0..10).chain([15]).collect(), None);
+
+        let empty = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Nothing is written for the fully deleted batch itself.
+        assert_eq!(restorer.restore(empty.clone()).unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+        assert!(!restorer.is_exhausted());
+
+        // A second empty batch must carry the debt through untouched: row 15 is
+        // out of its range, so it defers nothing of its own.
+        let restored = restorer.restore(empty).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(restored.num_rows(), 0);
+        assert!(!restorer.is_exhausted());
+
+        // The next batch covers row ids 10..15, so it owes the 10 deferred blanks
+        // in front of its own rows and one more for row 15 at the end. That last
+        // one is what pins the offset shift: without it the offsets would not be
+        // increasing.
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
+            .unwrap();
+        let restored = restorer.restore(batch).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(restored.num_rows(), 16);
+        let values = restored.column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        // Blanks copy the batch's first live row rather than inventing a value,
+        // which is what lets a non-nullable column through.
+        for i in 0..10 {
+            assert_eq!(values.value(i), 0);
+        }
+        for i in 0..5 {
+            assert_eq!(values.value(10 + i), i as i32);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(values.value(15), 0);
+        assert!(restorer.is_exhausted());
+    }
+
+    /// The debt itself has to keep the restorer from reporting exhaustion, not just
+    /// the deletion vector. With no row past the deleted run the iterator empties on
+    /// the first call, so only `pending_blank_rows` can hold `is_exhausted` back —
+    /// and it must, or `Updater::next` would accept a data file short by ten rows.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_restore_deletes_owes_blanks_after_vector_drains() {
+        let mut restorer = super::DeletionRestorer::new((0..10).collect(), None);
+
+        let empty = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(0))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(restorer.restore(empty).unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+        assert!(!restorer.is_exhausted());
+
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(restorer.restore(batch).unwrap().num_rows(), 15);
+        assert!(restorer.is_exhausted());
+    }
+
+    /// A deletion vector naming a row the fragment does not have leaves the restorer
+    /// unexhausted with no blanks owed: the id stays stashed, so the iterator is never
+    /// drained. `Updater::next` relies on this to refuse rather than write a data file
+    /// missing that row, and the error must not claim a blank count for it.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_restore_deletes_not_exhausted_when_deletion_vector_overruns() {
+        let mut restorer = super::DeletionRestorer::new([100].into_iter().collect(), None);
+
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Row 100 is past this batch, so it is stashed rather than consumed and
+        // nothing is restored. No blanks are owed either — which is why the error in
+        // `Updater::next` cannot name a count.
+        assert_eq!(restorer.restore(batch).unwrap().num_rows(), 5);
+        assert!(!restorer.is_exhausted());
+    }
+
+    /// Deferred blanks are counted into `current_row_id` when they are deferred, so
+    /// consuming them must not count them again. A later deleted row is what makes
+    /// the double count observable: it lands at the wrong offset once the restorer
+    /// thinks the fragment is further along than it is.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_restore_deletes_does_not_double_count_deferred_blanks() {
+        let mut restorer = super::DeletionRestorer::new((0..10).chain([22]).collect(), None);
+
+        let empty = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(restorer.restore(empty).unwrap().num_rows(), 0);
+
+        // Rows 10..20 are live, so this batch pays off the ten blanks and nothing
+        // else: row 22 is past its range and stays stashed.
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(10))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(restorer.restore(batch).unwrap().num_rows(), 20);
+        assert!(!restorer.is_exhausted());
+
+        // Row 22 falls inside this batch's range, but only if current_row_id sits at
+        // 20. Counting the deferred blanks twice would have pushed it to 30, putting
+        // row 22 behind the batch and dropping its blank.
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
+            .unwrap();
+        let restored = restorer.restore(batch).unwrap();
+
+        // Physical rows 20..25 arrive with row 22 deleted, so the blank lands third.
+        assert_eq!(restored.num_rows(), 6);
+        let values = restored.column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        assert_eq!(values.value(0), 0);
+        assert_eq!(values.value(1), 1);
+        assert_eq!(values.value(2), 0);
+        for i in 2..5 {
+            assert_eq!(values.value(1 + i), i as i32);
+        }
+        assert!(restorer.is_exhausted());
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_add_blanks() {
         let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
@@ -484,4 +800,55 @@ mod tests {
         }
         assert_eq!(values.value(11), 0);
     }
+
+    /// The ways a caller can hand `add_blanks` offsets it cannot satisfy. The
+    /// message keyword matters as much as the variant: most of these return
+    /// `Internal`, so matching only the variant would let one check stand in for
+    /// the other.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::empty_batch(0, &[0, 1, 2], "missing too many rows in merge")]
+    #[case::non_increasing(5, &[3, 1], "strictly increasing")]
+    #[case::equal_offsets(5, &[1, 1], "strictly increasing")]
+    #[case::past_end(5, &[100], "more live rows before it, but")]
+    // Rejected at the second offset with only three live rows left, so this is the
+    // only case that exercises the `- batch_pos` term: without it the remaining
+    // count reads as five and this offset slips through.
+    #[case::past_end_after_live_rows(5, &[2, 7], "more live rows before it, but")]
+    fn test_add_blanks_rejects_invalid_offsets(
+        #[case] num_rows: u64,
+        #[case] batch_offsets: &[u32],
+        #[case] expected_message: &str,
+    ) {
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(num_rows))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let err = add_blanks(batch, batch_offsets).unwrap_err();
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(expected_message),
+            "expected {expected_message:?} in {message:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An offset equal to the batch length is the trailing-deletion shape: every
+    /// live row comes first, then the blanks. It has to be accepted, which is what
+    /// pins the bounds check to `>` rather than `>=`.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_add_blanks_at_end_of_batch() {
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("x", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(5))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let with_blanks = add_blanks(batch, &[5]).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(with_blanks.num_rows(), 6);
+        let values = with_blanks.column(0).as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        for i in 0..5 {
+            assert_eq!(values.value(i), i as i32);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(values.value(5), 0);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/utils.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/utils.rs
index 56792a9317d..376eed126a0 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/utils.rs
@@ -2,47 +2,56 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use crate::Result;
-use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
-use arrow_schema::{Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef as ArrowSchemaRef};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{
+    DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef as ArrowSchemaRef,
+};
 use datafusion::error::Result as DFResult;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use futures::StreamExt;
 use lance_arrow::json::{
     arrow_json_to_lance_json, convert_json_columns, convert_lance_json_to_arrow,
-    is_arrow_json_field, is_json_field,
+    has_arrow_json_fields, has_json_fields, lance_json_to_arrow_json,
 };
-use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+use lance_core::{ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID};
+use lance_table::format::{RowDatasetVersionRun, RowDatasetVersionSequence};
+use lance_table::rowids::segment::U64Segment;
 use lance_table::rowids::{RowIdIndex, RowIdSequence};
 use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
 use std::borrow::Cow;
-use std::sync::mpsc::Receiver;
 use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::mpsc::Receiver;
+
+fn u64_values<'a>(batch: &'a RecordBatch, column: usize, what: &str) -> &'a [u64] {
+    let array = batch.column(column);
+    array
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("{what} had an unexpected type: {}", array.data_type()))
+        .values()
+}
 
 fn extract_row_ids(
     row_ids: &mut CapturedRowIds,
     batch: RecordBatch,
     row_id_idx: usize,
-    non_row_id_projection: &[usize],
+    created_at_idx: Option<usize>,
+    data_projection: &[usize],
 ) -> DFResult<RecordBatch> {
-    let row_ids_arr = batch.column(row_id_idx);
-    let row_ids_itr = row_ids_arr
-        .as_any()
-        .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
-        .unwrap_or_else(|| {
-            panic!(
-                "Row ids had an unexpected type: {}",
-                row_ids_arr.data_type()
-            )
-        })
-        .values();
-    row_ids.capture(row_ids_itr)?;
-    Ok(batch.project(non_row_id_projection)?)
+    row_ids.capture(u64_values(&batch, row_id_idx, "Row ids"))?;
+    if let Some(created_at_idx) = created_at_idx {
+        row_ids.capture_created_at(u64_values(&batch, created_at_idx, "Created-at versions"));
+    }
+    Ok(batch.project(data_projection)?)
 }
 
 /// Given a stream that includes a row id column, return a stream that will
 /// capture the row id. At completion of the stream, the captured row ids can
 /// be received from the returned receiver.
+///
+/// A `_row_created_at_version` column, if the stream carries one, is captured
+/// alongside the row ids and removed from the output the same way.
 pub fn make_rowid_capture_stream(
     mut target: SendableRecordBatchStream,
     stable_row_ids: bool,
@@ -55,14 +64,24 @@ pub fn make_rowid_capture_stream(
     let (row_id_idx, _) = schema
         .column_with_name(ROW_ID)
         .expect("Received a batch without row ids");
-    let non_row_ids_cols = (0..schema.fields.len())
-        .filter(|col| *col != row_id_idx)
+    let created_at_idx = schema
+        .column_with_name(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION)
+        .map(|(idx, _)| idx);
+    // Started here, rather than on the first batch, so a stream that carries
+    // the column but no rows still reports an empty capture.
+    if created_at_idx.is_some()
+        && let CapturedRowIds::SequenceStyle { created_at, .. } = &mut row_ids
+    {
+        *created_at = Some(RowDatasetVersionSequence::new());
+    }
+    let data_cols = (0..schema.fields.len())
+        .filter(|col| *col != row_id_idx && Some(*col) != created_at_idx)
         .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-    let output_schema = Arc::new(schema.project(&non_row_ids_cols)?);
+    let output_schema = Arc::new(schema.project(&data_cols)?);
 
     let stream = futures::stream::poll_fn(move |cx| match target.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
         std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => {
-            let res = extract_row_ids(&mut row_ids, batch, row_id_idx, &non_row_ids_cols);
+            let res = extract_row_ids(&mut row_ids, batch, row_id_idx, created_at_idx, &data_cols);
             std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(res))
         }
         std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(Err(err))) => std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(Err(err))),
@@ -82,13 +101,21 @@ pub fn make_rowid_capture_stream(
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub enum CapturedRowIds {
     AddressStyle(RoaringTreemap),
-    SequenceStyle(RowIdSequence),
+    SequenceStyle {
+        row_ids: RowIdSequence,
+        /// The created-at versions of the captured rows, in capture order,
+        /// when the stream carried them; `None` when it did not.
+        created_at: Option<RowDatasetVersionSequence>,
+    },
 }
 
 impl CapturedRowIds {
     pub fn new(stable_row_ids: bool) -> Self {
         if stable_row_ids {
-            Self::SequenceStyle(RowIdSequence::new())
+            Self::SequenceStyle {
+                row_ids: RowIdSequence::new(),
+                created_at: None,
+            }
         } else {
             Self::AddressStyle(RoaringTreemap::new())
         }
@@ -101,32 +128,85 @@ impl CapturedRowIds {
                 ids.append(row_ids.iter().cloned())
                     .map_err(|e| datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Execution(e.to_string()))?;
             }
-            Self::SequenceStyle(sequence) => {
+            Self::SequenceStyle {
+                row_ids: sequence, ..
+            } => {
                 sequence.extend(row_ids.into());
             }
         }
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    /// Record the created-at versions of the rows just passed to [`Self::capture`].
+    pub fn capture_created_at(&mut self, versions: &[u64]) {
+        let Self::SequenceStyle {
+            created_at: Some(sequence),
+            ..
+        } = self
+        else {
+            return;
+        };
+        // Run-length encoded as they arrive, and a run that carries on from
+        // the previous batch is extended rather than restarted: a run per
+        // batch would bloat the inline metadata of a large rewrite.
+        for run in versions.chunk_by(|a, b| a == b) {
+            let (version, rows) = (run[0], run.len() as u64);
+            let start = match sequence.runs.last_mut() {
+                Some(RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                    span: U64Segment::Range(span),
+                    version: last_version,
+                }) => {
+                    if *last_version == version {
+                        span.end += rows;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    span.end
+                }
+                // Every run pushed below spans a range, so this is the first.
+                _ => 0,
+            };
+            sequence.runs.push(RowDatasetVersionRun {
+                span: U64Segment::Range(start..start + rows),
+                version,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
     pub fn row_id_sequence(&self) -> Option<&RowIdSequence> {
         match self {
-            Self::SequenceStyle(sequence) => Some(sequence),
+            Self::SequenceStyle { row_ids, .. } => Some(row_ids),
             _ => None,
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn row_addrs(&self, index: Option<&RowIdIndex>) -> Cow<'_, RoaringTreemap> {
+    /// The captured rows' created-at versions, in capture order, when the
+    /// stream carried them.
+    pub fn created_at_sequence(&self) -> Option<&RowDatasetVersionSequence> {
+        match self {
+            Self::SequenceStyle { created_at, .. } => created_at.as_ref(),
+            Self::AddressStyle(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn row_addrs(&self, index: Option<&RowIdIndex>) -> Result<Cow<'_, RoaringTreemap>> {
         match self {
-            Self::AddressStyle(addrs) => Cow::Borrowed(addrs),
-            Self::SequenceStyle(sequence) => {
+            Self::AddressStyle(addrs) => Ok(Cow::Borrowed(addrs)),
+            Self::SequenceStyle {
+                row_ids: sequence, ..
+            } => {
                 let mut treemap = RoaringTreemap::new();
                 let Some(index) = index else {
                     panic!("RowIdIndex required for sequence style row ids")
                 };
                 for row_id in sequence.iter() {
-                    treemap.insert(index.get(row_id).expect("row id missing from index").into());
+                    treemap.insert(
+                        index
+                            .get(row_id)?
+                            .expect("row id missing from index")
+                            .into(),
+                    );
                 }
-                Cow::Owned(treemap)
+                Ok(Cow::Owned(treemap))
             }
         }
     }
@@ -138,7 +218,65 @@ impl Default for CapturedRowIds {
     }
 }
 
-/// Adapter around the existing JSON conversion utilities.
+/// Returns the physical field for a view type, or `None` if no conversion is needed.
+fn physical_field(field: &ArrowField) -> Option<ArrowField> {
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::Utf8View => Some(
+            ArrowField::new(field.name(), DataType::Utf8, field.is_nullable())
+                .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+        ),
+        DataType::BinaryView => Some(
+            ArrowField::new(field.name(), DataType::Binary, field.is_nullable())
+                .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone()),
+        ),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Cast `Utf8View`/`BinaryView` columns in a batch to their classic offset equivalents.
+fn downcast_view_columns(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+) -> std::result::Result<RecordBatch, arrow_schema::ArrowError> {
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let mut new_fields: Vec<ArrowField> = Vec::with_capacity(schema.fields().len());
+    let mut new_columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_columns());
+    let mut changed = false;
+
+    for (i, field) in schema.fields().iter().enumerate() {
+        if let Some(phys) = physical_field(field) {
+            changed = true;
+            new_columns.push(arrow_cast::cast(
+                batch.column(i).as_ref(),
+                phys.data_type(),
+            )?);
+            new_fields.push(phys);
+        } else {
+            new_columns.push(batch.column(i).clone());
+            new_fields.push(field.as_ref().clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    if !changed {
+        return Ok(batch.clone());
+    }
+
+    RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            new_fields,
+            schema.metadata().clone(),
+        )),
+        new_columns,
+    )
+}
+
+/// Converts between the Arrow representations callers use and the ones Lance
+/// stores: Arrow JSON text ↔ Lance JSONB, and top-level view arrays → offset
+/// arrays.
+///
+/// Dataset writes convert once, in the data file writer
+/// ([`V2WriterAdapter`](super::write::V2WriterAdapter)). The physical methods
+/// are otherwise only for combining caller data with values read back from
+/// storage before that point.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct SchemaAdapter {
     logical_schema: ArrowSchemaRef,
@@ -150,54 +288,66 @@ impl SchemaAdapter {
         Self { logical_schema }
     }
 
-    /// Determine if the logical schema includes Arrow JSON fields that require conversion.
+    /// Determine if the logical schema includes fields that require physical conversion.
     pub fn requires_physical_conversion(&self) -> bool {
         self.logical_schema
             .fields()
             .iter()
-            .any(|field| is_arrow_json_field(field))
+            .any(|field| has_arrow_json_fields(field) || physical_field(field).is_some())
     }
 
     /// Determine if the physical schema includes Lance JSON fields that must be converted back.
     pub fn requires_logical_conversion(schema: &ArrowSchemaRef) -> bool {
-        schema.fields().iter().any(|field| is_json_field(field))
+        schema.fields().iter().any(|field| has_json_fields(field))
     }
 
-    /// Convert a logical stream into a physical stream.
-    pub fn to_physical_stream(
-        &self,
-        stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    ) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
-        // Check if any fields need conversion
-        if !self.requires_physical_conversion() {
-            return stream;
+    pub fn to_physical_batch(&self, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        if self.requires_physical_conversion() {
+            let batch = convert_json_columns(&batch)?;
+            Ok(downcast_view_columns(&batch)?)
+        } else {
+            Ok(batch)
         }
+    }
 
-        let arrow_schema = stream.schema();
-        let mut new_fields = Vec::with_capacity(arrow_schema.fields().len());
-        for field in arrow_schema.fields() {
-            if is_arrow_json_field(field) {
+    /// Build the physical Arrow schema for `logical_schema`: Arrow JSON fields
+    /// become Lance JSON fields and view types are downcast to their classic
+    /// offset equivalents. Fields needing no conversion are left unchanged.
+    fn physical_schema(logical_schema: &ArrowSchemaRef) -> ArrowSchemaRef {
+        let mut new_fields = Vec::with_capacity(logical_schema.fields().len());
+        for field in logical_schema.fields() {
+            if has_arrow_json_fields(field) {
                 new_fields.push(Arc::new(arrow_json_to_lance_json(field)));
+            } else if let Some(phys) = physical_field(field) {
+                new_fields.push(Arc::new(phys));
             } else {
                 new_fields.push(Arc::clone(field));
             }
         }
-        let converted_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
             new_fields,
-            arrow_schema.metadata().clone(),
-        ));
+            logical_schema.metadata().clone(),
+        ))
+    }
 
-        let converted_stream = stream.map(move |batch_result| {
-            batch_result.and_then(|batch| {
-                convert_json_columns(&batch)
-                    .map_err(|e| datafusion::error::DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
-            })
+    /// Wrap a synchronous [`RecordBatchReader`] so each batch is converted from
+    /// its logical form to the physical form Lance stores on disk (Arrow JSON →
+    /// Lance JSON, view types → offset types). Returns the reader unchanged when
+    /// no field needs conversion.
+    pub fn to_physical_reader(
+        &self,
+        reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>,
+    ) -> Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> {
+        if !self.requires_physical_conversion() {
+            return reader;
+        }
+        let schema = Self::physical_schema(&reader.schema());
+        let converted = reader.map(|batch| {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            let batch = convert_json_columns(&batch)?;
+            downcast_view_columns(&batch)
         });
-
-        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            converted_schema,
-            converted_stream,
-        ))
+        Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(converted, schema))
     }
 
     /// Convert a physical stream into a logical stream.
@@ -205,9 +355,6 @@ impl SchemaAdapter {
         &self,
         stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
     ) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
-        use lance_arrow::json::ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME;
-        use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
-
         if !Self::requires_logical_conversion(&stream.schema()) {
             return stream;
         }
@@ -215,19 +362,8 @@ impl SchemaAdapter {
         let arrow_schema = stream.schema();
         let mut new_fields = Vec::with_capacity(arrow_schema.fields().len());
         for field in arrow_schema.fields() {
-            if is_json_field(field) {
-                let mut new_field = arrow_schema::Field::new(
-                    field.name(),
-                    arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8,
-                    field.is_nullable(),
-                );
-                let mut metadata = field.metadata().clone();
-                metadata.insert(
-                    ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
-                    ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
-                );
-                new_field.set_metadata(metadata);
-                new_fields.push(new_field);
+            if has_json_fields(field) {
+                new_fields.push(lance_json_to_arrow_json(field));
             } else {
                 new_fields.push(field.as_ref().clone());
             }
@@ -256,3 +392,30 @@ impl SchemaAdapter {
         ))
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn capture_created_at_extends_a_run_across_batches() {
+        let mut captured = CapturedRowIds::SequenceStyle {
+            row_ids: RowIdSequence::new(),
+            created_at: Some(RowDatasetVersionSequence::new()),
+        };
+        captured.capture_created_at(&[1, 1, 2]);
+        captured.capture_created_at(&[]);
+        captured.capture_created_at(&[2, 3]);
+        // One run per version, the one split by the batch boundary included,
+        // with spans absolute over the whole capture.
+        assert_eq!(
+            captured.created_at_sequence(),
+            Some(&RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&[1, 1, 2, 2, 3]))
+        );
+
+        // A stream that did not carry the column captures nothing.
+        let mut not_carried = CapturedRowIds::new(true);
+        not_carried.capture_created_at(&[1, 2]);
+        assert_eq!(not_carried.created_at_sequence(), None);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/versions/mod.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/versions/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..75c84bfe569
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/versions/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1181 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Dataset policies that differ across exact Lance file versions.
+//!
+//! File grammar belongs to `lance_file::versions`. This module contains only
+//! operation-level dataset choices whose behavior actually differs by version.
+
+use std::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    ops::Range,
+    sync::Arc,
+};
+
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField};
+use datafusion::catalog::Session;
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::ExecutionPlanMetricsSet;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, Result,
+    datatypes::{Field, Projection, Schema, SchemaCompareOptions},
+};
+use lance_datafusion::chunker::{
+    break_stream, break_stream_with_sizes, chunk_stream, chunk_stream_with_sizes,
+};
+use lance_file::{
+    version::ConcreteFileVersion,
+    versions as file_versions,
+    writer::{FileWriter, FileWriterOptions},
+};
+use lance_index::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use lance_io::traits::Writer as ObjectWriter;
+use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+use lance_table::format::{DataFile, DataStorageFormat, Fragment, Manifest};
+use object_store::path::Path;
+
+use super::Dataset;
+use super::fragment::{
+    FileFragment, FragReadConfig, GenericFileReader, MetadataMode, V1FragmentReader,
+    write::FragmentCreateBuilder,
+};
+use super::optimize::CompactionOptions;
+use super::scanner::{PlannedFilteredScan, Scanner};
+use super::schema_evolution::optimize::{
+    ChainedNewColumnTransformOptimizer, SqlToAllNullsOptimizer,
+};
+use super::statistics::FieldStatistics;
+use super::write::{self, GenericWriter, TargetBaseInfo, WriteParams, WriterOptions};
+use crate::io::exec::filtered_read::{FilteredReadExec, FilteredReadOptions};
+use crate::io::exec::{
+    AddRowAddrExec, FilterPlan as ExprFilterPlan, LanceScanConfig, LanceStream, TakeExec,
+};
+
+/// Keep per-operation targets within the dataset's existing reader family.
+pub fn validate_write_version(
+    default_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    target: ConcreteFileVersion,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if (default_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1) != (target == ConcreteFileVersion::V1) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Cannot write data files in version {target} to a dataset with default version {default_version}: V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub fn create_scan_stream(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
+    offsets: Option<Range<u64>>,
+    projection: Arc<Schema>,
+    config: LanceScanConfig,
+    metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+    partition: usize,
+) -> datafusion::error::Result<LanceStream> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => LanceStream::try_new_v1(
+            dataset, fragments, offsets, projection, config, metrics, partition,
+        ),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => LanceStream::try_new_v2(
+            dataset, fragments, offsets, projection, config, metrics, partition,
+        ),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn schema_compare_options(version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> SchemaCompareOptions {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => SchemaCompareOptions {
+            compare_dictionary: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => SchemaCompareOptions::default(),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn create_seed_writers(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    params: &WriteParams,
+) -> Result<Vec<Box<dyn IndexSeedWriter>>> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Ok(Vec::new()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => write::create_seed_writers_current(dataset, params).await,
+    }
+}
+
+fn create_current_file_writer(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    object_writer: Box<dyn ObjectWriter>,
+    schema: Schema,
+    filename: String,
+    base_id: Option<u32>,
+    options: FileWriterOptions,
+) -> Result<(FileWriter, DataFile)> {
+    let writer = file_versions::create_writer(version, object_writer, schema, options)?;
+    let mut data_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(filename, version);
+    data_file.base_id = base_id;
+    Ok((writer, data_file))
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub async fn write_fragments(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    normalized_schema: Schema,
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    params: WriteParams,
+    target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
+    file_row_counts: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+    preassigned_data_file_name: Option<Arc<String>>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Schema)> {
+    // A writer that spills row lineage into the fragment's own data file
+    // carries the hidden columns in its stream. They are not dataset fields:
+    // set them aside before the schema is checked against the dataset's and
+    // put them back on the schema that is written. This has to come before
+    // the blob promotion, which gives every negative field id a new one.
+    let (normalized_schema, lineage_fields) = split_row_lineage_fields(normalized_schema)?;
+    let normalized_schema = match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            write::promote_legacy_blob_schema(&normalized_schema)?
+        }
+        _ => normalized_schema,
+    };
+    let version_name = format!("{version:?}");
+    let mut schema = write::prepare_write_schema(
+        dataset,
+        normalized_schema,
+        &params,
+        schema_compare_options(version),
+    )?;
+    schema.fields.extend(lineage_fields);
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => {
+            write::validate_legacy_blob_write_schema(&schema, &version_name)?;
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            write::validate_blob_v2_write_schema(&schema)?;
+        }
+    }
+    let seed_writers = create_seed_writers(version, dataset, &params).await?;
+    let fragments = write_fragments_direct(
+        version,
+        dataset,
+        object_store,
+        base_dir,
+        &schema,
+        data,
+        params,
+        target_bases_info,
+        seed_writers,
+        file_row_counts,
+        preassigned_data_file_name,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    Ok((fragments, schema))
+}
+
+/// Take the hidden row lineage columns out of a write schema.
+///
+/// A hidden column is a top-level field that already carries the reserved id
+/// of its name, as the writers that spill lineage into a data file assign it.
+/// A user column that only shares the name has a non-negative id and stays a
+/// user column, to be checked against the dataset schema like any other.
+fn split_row_lineage_fields(schema: Schema) -> Result<(Schema, Vec<Field>)> {
+    let (lineage, user): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = schema
+        .fields
+        .into_iter()
+        .partition(|field| lance_core::row_lineage_field_id(&field.name) == Some(field.id));
+    // The readers decode these columns as non-nullable `UInt64`, whatever the
+    // written type, so any other type would only fail once read back.
+    if let Some(field) = lineage
+        .iter()
+        .find(|field| field.nullable || field.data_type() != DataType::UInt64)
+    {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "hidden row lineage column {} (field id {}) must be a non-nullable UInt64, got \
+             {} (nullable: {})",
+            field.name,
+            field.id,
+            field.data_type(),
+            field.nullable
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok((
+        Schema {
+            fields: user,
+            metadata: schema.metadata,
+        },
+        lineage,
+    ))
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub async fn write_fragments_direct(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    params: WriteParams,
+    target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
+    seed_writers: Vec<Box<dyn IndexSeedWriter>>,
+    file_row_counts: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+    preassigned_data_file_name: Option<Arc<String>>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+    let buffered_reader = if let Some(file_row_counts) = file_row_counts.as_ref() {
+        if file_row_counts.contains(&0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "File row counts must be greater than zero",
+            ));
+        }
+        match version {
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {
+                if params.max_rows_per_group == 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "max_rows_per_group must be greater than zero when file row counts are specified",
+                    ));
+                }
+                let max_rows_per_group = params.max_rows_per_group;
+                let batch_row_counts =
+                    file_row_counts
+                        .clone()
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .flat_map(move |file_rows| {
+                            (0..file_rows)
+                                .step_by(max_rows_per_group)
+                                .map(move |offset| (file_rows - offset).min(max_rows_per_group))
+                        });
+                chunk_stream_with_sizes(data, batch_row_counts)
+            }
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => break_stream_with_sizes(data, file_row_counts.clone()),
+        }
+    } else {
+        match version {
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => chunk_stream(data, params.max_rows_per_group),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+            | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => break_stream(data, params.max_rows_per_file)
+                .map_ok(|batch| vec![batch])
+                .boxed(),
+        }
+    };
+    let external_base_resolver = match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            write::blob_v2_external_base_resolver(dataset, &params, schema).await?
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => None,
+    };
+    write::do_write_fragments_impl(
+        dataset,
+        object_store,
+        base_dir,
+        schema,
+        buffered_reader,
+        params,
+        move |object_store, schema, base_dir, options| async move {
+            open_writer(version, &object_store, &schema, &base_dir, options).await
+        },
+        external_base_resolver,
+        target_bases_info,
+        seed_writers,
+        file_row_counts,
+        preassigned_data_file_name,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+fn binary_copy_files_match(fragments: &[Fragment], expected: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Result<bool> {
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        for data_file in fragment.referenced_lance_files() {
+            if data_file.file_version()? != expected {
+                return Ok(false);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(true)
+}
+
+pub async fn can_use_binary_copy(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    options: &CompactionOptions,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Ok(false),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            if !binary_copy_files_match(fragments, version)? {
+                return Ok(false);
+            }
+            super::optimize::can_use_binary_copy_current(dataset, options, fragments).await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub async fn rewrite_files_binary_copy(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+    params: &WriteParams,
+    read_batch_bytes: Option<usize>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "binary-copy compaction is not supported for Lance file version 1".to_string(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            super::optimize::binary_copy::rewrite_files_binary_copy(
+                version,
+                dataset,
+                fragments,
+                params,
+                read_batch_bytes,
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn check_manifest_storage_version(manifest: &mut Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    check_manifest_storage_contract(manifest, StorageContractMode::Read)
+}
+
+pub fn check_manifest_storage_version_for_commit(manifest: &mut Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    check_manifest_storage_contract(manifest, StorageContractMode::Commit)
+}
+
+pub fn finalize_manifest_storage_version(manifest: &mut Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    check_manifest_storage_contract(manifest, StorageContractMode::Finalize)
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+enum StorageContractMode {
+    Read,
+    Commit,
+    Finalize,
+}
+
+fn check_manifest_storage_contract(
+    manifest: &mut Manifest,
+    mode: StorageContractMode,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let default_version = manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
+    let mixed_enabled = manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS != 0
+        && manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS != 0;
+
+    if mixed_enabled && default_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Dataset has mixed data-file-version capability enabled, which requires a V2 default, but the manifest default is V1",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let mut saw_v1 = false;
+    let mut saw_v2 = false;
+    let mut first_file_version = None;
+    let mut first_mismatch = None;
+    let mut first_non_default = None;
+    let fields_by_id = field_column_requirements(manifest);
+    let mut validated_lists = HashSet::new();
+
+    for fragment in manifest.fragments.iter() {
+        for data_file in fragment.referenced_lance_files() {
+            let file_version = data_file.file_version()?;
+            match file_version {
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => saw_v1 = true,
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+                | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+                | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+                | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => saw_v2 = true,
+            }
+
+            match first_file_version {
+                None => first_file_version = Some(file_version),
+                Some(first_version)
+                    if first_version != file_version && first_mismatch.is_none() =>
+                {
+                    first_mismatch = Some((first_version, file_version));
+                }
+                Some(_) => {}
+            }
+
+            if !mixed_enabled && file_version != default_version && first_non_default.is_none() {
+                first_non_default = Some((data_file.path.clone(), fragment.id, file_version));
+            }
+
+            validate_file_column_indices(
+                &fields_by_id,
+                &mut validated_lists,
+                fragment.id,
+                data_file,
+                file_version,
+            )?;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Released Lance 0.16 could persist a V1 default while referencing both V1
+    // and V2 files. Keep those snapshots readable, but never publish a new
+    // manifest with that state.
+    if matches!(mode, StorageContractMode::Read)
+        && default_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+        && !mixed_enabled
+        && saw_v1
+        && saw_v2
+    {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let mut effective_version = default_version;
+    if default_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+        if let Some((first_version, other_version)) = first_mismatch {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "The dataset contains a mixture of file versions. You will need to rollback to an earlier version: All data files must have the same version. Detected both {first_version} and {other_version}"
+            )));
+        }
+        if let Some(actual) = first_file_version
+            && actual != ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+        {
+            effective_version = actual;
+            first_non_default = None;
+            if matches!(mode, StorageContractMode::Finalize) {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Data storage version {} is less than the actual file version {}. This has been automatically updated.",
+                    default_version,
+                    actual
+                );
+                manifest.data_storage_format = DataStorageFormat::new(actual);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if saw_v1 && saw_v2 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Dataset snapshot mixes V1 and V2 data files",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    if mixed_enabled && saw_v1 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Dataset has mixed data-file-version capability enabled but references V1 data files",
+        ));
+    }
+    if let Some((path, fragment_id, file_version)) = first_non_default {
+        if file_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 || effective_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Data file '{path}' in fragment {fragment_id} has version {file_version}, but the manifest default is {effective_version}; V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed"
+            )));
+        }
+        match mode {
+            StorageContractMode::Read => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Data file '{path}' in fragment {fragment_id} has version {file_version}, but the manifest default is {effective_version} and mixed data-file-version capability is not enabled"
+                )));
+            }
+            StorageContractMode::Commit => {}
+            StorageContractMode::Finalize => {
+                manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+                manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub fn validate_column_indices(manifest: &Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    let fields_by_id = field_column_requirements(manifest);
+    let mut validated_lists = HashSet::new();
+    for fragment in manifest.fragments.iter() {
+        for data_file in fragment.referenced_lance_files() {
+            validate_file_column_indices(
+                &fields_by_id,
+                &mut validated_lists,
+                fragment.id,
+                data_file,
+                data_file.file_version()?,
+            )?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn field_column_requirements(manifest: &Manifest) -> HashMap<i32, (&Field, bool)> {
+    let mut fields_by_id = HashMap::new();
+    for field in manifest.schema.fields_pre_order() {
+        let needs_column = field.is_leaf() || field.is_packed_struct() || field.is_blob();
+        fields_by_id
+            .entry(field.id)
+            .or_insert((field, needs_column));
+    }
+    fields_by_id
+}
+
+fn validate_file_column_indices(
+    fields_by_id: &HashMap<i32, (&Field, bool)>,
+    validated_lists: &mut HashSet<(usize, usize)>,
+    fragment_id: u64,
+    data_file: &DataFile,
+    file_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if file_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1 || data_file.column_indices.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if data_file.fields.len() != data_file.column_indices.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Data file '{}' (fragment {}) has {} field ids but {} column indices. These must be the same length.",
+            data_file.path,
+            fragment_id,
+            data_file.fields.len(),
+            data_file.column_indices.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    if file_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let list_key = (
+        data_file.fields.as_ptr() as usize,
+        data_file.column_indices.as_ptr() as usize,
+    );
+    if !validated_lists.insert(list_key) {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    for (field_id, column_index) in data_file.fields.iter().zip(data_file.column_indices.iter()) {
+        let Some((field, needs_column)) = fields_by_id.get(field_id).copied() else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        if needs_column && *column_index == -1 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Field '{}' (id={}) in data file '{}' (fragment {}) has column_index=-1, but leaf fields, packed structs, and blob fields must have a valid column index in file format 2.1+.",
+                field.name, field_id, data_file.path, fragment_id
+            )));
+        }
+        if !needs_column && *column_index != -1 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Non-leaf field '{}' (id={}) in data file '{}' (fragment {}) has column_index={}, but non-leaf fields should have column_index=-1 in file format 2.1+.",
+                field.name, field_id, data_file.path, fragment_id, column_index
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub async fn write_fragment(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    builder: &FragmentCreateBuilder<'_>,
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    schema: Schema,
+    id: u64,
+) -> Result<Fragment> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => builder.write_v1_impl(stream, schema, id).await,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            let file_writer_options = builder.file_writer_options();
+            builder
+                .write_current_impl(
+                    move |object_writer, schema, filename| {
+                        create_current_file_writer(
+                            version,
+                            object_writer,
+                            schema,
+                            filename,
+                            None,
+                            file_writer_options,
+                        )
+                    },
+                    stream,
+                    schema,
+                    id,
+                )
+                .await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub async fn open_writer(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    options: WriterOptions,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {
+            write::open_v1_writer(object_store, schema, base_dir, options).await
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => {
+            write::open_current_writer(
+                move |object_writer, schema, filename, base_id, options| {
+                    create_current_file_writer(
+                        version,
+                        object_writer,
+                        schema,
+                        filename,
+                        base_id,
+                        options,
+                    )
+                },
+                object_store,
+                schema,
+                base_dir,
+                options,
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            let create_file_writer = move |object_writer, schema, filename, base_id, options| {
+                create_current_file_writer(
+                    version,
+                    object_writer,
+                    schema,
+                    filename,
+                    base_id,
+                    options,
+                )
+            };
+            if schema.fields_pre_order().any(Field::is_blob_v2) {
+                write::open_current_blob_v2_writer(
+                    version,
+                    create_file_writer,
+                    object_store,
+                    schema,
+                    base_dir,
+                    options,
+                )
+                .await
+            } else {
+                write::open_current_writer(
+                    create_file_writer,
+                    object_store,
+                    schema,
+                    base_dir,
+                    options,
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub async fn open_update_writer(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>> {
+    let external_base_resolver = match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            write::blob_v2_external_base_resolver(Some(dataset), &WriteParams::default(), schema)
+                .await?
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => None,
+    };
+    let options = WriterOptions::update(
+        dataset.session.store_registry(),
+        external_base_resolver,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+    );
+    open_writer(
+        version,
+        &dataset.object_store,
+        schema,
+        &dataset.base,
+        options,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+pub async fn create_fragment_from_file(
+    file_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    filename: &str,
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment_id: usize,
+    physical_rows: Option<usize>,
+) -> Result<Fragment> {
+    let same_family = matches!(
+        (file_version, dataset_version),
+        (ConcreteFileVersion::V1, ConcreteFileVersion::V1)
+            | (
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+                    | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+                    | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+                    | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3,
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+                    | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+                    | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+                    | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+            )
+    );
+    if !same_family {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "File version family mismatch. Dataset default: {:?} Fragment version: {:?}",
+            dataset_version, file_version
+        )));
+    }
+    match file_version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {
+            FileFragment::create_from_v1_file(filename, dataset, fragment_id, physical_rows).await
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            FileFragment::create_from_current_file(filename, dataset, fragment_id).await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn index_file_version(version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 => ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3,
+    }
+}
+
+pub async fn open_file_reader(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    fragment: &FileFragment,
+    data_file: &DataFile,
+    projection: Option<&Schema>,
+    read_config: &FragReadConfig,
+    metadata_mode: MetadataMode,
+) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn GenericFileReader>>> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => fragment.open_v1_file_reader(data_file, projection).await,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            fragment
+                .open_current_file_reader(data_file, projection, read_config, metadata_mode)
+                .await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub async fn open_v1_fragment_reader(
+    fragment: &FileFragment,
+    projection: &Schema,
+    read_config: &FragReadConfig,
+) -> Result<V1FragmentReader> {
+    for data_file in &fragment.metadata().files {
+        let actual = data_file.file_version()?;
+        if actual != ConcreteFileVersion::V1 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Cannot open file {} with the v1 reader because it has version {}",
+                data_file.path, actual
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    fragment
+        .open_v1_fragment_reader(projection, read_config)
+        .await
+}
+
+pub async fn row_group_size_for_rewrite(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    fragment: &FileFragment,
+) -> Result<Option<u32>> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {
+            let reader = open_v1_fragment_reader(
+                fragment,
+                fragment.dataset().schema(),
+                &FragReadConfig::default(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            Ok(reader.num_rows_in_batch(0))
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => Ok(None),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn is_upcast_downcast(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    from_type: &DataType,
+    to_type: &DataType,
+) -> bool {
+    is_upcast_downcast_impl(
+        from_type,
+        to_type,
+        !matches!(version, ConcreteFileVersion::V1),
+    )
+}
+
+fn is_upcast_downcast_impl(
+    from_type: &DataType,
+    to_type: &DataType,
+    dictionary_materialization: bool,
+) -> bool {
+    use DataType::*;
+    match (from_type, to_type) {
+        (_, Dictionary(_, _)) if !dictionary_materialization => false,
+        (Dictionary(_, from_value_type), _) => {
+            is_upcast_downcast_impl(from_value_type, to_type, dictionary_materialization)
+        }
+        (_, Dictionary(_, to_value_type)) => {
+            is_upcast_downcast_impl(from_type, to_value_type, dictionary_materialization)
+        }
+        (from, to) if from.is_integer() => to.is_integer(),
+        (from, to) if from.is_floating() => to.is_floating(),
+        (from, to) if from.is_temporal() => to.is_temporal(),
+        (Boolean, to) => matches!(to, Boolean),
+        (Utf8 | LargeUtf8, to) => matches!(to, Utf8 | LargeUtf8),
+        (Binary | LargeBinary, to) => matches!(to, Binary | LargeBinary),
+        (Decimal128(_, _) | Decimal256(_, _), to) => {
+            matches!(to, Decimal128(_, _) | Decimal256(_, _))
+        }
+        (List(from_field) | LargeList(from_field) | FixedSizeList(from_field, _), to_type) => {
+            match to_type {
+                List(to_field) | LargeList(to_field) | FixedSizeList(to_field, _) => {
+                    is_upcast_downcast_impl(
+                        from_field.data_type(),
+                        to_field.data_type(),
+                        dictionary_materialization,
+                    )
+                }
+                _ => false,
+            }
+        }
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn validate_nulls(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    column_name: &str,
+    datatype: &DataType,
+    has_nulls: bool,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let supported = match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => matches!(
+            datatype,
+            DataType::Utf8
+                | DataType::LargeUtf8
+                | DataType::Binary
+                | DataType::List(_)
+                | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_)
+                | DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _)
+        ),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => !matches!(datatype, DataType::Struct(..)),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => true,
+    };
+    if has_nulls && !supported {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Column '{}' has null values of type: {:?}, but storing nulls for this data type is not supported by the dataset's current Lance file format version: {:?}. This can be caused by an explicit null in the new data.",
+            column_name, datatype, version
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn reject_nested_column_add(field: &ArrowField, version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Result<()> {
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "Column {} is a struct col, add sub column is not supported in Lance file version {}",
+        field.name(),
+        version
+    )))
+}
+
+fn reject_nested_v1(field: &ArrowField) -> Result<()> {
+    reject_nested_column_add(field, ConcreteFileVersion::V1)
+}
+
+fn reject_nested_v2_0(field: &ArrowField) -> Result<()> {
+    reject_nested_column_add(field, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)
+}
+
+fn reject_nested_v2_1(field: &ArrowField) -> Result<()> {
+    reject_nested_column_add(field, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)
+}
+
+fn allow_nested(_field: &ArrowField) -> Result<()> {
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn check_field_conflict(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    left: &ArrowField,
+    right: &ArrowField,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let validate = match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => reject_nested_v1,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 => reject_nested_v2_0,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => reject_nested_v2_1,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => allow_nested,
+    };
+    super::schema_evolution::check_field_conflict_with(left, right, validate)
+}
+
+fn exclude_struct_field(field: &Field, other: &Field) -> Option<Field> {
+    field
+        .data_type()
+        .is_struct()
+        .then(|| field.exclude(other))
+        .flatten()
+}
+
+fn exclude_nested_field(field: &Field, other: &Field) -> Option<Field> {
+    field
+        .data_type()
+        .is_nested()
+        .then(|| field.exclude(other))
+        .flatten()
+}
+
+pub fn exclude_schema(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    source: &Schema,
+    other: &Schema,
+) -> Result<Schema> {
+    let exclude = match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1 => {
+            exclude_struct_field
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => exclude_nested_field,
+    };
+    super::schema_evolution::exclude_with(source, other, exclude)
+}
+
+pub fn configure_new_column_optimizers(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    optimizer: &mut ChainedNewColumnTransformOptimizer,
+) {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {}
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            optimizer.add_optimizer(Box::new(SqlToAllNullsOptimizer::new()));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn validate_metadata_only_null_columns(version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Result<()> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            "Cannot add all-null columns to legacy dataset version.".into(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => Ok(()),
+    }
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub(in crate::dataset) async fn filtered_read(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    scanner: &Scanner,
+    filter_plan: &ExprFilterPlan,
+    projection: Projection,
+    make_deletions_null: bool,
+    fragments: Option<Arc<Vec<Fragment>>>,
+    scan_range: Option<Range<u64>>,
+    is_prefilter: bool,
+    session: Option<&dyn Session>,
+) -> Result<PlannedFilteredScan> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {
+            scanner
+                .legacy_filtered_read(
+                    filter_plan,
+                    projection,
+                    make_deletions_null,
+                    fragments,
+                    scan_range,
+                    is_prefilter,
+                )
+                .await
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            let limit_pushed_down = scan_range.is_some();
+            let plan = scanner
+                .new_filtered_read(
+                    filter_plan,
+                    projection,
+                    make_deletions_null,
+                    fragments,
+                    scan_range,
+                    session,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            Ok(PlannedFilteredScan {
+                filter_pushed_down: true,
+                limit_pushed_down,
+                plan,
+            })
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn take(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    scanner: &Scanner,
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    output_projection: Projection,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => scanner.take_legacy(input, output_projection),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => scanner.take_current(input, output_projection),
+    }
+}
+
+pub async fn collect_data_stats(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    field_stats: &mut HashMap<u32, FieldStatistics>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Ok(()),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            super::statistics::collect_current_data_stats(dataset, field_stats).await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn merge_insert_indexed_take(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    mut index_mapper: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    projection: Projection,
+    add_row_addr: bool,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => {
+            if add_row_addr {
+                let position = index_mapper.schema().fields().len();
+                index_mapper = Arc::new(AddRowAddrExec::try_new(
+                    index_mapper,
+                    dataset.clone(),
+                    position,
+                )?);
+            }
+            Ok(Arc::new(
+                TakeExec::try_new(dataset, index_mapper, projection)?.ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("merge-insert legacy take unexpectedly needed no columns")
+                })?,
+            ))
+        }
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => {
+            let mut projection = projection.with_row_id();
+            if add_row_addr {
+                projection = projection.with_row_addr();
+            }
+            Ok(Arc::new(FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                dataset,
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+                Some(index_mapper),
+            )?))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn validate_row_stream_read(version: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Result<()> {
+    match version {
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V1 => Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+            "taking rows through FilteredReadExec requires the v2 storage format"
+                .to_string()
+                .into(),
+        )),
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+        | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3 => Ok(()),
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use lance_core::{ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    fn lance_field(name: &str, data_type: DataType, nullable: bool, id: i32) -> Field {
+        let mut field = Field::try_from(&ArrowField::new(name, data_type, nullable)).unwrap();
+        field.id = id;
+        field
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::uint64(DataType::UInt64, false, true)]
+    #[case::not_uint64(DataType::Int64, false, false)]
+    #[case::nullable(DataType::UInt64, true, false)]
+    fn split_row_lineage_fields_keys_on_reserved_ids(
+        #[case] data_type: DataType,
+        #[case] nullable: bool,
+        #[case] valid: bool,
+    ) {
+        let key = lance_field("i", DataType::Int32, false, 0);
+        // A user column that only shares a lineage column's name keeps its own
+        // id, so it stays with the fields checked against the dataset schema.
+        let named_like_lineage = lance_field(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, DataType::UInt64, true, 1);
+        let hidden = lance_field(ROW_ID, data_type, nullable, ROW_ID_FIELD_ID);
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![key.clone(), named_like_lineage.clone(), hidden.clone()],
+            metadata: HashMap::new(),
+        };
+
+        let result = split_row_lineage_fields(schema);
+        if !valid {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("non-nullable UInt64"), "{error}");
+            return;
+        }
+        let (user, lineage) = result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(user.fields, vec![key, named_like_lineage]);
+        // Split out with its reserved id intact.
+        assert_eq!(lineage, vec![hidden]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write.rs
index c1b36702408..ecdfab34bbe 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write.rs
@@ -1,48 +1,66 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use bytes::Bytes;
 use chrono::TimeDelta;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
-use lance_core::datatypes::{
-    NullabilityComparison, OnMissing, OnTypeMismatch, SchemaCompareOptions,
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt};
+use lance_arrow::{
+    ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+    BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY, BLOB_META_KEY, BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+    BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME,
 };
-use lance_core::error::LanceOptionExt;
-use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
-use lance_core::utils::tracing::{AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, TRACE_FILE_AUDIT};
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Schema, Error, Result};
-use lance_datafusion::chunker::{break_stream, chunk_stream};
-use lance_datafusion::spill::{create_replay_spill, SpillReceiver, SpillSender};
+use lance_core::datatypes::{NullabilityComparison, OnMissing, OnTypeMismatch};
+use lance_core::utils::tracing::{
+    AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, TRACE_FILE_AUDIT,
+};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, datatypes::Schema};
 use lance_datafusion::utils::StreamingWriteSource;
-use lance_file::previous::writer::{
-    FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter, ManifestProvider as PreviousManifestProvider,
+use lance_file::concat::{
+    FileConcatOptions, FileConcatReason, FileConcatResult, FileConcatTarget,
+    concat_data_file_parts as concat_parts,
+};
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::writer::{
+    FileWriter as V1FileWriter, ManifestProvider as V1ManifestProvider,
 };
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_file::writer::{self as current_writer, FileWriterOptions};
-use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
-use lance_table::format::{BasePath, DataFile, Fragment};
-use lance_table::io::commit::{commit_handler_from_url, CommitHandler};
+use lance_file::writer::{self as current_writer, FileWriteSummary};
+use lance_file::{versions as file_versions, writer::FileWriterOptions};
+use lance_io::object_store::{
+    ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry, parse_base_scoped_key,
+};
+use lance_io::traits::Writer;
+use lance_table::format::{BasePath, DataFile, Fragment, IndexMetadata};
+use lance_table::io::commit::{CommitHandler, commit_handler_from_url};
 use lance_table::io::manifest::ManifestDescribing;
-use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::num::NonZero;
-use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;
+use object_store::{ObjectStoreExt, path::Path};
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::collections::{BTreeSet, HashMap, HashSet, VecDeque};
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::num::{NonZero, NonZeroU64};
+use std::ops::Range;
 use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;
 use tracing::{info, instrument};
 
-use crate::dataset::blob::{preprocess_blob_batches, BlobPreprocessor};
-use crate::session::Session;
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::blob::prepared_to_logical_blob_schema;
+use crate::dataset::blob::{
+    BlobPreprocessor, ExternalBaseCandidate, ExternalBaseResolver,
+    blob_dedicated_threshold_from_metadata, blob_inline_threshold_from_metadata,
+    blob_pack_file_threshold_from_metadata,
+};
+use crate::index::scalar::{IndexDetails, fetch_index_details};
+use crate::index::{index_is_usable, load_all_indices};
+use crate::session::Session;
 
 use super::fragment::write::generate_random_filename;
 use super::progress::{NoopFragmentWriteProgress, WriteFragmentProgress};
 use super::transaction::Transaction;
 use super::utils::SchemaAdapter;
-use super::DATA_DIR;
+use super::versions;
+use super::{DATA_DIR, DataFilePart, DataFileTarget};
 
 mod commit;
 pub mod delete;
@@ -51,10 +69,282 @@ pub mod merge_insert;
 mod retry;
 pub mod update;
 
-pub use commit::CommitBuilder;
-pub use delete::DeleteBuilder;
+pub use super::progress::{WriteProgressFn, WriteStats};
+pub use commit::{CommitBuilder, DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT};
+pub use delete::{DeleteBuilder, DeleteResult, UncommittedDelete};
 pub use insert::InsertBuilder;
 
+impl Dataset {
+    pub(super) fn validate_data_file_target(&self, target: &DataFileTarget) -> Result<()> {
+        let dataset_version = self.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
+        if target.version != dataset_version {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "DataFileTarget.version is {}, but dataset version {} uses {}",
+                target.version,
+                self.version_id(),
+                dataset_version
+            )));
+        }
+        self.data_file_dir_for_base(target.base_id)?;
+
+        if target.schema.metadata != self.schema().metadata {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "DataFileTarget.schema metadata differs from the dataset schema metadata",
+            ));
+        }
+        for target_field in &target.schema.fields {
+            let Some(dataset_field) = self
+                .schema()
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .find(|field| field.id == target_field.id)
+            else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "DataFileTarget.schema field ID {} is not a top-level dataset field",
+                    target_field.id
+                )));
+            };
+            if dataset_field != target_field {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "DataFileTarget.schema field ID {} differs from the current dataset field",
+                    target_field.id
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Encode one managed part and return its serializable description.
+    ///
+    /// Lance generates a unique staging name in the target's base. Managed Blob
+    /// payloads use independent `_blobs/<uuid>.blob` objects in that base. Every
+    /// non-empty logical Inline value is spilled so final concatenation never
+    /// copies Blob payload bytes. Parts still require disjoint `blob_ids`
+    /// reservations; Managed descriptors encode base IDs rather than these IDs.
+    /// Every use of `target` must refer to the same dataset and resolved base;
+    /// associating a target with that storage context is the caller's
+    /// responsibility.
+    /// Persist the target before writing. A failed write may leave files; after
+    /// stopping all users of the target, [`DataFileTarget::cleanup`] removes
+    /// staging files and file-relative sidecars without a completed part description.
+    /// Retries must use fresh, disjoint Blob ID ranges, including ranges from
+    /// failed writes. Independent Managed objects follow ordinary dataset GC
+    /// rules, which must be coordinated with uncommitted writes and checkpoints.
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+    /// use futures::stream;
+    /// use lance::{Dataset, dataset::DataFileTarget};
+    ///
+    /// # async fn write_part(
+    /// #     dataset: &Dataset,
+    /// #     target: &DataFileTarget,
+    /// #     batch: RecordBatch,
+    /// # ) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    /// let part = dataset
+    ///     .write_data_file_part(target, None, stream::iter([Ok(batch)]))
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// // Serialize part into the caller's checkpoint.
+    /// # let _ = part;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn write_data_file_part(
+        &self,
+        target: &DataFileTarget,
+        blob_ids: Option<Range<u32>>,
+        data: impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send,
+    ) -> Result<DataFilePart> {
+        self.validate_data_file_target(target)?;
+        validate_blob_v2_write_schema(target.schema.as_ref())?;
+        let part_blob_ids = blob_ids.clone();
+        let has_blob = target
+            .schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .any(|field| field.is_blob_v2());
+        if has_blob && blob_ids.is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "write_data_file_part requires a non-empty Blob ID range for a schema containing Blob v2 fields",
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut preprocessor = if let Some(blob_ids) = blob_ids {
+            let data_dir = self.data_file_dir_for_base(target.base_id)?;
+            let object_store = self.object_store(target.base_id).await?;
+            let external_base_resolver = blob_v2_external_base_resolver(
+                Some(self),
+                &WriteParams::default(),
+                target.schema.as_ref(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            Some(
+                BlobPreprocessor::new(
+                    object_store.as_ref().clone(),
+                    data_dir,
+                    target.data_file_key().to_string(),
+                    target.schema.as_ref(),
+                    external_base_resolver,
+                    false,
+                    ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+                    self.session().store_registry(),
+                    self.store_params().cloned().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    None,
+                )?
+                .with_part_blob_ids(blob_ids)?,
+            )
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        if let Some(writer) = preprocessor.take() {
+            let root = self.blob_base_path(target.base_id)?;
+            preprocessor = Some(writer.with_managed_base(target.base_id, root));
+        }
+
+        let file_name = format!("{}.part", generate_random_filename());
+        let path = target
+            .parts_dir(&self.data_file_dir_for_base(target.base_id)?)
+            .join(file_name.as_str());
+        let store = self.object_store(target.base_id).await?;
+        let mut writer = V2WriterAdapter::new(
+            file_versions::create_writer(
+                target.version,
+                store.create(&path).await?,
+                target.schema.as_ref().clone(),
+                FileWriterOptions::default(),
+            )?,
+            None,
+            preprocessor,
+            None,
+        );
+        let mut data = Box::pin(data);
+        let write_result = async {
+            while let Some(batch) = data.next().await {
+                writer.write_batch(&batch?).await?;
+            }
+            writer.finish_file().await
+        }
+        .await;
+
+        match write_result {
+            Ok(summary) => Ok(DataFilePart {
+                target_file_name: target.file_name.clone(),
+                base_id: target.base_id,
+                file_name,
+                blob_ids: part_blob_ids,
+                num_rows: summary.num_rows,
+                size_bytes: NonZeroU64::new(summary.size_bytes)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("completed part has zero file size"))?,
+            }),
+            Err(error) => {
+                writer.abort().await;
+                Err(error)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Reopen, validate, and concatenate parts into the final data file.
+    ///
+    /// Part order is the final physical row order. The operation copies
+    /// encoded page buffers and regenerates metadata and the footer; incompatible
+    /// inputs fail without a decode/re-encode fallback or dataset commit. The
+    /// caller owns cleanup of all durable part, Blob, and final-file objects.
+    /// The caller must also assemble the target through the same dataset and
+    /// resolved base used to write managed Blob payloads.
+    /// The target must still be uncommitted and have no concurrent assembler.
+    /// Assembly can overwrite a previous uncommitted output for the same target;
+    /// it does not check current or historical manifests for references.
+    ///
+    /// To replace a fragment's columns, wrap the returned file in a
+    /// [`DataReplacementGroup`](super::transaction::DataReplacementGroup).
+    /// The caller must check that the ordered parts cover the fragment's physical
+    /// rows exactly, including deleted rows; this operation does not check
+    /// fragment coverage or commit the replacement.
+    ///
+    /// # Example
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use lance::{Dataset, dataset::{DataFilePart, DataFileTarget}};
+    ///
+    /// # async fn concat(
+    /// #     dataset: &Dataset,
+    /// #     target: &DataFileTarget,
+    /// #     ordered_parts: &[DataFilePart],
+    /// # ) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    /// let data_file = dataset.concat_data_file_parts(target, ordered_parts).await?;
+    /// // The caller decides when and how to commit `data_file`.
+    /// # let _ = data_file;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn concat_data_file_parts(
+        &self,
+        target: &DataFileTarget,
+        ordered_parts: &[DataFilePart],
+    ) -> Result<DataFile> {
+        let opened = DataFilePart::open_all(self, target, ordered_parts).await?;
+        let data_dir = self.data_file_dir_for_base(target.base_id)?;
+        let output_path = target.object_path(&data_dir);
+        let object_store = self.object_store(target.base_id).await?;
+        let mut concat_target = FileConcatTarget::new(target.version, target.schema.clone());
+        if let Some(blob_target_id) = target.blob_target_id() {
+            concat_target = concat_target.with_blob_target_id(blob_target_id);
+        }
+        let result = concat_parts(
+            &concat_target,
+            &opened,
+            {
+                let object_store = object_store.clone();
+                let output_path = output_path.clone();
+                move || async move { object_store.create(&output_path).await }
+            },
+            FileConcatOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let output = match result {
+            Ok(FileConcatResult::Written(output)) => output,
+            Ok(FileConcatResult::Reused(_, _)) => {
+                return Err(Error::internal(
+                    "data-file part concatenation unexpectedly reused an input".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            Ok(FileConcatResult::Unsupported(reason)) => {
+                let message = format!(
+                    "parts cannot be concatenated into target {:?}: {reason}",
+                    target.file_name
+                );
+                return Err(match reason {
+                    FileConcatReason::VersionMismatch { actual, .. } => {
+                        let (major, minor) = actual.to_standard_footer_numbers();
+                        Error::version_conflict(message, major, minor)
+                    }
+                    FileConcatReason::SchemaMismatch { .. } => Error::schema_mismatch(message),
+                    FileConcatReason::LegacyVersion
+                    | FileConcatReason::ColumnLayoutMismatch { .. }
+                    | FileConcatReason::ColumnEncodingMismatch { .. }
+                    | FileConcatReason::ColumnBuffers { .. }
+                    | FileConcatReason::ExtraGlobalBuffers { .. }
+                    | FileConcatReason::BlobColumns => Error::not_supported(message),
+                });
+            }
+            Err(error) => return Err(error),
+        };
+        let (fields, column_indices) =
+            file_versions::data_file_columns(target.version, target.schema.as_ref());
+        Ok(DataFile::new(
+            target.file_name.clone(),
+            fields,
+            column_indices,
+            target.version,
+            NonZeroU64::new(output.size_bytes),
+            target.base_id,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
 /// The destination to write data to.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub enum WriteDestination<'a> {
@@ -123,12 +413,117 @@ impl TryFrom<&str> for WriteMode {
             "create" => Ok(Self::Create),
             "append" => Ok(Self::Append),
             "overwrite" => Ok(Self::Overwrite),
-            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Invalid write mode: {}", value),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid write mode: {}",
+                value
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The strategy for handling external blob URIs on write.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum ExternalBlobMode {
+    /// Store the URI as an external blob reference.
+    #[default]
+    Reference,
+    /// Read the external bytes during write and store them in Lance-managed storage.
+    Ingest,
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&str> for ExternalBlobMode {
+    type Error = Error;
+
+    fn try_from(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        match value.to_lowercase().as_str() {
+            "reference" => Ok(Self::Reference),
+            "ingest" => Ok(Self::Ingest),
+            _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid external blob mode: {}",
+                value
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_external_blob_write_params(params: &WriteParams) -> Result<()> {
+    if params.external_blob_mode == ExternalBlobMode::Ingest
+        && params.allow_external_blob_outside_bases
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "allow_external_blob_outside_bases only applies when external_blob_mode=\"reference\"",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_blob_threshold_metadata_for_append(
+    input_schema: &Schema,
+    dataset_schema: &Schema,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    for input_field in &input_schema.fields {
+        let Some(dataset_field) = dataset_schema.field(&input_field.name) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        validate_blob_threshold_metadata_for_field_recursive(input_field, dataset_field)?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_blob_threshold_metadata_for_field_recursive(
+    input_field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+    dataset_field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let input_is_blob_v2 = input_field
+        .metadata
+        .get(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY)
+        .is_some_and(|extension_name| extension_name == BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME);
+    let dataset_is_blob_v2 = dataset_field
+        .metadata
+        .get(ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY)
+        .is_some_and(|extension_name| extension_name == BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME);
+    if input_is_blob_v2 || dataset_is_blob_v2 {
+        for (key, read_threshold) in [
+            (
+                BLOB_INLINE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+                blob_inline_threshold_from_metadata
+                    as fn(&HashMap<String, String>, &str) -> Result<usize>,
+            ),
+            (
+                BLOB_DEDICATED_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+                blob_dedicated_threshold_from_metadata,
+            ),
+            (
+                BLOB_PACK_FILE_SIZE_THRESHOLD_META_KEY,
+                blob_pack_file_threshold_from_metadata,
+            ),
+        ] {
+            if !input_field.metadata.contains_key(key) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let input_value = read_threshold(&input_field.metadata, &input_field.name)?;
+            let dataset_value = read_threshold(&dataset_field.metadata, &dataset_field.name)?;
+            if input_value != dataset_value {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Cannot append data with blob threshold metadata {key}={input_value} for \
+                     field '{}'; the dataset schema has effective value {dataset_value}. Blob \
+                     thresholds for existing columns are stored in the dataset schema.",
+                    input_field.name,
+                )));
+            }
         }
     }
+
+    for input_child in &input_field.children {
+        let Some(dataset_child) = dataset_field.child(&input_child.name) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        validate_blob_threshold_metadata_for_field_recursive(input_child, dataset_child)?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
 }
 
 /// Auto cleanup parameters
@@ -172,10 +567,27 @@ pub struct WriteParams {
     /// Write mode
     pub mode: WriteMode,
 
+    /// Default object store params for the write.
+    ///
+    /// Storage options may carry base-scoped entries (`base_<id>.<key>`) that
+    /// apply only to the registered base path with that id, overriding the
+    /// unscoped options that every base inherits.
     pub store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
 
+    /// Exact object store params per base path URI, taking precedence over
+    /// `base_<id>.<key>` storage options in [`Self::store_params`]. See
+    /// [`Self::with_base_store_params`].
+    pub base_store_params: Option<HashMap<String, ObjectStoreParams>>,
+
     pub progress: Arc<dyn WriteFragmentProgress>,
 
+    /// Optional callback invoked after each batch is written.
+    ///
+    /// Receives cumulative [`WriteStats`] so callers can render a progress bar
+    /// or compute throughput. The callback must be cheap and non-blocking;
+    /// spawn a task if you need async work.
+    pub write_progress: Option<WriteProgressFn>,
+
     /// If present, dataset will use this to update the latest version
     ///
     /// If not set, the default will be based on the object store.  Generally this will
@@ -189,8 +601,11 @@ pub struct WriteParams {
     ///
     /// Newer versions are more efficient but the data can only be read by more recent versions
     /// of lance.
+    /// Lance file version 2.3 enables RLE v2 run length widths by default.
     ///
-    /// If not specified then the latest stable version will be used.
+    /// For an existing dataset, an explicit version is the exact target for
+    /// this operation; if omitted, the manifest default storage version is used.
+    /// New datasets default to the latest stable version.
     pub data_storage_version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
 
     /// Experimental: if set to true, the writer will use stable row ids.
@@ -209,11 +624,19 @@ pub struct WriteParams {
     pub session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
 
     /// If Some and this is a new dataset, old dataset versions will be
-    /// automatically cleaned up according to the parameters set out in
-    /// [`AutoCleanupParams`]. This parameter has no effect on existing datasets.
-    /// To add auto-cleanup to an existing dataset, use [`Dataset::update_config`]
-    /// to set `lance.auto_cleanup.interval` and `lance.auto_cleanup.older_than`.
-    /// Both parameters must be set to invoke auto-cleanup.
+    /// automatically cleaned up after commits according to the parameters set
+    /// out in [`AutoCleanupParams`]. This parameter has no effect on existing
+    /// datasets. To add auto-cleanup to an existing dataset, use
+    /// [`Dataset::update_config`] to set `lance.auto_cleanup.interval` and
+    /// `lance.auto_cleanup.older_than`. Both parameters must be set to invoke
+    /// auto-cleanup.
+    ///
+    /// Defaults to `None` (auto-cleanup disabled). Enabling it makes every
+    /// `interval`-th commit run a full cleanup pass, which lists and reads every
+    /// manifest in the dataset even when nothing is old enough to delete; on
+    /// object stores this adds noticeable per-commit latency that grows with the
+    /// version count. Prefer calling [`Dataset::cleanup_old_versions`] explicitly
+    /// when you actually need to reclaim space.
     pub auto_cleanup: Option<AutoCleanupParams>,
 
     /// If true, skip auto cleanup during commits. This should be set to true
@@ -239,12 +662,41 @@ pub struct WriteParams {
     /// The IDs must correspond to either:
     /// - IDs in initial_bases (for CREATE/OVERWRITE modes)
     /// - IDs already registered in the existing dataset manifest (for APPEND mode)
+    /// - [`PRIMARY_BASE_ID`] (0), which targets the dataset's primary storage
+    ///   and participates in the round-robin like any other entry
     pub target_bases: Option<Vec<u32>>,
 
     /// Target base names or paths as strings (unresolved).
     /// These will be resolved to IDs when the write operation executes.
     /// Resolution happens at builder execution time when dataset context is available.
+    /// An entry equal to the dataset's URI targets the dataset's primary storage.
     pub target_base_names_or_paths: Option<Vec<String>>,
+
+    /// Target every base registered in the dataset manifest, resolved when the
+    /// write executes. `Some(include_primary)`: when `include_primary` is true
+    /// the dataset's primary storage participates in the rotation as the first
+    /// slot. Cannot be combined with `target_bases` or
+    /// `target_base_names_or_paths`.
+    pub target_all_bases: Option<bool>,
+
+    /// Allow writing external blob URIs that cannot be mapped to any registered
+    /// non-dataset-root base path. When disabled, such rows are rejected.
+    pub allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool,
+
+    /// The strategy used when writing external blob URIs.
+    pub external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode,
+
+    /// Maximum size in bytes for blob v2 pack (.blob) sidecar files.
+    /// When a pack file reaches this size, a new one is started.
+    /// If not set, defaults to 1 GiB.
+    pub blob_pack_file_size_threshold: Option<usize>,
+
+    /// File writer options to use when writing data files.
+    ///
+    /// Options set here apply to current-format data files. They have no effect
+    /// when writing legacy V1 files. If not set, the file writer uses its
+    /// configured defaults.
+    pub file_writer_options: Option<FileWriterOptions>,
 }
 
 impl Default for WriteParams {
@@ -257,18 +709,25 @@ impl Default for WriteParams {
             max_bytes_per_file: 90 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024, // 90 GB
             mode: WriteMode::Create,
             store_params: None,
+            base_store_params: None,
             progress: Arc::new(NoopFragmentWriteProgress::new()),
+            write_progress: None,
             commit_handler: None,
             data_storage_version: None,
             enable_stable_row_ids: false,
             enable_v2_manifest_paths: true,
             session: None,
-            auto_cleanup: Some(AutoCleanupParams::default()),
+            auto_cleanup: None,
             skip_auto_cleanup: false,
             transaction_properties: None,
             initial_bases: None,
             target_bases: None,
             target_base_names_or_paths: None,
+            target_all_bases: None,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases: false,
+            external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+            blob_pack_file_size_threshold: None,
+            file_writer_options: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -283,8 +742,8 @@ impl WriteParams {
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn storage_version_or_default(&self) -> LanceFileVersion {
-        self.data_storage_version.unwrap_or_default()
+    pub fn storage_version_or_default(&self) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+        self.data_storage_version.unwrap_or_default().resolve()
     }
 
     pub fn store_registry(&self) -> Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry> {
@@ -294,6 +753,23 @@ impl WriteParams {
             .unwrap_or_default()
     }
 
+    /// Set exact runtime object store params for a registered base path.
+    ///
+    /// These params are used as-is for that base, taking precedence over
+    /// `base_<id>.<key>` storage options in `store_params`. The write-level
+    /// default `store_params` remain the fallback for bases without an
+    /// explicit binding.
+    pub fn with_base_store_params(
+        mut self,
+        base_path: impl AsRef<str>,
+        store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.base_store_params
+            .get_or_insert_with(HashMap::new)
+            .insert(base_path.as_ref().to_string(), store_params);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set the properties for this WriteParams.
     pub fn with_transaction_properties(self, properties: HashMap<String, String>) -> Self {
         Self {
@@ -347,6 +823,43 @@ impl WriteParams {
             ..self
         }
     }
+
+    /// Target every base registered in the dataset manifest, resolved when the
+    /// write executes. When `include_primary` is true the dataset's primary
+    /// storage participates in the rotation as the first slot.
+    ///
+    /// Cannot be combined with [`Self::with_target_bases`] or
+    /// [`Self::with_target_base_names_or_paths`].
+    pub fn with_target_all_bases(self, include_primary: bool) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            target_all_bases: Some(include_primary),
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Configure whether external blobs outside registered bases are allowed.
+    pub fn with_allow_external_blob_outside_bases(self, allow: bool) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases: allow,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Configure how external blob URIs are handled during writes.
+    pub fn with_external_blob_mode(self, mode: ExternalBlobMode) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            external_blob_mode: mode,
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum size in bytes for blob v2 pack (.blob) sidecar files.
+    pub fn with_blob_pack_file_size_threshold(self, max_bytes: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            blob_pack_file_size_threshold: Some(max_bytes),
+            ..self
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 /// Writes the given data to the dataset and returns fragments.
@@ -356,7 +869,7 @@ impl WriteParams {
 /// IDs can be assigned after writing is complete.
 #[deprecated(
     since = "0.20.0",
-    note = "Use [`InsertBuilder::write_uncommitted_stream`] instead"
+    note = "Use [`InsertBuilder::execute_uncommitted_stream`] instead"
 )]
 pub async fn write_fragments(
     dest: impl Into<WriteDestination<'_>>,
@@ -369,100 +882,453 @@ pub async fn write_fragments(
         .await
 }
 
+fn take_batch_rows(batches: &mut VecDeque<RecordBatch>, max_rows: usize) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut output = Vec::with_capacity(batches.len());
+    let mut rows_remaining = max_rows;
+
+    while rows_remaining > 0 {
+        let Some(batch) = batches.pop_front() else {
+            break;
+        };
+        let batch_rows = batch.num_rows();
+        if batch_rows == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if batch_rows <= rows_remaining {
+            rows_remaining -= batch_rows;
+            output.push(batch);
+        } else {
+            output.push(batch.slice(0, rows_remaining));
+            batches.push_front(batch.slice(rows_remaining, batch_rows - rows_remaining));
+            rows_remaining = 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    output
+}
+
+fn balanced_row_counts(total_rows: usize, max_rows_per_file: usize) -> VecDeque<usize> {
+    if total_rows == 0 {
+        return VecDeque::new();
+    }
+
+    let file_count = total_rows.div_ceil(max_rows_per_file);
+    let base_rows_per_file = total_rows / file_count;
+    let larger_file_count = total_rows % file_count;
+    (0..file_count)
+        .map(|file_index| base_rows_per_file + usize::from(file_index < larger_file_count))
+        .collect()
+}
+
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-pub async fn do_write_fragments(
+pub(super) async fn do_write_fragments_impl<OpenWriter, OpenWriterFuture>(
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     base_dir: &Path,
     schema: &Schema,
-    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    mut buffered_reader: futures::stream::BoxStream<'static, Result<Vec<RecordBatch>>>,
     params: WriteParams,
-    storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    open_writer: OpenWriter,
+    external_base_resolver: Option<Arc<ExternalBaseResolver>>,
     target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
-) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
-    let adapter = SchemaAdapter::new(data.schema());
-    let data = adapter.to_physical_stream(data);
-
-    let mut buffered_reader = if storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-        // In v1 we split the stream into row group sized batches
-        chunk_stream(data, params.max_rows_per_group)
-    } else {
-        // In v2 we don't care about group size but we do want to break
-        // the stream on file boundaries
-        break_stream(data, params.max_rows_per_file)
-            .map_ok(|batch| vec![batch])
-            .boxed()
-    };
+    mut seed_writers: Vec<Box<dyn lance_index::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter>>,
+    file_row_counts: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+    preassigned_data_file_name: Option<Arc<String>>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>>
+where
+    OpenWriter: Fn(Arc<ObjectStore>, Schema, Path, WriterOptions) -> OpenWriterFuture + Send + Sync,
+    OpenWriterFuture: Future<Output = Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>>> + Send,
+{
+    let source_store_registry = dataset
+        .map(|ds| ds.session.store_registry())
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| params.store_registry());
+    let source_store_params = params.store_params.clone().unwrap_or_default();
 
+    let file_writer_options = params.file_writer_options.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+    let cleanup_bases = target_bases_info.clone();
     let writer_generator = WriterGenerator::new(
-        object_store,
+        object_store.clone(),
         base_dir,
         schema,
-        storage_version,
+        open_writer,
         target_bases_info,
+        external_base_resolver,
+        params.allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        params.external_blob_mode,
+        source_store_registry,
+        source_store_params,
+        params.blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+        file_writer_options,
+        preassigned_data_file_name,
     );
     let mut writer: Option<Box<dyn GenericWriter>> = None;
     let mut num_rows_in_current_file = 0;
-    let mut fragments = Vec::new();
-    while let Some(batch_chunk) = buffered_reader.next().await {
-        let batch_chunk = batch_chunk?;
+    let mut fragments: Vec<Fragment> = Vec::new();
+    let mut bytes_completed: u64 = 0;
+    let mut rows_completed: u64 = 0;
+    let mut files_written: u32 = 0;
+    let has_file_row_counts = file_row_counts.is_some();
+    let max_planned_file_rows = file_row_counts
+        .as_ref()
+        .and_then(|row_counts| row_counts.iter().copied().max());
+    let mut planned_rows_remaining = file_row_counts
+        .as_ref()
+        .map(|row_counts| {
+            row_counts.iter().try_fold(0_usize, |total, &row_count| {
+                total
+                    .checked_add(row_count)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Planned file row count total overflowed usize"))
+            })
+        })
+        .transpose()?;
+    let mut file_row_counts = file_row_counts.map(VecDeque::from);
+    let mut rows_remaining_in_planned_file = file_row_counts.as_mut().and_then(VecDeque::pop_front);
+
+    // Wrap the loop in an async block so `?` returns into `loop_result` and we
+    // can run cleanup before propagating the error.
+    let loop_result: Result<()> = async {
+        while let Some(batch_chunk) = buffered_reader.next().await {
+            let mut pending_batches = VecDeque::from(batch_chunk?);
+
+            while !pending_batches.is_empty() {
+                let rows_to_take = if has_file_row_counts {
+                    rows_remaining_in_planned_file.ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(
+                            "Writer received rows after all planned file boundaries were consumed",
+                        )
+                    })?
+                } else {
+                    usize::MAX
+                };
+                let batch_chunk = take_batch_rows(&mut pending_batches, rows_to_take);
+                if batch_chunk.is_empty() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                // Seed observers must see the values the data file stores, so
+                // convert before handing the batches to both. The data file
+                // writer then finds nothing left to convert.
+                let batch_chunk = batch_chunk
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|batch| SchemaAdapter::new(batch.schema()).to_physical_batch(batch))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+                if writer.is_none() {
+                    let (new_writer, new_fragment) = writer_generator.new_writer().await?;
+                    params.progress.begin(&new_fragment).await?;
+                    writer = Some(new_writer);
+                    fragments.push(new_fragment);
+                }
 
-        if writer.is_none() {
-            let (new_writer, new_fragment) = writer_generator.new_writer().await?;
-            params.progress.begin(&new_fragment).await?;
-            writer = Some(new_writer);
-            fragments.push(new_fragment);
-        }
+                let active_writer = writer.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("Writer was not initialized before writing a batch")
+                })?;
+                active_writer.write(&batch_chunk).await?;
+                for seed_writer in seed_writers.iter_mut() {
+                    let col_name = seed_writer.column_name().to_owned();
+                    for batch in &batch_chunk {
+                        if let Some(col) = batch.column_by_name(&col_name) {
+                            seed_writer.observe_batch(col)?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                let batch_chunk_rows =
+                    batch_chunk.iter().map(RecordBatch::num_rows).sum::<usize>();
+                num_rows_in_current_file += batch_chunk_rows as u32;
+
+                let reached_planned_file_boundary = if has_file_row_counts {
+                    let rows_remaining =
+                        rows_remaining_in_planned_file.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal(
+                                "Writer received rows without an active planned file boundary",
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                    *rows_remaining = rows_remaining.checked_sub(batch_chunk_rows).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Writer chunk of {batch_chunk_rows} rows crossed a planned file boundary with {rows_remaining} rows remaining"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    let total_remaining = planned_rows_remaining.as_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal("Writer lost the planned row count total")
+                    })?;
+                    *total_remaining =
+                        total_remaining.checked_sub(batch_chunk_rows).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal(format!(
+                                "Writer consumed {batch_chunk_rows} rows after the planned row count total was exhausted"
+                            ))
+                        })?;
+                    *rows_remaining == 0
+                } else {
+                    false
+                };
+
+                let current_file_bytes = writer
+                    .as_mut()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("Writer disappeared after writing a batch"))?
+                    .tell()
+                    .await?;
+                if let Some(cb) = &params.write_progress {
+                    cb.call(WriteStats {
+                        bytes_written: bytes_completed + current_file_bytes,
+                        rows_written: rows_completed + num_rows_in_current_file as u64,
+                        files_written,
+                    });
+                }
+
+                let reached_row_limit = if has_file_row_counts {
+                    reached_planned_file_boundary
+                } else {
+                    num_rows_in_current_file >= params.max_rows_per_file as u32
+                };
+                let reached_byte_limit = current_file_bytes >= params.max_bytes_per_file as u64;
+
+                if reached_row_limit || reached_byte_limit {
+                    if has_file_row_counts {
+                        if reached_planned_file_boundary {
+                            rows_remaining_in_planned_file = file_row_counts
+                                .as_mut()
+                                .and_then(VecDeque::pop_front);
+                        } else {
+                            // A byte-driven close is an extra physical boundary. Rebalance all
+                            // unwritten rows under the original maximum instead of preserving a
+                            // tiny abandoned remainder or rolling it into an oversized tail.
+                            let total_remaining = planned_rows_remaining.ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::internal("Writer lost the planned row count total")
+                            })?;
+                            let max_rows_per_file = max_planned_file_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::internal(
+                                    "Writer cannot replan byte-limited files without a maximum planned row count",
+                                )
+                            })?;
+                            let mut replanned_counts =
+                                balanced_row_counts(total_remaining, max_rows_per_file);
+                            rows_remaining_in_planned_file = replanned_counts.pop_front();
+                            file_row_counts = Some(replanned_counts);
+                        }
+                    }
 
-        writer.as_mut().unwrap().write(&batch_chunk).await?;
-        for batch in batch_chunk {
-            num_rows_in_current_file += batch.num_rows() as u32;
+                    let mut w = writer.take().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal("Writer disappeared before completing a file")
+                    })?;
+                    flush_seed_writers(w.as_mut(), &mut seed_writers).await?;
+                    let (num_rows, data_file) = w.finish().await?;
+                    info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = &data_file.path);
+                    debug_assert_eq!(num_rows, num_rows_in_current_file);
+                    bytes_completed += data_file.file_size_bytes.get().map_or(0, |s| s.get());
+                    rows_completed += num_rows as u64;
+                    files_written += 1;
+                    let last_fragment = fragments.last_mut().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal("Writer completed a file without a pending fragment")
+                    })?;
+                    last_fragment.physical_rows = Some(num_rows as usize);
+                    last_fragment.files.push(data_file);
+                    // Notify after pushing the data file so it's tracked for cleanup
+                    // if the callback fails.
+                    let completed_fragment = fragments.last().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal("Writer completed a file without a fragment")
+                    })?;
+                    params.progress.complete(completed_fragment).await?;
+                    if let Some(cb) = &params.write_progress {
+                        cb.call(WriteStats {
+                            bytes_written: bytes_completed,
+                            rows_written: rows_completed,
+                            files_written,
+                        });
+                    }
+                    num_rows_in_current_file = 0;
+                }
+            }
         }
 
-        if num_rows_in_current_file >= params.max_rows_per_file as u32
-            || writer.as_mut().unwrap().tell().await? >= params.max_bytes_per_file as u64
-        {
-            let (num_rows, data_file) = writer.take().unwrap().finish().await?;
-            info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = &data_file.path);
-            debug_assert_eq!(num_rows, num_rows_in_current_file);
-            params.progress.complete(fragments.last().unwrap()).await?;
-            let last_fragment = fragments.last_mut().unwrap();
-            last_fragment.physical_rows = Some(num_rows as usize);
-            last_fragment.files.push(data_file);
-            num_rows_in_current_file = 0;
+        if has_file_row_counts && planned_rows_remaining != Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Writer input ended with {} planned rows remaining",
+                planned_rows_remaining.unwrap_or_default()
+            )));
         }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+    .await;
+
+    if let Err(e) = loop_result {
+        // Drop the writer so its in-progress file is cleaned up (LocalWriter
+        // removes its temp file; ObjectWriter aborts the multipart upload).
+        drop(writer.take());
+        cleanup_data_fragments(
+            &object_store,
+            base_dir,
+            cleanup_bases.as_deref(),
+            &fragments,
+        )
+        .await;
+        return Err(e);
     }
 
     // Complete the final writer
     if let Some(mut writer) = writer.take() {
-        let (num_rows, data_file) = writer.finish().await?;
-        info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = &data_file.path);
-        let last_fragment = fragments.last_mut().unwrap();
-        last_fragment.physical_rows = Some(num_rows as usize);
-        last_fragment.files.push(data_file);
+        if let Err(e) = flush_seed_writers(writer.as_mut(), &mut seed_writers).await {
+            drop(writer);
+            cleanup_data_fragments(
+                &object_store,
+                base_dir,
+                cleanup_bases.as_deref(),
+                &fragments,
+            )
+            .await;
+            return Err(e);
+        }
+        match writer.finish().await {
+            Ok((num_rows, data_file)) => {
+                info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_CREATE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = &data_file.path);
+                bytes_completed += data_file.file_size_bytes.get().map_or(0, |s| s.get());
+                rows_completed += num_rows as u64;
+                files_written += 1;
+                let last_fragment = fragments.last_mut().unwrap();
+                last_fragment.physical_rows = Some(num_rows as usize);
+                last_fragment.files.push(data_file);
+                if let Some(cb) = &params.write_progress {
+                    cb.call(WriteStats {
+                        bytes_written: bytes_completed,
+                        rows_written: rows_completed,
+                        files_written,
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                drop(writer);
+                cleanup_data_fragments(
+                    &object_store,
+                    base_dir,
+                    cleanup_bases.as_deref(),
+                    &fragments,
+                )
+                .await;
+                return Err(e);
+            }
+        }
     }
 
     Ok(fragments)
 }
 
+/// Flush all seed writers into the given file writer, embedding seed buffers
+/// and schema metadata before `finish()` is called.
+async fn flush_seed_writers(
+    writer: &mut dyn GenericWriter,
+    seed_writers: &mut [Box<dyn lance_index::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter>],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    for seed_writer in seed_writers.iter_mut() {
+        if let Some(bytes) = seed_writer.finish()? {
+            let buf_index = writer.add_global_buffer(bytes).await?;
+            let key = seed_writer.schema_metadata_key();
+            let value = seed_writer.schema_metadata_value(buf_index);
+            writer.add_schema_metadata(key, value);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Best-effort cleanup of data files for fragments that were written but not committed.
+///
+/// Contract:
+/// - Errors from individual `delete` calls are logged and swallowed, never returned —
+///   callers should propagate the original write error.
+/// - Files in the dataset's default storage (`base_id == None`) are deleted via
+///   `object_store`; files whose `base_id` matches an entry in `target_bases` are
+///   deleted via that base's object store. Files in bases not listed in
+///   `target_bases` are skipped because we don't have their object stores here.
+/// - Safe to call with an empty slice.
+/// - Must be called before the fragments are committed, otherwise live data may be deleted.
+pub(crate) async fn cleanup_data_fragments(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    target_bases: Option<&[TargetBaseInfo]>,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+) {
+    let data_dir = base_dir.clone().join(DATA_DIR);
+    let mut skipped_external = 0usize;
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        // Deliberately not `referenced_lance_files()`: callers decide which
+        // files belong to the failed write. `schema_evolution` passes a live
+        // fragment whose `files` it narrowed to the newly written ones while
+        // leaving `overlays` untouched, so including overlays here would delete
+        // live data.
+        for file in &fragment.files {
+            let (store, file_dir) = if let Some(base_id) = file.base_id {
+                match target_bases.and_then(|bases| bases.iter().find(|b| b.base_id == base_id)) {
+                    Some(base_info) => {
+                        let dir = if base_info.is_dataset_root {
+                            base_info.base_dir.clone().join(DATA_DIR)
+                        } else {
+                            base_info.base_dir.clone()
+                        };
+                        (base_info.object_store.as_ref(), dir)
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        skipped_external += 1;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                (object_store, data_dir.clone())
+            };
+
+            let path = file_dir.clone().join(file.path.as_str());
+            match store.delete(&path).await {
+                Ok(()) => {
+                    info!(target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT, mode=AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, r#type=AUDIT_TYPE_DATA, path = file.path.as_str());
+                }
+                Err(e) => {
+                    log::warn!("Failed to clean up orphaned data file '{}': {}", path, e);
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Clean up any blob v2 sidecars that might exist for this data file.
+            // Blob v2 sidecars are written to `data/{data_file_key}/{blob_id}.blob`.
+            // The `data_file_key` is the file stem of the .lance file.
+            if let Some(stem) = std::path::Path::new(file.path.as_str())
+                .file_stem()
+                .and_then(|s| s.to_str())
+            {
+                let blob_dir = file_dir.clone().join(stem);
+                match store.remove_dir_all(blob_dir.clone()).await {
+                    Err(e) if !matches!(e, Error::NotFound { .. }) => {
+                        log::warn!("Failed to clean up orphaned blob dir '{}': {}", blob_dir, e);
+                    }
+                    _ => {}
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if skipped_external > 0 {
+        log::warn!(
+            "Skipped cleanup of {} orphaned data file(s) in external bases: \
+             their object stores are not available here",
+            skipped_external
+        );
+    }
+}
+
 pub async fn validate_and_resolve_target_bases(
     params: &mut WriteParams,
     existing_base_paths: Option<&HashMap<u32, BasePath>>,
 ) -> Result<Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>> {
     // Step 1: Validations
     if !matches!(params.mode, WriteMode::Create) && params.initial_bases.is_some() {
-        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Cannot register new bases in {:?} mode. Only CREATE mode can register new bases.",
-                params.mode
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ));
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Cannot register new bases in {:?} mode. Only CREATE mode can register new bases.",
+            params.mode
+        )));
     }
 
     if params.target_base_names_or_paths.is_some() && params.target_bases.is_some() {
         return Err(Error::invalid_input(
             "Cannot specify both target_base_names_or_paths and target_bases. Use one or the other.",
-            location!(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    if params.target_all_bases.is_some() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "target_all_bases requires dataset context to resolve; use the write or merge insert APIs to apply it.",
         ));
     }
 
@@ -479,6 +1345,11 @@ pub async fn validate_and_resolve_target_bases(
             all_bases.insert(base_path.id, base_path.clone());
         }
     }
+    log_unregistered_base_scoped_options(
+        params.store_params.as_ref(),
+        &all_bases,
+        log::Level::Warn,
+    );
 
     // Step 3: Resolve target_base_names_or_paths to IDs
     let target_base_ids = if let Some(ref names_or_paths) = params.target_base_names_or_paths {
@@ -493,10 +1364,10 @@ pub async fn validate_and_resolve_target_bases(
                 })
                 .map(|(&id, _)| id)
                 .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("Base reference '{}' not found in available bases", ref_str),
-                        location!(),
-                    )
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Base reference '{}' not found in available bases",
+                        ref_str
+                    ))
                 })?;
 
             resolved_ids.push(id);
@@ -514,20 +1385,24 @@ pub async fn validate_and_resolve_target_bases(
         .unwrap_or_default();
 
     if let Some(target_bases) = &target_base_ids {
-        let store_params = params.store_params.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+        // An empty list would panic in round-robin selection; reject it
+        // instead of silently writing to primary storage.
+        if target_bases.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "target_bases cannot be empty. Omit the option to write to primary storage.",
+            ));
+        }
         let mut bases_info = Vec::new();
 
         for &target_base_id in target_bases {
             let base_path = all_bases.get(&target_base_id).ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Target base ID {} not found in available bases",
-                        target_base_id
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Target base ID {} not found in available bases",
+                    target_base_id
+                ))
             })?;
 
+            let store_params = write_store_params_for_base(params, base_path);
             let (target_object_store, extracted_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
                 store_registry.clone(),
                 &base_path.path,
@@ -549,133 +1424,591 @@ pub async fn validate_and_resolve_target_bases(
     }
 }
 
-/// Writes the given data to the dataset and returns fragments.
-///
-/// NOTE: the fragments have not yet been assigned an ID. That must be done
-/// by the caller. This is so this function can be called in parallel, and the
-/// IDs can be assigned after writing is complete.
-///
-/// This is a private variant that takes a `SendableRecordBatchStream` instead
-/// of a reader. We don't expose the stream at our interface because it is a
-/// DataFusion type.
-#[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-pub async fn write_fragments_internal(
-    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
-    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
-    base_dir: &Path,
-    schema: Schema,
-    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    params: WriteParams,
-    target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
-) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Schema)> {
-    let mut params = params;
-    let adapter = SchemaAdapter::new(data.schema());
-
-    let (data, converted_schema) = if adapter.requires_physical_conversion() {
-        let data = adapter.to_physical_stream(data);
-        // Update the schema to match the converted data
-        let arrow_schema = data.schema();
-        let converted_schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref())?;
-        (data, converted_schema)
+/// Like [`validate_and_resolve_target_bases`], but also resolves references to
+/// the dataset's primary storage: base id [`PRIMARY_BASE_ID`] in
+/// `target_bases`, or an entry equal to `primary_uri` in
+/// `target_base_names_or_paths`. Primary slots participate in the round-robin
+/// like any other target base; files written through them carry no base id.
+pub(crate) async fn validate_and_resolve_target_bases_with_primary(
+    params: &mut WriteParams,
+    existing_base_paths: Option<&HashMap<u32, BasePath>>,
+    primary_object_store: &Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    primary_base_dir: &Path,
+    primary_uri: &str,
+) -> Result<Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>> {
+    // Expand an all-bases request into an explicit id list (primary first,
+    // then registered bases in ascending id order) and continue below.
+    if let Some(include_primary) = params.target_all_bases {
+        if params.target_bases.is_some() || params.target_base_names_or_paths.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Cannot specify target_all_bases together with target_bases or target_base_names_or_paths.",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut ids: Vec<u32> = existing_base_paths
+            .map(|bases| bases.keys().copied().collect())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        // CREATE mode registers initial_bases in the same write; assign their
+        // ids here (the delegate keeps non-zero ids as-is) so they join the
+        // rotation.
+        if let Some(initial_bases) = &mut params.initial_bases {
+            let mut next_id = ids.iter().max().map(|id| id + 1).unwrap_or(1);
+            for base_path in initial_bases.iter_mut() {
+                if base_path.id == 0 {
+                    base_path.id = next_id;
+                    next_id += 1;
+                }
+                ids.push(base_path.id);
+            }
+        }
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids.dedup();
+        if include_primary {
+            ids.insert(0, PRIMARY_BASE_ID);
+        }
+        if ids.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "target_all_bases found no registered bases and include_primary is false. \
+                 Register bases or include primary storage.",
+            ));
+        }
+        params.target_bases = Some(ids);
+        params.target_all_bases = None;
+    }
+
+    let has_primary_ids = params
+        .target_bases
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|ids| ids.contains(&PRIMARY_BASE_ID));
+    let has_primary_refs = params
+        .target_base_names_or_paths
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|refs| refs.iter().any(|r| r == primary_uri));
+    if !has_primary_ids && !has_primary_refs {
+        return validate_and_resolve_target_bases(params, existing_base_paths).await;
+    }
+
+    // The delegate below may be skipped when only primary slots remain, so
+    // validate mutual exclusion here as well.
+    if params.target_base_names_or_paths.is_some() && params.target_bases.is_some() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Cannot specify both target_base_names_or_paths and target_bases. Use one or the other.",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // Strip the primary slots, resolve the remaining references through the
+    // normal path, then splice the primary slots back into their original
+    // positions so the round-robin order matches what the caller asked for.
+    let is_primary_slot: Vec<bool> = if let Some(ids) = &params.target_bases {
+        ids.iter().map(|id| *id == PRIMARY_BASE_ID).collect()
     } else {
-        // No conversion needed, use original schema to preserve dictionary info
-        (data, schema)
+        params
+            .target_base_names_or_paths
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|r| r == primary_uri)
+            .collect()
     };
 
-    // Make sure the max rows per group is not larger than the max rows per file
-    params.max_rows_per_group = std::cmp::min(params.max_rows_per_group, params.max_rows_per_file);
+    let mut shim = params.clone();
+    if let Some(ids) = &params.target_bases {
+        let rest: Vec<u32> = ids
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .filter(|id| *id != PRIMARY_BASE_ID)
+            .collect();
+        shim.target_bases = if rest.is_empty() { None } else { Some(rest) };
+    } else {
+        let rest: Vec<String> = params
+            .target_base_names_or_paths
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|r| *r != primary_uri)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        shim.target_base_names_or_paths = if rest.is_empty() { None } else { Some(rest) };
+    }
 
-    let (schema, storage_version) = if let Some(dataset) = dataset {
-        match params.mode {
-            WriteMode::Append | WriteMode::Create => {
-                // Append mode, so we need to check compatibility
-                converted_schema.check_compatible(
-                    dataset.schema(),
-                    &SchemaCompareOptions {
-                        // We don't care if the user claims their data is nullable / non-nullable.  We will
-                        // verify against the actual data.
-                        compare_nullability: NullabilityComparison::Ignore,
-                        allow_missing_if_nullable: true,
-                        ignore_field_order: true,
-                        compare_dictionary: dataset.is_legacy_storage(),
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    },
-                )?;
-                let write_schema = dataset.schema().project_by_schema(
-                    &converted_schema,
-                    OnMissing::Error,
-                    OnTypeMismatch::Error,
-                )?;
-                // Use the storage version from the dataset, ignoring any version from the user.
-                let data_storage_version = dataset
-                    .manifest()
-                    .data_storage_format
-                    .lance_file_version()?;
-                (write_schema, data_storage_version)
-            }
-            WriteMode::Overwrite => {
-                // Overwrite, use the schema from the data.  If the user specified
-                // a storage version use that.  Otherwise use the version from the
-                // dataset.
-                let data_storage_version = params.data_storage_version.unwrap_or(
-                    dataset
-                        .manifest()
-                        .data_storage_format
-                        .lance_file_version()?,
-                );
-                (converted_schema, data_storage_version)
-            }
+    let resolved_rest = validate_and_resolve_target_bases(&mut shim, existing_base_paths).await?;
+    // The delegate assigns ids to initial_bases in place; propagate that side
+    // effect back so CREATE-mode transactions register properly assigned ids.
+    params.initial_bases = shim.initial_bases;
+
+    let mut rest_iter = resolved_rest.unwrap_or_default().into_iter();
+    let mut bases_info = Vec::with_capacity(is_primary_slot.len());
+    for is_primary in is_primary_slot {
+        if is_primary {
+            bases_info.push(TargetBaseInfo {
+                base_id: PRIMARY_BASE_ID,
+                object_store: primary_object_store.clone(),
+                base_dir: primary_base_dir.clone(),
+                is_dataset_root: true,
+            });
+        } else {
+            bases_info.push(rest_iter.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("target base resolution returned fewer bases than requested")
+            })?);
         }
-    } else {
-        // Brand new dataset, use the schema from the data and the storage version
-        // from the user or the default.
-        (converted_schema, params.storage_version_or_default())
-    };
+    }
+    Ok(Some(bases_info))
+}
 
-    if storage_version < LanceFileVersion::V2_2 && schema.fields.iter().any(|f| f.is_blob_v2()) {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!(
-                "Blob v2 requires file version >= 2.2 (got {:?})",
-                storage_version
-            )
-            .into(),
-            location: location!(),
+fn append_external_base_candidate(
+    base_path: &BasePath,
+    store_prefix: String,
+    extracted_path: Path,
+    store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+    candidates: &mut Vec<ExternalBaseCandidate>,
+    seen_base_ids: &mut HashSet<u32>,
+) {
+    if base_path.is_dataset_root {
+        return;
+    }
+    if seen_base_ids.insert(base_path.id) {
+        candidates.push(ExternalBaseCandidate {
+            base_id: base_path.id,
+            store_prefix,
+            base_path: extracted_path,
+            store_params,
         });
     }
+}
 
-    if storage_version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_2
-        && schema
-            .fields
-            .iter()
-            .any(|f| f.metadata.contains_key(BLOB_META_KEY))
+/// Log base-scoped storage options (`base_<id>.<key>`) whose id does not
+/// match any registered base path. Unregistered entries are ignored during
+/// resolution. The open path logs at debug, since options may legitimately be
+/// vended for bases the loaded version does not register; the write path logs
+/// at warn, since ids are already assigned there and an unmatched id is much
+/// more likely a mistake.
+pub(crate) fn log_unregistered_base_scoped_options(
+    store_params: Option<&ObjectStoreParams>,
+    base_paths: &HashMap<u32, BasePath>,
+    level: log::Level,
+) {
+    if !log::log_enabled!(level) {
+        return;
+    }
+    let Some(options) = store_params.and_then(|params| params.storage_options()) else {
+        return;
+    };
+    let unregistered = options
+        .keys()
+        .filter_map(|key| parse_base_scoped_key(key).map(|(id, _)| id))
+        .filter(|id| !base_paths.contains_key(id))
+        .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+    if !unregistered.is_empty() {
+        log::log!(
+            level,
+            "Ignoring base-scoped storage options for unregistered base path ids: {:?}",
+            unregistered
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+fn write_store_params_for_base(params: &WriteParams, base_path: &BasePath) -> ObjectStoreParams {
+    // Exact per-URI bindings are used as-is. Otherwise the write-level default
+    // params are resolved for the base scope: `base_<id>.<key>` storage
+    // options overlay the shared defaults for that base.
+    if let Some(store_params) = params
+        .base_store_params
+        .as_ref()
+        .and_then(|base_store_params| base_store_params.get(&base_path.path))
     {
-        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!(
-                "Legacy blob columns (field metadata key {BLOB_META_KEY:?}) are not supported for file version >= 2.2. Use the blob v2 extension type (ARROW:extension:name = \"lance.blob.v2\") and the new blob APIs (e.g. lance::blob::blob_field / lance::blob::BlobArrayBuilder)."
+        return store_params.clone();
+    }
+    let default_params = params.store_params.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+    match default_params.scoped_to_base(Some(base_path.id)) {
+        Cow::Owned(scoped_params) => scoped_params,
+        Cow::Borrowed(_) => default_params,
+    }
+}
+
+async fn append_external_initial_bases(
+    initial_bases: Option<&Vec<BasePath>>,
+    store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    params: &WriteParams,
+    candidates: &mut Vec<ExternalBaseCandidate>,
+    seen_base_ids: &mut HashSet<u32>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if let Some(initial_bases) = initial_bases {
+        for base_path in initial_bases {
+            let store_params = write_store_params_for_base(params, base_path);
+            let (store, extracted_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+                store_registry.clone(),
+                &base_path.path,
+                &store_params,
             )
-            .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+            .await?;
+            append_external_base_candidate(
+                base_path,
+                store.store_prefix.clone(),
+                extracted_path,
+                store_params,
+                candidates,
+                seen_base_ids,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn build_external_base_resolver(
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    params: &WriteParams,
+) -> Result<ExternalBaseResolver> {
+    let store_registry = dataset
+        .map(|ds| ds.session.store_registry())
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| params.store_registry());
+
+    let mut seen_base_ids = HashSet::new();
+    let mut candidates = vec![];
+
+    if let Some(dataset) = dataset {
+        for base_path in dataset.manifest.base_paths.values() {
+            let store_params = dataset.store_params_for_base(Some(base_path));
+            let (store, extracted_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+                store_registry.clone(),
+                &base_path.path,
+                &store_params,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            append_external_base_candidate(
+                base_path,
+                store.store_prefix.clone(),
+                extracted_path,
+                store_params,
+                &mut candidates,
+                &mut seen_base_ids,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    append_external_initial_bases(
+        params.initial_bases.as_ref(),
+        store_registry.clone(),
+        params,
+        &mut candidates,
+        &mut seen_base_ids,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    let mut resolver = ExternalBaseResolver::new(candidates, store_registry);
+    resolver.registered_base_ids = dataset
+        .into_iter()
+        .flat_map(|dataset| dataset.manifest.base_paths.keys().copied())
+        .chain(params.initial_bases.iter().flatten().map(|base| base.id))
+        .collect();
+    Ok(resolver)
+}
+
+pub(super) async fn blob_v2_external_base_resolver(
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    params: &WriteParams,
+    schema: &Schema,
+) -> Result<Option<Arc<ExternalBaseResolver>>> {
+    if schema.fields_pre_order().any(|field| field.is_blob_v2()) {
+        Ok(Some(Arc::new(
+            build_external_base_resolver(dataset, params).await?,
+        )))
+    } else {
+        Ok(None)
     }
+}
+
+/// Writes the given data to the dataset and returns fragments.
+///
+/// NOTE: the fragments have not yet been assigned an ID. That must be done
+/// by the caller. This is so this function can be called in parallel, and the
+/// IDs can be assigned after writing is complete.
+///
+/// This is a private variant that takes a `SendableRecordBatchStream` instead
+/// of a reader. We don't expose the stream at our interface because it is a
+/// DataFusion type.
+///
+/// The caller must resolve `storage_version` once for the operation. Operations
+/// that also select a commit format must reuse the same value when committing.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+#[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+pub async fn write_fragments_internal(
+    storage_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    schema: Schema,
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    params: WriteParams,
+    target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Schema)> {
+    write_fragments_internal_with_file_row_counts(
+        storage_version,
+        dataset,
+        object_store,
+        base_dir,
+        schema,
+        data,
+        params,
+        target_bases_info,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+#[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+pub(crate) async fn write_fragments_internal_with_file_row_counts(
+    storage_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    schema: Schema,
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    params: WriteParams,
+    target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
+    file_row_counts: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Schema)> {
+    write_fragments_internal_impl(
+        storage_version,
+        dataset,
+        object_store,
+        base_dir,
+        schema,
+        data,
+        params,
+        target_bases_info,
+        file_row_counts,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+}
 
-    let fragments = do_write_fragments(
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub(crate) async fn write_fragments_internal_to_file(
+    storage_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    schema: Schema,
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    params: WriteParams,
+    preassigned_data_file_name: Arc<String>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Schema)> {
+    write_fragments_internal_impl(
+        storage_version,
+        dataset,
         object_store,
         base_dir,
-        &schema,
+        schema,
         data,
         params,
+        None,
+        None,
+        Some(preassigned_data_file_name),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn write_fragments_internal_impl(
+    storage_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    schema: Schema,
+    data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    params: WriteParams,
+    target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
+    file_row_counts: Option<Vec<usize>>,
+    preassigned_data_file_name: Option<Arc<String>>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Schema)> {
+    let mut params = params;
+
+    // Make sure the max rows per group is not larger than the max rows per file
+    params.max_rows_per_group = std::cmp::min(params.max_rows_per_group, params.max_rows_per_file);
+    validate_external_blob_write_params(&params)?;
+    let normalized_schema = prepared_to_logical_blob_schema(&schema)?;
+
+    versions::write_fragments(
         storage_version,
+        dataset,
+        object_store,
+        base_dir,
+        normalized_schema,
+        data,
+        params,
         target_bases_info,
+        file_row_counts,
+        preassigned_data_file_name,
     )
-    .await?;
+    .await
+}
+
+pub(super) fn promote_legacy_blob_schema(schema: &Schema) -> Result<Schema> {
+    let mut schema = schema.clone();
+    for field in &mut schema.fields {
+        field.promote_blob_v2()?;
+    }
+    schema.set_field_id(schema.max_field_id());
+    Ok(schema)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn prepare_write_schema(
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    normalized_converted_schema: Schema,
+    params: &WriteParams,
+    mut schema_compare_options: lance_core::datatypes::SchemaCompareOptions,
+) -> Result<Schema> {
+    let schema = if let Some(dataset) = dataset
+        && matches!(params.mode, WriteMode::Append | WriteMode::Create)
+    {
+        schema_compare_options.compare_nullability = NullabilityComparison::Ignore;
+        schema_compare_options.allow_missing_if_nullable = true;
+        schema_compare_options.ignore_field_order = true;
+        validate_blob_threshold_metadata_for_append(
+            &normalized_converted_schema,
+            dataset.schema(),
+        )?;
+        if normalized_converted_schema
+            .check_compatible(dataset.schema(), &schema_compare_options)
+            .is_ok()
+        {
+            return dataset.schema().project_by_schema(
+                &normalized_converted_schema,
+                OnMissing::Error,
+                OnTypeMismatch::Error,
+            );
+        }
+        let comparison_schema = promote_legacy_blob_schema(&normalized_converted_schema)?;
+        let dataset_schema = promote_legacy_blob_schema(dataset.schema())?;
+        comparison_schema.check_compatible(&dataset_schema, &schema_compare_options)?;
+        let mut projected = dataset_schema.project_by_schema(
+            &comparison_schema,
+            OnMissing::Error,
+            OnTypeMismatch::Error,
+        )?;
+        // Inputs for 2.2+ were already promoted before schema preparation.
+        // Remaining byte inputs retain the legacy physical layout and the table's field IDs.
+        fn restore_legacy_blob_inputs(
+            field: &mut lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+            input: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+        ) {
+            if input.is_blob() && !input.is_blob_v2() {
+                field.logical_type = input.logical_type.clone();
+                field.children = input.children.clone();
+                field.metadata = input.metadata.clone();
+                field.encoding = input.encoding.clone();
+            } else if !field.is_blob() {
+                for child in &mut field.children {
+                    if let Some(input) =
+                        input.children.iter().find(|input| input.name == child.name)
+                    {
+                        restore_legacy_blob_inputs(child, input);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        for field in &mut projected.fields {
+            if let Some(input) = normalized_converted_schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .find(|input| input.name == field.name)
+            {
+                restore_legacy_blob_inputs(field, input);
+            }
+        }
+        projected
+    } else {
+        normalized_converted_schema
+    };
+    Ok(schema)
+}
+
+pub(super) fn validate_legacy_blob_write_schema(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    version_debug: &str,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if schema.fields_pre_order().any(|field| field.is_blob_v2()) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Blob v2 requires file version >= 2.2 (got {version_debug})"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub(super) fn validate_blob_v2_write_schema(schema: &Schema) -> Result<()> {
+    if let Some(blob_field_path) = legacy_blob_field_path(schema) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Legacy blob columns (field metadata key {BLOB_META_KEY:?}) are not supported for file version >= 2.2. Found legacy blob field: {blob_field_path}. Use the blob v2 extension type (ARROW:extension:name = \"lance.blob.v2\") and the new blob APIs (e.g. lance::blob::blob_field / lance::blob::BlobArrayBuilder)."
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub(crate) async fn create_seed_writers_current(
+    dataset: Option<&Dataset>,
+    params: &WriteParams,
+) -> Result<Vec<Box<dyn lance_index::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter>>> {
+    // Seeds only make sense when appending to an existing dataset.
+    if !matches!(params.mode, WriteMode::Append) {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+    let Some(dataset) = dataset else {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    };
+
+    // Seeds depend on index configuration, not FRI-derived query coverage.
+    let indices: Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>> = load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+    let mut writers: Vec<Box<dyn lance_index::scalar::seed::IndexSeedWriter>> = Vec::new();
+
+    for index in indices.iter().filter(|index| index_is_usable(index)) {
+        // A covered index lists its carried columns in `fields` too; the seed
+        // writer keys on the single keyed column. System indices commit no
+        // fields at all, so this also skips them.
+        let Some(field_id) = index.keyed_field() else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let Ok(field_path) = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let Some(data_type) = dataset.schema().field(&field_path).map(|f| f.data_type()) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+
+        let Ok(index_details) = fetch_index_details(dataset, &field_path, index).await else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let details = IndexDetails(index_details.clone());
+        let Ok(plugin) = details.get_plugin() else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        if let Some(writer) = plugin
+            .create_seed_writer(&field_path, &data_type, &index_details)
+            .await?
+        {
+            writers.push(writer);
+        }
+    }
 
-    Ok((fragments, schema))
+    Ok(writers)
+}
+
+fn legacy_blob_field_path(schema: &Schema) -> Option<String> {
+    schema
+        .fields_pre_order()
+        .find(|field| field.metadata.contains_key(BLOB_META_KEY))
+        .map(|field| {
+            schema
+                .field_path(field.id)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|_| field.name.clone())
+        })
 }
 
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 pub trait GenericWriter: Send {
     /// Write the given batches to the file
     async fn write(&mut self, batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Result<()>;
+    /// Get the file path and base ID for the data file being written.
+    fn data_file_path(&self) -> (&str, Option<u32>);
     /// Get the current position in the file
     ///
     /// We use this to know when the file is too large and we need to start
@@ -683,13 +2016,44 @@ pub trait GenericWriter: Send {
     async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64>;
     /// Finish writing the file (flush the remaining data and write footer)
     async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<(u32, DataFile)>;
+
+    /// Append `array` to a single top-level column, leaving the others where
+    /// they are.
+    ///
+    /// `column_index` is the column's position in the writer's schema. Columns
+    /// advance independently, so a file written this way can end with a
+    /// different number of rows in each column, and the row count
+    /// [`finish`](Self::finish) reports is then the longest column rather than a
+    /// count every column shares. That raggedness is the point: it is what lets
+    /// an overlay carry a different subset of cells per field. Callers that want
+    /// every column to stay aligned should use [`Self::write`] instead.
+    ///
+    /// Only supported on V2 files without blob preprocessing. This is a
+    /// defaulted method rather than a required one so that the writers which
+    /// cannot offer it -- and any implementor outside this crate -- keep
+    /// compiling and reject it at runtime instead.
+    async fn write_column(&mut self, _column_index: usize, _array: ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "writing a single column: this writer only accepts whole batches",
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Add a global buffer to the current file. Returns the 1-based buffer index.
+    /// Must be called before `finish`. No-op on legacy (V1) files (returns `Ok(1)`).
+    async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, _buffer: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        Ok(1)
+    }
+
+    /// Add a key-value pair to the file's schema metadata.
+    /// Must be called before `finish`. No-op on legacy (V1) files.
+    fn add_schema_metadata(&mut self, _key: String, _value: String) {}
 }
 
 struct V1WriterAdapter<M>
 where
-    M: PreviousManifestProvider + Send + Sync,
+    M: V1ManifestProvider + Send + Sync,
 {
-    writer: PreviousFileWriter<M>,
+    writer: V1FileWriter<M>,
     path: String,
     base_id: Option<u32>,
 }
@@ -697,57 +2061,188 @@ where
 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl<M> GenericWriter for V1WriterAdapter<M>
 where
-    M: PreviousManifestProvider + Send + Sync,
+    M: V1ManifestProvider + Send + Sync,
 {
     async fn write(&mut self, batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Result<()> {
         self.writer.write(batches).await
     }
+    fn data_file_path(&self) -> (&str, Option<u32>) {
+        (&self.path, self.base_id)
+    }
     async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
         Ok(self.writer.tell().await? as u64)
     }
     async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<(u32, DataFile)> {
-        let size_bytes = self.writer.tell().await?;
+        let summary = self.writer.finish().await?;
         Ok((
-            self.writer.finish().await? as u32,
+            summary.num_rows as u32,
             DataFile::new_legacy(
                 self.path.clone(),
                 self.writer.schema(),
-                NonZero::new(size_bytes as u64),
+                NonZero::new(summary.size_bytes),
                 self.base_id,
             ),
         ))
     }
 }
 
-struct V2WriterAdapter {
+/// Writes dataset data files in the current (V2) file formats.
+///
+/// Every current-format data file a dataset writes goes through this type, so
+/// it is the single write boundary: each batch is converted from the
+/// representation the caller supplied to the one Lance stores (Arrow JSON to
+/// Lance JSONB, top-level view arrays to offset arrays) before blob
+/// preprocessing and encoding. The file writer then rejects any array that
+/// still differs from the file schema.
+pub(in crate::dataset) struct V2WriterAdapter {
     writer: current_writer::FileWriter,
-    path: String,
-    base_id: Option<u32>,
+    data_file: Option<DataFile>,
     preprocessor: Option<BlobPreprocessor>,
+    promotion: Option<FilePromotion>,
 }
 
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl GenericWriter for V2WriterAdapter {
-    async fn write(&mut self, batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Result<()> {
-        if let Some(pre) = self.preprocessor.as_mut() {
-            let processed = preprocess_blob_batches(batches, pre).await?;
-            for batch in processed {
-                self.writer.write_batch(&batch).await?;
-            }
-        } else {
-            for batch in batches {
-                self.writer.write_batch(batch).await?;
+pub(in crate::dataset) struct FilePromotion {
+    object_store: ObjectStore,
+    staging_path: Path,
+    final_path: Path,
+}
+
+impl FilePromotion {
+    async fn promote(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        match self
+            .object_store
+            .inner
+            .copy_if_not_exists(&self.staging_path, &self.final_path)
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(()) => {}
+            Err(
+                object_store::Error::AlreadyExists { .. }
+                | object_store::Error::Precondition { .. },
+            ) => {
+                let staged = self
+                    .object_store
+                    .inner
+                    .head(&self.staging_path)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|error| Error::io(error.to_string()))?;
+                let existing = self
+                    .object_store
+                    .inner
+                    .head(&self.final_path)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|error| Error::io(error.to_string()))?;
+                if staged.size != existing.size {
+                    return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                        "fixed data file {} already exists with size {}, but the staged retry has size {}",
+                        self.final_path, existing.size, staged.size
+                    )));
+                }
             }
+            Err(error) => return Err(Error::io(error.to_string())),
         }
+        self.object_store
+            .inner
+            .delete(&self.staging_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|error| Error::io(error.to_string()))?;
         Ok(())
     }
-    async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
-        Ok(self.writer.tell().await?)
+
+    async fn abort(&self) {
+        let _ = self.object_store.inner.delete(&self.staging_path).await;
     }
-    async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<(u32, DataFile)> {
+}
+
+impl V2WriterAdapter {
+    /// `data_file` describes the file being written and is completed by
+    /// [`GenericWriter::finish`]. Writers that describe their output
+    /// themselves pass `None` and use [`Self::finish_file`].
+    pub(in crate::dataset) fn new(
+        writer: current_writer::FileWriter,
+        data_file: Option<DataFile>,
+        preprocessor: Option<BlobPreprocessor>,
+        promotion: Option<FilePromotion>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            writer,
+            data_file,
+            preprocessor,
+            promotion,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(in crate::dataset) async fn write_batch(&mut self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<()> {
+        let batch = SchemaAdapter::new(batch.schema()).to_physical_batch(batch.clone())?;
+        let batch = match self.preprocessor.as_mut() {
+            Some(pre) => pre.preprocess_batch(&batch).await?,
+            None => batch,
+        };
+        self.writer.write_batch(&batch).await
+    }
+
+    /// Finish the blob sidecars and the data file.
+    pub(in crate::dataset) async fn finish_file(&mut self) -> Result<FileWriteSummary> {
+        let result = async {
+            if let Some(pre) = self.preprocessor.as_mut() {
+                pre.finish().await?;
+            }
+            let summary = self.writer.finish().await?;
+            if let Some(promotion) = &self.promotion {
+                promotion.promote().await?;
+            }
+            Ok(summary)
+        }
+        .await;
+        if result.is_err()
+            && let Some(promotion) = &self.promotion
+        {
+            promotion.abort().await;
+        }
+        result
+    }
+
+    /// Abandon the data file and any blob sidecars in progress.
+    pub(in crate::dataset) async fn abort(&mut self) {
+        self.writer.abort().await;
         if let Some(pre) = self.preprocessor.as_mut() {
-            pre.finish().await?;
+            pre.abort();
+        }
+        if let Some(promotion) = &self.promotion {
+            promotion.abort().await;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl GenericWriter for V2WriterAdapter {
+    async fn write(&mut self, batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Result<()> {
+        for batch in batches {
+            self.write_batch(batch).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+    async fn write_column(&mut self, column_index: usize, array: ArrayRef) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.preprocessor.is_some() {
+            // The preprocessor rewrites a batch as a whole, splitting blob
+            // values out to a sidecar and replacing them with descriptions; it
+            // has no meaning applied to one column in isolation.
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "writing a single column: this file stores blob data in a sidecar",
+            ));
         }
+        self.writer.write_column(column_index, array).await
+    }
+    fn data_file_path(&self) -> (&str, Option<u32>) {
+        self.data_file
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|data_file| (data_file.path.as_str(), data_file.base_id))
+            .unwrap_or(("", None))
+    }
+    async fn tell(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
+        Ok(self.writer.tell().await?)
+    }
+    async fn finish(&mut self) -> Result<(u32, DataFile)> {
         let field_ids = self
             .writer
             .field_id_to_column_indices()
@@ -760,96 +2255,256 @@ impl GenericWriter for V2WriterAdapter {
             .iter()
             .map(|(_, column_index)| *column_index as i32)
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let (major, minor) = self.writer.version().to_numbers();
-        let num_rows = self.writer.finish().await? as u32;
-        let data_file = DataFile::new(
-            std::mem::take(&mut self.path),
-            field_ids,
-            column_indices,
-            major,
-            minor,
-            NonZero::new(self.writer.tell().await?),
-            self.base_id,
-        );
-        Ok((num_rows, data_file))
+        let write_summary = self.finish_file().await?;
+        let mut data_file = self
+            .data_file
+            .take()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("current writer was already finished"))?;
+        data_file.fields = field_ids.into();
+        data_file.column_indices = column_indices.into();
+        data_file.file_size_bytes = NonZero::new(write_summary.size_bytes).into();
+        Ok((write_summary.num_rows as u32, data_file))
+    }
+
+    async fn add_global_buffer(&mut self, buffer: Bytes) -> Result<u32> {
+        self.writer.add_global_buffer(buffer).await
+    }
+
+    fn add_schema_metadata(&mut self, key: String, value: String) {
+        self.writer.add_schema_metadata(key, value);
     }
 }
 
-pub async fn open_writer(
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub(crate) struct WriterOptions {
+    add_data_dir: bool,
+    pub(super) base_id: Option<u32>,
+    preassigned_data_file_name: Option<Arc<String>>,
+    external_base_resolver: Option<Arc<ExternalBaseResolver>>,
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool,
+    external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode,
+    source_store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    source_store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: Option<usize>,
+    file_writer_options: FileWriterOptions,
+}
+
+impl WriterOptions {
+    pub(super) fn update(
+        source_store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+        external_base_resolver: Option<Arc<ExternalBaseResolver>>,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            add_data_dir: true,
+            external_base_resolver,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+            source_store_registry,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) async fn open_v1_writer(
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
     schema: &Schema,
     base_dir: &Path,
-    storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    options: WriterOptions,
 ) -> Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>> {
-    open_writer_with_options(object_store, schema, base_dir, storage_version, true, None).await
+    let WriterOptions {
+        add_data_dir,
+        base_id,
+        preassigned_data_file_name,
+        ..
+    } = options;
+    let (_data_file_key, filename, _data_dir, full_path) = prepare_data_file_path(
+        base_dir,
+        add_data_dir,
+        preassigned_data_file_name.as_deref().map(String::as_str),
+    );
+    Ok(Box::new(V1WriterAdapter {
+        writer: V1FileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
+            object_store,
+            &full_path,
+            schema.clone(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await?,
+        path: filename,
+        base_id,
+    }))
 }
 
-pub async fn open_writer_with_options(
+pub(in crate::dataset) async fn open_current_writer<F>(
+    create_file_writer: F,
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
     schema: &Schema,
     base_dir: &Path,
-    storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    add_data_dir: bool,
-    base_id: Option<u32>,
-) -> Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>> {
-    let data_file_key = generate_random_filename();
-    let filename = format!("{}.lance", data_file_key);
+    options: WriterOptions,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>>
+where
+    F: FnOnce(
+        Box<dyn Writer>,
+        Schema,
+        String,
+        Option<u32>,
+        FileWriterOptions,
+    ) -> Result<(current_writer::FileWriter, DataFile)>,
+{
+    let WriterOptions {
+        add_data_dir,
+        base_id,
+        preassigned_data_file_name,
+        file_writer_options,
+        ..
+    } = options;
+    let (_data_file_key, filename, data_dir, final_path) = prepare_data_file_path(
+        base_dir,
+        add_data_dir,
+        preassigned_data_file_name.as_deref().map(String::as_str),
+    );
+    let (writer_path, promotion_target) =
+        staged_writer_path(data_dir, final_path, preassigned_data_file_name.is_some());
+    let writer = object_store.create(&writer_path).await?;
+    let promotion = promotion_target.map(|final_path| FilePromotion {
+        object_store: object_store.clone(),
+        staging_path: writer_path,
+        final_path,
+    });
+    let (file_writer, data_file) = create_file_writer(
+        writer,
+        schema.clone(),
+        filename,
+        base_id,
+        file_writer_options,
+    )?;
+    Ok(Box::new(V2WriterAdapter::new(
+        file_writer,
+        Some(data_file),
+        None,
+        promotion,
+    )))
+}
+
+pub(in crate::dataset) async fn open_current_blob_v2_writer<F>(
+    version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    create_file_writer: F,
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    schema: &Schema,
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    options: WriterOptions,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>>
+where
+    F: FnOnce(
+        Box<dyn Writer>,
+        Schema,
+        String,
+        Option<u32>,
+        FileWriterOptions,
+    ) -> Result<(current_writer::FileWriter, DataFile)>,
+{
+    let WriterOptions {
+        add_data_dir,
+        base_id,
+        preassigned_data_file_name,
+        external_base_resolver,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        external_blob_mode,
+        source_store_registry,
+        source_store_params,
+        blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+        file_writer_options,
+    } = options;
+    let (data_file_key, filename, data_dir, final_path) = prepare_data_file_path(
+        base_dir,
+        add_data_dir,
+        preassigned_data_file_name.as_deref().map(String::as_str),
+    );
+    let (writer_path, promotion_target) = staged_writer_path(
+        data_dir.clone(),
+        final_path,
+        preassigned_data_file_name.is_some(),
+    );
+    let writer = object_store.create(&writer_path).await?;
+    let promotion = promotion_target.map(|final_path| FilePromotion {
+        object_store: object_store.clone(),
+        staging_path: writer_path,
+        final_path,
+    });
+    let (file_writer, data_file) = create_file_writer(
+        writer,
+        schema.clone(),
+        filename,
+        base_id,
+        file_writer_options,
+    )?;
+    let mut preprocessor = BlobPreprocessor::new(
+        object_store.clone(),
+        data_dir,
+        data_file_key,
+        schema,
+        external_base_resolver,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+        external_blob_mode,
+        source_store_registry,
+        source_store_params,
+        blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+    )?;
+    if matches!(
+        version,
+        ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2 | ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3
+    ) {
+        preprocessor = preprocessor.with_managed_base(base_id, base_dir.clone());
+    }
+    Ok(Box::new(V2WriterAdapter::new(
+        file_writer,
+        Some(data_file),
+        Some(preprocessor),
+        promotion,
+    )))
+}
 
+fn prepare_data_file_path(
+    base_dir: &Path,
+    add_data_dir: bool,
+    preassigned_data_file_name: Option<&str>,
+) -> (String, String, Path, Path) {
+    let filename = preassigned_data_file_name
+        .map(ToOwned::to_owned)
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| format!("{}.lance", generate_random_filename()));
+    let data_file_key = filename
+        .strip_suffix(".lance")
+        .unwrap_or(filename.as_str())
+        .to_string();
     let data_dir = if add_data_dir {
-        base_dir.child(DATA_DIR)
+        base_dir.clone().join(DATA_DIR)
     } else {
         base_dir.clone()
     };
+    let full_path = data_dir.clone().join(filename.as_str());
+    (data_file_key, filename, data_dir, full_path)
+}
 
-    let full_path = data_dir.child(filename.as_str());
-
-    let writer = if storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-        Box::new(V1WriterAdapter {
-            writer: PreviousFileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
-                object_store,
-                &full_path,
-                schema.clone(),
-                &Default::default(),
-            )
-            .await?,
-            path: filename,
-            base_id,
-        })
-    } else {
-        let writer = object_store.create(&full_path).await?;
-        let enable_blob_v2 = storage_version >= LanceFileVersion::V2_2;
-        let file_writer = current_writer::FileWriter::try_new(
-            writer,
-            schema.clone(),
-            FileWriterOptions {
-                format_version: Some(storage_version),
-                ..Default::default()
-            },
-        )?;
-        let preprocessor = if enable_blob_v2 {
-            Some(BlobPreprocessor::new(
-                object_store.clone(),
-                data_dir.clone(),
-                data_file_key.clone(),
-                schema,
-            ))
-        } else {
-            None
-        };
-        let writer_adapter = V2WriterAdapter {
-            writer: file_writer,
-            path: filename,
-            base_id,
-            preprocessor,
-        };
-        Box::new(writer_adapter) as Box<dyn GenericWriter>
-    };
-    Ok(writer)
+fn staged_writer_path(data_dir: Path, final_path: Path, stage: bool) -> (Path, Option<Path>) {
+    if !stage {
+        return (final_path, None);
+    }
+    let staging_path = data_dir.join(format!("{}.lance-stage", generate_random_filename()));
+    (staging_path, Some(final_path))
 }
 
+/// Reserved base id that refers to the dataset's primary storage in
+/// [`WriteParams::target_bases`]. Real base ids are assigned starting from 1,
+/// so 0 is never a registered base. Files written through a primary slot
+/// carry no base id, exactly like a write without target bases.
+pub const PRIMARY_BASE_ID: u32 = 0;
+
 /// Information about a target base for writing.
 /// Contains the base ID, object store, directory path, and whether it's a dataset root.
+#[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct TargetBaseInfo {
+    /// The registered base id, or [`PRIMARY_BASE_ID`] for the dataset's
+    /// primary storage.
     pub base_id: u32,
     pub object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     /// The base directory path (without /data subdirectory)
@@ -860,33 +2515,64 @@ pub struct TargetBaseInfo {
     pub is_dataset_root: bool,
 }
 
-struct WriterGenerator {
+struct WriterGenerator<OpenWriter> {
     /// Default object store (used when no target bases specified)
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     /// Default base directory (used when no target bases specified)
     base_dir: Path,
     schema: Schema,
-    storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    open_writer: OpenWriter,
     /// Target base information (if writing to specific bases)
     target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
+    external_base_resolver: Option<Arc<ExternalBaseResolver>>,
+    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool,
+    external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode,
+    source_store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    source_store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: Option<usize>,
+    file_writer_options: FileWriterOptions,
+    preassigned_data_file_name: Option<Arc<String>>,
+    writers_created: AtomicUsize,
     /// Counter for round-robin selection
     next_base_index: AtomicUsize,
 }
 
-impl WriterGenerator {
+impl<OpenWriter, OpenWriterFuture> WriterGenerator<OpenWriter>
+where
+    OpenWriter: Fn(Arc<ObjectStore>, Schema, Path, WriterOptions) -> OpenWriterFuture + Send + Sync,
+    OpenWriterFuture: Future<Output = Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>>> + Send,
+{
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     pub fn new(
         object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
         base_dir: &Path,
         schema: &Schema,
-        storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        open_writer: OpenWriter,
         target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
+        external_base_resolver: Option<Arc<ExternalBaseResolver>>,
+        allow_external_blob_outside_bases: bool,
+        external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode,
+        source_store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+        source_store_params: ObjectStoreParams,
+        blob_pack_file_size_threshold: Option<usize>,
+        file_writer_options: FileWriterOptions,
+        preassigned_data_file_name: Option<Arc<String>>,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             object_store,
             base_dir: base_dir.clone(),
             schema: schema.clone(),
-            storage_version,
+            open_writer,
             target_bases_info,
+            external_base_resolver,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+            external_blob_mode,
+            source_store_registry,
+            source_store_params,
+            blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+            file_writer_options,
+            preassigned_data_file_name,
+            writers_created: AtomicUsize::new(0),
             next_base_index: AtomicUsize::new(0),
         }
     }
@@ -903,25 +2589,55 @@ impl WriterGenerator {
     }
 
     pub async fn new_writer(&self) -> Result<(Box<dyn GenericWriter>, Fragment)> {
+        let writer_index = self
+            .writers_created
+            .fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+        if writer_index > 0 && self.preassigned_data_file_name.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "a fixed data file name requires the write to produce exactly one fragment",
+            ));
+        }
         // Use temporary ID 0; will assign ID later.
         let fragment = Fragment::new(0);
 
         let writer = if let Some(base_info) = self.select_target_base() {
-            open_writer_with_options(
-                &base_info.object_store,
-                &self.schema,
-                &base_info.base_dir,
-                self.storage_version,
-                base_info.is_dataset_root,
-                Some(base_info.base_id),
+            (self.open_writer)(
+                base_info.object_store.clone(),
+                self.schema.clone(),
+                base_info.base_dir.clone(),
+                WriterOptions {
+                    add_data_dir: base_info.is_dataset_root,
+                    // Primary-storage slots stamp no base id, like a write
+                    // without target bases.
+                    base_id: (base_info.base_id != PRIMARY_BASE_ID).then_some(base_info.base_id),
+                    preassigned_data_file_name: self.preassigned_data_file_name.clone(),
+                    external_base_resolver: self.external_base_resolver.clone(),
+                    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: self.allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+                    external_blob_mode: self.external_blob_mode,
+                    source_store_registry: self.source_store_registry.clone(),
+                    source_store_params: self.source_store_params.clone(),
+                    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: self.blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+                    file_writer_options: self.file_writer_options.clone(),
+                },
             )
             .await?
         } else {
-            open_writer(
-                &self.object_store,
-                &self.schema,
-                &self.base_dir,
-                self.storage_version,
+            (self.open_writer)(
+                self.object_store.clone(),
+                self.schema.clone(),
+                self.base_dir.clone(),
+                WriterOptions {
+                    add_data_dir: true,
+                    base_id: None,
+                    preassigned_data_file_name: self.preassigned_data_file_name.clone(),
+                    external_base_resolver: self.external_base_resolver.clone(),
+                    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: self.allow_external_blob_outside_bases,
+                    external_blob_mode: self.external_blob_mode,
+                    source_store_registry: self.source_store_registry.clone(),
+                    source_store_params: self.source_store_params.clone(),
+                    blob_pack_file_size_threshold: self.blob_pack_file_size_threshold,
+                    file_writer_options: self.file_writer_options.clone(),
+                },
             )
             .await?
         };
@@ -944,17 +2660,17 @@ async fn resolve_commit_handler(
                 .map(|opts| opts.object_store.is_some())
                 .unwrap_or_default()
             {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput { source: "when creating a dataset with a custom object store the commit_handler must also be specified".into(), location: Default::default() });
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "when creating a dataset with a custom object store the commit_handler must also be specified",
+                ));
             }
             commit_handler_from_url(uri, store_options).await
         }
         Some(commit_handler) => {
             if uri.starts_with("s3+ddb") {
-                Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "`s3+ddb://` scheme and custom commit handler are mutually exclusive"
-                        .into(),
-                    location: Default::default(),
-                })
+                Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "`s3+ddb://` scheme and custom commit handler are mutually exclusive",
+                ))
             } else {
                 Ok(commit_handler)
             }
@@ -962,124 +2678,136 @@ async fn resolve_commit_handler(
     }
 }
 
-/// Create an iterator of record batch streams from the given source.
-///
-/// If `enable_retries` is true, then the source will be saved either in memory
-/// or spilled to disk to allow replaying the source in case of a failure. The
-/// source will be kept in memory if either (1) the size hint shows that
-/// there is only one batch or (2) the stream contains less than 100MB of
-/// data. Otherwise, the source will be spilled to a temporary file on disk.
-///
-/// This is used to support retries on write operations.
-async fn new_source_iter(
-    source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    enable_retries: bool,
-) -> Result<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = SendableRecordBatchStream> + Send + 'static>> {
-    if enable_retries {
-        let schema = source.schema();
-
-        // If size hint shows there is only one batch, spilling has no benefit, just keep that
-        // in memory. (This is a pretty common case.)
-        let size_hint = source.size_hint();
-        if size_hint.0 == 1 && size_hint.1 == Some(1) {
-            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = source.try_collect().await?;
-            Ok(Box::new(std::iter::repeat_with(move || {
-                Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-                    schema.clone(),
-                    futures::stream::iter(batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok)),
-                )) as SendableRecordBatchStream
-            })))
-        } else {
-            // Allow buffering up to 100MB in memory before spilling to disk.
-            Ok(Box::new(
-                SpillStreamIter::try_new(source, 100 * 1024 * 1024).await?,
-            ))
-        }
-    } else {
-        Ok(Box::new(std::iter::once(source)))
-    }
-}
-
-struct SpillStreamIter {
-    receiver: SpillReceiver,
-    #[allow(dead_code)] // Exists to keep the SpillSender alive
-    sender_handle: tokio::task::JoinHandle<SpillSender>,
-    // This temp dir is used to store the spilled data. It is kept alive by
-    // this struct. When this struct is dropped, the Drop implementation of
-    // tempfile::TempDir will delete the temp dir.
-    #[allow(dead_code)] // Exists to keep the temp dir alive
-    tmp_dir: TempDir,
-}
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    #[cfg(windows)]
+    use std::path::{Component, Prefix};
+
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Int32Array, LargeBinaryArray, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, StringArray,
+        StringViewArray, StructArray,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use datafusion::{error::DataFusionError, physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter};
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::RecordBatchStream;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_datafusion::chunker::chunk_stream;
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+    use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+    use lance_io::object_store::StorageOptionsAccessor;
+    use lance_io::traits::Reader;
+    use lance_table::format::BasePath;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-impl SpillStreamIter {
-    pub async fn try_new(
-        mut source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        memory_limit: usize,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let tmp_dir = tokio::task::spawn_blocking(|| {
-            TempDir::try_new().map_err(|e| Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Failed to create temp dir: {}", e).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
-        })
+    async fn open_v2_1_test_writer(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        schema: Schema,
+        base_dir: Path,
+        options: WriterOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn GenericWriter>> {
+        open_current_writer(
+            |object_writer, schema, filename, base_id, options| {
+                let writer =
+                    lance_file::versions::v2_1::create_writer(object_writer, schema, options)?
+                        .into();
+                let mut data_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(filename, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1);
+                data_file.base_id = base_id;
+                Ok((writer, data_file))
+            },
+            &object_store,
+            &schema,
+            &base_dir,
+            options,
+        )
         .await
-        .ok()
-        .expect_ok()??;
-
-        let tmp_path = tmp_dir.std_path().join("spill.arrows");
-        let (mut sender, receiver) = create_replay_spill(tmp_path, source.schema(), memory_limit);
-
-        let sender_handle = tokio::task::spawn(async move {
-            while let Some(res) = source.next().await {
-                match res {
-                    Ok(batch) => match sender.write(batch).await {
-                        Ok(_) => {}
-                        Err(e) => {
-                            sender.send_error(e);
-                            break;
-                        }
-                    },
-                    Err(e) => {
-                        sender.send_error(e);
-                        break;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
+    }
 
-            if let Err(err) = sender.finish().await {
-                sender.send_error(err);
-            }
-            sender
-        });
+    async fn scan_sorted_ids(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let batches = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch
+                    .column_by_name("id")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        ids.sort_unstable();
+        ids
+    }
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            receiver,
-            tmp_dir,
-            sender_handle,
-        })
+    #[test]
+    fn test_auto_cleanup_disabled_by_default() {
+        // Auto-cleanup must be off by default: the cleanup hook is expensive on
+        // object stores and the 14-day default rarely deletes anything anyway.
+        // See https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/6728
+        let params = WriteParams::default();
+        assert!(params.auto_cleanup.is_none());
+        assert!(!params.skip_auto_cleanup);
     }
-}
 
-impl Iterator for SpillStreamIter {
-    type Item = SendableRecordBatchStream;
+    #[cfg(windows)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_and_reopen_from_unc_uri() {
+        let tempdir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let dataset_path = tempdir.path().join("dataset with spaces");
+        let mut components = dataset_path.components();
+        let drive_letter = match components.next() {
+            Some(Component::Prefix(prefix)) => match prefix.kind() {
+                Prefix::Disk(letter) | Prefix::VerbatimDisk(letter) => letter,
+                other => panic!("expected a disk path, found {other:?}"),
+            },
+            other => panic!("expected a disk path, found {other:?}"),
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(components.next(), Some(Component::RootDir)));
 
-    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
-        Some(self.receiver.read())
-    }
-}
+        // The administrative disk share provides a real loopback UNC path without
+        // requiring an external SMB service.
+        let computer_name = std::env::var("COMPUTERNAME").unwrap();
+        let mut dataset_uri = url::Url::parse(&format!("file://{computer_name}/")).unwrap();
+        let share = format!("{}$", char::from(drive_letter));
+        {
+            let mut segments = dataset_uri.path_segments_mut().unwrap();
+            segments.pop_if_empty().push(&share);
+            for component in components {
+                let Component::Normal(segment) = component else {
+                    panic!("unexpected dataset path component: {component:?}");
+                };
+                segments.push(segment.to_str().unwrap());
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(dataset_uri.as_str().contains("%20"));
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(3), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, dataset_uri.as_str(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+        drop(dataset);
 
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, StructArray};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use datafusion::{error::DataFusionError, physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter};
-    use datafusion_physical_plan::RecordBatchStream;
-    use futures::TryStreamExt;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, RowCount};
-    use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
-    use lance_io::traits::Reader;
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(dataset_uri.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reopened.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+    }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_chunking_large_batches() {
@@ -1186,6 +2914,7 @@ mod tests {
 
                 let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
                 write_fragments_internal(
+                    write_params.storage_version_or_default(),
                     None,
                     object_store,
                     &Path::from("test"),
@@ -1215,6 +2944,138 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::rebalance_pending_remainder(
+        &[9_999, 10_001],
+        &[10_000, 10_000],
+        2 * 1024,
+        &[9_999, 5_001, 5_000]
+    )]
+    #[case::replan_pending_boundary(
+        &[9_999, 1, 10_000, 10_000],
+        &[20_000, 10_000],
+        100 * 1024,
+        &[9_999, 10_001, 10_000]
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_planned_file_boundary_with_byte_limit(
+        #[case] input_batch_sizes: &[usize],
+        #[case] file_row_counts: &[usize],
+        #[case] max_bytes_per_file: usize,
+        #[case] expected_file_rows: &[usize],
+    ) {
+        let value = vec![0_u8; 1024];
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "a",
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let total_rows = input_batch_sizes.iter().sum::<usize>();
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter_values(
+                (0..total_rows).map(|_| value.as_slice()),
+            ))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut offset = 0;
+        let batches = input_batch_sizes
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&batch_rows| {
+                let batch = data.slice(offset, batch_rows);
+                offset += batch_rows;
+                Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let stream =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(arrow_schema.clone(), futures::stream::iter(batches));
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
+
+        let (fragments, _) = write_fragments_internal_with_file_row_counts(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            object_store,
+            &Path::from("planned_byte_boundary"),
+            schema,
+            Box::pin(stream),
+            WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: file_row_counts[0],
+                max_bytes_per_file,
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+            Some(file_row_counts.to_vec()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.physical_rows.unwrap())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected_file_rows
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_repeated_byte_closes_rebalance_planned_rows() {
+        let large_value = vec![0_u8; 16 * 1024 * 1024];
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(15);
+        values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(large_value.as_slice(), 2));
+        values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(&[][..], 13));
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "a",
+            DataType::LargeBinary,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from_iter_values(values))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let input_batch_sizes = [1, 1, 3, 5, 5];
+        let mut offset = 0;
+        let batches = input_batch_sizes.map(|batch_rows| {
+            let batch = data.slice(offset, batch_rows);
+            offset += batch_rows;
+            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+        });
+        let stream =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(arrow_schema.clone(), futures::stream::iter(batches));
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
+
+        let (fragments, _) = write_fragments_internal_with_file_row_counts(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            object_store,
+            &Path::from("repeated_planned_byte_boundaries"),
+            schema,
+            Box::pin(stream),
+            WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 5,
+                max_bytes_per_file: 100 * 1024,
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+            Some(vec![5, 5, 5]),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.physical_rows.unwrap())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            [1, 1, 5, 4, 4]
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_max_rows_per_file() {
         let reader_to_frags = |data_reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>| {
@@ -1239,6 +3100,7 @@ mod tests {
 
                 let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
                 write_fragments_internal(
+                    write_params.storage_version_or_default(),
                     None,
                     object_store,
                     &Path::from("test"),
@@ -1300,6 +3162,7 @@ mod tests {
 
                 let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
                 write_fragments_internal(
+                    write_params.storage_version_or_default(),
                     None,
                     object_store,
                     &Path::from("test"),
@@ -1391,11 +3254,13 @@ mod tests {
             LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
             LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
             LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
             LanceFileVersion::Stable,
             LanceFileVersion::Next,
         ];
         for version in versions {
-            let (major, minor) = version.to_numbers();
+            let (major, minor) = version.resolve().to_data_file_numbers();
+
             let write_params = WriteParams {
                 data_storage_version: Some(version),
                 // This parameter should be ignored
@@ -1412,6 +3277,7 @@ mod tests {
 
             let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
             let (fragments, _) = write_fragments_internal(
+                version.resolve(),
                 None,
                 object_store,
                 &Path::from("test"),
@@ -1487,6 +3353,7 @@ mod tests {
         let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
         let base_path = Path::from("test");
         let (fragments, _) = write_fragments_internal(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
             None,
             object_store.clone(),
             &base_path,
@@ -1501,13 +3368,14 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
         let fragment = &fragments[0];
         assert_eq!(fragment.files.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].fields, vec![0, 1, 3]);
+        assert_eq!(fragment.files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[0, 1, 3]);
 
         let path = base_path
-            .child(DATA_DIR)
-            .child(fragment.files[0].path.as_str());
+            .clone()
+            .join(DATA_DIR)
+            .join(fragment.files[0].path.as_str());
         let file_reader: Arc<dyn Reader> = object_store.open(&path).await.unwrap().into();
-        let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_from_reader(
+        let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_from_reader(
             &path,
             file_reader,
             None,
@@ -1524,11 +3392,153 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(batch, data);
     }
 
+    #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+    fn azure_store_params(account_name: &str) -> ObjectStoreParams {
+        ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("account_name".to_string(), account_name.to_string()),
+                    ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_explicit_data_file_bases_writer_generator() {
-        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
-        use std::sync::Arc;
+    async fn test_validate_and_resolve_target_bases_uses_base_store_params() {
+        let mut params = WriteParams::default()
+            .with_target_bases(vec![1, 2])
+            .with_base_store_params("az://container/path-a", azure_store_params("account-a"))
+            .with_base_store_params("az://container/path-b", azure_store_params("account-b"));
+
+        let existing_base_paths = azure_base_paths_a_b();
+
+        let target_bases =
+            validate_and_resolve_target_bases(&mut params, Some(&existing_base_paths))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(target_bases.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            target_bases[0].object_store.store_prefix,
+            "az$container@account-a"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            target_bases[1].object_store.store_prefix,
+            "az$container@account-b"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+    fn azure_base_paths_a_b() -> HashMap<u32, BasePath> {
+        HashMap::from([
+            (
+                1,
+                BasePath::new(
+                    1,
+                    "az://container/path-a".to_string(),
+                    Some("base-a".to_string()),
+                    false,
+                ),
+            ),
+            (
+                2,
+                BasePath::new(
+                    2,
+                    "az://container/path-b".to_string(),
+                    Some("base-b".to_string()),
+                    false,
+                ),
+            ),
+        ])
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_and_resolve_target_bases_uses_base_scoped_storage_options() {
+        // A single flat storage options map carries per-base credentials via
+        // the `base_<id>.<key>` convention; unscoped keys are shared defaults.
+        let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("account_name".to_string(), "account-shared".to_string()),
+                    ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+                    ("base_1.account_name".to_string(), "account-a".to_string()),
+                    ("base_2.account_name".to_string(), "account-b".to_string()),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut params = WriteParams {
+            store_params: Some(store_params),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+        .with_target_bases(vec![1, 2]);
+
+        let existing_base_paths = azure_base_paths_a_b();
+
+        let target_bases =
+            validate_and_resolve_target_bases(&mut params, Some(&existing_base_paths))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(target_bases.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            target_bases[0].object_store.store_prefix,
+            "az$container@account-a"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            target_bases[1].object_store.store_prefix,
+            "az$container@account-b"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "azure")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_base_store_params_take_precedence_over_base_scoped_options() {
+        let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([
+                    ("account_key".to_string(), "dGVzdA==".to_string()),
+                    (
+                        "base_1.account_name".to_string(),
+                        "account-scoped".to_string(),
+                    ),
+                ]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut params = WriteParams {
+            store_params: Some(store_params),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+        .with_target_bases(vec![1])
+        .with_base_store_params("az://container/path-a", azure_store_params("account-exact"));
+
+        let existing_base_paths = azure_base_paths_a_b();
+
+        let target_bases =
+            validate_and_resolve_target_bases(&mut params, Some(&existing_base_paths))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(target_bases.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            target_bases[0].object_store.store_prefix,
+            "az$container@account-exact"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explicit_data_file_bases_writer_generator() {
+        use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
 
         // Create test schema
         let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
@@ -1553,8 +3563,16 @@ mod tests {
             object_store.clone(),
             &base_dir,
             &schema,
-            LanceFileVersion::Stable,
+            open_v2_1_test_writer,
             Some(target_bases),
+            None,
+            false,
+            ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            ObjectStoreParams::default(),
+            None,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+            None,
         );
 
         // Create a writer
@@ -1593,13 +3611,15 @@ mod tests {
         let object_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory());
         let base_dir = Path::from("test/bucket2");
 
-        let mut inner_writer = open_writer_with_options(
+        let mut inner_writer = versions::open_writer(
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
             &object_store,
             &schema,
             &base_dir,
-            LanceFileVersion::Stable,
-            false, // Don't add /data
-            None,
+            WriterOptions {
+                add_data_dir: false, // Don't add /data
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
@@ -1663,8 +3683,16 @@ mod tests {
             Arc::new(ObjectStore::memory()),
             &Path::from("default"),
             &schema,
-            LanceFileVersion::Stable,
+            open_v2_1_test_writer,
             Some(target_bases),
+            None,
+            false,
+            ExternalBlobMode::Reference,
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            ObjectStoreParams::default(),
+            None,
+            FileWriterOptions::default(),
+            None,
         );
 
         // Create test batch
@@ -1693,6 +3721,11 @@ mod tests {
         let test_cases = vec![
             ("s3://multi-path-test/test1/subBucket2", "test1/subBucket2"),
             ("gs://my-bucket/path/to/data", "path/to/data"),
+            ("az://container/path/to/data", "path/to/data"),
+            (
+                "abfss://filesystem@account.dfs.core.windows.net/path/to/data",
+                "path/to/data",
+            ),
             ("file:///tmp/test/bucket", "tmp/test/bucket"),
         ];
 
@@ -1721,6 +3754,18 @@ mod tests {
                     path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
                     is_dataset_root: true,
                 },
+                BasePath {
+                    id: 3,
+                    name: Some("azure-az-base".to_string()),
+                    path: "az://container/path1".to_string(),
+                    is_dataset_root: true,
+                },
+                BasePath {
+                    id: 4,
+                    name: Some("azure-abfss-base".to_string()),
+                    path: "abfss://filesystem@account.dfs.core.windows.net/path1".to_string(),
+                    is_dataset_root: true,
+                },
             ]),
             target_bases: Some(vec![1]), // Use ID 1 which corresponds to bucket1
             ..Default::default()
@@ -1743,46 +3788,56 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     fn validate_write_params(params: &WriteParams) -> Result<()> {
+        validate_external_blob_write_params(params)?;
+
         // Replicate the validation logic from the main write function
-        if matches!(params.mode, WriteMode::Create) {
-            if let Some(target_bases) = &params.target_bases {
-                if target_bases.len() != 1 {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "target_bases with {} elements is not supported",
-                            target_bases.len()
-                        ),
-                        Default::default(),
-                    ));
-                }
-                let target_base_id = target_bases[0];
-                if let Some(initial_bases) = &params.initial_bases {
-                    if !initial_bases.iter().any(|bp| bp.id == target_base_id) {
-                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!(
-                                "target_base_id {} must be one of the initial_bases in CREATE mode",
-                                target_base_id
-                            ),
-                            Default::default(),
-                        ));
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "initial_bases must be provided when target_bases is specified in CREATE mode",
-                        Default::default(),
-                    ));
+        if matches!(params.mode, WriteMode::Create)
+            && let Some(target_bases) = &params.target_bases
+        {
+            if target_bases.len() != 1 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "target_bases with {} elements is not supported",
+                    target_bases.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            let target_base_id = target_bases[0];
+            if let Some(initial_bases) = &params.initial_bases {
+                if !initial_bases.iter().any(|bp| bp.id == target_base_id) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "target_base_id {} must be one of the initial_bases in CREATE mode",
+                        target_base_id
+                    )));
                 }
+            } else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "initial_bases must be provided when target_bases is specified in CREATE mode",
+                ));
             }
         }
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_external_blob_mode_validation() {
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            external_blob_mode: ExternalBlobMode::Ingest,
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let err = validate_write_params(&params).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("allow_external_blob_outside_bases only applies")
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_multi_base_create() {
         use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
 
         // Create dataset with multi-base configuration
-        let test_uri = "memory://multi_base_test";
+        let test_uri = "shared-memory://multi_base_test";
         let primary_uri = format!("{}/primary", test_uri);
         let base1_uri = format!("{}/base1", test_uri);
         let base2_uri = format!("{}/base2", test_uri);
@@ -1821,28 +3876,38 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify base_paths are registered in manifest
         assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.base_paths.len(), 2);
-        assert!(dataset
-            .manifest
-            .base_paths
-            .values()
-            .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base1".to_string())));
-        assert!(dataset
-            .manifest
-            .base_paths
-            .values()
-            .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base2".to_string())));
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .manifest
+                .base_paths
+                .values()
+                .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base1".to_string()))
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .manifest
+                .base_paths
+                .values()
+                .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base2".to_string()))
+        );
 
         // Verify data was written to base1
         let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
         assert!(!fragments.is_empty());
         for fragment in fragments {
-            assert!(fragment
-                .metadata
-                .files
-                .iter()
-                .any(|file| file.base_id == Some(1)));
+            assert!(
+                fragment
+                    .metadata
+                    .files
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|file| file.base_id == Some(1))
+            );
         }
 
+        assert_eq!(scan_sorted_ids(&dataset).await, (0..5).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(&primary_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_sorted_ids(&reopened).await, (0..5).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+
         // Test validation: cannot specify both target_bases and target_base_names_or_paths
         let mut data_gen2 =
             BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
@@ -1866,10 +3931,86 @@ mod tests {
         .await;
 
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Cannot specify both target_base_names_or_paths and target_bases"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Cannot specify both target_base_names_or_paths and target_bases")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_multi_base_write_read_with_base_scoped_storage_options() {
+        use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+        use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
+
+        let primary_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base1_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        // Local stores ignore these options; this verifies base-scoped entries
+        // flow through the full write/read path without breaking anything.
+        let scoped_options = HashMap::from([
+            ("shared_option".to_string(), "shared".to_string()),
+            (
+                "base_1.scoped_option".to_string(),
+                "base1-value".to_string(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                scoped_options.clone(),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(5),
+            primary_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                store_params: Some(store_params),
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                    path: base1_dir.as_str().to_string(),
+                    is_dataset_root: true,
+                }]),
+                target_bases: Some(vec![1]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 5);
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            assert!(
+                fragment
+                    .metadata
+                    .files
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|file| file.base_id == Some(1))
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Reopen with the same flat options and scan through the base store.
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(primary_dir.as_str())
+            .with_storage_options(scoped_options)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let num_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(num_rows, 5);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -1877,7 +4018,7 @@ mod tests {
         use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
 
         // Create initial dataset
-        let test_uri = "memory://overwrite_test";
+        let test_uri = "shared-memory://overwrite_test";
         let primary_uri = format!("{}/primary", test_uri);
         let base1_uri = format!("{}/base1", test_uri);
         let base2_uri = format!("{}/base2", test_uri);
@@ -1937,24 +4078,31 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify base_paths were inherited (still base1 and base2)
         assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.base_paths.len(), 2);
-        assert!(dataset
-            .manifest
-            .base_paths
-            .values()
-            .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base1".to_string())));
-        assert!(dataset
-            .manifest
-            .base_paths
-            .values()
-            .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base2".to_string())));
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .manifest
+                .base_paths
+                .values()
+                .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base1".to_string()))
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .manifest
+                .base_paths
+                .values()
+                .any(|bp| bp.name == Some("base2".to_string()))
+        );
 
         // Verify data was written to base2 (ID 2)
         let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
-        assert!(fragments.iter().all(|f| f
-            .metadata
-            .files
-            .iter()
-            .all(|file| file.base_id == Some(2))));
+        assert!(
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .all(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().all(|file| file.base_id == Some(2)))
+        );
+
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(&primary_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_sorted_ids(&reopened).await, (0..2).collect::<Vec<_>>());
 
         // Test validation: cannot specify initial_bases in OVERWRITE mode
         let mut data_gen3 =
@@ -1978,10 +4126,12 @@ mod tests {
         .await;
 
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Cannot register new bases in Overwrite mode"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Cannot register new bases in Overwrite mode")
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -1989,7 +4139,7 @@ mod tests {
         use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
 
         // Create initial dataset with multi-base configuration
-        let test_uri = "memory://append_test";
+        let test_uri = "shared-memory://append_test";
         let primary_uri = format!("{}/primary", test_uri);
         let base1_uri = format!("{}/base1", test_uri);
         let base2_uri = format!("{}/base2", test_uri);
@@ -2076,6 +4226,11 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(has_base1_data, "Should have data in base1");
         assert!(has_base2_data, "Should have data in base2");
 
+        let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..3).chain(0..2).chain(0..4).collect();
+        expected.sort_unstable();
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(&primary_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_sorted_ids(&reopened).await, expected);
+
         // Test validation: cannot specify initial_bases in APPEND mode
         let mut data_gen4 =
             BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
@@ -2099,10 +4254,12 @@ mod tests {
         .await;
 
         assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Cannot register new bases in Append mode"));
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Cannot register new bases in Append mode")
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -2301,11 +4458,11 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify data was written to base1
         let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
-        assert!(fragments.iter().all(|f| f
-            .metadata
-            .files
-            .iter()
-            .all(|file| file.base_id == Some(1))));
+        assert!(
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .all(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().all(|file| file.base_id == Some(1)))
+        );
 
         // Now append using the path URI instead of name
         let mut data_gen2 =
@@ -2374,6 +4531,7 @@ mod tests {
         };
 
         let result = write_fragments_internal(
+            write_params.storage_version_or_default(),
             None,
             object_store,
             &Path::from("test_empty"),
@@ -2464,9 +4622,10 @@ mod tests {
         use std::sync::Arc;
 
         use async_trait::async_trait;
+        use futures::stream::BoxStream;
         use object_store::{
-            GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta, PutMultipartOptions,
-            PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult,
+            CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+            PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult,
         };
 
         // Create a custom ObjectStore that simulates disk full error
@@ -2481,20 +4640,6 @@ mod tests {
 
         #[async_trait]
         impl object_store::ObjectStore for DiskFullObjectStore {
-            async fn put(
-                &self,
-                _location: &object_store::path::Path,
-                _bytes: PutPayload,
-            ) -> object_store::Result<PutResult> {
-                Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
-                    store: "DiskFullStore",
-                    source: Box::new(io::Error::new(
-                        ErrorKind::StorageFull,
-                        "No space left on device",
-                    )),
-                })
-            }
-
             async fn put_opts(
                 &self,
                 _location: &object_store::path::Path,
@@ -2510,15 +4655,6 @@ mod tests {
                 })
             }
 
-            async fn put_multipart(
-                &self,
-                _location: &object_store::path::Path,
-            ) -> object_store::Result<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
-                Err(object_store::Error::NotSupported {
-                    source: "Multipart upload not supported".into(),
-                })
-            }
-
             async fn put_multipart_opts(
                 &self,
                 _location: &object_store::path::Path,
@@ -2529,16 +4665,6 @@ mod tests {
                 })
             }
 
-            async fn get(
-                &self,
-                _location: &object_store::path::Path,
-            ) -> object_store::Result<GetResult> {
-                Err(object_store::Error::NotFound {
-                    path: "".into(),
-                    source: "".into(),
-                })
-            }
-
             async fn get_opts(
                 &self,
                 _location: &object_store::path::Path,
@@ -2550,11 +4676,11 @@ mod tests {
                 })
             }
 
-            async fn delete(
+            fn delete_stream(
                 &self,
-                _location: &object_store::path::Path,
-            ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
-                Ok(())
+                locations: BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<object_store::path::Path>>,
+            ) -> BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<object_store::path::Path>> {
+                locations
             }
 
             fn list(
@@ -2574,18 +4700,11 @@ mod tests {
                 })
             }
 
-            async fn copy(
-                &self,
-                _from: &object_store::path::Path,
-                _to: &object_store::path::Path,
-            ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
-                Ok(())
-            }
-
-            async fn copy_if_not_exists(
+            async fn copy_opts(
                 &self,
                 _from: &object_store::path::Path,
                 _to: &object_store::path::Path,
+                _options: CopyOptions,
             ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
                 Ok(())
             }
@@ -2593,7 +4712,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         let object_store = Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore::new(
             Arc::new(DiskFullObjectStore) as Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
-            url::Url::parse("file:///test").unwrap(),
+            // Use a non-"file" scheme so writes go through ObjectWriter (which
+            // uses the DiskFullObjectStore) instead of the optimized LocalWriter.
+            url::Url::parse("mock:///test").unwrap(),
             None,
             None,
             false,
@@ -2635,6 +4756,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Attempt to write data - should fail with IO error due to disk full
         let result = write_fragments_internal(
+            write_params.storage_version_or_default(),
             None,
             object_store,
             &Path::from("test_disk_full"),
@@ -2677,6 +4799,7 @@ mod tests {
     async fn test_write_interruption_recovery() {
         use super::commit::CommitBuilder;
         use arrow_array::record_batch;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir;
 
         // Create a temporary directory for testing
         let temp_dir = TempDir::default();
@@ -2767,4 +4890,942 @@ mod tests {
             "All data should be correctly written"
         );
     }
+
+    /// Returns the number of files in `<base_dir>/data/`.
+    fn count_data_files(base_dir: &str) -> usize {
+        let data_dir = std::path::Path::new(base_dir).join("data");
+        if !data_dir.exists() {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        std::fs::read_dir(data_dir)
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter(|e| e.as_ref().unwrap().path().is_file())
+            .count()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cleanup_data_files_on_failed_write() {
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let (object_store, base_dir) =
+            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(Default::default(), test_uri, &Default::default())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let good_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Build a stream: one good batch, then an error.
+        let items: Vec<std::result::Result<RecordBatch, DataFusionError>> = vec![
+            Ok(good_batch.clone()),
+            Err(DataFusionError::External("injected failure".into())),
+        ];
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(items),
+        ));
+
+        let result = versions::write_fragments_direct(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            object_store.clone(),
+            &base_dir,
+            &schema,
+            stream,
+            WriteParams::default(),
+            None,
+            Vec::new(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Expected write to fail");
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_data_files(test_uri),
+            0,
+            "All partial data files should be cleaned up on failure"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cleanup_data_files_on_failed_write_multi_file() {
+        // Verify cleanup when a failure occurs after one file has already been completed
+        // (i.e., max_rows_per_file causes a file boundary before the error).
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let (object_store, base_dir) =
+            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(Default::default(), test_uri, &Default::default())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // 3 rows per file; 2 good batches of 3 rows (fills one file), then error.
+        let good_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let items: Vec<std::result::Result<RecordBatch, DataFusionError>> = vec![
+            Ok(good_batch.clone()),
+            Ok(good_batch.clone()),
+            Err(DataFusionError::External("injected failure".into())),
+        ];
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(items),
+        ));
+
+        let result = versions::write_fragments_direct(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            object_store.clone(),
+            &base_dir,
+            &schema,
+            stream,
+            WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+            Vec::new(),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Expected write to fail");
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_data_files(test_uri),
+            0,
+            "All data files (including completed ones) should be cleaned up on failure"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Verifies the external-base branch in `cleanup_data_fragments`: files with
+    /// `base_id == Some(_)` are skipped (logged but not deleted via the dataset's
+    /// object store), while same-fragment files with `base_id == None` are deleted.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cleanup_data_fragments_skips_external_base() {
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let (object_store, base_dir) =
+            ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(Default::default(), test_uri, &Default::default())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // Create a real local data file we expect to be cleaned up.
+        let data_dir = base_dir.clone().join(DATA_DIR);
+        let local_filename = "local.lance";
+        let local_path = data_dir.clone().join(local_filename);
+        object_store.put(&local_path, b"x").await.unwrap();
+        // Sanity check: file is on disk.
+        assert_eq!(count_data_files(test_uri), 1);
+
+        let mut external_file =
+            DataFile::new_unstarted("external.lance", ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1);
+        external_file.base_id = Some(42);
+        let local_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(local_filename, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![external_file, local_file],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(0),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        }];
+
+        cleanup_data_fragments(&object_store, &base_dir, None, &fragments).await;
+
+        // The local file should be removed; the external file is skipped without
+        // erroring (its base store isn't known here).
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_data_files(test_uri),
+            0,
+            "Local data file should be deleted by cleanup"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Verifies the target-base branch in `cleanup_data_fragments`: files whose
+    /// `base_id` matches a provided [`TargetBaseInfo`] are deleted via that base's
+    /// object store (respecting `is_dataset_root` layout), while files in bases
+    /// without a provided store are still skipped.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cleanup_data_fragments_deletes_target_base_files() {
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+        let primary_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base1_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base2_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        let (object_store, base_dir) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Default::default(),
+            primary_dir.as_str(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let (base1_store, base1_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Default::default(),
+            base1_dir.as_str(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let (base2_store, base2_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Default::default(),
+            base2_dir.as_str(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // base2 is a plain data directory: files sit at its root, not under data/.
+        let count_plain_files = |dir: &str| {
+            std::fs::read_dir(dir)
+                .map(|entries| {
+                    entries
+                        .filter(|e| e.as_ref().unwrap().path().is_file())
+                        .count()
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+        };
+
+        // base1 is a dataset root (files under data/), base2 is a plain data dir.
+        let base1_file_path = base1_path.clone().join(DATA_DIR).join("one.lance");
+        base1_store.put(&base1_file_path, b"x").await.unwrap();
+        let base2_file_path = base2_path.clone().join("two.lance");
+        base2_store.put(&base2_file_path, b"x").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(count_data_files(base1_dir.as_str()), 1);
+        assert_eq!(count_plain_files(base2_dir.as_str()), 1);
+
+        let mut base1_file = DataFile::new_unstarted("one.lance", ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1);
+        base1_file.base_id = Some(1);
+        let mut base2_file = DataFile::new_unstarted("two.lance", ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1);
+        base2_file.base_id = Some(2);
+        let mut unknown_file = DataFile::new_unstarted("unknown.lance", ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1);
+        unknown_file.base_id = Some(42);
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![base1_file, base2_file, unknown_file],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(0),
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+        }];
+
+        let target_bases = vec![
+            TargetBaseInfo {
+                base_id: 1,
+                object_store: base1_store,
+                base_dir: base1_path,
+                is_dataset_root: true,
+            },
+            TargetBaseInfo {
+                base_id: 2,
+                object_store: base2_store,
+                base_dir: base2_path,
+                is_dataset_root: false,
+            },
+        ];
+
+        cleanup_data_fragments(&object_store, &base_dir, Some(&target_bases), &fragments).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_data_files(base1_dir.as_str()),
+            0,
+            "File in dataset-root target base should be deleted"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_plain_files(base2_dir.as_str()),
+            0,
+            "File in plain-directory target base should be deleted"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cleanup_routed_data_files_on_failed_write() {
+        // Files already completed in target bases must be removed when the
+        // write later fails.
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+
+        let primary_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base1_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let schema = Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
+
+        let (object_store, base_dir) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Default::default(),
+            primary_dir.as_str(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let (base1_store, base1_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Default::default(),
+            base1_dir.as_str(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let good_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // 3 rows per file: the first batch fills and completes a file in the
+        // target base, then the stream fails.
+        let items: Vec<std::result::Result<RecordBatch, DataFusionError>> = vec![
+            Ok(good_batch.clone()),
+            Ok(good_batch.clone()),
+            Err(DataFusionError::External("injected failure".into())),
+        ];
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            arrow_schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(items),
+        ));
+
+        let target_bases = vec![TargetBaseInfo {
+            base_id: 1,
+            object_store: base1_store,
+            base_dir: base1_path,
+            is_dataset_root: true,
+        }];
+
+        let result = versions::write_fragments_direct(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            object_store.clone(),
+            &base_dir,
+            &schema,
+            stream,
+            WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            Some(target_bases),
+            vec![],
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Expected write to fail");
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_data_files(base1_dir.as_str()),
+            0,
+            "Data files routed to the target base should be cleaned up on failure"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(count_data_files(primary_dir.as_str()), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// PRIMARY_BASE_ID (0) and the dataset URI include primary storage in the
+    /// target rotation, alongside registered bases.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_multi_base_target_primary_and_bases() {
+        use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
+
+        let test_uri = "shared-memory://primary_slot_test";
+        let primary_uri = format!("{}/primary", test_uri);
+        let base1_uri = format!("{}/base1", test_uri);
+        let base2_uri = format!("{}/base2", test_uri);
+
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+
+        // CREATE mode targeting primary + a new base: also verifies the id
+        // assignment on initial_bases reaches the committed manifest.
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(6),
+            &primary_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![
+                    BasePath {
+                        id: 1,
+                        name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                        is_dataset_root: true,
+                        path: base1_uri.clone(),
+                    },
+                    BasePath {
+                        id: 2,
+                        name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                        is_dataset_root: false,
+                        path: base2_uri.clone(),
+                    },
+                ]),
+                target_bases: Some(vec![PRIMARY_BASE_ID, 1]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.base_paths.len(), 2);
+        let file_bases: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(file_bases, vec![None, Some(1)]);
+
+        // APPEND across primary + both bases, one file per slot in order.
+        let mut data_gen2 =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen2.batch(9),
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                target_bases: Some(vec![PRIMARY_BASE_ID, 1, 2]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let file_bases: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .skip(2)
+            .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(file_bases, vec![None, Some(1), Some(2)]);
+
+        // Names variant: the dataset's own URI selects primary storage.
+        let mut data_gen3 =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen3.batch(6),
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                target_base_names_or_paths: Some(vec![primary_uri.clone(), "base2".to_string()]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let file_bases: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .skip(5)
+            .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(file_bases, vec![None, Some(2)]);
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 21);
+
+        let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..6).chain(0..9).chain(0..6).collect();
+        expected.sort_unstable();
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(&primary_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_sorted_ids(&reopened).await, expected);
+    }
+
+    /// `target_all_bases` resolves to every registered base at execution
+    /// time, with primary storage as the first slot when included.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_multi_base_target_all_bases() {
+        use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
+
+        let test_uri = "shared-memory://all_bases_test";
+        let primary_uri = format!("{}/primary", test_uri);
+        let base1_uri = format!("{}/base1", test_uri);
+        let base2_uri = format!("{}/base2", test_uri);
+
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(3),
+            &primary_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                initial_bases: Some(vec![
+                    BasePath {
+                        id: 1,
+                        name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                        is_dataset_root: true,
+                        path: base1_uri.clone(),
+                    },
+                    BasePath {
+                        id: 2,
+                        name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                        is_dataset_root: false,
+                        path: base2_uri.clone(),
+                    },
+                ]),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // All bases including primary: slots are [primary, base1, base2].
+        let mut data_gen2 =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen2.batch(9),
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(
+                WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }
+                .with_target_all_bases(true),
+            ),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let file_bases: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .skip(1)
+            .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(file_bases, vec![None, Some(1), Some(2)]);
+
+        // Without primary: slots are [base1, base2].
+        let mut data_gen3 =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen3.batch(6),
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(
+                WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }
+                .with_target_all_bases(false),
+            ),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let file_bases: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .skip(4)
+            .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(file_bases, vec![Some(1), Some(2)]);
+
+        let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..3).chain(0..9).chain(0..6).collect();
+        expected.sort_unstable();
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(&primary_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_sorted_ids(&reopened).await, expected);
+
+        // Cannot be combined with explicit target bases.
+        let mut data_gen4 =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen4.batch(3),
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(
+                WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    target_bases: Some(vec![1]),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }
+                .with_target_all_bases(true),
+            ),
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Cannot specify target_all_bases together with")
+        );
+
+        // On a dataset with no registered bases: include_primary=true is a
+        // no-op rotation over primary, false is rejected.
+        let plain_uri = "shared-memory://all_bases_plain/primary";
+        let mut data_gen5 =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let plain = Dataset::write(data_gen5.batch(3), plain_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut data_gen6 =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let plain = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen6.batch(3),
+            Arc::new(plain),
+            Some(
+                WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }
+                .with_target_all_bases(true),
+            ),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plain.get_fragments().iter().all(|f| f
+                .metadata
+                .files
+                .iter()
+                .all(|file| file.base_id.is_none()))
+        );
+        let mut data_gen7 =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let result = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen7.batch(3),
+            Arc::new(plain),
+            Some(
+                WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }
+                .with_target_all_bases(false),
+            ),
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("target_all_bases found no registered bases")
+        );
+
+        // CREATE mode: initial_bases join the rotation before their ids are
+        // committed to a manifest.
+        let create_root = "shared-memory://all_bases_create";
+        let create_uri = format!("{}/primary", create_root);
+        let mut data_gen8 =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("id".to_owned())));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data_gen8.batch(9),
+            &create_uri,
+            Some(
+                WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Create,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    initial_bases: Some(vec![
+                        BasePath {
+                            id: 0,
+                            name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                            is_dataset_root: true,
+                            path: format!("{}/base1", create_root),
+                        },
+                        BasePath {
+                            id: 0,
+                            name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                            is_dataset_root: false,
+                            path: format!("{}/base2", create_root),
+                        },
+                    ]),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }
+                .with_target_all_bases(true),
+            ),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.base_paths.len(), 2);
+        let file_bases: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|f| f.metadata.files.iter().map(|file| file.base_id))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(file_bases, vec![None, Some(1), Some(2)]);
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(&create_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scan_sorted_ids(&reopened).await, (0..9).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zone_map_seeds_used_during_update() {
+        use crate::Dataset;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index;
+        use arrow::datatypes::Int32Type;
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount};
+        use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch};
+        use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
+        use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        use lance_index::scalar::seed::SEED_META_KEY_PREFIX;
+        use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
+        use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+        use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+
+        let tmpdir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmpdir.as_str();
+
+        // Step 1: Create initial dataset
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("val", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Step 2: Create a zone map index with seeds explicitly enabled (Int32 defaults to off).
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap)
+            .with_params(&serde_json::json!({"use_seeds": true}));
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["val"], IndexType::ZoneMap, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Step 3: Append new data - seeds should be written automatically
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("val", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Step 4: Verify that the newly appended fragment has a seed embedded
+        let fragments = dataset.fragments();
+        let new_fragment = fragments.last().unwrap();
+        let data_file = new_fragment.files.first().unwrap();
+
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+            dataset.object_store.clone(),
+            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&dataset.object_store),
+        );
+        let path = dataset
+            .base
+            .clone()
+            .join(super::DATA_DIR)
+            .join(data_file.path.as_str());
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler
+            .open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_file::reader::FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Default::default(),
+            &dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&path),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let meta_key = format!("{}val", SEED_META_KEY_PREFIX);
+        let has_seed = reader
+            .metadata()
+            .file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .contains_key(&meta_key);
+        assert!(
+            has_seed,
+            "Newly appended fragment should have a zone map seed in metadata"
+        );
+
+        // Step 5: Optimize the index (should use seeds)
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Step 6: Query the updated index to verify it's correct
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !indices.is_empty(),
+            "Dataset should still have an index after optimization"
+        );
+
+        // Verify the index is a ZoneMap and covers all fragments
+        let index = indices.iter().find(|i| i.name.contains("val")).unwrap();
+        let scalar_index = open_scalar_index(&dataset, "val", index, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scalar_index.index_type(),
+            IndexType::ZoneMap,
+            "Index should still be a ZoneMap after optimization"
+        );
+        let frags = scalar_index.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(frags.len(), 2, "Index should cover both fragments");
+    }
+
+    /// Seed observers see the values the data file stores, so appending a
+    /// view array to a seeded string column succeeds.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_view_array_to_seeded_string_column() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "val",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap)
+            .with_params(&serde_json::json!({"use_seeds": true}));
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["val"], IndexType::ZoneMap, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let append_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert!(
+            !create_seed_writers_current(Some(&dataset), &append_params)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty(),
+            "the append must observe seeds for this test to cover them"
+        );
+
+        let view_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "val",
+            DataType::Utf8View,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let view_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            view_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(vec!["c", "d"]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(view_batch)], view_schema),
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(append_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("val = 'c'".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 4);
+    }
+
+    /// A covered scalar index must still get a seed writer. The loop skipped any
+    /// index with more than one field, silently dropping seed writing for it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_seed_writers_for_a_covered_index() {
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+        use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
+
+        let test_uri = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("payload", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..256)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..256)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // BTree (the default `ScalarIndexParams`) never writes seeds -- only ZoneMap
+        // does, and only when `use_seeds` is explicitly requested for a fixed-width
+        // type like Int32 (see `test_zone_map_seeds_used_during_update` above).
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap)
+            .with_params(&serde_json::json!({"use_seeds": true}));
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["id"], IndexType::ZoneMap, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let append_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let baseline = create_seed_writers_current(Some(&dataset), &append_params)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !baseline.is_empty(),
+            "a plain scalar index should produce a seed writer; if this is empty \
+             the rest of the test proves nothing"
+        );
+
+        // Declare `payload` as carried, then re-check.
+        let id_field = dataset.schema().field_id("id").unwrap();
+        let payload_field = dataset.schema().field_id("payload").unwrap();
+        let current = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let mut covered = current[0].clone();
+        covered.fields = vec![id_field, payload_field];
+        covered.covering_fields = vec![payload_field];
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![covered],
+                removed_indices: current.to_vec(),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let covered_writers = create_seed_writers_current(Some(&dataset), &append_params)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            covered_writers.len(),
+            baseline.len(),
+            "a covered index must still produce a seed writer"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/commit.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/commit.rs
index aca273cff39..4af9a12fe93 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/commit.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/commit.rs
@@ -3,29 +3,30 @@
 
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
 
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap;
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
 use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams};
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
 use lance_table::{
-    format::{is_detached_version, DataStorageFormat},
+    format::{DataStorageFormat, is_detached_version},
     io::commit::{CommitConfig, CommitHandler, ManifestNamingScheme},
 };
-use snafu::location;
 
+use crate::io::commit::default_commit_retry_timeout;
 use crate::{
+    Dataset, Error, Result,
     dataset::{
+        ManifestWriteConfig, ReadParams,
         builder::DatasetBuilder,
         commit_detached_transaction, commit_new_dataset, commit_transaction,
         refs::Refs,
         transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
-        ManifestWriteConfig, ReadParams,
     },
     session::Session,
-    Dataset, Error, Result,
 };
 
-use super::{resolve_commit_handler, WriteDestination};
+use super::{WriteDestination, resolve_commit_handler};
 use crate::dataset::branch_location::BranchLocation;
 use crate::dataset::transaction::validate_operation;
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{DATASET_COMMITTED_EVENT, TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS};
@@ -39,17 +40,27 @@ pub struct CommitBuilder<'a> {
     dest: WriteDestination<'a>,
     use_stable_row_ids: Option<bool>,
     enable_v2_manifest_paths: bool,
-    storage_format: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+    storage_format: Option<ConcreteFileVersion>,
     commit_handler: Option<Arc<dyn CommitHandler>>,
     store_params: Option<ObjectStoreParams>,
     object_store: Option<Arc<ObjectStore>>,
+    source_store: Option<Arc<ObjectStore>>,
     session: Option<Arc<Session>>,
     detached: bool,
     commit_config: CommitConfig,
+    retry_timeout: Duration,
     affected_rows: Option<RowAddrTreeMap>,
     transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
+    timeout: Option<Duration>,
+    /// When `Some`, this commit is the second step of `migrate_to_stable_row_ids`.
+    migration_next_row_id: Option<u64>,
+    /// Set only by `Dataset::deep_clone`, after it has copied the source files.
+    deep_clone_files_copied: bool,
 }
 
+/// Default timeout applied to [`CommitBuilder::execute`] when none is set.
+pub const DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT: Duration = Duration::from_secs(1800);
+
 impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
     pub fn new(dest: impl Into<WriteDestination<'a>>) -> Self {
         Self {
@@ -60,11 +71,16 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
             commit_handler: None,
             store_params: None,
             object_store: None,
+            source_store: None,
             session: None,
             detached: false,
             commit_config: Default::default(),
+            retry_timeout: default_commit_retry_timeout(),
             affected_rows: None,
             transaction_properties: None,
+            timeout: Some(DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT),
+            migration_next_row_id: None,
+            deep_clone_files_copied: false,
         }
     }
 
@@ -82,12 +98,21 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
 
     /// Pass the storage format to use for the dataset.
     ///
-    /// This is only needed when creating a new empty table. If any data files are
-    /// passed, the storage format will be inferred from the data files.
+    /// On creation, this sets the default storage version. If omitted, the version
+    /// is inferred from homogeneous data files, or uses the stable version for an
+    /// empty table. Creating from mixed prewritten files requires an explicit default.
     ///
-    /// All data files must use the same storage format as the existing dataset.
-    /// If a different format is passed, an error will be returned.
+    /// For an existing dataset, this only sets the manifest default on overwrite;
+    /// other operations preserve the existing default. If
+    /// prewritten fragments introduce another exact V2 version, the commit
+    /// derives the required mixed-version capability from the final manifest.
     pub fn with_storage_format(mut self, storage_format: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
+        self.storage_format = Some(storage_format.resolve());
+
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_exact_storage_format(mut self, storage_format: ConcreteFileVersion) -> Self {
         self.storage_format = Some(storage_format);
         self
     }
@@ -98,7 +123,31 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Pass the object store of the dataset being cloned from.
+    ///
+    /// Only used by `Operation::Clone`: the source manifest is read through this store
+    /// while the new dataset is written through the destination store. This lets a clone
+    /// cross object stores/accounts (e.g. between two Azure accounts), where the source
+    /// is not reachable with the destination's credentials. Defaults to the destination
+    /// store when not set, preserving same-store behavior.
+    pub fn with_source_store(mut self, source_store: Arc<ObjectStore>) -> Self {
+        self.source_store = Some(source_store);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Pass the object store of the dataset being cloned from.
+    ///
+    /// The source dataset's commit handler is not used.
+    #[deprecated(since = "12.0.0-beta.12", note = "use with_source_store instead")]
+    pub fn with_source_dataset(self, source: &Dataset) -> Self {
+        self.with_source_store(source.object_store.clone())
+    }
+
     /// Pass a commit handler to use for the dataset.
+    ///
+    /// Takes precedence over the destination dataset's own handler. If not
+    /// set, a `Dataset` destination commits through its own handler and a
+    /// `Uri` destination resolves one from the uri.
     pub fn with_commit_handler(mut self, commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler>) -> Self {
         self.commit_handler = Some(commit_handler);
         self
@@ -158,6 +207,26 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set the wall-clock budget used by commit conflict backoff.
+    ///
+    /// The first commit attempt is always allowed to complete. If it conflicts,
+    /// each backoff sleep is bounded by the time remaining in this budget. The
+    /// default is 30 seconds.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use std::time::Duration;
+    /// use lance::dataset::CommitBuilder;
+    ///
+    /// let _builder = CommitBuilder::new("memory://dataset")
+    ///     .with_retry_timeout(Duration::from_secs(10));
+    /// ```
+    pub fn with_retry_timeout(mut self, retry_timeout: Duration) -> Self {
+        self.retry_timeout = retry_timeout;
+        self
+    }
+
     pub fn with_skip_auto_cleanup(mut self, skip_auto_cleanup: bool) -> Self {
         self.commit_config.skip_auto_cleanup = skip_auto_cleanup;
         self
@@ -170,6 +239,25 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set a timeout for the commit operation.
+    ///
+    /// The timeout bounds the *entire* [`Self::execute`] / [`Self::execute_batch`]
+    /// call, including all conflict retries — it is not applied per attempt.
+    /// Pass `None` to disable the timeout entirely.
+    ///
+    /// The default is 30 minutes (see [`DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT`]).
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// - [`Error::InvalidInput`] if `timeout` is `Some(Duration::ZERO)` (raised
+    ///   when [`Self::execute`] is called, not here).
+    /// - [`Error::Timeout`] if the operation does not complete within the
+    ///   timeout.
+    pub fn with_timeout(mut self, timeout: Option<Duration>) -> Self {
+        self.timeout = timeout;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// provide Configuration key-value pairs associated with this transaction.
     /// This is used to store metadata about the transaction, such as commit messages, engine information, etc.
     /// this properties map will be persisted as a part of the transaction object
@@ -181,22 +269,91 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Configure this commit as the second step of a stable row ID migration.
+    ///
+    /// Sets `use_stable_row_ids = true` and supplies the `next_row_id` that was
+    /// computed during the first migration commit. This bypasses the normal
+    /// "cannot enable stable row IDs on an existing dataset" check so that the
+    /// flag can be activated without creating the dataset from scratch.
+    pub(crate) fn with_stable_row_id_migration_activation(mut self, next_row_id: u64) -> Self {
+        self.migration_next_row_id = Some(next_row_id);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Mark this commit as the last step of [`Dataset::deep_clone`], which has
+    /// already copied the source's data, deletion and index files to the
+    /// destination.
+    ///
+    /// A deep `Operation::Clone` points every file at the destination but the
+    /// commit itself copies nothing, so it is rejected unless this is set.
+    pub(crate) fn with_deep_clone_files_copied(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.deep_clone_files_copied = true;
+        self
+    }
+
     pub async fn execute(self, transaction: Transaction) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        let timeout = self.timeout;
+        if let Some(t) = timeout
+            && t.is_zero()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "CommitBuilder timeout must be non-zero; pass `None` to disable",
+            ));
+        }
+        // Box the inner future so wrapping it in `tokio::time::Timeout` does
+        // not deepen the future type — downstream `async fn`s that await
+        // `execute` otherwise hit the compiler's layout-query depth limit.
+        let fut = Box::pin(self.execute_inner(transaction));
+        match timeout {
+            Some(t) => match tokio::time::timeout(t, fut).await {
+                Ok(res) => res,
+                Err(_) => Err(Error::timeout(format!(
+                    "Commit timed out after {:?}. Increase the timeout via \
+                     CommitBuilder::with_timeout or pass `None` to disable.",
+                    t
+                ))),
+            },
+            None => fut.await,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn execute_inner(self, transaction: Transaction) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        if matches!(
+            transaction.operation,
+            Operation::Clone {
+                is_shallow: false,
+                ..
+            }
+        ) && !self.deep_clone_files_copied
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "A deep Clone cannot be committed directly: the commit does not copy the \
+                 source files, so the new dataset would reference files that do not exist. \
+                 Use deep_clone instead.",
+            ));
+        }
+
         let session = self
             .session
             .or_else(|| self.dest.dataset().map(|ds| ds.session.clone()))
             .unwrap_or_default();
 
+        // Store used to read the source manifest for a clone (see with_source_store).
+        let source_store = self.source_store.clone();
+
         let (object_store, base_path, commit_handler) = match &self.dest {
             WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset) => (
                 dataset.object_store.clone(),
                 dataset.base.clone(),
-                dataset.commit_handler.clone(),
+                self.commit_handler
+                    .clone()
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| dataset.commit_handler.clone()),
             ),
             WriteDestination::Uri(uri) => {
-                let commit_handler = if self.commit_handler.is_some() && self.object_store.is_some()
+                let commit_handler = if let (Some(_), Some(commit_handler)) =
+                    (&self.object_store, &self.commit_handler)
                 {
-                    self.commit_handler.as_ref().unwrap().clone()
+                    commit_handler.clone()
                 } else {
                     resolve_commit_handler(uri, self.commit_handler.clone(), &self.store_params)
                         .await?
@@ -253,11 +410,10 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
                 Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::Clone { .. }
             )
         {
-            return Err(Error::DatasetNotFound {
-                path: base_path.to_string(),
-                source: "The dataset must already exist unless the operation is Overwrite".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::dataset_not_found(
+                base_path.to_string(),
+                "The dataset must already exist unless the operation is Overwrite".into(),
+            ));
         }
 
         // Validate the operation before proceeding with the commit
@@ -284,44 +440,29 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
             ManifestNamingScheme::V1
         };
 
-        let use_stable_row_ids = if let Some(ds) = dest.dataset() {
+        let use_stable_row_ids = if self.migration_next_row_id.is_some() {
+            // Migration activation always enables stable row IDs regardless of
+            // the current dataset state.
+            true
+        } else if let Some(ds) = dest.dataset() {
             ds.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids()
         } else {
             self.use_stable_row_ids.unwrap_or(false)
         };
 
-        // Validate storage format matches existing dataset
-        if let Some(ds) = dest.dataset() {
-            if let Some(storage_format) = self.storage_format {
-                let passed_storage_format = DataStorageFormat::new(storage_format);
-                if ds.manifest.data_storage_format != passed_storage_format
-                    && !matches!(transaction.operation, Operation::Overwrite { .. })
-                {
-                    return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!(
-                            "Storage format mismatch. Existing dataset uses {:?}, but new data uses {:?}",
-                            ds.manifest.data_storage_format,
-                            passed_storage_format
-                        ).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
         let manifest_config = ManifestWriteConfig {
             use_stable_row_ids,
             storage_format: self.storage_format.map(DataStorageFormat::new),
+            migration_next_row_id: self.migration_next_row_id,
             ..Default::default()
         };
 
         let (manifest, manifest_location) = if let Some(dataset) = dest.dataset() {
             if self.detached {
                 if matches!(manifest_naming_scheme, ManifestNamingScheme::V1) {
-                    return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                        source: "detached commits cannot be used with v1 manifest paths".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                        "detached commits cannot be used with v1 manifest paths".into(),
+                    ));
                 }
                 commit_detached_transaction(
                     dataset,
@@ -330,6 +471,7 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
                     &transaction,
                     &manifest_config,
                     &self.commit_config,
+                    self.retry_timeout,
                 )
                 .await?
             } else {
@@ -340,6 +482,7 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
                     &transaction,
                     &manifest_config,
                     &self.commit_config,
+                    self.retry_timeout,
                     manifest_naming_scheme,
                     self.affected_rows.as_ref(),
                 )
@@ -347,20 +490,21 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
             }
         } else if self.detached {
             // I think we may eventually want this, and we can probably handle it, but leaving a TODO for now
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "detached commits cannot currently be used to create new datasets".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "detached commits cannot currently be used to create new datasets".into(),
+            ));
         } else {
             commit_new_dataset(
                 object_store.as_ref(),
-                commit_handler.as_ref(),
+                source_store.as_deref(),
+                &commit_handler,
                 &base_path,
+                &dest.uri(),
                 &transaction,
                 &manifest_config,
                 manifest_naming_scheme,
                 metadata_cache.as_ref(),
-                session.store_registry(),
+                session.clone(),
             )
             .await?
         };
@@ -378,13 +522,21 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
         let fragment_bitmap = Arc::new(manifest.fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect());
 
         match &self.dest {
-            WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset) => Ok(Dataset {
-                manifest: Arc::new(manifest),
-                manifest_location,
-                session,
-                fragment_bitmap,
-                ..dataset.as_ref().clone()
-            }),
+            WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset) => {
+                let base_object_stores = if manifest.base_paths == dataset.manifest.base_paths {
+                    dataset.base_object_stores.clone()
+                } else {
+                    Default::default()
+                };
+                Ok(Dataset {
+                    manifest: Arc::new(manifest),
+                    manifest_location,
+                    session,
+                    fragment_bitmap,
+                    base_object_stores,
+                    ..dataset.as_ref().clone()
+                })
+            }
             WriteDestination::Uri(uri) => {
                 let refs = Refs::new(
                     object_store.clone(),
@@ -410,6 +562,8 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
                     metadata_cache,
                     file_reader_options: None,
                     store_params: self.store_params.clone().map(Box::new),
+                    base_store_params: None,
+                    base_object_stores: Default::default(),
                 })
             }
         }
@@ -423,19 +577,17 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
     /// </div>
     pub async fn execute_batch(self, transactions: Vec<Transaction>) -> Result<BatchCommitResult> {
         if transactions.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "No transactions to commit".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "No transactions to commit".into(),
+            ));
         }
         if transactions
             .iter()
             .any(|t| !matches!(t.operation, Operation::Append { .. }))
         {
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "Only append transactions are supported in batch commits".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "Only append transactions are supported in batch commits".into(),
+            ));
         }
 
         let read_version = transactions.iter().map(|t| t.read_version).min().unwrap();
@@ -453,7 +605,6 @@ impl<'a> CommitBuilder<'a> {
             },
             read_version,
             tag: None,
-            //TODO: handle batch transaction merges in the future
             transaction_properties: None,
         };
         let dataset = self.execute(merged.clone()).await?;
@@ -475,32 +626,39 @@ mod tests {
     use arrow::array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
     use lance_io::{assert_io_eq, assert_io_gt};
-    use lance_table::format::{DataFile, Fragment};
+    use lance_table::format::{
+        DataFile, Fragment, IndexMetadata, Manifest, Transaction as TableTransaction,
+    };
+    use lance_table::io::commit::{CommitError, ManifestLocation, ManifestWriter};
     use std::time::Duration;
 
     use object_store::throttle::ThrottleConfig;
 
     use crate::utils::test::ThrottledStoreWrapper;
 
-    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteParams};
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
 
     use super::*;
 
     fn sample_fragment() -> Fragment {
-        let (major_version, minor_version) = LanceFileVersion::Stable.to_numbers();
+        let (major_version, minor_version) =
+            LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve().to_data_file_numbers();
+
         Fragment {
             id: 0,
             files: vec![DataFile {
                 path: "file.lance".to_string(),
-                fields: vec![0],
-                column_indices: vec![0],
+                fields: Arc::from([0]),
+                column_indices: Arc::from([0]),
                 file_major_version: major_version,
                 file_minor_version: minor_version,
                 file_size_bytes: CachedFileSize::new(100),
                 base_id: None,
             }],
+            overlays: vec![],
             deletion_file: None,
             row_id_meta: None,
             physical_rows: Some(10),
@@ -521,6 +679,30 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct SlowConflictingCommitHandler;
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl CommitHandler for SlowConflictingCommitHandler {
+        fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+
+        async fn commit(
+            &self,
+            _manifest: &mut Manifest,
+            _indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+            _base_path: &object_store::path::Path,
+            _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+            _manifest_writer: ManifestWriter,
+            _naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+            _transaction: Option<TableTransaction>,
+        ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+            tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await;
+            Err(CommitError::CommitConflict)
+        }
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_reuse_session() {
         // Need to use in-memory for accurate IOPS tracking.
@@ -547,7 +729,7 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
 
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
         assert_io_gt!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
         assert_io_gt!(io_stats, write_iops, 0);
 
@@ -563,11 +745,12 @@ mod tests {
             // we shouldn't need to read anything from disk. Except we do need
             // to check for the latest version to see if we need to do conflict
             // resolution.
-            let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+            let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
             assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 1, "check latest version, i = {} ", i);
             // Should see 2 IOPs:
             // 1. Write the transaction files
             // 2. Write (conditional put) the manifest
+            // (the version hint is only written on non-lexically-ordered stores)
             assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 2, "write txn + manifest, i = {}", i);
         }
 
@@ -579,10 +762,12 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(new_ds.manifest().version, 7);
         // Session should still be re-used
-        // However, the dataset needs to be loaded and the read version checked out,
-        // so an additional 4 IOPs are needed.
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 5, "load dataset + check version");
+        // However, the dataset needs to be loaded and the read version checked out.
+        // The read version's manifest body is served from the session cache (it
+        // was cached when v1 was first created), so the checkout only pays the
+        // version-resolution head, not a manifest read.
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 3, "load dataset + check version");
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 2, "write txn + manifest");
 
         // Commit transaction with URI and new session. Re-use the store
@@ -596,7 +781,7 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(new_ds.manifest().version, 8);
         // Now we have to load all previous transactions.
 
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
         assert_io_gt!(io_stats, read_iops, 10);
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 2, "write txn + manifest");
     }
@@ -626,7 +811,7 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental(); // Reset the stats
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // Reset the stats
         let read_version = dataset.manifest().version;
         let new_ds = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
             .execute(sample_transaction(read_version))
@@ -634,9 +819,9 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
         // Assert io requests
-        let io_stats = new_ds.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        let io_stats = new_ds.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
         // This could be zero, if we decided to be optimistic. However, that
-        // would mean two wasted write requests (txn + manifest) if there was
+        // would mean wasted write requests (txn + manifest) if there was
         // a conflict. We choose to be pessimistic for more consistent performance.
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 1);
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 2);
@@ -692,14 +877,14 @@ mod tests {
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
         }
-        dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
 
         let new_ds = CommitBuilder::new(original_dataset.clone())
             .execute(sample_transaction(original_dataset.manifest().version))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let io_stats = new_ds.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        let io_stats = new_ds.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
 
         // If there is a conflict with two transaction, the retry should require io requests:
         // * 1 list version
@@ -725,6 +910,373 @@ mod tests {
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 2); // txn + manifest
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_commit_timeout_default_is_thirty_minutes() {
+        let builder = CommitBuilder::new("memory://default-timeout");
+        assert_eq!(builder.timeout, Some(DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT));
+        assert_eq!(DEFAULT_COMMIT_TIMEOUT, Duration::from_secs(1800));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_commit_retry_timeout_default_is_thirty_seconds() {
+        let builder = CommitBuilder::new("memory://default-retry-timeout");
+        assert_eq!(builder.retry_timeout, default_commit_retry_timeout());
+        assert_eq!(
+            crate::io::commit::DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT,
+            Duration::from_secs(30)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_timeout_zero_rejected() {
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://test")
+                .execute(vec![
+                    RecordBatch::try_new(
+                        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                            "i",
+                            DataType::Int32,
+                            false,
+                        )])),
+                        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let res = CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .with_timeout(Some(Duration::ZERO))
+            .execute(sample_transaction(1))
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            matches!(res, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })),
+            "got {res:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_deep_clone_requires_deep_clone_api() {
+        let source_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let source = InsertBuilder::new(source_dir.as_str())
+            .execute(vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                        "i",
+                        DataType::Int32,
+                        false,
+                    )])),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let clone_txn = |is_shallow| {
+            Transaction::new(
+                source.manifest.version,
+                Operation::Clone {
+                    is_shallow,
+                    ref_name: None,
+                    ref_version: source.manifest.version,
+                    ref_path: source.uri().to_string(),
+                    branch_name: None,
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+        };
+
+        // Committed directly, a deep clone would reference files never copied
+        // to the destination.
+        let deep_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let res = CommitBuilder::new(deep_dir.as_str())
+            .execute(clone_txn(false))
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            matches!(res, Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })),
+            "got {res:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(Dataset::open(deep_dir.as_str()).await.is_err());
+
+        // A shallow clone reads the source files in place, so it stays allowed.
+        let shallow_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let shallow = CommitBuilder::new(shallow_dir.as_str())
+            .execute(clone_txn(true))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            shallow.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+            10
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_commit_timeout_triggers() {
+        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
+            config: ThrottleConfig {
+                wait_put_per_call: Duration::from_secs(5),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        });
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://timeout")
+            .with_params(&write_params)
+            .execute(vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                        "i",
+                        DataType::Int32,
+                        false,
+                    )])),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let res = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_timeout(Some(Duration::from_millis(50)))
+            .execute(sample_transaction(1))
+            .await;
+        let err = res.expect_err("commit should time out");
+        assert!(matches!(&err, Error::Timeout { .. }), "got {err:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_commit_timeout_applies_to_execute_batch() {
+        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
+            config: ThrottleConfig {
+                wait_put_per_call: Duration::from_secs(5),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        });
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://batch-timeout")
+            .with_params(&write_params)
+            .execute(vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                        "i",
+                        DataType::Int32,
+                        false,
+                    )])),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let res = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_timeout(Some(Duration::from_millis(50)))
+            .execute_batch(vec![sample_transaction(1)])
+            .await;
+        let Err(err) = res else {
+            panic!("commit should time out");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(&err, Error::Timeout { .. }), "got {err:?}");
+    }
+
+    /// `with_timeout(None)` must let a commit run unbounded. Uses a throttled
+    /// store so the commit takes real wall-clock time — long enough that the
+    /// 50ms timeout in `test_commit_timeout_triggers` would have fired.
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_commit_timeout_none_disables() {
+        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
+            config: ThrottleConfig {
+                wait_put_per_call: Duration::from_millis(200),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        });
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://no-timeout")
+            .with_params(&write_params)
+            .execute(vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                        "i",
+                        DataType::Int32,
+                        false,
+                    )])),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let new_ds = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_timeout(None)
+            .execute(sample_transaction(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(new_ds.manifest.version, 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_retry_timeout_interrupts_conflict_backoff() {
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://retry-timeout")
+            .execute(vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                        "i",
+                        DataType::Int32,
+                        false,
+                    )])),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_commit_handler(Arc::new(SlowConflictingCommitHandler))
+            .with_max_retries(3)
+            .with_retry_timeout(Duration::from_millis(150))
+            .with_timeout(None)
+            .execute(sample_transaction(1))
+            .await;
+
+        let error = result.expect_err("conflict backoff should respect retry timeout");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&error, Error::TooMuchWriteContention { message, .. } if message.contains("failed on retry_timeout")),
+            "got {error:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Loses the first commit race without writing anything, then commits
+    /// through the wrapped handler.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct ConflictOnceCommitHandler {
+        inner: Arc<dyn CommitHandler>,
+        conflicted: std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl CommitHandler for ConflictOnceCommitHandler {
+        fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+            self.inner.is_version_not_found_definitive()
+        }
+
+        async fn commit(
+            &self,
+            manifest: &mut Manifest,
+            indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+            base_path: &object_store::path::Path,
+            object_store: &ObjectStore,
+            manifest_writer: ManifestWriter,
+            naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+            transaction: Option<TableTransaction>,
+        ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+            if !self
+                .conflicted
+                .swap(true, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst)
+            {
+                return Err(CommitError::CommitConflict);
+            }
+            self.inner
+                .commit(
+                    manifest,
+                    indices,
+                    base_path,
+                    object_store,
+                    manifest_writer,
+                    naming_scheme,
+                    transaction,
+                )
+                .await
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A commit that starts far behind the latest version must not spend its
+    /// conflict-retry budget catching up. Every listing is slow here, so
+    /// catching up alone outlasts `retry_timeout`; the first attempt then
+    /// loses a race, and the retry must still get to run and succeed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_retry_timeout_excludes_initial_catch_up() {
+        let catch_up_latency = Duration::from_millis(400);
+        let retry_timeout = Duration::from_millis(300);
+        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
+            config: ThrottleConfig {
+                wait_list_per_call: catch_up_latency,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        });
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = || {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let stale = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://retry-after-catch-up")
+                .with_params(&write_params)
+                .execute(vec![batch()])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        // Versions committed by another writer after `stale` was read.
+        let mut latest = stale.clone();
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            latest = Arc::new(
+                InsertBuilder::new(latest.clone())
+                    .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                        mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                        ..write_params.clone()
+                    })
+                    .execute(vec![batch()])
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(latest.manifest.version, 4);
+
+        let committed = CommitBuilder::new(stale.clone())
+            .with_commit_handler(Arc::new(ConflictOnceCommitHandler {
+                inner: stale.commit_handler.clone(),
+                conflicted: std::sync::atomic::AtomicBool::new(false),
+            }))
+            .with_retry_timeout(retry_timeout)
+            .with_timeout(None)
+            .execute(sample_transaction(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.manifest.version, 5);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_commit_batch() {
         // Create a dataset
@@ -758,10 +1310,11 @@ mod tests {
                 new_fragments: vec![],
                 removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
                 fields_modified: vec![],
-                merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
                 update_mode: None,
                 inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             },
             read_version: 1,
             tag: None,
@@ -792,4 +1345,82 @@ mod tests {
         );
         assert_eq!(transaction.read_version, 1);
     }
+
+    /// On non-lexically-ordered stores (e.g. S3 Express) a commit should use the
+    /// version hint (a few HEAD probes, O(k)) instead of a full O(n) listing.
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_commit_uses_version_hint_on_non_lexical_store() {
+        // Make `list` artificially slow per entry so a full listing would be
+        // obvious; HEAD/GET/PUT stay fast.
+        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
+            config: ThrottleConfig {
+                wait_list_per_entry: Duration::from_millis(50),
+                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(1),
+                wait_put_per_call: Duration::from_millis(1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        });
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled),
+                list_is_lexically_ordered: Some(false),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+            session: Some(session.clone()),
+            enable_v2_manifest_paths: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10_i32))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://test_version_hint")
+                .with_params(&write_params)
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Build up many versions so a full listing would be expensive.
+        for _ in 0..50 {
+            dataset = Arc::new(
+                CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+                    .execute(sample_transaction(dataset.manifest().version))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest().version, 51);
+
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        let new_ds = CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .execute(sample_transaction(dataset.manifest().version))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+
+        // A full listing of ~52 entries at 50ms each would take ~2.6s.
+        assert!(
+            elapsed < Duration::from_secs(1),
+            "commit took {elapsed:?}; the version hint path was likely not used"
+        );
+
+        let io_stats = new_ds.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(
+            io_stats.read_iops < 10,
+            "read_iops = {}; a full listing was likely used",
+            io_stats.read_iops
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/delete.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/delete.rs
index 66e1da10d4b..ee542541099 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/delete.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/delete.rs
@@ -2,25 +2,49 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use crate::dataset::rowids::get_row_id_index;
+use crate::dataset::scanner::ExprFilter;
 use crate::{
+    Dataset,
     dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
     dataset::utils::make_rowid_capture_stream,
-    Dataset,
 };
 use datafusion::logical_expr::Expr;
 use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
 use lance_table::format::Fragment;
 use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::collections::BTreeMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::time::Duration;
 
-use super::retry::{execute_with_retry, RetryConfig, RetryExecutor};
 use super::CommitBuilder;
+use super::retry::{RetryConfig, RetryExecutor, execute_with_retry};
+
+/// Result of a delete operation.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct DeleteResult {
+    /// The new dataset after the delete operation.
+    pub new_dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    /// The number of rows that were deleted.
+    pub num_deleted_rows: u64,
+}
+
+/// Result of a staged delete operation.
+///
+/// The returned transaction can be committed later with [`CommitBuilder`].
+/// Pass `affected_rows` to [`CommitBuilder::with_affected_rows`] when present
+/// to preserve row-level conflict resolution for concurrent deletes and updates.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct UncommittedDelete {
+    /// The transaction to commit.
+    pub transaction: Transaction,
+    /// The row addresses affected by the delete, if available.
+    pub affected_rows: Option<RowAddrTreeMap>,
+    /// The number of rows that were deleted.
+    pub num_deleted_rows: u64,
+}
 
 /// Apply deletions to fragments based on a RoaringTreemap of row IDs.
 ///
@@ -84,10 +108,11 @@ async fn apply_deletions(
 /// # use lance::dataset::DeleteBuilder;
 /// # use std::sync::Arc;
 /// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
-/// let new_dataset = DeleteBuilder::new(dataset, "age > 65")
+/// let result = DeleteBuilder::new(dataset, "age > 65")
 ///     .conflict_retries(5)
 ///     .execute()
 ///     .await?;
+/// println!("Deleted {} rows", result.num_deleted_rows);
 /// # Ok(())
 /// # }
 /// ```
@@ -95,17 +120,27 @@ async fn apply_deletions(
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct DeleteBuilder {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-    predicate: String,
+    filter: ExprFilter,
     conflict_retries: u32,
     retry_timeout: Duration,
 }
 
 impl DeleteBuilder {
-    /// Create a new DeleteBuilder
+    /// Create a new DeleteBuilder with a SQL predicate string
     pub fn new(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, predicate: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
         Self {
             dataset,
-            predicate: predicate.into(),
+            filter: ExprFilter::Sql(predicate.into()),
+            conflict_retries: 10,
+            retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(30),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new DeleteBuilder with a DataFusion expression filter
+    pub fn from_expr(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, expr: Expr) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            filter: ExprFilter::Datafusion(expr),
             conflict_retries: 10,
             retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(30),
         }
@@ -124,10 +159,10 @@ impl DeleteBuilder {
     }
 
     /// Execute the delete operation
-    pub async fn execute(self) -> Result<Arc<Dataset>> {
+    pub async fn execute(self) -> Result<DeleteResult> {
         let job = DeleteJob {
             dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
-            predicate: self.predicate,
+            filter: self.filter,
         };
 
         let config = RetryConfig {
@@ -137,13 +172,63 @@ impl DeleteBuilder {
 
         execute_with_retry(job, self.dataset, config).await
     }
+
+    /// Execute the delete operation without committing the transaction.
+    ///
+    /// Use [`CommitBuilder`] to commit the returned transaction.
+    ///
+    /// # Example: Delete rows from a dataset
+    ///
+    /// ```rust
+    /// use lance::dataset::{CommitBuilder, DeleteBuilder};
+    ///
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # use lance::Result;
+    /// # use lance::dataset::Dataset;
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let staged_delete = DeleteBuilder::new(dataset.clone(), "age > 65")
+    ///     .execute_uncommitted()
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// let mut commit_builder = CommitBuilder::new(dataset);
+    /// if let Some(affected_rows) = staged_delete.affected_rows {
+    ///     commit_builder = commit_builder.with_affected_rows(affected_rows);
+    /// }
+    /// commit_builder
+    ///     .execute(staged_delete.transaction)
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub async fn execute_uncommitted(self) -> Result<UncommittedDelete> {
+        let job = DeleteJob {
+            dataset: self.dataset,
+            filter: self.filter,
+        };
+        let data = job.execute_impl().await?;
+        let DeleteData {
+            updated_fragments,
+            deleted_fragment_ids,
+            affected_rows,
+            num_deleted_rows,
+        } = data;
+        let transaction = job.build_transaction(
+            job.dataset.as_ref(),
+            updated_fragments,
+            deleted_fragment_ids,
+        );
+        Ok(UncommittedDelete {
+            transaction,
+            affected_rows,
+            num_deleted_rows,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 /// Job that executes the delete operation
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 struct DeleteJob {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-    predicate: String,
+    filter: ExprFilter,
 }
 
 /// Data returned by delete operation
@@ -151,98 +236,143 @@ struct DeleteData {
     updated_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
     deleted_fragment_ids: Vec<u64>,
     affected_rows: Option<RowAddrTreeMap>,
+    num_deleted_rows: u64,
+}
+
+impl DeleteJob {
+    fn build_transaction(
+        &self,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        updated_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        deleted_fragment_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    ) -> Transaction {
+        let predicate = match &self.filter {
+            ExprFilter::Sql(s) => s.clone(),
+            ExprFilter::Datafusion(expr) => expr.to_string(),
+            ExprFilter::Substrait(_) => {
+                unreachable!("Substrait filters are not supported in DeleteBuilder")
+            }
+        };
+        let operation = Operation::Delete {
+            updated_fragments,
+            deleted_fragment_ids,
+            predicate,
+        };
+        Transaction::new(dataset.manifest.version, operation, None)
+    }
 }
 
 impl RetryExecutor for DeleteJob {
     type Data = DeleteData;
-    type Result = Arc<Dataset>;
+    type Result = DeleteResult;
 
     async fn execute_impl(&self) -> Result<Self::Data> {
         // Create a single scanner for the entire dataset
         let mut scanner = self.dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .with_row_id()
-            .project(&[ROW_ID])?
-            .filter(&self.predicate)?;
+        scanner.with_row_id().project(&[ROW_ID])?;
+        match &self.filter {
+            ExprFilter::Sql(s) => {
+                scanner.filter(s)?;
+            }
+            ExprFilter::Datafusion(expr) => {
+                scanner.filter_expr(expr.clone());
+            }
+            ExprFilter::Substrait(_) => {
+                unreachable!("Substrait filters are not supported in DeleteBuilder")
+            }
+        }
 
         // Check if the filter optimized to true (delete everything) or false (delete nothing)
-        let (updated_fragments, deleted_fragment_ids, affected_rows) = if let Some(filter_expr) =
-            scanner.get_expr_filter()?
-        {
-            if matches!(
-                filter_expr,
-                Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(false)), _)
-            ) {
-                // Predicate evaluated to false - no deletions
-                (Vec::new(), Vec::new(), Some(RowAddrTreeMap::new()))
-            } else if matches!(
-                filter_expr,
-                Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(true)), _)
-            ) {
-                // Predicate evaluated to true - delete all fragments
-                let deleted_fragment_ids = self
-                    .dataset
-                    .get_fragments()
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|f| f.id() as u64)
-                    .collect();
-
-                // When deleting everything, we don't have specific row addresses,
-                // so better not to emit affected rows.
-                (Vec::new(), deleted_fragment_ids, None)
-            } else {
-                // Regular predicate - scan and collect row addresses to delete
-                let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?.into();
-                let (stream, row_id_rx) =
-                    make_rowid_capture_stream(stream, self.dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids())?;
-
-                // Process the stream to capture row addresses
-                // We need to consume the stream to trigger the capture
-                futures::pin_mut!(stream);
-                while let Some(_batch) = stream.try_next().await? {
-                    // The row addresses are captured automatically by make_rowid_capture_stream
-                }
+        let (updated_fragments, deleted_fragment_ids, affected_rows, num_deleted_rows) =
+            if let Some(filter_expr) = scanner.get_expr_filter()? {
+                if matches!(
+                    filter_expr,
+                    Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(false)), _)
+                ) {
+                    // Predicate evaluated to false - no deletions
+                    (Vec::new(), Vec::new(), Some(RowAddrTreeMap::new()), 0)
+                } else if matches!(
+                    filter_expr,
+                    Expr::Literal(ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(true)), _)
+                ) {
+                    // Predicate evaluated to true - delete all fragments
+                    let fragments = self.dataset.get_fragments();
+                    let num_deleted_rows: u64 = fragments
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|f| f.metadata.num_rows().unwrap_or(0) as u64)
+                        .sum();
+                    let deleted_fragment_ids = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u64).collect();
+
+                    // When deleting everything, we don't have specific row addresses,
+                    // so better not to emit affected rows.
+                    (Vec::new(), deleted_fragment_ids, None, num_deleted_rows)
+                } else {
+                    // Regular predicate - scan and collect row addresses to delete
+                    let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?.into();
+                    let (stream, row_id_rx) = make_rowid_capture_stream(
+                        stream,
+                        self.dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids(),
+                    )?;
+
+                    // Process the stream to capture row addresses
+                    // We need to consume the stream to trigger the capture
+                    futures::pin_mut!(stream);
+                    while let Some(_batch) = stream.try_next().await? {
+                        // The row addresses are captured automatically by make_rowid_capture_stream
+                    }
 
-                // Extract the row addresses from the receiver
-                let removed_row_ids = row_id_rx.try_recv().map_err(|err| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!("Failed to receive row ids: {}", err),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-                let row_id_index = get_row_id_index(&self.dataset).await?;
-                let removed_row_addrs = removed_row_ids.row_addrs(row_id_index.as_deref());
-
-                let (fragments, deleted_ids) =
-                    apply_deletions(&self.dataset, &removed_row_addrs).await?;
-                let affected_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::from(removed_row_addrs.as_ref().clone());
-                (fragments, deleted_ids, Some(affected_rows))
-            }
-        } else {
-            // No filter was applied - this shouldn't happen but treat as delete nothing
-            (Vec::new(), Vec::new(), Some(RowAddrTreeMap::new()))
-        };
+                    // Extract the row addresses from the receiver
+                    let removed_row_ids = row_id_rx.try_recv().map_err(|err| {
+                        Error::internal(format!("Failed to receive row ids: {}", err))
+                    })?;
+                    let row_id_index = get_row_id_index(&self.dataset).await?;
+                    let removed_row_addrs = removed_row_ids.row_addrs(row_id_index.as_deref())?;
+
+                    let (fragments, deleted_ids) =
+                        apply_deletions(&self.dataset, &removed_row_addrs).await?;
+                    let num_deleted_rows = removed_row_addrs.len();
+                    let affected_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::from(removed_row_addrs.as_ref().clone());
+                    (
+                        fragments,
+                        deleted_ids,
+                        Some(affected_rows),
+                        num_deleted_rows,
+                    )
+                }
+            } else {
+                // No filter was applied - this shouldn't happen but treat as delete nothing
+                (Vec::new(), Vec::new(), Some(RowAddrTreeMap::new()), 0)
+            };
 
         Ok(DeleteData {
             updated_fragments,
             deleted_fragment_ids,
             affected_rows,
+            num_deleted_rows,
         })
     }
 
     async fn commit(&self, dataset: Arc<Dataset>, data: Self::Data) -> Result<Self::Result> {
-        let operation = Operation::Delete {
-            updated_fragments: data.updated_fragments,
-            deleted_fragment_ids: data.deleted_fragment_ids,
-            predicate: self.predicate.clone(),
-        };
-        let transaction = Transaction::new(dataset.manifest.version, operation, None);
+        let DeleteData {
+            updated_fragments,
+            deleted_fragment_ids,
+            affected_rows,
+            num_deleted_rows,
+        } = data;
+        let transaction =
+            self.build_transaction(dataset.as_ref(), updated_fragments, deleted_fragment_ids);
 
         let mut builder = CommitBuilder::new(dataset);
 
-        if let Some(affected_rows) = data.affected_rows {
+        if let Some(affected_rows) = affected_rows {
             builder = builder.with_affected_rows(affected_rows);
         }
 
-        builder.execute(transaction).await.map(Arc::new)
+        let new_dataset = builder.execute(transaction).await.map(Arc::new)?;
+        Ok(DeleteResult {
+            new_dataset,
+            num_deleted_rows,
+        })
     }
 
     fn update_dataset(&mut self, dataset: Arc<Dataset>) {
@@ -251,14 +381,14 @@ impl RetryExecutor for DeleteJob {
 }
 
 /// Legacy delete function - uses DeleteBuilder with no retries for backwards compatibility
-pub async fn delete(ds: &mut Dataset, predicate: &str) -> Result<()> {
+pub async fn delete(ds: &mut Dataset, predicate: &str) -> Result<DeleteResult> {
     // Use DeleteBuilder with 0 retries to maintain backwards compatibility
     let dataset = Arc::new(ds.clone());
-    let new_dataset = DeleteBuilder::new(dataset, predicate).execute().await?;
+    let result = DeleteBuilder::new(dataset, predicate).execute().await?;
 
     // Update the dataset in place
-    *ds = Arc::try_unwrap(new_dataset).unwrap_or_else(|arc| (*arc).clone());
-    Ok(())
+    *ds = Arc::try_unwrap(result.new_dataset.clone()).unwrap_or_else(|arc| (*arc).clone());
+    Ok(result)
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -266,6 +396,7 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, UpdateBuilder};
     use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use crate::utils::test::TestDatasetGenerator;
     use arrow::array::AsArray;
     use arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type;
@@ -274,7 +405,7 @@ mod tests {
     use futures::TryStreamExt;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-    use lance_index::{scalar::ScalarIndexParams, DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
+    use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
     use rstest::rstest;
     use std::collections::HashSet;
     use std::ops::Range;
@@ -325,7 +456,8 @@ mod tests {
         }
 
         // Delete nothing
-        dataset.delete("i < 0").await.unwrap();
+        let result = dataset.delete("i < 0").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_deleted_rows, 0);
         dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
 
         // We should not have any deletion file still
@@ -338,7 +470,8 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(fragments[1].metadata.deletion_file.is_none());
 
         // Delete rows
-        dataset.delete("i < 10 OR i >= 90").await.unwrap();
+        let result = dataset.delete("i < 10 OR i >= 90").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_deleted_rows, 20);
         dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
 
         // Verify result:
@@ -386,8 +519,9 @@ mod tests {
         );
         let second_deletion_file = fragments[1].metadata.deletion_file.clone().unwrap();
 
-        // Delete more rows
-        dataset.delete("i < 20").await.unwrap();
+        // Delete more rows (only 10 new rows since 0..10 already deleted)
+        let result = dataset.delete("i < 20").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_deleted_rows, 10);
         dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
 
         // Verify result
@@ -407,8 +541,9 @@ mod tests {
             &second_deletion_file
         );
 
-        // Delete full fragment
-        dataset.delete("i >= 50").await.unwrap();
+        // Delete full fragment (50 rows remaining in fragment 1, 10 already deleted)
+        let result = dataset.delete("i >= 50").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_deleted_rows, 40);
         dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
 
         // Verify second fragment is fully gone
@@ -562,6 +697,69 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(fragments[0].metadata.deletion_file.is_none());
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_delete_execute_uncommitted_preserves_affected_rows_for_rebase() {
+        fn sequence_data(range: Range<u32>) -> RecordBatch {
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "i",
+                DataType::UInt32,
+                false,
+            )]));
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(range))])
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        let tmp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let tmp_path = tmp_dir.as_str().to_string();
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(&tmp_path)
+            .execute(vec![sequence_data(0..100)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let initial_version = dataset.version().version;
+
+        let staged_delete = DeleteBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "i < 10")
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset_before_commit = Dataset::open(&tmp_path).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset_before_commit.version().version, initial_version);
+        assert_eq!(dataset_before_commit.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 100);
+
+        assert_eq!(staged_delete.num_deleted_rows, 10);
+        assert!(staged_delete.affected_rows.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(staged_delete.transaction.read_version, initial_version);
+        match &staged_delete.transaction.operation {
+            Operation::Delete {
+                updated_fragments,
+                deleted_fragment_ids,
+                predicate,
+            } => {
+                assert_eq!(predicate, "i < 10");
+                assert_eq!(updated_fragments.len(), 1);
+                assert!(deleted_fragment_ids.is_empty());
+            }
+            other => panic!("expected delete transaction, got {other:?}"),
+        }
+
+        DeleteBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), "i >= 10 AND i < 20")
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut commit_builder = CommitBuilder::new(&tmp_path);
+        if let Some(affected_rows) = staged_delete.affected_rows {
+            commit_builder = commit_builder.with_affected_rows(affected_rows);
+        }
+        let committed = commit_builder
+            .execute(staged_delete.transaction)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.version().version, initial_version + 2);
+        assert_eq!(committed.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 80);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_concurrent_delete_with_retries() {
         use futures::future::try_join_all;
@@ -618,7 +816,8 @@ mod tests {
         }
 
         // Get the final dataset from any successful result
-        let final_dataset = results.into_iter().find_map(|r| r.ok()).unwrap();
+        let final_result = results.into_iter().find_map(|r| r.ok()).unwrap();
+        let final_dataset = final_result.new_dataset;
 
         // Rows 0-49 should be deleted, rows 50-99 should remain
         assert_eq!(final_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 50);
@@ -652,7 +851,7 @@ mod tests {
     #[rstest]
     async fn test_delete_concurrency(#[values(false, true)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool) {
         use crate::{
-            dataset::{builder::DatasetBuilder, InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WriteParams},
+            dataset::{InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WriteParams, builder::DatasetBuilder},
             session::Session,
             utils::test::ThrottledStoreWrapper,
         };
@@ -793,7 +992,7 @@ mod tests {
         let dataset_arc = Arc::new(dataset);
         let delete_job = DeleteJob {
             dataset: dataset_arc.clone(),
-            predicate: "true".to_string(),
+            filter: ExprFilter::Sql("true".to_string()),
         };
         let delete_data = delete_job.execute_impl().await.unwrap();
 
@@ -829,12 +1028,45 @@ mod tests {
         );
 
         // Also verify with the retry mechanism that it works correctly
-        let final_dataset = DeleteBuilder::new(dataset_arc, "true")
+        let final_result = DeleteBuilder::new(dataset_arc, "true")
             .conflict_retries(5)
             .execute()
             .await
             .unwrap();
         // All rows should be deleted, including the updated ones
-        assert_eq!(final_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(final_result.new_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_delete_with_expr_filter() {
+        use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "i",
+            DataType::UInt32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..100u32))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![batch])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Delete rows where i < 10 using an Expr filter
+        let expr = col("i").lt(lit(10u32));
+        let result = DeleteBuilder::from_expr(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), expr)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_deleted_rows, 10);
+
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 90);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/insert.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/insert.rs
index f2fb5aa0dbc..a3bca397f80 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/insert.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/insert.rs
@@ -7,31 +7,37 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 use humantime::format_duration;
-use lance_core::datatypes::{NullabilityComparison, Schema, SchemaCompareOptions};
+use lance_core::datatypes::{NullabilityComparison, Schema};
+use lance_core::is_system_column;
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{DATASET_WRITING_EVENT, TRACE_DATASET_EVENTS};
-use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID, ROW_OFFSET};
 use lance_datafusion::utils::StreamingWriteSource;
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use lance_table::feature_flags::can_write_dataset;
 use lance_table::format::Fragment;
 use lance_table::io::commit::CommitHandler;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::blob::prepared_to_logical_blob_schema;
+use crate::dataset::ReadParams;
 use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
 use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction, TransactionBuilder};
-use crate::dataset::write::{validate_and_resolve_target_bases, write_fragments_internal};
-use crate::dataset::ReadParams;
-use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::write::{
+    validate_and_resolve_target_bases_with_primary, write_fragments_internal,
+    write_fragments_internal_to_file,
+};
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 use tracing::info;
 
-use super::commit::CommitBuilder;
-use super::resolve_commit_handler;
 use super::WriteDestination;
 use super::WriteMode;
 use super::WriteParams;
+use super::commit::CommitBuilder;
+use super::resolve_commit_handler;
+use crate::dataset::progress::{WriteProgressFn, WriteStats};
+
 /// Insert or create a new dataset.
 ///
 /// There are different variants of `execute()` methods. Those with the `_stream`
@@ -47,6 +53,8 @@ pub struct InsertBuilder<'a> {
     dest: WriteDestination<'a>,
     // TODO: make these parameters a part of the builder, and add specific methods.
     params: Option<&'a WriteParams>,
+    write_progress: Option<WriteProgressFn>,
+    preassigned_data_file_name: Option<Arc<String>>,
 }
 
 impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
@@ -54,6 +62,8 @@ impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
         Self {
             dest: dest.into(),
             params: None,
+            write_progress: None,
+            preassigned_data_file_name: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -62,6 +72,26 @@ impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
         self
     }
 
+    pub(crate) fn with_preassigned_data_file_name(
+        mut self,
+        preassigned_data_file_name: impl Into<String>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.preassigned_data_file_name = Some(Arc::new(preassigned_data_file_name.into()));
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Register a callback that is invoked after each batch of rows is written.
+    ///
+    /// The callback receives cumulative [`WriteStats`] and can be used to drive
+    /// a progress bar or compute throughput. It must be cheap and non-blocking;
+    /// spawn a task if you need async work.
+    ///
+    /// This overrides any `write_progress` set in [`WriteParams`].
+    pub fn progress(mut self, callback: impl Fn(WriteStats) + Send + Sync + 'static) -> Self {
+        self.write_progress = Some(WriteProgressFn::new(callback));
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Execute the insert operation with the given data.
     ///
     /// This writes the data fragments and commits them into the dataset.
@@ -118,7 +148,7 @@ impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
     async fn do_commit(context: &WriteContext<'_>, transaction: Transaction) -> Result<Dataset> {
         let mut commit_builder = CommitBuilder::new(context.dest.clone())
             .use_stable_row_ids(context.params.enable_stable_row_ids)
-            .with_storage_format(context.storage_version)
+            .with_exact_storage_format(context.storage_version)
             .enable_v2_manifest_paths(context.params.enable_v2_manifest_paths)
             .with_commit_handler(context.commit_handler.clone())
             .with_object_store(context.object_store.clone())
@@ -142,18 +172,14 @@ impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
         // TODO: This should be able to split the data up based on max_rows_per_file
         // and write in parallel. https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/1980
         if data.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "No data to write".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source("No data to write".into()));
         }
         let schema = data[0].schema();
         for batch in data.iter().skip(1) {
             if batch.schema() != schema {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "All record batches must have the same schema".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "All record batches must have the same schema".into(),
+                ));
             }
         }
         let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(data.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
@@ -190,20 +216,47 @@ impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
         self.validate_write(&mut context, &schema)?;
 
         let existing_base_paths = context.dest.dataset().map(|ds| &ds.manifest.base_paths);
-        let target_base_info =
-            validate_and_resolve_target_bases(&mut context.params, existing_base_paths).await?;
-
-        let (written_fragments, written_schema) = write_fragments_internal(
-            context.dest.dataset(),
-            context.object_store.clone(),
+        let target_base_info = validate_and_resolve_target_bases_with_primary(
+            &mut context.params,
+            existing_base_paths,
+            &context.object_store,
             &context.base_path,
-            schema.clone(),
-            stream,
-            context.params.clone(),
-            target_base_info,
+            &context.dest.uri(),
         )
         .await?;
 
+        let (written_fragments, written_schema) =
+            if let Some(preassigned_data_file_name) = &self.preassigned_data_file_name {
+                if target_base_info.is_some() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "a fixed data file name cannot be combined with target bases",
+                    ));
+                }
+                Box::pin(write_fragments_internal_to_file(
+                    context.storage_version,
+                    context.dest.dataset(),
+                    context.object_store.clone(),
+                    &context.base_path,
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    stream,
+                    context.params.clone(),
+                    preassigned_data_file_name.clone(),
+                ))
+                .await?
+            } else {
+                Box::pin(write_fragments_internal(
+                    context.storage_version,
+                    context.dest.dataset(),
+                    context.object_store.clone(),
+                    &context.base_path,
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    stream,
+                    context.params.clone(),
+                    target_base_info,
+                ))
+                .await?
+            };
+
         let transaction = Self::build_transaction(written_schema, written_fragments, &context)?;
 
         Ok((transaction, context))
@@ -223,12 +276,10 @@ impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
                         auto_cleanup_params.interval.to_string(),
                     );
 
-                    let duration = auto_cleanup_params.older_than.to_std().map_err(|e| {
-                        Error::InvalidInput {
-                            source: e.into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        }
-                    })?;
+                    let duration = auto_cleanup_params
+                        .older_than
+                        .to_std()
+                        .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input_source(e.into()))?;
                     upsert_values.insert(
                         String::from("lance.auto_cleanup.older_than"),
                         format_duration(duration).to_string(),
@@ -274,10 +325,7 @@ impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
         // Write mode
         match (&context.params.mode, &context.dest) {
             (WriteMode::Create, WriteDestination::Dataset(ds)) => {
-                return Err(Error::DatasetAlreadyExists {
-                    uri: ds.uri.clone(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::dataset_already_exists(ds.uri.clone()));
             }
             (WriteMode::Append | WriteMode::Overwrite, WriteDestination::Uri(uri)) => {
                 log::warn!("No existing dataset at {uri}, it will be created");
@@ -287,70 +335,86 @@ impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
         }
 
         // Validate schema
-        if matches!(context.params.mode, WriteMode::Append) {
-            if let WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset) = &context.dest {
-                // If the dataset is already using (or not using) stable row ids, we need to match
-                // and ignore whatever the user provided as input
-                if context.params.enable_stable_row_ids != dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
-                    log::info!(
-                        "Ignoring user provided stable row ids setting of {}, dataset already has it set to {}",
-                        context.params.enable_stable_row_ids,
-                        dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids()
-                    );
-                    context.params.enable_stable_row_ids = dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids();
-                }
-
-                let schema_cmp_opts = SchemaCompareOptions {
-                    compare_dictionary: dataset.manifest.should_use_legacy_format(),
-                    compare_nullability: NullabilityComparison::Ignore,
-                    allow_missing_if_nullable: true,
-                    ignore_field_order: true,
-                    ..Default::default()
-                };
+        if matches!(context.params.mode, WriteMode::Append)
+            && let WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset) = &context.dest
+        {
+            // If the dataset is already using (or not using) stable row ids, we need to match
+            // and ignore whatever the user provided as input
+            if context.params.enable_stable_row_ids != dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+                log::info!(
+                    "Ignoring user provided stable row ids setting of {}, dataset already has it set to {}",
+                    context.params.enable_stable_row_ids,
+                    dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids()
+                );
+                context.params.enable_stable_row_ids = dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids();
+            }
 
-                data_schema.check_compatible(dataset.schema(), &schema_cmp_opts)?;
+            let version = dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
+            if (version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1)
+                != (context.storage_version == ConcreteFileVersion::V1)
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Cannot append data files in version {} to a dataset with default version {version}: V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed",
+                    context.storage_version
+                )));
+            }
+            let mut schema_cmp_opts = crate::dataset::versions::schema_compare_options(version);
+            schema_cmp_opts.compare_nullability = NullabilityComparison::Ignore;
+            schema_cmp_opts.allow_missing_if_nullable = true;
+            schema_cmp_opts.ignore_field_order = true;
+
+            let normalized_data_schema = prepared_to_logical_blob_schema(data_schema)?;
+            if normalized_data_schema
+                .check_compatible(dataset.schema(), &schema_cmp_opts)
+                .is_err()
+            {
+                let normalized_data_schema =
+                    super::promote_legacy_blob_schema(&normalized_data_schema)?;
+                let dataset_schema = super::promote_legacy_blob_schema(dataset.schema())?;
+                normalized_data_schema.check_compatible(&dataset_schema, &schema_cmp_opts)?;
             }
         }
 
-        // Make sure we aren't using any reserved column names
         for field in data_schema.fields.iter() {
-            if field.name == ROW_ID || field.name == ROW_ADDR || field.name == ROW_OFFSET {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: format!(
+            if is_system_column(&field.name) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
                         "The column {} is a reserved name and cannot be used in a Lance dataset",
                         field.name
                     )
                     .into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                ));
             }
         }
 
         // Feature flags
-        if let WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset) = &context.dest {
-            if !can_write_dataset(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags) {
-                let message = format!(
-                    "This dataset cannot be written by this version of Lance. \
+        if let WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset) = &context.dest
+            && !can_write_dataset(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags)
+        {
+            let message = format!(
+                "This dataset cannot be written by this version of Lance. \
                 Please upgrade Lance to write to this dataset.\n Flags: {}",
-                    dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags
-                );
-                return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                    source: message.into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
+                dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags
+            );
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(message.into()));
         }
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
     async fn resolve_context(&self) -> Result<WriteContext<'a>> {
-        let params = self.params.cloned().unwrap_or_default();
+        let mut params = self.params.cloned().unwrap_or_default();
+        if let Some(cb) = self.write_progress.clone() {
+            params.write_progress = Some(cb);
+        }
         let (object_store, base_path, commit_handler) = match &self.dest {
             WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset) => (
                 dataset.object_store.clone(),
                 dataset.base.clone(),
-                dataset.commit_handler.clone(),
+                params
+                    .commit_handler
+                    .clone()
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| dataset.commit_handler.clone()),
             ),
             WriteDestination::Uri(uri) => {
                 let registry = params
@@ -394,22 +458,13 @@ impl<'a> InsertBuilder<'a> {
             }
         };
 
-        let storage_version = match (&params.mode, &dest) {
-            (WriteMode::Overwrite, WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset)) => {
-                // If overwriting an existing dataset, allow the user to specify but use
-                // the existing version if they don't
-                params.data_storage_version.map(Ok).unwrap_or_else(|| {
-                    let m = dataset.manifest.as_ref();
-                    m.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()
-                })?
-            }
-            (_, WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset)) => {
-                // If appending to an existing dataset, always use the dataset version
-                let m = dataset.manifest.as_ref();
-                m.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()?
-            }
+        let storage_version = match &dest {
+            WriteDestination::Dataset(dataset) => params
+                .data_storage_version
+                .map(LanceFileVersion::resolve)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format()),
             // Otherwise (no existing dataset) fallback to the default if the user didn't specify
-            (_, WriteDestination::Uri(_)) => params.storage_version_or_default(),
+            WriteDestination::Uri(_) => params.storage_version_or_default(),
         };
 
         Ok(WriteContext {
@@ -430,21 +485,312 @@ struct WriteContext<'a> {
     object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
     base_path: Path,
     commit_handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler>,
-    storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    storage_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
     use std::collections::HashMap;
 
-    use arrow_array::{BinaryArray, Int32Array, RecordBatchReader, StructArray};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, BinaryArray, Int32Array, RecordBatchReader, StructArray, record_batch,
+    };
     use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field, Schema};
     use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+    use lance_table::io::commit::{RenameCommitHandler, commit_handler_from_url};
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     use crate::session::Session;
 
     use super::*;
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn append_resolves_explicit_or_default_exact_version(
+        #[values(
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_3
+        )]
+        default_version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_1,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_2,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_3
+        )]
+        target_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let batch = record_batch!(("id", Int32, [0])).unwrap();
+        let create_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(default_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .with_params(&create_params)
+            .execute(vec![batch.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let default_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&default_params)
+            .execute(vec![batch.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.fragments[1].files[0]
+                .file_version()
+                .unwrap(),
+            default_version.resolve()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+
+        let explicit_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            data_storage_version: Some(target_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&explicit_params)
+            .execute(vec![batch.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            default_version.resolve()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.fragments[2].files[0]
+                .file_version()
+                .unwrap(),
+            target_version.resolve()
+        );
+        let expected_flags = if default_version == target_version {
+            0
+        } else {
+            FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            expected_flags
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            expected_flags
+        );
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&default_params)
+            .execute(vec![batch.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.fragments[3].files[0]
+                .file_version()
+                .unwrap(),
+            default_version.resolve()
+        );
+        let expected =
+            arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&batch.schema(), [&batch, &batch, &batch, &batch])
+                .unwrap();
+        let reopened = dataset
+            .checkout_version(dataset.version().version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reopened.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::default(None, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)]
+    #[case::explicit(Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1), ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn overwrite_resolves_exact_version(
+        #[case] target: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+        #[case] expected: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let batch = record_batch!(("id", Int32, [0])).unwrap();
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![batch.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                data_storage_version: target,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![batch.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            expected
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.fragments[0].files[0]
+                .file_version()
+                .unwrap(),
+            expected
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(), batch);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn create_from_mixed_prewritten_files_requires_explicit_default() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut transaction = InsertBuilder::new(test_dir.as_str())
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![record_batch!(("id", Int32, [0])).unwrap()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let other = InsertBuilder::new(test_dir.as_str())
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1])).unwrap()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let Operation::Overwrite { fragments, .. } = &mut transaction.operation else {
+            panic!("expected overwrite");
+        };
+        let Operation::Overwrite {
+            fragments: other_fragments,
+            ..
+        } = other.operation
+        else {
+            panic!("expected overwrite");
+        };
+        fragments.extend(other_fragments);
+        let error = CommitBuilder::new(test_dir.as_str())
+            .execute(transaction.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("All data files must have the same version"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(test_dir.as_str())
+            .with_storage_format(LanceFileVersion::V2_0)
+            .execute(transaction)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(),
+            record_batch!(("id", Int32, [0, 1])).unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn concurrent_exact_version_appends_derive_capability_from_final_manifest() {
+        let create_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let original = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+                .with_params(&create_params)
+                .execute(vec![record_batch!(("id", Int32, [0])).unwrap()])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let v2_1_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let v2_2_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let tx_v2_1 = InsertBuilder::new(original.clone())
+            .with_params(&v2_1_params)
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1])).unwrap()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let tx_v2_2 = InsertBuilder::new(original.clone())
+            .with_params(&v2_2_params)
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![record_batch!(("id", Int32, [2])).unwrap()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let Operation::Append { fragments } = &tx_v2_2.operation else {
+            panic!("expected append");
+        };
+        let prewritten_files = fragments[0].files.clone();
+        CommitBuilder::new(original.clone())
+            .execute(tx_v2_1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // The second writer still holds the original snapshot, forcing a retry.
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(original).execute(tx_v2_2).await.unwrap();
+
+        let versions = dataset
+            .manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.files[0].file_version().unwrap())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            versions,
+            vec![
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+                ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments[2].files, prewritten_files);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(),
+            record_batch!(("id", Int32, [0, 1, 2])).unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_pass_session() {
         let session = Arc::new(Session::new(0, 0, Default::default()));
@@ -491,6 +837,74 @@ mod test {
         );
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn dataset_destination_honors_explicit_commit_handler() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+        let initial_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1]))])
+                .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute_stream(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(initial_batch)],
+                schema.clone(),
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.commit_handler = commit_handler_from_url("cos://bucket/dataset", &None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let append_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2]))])
+                .unwrap();
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(RenameCommitHandler)),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_batch)], schema),
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("the explicit per-write commit handler should override the dataset handler");
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::row_id("_rowid")]
+    #[case::row_addr("_rowaddr")]
+    #[case::row_offset("_rowoffset")]
+    #[case::row_created_at_version("_row_created_at_version")]
+    #[case::row_last_updated_at_version("_row_last_updated_at_version")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rejects_reserved_system_column_names(#[case] reserved_name: &str) {
+        // Every system column name must be rejected on write. The row-version
+        // columns (`_row_created_at_version`, `_row_last_updated_at_version`) are
+        // computed at read time and appended by `Projection::to_schema`; a user
+        // data column sharing one of those names would otherwise pass ingest and
+        // later collide with the appended field.
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            reserved_name,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1]))])
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute_stream(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()))
+            .await;
+
+        let err = result.expect_err("writing a reserved system column name should fail");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("reserved name"),
+            "unexpected error for {reserved_name}: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn allow_overwrite_to_v2_2_without_blob_upgrade() {
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]));
@@ -521,16 +935,13 @@ mod test {
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn create_v2_2_dataset_rejects_legacy_blob_schema() {
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "blob",
-            DataType::Binary,
-            false,
-        )
-        .with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
-            BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(),
-            "true".to_string(),
-        )]))]));
+    async fn create_v2_2_dataset_accepts_legacy_blob_input() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("blob", DataType::Binary, false).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                "true".to_string(),
+            )])),
+        ]));
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![Arc::new(BinaryArray::from(vec![Some(b"abc".as_slice())]))],
@@ -546,15 +957,93 @@ mod test {
             .execute_stream(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()))
             .await;
 
-        let err = dataset.unwrap_err();
-        match err {
-            Error::InvalidInput { source, .. } => {
-                let message = source.to_string();
-                assert!(message.contains("Legacy blob columns"));
-                assert!(message.contains("lance.blob.v2"));
-            }
-            other => panic!("unexpected error: {other:?}"),
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset.unwrap());
+        let blobs = dataset.take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "blob").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"abc"
+        );
+        assert!(dataset.schema().field("blob").unwrap().is_blob_v2());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::create(None)]
+    #[case::append_v20(Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_0))]
+    #[case::append_v21(Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn create_v2_2_dataset_accepts_nested_legacy_blob_input(
+        #[case] initial_version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+    ) {
+        let image_field =
+            Field::new("image_bytes", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([
+                (BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string()),
+            ]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "summary_image_nested",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![image_field.clone()].into()),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let image_values: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![Some(
+            b"abc".as_slice(),
+        )]));
+        let nested_values = StructArray::from(vec![(Arc::new(image_field), image_values)]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(nested_values)]).unwrap();
+
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        if let Some(version) = initial_version {
+            InsertBuilder::new(uri)
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute_stream(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    [Ok(batch.clone())],
+                    schema.clone(),
+                ))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
         }
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(uri)
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: if initial_version.is_some() {
+                    WriteMode::Append
+                } else {
+                    WriteMode::Create
+                },
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_stream(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()))
+            .await;
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset.unwrap());
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0], "summary_image_nested.image_bytes")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"abc"
+        );
+        let descriptors = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            descriptors.num_rows(),
+            if initial_version.is_some() { 2 } else { 1 }
+        );
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                fragment.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap().schema(),
+                descriptors.schema()
+            );
+        }
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .schema()
+                .field("summary_image_nested.image_bytes")
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_blob_v2()
+        );
     }
 
     mod external_error {
@@ -652,4 +1141,58 @@ mod test {
             }
         }
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_write_progress_callback() {
+        use std::sync::Mutex;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+        // Three batches of 100 rows each.
+        let batches: Vec<_> = (0..3)
+            .map(|_| {
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0i32; 100]))],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let stats_log: Arc<Mutex<Vec<crate::dataset::WriteStats>>> =
+            Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let log_clone = stats_log.clone();
+
+        InsertBuilder::new("memory://test_write_progress")
+            .progress(move |stats| {
+                log_clone.lock().unwrap().push(stats);
+            })
+            .execute_stream(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                batches.into_iter().map(Ok),
+                schema,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let log = stats_log.lock().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !log.is_empty(),
+            "progress callback must be called at least once"
+        );
+        // bytes_written and rows_written must be monotonically non-decreasing.
+        for window in log.windows(2) {
+            assert!(
+                window[1].bytes_written >= window[0].bytes_written,
+                "bytes_written must not decrease: {:?} -> {:?}",
+                window[0].bytes_written,
+                window[1].bytes_written,
+            );
+            assert!(
+                window[1].rows_written >= window[0].rows_written,
+                "rows_written must not decrease",
+            );
+        }
+        let last = log.last().unwrap();
+        assert!(last.bytes_written > 0, "final bytes_written must be > 0");
+        assert_eq!(last.rows_written, 300, "all 300 rows must be reported");
+        assert_eq!(last.files_written, 1, "a single file should be written");
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert.rs
index e488a2f2439..5595a0fd27f 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert.rs
@@ -18,52 +18,82 @@
 
 // Internal column name for the merge action. Using "__action" to avoid collisions with user columns.
 const MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN: &str = "__action";
+// ## NULL-safe source row detection via sentinel column
+//
+// The merge join uses standard SQL equality for ON columns, which means NULL != NULL.
+// After an outer join we need to know for each output row whether it came from the
+// source side, the target side, or both.  The naive approach — checking whether an ON
+// column IS NOT NULL — is wrong: a source row whose ON column is legitimately NULL is
+// indistinguishable from a NULL introduced by the outer join on the target side.
+//
+// Solution: inject a `lit(true)` sentinel into every source row *before* the join.
+// After the join:
+//   - source rows (matched or unmatched)  → sentinel = true   (never NULL)
+//   - target-only rows                    → sentinel = NULL   (outer-join fill)
+//
+// `assign_action` then uses `sentinel IS NOT NULL` instead of key-column IS NOT NULL
+// to determine which side each row came from.  The sentinel is stripped by
+// `prepare_stream_schema` and never written to the dataset.
+pub(super) const MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL: &str = "__merge_source_sentinel";
 
 pub mod inserted_rows;
 
 use assign_action::merge_insert_action;
 use inserted_rows::KeyExistenceFilter;
 
-use super::retry::{execute_with_retry, RetryConfig, RetryExecutor};
-use super::{write_fragments_internal, CommitBuilder, WriteParams};
-use crate::dataset::rowids::get_row_id_index;
+use super::cleanup_data_fragments;
+use super::retry::{RetryConfig, RetryExecutor, execute_with_retry};
+use super::{
+    CommitBuilder, TargetBaseInfo, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+    validate_and_resolve_target_bases_with_primary, write_fragments_internal,
+};
+use crate::dataset::rowids::{get_row_id_index, load_spilled_row_lineage};
 use crate::dataset::transaction::UpdateMode::{RewriteColumns, RewriteRows};
 use crate::dataset::utils::CapturedRowIds;
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use crate::{
+    Dataset,
     datafusion::dataframe::SessionContextExt,
     dataset::{
-        fragment::{FileFragment, FragReadConfig},
-        transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
-        write::{merge_insert::logical_plan::MergeInsertPlanner, open_writer},
+        fragment::FileFragment,
+        transaction::{Operation, Transaction, UpdatedFragmentOffsets},
+        versions,
+        write::merge_insert::logical_plan::{MergeInsertPlanner, WriteSink},
     },
     index::DatasetIndexInternalExt,
     io::exec::{
-        project, scalar_index::MapIndexExec, utils::ReplayExec, AddRowAddrExec, Planner, TakeExec,
+        Planner, project,
+        scalar_index::{IndexLookup, MapIndexExec},
+        utils::ReplayExec,
     },
-    Dataset,
 };
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StructArray,
-    UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+    BooleanArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StructArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+    cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type,
 };
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Field, Schema};
 use arrow_select::take::take_record_batch;
-use datafusion::common::NullEquality;
+use datafusion::common::tree_node::{Transformed, TreeNode};
+use datafusion::common::{Column as DFColumn, NullEquality, TableReference};
 use datafusion::error::DataFusionError;
 use datafusion::{
+    catalog::{TableProvider, streaming::StreamingTable},
+    datasource::MemTable,
     execution::{
         context::{SessionConfig, SessionContext},
         memory_pool::MemoryConsumer,
     },
     logical_expr::{self, Expr, Extension, JoinType, LogicalPlan},
     physical_plan::{
+        ColumnarValue, ExecutionPlan, PhysicalExpr, SendableRecordBatchStream,
         display::DisplayableExecutionPlan,
         joins::{HashJoinExec, PartitionMode},
         projection::ProjectionExec,
         repartition::RepartitionExec,
+        sorts::sort::SortExec,
         stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
+        streaming::PartitionStream,
         union::UnionExec,
-        ColumnarValue, ExecutionPlan, PhysicalExpr, SendableRecordBatchStream,
     },
     physical_planner::{DefaultPhysicalPlanner, PhysicalPlanner},
     prelude::DataFrame,
@@ -71,40 +101,44 @@ use datafusion::{
 };
 use datafusion_physical_expr::expressions::Column;
 use futures::{
-    stream::{self},
     Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt,
+    stream::{self},
 };
-use lance_arrow::{interleave_batches, RecordBatchExt, SchemaExt};
+use lance_arrow::json::convert_json_columns;
+use lance_arrow::{RecordBatchExt, SchemaExt, interleave_batches};
 use lance_core::datatypes::NullabilityComparison;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::{
+    Error, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result,
     datatypes::{OnMissing, OnTypeMismatch, SchemaCompareOptions},
-    error::{box_error, InvalidInputSnafu},
-    utils::{futures::Capacity, mask::RowAddrTreeMap, tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus},
-    Error, Result, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD,
+    error::{InvalidInputSnafu, box_error},
+    utils::{futures::Capacity, tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus},
 };
 use lance_datafusion::{
     chunker::chunk_stream,
-    dataframe::DataFrameExt,
-    exec::{analyze_plan, get_session_context, LanceExecutionOptions},
-    utils::reader_to_stream,
-};
-use lance_datafusion::{
-    exec::{execute_plan, OneShotExec},
-    utils::StreamingWriteSource,
+    dataframe::BatchStreamGrouper,
+    exec::{
+        HardCapBatchSizeExec, LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, OneShotPartitionStream,
+        analyze_plan, execute_plan, get_session_context, provider_to_stream,
+    },
+    spill::spilling_table_provider,
+    utils::{StreamingWriteSource, reader_to_stream},
 };
-use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_index::mem_wal::MergedGeneration;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexCriteria};
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+use lance_index::IndexCriteria;
+use lance_index::mem_wal::CompactedSsTable;
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
 use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata, RowIdMeta};
 use log::info;
-use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
-use snafu::{location, ResultExt};
+use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
+use snafu::ResultExt;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::{
     collections::{BTreeMap, HashSet},
+    iter::Peekable,
     sync::{
-        atomic::{AtomicU32, Ordering},
         Arc, Mutex,
+        atomic::{AtomicU32, AtomicU64, Ordering},
     },
     time::Duration,
 };
@@ -115,6 +149,156 @@ mod assign_action;
 mod exec;
 mod logical_plan;
 
+/// Check a merge source against the target schema. As on append, a legacy
+/// blob input matches a Blob v2 target column; the writer converts it.
+fn check_source_schema(
+    source: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+    target: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+    options: &SchemaCompareOptions,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    source.check_compatible(target, options).or_else(|err| {
+        let source = super::promote_legacy_blob_schema(source)?;
+        let target = super::promote_legacy_blob_schema(target)?;
+        source.check_compatible(&target, options).map_err(|_| err)
+    })
+}
+
+/// Build a source schema in target field order while preserving the source's
+/// logical leaf types. The latter matters for extension columns such as Arrow
+/// JSON, whose write input is Utf8 while the dataset's physical type is binary.
+pub(crate) fn canonical_source_schema(
+    source: &Schema,
+    target: &Schema,
+) -> std::result::Result<Schema, ArrowError> {
+    fn canonical_field(source: &Field, target: &Field) -> std::result::Result<Field, ArrowError> {
+        let data_type = match (source.data_type(), target.data_type()) {
+            (DataType::Struct(source_fields), DataType::Struct(target_fields)) => {
+                let fields = target_fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|target_field| {
+                        let source_field = source_fields
+                            .iter()
+                            .find(|field| field.name() == target_field.name())
+                            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                ArrowError::SchemaError(format!(
+                                    "field {} does not exist in source struct {}",
+                                    target_field.name(),
+                                    source.name()
+                                ))
+                            })?;
+                        canonical_field(source_field, target_field).map(Arc::new)
+                    })
+                    .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                DataType::Struct(fields.into())
+            }
+            (DataType::List(source_item), DataType::List(target_item)) => {
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(canonical_field(source_item, target_item)?))
+            }
+            (DataType::LargeList(source_item), DataType::LargeList(target_item)) => {
+                DataType::LargeList(Arc::new(canonical_field(source_item, target_item)?))
+            }
+            (
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(source_item, size),
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(target_item, _),
+            ) => {
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(canonical_field(source_item, target_item)?), *size)
+            }
+            (DataType::Map(source_entries, sorted), DataType::Map(target_entries, _)) => {
+                DataType::Map(
+                    Arc::new(canonical_field(source_entries, target_entries)?),
+                    *sorted,
+                )
+            }
+            _ => source.data_type().clone(),
+        };
+        Ok(source.clone().with_data_type(data_type))
+    }
+
+    let fields = target
+        .fields()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|target_field| {
+            let source_field = source.field_with_name(target_field.name()).map_err(|_| {
+                ArrowError::SchemaError(format!(
+                    "field {} does not exist in source schema",
+                    target_field.name()
+                ))
+            })?;
+            canonical_field(source_field, target_field).map(Arc::new)
+        })
+        .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+    Ok(Schema::new_with_metadata(fields, source.metadata().clone()))
+}
+
+struct UpdatedRowAddrReconciler<I>
+where
+    I: Iterator<Item = (u64, (usize, usize))>,
+{
+    updated_rows: Peekable<I>,
+}
+
+impl<I> UpdatedRowAddrReconciler<I>
+where
+    I: Iterator<Item = (u64, (usize, usize))>,
+{
+    fn new(updated_rows: I) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            updated_rows: updated_rows.peekable(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn reconcile_batch(&mut self, original_row_addrs: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<(usize, usize)>> {
+        let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(original_row_addrs.len());
+
+        for (original_offset, original_row_addr) in original_row_addrs.iter().enumerate() {
+            match self.updated_rows.peek().copied() {
+                Some((updated_row_addr, updated_row_index))
+                    if updated_row_addr == *original_row_addr =>
+                {
+                    self.updated_rows.next();
+                    indices.push(updated_row_index);
+                }
+                Some((updated_row_addr, _)) if updated_row_addr < *original_row_addr => {
+                    return Err(Self::missing_row_error(
+                        updated_row_addr,
+                        Some(*original_row_addr),
+                    ));
+                }
+                _ => indices.push((0, original_offset)),
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(indices)
+    }
+
+    fn finish(mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some((updated_row_addr, _)) = self.updated_rows.next() {
+            Err(Self::missing_row_error(updated_row_addr, None))
+        } else {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn missing_row_error(updated_row_addr: u64, next_original_row_addr: Option<u64>) -> Error {
+        let updated_row_addr = RowAddress::from(updated_row_addr);
+        let position = next_original_row_addr.map_or_else(
+            || "no target rows remain".to_string(),
+            |row_addr| format!("next target row address is {}", RowAddress::from(row_addr)),
+        );
+        Error::internal(format!(
+            "Merge insert update row address {updated_row_addr} is missing from the target fragment; {position}"
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether `field` is a blob or has one anywhere beneath it.
+///
+/// `Field::children` is populated for structs, lists, and maps alike, so this
+/// covers a blob reached through any nesting — not just a direct struct member.
+fn subtree_has_blob(field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field) -> bool {
+    field.is_blob() || field.children.iter().any(subtree_has_blob)
+}
+
 // "update if" expressions typically compare fields from the source table to the target table.
 // These tables have the same schema and so filter expressions need to differentiate.  To do that
 // we wrap the left side and the right side in a struct and make a single "combined schema"
@@ -192,13 +376,91 @@ pub fn create_duplicate_row_error(
     row_idx: usize,
     on_columns: &[String],
 ) -> DataFusionError {
-    DataFusionError::Execution(
-        format!(
-            "Ambiguous merge insert: multiple source rows match the same target row on ({}). \
-                                This could lead to data corruption. Please ensure each target row is matched by at most one source row.",
-            format_key_values_on_columns(batch, row_idx, on_columns)
-        )
-    )
+    DataFusionError::External(Box::new(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "Ambiguous merge inserts are prohibited: multiple source rows match the same target row on ({}). \
+                    Please ensure each target row is matched by at most one source row.",
+        format_key_values_on_columns(batch, row_idx, on_columns)
+    ))))
+}
+
+/// Tracks non-null join keys for source rows that will be inserted.
+///
+/// NULL join keys are deliberately not tracked because merge insert uses SQL
+/// equality, where a key containing NULL does not equal another such key.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct InsertedKeyTracker {
+    keys: HashSet<Vec<ScalarValue>>,
+}
+
+impl InsertedKeyTracker {
+    /// Returns true when the row has a new key or a key containing NULL.
+    fn insert(
+        &mut self,
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        row_idx: usize,
+        on_columns: &[String],
+    ) -> datafusion::common::Result<bool> {
+        let mut key = Vec::with_capacity(on_columns.len());
+        for column_name in on_columns {
+            let column = batch.column_by_name(column_name).ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                    "merge insert key column '{}' not found in source batch",
+                    column_name
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let value = ScalarValue::try_from_array(column, row_idx)?;
+            if value.is_null() {
+                return Ok(true);
+            }
+            key.push(value);
+        }
+        Ok(self.keys.insert(key))
+    }
+}
+
+/// How a merge insert writes the merged rows to disk.
+///
+/// A partial-schema update (the source omits some dataset columns) can be
+/// written two ways, and which one writes fewer bytes depends on the fraction of
+/// each fragment's rows the source matches, which is only known once the join
+/// has run. So the mode is chosen by the caller rather than guessed here.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+pub enum MergeInsertWriteMode {
+    /// Let the engine choose.
+    ///
+    /// Currently always rewrites whole rows, except on the one path that
+    /// predates this enum: a partial-schema update whose join key carries a
+    /// scalar index patches columns, as it has since before there was a way to
+    /// ask for either.
+    // TODO: choose per fragment inside the write sink, where the matched row
+    // count for that fragment is known. That needs a transaction-format change,
+    // because `UpdateMode` is per-commit and the conflict resolver treats
+    // `RewriteColumns` as proof that no row moved.
+    #[default]
+    Auto,
+    /// Delete the matched rows and write whole rows into new fragments.
+    ///
+    /// Cost scales with the number of matched rows, so this is the cheaper mode
+    /// when few rows match or when most columns are being replaced anyway.
+    ///
+    /// For a partial-schema update this gives up the scalar-index probe on the
+    /// join key if there is one, because the indexed path only ever patches
+    /// columns.
+    RewriteRows,
+    /// Attach new data files holding the source columns to the fragments that
+    /// already hold the matched rows, and tombstone the old versions of those
+    /// columns.
+    ///
+    /// The columns the source omits are neither read nor written, so this is the
+    /// cheaper mode for a narrow update of a wide table. The replacement column
+    /// file covers every row of each fragment it touches, so the bytes written
+    /// barely fall as fewer rows match.
+    ///
+    /// Errors if the merge cannot be expressed this way: it must update matched
+    /// rows only (no inserts, no matched deletes, no delete-by-source) with a
+    /// source that omits at least one dataset column, carries at least one
+    /// column besides the join key, and carries no blob column.
+    RewriteColumns,
 }
 
 /// Describes how rows should be handled when there is no matching row in the source table
@@ -229,15 +491,11 @@ impl WhenNotMatchedBySource {
         let expr = planner
             .parse_filter(expr)
             .map_err(box_error)
-            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {})?;
         let expr = planner
             .optimize_expr(expr)
             .map_err(box_error)
-            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {})?;
         Ok(Self::DeleteIf(expr))
     }
 }
@@ -256,6 +514,9 @@ pub enum WhenMatched {
     /// The row is updated (similar to UpdateAll) only for rows where the expression evaluates to
     /// true
     UpdateIf(String),
+    /// The row is updated (similar to UpdateAll) only for rows where the expression evaluates to
+    /// true
+    UpdateIfExpr(Expr),
     /// Fail the operation if a match is found
     ///
     /// This can be used to ensure that no existing rows are overwritten or modified after inserted.
@@ -272,6 +533,10 @@ impl WhenMatched {
         // Store the expression string and defer parsing until we know which path to take
         Ok(Self::UpdateIf(expr.to_string()))
     }
+
+    pub fn update_if_expr(expr: Expr) -> Self {
+        Self::UpdateIfExpr(expr)
+    }
 }
 
 /// Describes how rows should be handled when there is no matching row in the target table
@@ -287,19 +552,38 @@ pub enum WhenNotMatched {
     DoNothing,
 }
 
-/// Describes how to handle duplicate source rows that match the same target row.
+/// Describes how to handle duplicate source rows.
 ///
 /// If the source contains duplicates and `FirstSeen` behavior doesn't match your needs,
 /// sort the source data before passing it to the merge insert operation.
+/// Rows whose join keys contain NULL are not duplicates because merge insert uses SQL
+/// equality, where NULL does not equal NULL.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, PartialOrd, Ord, Default)]
 pub enum SourceDedupeBehavior {
-    /// Fail the operation if duplicates are found (default)
+    /// Fail if multiple source rows match the same target row (default)
     #[default]
     Fail,
-    /// Keep the first seen value and skip subsequent duplicates
+    /// Keep the first row for each join key and skip subsequent rows
+    ///
+    /// This applies both to rows that match a target row and to unmatched rows that
+    /// would otherwise insert the same non-null join key more than once.
     FirstSeen,
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+struct PlanFileVersion(ConcreteFileVersion);
+
+impl PartialOrd for PlanFileVersion {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        // DataFusion requires extension-node parameters to have a deterministic
+        // structural order. This is only plan identity; operation capability
+        // decisions always match on ConcreteFileVersion directly.
+        self.0
+            .to_data_file_numbers()
+            .partial_cmp(&other.0.to_data_file_numbers())
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Hash)]
 struct MergeInsertParams {
     // The column(s) to join on
@@ -311,9 +595,15 @@ struct MergeInsertParams {
     // Controls whether data that is not matched by the source is deleted or not
     delete_not_matched_by_source: WhenNotMatchedBySource,
     conflict_retries: u32,
+    // When the source is a one-shot stream and `conflict_retries > 0`, the source
+    // is spilled (memory, then disk) so it can be replayed on each retry. Set to
+    // false to fail fast on contention instead of buffering the stream. Has no
+    // effect on re-scannable sources (materialized batches, files), which never
+    // spill.
+    spill_for_retry: bool,
     retry_timeout: Duration,
-    // List of MemWAL region generations to mark as merged when this commit succeeds.
-    merged_generations: Vec<MergedGeneration>,
+    // MemWAL SSTables to mark as compacted when this commit succeeds.
+    compacted_sstables: Vec<CompactedSsTable>,
     // If true, skip auto cleanup during commits. This should be set to true
     // for high frequency writes to improve performance. This is also useful
     // if the writer does not have delete permissions and the clean up would
@@ -322,8 +612,64 @@ struct MergeInsertParams {
     // Controls whether to use indices for the merge operation. Default is true.
     // Setting to false forces a full table scan even if an index exists.
     use_index: bool,
+    // How the merged rows are written to disk. Default is `Auto`, which today
+    // always rewrites whole rows.
+    write_mode: MergeInsertWriteMode,
     // Controls how to handle duplicate source rows that match the same target row.
     source_dedupe_behavior: SourceDedupeBehavior,
+    // Number of inner commit retries for manifest version conflicts. Default is 20.
+    commit_retries: Option<u32>,
+    // Target base IDs for routing new fragments, mirroring WriteParams::target_bases.
+    target_bases: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+    // Target base names or path URIs (unresolved), mirroring
+    // WriteParams::target_base_names_or_paths. Resolved at execution time.
+    target_base_names_or_paths: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    // Target all registered bases, mirroring WriteParams::target_all_bases.
+    // Some(include_primary); resolved at execution time.
+    target_all_bases: Option<bool>,
+    // Exact output data file version. The manifest default is used when absent.
+    data_storage_version: Option<PlanFileVersion>,
+}
+
+impl MergeInsertParams {
+    fn write_version(&self, dataset: &Dataset) -> ConcreteFileVersion {
+        self.data_storage_version
+            .map(|version| version.0)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Where the per-fragment patch tasks in
+/// [`MergeInsertJob::update_fragments`] deposit their results.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct PatchSink {
+    /// Fragments that gained a data file, one entry per task.
+    fragments: Mutex<Vec<Fragment>>,
+    /// Physical offsets each fragment had patched. Only populated under stable
+    /// row ids, which is the only thing that reads the row-version metadata
+    /// these correct.
+    offsets: Mutex<HashMap<u64, RoaringBitmap>>,
+}
+
+/// What [`MergeInsertJob::update_fragments`] wrote.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(super) struct PatchedFragments {
+    /// Existing fragments that gained a data file for the patched columns.
+    pub updated_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+    /// Fragments written for rows that carried no target address.
+    pub new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+    /// Ids of the fields written, so the caller can prune indices covering them.
+    pub fields_modified: Vec<u32>,
+    /// Physical row offsets patched in each updated fragment.
+    ///
+    /// `update_fragments` stamps row-level version metadata with the version it
+    /// was given, which is only a guess: a compatible transaction can commit
+    /// first, making the real commit version later. Handing these offsets to
+    /// `Operation::Update`'s `updated_fragment_offsets` lets `build_manifest`
+    /// re-stamp exactly the patched rows with the version the commit actually
+    /// got. Empty when the dataset does not use stable row ids, since nothing
+    /// reads the metadata then.
+    pub matched_offsets: UpdatedFragmentOffsets,
 }
 
 /// A MergeInsertJob inserts new rows, deletes old rows, and updates existing rows all as
@@ -404,7 +750,6 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
             if pk_fields.is_empty() {
                 return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                     "A merge insert operation requires join keys: specify `on` columns explicitly or configure a primary key in the dataset schema",
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
 
@@ -422,13 +767,10 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
                         .field_case_insensitive(col)
                         .map(|f| f.name.clone())
                         .ok_or_else(|| {
-                            Error::invalid_input(
-                                format!(
-                                    "Merge insert key column '{}' does not exist in schema",
-                                    col
-                                ),
-                                location!(),
-                            )
+                            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "Merge insert key column '{}' does not exist in schema",
+                                col
+                            ))
                         })
                 })
                 .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
@@ -442,11 +784,18 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
                 insert_not_matched: true,
                 delete_not_matched_by_source: WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep,
                 conflict_retries: 10,
+                spill_for_retry: true,
                 retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(30),
-                merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                 skip_auto_cleanup: false,
                 use_index: true,
+                write_mode: MergeInsertWriteMode::default(),
                 source_dedupe_behavior: SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail,
+                commit_retries: None,
+                target_bases: None,
+                target_base_names_or_paths: None,
+                target_all_bases: None,
+                data_storage_version: None,
             },
         })
     }
@@ -488,6 +837,27 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Controls whether a one-shot stream source is spilled so it can be replayed
+    /// across retries.
+    ///
+    /// When the source is a one-shot stream (e.g. [`MergeInsertJob::execute`]) and
+    /// `conflict_retries > 0`, the source is buffered in memory and spilled to disk
+    /// so each retry can re-read it. Set this to `false` to skip that buffering and
+    /// fail fast with a contention error instead of writing the stream to disk.
+    ///
+    /// This has no effect on re-scannable sources (materialized batches via
+    /// [`MergeInsertJob::execute_batches`], or a [`TableProvider`] via
+    /// [`MergeInsertJob::execute_provider`]), which are replayed directly and never
+    /// spill.
+    ///
+    /// Default is true.
+    ///
+    /// [`TableProvider`]: datafusion::catalog::TableProvider
+    pub fn spill_for_retry(&mut self, spill: bool) -> &mut Self {
+        self.params.spill_for_retry = spill;
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Set the timeout used to limit retries.
     ///
     /// This is the maximum time to spend on the operation before giving up. At
@@ -518,10 +888,34 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Specify how to handle duplicate source rows that match the same target row.
+    /// Selects how the merged rows are written to disk.
+    ///
+    /// For a partial-schema update the two modes have different cost shapes:
+    /// [`MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns`] never reads or writes the columns
+    /// the source omits, but its replacement column file covers every row of each
+    /// fragment it touches, so the bytes written barely fall as fewer rows match.
+    /// [`MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteRows`] instead scales with the matched rows.
+    /// Patching columns wins once the fraction of rows matched exceeds roughly the
+    /// fraction of each row's bytes the source columns occupy: for a KB-scale
+    /// update of a MB-per-row table that is nearly always, and for a table whose
+    /// columns are all narrow it may never be.
+    ///
+    /// The per-fragment matched row count that decides this is only known once
+    /// the join has run, so the caller picks rather than the planner guessing.
+    ///
+    /// Default is [`MergeInsertWriteMode::Auto`], which rewrites whole rows.
+    pub fn write_mode(&mut self, mode: MergeInsertWriteMode) -> &mut Self {
+        self.params.write_mode = mode;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Specify how to handle duplicate source rows.
     ///
-    /// Default is `Fail` which errors on duplicates.
-    /// Use `FirstSeen` to keep the first encountered row and skip duplicates.
+    /// Default is `Fail`, which errors when multiple source rows match one target row.
+    /// Use `FirstSeen` to keep the first encountered row for each non-null join key,
+    /// including unmatched keys that will be inserted, and skip subsequent rows.
+    /// Join keys containing NULL are not deduplicated because merge insert uses SQL
+    /// equality, where NULL does not equal NULL.
     ///
     /// If the source contains duplicates and `FirstSeen` behavior doesn't match your needs,
     /// sort the source data before passing it to the merge insert operation.
@@ -530,36 +924,337 @@ impl MergeInsertBuilder {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Mark MemWAL region generations as merged when this commit succeeds.
-    /// This updates the merged_generations in the MemWAL Index atomically with the data commit.
-    pub fn mark_generations_as_merged(&mut self, generations: Vec<MergedGeneration>) -> &mut Self {
-        self.params.merged_generations.extend(generations);
+    /// Mark MemWAL SSTables as compacted when this commit succeeds.
+    ///
+    /// This updates `compacted_sstables` in the MemWAL index atomically with
+    /// the data commit.
+    ///
+    /// **For multi-pass compaction, call this only on the final successful
+    /// data-changing pass.** Intermediate passes must not carry compaction
+    /// progress. Lance cannot tell whether a caller has another pass planned,
+    /// so it cannot enforce this: if a delete pass carried the marker and the
+    /// process then died before the matching upsert, the recorded generation
+    /// would claim rows were copied in that never were.
+    pub fn mark_sstables_as_compacted(&mut self, sstables: Vec<CompactedSsTable>) -> &mut Self {
+        self.params.compacted_sstables.extend(sstables);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the number of inner commit retries for manifest version conflicts.
+    /// Different from `conflict_retries` which handles semantic conflicts.
+    /// Default: 20
+    pub fn commit_retries(&mut self, retries: u32) -> &mut Self {
+        self.params.commit_retries = Some(retries);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the exact V2 data file version for rows written by this merge.
+    ///
+    /// If omitted, the dataset's default write version is used. The default
+    /// remains unchanged. Targets cannot cross the V1/V2 boundary.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result, dataset::MergeInsertBuilder};
+    /// # use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])?
+    ///     .data_storage_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
+    ///     .try_build()?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn data_storage_version(&mut self, version: LanceFileVersion) -> &mut Self {
+        self.params.data_storage_version = Some(PlanFileVersion(version.resolve()));
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Write new fragments produced by this merge insert to these base IDs.
+    ///
+    /// New data files are distributed across the target bases round-robin,
+    /// the same way a normal write with [`WriteParams::target_bases`] routes
+    /// them. The IDs must be registered in the dataset manifest, or
+    /// [`super::PRIMARY_BASE_ID`] (0) to include the dataset's primary
+    /// storage in the rotation (e.g. `vec![0, 1, 2]` spreads across primary
+    /// plus bases 1 and 2). Data files that patch existing fragments and
+    /// deletion files are always written to the dataset's primary storage.
+    ///
+    /// Cannot be combined with [`Self::target_base_names_or_paths`].
+    pub fn target_bases(&mut self, base_ids: Vec<u32>) -> &mut Self {
+        self.params.target_bases = Some(base_ids);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::target_bases`], but referencing bases by name or path URI.
+    ///
+    /// References are resolved against the base paths registered in the
+    /// dataset manifest when the merge insert executes. An entry equal to the
+    /// dataset's URI includes the dataset's primary storage in the rotation.
+    ///
+    /// Cannot be combined with [`Self::target_bases`].
+    pub fn target_base_names_or_paths(&mut self, refs: Vec<String>) -> &mut Self {
+        self.params.target_base_names_or_paths = Some(refs);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Write new fragments produced by this merge insert to every base
+    /// registered in the dataset manifest, resolved when the merge executes.
+    /// When `include_primary` is true the dataset's primary storage
+    /// participates in the rotation as the first slot.
+    ///
+    /// Cannot be combined with [`Self::target_bases`] or
+    /// [`Self::target_base_names_or_paths`].
+    pub fn target_all_bases(&mut self, include_primary: bool) -> &mut Self {
+        self.params.target_all_bases = Some(include_primary);
         self
     }
 
     /// Crate a merge insert job
     pub fn try_build(&mut self) -> Result<MergeInsertJob> {
+        let write_version = self.params.write_version(&self.dataset);
+        versions::validate_write_version(
+            self.dataset
+                .manifest
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format(),
+            write_version,
+        )?;
         if !self.params.insert_not_matched
             && self.params.when_matched == WhenMatched::DoNothing
             && self.params.delete_not_matched_by_source == WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep
         {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "The merge insert job is not configured to change the data in any way",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
+        if self.params.target_bases.is_some() && self.params.target_base_names_or_paths.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Cannot specify both target_base_names_or_paths and target_bases. Use one or the other.",
+            ));
+        }
+        if self.params.target_all_bases.is_some()
+            && (self.params.target_bases.is_some()
+                || self.params.target_base_names_or_paths.is_some())
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "Cannot specify target_all_bases together with target_bases or target_base_names_or_paths.",
+            ));
+        }
+        let mut params = self.params.clone();
+        params.data_storage_version = Some(PlanFileVersion(write_version));
         Ok(MergeInsertJob {
             dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
-            params: self.params.clone(),
+            params,
         })
     }
 }
 
+/// Resolve the merge insert target bases against the base paths registered in
+/// the dataset manifest. Returns `None` when no target bases were requested.
+/// Base id [`super::PRIMARY_BASE_ID`] and the dataset's URI refer to the
+/// dataset's primary storage.
+///
+/// Resolution runs once per execution attempt so retries validate against the
+/// manifest version they are writing to.
+async fn resolve_target_bases(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    params: &MergeInsertParams,
+) -> Result<Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>> {
+    if params.target_bases.is_none()
+        && params.target_base_names_or_paths.is_none()
+        && params.target_all_bases.is_none()
+    {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    // Reuse the normal write path resolution (validation, name/path lookup,
+    // and per-base credential handling) through a parameter shim.
+    let mut write_params = WriteParams {
+        mode: WriteMode::Append,
+        target_bases: params.target_bases.clone(),
+        target_base_names_or_paths: params.target_base_names_or_paths.clone(),
+        target_all_bases: params.target_all_bases,
+        session: Some(dataset.session.clone()),
+        store_params: dataset.store_params.as_deref().cloned(),
+        base_store_params: dataset.base_store_params.as_deref().cloned(),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    validate_and_resolve_target_bases_with_primary(
+        &mut write_params,
+        Some(&dataset.manifest.base_paths),
+        &dataset.object_store,
+        &dataset.base,
+        dataset.uri(),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
 enum SchemaComparison {
     FullCompatible,
     Subschema,
 }
 
+/// Wrap a one-shot stream in a non-replayable [`StreamingTable`] provider.
+///
+/// The provider can only be scanned once (its single partition hands out the
+/// underlying stream), so it must not be used where retries may re-scan it.
+fn one_shot_provider(stream: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Result<Arc<dyn TableProvider>> {
+    let schema = stream.schema();
+    let partition = Arc::new(OneShotPartitionStream::new(stream));
+    Ok(Arc::new(StreamingTable::try_new(schema, vec![partition])?))
+}
+
+/// Scans source partitions sequentially and removes duplicate non-null keys.
+///
+/// Deduplicating before the join fixes the `FirstSeen` winner at the source
+/// boundary, before DataFusion can reorder rows. The tracker retains only keys,
+/// so this stays streaming without buffering source batches.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct DeduplicatingSourcePartitionStream {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    schema: Arc<Schema>,
+    on_columns: Vec<String>,
+    skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+}
+
+impl DeduplicatingSourcePartitionStream {
+    fn new(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        on_columns: Vec<String>,
+        skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = input.schema();
+        Self {
+            input,
+            schema,
+            on_columns,
+            skipped_duplicates,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartitionStream for DeduplicatingSourcePartitionStream {
+    fn schema(&self) -> &Arc<Schema> {
+        &self.schema
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+        let input = self.input.clone();
+        let partition_count = input.properties().output_partitioning().partition_count();
+        let partition_streams = stream::iter(0..partition_count)
+            .map(move |partition| input.execute(partition, context.clone()))
+            .try_flatten();
+
+        let mut tracker = InsertedKeyTracker::default();
+        let on_columns = self.on_columns.clone();
+        let skipped_duplicates = self.skipped_duplicates.clone();
+        skipped_duplicates.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        let deduplicated = partition_streams.map(move |batch| {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            let mut keep = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
+            let mut num_skipped = 0_u64;
+            for row_idx in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let is_first = tracker.insert(&batch, row_idx, &on_columns)?;
+                keep.push(is_first);
+                if !is_first {
+                    num_skipped = num_skipped.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        DataFusionError::Execution(
+                            "source duplicate count overflowed u64".to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                }
+            }
+
+            let mut current = skipped_duplicates.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+            loop {
+                let updated = current.checked_add(num_skipped).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                        "source duplicate count overflow at {} with batch count {}",
+                        current, num_skipped
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                match skipped_duplicates.compare_exchange_weak(
+                    current,
+                    updated,
+                    Ordering::Relaxed,
+                    Ordering::Relaxed,
+                ) {
+                    Ok(_) => break,
+                    Err(actual) => current = actual,
+                }
+            }
+
+            if num_skipped == 0 {
+                Ok(batch)
+            } else {
+                arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &BooleanArray::from(keep))
+                    .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+            }
+        });
+
+        Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema.clone(),
+            deduplicated,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Re-expose every dataset column the source does not carry under its bare
+/// dataset field name, taking the value from the `target` side of the join.
+///
+/// `df` is the target-joined-source plan, whose target columns are qualified
+/// `target` and whose source columns are qualified `source`. For matched rows a
+/// filled column carries the existing target value (preserving non-source
+/// columns on update); for unmatched source rows the outer join leaves the
+/// target side NULL, so inserts get NULL. The unqualified name matches the
+/// dataset field and makes it a normal data column from the write exec's
+/// perspective.
+///
+/// A filled column replaces `target.X` in place rather than being appended, so
+/// the output is the join schema with some columns unqualified, in the same
+/// order, and the same width. Appending instead would leave both `target.X` and
+/// a bare `X` in scope, which downstream column references read as ambiguous.
+fn fill_missing_target_columns(
+    df: DataFrame,
+    dataset_schema: &Schema,
+    source_field_names: &HashSet<String>,
+) -> Result<DataFrame> {
+    let missing_from_source: HashSet<&str> = dataset_schema
+        .fields()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|field| field.name().as_str())
+        .filter(|name| !source_field_names.contains(*name))
+        .collect();
+    if missing_from_source.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(df);
+    }
+
+    // Keep this a single projection. `DataFrame::with_column` would express the
+    // fill one field at a time and read better, but each call re-lists every
+    // column in a fresh `Projection`, so a per-field loop nests N of them and
+    // the optimizer's recursive walk overflows the stack on wide tables (#9504).
+    let target_qualifier = TableReference::bare("target");
+    let projection = df
+        .schema()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(qualifier, field)| {
+            let expr = logical_expr::col(DFColumn::from((qualifier, field)));
+            if qualifier == Some(&target_qualifier)
+                && missing_from_source.contains(field.name().as_str())
+            {
+                // An alias is unqualified, which is what drops the `target.`
+                // prefix and makes this a plain data column.
+                expr.alias(field.name())
+            } else {
+                expr
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    Ok(df.select(projection)?)
+}
+
 impl MergeInsertJob {
     pub async fn execute_reader(
         self,
@@ -573,53 +1268,86 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
         let lance_schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema = schema.try_into()?;
         let target_schema = self.dataset.schema();
 
-        let mut options = SchemaCompareOptions {
-            compare_dictionary: self.dataset.is_legacy_storage(),
-            compare_nullability: NullabilityComparison::Ignore,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+        let version = self.params.write_version(&self.dataset);
+        let mut options = versions::schema_compare_options(version);
+        options.compare_nullability = NullabilityComparison::Ignore;
+        // Merge columns are matched by name, so a complete source remains a
+        // full-schema merge even when the caller orders its fields differently.
+        options.ignore_field_order = true;
 
         // Try full schema match first.
-        if lance_schema
-            .check_compatible(target_schema, &options)
-            .is_ok()
-        {
+        if check_source_schema(&lance_schema, target_schema, &options).is_ok() {
             return Ok(SchemaComparison::FullCompatible);
         }
 
         // If full match fails, try subschema match.
         options.allow_subschema = true;
-        options.ignore_field_order = true; // Subschema matching should typically ignore order.
 
-        lance_schema
-            .check_compatible(target_schema, &options)
+        check_source_schema(&lance_schema, target_schema, &options)
             .map(|_| SchemaComparison::Subschema)
     }
 
-    async fn join_key_as_scalar_index(&self) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
-        if self.params.on.len() != 1 {
-            // joining on more than one column
-            Ok(None)
-        } else {
-            let col = &self.params.on[0];
-            self.dataset
+    /// Collect every join column that has a scalar index supporting exact
+    /// equality.
+    ///
+    /// For a single-column join this matches the previous behavior. For a
+    /// multi-column (composite key) join, every indexed column contributes
+    /// an additional `IsIn` probe inside one [`MapIndexExec`]: their AND
+    /// yields the row addresses where every indexed column matches some
+    /// source value. The downstream hash join still filters by the full
+    /// composite key, so unindexed columns simply do not prune the
+    /// candidate set — they are checked by the post-filter.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an empty vec when no join column has a usable scalar index;
+    /// callers should then fall through to the full-scan path.
+    async fn indexed_join_keys(&self) -> Result<Vec<(String, IndexMetadata)>> {
+        let mut indexed = Vec::with_capacity(self.params.on.len());
+        for col in &self.params.on {
+            if let Some(idx) = self
+                .dataset
                 .load_scalar_index(
                     IndexCriteria::default()
                         .for_column(col)
                         // Unclear if this would work if the index does not support exact equality
                         .supports_exact_equality(),
                 )
-                .await
+                .await?
+            {
+                indexed.push((col.clone(), idx));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(indexed)
+    }
+
+    /// Fragments that cannot be reached by every index in `indexed_keys`
+    /// and therefore must be scanned separately and unioned in alongside
+    /// the indexed take.  A fragment is "reachable" by the composite probe
+    /// only if it is in the intersection of all the indices' fragment
+    /// bitmaps; everything else falls into the unindexed set.
+    async fn unindexed_fragments_for_keys(
+        &self,
+        indexed_keys: &[(String, IndexMetadata)],
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+        let mut unindexed: HashMap<u64, Fragment> = HashMap::new();
+        for (_, index) in indexed_keys {
+            for frag in self.dataset.unindexed_fragments(&index.name).await? {
+                unindexed.entry(frag.id).or_insert(frag);
+            }
         }
+        Ok(unindexed.into_values().collect())
     }
 
     async fn create_indexed_scan_joined_stream(
         &self,
         source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        index: IndexMetadata,
+        indexed_keys: Vec<(String, IndexMetadata)>,
     ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         // This relies on a few non-standard physical operators and so we cannot use the
         // datafusion dataframe API and need to construct the plan manually :'(
+        debug_assert!(
+            !indexed_keys.is_empty(),
+            "create_indexed_scan_joined_stream requires at least one indexed key"
+        );
         let schema = source.schema();
         let add_row_addr = match self.check_compatible_schema(&schema)? {
             SchemaComparison::FullCompatible => false,
@@ -634,43 +1362,44 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
         // the new data into memory.  In the future, we can do better
         let shared_input = Arc::new(ReplayExec::new(Capacity::Unbounded, input));
 
-        // 3 - Use the index to map input to row addresses
-        // First, we need to project to the key column
-        let field = schema.field_with_name(&self.params.on[0])?;
-        let index_mapper_input = Arc::new(project(
-            shared_input.clone(),
-            // schema for only the key join column
-            &Schema::new(vec![field.clone()]),
-        )?);
-
-        // Then we pass the key column into the index mapper
-        let index_column = self.params.on[0].clone();
-        let mut index_mapper: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(MapIndexExec::new(
-            // create index from original data and key column
+        // 3 - Probe every indexed join column.  For composite keys this is
+        //     the AND of one `IsIn` query per indexed column, which yields
+        //     a tighter candidate set than probing a single column.  The
+        //     downstream hash join still filters by the full composite key,
+        //     so unindexed `on` columns simply do not prune the candidates.
+        let lookup_fields = indexed_keys
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(col, _)| Ok(schema.field_with_name(col)?.clone()))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let index_mapper_input =
+            Arc::new(project(shared_input.clone(), &Schema::new(lookup_fields))?);
+
+        let lookups = indexed_keys
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(col, idx)| IndexLookup::new(col.clone(), idx.name.clone()))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let index_mapper: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(MapIndexExec::new_multi(
             self.dataset.clone(),
-            index_column.clone(),
-            index.name.clone(),
+            lookups,
             index_mapper_input,
         ));
 
-        // If requested, add row addresses to the output
-        if add_row_addr {
-            let pos = index_mapper.schema().fields().len(); // Add to end
-            index_mapper = Arc::new(AddRowAddrExec::try_new(
-                index_mapper,
-                self.dataset.clone(),
-                pos,
-            )?);
-        }
-
-        // 4 - Take the mapped row ids
+        // 4 - Take the mapped row ids (TakeExec stays for legacy storage:
+        //     the v1 reader cannot serve a FilteredReadExec)
         let projection = self
             .dataset
             .empty_projection()
             .union_arrow_schema(schema.as_ref(), OnMissing::Error)?;
-        let mut target =
-            Arc::new(TakeExec::try_new(self.dataset.clone(), index_mapper, projection)?.unwrap())
-                as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>;
+        let mut target = versions::merge_insert_indexed_take(
+            self.dataset
+                .manifest()
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format(),
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            index_mapper,
+            projection,
+            add_row_addr,
+        )?;
 
         // 5 - Take puts the row id and row addr at the beginning.  A full scan (used when there is
         //     no scalar index) puts the row id and addr at the end.  We need to match these up so
@@ -694,8 +1423,12 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
             .filter(|name| name.as_str() != ROW_ID && name.as_str() != ROW_ADDR)
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        // 5a - We also need to scan any new unindexed data and union it in
-        let unindexed_fragments = self.dataset.unindexed_fragments(&index.name).await?;
+        // 5a - We also need to scan any new unindexed data and union it in.
+        //      A row can be reached by the composite index probe only if it
+        //      lives in a fragment covered by *every* chosen index, so the
+        //      "unindexed" set is the union of fragments missing from any
+        //      one of them.
+        let unindexed_fragments = self.unindexed_fragments_for_keys(&indexed_keys).await?;
         if !unindexed_fragments.is_empty() {
             let mut builder = self.dataset.scan();
             if add_row_addr {
@@ -720,22 +1453,48 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
         // field names (DF doesn't support this as of version 44)
         target = Self::prefix_columns_phys(target, "target_");
 
-        // 6 - Finally, join the input (source table) with the taken data (target table)
-        let source_key = Column::new_with_schema(&index_column, shared_input.schema().as_ref())?;
-        let target_key = Column::new_with_schema(
-            &format!("target_{}", index_column),
-            target.schema().as_ref(),
-        )?;
+        // 6 - Join the source against the taken target rows on the full
+        //     composite key.  Probing the index produces a super-set of the
+        //     actual matches (when not every key column has an index, or
+        //     even when they do — the per-column `IsIn` lists do not
+        //     correlate values across the tuple), so this join is what
+        //     trims candidates down to the exact composite-key matches.
+        let on_keys = self
+            .params
+            .on
+            .iter()
+            .map(|col| {
+                let source_key = Column::new_with_schema(col, shared_input.schema().as_ref())?;
+                let target_key =
+                    Column::new_with_schema(&format!("target_{}", col), target.schema().as_ref())?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>((
+                    Arc::new(source_key) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+                    Arc::new(target_key) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+                ))
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        // Use standard SQL NULL semantics for composite keys so this path
+        // produces the same result as the full-scan path.  The
+        // single-column case keeps its historical `NullEqualsNull` behavior
+        // to avoid changing semantics for existing callers.
+        let null_equality = if self.params.on.len() == 1 {
+            NullEquality::NullEqualsNull
+        } else {
+            NullEquality::NullEqualsNothing
+        };
+
         let joined = Arc::new(
             HashJoinExec::try_new(
                 shared_input,
                 target,
-                vec![(Arc::new(source_key), Arc::new(target_key))],
+                on_keys,
                 None,
                 &JoinType::Full,
                 None,
                 PartitionMode::CollectLeft,
-                NullEquality::NullEqualsNull,
+                null_equality,
+                false,
             )
             .unwrap(),
         );
@@ -846,30 +1605,52 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
         &self,
         source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
     ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        // We need to do a full index scan if we're deleting source data
-        let can_use_scalar_index = matches!(
-            self.params.delete_not_matched_by_source, // this value marks behavior for rows in target that are not matched by the source. Value assigned earlier.
-            WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep
-        ) && self.params.use_index;
-
-        if can_use_scalar_index {
-            // keeping unmatched rows, no deletion
-            if let Some(index) = self.join_key_as_scalar_index().await? {
-                self.create_indexed_scan_joined_stream(source, index).await
-            } else {
-                self.create_full_table_joined_stream(source).await
+        if self.params.use_index
+            && matches!(
+                self.params.delete_not_matched_by_source,
+                WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep
+            )
+        {
+            // keeping unmatched rows, no deletion. Use the indexed-scan path
+            // only when EVERY join column is indexed; a partially-indexed
+            // composite key under-matches there (the probe can't resolve the
+            // full tuple), so fall through to the correct full-table join.
+            let indexed_keys = self.indexed_join_keys().await?;
+            if indexed_keys.len() == self.params.on.len() {
+                return self
+                    .create_indexed_scan_joined_stream(source, indexed_keys)
+                    .await;
             }
-        } else {
-            info!("The merge insert operation is configured to delete rows from the target table, this requires a potentially costly full table scan");
-            self.create_full_table_joined_stream(source).await
         }
+
+        if !matches!(
+            self.params.delete_not_matched_by_source,
+            WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep
+        ) {
+            info!(
+                "The merge insert operation is configured to delete rows from the target table, this requires a potentially costly full table scan"
+            );
+        }
+
+        self.create_full_table_joined_stream(source).await
     }
 
-    async fn update_fragments(
+    /// Patches the columns carried by `source` into the fragments that hold the
+    /// rows it names, and writes the rows with no target address as new
+    /// fragments.
+    ///
+    /// `source` must carry `_rowaddr` plus the columns to write. A null
+    /// `_rowaddr` routes the row to a new fragment.
+    pub(super) async fn update_fragments(
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         current_version: u64,
-    ) -> Result<(Vec<Fragment>, Vec<Fragment>, Vec<u32>)> {
+        target_bases_info: Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
+        write_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+    ) -> Result<PatchedFragments> {
+        // Shared across the per-group tasks spawned below; only new fragments
+        // are routed to target bases, column patches stay in primary storage.
+        let target_bases_info = Arc::new(target_bases_info);
         // Expected source schema: _rowaddr, updated_cols*
         use datafusion::logical_expr::{col, lit};
         let session_ctx = get_session_context(&LanceExecutionOptions {
@@ -877,31 +1658,90 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
             target_partition: Some(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().min(8)),
             ..Default::default()
         });
-        let mut group_stream = session_ctx
+        // Cap input batches at 25 MiB to leave room for DataFusion's per-batch
+        // sort overhead and spill/merge reservation. SortExec must reserve an
+        // entire input batch even when spilling is enabled. This cap reduces
+        // reservation pressure but cannot guarantee success with a small pool
+        // or competing consumers; oversized single rows are rejected.
+        const MAX_BATCH_BYTES: usize = 25 * 1024 * 1024;
+        let sorted = session_ctx
             .read_one_shot(source)?
             .with_column("_fragment_id", col(ROW_ADDR) >> lit(32))?
-            .sort(vec![col(ROW_ADDR).sort(true, true)])?
-            .group_by_stream(&["_fragment_id"])
-            .await?;
+            .sort(vec![col(ROW_ADDR).sort(true, true)])?;
+        let sorted_plan = sorted.create_physical_plan().await?;
+        // Walk the physical plan and insert HardCapBatchSizeExec below every
+        // sort node to enforce the input cap (deep-copying oversized slices).
+        let capped_plan = sorted_plan
+            .transform_down(|node| {
+                if node.downcast_ref::<SortExec>().is_some() {
+                    let children = node.children();
+                    let new_children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = children
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|c| {
+                            Arc::new(HardCapBatchSizeExec::new(c.clone(), MAX_BATCH_BYTES))
+                                as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>
+                        })
+                        .collect();
+                    let new_node = node.with_new_children(new_children)?;
+                    Ok(Transformed::yes(new_node))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(Transformed::no(node))
+                }
+            })?
+            .data;
+        let capped_stream = capped_plan.execute(0, session_ctx.task_ctx())?;
+        let mut group_stream = BatchStreamGrouper::new(capped_stream, "_fragment_id".into());
 
         // Can update the fragments in parallel.
-        let updated_fragments = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let patched = Arc::new(PatchSink::default());
         let new_fragments = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
         let mut tasks = JoinSet::new();
-        let task_limit = dataset.object_store().io_parallelism();
-        let mut reservation =
+        let task_limit = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_parallelism();
+        let reservation =
             MemoryConsumer::new("MergeInsert").register(session_ctx.task_ctx().memory_pool());
 
-        while let Some((frag_id, batches)) = group_stream.next().await.transpose()? {
-            async fn handle_fragment(
-                dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        // Best-effort removal of uncommitted files after a mid-update failure.
+        // Aborts in-flight tasks first, then deletes the new fragments written
+        // so far (including ones routed to target bases). Column-patch files
+        // from completed tasks stay in primary storage where regular dataset
+        // cleanup can reclaim them.
+        async fn cleanup_on_failure(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            target_bases_info: &Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>,
+            new_fragments: &Mutex<Vec<Fragment>>,
+            tasks: &mut JoinSet<Result<usize>>,
+        ) {
+            tasks.shutdown().await;
+            let written = new_fragments.lock().unwrap().clone();
+            cleanup_data_fragments(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.base,
+                target_bases_info.as_deref(),
+                &written,
+            )
+            .await;
+        }
+
+        loop {
+            let (frag_id, batches) = match group_stream.next().await.transpose() {
+                Ok(Some(group)) => group,
+                Ok(None) => break,
+                Err(e) => {
+                    cleanup_on_failure(&dataset, &target_bases_info, &new_fragments, &mut tasks)
+                        .await;
+                    return Err(e.into());
+                }
+            };
+            async fn handle_fragment(
+                dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
                 fragment: FileFragment,
                 mut metadata: Fragment,
                 mut batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
-                updated_fragments: Arc<Mutex<Vec<Fragment>>>,
+                patched: Arc<PatchSink>,
                 reservation_size: usize,
-                current_version: u64,
+                versions: (u64, ConcreteFileVersion),
             ) -> Result<usize> {
+                let (current_version, write_version) = versions;
                 // batches still have _rowaddr
                 let write_schema = batches[0]
                     .schema()
@@ -915,23 +1755,57 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                 )?;
 
                 let updated_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum();
-                if Some(updated_rows) == metadata.physical_rows {
-                    // All rows have been updated and there are no deletions. So we
-                    // don't need to merge in existing values.
-                    // Also, because we already sorted by row address, the rows
-                    // will be in the correct order.
-
-                    let data_storage_version = dataset
-                        .manifest()
-                        .data_storage_format
-                        .lance_file_version()?;
-                    let mut writer = open_writer(
-                        &dataset.object_store,
-                        &write_schema,
-                        &dataset.base,
-                        data_storage_version,
-                    )
-                    .await?;
+
+                // This function is here to help rustc with lifetimes.
+                fn get_row_addr_iter(
+                    batches: &[RecordBatch],
+                ) -> impl Iterator<Item = (u64, (usize, usize))> + '_ + Send {
+                    batches.iter().enumerate().flat_map(|(batch_idx, batch)| {
+                        // The index in source batches will be one more.
+                        let batch_idx = batch_idx + 1;
+                        let row_addrs = batch
+                            .column_by_name(ROW_ADDR)
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .as_any()
+                            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+                            .unwrap();
+                        row_addrs
+                            .values()
+                            .iter()
+                            .enumerate()
+                            .map(move |(offset, row_addr)| (*row_addr, (batch_idx, offset)))
+                    })
+                }
+
+                let has_full_fragment_coverage = metadata.deletion_file.is_none()
+                    && Some(updated_rows) == metadata.physical_rows
+                    && get_row_addr_iter(&batches)
+                        .map(|(row_addr, _)| row_addr)
+                        .eq(RowAddress::address_range(metadata.id as u32).take(updated_rows));
+
+                // Record which offsets this fragment patched before the write
+                // paths below consume `_rowaddr`. Only stable row ids read the
+                // row-version metadata these drive, so skip the work otherwise.
+                if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+                    let offsets: RoaringBitmap = get_row_addr_iter(&batches)
+                        .map(|(row_addr, _)| RowAddress::from(row_addr).row_offset())
+                        .collect();
+                    patched
+                        .offsets
+                        .lock()
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .entry(metadata.id)
+                        .or_default()
+                        .extend(offsets);
+                }
+
+                if has_full_fragment_coverage {
+                    // Exact, deletion-free coverage can be written directly because the
+                    // batches are sorted by row address.
+
+                    let mut writer =
+                        versions::open_update_writer(write_version, &dataset, &write_schema, false)
+                            .await?;
 
                     // We need to remove rowaddr before writing.
                     batches
@@ -944,16 +1818,19 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                             Err(e) => Err(e),
                         })?;
 
-                    if data_storage_version == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
+                    let source_version = metadata
+                        .referenced_lance_files()
+                        .next()
+                        .map(|file| file.file_version())
+                        .transpose()?
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format()
+                        });
+                    if let Some(batch_size) =
+                        versions::row_group_size_for_rewrite(source_version, &fragment).await?
+                    {
                         // Need to match the existing batch size exactly, otherwise
                         // we'll get errors.
-                        let reader = fragment
-                            .open(
-                                dataset.schema(),
-                                FragReadConfig::default().with_row_address(true),
-                            )
-                            .await?;
-                        let batch_size = reader.legacy_num_rows_in_batch(0).unwrap();
                         let stream = stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok));
                         let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
                             Arc::new((&write_schema).into()),
@@ -979,16 +1856,18 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                         )?;
                     }
 
-                    updated_fragments.lock().unwrap().push(metadata);
+                    patched.fragments.lock().unwrap().push(metadata);
                 } else {
                     // TODO: we could skip scanning row addresses we don't need.
                     let update_schema = batches[0].schema();
                     let read_columns = update_schema.field_names();
                     let mut updater = fragment
-                        .updater(
+                        .updater_with_version(
                             Some(&read_columns),
                             Some((write_schema, dataset.schema().clone())),
                             None,
+                            None,
+                            write_version,
                         )
                         .await?;
 
@@ -996,33 +1875,20 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                     // will be the original source data, and all subsequent batches
                     // will be updates.
                     let mut source_batches = Vec::with_capacity(batches.len() + 1);
-                    source_batches.push(batches[0].clone()); // placeholder for source data
+                    // Convert Arrow JSON columns (Utf8) to Lance JSON (LargeBinary) so every
+                    // batch is in physical format, matching what the updater reads from the
+                    // fragment. `convert_json_columns` is a no-op clone when there is nothing
+                    // to convert, so it can be applied unconditionally. The first entry is a
+                    // placeholder for the source data (overwritten each iteration below); it
+                    // must be converted too, otherwise its schema would diverge from the rest.
+                    source_batches.push(convert_json_columns(&batches[0]).map_err(Error::from)?);
                     for batch in &batches {
-                        source_batches.push(batch.drop_column(ROW_ADDR)?);
+                        let dropped = batch.drop_column(ROW_ADDR)?;
+                        source_batches.push(convert_json_columns(&dropped).map_err(Error::from)?);
                     }
 
-                    // This function is here to help rustc with lifetimes.
-                    fn get_row_addr_iter(
-                        batches: &[RecordBatch],
-                    ) -> impl Iterator<Item = (u64, (usize, usize))> + '_ + Send
-                    {
-                        batches.iter().enumerate().flat_map(|(batch_idx, batch)| {
-                            // The index in source batches will be one more.
-                            let batch_idx = batch_idx + 1;
-                            let row_addrs = batch
-                                .column_by_name(ROW_ADDR)
-                                .unwrap()
-                                .as_any()
-                                .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
-                                .unwrap();
-                            row_addrs
-                                .values()
-                                .iter()
-                                .enumerate()
-                                .map(move |(offset, row_addr)| (*row_addr, (batch_idx, offset)))
-                        })
-                    }
-                    let mut updated_row_addr_iter = get_row_addr_iter(&batches).peekable();
+                    let mut updated_rows =
+                        UpdatedRowAddrReconciler::new(get_row_addr_iter(&batches));
 
                     while let Some(batch) = updater.next().await? {
                         source_batches[0] =
@@ -1034,34 +1900,13 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                             .as_any()
                             .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
                             .unwrap();
-                        let indices = original_row_addrs
-                            .values()
-                            .into_iter()
-                            .enumerate()
-                            .map(|(original_offset, row_addr)| {
-                                match updated_row_addr_iter.peek() {
-                                    Some((updated_row_addr, _))
-                                        if *updated_row_addr == *row_addr =>
-                                    {
-                                        updated_row_addr_iter.next().unwrap().1
-                                    }
-                                    // If we have passed the next updated row address, something went wrong.
-                                    Some((updated_row_addr, _)) => {
-                                        debug_assert!(
-                                        *updated_row_addr > *row_addr,
-                                        "Got updated row address that is not in the original batch"
-                                    );
-                                        (0, original_offset)
-                                    }
-                                    _ => (0, original_offset),
-                                }
-                            })
-                            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                        let indices = updated_rows.reconcile_batch(original_row_addrs.values())?;
 
                         let updated_batch = interleave_batches(&source_batches, &indices)?;
 
                         updater.update(updated_batch).await?;
                     }
+                    updated_rows.finish()?;
 
                     let mut updated_fragment = updater.finish().await?;
 
@@ -1086,15 +1931,20 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                         updated_offsets.sort_unstable();
                         updated_offsets.dedup();
 
+                        // The fragment's existing versions may be spilled to a
+                        // data file, which the refresh cannot read itself.
+                        let spilled_lineage =
+                            load_spilled_row_lineage(&dataset, [&updated_fragment]).await?;
                         lance_table::rowids::version::refresh_row_latest_update_meta_for_partial_frag_rewrite_cols(
                             &mut updated_fragment,
                             &updated_offsets,
                             current_version,
                             dataset.manifest.version,
+                            &spilled_lineage,
                         )?;
                     }
 
-                    updated_fragments.lock().unwrap().push(updated_fragment);
+                    patched.fragments.lock().unwrap().push(updated_fragment);
                 }
                 Ok(reservation_size)
             }
@@ -1104,6 +1954,8 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                 batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
                 new_fragments: Arc<Mutex<Vec<Fragment>>>,
                 reservation_size: usize,
+                target_bases_info: Arc<Option<Vec<TargetBaseInfo>>>,
+                write_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
             ) -> Result<usize> {
                 // Batches still have _rowaddr (used elsewhere to merge with existing data)
                 // We need to remove it before writing to Lance files.
@@ -1129,13 +1981,14 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                 )?;
 
                 let (fragments, _) = write_fragments_internal(
+                    write_version,
                     Some(dataset.as_ref()),
                     dataset.object_store.clone(),
                     &dataset.base,
                     write_schema,
                     stream,
                     Default::default(), // TODO: support write params.
-                    None,               // Merge insert doesn't use target_bases
+                    (*target_bases_info).clone(),
                 )
                 .await?;
 
@@ -1163,15 +2016,26 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                 }
 
                 if let Some(res) = tasks.join_next().await {
-                    let size = res??;
-                    reservation.shrink(size);
+                    match res.map_err(Error::from).and_then(|size| size) {
+                        Ok(size) => reservation.shrink(size),
+                        Err(e) => {
+                            cleanup_on_failure(
+                                &dataset,
+                                &target_bases_info,
+                                &new_fragments,
+                                &mut tasks,
+                            )
+                            .await;
+                            return Err(e);
+                        }
+                    }
                 }
             }
 
             match frag_id.first() {
                 Some(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(frag_id))) => {
                     let frag_id = *frag_id;
-                    let fragment = dataset.get_fragment(frag_id as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    let Some(fragment) = dataset.get_fragment(frag_id as usize) else {
                         error!(
                             fragment_id = frag_id,
                             dataset_uri = %dataset.uri(),
@@ -1180,18 +2044,22 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                             branch = ?dataset.manifest().branch,
                             "Non-existent fragment id returned from merge result",
                         );
-                        Error::Internal {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "Got non-existent fragment id from merge result: {} (uri={}, version={}, manifest={}, branch={})",
-                                frag_id,
-                                dataset.uri(),
-                                dataset.manifest().version,
-                                dataset.manifest_location().path,
-                                dataset.manifest().branch.as_deref().unwrap_or("main"),
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        }
-                    })?;
+                        cleanup_on_failure(
+                            &dataset,
+                            &target_bases_info,
+                            &new_fragments,
+                            &mut tasks,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Got non-existent fragment id from merge result: {} (uri={}, version={}, manifest={}, branch={})",
+                            frag_id,
+                            dataset.uri(),
+                            dataset.manifest().version,
+                            dataset.manifest_location().path,
+                            dataset.manifest().branch.as_deref().unwrap_or("main"),
+                        )));
+                    };
                     let metadata = fragment.metadata.clone();
 
                     let fut = handle_fragment(
@@ -1199,9 +2067,9 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                         fragment,
                         metadata,
                         batches,
-                        updated_fragments.clone(),
+                        patched.clone(),
                         memory_size,
-                        current_version,
+                        (current_version, write_version),
                     );
                     tasks.spawn(fut);
                 }
@@ -1211,26 +2079,38 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                         batches,
                         new_fragments.clone(),
                         memory_size,
+                        target_bases_info.clone(),
+                        write_version,
                     );
                     tasks.spawn(fut);
                 }
                 _ => {
-                    return Err(Error::Internal {
-                        message: format!("Got non-fragment id from merge result: {:?}", frag_id),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    cleanup_on_failure(&dataset, &target_bases_info, &new_fragments, &mut tasks)
+                        .await;
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Got non-fragment id from merge result: {:?}",
+                        frag_id
+                    )));
                 }
             };
         }
 
         while let Some(res) = tasks.join_next().await {
-            let size = res??;
-            reservation.shrink(size);
+            match res.map_err(Error::from).and_then(|size| size) {
+                Ok(size) => reservation.shrink(size),
+                Err(e) => {
+                    cleanup_on_failure(&dataset, &target_bases_info, &new_fragments, &mut tasks)
+                        .await;
+                    return Err(e);
+                }
+            }
         }
-        let mut updated_fragments = Arc::try_unwrap(updated_fragments)
-            .unwrap()
-            .into_inner()
-            .unwrap();
+        let PatchSink {
+            fragments: updated_fragments,
+            offsets: matched_offsets,
+        } = Arc::try_unwrap(patched).unwrap();
+        let mut updated_fragments = updated_fragments.into_inner().unwrap();
+        let matched_offsets = matched_offsets.into_inner().unwrap();
 
         // We keep track of all fields that are updated so we can prune the indices.
         // We could maybe be more precise since some fields are not modified in some
@@ -1244,12 +2124,29 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
             let updated_fields = fragment.files.last().unwrap().fields.clone();
             all_fields_updated.extend(updated_fields.iter().map(|&f| f as u32));
             for data_file in &mut fragment.files.iter_mut().rev().skip(1) {
-                for field in &mut data_file.fields {
-                    if updated_fields.contains(field) {
-                        // Tombstone these fields
-                        *field = -2;
-                    }
-                }
+                let new_fields: Arc<[i32]> = data_file
+                    .fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|field| {
+                        if updated_fields.contains(field) {
+                            -2 // Tombstone
+                        } else {
+                            *field
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .into();
+                data_file.fields = new_fields;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Data files record physical leaf fields, while an index can be attached to
+        // a logical parent such as a list. Include every affected ancestor so index
+        // coverage is pruned for the complete logical column that was rewritten.
+        let directly_updated_fields = all_fields_updated.iter().copied().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        for field_id in directly_updated_fields {
+            if let Some(ancestry) = dataset.schema().field_ancestry_by_id(field_id as i32) {
+                all_fields_updated.extend(ancestry.into_iter().map(|field| field.id as u32));
             }
         }
 
@@ -1258,31 +2155,147 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
             .into_inner()
             .unwrap();
 
-        Ok((
+        Ok(PatchedFragments {
             updated_fragments,
             new_fragments,
-            all_fields_updated.into_iter().collect(),
-        ))
+            fields_modified: all_fields_updated.into_iter().collect(),
+            matched_offsets: UpdatedFragmentOffsets(matched_offsets),
+        })
     }
 
-    /// Executes the merge insert job
+    /// Executes the merge insert job from a one-shot stream source.
     ///
     /// This will take in the source, merge it with the existing target data, and insert new
-    /// rows, update existing rows, and delete existing rows
+    /// rows, update existing rows, and delete existing rows.
+    ///
+    /// A stream can only be read once, so when `conflict_retries > 0` the stream is
+    /// spilled (in memory, then to disk) so it can be replayed on each retry. See
+    /// [`MergeInsertBuilder::spill_for_retry`] to fail fast instead, and
+    /// [`Self::execute_batches`] / [`Self::execute_provider`] for re-scannable
+    /// sources that never spill.
     pub async fn execute(
         self,
         source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
     ) -> Result<(Arc<Dataset>, MergeStats)> {
-        let source_iter = super::new_source_iter(source, self.params.conflict_retries > 0).await?;
+        let (provider, replayable) = self.stream_source_to_provider(source).await?;
+        self.execute_inner(provider, replayable).await
+    }
+
+    /// Executes the merge insert job from a re-scannable [`TableProvider`].
+    ///
+    /// This is the canonical entry point: [`Self::execute`] and
+    /// [`Self::execute_batches`] are thin wrappers that build a provider and call
+    /// this method. Because a provider can be scanned repeatedly, retries re-read
+    /// the source directly and never spill to disk. The provider's reported
+    /// statistics (e.g. from a [`MemTable`] or file source) also let DataFusion
+    /// optimize the merge join.
+    ///
+    /// [`MemTable`]: datafusion::datasource::MemTable
+    pub async fn execute_provider(
+        self,
+        provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider>,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<Dataset>, MergeStats)> {
+        // A genuine TableProvider is re-scannable by contract, so retries are safe.
+        self.execute_inner(provider, true).await
+    }
+
+    /// Executes the merge insert job from materialized record batches.
+    ///
+    /// The batches are wrapped in an in-memory [`MemTable`], which is re-scannable
+    /// (retries replay from memory, never spilling) and reports exact statistics to
+    /// the merge join. This is the preferred entry point when the full source is
+    /// already in memory.
+    pub async fn execute_batches(
+        self,
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<Dataset>, MergeStats)> {
+        let provider = self.batches_to_provider(batches)?;
+        self.execute_inner(provider, true).await
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::execute_batches`] but returns the uncommitted transaction.
+    ///
+    /// Use [`CommitBuilder`] to commit the returned transaction.
+    pub async fn execute_uncommitted_batches(
+        self,
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Result<UncommittedMergeInsert> {
+        let provider = self.batches_to_provider(batches)?;
+        self.execute_uncommitted_impl(provider).await
+    }
+
+    /// Wrap materialized batches in a multi-partition in-memory [`MemTable`].
+    fn batches_to_provider(&self, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Result<Arc<dyn TableProvider>> {
+        let schema = batches
+            .first()
+            .map(|batch| batch.schema())
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| Arc::new(Schema::from(self.dataset.schema())));
+        // FirstSeen needs a defined encounter order. Keep materialized batches in
+        // their caller-provided order; other modes retain parallel source scans.
+        let partitions = if self.params.source_dedupe_behavior == SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen {
+            vec![batches]
+        } else {
+            Self::batches_into_partitions(batches)
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(MemTable::try_new(schema, partitions)?))
+    }
+
+    /// Distribute batches round-robin across up to `num_compute_intensive_cpus`
+    /// partitions, so a [`MemTable`] built from them can be scanned in parallel.
+    /// Always returns at least one (possibly empty) partition so an empty source
+    /// still produces a valid provider.
+    fn batches_into_partitions(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        let num_partitions = batches.len().min(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus()).max(1);
+        let mut partitions = vec![Vec::new(); num_partitions];
+        for (idx, batch) in batches.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            partitions[idx % num_partitions].push(batch);
+        }
+        partitions
+    }
+
+    /// Wrap a one-shot stream source in a provider, returning whether it can be
+    /// replayed across retries.
+    ///
+    /// With retries enabled and spilling allowed, the stream is drained into a
+    /// replayable spill (memory up to 100MB, then disk). Otherwise the stream is
+    /// wrapped in a non-replayable one-shot provider and any conflict fails fast.
+    async fn stream_source_to_provider(
+        &self,
+        source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<dyn TableProvider>, bool)> {
+        if self.params.conflict_retries > 0 && self.params.spill_for_retry {
+            // Allow buffering up to 100MB in memory before spilling to disk.
+            let provider = spilling_table_provider(source, 100 * 1024 * 1024).await?;
+            Ok((provider, true))
+        } else {
+            Ok((one_shot_provider(source)?, false))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Run the retry loop against a provider, re-scanning it on each attempt.
+    ///
+    /// `replayable` indicates whether the provider can be scanned more than once.
+    /// When it cannot (a one-shot stream that was not spilled), retries are
+    /// disabled so we never scan it twice; the operation runs once and surfaces any
+    /// commit conflict directly.
+    async fn execute_inner(
+        self,
+        provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider>,
+        replayable: bool,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<Dataset>, MergeStats)> {
         let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
         let config = RetryConfig {
-            max_retries: self.params.conflict_retries,
+            max_retries: if replayable {
+                self.params.conflict_retries
+            } else {
+                0
+            },
             retry_timeout: self.params.retry_timeout,
         };
 
-        let wrapper = MergeInsertJobWithIterator {
+        let wrapper = MergeInsertJobWithProvider {
             job: self,
-            source_iter: Arc::new(Mutex::new(source_iter)),
+            provider,
             attempt_count: Arc::new(AtomicU32::new(0)),
         };
 
@@ -1297,21 +2310,144 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
         source: impl StreamingWriteSource,
     ) -> Result<UncommittedMergeInsert> {
         let stream = source.into_stream();
-        self.execute_uncommitted_impl(stream).await
+        self.execute_uncommitted_impl(one_shot_provider(stream)?)
+            .await
     }
 
-    async fn create_plan(
-        self,
-        source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    fn create_plan_join_type(&self) -> JoinType {
+        let keep_unmatched_source_rows = self.params.insert_not_matched;
+        let keep_unmatched_target_rows = !matches!(
+            self.params.delete_not_matched_by_source,
+            WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep
+        );
+
+        match (keep_unmatched_target_rows, keep_unmatched_source_rows) {
+            (false, false) => JoinType::Inner,
+            (false, true) => JoinType::Right,
+            (true, false) => JoinType::Left,
+            (true, true) => JoinType::Full,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the source provides a dataset column with a blob anywhere in it.
+    fn source_carries_blob(&self, source_schema: &Schema) -> bool {
+        self.dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|field| source_schema.column_with_name(&field.name).is_some())
+            .any(subtree_has_blob)
+    }
+
+    /// Resolves the caller's [`MergeInsertWriteMode`] against this operation.
+    ///
+    /// [`WriteSink::RewriteColumns`] only ever replaces column data within a
+    /// fragment, so it cannot express anything that moves or removes rows:
+    /// inserting unmatched source rows, deleting matched rows, and deleting
+    /// target rows unmatched by the source all need [`WriteSink::RewriteRows`].
+    /// Nor is it worth using when there is nothing to save, which is why a
+    /// source covering every dataset column or carrying nothing but the join key
+    /// is left on the row-rewrite path.
+    ///
+    /// Asking for it explicitly on an operation it cannot express is an error
+    /// rather than a silent fallback: the fallback would write orders of
+    /// magnitude more bytes than the caller asked for, with no signal.
+    fn select_write_sink(&self, source_schema: &Schema) -> Result<WriteSink> {
+        // Every merge insert wrote whole rows before column patching existed, so
+        // that is what `Auto` still resolves to.
+        if self.params.write_mode != MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns {
+            return Ok(WriteSink::RewriteRows);
+        }
+
+        let mut blockers: Vec<&str> = Vec::new();
+
+        if !self
+            .dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .any(|field| source_schema.column_with_name(&field.name).is_none())
+        {
+            blockers.push("the source covers every dataset column, so there is nothing to skip");
+        }
+        // A source of nothing but the join key has no new values to write: the
+        // patch would reproduce the key column byte for byte, and still cost a
+        // full-fragment column file plus the invalidation of every index over
+        // the key. Row-rewrite writes more bytes for it, but it does not
+        // invalidate those indices.
+        if !source_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|field| !self.params.on.iter().any(|key| key == field.name()))
+        {
+            blockers.push("the source carries no column besides the join key");
+        }
+        if !matches!(
+            self.params.when_matched,
+            WhenMatched::UpdateAll | WhenMatched::UpdateIf(_) | WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(_)
+        ) {
+            blockers.push("when_matched must update rather than delete or do nothing");
+        }
+        if self.params.insert_not_matched {
+            blockers.push("inserting unmatched source rows adds rows, which patching cannot do");
+        }
+        if !matches!(
+            self.params.delete_not_matched_by_source,
+            WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep
+        ) {
+            blockers.push("deleting target rows unmatched by the source removes rows");
+        }
+        // Patching a blob column would have to go through the fragment updater,
+        // which reads blobs in their stored descriptor form rather than the
+        // logical one the source provides. Leave those on the row-rewrite path,
+        // which already converts between the two representations.
+        //
+        // The source can only name top-level columns, so the check is rooted at
+        // the top-level fields it carries and then descends: a blob nested
+        // anywhere under one of them (struct member, list item, map value) is
+        // still patched by writing that whole top-level column.
+        if self.source_carries_blob(source_schema) {
+            blockers.push("the source carries a blob column, whose stored form differs from the one it provides");
+        }
+
+        if blockers.is_empty() {
+            Ok(WriteSink::RewriteColumns)
+        } else {
+            Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns cannot express this merge insert: {}. \
+                 Use MergeInsertWriteMode::Auto or RewriteRows instead.",
+                blockers.join("; ")
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn create_plan(self, provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider>) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         // Goal: we shouldn't manually have to specify which columns to scan.
         //       DataFusion's optimizer should be able to automatically perform
         //       projection pushdown for us.
         // Goal: we shouldn't have to add new branches in this code to handle
         //       indexed vs non-indexed cases. That should be handled by optimizer rules.
-        let session_config = SessionConfig::default();
-        let session_ctx = SessionContext::new_with_config(session_config);
-        let scan = session_ctx.read_lance_unordered(self.dataset.clone(), true, true)?;
+        let write_sink = self.select_write_sink(provider.schema().as_ref())?;
+        let session_ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let binary_blob_field_ids = self
+            .dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .filter(|field| field.is_blob() && !field.is_blob_v2())
+            .map(|field| field.id as u32)
+            .collect();
+        let target_provider = Arc::new(
+            crate::datafusion::dataframe::LanceTableProvider::new_with_ordering(
+                self.dataset.clone(),
+                true,
+                true,
+                false,
+            )
+            .with_blob_handling(lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling::SomeBlobsBinary(
+                binary_blob_field_ids,
+            )),
+        );
+        let scan = session_ctx.read_table(target_provider)?;
         // Wrap column names in double quotes to preserve case (DataFusion lowercases unquoted identifiers)
         let on_cols = self
             .params
@@ -1320,16 +2456,60 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
             .map(|name| format!("\"{}\"", name))
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let on_cols_refs = on_cols.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let source_df = session_ctx.read_one_shot(source)?;
-        let source_df_aliased = source_df.alias("source")?;
-        let scan_aliased = scan.alias("target")?;
-        let join_type = if self.params.insert_not_matched {
-            JoinType::Right
+        // FirstSeen must observe the caller's source order even though the join can
+        // reorder batches. Deduplicating source partitions sequentially before
+        // the join fixes the winner at that contract boundary. Other modes plan
+        // directly against the provider so its statistics reach the optimizer.
+        let deduplicate_source =
+            self.params.source_dedupe_behavior == SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen;
+        let source_skipped_duplicates = Arc::new(AtomicU64::new(0));
+        let source_df = if deduplicate_source {
+            let source_plan = provider.scan(&session_ctx.state(), None, &[], None).await?;
+            let deduplicated_partition = Arc::new(DeduplicatingSourcePartitionStream::new(
+                source_plan,
+                self.params.on.clone(),
+                source_skipped_duplicates.clone(),
+            ));
+            let deduplicated_provider = Arc::new(StreamingTable::try_new(
+                deduplicated_partition.schema().clone(),
+                vec![deduplicated_partition],
+            )?);
+            session_ctx.read_table(deduplicated_provider)?
         } else {
-            JoinType::Inner
+            session_ctx.read_table(provider)?
         };
+        // Capture the source field names *before* aliasing / joining so we
+        // can tell which dataset columns are missing from the source and
+        // need to be filled from the target side of the join below.
+        let source_field_names: std::collections::HashSet<String> = source_df
+            .schema()
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+            .collect();
+        let source_blob_columns = self
+            .dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|field| {
+                source_field_names.contains(&field.name)
+                    && crate::dataset::optimize::field_contains_blob_v2(field)
+            })
+            .map(|field| field.name.clone())
+            .collect();
+        // Inject a sentinel literal column so we can reliably determine, after the join,
+        // whether the source side contributed a row.  This is NULL-safe: even when every
+        // ON column is NULL the sentinel lets us distinguish a source-only row from a
+        // target-only row (where the sentinel is filled with NULL by the outer join).
+        let source_df = source_df
+            .with_column(MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL, logical_expr::lit(true))
+            .map_err(crate::Error::from)?;
+        let source_df_aliased = source_df.alias("source")?;
+        let scan_aliased = scan.alias("target")?;
+        let join_type = self.create_plan_join_type();
         let dataset_schema: Schema = self.dataset.schema().into();
-        let df = scan_aliased
+        let mut df = scan_aliased
             .join(
                 source_df_aliased,
                 join_type,
@@ -1342,12 +2522,26 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                 merge_insert_action(&self.params, Some(&dataset_schema))?,
             )?;
 
+        // Partial-schema upsert: fill the dataset columns the source does not
+        // carry from the target side of the join.
+        //
+        // `RewriteColumns` patches the source columns into the fragments that
+        // already hold the matched rows, so the missing columns keep their
+        // stored values and must not be filled here. Skipping the fill is also
+        // what keeps them out of the target scan's projection.
+        if write_sink == WriteSink::RewriteRows {
+            df = fill_missing_target_columns(df, &dataset_schema, &source_field_names)?;
+        }
+
         let (session_state, logical_plan) = df.into_parts();
 
         let write_node = logical_plan::MergeInsertWriteNode::new(
             logical_plan,
             self.dataset.clone(),
             self.params.clone(),
+            source_skipped_duplicates,
+            write_sink,
+            source_blob_columns,
         );
         let logical_plan = LogicalPlan::Extension(Extension {
             node: Arc::new(write_node),
@@ -1367,28 +2561,24 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
 
     async fn execute_uncommitted_v2(
         self,
-        source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider>,
     ) -> Result<(
         Transaction,
         MergeStats,
         Option<RowAddrTreeMap>,
         Option<KeyExistenceFilter>,
     )> {
-        let plan = self.create_plan(source).await?;
+        let plan = self.create_plan(provider).await?;
 
         // Execute the plan
         // Assert that we have exactly one partition since we're designed for single-partition execution
-        let partition_count = match plan.properties().output_partitioning() {
-            datafusion_physical_expr::Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(n) => *n,
-            datafusion_physical_expr::Partitioning::Hash(_, n) => *n,
-            datafusion_physical_expr::Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(n) => *n,
-        };
+        let partition_count = plan.properties().output_partitioning().partition_count();
 
         if partition_count != 1 {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!("Expected exactly 1 partition, got {}", partition_count),
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Expected exactly 1 partition, got {}",
+                partition_count
+            )));
         }
 
         // Execute partition 0 (the only partition)
@@ -1399,51 +2589,50 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
         if let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
             let batch = batch?;
             if batch.num_rows() > 0 {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Expected no output from write operation, got {} rows",
-                        batch.num_rows()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Expected no output from write operation, got {} rows",
+                    batch.num_rows()
+                )));
             }
         }
 
         // Extract merge stats from the execution plan
         let (stats, transaction, affected_rows, inserted_rows_filter) = if let Some(full_exec) =
-            plan.as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<exec::FullSchemaMergeInsertExec>()
+            plan.downcast_ref::<exec::FullSchemaMergeInsertExec>()
         {
-            let stats = full_exec.merge_stats().ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Merge stats not available - execution may not have completed".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            let stats = full_exec.merge_stats().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Merge stats not available - execution may not have completed")
             })?;
-            let transaction = full_exec.transaction().ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Transaction not available - execution may not have completed".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            let transaction = full_exec.transaction().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Transaction not available - execution may not have completed")
             })?;
             let affected_rows = full_exec.affected_rows().map(RowAddrTreeMap::from);
             let inserted_rows_filter = full_exec.inserted_rows_filter();
             (stats, transaction, affected_rows, inserted_rows_filter)
-        } else if let Some(delete_exec) = plan
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<exec::DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec>()
-        {
-            let stats = delete_exec.merge_stats().ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Merge stats not available - execution may not have completed".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+        } else if let Some(in_place_exec) = plan.downcast_ref::<exec::InPlaceMergeInsertExec>() {
+            let stats = in_place_exec.merge_stats().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Merge stats not available - execution may not have completed")
             })?;
-            let transaction = delete_exec.transaction().ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Transaction not available - execution may not have completed".into(),
-                location: location!(),
+            let transaction = in_place_exec.transaction().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Transaction not available - execution may not have completed")
+            })?;
+            // An in-place patch rewrites column data rather than only touching
+            // deletion files, so the affected rows cannot be expressed as a row
+            // address set (same reasoning as the legacy in-place path).
+            (stats, transaction, None, None)
+        } else if let Some(delete_exec) = plan.downcast_ref::<exec::DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec>() {
+            let stats = delete_exec.merge_stats().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Merge stats not available - execution may not have completed")
+            })?;
+            let transaction = delete_exec.transaction().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Transaction not available - execution may not have completed")
             })?;
             let affected_rows = delete_exec.affected_rows().map(RowAddrTreeMap::from);
             (stats, transaction, affected_rows, None)
         } else {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: "Expected FullSchemaMergeInsertExec or DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "Expected FullSchemaMergeInsertExec, InPlaceMergeInsertExec or DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec",
+            ));
         };
 
         Ok((transaction, stats, affected_rows, inserted_rows_filter))
@@ -1451,17 +2640,25 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
 
     /// Check if the merge insert operation can use the fast path (create_plan).
     ///
-    /// The fast path is only available for specific conditions:
-    /// - when_matched is UpdateAll or UpdateIf or Fail
-    /// - Either use_index is false OR there's no scalar index on join key
-    /// - Source schema matches dataset schema exactly
-    /// - when_not_matched_by_source is Keep
+    /// The fast path is available when:
+    /// - `when_matched` is `UpdateAll`, `UpdateIf`, `Fail`, `Delete`, or `DoNothing`
+    /// - Either `use_index` is false OR there's no scalar index on the join key
+    /// - The source schema is either (a) the full dataset schema, or (b) a
+    ///   subset of it (partial-schema upsert), or (c) just the key columns for
+    ///   delete-only operations
+    /// - `when_not_matched_by_source` is `Keep`, `Delete`, or `DeleteIf`
+    ///
+    /// For partial-schema upserts with `insert_not_matched=true`, every missing
+    /// target column must be nullable — otherwise this method returns an
+    /// `InvalidInput` error, because inserted rows would otherwise attempt to
+    /// write a non-nullable NULL downstream.
     async fn can_use_create_plan(&self, source_schema: &Schema) -> Result<bool> {
         // Convert to lance schema for comparison
         let lance_schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(source_schema)?;
         let full_schema = self.dataset.schema();
-        let is_full_schema = full_schema.compare_with_options(
+        let is_full_schema = check_source_schema(
             &lance_schema,
+            full_schema,
             &SchemaCompareOptions {
                 compare_metadata: false,
                 // Allow nullable source fields for non-nullable targets.
@@ -1470,9 +2667,86 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                 ignore_field_order: true,
                 ..Default::default()
             },
-        );
+        )
+        .is_ok();
+
+        // Partial-schema upsert: every source field must exist in the target
+        // and have a compatible data type (legacy blob input matches Blob v2,
+        // as in `check_source_schema`). Missing target columns will be
+        // filled from the target side of the join in `create_plan`.
+        let is_subset_schema = !is_full_schema
+            && lance_schema.fields.iter().all(|sf| {
+                full_schema
+                    .field(&sf.name)
+                    .map(|tf| {
+                        tf.data_type() == sf.data_type()
+                            || (tf.is_blob_v2() && sf.is_blob() && !sf.is_blob_v2())
+                    })
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            });
+
+        // If the user is inserting unmatched rows with a partial source, any
+        // target column missing from the source would receive NULL for those
+        // inserts. Non-nullable targets cannot accept that, so reject early
+        // with a descriptive error instead of failing later in the writer.
+        if is_subset_schema && self.params.insert_not_matched {
+            let non_nullable_missing: Vec<&str> = full_schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|tf| lance_schema.field(&tf.name).is_none() && !tf.nullable)
+                .map(|tf| tf.name.as_str())
+                .collect();
+            if !non_nullable_missing.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Cannot insert rows with a partial-schema source: target column(s) \
+                     {:?} are non-nullable and not provided by the source. Either add \
+                     them to the source or set when_not_matched to DoNothing.",
+                    non_nullable_missing
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // A partial-schema source that both deletes matched rows and inserts
+        // unmatched rows cannot be expressed by the indexed-scan delete path
+        // (the delete cannot be folded into a partial write). Keep it off the
+        // scalar-index route so it falls through to the v2 plan, which handles
+        // delete + insert directly.
+        let is_partial_delete_with_insert = is_subset_schema
+            && self.params.insert_not_matched
+            && matches!(self.params.when_matched, WhenMatched::Delete);
+
+        // For a partial-schema update the indexed-scan path patches columns and
+        // has no branch that rewrites whole rows, so an explicit `RewriteRows`
+        // can only be honored by falling through to the v2 plan, giving up the
+        // index probe on the join. Naming the write sink wins over keeping the
+        // probe: the sink decides how many bytes are written, the probe only how
+        // the matched rows are found. Merges that write nothing (no matched
+        // update) or write whole rows on both paths (a full-schema source) are
+        // unaffected, so they keep the index. A source carrying a blob column
+        // needs whole rows too: patching cannot write blobs (`select_write_sink`).
+        let write_mode_needs_v2 = (self.params.write_mode == MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteRows
+            || self.source_carries_blob(source_schema))
+            && is_subset_schema
+            && matches!(
+                self.params.when_matched,
+                WhenMatched::UpdateAll | WhenMatched::UpdateIf(_) | WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(_)
+            );
 
-        let has_scalar_index = self.join_key_as_scalar_index().await?.is_some();
+        let would_use_scalar_index = if self.params.use_index
+            && !is_partial_delete_with_insert
+            && !write_mode_needs_v2
+            && matches!(
+                self.params.delete_not_matched_by_source,
+                WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep
+            ) {
+            // Only when EVERY join column is indexed. A partially-indexed
+            // composite key cannot be fully resolved by the index probe and the
+            // indexed-scan path then under-matches (e.g. a delete silently
+            // no-ops), so it must fall through to the correct full path.
+            self.indexed_join_keys().await?.len() == self.params.on.len()
+        } else {
+            false
+        };
 
         // Check if this is a delete-only operation (no update/insert writes needed from source)
         // For delete-only, we don't need the full source schema, just key columns for matching
@@ -1488,32 +2762,43 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                 .iter()
                 .any(|f| f.name() == key.as_str())
         });
-        let schema_ok = is_full_schema || (no_upsert && source_has_key_columns);
+        let schema_ok = is_full_schema || is_subset_schema || (no_upsert && source_has_key_columns);
 
         Ok(matches!(
             self.params.when_matched,
             WhenMatched::UpdateAll
                 | WhenMatched::UpdateIf(_)
+                | WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(_)
                 | WhenMatched::Fail
                 | WhenMatched::Delete
-        ) && (!self.params.use_index || !has_scalar_index)
+                | WhenMatched::DoNothing
+        ) && !would_use_scalar_index
             && schema_ok
             && matches!(
                 self.params.delete_not_matched_by_source,
                 WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep
+                    | WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete
+                    | WhenNotMatchedBySource::DeleteIf(_)
             ))
     }
 
     async fn execute_uncommitted_impl(
         self,
-        source: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider>,
     ) -> Result<UncommittedMergeInsert> {
+        // Resolve the write mode before the path fork. The v2 plan resolves it
+        // again in `create_plan`, but the legacy path below does not go through
+        // that, and its partial-schema branch patches columns whatever the mode
+        // says. Resolving here means an unexpressible `RewriteColumns` is
+        // rejected on either path rather than only on one.
+        self.select_write_sink(provider.schema().as_ref())?;
+
         // Check if we can use the fast path
-        let can_use_fast_path = self.can_use_create_plan(source.schema().as_ref()).await?;
+        let can_use_fast_path = self.can_use_create_plan(provider.schema().as_ref()).await?;
 
         if can_use_fast_path {
             let (transaction, stats, affected_rows, inserted_rows_filter) =
-                self.execute_uncommitted_v2(source).await?;
+                self.execute_uncommitted_v2(provider).await?;
             return Ok(UncommittedMergeInsert {
                 transaction,
                 affected_rows,
@@ -1522,18 +2807,47 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
             });
         }
 
+        let target_bases_info = resolve_target_bases(&self.dataset, &self.params).await?;
+
+        // The slow path consumes a single stream; adapt the provider back into one.
+        let source = provider_to_stream(provider).await?;
         let source_schema = source.schema();
         let lance_schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(source_schema.as_ref())?;
         let full_schema = self.dataset.schema();
-        let is_full_schema = full_schema.compare_with_options(
+        let is_full_schema = check_source_schema(
             &lance_schema,
+            full_schema,
             &SchemaCompareOptions {
                 compare_metadata: false,
                 // Allow nullable source fields for non-nullable targets.
                 compare_nullability: NullabilityComparison::Ignore,
+                // Keep this classification consistent with `can_use_create_plan`
+                // and `check_compatible_schema`: merge columns match by name.
+                ignore_field_order: true,
                 ..Default::default()
             },
-        );
+        )
+        .is_ok();
+        let source = if is_full_schema {
+            let target_schema = Schema::from(full_schema);
+            let canonical_schema = Arc::new(canonical_source_schema(
+                source_schema.as_ref(),
+                &target_schema,
+            )?);
+            let projection_schema = canonical_schema.clone();
+            let projected = source.map(move |batch| {
+                batch.and_then(|batch| {
+                    batch
+                        .project_by_schema(projection_schema.as_ref())
+                        .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+                })
+            });
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(canonical_schema, projected))
+                as SendableRecordBatchStream
+        } else {
+            source
+        };
+        let source_schema = source.schema();
         let joined = self.create_joined_stream(source).await?;
         let merger = Merger::try_new(
             self.params.clone(),
@@ -1550,21 +2864,88 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
             .try_flatten();
         let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(merger_schema, stream);
 
-        let (operation, affected_rows) = if !is_full_schema {
+        // A partial-schema source can patch columns or delete matched rows, but
+        // not both in one commit: the writer rejects subschema rows up front and
+        // the delete cannot be folded into the write. Reject that combination.
+        if !is_full_schema
+            && matches!(self.params.when_matched, WhenMatched::Delete)
+            && self.params.insert_not_matched
+        {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source("Combining when_matched(Delete) with inserts from a partial-schema source is not supported; provide the full target schema in the source".into()));
+        }
+
+        // The commit strategy follows what the merge does to matched rows. A
+        // pure delete (no inserts) writes nothing: the merger emits no batches
+        // and only records the matched row ids. This holds for any source schema
+        // width, so it is keyed on the operation rather than `is_full_schema`.
+        let is_delete_only = matches!(self.params.when_matched, WhenMatched::Delete)
+            && !self.params.insert_not_matched;
+
+        let (operation, affected_rows) = if is_delete_only {
+            // Consume the stream so the merger records the matched row ids in
+            // `deleted_rows`; it produces no batches.
+            let drained: Vec<RecordBatch> = Box::pin(stream).try_collect().await?;
+            debug_assert!(drained.is_empty(), "delete-only merge must not emit rows");
+
+            let removed_row_ids = Arc::into_inner(deleted_rows).unwrap().into_inner().unwrap();
+            let removed_row_addr_vec =
+                if let Some(row_id_index) = get_row_id_index(&self.dataset).await? {
+                    let mut addresses = Vec::with_capacity(removed_row_ids.len());
+                    for id in &removed_row_ids {
+                        if let Some(address) = row_id_index.get(*id)? {
+                            addresses.push(address.into());
+                        }
+                    }
+                    addresses
+                } else {
+                    removed_row_ids
+                };
+            let removed_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::from_iter(removed_row_addr_vec);
+
+            let (updated_fragments, removed_fragment_ids) =
+                Self::apply_deletions(&self.dataset, &removed_row_addrs).await?;
+
+            let operation = Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids,
+                updated_fragments,
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables: self.params.compacted_sstables.clone(),
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: full_schema
+                    .fields_pre_order()
+                    .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+                    .collect(),
+                update_mode: Some(RewriteRows),
+                inserted_rows_filter: None, // not implemented for v1
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+            };
+
+            let affected_rows = Some(RowAddrTreeMap::from(removed_row_addrs));
+            (operation, affected_rows)
+        } else if !is_full_schema {
+            // Non-delete partial-schema merge: patch the provided columns into
+            // existing fragments in place. (Delete is handled above; a wider
+            // full source takes the row-rewrite branch below.)
             if !matches!(
                 self.params.delete_not_matched_by_source,
                 WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep
             ) {
-                return Err(Error::NotSupported { source:
-                    "Deleting rows from the target table when there is no match in the source table is not supported when the source data has a different schema than the target data".into(), location: location!() });
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source("Deleting rows from the target table when there is no match in the source table is not supported when the source data has a different schema than the target data".into()));
             }
 
             // We will have a different commit path here too, as we are modifying
             // fragments rather than writing new ones
-            let (updated_fragments, new_fragments, fields_modified) = Self::update_fragments(
+            let PatchedFragments {
+                updated_fragments,
+                new_fragments,
+                fields_modified,
+                matched_offsets,
+            } = Self::update_fragments(
                 self.dataset.clone(),
                 Box::pin(stream),
                 self.dataset.manifest.version + 1,
+                target_bases_info,
+                self.params.write_version(&self.dataset),
             )
             .await?;
 
@@ -1573,68 +2954,105 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                 updated_fragments,
                 new_fragments,
                 fields_modified,
-                merged_generations: self.params.merged_generations.clone(),
+                compacted_sstables: self.params.compacted_sstables.clone(),
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![], // in-place update do not affect preserving frag bitmap
                 update_mode: Some(RewriteColumns),
                 inserted_rows_filter: None, // not implemented for v1
+                // The version stamped above is a guess; carry the patched offsets
+                // so `build_manifest` can re-stamp them at the real commit
+                // version after a rebase.
+                updated_fragment_offsets: Some(matched_offsets),
             };
             // We have rewritten the fragments, not just the deletion files, so
             // we can't use affected rows here.
             (operation, None)
         } else {
+            let cleanup_bases = target_bases_info.clone();
             let (mut new_fragments, _) = write_fragments_internal(
+                self.params.write_version(&self.dataset),
                 Some(&self.dataset),
                 self.dataset.object_store.clone(),
                 &self.dataset.base,
                 self.dataset.schema().clone(),
                 Box::pin(stream),
                 WriteParams::default(),
-                None, // Merge insert doesn't use target_bases
+                target_bases_info,
             )
             .await?;
 
-            if let Some(row_id_sequence) = updating_row_ids.lock().unwrap().row_id_sequence() {
-                let fragment_sizes = new_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64);
+            // The new data files exist but are not committed yet; clean them up
+            // (including files routed to target bases) if any later step fails.
+            let post_write_result: Result<RoaringTreemap> = async {
+                if let Some(row_id_sequence) = updating_row_ids.lock().unwrap().row_id_sequence() {
+                    let fragment_sizes = new_fragments
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64);
 
-                let sequences = lance_table::rowids::rechunk_sequences(
-                    [row_id_sequence.clone()],
-                    fragment_sizes,
-                    true,
-                )
-                .map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Captured row ids not equal to number of rows written: {}",
-                        e
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+                    let sequences = lance_table::rowids::rechunk_sequences(
+                        [row_id_sequence.clone()],
+                        fragment_sizes,
+                        true,
+                    )
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Captured row ids not equal to number of rows written: {}",
+                            e
+                        ))
+                    })?;
 
-                for (fragment, sequence) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(sequences) {
-                    let serialized = lance_table::rowids::write_row_ids(&sequence);
-                    fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized));
+                    for (fragment, sequence) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(sequences) {
+                        let serialized = lance_table::rowids::write_row_ids(&sequence);
+                        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized.into()));
+                    }
                 }
-            }
 
-            // Apply deletions
-            let removed_row_ids = Arc::into_inner(deleted_rows).unwrap().into_inner().unwrap();
+                // Apply deletions
+                let removed_row_ids = Arc::into_inner(deleted_rows).unwrap().into_inner().unwrap();
 
-            let removed_row_addr_vec =
-                if let Some(row_id_index) = get_row_id_index(&self.dataset).await? {
-                    let addresses: Vec<u64> = removed_row_ids
-                        .iter()
-                        .filter_map(|id| row_id_index.get(*id).map(|address| address.into()))
-                        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                    addresses
-                } else {
-                    removed_row_ids
-                };
+                let removed_row_addr_vec =
+                    if let Some(row_id_index) = get_row_id_index(&self.dataset).await? {
+                        let mut addresses: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(removed_row_ids.len());
+                        for id in &removed_row_ids {
+                            if let Some(address) = row_id_index.get(*id)? {
+                                addresses.push(address.into());
+                            }
+                        }
+                        addresses
+                    } else {
+                        removed_row_ids
+                    };
 
-            let removed_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::from_iter(removed_row_addr_vec.into_iter());
+                Ok(RoaringTreemap::from_iter(removed_row_addr_vec))
+            }
+            .await;
+            let removed_row_addrs = match post_write_result {
+                Ok(removed_row_addrs) => removed_row_addrs,
+                Err(e) => {
+                    cleanup_data_fragments(
+                        &self.dataset.object_store,
+                        &self.dataset.base,
+                        cleanup_bases.as_deref(),
+                        &new_fragments,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                    return Err(e);
+                }
+            };
 
-            let (old_fragments, removed_fragment_ids) =
-                Self::apply_deletions(&self.dataset, &removed_row_addrs).await?;
+            let deletions_result = Self::apply_deletions(&self.dataset, &removed_row_addrs).await;
+            let (old_fragments, removed_fragment_ids) = match deletions_result {
+                Ok(v) => v,
+                Err(e) => {
+                    cleanup_data_fragments(
+                        &self.dataset.object_store,
+                        &self.dataset.base,
+                        cleanup_bases.as_deref(),
+                        &new_fragments,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                    return Err(e);
+                }
+            };
 
             // Commit updated and new fragments
             let operation = Operation::Update {
@@ -1644,14 +3062,14 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
                 // On this path we only make deletions against updated_fragments and will not
                 // modify any field values.
                 fields_modified: vec![],
-                merged_generations: self.params.merged_generations.clone(),
+                compacted_sstables: self.params.compacted_sstables.clone(),
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: full_schema
-                    .fields
-                    .iter()
+                    .fields_pre_order()
                     .map(|f| f.id as u32)
                     .collect(),
                 update_mode: Some(RewriteRows),
                 inserted_rows_filter: None, // not implemented for v1
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             };
 
             let affected_rows = Some(RowAddrTreeMap::from(removed_row_addrs));
@@ -1731,6 +3149,12 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
     /// * `schema` - Optional schema of the source data. If None, uses the dataset's schema
     /// * `verbose` - If true, provides more detailed information in the plan output
     ///
+    /// A schema says nothing about how the source would be wrapped, so this always
+    /// reports the streaming shape: the source is stood in for by an empty one-shot
+    /// stream. The wrapping affects the plan, so use [`Self::analyze_plan_batches`]
+    /// or [`Self::analyze_plan_provider`] when that matters. Those execute the merge
+    /// to collect metrics and may write data files; this method writes nothing.
+    ///
     /// # Errors
     ///
     /// Returns Error::NotSupported if the merge insert configuration doesn't support
@@ -1744,10 +3168,7 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
 
         // Check if we can use create_plan
         if !self.can_use_create_plan(&schema).await? {
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "This merge insert configuration does not support explain_plan. Only upsert operations with full schema, no scalar index, and keeping unmatched rows are supported.".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source("This merge insert configuration does not support explain_plan: either the source schema is not one the plan path accepts, or the join takes the scalar-index execution path.".into()));
         }
 
         // Create an empty batch with the provided schema to pass to create_plan
@@ -1759,7 +3180,9 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
 
         // Clone self since create_plan consumes the job
         let cloned_job = self.clone();
-        let plan = cloned_job.create_plan(Box::pin(stream)).await?;
+        let plan = cloned_job
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(Box::pin(stream))?)
+            .await?;
         let display = DisplayableExecutionPlan::new(plan.as_ref());
 
         Ok(format!("{}", display.indent(verbose)))
@@ -1780,22 +3203,69 @@ impl MergeInsertJob {
     ///
     /// * `source` - The source data stream that would be used in the merge insert
     ///
+    /// A stream reports no statistics, so the plan this returns is the streaming
+    /// one. Callers holding materialized data or a source that reports statistics
+    /// should use [`Self::analyze_plan_batches`] or [`Self::analyze_plan_provider`],
+    /// which report the plan those sources actually run.
+    ///
     /// # Errors
     ///
-    /// Returns Error::NotSupported if the merge insert configuration doesn't support
-    /// the fast path required for plan generation.
+    /// See [`Self::analyze_plan_provider`], which this delegates to.
     pub async fn analyze_plan(&self, source: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Result<String> {
+        self.analyze_plan_provider(one_shot_provider(source)?).await
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::analyze_plan`] for materialized batches.
+    ///
+    /// Mirrors [`Self::execute_batches`]: the batches are wrapped in a
+    /// [`MemTable`], so the reported plan is the one an in-memory source actually
+    /// runs. That plan can differ from the streaming one, because the join picks
+    /// its collected side from the statistics each source reports.
+    ///
+    /// Under [`SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen`] the source is deduplicated ahead
+    /// of the join and re-wrapped in a stream, so the reported plan is the
+    /// streaming one and the in-memory node does not appear in it.
+    ///
+    /// An empty `batches` still reports an in-memory source, but it carries no
+    /// schema for the provider to use, so the support check runs against the
+    /// dataset's; see [`Self::analyze_plan_provider`].
+    ///
+    /// [`MemTable`]: datafusion::datasource::MemTable
+    pub async fn analyze_plan_batches(&self, batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Result<String> {
+        self.analyze_plan_provider(self.batches_to_provider(batches)?)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::analyze_plan`] from a re-scannable [`TableProvider`].
+    ///
+    /// Mirrors [`Self::execute_provider`]. Under
+    /// [`SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen`] the provider is re-wrapped in a stream
+    /// before the join, so its own node does not appear in the reported plan.
+    ///
+    /// The support check runs against `provider.schema()`, which is the source
+    /// schema the caller supplied. For a provider built from an empty batch list
+    /// that schema is the dataset's, so a source whose declared schema the dataset
+    /// does not have is reported rather than rejected. `execute_batches` builds its
+    /// provider the same way, so the two agree.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// * `Error::NotSupported` when the configuration cannot use the plan path.
+    ///   `can_use_create_plan` decides that, and its own doc comment lists the
+    ///   source shapes it accepts.
+    /// * `Error::invalid_input` from the support check, e.g. a non-nullable dataset
+    ///   column the source does not supply.
+    /// * Any error from building or executing the plan. This method runs the merge
+    ///   to collect metrics, so I/O and source-deduplication failures surface here.
+    pub async fn analyze_plan_provider(&self, provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider>) -> Result<String> {
         // Check if we can use create_plan
-        if !self.can_use_create_plan(source.schema().as_ref()).await? {
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: "This merge insert configuration does not support analyze_plan. Only upsert operations with full schema, no scalar index, and keeping unmatched rows are supported.".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+        if !self.can_use_create_plan(provider.schema().as_ref()).await? {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source("This merge insert configuration does not support plan reporting: either the source schema is not one the plan path accepts, or the join takes the scalar-index execution path.".into()));
         }
 
         // Clone self since create_plan consumes the job
         let cloned_job = self.clone();
-        let plan = cloned_job.create_plan(source).await?;
+        let plan = cloned_job.create_plan(provider).await?;
 
         // Use the analyze_plan function from lance_datafusion, but strip out the wrapper lines
         let options = LanceExecutionOptions::default();
@@ -1845,15 +3315,15 @@ pub struct UncommittedMergeInsert {
     pub inserted_rows_filter: Option<KeyExistenceFilter>,
 }
 
-/// Wrapper struct that combines MergeInsertJob with the source iterator for retry functionality
+/// Wrapper struct that combines MergeInsertJob with the source provider for retry functionality
 #[derive(Clone)]
-struct MergeInsertJobWithIterator {
+struct MergeInsertJobWithProvider {
     job: MergeInsertJob,
-    source_iter: Arc<Mutex<Box<dyn Iterator<Item = SendableRecordBatchStream> + Send + 'static>>>,
+    provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider>,
     attempt_count: Arc<AtomicU32>,
 }
 
-impl RetryExecutor for MergeInsertJobWithIterator {
+impl RetryExecutor for MergeInsertJobWithProvider {
     type Data = UncommittedMergeInsert;
     type Result = (Arc<Dataset>, MergeStats);
 
@@ -1861,24 +3331,59 @@ impl RetryExecutor for MergeInsertJobWithIterator {
         // Increment attempt counter
         self.attempt_count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
 
-        // We need to get a fresh stream for each retry attempt
-        // The source_iter provides unlimited streams from the same source data
-        let stream = self.source_iter.lock().unwrap().next().unwrap();
-        self.job.clone().execute_uncommitted_impl(stream).await
+        // Re-scan the provider on each retry attempt.
+        self.job
+            .clone()
+            .execute_uncommitted_impl(self.provider.clone())
+            .await
     }
 
     async fn commit(&self, dataset: Arc<Dataset>, mut data: Self::Data) -> Result<Self::Result> {
         // Update stats with the current attempt count
         data.stats.num_attempts = self.attempt_count.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
 
+        // The dataset argument is the refreshed per-attempt dataset (the same
+        // manifest execute_impl resolved against); keep a handle so conflict
+        // cleanup resolves bases added between attempts.
+        let cleanup_dataset = dataset.clone();
         let mut commit_builder =
             CommitBuilder::new(dataset).with_skip_auto_cleanup(self.job.params.skip_auto_cleanup);
+        if let Some(commit_retries) = self.job.params.commit_retries {
+            commit_builder = commit_builder.with_max_retries(commit_retries);
+        }
         if let Some(affected_rows) = data.affected_rows {
             commit_builder = commit_builder.with_affected_rows(affected_rows);
         }
-        let new_dataset = commit_builder.execute(data.transaction).await?;
 
-        Ok((Arc::new(new_dataset), data.stats))
+        let new_fragments = match &data.transaction.operation {
+            Operation::Update { new_fragments, .. } => new_fragments.clone(),
+            _ => Vec::new(),
+        };
+        match commit_builder.execute(data.transaction).await {
+            Ok(new_dataset) => Ok((Arc::new(new_dataset), data.stats)),
+            Err(e) => {
+                // A retryable conflict discards this attempt and re-executes it,
+                // so its data files are provably uncommitted; remove them
+                // (including files routed to target bases, which version cleanup
+                // never scans). Other commit errors may be ambiguous about
+                // whether the manifest was written, so leave the files alone.
+                if matches!(e, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }) && !new_fragments.is_empty() {
+                    let target_bases_info =
+                        resolve_target_bases(&cleanup_dataset, &self.job.params)
+                            .await
+                            .ok()
+                            .flatten();
+                    cleanup_data_fragments(
+                        &cleanup_dataset.object_store,
+                        &cleanup_dataset.base,
+                        target_bases_info.as_deref(),
+                        &new_fragments,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                }
+                Err(e)
+            }
+        }
     }
 
     fn update_dataset(&mut self, dataset: Arc<Dataset>) {
@@ -1914,6 +3419,8 @@ struct Merger {
     enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
     /// Set to track processed row IDs to detect duplicates
     processed_row_ids: Arc<Mutex<HashSet<u64>>>,
+    /// Set to track non-null keys of rows inserted by FirstSeen mode
+    processed_insert_keys: Arc<Mutex<InsertedKeyTracker>>,
 }
 
 impl Merger {
@@ -1932,25 +3439,36 @@ impl Merger {
             let physical_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr)?;
             let data_type = physical_expr.data_type(&schema)?;
             if data_type != DataType::Boolean {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("Merge insert conditions must be expressions that return a boolean value, received expression ({}) which has data type {}", expr, data_type), location!()));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Merge insert conditions must be expressions that return a boolean value, received expression ({}) which has data type {}",
+                    expr, data_type
+                )));
             }
             Some(physical_expr)
         } else {
             None
         };
-        let match_filter_expr = if let WhenMatched::UpdateIf(expr_str) = &params.when_matched {
-            let combined_schema = Arc::new(combined_schema(&schema));
-            let planner = Planner::new(combined_schema.clone());
-            let expr = planner.parse_filter(expr_str)?;
-            let expr = planner.optimize_expr(expr)?;
-            let match_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr)?;
-            let data_type = match_expr.data_type(combined_schema.as_ref())?;
-            if data_type != DataType::Boolean {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("Merge insert conditions must be expressions that return a boolean value, received a 'when matched update if' expression ({}) which has data type {}", expr, data_type), location!()));
+        let match_filter_expr = match &params.when_matched {
+            WhenMatched::UpdateIf(_) | WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(_) => {
+                let combined_schema = Arc::new(combined_schema(&schema));
+                let planner = Planner::new(combined_schema.clone());
+                let expr = match &params.when_matched {
+                    WhenMatched::UpdateIf(expr_str) => planner.parse_filter(expr_str)?,
+                    WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(expr) => expr.clone(),
+                    _ => unreachable!(),
+                };
+                let expr = planner.optimize_expr(expr)?;
+                let match_expr = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr)?;
+                let data_type = match_expr.data_type(combined_schema.as_ref())?;
+                if data_type != DataType::Boolean {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Merge insert conditions must be expressions that return a boolean value, received a 'when matched update if' expression ({}) which has data type {}",
+                        expr, data_type
+                    )));
+                }
+                Some(match_expr)
             }
-            Some(match_expr)
-        } else {
-            None
+            _ => None,
         };
         let output_schema = if with_row_addr {
             Arc::new(schema.try_with_column(ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone())?)
@@ -1970,6 +3488,7 @@ impl Merger {
             output_schema,
             enable_stable_row_ids,
             processed_row_ids: Arc::new(Mutex::new(HashSet::new())),
+            processed_insert_keys: Arc::new(Mutex::new(InsertedKeyTracker::default())),
         })
     }
 
@@ -1977,18 +3496,13 @@ impl Merger {
         &self.output_schema
     }
 
-    // Retrieves a bitmap of rows where at least one of the columns in the range
-    // col_offset..coll_offset+num_cols is not null.
-    //
-    fn not_all_null(
-        batch: &RecordBatch,
-        col_offset: usize,
-        num_cols: usize,
-    ) -> Result<BooleanArray> {
+    // Retrieves a bitmap of rows where at least one of the given columns is
+    // not null.
+    fn not_all_null(batch: &RecordBatch, cols: &[usize]) -> Result<BooleanArray> {
         // For our purposes we know there is always at least 1 on key
-        debug_assert_ne!(num_cols, 0);
-        let mut at_least_one_valid = arrow::compute::is_not_null(batch.column(col_offset))?;
-        for idx in col_offset + 1..col_offset + num_cols {
+        debug_assert!(!cols.is_empty());
+        let mut at_least_one_valid = arrow::compute::is_not_null(batch.column(cols[0]))?;
+        for &idx in &cols[1..] {
             let is_valid = arrow::compute::is_not_null(batch.column(idx))?;
             at_least_one_valid = arrow::compute::or(&at_least_one_valid, &is_valid)?;
         }
@@ -2014,10 +3528,57 @@ impl Merger {
         &self,
         combined_batch: &RecordBatch,
         right_offset: usize,
-        num_keys: usize,
     ) -> Result<(BooleanArray, BooleanArray, BooleanArray)> {
-        let in_left = Self::not_all_null(combined_batch, 0, num_keys)?;
-        let in_right = Self::not_all_null(combined_batch, right_offset, num_keys)?;
+        // The outer join distinguishes its three cases by which side's join
+        // keys were NULL-padded: a present row always has non-null keys, while
+        // the absent side is filled with NULLs. We therefore test the *key*
+        // columns, located by name. They are NOT necessarily the first
+        // `num_keys` columns — a partial-schema source can place a payload
+        // column (e.g. an all-null vector) at position 0, and checking
+        // positions [0, num_keys) there misreads an all-null leading payload
+        // column as an absent join side, silently dropping every matched row
+        // (https://github.com/lancedb/lancedb/issues/3515). The target half is
+        // resolved independently because the indexed path keeps dataset-schema
+        // order even when the source fields are reordered. Restrict that lookup
+        // to the target half because a valid source field can have the same
+        // `target_`-prefixed name.
+        let combined_schema = combined_batch.schema();
+        let source_key_cols = self
+            .params
+            .on
+            .iter()
+            .map(|key| {
+                combined_schema.index_of(key).map_err(|_| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "merge insert key column '{}' not found in joined batch",
+                        key
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let target_key_cols = self
+            .params
+            .on
+            .iter()
+            .map(|key| {
+                let target_key = format!("target_{key}");
+                combined_schema
+                    .fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .skip(right_offset)
+                    .find_map(|(index, field)| (field.name() == &target_key).then_some(index))
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "merge insert target key column '{}' not found in joined batch",
+                            target_key
+                        ))
+                    })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+        let in_left = Self::not_all_null(combined_batch, &source_key_cols)?;
+        let in_right = Self::not_all_null(combined_batch, &target_key_cols)?;
         let in_both = arrow::compute::and(&in_left, &in_right)?;
         let left_only = arrow::compute::and(&in_left, &arrow::compute::not(&in_right)?)?;
         let right_only = arrow::compute::and(&arrow::compute::not(&in_left)?, &in_right)?;
@@ -2050,53 +3611,37 @@ impl Merger {
             (num_fields - 2, Some(num_fields - 1), (num_fields - 2) / 2)
         };
 
-        let num_keys = self.params.on.len();
-
         let left_cols = Vec::from_iter(0..right_offset);
         let right_cols_with_id = Vec::from_iter(right_offset..num_fields);
 
         let mut batches = Vec::with_capacity(2);
-        let (left_only, in_both, right_only) =
-            self.extract_selections(&batch, right_offset, num_keys)?;
+        let (left_only, in_both, right_only) = self.extract_selections(&batch, right_offset)?;
 
         // There is no contention on this mutex.  We're only using it to bypass the rust
         // borrow checker (the stream needs to be `sync` since it crosses an await point)
         let mut deleted_row_ids = self.deleted_rows.lock().unwrap();
 
-        if self.params.when_matched != WhenMatched::DoNothing {
-            let mut matched = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &in_both)?;
-
-            if let Some(match_filter) = self.match_filter_expr {
-                let unzipped = unzip_batch(&matched, &self.schema);
-                let filtered = match_filter.evaluate(&unzipped)?;
-                match filtered {
-                    ColumnarValue::Array(mask) => {
-                        // Some rows matched, filter down and replace those rows
-                        matched = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&matched, mask.as_boolean())?;
-                    }
-                    ColumnarValue::Scalar(scalar) => {
-                        if let ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(true)) = scalar {
-                            // All rows matched, go ahead and replace the whole batch
-                        } else {
-                            // Nothing matched, replace nothing
-                            matched = RecordBatch::new_empty(matched.schema());
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-
-            merge_statistics.num_updated_rows += matched.num_rows() as u64;
-
-            // If the filter eliminated all rows then its important we don't try and write
-            // the batch at all.  Writing an empty batch currently panics
-            if matched.num_rows() > 0 {
+        // Each `WhenMatched` variant handles the matched rows (`in_both`)
+        // differently.
+        let match_filter_expr = self.match_filter_expr;
+        match &self.params.when_matched {
+            WhenMatched::DoNothing => {}
+            WhenMatched::Delete => {
+                // Matched rows are removed, not rewritten: record their row ids
+                // for the commit to delete and emit no replacement batch. A
+                // source with duplicate keys matches the same target row more
+                // than once; apply the same `source_dedupe_behavior` policy as
+                // updates so a duplicate either aborts (`Fail`) or is skipped
+                // and counted once (`FirstSeen`) — the commit deletes the row a
+                // single time regardless.
+                let matched = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &in_both)?;
                 let row_ids = matched.column(row_id_col).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
 
                 let mut processed_row_ids = self.processed_row_ids.lock().unwrap();
-                let mut keep_indices: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(matched.num_rows());
                 for (row_idx, &row_id) in row_ids.values().iter().enumerate() {
                     if processed_row_ids.insert(row_id) {
-                        keep_indices.push(row_idx as u32);
+                        merge_statistics.num_deleted_rows += 1;
+                        deleted_row_ids.push(row_id);
                     } else {
                         match self.params.source_dedupe_behavior {
                             SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail => {
@@ -2107,59 +3652,137 @@ impl Merger {
                                 ));
                             }
                             SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen => {
-                                // Skip this duplicate row (don't add to keep_indices)
+                                merge_statistics.num_skipped_duplicates += 1;
                             }
                         }
                     }
                 }
-                drop(processed_row_ids);
-
-                // Filter out duplicate rows if any were skipped
-                let num_skipped = matched.num_rows() - keep_indices.len();
-                if num_skipped > 0 {
-                    merge_statistics.num_skipped_duplicates += num_skipped as u64;
-                    merge_statistics.num_updated_rows -= num_skipped as u64;
-
-                    let indices = UInt32Array::from(keep_indices);
-                    matched = take_record_batch(&matched, &indices)?;
+            }
+            WhenMatched::Fail => {
+                // Any matched row aborts the whole operation.
+                if let Some(row_idx) = (0..in_both.len()).find(|&i| in_both.value(i)) {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                        "Merge insert failed: found matching row with key values: {}",
+                        format_key_values_on_columns(&batch, row_idx, &self.params.on)
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+            WhenMatched::UpdateAll | WhenMatched::UpdateIf(_) | WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(_) => {
+                let mut matched = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &in_both)?;
+
+                if let Some(match_filter) = match_filter_expr {
+                    let unzipped = unzip_batch(&matched, &self.schema);
+                    let filtered = match_filter.evaluate(&unzipped)?;
+                    match filtered {
+                        ColumnarValue::Array(mask) => {
+                            // Some rows matched, filter down and replace those rows
+                            matched =
+                                arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&matched, mask.as_boolean())?;
+                        }
+                        ColumnarValue::Scalar(scalar) => {
+                            if let ScalarValue::Boolean(Some(true)) = scalar {
+                                // All rows matched, go ahead and replace the whole batch
+                            } else {
+                                // Nothing matched, replace nothing
+                                matched = RecordBatch::new_empty(matched.schema());
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
                 }
 
-                // Only process and write if there are remaining rows after filtering duplicates
+                merge_statistics.num_updated_rows += matched.num_rows() as u64;
+
+                // If the filter eliminated all rows then its important we don't try and write
+                // the batch at all.  Writing an empty batch currently panics
                 if matched.num_rows() > 0 {
-                    // Get row_ids again after filtering (if any duplicates were removed)
                     let row_ids = matched.column(row_id_col).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-                    deleted_row_ids.extend(row_ids.values());
-                    if self.enable_stable_row_ids {
-                        self.updating_row_ids
-                            .lock()
-                            .unwrap()
-                            .capture(row_ids.values())?;
+
+                    let mut processed_row_ids = self.processed_row_ids.lock().unwrap();
+                    let mut keep_indices: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(matched.num_rows());
+                    for (row_idx, &row_id) in row_ids.values().iter().enumerate() {
+                        if processed_row_ids.insert(row_id) {
+                            keep_indices.push(row_idx as u32);
+                        } else {
+                            match self.params.source_dedupe_behavior {
+                                SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail => {
+                                    return Err(create_duplicate_row_error(
+                                        &matched,
+                                        row_idx,
+                                        &self.params.on,
+                                    ));
+                                }
+                                SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen => {
+                                    // Skip this duplicate row (don't add to keep_indices)
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
                     }
+                    drop(processed_row_ids);
 
-                    let projection = if let Some(row_addr_col) = row_addr_col {
-                        let mut cols = Vec::from_iter(left_cols.iter().cloned());
-                        cols.push(row_addr_col);
-                        cols
-                    } else {
-                        #[allow(clippy::redundant_clone)]
-                        left_cols.clone()
-                    };
-                    let matched = matched.project(&projection)?;
-                    // The payload columns of an outer join are always nullable.  We need to restore
-                    // non-nullable to columns that were originally non-nullable.  This should be safe
-                    // since the not_matched rows should all be valid on the right_cols
-                    //
-                    // Sadly we can't use with_schema because it doesn't let you toggle nullability
-                    let matched = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                        self.output_schema.clone(),
-                        Vec::from_iter(matched.columns().iter().cloned()),
-                    )?;
-                    batches.push(Ok(matched));
+                    // Filter out duplicate rows if any were skipped
+                    let num_skipped = matched.num_rows() - keep_indices.len();
+                    if num_skipped > 0 {
+                        merge_statistics.num_skipped_duplicates += num_skipped as u64;
+                        merge_statistics.num_updated_rows -= num_skipped as u64;
+
+                        let indices = UInt32Array::from(keep_indices);
+                        matched = take_record_batch(&matched, &indices)?;
+                    }
+
+                    // Only process and write if there are remaining rows after filtering duplicates
+                    if matched.num_rows() > 0 {
+                        // Get row_ids again after filtering (if any duplicates were removed)
+                        let row_ids = matched.column(row_id_col).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+                        deleted_row_ids.extend(row_ids.values());
+                        if self.enable_stable_row_ids {
+                            self.updating_row_ids
+                                .lock()
+                                .unwrap()
+                                .capture(row_ids.values())?;
+                        }
+
+                        let projection = if let Some(row_addr_col) = row_addr_col {
+                            let mut cols = Vec::from_iter(left_cols.iter().cloned());
+                            cols.push(row_addr_col);
+                            cols
+                        } else {
+                            #[allow(clippy::redundant_clone)]
+                            left_cols.clone()
+                        };
+                        let matched = matched.project(&projection)?;
+                        // The payload columns of an outer join are always nullable.  We need to restore
+                        // non-nullable to columns that were originally non-nullable.  This should be safe
+                        // since the not_matched rows should all be valid on the right_cols
+                        //
+                        // Sadly we can't use with_schema because it doesn't let you toggle nullability
+                        let matched = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                            self.output_schema.clone(),
+                            Vec::from_iter(matched.columns().iter().cloned()),
+                        )?;
+                        batches.push(Ok(matched));
+                    }
                 }
             }
         }
         if self.params.insert_not_matched {
-            let not_matched = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &left_only)?;
+            let mut not_matched = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &left_only)?;
+            if self.params.source_dedupe_behavior == SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen {
+                let mut processed_insert_keys = self.processed_insert_keys.lock().unwrap();
+                let mut keep_indices = Vec::with_capacity(not_matched.num_rows());
+                for row_idx in 0..not_matched.num_rows() {
+                    if processed_insert_keys.insert(&not_matched, row_idx, &self.params.on)? {
+                        keep_indices.push(row_idx as u32);
+                    } else {
+                        merge_statistics.num_skipped_duplicates += 1;
+                    }
+                }
+                drop(processed_insert_keys);
+
+                if keep_indices.len() != not_matched.num_rows() {
+                    not_matched =
+                        take_record_batch(&not_matched, &UInt32Array::from(keep_indices))?;
+                }
+            }
             let left_cols_with_id = left_cols
                 .into_iter()
                 .chain(row_addr_col)
@@ -2218,51 +3841,314 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use crate::dataset::scanner::ColumnOrdering;
     use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::inserted_rows::{
-        extract_key_value_from_batch, KeyExistenceFilter, KeyExistenceFilterBuilder,
+        KeyExistenceFilter, KeyExistenceFilterBuilder, extract_key_value_from_batch,
     };
     use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
     use crate::io::commit::read_transaction_file;
     use crate::{
-        dataset::{builder::DatasetBuilder, InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams},
+        dataset::{InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams, builder::DatasetBuilder},
         session::Session,
         utils::test::{
-            assert_plan_node_equals, assert_string_matches, DatagenExt, FragmentCount,
-            FragmentRowCount, ThrottledStoreWrapper,
+            DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, ThrottledStoreWrapper,
+            assert_plan_node_equals, assert_string_matches,
         },
     };
     use arrow_array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
     use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-    use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
     use arrow_array::{
-        types::{Int32Type, UInt32Type},
         Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int32Array, Int64Array, ListArray,
-        RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, StringArray, StructArray, UInt32Array,
+        NullArray, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, StringArray, StructArray, UInt32Array,
+        types::{Int32Type, UInt32Type},
     };
+    use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, record_batch};
     use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
     use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
     use datafusion::common::Column;
     use datafusion_physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-    use futures::{future::try_join_all, FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+    use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, future::try_join_all};
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_datafusion::{datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt, utils::reader_to_stream};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount, Seed};
-    use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount, Seed, array};
     use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams};
     use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
     use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
     use mock_instant::thread_local::MockClock;
     use object_store::throttle::ThrottleConfig;
     use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
     use std::collections::HashMap;
     use tokio::sync::{Barrier, Notify};
+    use url::Url;
 
     // Used to validate that futures returned are Send.
     fn assert_send<T: Send>(t: T) -> T {
         t
     }
 
+    /// The fill's plan depth must not grow with the number of columns the
+    /// source omits. Building it with a `DataFrame::with_column` per missing
+    /// field — the obvious way, and what this did before #9504 — nests one
+    /// `Projection` per column; the optimizer's recursive walk over that chain
+    /// aborted the process on a 315-column table. No other test in this suite
+    /// builds a partial-schema merge wide enough to notice, so a regression to
+    /// that form would surface in production rather than here.
+    ///
+    /// Only the depth is asserted. What the fill produces is covered by the
+    /// partial-schema merge tests below.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fill_missing_target_columns_depth_is_width_independent() {
+        fn fill_depth(num_cols: usize) -> usize {
+            fn depth(plan: &LogicalPlan) -> usize {
+                1 + plan.inputs().iter().map(|i| depth(i)).max().unwrap_or(0)
+            }
+
+            let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+            let dataset_schema = Schema::new(
+                (0..num_cols)
+                    .map(|i| Field::new(format!("c{i}"), DataType::Int32, true))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+            let target = Arc::new(
+                MemTable::try_new(Arc::new(dataset_schema.clone()), vec![vec![]]).unwrap(),
+            );
+            // The source carries only the join key, so every other column is
+            // filled from the target side.
+            let source = Arc::new(
+                MemTable::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("c0", DataType::Int32, true)])),
+                    vec![vec![]],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let joined = ctx
+                .read_table(target)
+                .unwrap()
+                .alias("target")
+                .unwrap()
+                .join(
+                    ctx.read_table(source).unwrap().alias("source").unwrap(),
+                    JoinType::Left,
+                    &["\"c0\""],
+                    &["\"c0\""],
+                    None,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            let source_field_names: HashSet<String> = std::iter::once("c0".to_string()).collect();
+            let filled =
+                fill_missing_target_columns(joined, &dataset_schema, &source_field_names).unwrap();
+            depth(filled.logical_plan())
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(fill_depth(8), fill_depth(512));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_inserted_key_tracker_preserves_logical_nulls() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Null, true)])),
+            vec![Arc::new(NullArray::new(2))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut tracker = InsertedKeyTracker::default();
+        let on_columns = ["id".to_string()];
+
+        assert!(tracker.insert(&batch, 0, &on_columns).unwrap());
+        assert!(tracker.insert(&batch, 1, &on_columns).unwrap());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_updated_row_addr_missing_between_target_rows() {
+        let row_addr = |offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, offset));
+        let mut updated_rows = UpdatedRowAddrReconciler::new([(row_addr(1), (1, 0))].into_iter());
+
+        let error = updated_rows
+            .reconcile_batch(&[row_addr(0), row_addr(2)])
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("update row address (3, 1) is missing"));
+        assert!(message.contains("next target row address is (3, 2)"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_updated_row_addr_missing_after_target_rows() {
+        let row_addr = |offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(7, offset));
+        let mut updated_rows = UpdatedRowAddrReconciler::new([(row_addr(2), (1, 0))].into_iter());
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_rows
+                .reconcile_batch(&[row_addr(0), row_addr(1)])
+                .unwrap(),
+            vec![(0, 0), (0, 1)]
+        );
+        let error = updated_rows.finish().unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("update row address (7, 2) is missing"));
+        assert!(message.contains("no target rows remain"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_updated_row_addr_missing_in_full_fragment_update() {
+        let initial = record_batch!(("value", Int32, [10, 20])).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+                .execute(vec![initial])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let fragment_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u32;
+        let row_addr = |offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, offset));
+        let updates = record_batch!(
+            (ROW_ADDR, UInt64, [row_addr(0), row_addr(2)]),
+            ("value", Int32, [100, 200])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let update_stream =
+            RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(updates.schema(), futures::stream::iter([Ok(updates)]));
+
+        let error = MergeInsertJob::update_fragments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            Box::pin(update_stream),
+            dataset.manifest().version + 1,
+            None,
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("update row address (0, 2) is missing"));
+        assert!(message.contains("no target rows remain"));
+    }
+
+    // An update-style merge_insert leaves the source and new fragments with
+    // overlapping id ranges; a scattered delete punches holes in that range. A
+    // filtered `with_row_id` scan must still resolve every id (round-tripped via take).
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn merge_insert_then_delete_resolves_overlapping_row_ids() {
+        use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
+        use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_str();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("slug", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("title", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let mk = |slugs: Vec<String>, titles: Vec<String>| {
+            let cats: Vec<String> = (0..slugs.len())
+                .map(|i| ["A", "B", "C", "D", "E"][i % 5].to_string())
+                .collect();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(slugs)) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(titles)) as ArrayRef,
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(cats)) as ArrayRef,
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Empty dataset with stable row ids; write-seed 40 rows (ids 0..40).
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Create,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(mk(vec![], vec![]))], schema.clone()),
+            uri,
+            Some(params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        ds.append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(mk(
+                    (1..=40).map(|i| format!("t{i}")).collect(),
+                    (1..=40).map(|i| format!("r{i}")).collect(),
+                ))],
+                schema.clone(),
+            ),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Update every other row (so the new fragment's ids interleave with -- and
+        // its range overlaps -- the source's) plus a few inserts.
+        let mut slugs: Vec<String> = (1..=40).step_by(2).map(|i| format!("t{i}")).collect();
+        let mut titles: Vec<String> = (1..=40).step_by(2).map(|i| format!("e{i}")).collect();
+        for i in 41..=45 {
+            slugs.push(format!("t{i}"));
+            titles.push(format!("e{i}"));
+        }
+        let mut b = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["slug".into()]).unwrap();
+        b.when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll);
+        b.when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll);
+        let (ds, _) = b
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(mk(slugs, titles))],
+                schema.clone(),
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Scattered delete -> interior holes in the overlapped id range.
+        let mut ds = (*ds).clone();
+        let ds = (*ds.delete("category = 'A'").await.unwrap().new_dataset).clone();
+
+        // The `with_row_id` scan builds the RowIdIndex; every scanned id must
+        // round-trip through take_rows.
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = ds
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_ids: Vec<u64> = batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|b| {
+                b.column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let scanned_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        let taken = ds.take_rows(&row_ids, ds.schema().clone()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(taken.num_rows(), scanned_rows);
+
+        // A point lookup on a surviving row resolves to exactly one row.
+        let filtered: Vec<RecordBatch> = ds
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .filter("slug = 't30'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let n: usize = filtered.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(n, 1, "expected exactly one row for slug='t30'");
+    }
+
     async fn check_then_refresh_dataset(
         new_data: RecordBatch,
         mut job: MergeInsertJob,
@@ -2305,13 +4191,13 @@ mod tests {
             );
         let mut left_keys = keyvals
             .clone()
-            .filter(|(_, &val)| val == 1)
+            .filter(|&(_, &val)| val == 1)
             .map(|(key, _)| key)
             .copied()
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let mut right_keys = keyvals
             .clone()
-            .filter(|(_, &val)| val == 2)
+            .filter(|&(_, &val)| val == 2)
             .map(|(key, _)| key)
             .copied()
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
@@ -2603,19 +4489,135 @@ mod tests {
     }
 
     #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::full(false, false)]
+    #[case::column_patch(true, false)]
+    #[case::partial_column_patch(true, true)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_basic_merge(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    async fn merge_insert_uses_explicit_exact_version(
+        #[case] partial: bool,
+        #[case] partial_rows: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] indexed: bool,
+        #[values(
+            None,
+            Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3)
+        )]
+        target: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
     ) {
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let new_batch = create_new_batch(schema.clone());
-
-        let test_uri = "memory://test.lance";
-
-        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, false).await;
-
-        // Quick test that no on-keys is not valid and fails
-        assert!(MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec![]).is_err());
+        let mut dataset = create_test_dataset("memory://", LanceFileVersion::V2_0, false).await;
+        if indexed {
+            Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset)
+                .create_index(
+                    &["key"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let original_paths = dataset
+            .manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(Fragment::referenced_lance_files)
+            .map(|file| file.path.clone())
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let mut new_batch = create_new_batch(create_test_schema());
+        if partial {
+            new_batch = new_batch.project(&[0, 1]).unwrap();
+        }
+        if partial_rows {
+            new_batch = new_batch.slice(1, new_batch.num_rows() - 1);
+        }
+        let schema = new_batch.schema();
+        let mut builder = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["key".to_string()]).unwrap();
+        builder.when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll);
+        if partial {
+            builder.when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing);
+            if !indexed {
+                builder.write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns);
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(target) = target {
+            builder.data_storage_version(target);
+        }
+        let (dataset, stats) = builder
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_batch)], schema))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, if partial { 0 } else { 3 });
+        let updated_rows = if partial_rows { 2 } else { 3 };
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, updated_rows);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("value = 2".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            if partial { updated_rows as usize } else { 6 }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .manifest
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(Fragment::referenced_lance_files)
+                .filter(|file| !original_paths.contains(&file.path))
+                .all(|file| file.file_version().unwrap()
+                    == target.unwrap_or(LanceFileVersion::V2_0).resolve())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS != 0,
+            target.is_some()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)]
+    #[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::Legacy)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn merge_insert_rejects_cross_family_target(
+        #[case] source: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[case] target: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let dataset = create_test_dataset("memory://", source, false).await;
+        let error = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["key".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .data_storage_version(target)
+            .try_build()
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_basic_merge(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let new_batch = create_new_batch(schema.clone());
+
+        let test_uri = "memory://test.lance";
+
+        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, false).await;
+
+        // Quick test that no on-keys is not valid and fails
+        assert!(MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec![]).is_err());
 
         let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
         // find-or-create, no delete
@@ -2697,11 +4699,13 @@ mod tests {
             .await;
 
         // No-op (will raise an error)
-        assert!(MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-            .try_build()
-            .is_err());
+        assert!(
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .try_build()
+                .is_err()
+        );
 
         // find-or-create, with delete all
         let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
@@ -2722,6 +4726,18 @@ mod tests {
         check_then_refresh_dataset(new_batch.clone(), job, &[], &[4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], &[3, 3, 3])
             .await;
 
+        // conditional upsert, with delete all
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(
+                WhenMatched::update_if(&ds, "source.filterme != target.filterme").unwrap(),
+            )
+            .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        check_then_refresh_dataset(new_batch.clone(), job, &[4, 5], &[6, 7, 8, 9], &[3, 1, 3])
+            .await;
+
         // update only, with delete all (unusual)
         let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
             .unwrap()
@@ -2774,6 +4790,24 @@ mod tests {
         )
         .await;
 
+        // conditional upsert, with delete some
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(
+                WhenMatched::update_if(&ds, "source.filterme != target.filterme").unwrap(),
+            )
+            .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::DeleteIf(condition.clone()))
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        check_then_refresh_dataset(
+            new_batch.clone(),
+            job,
+            &[1, 4, 5],
+            &[6, 7, 8, 9],
+            &[3, 1, 2],
+        )
+        .await;
+
         // update only, witxh delete some (unusual)
         let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
             .unwrap()
@@ -3064,6 +5098,85 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_multi_batch_upsert_preserves_stable_row_ids(
+        #[values(true, false)] use_index: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut dataset = (*create_test_dataset(
+            "memory://test_multi_batch_upsert_row_ids",
+            LanceFileVersion::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await)
+            .clone();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["key"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let initial_keys = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6];
+        let initial_row_ids = get_row_ids_for_keys(&dataset, &initial_keys).await;
+        let initial_row_ids = initial_row_ids
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let updated_keys = [2, 4];
+        let updated_row_ids_before = get_row_ids_for_keys(&dataset, &updated_keys).await;
+
+        // Put inserts in the first source batch and updates in the second. Stable
+        // row-id assignment still relies on the join emitting all updates first.
+        let insert_batch = record_batch!(
+            ("key", UInt32, [7, 8]),
+            ("value", UInt32, [70, 80]),
+            ("filterme", Utf8, ["inserted", "inserted"])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let update_batch = record_batch!(
+            ("key", UInt32, [2, 4]),
+            ("value", UInt32, [20, 40]),
+            ("filterme", Utf8, ["updated", "updated"])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let source_schema = insert_batch.schema();
+        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(insert_batch), Ok(update_batch)],
+            source_schema,
+        ));
+
+        let (dataset, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["key".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .use_index(use_index)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(source)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 2);
+        let updated_row_ids_after = get_row_ids_for_keys(&dataset, &updated_keys).await;
+        assert_eq!(updated_row_ids_after, updated_row_ids_before);
+
+        let inserted_row_ids = get_row_ids_for_keys(&dataset, &[7, 8]).await;
+        assert!(
+            inserted_row_ids
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|row_id| !initial_row_ids.contains(row_id))
+        );
+    }
+
     #[rstest::rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_row_id_stability_across_update_and_merge_insert(
@@ -3232,13 +5345,252 @@ mod tests {
 
         if enable_stable_row_ids {
             assert_eq!(
-                initial_row_id,
-                after_merge_row_id,
+                initial_row_id, after_merge_row_id,
                 "Row ID should remain stable throughout the entire process of update and merge insert"
             );
         }
     }
 
+    /// Reproduces https://github.com/lancedb/lancedb/issues/3515:
+    /// a partial-schema `merge_insert` with a scalar index on the join key,
+    /// where every fragment is covered by the index (no unindexed data),
+    /// silently updates 0 rows instead of the expected matches.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_repro_3515_partial_schema_fully_indexed(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+        version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        const N: usize = 1000;
+        const UPD: usize = 128;
+        let vec_field = Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+            true,
+        );
+        let full_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            vec_field.clone(),
+            Field::new("path", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("status", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("file_size", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+
+        // 1000 rows: vector all-null, path "/img/{i}.jpg", status "pending".
+        let paths = StringArray::from((0..N).map(|i| format!("/img/{i}.jpg")).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let statuses = StringArray::from(vec!["pending"; N]);
+        let file_sizes = Int64Array::from((0..N as i64).map(|i| 1000 + i).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let null_vectors = arrow_array::new_null_array(vec_field.data_type(), N);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            full_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                null_vectors,
+                Arc::new(paths),
+                Arc::new(statuses),
+                Arc::new(file_sizes),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], full_schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Scalar index on the merge key, covering every fragment.
+        ds.create_index(
+            &["path"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+
+        // Partial-schema source (no `file_size`): update the first 128 rows.
+        let upd_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            vec_field,
+            Field::new("path", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("status", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let upd_paths = StringArray::from(
+            (0..UPD)
+                .map(|i| format!("/img/{i}.jpg"))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        let upd_vectors =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1f32; 4 * UPD]), 4)
+                .unwrap();
+        let upd_statuses = StringArray::from(vec!["indexed"; UPD]);
+        let updates = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            upd_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(upd_vectors),
+                Arc::new(upd_paths),
+                Arc::new(upd_statuses),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let (ds, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["path".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(updates)], upd_schema))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_updated_rows, UPD as u64,
+            "expected {UPD} updated rows on {version:?}, got {}",
+            stats.num_updated_rows
+        );
+        let n_indexed = ds
+            .count_rows(Some("status = 'indexed'".to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(n_indexed, UPD, "expected {UPD} rows flipped to 'indexed'");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::reordered_null_payload(false, Some(42))]
+    #[case::target_name_collision(true, None)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_partial_merge_with_reordered_source(
+        #[case] has_target_name_collision: bool,
+        #[case] expected_payload: Option<i32>,
+    ) {
+        let (target, source, payload_column) = if has_target_name_collision {
+            (
+                record_batch!(
+                    ("id", UInt64, [1]),
+                    ("target_id", Int32, [9]),
+                    ("b", Int32, [7])
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+                record_batch!(("target_id", Int32, [None]), ("id", UInt64, [1])).unwrap(),
+                "target_id",
+            )
+        } else {
+            (
+                record_batch!(("id", UInt64, [1]), ("a", Int32, [None]), ("b", Int32, [7]))
+                    .unwrap(),
+                record_batch!(("a", Int32, [42]), ("id", UInt64, [1])).unwrap(),
+                "a",
+            )
+        };
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![target])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let source_schema = source.schema();
+        let (dataset, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source)], source_schema))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&[payload_column])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let payload = result[payload_column].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let actual_payload = (!payload.is_null(0)).then(|| payload.value(0));
+        assert_eq!(actual_payload, expected_payload);
+    }
+
+    /// merge_insert matches keys by bit pattern, in the indexed probe and in the
+    /// hash join behind it alike, so a source key of `+0.0` updates only the
+    /// `+0.0` row. Filters answer zero comparisons per IEEE 754 now, and this
+    /// pins that the two are still allowed to disagree: making key matching agree
+    /// needs the unindexed join fixed too, and DataFusion 54 hashes join keys by
+    /// raw bits. Both settings of `use_index` are exercised; which one the planner
+    /// picks for a one-row source is not asserted.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_on_float_zero_key(#[values(true, false)] use_index: bool) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        let target = record_batch!(
+            (
+                "key",
+                Float64,
+                [Some(-1.0), Some(-0.0), Some(0.0), Some(1.0)]
+            ),
+            ("value", Int32, [10, 20, 30, 40])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = target.schema();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(target)], schema.clone());
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        ds.create_index(
+            &["key"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let source = record_batch!(("key", Float64, [Some(0.0)]), ("value", Int32, [99])).unwrap();
+        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(source)], schema.clone()));
+
+        let (ds, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["key".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .use_index(use_index)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(source)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Only the +0.0 row is updated. Checking both sides pins which row was
+        // replaced, not just how many; `value = 20` is the -0.0 row.
+        assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 4);
+        for (filter, expected) in [("value = 99", 1), ("value = 30", 0), ("value = 20", 1)] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                ds.count_rows(Some(filter.to_string())).await.unwrap(),
+                expected,
+                "{filter}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_indexed_merge_insert() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
@@ -3281,7 +5633,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Sample 2048 random indices and then paste on a column of 9999999's
         let some_indices = ds
-            .sample(2048, &(&just_index_col).try_into().unwrap())
+            .sample(2048, &(&just_index_col).try_into().unwrap(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let some_indices = some_indices.column(0).clone();
@@ -3361,2113 +5713,7552 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 2048);
     }
 
-    mod subcols {
-        use super::*;
-        use rstest::rstest;
+    /// Multi-column (composite key) merge_insert when one or more join
+    /// columns have a scalar index.  Before this change the indexed path
+    /// was hard-gated to single-column joins; composite-key merges fell
+    /// through to a full target scan even when every key column was
+    /// indexed.  Now each indexed column contributes an AND-ed `IsIn`
+    /// probe inside one `MapIndexExec`, and the downstream hash join trims
+    /// the candidates to the exact composite-key matches — rows that
+    /// happen to match one key column but not the other must NOT be
+    /// touched.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::index_on_first(true, false)]
+    #[case::index_on_second(false, true)]
+    #[case::index_on_both(true, true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_composite_key(
+        #[case] index_on_a: bool,
+        #[case] index_on_b: bool,
+    ) {
+        // Target rows: every (a, b) combination from {1,2} x {10,20}.
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 1, 2, 2]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 20, 10, 20]),
+            ("value", Int32, [100, 200, 300, 400])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-        struct Fixtures {
-            ds: Arc<Dataset>,
-            new_data: RecordBatch,
-        }
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        async fn setup(scalar_index: bool) -> Fixtures {
-            let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-                .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
-                .col("other", array::rand_utf8(4.into(), false))
-                .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-                .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
-            let batch = data.into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(1024 + 2)).unwrap();
-            let batch1 = batch.slice(0, 512);
-            let batch2 = batch.slice(512, 512);
-            let batch3 = batch.slice(1024, 2);
-            let schema = batch.schema();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        if index_on_a {
+            ds.create_index(&["a"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        if index_on_b {
+            ds.create_index(&["b"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
 
-            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                [Ok(batch1.clone())],
-                schema.clone(),
-            ));
-            let write_params = WriteParams {
-                max_rows_per_file: 256,
-                max_rows_per_group: 32, // Non-standard group size to hit edge cases
-                ..Default::default()
-            };
-            let mut ds = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params.clone()))
+        // Update (1, 10) and insert (3, 30).  A naive single-column probe
+        // on `a` would also pull (1, 20) into the candidate set; the
+        // composite hash join must keep (1, 20) untouched.
+        let source = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 3]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 30]),
+            ("value", Int32, [999, 333])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let (updated_ds, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                    source.schema(),
+                )))
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
 
-            if scalar_index {
-                let index_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-                ds.create_index(&["key"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &index_params, false)
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
-            }
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 5);
 
-            // Another two files, not in the scalar index (if there is one)
-            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                [Ok(batch2.clone())],
-                batch2.schema(),
-            ));
-            ds.append(reader, Some(write_params)).await.unwrap();
+        let untouched = updated_ds
+            .count_rows(Some("a = 1 AND b = 20 AND value = 200".to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            untouched, 1,
+            "(1, 20) must not be clobbered by an `a`-only probe"
+        );
 
-            let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+        let updated = updated_ds
+            .count_rows(Some("a = 1 AND b = 10 AND value = 999".to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(updated, 1);
 
-            // New data with only a subset of columns
-            let update_schema = Arc::new(schema.project(&[2, 1]).unwrap());
-            // Full second file and part of third file. Also two more new rows.
-            let indices: Int64Array = (256..512).chain(600..612).chain([712, 715]).collect();
-            let keys = arrow::compute::take(batch["key"].as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap();
-            let keys = arrow::compute::concat(&[&keys, &batch3["key"]]).unwrap();
-            let num_rows = keys.len();
-            let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                update_schema,
-                vec![
-                    keys,
-                    Arc::new((1024..(1024 + num_rows as u32)).collect::<UInt32Array>()),
-                ],
-            )
+        let inserted = updated_ds
+            .count_rows(Some("a = 3 AND b = 30 AND value = 333".to_string()))
+            .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(inserted, 1);
+    }
 
-            Fixtures { ds, new_data }
-        }
+    /// A composite index probe can over-match the exact join key, but a target
+    /// row reached by more than one source batch must still enter the join once.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_deduplicates_cross_batch_candidates() {
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 1, 2, 2]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 20, 10, 20]),
+            ("value", Int32, [100, 200, 300, 400])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-        #[tokio::test]
-        async fn test_delete_not_supported() {
-            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial)], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                [Ok(new_data.clone())],
-                new_data.schema(),
-            ));
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["a"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["b"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            // Should reject when_not_matched_by_source_delete as not yet supported
-            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+        let first = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10]),
+            ("value", Int32, [901])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        // This batch probes `a IN (1, 2) AND b IN (20, 10)`, which reaches
+        // (1, 10) again even though that tuple is not present in this batch.
+        let second = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 2]),
+            ("b", Int32, [20, 10]),
+            ("value", Int32, [902, 903])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let (dataset, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
                 .unwrap()
-                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete)
                 .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
                 .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(first), Ok(second)],
+                    schema,
+                )))
+                .await
                 .unwrap();
-            let res = assert_send(job.execute_reader(reader)).await;
-            assert!(
-                matches!(
-                    &res,
-                    &Err(Error::NotSupported { ref source, .. })
-                        if source.to_string().contains("Deleting rows from the target table when there is no match in the source table is not supported when the source data has a different schema than the target data"),
-                ),
-                "Expected NotSupported error, got: {:?}",
-                res
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 3);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 4);
+        for (a, b, value) in [(1, 10, 901), (1, 20, 902), (2, 10, 903), (2, 20, 400)] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset
+                    .count_rows(Some(format!("a = {a} AND b = {b} AND value = {value}")))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                1,
             );
         }
+    }
 
-        #[tokio::test]
-        async fn test_errors_on_bad_schema() {
-            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+    /// Composite key merge_insert with no scalar index on any join column
+    /// must keep working via the full-scan fallback.  Guards against the
+    /// indexed path becoming a hard requirement after this optimization.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_composite_key_no_index() {
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 1, 2]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 20, 10]),
+            ("value", Int32, [100, 200, 300])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-            // Schema with different names, which should be rejected.
-            let bad_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-                Field::new("wrong_key", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                Field::new("wrong_value", DataType::UInt32, false),
-            ]));
+        let ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-            // Should reject when data is not a subschema.
-            let bad_batch =
-                RecordBatch::try_new(bad_schema.clone(), new_data.columns().to_vec()).unwrap();
-            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(bad_batch)], bad_schema));
+        let source = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1]),
+            ("b", Int32, [20]),
+            ("value", Int32, [999])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+        let (updated_ds, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
                 .unwrap()
                 .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
                 .try_build()
-                .unwrap();
-            let res = job.execute_reader(reader).await;
-            assert!(
-                matches!(
-                    &res,
-                    &Err(Error::SchemaMismatch { ref difference, .. })
-                        if difference.clone().contains("fields did not match")
-                ),
-                "Expected SchemaMismatch error, got: {:?}",
-                res
-            );
-        }
-
-        #[rstest]
-        #[tokio::test]
-        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols(
-            #[values(false, true)] scalar_index: bool,
-            #[values(false, true)] insert: bool,
-        ) {
-            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(scalar_index)).await;
-            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                [Ok(new_data.clone())],
-                new_data.schema(),
-            ));
-            let fragments_before = ds
-                .get_fragments()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
                 .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(if insert {
-                    WhenNotMatched::InsertAll
-                } else {
-                    WhenNotMatched::DoNothing
-                })
-                .try_build()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                    source.schema(),
+                )))
+                .await
                 .unwrap();
 
-            let (ds, stats) = job.execute_reader(reader).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+        let count = updated_ds
+            .count_rows(Some("a = 1 AND b = 20 AND value = 999".to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(count, 1);
+    }
 
-            // Should not rewrite the affected data files
-            let fragments_after = ds
-                .get_fragments()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            assert_eq!(
-                fragments_before.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-                fragments_after
-                    .iter()
-                    .take(fragments_before.len())
-                    .map(|f| f.id)
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            );
-            // Only the second and third fragment should be different.
-            assert_eq!(fragments_before[0], fragments_after[0]);
-            assert_ne!(fragments_before[1], fragments_after[1]);
-            assert_ne!(fragments_before[2], fragments_after[2]);
-            assert_eq!(fragments_before[3], fragments_after[3]);
-
-            let has_added_files = |frag: &Fragment| {
-                assert_eq!(frag.files.len(), 2);
-                let data_files = &frag.files;
-                // Updated columns should be only columns in new data files
-                // -2 field ids are tombstoned.
-                assert_eq!(&data_files[0].fields, &[0, -2, -2]);
-                assert_eq!(&data_files[1].fields, &[2, 1]);
-            };
-            has_added_files(&fragments_after[1]);
-            has_added_files(&fragments_after[2]);
+    /// Composite-key merge_insert must use standard SQL NULL semantics
+    /// (NULL != NULL) on the post-filter hash join so its behavior is
+    /// identical to the full-scan path; otherwise enabling the indexed
+    /// path for multi-column joins would silently change semantics.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_composite_key_null_semantics() {
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [Some(1)]),
+            ("b", Utf8, [Option::<&str>::None]),
+            ("value", Int32, [Some(10)])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-            if insert {
-                assert_eq!(fragments_after.len(), 5);
-                assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 2);
-            } else {
-                assert_eq!(fragments_after.len(), 4);
-                assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
-            }
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, (new_data.num_rows() - 2) as u64);
-            assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+        ds.create_index(
+            &["a"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-            let data = ds
-                .scan()
-                .scan_in_order(true)
-                .try_into_batch()
+        let source = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [Some(1)]),
+            ("b", Utf8, [Option::<&str>::None]),
+            ("value", Int32, [Some(99)])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let (updated_ds, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                    source.schema(),
+                )))
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), if insert { 1024 + 2 } else { 1024 });
-            assert_eq!(data.num_columns(), 3);
 
-            let values = data
-                .column(1)
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
-                .unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(values.value(0), 0);
-            assert_eq!(values.value(256), 1024);
-            assert_eq!(values.value(512), 512);
-            assert_eq!(values.value(715), 1024 + new_data.num_rows() as u32 - 3);
-            if insert {
-                assert_eq!(values.value(1024), 1024 + new_data.num_rows() as u32 - 2);
-            }
-        }
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 2);
     }
 
-    // For some reason, Windows isn't able to handle the timeout test. Possibly
-    // a performance bug in their timer implementation?
-    #[cfg(not(windows))]
-    #[rstest::rstest]
-    #[case::all_success(Duration::from_secs(100_000))]
-    #[case::timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))]
+    /// Composite-key merge_insert where new (unindexed) fragments are
+    /// appended after the indices were built.  The indexed take only sees
+    /// fragments covered by every chosen index, so the unindexed remainder
+    /// must be unioned in via a full scan — otherwise updates to rows
+    /// that live in those fragments are silently dropped.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_concurrency(#[case] timeout: Duration) {
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
-        ]));
-        // To benchmark scaling curve: measure how long to run
-        //
-        // And vary `concurrency` to see how it scales. Compare this again `main`.
-        let concurrency = 10;
-        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..concurrency)),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
-                    0,
-                    concurrency as usize,
-                ))),
-            ],
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_composite_key_unindexed_fragments() {
+        let first = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 2]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 20]),
+            ("value", Int32, [100, 200])
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let schema = first.schema();
 
-        // Increase likelihood of contention by throttling the store
-        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
-            config: ThrottleConfig {
-                // For benchmarking: Increase this to simulate object storage.
-                wait_list_per_call: Duration::from_millis(20),
-                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(20),
-                wait_put_per_call: Duration::from_millis(20),
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(first.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
                 ..Default::default()
-            },
-        });
-        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .with_params(&WriteParams {
-                store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
-                    object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-                session: Some(session.clone()),
-                ..Default::default()
-            })
-            .execute(vec![initial_data])
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        ds.create_index(&["a"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.create_index(&["b"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // do merge inserts in parallel based on the concurrency. Each will open the dataset,
-        // signal they have opened, and then wait for a signal to proceed. Once the signal
-        // is received, they will do a merge insert and close the dataset.
+        // Append a fragment AFTER both indices are built.  The new (3, 30)
+        // row lives in a fragment neither index covers, so the indexed
+        // take alone would miss it.
+        let appended = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [3]),
+            ("b", Int32, [30]),
+            ("value", Int32, [300])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        ds.append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let barrier = Arc::new(Barrier::new(concurrency as usize));
-        let mut handles = Vec::new();
-        for i in 0..concurrency {
-            let session_ref = session.clone();
-            let schema_ref = schema.clone();
-            let barrier_ref = barrier.clone();
-            let throttled_ref = throttled.clone();
-            let handle = tokio::task::spawn(async move {
-                let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://")
-                    .with_read_params(ReadParams {
-                        store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
-                            object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled_ref.clone()),
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        }),
-                        session: Some(session_ref.clone()),
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    })
-                    .load()
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
-                let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        // Source updates one row in the indexed fragment AND one row in
+        // the appended (unindexed) fragment.
+        let source = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 3]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 30]),
+            ("value", Int32, [999, 333])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-                let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                    schema_ref.clone(),
-                    vec![
-                        Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![i])),
-                        Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
-                    ],
-                )
+        let (updated_ds, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                    source.schema(),
+                )))
+                .await
                 .unwrap();
-                let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_data)], schema_ref.clone()));
 
-                let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-                    .conflict_retries(100)
-                    .retry_timeout(timeout)
-                    .try_build()
-                    .unwrap();
-                barrier_ref.wait().await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_updated_rows, 2,
+            "row in the unindexed fragment must also be updated"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+    }
 
-                job.execute_reader(source)
-                    .await
-                    .map(|(_ds, stats)| stats.num_attempts)
-            });
-            handles.push(handle);
-        }
+    /// Composite-key delete-only merge_insert (`when_matched(Delete)`,
+    /// `when_not_matched_by_source(Keep)`) removes the matched rows for every
+    /// combination of which join columns carry a scalar index, including when
+    /// every column is indexed.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::index_on_both(true, true)]
+    #[case::index_on_first(true, false)]
+    #[case::index_on_second(false, true)]
+    #[case::no_index(false, false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_composite_key_delete(
+        #[case] index_on_a: bool,
+        #[case] index_on_b: bool,
+    ) {
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 1, 2, 2]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 20, 10, 20]),
+            ("value", Int32, [100, 200, 300, 400])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-        let results = try_join_all(handles).await.unwrap();
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        for attempts in results.iter() {
-            match attempts {
-                Ok(attempts) => {
-                    assert!(*attempts <= 10, "Attempt count should be <= 10");
-                }
-                Err(err) => {
-                    // If we get an error, it means the task was cancelled
-                    // due to timeout. This is expected if the timeout is
-                    // set to a low value.
-                    assert!(
-                        matches!(err, Error::TooMuchWriteContention { message, .. } if message.contains("failed on retry_timeout")),
-                        "Expected TooMuchWriteContention error, got: {:?}",
-                        err
-                    );
-                }
-            }
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        if index_on_a {
+            ds.create_index(&["a"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        if index_on_b {
+            ds.create_index(&["b"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
         }
 
-        if timeout.as_secs() > 10 {
-            dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-            let batches = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        // Delete (1, 10) by composite key.  Only key columns in the source.
+        let source = record_batch!(("a", Int32, [1]), ("b", Int32, [10])).unwrap();
 
-            let values = batches["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
-            assert!(
-                values.values().iter().all(|&v| v == 1),
-                "All values should be 1 after merge insert. Got: {:?}",
-                values
-            );
-        }
+        let (updated_ds, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                    source.schema(),
+                )))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 1, "matched row must be deleted");
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("a = 1 AND b = 10".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            0,
+            "(1, 10) must be gone after the delete"
+        );
+        // The sibling key (1, 20) must remain untouched.
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("a = 1 AND b = 20 AND value = 200".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            1,
+        );
     }
 
+    /// Delete-only merge_insert on a single indexed key removes the matched
+    /// rows (the indexed path is not exclusive to composite keys).
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_large_concurrent() {
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
-        ]));
-        let num_rows = 10;
-        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows)),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
-                    0,
-                    num_rows as usize,
-                ))),
-            ],
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_single_key_delete() {
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [1, 2, 3, 4]),
+            ("value", Int32, [10, 20, 30, 40])
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-        // Adding latency helps ensure we get contention
-        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
-            config: ThrottleConfig {
-                wait_list_per_call: Duration::from_millis(10),
-                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(10),
-                ..Default::default()
-            },
-        });
-        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
-
-        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .with_params(&WriteParams {
-                store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
-                    object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-                session: Some(session.clone()),
-                ..Default::default()
-            })
-            .execute(vec![initial_data])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Start one merge insert, but don't commit it yet.
-        let new_data1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
-            ],
+        ds.create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
         )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
-        let UncommittedMergeInsert {
-            transaction: transaction1,
-            ..
-        } = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+
+        let source = record_batch!(("id", Int32, [2, 4])).unwrap();
+
+        let (updated_ds, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap()
-            .execute_uncommitted(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                vec![Ok(new_data1)],
-                schema.clone(),
-            ))
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                source.schema(),
+            )))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Setup a "large" merge insert, with many batches
-        let new_data2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..1000)),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(2, 1000))),
-            ],
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("id = 2 OR id = 4".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            0,
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `when_matched(Fail)` on an indexed key aborts the operation when a
+    /// source row matches an existing key, and inserts cleanly when none do.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_when_matched_fail() {
+        let initial =
+            record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2, 3]), ("value", Int32, [10, 20, 30])).unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
+
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
         )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
-        let notify = Arc::new(Notify::new());
-        let source = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            (0..10)
-                .map(|i| {
-                    let batch = new_data2.slice(i * 100, 100);
-                    if i == 9 {
-                        notify.notify_one();
-                    }
-                    Ok(batch)
-                })
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            schema.clone(),
-        );
-        let dataset2 = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://")
-            .with_read_params(ReadParams {
-                store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
-                    object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-                session: Some(session.clone()),
-                ..Default::default()
-            })
-            .load()
+
+        ds.create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+
+        // A source row matching an existing key must fail the operation.
+        let matching = record_batch!(("id", Int32, [2]), ("value", Int32, [999])).unwrap();
+        let err = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Fail)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(matching.clone())],
+                matching.schema(),
+            )))
             .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset2), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap_err();
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains("Merge insert failed"), "got: {msg}");
+        assert!(msg.contains("found matching row"), "got: {msg}");
+
+        // A source with no matching key inserts without failing.
+        let new_rows = record_batch!(("id", Int32, [4]), ("value", Int32, [40])).unwrap();
+        let (updated_ds, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Fail)
             .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap()
-            .execute_reader(source);
-        let task = tokio::task::spawn(job);
-
-        // Right as the large merge insert has finished reading the last batch,
-        // we will commit the first merge insert. This should trigger a conflict,
-        // but we should resolve it automatically.
-        notify.notified().await;
-        let mut dataset = CommitBuilder::new(dataset)
-            .execute(transaction1)
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(new_rows.clone())],
+                new_rows.schema(),
+            )))
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        task.await.unwrap().unwrap();
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-
-        let batches = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        let values = batches["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
-        assert!(
-            values.values().iter().all(|&v| v == 2),
-            "All values should be 1 after merge insert. Got: {:?}",
-            values
-        );
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 4);
     }
 
+    /// Fully-indexed composite-key `when_matched(Delete)` combined with
+    /// `when_not_matched(InsertAll)` must both delete matched rows and write
+    /// the inserted rows.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_updates_indices() {
-        let test_dataset = async || {
-            let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-                .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-                .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-                .col("other_value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-                .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(4), FragmentRowCount::from(20))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_composite_key_delete_with_insert() {
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 1, 2, 2]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 20, 10, 20]),
+            ("value", Int32, [100, 200, 300, 400])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-            dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["id"],
-                    IndexType::BTree,
-                    None,
-                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                    false,
-                )
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        ds.create_index(&["a"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.create_index(&["b"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Source matches (1, 10) -> delete, and (3, 30) is new -> insert.
+        let source = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 3]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 30]),
+            ("value", Int32, [999, 333])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let (updated_ds, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                    source.schema(),
+                )))
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
-            dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["value"],
-                    IndexType::BTree,
-                    None,
-                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                    false,
-                )
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+        // 4 - 1 deleted + 1 inserted = 4.
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("a = 1 AND b = 10".to_string()))
                 .await
-                .unwrap();
-            dataset
-                .create_index(
-                    &["other_value"],
-                    IndexType::BTree,
-                    None,
-                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                    false,
-                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            0,
+            "matched row must be deleted, not updated"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("a = 3 AND b = 30 AND value = 333".to_string()))
                 .await
-                .unwrap();
-            Arc::new(dataset)
-        };
+                .unwrap(),
+            1,
+            "unmatched source row must be inserted"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let check_indices = async |dataset: &Dataset, id_frags: &[u32], value_frags: &[u32]| {
-            let id_index = dataset
-                .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name("id_idx"))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    /// A delete whose source contains duplicate keys matching the same target
+    /// row applies `source_dedupe_behavior` on the indexed-scan path, exactly
+    /// like an update: the default `Fail` aborts (naming the ambiguous key),
+    /// while `FirstSeen` removes and counts the row once and reports the extra
+    /// match as a skipped duplicate.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::fail(SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail)]
+    #[case::first_seen(SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_delete_source_duplicates(
+        #[case] behavior: SourceDedupeBehavior,
+    ) {
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 1, 2, 2]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 20, 10, 20]),
+            ("value", Int32, [100, 200, 300, 400])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-            if id_frags.is_empty() {
-                assert!(id_index.is_none());
-            } else {
-                let id_index = id_index.unwrap();
-                let id_frags_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::from_iter(id_frags.iter().copied());
-                // Fragment bitmaps are now immutable, so we check the effective bitmap
-                let effective_bitmap = id_index
-                    .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
-                    .unwrap();
-                assert_eq!(effective_bitmap, id_frags_bitmap);
-            }
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-            let value_index = dataset
-                .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name("value_idx"))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        // Index every join column so the merge takes the indexed-scan delete path.
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        ds.create_index(&["a"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.create_index(&["b"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            if value_frags.is_empty() {
-                assert!(value_index.is_none());
-            } else {
-                let value_index = value_index.unwrap();
-                let value_frags_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::from_iter(value_frags.iter().copied());
-                // Fragment bitmaps are now immutable, so we check the effective bitmap
-                let effective_bitmap = value_index
-                    .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
-                    .unwrap();
-                assert_eq!(effective_bitmap, value_frags_bitmap);
-            }
+        // Two source rows collide on the same target key (1, 10).
+        let source = record_batch!(("a", Int32, [1, 1]), ("b", Int32, [10, 10])).unwrap();
 
-            let other_value_index = dataset
-                .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name("other_value_idx"))
-                .await
+        let result =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
                 .unwrap()
-                .unwrap();
-
-            // With immutable fragment bitmaps, the other_value index behavior is:
-            // - Its fragment bitmap is never updated (it retains the original [0,1,2,3])
-            // - The effective bitmap reflects what fragments are still valid for the index
-            // - For partial merges that don't include other_value, the index remains fully valid
-            let effective_bitmap = other_value_index
-                .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
-                .unwrap();
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .source_dedupe_behavior(behavior)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                    source.schema(),
+                )))
+                .await;
 
-            // The effective bitmap is the intersection of the index's original bitmap
-            // and the current dataset fragments. Since other_value is not modified by
-            // partial merges, it retains its validity for fragments it was originally trained on
-            // that still exist in the dataset.
-            let index_bitmap = other_value_index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
-            let expected_bitmap = index_bitmap & dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
-            assert_eq!(
-                effective_bitmap,
-                expected_bitmap,
-                "other_value index effective bitmap should be intersection. index_bitmap: {:?}, dataset_fragments: {:?}, effective_bitmap: {:?}",
-                index_bitmap,
-                dataset.fragment_bitmap,
-                effective_bitmap
+        if behavior == SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail {
+            let err = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+            assert!(
+                err.contains("Ambiguous merge inserts") && err.contains("a = 1"),
+                "Fail must abort naming the ambiguous key, got: {err}"
             );
-        };
+            return;
+        }
 
-        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
+        let (updated_ds, stats) = result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_skipped_duplicates, 1);
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("a = 1 AND b = 10".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            0,
+            "the matched row must be removed exactly once"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Sanity test on the initial dataset
-        check_indices(&dataset, &[0, 1, 2, 3], &[0, 1, 2, 3]).await;
+    /// The v2 plans apply the same `source_dedupe_behavior` to deletes when the
+    /// source has duplicate keys matching one target row — covering both
+    /// `FullSchemaMergeInsertExec` (`Delete + InsertAll`) and
+    /// `DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec` (pure delete). No scalar index, so routing
+    /// stays on the v2 path.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::full_schema_fail(true, SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail)]
+    #[case::full_schema_first_seen(true, SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen)]
+    #[case::delete_only_fail(false, SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail)]
+    #[case::delete_only_first_seen(false, SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v2_merge_insert_delete_source_duplicates(
+        #[case] with_insert: bool,
+        #[case] behavior: SourceDedupeBehavior,
+    ) {
+        let initial =
+            record_batch!(("a", Int32, [1, 2, 3]), ("value", Int32, [10, 20, 30])).unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-        // Vertical merge insert (full schema), one fragment is deleted and should be removed from
-        // the index.
-        let merge_insert = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
+        let ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let (dataset, _) = merge_insert
-            .execute_reader(
-                lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-                    .col("id", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
-                    .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
-                    .col("other_value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
-                    .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(40), BatchCount::from(1)),
+        // Two source rows collide on target key a=1. With insert, a=4 is new.
+        let (source, when_not_matched, expected_inserted, expected_total) = if with_insert {
+            (
+                record_batch!(("a", Int32, [1, 1, 4]), ("value", Int32, [99, 99, 40])).unwrap(),
+                WhenNotMatched::InsertAll,
+                1,
+                3, // 3 - 1 deleted + 1 inserted
             )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Fragment 3 removed and correctly removed from the index bitmap.
-        check_indices(&dataset, &[0, 1, 2], &[0, 1, 2]).await;
-
-        // Now we do the same thing with a partial merge insert (only id and value)
-        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
+        } else {
+            (
+                record_batch!(("a", Int32, [1, 1])).unwrap(),
+                WhenNotMatched::DoNothing,
+                0,
+                2, // 3 - 1 deleted
+            )
+        };
 
-        // Vertical merge insert (full schema), one fragment is deleted and should be removed from
-        // the index.
-        let merge_insert = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+        let result = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(when_not_matched)
+            .source_dedupe_behavior(behavior)
             .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                source.schema(),
+            )))
+            .await;
 
-        let (dataset, _) = merge_insert
-            .execute_reader(
-                lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-                    .col("id", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
-                    .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
-                    .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(40), BatchCount::from(1)),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Fragment 3 is fully removed.  We could keep it technically but today it is removed
-        // which is also fine.  Fragment 2 is partially and must be removed.
-        //
-        // TODO: We should not be modifying the id_index here.  A merge_insert should not need
-        // to rewrite the id field.  However, it seems we are doing that today.  This should be
-        // fixed in
-        check_indices(&dataset, &[0, 1], &[0, 1]).await;
-
-        // One more test but this time we touch all fragments which causes the index to be removed
-        // entirely.
-        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
-
-        // Vertical merge insert (full schema), one fragment is deleted and should be removed from
-        // the index.
-        let merge_insert = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let (dataset, _) = merge_insert
-            .execute_reader(
-                lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-                    .col("id", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 1))
-                    .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 1))
-                    .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(80), BatchCount::from(1)),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        if behavior == SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail {
+            let err = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+            assert!(
+                err.contains("Ambiguous merge inserts") && err.contains("a = 1"),
+                "Fail must abort naming the ambiguous key, got: {err}"
+            );
+            return;
+        }
 
-        check_indices(&dataset, &[], &[]).await;
+        let (updated_ds, stats) = result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 1, "the matched row is removed once");
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_skipped_duplicates, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, expected_inserted);
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), expected_total);
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("a = 1".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            0,
+            "the matched row must be removed exactly once"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// A partial-schema source that combines `when_matched(Delete)` with
+    /// `when_not_matched(InsertAll)` must succeed even when every join key is
+    /// indexed. The indexed-scan delete path cannot fold a delete into a
+    /// partial write, so this case routes to the v2 plan (which fills omitted
+    /// nullable target columns) instead of being rejected.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_upsert_concurrent_full_frag() {
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_partial_schema_delete_with_insert() {
+        // Target carries two nullable non-key columns; the source omits `note`.
+        let full_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+            Field::new("note", DataType::Utf8, true),
         ]));
-        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
+        let full_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            full_schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 1, 2, 2])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 10, 20])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 200, 300, 400])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["w", "x", "y", "z"])),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Increase likelihood of contention by throttling the store
-        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
-            config: ThrottleConfig {
-                wait_list_per_call: Duration::from_millis(5),
-                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(5),
-                wait_put_per_call: Duration::from_millis(5),
-                ..Default::default()
-            },
-        });
-        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(full_batch)], full_schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .with_params(&WriteParams {
-                store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
-                    object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-                session: Some(session.clone()),
-                ..Default::default()
-            })
-            .execute(vec![initial_data])
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        ds.create_index(&["a"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Each merge insert will update one row. Combined, they should delete
-        // all rows in the first fragment, and it should be dropped.
-        let barrier = Arc::new(Barrier::new(2));
-        let mut handles = Vec::new();
-        for i in 0..2 {
-            let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                schema.clone(),
-                vec![
-                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![i])),
-                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
-                ],
-            )
+        ds.create_index(&["b"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
             .unwrap();
-            let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_data)], schema.clone()));
 
-            let dataset_ref = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
-            let barrier = barrier.clone();
-            let handle = tokio::spawn(async move {
-                barrier.wait().await;
-                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset_ref, vec!["id".to_string()])
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-                    .try_build()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .execute_reader(source)
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
-            });
-            handles.push(handle);
-        }
-        try_join_all(handles).await.unwrap();
+        // Source deletes matched (1, 10) and inserts new (3, 30), omitting `note`.
+        let partial_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            partial_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 3])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 30])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![999, 333])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            dataset
-                .get_fragments()
-                .iter()
-                .all(|f| f.metadata().num_rows().unwrap() > 0),
-            "No fragments should have zero rows after upsert"
-        );
+        let (updated_ds, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                    source.schema(),
+                )))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let batches = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        let values = batches["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
-        assert!(
-            values.values().iter().all(|&v| v == 1),
-            "All values should be 1 after merge insert. Got: {:?}",
-            values
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+        // 4 - 1 deleted + 1 inserted = 4.
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("a = 1 AND b = 10".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            0,
+            "matched row must be deleted, not updated"
+        );
+        // Inserted row carries the omitted `note` column as NULL.
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some(
+                    "a = 3 AND b = 30 AND value = 333 AND note IS NULL".to_string()
+                ))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            1,
+            "unmatched source row must be inserted with omitted column NULL-filled"
         );
     }
 
+    /// Fully-indexed composite-key delete across multiple fragments, with
+    /// stable row ids on/off.  Exercises the indexed-scan delete commit
+    /// path: matched row ids are resolved to addresses (via the row-id
+    /// index when stable) and removed without rewriting any fragments.
+    /// Also covers an appended fragment that neither index covers, so the
+    /// delete must reach rows via the unindexed-remainder union too.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case(true)]
+    #[case(false)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_plan_upsert() {
-        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
-            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
-        let data = data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1024), BatchCount::from(32));
-        let _schema = data.schema();
+    async fn test_indexed_merge_insert_composite_key_delete_multi_fragment(
+        #[case] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [1, 1, 2, 2]),
+            ("b", Int32, [10, 20, 10, 20]),
+            ("value", Int32, [100, 200, 300, 400])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
 
-        // Create dataset with initial data
-        let ds = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        // One row per fragment so the delete spans multiple fragments.
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                enable_stable_row_ids,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Create upsert job
-        let merge_insert_job =
-            crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["key".to_string()])
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        ds.create_index(&["a"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds.create_index(&["b"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Append a row AFTER the indices are built so it lives in a fragment
+        // neither index covers.  The delete must still reach it.
+        let appended = record_batch!(
+            ("a", Int32, [3]),
+            ("b", Int32, [30]),
+            ("value", Int32, [500])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        ds.append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Delete an indexed row (1, 10) and the unindexed appended row (3, 30).
+        let source = record_batch!(("a", Int32, [1, 3]), ("b", Int32, [10, 30])).unwrap();
+
+        let (updated_ds, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
                 .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
                 .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                    source.schema(),
+                )))
+                .await
                 .unwrap();
 
-        // Create new data for upsert
-        let new_data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(2))
-            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
-        let new_data = new_data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(512), BatchCount::from(16));
-        let new_data_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(new_data));
-
-        let plan = merge_insert_job.create_plan(new_data_stream).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Assert the plan structure using portable plan matching
-        // The optimized plan should have:
-        // 1. FullSchemaMergeInsertExec at the top
-        // 2. ProjectionExec that creates action with key validation (source.key IS NOT NULL)
-        // 3. ProjectionExec that creates the common expression for key validation
-        // 4. HashJoin with projection optimization
-        // 5. LanceScan that only reads the key column (projection pushdown working!)
-        assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "MergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep
-  CoalescePartitionsExec
-    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@1 as _rowid, _rowaddr@2 as _rowaddr, value@3 as value, key@4 as key, CASE WHEN __common_expr_1@0 AND _rowaddr@2 IS NULL THEN 2 WHEN __common_expr_1@0 AND _rowaddr@2 IS NOT NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END as __action]
-      ProjectionExec: expr=[key@3 IS NOT NULL as __common_expr_1, _rowid@0 as _rowid, _rowaddr@1 as _rowaddr, value@2 as value, key@3 as key]
-        CoalesceBatchesExec...
-          HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Right, on=[(key@0, key@1)], projection=[_rowid@1, _rowaddr@2, value@3, key@4]
-            CooperativeExec
-              LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[key], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
-              row_id=true, row_addr=true, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--
-            RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(...), input_partitions=1
-              StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[value, key]"
-        ).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("(a = 1 AND b = 10) OR (a = 3 AND b = 30)".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            0,
+            "both matched rows must be gone"
+        );
+        // Untouched rows survive with their original values.
+        assert_eq!(
+            updated_ds
+                .count_rows(Some("a = 2 AND b = 20 AND value = 400".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            1,
+        );
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_fast_path_update_only() {
-        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
-            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
-        let data = data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1024), BatchCount::from(32));
+    /// Composite-key `MapIndexExec` formats its Display so plans expose
+    /// every probed column, and `with_new_children` round-trips the full
+    /// lookup list rather than collapsing back to a single-column form.
+    /// Lives here (not in scalar_index.rs's tests) so the new lines don't
+    /// pile up in a file with pending upstream conflicts.
+    #[test]
+    fn map_index_exec_multi_lookup_plan_shape() {
+        use crate::io::exec::scalar_index::{IndexLookup, MapIndexExec, ScalarIndexExec};
+        use crate::utils::test::NoContextTestFixture;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, displayable};
+        use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{
+            SargableQuery,
+            expression::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch},
+        };
+        use lance_select::result::IndexExprResultWireFormat;
+
+        let fixture = NoContextTestFixture::new();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(fixture.dataset);
+
+        let dummy_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(ScalarIndexExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+                column: "ordered".to_string(),
+                index_name: "ordered_idx".to_string(),
+                index_type: "BTree".to_string(),
+                query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(1)))),
+                needs_recheck: false,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+            }),
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::default(),
+        ));
 
-        // Create dataset with initial data
-        let ds = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        let lookups = vec![
+            IndexLookup::new("a", "a_idx"),
+            IndexLookup::new("b", "b_idx"),
+        ];
+        let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(MapIndexExec::new_multi(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            lookups,
+            dummy_input.clone(),
+        ));
 
-        // Create update-only job (insert_not_matched = false)
-        let merge_insert_job =
-            crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["key".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(crate::dataset::WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap();
+        let rendered = format!("{}", displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(false));
+        assert!(
+            rendered.contains("IndexedLookup [a, b]"),
+            "multi-lookup Display must list every probed column, got: {rendered}",
+        );
 
-        // Create new data for update
-        let new_data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(2))
-            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
-        let new_data = new_data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(512), BatchCount::from(16));
-        let new_data_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(new_data));
+        let rebuilt = plan
+            .with_new_children(vec![dummy_input.clone()])
+            .expect("with_new_children must accept exactly one child");
+        let rebuilt_rendered = format!("{}", displayable(rebuilt.as_ref()).indent(false));
+        assert!(
+            rebuilt_rendered.contains("IndexedLookup [a, b]"),
+            "with_new_children must preserve every lookup, got: {rebuilt_rendered}",
+        );
 
-        // This should use the fast path (execute_uncommitted_v2)
-        let plan = merge_insert_job.create_plan(new_data_stream).await.unwrap();
-
-        // The optimized plan should use Inner join instead of Right join
-        // since we're not inserting unmatched rows
-        assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "MergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=DoNothing, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep
-  CoalescePartitionsExec
-    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@0 as _rowid, _rowaddr@1 as _rowaddr, value@2 as value, key@3 as key, CASE WHEN key@3 IS NOT NULL AND _rowaddr@1 IS NOT NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END as __action]
-      CoalesceBatchesExec...
-        HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Inner, on=[(key@0, key@1)], projection=[_rowid@1, _rowaddr@2, value@3, key@4]
-          CooperativeExec
-            LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[key], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=true, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--
-          RepartitionExec...
-            StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[value, key]"
-        ).await.unwrap();
-    }
+        // The single-lookup convenience constructor still renders without
+        // the column list, so existing EXPLAIN output is unchanged for
+        // single-column joins.
+        let single: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(MapIndexExec::new(
+            dataset,
+            "ordered".to_string(),
+            "ordered_idx".to_string(),
+            dummy_input,
+        ));
+        let single_rendered = format!("{}", displayable(single.as_ref()).indent(false));
+        assert!(
+            single_rendered.contains("IndexedLookup")
+                && !single_rendered.contains("IndexedLookup ["),
+            "single-lookup Display must not include the column list, got: {single_rendered}",
+        );
+    }
 
+    /// The probe loop orders join keys by how many distinct values the source
+    /// batch holds for them, so writing a composite key coarse-to-fine
+    /// (`["bucket", "id"]`) does not make the coarse probe run first and
+    /// materialize a candidate set the size of the table.
+    ///
+    /// Asserted on the emitted candidate count, which is the only observable
+    /// that says which probe ran: `IndexMetrics` has no per-probe counter and
+    /// is shared across lookups. Probing the selective key first leaves 4
+    /// candidates and stops, because 4 is already down to the source batch
+    /// size; following the caller's order instead would probe `bucket` first
+    /// (8 candidates, no stop), then intersect down to the 2 exact matches. So
+    /// the larger count is the cheaper plan — one probe instead of two — and
+    /// the surplus is trimmed by the full-key join downstream. A regression in
+    /// the ordering shows up here as 2.
+    ///
+    /// Sits with the other composite-key merge_insert tests, next to
+    /// `map_index_exec_multi_lookup_plan_shape`: probe ordering only matters on
+    /// the composite-key indexed path, and this is where that path is covered.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_fast_path_conditional_update() {
-        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
-            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
-        let data = data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1024), BatchCount::from(32));
-
-        // Create dataset with initial data
-        let ds = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Create conditional update job (WhenMatched::UpdateIf)
-        let merge_insert_job = crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(
-            Arc::new(ds.clone()),
-            vec!["key".to_string()],
+    async fn map_index_exec_probes_most_selective_key_first() {
+        use crate::io::exec::scalar_index::{IndexLookup, MapIndexExec};
+        use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+        use lance_datafusion::exec::OneShotExec;
+
+        // `id` is unique; `bucket` takes two values, so a `bucket` probe alone
+        // reaches half the table while pruning almost nothing.
+        let initial = record_batch!(
+            (
+                "id",
+                Int32,
+                [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]
+            ),
+            (
+                "bucket",
+                Int32,
+                [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]
+            )
         )
-        .unwrap()
-        .when_matched(crate::dataset::WhenMatched::update_if(&ds, "source.value > 20").unwrap())
-        .when_not_matched(crate::dataset::WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = initial.schema();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial)], schema),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Create new data for conditional update
-        let new_data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(2))
-            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
-        let new_data_reader = new_data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(512), BatchCount::from(16));
-        let new_data_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(new_data_reader));
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        for column in ["id", "bucket"] {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &[column],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some(format!("{column}_idx")),
+                    &params,
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
 
-        let plan = merge_insert_job.create_plan(new_data_stream).await.unwrap();
+        // Columns are in lookup order, which is the deliberately bad one: the
+        // coarse key first. Only ids 0 and 2 also sit in bucket 0, so the exact
+        // composite match is 2 rows.
+        let probe =
+            record_batch!(("bucket", Int32, [0, 0, 0, 0]), ("id", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3])).unwrap();
+        let source_rows = probe.num_rows();
+        let plan = MapIndexExec::new_multi(
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            vec![
+                IndexLookup::new("bucket", "bucket_idx"),
+                IndexLookup::new("id", "id_idx"),
+            ],
+            Arc::new(OneShotExec::from_batch(probe)),
+        );
 
-        // The optimized plan should use Inner join and include the UpdateIf condition
-        assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "MergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=UpdateIf(source.value > 20), when_not_matched=DoNothing, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep
-  CoalescePartitionsExec
-    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@0 as _rowid, _rowaddr@1 as _rowaddr, value@2 as value, key@3 as key, CASE WHEN key@3 IS NOT NULL AND _rowaddr@1 IS NOT NULL AND value@2 > 20 THEN 1 ELSE 0 END as __action]
-      CoalesceBatchesExec...
-        HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Inner, on=[(key@0, key@1)], projection=[_rowid@1, _rowaddr@2, value@3, key@4]
-          CooperativeExec
-            LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[key], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=true, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--
-          RepartitionExec...
-            StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[value, key]"
-        ).await.unwrap();
-    }
+        let mut stream = plan
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut candidates = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(batch) = stream.next().await {
+            let batch = batch.unwrap();
+            candidates.extend(
+                batch
+                    .column(0)
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied(),
+            );
+        }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_skip_auto_cleanup() {
-        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/{}", tmpdir, "test_dataset");
+        assert_eq!(
+            candidates.len(),
+            source_rows,
+            "the selective key must be probed first and stop the loop, leaving \
+             one candidate per source row; {} means the probes ran in `on` order",
+            candidates.len()
+        );
+        // Whatever the order, the candidate set has to cover the exact matches.
+        for row_addr in [0_u64, 2] {
+            assert!(
+                candidates.contains(&row_addr),
+                "candidate set must contain exact match at row {row_addr}: {candidates:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Create initial dataset with auto cleanup interval of 1 version
-        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
-            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+    mod subcols {
+        use super::*;
+        use rstest::rstest;
 
-        let mut auto_cleanup_params = HashMap::new();
-        auto_cleanup_params.insert("lance.auto_cleanup.interval".to_string(), "1".to_string());
-        auto_cleanup_params.insert(
-            "lance.auto_cleanup.older_than".to_string(),
-            "0ms".to_string(),
-        );
+        struct Fixtures {
+            ds: Arc<Dataset>,
+            new_data: RecordBatch,
+        }
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            mode: WriteMode::Create,
-            auto_cleanup: Some(crate::dataset::AutoCleanupParams {
-                interval: 1,
-                older_than: chrono::TimeDelta::try_milliseconds(0).unwrap(),
-            }),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+        async fn setup(scalar_index: bool) -> Fixtures {
+            let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
+                .col("other", array::rand_utf8(4.into(), false))
+                .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+                .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
+            let batch = data.into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(1024 + 2)).unwrap();
+            let batch1 = batch.slice(0, 512);
+            let batch2 = batch.slice(512, 512);
+            let batch3 = batch.slice(1024, 2);
+            let schema = batch.schema();
 
-        // Start at 1 second after epoch
-        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(1));
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(batch1.clone())],
+                schema.clone(),
+            ));
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 256,
+                max_rows_per_group: 32, // Non-standard group size to hit edge cases
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let mut ds = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", Some(write_params.clone()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(data, &dataset_uri, Some(write_params))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 1);
+            if scalar_index {
+                let index_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+                ds.create_index(&["key"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &index_params, false)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
 
-        // Advance time
-        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(2));
+            // Another two files, not in the scalar index (if there is one)
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(batch2.clone())],
+                batch2.schema(),
+            ));
+            ds.append(reader, Some(write_params)).await.unwrap();
 
-        // First merge insert WITHOUT skip_auto_cleanup - should trigger cleanup
-        let new_data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(2))
-            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(1));
+            let ds = Arc::new(ds);
 
-        let (dataset2, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap()
-            .execute(new_data)
-            .await
+            // New data with only a subset of columns
+            let update_schema = Arc::new(schema.project(&[2, 1]).unwrap());
+            // Full second file and part of third file. Also two more new rows.
+            let indices: Int64Array = (256..512).chain(600..612).chain([712, 715]).collect();
+            let keys = arrow::compute::take(batch["key"].as_ref(), &indices, None).unwrap();
+            let keys = arrow::compute::concat(&[&keys, &batch3["key"]]).unwrap();
+            let num_rows = keys.len();
+            let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                update_schema,
+                vec![
+                    keys,
+                    Arc::new((1024..(1024 + num_rows as u32)).collect::<UInt32Array>()),
+                ],
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset2.version().version, 2);
+            Fixtures { ds, new_data }
+        }
 
-        // Advance time
-        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(3));
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_delete_not_matched_by_source_on_v2_subcols() {
+            // Historical note: this combination used to be rejected outright
+            // on the v1 subcols path because v1 could not delete by source
+            // while rewriting only a subset of columns. The v2 path handles
+            // it uniformly through the action column, so the previously-
+            // rejected configuration now succeeds. This test asserts the
+            // successful path to keep the negative-test history explicit.
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
 
-        // Need to do another merge insert for cleanup to take effect since cleanup runs on the old dataset
-        let new_data_extra = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(4))
-            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+            let rows_before = ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap() as u64;
 
-        let (dataset2_extra, _) =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset2.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(new_data.clone())],
+                new_data.schema(),
+            ));
+
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
                 .unwrap()
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete)
                 .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
                 .try_build()
-                .unwrap()
-                .execute(new_data_extra)
-                .await
                 .unwrap();
+            // assert_send also pins us to the "returned future is Send"
+            // contract that the previous (negative) version of this test
+            // used to guard.
+            let (updated_ds, stats) = assert_send(job.execute_reader(reader))
+                .await
+                .expect("partial-schema + delete-by-source should succeed on v2");
+
+            // 272 rows in source — 2 of them are inserts (ignored because
+            // when_not_matched is DoNothing), the other 270 match existing
+            // rows and update them. The remaining 754 target rows that are
+            // not matched by the source get deleted.
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 270);
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, rows_before - 270);
+            assert_eq!(
+                updated_ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap() as u64,
+                270,
+                "only the 270 updated rows should remain after the delete-by-source"
+            );
+        }
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset2_extra.version().version, 3);
-
-        // Load the dataset from disk to check versions
-        let ds_check1 = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&dataset_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_errors_on_bad_schema() {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
 
-        // Version 1 should be cleaned up due to auto cleanup (cleanup runs every version)
-        assert!(
-            ds_check1.checkout_version(1).await.is_err(),
-            "Version 1 should have been cleaned up"
-        );
-        // Version 2 should still exist
-        assert!(
-            ds_check1.checkout_version(2).await.is_ok(),
-            "Version 2 should still exist"
-        );
+            // Schema with different names, which should be rejected.
+            let bad_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("wrong_key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                Field::new("wrong_value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            ]));
 
-        // Advance time
-        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(4));
+            // Should reject when data is not a subschema.
+            let bad_batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(bad_schema.clone(), new_data.columns().to_vec()).unwrap();
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(bad_batch)], bad_schema));
 
-        // Second merge insert WITH skip_auto_cleanup - should NOT trigger cleanup
-        let new_data2 = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .with_seed(Seed::from(3))
-            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
-            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(30), BatchCount::from(1));
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+            let res = job.execute_reader(reader).await;
+            assert!(
+                matches!(
+                    &res,
+                    &Err(Error::SchemaMismatch { ref difference, .. })
+                        if difference.clone().contains("fields did not match")
+                ),
+                "Expected SchemaMismatch error, got: {:?}",
+                res
+            );
+        }
 
-        let (dataset3, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset2_extra, vec!["id".to_string()])
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .skip_auto_cleanup(true) // Skip auto cleanup
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap()
-            .execute(new_data2)
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols(
+            #[values(false, true)] scalar_index: bool,
+            #[values(false, true)] insert: bool,
+        ) {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(scalar_index)).await;
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(new_data.clone())],
+                new_data.schema(),
+            ));
+            let fragments_before = ds
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(if insert {
+                    WhenNotMatched::InsertAll
+                } else {
+                    WhenNotMatched::DoNothing
+                })
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let (ds, stats) = job.execute_reader(reader).await.unwrap();
+
+            let fragments_after = ds
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            // Stats are path-independent: 272 source rows = 2 inserts
+            // (if insert) + 270 updates, nothing deleted.
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, (new_data.num_rows() - 2) as u64);
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+            if insert {
+                assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 2);
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+            }
+
+            if scalar_index {
+                // v1 path: partial-schema upserts with a scalar index on the
+                // join key fall back to the in-place Merger that rewrites
+                // only the changed columns. Verify the legacy file-layout
+                // optimization (tombstoned field ids + new partial data
+                // files) is still produced on this path, including
+                // unchanged fragment ids.
+                assert_eq!(
+                    fragments_before.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    fragments_after
+                        .iter()
+                        .take(fragments_before.len())
+                        .map(|f| f.id)
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                );
+                assert_eq!(fragments_before[0], fragments_after[0]);
+                assert_ne!(fragments_before[1], fragments_after[1]);
+                assert_ne!(fragments_before[2], fragments_after[2]);
+                assert_eq!(fragments_before[3], fragments_after[3]);
+
+                let has_added_files = |frag: &Fragment| {
+                    assert_eq!(frag.files.len(), 2);
+                    let data_files = &frag.files;
+                    // Updated columns should be only columns in new data files
+                    // -2 field ids are tombstoned.
+                    assert_eq!(data_files[0].fields.as_ref(), &[0, -2, -2]);
+                    assert_eq!(data_files[1].fields.as_ref(), &[2, 1]);
+                };
+                has_added_files(&fragments_after[1]);
+                has_added_files(&fragments_after[2]);
+
+                if insert {
+                    assert_eq!(fragments_after.len(), 5);
+                } else {
+                    assert_eq!(fragments_after.len(), 4);
+                }
+            } else {
+                // v2 path: partial-schema upserts run through the same
+                // FullSchemaMergeInsertExec as full-schema upserts and
+                // write brand-new fragments. In-place column patching is
+                // opt-in (see the `test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_*`
+                // tests), so the default stays here. Fragment 1 is entirely
+                // matched (all 256 rows) so it is removed; fragment 2 is
+                // partially matched so it keeps its id with a deletion
+                // vector; a new fragment holds the 270 updated rows (and the
+                // 2 inserted rows when `insert` is set).
+                let ids_after: Vec<u64> = fragments_after.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    fragments_after.len(),
+                    4,
+                    "expected [frag 0, frag 2, frag 3, new frag], got {:?}",
+                    ids_after
+                );
+                assert_eq!(
+                    fragments_before[0], fragments_after[0],
+                    "frag 0 (untouched) should be identical"
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    !ids_after.contains(&1),
+                    "frag 1 was fully matched by source and should have been removed"
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    ids_after.contains(&2),
+                    "frag 2 was only partially matched and should still be present"
+                );
+                assert!(
+                    ids_after.contains(&3),
+                    "frag 3 (untouched) should still be present"
+                );
+            }
+
+            // Semantic data check (shared across both code paths): look
+            // rows up by key so we don't depend on the scan-order mechanics
+            // of v1 vs v2. For updated rows, `value` must be the new
+            // source value and `other` must be the original (preserved
+            // from the target). For untouched rows, both columns must be
+            // unchanged.
+            let data = ds
+                .scan()
+                .scan_in_order(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), if insert { 1024 + 2 } else { 1024 });
+            assert_eq!(data.num_columns(), 3);
+
+            use std::collections::HashMap;
+            let other_col = data
+                .column_by_name("other")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let value_col = data
+                .column_by_name("value")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let key_col = data
+                .column_by_name("key")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut row_by_key: HashMap<String, (u32, String)> = HashMap::new();
+            for i in 0..data.num_rows() {
+                row_by_key.insert(
+                    key_col.value(i).to_string(),
+                    (value_col.value(i), other_col.value(i).to_string()),
+                );
+            }
+
+            // Pull original column data for reference lookups.
+            let orig_batch_schema = new_data.schema();
+            assert_eq!(orig_batch_schema.field(0).name(), "key");
+            assert_eq!(orig_batch_schema.field(1).name(), "value");
+            let new_keys = new_data
+                .column(0)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let new_values = new_data
+                .column(1)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            // Every updated source row (270 of them) should be present
+            // with its new value and a preserved `other` string.
+            for i in 0..(new_data.num_rows() - 2) {
+                let key = new_keys.value(i).to_string();
+                let (value, other) = row_by_key
+                    .get(&key)
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("updated key {} missing from result", key));
+                assert_eq!(*value, new_values.value(i));
+                assert!(
+                    !other.is_empty(),
+                    "updated row for key {} should retain its original `other` value",
+                    key
+                );
+            }
+            // The 2 batch3 rows at the end of new_data are inserts.
+            for i in (new_data.num_rows() - 2)..new_data.num_rows() {
+                let key = new_keys.value(i).to_string();
+                let found = row_by_key.get(&key);
+                if insert {
+                    let (value, _) =
+                        found.unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("inserted key {} missing from result", key));
+                    assert_eq!(*value, new_values.value(i));
+                } else {
+                    assert!(
+                        found.is_none(),
+                        "unmatched source row for key {} must not be present when insert=false",
+                        key
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Verifies that `explain_plan` succeeds for a partial-schema upsert
+        /// and emits a plan that uses the v2 `FullSchemaMergeInsertExec`
+        /// path. This is the explicit acceptance criterion for #6442: the
+        /// partial-schema path must go through the same physical plan as
+        /// full-schema upserts instead of falling back to v1.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_v2_explain_plan() {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let source_schema: Schema = new_data.schema().as_ref().clone();
+            let plan = job
+                .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+                .await
+                .expect("explain_plan must succeed for partial-schema upsert on v2");
+
+            // The `MergeInsert: on=[...]` header is rendered by the v2
+            // extension node's `fmt_for_explain` — it only appears when
+            // `create_plan` was used (legacy v1 does not go through this
+            // path at all). Combined with the presence of `HashJoinExec`
+            // this uniquely identifies the v2 physical plan.
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("MergeInsert: on=[key]"),
+                "expected MergeInsert extension node in plan (v2 marker), got: {}",
+                plan
+            );
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("HashJoinExec"),
+                "expected HashJoinExec in plan, got: {}",
+                plan
+            );
+            // Evidence that the partial-schema fix is active: the target
+            // side of the join reads the `other` column (which is missing
+            // from the source) and an explicit projection carries it
+            // through to the write exec alongside source columns.
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("LanceRead") && plan.contains("projection=[other"),
+                "target-side scan should include the filled `other` column: {}",
+                plan
+            );
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("other@0 as other"),
+                "expected post-join projection to carry `other` from the target side: {}",
+                plan
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// The opt-in counterpart of `test_merge_insert_subcols_v2_explain_plan`:
+        /// with in-place column writes allowed, the columns absent from the
+        /// source must not appear anywhere in the plan. That absence is the
+        /// read-side half of the win — the target scan projects only the join
+        /// key instead of carrying the filled column through the join.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_explain_plan() {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let source_schema: Schema = new_data.schema().as_ref().clone();
+            let plan = job
+                .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+                .await
+                .expect("explain_plan must succeed for partial-schema upsert on v2");
+
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("InPlaceMergeInsert: on=[key]")
+                    && plan.contains("mode=RewriteColumns"),
+                "expected InPlaceMergeInsert node in plan, got: {}",
+                plan
+            );
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("HashJoinExec"),
+                "expected HashJoinExec in plan, got: {}",
+                plan
+            );
+            // `UpdateAll` references no target column, so `other` is absent
+            // from the plan entirely. An `UpdateIf` whose condition reads an
+            // omitted column pulls it back into the target scan — see
+            // `test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_update_if_reads_omitted_column`.
+            assert!(
+                !plan.contains("other"),
+                "column absent from the source must not be read or projected: {}",
+                plan
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// The read-side win is conditional: an `UpdateIf` condition that reads
+        /// a column the source omits pulls that column back into the target
+        /// scan, because the `__action` expression still references it. The
+        /// write-side win is unaffected — the column is read but never
+        /// rewritten.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_update_if_reads_omitted_column() {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::update_if(&ds, "target.other != 'zzzz'").unwrap())
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let source_schema: Schema = new_data.schema().as_ref().clone();
+            let plan = job
+                .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+                .await
+                .expect("explain_plan must succeed for partial-schema upsert on v2");
+
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("InPlaceMergeInsert: on=[key]"),
+                "the condition must not change the write sink: {plan}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("other"),
+                "a condition over an omitted column must keep it in the plan: {plan}"
+            );
+
+            // And the condition is genuinely evaluated against the stored
+            // values rather than silently seeing nulls: `other` is 4 random
+            // characters, so it never equals 'zzzz' and every match updates.
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(new_data.clone())],
+                new_data.schema(),
+            ));
+            let (_, stats) = job.execute_reader(reader).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, (new_data.num_rows() - 2) as u64);
+        }
+
+        /// Partial-schema upserts with `insert_not_matched=InsertAll` must
+        /// reject non-nullable missing columns at the API boundary instead
+        /// of producing a confusing downstream writer error. The user-
+        /// facing error message must name the offending column(s).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_v2_rejects_non_nullable_insert() {
+            // Build a dataset whose `other` column is explicitly non-nullable
+            // so that a partial source missing it cannot safely insert new rows.
+            let full_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
+                Field::new("other", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ]));
+            let full_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                full_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["k0", "k1", "k2"])),
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let ds = Dataset::write(
+                Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(full_batch)], full_schema)),
+                "memory://",
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+
+            // Source source lacks `other` and tries to insert a new key.
+            let partial_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
+            ]));
+            let partial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                partial_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["k1", "k_new"])),
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![11, 99])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(partial_batch)],
+                partial_schema,
+            ));
+
+            let res = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds, vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(reader)
+                .await;
+
+            match res {
+                Err(Error::InvalidInput { source, .. }) => {
+                    let msg = source.to_string();
+                    assert!(
+                        msg.contains("partial-schema")
+                            && msg.contains("non-nullable")
+                            && msg.contains("\"other\""),
+                        "expected descriptive partial-schema / non-nullable error naming \
+                         the `other` column, got: {}",
+                        msg
+                    );
+                }
+                other => panic!(
+                    "expected InvalidInput error for non-nullable missing column on insert path, got: {:?}",
+                    other
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Partial-schema v2 upsert must correctly handle `camelCase` column
+        /// names both in the join key and in a column that is *omitted* from
+        /// the source. DataFusion's `col()` lowercases unquoted identifiers,
+        /// so the partial-schema fill-in wraps the target reference in double
+        /// quotes (`target."<name>"`) and `on_cols` are likewise quoted. This
+        /// test pins that behavior down — prior to this, the v2 partial-schema
+        /// path had no coverage for case-sensitive column names.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_v2_camel_case_column() {
+            // Target dataset: camelCase join key AND a camelCase nullable
+            // column that will be omitted from the source schema.
+            let full_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("userId", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                Field::new("score", DataType::UInt32, true),
+                Field::new("extraData", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let full_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                full_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["u1", "u2", "u3"])),
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let ds = Dataset::write(
+                Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(full_batch)], full_schema)),
+                "memory://",
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+
+            // Partial-schema source: no `extraData`. Updates `u2` and inserts `u_new`.
+            let partial_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("userId", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                Field::new("score", DataType::UInt32, true),
+            ]));
+            let partial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                partial_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["u2", "u_new"])),
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![22, 99])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(partial_batch)],
+                partial_schema,
+            ));
+
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["userId".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+            let (updated_ds, stats) = job
+                .execute_reader(reader)
+                .await
+                .expect("camelCase partial-schema upsert must succeed on v2");
+
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+
+            // Read the whole dataset back and index by userId so assertions
+            // are independent of physical row order.
+            let data = updated_ds
+                .scan()
+                .scan_in_order(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(data.num_rows(), 4);
+            assert_eq!(data.num_columns(), 3);
+
+            let user_ids = data
+                .column_by_name("userId")
+                .expect("camelCase join key column must be present in result")
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let scores = data
+                .column_by_name("score")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let extra = data
+                .column_by_name("extraData")
+                .expect("camelCase omitted column must be present in result")
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let mut by_user: std::collections::HashMap<String, (u32, Option<String>)> =
+                std::collections::HashMap::new();
+            for i in 0..data.num_rows() {
+                let extra_val = if extra.is_null(i) {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(extra.value(i).to_string())
+                };
+                by_user.insert(user_ids.value(i).to_string(), (scores.value(i), extra_val));
+            }
+
+            // Untouched rows: unchanged.
+            assert_eq!(by_user["u1"], (10, Some("a".to_string())));
+            assert_eq!(by_user["u3"], (30, Some("c".to_string())));
+            // Updated row: score bumped, camelCase `extraData` preserved from target.
+            assert_eq!(
+                by_user["u2"],
+                (22, Some("b".to_string())),
+                "partial-schema update must preserve camelCase `extraData` from the target side of the join"
+            );
+            // Inserted row: camelCase column must be NULL (outer-join target side is NULL).
+            assert_eq!(
+                by_user["u_new"],
+                (99, None),
+                "partial-schema insert must produce NULL for omitted camelCase column"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// End-to-end bloom-filter conflict-detection check for a
+        /// partial-schema upsert. With the v2 path enabled for partial
+        /// schema, the returned transaction must carry a populated
+        /// `inserted_rows_filter` whenever the join key is an unenforced
+        /// primary key. Previously (v1 path) this filter was always
+        /// `None` for partial schema.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_v2_bloom_filter() {
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
+                    vec![(
+                        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+                        "true".to_string(),
+                    )]
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .collect(),
+                ),
+                Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
+                Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+                .execute(vec![initial])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+            // Partial source — only `id` and `value`, missing nullable `tag`.
+            let partial_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
+                    vec![(
+                        "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+                        "true".to_string(),
+                    )]
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .collect(),
+                ),
+                Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
+            ]));
+            let partial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                partial_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 5])), // one update (1), one insert (5)
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![42, 99])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                partial_schema,
+                futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(partial)]),
+            );
+
+            let UncommittedMergeInsert { transaction, .. } =
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute_uncommitted(Box::pin(stream) as SendableRecordBatchStream)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            // The committed transaction must carry the populated bloom
+            // filter — this is the core conflict-detection acceptance
+            // criterion for #6442.
+            let committed = CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+                .execute(transaction)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let tx_path = committed
+                .manifest()
+                .transaction_file
+                .clone()
+                .expect("transaction file must be written");
+            let tx_read =
+                read_transaction_file(dataset.object_store.as_ref(), &dataset.base, &tx_path)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            match &tx_read.operation {
+                Operation::Update {
+                    inserted_rows_filter,
+                    ..
+                } => {
+                    let filter = inserted_rows_filter
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .expect("partial-schema upsert on a PK must emit a bloom filter");
+                    // Exactly one key field (id).
+                    assert_eq!(filter.field_ids.len(), 1);
+                }
+                other => panic!("expected Operation::Update, got: {:?}", other),
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// An `UpdateIf` condition still routes in place, and rows the
+        /// condition rejects must keep their stored values rather than being
+        /// written back or dropped.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_update_if() {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+
+            // Only rewrite rows whose existing value is below the midpoint of
+            // the target's `value` range, so the condition rejects part of the
+            // matched set.
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::update_if(&ds, "target.value < 400").unwrap())
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let before = ds
+                .scan()
+                .scan_in_order(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let fragments_before = ds
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(new_data.clone())],
+                new_data.schema(),
+            ));
+            let (updated_ds, stats) = job.execute_reader(reader).await.unwrap();
+
+            // 270 source rows match; the 256 rows of fragment 1 hold values
+            // 256..512, so only those below 400 are rewritten.
+            assert!(
+                stats.num_updated_rows > 0 && stats.num_updated_rows < 270,
+                "condition should accept some but not all matches, got {}",
+                stats.num_updated_rows
+            );
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+
+            let fragments_after = updated_ds
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert_eq!(
+                fragments_before.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                fragments_after.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            );
+
+            let after = updated_ds
+                .scan()
+                .scan_in_order(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(after.num_rows(), before.num_rows());
+
+            let index_by_key = |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+                let keys = batch
+                    .column_by_name("key")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StringArray>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                let values = batch
+                    .column_by_name("value")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                let others = batch
+                    .column_by_name("other")
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StringArray>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                (0..batch.num_rows())
+                    .map(|i| {
+                        (
+                            keys.value(i).to_string(),
+                            (values.value(i), others.value(i).to_string()),
+                        )
+                    })
+                    .collect::<std::collections::HashMap<_, _>>()
+            };
+            let before_by_key = index_by_key(&before);
+            let after_by_key = index_by_key(&after);
+
+            let new_keys = new_data
+                .column_by_name("key")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let new_values = new_data
+                .column_by_name("value")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let mut rewritten = 0u64;
+            for i in 0..new_data.num_rows() {
+                let key = new_keys.value(i).to_string();
+                let Some((old_value, old_other)) = before_by_key.get(&key) else {
+                    continue; // one of the two insert-only rows
+                };
+                let (new_value, new_other) = after_by_key
+                    .get(&key)
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("key {} disappeared", key));
+                assert_eq!(
+                    old_other, new_other,
+                    "`other` is absent from the source and must never change"
+                );
+                if *old_value < 400 {
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        *new_value,
+                        new_values.value(i),
+                        "key {} should be updated",
+                        key
+                    );
+                    rewritten += 1;
+                } else {
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        new_value, old_value,
+                        "key {} was rejected by the condition and must keep its value",
+                        key
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, rewritten);
+        }
+
+        /// A source that duplicates a key matches the same target row twice.
+        /// The in-place path must apply the same dedupe policy as the
+        /// row-rewrite one: fail by default, skip when told to keep the first.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_duplicate_keys(
+            #[values(false, true)] first_seen: bool,
+        ) {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+
+            // Repeat the first source row so two source rows carry the same key.
+            let dup = arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(
+                &new_data.schema(),
+                &[new_data.slice(0, 1), new_data.slice(0, 1)],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(dup.clone())], dup.schema()));
+
+            let mut builder =
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()]).unwrap();
+            builder
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns);
+            if first_seen {
+                builder.source_dedupe_behavior(SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen);
+            }
+            let result = builder.try_build().unwrap().execute_reader(reader).await;
+
+            if first_seen {
+                let (_, stats) = result.expect("FirstSeen must skip the duplicate");
+                assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+                assert_eq!(stats.num_skipped_duplicates, 1);
+            } else {
+                let err = result.expect_err("duplicate keys must fail by default");
+                assert!(
+                    err.to_string().contains("Ambiguous merge inserts"),
+                    "unexpected error: {err}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// With stable row ids, patching columns in place must stamp
+        /// `_row_last_updated_at_version` on exactly the rows it rewrote and
+        /// leave every other row's stamp alone. Covers both branches inside
+        /// `update_fragments`: a fragment the source covers entirely (the
+        /// direct-write path) and one it covers partially (the updater path).
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_stable_row_id_versions(
+            #[values(false, true)] full_fragment: bool,
+        ) {
+            use lance_core::ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION;
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                Field::new("other", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..8)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["t"; 8])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["o"; 8])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            // Two fragments of 4 rows each.
+            let ds = Dataset::write(
+                Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone())),
+                "memory://",
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ds.version().version, 1);
+            let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+
+            // Either all of fragment 0, or two of its four rows.
+            let keys: Vec<u32> = if full_fragment {
+                vec![0, 1, 2, 3]
+            } else {
+                vec![1, 2]
+            };
+            let source_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                source_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(keys.clone())),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["patched"; keys.len()])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let (updated_ds, stats) =
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                    .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                        [Ok(source)],
+                        source_schema,
+                    )))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, keys.len() as u64);
+            let new_version = updated_ds.version().version;
+            assert_eq!(new_version, 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                updated_ds.get_fragments().len(),
+                2,
+                "in-place patches must not add fragments"
+            );
+
+            let mut scanner = updated_ds.scan();
+            scanner
+                .project(&["key", "tag", ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION])
+                .unwrap();
+            let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 8);
+
+            let result_keys = result
+                .column_by_name("key")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let tags = result
+                .column_by_name("tag")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let versions = result
+                .column_by_name(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION)
+                .expect("stable row ids must expose the last-updated version")
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            for i in 0..result.num_rows() {
+                let key = result_keys.value(i);
+                let was_patched = keys.contains(&key);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    tags.value(i),
+                    if was_patched { "patched" } else { "t" },
+                    "key {key} has the wrong tag"
+                );
+                assert_eq!(
+                    versions.value(i),
+                    if was_patched { new_version } else { 1 },
+                    "key {key} has the wrong last-updated version"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// The version `update_fragments` stamps into the row-version metadata is
+        /// only the version this transaction expected at prepare time. A
+        /// compatible commit can land first, making the real commit version
+        /// later, so the operation carries the patched offsets and
+        /// `build_manifest` re-stamps exactly those rows with the version the
+        /// commit actually got.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_stable_row_id_rebase(
+            #[values(false, true)] full_fragment: bool,
+        ) {
+            use lance_core::ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION;
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                Field::new("other", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let rows = |keys: Vec<u32>, tag: &str| {
+                let n = keys.len();
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(keys)),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![tag; n])),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["o"; n])),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            };
+            let ds = Dataset::write(
+                Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    [Ok(rows(vec![0, 1], "t"))],
+                    schema.clone(),
+                )),
+                "memory://",
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ds.version().version, 1);
+            let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+
+            // Either both rows of the only fragment (the no-read-back write
+            // path) or one of them (the updater path). Both stamp the version.
+            let keys: Vec<u32> = if full_fragment { vec![0, 1] } else { vec![0] };
+            let source_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                source_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(keys.clone())),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["patched"; keys.len()])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                source_schema.clone(),
+                futures::stream::iter([Ok(source)]),
+            );
+
+            // Prepare against v1 but do not commit yet.
+            let UncommittedMergeInsert { transaction, .. } =
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                    .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute_uncommitted(Box::pin(stream) as SendableRecordBatchStream)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            match &transaction.operation {
+                Operation::Update {
+                    updated_fragment_offsets,
+                    ..
+                } => {
+                    let UpdatedFragmentOffsets(off_map) = updated_fragment_offsets
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .expect("a RewriteColumns update must carry its patched offsets");
+                    let frag_id = ds.get_fragments()[0].id() as u64;
+                    let offsets = off_map
+                        .get(&frag_id)
+                        .expect("the patched fragment must be present");
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        offsets.iter().collect::<Vec<u32>>(),
+                        keys.clone(),
+                        "the offsets must name exactly the patched rows"
+                    );
+                }
+                other => panic!("expected Operation::Update, got: {other:?}"),
+            }
+
+            // A concurrent append commits as v2, so the prepared transaction
+            // lands on v3 rather than the v2 it stamped.
+            let mut appended = ds.as_ref().clone();
+            appended
+                .append(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(rows(vec![2], "t"))], schema.clone()),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(appended.version().version, 2);
+
+            let committed = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(appended))
+                .execute(transaction)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let commit_version = committed.version().version;
+            assert_eq!(commit_version, 3);
+
+            let mut scanner = committed.scan();
+            scanner
+                .project(&["key", "tag", ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION])
+                .unwrap();
+            let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3);
+
+            let result_keys = result
+                .column_by_name("key")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let tags = result
+                .column_by_name("tag")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let versions = result
+                .column_by_name(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION)
+                .expect("stable row ids must expose the last-updated version")
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            for i in 0..result.num_rows() {
+                let key = result_keys.value(i);
+                let was_patched = keys.contains(&key);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    tags.value(i),
+                    if was_patched { "patched" } else { "t" },
+                    "key {key} has the wrong tag"
+                );
+                let expected = if was_patched {
+                    // Patched by the rebased transaction: the version it landed
+                    // on, not the version it guessed.
+                    commit_version
+                } else if key == 2 {
+                    // Appended by the concurrent commit.
+                    2
+                } else {
+                    // Untouched by either.
+                    1
+                };
+                assert_eq!(
+                    versions.value(i),
+                    expected,
+                    "key {key} has the wrong last-updated version"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// An in-place column rewrite fills a replacement file covering every row
+        /// of each fragment it touches, from the snapshot it read, and
+        /// `build_manifest` then tombstones every overlay for the fields it
+        /// rewrote. So committing one over a concurrent overlay would drop that
+        /// overlay's value on a row the merge never matched. The conflict
+        /// resolver must retry instead, and the retry re-reads the overlaid
+        /// value.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_rebase_over_overlay() {
+            use crate::dataset::WriteDestination;
+            use crate::dataset::transaction::DataOverlayGroup;
+            use arrow_array::ArrayRef;
+            use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+            use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+            use lance_table::format::DataFile;
+            use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                // Omitted by the source, so `RewriteColumns` has something to skip.
+                Field::new("other", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["base0", "base1"])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["o", "o"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let ds = Arc::new(
+                Dataset::write(
+                    Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone())),
+                    "memory://",
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(ds.version().version, 1);
+            let tag_field_id = ds.schema().field("tag").unwrap().id;
+            let fragment_id = ds.get_fragments()[0].id() as u64;
+
+            // Prepare an in-place patch of key 0 against v1, without committing.
+            let source_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                source_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["merge0"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                source_schema.clone(),
+                futures::stream::iter([Ok(source)]),
+            );
+            let UncommittedMergeInsert { transaction, .. } =
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                    .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute_uncommitted(Box::pin(stream) as SendableRecordBatchStream)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            // A concurrent overlay commits as v2, changing `tag` on key 1, which
+            // the prepared merge did not match.
+            let overlay_schema = ds.schema().project_by_ids(&[tag_field_id], true);
+            let path = ds.base.clone().join("data").join("overlay.lance");
+            let obj_writer = ds.object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+            let mut writer = lance_file::versions::v2_1::create_writer(
+                obj_writer,
+                overlay_schema,
+                FileWriterOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            writer
+                .write_column(0, Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["overlay1"])) as ArrayRef)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let summary = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+            let mut data_file = DataFile::new_unstarted(
+                "overlay.lance".to_string(),
+                lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            );
+            data_file.fields = vec![tag_field_id].into();
+            data_file.column_indices = vec![0].into();
+            data_file.file_size_bytes = CachedFileSize::new(summary.size_bytes);
+            let overlaid = Dataset::commit(
+                WriteDestination::Dataset(ds.clone()),
+                Operation::DataOverlay {
+                    groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id,
+                        overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                            data_file,
+                            // Physical offset 1 is key 1.
+                            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32])),
+                            committed_version: 0,
+                        }],
+                    }],
+                },
+                Some(1),
+                None,
+                None,
+                Arc::new(Default::default()),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(overlaid.version().version, 2);
+            let tag_of = |ds: &Dataset, key: u32| {
+                let ds = ds.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+                    scanner
+                        .filter(&format!("key = {key}"))
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .project(&["tag"])
+                        .unwrap();
+                    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+                    batch
+                        .column_by_name("tag")
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .as_any()
+                        .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .value(0)
+                        .to_string()
+                }
+            };
+            assert_eq!(tag_of(&overlaid, 1).await, "overlay1");
+
+            // The prepared transaction must not be able to commit as-is: doing so
+            // would tombstone the overlay and resurrect "base1".
+            let error = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(overlaid.clone()))
+                .with_max_retries(0)
+                .execute(transaction)
+                .await
+                .expect_err("committing over an overlapping overlay must conflict");
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+                "expected a retryable conflict, got: {error:?}"
+            );
+
+            // Re-running the merge against the overlaid dataset patches key 0 and
+            // leaves the overlay on key 1 intact.
+            let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                source_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["merge0"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let (retried, _) =
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(overlaid), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                    .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                        [Ok(source)],
+                        source_schema,
+                    )))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(tag_of(&retried, 0).await, "merge0");
+            assert_eq!(
+                tag_of(&retried, 1).await,
+                "overlay1",
+                "the overlay on an unmatched row must survive the retried merge"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// The overlay resolution rules require an in-place column rewrite to
+        /// tombstone any overlay covering the fields it replaced, otherwise the
+        /// stale overlay value keeps shadowing the freshly written one.
+        /// `build_manifest` does that off `fields_modified`, so this asserts the
+        /// in-place path reports them.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_reports_fields_modified() {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+
+            // `value` is field id 1 in the dataset schema; `key` (the join key)
+            // is written too because the source carries it.
+            let value_field_id = ds.schema().field("value").unwrap().id as u32;
+            let key_field_id = ds.schema().field("key").unwrap().id as u32;
+            let other_field_id = ds.schema().field("other").unwrap().id as u32;
+
+            let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                new_data.schema(),
+                futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(new_data.clone())]),
+            );
+            let UncommittedMergeInsert { transaction, .. } =
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                    .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute_uncommitted(Box::pin(stream) as SendableRecordBatchStream)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            match &transaction.operation {
+                Operation::Update {
+                    fields_modified,
+                    update_mode,
+                    ..
+                } => {
+                    assert!(matches!(update_mode, Some(RewriteColumns)));
+                    assert!(
+                        fields_modified.contains(&value_field_id)
+                            && fields_modified.contains(&key_field_id),
+                        "patched fields must be reported, got {fields_modified:?}"
+                    );
+                    assert!(
+                        !fields_modified.contains(&other_field_id),
+                        "a field the source never provided must not be reported as modified, \
+                         got {fields_modified:?}"
+                    );
+                }
+                other => panic!("expected Operation::Update, got: {other:?}"),
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Fragments can carry the same column in different data-file layouts:
+        /// one whose `tag` still lives in the file it was written with, another
+        /// whose `tag` has already been moved to a patch file by an earlier
+        /// merge. `Operation::DataReplacement` refuses that case outright, so
+        /// this asserts `RewriteColumns` does not inherit the restriction — it
+        /// appends a new data file per fragment rather than swapping one in, so
+        /// each fragment's existing layout is irrelevant.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_heterogeneous_layouts() {
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                Field::new("other", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let rows = |keys: Vec<u32>| {
+                let n = keys.len();
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(keys)),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["t"; n])),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["o"; n])),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            };
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let ds = Dataset::write(
+                Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    [Ok(rows(vec![0, 1]))],
+                    schema.clone(),
+                )),
+                "memory://",
+                Some(write_params.clone()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let patch_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+            let patch = |keys: Vec<u32>, tag: &'static str| {
+                let n = keys.len();
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    patch_schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(keys)),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![tag; n])),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            };
+            async fn run_patch(ds: Arc<Dataset>, batch: RecordBatch) -> (Arc<Dataset>, MergeStats) {
+                let schema = batch.schema();
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds, vec!["key".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                    .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema)))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            }
+
+            // Patch fragment 0 so its `tag` moves into a second data file and
+            // the original file's `tag` field id is tombstoned.
+            let (ds, _) = run_patch(Arc::new(ds), patch(vec![0, 1], "first")).await;
+            let layout_of = |ds: &Dataset, frag: usize| {
+                ds.get_fragments()[frag]
+                    .metadata()
+                    .files
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.fields.to_vec())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            };
+            let frag0_layout = layout_of(&ds, 0);
+            assert_eq!(
+                frag0_layout.len(),
+                2,
+                "frag 0 should now carry a patch file"
+            );
+
+            // Append a fresh fragment, whose `tag` is still in its original file.
+            let mut ds = Arc::unwrap_or_clone(ds);
+            ds.append(
+                Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    [Ok(rows(vec![2, 3]))],
+                    schema.clone(),
+                )),
+                Some(write_params),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+            assert_eq!(
+                layout_of(&ds, 1).len(),
+                1,
+                "frag 1 should be a single unpatched file"
+            );
+            assert_ne!(
+                frag0_layout,
+                layout_of(&ds, 1),
+                "the two fragments must disagree on where `tag` lives for this test to mean anything"
+            );
+
+            // Patch across both layouts in one merge.
+            let (updated_ds, stats) = run_patch(ds, patch(vec![0, 2], "patched")).await;
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                updated_ds.get_fragments().len(),
+                2,
+                "in-place patches must not add fragments"
+            );
+
+            let result = updated_ds
+                .scan()
+                .scan_in_order(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 4);
+            let keys = result
+                .column_by_name("key")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let tags = result
+                .column_by_name("tag")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let others = result
+                .column_by_name("other")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            for i in 0..result.num_rows() {
+                let key = keys.value(i);
+                let expected_tag = match key {
+                    0 | 2 => "patched",
+                    // Patched in the first merge, untouched by the second.
+                    1 => "first",
+                    _ => "t",
+                };
+                assert_eq!(tags.value(i), expected_tag, "key {key} has the wrong tag");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    others.value(i),
+                    "o",
+                    "key {key}: a column the source never provided must not change"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// An `UpdateIf` condition that rejects every matched row leaves the
+        /// patch stream empty. The in-place path must still commit cleanly —
+        /// no new fragments (which its `debug_assert` requires), no fragment
+        /// churn, and no value changed.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_subcols_in_place_all_rows_rejected() {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+
+            let before = ds
+                .scan()
+                .scan_in_order(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let fragments_before = ds
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            // `value` is a monotonic step starting at 0, so nothing exceeds
+            // this bound and every matched row becomes `Action::Nothing`.
+            let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::update_if(&ds, "target.value > 999999").unwrap())
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(new_data.clone())],
+                new_data.schema(),
+            ));
+            let (updated_ds, stats) = job
+                .execute_reader(reader)
+                .await
+                .expect("an all-rejected in-place merge must not fail");
+
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+            assert_eq!(
+                updated_ds
+                    .get_fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.metadata().clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                fragments_before,
+                "rejecting every row must leave the fragments untouched"
+            );
+            let after = updated_ds
+                .scan()
+                .scan_in_order(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(before, after, "no value should have changed");
+        }
+
+        /// `Auto` and an explicit `RewriteRows` must plan identically, and an
+        /// operation blocked several ways must have every blocker named rather
+        /// than only the first one found.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_write_mode_auto_and_explicit_rows_agree() {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+            let source_schema: Schema = new_data.schema().as_ref().clone();
+
+            let plan_for = |mode: Option<MergeInsertWriteMode>| {
+                let ds = ds.clone();
+                let source_schema = source_schema.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let mut builder =
+                        MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds, vec!["key".to_string()]).unwrap();
+                    builder
+                        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing);
+                    if let Some(mode) = mode {
+                        builder.write_mode(mode);
+                    }
+                    builder
+                        .try_build()
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap()
+                }
+            };
+            assert_eq!(
+                plan_for(None).await,
+                plan_for(Some(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteRows)).await,
+                "Auto must plan the same as an explicit RewriteRows"
+            );
+
+            // Inserts and delete-by-source both block column patching, and the
+            // source here covers every dataset column too.
+            let full_schema: Schema = ds.schema().into();
+            let error = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(Some(&full_schema), false)
+                .await
+                .expect_err("a merge blocked several ways must be rejected");
+            let message = error.to_string();
+            for blocker in ["covers every dataset column", "adds rows", "removes rows"] {
+                assert!(
+                    message.contains(blocker),
+                    "the error should name {blocker:?}: {message}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// A scalar index on the join key routes a partial-schema update to the
+        /// legacy path, which patches columns unconditionally. So an explicit
+        /// `RewriteRows` has to leave that path to be honored, while `Auto`
+        /// keeps the index probe and stays on it.
+        #[rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_rewrite_rows_leaves_indexed_path(
+            #[values(None, Some(MergeInsertWriteMode::Auto))] auto: Option<MergeInsertWriteMode>,
+        ) {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(true)).await;
+            let source_schema: Schema = new_data.schema().as_ref().clone();
+
+            let job = |mode: Option<MergeInsertWriteMode>| {
+                let ds = ds.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let mut builder =
+                        MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds, vec!["key".to_string()]).unwrap();
+                    builder
+                        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing);
+                    if let Some(mode) = mode {
+                        builder.write_mode(mode);
+                    }
+                    builder.try_build().unwrap()
+                }
+            };
+
+            // The indexed path has no physical plan, so `explain_plan` rejecting
+            // the job is how "stayed on the legacy path" is observable.
+            let error = job(auto)
+                .await
+                .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+                .await
+                .expect_err("Auto must keep the scalar-index route, which has no plan");
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains("does not support explain_plan"),
+                "unexpected error: {error}"
+            );
+
+            let plan = job(Some(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteRows))
+                .await
+                .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+                .await
+                .expect("RewriteRows must fall through to the v2 plan");
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("MergeInsert: on=[key]") && !plan.contains("mode=RewriteColumns"),
+                "expected the row-rewrite v2 node, got: {plan}"
+            );
+
+            // Patching columns is what the indexed path already does, so asking
+            // for it explicitly keeps the index probe.
+            let error = job(Some(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns))
+                .await
+                .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+                .await
+                .expect_err("RewriteColumns must keep the scalar-index route");
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains("does not support explain_plan"),
+                "unexpected error: {error}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A source carrying nothing but the join key has no values to write, so
+        /// `RewriteColumns` cannot help it: the patch would reproduce the key
+        /// column byte for byte at the cost of a full-fragment column file and
+        /// the invalidation of every index over that key. Asking for it must
+        /// error rather than quietly writing whole rows instead.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_rewrite_columns_rejects_key_only_source() {
+            let Fixtures { ds, new_data } = Box::pin(setup(false)).await;
+
+            let key_only = new_data.project(&[0]).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(key_only.schema().field(0).name(), "key");
+            let source_schema: Schema = key_only.schema().as_ref().clone();
+
+            let error = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+                .await
+                .expect_err("a key-only source must be rejected, not silently rewritten");
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+                "got: {error:?}"
+            );
+            let message = error.to_string();
+            assert!(
+                message.contains("no column besides the join key"),
+                "the error must name the blocker: {message}"
+            );
+
+            // `Auto` accepts the same merge and writes whole rows.
+            let plan = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("MergeInsert: on=[key]") && !plan.contains("InPlaceMergeInsert"),
+                "Auto should take the row-rewrite sink: {plan}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A blob nested inside a struct the source provides cannot be patched:
+        /// the fragment updater reads blobs in their stored descriptor form, and
+        /// only the row-rewrite path converts between the two representations.
+        /// Rooting the check on the top-level fields the source carries, rather
+        /// than matching nested field names against the source's top-level
+        /// columns, is what makes the nested case visible.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_rewrite_columns_rejects_nested_blob() {
+            use crate::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+            use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StructArray};
+            use arrow_schema::Fields;
+
+            let info_fields: Fields = vec![
+                Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                blob_field("blob", true),
+            ]
+            .into();
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("info", DataType::Struct(info_fields.clone()), true),
+                Field::new("payload", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ]));
+
+            let mk_info = |n: usize, tag: &str| -> ArrayRef {
+                let mut builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(n);
+                for i in 0..n {
+                    builder
+                        .push_bytes(format!("{tag}-blob-{i}").as_bytes())
+                        .unwrap();
+                }
+                Arc::new(
+                    StructArray::try_new(
+                        info_fields.clone(),
+                        vec![
+                            Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                                (0..n).map(|i| format!("{tag}-name-{i}")),
+                            )) as ArrayRef,
+                            Arc::new(builder.finish().unwrap()) as ArrayRef,
+                        ],
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                )
+            };
+
+            let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..4)),
+                    mk_info(4, "old"),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["p"; 4])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let ds = Arc::new(
+                Dataset::write(
+                    Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone())),
+                    "memory://",
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        // Blob v2 requires >= 2.2.
+                        data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+
+            // Omits `payload` (so the merge qualifies) but carries `info`,
+            // whose subtree holds a blob.
+            let source_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, false),
+                Field::new("info", DataType::Struct(info_fields.clone()), true),
+            ]));
+            let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                source_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1u32, 2])),
+                    mk_info(2, "new"),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let error = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(Some(source_schema.as_ref()), false)
+                .await
+                .expect_err("a nested blob must be rejected, not patched");
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+                "got: {error:?}"
+            );
+            let message = error.to_string();
+            assert!(
+                message.contains("blob column"),
+                "the error must name the blocker: {message}"
+            );
+
+            // `Auto` accepts the same merge, takes the row-rewrite sink, and
+            // leaves the blobs readable.
+            let plan = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(Some(source_schema.as_ref()), false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                plan.contains("MergeInsert: on=[key]") && !plan.contains("InPlaceMergeInsert"),
+                "Auto should take the row-rewrite sink: {plan}"
+            );
+
+            let (updated_ds, stats) =
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                        [Ok(source)],
+                        source_schema,
+                    )))
+                    .await
+                    .expect("nested-blob merge must succeed on the row-rewrite path");
+            assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 2);
+
+            let keys = updated_ds
+                .scan()
+                .scan_in_order(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let key_col = keys
+                .column_by_name("key")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let blobs = updated_ds
+                .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2, 3], "info.blob")
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            for (row, blob) in blobs.iter().enumerate() {
+                let bytes = blob
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("no blob cell should be null")
+                    .read()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let text = String::from_utf8(bytes.to_vec()).unwrap();
+                let key = key_col.value(row);
+                let expected_tag = if key == 1 || key == 2 { "new" } else { "old" };
+                assert!(
+                    text.starts_with(expected_tag),
+                    "key {key} should hold a {expected_tag}-* blob, got {text}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // For some reason, Windows isn't able to handle the timeout test. Possibly
+    // a performance bug in their timer implementation?
+    #[cfg(not(windows))]
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::all_success(Duration::from_secs(100_000))]
+    #[case::timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))]
+    #[tokio::test(start_paused = true)]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_concurrency(#[case] timeout: Duration) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        // To benchmark scaling curve: measure how long to run
+        //
+        // And vary `concurrency` to see how it scales. Compare this again `main`.
+        let concurrency = 10;
+        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..concurrency)),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
+                    0,
+                    concurrency as usize,
+                ))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Increase likelihood of contention by throttling the store
+        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
+            config: ThrottleConfig {
+                // For benchmarking: Increase this to simulate object storage.
+                wait_list_per_call: Duration::from_millis(20),
+                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(20),
+                wait_put_per_call: Duration::from_millis(20),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        });
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                session: Some(session.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![initial_data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // do merge inserts in parallel based on the concurrency. Each will open the dataset,
+        // signal they have opened, and then wait for a signal to proceed. Once the signal
+        // is received, they will do a merge insert and close the dataset.
+
+        let barrier = Arc::new(Barrier::new(concurrency as usize));
+        let mut handles = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..concurrency {
+            let session_ref = session.clone();
+            let schema_ref = schema.clone();
+            let barrier_ref = barrier.clone();
+            let throttled_ref = throttled.clone();
+            let handle = tokio::task::spawn(async move {
+                let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://")
+                    .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                        store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                            object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled_ref.clone()),
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        }),
+                        session: Some(session_ref.clone()),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    })
+                    .load()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+                let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema_ref.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![i])),
+                        Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                    ],
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+                let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_data)], schema_ref.clone()));
+
+                let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                    .conflict_retries(100)
+                    .retry_timeout(timeout)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap();
+                barrier_ref.wait().await;
+
+                job.execute_reader(source)
+                    .await
+                    .map(|(_ds, stats)| stats.num_attempts)
+            });
+            handles.push(handle);
+        }
+
+        let results = try_join_all(handles).await.unwrap();
+
+        for attempts in results.iter() {
+            match attempts {
+                Ok(attempts) => {
+                    assert!(*attempts <= 10, "Attempt count should be <= 10");
+                }
+                Err(err) => {
+                    // If we get an error, it means the task was cancelled
+                    // due to timeout. This is expected if the timeout is
+                    // set to a low value.
+                    assert!(
+                        matches!(err, Error::TooMuchWriteContention { message, .. } if message.contains("failed on retry_timeout")),
+                        "Expected TooMuchWriteContention error, got: {:?}",
+                        err
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if timeout.as_secs() > 10 {
+            dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+            let batches = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+            let values = batches["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+            assert!(
+                values.values().iter().all(|&v| v == 1),
+                "All values should be 1 after merge insert. Got: {:?}",
+                values
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_large_concurrent() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let num_rows = 10;
+        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows)),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
+                    0,
+                    num_rows as usize,
+                ))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Adding latency helps ensure we get contention
+        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
+            config: ThrottleConfig {
+                wait_list_per_call: Duration::from_millis(10),
+                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(10),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        });
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                session: Some(session.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![initial_data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        // Start one merge insert, but don't commit it yet.
+        let new_data1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let UncommittedMergeInsert {
+            transaction: transaction1,
+            ..
+        } = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_uncommitted(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(new_data1)],
+                schema.clone(),
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Setup a "large" merge insert, with many batches
+        let new_data2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..1000)),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(2, 1000))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let notify = Arc::new(Notify::new());
+        let source = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            (0..10)
+                .map(|i| {
+                    let batch = new_data2.slice(i * 100, 100);
+                    if i == 9 {
+                        notify.notify_one();
+                    }
+                    Ok(batch)
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let dataset2 = DatasetBuilder::from_uri("memory://")
+            .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                session: Some(session.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset2), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(source);
+        let task = tokio::task::spawn(job);
+
+        // Right as the large merge insert has finished reading the last batch,
+        // we will commit the first merge insert. This should trigger a conflict,
+        // but we should resolve it automatically.
+        notify.notified().await;
+        let mut dataset = CommitBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .execute(transaction1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        task.await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+
+        let batches = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let values = batches["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        assert!(
+            values.values().iter().all(|&v| v == 2),
+            "All values should be 1 after merge insert. Got: {:?}",
+            values
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_updates_indices() {
+        let test_dataset = async || {
+            let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+                .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+                .col("other_value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+                .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(4), FragmentRowCount::from(20))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["id"],
+                    IndexType::BTree,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["value"],
+                    IndexType::BTree,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["other_value"],
+                    IndexType::BTree,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            Arc::new(dataset)
+        };
+
+        let check_indices = async |dataset: &Dataset, id_frags: &[u32], value_frags: &[u32]| {
+            let id_index = dataset
+                .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name("id_idx"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            if id_frags.is_empty() {
+                assert!(id_index.is_none());
+            } else {
+                let id_index = id_index.unwrap();
+                let id_frags_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::from_iter(id_frags.iter().copied());
+                // Check the effective bitmap (raw bitmap intersected with existing fragments)
+                let effective_bitmap = id_index
+                    .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+                    .unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(effective_bitmap, id_frags_bitmap);
+            }
+
+            let value_index = dataset
+                .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name("value_idx"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            if value_frags.is_empty() {
+                assert!(value_index.is_none());
+            } else {
+                let value_index = value_index.unwrap();
+                let value_frags_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::from_iter(value_frags.iter().copied());
+                // Check the effective bitmap (raw bitmap intersected with existing fragments)
+                let effective_bitmap = value_index
+                    .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+                    .unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(effective_bitmap, value_frags_bitmap);
+            }
+
+            let other_value_index = dataset
+                .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name("other_value_idx"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // The other_value index retains its original bitmap [0,1,2,3] since
+            // partial merges that don't modify other_value won't prune it.
+            let effective_bitmap = other_value_index
+                .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // The effective bitmap is the intersection of the index's original bitmap
+            // and the current dataset fragments. Since other_value is not modified by
+            // partial merges, it retains its validity for fragments it was originally trained on
+            // that still exist in the dataset.
+            let index_bitmap = other_value_index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+            let expected_bitmap = index_bitmap & dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+            assert_eq!(
+                effective_bitmap, expected_bitmap,
+                "other_value index effective bitmap should be intersection. index_bitmap: {:?}, dataset_fragments: {:?}, effective_bitmap: {:?}",
+                index_bitmap, dataset.fragment_bitmap, effective_bitmap
+            );
+        };
+
+        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
+
+        // Sanity test on the initial dataset
+        check_indices(&dataset, &[0, 1, 2, 3], &[0, 1, 2, 3]).await;
+
+        // Vertical merge insert (full schema), one fragment is deleted and should be removed from
+        // the index.
+        let merge_insert = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let (dataset, _) = merge_insert
+            .execute_reader(
+                lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                    .col("id", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
+                    .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
+                    .col("other_value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
+                    .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(40), BatchCount::from(1)),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Fragment 3 removed and correctly removed from the index bitmap.
+        check_indices(&dataset, &[0, 1, 2], &[0, 1, 2]).await;
+
+        // Now we do the same thing with a partial merge insert (only id and value)
+        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
+
+        // Vertical merge insert (full schema), one fragment is deleted and should be removed from
+        // the index.
+        let merge_insert = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let (dataset, _) = merge_insert
+            .execute_reader(
+                lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                    .col("id", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
+                    .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(50, 1))
+                    .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(40), BatchCount::from(1)),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Fragment 3 is fully removed.  We could keep it technically but today it is removed
+        // which is also fine.  Fragment 2 is partially and must be removed.
+        //
+        // TODO: We should not be modifying the id_index here.  A merge_insert should not need
+        // to rewrite the id field.  However, it seems we are doing that today.  This should be
+        // fixed in
+        check_indices(&dataset, &[0, 1], &[0, 1]).await;
+
+        // One more test but this time we touch all fragments which causes the index to be removed
+        // entirely.
+        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
+
+        // Vertical merge insert (full schema), one fragment is deleted and should be removed from
+        // the index.
+        let merge_insert = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let (dataset, _) = merge_insert
+            .execute_reader(
+                lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                    .col("id", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 1))
+                    .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 1))
+                    .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(80), BatchCount::from(1)),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        check_indices(&dataset, &[], &[]).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_upsert_concurrent_full_frag() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Increase likelihood of contention by throttling the store
+        let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
+            config: ThrottleConfig {
+                wait_list_per_call: Duration::from_millis(5),
+                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(5),
+                wait_put_per_call: Duration::from_millis(5),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        });
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(throttled.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                session: Some(session.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![initial_data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Each merge insert will update one row. Combined, they should delete
+        // all rows in the first fragment, and it should be dropped.
+        let barrier = Arc::new(Barrier::new(2));
+        let mut handles = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..2 {
+            let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![i])),
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_data)], schema.clone()));
+
+            let dataset_ref = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
+            let barrier = barrier.clone();
+            let handle = tokio::spawn(async move {
+                barrier.wait().await;
+                MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset_ref, vec!["id".to_string()])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                    .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                    .try_build()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .execute_reader(source)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            });
+            handles.push(handle);
+        }
+        try_join_all(handles).await.unwrap();
+
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|f| f.metadata().num_rows().unwrap() > 0),
+            "No fragments should have zero rows after upsert"
+        );
+
+        let batches = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let values = batches["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        assert!(
+            values.values().iter().all(|&v| v == 1),
+            "All values should be 1 after merge insert. Got: {:?}",
+            values
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_plan_upsert() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
+        let data = data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1024), BatchCount::from(32));
+        let _schema = data.schema();
+
+        // Create dataset with initial data
+        let ds = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create upsert job
+        let merge_insert_job =
+            crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // Create new data for upsert
+        let new_data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(2))
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
+        let new_data = new_data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(512), BatchCount::from(16));
+        let new_data_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(new_data));
+
+        let plan = merge_insert_job
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(new_data_stream).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Assert the plan structure using portable plan matching
+        // The optimized plan should have:
+        // 1. FullSchemaMergeInsertExec at the top
+        // 2. ProjectionExec that creates action based on _rowaddr nullness (sentinel is constant
+        //    true so DataFusion folds `sentinel IS NOT NULL` away from the CASE expression)
+        // 3. HashJoin with projection that includes the sentinel column
+        // 4. LanceScan that only reads the key column (projection pushdown working!)
+        // 5. ProjectionExec on the source side that materializes the sentinel literal
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "MergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep
+  CoalescePartitionsExec
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@0 as _rowid, _rowaddr@1 as _rowaddr, value@2 as value, key@3 as key, __merge_source_sentinel@4 as __merge_source_sentinel, CASE WHEN _rowaddr@1 IS NULL THEN 2 WHEN _rowaddr@1 IS NOT NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END as __action]
+      HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Right, on=[(key@0, key@1)], projection=[_rowid@1, _rowaddr@2, value@3, key@4, __merge_source_sentinel@5]
+        LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[key], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, \
+        row_id=true, row_addr=true, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--
+        RepartitionExec: partitioning=RoundRobinBatch(...), input_partitions=1
+          ProjectionExec: expr=[value@0 as value, key@1 as key, true as __merge_source_sentinel]
+            StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[value, key]"
+        ).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// #4583 use case 3: which side of the merge_insert hash join gets buffered
+    /// is decided by the source's statistics, not by the order `create_plan`
+    /// writes the join in. `create_plan` always puts the target on the left, so
+    /// without a swap the target is always the build side.
+    ///
+    /// The target here is one row past DataFusion's
+    /// `hash_join_single_partition_threshold_rows`, and `FilteredReadExec`
+    /// reports no `total_byte_size`, so the target cannot pass the collect
+    /// threshold. That leaves the source: a materialized one reports exact
+    /// statistics and fits under the threshold, so `JoinSelection` swaps it onto
+    /// the build side and rewrites `Right` into `Left`. A one-shot stream reports
+    /// `Absent` for everything, neither side qualifies for `CollectLeft`, and the
+    /// plan falls back to a partitioned join whose build side is still the target.
+    ///
+    /// The one-shot provider used below stands in for every non-materialized
+    /// source: `stream_source_to_provider` sends the default path through
+    /// `spilling_table_provider`, which also hands back a `StreamingTable` and so
+    /// reports the same absent statistics.
+    ///
+    /// This is about which side is buffered, not about how much the target reads.
+    /// The target scan projects `other` either way, because the row-rewrite fill
+    /// reads it from the target side of the join.
+    ///
+    /// Both expectations characterise DataFusion's choice rather than any Lance
+    /// logic, and Lance sets no `hash_join_single_partition_threshold*` of its own,
+    /// so this rides on DataFusion's defaults (1 MiB / 128 Ki rows). A DataFusion
+    /// upgrade that changes them fails this test without anything in Lance
+    /// regressing, which is the point: the plan shape is what merge_insert's memory
+    /// use depends on, so a silent change to it should not go unnoticed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_plan_join_build_side_follows_source_statistics() {
+        fn find_hash_join(plan: &dyn ExecutionPlan) -> Option<&HashJoinExec> {
+            if let Some(join) = plan.downcast_ref::<HashJoinExec>() {
+                return Some(join);
+            }
+            for child in plan.children() {
+                if let Some(join) = find_hash_join(child.as_ref()) {
+                    return Some(join);
+                }
+            }
+            None
+        }
+
+        fn sides(join: &HashJoinExec) -> (String, String) {
+            let render = |plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>| {
+                format!(
+                    "{}",
+                    datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+                )
+            };
+            (render(join.left()), render(join.right()))
+        }
+
+        // One row past datafusion.optimizer.hash_join_single_partition_threshold_rows.
+        const TARGET_ROWS: u64 = 128 * 1024 + 1;
+
+        let target = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
+            .col("key", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("other", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(TARGET_ROWS), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let ds = Arc::new(Dataset::write(target, "memory://", None).await.unwrap());
+
+        // Partial schema: the source omits `other`, so the row-rewrite fill makes
+        // the target scan read it. In the streaming half below, where the target is
+        // the build side, that means it is held for every buffered row. This test
+        // asserts which side is the build side, not the projection.
+        let source = record_batch!(
+            ("key", UInt32, [0, 1, 2, 3]),
+            ("value", UInt32, [10, 11, 12, 13])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let new_job = || {
+            crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(crate::dataset::WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let materialized: Arc<dyn TableProvider> = Arc::new(
+            datafusion::datasource::MemTable::try_new(source.schema(), vec![vec![source.clone()]])
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let plan = new_job().create_plan(materialized).await.unwrap();
+        let join =
+            find_hash_join(plan.as_ref()).expect("materialized source must plan a hash join");
+        let (build, probe) = sides(join);
+        assert_eq!(
+            (*join.partition_mode(), *join.join_type()),
+            (PartitionMode::CollectLeft, JoinType::Left),
+            "the target is past the collect threshold and the source is not, so the inputs \
+             are swapped and Right is rewritten to Left. build side was:\n{build}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            build.contains("DataSourceExec") && !build.contains("LanceRead"),
+            "the source must be the collected side:\n{build}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            probe.contains("LanceRead"),
+            "the target must be the probe side, which is the side a hash join offers its \
+             dynamic filter to:\n{probe}"
+        );
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source.clone())], source.schema());
+        let stream_plan = new_job()
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(reader_to_stream(Box::new(reader))).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let join =
+            find_hash_join(stream_plan.as_ref()).expect("stream source must plan a hash join");
+        let (build, probe) = sides(join);
+        assert_eq!(
+            (*join.partition_mode(), *join.join_type()),
+            (PartitionMode::Partitioned, JoinType::Right),
+            "the target is past the collect threshold and the source reports no statistics, \
+             so neither side qualifies and both are hash-repartitioned. build side was:\n{build}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            build.contains("LanceRead"),
+            "the target stays the build side, so every one of its rows is \
+             buffered:\n{build}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            probe.contains("StreamingTableExec"),
+            "the source stays the probe side:\n{probe}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `analyze_plan` is a diagnostic, so it has to report the plan the source it
+    /// was handed would actually run. The batches entry point must therefore not
+    /// fall back to the streaming plan: with the row counts used below the join
+    /// collects the materialized source and rewrites the join type, and a stream
+    /// gets neither. Which side wins is a size comparison, not a property of the
+    /// entry point; see the fixture comment.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_analyze_plan_reports_the_given_source_shape() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
+            .col("key", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(64), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let ds = Arc::new(Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap());
+
+        // The source covers the dataset's schema, so nothing is filled from the
+        // target side. Two rows
+        // against the target's 64 keeps the source the smaller side, which is what
+        // makes the join collect it here; both sides are under DataFusion's collect
+        // threshold, so the choice comes from comparing row counts. Raise the source
+        // above 64 and the join collects the target instead.
+        let source =
+            record_batch!(("key", UInt32, [1, 100]), ("value", UInt32, [999, 999])).unwrap();
+
+        let new_job = || {
+            crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(crate::dataset::WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let materialized = new_job()
+            .analyze_plan_batches(vec![source.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            materialized.contains("DataSourceExec") && !materialized.contains("StreamingTableExec"),
+            "materialized batches must be reported as an in-memory source:\n{materialized}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            materialized.contains("join_type=Left"),
+            "collecting the source, which is the smaller side here, rewrites the join type:\n{materialized}"
+        );
+
+        // The provider entry is public too, and the batches entry is a thin wrapper
+        // over it, so pin it directly rather than only through that wrapper.
+        let provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider> = Arc::new(
+            datafusion::datasource::MemTable::try_new(source.schema(), vec![vec![source.clone()]])
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let from_provider = new_job().analyze_plan_provider(provider).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            from_provider.contains("DataSourceExec") && from_provider.contains("join_type=Left"),
+            "a provider with exact statistics reports the same shape as its batches:\n{from_provider}"
+        );
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source.clone())], source.schema());
+        let streaming = new_job()
+            .analyze_plan(reader_to_stream(Box::new(reader)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            streaming.contains("StreamingTableExec") && !streaming.contains("DataSourceExec"),
+            "a stream must still be reported as a stream:\n{streaming}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            streaming.contains("join_type=Right"),
+            "nothing is swapped without source statistics:\n{streaming}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_path_update_only() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
+        let data = data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1024), BatchCount::from(32));
+
+        // Create dataset with initial data
+        let ds = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create update-only job (insert_not_matched = false)
+        let merge_insert_job =
+            crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(crate::dataset::WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // Create new data for update
+        let new_data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(2))
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
+        let new_data = new_data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(512), BatchCount::from(16));
+        let new_data_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(new_data));
+
+        // This should use the fast path (execute_uncommitted_v2)
+        let plan = merge_insert_job
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(new_data_stream).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The optimized plan should use Inner join instead of Right join since we're not
+        // inserting unmatched rows.  The sentinel IS NOT NULL condition is folded away by
+        // DataFusion because the sentinel is lit(true), so the CASE only checks _rowaddr.
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "MergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=DoNothing, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep
+  CoalescePartitionsExec
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@0 as _rowid, _rowaddr@1 as _rowaddr, value@2 as value, key@3 as key, __merge_source_sentinel@4 as __merge_source_sentinel, CASE WHEN _rowaddr@1 IS NOT NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END as __action]
+      HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Inner, on=[(key@0, key@1)], projection=[_rowid@1, _rowaddr@2, value@3, key@4, __merge_source_sentinel@5]
+        LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[key], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=true, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--
+        RepartitionExec...
+          ProjectionExec: expr=[value@0 as value, key@1 as key, true as __merge_source_sentinel]
+            StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[value, key]"
+        ).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_path_conditional_update() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
+        let data = data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1024), BatchCount::from(32));
+
+        // Create dataset with initial data
+        let ds = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create conditional update job (WhenMatched::UpdateIf)
+        let merge_insert_job = crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(
+            Arc::new(ds.clone()),
+            vec!["key".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(crate::dataset::WhenMatched::update_if(&ds, "source.value > 20").unwrap())
+        .when_not_matched(crate::dataset::WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Create new data for conditional update
+        let new_data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(2))
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
+        let new_data_reader = new_data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(512), BatchCount::from(16));
+        let new_data_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(new_data_reader));
+
+        let plan = merge_insert_job
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(new_data_stream).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The optimized plan should use Inner join and include the UpdateIf condition.
+        // The sentinel IS NOT NULL condition is folded away (sentinel is lit(true)).
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "MergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=UpdateIf(source.value > 20), when_not_matched=DoNothing, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep
+  CoalescePartitionsExec
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@0 as _rowid, _rowaddr@1 as _rowaddr, value@2 as value, key@3 as key, __merge_source_sentinel@4 as __merge_source_sentinel, CASE WHEN _rowaddr@1 IS NOT NULL AND value@2 > 20 THEN 1 ELSE 0 END as __action]
+      HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Inner, on=[(key@0, key@1)], projection=[_rowid@1, _rowaddr@2, value@3, key@4, __merge_source_sentinel@5]
+        LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[key], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=true, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--
+        RepartitionExec...
+          ProjectionExec: expr=[value@0 as value, key@1 as key, true as __merge_source_sentinel]
+            StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[value, key]"
+        ).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Verifies that a default find-or-create merge insert
+    /// (`WhenMatched::DoNothing` + `WhenNotMatched::InsertAll`) is routed
+    /// through the v2 `FullSchemaMergeInsertExec` path. Prior to this
+    /// change, `can_use_create_plan` rejected `DoNothing` outright and the
+    /// operation fell back to the legacy v1 `Merger`; the assertion below
+    /// would fail on `main`. See lance-format/lance#6441.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_path_find_or_create() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
+        let data = data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1024), BatchCount::from(32));
+
+        // Create dataset with initial data
+        let ds = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Default MergeInsertBuilder config is find-or-create:
+        //   when_matched = DoNothing, when_not_matched = InsertAll.
+        let merge_insert_job =
+            crate::dataset::MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // Source data with a mix of already-present and new keys.
+        let new_data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(2))
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("key", array::rand_pseudo_uuid_hex());
+        let new_data = new_data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(512), BatchCount::from(16));
+        let new_data_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(new_data));
+
+        // Should reach the v2 fast path (`create_plan` + FullSchemaMergeInsertExec).
+        // Dropping to v1 here would return an error from create_plan instead.
+        let plan = merge_insert_job
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(new_data_stream).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The join is Right because we keep unmatched source rows (InsertAll)
+        // but discard unmatched target rows (DoNothing on when_matched,
+        // Keep on when_not_matched_by_source). The CASE expression simplifies
+        // to `_rowaddr IS NULL → Insert, else Nothing`.
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "MergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=DoNothing, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep
+  CoalescePartitionsExec
+    ProjectionExec: expr=[_rowid@0 as _rowid, _rowaddr@1 as _rowaddr, value@2 as value, key@3 as key, __merge_source_sentinel@4 as __merge_source_sentinel, CASE WHEN _rowaddr@1 IS NULL THEN 2 ELSE 0 END as __action]
+      HashJoinExec: mode=CollectLeft, join_type=Right, on=[(key@0, key@1)], projection=[_rowid@1, _rowaddr@2, value@3, key@4, __merge_source_sentinel@5]
+        LanceRead: uri=..., projection=[key], num_fragments=1, range_before=None, range_after=None, row_id=true, row_addr=true, full_filter=--, refine_filter=--
+        RepartitionExec...
+          ProjectionExec: expr=[value@0 as value, key@1 as key, true as __merge_source_sentinel]
+            StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[value, key]"
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_skip_auto_cleanup() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/{}", tmpdir, "test_dataset");
+
+        // Create initial dataset with auto cleanup interval of 1 version
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(1))
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        let mut auto_cleanup_params = HashMap::new();
+        auto_cleanup_params.insert("lance.auto_cleanup.interval".to_string(), "1".to_string());
+        auto_cleanup_params.insert(
+            "lance.auto_cleanup.older_than".to_string(),
+            "0ms".to_string(),
+        );
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Create,
+            auto_cleanup: Some(crate::dataset::AutoCleanupParams {
+                interval: 1,
+                older_than: chrono::TimeDelta::try_milliseconds(0).unwrap(),
+            }),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        // Start at 1 second after epoch
+        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(1));
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(data, &dataset_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 1);
+
+        // Advance time
+        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(2));
+
+        // First merge insert WITHOUT skip_auto_cleanup - should trigger cleanup
+        let new_data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(2))
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        let (dataset2, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute(new_data)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset2.version().version, 2);
+
+        // Advance time
+        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(3));
+
+        // Need to do another merge insert for cleanup to take effect since cleanup runs on the old dataset
+        let new_data_extra = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(4))
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        let (dataset2_extra, _) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset2.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute(new_data_extra)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset2_extra.version().version, 3);
+
+        // Load the dataset from disk to check versions
+        let ds_check1 = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&dataset_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Version 1 should be cleaned up due to auto cleanup (cleanup runs every version)
+        assert!(
+            ds_check1.checkout_version(1).await.is_err(),
+            "Version 1 should have been cleaned up"
+        );
+        // Version 2 should still exist
+        assert!(
+            ds_check1.checkout_version(2).await.is_ok(),
+            "Version 2 should still exist"
+        );
+
+        // Advance time
+        MockClock::set_system_time(std::time::Duration::from_secs(4));
+
+        // Second merge insert WITH skip_auto_cleanup - should NOT trigger cleanup
+        let new_data2 = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed::from(3))
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_df_stream(RowCount::from(30), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        let (dataset3, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset2_extra, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .skip_auto_cleanup(true) // Skip auto cleanup
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute(new_data2)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset3.version().version, 4);
+
+        // Load the dataset from disk to check versions
+        let ds_check2 = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&dataset_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Version 2 should still exist because skip_auto_cleanup was enabled
+        assert!(
+            ds_check2.checkout_version(2).await.is_ok(),
+            "Version 2 should still exist because skip_auto_cleanup was enabled"
+        );
+        // Version 3 should also still exist
+        assert!(
+            ds_check2.checkout_version(3).await.is_ok(),
+            "Version 3 should still exist"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_transaction_inserted_rows_filter_roundtrip() {
+        // Create dataset with unenforced primary key on "id" column
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+                    "true".to_string(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+            ),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![initial])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        // Source with overlapping key 1
+        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 3])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(new_batch)]),
+        );
+
+        let UncommittedMergeInsert { transaction, .. } =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_uncommitted(Box::pin(stream) as SendableRecordBatchStream)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // Commit and read back transaction file
+        let committed = CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .execute(transaction)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let tx_path = committed.manifest().transaction_file.clone().unwrap();
+        let tx_read = read_transaction_file(dataset.object_store.as_ref(), &dataset.base, &tx_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Check that inserted_rows_filter is present in the Operation::Update
+        if let Operation::Update {
+            inserted_rows_filter,
+            ..
+        } = &tx_read.operation
+        {
+            assert!(inserted_rows_filter.is_some());
+            let filter = inserted_rows_filter.as_ref().unwrap();
+            // Field IDs are assigned by Lance schema; check that we tracked exactly 1 key field
+            assert_eq!(filter.field_ids.len(), 1);
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected Operation::Update");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Test that two merge insert operations on the same existing key conflict.
+    /// First merge insert commits successfully, second one fails with conflict error
+    /// because both operations updated the same key (detected via bloom filter).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_inserted_rows_filter_bloom_conflict_detection_concurrent() {
+        // Create schema with unenforced primary key on "id" column
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+                    "true".to_string(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+            ),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![initial])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        // Both jobs update/insert the same key 2
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Create second merge insert job based on version 1 with 0 retries
+        let b2 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .conflict_retries(0)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // First merge insert commits (creates version 2)
+        let s1 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1.clone())]),
+        );
+        let b1 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let result1 = b1.execute(Box::pin(s1) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+        assert!(result1.is_ok(), "First merge insert should succeed");
+
+        // Second merge insert tries to commit based on version 1, needs to rebase against version 2
+        let s2 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch2.clone())]),
+        );
+        let result2 = b2.execute(Box::pin(s2) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+
+        // Second merge insert should fail because bloom filters show both updated key 2
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result2, Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })),
+            "Expected TooMuchWriteContention (retryable conflict exhausted), got: {:?}",
+            result2
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Test that two merge insert operations inserting the same NEW key conflict.
+    /// First merge insert commits successfully (inserts id=100), second one fails
+    /// with conflict error because both inserted the same new key (detected via bloom filter).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_key() {
+        // Create schema with unenforced primary key on "id" column
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+                    "true".to_string(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+            ),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        // Initial dataset with ids 0, 1, 2, 3 - NOT containing id=100
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![initial])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        // Both jobs try to INSERT the same NEW key id=100 (doesn't exist in initial data)
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])), // NEW key id=100
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])), // Same NEW key id=100
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Create second merge insert job based on version 1 with 0 retries
+        let b2 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .conflict_retries(0)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // First merge insert commits (creates version 2, inserts id=100)
+        let s1 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1.clone())]),
+        );
+        let b1 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let result1 = b1.execute(Box::pin(s1) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+        assert!(result1.is_ok(), "First merge insert should succeed");
+
+        // Second merge insert tries to commit based on version 1, needs to rebase against version 2
+        let s2 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch2.clone())]),
+        );
+        let result2 = b2.execute(Box::pin(s2) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+
+        // Second merge insert should fail because bloom filters show both inserted key 100
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result2, Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })),
+            "Expected TooMuchWriteContention (retryable conflict exhausted), got: {:?}",
+            result2
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Concurrency regression for lance-format/lance#6441: two concurrent
+    /// find-or-create jobs (`WhenMatched::DoNothing` + `WhenNotMatched::InsertAll`)
+    /// both try to insert the same fresh key. The second must fail with
+    /// `TooMuchWriteContention` because the bloom-filter-backed
+    /// `inserted_rows_filter` detects the overlap during rebase. Before
+    /// routing find-or-create through v2 this did not work at all: the v1
+    /// path returned `inserted_rows_filter=None`, so there was nothing to
+    /// intersect against during conflict resolution.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_find_or_create_same_new_key() {
+        // Schema with an unenforced primary key on "id" — that is what
+        // activates bloom-filter conflict detection.
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+                    "true".to_string(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+            ),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        // Initial dataset with ids 0..=3 — id=100 is not present.
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![initial])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        // Both jobs try to find-or-create the same new id=100.
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // b2 is built against version 1 with zero retries, so when it needs
+        // to rebase against b1's commit the bloom-filter intersection decides
+        // the outcome directly.
+        let b2 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::DoNothing)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .conflict_retries(0)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // First job commits successfully, producing version 2 with id=100.
+        let s1 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1.clone())]),
+        );
+        let b1 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::DoNothing)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let result1 = b1.execute(Box::pin(s1) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+        assert!(result1.is_ok(), "First find-or-create should succeed");
+
+        // Second job fails because its inserted_rows_filter overlaps b1's.
+        let s2 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch2.clone())]),
+        );
+        let result2 = b2.execute(Box::pin(s2) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result2, Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })),
+            "Expected TooMuchWriteContention (bloom-filter conflict) for find-or-create, got: {:?}",
+            result2
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_concurrent_insert_different_new_list_key() {
+        // Schema for list(string) key column "tags".
+        let tags_field = Field::new(
+            "tags",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![tags_field]));
+
+        // Build two batches inserting list key ["a", "b"] and ["c", "d"].
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        builder.append_value(["a", "b"].iter().copied().map(Some));
+        let tags_array1 = builder.finish();
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(tags_array1)]).unwrap();
+
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        builder.append_value(["c", "d"].iter().copied().map(Some));
+        let tags_array2 = builder.finish();
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(tags_array2)]).unwrap();
+
+        // Build bloom filters for the list keys.
+        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
+        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
+        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
+            .expect("first batch should produce key");
+        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
+            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+
+        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
+        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
+        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
+        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+
+        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !has_intersection,
+            "Expected bloom filters not intersect for different list(string) keys",
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !might_be_fp,
+            "Bloom filter intersection should be definitively not conflict",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_list_key() {
+        // Schema for list(string) key column "tags".
+        let tags_field = Field::new(
+            "tags",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![tags_field]));
+
+        // Build two batches both inserting the same list key ["a", "b"].
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        builder.append_value(["a", "b"].iter().copied().map(Some));
+        let tags_array1 = builder.finish();
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(tags_array1)]).unwrap();
+
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        builder.append_value(["a", "b"].iter().copied().map(Some));
+        let tags_array2 = builder.finish();
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(tags_array2)]).unwrap();
+
+        // Build bloom filters for the list key.
+        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
+        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
+        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
+            .expect("first batch should produce key");
+        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
+            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+
+        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
+        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
+        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
+        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+
+        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            has_intersection,
+            "Expected bloom filters to intersect for identical list(string) keys",
+        );
+        assert!(
+            might_be_fp,
+            "Bloom filter intersection should be treated as potential conflict",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_nested_list_key() {
+        // Build nested list(list(string)) value [["a", "b"], ["c"]] for the "tags" column.
+        let nested_tags = make_nested_array(&[["a", "b"].as_slice(), ["c"].as_slice()]);
+        let tags_field = Field::new("tags", nested_tags.data_type().clone(), false);
+        let nested_tags2 = make_nested_array(&[["a", "b"].as_slice(), ["c"].as_slice()]);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![tags_field]));
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(nested_tags)]).unwrap();
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(nested_tags2)]).unwrap();
+
+        // Build bloom filters for the nested list key.
+        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
+        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
+        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
+            .expect("first batch should produce key");
+        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
+            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+
+        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
+        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
+        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
+        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+
+        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            has_intersection,
+            "Expected bloom filters to intersect for identical nested list(list(string)) keys",
+        );
+        assert!(
+            might_be_fp,
+            "Bloom filter intersection should be treated as potential conflict",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_concurrent_insert_different_new_struct_key() {
+        let user_field = Field::new(
+            "user",
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    Field::new("first", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    Field::new("last", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![user_field]));
+
+        // Build two batches inserting different struct keys.
+        let struct_array1 = make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["alice"], vec!["smith"]);
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(struct_array1)]).unwrap();
+
+        let struct_array2 = make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["bob"], vec!["jones"]);
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array2)]).unwrap();
+
+        // Build bloom filters for the struct key.
+        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
+        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
+        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("user")])
+            .expect("first batch should produce key");
+        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("user")])
+            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+
+        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
+        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
+        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
+        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+
+        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !has_intersection,
+            "Expected bloom filters not intersect for different struct keys",
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !might_be_fp,
+            "Bloom filter intersection should be definitively not conflict",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_struct_key() {
+        let user_field = Field::new(
+            "user",
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    Field::new("first", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    Field::new("last", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![user_field]));
+
+        // Build two batches both inserting the same struct key {first: "alice", last: "smith"}.
+        let struct_array1 = make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["alice"], vec!["smith"]);
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(struct_array1)]).unwrap();
+
+        let struct_array2 = make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["alice"], vec!["smith"]);
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array2)]).unwrap();
+
+        // Build bloom filters for the struct key.
+        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
+        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
+        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("user")])
+            .expect("first batch should produce key");
+        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("user")])
+            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+
+        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
+        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
+        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
+        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+
+        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            has_intersection,
+            "Expected bloom filters to intersect for identical struct keys",
+        );
+        assert!(
+            might_be_fp,
+            "Bloom filter intersection should be treated as potential conflict",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_nested_struct_key() {
+        // Build nested struct value {address: {city: "seattle", zip: 98101}} for the "user" column.
+        let outer_struct = make_nested_struct_array_city_zip("seattle", 98101);
+        let user_field = Field::new("user", outer_struct.data_type().clone(), false);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![user_field]));
+
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(outer_struct)]).unwrap();
+
+        let outer_struct2 = make_nested_struct_array_city_zip("seattle", 98101);
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(outer_struct2)]).unwrap();
+
+        // Build bloom filters for the nested struct key.
+        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
+        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
+        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+
+        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("user")])
+            .expect("first batch should produce key");
+        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("user")])
+            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+
+        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
+        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
+        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
+        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+
+        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            has_intersection,
+            "Expected bloom filters to intersect for identical nested struct keys",
+        );
+        assert!(
+            might_be_fp,
+            "Bloom filter intersection should be treated as potential conflict",
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// End-to-end test for merge_insert using a struct-typed key column.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_struct_key_upsert() {
+        let user_field = Field::new(
+            "user",
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    Field::new("first", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    Field::new("last", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            user_field,
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+
+        // Initial dataset:
+        // (alice, smith) -> 1
+        // (bob, jones)  -> 1
+        // (carla, doe)  -> 1
+        let user_array = make_struct_array_first_last_name(
+            vec!["alice", "bob", "carla"],
+            vec!["smith", "jones", "doe"],
+        );
+        let values = UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 1, 1]);
+        let initial_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(user_array), Arc::new(values)])
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_merge_insert_struct_key.lance";
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        // New data: update alice, insert david
+        let new_user_array =
+            make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["alice", "david"], vec!["smith", "brown"]);
+        let new_values = UInt32Array::from(vec![10, 2]);
+        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(new_user_array), Arc::new(new_values)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let (merged_ds, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["user".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute(reader_to_stream(Box::new(reader)))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+
+        let result = merged_ds.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let user_col = result
+            .column_by_name("user")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let first = user_col
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let last = user_col
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let values = result
+            .column_by_name("value")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+
+        let mut rows = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..result.num_rows() {
+            rows.push((
+                first.value(i).to_string(),
+                last.value(i).to_string(),
+                values.value(i),
+            ));
+        }
+        rows.sort();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows,
+            vec![
+                ("alice".to_string(), "smith".to_string(), 10),
+                ("bob".to_string(), "jones".to_string(), 1),
+                ("carla".to_string(), "doe".to_string(), 1),
+                ("david".to_string(), "brown".to_string(), 2),
+            ],
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn make_struct_array_first_last_name(first: Vec<&str>, last: Vec<&str>) -> StructArray {
+        let first = StringArray::from(first);
+        let last = StringArray::from(last);
+
+        StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("first", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(first) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("last", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(last) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ),
+        ])
+    }
+
+    fn make_nested_struct_array_city_zip(city: &str, zip: i32) -> StructArray {
+        let city = StringArray::from(vec![city]);
+        let zip = Int32Array::from(vec![zip]);
+
+        let inner_struct = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("city", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(city) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("zip", DataType::Int32, false)),
+                Arc::new(zip) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        StructArray::from(vec![(
+            Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "address",
+                inner_struct.data_type().clone(),
+                false,
+            )),
+            Arc::new(inner_struct) as Arc<dyn Array>,
+        )])
+    }
+
+    fn make_nested_array(inner_lists: &[&[&str]]) -> ListArray {
+        let mut inner_builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        for inner in inner_lists {
+            inner_builder.append_value(inner.iter().map(|s| Some(*s)));
+        }
+        let inner_list_array = inner_builder.finish();
+
+        let offsets = ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(vec![0, inner_list_array.len() as i32]);
+        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(offsets);
+        ListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                inner_list_array.data_type().clone(),
+                inner_list_array.nulls().is_some(),
+            )),
+            offsets,
+            Arc::new(inner_list_array),
+            None,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Test that merge_insert with bloom filter fails when committing against
+    /// an Update transaction that doesn't have a filter. We can't determine if
+    /// the Update operation conflicted with our inserted rows.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_conflict_with_update_without_filter() {
+        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+
+        // Create schema with unenforced primary key on "id" column
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+                    "true".to_string(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+            ),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![initial])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        // Create merge insert job based on version 1
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let b1 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .conflict_retries(0)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Regular Update without bloom filter commits first (creates version 2)
+        let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .update_where("id = 0")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("value", "999")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await;
+        assert!(update_result.is_ok(), "Update should succeed");
+
+        // Now merge insert tries to commit based on version 1, needs to rebase against version 2
+        let s1 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1.clone())]),
+        );
+        let merge_result = b1.execute(Box::pin(s1) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+
+        // Merge insert should fail with retryable conflict because it can't
+        // determine if Update conflicted (Update has no inserted_rows_filter)
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                merge_result,
+                Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })
+            ),
+            "Expected TooMuchWriteContention (retryable conflict exhausted), got: {:?}",
+            merge_result
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Test that merge_insert with bloom filter fails when committing against
+    /// an Append operation. We can't determine if the appended rows conflict
+    /// with our inserted rows.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_conflict_with_append() {
+        // Create schema with unenforced primary key on "id" column
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+                    "true".to_string(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+            ),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![initial])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        // Create merge insert job based on version 1
+        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let b1 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .conflict_retries(0)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Append commits first (creates version 2)
+        let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![50])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let append_result = InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![append_batch])
+            .await;
+        assert!(append_result.is_ok(), "Append should succeed");
+
+        // Now merge insert tries to commit based on version 1, needs to rebase against version 2
+        let s1 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1.clone())]),
+        );
+        let merge_result = b1.execute(Box::pin(s1) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+
+        // Merge insert should fail with retryable conflict because it can't
+        // determine if Append added conflicting keys
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                merge_result,
+                Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })
+            ),
+            "Expected TooMuchWriteContention (retryable conflict exhausted), got: {:?}",
+            merge_result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explain_plan() {
+        // Set up test data using lance_datagen
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("name", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c"]))
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(3))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create merge insert job
+        let merge_insert_job =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // Test explain_plan with default schema (None)
+        let plan = merge_insert_job.explain_plan(None, false).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Also validate the full string structure with pattern matching
+        let expected_pattern = "\
+MergeInsert: on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep...
+  CoalescePartitionsExec...
+    HashJoinExec...
+      LanceRead...
+      StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[id, name]";
+        assert_string_matches(&plan, expected_pattern).unwrap();
+
+        // Test with explicit schema
+        let source_schema = arrow_schema::Schema::from(dataset.schema());
+        let explicit_plan = merge_insert_job
+            .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan, explicit_plan); // Should be the same as default
+
+        // Test verbose mode produces different (likely longer) output
+        let verbose_plan = merge_insert_job.explain_plan(None, true).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(verbose_plan.contains("MergeInsert"));
+        // Verbose should also match the expected pattern
+        assert_string_matches(&verbose_plan, expected_pattern).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Asserts that `explain_plan()` is supported for a default find-or-create
+    /// configuration (`WhenMatched::DoNothing` + `WhenNotMatched::InsertAll`).
+    /// Before lance-format/lance#6441 this returned `Error::NotSupported`
+    /// because the job fell back to the legacy v1 path.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explain_plan_find_or_create() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("name", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c"]))
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(3))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Default builder config == find-or-create.
+        let merge_insert_job =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let plan = merge_insert_job.explain_plan(None, false).await.unwrap();
+
+        let expected_pattern = "\
+MergeInsert: on=[id], when_matched=DoNothing, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep...
+  CoalescePartitionsExec...
+    HashJoinExec...join_type=Right...
+      LanceRead...
+      StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[id, name]";
+        assert_string_matches(&plan, expected_pattern).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explain_plan_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let dataset_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from(vec![
+                            1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3,
+                        ]),
+                        4,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(dataset_batch)],
+                schema.clone(),
+            )),
+            "memory://test_explain_plan_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let merge_insert_job =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete)
+                .use_index(false)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let plan = merge_insert_job.explain_plan(None, false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(plan.contains("HashJoinExec"));
+        assert!(plan.contains("join_type=Full"));
+        assert!(
+            plan.lines().any(|line| line.contains("HashJoinExec")
+                && line.contains("projection=[")
+                && line.contains("_rowid")),
+            "join should push down a projection that retains _rowid: {plan}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("LanceRead: uri=") && plan.contains("projection=[id]"),
+            "target-side scan should prune the FSL payload from the join build side: {plan}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains("LanceRead: uri=test_explain_plan_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl/data, projection=[id, vec]"),
+            "target-side scan should not include the FSL payload in the join build side: {plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_explain_plan_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl_and_scalar_index() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let dataset_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from(vec![
+                            1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3,
+                        ]),
+                        4,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(dataset_batch)],
+                schema.clone(),
+            )),
+            "memory://test_explain_plan_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl_and_scalar_index",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["id"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &scalar_params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let merge_insert_job =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let plan = merge_insert_job.explain_plan(None, false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(plan.contains("HashJoinExec"));
+        assert!(plan.contains("join_type=Full"));
+        assert!(
+            plan.lines().any(|line| line.contains("HashJoinExec")
+                && line.contains("projection=[")
+                && line.contains("_rowid")),
+            "join should push down a projection that retains _rowid: {plan}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("LanceRead: uri=") && plan.contains("projection=[id]"),
+            "target-side scan should prune the FSL payload from the join build side even when a scalar index exists: {plan}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan.contains(
+                "LanceRead: uri=test_explain_plan_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl_and_scalar_index/data, projection=[id, vec]"
+            ),
+            "target-side scan should not include the FSL payload in the join build side: {plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let dataset_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from(vec![
+                            1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3,
+                        ]),
+                        4,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(dataset_batch)],
+                schema.clone(),
+            )),
+            "memory://test_merge_insert_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 4])),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from(vec![20.0, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3, 40.0, 40.1, 40.2, 40.3]),
+                        4,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let (merged_dataset, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    [Ok(source_batch)],
+                    schema.clone(),
+                )))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+
+        let merged = merged_dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = merged["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![2, 4]);
+
+        let vecs = merged["vec"].as_fixed_size_list();
+        let actual = vecs
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(actual, vec![20.0, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3, 40.0, 40.1, 40.2, 40.3]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl_and_scalar_index() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let dataset_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from(vec![
+                            1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3,
+                        ]),
+                        4,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(dataset_batch)],
+                schema.clone(),
+            )),
+            "memory://test_merge_insert_full_schema_delete_by_source_with_fsl_and_scalar_index",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["id"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &scalar_params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 4])),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from(vec![20.0, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3, 40.0, 40.1, 40.2, 40.3]),
+                        4,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let (merged_dataset, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    [Ok(source_batch)],
+                    schema.clone(),
+                )))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+
+        let merged = merged_dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = merged["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(ids, vec![2, 4]);
+
+        let vecs = merged["vec"].as_fixed_size_list();
+        let actual = vecs
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(actual, vec![20.0, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3, 40.0, 40.1, 40.2, 40.3]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_analyze_plan() {
+        // Set up test data using lance_datagen
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("name", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c"]))
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(3))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Capture the original version before analyze_plan
+        let original_version = dataset.version().version;
+
+        // Create merge insert job
+        let merge_insert_job =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // Create source data stream with exact same schema
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::from(dataset.schema()));
+        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 4])), // 1 matches, 4 is new
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["updated_a", "d"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let source_stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            futures::stream::once(async { Ok(source_batch) }).boxed(),
+        );
+
+        // Test analyze_plan. We enclose the analysis output string in brackets to make it easier
+        // to use assert_string_matches.  (That function requires a known string at the beginning
+        // and end.)
+        let mut analysis = String::from("[");
+        analysis.push_str(
+            &merge_insert_job
+                .analyze_plan(Box::pin(source_stream))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        analysis.push_str(&String::from("]"));
+
+        // Verify the analysis contains expected components
+        assert!(analysis.contains("MergeInsert"));
+        assert!(analysis.contains("metrics"));
+        // Note: AnalyzeExec is no longer in the output
+
+        // Should show execution metrics including new write metrics
+        assert!(analysis.contains("bytes_written"));
+        assert!(analysis.contains("num_files_written"));
+
+        // IMPORTANT: Verify that no new version was created
+        // analyze_plan should not commit the transaction
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            original_version,
+            "analyze_plan should not create a new dataset version"
+        );
+
+        // Also validate the full string structure with pattern matching
+        let expected_pattern = "[...MergeInsert: elapsed=..., on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep, metrics=...bytes_written=...num_deleted_rows=0, num_files_written=...num_inserted_rows=1, num_skipped_duplicates=0, num_updated_rows=1]
+    ...
+    StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[id, name], metrics=[]...]";
+        assert_string_matches(&analysis, expected_pattern).unwrap();
+        assert!(analysis.contains("bytes_written"));
+        assert!(analysis.contains("num_files_written"));
+        assert!(analysis.contains("elapsed_compute"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_with_action_column() {
+        // Test that merge_insert works when the user has a column named "action"
+        // This reproduces issue #4498
+
+        // Create a dataset with an "action" column
+        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+                arrow_schema::Field::new("id", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
+                arrow_schema::Field::new("action", arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8, true),
+                arrow_schema::Field::new("value", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["create", "update", "delete"])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let tempdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data.clone())], initial_data.schema()),
+            &tempdir,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Create new data for merge with matching "action" column
+        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+                arrow_schema::Field::new("id", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
+                arrow_schema::Field::new("action", arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8, true),
+                arrow_schema::Field::new("value", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 4])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["modify", "insert"])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![25, 40])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Perform merge insert - this should work despite having "action" column
+        let merge_insert_job =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(new_data.clone())],
+            new_data.schema(),
+        ));
+        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
+
+        let (merged_dataset, _) = merge_insert_job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the merge worked correctly
+        let result_batches = merged_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result_batch = concat_batches(&result_batches[0].schema(), &result_batches).unwrap();
+
+        // Should have 4 rows: 1 (unchanged), 2 (updated), 3 (unchanged), 4 (inserted)
+        assert_eq!(result_batch.num_rows(), 4);
+
+        // Verify the "action" column values are preserved correctly
+        let id_col = result_batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let action_col = result_batch
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let value_col = result_batch
+            .column(2)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Find each row by ID and verify
+        for i in 0..result_batch.num_rows() {
+            match id_col.value(i) {
+                1 => {
+                    assert_eq!(action_col.value(i), "create");
+                    assert_eq!(value_col.value(i), 10);
+                }
+                2 => {
+                    assert_eq!(action_col.value(i), "modify"); // Updated
+                    assert_eq!(value_col.value(i), 25); // Updated
+                }
+                3 => {
+                    assert_eq!(action_col.value(i), "delete");
+                    assert_eq!(value_col.value(i), 30);
+                }
+                4 => {
+                    assert_eq!(action_col.value(i), "insert"); // New row
+                    assert_eq!(value_col.value(i), 40); // New row
+                }
+                _ => panic!("Unexpected id: {}", id_col.value(i)),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    async fn test_duplicate_rowid_detection(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_full_schema: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_duplicate_rowid_multi_fragment.lance";
+
+        // Create initial dataset with multiple fragments to test cross-fragment duplicate detection
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("key", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(1, 1))
+            .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 10))
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                test_uri,
+                FragmentCount(3),
+                FragmentRowCount(4),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3, "Should have 3 fragments");
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, is_full_schema),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, is_full_schema),
+        ]));
+
+        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2, 6, 6, 10, 10, 15])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["key".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source_batch)], schema.clone()));
+        let stream = reader_to_stream(reader);
+
+        let result = job.execute(stream).await;
+
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Expected merge insert to fail due to duplicate rows on key column."
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&result, &Err(Error::InvalidInput { ref source, .. }) if source.to_string().contains("Ambiguous merge insert") && source.to_string().contains("multiple source rows")),
+            "Expected error to be InvalidInput with message about ambiguous merge insert and multiple source rows, got: {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    async fn test_source_dedupe_behavior_first_seen(
+        #[values(false, true)] is_full_schema: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)]
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let test_uri = format!(
+            "memory://test_dedupe_first_seen_{}_{}.lance",
+            is_full_schema, enable_stable_row_ids
+        );
+
+        // Create initial dataset with keys 1, 2, 3, 4
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("key", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(1, 1))
+            .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 10))
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                &test_uri,
+                FragmentCount(1),
+                FragmentRowCount(4),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Initial data: key=1,value=10; key=2,value=20; key=3,value=30; key=4,value=40
+        let initial_data: Vec<(u32, u32)> = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .columns()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|c| c.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().values().to_vec())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .into_iter()
+            .fold(Vec::new(), |mut acc, vals| {
+                if acc.is_empty() {
+                    acc = vals.into_iter().map(|v| (v, 0)).collect();
+                } else {
+                    for (i, v) in vals.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                        acc[i].1 = v;
+                    }
+                }
+                acc
+            });
+        assert_eq!(
+            initial_data,
+            vec![(1, 10), (2, 20), (3, 30), (4, 40)],
+            "Initial data should be correct"
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, is_full_schema),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, is_full_schema),
+        ]));
+
+        // Source data with duplicates:
+        // - key=2 appears 3 times with values 100, 200, 300 (first seen: 100)
+        // - key=3 appears 2 times with values 400, 500 (first seen: 400)
+        // - key=5 is a new insert (value=600)
+        // Total duplicates: 3 (2 extra for key=2, 1 extra for key=3)
+        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 5])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["key".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .source_dedupe_behavior(SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source_batch)], schema.clone()));
+        let stream = reader_to_stream(reader);
+
+        let (dataset, stats) = job.execute(stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify stats
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_skipped_duplicates, 3,
+            "Should have skipped 3 duplicate rows (2 extra for key=2, 1 extra for key=3)"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_updated_rows, 2,
+            "Should have updated 2 rows (key=2 and key=3)"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_inserted_rows, 1,
+            "Should have inserted 1 row (key=5)"
+        );
+
+        // Verify the actual data - first seen values should be kept
+        let result_batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let keys = result_batch.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let values = result_batch.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+
+        let result_data: std::collections::HashMap<u32, u32> = keys
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(values.values().iter())
+            .map(|(&k, &v)| (k, v))
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(result_data.len(), 5, "Should have 5 rows total");
+        assert_eq!(
+            result_data.get(&1),
+            Some(&10),
+            "key=1 should be unchanged (original value)"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result_data.get(&2),
+            Some(&100),
+            "key=2 should have first seen value (100, not 200 or 300)"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result_data.get(&3),
+            Some(&400),
+            "key=3 should have first seen value (400, not 500)"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result_data.get(&4),
+            Some(&40),
+            "key=4 should be unchanged (original value)"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result_data.get(&5),
+            Some(&600),
+            "key=5 should be inserted with value 600"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::v2(false)]
+    #[case::indexed_scan(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_first_seen_dedupes_unmatched_source_rows(#[case] with_index: bool) {
+        let initial =
+            record_batch!(("id", Int32, [Some(1)]), ("value", Int32, [Some(10)])).unwrap();
+        let initial = if with_index {
+            initial
+        } else {
+            // Match the reported failure's empty-target setup on the v2 path.
+            initial.slice(0, 0)
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial.clone())], initial.schema()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        if with_index {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["id"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        // Split distinct duplicate values across batches to verify that FirstSeen
+        // preserves source order across the entire stream. On the v2 path, also
+        // verify that NULL keys remain distinct under SQL equality.
+        let (first, second, expected_inserted) = if with_index {
+            (
+                record_batch!(("id", Int32, [Some(108)]), ("value", Int32, [Some(1)])).unwrap(),
+                record_batch!(("id", Int32, [Some(108)]), ("value", Int32, [Some(2)])).unwrap(),
+                1,
+            )
+        } else {
+            (
+                record_batch!(
+                    ("id", Int32, [Some(108), None]),
+                    ("value", Int32, [Some(1), Some(3)])
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+                record_batch!(
+                    ("id", Int32, [Some(108), None]),
+                    ("value", Int32, [Some(2), Some(4)])
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+                3,
+            )
+        };
+
+        let (dataset, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .source_dedupe_behavior(SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    [Ok(first.clone()), Ok(second)],
+                    first.schema(),
+                )))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, expected_inserted);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_skipped_duplicates, 1);
+
+        let inserted = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id = 108")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(inserted.num_rows(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(inserted["value"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_use_index() {
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>());
+        let data = data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let schema = data.schema();
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create a scalar index on id column
+        let index_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        ds.create_index(&["id"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &index_params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 101])), // Two matches, one new
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![999, 999, 999])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Test 1: use_index=false should allow explain_plan to succeed
+        let merge_job_no_index =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .use_index(false) // Force not using index
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // With use_index=false, explain_plan should succeed even with an index present
+        let plan = merge_job_no_index.explain_plan(None, false).await;
+        assert!(
+            plan.is_ok(),
+            "explain_plan should succeed with use_index=false"
+        );
+        let plan_str = plan.unwrap();
+        assert!(plan_str.contains("MergeInsert"));
+        assert!(plan_str.contains("HashJoinExec")); // Should use hash join, not index scan
+
+        // Test 2: use_index=true (default) should fail explain_plan with index present
+        let merge_job_with_index =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .use_index(true) // Explicitly set to use index (though it's the default)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+
+        // With use_index=true and an index present, explain_plan should fail
+        let plan_result = merge_job_with_index.explain_plan(None, false).await;
+        assert!(
+            plan_result.is_err(),
+            "explain_plan should fail with use_index=true when index exists"
+        );
+
+        match plan_result {
+            Err(Error::NotSupported { source, .. }) => {
+                assert!(source.to_string().contains("does not support explain_plan"));
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Expected NotSupported error"),
+        }
+
+        // Test 3: Verify actual execution works without index
+        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(source_batch.clone())],
+            schema.clone(),
+        ));
+        let (result_ds, stats) = merge_job_no_index.execute_reader(source).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+
+        // Verify the data was updated correctly
+        let updated_count = result_ds
+            .count_rows(Some("value = 999".to_string()))
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(updated_count, 3);
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset3.version().version, 4);
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_full_schema_upsert_fragment_bitmap() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, true),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
 
-        // Load the dataset from disk to check versions
-        let ds_check2 = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&dataset_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("key", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(1, 1))
+            .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 10))
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                array::cycle_vec(
+                    array::cycle::<Float32Type>(vec![
+                        1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0,
+                        15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0, 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0,
+                    ]),
+                    Dimension::from(4),
+                ),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Version 2 should still exist because skip_auto_cleanup was enabled
-        assert!(
-            ds_check2.checkout_version(2).await.is_ok(),
-            "Version 2 should still exist because skip_auto_cleanup was enabled"
+        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["value"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("value_idx".to_string()),
+                &scalar_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
+                &vector_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let value_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "value_idx").unwrap();
+        let vec_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx").unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            value_index
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 1]
         );
-        // Version 3 should also still exist
-        assert!(
-            ds_check2.checkout_version(3).await.is_ok(),
-            "Version 3 should still exist"
+        assert_eq!(
+            vec_index
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 1]
+        );
+
+        // update keys: 2,5
+        let upsert_keys = UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 5]);
+        let upsert_values = UInt32Array::from(vec![200, 500]);
+        let upsert_vecs = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0, 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0]),
+            4,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let upsert_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(upsert_keys),
+                Arc::new(upsert_values),
+                Arc::new(upsert_vecs),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let upsert_stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::once(async { Ok(upsert_batch) }).boxed(),
+        );
+
+        let (updated_dataset, _stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute(Box::pin(upsert_stream))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = updated_dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sub_schema_upsert_fragment_bitmap() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("key", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(1, 1))
+            .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 10))
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                array::cycle_vec(
+                    array::cycle::<Float32Type>(vec![
+                        1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0,
+                        15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0, 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0,
+                    ]),
+                    Dimension::from(4),
+                ),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["value"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("value_idx".to_string()),
+                &scalar_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
+                &vector_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let value_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "value_idx").unwrap();
+        let vec_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx").unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            value_index
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 1]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            vec_index
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 1]
         );
-    }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_transaction_inserted_rows_filter_roundtrip() {
-        // Create dataset with unenforced primary key on "id" column
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
-                vec![(
-                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
-                    "true".to_string(),
-                )]
-                .into_iter()
-                .collect(),
+        let sub_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, true),
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
             ),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
         ]));
-        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0])),
-            ],
+
+        let upsert_keys = UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 5]);
+        let upsert_vecs = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0, 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0]),
+            4,
         )
         .unwrap();
-        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .execute(vec![initial])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
 
-        // Source with overlapping key 1
-        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 3])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2])),
-            ],
+        let upsert_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            sub_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(upsert_keys), Arc::new(upsert_vecs)],
         )
         .unwrap();
-        let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(new_batch)]),
+
+        let upsert_stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            sub_schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::once(async { Ok(upsert_batch) }).boxed(),
         );
 
-        let UncommittedMergeInsert { transaction, .. } =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        let (updated_dataset, _stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["key".to_string()])
                 .unwrap()
                 .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep)
                 .try_build()
                 .unwrap()
-                .execute_uncommitted(Box::pin(stream) as SendableRecordBatchStream)
+                .execute(Box::pin(upsert_stream))
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
 
-        // Commit and read back transaction file
-        let committed = CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
-            .execute(transaction)
+        let fragments = updated_dataset.get_fragments();
+        // v2 path: partial-schema upsert goes through FullSchemaMergeInsertExec
+        // which writes a new fragment containing the updated rows. Fragments
+        // 0 and 1 keep 2 rows each (with deletion vectors covering the
+        // matched keys), fragment 2 is the new one holding the 2 updated
+        // rows. The in-place RewriteColumns alternative is opt-in; see
+        // `test_sub_schema_upsert_in_place_fragment_bitmap`.
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 3);
+
+        let updated_indices = updated_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        // Both indices remain after the v2 upsert. The vector index still
+        // covers the old fragments' non-deleted rows (the deleted rows are
+        // filtered by deletion vectors), and queries that need the new
+        // row values fall back to scanning the unindexed new fragment.
+        // This is a behavior difference from v1, which eagerly invalidated
+        // the vec index when any row in a fragment was updated.
+        assert_eq!(updated_indices.len(), 2);
+        let updated_value_index = updated_indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "value_idx")
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The scalar index on `value` must still cover fragments 0 and 1 —
+        // even though those fragments now carry deletion vectors, the
+        // `value` column itself was not modified, so the existing index
+        // entries remain valid for the rows that were not deleted.
+        let value_bitmap = updated_value_index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(value_bitmap.contains(0));
+        assert!(value_bitmap.contains(1));
+    }
+
+    /// The opt-in counterpart of `test_sub_schema_upsert_fragment_bitmap`.
+    /// Patching `vec` in place keeps the fragments and their ids, but it does
+    /// rewrite that column's data, so every index over `vec` must lose the
+    /// patched fragments while an index over an untouched column keeps them.
+    /// `fields_modified` is what drives that pruning.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sub_schema_upsert_in_place_fragment_bitmap() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("key", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(1, 1))
+            .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 10))
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                array::cycle_vec(
+                    array::cycle::<Float32Type>(vec![
+                        1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0,
+                        15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0, 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0,
+                    ]),
+                    Dimension::from(4),
+                ),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let tx_path = committed.manifest().transaction_file.clone().unwrap();
-        let tx_read = read_transaction_file(dataset.object_store(), &dataset.base, &tx_path)
+
+        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["value"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("value_idx".to_string()),
+                &scalar_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
+                &vector_params,
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        // Check that inserted_rows_filter is present in the Operation::Update
-        if let Operation::Update {
-            inserted_rows_filter,
-            ..
-        } = &tx_read.operation
-        {
-            assert!(inserted_rows_filter.is_some());
-            let filter = inserted_rows_filter.as_ref().unwrap();
-            // Field IDs are assigned by Lance schema; check that we tracked exactly 1 key field
-            assert_eq!(filter.field_ids.len(), 1);
-        } else {
-            panic!("Expected Operation::Update");
-        }
-    }
 
-    /// Test that two merge insert operations on the same existing key conflict.
-    /// First merge insert commits successfully, second one fails with conflict error
-    /// because both operations updated the same key (detected via bloom filter).
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inserted_rows_filter_bloom_conflict_detection_concurrent() {
-        // Create schema with unenforced primary key on "id" column
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
-                vec![(
-                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
-                    "true".to_string(),
-                )]
-                .into_iter()
-                .collect(),
+        let sub_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, true),
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                true,
             ),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
         ]));
-        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
+        let upsert_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            sub_schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 5])),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from(vec![21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0, 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0]),
+                        4,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let upsert_stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            sub_schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::once(async { Ok(upsert_batch) }).boxed(),
+        );
 
-        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .execute(vec![initial])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        let (updated_dataset, _stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep)
+                .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute(Box::pin(upsert_stream))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        // Both jobs update/insert the same key 2
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
+        let fragments = updated_dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(
+            fragments.len(),
+            2,
+            "in-place patches must not add or remove fragments"
+        );
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            assert!(
+                fragment.metadata().deletion_file.is_none(),
+                "in-place patches must not produce deletion vectors"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let updated_indices = updated_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(updated_indices.len(), 2);
+        let value_bitmap = updated_indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "value_idx")
+            .unwrap()
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+        let vec_bitmap = updated_indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx")
+            .unwrap()
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+
+        // `value` was not patched, so its index still describes what is stored.
+        assert!(value_bitmap.contains(0));
+        assert!(value_bitmap.contains(1));
+        // `vec` was rewritten in both fragments, so its index no longer does.
+        assert!(
+            vec_bitmap.is_empty(),
+            "index over a patched column must be invalidated for the patched fragments, got {:?}",
+            vec_bitmap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_when_matched_fail() {
+        let dataset = create_test_dataset("memory://test_fail", LanceFileVersion::V2_0, true).await;
+
+        // Create new data with some existing keys (should fail)
+        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            create_test_schema(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 10, 11])), // Keys: 1,2 exist, 10,11 are new
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100, 200, 1000, 1100])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["X", "Y", "Z", "W"])),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
-        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
+
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(new_data.clone())],
+            new_data.schema(),
+        ));
+        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(reader);
+
+        let result = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Fail)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute(new_stream)
+            .await;
+
+        // Should fail because keys 1 and 2 already exist
+        match result {
+            Ok((_dataset, stats)) => {
+                panic!(
+                    "Expected merge insert to fail, but it succeeded. Stats: {:?}",
+                    stats
+                );
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                let error_msg = e.to_string();
+                assert!(error_msg.contains("Merge insert failed"));
+                assert!(error_msg.contains("found matching row"));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Create new data with only new keys (should succeed)
+        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            create_test_schema(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![10, 11, 12])), // All new keys
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1000, 1100, 1200])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["X", "Y", "Z"])),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Create second merge insert job based on version 1 with 0 retries
-        let b2 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .conflict_retries(0)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(new_data.clone())],
+            new_data.schema(),
+        ));
+        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(reader);
 
-        // First merge insert commits (creates version 2)
-        let s1 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1.clone())]),
-        );
-        let b1 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
-        let result1 = b1.execute(Box::pin(s1) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
-        assert!(result1.is_ok(), "First merge insert should succeed");
+        let (updated_dataset, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::Fail)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute(new_stream)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        // Second merge insert tries to commit based on version 1, needs to rebase against version 2
-        let s2 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch2.clone())]),
-        );
-        let result2 = b2.execute(Box::pin(s2) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+        // Should succeed with 3 new rows inserted
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 3);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
 
-        // Second merge insert should fail because bloom filters show both updated key 2
-        assert!(
-            matches!(result2, Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })),
-            "Expected TooMuchWriteContention (retryable conflict exhausted), got: {:?}",
-            result2
-        );
+        // Verify the data was inserted correctly
+        let count = updated_dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("key >= 10".to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(count, 3);
     }
 
-    /// Test that two merge insert operations inserting the same NEW key conflict.
-    /// First merge insert commits successfully (inserts id=100), second one fails
-    /// with conflict error because both inserted the same new key (detected via bloom filter).
+    /// Test case for Issue #4654: merge_insert should handle nullable source fields
+    /// when target is non-nullable, as long as there are no actual null values.
+    ///
+    /// This test verifies that:
+    /// - Dataset has non-nullable fields
+    /// - Source data has nullable fields BUT no actual null values
+    /// - merge_insert() succeeds (same behavior as insert)
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_key() {
-        // Create schema with unenforced primary key on "id" column
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
-                vec![(
-                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
-                    "true".to_string(),
-                )]
-                .into_iter()
-                .collect(),
-            ),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+    async fn test_merge_insert_permissive_nullability() {
+        // Step 1: Create dataset with NON-NULLABLE schema
+        let non_nullable_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false), // nullable=False
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int64, false), // nullable=False
         ]));
-        // Initial dataset with ids 0, 1, 2, 3 - NOT containing id=100
-        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
+
+        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            non_nullable_schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![100, 200, 300])),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .execute(vec![initial])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
-
-        // Both jobs try to INSERT the same NEW key id=100 (doesn't exist in initial data)
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])), // NEW key id=100
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
-            ],
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_nullable_issue_4654";
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data)], non_nullable_schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            None,
         )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
-        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
+
+        // Step 2: Create new data with NULLABLE schema but NO actual null values
+        let nullable_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, true),    // nullable=True
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int64, true), // nullable=True
+        ]));
+
+        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            nullable_schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])), // Same NEW key id=100
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![2, 4, 5])), // id=2 exists (update), 4,5 new (insert)
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![999, 400, 500])), // No nulls
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Create second merge insert job based on version 1 with 0 retries
-        let b2 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        // Step 3: Test merge_insert()
+        let merge_result = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
             .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
             .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .conflict_retries(0)
             .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // First merge insert commits (creates version 2, inserts id=100)
-        let s1 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1.clone())]),
-        );
-        let b1 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
-        let result1 = b1.execute(Box::pin(s1) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
-        assert!(result1.is_ok(), "First merge insert should succeed");
-
-        // Second merge insert tries to commit based on version 1, needs to rebase against version 2
-        let s2 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch2.clone())]),
-        );
-        let result2 = b2.execute(Box::pin(s2) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(new_data.clone())],
+                nullable_schema.clone(),
+            )))
+            .await;
 
-        // Second merge insert should fail because bloom filters show both inserted key 100
         assert!(
-            matches!(result2, Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })),
-            "Expected TooMuchWriteContention (retryable conflict exhausted), got: {:?}",
-            result2
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_concurrent_insert_different_new_list_key() {
-        // Schema for list(string) key column "tags".
-        let tags_field = Field::new(
-            "tags",
-            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))),
-            false,
+            merge_result.is_ok(),
+            "merge_insert() should succeed with nullable fields but no actual nulls. \
+             This is the same behavior as insert/append. Error: {:?}",
+            merge_result.err()
         );
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![tags_field]));
-
-        // Build two batches inserting list key ["a", "b"] and ["c", "d"].
-        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
-        builder.append_value(["a", "b"].iter().copied().map(Some));
-        let tags_array1 = builder.finish();
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(tags_array1)]).unwrap();
-
-        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
-        builder.append_value(["c", "d"].iter().copied().map(Some));
-        let tags_array2 = builder.finish();
-        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(tags_array2)]).unwrap();
-
-        // Build bloom filters for the list keys.
-        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
-        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
-        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
-
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
-            .expect("first batch should produce key");
-        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
-            .expect("second batch should produce key");
-
-        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
-        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
-        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
-        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
 
-        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            !has_intersection,
-            "Expected bloom filters not intersect for different list(string) keys",
-        );
-        assert!(
-            !might_be_fp,
-            "Bloom filter intersection should be definitively not conflict",
-        );
-    }
+        // Step 4: Verify the results
+        let (merged_dataset, stats) = merge_result.unwrap();
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_list_key() {
-        // Schema for list(string) key column "tags".
-        let tags_field = Field::new(
-            "tags",
-            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))),
-            false,
+        // Should have: 1 updated row (id=2), 2 new rows (id=4,5)
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1, "Should update 1 row (id=2)");
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_inserted_rows, 2,
+            "Should insert 2 new rows (id=4,5)"
         );
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![tags_field]));
-
-        // Build two batches both inserting the same list key ["a", "b"].
-        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
-        builder.append_value(["a", "b"].iter().copied().map(Some));
-        let tags_array1 = builder.finish();
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(tags_array1)]).unwrap();
-
-        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
-        builder.append_value(["a", "b"].iter().copied().map(Some));
-        let tags_array2 = builder.finish();
-        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(tags_array2)]).unwrap();
-
-        // Build bloom filters for the list key.
-        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
-        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
-        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
 
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
-            .expect("first batch should produce key");
-        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
-            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+        // Total: 3 original (id=1,2,3) + 2 new (id=4,5) = 5 rows
+        let count = merged_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(count, 5, "Should have 5 total rows");
 
-        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
-        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
-        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
-        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+        // Verify the updated value for id=2
+        let result = merged_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id = 2")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            has_intersection,
-            "Expected bloom filters to intersect for identical list(string) keys",
-        );
-        assert!(
-            might_be_fp,
-            "Bloom filter intersection should be treated as potential conflict",
+        let batch = concat_batches(&result[0].schema(), &result).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
+        let value_array = batch
+            .column(1)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            value_array.value(0),
+            999,
+            "Value for id=2 should be updated to 999"
         );
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_nested_list_key() {
-        // Build nested list(list(string)) value [["a", "b"], ["c"]] for the "tags" column.
-        let nested_tags = make_nested_array(&[["a", "b"].as_slice(), ["c"].as_slice()]);
-        let tags_field = Field::new("tags", nested_tags.data_type().clone(), false);
-        let nested_tags2 = make_nested_array(&[["a", "b"].as_slice(), ["c"].as_slice()]);
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![tags_field]));
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(nested_tags)]).unwrap();
-        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(nested_tags2)]).unwrap();
+    /// Test case for Issue #4644: merge_insert should NOT skip source rows whose ON
+    /// columns contain NULL.
+    ///
+    /// With standard SQL equality NULL != NULL, so a source row with a NULL key will
+    /// never match any target row.  It must therefore be treated as "not matched" and
+    /// inserted when `when_not_matched = InsertAll`.  The previous implementation
+    /// incorrectly required all ON columns to be non-null before even considering the
+    /// row, causing it to be silently dropped (Action::Nothing).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_null_on_column_inserts() {
+        // Initial dataset: one row with a NULL record_type.
+        let initial_data = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [0]),
+            ("record_type", Utf8, [Option::<&str>::None]),
+            ("value", Int32, [10])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Build bloom filters for the nested list key.
-        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
-        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
-        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data.clone())], initial_data.schema()),
+            "memory://test_null_on_column",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
-            .expect("first batch should produce key");
-        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("tags")])
-            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+        // New data: a row with a different id AND a NULL record_type.
+        // Because id differs (2 vs 0) no match should be found even with NULL-safe
+        // semantics, so this row must be INSERTED.
+        let new_data = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [Some(2)]),
+            ("record_type", Utf8, [Option::<&str>::None]),
+            ("value", Int32, [Some(99)])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
-        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
-        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
-        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+        let (merged_dataset, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            vec!["id".to_string(), "record_type".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(new_data.clone())],
+            new_data.schema(),
+        )))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            has_intersection,
-            "Expected bloom filters to intersect for identical nested list(list(string)) keys",
-        );
-        assert!(
-            might_be_fp,
-            "Bloom filter intersection should be treated as potential conflict",
+        // The source row (id=2, record_type=NULL) must be inserted, NOT silently skipped.
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_inserted_rows, 1,
+            "row with NULL ON column should be inserted"
         );
-    }
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 0, "no row should be updated");
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_concurrent_insert_different_new_struct_key() {
-        let user_field = Field::new(
-            "user",
-            DataType::Struct(
-                vec![
-                    Field::new("first", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                    Field::new("last", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                ]
-                .into(),
-            ),
-            false,
+        let count = merged_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            count, 2,
+            "dataset should have the original row plus the newly inserted row"
         );
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![user_field]));
-
-        // Build two batches inserting different struct keys.
-        let struct_array1 = make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["alice"], vec!["smith"]);
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(struct_array1)]).unwrap();
+    }
 
-        let struct_array2 = make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["bob"], vec!["jones"]);
-        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array2)]).unwrap();
+    /// Partial composite key match: the non-null part of the ON key (id) matches an
+    /// existing target row, but the second ON column (record_type) is NULL in the source.
+    /// Standard SQL equality treats NULL != NULL, so the composite key does NOT match
+    /// and the source row must be inserted, not updated and not silently dropped.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_partial_composite_key_null() {
+        // Target: one row where id=1 and record_type="A".
+        let initial_data = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [Some(1)]),
+            ("record_type", Utf8, [Some("A")]),
+            ("value", Int32, [Some(10)])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Build bloom filters for the struct key.
-        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
-        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
-        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data.clone())], initial_data.schema()),
+            "memory://test_partial_composite_null",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("user")])
-            .expect("first batch should produce key");
-        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("user")])
-            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+        // Source: one row where id=1 (matches target) but record_type=NULL.
+        // The composite key (1, NULL) does NOT match (1, "A") under standard equality,
+        // so this is a "not matched" row that should be inserted.
+        let new_data = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [Some(1)]),
+            ("record_type", Utf8, [Option::<&str>::None]),
+            ("value", Int32, [Some(99)])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
-        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
-        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
-        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+        let (merged_dataset, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            vec!["id".to_string(), "record_type".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(new_data.clone())],
+            new_data.schema(),
+        )))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            !has_intersection,
-            "Expected bloom filters not intersect for different struct keys",
+        // Source row (id=1, record_type=NULL) must be inserted, not updated and not dropped.
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_inserted_rows, 1,
+            "row with partial NULL composite key should be inserted"
         );
-        assert!(
-            !might_be_fp,
-            "Bloom filter intersection should be definitively not conflict",
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_updated_rows, 0,
+            "existing (id=1, record_type=A) row must not be updated"
         );
-    }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_struct_key() {
-        let user_field = Field::new(
-            "user",
-            DataType::Struct(
-                vec![
-                    Field::new("first", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                    Field::new("last", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                ]
-                .into(),
-            ),
-            false,
+        // Dataset: original (1, "A") row + newly inserted (1, NULL) row = 2 rows.
+        let count = merged_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            count, 2,
+            "both the original and the new row must be present"
         );
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![user_field]));
-
-        // Build two batches both inserting the same struct key {first: "alice", last: "smith"}.
-        let struct_array1 = make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["alice"], vec!["smith"]);
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(struct_array1)]).unwrap();
+    }
 
-        let struct_array2 = make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["alice"], vec!["smith"]);
-        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array2)]).unwrap();
+    /// Variant of test_merge_insert_null_on_column_inserts with a single ON column
+    /// that is entirely NULL, and a target row that also has a NULL in that column.
+    /// Since standard SQL equality treats NULL != NULL, the source row must not match
+    /// the existing target row and must be inserted separately.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_null_single_on_column() {
+        // Dataset with a single row where id is NULL.
+        let initial_data = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [Option::<i32>::None]),
+            ("value", Int32, [Some(1)])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Build bloom filters for the struct key.
-        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
-        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
-        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data.clone())], initial_data.schema()),
+            "memory://test_null_single_on_column",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("user")])
-            .expect("first batch should produce key");
-        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("user")])
-            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+        // Source has two rows: one with id=NULL and one with id=5.
+        // id=NULL should not match the existing id=NULL row (standard equality), so it
+        // gets inserted.  id=5 is a brand-new key and also gets inserted.
+        let new_data = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [Option::<i32>::None, Some(5)]),
+            ("value", Int32, [Some(99), Some(50)])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
-        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
-        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
-        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+        let (merged_dataset, stats) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(new_data.clone())],
+                    new_data.schema(),
+                )))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            has_intersection,
-            "Expected bloom filters to intersect for identical struct keys",
-        );
-        assert!(
-            might_be_fp,
-            "Bloom filter intersection should be treated as potential conflict",
+        // Both source rows must be inserted (not silently dropped).
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.num_inserted_rows, 2,
+            "both rows with NULL ON column should be inserted"
         );
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+
+        // Dataset now has: original NULL-id row + 2 newly inserted rows = 3 total.
+        let count = merged_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(count, 3);
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_concurrent_insert_same_new_nested_struct_key() {
-        // Build nested struct value {address: {city: "seattle", zip: 98101}} for the "user" column.
-        let outer_struct = make_nested_struct_array_city_zip("seattle", 98101);
-        let user_field = Field::new("user", outer_struct.data_type().clone(), false);
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![user_field]));
+    /// Test case for Issue #3634: merge_insert should provide a helpful error
+    /// message when a subschema with a mismatched type is provided.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_subschema_invalid_type_error() {
+        // Step 1: Create a dataset with a multi-column schema.
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Float64, true), // The target type is Float64.
+            Field::new("extra", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![1.1, 2.2, 3.3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(outer_struct)]).unwrap();
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_issue_3634";
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data)], schema),
+            test_uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let outer_struct2 = make_nested_struct_array_city_zip("seattle", 98101);
-        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(outer_struct2)]).unwrap();
+        // Step 2: Create source data with a subschema where one field has a wrong type.
+        let subschema_with_wrong_type = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
 
-        // Build bloom filters for the nested struct key.
-        let field_ids = vec![0_i32];
-        let mut builder1 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids.clone());
-        let mut builder2 = KeyExistenceFilterBuilder::new(field_ids);
+        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            subschema_with_wrong_type.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 4])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![22, 44])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch1, 0, &[String::from("user")])
-            .expect("first batch should produce key");
-        let key2 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch2, 0, &[String::from("user")])
-            .expect("second batch should produce key");
+        // Step 3: Execute the merge_insert operation, which should fail.
+        let merge_result = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(new_data)],
+                subschema_with_wrong_type,
+            )))
+            .await;
 
-        builder1.insert(key1).unwrap();
-        builder2.insert(key2).unwrap();
-        let filter1 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder1);
-        let filter2 = KeyExistenceFilter::from_bloom_filter(&builder2);
+        // Step 4: Verify that the operation failed with the correct error type and message.
+        let err = merge_result.expect_err("Merge insert should have failed but it succeeded.");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::SchemaMismatch { .. }),
+            "Expected a SchemaMismatch error, but got a different error type: {:?}",
+            err
+        );
 
-        let (has_intersection, might_be_fp) = filter1.intersects(&filter2).unwrap();
+        let error_message = err.to_string();
         assert!(
-            has_intersection,
-            "Expected bloom filters to intersect for identical nested struct keys",
+            error_message.contains("`value` should have type double but type was int32"),
+            "Error message should specify the expected (double) and actual (int32) types for 'value', but was: {}",
+            error_message
         );
+
         assert!(
-            might_be_fp,
-            "Bloom filter intersection should be treated as potential conflict",
+            !error_message.contains("missing="),
+            "Error message should NOT complain about missing fields for a subschema check, but was: {}",
+            error_message
         );
     }
 
-    /// End-to-end test for merge_insert using a struct-typed key column.
+    /// Test that merge_insert works with mixed-case column names as keys.
+    /// This is a regression test for the fix in assign_action.rs that wraps
+    /// column names in double quotes to preserve case in DataFusion expressions.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_struct_key_upsert() {
-        let user_field = Field::new(
-            "user",
-            DataType::Struct(
-                vec![
-                    Field::new("first", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                    Field::new("last", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                ]
-                .into(),
-            ),
-            false,
-        );
+    async fn test_merge_insert_mixed_case_key() {
+        // Create a schema with a mixed-case column name
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            user_field,
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("userId", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
         ]));
 
-        // Initial dataset:
-        // (alice, smith) -> 1
-        // (bob, jones)  -> 1
-        // (carla, doe)  -> 1
-        let user_array = make_struct_array_first_last_name(
-            vec!["alice", "bob", "carla"],
-            vec!["smith", "jones", "doe"],
-        );
-        let values = UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 1, 1]);
-        let initial_batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(user_array), Arc::new(values)])
-                .unwrap();
+        // Initial data
+        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_merge_insert_struct_key.lance";
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        // Write initial dataset
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_mixed_case.lance";
+        let ds = Dataset::write(
             RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone()),
             test_uri,
             None,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
-        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
 
-        // New data: update alice, insert david
-        let new_user_array =
-            make_struct_array_first_last_name(vec!["alice", "david"], vec!["smith", "brown"]);
-        let new_values = UInt32Array::from(vec![10, 2]);
+        // New data to merge (updates userId=2, inserts userId=4)
         let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(new_user_array), Arc::new(new_values)],
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 4])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![200, 400])),
+            ],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_batch)], schema.clone());
-        let (merged_ds, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["user".to_string()])
+        // Perform merge_insert using "userId" as the key
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["userId".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
             .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
             .try_build()
-            .unwrap()
-            .execute(reader_to_stream(Box::new(reader)))
-            .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_batch)], schema.clone()));
+        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
 
-        let result = merged_ds.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        let user_col = result
-            .column_by_name("user")
+        let (merged_ds, _merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the merge succeeded
+        let result = merged_ds
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
             .unwrap()
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<StructArray>()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
             .unwrap();
-        let first = user_col
+
+        let result_batch = concat_batches(&schema, &result).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result_batch.num_rows(), 4); // 3 original + 1 inserted
+
+        // Verify that userId=2 was updated to value=200
+        let user_ids = result_batch
             .column(0)
             .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
             .unwrap();
-        let last = user_col
+        let values = result_batch
             .column(1)
             .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
-            .unwrap();
-        let values = result
-            .column_by_name("value")
-            .unwrap()
-            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
-
-        let mut rows = Vec::new();
-        for i in 0..result.num_rows() {
-            rows.push((
-                first.value(i).to_string(),
-                last.value(i).to_string(),
-                values.value(i),
-            ));
-        }
-        rows.sort();
-
-        assert_eq!(
-            rows,
-            vec![
-                ("alice".to_string(), "smith".to_string(), 10),
-                ("bob".to_string(), "jones".to_string(), 1),
-                ("carla".to_string(), "doe".to_string(), 1),
-                ("david".to_string(), "brown".to_string(), 2),
-            ],
-        );
-    }
-
-    fn make_struct_array_first_last_name(first: Vec<&str>, last: Vec<&str>) -> StructArray {
-        let first = StringArray::from(first);
-        let last = StringArray::from(last);
-
-        StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("first", DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(first) as Arc<dyn Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("last", DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(last) as Arc<dyn Array>,
-            ),
-        ])
-    }
-
-    fn make_nested_struct_array_city_zip(city: &str, zip: i32) -> StructArray {
-        let city = StringArray::from(vec![city]);
-        let zip = Int32Array::from(vec![zip]);
-
-        let inner_struct = StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("city", DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(city) as Arc<dyn Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("zip", DataType::Int32, false)),
-                Arc::new(zip) as Arc<dyn Array>,
-            ),
-        ]);
-
-        StructArray::from(vec![(
-            Arc::new(Field::new(
-                "address",
-                inner_struct.data_type().clone(),
-                false,
-            )),
-            Arc::new(inner_struct) as Arc<dyn Array>,
-        )])
-    }
-
-    fn make_nested_array(inner_lists: &[&[&str]]) -> ListArray {
-        let mut inner_builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
-        for inner in inner_lists {
-            inner_builder.append_value(inner.iter().map(|s| Some(*s)));
-        }
-        let inner_list_array = inner_builder.finish();
-
-        let offsets = ScalarBuffer::<i32>::from(vec![0, inner_list_array.len() as i32]);
-        let offsets = OffsetBuffer::new(offsets);
-        ListArray::new(
-            Arc::new(Field::new(
-                "item",
-                inner_list_array.data_type().clone(),
-                inner_list_array.nulls().is_some(),
-            )),
-            offsets,
-            Arc::new(inner_list_array),
-            None,
-        )
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Find the row with userId=2 and check its value
+        for i in 0..result_batch.num_rows() {
+            if user_ids.value(i) == 2 {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    values.value(i),
+                    200,
+                    "userId=2 should have been updated to value=200"
+                );
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    /// Test that merge_insert with bloom filter fails when committing against
-    /// an Update transaction that doesn't have a filter. We can't determine if
-    /// the Update operation conflicted with our inserted rows.
+    /// Test case for Issue #5323: merge_insert should use the full schema path
+    /// when columns are provided in a different order than the dataset schema.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_conflict_with_update_without_filter() {
-        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+    async fn test_merge_insert_reordered_columns() {
+        use arrow_array::record_batch;
 
-        // Create schema with unenforced primary key on "id" column
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
-                vec![(
-                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
-                    "true".to_string(),
-                )]
-                .into_iter()
-                .collect(),
-            ),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
-        ]));
-        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
-            ],
+        let initial_data = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [1, 2, 3]),
+            ("value", Float64, [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]),
+            ("extra", Utf8, ["a", "b", "c"])
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .execute(vec![initial])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data.clone())], initial_data.schema()),
+            "memory://test_issue_5323",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Create merge insert job based on version 1
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
-            ],
+        // Source data with reordered columns: [extra, id, value] instead of [id, value, extra]
+        let new_data = record_batch!(
+            ("extra", Utf8, ["x", "y"]),
+            ("id", Int32, [2, 4]), // id 2 exists, 4 is new
+            ("value", Float64, [22.2, 44.4])
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let b1 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        // Verify reordered columns can use the fast path
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
             .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
             .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .conflict_retries(0)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            job.can_use_create_plan(&new_data.schema()).await.unwrap(),
+            "Reordered schema should be able to use fast path"
+        );
 
-        // Regular Update without bloom filter commits first (creates version 2)
-        let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
-            .update_where("id = 0")
-            .unwrap()
-            .set("value", "999")
-            .unwrap()
-            .build()
+        // Execute and verify data correctness
+        let (merged_dataset, _) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(new_data.clone())],
+                    new_data.schema(),
+                )))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let result = merged_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
+                "id".to_string(),
+            )]))
             .unwrap()
-            .execute()
-            .await;
-        assert!(update_result.is_ok(), "Update should succeed");
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Now merge insert tries to commit based on version 1, needs to rebase against version 2
-        let s1 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1.clone())]),
-        );
-        let merge_result = b1.execute(Box::pin(s1) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
+        let expected = record_batch!(
+            ("id", Int32, [1, 2, 3, 4]),
+            ("value", Float64, [1.1, 22.2, 3.3, 44.4]),
+            ("extra", Utf8, ["a", "x", "c", "y"])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Merge insert should fail with retryable conflict because it can't
-        // determine if Update conflicted (Update has no inserted_rows_filter)
-        assert!(
-            matches!(
-                merge_result,
-                Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })
-            ),
-            "Expected TooMuchWriteContention (retryable conflict exhausted), got: {:?}",
-            merge_result
-        );
+        assert_eq!(result, expected);
     }
 
-    /// Test that merge_insert with bloom filter fails when committing against
-    /// an Append operation. We can't determine if the appended rows conflict
-    /// with our inserted rows.
+    /// Test WhenMatched::Delete with full schema source data.
+    /// Source contains all columns (key, value, filterme) but we only use it to identify
+    /// rows to delete - no data is written back.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_conflict_with_append() {
-        // Create schema with unenforced primary key on "id" column
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
-                vec![(
-                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
-                    "true".to_string(),
-                )]
-                .into_iter()
-                .collect(),
-            ),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
-        ]));
-        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+    async fn test_when_matched_delete_full_schema(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(true, false)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_delete_full.lance";
 
-        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .execute(vec![initial])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        // Create dataset with keys 1-6 (value=1)
+        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, enable_stable_row_ids).await;
 
-        // Create merge insert job based on version 1
-        let batch1 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        // Source data has keys 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 with full schema
+        // Keys 4, 5, 6 match existing rows and should be deleted
+        // Keys 7, 8, 9 don't match (and we're not inserting)
+        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A", "B", "C", "A", "B", "C"])),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let b1 = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
+
+        // First, verify the execution plan structure
+        // Delete-only should use Inner join and only include key columns (optimization)
+        // Action 3 = Delete
+        let plan_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .conflict_retries(0)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Append commits first (creates version 2)
-        let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(new_batch.clone())],
             schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![50])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
-            ],
+        )));
+        let plan = plan_job
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(plan_stream).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "DeleteOnlyMergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=Delete, when_not_matched=DoNothing
+  ...
+    HashJoinExec: ...join_type=Inner...
+      ...
+      ...
+        StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[key]",
         )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
-        let append_result = InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
-            .with_params(&WriteParams {
-                mode: WriteMode::Append,
-                ..Default::default()
-            })
-            .execute(vec![append_batch])
-            .await;
-        assert!(append_result.is_ok(), "Append should succeed");
-
-        // Now merge insert tries to commit based on version 1, needs to rebase against version 2
-        let s1 = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch1.clone())]),
-        );
-        let merge_result = b1.execute(Box::pin(s1) as SendableRecordBatchStream).await;
-
-        // Merge insert should fail with retryable conflict because it can't
-        // determine if Append added conflicting keys
-        assert!(
-            matches!(
-                merge_result,
-                Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })
-            ),
-            "Expected TooMuchWriteContention (retryable conflict exhausted), got: {:?}",
-            merge_result
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_explain_plan() {
-        // Set up test data using lance_datagen
-        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("name", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c"]))
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(3))
-            .await
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys)
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .try_build()
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create merge insert job
-        let merge_insert_job =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap();
+        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_batch)], schema.clone()));
+        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
 
-        // Test explain_plan with default schema (None)
-        let plan = merge_insert_job.explain_plan(None, false).await.unwrap();
+        let (merged_dataset, merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Also validate the full string structure with pattern matching
-        let expected_pattern = "\
-MergeInsert: on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep...
-  CoalescePartitionsExec...
-    HashJoinExec...
-      LanceRead...
-      StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[id, name]";
-        assert_string_matches(&plan, expected_pattern).unwrap();
+        // Should have deleted 3 rows (keys 4, 5, 6)
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_deleted_rows, 3);
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
 
-        // Test with explicit schema
-        let source_schema = arrow_schema::Schema::from(dataset.schema());
-        let explicit_plan = merge_insert_job
-            .explain_plan(Some(&source_schema), false)
+        // Verify remaining data - only keys 1, 2, 3 should remain
+        let batches = merged_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(plan, explicit_plan); // Should be the same as default
 
-        // Test verbose mode produces different (likely longer) output
-        let verbose_plan = merge_insert_job.explain_plan(None, true).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(verbose_plan.contains("MergeInsert"));
-        // Verbose should also match the expected pattern
-        assert_string_matches(&verbose_plan, expected_pattern).unwrap();
+        let merged = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        let mut remaining_keys: Vec<u32> = merged
+            .column(0)
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        remaining_keys.sort();
+        assert_eq!(remaining_keys, vec![1, 2, 3]);
     }
 
+    /// Test WhenMatched::Delete with ID-only source data (just key column).
+    /// This is the optimized bulk delete case where we only need key columns for matching.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_analyze_plan() {
-        // Set up test data using lance_datagen
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("name", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c"]))
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(3))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    async fn test_when_matched_delete_id_only(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(true, false)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_delete_id_only.lance";
 
-        // Capture the original version before analyze_plan
-        let original_version = dataset.version().version;
+        // Create dataset with keys 1-6 (full schema: key, value, filterme)
+        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, enable_stable_row_ids).await;
+        let id_only_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, true)]));
+        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            id_only_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 4, 6]))], // Delete keys 2, 4, 6
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Create merge insert job
-        let merge_insert_job =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap();
+        let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
 
-        // Create source data stream with exact same schema
-        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::from(dataset.schema()));
-        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 4])), // 1 matches, 4 is new
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["updated_a", "d"])),
-            ],
+        // ID-only delete should use Inner join with key-only projection
+        // on=[(key@0, key@0)] because key is at position 0 in both target and source
+        let plan_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(new_batch.clone())],
+            id_only_schema.clone(),
+        )));
+        let plan = plan_job
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(plan_stream).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "DeleteOnlyMergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=Delete, when_not_matched=DoNothing
+  ...
+    HashJoinExec: ...join_type=Inner...
+      ...
+      ...
+        StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[key]",
         )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys)
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let source_stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema,
-            futures::stream::once(async { Ok(source_batch) }).boxed(),
-        );
-
-        // Test analyze_plan. We enclose the analysis output string in brackets to make it easier
-        // to use assert_string_matches.  (That function requires a known string at the beginning
-        // and end.)
-        let mut analysis = String::from("[");
-        analysis.push_str(
-            &merge_insert_job
-                .analyze_plan(Box::pin(source_stream))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-        );
-        analysis.push_str(&String::from("]"));
+        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(new_batch)],
+            id_only_schema.clone(),
+        ));
+        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
 
-        // Verify the analysis contains expected components
-        assert!(analysis.contains("MergeInsert"));
-        assert!(analysis.contains("metrics"));
-        // Note: AnalyzeExec is no longer in the output
+        let (merged_dataset, merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Should show execution metrics including new write metrics
-        assert!(analysis.contains("bytes_written"));
-        assert!(analysis.contains("num_files_written"));
+        // Should have deleted 3 rows (keys 2, 4, 6)
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_deleted_rows, 3);
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
 
-        // IMPORTANT: Verify that no new version was created
-        // analyze_plan should not commit the transaction
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            dataset.version().version,
-            original_version,
-            "analyze_plan should not create a new dataset version"
-        );
+        // Verify remaining data - only keys 1, 3, 5 should remain
+        let full_schema = create_test_schema();
+        let batches = merged_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Also validate the full string structure with pattern matching
-        let expected_pattern = "[...MergeInsert: elapsed=..., on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep, metrics=...bytes_written=...num_deleted_rows=0, num_files_written=...num_inserted_rows=1, num_skipped_duplicates=0, num_updated_rows=1]
-    ...
-    StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[id, name], metrics=[]...]";
-        assert_string_matches(&analysis, expected_pattern).unwrap();
-        assert!(analysis.contains("bytes_written"));
-        assert!(analysis.contains("num_files_written"));
-        assert!(analysis.contains("elapsed_compute"));
+        let merged = concat_batches(&full_schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        let mut remaining_keys: Vec<u32> = merged
+            .column(0)
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        remaining_keys.sort();
+        assert_eq!(remaining_keys, vec![1, 3, 5]);
     }
 
+    /// Test WhenMatched::Delete combined with WhenNotMatched::InsertAll.
+    /// This replaces existing matching rows with nothing (delete) while inserting new rows.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_with_action_column() {
-        // Test that merge_insert works when the user has a column named "action"
-        // This reproduces issue #4498
+    async fn test_when_matched_delete_with_insert(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_delete_with_insert.lance";
 
-        // Create a dataset with an "action" column
-        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("id", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("action", arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8, true),
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("value", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, true),
-            ])),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["create", "update", "delete"])),
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        // Create dataset with keys 1-6
+        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, false).await;
 
-        let tempdir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data.clone())], initial_data.schema()),
-            &tempdir,
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        // Source has keys 4, 5, 6 (match - will be deleted) and 7, 8, 9 (new - will be inserted)
+        let new_batch = create_new_batch(schema.clone());
 
-        // Create new data for merge with matching "action" column
-        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("id", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("action", arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8, true),
-                arrow_schema::Field::new("value", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, true),
-            ])),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 4])),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["modify", "insert"])),
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![25, 40])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
+
+        // Delete + Insert should use Right join to see unmatched rows for insertion
+        let plan_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(new_batch.clone())],
+            schema.clone(),
+        )));
+        let plan = plan_job
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(plan_stream).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "MergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=Delete, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep...THEN 2 WHEN...THEN 3 ELSE 0 END as __action]...projection=[key, value, filterme]"
+        ).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Perform merge insert - this should work despite having "action" column
-        let merge_insert_job =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap();
+        // Delete matched rows, insert unmatched rows
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys)
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            [Ok(new_data.clone())],
-            new_data.schema(),
-        ));
+        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_batch)], schema.clone()));
         let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
 
-        let (merged_dataset, _) = merge_insert_job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
+        let (merged_dataset, merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the merge worked correctly
-        let result_batches = merged_dataset
+        // Deleted 3 (keys 4, 5, 6), inserted 3 (keys 7, 8, 9)
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_deleted_rows, 3);
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_inserted_rows, 3);
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+
+        // Verify: keys 1, 2, 3 (original, not matched), 7, 8, 9 (new inserts)
+        let batches = merged_dataset
             .scan()
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
@@ -5476,933 +13267,1217 @@ MergeInsert: on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_n
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let result_batch = concat_batches(&result_batches[0].schema(), &result_batches).unwrap();
-
-        // Should have 4 rows: 1 (unchanged), 2 (updated), 3 (unchanged), 4 (inserted)
-        assert_eq!(result_batch.num_rows(), 4);
+        let merged = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        let mut remaining_keys: Vec<u32> = merged
+            .column(0)
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        remaining_keys.sort();
+        assert_eq!(remaining_keys, vec![1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9]);
 
-        // Verify the "action" column values are preserved correctly
-        let id_col = result_batch
+        // Verify values: keys 1, 2, 3 have value=1 (original), keys 7, 8, 9 have value=2 (new)
+        let keyvals: Vec<(u32, u32)> = merged
             .column(0)
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
-            .unwrap();
-        let action_col = result_batch
-            .column(1)
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
-            .unwrap();
-        let value_col = result_batch
-            .column(2)
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
-            .unwrap();
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(
+                merged
+                    .column(1)
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter(),
+            )
+            .map(|(&k, &v)| (k, v))
+            .collect();
 
-        // Find each row by ID and verify
-        for i in 0..result_batch.num_rows() {
-            match id_col.value(i) {
-                1 => {
-                    assert_eq!(action_col.value(i), "create");
-                    assert_eq!(value_col.value(i), 10);
-                }
-                2 => {
-                    assert_eq!(action_col.value(i), "modify"); // Updated
-                    assert_eq!(value_col.value(i), 25); // Updated
-                }
-                3 => {
-                    assert_eq!(action_col.value(i), "delete");
-                    assert_eq!(value_col.value(i), 30);
-                }
-                4 => {
-                    assert_eq!(action_col.value(i), "insert"); // New row
-                    assert_eq!(value_col.value(i), 40); // New row
-                }
-                _ => panic!("Unexpected id: {}", id_col.value(i)),
+        for (key, value) in keyvals {
+            if key <= 3 {
+                assert_eq!(value, 1, "Original keys should have value=1");
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(value, 2, "New keys should have value=2");
             }
         }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
+    /// Test WhenMatched::Delete when source data has no matching keys.
+    /// This should result in zero deletes and the dataset remains unchanged.
     #[rstest::rstest]
-    async fn test_duplicate_rowid_detection(
-        #[values(false, true)] is_full_schema: bool,
-        #[values(true, false)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_when_matched_delete_no_matches(
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
     ) {
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_duplicate_rowid_multi_fragment.lance";
-
-        // Create initial dataset with multiple fragments to test cross-fragment duplicate detection
-        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("key", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(1, 1))
-            .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 10))
-            .into_dataset_with_params(
-                test_uri,
-                FragmentCount(3),
-                FragmentRowCount(4),
-                Some(WriteParams {
-                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
-                    enable_stable_row_ids,
-                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3, "Should have 3 fragments");
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_delete_no_matches.lance";
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, is_full_schema),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, is_full_schema),
-        ]));
+        // Create dataset with keys 1-6
+        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, false).await;
 
-        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        // Source data has keys 100, 200, 300 - none match existing keys 1-6
+        let non_matching_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2, 6, 6, 10, 10, 15])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100, 200, 300])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["X", "Y", "Z"])),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["key".to_string()])
+        let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
+
+        // Even with no matches, the plan structure should be the same
+        let plan_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(non_matching_batch.clone())],
+            schema.clone(),
+        )));
+        let plan = plan_job
+            .create_plan(one_shot_provider(plan_stream).unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_plan_node_equals(
+            plan,
+            "DeleteOnlyMergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=Delete, when_not_matched=DoNothing
+  ...
+    HashJoinExec: ...join_type=Inner...
+      ...
+      ...
+        StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[key]",
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys)
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap();
 
-        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source_batch)], schema.clone()));
-        let stream = reader_to_stream(reader);
+        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(non_matching_batch)],
+            schema.clone(),
+        ));
+        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
 
-        let result = job.execute(stream).await;
+        let (merged_dataset, merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
 
-        assert!(
-            result.is_err(),
-            "Expected merge insert to fail due to duplicate rows on key column."
-        );
+        // Should have deleted 0 rows since no keys matched
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
 
-        let error_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
-        assert!(
-            error_msg.contains("Ambiguous merge insert") && error_msg.contains("multiple source rows"),
-            "Expected error message to mention ambiguous merge insert and multiple source rows, got: {}",
-            error_msg
-        );
+        // Verify all original data remains unchanged - keys 1-6 should all still be present
+        let batches = merged_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let merged = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        let mut remaining_keys: Vec<u32> = merged
+            .column(0)
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        remaining_keys.sort();
+        assert_eq!(remaining_keys, vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]);
     }
 
+    /// Test that MergeInsertPlanner::is_delete_only correctly identifies delete-only operations.
+    ///
+    /// Delete-only is true only when:
+    /// - when_matched = Delete
+    /// - insert_not_matched = false (WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+    /// - delete_not_matched_by_source = Keep
+    ///
+    /// This test iterates through all valid combinations of WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched,
+    /// and WhenNotMatchedBySource to verify the is_delete_only logic.
     #[tokio::test]
-    #[rstest::rstest]
-    async fn test_source_dedupe_behavior_first_seen(
-        #[values(false, true)] is_full_schema: bool,
-        #[values(true, false)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::V2_1)]
-        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let test_uri = format!(
-            "memory://test_dedupe_first_seen_{}_{}.lance",
-            is_full_schema, enable_stable_row_ids
-        );
-
-        // Create initial dataset with keys 1, 2, 3, 4
-        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("key", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(1, 1))
-            .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 10))
-            .into_dataset_with_params(
-                &test_uri,
-                FragmentCount(1),
-                FragmentRowCount(4),
-                Some(WriteParams {
-                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
-                    enable_stable_row_ids,
-                    data_storage_version: Some(data_storage_version),
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    async fn test_is_delete_only() {
+        use itertools::iproduct;
 
-        // Initial data: key=1,value=10; key=2,value=20; key=3,value=30; key=4,value=40
-        let initial_data: Vec<(u32, u32)> = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .columns()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|c| c.as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().values().to_vec())
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .into_iter()
-            .fold(Vec::new(), |mut acc, vals| {
-                if acc.is_empty() {
-                    acc = vals.into_iter().map(|v| (v, 0)).collect();
-                } else {
-                    for (i, v) in vals.into_iter().enumerate() {
-                        acc[i].1 = v;
-                    }
-                }
-                acc
-            });
-        assert_eq!(
-            initial_data,
-            vec![(1, 10), (2, 20), (3, 30), (4, 40)],
-            "Initial data should be correct"
-        );
+        // All variants to test (excluding UpdateIf and DeleteIf because they require expressions)
+        let when_matched_variants = [
+            WhenMatched::UpdateAll,
+            WhenMatched::DoNothing,
+            WhenMatched::Fail,
+            WhenMatched::Delete,
+        ];
+        let when_not_matched_variants = [WhenNotMatched::InsertAll, WhenNotMatched::DoNothing];
+        let when_not_matched_by_source_variants =
+            [WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep, WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete];
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, is_full_schema),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, is_full_schema),
-        ]));
+        let schema = create_test_schema();
 
-        // Source data with duplicates:
-        // - key=2 appears 3 times with values 100, 200, 300 (first seen: 100)
-        // - key=3 appears 2 times with values 400, 500 (first seen: 400)
-        // - key=5 is a new insert (value=600)
-        // Total duplicates: 3 (2 extra for key=2, 1 extra for key=3)
-        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 5])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600])),
-            ],
+        for (idx, (when_matched, when_not_matched, when_not_matched_by_source)) in iproduct!(
+            when_matched_variants.iter().cloned(),
+            when_not_matched_variants.iter().cloned(),
+            when_not_matched_by_source_variants.iter().cloned()
         )
-        .unwrap();
+        .enumerate()
+        {
+            // Check if this is a valid (non-no-op) combination, since this would fail try_build()
+            let is_no_op = matches!(when_matched, WhenMatched::DoNothing | WhenMatched::Fail)
+                && matches!(when_not_matched, WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                && matches!(when_not_matched_by_source, WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep);
+            if is_no_op {
+                continue;
+            }
 
-        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["key".to_string()])
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-            .source_dedupe_behavior(SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen)
-            .try_build()
+            let test_uri = format!("memory://test_is_delete_only_{}.lance", idx);
+            let ds = create_test_dataset(&test_uri, LanceFileVersion::V2_0, false).await;
+
+            let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6])),
+                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2, 2])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A", "B", "C"])),
+                ],
+            )
             .unwrap();
 
-        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(source_batch)], schema.clone()));
-        let stream = reader_to_stream(reader);
+            let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
 
-        let (dataset, stats) = job.execute(stream).await.unwrap();
+            let mut builder = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys).unwrap();
+            builder
+                .when_matched(when_matched.clone())
+                .when_not_matched(when_not_matched.clone())
+                .when_not_matched_by_source(when_not_matched_by_source.clone());
 
-        // Verify stats
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats.num_skipped_duplicates, 3,
-            "Should have skipped 3 duplicate rows (2 extra for key=2, 1 extra for key=3)"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats.num_updated_rows, 2,
-            "Should have updated 2 rows (key=2 and key=3)"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats.num_inserted_rows, 1,
-            "Should have inserted 1 row (key=5)"
-        );
+            let job = builder.try_build().unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the actual data - first seen values should be kept
-        let result_batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        let keys = result_batch.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
-        let values = result_batch.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+            let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(new_batch)],
+                schema.clone(),
+            )));
+            let plan = job
+                .create_plan(one_shot_provider(plan_stream).unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let result_data: std::collections::HashMap<u32, u32> = keys
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .zip(values.values().iter())
-            .map(|(&k, &v)| (k, v))
-            .collect();
+            let plan_str = datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref())
+                .indent(true)
+                .to_string();
 
-        assert_eq!(result_data.len(), 5, "Should have 5 rows total");
-        assert_eq!(
-            result_data.get(&1),
-            Some(&10),
-            "key=1 should be unchanged (original value)"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            result_data.get(&2),
-            Some(&100),
-            "key=2 should have first seen value (100, not 200 or 300)"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            result_data.get(&3),
-            Some(&400),
-            "key=3 should have first seen value (400, not 500)"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            result_data.get(&4),
-            Some(&40),
-            "key=4 should be unchanged (original value)"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            result_data.get(&5),
-            Some(&600),
-            "key=5 should be inserted with value 600"
-        );
+            let expected_delete_only = matches!(when_matched, WhenMatched::Delete)
+                && matches!(when_not_matched, WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+                && matches!(when_not_matched_by_source, WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep);
+
+            if expected_delete_only {
+                assert!(
+                    plan_str.contains("DeleteOnlyMergeInsert"),
+                    "Expected DeleteOnlyMergeInsert for ({:?}, {:?}, {:?}), but got:\n{}",
+                    when_matched,
+                    when_not_matched,
+                    when_not_matched_by_source,
+                    plan_str
+                );
+            } else {
+                assert!(
+                    plan_str.contains("MergeInsert:")
+                        && !plan_str.contains("DeleteOnlyMergeInsert"),
+                    "Expected MergeInsert (not DeleteOnlyMergeInsert) for ({:?}, {:?}, {:?}), but got:\n{}",
+                    when_matched,
+                    when_not_matched,
+                    when_not_matched_by_source,
+                    plan_str
+                );
+            }
+        }
     }
 
+    /// Tests that apply_deletions correctly handles an error when applying the row deletions.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_use_index() {
-        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>());
-        let data = data.into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let schema = data.schema();
-        let mut ds = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Create a scalar index on id column
-        let index_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-        ds.create_index(&["id"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &index_params, false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    async fn test_apply_deletions_invalid_row_address() {
+        use super::exec::apply_deletions;
+        use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
 
-        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 101])), // Two matches, one new
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![999, 999, 999])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let test_uri = "memory://test_apply_deletions_error.lance";
 
-        // Test 1: use_index=false should allow explain_plan to succeed
-        let merge_job_no_index =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-                .use_index(false) // Force not using index
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap();
+        // Create a dataset with 2 fragments, each with 3 rows
+        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, LanceFileVersion::V2_0, false).await;
+        let fragment_id = ds.get_fragments()[0].id() as u32;
 
-        // With use_index=false, explain_plan should succeed even with an index present
-        let plan = merge_job_no_index.explain_plan(None, false).await;
-        assert!(
-            plan.is_ok(),
-            "explain_plan should succeed with use_index=false"
-        );
-        let plan_str = plan.unwrap();
-        assert!(plan_str.contains("MergeInsert"));
-        assert!(plan_str.contains("HashJoinExec")); // Should use hash join, not index scan
+        // Create row addresses with invalid row offsets for this fragment
+        // Row address format: high 32 bits = fragment_id, low 32 bits = row_offset
+        // Each fragment has only 3 rows (offsets 0, 1, 2).
+        //
+        // The error in extend_deletions is triggered when deletion_vector.len() >= physical_rows
+        // AND at least one row ID is >= physical_rows.
+        // So we need to add enough deletions (at least 3) with some being invalid (>= 3).
+        let mut invalid_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        let base = (fragment_id as u64) << 32;
+        // Add 4 deletions: rows 10, 11, 12, 13 (all invalid since only rows 0-2 exist)
+        for row_offset in 10..14u64 {
+            invalid_row_addrs.insert(base | row_offset);
+        }
 
-        // Test 2: use_index=true (default) should fail explain_plan with index present
-        let merge_job_with_index =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-                .use_index(true) // Explicitly set to use index (though it's the default)
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap();
+        let result = apply_deletions(&ds, &invalid_row_addrs).await;
 
-        // With use_index=true and an index present, explain_plan should fail
-        let plan_result = merge_job_with_index.explain_plan(None, false).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Expected error for invalid row addresses");
+        let err = result.unwrap_err();
         assert!(
-            plan_result.is_err(),
-            "explain_plan should fail with use_index=true when index exists"
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Deletion vector includes rows that aren't in the fragment"),
+            "Expected 'rows that aren't in the fragment' error, got: {}",
+            err
         );
+    }
 
-        match plan_result {
-            Err(Error::NotSupported { source, .. }) => {
-                assert!(source.to_string().contains("does not support explain_plan"));
-            }
-            _ => panic!("Expected NotSupported error"),
-        }
-
-        // Test 3: Verify actual execution works without index
-        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![Ok(source_batch.clone())],
-            schema.clone(),
-        ));
-        let (result_ds, stats) = merge_job_no_index.execute_reader(source).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 2);
-        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+    mod external_error {
+        use super::*;
+        use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use std::fmt;
 
-        // Verify the data was updated correctly
-        let updated_count = result_ds
-            .count_rows(Some("value = 999".to_string()))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(updated_count, 3);
-    }
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct MyTestError {
+            code: i32,
+            details: String,
+        }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_full_schema_upsert_fragment_bitmap() {
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, true),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
-            Field::new(
-                "vec",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
-                true,
-            ),
-        ]));
+        impl fmt::Display for MyTestError {
+            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+                write!(f, "MyTestError({}): {}", self.code, self.details)
+            }
+        }
 
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("key", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(1, 1))
-            .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 10))
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                array::cycle_vec(
-                    array::cycle::<Float32Type>(vec![
-                        1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0,
-                        15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0, 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0,
-                    ]),
-                    Dimension::from(4),
-                ),
-            )
-            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
-                FragmentCount::from(2),
-                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
-                Some(WriteParams {
-                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
-                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        impl std::error::Error for MyTestError {}
 
-        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["value"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                Some("value_idx".to_string()),
-                &scalar_params,
-                true,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn test_merge_insert_execute_reader_preserves_error_message() {
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("key", DataType::Int32, false),
+                ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ]));
 
-        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vec"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
-                &vector_params,
-                true,
+            // Create initial dataset
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+                ],
             )
-            .await
             .unwrap();
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            let dataset = Arc::new(
+                Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_merge_external", None)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
 
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let value_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "value_idx").unwrap();
-        let vec_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx").unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(
-            value_index
-                .fragment_bitmap
-                .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
-                .iter()
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            vec![0, 1]
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            vec_index
-                .fragment_bitmap
-                .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
-                .iter()
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            vec![0, 1]
-        );
-
-        // update keys: 2,5
-        let upsert_keys = UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 5]);
-        let upsert_values = UInt32Array::from(vec![200, 500]);
-        let upsert_vecs = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-            Float32Array::from(vec![21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0, 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0]),
-            4,
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let upsert_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(upsert_keys),
-                Arc::new(upsert_values),
-                Arc::new(upsert_vecs),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let upsert_stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            futures::stream::once(async { Ok(upsert_batch) }).boxed(),
-        );
+            // Try merge insert with failing source
+            let error_code = 789;
+            let iter = std::iter::once(Err(ArrowError::ExternalError(Box::new(MyTestError {
+                code: error_code,
+                details: "merge insert failure".to_string(),
+            }))));
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(iter, schema);
 
-        let (updated_dataset, _stats) =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["key".to_string()])
+            let result = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["key".to_string()])
                 .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep)
                 .try_build()
                 .unwrap()
-                .execute(Box::pin(upsert_stream))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+                .execute_reader(Box::new(reader) as Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>)
+                .await;
 
-        let fragments = updated_dataset.get_fragments();
-        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 3);
+            // The source error is routed through the merge plan, which shares it
+            // across join partitions, so its concrete type is not recoverable. The
+            // message must still reach the caller.
+            let err = result.expect_err("expected the source error to surface");
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string().contains("merge insert failure"),
+                "source error message should be preserved; got: {err}"
+            );
+        }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_sub_schema_upsert_fragment_bitmap() {
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("key", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(1, 1))
-            .col("value", array::step_custom::<UInt32Type>(10, 10))
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                array::cycle_vec(
-                    array::cycle::<Float32Type>(vec![
-                        1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0,
-                        15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0, 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0,
-                    ]),
-                    Dimension::from(4),
-                ),
-            )
-            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
-                FragmentCount::from(2),
-                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
-                Some(WriteParams {
-                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
-                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    /// Creates a 3-fragment dataset (100 rows each) with columns (id: Utf8, category: Utf8,
+    /// value_a: Float64, value_b: Float64) and a BTree index on `id`.
+    ///
+    /// Fragment 0: id-0000..id-0099
+    /// Fragment 1: id-0100..id-0199
+    /// Fragment 2: id-0200..id-0299
+    async fn create_indexed_3frag_dataset() -> Arc<Dataset> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("value_a", DataType::Float64, false),
+            Field::new("value_b", DataType::Float64, false),
+        ]));
 
-        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["value"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                Some("value_idx".to_string()),
-                &scalar_params,
-                true,
+        let make_batch = |frag_idx: usize| {
+            let start = frag_idx * 100;
+            let ids: Vec<String> = (start..start + 100).map(|j| format!("id-{j:04}")).collect();
+            let categories: Vec<&str> = vec!["A"; 100];
+            let value_a: Vec<f64> = (0..100)
+                .map(|i| i as f64 + frag_idx as f64 * 100.0)
+                .collect();
+            let value_b: Vec<f64> = (0..100).map(|i| i as f64 * 0.1).collect();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(categories)),
+                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from(value_a)),
+                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from(value_b)),
+                ],
             )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .unwrap()
+        };
 
-        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vec"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
-                &vector_params,
-                true,
-            )
+        // Write first fragment
+        let batch0 = make_batch(0);
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch0)], schema.clone()));
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://indexed_3frag", None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let value_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "value_idx").unwrap();
-        let vec_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx").unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(
-            value_index
-                .fragment_bitmap
-                .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
-                .iter()
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            vec![0, 1]
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            vec_index
-                .fragment_bitmap
-                .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
-                .iter()
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
-            vec![0, 1]
-        );
-
-        let sub_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, true),
-            Field::new(
-                "vec",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
-                true,
-            ),
-        ]));
+        // Append fragments 1 and 2
+        for frag_idx in 1..3 {
+            let batch = make_batch(frag_idx);
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone()));
+            ds.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        }
 
-        let upsert_keys = UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 5]);
-        let upsert_vecs = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-            Float32Array::from(vec![21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0, 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0]),
-            4,
+        // Create BTree index on id
+        ds.create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
         )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let upsert_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ds)
+    }
+
+    /// Perform a partial-schema merge_insert (only id + value_a) targeting specific id ranges.
+    /// This causes touched fragments to drop from the index bitmap while btree data retains
+    /// stale entries.
+    async fn partial_merge_insert(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        id_range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
+        value_a_val: f64,
+    ) -> Arc<Dataset> {
+        let ids: Vec<String> = id_range.map(|j| format!("id-{j:04}")).collect();
+        let n = ids.len();
+        let sub_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("value_a", DataType::Float64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             sub_schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(upsert_keys), Arc::new(upsert_vecs)],
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![value_a_val; n])),
+            ],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], sub_schema));
 
-        let upsert_stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            sub_schema.clone(),
-            futures::stream::once(async { Ok(upsert_batch) }).boxed(),
-        );
+        let (ds, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(reader)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        ds
+    }
 
-        let (updated_dataset, _stats) =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["key".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-                .when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep)
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap()
-                .execute(Box::pin(upsert_stream))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    // Regression test: partial-schema merge_insert followed by another partial merge_insert
+    // on the same rows should not produce "Ambiguous merge inserts" errors.
+    //
+    // The bug: the first partial merge_insert drops the touched fragment from the index bitmap
+    // but leaves stale btree entries. The second merge_insert finds the same rows via both
+    // the stale btree lookup AND the unindexed fragment scan, causing duplicates.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partial_merge_insert_stale_index_ambiguous() {
+        let dataset = create_indexed_3frag_dataset().await;
 
-        let fragments = updated_dataset.get_fragments();
-        // in-place updates only, no new fragment should be added
-        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+        // Step 2: Partial merge_insert on fragment 1 rows -> fragment 1 drops from bitmap
+        let dataset = partial_merge_insert(dataset, 100..200, 999.0).await;
 
-        let updated_indices = updated_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        // all the fragments have been updated, so the index of the vector field has been deleted
-        assert_eq!(updated_indices.len(), 1);
-        let updated_value_index = updated_indices
-            .iter()
-            .find(|idx| idx.name == "value_idx")
+        // Step 3: Another partial merge_insert on the same rows.
+        // This should succeed, not fail with "Ambiguous merge inserts".
+        let dataset = partial_merge_insert(dataset, 100..200, 888.0).await;
+
+        // Verify correctness: all 300 rows present, updated values correct
+        let batches = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
             .unwrap();
+        let all_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("value_a", DataType::Float64, false),
+            Field::new("value_b", DataType::Float64, false),
+        ]));
+        let combined = concat_batches(&all_schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(combined.num_rows(), 300);
 
-        let value_bitmap = updated_value_index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(value_bitmap.len(), 2);
-        assert!(value_bitmap.contains(0));
-        assert!(value_bitmap.contains(1));
+        // Check the updated rows have value_a = 888.0
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id >= 'id-0100' AND id < 'id-0200'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = concat_batches(&all_schema, &result).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 100);
+        let values = result
+            .column_by_name("value_a")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Float64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        for i in 0..100 {
+            assert_eq!(values.value(i), 888.0, "row {i} should have value_a=888.0");
+        }
     }
 
+    // Regression test for GitHub issue #6877.
+    //
+    // Two sequential full-schema merge_insert UpdateAll calls against the same
+    // target row, on a dataset with stable_row_ids enabled and a BTREE scalar
+    // index on the join column, used to fail on the second call with
+    // "Ambiguous merge inserts are prohibited" — even though each call's
+    // source had exactly one row per key.
+    //
+    // Mechanism: with stable row ids the BTREE stores stable_row_ids (not
+    // physical addresses). After the first merge_insert, A's stable_row_id is
+    // preserved but its physical home moves to an unindexed fragment. The
+    // BTREE-side TakeExec resolves the stable_row_id to A's new location and
+    // emits a row; the unindexed-fragments scan also covers the new fragment
+    // and emits the same logical row. Both surface the same `_rowid`, so the
+    // merge_insert source-dedup HashSet sees a duplicate and aborts.
+    //
+    // Fix: thread `restrict_to_fragments` into `do_create_deletion_mask_row_id`
+    // so the allow-list only contains stable_row_ids whose current physical
+    // home is inside the index's fragment_bitmap.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_when_matched_fail() {
-        let dataset = create_test_dataset("memory://test_fail", LanceFileVersion::V2_0, true).await;
+    async fn test_issue_6877_repeated_merge_insert_stable_row_ids() {
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
 
-        // Create new data with some existing keys (should fail)
-        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            create_test_schema(),
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 10, 11])), // Keys: 1,2 exist, 10,11 are new
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100, 200, 1000, 1100])),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["X", "Y", "Z", "W"])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A", "B", "C"])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            [Ok(new_data.clone())],
-            new_data.schema(),
-        ));
-        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(reader);
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone())),
+            "memory://test_6877",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let result = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
+        ds.create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // First merge_insert: A 1 -> 11.
+        let update_a = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A"])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![11])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let (ds, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Fail)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap()
-            .execute(new_stream)
-            .await;
-
-        // Should fail because keys 1 and 2 already exist
-        match result {
-            Ok((_dataset, stats)) => {
-                panic!(
-                    "Expected merge insert to fail, but it succeeded. Stats: {:?}",
-                    stats
-                );
-            }
-            Err(e) => {
-                let error_msg = e.to_string();
-                assert!(error_msg.contains("Merge insert failed"));
-                assert!(error_msg.contains("found matching row"));
-            }
-        }
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(update_a)],
+                schema.clone(),
+            )))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create new data with only new keys (should succeed)
-        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            create_test_schema(),
+        // Second merge_insert: A 11 -> 22. Used to fail before the fix.
+        let update_a_again = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![10, 11, 12])), // All new keys
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1000, 1100, 1200])),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["X", "Y", "Z"])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A"])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![22])),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let (ds, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(update_a_again)],
+                schema.clone(),
+            )))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            [Ok(new_data.clone())],
-            new_data.schema(),
-        ));
-        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(reader);
+        // Sanity check: A's value is now 22.
+        let batches = ds
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id = 'A'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let combined = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(combined.num_rows(), 1);
+        let values = combined
+            .column_by_name("value")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(values.value(0), 22);
+    }
 
-        let (updated_dataset, stats) =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["key".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::Fail)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap()
-                .execute(new_stream)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    // Regression test: partial-schema merge_insert followed by update (deleting all rows
+    // in a fragment) followed by partial merge_insert should not produce
+    // "fragment id N does not exist" errors.
+    //
+    // The bug: stale btree entries reference the deleted fragment. The deletion mask doesn't
+    // block those addresses because the fragment isn't in the index bitmap. TakeExec tries
+    // to read from a non-existent fragment.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partial_merge_insert_stale_index_fragment_not_exist() {
+        let dataset = create_indexed_3frag_dataset().await;
 
-        // Should succeed with 3 new rows inserted
-        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 3);
-        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
+        // Step 2: Partial merge_insert on fragment 1 rows -> fragment 1 drops from bitmap
+        let dataset = partial_merge_insert(dataset, 100..200, 999.0).await;
 
-        // Verify the data was inserted correctly
-        let count = updated_dataset
-            .count_rows(Some("key >= 10".to_string()))
+        // Step 3: Update all rows that were in fragment 1, causing fragment 1 to be
+        // fully deleted and replaced by a new fragment.
+        let update_result = crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new((*dataset).clone()))
+            .update_where("id >= 'id-0100' AND id < 'id-0200'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("category", "'B'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(count, 3);
+        let dataset = update_result.new_dataset;
+
+        // Step 4: Partial merge_insert on the same rows.
+        // This should succeed, not fail with "fragment does not exist".
+        let dataset = partial_merge_insert(dataset, 100..200, 888.0).await;
+
+        // Verify correctness
+        let batches = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let all_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("value_a", DataType::Float64, false),
+            Field::new("value_b", DataType::Float64, false),
+        ]));
+        let combined = concat_batches(&all_schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(combined.num_rows(), 300);
     }
 
-    /// Test case for Issue #4654: merge_insert should handle nullable source fields
-    /// when target is non-nullable, as long as there are no actual null values.
-    ///
-    /// This test verifies that:
-    /// - Dataset has non-nullable fields
-    /// - Source data has nullable fields BUT no actual null values
-    /// - merge_insert() succeeds (same behavior as insert)
+    // Regression test: partial-schema merge_insert followed by update (deleting SOME rows
+    // in a fragment) followed by partial merge_insert should not produce
+    // "RecordBatch size mismatch" errors.
+    //
+    // The bug: stale btree entries reference deleted rows in a fragment that still exists.
+    // The deletion mask doesn't block those addresses (fragment not in bitmap). TakeExec
+    // reads the fragment but the rows have deletion markers, returning 0 rows where N
+    // were expected.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_permissive_nullability() {
-        // Step 1: Create dataset with NON-NULLABLE schema
-        let non_nullable_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false), // nullable=False
-            Field::new("value", DataType::Int64, false), // nullable=False
+    async fn test_partial_merge_insert_stale_index_batch_size_mismatch() {
+        let dataset = create_indexed_3frag_dataset().await;
+
+        // Step 2: Partial merge_insert on fragment 1 rows -> fragment 1 drops from bitmap
+        let dataset = partial_merge_insert(dataset, 100..200, 999.0).await;
+
+        // Step 3: Update HALF of the rows that were in fragment 1. Fragment 1 survives
+        // but the updated rows are deleted from it (moved to a new fragment).
+        let update_result = crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new((*dataset).clone()))
+            .update_where("id >= 'id-0100' AND id < 'id-0150'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("category", "'B'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = update_result.new_dataset;
+
+        // Step 4: Partial merge_insert targeting the rows that were updated (and thus
+        // deleted from fragment 1). Should succeed, not fail with batch size mismatch.
+        let dataset = partial_merge_insert(dataset, 100..150, 888.0).await;
+
+        // Verify correctness
+        let batches = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let all_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("value_a", DataType::Float64, false),
+            Field::new("value_b", DataType::Float64, false),
+        ]));
+        let combined = concat_batches(&all_schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(combined.num_rows(), 300);
+    }
+
+    // Regression test: after a partial-schema merge_insert drops a fragment from the vector
+    // index bitmap, a vector search should not return duplicate rows. The stale vector index
+    // data still references the dropped fragment, and the scanner also flat-scans unindexed
+    // fragments, causing the same rows to appear from both paths.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partial_merge_insert_stale_vector_index_duplicates() {
+        let dim = 4i32;
+        let rows_per_frag = 10usize;
+        let num_frags = 3usize;
+        let total_rows = rows_per_frag * num_frags;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), dim),
+                false,
+            ),
         ]));
 
-        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            non_nullable_schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![100, 200, 300])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let make_batch = |frag_idx: usize, offset: f32| {
+            let start = frag_idx * rows_per_frag;
+            let ids: Vec<String> = (start..start + rows_per_frag)
+                .map(|j| format!("id-{j:04}"))
+                .collect();
+            let cats: Vec<&str> = vec!["A"; rows_per_frag];
+            let values: Vec<f32> = (0..rows_per_frag * dim as usize)
+                .map(|i| (start * dim as usize + i) as f32 + offset)
+                .collect();
+            let vectors =
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), dim).unwrap();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(cats)),
+                    Arc::new(vectors),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
 
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_nullable_issue_4654";
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data)], non_nullable_schema.clone()),
-            test_uri,
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        // Write 3 fragments
+        let batch0 = make_batch(0, 0.0);
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch0)], schema.clone()));
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://vector_stale_test", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for frag_idx in 1..num_frags {
+            let batch = make_batch(frag_idx, 0.0);
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone()));
+            ds.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        }
 
-        // Step 2: Create new data with NULLABLE schema but NO actual null values
-        let nullable_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, true),    // nullable=True
-            Field::new("value", DataType::Int64, true), // nullable=True
-        ]));
+        // Create IVF_FLAT vector index on vec
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        ds.create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            nullable_schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![2, 4, 5])), // id=2 exists (update), 4,5 new (insert)
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![999, 400, 500])), // No nulls
-            ],
+        let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+
+        // Partial merge_insert with (id, vec) on fragment 1 rows - slightly different vectors.
+        // This drops fragment 1 from the vector index bitmap.
+        let frag1_start = rows_per_frag;
+        let ids: Vec<String> = (frag1_start..frag1_start + rows_per_frag)
+            .map(|j| format!("id-{j:04}"))
+            .collect();
+        let sub_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), dim),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let values: Vec<f32> = (0..rows_per_frag * dim as usize)
+            .map(|i| (frag1_start * dim as usize + i) as f32 + 0.5)
+            .collect();
+        let vectors =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), dim).unwrap();
+        let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            sub_schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(ids)), Arc::new(vectors)],
         )
         .unwrap();
-
-        // Step 3: Test merge_insert()
-        let merge_result = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(update_batch)], sub_schema));
+        let (ds, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds, vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
             .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap()
-            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                vec![Ok(new_data.clone())],
-                nullable_schema.clone(),
-            )))
-            .await;
-
-        assert!(
-            merge_result.is_ok(),
-            "merge_insert() should succeed with nullable fields but no actual nulls. \
-             This is the same behavior as insert/append. Error: {:?}",
-            merge_result.err()
-        );
-
-        // Step 4: Verify the results
-        let (merged_dataset, stats) = merge_result.unwrap();
-
-        // Should have: 1 updated row (id=2), 2 new rows (id=4,5)
-        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1, "Should update 1 row (id=2)");
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats.num_inserted_rows, 2,
-            "Should insert 2 new rows (id=4,5)"
-        );
-
-        // Total: 3 original (id=1,2,3) + 2 new (id=4,5) = 5 rows
-        let count = merged_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(count, 5, "Should have 5 total rows");
+            .execute_reader(reader)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the updated value for id=2
-        let result = merged_dataset
+        // KNN search with k = total_rows to retrieve all rows
+        let query: Float32Array = (0..dim)
+            .map(|i| (frag1_start * dim as usize + i as usize) as f32 + 0.5)
+            .collect();
+        let results = ds
             .scan()
-            .filter("id = 2")
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
+            .nearest("vec", &query, total_rows)
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let batch = concat_batches(&result[0].schema(), &result).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1);
-        let value_array = batch
-            .column(1)
+        // Check no duplicate ids
+        let ids = results
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
             .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
             .unwrap();
+        let unique_ids: std::collections::HashSet<&str> =
+            (0..ids.len()).map(|i| ids.value(i)).collect();
         assert_eq!(
-            value_array.value(0),
-            999,
-            "Value for id=2 should be updated to 999"
+            unique_ids.len(),
+            ids.len(),
+            "Found duplicate ids in KNN results: {} unique out of {} total",
+            unique_ids.len(),
+            ids.len()
         );
     }
 
-    /// Test case for Issue #3634: merge_insert should provide a helpful error
-    /// message when a subschema with a mismatched type is provided.
+    // Regression test: after a partial-schema merge_insert drops a fragment from the FTS
+    // index bitmap, a full text search should not return duplicate rows. The stale inverted
+    // index data still references the dropped fragment, and the scanner also flat-scans
+    // unindexed fragments, causing the same rows to appear from both paths.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_subschema_invalid_type_error() {
-        // Step 1: Create a dataset with a multi-column schema.
+    async fn test_partial_merge_insert_stale_fts_index_duplicates() {
+        let rows_per_frag = 10usize;
+        let num_frags = 3usize;
+
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::Float64, true), // The target type is Float64.
-            Field::new("extra", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
         ]));
 
-        let initial_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
-                Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![1.1, 2.2, 3.3])),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let make_batch = |frag_idx: usize| {
+            let start = frag_idx * rows_per_frag;
+            let ids: Vec<String> = (start..start + rows_per_frag)
+                .map(|j| format!("id-{j:04}"))
+                .collect();
+            let cats: Vec<&str> = vec!["A"; rows_per_frag];
+            // Every row contains "common" so we can search for it and expect all rows
+            let texts: Vec<String> = (start..start + rows_per_frag)
+                .map(|j| format!("common unique{j:04}"))
+                .collect();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(cats)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
 
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_issue_3634";
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data)], schema),
-            test_uri,
-            None,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        // Write 3 fragments
+        let batch0 = make_batch(0);
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch0)], schema.clone()));
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://fts_stale_test", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for frag_idx in 1..num_frags {
+            let batch = make_batch(frag_idx);
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone()));
+            ds.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        }
 
-        // Step 2: Create source data with a subschema where one field has a wrong type.
-        let subschema_with_wrong_type = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, true),
-        ]));
+        // Create inverted index on text
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        ds.create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            subschema_with_wrong_type.clone(),
+        let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+
+        // Partial merge_insert with (id, text) on fragment 1 rows.
+        // Text still contains "common" so FTS will find them via both paths.
+        // This drops fragment 1 from the inverted index bitmap.
+        let frag1_start = rows_per_frag;
+        let ids: Vec<String> = (frag1_start..frag1_start + rows_per_frag)
+            .map(|j| format!("id-{j:04}"))
+            .collect();
+        let texts: Vec<String> = (frag1_start..frag1_start + rows_per_frag)
+            .map(|j| format!("common updated{j:04}"))
+            .collect();
+        let sub_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            sub_schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 4])),
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![22, 44])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
-
-        // Step 3: Execute the merge_insert operation, which should fail.
-        let merge_result = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(update_batch)], sub_schema));
+        let (ds, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds, vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
             .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap()
-            .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                vec![Ok(new_data)],
-                subschema_with_wrong_type,
-            )))
-            .await;
+            .execute_reader(reader)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Step 4: Verify that the operation failed with the correct error type and message.
-        let err = merge_result.expect_err("Merge insert should have failed but it succeeded.");
-        assert!(
-            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::SchemaMismatch { .. }),
-            "Expected a SchemaMismatch error, but got a different error type: {:?}",
-            err
-        );
+        // FTS search for "common" — every row should match exactly once
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new("common".to_string());
+        let results = ds
+            .scan()
+            .full_text_search(query)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let error_message = err.to_string();
-        assert!(
-            error_message.contains("`value` should have type double but type was int32"),
-            "Error message should specify the expected (double) and actual (int32) types for 'value', but was: {}",
-            error_message
+        // Check no duplicate ids
+        let ids = results
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let unique_ids: std::collections::HashSet<&str> =
+            (0..ids.len()).map(|i| ids.value(i)).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            unique_ids.len(),
+            ids.len(),
+            "Found duplicate ids in FTS results: {} unique out of {} total",
+            unique_ids.len(),
+            ids.len()
         );
-
-        assert!(
-            !error_message.contains("missing="),
-            "Error message should NOT complain about missing fields for a subschema check, but was: {}",
-            error_message
+        // Also verify we got all rows
+        assert_eq!(
+            unique_ids.len(),
+            rows_per_frag * num_frags,
+            "Expected {} rows but got {}",
+            rows_per_frag * num_frags,
+            unique_ids.len()
         );
     }
 
-    /// Test that merge_insert works with mixed-case column names as keys.
-    /// This is a regression test for the fix in assign_action.rs that wraps
-    /// column names in double quotes to preserve case in DataFusion expressions.
+    // Companion regression test for issue #6877 on the FTS path.
+    //
+    // The FTS prefilter shares `do_create_deletion_mask_row_id` with the
+    // scalar-index path, so the same stable-row-id bypass that produced
+    // duplicate rows in merge_insert can produce duplicate hits in FTS search
+    // after a merge_insert moves rows to unindexed fragments. This test pins
+    // the contract for the FTS consumer.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_mixed_case_key() {
-        // Create a schema with a mixed-case column name
+    async fn test_issue_6877_fts_no_duplicates_stable_row_ids() {
+        let rows_per_frag = 10usize;
+        let num_frags = 3usize;
+
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("userId", DataType::UInt32, false),
-            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, true),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
         ]));
 
-        // Initial data
-        let initial_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        let make_batch = |frag_idx: usize| {
+            let start = frag_idx * rows_per_frag;
+            let ids: Vec<String> = (start..start + rows_per_frag)
+                .map(|j| format!("id-{j:04}"))
+                .collect();
+            let texts: Vec<String> = (start..start + rows_per_frag)
+                .map(|j| format!("common unique{j:04}"))
+                .collect();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let batch0 = make_batch(0);
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch0)], schema.clone()));
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://fts_stable_row_id_test",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        for frag_idx in 1..num_frags {
+            let batch = make_batch(frag_idx);
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone()));
+            ds.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        ds.create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Full-schema merge_insert rewriting fragment 1's rows. After this,
+        // the original locations are tombstoned and the new locations live in
+        // a new (unindexed) fragment; the stable_row_ids are preserved.
+        let frag1_start = rows_per_frag;
+        let ids: Vec<String> = (frag1_start..frag1_start + rows_per_frag)
+            .map(|j| format!("id-{j:04}"))
+            .collect();
+        let texts: Vec<String> = (frag1_start..frag1_start + rows_per_frag)
+            .map(|j| format!("common updated{j:04}"))
+            .collect();
+        let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(update_batch)], schema.clone()));
+        let (ds, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(reader)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // FTS search for "common" — every row should match exactly once.
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new("common".to_string());
+        let results = ds
+            .scan()
+            .full_text_search(query)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ids = results
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let unique_ids: std::collections::HashSet<&str> =
+            (0..ids.len()).map(|i| ids.value(i)).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            unique_ids.len(),
+            ids.len(),
+            "Found duplicate ids in FTS results: {} unique out of {} total",
+            unique_ids.len(),
+            ids.len()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            unique_ids.len(),
+            rows_per_frag * num_frags,
+            "Expected {} rows but got {}",
+            rows_per_frag * num_frags,
+            unique_ids.len()
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Write initial dataset
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_mixed_case.lance";
-        let ds = Dataset::write(
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone()),
-            test_uri,
+    // Regression test: after a partial-schema merge_insert invalidates a fragment,
+    // compaction should succeed and subsequent searches should return correct results.
+    //
+    // The compaction planner separates indexed and unindexed fragments into different
+    // groups. After invalidating the middle fragment, the indexed fragments on either
+    // side form separate compactable groups. After compaction the old invalidated
+    // fragment ID may remain in invalidated_fragment_bitmap but this is harmless
+    // because the fragment no longer exists and no index results reference it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_after_invalidated_fragment() {
+        use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+
+        // Use 5 small fragments so that after invalidating the middle one (fragment 2),
+        // the planner has enough neighbors to form compactable groups on each side:
+        // {0,1} (indexed) and {3,4} (indexed), with {2} (unindexed) separate.
+        let rows_per_frag = 20;
+        let num_frags = 5;
+        let total_rows = rows_per_frag * num_frags;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("value_a", DataType::Float64, false),
+            Field::new("value_b", DataType::Float64, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let make_batch = |frag_idx: usize| {
+            let start = frag_idx * rows_per_frag;
+            let ids: Vec<String> = (start..start + rows_per_frag)
+                .map(|j| format!("id-{j:04}"))
+                .collect();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A"; rows_per_frag])),
+                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from(
+                        (0..rows_per_frag).map(|i| i as f64).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )),
+                    Arc::new(Float64Array::from(
+                        (0..rows_per_frag)
+                            .map(|i| i as f64 * 0.1)
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                    )),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let batch0 = make_batch(0);
+        let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch0)], schema.clone()));
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://compaction_test", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for frag_idx in 1..num_frags {
+            let batch = make_batch(frag_idx);
+            let reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone()));
+            ds.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        ds.create_index(
+            &["id"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
             None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // New data to merge (updates userId=2, inserts userId=4)
-        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 4])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![200, 400])),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
+        let ds = Arc::new(ds);
 
-        // Perform merge_insert using "userId" as the key
-        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(ds), vec!["userId".to_string()])
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
+        // Invalidate fragment 2 (the middle one)
+        let frag2_start = 2 * rows_per_frag;
+        let ds = partial_merge_insert(ds, frag2_start..frag2_start + rows_per_frag, 999.0).await;
 
-        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_batch)], schema.clone()));
-        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
+        // Verify pre-compaction state
+        let indices = ds.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let idx = indices.iter().find(|i| i.name == "id_idx").unwrap();
+        assert!(!idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(2));
 
-        let (merged_ds, _merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
+        // Run compaction with a target that forces merging of the small fragments.
+        let mut ds = (*ds).clone();
+        let opts = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: total_rows,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        compact_files(&mut ds, opts, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The indexed fragments (0,1 and 3,4) should be compacted.
+        // Fragment 2 (unindexed) may or may not be compacted on its own.
+        // Either way, the old fragment IDs in the bitmap should be replaced.
+        let indices = ds.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let idx = indices.iter().find(|i| i.name == "id_idx").unwrap();
+        let bitmap = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+        for &old_id in &[0u32, 1, 3, 4] {
+            assert!(
+                !bitmap.contains(old_id),
+                "Old indexed fragment {} should not be in bitmap after compaction",
+                old_id
+            );
+        }
+        assert!(
+            !bitmap.is_empty(),
+            "Bitmap should have new compacted fragments"
+        );
 
-        // Verify the merge succeeded
-        let result = merged_ds
+        // The invalidated bitmap may still reference old fragment 2.
+        // This is harmless — fragment 2 no longer exists (or was compacted into
+        // a new fragment), so blocking it is a no-op.
+
+        // Verify search works correctly despite stale invalidated entries.
+        let ds = Arc::new(ds);
+        let ds = partial_merge_insert(ds, frag2_start..frag2_start + rows_per_frag, 888.0).await;
+
+        // All rows present
+        let batches = ds
             .scan()
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
@@ -6410,184 +14485,247 @@ MergeInsert: on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_n
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let combined = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(combined.num_rows(), total_rows);
 
-        let result_batch = concat_batches(&schema, &result).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result_batch.num_rows(), 4); // 3 original + 1 inserted
-
-        // Verify that userId=2 was updated to value=200
-        let user_ids = result_batch
-            .column(0)
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+        // Updated rows have correct value
+        let result = ds
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&format!(
+                "id >= 'id-{:04}' AND id < 'id-{:04}'",
+                frag2_start,
+                frag2_start + rows_per_frag
+            ))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
             .unwrap();
-        let values = result_batch
-            .column(1)
+        let result = concat_batches(&schema, &result).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), rows_per_frag);
+        let values = result
+            .column_by_name("value_a")
+            .unwrap()
             .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<UInt32Array>()
+            .downcast_ref::<Float64Array>()
             .unwrap();
+        for i in 0..rows_per_frag {
+            assert_eq!(values.value(i), 888.0, "row {i} should have value_a=888.0");
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Find the row with userId=2 and check its value
-        for i in 0..result_batch.num_rows() {
-            if user_ids.value(i) == 2 {
-                assert_eq!(
-                    values.value(i),
-                    200,
-                    "userId=2 should have been updated to value=200"
-                );
-            }
+    fn count_data_files(base_dir: &str) -> usize {
+        let data_dir = std::path::Path::new(base_dir).join("data");
+        if !data_dir.exists() {
+            return 0;
         }
+        std::fs::read_dir(data_dir)
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter(|e| e.as_ref().unwrap().path().is_file())
+            .count()
     }
 
-    /// Test case for Issue #5323: merge_insert should use the full schema path
-    /// when columns are provided in a different order than the dataset schema.
+    /// Site 3 in PR #6320: when `MergeInsertJob::apply_deletions` fails after
+    /// the new fragments have been written, the new data files must be cleaned up.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_insert_reordered_columns() {
-        use arrow_array::record_batch;
+    async fn test_merge_insert_cleans_up_data_on_apply_deletions_failure() {
+        use crate::utils::test::FailingProxyStore;
 
-        let initial_data = record_batch!(
-            ("id", Int32, [1, 2, 3]),
-            ("value", Float64, [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]),
-            ("extra", Utf8, ["a", "b", "c"])
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..30)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
+                    "foo", 30,
+                ))),
+            ],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_data.clone())], initial_data.schema()),
-            "memory://test_issue_5323",
-            None,
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        // Prefix `/` so Windows drive letters (e.g. `C:`) don't get parsed as
+        // the URL authority.
+        let path_prefix = if test_uri.starts_with('/') { "" } else { "/" };
+        let routed_uri = format!("file-object-store://{path_prefix}{test_uri}");
+
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            batches,
+            &routed_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        // Source data with reordered columns: [extra, id, value] instead of [id, value, extra]
-        let new_data = record_batch!(
-            ("extra", Utf8, ["x", "y"]),
-            ("id", Int32, [2, 4]), // id 2 exists, 4 is new
-            ("value", Float64, [22.2, 44.4])
+        // Create a scalar index on the join key. This forces the merge insert
+        // to take the slow (non-fast) path, which is the path that has the
+        // post-write cleanup we want to exercise.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let baseline_files = count_data_files(test_uri);
+        assert!(baseline_files > 0);
+
+        let failing = Arc::new(FailingProxyStore::new());
+        failing.fail_when("put", "_deletions", "injected deletions failure");
+        failing.fail_when("put_multipart", "_deletions", "injected deletions failure");
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&routed_uri)
+            .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(failing.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Update existing keys (5..15 already exist) to force the apply_deletions path.
+        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(5..15)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
+                    "bar", 10,
+                ))),
+            ],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_data)], schema.clone()));
 
-        // Verify reordered columns can use the fast path
-        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
             .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap();
+
+        let result = job.execute_reader(new_reader).await;
         assert!(
-            job.can_use_create_plan(&new_data.schema()).await.unwrap(),
-            "Reordered schema should be able to use fast path"
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Merge insert should fail when deletion-file write fails"
         );
 
-        // Execute and verify data correctness
-        let (merged_dataset, _) =
-            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
-                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap()
-                .execute_reader(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                    vec![Ok(new_data.clone())],
-                    new_data.schema(),
-                )))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-
-        let result = merged_dataset
-            .scan()
-            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
-                "id".to_string(),
-            )]))
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let expected = record_batch!(
-            ("id", Int32, [1, 2, 3, 4]),
-            ("value", Float64, [1.1, 22.2, 3.3, 44.4]),
-            ("extra", Utf8, ["a", "x", "c", "y"])
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(result, expected);
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_data_files(test_uri),
+            baseline_files,
+            "Newly written merge-insert data files should be cleaned up on apply_deletions failure"
+        );
     }
 
-    /// Test WhenMatched::Delete with full schema source data.
-    /// Source contains all columns (key, value, filterme) but we only use it to identify
-    /// rows to delete - no data is written back.
-    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_when_matched_delete_full_schema(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(true, false)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
-    ) {
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_delete_full.lance";
-
-        // Create dataset with keys 1-6 (value=1)
-        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, enable_stable_row_ids).await;
+    async fn test_merge_insert_full_fragment_rewrite_with_json_columns() {
+        // This test verifies the "all rows updated" fast path in handle_fragment
+        // correctly converts Arrow JSON (Utf8) to Lance JSON (LargeBinary/JSONB)
+        // before writing. Without conversion, the file would have Utf8 data (i32
+        // offsets) but schema says LargeBinary (i64 offsets), causing decoder panic
+        // on subsequent reads.
+        //
+        // To trigger the fast path we need:
+        // 1. Subschema update (not all columns) → forces v1 update_fragments path
+        // 2. ALL rows in a fragment updated → triggers the fast path
+        use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+        use lance_arrow::json::{ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME, is_arrow_json_field};
 
-        // Source data has keys 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 with full schema
-        // Keys 4, 5, 6 match existing rows and should be deleted
-        // Keys 7, 8, 9 don't match (and we're not inserting)
-        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut json_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        json_metadata.insert(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("score", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("meta", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(json_metadata.clone()),
+        ]));
+        // Small fragment so ALL rows will be updated
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2])),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A", "B", "C", "A", "B", "C"])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    r#"{"x":1}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":2}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":3}"#,
+                ])),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
-
-        let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
-
-        // First, verify the execution plan structure
-        // Delete-only should use Inner join and only include key columns (optimization)
-        // Action 3 = Delete
-        let plan_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
-        let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            [Ok(new_batch.clone())],
-            schema.clone(),
-        )));
-        let plan = plan_job.create_plan(plan_stream).await.unwrap();
-        assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "DeleteOnlyMergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=Delete, when_not_matched=DoNothing
-  ...
-    HashJoinExec: ...join_type=Inner...
-      ...
-      ...
-        StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[key]",
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_ref(), Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        // Subschema update: only provide [id, meta] (missing "name" and "score")
+        // This forces the v1 path (update_fragments) instead of v2 (create_plan).
+        // Update ALL rows → triggers the "all rows updated" fast path.
+        let update_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("meta", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(json_metadata),
+        ]));
+        let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            update_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])), // all rows
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    r#"{"updated":true,"id":1}"#,
+                    r#"{"updated":true,"id":2}"#,
+                    r#"{"updated":true,"id":3}"#,
+                ])),
+            ],
         )
-        .await
         .unwrap();
-        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys)
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_batch)], schema.clone()));
-        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
+        let update_reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(update_batch)],
+            update_schema,
+        ));
+        let stream = reader_to_stream(update_reader);
 
-        let (merged_dataset, merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
+        // Execute merge_insert with subschema
+        let mut builder =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()]).unwrap();
+        builder.when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll);
+        builder.when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing);
+        let job = builder.try_build().unwrap();
+        let (updated_dataset, stats) = job.execute(stream).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Should have deleted 3 rows (keys 4, 5, 6)
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_deleted_rows, 3);
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 3);
 
-        // Verify remaining data - only keys 1, 2, 3 should remain
-        let batches = merged_dataset
+        // Critical: read the data back. Without the fix, this would PANIC with:
+        // "the offset of the new Buffer cannot exceed the existing Length:
+        //  slice offset=0 Length=N selfLen=N/2"
+        let batches = updated_dataset
             .scan()
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
@@ -6595,85 +14733,135 @@ MergeInsert: on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_n
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let result = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 3);
 
-        let merged = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
-        let mut remaining_keys: Vec<u32> = merged
-            .column(0)
-            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .to_vec();
-        remaining_keys.sort();
-        assert_eq!(remaining_keys, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        // Verify JSON column is in Arrow JSON format (Utf8) on read
+        let result_schema = result.schema();
+        let meta_field = result_schema.field_with_name("meta").unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            is_arrow_json_field(meta_field),
+            "Expected Arrow JSON (Utf8 + arrow.json), got {:?}",
+            meta_field
+        );
+
+        // Verify data correctness
+        let metas = result
+            .column_by_name("meta")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .expect("meta should be StringArray after read conversion");
+        for i in 0..3 {
+            let val = metas.value(i);
+            assert!(
+                val.contains("updated"),
+                "row {} should have updated meta, got: {}",
+                i,
+                val
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Verify non-updated columns are preserved
+        let scores = result
+            .column_by_name("score")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scores.values(), &[10, 20, 30]);
+
+        // Also verify via take (exercises the take read conversion path)
+        let take_result = updated_dataset
+            .take(&[0, 1, 2], updated_dataset.schema().clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let take_schema = take_result.schema();
+        let take_meta_field = take_schema.field_with_name("meta").unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            is_arrow_json_field(take_meta_field),
+            "take() should return Arrow JSON, got {:?}",
+            take_meta_field
+        );
     }
 
-    /// Test WhenMatched::Delete with ID-only source data (just key column).
-    /// This is the optimized bulk delete case where we only need key columns for matching.
-    #[rstest::rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_when_matched_delete_id_only(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
-        #[values(true, false)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
-    ) {
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_delete_id_only.lance";
+    async fn test_merge_insert_subschema_with_json_columns() {
+        use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+        use lance_arrow::json::ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME;
 
-        // Create dataset with keys 1-6 (full schema: key, value, filterme)
-        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, enable_stable_row_ids).await;
-        let id_only_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("key", DataType::UInt32, true)]));
-        let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            id_only_schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 4, 6]))], // Delete keys 2, 4, 6
+        // Create a dataset with an Arrow JSON extension column
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut json_metadata = HashMap::new();
+        json_metadata.insert(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("score", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("meta", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(json_metadata.clone()),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30, 40, 50])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    r#"{"x":1}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":2}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":3}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":4}"#,
+                    r#"{"x":5}"#,
+                ])),
+            ],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_ref(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
 
-        let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
-
-        // ID-only delete should use Inner join with key-only projection
-        // on=[(key@0, key@0)] because key is at position 0 in both target and source
-        let plan_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
-        let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            [Ok(new_batch.clone())],
-            id_only_schema.clone(),
-        )));
-        let plan = plan_job.create_plan(plan_stream).await.unwrap();
-        assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "DeleteOnlyMergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=Delete, when_not_matched=DoNothing
-  ...
-    HashJoinExec: ...join_type=Inner...
-      ...
-      ...
-        StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[key]",
+        // Perform a subschema merge_insert: only update "meta" column (JSON type)
+        // This exercises the update_fragments path with interleave_batches
+        let update_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("meta", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(json_metadata),
+        ]));
+        let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            update_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![2, 4])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    r#"{"updated":true,"id":2}"#,
+                    r#"{"updated":true,"id":4}"#,
+                ])),
+            ],
         )
-        .await
         .unwrap();
-        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys)
-            .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-            .try_build()
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            [Ok(new_batch)],
-            id_only_schema.clone(),
+        let update_reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(update_batch)],
+            update_schema,
         ));
-        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
+        let stream = reader_to_stream(update_reader);
 
-        let (merged_dataset, merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
+        // Execute merge_insert with subschema (only id + meta columns)
+        let mut builder =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()]).unwrap();
+        builder.when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll);
+        builder.when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing);
+        let job = builder.try_build().unwrap();
+        let (updated_dataset, stats) = job.execute(stream).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Should have deleted 3 rows (keys 2, 4, 6)
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_deleted_rows, 3);
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+        // Verify: the merge should not fail with type mismatch
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 2);
 
-        // Verify remaining data - only keys 1, 3, 5 should remain
-        let full_schema = create_test_schema();
-        let batches = merged_dataset
+        // Read back and verify the JSON column was updated correctly
+        let batches = updated_dataset
             .scan()
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
@@ -6681,407 +14869,850 @@ MergeInsert: on=[id], when_matched=UpdateAll, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_n
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let result = concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 5);
 
-        let merged = concat_batches(&full_schema, &batches).unwrap();
-        let mut remaining_keys: Vec<u32> = merged
-            .column(0)
-            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .to_vec();
-        remaining_keys.sort();
-        assert_eq!(remaining_keys, vec![1, 3, 5]);
+        // Verify the "score" column (not in update) is preserved, and "meta" updated
+        let ids = result
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let scores = result
+            .column_by_name("score")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let metas = result
+            .column_by_name("meta")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+        for i in 0..5 {
+            let id = ids.value(i);
+            let score = scores.value(i);
+            let meta = metas.value(i);
+            // score = id * 10, regardless of row order
+            assert_eq!(score, id * 10, "id={} score mismatch", id);
+            if id == 2 || id == 4 {
+                assert!(
+                    meta.contains("updated"),
+                    "id={} should have updated meta, got: {}",
+                    id,
+                    meta
+                );
+            } else {
+                assert!(
+                    meta.contains("\"x\""),
+                    "id={} should have original meta, got: {}",
+                    id,
+                    meta
+                );
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    /// Test WhenMatched::Delete combined with WhenNotMatched::InsertAll.
-    /// This replaces existing matching rows with nothing (delete) while inserting new rows.
-    #[rstest::rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_when_matched_delete_with_insert(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_delete_with_insert.lance";
-
-        // Create dataset with keys 1-6
-        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, false).await;
+    fn id_value_schema() -> Arc<Schema> {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]))
+    }
 
-        // Source has keys 4, 5, 6 (match - will be deleted) and 7, 8, 9 (new - will be inserted)
-        let new_batch = create_new_batch(schema.clone());
+    /// `execute_provider` is the canonical entry point; a `MemTable` source merges
+    /// the same way a stream does.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_execute_provider() {
+        let initial =
+            record_batch!(("id", UInt32, [0, 1, 2]), ("value", UInt32, [0, 0, 0])).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+                .execute(vec![initial])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
 
-        let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
+        // Update id=1, insert id=3.
+        let new_data = record_batch!(("id", UInt32, [1, 3]), ("value", UInt32, [10, 30])).unwrap();
+        let provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider> = Arc::new(
+            datafusion::datasource::MemTable::try_new(new_data.schema(), vec![vec![new_data]])
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
 
-        // Delete + Insert should use Right join to see unmatched rows for insertion
-        let plan_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
+        let (merged, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
             .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
             .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_provider(provider)
+            .await
             .unwrap();
-        let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            [Ok(new_batch.clone())],
-            schema.clone(),
-        )));
-        let plan = plan_job.create_plan(plan_stream).await.unwrap();
-        assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "MergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=Delete, when_not_matched=InsertAll, when_not_matched_by_source=Keep...THEN 2 WHEN...THEN 3 ELSE 0 END as __action]...projection=[key, value, filterme]"
-        ).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Delete matched rows, insert unmatched rows
-        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys)
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
+
+        let batch = merged.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let values = batch["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let merged_rows: HashMap<u32, u32> = ids
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(values.values().iter())
+            .map(|(id, value)| (*id, *value))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged_rows,
+            HashMap::from([(0, 0), (1, 10), (2, 0), (3, 30)])
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `execute_batches` merges materialized batches; multiple batches are spread
+    /// across partitions and merged correctly.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_execute_batches() {
+        let initial =
+            record_batch!(("id", UInt32, [0, 1, 2]), ("value", UInt32, [0, 0, 0])).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+                .execute(vec![initial])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Two batches: update id=1 (batch 0), insert id=3 (batch 1).
+        let batch0 = record_batch!(("id", UInt32, [1]), ("value", UInt32, [10])).unwrap();
+        let batch1 = record_batch!(("id", UInt32, [3]), ("value", UInt32, [30])).unwrap();
+
+        let (merged, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
             .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
             .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_batches(vec![batch0, batch1])
+            .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(new_batch)], schema.clone()));
-        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 1);
 
-        let (merged_dataset, merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
+        let batch = merged.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let values = batch["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let merged_rows: HashMap<u32, u32> = ids
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(values.values().iter())
+            .map(|(id, value)| (*id, *value))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged_rows,
+            HashMap::from([(0, 0), (1, 10), (2, 0), (3, 30)])
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Deleted 3 (keys 4, 5, 6), inserted 3 (keys 7, 8, 9)
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_deleted_rows, 3);
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_inserted_rows, 3);
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+    /// An empty batch list still produces a valid (single, empty) partition, so the
+    /// merge is a no-op and the target is unchanged.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_execute_batches_empty() {
+        let initial =
+            record_batch!(("id", UInt32, [0, 1, 2]), ("value", UInt32, [0, 0, 0])).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+                .execute(vec![initial])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
 
-        // Verify: keys 1, 2, 3 (original, not matched), 7, 8, 9 (new inserts)
-        let batches = merged_dataset
-            .scan()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
+        let (merged, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_batches(vec![])
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let merged = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
-        let mut remaining_keys: Vec<u32> = merged
-            .column(0)
-            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .to_vec();
-        remaining_keys.sort();
-        assert_eq!(remaining_keys, vec![1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9]);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
 
-        // Verify values: keys 1, 2, 3 have value=1 (original), keys 7, 8, 9 have value=2 (new)
-        let keyvals: Vec<(u32, u32)> = merged
-            .column(0)
-            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+        let batch = merged.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let values = batch["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        let merged_rows: HashMap<u32, u32> = ids
             .values()
             .iter()
-            .zip(
-                merged
-                    .column(1)
-                    .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
-                    .values()
-                    .iter(),
-            )
-            .map(|(&k, &v)| (k, v))
+            .zip(values.values().iter())
+            .map(|(id, value)| (*id, *value))
             .collect();
-
-        for (key, value) in keyvals {
-            if key <= 3 {
-                assert_eq!(value, 1, "Original keys should have value=1");
-            } else {
-                assert_eq!(value, 2, "New keys should have value=2");
-            }
+        assert_eq!(merged_rows, HashMap::from([(0, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0)]));
+    }
+
+    fn collect_exact_row_counts(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, out: &mut Vec<usize>) {
+        if let Ok(stats) = plan.partition_statistics(None)
+            && let datafusion::common::stats::Precision::Exact(n) = stats.num_rows
+        {
+            out.push(n);
+        }
+        for child in plan.children() {
+            collect_exact_row_counts(child, out);
         }
     }
 
-    /// Test WhenMatched::Delete when source data has no matching keys.
-    /// This should result in zero deletes and the dataset remains unchanged.
-    #[rstest::rstest]
+    /// Use case 3: planning against the provider exposes its exact source
+    /// statistics to the optimizer.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_when_matched_delete_no_matches(
-        #[values(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)] version: LanceFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_delete_no_matches.lance";
-
-        // Create dataset with keys 1-6
-        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, version, false).await;
-
-        // Source data has keys 100, 200, 300 - none match existing keys 1-6
-        let non_matching_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+    async fn test_merge_insert_source_statistics_in_plan() {
+        let schema = id_value_schema();
+        let target_rows = 1000u32;
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100, 200, 300])),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
-                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["X", "Y", "Z"])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..target_rows)),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
+                    0,
+                    target_rows as usize,
+                ))),
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+                .execute(vec![initial])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
 
-        let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
+        // A small source whose exact row count is distinct from the target's.
+        let source_rows = 10usize;
+        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..source_rows as u32)),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
+                    1,
+                    source_rows,
+                ))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider> =
+            Arc::new(MemTable::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vec![new_data]]).unwrap());
 
-        // Even with no matches, the plan structure should be the same
-        let plan_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys.clone())
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap();
-        let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            [Ok(non_matching_batch.clone())],
+
+        // The provider's exact row count reaches the plan's statistics.
+        let plan = job.create_plan(provider).await.unwrap();
+        let mut row_counts = Vec::new();
+        collect_exact_row_counts(&plan, &mut row_counts);
+        assert!(
+            row_counts.contains(&source_rows),
+            "source provider's exact row count ({source_rows}) should reach the plan; got {row_counts:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// With a one-shot stream source and `spill_for_retry(false)`, a commit
+    /// conflict fails fast instead of replaying the stream. The non-replayable
+    /// one-shot provider must be scanned exactly once (scanning it twice would
+    /// panic), proving retries are disabled even though `conflict_retries > 0`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_spill_for_retry_false_fails_fast() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false).with_metadata(
+                vec![(
+                    "lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key".to_string(),
+                    "true".to_string(),
+                )]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+            ),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-        )));
-        let plan = plan_job.create_plan(plan_stream).await.unwrap();
-        assert_plan_node_equals(
-            plan,
-            "DeleteOnlyMergeInsert: on=[key], when_matched=Delete, when_not_matched=DoNothing
-  ...
-    HashJoinExec: ...join_type=Inner...
-      ...
-      ...
-        StreamingTableExec: partition_sizes=1, projection=[key]",
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 0, 0, 0])),
+            ],
         )
-        .await
         .unwrap();
-        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys)
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+                .execute(vec![initial])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Merge insert job based on version 1, with retries enabled but spilling off.
+        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![100])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset.clone(), vec!["id".to_string()])
             .unwrap()
-            .when_matched(WhenMatched::Delete)
-            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .conflict_retries(10)
+            .spill_for_retry(false)
             .try_build()
             .unwrap();
 
-        let new_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            [Ok(non_matching_batch)],
+        // An append commits first (version 2), so the merge built on version 1 hits
+        // an unresolvable conflict on commit.
+        let append_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
-        ));
-        let new_stream = reader_to_stream(new_reader);
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![50])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![append_batch])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let (merged_dataset, merge_stats) = job.execute(new_stream).await.unwrap();
+        let source = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(new_data)]),
+        );
+        let merge_result = job
+            .execute(Box::pin(source) as SendableRecordBatchStream)
+            .await;
 
-        // Should have deleted 0 rows since no keys matched
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_deleted_rows, 0);
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_inserted_rows, 0);
-        assert_eq!(merge_stats.num_updated_rows, 0);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                merge_result,
+                Err(crate::Error::TooMuchWriteContention { .. })
+            ),
+            "Expected fail-fast TooMuchWriteContention, got: {:?}",
+            merge_result
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Verify all original data remains unchanged - keys 1-6 should all still be present
-        let batches = merged_dataset
-            .scan()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
+    /// A legacy blob source merges into a 2.1 table, and into a 2.2 table whose
+    /// column is Blob v2. Partial + indexed patches the blob column in place,
+    /// which fails for Blob v2 sources too, so it is not covered here.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::full(false, false)]
+    #[case::full_indexed(true, false)]
+    #[case::partial(false, true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_with_blob_v1_source_provides_blob(
+        #[case] indexed: bool,
+        #[case] partial: bool,
+        #[values(LanceFileVersion::V2_1, LanceFileVersion::V2_2)] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[values(false, true)] delete_unmatched: bool,
+    ) {
+        use arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray;
+        use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+        use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("blobs", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+                BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(),
+                "true".to_string(),
+            )])),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("other", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let make_batch = |blob_values: Vec<Option<&[u8]>>, ids, others| {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(blob_values)),
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(others)),
+                ],
+            )
             .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(make_batch(
+                    vec![Some(b"foo"), Some(b"bar")],
+                    vec![0, 1],
+                    vec![10, 20],
+                ))],
+                schema.clone(),
+            ),
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        if indexed {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["id"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let mut batch = make_batch(vec![Some(b"baz"), Some(b"qux")], vec![1, 2], vec![200, 300]);
+        if partial {
+            batch = batch.project(&[0, 1]).unwrap();
+        }
+        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(batch.clone())],
+            batch.schema(),
+        ));
+
+        let mut builder =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()]).unwrap();
+        builder
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll);
+        if delete_unmatched {
+            builder.when_not_matched_by_source(WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete);
+        }
+        let (new_dataset, _) = builder
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_reader(source)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let merged = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
-        let mut remaining_keys: Vec<u32> = merged
-            .column(0)
-            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .to_vec();
-        remaining_keys.sort();
-        assert_eq!(remaining_keys, vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]);
+        let ids = new_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids = ids["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>()
+            .values();
+        let indices: Vec<u64> = (0..ids.len() as u64).collect();
+        let blobs = new_dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&indices, "blobs")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut actual = Vec::new();
+        for (id, blob) in ids.iter().zip(blobs) {
+            actual.push((*id, blob.unwrap().read().await.unwrap().to_vec()));
+        }
+        actual.sort();
+        let mut expected = vec![(1, b"baz".to_vec()), (2, b"qux".to_vec())];
+        if !delete_unmatched {
+            expected.insert(0, (0, b"foo".to_vec()));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
     }
 
-    /// Test that MergeInsertPlanner::is_delete_only correctly identifies delete-only operations.
-    ///
-    /// Delete-only is true only when:
-    /// - when_matched = Delete
-    /// - insert_not_matched = false (WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-    /// - delete_not_matched_by_source = Keep
-    ///
-    /// This test iterates through all valid combinations of WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched,
-    /// and WhenNotMatchedBySource to verify the is_delete_only logic.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_is_delete_only() {
-        use itertools::iproduct;
-
-        // All variants to test (excluding UpdateIf and DeleteIf because they require expressions)
-        let when_matched_variants = [
-            WhenMatched::UpdateAll,
-            WhenMatched::DoNothing,
-            WhenMatched::Fail,
-            WhenMatched::Delete,
-        ];
-        let when_not_matched_variants = [WhenNotMatched::InsertAll, WhenNotMatched::DoNothing];
-        let when_not_matched_by_source_variants =
-            [WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep, WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete];
+    async fn test_merge_insert_with_blob_v2_source_provides_blob() {
+        use crate::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+        use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 
-        let schema = create_test_schema();
-
-        for (idx, (when_matched, when_not_matched, when_not_matched_by_source)) in iproduct!(
-            when_matched_variants.iter().cloned(),
-            when_not_matched_variants.iter().cloned(),
-            when_not_matched_by_source_variants.iter().cloned()
-        )
-        .enumerate()
-        {
-            // Check if this is a valid (non-no-op) combination, since this would fail try_build()
-            let is_no_op = matches!(when_matched, WhenMatched::DoNothing | WhenMatched::Fail)
-                && matches!(when_not_matched, WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-                && matches!(when_not_matched_by_source, WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep);
-            if is_no_op {
-                continue;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            blob_field("blobs", true),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("other", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let make_batch = |blob_values: &[&[u8]], ids, others| {
+            let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(blob_values.len());
+            for value in blob_values {
+                blobs.push_bytes(value).unwrap();
             }
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    blobs.finish().unwrap(),
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(others)),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(make_batch(&[b"foo", b"bar"], vec![0, 1], vec![10, 20]))],
+                    schema.clone(),
+                ),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(make_batch(
+                &[b"baz", b"qux"],
+                vec![1, 2],
+                vec![200, 300],
+            ))],
+            schema,
+        ));
+
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let (new_dataset, _) = job.execute_reader(source).await.unwrap();
+        let blobs = new_dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2], "blobs")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"foo"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[1].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"baz"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[2].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"qux"
+        );
+    }
 
-            let test_uri = format!("memory://test_is_delete_only_{}.lance", idx);
-            let ds = create_test_dataset(&test_uri, LanceFileVersion::V2_0, false).await;
+    /// A partial-schema source carrying a Blob v2 column updates and inserts
+    /// whether or not the join key has a scalar index.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_partial_blob_v2_source(#[values(false, true)] indexed: bool) {
+        use crate::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+        use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
 
-            let new_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            blob_field("blobs", true),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("other", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let make_batch = |blob_values: &[&[u8]], ids: Vec<i64>| {
+            let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(blob_values.len());
+            for value in blob_values {
+                blobs.push_bytes(value).unwrap();
+            }
+            let others = ids.iter().map(|id| id * 10).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
                 schema.clone(),
                 vec![
-                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![4, 5, 6])),
-                    Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![2, 2, 2])),
-                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["A", "B", "C"])),
+                    blobs.finish().unwrap(),
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(others)),
                 ],
             )
-            .unwrap();
-
-            let keys = vec!["key".to_string()];
-
-            let mut builder = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(ds.clone(), keys).unwrap();
-            builder
-                .when_matched(when_matched.clone())
-                .when_not_matched(when_not_matched.clone())
-                .when_not_matched_by_source(when_not_matched_by_source.clone());
-
-            let job = builder.try_build().unwrap();
-
-            let plan_stream = reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
-                [Ok(new_batch)],
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(make_batch(&[b"foo", b"bar"], vec![0, 1]))],
                 schema.clone(),
-            )));
-            let plan = job.create_plan(plan_stream).await.unwrap();
-
-            let plan_str = datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref())
-                .indent(true)
-                .to_string();
+            ),
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        if indexed {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["id"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let source = make_batch(&[b"baz", b"qux"], vec![1, 2])
+            .project(&[0, 1])
+            .unwrap();
+        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+            source.schema(),
+        ));
 
-            let expected_delete_only = matches!(when_matched, WhenMatched::Delete)
-                && matches!(when_not_matched, WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
-                && matches!(when_not_matched_by_source, WhenNotMatchedBySource::Keep);
+        let (new_dataset, _) =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap()
+                .execute_reader(source)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-            if expected_delete_only {
-                assert!(
-                    plan_str.contains("DeleteOnlyMergeInsert"),
-                    "Expected DeleteOnlyMergeInsert for ({:?}, {:?}, {:?}), but got:\n{}",
-                    when_matched,
-                    when_not_matched,
-                    when_not_matched_by_source,
-                    plan_str
-                );
-            } else {
-                assert!(
-                    plan_str.contains("MergeInsert:")
-                        && !plan_str.contains("DeleteOnlyMergeInsert"),
-                    "Expected MergeInsert (not DeleteOnlyMergeInsert) for ({:?}, {:?}, {:?}), but got:\n{}",
-                    when_matched,
-                    when_not_matched,
-                    when_not_matched_by_source,
-                    plan_str
-                );
-            }
+        let batch = new_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id", "other"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let blobs = new_dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2], "blobs")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>();
+        let others = batch["other"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>();
+        let mut actual = Vec::new();
+        for (row, blob) in blobs.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            actual.push((
+                ids.value(row),
+                others.is_valid(row).then(|| others.value(row)),
+                blob.unwrap().read().await.unwrap().to_vec(),
+            ));
         }
+        actual.sort();
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual,
+            vec![
+                (0, Some(0), b"foo".to_vec()),
+                (1, Some(10), b"baz".to_vec()),
+                (2, None, b"qux".to_vec()),
+            ]
+        );
     }
 
-    /// Tests that apply_deletions correctly handles an error when applying the row deletions.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_apply_deletions_invalid_row_address() {
-        use super::exec::apply_deletions;
-        use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
-
-        let test_uri = "memory://test_apply_deletions_error.lance";
+    async fn test_merge_insert_preserves_carried_external_blob() {
+        use crate::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
 
-        // Create a dataset with 2 fragments, each with 3 rows
-        let ds = create_test_dataset(test_uri, LanceFileVersion::V2_0, false).await;
-        let fragment_id = ds.get_fragments()[0].id() as u32;
+        let dataset_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let external_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let external_path = format!("{external_dir}/external.bin");
+        std::fs::write(&external_path, b"external blob").unwrap();
+        let external_uri = Url::from_file_path(&external_path).unwrap().to_string();
 
-        // Create row addresses with invalid row offsets for this fragment
-        // Row address format: high 32 bits = fragment_id, low 32 bits = row_offset
-        // Each fragment has only 3 rows (offsets 0, 1, 2).
-        //
-        // The error in extend_deletions is triggered when deletion_vector.len() >= physical_rows
-        // AND at least one row ID is >= physical_rows.
-        // So we need to add enough deletions (at least 3) with some being invalid (>= 3).
-        let mut invalid_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
-        let base = (fragment_id as u64) << 32;
-        // Add 4 deletions: rows 10, 11, 12, 13 (all invalid since only rows 0-2 exist)
-        for row_offset in 10..14u64 {
-            invalid_row_addrs.insert(base | row_offset);
-        }
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            blob_field("payload", true),
+            Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+        blobs.push_uri(external_uri.clone()).unwrap();
+        blobs.push_bytes(b"internal blob").unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1, 2])),
+                blobs.finish().unwrap(),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "other"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+                &dataset_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                    allow_external_blob_outside_bases: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
 
-        let result = apply_deletions(&ds, &invalid_row_addrs).await;
+        let source = record_batch!(("id", Int64, [1]), ("tag", Utf8, ["updated"])).unwrap();
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let (dataset, _) = job
+            .execute_reader(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                vec![Ok(source.clone())],
+                source.schema(),
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        assert!(result.is_err(), "Expected error for invalid row addresses");
-        let err = result.unwrap_err();
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id", "tag"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .scan_in_order(true)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 2);
+        let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>();
+        let row = ids.values().iter().position(|id| *id == 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result["tag"].as_string::<i32>().value(row), "updated");
+        let blobs = dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[row as u64], "payload")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let blob = blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blob.kind(), lance_core::datatypes::BlobKind::External);
+        assert_eq!(blob.uri(), Some(external_uri.as_str()));
+        assert_eq!(blob.read().await.unwrap().as_ref(), b"external blob");
+
+        let mut source_blob = BlobArrayBuilder::new(1);
+        source_blob.push_uri(external_uri).unwrap();
+        let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![1])),
+                source_blob.finish().unwrap(),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["another update"])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let error = job
+            .execute_reader(RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(source)], schema))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error:?}");
         assert!(
-            err.to_string()
-                .contains("Deletion vector includes rows that aren't in the fragment"),
-            "Expected 'rows that aren't in the fragment' error, got: {}",
-            err
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("in field 'payload' is outside registered external bases"),
+            "{error:?}"
         );
     }
 
-    mod external_error {
-        use super::*;
-        use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-        use std::fmt;
-
-        #[derive(Debug)]
-        struct MyTestError {
-            code: i32,
-            details: String,
-        }
-
-        impl fmt::Display for MyTestError {
-            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
-                write!(f, "MyTestError({}): {}", self.code, self.details)
-            }
-        }
-
-        impl std::error::Error for MyTestError {}
-
-        #[tokio::test]
-        async fn test_merge_insert_execute_reader_preserves_external_error() {
-            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-                ArrowField::new("key", DataType::Int32, false),
-                ArrowField::new("value", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ]));
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_insert_with_complete_blob_v2_preserves_schema() {
+        use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+        use lance_arrow::{ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME};
+        use lance_core::datatypes::BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS;
 
-            // Create initial dataset
-            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let blob_field = Field::new(
+            "blobs",
+            DataType::Struct(BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.clone()),
+            true,
+        )
+        .with_metadata(HashMap::from([(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            BLOB_V2_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        )]));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            blob_field,
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, true),
+            Field::new("other", DataType::Int64, true),
+        ]));
+        let make_batch = |blob_values: &[&[u8]], ids, others| {
+            let blobs: arrow_array::ArrayRef = Arc::new(
+                StructArray::try_new(
+                    BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray::from_iter(
+                            blob_values.iter().map(|value| Some(*value)),
+                        )),
+                        Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![None::<&str>; blob_values.len()])),
+                        Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![None::<u64>; blob_values.len()])),
+                        Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![None::<u64>; blob_values.len()])),
+                    ],
+                    None,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
                 schema.clone(),
                 vec![
-                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3])),
-                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 20, 30])),
+                    blobs,
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(ids)),
+                    Arc::new(Int64Array::from(others)),
                 ],
             )
-            .unwrap();
-            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
-            let dataset = Arc::new(
-                Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test_merge_external", None)
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap(),
-            );
-
-            // Try merge insert with failing source
-            let error_code = 789;
-            let iter = std::iter::once(Err(ArrowError::ExternalError(Box::new(MyTestError {
-                code: error_code,
-                details: "merge insert failure".to_string(),
-            }))));
-            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(iter, schema);
-
-            let result = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["key".to_string()])
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_build()
-                .unwrap()
-                .execute_reader(Box::new(reader) as Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>)
-                .await;
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(make_batch(&[b"foo", b"bar"], vec![0, 1], vec![10, 20]))],
+                    schema.clone(),
+                ),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let source = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(make_batch(
+                &[b"baz", b"qux"],
+                vec![1, 2],
+                vec![200, 300],
+            ))],
+            schema,
+        ));
 
-            match result {
-                Err(Error::External { source }) => {
-                    let original = source.downcast_ref::<MyTestError>().unwrap();
-                    assert_eq!(original.code, error_code);
-                }
-                Err(other) => panic!("Expected External, got: {:?}", other),
-                Ok(_) => panic!("Expected error"),
-            }
-        }
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(dataset, vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let (new_dataset, _) = job.execute_reader(source).await.unwrap();
+        let dataset_schema = ArrowSchema::from(new_dataset.schema());
+        let DataType::Struct(blob_children) =
+            dataset_schema.field_with_name("blobs").unwrap().data_type()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected complete logical blob struct after merge insert");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(blob_children.as_ref(), BLOB_V2_LOGICAL_FIELDS.as_ref());
+        let blobs = new_dataset
+            .take_blobs_by_indices(&[0, 1, 2], "blobs")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[0].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"foo"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[1].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"baz"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            blobs[2].as_ref().unwrap().read().await.unwrap().as_ref(),
+            b"qux"
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/assign_action.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/assign_action.rs
index 1b9edadad6b..5641d51203d 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/assign_action.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/assign_action.rs
@@ -1,11 +1,14 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use super::{MergeInsertParams, WhenNotMatchedBySource};
-use crate::{dataset::WhenMatched, Result};
+use super::{MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL, MergeInsertParams, WhenNotMatchedBySource};
+use crate::{Result, dataset::WhenMatched};
+use datafusion::common::{
+    Column, TableReference,
+    tree_node::{Transformed, TransformedResult, TreeNode},
+};
 use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
-use datafusion_expr::{col, Case, Expr};
-use snafu::location;
+use datafusion_expr::{Case, Expr, col};
 
 // Note: right now, this is a fixed enum. In the future, this will need to be
 // dynamic to support multiple merge insert update clauses like:
@@ -37,10 +40,10 @@ impl TryFrom<u8> for Action {
             2 => Ok(Self::Insert),
             3 => Ok(Self::Delete),
             4 => Ok(Self::Fail),
-            _ => Err(crate::Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!("Invalid action code: {}", value).into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Invalid action code: {}",
+                value
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -51,48 +54,50 @@ impl Action {
     }
 }
 
+fn qualify_unqualified_columns(expr: Expr, relation: &'static str) -> Result<Expr> {
+    expr.transform(|expr| {
+        Ok(if let Expr::Column(column) = expr {
+            if column.relation.is_none() {
+                let qualified = Column::new_unqualified(column.name)
+                    .with_relation(TableReference::bare(relation));
+                Transformed::yes(Expr::Column(qualified))
+            } else {
+                Transformed::no(Expr::Column(column))
+            }
+        } else {
+            Transformed::no(expr)
+        })
+    })
+    .data()
+    .map_err(crate::Error::from)
+}
+
 /// Transforms merge insert parameters into a logical expression. The output
 /// is a single "action" column, that describes what to do with each row.
 pub fn merge_insert_action(
     params: &MergeInsertParams,
     schema: Option<&arrow_schema::Schema>,
 ) -> Result<Expr> {
-    // Check that at least one key column is non-null in the source
-    // This ensures we only process rows that have valid join keys
-    // Note: Column names are wrapped in double quotes to preserve case
-    // (DataFusion's col() function lowercases unquoted identifiers)
-    let source_has_key: Expr = if params.on.len() == 1 {
-        // Single key column case - check if the source key column is not null
-        // Need to qualify the column to avoid ambiguity between target.key and source.key
-        col(format!("source.\"{}\"", &params.on[0])).is_not_null()
-    } else {
-        // Multiple key columns - require that ALL key columns are non-null
-        // This is a stricter requirement than "at least one" to ensure proper joins
-        let key_conditions: Vec<Expr> = params
-            .on
-            .iter()
-            .map(|key| col(format!("source.\"{}\"", key)).is_not_null())
-            .collect();
+    // Use a sentinel column to detect whether the source side contributed a row to the
+    // join output.  This is NULL-safe: the sentinel is `true` for every source row and
+    // is NULL-filled by the outer join for target-only rows, regardless of whether any
+    // ON column contains NULL.  Using ON key columns for this purpose is incorrect
+    // because a key column that is legitimately NULL is indistinguishable from a NULL
+    // introduced by the outer join on the target side.
+    let source_has_row = col(format!("source.\"{}\"", MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL)).is_not_null();
 
-        // Use AND to combine all key column checks (all must be non-null)
-        key_conditions
-            .into_iter()
-            .reduce(|acc, expr| acc.and(expr))
-            .unwrap_or_else(|| datafusion_expr::lit(false))
-    };
+    let target_has_row = col("target._rowaddr").is_not_null();
+    let matched = source_has_row.clone().and(target_has_row.clone());
 
-    let row_addr_is_not_null = col("target._rowaddr").is_not_null();
-    let matched = source_has_key.clone().and(row_addr_is_not_null);
+    let source_only = source_has_row.and(col("target._rowaddr").is_null());
 
-    let row_addr_is_null = col("target._rowaddr").is_null();
-    let not_matched_in_target = source_has_key.and(row_addr_is_null);
-
-    let not_matched_in_source = col("target._rowaddr").is_null().is_not_true();
+    let target_only =
+        target_has_row.and(col(format!("source.\"{}\"", MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL)).is_null());
 
     let mut cases = vec![];
 
     if params.insert_not_matched {
-        cases.push((not_matched_in_target, Action::Insert.as_literal_expr()));
+        cases.push((source_only, Action::Insert.as_literal_expr()));
     }
 
     match &params.when_matched {
@@ -107,20 +112,25 @@ pub fn merge_insert_action(
                 ))
                 .with_enable_relations(true);
                 let condition = planner.parse_filter(condition_str).map_err(|e| {
-                    crate::Error::InvalidInput {
-                        source: format!("Failed to parse UpdateIf condition: {}", e).into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    }
+                    crate::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Failed to parse UpdateIf condition: {}",
+                        e
+                    ))
                 })?;
                 cases.push((matched.and(condition), Action::UpdateAll.as_literal_expr()));
             } else {
                 // Fallback - this shouldn't happen in the fast path
-                return Err(crate::Error::Internal {
-                    message: "Schema required for UpdateIf parsing".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(crate::Error::internal(
+                    "Schema required for UpdateIf parsing",
+                ));
             }
         }
+        WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(condition) => {
+            cases.push((
+                matched.and(condition.clone()),
+                Action::UpdateAll.as_literal_expr(),
+            ));
+        }
         WhenMatched::DoNothing => {}
         WhenMatched::Fail => {
             cases.push((matched, Action::Fail.as_literal_expr()));
@@ -132,11 +142,12 @@ pub fn merge_insert_action(
 
     match &params.delete_not_matched_by_source {
         WhenNotMatchedBySource::Delete => {
-            cases.push((not_matched_in_source, Action::Delete.as_literal_expr()));
+            cases.push((target_only, Action::Delete.as_literal_expr()));
         }
         WhenNotMatchedBySource::DeleteIf(condition) => {
+            let target_condition = qualify_unqualified_columns(condition.clone(), "target")?;
             cases.push((
-                not_matched_in_source.and(condition.clone()),
+                target_only.and(target_condition),
                 Action::Delete.as_literal_expr(),
             ));
         }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec.rs
index 473051da181..75c74a3078c 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec.rs
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 mod delete;
+mod in_place;
 mod write;
 
 use std::collections::BTreeMap;
@@ -13,6 +14,7 @@ use lance_table::format::Fragment;
 use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
 
 pub use delete::DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec;
+pub use in_place::InPlaceMergeInsertExec;
 pub use write::FullSchemaMergeInsertExec;
 
 use super::MergeStats;
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/delete.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/delete.rs
index 3bc75100b9e..b5df78d851e 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/delete.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/delete.rs
@@ -1,17 +1,20 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+use std::sync::{
+    Arc, Mutex,
+    atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
+};
 
-use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, UInt8Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt64Array};
 use datafusion::common::Result as DFResult;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet};
 use datafusion::{
     execution::{SendableRecordBatchStream, TaskContext},
     physical_plan::{
+        DisplayAs, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties,
         execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType},
         stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
-        DisplayAs, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties,
     },
 };
 use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
@@ -19,12 +22,15 @@ use futures::StreamExt;
 use lance_core::ROW_ADDR;
 use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
 
+use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
 use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::assign_action::Action;
-use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::{MergeInsertParams, MergeStats, MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN};
-use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::{
+    MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN, MergeInsertParams, MergeStats, SourceDedupeBehavior,
+    create_duplicate_row_error, resolve_target_bases,
+};
 
-use super::{apply_deletions, MergeInsertMetrics};
+use super::{MergeInsertMetrics, apply_deletions};
 
 /// Specialized physical execution node for delete-only merge insert operations.
 ///
@@ -41,11 +47,12 @@ pub struct DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
     input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     params: MergeInsertParams,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
     merge_stats: Arc<Mutex<Option<MergeStats>>>,
     transaction: Arc<Mutex<Option<Transaction>>>,
     affected_rows: Arc<Mutex<Option<RoaringTreemap>>>,
+    source_skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
 }
 
 impl DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
@@ -53,14 +60,15 @@ impl DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
         input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         params: MergeInsertParams,
+        source_skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
     ) -> DFResult<Self> {
         let empty_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty());
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(empty_schema),
             Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
             EmissionType::Final,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
         Ok(Self {
             input,
@@ -71,6 +79,7 @@ impl DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
             merge_stats: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
             transaction: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
             affected_rows: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
+            source_skipped_duplicates,
         })
     }
 
@@ -101,6 +110,8 @@ impl DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
     async fn collect_deletions(
         mut input_stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
         metrics: MergeInsertMetrics,
+        source_dedupe_behavior: SourceDedupeBehavior,
+        on_columns: &[String],
     ) -> DFResult<RoaringTreemap> {
         let schema = input_stream.schema();
 
@@ -156,8 +167,25 @@ impl DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
 
                 if action == Action::Delete && !row_addr_array.is_null(row_idx) {
                     let row_addr = row_addr_array.value(row_idx);
-                    delete_row_addrs.insert(row_addr);
-                    metrics.num_deleted_rows.add(1);
+                    // The treemap dedupes addresses, so a repeat insert signals
+                    // a duplicate source row matching the same target; apply the
+                    // same dedupe policy as updates. (Delete-only never carries
+                    // `delete_not_matched_by_source`, so every delete here is a
+                    // source match.)
+                    if delete_row_addrs.insert(row_addr) {
+                        metrics.num_deleted_rows.add(1);
+                    } else {
+                        match source_dedupe_behavior {
+                            SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail => {
+                                return Err(create_duplicate_row_error(
+                                    &batch, row_idx, on_columns,
+                                ));
+                            }
+                            SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen => {
+                                metrics.num_skipped_duplicates.add(1);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -194,10 +222,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
         "DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef {
         Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty())
     }
@@ -224,6 +248,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
             merge_stats: self.merge_stats.clone(),
             transaction: self.transaction.clone(),
             affected_rows: self.affected_rows.clone(),
+            source_skipped_duplicates: self.source_skipped_duplicates.clone(),
         }))
     }
 
@@ -231,7 +256,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -257,13 +282,25 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
         let input_stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
 
         let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
+        let params = self.params.clone();
         let merge_stats_holder = self.merge_stats.clone();
         let transaction_holder = self.transaction.clone();
         let affected_rows_holder = self.affected_rows.clone();
-        let merged_generations = self.params.merged_generations.clone();
+        let compacted_sstables = self.params.compacted_sstables.clone();
+        let source_dedupe_behavior = self.params.source_dedupe_behavior;
+        let on_columns = self.params.on.clone();
+        let source_skipped_duplicates = self.source_skipped_duplicates.clone();
 
         let result_stream = futures::stream::once(async move {
-            let delete_row_addrs = Self::collect_deletions(input_stream, metrics).await?;
+            // Delete-only merges write no data files, but still validate any
+            // requested target bases so unknown bases fail on every path.
+            resolve_target_bases(&dataset, &params).await?;
+            // `metrics` is moved into `collect_deletions`; keep a handle on the
+            // skipped-duplicate counter so it can be folded into the stats below.
+            let skipped_duplicates = metrics.num_skipped_duplicates.clone();
+            let delete_row_addrs =
+                Self::collect_deletions(input_stream, metrics, source_dedupe_behavior, &on_columns)
+                    .await?;
 
             let (updated_fragments, removed_fragment_ids) =
                 apply_deletions(&dataset, &delete_row_addrs)
@@ -275,7 +312,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
                 updated_fragments,
                 new_fragments: vec![],
                 fields_modified: vec![],
-                merged_generations,
+                compacted_sstables,
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: dataset
                     .schema()
                     .fields
@@ -284,11 +321,19 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
                     .collect(),
                 update_mode: None,
                 inserted_rows_filter: None, // Delete-only operations don't insert rows
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             };
 
             let transaction = Transaction::new(dataset.manifest.version, operation, None);
 
             let num_deleted = delete_row_addrs.len();
+            let num_skipped_duplicates = (skipped_duplicates.value() as u64)
+                .checked_add(source_skipped_duplicates.load(Ordering::Relaxed))
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Execution(
+                        "merge insert skipped duplicate count overflowed u64".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
             let stats = MergeStats {
                 num_deleted_rows: num_deleted,
                 num_inserted_rows: 0,
@@ -296,7 +341,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec {
                 bytes_written: 0,
                 num_files_written: 0,
                 num_attempts: 1,
-                num_skipped_duplicates: 0,
+                num_skipped_duplicates,
             };
 
             if let Ok(mut transaction_guard) = transaction_holder.lock() {
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/in_place.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/in_place.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..dc9ee9c0e4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/in_place.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,525 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{Schema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::common::{DataFusionError, Result as DFResult};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet};
+use datafusion::{
+    execution::{SendableRecordBatchStream, TaskContext},
+    physical_plan::{
+        DisplayAs, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties,
+        execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType},
+        stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
+    },
+};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
+use futures::{StreamExt, stream};
+use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID};
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::UpdateMode::RewriteColumns;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::assign_action::Action;
+use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::{
+    MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN, MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL, MergeInsertJob, MergeInsertParams, MergeStats,
+    PatchedFragments, SourceDedupeBehavior, create_duplicate_row_error, resolve_target_bases,
+};
+
+use super::MergeInsertMetrics;
+
+/// Patches the source columns into the existing fragments instead of rewriting
+/// whole rows.
+///
+/// This is the v2 counterpart of the legacy in-place write path: the columns
+/// present in the source are written as new data files attached to the
+/// fragments that already hold the matched rows, and the old versions of those
+/// columns are tombstoned. Columns absent from the source are never read or
+/// written, which is what makes a narrow update of a wide table cheap.
+///
+/// Compared to [`super::FullSchemaMergeInsertExec`] this node:
+/// - consumes only the source data columns plus `_rowaddr` / `_rowid` /
+///   `__action` (the target's other columns never enter the plan, so the
+///   target scan does not read them either)
+/// - produces no deletion vectors and keeps fragment ids stable
+/// - commits [`Operation::Update`] with [`RewriteColumns`]
+///
+/// Row placement is resolved by [`MergeInsertJob::update_fragments`], which
+/// already sorts by row address, groups by fragment, and fills the rows a
+/// fragment did not have an update for. Reusing it keeps a single in-place
+/// column-write implementation rather than adding a second one.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct InPlaceMergeInsertExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    params: MergeInsertParams,
+    /// Duplicates the source stream dropped before the join, in `FirstSeen`
+    /// mode. Counted there rather than here, so it has to be folded into the
+    /// stats this node reports.
+    source_skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+    merge_stats: Arc<Mutex<Option<MergeStats>>>,
+    transaction: Arc<Mutex<Option<Transaction>>>,
+}
+
+impl InPlaceMergeInsertExec {
+    pub fn try_new(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        params: MergeInsertParams,
+        source_skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+    ) -> DFResult<Self> {
+        let empty_schema = Arc::new(Schema::empty());
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(empty_schema),
+            Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            input,
+            dataset,
+            params,
+            source_skipped_duplicates,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+            merge_stats: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
+            transaction: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Takes the merge statistics if the execution has completed.
+    pub fn merge_stats(&self) -> Option<MergeStats> {
+        self.merge_stats
+            .lock()
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|mut guard| guard.take())
+    }
+
+    /// Takes the transaction if the execution has completed.
+    pub fn transaction(&self) -> Option<Transaction> {
+        self.transaction
+            .lock()
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|mut guard| guard.take())
+    }
+
+    /// Locates the control columns and the source data columns in the input.
+    ///
+    /// The output stream carries `_rowaddr` followed by the data columns, which
+    /// is the schema [`MergeInsertJob::update_fragments`] expects. `_rowid` is
+    /// read for duplicate detection but not forwarded. Data columns are ordered
+    /// by the dataset schema so the written file layout does not depend on the
+    /// order the source happened to provide.
+    fn prepare_stream_schema(
+        &self,
+        input_schema: &SchemaRef,
+    ) -> DFResult<(usize, usize, usize, Vec<usize>, SchemaRef)> {
+        let index_of = |name: &str| {
+            input_schema
+                .column_with_name(name)
+                .map(|(i, _)| i)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                        "Expected {name} column in in-place merge insert input"
+                    ))
+                })
+        };
+        let rowaddr_idx = index_of(ROW_ADDR)?;
+        let rowid_idx = index_of(ROW_ID)?;
+        let action_idx = index_of(MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN)?;
+
+        let mut by_name = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        for (idx, field) in input_schema.fields().iter().enumerate() {
+            if idx == rowaddr_idx || idx == rowid_idx || idx == action_idx {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let name = field.name().as_str();
+            if name == ROW_ADDR
+                || name == ROW_ID
+                || name == MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN
+                || name == MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
+            by_name.insert(name, idx);
+        }
+
+        let mut data_column_indices = Vec::with_capacity(by_name.len());
+        // `_rowaddr` is nullable because that is the schema
+        // `update_fragments` expects; this node only ever emits non-null
+        // addresses (see the `Action::UpdateAll` arm in `create_patch_stream`).
+        let mut output_fields = vec![Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            ROW_ADDR,
+            arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64,
+            true,
+        ))];
+        for dataset_field in self.dataset.schema().fields.iter() {
+            if let Some(idx) = by_name.remove(dataset_field.name.as_str()) {
+                data_column_indices.push(idx);
+                output_fields.push(Arc::new(input_schema.field(idx).clone()));
+            }
+        }
+
+        if !by_name.is_empty() {
+            let mut unknown: Vec<&str> = by_name.into_keys().collect();
+            unknown.sort_unstable();
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "In-place merge insert input carries column(s) {unknown:?} that are not \
+                 dataset fields"
+            )));
+        }
+        if data_column_indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "No data columns found in in-place merge insert input".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        Ok((
+            rowaddr_idx,
+            rowid_idx,
+            action_idx,
+            data_column_indices,
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(output_fields)),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Drops the rows that must not be written and projects the rest down to
+    /// `_rowaddr` + data columns.
+    fn create_patch_stream(
+        &self,
+        input_stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        metrics: &MergeInsertMetrics,
+    ) -> DFResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let (rowaddr_idx, rowid_idx, action_idx, data_column_indices, output_schema) =
+            self.prepare_stream_schema(&input_stream.schema())?;
+
+        let dedupe = self.params.source_dedupe_behavior;
+        let on_columns = self.params.on.clone();
+        let updated_rows = metrics.num_updated_rows.clone();
+        let skipped_duplicates = metrics.num_skipped_duplicates.clone();
+        let mut seen_row_ids = HashSet::new();
+
+        let schema = output_schema.clone();
+        let stream = input_stream.map(move |batch_result| -> DFResult<RecordBatch> {
+            let batch = batch_result?;
+            let row_addrs = downcast_u64(&batch, rowaddr_idx, ROW_ADDR)?;
+            let row_ids = downcast_u64(&batch, rowid_idx, ROW_ID)?;
+            let actions = batch
+                .column(action_idx)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt8Array>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                        "Expected UInt8Array for {MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN} column"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+
+            let mut keep_rows: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_rows());
+            for row_idx in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let action = Action::try_from(actions.value(row_idx)).map_err(|e| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                        "Invalid action code {}: {}",
+                        actions.value(row_idx),
+                        e
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                match action {
+                    Action::UpdateAll => {
+                        if row_addrs.is_null(row_idx) {
+                            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                                "In-place merge insert produced an update without a row address"
+                                    .to_string(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        if !seen_row_ids.insert(row_ids.value(row_idx)) {
+                            match dedupe {
+                                SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail => {
+                                    return Err(create_duplicate_row_error(
+                                        &batch,
+                                        row_idx,
+                                        &on_columns,
+                                    ));
+                                }
+                                SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen => {
+                                    skipped_duplicates.add(1);
+                                    continue;
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                        updated_rows.add(1);
+                        keep_rows.push(row_idx as u32);
+                    }
+                    // Rows the update condition rejected: the target keeps its
+                    // current values, so nothing is written for them.
+                    Action::Nothing => {}
+                    Action::Fail => {
+                        return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                            "Merge insert failed: found matching row with key values: {}",
+                            crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::format_key_values_on_columns(
+                                &batch,
+                                row_idx,
+                                &on_columns
+                            )
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    // Eligibility keeps inserts and deletes off this path, so
+                    // reaching here means the routing and this node disagree.
+                    Action::Insert | Action::Delete => {
+                        return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                            "In-place merge insert cannot handle action {action:?}"
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            project_kept_rows(
+                &batch,
+                keep_rows,
+                rowaddr_idx,
+                &data_column_indices,
+                schema.clone(),
+            )
+        });
+
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            output_schema,
+            stream,
+        )))
+    }
+}
+
+fn downcast_u64<'a>(batch: &'a RecordBatch, idx: usize, name: &str) -> DFResult<&'a UInt64Array> {
+    batch
+        .column(idx)
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| DataFusionError::Internal(format!("Expected UInt64Array for {name} column")))
+}
+
+fn project_kept_rows(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    keep_rows: Vec<u32>,
+    rowaddr_idx: usize,
+    data_column_indices: &[usize],
+    output_schema: SchemaRef,
+) -> DFResult<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut source_indices = Vec::with_capacity(data_column_indices.len() + 1);
+    source_indices.push(rowaddr_idx);
+    source_indices.extend_from_slice(data_column_indices);
+
+    if keep_rows.is_empty() {
+        let empty = output_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| arrow_array::new_empty_array(field.data_type()))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        return RecordBatch::try_new(output_schema, empty).map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+    }
+
+    let indices = arrow_array::UInt32Array::from(keep_rows);
+    let taken = arrow_select::take::take_record_batch(batch, &indices)?;
+    let columns = source_indices
+        .iter()
+        .map(|&idx| taken.column(idx).clone())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    RecordBatch::try_new(output_schema, columns).map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for InPlaceMergeInsertExec {
+    fn fmt_as(
+        &self,
+        t: datafusion::physical_plan::DisplayFormatType,
+        f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter,
+    ) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            datafusion::physical_plan::DisplayFormatType::Default
+            | datafusion::physical_plan::DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                let when_matched = match &self.params.when_matched {
+                    crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateAll => "UpdateAll".to_string(),
+                    crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateIf(condition) => {
+                        format!("UpdateIf({})", condition)
+                    }
+                    crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(expr) => {
+                        format!("UpdateIf({})", expr.human_display())
+                    }
+                    other => format!("{:?}", other),
+                };
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "InPlaceMergeInsert: on=[{}], when_matched={}, mode=RewriteColumns",
+                    self.params.on.join(", "),
+                    when_matched
+                )
+            }
+            datafusion::physical_plan::DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(f, "InPlaceMergeInsert[{}]", self.dataset.uri())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for InPlaceMergeInsertExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "InPlaceMergeInsertExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::empty())
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "InPlaceMergeInsertExec requires exactly one child".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            input: children[0].clone(),
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            source_skipped_duplicates: self.source_skipped_duplicates.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: self.metrics.clone(),
+            merge_stats: self.merge_stats.clone(),
+            transaction: self.transaction.clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<datafusion_physical_expr::Distribution> {
+        vec![datafusion_physical_expr::Distribution::SinglePartition]
+    }
+
+    fn benefits_from_input_partitioning(&self) -> Vec<bool> {
+        vec![false]
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DFResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let _baseline_metrics = BaselineMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition);
+        let metrics = MergeInsertMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition);
+
+        let input_stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let patch_stream = self.create_patch_stream(input_stream, &metrics)?;
+
+        let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
+        let params = self.params.clone();
+        let merge_stats_holder = self.merge_stats.clone();
+        let transaction_holder = self.transaction.clone();
+        let compacted_sstables = self.params.compacted_sstables.clone();
+        let source_skipped_duplicates = self.source_skipped_duplicates.clone();
+
+        let result_stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let target_bases_info = resolve_target_bases(&dataset, &params).await?;
+            // A guess: a compatible transaction can commit before this one, in
+            // which case the real commit version is later. `matched_offsets`
+            // below is what lets `build_manifest` correct the stamp.
+            let current_version = dataset.manifest.version + 1;
+            let PatchedFragments {
+                updated_fragments,
+                new_fragments,
+                fields_modified,
+                matched_offsets,
+            } = MergeInsertJob::update_fragments(
+                dataset.clone(),
+                patch_stream,
+                current_version,
+                target_bases_info,
+                params.write_version(&dataset),
+            )
+            .await?;
+
+            // Eligibility forbids inserts and the join is therefore an inner
+            // join, so every row carries a target address and no row is routed
+            // to a new fragment.
+            debug_assert!(
+                new_fragments.is_empty(),
+                "in-place merge insert produced {} new fragment(s)",
+                new_fragments.len()
+            );
+
+            // Only the files this operation wrote count toward the metrics: an
+            // updated fragment keeps its pre-existing data files and carries the
+            // patch as the last one.
+            for fragment in &updated_fragments {
+                if let Some(data_file) = fragment.files.last()
+                    && let Some(size) = data_file.file_size_bytes.get()
+                {
+                    metrics.bytes_written.add(u64::from(size) as usize);
+                }
+                metrics.num_files_written.add(1);
+            }
+
+            let operation = Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: Vec::new(),
+                updated_fragments,
+                new_fragments,
+                fields_modified,
+                compacted_sstables,
+                // In-place patches leave every row where it was, so no index's
+                // fragment bitmap needs extending.
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: Some(RewriteColumns),
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                // Which rows were patched, so `build_manifest` re-stamps their
+                // `_row_last_updated_at_version` with the version this commit
+                // actually lands on rather than the one guessed above.
+                updated_fragment_offsets: Some(matched_offsets),
+            };
+            let transaction = Transaction::new(dataset.manifest.version, operation, None);
+
+            if let Ok(mut guard) = transaction_holder.lock() {
+                guard.replace(transaction);
+            }
+            // `FirstSeen` drops duplicate source rows before the join, so fold
+            // that count in — this node only sees what survived.
+            let mut stats = MergeStats::from(&metrics);
+            stats.num_skipped_duplicates = stats
+                .num_skipped_duplicates
+                .checked_add(source_skipped_duplicates.load(Ordering::Relaxed))
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Execution(
+                        "merge insert skipped duplicate count overflowed u64".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+            if let Ok(mut guard) = merge_stats_holder.lock() {
+                guard.replace(stats);
+            }
+
+            Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(Schema::empty())))
+        });
+
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::empty()),
+            result_stream,
+        )))
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/write.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/write.rs
index 87714e6d46d..e9d93d549bf 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/write.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/exec/write.rs
@@ -2,9 +2,12 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use std::collections::HashSet;
-use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+use std::sync::{
+    Arc, Mutex,
+    atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
+};
 
-use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, UInt8Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::Schema;
 use arrow_select;
 use datafusion::common::{DataFusionError, Result as DFResult};
@@ -12,38 +15,40 @@ use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, ExecutionPlanMetricsSe
 use datafusion::{
     execution::{SendableRecordBatchStream, TaskContext},
     physical_plan::{
+        DisplayAs, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties,
         execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType},
         stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
-        DisplayAs, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties,
     },
 };
 use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
-use futures::{stream, StreamExt};
+use futures::{StreamExt, stream};
+use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID};
 use lance_table::format::RowIdMeta;
 use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::dataset::transaction::UpdateMode::RewriteRows;
 use crate::dataset::utils::CapturedRowIds;
 use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::inserted_rows::{
-    extract_key_value_from_batch, KeyExistenceFilter, KeyExistenceFilterBuilder,
+    KeyExistenceFilter, KeyExistenceFilterBuilder, extract_key_value_from_batch,
 };
 use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::{
-    create_duplicate_row_error, format_key_values_on_columns, SourceDedupeBehavior,
+    InsertedKeyTracker, MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL, SourceDedupeBehavior, canonical_source_schema,
+    create_duplicate_row_error, format_key_values_on_columns, resolve_target_bases,
 };
 use crate::{
+    Dataset,
     dataset::{
         transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
         write::{
+            WriteParams, blob_v2_external_base_resolver, cleanup_data_fragments,
             merge_insert::{
-                assign_action::Action, exec::MergeInsertMetrics, MergeInsertParams, MergeStats,
-                MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN,
+                MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN, MergeInsertParams, MergeStats, assign_action::Action,
+                exec::MergeInsertMetrics,
             },
-            write_fragments_internal, WriteParams,
+            write_fragments_internal,
         },
     },
-    Dataset,
 };
 
 use super::apply_deletions;
@@ -62,6 +67,8 @@ struct MergeState {
     stable_row_ids: bool,
     /// Set to track processed row IDs to detect duplicates
     processed_row_ids: HashSet<u64>,
+    /// Set to track non-null keys of rows inserted by FirstSeen mode
+    processed_insert_keys: InsertedKeyTracker,
     /// The "on" column names for merge operation
     on_columns: Vec<String>,
     /// How to handle duplicate source rows
@@ -83,6 +90,7 @@ impl MergeState {
             metrics,
             stable_row_ids,
             processed_row_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            processed_insert_keys: InsertedKeyTracker::default(),
             on_columns,
             source_dedupe_behavior,
         }
@@ -102,6 +110,29 @@ impl MergeState {
                 // Delete action - only delete, don't write back
                 if !row_addr_array.is_null(row_idx) {
                     let row_addr = row_addr_array.value(row_idx);
+                    let row_id = row_id_array.value(row_idx);
+
+                    // A source with duplicate keys matches the same target row
+                    // more than once; apply the same dedupe policy as updates.
+                    // (Target-only deletes from `delete_not_matched_by_source`
+                    // also reach here but never duplicate, so they never trip
+                    // `Fail`.)
+                    if !self.processed_row_ids.insert(row_id) {
+                        match self.source_dedupe_behavior {
+                            SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail => {
+                                return Err(create_duplicate_row_error(
+                                    batch,
+                                    row_idx,
+                                    &self.on_columns,
+                                ));
+                            }
+                            SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen => {
+                                self.metrics.num_skipped_duplicates.add(1);
+                                return Ok(None); // Skip this duplicate row
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+
                     self.delete_row_addrs.insert(row_addr);
                     self.metrics.num_deleted_rows.add(1);
                 }
@@ -142,7 +173,15 @@ impl MergeState {
                 Ok(Some(row_idx)) // Keep this row for writing
             }
             Action::Insert => {
-                // Insert action - just insert new data
+                if self.source_dedupe_behavior == SourceDedupeBehavior::FirstSeen
+                    && !self
+                        .processed_insert_keys
+                        .insert(batch, row_idx, &self.on_columns)?
+                {
+                    self.metrics.num_skipped_duplicates.add(1);
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+
                 // Capture the key value for conflict detection (only for inserts, not updates)
                 if let Some(key_value) =
                     extract_key_value_from_batch(batch, row_idx, &self.on_columns)
@@ -181,12 +220,14 @@ pub struct FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
     input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     params: MergeInsertParams,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
     merge_stats: Arc<Mutex<Option<MergeStats>>>,
     transaction: Arc<Mutex<Option<Transaction>>>,
     affected_rows: Arc<Mutex<Option<RoaringTreemap>>>,
     inserted_rows_filter: Arc<Mutex<Option<KeyExistenceFilter>>>,
+    source_skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+    source_blob_columns: Vec<String>,
     /// Whether the ON columns match the schema's unenforced primary key.
     /// If true, inserted_rows_filter will be included in the transaction for conflict detection.
     is_primary_key: bool,
@@ -197,14 +238,16 @@ impl FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
         input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         params: MergeInsertParams,
+        source_skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+        source_blob_columns: Vec<String>,
     ) -> DFResult<Self> {
         let empty_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty());
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(empty_schema),
             Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
             EmissionType::Final,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
         // Check if ON columns match the schema's unenforced primary key
         let field_ids: Vec<i32> = params
@@ -230,6 +273,8 @@ impl FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
             transaction: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
             affected_rows: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
             inserted_rows_filter: Arc::new(Mutex::new(None)),
+            source_skipped_duplicates,
+            source_blob_columns,
             is_primary_key,
         })
     }
@@ -413,25 +458,50 @@ impl FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
                 ))
             })?;
 
-        // Find all data columns to write (everything except special columns)
-        // The schema from DataFusion optimization may have collapsed duplicate columns
-        // from the logical join, leaving us with the merged data columns plus special columns
-        let total_fields = input_schema.fields().len();
-
-        // Select all columns that are data columns (not _rowaddr or __action)
-        // These represent the final merged data values to write
-        let data_column_indices: Vec<usize> = (0..total_fields)
-            .filter(|&idx| {
-                let field = input_schema.field(idx);
-                let name = field.name();
-                // Skip special columns: _rowaddr and __action
-                idx != rowaddr_idx
-                    && idx != action_idx
-                    && name != ROW_ADDR
-                    && name != ROW_ID
-                    && name != MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN
-            })
-            .collect();
+        // Emit data columns in dataset-schema order, keyed by name. This
+        // matters for partial-schema upserts, where `create_plan` adds
+        // synthetic unqualified columns (filled from the target side) at
+        // the end of the logical projection. Without name-based reordering
+        // they would land at the end of the write stream and mismatch the
+        // intended writer schema (which is `dataset.schema()`). Using name
+        // lookup is also a strictly-safer choice for the full-schema path:
+        // it turns an implicit positional assumption into an explicit
+        // name-based invariant. The filtered batches are recursively projected
+        // to this schema below so nested children follow the same contract.
+        let mut name_to_idx: std::collections::HashMap<&str, usize> =
+            std::collections::HashMap::with_capacity(input_schema.fields().len());
+        for (idx, field) in input_schema.fields().iter().enumerate() {
+            let name = field.name();
+            // Skip special columns: _rowaddr, _rowid, __action, and the
+            // source-presence sentinel.
+            if idx == rowaddr_idx
+                || idx == rowid_idx
+                || idx == action_idx
+                || name == ROW_ADDR
+                || name == ROW_ID
+                || name == MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN
+                || name == MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
+            name_to_idx.insert(name.as_str(), idx);
+        }
+
+        let dataset_arrow_schema: arrow_schema::Schema = self.dataset.schema().into();
+        let dataset_fields = dataset_arrow_schema.fields();
+        let mut data_column_indices: Vec<usize> = Vec::with_capacity(dataset_fields.len());
+        for dataset_field in dataset_fields {
+            let idx = *name_to_idx
+                .get(dataset_field.name().as_str())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                        "Dataset field {:?} missing from merge insert input schema \
+                     — this indicates a logical plan pruning bug",
+                        dataset_field.name()
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            data_column_indices.push(idx);
+        }
 
         if data_column_indices.is_empty() {
             return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(
@@ -439,19 +509,16 @@ impl FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
             ));
         }
 
-        // Create output schema with only data columns
-        let output_fields: Vec<_> = data_column_indices
-            .iter()
-            .map(|&idx| {
-                let field = input_schema.field(idx);
-                Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
-                    field.name(),
-                    field.data_type().clone(),
-                    field.is_nullable(),
-                ))
-            })
-            .collect();
-        let output_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(output_fields));
+        let source_data_schema = Schema::new(
+            data_column_indices
+                .iter()
+                .map(|idx| input_schema.field(*idx).clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(
+            canonical_source_schema(&source_data_schema, &dataset_arrow_schema)
+                .map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from)?,
+        );
 
         Ok((
             input_schema,
@@ -529,13 +596,12 @@ impl FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
         // Take only the rows we want to keep
         let filtered_batch = arrow_select::take::take_record_batch(batch, &indices)?;
 
-        // Project only the data columns
-        let output_columns: Vec<_> = data_column_indices
-            .iter()
-            .map(|&idx| filtered_batch.column(idx).clone())
-            .collect();
-
-        RecordBatch::try_new(output_schema, output_columns)
+        // First retain the source field layout, then recursively project it into
+        // the dataset layout. The latter is required for nested structs whose
+        // children were supplied in a different order.
+        let projected = filtered_batch.project(data_column_indices)?;
+        projected
+            .project_by_schema(output_schema.as_ref())
             .map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from)
     }
 
@@ -570,30 +636,48 @@ impl FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
         let output_schema_clone = output_schema.clone();
         let merge_state_clone = merge_state;
 
+        // The splitter owns both senders, so a panic inside it drops them and
+        // the receivers would see end-of-stream — a partial merge committed
+        // with no error. Catch the unwind and forward it as a stream error
+        // instead, so the writer fails and the transaction is never stored.
+        // The clones outlive the unwound future; we never resume it, so the
+        // `AssertUnwindSafe` bound is fine.
+        let panic_update_tx = update_tx.clone();
+        let panic_insert_tx = insert_tx.clone();
         tokio::spawn(async move {
-            let mut input_stream = input_stream;
-
-            while let Some(batch_result) = input_stream.next().await {
-                match batch_result {
-                    Ok(batch) => {
-                        match Self::process_and_split_batch(
-                            &batch,
-                            rowaddr_idx,
-                            rowid_idx,
-                            action_idx,
-                            &data_column_indices,
-                            output_schema_clone.clone(),
-                            merge_state_clone.clone(),
-                        ) {
-                            Ok((update_batch_opt, insert_batch_opt)) => {
-                                if let Some(update_batch) = update_batch_opt {
-                                    if update_tx.send(Ok(update_batch)).is_err() {
-                                        break;
+            let result =
+                futures::FutureExt::catch_unwind(std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe(async move {
+                    let mut input_stream = input_stream;
+
+                    while let Some(batch_result) = input_stream.next().await {
+                        match batch_result {
+                            Ok(batch) => {
+                                match Self::process_and_split_batch(
+                                    &batch,
+                                    rowaddr_idx,
+                                    rowid_idx,
+                                    action_idx,
+                                    &data_column_indices,
+                                    output_schema_clone.clone(),
+                                    merge_state_clone.clone(),
+                                ) {
+                                    Ok((update_batch_opt, insert_batch_opt)) => {
+                                        if let Some(update_batch) = update_batch_opt
+                                            && update_tx.send(Ok(update_batch)).is_err()
+                                        {
+                                            break;
+                                        }
+
+                                        if let Some(insert_batch) = insert_batch_opt
+                                            && insert_tx.send(Ok(insert_batch)).is_err()
+                                        {
+                                            break;
+                                        }
                                     }
-                                }
-
-                                if let Some(insert_batch) = insert_batch_opt {
-                                    if insert_tx.send(Ok(insert_batch)).is_err() {
+                                    Err(e) => {
+                                        Self::handle_stream_processing_error(
+                                            e, &update_tx, &insert_tx,
+                                        );
                                         break;
                                     }
                                 }
@@ -604,11 +688,24 @@ impl FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
                             }
                         }
                     }
-                    Err(e) => {
-                        Self::handle_stream_processing_error(e, &update_tx, &insert_tx);
-                        break;
-                    }
-                }
+                }))
+                .await;
+
+            if let Err(panic) = result {
+                let panic_msg = if let Some(msg) = panic.downcast_ref::<&str>() {
+                    (*msg).to_string()
+                } else if let Some(msg) = panic.downcast_ref::<String>() {
+                    msg.clone()
+                } else {
+                    "unknown panic payload".to_string()
+                };
+                Self::handle_stream_processing_error(
+                    datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                        "merge insert stream splitter panicked: {panic_msg}"
+                    )),
+                    &panic_update_tx,
+                    &panic_insert_tx,
+                );
             }
         });
 
@@ -699,13 +796,11 @@ impl FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
         update_tx: &tokio::sync::mpsc::UnboundedSender<DFResult<RecordBatch>>,
         insert_tx: &tokio::sync::mpsc::UnboundedSender<DFResult<RecordBatch>>,
     ) {
-        let error_msg = format!("Stream processing failed: {}", error);
-
-        let update_error = datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(error_msg.clone());
-        let insert_error = datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(error_msg);
-
-        let _ = update_tx.send(Err(update_error));
-        let _ = insert_tx.send(Err(insert_error));
+        // Send to first open one. It doesn't matter which one receives it as
+        // long as the user gets the error in the end.
+        if let Err(tokio::sync::mpsc::error::SendError(error)) = update_tx.send(Err(error)) {
+            let _ = insert_tx.send(error);
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -725,6 +820,9 @@ impl DisplayAs for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
                     crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateIf(condition) => {
                         format!("UpdateIf({})", condition)
                     }
+                    crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(expr) => {
+                        format!("UpdateIf({})", expr.human_display())
+                    }
                     crate::dataset::WhenMatched::Fail => "Fail".to_string(),
                     crate::dataset::WhenMatched::Delete => "Delete".to_string(),
                 };
@@ -742,10 +840,7 @@ impl DisplayAs for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
                 write!(
                     f,
                     "MergeInsert: on=[{}], when_matched={}, when_not_matched={}, when_not_matched_by_source={}",
-                    on_keys,
-                    when_matched,
-                    when_not_matched,
-                    when_not_matched_by_source
+                    on_keys, when_matched, when_not_matched, when_not_matched_by_source
                 )
             }
             datafusion::physical_plan::DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
@@ -760,10 +855,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
         "FullSchemaMergeInsertExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef {
         Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty())
     }
@@ -791,6 +882,8 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
             transaction: self.transaction.clone(),
             affected_rows: self.affected_rows.clone(),
             inserted_rows_filter: self.inserted_rows_filter.clone(),
+            source_skipped_duplicates: self.source_skipped_duplicates.clone(),
+            source_blob_columns: self.source_blob_columns.clone(),
             is_primary_key: self.is_primary_key,
         }))
     }
@@ -799,7 +892,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -831,6 +924,40 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
 
         // Execute the input plan to get the merge data stream
         let input_stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let has_blob_v2_columns = self
+            .dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .any(|field| field.is_blob_v2());
+        let input_stream = if has_blob_v2_columns {
+            let input_schema = input_stream.schema();
+            let rewrite_plan = Arc::new(
+                crate::dataset::optimize::BlobV2BatchRewritePlan::try_new(
+                    self.dataset.schema(),
+                    input_schema.as_ref(),
+                    true,
+                    false,
+                )
+                .map_err(|error| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(error)))?,
+            );
+            let output_schema = rewrite_plan.output_schema().clone();
+            let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
+            let transformed = input_stream.then(move |batch_result| {
+                let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                let rewrite_plan = rewrite_plan.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let batch = batch_result?;
+                    rewrite_plan
+                        .transform_batch(&dataset, batch)
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|error| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(error)))
+                }
+            });
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(output_schema, transformed))
+                as SendableRecordBatchStream
+        } else {
+            input_stream
+        };
 
         // Step 1: Create shared state and streaming processor for row addresses and write data
         // Get field IDs for the ON columns from the dataset schema
@@ -852,11 +979,14 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
 
         // Use flat_map to handle the async write operation
         let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
+        let params = self.params.clone();
         let merge_stats_holder = self.merge_stats.clone();
         let transaction_holder = self.transaction.clone();
         let affected_rows_holder = self.affected_rows.clone();
         let inserted_rows_filter_holder = self.inserted_rows_filter.clone();
-        let merged_generations = self.params.merged_generations.clone();
+        let compacted_sstables = self.params.compacted_sstables.clone();
+        let source_skipped_duplicates = self.source_skipped_duplicates.clone();
+        let source_blob_columns = self.source_blob_columns.clone();
         let is_primary_key = self.is_primary_key;
         let updating_row_ids = {
             let state = merge_state.lock().unwrap();
@@ -865,39 +995,94 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
 
         let result_stream = stream::once(async move {
             // Step 2: Write new fragments using the filtered data (inserts + updates)
+            let target_bases_info = resolve_target_bases(&dataset, &params).await?;
+            // Keep a copy so failures after the write can clean up routed files.
+            let cleanup_bases = target_bases_info.clone();
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                allow_external_blob_outside_bases: has_blob_v2_columns,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            // Existing target references may be outside the current bases. Check
+            // only source-provided blob columns before allowing them through.
+            let write_data_stream = if source_blob_columns.is_empty() {
+                write_data_stream
+            } else {
+                let resolver =
+                    blob_v2_external_base_resolver(Some(&dataset), &write_params, dataset.schema())
+                        .await?
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal("Source has blob v2 columns but target does not")
+                        })?;
+                let schema = write_data_stream.schema();
+                let source_blob_column_indices = source_blob_columns
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|name| schema.index_of(name).map_err(Error::from))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                let validated = write_data_stream.then(move |batch_result| {
+                    let resolver = resolver.clone();
+                    let source_blob_column_indices = source_blob_column_indices.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        let batch = batch_result?;
+                        let source_blob_batch = batch.project(&source_blob_column_indices)?;
+                        crate::dataset::blob::validate_external_blob_references(
+                            &resolver,
+                            &source_blob_batch,
+                            &vec![true; batch.num_rows()],
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|error| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(error)))?;
+                        Ok(batch)
+                    }
+                });
+                Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, validated))
+                    as SendableRecordBatchStream
+            };
             let (mut new_fragments, _) = write_fragments_internal(
+                params.write_version(&dataset),
                 Some(&dataset),
                 dataset.object_store.clone(),
                 &dataset.base,
                 dataset.schema().clone(),
                 write_data_stream,
-                WriteParams::default(),
-                None, // Merge insert doesn't use target_bases
+                write_params,
+                target_bases_info,
             )
             .await?;
 
-            if let Some(row_id_sequence) = updating_row_ids.lock().unwrap().row_id_sequence() {
-                let fragment_sizes = new_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64);
-
-                let sequences = lance_table::rowids::rechunk_sequences(
-                    [row_id_sequence.clone()],
-                    fragment_sizes,
-                    true,
-                )
-                .map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Captured row ids not equal to number of rows written: {}",
-                        e
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-
-                for (fragment, sequence) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(sequences) {
-                    let serialized = lance_table::rowids::write_row_ids(&sequence);
-                    fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized));
+            let row_id_result: lance_core::Result<()> = (|| {
+                if let Some(row_id_sequence) = updating_row_ids.lock().unwrap().row_id_sequence() {
+                    let fragment_sizes = new_fragments
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64);
+
+                    let sequences = lance_table::rowids::rechunk_sequences(
+                        [row_id_sequence.clone()],
+                        fragment_sizes,
+                        true,
+                    )
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Captured row ids not equal to number of rows written: {}",
+                            e
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+
+                    for (fragment, sequence) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(sequences) {
+                        let serialized = lance_table::rowids::write_row_ids(&sequence);
+                        fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized.into()));
+                    }
                 }
+                Ok(())
+            })();
+            if let Err(e) = row_id_result {
+                cleanup_data_fragments(
+                    &dataset.object_store,
+                    &dataset.base,
+                    cleanup_bases.as_deref(),
+                    &new_fragments,
+                )
+                .await;
+                return Err(e.into());
             }
 
             // Step 2.5: Calculate write metrics from new fragments
@@ -919,7 +1104,21 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
             };
 
             let (updated_fragments, removed_fragment_ids) =
-                apply_deletions(&dataset, &delete_row_addrs_clone).await?;
+                match apply_deletions(&dataset, &delete_row_addrs_clone).await {
+                    Ok(result) => result,
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        // The new data files are not committed; remove them (including
+                        // ones routed to target bases) before surfacing the error.
+                        cleanup_data_fragments(
+                            &dataset.object_store,
+                            &dataset.base,
+                            cleanup_bases.as_deref(),
+                            &new_fragments,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                        return Err(e.into());
+                    }
+                };
 
             // Step 4: Create the transaction operation
             let operation = Operation::Update {
@@ -927,15 +1126,20 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
                 updated_fragments,
                 new_fragments,
                 fields_modified: vec![], // No fields are modified in schema for upsert
-                merged_generations,
+                compacted_sstables,
+                // Use the full pre-order field list (not just top-level `fields`) so
+                // that nested leaf field ids are included. A merge_insert rewrites whole
+                // rows, so every field is potentially modified; omitting nested ids would
+                // let `register_pure_rewrite_rows_update_frags_in_indices` wrongly extend a
+                // nested-field index over the rewritten fragment, silently dropping rows.
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: dataset
                     .schema()
-                    .fields
-                    .iter()
+                    .fields_pre_order()
                     .map(|f| f.id as u32)
                     .collect(),
                 update_mode: Some(RewriteRows),
                 inserted_rows_filter: inserted_rows_filter.clone(),
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             };
 
             // Step 5: Create and store the transaction
@@ -951,7 +1155,15 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FullSchemaMergeInsertExec {
                     .add(total_files_written);
 
                 // Get the final stats from the shared state
-                let stats = MergeStats::from(&merge_state.metrics);
+                let mut stats = MergeStats::from(&merge_state.metrics);
+                stats.num_skipped_duplicates = stats
+                    .num_skipped_duplicates
+                    .checked_add(source_skipped_duplicates.load(Ordering::Relaxed))
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        DataFusionError::Execution(
+                            "merge insert skipped duplicate count overflowed u64".to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
 
                 if let Ok(mut transaction_guard) = transaction_holder.lock() {
                     transaction_guard.replace(transaction);
@@ -986,6 +1198,110 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use arrow_array::UInt64Array;
 
+    use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::{MergeInsertBuilder, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched};
+
+    // A panic in the detached splitter task must surface on the output
+    // streams as an error. The task owns the channel senders, so an unwind
+    // drops them and the receivers cannot distinguish "writer panicked" from
+    // end-of-stream — without a guard, a partial merge is silently committed.
+    // The poisoned `updating_row_ids` mutex stands in for any panic source.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn splitter_panic_surfaces_as_stream_error() {
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::empty::EmptyExec;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("key", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("value", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![42])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            "memory://splitter-panic",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["key".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let exec = FullSchemaMergeInsertExec::try_new(
+            Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(schema.clone())),
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            job.params.clone(),
+            Arc::new(std::sync::atomic::AtomicU64::new(0)),
+            Vec::new(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = MergeInsertMetrics::new(&ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(), 0);
+        let merge_state = Arc::new(std::sync::Mutex::new(MergeState::new(
+            metrics,
+            true,
+            vec!["key".to_string()],
+            Vec::new(),
+            SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail,
+        )));
+
+        // Poison the captured-row-ids mutex so the splitter task panics when
+        // the UpdateAll row reaches the capture call.
+        {
+            let poison_target = merge_state.lock().unwrap().updating_row_ids.clone();
+            let _ = std::panic::catch_unwind(std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
+                let _guard = poison_target.lock().unwrap();
+                panic!("poison the captured row ids mutex");
+            }));
+        }
+
+        let input_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("key", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("value", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ADDR, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, true),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(ROW_ID, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, true),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, false),
+        ]));
+        let input_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            input_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![42])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![1u64 << 32])),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![7u64])),
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt8Array::from(vec![1u8])), // UpdateAll
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let input_stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            input_schema,
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(input_batch)]),
+        ));
+
+        let (update_stream, _insert_stream) = exec
+            .split_updates_and_inserts(input_stream, merge_state)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result: DFResult<Vec<RecordBatch>> = update_stream.try_collect().await;
+        let err = result.expect_err(
+            "a splitter panic must surface as a stream error, not a silent end-of-stream",
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("panic"),
+            "error should name the panic, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn test_merge_state_duplicate_rowid_detection_fail() {
         let metrics = MergeInsertMetrics::new(&ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(), 0);
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/inserted_rows.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/inserted_rows.rs
index f4ccfa1195e..711d796d3d4 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/inserted_rows.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/inserted_rows.rs
@@ -2,716 +2,11 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 //! Key existence tracking for merge insert conflict detection.
+//!
+//! The implementation lives in [`lance_table::format::key_existence`] because the
+//! filter is serialized into the transaction protobuf.
 
-use std::collections::hash_map::DefaultHasher;
-use std::collections::HashSet;
-use std::hash::{Hash, Hasher};
-
-use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-use arrow_array::{
-    Array, BinaryArray, LargeBinaryArray, LargeListArray, LargeStringArray, ListArray, RecordBatch,
-    StringArray, StructArray,
+pub use lance_table::format::key_existence::{
+    BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS, BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY, FilterType,
+    KeyExistenceFilter, KeyExistenceFilterBuilder, KeyValue, extract_key_value_from_batch,
 };
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_core::Result;
-use lance_index::scalar::bloomfilter::sbbf::{Sbbf, SbbfBuilder};
-use lance_table::format::pb;
-use snafu::location;
-
-// Default bloom filter config: 8192 items @ 0.00057 fpp -> 16KiB filter
-pub const BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS: u64 = 8192;
-pub const BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY: f64 = 0.00057;
-
-/// Key value for conflict detection.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
-pub enum KeyValue {
-    String(String),
-    Int64(i64),
-    UInt64(u64),
-    Binary(Vec<u8>),
-    List(Vec<Self>),
-    Struct(Vec<Self>),
-    Composite(Vec<Self>),
-}
-
-impl KeyValue {
-    pub fn to_bytes(&self) -> Vec<u8> {
-        match self {
-            Self::String(s) => s.as_bytes().to_vec(),
-            Self::Int64(i) => i.to_le_bytes().to_vec(),
-            Self::UInt64(u) => u.to_le_bytes().to_vec(),
-            Self::Binary(b) => b.clone(),
-            Self::List(values) | Self::Struct(values) | Self::Composite(values) => {
-                let mut result = Vec::new();
-                for value in values {
-                    result.extend_from_slice(&value.to_bytes());
-                    result.push(0);
-                }
-                result
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn hash_value(&self) -> u64 {
-        let mut hasher = DefaultHasher::new();
-        self.to_bytes().hash(&mut hasher);
-        hasher.finish()
-    }
-}
-
-/// Builder for KeyExistenceFilter using Split Block Bloom Filter.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct KeyExistenceFilterBuilder {
-    sbbf: Sbbf,
-    field_ids: Vec<i32>,
-    item_count: usize,
-}
-
-impl KeyExistenceFilterBuilder {
-    pub fn new(field_ids: Vec<i32>) -> Self {
-        let sbbf = SbbfBuilder::new()
-            .expected_items(BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS)
-            .false_positive_probability(BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY)
-            .build()
-            .expect("Failed to build SBBF");
-        Self {
-            sbbf,
-            field_ids,
-            item_count: 0,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn insert(&mut self, key: KeyValue) -> Result<()> {
-        self.sbbf.insert(&key.to_bytes()[..]);
-        self.item_count += 1;
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    pub fn contains(&self, key: &KeyValue) -> bool {
-        self.sbbf.check(&key.to_bytes()[..])
-    }
-
-    pub fn might_intersect(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<bool> {
-        self.sbbf
-            .might_intersect(&other.sbbf)
-            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(e.to_string(), location!()))
-    }
-
-    pub fn field_ids(&self) -> &[i32] {
-        &self.field_ids
-    }
-
-    pub fn estimated_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
-        self.sbbf.size_bytes()
-    }
-
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.item_count
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.item_count == 0
-    }
-
-    pub fn build(&self) -> KeyExistenceFilter {
-        KeyExistenceFilter {
-            field_ids: self.field_ids.clone(),
-            filter: FilterType::Bloom {
-                bitmap: self.sbbf.to_bytes(),
-                num_bits: (self.sbbf.size_bytes() as u32) * 8,
-                number_of_items: BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS,
-                probability: BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY,
-            },
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&KeyExistenceFilterBuilder> for pb::transaction::KeyExistenceFilter {
-    fn from(builder: &KeyExistenceFilterBuilder) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            field_ids: builder.field_ids.clone(),
-            data: Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Bloom(
-                pb::transaction::BloomFilter {
-                    bitmap: builder.sbbf.to_bytes(),
-                    num_bits: (builder.sbbf.size_bytes() as u32) * 8,
-                    number_of_items: BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS,
-                    probability: BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY,
-                },
-            )),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Filter type for key existence data.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
-pub enum FilterType {
-    ExactSet(HashSet<u64>),
-    Bloom {
-        bitmap: Vec<u8>,
-        num_bits: u32,
-        number_of_items: u64,
-        probability: f64,
-    },
-}
-
-/// Tracks keys of inserted rows for conflict detection.
-/// Only created when ON columns match the schema's unenforced primary key.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, DeepSizeOf, PartialEq)]
-pub struct KeyExistenceFilter {
-    pub field_ids: Vec<i32>,
-    pub filter: FilterType,
-}
-
-impl KeyExistenceFilter {
-    pub fn from_bloom_filter(bloom: &KeyExistenceFilterBuilder) -> Self {
-        bloom.build()
-    }
-
-    /// Check if two filters intersect. Returns (has_intersection, might_be_false_positive).
-    /// Errors if bloom filter configs don't match.
-    pub fn intersects(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<(bool, bool)> {
-        match (&self.filter, &other.filter) {
-            (FilterType::ExactSet(a), FilterType::ExactSet(b)) => {
-                Ok((a.iter().any(|h| b.contains(h)), false))
-            }
-            (FilterType::ExactSet(_), FilterType::Bloom { .. })
-            | (FilterType::Bloom { .. }, FilterType::ExactSet(_)) => {
-                // Can't compare different hash schemes, assume intersection
-                Ok((true, true))
-            }
-            (
-                FilterType::Bloom {
-                    bitmap: a_bits,
-                    number_of_items: a_num_items,
-                    probability: a_prob,
-                    ..
-                },
-                FilterType::Bloom {
-                    bitmap: b_bits,
-                    number_of_items: b_num_items,
-                    probability: b_prob,
-                    ..
-                },
-            ) => {
-                if a_num_items != b_num_items || (a_prob - b_prob).abs() > f64::EPSILON {
-                    return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!(
-                            "Bloom filter config mismatch: ({}, {}) vs ({}, {})",
-                            a_num_items, a_prob, b_num_items, b_prob
-                        ),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
-                }
-                let has = Sbbf::bytes_might_intersect(a_bits, b_bits)
-                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::invalid_input(e.to_string(), location!()))?;
-                Ok((has, has))
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&KeyExistenceFilter> for pb::transaction::KeyExistenceFilter {
-    fn from(filter: &KeyExistenceFilter) -> Self {
-        match &filter.filter {
-            FilterType::ExactSet(hashes) => Self {
-                field_ids: filter.field_ids.clone(),
-                data: Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Exact(
-                    pb::transaction::ExactKeySetFilter {
-                        key_hashes: hashes.iter().copied().collect(),
-                    },
-                )),
-            },
-            FilterType::Bloom {
-                bitmap,
-                num_bits,
-                number_of_items,
-                probability,
-            } => Self {
-                field_ids: filter.field_ids.clone(),
-                data: Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Bloom(
-                    pb::transaction::BloomFilter {
-                        bitmap: bitmap.clone(),
-                        num_bits: *num_bits,
-                        number_of_items: *number_of_items,
-                        probability: *probability,
-                    },
-                )),
-            },
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl TryFrom<&pb::transaction::KeyExistenceFilter> for KeyExistenceFilter {
-    type Error = lance_core::Error;
-
-    fn try_from(message: &pb::transaction::KeyExistenceFilter) -> Result<Self> {
-        let filter = match message.data.as_ref() {
-            Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Exact(exact)) => {
-                FilterType::ExactSet(exact.key_hashes.iter().copied().collect())
-            }
-            Some(pb::transaction::key_existence_filter::Data::Bloom(b)) => {
-                // Use defaults for backwards compatibility
-                let number_of_items = if b.number_of_items == 0 {
-                    BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_NUMBER_OF_ITEMS
-                } else {
-                    b.number_of_items
-                };
-                let probability = if b.probability == 0.0 {
-                    BLOOM_FILTER_DEFAULT_PROBABILITY
-                } else {
-                    b.probability
-                };
-                FilterType::Bloom {
-                    bitmap: b.bitmap.clone(),
-                    num_bits: b.num_bits,
-                    number_of_items,
-                    probability,
-                }
-            }
-            None => FilterType::ExactSet(HashSet::new()),
-        };
-        Ok(Self {
-            field_ids: message.field_ids.clone(),
-            filter,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-/// Extract key value from a batch row. Returns None if null or unsupported type.
-pub fn extract_key_value_from_batch(
-    batch: &RecordBatch,
-    row_idx: usize,
-    on_columns: &[String],
-) -> Option<KeyValue> {
-    let mut parts: Vec<KeyValue> = Vec::with_capacity(on_columns.len());
-
-    for col_name in on_columns {
-        let (col_idx, _) = batch.schema().column_with_name(col_name)?;
-        let column = batch.column(col_idx);
-
-        if column.is_null(row_idx) {
-            return None;
-        }
-
-        let key_part = extract_key_value(column, row_idx)?;
-        parts.push(key_part);
-    }
-
-    if parts.is_empty() {
-        None
-    } else if parts.len() == 1 {
-        Some(parts.into_iter().next().unwrap())
-    } else {
-        Some(KeyValue::Composite(parts))
-    }
-}
-
-fn extract_key_value(array: &dyn Array, row_idx: usize) -> Option<KeyValue> {
-    let v = match array.data_type() {
-        DataType::Utf8 => {
-            let arr = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>()?;
-            KeyValue::String(arr.value(row_idx).to_string())
-        }
-        DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
-            let arr = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>()?;
-            KeyValue::String(arr.value(row_idx).to_string())
-        }
-        DataType::UInt64 => {
-            let arr = array.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
-            KeyValue::UInt64(arr.value(row_idx))
-        }
-        DataType::Int64 => {
-            let arr = array.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type>();
-            KeyValue::Int64(arr.value(row_idx))
-        }
-        DataType::UInt32 => {
-            let arr = array.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt32Type>();
-            KeyValue::UInt64(arr.value(row_idx) as u64)
-        }
-        DataType::Int32 => {
-            let arr = array.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
-            KeyValue::Int64(arr.value(row_idx) as i64)
-        }
-        DataType::Binary => {
-            let arr = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>()?;
-            KeyValue::Binary(arr.value(row_idx).to_vec())
-        }
-        DataType::LargeBinary => {
-            let arr = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()?;
-            KeyValue::Binary(arr.value(row_idx).to_vec())
-        }
-        DataType::List(_) => {
-            let list_array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<ListArray>().unwrap();
-            let values = list_array.value(row_idx);
-
-            let mut elements = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
-            for i in 0..values.len() {
-                if values.is_null(i) {
-                    return None;
-                }
-                let element = extract_key_value(&values, i)?;
-                elements.push(element);
-            }
-            KeyValue::List(elements)
-        }
-        DataType::LargeList(_) => {
-            let list_array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<LargeListArray>().unwrap();
-            let values = list_array.value(row_idx);
-
-            let mut elements = Vec::with_capacity(values.len());
-            for i in 0..values.len() {
-                if values.is_null(i) {
-                    return None;
-                }
-                let element = extract_key_value(&values, i)?;
-                elements.push(element);
-            }
-            KeyValue::List(elements)
-        }
-        DataType::Struct(_) => {
-            let struct_array = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<StructArray>()?;
-            let mut elements = Vec::with_capacity(struct_array.num_columns());
-            for i in 0..struct_array.num_columns() {
-                let child = struct_array.column(i);
-                if child.is_null(row_idx) {
-                    return None;
-                }
-                let field_value = extract_key_value(child.as_ref(), row_idx)?;
-                elements.push(field_value);
-            }
-            KeyValue::Struct(elements)
-        }
-        _ => return None,
-    };
-    Some(v)
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use std::sync::Arc;
-
-    use arrow_array::builder::{Int32Builder, ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
-    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, StringArray, StructArray};
-    use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_list_int() {
-        let values_builder = Int32Builder::new();
-        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(values_builder);
-
-        list_builder.append_value([Some(1), Some(2)]);
-        list_builder.append_value([Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)]);
-
-        let list_array = list_builder.finish();
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "id",
-            list_array.data_type().clone(),
-            false,
-        )]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list_array)])
-            .expect("batch should be valid");
-
-        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("first row should produce a key");
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("second row should produce a key");
-
-        match &key0 {
-            KeyValue::List(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(1));
-                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(2));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        match &key1 {
-            KeyValue::List(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 3);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(3));
-                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(4));
-                assert_eq!(values[2], KeyValue::Int64(5));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        assert_ne!(
-            key0.hash_value(),
-            key1.hash_value(),
-            "different list values should hash differently",
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_empty_list() {
-        let values_builder = Int32Builder::new();
-        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(values_builder);
-
-        list_builder.append_value(std::iter::empty::<Option<i32>>());
-
-        let list_array = list_builder.finish();
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "id",
-            list_array.data_type().clone(),
-            false,
-        )]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list_array)])
-            .expect("batch should be valid");
-
-        let key = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("empty list should still produce a key");
-
-        match key {
-            KeyValue::List(values) => {
-                assert!(values.is_empty(), "expected empty list");
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_list_utf8() {
-        let values_builder = StringBuilder::new();
-        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(values_builder);
-
-        list_builder.append_value([Some("a"), Some("bc")]);
-        list_builder.append_value([Some("de")]);
-
-        let list_array = list_builder.finish();
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "id",
-            list_array.data_type().clone(),
-            false,
-        )]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list_array)])
-            .expect("batch should be valid");
-
-        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("first row should produce a key");
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("second row should produce a key");
-
-        match &key0 {
-            KeyValue::List(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::String("a".to_string()));
-                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::String("bc".to_string()));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        match &key1 {
-            KeyValue::List(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 1);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::String("de".to_string()));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        assert_ne!(
-            key0.hash_value(),
-            key1.hash_value(),
-            "different list values should hash differently",
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_list_with_null_child() {
-        let values_builder = Int32Builder::new();
-        let mut list_builder = ListBuilder::new(values_builder);
-
-        list_builder.append_value([Some(1), Some(2)]);
-        list_builder.append_value([Some(3), None]);
-
-        let list_array = list_builder.finish();
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "id",
-            list_array.data_type().clone(),
-            false,
-        )]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list_array)])
-            .expect("batch should be valid");
-
-        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("first row should produce a key");
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")]);
-
-        match &key0 {
-            KeyValue::List(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(1));
-                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(2));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected list key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        assert!(
-            key1.is_none(),
-            "list row with a null child should not produce a key",
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_struct_int() {
-        let a_values = Int32Array::from(vec![1, 3]);
-        let b_values = Int32Array::from(vec![2, 4]);
-
-        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("a", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false)),
-                Arc::new(a_values) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("b", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false)),
-                Arc::new(b_values) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-        ]);
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "id",
-            struct_array.data_type().clone(),
-            false,
-        )]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array)])
-            .expect("batch should be valid");
-
-        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("first row should produce a key");
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("second row should produce a key");
-
-        match &key0 {
-            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(1));
-                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(2));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        match &key1 {
-            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(3));
-                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(4));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        assert_ne!(
-            key0.hash_value(),
-            key1.hash_value(),
-            "different struct values should hash differently",
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_struct_utf8() {
-        let first_names = StringArray::from(vec!["alice", "bob"]);
-        let last_names = StringArray::from(vec!["smith", "jones"]);
-
-        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("first", arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(first_names) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("last", arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(last_names) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-        ]);
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "id",
-            struct_array.data_type().clone(),
-            false,
-        )]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array)])
-            .expect("batch should be valid");
-
-        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("first row should produce a key");
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("second row should produce a key");
-
-        match &key0 {
-            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::String("alice".to_string()));
-                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::String("smith".to_string()));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        match &key1 {
-            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::String("bob".to_string()));
-                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::String("jones".to_string()));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        assert_ne!(
-            key0.hash_value(),
-            key1.hash_value(),
-            "different struct values should hash differently",
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_extract_key_value_from_batch_struct_with_null_child() {
-        let a_values = Int32Array::from(vec![Some(1), None]);
-        let b_values = Int32Array::from(vec![Some(2), Some(3)]);
-
-        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("a", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, true)),
-                Arc::new(a_values) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("b", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, true)),
-                Arc::new(b_values) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-        ]);
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "id",
-            struct_array.data_type().clone(),
-            false,
-        )]));
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(struct_array)])
-            .expect("batch should be valid");
-
-        let key0 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 0, &[String::from("id")])
-            .expect("first row should produce a key");
-        let key1 = extract_key_value_from_batch(&batch, 1, &[String::from("id")]);
-
-        match &key0 {
-            KeyValue::Struct(values) => {
-                assert_eq!(values.len(), 2);
-                assert_eq!(values[0], KeyValue::Int64(1));
-                assert_eq!(values[1], KeyValue::Int64(2));
-            }
-            other => panic!("expected struct key, got {:?}", other),
-        }
-
-        assert!(
-            key1.is_none(),
-            "struct row with a null child should not produce a key",
-        );
-    }
-}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/logical_plan.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/logical_plan.rs
index f25c7ef11c3..76763d0731d 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/logical_plan.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/merge_insert/logical_plan.rs
@@ -11,15 +11,34 @@ use datafusion::{
 };
 use datafusion_expr::{LogicalPlan, UserDefinedLogicalNode, UserDefinedLogicalNodeCore};
 use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID};
-use std::{cmp::Ordering, sync::Arc};
+use std::{
+    cmp::Ordering,
+    sync::{Arc, atomic::AtomicU64},
+};
 
+use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::dataset::write::merge_insert::exec::{
-    DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec, FullSchemaMergeInsertExec,
+    DeleteOnlyMergeInsertExec, FullSchemaMergeInsertExec, InPlaceMergeInsertExec,
 };
 use crate::dataset::{WhenMatched, WhenNotMatchedBySource};
-use crate::Dataset;
 
-use super::{MergeInsertParams, MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN};
+use super::{MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN, MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL, MergeInsertParams};
+
+/// Which write half a planned merge insert will use.
+///
+/// This is the *resolved* choice, so it has no `Auto`: the caller's
+/// [`MergeInsertWriteMode`](super::MergeInsertWriteMode) is resolved against the
+/// operation by [`MergeInsertJob::select_write_sink`](super::MergeInsertJob) before
+/// the plan is built.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+pub enum WriteSink {
+    /// Delete the matched rows and write whole rows into new fragments.
+    RewriteRows,
+    /// Attach new data files for the source columns to the fragments that
+    /// already hold the matched rows and tombstone the old versions of those
+    /// columns.
+    RewriteColumns,
+}
 
 /// Logical plan node for merge insert write.
 ///
@@ -36,12 +55,18 @@ pub struct MergeInsertWriteNode {
     input: LogicalPlan,
     pub(crate) dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     pub(crate) params: MergeInsertParams,
+    pub(crate) source_skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+    pub(crate) write_sink: WriteSink,
+    /// Blob columns supplied by the source, excluding target-filled columns.
+    pub(crate) source_blob_columns: Vec<String>,
     schema: Arc<DFSchema>,
 }
 
 impl PartialEq for MergeInsertWriteNode {
     fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
         self.params == other.params
+            && self.write_sink == other.write_sink
+            && self.source_blob_columns == other.source_blob_columns
             && self.input == other.input
             && self.dataset.base == other.dataset.base
     }
@@ -52,6 +77,8 @@ impl Eq for MergeInsertWriteNode {}
 impl std::hash::Hash for MergeInsertWriteNode {
     fn hash<H: std::hash::Hasher>(&self, state: &mut H) {
         self.params.hash(state);
+        self.write_sink.hash(state);
+        self.source_blob_columns.hash(state);
         self.input.hash(state);
         self.dataset.base.hash(state);
     }
@@ -60,20 +87,36 @@ impl std::hash::Hash for MergeInsertWriteNode {
 impl PartialOrd for MergeInsertWriteNode {
     fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
         match self.params.partial_cmp(&other.params) {
-            Some(Ordering::Equal) => self.input.partial_cmp(&other.input),
+            Some(Ordering::Equal) => match self.write_sink.cmp(&other.write_sink) {
+                Ordering::Equal => match self.source_blob_columns.cmp(&other.source_blob_columns) {
+                    Ordering::Equal => self.input.partial_cmp(&other.input),
+                    cmp => Some(cmp),
+                },
+                cmp => Some(cmp),
+            },
             cmp => cmp,
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl MergeInsertWriteNode {
-    pub fn new(input: LogicalPlan, dataset: Arc<Dataset>, params: MergeInsertParams) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(
+        input: LogicalPlan,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        params: MergeInsertParams,
+        source_skipped_duplicates: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+        write_sink: WriteSink,
+        source_blob_columns: Vec<String>,
+    ) -> Self {
         let empty_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty());
         let schema = Arc::new(DFSchema::try_from(empty_schema).unwrap());
         Self {
             input,
             dataset,
             params,
+            source_skipped_duplicates,
+            write_sink,
+            source_blob_columns,
             schema,
         }
     }
@@ -102,6 +145,7 @@ impl UserDefinedLogicalNodeCore for MergeInsertWriteNode {
             crate::dataset::WhenMatched::DoNothing => "DoNothing",
             crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateAll => "UpdateAll",
             crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateIf(_) => "UpdateIf",
+            crate::dataset::WhenMatched::UpdateIfExpr(_) => "UpdateIfExpr",
             crate::dataset::WhenMatched::Fail => "Fail",
             crate::dataset::WhenMatched::Delete => "Delete",
         };
@@ -119,11 +163,12 @@ impl UserDefinedLogicalNodeCore for MergeInsertWriteNode {
         write!(
             f,
             "MergeInsertWrite: on=[{}], when_matched={}, when_not_matched={}, when_not_matched_by_source={}",
-            on_keys,
-            when_matched,
-            when_not_matched,
-            when_not_matched_by_source
-        )
+            on_keys, when_matched, when_not_matched, when_not_matched_by_source
+        )?;
+        if self.write_sink == WriteSink::RewriteColumns {
+            write!(f, ", mode=RewriteColumns")?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
     fn with_exprs_and_inputs(
@@ -145,6 +190,9 @@ impl UserDefinedLogicalNodeCore for MergeInsertWriteNode {
             inputs[0].clone(),
             self.dataset.clone(),
             self.params.clone(),
+            self.source_skipped_duplicates.clone(),
+            self.write_sink,
+            self.source_blob_columns.clone(),
         ))
     }
 
@@ -166,11 +214,13 @@ impl UserDefinedLogicalNodeCore for MergeInsertWriteNode {
 
         for (i, (qualifier, field)) in input_schema.iter().enumerate() {
             let should_include = match qualifier {
-                // For delete-only: only include source KEY columns (for matching)
-                // For other ops: include all source columns - they contain the new data to write
+                // For delete-only: only include source KEY columns (for matching) plus the
+                // sentinel column needed for action determination.
+                // For other ops: include all source columns - they contain the new data to write.
                 Some(qualifier) if qualifier.table() == "source" => {
                     if no_upsert {
                         self.params.on.iter().any(|k| k == field.name())
+                            || field.name() == MERGE_SOURCE_SENTINEL
                     } else {
                         true
                     }
@@ -187,6 +237,14 @@ impl UserDefinedLogicalNodeCore for MergeInsertWriteNode {
                 // Include unqualified columns like "__action" - tells us what operation to perform
                 None if field.name() == MERGE_ACTION_COLUMN => true,
 
+                // Partial-schema upsert: the `create_plan` builder adds
+                // unqualified columns (named after dataset fields) for every
+                // column missing from the source, filled from the target
+                // side of the join. Those columns carry the values that
+                // should be written for non-source columns, so they must
+                // flow through to the write exec alongside `source.*`.
+                None if self.dataset.schema().field(field.name()).is_some() => true,
+
                 // Skip other target columns (target.value, target.key, target._rowid) - not needed for write
                 _ => false,
             };
@@ -240,12 +298,22 @@ impl ExtensionPlanner for MergeInsertPlanner {
                         physical_inputs[0].clone(),
                         write_node.dataset.clone(),
                         write_node.params.clone(),
+                        write_node.source_skipped_duplicates.clone(),
+                    )?)
+                } else if write_node.write_sink == WriteSink::RewriteColumns {
+                    Arc::new(InPlaceMergeInsertExec::try_new(
+                        physical_inputs[0].clone(),
+                        write_node.dataset.clone(),
+                        write_node.params.clone(),
+                        write_node.source_skipped_duplicates.clone(),
                     )?)
                 } else {
                     Arc::new(FullSchemaMergeInsertExec::try_new(
                         physical_inputs[0].clone(),
                         write_node.dataset.clone(),
                         write_node.params.clone(),
+                        write_node.source_skipped_duplicates.clone(),
+                        write_node.source_blob_columns.clone(),
                     )?)
                 };
                 Some(exec)
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/retry.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/retry.rs
index 6ac3664bcdd..ca5bf09b51a 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/retry.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/retry.rs
@@ -1,18 +1,14 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::future::Future;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 
-use either::Either;
-use futures::future::FutureExt;
-use futures::TryFutureExt;
 use lance_core::utils::backoff::SlotBackoff;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::io::commit::{maybe_timeout, timeout_error};
 
 /// Configuration for retry behavior
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -45,36 +41,6 @@ pub trait RetryExecutor: Clone {
     fn update_dataset(&mut self, dataset: Arc<Dataset>);
 }
 
-fn timeout_error(retry_timeout: Duration, attempts: u32) -> Error {
-    Error::TooMuchWriteContention {
-        message: format!(
-            "Attempted {} times, but failed on retry_timeout of {:.3} seconds.",
-            attempts,
-            retry_timeout.as_secs_f32()
-        ),
-        location: location!(),
-    }
-}
-
-fn maybe_timeout<T>(
-    backoff: &SlotBackoff,
-    start: Instant,
-    retry_timeout: Duration,
-    future: impl Future<Output = T>,
-) -> impl Future<Output = Result<T>> {
-    let attempt = backoff.attempt();
-    if attempt == 0 {
-        // No timeout on first attempt
-        Either::Left(future.map(|res| Ok(res)))
-    } else {
-        let remaining = retry_timeout.saturating_sub(start.elapsed());
-        Either::Right(
-            tokio::time::timeout(remaining, future)
-                .map_err(move |_| timeout_error(retry_timeout, attempt + 1)),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
 /// Execute an operation with retry logic for commit conflicts
 pub async fn execute_with_retry<E: RetryExecutor>(
     executor: E,
@@ -90,11 +56,17 @@ pub async fn execute_with_retry<E: RetryExecutor>(
         executor_clone.update_dataset(dataset_ref.clone());
 
         let execute_fut = executor_clone.execute_impl();
-        let execute_fut = maybe_timeout(&backoff, start, config.retry_timeout, execute_fut);
+        let execute_fut =
+            maybe_timeout(backoff.attempt(), start, config.retry_timeout, execute_fut);
         let data = execute_fut.await??;
 
         let commit_future = executor.commit(dataset_ref.clone(), data);
-        let commit_future = maybe_timeout(&backoff, start, config.retry_timeout, commit_future);
+        let commit_future = maybe_timeout(
+            backoff.attempt(),
+            start,
+            config.retry_timeout,
+            commit_future,
+        );
 
         match commit_future.await? {
             Ok(result) => return Ok(result),
@@ -115,7 +87,8 @@ pub async fn execute_with_retry<E: RetryExecutor>(
                 }
 
                 let sleep_fut = tokio::time::sleep(backoff.next_backoff());
-                let sleep_fut = maybe_timeout(&backoff, start, config.retry_timeout, sleep_fut);
+                let sleep_fut =
+                    maybe_timeout(backoff.attempt(), start, config.retry_timeout, sleep_fut);
                 sleep_fut.await?;
 
                 let mut ds = dataset_ref.as_ref().clone();
@@ -127,8 +100,8 @@ pub async fn execute_with_retry<E: RetryExecutor>(
         }
     }
 
-    Err(Error::TooMuchWriteContention {
-        message: format!("Attempted {} retries.", config.max_retries),
-        location: location!(),
-    })
+    Err(Error::too_much_write_contention(format!(
+        "Attempted {} retries.",
+        config.max_retries
+    )))
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/update.rs b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/update.rs
index 47e86457f7d..6326c8364a0 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/update.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/dataset/write/update.rs
@@ -1,36 +1,53 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap};
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::time::Duration;
 
-use super::retry::{execute_with_retry, RetryConfig, RetryExecutor};
-use super::{write_fragments_internal, CommitBuilder, WriteParams};
-use crate::dataset::rowids::get_row_id_index;
+use super::cleanup_data_fragments;
+use super::retry::{RetryConfig, RetryExecutor, execute_with_retry};
+use super::{CommitBuilder, WriteParams, write_fragments_internal};
+use crate::dataset::rowids::{
+    get_row_id_index, inline_row_lineage_max_bytes, place_carried_row_lineage,
+};
 use crate::dataset::transaction::UpdateMode::RewriteRows;
 use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
 use crate::dataset::utils::make_rowid_capture_stream;
-use crate::{io::exec::Planner, Dataset};
+use crate::{Dataset, io::exec::Planner};
 use crate::{Error, Result};
-use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use datafusion::common::DFSchema;
 use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DFResult};
 use datafusion::logical_expr::ExprSchemable;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::PhysicalExpr;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{PhysicalExpr, SendableRecordBatchStream};
 use datafusion::prelude::Expr;
-use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
 use futures::StreamExt;
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
-use lance_core::error::{box_error, InvalidInputSnafu};
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use lance_arrow::json::{JsonArray, is_json_field};
+use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
+use lance_core::error::{InvalidInputSnafu, box_error};
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
-use lance_datafusion::expr::safe_coerce_scalar;
-use lance_table::format::{Fragment, RowIdMeta};
+use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION, ROW_ID_FIELD, ROW_OFFSET_FIELD};
+use lance_file::version::{ConcreteFileVersion, LanceFileVersion};
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use lance_table::format::{Fragment, RowDatasetVersionSequence, RowIdMeta};
+use lance_table::rowids::version::rechunk_version_sequences;
+use lance_table::rowids::{RowIdSequence, rechunk_sequences, write_row_ids};
 use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
-use snafu::{location, ResultExt};
+use snafu::ResultExt;
+
+/// Collect a field id and all of its descendant field ids (pre-order). A struct
+/// column update rewrites the whole subtree, so an index on any descendant must be
+/// treated as modified.
+fn collect_subtree_field_ids(field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field, out: &mut Vec<u32>) {
+    out.push(field.id as u32);
+    for child in &field.children {
+        collect_subtree_field_ids(child, out);
+    }
+}
 
 /// Build an update operation.
 ///
@@ -66,6 +83,7 @@ pub struct UpdateBuilder {
     conflict_retries: u32,
     /// Total timeout for retries.
     retry_timeout: Duration,
+    data_storage_version: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
 }
 
 impl UpdateBuilder {
@@ -76,22 +94,57 @@ impl UpdateBuilder {
             updates: HashMap::new(),
             conflict_retries: 10,
             retry_timeout: Duration::from_secs(30),
+            data_storage_version: None,
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn update_where(mut self, filter: &str) -> Result<Self> {
-        let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(self.dataset.schema().into()));
+    fn filterable_schema(dataset_schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema) -> ArrowSchema {
+        let extra_columns = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+            ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone(),
+            ROW_OFFSET_FIELD.clone(),
+        ]);
+        let merged = dataset_schema
+            .merge(&extra_columns)
+            .expect("Failed to merge system columns into filterable schema");
+        (&merged).into()
+    }
+
+    pub fn update_where(self, filter: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        let filter_schema = Self::filterable_schema(self.dataset.schema());
+        let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(filter_schema));
         let expr = planner
             .parse_filter(filter)
             .map_err(box_error)
-            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        self.condition = Some(planner.optimize_expr(expr).map_err(box_error).context(
-            InvalidInputSnafu {
-                location: location!(),
-            },
-        )?);
+            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {})?;
+        self.update_where_expr(expr)
+    }
+
+    /// Set the row filter from a DataFusion expression.
+    ///
+    /// This is equivalent to [`Self::update_where`] for callers that already
+    /// have an expression instead of a SQL string.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+    /// # use lance::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+    /// # use datafusion::prelude::{col, lit};
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let builder = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+    ///     .update_where_expr(col("region_id").eq(lit(10)))?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn update_where_expr(mut self, expr: Expr) -> Result<Self> {
+        let filter_schema = Self::filterable_schema(self.dataset.schema());
+        let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(filter_schema));
+        self.condition = Some(
+            planner
+                .optimize_expr(expr)
+                .map_err(box_error)
+                .context(InvalidInputSnafu {})?,
+        );
         Ok(self)
     }
 
@@ -101,27 +154,33 @@ impl UpdateBuilder {
             .schema()
             .field(column.as_ref())
             .ok_or_else(|| {
-                Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "Column '{}' does not exist in dataset schema: {:?}",
-                        column.as_ref(),
-                        self.dataset.schema()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                )
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column '{}' does not exist in dataset schema: {:?}",
+                    column.as_ref(),
+                    self.dataset.schema()
+                ))
             })?;
 
+        if crate::dataset::optimize::field_contains_blob_v2(field) {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                format!(
+                    "Direct updates to column '{}' containing blob v2 values are not supported",
+                    column.as_ref()
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
         // TODO: support nested column references. This is mostly blocked on the
         // ability to insert them into the RecordBatch properly.
         if column.as_ref().contains('.') {
-            return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                format!(
                     "Nested column references are not yet supported. Referenced: {}",
                     column.as_ref(),
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            ));
         }
 
         let schema: Arc<ArrowSchema> = Arc::new(self.dataset.schema().into());
@@ -129,9 +188,7 @@ impl UpdateBuilder {
         let mut expr = planner
             .parse_expr(value)
             .map_err(box_error)
-            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {})?;
 
         // Cast expression to the column's data type if necessary.
         let dest_type = field.data_type();
@@ -139,34 +196,21 @@ impl UpdateBuilder {
         let src_type = expr
             .get_type(&df_schema)
             .map_err(box_error)
-            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        if dest_type != src_type {
-            expr = match expr {
-                // TODO: remove this branch once DataFusion supports casting List to FSL
-                // This should happen in Arrow 51.0.0
-                Expr::Literal(value @ ScalarValue::List(_), metadata)
-                    if matches!(dest_type, DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _)) =>
-                {
-                    Expr::Literal(
-                        safe_coerce_scalar(&value, &dest_type).ok_or_else(|| {
-                            ArrowError::CastError(format!(
-                                "Failed to cast {} to {} during planning",
-                                value.data_type(),
-                                dest_type
-                            ))
-                        })?,
-                        metadata,
-                    )
-                }
-                _ => expr
-                    .cast_to(&dest_type, &df_schema)
-                    .map_err(box_error)
-                    .context(InvalidInputSnafu {
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?,
-            };
+            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {})?;
+        // A string assigned to a JSON field is logical JSON, not its LargeBinary storage.
+        // Keep it as UTF-8 here so `apply_updates` can validate and encode it as JSONB.
+        let is_json_string = schema
+            .field_with_name(column.as_ref())
+            .is_ok_and(is_json_field)
+            && matches!(
+                &src_type,
+                DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Utf8View
+            );
+        if dest_type != src_type && !is_json_string {
+            expr = expr
+                .cast_to(&dest_type, &df_schema)
+                .map_err(box_error)
+                .context(InvalidInputSnafu {})?;
         }
 
         // Optimize the expression. For example, this might apply the cast on
@@ -175,9 +219,7 @@ impl UpdateBuilder {
         let expr = planner
             .optimize_expr(expr)
             .map_err(box_error)
-            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .context(InvalidInputSnafu {})?;
 
         self.updates.insert(column.as_ref().to_string(), expr);
         Ok(self)
@@ -199,10 +241,42 @@ impl UpdateBuilder {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set the exact V2 data file version for rewritten rows.
+    ///
+    /// If omitted, the dataset's default write version is used. The default
+    /// remains unchanged. Targets cannot cross the V1/V2 boundary.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result, dataset::UpdateBuilder};
+    /// # use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let result = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+    ///     .set("value", "value + 1")?
+    ///     .data_storage_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_2)
+    ///     .build()?.execute().await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn data_storage_version(mut self, version: LanceFileVersion) -> Self {
+        self.data_storage_version = Some(version);
+        self
+    }
+
     // TODO: set write params
     // pub fn with_write_params(mut self, params: WriteParams) -> Self { ... }
 
     pub fn build(self) -> Result<UpdateJob> {
+        let default_version = self
+            .dataset
+            .manifest
+            .data_storage_format
+            .lance_file_format();
+        let write_version = self
+            .data_storage_version
+            .map(LanceFileVersion::resolve)
+            .unwrap_or(default_version);
+        super::super::versions::validate_write_version(default_version, write_version)?;
         let mut updates = HashMap::new();
 
         let planner = Planner::new(Arc::new(self.dataset.schema().into()));
@@ -213,7 +287,7 @@ impl UpdateBuilder {
         }
 
         if updates.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input("No updates provided", location!()));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("No updates provided"));
         }
 
         let updates = Arc::new(updates);
@@ -224,6 +298,7 @@ impl UpdateBuilder {
             updates,
             conflict_retries: self.conflict_retries,
             retry_timeout: self.retry_timeout,
+            write_version,
         })
     }
 }
@@ -252,6 +327,7 @@ pub struct UpdateJob {
     updates: Arc<HashMap<String, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>>>,
     conflict_retries: u32,
     retry_timeout: Duration,
+    write_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
 }
 
 impl UpdateJob {
@@ -266,29 +342,136 @@ impl UpdateJob {
     }
 
     async fn execute_impl(self) -> Result<UpdateData> {
+        // Resolved before any IO, so a malformed budget fails the update
+        // before it rewrites the rows rather than after. Only a table with
+        // stable row ids carries lineage over, so no other table depends on
+        // the setting.
+        let spill_budget = if self.dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            inline_row_lineage_max_bytes(&self.dataset)?
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
         let mut scanner = self.dataset.scan();
+        let legacy_blob_ids = self
+            .dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .filter(|field| field.is_blob() && !field.is_blob_v2())
+            .filter_map(|field| u32::try_from(field.id).ok())
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        if !legacy_blob_ids.is_empty() {
+            scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::SomeBlobsBinary(legacy_blob_ids));
+        }
+        let has_blob_v2_columns = self
+            .dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .any(|field| field.is_blob_v2());
+        if has_blob_v2_columns {
+            scanner.with_row_address();
+        }
         scanner.with_row_id();
+        // The rewritten rows keep their created-at versions. On a table that
+        // may spill, read them here, where the source rows are in hand: once
+        // their row ids spill the commit can no longer look them up. Elsewhere
+        // the commit looks them up from the inline row ids, and reading them
+        // would only build a column for every scanned row.
+        if spill_budget.is_some() {
+            let columns = self
+                .dataset
+                .schema()
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field| field.name.as_str())
+                .chain([ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION])
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            scanner.project(&columns)?;
+        }
 
         if let Some(expr) = &self.condition {
             scanner.filter_expr(expr.clone());
         }
 
-        let stream = scanner.try_into_stream().await?.into();
+        let stream = scanner
+            .try_into_dfstream(scanner.execution_options())
+            .await?;
 
         // We keep track of seen row ids so we can delete them from the existing
         // fragments and then set the row id segments in the new fragments.
         let (stream, row_id_rx) =
             make_rowid_capture_stream(stream, self.dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids())?;
 
-        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let scan_schema = stream.schema();
+        let expected_schema: ArrowSchema = self.dataset.schema().into();
+        if !has_blob_v2_columns && scan_schema.as_ref() != &expected_schema {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Expected schema {:?} but got {:?}",
+                expected_schema, scan_schema
+            )));
+        }
 
-        let expected_schema = self.dataset.schema().into();
-        if schema.as_ref() != &expected_schema {
-            return Err(Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Expected schema {:?} but got {:?}", expected_schema, schema),
-                location: location!(),
+        let stream = if has_blob_v2_columns {
+            let rewrite_plan = Arc::new(crate::dataset::optimize::BlobV2BatchRewritePlan::try_new(
+                self.dataset.schema(),
+                scan_schema.as_ref(),
+                false,
+                false,
+            )?);
+            let output_schema = rewrite_plan.output_schema().clone();
+            let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
+            let transformed = stream.then(move |batch_result| {
+                let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                let rewrite_plan = rewrite_plan.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let batch = batch_result?;
+                    rewrite_plan
+                        .transform_batch(&dataset, batch)
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|error| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(error)))
+                }
             });
-        }
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(output_schema, transformed))
+                as SendableRecordBatchStream
+        } else {
+            stream
+        };
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+
+        let updated_blob_columns = self
+            .updates
+            .keys()
+            .filter(|column_name| {
+                self.dataset
+                    .schema()
+                    .field(column_name)
+                    .is_some_and(crate::dataset::optimize::field_contains_blob_v2)
+            })
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let updated_blob_column_indices = schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter_map(|(column_idx, field)| {
+                updated_blob_columns
+                    .contains(field.name())
+                    .then_some(column_idx)
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            allow_external_blob_outside_bases: has_blob_v2_columns,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let external_base_resolver = if updated_blob_column_indices.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            super::blob_v2_external_base_resolver(
+                Some(self.dataset.as_ref()),
+                &write_params,
+                self.dataset.schema(),
+            )
+            .await?
+        };
 
         let updates_ref = self.updates.clone();
         let stream = stream
@@ -301,56 +484,82 @@ impl UpdateJob {
                 Ok(Ok(batch)) => Ok(batch),
                 Ok(Err(err)) => Err(err),
                 Err(e) => Err(DataFusionError::ExecutionJoin(Box::new(e))),
+            })
+            .then(move |batch_result| {
+                let external_base_resolver = external_base_resolver.clone();
+                let updated_blob_column_indices = updated_blob_column_indices.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let batch = batch_result?;
+                    if let Some(resolver) = external_base_resolver.as_deref() {
+                        let updated_blob_batch = batch.project(&updated_blob_column_indices)?;
+                        let selected_rows = vec![true; batch.num_rows()];
+                        crate::dataset::blob::validate_external_blob_references(
+                            resolver,
+                            &updated_blob_batch,
+                            &selected_rows,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|error| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(error)))?;
+                    }
+                    Ok(batch)
+                }
             });
         let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream);
 
-        let version = self
-            .dataset
-            .manifest()
-            .data_storage_format
-            .lance_file_version()?;
         let (mut new_fragments, _) = write_fragments_internal(
+            self.write_version,
             Some(&self.dataset),
             self.dataset.object_store.clone(),
             &self.dataset.base,
             self.dataset.schema().clone(),
             Box::pin(stream),
-            WriteParams::with_storage_version(version),
+            write_params,
             None, // TODO: support multiple bases for update
         )
         .await?;
 
-        let removed_row_ids = row_id_rx.try_recv().map_err(|err| Error::Internal {
-            message: format!("Failed to receive row ids: {}", err),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let removed_row_ids = row_id_rx
+            .try_recv()
+            .map_err(|err| Error::internal(format!("Failed to receive row ids: {}", err)))?;
 
         if let Some(row_id_sequence) = removed_row_ids.row_id_sequence() {
-            let fragment_sizes = new_fragments
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64);
-            let sequences = lance_table::rowids::rechunk_sequences(
-                [row_id_sequence.clone()],
-                fragment_sizes,
-                false,
-            )
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Captured row ids not equal to number of rows written: {}",
-                    e
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-            for (fragment, sequence) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(sequences) {
-                let serialized = lance_table::rowids::write_row_ids(&sequence);
-                fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(serialized));
+            let placed = self
+                .place_rewritten_lineage(
+                    &mut new_fragments,
+                    row_id_sequence,
+                    removed_row_ids.created_at_sequence(),
+                    spill_budget,
+                )
+                .await;
+            if let Err(e) = placed {
+                cleanup_data_fragments(
+                    &self.dataset.object_store,
+                    &self.dataset.base,
+                    None,
+                    &new_fragments,
+                )
+                .await;
+                return Err(e);
             }
         }
 
         // Apply deletions
         let row_id_index = get_row_id_index(&self.dataset).await?;
-        let row_addrs = removed_row_ids.row_addrs(row_id_index.as_deref());
-        let (old_fragments, removed_fragment_ids) = self.apply_deletions(&row_addrs).await?;
+        let row_addrs = removed_row_ids.row_addrs(row_id_index.as_deref())?;
+        let deletions_result = self.apply_deletions(&row_addrs).await;
+        let (old_fragments, removed_fragment_ids) = match deletions_result {
+            Ok(v) => v,
+            Err(e) => {
+                cleanup_data_fragments(
+                    &self.dataset.object_store,
+                    &self.dataset.base,
+                    None,
+                    &new_fragments,
+                )
+                .await;
+                return Err(e);
+            }
+        };
         let affected_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::from(row_addrs.as_ref().clone());
 
         let num_updated_rows = new_fragments
@@ -367,15 +576,69 @@ impl UpdateJob {
         })
     }
 
+    /// Give each new fragment the row ids its rows carried before the rewrite
+    /// and, where the lineage spills under `spill_budget`, their created-at
+    /// versions too; see [`place_carried_row_lineage`]. The last-updated-at
+    /// version is the commit's to stamp.
+    ///
+    /// `created_at` is `None` when the scan did not read the created-at
+    /// versions, which it only does when the table may spill.
+    async fn place_rewritten_lineage(
+        &self,
+        new_fragments: &mut [Fragment],
+        row_ids: &RowIdSequence,
+        created_at: Option<&RowDatasetVersionSequence>,
+        spill_budget: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let fragment_sizes = new_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let row_ids = rechunk_sequences([row_ids.clone()], fragment_sizes.iter().copied(), false)
+            .map_err(|e| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Captured row ids not equal to number of rows written: {}",
+                e
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let (Some(limit), Some(created_at)) = (spill_budget, created_at) else {
+            // Nothing can spill: the row ids stay inline and the commit
+            // resolves the created-at versions from them, as it always has.
+            for (fragment, row_ids) in new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(row_ids) {
+                fragment.row_id_meta = Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&row_ids).into()));
+            }
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let created_at =
+            rechunk_version_sequences([created_at.clone()], fragment_sizes.iter().copied(), false)
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "Captured created-at versions not equal to number of rows written: {e}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+        for ((fragment, row_ids), created_at) in
+            new_fragments.iter_mut().zip(row_ids).zip(created_at)
+        {
+            place_carried_row_lineage(&self.dataset, limit, &row_ids, &created_at)
+                .await?
+                .apply(fragment);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     async fn commit_impl(
         &self,
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         update_data: UpdateData,
     ) -> Result<UpdateResult> {
+        // Updated columns are top-level (nested references are rejected by `set`), but a
+        // struct-column update rewrites all of its descendants. Collect the full field
+        // subtree so an index on a nested child field is recognized as modified and not
+        // wrongly extended over the rewritten fragment.
         let mut fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap = Vec::new();
         for column_name in self.updates.keys() {
-            if let Ok(field_id) = dataset.schema().field_id(column_name) {
-                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap.push(field_id as u32);
+            if let Some(field) = dataset.schema().field(column_name) {
+                collect_subtree_field_ids(field, &mut fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap);
             }
         }
 
@@ -388,10 +651,11 @@ impl UpdateJob {
             // are moved(deleted and appended).
             // so we do not need to handle the frag bitmap of the index about it.
             fields_modified: vec![],
-            merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
             fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap,
             update_mode: Some(RewriteRows),
             inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: None,
         };
 
         let transaction = Transaction::new(dataset.manifest.version, operation, None);
@@ -413,6 +677,34 @@ impl UpdateJob {
     ) -> DFResult<RecordBatch> {
         for (column, expr) in updates.iter() {
             let new_values = expr.evaluate(&batch)?.into_array(batch.num_rows())?;
+            let schema = batch.schema();
+            let new_values: ArrayRef = if schema.field_with_name(column).is_ok_and(is_json_field)
+                && matches!(
+                    new_values.data_type(),
+                    DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Utf8View
+                ) {
+                let new_values = if new_values.data_type() == &DataType::Utf8View {
+                    arrow_cast::cast(new_values.as_ref(), &DataType::Utf8).map_err(|error| {
+                        DataFusionError::ArrowError(
+                            Box::new(error),
+                            Some(format!(
+                                "convert Utf8View update for JSON column '{column}'"
+                            )),
+                        )
+                    })?
+                } else {
+                    new_values
+                };
+                let json_array = JsonArray::try_from(new_values).map_err(|error| {
+                    DataFusionError::ArrowError(
+                        Box::new(error),
+                        Some(format!("encode update for JSON column '{column}'")),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Arc::new(json_array.into_inner())
+            } else {
+                new_values
+            };
             batch = batch.replace_column_by_name(column.as_str(), new_values)?;
         }
         Ok(batch)
@@ -487,34 +779,49 @@ impl RetryExecutor for UpdateJob {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
     use std::time::Duration;
 
     use crate::{
-        dataset::{builder::DatasetBuilder, InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WriteParams},
+        dataset::{InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WriteParams, builder::DatasetBuilder},
         session::Session,
         utils::test::ThrottledStoreWrapper,
     };
 
     use super::*;
 
+    use crate::dataset::rowids::{
+        INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY, SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY,
+        read_spilled_row_ids, read_spilled_versions,
+    };
     use crate::dataset::{WriteDestination, WriteMode};
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
-    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
-    use arrow::{array::AsArray, datatypes::UInt32Type};
-    use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-    use arrow_array::{Int64Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FailingProxyStore, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+    use arrow::{
+        array::AsArray,
+        datatypes::{Int64Type, UInt32Type},
+    };
+    use arrow_array::record_batch;
+    use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Int64Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+    };
     use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
     use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
-    use futures::{future::try_join_all, TryStreamExt};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use futures::{TryStreamExt, future::try_join_all};
+    use lance_arrow::ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY;
+    use lance_arrow::json::{ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME, is_arrow_json_field};
     use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_datagen::{Dimension, RowCount};
     use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-    use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-    use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
     use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
     use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+    use lance_table::format::ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID;
     use object_store::throttle::ThrottleConfig;
     use rstest::rstest;
     use tokio::sync::Barrier;
@@ -561,6 +868,144 @@ mod tests {
         (Arc::new(ds), test_dir)
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn update_uses_explicit_exact_version(
+        #[values(
+            None,
+            Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_3)
+        )]
+        target: Option<LanceFileVersion>,
+    ) {
+        let (dataset, _test_dir) = make_test_dataset(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, false).await;
+
+        let mut builder = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .update_where("id < 10")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("name", "'bar'")
+            .unwrap();
+        if let Some(target) = target {
+            builder = builder.data_storage_version(target);
+        }
+        let result = builder.build().unwrap().execute().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            result
+                .new_dataset
+                .manifest
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format(),
+            lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        );
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .new_dataset
+                .manifest
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(Fragment::referenced_lance_files)
+                .any(|file| file.file_version().unwrap()
+                    == target.unwrap_or(LanceFileVersion::V2_0).resolve())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result.new_dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS != 0,
+            target.is_some()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result
+                .new_dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("name = 'bar'".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            10
+        );
+
+        let result = UpdateBuilder::new(result.new_dataset)
+            .update_where("name = 'bar'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("name", "'baz'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.rows_updated, 10);
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .new_dataset
+                .manifest
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(Fragment::referenced_lance_files)
+                .all(|file| file.file_version().unwrap() == ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result
+                .new_dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("name = 'baz'".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            10
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, LanceFileVersion::V2_0)]
+    #[case(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, LanceFileVersion::Legacy)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn update_rejects_cross_family_target(
+        #[case] source: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[case] target: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        let (dataset, _dir) = make_test_dataset(source, false).await;
+        let error = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .set("name", "'bar'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .data_storage_version(target)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("V1 and V2 storage versions cannot be mixed")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn no_op_update_ignores_explicit_exact_version() {
+        let (dataset, _test_dir) = make_test_dataset(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, false).await;
+
+        let result = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .update_where("id < 0")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("name", "'bar'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .data_storage_version(LanceFileVersion::V2_1)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.rows_updated, 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            result
+                .new_dataset
+                .manifest
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format(),
+            lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result.new_dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_update_validation() {
         let (dataset, _test_dir) = make_test_dataset(LanceFileVersion::Legacy, false).await;
@@ -597,6 +1042,63 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::integers("[3, 4]", Some(vec![Some(3.0), Some(4.0)]), None)]
+    #[case::floats("[3.5, 4.5]", Some(vec![Some(3.5), Some(4.5)]), None)]
+    #[case::strings("['3.5', '4.5']", Some(vec![Some(3.5), Some(4.5)]), None)]
+    #[case::invalid_element("['invalid', '4.5']", None, Some("Cannot cast string"))]
+    #[case::all_null_elements("[NULL, NULL]", Some(vec![None, None]), None)]
+    #[case::null_list("NULL", None, None)]
+    #[case::short_list("[3]", None, Some("has length 1"))]
+    #[case::long_list("[3, 4, 5]", None, Some("has length 3"))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_vector_literal(
+        #[case] expression: &str,
+        #[case] expected: Option<Vec<Option<f32>>>,
+        #[case] cast_error: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(2)),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        let original = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let result = async {
+            UpdateBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+                .set("vector", expression)?
+                .build()?
+                .execute()
+                .await
+        }
+        .await;
+        if let Some(message) = cast_error {
+            let error = result.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error:?}");
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains(message), "{error}");
+            let mut reopened = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+            reopened.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(reopened.version().version, dataset.version().version);
+            assert_eq!(reopened.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap(), original);
+            return;
+        }
+        let result = result.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.rows_updated, 2);
+        let batch = result.new_dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let actual = batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list();
+        let expected = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Float32Type, _, _>(
+            [expected.clone(), expected],
+            2,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(actual, &expected);
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_update_all(
@@ -722,6 +1224,94 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(fragments[2].metadata.physical_rows, Some(15));
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::utf8(r#"'{"after": true, "n": 2}'"#)]
+    #[case::utf8_view(r#"arrow_cast('{"after": true, "n": 2}', 'Utf8View')"#)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_json_and_regular_columns(#[case] json_expression: &str) {
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        metadata.insert(
+            ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+            ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("meta", DataType::Utf8, true).with_metadata(metadata),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values([1, 2, 3])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    r#"{"before":1}"#,
+                    r#"{"before":2}"#,
+                    r#"{"before":3}"#,
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(batches, &test_dir, Some(WriteParams::default()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let physical_schema: ArrowSchema = dataset.schema().into();
+        assert!(is_json_field(
+            physical_schema.field_with_name("meta").unwrap()
+        ));
+
+        let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .update_where("id = 2")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("name", "'updated'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("meta", json_expression)
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let updated_dataset = update_result.new_dataset;
+        let actual_batches = updated_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let actual_batch = concat_batches(&actual_batches[0].schema(), &actual_batches).unwrap();
+        assert!(is_arrow_json_field(
+            actual_batch.schema().field_with_name("meta").unwrap()
+        ));
+
+        let ids = actual_batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int64Type>();
+        let names = actual_batch["name"].as_string::<i32>();
+        let metas = actual_batch["meta"].as_string::<i32>();
+        let updated_row_idx = ids.iter().position(|id| id == Some(2)).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(names.value(updated_row_idx), "updated");
+        assert_eq!(metas.value(updated_row_idx), r#"{"after":true,"n":2}"#);
+
+        let filtered_batch = updated_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("json_extract(meta, '$.n') = '2'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(filtered_batch.num_rows(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(0), 2);
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_update_concurrency(#[values(false, true)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool) {
@@ -839,8 +1429,8 @@ mod tests {
         // Increase likelihood of contention by throttling the store
         let throttled = Arc::new(ThrottledStoreWrapper {
             config: ThrottleConfig {
-                wait_list_per_call: Duration::from_millis(10),
-                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(10),
+                wait_list_per_call: Duration::from_millis(1),
+                wait_get_per_call: Duration::from_millis(1),
                 ..Default::default()
             },
         });
@@ -1162,29 +1752,45 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(fragments.len() > 2);
 
         let second_fragment = &fragments[1];
-        assert!(second_fragment
-            .get_deletion_vector()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .is_some());
+        assert!(
+            second_fragment
+                .get_deletion_vector()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some()
+        );
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::zone_map(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap, IndexType::ZoneMap, "i", "i < 100", 100)]
+    #[case::bloom_filter(BuiltinIndexType::BloomFilter, IndexType::BloomFilter, "i", "i = 0", 1)]
+    #[case::fm(
+        BuiltinIndexType::Fm,
+        IndexType::Fm,
+        "text",
+        "contains(text, 'needle')",
+        50
+    )]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_update_mixed_indexed_unindexed_fragments() {
+    async fn test_addr_domain_index_does_not_cover_rewritten_update_fragment(
+        #[case] builtin: BuiltinIndexType,
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+        #[case] indexed_column: &str,
+        #[case] query: &str,
+        #[case] expected_rows: usize,
+    ) {
         let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("category", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
             .col(
-                "str",
-                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f"]),
-            )
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(4)),
+                "text",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["needle", "haystack"]),
             )
             .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
-                FragmentCount::from(2),
-                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+                FragmentCount::from(1),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(100),
                 Some(WriteParams {
-                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 100,
                     enable_stable_row_ids: true,
                     ..Default::default()
                 }),
@@ -1194,36 +1800,210 @@ mod tests {
 
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["str"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                Some("str_idx".to_string()),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                &[indexed_column],
+                index_type,
+                Some("addr_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(builtin),
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vec"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
-                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
-                true,
-            )
+        let before = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter(query)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before.num_rows(), expected_rows);
+
+        let dataset = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("i < 20")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("category", "-1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .new_dataset;
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let index = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|index| index.name == "addr_idx")
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            index
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0],
+            "the address-domain index must not cover the rewritten fragment"
+        );
+
+        // Regression for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8278: a later
+        // update must find rows moved out of the address-domain index's coverage.
+        let second_update = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .update_where(query)
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("category", "-2")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second_update.rows_updated, expected_rows as u64);
+        let dataset = second_update.new_dataset;
+
+        let after = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter(query)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(after.num_rows(), expected_rows);
+
+        let updated = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("category = -2")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(updated.num_rows(), expected_rows);
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/8076
+    ///
+    /// A bloom filter index reports matches as physical row addresses. An update that
+    /// replaces every row of a fragment removes that fragment, but the index keeps the
+    /// addresses it holds for it, so translating its results to row ids has to tolerate
+    /// a fragment that is gone rather than fail with an internal error.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_addr_domain_index_after_update_drops_fragment() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::BloomFilter,
+                Some("i_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BloomFilter),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Rewrites all of fragment 1 (rows 3, 4, 5), which drops the fragment.
+        let dataset = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("i >= 3")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("i", "-1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .new_dataset;
+        assert!(dataset.get_fragments().iter().all(|frag| frag.id() != 1));
+
+        // The index still holds a block for the dropped fragment, and a bloom filter
+        // cannot rule out a value it once held, so this query is the one that reaches
+        // the index with addresses in that fragment.
+        let matched = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("i = 4")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(matched.num_rows(), 0);
+
+        let updated = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("i = -1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(updated.num_rows(), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_mixed_indexed_unindexed_fragments() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "str",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f"]),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(4)),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["str"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("str_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let str_index = initial_indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "str_idx")
+            .unwrap();
+        let vec_index = initial_indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx")
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let initial_indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let str_index = initial_indices
-            .iter()
-            .find(|idx| idx.name == "str_idx")
-            .unwrap();
-        let vec_index = initial_indices
-            .iter()
-            .find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx")
-            .unwrap();
-
         assert_eq!(
             str_index
                 .fragment_bitmap
@@ -1286,11 +2066,13 @@ mod tests {
                 .len(),
             2
         );
-        assert!(!str_index_after_insert
-            .fragment_bitmap
-            .as_ref()
-            .unwrap()
-            .contains(2));
+        assert!(
+            !str_index_after_insert
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .contains(2)
+        );
         assert_eq!(
             vec_index_after_insert
                 .fragment_bitmap
@@ -1299,11 +2081,13 @@ mod tests {
                 .len(),
             2
         );
-        assert!(!vec_index_after_insert
-            .fragment_bitmap
-            .as_ref()
-            .unwrap()
-            .contains(2));
+        assert!(
+            !vec_index_after_insert
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .contains(2)
+        );
 
         let updated_dataset = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
             // 'a' in fragment 0，'g' in fragment 2, and frag 2 not in frag bitmap
@@ -1338,16 +2122,574 @@ mod tests {
 
         // frag 3 not in the index's frag bitmap
         for &fragment_id in str_bitmap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>().iter() {
-            assert!(fragment_id < 2,
-                    "str index bitmap should not contain fragments with unindexed data, found fragment {}",
-                    fragment_id);
+            assert!(
+                fragment_id < 2,
+                "str index bitmap should not contain fragments with unindexed data, found fragment {}",
+                fragment_id
+            );
         }
 
         // frag 3 not in the index's frag bitmap
         for &fragment_id in vec_bitmap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>().iter() {
-            assert!(fragment_id < 2,
-                    "vec index bitmap should not contain fragments with unindexed data, found fragment {}",
-                    fragment_id);
+            assert!(
+                fragment_id < 2,
+                "vec index bitmap should not contain fragments with unindexed data, found fragment {}",
+                fragment_id
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_by_rowid() {
+        let (dataset, _test_dir) = make_test_dataset(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true).await;
+
+        let orig_batch = dataset.scan().with_row_id().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let orig_row_ids = orig_batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let orig_ids = orig_batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let target_idx = 5;
+        let target_row_id = orig_row_ids.value(target_idx);
+        let target_id = orig_ids.value(target_idx);
+
+        let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .update_where(&format!("_rowid = {}", target_row_id))
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("name", "'updated'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(update_result.rows_updated, 1);
+
+        let updated_batch = update_result
+            .new_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let updated_ids = updated_batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let updated_names = updated_batch
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for i in 0..updated_ids.len() {
+            if updated_ids.value(i) == target_id {
+                assert_eq!(updated_names.value(i), "updated");
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(updated_names.value(i), "foo");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_by_rowid_in_list() {
+        let (dataset, _test_dir) = make_test_dataset(LanceFileVersion::Stable, true).await;
+
+        let orig_batch = dataset.scan().with_row_id().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let orig_row_ids = orig_batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let orig_ids = orig_batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let target_indices = [3, 7, 15];
+        let target_row_ids: Vec<u64> = target_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&i| orig_row_ids.value(i))
+            .collect();
+        let target_ids: std::collections::HashSet<i64> =
+            target_indices.iter().map(|&i| orig_ids.value(i)).collect();
+        let in_list: String = target_row_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| id.to_string())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(", ");
+
+        let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .update_where(&format!("_rowid IN ({})", in_list))
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("name", "'updated'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(update_result.rows_updated, 3);
+
+        let updated_batch = update_result
+            .new_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let updated_ids = updated_batch
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int64Array>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let updated_names = updated_batch
+            .column_by_name("name")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for i in 0..updated_ids.len() {
+            if target_ids.contains(&updated_ids.value(i)) {
+                assert_eq!(updated_names.value(i), "updated");
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(updated_names.value(i), "foo");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn count_data_files(base_dir: &str) -> usize {
+        let data_dir = std::path::Path::new(base_dir).join("data");
+        if !data_dir.exists() {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        std::fs::read_dir(data_dir)
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter(|e| e.as_ref().unwrap().path().is_file())
+            .count()
+    }
+
+    /// Site 4 in PR #6320: when `UpdateJob::apply_deletions` fails after the new
+    /// rewrite fragments have been written, those new data files must be cleaned up.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_cleans_up_data_on_apply_deletions_failure() {
+        use crate::utils::test::FailingProxyStore;
+        use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from_iter_values(0..30)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(
+                    "foo", 30,
+                ))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        // Prefix `/` so Windows drive letters (e.g. `C:`) don't get parsed as
+        // the URL authority.
+        let path_prefix = if test_uri.starts_with('/') { "" } else { "/" };
+        let routed_uri = format!("file-object-store://{path_prefix}{test_uri}");
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 10,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(batches, &routed_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let baseline_files = count_data_files(test_uri);
+        assert!(baseline_files > 0);
+
+        // Fail writes to `_deletions/`: this is where `apply_deletions` writes
+        // the new deletion file. The rewrite fragments (in `data/`) are written
+        // earlier and should be successfully created, then cleaned up on failure.
+        let failing = Arc::new(FailingProxyStore::new());
+        failing.fail_when("put", "_deletions", "injected deletions failure");
+        failing.fail_when("put_multipart", "_deletions", "injected deletions failure");
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&routed_uri)
+            .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(failing.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("id < 5")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("name", "'bar'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await;
+
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Update should fail when deletion-file write fails"
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_data_files(test_uri),
+            baseline_files,
+            "Rewritten data files should be cleaned up on apply_deletions failure"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// On a table that cannot spill, or when nothing an update carries over
+    /// exceeds the inline budget, the new fragments carry only inline row ids:
+    /// the commit resolves their created-at versions, as it always has.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::not_opted_in(false)]
+    #[case::under_budget(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn update_leaves_inline_created_at_to_the_commit(#[case] opted_in: bool) {
+        let (dataset, _test_dir) = make_test_dataset(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, true).await;
+        let mut dataset = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+        if opted_in {
+            dataset
+                .update_config([(SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY, "true")])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let update_data = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("id >= 15")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("name", "'bar'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute_impl()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!update_data.new_fragments.is_empty());
+        for fragment in &update_data.new_fragments {
+            assert!(
+                matches!(fragment.row_id_meta, Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(_))),
+                "{fragment:?}"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(fragment.created_at_version_meta, None);
+            assert_eq!(fragment.last_updated_at_version_meta, None);
+            assert_eq!(fragment.files.len(), 1, "no lineage file: {fragment:?}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A malformed inline budget fails the update before it writes anything.
+    /// Every write to the data directory fails here, so an update that
+    /// rewrote the rows first would report that failure instead.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn update_rejects_malformed_inline_max_bytes_before_writing() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        // Prefix `/` so Windows drive letters (e.g. `C:`) don't get parsed as
+        // the URL authority.
+        let path_prefix = if test_uri.starts_with('/') { "" } else { "/" };
+        let routed_uri = format!("file-object-store://{path_prefix}{test_uri}");
+        let batch = record_batch!(("id", Int64, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])).unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &routed_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .update_config([
+                (SPILL_ROW_LINEAGE_CONFIG_KEY, "true"),
+                (INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY, "200KB"),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let failing = Arc::new(FailingProxyStore::new());
+        failing.fail_when("put", "/data/", "injected data write failure");
+        failing.fail_when("put_multipart", "/data/", "injected data write failure");
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&routed_uri)
+            .with_read_params(ReadParams {
+                store_options: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(failing),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where("id >= 3")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("id", "id + 100")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error:?}");
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains(INLINE_ROW_LINEAGE_MAX_BYTES_CONFIG_KEY),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The captured lineage is split across the new fragments by their row
+    /// counts, and a created-at capture that does not cover every written row
+    /// is an error rather than a silent fallback to the commit.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn place_rewritten_lineage_splits_lineage_by_output_fragment() {
+        let (dataset, _test_dir) = make_test_dataset(LanceFileVersion::V2_0, true).await;
+        let job = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .set("name", "'bar'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let output_fragments = || {
+            [(1, 3), (2, 2)].map(|(id, rows)| {
+                let mut fragment = Fragment::new(id);
+                fragment.physical_rows = Some(rows);
+                fragment
+            })
+        };
+        let row_ids = RowIdSequence::from([10u64, 11, 12, 20, 21].as_slice());
+
+        // A zero budget spills everything, so each fragment's share is read
+        // back from its own lineage file.
+        let mut fragments = output_fragments();
+        let created_at = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&[1, 1, 2, 3, 3]);
+        job.place_rewritten_lineage(&mut fragments, &row_ids, Some(&created_at), Some(0))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut placed = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let ids = read_spilled_row_ids(&job.dataset, fragment).await.unwrap();
+            let versions =
+                read_spilled_versions(&job.dataset, fragment, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD_ID)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            placed.push((
+                ids.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                versions.versions().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            ));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(placed[0], (vec![10, 11, 12], vec![1, 1, 2]));
+        assert_eq!(placed[1], (vec![20, 21], vec![3, 3]));
+
+        let mut fragments = output_fragments();
+        let too_few = RowDatasetVersionSequence::from_versions(&[1, 1, 2, 3]);
+        let error = job
+            .place_rewritten_lineage(&mut fragments, &row_ids, Some(&too_few), Some(0))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }), "{error:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_with_blob() {
+        use arrow_array::LargeBinaryArray;
+        use arrow_schema::Field;
+        use lance_arrow::BLOB_META_KEY;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let blob_meta = HashMap::from([(BLOB_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("blobs", DataType::LargeBinary, true).with_metadata(blob_meta),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(LargeBinaryArray::from(vec![
+                    Some(b"foo".as_slice()),
+                    Some(b"bar".as_slice()),
+                    Some(b"baz".as_slice()),
+                ])),
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Perform an update: update the "blobs" column where id = 1
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        let updated_dataset = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .update_where("id = 1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("blobs", "arrow_cast('updated_bar', 'LargeBinary')")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .new_dataset;
+
+        // Verify the updated value
+        let mut scanner = updated_dataset.scan();
+        // Read as binary to assert actual value
+        scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+        let batches = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let blobs = batches.column_by_name("blobs").unwrap().as_binary::<i64>();
+        let ids = batches
+            .column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int64Type>();
+
+        // Find the index of id = 1
+        let idx = ids.values().iter().position(|&x| x == 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(idx), b"updated_bar");
+
+        let idx_foo = ids.values().iter().position(|&x| x == 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(blobs.value(idx_foo), b"foo");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::non_empty(0)]
+    #[case::empty(1)]
+    #[case::null(2)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_preserves_blob_v2(#[case] selected_id: i64) {
+        use crate::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+
+        let make_blobs = || {
+            let mut builder = BlobArrayBuilder::new(3);
+            builder.push_bytes(b"one").unwrap();
+            builder.push_bytes(b"").unwrap();
+            builder.push_null().unwrap();
+            builder.finish().unwrap()
+        };
+        let nested_fields = vec![blob_field("blob", true)];
+        let nested: Arc<StructArray> = Arc::new(
+            StructArray::try_new(nested_fields.clone().into(), vec![make_blobs()], None).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int64, false),
+            Field::new("body", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            blob_field("payload", true),
+            Field::new("info", DataType::Struct(nested_fields.into()), true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["body-0", "body-1", "body-2"])),
+                make_blobs(),
+                nested,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                &test_dir,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        for column in ["payload", "info"] {
+            let error = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+                .set(column, column)
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains(&format!(
+                    "Direct updates to column '{column}' containing blob v2 values are not supported"
+                )),
+                "unexpected error: {error}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        let result = UpdateBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .update_where(&format!("id = {selected_id}"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("body", "'updated'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.rows_updated, 1);
+
+        let mut scanner = result.new_dataset.scan();
+        scanner.blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int64Type>();
+        let bodies = batch["body"].as_string::<i32>();
+        let payloads = batch["payload"].as_binary::<i64>();
+        let nested = batch["info"]
+            .as_struct()
+            .column_by_name("blob")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_binary::<i64>();
+        let expected = [Some(b"one".as_slice()), Some(b"".as_slice()), None];
+
+        for row_idx in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+            let id = ids.value(row_idx) as usize;
+            let expected_body = if id as i64 == selected_id {
+                "updated"
+            } else {
+                ["body-0", "body-1", "body-2"][id]
+            };
+            assert_eq!(bodies.value(row_idx), expected_body);
+            assert_eq!(payloads.iter().nth(row_idx).unwrap(), expected[id]);
+            assert_eq!(nested.iter().nth(row_idx).unwrap(), expected[id]);
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index.rs b/rust/lance/src/index.rs
index d74829d15f4..2c3e470155b 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index.rs
@@ -4,5261 +4,14592 @@
 //! Secondary Index
 //!
 
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_index::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
+use std::time::Instant;
 
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema};
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-use futures::{stream, FutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, UnsizedCacheKey};
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder};
 use lance_core::datatypes::Field;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema as LanceSchema;
-use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
-use lance_core::utils::parse::str_is_truthy;
+use lance_core::utils::parse::parse_env_as_bool;
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{
-    IO_TYPE_OPEN_FRAG_REUSE, IO_TYPE_OPEN_MEM_WAL, IO_TYPE_OPEN_SCALAR, IO_TYPE_OPEN_VECTOR,
-    TRACE_IO_EVENTS,
+    IO_TYPE_OPEN_FRAG_REUSE, IO_TYPE_OPEN_MEM_WAL, IO_TYPE_OPEN_VECTOR, TRACE_IO_EVENTS,
 };
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
 use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::{FragReuseIndex, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME};
-use lance_index::mem_wal::{MemWalIndex, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME};
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
+use lance_index::INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY;
+pub use lance_index::IndexParams;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::{
+    CompactFragReuseIndex, CompactFragReuseIndexHandle, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME,
+};
+use lance_index::mem_wal::{MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, MemWalIndex, MemWalIndexHandle};
 use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
 use lance_index::pb::index::Implementation;
-use lance_index::scalar::expression::{
-    IndexInformationProvider, MultiQueryParser, ScalarQueryParser,
-};
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexPlugin;
+pub use lance_index::progress::{IndexBuildProgress, NoopIndexBuildProgress};
+use lance_index::scalar::expression::{IndexInformationProvider, MultiQueryParser};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{InvertedIndex, InvertedIndexPlugin};
 use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
 use lance_index::scalar::registry::{TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering};
-use lance_index::scalar::{CreatedIndex, ScalarIndex};
+use lance_index::scalar::{CreatedIndex, ScalarIndex, index_files_to_table, table_files_to_index};
 use lance_index::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
 use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatBinQuantizer, FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer};
 use lance_index::vector::hnsw::HNSW;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::quantizer::Quantization;
 use lance_index::vector::sq::ScalarQuantizer;
-pub use lance_index::IndexParams;
+use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
 use lance_index::{
-    is_system_index,
-    metrics::{MetricsCollector, NoOpMetricsCollector},
-    IndexCriteria,
+    FtsPrewarmDiagnostics, FtsPrewarmOptions, FtsPrewarmResult, FtsPrewarmSegmentStatus,
+    INDEX_FILE_NAME, Index, IndexType, PrewarmOptions, pb, vector::VectorIndex,
 };
-use lance_index::{pb, vector::VectorIndex, Index, IndexType, INDEX_FILE_NAME};
 use lance_index::{
-    DatasetIndexExt, IndexDescription, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION,
+    IndexCriteria, is_system_index,
+    metrics::{MetricsCollector, NoOpMetricsCollector},
+    registry::display_type_from_url,
+    scalar::btree::BTREE_LOOKUP_NAME,
 };
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use lance_io::traits::Reader;
 use lance_io::utils::{
-    read_last_block, read_message, read_message_from_buf, read_metadata_offset, read_version,
-    CachedFileSize,
+    CachedFileSize, read_last_block, read_message, read_message_from_buf, read_metadata_offset,
+    read_version,
 };
-use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
-use lance_table::format::{Fragment, SelfDescribingFileReader};
+use lance_table::format::{DataFile, Fragment, SelfDescribingFileReader};
+use lance_table::format::{IndexFile, IndexMetadata, list_index_files_with_sizes};
 use lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use scalar::index_matches_criteria;
 use serde_json::json;
-use snafu::location;
-use tracing::{info, instrument};
+use tracing::{info, instrument, warn};
 use uuid::Uuid;
-use vector::ivf::v2::IVFIndex;
+use vector::details::{
+    derive_vector_index_type, infer_missing_vector_details, needs_vector_details_inference,
+    vector_details_as_json,
+};
+pub(crate) use vector::details::{vector_index_details, vector_index_details_default};
+use vector::ivf::v2::{IVFIndex, IvfStateEntryBox};
 use vector::utils::get_vector_type;
 
+mod api;
 pub(crate) mod append;
 mod create;
 pub mod frag_reuse;
+pub mod frag_reuse_reader;
+mod frag_reuse_remapping;
+pub(crate) mod frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids;
 pub mod mem_wal;
 pub mod prefilter;
 pub mod scalar;
+pub(crate) mod scalar_logical;
 pub mod vector;
 
 use self::append::merge_indices;
+use self::frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids::{
+    has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids, is_hidden_by_frag_reuse,
+    warn_about_indices_hidden_by_frag_reuse,
+};
 use self::vector::remap_vector_index;
 use crate::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
-use crate::dataset::optimize::remapping::RemapResult;
 use crate::dataset::optimize::RemappedIndex;
-use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+use crate::dataset::optimize::remapping::RemapResult;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, ReadVersionState, Transaction, TransactionBuilder};
+pub use crate::index::api::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexSegment, IntoIndexSegment};
 use crate::index::frag_reuse::{load_frag_reuse_index_details, open_frag_reuse_index};
 use crate::index::mem_wal::open_mem_wal_index;
 pub use crate::index::prefilter::{FilterLoader, PreFilter};
-use crate::index::scalar::{fetch_index_details, load_training_data, IndexDetails};
-use crate::session::index_caches::{FragReuseIndexKey, IndexMetadataKey};
-use crate::{dataset::Dataset, Error, Result};
+use crate::index::scalar::{IndexDetails, fetch_index_details, load_training_data};
+pub use crate::index::vector::{LogicalIvfView, LogicalVectorIndex};
+use crate::session::index_caches::{
+    DerivedIndexListingKey, FragReuseIndexKey, IndexMetadataKey, write_index_identity,
+};
+use crate::{Error, Result, dataset::Dataset};
 pub use create::CreateIndexBuilder;
+pub use lance_index::IndexDescription;
 
-// Cache keys for different index types
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct ScalarIndexCacheKey<'a> {
-    pub uuid: &'a str,
-    pub fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>,
-}
+fn validate_segment_metadata(index_name: &str, segments: &[IndexMetadata]) -> Result<()> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "CreateIndex: at least one index segment is required".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
 
-impl<'a> ScalarIndexCacheKey<'a> {
-    pub fn new(uuid: &'a str, fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>) -> Self {
-        Self { uuid, fri_uuid }
+    let mut seen_segment_ids = HashSet::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    let mut covered_fragments = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for segment in segments {
+        if !seen_segment_ids.insert(segment.uuid) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: duplicate segment uuid {} for index '{}'",
+                segment.uuid, index_name
+            )));
+        }
+        let fragment_bitmap = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                segment.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if !covered_fragments.is_disjoint(fragment_bitmap) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: overlapping fragment coverage in segment set for index '{}'",
+                index_name
+            )));
+        }
+        covered_fragments |= fragment_bitmap.clone();
     }
-}
 
-impl UnsizedCacheKey for ScalarIndexCacheKey<'_> {
-    type ValueType = dyn ScalarIndex;
+    Ok(())
+}
 
-    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
-        if let Some(fri_uuid) = self.fri_uuid {
-            format!("{}-{}", self.uuid, fri_uuid).into()
-        } else {
-            self.uuid.into()
+/// Move a caller-defined segment group's coverage into the current fragment space.
+///
+/// A deferred compaction can combine several independently built segments into one
+/// new fragment. Remapping each segment bitmap separately would treat every segment
+/// as only partially covering the rewrite group and drop the new fragment. The
+/// merge owns the whole caller-defined group, so remap its union and use that
+/// representable group coverage while materializing every source.
+///
+/// Returns whether coverage was remapped. Coverage only ever moves together with
+/// the row addresses the dataset's own mapping supplies, so where no mapping
+/// applies the coverage shrinks instead — reported, because those rows leave the
+/// merged index and fall back to a flat scan.
+async fn remap_merged_segment_coverage(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+    segments: &mut [IndexMetadata],
+    staged: Option<&frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    // Under a tagged history the merge opens each source through the
+    // translating loader with its staged plan, so the merged files hold live
+    // addresses; the coverage moves with them to the live fragments the group
+    // serves, as derived by the reader's own planning of the group. Nothing
+    // is claimed that the group cannot serve: a destination the group only
+    // partly covers is absent from that coverage and stays scanned, and a
+    // provenance bitmap left in place would be pruned to nothing at commit.
+    // The v0 handle is never consulted on a tagged table.
+    if let Some(plans) = staged {
+        use frag_reuse::SegmentRemappingPlan;
+        let mut claimed = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for segment in segments.iter_mut() {
+            let coverage = match plans.get(&segment.uuid) {
+                Some(SegmentRemappingPlan::Translate { coverage, .. }) => coverage.clone(),
+                Some(SegmentRemappingPlan::Identity) => segment
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|bitmap| bitmap & dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+                    .unwrap_or_default(),
+                Some(SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(_)) | None => {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                        "FRI query coverage is unavailable for staged segment {}",
+                        segment.uuid
+                    )));
+                }
+            };
+            claimed |= &coverage;
+            segment.fragment_bitmap = Some(coverage);
         }
+        if claimed.is_empty() {
+            tracing::warn!(
+                index_name,
+                "Merged index covers no rows under the tagged fragment reuse history: its \
+                 segments together cover no rewrite destination completely, so nothing is \
+                 claimed and those rows stay on the scan path. Rebuild the index to cover them."
+            );
+        }
+        return Ok(true);
     }
-}
+    let staged_coverage = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| {
+            segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                    segment.uuid
+                ))
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+        .into_iter()
+        .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |coverage, segment| coverage | segment);
+
+    let frag_reuse_index = dataset.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
+    let has_fragment_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index.is_some();
+    // Partly retired counts as stale: the retired half is about to be
+    // intersected away, which drops its rows from the merged index.
+    let coverage_is_stale = !staged_coverage.is_subset(&dataset.fragment_bitmap);
+    let Some(frag_reuse_index) = frag_reuse_index
+        .filter(|index| append::fragment_reuse_affects_segments(index, segments.iter()))
+    else {
+        // Nothing to remap through, so the retired fragments are intersected away
+        // and the merged index will not cover their rows. It cannot claim them
+        // either: moving coverage without the row addresses, which
+        // `open_scalar_index` derives from the dataset's own mapping, would leave
+        // an index asserting coverage it cannot serve and suppress the scan
+        // fallback those rows need. So report and let the coverage shrink.
+        if coverage_is_stale {
+            tracing::warn!(
+                index_name,
+                staged_fragments = staged_coverage.len(),
+                has_fragment_reuse_index,
+                "Merging index segments over retired fragments with no applicable reuse \
+                 mapping: the merged index will not cover their rows, which fall back to \
+                 a flat scan. Rebuild the index to cover them."
+            );
+        }
+        return Ok(false);
+    };
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct VectorIndexCacheKey<'a> {
-    pub uuid: &'a str,
-    pub fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>,
+    let mut merged_coverage = staged_coverage.clone();
+    frag_reuse_index.remap_fragment_bitmap(&mut merged_coverage)?;
+
+    // An applicable mapping can still be short of what these segments need.
+    // Fragments compacted more than once need every link in the chain, and a trim
+    // that dropped an earlier link leaves the remap on an intermediate fragment
+    // the dataset no longer has. The intersect below would remove it silently.
+    let unmapped = &merged_coverage - dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+    if !unmapped.is_empty() {
+        tracing::warn!(
+            index_name,
+            unmapped_fragments = unmapped.len(),
+            "Merged index will not cover rows whose fragments the reuse history only \
+             partly maps: a link in their rewrite chain is missing. Rebuild the index \
+             to cover those rows."
+        );
+    }
+
+    merged_coverage &= dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+
+    if merged_coverage.is_empty() {
+        // The union straddles: these segments together still cover only part of a
+        // rewrite group, so the group's new fragments hold rows no segment indexed
+        // and claiming them would be a lie. Covering nothing is the conservative
+        // answer. `remap_fragment_bitmap` already reports the group it healed, but
+        // it cannot say what that costs the caller, and here it costs the whole
+        // merged index.
+        tracing::warn!(
+            index_name,
+            staged_fragments = staged_coverage.len(),
+            "Merged index covers no rows: its segments together cover only part of a \
+             rewrite group, so the fragments that group produced hold rows no segment \
+             indexed. The remapper reports the group; this is the effect on the merge."
+        );
+    }
+
+    for segment in segments {
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = Some(merged_coverage.clone());
+    }
+    Ok(true)
 }
 
-impl<'a> VectorIndexCacheKey<'a> {
-    pub fn new(uuid: &'a str, fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>) -> Self {
-        Self { uuid, fri_uuid }
+fn collect_subtree_field_ids(field: &Field, field_ids: &mut HashSet<i32>) {
+    field_ids.insert(field.id);
+    for child in &field.children {
+        collect_subtree_field_ids(child, field_ids);
     }
 }
 
-impl UnsizedCacheKey for VectorIndexCacheKey<'_> {
-    type ValueType = dyn VectorIndex;
+/// Stable identity fields for a physical data file.
+///
+/// This mirrors transaction rewrite validation, additionally resolves a
+/// registered base to its physical binding, and deliberately excludes
+/// `file_size_bytes`, which is a mutable cache rather than file identity.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum PhysicalBaseBinding<'a> {
+    Primary,
+    Registered {
+        path: &'a str,
+        is_dataset_root: bool,
+    },
+}
 
-    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
-        if let Some(fri_uuid) = self.fri_uuid {
-            format!("{}-{}", self.uuid, fri_uuid).into()
-        } else {
-            self.uuid.into()
-        }
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct PhysicalDataFileIdentity<'a> {
+    base_id: Option<u32>,
+    base_binding: PhysicalBaseBinding<'a>,
+    path: &'a str,
+    fields: &'a [i32],
+    column_indices: &'a [i32],
+    file_major_version: u32,
+    file_minor_version: u32,
+}
+
+impl<'a> PhysicalDataFileIdentity<'a> {
+    fn try_new(dataset: &'a Dataset, file: &'a DataFile) -> Option<Self> {
+        let base_binding = match file.base_id {
+            Some(base_id) => {
+                let base = dataset.manifest.base_paths.get(&base_id)?;
+                PhysicalBaseBinding::Registered {
+                    path: &base.path,
+                    is_dataset_root: base.is_dataset_root,
+                }
+            }
+            None => PhysicalBaseBinding::Primary,
+        };
+        Some(Self {
+            base_id: file.base_id,
+            base_binding,
+            path: &file.path,
+            fields: file.fields.as_ref(),
+            column_indices: file.column_indices.as_ref(),
+            file_major_version: file.file_major_version,
+            file_minor_version: file.file_minor_version,
+        })
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct FragReuseIndexCacheKey<'a> {
-    pub uuid: &'a str,
-    pub fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>,
+fn fragment_field_files<'a>(
+    dataset: &'a Dataset,
+    fragment: &'a Fragment,
+    indexed_field_ids: &HashSet<i32>,
+) -> Option<HashMap<i32, PhysicalDataFileIdentity<'a>>> {
+    fragment
+        .files
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|file| {
+            file.fields
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|field_id| indexed_field_ids.contains(field_id))
+                .map(|field_id| {
+                    PhysicalDataFileIdentity::try_new(dataset, file)
+                        .map(|identity| (*field_id, identity))
+                })
+        })
+        .collect()
 }
 
-impl<'a> FragReuseIndexCacheKey<'a> {
-    pub fn new(uuid: &'a str, fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>) -> Self {
-        Self { uuid, fri_uuid }
+/// Resolve the field ids a segment's staleness check must consider: the subtree of
+/// every field the segment declares, keyed and carried alike (see
+/// [`IndexSegment::fields`] and [`IndexSegment::covering_fields`]). A covered
+/// segment's carried columns can go stale independently of its keyed column, so
+/// checking only the keyed subtree would leave a fragment covered after a carried
+/// column was rewritten, and the segment would answer with the obsolete value.
+fn segment_indexed_field_ids(dataset: &Dataset, segment: &IndexSegment) -> Result<HashSet<i32>> {
+    let mut indexed_field_ids = HashSet::new();
+    for field_id in segment.fields() {
+        let field = dataset.schema().field_by_id(*field_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: field id {field_id} does not exist in the current schema"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        collect_subtree_field_ids(field, &mut indexed_field_ids);
     }
+    Ok(indexed_field_ids)
 }
 
-impl CacheKey for FragReuseIndexCacheKey<'_> {
-    type ValueType = FragReuseIndex;
+async fn prune_stale_segment_coverage(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: &mut [IndexSegment],
+    prune_historically_missing: bool,
+    prune_newer_overlays: bool,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let current_fragments = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| (fragment.id as u32, fragment))
+        .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+    // Under a tagged fragment reuse history a segment's bitmap is provenance:
+    // a fragment it names that a recorded transition retired is not stale,
+    // its rows translate to the transition's destinations when the segment
+    // is opened. Such a fragment is on the entry's lineage (the sources and
+    // destinations of every transition); a retired fragment off the lineage
+    // (a bare rewrite of uncovered data, a whole-fragment delete) holds
+    // nothing the segment can reach and is pruned as before.
+    let lineage = load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged(index))
+        .and_then(|entry| entry.fragment_bitmap.clone());
+    let historical_versions = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(IndexSegment::dataset_version)
+        .filter(|version| *version < dataset.manifest.version)
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+
+    for version in historical_versions {
+        let historical = dataset.checkout_version(version).await.map_err(|error| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: cannot validate segment coverage built at dataset version {version}: {error}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let historical_fragments = historical
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| (fragment.id as u32, fragment))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
 
-    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
-        if let Some(fri_uuid) = self.fri_uuid {
-            format!("{}-{}", self.uuid, fri_uuid).into()
-        } else {
-            self.uuid.into()
+        for segment in segments
+            .iter_mut()
+            .filter(|segment| segment.dataset_version() == version)
+        {
+            let indexed_field_ids = segment_indexed_field_ids(dataset, segment)?;
+            let stale_fragments = segment
+                .fragment_bitmap()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|fragment_id| {
+                    let Some(historical_fragment) = historical_fragments.get(fragment_id) else {
+                        return prune_historically_missing;
+                    };
+                    let Some(current_fragment) = current_fragments.get(fragment_id) else {
+                        return !lineage
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .is_some_and(|lineage| lineage.contains(*fragment_id));
+                    };
+                    let historical_files =
+                        fragment_field_files(&historical, historical_fragment, &indexed_field_ids);
+                    let current_files =
+                        fragment_field_files(dataset, current_fragment, &indexed_field_ids);
+                    let changed_files =
+                        historical_files.is_none() || historical_files != current_files;
+                    let changed_overlays = prune_newer_overlays
+                        && current_fragment.overlays.iter().any(|overlay| {
+                            overlay.committed_version > version
+                                && overlay
+                                    .data_file
+                                    .fields
+                                    .iter()
+                                    .any(|field_id| indexed_field_ids.contains(field_id))
+                        });
+                    changed_files || changed_overlays
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            for fragment_id in stale_fragments {
+                segment.fragment_bitmap_mut().remove(fragment_id);
+            }
         }
     }
+    Ok(())
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct MemWalCacheKey<'a> {
-    pub uuid: &'a Uuid,
-    pub fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>,
+/// Validate staged (uncommitted) segments against the current snapshot on a
+/// table with a tagged fragment reuse history.
+///
+/// A staged segment was built at its own dataset version; every commit
+/// since then may have moved its rows (a rewrite recording a transition:
+/// the provenance stays and translates) or rewritten an indexed column in
+/// place (the values it holds are stale: the transition's coverage is
+/// withdrawn). Those are the conflict resolver's own rules for an index
+/// committed from an old read version, so the segments are replayed through
+/// it: a CreateIndex of the segments at the oldest build version, checked
+/// against every transaction up to this snapshot. The returned segments
+/// carry the corrected bitmaps; their addresses are still the ones they
+/// were built with, which the merge translates. A rewrite the rules cannot
+/// carry the segment across (a bare compaction of a fragment it covers, or a
+/// group it covers only partly) means the segment must be rebuilt, as does a
+/// version in the window that can no longer be read. The cost is
+/// proportional to the commits crossed. On a table without a tagged history
+/// nothing is replayed: coverage is reconciled when the segments commit.
+pub(crate) async fn replay_staged_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+    let tagged = load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .any(lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged);
+    if !tagged {
+        return Ok(segments);
+    }
+    // One replay per build version: a segment is carried across the commits
+    // it did not see, so a segment built after a rewrite is not withdrawn for
+    // it again.
+    let mut by_build_version: BTreeMap<u64, Vec<IndexMetadata>> = BTreeMap::new();
+    for segment in segments {
+        by_build_version
+            .entry(segment.dataset_version)
+            .or_default()
+            .push(segment);
+    }
+    let mut validated = Vec::new();
+    for (read_version, group) in by_build_version {
+        if read_version >= dataset.manifest.version {
+            validated.extend(group);
+        } else {
+            validated.extend(replay_staged_segments_from(dataset, read_version, group).await?);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(validated)
 }
 
-impl<'a> MemWalCacheKey<'a> {
-    pub fn new(uuid: &'a Uuid, fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>) -> Self {
-        Self { uuid, fri_uuid }
+async fn replay_staged_segments_from(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    read_version: u64,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+    let rebuild = |version: u64, error: &Error| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "staged index segments built at dataset version {read_version} cannot be carried \
+             across version {version}: {error}. Rebuild the segments from the current dataset"
+        ))
+    };
+    let read_dataset = dataset
+        .checkout_version(read_version)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|error| rebuild(read_version, &error))?;
+    let transaction = Transaction::new(
+        read_version,
+        Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: segments,
+            removed_indices: vec![],
+        },
+        None,
+    );
+    let mut rebase = crate::io::commit::conflict_resolver::TransactionRebase::try_new(
+        &read_dataset,
+        transaction,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await?
+    .for_staged_replay();
+    rebase.load_current_lineage(dataset).await?;
+    let (_, transactions) = crate::io::commit::load_and_sort_new_transactions(&read_dataset)
+        .await
+        .map_err(|error| rebuild(read_version, &error))?;
+    let snapshot = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let window: Vec<_> = transactions
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|(version, _)| *version <= snapshot)
+        .collect();
+    // The listing only knows the manifests that still exist. A version
+    // cleaned up between the build and the snapshot leaves no trace in it,
+    // and whatever that commit did to the indexed columns cannot be
+    // replayed: the history has to be complete, one manifest per version.
+    let gone = || {
+        Error::invalid_input(
+            "its manifest is gone (cleaned up), so the commits since the build cannot be replayed",
+        )
+    };
+    let mut expected = read_version + 1;
+    for (version, _) in &window {
+        if *version != expected {
+            return Err(rebuild(expected, &gone()));
+        }
+        expected += 1;
+    }
+    if expected != snapshot + 1 {
+        return Err(rebuild(expected, &gone()));
+    }
+    for (version, transaction) in &window {
+        rebase
+            .check_txn(transaction, *version)
+            .map_err(|error| match error {
+                Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. } | Error::CommitConflict { .. } => {
+                    rebuild(*version, &error)
+                }
+                other => other,
+            })?;
+    }
+    match rebase.finish(dataset).await?.operation {
+        Operation::CreateIndex { new_indices, .. } => Ok(new_indices),
+        _ => unreachable!("a CreateIndex rebase yields a CreateIndex"),
     }
 }
 
-impl CacheKey for MemWalCacheKey<'_> {
-    type ValueType = MemWalIndex;
+pub(crate) async fn build_index_metadata_from_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+    field_id: i32,
+    mut segments: Vec<IndexSegment>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "CreateIndex: at least one index segment is required".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
 
-    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
-        if let Some(fri_uuid) = self.fri_uuid {
-            format!("{}-{}", self.uuid, fri_uuid).into()
-        } else {
-            self.uuid.to_string().into()
+    let mut seen_segment_ids = HashSet::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    let mut covered_fragments = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    // One logical index needs one declaration. The per-segment rules below only
+    // pin the *keyed* field and its count, so segments that disagree on the
+    // carried columns -- `fields = [k, a]` beside `fields = [k]`, say -- each pass
+    // individually. Committing that pair produces an index whose own description
+    // path refuses it: `IndexDescriptionImpl::try_new` requires `fields` to be
+    // identical across segments, so `describe_indices` would error on metadata
+    // this function just wrote. Same rule, and same reason, as
+    // `merge_existing_index_segments`.
+    let expected_fields = segments[0].fields().to_vec();
+    let expected_covering_fields = segments[0].covering_fields().to_vec();
+    for segment in &segments {
+        if segment.dataset_version() > dataset.manifest.version {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} was built at future dataset version {} (current version {})",
+                segment.uuid(),
+                segment.dataset_version(),
+                dataset.manifest.version
+            )));
+        }
+        if segment.keyed_field() != Some(field_id) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} was built for fields {:?} (carried {:?}), \
+                 expected keyed field [{}]",
+                segment.uuid(),
+                segment.fields(),
+                segment.covering_fields(),
+                field_id
+            )));
+        }
+        // Cardinality alone does not prove `covering_fields` is really the
+        // trailing slice of `fields`; delegate that to the same rule a
+        // committed `IndexMetadata` is held to, rather than re-deriving it.
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: segment.uuid(),
+            fields: segment.fields().to_vec(),
+            covering_fields: segment.covering_fields().to_vec(),
+            name: index_name.to_string(),
+            dataset_version: segment.dataset_version(),
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: segment.index_version(),
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+        .validate_covering_fields()?;
+        if segment.fields() != expected_fields.as_slice()
+            || segment.covering_fields() != expected_covering_fields.as_slice()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} declares fields {:?} (carried {:?}) but index \
+                 '{}' declares fields {:?} (carried {:?}); every segment of one index \
+                 must declare the same columns",
+                segment.uuid(),
+                segment.fields(),
+                segment.covering_fields(),
+                index_name,
+                expected_fields,
+                expected_covering_fields,
+            )));
         }
+        if !seen_segment_ids.insert(segment.uuid()) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: duplicate segment uuid {} for index '{}'",
+                segment.uuid(),
+                index_name
+            )));
+        }
+        if !covered_fragments.is_disjoint(segment.fragment_bitmap()) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: overlapping fragment coverage in segment set for index '{}'",
+                index_name
+            )));
+        }
+        covered_fragments |= segment.fragment_bitmap().clone();
     }
-}
 
-// Whether to auto-migrate a dataset when we encounter corruption.
-fn auto_migrate_corruption() -> bool {
-    static LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION: OnceLock<bool> = OnceLock::new();
-    *LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION.get_or_init(|| {
-        std::env::var("LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION")
-            .ok()
-            .map(|s| str_is_truthy(&s))
-            .unwrap_or(true)
-    })
+    prune_stale_segment_coverage(dataset, &mut segments, false, false).await?;
+
+    let new_indices = futures::stream::iter(segments.into_iter().map(|segment| async move {
+        let (
+            uuid,
+            fragment_bitmap,
+            fields,
+            covering_fields,
+            index_details,
+            index_version,
+            dataset_version,
+        ) = segment.into_parts();
+        let is_inverted_index = index_details.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails");
+        if is_inverted_index {
+            let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+                uuid,
+                name: index_name.to_string(),
+                fields: fields.clone(),
+                covering_fields: covering_fields.clone(),
+                dataset_version,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap.clone()),
+                index_details: Some(index_details.clone()),
+                index_version,
+                created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+                base_id: None,
+                files: None,
+            };
+            crate::index::scalar::inverted::finalize_segment_files_if_needed(dataset, &metadata)
+                .await?;
+        }
+        let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(uuid.to_string());
+        let mut files = list_index_files_with_sizes(&dataset.object_store, &index_dir).await?;
+        if is_inverted_index {
+            retain_committed_inverted_files(&mut files);
+        }
+        Ok::<_, Error>(IndexMetadata {
+            uuid,
+            name: index_name.to_string(),
+            fields,
+            covering_fields,
+            dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+            index_details: Some(index_details),
+            index_version,
+            created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+            base_id: None,
+            files: Some(files),
+        })
+    }))
+    .buffered(dataset.object_store.io_parallelism())
+    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok(new_indices)
 }
 
-/// Derive a friendly (but not necessarily unique) type name from a type URL.
-/// Extract a human-friendly type name from a type URL.
-///
-/// Strips prefixes like `type.googleapis.com/` and package names, then removes
-/// trailing `IndexDetails` / `Index` so callers get a concise display name.
-fn type_name_from_uri(index_uri: &str) -> String {
-    let type_name = index_uri.rsplit('/').next().unwrap_or(index_uri);
-    let type_name = type_name.rsplit('.').next().unwrap_or(type_name);
-    type_name.trim_end_matches("IndexDetails").to_string()
+fn retain_committed_inverted_files(files: &mut Vec<IndexFile>) {
+    files.retain(|file| !file.path.starts_with("staging/"));
 }
 
-/// Legacy mapping from type URL to the old IndexType string for backwards compatibility.
-/// Legacy mapping from type URL to the old IndexType string for backwards compatibility.
-///
-/// If `index_type_hint` is provided (e.g. parsed from the index statistics of a concrete
-/// index instance), it takes precedence so callers can surface the exact index type even
-/// when the type URL alone is too generic (such as VectorIndexDetails).
-fn legacy_type_name(index_uri: &str, index_type_hint: Option<&str>) -> String {
-    if let Some(hint) = index_type_hint {
-        return hint.to_string();
+async fn prewarm_opened_index(
+    index: Arc<dyn Index>,
+    options: Option<&PrewarmOptions>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match options {
+        None => index.prewarm().await,
+        Some(PrewarmOptions::Fts(fts_options)) => {
+            let inverted = index
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "FTS prewarm options are only supported for inverted indices, got {:?}",
+                        index.index_type()
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            inverted.prewarm_with_options(fts_options).await
+        }
+        Some(_) => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "unsupported prewarm options for this lance version".to_owned(),
+        )),
     }
+}
 
-    let base = type_name_from_uri(index_uri);
-
-    match base.as_str() {
-        "BTree" => IndexType::BTree.to_string(),
-        "Bitmap" => IndexType::Bitmap.to_string(),
-        "LabelList" => IndexType::LabelList.to_string(),
-        "NGram" => IndexType::NGram.to_string(),
-        "ZoneMap" => IndexType::ZoneMap.to_string(),
-        "BloomFilter" => IndexType::BloomFilter.to_string(),
-        "Inverted" => IndexType::Inverted.to_string(),
-        "Json" => IndexType::Scalar.to_string(),
-        "Flat" | "Vector" => IndexType::Vector.to_string(),
-        other if other.contains("Vector") => IndexType::Vector.to_string(),
-        _ => "N/A".to_string(),
-    }
+struct SegmentPrewarmResult {
+    partition_count: usize,
 }
 
-/// Builds index.
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait IndexBuilder {
-    fn index_type() -> IndexType;
+struct OpenedSegmentPrewarmResult {
+    index_uuid: Uuid,
+    index: Arc<dyn Index>,
+    partition_count: usize,
+}
 
-    async fn build(&self) -> Result<()>;
+async fn prewarm_opened_index_result(
+    index: Arc<dyn Index>,
+    options: &PrewarmOptions,
+) -> Result<SegmentPrewarmResult> {
+    match options {
+        PrewarmOptions::Fts(fts_options) => {
+            let inverted = index
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "FTS prewarm options are only supported for inverted indices, got {:?}",
+                        index.index_type()
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            inverted.prewarm_with_options_result(fts_options).await?;
+            Ok(SegmentPrewarmResult {
+                partition_count: inverted.partition_count(),
+            })
+        }
+        _ => Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "unsupported prewarm options for this lance version".to_owned(),
+        )),
+    }
 }
 
-pub(crate) async fn remap_index(
+async fn aggregate_fts_prewarm_results(
     dataset: &Dataset,
-    index_id: &Uuid,
-    row_id_map: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
-) -> Result<RemapResult> {
-    // Load indices from the disk.
-    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
-    let matched = indices
+    segment_results: Vec<OpenedSegmentPrewarmResult>,
+    options: Option<&PrewarmOptions>,
+) -> Result<FtsPrewarmResult> {
+    let partition_count = segment_results
         .iter()
-        .find(|i| i.uuid == *index_id)
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Index with id {} does not exist", index_id),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        .map(|result| result.partition_count)
+        .sum();
+    let mut failing_segments = Vec::new();
+    let mut failing_partitions = Vec::new();
+    let mut best_effort = false;
+
+    for segment in segment_results {
+        let segment_id = segment.index_uuid.to_string();
+        let prewarmed_inverted = segment.index.as_any().downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>();
+        let Some(fts_options) = (match options {
+            Some(PrewarmOptions::Fts(fts_options)) => Some(fts_options.clone()),
+            None if prewarmed_inverted.is_some() => Some(FtsPrewarmOptions::default()),
+            _ => None,
+        }) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        best_effort |= fts_options.mode.is_best_effort();
 
-    if matched.fields.len() > 1 {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Remapping indices with multiple fields is not supported".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
-    }
+        let cached_index =
+            scalar::cached_scalar_index_container(dataset, &segment.index_uuid).await;
+        let cached_inverted = cached_index
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|index| index.as_any().downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>());
+        let container_resident = cached_inverted.is_some();
+        let container_matches_prewarmed = match (prewarmed_inverted, cached_inverted) {
+            (Some(prewarmed), Some(cached)) => prewarmed.shares_prewarm_state(cached),
+            _ => false,
+        };
 
-    if row_id_map.values().all(|v| v.is_none()) {
-        let deleted_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::from_iter(
-            row_id_map
-                .keys()
-                .map(|row_id| RowAddress::new_from_u64(*row_id))
-                .map(|addr| addr.fragment_id()),
-        );
-        if Some(deleted_bitmap) == matched.fragment_bitmap {
-            // If remap deleted all rows, we can just return the same index ID.
-            // This can happen if there is a bug where the index is covering empty
-            // fragment that haven't been cleaned up. They should be cleaned up
-            // outside of this function.
-            return Ok(RemapResult::Keep(*index_id));
+        if !container_resident || !container_matches_prewarmed {
+            failing_segments.push(FtsPrewarmSegmentStatus {
+                segment_id: segment_id.clone(),
+                scalar_index_container_resident: container_resident,
+                scalar_index_container_matches_prewarmed: container_matches_prewarmed,
+            });
+        }
+
+        if let Some(cached_inverted) = cached_inverted
+            && let Some(mut diagnostics) = cached_inverted
+                .prewarm_residency_result(fts_options.with_position)
+                .await
+                .diagnostics
+        {
+            failing_segments.append(&mut diagnostics.failing_segments);
+            failing_partitions.extend(diagnostics.failing_partitions.drain(..).map(
+                |mut partition| {
+                    partition.segment_id = Some(segment_id.clone());
+                    partition
+                },
+            ));
         }
     }
 
-    let field_id = matched
-        .fields
-        .first()
-        .expect("An index existed with no fields");
-    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(*field_id)?;
+    let diagnostics = FtsPrewarmDiagnostics {
+        partition_count,
+        failing_segments,
+        failing_partitions,
+    };
 
-    let new_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    if diagnostics.fully_resident() {
+        Ok(FtsPrewarmResult::fully_resident())
+    } else if best_effort {
+        Ok(FtsPrewarmResult::partial(diagnostics))
+    } else {
+        Err(Error::internal(diagnostics.to_string()))
+    }
+}
 
-    let generic = dataset
-        .open_generic_index(&field_path, &index_id.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-        .await?;
+fn total_index_segment_size_bytes(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> Option<u64> {
+    let mut total = 0u64;
+    for index_meta in indices {
+        total += index_meta.total_size_bytes()?;
+    }
+    Some(total)
+}
 
-    let created_index = match generic.index_type() {
-        it if it.is_scalar() => {
-            let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_id.to_string())?;
+fn cache_size_delta(after: usize, before: usize) -> i64 {
+    after.saturating_sub(before) as i64 - before.saturating_sub(after) as i64
+}
 
-            let scalar_index = dataset
-                .open_scalar_index(&field_path, &index_id.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-                .await?;
-            if !scalar_index.can_remap() {
-                return Ok(RemapResult::Drop);
-            }
+fn prewarm_options_fields(options: Option<&PrewarmOptions>) -> (&'static str, bool) {
+    match options {
+        None => ("default", false),
+        Some(PrewarmOptions::Fts(fts_options)) => ("fts", fts_options.with_position),
+        Some(_) => ("unsupported", false),
+    }
+}
 
-            match scalar_index.index_type() {
-                IndexType::Inverted => {
-                    let inverted_index = scalar_index
-                        .as_any()
-                        .downcast_ref::<lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndex>()
-                        .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                            message: "expected inverted index".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
-                    if inverted_index.is_legacy() {
-                        log::warn!("reindex because of legacy format, index_type: {}, index_id: {}, field: {}",
-                            scalar_index.index_type(),
-                            index_id,
-                            field_path
-                        );
-                        let training_data = load_training_data(
-                            dataset,
-                            &field_path,
-                            &TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None),
-                            None,
-                            true, // Legacy reindexing should always train
-                            None,
-                        )
-                        .await?;
-                        InvertedIndexPlugin::train_inverted_index(
-                            training_data,
-                            &new_store,
-                            inverted_index.params().clone(),
-                            None,
-                        )
-                        .await?
-                    } else {
-                        scalar_index.remap(row_id_map, &new_store).await?
-                    }
-                }
-                _ => scalar_index.remap(row_id_map, &new_store).await?,
+async fn prewarm_index_segments_by_metadata(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    name: &str,
+    indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    options: Option<&PrewarmOptions>,
+    available_segment_count: usize,
+    requested_segment_count: Option<usize>,
+) -> Result<FtsPrewarmResult> {
+    let request_started = Instant::now();
+    let selected_segment_count = indices.len();
+    let selected_size_bytes = total_index_segment_size_bytes(&indices);
+    let (prewarm_options, fts_with_position) = prewarm_options_fields(options);
+    let cache_stats_before = dataset.session.index_cache_stats().await;
+    info!(
+        index_name = name,
+        selected_segment_count,
+        available_segment_count,
+        requested_segment_count = requested_segment_count.unwrap_or(0),
+        segment_filter = requested_segment_count.is_some(),
+        selected_size_bytes = selected_size_bytes.unwrap_or(0),
+        selected_size_bytes_known = selected_size_bytes.is_some(),
+        index_cache_entries_before = cache_stats_before.num_entries,
+        index_cache_size_bytes_before = cache_stats_before.size_bytes,
+        prewarm_options,
+        fts_with_position,
+        "prewarm index segments started"
+    );
+
+    let result = futures::future::try_join_all(indices.into_iter().map(|index_meta| async move {
+        let index_uuid = index_meta.uuid;
+        let size_bytes = index_meta.total_size_bytes();
+        let fragment_count = index_meta
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|bitmap| bitmap.len());
+        let segment_started = Instant::now();
+        info!(
+            index_name = name,
+            %index_uuid,
+            index_version = index_meta.index_version,
+            dataset_version = index_meta.dataset_version,
+            fragment_count = fragment_count.unwrap_or(0),
+            fragment_count_known = fragment_count.is_some(),
+            size_bytes = size_bytes.unwrap_or(0),
+            size_bytes_known = size_bytes.is_some(),
+            "prewarm index segment started"
+        );
+
+        let index = match dataset
+            .open_generic_index(name, &index_uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(index) => {
+                info!(
+                    index_name = name,
+                    %index_uuid,
+                    index_type = ?index.index_type(),
+                    elapsed_ms = segment_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                    "opened index segment for prewarm"
+                );
+                index
             }
-        }
-        it if it.is_vector() => {
-            remap_vector_index(
-                Arc::new(dataset.clone()),
-                &field_path,
-                index_id,
-                &new_id,
-                matched,
-                row_id_map,
-            )
-            .await?;
-            CreatedIndex {
-                index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(
-                    &lance_table::format::pb::VectorIndexDetails::default(),
-                )
-                .unwrap(),
-                index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION,
+            Err(err) => {
+                warn!(
+                    index_name = name,
+                    %index_uuid,
+                    error = %err,
+                    elapsed_ms = segment_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                    "failed to open index segment for prewarm"
+                );
+                return Err(err);
             }
-        }
-        _ => {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Index type {} is not supported", generic.index_type()),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-    };
+        };
 
-    Ok(RemapResult::Remapped(RemappedIndex {
-        old_id: *index_id,
-        new_id,
-        index_details: created_index.index_details,
-        index_version: created_index.index_version,
+        let segment_result = match options {
+            Some(options) => match prewarm_opened_index_result(index.clone(), options).await {
+                Ok(result) => result,
+                Err(err) => {
+                    warn!(
+                        index_name = name,
+                        %index_uuid,
+                        error = %err,
+                        elapsed_ms = segment_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                        "prewarm index segment failed"
+                    );
+                    return Err(err);
+                }
+            },
+            None => {
+                if let Err(err) = prewarm_opened_index(index.clone(), None).await {
+                    warn!(
+                        index_name = name,
+                        %index_uuid,
+                        error = %err,
+                        elapsed_ms = segment_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                        "prewarm index segment failed"
+                    );
+                    return Err(err);
+                }
+                SegmentPrewarmResult { partition_count: 0 }
+            }
+        };
+
+        info!(
+            index_name = name,
+            %index_uuid,
+            elapsed_ms = segment_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+            "prewarm index segment finished"
+        );
+        Ok(OpenedSegmentPrewarmResult {
+            index_uuid,
+            index,
+            partition_count: segment_result.partition_count,
+        })
     }))
+    .await;
+
+    match result {
+        Ok(segment_results) => {
+            let cache_stats_after = dataset.session.index_cache_stats().await;
+            let result = aggregate_fts_prewarm_results(dataset, segment_results, options).await?;
+            info!(
+                index_name = name,
+                selected_segment_count,
+                fts_fully_resident = result.fully_resident,
+                index_cache_entries_after = cache_stats_after.num_entries,
+                index_cache_entries_delta = cache_size_delta(
+                    cache_stats_after.num_entries,
+                    cache_stats_before.num_entries,
+                ),
+                index_cache_size_bytes_after = cache_stats_after.size_bytes,
+                index_cache_size_bytes_delta =
+                    cache_size_delta(cache_stats_after.size_bytes, cache_stats_before.size_bytes,),
+                elapsed_ms = request_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                "prewarm index segments finished"
+            );
+            Ok(result)
+        }
+        Err(err) => {
+            let cache_stats_after = dataset.session.index_cache_stats().await;
+            warn!(
+                index_name = name,
+                selected_segment_count,
+                index_cache_entries_after = cache_stats_after.num_entries,
+                index_cache_entries_delta = cache_size_delta(
+                    cache_stats_after.num_entries,
+                    cache_stats_before.num_entries,
+                ),
+                index_cache_size_bytes_after = cache_stats_after.size_bytes,
+                index_cache_size_bytes_delta = cache_size_delta(
+                    cache_stats_after.size_bytes,
+                    cache_stats_before.size_bytes,
+                ),
+                error = %err,
+                elapsed_ms = request_started.elapsed().as_millis() as u64,
+                "prewarm index segments failed"
+            );
+            Err(err)
+        }
+    }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct ScalarIndexInfo {
-    indexed_columns: HashMap<String, (DataType, Box<MultiQueryParser>)>,
-}
+fn filter_index_segments_by_ids(
+    name: &str,
+    indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    segment_ids: &[Uuid],
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+    if segment_ids.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
 
-impl IndexInformationProvider for ScalarIndexInfo {
-    fn get_index(&self, col: &str) -> Option<(&DataType, &dyn ScalarQueryParser)> {
-        self.indexed_columns
-            .get(col)
-            .map(|(ty, parser)| (ty, parser.as_ref() as &dyn ScalarQueryParser))
+    let requested = segment_ids.iter().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    let mut matched = HashSet::new();
+    let filtered = indices
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|index_meta| {
+            if requested.contains(&index_meta.uuid) {
+                matched.insert(index_meta.uuid);
+                true
+            } else {
+                false
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    if matched.len() != requested.len() {
+        let mut missing = requested
+            .difference(&matched)
+            .map(ToString::to_string)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        missing.sort();
+        return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!(
+            "name={}, segment_ids=[{}]",
+            name,
+            missing.join(", ")
+        )));
     }
+
+    Ok(filtered)
 }
 
-async fn open_index_proto(reader: &dyn Reader) -> Result<pb::Index> {
-    let file_size = reader.size().await?;
-    let tail_bytes = read_last_block(reader).await?;
-    let metadata_pos = read_metadata_offset(&tail_bytes)?;
-    let proto: pb::Index = if metadata_pos < file_size - tail_bytes.len() {
-        // We have not read the metadata bytes yet.
-        read_message(reader, metadata_pos).await?
-    } else {
-        let offset = tail_bytes.len() - (file_size - metadata_pos);
-        read_message_from_buf(&tail_bytes.slice(offset..))?
+/// Ask the scalar index plugin whether the parameters of `incoming` segments
+/// let them join `existing` ones (for example, MinHash signatures are only
+/// comparable across segments built with the same hashing parameters).
+/// Complements [`validate_segment_index_details`], which only checks that
+/// segments share a details type. Vector indices and details without a plugin
+/// are not checked.
+pub(crate) fn validate_segment_params_compatible(
+    existing: &[IndexMetadata],
+    incoming: &[IndexMetadata],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let Some(reference) = incoming
+        .iter()
+        .chain(existing.iter())
+        .find_map(|segment| segment.index_details.as_ref())
+    else {
+        return Ok(());
     };
-    Ok(proto)
+    let details = IndexDetails(reference.clone());
+    let Ok(plugin) = details.get_plugin() else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+    let existing_details: Vec<&prost_types::Any> = existing
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|segment| segment.index_details.as_deref())
+        .collect();
+    let incoming_details: Vec<&prost_types::Any> = incoming
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|segment| segment.index_details.as_deref())
+        .collect();
+    plugin.validate_new_segments_against_existing(&existing_details, &incoming_details)
 }
 
-fn vector_index_details() -> prost_types::Any {
-    let details = lance_table::format::pb::VectorIndexDetails::default();
-    prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap()
+/// Every segment of one commit must carry index details of the same type;
+/// whether their parameters are compatible is the plugin's call, see
+/// [`validate_segment_params_compatible`].
+fn validate_segment_index_details(index_name: &str, segments: &[IndexMetadata]) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut type_url = None::<&str>;
+    for segment in segments {
+        let segment_type_url = segment.index_details.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing index details",
+                segment.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+        match type_url {
+            Some(expected) if expected != segment_type_url.type_url => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "CreateIndex: segment set for index '{}' mixes incompatible index detail types",
+                    index_name
+                )));
+            }
+            None => type_url = Some(segment_type_url.type_url.as_str()),
+            Some(_) => {}
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
 }
 
-struct IndexDescriptionImpl {
-    name: String,
-    field_ids: Vec<u32>,
-    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
-    index_type: String,
-    details: IndexDetails,
-    rows_indexed: u64,
+/// Detect vector segments while preserving the legacy pre-details fallback.
+///
+/// Older vector segments may not have `VectorIndexDetails` in the manifest, so
+/// we also recognize them by the legacy monolithic index file name.
+pub(crate) fn segment_has_vector_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment.index_details.as_ref().map_or_else(
+        || {
+            segment
+                .files
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|files| files.iter().any(|file| file.path == INDEX_FILE_NAME))
+        },
+        |details| details.type_url.ends_with("VectorIndexDetails"),
+    )
 }
 
-impl IndexDescriptionImpl {
-    fn try_new(segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Self> {
-        if segments.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Index metadata is empty".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+/// Whether this build has a reader for the index's declared type.
+///
+/// Segments without details predate type URLs and remain readable through the
+/// legacy file-based detection in the index open paths.
+pub(crate) fn index_type_is_known(index: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    is_system_index(index)
+        || index
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_none_or(|details| IndexDetails(details.clone()).has_reader())
+}
 
-        // We assume the type URL and details are the same for all segments
-        let example_metadata = &segments[0];
+/// Detect FTS / inverted segments from manifest details.
+///
+/// Unlike vector, inverted segment support was added after index details were
+/// part of the segment contract, so there is no legacy file-name fallback here.
+fn segment_has_inverted_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails"))
+}
 
-        let name = example_metadata.name.clone();
-        if !segments.iter().all(|shard| shard.name == name) {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Index name should be identical across all segments".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+fn segment_has_bitmap_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("BitmapIndexDetails"))
+}
 
-        let field_ids = &example_metadata.fields;
-        if !segments.iter().all(|shard| shard.fields == *field_ids) {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Index fields should be identical across all segments".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-        let field_ids = field_ids.iter().map(|id| *id as u32).collect();
+fn segment_has_bloomfilter_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("BloomFilterIndexDetails"))
+}
 
-        // This should not fail as we have already filtered out indexes without index details.
-        let index_details = example_metadata.index_details.as_ref().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message:
-                "Index details are required for index description.  This index must be retrained to support this method."
-                    .to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-        let type_url = &index_details.type_url;
-        if !segments.iter().all(|shard| {
-            shard
-                .index_details
+/// Detect BTree segments, preserving a legacy pre-details fallback.
+fn segment_has_btree_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment.index_details.as_ref().map_or_else(
+        || {
+            segment
+                .files
                 .as_ref()
-                .map(|d| d.type_url == *type_url)
-                .unwrap_or(false)
-        }) {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Index type URL should be present and identical across all segments"
-                    .to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+                .is_some_and(|files| files.iter().any(|file| file.path == BTREE_LOOKUP_NAME))
+        },
+        |details| details.type_url.ends_with("BTreeIndexDetails"),
+    )
+}
 
-        let details = IndexDetails(index_details.clone());
-        let mut rows_indexed = 0;
+fn segment_has_zonemap_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("ZoneMapIndexDetails"))
+}
 
-        let index_type = details
-            .get_plugin()
-            .map(|p| p.name().to_string())
-            .unwrap_or_else(|_| "Unknown".to_string());
+fn segment_has_fmindex_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("FMIndexDetails"))
+}
 
-        for shard in &segments {
-            let fragment_bitmap = shard
-            .fragment_bitmap
-            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message: "Fragment bitmap is required for index description.  This index must be retrained to support this method.".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+fn segment_has_label_list_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("LabelListIndexDetails"))
+}
 
-            for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
-                if fragment_bitmap.contains(fragment.id() as u32) {
-                    rows_indexed += fragment.fast_logical_rows()? as u64;
-                }
-            }
-        }
+fn segment_has_rtree_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("RTreeIndexDetails"))
+}
 
-        Ok(Self {
-            name,
-            field_ids,
-            index_type,
-            segments,
-            details,
-            rows_indexed,
-        })
+fn segment_has_minhashlsh_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("MinHashLshIndexDetails"))
+}
+
+fn segment_has_ngram_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    segment
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("NGramIndexDetails"))
+}
+
+// Cache keys for different index types
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct LegacyVectorIndexCacheKey<'a> {
+    uuid: &'a Uuid,
+    fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> LegacyVectorIndexCacheKey<'a> {
+    fn new(uuid: &'a Uuid, fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>) -> Self {
+        Self { uuid, fri_uuid }
     }
 }
 
-impl IndexDescription for IndexDescriptionImpl {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        &self.name
+impl CacheKey for LegacyVectorIndexCacheKey<'_> {
+    type ValueType = CachedLegacyVectorIndex;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        if let Some(fri_uuid) = self.fri_uuid {
+            format!("{}-{}", self.uuid, fri_uuid).into()
+        } else {
+            self.uuid.to_string().into()
+        }
     }
 
-    fn field_ids(&self) -> &[u32] {
-        &self.field_ids
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "LegacyVectorIndex"
     }
 
-    fn index_type(&self) -> &str {
-        &self.index_type
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.legacy-vector-key", 1)
     }
 
-    fn metadata(&self) -> &[IndexMetadata] {
-        &self.segments
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        write_index_identity(builder, self.uuid, self.fri_uuid);
     }
+}
 
-    fn type_url(&self) -> &str {
-        self.details.0.type_url.as_str()
+/// Sized cache key for `IvfIndexState`.
+///
+/// Used for v0.3+ indices that support serialization. This key has a codec,
+/// so custom cache backends can serialize the state to disk/Redis/etc.
+/// Legacy indices use `LegacyVectorIndexCacheKey` instead (in-memory only).
+///
+/// Note: legacy entries hold live readers bound to the object store that
+/// opened them, so they are only valid for credential setups that refresh
+/// internally (e.g. a credentials provider). Deployments that pass fresh
+/// static credentials per dataset open should use v0.3+ index formats.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct IvfIndexStateCacheKey<'a> {
+    uuid: &'a Uuid,
+    fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> IvfIndexStateCacheKey<'a> {
+    fn new(uuid: &'a Uuid, fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>) -> Self {
+        Self { uuid, fri_uuid }
     }
+}
 
-    fn rows_indexed(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.rows_indexed
+impl CacheKey for IvfIndexStateCacheKey<'_> {
+    type ValueType = IvfStateEntryBox;
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "IvfIndexState"
     }
 
-    fn details(&self) -> Result<String> {
-        let plugin = self.details.get_plugin()?;
-        plugin
-            .details_as_json(&self.details.0)
-            .map(|v| v.to_string())
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        if let Some(fri_uuid) = self.fri_uuid {
+            format!("{}-{}", self.uuid, fri_uuid).into()
+        } else {
+            self.uuid.to_string().into()
+        }
     }
-}
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl DatasetIndexExt for Dataset {
-    type IndexBuilder<'a> = CreateIndexBuilder<'a>;
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.ivf-state-key", 1)
+    }
 
-    /// Create a builder for creating an index on columns.
-    ///
-    /// This returns a builder that can be configured with additional options
-    /// before awaiting to execute.
-    ///
-    /// # Examples
-    ///
-    /// Create a scalar BTREE index:
-    /// ```
-    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
-    /// # use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
-    /// # async fn example(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> Result<()> {
-    /// let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-    /// dataset
-    ///     .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
-    ///     .name("id_index".to_string())
-    ///     .await?;
-    /// # Ok(())
-    /// # }
-    /// ```
-    ///
-    /// Create an empty index that will be populated later:
-    /// ```
-    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
-    /// # use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
-    /// # async fn example(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> Result<()> {
-    /// let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-    /// dataset
-    ///     .create_index_builder(&["category"], IndexType::Bitmap, &params)
-    ///     .train(false)  // Create empty index
-    ///     .replace(true)  // Replace if exists
-    ///     .await?;
-    /// # Ok(())
-    /// # }
-    /// ```
-    fn create_index_builder<'a>(
-        &'a mut self,
-        columns: &[&str],
-        index_type: IndexType,
-        params: &'a dyn IndexParams,
-    ) -> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
-        CreateIndexBuilder::new(self, columns, index_type, params)
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        write_index_identity(builder, self.uuid, self.fri_uuid);
     }
 
-    #[instrument(skip_all)]
-    async fn create_index(
-        &mut self,
-        columns: &[&str],
-        index_type: IndexType,
-        name: Option<String>,
-        params: &dyn IndexParams,
-        replace: bool,
-    ) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
-        // Use the builder pattern with default train=true for backward compatibility
-        let mut builder = self.create_index_builder(columns, index_type, params);
-
-        if let Some(name) = name {
-            builder = builder.name(name);
-        }
-
-        builder.replace(replace).await
+    fn codec() -> Option<lance_core::cache::CacheCodec> {
+        Some(lance_core::cache::CacheCodec::from_impl::<IvfStateEntryBox>())
     }
+}
 
-    async fn drop_index(&mut self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
-        if indices.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::IndexNotFound {
-                identity: format!("name={}", name),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
-        let transaction = Transaction::new(
-            self.manifest.version,
-            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices: vec![],
-                removed_indices: indices.clone(),
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+/// Wrapper that stores a live VectorIndex in the cache.
+/// Used for v0.1/v0.2 indices that don't support serializable caching.
+#[derive(Debug, lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf)]
+pub(crate) struct CachedLegacyVectorIndex(Arc<dyn VectorIndex>);
 
-        self.apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-            .await?;
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct FragReuseIndexCacheKey<'a> {
+    pub uuid: &'a Uuid,
+    pub fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>,
+}
 
-        Ok(())
+impl<'a> FragReuseIndexCacheKey<'a> {
+    pub fn new(uuid: &'a Uuid, fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>) -> Self {
+        Self { uuid, fri_uuid }
     }
+}
 
-    async fn prewarm_index(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
-        if indices.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::IndexNotFound {
-                identity: format!("name={}", name),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+impl CacheKey for FragReuseIndexCacheKey<'_> {
+    type ValueType = CompactFragReuseIndex;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        if let Some(fri_uuid) = self.fri_uuid {
+            format!("{}-{}", self.uuid, fri_uuid).into()
+        } else {
+            self.uuid.to_string().into()
         }
+    }
 
-        let index = self
-            .open_generic_index(name, &indices[0].uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await?;
-        index.prewarm().await?;
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "FragReuseIndex"
+    }
 
-        Ok(())
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.fragment-reuse-cache-key", 1)
     }
 
-    async fn describe_indices<'a, 'b>(
-        &'a self,
-        criteria: Option<IndexCriteria<'b>>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<Arc<dyn IndexDescription>>> {
-        let indices = self.load_indices().await?;
-        let mut indices = if let Some(criteria) = criteria {
-            indices.iter().filter(|idx| {
-                if idx.index_details.is_none() {
-                    log::warn!("The method describe_indices does not support indexes without index details.  Please retrain the index {}", idx.name);
-                    return false;
-                }
-                let fields = idx
-                    .fields
-                    .iter()
-                    .filter_map(|id| self.schema().field_by_id(*id))
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                match index_matches_criteria(idx, &criteria, &fields, false, self.schema()) {
-                    Ok(matched) => matched,
-                    Err(err) => {
-                        log::warn!("Could not describe index {}: {}", idx.name, err);
-                        false
-                    }
-                }
-            }).collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        } else {
-            indices.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
-        };
-        indices.sort_by_key(|idx| &idx.name);
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        write_index_identity(builder, self.uuid, self.fri_uuid);
+    }
+}
 
-        indices
-            .into_iter()
-            .chunk_by(|idx| &idx.name)
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|(_, segments)| {
-                let segments = segments.cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                let desc = IndexDescriptionImpl::try_new(segments, self)?;
-                Ok(Arc::new(desc) as Arc<dyn IndexDescription>)
-            })
-            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct MemWalCacheKey<'a> {
+    pub uuid: &'a Uuid,
+    pub fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> MemWalCacheKey<'a> {
+    pub fn new(uuid: &'a Uuid, fri_uuid: Option<&'a Uuid>) -> Self {
+        Self { uuid, fri_uuid }
     }
+}
 
-    async fn load_indices(&self) -> Result<Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>> {
-        let metadata_key = IndexMetadataKey {
-            version: self.version().version,
-        };
-        let indices = match self.index_cache.get_with_key(&metadata_key).await {
-            Some(indices) => indices,
-            None => {
-                let mut loaded_indices = read_manifest_indexes(
-                    &self.object_store,
-                    &self.manifest_location,
-                    &self.manifest,
-                )
-                .await?;
-                retain_supported_indices(&mut loaded_indices);
-                let loaded_indices = Arc::new(loaded_indices);
-                self.index_cache
-                    .insert_with_key(&metadata_key, loaded_indices.clone())
-                    .await;
-                loaded_indices
-            }
-        };
+impl CacheKey for MemWalCacheKey<'_> {
+    type ValueType = MemWalIndex;
 
-        if let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) =
-            indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
-        {
-            let uuid = frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid.to_string();
-            let fri_key = FragReuseIndexKey { uuid: &uuid };
-            let frag_reuse_index = self
-                .index_cache
-                .get_or_insert_with_key(fri_key, || async move {
-                    let index_details =
-                        load_frag_reuse_index_details(self, frag_reuse_index_meta).await?;
-                    open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, index_details.as_ref()).await
-                })
-                .await?;
-            let mut indices = indices.as_ref().clone();
-            indices.iter_mut().for_each(|idx| {
-                if let Some(bitmap) = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_mut() {
-                    frag_reuse_index.remap_fragment_bitmap(bitmap).unwrap();
-                }
-            });
-            Ok(Arc::new(indices))
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        if let Some(fri_uuid) = self.fri_uuid {
+            format!("{}-{}", self.uuid, fri_uuid).into()
         } else {
-            Ok(indices)
+            self.uuid.to_string().into()
         }
     }
 
-    async fn commit_existing_index(
-        &mut self,
-        index_name: &str,
-        column: &str,
-        index_id: Uuid,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        let Some(field) = self.schema().field(column) else {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("CreateIndex: column '{column}' does not exist"),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        };
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "MemWalIndex"
+    }
 
-        // TODO: We will need some way to determine the index details here.  Perhaps
-        // we can load the index itself and get the details that way.
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.mem-wal-key", 1)
+    }
 
-        let new_idx = IndexMetadata {
-            uuid: index_id,
-            name: index_name.to_string(),
-            fields: vec![field.id],
-            dataset_version: self.manifest.version,
-            fragment_bitmap: Some(self.get_fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect()),
-            index_details: None,
-            index_version: 0,
-            created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
-            base_id: None, // New indices don't have base_id (they're not from shallow clone)
-        };
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        write_index_identity(builder, self.uuid, self.fri_uuid);
+    }
+}
 
-        let transaction = Transaction::new(
-            self.manifest.version,
-            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices: vec![new_idx],
-                removed_indices: vec![],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+// Whether to auto-migrate a dataset when we encounter corruption.
+fn auto_migrate_corruption() -> bool {
+    static LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION: OnceLock<bool> = OnceLock::new();
+    *LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION.get_or_init(|| parse_env_as_bool("LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION", true))
+}
 
-        self.apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-            .await?;
+/// Derive a friendly (but not necessarily unique) type name from a type URL.
+/// Extract a human-friendly type name from a type URL.
+///
+/// Strips prefixes like `type.googleapis.com/` and package names, then removes
+/// trailing `IndexDetails` / `Index` so callers get a concise display name.
+fn type_name_from_uri(index_uri: &str) -> String {
+    let type_name = index_uri.rsplit('/').next().unwrap_or(index_uri);
+    let type_name = type_name.rsplit('.').next().unwrap_or(type_name);
+    type_name.trim_end_matches("IndexDetails").to_string()
+}
 
-        Ok(())
+/// Legacy mapping from type URL to the old IndexType string for backwards compatibility.
+/// Legacy mapping from type URL to the old IndexType string for backwards compatibility.
+///
+/// If `index_type_hint` is provided (e.g. parsed from the index statistics of a concrete
+/// index instance), it takes precedence so callers can surface the exact index type even
+/// when the type URL alone is too generic (such as VectorIndexDetails).
+fn legacy_type_name(index_uri: &str, index_type_hint: Option<&str>) -> String {
+    if let Some(hint) = index_type_hint {
+        return hint.to_string();
     }
 
-    async fn load_scalar_index<'a, 'b>(
-        &'a self,
-        criteria: IndexCriteria<'b>,
-    ) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
-        let indices = self.load_indices().await?;
+    let base = type_name_from_uri(index_uri);
 
-        let mut indices = indices
-            .iter()
-            .filter(|idx| {
-                // We shouldn't have any indices with empty fields, but just in case, log an error
-                // but don't fail the operation (we might not be using that index)
-                if idx.fields.is_empty() {
-                    if idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME {
-                        log::error!("Index {} has no fields", idx.name);
-                    }
-                    false
-                } else {
-                    true
-                }
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        // This sorting & chunking is only needed to calculate if there are multiple indexes on the same
-        // field.  This fact is only needed for backwards compatibility behavior for indexes that don't have
-        // index details.  At some point we should deprecate indexes without index details.
-        //
-        // TODO: At some point we should just fail if the index details are missing and ask the user to
-        // retrain the index.
-        indices.sort_by_key(|idx| idx.fields[0]);
-        let indice_by_field = indices.into_iter().chunk_by(|idx| idx.fields[0]);
-        for (field_id, indices) in &indice_by_field {
-            let indices = indices.collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            let has_multiple = indices.len() > 1;
-            for idx in indices {
-                let field = self.schema().field_by_id(field_id);
-                if let Some(field) = field {
-                    if index_matches_criteria(
-                        idx,
-                        &criteria,
-                        &[field],
-                        has_multiple,
-                        self.schema(),
-                    )? {
-                        let non_empty = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().is_some_and(|bitmap| {
-                            bitmap.intersection_len(self.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()) > 0
-                        });
-                        let is_fts_index = if let Some(details) = &idx.index_details {
-                            IndexDetails(details.clone()).supports_fts()
-                        } else {
-                            false
-                        };
-                        // FTS indices must always be returned even if empty, because FTS queries
-                        // require an index to exist. The query execution will handle the empty
-                        // bitmap appropriately and fall back to scanning unindexed data.
-                        // Other index types can be skipped if empty since they're optional optimizations.
-                        if non_empty || is_fts_index {
-                            return Ok(Some(idx.clone()));
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        return Ok(None);
+    match base.as_str() {
+        "BTree" => IndexType::BTree.to_string(),
+        "Bitmap" => IndexType::Bitmap.to_string(),
+        "LabelList" => IndexType::LabelList.to_string(),
+        "NGram" => IndexType::NGram.to_string(),
+        "ZoneMap" => IndexType::ZoneMap.to_string(),
+        "BloomFilter" => IndexType::BloomFilter.to_string(),
+        "RTree" => IndexType::RTree.to_string(),
+        "Inverted" => IndexType::Inverted.to_string(),
+        "FMIndex" | "FM" => IndexType::Fm.to_string(),
+        "MinHashLsh" => IndexType::MinHashLsh.to_string(),
+        "Json" => IndexType::Scalar.to_string(),
+        "Flat" | "Vector" => IndexType::Vector.to_string(),
+        other if other.contains("Vector") => IndexType::Vector.to_string(),
+        _ => "N/A".to_string(),
     }
+}
 
-    #[instrument(skip_all)]
-    async fn optimize_indices(&mut self, options: &OptimizeOptions) -> Result<()> {
-        let dataset = Arc::new(self.clone());
-        let indices = self.load_indices().await?;
+/// Builds index.
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait IndexBuilder {
+    fn index_type() -> IndexType;
 
-        let indices_to_optimize = options
-            .index_names
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|names| names.iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>());
-        let name_to_indices = indices
-            .iter()
-            .filter(|idx| {
-                indices_to_optimize
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .is_none_or(|names| names.contains(&idx.name))
-                    && !is_system_index(idx)
-            })
-            .map(|idx| (idx.name.clone(), idx))
-            .into_group_map();
+    async fn build(&self) -> Result<()>;
+}
 
-        let mut new_indices = vec![];
-        let mut removed_indices = vec![];
-        for deltas in name_to_indices.values() {
-            let Some(res) = merge_indices(dataset.clone(), deltas.as_slice(), options).await?
-            else {
-                continue;
-            };
+/// Addresses checked per translation while deciding whether a remap deletes
+/// every indexed row; the check stops at the first surviving row.
+const REMAP_DELETE_CHECK_BATCH: u32 = 64 * 1024;
 
-            let last_idx = deltas.last().expect("Delta indices should not be empty");
-            let new_idx = IndexMetadata {
-                uuid: res.new_uuid,
-                name: last_idx.name.clone(), // Keep the same name
-                fields: last_idx.fields.clone(),
-                dataset_version: self.manifest.version,
-                fragment_bitmap: Some(res.new_fragment_bitmap),
-                index_details: Some(Arc::new(res.new_index_details)),
-                index_version: res.new_index_version,
-                created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
-                base_id: None, // Mew merged index file locates in the cloned dataset.
-            };
-            removed_indices.extend(res.removed_indices.iter().map(|&idx| idx.clone()));
-            if deltas.len() > res.removed_indices.len() {
-                new_indices.extend(
-                    deltas[0..(deltas.len() - res.removed_indices.len())]
-                        .iter()
-                        .map(|&idx| idx.clone()),
-                );
+async fn remap_deletes_all_indexed_rows(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    indexed_fragments: &RoaringBitmap,
+    row_id_map: &RowAddrTranslator,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    for fragment_id in indexed_fragments.iter() {
+        let Some(fragment) = dataset.get_fragment(fragment_id as usize) else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        let Some(physical_rows) = fragment.metadata().physical_rows else {
+            // Legacy fragments may not record their physical row count, so the
+            // remap cannot prove that every possible address was deleted.
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        let Ok(physical_rows) = u32::try_from(physical_rows) else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        for start in (0..physical_rows).step_by(REMAP_DELETE_CHECK_BATCH as usize) {
+            let end = start
+                .saturating_add(REMAP_DELETE_CHECK_BATCH)
+                .min(physical_rows);
+            let addrs: Vec<u64> = (start..end)
+                .map(|offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, offset)))
+                .collect();
+            if row_id_map
+                .remap_row_addrs(&addrs)
+                .await?
+                .iter()
+                .any(|row| row.is_some())
+            {
+                return Ok(false);
             }
-            new_indices.push(new_idx);
-        }
-
-        if new_indices.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(());
         }
+    }
+    Ok(true)
+}
 
-        let transaction = Transaction::new(
-            self.manifest.version,
-            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices,
-                removed_indices,
-            },
-            None,
+pub(crate) async fn remap_index(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_id: &Uuid,
+    row_id_map: &RowAddrTranslator,
+) -> Result<RemapResult> {
+    // A remap is maintenance: a segment the tagged reader excludes from the
+    // listing is still reachable here (its caller decided whether to touch
+    // it), so the metadata comes from the maintenance lookup.
+    let matched = dataset
+        .load_index_with_purpose(index_id, frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance)
+        .await?
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("Index with id {} does not exist", index_id)))?;
+    let matched = &matched;
+
+    // Corrupt metadata fails closed before anything else: a declaration that is
+    // not a valid suffix of `fields` cannot be reasoned about at all, and the
+    // withdrawal below would otherwise swallow it as an ordinary covered index.
+    matched.validate_covering_fields()?;
+
+    // A covered index cannot survive a remap yet. Nothing writes the carried
+    // values in the first place, and each index type's `remap` rewrites only the
+    // schema that type knows about, so the remapped segment would still declare
+    // payload its storage no longer holds. Withdraw it instead, exactly as an
+    // index whose type reports `can_remap() == false` is withdrawn below: an
+    // absent index costs a fallback scan, whereas a surviving false declaration
+    // is answered from data that is not there. Erroring here would instead block
+    // compaction of the whole table.
+    if !matched.covering_fields.is_empty() {
+        log::warn!(
+            "Index '{}' declares covering fields {:?}, which no index builder \
+             writes or preserves yet. Index will be dropped during compaction \
+             and must be rebuilt.",
+            matched.name,
+            matched.covering_fields,
         );
+        return Ok(RemapResult::Drop);
+    }
 
-        self.apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-            .await?;
+    // With covering withdrawn above, `fields` is entirely keyed, so more than one
+    // entry means a genuinely composite index.
+    if matched.fields.len() > 1 {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Remapping index '{}' is not supported: it has {} keyed fields {:?}; \
+             only one keyed field is supported",
+            matched.name,
+            matched.fields.len(),
+            matched.fields,
+        )));
+    }
 
-        Ok(())
+    if let Some(fragments) = matched.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+        && remap_deletes_all_indexed_rows(dataset, fragments, row_id_map).await?
+    {
+        // If remap deleted all rows, we can just return the same index ID.
+        // This can happen if there is a bug where the index is covering empty
+        // fragment that haven't been cleaned up. They should be cleaned up
+        // outside of this function.
+        return Ok(RemapResult::Keep(*index_id));
     }
 
-    async fn index_statistics(&self, index_name: &str) -> Result<String> {
-        let metadatas = self.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await?;
-        if metadatas.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::IndexNotFound {
-                identity: format!("name={}", index_name),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+    let field_id = matched
+        .fields
+        .first()
+        .expect("An index existed with no fields");
+    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(*field_id)?;
 
-        if index_name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME {
-            return index_statistics_frag_reuse(self).boxed().await;
-        }
+    let new_id = Uuid::new_v4();
 
-        if index_name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME {
-            return index_statistics_mem_wal(self).boxed().await;
+    let generic = match dataset
+        .open_generic_index(&field_path, index_id, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+    {
+        Ok(g) => g,
+        Err(e) => {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Cannot open index '{}' on '{}': {}. \
+                 Index will be dropped during compaction.",
+                index_id,
+                field_path,
+                e
+            );
+            return Ok(RemapResult::Drop);
         }
+    };
 
-        index_statistics_scalar(self, index_name, metadatas)
-            .boxed()
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn read_index_partition(
-        &self,
-        index_name: &str,
-        partition_id: usize,
-        with_vector: bool,
-    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await?;
-        if indices.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::IndexNotFound {
-                identity: format!("name={}", index_name),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-        let column = self.schema().field_by_id(indices[0].fields[0]).unwrap();
+    let created_index = match generic.index_type() {
+        it if it.is_scalar() => {
+            let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_id)?;
 
-        let mut schema: Option<Arc<Schema>> = None;
-        let mut partition_streams = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
-        for index in indices {
-            let index = self
-                .open_vector_index(&column.name, &index.uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            let scalar_index = dataset
+                .open_scalar_index(&field_path, index_id, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
                 .await?;
+            if !scalar_index.can_remap() {
+                return Ok(RemapResult::Drop);
+            }
 
-            let stream = index
-                .partition_reader(partition_id, with_vector, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-                .await?;
-            if schema.is_none() {
-                schema = Some(stream.schema());
+            match scalar_index.index_type() {
+                IndexType::Inverted => {
+                    let inverted_index = scalar_index
+                        .as_any()
+                        .downcast_ref::<lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndex>()
+                        .ok_or(Error::index("expected inverted index".to_string()))?;
+                    if inverted_index.is_legacy() {
+                        log::warn!(
+                            "reindex because of legacy format, index_type: {}, index_id: {}, field: {}",
+                            scalar_index.index_type(),
+                            index_id,
+                            field_path
+                        );
+                        let training_data = load_training_data(
+                            dataset,
+                            &field_path,
+                            &TrainingCriteria::new(TrainingOrdering::None),
+                            None,
+                            true, // Legacy reindexing should always train
+                            None,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        InvertedIndexPlugin::train_inverted_index(
+                            training_data,
+                            &new_store,
+                            inverted_index.params().clone(),
+                            None,
+                            Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+                        )
+                        .await?
+                    } else {
+                        scalar_index.remap_streaming(row_id_map, &new_store).await?
+                    }
+                }
+                _ => scalar_index.remap_streaming(row_id_map, &new_store).await?,
             }
-            partition_streams.push(stream);
         }
+        it if it.is_vector() => {
+            let index_version = u32::try_from(matched.index_version).map_err(|_| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "Invalid vector index version {} on index {}",
+                    matched.index_version, matched.name
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let files = remap_vector_index(
+                Arc::new(dataset.clone()),
+                &field_path,
+                index_id,
+                &new_id,
+                matched,
+                row_id_map,
+            )
+            .await?;
 
-        match schema {
-            Some(schema) => {
-                let merged = stream::select_all(partition_streams);
-                let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, merged);
-                Ok(Box::pin(stream))
+            CreatedIndex {
+                index_details: prost_types::Any::from_msg(
+                    &lance_index::pb::VectorIndexDetails::default(),
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+                index_version,
+                files: table_files_to_index(files),
             }
-            None => Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-                Arc::new(Schema::empty()),
-                stream::empty(),
-            ))),
         }
-    }
+        _ => {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index type {} is not supported",
+                generic.index_type()
+            )));
+        }
+    };
+
+    Ok(RemapResult::Remapped(RemappedIndex {
+        old_id: *index_id,
+        new_id,
+        index_details: created_index.index_details,
+        index_version: created_index.index_version,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+    }))
 }
 
-fn sum_indexed_rows_per_delta(indexed_fragments_per_delta: &[Vec<Fragment>]) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
-    let mut rows_per_delta = Vec::with_capacity(indexed_fragments_per_delta.len());
-    for frags in indexed_fragments_per_delta {
-        let mut sum = 0usize;
-        for frag in frags {
-            sum += frag.num_rows().ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Fragment should have row counts, please upgrade lance and \
-                                      trigger a single write to fix this"
-                    .to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        }
-        rows_per_delta.push(sum);
-    }
-    Ok(rows_per_delta)
+/// Snapshot of every scalar index on a dataset, captured at planning time
+/// and consumed by the scalar/aggregate pushdown machinery.
+///
+/// Built once per planner invocation by walking the manifest's `IndexMetadata`
+/// entries; thereafter all lookups are synchronous, so optimizer rules and the
+/// filter parser can interrogate it without needing an async context.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct ScalarIndexInfo {
+    /// Per-column dispatch table for [`apply_scalar_indices`]: keyed by the
+    /// full dotted field path (e.g. `"x"`, `"metadata.status.code"`), the same
+    /// string callers use when referring to columns in filter expressions.
+    ///
+    /// The value pairs the column's data type with a [`MultiQueryParser`]
+    /// that fans out to every per-index parser registered for that column.
+    /// When a column carries more than one index (e.g. BTree + bitmap), the
+    /// `MultiQueryParser` tries each in order and the first match wins; the
+    /// resulting [`crate::scalar::expression::ScalarIndexSearch`] records
+    /// which specific index was chosen. So *which* index served the query is
+    /// an output of parsing, not an input — that's why this map is keyed only
+    /// by column.
+    ///
+    /// `fragment_bitmaps`, by contrast, *is* keyed by `(column, index_name)`,
+    /// because by the time the optimizer needs the bitmap the index name is
+    /// already pinned in the parsed leaf.
+    indexed_columns: HashMap<String, (DataType, Box<MultiQueryParser>)>,
+    /// `(column, index_name) → fragment_bitmap` taken straight off each
+    /// [`IndexMetadata`] at construction time. Used by the optimizer rule for
+    /// aggregate pushdown to reason about index coverage synchronously.
+    /// Indices that omit `fragment_bitmap` (legacy or unsupported) simply
+    /// don't appear here and so report coverage as unknown.
+    fragment_bitmaps: HashMap<(String, String), RoaringBitmap>,
 }
 
-fn unique_indexed_fragment_count(indexed_fragments_per_delta: &[Vec<Fragment>]) -> Option<usize> {
-    let mut fragment_ids = HashSet::new();
-    for frags in indexed_fragments_per_delta {
-        for frag in frags {
-            if !fragment_ids.insert(frag.id) {
-                return None;
-            }
-        }
+impl IndexInformationProvider for ScalarIndexInfo {
+    fn get_index(&self, col: &str) -> Option<(&DataType, &MultiQueryParser)> {
+        self.indexed_columns
+            .get(col)
+            .map(|(ty, parser)| (ty, parser.as_ref()))
     }
-    Some(fragment_ids.len())
-}
 
-fn serialize_index_statistics(stats: &serde_json::Value) -> Result<String> {
-    serde_json::to_string(stats).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-        message: format!("Failed to serialize index statistics: {}", e),
-        location: location!(),
-    })
+    fn fragment_bitmap(&self, column: &str, index_name: &str) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+        self.fragment_bitmaps
+            .get(&(column.to_string(), index_name.to_string()))
+            .cloned()
+    }
 }
 
-async fn migrate_and_recompute_index_statistics(ds: &Dataset, index_name: &str) -> Result<String> {
-    let mut ds = ds.clone();
-    log::warn!(
-        "Detecting out-dated fragment metadata, migrating dataset. \
-                        To disable migration, set LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION=false"
-    );
-    ds.delete("false").await.map_err(|err| Error::Execution {
-        message: format!(
-            "Failed to migrate dataset while calculating index statistics. \
-                            To disable migration, set LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION=false. Original error: {}",
-            err
-        ),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
-    ds.index_statistics(index_name).await
+async fn open_index_proto(reader: &dyn Reader) -> Result<pb::Index> {
+    let file_size = reader.size().await?;
+    let tail_bytes = read_last_block(reader).await?;
+    let metadata_pos = read_metadata_offset(&tail_bytes)?;
+    let proto: pb::Index = if metadata_pos < file_size - tail_bytes.len() {
+        // We have not read the metadata bytes yet.
+        read_message(reader, metadata_pos).await?
+    } else {
+        let offset = tail_bytes.len() - (file_size - metadata_pos);
+        read_message_from_buf(&tail_bytes.slice(offset..))?
+    };
+    Ok(proto)
 }
 
-async fn index_statistics_frag_reuse(ds: &Dataset) -> Result<String> {
-    let index = ds
-        .open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
-        .await?
-        .expect("FragmentReuse index does not exist");
-    serialize_index_statistics(&index.statistics()?)
+struct IndexDescriptionImpl {
+    name: String,
+    field_ids: Vec<u32>,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    index_type: String,
+    /// Index details, or `None` for indices created before details were
+    /// persisted in the manifest. Such indices are still described on a
+    /// best-effort basis rather than rejected.
+    details: Option<IndexDetails>,
+    rows_indexed: u64,
 }
 
-async fn index_statistics_mem_wal(ds: &Dataset) -> Result<String> {
-    let index = ds
-        .open_mem_wal_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
-        .await?
-        .expect("MemWal index does not exist");
-    serialize_index_statistics(&index.statistics()?)
-}
+impl IndexDescriptionImpl {
+    async fn try_new(segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Self> {
+        if segments.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index("Index metadata is empty".to_string()));
+        }
 
-async fn index_statistics_scalar(
-    ds: &Dataset,
-    index_name: &str,
-    metadatas: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
-) -> Result<String> {
-    let field_id = metadatas[0].fields[0];
-    let field_path = ds.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+        // We assume the type URL and details are the same for all segments
+        let example_metadata = &segments[0];
 
-    let (indices_stats, index_uri, num_indices, updated_at) =
-        collect_regular_indices_statistics(ds, metadatas, &field_path).await?;
+        let name = example_metadata.name.clone();
+        if !segments.iter().all(|shard| shard.name == name) {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "Index name should be identical across all segments".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
 
-    let index_type_hint = indices_stats
-        .first()
-        .and_then(|stats| stats.get("index_type"))
-        .and_then(|v| v.as_str());
-    let index_type = legacy_type_name(&index_uri, index_type_hint);
+        let field_ids = &example_metadata.fields;
+        if !segments.iter().all(|shard| shard.fields == *field_ids) {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "Index fields should be identical across all segments".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        // Only the keyed prefix. `fields` also lists the columns the index merely
+        // carries values for, which it cannot be searched on, and this list is what
+        // every binding advertises as the index's columns -- Python's
+        // `_default_vector_index_for_column` matches on membership of it, so
+        // including a carried column here would hand back the keyed column's IVF
+        // model for a query about the carried one.
+        let field_ids_vec: Vec<u32> = example_metadata
+            .keyed_fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| *id as u32)
+            .collect();
 
-    let Some((
-        num_indexed_rows_per_delta,
-        num_indexed_fragments,
-        num_unindexed_fragments,
-        num_indexed_rows,
-        num_unindexed_rows,
-    )) = gather_fragment_statistics(ds, index_name).await?
-    else {
-        return migrate_and_recompute_index_statistics(ds, index_name).await;
-    };
-
-    let stats = json!({
-        "index_type": index_type,
-        "name": index_name,
-        "num_indices": num_indices,
-        "indices": indices_stats,
-        "num_indexed_fragments": num_indexed_fragments,
-        "num_indexed_rows": num_indexed_rows,
-        "num_unindexed_fragments": num_unindexed_fragments,
-        "num_unindexed_rows": num_unindexed_rows,
-        "num_indexed_rows_per_delta": num_indexed_rows_per_delta,
-        "updated_at_timestamp_ms": updated_at,
-    });
-
-    serialize_index_statistics(&stats)
-}
-
-async fn collect_regular_indices_statistics(
-    ds: &Dataset,
-    metadatas: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
-    field_path: &str,
-) -> Result<(Vec<serde_json::Value>, String, usize, Option<u64>)> {
-    let num_indices = metadatas.len();
-    let updated_at = metadatas
-        .iter()
-        .filter_map(|m| m.created_at)
-        .max()
-        .map(|dt| dt.timestamp_millis() as u64);
-
-    let mut indices_stats = Vec::with_capacity(num_indices);
-    let mut index_uri: Option<String> = None;
-
-    for meta in metadatas.iter() {
-        let index_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(ds, meta)?);
-        let index_details = scalar::fetch_index_details(ds, field_path, meta).await?;
-        if index_uri.is_none() {
-            index_uri = Some(index_details.type_url.clone());
-        }
-
-        let index_details_wrapper = scalar::IndexDetails(index_details.clone());
-        if let Ok(plugin) = index_details_wrapper.get_plugin() {
-            if let Some(stats) = plugin
-                .load_statistics(index_store.clone(), index_details.as_ref())
-                .await?
-            {
-                indices_stats.push(stats);
-                continue;
+        // Index details may be absent on indices created before details were
+        // persisted in the manifest. We describe such indices on a best-effort
+        // basis rather than erroring, so callers can still see they exist.
+        let details = example_metadata.index_details.clone().map(IndexDetails);
+        if let Some(details) = details.as_ref() {
+            let type_url = &details.0.type_url;
+            if !segments.iter().all(|shard| {
+                shard
+                    .index_details
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|d| d.type_url == *type_url)
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
+            }) {
+                return Err(Error::index(
+                    "Index type URL should be present and identical across all segments"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ));
             }
         }
 
-        let index = ds
-            .open_generic_index(field_path, &meta.uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await?;
-
-        indices_stats.push(index.statistics()?);
-    }
-
-    Ok((
-        indices_stats,
-        index_uri.unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string()),
-        num_indices,
-        updated_at,
-    ))
-}
-
-async fn gather_fragment_statistics(
-    ds: &Dataset,
-    index_name: &str,
-) -> Result<Option<(Vec<usize>, usize, usize, usize, usize)>> {
-    let indexed_fragments_per_delta = ds.indexed_fragments(index_name).await?;
-
-    let num_indexed_rows_per_delta = match sum_indexed_rows_per_delta(&indexed_fragments_per_delta)
-    {
-        Ok(rows) => rows,
-        Err(Error::Internal { message, .. })
-            if auto_migrate_corruption() && message.contains("trigger a single write") =>
-        {
-            return Ok(None);
-        }
-        Err(e) => return Err(e),
-    };
+        let index_type =
+            if let Some(system_type) = lance_index::infer_system_index_type(example_metadata) {
+                // System indices (frag-reuse, mem-wal) are identified by name, not
+                // by index details, so this must be checked before the plugin lookup.
+                system_type.to_string()
+            } else if let Some(details) = details.as_ref() {
+                if details.is_vector() {
+                    derive_vector_index_type(&details.0)
+                } else {
+                    // Fall back to a name derived from the type URL when no plugin
+                    // is registered, so a known type URL is never reported as the
+                    // opaque "Unknown".
+                    details
+                        .get_plugin()
+                        .map(|p| p.name().to_string())
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|_| {
+                            display_type_from_url(details.0.type_url.as_str()).to_string()
+                        })
+                }
+            } else if segment_has_vector_details(example_metadata) {
+                // Legacy vector indices predate VectorIndexDetails and are
+                // recognized by their monolithic index file name.
+                "Vector".to_string()
+            } else {
+                "Unknown".to_string()
+            };
 
-    let Some(num_indexed_fragments) = unique_indexed_fragment_count(&indexed_fragments_per_delta)
-    else {
-        if auto_migrate_corruption() {
-            return Ok(None);
+        let mut fragment_rows = HashMap::with_capacity(dataset.manifest.fragments.len());
+        for fragment in dataset.iter_fragments() {
+            fragment_rows.insert(
+                fragment.id as u32,
+                fragment_logical_rows_from_metadata(fragment)?,
+            );
         }
-        return Err(Error::Internal {
-            message: "Overlap in indexed fragments. Please upgrade to lance >= 0.23.0 \
-                                  and trigger a single write to fix this"
-                .to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
-    };
+        let mut rows_indexed = 0;
+        let mut indexed_fragment_refs = 0u64;
+        let mut missing_fragment_refs = 0u64;
 
-    let num_unindexed_fragments = ds.fragments().len() - num_indexed_fragments;
-    let num_indexed_rows: usize = num_indexed_rows_per_delta.iter().sum();
+        for shard in &segments {
+            let Some(fragment_bitmap) = shard.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() else {
+                // A system index (e.g. __mem_wal) indexes no fragments, so a
+                // missing bitmap means zero indexed rows. For a data index it
+                // means unknown coverage — reject rather than fabricate a count.
+                if is_system_index(shard) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                return Err(Error::index("Fragment bitmap is required for index description.  This index must be retrained to support this method.".to_string()));
+            };
 
-    drop(indexed_fragments_per_delta);
-    let total_rows = ds.count_rows(None).await?;
-    let num_unindexed_rows = total_rows - num_indexed_rows;
+            indexed_fragment_refs += fragment_bitmap.len();
+            for fragment_id in fragment_bitmap.iter() {
+                if let Some(fragment_rows) = fragment_rows.get(&fragment_id) {
+                    rows_indexed += *fragment_rows;
+                } else {
+                    missing_fragment_refs += 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        tracing::debug!(
+            index_name = name.as_str(),
+            index_type = index_type.as_str(),
+            segment_count = segments.len(),
+            dataset_fragment_count = fragment_rows.len(),
+            indexed_fragment_refs,
+            missing_fragment_refs,
+            rows_indexed,
+            "described index row coverage from fragment metadata"
+        );
 
-    Ok(Some((
-        num_indexed_rows_per_delta,
-        num_indexed_fragments,
-        num_unindexed_fragments,
-        num_indexed_rows,
-        num_unindexed_rows,
-    )))
+        Ok(Self {
+            name,
+            field_ids: field_ids_vec,
+            index_type,
+            segments,
+            details,
+            rows_indexed,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
-pub(crate) fn retain_supported_indices(indices: &mut Vec<IndexMetadata>) {
-    indices.retain(|idx| {
-        let max_supported_version = idx
-            .index_details
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|details| {
-                IndexDetails(details.clone())
-                    .index_version()
-                    // If we don't know how to read the index, it isn't supported
-                    .unwrap_or(i32::MAX as u32)
-            })
-            .unwrap_or_default();
-        let is_valid = idx.index_version <= max_supported_version as i32;
-        if !is_valid {
-            log::warn!(
-                "Index {} has version {}, which is not supported (<={}), ignoring it",
-                idx.name,
-                idx.index_version,
-                max_supported_version,
-            );
-        }
-        is_valid
+fn fragment_logical_rows_from_metadata(fragment: &Fragment) -> Result<u64> {
+    fragment.num_rows().map(|rows| rows as u64).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal(format!(
+            "Index description requires physical row count and deletion count in fragment metadata. To add this, make a write to this dataset using this library version. Fragment id: {}",
+            fragment.id
+        ))
     })
 }
 
-/// A trait for internal dataset utilities
-///
-/// Internal use only. No API stability guarantees.
-#[async_trait]
-pub trait DatasetIndexInternalExt: DatasetIndexExt {
-    /// Opens an index (scalar or vector) as a generic index
-    async fn open_generic_index(
-        &self,
-        column: &str,
-        uuid: &str,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Index>>;
-    /// Opens the requested scalar index
-    async fn open_scalar_index(
-        &self,
-        column: &str,
-        uuid: &str,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>;
-    /// Opens the requested vector index
-    async fn open_vector_index(
-        &self,
-        column: &str,
-        uuid: &str,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>>;
-
-    /// Opens the fragment reuse index
-    async fn open_frag_reuse_index(
-        &self,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>>;
-
-    /// Opens the MemWAL index
-    async fn open_mem_wal_index(
-        &self,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<MemWalIndex>>>;
-
-    /// Gets the fragment reuse index UUID from the current manifest, if it exists
-    async fn frag_reuse_index_uuid(&self) -> Option<Uuid>;
-
-    /// Loads information about all the available scalar indices on the dataset
-    async fn scalar_index_info(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexInfo>;
-
-    /// Return the fragments that are not covered by any of the deltas of the index.
-    async fn unindexed_fragments(&self, idx_name: &str) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>>;
-
-    /// Return the fragments that are covered by each of the deltas of the index.
-    async fn indexed_fragments(&self, idx_name: &str) -> Result<Vec<Vec<Fragment>>>;
+impl IndexDescription for IndexDescriptionImpl {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.name
+    }
 
-    /// Initialize a specific index on this dataset based on an index from a source dataset.
-    async fn initialize_index(&mut self, source_dataset: &Dataset, index_name: &str) -> Result<()>;
+    fn field_ids(&self) -> &[u32] {
+        &self.field_ids
+    }
 
-    /// Initialize all indices on this dataset based on indices from a source dataset.
-    /// This will call `initialize_index` for each non-system index in the source dataset.
-    async fn initialize_indices(&mut self, source_dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()>;
-}
+    fn index_type(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.index_type
+    }
 
-#[async_trait]
-impl DatasetIndexInternalExt for Dataset {
-    async fn open_generic_index(
-        &self,
-        column: &str,
-        uuid: &str,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Index>> {
-        // Checking for cache existence is cheap so we just check both scalar and vector caches
-        let frag_reuse_uuid = self.frag_reuse_index_uuid().await;
-        let cache_key = ScalarIndexCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
-        if let Some(index) = self.index_cache.get_unsized_with_key(&cache_key).await {
-            return Ok(index.as_index());
-        }
+    fn metadata(&self) -> &[IndexMetadata] {
+        &self.segments
+    }
 
-        let vector_cache_key = VectorIndexCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
-        if let Some(index) = self
-            .index_cache
-            .get_unsized_with_key(&vector_cache_key)
-            .await
-        {
-            return Ok(index.as_index());
-        }
+    fn type_url(&self) -> &str {
+        self.details
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|d| d.0.type_url.as_str())
+            .unwrap_or("")
+    }
 
-        let frag_reuse_cache_key = FragReuseIndexCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
-        if let Some(index) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&frag_reuse_cache_key).await {
-            return Ok(index.as_index());
-        }
+    fn rows_indexed(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.rows_indexed
+    }
 
-        // Sometimes we want to open an index and we don't care if it is a scalar or vector index.
-        // For example, we might want to get statistics for an index, regardless of type.
-        //
-        // Currently, we solve this problem by checking for the existence of INDEX_FILE_NAME since
-        // only vector indices have this file.  In the future, once we support multiple kinds of
-        // scalar indices, we may start having this file with scalar indices too.  Once that happens
-        // we can just read this file and look at the `implementation` or `index_type` fields to
-        // determine what kind of index it is.
-        let index_meta = self.load_index(uuid).await?.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-        let index_dir = self.indice_files_dir(&index_meta)?;
-        let index_file = index_dir.child(uuid).child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
-        if self.object_store.exists(&index_file).await? {
-            let index = self.open_vector_index(column, uuid, metrics).await?;
-            Ok(index.as_index())
+    fn details(&self) -> Result<String> {
+        let Some(details) = self.details.as_ref() else {
+            return Ok("{}".to_string());
+        };
+        if details.is_vector() {
+            vector_details_as_json(&details.0)
         } else {
-            let index = self.open_scalar_index(column, uuid, metrics).await?;
-            Ok(index.as_index())
+            let plugin = details.get_plugin()?;
+            plugin.details_as_json(&details.0).map(|v| v.to_string())
         }
     }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    async fn open_scalar_index(
-        &self,
-        column: &str,
-        uuid: &str,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
-        let frag_reuse_uuid = self.frag_reuse_index_uuid().await;
-        let cache_key = ScalarIndexCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
-        if let Some(index) = self.index_cache.get_unsized_with_key(&cache_key).await {
-            return Ok(index);
+    fn total_size_bytes(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        let mut total = 0u64;
+        for segment in &self.segments {
+            // If any segment is missing file info, return None for backward compatibility
+            let files = segment.files.as_ref()?;
+            for file in files {
+                total += file.size_bytes;
+            }
         }
+        Some(total)
+    }
+}
 
-        let index_meta = self.load_index(uuid).await?.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-
-        let index = scalar::open_scalar_index(self, column, &index_meta, metrics).await?;
-
-        info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_SCALAR, index_type=index.index_type().to_string());
-        metrics.record_index_load();
+impl Dataset {
+    /// Whether an otherwise empty commit would record a new MemWAL catch-up
+    /// position.
+    ///
+    /// Dry-runs the derivation rather than restating its conditions: a second
+    /// copy of "is this index behind" would be one more place to keep in step
+    /// with the real rule. A no-work optimize publishes no new segment, so the
+    /// index list it would commit is the one already loaded, and the version it
+    /// would read is the current one -- which makes the speculative answer the
+    /// same one the commit reaches.
+    fn mem_wal_catch_up_would_advance(&self, indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> Result<bool> {
+        if !indices.iter().any(|index| index.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME) {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        let catchup_of = |indices: &[IndexMetadata]| -> Result<Option<Vec<_>>> {
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|index| index.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+                .cloned()
+                .map(|index| {
+                    crate::index::mem_wal::load_mem_wal_index_details(index)
+                        .map(|details| details.index_catchup)
+                })
+                .transpose()
+        };
 
-        self.index_cache
-            .insert_unsized_with_key(&cache_key, index.clone())
-            .await;
-        Ok(index)
+        let mut speculative = indices.to_vec();
+        Transaction::apply_mem_wal_index_coverage(
+            &mut speculative,
+            &Transaction::logical_index_segments(indices),
+            Some(ReadVersionState {
+                manifest: &self.manifest,
+                indices,
+            }),
+            self.manifest.version + 1,
+        )?;
+        Ok(catchup_of(&speculative)? != catchup_of(indices)?)
     }
+}
 
-    async fn open_vector_index(
-        &self,
-        column: &str,
-        uuid: &str,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        let frag_reuse_uuid = self.frag_reuse_index_uuid().await;
-        let cache_key = VectorIndexCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
-
-        if let Some(index) = self.index_cache.get_unsized_with_key(&cache_key).await {
-            log::debug!("Found vector index in cache uuid: {}", uuid);
-            return Ok(index);
-        }
-
-        let frag_reuse_index = self.open_frag_reuse_index(metrics).await?;
-        let index_meta = self.load_index(uuid).await?.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-        let index_dir = self.indice_files_dir(&index_meta)?;
-        let index_file = index_dir.child(uuid).child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
-        let reader: Arc<dyn Reader> = self.object_store.open(&index_file).await?.into();
-
-        let tailing_bytes = read_last_block(reader.as_ref()).await?;
-        let (major_version, minor_version) = read_version(&tailing_bytes)?;
-
-        // Namespace the index cache by the UUID of the index.
-        let index_cache = self.index_cache.with_key_prefix(&cache_key.key());
+#[async_trait]
+impl DatasetIndexExt for Dataset {
+    type IndexBuilder<'a> = CreateIndexBuilder<'a>;
+    /// Create a builder for creating an index on columns.
+    ///
+    /// This returns a builder that can be configured with additional options
+    /// before awaiting to execute.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// Create a scalar BTREE index:
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+    /// # use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    /// # use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+    /// dataset
+    ///     .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+    ///     .name("id_index".to_string())
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// Create an empty index that will be populated later:
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+    /// # use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    /// # use lance_index::{IndexType, scalar::ScalarIndexParams};
+    /// # async fn example(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+    /// let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+    /// dataset
+    ///     .create_index_builder(&["category"], IndexType::Bitmap, &params)
+    ///     .train(false)  // Create empty index
+    ///     .replace(true)  // Replace if exists
+    ///     .await?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    fn create_index_builder<'a>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        columns: &[&str],
+        index_type: IndexType,
+        params: &'a dyn IndexParams,
+    ) -> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
+        CreateIndexBuilder::new(self, columns, index_type, params)
+    }
 
-        // the index file is in lance format since version (0,2)
-        // TODO: we need to change the legacy IVF_PQ to be in lance format
-        let index = match (major_version, minor_version) {
-            (0, 1) | (0, 0) => {
-                info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_VECTOR, version="0.1", index_type="IVF_PQ");
-                let proto = open_index_proto(reader.as_ref()).await?;
-                match &proto.implementation {
-                    Some(Implementation::VectorIndex(vector_index)) => {
-                        let dataset = Arc::new(self.clone());
-                        vector::open_vector_index(
-                            dataset,
-                            uuid,
-                            vector_index,
-                            reader,
-                            frag_reuse_index,
-                        )
-                        .await
-                    }
-                    None => Err(Error::Internal {
-                        message: "Index proto was missing implementation field".into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    }),
-                }
-            }
+    #[instrument(skip_all)]
+    async fn create_index(
+        &mut self,
+        columns: &[&str],
+        index_type: IndexType,
+        name: Option<String>,
+        params: &dyn IndexParams,
+        replace: bool,
+    ) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+        // Use the builder pattern with default train=true for backward compatibility
+        let mut builder = self.create_index_builder(columns, index_type, params);
 
-            (0, 2) => {
-                info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_VECTOR, version="0.2", index_type="IVF_PQ");
-                let reader = PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(
-                    reader.clone(),
-                    Some(&self.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&index_file)),
-                )
-                .await?;
-                vector::open_vector_index_v2(
-                    Arc::new(self.clone()),
-                    column,
-                    uuid,
-                    reader,
-                    frag_reuse_index,
-                )
-                .await
-            }
+        if let Some(name) = name {
+            builder = builder.name(name);
+        }
 
-            (0, 3) | (2, _) => {
-                let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
-                    self.object_store.clone(),
-                    SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&self.object_store),
-                );
-                let file = scheduler
-                    .open_file(&index_file, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-                    .await?;
-                let reader = lance_file::reader::FileReader::try_open(
-                    file,
-                    None,
-                    Default::default(),
-                    &self.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&index_file),
-                    FileReaderOptions::default(),
-                )
-                .await?;
-                let index_metadata = reader
-                    .schema()
-                    .metadata
-                    .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
-                    .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                        message: "Index Metadata not found".to_owned(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-                let index_metadata: lance_index::IndexMetadata =
-                    serde_json::from_str(index_metadata)?;
+        builder.replace(replace).await
+    }
 
-                // Resolve the column name and field
-                let (field_path, field) = resolve_index_column(self.schema(), &index_meta, column)?;
+    async fn drop_index(&mut self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        // Removal never opens the index, so an index this build cannot read is
+        // still droppable - and has to be, since it is otherwise unremovable.
+        let indices = load_all_indices_by_name(self, name).await?;
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!("name={}", name)));
+        }
 
-                let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(self.schema(), &field_path)?;
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            self.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![],
+                removed_indices: indices.clone(),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
 
-                info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_VECTOR, version="0.3", index_type=index_metadata.index_type);
+        self.apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await?;
 
-                match index_metadata.index_type.as_str() {
-                    "IVF_FLAT" => match element_type {
-                        DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64 => {
-                            let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::try_new(
-                                self.object_store.clone(),
-                                index_dir,
-                                uuid.to_owned(),
-                                frag_reuse_index,
-                                self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
-                                index_cache,
-                            )
-                            .await?;
-                            Ok(Arc::new(ivf) as Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)
-                        }
-                        DataType::UInt8 => {
-                            let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::try_new(
-                                self.object_store.clone(),
-                                index_dir,
-                                uuid.to_owned(),
-                                frag_reuse_index,
-                                self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
-                                index_cache,
-                            )
-                            .await?;
-                            Ok(Arc::new(ivf) as Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)
-                        }
-                        _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                            message: format!(
-                                "the field type {} is not supported for FLAT index",
-                                field.data_type()
-                            ),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        }),
-                    },
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-                    "IVF_PQ" => {
-                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::try_new(
-                            self.object_store.clone(),
-                            index_dir,
-                            uuid.to_owned(),
-                            frag_reuse_index,
-                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
-                            index_cache,
-                        )
-                        .await?;
-                        Ok(Arc::new(ivf) as Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)
-                    }
+    async fn prewarm_index(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!("name={}", name)));
+        }
 
-                    "IVF_SQ" => {
-                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::try_new(
-                            self.object_store.clone(),
-                            index_dir,
-                            uuid.to_owned(),
-                            frag_reuse_index,
-                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
-                            index_cache,
-                        )
-                        .await?;
-                        Ok(Arc::new(ivf) as Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)
-                    }
+        let available_segment_count = indices.len();
+        prewarm_index_segments_by_metadata(self, name, indices, None, available_segment_count, None)
+            .await
+            .map(|_| ())
+    }
 
-                    "IVF_RQ" => {
-                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::try_new(
-                            self.object_store.clone(),
-                            self.indices_dir(),
-                            uuid.to_owned(),
-                            frag_reuse_index,
-                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
-                            index_cache,
-                        )
-                        .await?;
-                        Ok(Arc::new(ivf) as Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)
-                    }
+    async fn prewarm_index_with_options(&self, name: &str, options: &PrewarmOptions) -> Result<()> {
+        self.prewarm_index_with_options_result(name, options)
+            .await
+            .map(|_| ())
+    }
 
-                    "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => {
-                        let uri = index_dir.child(uuid).child("index.pb");
-                        let file_metadata_cache =
-                            self.session.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&uri);
-                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::try_new(
-                            self.object_store.clone(),
-                            index_dir,
-                            uuid.to_owned(),
-                            frag_reuse_index,
-                            &file_metadata_cache,
-                            index_cache,
-                        )
-                        .await?;
-                        Ok(Arc::new(ivf) as Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)
-                    }
+    async fn prewarm_index_with_options_result(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        options: &PrewarmOptions,
+    ) -> Result<FtsPrewarmResult> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!("name={}", name)));
+        }
 
-                    "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => {
-                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::try_new(
-                            self.object_store.clone(),
-                            index_dir,
-                            uuid.to_owned(),
-                            frag_reuse_index,
-                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
-                            index_cache,
-                        )
-                        .await?;
-                        Ok(Arc::new(ivf) as Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)
-                    }
+        let available_segment_count = indices.len();
+        prewarm_index_segments_by_metadata(
+            self,
+            name,
+            indices,
+            Some(options),
+            available_segment_count,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
 
-                    "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => {
-                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::try_new(
-                            self.object_store.clone(),
-                            index_dir,
-                            uuid.to_owned(),
-                            frag_reuse_index,
-                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
-                            index_cache,
-                        )
-                        .await?;
-                        Ok(Arc::new(ivf) as Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)
-                    }
+    async fn prewarm_index_segments(&self, name: &str, segment_ids: &[Uuid]) -> Result<()> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!("name={}", name)));
+        }
+        let available_segment_count = indices.len();
+        let indices = filter_index_segments_by_ids(name, indices, segment_ids)?;
 
-                    _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("Unsupported index type: {}", index_metadata.index_type),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    }),
-                }
-            }
+        prewarm_index_segments_by_metadata(
+            self,
+            name,
+            indices,
+            None,
+            available_segment_count,
+            Some(segment_ids.len()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .map(|_| ())
+    }
 
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "unsupported index version (maybe need to upgrade your lance version)"
-                    .to_owned(),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
-        };
-        let index = index?;
-        metrics.record_index_load();
-        self.index_cache
-            .insert_unsized_with_key(&cache_key, index.clone())
-            .await;
-        Ok(index)
+    async fn prewarm_index_segments_with_options(
+        &self,
+        name: &str,
+        segment_ids: &[Uuid],
+        options: &PrewarmOptions,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        self.prewarm_index_segments_with_options_result(name, segment_ids, options)
+            .await
+            .map(|_| ())
     }
 
-    async fn open_frag_reuse_index(
+    async fn prewarm_index_segments_with_options_result(
         &self,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>> {
-        if let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = self.load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await? {
-            let uuid = frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid.to_string();
-            let frag_reuse_key = FragReuseIndexKey { uuid: &uuid };
-            let uuid_clone = uuid.clone();
+        name: &str,
+        segment_ids: &[Uuid],
+        options: &PrewarmOptions,
+    ) -> Result<FtsPrewarmResult> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!("name={}", name)));
+        }
+        let available_segment_count = indices.len();
+        let indices = filter_index_segments_by_ids(name, indices, segment_ids)?;
 
-            let index = self
-                .index_cache
-                .get_or_insert_with_key(frag_reuse_key, || async move {
-                    let index_meta = self.load_index(&uuid_clone).await?.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid_clone),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-                    let index_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(self, &index_meta).await?;
-                    let index =
-                        open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, index_details.as_ref()).await?;
+        prewarm_index_segments_by_metadata(
+            self,
+            name,
+            indices,
+            Some(options),
+            available_segment_count,
+            Some(segment_ids.len()),
+        )
+        .await
+    }
 
-                    info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=uuid_clone, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_FRAG_REUSE);
-                    metrics.record_index_load();
+    async fn describe_indices<'a, 'b>(
+        &'a self,
+        criteria: Option<IndexCriteria<'b>>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Arc<dyn IndexDescription>>> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices().await?;
+        let mut indices = if let Some(criteria) = criteria {
+            indices.iter().filter(|idx| {
+                if idx.index_details.is_none() {
+                    log::warn!("The method describe_indices does not support indexes without index details.  Please retrain the index {}", idx.name);
+                    return false;
+                }
+                // Only the keyed prefix. `index_matches_criteria` compares this
+                // slice against the single column named by `for_column`, so
+                // passing the carried columns too would push its length past one
+                // and silently drop every covered index from a filtered
+                // describe.
+                let fields = idx
+                    .keyed_fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter_map(|id| self.schema().field_by_id(*id))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                match index_matches_criteria(idx, &criteria, &fields, false, self.schema()) {
+                    Ok(matched) => matched,
+                    Err(err) => {
+                        log::warn!("Could not describe index {}: {}", idx.name, err);
+                        false
+                    }
+                }
+            }).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        } else {
+            indices.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        indices.sort_by_key(|idx| &idx.name);
 
-                    Ok(index)
-                })
-                .await?;
+        let grouped: Vec<Vec<IndexMetadata>> = indices
+            .into_iter()
+            .chunk_by(|idx| idx.name.clone())
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(_, segments)| segments.cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+            .collect();
 
-            Ok(Some(index))
-        } else {
-            Ok(None)
+        let mut results = Vec::with_capacity(grouped.len());
+        for segments in grouped {
+            let desc = IndexDescriptionImpl::try_new(segments, self).await?;
+            results.push(Arc::new(desc) as Arc<dyn IndexDescription>);
         }
+        Ok(results)
     }
 
-    async fn open_mem_wal_index(
-        &self,
-        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<MemWalIndex>>> {
-        let Some(mem_wal_meta) = self.load_index_by_name(MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME).await? else {
-            return Ok(None);
-        };
+    /// From the derived listing only: a segment the tagged reader excludes
+    /// (it derives no coverage for it) is absent here, so a query opening it
+    /// by uuid fails instead of answering with nothing. Maintenance reaches
+    /// such a segment through `Dataset::load_index_with_purpose`.
+    async fn load_index(&self, uuid: &Uuid) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+        self.load_index_with_purpose(uuid, frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Query)
+            .await
+    }
 
-        let frag_reuse_uuid = self.frag_reuse_index_uuid().await;
-        let cache_key = MemWalCacheKey::new(&mem_wal_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
-        if let Some(index) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
-            log::debug!("Found MemWAL index in cache uuid: {}", mem_wal_meta.uuid);
-            return Ok(Some(index));
+    async fn load_indices(&self) -> Result<Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>> {
+        let indices = load_all_indices(self).await?;
+        // Readers apply the fragment reuse index to every index they open.
+        let indices = if has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(&self.manifest, &indices)
+            && indices.iter().any(is_hidden_by_frag_reuse)
+        {
+            Arc::new(
+                indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|idx| !is_hidden_by_frag_reuse(idx))
+                    .cloned()
+                    .collect(),
+            )
+        } else {
+            indices
+        };
+        if let Some(fri) = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME) {
+            match fri.index_version {
+                // Legacy FRI index version 0 already had its fragment coverage
+                // remapped in load_all_indices().
+                0 => {}
+                1 => {
+                    // Cache the coverage-rewritten listing per snapshot identity:
+                    // load_indices sits on the query-planning and merge_insert
+                    // per-batch paths, and the derivation (segment_coverage plus
+                    // the per-index bitmap rewrites) is otherwise redone on every
+                    // call. The raw ledger and mapping readers are already cached
+                    // by frag_reuse_reader; this caches its derived output.
+                    let derived_key = DerivedIndexListingKey {
+                        version: self.version().version,
+                        store_identity: &self.object_store.store_prefix,
+                        e_tag: self.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+                    };
+                    return self
+                        .index_cache
+                        .get_or_insert_with_key(derived_key, || async {
+                            let derived =
+                                frag_reuse_reader::load_indices(self, fri, &indices).await?;
+                            Ok(derived.as_ref().clone())
+                        })
+                        .await;
+                }
+                version => {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                        "FRI index_version {version} is unsupported. Please upgrade to a newer version",
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
         }
+        if indices.iter().all(index_is_usable) {
+            return Ok(indices);
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|idx| index_is_usable(idx))
+                .cloned()
+                .collect(),
+        ))
+    }
 
-        let uuid = mem_wal_meta.uuid.to_string();
-
-        let index_meta = self.load_index(&uuid).await?.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid),
-            location: location!(),
+    async fn merge_existing_index_segments(
+        &self,
+        source_segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+        validate_segment_metadata("uncommitted", &source_segments)?;
+        if let Some(segment) = source_segments
+            .iter()
+            .find(|segment| segment.dataset_version > self.manifest.version)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "merge_existing_index_segments: segment {} was built at future dataset version {} (current version {})",
+                segment.uuid, segment.dataset_version, self.manifest.version
+            )));
+        }
+        // On a tagged table the staged segments are validated against this
+        // snapshot before anything reads their addresses or projects their
+        // coverage: a rewrite since their build may have moved their rows
+        // (fine, they translate) or rewritten an indexed column in place (the
+        // affected coverage is withdrawn). See `replay_staged_segments`.
+        let source_segments = replay_staged_segments(self, source_segments).await?;
+        let mut source_segments = source_segments;
+        let source_dataset_version = source_segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.dataset_version)
+            .min()
+            .unwrap_or(self.manifest.version);
+        let field_id = *source_segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+                source_segments[0].uuid
+            ))
         })?;
-        let index = open_mem_wal_index(index_meta)?;
-
-        info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_MEM_WAL);
-        metrics.record_index_load();
+        let expected_covering_fields = source_segments[0].covering_fields.clone();
+        for segment in &source_segments {
+            // Same rule as `build_index_metadata_from_segments`: only the
+            // keyed-field count matters here, not the exact `fields` vector,
+            // so a covered segment is not rejected outright.
+            if segment.keyed_field() != Some(field_id) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "merge_existing_index_segments: segment {} was built for fields {:?} \
+                     (carried {:?}), expected keyed field [{}]",
+                    segment.uuid, segment.fields, segment.covering_fields, field_id
+                )));
+            }
+            segment.validate_covering_fields()?;
+            // Merging requires one coherent output declaration, so every
+            // input must carry the same columns (not merely the same count).
+            if segment.covering_fields != expected_covering_fields {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "merge_existing_index_segments requires segments with identical fields"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        let all_vector = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_vector_details);
+        let all_inverted = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_inverted_details);
+        let all_bitmap = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_bitmap_details);
+        let all_bloomfilter = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_bloomfilter_details);
+        let all_btree = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_btree_details);
+        let all_fmindex = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_fmindex_details);
+        let all_zonemap = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_zonemap_details);
+        let all_label_list = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_label_list_details);
+        let all_rtree = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_rtree_details);
+        let all_ngram = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_ngram_details);
+        let all_minhashlsh = source_segments.iter().all(segment_has_minhashlsh_details);
+        if !all_vector
+            && !all_inverted
+            && !all_bitmap
+            && !all_bloomfilter
+            && !all_btree
+            && !all_fmindex
+            && !all_zonemap
+            && !all_label_list
+            && !all_rtree
+            && !all_ngram
+            && !all_minhashlsh
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "merge_existing_index_segments requires all segments to have the same supported index type"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
 
-        self.index_cache
-            .insert_with_key(&cache_key, index.clone())
-            .await;
-        Ok(Some(index))
-    }
+        validate_segment_params_compatible(&[], &source_segments)?;
 
-    async fn frag_reuse_index_uuid(&self) -> Option<Uuid> {
-        if let Ok(indices) = self.load_indices().await {
-            indices
-                .iter()
-                .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
-                .map(|idx| idx.uuid)
-        } else {
+        // Coverage may only move with the row addresses. A scalar merge loads its
+        // sources through the reuse index as a row-address remapper, so those
+        // addresses land in the current fragment space and the coverage has to
+        // follow them.
+        //
+        // Vector is exempt because its merge cannot remap: it hands the segments
+        // to the distributed file merger with an object store and a directory,
+        // reaching no dataset and so no reuse index.
+        //
+        // RTree is exempt for a narrower reason: it does load through the
+        // remapper, but the `all_rtree` branch below writes the same coverage
+        // field from its own staleness pruning, so a value set here would not
+        // survive. Placing it under the remap means settling how the two compose.
+        // Staged segments are unknown to the snapshot plan: on a tagged table
+        // they are planned here as one group and every open below uses that
+        // plan (see `frag_reuse::plan_staged_segments`).
+        let staged = if all_vector {
             None
+        } else {
+            frag_reuse::plan_staged_segments(self, &source_segments).await?
+        };
+        let has_remapped_source_coverage = if !all_vector && !all_rtree {
+            let index_name = source_segments[0].name.clone();
+            remap_merged_segment_coverage(self, &index_name, &mut source_segments, staged.as_ref())
+                .await?
+        } else {
+            false
+        };
+
+        // Refused before the pruning below, which checks out historical dataset
+        // versions: a build without `geo` cannot merge these segments at all, so
+        // that work would be discarded.
+        #[cfg(not(feature = "geo"))]
+        if all_rtree {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "RTree segment merge requires the `geo` feature".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
-    }
 
-    #[instrument(level = "trace", skip_all)]
-    async fn scalar_index_info(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexInfo> {
-        let indices = self.load_indices().await?;
-        let schema = self.schema();
-        let mut indexed_fields = Vec::new();
-        for index in indices.iter().filter(|idx| {
-            let idx_schema = schema.project_by_ids(idx.fields.as_slice(), true);
-            let is_vector_index = idx_schema
-                .fields
+        let merged_dataset_version = if all_rtree {
+            let mut source_coverage = source_segments
                 .iter()
-                .any(|f| is_vector_field(f.data_type()));
+                .cloned()
+                .map(IntoIndexSegment::into_index_segment)
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            prune_stale_segment_coverage(self, &mut source_coverage, true, true).await?;
+            for (source, coverage) in source_segments.iter_mut().zip(source_coverage) {
+                source.fragment_bitmap = Some(coverage.fragment_bitmap().clone());
+            }
+            self.manifest.version
+        } else if has_remapped_source_coverage {
+            self.manifest.version
+        } else {
+            source_dataset_version
+        };
 
-            // Check if this is an FTS index by looking at index details
-            let is_fts_index = if let Some(details) = &idx.index_details {
-                IndexDetails(details.clone()).supports_fts()
-            } else {
-                false
-            };
+        let staged = staged.as_ref();
+        let mut merged_segment = if all_vector {
+            crate::index::vector::ivf::merge_segments(self, source_segments).await?
+        } else if all_inverted {
+            crate::index::scalar::inverted::merge_segments(self, source_segments, staged).await?
+        } else if all_fmindex {
+            crate::index::scalar::fmindex::merge_segments(
+                self,
+                source_segments,
+                has_remapped_source_coverage,
+                staged,
+            )
+            .await?
+        } else if all_bitmap {
+            crate::index::scalar::bitmap::merge_segments(self, source_segments, staged).await?
+        } else if all_bloomfilter {
+            crate::index::scalar::bloomfilter::merge_segments(self, source_segments, staged).await?
+        } else if all_label_list {
+            crate::index::scalar::label_list::merge_segments(self, source_segments, staged).await?
+        } else if all_zonemap {
+            crate::index::scalar::zonemap::merge_segments(self, source_segments, staged).await?
+        } else if all_ngram {
+            crate::index::scalar::ngram::merge_segments(self, source_segments, staged).await?
+        } else if all_minhashlsh {
+            crate::index::scalar::minhash_lsh::merge_segments(self, source_segments, staged).await?
+        } else if all_rtree {
+            #[cfg(feature = "geo")]
+            {
+                crate::index::scalar::rtree::merge_segments(self, source_segments, staged).await?
+            }
+            // Refused above, before the coverage work.
+            #[cfg(not(feature = "geo"))]
+            unreachable!("an RTree merge without `geo` returns before this point")
+        } else {
+            crate::index::scalar::btree::merge_segments(self, source_segments, staged).await?
+        };
+        if !all_ngram && !all_fmindex {
+            merged_segment.dataset_version = merged_dataset_version;
+        }
+        Ok(merged_segment)
+    }
 
-            // Only include indices with non-empty fragment bitmaps, except for FTS indices
-            // which need to be discoverable even when empty
-            let has_non_empty_bitmap = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().is_some_and(|bitmap| {
-                !bitmap.is_empty() && !(bitmap & self.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()).is_empty()
-            });
+    async fn commit_existing_index_segments(
+        &mut self,
+        index_name: &str,
+        column: &str,
+        segments: Vec<impl IntoIndexSegment + Send>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let Some(field) = self.schema().field(column) else {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: column '{column}' does not exist"
+            )));
+        };
 
-            idx.fields.len() == 1 && !is_vector_index && (has_non_empty_bitmap || is_fts_index)
+        let segments = segments
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(IntoIndexSegment::into_index_segment)
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let dataset_fragments = self.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone();
+        if segments.first().is_some_and(|segment| {
+            segment
+                .index_details()
+                .type_url
+                .ends_with("NGramIndexDetails")
         }) {
-            let field = index.fields[0];
-            let field = schema.field_by_id(field).ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Index referenced a field with id {field} which did not exist in the schema"
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-
-            // Build the full field path for nested fields
-            let field_path = if let Some(ancestors) = schema.field_ancestry_by_id(field.id) {
-                let field_refs: Vec<&str> = ancestors.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
-                lance_core::datatypes::format_field_path(&field_refs)
-            } else {
-                field.name.clone()
-            };
-
-            let index_details = IndexDetails(fetch_index_details(self, &field_path, index).await?);
-            if index_details.is_vector() {
-                continue;
+            let has_retired_coverage = segments
+                .iter()
+                .any(|segment| !(segment.fragment_bitmap() - &dataset_fragments).is_empty());
+            let frag_reuse_index = self.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
+            let requires_rebuild = frag_reuse_index.as_ref().is_some_and(|frag_reuse_index| {
+                segments.iter().any(|segment| {
+                    append::fragment_reuse_affects_segment(
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                        segment.fragment_bitmap(),
+                        segment.dataset_version(),
+                    )
+                })
+            });
+            if has_retired_coverage || requires_rebuild {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "CreateIndex: NGram segments built before compaction must be rebuilt or merged \
+                     with merge_existing_index_segments before commit"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ));
             }
-
-            let plugin = index_details.get_plugin()?;
-            let query_parser = plugin.new_query_parser(index.name.clone(), &index_details.0);
-
-            if let Some(query_parser) = query_parser {
-                indexed_fields.push((field_path, (field.data_type(), query_parser)));
+        }
+        // On a tagged table the segments are first validated against this
+        // snapshot (`replay_staged_segments`): a rewrite since their build
+        // keeps their provenance translating, an in-place column rewrite
+        // withdraws the affected coverage, a rewrite they cannot be carried
+        // across says to rebuild. The commit then reads from this snapshot,
+        // and the commit loop carries the segments across anything newer
+        // through the same rules.
+        let segments = replay_staged_segments(
+            self,
+            segments
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.into_metadata(index_name))
+                .collect(),
+        )
+        .await?
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(IntoIndexSegment::into_index_segment)
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let new_indices =
+            build_index_metadata_from_segments(self, index_name, field.id, segments).await?;
+        validate_segment_metadata(index_name, &new_indices)?;
+        validate_segment_index_details(index_name, &new_indices)?;
+
+        let incoming_type_url = new_indices[0]
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|details| details.type_url.clone());
+        let mut incoming_fragments = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for segment in &new_indices {
+            // Mirrors `build_index_metadata_from_segments`'s guard, which
+            // already validated these exact segments. Kept in the same shape
+            // so this second look does not silently re-reject what that guard
+            // just accepted.
+            if segment.keyed_field() != Some(field.id) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "CreateIndex: segment {} was built for fields {:?} (carried {:?}), \
+                     expected keyed field [{}]",
+                    segment.uuid, segment.fields, segment.covering_fields, field.id
+                )));
+            }
+            segment.validate_covering_fields()?;
+            if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = &segment.fragment_bitmap {
+                incoming_fragments |= fragment_bitmap.clone();
             }
         }
-        let mut index_info_map = HashMap::with_capacity(indexed_fields.len());
-        for indexed_field in indexed_fields {
-            // Need to wrap in an option here because we know that only one of and_modify and or_insert will be called
-            // but the rust compiler does not.
-            let mut parser = Some(indexed_field.1 .1);
-            let parser = &mut parser;
-            index_info_map
-                .entry(indexed_field.0)
-                .and_modify(|existing: &mut (DataType, Box<MultiQueryParser>)| {
-                    // If there are two indices on the same column, they must have the same type
-                    debug_assert_eq!(existing.0, indexed_field.1 .0);
 
-                    existing.1.add(parser.take().unwrap());
-                })
-                .or_insert_with(|| {
-                    (
-                        indexed_field.1 .0,
-                        Box::new(MultiQueryParser::single(parser.take().unwrap())),
-                    )
-                });
+        let existing_named_indices = load_all_indices_by_name(self, index_name).await?;
+        if existing_named_indices.iter().any(|idx| {
+            // Same name-collision rule as `CreateIndexBuilder`'s default-name
+            // loop in create.rs.
+            idx.keyed_field() != Some(field.id)
+        }) {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index name '{index_name}' already exists with different fields, \
+                please specify a different name"
+            )));
         }
-        Ok(ScalarIndexInfo {
-            indexed_columns: index_info_map,
-        })
-    }
-
-    async fn unindexed_fragments(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
-        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
-        let mut total_fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
-        for idx in indices.iter() {
-            total_fragment_bitmap |= idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "Please upgrade lance to 0.8+ to use this function".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let existing_different_type_url = existing_named_indices.iter().find_map(|idx| {
+            // Legacy metadata may omit index details. Its type cannot be proven
+            // compatible, so only a full replacement is safe.
+            let Some(existing_details) = idx.index_details.as_ref() else {
+                return Some("<unknown>".to_owned());
+            };
+            let existing_type_url = existing_details.type_url.as_str();
+            (Some(existing_type_url) != incoming_type_url.as_deref())
+                .then(|| existing_type_url.to_owned())
+        });
+        let missing_fragments = &dataset_fragments - &incoming_fragments;
+        if let Some(existing_type_url) = &existing_different_type_url
+            && !missing_fragments.is_empty()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: cannot change index '{}' from type '{}' to type '{}' with partial fragment coverage; incoming segments are missing current fragments {:?}",
+                index_name,
+                existing_type_url,
+                incoming_type_url.as_deref().unwrap_or("<missing>"),
+                missing_fragments.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            )));
         }
-        Ok(self
-            .fragments()
-            .iter()
-            .filter(|f| !total_fragment_bitmap.contains(f.id as u32))
-            .cloned()
-            .collect())
-    }
 
-    async fn indexed_fragments(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Vec<Vec<Fragment>>> {
-        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
-        indices
-            .iter()
-            .map(|index| {
-                let fragment_bitmap = index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or(Error::Index {
-                    message: "Please upgrade lance to 0.8+ to use this function".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-                let mut indexed_frags = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_bitmap.len() as usize);
-                for frag in self.fragments().iter() {
-                    if fragment_bitmap.contains(frag.id as u32) {
-                        indexed_frags.push(frag.clone());
+        let is_index_type_change = existing_different_type_url.is_some();
+        let existing_snapshot = existing_named_indices.clone();
+        // What a retained sibling has to agree with. Every incoming segment
+        // already carries the same pair: `build_index_metadata_from_segments`
+        // compares them against each other before this point.
+        let expected_fields = new_indices[0].fields.clone();
+        let expected_covering_fields = new_indices[0].covering_fields.clone();
+        let removed_indices = existing_named_indices
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|idx| -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+                // A logical index cannot combine segment types. Full current-fragment
+                // coverage was verified above, so a type change replaces every segment.
+                if is_index_type_change {
+                    return Ok(Some(idx));
+                }
+
+                let Some(existing_fragments) = idx.effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset_fragments)
+                else {
+                    if incoming_fragments != dataset_fragments {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "CreateIndex: cannot replace legacy index segment {} for '{}' with partial fragment coverage; rebuild all fragments in one commit",
+                            idx.uuid, index_name
+                        )));
                     }
+                    return Ok(Some(idx));
+                };
+
+                // A zero-fragment segment can be used to create an index while
+                // deferring the actual build. Such a segment is disjoint from every
+                // other segment but should still be removed.
+                if existing_fragments.is_empty() {
+                    return Ok(Some(idx));
                 }
-                Ok(indexed_frags)
-            })
-            .collect()
-    }
 
-    async fn initialize_index(&mut self, source_dataset: &Dataset, index_name: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        let source_indices = source_dataset.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await?;
+                if existing_fragments.is_disjoint(&incoming_fragments) {
+                    // Retained, so its declaration outlives this commit and has
+                    // to match what is being written: `IndexDescriptionImpl::try_new`
+                    // requires `fields` to be identical across the segments of one
+                    // logical index. Nothing above catches a disagreement, because
+                    // `keyed_fields` is the prefix left after the carried ones -- a
+                    // segment carrying columns keys on exactly what a plain one
+                    // keys on, and both pass the keyed-field guard.
+                    if idx.fields != expected_fields
+                        || idx.covering_fields != expected_covering_fields
+                    {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "CreateIndex: incoming segments for '{}' declare fields {:?} and covering_fields {:?}, \
+                             but retained segment {} declares fields {:?} and covering_fields {:?}; \
+                             a logical index cannot mix declarations - rebuild every segment in one commit",
+                            index_name,
+                            expected_fields,
+                            expected_covering_fields,
+                            idx.uuid,
+                            idx.fields,
+                            idx.covering_fields
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
 
-        if source_indices.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Index '{}' not found in source dataset", index_name),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+                let uncovered = existing_fragments - &incoming_fragments;
+                if !uncovered.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "CreateIndex: incoming segments for '{}' would orphan fragments {:?} from existing segment {}",
+                        index_name,
+                        uncovered.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                        idx.uuid
+                    )));
+                }
 
-        let source_index = source_indices
-            .iter()
-            .min_by_key(|idx| idx.created_at)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Could not determine oldest index for '{}'", index_name),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+                Ok(Some(idx))
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        // Segments that stay together must be compatible under the plugin's
+        // rules (for example identical hash parameters). Segments this commit
+        // removes are not consulted, so a full rebuild may change parameters.
+        let retained_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = existing_snapshot
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|idx| {
+                !removed_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|removed| removed.uuid == idx.uuid)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        validate_segment_params_compatible(&retained_indices, &new_indices)?;
+
+        // The query planner ranks coexisting vector segments under one contract.
+        // Validate after replacement selection so a full rebuild may change it.
+        let coexisting_indices = new_indices.iter().chain(retained_indices.iter());
+        let vector_segment_count = coexisting_indices
+            .clone()
+            .filter(|segment| segment_has_vector_details(segment))
+            .count();
+        if vector_segment_count > 1 {
+            // Only the query contract is compared, never a row: a staged
+            // segment is not in the manifest, so it opens on an identity plan,
+            // and a retained one opens for maintenance so that a segment the
+            // tagged reader excludes from the listing still takes part.
+            let mut vector_indices = Vec::with_capacity(vector_segment_count);
+            for segment in coexisting_indices {
+                let staged_plan = new_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|staged| staged.uuid == segment.uuid)
+                    .then_some(&frag_reuse::SegmentRemappingPlan::Identity);
+                let index = self
+                    .open_vector_index_from_metadata_with_plan(
+                        column,
+                        segment,
+                        staged_plan,
+                        frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+                        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                vector_indices.push(index);
+            }
+            vector::ivf::validate_vector_query_compatibility(
+                &vector_indices,
+                &format!("CreateIndex: index '{index_name}'"),
+            )
+            .map_err(|error| Error::invalid_input(error.to_string()))?;
+        }
 
-        let mut field_names = Vec::new();
-        for field_id in source_index.fields.iter() {
-            let source_field = source_dataset
-                .schema()
-                .field_by_id(*field_id)
-                .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Field with id {} not found in source dataset", field_id),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            self.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
 
-            let target_field =
-                self.schema()
-                    .field(&source_field.name)
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "Field '{}' required by index '{}' not found in target dataset",
-                            source_field.name, index_name
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
+        self.apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await?;
 
-            if source_field.data_type() != target_field.data_type() {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Field '{}' has different types in source ({:?}) and target ({:?}) datasets",
-                        source_field.name,
-                        source_field.data_type(),
-                        target_field.data_type()
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-            field_names.push(source_field.name.as_str());
-        }
+    async fn load_scalar_index<'a, 'b>(
+        &'a self,
+        criteria: IndexCriteria<'b>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices().await?;
 
-        if field_names.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Index '{}' has no fields", index_name),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+        let mut indices = indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| {
+                // We shouldn't have any indices with empty fields, but just in case, log an error
+                // but don't fail the operation (we might not be using that index)
+                if idx.fields.is_empty() {
+                    if idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME {
+                        log::error!("Index {} has no fields", idx.name);
+                    }
+                    false
+                } else {
+                    true
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        // This sorting & chunking is only needed to calculate if there are multiple indexes on the same
+        // field.  This fact is only needed for backwards compatibility behavior for indexes that don't have
+        // index details.  At some point we should deprecate indexes without index details.
+        //
+        // TODO: At some point we should just fail if the index details are missing and ask the user to
+        // retrain the index.
+        indices.sort_by_key(|idx| idx.fields[0]);
+        let indice_by_field = indices.into_iter().chunk_by(|idx| idx.fields[0]);
+        for (field_id, indices) in &indice_by_field {
+            let indices = indices.collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let has_multiple = indices.len() > 1;
+            for idx in indices {
+                let field = self.schema().field_by_id(field_id);
+                if let Some(field) = field
+                    && index_matches_criteria(
+                        idx,
+                        &criteria,
+                        &[field],
+                        has_multiple,
+                        self.schema(),
+                    )?
+                {
+                    let non_empty = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().is_some_and(|bitmap| {
+                        bitmap.intersection_len(self.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()) > 0
+                    });
+                    let is_fts_index = if let Some(details) = &idx.index_details {
+                        IndexDetails(details.clone()).supports_fts()
+                    } else {
+                        false
+                    };
+                    // FTS indices must always be returned even if empty, because FTS queries
+                    // require an index to exist. The query execution will handle the empty
+                    // bitmap appropriately and fall back to scanning unindexed data.
+                    // Other index types can be skipped if empty since they're optional optimizations.
+                    if non_empty || is_fts_index {
+                        return Ok(Some(idx.clone()));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
         }
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
 
-        if let Some(index_details) = &source_index.index_details {
-            let index_details_wrapper = IndexDetails(index_details.clone());
+    #[instrument(skip_all)]
 
-            if index_details_wrapper.is_vector() {
-                vector::initialize_vector_index(self, source_dataset, source_index, &field_names)
-                    .await?;
-            } else {
-                scalar::initialize_scalar_index(self, source_dataset, source_index, &field_names)
-                    .await?;
-            }
-        } else {
+    async fn optimize_indices(&mut self, options: &OptimizeOptions) -> Result<()> {
+        let dataset = Arc::new(self.clone());
+        // Grouped from the complete list so a name's segments are all accounted
+        // for. A segment this build cannot read is still coverage, and merging
+        // against a group whose coverage is only partly visible would commit a
+        // new segment claiming fragments an existing one already holds.
+        let indices = load_all_indices(self).await?;
+
+        // Under a history this build cannot interpret the reader lists no
+        // user segment, so every fragment looks unindexed and each optimize
+        // would rebuild the whole table only to have the result excluded
+        // again. Trim, superseded pruning and remap refuse such a history;
+        // optimize leaves the table alone the same way.
+        if let Some(entry) = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged(idx))
+            && frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger(self, entry)
+                .await?
+                .has_unsupported_transitions()
+        {
             log::warn!(
-                "Index '{}' has no index_details, skipping",
-                source_index.name
+                "Skipping index optimization: the tagged fragment reuse history carries \
+                 transitions this build cannot interpret; upgrade to a newer version of Lance"
             );
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let indices_to_optimize = options
+            .index_names
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|names| names.iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>());
+        let name_to_indices = indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| {
+                indices_to_optimize
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_none_or(|names| names.contains(&idx.name))
+                    && !is_system_index(idx)
+            })
+            .map(|idx| (idx.name.clone(), idx))
+            .into_group_map();
+
+        let mut new_indices = vec![];
+        let mut removed_indices = vec![];
+        for (name, deltas) in name_to_indices.iter() {
+            if let Some(index) = deltas.iter().find(|idx| !index_type_is_known(idx)) {
+                let type_url = index
+                    .index_details
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|details| details.type_url.as_str())
+                    .unwrap_or("<legacy>");
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Skipping optimization of index '{}' because this build does not recognize index type '{}'",
+                    index.name,
+                    type_url
+                );
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Optimizing a covered index would republish its declaration on a
+            // segment rebuilt without the carried values: `scan_vector_fragments`
+            // projects the keyed field and `_rowid` only, and the scalar merges
+            // reconstruct value plus row id.
+            //
+            // What decides is the caller's intent, not whether this group is
+            // stale. An unfiltered `optimize_indices()` is a table-wide
+            // maintenance request, and erroring aborts the loop before the
+            // replacements accumulated for the other groups are committed -- so
+            // one index this build cannot rebuild would leave every other index
+            // on the table stale. Skip it with a warning instead.
+            //
+            // A caller that listed this index in `index_names` asked for it
+            // specifically, so refuse out loud. The loop is already filtered by
+            // that list, so reaching here with it set means this group was named.
+            if let Some(covered) = deltas
+                .iter()
+                .find(|index| !index.covering_fields.is_empty())
+            {
+                if options.index_names.is_none() {
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "Skipping index '{}': it declares covering fields {:?}, \
+                         which no index builder writes or preserves yet.",
+                        covered.name,
+                        covered.covering_fields,
+                    );
+                    continue;
+                }
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Optimizing index '{}' is not supported: it declares \
+                     covering fields {:?}, which no index builder writes or \
+                     preserves yet",
+                    covered.name, covered.covering_fields,
+                )));
+            }
+
+            // Optimizing a name means replacing its segments with one that
+            // covers their union, which this build cannot compute when it
+            // cannot read one of them: the merged segment would overlap the
+            // segment left behind, and `Dataset::validate` calls that
+            // corruption. Leave the whole name to a build that can read it.
+            if let Some(max_supported_version) =
+                deltas.iter().find_map(|idx| unsupported_index_version(idx))
+            {
+                log::warn!(
+                    "Index {} has a segment newer than version {}, which this build cannot read; \
+                     skipping its optimization",
+                    name,
+                    max_supported_version,
+                );
+                continue;
+            }
+            // Scalar indices have no rebalance concept, so skip them entirely
+            // when every fragment is already covered and the caller hasn't
+            // asked for retrain or an explicit delta merge. Vector indices
+            // fall through and use a rebalance-aware no-op check inside
+            // merge_indices_with_unindexed_frags.
+            if !options.retrain
+                && options.num_indices_to_merge.is_none_or(|n| n == 0)
+                && index_group_is_scalar(self, deltas)
+                && index_group_has_no_unindexed(self, deltas)
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let Some(res) = merge_indices(dataset.clone(), deltas.as_slice(), options).await?
+            else {
+                continue;
+            };
+
+            let last_idx = deltas.last().expect("Delta indices should not be empty");
+            let new_idx = IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: res.new_uuid,
+                name: last_idx.name.clone(), // Keep the same name
+                fields: last_idx.fields.clone(),
+                covering_fields: last_idx.covering_fields.clone(),
+                dataset_version: res.new_dataset_version,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(res.new_fragment_bitmap),
+                index_details: Some(Arc::new(res.new_index_details)),
+                index_version: res.new_index_version,
+                created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+                base_id: None, // New merged index file locates in the cloned dataset.
+                files: Some(res.files),
+            };
+            removed_indices.extend(res.removed_indices.iter().map(|&idx| idx.clone()));
+            new_indices.push(new_idx);
+        }
+
+        // A no-work optimize still has to commit on a table that requires
+        // catch-up. Coverage is derived at commit time, so an index that
+        // already spans the table records its position only if there is a
+        // commit to record it on -- and that is the ordinary case after a
+        // remap or a compaction that advanced a generation without changing
+        // fragments. Returning early there leaves the position missing forever
+        // and the repair rescheduling itself.
+        if new_indices.is_empty() && !self.mem_wal_catch_up_would_advance(&indices)? {
+            return Ok(());
         }
 
+        let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+            self.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices,
+            },
+        )
+        .transaction_properties(options.transaction_properties.clone())
+        .build();
+
+        self.apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await?;
+
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    async fn initialize_indices(&mut self, source_dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
-        let source_indices = source_dataset.load_indices().await?;
-        let non_system_indices: Vec<_> = source_indices
-            .iter()
-            .filter(|idx| !lance_index::is_system_index(idx))
-            .collect();
+    async fn index_statistics(&self, index_name: &str) -> Result<String> {
+        let metadatas = self.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await?;
+        if metadatas.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!("name={}", index_name)));
+        }
+
+        if index_name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME {
+            return index_statistics_frag_reuse(self).boxed().await;
+        }
+
+        if index_name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME {
+            return index_statistics_mem_wal(self).boxed().await;
+        }
+
+        index_statistics_scalar(self, index_name, metadatas)
+            .boxed()
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn read_index_partition(
+        &self,
+        index_name: &str,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        with_vector: bool,
+    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await?;
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!("name={}", index_name)));
+        }
+        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
+        let field_path = self.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+        let logical_index = self
+            .open_logical_vector_index(&field_path, index_name)
+            .await?;
+        logical_index
+            .as_ivf()?
+            .read_partition(partition_id, with_vector)
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+fn index_group_is_scalar(dataset: &Dataset, deltas: &[&IndexMetadata]) -> bool {
+    let Some(field_id) = deltas.first().and_then(|d| d.fields.first()) else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    match dataset.schema().field_by_id(*field_id) {
+        Some(field) => !is_vector_field(field.data_type()),
+        None => false,
+    }
+}
+
+fn index_group_has_no_unindexed(dataset: &Dataset, deltas: &[&IndexMetadata]) -> bool {
+    let mut indexed = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for idx in deltas {
+        if let Some(bitmap) = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() {
+            indexed |= bitmap;
+        } else {
+            // Pre-0.8 indices have no fragment bitmap; treat as needing optimize.
+            return false;
+        }
+    }
+    dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .all(|frag| indexed.contains(frag.id as u32))
+}
+
+fn sum_indexed_rows_per_delta(indexed_fragments_per_delta: &[Vec<Fragment>]) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
+    let mut rows_per_delta = Vec::with_capacity(indexed_fragments_per_delta.len());
+    for frags in indexed_fragments_per_delta {
+        let mut sum = 0usize;
+        for frag in frags {
+            sum += frag.num_rows().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(
+                    "Fragment should have row counts, please upgrade lance and \
+                                  trigger a single write to fix this"
+                        .to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        }
+        rows_per_delta.push(sum);
+    }
+    Ok(rows_per_delta)
+}
+
+fn unique_indexed_fragment_count(indexed_fragments_per_delta: &[Vec<Fragment>]) -> Option<usize> {
+    let mut fragment_ids = HashSet::new();
+    for frags in indexed_fragments_per_delta {
+        for frag in frags {
+            if !fragment_ids.insert(frag.id) {
+                return None;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Some(fragment_ids.len())
+}
+
+fn serialize_index_statistics(stats: &serde_json::Value) -> Result<String> {
+    serde_json::to_string(stats)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Failed to serialize index statistics: {}", e)))
+}
+
+async fn migrate_and_recompute_index_statistics(ds: &Dataset, index_name: &str) -> Result<String> {
+    let mut ds = ds.clone();
+    log::warn!(
+        "Detecting out-dated fragment metadata, migrating dataset. \
+                        To disable migration, set LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION=false"
+    );
+    ds.delete("false").await.map(|_| ()).map_err(|err| {
+        Error::execution(format!(
+            "Failed to migrate dataset while calculating index statistics. \
+                        To disable migration, set LANCE_AUTO_MIGRATION=false. Original error: {}",
+            err
+        ))
+    })?;
+    ds.index_statistics(index_name).await
+}
+
+/// Find the FRI entry from the raw manifest listing (bookkeeping path).
+///
+/// This is a metadata-only lookup: it must not drive the query reader's coverage
+/// rewrite, parse the mapping, or fail on a corrupt ledger. Callers that then use
+/// the mapping (for example the v0 reader inside `open_frag_reuse_index`) still
+/// validate it and surface corruption; only the by-name lookup skips that work.
+async fn find_frag_reuse_index_meta(ds: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+    Ok(load_all_indices(ds)
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .cloned())
+}
+
+async fn index_statistics_frag_reuse(ds: &Dataset) -> Result<String> {
+    if let Some(fri) = find_frag_reuse_index_meta(ds).await?
+        && fri.index_version != 0
+    {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "FRI index_version 1 statistics are not implemented. Please upgrade to a supporting version",
+        ));
+    }
+    let index = ds
+        .open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await?
+        .expect("FragmentReuse index does not exist");
+    serialize_index_statistics(&CompactFragReuseIndexHandle(index).statistics()?)
+}
+
+async fn index_statistics_mem_wal(ds: &Dataset) -> Result<String> {
+    let index = ds
+        .open_mem_wal_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await?
+        .expect("MemWal index does not exist");
+    serialize_index_statistics(&MemWalIndexHandle(index).statistics()?)
+}
+
+async fn index_statistics_scalar(
+    ds: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+    metadatas: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+) -> Result<String> {
+    let field_id = metadatas[0].fields[0];
+    let field_path = ds.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+
+    let (indices_stats, index_uri, num_indices, updated_at) =
+        collect_regular_indices_statistics(ds, metadatas, &field_path).await?;
+
+    let index_type_hint = indices_stats
+        .first()
+        .and_then(|stats| stats.get("index_type"))
+        .and_then(|v| v.as_str());
+    let index_type = legacy_type_name(&index_uri, index_type_hint);
+
+    let Some((
+        num_indexed_rows_per_delta,
+        num_indexed_fragments,
+        num_unindexed_fragments,
+        num_indexed_rows,
+        num_unindexed_rows,
+    )) = gather_fragment_statistics(ds, index_name).await?
+    else {
+        return migrate_and_recompute_index_statistics(ds, index_name).await;
+    };
+
+    let stats = json!({
+        "index_type": index_type,
+        "name": index_name,
+        "num_indices": num_indices,
+        "num_segments": num_indices,
+        "indices": indices_stats.clone(),
+        "segments": indices_stats,
+        "num_indexed_fragments": num_indexed_fragments,
+        "num_indexed_rows": num_indexed_rows,
+        "num_unindexed_fragments": num_unindexed_fragments,
+        "num_unindexed_rows": num_unindexed_rows,
+        "num_indexed_rows_per_delta": num_indexed_rows_per_delta,
+        "updated_at_timestamp_ms": updated_at,
+    });
+
+    serialize_index_statistics(&stats)
+}
+
+async fn collect_regular_indices_statistics(
+    ds: &Dataset,
+    metadatas: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    field_path: &str,
+) -> Result<(Vec<serde_json::Value>, String, usize, Option<u64>)> {
+    let num_indices = metadatas.len();
+    let updated_at = metadatas
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|m| m.created_at)
+        .max()
+        .map(|dt| dt.timestamp_millis() as u64);
+
+    let mut indices_stats = Vec::with_capacity(num_indices);
+    let mut index_uri: Option<String> = None;
+
+    for meta in metadatas.iter() {
+        // An index that covers no fragments has no file to load statistics
+        // from: it carries its definition and nothing else until there is
+        // enough data to train it.
+        if meta
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(roaring::RoaringBitmap::is_empty)
+        {
+            indices_stats.push(serde_json::json!({}));
+            continue;
+        }
+        let index_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(ds, meta).await?);
+        let index_details = scalar::fetch_index_details(ds, field_path, meta).await?;
+        if index_uri.is_none() {
+            index_uri = Some(index_details.type_url.clone());
+        }
+
+        let index_details_wrapper = scalar::IndexDetails(index_details.clone());
+        if let Ok(plugin) = index_details_wrapper.get_plugin()
+            && let Some(stats) = plugin
+                .load_statistics(index_store.clone(), index_details.as_ref())
+                .await?
+        {
+            indices_stats.push(stats);
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let index = ds
+            .open_generic_index(field_path, &meta.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await?;
+
+        indices_stats.push(index.statistics()?);
+    }
+
+    Ok((
+        indices_stats,
+        index_uri.unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string()),
+        num_indices,
+        updated_at,
+    ))
+}
+
+async fn gather_fragment_statistics(
+    ds: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+) -> Result<Option<(Vec<usize>, usize, usize, usize, usize)>> {
+    let indexed_fragments_per_delta = ds.indexed_fragments(index_name).await?;
+
+    let num_indexed_rows_per_delta = match sum_indexed_rows_per_delta(&indexed_fragments_per_delta)
+    {
+        Ok(rows) => rows,
+        Err(Error::Internal { message, .. })
+            if auto_migrate_corruption() && message.contains("trigger a single write") =>
+        {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        Err(e) => return Err(e),
+    };
+
+    let Some(num_indexed_fragments) = unique_indexed_fragment_count(&indexed_fragments_per_delta)
+    else {
+        if auto_migrate_corruption() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "Overlap in indexed fragments. Please upgrade to lance >= 0.23.0 \
+                              and trigger a single write to fix this"
+                .to_string(),
+        ));
+    };
+
+    let num_unindexed_fragments = ds.fragments().len() - num_indexed_fragments;
+    let num_indexed_rows: usize = num_indexed_rows_per_delta.iter().sum();
+
+    drop(indexed_fragments_per_delta);
+    let total_rows = ds.count_rows(None).await?;
+    let num_unindexed_rows = total_rows - num_indexed_rows;
+
+    Ok(Some((
+        num_indexed_rows_per_delta,
+        num_indexed_fragments,
+        num_unindexed_fragments,
+        num_indexed_rows,
+        num_unindexed_rows,
+    )))
+}
+
+/// `None` when this build supports the index's version, otherwise the highest
+/// version it does support.
+///
+/// Only a version bump of a type this build already has a plugin for is caught.
+/// Reader availability is checked separately by [`index_is_usable`], because
+/// an unknown type has no meaningful maximum version in this build.
+pub(crate) fn unsupported_index_version(index: &IndexMetadata) -> Option<u32> {
+    let max_supported_version = index
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .map(|details| {
+            IndexDetails(details.clone())
+                .index_version()
+                .unwrap_or(i32::MAX as u32)
+        })
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+    (index.index_version > max_supported_version as i32).then_some(max_supported_version)
+}
+
+/// Whether this build may expose an index through the usable-index view.
+///
+/// System indices have dedicated readers rather than scalar plugins. Ordinary
+/// indices need both a reader for their exact declared type and a supported
+/// format version.
+pub(crate) fn index_is_usable(index: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    index_type_is_known(index) && unsupported_index_version(index).is_none()
+}
+
+/// Name the indices this build has no reader for, once per manifest read.
+///
+/// Deliberately not inside the filter in [`DatasetIndexExt::load_indices`]: that
+/// runs on every call, and `load_indices` sits on the query-planning path and on
+/// merge_insert's per-batch path. Warning there would cost an operator one line
+/// per hidden index per query for as long as the dataset carries one.
+pub(crate) fn warn_about_unsupported_indices(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) {
+    for idx in indices {
+        if !index_type_is_known(idx) {
+            let type_url = idx
+                .index_details
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|details| details.type_url.as_str())
+                .unwrap_or("<legacy>");
+            log::warn!(
+                "Index {} has unrecognized type {}, ignoring it",
+                idx.name,
+                type_url,
+            );
+        } else if let Some(max_supported_version) = unsupported_index_version(idx) {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Index {} has version {}, which is not supported (<={}), ignoring it",
+                idx.name,
+                idx.index_version,
+                max_supported_version,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Every index the manifest names, including any this build has no reader for.
+///
+/// Separate from [`DatasetIndexExt::load_indices`] because the two answer
+/// different questions. A reader asks which indices it may *use*, and an index
+/// it cannot decode is rightly absent. Everything that decides what the *next*
+/// manifest looks like asks a different question, and there the same omission is
+/// not a filter but an erasure. `build_manifest` seeds the new index list from
+/// what it is handed, so an index left out disappears from the dataset for every
+/// build, including the one that could have read it. Index bookkeeping - name
+/// reservation, replace and removal selection, explicit drop - answers that
+/// second question too: a name it cannot see is a name it will hand out twice.
+pub(crate) async fn load_all_indices(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>> {
+    let metadata_key = IndexMetadataKey {
+        version: dataset.version().version,
+        store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+        e_tag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+    };
+    let mut indices = dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .get_or_insert_with_key(metadata_key, || async {
+            let loaded = read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            warn_about_unsupported_indices(&loaded);
+            warn_about_indices_hidden_by_frag_reuse(&dataset.manifest, &loaded);
+            Ok(loaded)
+        })
+        .await?;
+
+    // Infer details for legacy vector indices (once per index name, concurrently).
+    // This may run on indices that were opportunistically cached during Dataset::open
+    // before the full Dataset was available for inference.
+    {
+        let schema = dataset.schema();
+        if indices
+            .iter()
+            .any(|idx| needs_vector_details_inference(idx, schema))
+        {
+            let mut updated = indices.as_ref().clone();
+            infer_missing_vector_details(dataset, &mut updated).await;
+            if updated != *indices {
+                indices = Arc::new(updated);
+                dataset
+                    .index_cache
+                    .insert_with_key(&metadata_key, indices.clone())
+                    .await;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Legacy FRI index version 0 is handled below by directly remapping fragment coverage.
+    // For version 1 and above, load_indices handles version checks and filters index
+    // segments for query use; keep their metadata unchanged here.
+    if indices
+        .iter()
+        .any(lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged)
+    {
+        if indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .count()
+            != 1
+        {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                "FRI metadata",
+                "tagged history requires a single FRI entry",
+            ));
+        }
+        // Commit bookkeeping carries the original Any unchanged. Only query
+        // loading or an operation consuming FRI needs to interpret its encoding.
+        return Ok(indices);
+    }
+    if let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) =
+        indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+    {
+        let fri_key = FragReuseIndexKey {
+            uuid: &frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid,
+        };
+        let frag_reuse_index = dataset
+            .index_cache
+            .get_or_insert_with_key(fri_key, || async move {
+                let index_details =
+                    load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, frag_reuse_index_meta).await?;
+                open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, index_details.as_ref()).await
+            })
+            .await?;
+        let mut indices = indices.as_ref().clone();
+        for idx in indices.iter_mut() {
+            if let Some(bitmap) = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_mut() {
+                frag_reuse_index.remap_fragment_bitmap(bitmap)?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(indices))
+    } else {
+        Ok(indices)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The segments named `name`, including any this build has no reader for.
+///
+/// The bookkeeping counterpart to [`DatasetIndexExt::load_indices_by_name`]. See
+/// [`load_all_indices`] for which of the two a call site wants.
+pub(crate) async fn load_all_indices_by_name(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    name: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+    Ok(load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| idx.name == name)
+        .cloned()
+        .collect())
+}
+
+/// A trait for internal dataset utilities
+///
+/// Internal use only. No API stability guarantees.
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait DatasetIndexInternalExt: DatasetIndexExt {
+    /// Opens an index (scalar or vector) as a generic index
+    async fn open_generic_index(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Index>>;
+    /// Opens the requested scalar index
+    async fn open_scalar_index(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>;
+    /// Opens the requested vector index
+    async fn open_vector_index(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>>;
+    /// Opens a built vector segment without requiring it to be committed to the manifest.
+    async fn open_vector_index_from_metadata(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        index_meta: &IndexMetadata,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>>;
+    /// [`Self::open_generic_index`] for maintenance (merge, rebuild, remap):
+    /// a registered segment the tagged reader excludes from the listing opens
+    /// as contributing nothing instead of failing. Never for queries.
+    async fn open_generic_index_for_maintenance(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Index>>;
+    /// [`Self::open_scalar_index`] for maintenance; see
+    /// [`Self::open_generic_index_for_maintenance`].
+    async fn open_scalar_index_for_maintenance(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>;
+    /// [`Self::open_vector_index`] for maintenance; see
+    /// [`Self::open_generic_index_for_maintenance`].
+    async fn open_vector_index_for_maintenance(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>>;
+    /// [`Self::open_logical_vector_index`] for maintenance: every segment of
+    /// the name from the manifest, one the tagged reader excludes from the
+    /// listing included (it opens as contributing nothing, to be rebuilt).
+    async fn open_logical_vector_index_for_maintenance(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<LogicalVectorIndex>;
+    /// Opens all segments for one logical vector index and returns a materialized snapshot.
+    async fn open_logical_vector_index(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<LogicalVectorIndex>;
+
+    /// Opens the fragment reuse index
+    async fn open_frag_reuse_index(
+        &self,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>>;
+
+    /// Opens the MemWAL index
+    async fn open_mem_wal_index(
+        &self,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<MemWalIndex>>>;
+
+    /// Gets the fragment reuse index UUID from the current manifest, if it exists
+    async fn frag_reuse_index_uuid(&self) -> Option<Uuid>;
+
+    /// Loads information about all the available scalar indices on the dataset
+    async fn scalar_index_info(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexInfo>;
+
+    /// Loads scalar-index planning information from an explicitly selected metadata set.
+    async fn scalar_index_info_for_segments(
+        &self,
+        segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+    ) -> Result<ScalarIndexInfo>;
+
+    /// Return the fragments that are not covered by any of the deltas of the index.
+    async fn unindexed_fragments(&self, idx_name: &str) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>>;
+
+    /// Return the fragments that are covered by each of the deltas of the index.
+    async fn indexed_fragments(&self, idx_name: &str) -> Result<Vec<Vec<Fragment>>>;
+
+    /// Initialize a specific index on this dataset based on an index from a source dataset.
+    async fn initialize_index(&mut self, source_dataset: &Dataset, index_name: &str) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Initialize all indices on this dataset based on indices from a source dataset.
+    /// This will call `initialize_index` for each non-system index in the source dataset.
+    async fn initialize_indices(&mut self, source_dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()>;
+}
+
+/// The FRI UUID that belongs in the vector cache keys before any remapping
+/// is resolved: only a v0 history, whose remapper is applied while the index
+/// is decoded, identifies cached content (see [`frag_reuse::fri_cache_id`]).
+async fn v0_frag_reuse_cache_id(dataset: &Dataset) -> Option<Uuid> {
+    load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await
+        .ok()?
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME && idx.index_version == 0)
+        .map(|idx| idx.uuid)
+}
+
+impl Dataset {
+    /// The segment's metadata for the given purpose. A query sees the derived
+    /// listing only. Maintenance also reaches a registered segment the tagged
+    /// reader left out of the listing (its coverage was withdrawn by an
+    /// in-place rewrite, or its translation cannot be honored): it gets the
+    /// stored metadata and opens the segment as contributing nothing, to
+    /// rebuild or replace it.
+    pub(crate) async fn load_index_with_purpose(
+        &self,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        purpose: frag_reuse::OpenPurpose,
+    ) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+        if let Some(index) = self
+            .load_indices()
+            .await?
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.uuid == *uuid)
+        {
+            return Ok(Some(index.clone()));
+        }
+        if purpose == frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Query {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        Ok(load_all_indices(self)
+            .await?
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.uuid == *uuid && !is_system_index(idx) && index_is_usable(idx))
+            .cloned())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn open_generic_index_with_purpose(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        purpose: frag_reuse::OpenPurpose,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Index>> {
+        // Checking for cache existence is cheap so we just check the vector caches.
+        // Scalar indices cache themselves inside `open_scalar_index` (the cache
+        // key is a plugin detail), so there is no cheap scalar check here.
+        let frag_reuse_uuid = v0_frag_reuse_cache_id(self).await;
+
+        // Check sized cache for IvfIndexState (v2+ indices).
+        let state_key = IvfIndexStateCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
+        if self.index_cache.get_with_key(&state_key).await.is_some() {
+            // Reconstruct via open_vector_index which will hit the same sized key.
+            let index = self
+                .open_vector_index_with_purpose(column, uuid, metrics, purpose)
+                .await?;
+            return Ok(index.as_index());
+        }
+
+        // Fallback: in-memory cache for legacy indices.
+        let vector_cache_key = LegacyVectorIndexCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
+        if let Some(cached) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&vector_cache_key).await {
+            return Ok(cached.0.clone().as_index());
+        }
+
+        let frag_reuse_cache_key = FragReuseIndexCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
+        if let Some(index) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&frag_reuse_cache_key).await {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(CompactFragReuseIndexHandle(index)).as_index());
+        }
+
+        // Sometimes we want to open an index and we don't care if it is a scalar or vector index.
+        // For example, we might want to get statistics for an index, regardless of type.
+        //
+        // We determine if this is a vector index by checking if INDEX_FILE_NAME exists in the
+        // file list (available since file sizes tracking was added). If the file list is not
+        // available (older indices), we fall back to checking file existence via HEAD request.
+        let index_meta = self
+            .load_index_with_purpose(uuid, purpose)
+            .await?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid)))?;
+
+        // Declared type first, and the legacy file name only for segments that
+        // predate details: an index awaiting training declares itself a vector
+        // index and has no file, so a file-based answer would send it to the
+        // scalar reader.
+        let is_vector_index = if index_meta.index_details.is_some() {
+            segment_has_vector_details(&index_meta)
+        } else if let Some(files) = &index_meta.files {
+            files.iter().any(|f| f.path == INDEX_FILE_NAME)
+        } else {
+            let index_dir = self.indice_files_dir(&index_meta)?;
+            let index_file = index_dir
+                .clone()
+                .join(uuid.to_string())
+                .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+            let object_store = self.object_store_for_index(&index_meta).await?;
+            object_store.exists(&index_file).await?
+        };
+
+        if is_vector_index {
+            let index = self
+                .open_vector_index_with_purpose(column, uuid, metrics, purpose)
+                .await?;
+            Ok(index.as_index())
+        } else {
+            let index = self
+                .open_scalar_index_with_purpose(column, uuid, metrics, purpose)
+                .await?;
+            Ok(index.as_index())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    pub(crate) async fn open_scalar_index_with_purpose(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        purpose: frag_reuse::OpenPurpose,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        // Caching (including the choice of in-memory vs. serializable state) is
+        // a plugin implementation detail handled inside `scalar::open_scalar_index`.
+        let index_meta = self
+            .load_index_with_purpose(uuid, purpose)
+            .await?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid)))?;
+
+        scalar::open_scalar_index_with_plan(self, column, &index_meta, None, purpose, metrics).await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index_with_purpose(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        purpose: frag_reuse::OpenPurpose,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
+        let index_meta = self
+            .load_index_with_purpose(uuid, purpose)
+            .await?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid)))?;
+        self.open_vector_index_from_metadata_with_purpose(column, &index_meta, metrics, purpose)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index_from_metadata_with_purpose(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        index_meta: &IndexMetadata,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        purpose: frag_reuse::OpenPurpose,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
+        self.open_vector_index_from_metadata_with_plan(column, index_meta, None, purpose, metrics)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::open_vector_index_from_metadata`] with the reuse translation
+    /// settled by the caller: `staged` is the plan of a segment the manifest
+    /// does not list (its merge planned it), `None` looks the segment up in
+    /// the snapshot plan.
+    pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index_from_metadata_with_plan(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        index_meta: &IndexMetadata,
+        staged: Option<&frag_reuse::SegmentRemappingPlan>,
+        purpose: frag_reuse::OpenPurpose,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
+        let uuid = &index_meta.uuid;
+        let object_store = self.object_store_for_index(index_meta).await?;
+        let resolved =
+            frag_reuse::open_row_id_remapping_with_plan(self, index_meta, staged, purpose, metrics)
+                .await?;
+        // The index state (paths, model, quantizer metadata) and a legacy
+        // whole-index entry embed no translated rows: they live in the plain
+        // per-index namespace and stay warm across appends and unrelated
+        // rewrites. Partitions decoded through a translating remapper live in
+        // the translated namespace of `query_cache`.
+        let frag_reuse_uuid = frag_reuse::fri_cache_id(&resolved).copied();
+        let query_cache = frag_reuse::scoped_index_cache(self, &resolved);
+        let remapping = resolved.map(|(_, remapping)| remapping);
+
+        // Check sized cache first (v2+ indices with serializable state).
+        let state_key = IvfIndexStateCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
+        if let Some(entry) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&state_key).await {
+            log::debug!("Found IvfIndexState in cache uuid: {}", uuid);
+            let partition_cache = query_cache.for_index(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
+            return entry
+                .0
+                .reconstruct(
+                    object_store,
+                    self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                    partition_cache,
+                    remapping,
+                )
+                .await;
+        }
+
+        // Fallback: in-memory cache for legacy indices.
+        let cache_key = LegacyVectorIndexCacheKey::new(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
+        if let Some(cached) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
+            return Ok(cached.0.clone());
+        }
+
+        // Only legacy vector file readers consume the V1 handle. A tagged
+        // history is handled by the shared remapper above, including identity.
+        let has_tagged_history = load_all_indices(self)
+            .await?
+            .iter()
+            .any(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME && index.index_version != 0);
+        let frag_reuse_index = if has_tagged_history {
+            None
+        } else {
+            self.open_frag_reuse_index(metrics).await?
+        };
+        let index_dir = self.indice_files_dir(index_meta)?;
+        let index_file = index_dir
+            .clone()
+            .join(uuid.to_string())
+            .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+        let file_sizes = index_meta.file_size_map();
+        let reader: Arc<dyn Reader> = vector::open_index_file(
+            object_store.as_ref(),
+            &index_file,
+            INDEX_FILE_NAME,
+            &file_sizes,
+        )
+        .await?
+        .into();
+
+        let tailing_bytes = read_last_block(reader.as_ref()).await?;
+        let (major_version, minor_version) = read_version(&tailing_bytes)?;
+
+        // Namespace the index cache by the UUID of the index. v2+ partition
+        // entries are store-free and remain reusable across object-store
+        // generations alongside their serializable state.
+        let index_cache = query_cache.for_index(uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
+
+        // Extract the cacheable state before type-erasing to Arc<dyn VectorIndex>.
+        fn wrap_ivf<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static>(
+            ivf: IVFIndex<S, Q>,
+        ) -> (Arc<dyn VectorIndex>, Option<IvfStateEntryBox>) {
+            let entry = ivf.to_state_entry();
+            (Arc::new(ivf), Some(entry))
+        }
+
+        // the index file is in lance format since version (0,2)
+        // TODO: we need to change the legacy IVF_PQ to be in lance format
+        let result: Result<(Arc<dyn VectorIndex>, Option<IvfStateEntryBox>)> = match (
+            major_version,
+            minor_version,
+        ) {
+            (0, 1) | (0, 0) => {
+                info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=%uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_VECTOR, version="0.1", index_type="IVF_PQ");
+                let proto = open_index_proto(reader.as_ref()).await?;
+                match &proto.implementation {
+                    Some(Implementation::VectorIndex(vector_index)) => {
+                        let dataset = Arc::new(self.clone());
+                        let idx = vector::open_vector_index(
+                            dataset,
+                            uuid,
+                            vector_index,
+                            reader,
+                            frag_reuse_index,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        Ok((idx, None::<IvfStateEntryBox>))
+                    }
+                    None => Err(Error::internal(
+                        "Index proto was missing implementation field",
+                    )),
+                }
+            }
+
+            (0, 2) => {
+                info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=%uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_VECTOR, version="0.2", index_type="IVF_PQ");
+                let reader = V1FileReader::try_new_self_described_from_reader(
+                    reader.clone(),
+                    Some(&self.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&index_file)),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let idx = vector::open_vector_index_v2(
+                    Arc::new(self.clone()),
+                    column,
+                    uuid,
+                    reader,
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                )
+                .await?;
+                Ok((idx, None::<IvfStateEntryBox>))
+            }
+
+            (0, 3) | (2, _) => {
+                let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+                    object_store.clone(),
+                    SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store),
+                );
+                let cached_size = file_sizes
+                    .get(INDEX_FILE_NAME)
+                    .map(|&size| CachedFileSize::new(size))
+                    .unwrap_or_else(CachedFileSize::unknown);
+                let file = scheduler.open_file(&index_file, &cached_size).await?;
+                let reader = lance_file::reader::FileReader::try_open(
+                    file,
+                    None,
+                    Default::default(),
+                    &self.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&index_file),
+                    FileReaderOptions::default(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let index_metadata = reader
+                    .schema()
+                    .metadata
+                    .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
+                    .ok_or(Error::index("Index Metadata not found".to_owned()))?;
+                let index_metadata: lance_index::IndexMetadata =
+                    serde_json::from_str(index_metadata)?;
+
+                // Resolve the column name and field
+                let (field_path, field) = resolve_index_column(self.schema(), index_meta, column)?;
+
+                let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(self.schema(), &field_path)?;
+
+                info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=%uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_VECTOR, version="0.3", index_type=index_metadata.index_type);
+
+                match index_metadata.index_type.as_str() {
+                    "IVF_FLAT" => match element_type {
+                        DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64 => {
+                            let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::try_new(
+                                object_store.clone(),
+                                index_dir,
+                                uuid.to_owned(),
+                                remapping,
+                                self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                                index_cache,
+                                file_sizes,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                            Ok(wrap_ivf(ivf))
+                        }
+                        DataType::UInt8 => {
+                            let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::try_new(
+                                object_store.clone(),
+                                index_dir,
+                                uuid.to_owned(),
+                                remapping,
+                                self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                                index_cache,
+                                file_sizes,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                            Ok(wrap_ivf(ivf))
+                        }
+                        _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                            "the field type {} is not supported for FLAT index",
+                            field.data_type()
+                        ))),
+                    },
+
+                    "IVF_PQ" => {
+                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::try_new(
+                            object_store.clone(),
+                            index_dir,
+                            uuid.to_owned(),
+                            remapping,
+                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                            index_cache,
+                            file_sizes,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        Ok(wrap_ivf(ivf))
+                    }
+
+                    "IVF_SQ" => {
+                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::try_new(
+                            object_store.clone(),
+                            index_dir,
+                            uuid.to_owned(),
+                            remapping,
+                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                            index_cache,
+                            file_sizes,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        Ok(wrap_ivf(ivf))
+                    }
+
+                    "IVF_RQ" => {
+                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::try_new(
+                            object_store.clone(),
+                            index_dir,
+                            uuid.to_owned(),
+                            remapping,
+                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                            index_cache,
+                            file_sizes,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        Ok(wrap_ivf(ivf))
+                    }
+
+                    "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => match element_type {
+                        DataType::UInt8 => {
+                            let ivf = IVFIndex::<HNSW, FlatBinQuantizer>::try_new(
+                                object_store.clone(),
+                                index_dir,
+                                uuid.to_owned(),
+                                remapping,
+                                self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                                index_cache,
+                                file_sizes,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                            Ok(wrap_ivf(ivf))
+                        }
+                        _ => {
+                            let ivf = IVFIndex::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::try_new(
+                                object_store.clone(),
+                                index_dir,
+                                uuid.to_owned(),
+                                remapping,
+                                self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                                index_cache,
+                                file_sizes,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                            Ok(wrap_ivf(ivf))
+                        }
+                    },
+
+                    "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => {
+                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::try_new(
+                            object_store.clone(),
+                            index_dir,
+                            uuid.to_owned(),
+                            remapping,
+                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                            index_cache,
+                            file_sizes,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        Ok(wrap_ivf(ivf))
+                    }
+
+                    "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => {
+                        let ivf = IVFIndex::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::try_new(
+                            object_store.clone(),
+                            index_dir,
+                            uuid.to_owned(),
+                            remapping,
+                            self.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                            index_cache,
+                            file_sizes,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        Ok(wrap_ivf(ivf))
+                    }
+
+                    _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "Unsupported index type: {}",
+                        index_metadata.index_type
+                    ))),
+                }
+            }
+
+            _ => Err(Error::index(
+                "unsupported index version (maybe need to upgrade your lance version)".to_owned(),
+            )),
+        };
+        let (index, ivf_entry) = result?;
+        metrics.record_index_load();
+        // Attribute the one-time index-open I/O (file footers, IVF centroids,
+        // quantization metadata) to this query's metrics.  This runs only on a
+        // real open; cache hits return earlier, so a warm query reports zero
+        // index-open I/O.
+        if let Some(io_stats) = metrics.io_stats()
+            && let Some(open_stats) = index.open_io_stats()
+        {
+            io_stats.add_scan_stats(&open_stats);
+        }
+        if let Some(ivf_entry) = ivf_entry {
+            self.index_cache
+                .insert_with_key(&state_key, Arc::new(ivf_entry))
+                .await;
+        } else {
+            self.index_cache
+                .insert_with_key(&cache_key, Arc::new(CachedLegacyVectorIndex(index.clone())))
+                .await;
+        }
+        Ok(index)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl DatasetIndexInternalExt for Dataset {
+    async fn open_generic_index(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Index>> {
+        self.open_generic_index_with_purpose(column, uuid, metrics, frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Query)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_scalar_index(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        self.open_scalar_index_with_purpose(column, uuid, metrics, frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Query)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_vector_index(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
+        self.open_vector_index_with_purpose(column, uuid, metrics, frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Query)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_vector_index_from_metadata(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        index_meta: &IndexMetadata,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
+        self.open_vector_index_from_metadata_with_purpose(
+            column,
+            index_meta,
+            metrics,
+            frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Query,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_generic_index_for_maintenance(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn Index>> {
+        self.open_generic_index_with_purpose(
+            column,
+            uuid,
+            metrics,
+            frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_scalar_index_for_maintenance(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        self.open_scalar_index_with_purpose(
+            column,
+            uuid,
+            metrics,
+            frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_vector_index_for_maintenance(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
+        self.open_vector_index_with_purpose(
+            column,
+            uuid,
+            metrics,
+            frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn open_logical_vector_index(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<LogicalVectorIndex> {
+        let metadatas = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
+        if metadatas.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!("name={name}")));
+        }
+
+        let field_id = self.schema().field_id(column)?;
+        if let Some(invalid_metadata) = metadatas
+            .iter()
+            .find(|metadata| metadata.fields.first() != Some(&field_id))
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Logical vector index '{}' contains segment {} that does not belong to column '{}'",
+                name, invalid_metadata.uuid, column
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(metadatas.len());
+        for metadata in metadatas {
+            let index = self
+                .open_vector_index(column, &metadata.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await?;
+            segments.push((metadata, index));
+        }
+
+        LogicalVectorIndex::try_new(name.to_string(), column.to_string(), segments)
+    }
+
+    async fn open_logical_vector_index_for_maintenance(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        name: &str,
+    ) -> Result<LogicalVectorIndex> {
+        // Every segment of the name the manifest registers, each with the
+        // metadata its open sees: the listed one (derived coverage) for a
+        // listed segment, the stored one for a segment the reader excludes.
+        let registered: Vec<Uuid> = load_all_indices(self)
+            .await?
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|metadata| {
+                metadata.name == name && !is_system_index(metadata) && index_is_usable(metadata)
+            })
+            .map(|metadata| metadata.uuid)
+            .collect();
+        let mut metadatas = Vec::with_capacity(registered.len());
+        for uuid in registered {
+            if let Some(metadata) = self
+                .load_index_with_purpose(&uuid, frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance)
+                .await?
+            {
+                metadatas.push(metadata);
+            }
+        }
+        if metadatas.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index_not_found(format!("name={name}")));
+        }
+        let field_id = self.schema().field_id(column)?;
+        if let Some(invalid_metadata) = metadatas
+            .iter()
+            .find(|metadata| metadata.fields.first() != Some(&field_id))
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Logical vector index '{}' contains segment {} that does not belong to column '{}'",
+                name, invalid_metadata.uuid, column
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(metadatas.len());
+        for metadata in metadatas {
+            let index = self
+                .open_vector_index_for_maintenance(column, &metadata.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await?;
+            segments.push((metadata, index));
+        }
+        LogicalVectorIndex::try_new(name.to_string(), column.to_string(), segments)
+    }
+
+    async fn open_frag_reuse_index(
+        &self,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>> {
+        if let Some(frag_reuse_index_meta) = find_frag_reuse_index_meta(self).await? {
+            if frag_reuse_index_meta.index_version != 0 {
+                // Version-1 consumers are installed separately. The planner excludes
+                // affected segments; independent segments need no legacy remapper.
+                // Maintenance is rejected before entering the legacy write path.
+                return match frag_reuse_index_meta.index_version {
+                    // None means this legacy API cannot provide a reader for FRI index
+                    // version 1; it does not mean the dataset has no FRI.
+                    // Callers must not use this result to authorize index maintenance.
+                    1 => Ok(None),
+                    version => Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                        "FRI index_version {version} is unsupported. Please upgrade to a newer version",
+                    ))),
+                };
+            }
+            let frag_reuse_uuid = frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid;
+            let frag_reuse_key = FragReuseIndexKey {
+                uuid: &frag_reuse_uuid,
+            };
+
+            let index = self
+                .index_cache
+                .get_or_insert_with_key(frag_reuse_key, || async move {
+                    let index_details =
+                        load_frag_reuse_index_details(self, &frag_reuse_index_meta).await?;
+                    let index =
+                        open_frag_reuse_index(frag_reuse_index_meta.uuid, index_details.as_ref())
+                            .await?;
+
+                    info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=%frag_reuse_uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_FRAG_REUSE);
+                    metrics.record_index_load();
+
+                    Ok(index)
+                })
+                .await?;
+
+            Ok(Some(index))
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn open_mem_wal_index(
+        &self,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<MemWalIndex>>> {
+        let Some(mem_wal_meta) = self.load_index_by_name(MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME).await? else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let frag_reuse_uuid = self.frag_reuse_index_uuid().await;
+        let cache_key = MemWalCacheKey::new(&mem_wal_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
+        if let Some(index) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
+            log::debug!("Found MemWAL index in cache uuid: {}", mem_wal_meta.uuid);
+            return Ok(Some(index));
+        }
+
+        let uuid = mem_wal_meta.uuid;
+
+        let index_meta = self
+            .load_index(&uuid)
+            .await?
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid)))?;
+        let index = open_mem_wal_index(index_meta)?;
+
+        info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid=%uuid, r#type=IO_TYPE_OPEN_MEM_WAL);
+        metrics.record_index_load();
+
+        self.index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&cache_key, index.clone())
+            .await;
+        Ok(Some(index))
+    }
+
+    async fn frag_reuse_index_uuid(&self) -> Option<Uuid> {
+        // Bookkeeping-only lookup: the uuid comes off the raw manifest listing,
+        // so it must not drive the query reader's coverage rewrite (nor parse the
+        // mapping, nor fail on a corrupt ledger). Use load_all_indices; the FRI
+        // entry itself is identical in the raw and derived listings.
+        if let Ok(indices) = load_all_indices(self).await {
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .map(|idx| idx.uuid)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "trace", skip_all)]
+    async fn scalar_index_info(&self) -> Result<ScalarIndexInfo> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices().await?;
+        self.scalar_index_info_for_segments(indices.as_ref()).await
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "trace", skip_all)]
+    async fn scalar_index_info_for_segments(
+        &self,
+        indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    ) -> Result<ScalarIndexInfo> {
+        let schema = self.schema();
+        let mut indexed_fields = Vec::new();
+        // (column, index_name) → union of every contributing IndexMetadata's
+        // fragment_bitmap. Multiple entries can land here for delta-merged
+        // indices that share a name. We only insert when every contributing
+        // entry has a bitmap; if any are missing, we leave the entry absent
+        // so the optimizer treats coverage as unknown.
+        let mut fragment_bitmaps: HashMap<(String, String), Option<RoaringBitmap>> = HashMap::new();
+        for index in indices.iter().filter(|idx| {
+            // Check if this is an FTS index by looking at index details
+            let is_fts_index = if let Some(details) = &idx.index_details {
+                IndexDetails(details.clone()).supports_fts()
+            } else {
+                false
+            };
+
+            // Only include indices with non-empty fragment bitmaps, except for FTS indices
+            // which need to be discoverable even when empty
+            let has_non_empty_bitmap = idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().is_some_and(|bitmap| {
+                !bitmap.is_empty() && !(bitmap & self.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()).is_empty()
+            });
+
+            // Same name-collision rationale as `CreateIndexBuilder`'s
+            // default-name loop in create.rs: only the keyed prefix decides
+            // which column this index answers for.
+            idx.keyed_field().is_some() && (has_non_empty_bitmap || is_fts_index)
+        }) {
+            let field = index.fields[0];
+            let field = schema.field_by_id(field).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Index referenced a field with id {field} which did not exist in the schema"
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+            // Build the full field path for nested fields
+            let field_path = if let Some(ancestors) = schema.field_ancestry_by_id(field.id) {
+                let field_refs: Vec<&str> = ancestors.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
+                lance_core::datatypes::format_field_path(&field_refs)
+            } else {
+                field.name.clone()
+            };
+
+            let index_details = IndexDetails(fetch_index_details(self, &field_path, index).await?);
+            if index_details.is_vector() {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let plugin = match index_details.get_plugin() {
+                Ok(plugin) => plugin,
+                Err(e) => {
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "Skipping index '{}' on column '{}': {}. \
+                         Queries on this column will fall back to a full scan.",
+                        index.name,
+                        field_path,
+                        e
+                    );
+                    continue;
+                }
+            };
+            let query_parser = plugin.new_query_parser(index.name.clone(), &index_details.0);
+
+            if let Some(query_parser) = query_parser {
+                // Union the per-segment fragment bitmap into this
+                // (column, index_name) entry. If any segment is missing a
+                // bitmap, downgrade the entry to None so callers know
+                // coverage is partial/unknown.
+                let key = (field_path.clone(), index.name.clone());
+                fragment_bitmaps
+                    .entry(key)
+                    .and_modify(|entry| {
+                        if let (Some(acc), Some(seg)) =
+                            (entry.as_mut(), index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+                        {
+                            *acc |= seg;
+                        } else {
+                            *entry = None;
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .or_insert_with(|| index.fragment_bitmap.clone());
+                indexed_fields.push((field_path, (field.data_type(), query_parser)));
+            }
+        }
+        let mut index_info_map = HashMap::with_capacity(indexed_fields.len());
+        for indexed_field in indexed_fields {
+            // Need to wrap in an option here because we know that only one of and_modify and or_insert will be called
+            // but the rust compiler does not.
+            let mut parser = Some(indexed_field.1.1);
+            let parser = &mut parser;
+            index_info_map
+                .entry(indexed_field.0)
+                .and_modify(|existing: &mut (DataType, Box<MultiQueryParser>)| {
+                    // If there are two indices on the same column, they must have the same type
+                    debug_assert_eq!(existing.0, indexed_field.1.0);
+
+                    existing.1.add(parser.take().unwrap());
+                })
+                .or_insert_with(|| {
+                    (
+                        indexed_field.1.0,
+                        Box::new(MultiQueryParser::single(parser.take().unwrap())),
+                    )
+                });
+        }
+        // Drop entries we couldn't pin to a known bitmap.
+        let fragment_bitmaps = fragment_bitmaps
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter_map(|(k, v)| v.map(|bm| (k, bm)))
+            .collect();
+        Ok(ScalarIndexInfo {
+            indexed_columns: index_info_map,
+            fragment_bitmaps,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn unindexed_fragments(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
+        let mut total_fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for idx in indices.iter() {
+            total_fragment_bitmap |= idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or(Error::index(
+                "Please upgrade lance to 0.8+ to use this function".to_string(),
+            ))?;
+        }
+        Ok(self
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| !total_fragment_bitmap.contains(f.id as u32))
+            .cloned()
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    async fn indexed_fragments(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Vec<Vec<Fragment>>> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
+        indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| {
+                let fragment_bitmap = index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or(Error::index(
+                    "Please upgrade lance to 0.8+ to use this function".to_string(),
+                ))?;
+                let mut indexed_frags = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_bitmap.len() as usize);
+                for frag in self.fragments().iter() {
+                    if fragment_bitmap.contains(frag.id as u32) {
+                        indexed_frags.push(frag.clone());
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(indexed_frags)
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    async fn initialize_index(&mut self, source_dataset: &Dataset, index_name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        let source_indices = source_dataset.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await?;
+
+        if source_indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index '{}' not found in source dataset",
+                index_name
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let source_index = source_indices
+            .iter()
+            .min_by_key(|idx| idx.created_at)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "Could not determine oldest index for '{}'",
+                    index_name
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+        // Only the keyed prefix matters here. The rebuild below writes fresh,
+        // non-covered metadata and never reads the carried columns, so requiring
+        // them to exist and type-match would reject a target that can hold this
+        // index perfectly well.
+        let keyed_fields = source_index.keyed_fields();
+        let mut field_paths = Vec::with_capacity(keyed_fields.len());
+        for field_id in keyed_fields.iter() {
+            let source_field = source_dataset
+                .schema()
+                .field_by_id(*field_id)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "Field with id {} not found in source dataset",
+                        field_id
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            let source_field_path = source_dataset.schema().field_path(*field_id)?;
+
+            let target_field = self.schema().field(&source_field_path).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "Field '{}' required by index '{}' not found in target dataset",
+                    source_field_path, index_name
+                ))
+            })?;
+
+            if source_field.data_type() != target_field.data_type() {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Field '{}' has different types in source ({:?}) and target ({:?}) datasets",
+                    source_field_path,
+                    source_field.data_type(),
+                    target_field.data_type()
+                )));
+            }
+
+            field_paths.push(source_field_path);
+        }
+
+        if field_paths.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index '{}' has no fields",
+                index_name
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let field_names = field_paths.iter().map(String::as_str).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if let Some(index_details) = &source_index.index_details {
+            let index_details_wrapper = IndexDetails(index_details.clone());
+
+            if index_details_wrapper.is_vector() {
+                vector::initialize_vector_index(self, source_dataset, source_index, &field_names)
+                    .await?;
+            } else {
+                scalar::initialize_scalar_index(self, source_dataset, source_index, &field_names)
+                    .await?;
+            }
+        } else {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Index '{}' has no index_details, skipping",
+                source_index.name
+            );
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn initialize_indices(&mut self, source_dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+        let source_indices = source_dataset.load_indices().await?;
+        let non_system_indices: Vec<_> = source_indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| !lance_index::is_system_index(idx))
+            .collect();
+
+        if non_system_indices.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+
+        let mut unique_index_names = HashSet::new();
+        for index in non_system_indices.iter() {
+            unique_index_names.insert(index.name.clone());
+        }
+
+        for index_name in unique_index_names {
+            self.initialize_index(source_dataset, &index_name).await?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Resolves the column name and field for an index operation.
+///
+/// This function handles the case where the caller passes an index name instead of a column name.
+/// It returns the full field path and the field reference.
+fn resolve_index_column(
+    schema: &LanceSchema,
+    index_meta: &IndexMetadata,
+    column_arg: &str,
+) -> Result<(String, Arc<Field>)> {
+    // First, try to find the column directly in the schema
+    if let Some(field) = schema.field(column_arg) {
+        // Column exists in schema, use it
+        return Ok((column_arg.to_string(), Arc::new(field.clone())));
+    }
+
+    // Column doesn't exist in schema, check if it's the index name
+    if column_arg == index_meta.name {
+        // Get the actual column from index metadata
+        if let Some(field_id) = index_meta.fields.first() {
+            let field = schema.field_by_id(*field_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "Index '{}' references field with id {} which does not exist in schema",
+                    index_meta.name, field_id
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let field_path = schema.field_path(*field_id)?;
+            return Ok((field_path, Arc::new(field.clone())));
+        } else {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index '{}' has no fields",
+                index_meta.name
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Column doesn't exist and is not the index name
+    Err(Error::index(format!(
+        "Column '{}' does not exist in the schema",
+        column_arg
+    )))
+}
+
+fn is_vector_field(data_type: DataType) -> bool {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => true,
+        DataType::List(inner) => {
+            // If the inner type is a fixed size list, then it is a multivector field
+            matches!(inner.data_type(), DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _))
+        }
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+    use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+    use crate::session::Session;
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, copy_test_data_to_tmp};
+    use arrow::array::AsArray;
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, Int32Type, Int64Type};
+    use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use futures::{future::try_join_all, stream::TryStreamExt};
+    use lance_arrow::*;
+    use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_core::utils::testing::{ProxyObjectStore, ProxyObjectStorePolicy};
+    use lance_datagen::gen_batch;
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, Dimension, RowCount, array};
+    use lance_index::metrics::LocalMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::pbold::{BTreeIndexDetails, InvertedIndexDetails};
+    use lance_index::scalar::bitmap::BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery, PhraseQuery};
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
+        INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V1, INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2, INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3,
+    };
+    use lance_index::scalar::registry::ScalarIndexCacheKey;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{
+        BuiltinIndexType, FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams,
+    };
+    use lance_index::vector::{
+        hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams,
+        ivf::IvfBuildParams,
+        kmeans::{KMeansParams, train_kmeans},
+        pq::builder::PQBuildParams,
+        sq::builder::SQBuildParams,
+    };
+    use lance_io::{
+        assert_io_eq, assert_io_lt,
+        object_store::{
+            ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptionsAccessor, WrappingObjectStore,
+        },
+        utils::tracking_store::IoStats,
+    };
+    use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
+    use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+    use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::{
+        collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+        sync::{
+            Mutex,
+            atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+        },
+    };
+
+    async fn write_vector_segment_metadata(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        index_name: &str,
+        field_id: i32,
+        uuid: Uuid,
+        fragment_bitmap: impl IntoIterator<Item = u32>,
+        payload: &[u8],
+    ) -> IndexMetadata {
+        let index_path = dataset
+            .indices_dir()
+            .join(uuid.to_string())
+            .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+        dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .put(&index_path, payload)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid,
+            name: index_name.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap.into_iter().collect()),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details_default())),
+            index_version: IndexType::Vector.version(),
+            created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+            base_id: None,
+            files: Some(vec![lance_table::format::IndexFile {
+                path: INDEX_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+                size_bytes: payload.len() as u64,
+            }]),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct RequestIndexStoreWrapper {
+        policy: Arc<Mutex<ProxyObjectStorePolicy>>,
+        revoked: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+        requests: Arc<Mutex<Vec<String>>>,
+    }
+
+    impl RequestIndexStoreWrapper {
+        fn new(index_path: String) -> Self {
+            let revoked = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+            let requests = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+            let mut policy = ProxyObjectStorePolicy::new();
+            let policy_revoked = revoked.clone();
+            let policy_requests = requests.clone();
+            policy.set_before_policy(
+                "observe_index_reads",
+                Arc::new(move |method, path| {
+                    if path.as_ref().contains(&index_path) {
+                        policy_requests.lock().unwrap().push(method.to_owned());
+                        if policy_revoked.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+                            return Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                                store: "RequestIndexStoreWrapper",
+                                source: "request credentials have been revoked".into(),
+                            }
+                            .into());
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }),
+            );
+            Self {
+                policy: Arc::new(Mutex::new(policy)),
+                revoked,
+                requests,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl WrappingObjectStore for RequestIndexStoreWrapper {
+        fn wrap(
+            &self,
+            _storage_prefix: &str,
+            original: Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+        ) -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
+            Arc::new(ProxyObjectStore::new(original, self.policy.clone()))
+        }
+
+        fn wrap_paginated(
+            &self,
+            _store_prefix: &str,
+            _original: Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>,
+        ) -> Option<Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>> {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::credential_stores(false)]
+    #[case::request_wrappers(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scalar_cache_uses_current_object_store(#[case] request_wrappers: bool) {
+        async fn search_ids(dataset: &Dataset, term: &str) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let result = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(term.to_owned()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+            ids.sort_unstable();
+            ids
+        }
+
+        // Rotated credentials require distinct ObjectStore instances to read the same data.
+        // `memory://` creates an isolated in-memory backend for each instance, so this test needs
+        // a filesystem-backed URI.
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let batches = vec![
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(
+                ("id", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3]),
+                (
+                    "text",
+                    Utf8,
+                    [
+                        "alpha common",
+                        "beta common",
+                        "gamma common",
+                        "alpha common"
+                    ]
+                )
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            arrow_array::record_batch!(
+                ("id", Int32, [4, 5, 6, 7]),
+                (
+                    "text",
+                    Utf8,
+                    ["beta common", "gamma common", "alpha common", "beta common"]
+                )
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_group: 4,
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("credential_rotation_fts".to_owned()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let index_meta = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("credential_rotation_fts")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .with_session(session)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_path_fragment = format!("_indices/{}", index_meta.uuid);
+        let wrapper_a = Arc::new(RequestIndexStoreWrapper::new(index_path_fragment.clone()));
+        let wrapper_b = Arc::new(RequestIndexStoreWrapper::new(index_path_fragment));
+        let mut requests = Vec::with_capacity(2);
+        for (generation, wrapper) in [("a", &wrapper_a), ("b", &wrapper_b)] {
+            let request = if request_wrappers {
+                dataset
+                    .with_object_store_wrappers([wrapper.clone() as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>])
+            } else {
+                let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+                    storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(
+                        StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(HashMap::from([(
+                            "credential_generation".to_owned(),
+                            format!("secret-generation-{generation}"),
+                        )])),
+                    )),
+                    object_store_wrapper: Some(wrapper.clone()),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                };
+                let (store, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+                    dataset.session().store_registry(),
+                    dataset.uri(),
+                    &store_params,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                dataset.with_object_store(store, Some(store_params))
+            };
+            requests.push(request);
+        }
+        let dataset_a = &requests[0];
+        let dataset_b = &requests[1];
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &dataset_a.object_store,
+            &dataset_b.object_store
+        ));
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &dataset_a.object_store.inner,
+            &dataset_b.object_store.inner
+        ));
+
+        let initial_metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let initial = dataset_a
+            .open_scalar_index("text", &index_meta.uuid, &initial_metrics)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(initial_metrics.index_loads.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+        initial.prewarm().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(search_ids(dataset_a, "alpha").await, vec![0, 3, 6]);
+        assert!(
+            !wrapper_a.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "the first request must read the FTS index through store A"
+        );
+        wrapper_a.requests.lock().unwrap().clear();
+        wrapper_b.requests.lock().unwrap().clear();
+
+        let same_binding_metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let same_binding = dataset_a
+            .open_scalar_index("text", &index_meta.uuid, &same_binding_metrics)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&initial, &same_binding));
+        assert_eq!(same_binding_metrics.index_loads.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 0);
+        assert_eq!(search_ids(dataset_a, "alpha").await, vec![0, 3, 6]);
+        assert!(
+            wrapper_a.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "the same store binding should reuse the prewarmed scalar index"
+        );
+
+        wrapper_a.revoked.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        let rotation_metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let opened = try_join_all(
+            (0..8)
+                .map(|_| dataset_b.open_scalar_index("text", &index_meta.uuid, &rotation_metrics)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(opened.len(), 8);
+        assert!(opened.iter().all(|index| Arc::ptr_eq(index, &opened[0])));
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&initial, &opened[0]));
+        assert_eq!(
+            rotation_metrics.index_loads.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            0,
+            "concurrent opens after rotation should reuse metadata without a full index load"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            opened[0]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .prewarm_residency_result(false)
+                .await
+                .fully_resident,
+            "request B must retain the prewarmed query state before another prewarm"
+        );
+        // A request can rebind the cached shell between prewarming and the
+        // final residency check. B still owns the runtime state prepared by A.
+        let result = aggregate_fts_prewarm_results(
+            dataset_a,
+            vec![OpenedSegmentPrewarmResult {
+                index_uuid: index_meta.uuid,
+                partition_count: initial
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .partition_count(),
+                index: initial.clone(),
+            }],
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(result.fully_resident);
+        assert_eq!(search_ids(dataset_b, "beta").await, vec![1, 4, 7]);
+        assert!(wrapper_a.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            wrapper_b.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "a new request must serve the prewarmed index without opening partition files"
+        );
+
+        let scalar_cache = dataset.index_cache.for_index(&index_meta.uuid, None);
+        let cached = scalar_cache
+            .get_unsized_with_key(&ScalarIndexCacheKey)
+            .await
+            .expect("the live scalar index should be cached with store B's binding");
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&cached.index(), &opened[0]));
+
+        // Evict decoded values while retaining the live shell. A fully warm query
+        // cannot prove that cache misses use the current request's credentials.
+        scalar_cache.clear().await;
+        scalar_cache
+            .insert_unsized_with_key(&ScalarIndexCacheKey, cached.clone())
+            .await;
+        wrapper_b.requests.lock().unwrap().clear();
+        assert_eq!(search_ids(dataset_b, "beta").await, vec![1, 4, 7]);
+        assert!(
+            wrapper_a.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "request B must not issue index I/O through revoked store A"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            wrapper_b
+                .requests
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|method| matches!(method.as_str(), "get_opts" | "get_ranges")),
+            "request B must read uncached index data through store B"
+        );
+
+        scalar_cache.clear().await;
+        scalar_cache
+            .insert_unsized_with_key(&ScalarIndexCacheKey, cached)
+            .await;
+        wrapper_a.revoked.store(false, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        wrapper_b.revoked.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        wrapper_a.requests.lock().unwrap().clear();
+        wrapper_b.requests.lock().unwrap().clear();
+        assert_eq!(search_ids(dataset_a, "gamma").await, vec![2, 5]);
+        assert!(
+            wrapper_a
+                .requests
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|method| matches!(method.as_str(), "get_opts" | "get_ranges")),
+            "re-querying dataset A must read uncached index data through store A"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            wrapper_b.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "re-querying dataset A must not issue index I/O through revoked store B"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_request_wrappers_reload_legacy_fts_fixture() {
+        let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("0.27.0/legacy_fts_index").unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        let uuid = indices[0].uuid;
+
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            let wrapper = Arc::new(RequestIndexStoreWrapper::new(format!("_indices/{uuid}")));
+            let request = dataset
+                .with_object_store_wrappers([wrapper.clone() as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>]);
+            let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+            let index = request
+                .open_scalar_index("text", &uuid, &metrics)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                index
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .is_legacy()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                metrics.index_loads.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+                1,
+                "legacy readers must still be reloaded through each request's store"
+            );
+            let result = request
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["text"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("happy".to_owned()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                result["text"].as_string::<i32>().value(0),
+                "frodo was a happy puppy"
+            );
+            assert!(!wrapper.requests.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
+            wrapper.revoked.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn list_io_stats(stats: &IoStats) -> IoStats {
+        let requests = stats
+            .requests
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|request| request.method == "list")
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        IoStats {
+            read_iops: requests.len() as u64,
+            requests,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn segment_from_metadata(metadata: &IndexMetadata) -> IndexSegment {
+        metadata
+            .clone()
+            .into_index_segment()
+            .expect("test segment metadata should convert to an index segment")
+    }
+
+    async fn write_fragmented_vector_dataset(uri: &str, dimension: i32) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dimension,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let batches = (0..5)
+            .map(|i| {
+                let vector_values: Float32Array = (0..dimension * 80)
+                    .map(|value| value as f32 + (i * 1000) as f32)
+                    .collect();
+                let vectors =
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_values, dimension).unwrap();
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![
+                        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(i * 80..(i + 1) * 80)),
+                        Arc::new(vectors),
+                    ],
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, arrow_schema::ArrowError>>()
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_group: 10,
+                max_rows_per_file: 80,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn write_skewed_fragmented_vector_dataset(uri: &str, dimension: i32) -> Dataset {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dimension,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let first_fragment_rows = 20_000;
+        let second_fragment_rows = 100;
+        // A tiny per-row perturbation keeps the rows distinct, so the oversized
+        // partition can actually be split by k-means.
+        let first_values = (0..first_fragment_rows * dimension as usize)
+            .map(|i| (i / dimension as usize) as f32 * 0.0001)
+            .collect::<Vec<f32>>();
+        let second_values = vec![100.0f32; second_fragment_rows * dimension as usize];
+        let first_vectors =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(first_values), dimension)
+                .unwrap();
+        let second_vectors =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(second_values), dimension)
+                .unwrap();
+        let batches = vec![
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..first_fragment_rows as i32)),
+                    Arc::new(first_vectors),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                        first_fragment_rows as i32
+                            ..(first_fragment_rows + second_fragment_rows) as i32,
+                    )),
+                    Arc::new(second_vectors),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_group: 1024,
+                max_rows_per_file: first_fragment_rows,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn create_segmented_vector_index(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        index_name: &str,
+        column: &str,
+        dimension: i32,
+    ) -> Vec<Uuid> {
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&[column])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vectors = batch
+            .column_by_name(column)
+            .expect("vector column should exist")
+            .as_fixed_size_list();
+        let values = vectors.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        let centroids = train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(
+            values,
+            KMeansParams::new(None, 10, 1, DistanceType::L2),
+            dimension as usize,
+            2,
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .centroids
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        .clone();
+        let centroids =
+            Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, dimension).unwrap());
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, centroids).unwrap(),
+        );
+        let fragment_ids = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let columns = [column];
+
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+        for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+            let mut builder = dataset.create_index_builder(&columns, IndexType::Vector, &params);
+            builder = builder
+                .name(index_name.to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment_id]);
+            segments.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+        }
+
+        let segment_ids = segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, column, segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        segment_ids
+    }
+
+    /// Premise guard, not a regression test: confirms that the broken shape
+    /// (`fields` truncated to the keyed field while `covering_fields` is
+    /// inherited unchanged) is actually rejected by `validate_covering_fields`,
+    /// and that the fixed shape (both fields carried through) is accepted.
+    /// Both shapes are hand-built here, so this exercises no `merge_segments`
+    /// code and would keep passing even if every impl regressed to the broken
+    /// shape. The real regression coverage is
+    /// `test_merge_existing_index_segments_preserves_covering_bitmap`,
+    /// `_btree`, `_vector`, and `_rtree` below, which merge real segments
+    /// through the actual `merge_segments` implementations.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merged_covered_metadata_is_committable() {
+        let source = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "covered".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![7, 11],
+            covering_fields: vec![11],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        // The shape every merge_segments impl builds: keyed field only, carried
+        // inherited from the source.
+        let field_id = *source.fields.first().unwrap();
+        let merged = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            ..source.clone()
+        };
+        assert!(
+            merged.validate_covering_fields().is_err(),
+            "this is the broken shape; if it validates, the premise has changed"
+        );
+
+        // What the fix must produce instead.
+        let fixed = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            ..source
+        };
+        fixed
+            .validate_covering_fields()
+            .expect("merged covered metadata must be committable");
+        assert_eq!(fixed.fields, vec![7, 11]);
+        assert_eq!(fixed.covering_fields, vec![11]);
+    }
+
+    /// Two-fragment, two-int-column dataset for the scalar-segment covering
+    /// tests below. Column "id" is keyed, "carried" plays the covered column.
+    async fn write_two_int_column_dataset(uri: &str, rows_per_fragment: i32) -> Dataset {
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("carried", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                RowCount::from(rows_per_fragment as u64),
+                BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: rows_per_fragment as usize,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Nothing writes a covering declaration yet, so the declaration below is
+    /// hand-constructed on top of real single-field segments: merge plumbing
+    /// never reads covered-column storage, so a declaration naming a real,
+    /// uninvolved column is a faithful stand-in for a genuinely covered segment.
+    fn make_covered(
+        segment: IndexMetadata,
+        keyed_field_id: i32,
+        carried_field_id: i32,
+    ) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            fields: vec![keyed_field_id, carried_field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![carried_field_id],
+            ..segment
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build one covered segment per named fragment, merge them, and assert the
+    /// merged declaration survived and is committable.
+    ///
+    /// The per-index-type cases below differ only in how their dataset and
+    /// params are built, so the merge and the assertions live here.
+    async fn assert_merge_preserves_covering(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        column: &str,
+        index_type: IndexType,
+        params: &dyn IndexParams,
+        fragment_ids: Vec<u32>,
+        keyed_field_id: i32,
+        carried_field_id: i32,
+    ) {
+        let index_name = format!("covered_{column}");
+        let mut covered_segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+            let segment = dataset
+                .create_index_builder(&[column], index_type, params)
+                .name(index_name.clone())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment_id])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            covered_segments.push(make_covered(segment, keyed_field_id, carried_field_id));
+        }
+
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(covered_segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        merged
+            .validate_covering_fields()
+            .expect("merged covering declaration must be committable");
+        assert_eq!(merged.fields, vec![keyed_field_id, carried_field_id]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.covering_fields,
+            vec![carried_field_id],
+            "merge_segments must neither drop the covering declaration nor \
+             produce an uncommittable one"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn all_fragment_ids(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<u32> {
+        dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Two shapes of the same bug, one per `merge_segments` family:
+    ///
+    ///   - **struct update** (bitmap, inverted, zonemap, label_list,
+    ///     bloomfilter, fmindex): `fields` was truncated to `vec![field_id]`
+    ///     while `..segments[0].clone()` re-supplied `covering_fields`,
+    ///     producing an *uncommittable* merged segment.
+    ///   - **explicit** (btree, ngram): `fields: vec![field_id],
+    ///     covering_fields: vec![]` was built outright, *silently dropping* the
+    ///     declaration instead.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::struct_update(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap, IndexType::Bitmap)]
+    #[case::explicit(BuiltinIndexType::BTree, IndexType::BTree)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_index_segments_preserves_covering_scalar(
+        #[case] builtin: BuiltinIndexType,
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = write_two_int_column_dataset(&test_dir, 20).await;
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let carried_field_id = dataset.schema().field("carried").unwrap().id;
+        let fragment_ids = all_fragment_ids(&dataset);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(builtin);
+        assert_merge_preserves_covering(
+            &mut dataset,
+            "id",
+            index_type,
+            &params,
+            fragment_ids,
+            id_field_id,
+            carried_field_id,
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    /// Segments that disagree on which columns they carry cannot be folded
+    /// into one coherent output declaration: there is no single
+    /// `covering_fields` that would describe the merged segment truthfully.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_index_segments_rejects_mismatched_covering_fields() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = write_two_int_column_dataset(&test_dir, 20).await;
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let carried_field_id = dataset.schema().field("carried").unwrap().id;
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        let mut mismatched_segments = Vec::new();
+        for (i, fragment) in dataset.get_fragments().into_iter().enumerate() {
+            let segment = dataset
+                .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::Bitmap, &params)
+                .name("mismatched_bitmap".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // First segment declares `carried` covered; the second declares
+            // nothing covered -- a genuine disagreement, not just a
+            // reordering.
+            if i == 0 {
+                mismatched_segments.push(make_covered(segment, id_field_id, carried_field_id));
+            } else {
+                mismatched_segments.push(segment);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(mismatched_segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("requires segments with identical fields"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Vector shape: `crate::index::vector::ivf::merge_segments` already
+    /// preserves both `fields` and `covering_fields` via struct update, but
+    /// `merge_existing_index_segments`'s own tail used to unconditionally
+    /// overwrite `fields` to `vec![field_id]` afterwards, reproducing the
+    /// struct-update bug for every index type it dispatches to.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_index_segments_preserves_covering_vector() {
+        const DIMENSION: i32 = 4;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = write_fragmented_vector_dataset(&test_dir, DIMENSION).await;
+        let vector_field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["vector"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vectors = batch
+            .column_by_name("vector")
+            .expect("vector column should exist")
+            .as_fixed_size_list();
+        let values = vectors.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        let centroids = train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(
+            values,
+            KMeansParams::new(None, 10, 1, DistanceType::L2),
+            DIMENSION as usize,
+            2,
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .centroids
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        .clone();
+        let centroids =
+            Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIMENSION).unwrap());
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, centroids).unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let fragment_ids = all_fragment_ids(&dataset).into_iter().take(2).collect();
+
+        assert_merge_preserves_covering(
+            &mut dataset,
+            "vector",
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            &params,
+            fragment_ids,
+            vector_field_id,
+            id_field_id,
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    /// Struct-update shape, sweep-found in `rtree.rs`: same bug as the
+    /// bitmap/inverted/zonemap/label_list/bloomfilter/fmindex family, not
+    /// called out in the original brief but reachable from the same
+    /// `all_rtree` dispatch branch this function tests.
+    #[cfg(feature = "geo")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_index_segments_preserves_covering_rtree() {
+        use geo_types::line_string;
+        use geoarrow_array::GeoArrowArray;
+        use geoarrow_array::builder::LineStringBuilder;
+        use geoarrow_schema::{Dimension, LineStringType};
+
+        const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: i32 = 20;
+        let line_string_type = LineStringType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            line_string_type.clone().to_field("geometry", true),
+        ]));
+
+        let batches = (0..2)
+            .map(|fragment: i32| {
+                let mut builder = LineStringBuilder::new(line_string_type.clone());
+                for row in 0..ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT {
+                    let x = (fragment * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT + row) as f64;
+                    builder
+                        .push_line_string(Some(&line_string![
+                            (x: x, y: x),
+                            (x: x + 1.0, y: x + 1.0)
+                        ]))
+                        .unwrap();
+                }
+                let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    fragment * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT..(fragment + 1) * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+                );
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(ids), builder.finish().to_array_ref()],
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, arrow_schema::ArrowError>>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as usize,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let geometry_field_id = dataset.schema().field("geometry").unwrap().id;
+        let fragment_ids = all_fragment_ids(&dataset);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::RTree);
+        assert_merge_preserves_covering(
+            &mut dataset,
+            "geometry",
+            IndexType::RTree,
+            &params,
+            fragment_ids,
+            geometry_field_id,
+            id_field_id,
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_logical_vector_index_single_segment_quality_apis() {
+        const DIMENSION: i32 = 8;
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = write_fragmented_vector_dataset(test_uri, DIMENSION).await;
+        let params =
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, IvfBuildParams::new(2));
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let logical_index = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", "vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(logical_index.name(), "vector_idx");
+        assert_eq!(logical_index.column(), "vector");
+        assert_eq!(logical_index.num_segments(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(logical_index.metadatas().len(), 1);
+
+        let rows_per_segment = logical_index.num_rows_per_segment();
+        assert_eq!(rows_per_segment.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(rows_per_segment[0].1, 400);
+
+        let ivf_view = logical_index.as_ivf().unwrap();
+        let partitions_per_segment = ivf_view.num_partitions_per_segment();
+        assert_eq!(partitions_per_segment, vec![(rows_per_segment[0].0, 2)]);
+
+        let partition_sizes = ivf_view.partition_sizes();
+        assert_eq!(partition_sizes.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(partition_sizes[0].1.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            partition_sizes[0].1.iter().sum::<usize>(),
+            rows_per_segment[0].1 as usize
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_logical_vector_index_segmented_quality_apis() {
+        const DIMENSION: i32 = 8;
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = write_fragmented_vector_dataset(test_uri, DIMENSION).await;
+        let segment_ids =
+            create_segmented_vector_index(&mut dataset, "vector_idx", "vector", DIMENSION).await;
+
+        let logical_index = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", "vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(logical_index.name(), "vector_idx");
+        assert_eq!(logical_index.column(), "vector");
+        assert_eq!(logical_index.num_segments(), segment_ids.len());
+
+        let metadata_ids = logical_index
+            .metadatas()
+            .map(|metadata| metadata.uuid)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata_ids,
+            segment_ids.into_iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>()
+        );
+
+        let rows_per_segment = logical_index.num_rows_per_segment();
+        assert_eq!(rows_per_segment.len(), logical_index.num_segments());
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows_per_segment
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(_, num_rows)| *num_rows)
+                .sum::<u64>(),
+            400
+        );
+        assert!(
+            rows_per_segment.iter().all(|(_, num_rows)| *num_rows > 0),
+            "each segment should contain indexed rows"
+        );
+
+        let ivf_view = logical_index.as_ivf().unwrap();
+        let partitions_per_segment = ivf_view.num_partitions_per_segment();
+        assert!(
+            partitions_per_segment
+                .iter()
+                .all(|(_, num_partitions)| *num_partitions == 2)
+        );
+
+        let row_count_by_segment = rows_per_segment.into_iter().collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let partition_sizes = ivf_view.partition_sizes();
+        assert_eq!(partition_sizes.len(), logical_index.num_segments());
+        for (segment_id, sizes) in partition_sizes {
+            assert_eq!(sizes.len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(
+                sizes.iter().sum::<usize>(),
+                row_count_by_segment[&segment_id] as usize
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_logical_vector_index_rejects_wrong_column() {
+        const DIMENSION: i32 = 8;
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = write_fragmented_vector_dataset(test_uri, DIMENSION).await;
+        let params =
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, IvfBuildParams::new(2));
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("id", "vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("does not belong to column 'id'"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_segmented_optimize_rebalances_only_one_segment() {
+        const DIMENSION: i32 = 8;
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = write_skewed_fragmented_vector_dataset(test_uri, DIMENSION).await;
+        create_segmented_vector_index(&mut dataset, "vector_idx", "vector", DIMENSION).await;
+
+        let before_segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before_segments.len(), 2);
+        let before_by_fragment = before_segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|metadata| {
+                let fragments = metadata
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                (fragments, metadata.uuid)
+            })
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        assert_eq!(before_by_fragment.len(), 2);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let after_segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(after_segments.len(), 2);
+        let after_by_fragment = after_segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|metadata| {
+                let fragments = metadata
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                (fragments, metadata.uuid)
+            })
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        assert_eq!(after_by_fragment.len(), 2);
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            before_by_fragment[&vec![0]],
+            after_by_fragment[&vec![0]],
+            "expected optimize to replace the oversized segment"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            before_by_fragment[&vec![1]],
+            after_by_fragment[&vec![1]],
+            "expected optimize to leave the smaller segment untouched"
+        );
+
+        let logical_index = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", "vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let partitions_per_segment = logical_index
+            .as_ivf()
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_partitions_per_segment()
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        // The 20_000-row partition is split straight to the target size:
+        // ceil(20_000 / 4096) = 5 pieces, so 2 + 4 partitions.
+        assert_eq!(
+            partitions_per_segment[&after_by_fragment[&vec![0]]],
+            2 + 20_000_usize.div_ceil(IndexType::IvfFlat.target_partition_size()) - 1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(partitions_per_segment[&after_by_fragment[&vec![1]]], 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_recreate_index() {
+        const DIM: i32 = 8;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(
+                "v",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), DIM),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new(
+                "o",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), DIM),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let data = generate_random_array(2048 * DIM as usize);
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = vec![
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data.clone(), DIM).unwrap()),
+                    Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, DIM).unwrap()),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["v"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["o"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create index again
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["v"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Can not overwrite an index on different columns.
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["v"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    Some("o_idx".to_string()),
+                    &params,
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_index_statistics_minimal_io_via_dataset() {
+        const NUM_ROWS: usize = 500_000;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "status",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let values: Vec<i32> = (0..NUM_ROWS as i32).collect();
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values))]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &test_dir, None).await.unwrap();
+        let io_tracker = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_tracker().clone();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["status"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                Some("status_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let index_meta = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "status_idx")
+            .expect("status_idx should exist");
+        let lookup_path = dataset
+            .indice_files_dir(index_meta)
+            .unwrap()
+            .join(index_meta.uuid.to_string())
+            .join(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME);
+        let meta = dataset.object_store.inner.head(&lookup_path).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            meta.size >= 1_000_000,
+            "bitmap index should be large enough to fail without metadata path, size={} bytes",
+            meta.size
+        );
+
+        // Reset stats collected during index creation
+        io_tracker.incremental_stats();
+
+        dataset.index_statistics("status_idx").await.unwrap();
+
+        let stats = io_tracker.incremental_stats();
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            stats,
+            read_bytes,
+            4096,
+            "index_statistics should only read the index footer; got {} bytes",
+            stats.read_bytes
+        );
+        assert_io_lt!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            3,
+            "index_statistics should only require a head plus one range read; got {} ops",
+            stats.read_iops
+        );
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            stats,
+            written_bytes,
+            0,
+            "index_statistics should not perform writes"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn sample_vector_field() -> Field {
+        let dimensions = 16;
+        let column_name = "vec";
+        Field::new(
+            column_name,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimensions,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_drop_index() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
+            sample_vector_field(),
+            Field::new("ints", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]);
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::rand(&schema)
+            .into_dataset(
+                &test_dir,
+                FragmentCount::from(1),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(256),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let idx_name = "name".to_string();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(idx_name.clone()),
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["ints"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 2);
+
+        dataset.drop_index(&idx_name).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+
+        // Even though we didn't give the scalar index a name it still has an auto-generated one we can use
+        let scalar_idx_name = &dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].name;
+        dataset.drop_index(scalar_idx_name).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 0);
+
+        // Make sure it returns an error if the index doesn't exist
+        assert!(dataset.drop_index(scalar_idx_name).await.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_count_index_rows() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dimensions = 16;
+        let column_name = "vec";
+        let field = sample_vector_field();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+
+        let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimensions as usize);
+
+        let vectors =
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
+
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Make sure it returns None if there's no index with the passed identifier
+        assert!(dataset.index_statistics("bad_id").await.is_err());
+        // Create an index
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[column_name],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
+
+        // Now we'll append some rows which shouldn't be indexed and see the
+        // count change
+        let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimensions as usize);
+        let vectors =
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
+
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_v036_scalar_details_are_still_known() {
+        let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("0.36.0/btree_in_index_pkg.lance").unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let details = indices[0].index_details.clone().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(details.type_url, "/lance.index.pb.BTreeIndexDetails");
+        assert_eq!(IndexDetails(details).get_plugin().unwrap().name(), "BTree");
+        assert!(index_type_is_known(&indices[0]));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unknown_index_type_does_not_block_queries_or_optimization() {
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(8)))
+            .col("number", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(64), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["number"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("number_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let appended = gen_batch()
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(8)))
+            .col("number", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(32), BatchCount::from(1));
+        dataset.append(appended, None).await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("number_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 32);
+
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let fragment_ids = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut foreign_segment = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "foreign_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fragment_ids,
+            b"opaque external index",
+        )
+        .await;
+        foreign_segment.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "type.googleapis.com/example.MyVectorIndexDetails".to_string(),
+            value: Vec::new(),
+        }));
+        foreign_segment.index_version = 1;
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("foreign_idx", "vector", vec![foreign_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices_by_name("foreign_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty(),
+            "an index with no reader must not enter the usable-index view"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            load_all_indices_by_name(&dataset, "foreign_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            1,
+            "hiding an unusable index must not erase its manifest metadata"
+        );
+
+        let query = Float32Array::from(vec![0.5_f32; 8]);
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.nearest("vector", &query, 5).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 5);
+
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("number_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            load_all_indices_by_name(&dataset, "foreign_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            1,
+            "optimizing supported indices must preserve the opaque segment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_delta_indices() {
+        let dimensions = 16;
+        let column_name = "vec";
+        let vec_field = Field::new(
+            column_name,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimensions,
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+        let other_column_name = "other_vec";
+        let other_vec_field = Field::new(
+            other_column_name,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimensions,
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![vec_field, other_vec_field]));
+
+        let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimensions as usize);
+
+        let vectors = Arc::new(
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let record_batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vectors.clone(), vectors.clone()]).unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[column_name],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[other_column_name],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("other_vec_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        async fn get_stats(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> serde_json::Value {
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics(name).await.unwrap()).unwrap()
+        }
+        async fn get_meta(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+            dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|m| m.name == name)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect()
+        }
+        fn get_bitmap(meta: &IndexMetadata) -> Vec<u32> {
+            meta.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().iter().collect()
+        }
+        fn assert_segment_aliases(stats: &serde_json::Value) {
+            assert_eq!(stats["num_segments"], stats["num_indices"]);
+            assert_eq!(stats["segments"], stats["indices"]);
+        }
+
+        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_segment_aliases(&stats);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
+
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_segment_aliases(&stats);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append().index_names(vec![])) // Does nothing because no index name is passed
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_segment_aliases(&stats);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
+
+        // optimize the other index
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(
+                &OptimizeOptions::append().index_names(vec!["other_vec_idx".to_owned()]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_segment_aliases(&stats);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
+
+        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "other_vec_idx").await;
+        assert_segment_aliases(&stats);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 2);
+        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "other_vec_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
+        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[1]), vec![1]);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::retrain())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_segment_aliases(&stats);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0, 1]);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::retrain())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "other_vec_idx").await;
+        assert_segment_aliases(&stats);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "other_vec_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_ivf_hnsw_sq_delta_indices() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dimensions = 16;
+        let column_name = "vec";
+        let field = Field::new(
+            column_name,
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimensions,
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+
+        let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimensions as usize);
+
+        let vectors =
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
+
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::default();
+        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+        let sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            ivf_params,
+            hnsw_params,
+            sq_params,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[column_name],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 2);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::retrain())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v1("v3.0.1/fts_v1", INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V1)]
+    #[case::v2("v4.0.1/fts_v2", INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V2)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_read_fts_format_fixture(
+        #[case] fixture_path: &str,
+        #[case] expected_version: u32,
+    ) {
+        async fn search_ids(dataset: &Dataset, query: FullTextSearchQuery) -> Vec<i64> {
+            let result = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(query)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<Int64Type>().values().to_vec();
+            ids.sort_unstable();
+            ids
+        }
+
+        let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp(fixture_path).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].index_version, expected_version as i32);
+
+        let match_ids = search_ids(
+            &dataset,
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("compatibility".to_string()),
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(match_ids, (0..300).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+
+        let phrase =
+            PhraseQuery::new("lance database".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string()));
+        let phrase_ids = search_ids(
+            &dataset,
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(phrase)),
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(phrase_ids, (0..300).step_by(3).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            let wrapper = Arc::new(RequestIndexStoreWrapper::new(format!(
+                "_indices/{}",
+                indices[0].uuid
+            )));
+            let request = dataset
+                .with_object_store_wrappers([wrapper.clone() as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>]);
+            assert_eq!(
+                search_ids(
+                    &request,
+                    FullTextSearchQuery::new("compatibility".to_owned())
+                )
+                .await,
+                match_ids
+            );
+            let phrase =
+                PhraseQuery::new("lance database".to_owned()).with_column(Some("text".to_owned()));
+            assert_eq!(
+                search_ids(
+                    &request,
+                    FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(phrase))
+                )
+                .await,
+                phrase_ids
+            );
+            wrapper.revoked.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_fts(#[values(false, true)] with_position: bool) {
+        let words = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "date"];
+
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let data = StringArray::from_iter_values(words.iter().map(|s| s.to_string()));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(data)]).unwrap();
+        let batch_iterator = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batch_iterator, &dir, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .lower_case(false)
+            .with_position(with_position);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        async fn assert_indexed_rows(dataset: &Dataset, expected_indexed_rows: usize) {
+            let stats = dataset.index_statistics("text_idx").await.unwrap();
+            let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+            let indexed_rows = stats["num_indexed_rows"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize;
+            let unindexed_rows = stats["num_unindexed_rows"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize;
+            let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(indexed_rows, expected_indexed_rows);
+            assert_eq!(unindexed_rows, num_rows - expected_indexed_rows);
+        }
+
+        let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
+        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
+
+        let new_words = ["elephant", "fig", "grape", "honeydew"];
+        let new_data = StringArray::from_iter_values(new_words.iter().map(|s| s.to_string()));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(new_data)]).unwrap();
+        let batch_iter = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        dataset.append(batch_iter, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
+        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
+
+        for &word in words.iter().chain(new_words.iter()) {
+            let query_result = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["text"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(Some(10), None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let texts = query_result["text"]
+                .as_string::<i32>()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|v| match v {
+                    None => "".to_string(),
+                    Some(v) => v.to_string(),
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<String>>();
+
+            assert_eq!(texts.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(texts[0], word);
+        }
+
+        let uppercase_words = ["Apple", "Banana", "Cherry", "Date"];
+        for &word in uppercase_words.iter() {
+            let query_result = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["text"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(Some(10), None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let texts = query_result["text"]
+                .as_string::<i32>()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|v| match v {
+                    None => "".to_string(),
+                    Some(v) => v.to_string(),
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<String>>();
+
+            assert_eq!(texts.len(), 0);
+        }
+        let new_data = StringArray::from_iter_values(uppercase_words.iter().map(|s| s.to_string()));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(new_data)]).unwrap();
+        let batch_iter = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        dataset.append(batch_iter, None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
+
+        // we should be able to query the new words
+        for &word in uppercase_words.iter() {
+            let query_result = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["text"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(Some(10), None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let texts = query_result["text"]
+                .as_string::<i32>()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|v| match v {
+                    None => "".to_string(),
+                    Some(v) => v.to_string(),
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<String>>();
+
+            assert_eq!(texts.len(), 1, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
+            assert_eq!(texts[0], word, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
+        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
+
+        // we should be able to query the new words after optimization
+        for &word in uppercase_words.iter() {
+            let query_result = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["text"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(Some(10), None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let texts = query_result["text"]
+                .as_string::<i32>()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|v| match v {
+                    None => "".to_string(),
+                    Some(v) => v.to_string(),
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<String>>();
+
+            assert_eq!(texts.len(), 1, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
+            assert_eq!(texts[0], word, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
+
+            // we should be able to query the new words after compaction
+            compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            for &word in uppercase_words.iter() {
+                let query_result = dataset
+                    .scan()
+                    .project(&["text"])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let texts = query_result["text"]
+                    .as_string::<i32>()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|v| match v {
+                        None => "".to_string(),
+                        Some(v) => v.to_string(),
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Vec<String>>();
+                assert_eq!(texts.len(), 1, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
+                assert_eq!(texts[0], word, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
+            }
+            assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_fts_respects_num_indices_to_merge() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::PhraseQuery;
+
+        async fn append_texts(dataset: &mut Dataset, schema: Arc<Schema>, rows: &[(i32, &str)]) {
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(rows.iter().map(|(id, _)| *id))),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                        rows.iter().map(|(_, text)| *text),
+                    )),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let batch_iter = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+            dataset.append(batch_iter, None).await.unwrap();
+        }
+
+        async fn num_fts_segments(dataset: &Dataset) -> usize {
+            let stats = dataset.index_statistics("text_idx").await.unwrap();
+            let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+            stats["num_indices"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize
+        }
+
+        async fn assert_fts_ids(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            query: FullTextSearchQuery,
+            expected_ids: &[i32],
+        ) {
+            let result = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(query)
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(Some(20), None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+            ids.sort_unstable();
+            assert_eq!(ids, expected_ids);
+        }
+
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values([0, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values([
+                    "alpha base phrase",
+                    "beta base phrase",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch_iterator = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batch_iterator, &dir, None).await.unwrap();
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_fts_segments(&dataset).await, 1);
+
+        append_texts(&mut dataset, schema.clone(), &[(2, "gamma delta phrase")]).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_fts_segments(&dataset).await, 2);
+
+        append_texts(&mut dataset, schema.clone(), &[(3, "epsilon zeta phrase")]).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_fts_segments(&dataset).await, 2);
+        assert_fts_ids(
+            &dataset,
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("epsilon".to_owned()),
+            &[3],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        append_texts(&mut dataset, schema.clone(), &[(4, "eta theta phrase")]).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_fts_segments(&dataset).await, 3);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_fts_segments(&dataset).await, 2);
+        assert_fts_ids(
+            &dataset,
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(PhraseQuery::new("eta theta".to_owned()).into()),
+            &[4],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        append_texts(&mut dataset, schema, &[(5, "iota kappa phrase")]).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_fts_segments(&dataset).await, 3);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(10))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_fts_segments(&dataset).await, 1);
+        assert_fts_ids(&dataset, FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_owned()), &[0]).await;
+        assert_fts_ids(&dataset, FullTextSearchQuery::new("iota".to_owned()), &[5]).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_index_too_small_for_pq() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dimensions = 1536;
+
+        let field = Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimensions,
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let float_arr = generate_random_array(100 * dimensions as usize);
+
+        let vectors =
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 96, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .expect("a table too small to train on still accepts an index");
+
+        // The definition is there and covers nothing: 100 rows cannot train a
+        // 256-code quantizer, so there is nothing to cover yet.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]));
+        // Every fragment is still unindexed, which is what optimize will pick
+        // up once the column can train.
+        let unindexed = dataset.unindexed_fragments("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(unindexed.len(), dataset.get_fragments().len());
+    }
+
+    /// More partitions requested than the data supports trains fewer of them.
+    ///
+    /// A partition wants a codebook's worth of vectors, so 300 vectors support
+    /// one partition however many are asked for.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_index_with_more_partitions_than_rows() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let rows = 300;
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), rows).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1000, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .expect("more partitions than rows should reduce partitions, not fail");
+
+        // Trained, not degraded: 300 rows clear the 256-code PQ floor.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(!segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]));
+
+        // 300 / 256 = 1, not the 1000 requested.
+        assert_eq!(trained_partitions(&dataset).await, vec![1]);
+    }
+
+    /// Partition counts for a trained logical vector index, one per segment.
+    /// Whether a segment covers no rows, which is how a definition reads back
+    /// from the manifest.
+    fn segment_covers_nothing(index: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+        index
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(roaring::RoaringBitmap::is_empty)
+    }
+
+    async fn trained_partitions(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<usize> {
+        dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", "vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ivf()
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_partitions_per_segment()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(_, partitions)| partitions)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// A table indexed while empty trains on the first append-mode optimize
+    /// that has data behind it.
+    ///
+    /// Writing rows never touches the index, so the optimize is where the
+    /// definition becomes a real index — and append is the mode scheduled
+    /// maintenance uses, so it has to be the mode that gets there.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_mode_trains_a_definition_once_data_arrives() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 0).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = append_vectors(test_dir.path(), 3000).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3000);
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]),
+            "writing rows leaves the index a definition"
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices.len(),
+            1,
+            "training supersedes the definition rather than adding a delta to it"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]),
+            "3,000 vectors clear the floor, so the append trains the column"
+        );
+        // Sized from the 3,000 vectors present, not the 2 the request named.
+        assert_eq!(trained_partitions(&dataset).await, vec![1]);
+    }
+
+    /// The cap reduces a requested count only while the data cannot support it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_index_partition_cap_follows_the_data() {
+        // 8 partitions want 8 * 256 = 2048 vectors: 1000 falls inside the band
+        // where the count is reduced, 3000 clears it.
+        for (rows, expected) in [(1000, 3), (3000, 8)] {
+            let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), rows).await;
+
+            let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(8, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+            dataset
+                .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                trained_partitions(&dataset).await,
+                vec![expected],
+                "{rows} vectors"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The cap counts the vectors IVF fits a centroid on, not codebook entries.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partition_cap_ignores_the_codebook_size() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 300).await;
+
+        // A 4-bit codebook holds 16 entries, but a partition still wants the
+        // 256 vectors IVF training samples for one centroid.
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(8, 4, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // 300 / 256 = 1.
+        assert_eq!(trained_partitions(&dataset).await, vec![1]);
+    }
+
+    /// Sampling fewer vectors per centroid makes more partitions supportable.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partition_cap_follows_the_configured_sample_rate() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 300).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams {
+                num_partitions: Some(8),
+                sample_rate: 64,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            PQBuildParams {
+                num_sub_vectors: 4,
+                num_bits: 8,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // 300 / 64 = 4.
+        assert_eq!(trained_partitions(&dataset).await, vec![4]);
+    }
+
+    /// A definition records no partition count, so the index the table grows
+    /// into is sized from the data present when it finally trains. A count
+    /// asked for on a table too small to train it does not survive the wait.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deferred_index_sizes_from_the_data_it_trains_on() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 100).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(8, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]),
+            "100 vectors cannot train a 256-code quantizer, so nothing is covered yet"
+        );
+
+        // 3100 vectors would clear 8 * 256, but no count was recorded, so
+        // training derives one from the data: 3100 / 8192 -> 1.
+        let mut dataset = append_vectors(test_dir.path(), 3000).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(trained_partitions(&dataset).await, vec![1]);
+    }
+
+    /// Appending to an index that is still a definition, on a table that still
+    /// cannot train, is a no-op rather than an error, and stays one when
+    /// repeated.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_to_a_definition_that_still_cannot_train() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 100).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Twice, so the second call sees whatever the first one left behind.
+        for attempt in 0..2 {
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+                .await
+                .unwrap_or_else(|error| {
+                    panic!("append {attempt} on a definition must not fail: {error}")
+                });
+            let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+            assert!(
+                segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]),
+                "100 vectors still cannot train a 256-code quantizer"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Compaction leaves an index that covers nothing alone. It has no file to
+    /// remap, and an empty fragment bitmap cannot intersect a rewrite group, so
+    /// the remapper skips it instead of opening a file that is not there.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_skips_a_definition_only_index() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 100).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // A second fragment, so compaction has two to rewrite into one.
+        let mut dataset = append_vectors(test_dir.path(), 100).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1000,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 200);
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]),
+            "the index should still be a definition covering nothing"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A reader over one batch of `rows` random 16-dimensional vectors.
+    fn vector_reader(rows: usize) -> impl arrow_array::RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static {
+        let dimensions = 16;
+        let field = Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimensions,
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let values = generate_random_array(rows * dimensions as usize);
+        let vectors =
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimensions).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema)
+    }
+
+    /// Build a dataset of `rows` random vectors, one fragment.
+    async fn small_vector_dataset(dir: &std::path::Path, rows: usize) -> Dataset {
+        Dataset::write(vector_reader(rows), dir.to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// A dataset of `rows` rows where only the first `non_null` hold a vector.
+    async fn partly_null_vector_dataset(
+        dir: &std::path::Path,
+        rows: usize,
+        non_null: usize,
+    ) -> Dataset {
+        let dimensions = 16;
+        let field = Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimensions,
+            ),
+            true,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let mut builder = arrow_array::builder::FixedSizeListBuilder::new(
+            arrow_array::builder::Float32Builder::new(),
+            dimensions,
+        );
+        for row in 0..rows {
+            if row < non_null {
+                for value in 0..dimensions {
+                    builder.values().append_value(value as f32);
+                }
+                builder.append(true);
+            } else {
+                for _ in 0..dimensions {
+                    builder.values().append_null();
+                }
+                builder.append(false);
+            }
+        }
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(builder.finish())]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        Dataset::write(reader, dir.to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The floor counts vectors, not rows.
+    ///
+    /// A column that is mostly null has plenty of rows and nothing to train on,
+    /// so it has to degrade rather than hand too few vectors to the quantizer.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_index_counts_vectors_not_rows() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        // 1000 rows clear the floor; the 100 actual vectors do not.
+        let mut dataset = partly_null_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 1000, 100).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .expect("a mostly-null column must not be handed to the quantizer");
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]),
+            "100 vectors cannot train a 256-code quantizer"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Append `rows` more random vectors as a new fragment.
+    async fn append_vectors(dir: &std::path::Path, rows: usize) -> Dataset {
+        Dataset::write(
+            vector_reader(rows),
+            dir.to_str().unwrap(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The whole point of degrading: the index fills in once the data arrives.
+    ///
+    /// A definition-only index has no model to append to, so optimizing has to
+    /// train it from scratch and then cover every fragment, including the small
+    /// one that existed before the threshold was met.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_degraded_index_trains_on_optimize_once_data_arrives() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 100).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 8, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Degraded: 100 rows cannot train a 256-code quantizer.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]));
+
+        // 100 -> 500 across two fragments, clearing the floor.
+        let mut dataset = append_vectors(test_dir.path(), 400).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 500);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .expect("a definition-only index must train once the data is there");
+
+        // Trained and covering: both fragments, nothing left unindexed.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        let covered = indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            covered.len() as usize,
+            dataset.get_fragments().len(),
+            "every fragment must be covered, including the pre-threshold one"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .unindexed_fragments("vector_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A vector query works while the index is still only a definition.
+    ///
+    /// The index covers no fragments, so every row is unindexed and the search
+    /// has to answer from the table itself rather than opening an index file
+    /// that was never written.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_query_against_a_definition_only_index() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let rows = 100;
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), rows).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(segment_covers_nothing(
+            &dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0]
+        ));
+
+        let query = vec![0.0_f32; 16];
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &Float32Array::from(query), 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .expect("a query must not open an index file that was never written");
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 5);
+    }
+
+    /// `fast_search` against an index that is still a definition finds nothing.
+    ///
+    /// It restricts the search to what the index covers, and a definition
+    /// covers no rows, so there is nothing to return rather than a fallback
+    /// scan of the table.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fast_search_against_a_definition_only_index() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 100).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32; 16]);
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .fast_search()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .expect("fast_search must not fail on an index that covers nothing");
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 0);
+    }
+
+    /// Statistics for an index that is still a definition report no coverage.
+    ///
+    /// The same shape the scalar side reports: the index is listed, indexed
+    /// rows are zero, and every row counts as unindexed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_statistics_for_a_definition_only_index() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let rows = 100;
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), rows).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vector_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"].as_u64(), Some(0));
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"].as_u64(), Some(rows as u64));
+    }
+
+    /// An index type without a codebook trains on a table a codebook could not.
+    ///
+    /// Only PQ needs a vector per code; RQ needs a pair of values and flat
+    /// storage needs none, so 100 vectors are enough for these to cover the
+    /// table rather than degrade to a definition.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::ivf_flat(VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, DistanceType::L2))]
+    #[case::ivf_rq(VectorIndexParams::ivf_rq(1, 8, DistanceType::L2))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_index_without_a_codebook_trains_on_a_small_table(
+        #[case] params: VectorIndexParams,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 100).await;
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .expect("an index with no codebook has no row floor to clear");
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            !segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]),
+            "should have trained and covered the table"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A multivector row holds a list, so the floor counts the vectors in the
+    /// lists rather than the rows that carry them.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_multivector_floor_counts_vectors_not_rows() {
+        let sparse = {
+            let mut lengths = vec![0_usize; 100];
+            lengths[0] = 10;
+            lengths
+        };
+        // Lists per row, whether that trains, and the count that decides it.
+        let cases: [(Vec<usize>, bool, &str); 4] = [
+            (vec![10; 100], true, "100 rows of 10 vectors give 1,000"),
+            (vec![2; 10], false, "10 rows of 2 vectors give 20"),
+            (sparse, false, "one row holding 10 vectors still gives 10"),
+            (vec![0; 100], false, "empty lists give none"),
+        ];
+
+        for (lengths, trains, why) in cases {
+            let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = multivector_dataset_with(test_dir.path(), &lengths).await;
+
+            // Multivector columns are cosine-only.
+            let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 4, DistanceType::Cosine, 1);
+            dataset
+                .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_or_else(|error| {
+                    panic!("{why}: a table below the floor takes the index rather than failing: {error}")
+                });
+
+            let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1, "{why}");
+            let covers_nothing = segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]);
+            assert_eq!(!covers_nothing, trains, "{why}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A table of `rows`, each holding `vectors_per_row` vectors.
+    async fn multivector_dataset(
+        dir: &std::path::Path,
+        rows: usize,
+        vectors_per_row: usize,
+    ) -> Dataset {
+        multivector_dataset_with(dir, &vec![vectors_per_row; rows]).await
+    }
+
+    /// A multivector table whose row `i` holds `lengths[i]` vectors, so uneven
+    /// and empty lists can be built as easily as uniform ones.
+    async fn multivector_dataset_with(dir: &std::path::Path, lengths: &[usize]) -> Dataset {
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder, ListBuilder};
+
+        let dimensions = 16;
+        let field = Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(Field::new(
+                "item",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dimensions,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ))),
+            true,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+
+        let mut builder =
+            ListBuilder::new(FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), dimensions));
+        for (row, &length) in lengths.iter().enumerate() {
+            for vector in 0..length {
+                for value in 0..dimensions {
+                    builder
+                        .values()
+                        .values()
+                        .append_value((row + vector + value as usize) as f32 + 0.5);
+                }
+                builder.values().append(true);
+            }
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(builder.finish())]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        Dataset::write(reader, dir.to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The partition cap counts a multivector row's whole list too.
+    ///
+    /// 1,000 vectors support three partitions; counting the 100 rows instead
+    /// would allow only one.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partition_cap_counts_multivector_lists() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = multivector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 100, 10).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(8, 8, 4, DistanceType::Cosine, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // 1,000 / 256 = 3, capped from the 8 requested.
+        assert_eq!(trained_partitions(&dataset).await, vec![3]);
+    }
+
+    /// The partition cap counts vectors, so blanks cannot inflate it.
+    ///
+    /// 3,000 rows holding 300 vectors support one partition, not the eight a
+    /// row count would appear to allow.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partition_cap_ignores_null_rows() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = partly_null_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 3000, 300).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(8, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // 300 / 256 = 1.
+        assert_eq!(trained_partitions(&dataset).await, vec![1]);
+    }
+
+    /// Deleting every row leaves the index defined.
+    ///
+    /// The definition is the user's declaration, not a property of the data, so
+    /// emptying the table must not withdraw it — otherwise reloading a table
+    /// silently drops the indexes it was created with.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_index_survives_deleting_all_rows() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 1024).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 8, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+
+        dataset.delete("true").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1, "the index definition must survive");
+
+        // And it is still there after a reopen, so it lives in the manifest
+        // rather than in whatever the session happened to hold.
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reopened.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// Retraining an index that is still only a definition does nothing.
+    ///
+    /// A definition has no segment to open, and the retrain path resolves that
+    /// before it reaches for one.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_retrain_an_index_that_is_still_a_definition() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 100).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 4, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::retrain())
+            .await
+            .expect("retraining a definition must not look for a segment to open");
+
+        // Still 100 vectors, so still a definition.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]));
+    }
+
+    /// A table that shrinks below the training threshold keeps working.
+    ///
+    /// Optimizing was unrunnable in this state: the quantizer cannot train on
+    /// what is left, and erroring there blocks index maintenance outright, with
+    /// dropping and recreating the index as the only way out.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_indices_after_shrinking_below_the_threshold() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 1024).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 8, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // 1024 -> 224, under a 256-code quantizer's floor.
+        dataset.delete("_rowid < 800").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 224);
+
+        // Retrain, not append: append-mode has no new data to index here and so
+        // never reaches the quantizer, which is the path that fails.
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::retrain())
+            .await
+            .expect("optimizing a table that shrank past the threshold must not fail");
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// Updating every row leaves the index defined, and optimizing still runs.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_index_survives_updating_all_rows() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = small_vector_dataset(test_dir.path(), 1024).await;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 8, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let update = crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .set("vector", "vector")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let updated = update.execute().await.unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = updated.new_dataset.as_ref().clone();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .expect("optimizing after a full update must not fail");
+        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    /// A table with no rows at all takes an index, which is the case every
+    /// other database allows and the one a fresh or reloaded table is in.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_vector_index_on_empty_table() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let dimensions = 16;
+        let field = Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dimensions,
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            Vec::<std::result::Result<RecordBatch, arrow_schema::ArrowError>>::new(),
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 96, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .expect("an empty table still accepts an index");
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(segment_covers_nothing(&indices[0]));
+
+        // Reopening has to find the same definition: it is carried by the
+        // manifest, not by a file on disk.
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = reopened.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "vector_idx");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_bitmap_index() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let field = Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, false);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let array = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..128).map(|i| ["a", "b", "c"][i % 3]));
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["tag"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_generic_index("tag", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.index_type(), IndexType::Bitmap);
+    }
+
+    // #[tokio::test]
+    #[lance_test_macros::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_load_indices() {
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            session: Some(session.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let field = Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, false);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+        let array = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..128).map(|i| ["a", "b", "c"][i % 3]));
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["tag"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // Reset
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        // We should already have this cached since we just wrote it.
+        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_iops, 0);
+        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_bytes, 0);
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+
+        // Clear the cache
+        session.index_cache.clear().await;
+        session.file_metadata_cache().clear().await;
+
+        let dataset2 = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri)
+            .with_session(session.clone())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset2.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // Reset
+        assert_io_lt!(stats, read_bytes, 64 * 1024);
+
+        // Because the manifest is so small, we should have opportunistically
+        // cached the indices in memory already.
+        let indices2 = dataset2.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset2.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_iops, 0);
+        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_bytes, 0);
+        assert_eq!(indices2.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_metadata_cache_does_not_survive_drop_recreate_same_uri() {
+        fn batch_with_schema_metadata(metadata_value: String) -> RecordBatch {
+            let field = Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, false);
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new_with_metadata(
+                vec![field],
+                HashMap::from([("large_metadata".to_string(), metadata_value)]),
+            ));
+            let array = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..128).map(|i| ["a", "b", "c"][i % 3]));
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn write_indexed_dataset(uri: &str, session: Arc<Session>, metadata_value: String) {
+            let batch = batch_with_schema_metadata(metadata_value);
+            let schema = batch.schema();
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+            let write_params = WriteParams {
+                session: Some(session),
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(write_params))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["tag"],
+                    IndexType::Bitmap,
+                    None,
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let qn_session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        write_indexed_dataset(test_uri, qn_session.clone(), "old".to_string()).await;
+        let first_dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri)
+            .with_session(qn_session.clone())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let first_indices = first_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let first_uuid = first_indices[0].uuid;
+        assert_eq!(first_dataset.version().version, 2);
+        drop(first_dataset);
+
+        std::fs::remove_dir_all(test_uri).unwrap();
+
+        // Use a different writer session so the QN session keeps the previous
+        // incarnation's index metadata cache entry. The large schema metadata
+        // keeps the manifest index section outside the final read block during
+        // open, so the fresh manifest load cannot opportunistically overwrite
+        // the stale index metadata entry before load_indices().
+        write_indexed_dataset(
+            test_uri,
+            Arc::new(Session::default()),
+            "x".repeat(128 * 1024),
+        )
+        .await;
+        let second_dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri)
+            .with_session(qn_session)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second_dataset.version().version, 2);
+
+        let raw_second_indices = read_manifest_indexes(
+            second_dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+            &second_dataset.manifest_location,
+            second_dataset.manifest(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let raw_second_uuid = raw_second_indices[0].uuid;
+        assert_ne!(
+            raw_second_uuid, first_uuid,
+            "the recreated dataset should commit a new physical index UUID"
+        );
+
+        let cached_second_indices = second_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            cached_second_indices[0].uuid, raw_second_uuid,
+            "load_indices should return index metadata from the recreated dataset, not the previous same-URI incarnation"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_load_indices_singleflights_concurrent_cache_misses() {
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            session: Some(session.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(write_params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["tag"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        session.index_cache.clear().await;
+        let before = session.index_cache_stats().await;
+        let results = futures::future::join_all((0..32).map(|_| dataset.load_indices())).await;
+        assert!(results.iter().all(|result| result.is_ok()));
+        let after = session.index_cache_stats().await;
+
+        assert_eq!(after.misses - before.misses, 1);
+        assert_eq!(after.hits - before.hits, 31);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_frag_reuse_index_with_zero_capacity_cache() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(400), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            &test_dir,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 100,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".to_owned()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 200,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some()
+        );
+
+        let session = Arc::new(Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+            Arc::new(lance_core::cache::MokaCacheBackend::no_cache()),
+            128 * 1024 * 1024,
+            Default::default(),
+        ));
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_dir)
+            .with_session(session)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let frag_reuse_index = tokio::time::timeout(
+            std::time::Duration::from_secs(5),
+            dataset.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("opening the fragment reuse index deadlocked")
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(frag_reuse_index.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_empty_chain() {
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("int", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(16)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(256), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 1, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_uuid = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].uuid;
+        let row_count = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
+        let first_half = (0..row_count / 2)
+            .map(|i| (i as u64, None))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let second_half = (row_count / 2..row_count)
+            .map(|i| (i as u64, None))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let remap_to_empty = RowAddrRemap::chained([
+            RowAddrRemap::direct(first_half),
+            RowAddrRemap::direct(second_half),
+        ]);
+        let new_uuid = remap_index(
+            &dataset,
+            &index_uuid,
+            &RowAddrTranslator::sync(remap_to_empty.clone()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(new_uuid, RemapResult::Keep(index_uuid));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_partial_map_does_not_keep_index() {
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("int", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(16)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(256), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 1, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_meta = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].clone();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap(), 256);
+        assert_eq!(
+            index_meta.fragment_bitmap,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]))
+        );
+
+        let remap = RowAddrRemap::direct(HashMap::from([(0u64, None)]));
+        assert_eq!(remap.get(1), None);
+
+        let result = remap_index(
+            &dataset,
+            &index_meta.uuid,
+            &RowAddrTranslator::sync(remap.clone()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(result, RemapResult::Keep(index_meta.uuid));
+
+        let complete_remap =
+            RowAddrRemap::direct((0u64..256).map(|offset| (offset, None)).collect());
+        let mut legacy_dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let manifest = Arc::make_mut(&mut legacy_dataset.manifest);
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments)[0].physical_rows = None;
+        assert!(
+            !remap_deletes_all_indexed_rows(
+                &legacy_dataset,
+                index_meta.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RowAddrTranslator::sync(complete_remap.clone()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The `fields.len() > 1` rejection in `remap_index`, which had no dedicated
+    /// coverage. A covered index never reaches it: the withdrawal above returns
+    /// `RemapResult::Drop` first, which is what
+    /// `test_compaction_withdraws_a_covered_index_without_failing` in
+    /// `dataset/tests/dataset_index.rs` exercises, and
+    /// `test_remap_column_index_refuses_a_covered_index` in
+    /// `dataset/optimize/remapping.rs` never reaches `remap_index` at all since
+    /// `remap_column_index` refuses first. So only a genuinely composite index --
+    /// two keyed fields, no covering declaration -- arrives here, and it must
+    /// still be rejected.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_index_rejects_composite_index() {
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("b", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["a"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let a_id = dataset.schema().field("a").unwrap().id;
+        let b_id = dataset.schema().field("b").unwrap().id;
+        let current = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let mut composite = current[0].clone();
+        // No covering declaration at all -- genuinely composite, not covered.
+        composite.fields = vec![a_id, b_id];
+        composite.covering_fields = vec![];
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![composite],
+                removed_indices: current.to_vec(),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_uuid = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].uuid;
+        let error = remap_index(
+            &dataset,
+            &index_uuid,
+            &RowAddrTranslator::sync(RowAddrRemap::empty()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("only one keyed field is supported"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Decoding a manifest validates the declaration, so `matched` cannot be
+    /// malformed by that route -- but it is not the only route: metadata
+    /// constructed in-process (segment conversion, a distributed build's output)
+    /// reaches this guard without ever passing through
+    /// `TryFrom<pb::IndexMetadata>`. This guard is therefore load-bearing on its
+    /// own, and must produce a named error rather than either a panic (plain
+    /// subtraction on `usize` underflows) or a silent
+    /// saturation that lets corrupt metadata through as an ordinary covered index
+    /// and gets it quietly withdrawn. The test reaches it by seeding the index
+    /// cache, the same way the migration-path test in `dataset/index.rs` does.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_remap_index_rejects_malformed_covering_fields() {
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_uuid = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].uuid;
+
+        // Malform the cached metadata directly: more carried fields than fields
+        // at all. No commit and no manifest decode can produce this -- both run
+        // `validate_covering_fields` -- which is exactly why the guard has to
+        // stand on its own for metadata that reached it by neither route.
+        let mut indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+        for idx in &mut indices {
+            if idx.uuid == index_uuid {
+                idx.covering_fields = idx
+                    .fields
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .chain(std::iter::once(999))
+                    .collect();
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .any(|idx| idx.uuid == index_uuid && idx.covering_fields.len() > idx.fields.len()),
+            "test setup should have produced a malformed entry"
+        );
+        let metadata_key = crate::session::index_caches::IndexMetadataKey {
+            version: dataset.version().version,
+            store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+            e_tag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+        };
+        dataset
+            .index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&metadata_key, Arc::new(indices))
+            .await;
+
+        // The validation runs first in `remap_index`, ahead of the withdrawal and
+        // of every row-map-dependent branch, so an empty remap reaches it.
+        let error = remap_index(
+            &dataset,
+            &index_uuid,
+            &RowAddrTranslator::sync(RowAddrRemap::empty()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("malformed covering metadata must not be silently accepted");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("are not among its fields"),
+            "expected the validator's message, got: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A covered scalar index still answers for its keyed column: only the
+    /// keyed prefix of `fields` must be a single field for `scalar_index_info`
+    /// to make it eligible for filter pushdown, not the full vector including
+    /// carried columns. Before this fix, a covered index was silently excluded
+    /// -- no error, no failing query, just a plan that quietly stopped using it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scalar_index_info_includes_covered_index() {
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("b", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["a"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        crate::utils::test::covering::declare_covering(&mut dataset, "a", "b").await;
+
+        let index_info = dataset.scalar_index_info().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            index_info.get_index("a").is_some(),
+            "a covered index must still be eligible for filter pushdown on its keyed column"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_ivf_pq_up_to_date() {
+        // https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/4016
+        let nrows = 256;
+        let dimensions = 16;
+        let column_name = "vector";
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                column_name,
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dimensions,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let float_arr = generate_random_array(nrows * dimensions as usize);
+        let vectors =
+            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..nrows as i32)),
+                Arc::new(vectors),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&[column_name], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
+
+        let nearest = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(column_name, &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ids = nearest["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+        for id in ids.values() {
+            assert!(seen.insert(*id), "Duplicate id found: {}", id);
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        let nearest_after = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(column_name, &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ids = nearest_after["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+        for id in ids.values() {
+            assert!(seen.insert(*id), "Duplicate id found: {}", id);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_created_at_timestamp() {
+        // Test that created_at is set when creating an index
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("values", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let values = StringArray::from_iter_values(["hello", "world", "foo", "bar"]);
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4)),
+                Arc::new(values),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Record time before creating index
+        let before_index = chrono::Utc::now();
+
+        // Create a scalar index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["values"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("test_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Record time after creating index
+        let after_index = chrono::Utc::now();
+
+        // Get index metadata
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let test_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "test_idx").unwrap();
+
+        // Verify created_at is set and within reasonable bounds
+        assert!(test_index.created_at.is_some());
+        let created_at = test_index.created_at.unwrap();
+        assert!(created_at >= before_index);
+        assert!(created_at <= after_index);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_statistics_updated_at() {
+        // Test that updated_at appears in index statistics
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("values", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let values = StringArray::from_iter_values(["hello", "world", "foo", "bar"]);
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4)),
+                Arc::new(values),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create a scalar index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["values"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("test_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Get index statistics
+        let stats_str = dataset.index_statistics("test_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_str).unwrap();
+
+        // Verify updated_at_timestamp_ms field exists in statistics
+        assert!(stats["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].is_number());
+        let updated_at = stats["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].as_u64().unwrap();
+
+        // Get the index metadata to compare with created_at
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let test_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "test_idx").unwrap();
+        let created_at = test_index.created_at.unwrap().timestamp_millis() as u64;
+
+        // For a single index, updated_at should equal created_at
+        assert_eq!(updated_at, created_at);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_statistics_updated_at_multiple_deltas() {
+        // Test that updated_at reflects max(created_at) across multiple delta indices
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        // Create initial dataset (need more rows for PQ training)
+        let num_rows = 300;
+        let float_arr = generate_random_array(4 * num_rows);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, 4).unwrap();
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32)),
+                Arc::new(vectors),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create vector index
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("test_vec_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Get initial statistics
+        let stats_str_1 = dataset.index_statistics("test_vec_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let stats_1: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_str_1).unwrap();
+        let initial_updated_at = stats_1["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].as_u64().unwrap();
+
+        // Add more data to create additional delta indices
+        std::thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10)); // Ensure different timestamp
+
+        let num_rows_2 = 50;
+        let float_arr_2 = generate_random_array(4 * num_rows_2);
+        let vectors_2 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr_2, 4).unwrap();
+        let record_batch_2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    num_rows as i32..(num_rows + num_rows_2) as i32,
+                )),
+                Arc::new(vectors_2),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader_2 =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch_2].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        dataset.append(reader_2, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Update the index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("test_vec_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Get updated statistics
+        let stats_str_2 = dataset.index_statistics("test_vec_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let stats_2: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_str_2).unwrap();
+        let final_updated_at = stats_2["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].as_u64().unwrap();
+
+        // The updated_at should be newer than the initial one
+        assert!(final_updated_at >= initial_updated_at);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_statistics_updated_at_none_when_no_created_at() {
+        // Test backward compatibility: when indices were created before the created_at field,
+        // updated_at_timestamp_ms should be null
+
+        // Use test data created with Lance 0.29.0 (before created_at field was added)
+        let test_dir =
+            copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.30.0_pre_created_at/index_without_created_at").unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+        let test_uri = &test_uri;
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Get the index metadata to verify created_at is None
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!indices.is_empty(), "Test dataset should have indices");
+
+        // Verify that the index created with old version has no created_at
+        for index in indices.iter() {
+            assert!(
+                index.created_at.is_none(),
+                "Index from old version should have created_at = None"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Get index statistics - should work even with old indices
+        let index_name = &indices[0].name;
+        let stats_str = dataset.index_statistics(index_name).await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_str).unwrap();
+
+        // Verify updated_at_timestamp_ms field is null when no indices have created_at
+        assert!(
+            stats["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].is_null(),
+            "updated_at_timestamp_ms should be null when no indices have created_at timestamps"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_legacy_vector_index_details_inferred_on_load_and_migration() {
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+        // Create a fresh dataset with IVF_HNSW_SQ so inference produces non-default
+        // details (HNSW config + SQ compression) that survive proto serialization.
+        let test_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(16.into()))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1024), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, &test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            IvfBuildParams {
+                num_partitions: Some(2),
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the index has populated details.
+        let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(descriptions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(descriptions[0].index_type(), "IVF_HNSW_SQ");
+
+        // Simulate a legacy dataset by clearing details from the manifest.
+        // Write a new manifest with empty VectorIndexDetails value bytes.
+        let mut indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+        for idx in &mut indices {
+            if let Some(details) = idx.index_details.as_ref()
+                && details.type_url.ends_with("VectorIndexDetails")
+            {
+                idx.index_details = Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details_default()));
+            }
+        }
+        // Write back via a no-op commit that carries the cleared indices.
+        // We commit by doing a delete("false") after replacing the cached indices.
+        let metadata_key = crate::session::index_caches::IndexMetadataKey {
+            version: dataset.version().version,
+            store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+            e_tag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+        };
+        dataset
+            .index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&metadata_key, Arc::new(indices))
+            .await;
+        dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap();
+
+        // -- Part 1: Inference on load --
+        // Open with a fresh session so nothing is cached.
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_uri)
+            .with_session(Arc::new(Session::default()))
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // load_indices should detect empty details and infer from index files.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        let details = indices[0].index_details.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !details.value.is_empty(),
+            "Details should have been inferred from index files"
+        );
+
+        // describe_indices should return a real type (not generic "Vector").
+        let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(descriptions.len(), 1);
+        assert_ne!(
+            descriptions[0].index_type(),
+            "Vector",
+            "Should have inferred a specific index type"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            descriptions[0].index_type(),
+            "IVF_HNSW_SQ",
+            "Inferred type should match the originally-built index"
+        );
+        let inferred_type = descriptions[0].index_type().to_string();
+        let details_json: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&descriptions[0].details().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(details_json["metric_type"], "COSINE");
+        assert_eq!(details_json["compression"]["type"], "sq");
+        assert!(
+            details_json["hnsw"]["max_connections"].is_number(),
+            "Inferred HNSW config should have max_connections; got {details_json}"
+        );
+        assert!(details_json["hnsw"]["construction_ef"].is_number());
+        assert!(details_json["hnsw"]["max_level"].is_number());
+
+        // -- Part 2: Migration persists inferred details --
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Open with yet another fresh session.
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_uri)
+            .with_session(Arc::new(Session::default()))
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The migrated manifest should have non-empty details without
+        // needing to read index files again.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            !indices[0].index_details.as_ref().unwrap().value.is_empty(),
+            "Migrated manifest should have non-empty details"
+        );
+        let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(descriptions[0].index_type(), inferred_type);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_indices_tolerates_missing_index_details() {
+        // An index whose manifest entry has no index details (e.g. created
+        // before details were persisted) is still described on a best-effort
+        // basis rather than causing describe_indices to error.
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+
+        let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "mystery_idx".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(std::iter::once(0_u32).collect()),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let desc = IndexDescriptionImpl::try_new(vec![metadata], &dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(desc.index_type(), "Unknown");
+        assert_eq!(desc.type_url(), "");
+        assert_eq!(desc.details().unwrap(), "{}");
+        assert_eq!(desc.rows_indexed(), 10);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_indices_derives_type_from_url_without_plugin() {
+        // When index details exist but no plugin is registered for the type
+        // URL, the index type is derived from the type URL rather than being
+        // reported as the opaque "Unknown".
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+
+        let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "mystery_idx".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(std::iter::once(0_u32).collect()),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "/lance.index.pb.MysteryIndexDetails".to_string(),
+                value: Vec::new(),
+            })),
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let desc = IndexDescriptionImpl::try_new(vec![metadata], &dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(desc.index_type(), "Mystery");
+        assert_eq!(desc.type_url(), "/lance.index.pb.MysteryIndexDetails");
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::btree("i", IndexType::BTree, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
+    #[case::bitmap("i", IndexType::Bitmap, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
+    #[case::inverted("text", IndexType::Inverted, Box::new(InvertedIndexParams::default()))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_empty_scalar_index(
+        #[case] column_name: &str,
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+        #[case] params: Box<dyn IndexParams>,
+    ) {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        // Create dataset with scalar and text columns (no vector column needed)
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create an empty index with train=false
+        // Test using IntoFuture - can await directly without calling .execute()
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&[column_name], index_type, params.as_ref())
+            .name("index".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify we can get index statistics
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
+            "Empty index should have zero indexed rows"
+        );
+
+        // Append new data using lance_datagen
+        let append_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        dataset.append(append_reader, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Critical test: Verify the empty index is still present after append
+        let indices_after_append = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_append.len(),
+            1,
+            "Index should be retained after append for index type {:?}",
+            index_type
+        );
+
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
+            "Empty index should still have zero indexed rows after append"
+        );
+
+        // Test optimize_indices with empty index
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the index still exists after optimization
+        let indices_after_optimize = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_optimize.len(),
+            1,
+            "Index should still exist after optimization"
+        );
+
+        // Check index statistics after optimization
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0,
+            "Empty index should indexed all rows"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::block_size_128(128)]
+    #[case::block_size_256(256)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_empty_code_fts_index_preserves_params(#[case] block_size: usize) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("code", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values([0, 1])),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values([
+                    "fn GetUserEmail() {}",
+                    "fn ParseConfig() {}",
+                ])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &dir, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .analyzer("code")
+            .unwrap()
+            .block_size(block_size)
+            .unwrap()
+            .split_identifiers(true)
+            .preserve_original(false);
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["code"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name("code_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].index_version, INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3 as i32);
+
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].index_version, INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3 as i32);
+        let details = indices[0]
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("optimized FTS index should retain index details")
+            .to_msg::<InvertedIndexDetails>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(details.base_tokenizer.as_deref(), Some("code"));
+        assert_eq!(details.block_size, Some(block_size as u32));
+        let code_config = details
+            .code_config
+            .expect("optimized code FTS index should retain code configuration");
+        assert!(code_config.split_identifiers);
+        assert_eq!(code_config.preserve_original, Some(false));
+
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("code_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
+
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("email".to_string()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values(), &[0]);
+    }
+
+    /// Helper function to check if an index is being used in a query plan
+    fn assert_index_usage(plan: &str, column_name: &str, should_use_index: bool, context: &str) {
+        let index_used = if column_name == "text" {
+            // For inverted index, look for MatchQuery which indicates FTS index usage
+            plan.contains("MatchQuery")
+        } else {
+            // For btree/bitmap, look for MaterializeIndex which indicates scalar index usage
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery")
+        };
+
+        if should_use_index {
+            assert!(
+                index_used,
+                "Query plan should use index {}: {}",
+                context, plan
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert!(
+                !index_used,
+                "Query plan should NOT use index {}: {}",
+                context, plan
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Test that scalar indices are retained after deleting all data from a table.
+    ///
+    /// This test verifies that when we:
+    /// 1. Create a table with data
+    /// 2. Add a scalar index with train=true
+    /// 3. Delete all data in the table
+    /// The index remains available on the table.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::btree("i", IndexType::BTree, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
+    #[case::bitmap("i", IndexType::Bitmap, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
+    #[case::inverted("text", IndexType::Inverted, Box::new(InvertedIndexParams::default()))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scalar_index_retained_after_delete_all(
+        #[case] column_name: &str,
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+        #[case] params: Box<dyn IndexParams>,
+    ) {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        // Create dataset with initial data
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create index with train=true (normal index with data)
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&[column_name], index_type, params.as_ref())
+            .name("index".to_string())
+            .train(true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify index was created and has indexed rows
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 100,
+            "Index should have indexed all 100 rows"
+        );
+
+        // Verify index is being used in queries before delete
+        let plan = if column_name == "text" {
+            // Use full-text search for inverted index
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("test".to_string()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        } else {
+            // Use equality filter for btree/bitmap indices
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(format!("{} = 50", column_name).as_str())
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        // Verify index is being used before delete
+        assert_index_usage(&plan, column_name, true, "before delete");
+
+        let indexes = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let original_index = indexes[0].clone();
+
+        // Delete all rows from the table
+        dataset.delete("true").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify table is empty
+        let row_count = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(row_count, 0, "Table should be empty after delete all");
+
+        // Critical test: Verify the index still exists after deleting all data
+        let indices_after_delete = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_delete.len(),
+            1,
+            "Index should be retained after deleting all data"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_delete[0].name, "index",
+            "Index name should remain the same after delete"
+        );
+
+        // Critical test: Verify the fragment bitmap is empty after delete
+        let index_after_delete = &indices_after_delete[0];
+        let effective_bitmap = index_after_delete
+            .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            effective_bitmap.is_empty(),
+            "Effective bitmap should be empty after deleting all data"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            index_after_delete.fragment_bitmap, original_index.fragment_bitmap,
+            "Fragment bitmap should remain the same after delete"
+        );
+
+        // Verify we can still get index statistics
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
+            "Index should now report zero indexed rows after delete all"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0,
+            "Index should report zero unindexed rows after delete all"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 0,
+            "Index should report zero indexed fragments after delete all"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0,
+            "Index should report zero unindexed fragments after delete all"
+        );
+
+        // Verify index is NOT being used in queries after delete (empty bitmap)
+        if column_name == "text" {
+            // Inverted indexes will still appear to be used in FTS queries.
+            // TODO: once metrics are working on FTS queries, we can check the
+            // analyze plan output instead for index usage.
+            let _plan_after_delete = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&[column_name])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("test".to_string()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_index_usage(
+                &_plan_after_delete,
+                column_name,
+                true,
+                "after delete (empty bitmap)",
+            );
+        } else {
+            // Use equality filter for btree/bitmap indices
+            let _plan_after_delete = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(format!("{} = 50", column_name).as_str())
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Verify index is NOT being used after delete (empty bitmap)
+            assert_index_usage(
+                &_plan_after_delete,
+                column_name,
+                false,
+                "after delete (empty bitmap)",
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Test that we can append new data and the index is still there
+        let append_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        dataset.append(append_reader, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify index still exists after append
+        let indices_after_append = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_append.len(),
+            1,
+            "Index should still exist after appending to empty table"
+        );
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
+            "Index should now report zero indexed rows after data is added"
+        );
+
+        // Test optimize_indices after delete all
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify index still exists after optimization
+        let indices_after_optimize = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_optimize.len(),
+            1,
+            "Index should still exist after optimization following delete all"
+        );
+
+        // Verify we can still get index statistics after optimization
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_indexed_rows"],
+            dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
+            "Index should now cover all newly added rows after optimization"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Test that scalar indices are retained after updating rows in a table.
+    ///
+    /// This test verifies that when we:
+    /// 1. Create a table with data
+    /// 2. Add a scalar index with train=true
+    /// 3. Update rows in the table
+    /// The index remains available on the table.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::btree("i", IndexType::BTree, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
+    #[case::bitmap("i", IndexType::Bitmap, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
+    #[case::inverted("text", IndexType::Inverted, Box::new(InvertedIndexParams::default()))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scalar_index_retained_after_update(
+        #[case] column_name: &str,
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+        #[case] params: Box<dyn IndexParams>,
+    ) {
+        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        // Create dataset with initial data
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create index with train=true (normal index with data)
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&[column_name], index_type, params.as_ref())
+            .name("index".to_string())
+            .train(true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify index was created and has indexed rows
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 100,
+            "Index should have indexed all 100 rows"
+        );
+
+        // Verify index is being used in queries before update
+        let plan = if column_name == "text" {
+            // Use full-text search for inverted index
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&[column_name])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("test".to_string()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        } else {
+            // Use equality filter for btree/bitmap indices
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(format!("{} = 50", column_name).as_str())
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        // Verify index is being used before update
+        assert_index_usage(&plan, column_name, true, "before update");
+
+        // Update some rows - update first 50 rows
+        let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .set("i", "i + 1000")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("text", "'updated_' || text")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = update_result.new_dataset.as_ref().clone();
+
+        // Verify row count remains the same
+        let row_count = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(row_count, 100, "Row count should remain 100 after update");
+
+        // Critical test: Verify the index still exists after updating data
+        let indices_after_update = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_update.len(),
+            1,
+            "Index should be retained after updating rows"
+        );
+
+        // Critical test: Verify the effective fragment bitmap is empty after update
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let index = &indices[0];
+        let effective_bitmap = index
+            .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            effective_bitmap.is_empty(),
+            "Effective fragment bitmap should be empty after updating all data"
+        );
+
+        // Verify we can still get index statistics
+        let stats_after_update = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats_after_update: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&stats_after_update).unwrap();
+
+        // The index should still be available
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats_after_update["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
+            "Index statistics should be zero after update, as it is not re-trained"
+        );
+
+        // Verify index behavior in queries after update (empty bitmap)
+        if column_name == "text" {
+            // Inverted indexes will still appear to be used in FTS queries even with empty bitmaps.
+            // This is because FTS queries require an index to exist, and the query execution
+            // will handle the empty bitmap appropriately by falling back to scanning unindexed data.
+            // TODO: once metrics are working on FTS queries, we can check the
+            // analyze plan output instead for actual index usage statistics.
+            let _plan_after_update = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&[column_name])
+                .unwrap()
+                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("test".to_string()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_index_usage(
+                &_plan_after_update,
+                column_name,
+                true, // FTS indices always appear in the plan, even with empty bitmaps
+                "after update (empty bitmap)",
+            );
+        } else {
+            // Use equality filter for btree/bitmap indices
+            let _plan_after_update = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(format!("{} = 50", column_name).as_str())
+                .unwrap()
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // With immutable bitmaps, index is still used even with empty effective bitmap
+            // The prefilter will handle non-existent fragments
+            assert_index_usage(
+                &_plan_after_update,
+                column_name,
+                false,
+                "after update (empty effective bitmap)",
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Test that we can optimize indices after update
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify index still exists after optimization
+        let indices_after_optimize = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_optimize.len(),
+            1,
+            "Index should still exist after optimization following update"
+        );
+
+        let stats_after_optimization = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats_after_optimization: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&stats_after_optimization).unwrap();
+
+        // The index should still be available
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats_after_optimization["num_unindexed_rows"], 0,
+            "Index should have zero unindexed rows after optimization"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Helper function to validate indices after each clone iteration
+    async fn validate_indices_after_clone(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        round: usize,
+        expected_scalar_rows: usize,
+        dimensions: u32,
+    ) {
+        // Verify cloned dataset has indices
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices.len(),
+            2,
+            "Round {}: Cloned dataset should have 2 indices",
+            round
+        );
+        let index_names: HashSet<String> = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
+        assert!(
+            index_names.contains("vector_idx"),
+            "Round {}: Should contain vector_idx",
+            round
+        );
+        assert!(
+            index_names.contains("category_idx"),
+            "Round {}: Should contain category_idx",
+            round
+        );
+
+        // Test basic data access without using indices for now
+        // This ensures the dataset is accessible and data is intact
+        // In chain cloning, each round adds 50 rows to the previous dataset
+        // Round 1: 300 (original), Round 2: 350 (300 + 50 from round 1), Round 3: 400 (350 + 50 from round 2)
+        let expected_total_rows = 300 + (round - 1) * 50;
+        let total_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            total_rows, expected_total_rows,
+            "Round {}: Should have {} rows after clone (chain cloning accumulates data)",
+            round, expected_total_rows
+        );
+
+        // Verify vector search
+        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
+        let search_results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(5), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            search_results.num_rows() > 0,
+            "Round {}: Vector search should return results immediately after clone",
+            round
+        );
+
+        // Test basic scalar query to verify data integrity
+        let scalar_results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("category = 'category_0'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            expected_scalar_rows,
+            scalar_results.num_rows(),
+            "Round {}: Scalar query should return {} results",
+            round,
+            expected_scalar_rows
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shallow_clone_with_index() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+
+        // Create a schema with both vector and scalar columns
+        let dimensions = 16u32;
+        // Generate test data using lance_datagen (300 rows to satisfy PQ training requirements)
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("category", array::fill_utf8("category_0".to_string()))
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dimensions)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        // Create initial dataset
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        // Create vector index (IVF_PQ)
+        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &vector_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create scalar index (BTree)
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["category"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("category_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify indices were created
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2, "Should have 2 indices");
+        let index_names: HashSet<String> = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
+        assert!(index_names.contains("vector_idx"));
+        assert!(index_names.contains("category_idx"));
+
+        // Test scalar query on source dataset
+        let scalar_results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("category = 'category_0'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let source_scalar_query_rows = scalar_results.num_rows();
+        assert!(
+            scalar_results.num_rows() > 0,
+            "Scalar query should return results"
+        );
+
+        // Multiple shallow clone iterations test with chain cloning
+        let clone_rounds = 3;
+        let mut current_dataset = dataset;
+
+        for round in 1..=clone_rounds {
+            let round_clone_dir = format!("{}/clone_round_{}", test_dir, round);
+            let round_cloned_uri = &round_clone_dir;
+            let tag_name = format!("shallow_clone_test_{}", round);
+
+            // Create tag for this round (use current dataset for chain cloning)
+            let current_version = current_dataset.version().version;
+            current_dataset
+                .tags()
+                .create(&tag_name, current_version)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Perform shallow clone for this round (chain cloning from current dataset)
+            let mut round_cloned_dataset = current_dataset
+                .shallow_clone(round_cloned_uri, tag_name.as_str(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Immediately validate indices after each clone
+            validate_indices_after_clone(
+                &round_cloned_dataset,
+                round,
+                source_scalar_query_rows,
+                dimensions,
+            )
+            .await;
+
+            // Complete validation cycle after each clone: append data, optimize index, validate
+            // Append new data to the cloned dataset
+            let new_data = gen_batch()
+                .col(
+                    "id",
+                    array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(300 + (round * 50) as i32, 1),
+                )
+                .col("category", array::fill_utf8(format!("category_{}", round)))
+                .col(
+                    "vector",
+                    array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dimensions)),
+                )
+                .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+            round_cloned_dataset = Dataset::write(
+                new_data,
+                round_cloned_uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            // Verify row count increased
+            let expected_rows = 300 + round * 50;
+            let total_rows = round_cloned_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                total_rows, expected_rows,
+                "Round {}: Should have {} rows after append",
+                round, expected_rows
+            );
+
+            let indices_before_optimize = round_cloned_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+            let vector_idx_before = indices_before_optimize
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == "vector_idx")
+                .unwrap();
+            let category_idx_before = indices_before_optimize
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == "category_idx")
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Optimize indices
+            round_cloned_dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(indices_before_optimize.len()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Verify index UUID has changed
+            let optimized_indices = round_cloned_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+            let new_vector_idx = optimized_indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == "vector_idx")
+                .unwrap();
+            let new_category_idx = optimized_indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == "category_idx")
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_ne!(
+                new_vector_idx.uuid, vector_idx_before.uuid,
+                "Round {}: Vector index should have a new UUID after optimization",
+                round
+            );
+            assert_ne!(
+                new_category_idx.uuid, category_idx_before.uuid,
+                "Round {}: Category index should have a new UUID after optimization",
+                round
+            );
+
+            // Verify the location of index files
+            use std::path::PathBuf;
+            let clone_indices_dir = PathBuf::from(round_cloned_uri).join("_indices");
+            let vector_index_dir = clone_indices_dir.join(new_vector_idx.uuid.to_string());
+            let category_index_dir = clone_indices_dir.join(new_category_idx.uuid.to_string());
+
+            assert!(
+                vector_index_dir.exists(),
+                "Round {}: New vector index directory should exist in cloned dataset location: {:?}",
+                round,
+                vector_index_dir
+            );
+            assert!(
+                category_index_dir.exists(),
+                "Round {}: New category index directory should exist in cloned dataset location: {:?}",
+                round,
+                category_index_dir
+            );
+
+            // Verify base id
+            assert!(
+                new_vector_idx.base_id.is_none(),
+                "Round {}: New vector index should not have base_id after optimization in cloned dataset",
+                round
+            );
+            assert!(
+                new_category_idx.base_id.is_none(),
+                "Round {}: New category index should not have base_id after optimization in cloned dataset",
+                round
+            );
+
+            // Verify the source location does NOT contain new data
+            let original_indices_dir = PathBuf::from(current_dataset.uri()).join("_indices");
+            let wrong_vector_dir = original_indices_dir.join(new_vector_idx.uuid.to_string());
+            let wrong_category_dir = original_indices_dir.join(new_category_idx.uuid.to_string());
+
+            assert!(
+                !wrong_vector_dir.exists(),
+                "Round {}: New vector index should NOT be in original dataset location: {:?}",
+                round,
+                wrong_vector_dir
+            );
+            assert!(
+                !wrong_category_dir.exists(),
+                "Round {}: New category index should NOT be in original dataset location: {:?}",
+                round,
+                wrong_category_dir
+            );
+
+            // Validate data integrity and index functionality after optimization
+            let old_category_results = round_cloned_dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter("category = 'category_0'")
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let new_category_results = round_cloned_dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(&format!("category = 'category_{}'", round))
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                source_scalar_query_rows,
+                old_category_results.num_rows(),
+                "Round {}: Should find old category data with {} rows",
+                round,
+                source_scalar_query_rows
+            );
+            assert!(
+                new_category_results.num_rows() > 0,
+                "Round {}: Should find new category data",
+                round
+            );
+
+            // Test vector search functionality
+            let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
+            let search_results = round_cloned_dataset
+                .scan()
+                .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 10)
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(Some(10), None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert!(
+                search_results.num_rows() > 0,
+                "Round {}: Vector search should return results after optimization",
+                round
+            );
+
+            // Verify statistic of indexes
+            let vector_stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(
+                &round_cloned_dataset
+                    .index_statistics("vector_idx")
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let category_stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(
+                &round_cloned_dataset
+                    .index_statistics("category_idx")
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                vector_stats["num_indexed_rows"].as_u64().unwrap(),
+                expected_rows as u64,
+                "Round {}: Vector index should have {} indexed rows",
+                round,
+                expected_rows
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                category_stats["num_indexed_rows"].as_u64().unwrap(),
+                expected_rows as u64,
+                "Round {}: Category index should have {} indexed rows",
+                round,
+                expected_rows
+            );
+
+            // Prepare for next round: use the cloned dataset as the source for next clone
+            current_dataset = round_cloned_dataset;
+        }
+
+        // Use the final cloned dataset for any remaining tests
+        let final_cloned_dataset = current_dataset;
+
+        // Verify cloned dataset has indices
+        let cloned_indices = final_cloned_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            cloned_indices.len(),
+            2,
+            "Final cloned dataset should have 2 indices"
+        );
+        let cloned_index_names: HashSet<String> =
+            cloned_indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
+        assert!(cloned_index_names.contains("vector_idx"));
+        assert!(cloned_index_names.contains("category_idx"));
+
+        // Test vector search on final cloned dataset
+        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
+        let search_results = final_cloned_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(5), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            search_results.num_rows() > 0,
+            "Vector search should return results on final dataset"
+        );
+
+        // Test scalar query on final cloned dataset
+        let scalar_results = final_cloned_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("category = 'category_0'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            source_scalar_query_rows,
+            scalar_results.num_rows(),
+            "Scalar query should return results on final dataset"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_indices() {
+        use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+        use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+        use lance_index::scalar::{InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams};
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+        use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+        // Create source dataset with various index types
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let source_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "source");
+        let target_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "target");
+
+        // Generate test data using lance_datagen (need at least 256 rows for PQ training)
+        let source_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+            .col(
+                "text",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["hello world", "foo bar", "test data"]),
+            )
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        // Create source dataset
+        let mut source_dataset = Dataset::write(source_reader, &source_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create indices on source dataset
+        // 1. Vector index
+        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
+        source_dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
+                &vector_params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // 2. FTS index
+        let fts_params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        source_dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("text_idx".to_string()),
+                &fts_params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // 3. Scalar index
+        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        source_dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".to_string()),
+                &scalar_params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reload source dataset to get updated index metadata
+        let source_dataset = Dataset::open(&source_uri).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify source has 3 indices
+        let source_indices = source_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            source_indices.len(),
+            3,
+            "Source dataset should have 3 indices"
+        );
+
+        // Create target dataset with same schema but different data (need at least 256 rows for PQ)
+        let target_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+            .col(
+                "text",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["foo bar", "test data", "hello world"]),
+            )
+            .col("id", array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(100, 1))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut target_dataset = Dataset::write(target_reader, &target_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Initialize indices from source dataset
+        target_dataset
+            .initialize_indices(&source_dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify target has same indices
+        let target_indices = target_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            target_indices.len(),
+            3,
+            "Target dataset should have 3 indices after initialization"
+        );
+
+        // Check index names match
+        let source_names: HashSet<String> =
+            source_indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
+        let target_names: HashSet<String> =
+            target_indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            source_names, target_names,
+            "Index names should match between source and target"
+        );
+
+        // Verify indices are functional by running queries
+        // 1. Test vector index
+        let query_vector = generate_random_array(8);
+        let search_results = target_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(5), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            search_results.num_rows() > 0,
+            "Vector index should be functional"
+        );
+
+        // 2. Test scalar index
+        let scalar_results = target_dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id = 125")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scalar_results.num_rows(),
+            1,
+            "Scalar index should find exact match"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_indices_with_missing_field() {
+        use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
 
-        if non_system_indices.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(());
-        }
+        // Test that initialize_indices handles missing fields gracefully
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let source_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "source");
+        let target_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "target");
 
-        let mut unique_index_names = HashSet::new();
-        for index in non_system_indices.iter() {
-            unique_index_names.insert(index.name.clone());
-        }
+        // Create source dataset with extra field
+        let source_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("extra", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["test"]))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut source_dataset = Dataset::write(source_reader, &source_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        for index_name in unique_index_names {
-            self.initialize_index(source_dataset, &index_name).await?;
-        }
+        // Create index on extra field in source
+        source_dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["extra"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        Ok(())
-    }
-}
+        // Create target dataset without extra field
+        let target_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(10, 1))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut target_dataset = Dataset::write(target_reader, &target_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-/// Resolves the column name and field for an index operation.
-///
-/// This function handles the case where the caller passes an index name instead of a column name.
-/// It returns the full field path and the field reference.
-fn resolve_index_column(
-    schema: &LanceSchema,
-    index_meta: &IndexMetadata,
-    column_arg: &str,
-) -> Result<(String, Arc<Field>)> {
-    // First, try to find the column directly in the schema
-    if let Some(field) = schema.field(column_arg) {
-        // Column exists in schema, use it
-        return Ok((column_arg.to_string(), Arc::new(field.clone())));
-    }
+        // Initialize indices should skip the index on missing field with an error
+        let result = target_dataset.initialize_indices(&source_dataset).await;
 
-    // Column doesn't exist in schema, check if it's the index name
-    if column_arg == index_meta.name {
-        // Get the actual column from index metadata
-        if let Some(field_id) = index_meta.fields.first() {
-            let field = schema.field_by_id(*field_id).ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Index '{}' references field with id {} which does not exist in schema",
-                    index_meta.name, field_id
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-            let field_path = schema.field_path(*field_id)?;
-            return Ok((field_path, Arc::new(field.clone())));
-        } else {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Index '{}' has no fields", index_meta.name),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+        // Should fail when field is missing
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should error when field is missing");
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("not found in target dataset")
+        );
     }
 
-    // Column doesn't exist and is not the index name
-    Err(Error::Index {
-        message: format!("Column '{}' does not exist in the schema", column_arg),
-        location: location!(),
-    })
-}
+    /// `initialize_index` must depend only on the keyed prefix of the source
+    /// index. The rebuild it drives writes fresh, non-covered metadata and never
+    /// reads the carried columns, so requiring them to exist and type-match in
+    /// the target rejects a target that can hold the index perfectly well.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_index_ignores_carried_columns() {
+        use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
 
-fn is_vector_field(data_type: DataType) -> bool {
-    match data_type {
-        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => true,
-        DataType::List(inner) => {
-            // If the inner type is a fixed size list, then it is a multivector field
-            matches!(inner.data_type(), DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _))
-        }
-        _ => false,
-    }
-}
+        let source_data = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("carried", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut source = Dataset::write(source_data, "memory://source", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        source
+            .create_index(
+                &["a"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
-    use crate::dataset::optimize::{compact_files, CompactionOptions};
-    use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
-    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
-    use crate::session::Session;
-    use crate::utils::test::{copy_test_data_to_tmp, DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
-    use arrow::array::AsArray;
-    use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
-    use arrow_array::Int32Array;
-    use arrow_array::{
-        FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
-    };
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-    use futures::stream::TryStreamExt;
-    use lance_arrow::*;
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_datagen::gen_batch;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount};
-    use lance_index::scalar::bitmap::BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME;
-    use lance_index::scalar::{
-        BuiltinIndexType, FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams,
-    };
-    use lance_index::vector::{
-        hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams, ivf::IvfBuildParams, sq::builder::SQBuildParams,
-    };
-    use lance_io::{assert_io_eq, assert_io_lt};
-    use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
-    use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
-    use rstest::rstest;
-    use std::collections::HashSet;
+        // No creation API writes a covering declaration yet, so commit one.
+        crate::utils::test::covering::declare_covering(&mut source, "a", "carried").await;
+        let index_name = source.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].name.clone();
+
+        // The target holds the keyed column only -- exactly what the rebuild
+        // reads.
+        let target_data = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut target = Dataset::write(target_data, "memory://target", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        target.initialize_index(&source, &index_name).await.unwrap();
+
+        let initialized = target.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(initialized.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            initialized[0].fields,
+            vec![target.schema().field("a").unwrap().id]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            initialized[0].covering_fields.is_empty(),
+            "the rebuild carries nothing, so it must not claim to"
+        );
+    }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_recreate_index() {
-        const DIM: i32 = 8;
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new(
-                "v",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), DIM),
-                true,
-            ),
-            Field::new(
-                "o",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), DIM),
-                true,
-            ),
-        ]));
-        let data = generate_random_array(2048 * DIM as usize);
-        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data.clone(), DIM).unwrap()),
-                Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, DIM).unwrap()),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap()];
+    async fn test_initialize_single_index() {
+        use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let source_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "source");
+        let target_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "target");
 
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&["v"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&["o"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        // Create source dataset (need at least 256 rows for PQ training)
+        let source_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("name", array::rand_utf8(4.into(), false))
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut source_dataset = Dataset::write(source_reader, &source_uri, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create index again
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&["v"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        // Create multiple indices on source
+        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        source_dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_index".to_string()),
+                &scalar_params,
+                false,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Can not overwrite an index on different columns.
-        assert!(dataset
+        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(16, 8, 4, MetricType::L2, 50);
+        source_dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["v"],
+                &["vector"],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("o_idx".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                true,
+                Some("vector_index".to_string()),
+                &vector_params,
+                false,
             )
             .await
-            .is_err());
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_bitmap_index_statistics_minimal_io_via_dataset() {
-        const NUM_ROWS: usize = 500_000;
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "status",
-            DataType::Int32,
-            false,
-        )]));
-        let values: Vec<i32> = (0..NUM_ROWS as i32).collect();
-        let batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values))]).unwrap();
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &test_dir, None).await.unwrap();
-        let io_tracker = dataset.object_store().io_tracker().clone();
+        // Reload source dataset to get updated index metadata
+        let source_dataset = Dataset::open(&source_uri).await.unwrap();
 
-        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["status"],
-                IndexType::Bitmap,
-                Some("status_idx".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                true,
-            )
+        // Create target dataset with same schema
+        let target_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("name", array::rand_utf8(4.into(), false))
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut target_dataset = Dataset::write(target_reader, &target_uri, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let index_meta = indices
-            .iter()
-            .find(|idx| idx.name == "status_idx")
-            .expect("status_idx should exist");
-        let lookup_path = dataset
-            .indice_files_dir(index_meta)
-            .unwrap()
-            .child(index_meta.uuid.to_string())
-            .child(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME);
-        let meta = dataset.object_store.inner.head(&lookup_path).await.unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            meta.size >= 1_000_000,
-            "bitmap index should be large enough to fail without metadata path, size={} bytes",
-            meta.size
+        // Initialize only the vector index
+        target_dataset
+            .initialize_index(&source_dataset, "vector_index")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify only vector index was created
+        let target_indices = target_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(target_indices.len(), 1, "Should have only 1 index");
+        assert_eq!(
+            target_indices[0].name, "vector_index",
+            "Should have the vector index"
         );
 
-        // Reset stats collected during index creation
-        io_tracker.incremental_stats();
+        // Initialize the scalar index
+        target_dataset
+            .initialize_index(&source_dataset, "id_index")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        dataset.index_statistics("status_idx").await.unwrap();
+        // Verify both indices now exist
+        let target_indices = target_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(target_indices.len(), 2, "Should have 2 indices");
 
-        let stats = io_tracker.incremental_stats();
-        assert_io_eq!(
-            stats,
-            read_bytes,
-            4096,
-            "index_statistics should only read the index footer; got {} bytes",
-            stats.read_bytes
-        );
-        assert_io_lt!(
-            stats,
-            read_iops,
-            3,
-            "index_statistics should only require a head plus one range read; got {} ops",
-            stats.read_iops
+        let index_names: HashSet<String> =
+            target_indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
+        assert!(
+            index_names.contains("vector_index"),
+            "Should have vector index"
         );
-        assert_io_eq!(
-            stats,
-            written_bytes,
-            0,
-            "index_statistics should not perform writes"
+        assert!(index_names.contains("id_index"), "Should have id index");
+
+        // Test error case - non-existent index
+        let result = target_dataset
+            .initialize_index(&source_dataset, "non_existent")
+            .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should error for non-existent index");
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("not found in source dataset")
         );
     }
 
-    fn sample_vector_field() -> Field {
-        let dimensions = 16;
-        let column_name = "vec";
-        Field::new(
-            column_name,
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                dimensions,
-            ),
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::simple("value", "data.value")]
+    #[case::quoted("value.with.dot", "data.`value.with.dot`")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_initialize_index_on_nested_field(
+        #[case] nested_field_name: &str,
+        #[case] nested_field_path: &str,
+    ) {
+        let nested_field = Arc::new(Field::new(nested_field_name, DataType::Int32, false));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "data",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![nested_field.clone()].into()),
             false,
-        )
-    }
+        )]));
+        let nested_values = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![(
+            nested_field,
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..10)) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+        )]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(nested_values)]).unwrap();
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_drop_index() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let schema = Schema::new(vec![
-            sample_vector_field(),
-            Field::new("ints", DataType::Int32, false),
-        ]);
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::rand(&schema)
-            .into_dataset(
-                &test_dir,
-                FragmentCount::from(1),
-                FragmentRowCount::from(256),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let source_uri = format!("{}/source", test_dir);
+        let target_uri = format!("{}/target", test_dir);
 
-        let idx_name = "name".to_string();
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vec"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some(idx_name.clone()),
-                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10),
-                true,
-            )
+        let source_reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut source_dataset = Dataset::write(source_reader, &source_uri, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        dataset
+        source_dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["ints"],
+                &[nested_field_path],
                 IndexType::BTree,
-                None,
+                Some("nested_idx".to_string()),
                 &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                true,
+                false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let source_dataset = Dataset::open(&source_uri).await.unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 2);
-
-        dataset.drop_index(&idx_name).await.unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
-
-        // Even though we didn't give the scalar index a name it still has an auto-generated one we can use
-        let scalar_idx_name = &dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].name;
-        dataset.drop_index(scalar_idx_name).await.unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 0);
+        let target_reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut target_dataset = Dataset::write(target_reader, &target_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        target_dataset
+            .initialize_index(&source_dataset, "nested_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Make sure it returns an error if the index doesn't exist
-        assert!(dataset.drop_index(scalar_idx_name).await.is_err());
+        let target_indices = target_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(target_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            target_dataset
+                .schema()
+                .field_path(target_indices[0].fields[0])
+                .unwrap(),
+            nested_field_path
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_count_index_rows() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    async fn test_vector_index_on_nested_field_with_dots() {
         let dimensions = 16;
-        let column_name = "vec";
-        let field = sample_vector_field();
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
-
-        let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimensions as usize);
-
-        let vectors =
-            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
-
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
-
-        let reader =
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
-        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
-
-        // Make sure it returns None if there's no index with the passed identifier
-        assert!(dataset.index_statistics("bad_id").await.is_err());
-        // Create an index
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &[column_name],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_idx".into()),
-                &params,
-                true,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let num_rows = 256;
 
-        let stats: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
+        // Create schema with nested field containing dots in the name
+        let struct_field = Field::new(
+            "embedding_data",
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    Field::new(
+                        "vector.v1", // Field name with dot
+                        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                            dimensions,
+                        ),
+                        false,
+                    ),
+                    Field::new(
+                        "vector.v2", // Another field name with dot
+                        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                            dimensions,
+                        ),
+                        false,
+                    ),
+                    Field::new("metadata", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
 
-        // Now we'll append some rows which shouldn't be indexed and see the
-        // count change
-        let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimensions as usize);
-        let vectors =
-            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            struct_field,
+        ]));
 
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+        // Generate test data
+        let float_arr_v1 = generate_random_array(num_rows * dimensions as usize);
+        let vectors_v1 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr_v1, dimensions).unwrap();
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-        dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        let float_arr_v2 = generate_random_array(num_rows * dimensions as usize);
+        let vectors_v2 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr_v2, dimensions).unwrap();
 
-        let stats: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
-    }
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32);
+        let metadata = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("meta_{}", i)));
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_optimize_delta_indices() {
-        let dimensions = 16;
-        let column_name = "vec";
-        let vec_field = Field::new(
-            column_name,
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                dimensions,
+        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new(
+                    "vector.v1",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                        dimensions,
+                    ),
+                    false,
+                )),
+                Arc::new(vectors_v1) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new(
+                    "vector.v2",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                        dimensions,
+                    ),
+                    false,
+                )),
+                Arc::new(vectors_v2) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
             ),
-            false,
-        );
-        let other_column_name = "other_vec";
-        let other_vec_field = Field::new(
-            other_column_name,
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                dimensions,
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("metadata", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(metadata) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
             ),
-            false,
-        );
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![vec_field, other_vec_field]));
-
-        let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimensions as usize);
+        ]);
 
-        let vectors = Arc::new(
-            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap(),
-        );
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let record_batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vectors.clone(), vectors.clone()]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
-            schema.clone(),
-        );
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        // Test creating index on nested field with dots using quoted syntax
+        let nested_column_path_v1 = "embedding_data.`vector.v1`";
         let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
+
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &[column_name],
+                &[nested_column_path_v1],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_idx".into()),
+                Some("vec_v1_idx".to_string()),
                 &params,
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify index was created
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "vec_v1_idx");
+
+        // Verify the correct field was indexed
+        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
+        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field_path, "embedding_data.`vector.v1`");
+
+        // Test creating index on the second vector field with dots
+        let nested_column_path_v2 = "embedding_data.`vector.v2`";
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &[other_column_name],
+                &[nested_column_path_v2],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("other_vec_idx".into()),
+                Some("vec_v2_idx".to_string()),
                 &params,
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        async fn get_stats(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> serde_json::Value {
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics(name).await.unwrap()).unwrap()
-        }
-        async fn get_meta(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
-            dataset
-                .load_indices()
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|m| m.name == name)
-                .cloned()
-                .collect()
-        }
-        fn get_bitmap(meta: &IndexMetadata) -> Vec<u32> {
-            meta.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().iter().collect()
-        }
-
-        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
-        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
+        // Verify both indices exist
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
 
-        let reader =
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
-        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
-        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
+        // Verify we can query using the indexed fields and check the plan
+        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
 
-        dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append().index_names(vec![])) // Does nothing because no index name is passed
+        // Check the query plan for the first vector field
+        let plan_v1 = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(nested_column_path_v1, &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
-        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
 
-        // optimize the other index
-        dataset
-            .optimize_indices(
-                &OptimizeOptions::append().index_names(vec!["other_vec_idx".to_owned()]),
-            )
+        // Verify the vector index is being used (should show ANNSubIndex or ANNIvfPartition)
+        assert!(
+            plan_v1.contains("ANNSubIndex") || plan_v1.contains("ANNIvfPartition"),
+            "Query plan should use vector index for nested field with dots. Plan: {}",
+            plan_v1
+        );
+
+        let search_results_v1 = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(nested_column_path_v1, &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
-        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
 
-        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "other_vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 2);
-        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "other_vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0]);
-        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[1]), vec![1]);
+        assert_eq!(search_results_v1.num_rows(), 5);
 
-        dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::retrain())
+        // Check the query plan for the second vector field
+        let plan_v2 = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(nested_column_path_v2, &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
-        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0, 1]);
+        // Verify the vector index is being used
+        assert!(
+            plan_v2.contains("ANNSubIndex") || plan_v2.contains("ANNIvfPartition"),
+            "Query plan should use vector index for second nested field with dots. Plan: {}",
+            plan_v2
+        );
 
-        dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::retrain())
+        let search_results_v2 = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(nested_column_path_v2, &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let stats = get_stats(&dataset, "other_vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
-        let meta = get_meta(&dataset, "other_vec_idx").await;
-        assert_eq!(meta.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(get_bitmap(&meta[0]), vec![0, 1]);
+
+        assert_eq!(search_results_v2.num_rows(), 5);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_optimize_ivf_hnsw_sq_delta_indices() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    async fn test_vector_index_on_simple_nested_field() {
+        // This test reproduces the Python test scenario from test_nested_field_vector_index
+        // where the nested field path is simple (data.embedding) without dots in field names
         let dimensions = 16;
-        let column_name = "vec";
-        let field = Field::new(
-            column_name,
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                dimensions,
+        let num_rows = 256;
+
+        // Create schema with simple nested field (no dots in field names)
+        let struct_field = Field::new(
+            "data",
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    Field::new(
+                        "embedding",
+                        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                            dimensions,
+                        ),
+                        false,
+                    ),
+                    Field::new("label", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            struct_field,
+        ]));
+
+        // Generate test data
+        let float_arr = generate_random_array(num_rows * dimensions as usize);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
+
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32);
+        let labels = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("label_{}", i)));
+
+        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new(
+                    "embedding",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                        dimensions,
+                    ),
+                    false,
+                )),
+                Arc::new(vectors) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
             ),
-            false,
-        );
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
-
-        let float_arr = generate_random_array(512 * dimensions as usize);
-
-        let vectors =
-            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("label", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(labels) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+        ]);
 
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
-            schema.clone(),
-        );
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
 
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = &test_dir;
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::default();
-        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
-        let sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
-            MetricType::L2,
-            ivf_params,
-            hnsw_params,
-            sq_params,
-        );
+        // Test creating index on nested field
+        let nested_column_path = "data.embedding";
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
+
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &[column_name],
+                &[nested_column_path],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_idx".into()),
+                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
                 &params,
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let stats: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        // Verify index was created
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "vec_idx");
 
-        let reader =
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
-        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 512);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        // Verify the correct field was indexed
+        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
+        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field_path, "data.embedding");
 
-        dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        // Test querying with the index
+        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
+
+        let plan = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(nested_column_path, &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let stats: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 2);
+        // Verify the vector index is being used
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex") || plan.contains("ANNIvfPartition"),
+            "Query plan should use vector index for nested field. Plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
 
-        dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::retrain())
+        let search_results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(nested_column_path, &query_vector, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vec_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_rows"], 1024);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+
+        assert_eq!(search_results.num_rows(), 5);
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_optimize_fts(#[values(false, true)] with_position: bool) {
-        let words = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "date"];
+    async fn test_btree_index_on_nested_field_with_dots() {
+        // Test creating BTree index on nested field with dots in the name
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
-        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
-        let data = StringArray::from_iter_values(words.iter().map(|s| s.to_string()));
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(data)]).unwrap();
-        let batch_iterator = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        // Create schema with nested field containing dots
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "data",
+                DataType::Struct(
+                    vec![
+                        Field::new("value.v1", DataType::Int32, false),
+                        Field::new("value.v2", DataType::Float32, false),
+                        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    ]
+                    .into(),
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batch_iterator, &dir, None).await.unwrap();
+        // Generate test data
+        let num_rows = 1000;
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
+        let values_v1 = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| i % 100));
+        let values_v2 = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.1));
+        let texts = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("text_{}", i)));
+
+        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("value.v1", DataType::Int32, false)),
+                Arc::new(values_v1) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("value.v2", DataType::Float32, false)),
+                Arc::new(values_v2) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(texts) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create BTree index on nested field with dots
+        let nested_column_path = "data.`value.v1`";
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
 
-        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
-            .lower_case(false)
-            .with_position(with_position);
         dataset
-            .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+            .create_index(
+                &[nested_column_path],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("btree_v1_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        async fn assert_indexed_rows(dataset: &Dataset, expected_indexed_rows: usize) {
-            let stats = dataset.index_statistics("text_idx").await.unwrap();
-            let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
-            let indexed_rows = stats["num_indexed_rows"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize;
-            let unindexed_rows = stats["num_unindexed_rows"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize;
-            let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(indexed_rows, expected_indexed_rows);
-            assert_eq!(unindexed_rows, num_rows - expected_indexed_rows);
-        }
+        // Reload dataset to ensure index is loaded
+        dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
 
-        let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
-        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
+        // Verify index was created
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "btree_v1_idx");
 
-        let new_words = ["elephant", "fig", "grape", "honeydew"];
-        let new_data = StringArray::from_iter_values(new_words.iter().map(|s| s.to_string()));
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(new_data)]).unwrap();
-        let batch_iter = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
-        dataset.append(batch_iter, None).await.unwrap();
-        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
+        // Verify the correct field was indexed
+        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
+        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field_path, "data.`value.v1`");
 
-        dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        // Test querying with the index and verify it's being used
+        let plan = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("data.`value.v1` = 42")
+            .unwrap()
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .explain_plan(false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
-        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
 
-        for &word in words.iter().chain(new_words.iter()) {
-            let query_result = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .project(&["text"])
-                .unwrap()
-                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
-                .unwrap()
-                .limit(Some(10), None)
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        // Verify the query plan (scalar indices on nested fields may use optimized filters)
+        // The index may be used internally even if not shown as ScalarIndexQuery
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+            "Query plan should show optimized read. Plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
 
-            let texts = query_result["text"]
-                .as_string::<i32>()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|v| match v {
-                    None => "".to_string(),
-                    Some(v) => v.to_string(),
-                })
-                .collect::<Vec<String>>();
+        // Also test that the query returns results
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("data.`value.v1` = 42")
+            .unwrap()
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            assert_eq!(texts.len(), 1);
-            assert_eq!(texts[0], word);
-        }
+        assert!(results.num_rows() > 0);
+    }
 
-        let uppercase_words = ["Apple", "Banana", "Cherry", "Date"];
-        for &word in uppercase_words.iter() {
-            let query_result = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .project(&["text"])
-                .unwrap()
-                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
-                .unwrap()
-                .limit(Some(10), None)
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_index_on_nested_field_with_dots() {
+        // Test creating Bitmap index on nested field with dots in the name
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
-            let texts = query_result["text"]
-                .as_string::<i32>()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|v| match v {
-                    None => "".to_string(),
-                    Some(v) => v.to_string(),
-                })
-                .collect::<Vec<String>>();
+        // Create schema with nested field containing dots - using low cardinality for bitmap
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "metadata",
+                DataType::Struct(
+                    vec![
+                        Field::new("status.code", DataType::Int32, false),
+                        Field::new("category.name", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    ]
+                    .into(),
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
 
-            assert_eq!(texts.len(), 0);
-        }
-        let new_data = StringArray::from_iter_values(uppercase_words.iter().map(|s| s.to_string()));
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(new_data)]).unwrap();
-        let batch_iter = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
-        dataset.append(batch_iter, None).await.unwrap();
-        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
+        // Generate test data with low cardinality (good for bitmap index)
+        let num_rows = 1000;
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
+        // Only 10 unique status codes
+        let status_codes = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| i % 10));
+        // Only 5 unique categories
+        let categories =
+            StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("category_{}", i % 5)));
 
-        // we should be able to query the new words
-        for &word in uppercase_words.iter() {
-            let query_result = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .project(&["text"])
-                .unwrap()
-                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
-                .unwrap()
-                .limit(Some(10), None)
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
+        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("status.code", DataType::Int32, false)),
+                Arc::new(status_codes) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("category.name", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(categories) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
                 .unwrap();
 
-            let texts = query_result["text"]
-                .as_string::<i32>()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|v| match v {
-                    None => "".to_string(),
-                    Some(v) => v.to_string(),
-                })
-                .collect::<Vec<String>>();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-            assert_eq!(texts.len(), 1, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
-            assert_eq!(texts[0], word, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
-        }
+        // Create Bitmap index on nested field with dots
+        let nested_column_path = "metadata.`status.code`";
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
 
         dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .create_index(
+                &[nested_column_path],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                Some("bitmap_status_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
-        assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
 
-        // we should be able to query the new words after optimization
-        for &word in uppercase_words.iter() {
-            let query_result = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .project(&["text"])
-                .unwrap()
-                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
-                .unwrap()
-                .limit(Some(10), None)
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        // Reload dataset to ensure index is loaded
+        dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
 
-            let texts = query_result["text"]
-                .as_string::<i32>()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|v| match v {
-                    None => "".to_string(),
-                    Some(v) => v.to_string(),
-                })
-                .collect::<Vec<String>>();
+        // Verify index was created
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "bitmap_status_idx");
 
-            assert_eq!(texts.len(), 1, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
-            assert_eq!(texts[0], word, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
+        // Verify the correct field was indexed
+        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
+        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field_path, "metadata.`status.code`");
 
-            // we should be able to query the new words after compaction
-            compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            for &word in uppercase_words.iter() {
-                let query_result = dataset
-                    .scan()
-                    .project(&["text"])
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new(word.to_string()))
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .try_into_batch()
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
-                let texts = query_result["text"]
-                    .as_string::<i32>()
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|v| match v {
-                        None => "".to_string(),
-                        Some(v) => v.to_string(),
-                    })
-                    .collect::<Vec<String>>();
-                assert_eq!(texts.len(), 1, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
-                assert_eq!(texts[0], word, "query: {}, texts: {:?}", word, texts);
-            }
-            assert_indexed_rows(&dataset, num_rows).await;
-        }
+        // Test querying with the index and verify it's being used
+        let plan = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("metadata.`status.code` = 5")
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the query plan (scalar indices on nested fields may use optimized filters)
+        // The index may be used internally even if not shown as ScalarIndexQuery
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+            "Query plan should show optimized read. Plan: {}",
+            plan
+        );
+
+        // Also test that the query returns results
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("metadata.`status.code` = 5")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Should have ~100 rows with status code 5
+        assert!(results.num_rows() > 0);
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 100);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_index_too_small_for_pq() {
+    async fn test_inverted_index_on_nested_field_with_dots() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        // Test creating Inverted index on nested text field with dots in the name
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let dimensions = 1536;
+        let test_uri = &test_dir;
 
-        let field = Field::new(
-            "vector",
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                dimensions,
+        // Create schema with nested text field containing dots
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "document",
+                DataType::Struct(
+                    vec![
+                        Field::new("content.text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                        Field::new("content.summary", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    ]
+                    .into(),
+                ),
+                false,
             ),
-            false,
-        );
-
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
-        let float_arr = generate_random_array(100 * dimensions as usize);
+        ]));
 
-        let vectors =
-            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
-            schema.clone(),
+        // Generate test data with text content
+        let num_rows = 100;
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32);
+        let content_texts = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| match i % 3 {
+            0 => format!("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog {}", i),
+            1 => format!(
+                "Machine learning and artificial intelligence document {}",
+                i
+            ),
+            _ => format!("Data science and analytics content piece {}", i),
+        }));
+        let summaries = StringArray::from_iter_values(
+            (0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("Summary of document {}", i)),
         );
 
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("content.text", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(content_texts) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                Arc::new(Field::new("content.summary", DataType::Utf8, false)),
+                Arc::new(summaries) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+        ]);
 
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 96, DistanceType::L2, 1);
-        let result = dataset
-            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
-            .await;
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
+                .unwrap();
 
-        assert!(matches!(result, Err(Error::Unprocessable { .. })));
-        if let Error::Unprocessable { message, .. } = result.unwrap_err() {
-            assert_eq!(
-                message,
-                "Not enough rows to train PQ. Requires 256 rows but only 100 available",
-            )
-        }
-    }
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_bitmap_index() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let field = Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, false);
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
-        let array = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..128).map(|i| ["a", "b", "c"][i % 3]));
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
-            schema.clone(),
-        );
+        // Create Inverted index on nested text field with dots
+        let nested_column_path = "document.`content.text`";
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
 
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["tag"],
-                IndexType::Bitmap,
-                None,
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
+                &[nested_column_path],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("inverted_content_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+
+        // Reload the dataset to ensure the index is loaded
+        dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify index was created
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let index = dataset
-            .open_generic_index("tag", &indices[0].uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "inverted_content_idx");
+
+        // Verify the correct field was indexed
+        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
+        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field_path, "document.`content.text`");
+
+        // Test full-text search on the nested field with dots
+        // Use the field_path that the index reports
+        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new("machine learning".to_string())
+            .with_column(field_path.clone())
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(index.index_type(), IndexType::Bitmap);
-    }
 
-    // #[tokio::test]
-    #[lance_test_macros::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_load_indices() {
-        let session = Arc::new(Session::default());
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            session: Some(session.clone()),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+        // Check the query plan uses the inverted index
+        let plan = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .full_text_search(query.clone())
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let field = Field::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, false);
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
-        let array = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..128).map(|i| ["a", "b", "c"][i % 3]));
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
-            schema.clone(),
+        // Verify the inverted index is being used
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("MatchQuery") || plan.contains("PhraseQuery"),
+            "Query plan should use inverted index for nested field with dots. Plan: {}",
+            plan
         );
 
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .full_text_search(query)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify we get results from the full-text search
+        assert!(
+            !results.is_empty(),
+            "Full-text search should return results"
+        );
+
+        // Check that we found documents containing "machine learning"
+        let mut found_count = 0;
+        for batch in results {
+            found_count += batch.num_rows();
+        }
+        // We expect to find approximately 1/3 of documents (those with i % 3 == 1)
+        assert!(
+            found_count > 0,
+            "Should find at least some documents with 'machine learning'"
+        );
+        assert!(found_count < num_rows, "Should not match all documents");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_resolve_index_column() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        // Create a test dataset with a vector column
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(32.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create an index with a custom name
+        let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
+            4,
+            lance_linalg::distance::MetricType::L2,
+        );
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["tag"],
-                IndexType::Bitmap,
-                None,
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("my_vector_index".to_string()),
+                &params,
                 false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental(); // Reset
 
+        // Reload dataset to get the index metadata
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        // We should already have this cached since we just wrote it.
-        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_iops, 0);
-        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_bytes, 0);
         assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        let index_meta = &indices[0];
 
-        session.index_cache.clear().await; // Clear the cache
+        // Test 1: Pass the actual column name
+        let (field_path, field) =
+            resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "vector").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field_path, "vector");
+        assert_eq!(field.name, "vector");
 
-        let dataset2 = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri)
-            .with_session(session.clone())
-            .load()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let stats = dataset2.object_store().io_stats_incremental(); // Reset
-        assert_io_lt!(stats, read_bytes, 64 * 1024);
+        // Test 2: Pass the index name (should resolve to the actual column)
+        let (field_path2, field2) =
+            resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "my_vector_index").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field_path2, "vector");
+        assert_eq!(field2.name, "vector");
 
-        // Because the manifest is so small, we should have opportunistically
-        // cached the indices in memory already.
-        let indices2 = dataset2.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let stats = dataset2.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_iops, 0);
-        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_bytes, 0);
-        assert_eq!(indices2.len(), 1);
+        // Test 3: Pass a non-existent column name (should fail)
+        let result = resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "nonexistent");
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("does not exist in the schema")
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_remap_empty() {
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col("int", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_commits_multiple_segments() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
             .col(
                 "vector",
-                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(16)),
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
             )
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(256), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(2));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                max_rows_per_group: 10,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 1, DistanceType::L2, 1);
+        // Commit validation opens coexisting vector segments, so this fixture must
+        // contain real index files rather than placeholder metadata payloads.
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2);
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            segments.push(
+                dataset
+                    .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                    .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        let expected_uuids = segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
         dataset
-            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let index_uuid = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].uuid;
-        let remap_to_empty = (0..dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap())
-            .map(|i| (i as u64, None))
-            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
-        let new_uuid = remap_index(&dataset, &index_uuid, &remap_to_empty)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(new_uuid, RemapResult::Keep(index_uuid));
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 2);
+        let committed_uuids = committed.iter().map(|idx| idx.uuid).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            committed_uuids, expected_uuids,
+            "all committed segment uuids should be preserved"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            committed
+                .iter()
+                .map(|idx| idx
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>())
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+            HashSet::from([vec![0], vec![1]]),
+            "each committed segment should preserve its fragment coverage"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            committed
+                .iter()
+                .all(|idx| idx.files.as_ref().is_some_and(|files| !files.is_empty())),
+            "committed segment metadata should capture on-disk file info"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_optimize_ivf_pq_up_to_date() {
-        // https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/4016
-        let nrows = 256;
-        let dimensions = 16;
-        let column_name = "vector";
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new(
-                column_name,
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                    dimensions,
-                ),
-                false,
-            ),
-        ]));
-
-        let float_arr = generate_random_array(nrows * dimensions as usize);
-        let vectors =
-            arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..nrows as i32)),
-                Arc::new(vectors),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![record_batch.clone()].into_iter().map(Ok),
-            schema.clone(),
-        );
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_duplicate_segment_ids() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&[column_name], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
 
-        let nearest = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(column_name, &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let ids = nearest["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
-        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
-        for id in ids.values() {
-            assert!(seen.insert(*id), "Duplicate id found: {}", id);
-        }
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let base = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"base",
+        )
+        .await;
 
-        dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![
+                    segment_from_metadata(&base),
+                    segment_from_metadata(&IndexMetadata {
+                        fragment_bitmap: Some(std::iter::once(1_u32).collect()),
+                        ..base
+                    }),
+                ],
+            )
             .await
-            .unwrap();
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("duplicate segment uuid"));
+    }
 
-        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_empty_segments() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        let nearest_after = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(column_name, &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        let ids = nearest_after["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
-        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
-        for id in ids.values() {
-            assert!(seen.insert(*id), "Duplicate id found: {}", id);
-        }
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", Vec::<IndexSegment>::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("at least one index segment"));
     }
 
+    /// A segment may carry extra columns; `build_index_metadata_from_segments`
+    /// must still commit it, keyed on the field the index is being built for.
+    /// Calls the guarded function directly (not through
+    /// `commit_existing_index_segments`) so this test's outcome depends only
+    /// on this guard, not on the independent duplicate a few lines into
+    /// `commit_existing_index_segments`.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_index_created_at_timestamp() {
-        // Test that created_at is set when creating an index
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new("values", DataType::Utf8, false),
-        ]));
+    async fn test_build_index_metadata_from_segments_accepts_carried_fields() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        let values = StringArray::from_iter_values(["hello", "world", "foo", "bar"]);
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4)),
-                Arc::new(values),
-            ],
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let vector_field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let mut metadata = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"segment",
+        )
+        .await;
+        // Carry `id` alongside the keyed `vector` field.
+        metadata.fields = vec![vector_field_id, id_field_id];
+        metadata.covering_fields = vec![id_field_id];
+
+        let new_indices = build_index_metadata_from_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            vec![segment_from_metadata(&metadata)],
         )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let reader =
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        assert_eq!(new_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(new_indices[0].fields, vec![vector_field_id, id_field_id]);
+        assert_eq!(new_indices[0].covering_fields, vec![id_field_id]);
+    }
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+    /// A segment's carried columns can go stale independently of its keyed column,
+    /// so the staleness check has to walk every entry of `fields`, not just the
+    /// keyed subtree. Here the carried column did not exist when the segment was
+    /// built, so the segment cannot be carrying its values and its coverage of that
+    /// fragment must be pruned. Walking only the keyed subtree sees no change and
+    /// leaves the fragment covered, which is the bug.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_prune_stale_coverage_notices_a_changed_carried_column() {
+        use crate::dataset::NewColumnTransform;
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Record time before creating index
-        let before_index = chrono::Utc::now();
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create a scalar index
+        let vector_field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        // Built against the schema as it stands now, before `payload` exists.
+        let metadata = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"segment",
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        // `payload` lands in a new data file on the same fragment, so the fragment's
+        // file layout changes for `payload` while `vector`'s file is untouched.
         dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["values"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                Some("test_idx".to_string()),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
+            .add_columns(
+                NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![("payload".into(), "id * 2".into())]),
+                None,
+                None,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let payload_field_id = dataset.schema().field("payload").unwrap().id;
 
-        // Record time after creating index
-        let after_index = chrono::Utc::now();
+        let mut covered = metadata.clone();
+        covered.fields = vec![vector_field_id, payload_field_id];
+        covered.covering_fields = vec![payload_field_id];
 
-        // Get index metadata
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let test_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "test_idx").unwrap();
+        let new_indices = build_index_metadata_from_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            vec![segment_from_metadata(&covered)],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify created_at is set and within reasonable bounds
-        assert!(test_index.created_at.is_some());
-        let created_at = test_index.created_at.unwrap();
-        assert!(created_at >= before_index);
-        assert!(created_at <= after_index);
+        assert_eq!(new_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            new_indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+            "coverage of a fragment whose carried column changed must be pruned, got {:?}",
+            new_indices[0].fragment_bitmap
+        );
+
+        // Control: with nothing carried, the same segment over the same fragment
+        // keeps its coverage -- so the assertion above is about the carried column,
+        // not about `add_columns` invalidating everything.
+        let plain_indices = build_index_metadata_from_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            vec![segment_from_metadata(&metadata)],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plain_indices[0]
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty(),
+            "a non-covering segment must keep its coverage across the same add_columns"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// The per-segment rules only pin the keyed field and its count, so two
+    /// segments can disagree about the carried columns and each still pass. That
+    /// pair must be refused at commit, because `IndexDescriptionImpl::try_new`
+    /// requires `fields` to be identical across segments -- committing it would
+    /// leave `describe_indices` erroring on metadata this call just wrote.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_index_statistics_updated_at() {
-        // Test that updated_at appears in index statistics
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new("values", DataType::Utf8, false),
-        ]));
+    async fn test_build_index_metadata_from_segments_rejects_mixed_covering_declarations() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        let values = StringArray::from_iter_values(["hello", "world", "foo", "bar"]);
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let vector_field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+
+        let mut covered = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"covered",
+        )
+        .await;
+        covered.fields = vec![vector_field_id, id_field_id];
+        covered.covering_fields = vec![id_field_id];
+
+        // Plain: one keyed field, nothing carried. Passes every per-segment rule
+        // on its own -- `keyed == 1` and `fields[0]` is the keyed field -- and so
+        // does `covered`; only comparing them catches the disagreement.
+        let plain = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [1_u32],
+            b"plain",
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(plain.fields, vec![vector_field_id]);
+        assert!(plain.covering_fields.is_empty());
+
+        let err = build_index_metadata_from_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
             vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4)),
-                Arc::new(values),
+                segment_from_metadata(&covered),
+                segment_from_metadata(&plain),
             ],
         )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let reader =
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        .await
+        .expect_err("segments disagreeing about carried columns must not commit");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("must declare the same columns"),
+            "unexpected message: {err}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+    /// `fields` lists the carried columns too, but a logical description must
+    /// advertise only what the index can be searched on. Every binding reads this
+    /// list as "the index's columns" -- Python's `_default_vector_index_for_column`
+    /// matches on membership -- so a carried column here hands back the keyed
+    /// column's model for a query about the carried one.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_description_reports_only_keyed_fields() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Create a scalar index
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["values"],
-                IndexType::Scalar,
-                Some("test_idx".to_string()),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
             )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Get index statistics
-        let stats_str = dataset.index_statistics("test_idx").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_str).unwrap();
-
-        // Verify updated_at_timestamp_ms field exists in statistics
-        assert!(stats["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].is_number());
-        let updated_at = stats["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].as_u64().unwrap();
+        let vector_field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let mut metadata = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"segment",
+        )
+        .await;
+        metadata.fields = vec![vector_field_id, id_field_id];
+        metadata.covering_fields = vec![id_field_id];
 
-        // Get the index metadata to compare with created_at
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let test_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "test_idx").unwrap();
-        let created_at = test_index.created_at.unwrap().timestamp_millis() as u64;
+        let description = IndexDescriptionImpl::try_new(vec![metadata], &dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // For a single index, updated_at should equal created_at
-        assert_eq!(updated_at, created_at);
+        assert_eq!(
+            description.field_ids(),
+            &[vector_field_id as u32],
+            "a covered index must advertise only its keyed column"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// A segment keyed on the wrong field must still be rejected. Calls
+    /// `build_index_metadata_from_segments` directly so the assertion is
+    /// evidence for *this* guard specifically -- going through
+    /// `commit_existing_index_segments` would let the untouched-looking
+    /// duplicate check there mask this guard's removal.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_index_statistics_updated_at_multiple_deltas() {
-        // Test that updated_at reflects max(created_at) across multiple delta indices
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new(
+    async fn test_build_index_metadata_from_segments_rejects_wrong_field_provenance() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
                 "vector",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), 4),
-                false,
-            ),
-        ]));
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create initial dataset (need more rows for PQ training)
-        let num_rows = 300;
-        let float_arr = generate_random_array(4 * num_rows);
-        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, 4).unwrap();
-        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32)),
-                Arc::new(vectors),
-            ],
+        let vector_field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let mut metadata = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"segment",
         )
-        .unwrap();
+        .await;
+        metadata.fields = vec![id_field_id];
+
+        let error = build_index_metadata_from_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            vec![segment_from_metadata(&metadata)],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("expected keyed field"));
+    }
 
-        let reader =
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    /// Matching cardinality is not enough: `covering_fields` must actually be
+    /// the trailing slice of `fields`. `fields = [vector, id]`,
+    /// `covering_fields = [999]` has exactly one keyed field but carries a
+    /// column that is not even present in `fields`, let alone its suffix.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_index_metadata_from_segments_rejects_non_suffix_covering_fields() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create vector index
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vector"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("test_vec_idx".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                false,
+        let vector_field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let mut metadata = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"segment",
+        )
+        .await;
+        metadata.fields = vec![vector_field_id, id_field_id];
+        metadata.covering_fields = vec![999];
+
+        let error = build_index_metadata_from_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            vec![segment_from_metadata(&metadata)],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("are not among its fields"));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_wrong_field_provenance() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
             )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Get initial statistics
-        let stats_str_1 = dataset.index_statistics("test_vec_idx").await.unwrap();
-        let stats_1: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_str_1).unwrap();
-        let initial_updated_at = stats_1["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].as_u64().unwrap();
-
-        // Add more data to create additional delta indices
-        std::thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10)); // Ensure different timestamp
-
-        let num_rows_2 = 50;
-        let float_arr_2 = generate_random_array(4 * num_rows_2);
-        let vectors_2 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr_2, 4).unwrap();
-        let record_batch_2 = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
-                    num_rows as i32..(num_rows + num_rows_2) as i32,
-                )),
-                Arc::new(vectors_2),
-            ],
+        let vector_field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let mut metadata = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            vector_field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"segment",
         )
-        .unwrap();
+        .await;
+        metadata.fields = vec![dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id];
 
-        let reader_2 =
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch_2].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let error = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![segment_from_metadata(&metadata)],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        // This end-to-end path is guarded twice (`build_index_metadata_from_segments`
+        // and a duplicate check in `commit_existing_index_segments` itself), so
+        // this assertion alone does not prove which one fired -- see
+        // `test_build_index_metadata_from_segments_rejects_wrong_field_provenance`
+        // for that. It still proves the public `commit_existing_index_segments`
+        // entry point rejects this input end-to-end.
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("expected keyed field"));
+    }
 
-        dataset.append(reader_2, None).await.unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_future_dataset_version() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Update the index
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vector"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("test_vec_idx".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                true,
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
             )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Get updated statistics
-        let stats_str_2 = dataset.index_statistics("test_vec_idx").await.unwrap();
-        let stats_2: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_str_2).unwrap();
-        let final_updated_at = stats_2["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].as_u64().unwrap();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let mut metadata = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"segment",
+        )
+        .await;
+        metadata.dataset_version = dataset.manifest.version + 1;
 
-        // The updated_at should be newer than the initial one
-        assert!(final_updated_at >= initial_updated_at);
+        let error = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![segment_from_metadata(&metadata)],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("future dataset version"));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_index_statistics_updated_at_none_when_no_created_at() {
-        // Test backward compatibility: when indices were created before the created_at field,
-        // updated_at_timestamp_ms should be null
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_overlapping_fragment_coverage() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Use test data created with Lance 0.29.0 (before created_at field was added)
-        let test_dir =
-            copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.30.0_pre_created_at/index_without_created_at").unwrap();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
-        let test_uri = &test_uri;
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(2));
 
-        // Get the index metadata to verify created_at is None
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert!(!indices.is_empty(), "Test dataset should have indices");
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify that the index created with old version has no created_at
-        for index in indices.iter() {
-            assert!(
-                index.created_at.is_none(),
-                "Index from old version should have created_at = None"
-            );
-        }
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let seg0 = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32, 1_u32],
+            b"seg0",
+        )
+        .await;
+        let seg1 = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [1_u32],
+            b"seg1",
+        )
+        .await;
 
-        // Get index statistics - should work even with old indices
-        let index_name = &indices[0].name;
-        let stats_str = dataset.index_statistics(index_name).await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_str).unwrap();
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![segment_from_metadata(&seg0), segment_from_metadata(&seg1)],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("overlapping fragment coverage"));
+    }
 
-        // Verify updated_at_timestamp_ms field is null when no indices have created_at
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_mixed_index_detail_types() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(2));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let seg0 = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"seg0",
+        )
+        .await;
+        let seg1 = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "vector_idx".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(std::iter::once(1_u32).collect()),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(
+                prost_types::Any::from_msg(&BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap(),
+            )),
+            index_version: IndexType::BTree.version(),
+            created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+            base_id: None,
+            files: seg0.files.clone(),
+        };
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", vec![seg0, seg1])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
         assert!(
-            stats["updated_at_timestamp_ms"].is_null(),
-            "updated_at_timestamp_ms should be null when no indices have created_at timestamps"
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("mixes incompatible index detail types")
         );
     }
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::btree("i", IndexType::BTree, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
-    #[case::bitmap("i", IndexType::Bitmap, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
-    #[case::inverted("text", IndexType::Inverted, Box::new(InvertedIndexParams::default()))]
+
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_empty_scalar_index(
-        #[case] column_name: &str,
-        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
-        #[case] params: Box<dyn IndexParams>,
-    ) {
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_partial_replacement_of_wider_segment() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Create dataset with scalar and text columns (no vector column needed)
-        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap();
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        // Create an empty index with train=false
-        // Test using IntoFuture - can await directly without calling .execute()
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(2));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 20,
+                max_rows_per_group: 20,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let original = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32, 1_u32],
+            b"original",
+        )
+        .await;
         dataset
-            .create_index_builder(&[column_name], index_type, params.as_ref())
-            .name("index".to_string())
-            .train(false)
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", vec![original])
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify we can get index statistics
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
-            "Empty index should have zero indexed rows"
-        );
+        let replacement = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"replacement",
+        )
+        .await;
 
-        // Append new data using lance_datagen
-        let append_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", vec![replacement])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("would orphan fragments"));
+    }
 
-        dataset.append(append_reader, None).await.unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_replaces_different_index_type() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Critical test: Verify the empty index is still present after append
-        let indices_after_append = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices_after_append.len(),
-            1,
-            "Index should be retained after append for index type {:?}",
-            index_type
-        );
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
-            "Empty index should still have zero indexed rows after append"
-        );
+        let index_name = "shared_name";
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let original = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("staged_btree".to_string())
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", vec![original])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Test optimize_indices with empty index
-        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+        let bitmap_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        let replacement = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::Bitmap, &bitmap_params)
+            .name("staged_bitmap".to_string())
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let replacement_uuid = replacement.uuid;
+        let replacement_type_url = replacement.index_details.as_ref().unwrap().type_url.clone();
 
-        // Verify the index still exists after optimization
-        let indices_after_optimize = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices_after_optimize.len(),
-            1,
-            "Index should still exist after optimization"
-        );
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", vec![replacement])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Check index statistics after optimization
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        let committed = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(index_name)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.uuid, replacement_uuid);
         assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0,
-            "Empty index should indexed all rows"
+            committed.index_details.unwrap().type_url,
+            replacement_type_url
         );
     }
 
-    /// Helper function to check if an index is being used in a query plan
-    fn assert_index_usage(plan: &str, column_name: &str, should_use_index: bool, context: &str) {
-        let index_used = if column_name == "text" {
-            // For inverted index, look for MatchQuery which indicates FTS index usage
-            plan.contains("MatchQuery")
-        } else {
-            // For btree/bitmap, look for MaterializeIndex which indicates scalar index usage
-            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery")
-        };
-
-        if should_use_index {
-            assert!(
-                index_used,
-                "Query plan should use index {}: {}",
-                context, plan
-            );
-        } else {
-            assert!(
-                !index_used,
-                "Query plan should NOT use index {}: {}",
-                context, plan
-            );
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Test that scalar indices are retained after deleting all data from a table.
-    ///
-    /// This test verifies that when we:
-    /// 1. Create a table with data
-    /// 2. Add a scalar index with train=true
-    /// 3. Delete all data in the table
-    /// The index remains available on the table.
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::btree("i", IndexType::BTree, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
-    #[case::bitmap("i", IndexType::Bitmap, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
-    #[case::inverted("text", IndexType::Inverted, Box::new(InvertedIndexParams::default()))]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scalar_index_retained_after_delete_all(
-        #[case] column_name: &str,
-        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
-        #[case] params: Box<dyn IndexParams>,
-    ) {
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
-
-        // Create dataset with initial data
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_partial_index_type_change() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
         let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap();
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(2));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 20,
+                max_rows_per_group: 20,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Create index with train=true (normal index with data)
+        let index_name = "shared_name";
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let mut original_segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            original_segments.push(
+                dataset
+                    .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
         dataset
-            .create_index_builder(&[column_name], index_type, params.as_ref())
-            .name("index".to_string())
-            .train(true)
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", original_segments)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let committed_version = dataset.manifest.version;
 
-        // Verify index was created and has indexed rows
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 100,
-            "Index should have indexed all 100 rows"
+        let bitmap_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        let replacement = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::Bitmap, &bitmap_params)
+            .fragments(vec![fragments[0].id() as u32])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let error = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", vec![replacement])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected invalid input error, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("cannot change index 'shared_name'")
         );
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("missing current fragments [1]"));
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, committed_version);
 
-        // Verify index is being used in queries before delete
-        let plan = if column_name == "text" {
-            // Use full-text search for inverted index
-            dataset
-                .scan()
-                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("test".to_string()))
-                .unwrap()
-                .explain_plan(false)
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-        } else {
-            // Use equality filter for btree/bitmap indices
-            dataset
-                .scan()
-                .filter(format!("{} = 50", column_name).as_str())
-                .unwrap()
-                .explain_plan(false)
+        let committed =
+            crate::index::scalar_logical::load_named_scalar_segments(&dataset, "id", index_name)
                 .await
-                .unwrap()
-        };
-        // Verify index is being used before delete
-        assert_index_usage(&plan, column_name, true, "before delete");
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 2);
+        assert!(committed.iter().all(|segment| {
+            segment
+                .index_details
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("BTreeIndexDetails"))
+        }));
+    }
 
-        let indexes = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let original_index = indexes[0].clone();
+    /// A covered index still names the same column by its keyed prefix. The
+    /// name-collision guard in `commit_existing_index_segments` must recognize
+    /// that, not reject on the full `fields` vector including the carried
+    /// column -- which would misfire "already exists with different fields"
+    /// before ever reaching the deeper type-compatibility check this test
+    /// otherwise shares with
+    /// `test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_partial_index_type_change`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_recognizes_covered_index_by_name() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Delete all rows from the table
-        dataset.delete("true").await.unwrap();
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col("extra", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(2));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 20,
+                max_rows_per_group: 20,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify table is empty
-        let row_count = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(row_count, 0, "Table should be empty after delete all");
+        let index_name = "shared_name";
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let mut original_segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            original_segments.push(
+                dataset
+                    .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", original_segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Critical test: Verify the index still exists after deleting all data
-        let indices_after_delete = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices_after_delete.len(),
-            1,
-            "Index should be retained after deleting all data"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices_after_delete[0].name, "index",
-            "Index name should remain the same after delete"
+        // Hand-declare the committed index as covering an extra carried column
+        // -- there is no producer in this phase, so this is done directly.
+        let id_field = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let extra_field = dataset.schema().field("extra").unwrap().id;
+        let current = dataset.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await.unwrap();
+        let covered_segments = current
+            .iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .map(|mut idx| {
+                idx.fields = vec![id_field, extra_field];
+                idx.covering_fields = vec![extra_field];
+                idx
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: covered_segments,
+                removed_indices: current.to_vec(),
+            },
+            None,
         );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Critical test: Verify the fragment bitmap is empty after delete
-        let index_after_delete = &indices_after_delete[0];
-        let effective_bitmap = index_after_delete
-            .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+        let bitmap_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        let replacement = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::Bitmap, &bitmap_params)
+            .fragments(vec![fragments[0].id() as u32])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            effective_bitmap.is_empty(),
-            "Effective bitmap should be empty after deleting all data"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            index_after_delete.fragment_bitmap, original_index.fragment_bitmap,
-            "Fragment bitmap should remain the same after delete"
-        );
+        let error = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", vec![replacement])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
 
-        // Verify we can still get index statistics
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
-            "Index should now report zero indexed rows after delete all"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_unindexed_rows"], 0,
-            "Index should report zero unindexed rows after delete all"
+        // Must reach the deeper type-compatibility error, not misfire the
+        // shallow "already exists with different fields" guard this test
+        // targets.
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("cannot change index 'shared_name'"),
+            "{error}"
         );
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 0,
-            "Index should report zero indexed fragments after delete all"
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("missing current fragments"),
+            "{error}"
         );
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0,
-            "Index should report zero unindexed fragments after delete all"
+        assert!(
+            !error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("already exists with different fields"),
+            "{error}"
         );
+    }
 
-        // Verify index is NOT being used in queries after delete (empty bitmap)
-        if column_name == "text" {
-            // Inverted indexes will still appear to be used in FTS queries.
-            // TODO: once metrics are working on FTS queries, we can check the
-            // analyze plan output instead for index usage.
-            let _plan_after_delete = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .project(&[column_name])
-                .unwrap()
-                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("test".to_string()))
-                .unwrap()
-                .explain_plan(false)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            assert_index_usage(
-                &_plan_after_delete,
-                column_name,
-                true,
-                "after delete (empty bitmap)",
-            );
-        } else {
-            // Use equality filter for btree/bitmap indices
-            let _plan_after_delete = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .filter(format!("{} = 50", column_name).as_str())
-                .unwrap()
-                .explain_plan(false)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            // Verify index is NOT being used after delete (empty bitmap)
-            assert_index_usage(
-                &_plan_after_delete,
-                column_name,
-                false,
-                "after delete (empty bitmap)",
-            );
-        }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partial_type_change_with_legacy_missing_details_is_rejected() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Test that we can append new data and the index is still there
-        let append_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        dataset.append(append_reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        let index_name = "shared_name";
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let original = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", vec![original])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify index still exists after append
-        let indices_after_append = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices_after_append.len(),
-            1,
-            "Index should still exist after appending to empty table"
-        );
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
-            "Index should now report zero indexed rows after data is added"
+        let current = dataset.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(current.len(), 1);
+        let original_uuid = current[0].uuid;
+        let mut legacy = current.clone();
+        legacy[0].index_details = None;
+        legacy[0].index_version = 0;
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: legacy,
+                removed_indices: current,
+            },
+            None,
         );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Test optimize_indices after delete all
-        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+        let append_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            append_reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+
+        let bitmap_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        let replacement = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::Bitmap, &bitmap_params)
+            .fragments(vec![fragments[1].id() as u32])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let error = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", vec![replacement])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
 
-        // Verify index still exists after optimization
-        let indices_after_optimize = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices_after_optimize.len(),
-            1,
-            "Index should still exist after optimization following delete all"
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected invalid input error, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("from type '<unknown>'"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("partial fragment coverage"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("missing current fragments [0]"));
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before);
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(committed[0].uuid, original_uuid);
+        assert!(committed[0].index_details.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(committed[0].index_version, 0);
+
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let sentinel_segment = IndexSegment::new(
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [fragments[1].id() as u32],
+            [field_id],
+            Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "<unknown>".to_string(),
+                value: Vec::new(),
+            }),
+            0,
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            vec![],
         );
+        let error = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "id", vec![sentinel_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
 
-        // Verify we can still get index statistics after optimization
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_indexed_rows"],
-            dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
-            "Index should now cover all newly added rows after optimization"
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected invalid input error, got: {error}"
         );
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("from type '<unknown>'"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("to type '<unknown>'"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("missing current fragments [0]"));
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before);
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(committed[0].uuid, original_uuid);
+        assert!(committed[0].index_details.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(committed[0].index_version, 0);
     }
 
-    /// Test that scalar indices are retained after updating rows in a table.
-    ///
-    /// This test verifies that when we:
-    /// 1. Create a table with data
-    /// 2. Add a scalar index with train=true
-    /// 3. Update rows in the table
-    /// The index remains available on the table.
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::btree("i", IndexType::BTree, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
-    #[case::bitmap("i", IndexType::Bitmap, Box::new(ScalarIndexParams::default()))]
-    #[case::inverted("text", IndexType::Inverted, Box::new(InvertedIndexParams::default()))]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_scalar_index_retained_after_update(
-        #[case] column_name: &str,
-        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
-        #[case] params: Box<dyn IndexParams>,
-    ) {
-        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_removes_empty_segment() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Create dataset with initial data
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
         let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("text", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://test", None).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Create index with train=true (normal index with data)
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(8.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Commit a 0-fragment segment, then a real segment covering the dataset.
+        let empty = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            uuid,
+            std::iter::empty::<u32>(),
+            b"empty",
+        )
+        .await;
         dataset
-            .create_index_builder(&[column_name], index_type, params.as_ref())
-            .name("index".to_string())
-            .train(true)
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![segment_from_metadata(&empty)],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let seg = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32],
+            b"seg",
+        )
+        .await;
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![segment_from_metadata(&seg)],
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify index was created and has indexed rows
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        // The real segment covers the dataset, so the redundant empty one is removed.
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(
-            stats["num_indexed_rows"], 100,
-            "Index should have indexed all 100 rows"
+            committed.iter().map(|i| i.uuid).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+            HashSet::from([seg.uuid]),
+            "empty segment should be removed once a real segment covers the dataset",
         );
+    }
 
-        // Verify index is being used in queries before update
-        let plan = if column_name == "text" {
-            // Use full-text search for inverted index
-            dataset
-                .scan()
-                .project(&[column_name])
-                .unwrap()
-                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("test".to_string()))
-                .unwrap()
-                .explain_plan(false)
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-        } else {
-            // Use equality filter for btree/bitmap indices
-            dataset
-                .scan()
-                .filter(format!("{} = 50", column_name).as_str())
-                .unwrap()
-                .explain_plan(false)
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-        };
-        // Verify index is being used before update
-        assert_index_usage(&plan, column_name, true, "before update");
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_resolve_index_column_error_cases() {
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
 
-        // Update some rows - update first 50 rows
-        let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
-            .set("i", "i + 1000")
-            .unwrap()
-            .set("text", "'updated_' || text")
-            .unwrap()
-            .build()
-            .unwrap()
-            .execute()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Create a test dataset
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        let mut dataset = update_result.new_dataset.as_ref().clone();
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(32.into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
 
-        // Verify row count remains the same
-        let row_count = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(row_count, 100, "Row count should remain 100 after update");
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Critical test: Verify the index still exists after updating data
-        let indices_after_update = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices_after_update.len(),
-            1,
-            "Index should be retained after updating rows"
+        // Create an index
+        let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
+            4,
+            lance_linalg::distance::MetricType::L2,
         );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("my_index".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Critical test: Verify the effective fragment bitmap is empty after update
+        // Reload dataset
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let index = &indices[0];
-        let effective_bitmap = index
-            .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
-            .unwrap();
+        let index_meta = &indices[0];
+
+        // Test: Pass a column that doesn't exist and is not the index name
+        let result = resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "nonexistent_column");
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
         assert!(
-            effective_bitmap.is_empty(),
-            "Effective fragment bitmap should be empty after updating all data"
+            err_msg.contains("does not exist in the schema"),
+            "Error message should mention column doesn't exist, got: {}",
+            err_msg
         );
+    }
 
-        // Verify we can still get index statistics
-        let stats_after_update = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats_after_update: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&stats_after_update).unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_resolve_index_column_nested_field() {
+        use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, StructArray};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 
-        // The index should still be available
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats_after_update["num_indexed_rows"], 0,
-            "Index statistics should be zero after update, as it is not re-trained"
+        // Create a test dataset with nested struct manually
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Create schema with nested structure: data.vector
+        let vector_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                8,
+            ),
+            false,
+        );
+        let struct_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "data",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![vector_field.clone()].into()),
+            false,
         );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            struct_field,
+        ]));
 
-        // Verify index behavior in queries after update (empty bitmap)
-        if column_name == "text" {
-            // Inverted indexes will still appear to be used in FTS queries even with empty bitmaps.
-            // This is because FTS queries require an index to exist, and the query execution
-            // will handle the empty bitmap appropriately by falling back to scanning unindexed data.
-            // TODO: once metrics are working on FTS queries, we can check the
-            // analyze plan output instead for actual index usage statistics.
-            let _plan_after_update = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .project(&[column_name])
-                .unwrap()
-                .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("test".to_string()))
-                .unwrap()
-                .explain_plan(false)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            assert_index_usage(
-                &_plan_after_update,
-                column_name,
-                true, // FTS indices always appear in the plan, even with empty bitmaps
-                "after update (empty bitmap)",
-            );
-        } else {
-            // Use equality filter for btree/bitmap indices
-            let _plan_after_update = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .filter(format!("{} = 50", column_name).as_str())
-                .unwrap()
-                .explain_plan(false)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            // With immutable bitmaps, index is still used even with empty effective bitmap
-            // The prefilter will handle non-existent fragments
-            assert_index_usage(
-                &_plan_after_update,
-                column_name,
-                false,
-                "after update (empty effective bitmap)",
-            );
+        // Create data
+        let id_array = arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
+
+        // Create nested vector data
+        let mut vector_values = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..5 {
+            for _ in 0..8 {
+                vector_values.push(rand::random::<f32>());
+            }
         }
+        let vector_array = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vector_values),
+            8,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Test that we can optimize indices after update
-        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![(
+            Arc::new(vector_field),
+            Arc::new(vector_array) as arrow_array::ArrayRef,
+        )]);
 
-        // Verify index still exists after optimization
-        let indices_after_optimize = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices_after_optimize.len(),
-            1,
-            "Index should still exist after optimization following update"
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(struct_array)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = Box::new(arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(batch)],
+            schema,
+        ));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create an index on the nested field
+        let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
+            2,
+            lance_linalg::distance::MetricType::L2,
         );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["data.vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("nested_vector_index".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reload dataset to get the index metadata
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        let index_meta = &indices[0];
+
+        // Test 1: Pass the nested field path directly
+        let (field_path, field) =
+            resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "data.vector").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field_path, "data.vector");
+        assert_eq!(field.name, "vector");
 
-        let stats_after_optimization = dataset.index_statistics("index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats_after_optimization: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&stats_after_optimization).unwrap();
+        // Test 2: Pass the index name, should resolve to the nested field path
+        let (field_path2, field2) =
+            resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "nested_vector_index").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(field_path2, "data.vector");
+        assert_eq!(field2.name, "vector");
 
-        // The index should still be available
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats_after_optimization["num_unindexed_rows"], 0,
-            "Index should have zero unindexed rows after optimization"
+        // Verify the field path is correct for nested access
+        assert!(
+            field_path2.contains('.'),
+            "Field path should contain '.' for nested field"
         );
     }
 
-    // Helper function to validate indices after each clone iteration
-    async fn validate_indices_after_clone(
-        dataset: &Dataset,
-        round: usize,
-        expected_scalar_rows: usize,
-        dimensions: u32,
-    ) {
-        // Verify cloned dataset has indices
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            indices.len(),
-            2,
-            "Round {}: Cloned dataset should have 2 indices",
-            round
-        );
-        let index_names: HashSet<String> = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
-        assert!(
-            index_names.contains("vector_idx"),
-            "Round {}: Should contain vector_idx",
-            round
-        );
-        assert!(
-            index_names.contains("category_idx"),
-            "Round {}: Should contain category_idx",
-            round
-        );
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scalar_index_file_sizes_captured() {
+        // Test that file sizes are captured when creating a scalar index
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col("values", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(4), BatchCount::from(1));
 
-        // Test basic data access without using indices for now
-        // This ensures the dataset is accessible and data is intact
-        // In chain cloning, each round adds 50 rows to the previous dataset
-        // Round 1: 300 (original), Round 2: 350 (300 + 50 from round 1), Round 3: 400 (350 + 50 from round 2)
-        let expected_total_rows = 300 + (round - 1) * 50;
-        let total_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            total_rows, expected_total_rows,
-            "Round {}: Should have {} rows after clone (chain cloning accumulates data)",
-            round, expected_total_rows
-        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify vector search
-        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
-        let search_results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .limit(Some(5), None)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
+        // Create a scalar index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["values"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("test_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+
+        // Get index metadata and verify files are populated
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let test_index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "test_idx").unwrap();
+
         assert!(
-            search_results.num_rows() > 0,
-            "Round {}: Vector search should return results immediately after clone",
-            round
+            test_index.files.is_some(),
+            "Index should have files populated"
         );
+        let files = test_index.files.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(!files.is_empty(), "Index should have at least one file");
 
-        // Test basic scalar query to verify data integrity
-        let scalar_results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("category = 'category_0'")
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Verify each file has a positive size
+        for file in files {
+            assert!(
+                file.size_bytes > 0,
+                "File {} should have positive size",
+                file.path
+            );
+        }
 
-        assert_eq!(
-            expected_scalar_rows,
-            scalar_results.num_rows(),
-            "Round {}: Scalar query should return {} results",
-            round,
-            expected_scalar_rows
-        );
+        // Verify total_size_bytes works
+        let total_size = test_index.total_size_bytes();
+        assert!(total_size.is_some(), "total_size_bytes should return Some");
+        assert!(total_size.unwrap() > 0, "Total size should be positive");
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_shallow_clone_with_index() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-
-        // Create a schema with both vector and scalar columns
-        let dimensions = 16u32;
-        // Generate test data using lance_datagen (300 rows to satisfy PQ training requirements)
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("category", array::fill_utf8("category_0".to_string()))
+    async fn test_vector_index_file_sizes_captured() {
+        // Test that file sizes are captured when creating a vector index
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
             .col(
                 "vector",
-                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dimensions)),
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(4.into()),
             )
             .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
 
-        // Create initial dataset
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
-        // Create vector index (IVF_PQ)
-        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create vector index
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 2);
         dataset
             .create_index(
                 &["vector"],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
-                &vector_params,
-                true,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Create scalar index (BTree)
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["category"],
-                IndexType::BTree,
-                Some("category_idx".to_string()),
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                true,
+                Some("test_vec_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify indices were created
+        // Get index metadata and verify files are populated
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2, "Should have 2 indices");
-        let index_names: HashSet<String> = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
-        assert!(index_names.contains("vector_idx"));
-        assert!(index_names.contains("category_idx"));
-
-        // Test scalar query on source dataset
-        let scalar_results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("category = 'category_0'")
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
+        let test_index = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "test_vec_idx")
             .unwrap();
 
-        let source_scalar_query_rows = scalar_results.num_rows();
         assert!(
-            scalar_results.num_rows() > 0,
-            "Scalar query should return results"
+            test_index.files.is_some(),
+            "Index should have files populated"
         );
+        let files = test_index.files.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(!files.is_empty(), "Index should have at least one file");
 
-        // Multiple shallow clone iterations test with chain cloning
-        let clone_rounds = 3;
-        let mut current_dataset = dataset;
+        // Verify each file has a positive size
+        for file in files {
+            assert!(
+                file.size_bytes > 0,
+                "File {} should have positive size",
+                file.path
+            );
+        }
 
-        for round in 1..=clone_rounds {
-            let round_clone_dir = format!("{}/clone_round_{}", test_dir, round);
-            let round_cloned_uri = &round_clone_dir;
-            let tag_name = format!("shallow_clone_test_{}", round);
+        // Verify total_size_bytes works
+        let total_size = test_index.total_size_bytes();
+        assert!(total_size.is_some(), "total_size_bytes should return Some");
+        assert!(total_size.unwrap() > 0, "Total size should be positive");
+    }
 
-            // Create tag for this round (use current dataset for chain cloning)
-            let current_version = current_dataset.version().version;
-            current_dataset
-                .tags()
-                .create(&tag_name, current_version)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_indices_total_size() {
+        // Test that describe_indices returns total_size_bytes
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("values", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
 
-            // Perform shallow clone for this round (chain cloning from current dataset)
-            let mut round_cloned_dataset = current_dataset
-                .shallow_clone(round_cloned_uri, tag_name.as_str(), None)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        let values = StringArray::from_iter_values(["hello", "world", "foo", "bar"]);
+        let record_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4)),
+                Arc::new(values),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-            // Immediately validate indices after each clone
-            validate_indices_after_clone(
-                &round_cloned_dataset,
-                round,
-                source_scalar_query_rows,
-                dimensions,
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![record_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create a scalar index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["values"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("test_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
             )
-            .await;
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            // Complete validation cycle after each clone: append data, optimize index, validate
-            // Append new data to the cloned dataset
-            let new_data = gen_batch()
-                .col(
-                    "id",
-                    array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(300 + (round * 50) as i32, 1),
-                )
-                .col("category", array::fill_utf8(format!("category_{}", round)))
-                .col(
-                    "vector",
-                    array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dimensions)),
-                )
-                .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(1));
+        // Use describe_indices to get index info
+        let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(descriptions.len(), 1);
 
-            round_cloned_dataset = Dataset::write(
-                new_data,
-                round_cloned_uri,
-                Some(WriteParams {
-                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
+        let desc = &descriptions[0];
+        assert_eq!(desc.name(), "test_idx");
+        assert_eq!(desc.rows_indexed(), 4);
+
+        // Verify total_size_bytes is available
+        let total_size = desc.total_size_bytes();
+        assert!(total_size.is_some(), "total_size_bytes should be Some");
+        assert!(total_size.unwrap() > 0, "Total size should be positive");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_indices_rows_indexed_multi_fragment() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("values", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(8), false))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(3));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                max_rows_per_group: 10,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["values"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("multi_frag_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-            // Verify row count increased
-            let expected_rows = 300 + round * 50;
-            let total_rows = round_cloned_dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(
-                total_rows, expected_rows,
-                "Round {}: Should have {} rows after append",
-                round, expected_rows
-            );
-
-            let indices_before_optimize = round_cloned_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-            let vector_idx_before = indices_before_optimize
-                .iter()
-                .find(|idx| idx.name == "vector_idx")
-                .unwrap();
-            let category_idx_before = indices_before_optimize
-                .iter()
-                .find(|idx| idx.name == "category_idx")
-                .unwrap();
-
-            // Optimize indices
-            round_cloned_dataset
-                .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(indices_before_optimize.len()))
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(descriptions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(descriptions[0].name(), "multi_frag_idx");
+        assert_eq!(
+            descriptions[0].rows_indexed(),
+            30,
+            "rows_indexed should sum logical rows across all indexed fragments"
+        );
+    }
 
-            // Verify index UUID has changed
-            let optimized_indices = round_cloned_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-            let new_vector_idx = optimized_indices
-                .iter()
-                .find(|idx| idx.name == "vector_idx")
-                .unwrap();
-            let new_category_idx = optimized_indices
-                .iter()
-                .find(|idx| idx.name == "category_idx")
-                .unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_indices_rows_indexed_with_deletions() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-            assert_ne!(
-                new_vector_idx.uuid, vector_idx_before.uuid,
-                "Round {}: Vector index should have a new UUID after optimization",
-                round
-            );
-            assert_ne!(
-                new_category_idx.uuid, category_idx_before.uuid,
-                "Round {}: Category index should have a new UUID after optimization",
-                round
-            );
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("values", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(8), false))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
 
-            // Verify the location of index files
-            use std::path::PathBuf;
-            let clone_indices_dir = PathBuf::from(round_cloned_uri).join("_indices");
-            let vector_index_dir = clone_indices_dir.join(new_vector_idx.uuid.to_string());
-            let category_index_dir = clone_indices_dir.join(new_category_idx.uuid.to_string());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("id >= 15").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 15);
 
-            assert!(
-                vector_index_dir.exists(),
-                "Round {}: New vector index directory should exist in cloned dataset location: {:?}",
-                round, vector_index_dir
-            );
-            assert!(
-                category_index_dir.exists(),
-                "Round {}: New category index directory should exist in cloned dataset location: {:?}",
-                round, category_index_dir
-            );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["values"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("deleted_rows_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            // Verify base id
-            assert!(
-                new_vector_idx.base_id.is_none(),
-                "Round {}: New vector index should not have base_id after optimization in cloned dataset",
-                round
-            );
-            assert!(
-                new_category_idx.base_id.is_none(),
-                "Round {}: New category index should not have base_id after optimization in cloned dataset",
-                round
-            );
+        let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(descriptions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(descriptions[0].name(), "deleted_rows_idx");
+        assert_eq!(
+            descriptions[0].rows_indexed(),
+            15,
+            "rows_indexed should use logical rows (physical_rows - num_deleted_rows)"
+        );
+    }
 
-            // Verify the source location does NOT contain new data
-            let original_indices_dir = PathBuf::from(current_dataset.uri()).join("_indices");
-            let wrong_vector_dir = original_indices_dir.join(new_vector_idx.uuid.to_string());
-            let wrong_category_dir = original_indices_dir.join(new_category_idx.uuid.to_string());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_indices_rows_indexed_stale_bitmap_fragment() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-            assert!(
-                !wrong_vector_dir.exists(),
-                "Round {}: New vector index should NOT be in original dataset location: {:?}",
-                round,
-                wrong_vector_dir
-            );
-            assert!(
-                !wrong_category_dir.exists(),
-                "Round {}: New category index should NOT be in original dataset location: {:?}",
-                round,
-                wrong_category_dir
-            );
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(2));
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                max_rows_per_group: 10,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+        let stale_segment = write_vector_segment_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector_idx",
+            field_id,
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0_u32, 1_u32, 999_u32],
+            b"stale-bitmap-segment",
+        )
+        .await;
 
-            // Validate data integrity and index functionality after optimization
-            let old_category_results = round_cloned_dataset
-                .scan()
-                .filter("category = 'category_0'")
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![segment_from_metadata(&stale_segment)],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-            let new_category_results = round_cloned_dataset
-                .scan()
-                .filter(&format!("category = 'category_{}'", round))
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
+        let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(descriptions.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(descriptions[0].name(), "vector_idx");
+        assert_eq!(
+            descriptions[0].rows_indexed(),
+            20,
+            "stale bitmap entries for missing fragments should be skipped without failing"
+        );
+    }
 
-            assert_eq!(
-                source_scalar_query_rows,
-                old_category_results.num_rows(),
-                "Round {}: Should find old category data with {} rows",
-                round,
-                source_scalar_query_rows
-            );
+    /// Helper to assert that all indices have file sizes populated
+    async fn assert_all_indices_have_files(dataset: &Dataset, context: &str) {
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        for index in indices.iter() {
+            // Skip system indices (mem_wal, frag_reuse) which don't have files
+            if index.name == lance_index::mem_wal::MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME
+                || index.name == lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
             assert!(
-                new_category_results.num_rows() > 0,
-                "Round {}: Should find new category data",
-                round
+                index.files.is_some(),
+                "{}: Index '{}' should have files field populated",
+                context,
+                index.name
             );
-
-            // Test vector search functionality
-            let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
-            let search_results = round_cloned_dataset
-                .scan()
-                .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 10)
-                .unwrap()
-                .limit(Some(10), None)
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-
+            let files = index.files.as_ref().unwrap();
             assert!(
-                search_results.num_rows() > 0,
-                "Round {}: Vector search should return results after optimization",
-                round
+                !files.is_empty(),
+                "{}: Index '{}' should have at least one file",
+                context,
+                index.name
             );
+            for file in files {
+                assert!(
+                    file.size_bytes > 0,
+                    "{}: Index '{}' file '{}' should have positive size",
+                    context,
+                    index.name,
+                    file.path
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-            // Verify statistic of indexes
-            let vector_stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(
-                &round_cloned_dataset
-                    .index_statistics("vector_idx")
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap(),
-            )
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scalar_index_create_does_not_list_files() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..128);
+        let categories = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..128).map(|value| value % 8));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(categories)])
             .unwrap();
-            let category_stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(
-                &round_cloned_dataset
-                    .index_statistics("category_idx")
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap(),
-            )
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), None)
+            .await
             .unwrap();
+        let io_tracker = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_tracker().clone();
 
-            assert_eq!(
-                vector_stats["num_indexed_rows"].as_u64().unwrap(),
-                expected_rows as u64,
-                "Round {}: Vector index should have {} indexed rows",
-                round,
-                expected_rows
-            );
-            assert_eq!(
-                category_stats["num_indexed_rows"].as_u64().unwrap(),
-                expected_rows as u64,
-                "Round {}: Category index should have {} indexed rows",
-                round,
-                expected_rows
-            );
-
-            // Prepare for next round: use the cloned dataset as the source for next clone
-            current_dataset = round_cloned_dataset;
-        }
-
-        // Use the final cloned dataset for any remaining tests
-        let final_cloned_dataset = current_dataset;
+        io_tracker.incremental_stats();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["category"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                Some("category_bitmap".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify cloned dataset has indices
-        let cloned_indices = final_cloned_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            cloned_indices.len(),
-            2,
-            "Final cloned dataset should have 2 indices"
+        let stats = io_tracker.incremental_stats();
+        let list_stats = list_io_stats(&stats);
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            list_stats,
+            read_iops,
+            0,
+            "new scalar index files should be reported by writer return values"
         );
-        let cloned_index_names: HashSet<String> =
-            cloned_indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
-        assert!(cloned_index_names.contains("vector_idx"));
-        assert!(cloned_index_names.contains("category_idx"));
+    }
 
-        // Test vector search on final cloned dataset
-        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
-        let search_results = final_cloned_dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .limit(Some(5), None)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_index_create_does_not_list_files() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dimension = 8;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dimension,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..256);
+        let vectors = (0..256)
+            .map(|row| {
+                Some(
+                    (0..dimension)
+                        .map(|dim| Some((row * dimension + dim) as f32))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let vector_array =
+            FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Float32Type, _, _>(vectors, dimension);
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(vector_array)])
+                .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let io_tracker = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_tracker().clone();
 
-        assert!(
-            search_results.num_rows() > 0,
-            "Vector search should return results on final dataset"
-        );
-
-        // Test scalar query on final cloned dataset
-        let scalar_results = final_cloned_dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("category = 'category_0'")
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
+        io_tracker.incremental_stats();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_ivf_flat".to_string()),
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(4, MetricType::L2),
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(
-            source_scalar_query_rows,
-            scalar_results.num_rows(),
-            "Scalar query should return results on final dataset"
+        let stats = io_tracker.incremental_stats();
+        let list_stats = list_io_stats(&stats);
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            list_stats,
+            read_iops,
+            0,
+            "new V3 vector index files should be reported by builder return values"
         );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_initialize_indices() {
-        use crate::dataset::Dataset;
-        use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
-        use lance_index::scalar::{InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams};
-        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
-        use std::collections::HashSet;
-
-        // Create source dataset with various index types
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let source_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "source");
-        let target_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "target");
+    async fn test_index_file_sizes_through_lifecycle() {
+        use crate::dataset::WriteDestination;
+        use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files, remapping};
+        use lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
 
-        // Generate test data using lance_datagen (need at least 256 rows for PQ training)
-        let source_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+        // Create initial dataset with columns for different index types
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("int_col", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("str_col", array::rand_utf8(8.into(), false))
             .col(
-                "text",
-                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["hello world", "foo bar", "test data"]),
+                "vec_col",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(32)),
             )
-            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(1000), BatchCount::from(1));
 
-        // Create source dataset
-        let mut source_dataset = Dataset::write(source_reader, &source_uri, None)
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 200, // Multiple fragments for compaction
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Create BTree index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["int_col"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("btree_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create indices on source dataset
-        // 1. Vector index
-        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
-        source_dataset
+        // Create Bitmap index
+        dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["vector"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
-                &vector_params,
+                &["int_col"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                Some("bitmap_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
                 false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // 2. FTS index
-        let fts_params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
-        source_dataset
+        // Create Inverted index for text search
+        dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["text"],
+                &["str_col"],
                 IndexType::Inverted,
-                Some("text_idx".to_string()),
-                &fts_params,
+                Some("inverted_idx".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
                 false,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // 3. Scalar index
-        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-        source_dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["id"],
-                IndexType::BTree,
-                Some("id_idx".to_string()),
-                &scalar_params,
-                false,
+        // Validate files are populated after creation
+        assert_all_indices_have_files(&dataset, "after initial creation").await;
+
+        // Append more data
+        let more_data = gen_batch()
+            .col("int_col", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("str_col", array::rand_utf8(8.into(), false))
+            .col(
+                "vec_col",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(32)),
             )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(500), BatchCount::from(1));
+
+        Dataset::write(
+            more_data,
+            WriteDestination::Dataset(Arc::new(dataset.clone())),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 200,
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .load()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Reload source dataset to get updated index metadata
-        let source_dataset = Dataset::open(&source_uri).await.unwrap();
+        // Optimize indices (triggers update/merge)
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify source has 3 indices
-        let source_indices = source_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            source_indices.len(),
-            3,
-            "Source dataset should have 3 indices"
-        );
+        // Validate files are still populated after optimize
+        assert_all_indices_have_files(&dataset, "after optimize_indices").await;
 
-        // Create target dataset with same schema but different data (need at least 256 rows for PQ)
-        let target_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
-            .col(
-                "text",
-                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["foo bar", "test data", "hello world"]),
+        // Run compaction with deferred remap
+        let options = CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 500,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, options.clone(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Check if frag reuse index exists (indicates remap is needed)
+        if dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_some()
+        {
+            // Remap each index
+            remapping::remap_column_index(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &["int_col"],
+                Some("btree_idx".to_string()),
             )
-            .col("id", array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(100, 1))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let mut target_dataset = Dataset::write(target_reader, &target_uri, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Initialize indices from source dataset
-        target_dataset
-            .initialize_indices(&source_dataset)
+            remapping::remap_column_index(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &["int_col"],
+                Some("bitmap_idx".to_string()),
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify target has same indices
-        let target_indices = target_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            target_indices.len(),
-            3,
-            "Target dataset should have 3 indices after initialization"
-        );
+            remapping::remap_column_index(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &["str_col"],
+                Some("inverted_idx".to_string()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Check index names match
-        let source_names: HashSet<String> =
-            source_indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
-        let target_names: HashSet<String> =
-            target_indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
-        assert_eq!(
-            source_names, target_names,
-            "Index names should match between source and target"
-        );
+            // Validate files are populated after remap
+            assert_all_indices_have_files(&dataset, "after remap").await;
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Verify indices are functional by running queries
-        // 1. Test vector index
-        let query_vector = generate_random_array(8);
-        let search_results = target_dataset
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_btree_index_iops() {
+        // Test that querying a BTree index uses minimal IOPs (no HEAD requests)
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        // Create dataset with a column suitable for BTree index
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("value", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let num_rows = 1000;
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
+        let values = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| i % 100));
+
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(values)]).unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create BTree index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["value"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("btree_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Re-open dataset fresh to avoid cached state
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reset IO stats before query
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+        // Query using the BTree index
+        let results = dataset
             .scan()
-            .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .limit(Some(5), None)
+            .filter("value = 50")
             .unwrap()
             .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert!(
-            search_results.num_rows() > 0,
-            "Vector index should be functional"
+        assert!(results.num_rows() > 0);
+
+        // Verify IOPs - should be minimal (no HEAD requests)
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        // We expect reads for: index metadata + index pages + data files
+        // The key assertion is that we don't have extra HEAD requests
+        assert_io_lt!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            10,
+            "BTree index query should use minimal IOPs"
         );
+    }
 
-        // 2. Test scalar index
-        let scalar_results = target_dataset
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_index_iops() {
+        // Test that querying a Bitmap index uses minimal IOPs (no HEAD requests)
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        // Create dataset with low-cardinality column for Bitmap index
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("category", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let num_rows = 1000;
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
+        // Low cardinality - only 10 unique values
+        let categories = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| i % 10));
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(categories)])
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create Bitmap index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["category"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                Some("bitmap_idx".to_string()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Re-open dataset fresh
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reset IO stats before query
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+        // Query using the Bitmap index
+        let results = dataset
             .scan()
-            .filter("id = 125")
+            .filter("category = 5")
             .unwrap()
             .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(
-            scalar_results.num_rows(),
-            1,
-            "Scalar index should find exact match"
-        );
-    }
+        assert!(results.num_rows() > 0);
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_initialize_indices_with_missing_field() {
-        use crate::dataset::Dataset;
-        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
-        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
-        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+        // Verify IOPs
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_lt!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            10,
+            "Bitmap index query should use minimal IOPs"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Test that initialize_indices handles missing fields gracefully
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_inverted_index_iops() {
+        // Test that querying an Inverted (FTS) index uses minimal IOPs
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let source_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "source");
-        let target_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "target");
 
-        // Create source dataset with extra field
-        let source_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("extra", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["test"]))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let mut source_dataset = Dataset::write(source_reader, &source_uri, None)
+        // Create dataset with text column for Inverted index
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+
+        let num_rows = 100;
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
+        let texts = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| {
+            if i % 3 == 0 {
+                format!("hello world document {}", i)
+            } else if i % 3 == 1 {
+                format!("goodbye universe text {}", i)
+            } else {
+                format!("random content item {}", i)
+            }
+        }));
+
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(texts)]).unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create index on extra field in source
-        source_dataset
+        // Create Inverted index
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["extra"],
-                IndexType::BTree,
-                None,
-                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
-                false,
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("inverted_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Create target dataset without extra field
-        let target_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("id", array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(10, 1))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let mut target_dataset = Dataset::write(target_reader, &target_uri, None)
+        // Re-open dataset fresh
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .load()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Initialize indices should skip the index on missing field with an error
-        let result = target_dataset.initialize_indices(&source_dataset).await;
+        // Reset IO stats before query
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
 
-        // Should fail when field is missing
-        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should error when field is missing");
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("not found in target dataset"));
+        // Query using the Inverted index (full-text search)
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_string()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(results.num_rows() > 0);
+
+        // Verify IOPs. The deferred DocSet loads per-doc num_tokens/row_ids on
+        // first use rather than eagerly at index open, so a cold (un-prewarmed)
+        // query opens the docs file on demand — a couple more IOPs than the
+        // eager path, but constant and only on the first query (prewarm or a
+        // warm cache serve it with zero IO).
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_lt!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            18,
+            "Inverted index query should use minimal IOPs"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_initialize_single_index() {
-        use crate::dataset::Dataset;
-        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
-        use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
-        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
-        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
-
+    async fn test_ivf_pq_index_iops() {
+        // Test that querying an IVF_PQ vector index uses minimal IOPs
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let source_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "source");
-        let target_uri = format!("{}/{}", test_dir, "target");
 
-        // Create source dataset (need at least 256 rows for PQ training)
-        let source_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("name", array::rand_utf8(4.into(), false))
-            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let mut source_dataset = Dataset::write(source_reader, &source_uri, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Create dataset with vector column
+        let dimension = 32;
+        let num_rows = 1000;
 
-        // Create multiple indices on source
-        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
-        source_dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["id"],
-                IndexType::BTree,
-                Some("id_index".to_string()),
-                &scalar_params,
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dimension,
+                ),
                 false,
-            )
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
+        let vectors: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<f32>>>> = (0..num_rows)
+            .map(|i| {
+                Some(
+                    (0..dimension)
+                        .map(|j| Some((i * dimension + j) as f32 / 1000.0))
+                        .collect(),
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let vector_array =
+            FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Float32Type, _, _>(vectors, dimension);
+
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(vector_array)])
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let vector_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(16, 8, 4, MetricType::L2, 50);
-        source_dataset
+        // Create IVF_PQ index
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, 4, MetricType::L2, 50);
+        dataset
             .create_index(
                 &["vector"],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vector_index".to_string()),
-                &vector_params,
-                false,
+                Some("ivf_pq_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Reload source dataset to get updated index metadata
-        let source_dataset = Dataset::open(&source_uri).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Create target dataset with same schema
-        let target_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("name", array::rand_utf8(4.into(), false))
-            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
-        let mut target_dataset = Dataset::write(target_reader, &target_uri, None)
+        // Re-open dataset fresh
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .load()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Initialize only the vector index
-        target_dataset
-            .initialize_index(&source_dataset, "vector_index")
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        // Do a full scan to warm up data file metadata
+        let _ = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify only vector index was created
-        let target_indices = target_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(target_indices.len(), 1, "Should have only 1 index");
-        assert_eq!(
-            target_indices[0].name, "vector_index",
-            "Should have the vector index"
-        );
+        // Reset IO stats before query
+        let _ = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
 
-        // Initialize the scalar index
-        target_dataset
-            .initialize_index(&source_dataset, "id_index")
+        // Query using the IVF_PQ index (KNN search)
+        let query_vector: Vec<f32> = (0..dimension).map(|i| i as f32 / 1000.0).collect();
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &Float32Array::from(query_vector), 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(2)
+            .maximum_nprobes(2)
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert!(results.num_rows() > 0);
 
-        // Verify both indices now exist
-        let target_indices = target_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(target_indices.len(), 2, "Should have 2 indices");
-
-        let index_names: HashSet<String> =
-            target_indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.name.clone()).collect();
-        assert!(
-            index_names.contains("vector_index"),
-            "Should have vector index"
+        // Verify IOPs
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_lt!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            17,
+            "IVF_PQ index query should use minimal IOPs"
         );
-        assert!(index_names.contains("id_index"), "Should have id index");
-
-        // Test error case - non-existent index
-        let result = target_dataset
-            .initialize_index(&source_dataset, "non_existent")
-            .await;
-        assert!(result.is_err(), "Should error for non-existent index");
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("not found in source dataset"));
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_vector_index_on_nested_field_with_dots() {
-        let dimensions = 16;
-        let num_rows = 256;
-
-        // Create schema with nested field containing dots in the name
-        let struct_field = Field::new(
-            "embedding_data",
-            DataType::Struct(
-                vec![
-                    Field::new(
-                        "vector.v1", // Field name with dot
-                        DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                            dimensions,
-                        ),
-                        false,
-                    ),
-                    Field::new(
-                        "vector.v2", // Another field name with dot
-                        DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                            dimensions,
-                        ),
-                        false,
-                    ),
-                    Field::new("metadata", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                ]
-                .into(),
-            ),
-            false,
-        );
-
+    async fn test_describe_indices_returns_correct_vector_index_type() {
+        const DIM: i32 = 8;
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
             Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            struct_field,
-        ]));
-
-        // Generate test data
-        let float_arr_v1 = generate_random_array(num_rows * dimensions as usize);
-        let vectors_v1 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr_v1, dimensions).unwrap();
-
-        let float_arr_v2 = generate_random_array(num_rows * dimensions as usize);
-        let vectors_v2 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr_v2, dimensions).unwrap();
-
-        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32);
-        let metadata = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("meta_{}", i)));
-
-        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new(
-                    "vector.v1",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                        dimensions,
-                    ),
-                    false,
-                )),
-                Arc::new(vectors_v1) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new(
-                    "vector.v2",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                        dimensions,
-                    ),
-                    false,
-                )),
-                Arc::new(vectors_v2) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("metadata", DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(metadata) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), DIM),
+                true,
             ),
-        ]);
-
-        let batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
-                .unwrap();
+        ]));
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let data = generate_random_array(256 * DIM as usize);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..256)),
+                Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(data, DIM).unwrap()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
-
-        // Test creating index on nested field with dots using quoted syntax
-        let nested_column_path_v1 = "embedding_data.`vector.v1`";
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(10, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &test_dir, None).await.unwrap();
 
+        // Create IVF_FLAT index
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &[nested_column_path_v1],
+                &["vector"],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_v1_idx".to_string()),
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
                 &params,
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify index was created
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "vec_v1_idx");
+        // Reload dataset and call describe_indices
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_dir).await.unwrap();
+        let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the correct field was indexed
-        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
-        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(field_path, "embedding_data.`vector.v1`");
+        assert_eq!(descriptions.len(), 1);
+        let desc = &descriptions[0];
+        assert_eq!(desc.name(), "vector_idx");
+        // This should be "IVF_FLAT", not "Unknown"
+        assert_eq!(desc.index_type(), "IVF_FLAT");
+        assert!(!desc.field_ids().is_empty());
+    }
 
-        // Test creating index on the second vector field with dots
-        let nested_column_path_v2 = "embedding_data.`vector.v2`";
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &[nested_column_path_v2],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_v2_idx".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                true,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    /// FRI-straddle corruption (PR #6610) used to panic in `load_indices`.
+    /// The fixture is a pre-#6610 dataset where a user index's
+    /// `fragment_bitmap` only partially covers a rewrite group. After the
+    /// tolerant-load fix `load_indices` returns Ok; affected old-frag IDs
+    /// are dropped, no new-frag IDs are inserted, and `validate()` succeeds.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_load_indices_tolerates_fri_straddle() {
+        let tmp = copy_test_data_to_tmp("fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset").unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("file://{}", tmp.std_path().display());
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify both indices exist
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+        assert!(!indices.is_empty());
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
 
-        // Verify we can query using the indexed fields and check the plan
-        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
+    /// Any commit reseeds indices via `load_indices` → `build_manifest`,
+    /// so a single no-op write persists the cleaned bitmap to disk.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_auto_heal_persists_cleaned_bitmap() {
+        use lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes;
 
-        // Check the query plan for the first vector field
-        let plan_v1 = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(nested_column_path_v1, &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let tmp = copy_test_data_to_tmp("fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset").unwrap();
+        let uri = format!("file://{}", tmp.std_path().display());
 
-        // Verify the vector index is being used (should show ANNSubIndex or ANNIvfPartition)
+        // Sanity: the on-disk fixture has at least one straddling segment.
+        let pre = Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap();
+        let raw_pre =
+            read_manifest_indexes(&pre.object_store, &pre.manifest_location, &pre.manifest)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        let cleaned = pre.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let any_changed = raw_pre
+            .iter()
+            .zip(cleaned.iter())
+            .any(|(r, c)| r.fragment_bitmap != c.fragment_bitmap);
         assert!(
-            plan_v1.contains("ANNSubIndex") || plan_v1.contains("ANNIvfPartition"),
-            "Query plan should use vector index for nested field with dots. Plan: {}",
-            plan_v1
+            any_changed,
+            "fixture should have at least one segment whose bitmap is cleaned at load"
         );
+        drop(pre);
+
+        // No-op delete commits a fresh manifest seeded from cleaned indices.
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Reopen and read raw manifest indices: cleaned bitmaps now persisted.
+        let healed = Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap();
+        let raw_post = read_manifest_indexes(
+            &healed.object_store,
+            &healed.manifest_location,
+            &healed.manifest,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let cleaned_post = healed.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        for (r, c) in raw_post.iter().zip(cleaned_post.iter()) {
+            assert_eq!(
+                r.fragment_bitmap, c.fragment_bitmap,
+                "after auto-heal, raw on-disk bitmap should match cleaned bitmap"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        let search_results_v1 = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(nested_column_path_v1, &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(search_results_v1.num_rows(), 5);
+    fn two_column_reader() -> impl arrow_array::RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static {
+        lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("payload", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1))
+    }
 
-        // Check the query plan for the second vector field
-        let plan_v2 = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(nested_column_path_v2, &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+    enum UnreadableIndexKind {
+        NewerVersion,
+        UnknownType,
+    }
 
-        // Verify the vector index is being used
-        assert!(
-            plan_v2.contains("ANNSubIndex") || plan_v2.contains("ANNIvfPartition"),
-            "Query plan should use vector index for second nested field with dots. Plan: {}",
-            plan_v2
+    /// Make `index_name` unreadable to this build, and give it the full fragment
+    /// coverage a real index of that name would have.
+    async fn hide_index_as(dataset: &mut Dataset, index_name: &str, kind: UnreadableIndexKind) {
+        let current = dataset.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(current.len(), 1);
+        let mut unreadable = current.clone();
+        match kind {
+            UnreadableIndexKind::NewerVersion => {
+                unreadable[0].index_version = current[0].index_version + 1;
+            }
+            UnreadableIndexKind::UnknownType => {
+                unreadable[0].index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                    type_url: "type.googleapis.com/example.ForeignIndexDetails".to_string(),
+                    value: Vec::new(),
+                }));
+            }
+        }
+        unreadable[0].fragment_bitmap = Some(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: unreadable,
+                removed_indices: current,
+            },
+            None,
         );
-
-        let search_results_v2 = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(nested_column_path_v2, &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(search_results_v2.num_rows(), 5);
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_vector_index_on_simple_nested_field() {
-        // This test reproduces the Python test scenario from test_nested_field_vector_index
-        // where the nested field path is simple (data.embedding) without dots in field names
-        let dimensions = 16;
-        let num_rows = 256;
+    /// Raise `index_name` past the version this build can read.
+    async fn hide_index_from_this_build(dataset: &mut Dataset, index_name: &str) {
+        hide_index_as(dataset, index_name, UnreadableIndexKind::NewerVersion).await;
+    }
 
-        // Create schema with simple nested field (no dots in field names)
-        let struct_field = Field::new(
-            "data",
-            DataType::Struct(
-                vec![
-                    Field::new(
-                        "embedding",
-                        DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                            dimensions,
-                        ),
-                        false,
-                    ),
-                    Field::new("label", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                ]
-                .into(),
-            ),
-            false,
-        );
+    /// The readable companion every fixture below carries over `payload`.
+    const READABLE_INDEX: &str = "payload_idx";
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            struct_field,
-        ]));
+    /// A dataset carrying an unreadable BTree index over `id` beside an ordinary
+    /// readable BTree index over `payload`.
+    ///
+    /// The readable companion is what makes the filter's selectivity visible:
+    /// with a single entry, "hid the one it cannot read" and "hid everything"
+    /// produce the same answer to every assertion in this module.
+    ///
+    /// Both indices are committed untrained and given their coverage by hand.
+    /// Nothing here ever reads them, and training one would take a non-spillable
+    /// 40 MB reservation out of the session's shared 150 MB pool to sort ten
+    /// rows - three of those in flight at once is all the pool has room for.
+    async fn dataset_with_an_unreadable_index(
+        uri: &str,
+        index_name: &str,
+        kind: UnreadableIndexKind,
+    ) -> Dataset {
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(two_column_reader(), uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Generate test data
-        let float_arr = generate_random_array(num_rows * dimensions as usize);
-        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(float_arr, dimensions).unwrap();
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name(index_name.to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        hide_index_as(&mut dataset, index_name, kind).await;
 
-        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32);
-        let labels = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("label_{}", i)));
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["payload"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name(READABLE_INDEX.to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+    }
 
-        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new(
-                    "embedding",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                        dimensions,
-                    ),
-                    false,
-                )),
-                Arc::new(vectors) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("label", DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(labels) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-        ]);
+    /// A dataset carrying an index whose version is newer than this build.
+    async fn dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(uri: &str, index_name: &str) -> Dataset {
+        dataset_with_an_unreadable_index(uri, index_name, UnreadableIndexKind::NewerVersion).await
+    }
 
-        let batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
-                .unwrap();
+    /// Indices the manifest itself carries, bypassing the usable-index filter.
+    async fn raw_manifest_indices(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+        lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes(
+            &dataset.object_store,
+            &dataset.manifest_location,
+            &dataset.manifest,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    /// The manifest entry named `name`, whole. Compare these, not names: a
+    /// carried-forward index that kept its name but lost its coverage or gained
+    /// a new uuid is exactly the corruption this suite exists to catch.
+    async fn manifest_index(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> IndexMetadata {
+        raw_manifest_indices(dataset)
+            .await
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == name)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("no index named {name} in the manifest"))
+    }
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    /// Sorted: a commit that replaces an entry appends the replacement, so
+    /// comparing in manifest order would break on which operation ran rather
+    /// than on what it did. Order is not meaningless in general - delta merging
+    /// selects a suffix of it - but no test here asserts on it.
+    async fn manifest_index_names(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut names = raw_manifest_indices(dataset)
+            .await
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|idx| idx.name)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        names.sort();
+        names
+    }
 
-        // Test creating index on nested field
-        let nested_column_path = "data.embedding";
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 10);
+    /// An index this build cannot read must be hidden, not erased.
+    ///
+    /// Every commit rebuilds the index list from what it is handed, so filtering
+    /// the version there turns "ignore it" into "delete it", and the build that
+    /// could have read the index never gets the chance.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unsupported_index_survives_an_unrelated_commit() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
 
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &[nested_column_path],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                true,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|idx| idx.name.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            [READABLE_INDEX],
+            "the filter must hide the index this build cannot read, and only it"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&dataset).await,
+            ["id_idx", READABLE_INDEX]
+        );
+        let before = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+
+        // An unrelated append. Nothing about the index is part of this operation.
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            two_column_reader(),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify index was created
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "vec_idx");
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await,
+            before,
+            "an unrelated append changed an index this build merely could not read"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Verify the correct field was indexed
-        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
-        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(field_path, "data.embedding");
+    /// Carrying an unreadable index forward is not the same as keeping it
+    /// forever: dropping the column it covers still removes it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unsupported_index_is_dropped_with_its_column() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
 
-        // Test querying with the index
-        let query_vector = generate_random_array(dimensions as usize);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let readable_before = manifest_index(&dataset, READABLE_INDEX).await;
 
-        let plan = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(nested_column_path, &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        dataset.drop_columns(&["id"]).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the vector index is being used
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("ANNSubIndex") || plan.contains("ANNIvfPartition"),
-            "Query plan should use vector index for nested field. Plan: {}",
-            plan
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&dataset).await,
+            [READABLE_INDEX],
+            "dropping `id` must remove the index over it, and only that one"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index(&dataset, READABLE_INDEX).await,
+            readable_before,
+            "the index over the surviving column was rewritten"
         );
+    }
+
+    /// Carrying it forward must also not drag it through index migration.
+    ///
+    /// `migrate_indices` recalculates a missing `fragment_bitmap` by opening the
+    /// index, which is precisely what this build cannot do - so an unreadable
+    /// index would fail every later commit instead of riding along.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::newer_version(UnreadableIndexKind::NewerVersion)]
+    #[case::unknown_type(UnreadableIndexKind::UnknownType)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unsupported_index_without_a_bitmap_does_not_fail_later_commits(
+        #[case] kind: UnreadableIndexKind,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_an_unreadable_index(test_uri, "id_idx", kind).await;
 
-        let search_results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(nested_column_path, &query_vector, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
+        // Drop the coverage too, so migration would want to rebuild it.
+        let hidden = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        let without_bitmap = IndexMetadata {
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            ..hidden.clone()
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![without_bitmap.clone()],
+                removed_indices: vec![hidden],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert_eq!(search_results.num_rows(), 5);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await,
+            without_bitmap,
+            "a commit rewrote an index it cannot open instead of carrying it through"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// A name an unreadable index already owns cannot be handed out again.
+    ///
+    /// Nothing in the format stops two entries from sharing a name, and the
+    /// build that can read both would take them for segments of one index.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_btree_index_on_nested_field_with_dots() {
-        // Test creating BTree index on nested field with dots in the name
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+    async fn test_unsupported_index_name_is_still_taken() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
 
-        // Create schema with nested field containing dots
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new(
-                "data",
-                DataType::Struct(
-                    vec![
-                        Field::new("value.v1", DataType::Int32, false),
-                        Field::new("value.v2", DataType::Float32, false),
-                        Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                    ]
-                    .into(),
-                ),
-                false,
-            ),
-        ]));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let err = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a name is taken by an index this build cannot read");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("already exists"),
+            "expected a name collision, got: {err}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&dataset).await,
+            ["id_idx", READABLE_INDEX]
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Generate test data
-        let num_rows = 1000;
-        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
-        let values_v1 = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| i % 100));
-        let values_v2 = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| (i as f32) * 0.1));
-        let texts = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("text_{}", i)));
+    /// The generated-name loop reads the same view the collision check does, so
+    /// a name an unreadable index holds is skipped rather than reused.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_an_auto_generated_name_skips_an_unsupported_index() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
 
-        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("value.v1", DataType::Int32, false)),
-                Arc::new(values_v1) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("value.v2", DataType::Float32, false)),
-                Arc::new(values_v2) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(texts) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-        ]);
+        // A different index kind on the same column: the loop steps past the
+        // taken name instead of stopping at the collision check.
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let bitmap_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::Bitmap, &bitmap_params)
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
-                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&dataset).await,
+            ["id_idx", "id_idx_2", READABLE_INDEX],
+            "the generated name reused one an unreadable index already holds"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    /// The multi-segment FM-Index builder reserves names on its own, so it needs
+    /// the same complete view as the single-segment path.
+    ///
+    /// The hidden index is a BTree and the new one an FM index, which is what
+    /// makes this test specific to the multi-segment builder: its name loop
+    /// (`index/create.rs`) only steps past a taken name when the *fields* differ,
+    /// where the single-segment loop also steps past a different index kind. So
+    /// the single-segment path would quietly settle on `text_idx_2` and succeed;
+    /// only the multi-segment path keeps `text_idx` and hits the collision.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_multi_segment_fmindex_respects_an_unsupported_index_name() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        // Create BTree index on nested field with dots
-        let nested_column_path = "data.`value.v1`";
-        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["alpha", "beta", "gamma"]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
         dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &[nested_column_path],
-                IndexType::BTree,
-                Some("btree_v1_idx".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                true,
-            )
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("text_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        hide_index_from_this_build(&mut dataset, "text_idx").await;
 
-        // Reload dataset to ensure index is loaded
-        dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let multi_segment_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm)
+            .with_params(&serde_json::json!({ "num_segments": 2 }));
+        let err = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Fm, &multi_segment_params)
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a name is taken by an index this build cannot read");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("already exists"),
+            "expected a name collision, got: {err}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(manifest_index_names(&dataset).await, ["text_idx"]);
+    }
 
-        // Verify index was created
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "btree_v1_idx");
+    /// Being unreadable must not make an index unremovable.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unsupported_index_can_be_dropped_by_name() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
 
-        // Verify the correct field was indexed
-        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
-        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(field_path, "data.`value.v1`");
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.drop_index("id_idx").await.unwrap();
 
-        // Test querying with the index and verify it's being used
-        let plan = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("data.`value.v1` = 42")
-            .unwrap()
-            .prefilter(true)
-            .explain_plan(false)
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&dataset).await,
+            [READABLE_INDEX],
+            "drop_index removed the wrong set of indices"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `replace` has to select the index it replaces from the same complete view
+    /// the name was reserved against, or it adds a twin instead of replacing.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replacing_an_unsupported_index_does_not_duplicate_it() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .replace(true)
+            .train(false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the query plan (scalar indices on nested fields may use optimized filters)
-        // The index may be used internally even if not shown as ScalarIndexQuery
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&dataset).await,
+            ["id_idx", READABLE_INDEX],
+            "replace committed a second index under a name already taken"
+        );
         assert!(
-            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
-            "Query plan should show optimized read. Plan: {}",
-            plan
+            unsupported_index_version(&manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await).is_none(),
+            "replace kept the unreadable index and discarded the new one"
         );
+    }
 
-        // Also test that the query returns results
-        let results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("data.`value.v1` = 42")
-            .unwrap()
-            .prefilter(true)
-            .try_into_batch()
+    /// The same selection, through the segment-commit path rather than the
+    /// builder: full coverage replaces the segments already under that name.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_committing_a_segment_beside_an_unsupported_index_replaces_it() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let mut segment = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .replace(true)
+            .train(false)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Full coverage, so the removal decision goes through the fragment
+        // overlap branch rather than the empty-bitmap shortcut. Set by hand
+        // because training it would take 40 MB of the shared pool to sort ten
+        // rows - see `dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build`.
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = Some(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("id_idx", "id", vec![segment])
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        assert!(results.num_rows() > 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&dataset).await,
+            ["id_idx", READABLE_INDEX],
+            "the incoming segment was committed beside the unreadable one"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            unsupported_index_version(&manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await).is_none(),
+            "the incoming segment did not replace the unreadable one"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// The retention path itself: a segment on fragments the existing one does
+    /// not cover is kept beside it, and agreeing declarations are what makes
+    /// that legal. This is the case the rejection below must not swallow -
+    /// partial-coverage builds depend on it.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_bitmap_index_on_nested_field_with_dots() {
-        // Test creating Bitmap index on nested field with dots in the name
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+    async fn test_committing_a_segment_on_disjoint_fragments_keeps_the_existing_one() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        // Create schema with nested field containing dots - using low cardinality for bitmap
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new(
-                "metadata",
-                DataType::Struct(
-                    vec![
-                        Field::new("status.code", DataType::Int32, false),
-                        Field::new("category.name", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                    ]
-                    .into(),
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(two_column_reader(), test_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Given by hand: an untrained segment commits with an empty bitmap, which
+        // takes the zero-coverage removal branch rather than the disjoint one.
+        // See `dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build` for why nothing here trains.
+        let untrained = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        let mut existing = untrained.clone();
+        existing.fragment_bitmap = Some(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![existing.clone()],
+                        removed_indices: vec![untrained],
+                    },
+                    None,
                 ),
-                false,
-            ),
-        ]));
-
-        // Generate test data with low cardinality (good for bitmap index)
-        let num_rows = 1000;
-        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows);
-        // Only 10 unique status codes
-        let status_codes = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| i % 10));
-        // Only 5 unique categories
-        let categories =
-            StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("category_{}", i % 5)));
-
-        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("status.code", DataType::Int32, false)),
-                Arc::new(status_codes) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("category.name", DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(categories) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-        ]);
-
-        let batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
-                .unwrap();
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let covered = existing.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap();
+        assert!(!covered.is_empty());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            two_column_reader(),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let appended = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() - &covered;
+        assert!(!appended.is_empty());
+
+        let mut segment = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .replace(true)
+            .fragments(appended.iter().collect())
+            .train(false)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = Some(appended);
+        assert_eq!(segment.fields, existing.fields);
+        assert_eq!(segment.covering_fields, existing.covering_fields);
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("id_idx", "id", vec![segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create Bitmap index on nested field with dots
-        let nested_column_path = "metadata.`status.code`";
-        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        let uuids = raw_manifest_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == "id_idx")
+            .map(|idx| idx.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(uuids.len(), 2, "the disjoint existing segment was dropped");
+        assert!(uuids.contains(&existing.uuid));
+    }
 
+    /// One logical index needs one declaration, and the complete view is what
+    /// makes the disagreement reachable: a segment this build cannot read may
+    /// carry columns, and a plain segment committed beside it on disjoint
+    /// fragments is retained rather than replaced. Both pass the per-segment
+    /// rules - `keyed_fields` is the prefix left after the carried ones, so
+    /// `[id, payload]` carrying `[payload]` keys on `id` exactly as `[id]` does.
+    /// Committing the pair would leave `describe_indices` erroring on metadata
+    /// this call just wrote, the same failure
+    /// `test_build_index_metadata_from_segments_rejects_mixed_covering_declarations`
+    /// pins for the incoming side.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_committing_a_plain_segment_beside_a_covered_unsupported_one_is_rejected() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
+
+        // Give the hidden segment a carried column. A newer build is exactly
+        // where a covering segment would come from.
+        let hidden = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        let payload_id = dataset.schema().field("payload").unwrap().id;
+        let mut hidden_covered = hidden.clone();
+        hidden_covered.fields.push(payload_id);
+        hidden_covered.covering_fields = vec![payload_id];
+        assert_eq!(hidden_covered.keyed_field(), hidden.keyed_field());
+        let covered_fragments = hidden_covered.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap();
         dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &[nested_column_path],
-                IndexType::Bitmap,
-                Some("bitmap_status_idx".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                true,
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![hidden_covered],
+                        removed_indices: vec![hidden],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Reload dataset to ensure index is loaded
-        dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        // Fragments the hidden segment does not cover, so the incoming segment
+        // takes the disjoint branch and the hidden one is retained.
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            two_column_reader(),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let appended = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() - &covered_fragments;
+        assert!(!appended.is_empty());
+
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let mut plain = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .replace(true)
+            .fragments(appended.iter().collect())
+            .train(false)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        plain.fragment_bitmap = Some(appended);
+        assert!(plain.covering_fields.is_empty());
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("id_idx", "id", vec![plain])
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a logical index cannot mix covered and plain segment declarations");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("covering_fields"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Verify index was created
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "bitmap_status_idx");
+    /// A cast reassigns the field id, so no index on that column can be carried
+    /// forward. The guard that makes that explicit has to see the hidden ones
+    /// too, or they get exactly the silent drop it exists to abolish.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_casting_a_column_with_an_unsupported_index_is_rejected() {
+        use crate::dataset::ColumnAlteration;
 
-        // Verify the correct field was indexed
-        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
-        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(field_path, "metadata.`status.code`");
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
 
-        // Test querying with the index and verify it's being used
-        let plan = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("metadata.`status.code` = 5")
-            .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(false)
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let err = dataset
+            .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("id".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
             .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Verify the query plan (scalar indices on nested fields may use optimized filters)
-        // The index may be used internally even if not shown as ScalarIndexQuery
+            .expect_err("a cast must not silently erase an index it cannot read");
         assert!(
-            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
-            "Query plan should show optimized read. Plan: {}",
-            plan
+            err.to_string().contains("id_idx"),
+            "the error should name the index, got: {err}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&dataset).await,
+            ["id_idx", READABLE_INDEX],
+            "the rejected cast still changed the manifest"
         );
-
-        // Also test that the query returns results
-        let results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .filter("metadata.`status.code` = 5")
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Should have ~100 rows with status code 5
-        assert!(results.num_rows() > 0);
-        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 100);
     }
 
+    /// A cache entry written under the key's previous meaning must cold-miss.
+    ///
+    /// v1 of `lance.index.metadata-key` held only the indices the writing build
+    /// could read. The key fields are identical, so on a persistent backend
+    /// shared with such a build nothing but the schema version stops this one
+    /// from reading that filtered list as the complete one.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inverted_index_on_nested_field_with_dots() {
-        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
+    async fn test_a_pre_rotation_cache_entry_is_not_consulted() {
+        use lance_core::cache::{CacheCodec, CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder};
+        use std::borrow::Cow;
 
-        // Test creating Inverted index on nested text field with dots in the name
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = &test_dir;
+        struct PreRotationIndexMetadataKey<'a> {
+            version: u64,
+            store_identity: &'a str,
+        }
 
-        // Create schema with nested text field containing dots
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            Field::new(
-                "document",
-                DataType::Struct(
-                    vec![
-                        Field::new("content.text", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                        Field::new("content.summary", DataType::Utf8, false),
-                    ]
-                    .into(),
-                ),
-                false,
-            ),
-        ]));
+        impl CacheKey for PreRotationIndexMetadataKey<'_> {
+            type ValueType = Vec<IndexMetadata>;
 
-        // Generate test data with text content
-        let num_rows = 100;
-        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32);
-        let content_texts = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..num_rows).map(|i| match i % 3 {
-            0 => format!("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog {}", i),
-            1 => format!(
-                "Machine learning and artificial intelligence document {}",
-                i
-            ),
-            _ => format!("Data science and analytics content piece {}", i),
-        }));
-        let summaries = StringArray::from_iter_values(
-            (0..num_rows).map(|i| format!("Summary of document {}", i)),
-        );
+            fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+                Cow::Owned(format!(
+                    "{}:{}/{}",
+                    self.store_identity.len(),
+                    self.store_identity,
+                    self.version
+                ))
+            }
 
-        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::from(vec![
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("content.text", DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(content_texts) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-            (
-                Arc::new(Field::new("content.summary", DataType::Utf8, false)),
-                Arc::new(summaries) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
-            ),
-        ]);
+            fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+                "Vec<IndexMetadata>"
+            }
 
-        let batch =
-            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(struct_array)])
-                .unwrap();
+            fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+                CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.metadata-key", 1)
+            }
 
-        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+            fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+                builder.write_str(self.store_identity);
+                builder.write_u64(self.version);
+            }
 
-        // Create Inverted index on nested text field with dots
-        let nested_column_path = "document.`content.text`";
-        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+            fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+                Some(lance_table::format::index_metadata_codec())
+            }
+        }
+
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
 
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let complete = raw_manifest_indices(&dataset).await;
+        let as_a_released_build_would_cache_it = complete
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| unsupported_index_version(idx).is_none())
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(
+            as_a_released_build_would_cache_it.len() < complete.len(),
+            "the fixture must give the two key versions different values to cache"
+        );
         dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &[nested_column_path],
-                IndexType::Inverted,
-                Some("inverted_content_idx".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                true,
+            .index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(
+                &PreRotationIndexMetadataKey {
+                    version: dataset.version().version,
+                    store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+                },
+                Arc::new(as_a_released_build_would_cache_it),
             )
+            .await;
+
+        dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&dataset).await,
+            ["id_idx", READABLE_INDEX],
+            "a commit read a cache entry written under the key's previous meaning"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `validate` checks the manifest, so it has to see all of it. An index this
+    /// build cannot read is no less corrupt for being unreadable, and now that
+    /// such an index is carried forward the corrupt state is durable rather than
+    /// gone at the next commit.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_validate_sees_an_unsupported_index() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        // A second segment under the same name covering the same fragments. Only
+        // `detect_overlapping_fragments` over the complete list can see it.
+        let hidden = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        let overlapping = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            ..hidden
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![overlapping],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Reload the dataset to ensure the index is loaded
-        dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let err = dataset
+            .validate()
+            .await
+            .expect_err("two segments of one name covering the same fragments is corrupt");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("id_idx"),
+            "the error should name the index, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Verify index was created
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, "inverted_content_idx");
+    /// A detached commit builds its manifest through its own code path, and it
+    /// carries the index list forward exactly as an attached one does.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_a_detached_commit_does_not_erase_an_unsupported_index() {
+        use crate::dataset::InsertBuilder;
+        use crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder;
 
-        // Verify the correct field was indexed
-        let field_id = indices[0].fields[0];
-        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(field_path, "document.`content.text`");
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
 
-        // Test full-text search on the nested field with dots
-        // Use the field_path that the index reports
-        let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new("machine learning".to_string())
-            .with_column(field_path.clone())
+        let batches = two_column_reader()
+            .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
             .unwrap();
-
-        // Check the query plan uses the inverted index
-        let plan = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .full_text_search(query.clone())
-            .unwrap()
-            .explain_plan(false)
+        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap());
+        let before = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(batches)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let detached = CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .with_detached(true)
+            .execute(transaction)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify the inverted index is being used
-        assert!(
-            plan.contains("MatchQuery") || plan.contains("PhraseQuery"),
-            "Query plan should use inverted index for nested field with dots. Plan: {}",
-            plan
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index_names(&detached).await,
+            ["id_idx", READABLE_INDEX],
+            "a detached commit erased an index this build merely could not read"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest_index(&detached, "id_idx").await,
+            before,
+            "a detached commit rewrote an index this build merely could not read"
         );
+        assert!(lance_table::format::is_detached_version(
+            detached.manifest.version
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(detached.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 20);
+    }
 
-        let results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .full_text_search(query)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
+    /// Compaction bins fragments so that no rewrite group splits an index's
+    /// coverage, and `recalculate_fragment_bitmap` rejects the plan if one does.
+    /// Both sides therefore have to count the same indices: planning from the
+    /// filtered view while the commit carries the complete one makes compaction
+    /// fail outright on a dataset holding an index from a newer build.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_survives_an_unsupported_index() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            max_rows_per_file: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(two_column_reader(), test_uri, Some(write_params.clone()))
             .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        hide_index_from_this_build(&mut dataset, "id_idx").await;
+
+        // A fragment the index does not cover, so a bin holding it together with
+        // the covered ones would split the index's coverage.
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            two_column_reader(),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..write_params
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let before = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
 
-        // Verify we get results from the full-text search
-        assert!(
-            !results.is_empty(),
-            "Full-text search should return results"
-        );
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Check that we found documents containing "machine learning"
-        let mut found_count = 0;
-        for batch in results {
-            found_count += batch.num_rows();
-        }
-        // We expect to find approximately 1/3 of documents (those with i % 3 == 1)
+        // Without a real rewrite the assertions below hold vacuously: an empty
+        // plan commits nothing and re-reads the manifest it started from.
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 4);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let after = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(after.index_version, before.index_version);
+        let live = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
         assert!(
-            found_count > 0,
-            "Should find at least some documents with 'machine learning'"
+            !after.fragment_bitmap.unwrap().is_disjoint(&live),
+            "the surviving index covers only fragments the rewrite deleted"
         );
-        assert!(found_count < num_rows, "Should not match all documents");
     }
 
+    /// Without stable row ids a rewrite moves every row address, so each index
+    /// over the rewritten fragments has to be remapped - and remapping one means
+    /// opening it. A build with no reader for an index cannot remap it, so
+    /// compacting the fragments it covers would leave it addressing rows that no
+    /// longer exist. Those fragments are held back from the plan instead; the
+    /// rest of the table still compacts.
+    ///
+    /// The stable-row-id case is the test above: there the fragment-reuse index
+    /// repairs the coverage afterwards, so nothing has to be held back.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::newer_version(UnreadableIndexKind::NewerVersion)]
+    #[case::unknown_type(UnreadableIndexKind::UnknownType)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_resolve_index_column() {
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
-
-        // Create a test dataset with a vector column
+    async fn test_compaction_defers_fragments_an_unsupported_index_covers(
+        #[case] kind: UnreadableIndexKind,
+    ) {
         let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
         let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
-            .col(
-                "vector",
-                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(32.into()),
-            )
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
-
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+            max_rows_per_file: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(two_column_reader(), test_uri, Some(write_params.clone()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
 
-        // Create an index with a custom name
-        let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
-            4,
-            lance_linalg::distance::MetricType::L2,
-        );
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
         dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vector"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("my_vector_index".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                false,
-            )
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        hide_index_as(&mut dataset, "id_idx", kind).await;
+        let covered = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx")
             .await
+            .fragment_bitmap
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Reload dataset to get the index metadata
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        let index_meta = &indices[0];
+        // Two more fragments the hidden index does not cover: they are the ones
+        // compaction is still free to rewrite.
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            two_column_reader(),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..write_params
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
+        let before = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
 
-        // Test 1: Pass the actual column name
-        let (field_path, field) =
-            resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "vector").unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(field_path, "vector");
-        assert_eq!(field.name, "vector");
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Test 2: Pass the index name (should resolve to the actual column)
-        let (field_path2, field2) =
-            resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "my_vector_index").unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(field_path2, "vector");
-        assert_eq!(field2.name, "vector");
+        // The two uncovered fragments coalesce; the two the hidden index covers
+        // are left alone. Both halves matter: no rewrite at all would satisfy the
+        // coverage assertion below for the wrong reason.
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+        let live = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+        assert!(
+            covered.is_subset(&live),
+            "a fragment the unreadable index covers was rewritten: covered {covered:?}, live {live:?}"
+        );
 
-        // Test 3: Pass a non-existent column name (should fail)
-        let result = resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "nonexistent");
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        assert!(result
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("does not exist in the schema"));
+        let after = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(after.fragment_bitmap, before.fragment_bitmap);
+
+        // Nothing compactable is left outside the held-back set, so the plan is
+        // empty. That has to be an ordinary no-op: on a table the index covers
+        // whole - the usual shape - every compaction takes this path.
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 0);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 0);
+        assert_eq!(manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await.uuid, before.uuid);
     }
 
+    /// Holding back the fragments an unreadable index covers is an optimization
+    /// in the planner, not the rule: `compact_files_with_planner` takes any
+    /// planner, `CompactionPlan` is public and serializable, and a distributed
+    /// driver hands `commit_compaction` results planned on another machine. This
+    /// takes that last route, so the refusal is pinned to the commit boundary.
+    ///
+    /// The other half - that the boundary does not refuse a rewrite the index
+    /// does not cover - is the test above, which compacts the uncovered
+    /// fragments of this same shape through `compact_files`.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_resolve_index_column_error_cases() {
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
+    async fn test_committing_a_compaction_an_unsupported_index_covers_is_rejected() {
+        use crate::dataset::index::DatasetIndexRemapperOptions;
+        use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionPlan, TaskData, commit_compaction};
 
-        // Create a test dataset
         let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
         let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col("id", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
-            .col(
-                "vector",
-                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(32.into()),
-            )
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
-
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+            max_rows_per_file: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(two_column_reader(), test_uri, Some(write_params.clone()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create an index
-        let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
-            4,
-            lance_linalg::distance::MetricType::L2,
-        );
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
         dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vector"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("my_index".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                false,
-            )
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        hide_index_from_this_build(&mut dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        let covered = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx")
             .await
+            .fragment_bitmap
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Reload dataset
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        let index_meta = &indices[0];
+        // Two more fragments the hidden index does not cover, so the plan below
+        // is a genuine selection rather than "every fragment there is".
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            two_column_reader(),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..write_params
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
+        let before = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
 
-        // Test: Pass a column that doesn't exist and is not the index name
-        let result = resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "nonexistent_column");
-        assert!(result.is_err());
-        let err_msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        let plan = CompactionPlan {
+            tasks: vec![TaskData {
+                fragments: dataset
+                    .fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|fragment| covered.contains(fragment.id as u32))
+                    .cloned()
+                    .collect(),
+            }],
+            read_version: dataset.version().version,
+            options: CompactionOptions::default(),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(plan.tasks[0].fragments.len(), 2);
+
+        let mut rewrites = Vec::new();
+        for task in plan.compaction_tasks() {
+            rewrites.push(task.execute(&dataset).await.unwrap());
+        }
+
+        let err = commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            rewrites,
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &plan.options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
         assert!(
-            err_msg.contains("does not exist in the schema"),
-            "Error message should mention column doesn't exist, got: {}",
-            err_msg
+            err.to_string().contains("id_idx"),
+            "the refusal has to name the index that blocks the rewrite: {err}"
         );
+
+        // Nothing was committed: the fragments the plan named are still there,
+        // and the index still covers them.
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
+        let after = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(after.uuid, before.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(after.fragment_bitmap, before.fragment_bitmap);
     }
 
+    /// An index old enough to predate the fragment bitmap has its coverage
+    /// reconstructed from the version it was written against, so it arrives in
+    /// that version's fragment-id space. `load_all_indices` moves a *stored*
+    /// bitmap into the current space through the fragment-reuse index and leaves
+    /// a `None` one alone, so the reconstruction has to make that move itself.
+    ///
+    /// Without it, a deferred compaction is enough to defeat both guards: the
+    /// coverage still names the fragments the rows moved out of, which no later
+    /// rewrite can intersect, so the planner stops holding anything back and the
+    /// commit boundary waves the rewrite through.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_resolve_index_column_nested_field() {
-        use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, StructArray};
-        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    async fn test_reconstructed_coverage_follows_a_deferred_compaction() {
+        use crate::dataset::index::DatasetIndexRemapperOptions;
+        use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionPlan, TaskData, commit_compaction};
 
-        // Create a test dataset with nested struct manually
         let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
         let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
 
-        // Create schema with nested structure: data.vector
-        let vector_field = ArrowField::new(
-            "vector",
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                8,
-            ),
-            false,
-        );
-        let struct_field = ArrowField::new(
-            "data",
-            DataType::Struct(vec![vector_field.clone()].into()),
-            false,
-        );
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            struct_field,
-        ]));
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+            max_rows_per_file: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(two_column_reader(), test_uri, Some(write_params.clone()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
 
-        // Create data
-        let id_array = arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        hide_index_from_this_build(&mut dataset, "id_idx").await;
+
+        // Drop the bitmap, which is what an index written before it existed
+        // looks like: coverage has to be reconstructed from `dataset_version`.
+        let hidden = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        let legacy = IndexMetadata {
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            ..hidden.clone()
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![legacy],
+                removed_indices: vec![hidden],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Create nested vector data
-        let mut vector_values = Vec::new();
-        for _ in 0..5 {
-            for _ in 0..8 {
-                vector_values.push(rand::random::<f32>());
-            }
-        }
-        let vector_array = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-            arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vector_values),
-            8,
+        // Deferred remap is the one compaction a build that cannot read the
+        // index may run: it hands the repair on through a fragment-reuse index.
+        // Fragments 0 and 1 become fragment 2, and the index still covers those
+        // rows - now under a different id.
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
         )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
+        let after_defer = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(after_defer, vec![2]);
+
+        // The commit-boundary half, taken first: the planner half below rewrites
+        // fragment 2 when the remap is missing, which would leave this nothing
+        // to ask about and hide whether the guard is sensitive on its own.
+        let plan = CompactionPlan {
+            tasks: vec![TaskData {
+                fragments: dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone(),
+            }],
+            read_version: dataset.version().version,
+            options: CompactionOptions::default(),
+        };
+        let mut rewrites = Vec::new();
+        for task in plan.compaction_tasks() {
+            rewrites.push(task.execute(&dataset).await.unwrap());
+        }
+        let err = commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            rewrites,
+            Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+            &plan.options,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("id_idx") && message.contains("[2]"),
+            "the refusal has to name the index and the fragment in current ids: {message}"
+        );
 
-        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![(
-            Arc::new(vector_field),
-            Arc::new(vector_array) as arrow_array::ArrayRef,
-        )]);
-
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(id_array), Arc::new(struct_array)],
+        // Two fragments the index never covered, so the planner half has
+        // something to compact and cannot pass by finding nothing to do.
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            two_column_reader(),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..write_params
+            }),
         )
+        .await
         .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
 
-        let reader = Box::new(arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![Ok(batch)],
-            schema,
-        ));
+        // The planner half: the appended pair coalesces, fragment 2 is held back.
+        let metrics = compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|fragment| fragment.id() == 2),
+            "the fragment the reconstructed coverage maps to was rewritten"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+    /// Optimizing a name whose segments this build cannot all read would commit
+    /// a merged segment overlapping the one it left behind - a state
+    /// `Dataset::validate` reports as corruption and no later commit can heal.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_skips_an_index_with_an_unsupported_segment() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset_with_an_index_from_a_newer_build(test_uri, "id_idx").await;
+
+        // A readable segment beside the hidden one, under the same name, so the
+        // group is exactly the mixed case: `id_idx` is now partly readable.
+        let hidden = manifest_index(&dataset, "id_idx").await;
+        let readable_sibling = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            index_version: hidden.index_version - 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::new()),
+            ..hidden
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![readable_sibling],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let segments_of = |indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>| {
+            indices
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter(|idx| idx.name == "id_idx")
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        let before = segments_of(raw_manifest_indices(&dataset).await);
+        assert_eq!(before.len(), 2, "the fixture must build the mixed group");
 
-        // Create an index on the nested field
-        let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
-            2,
-            lance_linalg::distance::MetricType::L2,
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments_of(raw_manifest_indices(&dataset).await),
+            before,
+            "optimize touched a name carrying a segment this build cannot read"
         );
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_rebuilds_dormant_vector_index_instead_of_merging_stale_rows() {
+        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(4)))
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(3),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let original = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["vec"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(1), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let query = original["vec"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+
         dataset
             .create_index(
-                &["data.vector"],
+                &["vec"],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("nested_vector_index".to_string()),
-                &params,
-                false,
+                Some("vec_idx".to_string()),
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+                true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Reload dataset to get the index metadata
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        let index_meta = &indices[0];
-
-        // Test 1: Pass the nested field path directly
-        let (field_path, field) =
-            resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "data.vector").unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(field_path, "data.vector");
-        assert_eq!(field.name, "vector");
+        // A full rewrite replaces every covered fragment; the definition is
+        // retained as a dormant segment with empty effective coverage.
+        let mut updated = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .set("vec", "array[100.0, 100.0, 100.0, 100.0]")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .new_dataset
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        let retained = updated.load_indices_by_name("vec_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(retained.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            retained[0]
+                .effective_fragment_bitmap(&updated.fragment_bitmap)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
 
-        // Test 2: Pass the index name, should resolve to the nested field path
-        let (field_path2, field2) =
-            resolve_index_column(dataset.schema(), index_meta, "nested_vector_index").unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(field_path2, "data.vector");
-        assert_eq!(field2.name, "vector");
+        // Optimize must rebuild from live data and replace the dormant
+        // segment, not merge its stale postings back in.
+        updated.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+        let rebuilt = updated.load_indices_by_name("vec_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rebuilt.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            !rebuilt[0]
+                .effective_fragment_bitmap(&updated.fragment_bitmap)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
 
-        // Verify the field path is correct for nested access
+        let result = updated
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", query.as_ref(), 1)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let distance = result["_distance"].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().value(0);
         assert!(
-            field_path2.contains('.'),
-            "Field path should contain '.' for nested field"
+            distance > 1_000.0,
+            "nearest distance {distance} should reflect the rewritten vectors, not stale postings"
         );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/api.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/api.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..696af9b062e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/api.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,479 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use lance_index::{
+    FtsPrewarmResult, IndexParams, IndexType, PrewarmOptions, optimize::OptimizeOptions,
+};
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+/// A single physical segment of a logical index.
+///
+/// Each segment is stored independently and will become one manifest entry when committed.
+/// The logical index name is provided separately by the commit API, while physical field and
+/// dataset-version provenance travel with the segment.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct IndexSegment {
+    /// Unique ID of the physical segment.
+    uuid: Uuid,
+    /// The fragments covered by this segment.
+    fragment_bitmap: RoaringBitmap,
+    /// Field IDs whose physical values are encoded in this segment.
+    fields: Vec<i32>,
+    /// Field IDs whose values this segment carries but is not keyed on.
+    ///
+    /// Always the trailing entries of `fields`.
+    covering_fields: Vec<i32>,
+    /// Metadata specific to the index type.
+    index_details: Arc<prost_types::Any>,
+    /// The on-disk index version for this segment.
+    index_version: i32,
+    /// Dataset version at which this segment's physical contents were built.
+    dataset_version: u64,
+}
+
+impl IndexSegment {
+    /// Create a fully described segment with its physical build provenance.
+    pub fn new<I, F, C>(
+        uuid: Uuid,
+        fragment_bitmap: I,
+        fields: F,
+        index_details: Arc<prost_types::Any>,
+        index_version: i32,
+        dataset_version: u64,
+        covering_fields: C,
+    ) -> Self
+    where
+        I: IntoIterator<Item = u32>,
+        F: IntoIterator<Item = i32>,
+        C: IntoIterator<Item = i32>,
+    {
+        Self {
+            uuid,
+            fragment_bitmap: fragment_bitmap.into_iter().collect(),
+            fields: fields.into_iter().collect(),
+            covering_fields: covering_fields.into_iter().collect(),
+            index_details,
+            index_version,
+            dataset_version,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Return the UUID of this segment.
+    pub fn uuid(&self) -> Uuid {
+        self.uuid
+    }
+
+    /// Return the fragment coverage of this segment.
+    pub fn fragment_bitmap(&self) -> &RoaringBitmap {
+        &self.fragment_bitmap
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn fragment_bitmap_mut(&mut self) -> &mut RoaringBitmap {
+        &mut self.fragment_bitmap
+    }
+
+    /// Return the field IDs whose values are encoded in this segment.
+    pub fn fields(&self) -> &[i32] {
+        &self.fields
+    }
+
+    /// Return the fields whose values this segment carries but is not keyed on.
+    ///
+    /// Always the trailing entries of [`Self::fields`].
+    pub fn covering_fields(&self) -> &[i32] {
+        &self.covering_fields
+    }
+
+    /// Return the single column this segment is keyed on, or `None` when it is
+    /// keyed on several -- a genuinely composite index -- or on none at all.
+    ///
+    /// Mirrors [`IndexMetadata::keyed_field`], including its fail-closed
+    /// behavior on a declaration longer than [`Self::fields`]: a segment comes
+    /// from a caller (a distributed build's output, say) that this build never
+    /// validated.
+    pub fn keyed_field(&self) -> Option<i32> {
+        let keyed = self.fields.len().saturating_sub(self.covering_fields.len());
+        match &self.fields[..keyed] {
+            [only] => Some(*only),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Return the serialized index details for this segment.
+    pub fn index_details(&self) -> &Arc<prost_types::Any> {
+        &self.index_details
+    }
+
+    /// Return the on-disk index version for this segment.
+    pub fn index_version(&self) -> i32 {
+        self.index_version
+    }
+
+    /// Return the source dataset version for this segment.
+    pub fn dataset_version(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.dataset_version
+    }
+
+    /// Consume the segment and return its component parts.
+    pub fn into_parts(
+        self,
+    ) -> (
+        Uuid,
+        RoaringBitmap,
+        Vec<i32>,
+        Vec<i32>,
+        Arc<prost_types::Any>,
+        i32,
+        u64,
+    ) {
+        (
+            self.uuid,
+            self.fragment_bitmap,
+            self.fields,
+            self.covering_fields,
+            self.index_details,
+            self.index_version,
+            self.dataset_version,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert an existing index segment representation into [`IndexSegment`].
+pub trait IntoIndexSegment {
+    /// Convert into an index segment.
+    fn into_index_segment(self) -> Result<IndexSegment>;
+}
+
+impl IndexSegment {
+    /// The segment as index metadata under `name`, for machinery that works
+    /// on manifest entries (the commit-time replay). Files are not carried:
+    /// the commit collects them from the index directory.
+    pub(crate) fn into_metadata(self, name: &str) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: self.uuid,
+            fields: self.fields,
+            covering_fields: self.covering_fields,
+            name: name.to_string(),
+            dataset_version: self.dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(self.fragment_bitmap),
+            index_details: Some(self.index_details),
+            index_version: self.index_version,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl IntoIndexSegment for IndexSegment {
+    fn into_index_segment(self) -> Result<IndexSegment> {
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+}
+
+impl IntoIndexSegment for IndexMetadata {
+    fn into_index_segment(self) -> Result<IndexSegment> {
+        let fragment_bitmap = self.fragment_bitmap.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                self.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let index_details = self.index_details.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing index details",
+                self.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(IndexSegment::new(
+            self.uuid,
+            fragment_bitmap.iter(),
+            self.fields,
+            index_details,
+            self.index_version,
+            self.dataset_version,
+            self.covering_fields,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extends [`crate::Dataset`] with secondary index APIs.
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait DatasetIndexExt {
+    type IndexBuilder<'a>
+    where
+        Self: 'a;
+
+    /// Create a builder for creating an index on columns.
+    ///
+    /// This returns a builder that can be configured with additional options
+    /// like `name()`, `replace()`, and `train()` before awaiting to execute.
+    fn create_index_builder<'a>(
+        &'a mut self,
+        columns: &'a [&'a str],
+        index_type: IndexType,
+        params: &'a dyn IndexParams,
+    ) -> Self::IndexBuilder<'a>;
+
+    /// Create indices on columns.
+    ///
+    /// Upon finish, a new dataset version is generated.
+    async fn create_index(
+        &mut self,
+        columns: &[&str],
+        index_type: IndexType,
+        name: Option<String>,
+        params: &dyn IndexParams,
+        replace: bool,
+    ) -> Result<IndexMetadata>;
+
+    /// Drop indices by name.
+    ///
+    /// Upon finish, a new dataset version is generated.
+    async fn drop_index(&mut self, name: &str) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Prewarm an index by name.
+    ///
+    /// This will load the index into memory and cache it.
+    async fn prewarm_index(&self, name: &str) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Prewarm an index by name with additional options.
+    async fn prewarm_index_with_options(
+        &self,
+        _name: &str,
+        _options: &PrewarmOptions,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "prewarm options are not supported by this dataset implementation".to_owned(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Prewarm an index by name with additional options and return the structured outcome.
+    async fn prewarm_index_with_options_result(
+        &self,
+        _name: &str,
+        _options: &PrewarmOptions,
+    ) -> Result<FtsPrewarmResult> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "prewarm result reports are not supported by this dataset implementation".to_owned(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Prewarm selected physical segments of an index by name.
+    async fn prewarm_index_segments(&self, _name: &str, _segment_ids: &[Uuid]) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "segment-level prewarm is not supported by this dataset implementation".to_owned(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Prewarm selected physical segments of an index by name with additional options.
+    async fn prewarm_index_segments_with_options(
+        &self,
+        _name: &str,
+        _segment_ids: &[Uuid],
+        _options: &PrewarmOptions,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "prewarm options are not supported by this dataset implementation".to_owned(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Prewarm selected physical segments with options and return the structured outcome.
+    async fn prewarm_index_segments_with_options_result(
+        &self,
+        _name: &str,
+        _segment_ids: &[Uuid],
+        _options: &PrewarmOptions,
+    ) -> Result<FtsPrewarmResult> {
+        Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "prewarm result reports are not supported by this dataset implementation".to_owned(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Read the indices of this Dataset version that this build can use.
+    ///
+    /// An index whose declared type has no reader in this build, or whose format
+    /// version is newer than this build supports, is omitted: it is still in the
+    /// manifest and still belongs to the dataset, but nothing here can decode
+    /// it. Code deciding what the *next* manifest should say must not use this
+    /// list - it would drop what it omits.
+    ///
+    /// The indices are lazy loaded and cached in memory within the `Dataset` instance.
+    /// The cache is invalidated when the dataset version (Manifest) is changed.
+    async fn load_indices(&self) -> Result<Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>>;
+
+    /// Loads all the indices of a given UUID.
+    ///
+    /// Note that it is possible to have multiple indices with the same UUID,
+    /// as they are the deltas of the same index.
+    async fn load_index(&self, uuid: &Uuid) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+        self.load_indices()
+            .await
+            .map(|indices| indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.uuid == *uuid).cloned())
+    }
+
+    /// Loads a specific index with the given index name.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `Ok(vec![])` if the index does not exist.
+    async fn load_indices_by_name(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+        self.load_indices().await.map(|indices| {
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|idx| idx.name == name)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect()
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Loads a specific index with the given index name.
+    /// This function only works for indices that are unique.
+    /// If there are multiple indices sharing the same name, please use [`Self::load_indices_by_name`].
+    async fn load_index_by_name(&self, name: &str) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+        let indices = self.load_indices_by_name(name).await?;
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            Ok(None)
+        } else if indices.len() == 1 {
+            Ok(Some(indices[0].clone()))
+        } else {
+            Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Found multiple indices of the same name: {:?}, please use load_indices_by_name",
+                indices.iter().map(|idx| &idx.name).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Describes indexes in a dataset.
+    ///
+    /// This method should only access the index metadata and should not load the index into memory.
+    async fn describe_indices<'a, 'b>(
+        &'a self,
+        criteria: Option<lance_index::IndexCriteria<'b>>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Arc<dyn lance_index::IndexDescription>>>;
+
+    /// Loads a specific scalar index using the provided criteria.
+    async fn load_scalar_index<'a, 'b>(
+        &'a self,
+        criteria: lance_index::IndexCriteria<'b>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>>;
+
+    /// Optimize indices.
+    async fn optimize_indices(&mut self, options: &OptimizeOptions) -> Result<()>;
+
+    /// Find an index with the given name and return its serialized statistics.
+    async fn index_statistics(&self, index_name: &str) -> Result<String>;
+
+    /// Merge one or more existing uncommitted index segments into a single uncommitted segment.
+    async fn merge_existing_index_segments(
+        &self,
+        source_segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Result<IndexMetadata>;
+
+    /// Commit one or more existing physical index segments as a logical index.
+    async fn commit_existing_index_segments(
+        &mut self,
+        index_name: &str,
+        column: &str,
+        segments: Vec<impl IntoIndexSegment + Send>,
+    ) -> Result<()>;
+
+    async fn read_index_partition(
+        &self,
+        index_name: &str,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        with_vector: bool,
+    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream>;
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_metadata_conversion_preserves_provenance() {
+        let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "test".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![3, 7],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 42,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 2])),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "example.IndexDetails".to_string(),
+                value: vec![1, 2, 3],
+            })),
+            index_version: 5,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let segment = metadata.into_index_segment().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(segment.fields(), [3, 7]);
+        assert_eq!(segment.dataset_version(), 42);
+    }
+
+    /// Segments arrive from callers this build never validated, so the keyed
+    /// prefix must fail closed on a declaration longer than `fields` rather than
+    /// underflow, exactly as [`IndexMetadata::keyed_field`] does.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::not_covered(vec![7], vec![], Some(7))]
+    #[case::covered(vec![7, 11], vec![11], Some(7))]
+    #[case::composite(vec![7, 11], vec![], None)]
+    #[case::malformed_longer_than_fields(vec![7], vec![11, 13], None)]
+    fn test_index_segment_keyed_field(
+        #[case] fields: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] covering_fields: Vec<i32>,
+        #[case] expected: Option<i32>,
+    ) {
+        let segment = IndexSegment::new(
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            [0u32],
+            fields,
+            Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "test".to_string(),
+                value: vec![],
+            }),
+            0,
+            1,
+            covering_fields,
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(segment.keyed_field(), expected);
+    }
+
+    /// A covering declaration must survive the metadata -> segment -> metadata
+    /// round trip. `IndexSegment` is the hop where it was previously dropped.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_segment_preserves_covering_fields() {
+        let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "covered".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![7, 11],
+            covering_fields: vec![11],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "test".to_string(),
+                value: vec![],
+            })),
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let segment = metadata.into_index_segment().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(segment.fields(), &[7, 11]);
+        assert_eq!(segment.covering_fields(), &[11]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/append.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/append.rs
index 9657f144dc8..8cf4eff53cb 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/append.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/append.rs
@@ -1,34 +1,789 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use futures::FutureExt;
+use futures::{FutureExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
-use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
-use lance_index::scalar::CreatedIndex;
-use lance_index::VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION;
+use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
+use lance_index::{
+    INDEX_FILE_NAME, IndexType,
+    frag_reuse::CompactFragReuseIndex,
+    metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+    optimize::OptimizeOptions,
+    progress::{IndexBuildProgress, NoopIndexBuildProgress},
+    scalar::{
+        CreatedIndex, OldIndexDataFilter, ScalarIndex, index_files_to_table,
+        inverted::InvertedIndex,
+        lance_format::LanceIndexStore,
+        seed::{FragmentSeed, SEED_META_KEY_PREFIX},
+        table_files_to_index,
+    },
+};
+use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata};
+use prost::Message;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
-use super::vector::ivf::optimize_vector_indices;
-use super::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
-use crate::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
+use super::vector::ivf::{
+    SteadyStateRebalance, VectorSegmentCompatibility, index_type_for_segmented_optimize,
+    optimize_vector_indices, select_steady_state_rebalance, vector_segment_compatibility,
+};
+use super::vector::{LogicalVectorIndex, VectorIndexParams, details, fresh_vector_segment_params};
+use super::{CreateIndexBuilder, DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
 use crate::dataset::Dataset;
-use crate::index::scalar::load_training_data;
-use crate::index::vector_index_details;
+use crate::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
+use crate::dataset::rowids::load_row_id_sequences;
+use crate::index::scalar::{
+    IndexDetails, fetch_index_details, load_fts_training_data, load_training_data,
+};
+use crate::index::vector_index_details_default;
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct IndexMergeResults<'a> {
     pub new_uuid: Uuid,
     pub removed_indices: Vec<&'a IndexMetadata>,
     pub new_fragment_bitmap: RoaringBitmap,
+    pub new_dataset_version: u64,
     pub new_index_version: i32,
     pub new_index_details: prost_types::Any,
+    /// List of files and their sizes for the merged index
+    pub files: Vec<lance_table::format::IndexFile>,
+}
+
+async fn build_stable_row_id_filter(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    effective_old_frags: &RoaringBitmap,
+) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    // For stable row IDs we cannot derive fragment ownership from row_id bits.
+    // Instead, we:
+    // 1) keep only fragments still considered "effective" for the old index, and
+    // 2) load their persisted row-id sequences from dataset metadata, then
+    // 3) build one exact allow-list used to retain only still-valid old rows.
+    let retained_frags = dataset
+        .manifest
+        .fragments
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|frag| effective_old_frags.contains(frag.id as u32))
+        .cloned()
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    if retained_frags.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(RowAddrTreeMap::new());
+    }
+
+    let row_id_sequences = load_row_id_sequences(dataset, &retained_frags)
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await?;
+
+    let frag_by_id: std::collections::HashMap<u32, _> = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|f| (f.id() as u32, f))
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut row_id_maps = Vec::with_capacity(row_id_sequences.len());
+    for (frag_id, seq) in &row_id_sequences {
+        row_id_maps.push(live_row_ids(frag_by_id.get(frag_id), seq).await?);
+    }
+    let row_id_map_refs = row_id_maps.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    // Merge all fragment-local row-id sets into one exact membership structure.
+    Ok(<RowAddrTreeMap as RowSetOps>::union_all(&row_id_map_refs))
+}
+
+/// The fragment's live row ids: its persisted row-id sequence minus the rows
+/// its deletion vector marks gone. A persisted sequence covers every row the
+/// fragment ever held, so a row whose old copy was deleted (e.g. rewritten by an
+/// update under the same stable row id) would otherwise be retained as a stale
+/// old-index entry.
+async fn live_row_ids(
+    fragment: Option<&crate::dataset::fragment::FileFragment>,
+    seq: &lance_table::rowids::RowIdSequence,
+) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+    // Propagate a deletion-vector read failure rather than swallowing it: a
+    // swallowed error would fall through to the "no deletions" branch below,
+    // putting the deleted rows back into the allow-list as stale entries.
+    let deletion_vector = match fragment {
+        Some(f) if f.metadata().deletion_file.is_some() => f.get_deletion_vector().await?,
+        _ => None,
+    };
+    Ok(match deletion_vector {
+        Some(dv) => seq
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(offset, _)| !dv.contains(*offset as u32))
+            .map(|(_, row_id)| row_id)
+            .collect(),
+        None => RowAddrTreeMap::from(seq),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Build the [`OldIndexDataFilter`] that must be applied to existing index
+/// rows when their owning fragments have been pruned by compaction or
+/// deletions.
+pub async fn build_old_data_filter(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    effective_old_frags: &RoaringBitmap,
+    deleted_old_frags: &RoaringBitmap,
+) -> Result<Option<OldIndexDataFilter>> {
+    if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+        let valid_old_row_ids = build_stable_row_id_filter(dataset, effective_old_frags).await?;
+        Ok(Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid_old_row_ids)))
+    } else {
+        Ok(Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+            to_keep: effective_old_frags.clone(),
+            to_remove: deleted_old_frags.clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+}
+
+/// On a table with a tagged fragment reuse history, the fragments each segment
+/// ANSWERS FOR right now: its coverage as derived by the tagged reader (live
+/// destinations reached through the ledger plus directly covered live
+/// fragments). `None` on every other table.
+///
+/// A tagged segment's stored bitmap is provenance, not coverage: it names the
+/// fragments the segment was built from, which a rewrite may have retired,
+/// while the segment's addresses are translated to live fragments when it is
+/// opened. Maintenance that reads a segment through the translating loader
+/// therefore sees rows in these derived fragments, and must filter and account
+/// for old data in this domain rather than in `stored ∩ live` (which is empty
+/// for a fully rewritten segment and would drop every translated row).
+///
+/// `staged` supplies the plan of segments the manifest does not list (a staged
+/// build being merged, see `plan_staged_segments`); their coverage comes from
+/// that plan. A segment that is neither staged nor registered in the manifest
+/// is an error: "not registered" is not "covers nothing".
+pub async fn tagged_segment_coverage(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: &[&IndexMetadata],
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<Option<HashMap<Uuid, RoaringBitmap>>> {
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::SegmentRemappingPlan;
+
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+    if !stored
+        .iter()
+        .any(lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged)
+    {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+    let mut coverage = HashMap::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    for segment in segments {
+        if let Some(plan) = staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)) {
+            let bitmap = match plan {
+                SegmentRemappingPlan::Identity => segment
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|bitmap| bitmap & dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+                    .unwrap_or_default(),
+                SegmentRemappingPlan::Translate { coverage, .. } => coverage.clone(),
+                SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(_) => {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                        "FRI query coverage is unavailable for staged segment {}",
+                        segment.uuid
+                    )));
+                }
+            };
+            coverage.insert(segment.uuid, bitmap);
+            continue;
+        }
+        if !stored.iter().any(|entry| entry.uuid == segment.uuid) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "segment {} is not registered in the manifest; a staged segment must be \
+                 merged with its own translation plan",
+                segment.uuid
+            )));
+        }
+        // A registered segment the tagged reader excludes (no coverage it can
+        // honor) has no old data reachable here; leave it empty rather than
+        // fail, the loader reports the precise reason if it is actually opened.
+        let bitmap = derived
+            .iter()
+            .find(|entry| entry.uuid == segment.uuid)
+            .and_then(|entry| entry.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        coverage.insert(segment.uuid, bitmap);
+    }
+    Ok(Some(coverage))
+}
+
+/// Split the stored fragment coverage of `segments` into fragments still live in
+/// `dataset` (`effective`) and fragments that compaction or deletion has already
+/// retired (`deleted`).
+pub fn split_segment_coverage<'a>(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a IndexMetadata>,
+) -> (RoaringBitmap, RoaringBitmap) {
+    let mut effective = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let mut deleted = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for segment in segments {
+        if let Some(eff) = segment.effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap) {
+            effective |= eff;
+        }
+        if let Some(del) = segment.deleted_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap) {
+            deleted |= del;
+        }
+    }
+    (effective, deleted)
+}
+
+pub fn fragment_reuse_affects_segments<'a>(
+    frag_reuse_index: &CompactFragReuseIndex,
+    segments: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a IndexMetadata>,
+) -> bool {
+    segments.into_iter().any(|segment| {
+        let Some(coverage) = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        fragment_reuse_affects_segment(frag_reuse_index, coverage, segment.dataset_version)
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn fragment_reuse_affects_segment(
+    frag_reuse_index: &CompactFragReuseIndex,
+    coverage: &RoaringBitmap,
+    dataset_version: u64,
+) -> bool {
+    frag_reuse_index.details.versions.iter().any(|version| {
+        version.groups.iter().any(|group| {
+            if group.changed_row_addrs.is_empty() {
+                return false;
+            }
+            let covers_old = group
+                .old_frags
+                .iter()
+                .any(|fragment| coverage.contains(fragment.id as u32));
+            let covers_new = group
+                .new_frags
+                .iter()
+                .any(|fragment| coverage.contains(fragment.id as u32));
+            // A segment built at or before `version.dataset_version` predates the
+            // rewrite, even if its coverage already moved onto the new fragments.
+            version.dataset_version >= dataset_version && (covers_old || covers_new)
+        })
+    })
+}
+
+/// Build one [`OldIndexDataFilter`] per segment and return their effective coverage.
+///
+/// `staged` carries the plans of segments the manifest does not list (see
+/// [`tagged_segment_coverage`]); committed merges pass `None`.
+pub async fn build_per_segment_filters(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: &[&IndexMetadata],
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<(RoaringBitmap, Vec<Option<OldIndexDataFilter>>)> {
+    if let Some(coverage) = tagged_segment_coverage(dataset, segments, staged).await? {
+        // Translated addresses live in the derived coverage; retired source
+        // fragments never appear in them, so there is nothing to remove.
+        let mut effective_union = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        let mut filters = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+        for segment in segments {
+            let effective = coverage.get(&segment.uuid).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "tagged coverage missing for segment {}",
+                    segment.uuid
+                ))
+            })?;
+            effective_union |= &effective;
+            filters.push(build_old_data_filter(dataset, &effective, &RoaringBitmap::new()).await?);
+        }
+        return Ok((effective_union, filters));
+    }
+    if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+        let mut effective_union = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        let mut filters = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+        for segment in segments {
+            let effective = segment
+                .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                        segment.uuid
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            effective_union |= &effective;
+            filters.push(build_old_data_filter(dataset, &effective, &RoaringBitmap::new()).await?);
+        }
+        return Ok((effective_union, filters));
+    }
+
+    let mut effective_union = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let mut filters = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    for segment in segments {
+        if segment.fragment_bitmap.is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                segment.uuid
+            )));
+        }
+        let effective = segment
+            .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let deleted = segment
+            .deleted_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        effective_union |= &effective;
+        filters.push(build_old_data_filter(dataset, &effective, &deleted).await?);
+    }
+    Ok((effective_union, filters))
+}
+
+/// Attempt to read seed buffers for `column_name` from `fragments`' data files.
+///
+/// Returns `Some(vec)` only if every fragment has a seed entry; returns `None`
+/// if any fragment is missing a seed or its data file cannot be opened.
+/// Index-type-specific validation (e.g. `rows_per_zone` checks) is left to the
+/// caller via [`FragmentSeed::metadata_value`].
+async fn try_harvest_seeds(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+    column_name: &str,
+) -> Result<Option<Vec<FragmentSeed>>> {
+    if fragments.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(Some(Vec::new()));
+    }
+
+    let meta_key = format!("{}{}", SEED_META_KEY_PREFIX, column_name);
+    let mut seeds = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+        dataset.object_store.clone(),
+        SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&dataset.object_store),
+    );
+
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        let Some(data_file) = fragment.files.first() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let path = dataset
+            .base
+            .clone()
+            .join(crate::dataset::DATA_DIR)
+            .join(data_file.path.as_str());
+        let Ok(file_scheduler) = scheduler.open_file(&path, &CachedFileSize::unknown()).await
+        else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let Ok(reader) = lance_file::reader::FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Default::default(),
+            &dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&path),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let Some(meta_value) = reader
+            .metadata()
+            .file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .get(&meta_key)
+            .cloned()
+        else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        // The buf_index is always the portion before the first ':'.
+        let Some(buf_index_str) = meta_value.split(':').next() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let Ok(buf_index) = buf_index_str.parse::<u32>() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let Ok(bytes) = reader.read_global_buffer(buf_index).await else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        seeds.push(FragmentSeed {
+            fragment_id: fragment.id,
+            bytes,
+            metadata_value: meta_value,
+        });
+    }
+
+    Ok(Some(seeds))
+}
+
+async fn load_unindexed_training_data(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    field_path: &str,
+    update_criteria: &lance_index::scalar::UpdateCriteria,
+    unindexed: &[Fragment],
+) -> Result<datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    let fragments = if update_criteria.requires_old_data {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(unindexed.to_vec())
+    };
+    load_training_data(
+        dataset,
+        field_path,
+        &update_criteria.data_criteria,
+        fragments,
+        true,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Build a fresh, canonical (non-sharded) scalar index over `fragment_ids`,
+/// reusing `reference_index`'s params and training criteria.
+async fn rebuild_scalar_segment(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    reference_index: &Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>,
+    field_path: &str,
+    column_name: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
+    fragment_ids: Vec<u32>,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    let params = reference_index.derive_index_params()?;
+    let update_criteria = reference_index.update_criteria();
+    let training_data = load_training_data(
+        dataset,
+        field_path,
+        &update_criteria.data_criteria,
+        None,
+        true,
+        Some(fragment_ids),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    super::scalar::build_scalar_index(
+        dataset,
+        column_name,
+        uuid,
+        &params,
+        true,
+        None,
+        Some(training_data),
+        Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// The index segments to rewrite in this optimize pass.
+///
+/// Normally the trailing `num_indices_to_merge` segments. Under stable row ids,
+/// any *older* segment that still covers a fragment carrying deletions is added
+/// too: an update deletes a row's old copy (leaving a deletion vector) and
+/// rewrites it under the same row id, so its stale old-value postings survive
+/// until that segment is rewritten and filtered. Only the segments that actually
+/// cover a deleted-from fragment are pulled in -- clean segments in between are
+/// left untouched -- so an edit to old data does not force a full reindex.
+///
+/// The deletion check is conservative (any current deletion vector on a covered
+/// fragment), so a segment built after those deletions may be rewritten as a
+/// harmless no-op; it never leaves a stale segment behind (PR #7359).
+fn select_segments_to_merge<'a>(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    old_indices: &[&'a IndexMetadata],
+    options: &OptimizeOptions,
+) -> Vec<&'a IndexMetadata> {
+    let num_to_merge = options
+        .num_indices_to_merge
+        .unwrap_or(1)
+        .min(old_indices.len());
+    let tail_start = old_indices.len() - num_to_merge;
+
+    // Address-style row ids mask stale postings at search time, and append mode
+    // (num_to_merge == 0) defers cleanup to a real merge; both keep the plain tail.
+    if num_to_merge == 0 || !dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+        return old_indices[tail_start..].to_vec();
+    }
+
+    let deleted_frags: RoaringBitmap = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| f.metadata().deletion_file.is_some())
+        .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+        .collect();
+    if deleted_frags.is_empty() {
+        return old_indices[tail_start..].to_vec();
+    }
+
+    let mut selected = Vec::new();
+    for (i, idx) in old_indices.iter().enumerate() {
+        let covers_deleted = idx
+            .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+            .is_some_and(|eff| !eff.is_disjoint(&deleted_frags));
+        if i >= tail_start || covers_deleted {
+            selected.push(*idx);
+        }
+    }
+    selected
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn merge_scalar_indices<'a>(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    old_indices: &[&'a IndexMetadata],
+    unindexed: &[Fragment],
+    options: &OptimizeOptions,
+    index_type: IndexType,
+    field_path: &str,
+    column_name: &str,
+    base_unindexed_bitmap: RoaringBitmap,
+) -> Result<
+    Option<(
+        Uuid,
+        Vec<&'a IndexMetadata>,
+        RoaringBitmap,
+        CreatedIndex,
+        u64,
+    )>,
+> {
+    if old_indices.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "merge_scalar_indices: no previous index found".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let selected_old_indices = select_segments_to_merge(dataset.as_ref(), old_indices, options);
+
+    // No new data + ≤1 old selected = rewriting one segment to itself.
+    if unindexed.is_empty() && selected_old_indices.len() <= 1 {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    // For the delta case (`selected` empty) the reference is purely
+    // for reading params; fall back to the last old index then.
+    let reference_idx = selected_old_indices
+        .first()
+        .copied()
+        .unwrap_or(old_indices[old_indices.len() - 1]);
+    let reference_index = dataset
+        .open_scalar_index_for_maintenance(field_path, &reference_idx.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await?;
+    let update_criteria = reference_index.update_criteria();
+
+    // Effective = bitmap ∩ live fragments; deleted = bitmap \ live fragments.
+    // On a tagged table the selected segments' old data is instead the coverage
+    // the tagged reader derives for them (translated, live), and retired source
+    // fragments are not something to remove from translated addresses.
+    let tagged_coverage =
+        tagged_segment_coverage(dataset.as_ref(), &selected_old_indices, None).await?;
+    let (effective_old_frags, deleted_old_frags) = match &tagged_coverage {
+        Some(coverage) => (
+            selected_old_indices
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|index| coverage.get(&index.uuid))
+                .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |acc, bitmap| acc | bitmap),
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        ),
+        None => split_segment_coverage(dataset.as_ref(), selected_old_indices.iter().copied()),
+    };
+
+    // The fragments a from-scratch rebuild must scan: everything the merged
+    // segment will answer for, all of it live.
+    let mut rebuild_frags = base_unindexed_bitmap.clone();
+    rebuild_frags |= &effective_old_frags;
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+    // Scalar Index that expos an N:1 segment-merge primitive reachable without
+    // rescanning the dataset
+    let has_segment_merge_primitive = matches!(
+        index_type,
+        IndexType::BTree | IndexType::Bitmap | IndexType::NGram
+    );
+    let frag_reuse_index = dataset.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
+    let ngram_requires_rebuild = index_type == IndexType::NGram
+        && frag_reuse_index.as_ref().is_some_and(|frag_reuse_index| {
+            fragment_reuse_affects_segments(frag_reuse_index, selected_old_indices.iter().copied())
+        });
+
+    // Merge new data into the existing segment(s) without rebuilding from
+    // scratch, when all hold:
+    //   - `effective_old_frags`: the selected segments' coverage intersected
+    //     with live fragments is non-empty, i.e. there is old data worth keeping.
+    //   - `update_criteria` only requires the newly appended data. Indexes that
+    //     need old data must rebuild over `frag_bitmap` so the scanned rows
+    //     exactly match the segment coverage being committed.
+    //   - `has_segment_merge_primitive` (Indices supports N:1 segments merge) OR
+    //     `selected_old_indices.len() == 1` (any scalar type can `update` one).
+    // Otherwise (e.g. ≥2 selected segments of a type without an N:1 merge
+    // primitive) the index is rebuilt from scratch over `frag_bitmap`.
+    let can_merge_segments = !effective_old_frags.is_empty()
+        && !update_criteria.requires_old_data
+        && !ngram_requires_rebuild
+        && (has_segment_merge_primitive || selected_old_indices.len() == 1);
+
+    // The bitmap the merged segment commits, decided by how its content is
+    // produced:
+    //   - rebuilt from a scan: exactly the live fragments scanned (direct
+    //     coverage of every row it holds);
+    //   - merged from the old segments' pages: on a tagged table the union of
+    //     the selected segments' STORED bitmaps, i.e. provenance, retired
+    //     sources included. The pages were translated to live addresses when
+    //     the segments were opened, and the tagged reader stops translating
+    //     at a live fragment, so provenance keeps deriving coverage for this
+    //     segment and for any unselected sibling that shares a destination,
+    //     and keeps the mapping they need retained until they are rebuilt;
+    //     elsewhere the effective (live) coverage, as before.
+    let mut frag_bitmap = rebuild_frags.clone();
+    let (created_index, new_dataset_version) = if !can_merge_segments {
+        (
+            rebuild_scalar_segment(
+                dataset.as_ref(),
+                &reference_index,
+                field_path,
+                column_name,
+                new_uuid,
+                rebuild_frags.iter().collect(),
+            )
+            .await?,
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+        )
+    } else {
+        if tagged_coverage.is_some() {
+            frag_bitmap = base_unindexed_bitmap.clone();
+            for index in &selected_old_indices {
+                if let Some(stored) = &index.fragment_bitmap {
+                    frag_bitmap |= stored;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(&dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+
+        // Try a seed-based update before falling back to a full column scan.
+        // Seeds are only available if every unindexed fragment had a seed buffer
+        // written during its data file write, and the plugin validates that the
+        // seeds are compatible with the current index configuration.
+        let index_details =
+            fetch_index_details(dataset.as_ref(), field_path, reference_idx).await?;
+        let details = IndexDetails(index_details.clone());
+        let plugin = details.get_plugin()?;
+        // Only open data files looking for seeds when the plugin confirms this
+        // index type and configuration can actually produce them.
+        let maybe_created = if plugin.might_use_seeds(&index_details) {
+            if let Some(seeds) = try_harvest_seeds(dataset.as_ref(), unindexed, column_name).await?
+            {
+                plugin
+                    .update_from_seeds(seeds, reference_index.clone(), &index_details, &new_store)
+                    .await?
+            } else {
+                None
+            }
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        let created_index = if let Some(created) = maybe_created {
+            created
+        } else {
+            let new_data_stream = load_unindexed_training_data(
+                dataset.as_ref(),
+                field_path,
+                &update_criteria,
+                unindexed,
+            )
+            .await?;
+
+            match index_type {
+                IndexType::BTree => {
+                    let (_, old_data_filters) =
+                        build_per_segment_filters(dataset.as_ref(), &selected_old_indices, None)
+                            .await?;
+                    crate::index::scalar::btree::open_and_merge_segments(
+                        dataset.as_ref(),
+                        field_path,
+                        &selected_old_indices,
+                        new_data_stream,
+                        &new_store,
+                        &old_data_filters,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                }
+                IndexType::Bitmap => {
+                    let (_, old_data_filters) =
+                        build_per_segment_filters(dataset.as_ref(), &selected_old_indices, None)
+                            .await?;
+                    crate::index::scalar::bitmap::open_and_merge_segments(
+                        dataset.as_ref(),
+                        field_path,
+                        &selected_old_indices,
+                        new_data_stream,
+                        &new_store,
+                        &old_data_filters,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                }
+                IndexType::NGram => {
+                    let (_, old_data_filters) =
+                        build_per_segment_filters(dataset.as_ref(), &selected_old_indices, None)
+                            .await?;
+                    crate::index::scalar::ngram::open_and_merge_segments(
+                        dataset.as_ref(),
+                        &selected_old_indices,
+                        Some(new_data_stream),
+                        &new_store,
+                        &old_data_filters,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    let old_data_filter = build_old_data_filter(
+                        dataset.as_ref(),
+                        &effective_old_frags,
+                        &deleted_old_frags,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                    reference_index
+                        .update(new_data_stream, &new_store, old_data_filter)
+                        .await?
+                }
+            }
+        };
+        let source_dataset_version = selected_old_indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| index.dataset_version)
+            .min()
+            .unwrap_or(dataset.manifest.version);
+        (created_index, source_dataset_version)
+    };
+
+    Ok(Some((
+        new_uuid,
+        selected_old_indices.to_vec(),
+        frag_bitmap,
+        created_index,
+        new_dataset_version,
+    )))
+}
+
+async fn metadata_is_vector_index(dataset: &Dataset, index: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<bool> {
+    // Declared type first: an index awaiting training declares itself a vector
+    // index and has no file to find it by.
+    if index.index_details.is_some() {
+        return Ok(crate::index::segment_has_vector_details(index));
+    }
+
+    if let Some(files) = &index.files {
+        return Ok(files.iter().any(|file| file.path == INDEX_FILE_NAME));
+    }
+
+    let index_dir = dataset.indice_files_dir(index)?;
+    let index_file = index_dir
+        .clone()
+        .join(index.uuid.to_string())
+        .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+    let object_store = dataset.object_store_for_index(index).await?;
+    object_store.exists(&index_file).await
 }
 
 /// Merge in-inflight unindexed data, with a specific number of previous indices
@@ -47,14 +802,186 @@ pub async fn merge_indices<'a>(
     options: &OptimizeOptions,
 ) -> Result<Option<IndexMergeResults<'a>>> {
     if old_indices.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Append index: no previous index found".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "Append index: no previous index found".to_string(),
+        ));
     };
 
     let unindexed = dataset.unindexed_fragments(&old_indices[0].name).await?;
-    merge_indices_with_unindexed_frags(dataset, old_indices, &unindexed, options).await
+    Box::pin(merge_indices_with_unindexed_frags(
+        dataset,
+        old_indices,
+        &unindexed,
+        options,
+    ))
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Whether a rebuild of `params` should expect the definition alone, because
+/// the column does not hold the vectors its quantizer needs.
+async fn expects_definition_only(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    field_path: &str,
+    params: &VectorIndexParams,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    let Some(minimum) = super::vector::vector_quantizer_minimum_rows(&params.stages) else {
+        return Ok(false);
+    };
+    Ok(!super::vector::has_vectors_to_train(dataset, field_path, minimum).await?)
+}
+
+/// Retrain a whole segment over `fragment_bitmap` from index parameters alone.
+async fn rebuild_vector_segment(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    name: &str,
+    params: &VectorIndexParams,
+    field_path: &str,
+    fragment_bitmap: &RoaringBitmap,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    let mut build_dataset = dataset.clone();
+    CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut build_dataset, &[field_path], IndexType::Vector, params)
+        .name(name.to_string())
+        .replace(true)
+        .fragments(fragment_bitmap.iter().collect())
+        .progress(progress)
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+}
+
+/// True when a segment carries only its definition: nothing to open, nothing
+/// to append to, so training is what it is waiting for.
+///
+/// Happens when an index is created against an empty table, or one without
+/// enough rows to justify training it.
+fn is_definition_only_segment(metadata: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    let no_files_recorded = metadata.files.as_ref().is_none_or(|files| files.is_empty());
+    let covers_nothing = metadata
+        .fragment_bitmap
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(RoaringBitmap::is_empty);
+    no_files_recorded && covers_nothing
+}
+
+async fn scan_vector_fragments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    field_path: &str,
+    column_nullable: bool,
+    fragments: &[Fragment],
+) -> Result<crate::dataset::scanner::DatasetRecordBatchStream> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner
+        .with_fragments(fragments.to_vec())
+        .with_row_id()
+        .project(&[field_path])?;
+    if column_nullable {
+        let column_expr = lance_datafusion::logical_expr::field_path_to_expr(field_path)?;
+        scanner.filter_expr(column_expr.is_not_null());
+    }
+    scanner.try_into_stream().await
+}
+
+/// Train a column whose index is still only a definition, from the parameters
+/// that definition carries.
+///
+/// The result supersedes every segment the index had: they hold no data, and
+/// what this writes covers the whole column.
+async fn train_from_definition<'a>(
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    old_indices: &[&'a IndexMetadata],
+    field_path: &str,
+    options: &OptimizeOptions,
+) -> Result<IndexMergeResults<'a>> {
+    let params = old_indices
+        .last()
+        .and_then(|metadata| metadata.index_details.as_deref())
+        .and_then(details::vector_params_from_details)
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "Optimize vector index: index '{}' awaits training but carries no parameters",
+                old_indices[0].name
+            ))
+        })?;
+    let fragment_bitmap = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone();
+    let segment = rebuild_vector_segment(
+        dataset.as_ref(),
+        &old_indices[0].name,
+        &params,
+        field_path,
+        &fragment_bitmap,
+        options.progress.clone(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    // Only a result that looks degraded is worth confirming; a rebuild that
+    // covered rows needs no count to justify it.
+    let definition_expected = is_definition_only_segment(&segment)
+        && expects_definition_only(dataset.as_ref(), field_path, &params).await?;
+    fresh_vector_segment_result(
+        segment,
+        &fragment_bitmap,
+        old_indices.to_vec(),
+        definition_expected,
+    )
+}
+
+fn fresh_vector_segment_result<'a>(
+    segment: IndexMetadata,
+    expected_fragment_bitmap: &RoaringBitmap,
+    removed_indices: Vec<&'a IndexMetadata>,
+    definition_expected: bool,
+) -> Result<IndexMergeResults<'a>> {
+    let fragment_bitmap = segment.fragment_bitmap.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(
+            "Optimize vector index: newly built segment has no fragment bitmap".to_string(),
+        )
+    })?;
+    // A column with too few vectors to train the quantizer yields the
+    // definition alone: its rows return to unindexed, which is the state a
+    // table below the threshold belongs in. Accepted only when the caller
+    // established that beforehand and the segment wrote no files to match, so
+    // coverage lost for any other reason still fails below.
+    let wrote_no_files = segment.files.as_ref().is_some_and(|files| files.is_empty());
+    if definition_expected && wrote_no_files && fragment_bitmap.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(IndexMergeResults {
+            new_uuid: segment.uuid,
+            removed_indices,
+            new_fragment_bitmap: fragment_bitmap,
+            new_dataset_version: segment.dataset_version,
+            new_index_version: segment.index_version,
+            new_index_details: segment
+                .index_details
+                .map(|details| details.as_ref().clone())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(
+                        "Optimize vector index: rebuilt definition has no index details"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?,
+            files: Vec::new(),
+        });
+    }
+    if fragment_bitmap != *expected_fragment_bitmap {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Optimize vector index: newly built segment covers fragments {:?}, expected {:?}",
+            fragment_bitmap, expected_fragment_bitmap
+        )));
+    }
+    let index_details = segment.index_details.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index("Optimize vector index: newly built segment has no index details".to_string())
+    })?;
+    let files = segment.files.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index("Optimize vector index: newly built segment has no file metadata".to_string())
+    })?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMergeResults {
+        new_uuid: segment.uuid,
+        removed_indices,
+        new_fragment_bitmap: fragment_bitmap,
+        new_dataset_version: segment.dataset_version,
+        new_index_version: segment.index_version,
+        new_index_details: index_details.as_ref().clone(),
+        files,
+    })
 }
 
 /// Merge a list of provided unindexed data, with a specific number of previous indices
@@ -66,151 +993,709 @@ pub async fn merge_indices_with_unindexed_frags<'a>(
     options: &OptimizeOptions,
 ) -> Result<Option<IndexMergeResults<'a>>> {
     if old_indices.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Append index: no previous index found".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "Append index: no previous index found".to_string(),
+        ));
     };
 
     let column = dataset
         .schema()
         .field_by_id(old_indices[0].fields[0])
-        .ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "Append index: column {} does not exist",
-                old_indices[0].fields[0]
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        .ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+            "Append index: column {} does not exist",
+            old_indices[0].fields[0]
+        )))?;
 
-    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(old_indices[0].fields[0])?;
-    let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(old_indices.len());
-    for idx in old_indices {
-        let index = dataset
-            .open_generic_index(&field_path, &idx.uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+    let raw_field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(old_indices[0].fields[0])?;
+    let first_details =
+        super::scalar::fetch_index_details(dataset.as_ref(), &raw_field_path, old_indices[0])
             .await?;
-        indices.push(index);
-    }
-
-    if indices
-        .windows(2)
-        .any(|w| w[0].index_type() != w[1].index_type())
-    {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Append index: invalid index deltas: {:?}", old_indices),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+    let resolved_fts = if first_details.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails") {
+        let details =
+            lance_index::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::decode(first_details.value.as_slice())
+                .map_err(|error| {
+                    Error::io(format!(
+                        "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails payload: {error}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+        let granularity = lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::try_from(
+            details.document_granularity,
+        )?;
+        Some(crate::index::scalar::inverted::resolve_fts_field_by_id(
+            dataset.schema(),
+            old_indices[0].fields[0],
+            granularity,
+        )?)
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    let field_path = resolved_fts
+        .as_ref()
+        .map(|resolved| resolved.canonical_path.clone())
+        .unwrap_or(raw_field_path);
+    let first_is_vector_index = metadata_is_vector_index(dataset.as_ref(), old_indices[0]).await?;
+    for idx in old_indices.iter().skip(1) {
+        let is_vector_index = metadata_is_vector_index(dataset.as_ref(), idx).await?;
+        if is_vector_index != first_is_vector_index {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Append index: invalid mixed index deltas: {:?}",
+                old_indices
+            )));
+        }
     }
 
-    let mut frag_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let mut base_unindexed_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
     unindexed.iter().for_each(|frag| {
-        frag_bitmap.insert(frag.id as u32);
+        base_unindexed_bitmap.insert(frag.id as u32);
     });
 
-    let index_type = indices[0].index_type();
-    let (new_uuid, indices_merged, created_index) = match index_type {
-        it if it.is_scalar() => {
-            // There are no delta indices for scalar, so adding all indexed
-            // fragments to the new index.
-            old_indices.iter().for_each(|idx| {
-                frag_bitmap.extend(idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().iter());
-            });
+    let (new_uuid, removed_indices, new_fragment_bitmap, created_index, new_dataset_version) =
+        if first_is_vector_index {
+            // Segments with stored rows (raw coverage) but no live coverage
+            // (e.g. a definition retained through a full rewrite) are dormant.
+            // With stable row ids their stored postings still share ids with
+            // live rows, so merging them would resurrect stale vectors; they
+            // may only be replaced. A born-empty segment (deferred build) has
+            // no stored rows and stays mergeable.
+            // Under a tagged history an empty bitmap does not mean empty
+            // pages: an in-place rewrite withdraws a segment's whole coverage
+            // and leaves its files. Such a segment is dormant too, rebuilt
+            // from the live fragments; only a definition without files (the
+            // deferred build) stays mergeable there. Elsewhere an index
+            // initialized on an empty table has files and no rows and keeps
+            // merging as before.
+            // On a tagged table a segment's stored bitmap is provenance: its
+            // rows translate to the coverage the tagged reader derives for
+            // it, so THAT is its live coverage. A segment the reader excludes
+            // (derived coverage empty) is the dormant one.
+            let tagged_coverage =
+                tagged_segment_coverage(dataset.as_ref(), old_indices, None).await?;
+            let (live_segments, dormant_segments): (Vec<&IndexMetadata>, Vec<&IndexMetadata>) =
+                old_indices.iter().copied().partition(|idx| {
+                    let has_stored_rows = match &tagged_coverage {
+                        Some(_) => !is_definition_only_segment(idx),
+                        None => idx
+                            .fragment_bitmap
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .is_some_and(|bitmap| !bitmap.is_empty()),
+                    };
+                    let has_live_coverage = match &tagged_coverage {
+                        Some(coverage) => coverage
+                            .get(&idx.uuid)
+                            .is_some_and(|bitmap| !bitmap.is_empty()),
+                        None => idx
+                            .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+                            .is_none_or(|bitmap| !bitmap.is_empty()),
+                    };
+                    !has_stored_rows || has_live_coverage
+                });
+            if !dormant_segments.is_empty() && !live_segments.is_empty() && !options.retrain {
+                // Optimize the live segments as usual; the dormant segments
+                // are superseded by whatever that produces.
+                let mut merged = Box::pin(merge_indices_with_unindexed_frags(
+                    dataset.clone(),
+                    &live_segments,
+                    unindexed,
+                    options,
+                ))
+                .await?;
+                if let Some(results) = merged.as_mut() {
+                    results.removed_indices.extend(dormant_segments);
+                }
+                return Ok(merged);
+            }
+            let rebuild_dormant = live_segments.is_empty() && !dormant_segments.is_empty();
+            // A deferred build leaves a segment with no file to open, so the
+            // column is trained from its definition rather than appended to.
+            // Opening the index by name opens every segment, so any one of
+            // them settles it.
+            let awaits_training = old_indices
+                .iter()
+                .any(|idx| is_definition_only_segment(idx));
+
+            // Rebuilding and first training both read the whole column, so
+            // neither has anything to do until a fragment sits outside the
+            // index.
+            if unindexed.is_empty() && (rebuild_dormant || awaits_training) {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
 
-            let index = dataset
-                .open_scalar_index(
+            if awaits_training {
+                return train_from_definition(&dataset, old_indices, &field_path, options)
+                    .await
+                    .map(Some);
+            }
+
+            // The maintenance opener: a segment the tagged reader excludes
+            // from the listing (its coverage was withdrawn) is still here,
+            // opened as contributing nothing, so it can be replaced.
+            let full_logical_index = dataset
+                .open_logical_vector_index_for_maintenance(&field_path, &old_indices[0].name)
+                .await?;
+            let mut opened_indices_by_uuid = full_logical_index
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(metadata, index)| (metadata.uuid, (metadata.clone(), index.clone())))
+                .collect::<std::collections::HashMap<_, _>>();
+            let mut selected_metadatas = Vec::with_capacity(old_indices.len());
+            let mut selected_indices = Vec::with_capacity(old_indices.len());
+            for metadata in old_indices {
+                let (selected_metadata, selected_index) = opened_indices_by_uuid.remove(&metadata.uuid).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "Append index: logical vector index '{}' does not contain requested segment {}",
+                    old_indices[0].name, metadata.uuid
+                ))
+            })?;
+                selected_metadatas.push(selected_metadata);
+                selected_indices.push(selected_index);
+            }
+            let logical_index = LogicalVectorIndex::try_new(
+                old_indices[0].name.clone(),
+                field_path.clone(),
+                selected_metadatas
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .zip(selected_indices)
+                    .collect(),
+            )?;
+
+            if options.retrain || rebuild_dormant {
+                let (reference_metadata, reference_index) =
+                    logical_index.iter().last().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index(format!(
+                            "Optimize vector index: logical index '{}' has no physical segments",
+                            logical_index.name()
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                let params =
+                    fresh_vector_segment_params(reference_metadata, reference_index.as_ref())?;
+                let fragment_bitmap = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone();
+                let segment = rebuild_vector_segment(
+                    dataset.as_ref(),
+                    logical_index.name(),
+                    &params,
                     &field_path,
-                    &old_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                    &fragment_bitmap,
+                    options.progress.clone(),
                 )
                 .await?;
+                // Only a result that looks degraded is worth confirming; a
+                // rebuild that covered rows needs no count to justify it.
+                let definition_expected = is_definition_only_segment(&segment)
+                    && expects_definition_only(dataset.as_ref(), &field_path, &params).await?;
+                return fresh_vector_segment_result(
+                    segment,
+                    &fragment_bitmap,
+                    old_indices.to_vec(),
+                    definition_expected,
+                )
+                .map(Some);
+            }
 
-            let update_criteria = index.update_criteria();
+            let ivf_view = logical_index.as_ivf()?;
+            let compatibility =
+                vector_segment_compatibility(&ivf_view, "optimizing logical vector index")?;
+            let explicit_append = options.num_indices_to_merge == Some(0);
+            let default_append_for_heterogeneous_models = options.num_indices_to_merge.is_none()
+                && compatibility == VectorSegmentCompatibility::QueryCompatibleModelsDiffer;
 
-            let fragments = if update_criteria.requires_old_data {
-                None
-            } else {
-                Some(unindexed.to_vec())
-            };
-            let new_data_stream = load_training_data(
-                dataset.as_ref(),
-                &field_path,
-                &update_criteria.data_criteria,
-                fragments,
-                true,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await?;
+            if !unindexed.is_empty() && (explicit_append || default_append_for_heterogeneous_models)
+            {
+                // CreateIndex commits append new segments at the end of the manifest's
+                // stable index order. Reusing the current suffix model keeps consecutive
+                // appends directly mergeable without requiring unrelated older segments
+                // to share that model.
+                let (reference_metadata, reference_index) =
+                    logical_index.iter().last().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index(format!(
+                            "Optimize vector index: logical index '{}' has no physical segments",
+                            logical_index.name()
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                let reference_logical_index = LogicalVectorIndex::try_new(
+                    logical_index.name().to_string(),
+                    field_path.clone(),
+                    vec![(reference_metadata.clone(), reference_index.clone())],
+                )?;
+                let reference_ivf_view = reference_logical_index.as_ivf()?;
+                let new_data_stream = scan_vector_fragments(
+                    dataset.as_ref(),
+                    &field_path,
+                    column.nullable,
+                    unindexed,
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let mut append_options = options.clone();
+                append_options.num_indices_to_merge = Some(0);
+                append_options.retrain = false;
+                let (new_uuid, indices_merged, files) = optimize_vector_indices(
+                    dataset.as_ref().clone(),
+                    Some(new_data_stream),
+                    &field_path,
+                    &reference_ivf_view,
+                    &append_options,
+                )
+                .boxed()
+                .await?;
+                if indices_merged != 0 {
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "Optimize vector index append unexpectedly merged {indices_merged} existing segments"
+                    )));
+                }
+                return Ok(Some(IndexMergeResults {
+                    new_uuid,
+                    removed_indices: Vec::new(),
+                    new_fragment_bitmap: base_unindexed_bitmap,
+                    new_dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+                    new_index_version: index_type_for_segmented_optimize(reference_index.as_ref())?
+                        .version(),
+                    new_index_details: reference_metadata
+                        .index_details
+                        .as_deref()
+                        .cloned()
+                        .unwrap_or_else(vector_index_details_default),
+                    files,
+                }));
+            }
+
+            // Append is a steady-state no-op when every fragment is already
+            // indexed. Default optimize may still rebalance one segment.
+            if unindexed.is_empty() && options.num_indices_to_merge == Some(0) {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let steady_state_rebalance =
+                if unindexed.is_empty() && options.num_indices_to_merge.is_none() {
+                    let Some(rebalance) = select_steady_state_rebalance(&ivf_view, compatibility)?
+                    else {
+                        return Ok(None);
+                    };
+                    Some(rebalance)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
 
-            let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            if let Some(SteadyStateRebalance::Segment(selected_segment_id)) = steady_state_rebalance
+                && logical_index.num_segments() > 1
+            {
+                let removed_segment = old_indices
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .find(|metadata| metadata.uuid == selected_segment_id)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "Append index: logical vector index '{}' does not contain selected segment {}",
+                        old_indices[0].name, selected_segment_id
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let (selected_metadata, selected_index) = logical_index
+                .iter()
+                .find(|(metadata, _)| metadata.uuid == selected_segment_id)
+                .map(|(metadata, index)| (metadata.clone(), index.clone()))
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "Append index: failed to materialize selected segment {} from logical vector index '{}'",
+                        selected_segment_id, old_indices[0].name
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let selected_logical_index = LogicalVectorIndex::try_new(
+                    old_indices[0].name.clone(),
+                    field_path.clone(),
+                    vec![(selected_metadata, selected_index)],
+                )?;
+                let selected_ivf_view = selected_logical_index.as_ivf()?;
+                let (new_uuid, indices_merged, files) = Box::pin(optimize_vector_indices(
+                    dataset.as_ref().clone(),
+                    Option::<
+                        lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter<
+                            futures::stream::Empty<lance_core::Result<arrow_array::RecordBatch>>,
+                        >,
+                    >::None,
+                    &field_path,
+                    &selected_ivf_view,
+                    options,
+                ))
+                .await?;
+                if indices_merged == 0 {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
 
-            let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(&dataset, &new_uuid.to_string())?;
-            let created_index = index.update(new_data_stream, &new_store).await?;
+                // The rebalanced file was read through the translating
+                // loader, so on a tagged table it holds live addresses under
+                // the segment's stored provenance: publish that provenance,
+                // as a merge does, not stored ∩ live, which is empty for
+                // retired sources and would turn indexed rows into scans.
+                let new_fragment_bitmap = if tagged_coverage.is_some() {
+                    removed_segment.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap_or_default()
+                } else {
+                    removed_segment
+                        .effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+                        .or_else(|| removed_segment.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+                        .unwrap_or_default()
+                };
 
-            // TODO: don't hard-code index version
-            Ok((new_uuid, 1, created_index))
-        }
-        it if it.is_vector() => {
-            let new_data_stream = if unindexed.is_empty() {
-                None
+                Ok((
+                    new_uuid,
+                    vec![removed_segment],
+                    new_fragment_bitmap,
+                    CreatedIndex {
+                        index_details: removed_segment
+                            .index_details
+                            .as_deref()
+                            .cloned()
+                            .unwrap_or_else(vector_index_details_default),
+                        index_version: removed_segment.index_version as u32,
+                        files: table_files_to_index(files),
+                    },
+                    removed_segment.dataset_version,
+                ))
             } else {
-                let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-                scanner
-                    .with_fragments(unindexed.to_vec())
-                    .with_row_id()
-                    .project(&[&field_path])?;
-                if column.nullable {
-                    let column_expr =
-                        lance_datafusion::logical_expr::field_path_to_expr(&field_path)?;
-                    scanner.filter_expr(column_expr.is_not_null());
-                }
-                Some(scanner.try_into_stream().await?)
-            };
+                let mut frag_bitmap = base_unindexed_bitmap.clone();
+                let num_segments_to_merge = options
+                    .num_indices_to_merge
+                    .unwrap_or(logical_index.num_segments())
+                    .min(logical_index.num_segments());
+                let merge_start = logical_index
+                    .num_segments()
+                    .saturating_sub(num_segments_to_merge);
+                let merge_logical_index = LogicalVectorIndex::try_new(
+                    old_indices[0].name.clone(),
+                    field_path.clone(),
+                    logical_index
+                        .iter()
+                        .skip(merge_start)
+                        .map(|(metadata, index)| (metadata.clone(), index.clone()))
+                        .collect(),
+                )?;
+                let merge_ivf_view = merge_logical_index.as_ivf()?;
 
-            let (new_uuid, indices_merged) = optimize_vector_indices(
-                dataset.as_ref().clone(),
-                new_data_stream,
-                &field_path,
-                &indices,
-                options,
-            )
-            .boxed()
-            .await?;
+                let new_data_stream = if unindexed.is_empty() {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(
+                        scan_vector_fragments(
+                            dataset.as_ref(),
+                            &field_path,
+                            column.nullable,
+                            unindexed,
+                        )
+                        .await?,
+                    )
+                };
 
-            old_indices[old_indices.len() - indices_merged..]
-                .iter()
-                .for_each(|idx| {
+                let (new_uuid, indices_merged, files) = optimize_vector_indices(
+                    dataset.as_ref().clone(),
+                    new_data_stream,
+                    &field_path,
+                    &merge_ivf_view,
+                    options,
+                )
+                .boxed()
+                .await?;
+
+                let removed_indices = old_indices[old_indices.len() - indices_merged..].to_vec();
+                let new_dataset_version = removed_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|index| index.dataset_version)
+                    .min()
+                    .unwrap_or(dataset.manifest.version);
+                removed_indices.iter().for_each(|idx| {
                     frag_bitmap.extend(idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().iter());
                 });
+                for removed in removed_indices.iter() {
+                    if let Some(effective) =
+                        removed.effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+                    {
+                        frag_bitmap |= &effective;
+                    }
+                }
 
-            Ok((
-                new_uuid,
-                indices_merged,
-                CreatedIndex {
-                    index_details: vector_index_details(),
-                    index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION,
-                },
-            ))
-        }
-        _ => Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "Append index: invalid index type: {:?}",
-                indices[0].index_type()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
-    }?;
+                // Metadata must come from an actual merge source. Older incompatible
+                // segments outside the selected suffix may describe a different model.
+                let (reference_metadata, reference_index) =
+                    merge_logical_index.iter().last().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index(
+                            "Optimize vector index merge did not select a reference segment"
+                                .to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                let index_details = removed_indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .rev()
+                    .filter_map(|idx| idx.index_details.as_ref())
+                    .find(|d| !d.value.is_empty())
+                    .map(|d| d.as_ref().clone())
+                    .or_else(|| {
+                        reference_metadata
+                            .index_details
+                            .as_deref()
+                            .filter(|details| !details.value.is_empty())
+                            .cloned()
+                    })
+                    .unwrap_or_else(vector_index_details_default);
+                let index_version = if let Some(metadata) = removed_indices.first() {
+                    metadata.index_version as u32
+                } else {
+                    index_type_for_segmented_optimize(reference_index.as_ref())?.version() as u32
+                };
 
-    let removed_indices = old_indices[old_indices.len() - indices_merged..].to_vec();
-    for removed in removed_indices.iter() {
-        frag_bitmap |= removed.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
-    }
+                Ok((
+                    new_uuid,
+                    removed_indices,
+                    frag_bitmap,
+                    CreatedIndex {
+                        index_details,
+                        index_version,
+                        files: table_files_to_index(files),
+                    },
+                    new_dataset_version,
+                ))
+            }
+        } else {
+            let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(old_indices.len());
+            for idx in old_indices {
+                match dataset
+                    .open_generic_index_for_maintenance(
+                        &field_path,
+                        &idx.uuid,
+                        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                {
+                    Ok(index) => indices.push(index),
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        log::warn!(
+                            "Cannot open index on column '{}': {}. \
+                         Skipping index merge for this column.",
+                            field_path,
+                            e
+                        );
+                        return Ok(None);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            if indices
+                .windows(2)
+                .any(|w| w[0].index_type() != w[1].index_type())
+            {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Append index: invalid index deltas: {:?}",
+                    old_indices
+                )));
+            }
+
+            let index_type = indices[0].index_type();
+            match index_type {
+                IndexType::Inverted => {
+                    let selected_old_indices =
+                        select_segments_to_merge(dataset.as_ref(), old_indices, options);
+                    if unindexed.is_empty() && selected_old_indices.len() <= 1 {
+                        return Ok(None);
+                    }
+                    let reference_idx = selected_old_indices
+                        .first()
+                        .copied()
+                        .unwrap_or(old_indices[old_indices.len() - 1]);
+                    let reference_index = dataset
+                        .open_scalar_index_for_maintenance(
+                            &field_path,
+                            &reference_idx.uuid,
+                            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                    let update_criteria = reference_index.update_criteria();
+                    if update_criteria.requires_old_data {
+                        let params = reference_index.derive_index_params()?;
+                        let resolved = resolved_fts.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal(
+                                "Inverted index metadata did not resolve an FTS field".to_string(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                        let new_data_stream = load_fts_training_data(
+                            dataset.as_ref(),
+                            resolved,
+                            &update_criteria.data_criteria,
+                            None,
+                            true,
+                            None,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+                        let created_index = super::scalar::build_scalar_index(
+                            dataset.as_ref(),
+                            &resolved.canonical_path,
+                            new_uuid,
+                            &params,
+                            true,
+                            None,
+                            Some(new_data_stream),
+                            Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        return Ok(Some(IndexMergeResults {
+                            new_uuid,
+                            removed_indices: old_indices.to_vec(),
+                            new_fragment_bitmap: dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone(),
+                            new_dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+                            new_index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+                            new_index_details: created_index.index_details,
+                            files: index_files_to_table(created_index.files),
+                        }));
+                    }
+
+                    let fragments = Some(unindexed.to_vec());
+                    let resolved = resolved_fts.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(
+                            "Inverted index metadata did not resolve an FTS field".to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    let new_data_stream = load_fts_training_data(
+                        dataset.as_ref(),
+                        resolved,
+                        &update_criteria.data_criteria,
+                        fragments,
+                        true,
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+
+                    let mut frag_bitmap = base_unindexed_bitmap;
+                    let mut effective_old_frags = RoaringBitmap::new();
+                    let mut selected_indices = Vec::with_capacity(selected_old_indices.len());
+                    // On a tagged table a selected segment's old data is the
+                    // coverage the reader derives for it (translated, live)
+                    // and the merged segment keeps the stored provenance,
+                    // exactly as the scalar merge does; stored ∩ live would
+                    // be empty for retired sources and drop indexed rows.
+                    let tagged_coverage =
+                        tagged_segment_coverage(dataset.as_ref(), &selected_old_indices, None)
+                            .await?;
+                    for idx in &selected_old_indices {
+                        match &tagged_coverage {
+                            Some(coverage) => {
+                                if let Some(derived) = coverage.get(&idx.uuid) {
+                                    effective_old_frags |= derived;
+                                }
+                                if let Some(stored) = &idx.fragment_bitmap {
+                                    frag_bitmap |= stored;
+                                }
+                            }
+                            None => {
+                                if let Some(effective) =
+                                    idx.effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+                                {
+                                    frag_bitmap |= &effective;
+                                    effective_old_frags |= &effective;
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                        let scalar_index = dataset
+                            .open_scalar_index_for_maintenance(
+                                &field_path,
+                                &idx.uuid,
+                                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                        let inverted_index = scalar_index
+                            .as_any()
+                            .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+                            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                Error::index(format!(
+                                    "Append index: expected inverted index segment {}, got {:?}",
+                                    idx.uuid,
+                                    scalar_index.index_type()
+                                ))
+                            })?;
+                        selected_indices.push(Arc::new(inverted_index.clone()));
+                    }
+
+                    let old_data_filter = if selected_indices.is_empty() {
+                        None
+                    } else if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+                        let valid_old_row_ids =
+                            build_stable_row_id_filter(dataset.as_ref(), &effective_old_frags)
+                                .await?;
+                        Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid_old_row_ids))
+                    } else {
+                        Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                            to_keep: effective_old_frags,
+                            to_remove: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                        })
+                    };
+
+                    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+                    let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(&dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+                    let (created_index, new_dataset_version) = if selected_indices.is_empty() {
+                        (
+                            super::scalar::build_scalar_index(
+                                dataset.as_ref(),
+                                &resolved.canonical_path,
+                                new_uuid,
+                                &reference_index.derive_index_params()?,
+                                true,
+                                None,
+                                Some(new_data_stream),
+                                Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+                            )
+                            .await?,
+                            dataset.manifest.version,
+                        )
+                    } else {
+                        (
+                            InvertedIndex::merge_segments(
+                                &selected_indices,
+                                new_data_stream,
+                                &new_store,
+                                old_data_filter,
+                                options.progress.clone(),
+                            )
+                            .await?,
+                            selected_old_indices
+                                .iter()
+                                .map(|index| index.dataset_version)
+                                .min()
+                                .unwrap_or(dataset.manifest.version),
+                        )
+                    };
+
+                    Ok((
+                        new_uuid,
+                        selected_old_indices.to_vec(),
+                        frag_bitmap,
+                        created_index,
+                        new_dataset_version,
+                    ))
+                }
+                it if it.is_scalar() => {
+                    let Some(result) = merge_scalar_indices(
+                        dataset.clone(),
+                        old_indices,
+                        unindexed,
+                        options,
+                        it,
+                        &field_path,
+                        column.name.as_str(),
+                        base_unindexed_bitmap,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                    else {
+                        return Ok(None);
+                    };
+                    Ok(result)
+                }
+                _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Append index: invalid index type: {:?}",
+                    indices[0].index_type()
+                ))),
+            }
+        }?;
 
     Ok(Some(IndexMergeResults {
         new_uuid,
         removed_indices,
-        new_fragment_bitmap: frag_bitmap,
+        new_fragment_bitmap,
+        new_dataset_version,
         new_index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
         new_index_details: created_index.index_details,
+        files: index_files_to_table(created_index.files),
     }))
 }
 
@@ -218,45 +1703,742 @@ pub async fn merge_indices_with_unindexed_frags<'a>(
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
     use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt32Type};
     use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
-    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatch,
+        RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBufferBuilder, NullBuffer, OffsetBuffer};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
     use futures::TryStreamExt;
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, Dimension, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{Dimension, RowCount, array};
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
     use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
     use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
     use lance_index::{
+        IndexType,
+        scalar::{
+            BuiltinIndexType, InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams, SearchResult, TextQuery,
+        },
         vector::{ivf::IvfBuildParams, pq::PQBuildParams},
-        DatasetIndexExt, IndexType,
     };
     use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
-    use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+    use lance_testing::datagen::{generate_random_array, generate_random_array_with_seed};
     use rstest::rstest;
 
     use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
-    use crate::dataset::{MergeInsertBuilder, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched, WriteParams};
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+    use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+    use crate::dataset::{MergeInsertBuilder, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder;
     use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
     use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_append_index() {
-        const DIM: usize = 64;
-        const IVF_PARTITIONS: usize = 2;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fragment_reuse_at_source_version_affects_segment() {
+        use lance_index::frag_reuse::{
+            FragDigest, FragReuseGroup, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion,
+        };
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let segment = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "text_ngram".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 5,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1u32])),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let frag_reuse_index = CompactFragReuseIndex::from_row_id_maps(
+            Uuid::new_v4(),
+            vec![],
+            FragReuseIndexDetails {
+                versions: vec![FragReuseVersion {
+                    dataset_version: 5,
+                    groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                        changed_row_addrs: vec![1],
+                        old_frags: vec![FragDigest {
+                            id: 1,
+                            physical_rows: 1,
+                            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                        }],
+                        new_frags: vec![FragDigest {
+                            id: 2,
+                            physical_rows: 1,
+                            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                        }],
+                    }],
+                }],
+            },
+        );
 
-        let vectors = generate_random_array(1000 * DIM);
+        assert!(fragment_reuse_affects_segments(
+            &frag_reuse_index,
+            [&segment]
+        ));
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "vector",
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                DIM as i32,
+        let rebuilt_segment = IndexMetadata {
+            dataset_version: 6,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32])),
+            ..segment
+        };
+        assert!(!fragment_reuse_affects_segments(
+            &frag_reuse_index,
+            [&rebuilt_segment]
+        ));
+
+        for stale_version in [4, 5] {
+            let stale_remapped_segment = IndexMetadata {
+                dataset_version: stale_version,
+                ..rebuilt_segment.clone()
+            };
+            assert!(
+                fragment_reuse_affects_segments(&frag_reuse_index, [&stale_remapped_segment]),
+                "{stale_version}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn clustered_vector_batch(
+        schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        start_id: i32,
+        rows: usize,
+        dimension: usize,
+        center: f32,
+    ) -> (RecordBatch, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>) {
+        let values = (0..rows)
+            .flat_map(|row| {
+                (0..dimension)
+                    .map(move |column| center + row as f32 * 0.01 + column as f32 * 0.0001)
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let vectors = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                arrow_array::Float32Array::from(values),
+                dimension as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let ids = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+            start_id..start_id + rows as i32,
+        ));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![ids, vectors.clone() as ArrayRef]).unwrap();
+        (batch, vectors)
+    }
+
+    async fn nearest_id(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        query: &arrow_array::Float32Array,
+        num_probes: usize,
+    ) -> i32 {
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .nearest("vector", query, 1)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(num_probes)
+            .maximum_nprobes(num_probes)
+            .refine(1)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+        result["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>()
+            .value(0)
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::append(OptimizeOptions::append(), false)]
+    #[case::default_with_stable_row_ids_and_delete(OptimizeOptions::default(), true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_append_is_segment_set_native_with_distinct_models(
+        #[case] options: OptimizeOptions,
+        #[case] use_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        const DIMENSION: usize = 8;
+        const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 64;
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    DIMENSION as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let (first_batch, first_vectors) =
+            clustered_vector_batch(schema.clone(), 0, ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, DIMENSION, 0.0);
+        let (second_batch, _) = clustered_vector_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as i32,
+            ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+            DIMENSION,
+            100.0,
+        );
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(first_batch), Ok(second_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: use_stable_row_ids,
+                max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(initial_fragments.len(), 2);
+        // Two partitions per segment: summed over the segments they are under
+        // the join threshold, which must not tempt a steady-state merge of
+        // segments whose centroids differ.
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+        let mut initial_segments = Vec::with_capacity(initial_fragments.len());
+        for fragment in &initial_fragments {
+            initial_segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                    .name(INDEX_NAME.to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(INDEX_NAME, "vector", initial_segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let old_segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(old_segments.len(), 2);
+        let logical_index = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let centroids = logical_index
+            .as_ivf()
+            .unwrap()
+            .segments()
+            .map(|(_, index)| index.ivf_model().centroids_array().unwrap().to_data())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_ne!(
+            centroids[0], centroids[1],
+            "test setup must use distinct IVF centroid models"
+        );
+        let version_before_default_optimize = dataset.version().version;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            version_before_default_optimize,
+            "default optimize must leave incompatible steady-state segments unmerged"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap(),
+            old_segments,
+            "default optimize changed incompatible steady-state segments"
+        );
+
+        let appended_start_id = (2 * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT) as i32;
+        let (appended_batch, appended_vectors) = clustered_vector_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            appended_start_id,
+            ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+            DIMENSION,
+            200.0,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended_batch)], schema),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let appended_fragment_id = dataset.get_fragments().last().unwrap().id() as u32;
+        if use_stable_row_ids {
+            dataset
+                .delete(&format!("id = {appended_start_id}"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&options).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            committed.len(),
+            3,
+            "append must add one segment without rewriting existing segments"
+        );
+        for old in &old_segments {
+            let retained = committed
+                .iter()
+                .find(|segment| segment.uuid == old.uuid)
+                .expect("old physical segment UUID must remain committed");
+            assert_eq!(retained, old, "old physical segment metadata changed");
+        }
+
+        let new_segment = committed
+            .iter()
+            .find(|segment| {
+                old_segments
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|old_segment| old_segment.uuid != segment.uuid)
+            })
+            .expect("one new physical segment must be committed");
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([appended_fragment_id]),
+            "the appended segment must cover only the new fragment"
+        );
+
+        let logical_index = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let latest_old_uuid = old_segments.last().unwrap().uuid;
+        let latest_old_centroids = logical_index
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(metadata, _)| metadata.uuid == latest_old_uuid)
+            .unwrap()
+            .1
+            .ivf_model()
+            .centroids_array()
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_data();
+        let new_centroids = logical_index
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(metadata, _)| metadata.uuid == new_segment.uuid)
+            .unwrap()
+            .1
+            .ivf_model()
+            .centroids_array()
+            .unwrap()
+            .to_data();
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_centroids, latest_old_centroids,
+            "append must reuse the latest segment's complete IVF model"
+        );
+
+        let mut covered = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for segment in &committed {
+            let segment_coverage = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                covered.is_disjoint(segment_coverage),
+                "physical vector segment coverage must be pairwise disjoint"
+            );
+            covered |= segment_coverage;
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            covered,
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone(),
+            "physical vector segments must exactly cover indexed fragments"
+        );
+
+        let old_query = first_vectors.value(1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            nearest_id(
+                &dataset,
+                old_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
+                committed.len()
+            )
+            .await,
+            1,
+            "query must return a representative row from an old segment"
+        );
+        let appended_query_offset = usize::from(use_stable_row_ids);
+        let appended_query = appended_vectors.value(appended_query_offset);
+        assert_eq!(
+            nearest_id(
+                &dataset,
+                appended_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
+                committed.len()
+            )
+            .await,
+            appended_start_id + appended_query_offset as i32,
+            "query must return a representative row from the appended segment"
+        );
+        if use_stable_row_ids {
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset
+                    .scan()
+                    .filter(&format!("id = {appended_start_id}"))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .count_rows()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                0,
+                "deleted stable-row-id data must not reappear through the appended segment"
+            );
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_suffix = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged_suffix.len(),
+            2,
+            "the reference-compatible suffix should merge without rewriting the incompatible base"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merged_suffix
+                .iter()
+                .any(|segment| segment.uuid == old_segments[0].uuid),
+            "the incompatible base segment must remain unchanged"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merged_suffix
+                .iter()
+                .all(|segment| segment.uuid != latest_old_uuid && segment.uuid != new_segment.uuid),
+            "the compatible suffix segments must be replaced"
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::retrain())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let retrained = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(retrained.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            retrained[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref(),
+            "explicit retrain must source-rebuild one segment over all current fragments"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            nearest_id(
+                &dataset,
+                old_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
+                retrained.len()
+            )
+            .await,
+            1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            nearest_id(
+                &dataset,
+                appended_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
+                retrained.len()
+            )
+            .await,
+            appended_start_id + appended_query_offset as i32
+        );
+        if use_stable_row_ids {
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset
+                    .scan()
+                    .filter(&format!("id = {appended_start_id}"))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .count_rows()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                0,
+                "explicit retrain must not restore a deleted stable-row-id row"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::metric(
+        VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+        VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::Cosine),
+        "has metric"
+    )]
+    #[case::index_family(
+        VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+        VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(1),
+            HnswBuildParams::default()
+        ),
+        "has type"
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_append_validates_logical_query_compatibility(
+        #[case] first_params: VectorIndexParams,
+        #[case] second_params: VectorIndexParams,
+        #[case] expected_error: &str,
+    ) {
+        const DIMENSION: usize = 8;
+        const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 64;
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    DIMENSION as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let (first_batch, _) =
+            clustered_vector_batch(schema.clone(), 0, ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, DIMENSION, 1.0);
+        let (second_batch, _) = clustered_vector_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as i32,
+            ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+            DIMENSION,
+            100.0,
+        );
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(first_batch), Ok(second_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let initial_fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(initial_fragments.len());
+        for (fragment, params) in initial_fragments.iter().zip([first_params, second_params]) {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                    .name(INDEX_NAME.to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        let version_before = dataset.version().version;
+        let error = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(INDEX_NAME, "vector", segments.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(expected_error), "{error}");
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, version_before);
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        // Bypass commit-time validation only to exercise append's independent guard
+        // against an incompatible segment set already present in the manifest.
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: segments,
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let (appended_batch, _) = clustered_vector_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            (2 * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT) as i32,
+            ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+            DIMENSION,
+            200.0,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended_batch)], schema),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let version_before = dataset.version().version;
+        let segments_before = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let object_store = dataset.object_store.clone();
+        let directories_before = object_store
+            .read_dir(dataset.indices_dir())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<std::collections::HashSet<_>>();
+
+        let error = dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(expected_error),
+            "expected logical query compatibility error containing '{expected_error}', got {error}"
+        );
+
+        let latest = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            latest.version().version,
+            version_before,
+            "incompatible logical segments must fail before committing"
+        );
+        let mut segments_after = latest.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let mut segments_before = segments_before;
+        for segment in segments_after.iter_mut().chain(segments_before.iter_mut()) {
+            segment.created_at = None;
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments_after, segments_before,
+            "incompatible logical segments must remain unchanged"
+        );
+        let directories_after = object_store
+            .read_dir(latest.indices_dir())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<std::collections::HashSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            directories_after, directories_before,
+            "query compatibility validation must run before staging a new segment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_segment_native_append_preserves_commit_conflicts() {
+        const DIMENSION: usize = 8;
+        const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 64;
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    DIMENSION as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let (initial_batch, _) =
+            clustered_vector_batch(schema.clone(), 0, ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, DIMENSION, 0.0);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let old_uuid = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap()[0].uuid;
+
+        let (first_append, _) = clustered_vector_batch(
+            schema.clone(),
+            ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as i32,
+            ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+            DIMENSION,
+            100.0,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(first_append)], schema.clone()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stale_version = dataset.version().version;
+        let mut first_optimizer = dataset.checkout_version(stale_version).await.unwrap();
+        let mut stale_optimizer = dataset.checkout_version(stale_version).await.unwrap();
+        first_optimizer
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = stale_optimizer
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "stale vector append optimize must retain retryable conflict semantics: {error}"
+        );
+
+        let latest = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_dir.as_str())
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let committed = latest.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            committed.iter().any(|segment| segment.uuid == old_uuid),
+            "the successful concurrent optimize must retain the old segment"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            latest.unindexed_fragments(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap().len(),
+            0,
+            "a failed stale commit must not publish the staged vector segment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_index() {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        const IVF_PARTITIONS: usize = 2;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let vectors = generate_random_array(1000 * DIM);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                DIM as i32,
             ),
             true,
         )]));
@@ -286,11 +2468,13 @@ mod tests {
         dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
 
         let index = &dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0];
-        assert!(!dataset
-            .unindexed_fragments(&index.name)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            !dataset
+                .unindexed_fragments(&index.name)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
 
         let q = array.value(5);
         let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
@@ -313,14 +2497,16 @@ mod tests {
         let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
 
-        assert!(dataset
-            .unindexed_fragments(&index.name)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .unindexed_fragments(&index.name)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
 
         // There should be two indices directories existed.
-        let object_store = dataset.object_store();
+        let object_store = dataset.object_store.as_ref();
         let index_dirs = object_store.read_dir(dataset.indices_dir()).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(index_dirs.len(), 2);
 
@@ -347,11 +2533,7 @@ mod tests {
         let mut num_rows = 0;
         for index in indices.iter() {
             let index = dataset
-                .open_vector_index(
-                    "vector",
-                    index.uuid.to_string().as_str(),
-                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-                )
+                .open_vector_index("vector", &index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
                 .await
                 .unwrap();
             num_rows += index.num_rows();
@@ -359,67 +2541,314 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(num_rows, 2000);
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_query_delta_indices(
-        #[values(
-            VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 4, MetricType::L2, 2),
-            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
-                MetricType::L2,
-                IvfBuildParams::new(2),
-                HnswBuildParams::default(),
-                SQBuildParams::default()
-            )
-        )]
-        index_params: VectorIndexParams,
-    ) {
+    async fn test_optimize_append_preserves_case_sensitive_nullable_vector_column() {
         const DIM: usize = 64;
-        const TOTAL: usize = 1000;
+        const ROWS: usize = 1000;
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        fn make_vectors(rows: usize, dim: usize, include_null: bool) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+            if include_null {
+                let mut nulls_builder = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(rows);
+                for row_idx in 0..rows {
+                    nulls_builder.append(row_idx != 0);
+                }
+                let nulls = NullBuffer::new(nulls_builder.finish());
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dim as i32,
+                    Arc::new(generate_random_array(rows * dim)),
+                    Some(nulls),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            } else {
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                    generate_random_array(rows * dim),
+                    dim as i32,
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            }
+        }
 
-        let vectors = generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM);
+        fn make_batch(
+            schema: Arc<Schema>,
+            start_id: u32,
+            vectors: Arc<FixedSizeListArray>,
+        ) -> RecordBatch {
+            let columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    start_id..start_id + ROWS as u32,
+                )) as ArrayRef,
+                vectors as ArrayRef,
+            ];
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns).unwrap()
+        }
 
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let vector_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            DIM as i32,
+        );
         let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new(
-                "vector",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                    DIM as i32,
-                ),
-                true,
-            ),
             Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("VECTOR", vector_type, true),
         ]));
-        let array = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, DIM as i32).unwrap());
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                array.clone(),
-                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..TOTAL as u32)),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
 
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let initial_vectors = Arc::new(make_vectors(ROWS, DIM, false));
+        let initial_batch = make_batch(schema.clone(), 0, initial_vectors);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(std::iter::once(Ok(initial_batch)), schema.clone());
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+            PQBuildParams {
+                num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
         dataset
-            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, true)
+            .create_index(&["VECTOR"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vector_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
-        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
 
+        let appended_vectors = Arc::new(make_vectors(ROWS, DIM, true));
+        let query = appended_vectors.value(5);
+        let appended_batch = make_batch(schema.clone(), ROWS as u32, appended_vectors);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(std::iter::once(Ok(appended_batch)), schema);
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let index_name = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].name.clone();
+        assert!(
+            !dataset
+                .unindexed_fragments(&index_name)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .unindexed_fragments(&index_name)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .nearest("VECTOR", query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(), 10)
+            .unwrap();
+        let results = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            results.num_rows(),
+            10,
+            "expected the requested k=10 nearest-neighbor results"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression: a second `OptimizeOptions::append()` call on a steady-state
+    /// vector index used to fall through to `optimize_vector_indices` and write
+    /// a new UUID directory + manifest even though nothing had changed. The
+    /// no-op gate inside `merge_indices_with_unindexed_frags` should bail out
+    /// once `select_steady_state_rebalance` returns `None`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_indices_append_is_noop_on_steady_state() {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                DIM as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let make_batch = || {
+            let arr = Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                    generate_random_array(1000 * DIM),
+                    DIM as i32,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![arr]).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let batches =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![make_batch()].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // num_partitions = 1 so the auto-rebalance heuristic has no join/split
+        // candidate after the initial build — keeps this test focused on the
+        // append-no-op behavior rather than the rebalance path.
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(1),
+            PQBuildParams {
+                num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let batches =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![make_batch()].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // First append: writes the new fragment into a reference-compatible delta segment.
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let version_before = dataset.version().version;
+        let object_store = dataset.object_store.as_ref();
+        let dirs_before = object_store
+            .read_dir(dataset.indices_dir())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<std::collections::HashSet<_>>();
+
+        // Second append: nothing changed since the previous call. Must not
+        // bump the manifest version or add a new UUID directory.
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let dirs_after = object_store
+            .read_dir(dataset.indices_dir())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<std::collections::HashSet<_>>();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            version_before,
+            "second optimize_indices(append()) bumped the dataset version"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dirs_after, dirs_before,
+            "second optimize_indices(append()) created a new index directory"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_query_delta_indices(
+        #[values(
+            VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 4, 2, MetricType::L2, 2),
+            VectorIndexParams::ivf_rq(2, 1, MetricType::L2),
+            VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+                MetricType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+                HnswBuildParams {
+                    max_level: 2,
+                    m: 4,
+                    ef_construction: 16,
+                    prefetch_distance: Some(1),
+                }
+            ),
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+                MetricType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams {
+                    num_partitions: Some(2),
+                    max_iters: 2,
+                    sample_rate: 2,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                HnswBuildParams {
+                    max_level: 2,
+                    m: 4,
+                    ef_construction: 16,
+                    prefetch_distance: Some(1),
+                },
+                PQBuildParams {
+                    num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                    num_bits: 4,
+                    max_iters: 2,
+                    sample_rate: 2,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }
+            ),
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+                MetricType::L2,
+                IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+                HnswBuildParams {
+                    max_level: 2,
+                    m: 4,
+                    ef_construction: 16,
+                    prefetch_distance: Some(1),
+                },
+                SQBuildParams::default()
+            )
+        )]
+        index_params: VectorIndexParams,
+    ) {
+        const DIM: usize = 8;
+        const INITIAL_ROWS: usize = 64;
+        const APPENDED_ROWS: usize = 16;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let vectors = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(INITIAL_ROWS * DIM, [42; 32]);
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    DIM as i32,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let array = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, DIM as i32).unwrap());
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema.clone(),
             vec![
                 array.clone(),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..INITIAL_ROWS as u32)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vector_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 1);
+        assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(array.slice(0, APPENDED_ROWS)),
                 Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(
-                    TOTAL as u32..(TOTAL * 2) as u32,
+                    INITIAL_ROWS as u32..(INITIAL_ROWS + APPENDED_ROWS) as u32,
                 )),
             ],
         )
@@ -427,6 +2856,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
         dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+        let appended_fragment_id = dataset.get_fragments().last().unwrap().id() as u32;
         let stats: serde_json::Value =
             serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vector_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 1);
@@ -437,27 +2867,112 @@ mod tests {
             .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
         let stats: serde_json::Value =
             serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics("vector_idx").await.unwrap()).unwrap();
         assert_eq!(stats["num_indices"], 2);
         assert_eq!(stats["num_indexed_fragments"], 2);
         assert_eq!(stats["num_unindexed_fragments"], 0);
+        let appended_segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            appended_segments
+                .iter()
+                .all(|segment| segment.index_version == index_params.index_type().version()),
+            "append must preserve the storage type's index version"
+        );
+        let logical_index = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", "vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(logical_index.num_segments(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            logical_index
+                .num_rows_per_segment()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(_, num_rows)| num_rows)
+                .sum::<u64>(),
+            (INITIAL_ROWS + APPENDED_ROWS) as u64
+        );
+        if matches!(
+            index_params.index_type(),
+            IndexType::IvfHnswFlat | IndexType::IvfHnswPq | IndexType::IvfHnswSq
+        ) {
+            let hnsw_params = logical_index
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(_, index)| index.statistics().unwrap()["sub_index"]["params"].clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert!(
+                hnsw_params.iter().all(|params| params == &hnsw_params[0]),
+                "append must preserve the reference segment's HNSW build parameters: {hnsw_params:?}"
+            );
+        }
 
-        let results = dataset
-            .scan()
+        let mut fanout_scanner = dataset.scan();
+        fanout_scanner
             .project(&["id"])
             .unwrap()
             .nearest("vector", array.value(0).as_primitive::<Float32Type>(), 2)
             .unwrap()
-            .refine(1)
-            .try_into_batch()
+            .minimum_nprobes(2)
+            .maximum_nprobes(2)
+            .refine(1);
+        let fanout_plan = fanout_scanner.explain_plan(true).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            fanout_plan.contains("ANNSubIndex: name=vector_idx, k=2, deltas=2"),
+            "logical vector query must fan out across both physical segments, plan was:\n{fanout_plan}"
+        );
+        let results = fanout_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 2);
+
+        for segment in &appended_segments {
+            let fragment_bitmap = segment
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("vector segment must record fragment coverage");
+            let expected_appended_row = fragment_bitmap.contains(appended_fragment_id);
+            let mut segment_scanner = dataset.scan();
+            segment_scanner
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .nearest("vector", array.value(0).as_primitive::<Float32Type>(), 1)
+                .unwrap()
+                .minimum_nprobes(2)
+                .maximum_nprobes(2)
+                .refine(1)
+                .with_index_segments(vec![segment.uuid])
+                .unwrap();
+            let segment_result = segment_scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(segment_result.num_rows(), 1);
+            let id = segment_result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().value(0);
+            assert_eq!(
+                id >= INITIAL_ROWS as u32,
+                expected_appended_row,
+                "segment {} returned row {id} outside its fragment coverage {:?}",
+                segment.uuid,
+                fragment_bitmap
+            );
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 2);
-        let mut id_arr = results["id"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().values().to_vec();
-        id_arr.sort();
-        assert_eq!(id_arr, vec![0, 1000]);
+        let merged = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.len(),
+            1,
+            "the reference-compatible append segment must merge with its source"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged[0].index_version,
+            index_params.index_type().version(),
+            "merge must preserve the storage type's index version"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref(),
+            "the compatible merge must preserve exact fragment coverage"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -603,4 +3118,2563 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(results[0].num_rows(), 10);
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_merge_filters_stable_row_id_replacements() {
+        const DIMENSION: usize = 4;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    DIMENSION as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let initial_values = (0..40)
+            .flat_map(|row| [if row < 20 { 1.0 } else { 0.0 }; DIMENSION])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let initial = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..40)),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        arrow_array::Float32Array::from(initial_values),
+                        DIMENSION as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(initial)], schema.clone()),
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let replacements = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(20..40)),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![10.0; 20 * DIMENSION]),
+                        DIMENSION as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let merge_job = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["id".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+            .try_build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let (dataset, stats) = merge_job
+            .execute(reader_to_stream(Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                [Ok(replacements)],
+                schema,
+            ))))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_updated_rows, 20);
+
+        let mut dataset = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices_by_name("vector_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            2
+        );
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let logical_index = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", "vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(logical_index.num_segments(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            logical_index
+                .num_rows_per_segment()
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(_, rows)| rows)
+                .sum::<u64>(),
+            40,
+            "the merged index must contain one current copy of every stable row id"
+        );
+
+        let query = arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; DIMENSION]);
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(1)
+            .maximum_nprobes(1)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>();
+        assert!(
+            ids.values().iter().all(|id| *id < 20),
+            "stale pre-update vectors must not survive the optimize merge: {ids:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_indices_with_unindexed_frags_vector_subset() {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        const TOTAL: usize = 1000;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let vectors = generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM);
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    DIM as i32,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, DIM as i32).unwrap()),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..TOTAL as u32)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let index_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 4, MetricType::L2, 2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let next_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        generate_random_array(TOTAL * DIM),
+                        DIM as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    TOTAL as u32..(TOTAL * 2) as u32,
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![next_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+        let subset = vec![&indices[1]];
+        let merge_result = merge_indices_with_unindexed_frags(
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            &subset,
+            &[],
+            &OptimizeOptions::merge(1),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            merge_result.is_some(),
+            "subset merges should respect the caller-provided indices"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_btree_multi_segment_optimize_default() {
+        async fn query_id_count(dataset: &Dataset, id: &str) -> usize {
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(&format!("id = '{}'", id))
+                .unwrap()
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .num_rows()
+        }
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let make_batch = |start: i32, end: i32| {
+            let ids = StringArray::from_iter_values((start..end).map(|i| format!("song-{i}")));
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids)]).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Three fragments of 64 rows each; each commits as its own BTree
+        // segment so optimize sees a multi-segment scalar logical index.
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![
+                Ok(make_batch(0, 64)),
+                Ok(make_batch(64, 128)),
+                Ok(make_batch(128, 192)),
+            ],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 3);
+
+        let mut staged_segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let segment = crate::index::create::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                &params,
+            )
+            .name("id_idx".into())
+            .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            staged_segments.push(segment);
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("id_idx", "id", staged_segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap().len(),
+            3
+        );
+
+        let appended = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(192, 256))], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            appended,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reload from disk to ensure we're reading committed manifest state.
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Each of these IDs lives in a distinct old segment / fragment.
+        // song-10 lives in fragment 0, song-80 in fragment 1, song-160 in
+        // fragment 2, and song-200 in the appended fragment. After optimize
+        // every row must still be reachable through the logical index,
+        // regardless of which segment absorbed the new data.
+        for id in ["song-10", "song-80", "song-160", "song-200"] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                query_id_count(&dataset, id).await,
+                1,
+                "expected exactly one row for {id} after multi-segment optimize"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // `OptimizeOptions::default()` (= num_indices_to_merge: None) merges
+        // the newest segment with the unindexed fragment, like the
+        // inverted/vector default. The three old segments minus the merged one
+        // plus the new delta means three segments remain, and together they
+        // must still cover every dataset fragment without overlap.
+        let segments_after = dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments_after.len(),
+            3,
+            "default optimize must merge one delta, not all segments, got {segments_after:?}"
+        );
+        let mut covered = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for segment in &segments_after {
+            let bitmap = segment
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("each segment should carry fragment coverage");
+            assert!(
+                covered.is_disjoint(bitmap),
+                "post-optimize segments must not overlap, got {segments_after:?}"
+            );
+            covered |= bitmap;
+        }
+        let mut expected = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for frag in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            expected.insert(frag.id() as u32);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            covered, expected,
+            "post-optimize segments should cover every dataset fragment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_fmindex_default_rebuilds_old_and_new_rows() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let make_batch = |values: &[&str]| {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    values.iter().copied(),
+                ))],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(make_batch(&["old alpha needle", "old beta"]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Fm,
+                Some("text_fmindex".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let appended = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(make_batch(&["new gamma needle", "new delta"]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        dataset.append(appended, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            !dataset
+                .unindexed_fragments("text_fmindex")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .unindexed_fragments("text_fmindex")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("text_fmindex").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            committed[0]
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("FMIndex segment should carry fragment coverage")
+                .len(),
+            2
+        );
+
+        let logical = crate::index::scalar_logical::open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            "text_fmindex",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        for (pattern, expected) in [("old alpha", 1), ("new gamma", 1), ("needle", 2)] {
+            let query = TextQuery::StringContains(pattern.to_string());
+            let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+            let row_addrs = match result {
+                SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+                other => panic!("expected exact result for {pattern}, got {other:?}"),
+            };
+            let count = row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count();
+            assert_eq!(
+                count, expected,
+                "expected {expected} matches for {pattern}, got {count}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_ngram_merge_remaps_deferred_compaction() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true)]));
+        let make_batch = |values: &[&str]| {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    values.iter().copied(),
+                ))],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![
+                Ok(make_batch(&["alpha needle", "beta needle"])),
+                Ok(make_batch(&["gamma needle", "delta needle"])),
+            ],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::NGram,
+                Some("text_ngram".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::NGram),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 10,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0 && metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+
+        let appended =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(&["epsilon needle"]))], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            appended,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let logical = crate::index::scalar_logical::open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            "text_ngram",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let result = logical
+            .search(
+                &TextQuery::StringContains("needle".to_string()),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::AtMost(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!("expected AtMost result from ngram, got {other:?}"),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(), 5);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_btree_optimize_append() {
+        async fn query_id_count(dataset: &Dataset, id: &str) -> usize {
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(&format!("id = '{}'", id))
+                .unwrap()
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .num_rows()
+        }
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let make_batch = |start: i32, end: i32| {
+            let ids = StringArray::from_iter_values((start..end).map(|i| format!("song-{i}")));
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids)]).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Start with two fragments + two committed BTree segments.
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(make_batch(0, 64)), Ok(make_batch(64, 128))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let original_segment_uuids: Vec<_> = {
+            let mut staged = Vec::new();
+            for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+                let segment = crate::index::create::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+                    &mut dataset,
+                    &["id"],
+                    IndexType::BTree,
+                    &params,
+                )
+                .name("id_idx".into())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                staged.push(segment);
+            }
+            let uuids = staged.iter().map(|s| s.uuid).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            dataset
+                .commit_existing_index_segments("id_idx", "id", staged)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            uuids
+        };
+        assert_eq!(original_segment_uuids.len(), 2);
+
+        // Append a third fragment, leave it unindexed, then run append-mode optimize.
+        let appended = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(128, 192))], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            appended,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Read fresh from disk to make sure we're inspecting committed state.
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+
+        // append() must preserve every original old segment unchanged and add
+        // exactly one new segment covering only the newly appended fragments.
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let committed_uuids: std::collections::HashSet<_> =
+            committed.iter().map(|idx| idx.uuid).collect();
+        for original in &original_segment_uuids {
+            assert!(
+                committed_uuids.contains(original),
+                "append() must not remove pre-existing segment {original}, \
+                 but the committed UUIDs are {committed_uuids:?}"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            committed.len(),
+            original_segment_uuids.len() + 1,
+            "append() should add exactly one new delta segment, got {committed:?}"
+        );
+        let new_segment = committed
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| !original_segment_uuids.contains(&idx.uuid))
+            .expect("append() must add a new delta segment");
+        let new_segment_frags: Vec<_> = new_segment
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .collect();
+        // The appended fragment should be the only one covered by the new delta;
+        // old segments retain their own coverage.
+        assert_eq!(new_segment_frags.len(), 1);
+
+        // Sanity check: queries across all fragments still return their rows.
+        for id in ["song-10", "song-100", "song-160"] {
+            assert_eq!(query_id_count(&dataset, id).await, 1, "missing row {id}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_bitmap_index_append() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "category",
+            DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let make_batch = |labels: &[&str]| {
+            let arr = StringArray::from_iter_values(labels.iter().copied());
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(arr)]).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // One fragment + one Bitmap segment.
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(&["a", "b", "a", "c"]))], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["category"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                Some("cat_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let original_uuid = {
+            let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("cat_idx").await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+            committed[0].uuid
+        };
+
+        // Append a second fragment, leave it unindexed, then optimize with
+        // `append()` (= num_indices_to_merge: Some(0)).
+        let appended =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(&["b", "d", "d", "a"]))], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            appended,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+
+        // append() (= num_indices_to_merge: Some(0)) is now honored uniformly:
+        // Bitmap, like BTree, must keep the original segment untouched and add
+        // exactly one delta segment covering only the appended fragment.
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("cat_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            committed.len(),
+            2,
+            "Bitmap optimize append() must add a delta segment, not merge, got {committed:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            committed.iter().any(|idx| idx.uuid == original_uuid),
+            "append() must preserve the pre-existing segment {original_uuid}, got {committed:?}"
+        );
+        let new_segment = committed
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.uuid != original_uuid)
+            .expect("append() must add a new delta segment");
+        let new_segment_frags: std::collections::BTreeSet<u32> = new_segment
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("delta Bitmap should carry fragment coverage")
+            .iter()
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_segment_frags,
+            [1u32].into_iter().collect(),
+            "the delta segment must cover only the appended fragment"
+        );
+
+        // Data correctness: a value that lives only in the appended fragment
+        // is queryable through the (now multi-segment) index.
+        let rows = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("category = 'd'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["category"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_rows();
+        assert_eq!(rows, 2, "value 'd' lives in appended fragment");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_append_with_backpressured_multichunk_read() {
+        const WIDE_DIMENSION: usize = 140_000;
+        const NARROW_DIMENSION: usize = 4_096;
+        const SHORT_ROWS: usize = 68;
+        const LONG_ROWS: usize = 128;
+
+        fn make_batch(schema: Arc<Schema>, rows: usize, base: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+            let docs_field = schema.field(1);
+            let DataType::List(item_field) = docs_field.data_type() else {
+                unreachable!("docs must be a list");
+            };
+            let DataType::Struct(doc_fields) = item_field.data_type() else {
+                unreachable!("docs items must be structs");
+            };
+            let wide_values = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                (0..rows * WIDE_DIMENSION).map(|index| ((index + base) % 1009) as f32),
+            );
+            let narrow_values = Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                (0..rows * NARROW_DIMENSION).map(|index| ((index + base) % 251) as f32),
+            );
+            let docs = StructArray::new(
+                doc_fields.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(
+                        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(wide_values, WIDE_DIMENSION as i32)
+                            .unwrap(),
+                    ),
+                    Arc::new(
+                        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                            narrow_values,
+                            NARROW_DIMENSION as i32,
+                        )
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    ),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                        (0..rows).map(|index| format!("document-{}", index + base)),
+                    )),
+                ],
+                None,
+            );
+            let docs = ListArray::new(
+                item_field.clone(),
+                OffsetBuffer::from_lengths(std::iter::repeat_n(1, rows)),
+                Arc::new(docs),
+                None,
+            );
+            let ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(base as u64..(base + rows) as u64);
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(docs)]).unwrap()
+        }
+
+        let vector_item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let doc_fields = vec![
+            Field::new(
+                "wide",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(vector_item.clone(), WIDE_DIMENSION as i32),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new(
+                "narrow",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(vector_item, NARROW_DIMENSION as i32),
+                true,
+            ),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]
+        .into();
+        let docs_item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Struct(doc_fields), true));
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("docs", DataType::List(docs_item), true),
+        ]));
+
+        let initial_batch = make_batch(schema.clone(), 1, 1_000);
+        let initial_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial_batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            initial_reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["docs.text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                Some("docs_text".to_string()),
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let appended_batches = vec![
+            Ok(make_batch(schema.clone(), SHORT_ROWS, 0)),
+            Ok(make_batch(schema.clone(), LONG_ROWS, SHORT_ROWS)),
+        ];
+        let appended_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(appended_batches, schema);
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                appended_reader,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // The deleted first batch makes the live delta start exactly at the
+        // second write-batch boundary, matching a merge-insert style update.
+        dataset.delete("id < 68").await.unwrap();
+
+        let optimize_options = OptimizeOptions::append();
+        // Nested FTS reads the entire `docs` root. Under this budget the wide
+        // sibling is split into same-priority chunks, then the narrow sibling's
+        // higher-priority I/O consumes the remaining budget while the wide read
+        // is awaited. Admitted chunks must continue despite that backpressure.
+        let optimize = crate::index::scalar::TEST_TRAINING_IO_BUFFER_SIZE.scope(
+            70 * 1024 * 1024,
+            dataset.optimize_indices(&optimize_options),
+        );
+        tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(20), optimize)
+            .await
+            .expect("incremental nested FTS optimization timed out")
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let segments = dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|index| index.name == "docs_text")
+            .count();
+        assert_eq!(segments, 2, "optimization should add one FTS delta segment");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_btree_keeps_rows_with_stable_row_ids_after_compaction() {
+        async fn query_id_count(dataset: &Dataset, id: &str) -> usize {
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(&format!("id = '{}'", id))
+                .unwrap()
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .num_rows()
+        }
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let ids = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..256).map(|i| format!("song-{i}")));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(query_id_count(&dataset, "song-42").await, 1);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 512,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let frags = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(!frags.is_empty());
+        assert!(frags.iter().all(|frag| frag.id() > 0));
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .unindexed_fragments("id_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(query_id_count(&dataset, "song-42").await, 1);
+    }
+
+    /// Updating an indexed vector column in place (`update_columns` +
+    /// `Operation::Update`) keeps the fragment id and the row address, so after the
+    /// fragment is pruned from the old segment's bitmap that segment still physically
+    /// holds the pre-update vector. Merging the segment must drop those rows: the merge
+    /// concatenates its physical rows with the freshly scanned ones and commits the
+    /// union of both coverages, so a surviving stale row is authorized by the same
+    /// bitmap as its fresh copy and no read-time filter can separate them.
+    #[rstest]
+    // IVF_FLAT keeps the vector verbatim, so the query distance tells which of the two
+    // copies survived. IVF_PQ re-uses the codebook trained before the update, which
+    // cannot represent the new value, so it only pins the row count and covers the
+    // transposed-code path in `take_partition_batches`.
+    #[case::ivf_flat(VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2), true)]
+    #[case::ivf_pq(VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(1, 8, 16, MetricType::L2, 2), false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_vector_index_drops_stale_rows_on_merge(
+        #[case] index_params: VectorIndexParams,
+        #[case] distance_is_exact: bool,
+        // The two row-id schemes take different filter branches: an address carries its
+        // fragment, a stable row id needs the fragments' persisted row-id sequences.
+        #[values(false, true)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, UpdateMode, UpdatedFragmentOffsets};
+        use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
+        use arrow_array::{Float32Array, RecordBatchReader, UInt64Array};
+        use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+        use lance_index::vector::DIST_COL;
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        // Must match the sub-vector count in the IVF_PQ case above.
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        const BULK_ROWS: usize = 1000;
+        const UPDATED_ID: u32 = 10_000;
+        const STALE_VALUE: f32 = 2.0;
+        const FRESH_VALUE: f32 = 10.8;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let vector_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            DIM as i32,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new("vector", vector_type.clone(), true),
+        ]));
+        let constant_vector = |value: f32| {
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(value, DIM)),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Fragment 0: bulk vectors in [0, 1). None of them is near the query, so a
+        // surviving stale copy of the updated row ranks well inside top-k.
+        let bulk = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(BULK_ROWS * DIM, [42; 32]);
+        let bulk_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(0..BULK_ROWS as u32)),
+                Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(bulk, DIM as i32).unwrap()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(bulk_batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Fragment 1: the single row that gets updated in place.
+        let stale_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values([UPDATED_ID])),
+                Arc::new(constant_vector(STALE_VALUE)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(stale_batch)], schema.clone()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        // One segment covering both fragments.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut fragment = dataset.get_fragment(1).unwrap();
+        let mut fragment_scan = fragment.scan();
+        fragment_scan.with_row_id();
+        let updated_row_id = fragment_scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .value(0);
+
+        let update_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("vector", vector_type, true),
+        ]));
+        let update_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            update_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values([updated_row_id])),
+                Arc::new(constant_vector(FRESH_VALUE)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let right_stream: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(update_batch)],
+            update_schema,
+        ));
+        let updated = fragment
+            .update_columns_with_offsets(right_stream, ROW_ID, ROW_ID)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let updated_fragment_id = updated.fragment.id;
+        let dataset = Dataset::commit(
+            test_uri,
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                updated_fragments: vec![updated.fragment],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: updated.fields_modified,
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: Some(UpdatedFragmentOffsets(HashMap::from([(
+                    updated_fragment_id,
+                    updated.matched_offsets,
+                )]))),
+            },
+            Some(dataset.version().version),
+            None,
+            None,
+            Default::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(segments.len(), 1, "merge must leave a single segment");
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .nearest("vector", &constant_vector(FRESH_VALUE).value(0), 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap();
+        let results = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let hits = results["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(results[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values())
+            .filter(|(id, _)| **id == UPDATED_ID)
+            .map(|(_, distance)| *distance)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            hits.len(),
+            1,
+            "updated row returned {} times after merge; row ids = {:?}",
+            hits.len(),
+            results[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values()
+        );
+        if distance_is_exact {
+            // The pre-update vector would sit at (FRESH - STALE)^2 * DIM from the query,
+            // so anything but ~0 means the stale copy is the one that survived.
+            assert!(
+                hits[0] < 1.0,
+                "surviving copy is the pre-update one: distance {} to the updated vector",
+                hits[0]
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The ordinary update path (`UpdateBuilder`, `UpdateMode::RewriteRows`) commits
+    /// `fields_modified: vec![]`, so the old fragment keeps its place in the segment's
+    /// bitmap while its physical row is only deletion-marked. Under stable row ids the
+    /// rewritten copy reuses the same row id, so a merge that keeps every covered row
+    /// emits that id twice and the read-time filter admits both: the id is live again
+    /// at its new address. Coverage alone is therefore not a sufficient merge filter.
+    #[rstest]
+    // The two optimize modes read existing rows through different code, and both must
+    // filter: an explicit merge through `take_partition_batches`, and the default
+    // options over under-sized partitions through `partition_row_ids`, which feeds the
+    // join that rebuilds them.
+    #[case::merge(1, OptimizeOptions::merge(1))]
+    #[case::join(4, OptimizeOptions::new())]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_vector_index_drops_rewritten_rows_on_merge(
+        #[case] num_partitions: usize,
+        #[case] optimize_options: OptimizeOptions,
+        // Only the stable-row-id scheme can duplicate: an address-domain rewrite lands
+        // at a new address, so the stale posting is masked at query time.
+        #[values(false, true)] enable_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+        use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
+        use arrow_array::Float32Array;
+        use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+        use lance_index::vector::DIST_COL;
+
+        const DIM: usize = 4;
+        const BULK_ROWS: usize = 1000;
+        const UPDATED_ID: u32 = 10_000;
+        const STALE_VALUE: f32 = 2.0;
+        const FRESH_VALUE: f32 = 10.8;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt32, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    DIM as i32,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let constant_vector = |value: f32| {
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(value, DIM)),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // The updated row shares its fragment with the bulk rows, so the update leaves
+        // that fragment covered by the segment with one row deletion-marked instead of
+        // retiring it. The bulk vectors sit in [0, 1), far from the query, so a
+        // surviving stale copy of the updated row ranks well inside top-k.
+        let bulk = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(BULK_ROWS * DIM, [42; 32]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..BULK_ROWS as u32).chain(std::iter::once(UPDATED_ID)),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                            bulk.values()
+                                .iter()
+                                .copied()
+                                .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(STALE_VALUE, DIM)),
+                        ),
+                        DIM as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                None,
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(num_partitions, MetricType::L2),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fresh_literal = format!(
+            "array[{}]",
+            std::iter::repeat_n(FRESH_VALUE.to_string(), DIM)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .join(", ")
+        );
+        let mut dataset = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where(&format!("id = {UPDATED_ID}"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("vector", &fresh_literal)
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .new_dataset
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&optimize_options).await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(segments.len(), 1, "merge must leave a single segment");
+        let partitions_after = dataset
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &segments[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .ivf_model()
+            .num_partitions();
+        // A join is what routes existing rows through `partition_row_ids`; without it
+        // this case would silently degrade into a second copy of the merge case.
+        assert!(
+            num_partitions == 1 || partitions_after < num_partitions,
+            "expected a join, but the index still has {partitions_after} partitions"
+        );
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .nearest("vector", &constant_vector(FRESH_VALUE).value(0), 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap();
+        let results = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let hits = results["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(results[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values())
+            .filter(|(id, _)| **id == UPDATED_ID)
+            .map(|(_, distance)| *distance)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            hits.len(),
+            1,
+            "rewritten row returned {} times after optimize; row ids = {:?}",
+            hits.len(),
+            results[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values()
+        );
+        // The pre-update vector would sit at (FRESH - STALE)^2 * DIM from the query, so
+        // anything but ~0 means the stale copy is the one that survived.
+        assert!(
+            hits[0] < 1.0,
+            "surviving copy is the pre-update one: distance {} to the updated vector",
+            hits[0]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Under stable row ids, updating an indexed column and then calling
+    /// `optimize_indices` must not leave stale entries (old value -> updated row)
+    /// in the scalar index. An update deletes the old copy of each row and
+    /// rewrites it under the same stable row id, so the old index entry is stale
+    /// and must be dropped on merge. Covers BTree, Bitmap, and Inverted (FTS),
+    /// which take three different merge paths.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_scalar_index_drops_stale_rows_after_update() {
+        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        // 100 rows: num == id; cat = "A" for id<50 else "B"; body = "alpha" for
+        // id<50 else "beta".
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("num", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("cat", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            Field::new("body", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..100).map(|i| if i < 50 { "A" } else { "B" }),
+                )),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..100).map(|i| if i < 50 { "alpha" } else { "beta" }),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["num"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["cat"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["body"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                None,
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Update the first 25 rows (id < 25): num -> -1, cat -> 'B', body -> 'beta'.
+        let res = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .update_where("id < 25")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("num", "-1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("cat", "'B'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("body", "'beta'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset = res.new_dataset.as_ref().clone();
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+
+        // BTree: `num >= 0` matches ids 25..99 (75 rows); the 25 updated rows
+        // hold num = -1 and must not appear.
+        let btree_count = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("num >= 0")
+            .unwrap()
+            .count_rows()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(btree_count, 75, "btree returned stale/incorrect rows");
+
+        // Bitmap: only the 25 rows (ids 25..49) that still carry cat = 'A' match;
+        // the 25 rows updated to 'B' must not.
+        let bitmap_count = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("cat = 'A'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .count_rows()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(bitmap_count, 25, "bitmap returned stale rows");
+
+        // FTS: only the 25 rows (ids 25..49) whose body still reads "alpha" match;
+        // the 25 rows updated to "beta" must not.
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_owned()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let fts_count = scan.count_rows().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fts_count, 25, "FTS index returned stale rows");
+    }
+
+    /// Multi-segment variant (Jack Ye's repro, PR #7359): with one BTree segment
+    /// per fragment, default optimize merges only the tail segment. A stable-row-id
+    /// update to a row in an older segment's fragment must still drop that
+    /// segment's stale postings -- the merge has to reach back to cover it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_btree_drops_stale_rows_across_segments_after_update() {
+        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+        use crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder;
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("num", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        // Two fragments (0..49, 50..99) -> one BTree segment each.
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["num"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                    .name("num_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("num_idx", "num", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Update the first 25 rows (in the first/older segment's fragment).
+        let res = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .update_where("id < 25")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("num", "-1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset = res.new_dataset.as_ref().clone();
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter("num = 0")
+                .unwrap()
+                .count_rows()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            0,
+            "stale entry leaked from the older, unmerged segment"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter("num >= 0")
+                .unwrap()
+                .count_rows()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            75
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Same multi-segment gap for FTS, which takes the separate Inverted dispatch
+    /// path. One Inverted segment per fragment; an update to the older segment's
+    /// fragment must not leave its old-token postings searchable.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_fts_drops_stale_rows_across_segments_after_update() {
+        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+        use crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder;
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+        use lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndexParams;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("body", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..100).map(|i| if i < 50 { "alpha" } else { "beta" }),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["body"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+                    .name("body_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("body_idx", "body", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Update the first 25 rows (older segment's fragment): body -> "beta".
+        let res = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .update_where("id < 25")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("body", "'beta'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset = res.new_dataset.as_ref().clone();
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_owned()))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scan.count_rows().await.unwrap(),
+            25,
+            "FTS stale rows leaked from the older, unmerged segment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `optimize_indices` builds the stable-row-id allow-list by subtracting each
+    /// fragment's deletion vector. If a deletion vector cannot be read, the merge
+    /// must fail loudly: swallowing the error (treating the load as "no
+    /// deletions") would put every deleted row back into the allow-list and
+    /// silently reintroduce the stale entries this fix removes. Simulate an
+    /// unreadable deletion vector by deleting the file the manifest still
+    /// references, then assert optimize errors instead of succeeding.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_errors_when_deletion_vector_unreadable() {
+        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use lance_table::io::deletion::deletion_file_path;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("num", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["num"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Update rewrites the first 25 rows under the same stable row ids,
+        // leaving a deletion vector on the original fragment.
+        UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .update_where("id < 25")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("num", "-1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reload cold (nothing has cached the deletion vector), then remove the
+        // deletion file the manifest still references so the next read fails.
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let mut removed = 0;
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            if let Some(deletion_file) = fragment.metadata().deletion_file.clone() {
+                let path =
+                    deletion_file_path(&dataset.base, fragment.metadata().id, &deletion_file);
+                dataset.object_store.delete(&path).await.unwrap();
+                removed += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            removed, 1,
+            "update should have left exactly one deletion file"
+        );
+
+        let result = dataset.optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default()).await;
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "optimize must fail when a deletion vector cannot be read, not \
+             silently keep the deleted rows in the index"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_scalar_no_unindexed_fragments() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Utf8, false)]));
+        let ids = StringArray::from_iter_values((0..32).map(|i| format!("song-{i}")));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let before = dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(before.len(), 1);
+        let original_uuid = before[0].uuid;
+        let original_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        // `merge(1)` would historically rebuild the single existing segment
+        // (steady state, nothing unindexed) and replace its UUID; with the
+        // short-circuit it must skip work entirely.
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let after = dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(after.len(), 1, "no new segment should be produced");
+        assert_eq!(
+            after[0].uuid, original_uuid,
+            "no-op optimize must not churn the index UUID"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.version, original_version,
+            "no-op optimize must not advance the dataset version"
+        );
+
+        // The default options also short-circuit (num_to_merge defaults to 1
+        // when there is a single old segment).
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let after_default = dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(after_default[0].uuid, original_uuid);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, original_version);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::address_row_ids(false)]
+    #[case::stable_row_ids(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_btree_no_duplicate_row_addr(#[case] use_stable_row_ids: bool) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("payload", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: use_stable_row_ids,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reordered source columns (payload, id) force the partial-schema
+        // RewriteColumns path instead of a full row rewrite.
+        let source_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("payload", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        let source_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            source_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100])),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let merge_job =
+            MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()), vec!["id".to_string()])
+                .unwrap()
+                .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+                .try_build()
+                .unwrap();
+        let source_reader = Box::new(RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            [Ok(source_batch)],
+            source_schema.clone(),
+        ));
+        merge_job
+            .execute(reader_to_stream(source_reader))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Build a delta BTree segment over the now-unindexed fragment.
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap().len(),
+            2,
+            "append must create a delta segment over the rewritten fragment"
+        );
+
+        // Force the old segment + delta segment to merge.
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let rows = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id = 1")
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_rows();
+        assert_eq!(rows, 1, "id = 1 must return exactly one row after merge");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_btree_merge_remaps_deferred_compaction() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+        let make = |range: std::ops::Range<i32>| {
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(range))],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Two fragments: [0, 50) and [50, 100).
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make(0..50)), Ok(make(50..100))], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("id_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Deferred-remap compaction fuses the two fragments into one and leaves a
+        // pending FragReuseIndex; the index segment is not eagerly remapped.
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Append a third fragment, left unindexed.
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make(100..150))], schema.clone()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Merge the deferred-remapped old segment with the new delta.
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        // A value from the compacted fragments must still be found via the index.
+        let hit = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id = 25")
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_rows();
+        assert_eq!(
+            hit, 1,
+            "compacted-then-merged row must remain queryable via the index"
+        );
+        let total = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id >= 0")
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_rows();
+        assert_eq!(total, 150, "no rows may be lost across compaction + merge");
+    }
+
+    /// Build one Bitmap segment per fragment of `dataset` under `index_name`.
+    async fn commit_bitmap_segment_per_fragment(dataset: &mut Dataset, index_name: &str) {
+        let groups = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|frag| vec![frag.id() as u32])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        commit_bitmap_segments(dataset, index_name, &groups).await;
+    }
+
+    /// One committed Bitmap segment per fragment group.
+    async fn commit_bitmap_segments(dataset: &mut Dataset, index_name: &str, groups: &[Vec<u32>]) {
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        let mut staged = Vec::with_capacity(groups.len());
+        for group in groups {
+            staged.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(dataset, &["cat"], IndexType::Bitmap, &params)
+                    .name(index_name.into())
+                    .fragments(group.clone())
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "cat", staged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// The oldest `dataset_version` across an index's segments, which is what a
+    /// segment merge carries over to the segment it produces. Checked here to
+    /// predate the current manifest, since otherwise it could not tell a merge
+    /// from a rebuild.
+    async fn oldest_segment_version(dataset: &Dataset, index_name: &str) -> u64 {
+        let oldest = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name(index_name)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.dataset_version)
+            .min()
+            .expect("the index must have at least one segment");
+        assert!(
+            oldest < dataset.manifest.version,
+            "the source segments must predate the manifest, or their version \
+             cannot distinguish a merge from a rebuild"
+        );
+        oldest
+    }
+
+    /// Pins that `optimize_indices` took the segment-merge path. A full rebuild
+    /// produces the same rows, so the row counts these tests check cannot tell
+    /// the two apart; the stamped `dataset_version` can, because the merge keeps
+    /// the oldest source segment's version while a rebuild stamps the manifest
+    /// version current at the time of the optimize.
+    async fn assert_merged_not_rebuilt(dataset: &Dataset, index_name: &str, oldest_source: u64) {
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments.len(),
+            1,
+            "the optimize must consolidate every bitmap segment, got {segments:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments[0].dataset_version, oldest_source,
+            "the optimize rebuilt the index instead of merging the segments: a \
+             merged segment carries the oldest source segment's dataset version"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn id_cat_schema() -> Arc<Schema> {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("cat", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// `id` ascending, `cat` cycling through A/B/C.
+    fn id_cat_batch(schema: &Arc<Schema>, range: std::ops::Range<i32>) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(range.clone())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    range.map(|i| ["A", "B", "C"][(i % 3) as usize]),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn count_cat(dataset: &Dataset, cat: &str) -> usize {
+        count_rows_where(dataset, &format!("cat = '{cat}'")).await
+    }
+
+    async fn count_rows_where(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str) -> usize {
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter(predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .count_rows()
+            .await
+            .unwrap() as usize
+    }
+
+    /// `id` ascending, `cat` cycling through A/B/C/NULL.
+    fn id_cat_nullable_batch(schema: &Arc<Schema>, range: std::ops::Range<i32>) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(range.clone())),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter(
+                    range.map(|i| ["A", "B", "C"].get((i % 4) as usize).copied()),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The K-way merge over a nullable column: nulls must survive consolidation of
+    /// several segments plus an unindexed tail, and `IS NULL` is served from
+    /// `null_map`, which is filled separately from the value row sets.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_bitmap_multi_segment_merge_keeps_nulls() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("cat", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+
+        // 36 rows over three 12-row fragments; every fourth row is null.
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![
+                Ok(id_cat_nullable_batch(&schema, 0..12)),
+                Ok(id_cat_nullable_batch(&schema, 12..24)),
+                Ok(id_cat_nullable_batch(&schema, 24..36)),
+            ],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 12,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        commit_bitmap_segment_per_fragment(&mut dataset, "cat_idx").await;
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(
+                    vec![Ok(id_cat_nullable_batch(&schema, 36..48))],
+                    schema.clone(),
+                ),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let oldest_source = oldest_segment_version(&dataset, "cat_idx").await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(200))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert_merged_not_rebuilt(&dataset, "cat_idx", oldest_source).await;
+
+        // 48 rows cycling A/B/C/NULL: 12 of each.
+        for cat in ["A", "B", "C"] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                count_cat(&dataset, cat).await,
+                12,
+                "wrong row count for cat = {cat} after merging a nullable column"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_rows_where(&dataset, "cat IS NULL").await,
+            12,
+            "nulls lost across the bitmap merge"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_rows_where(&dataset, "cat IS NOT NULL").await,
+            36,
+            "IS NOT NULL disagrees with the value row sets"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.scan().count_rows().await.unwrap(), 48);
+    }
+
+    /// A 200-way merge over three Bitmap segments plus an unindexed fragment must
+    /// consolidate into one segment (via the N:1 segment-merge primitive) and keep
+    /// every posting.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_bitmap_multi_segment_merge_consolidates() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let schema = id_cat_schema();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![
+                Ok(id_cat_batch(&schema, 0..50)),
+                Ok(id_cat_batch(&schema, 50..100)),
+                Ok(id_cat_batch(&schema, 100..150)),
+            ],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        commit_bitmap_segment_per_fragment(&mut dataset, "cat_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.load_indices_by_name("cat_idx").await.unwrap().len(),
+            3
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(id_cat_batch(&schema, 150..200))], schema.clone()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let oldest_source = oldest_segment_version(&dataset, "cat_idx").await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(200))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert_merged_not_rebuilt(&dataset, "cat_idx", oldest_source).await;
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name("cat_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let expected_coverage = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|frag| frag.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref(),
+            Some(&expected_coverage),
+            "merged bitmap segment must cover every dataset fragment"
+        );
+
+        for (cat, expected) in [("A", 67), ("B", 67), ("C", 66)] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                count_cat(&dataset, cat).await,
+                expected,
+                "wrong row count for cat = {cat} after multi-segment bitmap merge"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A wide consolidation: 26 Bitmap delta segments merged into one by a single
+    /// `optimize_indices` call, with no unindexed data on top.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_bitmap_wide_consolidation() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let schema = id_cat_schema();
+
+        let num_segments = 26;
+        let rows_per_fragment = 12;
+        let total_rows = num_segments * rows_per_fragment;
+        let batches = (0..num_segments)
+            .map(|i| {
+                Ok(id_cat_batch(
+                    &schema,
+                    i * rows_per_fragment..(i + 1) * rows_per_fragment,
+                ))
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: rows_per_fragment as usize,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), num_segments as usize);
+
+        commit_bitmap_segment_per_fragment(&mut dataset, "cat_idx").await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.load_indices_by_name("cat_idx").await.unwrap().len(),
+            num_segments as usize
+        );
+
+        let oldest_source = oldest_segment_version(&dataset, "cat_idx").await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(num_segments as usize))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert_merged_not_rebuilt(&dataset, "cat_idx", oldest_source).await;
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name("cat_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let expected_coverage = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|frag| frag.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref(),
+            Some(&expected_coverage)
+        );
+
+        let per_cat = (total_rows / 3) as usize;
+        for cat in ["A", "B", "C"] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                count_cat(&dataset, cat).await,
+                per_cat,
+                "wrong row count for cat = {cat} after wide bitmap consolidation"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Deferred-remap compaction leaves the bitmap segments pointing at retired
+    /// fragment ids; a K-way segment merge must remap them through the
+    /// FragReuseIndex instead of dropping or misattributing the rows.
+    ///
+    /// Null rows ride in `null_map`, which the merge fills separately from the
+    /// value row sets, so they need remapping of their own and the nullable
+    /// case is not covered by the other one.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::non_null(false)]
+    #[case::nullable(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_bitmap_merge_remaps_deferred_compaction(#[case] nullable: bool) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("cat", DataType::Utf8, nullable),
+        ]));
+        // A/B/C cycling, with every fourth row null in the nullable case.
+        let batch = |range: std::ops::Range<i32>| {
+            if nullable {
+                id_cat_nullable_batch(&schema, range)
+            } else {
+                id_cat_batch(&schema, range)
+            }
+        };
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![
+                Ok(batch(0..50)),
+                Ok(batch(50..100)),
+                Ok(batch(100..150)),
+                Ok(batch(150..200)),
+            ],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        // Two fragments per segment: compaction only ever bins fragments that
+        // carry the same set of index segments, so one segment per fragment
+        // would leave every bin a single fragment and plan no work at all.
+        commit_bitmap_segments(&mut dataset, "cat_idx", &[vec![0, 1], vec![2, 3]]).await;
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        // Every original fragment was retired, so each segment's postings now
+        // need the FragReuseIndex to reach a live row.
+        assert!(
+            dataset.get_fragments().iter().all(|frag| frag.id() >= 4),
+            "compaction must have retired every indexed fragment"
+        );
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch(200..240))], schema.clone()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let oldest_source = oldest_segment_version(&dataset, "cat_idx").await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(200))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert_merged_not_rebuilt(&dataset, "cat_idx", oldest_source).await;
+        // 240 rows: A/B/C/NULL evenly when nullable, A/B/C otherwise.
+        let (expected_per_cat, expected_nulls) = if nullable {
+            ([60, 60, 60], 60)
+        } else {
+            ([80, 80, 80], 0)
+        };
+        for (cat, expected) in ["A", "B", "C"].into_iter().zip(expected_per_cat) {
+            assert_eq!(
+                count_cat(&dataset, cat).await,
+                expected,
+                "cat = {cat} lost or gained rows across deferred compaction + bitmap merge"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_rows_where(&dataset, "cat IS NULL").await,
+            expected_nulls,
+            "null rows were not remapped across deferred compaction + bitmap merge"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_rows_where(&dataset, "cat IS NOT NULL").await,
+            240 - expected_nulls,
+            "IS NOT NULL disagrees with the value row sets after the remap"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.scan().count_rows().await.unwrap(),
+            240,
+            "no rows may be lost across compaction + bitmap merge"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Stable-row-id update against an older Bitmap segment's fragment: the K-way
+    /// merge must drop that segment's stale postings, not just the tail segment's.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_bitmap_drops_stale_rows_across_segments_after_update() {
+        use crate::dataset::UpdateBuilder;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let schema = id_cat_schema();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![
+                Ok(id_cat_batch(&schema, 0..50)),
+                Ok(id_cat_batch(&schema, 50..100)),
+            ],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 50,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        commit_bitmap_segment_per_fragment(&mut dataset, "cat_idx").await;
+
+        // Rows 0..25 live in the *older* segment's fragment; rewrite their cat.
+        let res = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .update_where("id < 25")
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("cat", "'Z'")
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = res.new_dataset.as_ref().clone();
+
+        let oldest_source = oldest_segment_version(&dataset, "cat_idx").await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        // Two segments went in, so this exercised the K-way path rather than the
+        // single-segment `update` this change does not touch.
+        assert_merged_not_rebuilt(&dataset, "cat_idx", oldest_source).await;
+        // ids 0..25 are now 'Z'; the remaining A/B/C counts come from ids 25..100.
+        assert_eq!(count_cat(&dataset, "Z").await, 25, "updated rows missing");
+        for (cat, expected) in [("A", 25), ("B", 25), ("C", 25)] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                count_cat(&dataset, cat).await,
+                expected,
+                "bitmap merge returned stale rows for cat = {cat}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/create.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/create.rs
index d929dbffffd..0d5685855af 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/create.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/create.rs
@@ -2,35 +2,45 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use crate::{
+    Error, Result,
     dataset::{
-        transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
         Dataset,
+        transaction::{Operation, TransactionBuilder},
     },
     index::{
-        scalar::build_scalar_index,
+        DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt, IntoIndexSegment,
+        build_index_metadata_from_segments,
+        frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids::{
+            ensure_index_allowed_with_frag_reuse, ensure_index_kind_allowed_with_frag_reuse,
+        },
+        load_all_indices,
+        scalar::{build_bitmap_index_segment, build_scalar_index},
         vector::{
-            build_distributed_vector_index, build_empty_vector_index, build_vector_index,
-            VectorIndexParams, LANCE_VECTOR_INDEX,
+            LANCE_VECTOR_INDEX, StageParams, VectorIndexParams, build_distributed_vector_index,
+            build_empty_vector_index, build_filtered_vector_index, build_vector_index,
         },
-        vector_index_details, DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt,
+        vector_index_details, vector_index_details_default,
     },
-    Error, Result,
 };
-use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::{FutureExt, future::BoxFuture};
 use lance_core::datatypes::format_field_path;
+use lance_index::progress::{IndexBuildProgress, NoopIndexBuildProgress};
+use lance_index::{
+    IndexParams, IndexType, registry::plugin_name_from_details_url, scalar::CreatedIndex,
+};
 use lance_index::{
     metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
-    scalar::{inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams, LANCE_SCALAR_INDEX},
+    scalar::{
+        LANCE_SCALAR_INDEX, ScalarIndexParams, index_files_to_table,
+        inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams, table_files_to_index,
+    },
 };
-use lance_index::{scalar::CreatedIndex, IndexParams, IndexType, VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION};
-use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
-use snafu::location;
-use std::{future::IntoFuture, sync::Arc};
-use tracing::instrument;
+use lance_table::format::{IndexMetadata, list_index_files_with_sizes};
+use std::{collections::HashMap, future::IntoFuture, sync::Arc};
+use tracing::{instrument, warn};
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
 use arrow_array::RecordBatchReader;
-
 /// Generate default index name from field path.
 ///
 /// Joins field names with `.` to create the base index name.
@@ -43,6 +53,23 @@ fn default_index_name(fields: &[&str]) -> String {
     }
 }
 
+fn resolved_inverted_params(params: &ScalarIndexParams) -> Result<InvertedIndexParams> {
+    let provided = params
+        .params
+        .as_deref()
+        .map(serde_json::from_str::<serde_json::Value>)
+        .transpose()?
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| serde_json::json!({}));
+    provided.as_object().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input("inverted index parameters must be a JSON object".to_string())
+    })?;
+    Ok(serde_json::from_value(provided)?)
+}
+
+fn scalar_params_from_inverted(params: &InvertedIndexParams) -> Result<ScalarIndexParams> {
+    Ok(ScalarIndexParams::new("inverted".to_string()).with_params(&params.to_training_json()?))
+}
+
 pub struct CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
     dataset: &'a mut Dataset,
     columns: Vec<String>,
@@ -52,8 +79,11 @@ pub struct CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
     replace: bool,
     train: bool,
     fragments: Option<Vec<u32>>,
-    index_uuid: Option<String>,
+    index_uuid: Option<Uuid>,
     preprocessed_data: Option<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static>>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+    /// Transaction properties to store with this commit.
+    transaction_properties: Option<Arc<HashMap<String, String>>>,
 }
 
 impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
@@ -74,6 +104,8 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
             fragments: None,
             index_uuid: None,
             preprocessed_data: None,
+            progress: Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+            transaction_properties: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -97,7 +129,7 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
         self
     }
 
-    pub fn index_uuid(mut self, uuid: String) -> Self {
+    pub fn index_uuid(mut self, uuid: Uuid) -> Self {
         self.index_uuid = Some(uuid);
         self
     }
@@ -110,99 +142,264 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
         self
     }
 
+    pub fn progress(mut self, p: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>) -> Self {
+        self.progress = p;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set transaction properties to store with this commit.
+    ///
+    /// These key-value pairs are stored in the transaction file
+    /// and can be read later to identify the source of the commit
+    /// (e.g., job_id for tracking completed index jobs).
+    pub fn transaction_properties(mut self, properties: HashMap<String, String>) -> Self {
+        self.transaction_properties = Some(Arc::new(properties));
+        self
+    }
+
     #[instrument(skip_all)]
     pub async fn execute_uncommitted(&mut self) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+        self.execute_uncommitted_impl().await
+    }
+
+    fn execute_uncommitted_impl(&mut self) -> BoxFuture<'_, Result<IndexMetadata>> {
+        async move {
         if self.columns.len() != 1 {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Only support building index on 1 column at the moment".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "Only support building index on 1 column at the moment".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
         let column_input = &self.columns[0];
+        let scalar_fts_request = self.index_type == IndexType::Scalar
+            && self
+                .params
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<ScalarIndexParams>()
+                .is_some_and(|params| {
+                    params.index_type.eq_ignore_ascii_case("inverted")
+                        || params.index_type.eq_ignore_ascii_case("fts")
+                });
+        // Load indices from the disk. Names are reserved against every index the
+        // manifest carries: one this build cannot read still owns its name, and
+        // handing that name out again commits two indices under it.
+        let indices = load_all_indices(self.dataset).await?;
+        // These always store row ids, so refuse them before training.
+        let index_kind = if self.index_type.is_vector() {
+            Some("vector")
+        } else if self.index_type == IndexType::Inverted || scalar_fts_request {
+            Some("full-text")
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        if let Some(index_kind) = index_kind {
+            ensure_index_kind_allowed_with_frag_reuse(
+                &self.dataset.manifest,
+                &indices,
+                index_kind,
+                column_input,
+            )?;
+        }
+        let inverted_params = if self.index_type == IndexType::Inverted {
+            if let Some(params) = self
+                .params
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndexParams>()
+            {
+                Some(params.clone())
+            } else if let Some(params) =
+                self.params.as_any().downcast_ref::<ScalarIndexParams>()
+            {
+                Some(resolved_inverted_params(params)?)
+            } else {
+                return Err(Error::index(
+                    "Inverted index type must take InvertedIndexParams or ScalarIndexParams"
+                        .to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+        } else if scalar_fts_request {
+            Some(resolved_inverted_params(
+                self.params
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<ScalarIndexParams>()
+                    .expect("scalar_fts_request verified scalar params"),
+            )?)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let resolved_fts_field = if let Some(params) = &inverted_params {
+            Some(crate::index::scalar::inverted::resolve_fts_field(
+                self.dataset.schema(),
+                column_input,
+                params.get_document_granularity(),
+            )?)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let lookup_column = resolved_fts_field
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|resolved| resolved.root_column.as_str())
+            .unwrap_or(column_input);
         // Use case-insensitive lookup for both simple and nested paths.
         // resolve_case_insensitive tries exact match first, then falls back to case-insensitive.
-        let Some(field_path) = self.dataset.schema().resolve_case_insensitive(column_input) else {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("CreateIndex: column '{column_input}' does not exist"),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+        let Some(field_path) = self.dataset.schema().resolve_case_insensitive(lookup_column) else {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: column '{column_input}' does not exist"
+            )));
+        };
+        let field = if let Some(resolved) = &resolved_fts_field {
+            self.dataset
+                .schema()
+                .field_by_id(resolved.final_field_id)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "CreateIndex: FTS field path '{column_input}' resolved to missing field id {}",
+                        resolved.final_field_id
+                    ))
+                })?
+        } else {
+            *field_path.last().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "CreateIndex: column '{column_input}' resolved to an empty field path"
+                ))
+            })?
         };
-        let field = *field_path.last().unwrap();
         // Reconstruct the column path with correct case from schema
         // Use quoted format for SQL parsing (special chars are quoted)
         let names: Vec<&str> = field_path.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
         let quoted_column: String = format_field_path(&names);
-        let column = quoted_column.as_str();
+        let column = resolved_fts_field
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|resolved| resolved.canonical_path.as_str())
+            .unwrap_or(quoted_column.as_str());
 
-        // If train is true but dataset is empty, automatically set train to false
-        let train = if self.train {
-            self.dataset.count_rows(None).await? > 0
-        } else {
-            false
-        };
+        // A fragment list naming the whole table is a whole-table build, not a
+        // subset: `effective_vector_fragments` normalizes it to `None` so a
+        // retrain gets the same row floor as a create.
+        let vector_fragments_for_validation =
+            is_builtin_vector_index(self.index_type, self.params)
+                .then(|| effective_vector_fragments(self.dataset, self.fragments.as_deref()))
+                .flatten();
+        let quantizer_minimum_rows = self
+            .params
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<VectorIndexParams>()
+            .and_then(|params| super::vector::vector_quantizer_minimum_rows(&params.stages));
+        let train = should_train_index(
+            self.dataset,
+            self.train,
+            vector_fragments_for_validation.as_deref(),
+            quantizer_minimum_rows,
+            column,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        if !train {
+            // A partition count is not among the settings a definition records,
+            // so a caller who asked for one gets a different shape when the
+            // index finally trains.
+            if let Some(requested) = self
+                .params
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<VectorIndexParams>()
+                .and_then(|params| {
+                    params.stages.iter().find_map(|stage| match stage {
+                        StageParams::Ivf(ivf) => ivf.num_partitions,
+                        _ => None,
+                    })
+                })
+            {
+                warn!(
+                    column,
+                    requested_num_partitions = requested,
+                    "Not enough rows to train even one partition, so the index is \
+                     recorded empty and will be trained once more data arrives. Its \
+                     partition count will come from target_partition_size then, not \
+                     from the num_partitions requested here."
+                );
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Load indices from the disk.
-        let indices = self.dataset.load_indices().await?;
         let fri = self
             .dataset
             .open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await?;
-        let index_name = if let Some(name) = self.name.take() {
-            name
+        // Read without consuming: a failed build must leave the requested name in
+        // place so a retry commits under it instead of an auto-generated one.
+        let index_name = if let Some(name) = self.name.as_deref() {
+            name.to_string()
         } else {
-            // Generate default name with collision handling
-            let column_path = default_index_name(&names);
+            // Generate default name with collision handling.
+            // A name is available when there is no existing index with:
+            //   - the same name AND different fields, OR
+            //   - the same name AND same field BUT a different index kind
+            let column_path = resolved_fts_field
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|resolved| {
+                    if resolved.document_granularity.is_list_element() {
+                        format!("{}_list_element", resolved.canonical_path)
+                    } else {
+                        resolved.canonical_path.clone()
+                    }
+                })
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| default_index_name(&names));
             let base_name = format!("{column_path}_idx");
             let mut candidate = base_name.clone();
             let mut counter = 2; // Start with no suffix, then use _2, _3, ...
-                                 // Find unique name by appending numeric suffix if needed
-            while indices
-                .iter()
-                .any(|idx| idx.name == candidate && idx.fields != [field.id])
-            {
+            while indices.iter().any(|idx| {
+                // A covered index still names the same column by its keyed
+                // prefix; only that prefix decides whether this is "the same
+                // field", not the full `fields` vector including carried
+                // columns.
+                let different_field = idx.keyed_field() != Some(field.id);
+                idx.name == candidate
+                    && (different_field || !index_matches_type(idx, self.index_type, self.params))
+            }) {
                 candidate = format!("{base_name}_{counter}");
                 counter += 1;
             }
             candidate
         };
-        if let Some(idx) = indices.iter().find(|i| i.name == index_name) {
-            if idx.fields == [field.id] && !self.replace {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Index name '{index_name} already exists, \
-                        please specify a different name or use replace=True"
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            };
-            if idx.fields != [field.id] {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Index name '{index_name} already exists with different fields, \
-                        please specify a different name"
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
+        let existing_named_indices = indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == index_name)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if existing_named_indices.iter().any(|idx| {
+            // Same rule as above: the keyed prefix decides identity, not the
+            // full `fields` vector.
+            idx.keyed_field() != Some(field.id)
+        }) {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index name '{index_name}' already exists with different fields, \
+                please specify a different name"
+            )));
+        }
+        if !existing_named_indices.is_empty() && !self.replace {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index name '{index_name}' already exists, \
+                please specify a different name or use replace=True"
+            )));
         }
+        ensure_index_uuid_allowed(
+            self.index_type,
+            self.params,
+            self.fragments.as_ref(),
+            self.index_uuid.as_ref(),
+        )?;
 
-        let index_id = match &self.index_uuid {
-            Some(uuid_str) => Uuid::parse_str(uuid_str).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Invalid UUID string provided: {}", e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?,
-            None => Uuid::new_v4(),
-        };
+        let index_id = self.index_uuid.unwrap_or_else(Uuid::new_v4);
+        let mut output_index_uuid = index_id;
         let created_index = match (self.index_type, self.params.index_name()) {
             (
                 IndexType::Bitmap
                 | IndexType::BTree
                 | IndexType::Inverted
                 | IndexType::NGram
+                | IndexType::Fm
                 | IndexType::ZoneMap
                 | IndexType::BloomFilter
                 | IndexType::LabelList
-                | IndexType::RTree,
+                | IndexType::RTree
+                | IndexType::MinHashLsh,
                 LANCE_SCALAR_INDEX,
             ) => {
                 assert!(
@@ -212,7 +409,7 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
                 let base_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(self.index_type.try_into()?);
 
                 // If custom params were provided, extract the params JSON and apply it
-                let params = if let Some(provided_params) =
+                let mut params = if let Some(provided_params) =
                     self.params.as_any().downcast_ref::<ScalarIndexParams>()
                 {
                     if let Some(params_json) = &provided_params.params {
@@ -230,21 +427,52 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
                 } else {
                     base_params
                 };
+                if let Some(inverted_params) = &inverted_params {
+                    params = scalar_params_from_inverted(inverted_params)?;
+                }
 
                 let preprocesssed_data = self
                     .preprocessed_data
                     .take()
                     .map(|reader| lance_datafusion::utils::reader_to_stream(Box::new(reader)));
-                build_scalar_index(
-                    self.dataset,
-                    column,
-                    &index_id.to_string(),
-                    &params,
-                    train,
-                    self.fragments.clone(),
-                    preprocesssed_data,
-                )
-                .await?
+                if self.index_type == IndexType::Bitmap && self.fragments.is_some() {
+                    if !train {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "canonical bitmap segment build requires train=true".to_string(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    if preprocesssed_data.is_some() {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "canonical bitmap segment build does not accept preprocessed data"
+                                .to_string(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    let fragments = self.fragments.clone().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(
+                            "canonical bitmap segment build requires fragment ids".to_string(),
+                        )
+                    })?;
+                    build_bitmap_index_segment(
+                        self.dataset,
+                        column,
+                        index_id,
+                        fragments,
+                        self.progress.clone(),
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                } else {
+                    build_scalar_index(
+                        self.dataset,
+                        column,
+                        index_id,
+                        &params,
+                        train,
+                        self.fragments.clone(),
+                        preprocesssed_data,
+                        self.progress.clone(),
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                }
             }
             (IndexType::Scalar, LANCE_SCALAR_INDEX) => {
                 // Guess the index type
@@ -252,42 +480,43 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
                     .params
                     .as_any()
                     .downcast_ref::<ScalarIndexParams>()
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: "Scalar index type must take a ScalarIndexParams".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index("Scalar index type must take a ScalarIndexParams".to_string())
+                    })?
+                    .clone();
+                let params = if let Some(inverted_params) = &inverted_params {
+                    scalar_params_from_inverted(inverted_params)?
+                } else {
+                    params
+                };
                 build_scalar_index(
                     self.dataset,
                     column,
-                    &index_id.to_string(),
-                    params,
+                    index_id,
+                    &params,
                     train,
                     self.fragments.clone(),
                     None,
+                    self.progress.clone(),
                 )
                 .await?
             }
             (IndexType::Inverted, _) => {
                 // Inverted index params.
-                let inverted_params = self
-                    .params
-                    .as_any()
-                    .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndexParams>()
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: "Inverted index type must take a InvertedIndexParams".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
+                let inverted_params = inverted_params
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("IndexType::Inverted parameters were resolved above");
 
-                let params =
-                    ScalarIndexParams::new("inverted".to_string()).with_params(inverted_params);
+                let params = scalar_params_from_inverted(inverted_params)?;
                 build_scalar_index(
                     self.dataset,
                     column,
-                    &index_id.to_string(),
+                    index_id,
                     &params,
                     train,
                     self.fragments.clone(),
                     None,
+                    self.progress.clone(),
                 )
                 .await?
             }
@@ -296,6 +525,7 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
                 | IndexType::IvfPq
                 | IndexType::IvfSq
                 | IndexType::IvfFlat
+                | IndexType::IvfRq
                 | IndexType::IvfHnswFlat
                 | IndexType::IvfHnswPq
                 | IndexType::IvfHnswSq,
@@ -306,37 +536,57 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
                     .params
                     .as_any()
                     .downcast_ref::<VectorIndexParams>()
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: "Vector index type must take a VectorIndexParams".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::index("Vector index type must take a VectorIndexParams".to_string())
                     })?;
+                let index_version = vec_params.index_type().version() as u32;
 
-                if train {
+                let effective_fragments =
+                    effective_vector_fragments(self.dataset, self.fragments.as_deref());
+                let files = if train {
                     // Check if this is distributed indexing (fragment-level)
-                    if self.fragments.is_some() {
-                        // For distributed indexing, build only on specified fragments
-                        // This creates temporary index metadata without committing
-                        Box::pin(build_distributed_vector_index(
-                            self.dataset,
-                            column,
-                            &index_name,
-                            &index_id.to_string(),
-                            vec_params,
-                            fri,
-                            self.fragments.as_ref().unwrap(),
-                        ))
-                        .await?;
+                    if let Some(fragments) = effective_fragments.as_deref() {
+                        if vector_params_have_precomputed_ivf(vec_params) {
+                            // For distributed indexing, build only on specified fragments
+                            // This creates temporary index metadata without committing
+                            let (segment_uuid, files) = Box::pin(build_distributed_vector_index(
+                                self.dataset,
+                                column,
+                                &index_name,
+                                index_id,
+                                vec_params,
+                                fri,
+                                fragments,
+                                self.progress.clone(),
+                            ))
+                            .await?;
+                            output_index_uuid = segment_uuid;
+                            files
+                        } else {
+                            Box::pin(build_filtered_vector_index(
+                                self.dataset,
+                                column,
+                                &index_name,
+                                index_id,
+                                vec_params,
+                                fri,
+                                fragments,
+                                self.progress.clone(),
+                            ))
+                            .await?
+                        }
                     } else {
                         // Standard full dataset indexing
                         Box::pin(build_vector_index(
                             self.dataset,
                             column,
                             &index_name,
-                            &index_id.to_string(),
+                            index_id,
                             vec_params,
                             fri,
+                            self.progress.clone(),
                         ))
-                        .await?;
+                        .await?
                     }
                 } else {
                     // Create empty vector index
@@ -344,14 +594,15 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
                         self.dataset,
                         column,
                         &index_name,
-                        &index_id.to_string(),
+                        index_id,
                         vec_params,
                     )
-                    .await?;
-                }
+                    .await?
+                };
                 CreatedIndex {
-                    index_details: vector_index_details(),
-                    index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION,
+                    index_details: vector_index_details(vec_params),
+                    index_version,
+                    files: table_files_to_index(files),
                 }
             }
             // Can't use if let Some(...) here because it's not stable yet.
@@ -373,54 +624,48 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
                     .to_vector()
                     // this should never happen because we control the registration
                     // if this fails, the registration logic has a bug
-                    .ok_or(Error::Internal {
-                        message: "unable to cast index extension to vector".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
+                    .ok_or(Error::internal(
+                        "unable to cast index extension to vector".to_string(),
+                    ))?;
 
+                // An extension that has not been trained writes nothing: the
+                // definition is the whole index until there is data for it.
                 if train {
-                    ext.create_index(self.dataset, column, &index_id.to_string(), self.params)
+                    ext.create_index(self.dataset, column, &index_id, self.params)
                         .await?;
-                } else {
-                    todo!("create empty vector index when train=false");
                 }
+                // Capture file sizes after vector index creation
+                let index_dir = self.dataset.indices_dir().join(index_id.to_string());
+                let files =
+                    list_index_files_with_sizes(&self.dataset.object_store, &index_dir).await?;
                 CreatedIndex {
-                    index_details: vector_index_details(),
-                    index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION,
+                    index_details: vector_index_details_default(),
+                    index_version: self.index_type.version() as u32,
+                    files: table_files_to_index(files),
                 }
             }
             (IndexType::FragmentReuse, _) => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: "Fragment reuse index can only be created through compaction"
-                        .to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                return Err(Error::index(
+                    "Fragment reuse index can only be created through compaction".to_string(),
+                ));
             }
             (index_type, index_name) => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Index type {index_type} with name {index_name} is not supported"
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Index type {index_type} with name {index_name} is not supported"
+                )));
             }
         };
 
-        Ok(IndexMetadata {
-            uuid: index_id,
+        let index_metadata = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: output_index_uuid,
             name: index_name,
             fields: vec![field.id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
             dataset_version: self.dataset.manifest.version,
             fragment_bitmap: if train {
                 match &self.fragments {
                     Some(fragment_ids) => Some(fragment_ids.iter().collect()),
-                    None => Some(
-                        self.dataset
-                            .get_fragments()
-                            .iter()
-                            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
-                            .collect(),
-                    ),
+                    None => Some(self.dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()),
                 }
             } else {
                 // Empty bitmap for untrained indices
@@ -430,21 +675,46 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
             index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
             created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
             base_id: None,
-        })
+            files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+        };
+        // A generic scalar request only resolves to an implementation here.
+        ensure_index_allowed_with_frag_reuse(&self.dataset.manifest, &indices, &index_metadata)?;
+        Ok(index_metadata)
+        }
+        .boxed()
     }
 
     #[instrument(skip_all)]
     async fn execute(mut self) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+        // Multi-segment FM-Index path: when num_segments > 1, build one segment
+        // per fragment group and commit them all atomically.
+        if let Some(num_segments) = self.fmindex_num_segments()
+            && num_segments > 1
+        {
+            return self.execute_multi_segment_fmindex(num_segments).await;
+        }
+
         let new_idx = self.execute_uncommitted().await?;
         let index_uuid = new_idx.uuid;
-        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+        let removed_indices = if self.replace {
+            load_all_indices(self.dataset)
+                .await?
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|idx| idx.name == new_idx.name)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect()
+        } else {
+            vec![]
+        };
+        let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
             new_idx.dataset_version,
             Operation::CreateIndex {
                 new_indices: vec![new_idx],
-                removed_indices: vec![],
+                removed_indices,
             },
-            None,
-        );
+        )
+        .transaction_properties(self.transaction_properties.clone())
+        .build();
 
         self.dataset
             .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
@@ -457,11 +727,370 @@ impl<'a> CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
             .iter()
             .find(|idx| idx.uuid == index_uuid)
             .cloned()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Index with UUID {} not found after commit", index_uuid),
-                location: location!(),
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Index with UUID {} not found after commit",
+                    index_uuid
+                ))
             })
     }
+    /// Extract `num_segments` from FM-Index params if this is an FM-Index build.
+    fn fmindex_num_segments(&self) -> Option<u32> {
+        if self.index_type != IndexType::Fm {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let scalar_params = self.params.as_any().downcast_ref::<ScalarIndexParams>()?;
+        let params_json = scalar_params.params.as_deref()?;
+        let json: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(params_json).ok()?;
+        json.get("num_segments")?.as_u64().map(|n| n as u32)
+    }
+
+    /// Build FM-Index with multiple segments, each covering a subset of fragments.
+    async fn execute_multi_segment_fmindex(&mut self, num_segments: u32) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+        // Validate column count: same check as execute_uncommitted
+        if self.columns.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "Only support building index on 1 column at the moment".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let column_input = &self.columns[0];
+        let Some(field_path) = self.dataset.schema().resolve_case_insensitive(column_input) else {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: column '{column_input}' does not exist"
+            )));
+        };
+        let field = *field_path.last().unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = field_path.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
+        let column = format_field_path(&names);
+
+        let train = if self.train {
+            self.dataset.count_rows(None).await? > 0
+        } else {
+            false
+        };
+
+        let indices = load_all_indices(self.dataset).await?;
+        // Matches execute_uncommitted. Unobservable here, since the only caller
+        // consumes the builder.
+        let index_name = if let Some(name) = self.name.as_deref() {
+            name.to_string()
+        } else {
+            let column_path = default_index_name(&names);
+            let base_name = format!("{column_path}_idx");
+            let mut candidate = base_name.clone();
+            let mut counter = 2;
+            while indices.iter().any(|idx| {
+                // Same name-collision rule as `execute_uncommitted_impl`'s
+                // default-name loop above in this file.
+                idx.name == candidate && idx.keyed_field() != Some(field.id)
+            }) {
+                candidate = format!("{base_name}_{counter}");
+                counter += 1;
+            }
+            candidate
+        };
+        let existing_named_indices = indices
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == index_name)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if existing_named_indices.iter().any(|idx| {
+            // Same rule as above: the keyed prefix decides identity, not the
+            // full `fields` vector.
+            idx.keyed_field() != Some(field.id)
+        }) {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index name '{index_name}' already exists with different fields, \
+                please specify a different name"
+            )));
+        }
+        if !existing_named_indices.is_empty() && !self.replace {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Index name '{index_name}' already exists, \
+                please specify a different name or use replace=True"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let all_fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = self.dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().iter().collect();
+        if !train || all_fragment_ids.is_empty() {
+            let segment_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let created_index = build_scalar_index(
+                self.dataset,
+                &column,
+                segment_uuid,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Fm),
+                false,
+                None,
+                None,
+                self.progress.clone(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: segment_uuid,
+                name: index_name.clone(),
+                fields: vec![field.id],
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                dataset_version: self.dataset.manifest.version,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(roaring::RoaringBitmap::new()),
+                index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+                index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+                created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+                base_id: None,
+                files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+            };
+            ensure_index_allowed_with_frag_reuse(&self.dataset.manifest, &indices, &metadata)?;
+            let segments = vec![metadata.into_index_segment()?];
+            let new_indices =
+                build_index_metadata_from_segments(self.dataset, &index_name, field.id, segments)
+                    .await?;
+
+            // Collect all same-name indices for removal when replace is set
+            let removed_indices = if self.replace {
+                existing_named_indices
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .cloned()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            } else {
+                vec![]
+            };
+
+            let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+                self.dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices,
+                    removed_indices,
+                },
+            )
+            .transaction_properties(self.transaction_properties.clone())
+            .build();
+
+            self.dataset
+                .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+                .await?;
+
+            let indices = self.dataset.load_indices_by_name(&index_name).await?;
+            return indices.into_iter().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "FM-Index segments for '{}' not found after commit",
+                    index_name
+                ))
+            });
+        }
+
+        let num_segments = (num_segments as usize).min(all_fragment_ids.len()).max(1);
+        let chunk_size = all_fragment_ids.len().div_ceil(num_segments);
+
+        let mut segment_metadatas = Vec::with_capacity(num_segments);
+        for chunk in all_fragment_ids.chunks(chunk_size) {
+            let fragment_ids = chunk.to_vec();
+            let segment_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+            let created_index = build_scalar_index(
+                self.dataset,
+                &column,
+                segment_uuid,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Fm),
+                true,
+                Some(fragment_ids.clone()),
+                None,
+                self.progress.clone(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+
+            let segment = IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: segment_uuid,
+                name: index_name.clone(),
+                fields: vec![field.id],
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                dataset_version: self.dataset.manifest.version,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_ids.into_iter().collect()),
+                index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+                index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+                created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+                base_id: None,
+                files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+            };
+            ensure_index_allowed_with_frag_reuse(&self.dataset.manifest, &indices, &segment)?;
+            segment_metadatas.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        // Convert to IndexSegments and build proper transaction metadata
+        let segments = segment_metadatas
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(IntoIndexSegment::into_index_segment)
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let new_indices =
+            build_index_metadata_from_segments(self.dataset, &index_name, field.id, segments)
+                .await?;
+
+        let removed_indices = if self.replace {
+            existing_named_indices
+                .into_iter()
+                .cloned()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        } else {
+            vec![]
+        };
+
+        let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+            self.dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices,
+            },
+        )
+        .transaction_properties(self.transaction_properties.clone())
+        .build();
+
+        self.dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await?;
+
+        let indices = self.dataset.load_indices_by_name(&index_name).await?;
+        indices.into_iter().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "FM-Index segments for '{}' not found after commit",
+                index_name
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Returns true if an existing `IndexMetadata` matches the given type
+fn index_matches_type(
+    idx: &IndexMetadata,
+    index_type: IndexType,
+    params: &dyn IndexParams,
+) -> bool {
+    let Some(d) = &idx.index_details else {
+        // Fallback for legacy indexes, assume we are not trying to change the type
+        return true;
+    };
+    // When index_type is Scalar the actual type is carried in ScalarIndexParams as a
+    // plugin name string (e.g. "zonemap").  The registry uses the same normalization
+    // for type_url lookup: lowercase the last path segment and strip "indexdetails".
+    // Compare directly instead of going through IndexType so this path stays valid
+    // as we move away from the IndexType enum.
+    if index_type == IndexType::Scalar
+        && let Some(scalar_params) = params.as_any().downcast_ref::<ScalarIndexParams>()
+    {
+        return scalar_params.index_type.to_lowercase()
+            == plugin_name_from_details_url(&d.type_url);
+    }
+
+    index_type.matches_details(d)
+}
+
+fn is_builtin_vector_index(index_type: IndexType, params: &dyn IndexParams) -> bool {
+    params.index_name() == LANCE_VECTOR_INDEX
+        && matches!(
+            index_type,
+            IndexType::Vector
+                | IndexType::IvfPq
+                | IndexType::IvfSq
+                | IndexType::IvfFlat
+                | IndexType::IvfRq
+                | IndexType::IvfHnswFlat
+                | IndexType::IvfHnswPq
+                | IndexType::IvfHnswSq
+        )
+        && params.as_any().is::<VectorIndexParams>()
+}
+
+/// Whether there is enough data to train, as opposed to recording the
+/// definition and training later.
+///
+/// A quantizer needs one row per code to train at all. Below that the answer is
+/// the same as `train=false`: keep the definition, cover no rows, and leave
+/// `optimize_indices` to train it once the column fills.
+///
+/// An index type with a quantizer is measured in non-null vectors, since a
+/// column of nulls trains nothing; every other type is satisfied by any row.
+async fn should_train_index(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    train: bool,
+    vector_fragments: Option<&[u32]>,
+    minimum_rows: Option<usize>,
+    column: &str,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    if !train {
+        return Ok(false);
+    }
+
+    if dataset.fragment_bitmap.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(false);
+    }
+
+    // A fragment subset is a caller-driven segment build: the caller chose the
+    // fragments, often supplies the IVF model, and owns the row math. Only
+    // whole-table builds fall back to a definition-only index.
+    if let Some(fragment_ids) = vector_fragments {
+        dataset.get_fragments_from_ids(fragment_ids)?;
+        return Ok(true);
+    }
+
+    // Only a quantizer counts vectors; every other index type is satisfied by
+    // any row at all.
+    let Some(minimum) = minimum_rows.map(|minimum| minimum.max(1)) else {
+        return Ok(dataset.count_rows(None).await? > 0);
+    };
+    super::vector::has_vectors_to_train(dataset, column, minimum).await
+}
+
+fn vector_params_have_precomputed_ivf(params: &VectorIndexParams) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        params.stages.first(),
+        Some(StageParams::Ivf(ivf_params)) if ivf_params.centroids.is_some()
+    )
+}
+
+fn effective_vector_fragments(dataset: &Dataset, fragments: Option<&[u32]>) -> Option<Vec<u32>> {
+    let fragments = Dataset::normalize_fragment_ids(fragments?);
+    let fragment_bitmap: roaring::RoaringBitmap = fragments.iter().copied().collect();
+    (fragment_bitmap != *dataset.fragment_bitmap).then_some(fragments)
+}
+
+/// Validate that a user-supplied `index_uuid` is permitted for this build.
+fn ensure_index_uuid_allowed(
+    index_type: IndexType,
+    params: &dyn IndexParams,
+    fragments: Option<&Vec<u32>>,
+    index_uuid: Option<&Uuid>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let scalar_index_type = params
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<ScalarIndexParams>()
+        .map(|params| params.index_type.as_str());
+    let unsafe_distributed_type = if index_type == IndexType::BTree
+        || scalar_index_type.is_some_and(|index_type| index_type.eq_ignore_ascii_case("btree"))
+    {
+        Some("BTree")
+    } else if index_type == IndexType::RTree
+        || scalar_index_type.is_some_and(|index_type| index_type.eq_ignore_ascii_case("rtree"))
+    {
+        Some("RTree")
+    } else if index_type == IndexType::NGram
+        || scalar_index_type.is_some_and(|index_type| index_type.eq_ignore_ascii_case("ngram"))
+    {
+        Some("NGram")
+    } else if index_type == IndexType::LabelList
+        || scalar_index_type.is_some_and(|index_type| index_type.eq_ignore_ascii_case("labellist"))
+    {
+        Some("LabelList")
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    if index_uuid.is_some()
+        && fragments.is_some_and(|fragments| !fragments.is_empty())
+        && let Some(index_type) = unsafe_distributed_type
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "index_uuid is no longer accepted for {index_type} distributed index builds; \
+                 segment UUIDs are generated by Lance and returned in the index metadata."
+        )));
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
 }
 
 impl<'a> IntoFuture for CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
@@ -475,19 +1104,75 @@ impl<'a> IntoFuture for CreateIndexBuilder<'a> {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    mod staged_tagged;
+
     use super::*;
     use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexSegment};
+    use crate::utils::test::covering;
     use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
-    use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
-    use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, Int32Type, Int64Type};
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, FixedSizeListArray, ListArray, RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader,
+    };
     use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, StringArray};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_core::utils::{address::RowAddress, tempfile::TempStrDir};
     use lance_datagen::{self, gen_batch};
     use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
-    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
-    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
-    use std::sync::Arc;
+    use lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{
+        AnyQuery, BloomFilterQuery, FullTextSearchQuery, LabelListQuery, SargableQuery,
+        SearchResult, TextQuery, TokenQuery, inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams,
+    };
+    use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{KMeansParams, train_kmeans};
+    use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::{collections::BTreeSet, ops::Bound, sync::Arc};
+    use tracing_subscriber::{Layer, layer::SubscriberExt};
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    lance_testing::define_stage_event_progress!(RecordingProgress, IndexBuildProgress, Result<()>);
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_inverted_training_params_include_build_only_fields() {
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default()
+            .memory_limit_mb(4096)
+            .num_workers(7);
+        let scalar_params = ScalarIndexParams::new("inverted".to_string())
+            .with_params(&params.to_training_json().unwrap());
+        let json: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(scalar_params.params.as_ref().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            json.get("memory_limit"),
+            Some(&serde_json::Value::from(4096))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(json.get("num_workers"), Some(&serde_json::Value::from(7)));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::omitted(r#"{"base_tokenizer":"ngram"}"#, false)]
+    #[case::explicit(
+        r#"{"base_tokenizer":"ngram","stem":true,"remove_stop_words":true}"#,
+        true
+    )]
+    fn test_generic_inverted_params_preserve_ngram_defaults(
+        #[case] raw_params: &str,
+        #[case] expected_word_filters: bool,
+    ) {
+        let provided: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(raw_params).unwrap();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::new("inverted".to_string()).with_params(&provided);
+        let resolved = serde_json::to_value(resolved_inverted_params(&params).unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resolved["base_tokenizer"], "ngram");
+        assert_eq!(resolved["stem"], expected_word_filters);
+        assert_eq!(resolved["remove_stop_words"], expected_word_filters);
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_default_index_name() {
@@ -612,21 +1297,213 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(err.to_string().contains("already exists"));
     }
 
-    // Helper function to create test data with text field suitable for inverted index
-    fn create_text_batch(start: i32, end: i32) -> RecordBatch {
-        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
-            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
-            ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
-        ]));
-        let texts = (start..end)
-            .map(|i| match i % 3 {
-                0 => format!("document {} with some text content", i),
-                1 => format!("another document {} containing different words", i),
-                _ => format!("text sample {} for testing inverted index", i),
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        RecordBatch::try_new(
+    /// A covered index still names the same column by its keyed prefix. Both
+    /// the auto-naming loop and the explicit-name check must recognize an
+    /// existing covered index as matching its keyed field, not the full
+    /// `fields` vector including the carried column -- which would otherwise
+    /// silently rename around it (auto) or spuriously reject as "different
+    /// fields" (explicit) instead of reaching the ordinary "already exists,
+    /// use replace=True" outcome.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_name_collision_recognizes_covered_index() {
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("b", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(100))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        covering::commit_synthetic_covered_index(&mut dataset, "a_idx", "a", "b").await;
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+
+        // Default naming (the auto-name loop): must recognize the covered
+        // "a_idx" as the same field, not silently rename around it to
+        // "a_idx_2".
+        let err = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["a"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("already exists, please specify a different name or use replace=True"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+
+        // Explicit naming (the existing_named_indices check): must not
+        // misfire "different fields" for the same reason.
+        let err2 = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["a"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("a_idx".to_string())
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err2.to_string()
+                .contains("already exists, please specify a different name or use replace=True"),
+            "{err2}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The same guard shape, duplicated in `execute_multi_segment_fmindex`
+    /// (the multi-segment FM-Index build path) under its own default-naming
+    /// loop and its own explicit-name check. `train(false)` keeps this test
+    /// fast: the guard runs before any real FM training, so an untrained
+    /// empty segment is enough to reach it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fmindex_multi_segment_name_collision_recognizes_covered_index() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let batch1 = create_text_batch(0, 10);
+        let batch2 = create_text_batch(10, 20);
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 10,
+            max_rows_per_group: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(batch1), Ok(batch2)],
+            create_text_batch(0, 1).schema(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &dataset_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        covering::commit_synthetic_covered_index(&mut dataset, "text_idx", "text", "id").await;
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams {
+            index_type: "fm".to_string(),
+            params: Some(r#"{"num_segments": 2}"#.to_string()),
+        };
+
+        // Default naming: must recognize the covered "text_idx" as the same
+        // field, not silently rename around it to "text_idx_2".
+        let err = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Fm, &params)
+            .train(false)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("already exists, please specify a different name or use replace=True"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+
+        // Explicit naming: must not misfire "different fields" for the same
+        // reason.
+        let err2 = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Fm, &params)
+            .name("text_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err2.to_string()
+                .contains("already exists, please specify a different name or use replace=True"),
+            "{err2}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_create_index_same_name_returns_retryable_conflict() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(100),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(1),
+            );
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &dataset_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let mut reader1 = dataset.checkout_version(read_version).await.unwrap();
+        let mut reader2 = dataset.checkout_version(read_version).await.unwrap();
+
+        let first = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut reader1, &["a"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("a_idx".to_string())
+            .execute()
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            first.is_ok(),
+            "first create_index should succeed: {first:?}"
+        );
+
+        let second = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut reader2, &["a"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("a_idx".to_string())
+            .execute()
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            matches!(second, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+            "second concurrent create_index should be retryable, got {second:?}"
+        );
+
+        let latest_indices = reader1.load_indices_by_name("a_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(latest_indices.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_replace_index_same_name_returns_retryable_conflict() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(100),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(1),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &dataset_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let original = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["a"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("a_idx".to_string())
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let mut reader1 = dataset.checkout_version(read_version).await.unwrap();
+        let mut reader2 = dataset.checkout_version(read_version).await.unwrap();
+
+        let replacement = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut reader1, &["a"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("a_idx".to_string())
+            .replace(true)
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(replacement.uuid, original.uuid);
+
+        let second = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut reader2, &["a"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("a_idx".to_string())
+            .replace(true)
+            .execute()
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            matches!(second, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+            "second concurrent replace should be retryable, got {second:?}"
+        );
+
+        let latest_indices = reader1.load_indices_by_name("a_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(latest_indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(latest_indices[0].uuid, replacement.uuid);
+        assert_ne!(latest_indices[0].uuid, original.uuid);
+    }
+
+    // Helper function to create test data with text field suitable for inverted index
+    fn create_text_batch(start: i32, end: i32) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let texts = (start..end)
+            .map(|i| match i % 3 {
+                0 => format!("document {} with some text content", i),
+                1 => format!("another document {} containing different words", i),
+                _ => format!("text sample {} for testing inverted index", i),
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
             schema,
             vec![
                 Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(start..end)),
@@ -636,167 +1513,3076 @@ mod tests {
         .unwrap()
     }
 
+    async fn prepare_vector_ivf(dataset: &Dataset, vector_column: &str) -> IvfBuildParams {
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&[vector_column.to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vectors = batch
+            .column_by_name(vector_column)
+            .expect("vector column should exist")
+            .as_fixed_size_list();
+        let dim = vectors.value_length() as usize;
+        let values = vectors.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+
+        let kmeans = train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(
+            values,
+            KMeansParams::new(None, 10, 1, DistanceType::L2),
+            dim,
+            4,
+            3,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let centroids = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone(),
+                dim as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(4, centroids).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn write_vector_fragment_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(16)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(256),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(4),
+            );
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_get_frags_from_ordered_ids_accepts_unsorted_duplicates() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let dataset = write_vector_fragment_dataset(&dataset_uri).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let first = fragments[0].id() as u32;
+        let second = fragments[1].id() as u32;
+
+        let resolved = dataset.get_frags_from_ordered_ids(&[second, first, second, u32::MAX]);
+
+        assert_eq!(resolved.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(resolved[0].as_ref().unwrap().id() as u32, second);
+        assert_eq!(resolved[1].as_ref().unwrap().id() as u32, first);
+        assert_eq!(resolved[2].as_ref().unwrap().id() as u32, second);
+        assert!(resolved[3].is_none());
+    }
+
+    /// A failed `execute_uncommitted` must not consume the requested index
+    /// name: the method takes `&mut self`, so a caller can hold the builder and
+    /// retry, and a retry that lost the name commits under `<column>_idx`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_failed_execute_uncommitted_preserves_name() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let batch = create_text_batch(0, 10);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], create_text_batch(0, 1).schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &dataset_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name("retry_idx".to_string())
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // replace defaults to false, so the duplicate name is rejected. That
+        // rejection happens after the name is read, which is the point.
+        let mut builder = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name("retry_idx".to_string());
+        let error = builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("already exists"),
+            "the build must fail on the duplicate name, which is downstream of \
+             the name read; got {error}"
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(builder.name.as_deref(), Some("retry_idx"));
+
+        // The retry a caller would make. Losing the name here would commit a
+        // second index called text_idx instead of replacing retry_idx.
+        builder.replace(true).execute().await.unwrap();
+        let names = dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|idx| idx.name.clone())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(names, ["retry_idx"], "the retry must reuse the name");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_execute_uncommitted() {
+        // Test the complete workflow that covers the user's specified code pattern:
+        // 1. Create dataset with multiple fragments
+        // 2. Get fragment IDs from dataset using dataset.get_fragments()
+        // 3. Create CreateIndexBuilder with fragments() method
+        // 4. Call execute_uncommitted() to get IndexMetadata
+        // 5. Verify IndexMetadata contains correct fragment_bitmap
+
+        // Create temporary directory for dataset
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        // Create test data with multiple fragments
+        let batch1 = create_text_batch(0, 10);
+        let batch2 = create_text_batch(10, 20);
+        let batch3 = create_text_batch(20, 30);
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 10, // Force multiple fragments
+            max_rows_per_group: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        // Write dataset with multiple batches to create multiple fragments
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(batch1), Ok(batch2), Ok(batch3)],
+            create_text_batch(0, 1).schema(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &dataset_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+
+        // Get fragment IDs from the dataset
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect();
+        assert!(
+            fragment_ids.len() >= 2,
+            "Should have multiple fragments for testing"
+        );
+
+        // Test fragments() method with specific fragment IDs and ensure duplicate/out-of-order fragments are handled properly
+        let selected_fragments = vec![
+            fragment_ids[1],
+            fragment_ids[0],
+            fragment_ids[1],
+            fragment_ids[2],
+        ];
+        let selected_fragments_expected = vec![fragment_ids[0], fragment_ids[1], fragment_ids[2]];
+
+        let mut builder =
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+                .name("fragment_index".to_string())
+                .fragments(selected_fragments.clone());
+
+        // Execute uncommitted to get index metadata
+        let index_metadata = builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Verify the IndexMetadata contains the correct fragment_bitmap
+        let fragment_bitmap = index_metadata.fragment_bitmap.unwrap();
+        let indexed_fragments: Vec<u32> = fragment_bitmap.iter().collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed_fragments, selected_fragments_expected,
+            "Index should only cover the selected fragments"
+        );
+
+        // Verify other metadata fields
+        assert_eq!(index_metadata.name, "fragment_index");
+        assert!(!index_metadata.uuid.is_nil());
+        assert!(index_metadata.created_at.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_index_metadata_inverted_reports_progress() {
+        // This exercises the public distributed inverted-index workflow end to end:
+        // 1. build one uncommitted shard per fragment with CreateIndexBuilder.progress(...)
+        // 2. merge those shards with Dataset::merge_index_metadata(...)
+        //
+        // Expected outcomes:
+        // - the build callback should surface public build stages such as load_data,
+        //   tokenize_docs, copy_partitions, and write_metadata
+        // - the merge callback should surface public merge stages such as
+        //   read_partition_metadata, remap_partition_files, and write_merged_metadata
+        // - merge stages should be reported in execution order
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        let batch1 = create_text_batch(0, 15);
+        let batch2 = create_text_batch(15, 30);
+        let batch3 = create_text_batch(30, 45);
+
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 15,
+            max_rows_per_group: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        // Write dataset with multiple batches to create multiple fragments
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(batch1), Ok(batch2), Ok(batch3)],
+            create_text_batch(0, 1).schema(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &dataset_uri, Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect();
+        let shared_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let build_progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+
+        for &fragment_id in &fragment_ids {
+            let mut builder =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+                    .name("distributed_index".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment_id])
+                    .index_uuid(shared_uuid)
+                    .progress(build_progress.clone());
+
+            let index_metadata = builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(index_metadata.uuid, shared_uuid);
+            assert_eq!(index_metadata.name, "distributed_index");
+
+            let fragment_bitmap = index_metadata.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+            let indexed_fragments: Vec<u32> = fragment_bitmap.iter().collect();
+            assert_eq!(indexed_fragments, vec![fragment_id]);
+        }
+
+        let merge_progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        dataset
+            .merge_index_metadata(
+                &shared_uuid,
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                None,
+                merge_progress.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let build_tags = build_progress
+            .recorded_events()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(kind, stage, _)| format!("{kind}:{stage}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(
+            build_tags.iter().any(|e| e == "start:load_data"),
+            "expected load_data progress during public distributed build"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            build_tags.iter().any(|e| e == "start:tokenize_docs"),
+            "expected tokenize_docs progress during public distributed build"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            build_tags.iter().any(|e| e == "start:copy_partitions"),
+            "expected copy_partitions progress during public distributed build"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            build_tags.iter().any(|e| e == "start:write_metadata"),
+            "expected write_metadata progress during public distributed build"
+        );
+
+        let merge_events = merge_progress.recorded_events();
+        let merge_tags = merge_events
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(kind, stage, _)| format!("{kind}:{stage}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let read_start = merge_tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:read_partition_metadata")
+            .expect("missing read_partition_metadata start");
+        let read_complete = merge_tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:read_partition_metadata")
+            .expect("missing read_partition_metadata complete");
+        let remap_start = merge_tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:remap_partition_files")
+            .expect("missing remap_partition_files start");
+        let remap_complete = merge_tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:remap_partition_files")
+            .expect("missing remap_partition_files complete");
+        let metadata_start = merge_tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:write_merged_metadata")
+            .expect("missing write_merged_metadata start");
+        let metadata_complete = merge_tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:write_merged_metadata")
+            .expect("missing write_merged_metadata complete");
+        assert!(read_start < read_complete);
+        assert!(read_complete < remap_start);
+        assert!(remap_start < remap_complete);
+        assert!(remap_complete < metadata_start);
+        assert!(metadata_start < metadata_complete);
+        assert!(
+            merge_tags
+                .iter()
+                .any(|e| e == "progress:read_partition_metadata"),
+            "expected read_partition_metadata progress during public merge"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merge_tags
+                .iter()
+                .any(|e| e == "progress:remap_partition_files"),
+            "expected remap_partition_files progress during public merge"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merge_tags
+                .iter()
+                .any(|e| e == "progress:write_merged_metadata"),
+            "expected write_merged_metadata progress during public merge"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_index_metadata_btree_soft_break() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(8),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(1),
+            );
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &dataset_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .merge_index_metadata(
+                &Uuid::new_v4(),
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("no longer supports merge_index_metadata"),
+            "expected BTree merge_index_metadata soft-break error, got: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Assert a committed segment directory holds exactly one canonical BTree
+    /// payload — one `page_data.lance` + one `page_lookup.lance` — and no `part_*`
+    /// shard files. Locks the "every segment has exactly one lookup" invariant.
+    async fn assert_canonical_btree_segment(dataset: &Dataset, uuid: &Uuid) {
+        let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(uuid.to_string());
+        let files = list_index_files_with_sizes(&dataset.object_store, &index_dir)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let names: Vec<&str> = files.iter().map(|f| f.path.as_str()).collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            names.iter().filter(|n| **n == "page_lookup.lance").count(),
+            1,
+            "segment must have exactly one canonical page_lookup.lance, got {names:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            names.iter().filter(|n| **n == "page_data.lance").count(),
+            1,
+            "segment must have exactly one canonical page_data.lance, got {names:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !names.iter().any(|n| n.starts_with("part_")),
+            "segment must have no part_* shard files, got {names:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_segmented_btree_multi_fragment_commit_and_search() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                test_dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(16),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 4);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                    .name("value_btree_segments".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        let segment_uuids = segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_btree_segments", "value", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("value_btree_segments")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), fragments.len());
+        for segment_uuid in &segment_uuids {
+            assert_canonical_btree_segment(&dataset, segment_uuid).await;
+        }
+
+        let logical = crate::index::scalar_logical::open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "value",
+            "value_btree_segments",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let point_query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(33)));
+        let point_matches = match logical
+            .search(&point_query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(),
+            other => panic!("expected exact point result, got {other:?}"),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(point_matches, 1);
+
+        let range_query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(14))),
+            Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(35))),
+        );
+        let range_row_addrs = match logical
+            .search(&range_query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!("expected exact range result, got {other:?}"),
+        };
+        let searched_fragments = range_row_addrs
+            .true_rows()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(searched_fragments.len(), 21);
+        assert_eq!(
+            searched_fragments.into_iter().collect::<BTreeSet<_>>(),
+            BTreeSet::from([0, 1, 2])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_btree_distributed_index_uuid_rejected() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                test_dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(16),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let fragment_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u32;
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        for index_type in [IndexType::BTree, IndexType::Scalar] {
+            let err = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], index_type, &params)
+                .name("value_btree_segments".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment_id])
+                .index_uuid(Uuid::new_v4())
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+                "expected invalid input error, got: {err}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string().contains(
+                    "index_uuid is no longer accepted for BTree distributed index builds"
+                ),
+                "unexpected error: {err}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_label_list_distributed_index_uuid_collision_rejected() {
+        use lance_datagen::{Dimension, array};
+        use lance_index::scalar::label_list::BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let labels = |label| {
+            array::cycle_vec_var(
+                array::cycle::<Int64Type>(vec![label]),
+                Dimension::from(1),
+                Dimension::from(2),
+            )
+        };
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("labels_a", labels(1))
+            .col("labels_b", labels(3))
+            .into_dataset(
+                test_dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let params =
+            ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::LabelList);
+        let live_index = dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["labels_a"],
+                IndexType::LabelList,
+                Some("labels_a_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let artifact_path = dataset
+            .indices_dir()
+            .join(live_index.uuid.to_string())
+            .join(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME);
+        let artifact_before = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .read_one_all(&artifact_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let version_before = dataset.version().version;
+        let fragment_id = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u32;
+
+        for index_type in [IndexType::LabelList, IndexType::Scalar] {
+            let err = dataset
+                .create_index_builder(&["labels_b"], index_type, &params)
+                .name("labels_b_idx".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment_id])
+                .index_uuid(live_index.uuid)
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+
+            assert!(
+                matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+                "expected invalid input error, got: {err}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string().contains(
+                    "index_uuid is no longer accepted for LabelList distributed index builds"
+                ),
+                "unexpected error: {err}"
+            );
+        }
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, version_before);
+        let artifact_after = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .read_one_all(&artifact_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(artifact_after, artifact_before);
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels_a, [1])".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            8
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("array_has_any(labels_a, [3])".to_string()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            0
+        );
+        let plan = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("array_has_any(labels_a, [1])")
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery") && plan.contains("LabelList"),
+            "expected LabelList scalar index query in plan: {plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_range_based_btree_index_create() {
+        use crate::dataset::scanner::ColumnOrdering;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        // Write the dataset with deliberately unsorted ids so the sort step is real.
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let ids: Vec<i32> = (0..256).rev().collect();
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(ids))]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &dataset_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The worker scans the dataset's `(id, _rowid)` rows and sorts them by value,
+        // producing the BTree training stream `(value, _rowid)` externally — the "scan,
+        // sort, then hand a pre-sorted reader to the builder" path; no `range_id`.
+        let sorted_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
+                "id".to_string(),
+            )]))
+            .unwrap();
+            scan.with_row_id();
+            scan.project_with_transform(&[("value", "id")]).unwrap();
+            scan.try_into_stream()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        let train_schema = sorted_batches[0].schema();
+        let sorted_reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(sorted_batches.into_iter().map(Ok), train_schema);
+
+        // Build one self-contained segment directly from the sorted reader.
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let segment = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("id_btree".to_string())
+            .preprocessed_data(Box::new(sorted_reader))
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let segment_uuid = segment.uuid;
+
+        // Commit the segment via the segmented-index API — no merge step.
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("id_btree", "id", vec![segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_btree").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(committed[0].uuid, segment_uuid);
+
+        // Exactly one canonical data + one lookup, no shards.
+        assert_canonical_btree_segment(&dataset, &segment_uuid).await;
+
+        // The committed index answers a range query correctly.
+        let logical = crate::index::scalar_logical::open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "id",
+            "id_btree",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+            Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(64))),
+        );
+        let matched = match logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap() {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(),
+            other => panic!("expected exact result, got {other:?}"),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(matched, 64);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_execute_uncommitted_writes_canonical_segment() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::bitmap::BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME;
+
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "category",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batches = (0..4)
+            .map(
+                |fragment_id| -> std::result::Result<_, arrow_schema::ArrowError> {
+                    let values = vec![fragment_id, fragment_id, fragment_id + 10, fragment_id + 10];
+                    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                        schema.clone(),
+                        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values))],
+                    )
+                    .unwrap())
+                },
+            )
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter(), schema);
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let base_params =
+            ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect();
+        let selected_fragments = fragment_ids[..2].to_vec();
+        let index =
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["category"], IndexType::Bitmap, &base_params)
+                .name("bitmap_segment".to_string())
+                .fragments(selected_fragments.clone())
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            index
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            selected_fragments
+        );
+
+        let files = index.files.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(files.iter().any(|file| file.path == BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME));
+        assert!(
+            files.iter().all(|file| !file.path.starts_with("part_")),
+            "staged bitmap segment should only reference canonical files"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The bitmap build rejects input that is not ascending by value, and it
+    /// judges that with `OrderableScalarValue`, whereas the training stream is
+    /// ordered by the scan's own sort. If the two disagreed anywhere, a valid
+    /// column would be rejected and index creation would fail for users.
+    ///
+    /// Floats are where they could plausibly diverge: `OrderableScalarValue`
+    /// uses `f64::total_cmp`, which separates `-0.0` from `0.0` and sorts `NaN`
+    /// above every finite value, while IEEE comparison calls `-0.0 == 0.0` and
+    /// leaves `NaN` unordered. The values are spread over two fragments and are
+    /// unsorted within each, so the order the build sees comes from the real
+    /// scan rather than from the order the rows were written in.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_build_accepts_scan_sorted_floats() {
+        use arrow_array::Float64Array;
+
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "value",
+            DataType::Float64,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let fragments = [
+            vec![Some(f64::NAN), Some(0.0), Some(-1.0), None],
+            vec![
+                Some(-0.0),
+                Some(1.0),
+                Some(f64::NEG_INFINITY),
+                Some(f64::INFINITY),
+            ],
+        ];
+        let batches = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|values| {
+                Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Float64Array::from(values.clone()))],
+                )
+                .unwrap())
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<std::result::Result<_, arrow_schema::ArrowError>>>();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema.clone());
+
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["value"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                Some("value_idx".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("scan-sorted float input must be accepted by the bitmap build");
+
+        // The index serves these predicates, so the postings also have to have
+        // landed under the right keys.
+        for (predicate, expected) in [
+            ("value = 1.0", 1),
+            ("value = -1.0", 1),
+            ("value IS NULL", 1),
+            ("value IS NOT NULL", 7),
+        ] {
+            let count = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(predicate)
+                .unwrap()
+                .count_rows()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(count, expected, "wrong row count for `{predicate}`");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bloomfilter_distributed_segments_merge_and_query() {
+        #[derive(serde::Serialize)]
+        struct BloomParams {
+            number_of_items: u64,
+            probability: f64,
+        }
+
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(8))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params =
+            ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BloomFilter)
+                .with_params(&BloomParams {
+                    number_of_items: 4,
+                    probability: 0.000_001,
+                });
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 3);
+        let mut staged = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            staged.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::BloomFilter, &params)
+                    .name("value_bloom_segments".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let mut future_segment = staged[1].clone();
+        future_segment.dataset_version = dataset.manifest.version + 1;
+        let error = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![staged[0].clone(), future_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("future dataset version"),
+            "unexpected merge error: {error}"
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_bloom_segments", "value", staged.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let logical = crate::index::scalar_logical::open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "value",
+            "value_bloom_segments",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            logical.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+        );
+
+        let mut trimmed = staged.clone();
+        trimmed[0].fragment_bitmap = Some(RoaringBitmap::new());
+        let trimmed_merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(trimmed)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            trimmed_merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter(fragments[1..].iter().map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32))
+        );
+
+        let incompatible_params =
+            ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BloomFilter)
+                .with_params(&BloomParams {
+                    number_of_items: 8,
+                    probability: 0.01,
+                });
+        let incompatible = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+            &mut dataset,
+            &["value"],
+            IndexType::BloomFilter,
+            &incompatible_params,
+        )
+        .name("value_bloom_incompatible".to_string())
+        .fragments(vec![fragments[1].id() as u32])
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let err = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![staged[0].clone(), incompatible])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("different parameters: number_of_items=4"),
+            "unexpected merge error: {err}"
+        );
+
+        let expected_dataset_version = staged
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.dataset_version)
+            .min()
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged = dataset.merge_existing_index_segments(staged).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(merged.dataset_version, expected_dataset_version);
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merged
+                .index_details
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .type_url
+                .ends_with("BloomFilterIndexDetails")
+        );
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_bloom_merged", "value", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let committed = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("value_bloom_merged")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed[0].dataset_version, expected_dataset_version);
+        let merged_logical = crate::index::scalar_logical::open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "value",
+            "value_bloom_merged",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let candidates = merged_logical
+            .search(
+                &BloomFilterQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(17))),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            candidates
+                .row_addrs()
+                .true_rows()
+                .row_addrs()
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(u64::from)
+                .any(|row_addr| row_addr == (2_u64 << 32) + 1)
+        );
+
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("value = 17")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(result["value"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 17);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_execute_uncommitted_segments_commit_without_staging() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(16)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(256),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(4),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            prepare_vector_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await,
+        );
+        let mut input_segments = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                    .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            let segment_index = dataset
+                .indices_dir()
+                .clone()
+                .join(segment.uuid.to_string())
+                .join(crate::index::INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+            assert!(
+                dataset
+                    .object_store
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .exists(&segment_index)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            );
+            input_segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let segments = input_segments.clone();
+        assert_eq!(segments.len(), fragments.len());
+        let mut built_segment_ids = segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        built_segment_ids.sort();
+        let mut input_segment_ids = input_segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        input_segment_ids.sort();
+        assert_eq!(built_segment_ids, input_segment_ids);
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), fragments.len());
+
+        let query_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["vector"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(4), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let q = query_batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["_rowid"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(result.num_rows() > 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_explicit_all_fragments_uses_full_build_without_precomputed_ivf() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_vector_fragment_dataset(&dataset_uri).await;
+
+        let fragment_ids = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(fragment_ids.len() >= 2);
+
+        let mut params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 1, MetricType::L2, 10);
+        params.version(crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::Legacy);
+        let segment =
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                .fragments(fragment_ids)
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_precomputed_ivf_num_partitions_mismatch_errors() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_vector_fragment_dataset(&dataset_uri).await;
+
+        let mut ivf_params = prepare_vector_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await;
+        let centroid_count = ivf_params.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().len();
+        ivf_params.num_partitions = Some(centroid_count + 1);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params);
+
+        let err = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+            .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains(&format!(
+                "num_partitions {} does not match precomputed IVF centroids length {}",
+                centroid_count + 1,
+                centroid_count
+            )),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_subset_legacy_ivf_pq_rejects_filtered_build() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_vector_fragment_dataset(&dataset_uri).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let mut params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 1, MetricType::L2, 10);
+        params.version(crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::Legacy);
+
+        let err = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+            .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+            .fragments(vec![fragments[0].id() as u32])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("filtered IVF_PQ builds do not support legacy format"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_subset_fragments_train_without_precomputed_ivf() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_vector_fragment_dataset(&dataset_uri).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 3);
+        let selected = vec![
+            fragments[1].id() as u32,
+            fragments[0].id() as u32,
+            fragments[1].id() as u32,
+        ];
+        let expected_bitmap = selected.iter().copied().collect::<roaring::RoaringBitmap>();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, DistanceType::L2);
+        let segment =
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                .fragments(selected)
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(), &expected_bitmap);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_merge_rejects_independently_trained_fragment_segments() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_vector_fragment_dataset(&dataset_uri).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, DistanceType::L2);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in fragments.iter().take(2) {
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                    .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("IVF centroids mismatch across shards"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_optimize_rejects_independently_trained_fragment_segments() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_vector_fragment_dataset(&dataset_uri).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, DistanceType::L2);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in fragments.iter().take(2) {
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                    .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            segments.push(segment);
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let version_before_optimize = dataset.version().version;
+        let segments_before_optimize = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let err = dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("vector index segments do not share IVF centroids"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, version_before_optimize);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap(),
+            segments_before_optimize,
+            "an incompatible merge must not partially commit index metadata"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_optimize_only_validates_requested_compatible_suffix() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_vector_fragment_dataset(&dataset_uri).await;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 4);
+        let tail_start = fragments.len() - 2;
+
+        let mut independent_ivf = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
+        independent_ivf.max_iters = 7;
+        let independent_params =
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, independent_ivf);
+        let independent_segment = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+            &mut dataset,
+            &["vector"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            &independent_params,
+        )
+        .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+        .fragments(
+            fragments[..tail_start]
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+                .collect(),
+        )
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut shared_ivf = prepare_vector_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await;
+        shared_ivf.max_iters = 13;
+        let shared_params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, shared_ivf);
+        let mut compatible_tail = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in fragments.iter().skip(tail_start) {
+            compatible_tail.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+                    &mut dataset,
+                    &["vector"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    &shared_params,
+                )
+                .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let independent_uuid = independent_segment.uuid;
+        let tail_uuids = compatible_tail
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected_merged_fragments = compatible_tail
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|segment| segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().iter())
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+        let expected_merged_details = compatible_tail.last().unwrap().index_details.clone();
+        assert_ne!(
+            independent_segment.index_details, expected_merged_details,
+            "test setup must distinguish base and suffix metadata"
+        );
+        let mut segments = vec![independent_segment];
+        segments.extend(compatible_tail);
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let optimized = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(optimized.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            optimized
+                .iter()
+                .any(|segment| segment.uuid == independent_uuid),
+            "the incompatible base segment must not participate in the requested suffix merge"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tail_uuids
+                .iter()
+                .all(|uuid| optimized.iter().all(|segment| segment.uuid != *uuid)),
+            "both compatible suffix segments must be replaced"
+        );
+        let merged = optimized
+            .iter()
+            .find(|segment| segment.uuid != independent_uuid)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &expected_merged_fragments
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.index_details, expected_merged_details,
+            "merged metadata must come from the selected suffix, not an incompatible base segment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_empty_fragments_with_precomputed_ivf_builds_empty_segment() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_vector_fragment_dataset(&dataset_uri).await;
+
+        let mut ivf_params = prepare_vector_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await;
+        let expected_partitions = ivf_params.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().len();
+        ivf_params.num_partitions = None;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params);
+        let segment =
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", vec![segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let logical_index = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", "vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let metadata = logical_index.metadatas().next().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            logical_index.as_ivf().unwrap().num_partitions_per_segment(),
+            vec![(metadata.uuid, expected_partitions)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_vector_commits_multi_segment_logical_index() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(16)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(256),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(4),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            prepare_vector_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await,
+        );
+        let mut input_segments = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in fragments.iter().take(2) {
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                    .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            input_segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let segments = input_segments;
+        assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2);
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+        let mut committed_fragment_sets = indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|metadata| {
+                metadata
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        committed_fragment_sets.sort();
+        assert_eq!(committed_fragment_sets, vec![vec![0], vec![1]]);
+
+        let query_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["vector"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(4), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let q = query_batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["_rowid"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(result.num_rows() > 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_rejects_vector_segments_without_index_details() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(16)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(256),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(4),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            prepare_vector_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await,
+        );
+        let mut input_segments = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in fragments.iter().take(2) {
+            let mut segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                    .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            segment.index_details = None;
+            input_segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", input_segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("missing index details"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_segments_finalizes_fts_segments() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        let batch1 = create_text_batch(0, 10);
+        let batch2 = create_text_batch(10, 20);
+        let batch3 = create_text_batch(20, 30);
+
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(batch1), Ok(batch2), Ok(batch3)],
+            create_text_batch(0, 1).schema(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            batches,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                max_rows_per_group: 5,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        let mut input_segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+                    .name("text_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            input_segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let segments = input_segments.clone();
+        assert_eq!(segments.len(), input_segments.len());
+
+        crate::index::scalar::inverted::finalize_segment_files_if_needed(
+            &dataset,
+            &input_segments[0],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let stale_staging_path = dataset
+            .indices_dir()
+            .join(input_segments[0].uuid.to_string())
+            .join("staging")
+            .join("orphan.lance");
+        dataset
+            .object_store
+            .put(&stale_staging_path, b"stale")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_idx", "text", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for segment in &input_segments {
+            let metadata_path = dataset
+                .indices_dir()
+                .clone()
+                .join(segment.uuid.to_string())
+                .join(lance_index::scalar::inverted::METADATA_FILE);
+            assert!(
+                dataset
+                    .object_store
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .exists(&metadata_path)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            );
+        }
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("text_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), input_segments.len());
+        let finalized_segment = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|index| index.uuid == input_segments[0].uuid)
+            .expect("finalized segment should be committed");
+        assert!(
+            finalized_segment
+                .files
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("committed segment should track files")
+                .iter()
+                .all(|file| !file.path.starts_with("staging/")),
+            "stale staging files must not be committed in IndexMetadata.files"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A merge whose staged fragments are only *partly* retired still needs the
+    /// mapping: intersecting the retired half away would drop its rows while the
+    /// surviving half made the coverage look healthy.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_uncommitted_segments_partly_retired_by_compaction() {
+        // Two undersized fragments and one already at the compaction target, so
+        // compaction rewrites the pair and leaves the third alone.
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(2),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let dataset_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(1),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let staged_fragments = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let staged = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("in_flight".to_string())
+            .fragments(staged_fragments.clone())
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("committed".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Two rows per fragment against a four-row target pairs some fragments
+        // and leaves at least one alone.
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let staged_coverage = staged.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap();
+        let live = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+        assert!(
+            !staged_coverage.is_subset(live) && !staged_coverage.is_disjoint(live),
+            "precondition: the staged coverage must be partly retired, staged {staged_coverage:?} live {live:?}"
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("committed".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![staged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let coverage = merged
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("a merged segment records its coverage");
+        assert_eq!(
+            coverage,
+            &(&staged_coverage & dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()),
+            "with no applicable mapping the claim is exactly the staged fragments still live"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !coverage.is_empty(),
+            "the surviving fragment must still be covered"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Trimming the fragment reuse index drops the mapping a staged segment still
+    /// needs: the trim only asks committed indices whether they have caught up,
+    /// and a staged segment is committed to nothing.
+    ///
+    /// The merge must not claim the compacted fragment. Row addresses come from
+    /// the dataset's own mapping, which no longer has the link, so claiming it
+    /// would assert coverage the index cannot serve and suppress the scan those
+    /// rows need. Coverage shrinks instead, and what it claims it can serve.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_uncommitted_segments_after_the_reuse_mapping_was_trimmed() {
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(2),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        // Both fragments, so the staged coverage owns the whole rewrite group and
+        // only the trim can stop it from being remapped.
+        let staged_fragments = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let staged = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("in_flight".to_string())
+            .fragments(staged_fragments)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("committed".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Catch the committed index up so the trim sees nothing still needing the
+        // mapping. Rebuilding it commits at the current version, which clears the
+        // stale-version gate a retrain alone leaves in place.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("committed".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none_or(
+                    |index| !crate::index::append::fragment_reuse_affects_segments(
+                        &index,
+                        std::iter::once(&staged)
+                    )
+                ),
+            "precondition: the trim dropped the mapping the staged segment still needs"
+        );
+
+        let warnings = CapturedWarnings::default();
+        let merged = {
+            let subscriber = tracing_subscriber::registry().with(warnings.clone());
+            let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(subscriber);
+            dataset
+                .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![staged])
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let coverage = merged
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("a merged segment records its coverage");
+        assert!(
+            coverage.is_disjoint(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()),
+            "a merge with no applicable mapping must not claim live fragments, got {coverage:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            warnings.contains("no applicable reuse mapping"),
+            "dropping those rows from the index must be reported, got {:?}",
+            warnings.messages()
+        );
+
+        // Whatever it does claim, it has to be able to serve.
+        let index =
+            crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(&dataset, "id", &merged, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        let result = index
+            .search(
+                &SargableQuery::Range(std::ops::Bound::Unbounded, std::ops::Bound::Unbounded)
+                    as &dyn AnyQuery,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let rows = match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(rows) => rows,
+            other => panic!("unexpected search result: {other:?}"),
+        };
+        let row_addrs = rows.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(
+            row_addrs
+                .iter()
+                .all(|row_addr| coverage
+                    .contains(RowAddress::from(u64::from(*row_addr)).fragment_id())),
+            "the merged index must only return rows on fragments it claims"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Segments that together cover only part of a rewrite group cannot claim the
+    /// fragment that group produced: it holds rows no segment indexed. The merge
+    /// covers nothing rather than over-claiming.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_uncommitted_segments_partly_covering_a_rewrite_group() {
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(2),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        // Only the first fragment is staged, so the pair compaction rewrites
+        // together is half indexed.
+        let first_fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u32;
+        let staged = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+            .name("in_flight".to_string())
+            .fragments(vec![first_fragment])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Compaction needs an indexed group to write fragment-reuse metadata.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["id"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("committed".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+        let warnings = CapturedWarnings::default();
+        let merged = {
+            let subscriber = tracing_subscriber::registry().with(warnings.clone());
+            let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(subscriber);
+            dataset
+                .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![staged])
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let coverage = merged
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("a merged segment records its coverage");
+        assert!(
+            coverage.is_empty(),
+            "a half-covered rewrite group must not be claimed, got {coverage:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            warnings.contains("Merged index covers no rows"),
+            "losing the group to a straddle must be reported, got {:?}",
+            warnings.messages()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Collects warning messages emitted while it is the default subscriber.
+    #[derive(Clone, Default)]
+    struct CapturedWarnings(std::sync::Arc<std::sync::Mutex<Vec<String>>>);
+
+    impl CapturedWarnings {
+        fn messages(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+            self.0.lock().unwrap().clone()
+        }
+
+        fn contains(&self, needle: &str) -> bool {
+            self.messages()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|message| message.contains(needle))
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl<S: tracing::Subscriber> Layer<S> for CapturedWarnings {
+        fn on_event(
+            &self,
+            event: &tracing::Event<'_>,
+            _ctx: tracing_subscriber::layer::Context<'_, S>,
+        ) {
+            if *event.metadata().level() != tracing::Level::WARN {
+                return;
+            }
+            let mut message = String::new();
+            event.record(
+                &mut |field: &tracing::field::Field, value: &dyn std::fmt::Debug| {
+                    if field.name() == "message" {
+                        message = format!("{value:?}");
+                    }
+                },
+            );
+            self.0.lock().unwrap().push(message);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::bitmap(IndexType::Bitmap)]
+    #[case::btree(IndexType::BTree)]
+    #[case::zonemap(IndexType::ZoneMap)]
+    #[case::bloomfilter(IndexType::BloomFilter)]
+    #[case::ngram(IndexType::NGram)]
+    #[case::fm(IndexType::Fm)]
+    #[case::inverted(IndexType::Inverted)]
+    #[case::label_list(IndexType::LabelList)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_uncommitted_segments_across_deferred_compaction(
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+    ) {
+        let column = match index_type {
+            IndexType::NGram | IndexType::Fm | IndexType::Inverted => "text",
+            IndexType::LabelList => "labels",
+            _ => "id",
+        };
+        let query: Box<dyn AnyQuery> = match index_type {
+            IndexType::NGram | IndexType::Fm => {
+                Box::new(TextQuery::StringContains("document".to_string()))
+            }
+            IndexType::Inverted => Box::new(TokenQuery::TokensContains("document".to_string())),
+            IndexType::LabelList => {
+                Box::new(LabelListQuery::HasAnyLabel(vec![ScalarValue::Int32(Some(
+                    1,
+                ))]))
+            }
+            IndexType::BloomFilter => Box::new(BloomFilterQuery::IsIn(
+                (0..4).map(|id| ScalarValue::Int32(Some(id))).collect(),
+            )),
+            _ => Box::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(4))),
+            )),
+        };
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "text",
+                lance_datagen::array::fill_utf8("document".to_string()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(2),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let mut fields = reader.schema().fields().to_vec();
+        fields.push(Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+            "labels",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+            false,
+        )));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields));
+        let batch_schema = schema.clone();
+        let batches = reader.map(move |batch| {
+            let batch = batch.unwrap();
+            let labels = ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int32Type, _, _>(
+                (0..batch.num_rows()).map(|_| Some(vec![Some(1)])),
+            );
+            let mut columns = batch.columns().to_vec();
+            columns.push(Arc::new(labels));
+            RecordBatch::try_new(batch_schema.clone(), columns)
+        });
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: false,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(index_type.try_into().unwrap());
+        let fragment_groups = if index_type == IndexType::Fm {
+            vec![
+                dataset
+                    .get_fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+                    .collect(),
+            ]
+        } else {
+            dataset
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .collect()
+        };
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_groups.len());
+        for fragment_group in fragment_groups {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &[column], index_type, &params)
+                    .name("in_flight".to_string())
+                    .fragments(fragment_group)
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Compaction needs an indexed group to write fragment-reuse metadata.
+        // One committed segment keeps both fragments in the same compaction bin.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[column],
+                index_type,
+                Some("committed".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        for compact in [false, true] {
+            if compact {
+                crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                    &mut dataset,
+                    crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                        target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                        defer_index_remap: true,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    },
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+                assert!(dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() > 1);
+                assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 4);
+            }
+
+            let merged = dataset
+                .merge_existing_index_segments(segments.clone())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Query the output directly so a scan cannot use the committed
+            // scaffolding index or fall back to reading unindexed fragments.
+            let index = crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(
+                &dataset,
+                column,
+                &merged,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let result = index
+                .search(query.as_ref(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let rows = match result {
+                SearchResult::Exact(rows) => rows,
+                // These queries return candidates; every fixture row is a true match.
+                SearchResult::AtMost(rows)
+                    if matches!(
+                        index_type,
+                        IndexType::ZoneMap
+                            | IndexType::BloomFilter
+                            | IndexType::NGram
+                            | IndexType::Inverted
+                    ) =>
+                {
+                    rows
+                }
+                other => panic!("unexpected {index_type:?} search result: {other:?}"),
+            };
+            let row_addrs = rows.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert_eq!(
+                row_addrs.len(),
+                4,
+                "{index_type:?} merge lost rows (compacted: {compact})"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                row_addrs.iter().all(|row_addr| dataset
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .contains(RowAddress::from(u64::from(*row_addr)).fragment_id())),
+                "{index_type:?} merge returned retired row addresses (compacted: {compact})"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_index_segments_supports_fts_segments() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![
+                Ok(create_text_batch(0, 10)),
+                Ok(create_text_batch(10, 20)),
+                Ok(create_text_batch(20, 30)),
+            ],
+            create_text_batch(0, 1).schema(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            batches,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                max_rows_per_group: 5,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        let mut input_segments = Vec::new();
+        let mut expected_fragments = roaring::RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            expected_fragments.insert(fragment.id() as u32);
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+                    .name("text_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            input_segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(input_segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("merged FTS segment should have fragment coverage"),
+            &expected_fragments
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merged
+                .index_details
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("merged FTS segment should have index details")
+                .type_url
+                .ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails")
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_idx", "text", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("text_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("document".to_string()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 20);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_btree_merge_existing_index_segments() {
+        use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, SearchResult};
+        use std::ops::Bound;
+
+        // Open `segment` and count rows whose `id` falls in `[lo, hi)`.
+        async fn count_in_range(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            segment: &IndexMetadata,
+            lo: i32,
+            hi: i32,
+        ) -> usize {
+            let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(segment.fields[0]).unwrap();
+            let index = crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(
+                dataset,
+                &field_path,
+                segment,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(lo))),
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(hi))),
+            );
+            match index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap() {
+                SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => {
+                    row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count()
+                }
+                other => panic!("expected exact result, got {other:?}"),
+            }
+        }
+
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        // 128 rows across two 64-row fragments. Stable row ids so the
+        // retired-fragment filter below exercises the exact row-id allow-list.
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(64),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // One staged BTree segment per fragment, committed as a multi-segment
+        // logical index.
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let mut staged = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            staged.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["id"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                    .name("id_btree".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("id_btree", "id", staged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Phase 1 — healthy merge: the two per-fragment segments consolidate
+        // into a single canonical segment covering both fragments, and a range
+        // spanning both (ids 50..100) returns every matching row.
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_btree").await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merged
+                .index_details
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .type_url
+                .ends_with("BTreeIndexDetails")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(count_in_range(&dataset, &merged, 50, 100).await, 50);
+
+        // Phase 2 — retire fragment 0: delete >10% of its rows so compaction
+        // rewrites only frag 0 (frag 1 has no deletions and is at target size).
+        // The committed per-fragment segment now claims a fragment the dataset
+        // no longer has.
+        dataset.delete("id < 16").await.unwrap();
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 64,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let live_frags: roaring::RoaringBitmap = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+            .collect();
+        assert!(!live_frags.contains(0), "compaction should retire frag 0");
+
+        // Filtered merge: coverage drops the retired fragment but keeps the
+        // live one, and the merged page data does not leak the retired row ids
+        // (ids < 16 lived only in frag 0, so the range now returns nothing).
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(dataset.load_indices_by_name("id_btree").await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let coverage = merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(!coverage.contains(0), "must drop retired frag 0");
+        assert!(coverage.contains(1), "must keep live frag 1");
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_in_range(&dataset, &merged, 0, 16).await,
+            0,
+            "must filter retired-fragment row ids"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Distributed LabelList build: one segment per fragment via
+    // `execute_uncommitted`, then `merge_existing_index_segments` consolidates them
+    // into a single canonical segment that answers `array_has_any` across all rows.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_label_list_merge_existing_index_segments() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::{LabelListQuery, SearchResult};
+
+        // Open `segment` and count rows whose `labels` list contains `label`.
+        async fn count_has_any(dataset: &Dataset, segment: &IndexMetadata, label: i64) -> usize {
+            let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(segment.fields[0]).unwrap();
+            let index = crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(
+                dataset,
+                &field_path,
+                segment,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let query = LabelListQuery::HasAnyLabel(vec![ScalarValue::Int64(Some(label))]);
+            match index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap() {
+                SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => {
+                    row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count()
+                }
+                other => panic!("expected exact result, got {other:?}"),
+            }
+        }
+
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        // 4000 rows across two 2000-row fragments; each `labels` list cycles over 1..=5.
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "labels",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_list_any(
+                    lance_datagen::array::cycle::<arrow::datatypes::Int64Type>(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]),
+                    false,
+                ),
+            )
+            .into_dataset(
+                &dataset_uri,
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(2000),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Ground truth via a full scan before any index exists.
+        let expected = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["labels"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter("array_has_any(labels, [3])")
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_rows();
+        assert!(
+            expected > 0,
+            "test dataset must contain at least one row whose labels include 3"
+        );
+
+        // One LabelList segment per fragment, committed as a multi-segment index.
+        let params =
+            ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::LabelList);
+        let mut staged = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            staged.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["labels"], IndexType::LabelList, &params)
+                    .name("labels_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("labels_idx", "labels", staged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Merge the two per-fragment segments into a single segment covering both.
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(
+                dataset.load_indices_by_name("labels_idx").await.unwrap(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merged
+                .index_details
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .type_url
+                .ends_with("LabelListIndexDetails")
+        );
+        // The merged segment returns every row whose labels include 3 across both
+        // fragments — i.e. the per-fragment bitmaps and null sets were unioned.
+        assert_eq!(count_has_any(&dataset, &merged, 3).await, expected);
+    }
+
+    fn label_list_batch(labels: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<i64>>>>) -> (Arc<ArrowSchema>, RecordBatch) {
+        let labels = ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Int64Type, _, _>(labels);
+        let row_count = labels.len();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("labels", labels.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ]));
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values((0..row_count).map(|id| id as i32));
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(ids), Arc::new(labels)]).unwrap();
+        (schema, batch)
+    }
+
+    /// `merge_existing_index_segments` for Bitmap, with segments that each cover
+    /// two fragments and an old-data filter that actually removes rows.
+    ///
+    /// The other Bitmap merge tests go through `optimize_indices` and build one
+    /// segment per fragment, so this is the only coverage of the distributed-build
+    /// entry point, and of a segment whose coverage is wider than one fragment.
+    /// Stable row ids make the filter an exact row-id allow-list, so the deleted
+    /// rows reach it rather than being masked at scan time.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_execute_uncommitted() {
-        // Test the complete workflow that covers the user's specified code pattern:
-        // 1. Create dataset with multiple fragments
-        // 2. Get fragment IDs from dataset using dataset.get_fragments()
-        // 3. Create CreateIndexBuilder with fragments() method
-        // 4. Call execute_uncommitted() to get IndexMetadata
-        // 5. Verify IndexMetadata contains correct fragment_bitmap
+    async fn test_bitmap_merge_existing_index_segments_multi_fragment() {
+        async fn count_value(dataset: &Dataset, segment: &IndexMetadata, value: &str) -> usize {
+            let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(segment.fields[0]).unwrap();
+            let index = crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(
+                dataset,
+                &field_path,
+                segment,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Utf8(Some(value.to_string())));
+            match index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap() {
+                SearchResult::Exact(row_ids) => row_ids.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(),
+                other => panic!("expected exact result, got {other:?}"),
+            }
+        }
 
-        // Create temporary directory for dataset
         let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
         let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
 
-        // Create test data with multiple fragments
-        let batch1 = create_text_batch(0, 10);
-        let batch2 = create_text_batch(10, 20);
-        let batch3 = create_text_batch(20, 30);
+        // 16 rows over four 4-row fragments; `cat` cycles A/B/C/D, so four each.
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("cat", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..16)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..16).map(|i| ["A", "B", "C", "D"][(i % 4) as usize]),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 10, // Force multiple fragments
-            max_rows_per_group: 5,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+        // Two segments, each covering two fragments.
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        let mut staged = Vec::with_capacity(2);
+        for fragments in [vec![0u32, 1], vec![2, 3]] {
+            staged.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["cat"], IndexType::Bitmap, &params)
+                    .name("cat_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(fragments)
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("cat_idx", "cat", staged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Write dataset with multiple batches to create multiple fragments
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![Ok(batch1), Ok(batch2), Ok(batch3)],
-            create_text_batch(0, 1).schema(),
+        // One B from each segment's coverage, so both filters have work to do.
+        dataset.delete("id = 1 OR id = 9").await.unwrap();
+
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(dataset.load_indices_by_name("cat_idx").await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref(),
+            Some(&(0..4u32).collect::<RoaringBitmap>()),
+            "the merged segment must cover every fragment the sources did"
         );
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &dataset_uri, Some(write_params))
+
+        for (value, expected) in [("A", 4), ("B", 2), ("C", 4), ("D", 4)] {
+            assert_eq!(
+                count_value(&dataset, &merged, value).await,
+                expected,
+                "wrong row count for cat = {value} after merging multi-fragment segments"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_label_list_merge_existing_index_segments_drops_retired_fragments() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::{LabelListQuery, SearchResult};
+
+        async fn search_counts(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            segment: &IndexMetadata,
+            label: i64,
+        ) -> (usize, usize) {
+            let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(segment.fields[0]).unwrap();
+            let index = crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(
+                dataset,
+                &field_path,
+                segment,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+            let query = LabelListQuery::HasAnyLabel(vec![ScalarValue::Int64(Some(label))]);
+            match index.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap() {
+                SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => (
+                    row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(),
+                    row_addrs.null_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(),
+                ),
+                other => panic!("expected exact result, got {other:?}"),
+            }
+        }
 
-        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let (schema, batch) = label_list_batch(vec![
+            Some(vec![Some(1)]),
+            None,
+            Some(vec![Some(1)]),
+            Some(vec![Some(1)]),
+            Some(vec![Some(2)]),
+            Some(vec![Some(2)]),
+            Some(vec![Some(2)]),
+            Some(vec![Some(2)]),
+        ]);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Get fragment IDs from the dataset
-        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
-        let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect();
+        let params =
+            ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::LabelList);
+        let mut staged = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            staged.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["labels"], IndexType::LabelList, &params)
+                    .name("labels_retired_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("labels_retired_idx", "labels", staged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset.delete("id < 4").await.unwrap();
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
         assert!(
-            fragment_ids.len() >= 2,
-            "Should have multiple fragments for testing"
+            !dataset.fragment_bitmap.contains(0),
+            "compaction should retire fragment 0"
         );
 
-        // Test fragments() method with specific fragment IDs and ensure duplicate/out-of-order fragments are handled properly
-        let selected_fragments = vec![
-            fragment_ids[1],
-            fragment_ids[0],
-            fragment_ids[1],
-            fragment_ids[2],
-        ];
-        let selected_fragments_expected = vec![fragment_ids[0], fragment_ids[1], fragment_ids[2]];
-
-        let mut builder =
-            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
-                .name("fragment_index".to_string())
-                .fragments(selected_fragments.clone());
-
-        // Execute uncommitted to get index metadata
-        let index_metadata = builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap();
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(
+                dataset
+                    .load_indices_by_name("labels_retired_idx")
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let coverage = merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(!coverage.contains(0), "must drop retired frag 0");
+        assert!(coverage.contains(1), "must keep live indexed frag 1");
 
-        // Verify the IndexMetadata contains the correct fragment_bitmap
-        let fragment_bitmap = index_metadata.fragment_bitmap.unwrap();
-        let indexed_fragments: Vec<u32> = fragment_bitmap.iter().collect();
+        let (retired_true, _) = search_counts(&dataset, &merged, 1).await;
         assert_eq!(
-            indexed_fragments, selected_fragments_expected,
-            "Index should only cover the selected fragments"
+            retired_true, 0,
+            "must filter value bitmaps from retired fragments"
         );
 
-        // Verify other metadata fields
-        assert_eq!(index_metadata.name, "fragment_index");
-        assert!(!index_metadata.uuid.is_nil());
-        assert!(index_metadata.created_at.is_some());
+        let (live_true, null_rows) = search_counts(&dataset, &merged, 2).await;
+        assert_eq!(live_true, 4, "must keep live fragment rows");
+        assert_eq!(
+            null_rows, 0,
+            "must filter list_nulls from retired fragments"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_merge_index_metadata() {
-        // Test the complete workflow for merge_index_metadata:
-        // 1. Create multiple fragment indexes using execute_uncommitted
-        // 2. Use merge_index_metadata to merge temporary metadata files
-        // 3. Commit the index using the standard commit process
-        // 4. Verify the final index is properly created and accessible
+    async fn test_label_list_merge_rejects_nullable_segment_missing_null_metadata() {
+        use crate::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
+        use lance_index::scalar::IndexStore;
+        use lance_index::scalar::label_list::{
+            BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY, LABEL_LIST_NULLS_MIN_VERSION,
+        };
+        use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
 
-        // Create temporary directory for dataset
         let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
         let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let (schema, batch) = label_list_batch(vec![
+            Some(vec![Some(1)]),
+            None,
+            Some(vec![Some(2)]),
+            Some(vec![Some(3)]),
+        ]);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        // Create test data with multiple fragments
-        let batch1 = create_text_batch(0, 15);
-        let batch2 = create_text_batch(15, 30);
-        let batch3 = create_text_batch(30, 45);
+        let params =
+            ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::LabelList);
+        let segment =
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["labels"], IndexType::LabelList, &params)
+                .name("labels_legacy_idx".to_string())
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
 
-        let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 15,
-            max_rows_per_group: 5,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
+        let source_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(&dataset, &segment)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = source_store
+            .open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = reader.read_range(0..reader.num_rows(), None).await.unwrap();
+        let source_schema: ArrowSchema = reader.schema().into();
+        let schema_without_metadata = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(source_schema.fields().clone()));
 
-        // Write dataset with multiple batches to create multiple fragments
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(
-            vec![Ok(batch1), Ok(batch2), Ok(batch3)],
-            create_text_batch(0, 1).schema(),
+        let legacy_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let legacy_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(&dataset, &legacy_uuid).unwrap();
+        let mut writer = legacy_store
+            .new_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, schema_without_metadata)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        writer.write_record_batch(batch).await.unwrap();
+        let legacy_file = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut legacy_segment = segment.clone();
+        legacy_segment.uuid = legacy_uuid;
+        legacy_segment.index_version = LABEL_LIST_NULLS_MIN_VERSION;
+        legacy_segment.files = Some(index_files_to_table(vec![legacy_file]));
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![legacy_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains(LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
         );
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, &dataset_uri, Some(write_params))
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_index_supports_local_hnsw_segments() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(16)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(128),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            prepare_vector_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await,
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+
+        CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+            .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+            .index_uuid(uuid)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
-        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
-        let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect();
+        let source_dataset_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![IndexSegment::new(
+                    uuid,
+                    dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone(),
+                    [dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id],
+                    Arc::new(vector_index_details(&params)),
+                    IndexType::IvfHnswFlat.version(),
+                    source_dataset_version,
+                    vec![],
+                )],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Use a shared UUID for distributed indexing
-        let shared_uuid = Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].uuid, uuid);
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].dataset_version, source_dataset_version);
 
-        // Step 1: Create indexes for each fragment using execute_uncommitted
-        let mut index_metadatas = Vec::new();
-        for &fragment_id in &fragment_ids {
-            let mut builder =
-                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
-                    .name("distributed_index".to_string())
-                    .fragments(vec![fragment_id])
-                    .index_uuid(shared_uuid.clone());
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "future_vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![IndexSegment::new(
+                    Uuid::new_v4(),
+                    dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone(),
+                    [dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id],
+                    Arc::new(vector_index_details(&params)),
+                    IndexType::IvfHnswFlat.version(),
+                    dataset.manifest.version + 1,
+                    vec![],
+                )],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("future dataset version"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
 
-            let index_metadata = builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_index_vector_commits_with_segment_metadata() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
 
-            // Verify each fragment's index metadata
-            assert_eq!(index_metadata.uuid.to_string(), shared_uuid);
-            assert_eq!(index_metadata.name, "distributed_index");
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(16)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(128),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &dataset_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-            let fragment_bitmap = index_metadata.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
-            let indexed_fragments: Vec<u32> = fragment_bitmap.iter().collect();
-            assert_eq!(indexed_fragments, vec![fragment_id]);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            prepare_vector_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await,
+        );
 
-            index_metadatas.push(index_metadata);
-        }
+        let committed = dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            committed
+                .files
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|files| !files.is_empty()),
+            "single-machine vector create_index should preserve committed file info"
+        );
+
+        let loaded = dataset.load_indices_by_name(&committed.name).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(loaded.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(loaded[0].uuid, committed.uuid);
+        assert!(
+            loaded[0]
+                .files
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|files| !files.is_empty()),
+            "committed metadata loaded from the manifest should include file info"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Step 2: Merge inverted index metadata
-        // Note: This step would typically be done by calling dataset.merge_index_metadata()
-        // but for this test, we verify that the execute_uncommitted workflow produces correct metadata
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_index_ivf_rq_preserves_index_version() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
 
-        // Step 3: Verify the metadata from execute_uncommitted contains all necessary information
-        assert_eq!(index_metadatas.len(), fragment_ids.len());
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(16)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(128),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &dataset_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        // Verify all metadata have the same UUID (shared UUID for distributed indexing)
-        for metadata in &index_metadatas {
-            assert_eq!(metadata.uuid.to_string(), shared_uuid);
-            assert_eq!(metadata.name, "distributed_index");
-            assert!(metadata.fragment_bitmap.is_some());
-            assert!(metadata.created_at.is_some());
-        }
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_rq(4, 1, DistanceType::L2);
 
-        // Verify that each fragment is covered by exactly one metadata
-        let mut all_covered_fragments = Vec::new();
-        for metadata in &index_metadatas {
-            let fragment_bitmap = metadata.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
-            let covered_fragments: Vec<u32> = fragment_bitmap.iter().collect();
-            all_covered_fragments.extend(covered_fragments);
-        }
-        all_covered_fragments.sort();
-        let mut expected_fragments = fragment_ids.clone();
-        expected_fragments.sort();
-        assert_eq!(all_covered_fragments, expected_fragments);
+        let committed = dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::IvfRq, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(committed.index_version, IndexType::IvfRq.version());
+
+        let loaded = dataset.load_indices_by_name(&committed.name).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(loaded.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(loaded[0].index_version, IndexType::IvfRq.version());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -918,35 +4704,38 @@ mod tests {
         // Load indices after optimization
         let indices_after = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
 
-        // There should be 3 indices:
-        // 1. one scalar index with name "id_idx", and the bitmap is [0,1]
-        // 2. one delta vector index with name "vector_idx", and the bitmap is [0]
-        // 3. one delta vector index with name "vector_idx", and the bitmap is [1]
-        assert_eq!(indices_after.len(), 3, "{:?}", indices_after);
-        let id_idx = indices_after
+        // After unifying scalar optimize, `OptimizeOptions::append()` honors
+        // `Some(0)` for BTree the same way it does for vector: keep the old
+        // segment, add a delta for the unindexed fragment. So we now expect:
+        //   1. id_idx old segment, bitmap [0]
+        //   2. id_idx delta segment, bitmap [1]
+        //   3. vector_idx old segment, bitmap [0]
+        //   4. vector_idx delta segment, bitmap [1]
+        // Previously BTree silently merged into 1 segment because legacy
+        // scalar ignored `num_indices_to_merge`.
+        assert_eq!(indices_after.len(), 4, "{:?}", indices_after);
+        let id_indices = indices_after
             .iter()
-            .find(|idx| idx.name == "id_idx")
-            .unwrap();
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == "id_idx")
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         let vector_indices = indices_after
             .iter()
             .filter(|idx| idx.name == "vector_idx")
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        assert!(
-            id_idx
-                .fragment_bitmap
-                .as_ref()
-                .unwrap()
-                .contains_range(0..2)
-                && id_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().len() == 2
-        );
-        assert_eq!(vector_indices.len(), 2);
-        assert!(vector_indices
-            .iter()
-            .any(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(0)
-                && idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().len() == 1));
-        assert!(vector_indices
-            .iter()
-            .any(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(1)
-                && idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().len() == 1));
+        for indices in [&id_indices, &vector_indices] {
+            assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
+            assert!(
+                indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(0)
+                        && idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().len() == 1)
+            );
+            assert!(
+                indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(1)
+                        && idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().len() == 1)
+            );
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/create/tests/staged_tagged.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/create/tests/staged_tagged.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3c1e1d7cc68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/create/tests/staged_tagged.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1903 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Staged (uncommitted) index segments merged and committed on a table that
+//! carries a tagged fragment reuse history: the distributed build flow
+//! (`execute_uncommitted` per fragment, `merge_existing_index_segments`,
+//! `commit_existing_index_segments`).
+//!
+//! Staged segments are unknown to the snapshot plan, so the merge plans them
+//! as one group with the reader's own algorithm. The merged segment claims the
+//! live coverage the reader derives for the group (the destinations it covers
+//! completely), never a destination the group cannot serve.
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index;
+use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+use crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder;
+use crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests as reader_tests;
+use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+use lance_table::transaction::{Operation, RewriteGroup, Transaction};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+/// Two fragments of four rows: `i` 0..8, a constant `text` and a payload
+/// `w` equal to `i` (a key no index covers, for in-place rewrites).
+async fn disk_fixture(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col(
+            "text",
+            lance_datagen::array::fill_utf8("document".to_string()),
+        )
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn reserve_fragments(dataset: &mut Dataset, num_fragments: u32) {
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            Transaction::new(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
+                None,
+            ),
+            &Default::default(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Stable partition of `source_ids` into destinations numbered from
+/// `dest_base_id`, committed through the real commit path.
+async fn commit_stable_partition(
+    dataset: Dataset,
+    source_ids: &[u64],
+    dest_base_id: u64,
+) -> Dataset {
+    let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = source_ids
+        .iter()
+        .map(|id| {
+            dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                .unwrap()
+                .clone()
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let (transition, destinations) =
+        reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, source_ids, dest_base_id).await;
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let frag_reuse_index = Some(
+        crate::index::frag_reuse::frag_reuse_entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition])
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+    );
+    CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .execute(Transaction::new(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                    old_fragments,
+                    new_fragments: destinations,
+                }],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index,
+            },
+            None,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn staged_segment(
+    dataset: &mut Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    index_type: IndexType,
+    fragments: Vec<u32>,
+) -> IndexMetadata {
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(index_type.try_into().unwrap());
+    CreateIndexBuilder::new(dataset, &[column], index_type, &params)
+        .name("staged".to_string())
+        .fragments(fragments)
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Sorted `i` values, optionally under a predicate, with or without the index.
+async fn values(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: Option<&str>, use_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    if let Some(predicate) = predicate {
+        scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+    }
+    scan.use_scalar_index(use_index);
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut out: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect();
+    out.sort_unstable();
+    out
+}
+
+/// Every indexed point query and the full scan equal their index-disabled
+/// twins; `indexed` says whether the plan must use (or must not use) the index.
+async fn assert_queries_match_scans(dataset: &Dataset, indexed: bool) {
+    for value in 0..8 {
+        let predicate = format!("i = {value}");
+        let plan = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), indexed, "{plan}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            values(dataset, Some(&predicate), true).await,
+            values(dataset, Some(&predicate), false).await,
+            "{predicate}"
+        );
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        values(dataset, None, true).await,
+        values(dataset, None, false).await
+    );
+}
+
+async fn stored_segment(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> IndexMetadata {
+    crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == name)
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone()
+}
+
+async fn derived_coverage(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+    dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == name)
+        .and_then(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+}
+
+/// Both staged contributors are needed to cover a destination: the merged
+/// segment claims both destinations, holds live addresses, and indexed
+/// queries equal scans; it no longer translates.
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::btree(IndexType::BTree)]
+#[case::bitmap(IndexType::Bitmap)]
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_segments_merge_after_stable_partition(#[case] index_type: IndexType) {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let s1 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", index_type, vec![0]).await;
+    let s2 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", index_type, vec![1]).await;
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+
+    let merged = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![s1, s2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11]),
+        "the merged segment claims the destinations the group covers completely"
+    );
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("staged", "i", vec![merged.clone()])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stored_segment(&dataset, "staged").await.uuid, merged.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived_coverage(&dataset, "staged").await,
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])),
+        "the committed segment serves both destinations directly"
+    );
+    assert_queries_match_scans(&dataset, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(values(&dataset, Some("i = 3"), true).await, vec![3]);
+
+    // The merged segment serves the destinations directly; whatever trim
+    // decides about the transition, the index keeps serving.
+    let mut dataset = dataset;
+    cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_queries_match_scans(&dataset, true).await;
+}
+
+/// One staged contributor covers only part of the partition: the merge
+/// succeeds, the merged segment claims nothing the group cannot serve (its
+/// derived coverage is empty), and the queries scan.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_segment_covering_part_of_a_partition_shrinks_coverage() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let s1 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![0]).await;
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+
+    let merged = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![s1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "no destination is covered completely, so nothing is claimed"
+    );
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("staged", "i", vec![merged])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        derived_coverage(&dataset, "staged")
+            .await
+            .is_none_or(|coverage| coverage.is_empty()),
+        "a destination the group only partly covers is not claimed"
+    );
+    assert_queries_match_scans(&dataset, false).await;
+}
+
+/// Staged segments over fragments no rewrite touched are identity segments:
+/// they merge and commit exactly as on an untagged table.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_segments_untouched_by_the_rewrite_merge_as_identity() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col(
+            "text",
+            lance_datagen::array::fill_utf8("document".to_string()),
+        )
+        .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(8))
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let appended: Vec<u32> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+        .filter(|id| *id > 11)
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(appended.len(), 2, "{appended:?}");
+    let s1 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![appended[0]]).await;
+    let s2 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![appended[1]]).await;
+
+    let merged = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![s1, s2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &appended.iter().copied().collect::<RoaringBitmap>()
+    );
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("staged", "i", vec![merged])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived_coverage(&dataset, "staged").await,
+        Some(appended.iter().copied().collect::<RoaringBitmap>())
+    );
+    for value in [9, 12, 15] {
+        let predicate = format!("i = {value}");
+        let plan = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+        assert_eq!(values(&dataset, Some(&predicate), true).await, vec![value]);
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        values(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    );
+}
+
+/// The #9421 flow on a tagged table: staged segments built per fragment, a
+/// deferred compaction that records an ordered-compaction transition on the
+/// tagged history, then merge and commit. The merged segment claims the
+/// compacted fragment, which both staged segments together cover.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_segments_merge_across_deferred_compaction_on_tagged_table() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col(
+            "text",
+            lance_datagen::array::fill_utf8("document".to_string()),
+        )
+        .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4))
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let appended: Vec<u32> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+        .filter(|id| *id > 11)
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(appended.len(), 2, "{appended:?}");
+    let s1 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![appended[0]]).await;
+    let s2 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![appended[1]]).await;
+    // A committed index over the appended fragments makes the compaction
+    // record a transition for them (uncovered fragments would compact plainly).
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("committed".to_string()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let compacted: Vec<u32> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+        .filter(|id| !appended.contains(id) && *id > 11)
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(compacted.len(), 1, "{compacted:?}");
+
+    let merged = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![s1, s2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &compacted.iter().copied().collect::<RoaringBitmap>(),
+        "the merged segment claims the compacted destination"
+    );
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("staged", "i", vec![merged])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived_coverage(&dataset, "staged").await,
+        Some(compacted.iter().copied().collect::<RoaringBitmap>())
+    );
+    for value in 8..12 {
+        let predicate = format!("i = {value}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            values(&dataset, Some(&predicate), true).await,
+            values(&dataset, Some(&predicate), false).await
+        );
+        assert_eq!(values(&dataset, Some(&predicate), true).await, vec![value]);
+    }
+}
+
+/// The NGram merge reads spill files and translates only through the v0
+/// remapper: a staged NGram segment that needs translation is refused by the
+/// replay (the resolver's NGram rule) rather than merged with stale
+/// addresses; the error says to rebuild.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_ngram_segments_needing_translation_are_refused() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let s1 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "text", IndexType::NGram, vec![0]).await;
+    let s2 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "text", IndexType::NGram, vec![1]).await;
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+    let error = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![s1, s2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("Rebuild"), "{error}");
+}
+
+/// A segment that is neither staged nor listed in the manifest is an error
+/// for the coverage builder, never empty coverage; with its plan, the same
+/// segment gets the coverage the plan derives.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn unlisted_segment_without_a_plan_is_an_error() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let s1 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![0]).await;
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+
+    let error = crate::index::append::tagged_segment_coverage(&dataset, &[&s1], None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("not registered"), "{error}");
+
+    let plans = crate::index::frag_reuse::plan_staged_segments(&dataset, std::slice::from_ref(&s1))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .expect("a tagged table plans staged segments");
+    let coverage = crate::index::append::tagged_segment_coverage(&dataset, &[&s1], Some(&plans))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .expect("tagged coverage");
+    assert!(
+        coverage[&s1.uuid].is_empty(),
+        "half a partition covers no destination completely: {:?}",
+        coverage[&s1.uuid]
+    );
+}
+
+/// Two fragments of four rows: `i` 0..8, a random 4-dim `vector` and a
+/// payload `w` equal to `i`.
+async fn vector_fixture(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col(
+            "vector",
+            lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(4.into()),
+        )
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// The plan and the sorted `i` of the `k` rows nearest to `query`, with or
+/// without the vector index.
+async fn nearest(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    query: &arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>,
+    k: usize,
+    use_index: bool,
+) -> (String, Vec<i32>) {
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.nearest("vector", query, k).unwrap();
+    scan.use_index(use_index);
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect();
+    ids.sort_unstable();
+    (plan, ids)
+}
+
+/// Staged vector segments never open the dataset: the merge filters each by
+/// its stored bitmap in the raw address domain and the merged segment keeps
+/// the provenance union, so it claims no destination and translates at query
+/// time exactly like a committed vector merge. With one IVF partition the
+/// index answers every query the flat scan answers.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_vector_segments_merge_across_stable_partition_keep_provenance() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = vector_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    // Shards merge only when they share centroids: one fixed centroid, as a
+    // distributed build trains once and hands the centroids to every shard.
+    let centroids = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4]),
+        4,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(1, Arc::new(centroids))
+            .unwrap(),
+    );
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in [0u32, 1] {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                .name("staged".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    let original = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 6")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = original["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+    let query = query
+        .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>()
+        .clone();
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+
+    let merged = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]),
+        "a vector merge keeps the provenance union"
+    );
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("staged", "vector", vec![merged.clone()])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let stored = stored_segment(&dataset, "staged").await;
+    assert_eq!(stored.uuid, merged.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        stored.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]),
+        "the commit keeps the retired provenance that the lineage records"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived_coverage(&dataset, "staged").await,
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])),
+        "the committed segment translates to both destinations"
+    );
+    let (_, truth) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, false).await;
+    assert_eq!(truth, vec![6]);
+    let (plan, found) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, true).await;
+    assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(found, truth);
+    let (_, flat) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 8, false).await;
+    let (_, indexed) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 8, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(flat.len(), 8);
+    assert_eq!(indexed, flat, "every row is reachable through the index");
+
+    // Trim keeps the transition the merged segment's provenance still names.
+    let mut dataset = dataset;
+    cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_some()
+    );
+    let (plan, found) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, true).await;
+    assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(found, vec![6]);
+}
+
+/// Rewrite `column` of the row `w = key` in place with `value`: a
+/// partial-schema merge insert keyed on `w`, which no index covers, in
+/// `RewriteColumns` mode. The dataset is reopened afterwards.
+async fn rewrite_in_place(uri: &str, column: &str, key: i32, value: arrow_array::ArrayRef) {
+    use crate::dataset::{MergeInsertBuilder, MergeInsertWriteMode, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched};
+
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+    let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::from(
+        &dataset.schema().project(&["w", column]).unwrap(),
+    ));
+    let source = arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![key])), value],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["w".into()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute_batches(vec![source])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// The sequence that forces the replay to run BEFORE the merge: segments
+/// staged over F0 and F1, `i` of a row in F1 rewritten in place (admitted:
+/// no committed index covers `i`), F1 partitioned into F10 and F11, the
+/// segments merged, the result committed. The merge translates addresses
+/// but never rereads values, so without the replay the merged segment
+/// would claim the destinations with the pre-rewrite value inside.
+/// Replayed first, the rewrite withdraws F1 from its segment; the merge has
+/// nothing to claim for F10 and F11, keeps F0, and the new value comes from
+/// the scan.
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::btree(IndexType::BTree)]
+#[case::bitmap(IndexType::Bitmap)]
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_segments_rewritten_before_the_partition_are_validated_before_the_merge(
+    #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+) {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let s1 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", index_type, vec![0]).await;
+    let s2 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", index_type, vec![1]).await;
+    // Row w = 6 lives in F1.
+    rewrite_in_place(
+        dir.as_str(),
+        "i",
+        6,
+        Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![666])),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[1], 10).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![0, 10, 11]
+    );
+
+    let merged = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![s1, s2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+        "the rewritten source was withdrawn before the merge; F0 stays"
+    );
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("staged", "i", vec![merged])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived_coverage(&dataset, "staged").await,
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]))
+    );
+    assert_eq!(values(&dataset, Some("i = 666"), true).await, vec![666]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        values(&dataset, Some("i = 6"), true).await,
+        Vec::<i32>::new()
+    );
+    assert_eq!(values(&dataset, Some("i = 2"), true).await, vec![2]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        values(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        values(&dataset, None, false).await
+    );
+}
+
+/// A committed vector index whose coverage an in-place rewrite of the
+/// vector column withdrew entirely: queries scan, and `optimize_indices`
+/// rebuilds the index from the live fragments (the withdrawn segment is
+/// dormant, opened through the maintenance entry for its parameters only),
+/// replacing it with a segment that claims the live fragments and answers
+/// through the ANN path exactly like the flat scan.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn withdrawn_vector_index_is_rebuilt_by_optimize() {
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = vector_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let centroids = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4]),
+        4,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(1, Arc::new(centroids))
+            .unwrap(),
+    );
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["vector"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some("vec_idx".into()),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+    let before = stored_segment(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        before.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+    );
+
+    // Row w = 6 gets a vector far from every other, rewritten in place: the
+    // whole transition is withdrawn and the segment is left empty.
+    let far = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<
+        arrow_array::types::Float32Type,
+        _,
+        _,
+    >(vec![Some(vec![Some(1000.0f32); 4])], 4);
+    rewrite_in_place(dir.as_str(), "vector", 6, Arc::new(far)).await;
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let withdrawn = stored_segment(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(withdrawn.uuid, before.uuid);
+    assert!(withdrawn.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty());
+    assert!(
+        derived_coverage(&dataset, "vec_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+            .is_empty()
+    );
+    let query = arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![1000.0f32; 4]);
+    let (plan, found) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, true).await;
+    assert!(!plan.contains("ANN"), "scanned while withdrawn: {plan}");
+    assert_eq!(found, vec![6]);
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let rebuilt = stored_segment(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+    assert_ne!(rebuilt.uuid, withdrawn.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        rebuilt.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11]),
+        "the new segment claims the live fragments"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .all(|idx| idx.uuid != withdrawn.uuid),
+        "the withdrawn segment is replaced"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived_coverage(&dataset, "vec_idx").await,
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11]))
+    );
+    let (plan, found) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, true).await;
+    assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(found, vec![6]);
+    let (_, flat) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 8, false).await;
+    let (_, indexed) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 8, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(indexed, flat);
+}
+
+/// Routine maintenance of the logical index the staged segments rebuild is
+/// no conflict for the replay. A distributed rebuild of `staged` (committed
+/// over F0 and F1) stages one segment per fragment; F1 is partitioned, a
+/// fragment is appended and `optimize_indices` adds a same-name delta for
+/// it in the window. The staged segments still merge and commit, replacing
+/// the old segment while the delta is retained, and the whole index answers.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_segments_survive_a_same_name_optimize_in_the_window() {
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(IndexType::BTree.try_into().unwrap());
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("staged".into()),
+            &params,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let old = stored_segment(&dataset, "staged").await;
+    let mut staged = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in [0u32, 1] {
+        staged.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                .name("staged".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment])
+                .replace(true)
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[1], 10).await;
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col(
+            "text",
+            lance_datagen::array::fill_utf8("document".to_string()),
+        )
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4))
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let appended = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+        .find(|id| *id > 11)
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let delta = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == "staged" && idx.uuid != old.uuid)
+        .cloned()
+        .expect("the same-name delta the window added");
+    assert_eq!(
+        delta.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([appended])
+    );
+
+    let merged = dataset.merge_existing_index_segments(staged).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 10, 11]),
+        "the staged segments translate across the partition despite the same-name delta"
+    );
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("staged", "i", vec![merged])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let remaining: Vec<Uuid> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| idx.name == "staged")
+        .map(|idx| idx.uuid)
+        .collect();
+    assert!(
+        !remaining.contains(&old.uuid),
+        "the old segment is replaced"
+    );
+    assert!(remaining.contains(&delta.uuid), "the delta is retained");
+    let listed = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| idx.name == "staged")
+        .filter_map(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+        .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |acc, bitmap| acc | bitmap);
+    assert_eq!(listed, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 10, 11, appended]));
+    assert_queries_match_scans(&dataset, true).await;
+}
+
+/// A same-name CreateIndex in the window that changed what the index is (a
+/// replacement of another index type) is a real conflict: the staged
+/// segments are refused with the rebuild error.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_segments_refuse_an_incompatible_same_name_replacement() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(IndexType::BTree.try_into().unwrap());
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("staged".into()),
+            &params,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut staged = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in [0u32, 1] {
+        staged.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                .name("staged".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment])
+                .replace(true)
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[1], 10).await;
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::Bitmap,
+            Some("staged".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(IndexType::Bitmap.try_into().unwrap()),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let error = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(staged)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("Rebuild"), "{error}");
+}
+
+/// The replay needs the whole history between the build and the snapshot.
+/// The listing only knows the manifests that still exist: with the build
+/// version kept by a tag and the versions after it cleaned up, the partition
+/// and the in-place rewrite between them leave no trace, so the segments
+/// cannot be validated and both the merge and the commit refuse them.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_segments_refuse_a_history_with_a_cleaned_up_version() {
+    use crate::dataset::cleanup::{CleanupPolicyBuilder, cleanup_old_versions};
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = disk_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let s1 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![0]).await;
+    let s2 = staged_segment(&mut dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![1]).await;
+    let build_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    dataset.tags().create("build", build_version).await.unwrap();
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[1], 10).await;
+    // Row w = 6 was in F1 and now lives in a partition destination.
+    rewrite_in_place(
+        dir.as_str(),
+        "i",
+        6,
+        Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(vec![666])),
+    )
+    .await;
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, build_version + 3);
+    let policy = CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+        .before_timestamp(chrono::Utc::now() + chrono::Duration::days(1))
+        .error_if_tagged_old_versions(false)
+        .build();
+    cleanup_old_versions(&dataset, policy).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(dataset.checkout_version(build_version).await.is_ok());
+    assert!(
+        dataset.checkout_version(build_version + 1).await.is_err(),
+        "the intermediate versions are gone"
+    );
+
+    let error = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![s1.clone(), s2.clone()])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        error.to_string().contains("cleaned up") && error.to_string().contains("Rebuild"),
+        "{error}"
+    );
+    let error = dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("staged", "i", vec![s1, s2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        error.to_string().contains("cleaned up") && error.to_string().contains("Rebuild"),
+        "{error}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .all(|idx| idx.name != "staged"),
+        "nothing was committed"
+    );
+}
+
+/// The same sequence for IVF_FLAT shards: the vector of a row in F1 is
+/// rewritten in place, F1 is partitioned, the shards merged and committed.
+/// The merged segment keeps F0 only and the nearest neighbour of the new
+/// vector is found by the scan of the uncovered destinations.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn staged_vector_segments_rewritten_before_the_partition_are_validated_before_the_merge() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = vector_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let centroids = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4]),
+        4,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(1, Arc::new(centroids))
+            .unwrap(),
+    );
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in [0u32, 1] {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                .name("staged".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    // Row w = 6 (F1) gets a vector far from every other; the shard over F1
+    // still holds its old vector.
+    let far = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<
+        arrow_array::types::Float32Type,
+        _,
+        _,
+    >(vec![Some(vec![Some(1000.0f32); 4])], 4);
+    rewrite_in_place(dir.as_str(), "vector", 6, Arc::new(far)).await;
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &[1], 10).await;
+
+    let merged = dataset
+        .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+        "the rewritten source was withdrawn before the merge; F0 stays"
+    );
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("staged", "vector", vec![merged])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived_coverage(&dataset, "staged").await,
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]))
+    );
+    let query = arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![1000.0f32; 4]);
+    let (_, truth) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, false).await;
+    assert_eq!(truth, vec![6]);
+    let (_, found) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(found, vec![6], "the rewritten row is found by the scan");
+    let (_, flat) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 8, false).await;
+    let (_, indexed) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 8, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(indexed, flat);
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// The maintenance chain after a v0 deferred-remap upgrade.
+//
+// Under the legacy v0 fragment reuse index a deferred compaction leaves the
+// index FILE holding SOURCE row addresses while the listing swaps the
+// segment's bitmap to the destination and the next commit persists that
+// swap. The first stable partition lifts the v0 bytes verbatim into a tagged
+// history, where the legacy version is an ordered-compaction transition. The
+// tests below pin what `optimize_indices` (merge) and
+// `cleanup_frag_reuse_index` (trim) do to such a segment afterwards.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Reopen `uri` in a fresh session: nothing cached from the writer survives.
+async fn fresh_session(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+        .with_session(Arc::new(crate::session::Session::default()))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Append `rows` rows of the scalar fixture's three columns, `i` and `w`
+/// counting up from `start`, as one new fragment.
+async fn append_scalar_rows(dataset: Dataset, start: i32, rows: u64) -> Dataset {
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col(
+            "i",
+            lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(start, 1),
+        )
+        .col(
+            "text",
+            lance_datagen::array::fill_utf8("document".to_string()),
+        )
+        .col(
+            "w",
+            lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(start, 1),
+        )
+        .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(rows))
+        .unwrap();
+    crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Append `rows` rows of the vector fixture's three columns as one new
+/// fragment.
+async fn append_vector_rows(dataset: Dataset, start: i32, rows: u64) -> Dataset {
+    // Every `gen_batch` starts from the same seed: reseed by `start` so no
+    // appended vector duplicates a fixture vector (ties would make top-1
+    // ambiguous).
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .with_seed(lance_datagen::Seed(start as u64))
+        .col(
+            "i",
+            lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(start, 1),
+        )
+        .col(
+            "vector",
+            lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(4.into()),
+        )
+        .col(
+            "w",
+            lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(start, 1),
+        )
+        .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(rows))
+        .unwrap();
+    crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+fn fragment_ids(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<u32> {
+    dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect()
+}
+
+/// The stored segments of the logical index `name`, in manifest order.
+async fn stored_segments(dataset: &Dataset, name: &str) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+    crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| idx.name == name)
+        .cloned()
+        .collect()
+}
+
+async fn fri_entry(dataset: &Dataset) -> Option<IndexMetadata> {
+    crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .cloned()
+}
+
+/// The legacy (v0) compaction versions the entry still carries, whatever
+/// its index version.
+async fn legacy_versions(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+) -> Vec<lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Version> {
+    match fri_entry(dataset).await {
+        None => Vec::new(),
+        Some(entry) => {
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::load_frag_reuse_records(dataset, &entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .legacy_versions
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The row address of every `i` in the live table.
+async fn row_addrs_by_i(dataset: &Dataset) -> std::collections::HashMap<i32, u64> {
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .project(&["i"])
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_row_address()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let addrs = batch[lance_core::ROW_ADDR].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+    ids.values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .zip(addrs.values().iter().copied())
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// The row addresses a BTree segment's FILE stores for `i = value`: the
+/// segment is loaded straight from its store, with no fragment reuse
+/// translation, so this is what is on disk rather than what a query sees.
+async fn raw_segment_row_addrs(dataset: &Dataset, segment: &IndexMetadata, value: i32) -> Vec<u64> {
+    use crate::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::scalar::btree::BTreeIndexPlugin;
+    use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+    use lance_index::scalar::registry::ScalarIndexPlugin;
+
+    let store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(dataset, segment)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let index = BTreeIndexPlugin
+        .load_index(
+            Arc::new(store),
+            &prost_types::Any::default(),
+            segment.index_version as u32,
+            None,
+            &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let SearchResult::Exact(rows) = index
+        .search(
+            &SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(value))),
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected an exact result");
+    };
+    let mut addrs: Vec<u64> = rows
+        .true_rows()
+        .row_addrs()
+        .unwrap()
+        .map(u64::from)
+        .collect();
+    addrs.sort_unstable();
+    addrs
+}
+
+/// The v0 table: the two fixture fragments plus two 2-row appends (`i`
+/// 100..104), `i_idx` over all four, then a real v0 deferred compaction of
+/// the two small fragments into one destination. Stops there: the index is
+/// NOT re-created, so its file still holds the source addresses.
+///
+/// Returns the table and the destination fragment id.
+async fn v0_deferred_scalar_fixture(uri: &str) -> (Dataset, u32) {
+    let dataset = disk_fixture(uri).await;
+    let dataset = append_scalar_rows(dataset, 100, 2).await;
+    let mut dataset = append_scalar_rows(dataset, 102, 2).await;
+    assert_eq!(fragment_ids(&dataset), vec![0, 1, 2, 3]);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("i_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let built = stored_segment(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        built.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 2, 3])
+    );
+    compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let destination = *fragment_ids(&dataset)
+        .iter()
+        .find(|id| **id > 3)
+        .expect("the compaction produced a destination");
+    assert_eq!(fragment_ids(&dataset), vec![0, 1, destination]);
+    assert_v0_deferred_state(&dataset, "i_idx", &built, &[2, 3], destination).await;
+    (dataset, destination)
+}
+
+/// The state a v0 deferred compaction of `sources` into `destination`
+/// leaves: a v0 entry with one more legacy version, the segment listed over
+/// the destination (bitmap swapped, file untouched) and still stamped with
+/// its pre-compaction dataset version.
+async fn assert_v0_deferred_state(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    name: &str,
+    built: &IndexMetadata,
+    sources: &[u32],
+    destination: u32,
+) {
+    let entry = fri_entry(dataset).await.expect("a v0 entry");
+    assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 0, "a v0 (legacy) entry");
+    let versions = legacy_versions(dataset).await;
+    let version = versions.last().expect("the legacy version");
+    let old_ids: Vec<u64> = version
+        .groups
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|g| g.old_fragments.iter().map(|d| d.id))
+        .collect();
+    let new_ids: Vec<u64> = version
+        .groups
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|g| g.new_fragments.iter().map(|d| d.id))
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(
+        old_ids,
+        sources.iter().map(|id| *id as u64).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    );
+    assert_eq!(new_ids, vec![destination as u64]);
+    let segment = stored_segment(dataset, name).await;
+    assert_eq!(segment.uuid, built.uuid, "the segment is not rewritten");
+    let bitmap = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        bitmap.contains(destination),
+        "the listed bitmap claims the destination: {bitmap:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        sources.iter().all(|id| !bitmap.contains(*id)),
+        "the listed bitmap no longer names the sources: {bitmap:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        segment.dataset_version < version.dataset_version,
+        "the segment ({}) predates the legacy version ({})",
+        segment.dataset_version,
+        version.dataset_version
+    );
+}
+
+/// Upgrade the table to a tagged history with a stable partition of two
+/// fresh fragments (`i` from `start`, two rows each) that no index covers:
+/// the lift must not touch the index's lineage. Returns the table and the
+/// two destination ids.
+async fn upgrade_by_stable_partition(dataset: Dataset, start: i32) -> (Dataset, Vec<u32>) {
+    let legacy_before = legacy_versions(&dataset).await;
+    let dataset = append_scalar_rows(dataset, start, 2).await;
+    let mut dataset = append_scalar_rows(dataset, start + 2, 2).await;
+    upgrade_appended_pair(&mut dataset, legacy_before.len()).await
+}
+
+async fn upgrade_appended_pair(dataset: &mut Dataset, legacy_count: usize) -> (Dataset, Vec<u32>) {
+    let ids = fragment_ids(dataset);
+    let sources: Vec<u64> = ids[ids.len() - 2..].iter().map(|id| *id as u64).collect();
+    let dest_base = *ids.iter().max().unwrap() as u64 + 1;
+    reserve_fragments(dataset, 20).await;
+    let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset.clone(), &sources, dest_base).await;
+    let entry = fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1, "the lift tags the entry");
+    assert_eq!(
+        legacy_versions(&dataset).await.len(),
+        legacy_count,
+        "the legacy versions are lifted verbatim"
+    );
+    let destinations = vec![dest_base as u32, dest_base as u32 + 1];
+    assert!(
+        destinations
+            .iter()
+            .all(|id| fragment_ids(&dataset).contains(id)),
+        "{:?}",
+        fragment_ids(&dataset)
+    );
+    (dataset, destinations)
+}
+
+/// Every indexed point query of the values `i` takes in the live table
+/// equals the index-disabled scan, by identity and multiplicity, and the
+/// full scan agrees with and without the index.
+async fn assert_scalar_queries_match(dataset: &Dataset) {
+    let live: Vec<i32> = values(dataset, None, false).await;
+    assert_eq!(values(dataset, None, true).await, live);
+    let mut distinct = live.clone();
+    distinct.dedup();
+    for value in distinct {
+        let predicate = format!("i = {value}");
+        let plan = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter(&predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .use_scalar_index(true)
+            .explain_plan(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{predicate}: {plan}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            values(dataset, Some(&predicate), true).await,
+            values(dataset, Some(&predicate), false).await,
+            "{predicate}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// (T3) After the upgrade, `optimize_indices` merges the v0-deferred
+/// segment with a newer one. The merge translates the addresses: the
+/// merged FILE holds live addresses (the old file's source addresses are
+/// gone) and indexed queries equal the scan after a fresh reopen. It keeps
+/// the old stamp and provenance, though: the merged segment carries the
+/// OLD segment's dataset version (the minimum of its sources) and the union
+/// of the stored bitmaps, so the trim that follows KEEPS the legacy version
+/// and rebuilds the entry bitmap to the legacy sources and destination. The
+/// legacy version stays pinned until a remap advances the stamp; that is
+/// the conservative side.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn v0_deferred_segment_merges_into_live_addresses_after_upgrade() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let (dataset, destination) = v0_deferred_scalar_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let old = stored_segment(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    // The file still addresses the retired sources.
+    let stale = raw_segment_row_addrs(&dataset, &old, 101).await;
+    assert_eq!(stale.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(RowAddress::from(stale[0]).fragment_id(), 2);
+
+    let (dataset, sp_destinations) = upgrade_by_stable_partition(dataset, 300).await;
+    // A newer segment over an appended fragment (and the partition's
+    // destinations, which no segment covers either).
+    let mut dataset = append_scalar_rows(dataset, 400, 4).await;
+    let appended = *fragment_ids(&dataset).iter().max().unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2, "{segments:?}");
+    assert_eq!(segments[0].uuid, old.uuid);
+    let newer = segments[1].clone();
+    assert_eq!(
+        newer.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &sp_destinations
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .chain([appended])
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>()
+    );
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 1, "one merged segment: {segments:?}");
+    let merged = segments[0].clone();
+    assert_ne!(merged.uuid, old.uuid);
+    assert_ne!(merged.uuid, newer.uuid);
+    // The merged file holds live addresses: the compacted rows now point at
+    // the destination, everything else at its (still live) fragment.
+    let live = row_addrs_by_i(&dataset).await;
+    for (value, addr) in &live {
+        assert_eq!(
+            raw_segment_row_addrs(&dataset, &merged, *value).await,
+            vec![*addr],
+            "i = {value}"
+        );
+    }
+    for value in 100..104 {
+        assert_eq!(RowAddress::from(live[&value]).fragment_id(), destination);
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.dataset_version, old.dataset_version,
+        "the merge keeps the oldest source stamp (below the legacy version)"
+    );
+    assert!(merged.dataset_version < legacy_versions(&dataset).await[0].dataset_version);
+    // Provenance union: the old segment's listed bitmap {0, 1, destination}
+    // and the newer segment's fragments (the two partition destinations and
+    // the appended fragment).
+    assert_eq!(
+        old.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, destination])
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &(old.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap() | newer.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap()),
+        "the merge keeps the provenance union"
+    );
+    assert_scalar_queries_match(&dataset).await;
+
+    // The merged segment is still stamped before the legacy version: the
+    // trim keeps it and rebuilds the entry bitmap to the legacy sources and
+    // destination.
+    let mut dataset = dataset;
+    cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        legacy_versions(&dataset).await.len(),
+        1,
+        "the legacy version stays pinned until a remap advances the stamp"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap().fragment_bitmap.unwrap(),
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 3, destination])
+    );
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await[0].uuid,
+        merged.uuid
+    );
+    assert_scalar_queries_match(&dataset).await;
+}
+
+/// (Multi-round) Two v0 deferred compactions before the upgrade, the second
+/// consuming the first's destination together with the other indexed
+/// fragments, then the same merge and trim checks: the merged file holds
+/// live addresses two hops away from what the old file stored, while the
+/// merge keeps the old stamp and provenance, so both legacy versions stay
+/// pinned (the conservative side) until a remap advances the stamp.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn two_v0_deferred_rounds_merge_and_trim_after_upgrade() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let (mut dataset, first_destination) = v0_deferred_scalar_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let old = stored_segment(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    // Round two: every remaining fragment (F0, F1 and the first destination)
+    // is indexed, so the planner bins them together.
+    compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 16,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let ids = fragment_ids(&dataset);
+    assert_eq!(ids.len(), 1, "{ids:?}");
+    let second_destination = ids[0];
+    assert!(second_destination > first_destination);
+    assert_v0_deferred_state(
+        &dataset,
+        "i_idx",
+        &old,
+        &[0, 1, first_destination],
+        second_destination,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(legacy_versions(&dataset).await.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(
+        stored_segment(&dataset, "i_idx")
+            .await
+            .fragment_bitmap
+            .as_ref()
+            .unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([second_destination])
+    );
+    // The file is untouched: still the original source addresses.
+    let stale = raw_segment_row_addrs(&dataset, &old, 101).await;
+    assert_eq!(RowAddress::from(stale[0]).fragment_id(), 2);
+    let stale = raw_segment_row_addrs(&dataset, &old, 5).await;
+    assert_eq!(RowAddress::from(stale[0]).fragment_id(), 1);
+
+    let (dataset, _) = upgrade_by_stable_partition(dataset, 300).await;
+    let mut dataset = append_scalar_rows(dataset, 400, 4).await;
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2, "{segments:?}");
+    let old_listed = segments[0].clone();
+    assert_eq!(old_listed.uuid, old.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        old_listed.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([second_destination])
+    );
+    let newer = segments[1].clone();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 1, "{segments:?}");
+    let merged = segments[0].clone();
+    let live = row_addrs_by_i(&dataset).await;
+    for (value, addr) in &live {
+        assert_eq!(
+            raw_segment_row_addrs(&dataset, &merged, *value).await,
+            vec![*addr],
+            "i = {value}"
+        );
+    }
+    for value in (0..8).chain(100..104) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            RowAddress::from(live[&value]).fragment_id(),
+            second_destination,
+            "i = {value} lives in the second destination"
+        );
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.dataset_version, old.dataset_version,
+        "the merge keeps the oldest source stamp"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &(old_listed.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap() | newer.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap()),
+        "the merge keeps the provenance union"
+    );
+    assert_scalar_queries_match(&dataset).await;
+
+    // Both legacy versions stay pinned; the entry bitmap is rebuilt to the
+    // sources and destinations of both rounds.
+    let mut dataset = dataset;
+    cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(legacy_versions(&dataset).await.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(
+        fri_entry(&dataset).await.unwrap().fragment_bitmap.unwrap(),
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 2, 3, first_destination, second_destination])
+    );
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_scalar_queries_match(&dataset).await;
+}
+
+/// (Mixed catch-up) Next to the v0-deferred segment sits a segment built
+/// after the upgrade over appended fragments. Maintenance that does not
+/// select the caught-up segment (the trim, and a merge that selects only
+/// the trailing segment with nothing new to add) leaves its uuid, bitmap
+/// and dataset version alone; the legacy version stays pinned by the old
+/// segment meanwhile. The full merge then covers both provenances and the
+/// index answers from a fresh session.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn upgrade_merge_leaves_the_caught_up_segment_alone() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let (dataset, destination) = v0_deferred_scalar_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let old = stored_segment(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    let (dataset, sp_destinations) = upgrade_by_stable_partition(dataset, 300).await;
+    let mut dataset = append_scalar_rows(dataset, 400, 4).await;
+    let appended = *fragment_ids(&dataset).iter().max().unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2, "{segments:?}");
+    let caught_up = segments[1].clone();
+    assert_ne!(caught_up.uuid, old.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        caught_up.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &sp_destinations
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .chain([appended])
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>()
+    );
+    assert!(
+        caught_up.dataset_version > legacy_versions(&dataset).await[0].dataset_version,
+        "the new segment is caught up past the legacy version"
+    );
+
+    // The trim: the old segment still pins the legacy version; the caught-up
+    // segment is untouched.
+    cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(legacy_versions(&dataset).await.len(), 1);
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2, "{segments:?}");
+    assert_eq!(segments[0].uuid, old.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(segments[0].fragment_bitmap, old.fragment_bitmap);
+    assert_eq!(segments[0].dataset_version, old.dataset_version);
+    assert_eq!(segments[1].uuid, caught_up.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(segments[1].fragment_bitmap, caught_up.fragment_bitmap);
+    assert_eq!(segments[1].dataset_version, caught_up.dataset_version);
+
+    // A merge selecting only the trailing segment with nothing unindexed
+    // rewrites nothing.
+    let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before);
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        segments.iter().map(|s| s.uuid).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![old.uuid, caught_up.uuid]
+    );
+
+    // The full merge consumes both: the merged provenance covers the old
+    // segment's live coverage and the caught-up segment's fragments.
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "i_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 1, "{segments:?}");
+    let merged = &segments[0];
+    assert_ne!(merged.uuid, caught_up.uuid);
+    let merged_bitmap = merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        merged_bitmap.is_superset(caught_up.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap()),
+        "{merged_bitmap:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(merged_bitmap.contains(destination), "{merged_bitmap:?}");
+    assert!(
+        merged_bitmap.contains(0) && merged_bitmap.contains(1),
+        "{merged_bitmap:?}"
+    );
+    let live = row_addrs_by_i(&dataset).await;
+    for (value, addr) in &live {
+        assert_eq!(
+            raw_segment_row_addrs(&dataset, merged, *value).await,
+            vec![*addr],
+            "i = {value}"
+        );
+    }
+    assert_scalar_queries_match(&dataset).await;
+}
+
+/// (T4') The vector twin over IVF_FLAT: the vector merge copies addresses
+/// as-is with `dataset_version = min(source versions)` and the union of
+/// the stored bitmaps; the trim that follows must KEEP the legacy version
+/// (the merged segment is still stale against it), and the top-1 neighbour
+/// of a compacted row's own vector is that row after a fresh reopen.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn v0_deferred_vector_segment_merge_keeps_the_legacy_version_pinned() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = vector_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let dataset = append_vector_rows(dataset, 100, 2).await;
+    let mut dataset = append_vector_rows(dataset, 102, 2).await;
+    assert_eq!(fragment_ids(&dataset), vec![0, 1, 2, 3]);
+    let centroids = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4]),
+        4,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(1, Arc::new(centroids))
+            .unwrap(),
+    );
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["vector"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some("vec_idx".into()),
+            &params,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let old = stored_segment(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+    // The query: the vector of a row the compaction moves.
+    let original = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 101")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = original["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+    let query = query
+        .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>()
+        .clone();
+
+    compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let destination = *fragment_ids(&dataset).iter().max().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(fragment_ids(&dataset), vec![0, 1, destination]);
+    assert_v0_deferred_state(&dataset, "vec_idx", &old, &[2, 3], destination).await;
+    let (_, found) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(found, vec![101], "the v0 window still answers");
+
+    // Upgrade on fragments outside the index's lineage.
+    let dataset = append_vector_rows(dataset, 300, 2).await;
+    let mut dataset = append_vector_rows(dataset, 302, 2).await;
+    let (dataset, sp_destinations) = upgrade_appended_pair(&mut dataset, 1).await;
+    // A newer segment over an appended fragment and the partition's
+    // destinations.
+    let mut dataset = append_vector_rows(dataset, 400, 4).await;
+    let appended = *fragment_ids(&dataset).iter().max().unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2, "{segments:?}");
+    assert_eq!(segments[0].uuid, old.uuid);
+    let newer = segments[1].clone();
+    assert_eq!(
+        newer.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &sp_destinations
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .chain([appended])
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>()
+    );
+    let old_listed = segments[0].clone();
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let segments = stored_segments(&dataset, "vec_idx").await;
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 1, "{segments:?}");
+    let merged = segments[0].clone();
+    assert_ne!(merged.uuid, old.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.dataset_version,
+        old.dataset_version.min(newer.dataset_version),
+        "the vector merge keeps the oldest source version"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &(old_listed.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap() | newer.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap()),
+        "the vector merge keeps the union of the stored bitmaps"
+    );
+    let (plan, found) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, true).await;
+    assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(found, vec![101]);
+
+    // The merged segment is still stale against the legacy version: the
+    // trim keeps it.
+    let mut dataset = dataset;
+    cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        legacy_versions(&dataset).await.len(),
+        1,
+        "the legacy version stays pinned"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        stored_segments(&dataset, "vec_idx").await[0].uuid,
+        merged.uuid
+    );
+
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let (plan, found) = nearest(&dataset, &query, 1, true).await;
+    assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(found, vec![101]);
+    let total = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+    let (_, flat) = nearest(&dataset, &query, total, false).await;
+    let (_, indexed) = nearest(&dataset, &query, total, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(flat.len(), total);
+    assert_eq!(indexed, flat, "every row is reachable through the index");
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse.rs
index 2eb1eea1646..cc97f8240a3 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse.rs
@@ -1,31 +1,625 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::dataset::optimize::remapping::transpose_row_ids_from_digest;
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::SegmentPlanParts;
+use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+use crate::session::index_caches::FragReuseDetailsKey;
 use lance_core::Error;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_index::frag_reuse::{
-    FragReuseGroup, FragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion,
-    FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME, FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME,
+    CompactFragReuseIndex, CompactFragReuseIndexHandle, FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME,
+    FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, FragReuseGroup, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion,
+};
+use lance_index::scalar::{BatchRowIdRemapper, MetricsCollector, RowIdRemapper};
+use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreRegistry};
+use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::{
+    self as pb_fri, Content, InlineContent,
 };
-use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
-use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::{Content, InlineContent};
 use lance_table::format::pb::{ExternalFile, FragmentReuseIndexDetails};
-use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata, Manifest};
+use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::gate::{BareRewriteRefusal, covered_bare_rewrite};
+use lance_table::transaction::RewriteGroup;
+use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
-use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
-use snafu::location;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::io::Cursor;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
+/// The remapper resolved for one index open.
+///
+/// The FRI version picks the interface and the segment's need picks the
+/// behavior: `V0` feeds the pre-existing synchronous consumers exactly as
+/// before tagged histories existed; `V1Identity` carries no remapper at all
+/// (the segment's rows are untouched, so the plugin's original load path
+/// applies); `V1Translate` feeds the additive `*_with_remapping` entry points
+/// that may await row-map reads.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub(crate) enum ResolvedRemapping {
+    /// A v0 FRI mapping served by the compact in-memory handle.
+    V0(Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>),
+    /// A tagged history under which this segment's rows are unchanged.
+    V1Identity,
+    /// A tagged-history mapping whose payload may need asynchronous reads.
+    V1Translate {
+        remapper: Arc<dyn BatchRowIdRemapper>,
+        /// The segment's translation identity (see
+        /// [`super::frag_reuse_reader::FragmentReuseIndex::translation_fingerprint`]).
+        fingerprint: [u8; 32],
+    },
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for ResolvedRemapping {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::V0(_) => f.debug_tuple("V0").finish_non_exhaustive(),
+            Self::V1Identity => f.debug_tuple("V1Identity").finish(),
+            Self::V1Translate { remapper, .. } => {
+                f.debug_tuple("V1Translate").field(remapper).finish()
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The FRI identity that belongs in an index's cache namespace, if any.
+///
+/// Only a v0 history is applied while the index is decoded (its remapper is
+/// handed to the plugin's load path), so only then does the FRI entry's UUID
+/// identify cached content. Under a tagged history the FRI UUID is
+/// deliberately left out: every rewrite and trim mints a new one, even for
+/// transitions a segment never touches, and the translated namespace from
+/// [`scoped_index_cache`] already carries the segment's own translation
+/// identity.
+pub(crate) fn fri_cache_id(resolved: &Option<(Uuid, ResolvedRemapping)>) -> Option<&Uuid> {
+    match resolved {
+        Some((uuid, ResolvedRemapping::V0(_))) => Some(uuid),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Scope the dataset-level index cache for one resolved remapping.
+///
+/// This owns the single cache-scoping rule, which classifies cached objects
+/// by what they depend on rather than by snapshot:
+///
+/// * Content decoded without translation (an identity segment under a
+///   tagged history, a v0 history, no history) depends only on the index
+///   file, so it lives in the plain per-index namespace and an append or an
+///   unrelated rewrite never cold-starts it.
+/// * Content that embeds translated addresses (pages, postings, partitions
+///   loaded through a `V1Translate` remapper) depends on the segment's
+///   translation state, so it lives under a namespace named by the segment's
+///   translation fingerprint. The entry goes cold exactly when that state
+///   changes: a transition on the segment's path trimmed or replaced, a
+///   fragment on its path dropped from the manifest, a sibling taking direct
+///   ownership of one of its destinations. An append, a row-level delete, or
+///   a rewrite of fragments the segment never covered leaves the fingerprint,
+///   and the entry, in place.
+///
+/// Soundness rests on the fingerprint covering every input of
+/// `remap_row_ids_excluding` (see `translation_fingerprint`); cached
+/// translated objects hold the `FragmentReuseIndex` they were filled with, so
+/// a stale one must never be served under a changed state.
+pub(crate) fn scoped_index_cache(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    resolved: &Option<(Uuid, ResolvedRemapping)>,
+) -> crate::session::index_caches::DSIndexCache {
+    crate::session::index_caches::DSIndexCache(match resolved {
+        Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { fingerprint, .. })) => dataset
+            .index_cache
+            .with_key_prefix(&translated_namespace(fingerprint)),
+        _ => dataset.index_cache.0.clone(),
+    })
+}
+
+/// The cache namespace of translated content for one translation identity.
+fn translated_namespace(fingerprint: &[u8; 32]) -> String {
+    use std::fmt::Write;
+    let mut prefix = String::with_capacity("fri-xlat/".len() + 2 * fingerprint.len());
+    prefix.push_str("fri-xlat/");
+    for byte in fingerprint {
+        write!(prefix, "{byte:02x}").expect("writing to a String cannot fail");
+    }
+    prefix
+}
+
+/// Why a segment is being opened. A query takes its segments from the
+/// listing and must never see one the tagged reader excluded (it derives no
+/// coverage for it, so nothing scheduled a scan of its rows); maintenance
+/// opens by uuid to rebuild or replace a segment and reads such a segment as
+/// contributing nothing.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum OpenPurpose {
+    Query,
+    Maintenance,
+}
+
+/// The translation inputs one segment needs under a tagged history.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub(crate) enum SegmentRemappingPlan {
+    /// The segment's stored coverage cannot intersect any rewritten path.
+    Identity,
+    /// The rewritten query coverage plus the fragments owned by other
+    /// selected sibling segments of the same logical index, and the
+    /// translation identity derived from them.
+    Translate {
+        coverage: RoaringBitmap,
+        excluded_fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+        fingerprint: [u8; 32],
+    },
+    /// Committed metadata exists but the reader derives no query coverage
+    /// for this segment; the reason decides what maintenance may do with it.
+    MissingCoverage(MissingCoverageReason),
+}
+
+/// Why the reader derives no coverage for a registered segment. Queries
+/// refuse every kind by uuid (the listing excludes the segment, so no scan
+/// was scheduled for its rows); maintenance consumes the reason.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum MissingCoverageReason {
+    /// The stored bitmap is empty: every fragment the segment covered was
+    /// withdrawn (an in-place rewrite), or it is a deferred definition.
+    /// Maintenance reads it as an empty translation and replaces it.
+    Withdrawn,
+    /// The backtrack derives nothing from a non-empty bitmap: newer siblings
+    /// own its direct coverage (superseded), or a destination lacks
+    /// contributing sources. Maintenance reads it as an empty translation.
+    NoDerivedCoverage,
+    /// This build cannot translate the segment: its type has no batch
+    /// remapper, its coverage is unknown (no stored bitmap), or the history
+    /// carries transitions this build cannot interpret. Maintenance skips it.
+    Unsupported,
+    /// The stored metadata cannot be interpreted (no or undecodable index
+    /// details). Maintenance fails.
+    Corrupt,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for MissingCoverageReason {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.write_str(match self {
+            Self::Withdrawn => "its coverage was withdrawn",
+            Self::NoDerivedCoverage => {
+                "the reader derives no coverage for it (superseded, or missing contributors)"
+            }
+            Self::Unsupported => "this build cannot translate it",
+            Self::Corrupt => "its metadata cannot be interpreted",
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// The plan of a registered segment the snapshot plan does not know (a
+/// stale cached plan): nothing is derived for it.
+const PLAN_MISS: SegmentRemappingPlan =
+    SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(MissingCoverageReason::NoDerivedCoverage);
+
+/// Snapshot-level plan of every committed segment's translation inputs.
+///
+/// Which rows a segment owns is decided once per manifest snapshot, from one
+/// pass over the same `load_indices` output every per-open resolution used to
+/// re-scan. Openers only look their segment up by UUID.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct FriQueryPlan {
+    pub(crate) segments: HashMap<Uuid, SegmentRemappingPlan>,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for FriQueryPlan {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.segments
+            .values()
+            .map(|segment| match segment {
+                SegmentRemappingPlan::Translate {
+                    coverage,
+                    excluded_fragments,
+                    fingerprint,
+                } => {
+                    coverage.serialized_size()
+                        + excluded_fragments.serialized_size()
+                        + fingerprint.len()
+                }
+                _ => 0,
+            })
+            .sum::<usize>()
+            + self.segments.len() * std::mem::size_of::<(Uuid, SegmentRemappingPlan)>()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct FriQueryPlanKey<'a> {
+    pub(crate) fri_uuid: &'a Uuid,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for FriQueryPlanKey<'_> {
+    type ValueType = FriQueryPlan;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        self.fri_uuid.to_string().into()
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "FriQueryPlan"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.fri-query-plan", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_fixed_bytes(self.fri_uuid.as_bytes());
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build or fetch the snapshot's FRI query plan.
+///
+/// Cached in the tagged (manifest-path scoped) namespace; concurrent opens
+/// coalesce on one build. Everything only needed to BUILD the plan (notably
+/// `load_indices` and its tagged coverage post-processing) runs inside the
+/// loader, so warm opens never recompute coverage.
+async fn fri_query_plan(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fri: &IndexMetadata,
+    stored: &[IndexMetadata],
+    mapping: &Arc<super::frag_reuse_reader::FragmentReuseIndex>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Arc<FriQueryPlan>> {
+    dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .with_key_prefix(dataset.manifest_location.path.as_ref())
+        .get_or_insert_with_key(
+            FriQueryPlanKey {
+                fri_uuid: &fri.uuid,
+            },
+            || async {
+                // The filtered listing carries the rewritten query coverage;
+                // `stored` keeps provenance from before that rewrite. Callers
+                // hold metadata returned by load_indices and cannot supply
+                // this distinction.
+                let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+                let stored_by_uuid: HashMap<Uuid, &IndexMetadata> =
+                    stored.iter().map(|entry| (entry.uuid, entry)).collect();
+                // Group the filtered listing by logical index name; the
+                // backtrack derives each member's sibling exclusions from the
+                // stored provenance of the whole group in one pass, so
+                // "direct coverage wins" is owned by one algorithm.
+                let mut filtered_by_uuid: HashMap<Uuid, &IndexMetadata> =
+                    HashMap::with_capacity(indices.len());
+                let mut groups: HashMap<&str, Vec<Uuid>> = HashMap::new();
+                for entry in indices.iter() {
+                    filtered_by_uuid.insert(entry.uuid, entry);
+                    if entry.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME {
+                        groups
+                            .entry(entry.name.as_str())
+                            .or_default()
+                            .push(entry.uuid);
+                    }
+                }
+                let mut parts_by_uuid: HashMap<Uuid, SegmentPlanParts> = HashMap::new();
+                for members in groups.into_values() {
+                    let provenance: Vec<RoaringBitmap> = members
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|uuid| {
+                            stored_by_uuid
+                                .get(uuid)
+                                .and_then(|source| source.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+                                .unwrap_or_default()
+                        })
+                        .collect();
+                    for (uuid, parts) in members.iter().zip(mapping.segment_plans(&provenance)) {
+                        parts_by_uuid.insert(*uuid, parts);
+                    }
+                }
+                let mut segments = HashMap::with_capacity(stored.len());
+                for source in stored.iter() {
+                    let plan = if source
+                        .fragment_bitmap
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .is_some_and(|bitmap| bitmap.is_empty())
+                    {
+                        // An empty bitmap needs no translation, but its pages
+                        // may still hold the withdrawn rows: never identity.
+                        SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(MissingCoverageReason::Withdrawn)
+                    } else if !mapping.may_need_translation(source.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()) {
+                        SegmentRemappingPlan::Identity
+                    } else if let Some(entry) = filtered_by_uuid.get(&source.uuid)
+                        && let Some(bitmap) = &entry.fragment_bitmap
+                    {
+                        let coverage = bitmap & dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+                        // Other selected segments own their direct coverage.
+                        // Drop paths entering those fragments before later
+                        // mappings can merge them with this segment's
+                        // contribution.
+                        let parts = parts_by_uuid.remove(&source.uuid).unwrap_or_default();
+                        let fingerprint = mapping.translation_fingerprint(
+                            &coverage,
+                            &parts.excluded,
+                            &parts.path,
+                        );
+                        SegmentRemappingPlan::Translate {
+                            coverage,
+                            excluded_fragments: parts.excluded,
+                            fingerprint,
+                        }
+                    } else {
+                        SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(
+                            missing_coverage_reason(dataset, mapping, source).await?,
+                        )
+                    };
+                    segments.insert(source.uuid, plan);
+                }
+                Ok(FriQueryPlan { segments })
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+}
+
+/// Why the reader derives no coverage for the registered segment `index` on
+/// this snapshot, or `None` when it derives coverage (or identity) for it.
+/// Maintenance that rewrites a segment (remap) decides its eligibility from
+/// this before touching any file.
+pub(crate) async fn segment_coverage_reason(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Option<MissingCoverageReason>> {
+    let stored = super::load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+    let Some(fri) = stored
+        .iter()
+        .find(|entry| entry.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+    else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if fri.index_version != 1 {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let mapping = super::frag_reuse_reader::FragmentReuseIndex::open(dataset, fri).await?;
+    let plan = fri_query_plan(dataset, fri, &stored, &mapping).await?;
+    Ok(match plan.segments.get(&index.uuid) {
+        Some(SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(reason)) => Some(*reason),
+        Some(_) => None,
+        None => Some(MissingCoverageReason::NoDerivedCoverage),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Why the reader derives no coverage for `source`, from what it can see of
+/// the segment without opening its files.
+async fn missing_coverage_reason(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    mapping: &super::frag_reuse_reader::FragmentReuseIndex,
+    source: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> lance_core::Result<MissingCoverageReason> {
+    if mapping.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+        return Ok(MissingCoverageReason::Unsupported);
+    }
+    match &source.fragment_bitmap {
+        Some(bitmap) if bitmap.is_empty() => return Ok(MissingCoverageReason::Withdrawn),
+        None => return Ok(MissingCoverageReason::Unsupported),
+        Some(_) => {}
+    }
+    if source.index_details.is_none() {
+        return Ok(MissingCoverageReason::Corrupt);
+    }
+    Ok(
+        match super::frag_reuse_reader::segment_supports_batch_remapping(dataset, source).await? {
+            Some(true) => MissingCoverageReason::NoDerivedCoverage,
+            Some(false) => MissingCoverageReason::Unsupported,
+            None => MissingCoverageReason::Corrupt,
+        },
+    )
+}
+
+/// Translation plans for segments the manifest does not list: a staged
+/// (uncommitted) build about to be merged, planned as one group by
+/// [`plan_staged_segments`]. Keyed by segment uuid.
+pub(crate) type StagedRemappingPlans = HashMap<Uuid, SegmentRemappingPlan>;
+
+/// Plan `segments` as ONE group with the reader's own algorithm, for segments
+/// the snapshot plan cannot know about (a staged build being merged).
+///
+/// Every step is the one `fri_query_plan` runs per committed group
+/// (`may_need_translation`, `segment_plans`, `translation_fingerprint`), so a
+/// staged segment translates exactly as it would once committed: its
+/// provenance is its stored bitmap, its siblings for direct coverage and
+/// exclusions are the other staged segments, and a destination the group only
+/// partly covers is simply absent from its coverage (the caller shrinks what it
+/// claims; nothing is claimed that the group cannot serve). `None` on a table
+/// without a tagged history, where the snapshot lookup applies.
+pub(crate) async fn plan_staged_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+) -> lance_core::Result<Option<StagedRemappingPlans>> {
+    let stored = super::load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+    let Some(fri) = stored
+        .iter()
+        .find(|entry| entry.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .filter(|entry| entry.index_version != 0)
+    else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if fri.index_version != 1 {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "FRI index_version {} is unsupported. Please upgrade to a newer version",
+            fri.index_version
+        )));
+    }
+    lance_index::scalar::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+    let mapping = super::frag_reuse_reader::FragmentReuseIndex::open(dataset, fri).await?;
+    let provenance: Vec<RoaringBitmap> = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| {
+            segment.fragment_bitmap.clone().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                    segment.uuid
+                ))
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<lance_core::Result<_>>()?;
+    let parts = mapping.segment_plans(&provenance);
+    let mut plans = HashMap::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    for (segment, parts) in segments.iter().zip(parts) {
+        let plan = if !mapping.may_need_translation(segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()) {
+            SegmentRemappingPlan::Identity
+        } else {
+            let fingerprint =
+                mapping.translation_fingerprint(&parts.coverage, &parts.excluded, &parts.path);
+            SegmentRemappingPlan::Translate {
+                coverage: parts.coverage,
+                excluded_fragments: parts.excluded,
+                fingerprint,
+            }
+        };
+        plans.insert(segment.uuid, plan);
+    }
+    Ok(Some(plans))
+}
+
+/// Resolve the FRI remapper shared by scalar and vector index loading.
+pub(super) async fn open_row_id_remapping(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Option<(Uuid, ResolvedRemapping)>> {
+    open_row_id_remapping_with_plan(dataset, index, None, OpenPurpose::Query, metrics).await
+}
+
+/// [`open_row_id_remapping`] for a segment whose plan the caller supplies
+/// (a staged segment planned by its merge); `None` looks the segment
+/// up in the snapshot plan, which only knows committed segments.
+pub(super) async fn open_row_id_remapping_with_plan(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+    staged: Option<&SegmentRemappingPlan>,
+    purpose: OpenPurpose,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Option<(Uuid, ResolvedRemapping)>> {
+    // The cheap cached stored listing decides the generation; the filtered
+    // listing (whose tagged post-processing recomputes coverage) is only
+    // consulted inside the once-per-snapshot plan build.
+    let stored = super::load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+    let Some(fri) = stored
+        .iter()
+        .find(|entry| entry.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+    else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    super::frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids::ensure_frag_reuse_applies(
+        &dataset.manifest,
+        &stored,
+        index,
+    )?;
+    if fri.index_version == 0 {
+        return Ok(dataset.open_frag_reuse_index(metrics).await?.map(|legacy| {
+            (
+                legacy.uuid,
+                ResolvedRemapping::V0(Arc::new(CompactFragReuseIndexHandle(legacy))),
+            )
+        }));
+    }
+    if fri.index_version != 1 {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "FRI index_version {} is unsupported. Please upgrade to a newer version",
+            fri.index_version
+        )));
+    }
+    // Everything below is v1-only code: legacy-only scopes must never get here.
+    lance_index::scalar::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+    let mapping = super::frag_reuse_reader::FragmentReuseIndex::open(dataset, fri).await?;
+    let snapshot_plan;
+    let plan = match staged {
+        Some(plan) => plan,
+        None => {
+            snapshot_plan = fri_query_plan(dataset, fri, &stored, &mapping).await?;
+            match snapshot_plan.segments.get(&index.uuid) {
+                Some(plan) => plan,
+                // A registered segment the reader left out of the plan: it
+                // derives no coverage, so it is out of the listing too. What
+                // that means depends on who asks (below).
+                None if stored.iter().any(|entry| entry.uuid == index.uuid) => &PLAN_MISS,
+                None => {
+                    return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                        "FRI remapping requires committed segment metadata for {}; a staged \
+                         segment must be opened with its own plan",
+                        index.uuid
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    };
+    match plan {
+        SegmentRemappingPlan::Identity => Ok(Some((fri.uuid, ResolvedRemapping::V1Identity))),
+        // No derivable coverage (withdrawn or unresolvable). A query must not
+        // open such a segment: the listing excludes it, so no scan was
+        // scheduled for its rows, and an empty answer would silently drop
+        // them. Maintenance reads it as an empty segment (every stored row
+        // translates to nothing) and replaces it.
+        SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(reason) if purpose == OpenPurpose::Query => {
+            Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "FRI query coverage is unavailable for segment {} ({reason}): the reader \
+                 excludes it from the index listing on this snapshot; open it through the \
+                 listing, not by uuid",
+                index.uuid
+            )))
+        }
+        SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(MissingCoverageReason::Unsupported) => {
+            Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "segment {} cannot be translated by this build under the tagged fragment reuse \
+                 history; leave it for a rebuild or a newer version of Lance",
+                index.uuid
+            )))
+        }
+        SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(MissingCoverageReason::Corrupt) => {
+            Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "segment {} has metadata this build cannot interpret; the index must be \
+                 rebuilt",
+                index.uuid
+            )))
+        }
+        SegmentRemappingPlan::MissingCoverage(
+            MissingCoverageReason::Withdrawn | MissingCoverageReason::NoDerivedCoverage,
+        ) => {
+            let empty = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            let fingerprint = mapping.translation_fingerprint(&empty, &empty, &[]);
+            Ok(Some((
+                fri.uuid,
+                ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate {
+                    remapper: Arc::new(super::frag_reuse_remapping::QueryRowIdRemapper::new(
+                        mapping,
+                        RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                        RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                    )),
+                    fingerprint,
+                },
+            )))
+        }
+        SegmentRemappingPlan::Translate {
+            coverage,
+            excluded_fragments,
+            fingerprint,
+        } => Ok(Some((
+            fri.uuid,
+            ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate {
+                remapper: Arc::new(super::frag_reuse_remapping::QueryRowIdRemapper::new(
+                    mapping,
+                    coverage.clone(),
+                    excluded_fragments.clone(),
+                )),
+                fingerprint: *fingerprint,
+            },
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
 /// Load fragment reuse index details from index metadata
 pub async fn load_frag_reuse_index_details(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     index: &IndexMetadata,
 ) -> lance_core::Result<Arc<FragReuseIndexDetails>> {
+    if index.index_version != 0 {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "This operation requires interpreting FRI index_version {}; tagged FRI maintenance is not supported by this client. Upgrade to a client supporting this operation",
+            index.index_version
+        )));
+    }
     let details_any = index.index_details.clone();
     if details_any.is_none()
         || !details_any
@@ -34,76 +628,100 @@ pub async fn load_frag_reuse_index_details(
             .type_url
             .ends_with("FragmentReuseIndexDetails")
     {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Index details is not for the fragment reuse index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "Index details is not for the fragment reuse index",
+        ));
     }
 
     let proto = details_any.unwrap().to_msg::<FragmentReuseIndexDetails>()?;
     match &proto.content {
-        None => Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Index details content is not found".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        None => Err(Error::index("Index details content is not found")),
         Some(Content::Inline(content)) => {
             Ok(Arc::new(FragReuseIndexDetails::try_from(content.clone())?))
         }
         Some(Content::External(external_file)) => {
-            let file_path = dataset
-                .indices_dir()
-                .child(index.uuid.to_string())
-                .child(external_file.path.clone());
-
-            // the file content will be cached in the index cache later
-            // so we do not put it to the file cache
-            let range = external_file.offset as usize
-                ..(external_file.offset as usize + external_file.size as usize);
-            let data = dataset
-                .object_store
-                .open(&file_path)
-                .await?
-                .get_range(range)
-                .await?;
-
-            let pb_sequence = InlineContent::decode(data)?;
-            Ok(Arc::new(FragReuseIndexDetails::try_from(pb_sequence)?))
+            let (store, path) = fri_external_location(dataset, index, external_file).await?;
+            dataset
+                .index_cache
+                .get_or_insert_with_key(
+                    FragReuseDetailsKey {
+                        store_identity: &store.store_prefix,
+                        path: &path,
+                        offset: external_file.offset,
+                        size: external_file.size,
+                    },
+                    || async {
+                        let data = read_fri_external_range(&store, &path, external_file).await?;
+                        FragReuseIndexDetails::try_from(InlineContent::decode(data)?)
+                    },
+                )
+                .await
         }
     }
 }
 
+/// Where an FRI entry's external details live, honoring the entry's base:
+/// a shallow-cloned entry's `details.binpb` lives in the SOURCE dataset, so
+/// the path and store come from the entry's `base_id` (like every other
+/// base-aware index file) instead of the current dataset root.
+async fn fri_external_location(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+    file: &ExternalFile,
+) -> lance_core::Result<(Arc<ObjectStore>, Path)> {
+    let path = dataset
+        .indice_files_dir(index)?
+        .join(index.uuid.to_string())
+        .join(file.path.as_str());
+    Ok((dataset.object_store_for_index(index).await?, path))
+}
+
+async fn read_fri_external_range(
+    store: &ObjectStore,
+    path: &Path,
+    file: &ExternalFile,
+) -> lance_core::Result<bytes::Bytes> {
+    let end = file
+        .offset
+        .checked_add(file.size)
+        .and_then(|n| usize::try_from(n).ok())
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI details", "external FRI range overflow"))?;
+    store
+        .open(path)
+        .await?
+        .get_range(file.offset as usize..end)
+        .await
+        .map_err(Error::from)
+}
+
+/// An FRI entry's raw external details bytes, read from storage.
+async fn read_fri_external_file(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+    file: &ExternalFile,
+) -> lance_core::Result<bytes::Bytes> {
+    let (store, path) = fri_external_location(dataset, index, file).await?;
+    read_fri_external_range(&store, &path, file).await
+}
+
 /// open fragment reuse index based on its metadata details
 pub(crate) async fn open_frag_reuse_index(
     uuid: Uuid,
     details: &FragReuseIndexDetails,
-) -> lance_core::Result<FragReuseIndex> {
-    let mut row_id_maps: Vec<HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>> =
-        Vec::with_capacity(details.versions.len());
-    for version in &details.versions {
-        let mut row_id_map = HashMap::<u64, Option<u64>>::new();
-        for group in version.groups.iter() {
-            let cursor = Cursor::new(&group.changed_row_addrs);
-            let changed_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(cursor).unwrap();
-            let group_row_id_map = transpose_row_ids_from_digest(
-                changed_row_addrs,
-                &group.old_frags,
-                &group.new_frags,
-            );
-            row_id_map.extend(group_row_id_map);
-        }
-        row_id_maps.push(row_id_map);
-    }
-
-    Ok(FragReuseIndex::new(uuid, row_id_maps, details.clone()))
+) -> lance_core::Result<CompactFragReuseIndex> {
+    CompactFragReuseIndex::try_new(uuid, details.clone())
 }
 
+/// `dataset_version` stamps both the new reuse version and the entry, which must agree.
 pub(crate) async fn build_new_frag_reuse_index(
     dataset: &mut Dataset,
     frag_reuse_groups: Vec<FragReuseGroup>,
     new_fragment_bitmap: RoaringBitmap,
+    dataset_version: u64,
 ) -> lance_core::Result<IndexMetadata> {
     let new_version = FragReuseVersion {
-        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        // `finish_rewrite` restamps it if the rewrite publishes on a later version.
+        dataset_version,
         groups: frag_reuse_groups,
     };
 
@@ -114,40 +732,52 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_new_frag_reuse_index(
             .cloned()
     })?;
 
-    let new_index_details = match &index_meta {
-        None => FragReuseIndexDetails {
-            versions: Vec::from([new_version]),
-        },
-        Some(ref index_meta) => {
+    let (new_index_details, fragment_bitmap) = match &index_meta {
+        None => (
+            FragReuseIndexDetails {
+                versions: Vec::from([new_version]),
+            },
+            new_fragment_bitmap,
+        ),
+        Some(index_meta) => {
             let current_details = load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, index_meta).await?;
+            // Every version's new fragments, as a rebuild in `finish_rewrite` or a cleanup
+            // publishes, so the entry is the same whether or not its commit is restamped.
+            let fragment_bitmap = current_details.new_frag_bitmap() | new_fragment_bitmap;
             let mut versions = current_details.versions.clone();
             versions.push(new_version);
-            FragReuseIndexDetails { versions }
+            (FragReuseIndexDetails { versions }, fragment_bitmap)
         }
     };
 
-    build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+    let mut entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
         dataset,
         index_meta.as_ref(),
         new_index_details,
-        new_fragment_bitmap,
+        fragment_bitmap,
     )
-    .await
+    .await?;
+    entry.dataset_version = dataset_version;
+    Ok(entry)
 }
 
 pub(crate) async fn build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     index_meta: Option<&IndexMetadata>,
-    new_index_details: FragReuseIndexDetails,
+    mut new_index_details: FragReuseIndexDetails,
     new_fragment_bitmap: RoaringBitmap,
 ) -> lance_core::Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    // The encoding orders versions by stamp; the cached copy must match a read of the file.
+    new_index_details
+        .versions
+        .sort_by_key(|version| version.dataset_version);
     let index_id = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
     let new_index_details_proto = InlineContent::from(&new_index_details);
-    let proto = if new_index_details_proto.encoded_len() > 204800 {
+    let proto = if new_index_details_proto.encoded_len() > FRAG_REUSE_INLINE_DETAILS_LIMIT {
         let file_path = dataset
             .indices_dir()
-            .child(index_id.to_string())
-            .child(FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME);
+            .join(index_id.to_string())
+            .join(FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME);
         let mut writer = dataset.object_store.create(&file_path).await?;
         writer
             .write_all(new_index_details_proto.encode_to_vec().as_slice())
@@ -167,15 +797,6026 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
         }
     };
 
-    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+    let entry = IndexMetadata {
         uuid: index_id,
         name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
         fields: vec![],
+        covering_fields: vec![],
         dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
         fragment_bitmap: Some(new_fragment_bitmap),
         index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any::from_msg(&proto)?)),
         index_version: index_meta.map_or(0, |index_meta| index_meta.index_version),
         created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
         base_id: None,
+        // Fragment reuse index is inline (no files)
+        files: None,
+    };
+    // Spares the commit's history check from reading the file back.
+    if let Some(Content::External(file)) = &proto.content {
+        let (store, path) = fri_external_location(dataset, &entry, file).await?;
+        dataset
+            .index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(
+                &FragReuseDetailsKey {
+                    store_identity: &store.store_prefix,
+                    path: &path,
+                    offset: file.offset,
+                    size: file.size,
+                },
+                Arc::new(new_index_details),
+            )
+            .await;
+    }
+    Ok(entry)
+}
+
+/// One length-delimited protobuf field, the unit both the inline details
+/// payload and appended transitions are spliced with.
+fn encode_length_delimited_field(tag: u32, bytes: &[u8]) -> Vec<u8> {
+    let mut output = Vec::with_capacity(bytes.len() + 8);
+    prost::encoding::encode_key(tag, prost::encoding::WireType::LengthDelimited, &mut output);
+    prost::encoding::encode_varint(bytes.len() as u64, &mut output);
+    output.extend_from_slice(bytes);
+    output
+}
+
+/// Decode a committed FRI entry into its transition ledger, resolving
+/// external content through [`read_fri_external_file`]. The entry's original
+/// `Any` is decoded directly, so the envelope is parsed exactly once, by the
+/// ledger. Works for v0 entries too: legacy versions decode as lifted
+/// transitions.
+// The sp-x-sp manifest diff caller went away when it was replaced by
+// merge-through-reassembly; the maintenance stack (trim derivation, tagged
+// remap planning) and the commit-path tests call it now.
+pub(crate) async fn decode_frag_reuse_ledger(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    entry: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> lance_core::Result<lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger> {
+    let details = entry
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Index details is not for the fragment reuse index"))?;
+    lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger::decode(
+        entry.index_version,
+        details,
+        |file| async move { read_fri_external_file(dataset, entry, &file).await },
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Decode already-loaded FRI content bytes into a transition ledger. Used by
+/// maintenance paths that hold the entry's verbatim content (the trim's
+/// splice inputs and outputs, cleanup's reference resolution) and by tests.
+pub(crate) async fn decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(
+    index_version: i32,
+    content: &[u8],
+) -> lance_core::Result<lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger> {
+    let inline = prost_types::Any {
+        type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+        value: encode_length_delimited_field(1, content),
+    };
+    lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger::decode(
+        index_version,
+        &inline,
+        |_| async {
+            Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "re-wrapped FRI content is inline; no external read is possible",
+            ))
+        },
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Extract a committed FRI entry's `FragmentReuseIndexDetails` content bytes
+/// verbatim, resolving an external reference but never reinterpreting the
+/// content: existing legacy versions and transitions keep their exact wire
+/// form when an operation carries them forward. Works for index_version 0 and
+/// 1 alike (a 0 -> 1 lift is the same bytes reinterpreted under version 1),
+/// unlike [`load_frag_reuse_index_details`], which decodes v0 semantics.
+pub(crate) async fn load_raw_frag_reuse_content(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let details = index
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .filter(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("FragmentReuseIndexDetails"))
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Index details is not for the fragment reuse index"))?;
+    extract_raw_frag_reuse_content(details, |file| async move {
+        read_fri_external_file(dataset, index, &file).await
+    })
+    .await
+}
+
+/// [`load_raw_frag_reuse_content`] with the external read abstracted: callers
+/// outside a live `Dataset` (the shallow-clone relocation reads the SOURCE
+/// dataset's entry before the clone exists; the parent's cleanup reads a
+/// BRANCH manifest's entry) supply their own resolution.
+pub(crate) async fn extract_raw_frag_reuse_content<F, Fut>(
+    details: &prost_types::Any,
+    read_external: F,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<u8>>
+where
+    F: FnOnce(ExternalFile) -> Fut,
+    Fut: std::future::Future<Output = lance_core::Result<bytes::Bytes>>,
+{
+    use bytes::Buf;
+    use prost::encoding::{DecodeContext, WireType, decode_key, decode_varint, skip_field};
+
+    let corrupt = |message: &str| Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI details", message);
+    let mut wire = bytes::Bytes::copy_from_slice(&details.value);
+    let mut content: Option<(u32, bytes::Bytes)> = None;
+    while wire.has_remaining() {
+        let (tag, wire_type) = decode_key(&mut wire).map_err(|e| corrupt(&e.to_string()))?;
+        if wire_type == WireType::LengthDelimited {
+            let length = decode_varint(&mut wire).map_err(|e| corrupt(&e.to_string()))?;
+            if length > wire.remaining() as u64 {
+                return Err(corrupt("FRI details field length exceeds payload"));
+            }
+            let payload = wire.split_to(length as usize);
+            if matches!(tag, 1 | 2) && content.replace((tag, payload)).is_some() {
+                return Err(corrupt("multiple FRI content fields"));
+            }
+        } else {
+            skip_field(wire_type, tag, &mut wire, DecodeContext::default())
+                .map_err(|e| corrupt(&e.to_string()))?;
+        }
+    }
+    match content {
+        None => Err(corrupt("missing FRI content")),
+        Some((1, inline)) => Ok(inline.to_vec()),
+        Some((_, external)) => {
+            let external_file =
+                ExternalFile::decode(external).map_err(|e| corrupt(&e.to_string()))?;
+            let expected = external_file.size;
+            let data = read_external(external_file).await?;
+            if data.len() as u64 != expected {
+                return Err(corrupt(&format!(
+                    "external FRI size mismatch: expected {expected}, received {}",
+                    data.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            Ok(data.to_vec())
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// The source fragment's deleted row count as the manifest sees it right
+/// now. Materialized metadata is free; a deletion file whose count was never
+/// materialized is read once (rare -- the delete path materializes counts).
+async fn current_deleted_rows(dataset: &Dataset, frag: &Fragment) -> lance_core::Result<u64> {
+    match &frag.deletion_file {
+        None => Ok(0),
+        Some(deletion) => match deletion.num_deleted_rows {
+            Some(count) => Ok(count as u64),
+            None => Ok(
+                crate::io::deletion::read_dataset_deletion_file(dataset, frag.id, deletion)
+                    .await?
+                    .len() as u64,
+            ),
+        },
+    }
+}
+
+/// Validate job-side deletion folding with exact accounting.
+///
+/// A concurrent delete landed on a source after the rewrite job snapshotted
+/// it; instead of recomputing, the job translated each newly deleted source
+/// row through the transition's own mapping and wrote destination deletion
+/// vectors for exactly those positions. Three equations, all equalities:
+///
+/// 1. per source, the rows of its CURRENT deletion vector that were already
+///    dead at rewrite time (a null row-map label for stable partition, an
+///    address absent from the survivor bitmap for ordered compaction) must
+///    number exactly the digest's rewrite-time deleted count -- this also
+///    pins the arithmetic that a delta row can never predate the mapping,
+///    and implies the remaining rows number exactly the delta;
+/// 2. the destination deletion vectors must hold exactly the summed delta
+///    rows -- no extras, no misses;
+/// 3. per destination, the translated delta positions must equal the
+///    supplied deletion vector as a SET -- a count match with a position
+///    mismatch is one row wrongly dead plus one row resurrected.
+///
+/// AUTHORITY: source deletion state is read from the CURRENT MANIFEST
+/// fragments, never from the job-supplied rewrite group, which establishes
+/// group identity and ordering only. Trusting the group here would let a
+/// crafted group deletion vector resurrect one row while wrongly deleting
+/// another with all counts matching.
+///
+/// The translation is the reader stack's own [`MappingReader`]
+/// (`OrderedCompactionMapping` over the transition's survivor bitmap, or
+/// `StablePartitionMapping` over the row map file, opened exactly as the
+/// reader opens it). Deleted offsets are translated in bounded batches, and
+/// the expected destination positions accumulate as one `RoaringBitmap` per
+/// destination, so memory stays bounded by the batch size plus the bitmaps.
+/// IO: none at all for ordered compaction (the bitmap is already in the
+/// transition details); for stable partition, only the label blocks each
+/// batch touches, plus the reader's one tail read for the counts matrix.
+async fn validate_folded_deletions(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    group: &RewriteGroup,
+    transition: &lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Transition,
+    manifest_by_id: &HashMap<u64, &Fragment>,
+    source_deltas: &[u64],
+) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    use lance_core::utils::fragment_reuse::{MappingReader, OrderedCompactionMapping};
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::stable_partition::{MAPPING_FILE, StablePartitionMapping};
+    use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+    use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::transition::Mapping;
+
+    /// Deleted offsets translated per request; bounds the translation
+    /// buffers and, for stable partition, the label blocks in flight.
+    const FOLDING_BATCH_ROWS: usize = 16 * 1024;
+
+    // One common reader over either mapping kind.
+    let mapping: Arc<dyn MappingReader> = match &transition.mapping {
+        Some(Mapping::OrderedCompaction(ordered)) => {
+            let mut cursor = std::io::Cursor::new(&ordered.changed_row_addrs);
+            let bitmap = roaring::RoaringTreemap::deserialize_from(&mut cursor)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+            let layout =
+                |digests: &[lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::FragmentDigest]| {
+                    digests
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|digest| (digest.id as u32, digest.physical_rows as u32))
+                        .collect()
+                };
+            let remap = lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap::compact_with_layout([
+                lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::GroupInputWithLayout {
+                    rewritten_old_row_addrs: bitmap,
+                    old_frags: layout(&transition.sources),
+                    new_frags: layout(&transition.destinations),
+                },
+            ])
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?;
+            Arc::new(OrderedCompactionMapping::new(Arc::new(remap)))
+        }
+        Some(Mapping::StablePartition(reference)) => {
+            // Open the row map exactly as the reader does (base-aware).
+            let base = match reference.base_id {
+                None => dataset.base.clone(),
+                Some(id) => dataset
+                    .manifest
+                    .base_paths
+                    .get(&id)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "mapping {} references missing base {id}",
+                            reference.map_id
+                        ))
+                    })?
+                    .extract_path(dataset.session.store_registry())?,
+            };
+            let directory = base.join("_fri").join(reference.map_id.as_str());
+            let store = dataset.object_store(reference.base_id).await?;
+            let metadata_cache = dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&directory);
+            let store =
+                LanceIndexStore::new(store, directory, Arc::new(metadata_cache)).with_file_sizes(
+                    HashMap::from([(MAPPING_FILE.to_string(), reference.map_size_bytes)]),
+                );
+            Arc::new(StablePartitionMapping::try_new(
+                Arc::new(store),
+                transition.sources.clone(),
+                transition.destinations.clone(),
+            )?)
+        }
+        None => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "a transition carrying folded deletions has no mapping",
+            ));
+        }
+    };
+
+    // Expected destination deletions, one bitmap per destination.
+    let destination_slot: HashMap<u64, usize> = transition
+        .destinations
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(slot, digest)| (digest.id, slot))
+        .collect();
+    let mut expected: Vec<RoaringBitmap> =
+        vec![RoaringBitmap::new(); transition.destinations.len()];
+    let mut expected_total = 0u64;
+
+    for digest in transition.sources.iter() {
+        // AUTHORITY: the current manifest fragment, not the group copy.
+        let Some(frag) = manifest_by_id.get(&digest.id) else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "source fragment {} is no longer in the current dataset",
+                digest.id
+            )));
+        };
+        let mut offsets: Vec<u32> = match &frag.deletion_file {
+            None => Vec::new(),
+            Some(deletion) => {
+                crate::io::deletion::read_dataset_deletion_file(dataset, frag.id, deletion)
+                    .await?
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect()
+            }
+        };
+        // Sorted for block locality in the stable-partition reads.
+        offsets.sort_unstable();
+        let mut rewrite_time_deleted = 0u64;
+        for chunk in offsets.chunks(FOLDING_BATCH_ROWS) {
+            let mut addresses = Vec::with_capacity(chunk.len());
+            for &offset in chunk {
+                if u64::from(offset) >= digest.physical_rows {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "source fragment {} has a deleted row offset {offset} beyond its \
+                         {} physical rows",
+                        frag.id, digest.physical_rows
+                    )));
+                }
+                addresses.push((digest.id << 32) | u64::from(offset));
+            }
+            for translation in mapping.remap_row_ids(&addresses).await? {
+                match translation {
+                    None => rewrite_time_deleted += 1,
+                    Some(address) => {
+                        let slot = destination_slot.get(&(address >> 32)).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                "the mapping translates to fragment {} which is not a \
+                                     destination of this transition",
+                                address >> 32
+                            ))
+                        })?;
+                        expected[*slot].insert(address as u32);
+                        expected_total += 1;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        // Equation 1: rows dead at rewrite time, exactly the digest's count.
+        if rewrite_time_deleted != digest.num_deleted_rows {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "scan-time deletion accounting failed for source fragment {}: \
+                 {rewrite_time_deleted} deleted rows predate the rewrite mapping but the \
+                 digest records {} rewrite-time deletions",
+                digest.id, digest.num_deleted_rows
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // The supplied destination deletion vectors, per destination.
+    let mut supplied: Vec<RoaringBitmap> = Vec::with_capacity(group.new_fragments.len());
+    let mut supplied_total = 0u64;
+    for frag in group.new_fragments.iter() {
+        let bitmap: RoaringBitmap = match &frag.deletion_file {
+            None => RoaringBitmap::new(),
+            Some(deletion) => {
+                let bitmap: RoaringBitmap =
+                    crate::io::deletion::read_dataset_deletion_file(dataset, frag.id, deletion)
+                        .await?
+                        .iter()
+                        .collect();
+                // The metadata count is consumed downstream (e.g. row
+                // counting) without re-reading the file, so a lying count
+                // must be rejected here even though the positions themselves
+                // are validated from the file below.
+                if let Some(num_deleted_rows) = deletion.num_deleted_rows
+                    && num_deleted_rows as u64 != bitmap.len()
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "destination fragment {} records {num_deleted_rows} deleted rows \
+                         in its deletion file metadata but the deletion file holds {} \
+                         positions",
+                        frag.id,
+                        bitmap.len()
+                    )));
+                }
+                bitmap
+            }
+        };
+        supplied_total += bitmap.len();
+        supplied.push(bitmap);
+    }
+    // Equation 2: cardinality, exactly the summed deltas.
+    let expected_delta: u64 = source_deltas.iter().sum();
+    if supplied_total != expected_delta {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "destination deletion vectors hold {supplied_total} rows but the sources \
+             gained {expected_delta} deletions since the scan"
+        )));
+    }
+    debug_assert_eq!(expected_total, expected_delta);
+    // Equation 3: positions, per destination, as sets.
+    for (slot, digest) in transition.destinations.iter().enumerate() {
+        if expected[slot] != supplied[slot] {
+            let missing = (&expected[slot] - &supplied[slot]).iter().next();
+            let extra = (&supplied[slot] - &expected[slot]).iter().next();
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "folded deletions do not land on the translated positions for destination \
+                 fragment {}: missing translated offset {missing:?}, unexpected deletion \
+                 offset {extra:?}",
+                digest.id
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// The complete fragment reuse index entry a rewrite installs when it
+/// appends `transitions`: `dataset`'s entry (its records carried over
+/// verbatim, a v0 entry lifted to the tagged format) plus the new
+/// transitions. This is what `Operation::Rewrite::frag_reuse_index` carries
+/// for a rewrite on a tagged history.
+///
+/// `dataset` must be the snapshot at the transaction's read version: the
+/// commit path diffs the entry against the entry at that version to find
+/// what this rewrite adds, and refuses an entry whose `dataset_version`
+/// differs from the read version. A caller whose handle has moved on (a
+/// distributed compaction driver at V+N committing tasks planned at V)
+/// checks the read version out first.
+///
+/// The result is validated as a ledger (lineage order, digest conservation,
+/// mapping presence, no mapping this writer cannot maintain) but not yet
+/// against the rewrite groups: the commit path works out which transitions
+/// the entry adds relative to the read version's entry, binds them to the
+/// groups, merges them onto the entry current at commit and finalizes the
+/// result (spilling content above the inline limit to an external file).
+/// The returned entry keeps its content inline whatever its size; it is
+/// in-memory intent, never the entry that reaches a manifest.
+pub async fn frag_reuse_entry_appending(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    transitions: Vec<pb_fri::Transition>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Tagged fragment reuse histories are address-based and excluded on \
+             stable-row-id datasets; this rewrite cannot carry transition intent here",
+        ));
+    }
+    let stored = super::load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+    let existing = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+    let (mut content, mut fragment_bitmap) = match existing {
+        None => (Vec::new(), RoaringBitmap::new()),
+        Some(entry) => {
+            if !matches!(entry.index_version, 0 | 1) {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "Cannot append a transition to FRI index_version {}; upgrade to a newer \
+                     version of Lance",
+                    entry.index_version
+                )));
+            }
+            (
+                load_raw_frag_reuse_content(dataset, entry).await?,
+                entry.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+            )
+        }
+    };
+    for transition in &transitions {
+        content.extend_from_slice(&encode_length_delimited_field(
+            2,
+            &transition.encode_to_vec(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let details = prost_types::Any {
+        type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+        value: encode_length_delimited_field(1, &content),
+    };
+    let ledger = lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger::decode(
+        1,
+        &details,
+        |_| async {
+            Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "the assembled FRI content is inline; no external read is possible",
+            ))
+        },
+    )
+    .await?;
+    if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "the fragment reuse history contains mappings this writer cannot maintain; \
+             upgrade to a newer version of Lance before rewriting this table",
+        ));
+    }
+    for transition in &transitions {
+        for digest in transition
+            .sources
+            .iter()
+            .chain(transition.destinations.iter())
+        {
+            fragment_bitmap.insert(digest.id as u32);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+        name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+        fields: vec![],
+        covering_fields: vec![],
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(details)),
+        index_version: 1,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: None,
+    })
+}
+
+/// The records a fragment reuse entry holds, whatever its version: its
+/// legacy compaction versions and its tagged transitions.
+pub(crate) async fn load_frag_reuse_records(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    entry: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> lance_core::Result<InlineContent> {
+    let content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(dataset, entry).await?;
+    decode_records(&content)
+}
+
+fn decode_records(content: &[u8]) -> lance_core::Result<InlineContent> {
+    InlineContent::decode(content).map_err(|err| {
+        Error::corrupt_file_named(
+            "FRI details",
+            format!("the fragment reuse content does not decode: {err}"),
+        )
     })
 }
+
+/// What identifies a transition: the fragments it consumed and the ones it
+/// produced, in order. A source fragment is consumed by one transition only
+/// and destinations are freshly reserved, so two transitions with the same
+/// identity are the same record, and must then carry the same content.
+fn transition_identity(transition: &pb_fri::Transition) -> (Vec<u64>, Vec<u64>) {
+    (
+        transition.sources.iter().map(|digest| digest.id).collect(),
+        transition
+            .destinations
+            .iter()
+            .map(|digest| digest.id)
+            .collect(),
+    )
+}
+
+/// The records a rewrite's entry adds relative to the entry at its read
+/// version.
+#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub(crate) struct AddedRecords {
+    pub transitions: Vec<pb_fri::Transition>,
+    pub legacy_versions: Vec<pb_fri::Version>,
+}
+
+/// Work out what `proposed` (a rewrite's `frag_reuse_index`) adds relative
+/// to `base` (the entry at the rewrite's read version), both as records.
+///
+/// A rewrite only appends history. A record `base` holds must appear in
+/// `proposed` with the same content: one that is missing is a removal the
+/// rewrite is not allowed to make (history is retired through the reuse
+/// index cleanup, which proves nothing still depends on it), and one whose
+/// content differs would rewrite a record other indices may translate
+/// through. Transitions are identified by their source and destination
+/// fragments, legacy versions by their dataset version.
+pub(crate) fn records_added_since(
+    base: &InlineContent,
+    proposed: &InlineContent,
+) -> lance_core::Result<AddedRecords> {
+    let mut added = AddedRecords::default();
+
+    let proposed_transitions: HashMap<(Vec<u64>, Vec<u64>), &pb_fri::Transition> = proposed
+        .transitions
+        .iter()
+        .map(|transition| (transition_identity(transition), transition))
+        .collect();
+    if proposed_transitions.len() != proposed.transitions.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "the fragment reuse entry records the same transition more than once",
+        ));
+    }
+    let mut base_transitions: HashMap<(Vec<u64>, Vec<u64>), &pb_fri::Transition> = HashMap::new();
+    for transition in &base.transitions {
+        let identity = transition_identity(transition);
+        match proposed_transitions.get(&identity) {
+            None => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "the fragment reuse entry drops the recorded transition from fragments \
+                     {:?}; a rewrite only appends history, retire transitions through the \
+                     fragment reuse index cleanup instead",
+                    identity.0
+                )));
+            }
+            Some(proposed) if *proposed != transition => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "the fragment reuse entry changes the recorded transition from fragments \
+                     {:?}; a recorded transition cannot be modified",
+                    identity.0
+                )));
+            }
+            Some(_) => {}
+        }
+        base_transitions.insert(identity, transition);
+    }
+    for transition in &proposed.transitions {
+        if !base_transitions.contains_key(&transition_identity(transition)) {
+            added.transitions.push(transition.clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    let proposed_versions: HashMap<u64, &pb_fri::Version> = proposed
+        .legacy_versions
+        .iter()
+        .map(|version| (version.dataset_version, version))
+        .collect();
+    if proposed_versions.len() != proposed.legacy_versions.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "the fragment reuse entry records the same compaction version more than once",
+        ));
+    }
+    let mut base_versions: HashSet<u64> = HashSet::new();
+    for version in &base.legacy_versions {
+        match proposed_versions.get(&version.dataset_version) {
+            None => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "the fragment reuse entry drops the recorded compaction version {}; a \
+                     rewrite only appends history, retire versions through the fragment \
+                     reuse index cleanup instead",
+                    version.dataset_version
+                )));
+            }
+            Some(proposed) if *proposed != version => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "the fragment reuse entry changes the recorded compaction version {}; a \
+                     recorded version cannot be modified",
+                    version.dataset_version
+                )));
+            }
+            Some(_) => {}
+        }
+        base_versions.insert(version.dataset_version);
+    }
+    for version in &proposed.legacy_versions {
+        if !base_versions.contains(&version.dataset_version) {
+            added.legacy_versions.push(version.clone());
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(added)
+}
+
+/// A legacy compaction version as the tagged history records it: one
+/// ordered-compaction transition per group, informationally equivalent
+/// (same digest ordering, same `changed_row_addrs` semantics).
+pub(crate) fn legacy_version_transitions(version: &pb_fri::Version) -> Vec<pb_fri::Transition> {
+    version
+        .groups
+        .iter()
+        .map(|group| pb_fri::Transition {
+            sources: group.old_fragments.clone(),
+            destinations: group.new_fragments.clone(),
+            mapping: Some(pb_fri::transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                pb_fri::OrderedCompaction {
+                    changed_row_addrs: group.changed_row_addrs.clone(),
+                },
+            )),
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Refuse a bare group of a transition-carrying rewrite by the bare-rewrite
+/// rule (`gate::covered_bare_rewrite`).
+fn refuse_covered_bare_group(
+    group: &RewriteGroup,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+) -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    let rewritten: RoaringBitmap = group
+        .old_fragments
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|fragment| u32::try_from(fragment.id).ok())
+        .collect();
+    let fragments = || {
+        group
+            .old_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    };
+    match covered_bare_rewrite(&rewritten, indices) {
+        None => Ok(()),
+        Some(BareRewriteRefusal::Covered { index, overlap }) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "rewrite group of fragments {:?} carries no fragment reuse transition but index \
+             {index} covers fragments {:?} of it; record a transition for the group or rebuild \
+             the index before the rewrite",
+            fragments(),
+            overlap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ))),
+        Some(BareRewriteRefusal::UnknownCoverage { index }) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "rewrite group of fragments {:?} carries no fragment reuse transition and index \
+             {index} has no fragment bitmap, so its coverage is unknown; record a transition \
+             for the group or rebuild the index before the rewrite",
+            fragments(),
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Assemble the tagged FRI entry a rewrite commits, and return it with the
+/// `dataset_version` of the entry it appended onto.
+///
+/// `transitions` are the records the rewrite adds (what its
+/// `frag_reuse_index` holds beyond the entry at its read version, see
+/// `records_added_since`). The current entry's content bytes are carried
+/// over verbatim (a v0 entry is lifted to index_version 1 by
+/// reinterpretation, not re-encoding) and each new transition is appended as
+/// another `InlineContent.transitions` element. Before anything is spilled
+/// or committed, the binding between the rewrite groups and the transitions
+/// is validated (sources and destinations must match the groups' old and new
+/// fragments one to one, in order), row counts must be conserved, no added
+/// transition may already be recorded, and the whole assembled content must
+/// decode as a valid ledger.
+pub(crate) async fn build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    transitions: &[pb_fri::Transition],
+    groups: &[RewriteGroup],
+) -> lance_core::Result<(IndexMetadata, Option<u64>)> {
+    // The spec excludes tagged histories on stable-row-id tables: the FRI is
+    // address-based, and under stable row ids a rewrite's rows keep their
+    // ids, so there is no address translation to record. The planner blocks
+    // the deferred-compaction combination already; this covers a hand-built
+    // rewrite committed directly.
+    if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Tagged fragment reuse histories are address-based and excluded on \
+             stable-row-id datasets; this rewrite cannot carry transition intent here",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    if transitions.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "a fragment-reuse rewrite carries no transitions",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let stored = super::load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+
+    // Bind the covered rewrite groups to the transitions, one to one and in
+    // order. A group is covered when its old fragments appear among the
+    // transitions' sources; a group straddling covered and uncovered sources
+    // is rejected (see `ordered_rewrite_groups`). A bare group follows the
+    // bare-rewrite rule against the index list of this attempt.
+    let source_ids: HashSet<u64> = transitions
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|transition| transition.sources.iter().map(|source| source.id))
+        .collect();
+    let mut covered_groups = Vec::with_capacity(transitions.len());
+    for group in groups {
+        let covered = group
+            .old_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|frag| source_ids.contains(&frag.id))
+            .count();
+        if covered == 0 {
+            refuse_covered_bare_group(group, &stored)?;
+            continue;
+        }
+        if covered != group.old_fragments.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "a rewrite group mixes transition-covered and order-preserving source fragments",
+            ));
+        }
+        covered_groups.push(group);
+    }
+    if covered_groups.len() != transitions.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "the fragment-reuse rewrite lists {} transitions but {} rewrite groups are \
+             covered by their sources",
+            transitions.len(),
+            covered_groups.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    // Destination ids must be finalized before assembly: the commit path's
+    // `fragments_with_ids` treats id 0 as unassigned and renumbers it, which
+    // would strand the recorded destination id (and, with a live fragment 0,
+    // translate into unrelated rows). The flow reserves fresh ids through
+    // ReserveFragments; enforce that invariant here instead of trusting the
+    // caller: no id 0, and no id that is already live in the manifest (the
+    // transition's sources are live and are covered by the same rule).
+    let live_fragments: HashSet<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|frag| frag.id).collect();
+    let manifest_by_id: HashMap<u64, &Fragment> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|frag| (frag.id, frag))
+        .collect();
+
+    for (group, transition) in covered_groups.iter().zip(transitions.iter()) {
+        if group.old_fragments.len() != transition.sources.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "a transition lists {} sources but its rewrite group holds {} old fragments",
+                transition.sources.len(),
+                group.old_fragments.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        // Regime detection: the per-source delta between the scan-time
+        // digest and the CURRENT manifest. All deltas zero -> regime A,
+        // exactly the historical validation (metadata-only here, except the
+        // rare read of a deletion vector whose count was never
+        // materialized). Any delta positive -> the folding regime: a concurrent delete landed on a
+        // source after the job snapshotted it, and the job answered by
+        // folding those rows into destination deletion vectors instead of
+        // recomputing; the fold is then validated row by row against the
+        // transition's own row map (see `validate_folded_deletions`). A
+        // source missing from the manifest contributes no delta: that
+        // commit fails later exactly as before (double consumption or
+        // fragment liveness).
+        let mut source_deltas: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(transition.sources.len());
+        for digest in transition.sources.iter() {
+            let current = match manifest_by_id.get(&digest.id) {
+                None => digest.num_deleted_rows,
+                Some(frag) => current_deleted_rows(dataset, frag).await?,
+            };
+            if current < digest.num_deleted_rows {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "source fragment {} records {current} deleted rows in the manifest, below \
+                     the {} its scan-time digest carries; a deletion vector cannot shrink",
+                    digest.id, digest.num_deleted_rows
+                )));
+            }
+            source_deltas.push(current - digest.num_deleted_rows);
+        }
+        let folding = source_deltas.iter().any(|&delta| delta > 0);
+
+        for (source_index, (frag, digest)) in group
+            .old_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .zip(transition.sources.iter())
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            // Materializing a data overlay breaks the reuse premise that a
+            // rewrite moves addresses, never values: the destination holds
+            // the overlaid values physically (and carries no overlay for
+            // the runtime staleness guard to see), while an index built
+            // before the overlay keeps the source in its bitmap as
+            // provenance and would serve the destination through
+            // translation. v0 handles this by dropping the DESTINATION ids
+            // from stale bitmaps, which is a no-op here because tagged
+            // provenance never contains them. Until provenance-side
+            // invalidation exists, refuse to record a transition over
+            // overlaid sources.
+            if !frag.overlays.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "source fragment {} carries data overlay files; a rewrite recording \
+                     fragment reuse transitions would materialize the overlaid values while \
+                     indices keep translated coverage over the old addresses. Compact the \
+                     overlays away or rebuild the covering indices eagerly before this \
+                     rewrite",
+                    frag.id
+                )));
+            }
+            let physical_rows = frag.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "source fragment {} has no physical row count",
+                    frag.id
+                ))
+            })? as u64;
+            let num_deleted_rows = if folding {
+                // One authoritative accessor in the folding regime, so an
+                // unmaterialized count cannot be classified one way and
+                // validated another.
+                current_deleted_rows(dataset, frag).await?
+            } else {
+                frag.deletion_file
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|deletion| deletion.num_deleted_rows)
+                    .unwrap_or(0) as u64
+            };
+            if !folding {
+                // Regime A: exactly the historical binding.
+                if digest.id != frag.id
+                    || digest.physical_rows != physical_rows
+                    || digest.num_deleted_rows != num_deleted_rows
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "transition source digest {:?} does not match old fragment {} \
+                         ({physical_rows} physical rows, {num_deleted_rows} deleted)",
+                        digest, frag.id
+                    )));
+                }
+            } else {
+                // Regime B: the digest keeps the scan-time snapshot; the
+                // group must carry the source's CURRENT metadata.
+                if digest.id != frag.id || digest.physical_rows != physical_rows {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "transition source digest {:?} does not match old fragment {} \
+                         ({physical_rows} physical rows)",
+                        digest, frag.id
+                    )));
+                }
+                let current = digest.num_deleted_rows + source_deltas[source_index];
+                if num_deleted_rows != current {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "deletion folding requires the rewrite group to carry the source's \
+                         current metadata: fragment {} shows {num_deleted_rows} deleted rows \
+                         but the manifest records {current}",
+                        frag.id
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if group.new_fragments.len() != transition.destinations.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "a transition lists {} destinations but its rewrite group holds {} new fragments",
+                transition.destinations.len(),
+                group.new_fragments.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        for (frag, digest) in group
+            .new_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .zip(transition.destinations.iter())
+        {
+            if frag.id == 0 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "destination fragment id 0 is unassigned (the commit path renumbers it); \
+                     reserve ids with ReserveFragments and assign them before the rewrite is \
+                     assembled",
+                ));
+            }
+            if live_fragments.contains(&frag.id) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "destination fragment id {} is already live in the dataset; a rewrite \
+                     destination must use a freshly reserved id",
+                    frag.id
+                )));
+            }
+            // The digest claiming zero deletions is not enough: check the
+            // fragment itself, or a destination carrying a deletion file
+            // would commit a digest that undercounts its physical rows'
+            // liveness and later fail (or falsely pass) translation. Under
+            // the folding regime destinations MAY carry deletion vectors --
+            // they hold exactly the delta rows, validated position by
+            // position below.
+            if !folding && frag.deletion_file.is_some() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "destination fragment {} carries a deletion file; rewrite destinations                      must be written without deletions",
+                    frag.id
+                )));
+            }
+            let physical_rows = frag.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "destination fragment {} has no physical row count",
+                    frag.id
+                ))
+            })? as u64;
+            if digest.id != frag.id
+                || digest.physical_rows != physical_rows
+                || digest.num_deleted_rows != 0
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "transition destination digest {:?} does not match new fragment {} \
+                     ({physical_rows} physical rows)",
+                    digest, frag.id
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        // Conservation: every live source row lands in exactly one
+        // destination. The digests were just bound to the actual fragments,
+        // so this checks the fragments themselves.
+        let live_source_rows: u64 = transition
+            .sources
+            .iter()
+            .map(|digest| digest.physical_rows.saturating_sub(digest.num_deleted_rows))
+            .sum();
+        let destination_rows: u64 = transition
+            .destinations
+            .iter()
+            .map(|digest| digest.physical_rows)
+            .sum();
+        if live_source_rows != destination_rows {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "a transition does not conserve rows: {live_source_rows} live source rows, \
+                 {destination_rows} destination rows"
+            )));
+        }
+        if folding {
+            validate_folded_deletions(dataset, group, transition, &manifest_by_id, &source_deltas)
+                .await?;
+        }
+        // TODO(row-map totals): also validate the transition's row-map label
+        // totals against the destination digests by tail-reading the map
+        // file's counts buffer (RowMapReader keeps per-destination totals);
+        // today that costs one object-store read per transition, so the
+        // ledger's digest conservation stands in for it at commit time.
+    }
+
+    // Carry the current entry's content bytes over verbatim.
+    let existing = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+    let (mut content, base_bitmap, base_entry_version) = match existing {
+        None => (Vec::new(), RoaringBitmap::new(), None),
+        Some(entry) => {
+            if !matches!(entry.index_version, 0 | 1) {
+                return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                    "Cannot append a stable-partition transition to FRI index_version {}; \
+                     upgrade to a newer version of Lance",
+                    entry.index_version
+                )));
+            }
+            (
+                load_raw_frag_reuse_content(dataset, entry).await?,
+                entry.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+                Some(entry.dataset_version),
+            )
+        }
+    };
+    // A transition is recorded once. The rewrite's intent was diffed against
+    // the entry at its read version; the current entry may have moved on
+    // (another writer's transitions, a trim), but it can only hold one of
+    // ours if the same sources were consumed twice, which the resolver
+    // refuses before this point. Check anyway rather than record it twice.
+    let recorded = decode_records(&content)?;
+    for transition in transitions {
+        if recorded
+            .transitions
+            .iter()
+            .any(|existing| transition_identity(existing) == transition_identity(transition))
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "the fragment reuse history already records a transition from fragments {:?}; \
+                 the rewrite's entry cannot append it again",
+                transition_identity(transition).0
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    for transition in transitions {
+        // Another `InlineContent.transitions` (field 2) element; repeated
+        // protobuf fields concatenate, so appending preserves the existing
+        // wire form untouched.
+        content.extend_from_slice(&encode_length_delimited_field(
+            2,
+            &transition.encode_to_vec(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    // Commit-side validation of the assembled entry: lineage order, digest
+    // conservation, single content field, mapping presence, unknown-mapping
+    // detection. Runs on the inline form before any spill.
+    let assembled = prost_types::Any {
+        type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+        value: encode_length_delimited_field(1, &content),
+    };
+    let ledger = lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger::decode(
+        1,
+        &assembled,
+        |_| async {
+            Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "the assembled FRI content is inline; no external read is possible",
+            ))
+        },
+    )
+    .await?;
+    // The decode above uses READER semantics, which deliberately skip
+    // transitions with unknown mappings instead of failing; a writer must
+    // not maintain a history it cannot fully interpret (spec: "Writers must
+    // reject operations that require interpreting or maintaining unsupported
+    // mappings").
+    if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "the fragment reuse history contains mappings this writer cannot maintain;              upgrade to a newer version of Lance before rewriting this table",
+        ));
+    }
+    // Every stable-partition transition must own its row map: a reused
+    // map_id would let maintenance of one transition delete or overwrite the
+    // map file another live transition still references (object-store
+    // writes are not create-if-absent, so nothing else catches the clash).
+    let mut seen_map_ids = HashSet::new();
+    for transition in ledger.transitions() {
+        if let lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::Mapping::StablePartition(partition) =
+            transition.mapping()
+            && !seen_map_ids.insert(partition.map_id.clone())
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "stable-partition row-map id {} is referenced by more than one transition;                  each transition must own its row map",
+                partition.map_id
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Provenance: the previous coverage plus every fragment this rewrite's
+    // transitions touch, retired sources deliberately included.
+    let mut fragment_bitmap = base_bitmap;
+    for transition in transitions {
+        for digest in transition
+            .sources
+            .iter()
+            .chain(transition.destinations.iter())
+        {
+            // In-range by construction: the ledger decode above already
+            // validated every digest id against the row-address fragment
+            // bound (the one authoritative enforcement point).
+            fragment_bitmap.insert(digest.id as u32);
+        }
+    }
+
+    let entry = build_tagged_frag_reuse_entry(dataset, content, fragment_bitmap).await?;
+    Ok((entry, base_entry_version))
+}
+
+/// Package assembled tagged FRI content bytes into a fresh manifest entry,
+/// spilling to an external details file above the inline threshold. The
+/// content must already be validated (a decodable ledger); this only encodes.
+pub(crate) async fn build_tagged_frag_reuse_entry(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    content: Vec<u8>,
+    fragment_bitmap: RoaringBitmap,
+) -> lance_core::Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    let index_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let details_value = encode_tagged_frag_reuse_details(
+        &dataset.object_store,
+        dataset.indices_dir(),
+        index_id,
+        content,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: index_id,
+        name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+        fields: vec![],
+        covering_fields: vec![],
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value: details_value,
+        })),
+        index_version: 1,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        // The row-map files live in their own directories referenced from the
+        // transitions, not under this entry's uuid.
+        files: None,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Encode validated tagged FRI content bytes as an `index_details` value,
+/// spilling to `<indices_dir>/<index_id>/details.binpb` above the inline
+/// threshold.
+async fn encode_tagged_frag_reuse_details(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    indices_dir: Path,
+    index_id: Uuid,
+    content: Vec<u8>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    if content.len() > FRAG_REUSE_INLINE_DETAILS_LIMIT {
+        let file_path = indices_dir
+            .join(index_id.to_string())
+            .join(FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME);
+        let mut writer = object_store.create(&file_path).await?;
+        writer.write_all(&content).await?;
+        writer.shutdown().await?;
+        let external_file = ExternalFile {
+            path: FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME.to_owned(),
+            offset: 0,
+            size: content.len() as u64,
+        };
+        Ok(encode_length_delimited_field(
+            2,
+            &external_file.encode_to_vec(),
+        ))
+    } else {
+        Ok(encode_length_delimited_field(1, &content))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Details above this size spill to an external `details.binpb` file.
+pub(crate) const FRAG_REUSE_INLINE_DETAILS_LIMIT: usize = 204800;
+
+/// `InlineContent.Transition.stable_partition` (proto field 4).
+const STABLE_PARTITION_FIELD: u32 = 4;
+/// `StablePartition.base_id` (proto field 3, varint).
+const STABLE_PARTITION_BASE_ID_FIELD: u32 = 3;
+
+/// Rewrite each stable-partition mapping's `base_id` through `remap`, leaving
+/// every other byte in its exact wire form. The rewrite is a surgical
+/// wire-level patch (no protobuf decode/re-encode), so unknown NESTED fields
+/// -- extensions of `StablePartition` or `FragmentDigest` this writer does
+/// not know, exactly the shape `base_id` itself was added in -- survive
+/// byte-identically instead of being silently stripped. An unknown envelope
+/// record is still refused: it may participate in base resolution in ways
+/// this writer cannot see, so a history it cannot fully parse must not be
+/// relocated (mirrors the trim's obligation). Unknown fields INSIDE a
+/// transition are refused earlier, by the ledger gate the caller runs.
+fn relocate_stable_partition_bases(
+    content: &[u8],
+    remap: impl Fn(Option<u32>) -> lance_core::Result<Option<u32>>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    use bytes::Buf;
+    use prost::encoding::{WireType, decode_key, decode_varint};
+
+    let corrupt = |message: String| Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI details", message);
+    let total = content.len();
+    let mut buf = bytes::Bytes::copy_from_slice(content);
+    let mut output = Vec::with_capacity(content.len());
+    while buf.has_remaining() {
+        let start = total - buf.remaining();
+        let (tag, wire_type) = decode_key(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+        if wire_type != WireType::LengthDelimited || !matches!(tag, 1 | 2) {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "the tagged FRI history carries an unknown record (field {tag}); \
+                 upgrade to a newer version of Lance before cloning this table"
+            )));
+        }
+        let length = decode_varint(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+        if length > buf.remaining() as u64 {
+            return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                "field {tag} length {length} exceeds remaining {} bytes",
+                buf.remaining()
+            )));
+        }
+        let payload = buf.split_to(length as usize);
+        let end = total - buf.remaining();
+        if tag == 2
+            && let Some(patched) = patch_transition_stable_partition(&payload, &remap)?
+        {
+            output.extend_from_slice(&encode_length_delimited_field(2, &patched));
+        } else {
+            // Legacy versions and transitions without a stable-partition
+            // mapping (ordered compaction) reference no bases; verbatim.
+            output.extend_from_slice(&content[start..end]);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(output)
+}
+
+/// Patch a transition's stable-partition submessage in place, copying every
+/// other field's bytes verbatim (whatever their field number or wire type).
+/// Returns `None` when the transition carries no stable-partition mapping.
+fn patch_transition_stable_partition(
+    raw: &[u8],
+    remap: &impl Fn(Option<u32>) -> lance_core::Result<Option<u32>>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+    use bytes::Buf;
+    use prost::encoding::{DecodeContext, WireType, decode_key, decode_varint, skip_field};
+
+    let corrupt = |message: String| Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI details", message);
+    let total = raw.len();
+    let mut buf = bytes::Bytes::copy_from_slice(raw);
+    let mut output = Vec::with_capacity(raw.len() + 8);
+    let mut found = false;
+    while buf.has_remaining() {
+        let start = total - buf.remaining();
+        let (tag, wire_type) = decode_key(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+        if tag == STABLE_PARTITION_FIELD {
+            if wire_type != WireType::LengthDelimited {
+                return Err(corrupt("stable partition mapping must be a message".into()));
+            }
+            let length = decode_varint(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+            if length > buf.remaining() as u64 {
+                return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                    "stable partition length {length} exceeds remaining {} bytes",
+                    buf.remaining()
+                )));
+            }
+            let payload = buf.split_to(length as usize);
+            if found {
+                // The ledger gate rejects this before relocation runs.
+                return Err(corrupt(
+                    "transition contains multiple stable-partition mappings".into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            found = true;
+            let patched = patch_stable_partition_base(&payload, remap)?;
+            output.extend_from_slice(&encode_length_delimited_field(
+                STABLE_PARTITION_FIELD,
+                &patched,
+            ));
+        } else {
+            if wire_type == WireType::LengthDelimited {
+                let length = decode_varint(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+                if length > buf.remaining() as u64 {
+                    return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                        "field {tag} length {length} exceeds remaining {} bytes",
+                        buf.remaining()
+                    )));
+                }
+                buf.advance(length as usize);
+            } else {
+                skip_field(wire_type, tag, &mut buf, DecodeContext::default())
+                    .map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+            }
+            let end = total - buf.remaining();
+            output.extend_from_slice(&raw[start..end]);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(found.then_some(output))
+}
+
+/// Drop the submessage's `base_id` field wherever it occurs (proto3
+/// last-one-wins yields the effective current value) and re-emit the
+/// remapped value at the end; every other byte is preserved verbatim.
+fn patch_stable_partition_base(
+    raw: &[u8],
+    remap: &impl Fn(Option<u32>) -> lance_core::Result<Option<u32>>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    use bytes::Buf;
+    use prost::encoding::{DecodeContext, WireType, decode_key, decode_varint, skip_field};
+
+    let corrupt = |message: String| Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI details", message);
+    let total = raw.len();
+    let mut buf = bytes::Bytes::copy_from_slice(raw);
+    let mut output = Vec::with_capacity(raw.len() + 8);
+    let mut existing = None;
+    while buf.has_remaining() {
+        let start = total - buf.remaining();
+        let (tag, wire_type) = decode_key(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+        if tag == STABLE_PARTITION_BASE_ID_FIELD {
+            if wire_type != WireType::Varint {
+                return Err(corrupt("stable partition base_id must be a varint".into()));
+            }
+            let value = decode_varint(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+            existing =
+                Some(u32::try_from(value).map_err(|_| {
+                    corrupt(format!("stable partition base_id {value} overflows u32"))
+                })?);
+        } else {
+            if wire_type == WireType::LengthDelimited {
+                let length = decode_varint(&mut buf).map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+                if length > buf.remaining() as u64 {
+                    return Err(corrupt(format!(
+                        "field {tag} length {length} exceeds remaining {} bytes",
+                        buf.remaining()
+                    )));
+                }
+                buf.advance(length as usize);
+            } else {
+                skip_field(wire_type, tag, &mut buf, DecodeContext::default())
+                    .map_err(|e| corrupt(e.to_string()))?;
+            }
+            let end = total - buf.remaining();
+            output.extend_from_slice(&raw[start..end]);
+        }
+    }
+    if let Some(base_id) = remap(existing)? {
+        prost::encoding::encode_key(
+            STABLE_PARTITION_BASE_ID_FIELD,
+            WireType::Varint,
+            &mut output,
+        );
+        prost::encoding::encode_varint(u64::from(base_id), &mut output);
+    }
+    Ok(output)
+}
+
+/// How a clone restamps the stable-partition `base_id`s it relocates.
+pub(crate) enum CloneBaseRemap {
+    /// Shallow clone: row-map files stay where they are.
+    /// `Manifest::shallow_clone` carries the source's `base_paths` ids over
+    /// verbatim and adds `new_base_id` for the source's own base, so `None`
+    /// becomes `Some(new_base_id)` and `Some(id)` stays `id`.
+    Shallow { new_base_id: u32 },
+    /// Deep clone: every referenced row map is copied into the clone's own
+    /// `_fri/` (see [`collect_tagged_row_map_paths`]), so every reference
+    /// becomes local: any stamp clears to unset.
+    Deep,
+}
+
+/// Relocate a tagged FRI entry for a clone.
+///
+/// The source entry's content is resolved base-aware (a chained clone's entry
+/// or details file may live in one of the source's own bases), its
+/// stable-partition references are restamped through the clone's base mapping
+/// (per [`CloneBaseRemap`]), and the relocated content is written into the
+/// CLONE under a fresh uuid with `base_id: None`.
+///
+/// A history this writer cannot fully interpret (unsupported transitions or
+/// unknown records) is refused with `NotSupported` before anything is
+/// written, per the spec's writer obligation.
+///
+/// Returns the relocated entry and, when the details spilled to an external
+/// file in the target, that file's path so a failed clone commit can delete
+/// it again.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub(crate) async fn relocate_tagged_entry_for_clone(
+    source_store: &ObjectStore,
+    source_base: &Path,
+    source_manifest: &Manifest,
+    store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    entry: &IndexMetadata,
+    base_remap: CloneBaseRemap,
+    target_store: &ObjectStore,
+    target_base: &Path,
+) -> lance_core::Result<(IndexMetadata, Option<Path>)> {
+    let details = entry
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .filter(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("FragmentReuseIndexDetails"))
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Index details is not for the fragment reuse index"))?;
+    // Base-aware resolution of the entry's external details without a live
+    // `Dataset`: the same rule as `read_fri_external_file`, against the
+    // source manifest's `base_paths`.
+    let registry = store_registry.clone();
+    let content = extract_raw_frag_reuse_content(details, |file| async move {
+        let end = file
+            .offset
+            .checked_add(file.size)
+            .and_then(|n| usize::try_from(n).ok())
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI details", "external FRI range overflow")
+            })?;
+        let (store, indices_dir) = match entry.base_id {
+            None => (None, source_base.clone().join(crate::dataset::INDICES_DIR)),
+            Some(id) => {
+                let base_path = source_manifest.base_paths.get(&id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "base_path id {} not found for index {}",
+                        id, entry.uuid
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                let path = base_path.extract_path(registry.clone())?;
+                let dir = if base_path.is_dataset_root {
+                    path.join(crate::dataset::INDICES_DIR)
+                } else {
+                    path
+                };
+                // Foreign bases are opened with default store params:
+                // per-base source credentials are not plumbed through the
+                // clone commit path. Documented limitation shared with deep
+                // clone's base reads (see
+                // <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/6093>).
+                let (store, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+                    registry,
+                    &base_path.path,
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+                (Some(store), dir)
+            }
+        };
+        let path = indices_dir
+            .join(entry.uuid.to_string())
+            .join(file.path.as_str());
+        let store = store.as_deref().unwrap_or(source_store);
+        store
+            .open(&path)
+            .await?
+            .get_range(file.offset as usize..end)
+            .await
+            .map_err(Error::from)
+    })
+    .await?;
+
+    // Full ledger validation before interpreting anything; reader semantics
+    // skip unknown mappings, and a writer must not relocate a history it
+    // cannot fully interpret.
+    let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(entry.index_version, &content).await?;
+    if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "the fragment reuse history contains mappings this writer cannot relocate; \
+             upgrade to a newer version of Lance before cloning this table",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let relocated =
+        relocate_stable_partition_bases(&content, |base_id| match (&base_remap, base_id) {
+            // Deep clone materializes every referenced map into the clone's
+            // own `_fri/`, so every stamp clears to unset.
+            (CloneBaseRemap::Deep, _) => Ok(None),
+            // The source's own base gets the id the clone assigned to it.
+            (CloneBaseRemap::Shallow { new_base_id }, None) => Ok(Some(*new_base_id)),
+            // The clone carries the source's `base_paths` entries over under
+            // the same ids, so a foreign-base reference keeps its id; it
+            // must exist.
+            (CloneBaseRemap::Shallow { .. }, Some(id)) => {
+                if source_manifest.base_paths.contains_key(&id) {
+                    Ok(Some(id))
+                } else {
+                    Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                        "FRI details",
+                        format!("stable partition mapping references missing base {id}"),
+                    ))
+                }
+            }
+        })?;
+    // The relocated history must still decode as a well-formed ledger.
+    decode_frag_reuse_ledger_from_content(entry.index_version, &relocated).await?;
+
+    let index_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let target_indices_dir = target_base.clone().join(crate::dataset::INDICES_DIR);
+    let spilled = (relocated.len() > FRAG_REUSE_INLINE_DETAILS_LIMIT).then(|| {
+        target_indices_dir
+            .clone()
+            .join(index_id.to_string())
+            .join(FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME)
+    });
+    let details_value =
+        encode_tagged_frag_reuse_details(target_store, target_indices_dir, index_id, relocated)
+            .await?;
+    Ok((
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: index_id,
+            name: entry.name.clone(),
+            fields: entry.fields.clone(),
+            covering_fields: entry.covering_fields.clone(),
+            dataset_version: entry.dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap: entry.fragment_bitmap.clone(),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                value: details_value,
+            })),
+            index_version: entry.index_version,
+            created_at: entry.created_at,
+            // The relocated entry lives in the clone.
+            base_id: None,
+            files: entry.files.clone(),
+        },
+        spilled,
+    ))
+}
+
+/// The copy work a deep clone owes a tagged FRI entry: every file of every
+/// `_fri/<map_id>/` row map the history references, resolved through the
+/// manifest's `base_paths` (a chained shallow-then-deep clone finds maps
+/// living in ancestor bases), as `(relative_path, base_root)` pairs for
+/// `deep_clone`'s copy loop. Map ids are UUIDs minted at rewrite time, so
+/// the copies land in the target's fresh `_fri/` namespace collision-free.
+///
+/// A history this writer cannot fully interpret (an unknown mapping kind or
+/// an unknown envelope record) is refused with `NotSupported` before
+/// anything is copied: an unknown record may reference row maps this writer
+/// cannot enumerate, and copying an incomplete set would fabricate a
+/// silently broken "independent" table. This is the same obligation the
+/// shallow-clone relocation honors, with the same error.
+pub(crate) async fn collect_tagged_row_map_paths(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    entry: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> lance_core::Result<Vec<(String, Path)>> {
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::stable_partition::MAPPING_FILE;
+    use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::Mapping;
+
+    let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(dataset, entry).await?;
+    if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "the fragment reuse history contains mappings this writer cannot relocate; \
+             upgrade to a newer version of Lance before cloning this table",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let mut seen: HashSet<(Option<u32>, &str)> = HashSet::new();
+    let mut paths = Vec::new();
+    for transition in ledger.transitions() {
+        let Mapping::StablePartition(reference) = transition.mapping() else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        if !seen.insert((reference.base_id, reference.map_id.as_str())) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        // The same base-aware resolution the reader opens the map with.
+        let base_root = match reference.base_id {
+            None => dataset.base.clone(),
+            Some(id) => dataset
+                .manifest
+                .base_paths
+                .get(&id)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "mapping {} references missing base {id}",
+                        reference.map_id
+                    ))
+                })?
+                .extract_path(dataset.session.store_registry())?,
+        };
+        let map_dir = base_root
+            .clone()
+            .join("_fri")
+            .join(reference.map_id.as_str());
+        let mut mapping_size = None;
+        let mut stream = dataset.object_store.read_dir_all(&map_dir, None);
+        loop {
+            match stream.try_next().await {
+                Ok(Some(meta)) => {
+                    let relative = meta
+                        .location
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .strip_prefix(map_dir.as_ref())
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal(format!(
+                                "listing {} returned {} outside it",
+                                map_dir, meta.location
+                            ))
+                        })?
+                        .trim_start_matches('/');
+                    if relative == MAPPING_FILE {
+                        mapping_size = Some(meta.size);
+                    }
+                    paths.push((
+                        format!("_fri/{}/{relative}", reference.map_id),
+                        base_root.clone(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Ok(None) => break,
+                Err(Error::NotFound { .. }) => break,
+                Err(error) => return Err(error),
+            }
+        }
+        // The copy must produce a working clone: the map's mapping file has
+        // to be there with the size the history records for it (the reader
+        // opens the file by that size). Refuse the clone now rather than
+        // hand the target a history whose first translating query fails.
+        match mapping_size {
+            Some(size) if size == reference.map_size_bytes => {}
+            Some(size) => {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "FRI details",
+                    format!(
+                        "row map {} has a {MAPPING_FILE} of {size} bytes under its base, \
+                         the history records {} bytes",
+                        reference.map_id, reference.map_size_bytes
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+            None => {
+                return Err(Error::corrupt_file_named(
+                    "FRI details",
+                    format!(
+                        "row map {} has no {MAPPING_FILE} under its base",
+                        reference.map_id
+                    ),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(paths)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests as reader_tests;
+    use crate::utils::test::DatagenExt;
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch};
+    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+    use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+    use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::{
+        FragmentDigest, StablePartition, Transition, transition,
+    };
+    use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::FragDigest;
+    use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::{FragReuseLedger, Mapping};
+    use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged;
+    use lance_table::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+    use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
+
+    /// The complete entry a rewrite appending `transitions` carries, built
+    /// against `dataset` (the version the rewrite reads).
+    async fn entry_appending(dataset: &Dataset, transitions: Vec<Transition>) -> IndexMetadata {
+        frag_reuse_entry_appending(dataset, transitions)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// [`entry_appending`] without the builder's validation: the current
+    /// content plus `transitions`, as a caller assembling the entry by hand
+    /// would produce it, so the commit path's own checks are what refuse it.
+    async fn hand_built_entry(dataset: &Dataset, transitions: Vec<Transition>) -> IndexMetadata {
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let existing = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+        let (mut content, mut bitmap) = match existing {
+            None => (Vec::new(), RoaringBitmap::new()),
+            Some(entry) => (
+                load_raw_frag_reuse_content(dataset, entry).await.unwrap(),
+                entry.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+            ),
+        };
+        for transition in &transitions {
+            content.extend_from_slice(&encode_length_delimited_field(
+                2,
+                &transition.encode_to_vec(),
+            ));
+            for digest in transition
+                .sources
+                .iter()
+                .chain(transition.destinations.iter())
+            {
+                bitmap.insert(digest.id as u32);
+            }
+        }
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(bitmap),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                value: encode_length_delimited_field(1, &content),
+            })),
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn sorted_values(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|value| value.unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        values.sort_unstable();
+        values
+    }
+
+    async fn reserve_fragments(dataset: &mut Dataset, num_fragments: u32) {
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    fn stored_fri(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> IndexMetadata {
+        indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .cloned()
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn decode_entry(dataset: &Dataset, entry: &IndexMetadata) -> FragReuseLedger {
+        decode_frag_reuse_ledger(dataset, entry).await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// The commit path reads a rewrite's entry as what it adds relative to
+    /// the entry at the read version. Records the base holds must all be
+    /// there unchanged: a rewrite appends history, it never retires or
+    /// rewrites a recorded transition or compaction version.
+    #[test]
+    fn records_added_since_is_add_only() {
+        let digest = |id: u64| FragmentDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: 4,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let transition = |sources: &[u64], destinations: &[u64], map_id: &str| Transition {
+            sources: sources.iter().copied().map(digest).collect(),
+            destinations: destinations.iter().copied().map(digest).collect(),
+            mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(StablePartition {
+                map_id: map_id.to_string(),
+                map_size_bytes: 1,
+                base_id: None,
+            })),
+        };
+        let version = |dataset_version: u64| pb_fri::Version {
+            dataset_version,
+            groups: vec![pb_fri::Group {
+                changed_row_addrs: vec![],
+                old_fragments: vec![digest(100)],
+                new_fragments: vec![digest(110)],
+            }],
+        };
+        let t1 = transition(&[0, 1], &[10, 11], "a");
+        let t2 = transition(&[2, 3], &[12, 13], "b");
+        let base = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![version(3)],
+            transitions: vec![t1.clone()],
+        };
+
+        // Appending: only the new records come back.
+        let added = records_added_since(
+            &base,
+            &InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions: vec![version(3), version(5)],
+                transitions: vec![t1.clone(), t2.clone()],
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(added.transitions, vec![t2.clone()]);
+        assert_eq!(added.legacy_versions, vec![version(5)]);
+
+        // Nothing added is fine here (the assembly refuses it later).
+        assert_eq!(
+            records_added_since(&base, &base).unwrap(),
+            AddedRecords::default()
+        );
+
+        // Dropping a recorded transition or version is refused.
+        let error = records_added_since(
+            &base,
+            &InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions: vec![version(3)],
+                transitions: vec![t2],
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("drops the recorded transition"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        let error = records_added_since(
+            &base,
+            &InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions: vec![],
+                transitions: vec![t1.clone()],
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("drops the recorded compaction version"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+
+        // Same identity, different content is refused.
+        let mut t1_changed = t1.clone();
+        t1_changed.mapping = Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(StablePartition {
+            map_id: "a".to_string(),
+            map_size_bytes: 2,
+            base_id: None,
+        }));
+        let error = records_added_since(
+            &base,
+            &InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions: vec![version(3)],
+                transitions: vec![t1_changed],
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("changes the recorded transition"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        let mut version_changed = version(3);
+        version_changed.groups.clear();
+        let error = records_added_since(
+            &base,
+            &InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions: vec![version_changed],
+                transitions: vec![t1.clone()],
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("changes the recorded compaction version"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+
+        // A record listed twice cannot be diffed.
+        let error = records_added_since(
+            &base,
+            &InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions: vec![version(3)],
+                transitions: vec![t1.clone(), t1],
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("more than once"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// A rewrite whose entry was built against an older snapshot than its
+    /// read version drops the transition recorded in between. The commit
+    /// refuses it instead of splicing the recorded history away: retiring
+    /// history is the reuse index cleanup's job.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rewrite_entry_dropping_a_recorded_transition_is_refused() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+        let untagged = dataset.clone();
+        let dataset = tag_fragment_zero(dataset).await;
+        let entry = stored_fri(&crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap());
+        assert_eq!(decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await.transitions().len(), 1);
+
+        // A second partition of F1, whose entry is built against the
+        // untagged snapshot: it holds the new transition only.
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| f.id == 1)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, &[1], 20).await;
+        let stale_entry = entry_appending(&untagged, vec![transition]).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            load_frag_reuse_records(&dataset, &stale_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .transitions
+                .len(),
+            1
+        );
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        // Presented as the complete entry at the read version (a caller
+        // that built it there but left a recorded transition out).
+        let stale_entry = IndexMetadata {
+            dataset_version: read_version,
+            ..stale_entry
+        };
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(stale_entry),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("drops the recorded transition"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        // Nothing landed: the history and the fragments are as they were.
+        let after = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stored_fri(&after).uuid, entry.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, read_version);
+    }
+
+    /// The same transition identity with different content (here a
+    /// different row-map size) is not "the same record": the commit refuses
+    /// to splice a modified transition other indices translate through.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rewrite_entry_changing_a_recorded_transition_is_refused() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+        let dataset = tag_fragment_zero(dataset).await;
+        let entry = stored_fri(&crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap());
+        let mut records = load_frag_reuse_records(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+        let Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(mapping)) =
+            records.transitions[0].mapping.as_mut()
+        else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        mapping.map_size_bytes += 1;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let modified = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            dataset_version: read_version,
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                value: encode_length_delimited_field(1, &records.encode_to_vec()),
+            })),
+            ..entry.clone()
+        };
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(modified),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("changes the recorded transition"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        let after = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stored_fri(&after).uuid, entry.uuid);
+    }
+
+    /// One atomic Rewrite carries the whole recluster: fragments swapped, the
+    /// tagged entry installed, provenance bitmaps untouched, reads identical.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn stable_partition_rewrite_commits_atomically() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+        let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(before, (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let intent = entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition.clone()]).await;
+        let intent_uuid = intent.uuid;
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(intent);
+        let committed = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: old_fragments.clone(),
+                        new_fragments: destinations.clone(),
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = committed;
+
+        // The table became tagged in the same commit.
+        let flag = FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        let live_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|frag| frag.id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(live_ids, vec![10, 11]);
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert!(is_tagged(&entry));
+        assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+        assert_ne!(
+            entry.uuid, intent_uuid,
+            "the caller's entry is intent; the commit installs what it assembled"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            entry.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 10, 11])
+        );
+        // The scalar index keeps its retired source ids as provenance; the
+        // tagged reader depends on the stored bitmaps staying untouched.
+        let scalar = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scalar.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+        );
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+
+        // Reads are row-identical, unfiltered and through the translated
+        // index -- asserted on the returned VALUES, not just counts, so a
+        // wrong-but-live translation cannot pass.
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i >= 4").await, vec![4, 5, 6, 7]);
+
+        // A second stable-partition rewrite passes the tagged gate and
+        // appends onto the v1 entry, preserving its bytes verbatim.
+        let first_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (mut transition, mut destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        for (i, fragment) in destinations.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            fragment.id = 20 + i as u64;
+            transition.destinations[i].id = 20 + i as u64;
+        }
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let dataset = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let live_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|frag| frag.id).collect();
+        assert_eq!(live_ids, vec![20, 21]);
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+        let second_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(second_content.starts_with(&first_content));
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 2);
+        let scalar = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scalar.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 3".to_string())).await.unwrap(),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A frag-reuse-bearing rewrite whose commit lands but reports a conflict
+    /// must be recognized as our own commit. The frag reuse payload is
+    /// intentionally not serialized, so commit-outcome verification has to
+    /// compare durable forms; comparing the in-memory transaction would
+    /// misclassify the landed commit as foreign, retry against ourselves, and
+    /// delete the landed commit's transaction file as "stale".
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn tagged_rewrite_recognizes_ambiguous_commit_as_own() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount};
+
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+        let data = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(8), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            data,
+            "memory://frag-reuse-ambiguous-own-commit",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                lance_index::IndexType::BTree,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(before, (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        // The commit lands, but the store reports a conflict.
+        handler.fail_next_rewrite(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndConflict);
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let dataset = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .expect("verification must recognize the landed rewrite as our own commit");
+
+        // Exactly the landed version: no spurious retry commit.
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, read_version + 1);
+        let flag = FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert!(is_tagged(&entry));
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+
+        // The landed manifest references its transaction file; it must not
+        // have been deleted by the (spurious) conflict cleanup.
+        let transaction_file = dataset
+            .manifest
+            .transaction_file
+            .as_deref()
+            .expect("the landed manifest records its transaction file");
+        let path = dataset
+            .base
+            .clone()
+            .join(crate::dataset::TRANSACTIONS_DIR)
+            .join(transaction_file);
+        assert!(dataset.object_store.exists(&path).await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    /// A 0 -> 1 lift reinterprets the committed v0 bytes without re-encoding
+    /// them: the assembled content starts with the exact previous wire form.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn lift_preserves_v0_content_bytes() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+
+        // A committed v0 entry with one legacy compaction (100 -> 110).
+        let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        for offset in 0..4u64 {
+            addrs.insert((100 << 32) + offset);
+        }
+        let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+        addrs.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+        let digest = |id: u64| FragDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: 4,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: 1,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs,
+                    old_frags: vec![digest(100)],
+                    new_frags: vec![digest(110)],
+                }],
+            }],
+        };
+        let v0_entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            None,
+            details.clone(),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([110u32]),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(v0_entry.index_version, 0);
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![v0_entry],
+                        removed_indices: vec![],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let v0_entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        let v0_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &v0_entry)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(v0_content, InlineContent::from(&details).encode_to_vec());
+
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let rewrite_intent = vec![transition.clone()];
+        let groups = vec![RewriteGroup {
+            old_fragments,
+            new_fragments: destinations,
+        }];
+        let (entry, base_entry_version) =
+            build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(&dataset, &rewrite_intent, &groups)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(base_entry_version, Some(v0_entry.dataset_version));
+        assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+        let lifted = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(lifted.starts_with(&v0_content));
+        assert_eq!(
+            &lifted[v0_content.len()..],
+            encode_length_delimited_field(2, &transition.encode_to_vec()).as_slice()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            entry.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 10, 11, 110])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn binding_mismatch_rejected() {
+        let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let groups = |old: Vec<Fragment>, new: Vec<Fragment>| {
+            vec![RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments: old,
+                new_fragments: new,
+            }]
+        };
+        let sp = |transitions: Vec<Transition>| transitions;
+
+        // A group straddling covered and uncovered sources.
+        let mut with_extra = old_fragments.clone();
+        let mut foreign = Fragment::new(99);
+        foreign.physical_rows = Some(4);
+        with_extra.push(foreign);
+        let error = build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(
+            &dataset,
+            &sp(vec![transition.clone()]),
+            &groups(with_extra, destinations.clone()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("mixes"), "{error}");
+
+        // No group covered by the transition's sources.
+        let error = build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(&dataset, &sp(vec![transition.clone()]), &[])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("covered by their sources"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+
+        // A source digest that disagrees with its fragment.
+        let mut tampered = transition.clone();
+        tampered.sources[0].physical_rows += 1;
+        let error = build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(
+            &dataset,
+            &sp(vec![tampered]),
+            &groups(old_fragments.clone(), destinations.clone()),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("source digest"), "{error}");
+
+        // Destinations out of order relative to the row map's label space.
+        let mut reversed = destinations.clone();
+        reversed.reverse();
+        let error = build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(
+            &dataset,
+            &sp(vec![transition.clone()]),
+            &groups(old_fragments, reversed),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("destination digest"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn conservation_violation_rejected() {
+        let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (mut transition, mut destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        // Drop the second destination consistently from the digests and the
+        // group: the binding holds, but half the live rows have no home.
+        transition.destinations.truncate(1);
+        destinations.truncate(1);
+        let error = build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(
+            &dataset,
+            &[transition],
+            &[RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments,
+                new_fragments: destinations,
+            }],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("does not conserve rows"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn ledger_invalid_assembly_rejected() {
+        let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (mut transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        // The binding never opens the mapping; the ledger validation does.
+        let Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(mapping)) = &mut transition.mapping else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        mapping.map_id = "not-a-uuid".to_string();
+        let error = build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(
+            &dataset,
+            &[transition],
+            &[RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments,
+                new_fragments: destinations,
+            }],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("map_id"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn oversized_assembly_spills_to_external_file() {
+        let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        // Enough synthetic transitions to exceed the 200KB inline threshold.
+        // The binding only checks transitions against their groups, so the
+        // fragments need not exist in the dataset.
+        let mut transitions = Vec::new();
+        let mut groups = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..4000u64 {
+            let fragment = |id: u64| {
+                let mut fragment = Fragment::new(id);
+                fragment.physical_rows = Some(4);
+                fragment
+            };
+            let digest = |id: u64| FragmentDigest {
+                id,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            };
+            transitions.push(Transition {
+                sources: vec![digest(1_000 + i)],
+                destinations: vec![digest(100_000 + i)],
+                mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(StablePartition {
+                    map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                    map_size_bytes: 1,
+                    base_id: None,
+                })),
+            });
+            groups.push(RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments: vec![fragment(1_000 + i)],
+                new_fragments: vec![fragment(100_000 + i)],
+            });
+        }
+        let expected: Vec<u8> = transitions
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|transition| encode_length_delimited_field(2, &transition.encode_to_vec()))
+            .collect();
+        assert!(expected.len() > 204800);
+
+        let (entry, base_entry_version) =
+            build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(&dataset, &transitions, &groups)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(base_entry_version, None);
+        // The details reference an external file whose bytes are the content.
+        let details = entry.index_details.as_ref().unwrap();
+        let proto = FragmentReuseIndexDetails::decode(details.value.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        let Some(Content::External(external)) = proto.content else {
+            panic!("expected external content, got {proto:?}");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(external.path, FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME);
+        assert_eq!(external.size, expected.len() as u64);
+        assert_eq!(
+            load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap(),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Task-chain end to end: a deferred compaction after the atomic
+    /// stable-partition commit appends an ordered-compaction transition to
+    /// the tagged entry (not a legacy version), and index queries translate
+    /// through the two-hop chain (stable partition, then compaction).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn deferred_compaction_chains_onto_stable_partition() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+        let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let mut dataset = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let sp_entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        let sp_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &sp_entry)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+        assert!(is_tagged(&entry));
+        // Appended, not re-encoded: the stable-partition record is intact
+        // byte for byte and the compaction rides a transition, not a legacy
+        // version.
+        let content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(content.starts_with(&sp_content));
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 2);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            ledger.transitions()[0].mapping(),
+            Mapping::StablePartition(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            ledger.transitions()[1].mapping(),
+            Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_)
+        ));
+        // Lineage: the compaction consumed the stable partition's
+        // destinations.
+        assert!(ledger.consumer(10).is_some());
+        assert!(ledger.consumer(11).is_some());
+        assert!(ledger.consumer(0).is_some());
+        // Index provenance is still the original coverage.
+        let scalar = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            scalar.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+        );
+
+        // Reads translate through both hops -- asserted on the returned
+        // VALUES, not just counts, so a wrong-but-live translation cannot
+        // pass.
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i >= 4").await, vec![4, 5, 6, 7]);
+    }
+
+    async fn filtered_values(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|value| value.unwrap())
+            .collect();
+        values.sort_unstable();
+        values
+    }
+
+    /// A tagged `frag_reuse_index` is intent, never spliced as it is: the
+    /// commit path works out what it adds relative to the read version's
+    /// entry and assembles from that. An entry that adds nothing (here an
+    /// empty tagged entry on an untagged table) is refused rather than
+    /// installed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn tagged_entry_adding_nothing_is_refused() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        let entry = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                value: encode_length_delimited_field(1, &[]),
+            })),
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let error = dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("carries no transitions"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The spec excludes tagged histories on stable-row-id tables; a
+    /// hand-built rewrite carrying transition intent is refused at assembly,
+    /// before anything is written or committed.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn frag_reuse_rewrite_rejected_on_stable_row_id_dataset() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                crate::utils::test::FragmentCount::from(2),
+                crate::utils::test::FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+                Some(crate::dataset::WriteParams {
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+        // The builder refuses up front.
+        let error = frag_reuse_entry_appending(&dataset, vec![])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("stable-row-id"), "{error}");
+        // And so does the commit path for an entry built around it.
+        let entry = hand_built_entry(&dataset, vec![]).await;
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("stable-row-id"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// FIX 1: the assembly's ledger decode uses reader semantics, which skip
+    /// transitions with unknown mappings; the writer must refuse to maintain
+    /// such a history instead of silently carrying it forward.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unknown_mapping_in_history_rejects_rewrite() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        // A transition carrying a field this writer does not know: the
+        // reader-side decode skips it and flags the history unsupported.
+        let mut unknown_raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+        unknown_raw.extend_from_slice(&reader_tests::field(9, b"future-mapping-payload"));
+        let content = reader_tests::field(2, &unknown_raw);
+        reader_tests::install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let version = dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap();
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let source_ids: Vec<u64> = old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        let (new_transition, new_destinations) =
+            reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, &source_ids, 20).await;
+        // The builder refuses to extend such a history.
+        let error = frag_reuse_entry_appending(&dataset, vec![new_transition.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("cannot maintain"), "{error}");
+        // And the commit path refuses an entry assembled around it.
+        let entry = hand_built_entry(&dataset, vec![new_transition]).await;
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: new_destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("cannot maintain"), "{error}");
+        // Nothing was committed.
+        assert_eq!(dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(), version);
+    }
+
+    /// FIX 2: a shallow clone's index metadata is base-stamped and its
+    /// external `details.binpb` lives in the SOURCE dataset; the first
+    /// rewrite on the clone must resolve it through the entry's base and
+    /// carry the lifted legacy content verbatim.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn shallow_clone_resolves_external_details_from_source_base() {
+        // On disk: base-path resolution must reach the SOURCE dataset's
+        // store, which in-memory fixtures cannot demonstrate.
+        let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let target_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let target_uri = format!("{}/clone", target_dir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                source_dir.as_str(),
+                crate::utils::test::FragmentCount::from(2),
+                crate::utils::test::FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // A v0 entry whose details spill to an external file (>200KB).
+        let digest = |id: u64| FragDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: 4,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let mut versions = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..3500u64 {
+            let old_id = 1_000 + i;
+            let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            for offset in 0..4u64 {
+                addrs.insert((old_id << 32) + offset);
+            }
+            let mut serialized = Vec::new();
+            addrs.serialize_into(&mut serialized).unwrap();
+            versions.push(FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: i + 1,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs: serialized,
+                    old_frags: vec![digest(old_id)],
+                    new_frags: vec![digest(100_000 + i)],
+                }],
+            });
+        }
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails { versions };
+        let bitmap: RoaringBitmap = (0..3500u32).map(|i| 100_000 + i).collect();
+        let entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(&dataset, None, details, bitmap)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![entry],
+                        removed_indices: vec![],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let source_entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        let source_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &source_entry)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(source_content.len() > 204800);
+
+        let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let mut clone = dataset
+            .shallow_clone(target_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+        let cloned_entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert!(cloned_entry.base_id.is_some());
+        // A v0 entry is carried exactly as before relocation existed: same
+        // uuid and details bytes, base-stamped to the source, never lifted.
+        assert_eq!(cloned_entry.index_version, 0);
+        assert_eq!(cloned_entry.uuid, source_entry.uuid);
+        assert_eq!(cloned_entry.index_details, source_entry.index_details);
+        assert_eq!(cloned_entry.base_id, Some(0));
+
+        // First rewrite on the clone: assembly must read the source's
+        // external details through the entry's base.
+        reserve_fragments(&mut clone, 30).await;
+        let read_version = clone.manifest.version;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = clone.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&clone).await;
+        // The complete entry is built from the clone at its read version:
+        // the lift reads the source's external details through the entry's
+        // base.
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&clone, vec![transition]).await);
+        let clone = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(clone))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+        // The assembled entry carries the source's legacy content verbatim.
+        let content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&clone, &entry).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(content.starts_with(&source_content));
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&clone, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 3501);
+    }
+
+    /// Round-4 addendum: every stable-partition transition must own its row
+    /// map. A caller bug reusing an existing map_id would let maintenance of
+    /// one transition destroy the map another live transition references, so
+    /// the assembly rejects the duplicate by name and nothing commits.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn duplicate_row_map_id_rejected() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(first_mapping)) = &transition.mapping else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        let first_map_id = first_mapping.map_id.clone();
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let mut dataset = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let version = dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap();
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (mut reused, new_destinations) =
+            reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, &[10, 11], 40).await;
+        let Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(mapping)) = &mut reused.mapping else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        mapping.map_id = first_map_id.clone();
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: new_destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![reused]).await),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(&first_map_id), "{error}");
+        assert_eq!(dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(), version);
+    }
+
+    /// Round 5 item 4: deferred compaction of fragments no index covers and
+    /// no lineage reaches commits a plain rewrite on a tagged table -- no
+    /// new transition, the entry untouched -- instead of growing the history
+    /// with records no reader ever has to translate.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn uncovered_deferred_compaction_commits_plain_rewrite() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let dataset = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Two two-row fragments outside every bitmap: with a target of four
+        // rows they are the only compaction candidates.
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::from(dataset.schema()));
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(100..102))],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema,
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(102..104))],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry_before = stored_fri(&stored);
+        let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+
+        let metrics = crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+
+        // The entry is byte-for-byte the one from before the compaction.
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(entry.uuid, entry_before.uuid);
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            filtered_values(&dataset, "i >= 100").await,
+            (100..104).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Round 5 item 7: detached commits skip the rebase pipeline, so nothing
+    /// would assemble or validate transition intent, and a detached manifest
+    /// is outside the version chain where an appended history has meaning.
+    /// Both intent-carrying and tagged-entry-carrying rewrites are refused.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn detached_commit_rejects_transition_intent_and_tagged_entries() {
+        let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .with_detached(true)
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![]).await),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Detached commits"), "{error}");
+
+        let entry = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                value: encode_length_delimited_field(1, &[]),
+            })),
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_detached(true)
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Detached commits"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// Round 5 item 9: a destination fragment carrying a deletion file is
+    /// rejected by the binding even when its digest claims zero deletions.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn destination_with_deletion_file_rejected() {
+        let dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, mut destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        destinations[0].deletion_file = Some(lance_table::format::DeletionFile {
+            read_version: 1,
+            id: 1,
+            file_type: lance_table::format::DeletionFileType::Array,
+            num_deleted_rows: Some(1),
+            base_id: None,
+        });
+        let error = build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(
+            &dataset,
+            &[transition],
+            &[RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments,
+                new_fragments: destinations,
+            }],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("carries a deletion file"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Round 6 item 1: the commit path renumbers destination id 0
+    /// (`fragments_with_ids` treats it as unassigned), which would strand
+    /// the recorded destination id; assembly must reject it up front.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unassigned_destination_id_rejected_at_commit() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (mut transition, mut destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        destinations[0].id = 0;
+        transition.destinations[0].id = 0;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let entry = hand_built_entry(&dataset, vec![transition]).await;
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("unassigned"), "{error}");
+        assert_eq!(dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(), read_version);
+    }
+
+    /// Round 6 item 1: a destination id colliding with a fragment that is
+    /// live in the manifest (here one of the rewrite's own sources) is
+    /// rejected; destinations must use freshly reserved ids.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn live_destination_id_rejected_at_commit() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (mut transition, mut destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        destinations[0].id = 1;
+        transition.destinations[0].id = 1;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(hand_built_entry(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("already live"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    async fn indexed_three_fragment_dataset() -> Dataset {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(
+                crate::utils::test::FragmentCount::from(3),
+                crate::utils::test::FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                lance_index::IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    /// Tag the table by rewriting fragment 0 only, leaving 1 and 2 as
+    /// indexed compaction candidates.
+    async fn tag_fragment_zero(mut dataset: Dataset) -> Dataset {
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| f.id == 0)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, &[0], 10).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Round 6 item 2: a source fragment with a deletion file whose count
+    /// was never materialized in the manifest. The digests and the rewrite
+    /// group must be built from the same normalized metadata, so the commit
+    /// succeeds and conservation uses the real deleted count.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn deferred_compaction_materializes_missing_deletion_counts() {
+        let mut dataset = indexed_three_fragment_dataset().await;
+        dataset.delete("i = 5").await.unwrap();
+        // Strip the materialized count, as a legacy writer may leave it.
+        let mut fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        let deletion = fragments
+            .iter_mut()
+            .find(|f| f.id == 1)
+            .unwrap()
+            .deletion_file
+            .as_mut()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(deletion.num_deleted_rows.is_some());
+        deletion.num_deleted_rows = None;
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .find(|f| f.id == 1)
+                .unwrap()
+                .deletion_file
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .num_deleted_rows
+                .is_none()
+        );
+
+        let mut dataset = tag_fragment_zero(dataset).await;
+
+        // Deferred compaction over everything, including the fragment with
+        // the unmaterialized deletion count.
+        let metrics = crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 4);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 2);
+
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 3);
+        assert!(ledger.consumer(1).is_some());
+        // Conservation held with the real deleted count: 12 rows minus one.
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 11);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 5").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 4").await, vec![4]);
+    }
+
+    /// Round 6 item 2: heavy deletions (three of four rows) flow through
+    /// the same normalized digests; conservation and translation stay
+    /// correct. A source with EVERY row deleted cannot be produced through
+    /// the public API (the delete path drops fully-deleted fragments from
+    /// the manifest); `normalize_source_fragments` keeping such a fragment
+    /// is covered by a unit test next to it in `optimize`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn deferred_compaction_consumes_heavily_deleted_source() {
+        let mut dataset = indexed_three_fragment_dataset().await;
+        dataset.delete("i >= 9").await.unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = tag_fragment_zero(dataset).await;
+
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert!(ledger.consumer(2).is_some());
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 9);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 8").await, vec![8]);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i >= 9").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    }
+
+    /// Shallow-cloning tagged histories. All fixtures are on-disk: base-path
+    /// resolution must reach the SOURCE dataset's store, which `memory://`
+    /// fixtures cannot demonstrate (each URI is its own store).
+    mod shallow_clone {
+        use super::*;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt;
+        use lance_table::io::commit::{
+            CommitError, CommitHandler, ManifestLocation, ManifestNamingScheme, ManifestWriter,
+            RenameCommitHandler,
+        };
+
+        /// An on-disk two-fragment dataset with a committed scalar index.
+        pub(super) async fn disk_fixture(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+            let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_dataset(
+                    uri,
+                    crate::utils::test::FragmentCount::from(2),
+                    crate::utils::test::FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    lance_index::IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+        }
+
+        /// Commit one stable-partition rewrite over `source_ids`, writing its
+        /// row map into the dataset's own `_fri/`.
+        pub(super) async fn commit_stable_partition(
+            dataset: Dataset,
+            source_ids: &[u64],
+            dest_base_id: u64,
+        ) -> Dataset {
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = source_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| {
+                    dataset
+                        .fragments()
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .clone()
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) =
+                reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, source_ids, dest_base_id).await;
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+            crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+                .execute(Transaction::new(
+                    read_version,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                            old_fragments,
+                            new_fragments: destinations,
+                        }],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// The `_fri/<map_id>/` directories under the dataset's own base.
+        pub(super) async fn list_fri_map_dirs(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<String> {
+            let prefix = dataset.base.clone().join("_fri");
+            let mut ids = HashSet::new();
+            let mut stream = dataset.object_store.read_dir_all(&prefix, None);
+            loop {
+                match stream.try_next().await {
+                    Ok(Some(meta)) => {
+                        let relative = meta
+                            .location
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .strip_prefix(prefix.as_ref())
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .trim_start_matches('/');
+                        ids.insert(relative.split('/').next().unwrap().to_string());
+                    }
+                    Ok(None) => break,
+                    Err(Error::NotFound { .. }) => break,
+                    Err(e) => panic!("{e}"),
+                }
+            }
+            let mut ids: Vec<String> = ids.into_iter().collect();
+            ids.sort();
+            ids
+        }
+
+        /// The stable-partition `base_id`s of the entry's transitions, in
+        /// lineage order.
+        pub(super) fn stable_partition_bases(ledger: &FragReuseLedger) -> Vec<Option<u32>> {
+            ledger
+                .transitions()
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|transition| match transition.mapping() {
+                    Mapping::StablePartition(partition) => Some(partition.base_id),
+                    _ => None,
+                })
+                .collect()
+        }
+
+        /// Commit a v0 entry big enough (>200KB) that its lifted tagged form
+        /// spills details to an external file. Returns the v0 content bytes.
+        pub(super) async fn commit_big_v0_entry(dataset: &mut Dataset) -> Vec<u8> {
+            let digest = |id: u64| FragDigest {
+                id,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            };
+            let mut versions = Vec::new();
+            for i in 0..3500u64 {
+                let old_id = 1_000 + i;
+                let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+                for offset in 0..4u64 {
+                    addrs.insert((old_id << 32) + offset);
+                }
+                let mut serialized = Vec::new();
+                addrs.serialize_into(&mut serialized).unwrap();
+                versions.push(FragReuseVersion {
+                    dataset_version: i + 1,
+                    groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                        changed_row_addrs: serialized,
+                        old_frags: vec![digest(old_id)],
+                        new_frags: vec![digest(100_000 + i)],
+                    }],
+                });
+            }
+            let details = FragReuseIndexDetails { versions };
+            let bitmap: RoaringBitmap = (0..3500u32).map(|i| 100_000 + i).collect();
+            let entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(dataset, None, details, bitmap)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![entry],
+                            removed_indices: vec![],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await.unwrap();
+            load_raw_frag_reuse_content(dataset, &stored_fri(&stored))
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// Delegates everything except latest-location resolution, which
+        /// fails with a non-NotFound error for base paths ending in
+        /// `fail_suffix`. Shared by the shallow- and deep-clone preflight
+        /// tests.
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        pub(super) struct FailingResolver {
+            pub(super) inner: RenameCommitHandler,
+            pub(super) fail_suffix: &'static str,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait::async_trait]
+        impl CommitHandler for FailingResolver {
+            async fn resolve_latest_location(
+                &self,
+                base_path: &Path,
+                object_store: &ObjectStore,
+            ) -> lance_core::Result<ManifestLocation> {
+                if base_path.as_ref().ends_with(self.fail_suffix) {
+                    return Err(Error::io("injected resolver outage"));
+                }
+                self.inner
+                    .resolve_latest_location(base_path, object_store)
+                    .await
+            }
+
+            async fn commit(
+                &self,
+                manifest: &mut Manifest,
+                indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+                base_path: &Path,
+                object_store: &ObjectStore,
+                manifest_writer: ManifestWriter,
+                naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+                transaction: Option<lance_table::format::Transaction>,
+            ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+                self.inner
+                    .commit(
+                        manifest,
+                        indices,
+                        base_path,
+                        object_store,
+                        manifest_writer,
+                        naming_scheme,
+                        transaction,
+                    )
+                    .await
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Test 1: cloning a tagged table relocates the row-map references
+        /// into the clone's base mapping instead of rejecting. Queries on the
+        /// clone translate through row maps read from the SOURCE's `_fri/`.
+        #[rstest::rstest]
+        #[case::inline(false)]
+        #[case::external(true)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn clone_relocates_row_map_references(#[case] external: bool) {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            let v0_content = if external {
+                commit_big_v0_entry(&mut dataset).await
+            } else {
+                Vec::new()
+            };
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let source_entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert_eq!(source_entry.index_version, 1);
+            let source_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &source_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(source_content.len() > 204800, external);
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let clone = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // The relocated entry lives in the clone under a fresh uuid; the
+            // rest of its metadata is carried over.
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert!(is_tagged(&entry));
+            assert_ne!(entry.uuid, source_entry.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(entry.base_id, None);
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(entry.fragment_bitmap, source_entry.fragment_bitmap);
+            assert_eq!(entry.dataset_version, source_entry.dataset_version);
+            let proto = FragmentReuseIndexDetails::decode(
+                entry.index_details.as_ref().unwrap().value.as_slice(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            if external {
+                // Spilled to the CLONE's own `_indices/<new uuid>/`.
+                assert!(matches!(proto.content, Some(Content::External(_))));
+            } else {
+                assert!(matches!(proto.content, Some(Content::Inline(_))));
+            }
+
+            // The source's own base got the clone's freshly assigned id;
+            // records without base references are carried verbatim.
+            let clone_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&clone, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(clone_content.starts_with(&v0_content));
+            assert_ne!(clone_content, source_content);
+            let ledger = decode_entry(&clone, &entry).await;
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), if external { 3501 } else { 1 });
+            assert_eq!(stable_partition_bases(&ledger), vec![Some(0)]);
+            assert!(clone.manifest.base_paths[&0].is_dataset_root);
+
+            // The row-map files were NOT copied: the clone has no `_fri/` of
+            // its own and reads the source's.
+            assert!(list_fri_map_dirs(&clone).await.is_empty());
+            assert_eq!(list_fri_map_dirs(&dataset).await.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&clone).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone, "i >= 4").await, vec![4, 5, 6, 7]);
+            // The source is untouched and still answers identically.
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 2: a new stable-partition rewrite on the CLONE appends onto
+        /// the relocated entry, mixing a source-base mapping with a
+        /// clone-base one; both translation hops resolve correctly.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn stable_partition_on_clone_mixes_bases() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let source_map_dirs = list_fri_map_dirs(&dataset).await;
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let mut clone = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+            let relocated_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&clone, &stored_fri(&stored))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            reserve_fragments(&mut clone, 40).await;
+            let clone = commit_stable_partition(clone, &[10, 11], 20).await;
+
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert_eq!(entry.base_id, None);
+            // Appended onto the relocated entry, its bytes verbatim.
+            let content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&clone, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(content.starts_with(&relocated_content));
+            let ledger = decode_entry(&clone, &entry).await;
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(stable_partition_bases(&ledger), vec![Some(0), None]);
+
+            // The new row map lives in the clone's own `_fri/`; the first
+            // hop's map is still only in the source's.
+            let clone_map_dirs = list_fri_map_dirs(&clone).await;
+            assert_eq!(clone_map_dirs.len(), 1);
+            assert!(!source_map_dirs.contains(&clone_map_dirs[0]));
+            assert_eq!(list_fri_map_dirs(&dataset).await, source_map_dirs);
+
+            // Queries translate through both hops (source-base then
+            // clone-base row map).
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&clone).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone, "i >= 4").await, vec![4, 5, 6, 7]);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 3: clone of a clone. The first hop's mapping keeps its
+        /// carried-over base id, the second hop's own-base mapping gets the
+        /// freshly assigned one.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn chained_clone_remaps_both_hops() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone1_uri = format!("{}/clone1", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let clone2_uri = format!("{}/clone2", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let mut clone1 = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(clone1_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve_fragments(&mut clone1, 40).await;
+            let mut clone1 = commit_stable_partition(clone1, &[10, 11], 20).await;
+
+            let version = clone1.manifest.version;
+            let clone2 = clone1
+                .shallow_clone(clone2_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Both hops' bases are present under their expected ids.
+            assert_eq!(clone2.manifest.base_paths.len(), 2);
+            assert!(
+                clone2.manifest.base_paths[&0]
+                    .path
+                    .ends_with(source_dir.as_str())
+            );
+            assert!(clone2.manifest.base_paths[&1].path.ends_with("clone1"));
+
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone2).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert_eq!(entry.base_id, None);
+            let ledger = decode_entry(&clone2, &entry).await;
+            assert_eq!(stable_partition_bases(&ledger), vec![Some(0), Some(1)]);
+
+            // Nothing was copied; both row maps are read from their homes.
+            assert!(list_fri_map_dirs(&clone2).await.is_empty());
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&clone2).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone2, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone2, "i >= 4").await, vec![4, 5, 6, 7]);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 4a: trim on the clone splices retained records verbatim, so a
+        /// retained source-base mapping keeps its stamped base id while a
+        /// drained record is dropped.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn trim_on_clone_preserves_relocated_bases() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+
+            // A v0 legacy version over synthetic fragments: after the clone
+            // it is trimmable (disjoint from every index) while the
+            // stable-partition transition is still pinned by `i_idx`.
+            let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            for offset in 0..4u64 {
+                addrs.insert((100 << 32) + offset);
+            }
+            let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+            addrs.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+            let digest = |id: u64| FragDigest {
+                id,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            };
+            let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+                versions: vec![FragReuseVersion {
+                    dataset_version: 1,
+                    groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                        changed_row_addrs,
+                        old_frags: vec![digest(100)],
+                        new_frags: vec![digest(110)],
+                    }],
+                }],
+            };
+            let v0_entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+                &dataset,
+                None,
+                details,
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([110u32]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![v0_entry],
+                            removed_indices: vec![],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let mut clone = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+            let pre_trim_entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            let pre_trim_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&clone, &pre_trim_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut clone)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert_ne!(entry.uuid, pre_trim_entry.uuid);
+            let trimmed_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&clone, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            // The legacy version is gone; the retained transition is the
+            // exact byte suffix of the relocated entry, base stamp included.
+            assert!(pre_trim_content.ends_with(&trimmed_content));
+            assert!(trimmed_content.len() < pre_trim_content.len());
+            let ledger = decode_entry(&clone, &entry).await;
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(stable_partition_bases(&ledger), vec![Some(0)]);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&clone).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 4b: the clone's `_fri/` garbage collection enumerates only
+        /// its own directory, so draining and cleaning the clone never
+        /// deletes the source's row-map files.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn clone_fri_gc_spares_source_row_maps() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let source_map_dirs = list_fri_map_dirs(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(source_map_dirs.len(), 1);
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let mut clone = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve_fragments(&mut clone, 40).await;
+            let mut clone = commit_stable_partition(clone, &[10, 11], 20).await;
+            assert_eq!(list_fri_map_dirs(&clone).await.len(), 1);
+
+            // Drain: rebuild the index over the final destinations, trim the
+            // entry away entirely.
+            clone
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    lance_index::IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut clone)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(!stored.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME));
+
+            // Expire every old clone version and collect aggressively.
+            crate::dataset::cleanup::cleanup_old_versions(
+                &clone,
+                crate::dataset::cleanup::CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                    .before_timestamp(
+                        chrono::Utc::now() + chrono::TimeDelta::try_seconds(10).unwrap(),
+                    )
+                    .delete_unverified(true)
+                    .error_if_tagged_old_versions(false)
+                    .build(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            // The clone's own released map is collected; the source's map is
+            // outside the clone's `_fri/` and survives untouched.
+            assert!(list_fri_map_dirs(&clone).await.is_empty());
+            assert_eq!(list_fri_map_dirs(&dataset).await, source_map_dirs);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&clone).await, before);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 5: a history this writer cannot fully interpret is not
+        /// relocated: the clone is rejected whether the opacity sits inside a
+        /// transition (unknown mapping fields) or beside the known records
+        /// (unknown envelope field).
+        #[rstest::rstest]
+        #[case::unknown_transition_field(false)]
+        #[case::unknown_envelope_record(true)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn clone_rejects_uninterpretable_history(#[case] envelope: bool) {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let content = if envelope {
+                let mut content = reader_tests::field(2, &transition.encode_to_vec());
+                content.extend(reader_tests::field(3, b"future record"));
+                content
+            } else {
+                let mut raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+                raw.extend(reader_tests::field(9, b"future mapping payload"));
+                reader_tests::field(2, &raw)
+            };
+            reader_tests::install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+            let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_ref()
+                .clone();
+            reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let error = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            // Nothing was created at the target.
+            assert!(Dataset::open(clone_uri.as_str()).await.is_err());
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version);
+        }
+
+        /// The `_indices/<uuid>/` directories under the dataset's own base.
+        async fn list_index_dirs(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<String> {
+            let prefix = dataset.base.clone().join(crate::dataset::INDICES_DIR);
+            let mut ids = HashSet::new();
+            let mut stream = dataset.object_store.read_dir_all(&prefix, None);
+            loop {
+                match stream.try_next().await {
+                    Ok(Some(meta)) => {
+                        let relative = meta
+                            .location
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .strip_prefix(prefix.as_ref())
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .trim_start_matches('/');
+                        ids.insert(relative.split('/').next().unwrap().to_string());
+                    }
+                    Ok(None) => break,
+                    Err(Error::NotFound { .. }) => break,
+                    Err(e) => panic!("{e}"),
+                }
+            }
+            let mut ids: Vec<String> = ids.into_iter().collect();
+            ids.sort();
+            ids
+        }
+
+        /// Owner-required regression: the PARENT's cleanup must not delete
+        /// `_fri/` row maps a branch still translates through.
+        ///
+        /// 1. Tagged source (stable-partition mapping), `create_branch` a
+        ///    child (the branch carries a relocated entry stamped to the
+        ///    parent base).
+        /// 2. The source rebuilds its index and trims its FRI history away.
+        /// 3. The source's cleanup expires the older versions.
+        /// 4. The child's indexed queries still succeed, opening the
+        ///    source's row map. Retaining the branch-point manifest alone is
+        ///    not enough: the map ids must be collected into the referenced
+        ///    set explicitly.
+        ///
+        /// The control case runs the same drain without a branch: nothing
+        /// references the map and cleanup collects it.
+        #[rstest::rstest]
+        #[case::branch_pins_the_map(true)]
+        #[case::no_branch_releases_the_map(false)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn parent_cleanup_spares_row_maps_a_branch_translates_through(
+            #[case] with_branch: bool,
+        ) {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let mut parent = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut parent, 20).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&parent).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = parent.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut parent = commit_stable_partition(parent, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let map_dirs = list_fri_map_dirs(&parent).await;
+            assert_eq!(map_dirs.len(), 1);
+
+            let child_uri = if with_branch {
+                let version = parent.manifest.version;
+                let child = parent.create_branch("child", version, None).await.unwrap();
+                // The branch's relocated entry reads the parent's row map in
+                // place, through the base stamped at branch creation.
+                let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&child).await.unwrap();
+                let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+                assert_eq!(entry.base_id, None);
+                let ledger = decode_entry(&child, &entry).await;
+                assert_eq!(stable_partition_bases(&ledger), vec![Some(0)]);
+                Some(child.uri().to_string())
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+            // The parent drains: index rebuilt over the destinations, tagged
+            // history trimmed away entirely.
+            parent
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    lance_index::IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut parent)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&parent).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(!stored.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME));
+
+            // Expire every old parent version.
+            crate::dataset::cleanup::cleanup_old_versions(
+                &parent,
+                crate::dataset::cleanup::CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+                    .before_timestamp(
+                        chrono::Utc::now() + chrono::TimeDelta::try_seconds(10).unwrap(),
+                    )
+                    .delete_unverified(true)
+                    .error_if_tagged_old_versions(false)
+                    .build(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            if let Some(child_uri) = child_uri {
+                // The branch pins the row map, and the child (opened fresh,
+                // no warm caches) still translates through it.
+                assert_eq!(list_fri_map_dirs(&parent).await, map_dirs);
+                let child = Dataset::open(child_uri.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(sorted_values(&child).await, before);
+                assert_eq!(filtered_values(&child, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+                assert_eq!(filtered_values(&child, "i >= 4").await, vec![4, 5, 6, 7]);
+            } else {
+                // Control: nothing references the map; the same cleanup
+                // collects it.
+                assert!(list_fri_map_dirs(&parent).await.is_empty());
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// The relocation must not silently strip nested unknown fields:
+        /// `base_id` is patched at the wire level, so extensions inside the
+        /// stable-partition submessage or a fragment digest (exactly the
+        /// shape `base_id` itself was added in) survive byte-identically.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn clone_preserves_unknown_nested_wire_fields() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+
+            // Re-encode the transition by hand, planting unknown subfields
+            // inside the first source digest and the stable-partition
+            // submessage.
+            let Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(partition)) = &transition.mapping else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            let mut partition_bytes = partition.encode_to_vec();
+            partition_bytes.extend(reader_tests::field(9, b"stable-partition-extension"));
+            let build_transition = |partition_bytes: &[u8]| {
+                let mut raw = Vec::new();
+                for (position, digest) in transition.sources.iter().enumerate() {
+                    let mut digest_bytes = digest.encode_to_vec();
+                    if position == 0 {
+                        digest_bytes.extend(reader_tests::field(9, b"digest-extension"));
+                    }
+                    raw.extend(reader_tests::field(1, &digest_bytes));
+                }
+                for digest in transition.destinations.iter() {
+                    raw.extend(reader_tests::field(2, &digest.encode_to_vec()));
+                }
+                raw.extend(reader_tests::field(4, partition_bytes));
+                reader_tests::field(2, &raw)
+            };
+            let content = build_transition(&partition_bytes);
+            reader_tests::install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+            let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_ref()
+                .clone();
+            reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let clone = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Byte-exact expectation: everything identical except the
+            // stable-partition submessage gains `base_id = 0` (field 3,
+            // varint) appended after its preserved unknown field.
+            let mut expected_partition = partition_bytes.clone();
+            expected_partition.extend([0x18, 0x00]);
+            let expected = build_transition(&expected_partition);
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            let clone_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&clone, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(clone_content, expected);
+
+            // The relocated history still resolves and translates.
+            let ledger = decode_entry(&clone, &entry).await;
+            assert_eq!(stable_partition_bases(&ledger), vec![Some(0)]);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&clone).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+        }
+
+        /// Parity with `deep_clone`: shallow-cloning onto a URI where a
+        /// dataset already lives fails before anything is written there, so
+        /// a tagged clone cannot pollute a live dataset's `_indices/` with
+        /// staged details.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn clone_onto_existing_dataset_rejected() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let target_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let target_uri = format!("{}/occupied", target_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            // External details: without the pre-check, the relocation would
+            // stage a spilled details file into the occupied target.
+            commit_big_v0_entry(&mut dataset).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+
+            let occupied = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("j", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_dataset(
+                    target_uri.as_str(),
+                    crate::utils::test::FragmentCount::from(1),
+                    crate::utils::test::FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let occupied_version = occupied.manifest.version;
+            assert!(list_index_dirs(&occupied).await.is_empty());
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let error = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(target_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::DatasetAlreadyExists { .. }),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            // Nothing was staged in the occupied dataset.
+            assert!(list_index_dirs(&occupied).await.is_empty());
+            let reopened = Dataset::open(target_uri.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(reopened.manifest.version, occupied_version);
+        }
+
+        /// The target preflight only lets a definitive "no dataset here"
+        /// resolution permit the clone: any other resolver failure (storage,
+        /// auth, corrupt listing) aborts before anything is written, instead
+        /// of treating an uninspectable target as absent.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn clone_preflight_propagates_resolver_errors() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/flaky-target", clone_dir.as_str());
+            // Build the tagged source normally, then reopen it with the
+            // failing resolver installed as its commit handler.
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            drop(dataset);
+            let mut dataset =
+                crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(source_dir.as_str())
+                    .with_read_params(crate::dataset::ReadParams {
+                        commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(FailingResolver {
+                            inner: RenameCommitHandler,
+                            fail_suffix: "flaky-target",
+                        })),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    })
+                    .load()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            let error = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains("injected resolver outage"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            // The clone did not proceed: nothing was written to the target.
+            assert!(!std::path::Path::new(clone_uri.as_str()).exists());
+        }
+
+        /// A clone commit that conclusively fails must delete the details
+        /// file it staged in the target, alongside its transaction file.
+        /// Driven through the internal commit path: the public
+        /// `shallow_clone` rejects an occupied target before staging, so the
+        /// racing case is simulated by committing the same clone twice.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn failed_clone_commit_cleans_staged_details() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            commit_big_v0_entry(&mut dataset).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let clone = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Exactly the relocated entry's spilled details dir.
+            let staged = list_index_dirs(&clone).await;
+            assert_eq!(staged.len(), 1);
+
+            let transaction = Transaction::new(
+                version,
+                Operation::Clone {
+                    is_shallow: true,
+                    ref_name: None,
+                    ref_version: version,
+                    ref_path: dataset.uri().to_string(),
+                    branch_name: None,
+                },
+                None,
+            );
+            let error = crate::io::commit::commit_new_dataset(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                None,
+                &dataset.commit_handler,
+                &clone.base,
+                clone.uri(),
+                &transaction,
+                &Default::default(),
+                clone.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+                dataset.metadata_cache.as_ref(),
+                dataset.session.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::DatasetAlreadyExists { .. }),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            // The retry's staged details file was deleted again; only the
+            // committed clone's remains.
+            assert_eq!(list_index_dirs(&clone).await, staged);
+        }
+    }
+
+    mod deep_clone {
+        use super::shallow_clone::{
+            FailingResolver, commit_big_v0_entry, commit_stable_partition, disk_fixture,
+            list_fri_map_dirs, stable_partition_bases,
+        };
+        use super::*;
+
+        /// A tagged source whose single row map lives at `_fri/<map_id>/`:
+        /// the dataset, the map directory and the mapping file's path.
+        async fn tagged_source(uri: &str) -> (Dataset, Path, Path) {
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(uri).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let map_dirs = list_fri_map_dirs(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(map_dirs.len(), 1);
+            let map_dir = dataset.base.clone().join("_fri").join(map_dirs[0].as_str());
+            let mapping = map_dir
+                .clone()
+                .join(lance_index::frag_reuse::stable_partition::MAPPING_FILE);
+            (dataset, map_dir, mapping)
+        }
+
+        /// The copy is validated before anything is written: a referenced
+        /// row map whose mapping file is missing fails the clone, not the
+        /// clone's first translating query.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deep_clone_rejects_missing_mapping_file() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/deep", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let (mut dataset, map_dir, mapping) = tagged_source(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            // The directory still lists a file, so only the mapping file's
+            // own presence can catch this.
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .put(&map_dir.join("stray.bin"), b"x")
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset.object_store.delete(&mapping).await.unwrap();
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let error = dataset
+                .deep_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("has no"), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                !std::path::Path::new(&clone_uri).exists(),
+                "nothing may be written before the history is validated"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A mapping file whose size differs from the one the history
+        /// records is refused the same way.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deep_clone_rejects_mapping_file_size_mismatch() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/deep", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let (mut dataset, _, mapping) = tagged_source(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            let bytes = dataset
+                .object_store
+                .open(&mapping)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .get_all()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .put(&mapping, &bytes[..bytes.len() - 1])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let error = dataset
+                .deep_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("the history records"), "{error}");
+            assert!(!std::path::Path::new(&clone_uri).exists());
+        }
+
+        /// Test 1: deep-cloning a tagged table copies its row maps into the
+        /// clone's own `_fri/` and rewrites the entry with local references,
+        /// so the clone is truly independent of the source.
+        #[rstest::rstest]
+        #[case::inline(false)]
+        #[case::external(true)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deep_clone_copies_row_maps_and_is_independent(#[case] external: bool) {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/deep", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            let v0_content = if external {
+                commit_big_v0_entry(&mut dataset).await
+            } else {
+                Vec::new()
+            };
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let source_entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert_eq!(source_entry.index_version, 1);
+            let source_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &source_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(source_content.len() > 204800, external);
+            let source_map_dirs = list_fri_map_dirs(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(source_map_dirs.len(), 1);
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let clone = dataset
+                .deep_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // The entry lives in the clone under a fresh uuid with no base
+            // stamp; the history's references were already unset (they
+            // pointed at the source's own base), so its bytes carry over
+            // unchanged.
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert!(is_tagged(&entry));
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_ne!(entry.uuid, source_entry.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(entry.base_id, None);
+            assert!(clone.manifest.base_paths.is_empty());
+            let proto = FragmentReuseIndexDetails::decode(
+                entry.index_details.as_ref().unwrap().value.as_slice(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            if external {
+                // Spilled to the CLONE's own `_indices/<new uuid>/`.
+                assert!(matches!(proto.content, Some(Content::External(_))));
+            } else {
+                assert!(matches!(proto.content, Some(Content::Inline(_))));
+            }
+            let clone_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&clone, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(clone_content.starts_with(&v0_content));
+            assert_eq!(clone_content, source_content);
+
+            // The row map was copied into the clone's own `_fri/` under the
+            // same map id, and every reference resolves locally.
+            assert_eq!(list_fri_map_dirs(&clone).await, source_map_dirs);
+            let ledger = decode_entry(&clone, &entry).await;
+            assert_eq!(stable_partition_bases(&ledger), vec![None]);
+
+            // Queries translate through the copied mapping, and the clone is
+            // independent: with the source deleted it still answers.
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&clone).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+            drop(dataset);
+            drop(clone);
+            std::fs::remove_dir_all(source_dir.as_str()).unwrap();
+            let clone = Dataset::open(clone_uri.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&clone).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&clone, "i >= 4").await, vec![4, 5, 6, 7]);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 2: deep clone of a shallow clone materializes the row maps
+        /// living in ancestor bases into the deep clone's own tree and
+        /// unsets every stable-partition base reference.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deep_clone_of_shallow_clone_materializes_parent_row_maps() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let shallow_uri = format!("{}/shallow", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let deep_uri = format!("{}/deep", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let source_map_dirs = list_fri_map_dirs(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(source_map_dirs.len(), 1);
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let mut shallow = dataset
+                .shallow_clone(shallow_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve_fragments(&mut shallow, 40).await;
+            let mut shallow = commit_stable_partition(shallow, &[10, 11], 20).await;
+            let shallow_map_dirs = list_fri_map_dirs(&shallow).await;
+            assert_eq!(shallow_map_dirs.len(), 1);
+
+            let version = shallow.manifest.version;
+            let deep = shallow
+                .deep_clone(deep_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            // Both hops' maps now live in the deep clone's own `_fri/`, and
+            // nothing references a base anymore.
+            let mut expected: Vec<String> = source_map_dirs
+                .iter()
+                .chain(shallow_map_dirs.iter())
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            expected.sort();
+            assert_eq!(list_fri_map_dirs(&deep).await, expected);
+            assert!(deep.manifest.base_paths.is_empty());
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&deep).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert_eq!(entry.base_id, None);
+            let ledger = decode_entry(&deep, &entry).await;
+            assert_eq!(stable_partition_bases(&ledger), vec![None, None]);
+
+            // Fully independent of both ancestors.
+            drop(dataset);
+            drop(shallow);
+            drop(deep);
+            std::fs::remove_dir_all(source_dir.as_str()).unwrap();
+            std::fs::remove_dir_all(shallow_uri.as_str()).unwrap();
+            let deep = Dataset::open(deep_uri.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&deep).await, before);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&deep, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+            assert_eq!(filtered_values(&deep, "i >= 4").await, vec![4, 5, 6, 7]);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 3: a history this writer cannot fully interpret is refused
+        /// before anything is copied: an unknown record may reference row
+        /// maps this writer cannot enumerate, and copying an incomplete set
+        /// would fabricate a silently broken "independent" table. Same
+        /// rejection as shallow clone's, whether the opacity sits inside a
+        /// transition or beside the known records.
+        #[rstest::rstest]
+        #[case::unknown_transition_field(false)]
+        #[case::unknown_envelope_record(true)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deep_clone_rejects_uninterpretable_history(#[case] envelope: bool) {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/deep", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let content = if envelope {
+                let mut content = reader_tests::field(2, &transition.encode_to_vec());
+                content.extend(reader_tests::field(3, b"future record"));
+                content
+            } else {
+                let mut raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+                raw.extend(reader_tests::field(9, b"future mapping payload"));
+                reader_tests::field(2, &raw)
+            };
+            reader_tests::install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+            let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_ref()
+                .clone();
+            reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let error = dataset
+                .deep_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            // Nothing was written at the target.
+            assert!(!std::path::Path::new(clone_uri.as_str()).exists());
+            assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 4: a v0 history is untouched by deep clone: the entry (uuid
+        /// included) and its details bytes carry over verbatim, and no
+        /// `_fri/` directory appears in the clone.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deep_clone_keeps_v0_entry_byte_identical() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/deep", clone_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            let v0_content = commit_big_v0_entry(&mut dataset).await;
+            let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+            // The persisted form (the manifest round-trip truncates
+            // `created_at`), which is what byte-identical carry-over yields.
+            let stored = lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes(
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                &dataset.manifest_location,
+                &dataset.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let source_entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert_eq!(source_entry.index_version, 0);
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let clone = dataset
+                .deep_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&clone).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+            assert_eq!(entry, source_entry);
+            assert_eq!(
+                load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&clone, &entry).await.unwrap(),
+                v0_content
+            );
+            assert!(list_fri_map_dirs(&clone).await.is_empty());
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&clone).await, before);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 5: deep-cloning onto an occupied target is rejected before
+        /// anything is copied there, and the occupied dataset is untouched.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deep_clone_onto_existing_dataset_rejected() {
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let target_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let target_uri = format!("{}/occupied", target_dir.as_str());
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let mut dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+
+            let occupied = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("j", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_dataset(
+                    target_uri.as_str(),
+                    crate::utils::test::FragmentCount::from(1),
+                    crate::utils::test::FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let occupied_version = occupied.manifest.version;
+
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let error = dataset
+                .deep_clone(target_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::DatasetAlreadyExists { .. }),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            // The occupied dataset is untouched.
+            let reopened = Dataset::open(target_uri.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(reopened.manifest.version, occupied_version);
+        }
+
+        /// Test 6 (mirror of the shallow-clone test): the target preflight
+        /// only lets a definitive "no dataset here" resolution permit the
+        /// clone: any other resolver failure (storage, auth, corrupt
+        /// listing) aborts before anything is copied, instead of treating an
+        /// uninspectable target as absent.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+        async fn deep_clone_preflight_propagates_resolver_errors() {
+            use lance_table::io::commit::RenameCommitHandler;
+
+            let source_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+            let clone_uri = format!("{}/flaky-target", clone_dir.as_str());
+            // Build the tagged source normally, then reopen it with the
+            // failing resolver installed as its commit handler.
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(source_dir.as_str()).await;
+            reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            let dataset = commit_stable_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await;
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            drop(dataset);
+            let mut dataset =
+                crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(source_dir.as_str())
+                    .with_read_params(crate::dataset::ReadParams {
+                        commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(FailingResolver {
+                            inner: RenameCommitHandler,
+                            fail_suffix: "flaky-target",
+                        })),
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    })
+                    .load()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            let error = dataset
+                .deep_clone(clone_uri.as_str(), version, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::IO { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains("injected resolver outage"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            // The clone did not proceed: nothing was written to the target.
+            assert!(!std::path::Path::new(clone_uri.as_str()).exists());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Round 8 (a): a stable-partition rewrite over a source carrying data
+    /// overlay files is refused. Materialization would bake the overlaid
+    /// values into the destination while indices keep translated coverage
+    /// over the old addresses, and the destination carries no overlay for
+    /// the runtime staleness guard to see.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn overlaid_source_rejects_stable_partition_rewrite() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        // Attach an overlay to source fragment 0 by manifest surgery: how
+        // the overlay got there is irrelevant to the rule under test.
+        let mut fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        // Match the source data files' version so the manifest does not mix
+        // V1 and V2 files (rejected on checkout); the overlay's file version
+        // is irrelevant to the rule under test.
+        let overlay_version = fragments[0].files[0].file_version().unwrap();
+        fragments[0]
+            .overlays
+            .push(lance_table::format::overlay::DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file: lance_table::format::DataFile::new(
+                    "overlay-0.lance",
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![0],
+                    overlay_version,
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                ),
+                coverage: lance_table::format::overlay::OverlayCoverage::dense(
+                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+                ),
+                committed_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            });
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let version = dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap();
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("overlay"), "{error}");
+        assert_eq!(dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(), version);
+    }
+
+    /// Round 8 (b): deferred compaction on a tagged table refuses a source
+    /// carrying data overlay files instead of recording a transition. The
+    /// task is hand-built the way a distributed driver would replay one.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn overlaid_source_rejects_tagged_compaction() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(
+                crate::utils::test::FragmentCount::from(2),
+                crate::utils::test::FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::from(dataset.schema()));
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(100..104))],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let appended_id = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().id;
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                lance_index::IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Overlay on the appended fragment, attached before tagging (a
+        // tagged table cannot accept new overlays through the gate).
+        let mut fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        let overlay_version = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .find(|f| f.id == appended_id)
+            .unwrap()
+            .files[0]
+            .file_version()
+            .unwrap();
+        fragments
+            .iter_mut()
+            .find(|f| f.id == appended_id)
+            .unwrap()
+            .overlays
+            .push(lance_table::format::overlay::DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file: lance_table::format::DataFile::new(
+                    "overlay-f.lance",
+                    vec![0],
+                    vec![0],
+                    overlay_version,
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                ),
+                coverage: lance_table::format::overlay::OverlayCoverage::dense(
+                    RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]),
+                ),
+                committed_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            });
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+        // Tag through a rewrite of the clean fragments 0 and 1.
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| f.id < 2)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        let (transition, sp_destinations) =
+            reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let mut dataset = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: sp_destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // A replayed deferred-compaction task over the overlaid fragment.
+        let overlaid = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|f| f.id == appended_id)
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+        assert!(!overlaid.overlays.is_empty());
+        let txn = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema,
+                    vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(100..104))],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let Operation::Append {
+            fragments: new_fragments,
+        } = txn.operation
+        else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        let mut row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        for offset in 0..4u64 {
+            row_addrs.insert((appended_id << 32) + offset);
+        }
+        let mut serialized = Vec::new();
+        row_addrs.serialize_into(&mut serialized).unwrap();
+        let task = crate::dataset::optimize::RewriteResult {
+            metrics: Default::default(),
+            new_fragments,
+            read_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            original_fragments: vec![overlaid],
+            row_addrs: Some(serialized),
+        };
+        let fragments_before: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        let error = crate::dataset::optimize::commit_compaction(
+            &mut dataset,
+            vec![task],
+            Arc::new(crate::dataset::optimize::IgnoreRemap::default()),
+            &crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("overlay"), "{error}");
+        // No rewrite landed: the fragment list is untouched (only the
+        // internal id reservation may have advanced the version).
+        let fragments_after: Vec<u64> = dataset
+            .checkout_version(dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(fragments_after, fragments_before);
+    }
+
+    /// Post-scan-deletion folding harness: fixture, reserved ids, a prepared
+    /// transition, then an optional delta delete AFTER the row map was
+    /// built. `old_fragments` carries the CURRENT metadata, as the folding
+    /// regime requires.
+    struct FoldingHarness {
+        dataset: Dataset,
+        read_version: u64,
+        old_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+        destinations: Vec<Fragment>,
+        transition: Transition,
+    }
+
+    async fn folding_harness(delta_delete: Option<&str>) -> FoldingHarness {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        if let Some(predicate) = delta_delete {
+            dataset.delete(predicate).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        FoldingHarness {
+            read_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            dataset,
+            old_fragments,
+            destinations,
+            transition,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The job folds delta rows: writes a destination deletion vector for
+    /// the given offsets, leaving the digest at its scan-time zero.
+    async fn fold_destination(harness: &mut FoldingHarness, destination: usize, offsets: &[u32]) {
+        let deletion_vector: lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector =
+            offsets.iter().copied().collect();
+        let file = lance_table::io::deletion::write_deletion_file(
+            &harness.dataset.base,
+            harness.destinations[destination].id,
+            harness.read_version,
+            &deletion_vector,
+            &harness.dataset.object_store,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        harness.destinations[destination].deletion_file = Some(file);
+    }
+
+    async fn commit_fold(harness: FoldingHarness) -> lance_core::Result<Dataset> {
+        let frag_reuse_index =
+            Some(entry_appending(&harness.dataset, vec![harness.transition]).await);
+        crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(harness.dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                harness.read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: harness.old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: harness.destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10 (1): the genuine concurrency sequence. The job snapshots
+    /// at V and builds its row map; a concurrent delete commits V+1; the
+    /// job's commit from V is rejected by the conflict resolver; the job
+    /// refolds the delta into destination deletion vectors (the recompute
+    /// that lives job-side) and re-commits from V+1, passing exact
+    /// accounting. Scans and translated index queries both exclude the
+    /// folded rows; the ledger digests keep the scan-time counts.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn folded_delta_deletions_commit_and_read_correctly() {
+        // Fixture values 0..8; fragment 0 holds 0..4. Parity partition:
+        // destination 0 takes evens, destination 1 takes odds, in scan
+        // order. Deleting values 1 and 2 after the scan translates to
+        // destination 1 offset 0 and destination 0 offset 1.
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let job_read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let scan_time_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        // The job's complete entry is built from its own snapshot.
+        let job_entry = entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition.clone()]).await;
+        dataset.delete("i = 1 OR i = 2").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Committing from the job's snapshot is a conflict: the delete
+        // touched a rewritten fragment.
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                job_read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: scan_time_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations.clone(),
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(job_entry),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+
+        // Job-side retry: fold the delta and re-commit from the current
+        // version.
+        let mut harness = FoldingHarness {
+            read_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            old_fragments: dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect(),
+            destinations,
+            transition,
+            dataset,
+        };
+        fold_destination(&mut harness, 1, &[0]).await;
+        fold_destination(&mut harness, 0, &[1]).await;
+        let dataset = commit_fold(harness).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, vec![0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 6);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 1").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 2").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i >= 4").await, vec![4, 5, 6, 7]);
+
+        // Digest semantics unchanged: scan-time counts, zero-deletion
+        // destinations, same row map.
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+        let recorded = &ledger.transitions()[0];
+        assert!(recorded.sources().iter().all(|d| d.num_deleted_rows == 0));
+        assert!(
+            recorded
+                .destinations()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|d| d.num_deleted_rows == 0)
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10 (2): no delta means regime A, and regime A still rejects a
+    /// destination carrying a deletion vector exactly as before.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn regime_a_still_rejects_destination_deletion_files() {
+        let mut harness = folding_harness(None).await;
+        fold_destination(&mut harness, 0, &[0]).await;
+        let version = harness.read_version;
+        let dataset = harness.dataset.clone();
+        let error = commit_fold(harness).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("carries a deletion file"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(), version);
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10 (3): folding only one of the two delta rows breaks the
+    /// cardinality equation.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn folded_count_mismatch_rejected() {
+        let mut harness = folding_harness(Some("i = 1 OR i = 2")).await;
+        fold_destination(&mut harness, 1, &[0]).await;
+        let error = commit_fold(harness).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("hold 1 rows but the sources gained 2"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10 (4): right cardinality, one wrong offset -- one row wrongly
+    /// dead plus one row resurrected -- breaks the set equation.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn folded_wrong_position_rejected() {
+        let mut harness = folding_harness(Some("i = 1 OR i = 2")).await;
+        fold_destination(&mut harness, 1, &[0]).await;
+        // Value 2 translates to destination 0 offset 1; offset 2 is wrong.
+        fold_destination(&mut harness, 0, &[2]).await;
+        let error = commit_fold(harness).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("translated positions"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A destination deletion file whose metadata count lies about the
+    /// file's cardinality is rejected even when the folded positions
+    /// themselves are correct: the count is consumed downstream without
+    /// re-reading the file.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn folded_lying_destination_count_rejected() {
+        let mut harness = folding_harness(Some("i = 1 OR i = 2")).await;
+        fold_destination(&mut harness, 1, &[0]).await;
+        fold_destination(&mut harness, 0, &[1]).await;
+        // The positions are exactly right; only the recorded count lies.
+        harness.destinations[0]
+            .deletion_file
+            .as_mut()
+            .unwrap()
+            .num_deleted_rows = Some(5);
+        let error = commit_fold(harness).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("records 5 deleted rows"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10 (5a): a current deletion vector smaller than the scan-time
+    /// digest is corrupt (deletion vectors cannot shrink).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn shrunken_source_deletion_vector_rejected() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        dataset.delete("i = 0 OR i = 1").await.unwrap();
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(transition.sources[0].num_deleted_rows, 2);
+        // Corruption stand-in: replace the source deletion vector with a
+        // smaller one.
+        let deletion_vector: lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector =
+            [0u32].into_iter().collect();
+        let file = lance_table::io::deletion::write_deletion_file(
+            &dataset.base,
+            0,
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            &deletion_vector,
+            &dataset.object_store,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        fragments[0].deletion_file = Some(file);
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+        let harness = FoldingHarness {
+            read_version: dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(),
+            old_fragments: dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect(),
+            destinations,
+            transition,
+            dataset,
+        };
+        let error = commit_fold(harness).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("cannot shrink"), "{error}");
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10 (5b): the null-label accounting is an exact equality. A
+    /// current deletion vector that gained rows but lost a scan-time
+    /// deletion has fewer null-labeled rows than the digest records, even
+    /// though its total makes the delta look positive; the same equality is
+    /// what forbids a delta row from ever carrying a null label.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn scan_time_deletion_accounting_rejected() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        // Scan-time deletion: value 0 (fragment 0, offset 0) is a null
+        // label in the row map and counts 1 in the digest.
+        dataset.delete("i = 0").await.unwrap();
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let (transition, mut destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(transition.sources[0].num_deleted_rows, 1);
+        // Corrupted current vector: drops the scan-time offset 0, adds
+        // offsets 1 and 2 (count 2, delta +1, so regime B engages).
+        let deletion_vector: lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector =
+            [1u32, 2].into_iter().collect();
+        let file = lance_table::io::deletion::write_deletion_file(
+            &dataset.base,
+            0,
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            &deletion_vector,
+            &dataset.object_store,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        fragments[0].deletion_file = Some(file);
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+        let read_version = dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap();
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        // Fold something plausible for the +1 delta so the accounting
+        // equation, not the cardinality one, is what fires.
+        let deletion_vector: lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector =
+            [0u32].into_iter().collect();
+        let file = lance_table::io::deletion::write_deletion_file(
+            &dataset.base,
+            destinations[1].id,
+            read_version,
+            &deletion_vector,
+            &dataset.object_store,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        destinations[1].deletion_file = Some(file);
+
+        let harness = FoldingHarness {
+            read_version,
+            old_fragments,
+            destinations,
+            transition,
+            dataset,
+        };
+        let error = commit_fold(harness).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("scan-time deletion accounting"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Copy the live rows of `source_ids` into one new fragment carrying
+    /// `dest_id`, and build the ordered-compaction transition a tagged
+    /// compaction would record for it (survivor bitmap over the sources'
+    /// live addresses, digests as of NOW).
+    async fn oc_job(dataset: &Dataset, source_ids: &[u64], dest_id: u64) -> (Transition, Fragment) {
+        let source_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = source_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| {
+                dataset
+                    .fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .clone()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let batch = {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.with_fragments(source_fragments.clone());
+            scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
+        };
+        let txn = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let Operation::Append { mut fragments } = txn.operation else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        fragments[0].id = dest_id;
+        let destination = fragments.pop().unwrap();
+
+        let mut survivors = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        let mut sources = Vec::new();
+        for frag in &source_fragments {
+            let deleted: Option<RoaringBitmap> = dataset
+                .get_fragment(frag.id as usize)
+                .unwrap()
+                .get_deletion_vector()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|v| v.iter().collect());
+            let physical = frag.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64;
+            for offset in 0..physical {
+                if !deleted.as_ref().is_some_and(|d| d.contains(offset as u32)) {
+                    survivors.insert((frag.id << 32) | offset);
+                }
+            }
+            sources.push(FragmentDigest {
+                id: frag.id,
+                physical_rows: physical,
+                num_deleted_rows: deleted.as_ref().map_or(0, |d| d.len()),
+            });
+        }
+        let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+        survivors.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+        let transition = Transition {
+            sources,
+            destinations: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                id: destination.id,
+                physical_rows: destination.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }],
+            mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::OrderedCompaction {
+                    changed_row_addrs,
+                },
+            )),
+        };
+        (transition, destination)
+    }
+
+    async fn write_dv(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        fragment: &mut Fragment,
+        read_version: u64,
+        offsets: &[u32],
+    ) {
+        let deletion_vector: lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector =
+            offsets.iter().copied().collect();
+        let file = lance_table::io::deletion::write_deletion_file(
+            &dataset.base,
+            fragment.id,
+            read_version,
+            &deletion_vector,
+            &dataset.object_store,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        fragment.deletion_file = Some(file);
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10b (1): ordered-compaction folding through the genuine
+    /// concurrency sequence. The compaction copies its sources at V, a
+    /// concurrent delete commits V+1, the commit from V is rejected by the
+    /// conflict resolver, and the job folds the delta into the destination
+    /// deletion vector at its compaction-translated offsets and re-commits
+    /// from V+1 -- exact accounting with no extra validation IO.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn oc_folded_delta_deletions_commit_and_read_correctly() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let job_read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let scan_time_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        // Values 0..8 in fragments 0 and 1; the compaction output preserves
+        // scan order, so value v lands at destination offset v.
+        let (transition, mut destination) = oc_job(&dataset, &[0, 1], 20).await;
+        // The job's complete entry is built from its own snapshot.
+        let job_entry = entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition.clone()]).await;
+        dataset.delete("i = 1 OR i = 6").await.unwrap();
+
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                job_read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: scan_time_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: vec![destination.clone()],
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(job_entry),
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        write_dv(&dataset, &mut destination, read_version, &[1, 6]).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let dataset = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: vec![destination],
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, vec![0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7]);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 6);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 1").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 6").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 5").await, vec![5]);
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            ledger.transitions()[0].mapping(),
+            Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(
+            ledger.transitions()[0]
+                .sources()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|d| d.num_deleted_rows == 0)
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10b (2): no delta on an ordered-compaction rewrite keeps
+    /// regime A, and the destination deletion vector stays rejected.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn oc_regime_a_still_rejects_destination_deletion_files() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let (transition, mut destination) = oc_job(&dataset, &[0, 1], 20).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        write_dv(&dataset, &mut destination, read_version, &[0]).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: vec![destination],
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("carries a deletion file"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10b (3): the rewrite-time accounting equation for ordered
+    /// compaction -- deleted offsets absent from the survivor bitmap must
+    /// exactly match the digest count. A corrupted current vector that
+    /// dropped a rewrite-time deletion breaks it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn oc_scan_time_deletion_accounting_rejected() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        // A rewrite-time deletion: value 0 is absent from the survivor
+        // bitmap and counts 1 in the digest.
+        dataset.delete("i = 0").await.unwrap();
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let (transition, mut destination) = oc_job(&dataset, &[0, 1], 20).await;
+        assert_eq!(transition.sources[0].num_deleted_rows, 1);
+        // Corrupted current vector: drops offset 0, adds offsets 1 and 2
+        // (count 2, delta +1, regime B engages).
+        let mut fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        let base_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        {
+            let frag = &mut fragments[0];
+            let deletion_vector: lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector =
+                [1u32, 2].into_iter().collect();
+            let file = lance_table::io::deletion::write_deletion_file(
+                &dataset.base,
+                frag.id,
+                base_version,
+                &deletion_vector,
+                &dataset.object_store,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+            frag.deletion_file = Some(file);
+        }
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+        let read_version = dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap();
+        write_dv(&dataset, &mut destination, read_version, &[1]).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: vec![destination],
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("scan-time deletion accounting"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10b (4): right cardinality, wrong destination offset under an
+    /// ordered-compaction fold breaks the set equation.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn oc_folded_wrong_position_rejected() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let (transition, mut destination) = oc_job(&dataset, &[0, 1], 20).await;
+        dataset.delete("i = 1 OR i = 6").await.unwrap();
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        // Value 6 translates to destination offset 6; offset 5 is wrong.
+        write_dv(&dataset, &mut destination, read_version, &[1, 5]).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let error = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: vec![destination],
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("translated positions"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10b (5): a mixed rewrite -- one stable-partition group and one
+    /// ordered-compaction group in the same commit, both folding -- is
+    /// validated independently per transition and both records land.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn mixed_sp_and_oc_folding_validate_independently() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        // Stable partition over fragment 0 (values 0..4, parity split:
+        // destination 10 evens, destination 11 odds).
+        let (sp_transition, sp_destinations) =
+            reader_tests::prepare_partition(&dataset, &[0], 10).await;
+        // Ordered compaction over fragment 1 (values 4..8, scan order:
+        // value v at destination offset v - 4).
+        let (oc_transition, mut oc_destination) = oc_job(&dataset, &[1], 21).await;
+
+        dataset.delete("i = 1 OR i = 6").await.unwrap();
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        // Value 1: stable-partition label odd, first odd row -> destination
+        // 11 offset 0. Value 6: compaction offset 2.
+        let mut sp_destinations = sp_destinations;
+        write_dv(&dataset, &mut sp_destinations[1], read_version, &[0]).await;
+        write_dv(&dataset, &mut oc_destination, read_version, &[2]).await;
+
+        let sp_old: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| f.id == 0)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        let oc_old: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| f.id == 1)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        let frag_reuse_index =
+            Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![sp_transition, oc_transition]).await);
+        let dataset = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![
+                        RewriteGroup {
+                            old_fragments: sp_old,
+                            new_fragments: sp_destinations,
+                        },
+                        RewriteGroup {
+                            old_fragments: oc_old,
+                            new_fragments: vec![oc_destination],
+                        },
+                    ],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, vec![0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7]);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 1").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 6").await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 7").await, vec![7]);
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 2);
+        let (sp_count, oc_count) = ledger
+            .transitions()
+            .iter()
+            .fold((0, 0), |(sp, oc), t| match t.mapping() {
+                Mapping::StablePartition(_) => (sp + 1, oc),
+                Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_) => (sp, oc + 1),
+            });
+        assert_eq!((sp_count, oc_count), (1, 1));
+    }
+
+    /// Round 10b P1 regression: the source deletion state is read from the
+    /// manifest, never from the job-supplied group. A crafted group whose
+    /// deletion vector swaps the deleted offset (digest {}, manifest {1},
+    /// group {2}) with a destination vector folded for the wrong row keeps
+    /// every count equal; only manifest authority catches the position lie
+    /// (row 1 resurrected, row 2 wrongly dead).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn job_supplied_source_deletion_state_cannot_resurrect_rows() {
+        let mut harness = folding_harness(Some("i = 1")).await;
+        // Forge the group copy of fragment 0: same count, different offset.
+        let forged: lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector = [2u32].into_iter().collect();
+        let file = lance_table::io::deletion::write_deletion_file(
+            &harness.dataset.base,
+            0,
+            harness.read_version,
+            &forged,
+            &harness.dataset.object_store,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        let slot = harness
+            .old_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .position(|f| f.id == 0)
+            .unwrap();
+        harness.old_fragments[slot].deletion_file = Some(file);
+        // Fold as if value 2 were the delta: destination 0 offset 1.
+        fold_destination(&mut harness, 0, &[1]).await;
+        let error = commit_fold(harness).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("translated positions"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Sticky v1: after a tagged history is fully drained and its entry
+    /// trimmed away (simulated -- trim is future work), the next deferred
+    /// compaction must restart the history in the tagged format, keyed on
+    /// the sticky feature flag, never back at v0.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn drained_tagged_table_restarts_history_tagged() {
+        let mut dataset = reader_tests::fixture().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+        let (transition, destinations) = reader_tests::prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let frag_reuse_index = Some(entry_appending(&dataset, vec![transition]).await);
+        let mut dataset = crate::dataset::write::CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: destinations,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Simulated drained trim: the entry is gone, the sticky flag stays.
+        let indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let flag = FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+
+        // Re-cover the live fragments so the compaction records reuse.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                lance_index::IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            ledger.transitions()[0].mapping(),
+            Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(ledger.consumer(10).is_some());
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+    }
+
+    /// Sticky v1, entry-present arm: with the flag set and a legacy v0
+    /// entry still in the manifest, the flag -- not the entry's own
+    /// index_version -- decides the record form, so a deferred compaction
+    /// must upgrade: the resulting entry is tagged, carries the legacy
+    /// content lifted byte-verbatim, and records the compaction as an
+    /// ordered-compaction transition appended after it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn flag_with_existing_v0_entry_compaction_upgrades() {
+        let mut dataset = indexed_three_fragment_dataset().await;
+
+        // A committed v0 entry with one legacy compaction (100 -> 110),
+        // fictional fragments so the live indexed ones stay compaction
+        // candidates.
+        let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        for offset in 0..4u64 {
+            addrs.insert((100 << 32) + offset);
+        }
+        let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+        addrs.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+        let digest = |id: u64| FragDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: 4,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: 1,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs,
+                    old_frags: vec![digest(100)],
+                    new_frags: vec![digest(110)],
+                }],
+            }],
+        };
+        let v0_entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            None,
+            details,
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([110u32]),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(v0_entry.index_version, 0);
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![v0_entry],
+                        removed_indices: vec![],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Stamp the sticky flag next to the v0 entry: the concurrency
+        // remnant under test, where an upgrade elsewhere tagged the table
+        // while this legacy entry survived.
+        let indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        {
+            let manifest = Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest);
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        }
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let flag = FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let v0_entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(v0_entry.index_version, 0);
+        let v0_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &v0_entry)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+        assert!(is_tagged(&entry));
+        // The legacy content is lifted byte-verbatim ...
+        let lifted = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(lifted.starts_with(&v0_content));
+        // ... and the compaction rides after it: the lifted legacy group
+        // plus the new ordered-compaction transition.
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 2);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            ledger.transitions()[0].mapping(),
+            Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_)
+        ));
+        assert!(matches!(
+            ledger.transitions()[1].mapping(),
+            Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_)
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(
+            ledger.transitions()[1]
+                .sources()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|digest| digest.id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 1, 2]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+    }
+
+    /// P1 regression: a v0 rewrite intent prepared against a v0 table must
+    /// land as tagged transitions when it retries after the table was
+    /// upgraded to the tagged format AND the drained entry was trimmed
+    /// away. The entry is gone at retry time, but the sticky flag remains
+    /// the final authority, so the retry converts the intent instead of
+    /// silently downgrading the table back to v0 snapshot replacement.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn stale_v0_writer_lands_v1_after_upgrade_and_trim() {
+        let mut dataset = indexed_three_fragment_dataset().await;
+        reserve_fragments(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+        let before = sorted_values(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(before, (0..12).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+
+        // Writer A prepares a v0 compaction of fragments 1 and 2 at this
+        // version: real destination files, a v0 ReplaceEntry intent.
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|frag| frag.id == 1 || frag.id == 2)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        let compacted = {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.with_fragments(old_fragments.clone());
+            scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
+        };
+        let append = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![compacted])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let Operation::Append { fragments } = append.operation else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+        let mut destinations = fragments;
+        assert_eq!(destinations.len(), 1);
+        destinations[0].id = 30;
+        let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+        for frag_id in [1u64, 2] {
+            for offset in 0..4u64 {
+                addrs.insert((frag_id << 32) + offset);
+            }
+        }
+        let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+        addrs.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+        let digest = |id: u64, physical_rows: usize| FragDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: read_version,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs,
+                    old_frags: vec![digest(1, 4), digest(2, 4)],
+                    new_frags: vec![digest(30, 8)],
+                }],
+            }],
+        };
+        let v0_entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            None,
+            details,
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([30u32]),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(v0_entry.index_version, 0);
+        let stale_transaction = Transaction::new(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                    old_fragments,
+                    new_fragments: destinations,
+                }],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(v0_entry),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        // Concurrently the table is upgraded to the tagged format by a
+        // stable-partition rewrite of fragment 0 ...
+        let mut dataset = tag_fragment_zero(dataset).await;
+        let flag = FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+
+        // ... and the drained entry is trimmed away (simulated -- trim is
+        // future work): the entry is gone, the sticky flag stays. The
+        // fixture writes no transaction file, so the stand-in for the
+        // trim's transaction is supplied through the session cache for the
+        // retry's transaction walk.
+        let indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        reader_tests::persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        assert!(
+            crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|idx| idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        );
+        let trim_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        dataset
+            .metadata_cache
+            .insert_with_key(
+                &crate::session::caches::TransactionKey {
+                    version: trim_version,
+                },
+                Arc::new(Transaction::new(
+                    trim_version - 1,
+                    Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments: 0 },
+                    None,
+                )),
+            )
+            .await;
+
+        // Fresh coverage over the surviving fragments, as after a real
+        // (fully drained) trim.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                lance_index::IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Writer A retries: the intent still says ReplaceEntry(v0), the
+        // current entry is None, only the flag says tagged. The commit
+        // must land tagged transitions, never a v0 entry.
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(stale_transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+        assert!(is_tagged(&entry));
+        let ledger = decode_entry(&dataset, &entry).await;
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            ledger.transitions()[0].mapping(),
+            Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_)
+        ));
+        assert_eq!(
+            ledger.transitions()[0]
+                .sources()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|digest| digest.id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![1, 2]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(ledger.transitions()[0].destinations()[0].id, 30);
+        // Reads stay row-identical through the upgrade, the trim and the
+        // converted commit.
+        assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, before);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_values(&dataset, "i = 7").await, vec![7]);
+    }
+
+    /// Guard: a table that never was tagged (no flag, no entry) keeps
+    /// creating the v0 legacy entry byte-identically.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn untagged_table_still_creates_v0_entry() {
+        let mut dataset = indexed_three_fragment_dataset().await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+            0
+        );
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let entry = stored_fri(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 0);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_reader.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_reader.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5ae1705d05e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_reader.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2111 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Compose mapping readers along fragment lineage to reach live fragments.
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::FragReuseLedger;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+mod cache;
+pub(crate) use cache::{CachedMapping, open_mapping};
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+tokio::task_local! {
+    static LEGACY_READER_ONLY: ();
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn check_reader_path() -> Result<()> {
+    if LEGACY_READER_ONLY.try_with(|_| ()).is_ok() {
+        return Err(Error::internal("V1 operation entered the new FRI reader"));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Filter and rewrite the index listing for querying under a tagged history.
+///
+/// The returned coverage bitmaps are snapshot-derived query inputs and must
+/// never be persisted back to a manifest: stored segment metadata keeps its
+/// original provenance.
+pub(super) async fn load_indices(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fri: &IndexMetadata,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+) -> Result<Arc<Vec<IndexMetadata>>> {
+    let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(dataset, fri).await?;
+    let mut groups: HashMap<&str, Vec<(usize, &IndexMetadata)>> = HashMap::new();
+    let mut result = vec![None; indices.len()];
+    for (position, index) in indices.iter().enumerate() {
+        if !super::index_is_usable(index) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        // System indices are table-level metadata; the user-index coverage
+        // filter below does not apply to them. MemWAL in particular carries
+        // `fragment_bitmap: None`, so passing it through the coverage grouping
+        // would silently drop it and every `load_index_by_name` caller would
+        // then see an initialized dataset as uninitialized. Pass every system
+        // index through untouched, not just FRI by name. (`is_system_index`
+        // matches a fixed name set, so a new system index type must be added to
+        // that classifier to be recognized here.)
+        if lance_table::system_index::is_system_index(index) {
+            result[position] = Some(index.clone());
+        } else {
+            groups
+                .entry(&index.name)
+                .or_default()
+                .push((position, index));
+        }
+    }
+    // Third state, decided once: a dropped unknown transition loses the record
+    // of which fragments it touched, so no user-index segment's stored
+    // addresses can be proven translatable (supporting the remap plugin is
+    // necessary but not sufficient when the mapping itself is gone). Exclude
+    // every such segment up front (no coverage, scan fallback) rather than grant
+    // coverage a translator cannot honor, which would drop rows silently. System
+    // indices were already passed through above, and `may_need_translation`
+    // reports true in this state as well, so this is the same decision made
+    // explicitly here without consulting the plugin registry per segment.
+    let unsupported_history = mapping.ledger.has_unsupported_transitions();
+    for members in groups.into_values() {
+        let mut supported = Vec::with_capacity(members.len());
+        for (position, index) in members {
+            if unsupported_history {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if mapping.may_need_translation(index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()) {
+                let can_remap = segment_supports_batch_remapping(dataset, index)
+                    .await?
+                    .unwrap_or(false);
+                if index.fragment_bitmap.is_none() || !can_remap {
+                    continue;
+                }
+            }
+            supported.push((position, index));
+        }
+        // Only usable segments may establish coverage. A destination needs all
+        // contributing sources; every retained contributing segment must be queried.
+        let provenance: Vec<_> = supported
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(_, index)| {
+                index.fragment_bitmap.clone().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal(format!(
+                        "query segment {} has no fragment coverage",
+                        index.uuid
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+        for ((position, index), coverage) in supported
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(mapping.segment_coverage(&provenance))
+        {
+            if coverage.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let mut index = index.clone();
+            index.fragment_bitmap = Some(coverage);
+            result[position] = Some(index);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(Arc::new(result.into_iter().flatten().collect()))
+}
+
+impl FragmentReuseIndex {
+    /// Whether the history carries transitions this build cannot interpret.
+    pub(crate) fn has_unsupported_transitions(&self) -> bool {
+        self.ledger.has_unsupported_transitions()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether this build can translate `index`'s stored addresses in batches:
+/// `Some(true)` when its type has a batch remapper, `Some(false)` when it
+/// does not, `None` when its details are missing or cannot be interpreted.
+pub(super) async fn segment_supports_batch_remapping(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<Option<bool>> {
+    let Some(details) = index.index_details.as_ref() else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if super::segment_has_vector_details(index) {
+        return Ok(Some(
+            super::frag_reuse_remapping::vector_supports_batch_remapping(dataset, index).await?,
+        ));
+    }
+    if details.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails") {
+        return Ok(Some(
+            super::frag_reuse_remapping::inverted_supports_batch_remapping(dataset, index).await?,
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(super::scalar::SCALAR_INDEX_PLUGIN_REGISTRY
+        .get_plugin_by_details(details)
+        .ok()
+        .map(|plugin| plugin.supports_batch_row_id_remapping()))
+}
+
+/// One segment's derived query-time inputs from the coverage backtrack.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, PartialEq)]
+pub struct SegmentPlanParts {
+    /// Live fragments this segment answers for in the current snapshot.
+    pub coverage: RoaringBitmap,
+    /// Fragments directly covered by other selected group members; translated
+    /// paths entering them belong to those siblings.
+    pub excluded: RoaringBitmap,
+    /// Positions (in ledger order) of the transitions this segment's rows
+    /// pass through on their way to `coverage`: every transition whose
+    /// resolved contributors include this segment.
+    pub path: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+/// A validated FRI graph whose mapping payloads are opened only when needed.
+pub struct FragmentReuseIndex {
+    ledger: Arc<FragReuseLedger>,
+    live_fragments: Arc<RoaringBitmap>,
+    readers: Vec<Arc<CachedMapping>>,
+}
+
+impl FragmentReuseIndex {
+    /// Open the history for this dataset snapshot without reading mapping labels.
+    pub async fn open(dataset: &Dataset, index: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<Arc<Self>> {
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        check_reader_path()?;
+        let ledger = cache::open_ledger(dataset, index).await?;
+        if ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+            log::debug!(
+                "FRI {} has unsupported mappings; only paths reaching live fragments can provide query coverage",
+                index.uuid
+            );
+        }
+        let mut readers = Vec::with_capacity(ledger.transitions().len());
+        for transition in ledger.transitions() {
+            readers.push(cache::open_mapping(dataset, transition).await?);
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            ledger,
+            live_fragments: dataset.fragment_bitmap.clone(),
+            readers,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    /// Whether segment metadata could require translation. V1 may have projected
+    /// coverage to destinations without changing addresses stored in the index.
+    /// Identity requires live-only coverage disjoint from supported lineage.
+    /// Dead fragments may belong to an omitted unknown mapping; those must not
+    /// get an identity remapper merely because they are absent from the graph.
+    ///
+    /// Returning `true` means only "the stored addresses cannot be confirmed
+    /// usable as-is", not "translation will succeed". A dropped unknown
+    /// transition leaves no record of which fragments it touched, so once the
+    /// ledger has any unsupported transition we cannot prove any segment was
+    /// untouched by it: no segment may take the identity fast path. This is
+    /// conservative (segments that could have been identity are forced off it,
+    /// so more fragments fall back to scanning), traded for correctness. When
+    /// the ledger is fully supported this returns to the exact per-segment
+    /// decision below.
+    pub fn may_need_translation(&self, provenance: Option<&RoaringBitmap>) -> bool {
+        if self.ledger.has_unsupported_transitions() {
+            return true;
+        }
+        provenance.is_none_or(|bitmap| {
+            !bitmap.is_subset(self.live_fragments.as_ref())
+                || bitmap
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|fragment| self.ledger.contains_fragment(fragment))
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve each live fragment backwards to the nearest available index coverage.
+    /// A mapping requires complete source coverage; failure for one destination does
+    /// not discard another destination's coverage. Every contributing segment is retained.
+    pub fn segment_coverage(&self, provenance: &[RoaringBitmap]) -> Vec<RoaringBitmap> {
+        self.segment_plans(provenance)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|plan| plan.coverage)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Resolve each segment's query coverage and sibling exclusions in one pass,
+    /// so "direct coverage wins" is owned by one algorithm.
+    ///
+    /// Coverage: each live fragment backtracks to the nearest available index
+    /// coverage. A mapping requires complete source coverage; failure for one
+    /// destination does not discard another destination's coverage. Every
+    /// contributing segment is retained.
+    ///
+    /// Exclusions: the fragments directly covered by other group members,
+    /// derived from the same `direct` map the backtrack builds. This is
+    /// deliberately an over-approximation of each segment's true sibling
+    /// contention: fragments that are not on a path this segment translates are
+    /// never checked per-hop, so extra members are inert. Do not "optimize"
+    /// this to exact per-path sets.
+    pub fn segment_plans(&self, provenance: &[RoaringBitmap]) -> Vec<SegmentPlanParts> {
+        let mut direct: HashMap<u32, Vec<usize>> = HashMap::new();
+        for (segment, bitmap) in provenance.iter().enumerate() {
+            for fragment in bitmap {
+                direct.entry(fragment).or_default().push(segment);
+            }
+        }
+        // Direct coverage takes precedence: a fragment resolves to its direct
+        // segments when present and to its producing transition otherwise. The
+        // transition resolution is shared by all of that transition's
+        // destinations; None records incomplete source coverage.
+        let mut transitions: HashMap<usize, Option<Vec<usize>>> = HashMap::new();
+        let mut coverage = vec![RoaringBitmap::new(); provenance.len()];
+        let mut pending = Vec::new();
+        for destination in self.live_fragments.iter() {
+            let producer = match (direct.get(&destination), self.ledger.producer(destination)) {
+                (Some(segments), _) => {
+                    for &segment in segments {
+                        coverage[segment].insert(destination);
+                    }
+                    continue;
+                }
+                (None, Some(producer)) => producer,
+                (None, None) => continue,
+            };
+            pending.push((producer, false));
+            while let Some((index, expanded)) = pending.pop() {
+                if transitions.contains_key(&index) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let sources = self.ledger.transitions()[index].sources();
+                if !expanded {
+                    pending.push((index, true));
+                    pending.extend(sources.iter().filter_map(|source| {
+                        let source = source.id as u32;
+                        (!direct.contains_key(&source))
+                            .then(|| self.ledger.producer(source))
+                            .flatten()
+                            .map(|producer| (producer, false))
+                    }));
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let mut segments = Vec::new();
+                let complete = sources.iter().all(|source| {
+                    let source = source.id as u32;
+                    let contributors = direct.get(&source).or_else(|| {
+                        self.ledger
+                            .producer(source)
+                            .and_then(|producer| transitions.get(&producer))
+                            .and_then(|resolution| resolution.as_ref())
+                    });
+                    match contributors {
+                        Some(contributors) => {
+                            segments.extend_from_slice(contributors);
+                            true
+                        }
+                        None => false,
+                    }
+                });
+                let resolution = complete.then(|| {
+                    segments.sort_unstable();
+                    segments.dedup();
+                    segments
+                });
+                transitions.insert(index, resolution);
+            }
+            if let Some(Some(segments)) = transitions.get(&producer) {
+                for &segment in segments {
+                    coverage[segment].insert(destination);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let group_direct: RoaringBitmap = direct.keys().copied().collect();
+        // Invert the resolutions: a transition whose contributors include a
+        // segment is on that segment's translation path.
+        let mut paths = vec![Vec::new(); provenance.len()];
+        for (&index, resolution) in &transitions {
+            for &segment in resolution.iter().flatten() {
+                paths[segment].push(index);
+            }
+        }
+        provenance
+            .iter()
+            .zip(coverage)
+            .zip(paths)
+            .map(|((own, coverage), mut path)| {
+                path.sort_unstable();
+                SegmentPlanParts {
+                    coverage,
+                    excluded: &group_direct - own,
+                    path,
+                }
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// The translation identity of one segment: a hash of everything that
+    /// decides its translated output, so cached objects that embed translated
+    /// addresses can be keyed by it and go cold only when that state changes.
+    ///
+    /// `remap_row_ids_excluding` is a function of the mappings on the
+    /// segment's path, the liveness of the fragments along it, `excluded`
+    /// and `coverage`. The hash therefore covers `coverage` (live fragments
+    /// only, so a fragment dropped from the manifest changes it), `excluded`
+    /// restricted to the destinations of the path (sibling churn elsewhere in
+    /// the group cannot change this segment's output), the fingerprints of
+    /// the path transitions in ledger order (a trimmed or replaced transition
+    /// on the path changes it; one elsewhere does not) and whether the ledger
+    /// dropped unsupported transitions. The FRI entry's UUID is deliberately
+    /// not part of it: every rewrite and trim mints a new one, even for
+    /// transitions this segment never touches.
+    pub fn translation_fingerprint(
+        &self,
+        coverage: &RoaringBitmap,
+        excluded: &RoaringBitmap,
+        path: &[usize],
+    ) -> [u8; 32] {
+        let transitions = self.ledger.transitions();
+        let path_destinations: RoaringBitmap = path
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|&index| transitions[index].destinations())
+            .map(|destination| destination.id as u32)
+            .collect();
+        let mut hasher = blake3::Hasher::new();
+        hasher.update(b"fri-translation/1");
+        hasher.update(&[u8::from(self.ledger.has_unsupported_transitions())]);
+        hasher.update(b"coverage");
+        // The serialized form is canonical for a given set; the hasher
+        // implements `io::Write`, so nothing is buffered.
+        coverage
+            .serialize_into(&mut hasher)
+            .expect("hashing a bitmap cannot fail");
+        hasher.update(b"excluded");
+        (excluded & path_destinations)
+            .serialize_into(&mut hasher)
+            .expect("hashing a bitmap cannot fail");
+        hasher.update(b"path");
+        for &index in path {
+            hasher.update(transitions[index].fingerprint());
+        }
+        *hasher.finalize().as_bytes()
+    }
+
+    /// Remap physical row IDs through supported lineage, stopping at live fragments.
+    /// Missing or deleted paths produce `None`. Input order and duplicates are preserved.
+    pub async fn remap_row_ids(self: &Arc<Self>, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        self.remap_row_ids_excluding(row_ids, &RoaringBitmap::new())
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Drop paths that enter fragments supplied by other selected index segments.
+    /// Check after each mapping, not only at live destinations: branches may reconverge.
+    /// Starting addresses are not excluded because legacy metadata can already describe
+    /// projected coverage rather than the original addresses stored in an index.
+    pub(super) async fn remap_row_ids_excluding(
+        self: &Arc<Self>,
+        row_ids: &[u64],
+        excluded_fragments: &RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        let mut result = Vec::with_capacity(row_ids.len());
+        for batch in row_ids.chunks(64 * 1024) {
+            let mut output: Vec<_> = batch.iter().copied().map(Some).collect();
+            let mut pending: BTreeMap<usize, Vec<usize>> = BTreeMap::new();
+            for (position, address) in output.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                let current = RowAddress::from(batch[position]);
+                if self.live_fragments.contains(current.fragment_id()) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(consumer) = self.ledger.consumer(current.fragment_id()) {
+                    pending.entry(consumer).or_default().push(position);
+                } else {
+                    *address = None;
+                }
+            }
+            while let Some((index, positions)) = pending.pop_first() {
+                let rows: Vec<_> = positions
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|&position| {
+                        output[position].ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::internal("deleted address queued for FRI translation")
+                        })
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
+                let rows = self.readers[index].remap_row_ids(&rows).await?;
+                if rows.len() != positions.len() {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(
+                        "mapping reader changed translation batch length",
+                    ));
+                }
+                for (position, address) in positions.into_iter().zip(rows) {
+                    let address = address.filter(|row_id| {
+                        !excluded_fragments.contains(RowAddress::from(*row_id).fragment_id())
+                    });
+                    output[position] = address;
+                    if let Some(current) = address {
+                        let current = RowAddress::from(current);
+                        if self.live_fragments.contains(current.fragment_id()) {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        if let Some(consumer) = self.ledger.consumer(current.fragment_id()) {
+                            pending.entry(consumer).or_default().push(position);
+                        } else {
+                            output[position] = None;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            result.extend(output);
+        }
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+}
+
+fn corrupt(message: impl Into<String>) -> Error {
+    Error::corrupt_file_named("FRI query", message)
+}
+
+async fn load_ledger(dataset: &Dataset, index: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<FragReuseLedger> {
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    check_reader_path()?;
+    let details = index
+        .index_details
+        .as_ref()
+        .ok_or_else(|| corrupt("missing FRI details"))?;
+    FragReuseLedger::decode(index.index_version, details, |file| async move {
+        let end = file
+            .offset
+            .checked_add(file.size)
+            .and_then(|n| usize::try_from(n).ok())
+            .ok_or_else(|| corrupt("external FRI range overflow"))?;
+        let path = dataset
+            .indice_files_dir(index)?
+            .join(index.uuid.to_string())
+            .join(file.path.as_str());
+        dataset
+            .object_store_for_index(index)
+            .await?
+            .open(&path)
+            .await?
+            .get_range(file.offset as usize..end)
+            .await
+            .map_err(Error::from)
+    })
+    .await
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+    use crate::session::index_caches::IndexMetadataKey;
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+    use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array, cast::AsArray};
+    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+    use lance_core::utils::fragment_reuse::OrderedCompactionMapping;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::row_map::{RowMapWriter, SourceRows};
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::stable_partition::MAPPING_FILE;
+    use lance_index::scalar::IndexStore;
+    use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+    use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+    use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::{
+        FragmentDigest, InlineContent, StablePartition, Transition, transition,
+    };
+    use lance_table::format::{Fragment, pb};
+    use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::Mapping;
+    use lance_table::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+    use prost::Message;
+    use prost::encoding::WireType;
+    use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+    pub async fn fixture() -> Dataset {
+        fixture_with_index(IndexType::BTree).await
+    }
+
+    pub async fn fixture_with_index(index_type: IndexType) -> Dataset {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if index_type != IndexType::BTree {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    index_type,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            return dataset;
+        }
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .project_with_transform(&[("value", "i")])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+        let index = crate::index::create::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+            &mut dataset,
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            &params,
+        )
+        .name("i_idx".into())
+        .preprocessed_data(Box::new(reader))
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![index],
+                        removed_indices: vec![],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    pub async fn prepare(dataset: &Dataset) -> (Transition, Vec<Fragment>) {
+        let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        prepare_partition(dataset, &source_ids, 10).await
+    }
+
+    /// [`prepare`] over a subset of fragments: scans `source_ids` in order,
+    /// alternates their rows across two uncommitted destinations numbered
+    /// from `dest_base_id`, and writes the row map for that partition.
+    pub async fn prepare_partition(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        source_ids: &[u64],
+        dest_base_id: u64,
+    ) -> (Transition, Vec<Fragment>) {
+        prepare_partition_with_block_rows(dataset, source_ids, dest_base_id, 3).await
+    }
+
+    /// [`prepare_partition`] with the row map's block size chosen by the
+    /// caller, for tests that need several blocks per cache chunk.
+    pub async fn prepare_partition_with_block_rows(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        source_ids: &[u64],
+        dest_base_id: u64,
+        block_rows: u32,
+    ) -> (Transition, Vec<Fragment>) {
+        let source_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = source_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| {
+                dataset
+                    .fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .clone()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let batch = {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.with_fragments(source_fragments.clone());
+            scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
+        };
+        let values = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let labels: Vec<_> = values.iter().map(|v| (v.unwrap() % 2) as u16).collect();
+        let mut destinations = Vec::new();
+        for label in 0..2 {
+            let positions = UInt32Array::from(
+                labels
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .filter_map(|(i, &l)| (l == label).then_some(i as u32))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                batch.schema(),
+                batch
+                    .columns()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|column| arrow::compute::take(column, &positions, None).unwrap())
+                    .collect(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let transaction = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let Operation::Append { fragments } = transaction.operation else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            destinations.extend(fragments);
+        }
+        for (i, fragment) in destinations.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            fragment.id = dest_base_id + i as u64;
+        }
+        let mut source_rows = Vec::new();
+        let mut sources = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in source_fragments.iter() {
+            let deleted: Option<RoaringBitmap> = dataset
+                .get_fragment(fragment.id as usize)
+                .unwrap()
+                .get_deletion_vector()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .map(|v| v.iter().collect());
+            let rows = fragment.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64;
+            sources.push(FragmentDigest {
+                id: fragment.id,
+                physical_rows: rows,
+                num_deleted_rows: deleted.as_ref().map_or(0, |d| d.len()),
+            });
+            source_rows.push(SourceRows {
+                physical_rows: rows,
+                deleted,
+            });
+        }
+        let id = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let store = LanceIndexStore::with_format_version(
+            dataset.object_store.clone(),
+            dataset.base.clone().join("_fri").join(id.to_string()),
+            Arc::new(LanceCache::with_capacity(1024 * 1024)),
+            lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+        );
+        let writer = store
+            .new_index_file(MAPPING_FILE, RowMapWriter::schema())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut writer =
+            RowMapWriter::try_new_with_block_rows(writer, source_rows, 2, block_rows).unwrap();
+        writer.append_labels(&labels).await.unwrap();
+        let (file, _) = writer.finish().await.unwrap();
+        let transition = Transition {
+            sources,
+            destinations: destinations
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| FragmentDigest {
+                    id: f.id,
+                    physical_rows: f.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(StablePartition {
+                map_id: id.to_string(),
+                map_size_bytes: file.size_bytes,
+                base_id: None,
+            })),
+        };
+        (transition, destinations)
+    }
+
+    pub fn field(tag: u32, bytes: &[u8]) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let mut output = Vec::new();
+        prost::encoding::encode_key(tag, WireType::LengthDelimited, &mut output);
+        prost::encoding::encode_varint(bytes.len() as u64, &mut output);
+        output.extend_from_slice(bytes);
+        output
+    }
+
+    // Assemble a reader snapshot directly. Publishing rewrites and their FRI
+    // deltas atomically belongs to the writer PR, not this test helper.
+    pub async fn install(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        content: Vec<u8>,
+        destinations: Vec<Fragment>,
+        external: bool,
+    ) -> IndexMetadata {
+        let mut indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let details = if external {
+            let path = dataset
+                .indices_dir()
+                .join(uuid.to_string())
+                .join("details.binpb");
+            let mut writer = dataset.object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+            writer.write_all(&content).await.unwrap();
+            writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+            field(
+                2,
+                &pb::ExternalFile {
+                    path: "details.binpb".into(),
+                    offset: 0,
+                    size: content.len() as u64,
+                }
+                .encode_to_vec(),
+            )
+        } else {
+            field(1, &content)
+        };
+        let fri = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid,
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.into(),
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(destinations.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect()),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                value: details,
+            })),
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        indices.push(fri.clone());
+        let manifest = Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest);
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = destinations.into();
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap = Arc::new(
+            dataset
+                .manifest
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+                .collect(),
+        );
+        let key = IndexMetadataKey {
+            version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+            e_tag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+        };
+        dataset
+            .index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&key, Arc::new(indices))
+            .await;
+        fri
+    }
+
+    // Maintenance and clone reopen the manifest instead of using the query cache.
+    // Persist the assembled fixture without requiring the future rewrite writer.
+    pub async fn persist_fixture(dataset: &mut Dataset, indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>) {
+        let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+        manifest.version += 1;
+        manifest.update_max_fragment_id();
+        manifest.transaction_file = None;
+        manifest.transaction_section = None;
+        let location = crate::dataset::write_manifest_file(
+            &dataset.object_store,
+            dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+            &dataset.base,
+            &mut manifest,
+            Some(indices),
+            &crate::dataset::ManifestWriteConfig::default(),
+            dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+            None,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        *dataset = dataset.checkout_version(location.version).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn future_index_version_rejects_filtered_reads_with_upgrade() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let mut fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        fri.index_version = 2;
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| {
+                if index.uuid == fri.uuid {
+                    fri.clone()
+                } else {
+                    index.clone()
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let error = dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 2".into())).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Please upgrade"));
+    }
+
+    // Deferred compaction is no longer in this list: on a tagged table it
+    // appends an ordered-compaction transition to the tagged entry (see the
+    // chained end-to-end test in `crate::index::frag_reuse`). Cleanup is no
+    // longer in this list either: tagged trim is implemented (see
+    // `crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::tests::tagged_trim`), and on this
+    // fixture it is a retaining no-op. Shallow clone is no longer in this
+    // list: it relocates the entry's row-map references, and deep clone is
+    // not either: it copies the row maps and localizes their references (see
+    // the clone tests in `crate::index::frag_reuse`).
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::eager_compaction("eager")]
+    #[case::statistics("statistics")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unsupported_maintenance_preserves_snapshot(#[case] operation: &str) {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let error = match operation {
+            "eager" => crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err(),
+            "statistics" => dataset
+                .index_statistics(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err(),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version);
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices.iter().find(|index| index.uuid == fri.uuid),
+            Some(&fri)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 2".into())).await.unwrap(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::inline(false)]
+    #[case::external(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn restore_preserves_snapshot_and_mapping_references(#[case] external: bool) {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let legacy = dataset.clone();
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let source = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(
+            transition.sources[0].id as u32,
+            0,
+        ));
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, external).await;
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let tagged = dataset.clone();
+        let expected_mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&tagged, &fri)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .remap_row_ids(&[source])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut latest = tagged.manifest.version;
+        // Restore old data, then restore tagged data from the now-legacy latest snapshot.
+        for mut target in [legacy, tagged] {
+            let fragments = target.manifest.fragments.clone();
+            let expected_indices = lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes(
+                &target.object_store,
+                &target.manifest_location,
+                &target.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            target.restore().await.unwrap();
+            latest += 1;
+            assert_eq!(target.manifest.version, latest);
+            assert_eq!(target.manifest.fragments, fragments);
+            let restored_indices = lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes(
+                &target.object_store,
+                &target.manifest_location,
+                &target.manifest,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(restored_indices, expected_indices);
+            let flag = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+            assert_ne!(target.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, 0);
+            assert_ne!(target.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, 0);
+            assert_eq!(target.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 8);
+            for value in 0..8 {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    target
+                        .count_rows(Some(format!("i = {value}")))
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    1
+                );
+            }
+            if let Some(restored_fri) = restored_indices.iter().find(|index| index.uuid == fri.uuid)
+            {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    FragmentReuseIndex::open(&target, restored_fri)
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .remap_row_ids(&[source])
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    expected_mapping
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn manifest_publication_rejects_tagged_history_without_flags() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+        let flag = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags &= !flag;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags &= !flag;
+        let error = crate::dataset::write_manifest_file(
+            &dataset.object_store,
+            dataset.commit_handler.as_ref(),
+            &dataset.base,
+            &mut manifest,
+            Some(indices),
+            &Default::default(),
+            dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+            None,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        let error = Error::from(error);
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("tagged FRI metadata requires both"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn split_provenance_requires_all_sources_and_excludes_direct_coverage() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+        let source_a = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0]);
+        let source_b = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping.segment_coverage(std::slice::from_ref(&source_a)),
+            vec![RoaringBitmap::new()]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping.segment_coverage(&[source_a.clone(), source_b.clone()]),
+            vec![RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10, 11]); 2]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping.segment_coverage(&[source_a, source_b, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10])]),
+            vec![
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([11]),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([11]),
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10])
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn public_reader_translates_while_unintegrated_indices_scan() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let sources: RoaringBitmap = transition.sources.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        let reader = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader.segment_coverage(&[sources]),
+            vec![[10, 11].into_iter().collect()]
+        );
+        let result = reader
+            .remap_row_ids(&[
+                u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 0)),
+                u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0)),
+            ])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(result[0].is_some_and(|a| {
+            dataset
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .contains(RowAddress::from(a).fragment_id())
+        }));
+        assert_eq!(
+            result[1],
+            Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 0)))
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|i| i.name == "i_idx")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 2".into())).await.unwrap(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn legacy_compaction_does_not_open_the_new_reader() {
+        LEGACY_READER_ONLY
+            .scope((), async {
+                let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+                crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                    &mut dataset,
+                    crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                        target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                        defer_index_remap: true,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    },
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+                let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+                let fri = indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|i| i.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(fri.index_version, 0);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags
+                        & lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+                    0
+                );
+                assert_eq!(
+                    dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags
+                        & lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+                    0
+                );
+                assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 2".into())).await.unwrap(), 1);
+                assert!(
+                    dataset
+                        .open_frag_reuse_index(&lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .is_some()
+                );
+            })
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn snapshots_share_history_without_sharing_live_fragments() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let (first, concurrent) = futures::try_join!(
+            FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri),
+            FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first.ledger, &concurrent.ledger));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first.readers[0], &concurrent.readers[0]));
+        let before = dataset.index_cache.size_bytes().await;
+        let source = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 0));
+        let expected = first.remap_row_ids(&[source]).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset.index_cache.size_bytes().await > before,
+            "lazy counts must be charged to the cache"
+        );
+        let previous = dataset.clone();
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .limit(Some(1), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let current = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first.ledger, &current.ledger));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first.readers[0], &current.readers[0]));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &first.live_fragments,
+            &previous.fragment_bitmap
+        ));
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &current.live_fragments,
+            &dataset.fragment_bitmap
+        ));
+        let added = (&*dataset.fragment_bitmap - &*previous.fragment_bitmap)
+            .min()
+            .unwrap();
+        let added = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(added, 0));
+        assert_eq!(first.remap_row_ids(&[added]).await.unwrap(), vec![None]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            current.remap_row_ids(&[added]).await.unwrap(),
+            vec![Some(added)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(current.remap_row_ids(&[source]).await.unwrap(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::same_mappings(false)]
+    #[case::pruned_history(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn new_ledger_reuses_retained_mappings(#[case] prune: bool) {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (partition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+        roaring::RoaringTreemap::from_iter(
+            (0..4).map(|row| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(900, row))),
+        )
+        .serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs)
+        .unwrap();
+        let ordered = Transition {
+            sources: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                id: 900,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }],
+            destinations: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                id: 0,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }],
+            mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::OrderedCompaction { changed_row_addrs },
+            )),
+        };
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![ordered.clone(), partition.clone()],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        let first = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+        let old_address = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(900, 0));
+        let expected = first.remap_row_ids(&[old_address]).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(expected[0].is_some());
+
+        let mut replacement = fri.clone();
+        replacement.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let retained = if prune {
+            vec![partition]
+        } else {
+            vec![ordered, partition]
+        };
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: retained,
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        replacement.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value: field(1, &content),
+        }));
+        let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        *indices.iter_mut().find(|i| i.uuid == fri.uuid).unwrap() = replacement.clone();
+        // Model a committed pruned ledger; implementing cleanup is the writer PR's job.
+        persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let current = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &replacement)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&first.ledger, &current.ledger));
+        let retained_partition = usize::from(!prune);
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(
+            &first.readers[1],
+            &current.readers[retained_partition]
+        ));
+        if !prune {
+            assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first.readers[0], &current.readers[0]));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            current.remap_row_ids(&[old_address]).await.unwrap(),
+            if prune { vec![None] } else { expected.clone() }
+        );
+        assert_eq!(first.remap_row_ids(&[old_address]).await.unwrap(), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn mapping_cache_isolates_layout_and_storage_binding() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (mut partition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![partition.clone()],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        let first = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+        let mut rebound = dataset.clone();
+        rebound.object_store = Arc::new(dataset.object_store.as_ref().clone());
+        let second = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&rebound, &fri).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first.ledger, &second.ledger));
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&first.readers[0], &second.readers[0]));
+        let source = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 0));
+        let original = first.remap_row_ids(&[source]).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.remap_row_ids(&[source]).await.unwrap(), original);
+
+        partition.sources.reverse();
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![partition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let mut changed = fri.clone();
+        changed.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        changed.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value: field(1, &content),
+        }));
+        let changed = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &changed).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&first.readers[0], &changed.readers[0]));
+        assert_ne!(changed.remap_row_ids(&[source]).await.unwrap(), original);
+        assert_eq!(first.remap_row_ids(&[source]).await.unwrap(), original);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn historical_version_zero_reuses_legacy_reader_after_append() {
+        LEGACY_READER_ONLY
+            .scope((), async {
+                let dir = crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp(
+                    "fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset",
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+                let uri = dir.std_path().to_str().unwrap();
+                let mut dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+                let metrics = lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+                let original = dataset
+                    .open_frag_reuse_index(&metrics)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .unwrap();
+                let cached = dataset
+                    .open_frag_reuse_index(&metrics)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .unwrap();
+                assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&original, &cached));
+                let old_snapshot = dataset.clone();
+                let old_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+                let batch = dataset
+                    .scan()
+                    .limit(Some(1), None)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                dataset
+                    .append(
+                        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                let current = dataset
+                    .open_frag_reuse_index(&metrics)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .unwrap();
+                assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&original, &current));
+                let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+                for snapshot in [&old_snapshot, &dataset, &reopened] {
+                    let indices = snapshot.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+                    let fri = indices
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|i| i.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                        .unwrap();
+                    assert_eq!(fri.index_version, 0);
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        snapshot.manifest.reader_feature_flags
+                            & lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+                        0
+                    );
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        snapshot.manifest.writer_feature_flags
+                            & lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+                        0
+                    );
+                    assert!(
+                        snapshot
+                            .open_frag_reuse_index(&metrics)
+                            .await
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .is_some()
+                    );
+                }
+                assert_eq!(old_snapshot.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), old_rows);
+                assert_eq!(reopened.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), old_rows + 1);
+            })
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::inline(false)]
+    #[case::external(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unknown_mapping_falls_back_to_scan(#[case] external: bool) {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (mut transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        transition.mapping = None;
+        let mut raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+        raw.extend(field(17, b"future mapping"));
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, field(2, &raw), destinations, external).await;
+        let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(mapping.ledger.has_unsupported_transitions());
+        assert!(mapping.may_need_translation(Some(&RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1]))));
+        assert!(mapping.ledger.transitions().is_empty());
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter("i = 2").unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !scan
+                .explain_plan(false)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .contains("ScalarIndexQuery")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(), 1);
+    }
+
+    // A dropped unknown transition leaves no record of which fragments it
+    // touched, so a segment whose bitmap is entirely live and absent from the
+    // (now empty) retained graph would otherwise be granted identity and return
+    // its pre-transition addresses. Deny identity to every segment while any
+    // unsupported transition is present. Without the guard in
+    // `may_need_translation`, the live-destination bitmap below is a subset of
+    // live fragments and disjoint from the retained ledger, so this asserts
+    // false (identity) and the test fails.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn dropped_unknown_transition_denies_identity_to_live_segment() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (mut transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        transition.mapping = None;
+        let mut raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+        raw.extend(field(17, b"future mapping"));
+        // Destinations become the live fragments (ids 10, 11) after install.
+        let live_destinations: RoaringBitmap = destinations.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, field(2, &raw), destinations, false).await;
+        let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(mapping.ledger.has_unsupported_transitions());
+        assert!(mapping.ledger.transitions().is_empty());
+        // The bitmap IS a subset of live fragments and disjoint from the empty
+        // retained ledger: identity would be granted but for the guard.
+        assert!(live_destinations.is_subset(mapping.live_fragments.as_ref()));
+        assert!(
+            live_destinations
+                .iter()
+                .all(|f| !mapping.ledger.contains_fragment(f))
+        );
+        assert!(
+            mapping.may_need_translation(Some(&live_destinations)),
+            "a dropped unknown transition must deny identity to every segment"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // MemWAL and other system indices carry `fragment_bitmap: None` by design.
+    // The coverage rewrite must pass every system index through untouched, not
+    // just FRI by name: otherwise MemWAL falls into the coverage groups,
+    // `may_need_translation(None)` drops it, and every `load_index_by_name`
+    // caller sees an initialized dataset as uninitialized. A non-system user
+    // index with no coverage must still be dropped, proving the gate is
+    // system-vs-user, not "None passes through".
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn tagged_history_keeps_mem_wal_system_index_visible() {
+        use lance_table::system_index::mem_wal::{MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, new_mem_wal_index_meta};
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+        let mem_wal = new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset.manifest.version, Default::default()).unwrap();
+        let mut orphan_user_index = mem_wal.clone();
+        orphan_user_index.name = "user_index_without_coverage".into();
+        orphan_user_index.fragment_bitmap = None;
+
+        let indices = vec![fri.clone(), mem_wal.clone(), orphan_user_index.clone()];
+        let listing = load_indices(&dataset, &fri, &indices).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            listing.iter().any(|i| i.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME),
+            "tagged FRI must not hide the MemWAL system index"
+        );
+        assert!(listing.iter().any(|i| i.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME));
+        assert!(
+            !listing
+                .iter()
+                .any(|i| i.name == "user_index_without_coverage"),
+            "a non-system index with no coverage must still be dropped"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // The coverage-rewritten listing is cached per snapshot identity, so a second
+    // load_indices at the same snapshot returns the identical Arc instead of
+    // re-running segment_coverage and the per-index bitmap rewrites.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn derived_listing_is_cached_per_snapshot() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+        let first = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let second = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &second),
+            "derived listing must be served from cache on the second call"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Bookkeeping lookups read the FRI entry off the raw manifest listing, so
+    // they never drive the coverage rewrite. `frag_reuse_index_uuid` returns the
+    // installed FRI uuid without opening the mapping.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn frag_reuse_index_uuid_uses_bookkeeping_path() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.frag_reuse_index_uuid().await, Some(fri.uuid));
+    }
+
+    // Boundary: a metadata-only bookkeeping lookup must not parse the mapping, so
+    // it survives a corrupt ledger; but a caller that actually uses the mapping
+    // (the query reader) still surfaces the corruption rather than swallowing it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn corrupt_ledger_spares_bookkeeping_but_not_the_reader() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (_transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        // Undecodable ledger bytes: the raw listing still names the FRI, but the
+        // query reader cannot decode the transitions.
+        let content = field(2, b"not a valid transition stream");
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+        // Bookkeeping path (raw manifest listing) still resolves the uuid.
+        assert_eq!(dataset.frag_reuse_index_uuid().await, Some(fri.uuid));
+
+        // Query path decodes the ledger and must report the corruption.
+        assert!(FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn unrelated_fm_index_loads_with_tagged_history() {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("text", Utf8, ["alpha", "beta"])).unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Fm,
+                Some("text_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let transition = Transition {
+            sources: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                id: 900,
+                physical_rows: 1,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }],
+            destinations: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                id: 901,
+                physical_rows: 1,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }],
+            mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(StablePartition {
+                map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                map_size_bytes: 100,
+                base_id: None,
+            })),
+        };
+        let fragments = dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone();
+        let fri = install(
+            &mut dataset,
+            InlineContent {
+                legacy_versions: vec![],
+                transitions: vec![transition],
+            }
+            .encode_to_vec(),
+            fragments,
+            false,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let index = dataset
+            .load_index_by_name("text_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            &index,
+            &lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some("contains(text, 'alpha')".into()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            1
+        );
+        let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+
+        let current = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 0));
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping
+                .remap_row_ids(&[current, u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(999, 0))])
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            vec![Some(current), None]
+        );
+        let error = dataset
+            .index_statistics(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+    }
+
+    // A,B -> C,D -> E,F. Each destination contains one row. Coverage is
+    // conservative for each mapping and requires both source fragments.
+    async fn chain_reader() -> FragmentReuseIndex {
+        let transitions = [(vec![0, 1], vec![2, 3]), (vec![2, 3], vec![4, 5])]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(sources, destinations)| {
+                let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+                roaring::RoaringTreemap::from_iter(
+                    sources
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|&source| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(source, 0))),
+                )
+                .serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs)
+                .unwrap();
+                let digest = |id: u32| FragmentDigest {
+                    id: u64::from(id),
+                    physical_rows: 1,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                };
+                Transition {
+                    sources: sources.into_iter().map(digest).collect(),
+                    destinations: destinations.into_iter().map(digest).collect(),
+                    mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                        pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::OrderedCompaction { changed_row_addrs },
+                    )),
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let details = prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value: field(
+                1,
+                &InlineContent {
+                    legacy_versions: vec![],
+                    transitions,
+                }
+                .encode_to_vec(),
+            ),
+        };
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode(1, &details, |_| async { panic!("inline history") })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        FragmentReuseIndex {
+            ledger: Arc::new(ledger),
+            live_fragments: Arc::new(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([4, 5])),
+            // Coverage must never load mapping payloads.
+            readers: vec![],
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::nearest_coverage(vec![vec![0], vec![1], vec![2, 3]], vec![vec![], vec![], vec![4, 5]])]
+    #[case::mixed_depths(vec![vec![0], vec![1], vec![2]], vec![vec![4, 5], vec![4, 5], vec![4, 5]])]
+    #[case::independent_destination(vec![vec![0], vec![4]], vec![vec![], vec![4]])]
+    #[case::direct_and_derived(vec![vec![0], vec![1], vec![4]], vec![vec![5], vec![5], vec![4]])]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn coverage_resolves_each_destination_independently(
+        #[case] provenance: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+        #[case] expected: Vec<Vec<u32>>,
+    ) {
+        let reader = chain_reader().await;
+        let bitmaps = |values: Vec<Vec<u32>>| {
+            values
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(RoaringBitmap::from_iter)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader.segment_coverage(&bitmaps(provenance)),
+            bitmaps(expected)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn segment_plans_excludes_the_sibling_direct_union() {
+        let reader = chain_reader().await;
+        // Segments X, Y, Z with mixed direct and derived coverage.
+        let provenance = vec![
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0]),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1]),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([4]),
+        ];
+        let plans = reader.segment_plans(&provenance);
+        // The thin wrapper and the combined pass agree on coverage.
+        assert_eq!(
+            reader.segment_coverage(&provenance),
+            plans
+                .iter()
+                .map(|plan| plan.coverage.clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        // Exclusions equal the old sibling-union formula: everything any group
+        // member covers directly, minus the segment's own provenance.
+        let group: RoaringBitmap = provenance.iter().flatten().collect();
+        for (plan, own) in plans.iter().zip(&provenance) {
+            assert_eq!(plan.excluded, &group - own);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(plans[0].excluded, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1, 4]));
+        assert_eq!(plans[1].excluded, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 4]));
+        assert_eq!(plans[2].excluded, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1]));
+        // X and Y reach F5 through both transitions; Z covers F4 directly and
+        // passes through none.
+        assert_eq!(plans[0].path, vec![0, 1]);
+        assert_eq!(plans[1].path, vec![0, 1]);
+        assert!(plans[2].path.is_empty());
+
+        // The translation identity follows exactly the inputs of the
+        // translated output: coverage, the exclusions on the path's
+        // destinations, and the path itself.
+        let fingerprint = |plan: &SegmentPlanParts| {
+            reader.translation_fingerprint(&plan.coverage, &plan.excluded, &plan.path)
+        };
+        let base = fingerprint(&plans[0]);
+        assert_eq!(base, fingerprint(&plans[0]), "deterministic");
+        // X and Y share coverage, path and on-path exclusions ({4}), so they
+        // share an identity; their own content is told apart by the index
+        // UUID namespace layered on top.
+        assert_eq!(base, fingerprint(&plans[1]));
+        assert_ne!(base, fingerprint(&plans[2]), "a direct segment differs");
+        assert_ne!(
+            base,
+            reader.translation_fingerprint(
+                &RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                &plans[0].excluded,
+                &plans[0].path
+            ),
+            "coverage is part of the identity"
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            base,
+            reader.translation_fingerprint(
+                &plans[0].coverage,
+                &plans[0].excluded,
+                &plans[0].path[..1]
+            ),
+            "a transition dropped from the path changes the identity"
+        );
+        // Exclusions outside the path's destinations {2, 3, 4, 5} are inert:
+        // sibling churn elsewhere in the group cannot change X's output.
+        let mut off_path = plans[0].excluded.clone();
+        off_path.insert(99);
+        assert_eq!(
+            base,
+            reader.translation_fingerprint(&plans[0].coverage, &off_path, &plans[0].path),
+            "an exclusion off the path leaves the identity unchanged"
+        );
+        let mut on_path = plans[0].excluded.clone();
+        on_path.insert(5);
+        assert_ne!(
+            base,
+            reader.translation_fingerprint(&plans[0].coverage, &on_path, &plans[0].path),
+            "an exclusion on a path destination changes the identity"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::complete(false)]
+    #[case::unknown_middle_mapping(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn mixed_chain_keeps_independent_direct_coverage(#[case] unknown_middle: bool) {
+        let digest = |id| FragmentDigest {
+            id,
+            physical_rows: 2,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        };
+        let ordered = |source, destination| {
+            let bitmap = roaring::RoaringTreemap::from_iter([
+                u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(source, 0)),
+                u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(source, 1)),
+            ]);
+            let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+            bitmap.serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs).unwrap();
+            Transition {
+                sources: vec![digest(u64::from(source))],
+                destinations: vec![digest(destination)],
+                mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                    pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::OrderedCompaction { changed_row_addrs },
+                )),
+            }
+        };
+        let mut content = Vec::new();
+        for mut transition in [ordered(2, 3), ordered(0, 1), ordered(1, 2)] {
+            let is_unknown = unknown_middle && transition.sources[0].id == 1;
+            if is_unknown {
+                transition.mapping = None;
+            }
+            let mut raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+            if is_unknown {
+                raw.extend(field(17, b"future mapping"));
+            }
+            content.extend(field(2, &raw));
+        }
+        let details = prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value: field(1, &content),
+        };
+        let ledger = FragReuseLedger::decode(1, &details, |_| async { panic!("inline content") })
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mapping = Arc::new(FragmentReuseIndex {
+            live_fragments: Arc::new(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3, 9])),
+            readers: ledger
+                .transitions()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|t| {
+                    let Mapping::OrderedCompaction(remap) = t.mapping() else {
+                        unreachable!()
+                    };
+                    CachedMapping::uncached(Arc::new(OrderedCompactionMapping::new(remap.clone())))
+                })
+                .collect(),
+            ledger: Arc::new(ledger),
+        });
+        let inputs = [0, 1, 2, 3, 9].map(|f| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(f, 1)));
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping
+                .remap_row_ids_excluding(&inputs, &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2]))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            vec![
+                None,
+                None,
+                Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 1))),
+                Some(inputs[3]),
+                Some(inputs[4])
+            ],
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping.remap_row_ids(&inputs).await.unwrap(),
+            vec![
+                (!unknown_middle).then_some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 1))),
+                (!unknown_middle).then_some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 1))),
+                Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(3, 1))),
+                Some(inputs[3]),
+                Some(inputs[4])
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            mapping
+                .segment_coverage(&[RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0]), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2])])
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|coverage| coverage & mapping.live_fragments.as_ref())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![RoaringBitmap::new(), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3])]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn corrupt_counts_are_errors_instead_of_scan_fallback() {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let (mut transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+        transition.destinations[0].physical_rows -= 1;
+        transition.destinations[1].physical_rows += 1;
+        let content = InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+        let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+        let error = mapping
+            .remap_row_ids(&[u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 0))])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::CorruptFile { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("row-map total differs"));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::inline(false)]
+    #[case::external(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn append_carries_future_fri_without_interpreting_it(#[case] external: bool) {
+        let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+        let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut transition = Transition {
+            sources: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                id: 900,
+                physical_rows: 1,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }],
+            destinations: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                id: 901,
+                physical_rows: 1,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }],
+            mapping: None,
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec();
+        transition.extend(field(17, b"opaque future mapping reference"));
+        let content = field(2, &transition);
+        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let details_path = dataset
+            .indices_dir()
+            .join(uuid.to_string())
+            .join("details.binpb");
+        let details = if external {
+            let mut writer = dataset.object_store.create(&details_path).await.unwrap();
+            writer.write_all(&content).await.unwrap();
+            writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+            field(
+                2,
+                &pb::ExternalFile {
+                    path: "details.binpb".into(),
+                    offset: 0,
+                    size: content.len() as u64,
+                }
+                .encode_to_vec(),
+            )
+        } else {
+            field(1, &content)
+        };
+        let fri = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid,
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.into(),
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([901])),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                value: details,
+            })),
+            index_version: 2,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        // Installed by writing the manifest directly: the commit chokepoint
+        // (correctly) refuses a hand-built tagged entry, and no writer of this
+        // version can produce an index_version-2 entry.
+        let flag = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+        let mut indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+        indices.push(fri.clone());
+        {
+            let manifest = Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest);
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags |= flag;
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags |= flag;
+        }
+        persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        let error = dataset
+            .apply_commit(
+                Transaction::new(
+                    version,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index: None,
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                &Default::default(),
+                &Default::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("Tagged FRI"));
+        // Shallow clone would have to relocate references inside content it
+        // cannot interpret; the version gate rejects it before any decode.
+        let error = dataset
+            .shallow_clone("memory://fri-shallow", version, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("index_version 2"), "{error}");
+        // Deep clone would have to enumerate row maps referenced by content
+        // it cannot interpret; the same version gate rejects it too.
+        let error = dataset
+            .deep_clone("memory://fri-deep", version, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("index_version 2"), "{error}");
+        let error = crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("upgrade"));
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version);
+
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version + 1);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, flag);
+
+        let indices = lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes(
+            &dataset.object_store,
+            &dataset.manifest_location,
+            &dataset.manifest,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.iter().find(|index| index.uuid == uuid), Some(&fri));
+        if external {
+            let bytes = dataset
+                .object_store
+                .open(&details_path)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .get_range(0..content.len())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(bytes.as_ref(), content);
+        }
+    }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn v0_writer_metadata_is_never_tagged() {
+        use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndexDetails;
+        use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged;
+
+        let dataset = fixture().await;
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails { versions: vec![] };
+        let meta = crate::index::frag_reuse::build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            None,
+            details,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(meta.index_version, 0);
+        assert!(!is_tagged(&meta));
+
+        // Carrying an existing v0 entry forward preserves version 0.
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails { versions: vec![] };
+        let carried = crate::index::frag_reuse::build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+            &dataset,
+            Some(&meta),
+            details,
+            RoaringBitmap::new(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(carried.index_version, 0);
+        assert!(!is_tagged(&carried));
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+#[path = "frag_reuse_reader_tests.rs"]
+mod consumer_tests;
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_reader/cache.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_reader/cache.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0d7c8ca9434
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_reader/cache.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,244 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Immutable ledgers and store-bound mappings shared across dataset snapshots.
+
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, WeakLanceCache};
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::utils::fragment_reuse::{MappingReader, OrderedCompactionMapping};
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::row_map::{ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BYTES, RowMapBlockCache};
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::stable_partition::{MAPPING_FILE, StablePartitionMapping};
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::{FragReuseLedger, Mapping, Transition};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+
+struct LedgerKey {
+    uuid: Uuid,
+    version: i32,
+    store: String,
+    directory: String,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for LedgerKey {
+    type ValueType = FragReuseLedger;
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!(
+            "{}:{}:{}:{}",
+            self.uuid, self.version, self.store, self.directory
+        )
+        .into()
+    }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "FragmentReuseLedger"
+    }
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.fri-ledger", 1)
+    }
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_fixed_bytes(self.uuid.as_bytes());
+        builder.write_i32(self.version);
+        builder.write_str(&self.store);
+        builder.write_str(&self.directory);
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) async fn open_ledger(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<Arc<FragReuseLedger>> {
+    let store = dataset.object_store_for_index(index).await?;
+    let key = LedgerKey {
+        uuid: index.uuid,
+        version: index.index_version,
+        store: store.store_prefix.clone(),
+        directory: dataset.indice_files_dir(index)?.to_string(),
+    };
+    dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .get_or_insert_with_key(key, || super::load_ledger(dataset, index))
+        .await
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct MappingKey {
+    fingerprint: [u8; 32],
+    directory: String,
+    // In-memory only. The cached reader retains this ObjectStore, preventing
+    // pointer reuse while the entry exists. Store rotation gets a fresh reader.
+    binding: u64,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for MappingKey {
+    type ValueType = CachedMapping;
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        format!(
+            "{:x?}:{}:{}",
+            self.fingerprint, self.binding, self.directory
+        )
+        .into()
+    }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "FragmentReuseMappingReader"
+    }
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.fri-mapping-reader", 1)
+    }
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_fixed_bytes(&self.fingerprint);
+        builder.write_u64(self.binding);
+        builder.write_str(&self.directory);
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct CachedMapping {
+    reader: Arc<dyn MappingReader>,
+    cache: Option<(WeakLanceCache, MappingKey)>,
+    grows_on_open: bool,
+    accounted_bytes: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for CachedMapping {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.reader.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .cache
+                .as_ref()
+                .map_or(0, |(_, key)| key.directory.capacity())
+    }
+}
+
+impl CachedMapping {
+    pub async fn remap_row_ids(self: &Arc<Self>, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        let result = self.reader.remap_row_ids(row_ids).await;
+        // TODO: Evaluate cache size accuracy versus latency impact.
+        if self.grows_on_open {
+            // Counts are loaded lazily. Refresh the cache's weight even when a
+            // subsequent label read fails; invalid input alone does not grow it.
+            let bytes = self.reader.deep_size_of();
+            if bytes != self.accounted_bytes.swap(bytes, Ordering::Relaxed)
+                && let Some((cache, key)) = &self.cache
+            {
+                cache.insert_with_key(key, self.clone()).await;
+            }
+        }
+        result
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub fn uncached(reader: Arc<dyn MappingReader>) -> Arc<Self> {
+        Arc::new(Self {
+            reader,
+            cache: None,
+            grows_on_open: false,
+            accounted_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+pub async fn open_mapping(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    transition: &Transition,
+) -> Result<Arc<CachedMapping>> {
+    let (key, store) = match transition.mapping() {
+        Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_) => (
+            MappingKey {
+                fingerprint: *transition.fingerprint(),
+                directory: String::new(),
+                binding: 0,
+            },
+            None,
+        ),
+        Mapping::StablePartition(reference) => {
+            let base = match reference.base_id {
+                None => dataset.base.clone(),
+                Some(id) => dataset
+                    .manifest
+                    .base_paths
+                    .get(&id)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        super::corrupt(format!(
+                            "mapping {} references missing base {id}",
+                            reference.map_id
+                        ))
+                    })?
+                    .extract_path(dataset.session.store_registry())?,
+            };
+            let directory = base.join("_fri").join(reference.map_id.as_str());
+            let store = dataset.object_store(reference.base_id).await?;
+            (
+                MappingKey {
+                    fingerprint: *transition.fingerprint(),
+                    directory: directory.to_string(),
+                    binding: Arc::as_ptr(&store) as usize as u64,
+                },
+                Some((store, directory)),
+            )
+        }
+    };
+    let cache = WeakLanceCache::from(&dataset.index_cache);
+    dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .get_or_insert_with_key(key.clone(), || async move {
+            let reader: Arc<dyn MappingReader> = match transition.mapping() {
+                Mapping::OrderedCompaction(remap) => {
+                    Arc::new(OrderedCompactionMapping::new(remap.clone()))
+                }
+                Mapping::StablePartition(reference) => {
+                    let (store, directory) = store.ok_or_else(|| {
+                        lance_core::Error::internal("missing stable-partition store binding")
+                    })?;
+                    let metadata_cache = dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(&directory);
+                    let store = LanceIndexStore::new(store, directory, Arc::new(metadata_cache))
+                        .with_file_sizes(HashMap::from([(
+                            MAPPING_FILE.to_string(),
+                            reference.map_size_bytes,
+                        )]));
+                    // Row-map label chunks live in the index cache (following the
+                    // v0 placement choice: FRI file content is index-cached, not
+                    // file-cached). Keyed by the transition fingerprint so the
+                    // chunk entries are stable across queries and snapshots.
+                    //
+                    // A cache known to be smaller than one chunk can never
+                    // retain a chunk entry: every request would read a whole
+                    // chunk and discard it. Open the reader without a block
+                    // cache then, so a request reads exactly the blocks it
+                    // touches (a point lookup reads one block). When the
+                    // capacity is unknown the chunk cache is used, and a
+                    // request still pays at most one read per chunk because
+                    // the reader holds the chunk it loaded across the blocks
+                    // of one request.
+                    let capacity = dataset.index_cache.capacity_bytes();
+                    let block_cache = match capacity {
+                        Some(capacity) if capacity < ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BYTES => None,
+                        _ => Some(RowMapBlockCache::new(
+                            WeakLanceCache::from(&dataset.index_cache),
+                            *transition.fingerprint(),
+                        )),
+                    };
+                    Arc::new(StablePartitionMapping::try_new_with_cache(
+                        Arc::new(store),
+                        transition.sources().to_vec(),
+                        transition.destinations().to_vec(),
+                        block_cache,
+                    )?)
+                }
+            };
+            let accounted_bytes = AtomicUsize::new(reader.deep_size_of());
+            Ok(CachedMapping {
+                reader,
+                cache: Some((cache, key)),
+                grows_on_open: matches!(transition.mapping(), Mapping::StablePartition(_)),
+                accounted_bytes,
+            })
+        })
+        .await
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_reader_tests.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_reader_tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a92593bb10c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_reader_tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,4304 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use super::tests::{
+    field, fixture, fixture_with_index, install, persist_fixture, prepare,
+    prepare_partition_with_block_rows,
+};
+use super::*;
+use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+use crate::index::create::CreateIndexBuilder;
+use crate::index::frag_reuse_remapping::vector_supports_batch_remapping;
+use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+use crate::session::index_caches::IndexMetadataKey;
+use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, cast::AsArray};
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
+use geo_types::line_string;
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
+use geoarrow_array::{GeoArrowArray, builder::LineStringBuilder};
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
+use geoarrow_schema::{Dimension, LineStringType};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::row_map::ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BYTES;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+use lance_table::format::pb;
+use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::{
+    FragmentDigest, InlineContent, StablePartition, Transition, transition,
+};
+use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::Mapping;
+use prost::Message;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::default_search("default")]
+#[case::all_segments("all")]
+#[case::partial_selection("partial")]
+#[case::reconverged("reconverged")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn vector_fragment_search_requires_every_contributor(
+    #[case] selection: &str,
+    #[values(false, true)] filtered_destination: bool,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col(
+            "vector",
+            lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(4.into()),
+        )
+        .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
+        1,
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+    );
+    let fragments: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+        .collect();
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in fragments {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                .name("vector_idx".into())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    let ids: Vec<_> = segments.iter().map(|segment| segment.uuid).collect();
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let original = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 6")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = original["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+    let query = query.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    if selection == "reconverged" {
+        // Prefer the new C segment while old A/B segments still provide D.
+        // After C,D -> E their row sets must remain disjoint within E.
+        let c = dataset.fragments()[0].id as u32;
+        let direct = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+            .name("vector_idx".into())
+            .replace(true)
+            .fragments(vec![c])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        indices.push(direct);
+        let sources: Vec<_> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| FragmentDigest {
+                id: fragment.id,
+                physical_rows: fragment.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+        roaring::RoaringTreemap::from_iter(sources.iter().flat_map(|source| {
+            (0..source.physical_rows).map(move |offset| {
+                u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(source.id as u32, offset as u32))
+            })
+        }))
+        .serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs)
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let rewrite = crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let lance_table::transaction::Operation::Append { mut fragments } = rewrite.operation
+        else {
+            panic!("expected append fixture");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        fragments[0].id = 20;
+        let fri = indices
+            .iter_mut()
+            .find(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut details = pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails::decode(
+            fri.index_details.as_ref().unwrap().value.as_slice(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let Some(pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Content::Inline(content)) = &mut details.content
+        else {
+            panic!("expected inline fixture");
+        };
+        content.transitions.push(Transition {
+            sources,
+            destinations: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                id: 20,
+                physical_rows: 8,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            }],
+            mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::OrderedCompaction { changed_row_addrs },
+            )),
+        });
+        fri.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        fri.fragment_bitmap = Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([20]));
+        fri.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap()));
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = fragments.into();
+        persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    }
+
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    let expected_rows = if selection == "reconverged" && !filtered_destination {
+        8
+    } else {
+        1
+    };
+    scan.nearest("vector", query, expected_rows).unwrap();
+    if filtered_destination {
+        scan.with_fragments(vec![dataset.fragments()[0].clone()]);
+        scan.filter("i = 6").unwrap();
+        scan.prefilter(true);
+    } else {
+        scan.with_fragments(dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect());
+    }
+    match selection {
+        "all" => {
+            scan.with_index_segments(ids).unwrap();
+        }
+        "partial" => {
+            scan.with_index_segments(vec![ids[0]]).unwrap();
+        }
+        "default" | "reconverged" => {}
+        _ => unreachable!(),
+    }
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(plan.contains("ANN"), selection != "partial", "{plan}");
+    let result = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), expected_rows);
+    if expected_rows == 8 {
+        let mut values = result["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+        values.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(values, (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>(), "{plan}");
+    }
+    // IVF_FLAT with one partition is exact: the nearest row must come from Y,
+    // including when explicit selection of X requires a flat fallback.
+    assert_eq!(
+        result["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0),
+        6,
+        "{plan}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::complete("complete")]
+#[case::missing_segment("missing")]
+#[case::unsupported_version("version")]
+#[case::unsupported_async_plugin("plugin")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn destination_coverage_requires_every_contributing_segment(#[case] scenario: &str) {
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+    let fragments: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+        .collect();
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in &fragments {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                .name("i_idx".into())
+                .replace(true)
+                .fragments(vec![*fragment])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("i_idx", "i", segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    let second = indices
+        .iter()
+        .position(|index| {
+            index.name == "i_idx"
+                && index
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|bitmap| bitmap.contains(fragments[1]))
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+    match scenario {
+        "missing" => {
+            indices.remove(second);
+        }
+        "version" => {
+            indices[second].index_version = i32::MAX;
+        }
+        "plugin" => {
+            // A segment requiring an unsupported consumer must not be opened or
+            // counted toward the logical index's destination coverage.
+            indices[second].index_details = Some(Arc::new(
+                prost_types::Any::from_msg(&lance_index::pb::FmIndexDetails::default()).unwrap(),
+            ));
+            assert!(crate::index::index_is_usable(&indices[second]));
+        }
+        "complete" => {}
+        _ => unreachable!(),
+    }
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let complete = scenario == "complete";
+    let usable = crate::index::scalar_logical::load_named_scalar_segments(&dataset, "i", "i_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(usable.len(), if complete { 2 } else { 0 });
+    for segment in &usable {
+        assert_eq!(
+            segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+        );
+    }
+    for value in 0..8 {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter(&format!("i = {value}")).unwrap();
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), complete, "{plan}");
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            1,
+            "missing or duplicated row {value}: {plan}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), value);
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::only_c(false)]
+#[case::both_destinations(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn direct_destination_coverage_preserves_partial_index_queries(#[case] both: bool) {
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+    let sources: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+        .collect();
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    for source in sources {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                .name("i_idx".into())
+                .replace(true)
+                .fragments(vec![source])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("i_idx", "i", segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let covered: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .take(if both { 2 } else { 1 })
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+        .collect();
+    let direct = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+        .name("i_idx".into())
+        .replace(true)
+        .fragments(covered.clone())
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    if !both {
+        // No index path reaches D, but direct coverage of C must remain usable.
+        indices.retain(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+    }
+    indices.push(direct.clone());
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let usable = crate::index::scalar_logical::load_named_scalar_segments(&dataset, "i", "i_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(usable.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(usable[0].uuid, direct.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        usable[0].fragment_bitmap,
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(covered))
+    );
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.filter("i >= 0").unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut values = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+    values.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(values, (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>(), "{plan}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn projected_coverage_does_not_skip_address_translation() {
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    let index = indices
+        .iter_mut()
+        .find(|index| index.name == "i_idx")
+        .unwrap();
+    index.fragment_bitmap = Some(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
+    let key = IndexMetadataKey {
+        version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+        e_tag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+    };
+    dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .insert_with_key(&key, Arc::new(indices))
+        .await;
+    for value in 0..8 {
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some(format!("i = {value}")))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::inline(false)]
+#[case::external(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn scalar_queries_translate_deleted_sources_and_lazy_blocks(
+    #[case] external: bool,
+    #[values(
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        IndexType::Bitmap,
+        IndexType::ZoneMap,
+        IndexType::BloomFilter
+    )]
+    index_type: IndexType,
+) {
+    let mut dataset = fixture_with_index(index_type).await;
+    dataset.delete("i = 3").await.unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, external).await;
+    let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+
+    let index = dataset.load_index_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+    );
+
+    let plan = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 2")
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    for value in 0..8 {
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some(format!("i = {value}")))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            usize::from(value != 3)
+        );
+    }
+
+    let metrics = lance_index::metrics::LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(&dataset, "i", &index, &metrics)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        metrics
+            .index_loads
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed),
+        0
+    );
+    // Translated entries are keyed by the segment's translation identity, not
+    // by the manifest snapshot: a snapshot whose path differs but whose
+    // coverage, exclusions and mapping path are unchanged is a cache hit.
+    let mut other_snapshot = dataset.clone();
+    other_snapshot.manifest_location.path =
+        dataset.base.clone().join("_versions").join("999.manifest");
+    crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(&other_snapshot, "i", &index, &metrics)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        metrics
+            .index_loads
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed),
+        0,
+        "a path-only snapshot change must not evict translated entries"
+    );
+    let inputs = [
+        u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(1, 3)),
+        u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 2)),
+        u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 2)),
+        u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 3)),
+    ];
+    assert_eq!(
+        mapping.remap_row_ids(&inputs).await.unwrap(),
+        vec![
+            Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(11, 2))),
+            Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 1))),
+            Some(u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(10, 1))),
+            None
+        ]
+    );
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::ngram(IndexType::NGram)]
+#[case::inverted(IndexType::Inverted)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn text_indices_translate_through_the_shared_remapper(#[case] index_type: IndexType) {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("i", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]),
+        (
+            "text",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                Some("even"),
+                Some("odd"),
+                Some("even"),
+                Some("odd"),
+                None,
+                Some("odd"),
+                Some("even"),
+                Some("odd")
+            ]
+        )
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    if index_type == IndexType::Inverted {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                index_type,
+                Some("text_idx".into()),
+                &lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    } else {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                index_type,
+                Some("text_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+    dataset.delete("i = 3").await.unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let index = dataset
+        .load_index_by_name("text_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+    );
+    for _ in 0..2 {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        if index_type == IndexType::Inverted {
+            scan.full_text_search(lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery::new("even".into()))
+                .unwrap();
+        } else {
+            scan.filter("contains(text, 'even')").unwrap();
+            let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+        }
+        let result = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let actual = result
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<std::collections::BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual, std::collections::BTreeSet::from([0, 2, 6]));
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn label_list_translates_values_and_null_rows() {
+    let labels = arrow_array::ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int64Type, _, _>(
+        (0..8).map(|i| {
+            if i == 4 {
+                None
+            } else {
+                Some(vec![Some(i % 2)])
+            }
+        }),
+    );
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([
+        (
+            "i",
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..8)) as arrow_array::ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        ("labels", Arc::new(labels) as arrow_array::ArrayRef),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["labels"],
+            IndexType::LabelList,
+            Some("labels_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset.delete("i = 3").await.unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    for (predicate, expected) in [
+        ("array_has_any(labels, [0])", vec![0, 2, 6]),
+        ("NOT array_has_any(labels, [0])", vec![1, 5, 7]),
+    ] {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+        let result = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let actual = result
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<std::collections::BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected.into_iter().collect());
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn rtree_queries_translate_partition_addresses() {
+    let geometry_type = LineStringType::new(Dimension::XY, Default::default());
+    let mut geometry = LineStringBuilder::new(geometry_type.clone());
+    for i in 0..8 {
+        let line = line_string![(x: i as f64, y: 0.0), (x: i as f64, y: 1.0)];
+        geometry
+            .push_line_string((i != 7).then_some(&line))
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("i", arrow_schema::DataType::Int32, false),
+            geometry_type.to_field("geometry", true),
+        ])),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..8)),
+            geometry.finish().to_array_ref(),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["geometry"],
+            IndexType::RTree,
+            Some("geometry_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::new("RTree".into()),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset.delete("i = 1").await.unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let sql = "SELECT i FROM dataset WHERE ST_Intersects(geometry, ST_GeomFromText('LINESTRING (0 0.5, 6 0.5)')) ORDER BY i";
+    let batches = dataset
+        .sql(sql)
+        .build()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .into_batch_records()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids: Vec<_> = batches
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|batch| {
+            batch["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+        })
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(ids, vec![0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]);
+    let plan = dataset
+        .sql(&format!("EXPLAIN {sql}"))
+        .build()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .into_batch_records()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = arrow::util::pretty::pretty_format_batches(&plan)
+        .unwrap()
+        .to_string();
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("geometry IS NULL".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        1
+    );
+}
+
+async fn assert_legacy_metadata(dataset: &Dataset) -> Option<IndexMetadata> {
+    let flag = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, 0);
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, 0);
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let fri = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+    for index in indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|index| index.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+    {
+        let resolved =
+            super::super::frag_reuse::open_row_id_remapping(dataset, index, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        if let Some(fri) = fri {
+            assert_eq!(fri.index_version, 0);
+            let (uuid, remapping) = resolved.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(uuid, fri.uuid);
+            let super::super::frag_reuse::ResolvedRemapping::V0(remapper) = remapping else {
+                panic!("V1 must use the synchronous remapper");
+            };
+            let legacy = dataset
+                .open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+            for version in &legacy.details.versions {
+                for group in &version.groups {
+                    for source in &group.old_frags {
+                        for offset in 0..source.physical_rows {
+                            let address =
+                                RowAddress::new_from_parts(source.id as u32, offset as u32).into();
+                            assert_eq!(
+                                remapper.remap_row_id(address),
+                                legacy.remap_row_id(address)
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        } else {
+            assert!(resolved.is_none());
+        }
+    }
+    fri.cloned()
+}
+
+// Exercise external history with the exact InlineContent bytes emitted by
+// the legacy writer, without manufacturing a 200-KB history in every test.
+async fn externalize_legacy_history(dataset: &mut Dataset) {
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    let fri = indices
+        .iter_mut()
+        .find(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut details: pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails =
+        fri.index_details.as_ref().unwrap().to_msg().unwrap();
+    let Some(pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Content::Inline(content)) = details.content.take()
+    else {
+        panic!("expected inline legacy writer output");
+    };
+    assert!(content.transitions.is_empty());
+    let bytes = content.encode_to_vec();
+    // A fresh identity prevents a previously opened inline history from
+    // satisfying this test through the shared session cache.
+    fri.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let name = "legacy-external.binpb";
+    let path = dataset.indices_dir().join(fri.uuid.to_string()).join(name);
+    let mut writer = dataset.object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+    writer.write_all(&bytes).await.unwrap();
+    writer.shutdown().await.unwrap();
+    details.content = Some(pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Content::External(
+        pb::ExternalFile {
+            path: name.into(),
+            offset: 0,
+            size: bytes.len() as u64,
+        },
+    ));
+    fri.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap()));
+    persist_fixture(dataset, indices).await;
+}
+
+async fn assert_legacy_scalar_queries(dataset: &Dataset) {
+    assert_legacy_metadata(dataset).await;
+    let index = dataset
+        .load_index_by_name("value_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+    // Force loading even when the planner chooses a scan for a small fixture.
+    dataset
+        .open_scalar_index("value", &index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    for filter in ["value = 2", "value IS NULL", "value >= 2"] {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.use_scalar_index(false)
+            .filter(filter)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap();
+        let expected = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+            batch["id"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .collect::<std::collections::BTreeSet<_>>()
+        };
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            let actual = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(filter)
+                .unwrap()
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                ids(&actual),
+                ids(&expected),
+                "filter {filter}, version {}",
+                dataset.version_id()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::btree_inline(IndexType::BTree, false)]
+#[case::btree_external(IndexType::BTree, true)]
+#[case::bitmap(IndexType::Bitmap, false)]
+#[case::zonemap(IndexType::ZoneMap, false)]
+#[case::bloom(IndexType::BloomFilter, false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_scalar_lifecycle_never_enters_new_reader(
+    #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+    #[case] external: bool,
+    #[values(false, true)] defer_index_remap: bool,
+) {
+    // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the lifecycle future grew past 16 KiB.
+    Box::pin(lance_index::scalar::LEGACY_TRAFFIC_ONLY.scope(
+        (),
+        LEGACY_READER_ONLY.scope((), async {
+            let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+                ("id", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]),
+                (
+                    "value",
+                    Int32,
+                    [
+                        Some(0),
+                        None,
+                        Some(2),
+                        Some(3),
+                        None,
+                        Some(2),
+                        Some(6),
+                        Some(7),
+                        None,
+                        Some(2),
+                        Some(10),
+                        Some(11)
+                    ]
+                )
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                "memory://",
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["value"],
+                    index_type,
+                    Some("value_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(assert_legacy_metadata(&dataset).await.is_none());
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&dataset).await;
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 6,
+                    defer_index_remap,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_legacy_metadata(&dataset).await.is_some(),
+                defer_index_remap
+            );
+            if external && defer_index_remap {
+                externalize_legacy_history(&mut dataset).await;
+            }
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&dataset).await;
+            let first = dataset.clone();
+            dataset.delete("id = 2").await.unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&dataset).await;
+            let appended =
+                arrow_array::record_batch!(("id", Int32, [12]), ("value", Int32, [Some(2)]))
+                    .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .append(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&dataset).await;
+            dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&dataset).await;
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                    defer_index_remap,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&dataset).await;
+            // Checkout shares the session cache, but must use its own FRI history.
+            let historical = dataset.checkout_version(first.version_id()).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&historical.session(), &dataset.session()));
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&historical).await;
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&dataset).await;
+            dataset.index_statistics("value_idx").await.unwrap();
+            if defer_index_remap {
+                dataset
+                    .index_statistics(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            let before_remap = dataset.version_id();
+            let result = crate::dataset::optimize::remapping::remap_column_index(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &["value"],
+                Some("value_idx".into()),
+            )
+            .await;
+            if defer_index_remap {
+                result.unwrap();
+            } else {
+                let error = result.unwrap_err();
+                assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+                assert!(error.to_string().contains("Fragment reuse index not found"));
+                assert_eq!(dataset.version_id(), before_remap);
+            }
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&dataset).await;
+            crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_scalar_queries(&dataset).await;
+        }),
+    ))
+    .await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_reader_guard_rejects_new_entry_points() {
+    let dataset = fixture().await;
+    let index = dataset.load_index_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    LEGACY_READER_ONLY
+        .scope((), async {
+            let Err(error) = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &index).await else {
+                panic!("guard must reject new reader construction");
+            };
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+            assert!(
+                error
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains("V1 operation entered the new FRI reader")
+            );
+            let error = load_ledger(&dataset, &index).await.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::Internal { .. }));
+            assert!(
+                error
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains("V1 operation entered the new FRI reader")
+            );
+        })
+        .await;
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::inline(false)]
+#[case::external(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn released_v1_dataset_uses_legacy_reader(#[case] external: bool) {
+    LEGACY_READER_ONLY
+        .scope((), async {
+            let dir = crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp(
+                "fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset",
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.std_path().to_str().unwrap())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let initial_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(assert_legacy_metadata(&dataset).await.is_some());
+            if external {
+                externalize_legacy_history(&mut dataset).await;
+            }
+            for _ in 0..2 {
+                let index = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|index| index.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .clone();
+                dataset
+                    .open_vector_index("vec", &index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    dataset
+                        .count_rows(Some("vec IS NOT NULL".into()))
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    initial_rows
+                );
+                assert_legacy_metadata(&dataset).await;
+            }
+            let before_append = dataset.clone();
+            let batch = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .limit(Some(1), None)
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .append(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_metadata(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), initial_rows + 1);
+            let historical = dataset
+                .checkout_version(before_append.version_id())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&dataset.session(), &historical.session()));
+            assert_legacy_metadata(&historical).await;
+            assert_eq!(historical.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), initial_rows);
+        })
+        .await;
+}
+
+async fn assert_legacy_vector_queries(dataset: &Dataset) {
+    assert_legacy_metadata(dataset).await;
+    let index = dataset
+        .load_index_by_name("vector_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .open_vector_index("vector", &index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![5.25, 5.25, 5.25, 5.25]);
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.nearest("vector", &query, 3)
+        .unwrap()
+        .use_index(false)
+        .project(&["id"])
+        .unwrap();
+    let expected = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let ids = |batch: &RecordBatch| {
+        batch["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<std::collections::BTreeSet<_>>()
+    };
+    for _ in 0..2 {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vector", &query, 3)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap().contains("ANN"));
+        let result = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        // IVF-Flat with one partition is exact: recall must be 1.0.
+        assert_eq!(ids(&result), ids(&expected));
+    }
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::eager(false, false)]
+#[case::deferred_inline(true, false)]
+#[case::deferred_external(true, true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_vector_lifecycle_never_enters_new_reader(
+    #[case] defer_index_remap: bool,
+    #[case] external: bool,
+) {
+    // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the lifecycle future grew past 16 KiB.
+    Box::pin(lance_index::scalar::LEGACY_TRAFFIC_ONLY.scope(
+        (),
+        LEGACY_READER_ONLY.scope((), async {
+            let vectors = arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<
+                arrow_array::types::Float32Type,
+                _,
+                _,
+            >((0..12).map(|id| Some(vec![Some(id as f32); 4])), 4);
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([
+                (
+                    "id",
+                    Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..12))
+                        as arrow_array::ArrayRef,
+                ),
+                ("vector", Arc::new(vectors) as arrow_array::ArrayRef),
+            ])
+            .unwrap();
+            let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+                "memory://",
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 3,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
+                1,
+                lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            );
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["vector"],
+                    IndexType::Vector,
+                    Some("vector_idx".into()),
+                    &params,
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(assert_legacy_metadata(&dataset).await.is_none());
+            assert_legacy_vector_queries(&dataset).await;
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 6,
+                    defer_index_remap,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_legacy_metadata(&dataset).await.is_some(),
+                defer_index_remap
+            );
+            if external && defer_index_remap {
+                externalize_legacy_history(&mut dataset).await;
+            }
+            assert_legacy_vector_queries(&dataset).await;
+            let first = dataset.clone();
+            dataset.delete("id = 5").await.unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_vector_queries(&dataset).await;
+            let appended = batch.slice(11, 1);
+            dataset
+                .append(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+                    None,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_vector_queries(&dataset).await;
+            // Merge-all keeps a single segment, which the query helper
+            // expects when reopening the index by name.
+            dataset
+                .optimize_indices(&lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions::merge(usize::MAX))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_vector_queries(&dataset).await;
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                    target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+                    defer_index_remap,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            dataset.prewarm_index("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_vector_queries(&dataset).await;
+            let historical = dataset.checkout_version(first.version_id()).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&dataset.session(), &historical.session()));
+            assert_legacy_vector_queries(&historical).await;
+            assert_legacy_vector_queries(&dataset).await;
+            dataset.index_statistics("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+            let before_remap = dataset.version_id();
+            let result = crate::dataset::optimize::remapping::remap_column_index(
+                &mut dataset,
+                &["vector"],
+                Some("vector_idx".into()),
+            )
+            .await;
+            if defer_index_remap {
+                result.unwrap();
+            } else {
+                let error = result.unwrap_err();
+                assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }));
+                assert!(error.to_string().contains("Fragment reuse index not found"));
+                assert_eq!(dataset.version_id(), before_remap);
+            }
+            crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_legacy_vector_queries(&dataset).await;
+        }),
+    ))
+    .await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn released_legacy_fri_keeps_version_zero_on_append() {
+    let dir =
+        crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp("fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset")
+            .unwrap();
+    let uri = dir.std_path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let fri = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(fri.index_version, 0);
+    // Decode the released writer's actual Any, not a reserialized modern protobuf.
+    let ledger = load_ledger(&dataset, fri).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!ledger.transitions().is_empty());
+    let legacy = dataset
+        .open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+    for transition in ledger.transitions() {
+        for source in transition.sources() {
+            for offset in 0..source.physical_rows {
+                let original = RowAddress::new_from_parts(source.id as u32, offset as u32);
+                let mut translated = Some(u64::from(original));
+                while let Some(current) = translated {
+                    let Some(index) = ledger.consumer(RowAddress::from(current).fragment_id())
+                    else {
+                        break;
+                    };
+                    let Mapping::OrderedCompaction(remap) = ledger.transitions()[index].mapping()
+                    else {
+                        unreachable!()
+                    };
+                    translated = remap.get(current).unwrap();
+                }
+                assert_eq!(translated, legacy.remap_row_id(original.into()));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    let original_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .limit(Some(1), None)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let reopened = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(reopened.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), original_rows + 1);
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&reopened).await.unwrap();
+    let fri = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(fri.index_version, 0);
+    let flag = lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX;
+    assert_eq!(reopened.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag, 0);
+    assert_eq!(reopened.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag, 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_vector_format_is_excluded_from_rewritten_coverage() {
+    let dir = crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq").unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::open(dir.std_path().to_str().unwrap())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let vector = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| !index.fields.is_empty())
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    assert!(
+        !vector_supports_batch_remapping(&dataset, &vector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    );
+    let mut destinations = dataset.fragments().to_vec();
+    let sources = destinations
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| FragmentDigest {
+            id: fragment.id,
+            physical_rows: 1,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        })
+        .collect();
+    for fragment in &mut destinations {
+        fragment.id += 10;
+    }
+    let transition = Transition {
+        sources,
+        destinations: destinations
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| FragmentDigest {
+                id: fragment.id,
+                physical_rows: 1,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            })
+            .collect(),
+        mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(StablePartition {
+            map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+            map_size_bytes: 1,
+            base_id: None,
+        })),
+    };
+    // No row-map file is written: the unsupported vector segment must fall back.
+    install(
+        &mut dataset,
+        InlineContent {
+            legacy_versions: vec![],
+            transitions: vec![transition],
+        }
+        .encode_to_vec(),
+        destinations,
+        false,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(&vector.name)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_none()
+    );
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("id = 0".into())).await.unwrap(), 1);
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::lazy(false)]
+#[case::prewarmed(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn vector_partition_uses_shared_remapping_and_cached_reconstruction(#[case] prewarm: bool) {
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col(
+            "vector",
+            lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(4.into()),
+        )
+        .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
+        1,
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+    );
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["vector"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some("vector_idx".into()),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let original = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 2")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = original
+        .column_by_name("vector")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_fixed_size_list()
+        .value(0);
+    let query = query.as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>();
+    dataset.delete("i = 3").await.unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    if prewarm {
+        dataset.prewarm_index("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+    }
+    let search = |dataset: Dataset| async move {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vector", query, 1).unwrap();
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+        let result = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            result
+                .column_by_name("i")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .value(0),
+            2
+        );
+    };
+    for _ in 0..2 {
+        search(dataset.clone()).await;
+    }
+
+    // The IVF state embeds no rows and the translated partition is keyed by
+    // the segment's translation identity, which an append leaves unchanged:
+    // both survive the commit. Before this keying every commit cold-started
+    // the whole index.
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(original.clone())], original.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let uuid = dataset
+        .load_index_by_name("vector_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap()
+        .uuid;
+    let metrics = lance_index::metrics::LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    let index = dataset
+        .open_vector_index("vector", &uuid, &metrics)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        metrics
+            .index_loads
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed),
+        0,
+        "the IVF state entry survives an append"
+    );
+    let ivf = index
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<crate::index::vector::ivf::v2::IvfFlatIndex>()
+        .unwrap();
+    ivf.load_partition(0, true, &metrics).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        metrics
+            .parts_loaded
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed),
+        0,
+        "the translated partition entry survives an append"
+    );
+    search(dataset.clone()).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn unsupported_scalar_type_is_not_advertised_for_rewritten_fragments() {
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    // Only metadata is needed: the unsupported reader must never open it.
+    let mut indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+    indices[0].index_version = 0;
+    indices[0].index_details = Some(Arc::new(
+        prost_types::Any::from_msg(&lance_index::pb::FmIndexDetails::default()).unwrap(),
+    ));
+    let key = IndexMetadataKey {
+        version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+        e_tag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+    };
+    dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .insert_with_key(&key, Arc::new(indices))
+        .await;
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    assert!(dataset.load_index_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap().is_none());
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 2".into())).await.unwrap(), 1);
+}
+
+/// System indexes are table-level metadata, not per-fragment query segments:
+/// MemWAL stores `fragment_bitmap: None` and has no remap plugin, so tagged
+/// coverage filtering must pass it through instead of silently dropping it
+/// (which would break MemWAL catch-up and statistics on any tagged table).
+/// A USER index without coverage must still be dropped.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn tagged_coverage_filtering_bypasses_system_indexes() {
+    use lance_table::system_index::mem_wal::{
+        MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, MemWalIndexDetails, new_mem_wal_index_meta,
+    };
+
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    indices.push(
+        new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset.manifest.version, MemWalIndexDetails::default()).unwrap(),
+    );
+    indices.push(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+        name: "uncovered_idx".into(),
+        fields: vec![0],
+        covering_fields: vec![],
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: None,
+        index_details: None,
+        index_version: 0,
+        created_at: None,
+        base_id: None,
+        files: None,
+    });
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+    let loaded = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        loaded.iter().any(|index| index.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME),
+        "the MemWAL system index must survive tagged coverage filtering"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        loaded
+            .iter()
+            .any(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !loaded.iter().any(|index| index.name == "uncovered_idx"),
+        "a user index without fragment coverage must still be dropped"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .open_mem_wal_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_some(),
+        "the MemWAL index must open on a tagged table"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn tagged_remapping_plans_coverage_once_per_snapshot() {
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::{
+        FriQueryPlanKey, OpenPurpose, ResolvedRemapping, open_row_id_remapping,
+        open_row_id_remapping_with_plan,
+    };
+
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+    let fragments: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+        .collect();
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in &fragments {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                .name("i_idx".into())
+                .replace(true)
+                .fragments(vec![*fragment])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("i_idx", "i", segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let fri = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_ne!(fri.index_version, 0);
+    let siblings: Vec<_> = indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|index| index.name == "i_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(siblings.len(), 2);
+
+    let plan_cache = dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .with_key_prefix(dataset.manifest_location.path.as_ref());
+    let key = FriQueryPlanKey {
+        fri_uuid: &fri.uuid,
+    };
+    assert!(
+        plan_cache.get_with_key(&key).await.is_none(),
+        "no plan may exist before the first tagged open"
+    );
+
+    let first = open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &siblings[0], &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(
+        first,
+        Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { .. }))
+    ));
+    let plan = plan_cache
+        .get_with_key(&key)
+        .await
+        .expect("the first tagged open must publish the snapshot plan");
+    assert!(plan.segments.contains_key(&siblings[1].uuid));
+
+    // Later opens must resolve from the published plan instead of re-running
+    // the whole-dataset sibling scan: with the sibling dropped from the cached
+    // plan, it is a registered segment the plan derives no coverage for. A
+    // query refuses it (the listing excludes it, no scan covers its rows);
+    // maintenance opens it as an empty translation, not with the coverage a
+    // fresh scan would find.
+    let mut pruned = plan.as_ref().clone();
+    pruned.segments.remove(&siblings[1].uuid);
+    plan_cache.insert_with_key(&key, Arc::new(pruned)).await;
+    let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, fri).await.unwrap();
+    let empty = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let no_coverage = mapping.translation_fingerprint(&empty, &empty, &[]);
+    let planned = match &plan.segments[&siblings[1].uuid] {
+        crate::index::frag_reuse::SegmentRemappingPlan::Translate { fingerprint, .. } => {
+            *fingerprint
+        }
+        other => panic!("the sibling translates: {other:?}"),
+    };
+    assert_ne!(planned, no_coverage);
+    let refused = open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &siblings[1], &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        refused
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("excludes it from the index listing"),
+        "{refused}"
+    );
+    match open_row_id_remapping_with_plan(
+        &dataset,
+        &siblings[1],
+        None,
+        OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+    {
+        Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { fingerprint, .. })) => {
+            assert_eq!(fingerprint, no_coverage, "the pruned plan was recomputed");
+        }
+        other => panic!("expected an empty translation, got {other:?}"),
+    }
+
+    // With the real plan restored, the sibling opens as a cache hit on the
+    // same plan entry; nothing is recomputed or re-published.
+    plan_cache.insert_with_key(&key, plan.clone()).await;
+    let second = open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &siblings[1], &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(
+        second,
+        Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { .. }))
+    ));
+    let republished = plan_cache.get_with_key(&key).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        Arc::ptr_eq(&plan, &republished),
+        "the second open must reuse the published plan instead of rebuilding it"
+    );
+    for value in 0..8 {
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some(format!("i = {value}")))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            1
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Warm opens must not invoke load_indices (whose tagged post-processing
+    // recomputes coverage): replace the session metadata listing with one that
+    // keeps only the FRI entry, so any listing-derived resolution of the
+    // sibling would fail. The open must still succeed from the cached plan.
+    let metadata_key = IndexMetadataKey {
+        version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+        e_tag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+    };
+    dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .insert_with_key(&metadata_key, Arc::new(vec![fri.clone()]))
+        .await;
+    let warm = open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &siblings[1], &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(warm, Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { .. }))),
+        "a warm open must resolve purely from the cached plan"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn resolver_dispatch_follows_fri_version_and_segment_need() {
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::{ResolvedRemapping, open_row_id_remapping};
+
+    // No FRI: nothing to resolve.
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let segment = dataset.load_index_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &segment, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_none()
+    );
+
+    // The transition rewrites both original fragments; a fragment appended
+    // afterwards stays outside the mapped graph entirely.
+    let (transition, mut destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let appended = arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [100])).unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let untouched_fragment = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .max_by_key(|fragment| fragment.id)
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    let untouched = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut dataset,
+        &["i"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("i_untouched".into())
+    .replace(true)
+    .fragments(vec![untouched_fragment.id as u32])
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    destinations.push(untouched_fragment);
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let mut all = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    all.push(untouched.clone());
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, all).await;
+
+    // The committed segment covers rewritten fragments: it needs translation.
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let segment = indices.iter().find(|index| index.name == "i_idx").unwrap();
+    let resolved = open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, segment, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(resolved, Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { .. }))),
+        "{resolved:?}"
+    );
+
+    // The untouched segment resolves to identity and carries no remapper.
+    let resolved = open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &untouched, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(resolved, Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Identity))),
+        "{resolved:?}"
+    );
+
+    // A segment absent from the committed listing cannot be resolved.
+    let mut unknown = untouched.clone();
+    unknown.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let error = open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &unknown, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        error
+            .to_string()
+            .contains("requires committed segment metadata"),
+        "{error}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn resolver_dispatch_v0_uses_the_compact_handle() {
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+        &mut dataset,
+        crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+            target_rows_per_fragment: 100,
+            defer_index_remap: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        },
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    // assert_legacy_metadata asserts every segment resolves to V0 with a
+    // handle equivalent to the compact legacy index.
+    assert!(assert_legacy_metadata(&dataset).await.is_some());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_api_plugin_keeps_untouched_segments_available() {
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::{ResolvedRemapping, open_row_id_remapping};
+    use lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType;
+
+    // The FM plugin only implements the legacy synchronous API
+    // (supports_batch_row_id_remapping is false).
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("i", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]),
+        (
+            "text",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                "row0", "row1", "row2", "row3", "row4", "row5", "row6", "row7"
+            ]
+        )
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = crate::Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Fm,
+            Some("text_idx".into()),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (transition, mut destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let appended =
+        arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [8]), ("text", Utf8, ["extra8"])).unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let untouched_fragment = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .max_by_key(|fragment| fragment.id)
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    let untouched = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Fm, &params)
+        .name("text_idx".into())
+        .replace(true)
+        .fragments(vec![untouched_fragment.id as u32])
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    destinations.push(untouched_fragment);
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+    // The committed segment needs translation, which the FM plugin cannot do:
+    // it is excluded from coverage and substring queries fall back to a scan,
+    // still returning correct rows.
+    let usable =
+        crate::index::scalar_logical::load_named_scalar_segments(&dataset, "text", "text_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    assert!(usable.is_empty());
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.filter("contains(text, 'row2')").unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    let rows = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(rows.num_rows(), 1, "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(rows["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 2);
+
+    // The untouched FM segment resolves to identity, loads through the
+    // plugin's original entry point, and serves queries: the availability win
+    // for legacy-API-only plugins.
+    let mut all = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    all.push(untouched.clone());
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, all).await;
+    let resolved = open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &untouched, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(resolved, Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Identity))),
+        "{resolved:?}"
+    );
+    let usable =
+        crate::index::scalar_logical::load_named_scalar_segments(&dataset, "text", "text_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(usable.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(usable[0].uuid, untouched.uuid);
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.filter("contains(text, 'extra8')").unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    let rows = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(rows.num_rows(), 1, "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(rows["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 8);
+    // Rows in fragments the identity segment does not cover still come back
+    // correctly through the scan side of the plan.
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .count_rows(Some("contains(text, 'row2')".into()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        1
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_traffic_guard_rejects_batch_entry_points() {
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let segment = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == "i_idx")
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    lance_index::scalar::LEGACY_TRAFFIC_ONLY
+        .scope((), async {
+            let error = crate::index::frag_reuse::open_row_id_remapping(
+                &dataset,
+                &segment,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains("entered batch row-ID remapping"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            let error = lance_index::scalar::check_batch_remapping_entry().unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains("entered batch row-ID remapping"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+        })
+        .await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn tagged_append_preserves_stored_segment_provenance() {
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+    let serialize = |bitmap: &Option<roaring::RoaringBitmap>| {
+        bitmap.as_ref().map(|bitmap| {
+            let mut bytes = Vec::new();
+            bitmap.serialize_into(&mut bytes).unwrap();
+            bytes
+        })
+    };
+    let before: Vec<_> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|index| (index.uuid, serialize(&index.fragment_bitmap)))
+        .collect();
+    assert!(!before.is_empty());
+
+    // Query first so the session holds rewritten (derived) coverage; the
+    // commit below must not leak it into stored metadata.
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 2".into())).await.unwrap(), 1);
+    let appended = arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [100])).unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Snapshot-derived coverage must never be persisted back to a manifest:
+    // every stored segment keeps byte-identical provenance.
+    let after = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    for (uuid, bitmap) in &before {
+        let stored = after.iter().find(|index| index.uuid == *uuid).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(&serialize(&stored.fragment_bitmap), bitmap, "{uuid}");
+    }
+    assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 100".into())).await.unwrap(), 1);
+}
+
+// End-to-end composition: a v1 FRI whose only transition is DROPPED (unknown
+// field) over an indexed dataset. The scalar consumer must fall back to scanning
+// (the segment cannot claim coverage through a dropped mapping) and every value
+// count must match the pre-FRI direct-scan truth, so no rows are lost and no
+// stale pre-transition rows are returned. This exercises the full query path
+// (planner + scalar consumer + FRI reader) end to end; the guard's own
+// fail-without-fix witness is the unit test
+// `dropped_unknown_transition_denies_identity_to_live_segment`.
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::inline(false)]
+#[case::external(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn dropped_unknown_transition_forces_scalar_query_to_scan(#[case] external: bool) {
+    let mut dataset = fixture_with_index(IndexType::BTree).await;
+
+    let (mut transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    transition.mapping = None;
+    let mut raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+    raw.extend(field(17, b"future mapping"));
+    let fri = install(&mut dataset, field(2, &raw), destinations, external).await;
+
+    // Ground truth from an explicitly index-DISABLED scan of the reclustered
+    // snapshot, so the comparison is against a real scan and not the index path.
+    let truth: Vec<usize> = {
+        let mut counts = Vec::new();
+        for value in 0..8 {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(&format!("i = {value}")).unwrap();
+            scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+            counts.push(scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows());
+        }
+        counts
+    };
+    let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(mapping.ledger.has_unsupported_transitions());
+    assert!(mapping.ledger.transitions().is_empty());
+
+    // The scalar index must not be used: the dropped unknown transition forbids
+    // identity, so the segment cannot claim coverage and the query scans.
+    let plan = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 2")
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(!plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+
+    // Every value count still matches the direct-scan truth: no rows lost and no
+    // stale pre-transition rows returned.
+    for (value, &expected) in truth.iter().enumerate() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_rows(Some(format!("i = {value}")))
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            expected,
+            "value {value}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+// Combination: FRI effective coverage x #9449 fragment-scope pruning.
+//
+// Two BTree segments each cover one source fragment (S1 -> F0, S2 -> F1). An FRI
+// reclusters F0,F1 into destinations {10,11} with rows interleaved, so after the
+// rewrite each segment's EFFECTIVE coverage spans both destinations. A scope over
+// one destination must therefore keep BOTH segments (querying one reclustered
+// fragment can still need multiple old segments). An unrelated index that never
+// covers the destinations must be pruned, proving the pruning actually fires
+// rather than opening everything.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn fragment_scope_prunes_on_fri_effective_coverage() {
+    use crate::index::scalar_logical::{open_scalar_index_segments, scalar_index_fragment_bitmap};
+
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+    let source_fragments: Vec<u32> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+
+    // One BTree segment per source fragment, committed as one logical index.
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in &source_fragments {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                .name("i_idx".into())
+                .fragments(vec![*fragment])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("i_idx", "i", segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Recluster F0,F1 -> destinations {10,11}, rows interleaved by parity
+    // (F10 = even i {0,2,4,6}, F11 = odd i {1,3,5,7}).
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let destination_ids: Vec<u32> = destinations.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+    assert_eq!(destination_ids, vec![10, 11]);
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+    // Add an UNRELATED third segment S3 over a fresh fragment the recluster never
+    // touched (values 8..12), extending the same logical index. Its coverage does
+    // not intersect the {10,11} destinations, so a destination-scoped query must
+    // prune it.
+    let appended = arrow_array::record_batch!(("i", Int32, [8, 9, 10, 11])).unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // The appended fragment is the one that is NOT a recluster destination.
+    // (`max()` would pick destination 11 and silently build S3 directly over
+    // F11, where "direct coverage wins" would hand F11 to S3 and narrow S1/S2 to
+    // {10}: a different scenario.)
+    let s3_fragment = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+        .find(|id| !destination_ids.contains(id))
+        .unwrap();
+    let s3 = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+        .name("i_idx".into())
+        .replace(true)
+        .fragments(vec![s3_fragment])
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    indices.push(s3);
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+    // Effective coverage of the reclustered pair is the destinations; S3 stays on
+    // its own fragment. Pruning consumes the EFFECTIVE bitmaps.
+    let effective = scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(&dataset, "i", "i_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(effective.contains(10) && effective.contains(11));
+
+    // Open the index scoped to destination F10 and COUNT segment loads: both
+    // reclustered contributors (S1, S2) must load, S3 must not (its coverage does
+    // not intersect {10}).
+    let scope_f10 = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10]);
+    let metrics = lance_index::metrics::LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    let scoped =
+        open_scalar_index_segments(&dataset, "i", "i_idx", Some(&scope_f10), None, &metrics)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        metrics
+            .index_loads
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed),
+        2,
+        "exactly the two reclustered contributors load under an F10 scope; S3 is pruned"
+    );
+
+    // Opener layer: the scoped open selects WHICH segments to load; it does NOT
+    // row-filter. S1 and S2 both cover F10 and F11, so a full-range search over
+    // the opened index legitimately returns the COMPLETE contributor address set
+    // (every reclustered row, in both destinations). This proves both
+    // contributors were opened and searched, not that rows are scoped here.
+    use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, SearchResult};
+    use std::ops::Bound;
+    let result = scoped
+        .search(
+            &SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Included(datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+                Bound::Included(datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(7))),
+            ),
+            &metrics,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) = result else {
+        panic!("expected exact scalar search result");
+    };
+    let found: std::collections::BTreeSet<u32> = row_addrs
+        .true_rows()
+        .row_addrs()
+        .unwrap()
+        .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(
+        found,
+        std::collections::BTreeSet::from([10, 11]),
+        "both contributors are opened, so the opener returns rows in BOTH destinations \
+         (row-level fragment scope is the scanner's job, not the opener's)"
+    );
+    let mut opener_values: Vec<(u32, u32)> = row_addrs
+        .true_rows()
+        .row_addrs()
+        .unwrap()
+        .map(|row_addr| {
+            let addr = RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr));
+            (addr.fragment_id(), addr.row_offset())
+        })
+        .collect();
+    opener_values.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(
+        opener_values,
+        vec![
+            (10, 0),
+            (10, 1),
+            (10, 2),
+            (10, 3),
+            (11, 0),
+            (11, 1),
+            (11, 2),
+            (11, 3)
+        ],
+        "the opener search returns every reclustered row from both contributors"
+    );
+
+    // Scanner layer: a full query that scopes to F10 must return EXACTLY the F10
+    // rows (even values 0,2,4,6), excluding F11, proving the downstream consumer
+    // applies the row-level fragment scope on top of the opened segments.
+    let f10 = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|f| f.id == 10)
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.with_fragments(vec![f10]);
+    scan.filter("i >= 0").unwrap();
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut values = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+    values.sort_unstable();
+    assert_eq!(
+        values,
+        vec![0, 2, 4, 6],
+        "an F10-scoped scanner query returns exactly F10 rows, from both contributors"
+    );
+
+    // A scope disjoint from the effective coverage prunes every segment.
+    assert!(
+        open_scalar_index_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "i",
+            "i_idx",
+            Some(&RoaringBitmap::from_iter([999])),
+            None,
+            &lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .is_err(),
+        "a scope disjoint from effective coverage must prune every segment"
+    );
+}
+
+/// One reclustered source advertises both destinations, but it only stores half
+/// of their rows. Selecting that UUID alone must fail so the caller can pass
+/// every contributor; the complete UUID set still counts the destinations.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn selected_segment_recluster_requires_every_contributor() {
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::default();
+    let source_fragments: Vec<u32> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    for fragment in &source_fragments {
+        segments.push(
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                .name("i_idx".into())
+                .fragments(vec![*fragment])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+    }
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("i_idx", "i", segments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let stored = dataset.load_indices_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap();
+    let selected_uuid = stored[0].uuid;
+    let sibling_uuid = stored[1].uuid;
+
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+    let current = dataset.load_indices_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap();
+    let selected = current
+        .iter()
+        .find(|segment| segment.uuid == selected_uuid)
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        selected.fragment_bitmap.as_ref(),
+        Some(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+    );
+
+    let message = dataset
+        .count_indexed_rows("i_idx", "i >= 0", Some(&[selected_uuid]), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err()
+        .to_string();
+    assert!(message.contains(&sibling_uuid.to_string()), "{message}");
+    assert!(message.contains("[10, 11]"), "{message}");
+
+    let both = [selected_uuid, sibling_uuid];
+    let positive = dataset
+        .count_indexed_rows("i_idx", "i >= 0", Some(&both), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let greater = dataset
+        .count_indexed_rows("i_idx", "i > 0", Some(&both), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let negative = dataset
+        .count_indexed_rows("i_idx", "NOT (i = 0)", Some(&both), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let logical = dataset
+        .count_indexed_rows("i_idx", "i >= 0", None, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!((positive, greater, negative, logical), (8, 7, 7, 8));
+}
+
+// Combination: the derived-listing cache holds the FULL effective listing per
+// snapshot; each scoped query filters an independent copy. Querying one
+// destination then the other on the same snapshot must both be correct: the
+// first (cold) query populates the cache, the second (warm) query must not be
+// served a listing trimmed to the first scope.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn fragment_scope_cache_hit_is_scope_independent() {
+    let mut dataset = fixture_with_index(IndexType::BTree).await;
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+    // After the parity recluster the destinations both hold predicate-satisfying
+    // rows: F10 = even values {0,2,4,6}, F11 = odd values {1,3,5,7}.
+    let fragment = |id: u32| {
+        dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|f| f.id as u32 == id)
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone()
+    };
+
+    // Collect the sorted `i` values a scan returns for one destination fragment,
+    // with the scalar index either used or disabled. Every query runs on the SAME
+    // dataset, so the first (F10) query populates the derived-listing cache and
+    // the second (F11) query hits it.
+    let values_for = |frag_id: u32, use_scalar: bool| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        async move {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.with_fragments(vec![fragment(frag_id)]);
+            scan.filter("i >= 0").unwrap();
+            scan.use_scalar_index(use_scalar);
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut values = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+            values.sort_unstable();
+            values
+        }
+    };
+
+    // F10 first (cold cache), then F11 (warm cache). Each scoped, index-using
+    // result must equal the same fragment scanned with the index disabled, by
+    // value (row identity + multiplicity). A cache poisoned by the F10 scope would
+    // make the F11 result wrong.
+    let f10_index = values_for(10, true).await;
+    let f10_scan = values_for(10, false).await;
+    let f11_index = values_for(11, true).await;
+    let f11_scan = values_for(11, false).await;
+
+    assert_eq!(f10_index, f10_scan, "F10 scoped result must match a scan");
+    assert_eq!(
+        f11_index, f11_scan,
+        "F11 scoped result must match a scan after the F10 query populated the cache"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(f10_index, vec![0, 2, 4, 6], "{f10_index:?}");
+    assert_eq!(f11_index, vec![1, 3, 5, 7], "{f11_index:?}");
+    // No cross-scope leak: F10's rows never appear in F11's result and vice versa.
+    assert!(f10_index.iter().all(|v| v % 2 == 0));
+    assert!(f11_index.iter().all(|v| v % 2 == 1));
+
+    // The derived listing is still served from the cache (same Arc) across calls.
+    let first = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let second = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first, &second));
+}
+
+// P1 guard witness: index coverage PROJECTED onto live destinations {10,11}
+// while the segment's STORED addresses are the retired sources F0/F1, and the
+// transition that would map F0/F1 -> F10/F11 is DROPPED (unknown field). Direct
+// coverage of the live destinations would be granted, but the translator cannot
+// map the pre-transition addresses, so those rows would be dropped and the scan
+// fallback suppressed. The third-state guard must instead grant NO coverage, so
+// the query scans and matches an index-disabled scan. Verified cold and warm,
+// and this fails without the guard.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn projected_bitmap_with_dropped_transition_scans_not_drops() {
+    let mut dataset = fixture_with_index(IndexType::BTree).await;
+
+    let (mut transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    transition.mapping = None;
+    let mut raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+    raw.extend(field(17, b"future mapping"));
+    install(&mut dataset, field(2, &raw), destinations, false).await;
+
+    // Project the index coverage onto the live destination fragments while its
+    // stored addresses remain the retired sources. This is the identity-eligible
+    // "direct coverage of live fragments" shape the guard must reject.
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    let index = indices
+        .iter_mut()
+        .find(|index| index.name == "i_idx")
+        .unwrap();
+    index.fragment_bitmap = Some(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
+    let key = IndexMetadataKey {
+        version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+        e_tag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+    };
+    dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .insert_with_key(&key, Arc::new(indices))
+        .await;
+
+    // Truth: an index-disabled scan of the reclustered snapshot.
+    let mut truth = Vec::new();
+    for value in 0..8 {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter(&format!("i = {value}")).unwrap();
+        scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+        truth.push(scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows());
+    }
+
+    // Index-using queries must match the truth, both cold (first derive) and warm
+    // (cache hit). Without the guard, coverage is granted, the translator drops
+    // the F0/F1 addresses, and these counts come up short.
+    for _pass in 0..2 {
+        for (value, &expected) in truth.iter().enumerate() {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.filter(&format!("i = {value}")).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows(),
+                expected,
+                "value {value}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// Shared fixture for the vector and FTS prefilter tests: eight rows in two
+// fragments, `vector = [i, 0, 0, 0]` so distances are deterministic, and every
+// row's `text` is "hit" so a text query matches all rows.
+fn scoped_prefilter_batch() -> RecordBatch {
+    use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, StringArray};
+    let i: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+    let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Float32Type, _, _>(
+        i.iter()
+            .map(|v| Some(vec![Some(*v as f32), Some(0.0), Some(0.0), Some(0.0)])),
+        4,
+    );
+    RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("i", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(i)) as ArrayRef),
+        ("vector", Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef),
+        (
+            "text",
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["hit"; 8])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+    ])
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+// Build the non-trivial subset-scope scenario: a scalar index on `i` created
+// BEFORE the recluster (so it is FRI-translated and its effective coverage is
+// both destinations {10,11}), then a search index (`build` closure) created
+// AFTER the recluster over destination F10 ONLY. With `fast_search`, the search
+// range is exactly F10 while the scalar prefilter covers F10 and F11, and F11
+// holds rows that satisfy the scalar predicate.
+async fn scoped_prefilter_dataset<F>(build: F) -> Dataset
+where
+    F: for<'a> FnOnce(
+        &'a mut Dataset,
+    )
+        -> std::pin::Pin<Box<dyn std::future::Future<Output = IndexMetadata> + 'a>>,
+{
+    let batch = scoped_prefilter_batch();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("i_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        destinations.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![10, 11]
+    );
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let direct = build(&mut dataset).await;
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    indices.push(direct);
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    dataset
+}
+
+// Combination: vector search with a scalar prefilter over an FRI-reclustered
+// dataset, with a NON-TRIVIAL subset scope. The vector index covers only F10
+// and `fast_search` restricts the search to that range, so the scalar prefilter
+// (scanner `partition_frags_by_coverage` -> `with_fragment_scope({10})`) runs
+// under a scope strictly smaller than its {10,11} effective coverage. F11 holds
+// rows that satisfy the predicate AND whose vectors are closer to the query, so
+// any leak of F11 rows, or filtering applied only after top-k, shows up in the
+// result. The control keeps the vector index and only switches the scalar
+// prefilter to its scan-based form (it is not an index-free search).
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn vector_prefilter_scopes_to_subset_with_fri_translation() {
+    let dataset = scoped_prefilter_dataset(|dataset| {
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            let vparams = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
+                1,
+                lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            );
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(dataset, &["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &vparams)
+                .name("vector_idx".into())
+                .fragments(vec![10])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        })
+    })
+    .await;
+
+    // Query sits on i = 7 (in F11): distances are 7 -> 0, 6 -> 1, 5 -> 2, 4 -> 3.
+    // Predicate `i >= 4` matches {4,6} in F10 and {5,7} in F11.
+    let query = arrow_array::Float32Array::from(vec![7.0f32, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0]);
+    let run = |k: usize, use_scalar: bool| {
+        let query = query.clone();
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        async move {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.nearest("vector", &query, k).unwrap();
+            scan.fast_search();
+            scan.filter("i >= 4").unwrap();
+            scan.prefilter(true);
+            scan.use_scalar_index(use_scalar);
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut values = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+            values.sort_unstable();
+            values
+        }
+    };
+
+    // The query reaches the scoped scalar prefilter feeding ANN.
+    let plan = {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.nearest("vector", &query, 8).unwrap();
+        scan.fast_search();
+        scan.filter("i >= 4").unwrap();
+        scan.prefilter(true);
+        scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap()
+    };
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+
+    // All F10 matches are kept and no F11 match leaks, even though F11's
+    // vectors are the closest.
+    assert_eq!(run(8, true).await, vec![4, 6]);
+    // Filtering happens before top-k: the single nearest row is 6 (F10), not
+    // the globally closest 7 (F11).
+    assert_eq!(run(1, true).await, vec![6]);
+    // Scan-based scalar prefilter control (vector index still used).
+    assert_eq!(run(8, false).await, vec![4, 6]);
+}
+
+// Combination: full-text search with a scalar prefilter under the same
+// non-trivial subset scope. The inverted index covers only F10 and
+// `fast_search` restricts the search range to it, so the FRI-translated scalar
+// prefilter (effective coverage {10,11}) runs scoped to {10}. Every row's text
+// matches, and F11 holds predicate-satisfying rows, so any F11 leak shows up.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn fts_prefilter_scopes_to_subset_with_fri_translation() {
+    let dataset = scoped_prefilter_dataset(|dataset| {
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            let direct = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+                dataset,
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                &lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            )
+            .name("text_idx".into())
+            .fragments(vec![10])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            // An uncommitted inverted index only has staged partition files; the
+            // CreateIndex commit normally merges them into the root layout the
+            // reader probes (`metadata.lance`). A CreateIndex commit is refused
+            // on a tagged history at this layer and the fixture persists the
+            // manifest directly, so run that finalize step here.
+            use crate::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
+            let store = lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(
+                dataset,
+                &direct.uuid,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(direct.uuid.to_string());
+            lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::merge_index_files(
+                dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+                &index_dir,
+                Arc::new(store),
+                Arc::new(crate::index::NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            direct
+        })
+    })
+    .await;
+
+    let run = |use_scalar: bool| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        async move {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.full_text_search(lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery::new("hit".into()))
+                .unwrap();
+            scan.fast_search();
+            scan.filter("i >= 4").unwrap();
+            scan.prefilter(true);
+            scan.use_scalar_index(use_scalar);
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut values = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec();
+            values.sort_unstable();
+            values
+        }
+    };
+
+    // The query reaches the scoped scalar prefilter feeding the text search.
+    let plan = {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.full_text_search(lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery::new("hit".into()))
+            .unwrap();
+        scan.fast_search();
+        scan.filter("i >= 4").unwrap();
+        scan.prefilter(true);
+        scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap()
+    };
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    assert!(plan.contains("MatchQuery"), "{plan}");
+
+    // All F10 matches, no F11 leak; scan-based scalar prefilter control agrees.
+    assert_eq!(run(true).await, vec![4, 6]);
+    assert_eq!(run(false).await, vec![4, 6]);
+}
+
+// ---- cache identity: translated entries follow the translation state ----
+
+/// Open `i_idx` through the real scalar path, returning how many index loads
+/// it took (0 = served from the cache) and the cached container.
+async fn open_i_idx(dataset: &Dataset) -> (usize, Arc<dyn lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex>) {
+    let index = dataset.load_index_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap().unwrap();
+    let (loads, container) = open_segment(dataset, &index).await;
+    (
+        loads,
+        container.expect("a translating open leaves its container in the cache"),
+    )
+}
+
+/// `(index loads, cached container)`: the container is absent on a plugin's
+/// non-batch path when it caches state instead of a whole object.
+async fn open_segment(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> (usize, Option<Arc<dyn lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex>>) {
+    let metrics = lance_index::metrics::LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+    crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(dataset, "i", index, &metrics)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let container = crate::index::scalar::cached_scalar_index_container(dataset, &index.uuid).await;
+    (
+        metrics
+            .index_loads
+            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed),
+        container,
+    )
+}
+
+fn same_container(
+    a: &Arc<dyn lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex>,
+    b: &Arc<dyn lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex>,
+) -> bool {
+    std::ptr::addr_eq(Arc::as_ptr(a), Arc::as_ptr(b))
+}
+
+async fn count(dataset: &Dataset, value: i32) -> usize {
+    dataset
+        .count_rows(Some(format!("i = {value}")))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// A translating `i_idx` over the reclustered fixture, persisted so later
+/// commits (appends, deletes, new histories) build on a real snapshot.
+async fn persisted_translating_fixture() -> Dataset {
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let plan = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 2")
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    dataset
+}
+
+fn fri_entry(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> &IndexMetadata {
+    indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+async fn append_rows(dataset: &mut Dataset, values: &[i32]) -> lance_table::format::Fragment {
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+        "i",
+        Arc::new(arrow_array::Int32Array::from(values.to_vec())) as arrow_array::ArrayRef,
+    )])
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .max_by_key(|fragment| fragment.id)
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone()
+}
+
+/// Rewrite fragment `source_id` into a new fragment `dest_id` with an
+/// ordered-compaction transition (rows keep their order): the transition and
+/// the uncommitted destination fragment.
+async fn compact_fragment(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    source_id: u64,
+    dest_id: u64,
+) -> (Transition, lance_table::format::Fragment) {
+    let source = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|fragment| fragment.id == source_id)
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    let batch = {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.with_fragments(vec![source.clone()]);
+        scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
+    };
+    let transaction = crate::dataset::InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let lance_table::transaction::Operation::Append { fragments } = transaction.operation else {
+        unreachable!()
+    };
+    let mut destination = fragments.into_iter().next().unwrap();
+    destination.id = dest_id;
+    let physical_rows = source.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64;
+    let deleted: Vec<u32> = dataset
+        .get_fragment(source_id as usize)
+        .unwrap()
+        .get_deletion_vector()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .map(|vector| vector.iter().collect())
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+    let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+    roaring::RoaringTreemap::from_iter(
+        (0..physical_rows as u32)
+            .filter(|row| !deleted.contains(row))
+            .map(|row| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(source_id as u32, row))),
+    )
+    .serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs)
+    .unwrap();
+    let transition = Transition {
+        sources: vec![FragmentDigest {
+            id: source_id,
+            physical_rows,
+            num_deleted_rows: deleted.len() as u64,
+        }],
+        destinations: vec![FragmentDigest {
+            id: dest_id,
+            physical_rows: destination.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64,
+            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+        }],
+        mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+            pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::OrderedCompaction { changed_row_addrs },
+        )),
+    };
+    (transition, destination)
+}
+
+/// Persist a snapshot over exactly the `live` fragments with every index
+/// entry, the FRI included, left as it is.
+async fn persist_live(dataset: &mut Dataset, live: Vec<lance_table::format::Fragment>) {
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = live.into();
+    persist_fixture(dataset, indices).await;
+}
+
+/// Replace the FRI entry with a fresh one (new UUID) holding `transitions`,
+/// over exactly the `live` fragments, and persist the snapshot. Stored
+/// segment provenance is taken from the raw listing, as a real rewrite
+/// commit would keep it.
+async fn install_history(
+    dataset: &mut Dataset,
+    transitions: Vec<Transition>,
+    live: Vec<lance_table::format::Fragment>,
+) -> IndexMetadata {
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    indices.retain(|index| index.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions,
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    let fri = IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+        fields: vec![],
+        covering_fields: vec![],
+        name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.into(),
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(live.iter().map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32).collect()),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value: field(1, &content),
+        })),
+        index_version: 1,
+        created_at: None,
+        base_id: None,
+        files: None,
+    };
+    indices.push(fri.clone());
+    Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = live.into();
+    persist_fixture(dataset, indices).await;
+    fri
+}
+
+// An append adds fragments no stored address refers to: the segment's
+// coverage, exclusions and mapping path are unchanged, so its translated
+// entries stay warm. Before this keying, every commit cold-started them.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn tagged_append_keeps_translated_entries_warm() {
+    let mut dataset = persisted_translating_fixture().await;
+    let (loads, before) = open_i_idx(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(loads, 1, "cold open loads the index");
+    assert_eq!(count(&dataset, 2).await, 1);
+
+    append_rows(&mut dataset, &[100]).await;
+    let (loads, after) = open_i_idx(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(loads, 0, "an append must not evict translated entries");
+    assert!(same_container(&before, &after));
+    assert_eq!(count(&dataset, 2).await, 1);
+    assert_eq!(count(&dataset, 100).await, 1, "the appended row is scanned");
+}
+
+// Dropping a live destination changes the segment's coverage: the entry must
+// go cold even though the FRI entry (and its UUID) is untouched.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn coverage_change_misses_without_new_fri() {
+    let mut dataset = persisted_translating_fixture().await;
+    let (loads, _) = open_i_idx(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(loads, 1);
+    let fri_before = fri_entry(&crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap()).uuid;
+
+    // F10 holds the even values. Drop it from the manifest (what deleting all
+    // of its rows does once tagged maintenance lands) with the FRI entry left
+    // exactly as it is.
+    let live: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|fragment| fragment.id != 10)
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    persist_live(&mut dataset, live).await;
+    assert!(
+        !dataset.fragment_bitmap.contains(10),
+        "{:?}",
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap
+    );
+    let fri_after = fri_entry(&crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap()).uuid;
+    assert_eq!(fri_before, fri_after);
+
+    let (loads, _) = open_i_idx(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(loads, 1, "a coverage change must miss");
+    for value in 0..8 {
+        assert_eq!(count(&dataset, value).await, usize::from(value % 2 == 1));
+    }
+}
+
+// A new transition over a fragment on the segment's path changes the path:
+// the entry must go cold, and the new hop must be applied.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn relevant_transition_misses_translated_entries() {
+    let mut dataset = persisted_translating_fixture().await;
+    let (loads, _) = open_i_idx(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(loads, 1);
+    let first = decode_transitions(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(first.len(), 1);
+
+    let (second, destination) = compact_fragment(&dataset, 10, 20).await;
+    let live = vec![
+        dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|f| f.id == 11)
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone(),
+        destination,
+    ];
+    let mut transitions = first;
+    transitions.push(second);
+    install_history(&mut dataset, transitions, live).await;
+
+    let (loads, _) = open_i_idx(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(loads, 1, "a transition on the path must miss");
+    for value in 0..8 {
+        assert_eq!(count(&dataset, value).await, 1, "value {value}");
+    }
+}
+
+// A new history (fresh FRI UUID) whose extra transition rewrites fragments
+// the segment never covered leaves the segment's translation identity
+// unchanged: its entries stay warm. This pins the "relevant state only"
+// rule; keying on the FRI UUID would cold-start every segment here.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn unrelated_transition_keeps_translated_entries_warm() {
+    let mut dataset = persisted_translating_fixture().await;
+    let (loads, before) = open_i_idx(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(loads, 1);
+    let fri_before = fri_entry(&crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap()).uuid;
+    let first = decode_transitions(&dataset).await;
+
+    let appended = append_rows(&mut dataset, &[100, 101]).await;
+    let (second, destination) = compact_fragment(&dataset, appended.id, 20).await;
+    let mut live: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|fragment| fragment.id != appended.id)
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    live.push(destination);
+    let mut transitions = first;
+    transitions.push(second);
+    let fri_after = install_history(&mut dataset, transitions, live).await.uuid;
+    assert_ne!(fri_before, fri_after);
+
+    let (loads, after) = open_i_idx(&dataset).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        loads, 0,
+        "a transition off the segment's path must not evict its entries"
+    );
+    assert!(same_container(&before, &after));
+    for value in 0..8 {
+        assert_eq!(count(&dataset, value).await, 1, "value {value}");
+    }
+    assert_eq!(count(&dataset, 100).await, 1);
+    assert_eq!(count(&dataset, 101).await, 1);
+}
+
+/// The transitions of the dataset's current (inline) FRI history.
+async fn decode_transitions(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<Transition> {
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let fri = fri_entry(&indices);
+    let details = fri.index_details.as_ref().unwrap();
+    let details = pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails::decode(details.value.as_slice()).unwrap();
+    let Some(pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::Content::Inline(inline)) = details.content else {
+        panic!("fixture histories are inline");
+    };
+    inline.transitions
+}
+
+// An untouched segment loads without a remapper, so its entries depend only
+// on the index file: two appends later they are still warm.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn identity_segment_survives_two_appends() {
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::{ResolvedRemapping, open_row_id_remapping};
+
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let (transition, mut destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let untouched_fragment = append_rows(&mut dataset, &[100]).await;
+    let untouched = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut dataset,
+        &["i"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("i_untouched".into())
+    .replace(true)
+    .fragments(vec![untouched_fragment.id as u32])
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    destinations.push(untouched_fragment);
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let mut all = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    all.push(untouched.clone());
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, all).await;
+    let resolved = open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &untouched, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(matches!(resolved, Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Identity))));
+
+    let (loads, before) = open_segment(&dataset, &untouched).await;
+    assert_eq!(loads, 1);
+    assert_eq!(count(&dataset, 100).await, 1);
+    append_rows(&mut dataset, &[200]).await;
+    append_rows(&mut dataset, &[300]).await;
+    let (loads, after) = open_segment(&dataset, &untouched).await;
+    assert_eq!(loads, 0, "identity entries depend only on the index file");
+    if let (Some(before), Some(after)) = (&before, &after) {
+        assert!(same_container(before, after));
+    }
+    assert_eq!(count(&dataset, 100).await, 1);
+    assert_eq!(count(&dataset, 300).await, 1);
+}
+
+// A legacy-layout full-text index (tokens, postings and documents at the
+// index root, no metadata file) keeps its per-document lengths aligned with
+// the row ids it was built with, so it cannot be translated under a tagged
+// history. The tagged reader excludes the segment from coverage, and a real
+// full-text query on the tagged table returns exactly what an index-free scan
+// returns: neither misaligned scores nor an error.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_layout_fts_on_tagged_table_is_excluded_and_scans() {
+    let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("i", Int32, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]),
+        (
+            "text",
+            Utf8,
+            [
+                Some("even"),
+                Some("odd"),
+                Some("even"),
+                Some("odd"),
+                None,
+                Some("odd"),
+                Some("even"),
+                Some("odd")
+            ]
+        )
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("text_idx".into()),
+            &lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let index = dataset
+        .load_index_by_name("text_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Rewrite the single-partition index into the legacy layout: the
+    // partition files move to the root names and the metadata file goes.
+    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(index.uuid.to_string());
+    for name in ["tokens.lance", "invert.lance", "docs.lance"] {
+        let from = index_dir.clone().join(format!("part_0_{name}"));
+        let to = index_dir.clone().join(name);
+        dataset.object_store.copy(&from, &to).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.object_store.delete(&from).await.unwrap();
+    }
+    dataset
+        .object_store
+        .delete(&index_dir.clone().join("metadata.lance"))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    dataset.delete("i = 3").await.unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+    // Excluded from coverage: no usable segment is advertised for the column.
+    let usable =
+        crate::index::scalar_logical::load_named_scalar_segments(&dataset, "text", "text_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    assert!(usable.is_empty(), "{usable:?}");
+
+    // The truth: an index-free scan of the tagged snapshot.
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.filter("text = 'even'").unwrap();
+    scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+    let expected = scan
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .column_by_name("i")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect::<std::collections::BTreeSet<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(expected, std::collections::BTreeSet::from([0, 2, 6]));
+
+    // A real full-text query on the tagged table matches it, cold and warm.
+    for _ in 0..2 {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        // The column is named: a column-less query discovers its columns from
+        // the usable segments, and this snapshot advertises none.
+        scan.full_text_search(
+            lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery::new("even".into())
+                .with_column("text".into())
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let actual = scan
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<std::collections::BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+    }
+}
+
+// Vector merge on a tagged table: the merge reads the existing IVF segment
+// through the translating storage loader, so the merged segment holds live
+// addresses, and it commits the union of the selected segments' stored bitmaps
+// (provenance). The reader keeps deriving coverage of both destinations from
+// that provenance, the merged segment answers ANN queries for them together
+// with the newly appended rows, and trim retains the transition the provenance
+// still names. (Segments trained separately do not share IVF centroids and are
+// not mergeable, so the merge folds new data into one translated segment.)
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn vector_merge_keeps_translated_coverage_on_tagged_tables() {
+    use crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index;
+    use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array};
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col(
+            "vector",
+            lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(4.into()),
+        )
+        .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
+        1,
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+    );
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["vector"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some("vector_idx".into()),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let original = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 6")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = original["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+    let query = query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone();
+
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+    // New rows to fold into the translated segment; their vectors sit far from
+    // the query so the nearest row stays i = 6.
+    let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Float32Type, _, _>(
+        (0..4).map(|_| {
+            Some(vec![
+                Some(1000.0f32),
+                Some(1000.0),
+                Some(1000.0),
+                Some(1000.0),
+            ])
+        }),
+        4,
+    );
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "i",
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![8, 9, 10, 11])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        ("vector", Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let nearest = |dataset: Dataset, use_index: bool| {
+        let query = query.clone();
+        async move {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.nearest("vector", &query, 1).unwrap();
+            scan.use_index(use_index);
+            let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            (plan, batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0))
+        }
+    };
+    let (_, truth) = nearest(dataset.clone(), false).await;
+    assert_eq!(truth, 6);
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // One merged segment whose stored bitmap keeps the retired provenance and
+    // adds the appended fragment.
+    let stored: Vec<_> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|index| index.name == "vector_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(stored.len(), 1, "{stored:?}");
+    let provenance = stored[0].fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        provenance.contains(0) && provenance.contains(1),
+        "{provenance:?}"
+    );
+
+    // Derived coverage spans every live fragment and the ANN path serves the
+    // query with the right row.
+    let derived = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|index| index.name == "vector_idx")
+        .filter_map(|index| index.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+        .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |acc, b| acc | b);
+    assert_eq!(derived, dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
+    let (plan, found) = nearest(dataset.clone(), true).await;
+    assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(found, truth);
+
+    // Trim retains the transition the merged segment's provenance still names.
+    cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .load_index_by_name(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_some()
+    );
+    let (plan, found) = nearest(dataset.clone(), true).await;
+    assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(found, truth);
+}
+
+// The default optimize's steady-state rebalance of a translated vector
+// segment: the rebalanced file is read through the translating loader, so
+// its bitmap is the stored provenance (as a merge publishes), not stored ∩
+// live, which is empty for the retired sources and would turn every indexed
+// row of the partition's destinations into a scan.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn vector_rebalance_keeps_translated_coverage_on_tagged_tables() {
+    use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array};
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col(
+            "vector",
+            lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(4.into()),
+        )
+        .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut ivf = lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams::new(1);
+    ivf.target_partition_size = Some(1);
+    let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        ivf,
+    );
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["vector"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some("vector_idx".into()),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let original = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 6")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = original["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+    let query = query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone();
+
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<Float32Type, _, _>(
+        (0..4).map(|_| Some(vec![Some(1000.0f32); 4])),
+        4,
+    );
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "i",
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![8, 9, 10, 11])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        ("vector", Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let derived = |dataset: &Dataset| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        async move {
+            dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|index| index.name == "vector_idx")
+                .filter_map(|index| index.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+                .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |acc, b| acc | b)
+        }
+    };
+    let nearest = |dataset: &Dataset| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let query = query.clone();
+        async move {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.nearest("vector", &query, 1).unwrap();
+            let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+            let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            (plan, batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0))
+        }
+    };
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived(&dataset).await,
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+    );
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived(&dataset).await,
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone(),
+        "the rebalance keeps the translated coverage"
+    );
+    let (plan, found) = nearest(&dataset).await;
+    assert!(plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(found, 6);
+}
+
+// Inverted append then merge on a tagged table: the merged segment's old
+// data is the coverage the reader derives for the translated segment and it
+// keeps the stored provenance, so the full-text index still covers the
+// partition's destinations after both optimizations.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn inverted_merge_keeps_translated_coverage_on_tagged_tables() {
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, StringArray};
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col("text", lance_datagen::array::fill_utf8("hit".to_string()))
+        .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            Some("text_idx".into()),
+            &lance_index::scalar::InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "i",
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![8, 9, 10, 11])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        (
+            "text",
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["hit"; 4])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let derived = |dataset: &Dataset| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        async move {
+            dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|index| index.name == "text_idx")
+                .filter_map(|index| index.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+                .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |acc, b| acc | b)
+        }
+    };
+    let hits = |dataset: &Dataset| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        async move {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.full_text_search(lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery::new("hit".into()))
+                .unwrap();
+            scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows()
+        }
+    };
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived(&dataset).await,
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+    );
+    assert_eq!(hits(&dataset).await, 12);
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let stored: Vec<_> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|index| index.name == "text_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(stored.len(), 1, "{stored:?}");
+    let provenance = stored[0].fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        provenance.contains(0) && provenance.contains(1),
+        "the merge keeps the provenance: {provenance:?}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived(&dataset).await,
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone(),
+        "the merge keeps the translated coverage"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(hits(&dataset).await, 12);
+}
+
+// Under a history this build cannot interpret the reader lists no user
+// segment, so every fragment looks unindexed; optimize must not rebuild the
+// table over and over (each result would be excluded again) but leave it
+// alone like trim, superseded pruning and remap do.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn optimize_is_a_no_op_under_an_unsupported_history() {
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let (mut transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    transition.mapping = None;
+    let mut raw = transition.encode_to_vec();
+    raw.extend(field(17, b"future mapping"));
+    install(&mut dataset, field(2, &raw), destinations, false).await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let before: Vec<Uuid> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|index| index.uuid)
+        .collect();
+    assert!(
+        dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .all(|index| index.name != "i_idx")
+    );
+    for _ in 0..2 {
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing committed");
+        let after: Vec<Uuid> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| index.uuid)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(after, before, "no segment written");
+    }
+}
+
+// The segment state matrix at the open layer. On one tagged snapshot
+// (F0, F1 partitioned into F10, F11; F12 appended) a segment of every state:
+//
+// | state                | listing         | query open by uuid | maintenance open        |
+// |----------------------|-----------------|--------------------|-------------------------|
+// | identity (live only) | served, {12}    | serves             | serves (identity)       |
+// | translating          | served, {10,11} | serves             | serves (translation)    |
+// | partially withdrawn  | excluded        | error              | empty translation       |
+// | empty last (files)   | excluded        | error              | empty translation       |
+// | superseded           | excluded        | error              | empty translation       |
+// | bitmap None          | excluded        | error              | skip (NotSupported)     |
+// | corrupt details      | excluded        | error              | error                   |
+//
+// A query never opens an excluded segment (no scan was scheduled for its
+// rows); maintenance replaces what it reads as empty, skips what it cannot
+// translate and fails on what it cannot interpret. The deferred definition
+// (no files) never reaches an open: the optimizer trains it from its
+// definition (`awaits_training`); the withdrawn-to-empty scalar and vector
+// rebuilds, the superseded prune and the remap skips are pinned by their own
+// tests.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn segment_state_matrix_at_the_open_layer() {
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::{
+        OpenPurpose, ResolvedRemapping, open_row_id_remapping, open_row_id_remapping_with_plan,
+    };
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array};
+
+    let mut dataset = fixture().await;
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    let fri = install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![(
+        "i",
+        Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![8, 9, 10, 11])) as ArrayRef,
+    )])
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .append(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema()),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // The appended fragment: live and on no lineage.
+    let live_only = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+        .find(|id| !matches!(id, 10 | 11))
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    let translating = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == "i_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .unwrap();
+    let derive = |name: &str, bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap>| {
+        let mut segment = translating.clone();
+        segment.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        segment.name = name.to_string();
+        segment.fragment_bitmap = bitmap;
+        segment
+    };
+    let identity = derive("identity_idx", Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([live_only])));
+    let partial = derive("partial_idx", Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])));
+    let empty_last = derive("empty_idx", Some(RoaringBitmap::new()));
+    let unknown = derive("unknown_idx", None);
+    let mut corrupt = derive("corrupt_idx", translating.fragment_bitmap.clone());
+    corrupt.index_details = None;
+    // A newer sibling over both destinations supersedes the translating
+    // segment of its own name.
+    let mut superseded = derive("superseded_idx", translating.fragment_bitmap.clone());
+    superseded.name = "superseded_idx".into();
+    let direct = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut dataset,
+        &["i"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("superseded_idx".into())
+    .replace(true)
+    .fragments(vec![10, 11])
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    indices.extend([
+        identity.clone(),
+        partial.clone(),
+        empty_last.clone(),
+        unknown.clone(),
+        corrupt.clone(),
+        superseded.clone(),
+        direct.clone(),
+    ]);
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+    let listed: HashMap<Uuid, RoaringBitmap> = dataset
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|index| Some((index.uuid, index.fragment_bitmap.clone()?)))
+        .collect();
+    let mapping = FragmentReuseIndex::open(&dataset, &fri).await.unwrap();
+    let empty = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let no_coverage = mapping.translation_fingerprint(&empty, &empty, &[]);
+
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+    enum Cell {
+        Serves,
+        Empty,
+        Skip,
+        Error,
+    }
+    let query = |segment: &IndexMetadata| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let segment = segment.clone();
+        async move {
+            match open_row_id_remapping(&dataset, &segment, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await {
+                Ok(_) => Cell::Serves,
+                Err(_) => Cell::Error,
+            }
+        }
+    };
+    let maintenance = |segment: &IndexMetadata| {
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let segment = segment.clone();
+        async move {
+            match open_row_id_remapping_with_plan(
+                &dataset,
+                &segment,
+                None,
+                OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            {
+                Ok(Some((_, ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { fingerprint, .. })))
+                    if fingerprint == no_coverage =>
+                {
+                    Cell::Empty
+                }
+                Ok(_) => Cell::Serves,
+                Err(error) if error.to_string().contains("cannot be translated") => Cell::Skip,
+                Err(_) => Cell::Error,
+            }
+        }
+    };
+    let rows: [(&str, &IndexMetadata, Option<RoaringBitmap>, Cell, Cell); 7] = [
+        (
+            "identity",
+            &identity,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([live_only])),
+            Cell::Serves,
+            Cell::Serves,
+        ),
+        (
+            "translating",
+            &translating,
+            Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])),
+            Cell::Serves,
+            Cell::Serves,
+        ),
+        (
+            "partially withdrawn",
+            &partial,
+            None,
+            Cell::Error,
+            Cell::Empty,
+        ),
+        ("empty last", &empty_last, None, Cell::Error, Cell::Empty),
+        ("superseded", &superseded, None, Cell::Error, Cell::Empty),
+        ("bitmap None", &unknown, None, Cell::Error, Cell::Skip),
+        ("corrupt", &corrupt, None, Cell::Error, Cell::Error),
+    ];
+    for (state, segment, listing, query_cell, maintenance_cell) in rows {
+        assert_eq!(
+            listed.get(&segment.uuid).cloned(),
+            listing,
+            "{state}: listing"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(query(segment).await, query_cell, "{state}: query open");
+        assert_eq!(
+            maintenance(segment).await,
+            maintenance_cell,
+            "{state}: maintenance open"
+        );
+    }
+    assert_eq!(
+        listed.get(&direct.uuid),
+        Some(&RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])),
+        "the direct sibling serves the destinations"
+    );
+}
+
+// The untested seam: a legacy-format vector file on a tagged table. Legacy
+// readers only take the v0 remapper handle, which is `None` on a tagged
+// history, so the tagged reader must exclude such a segment from coverage
+// (`vector_supports_batch_remapping` is false for pre-(0,3) files) and the
+// query must scan flat, rather than serve untranslated addresses through ANN.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn legacy_vector_format_on_tagged_table_is_excluded_and_scans() {
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col(
+            "vector",
+            lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(4.into()),
+        )
+        .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(64))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // The legacy file format exists for IVF_PQ; enough rows to train a
+    // 4-bit codebook over two sub-vectors.
+    let mut params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(
+        1,
+        4,
+        2,
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+        10,
+    );
+    params.version(crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::Legacy);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["vector"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some("vector_idx".into()),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let original = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("i = 6")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let query = original["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+    let query = query
+        .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>()
+        .clone();
+
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+
+    // Excluded from the query listing: no coverage the reader can honor.
+    assert!(
+        !dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|index| index.name == "vector_idx"),
+        "a legacy-format vector segment cannot be translated and must not claim coverage"
+    );
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.nearest("vector", &query, 1).unwrap();
+    let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(!plan.contains("ANN"), "{plan}");
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().value(0), 6);
+}
+
+/// Row-map label IO of one translating query on `dataset`: `(requests, bytes)`
+/// against files under `_fri/`, plus the single matching value.
+async fn fri_read_cost(dataset: &Dataset, value: i32) -> (usize, u64) {
+    let filter = format!("i = {value}");
+    let plan = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter(&filter)
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter(&filter)
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 1, "{filter}");
+    assert_eq!(
+        batch
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .value(0),
+        value
+    );
+    let fri: Vec<_> = stats
+        .requests
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|request| request.path.as_ref().contains("/_fri/"))
+        .collect();
+    let bytes = fri
+        .iter()
+        .map(|request| {
+            let range = request
+                .range
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("unranged FRI read: {request:?}"));
+            range.end - range.start
+        })
+        .sum();
+    (fri.len(), bytes)
+}
+
+// The row-map chunk cache only pays off when the index cache can retain a
+// ~4 MiB chunk. Opened through the real dataset path with an index cache too
+// small for that, a translating query must read exactly the block it needs
+// instead of loading a whole chunk it cannot keep; with a cache that can keep
+// the chunk, the second query is served entirely from memory. Measured on the
+// dataset's own IO tracker: both request counts and bytes.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn row_map_reads_follow_index_cache_capacity() {
+    let dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_dataset(&dir, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(16384))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("i_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // 256-row blocks: a 32-block chunk is 8192 labels (16 KiB), a block 512 B,
+    // so the row map spans four chunks and a chunk read is many times a block.
+    let source_ids: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+    let (transition, destinations) =
+        prepare_partition_with_block_rows(&dataset, &source_ids, 10, 256).await;
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false).await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let uri = dataset.uri().to_string();
+    drop(dataset);
+
+    // Two rows in different BTree pages (so the second query cannot be served
+    // by a cached translated page) but in the same row-map chunk.
+    let (first, second) = (5000, 300);
+    let open = |capacity: Option<usize>| {
+        let uri = uri.clone();
+        async move {
+            let builder = crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri);
+            match capacity {
+                Some(capacity) => builder.with_index_cache_size_bytes(capacity),
+                None => builder,
+            }
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        }
+    };
+
+    // Default cache: the chunk is loaded once and retained, so a second query
+    // in the same chunk performs no FRI IO at all.
+    let dataset = open(None).await;
+    let (default_requests, default_bytes) = fri_read_cost(&dataset, first).await;
+    assert!(default_requests > 0);
+    assert_eq!(
+        fri_read_cost(&dataset, second).await,
+        (0, 0),
+        "a retained chunk serves the second query"
+    );
+
+    // Cache disabled: nothing can be retained, so each query pays the row-map
+    // open plus one block read, never a chunk.
+    let dataset = open(Some(0)).await;
+    let (zero_requests, zero_bytes) = fri_read_cost(&dataset, first).await;
+    assert!(
+        zero_bytes < default_bytes,
+        "without a cache a query reads a block, not a chunk: {zero_bytes} vs {default_bytes}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        zero_requests <= default_requests,
+        "{zero_requests} vs {default_requests}"
+    );
+    let (repeat_requests, repeat_bytes) = fri_read_cost(&dataset, second).await;
+    assert!(repeat_requests > 0);
+    assert!(
+        repeat_bytes < default_bytes,
+        "{repeat_bytes} vs {default_bytes}"
+    );
+
+    // Cache smaller than one production chunk (4 MiB): the reader itself is
+    // retained but labels are read per block, so the second query costs one
+    // block read and no chunk is ever loaded.
+    let dataset = open(Some(ROW_MAP_CACHE_CHUNK_BYTES - 1)).await;
+    let (small_requests, small_bytes) = fri_read_cost(&dataset, first).await;
+    assert!(
+        small_bytes < default_bytes,
+        "below chunk capacity a query reads a block, not a chunk: {small_bytes} vs {default_bytes}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        small_requests <= default_requests,
+        "{small_requests} vs {default_requests}"
+    );
+    let (block_requests, block_bytes) = fri_read_cost(&dataset, second).await;
+    assert_eq!(block_requests, 1, "exactly the block read");
+    assert!(block_bytes < small_bytes, "{block_bytes} vs {small_bytes}");
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_remapping.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_remapping.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1b2bbf2ea93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_remapping.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,160 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Bridge common FRI address translation to scalar and vector index loading.
+use super::frag_reuse_reader::FragmentReuseIndex;
+use crate::Dataset;
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder};
+use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct VectorFormatKey(uuid::Uuid);
+
+impl CacheKey for VectorFormatKey {
+    type ValueType = bool;
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        self.0.to_string().into()
+    }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "VectorBatchRemapping"
+    }
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.vector-batch-remapping", 1)
+    }
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_fixed_bytes(self.0.as_bytes());
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct InvertedFormatKey(uuid::Uuid);
+
+impl CacheKey for InvertedFormatKey {
+    type ValueType = bool;
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        self.0.to_string().into()
+    }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "InvertedBatchRemapping"
+    }
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.inverted-batch-remapping", 1)
+    }
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_fixed_bytes(self.0.as_bytes());
+    }
+}
+
+/// Whether a full-text segment can be loaded under a translating remapper.
+///
+/// The plugin supports batch remapping, but a legacy-layout index (no
+/// `metadata.lance`; the loader's own format probe) stores per-document
+/// lengths aligned with the row ids it was built with and cannot be
+/// translated. Such a segment is excluded from coverage so the planner scans
+/// its fragments; an untouched (identity) legacy segment still loads.
+pub async fn inverted_supports_batch_remapping(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    let supported = dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .get_or_insert_with_key(InvertedFormatKey(index.uuid), || async {
+            use crate::dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt;
+            let store =
+                lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(
+                    dataset, index,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            Ok(lance_index::scalar::IndexStore::open_index_file(
+                &store,
+                lance_index::scalar::inverted::METADATA_FILE,
+            )
+            .await
+            .is_ok())
+        })
+        .await?;
+    Ok(*supported)
+}
+
+/// Legacy vector file readers keep their existing V1 behavior and scan fallback.
+pub async fn vector_supports_batch_remapping(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<bool> {
+    let supported = dataset
+        .index_cache
+        .get_or_insert_with_key(VectorFormatKey(index.uuid), || async {
+            let path = dataset
+                .indice_files_dir(index)?
+                .join(index.uuid.to_string())
+                .join(super::INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+            let store = dataset.object_store_for_index(index).await?;
+            let reader = super::vector::open_index_file(
+                store.as_ref(),
+                &path,
+                super::INDEX_FILE_NAME,
+                &index.file_size_map(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            let tail = lance_io::utils::read_last_block(reader.as_ref()).await?;
+            Ok(matches!(
+                lance_io::utils::read_version(&tail)?,
+                (0, 3) | (2, _)
+            ))
+        })
+        .await?;
+    Ok(*supported)
+}
+
+/// Applies the shared FRI history and limits translated rows to this segment's coverage.
+pub(super) struct QueryRowIdRemapper {
+    mapping: Arc<FragmentReuseIndex>,
+    coverage: RoaringBitmap,
+    excluded_fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for QueryRowIdRemapper {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("QueryRowIdRemapper")
+            .field("coverage", &self.coverage)
+            .field("excluded_fragments", &self.excluded_fragments)
+            .finish_non_exhaustive()
+    }
+}
+
+impl QueryRowIdRemapper {
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        mapping: Arc<FragmentReuseIndex>,
+        coverage: RoaringBitmap,
+        excluded_fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            mapping,
+            coverage,
+            excluded_fragments,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl lance_index::scalar::BatchRowIdRemapper for QueryRowIdRemapper {
+    async fn remap_row_ids(&self, row_ids: &[u64]) -> Result<Vec<Option<u64>>> {
+        lance_index::scalar::check_batch_remapping_entry()?;
+        Ok(self
+            .mapping
+            .remap_row_ids_excluding(row_ids, &self.excluded_fragments)
+            .await?
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|address| {
+                address.filter(|row_id| {
+                    self.coverage
+                        .contains(RowAddress::from(*row_id).fragment_id())
+                })
+            })
+            .collect())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b654e8157bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1204 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Readers apply the fragment reuse index to every index they load, which would
+//! rewrite stable row ids as if they were addresses. So on a stable-row-id table
+//! it may only coexist with indices proven to store row addresses.
+
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::mem_wal::MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME;
+use lance_index::registry::display_type_from_url;
+use lance_table::feature_flags::{
+    FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS, frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_enabled,
+};
+use lance_table::format::{IndexMetadata, Manifest, pb as table_pb};
+use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::is_frag_reuse_index_entry;
+use prost::Name;
+use prost_types::Any;
+
+use super::scalar::IndexDetails;
+use super::{index_is_usable, unsupported_index_version};
+
+fn details_type_name(details: &Any) -> &str {
+    details
+        .type_url
+        .rsplit_once('/')
+        .map_or(details.type_url.as_str(), |(_, name)| name)
+}
+
+fn is_mem_wal_index_entry(index: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    index.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME
+        && index.index_details.as_ref().is_some_and(|details| {
+            details_type_name(details)
+                .eq_ignore_ascii_case(&table_pb::MemWalIndexDetails::full_name())
+        })
+}
+
+/// An empty fragment reuse index counts.
+pub fn has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(manifest: &Manifest, indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> bool {
+    manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() && indices.iter().any(is_frag_reuse_index_entry)
+}
+
+/// `supports_batch_row_id_remapping` is only a proxy for applying the legacy
+/// fragment reuse index on load, so every admitted type needs a query test on
+/// that path.
+fn address_index_incompatibility(index: &IndexMetadata) -> Option<String> {
+    let Some(details) = index.index_details.as_ref() else {
+        return Some("a legacy index without type details, which stores stable row IDs".into());
+    };
+    let type_name = details_type_name(details);
+    let display_type = display_type_from_url(&details.type_url);
+    let details = IndexDetails(details.clone());
+    if !details.has_reader() {
+        return Some(format!(
+            "an index of type `{type_name}`, which is not known to this build of Lance"
+        ));
+    }
+    if type_name.eq_ignore_ascii_case(&lance_index::pb::JsonIndexDetails::full_name()) {
+        return Some(
+            "a JSON index, which does not record the identifiers its target index stores".into(),
+        );
+    }
+    if let Some(max_supported_version) = unsupported_index_version(index) {
+        return Some(format!(
+            "a {display_type} index at version {}, which is not known to this build of Lance \
+             (it supports up to version {max_supported_version})",
+            index.index_version
+        ));
+    }
+    if !index.results_are_row_addrs() {
+        return Some(format!(
+            "a {display_type} index, which stores stable row IDs"
+        ));
+    }
+    let applies_frag_reuse = details
+        .get_plugin()
+        .is_ok_and(|plugin| plugin.supports_batch_row_id_remapping());
+    if !applies_frag_reuse {
+        return Some(format!(
+            "a {display_type} index, which does not apply the fragment reuse index"
+        ));
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+fn ordinary_index_incompatibility(index: &IndexMetadata) -> Option<String> {
+    if is_frag_reuse_index_entry(index) || is_mem_wal_index_entry(index) {
+        return None;
+    }
+    address_index_incompatibility(index)
+}
+
+fn incompatible_indices(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> Vec<(&IndexMetadata, String)> {
+    indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|index| ordinary_index_incompatibility(index).map(|reason| (index, reason)))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+pub fn apply_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_flag(
+    manifest: &mut Manifest,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+) {
+    if has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(manifest, indices) {
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+    } else {
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags &= !FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags &= !FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn validate_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    validate_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_when(
+        manifest,
+        indices,
+        frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_enabled(),
+    )
+}
+
+/// Split out so the release-build refusal is testable from a debug build.
+fn validate_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_when(
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    is_supported: bool,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if !has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(manifest, indices) {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let version = manifest.version;
+    if !is_supported {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "Cannot commit version {version}: the dataset uses stable row IDs and carries a \
+             fragment reuse index, which this build of Lance does not support"
+        )));
+    }
+    let frag_reuse_entries: Vec<_> = indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|index| is_frag_reuse_index_entry(index))
+        .collect();
+    if frag_reuse_entries.len() != 1 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Cannot commit version {version}: the dataset carries {} fragment reuse index \
+             entries, but exactly one is allowed",
+            frag_reuse_entries.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    let frag_reuse_version = frag_reuse_entries[0].index_version;
+    if frag_reuse_version != 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Cannot commit version {version}: the dataset uses stable row IDs and carries a \
+             fragment reuse index with index_version {frag_reuse_version}, but datasets with \
+             stable row IDs support only index_version 0"
+        )));
+    }
+    let incompatible = incompatible_indices(indices);
+    if incompatible.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let listed = incompatible
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(index, reason)| format!("`{}` ({}): {reason}", index.name, index.uuid))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .join("; ");
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "Cannot commit version {version}: the dataset uses stable row IDs and carries a \
+         fragment reuse index, which is applied to every index as row-address moves, so each \
+         index must be one this build of Lance can confirm stores row addresses and applies \
+         the fragment reuse index. These indices cannot be confirmed: {listed}"
+    )))
+}
+
+pub fn ensure_index_allowed_with_frag_reuse(
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    existing_indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if !has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(manifest, existing_indices) {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    match ordinary_index_incompatibility(index) {
+        None => Ok(()),
+        Some(reason) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Cannot create index `{}`: the dataset uses stable row IDs and carries a fragment \
+             reuse index, which would be applied to this index as row-address moves, and it \
+             is {reason}. On such a dataset only indices that store row addresses and apply \
+             the fragment reuse index can be created",
+            index.name
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn ensure_index_kind_allowed_with_frag_reuse(
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    existing_indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    index_kind: &str,
+    column: &str,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if !has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(manifest, existing_indices) {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "Cannot create a {index_kind} index on column `{column}`: the dataset uses stable row \
+         IDs and carries a fragment reuse index, which would be applied to the index as \
+         row-address moves, and {index_kind} indices store stable row IDs. On such a dataset \
+         only indices that store row addresses and apply the fragment reuse index can be \
+         created"
+    )))
+}
+
+/// Only meaningful where [`has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids`] holds.
+pub fn is_hidden_by_frag_reuse(index: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    ordinary_index_incompatibility(index).is_some()
+}
+
+pub fn warn_about_indices_hidden_by_frag_reuse(manifest: &Manifest, indices: &[IndexMetadata]) {
+    if !has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(manifest, indices) {
+        return;
+    }
+    for (index, reason) in incompatible_indices(indices) {
+        // Unreadable indices are already reported by `warn_about_unsupported_indices`.
+        if index_is_usable(index) {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Index {} is not used: the dataset uses stable row IDs and carries a fragment \
+                 reuse index, and the index is {reason}",
+                index.name,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Backstop for callers that load an index from the full list, not the usable
+/// view that already hides incompatible indices.
+pub fn ensure_frag_reuse_applies(
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if !has_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids(manifest, indices) {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    match ordinary_index_incompatibility(index) {
+        None => Ok(()),
+        Some(reason) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Refusing to apply the fragment reuse index to index `{}` ({}): the dataset uses \
+             stable row IDs and the index is {reason}",
+            index.name, index.uuid
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
+    use arrow_array::{Array, Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+    use lance_core::ROW_ADDR;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datagen::{Dimension, array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams};
+    use lance_index::{IndexType, pb, pbold};
+    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+    use lance_table::format::DataStorageFormat;
+    use lance_table::io::commit::write_manifest_file_to_path;
+    use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::{
+        FragDigest, FragReuseGroup, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion,
+    };
+    use prost_types::Any;
+    use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::Dataset;
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+    use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, TransactionBuilder};
+    use crate::dataset::{CommitBuilder, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::build_frag_reuse_index_metadata;
+    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+    use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt, load_all_indices};
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+
+    fn index_with(name: &str, details: Option<Any>, index_version: i32) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: name.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0])),
+            index_details: details.map(Arc::new),
+            index_version,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn details<M: prost::Name>(message: &M) -> Option<Any> {
+        Some(Any::from_msg(message).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    fn foreign(type_name: &str) -> Option<Any> {
+        Some(Any {
+            type_url: format!("type.googleapis.com/{type_name}"),
+            value: vec![],
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn json_over(target: Option<Any>) -> Option<Any> {
+        details(&pb::JsonIndexDetails {
+            path: "x".to_string(),
+            target_details: target,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn undecodable_json() -> Option<Any> {
+        details(&pb::JsonIndexDetails::default()).map(|details| Any {
+            type_url: details.type_url,
+            value: vec![0xff; 4],
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn newer_than_supported<M: prost::Name>(message: &M) -> i32 {
+        let details = IndexDetails(Arc::new(Any::from_msg(message).unwrap()));
+        details.index_version().unwrap() as i32 + 1
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::zone_map(details(&pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails::default()), 0, true)]
+    #[case::bloom_filter(details(&pb::BloomFilterIndexDetails::default()), 0, true)]
+    #[case::btree(details(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default()), 0, false)]
+    #[case::bitmap(details(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default()), 0, false)]
+    #[case::label_list(details(&pbold::LabelListIndexDetails::default()), 0, false)]
+    #[case::ngram(details(&pbold::NGramIndexDetails::default()), 0, false)]
+    #[case::inverted(details(&pbold::InvertedIndexDetails::default()), 0, false)]
+    #[case::vector(details(&pb::VectorIndexDetails::default()), 0, false)]
+    #[case::fm(details(&pb::FmIndexDetails::default()), 0, false)]
+    #[case::min_hash(details(&pb::MinHashLshIndexDetails::default()), 0, false)]
+    #[case::json(details(&pb::JsonIndexDetails::default()), 0, false)]
+    #[case::json_over_zone_map(
+        json_over(details(&pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails::default())),
+        0,
+        false
+    )]
+    #[case::json_over_btree(json_over(details(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default())), 0, false)]
+    #[case::undecodable_json(undecodable_json(), 0, false)]
+    #[case::legacy_without_details(None, 0, false)]
+    #[case::unknown_type(foreign("example.ForeignIndexDetails"), 0, false)]
+    #[case::zone_map_look_alike(foreign("example.ZoneMapIndexDetails"), 0, false)]
+    #[case::zone_map_from_a_newer_build(
+        details(&pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails::default()),
+        newer_than_supported(&pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails::default()),
+        false
+    )]
+    fn test_only_proven_address_indices_are_compatible(
+        #[case] index_details: Option<Any>,
+        #[case] index_version: i32,
+        #[case] is_compatible: bool,
+    ) {
+        let index = index_with("idx", index_details, index_version);
+        assert_eq!(
+            address_index_incompatibility(&index).is_none(),
+            is_compatible
+        );
+        assert_eq!(is_hidden_by_frag_reuse(&index), !is_compatible);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_system_indices_are_recognized_by_name_and_type() {
+        let frag_reuse = index_with(
+            FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME,
+            details(&table_pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails::default()),
+            0,
+        );
+        let mem_wal = index_with(
+            MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME,
+            details(&table_pb::MemWalIndexDetails::default()),
+            0,
+        );
+        assert!(is_frag_reuse_index_entry(&frag_reuse));
+        assert!(!is_hidden_by_frag_reuse(&frag_reuse));
+        assert!(!is_hidden_by_frag_reuse(&mem_wal));
+
+        let btree = details(&pbold::BTreeIndexDetails::default());
+        for borrowed in [
+            index_with(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, btree.clone(), 0),
+            index_with(MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, btree, 0),
+            index_with(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, None, 0),
+            index_with(MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, None, 0),
+        ] {
+            assert!(!is_frag_reuse_index_entry(&borrowed), "{borrowed:?}");
+            assert!(is_hidden_by_frag_reuse(&borrowed), "{borrowed:?}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn stable_row_id_manifest() -> Manifest {
+        let arrow_schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "i",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]);
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap(),
+            Arc::new(vec![]),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        manifest
+    }
+
+    fn frag_reuse_entry(index_version: i32) -> IndexMetadata {
+        index_with(
+            FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME,
+            details(&table_pb::FragmentReuseIndexDetails::default()),
+            index_version,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_publication_policy_and_invariant() {
+        let manifest = stable_row_id_manifest();
+        let zone_map = index_with(
+            "zone_map",
+            details(&pbold::ZoneMapIndexDetails::default()),
+            0,
+        );
+        let valid = vec![frag_reuse_entry(0), zone_map.clone()];
+        validate_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_when(&manifest, &valid, true).unwrap();
+
+        // As a release build.
+        let error =
+            validate_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_when(&manifest, &valid, false).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("does not support"), "{error}");
+
+        let mut without_stable_row_ids = manifest.clone();
+        without_stable_row_ids.reader_feature_flags = 0;
+        without_stable_row_ids.writer_feature_flags = 0;
+        let bitmap = index_with("bitmap", details(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default()), 0);
+        validate_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_when(
+            &without_stable_row_ids,
+            &[frag_reuse_entry(0), bitmap.clone()],
+            false,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        validate_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_when(
+            &manifest,
+            std::slice::from_ref(&bitmap),
+            false,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        for (indices, expected) in [
+            (
+                vec![frag_reuse_entry(0), frag_reuse_entry(0)],
+                "exactly one is allowed",
+            ),
+            (vec![frag_reuse_entry(1)], "support only index_version 0"),
+            (vec![frag_reuse_entry(0), zone_map, bitmap], "`bitmap`"),
+        ] {
+            let error = validate_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_when(&manifest, &indices, true)
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+            let message = error.to_string();
+            assert!(message.contains(expected), "{message}");
+            for advice in ["retry", "drain", "delete"] {
+                assert!(!message.to_lowercase().contains(advice), "{message}");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn stable_row_id_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+        gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "category",
+                array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b", "c", "d"]),
+            )
+            .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(4)))
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                uri,
+                FragmentCount::from(3),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(20),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    max_rows_per_file: 20,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn empty_frag_reuse_index(dataset: &Dataset, bitmap: RoaringBitmap) -> IndexMetadata {
+        build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+            dataset,
+            None,
+            FragReuseIndexDetails { versions: vec![] },
+            bitmap,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn commit_new_indices(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        new_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices,
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+        )
+        .build();
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Publishes below `write_manifest_file`'s checks, as another writer could.
+    async fn plant(dataset: &mut Dataset, indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>) {
+        let mut manifest = dataset.manifest.as_ref().clone();
+        manifest.version += 1;
+        manifest.transaction_file = None;
+        manifest.transaction_section = None;
+        apply_frag_reuse_with_stable_row_ids_flag(&mut manifest, &indices);
+        let location = dataset
+            .commit_handler
+            .commit(
+                &mut manifest,
+                Some(indices),
+                &dataset.base,
+                &dataset.object_store,
+                write_manifest_file_to_path,
+                dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        *dataset = dataset.checkout_version(location.version).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    fn has_flag(dataset: &Dataset) -> bool {
+        let flag = FLAG_FRAG_REUSE_WITH_STABLE_ROW_IDS;
+        let in_reader = dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags & flag != 0;
+        let in_writer = dataset.manifest.writer_feature_flags & flag != 0;
+        assert_eq!(in_reader, in_writer, "the flag must be set in both words");
+        in_reader
+    }
+
+    async fn create_index(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        column: &str,
+        index_type: IndexType,
+        params: &dyn lance_index::IndexParams,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&[column], index_type, params)
+            .name(format!("{column}_idx"))
+            .await
+            .map(|_| ())
+    }
+
+    fn assert_rejected(result: Result<()>, expected: &str) {
+        let error = result.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains(expected), "{message}");
+        for advice in ["retry", "drain", "delete"] {
+            assert!(!message.to_lowercase().contains(advice), "{message}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flag_is_derived_for_every_version() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = format!("{}/source", dir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset(&uri).await;
+        create_index(
+            &mut dataset,
+            "i",
+            IndexType::ZoneMap,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(!has_flag(&dataset));
+
+        let frag_reuse = empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::new()).await;
+        commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![frag_reuse])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(has_flag(&dataset));
+
+        dataset.append(five_rows(), None).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(has_flag(&dataset));
+        dataset.delete("i < 3").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(has_flag(&dataset));
+
+        let version = dataset.version().version;
+        let shallow = dataset
+            .shallow_clone(&format!("{}/shallow", dir.as_str()), version, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(shallow.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+        assert!(has_flag(&shallow));
+        let deep = dataset
+            .deep_clone(&format!("{}/deep", dir.as_str()), version, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(deep.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+        assert!(has_flag(&deep));
+
+        dataset.drop_index(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!has_flag(&dataset));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flag_is_not_set_without_stable_row_ids() {
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("category", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a", "b"]))
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(10))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        create_index(
+            &mut dataset,
+            "category",
+            IndexType::Bitmap,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let frag_reuse = empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::new()).await;
+        commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![frag_reuse])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(dataset.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap().is_some());
+        assert!(!has_flag(&dataset));
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum Publication {
+        Create,
+        DetachedCreate,
+        Rewrite,
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::create_index(Publication::Create)]
+    #[case::detached_create_index(Publication::DetachedCreate)]
+    #[case::rewrite_carrying_frag_reuse_index(Publication::Rewrite)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_publication_rejects_an_incompatible_index(#[case] publication: Publication) {
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(
+                &["category"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+            )
+            .name("category_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let version = dataset.version().version;
+        let frag_reuse = empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::new()).await;
+        let result = match publication {
+            Publication::Create => commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![frag_reuse]).await,
+            Publication::DetachedCreate => {
+                let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+                    version,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![frag_reuse],
+                        removed_indices: vec![],
+                    },
+                )
+                .build();
+                CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                    .with_detached(true)
+                    .execute(transaction)
+                    .await
+                    .map(|_| ())
+            }
+            Publication::Rewrite => {
+                let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+                    version,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index: Some(frag_reuse),
+                    },
+                )
+                .build();
+                dataset
+                    .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+                    .await
+            }
+        };
+        assert_rejected(result, "`category_idx`");
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, version);
+    }
+
+    /// Typed requests ignore the params' index type; generic ones resolve it.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::typed_zone_map(IndexType::ZoneMap, ScalarIndexParams::default(), None)]
+    #[case::generic_zone_map(
+        IndexType::Scalar,
+        ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+        None
+    )]
+    #[case::generic_default_btree(IndexType::Scalar, ScalarIndexParams::default(), Some("BTree"))]
+    #[case::typed_btree_with_zone_map_params(
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+        Some("BTree")
+    )]
+    #[case::typed_bitmap(IndexType::Bitmap, ScalarIndexParams::default(), Some("Bitmap"))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_scalar_index_under_frag_reuse(
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+        #[case] params: ScalarIndexParams,
+        #[case] rejected_type: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        let frag_reuse = empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::new()).await;
+        commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![frag_reuse])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let version = dataset.version().version;
+
+        let result = create_index(&mut dataset, "i", index_type, &params).await;
+        match rejected_type {
+            None => result.unwrap(),
+            Some(type_name) => {
+                let message = result.as_ref().unwrap_err().to_string();
+                assert!(message.contains("Cannot create index `i_idx`"), "{message}");
+                assert_rejected(result, type_name);
+                dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, version);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn generic_full_text_params() -> ScalarIndexParams {
+        ScalarIndexParams {
+            index_type: "inverted".to_string(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Only the refusal before training names the index kind.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::vector(
+        "vec",
+        IndexType::IvfFlat,
+        Box::new(VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2)),
+        "Cannot create a vector index on column `vec`"
+    )]
+    #[case::full_text(
+        "category",
+        IndexType::Inverted,
+        Box::new(InvertedIndexParams::default()),
+        "Cannot create a full-text index on column `category`"
+    )]
+    #[case::generic_full_text(
+        "category",
+        IndexType::Scalar,
+        Box::new(generic_full_text_params()),
+        "Cannot create a full-text index on column `category`"
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_id_index_kinds_are_refused_before_training(
+        #[case] column: &str,
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+        #[case] params: Box<dyn lance_index::IndexParams>,
+        #[case] expected: &str,
+    ) {
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        let frag_reuse = empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::new()).await;
+        commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![frag_reuse])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = create_index(&mut dataset, column, index_type, params.as_ref()).await;
+        assert_rejected(result, expected);
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+    enum Republish {
+        Append,
+        Restore,
+        ShallowClone,
+        DeepClone,
+    }
+
+    fn five_rows() -> impl arrow_array::RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static {
+        let batch = gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(1000, 1))
+            .col("category", array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["a"]))
+            .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(4)))
+            .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(5))
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema)
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::append(Republish::Append)]
+    #[case::restore(Republish::Restore)]
+    #[case::shallow_clone(Republish::ShallowClone)]
+    #[case::deep_clone(Republish::DeepClone)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_planted_incompatible_state_cannot_be_republished(#[case] operation: Republish) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = format!("{}/source", dir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset(&uri).await;
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(
+                &["category"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+            )
+            .name("category_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut indices = load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+        indices.push(empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::new()).await);
+        plant(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let planted_version = dataset.version().version;
+        let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", dir.as_str());
+
+        let (result, latest_version) = match operation {
+            Republish::Append => (dataset.append(five_rows(), None).await, planted_version),
+            Republish::Restore => {
+                dataset.drop_index("category_idx").await.unwrap();
+                let mut planted = dataset.checkout_version(planted_version).await.unwrap();
+                (planted.restore().await, planted_version + 1)
+            }
+            Republish::ShallowClone => (
+                dataset
+                    .shallow_clone(&clone_uri, planted_version, None)
+                    .await
+                    .map(|_| ()),
+                planted_version,
+            ),
+            Republish::DeepClone => (
+                dataset
+                    .deep_clone(&clone_uri, planted_version, None)
+                    .await
+                    .map(|_| ()),
+                planted_version,
+            ),
+        };
+        assert_rejected(result, "`category_idx`");
+        let latest = Dataset::open(&uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(latest.version().version, latest_version);
+        assert!(Dataset::open(&clone_uri).await.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::append(false)]
+    #[case::delete(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_from_a_newer_build_blocks_writes(#[case] is_delete: bool) {
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        create_index(
+            &mut dataset,
+            "i",
+            IndexType::ZoneMap,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut indices = load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+        for index in indices.iter_mut() {
+            index.index_version += 1;
+        }
+        indices.push(empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::new()).await);
+        plant(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+        let version = dataset.version().version;
+
+        let result = if is_delete {
+            dataset.delete("i < 3").await.map(|_| ())
+        } else {
+            dataset.append(five_rows(), None).await
+        };
+        let message = result.as_ref().unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("not known to this build of Lance"),
+            "{message}"
+        );
+        assert_rejected(result, "`i_idx`");
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, version);
+    }
+
+    async fn query_i(dataset: &Dataset, filter: &str, use_scalar_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter(filter)
+            .unwrap()
+            .use_scalar_index(use_scalar_index)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut values = batch["i"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        values.sort_unstable();
+        values
+    }
+
+    /// The bitmap's stable row ids collide with compacted fragment 0's old
+    /// addresses, so applying the fragment reuse index to it would lose rows.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_incompatible_indices_are_hidden_from_readers() {
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        create_index(
+            &mut dataset,
+            "category",
+            IndexType::Bitmap,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        create_index(
+            &mut dataset,
+            "vec",
+            IndexType::IvfFlat,
+            &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("i < 5").await.unwrap();
+        let expected = query_i(&dataset, "category = 'a'", false).await;
+
+        // The fragment reuse index this compaction would have recorded.
+        let old_fragments = dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone();
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_address()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let old_addresses: RoaringTreemap = batch[ROW_ADDR]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        let read_version = dataset.version().version;
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1_000,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let new_fragments = dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone();
+        let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+        old_addresses
+            .serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs)
+            .unwrap();
+        let details = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: vec![FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: read_version,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs,
+                    old_frags: old_fragments.iter().map(FragDigest::from).collect(),
+                    new_frags: new_fragments.iter().map(FragDigest::from).collect(),
+                }],
+            }],
+        };
+        let new_bitmap = new_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+        let frag_reuse = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(&dataset, None, details, new_bitmap)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut indices = load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap().as_ref().clone();
+        indices.push(frag_reuse);
+        plant(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(query_i(&dataset, "category = 'a'", true).await, expected);
+        let query = Float32Array::from(vec![0.5; 4]);
+        let nearest = |use_index: bool| {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let query = query.clone();
+            async move {
+                let batch = dataset
+                    .scan()
+                    .nearest("vec", &query, 5)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .use_index(use_index)
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                batch["i"]
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            }
+        };
+        assert_eq!(nearest(true).await, nearest(false).await);
+
+        let visible = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            visible
+                .iter()
+                .all(|index| index.name != "category_idx" && index.name != "vec_idx"),
+            "{visible:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_index_by_name("category_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+        let all_indices = load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let hidden = |name: &str| {
+            all_indices
+                .iter()
+                .find(|index| index.name == name)
+                .unwrap()
+                .clone()
+        };
+        let bitmap = hidden("category_idx");
+        let error = dataset
+            .open_scalar_index("category", &bitmap.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("does not exist"), "{error}");
+
+        // Metadata from the full list reaches the remapper's backstop.
+        let error = crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "category",
+            &bitmap,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .err()
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Refusing to apply the fragment reuse index to index `category_idx`"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+        let error = crate::index::frag_reuse::open_row_id_remapping(
+            &dataset,
+            &hidden("vec_idx"),
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .err()
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Refusing to apply the fragment reuse index to index `vec_idx`"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_rewrite_skips_the_frag_reuse_index_bitmap() {
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        let frag_reuse = empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::from_iter([1])).await;
+        commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![frag_reuse])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 1_000,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.fragments.len(), 1);
+        assert!(dataset.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap().is_some());
+        assert!(has_flag(&dataset));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_empty_frag_reuse_index_is_still_present() {
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset("memory://").await;
+        let frag_reuse = empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::new()).await;
+        commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![frag_reuse])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(has_flag(&dataset));
+        let frag_reuse = dataset.frag_reuse_index().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(frag_reuse.is_empty());
+        let addresses = arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(vec![0_u64, 7, 1 << 32]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            frag_reuse.remap_row_ids_array(Arc::new(addresses.clone())),
+            addresses
+        );
+
+        assert_rejected(
+            create_index(
+                &mut dataset,
+                "category",
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+            )
+            .await,
+            "Cannot create index `category_idx`",
+        );
+        let bitmap = index_with(
+            "category_idx",
+            details(&pbold::BitmapIndexDetails::default()),
+            0,
+        );
+        assert_rejected(
+            commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![bitmap]).await,
+            "`category_idx`",
+        );
+        create_index(
+            &mut dataset,
+            "i",
+            IndexType::ZoneMap,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::frag_reuse_index_first(true)]
+    #[case::bitmap_first(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_racing_index_creation_is_rejected_after_rebase(#[case] frag_reuse_first: bool) {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = stable_row_id_dataset(dir.as_str()).await;
+        let mut other = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        let frag_reuse = empty_frag_reuse_index(&dataset, RoaringBitmap::new()).await;
+        let bitmap = other
+            .create_index_builder(
+                &["category"],
+                IndexType::Bitmap,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap),
+            )
+            .name("category_idx".to_string())
+            .train(false)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = if frag_reuse_first {
+            commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![frag_reuse])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            commit_new_indices(&mut other, vec![bitmap]).await
+        } else {
+            commit_new_indices(&mut other, vec![bitmap]).await.unwrap();
+            commit_new_indices(&mut dataset, vec![frag_reuse]).await
+        };
+        assert_rejected(result, "`category_idx`");
+        let latest = Dataset::open(dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        let winner_index = if frag_reuse_first {
+            FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME
+        } else {
+            "category_idx"
+        };
+        let latest_names: Vec<_> = load_all_indices(&latest)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| index.name.clone())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(latest_names, vec![winner_index.to_string()]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/mem_wal.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/mem_wal.rs
index 6bc596dd42c..f82b0a44e7e 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/mem_wal.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/mem_wal.rs
@@ -3,133 +3,29 @@
 
 //! MemWAL Index operations.
 //!
-//! The MemWAL Index stores:
-//! - Configuration (region_specs, maintained_indexes)
-//! - Merge progress (merged_generations per region)
-//! - Region state snapshots (eventually consistent)
-//!
-//! Writers no longer update the index on every write. Instead, they update
-//! region manifests directly. This module provides functions to:
-//! - Load the MemWAL index
-//! - Update merged generations (called during merge-insert commits)
-
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::mem_wal::{MemWalIndex, MemWalIndexDetails, MergedGeneration, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME};
-use lance_table::format::{pb, IndexMetadata};
-use snafu::location;
-use uuid::Uuid;
-
-/// Load MemWalIndexDetails from an IndexMetadata.
-pub(crate) fn load_mem_wal_index_details(index: IndexMetadata) -> Result<MemWalIndexDetails> {
-    if let Some(details_any) = index.index_details.as_ref() {
-        if !details_any.type_url.ends_with("MemWalIndexDetails") {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Index details is not for the MemWAL index, but {}",
-                    details_any.type_url
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-
-        Ok(MemWalIndexDetails::try_from(
-            details_any.to_msg::<pb::MemWalIndexDetails>()?,
-        )?)
-    } else {
-        Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Index details not found for the MemWAL index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-/// Open the MemWAL index from its metadata.
-pub(crate) fn open_mem_wal_index(index: IndexMetadata) -> Result<Arc<MemWalIndex>> {
-    Ok(Arc::new(MemWalIndex::new(load_mem_wal_index_details(
-        index,
-    )?)))
-}
-
-/// Update merged_generations in the MemWAL index.
-/// This is called during merge-insert commits to atomically record which
-/// generations have been merged to the base table.
-pub(crate) fn update_mem_wal_index_merged_generations(
-    indices: &mut Vec<IndexMetadata>,
-    dataset_version: u64,
-    new_merged_generations: Vec<MergedGeneration>,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    if new_merged_generations.is_empty() {
-        return Ok(());
-    }
-
-    let pos = indices
-        .iter()
-        .position(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME);
-
-    let new_meta = if let Some(pos) = pos {
-        let current_meta = indices.remove(pos);
-        let mut details = load_mem_wal_index_details(current_meta)?;
-
-        // Update merged_generations - for each region, keep the higher generation
-        for new_mg in new_merged_generations {
-            if let Some(existing) = details
-                .merged_generations
-                .iter_mut()
-                .find(|mg| mg.region_id == new_mg.region_id)
-            {
-                if new_mg.generation > existing.generation {
-                    existing.generation = new_mg.generation;
-                }
-            } else {
-                details.merged_generations.push(new_mg);
-            }
-        }
-
-        new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset_version, details)?
-    } else {
-        // Create new MemWAL index with just the merged generations
-        let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
-            merged_generations: new_merged_generations,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset_version, details)?
-    };
+//! The index data structures and the helpers that read and update the index's
+//! `IndexMetadata` entry live in [`lance_table::system_index::mem_wal`]; this
+//! module holds the dataset-level operations built on top of them.
 
-    indices.push(new_meta);
-    Ok(())
-}
-
-/// Create a new MemWAL index metadata entry.
-pub(crate) fn new_mem_wal_index_meta(
-    dataset_version: u64,
-    details: MemWalIndexDetails,
-) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
-    Ok(IndexMetadata {
-        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
-        name: MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
-        fields: vec![],
-        dataset_version,
-        fragment_bitmap: None,
-        index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any::from_msg(
-            &pb::MemWalIndexDetails::from(&details),
-        )?)),
-        index_version: 0,
-        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
-        base_id: None,
-    })
-}
+pub(crate) use lance_table::system_index::mem_wal::{
+    load_mem_wal_index_details, new_mem_wal_index_meta, open_mem_wal_index,
+};
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    use lance_index::mem_wal::{CompactedSsTable, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, MemWalIndexDetails};
+    use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+    use lance_table::system_index::mem_wal::update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables;
     use std::sync::Arc;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
 
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-    use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
 
     use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
     use crate::dataset::{CommitBuilder, InsertBuilder, WriteParams};
@@ -157,18 +53,75 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap()
     }
 
+    /// A dataset with `__lance_mem_wal` already installed, as MemWAL
+    /// initialization leaves it. Recording compaction progress requires the
+    /// system index to exist, so any test that commits progress needs this
+    /// rather than a bare [`test_dataset`].
+    async fn test_dataset_with_mem_wal() -> crate::Dataset {
+        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
+        let mem_wal_index =
+            new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset.manifest.version, MemWalIndexDetails::default())
+                .unwrap();
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![mem_wal_index],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// UpdateMemWalState touches indexes, not data, so it must carry the
+    /// fragment list forward. The operation builds its manifest from scratch,
+    /// and an unpopulated fragment list is published as an empty one.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_update_mem_wal_state_preserves_fragments() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let rows_before = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        let fragments_before: Vec<u64> = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+        assert!(rows_before > 0, "precondition: the table holds rows");
+
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(Uuid::new_v4(), 1)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            fragments_before,
+            "UpdateMemWalState dropped fragments"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
+            rows_before,
+            "UpdateMemWalState dropped rows"
+        );
+    }
+
     /// Test that UpdateMemWalState with lower generation than committed fails without retry.
     /// Per spec: If committed_generation >= to_commit_generation, abort without retry.
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_update_mem_wal_state_conflict_lower_generation_no_retry() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
 
         // First commit UpdateMemWalState with generation 10
         let txn1 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version,
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
             },
             None,
         );
@@ -182,15 +135,15 @@ mod tests {
         let txn2 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version - 1, // Based on old version
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 5)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
             },
             None,
         );
         let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset)).execute(txn2).await;
 
         assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(crate::Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected non-retryable CommitConflict for lower generation, got {:?}",
+            matches!(result, Err(crate::Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected non-retryable IncompatibleTransaction for lower generation, got {:?}",
             result
         );
     }
@@ -198,14 +151,14 @@ mod tests {
     /// Test that UpdateMemWalState with equal generation as committed fails without retry.
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_update_mem_wal_state_conflict_equal_generation_no_retry() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
 
         // First commit UpdateMemWalState with generation 10
         let txn1 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version,
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
             },
             None,
         );
@@ -218,15 +171,15 @@ mod tests {
         let txn2 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version - 1, // Based on old version
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
             },
             None,
         );
         let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset)).execute(txn2).await;
 
         assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(crate::Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected non-retryable CommitConflict for equal generation, got {:?}",
+            matches!(result, Err(crate::Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected non-retryable IncompatibleTransaction for equal generation, got {:?}",
             result
         );
     }
@@ -235,14 +188,14 @@ mod tests {
     /// Per spec: If committed_generation < to_commit_generation, retry is allowed.
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_update_mem_wal_state_conflict_higher_generation_retryable() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
 
         // First commit UpdateMemWalState with generation 5
         let txn1 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version,
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 5)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
             },
             None,
         );
@@ -256,7 +209,7 @@ mod tests {
         let txn2 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version - 1, // Based on old version
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
             },
             None,
         );
@@ -269,18 +222,18 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
-    /// Test that UpdateMemWalState on different regions don't conflict.
+    /// Test that UpdateMemWalState on different shards don't conflict.
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_update_mem_wal_state_different_regions_no_conflict() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
-        let region1 = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let region2 = Uuid::new_v4();
+    async fn test_update_mem_wal_state_different_shards_no_conflict() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let shard1 = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let shard2 = Uuid::new_v4();
 
-        // First commit UpdateMemWalState for region1
+        // First commit UpdateMemWalState for shard1
         let txn1 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version,
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region1, 10)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard1, 10)],
             },
             None,
         );
@@ -289,12 +242,12 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Commit UpdateMemWalState for region2 based on old version
-        // This should succeed because different regions don't conflict
+        // Commit UpdateMemWalState for shard2 based on old version
+        // This should succeed because different shards don't conflict
         let txn2 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version - 1, // Based on old version
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region2, 5)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard2, 5)],
             },
             None,
         );
@@ -302,11 +255,11 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert!(
             result.is_ok(),
-            "Expected success for different regions, got {:?}",
+            "Expected success for different shards, got {:?}",
             result
         );
 
-        // Verify both regions are in the index
+        // Verify both shards are in the index
         let dataset = result.unwrap();
         let mem_wal_idx = dataset
             .load_indices()
@@ -317,21 +270,21 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap()
             .clone();
         let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(mem_wal_idx).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(details.compacted_sstables.len(), 2);
     }
 
     /// Test that CreateIndex of MemWalIndex can be rebased against UpdateMemWalState.
-    /// The merged_generations from UpdateMemWalState should be merged into CreateIndex.
+    /// The compacted_sstables from UpdateMemWalState should be included in CreateIndex.
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_create_index_rebase_against_update_mem_wal_state() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset().await;
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
 
         // First commit UpdateMemWalState with generation 10
         let txn1 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version,
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
             },
             None,
         );
@@ -341,9 +294,9 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
 
         // CreateIndex of MemWalIndex based on old version (before UpdateMemWalState)
-        // This should succeed and merge the generations
+        // This should succeed and combine the compaction progress.
         let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
-            num_regions: 1,
+            num_shards: 1,
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let mem_wal_index = new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset.manifest.version - 1, details).unwrap();
@@ -364,7 +317,7 @@ mod tests {
             result
         );
 
-        // Verify the merged_generations from UpdateMemWalState were merged into CreateIndex
+        // Verify the compacted_sstables from UpdateMemWalState were included in CreateIndex
         let dataset = result.unwrap();
         let mem_wal_idx = dataset
             .load_indices()
@@ -375,21 +328,21 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap()
             .clone();
         let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(mem_wal_idx).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations[0].region_id, region);
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations[0].generation, 10);
-        assert_eq!(details.num_regions, 1); // Config from CreateIndex preserved
+        assert_eq!(details.compacted_sstables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(details.compacted_sstables[0].shard_id, shard);
+        assert_eq!(details.compacted_sstables[0].generation, 10);
+        assert_eq!(details.num_shards, 1); // Config from CreateIndex preserved
     }
 
     /// Test that UpdateMemWalState against CreateIndex of MemWalIndex checks generations.
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_update_mem_wal_state_against_create_index_lower_generation() {
         let dataset = test_dataset().await;
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
 
-        // First commit CreateIndex of MemWalIndex with merged_generations
+        // First commit CreateIndex of MemWalIndex with compacted_sstables
         let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
-            merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
+            compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let mem_wal_index = new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset.manifest.version, details).unwrap();
@@ -411,88 +364,677 @@ mod tests {
         let txn2 = Transaction::new(
             dataset.manifest.version - 1, // Based on old version
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 5)],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
             },
             None,
         );
         let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset)).execute(txn2).await;
 
         assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(crate::Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected non-retryable CommitConflict when UpdateMemWalState generation is lower than CreateIndex, got {:?}",
+            matches!(result, Err(crate::Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected non-retryable IncompatibleTransaction when UpdateMemWalState generation is lower than CreateIndex, got {:?}",
             result
         );
     }
 
+    /// A table with `generation` folded into base.
+    async fn compacted_dataset(shard: Uuid, generation: u64) -> crate::Dataset {
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, generation)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// An index segment spanning `fragments`, as a completed build leaves.
+    fn index_over(name: &str, fragments: &[u32]) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: name.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter(fragments.iter().copied())),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn catch_up_generation(dataset: &crate::Dataset, index: &str) -> Option<u64> {
+        let meta = dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+        load_mem_wal_index_details(meta)
+            .unwrap()
+            .index_catchup
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|entry| entry.index_name == index)
+            .and_then(|entry| entry.caught_up_generations.first().map(|g| g.generation))
+    }
+
+    /// The commit path, not the derivation in isolation: `commit_transaction`
+    /// has to load the read version's indices and hand them down.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn an_index_covering_the_table_earns_catch_up_on_commit() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let dataset = compacted_dataset(shard, 5).await;
+
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_over("idx", &[0])],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(catch_up_generation(&dataset, "idx").await, Some(5));
+    }
+
+    /// A repair with nothing to rebuild still has to commit.
+    ///
+    /// Coverage is derived at commit time, so an index that already spans the
+    /// table records its position only if there is a commit to record it on.
+    /// That is the ordinary case after a remap, or after a compaction that
+    /// advanced a generation without changing which fragments exist: the
+    /// optimize finds no unindexed fragments and has no new segment to publish.
+    /// Skipping the commit there leaves the position missing forever, the
+    /// scheduler repeating the same repair, and the last SSTable unretirable.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_no_work_repair_still_records_derived_catch_up() {
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let dataset = compacted_dataset(shard, 7).await;
+        // Already spans the table, so the optimize below has nothing to build.
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_over("idx", &[0])],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Compaction advances without adding a fragment, so the index still
+        // covers and the optimize stays a no-op.
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 9)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let mut dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append().index_names(vec!["idx".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(catch_up_generation(&dataset, "idx").await, Some(9));
+
+        // And once it is current, the next pass must not commit again:
+        // periodic maintenance would otherwise mint a version forever.
+        let after_repair = dataset.manifest.version;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append().index_names(vec!["idx".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, after_repair);
+    }
+
+    /// A no-op optimize on a table that is not on the protocol must stay a
+    /// no-op: the early return is what keeps ordinary tables from committing an
+    /// empty version on every maintenance pass.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_no_work_optimize_with_nothing_compacted_commits_nothing() {
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_over("idx", &[0])],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let mut dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let before = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append().index_names(vec!["idx".to_string()]))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, before);
+    }
+
+    /// A table carrying compaction progress but no catch-up entry earns one
+    /// from an ordinary commit. This is how a table written before catch-up was
+    /// maintained heals itself: nothing has to be run against it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_table_with_no_catchup_entry_earns_one() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_over("idx", &[0])],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(catch_up_generation(&dataset, "idx").await, Some(5));
+    }
+
+    /// What a commit earns is fixed by the version it read, and a rebase does
+    /// not move it. The builder inspected a one-fragment table with generation
+    /// 5 folded in; by the time it commits, an append has landed. It still
+    /// earns 5 -- judged against the table it never saw, it would earn nothing
+    /// and the SSTables would be retained forever.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn credit_is_anchored_to_the_read_version_across_a_rebase() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let dataset = compacted_dataset(shard, 5).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::from(dataset.schema())),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(10..20_i32)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(0, 10))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset.get_fragments().len() > 1,
+            "the append must add a fragment the index has not seen"
+        );
+
+        // Built against `read_version`, and only ever saw fragment 0.
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_over("idx", &[0])],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(catch_up_generation(&dataset, "idx").await, Some(5));
+    }
+
+    /// A user index build that races a compaction commit is rejected outright
+    /// rather than rebased -- only the system index may rebase against
+    /// `UpdateMemWalState`. Anything scheduling catch-up work has to expect the
+    /// build to be thrown away and retried, so a busy shard needs the two kept
+    /// apart rather than merely retried.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_user_index_build_cannot_rebase_past_a_compaction_commit() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let dataset = compacted_dataset(shard, 5).await;
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 9)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_over("idx", &[0])],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let err = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("incompatible"),
+            "expected an incompatible-transaction error, got {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// One `__lance_mem_wal` entry carrying `details`, as a real table has.
+    fn indices_with(details: MemWalIndexDetails) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+        vec![new_mem_wal_index_meta(1, details).unwrap()]
+    }
+
+    fn compacted_generation(indices: &[IndexMetadata], shard: Uuid) -> Option<u64> {
+        load_mem_wal_index_details(indices[0].clone())
+            .unwrap()
+            .compacted_sstables
+            .iter()
+            .find(|sstable| sstable.shard_id == shard)
+            .map(|sstable| sstable.generation)
+    }
+
     #[test]
-    fn test_update_merged_generations() {
-        let mut indices = Vec::new();
-        let region1 = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let region2 = Uuid::new_v4();
+    fn test_update_compacted_sstables() {
+        let shard1 = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let shard2 = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let mut indices = indices_with(MemWalIndexDetails::default());
 
-        // First update - creates new index
-        update_mem_wal_index_merged_generations(
+        update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
             &mut indices,
             1,
-            vec![MergedGeneration::new(region1, 5)],
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard1, 5)],
         )
         .unwrap();
-
         assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(indices[0].clone()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations[0].region_id, region1);
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations[0].generation, 5);
+        assert_eq!(compacted_generation(&indices, shard1), Some(5));
 
-        // Second update - updates existing region
-        update_mem_wal_index_merged_generations(
+        // Advancing an existing shard.
+        update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
             &mut indices,
             2,
-            vec![MergedGeneration::new(region1, 10)],
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard1, 10)],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(compacted_generation(&indices, shard1), Some(10));
 
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(indices[0].clone()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations[0].generation, 10);
-
-        // Third update - adds new region
-        update_mem_wal_index_merged_generations(
+        // A second shard is independent.
+        update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
             &mut indices,
             3,
-            vec![MergedGeneration::new(region2, 3)],
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard2, 3)],
         )
         .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(compacted_generation(&indices, shard1), Some(10));
+        assert_eq!(compacted_generation(&indices, shard2), Some(3));
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
-        let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(indices[0].clone()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(details.merged_generations.len(), 2);
+    /// A stale proposal must fail the whole transaction: accepting it while
+    /// keeping generation 10 would publish the stale worker's rows under a
+    /// marker they did not produce.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_lower_generation_rejects_the_whole_update() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let mut indices = indices_with(MemWalIndexDetails {
+            compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+        let before = indices.clone();
+
+        let err = update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
+            &mut indices,
+            2,
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 8)],
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Stale SSTable compaction"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices[0].uuid, before[0].uuid,
+            "a rejected update must leave the index list untouched"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(compacted_generation(&indices, shard), Some(10));
+    }
+
+    /// Equal is also refused: it reports nothing new, and accepting it would let
+    /// a retry publish a second set of row mutations under the same marker.
+    #[test]
+    fn an_equal_generation_rejects() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let mut indices = indices_with(MemWalIndexDetails {
+            compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+
+        let err = update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
+            &mut indices,
+            2,
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Stale SSTable compaction"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Fourth update - lower generation should not update
-        update_mem_wal_index_merged_generations(
+    #[test]
+    fn duplicate_shards_in_one_update_reject() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let mut indices = indices_with(MemWalIndexDetails::default());
+
+        let err = update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
             &mut indices,
-            4,
-            vec![MergedGeneration::new(region1, 8)], // lower than 10
+            1,
+            vec![
+                CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5),
+                CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 6),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Duplicate shard"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    /// Absent metadata must not be materialized: default details describe a
+    /// table with no MemWAL shards, so the recorded generation would name a
+    /// shard nothing can corroborate.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_missing_mem_wal_index_rejects() {
+        let mut indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = Vec::new();
+
+        let err = update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
+            &mut indices,
+            1,
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(Uuid::new_v4(), 5)],
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("does not exist"), "{err}");
+        assert!(indices.is_empty(), "nothing should have been created");
+    }
+
+    /// Recording progress replaces the entry where it sits, so the index list
+    /// keeps its order.
+    #[test]
+    fn recording_progress_keeps_the_system_index_position() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let mut indices = indices_with(MemWalIndexDetails::default());
+        // A neighbour to show the entry is replaced in place, not moved.
+        indices.push(IndexMetadata {
+            name: "other_index".to_string(),
+            ..indices[0].clone()
+        });
+        update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
+            &mut indices,
+            2,
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
         )
         .unwrap();
 
-        let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(indices[0].clone()).unwrap();
-        let r1_mg = details
-            .merged_generations
-            .iter()
-            .find(|mg| mg.region_id == region1)
+        assert_eq!(indices[0].name, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME);
+        assert_eq!(indices[1].name, "other_index");
+    }
+
+    /// Recording progress must not disturb any other saved MemWAL field.
+    #[test]
+    fn recording_progress_preserves_unrelated_mem_wal_state() {
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let other_shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let mut writer_config_defaults = HashMap::new();
+        writer_config_defaults.insert("target_size".to_string(), "64MB".to_string());
+        let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
+            snapshot_ts_millis: 12_345,
+            num_shards: 4,
+            maintained_indexes: vec!["vector_idx".to_string()],
+            compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(other_shard, 7)],
+            writer_config_defaults: writer_config_defaults.clone(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut indices = indices_with(details);
+
+        update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(
+            &mut indices,
+            2,
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let after = load_mem_wal_index_details(indices[0].clone()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(after.snapshot_ts_millis, 12_345);
+        assert_eq!(after.num_shards, 4);
+        assert_eq!(after.maintained_indexes, vec!["vector_idx".to_string()]);
+        assert_eq!(after.writer_config_defaults, writer_config_defaults);
+        // The untouched shard keeps its generation.
+        assert_eq!(compacted_generation(&indices, other_shard), Some(7));
+    }
+
+    /// The hole this guards is a worker that refreshed to HEAD before
+    /// submitting: there is no intervening transaction, so the conflict
+    /// resolver sees nothing to reject and only apply-time validation stands
+    /// between a stale generation and a published commit.
+    ///
+    /// The row mutation is the point: were the stale generation accepted, this
+    /// commit would add a fragment while the recorded generation stayed at 10,
+    /// so the rows and the number describing them would disagree.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_stale_generation_against_latest_head_publishes_nothing() {
+        use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+        let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        // Record generation 10.
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(Transaction::new(
+                version,
+                Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                    compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+                },
+                None,
+            ))
+            .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(r1_mg.generation, 10); // Should still be 10
+
+        let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let fragments_before = dataset.get_fragments().len();
+
+        // Built against the LATEST version, so there is nothing stale for the
+        // conflict resolver to catch, and carrying a real row mutation.
+        let stale = Transaction::new(
+            version_before,
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                updated_fragments: vec![],
+                new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(999)],
+                fields_modified: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: None,
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let result = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(stale)
+            .await;
+
+        // Asserting the reason, not just the failure: the commit must be
+        // refused by apply-time generation validation, not by something
+        // incidental about the fragment.
+        let err = result.expect_err("a stale generation must fail the whole commit");
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Stale SSTable compaction"),
+            "expected stale-generation rejection, got {err}"
+        );
+
+        // Neither the marker nor the fragment may have been published.
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        let latest = dataset;
+        assert_eq!(
+            latest.manifest.version, version_before,
+            "no new table version may be published"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            latest.get_fragments().len(),
+            fragments_before,
+            "the row mutation must not be published"
+        );
+        let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(
+            latest
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+                .unwrap()
+                .clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.compacted_sstables[0].generation, 10,
+            "the recorded generation must be unchanged"
+        );
     }
 
+    /// The system index holds the catch-up positions the WAL pod retires SSTables against.
+    /// Erasing it through the ordinary index API would leave the table claiming
+    /// nothing was ever compacted while the SSTables are already gone.
+
     #[test]
-    fn test_empty_merged_generations_noop() {
+    fn test_empty_compacted_sstables_noop() {
         let mut indices = Vec::new();
 
-        // Empty update should be a no-op
-        update_mem_wal_index_merged_generations(&mut indices, 1, vec![]).unwrap();
+        // Empty update should be a no-op, even with no MemWAL index present.
+        update_mem_wal_index_compacted_sstables(&mut indices, 1, vec![]).unwrap();
 
         assert!(indices.is_empty());
     }
+
+    /// Regression: a committed `__mem_wal` (legitimately `fragment_bitmap:
+    /// None`) must not break `describe_indices` — the path behind lancedb's
+    /// `list_indices`/`wait_for_index`. It's described as zero indexed rows,
+    /// like `__frag_reuse`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_describe_indices_includes_mem_wal_system_index() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+
+        let mut dataset = test_dataset_with_mem_wal().await;
+
+        // A real user index that describe_indices must keep returning.
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["a"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Commit a __mem_wal index, as WAL provisioning does in production.
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 1)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .execute(txn)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // The system index is present with no fragment_bitmap (by design).
+        let mem_wal = dataset
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|i| i.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+        assert!(mem_wal.fragment_bitmap.is_none());
+
+        // describe_indices describes the bitmap-less __mem_wal alongside the
+        // real index instead of erroring.
+        let descriptions = dataset.describe_indices(None).await.unwrap();
+        let mem_wal_desc = descriptions
+            .iter()
+            .find(|d| d.name() == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+            .expect("__mem_wal must be described, not skipped");
+        assert_eq!(
+            mem_wal_desc.index_type(),
+            "MemWal",
+            "system index type must resolve via infer_system_index_type"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            mem_wal_desc.rows_indexed(),
+            0,
+            "a bitmap-less system index indexes zero rows"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            descriptions.len(),
+            2,
+            "both the real scalar index and __mem_wal must be listed"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/prefilter.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/prefilter.rs
index 917cfe12b45..a802ac0ad01 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/prefilter.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/prefilter.rs
@@ -13,27 +13,27 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::sync::Mutex;
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
-use futures::future::BoxFuture;
-use futures::stream;
 use futures::FutureExt;
 use futures::StreamExt;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::stream;
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::spawn_cpu;
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
 use lance_table::format::Fragment;
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
 use lance_table::rowids::RowIdSequence;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use tokio::join;
-use tracing::instrument;
 use tracing::Instrument;
+use tracing::instrument;
 
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::Result;
 use crate::dataset::fragment::FileFragment;
 use crate::dataset::rowids::load_row_id_sequence;
 use crate::utils::future::SharedPrerequisite;
-use crate::Dataset;
-use crate::Result;
 
 pub use lance_index::prefilter::{FilterLoader, PreFilter};
 
@@ -48,7 +48,14 @@ pub struct DatasetPreFilter {
     // and allow list at the same time we start searching the query.  We will await
     // these tasks only when we've done as much work as we can without them.
     pub(super) deleted_ids: Option<Arc<SharedPrerequisite<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>>,
-    pub(super) filtered_ids: Option<Arc<SharedPrerequisite<RowAddrMask>>>,
+    pub(super) filtered_ids: Option<Arc<SharedPrerequisite<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>>,
+    // Fragment IDs whose data is still in the index but has been removed from the dataset.
+    // Used by FTS merge-on-read to prune stale fragments at search time.
+    pub(super) deleted_fragments: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+    // Row addresses whose index entries are stale due to a newer data overlay committed after
+    // the index was built. Computed synchronously at plan time and ANDead into the final mask
+    // so the index never returns those rows.
+    pub(super) overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
     // When the tasks are finished this is the combined filter
     pub(super) final_mask: Mutex<OnceCell<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>,
 }
@@ -58,22 +65,70 @@ impl DatasetPreFilter {
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         indices: &[IndexMetadata],
         filter: Option<Box<dyn FilterLoader>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let filter = filter.map(|filter| {
+            async move { filter.load().await.map(Arc::new) }
+                .in_current_span()
+                .boxed()
+        });
+        Self::new_with_filter_future(dataset, indices, filter)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn new_with_filter_future(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+        filter: Option<BoxFuture<'static, Result<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>>,
     ) -> Self {
         let mut fragments = RoaringBitmap::new();
-        if indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.is_none()) {
-            fragments.insert_range(0..dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id.unwrap_or(0));
+        let all_have_bitmaps = indices.iter().all(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.is_some());
+        if !all_have_bitmaps {
+            if let Some(max_fragment_id) = dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id() {
+                fragments.insert_range(0..=max_fragment_id as u32);
+            }
         } else {
             indices.iter().for_each(|idx| {
                 fragments |= idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
             });
         }
-        let deleted_ids =
-            Self::create_deletion_mask(dataset, fragments).map(SharedPrerequisite::spawn);
-        let filtered_ids = filter
-            .map(|filtered_ids| SharedPrerequisite::spawn(filtered_ids.load().in_current_span()));
+        let deleted_ids = if all_have_bitmaps {
+            Self::create_restricted_deletion_mask(dataset, fragments)
+        } else {
+            Self::create_deletion_mask(dataset, fragments)
+        }
+        .map(SharedPrerequisite::spawn);
+        let filtered_ids = filter.map(SharedPrerequisite::spawn);
+        Self {
+            deleted_ids,
+            filtered_ids,
+            deleted_fragments: None,
+            overlay_block: None,
+            final_mask: Mutex::new(OnceCell::new()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::new_with_filter_future`], but restricted to an explicit
+    /// fragment set instead of the union of the indices' fragment bitmaps.
+    ///
+    /// `combined_fields` needs the intersection of its target columns' coverage: a
+    /// cross-field BM25F score is only complete when every column's index holds the
+    /// row, so the union [`Self::new`] derives would admit rows that only some
+    /// columns cover. Routing through [`Self::create_restricted_deletion_mask`]
+    /// keeps the restriction in whichever id space the indices actually store,
+    /// stable row ids or row addresses, which a fragment-address block list cannot
+    /// do.
+    pub(crate) fn new_restricted_to_fragments(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+        filter: Option<BoxFuture<'static, Result<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let deleted_ids = Self::create_restricted_deletion_mask(dataset, fragments)
+            .map(SharedPrerequisite::spawn);
+        let filtered_ids = filter.map(SharedPrerequisite::spawn);
         Self {
             deleted_ids,
             filtered_ids,
+            deleted_fragments: None,
+            overlay_block: None,
             final_mask: Mutex::new(OnceCell::new()),
         }
     }
@@ -118,44 +173,79 @@ impl DatasetPreFilter {
     }
 
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    async fn do_create_deletion_mask_row_id(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<Arc<RowAddrMask>> {
-        // This can only be computed as an allow list, since we have no idea
-        // what the row ids were in the missing fragments.
+    pub(super) async fn do_create_deletion_mask_row_id(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        restrict_to: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<RowAddrMask>> {
+        // The mask is an allow-list of stable row ids. When `restrict_to` is
+        // set the iteration is limited to the listed fragments, so the
+        // resulting list excludes stable row ids whose *current* physical home
+        // is outside the restriction. This is the missing piece for the
+        // stable-row-id branch of #6563: without it, the merge_insert UNION
+        // (indexed scan ∪ unindexed-fragments scan) sees the same logical row
+        // twice — once via the BTREE (which holds the row's stable_row_id) and
+        // once via the unindexed scan (which holds the fragment the row now
+        // lives in). See issue #6877.
         async fn load_row_ids_and_deletions(
             dataset: &Dataset,
+            restrict_to: Option<&RoaringBitmap>,
         ) -> Result<Vec<(Arc<RowIdSequence>, Option<Arc<DeletionVector>>)>> {
-            stream::iter(dataset.get_fragments())
+            let frags: Vec<_> = dataset
+                .get_fragments()
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter(|f| {
+                    restrict_to
+                        .map(|allow| allow.contains(f.id() as u32))
+                        .unwrap_or(true)
+                })
+                .collect();
+            stream::iter(frags)
                 .map(|frag| async move {
                     let row_ids = load_row_id_sequence(dataset, frag.metadata());
                     let deletion_vector = frag.get_deletion_vector();
                     let (row_ids, deletion_vector) = join!(row_ids, deletion_vector);
                     Ok::<_, crate::Error>((row_ids?, deletion_vector?))
                 })
-                .buffer_unordered(dataset.object_store().io_parallelism())
+                .buffer_unordered(dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_parallelism())
                 .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
                 .await
         }
 
+        let restrict_hash = restrict_to.as_ref().map(|b| {
+            use std::collections::hash_map::DefaultHasher;
+            use std::hash::{Hash, Hasher};
+            let mut h = DefaultHasher::new();
+            // RoaringBitmap doesn't implement Hash; serialize the sorted u32s.
+            for v in b.iter() {
+                v.hash(&mut h);
+            }
+            h.finish()
+        });
+
         let dataset_clone = dataset.clone();
+        let restrict_for_load = restrict_to.clone();
         let key = crate::session::caches::RowAddrMaskKey {
             version: dataset.manifest().version,
+            restrict_hash,
         };
         dataset
             .metadata_cache
             .as_ref()
             .get_or_insert_with_key(key, move || {
                 async move {
-                    let row_ids_and_deletions = load_row_ids_and_deletions(&dataset_clone).await?;
+                    let row_ids_and_deletions =
+                        load_row_ids_and_deletions(&dataset_clone, restrict_for_load.as_ref())
+                            .await?;
 
                     // The process of computing the final mask is CPU-bound, so we spawn it
                     // on a blocking thread.
                     let allow_list = spawn_cpu(move || {
-                        Ok(row_ids_and_deletions.into_iter().fold(
+                        Result::Ok(row_ids_and_deletions.into_iter().fold(
                             RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
                             |mut allow_list, (row_ids, deletion_vector)| {
                                 let seq = if let Some(deletion_vector) = deletion_vector {
                                     let mut row_ids = row_ids.as_ref().clone();
-                                    row_ids.mask(deletion_vector.iter()).unwrap();
+                                    row_ids.mask(deletion_vector.to_sorted_iter()).unwrap();
                                     Cow::<RowIdSequence>::Owned(row_ids)
                                 } else {
                                     Cow::<RowIdSequence>::Borrowed(row_ids.as_ref())
@@ -174,18 +264,57 @@ impl DatasetPreFilter {
             .await
     }
 
-    /// Creates a task to load mask to filter out deleted rows.
+    /// Sets the deleted fragment IDs to block during search.
     ///
-    /// Sometimes this will be a block list of row ids that are deleted, based
-    /// on the deletion files in the fragments. If stable row ids are used and
-    /// there are missing fragments, this may instead be an allow list, since
-    /// we can't easily compute the block list.
+    /// Used by FTS indices which track fragments that have been removed from the
+    /// dataset but whose data is still present in the index (merge-on-read).
+    pub fn set_deleted_fragments(&mut self, fragments: RoaringBitmap) {
+        self.deleted_fragments = Some(fragments);
+    }
+
+    /// Block specific row addresses from index results because their index entries are stale
+    /// due to a data overlay committed after the index was built.
+    pub fn with_overlay_block(mut self, block: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        self.overlay_block = Some(block);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a task to load a mask that filters out deleted rows and,
+    /// when `restrict_to_fragments` is true, also restricts results to only
+    /// the given `fragments`.
+    ///
+    /// The fragment restriction blocks stale index entries from fragments
+    /// whose data changed but whose index was not rewritten. It should be
+    /// enabled when `fragments` represents a real index fragment bitmap. It
+    /// should be disabled when `fragments` is a conservative fallback (e.g.
+    /// when the index has no fragment bitmap).
+    ///
+    /// The deletion mask is built as a block list (from deletion files) or
+    /// an allow list (when stable row ids are in use and fragments have
+    /// been removed).
     ///
-    /// If it can be synchronously determined that there are no missing row ids then
-    /// this function return None
+    /// Returns `None` if it can be synchronously determined that no
+    /// filtering is needed.
     pub fn create_deletion_mask(
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Option<BoxFuture<'static, Result<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>> {
+        Self::create_deletion_mask_impl(dataset, fragments, false)
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::create_deletion_mask`] but also restricts results to the given
+    /// `fragments`, blocking any row from a fragment not in the set.
+    pub fn create_restricted_deletion_mask(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Option<BoxFuture<'static, Result<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>> {
+        Self::create_deletion_mask_impl(dataset, fragments, true)
+    }
+
+    fn create_deletion_mask_impl(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+        restrict_to_fragments: bool,
     ) -> Option<BoxFuture<'static, Result<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>> {
         let mut missing_frags = Vec::new();
         let mut frags_with_deletion_files = Vec::new();
@@ -196,6 +325,24 @@ impl DatasetPreFilter {
                 .iter()
                 .map(|frag| (frag.id as u32, frag)),
         );
+        // When restrict_to_fragments is set, check if the dataset has fragments
+        // outside the index bitmap. This can happen when a fragment's data was
+        // modified but the index was not rewritten (e.g. after DataReplacement
+        // or partial merge_insert).
+        //
+        // We materialize the set of non-index fragments here so the slow path
+        // below can fold them into the deletion mask as Full blocks instead of
+        // computing AllowList(Full) - BlockList(Partial), which forces
+        // RoaringBitmap::full() per fragment in RowAddrTreeMap::sub_assign and
+        // is the dominant cost on every merge_insert call.
+        let non_index_frags: Option<RoaringBitmap> = if restrict_to_fragments {
+            let dataset_frag_ids: RoaringBitmap = frag_map.keys().copied().collect();
+            let outside = &dataset_frag_ids - &fragments;
+            (!outside.is_empty()).then_some(outside)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let needs_allow_list = non_index_frags.is_some();
         for frag_id in fragments.iter() {
             let frag = frag_map.get(&frag_id);
             if let Some(frag) = frag {
@@ -206,15 +353,53 @@ impl DatasetPreFilter {
                 missing_frags.push(frag_id);
             }
         }
-        if missing_frags.is_empty() && frags_with_deletion_files.is_empty() {
+        if missing_frags.is_empty() && frags_with_deletion_files.is_empty() && !needs_allow_list {
             None
         } else if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
-            Some(Self::do_create_deletion_mask_row_id(dataset.clone()).boxed())
+            let restrict_to = if restrict_to_fragments {
+                Some(fragments)
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+            Some(Self::do_create_deletion_mask_row_id(dataset.clone(), restrict_to).boxed())
+        } else if missing_frags.is_empty() && frags_with_deletion_files.is_empty() {
+            // No deletions to load, but the dataset has fragments outside the
+            // index bitmap. Return a synchronous allow-list mask.
+            let mut allow_list = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+            for frag_id in fragments.iter() {
+                allow_list.insert_fragment(frag_id);
+            }
+            Some(async move { Ok(Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(allow_list))) }.boxed())
         } else {
-            Some(
-                Self::do_create_deletion_mask(dataset, missing_frags, frags_with_deletion_files)
+            // There are deletions/missing frags. Build the deletion mask and,
+            // if needed, fold the non-index fragments into it as Full blocks.
+            // Equivalent to BlockList(deletions) | BlockList(non_index) — but
+            // expressed via insert_fragment so we never materialize a
+            // RoaringBitmap::full() per fragment.
+            let fut =
+                Self::do_create_deletion_mask(dataset, missing_frags, frags_with_deletion_files);
+            if let Some(non_index_frags) = non_index_frags {
+                Some(
+                    async move {
+                        let deletion_mask = fut.await?;
+                        let mut combined = match &*deletion_mask {
+                            RowAddrMask::BlockList(b) => b.clone(),
+                            RowAddrMask::AllowList(_) => {
+                                // do_create_deletion_mask only returns BlockList; this is
+                                // defensive and should be unreachable.
+                                return Ok(deletion_mask);
+                            }
+                        };
+                        for frag_id in non_index_frags.iter() {
+                            combined.insert_fragment(frag_id);
+                        }
+                        Ok(Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_block(combined)))
+                    }
                     .boxed(),
-            )
+                )
+            } else {
+                Some(fut.boxed())
+            }
         }
     }
 }
@@ -239,11 +424,21 @@ impl PreFilter for DatasetPreFilter {
         final_mask.get_or_init(|| {
             let mut combined = RowAddrMask::default();
             if let Some(filtered_ids) = &self.filtered_ids {
-                combined = combined & filtered_ids.get_ready();
+                combined = combined & filtered_ids.get_ready().as_ref().clone();
             }
             if let Some(deleted_ids) = &self.deleted_ids {
                 combined = combined & (*deleted_ids.get_ready()).clone();
             }
+            if let Some(deleted) = &self.deleted_fragments {
+                let mut block_list = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+                for frag_id in deleted.iter() {
+                    block_list.insert_fragment(frag_id);
+                }
+                combined = combined & RowAddrMask::from_block(block_list);
+            }
+            if let Some(overlay_block) = &self.overlay_block {
+                combined = combined & overlay_block.clone();
+            }
             Arc::new(combined)
         });
 
@@ -251,7 +446,10 @@ impl PreFilter for DatasetPreFilter {
     }
 
     fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.deleted_ids.is_none() && self.filtered_ids.is_none()
+        self.deleted_ids.is_none()
+            && self.filtered_ids.is_none()
+            && self.deleted_fragments.is_none()
+            && self.overlay_block.is_none()
     }
 
     /// Get the row id mask for this prefilter
@@ -278,8 +476,9 @@ impl PreFilter for DatasetPreFilter {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
-    use lance_core::utils::mask::RowSetOps;
+    use lance_select::RowSetOps;
     use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
     use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
 
@@ -319,10 +518,12 @@ mod test {
 
         dataset.delete("x >= 3").await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
-        assert!(dataset.get_fragments()[0]
-            .metadata()
-            .deletion_file
-            .is_none());
+        assert!(
+            dataset.get_fragments()[0]
+                .metadata()
+                .deletion_file
+                .is_none()
+        );
         let only_missing_frags = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
 
         TestDatasets {
@@ -386,6 +587,38 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(mask.block_list(), Some(&expected));
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::stored_high_water_mark(false)]
+    #[case::computed_high_water_mark(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_legacy_index_mask_includes_max_fragment(#[case] unset_max_fragment_id: bool) {
+        let datasets = test_datasets(false).await;
+        let mut dataset = (*datasets.deletions_missing_frags).clone();
+        if unset_max_fragment_id {
+            Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).max_fragment_id = None;
+        }
+        let index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: Vec::new(),
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "legacy".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let prefilter = DatasetPreFilter::new(Arc::new(dataset), &[index], None);
+
+        prefilter.wait_for_ready().await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut expected = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(vec![(2 << 32) + 2]);
+        expected.insert_fragment(1);
+        assert_eq!(prefilter.mask().block_list(), Some(&expected));
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_deletion_mask_stable_row_id() {
         // Here, behavior is different.
@@ -426,4 +659,53 @@ mod test {
         let mask = mask.unwrap().await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(mask.allow_list().and_then(|x| x.len()), Some(3)); // There were three rows left over;
     }
+
+    // Regression test for issue #6877.
+    //
+    // `create_restricted_deletion_mask` on a stable-row-id dataset must honor
+    // the bitmap restriction by excluding stable row ids whose *current*
+    // physical home is outside the bitmap. Without this, the merge_insert
+    // UNION (indexed-scan ∪ unindexed-fragments scan) emits the same logical
+    // row twice — once via the BTREE (which holds the row's stable_row_id)
+    // and once via the unindexed scan.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_restricted_deletion_mask_stable_row_id_honors_bitmap() {
+        // Dataset with three fragments, 3 rows each, stable_row_ids = {0..9}.
+        // Row x=8 is deleted, so the live stable_row_ids are {0..7}.
+        let datasets = test_datasets(true).await;
+        let ds = datasets.deletions_no_missing_frags.clone();
+
+        // Full bitmap: allow-list covers all currently-live stable row ids.
+        let mask = DatasetPreFilter::create_restricted_deletion_mask(
+            ds.clone(),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0..3),
+        )
+        .expect("full-bitmap mask present on stable-row-id dataset with deletions")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let expected_all = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(0..8);
+        assert_eq!(mask.allow_list(), Some(&expected_all));
+
+        // Restricted to fragments {0, 1}: allow-list must exclude stable row
+        // ids whose current home is in fragment 2 (rows 6, 7 — 8 was deleted).
+        let mask = DatasetPreFilter::create_restricted_deletion_mask(
+            ds.clone(),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0..2),
+        )
+        .expect("restricted mask present")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let expected_restricted = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(0..6);
+        assert_eq!(mask.allow_list(), Some(&expected_restricted));
+
+        // Restricted to empty bitmap: every BTREE-returned address is filtered
+        // out. Empty allow-list is the correct semantic ("no row's current home
+        // is in the restriction").
+        let mask =
+            DatasetPreFilter::create_restricted_deletion_mask(ds.clone(), RoaringBitmap::new())
+                .expect("empty-restriction mask present")
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(mask.allow_list().and_then(|x| x.len()), Some(0));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar.rs
index 11a2c22b67a..d5803df5a67 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar.rs
@@ -4,41 +4,68 @@
 //! Utilities for integrating scalar indices with datasets
 //!
 
+pub(crate) mod bitmap;
+pub(crate) mod bloomfilter;
+pub(crate) mod btree;
+pub(crate) mod fmindex;
+pub(crate) mod inverted;
+pub(crate) mod label_list;
+pub(crate) mod minhash_lsh;
+pub(crate) mod ngram;
+#[cfg(feature = "geo")]
+pub(crate) mod rtree;
+pub(crate) mod zonemap;
+
+use super::frag_reuse::ResolvedRemapping;
+pub use inverted::{load_segment_details, load_segment_params, load_segments};
+
+pub use crate::index::scalar_logical::{LogicalScalarIndex, load_named_scalar_segments};
+
 use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
 
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
 use crate::session::index_caches::ProstAny;
 use crate::{
-    dataset::{index::LanceIndexStoreExt, scanner::ColumnOrdering},
     Dataset,
+    dataset::{index::LanceIndexStoreExt, scanner::ColumnOrdering},
 };
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use futures::TryStreamExt;
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Field;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::utils::tracing::{IO_TYPE_OPEN_SCALAR, TRACE_IO_EVENTS};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID, Result};
 use lance_datafusion::exec::LanceExecutionOptions;
 use lance_index::metrics::{MetricsCollector, NoOpMetricsCollector};
+use lance_index::pb::VectorIndexDetails;
 use lance_index::pbold::{
     BTreeIndexDetails, BitmapIndexDetails, InvertedIndexDetails, LabelListIndexDetails,
 };
+use lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
 use lance_index::registry::IndexPluginRegistry;
+use lance_index::scalar::IndexStore;
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::METADATA_FILE;
+use lance_index::scalar::label_list::{
+    LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY, LABEL_LIST_NULLS_MIN_VERSION,
+};
 use lance_index::scalar::registry::{
-    ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering, VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
+    ScalarIndexCacheKey, ScalarIndexLoad, ScalarIndexPlugin, TrainingCriteria, TrainingOrdering,
+    VALUE_COLUMN_NAME,
 };
-use lance_index::scalar::IndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, InvertedIndexParams};
 use lance_index::scalar::{
-    bitmap::BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, inverted::INVERT_LIST_FILE, lance_format::LanceIndexStore,
-    ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams,
+    ScalarIndex, ScalarIndexParams, bitmap::BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, inverted::INVERT_LIST_FILE,
+    lance_format::LanceIndexStore,
 };
-use lance_index::scalar::{CreatedIndex, InvertedIndexParams};
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexCriteria, IndexType, VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION};
+use lance_index::{IndexCriteria, IndexType};
 use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata};
 use log::info;
-use snafu::location;
+use prost::{Message, Name};
 use tracing::instrument;
 
 // Log an update every TRAINING_UPDATE_FREQ million rows processed
@@ -64,10 +91,12 @@ impl TrainingRequest {
         column: &str,
         criteria: &TrainingCriteria,
     ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let column_field = dataset.schema().field(column).ok_or(Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!("No column with name {}", column).into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let column_field = dataset
+            .schema()
+            .field(column)
+            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("No column with name {}", column).into(),
+            ))?;
 
         let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(3);
         fields.push(arrow_schema::Field::new(
@@ -102,6 +131,12 @@ impl TrainingRequest {
     }
 }
 
+#[cfg(test)]
+tokio::task_local! {
+    /// Overrides the scalar training scan's I/O budget without mutating process-wide state.
+    pub(crate) static TEST_TRAINING_IO_BUFFER_SIZE: u64;
+}
+
 pub(crate) async fn scan_training_data(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
@@ -111,6 +146,10 @@ pub(crate) async fn scan_training_data(
     let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await?;
 
     let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    if let Ok(io_buffer_size) = TEST_TRAINING_IO_BUFFER_SIZE.try_with(|size| *size) {
+        scan.io_buffer_size(io_buffer_size);
+    }
     // Fragment filtering is now handled in load_training_data function
     // This function just processes the fragments passed to it
 
@@ -199,10 +238,9 @@ pub(crate) async fn load_training_data(
                 .zip(frags)
                 .map(|(id, frag)| {
                     let Some(frag) = frag else {
-                        return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                            source: format!("No fragment with id {}", id).into(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        });
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                            format!("No fragment with id {}", id).into(),
+                        ));
                     };
                     Ok(frag.metadata().clone())
                 })
@@ -216,8 +254,37 @@ pub(crate) async fn load_training_data(
     }
 }
 
+pub(crate) async fn load_fts_training_data(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    resolved: &inverted::ResolvedFtsField,
+    criteria: &TrainingCriteria,
+    fragments: Option<Vec<Fragment>>,
+    train: bool,
+    fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    let scan_column = if resolved.has_lists() {
+        resolved.root_column.as_str()
+    } else {
+        resolved.canonical_path.as_str()
+    };
+    let stream = load_training_data(
+        dataset,
+        scan_column,
+        criteria,
+        fragments,
+        train,
+        fragment_ids,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    if resolved.has_lists() {
+        inverted::transform_fts_document_stream(stream, resolved.clone())
+    } else {
+        Ok(stream)
+    }
+}
+
 // TODO: Allow users to register their own plugins
-static SCALAR_INDEX_PLUGIN_REGISTRY: LazyLock<Arc<IndexPluginRegistry>> =
+pub(crate) static SCALAR_INDEX_PLUGIN_REGISTRY: LazyLock<Arc<IndexPluginRegistry>> =
     LazyLock::new(IndexPluginRegistry::with_default_plugins);
 
 pub struct IndexDetails(pub Arc<prost_types::Any>);
@@ -234,15 +301,42 @@ impl IndexDetails {
         self.0.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails")
     }
 
+    /// Returns true if the index supports MinHash similarity search
+    pub fn supports_minhash(&self) -> bool {
+        self.0.type_url.ends_with("MinHashLshIndexDetails")
+    }
+
     /// Returns the plugin for the index
     pub fn get_plugin(&self) -> Result<&dyn ScalarIndexPlugin> {
         SCALAR_INDEX_PLUGIN_REGISTRY.get_plugin_by_details(self.0.as_ref())
     }
 
+    /// Returns whether this build has a reader for the complete declared type.
+    pub(crate) fn has_reader(&self) -> bool {
+        let Some((_, details_type_name)) = self.0.type_url.rsplit_once('/') else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        if details_type_name.is_empty() || details_type_name.starts_with('.') {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        details_type_name.eq_ignore_ascii_case(&VectorIndexDetails::full_name())
+            // MemWAL flush briefly wrote this pre-`pb` package name. Keep that
+            // exact historical native identity readable without accepting any
+            // other message that merely shares the VectorIndexDetails suffix.
+            || details_type_name.eq_ignore_ascii_case("lance.index.VectorIndexDetails")
+            || SCALAR_INDEX_PLUGIN_REGISTRY.supports_details(self.0.as_ref())
+    }
+
     /// Returns the index version
     pub fn index_version(&self) -> Result<u32> {
         if self.is_vector() {
-            Ok(VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION)
+            // VectorIndexDetails currently does not include the concrete vector
+            // subtype (IVF_PQ / IVF_RQ / ...), so compatibility filtering cannot
+            // do per-subtype version checks here. Use the highest supported
+            // vector index version as a safe upper bound; older binaries still
+            // ignore newer indices based on their own lower bound.
+            Ok(IndexType::max_vector_version())
         } else {
             self.get_plugin().map(|p| p.version())
         }
@@ -250,31 +344,79 @@ impl IndexDetails {
 }
 
 /// Build a Scalar Index (returns details to store in the manifest)
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
 pub(super) async fn build_scalar_index(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
-    uuid: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
     params: &ScalarIndexParams,
     train: bool,
     fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
     preprocessed_data: Option<SendableRecordBatchStream>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
 ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
-    let field = dataset.schema().field(column).ok_or(Error::InvalidInput {
-        source: format!("No column with name {}", column).into(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
-    let field: arrow_schema::Field = field.into();
+    let inverted_params = (params.index_type.eq_ignore_ascii_case("inverted")
+        || params.index_type.eq_ignore_ascii_case("fts"))
+    .then(|| serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(params.params.as_deref().unwrap_or("{}")))
+    .transpose()?;
+    let resolved_fts_field = inverted_params
+        .as_ref()
+        .map(|params| {
+            inverted::resolve_fts_field(dataset.schema(), column, params.get_document_granularity())
+        })
+        .transpose()?;
+    let field = if let Some(resolved) = &resolved_fts_field {
+        let source = dataset
+            .schema()
+            .field_by_id(resolved.final_field_id)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "FTS field id {} is missing from the dataset schema",
+                    resolved.final_field_id
+                ))
+            })?;
+        if resolved.has_lists() {
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, true)
+        } else {
+            source.into()
+        }
+    } else {
+        let field = dataset
+            .schema()
+            .field(column)
+            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("No column with name {}", column).into(),
+            ))?;
+        field.into()
+    };
 
-    let index_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, uuid)?;
+    let index_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &uuid)?;
 
     let plugin = SCALAR_INDEX_PLUGIN_REGISTRY.get_plugin_by_name(&params.index_type)?;
+    let trainer = plugin.basic_trainer().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("The '{}' index type does not support basic training, please refer to the index's documentation for more details on how to create this index.", params.index_type).into(),
+        )
+    })?;
     let training_request =
-        plugin.new_training_request(params.params.as_deref().unwrap_or("{}"), &field)?;
+        trainer.new_training_request(params.params.as_deref().unwrap_or("{}"), &field)?;
 
-    let training_data = match preprocessed_data {
-        Some(preprocessed_data) => preprocessed_data,
-        None => {
+    progress.stage_start("load_data", None, "rows").await?;
+    let training_data = match (preprocessed_data, resolved_fts_field.as_ref()) {
+        (Some(preprocessed_data), _) => preprocessed_data,
+        (None, Some(resolved)) => {
+            load_fts_training_data(
+                dataset,
+                resolved,
+                training_request.criteria(),
+                None,
+                train,
+                fragment_ids.clone(),
+            )
+            .await?
+        }
+        (None, None) => {
             load_training_data(
                 dataset,
                 column,
@@ -286,9 +428,68 @@ pub(super) async fn build_scalar_index(
             .await?
         }
     };
+    progress.stage_complete("load_data").await?;
+
+    let created_index = trainer
+        .train_index(
+            training_data,
+            &index_store,
+            training_request,
+            fragment_ids,
+            progress,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+    Ok(created_index)
+}
 
-    plugin
-        .train_index(training_data, &index_store, training_request, fragment_ids)
+/// Build a canonical bitmap index segment over a caller-selected fragment set.
+///
+/// This is intentionally separate from `build_scalar_index(..., fragment_ids=Some(...))`.
+/// The latter is the legacy distributed scalar-index shard path. Here fragment ids only
+/// restrict the scanned rows; the bitmap plugin receives no shard id and writes the
+/// canonical bitmap layout for the staged segment root.
+#[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
+pub(super) async fn build_bitmap_index_segment(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
+    fragment_ids: Vec<u32>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    let field = dataset
+        .schema()
+        .field(column)
+        .ok_or(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("No column with name {}", column).into(),
+        ))?;
+    let field: arrow_schema::Field = field.into();
+
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+    let plugin = SCALAR_INDEX_PLUGIN_REGISTRY.get_plugin_by_name(&params.index_type)?;
+    let trainer = plugin.basic_trainer().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("The '{}' index type does not support basic training, please refer to the index's documentation for more details on how to create this index.", params.index_type).into(),
+        )
+    })?;
+    let training_request =
+        trainer.new_training_request(params.params.as_deref().unwrap_or("{}"), &field)?;
+    let criteria = training_request.criteria();
+
+    progress.stage_start("load_data", None, "rows").await?;
+    let training_data =
+        load_training_data(dataset, column, criteria, None, true, Some(fragment_ids)).await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("load_data").await?;
+
+    let index_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &uuid)?;
+    trainer
+        .train_index(
+            training_data,
+            &index_store,
+            training_request,
+            None,
+            progress,
+        )
         .await
 }
 
@@ -308,30 +509,201 @@ pub async fn fetch_index_details(
         None => infer_scalar_index_details(dataset, column, index).await?,
     };
 
+    if index_details.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails") {
+        let details =
+            InvertedIndexDetails::decode(index_details.value.as_slice()).map_err(|err| {
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails payload: {err}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let details = inverted::normalize_inverted_details(index, details)?;
+        return Ok(Arc::new(prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).map_err(
+            |err| {
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "failed to encode InvertedIndexDetails payload: {err}"
+                ))
+            },
+        )?));
+    }
+
     Ok(index_details)
 }
 
+async fn validate_label_list_index_compatibility(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+    index_store: &dyn IndexStore,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let Some(field) = dataset.schema().field(column) else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+
+    if !field.nullable {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    if index.index_version < LABEL_LIST_NULLS_MIN_VERSION {
+        log::warn!(
+            "LabelList index {} is old; NOT filters may be incorrect on nullable lists. Consider rebuilding.",
+            index.name
+        );
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let reader = index_store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await?;
+    if !reader
+        .schema()
+        .metadata
+        .contains_key(LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY)
+    {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "LabelList index {} is missing required metadata key {}",
+            index.name, LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY
+        )));
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 pub async fn open_scalar_index(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
     index: &IndexMetadata,
     metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
 ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
-    let uuid_str = index.uuid.to_string();
-    let index_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(dataset, index)?);
+    open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+        dataset,
+        column,
+        index,
+        None,
+        super::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Query,
+        metrics,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// [`open_scalar_index`] for a segment the manifest does not list (a staged
+/// build being merged): `staged` is its translation plan from
+/// [`super::frag_reuse::plan_staged_segments`]. With `None` the segment is
+/// looked up in the snapshot plan, which only knows committed segments.
+pub(crate) async fn open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+    staged: Option<&super::frag_reuse::SegmentRemappingPlan>,
+    purpose: super::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+    let index_uuid = index.uuid;
+    let index_store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(dataset, index).await?);
 
     let index_details = fetch_index_details(dataset, column, index).await?;
     let plugin = SCALAR_INDEX_PLUGIN_REGISTRY.get_plugin_by_details(index_details.as_ref())?;
 
-    let frag_reuse_index = dataset.open_frag_reuse_index(metrics).await?;
+    let resolved = super::frag_reuse::open_row_id_remapping_with_plan(
+        dataset, index, staged, purpose, metrics,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let cache_id = super::frag_reuse::fri_cache_id(&resolved);
+    let index_cache =
+        super::frag_reuse::scoped_index_cache(dataset, &resolved).for_index(&index.uuid, cache_id);
+    let (frag_reuse_index, batch_remapping) =
+        match resolved.as_ref().map(|(_, remapping)| remapping) {
+            Some(ResolvedRemapping::V0(remapper)) => (Some(remapper.clone()), None),
+            // An untouched segment on a tagged dataset loads the original way,
+            // with no remapper; every plugin (including legacy-API-only ones)
+            // supports this.
+            Some(ResolvedRemapping::V1Identity) => (None, None),
+            Some(ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { remapper, .. }) => (None, Some(remapper.clone())),
+            None => (None, None),
+        };
 
-    let index_cache = dataset
-        .index_cache
-        .for_index(&uuid_str, frag_reuse_index.as_ref().map(|f| &f.uuid));
+    // Runs only on a cold miss, and at most once even under concurrent opens
+    // (the plugin coalesces). The compat check lives here because a warm hit was
+    // already validated this session, saving the extra `open_index_file` IOP.
+    let load: ScalarIndexLoad = Box::pin({
+        let index_store = index_store.clone();
+        let batch_remapping = batch_remapping.clone();
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index.clone();
+        let index_cache = index_cache.clone();
+        async move {
+            if index_details.type_url.ends_with("LabelListIndexDetails") {
+                validate_label_list_index_compatibility(
+                    dataset,
+                    column,
+                    index,
+                    index_store.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+            }
+
+            let index_version = u32::try_from(index.index_version).unwrap_or(0);
+
+            let index = match batch_remapping {
+                Some(remapping) => {
+                    plugin
+                        .load_index_with_remapping(
+                            index_store,
+                            &index_details,
+                            index_version,
+                            Some(remapping),
+                            &index_cache,
+                        )
+                        .await?
+                }
+                None => {
+                    plugin
+                        .load_index(
+                            index_store,
+                            &index_details,
+                            index_version,
+                            frag_reuse_index,
+                            &index_cache,
+                        )
+                        .await?
+                }
+            };
+
+            tracing::info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, index_uuid = %index_uuid, r#type = IO_TYPE_OPEN_SCALAR, index_type = index.index_type().to_string());
+            metrics.record_index_load();
+            Ok(index)
+        }
+    });
 
-    plugin
-        .load_index(index_store, &index_details, frag_reuse_index, &index_cache)
+    if batch_remapping.is_some() {
+        lance_index::scalar::registry::single_flight_store_bound_open(
+            index_store,
+            &index_cache,
+            load,
+            // Batch remappers bind external mapping readers to their store;
+            // reload them when the storage binding changes.
+            |_| async { Ok(None) },
+        )
         .await
+    } else {
+        plugin
+            .get_or_insert_in_cache(index_store, frag_reuse_index, &index_cache, load)
+            .await
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) async fn cached_scalar_index_container(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    uuid: &Uuid,
+) -> Option<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+    let metadata = dataset.load_indices().await.ok()?;
+    let index = metadata.iter().find(|idx| idx.uuid == *uuid)?;
+    let resolved = super::frag_reuse::open_row_id_remapping(dataset, index, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .ok()?;
+    let cache_id = super::frag_reuse::fri_cache_id(&resolved);
+    let index_cache =
+        super::frag_reuse::scoped_index_cache(dataset, &resolved).for_index(uuid, cache_id);
+    index_cache
+        .get_unsized_with_key(&ScalarIndexCacheKey)
+        .await
+        .map(|entry| entry.index())
 }
 
 pub(crate) async fn infer_scalar_index_details(
@@ -339,34 +711,34 @@ pub(crate) async fn infer_scalar_index_details(
     column: &str,
     index: &IndexMetadata,
 ) -> Result<Arc<prost_types::Any>> {
-    let uuid = index.uuid.to_string();
-    let type_key = crate::session::index_caches::ScalarIndexDetailsKey { uuid: &uuid };
+    let type_key = crate::session::index_caches::ScalarIndexDetailsKey { uuid: &index.uuid };
     if let Some(index_details) = dataset.index_cache.get_with_key(&type_key).await {
         return Ok(index_details.0.clone());
     }
 
-    let index_dir = dataset.indice_files_dir(index)?.child(uuid.clone());
-    let col = dataset.schema().field(column).ok_or(Error::Internal {
-        message: format!(
+    let index_dir = dataset
+        .indice_files_dir(index)?
+        .join(index.uuid.to_string());
+    let col = dataset
+        .schema()
+        .field(column)
+        .ok_or(Error::internal(format!(
             "Index refers to column {} which does not exist in dataset schema",
             column
-        ),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
+        )))?;
 
-    let bitmap_page_lookup = index_dir.child(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME);
-    let inverted_list_lookup = index_dir.child(METADATA_FILE);
-    let legacy_inverted_list_lookup = index_dir.child(INVERT_LIST_FILE);
-    let index_details = if let DataType::List(_) = col.data_type() {
-        prost_types::Any::from_msg(&LabelListIndexDetails::default()).unwrap()
-    } else if dataset.object_store.exists(&bitmap_page_lookup).await? {
-        prost_types::Any::from_msg(&BitmapIndexDetails::default()).unwrap()
-    } else if dataset.object_store.exists(&inverted_list_lookup).await? {
+    let bitmap_page_lookup = index_dir.clone().join(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME);
+    let inverted_list_lookup = index_dir.clone().join(METADATA_FILE);
+    let legacy_inverted_list_lookup = index_dir.clone().join(INVERT_LIST_FILE);
+    let object_store = dataset.object_store_for_index(index).await?;
+    let index_details = if object_store.exists(&inverted_list_lookup).await? {
         // Try to infer inverted index details from metadata file to capture with_position and other params
         // Fall back to defaults if anything goes wrong
         let default_details = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&InvertedIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
         let parse_params = async || {
-            let index_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(dataset, index).ok()?;
+            let index_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(dataset, index)
+                .await
+                .ok()?;
             let reader = index_store.open_index_file(METADATA_FILE).await.ok()?;
             let params_str = reader.schema().metadata.get("params")?;
             let params = ::serde_json::from_str::<InvertedIndexParams>(params_str).ok()?;
@@ -374,12 +746,12 @@ pub(crate) async fn infer_scalar_index_details(
             Some(prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap())
         };
         parse_params().await.unwrap_or(default_details)
-    } else if dataset
-        .object_store
-        .exists(&legacy_inverted_list_lookup)
-        .await?
-    {
+    } else if object_store.exists(&legacy_inverted_list_lookup).await? {
         prost_types::Any::from_msg(&InvertedIndexDetails::default()).unwrap()
+    } else if let DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_) = col.data_type() {
+        prost_types::Any::from_msg(&LabelListIndexDetails::default()).unwrap()
+    } else if object_store.exists(&bitmap_page_lookup).await? {
+        prost_types::Any::from_msg(&BitmapIndexDetails::default()).unwrap()
     } else {
         prost_types::Any::from_msg(&BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap()
     };
@@ -401,67 +773,101 @@ pub fn index_matches_criteria(
     has_multiple_indices: bool,
     schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
 ) -> Result<bool> {
-    if let Some(name) = &criteria.has_name {
-        if &index.name != name {
-            return Ok(false);
-        }
+    if let Some(name) = &criteria.has_name
+        && &index.name != name
+    {
+        return Ok(false);
     }
 
     if let Some(for_column) = criteria.for_column {
-        if index.fields.len() != 1 {
+        // A covered index lists its carried columns in `fields` too. Only the
+        // keyed prefix decides which column this index answers for, and there
+        // must be exactly one of it.
+        if index.keyed_field().is_none() {
             return Ok(false);
         }
         if fields.len() != 1 {
-            // This should be unreachable since we just verified index.fields.len() == 1 but
-            // return false just in case
+            // Callers must resolve `fields` from the keyed prefix alone. A caller
+            // that passes all of `index.fields` -- carried columns included --
+            // lands here for every covered index and silently gets "no match"
+            // rather than an error, which is how `describe_indices` came to omit
+            // them.
             return Ok(false);
         }
-        let field = fields[0];
-        // Build the full field path for nested fields
-        let field_path = if let Some(ancestors) = schema.field_ancestry_by_id(field.id) {
-            let field_refs: Vec<&str> = ancestors.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
-            lance_core::datatypes::format_field_path(&field_refs)
+        let is_fts_index = index
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|details| details.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails"));
+        if criteria.must_support_fts && is_fts_index {
+            let requested_granularity = criteria
+                .fts_document_granularity
+                .unwrap_or(lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::Row);
+            let requested = inverted::resolve_fts_field(schema, for_column, requested_granularity)?;
+            if index.fields[0] != requested.final_field_id {
+                return Ok(false);
+            }
+            let Some(details_any) = index.index_details.as_ref() else {
+                return Ok(false);
+            };
+            let details =
+                InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details_any.value.as_slice()).map_err(|err| {
+                    Error::io(format!(
+                        "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails payload: {err}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            let details = inverted::normalize_inverted_details(index, details)?;
+            let stored_granularity = lance_index::scalar::inverted::DocumentGranularity::try_from(
+                details.document_granularity,
+            )?;
+            if stored_granularity != requested_granularity {
+                return Ok(false);
+            }
         } else {
-            field.name.clone()
-        };
-        if for_column != field_path {
-            return Ok(false);
+            let field = fields[0];
+            // Build the full field path for nested fields
+            let field_path = if let Some(ancestors) = schema.field_ancestry_by_id(field.id) {
+                let field_refs: Vec<&str> = ancestors.iter().map(|f| f.name.as_str()).collect();
+                lance_core::datatypes::format_field_path(&field_refs)
+            } else {
+                field.name.clone()
+            };
+            if for_column != field_path {
+                return Ok(false);
+            }
         }
     }
 
     let index_details = index.index_details.clone().map(IndexDetails);
     let Some(index_details) = index_details else {
         if has_multiple_indices {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                                source: format!(
-                                    "An index {} on the field with id {} co-exists with other indices on the same column but was written with an older Lance version, and this is not supported.  Please retrain this index.",
-                                    index.name,
-                                    index.fields.first().unwrap_or(&0),
-                                ).into(),
-                                location: location!(),
-                            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(format!(
+                "An index {} on the field with id {} co-exists with other indices on the same column but was written with an older Lance version, and this is not supported.  Please retrain this index.",
+                index.name,
+                index.fields.first().unwrap_or(&0),
+            ).into()));
         }
 
         // If we don't have details then allow it for backwards compatibility
         return Ok(true);
     };
 
-    if index_details.is_vector() {
-        // This method is only for finding matching scalar indexes today so reject any vector indexes
-        return Ok(false);
-    }
-
-    if criteria.must_support_fts && !index_details.supports_fts() {
-        return Ok(false);
-    }
-
-    // We should not use FTS / NGram indices for exact equality queries
-    // (i.e. merge insert with a join on the indexed column)
-    if criteria.must_support_exact_equality {
-        let plugin = index_details.get_plugin()?;
-        if !plugin.provides_exact_answer() {
+    // Only apply scalar-specific checks to scalar indices
+    if !index_details.is_vector() {
+        if criteria.must_support_fts && !index_details.supports_fts() {
+            return Ok(false);
+        }
+        if criteria.must_support_minhash && !index_details.supports_minhash() {
             return Ok(false);
         }
+
+        // We should not use FTS / NGram indices for exact equality queries
+        // (i.e. merge insert with a join on the indexed column)
+        if criteria.must_support_exact_equality {
+            let plugin = index_details.get_plugin()?;
+            if !plugin.provides_exact_answer() {
+                return Ok(false);
+            }
+        }
     }
     Ok(true)
 }
@@ -474,21 +880,17 @@ pub async fn initialize_scalar_index(
     field_names: &[&str],
 ) -> Result<()> {
     if field_names.is_empty() || field_names.len() > 1 {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Unsupported fields for scalar index: {:?}", field_names),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Unsupported fields for scalar index: {:?}",
+            field_names
+        )));
     }
 
     // Scalar indices currently support only single fields, use the first one
     let column_name = field_names[0];
 
     let source_scalar_index = source_dataset
-        .open_scalar_index(
-            column_name,
-            &source_index.uuid.to_string(),
-            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-        )
+        .open_scalar_index(column_name, &source_index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
         .await?;
 
     let params = source_scalar_index.derive_index_params()?;
@@ -497,17 +899,24 @@ pub async fn initialize_scalar_index(
     // For Inverted index, we need to parse the params JSON and create InvertedIndexParams
     if index_type == IndexType::Inverted {
         // Extract the JSON string from ScalarIndexParams
-        let params_json = params.params.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: "Inverted index params missing".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let params_json = params
+            .params
+            .as_ref()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("Inverted index params missing".to_string()))?;
 
         // Parse the JSON into InvertedIndexParams
         let inverted_params: InvertedIndexParams = serde_json::from_str(params_json)?;
+        let resolved = inverted::resolve_fts_field_by_id(
+            target_dataset.schema(),
+            *source_index.fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index("Inverted index metadata has no indexed field".to_string())
+            })?,
+            inverted_params.get_document_granularity(),
+        )?;
 
         target_dataset
             .create_index(
-                &[column_name],
+                &[&resolved.canonical_path],
                 index_type,
                 Some(source_index.name.clone()),
                 &inverted_params,
@@ -534,6 +943,7 @@ mod tests {
     use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
 
     use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::Dataset;
     use arrow::{
         array::AsArray,
         datatypes::{Int32Type, UInt64Type},
@@ -543,9 +953,12 @@ mod tests {
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_core::{datatypes::Field, utils::address::RowAddress};
     use lance_datagen::array;
-    use lance_index::{optimize::OptimizeOptions, IndexType};
-    use lance_index::{pbold::NGramIndexDetails, scalar::BuiltinIndexType};
-    use lance_table::format::pb::VectorIndexDetails;
+    use lance_index::pb::VectorIndexDetails;
+    use lance_index::{IndexType, optimize::OptimizeOptions};
+    use lance_index::{
+        pbold::NGramIndexDetails,
+        scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams},
+    };
 
     fn make_index_metadata(
         name: &str,
@@ -575,12 +988,42 @@ mod tests {
             uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
             name: name.to_string(),
             fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
             dataset_version: 1,
             fragment_bitmap: None,
             index_details,
             index_version: 0,
             created_at: None,
             base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_has_reader_matches_complete_type_name_case_insensitively() {
+        let has_reader = |type_url: &str| {
+            IndexDetails(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: type_url.to_string(),
+                value: Vec::new(),
+            }))
+            .has_reader()
+        };
+
+        for type_url in [
+            "/lance.index.pb.VectorIndexDetails",
+            "type.googleapis.com/LANCE.INDEX.PB.VECTORINDEXDETAILS",
+            "type.googleapis.com/lance.index.VectorIndexDetails",
+            "type.googleapis.com/LANCE.TABLE.BTREEINDEXDETAILS",
+        ] {
+            assert!(has_reader(type_url), "expected a reader for {type_url}");
+        }
+
+        for type_url in [
+            "type.googleapis.com/example.MyVectorIndexDetails",
+            "type.googleapis.com/example.BTreeIndexDetails",
+            "VectorIndexDetails",
+        ] {
+            assert!(!has_reader(type_url), "unexpected reader for {type_url}");
         }
     }
 
@@ -590,7 +1033,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         let criteria = IndexCriteria {
             must_support_fts: false,
+            fts_document_granularity: None,
             must_support_exact_equality: false,
+            must_support_minhash: false,
             for_column: None,
             has_name: None,
         };
@@ -600,11 +1045,12 @@ mod tests {
             fields: vec![field.clone()],
             metadata: Default::default(),
         };
+        // Vector indices should now match basic criteria
         let result = index_matches_criteria(&index1, &criteria, &[&field], true, &schema).unwrap();
-        assert!(!result);
+        assert!(result);
 
         let result = index_matches_criteria(&index1, &criteria, &[&field], false, &schema).unwrap();
-        assert!(!result);
+        assert!(result);
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -615,7 +1061,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         let criteria = IndexCriteria {
             must_support_fts: false,
+            fts_document_granularity: None,
             must_support_exact_equality: false,
+            must_support_minhash: false,
             for_column: None,
             has_name: None,
         };
@@ -636,7 +1084,9 @@ mod tests {
         // test for_column
         let mut criteria = IndexCriteria {
             must_support_fts: false,
+            fts_document_granularity: None,
             must_support_exact_equality: false,
+            must_support_minhash: false,
             for_column: Some("mycol"),
             has_name: None,
         };
@@ -652,7 +1102,9 @@ mod tests {
         // test has_name
         let mut criteria = IndexCriteria {
             must_support_fts: false,
+            fts_document_granularity: None,
             must_support_exact_equality: false,
+            must_support_minhash: false,
             for_column: None,
             has_name: Some("btree_index"),
         };
@@ -674,7 +1126,9 @@ mod tests {
         // test supports_exact_equality
         let mut criteria = IndexCriteria {
             must_support_fts: false,
+            fts_document_granularity: None,
             must_support_exact_equality: true,
+            must_support_minhash: false,
             for_column: None,
             has_name: None,
         };
@@ -695,7 +1149,9 @@ mod tests {
         // test multiple indices
         let mut criteria = IndexCriteria {
             must_support_fts: false,
+            fts_document_granularity: None,
             must_support_exact_equality: false,
+            must_support_minhash: false,
             for_column: None,
             has_name: None,
         };
@@ -714,6 +1170,282 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(result);
     }
 
+    /// A covered scalar index lists its carried columns in `fields` too. It must
+    /// still match its keyed column -- rejecting on `fields.len() != 1` would
+    /// silently stop selecting it, with no error and no failing query, just a
+    /// plan that quietly stops using the index.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_matches_criteria_covered_index() {
+        let mut btree_index = make_index_metadata("btree_index", 1, Some(IndexType::BTree));
+        // Keyed on field 1, carrying field 2 -- a valid trailing subset.
+        btree_index.fields = vec![1, 2];
+        btree_index.covering_fields = vec![2];
+
+        let criteria = IndexCriteria {
+            must_support_fts: false,
+            fts_document_granularity: None,
+            must_support_exact_equality: false,
+            must_support_minhash: false,
+            for_column: Some("mycol"),
+            has_name: None,
+        };
+
+        let field = Field::new_arrow("mycol", DataType::Int32, true).unwrap();
+        let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
+            fields: vec![field.clone()],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        let result =
+            index_matches_criteria(&btree_index, &criteria, &[&field], false, &schema).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            result,
+            "a covered scalar index must still match its keyed column"
+        );
+
+        // A genuinely composite index -- two keyed fields, no declaration --
+        // stays rejected: `for_column` means the index maps to a single column.
+        let mut composite = make_index_metadata("composite", 1, Some(IndexType::BTree));
+        composite.fields = vec![1, 2];
+        composite.covering_fields = vec![];
+        let result =
+            index_matches_criteria(&composite, &criteria, &[&field], false, &schema).unwrap();
+        assert!(!result, "a composite index must not match a single column");
+    }
+
+    /// Regression guard for over-projection of `Map` siblings in
+    /// `Field::apply_projection`. Before the parent-selection guard,
+    /// every `Map` column in a schema survived every projection because
+    /// `apply_projection` cloned `Map` children unconditionally without
+    /// checking whether the parent itself was selected. On scalar-index
+    /// training scans this turned a single-column projection into a wide
+    /// one, ballooning the per-row tuple width fed into `SortExec` and
+    /// producing >100 GiB external-sort spills on tables with several
+    /// `Map` columns.
+    ///
+    /// Coverage:
+    ///
+    /// 1. Plain `Binary` siblings stay narrow — sanity check that
+    ///    non-Map schemas weren't affected by the bug.
+    /// 2. `Map` siblings stay narrow — the actual regression guard.
+    /// 3. The same `Map`-sibling schema scanned via `with_fragments`,
+    ///    the path `optimize_indices` uses for delta training scans.
+    /// 4. When the caller *does* request a Map column, the Map's
+    ///    internal children (entries struct + key/value) are still
+    ///    preserved (the original intent of PR #5349).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn scan_training_data_does_not_pull_unrelated_map_siblings() {
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        use lance_datagen::ByteCount;
+        use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+        const FRAGMENTS: u32 = 2;
+        const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: u32 = 32;
+        const BINARY_BYTES: u64 = 20;
+
+        async fn projection_columns(dataset: &Dataset, column: &str) -> Vec<String> {
+            let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+            scan.order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
+                column.to_string(),
+            )]))
+            .unwrap();
+            scan.with_row_id();
+            scan.project_with_transform(&[(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, column)])
+                .unwrap();
+            let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+            // FilteredReadExec's Display emits `projection=[col1, col2, ...]`;
+            // pluck the column list out of the line. We do not depend on
+            // ordering or whitespace beyond the literal `projection=[` /
+            // `]` markers so the assertion stays robust to unrelated plan
+            // formatting changes.
+            let line = plan
+                .lines()
+                .find(|l| l.contains("projection=["))
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("LanceRead line missing in plan:\n{}", plan));
+            let start = line.find("projection=[").unwrap() + "projection=[".len();
+            let rest = &line[start..];
+            let end = rest.find(']').unwrap();
+            rest[..end]
+                .split(',')
+                .map(|s| s.trim().to_string())
+                .filter(|s| !s.is_empty())
+                .collect()
+        }
+
+        // Variant 1: plain `Binary` siblings — sanity check that the prior
+        // narrow-projection behaviour still holds for non-Map schemas.
+        let bin_dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "bin_a",
+                array::rand_fixedbin(ByteCount::from(BINARY_BYTES), false),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "bin_b",
+                array::rand_fixedbin(ByteCount::from(BINARY_BYTES), false),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "bin_c",
+                array::rand_fixedbin(ByteCount::from(BINARY_BYTES), false),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "bin_d",
+                array::rand_fixedbin(ByteCount::from(BINARY_BYTES), false),
+            )
+            .col("idx", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(
+                FragmentCount::from(FRAGMENTS),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection_columns(&bin_dataset, "idx").await,
+            vec!["idx".to_string()],
+            "binary-siblings schema must project only the requested column"
+        );
+
+        // Variant 2: `Map` siblings + a fixed-size `Binary` index column —
+        // the actual regression guard. Multiple Map types with different
+        // value shapes (`Utf8`, `List<Utf8>`, `Float64`) exercise the
+        // children-clone codepath across a few representative shapes.
+        let map_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let map_uri = format!("{}/maps", map_dir.as_str());
+        let map_params = crate::dataset::WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+            max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as usize,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let map_dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("map_a", array::rand_map(&DataType::Utf8, &DataType::Utf8))
+            .col(
+                "map_b",
+                array::rand_map(
+                    &DataType::Utf8,
+                    &DataType::List(Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                        "item",
+                        DataType::Utf8,
+                        true,
+                    ))),
+                ),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "map_c",
+                array::rand_map(&DataType::Utf8, &DataType::Float64),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "map_d",
+                array::rand_map(&DataType::Utf8, &DataType::Float64),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "indexed",
+                array::rand_fixedbin(ByteCount::from(BINARY_BYTES), false),
+            )
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                &map_uri,
+                FragmentCount::from(FRAGMENTS),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT),
+                Some(map_params),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection_columns(&map_dataset, "indexed").await,
+            vec!["indexed".to_string()],
+            "map-siblings schema must not pull unrelated Map columns into LanceRead"
+        );
+
+        // Variant 3: same dataset, exercising the `with_fragments` delta
+        // path used by `optimize_indices` for incremental BTree updates.
+        let frag = map_dataset.fragments().first().cloned().unwrap();
+        let mut scan = map_dataset.scan();
+        scan.order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
+            "indexed".to_string(),
+        )]))
+        .unwrap();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.with_fragments(vec![frag]);
+        scan.project_with_transform(&[(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, "indexed")])
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan = scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        let line = plan
+            .lines()
+            .find(|l| l.contains("projection=["))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("LanceRead line missing:\n{}", plan));
+        assert!(
+            line.contains("projection=[indexed]"),
+            "with_fragments delta scan must also project only the indexed column; got:\n{}",
+            line
+        );
+
+        // Variant 4: when the Map column itself is requested, its internal
+        // children (entries struct with key/value) must still be preserved
+        // — this is the original intent of PR #5349 and the reason
+        // `apply_projection` clones the children whole-cloth for selected
+        // Map fields.
+        let mut scan = map_dataset.scan();
+        scan.project(&["map_c"]).unwrap();
+        let projected_schema = scan.schema().await.unwrap();
+        let projected = projected_schema.field_with_name("map_c").unwrap();
+        match projected.data_type() {
+            DataType::Map(entries, _) => match entries.data_type() {
+                DataType::Struct(children) => {
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        children.len(),
+                        2,
+                        "selected Map column must keep its key/value entries struct"
+                    );
+                }
+                other => panic!("Map entries should be Struct, got {:?}", other),
+            },
+            other => panic!("expected Map type, got {:?}", other),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_scalar_index_coalesces_concurrent_cold_opens() {
+        use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use arrow::datatypes::Int64Type;
+        use futures::future::try_join_all;
+        use lance_index::metrics::LocalMetricsCollector;
+        use std::sync::atomic::Ordering;
+
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = dir.as_ref();
+        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(200))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        ds.create_index(&["id"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reopen so the index cache is cold for the concurrent opens below.
+        let ds = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let id_field = ds.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+        let index_meta = ds
+            .load_indices()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.fields == [id_field])
+            .cloned()
+            .expect("btree index on `id`");
+
+        // Eight concurrent cold opens; single-flight means the loader (which calls
+        // `record_index_load`) runs exactly once, not once per open.
+        let metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        let indices =
+            try_join_all((0..8).map(|_| open_scalar_index(&ds, "id", &index_meta, &metrics)))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(metrics.index_loads.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 1);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_load_training_data_addr_sort() {
         // Create test data using lance_datagen
@@ -758,11 +1490,11 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_initialize_scalar_index_btree() {
         use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
         use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
         use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
         use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-        use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let source_uri = format!("{}/source", test_dir.as_str());
@@ -837,11 +1569,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify the index type is correct
         let target_scalar_index = target_dataset
-            .open_scalar_index(
-                "id",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_scalar_index("id", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -864,11 +1592,11 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_optimize_scalar_index_btree() {
         use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
         use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
         use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
         use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-        use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let uri = format!("{}/source", test_dir.as_str());
@@ -915,7 +1643,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify the index type is correct
         let scalar_index = dataset
-            .open_scalar_index("id", &indices[0].uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .open_scalar_index("id", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -960,7 +1688,7 @@ mod tests {
         );
 
         let scalar_index = dataset
-            .open_scalar_index("id", &indices[0].uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .open_scalar_index("id", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -982,10 +1710,10 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_initialize_scalar_index_bitmap() {
         use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
         use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
         use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-        use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let source_uri = format!("{}/source", test_dir.as_str());
@@ -1062,10 +1790,10 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_initialize_scalar_index_inverted() {
         use crate::dataset::Dataset;
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount, array};
         use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
         use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::InvertedIndexParams;
-        use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let source_uri = format!("{}/source", test_dir.as_str());
@@ -1143,11 +1871,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify the index type is correct
         let target_scalar_index = target_dataset
-            .open_scalar_index(
-                "text",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_scalar_index("text", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -1201,12 +1925,12 @@ mod tests {
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_initialize_scalar_index_zonemap() {
         use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
         use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-        use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
         use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-        use lance_index::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams;
         use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
-        use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams;
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let source_uri = format!("{}/source", test_dir.as_str());
@@ -1281,11 +2005,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify the index type is correct
         let target_scalar_index = target_dataset
-            .open_scalar_index(
-                "value",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_scalar_index("value", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -1355,7 +2075,11 @@ mod tests {
             }
 
             for (before, expected) in result_before.iter().zip(expected.iter()) {
-                assert_eq!(before, expected, "Zonemap index with deletions returned wrong results for deletion predicate '{}'", del_pred);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    before, expected,
+                    "Zonemap index with deletions returned wrong results for deletion predicate '{}'",
+                    del_pred
+                );
             }
 
             // Now recreate the indexes for the next iteration
@@ -1374,7 +2098,11 @@ mod tests {
             }
 
             for (after, expected) in result_after.iter().zip(expected.iter()) {
-                assert_eq!(after, expected, "Zonemap index with deletions returned wrong results for deletion predicate '{}' after re-creating the index", del_pred);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    after, expected,
+                    "Zonemap index with deletions returned wrong results for deletion predicate '{}' after re-creating the index",
+                    del_pred
+                );
             }
         }
     }
@@ -1383,8 +2111,8 @@ mod tests {
     async fn test_zonemap_deletion_then_index() {
         use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
         use lance_datagen::array;
-        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
         use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
 
         // Create dataset with 10 rows in two fragments: alternating boolean values
         // Rows 0,2,4,6,8 have value=true, rows 1,3,5,7,9 have value=false
@@ -1454,14 +2182,177 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_dataset_column_value_range() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow::datatypes::Int64Type;
+        use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+        use lance_datagen::array;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+        // 2 fragments x 5 rows: `id` and `other` both step 0..9.
+        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .col("other", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(5))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        ds.create_index(&["id"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Folded straight from the ZoneMap summaries: global [0, 9].
+        assert_eq!(
+            ds.statistics().column_value_range("id").await.unwrap(),
+            Some((ScalarValue::Int64(Some(0)), ScalarValue::Int64(Some(9))))
+        );
+        // `other` has no ZoneMap index -> no precomputed range.
+        assert_eq!(
+            ds.statistics().column_value_range("other").await.unwrap(),
+            None
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_column_value_range_none_when_index_misses_fragments() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow::datatypes::Int64Type;
+        use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+        // Index covers the initial 2 fragments.
+        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(5))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        ds.create_index(&["id"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            ds.statistics()
+                .column_value_range("id")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_some()
+        );
+
+        // Append a fragment the index doesn't cover. Its rows may hold values
+        // outside the indexed range, so any non-None range would be a subset
+        // unsound to prune with -> must return None until the index is rebuilt.
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(5), BatchCount::from(1));
+        ds.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            ds.statistics().column_value_range("id").await.unwrap(),
+            None
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_column_value_range_folds_multiple_segments() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow::datatypes::Int64Type;
+        use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+        use lance_datagen::array;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+        // 2 fragments x 5 rows (`id` steps 0..9). Build one ZoneMap segment per
+        // fragment, then commit them as a single multi-segment logical index.
+        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(5))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        let columns = ["id"];
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment_id in [0_u32, 1_u32] {
+            let mut builder = ds
+                .create_index_builder(&columns, IndexType::Scalar, &params)
+                .name("id_idx".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment_id]);
+            segments.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+        }
+        // execute_uncommitted yields ready IndexMetadata segments (IntoIndexSegment);
+        // build_all is vector-only, so commit the per-fragment segments directly.
+        ds.commit_existing_index_segments("id_idx", "id", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Two disjoint segments jointly cover every live fragment -> the fold
+        // spans both and yields the global range, not None.
+        assert_eq!(ds.load_indices_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap().len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            ds.statistics().column_value_range("id").await.unwrap(),
+            Some((ScalarValue::Int64(Some(0)), ScalarValue::Int64(Some(9))))
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A covered ZoneMap (`fields=[id, other]`, `other` carried) must still be
+    /// found by `column_value_range("id")`: matching on `idx.fields` as a whole
+    /// (rather than its keyed prefix) would silently exclude it and lose range
+    /// pruning with no error.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_column_value_range_recognizes_covered_index() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow::datatypes::Int64Type;
+        use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+        use lance_datagen::array;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+        // 2 fragments x 5 rows: `id` and `other` both step 0..9.
+        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .col("other", array::step::<Int64Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(5))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let other_field_id = ds.schema().field("other").unwrap().id;
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        let mut segment = ds
+            .create_index_builder(&["id"], IndexType::Scalar, &params)
+            .name("id_idx".to_string())
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Nothing writes a covering declaration yet, so it is hand-constructed
+        // here on top of a real single-field segment: read plumbing never touches
+        // covered-column storage, so a declaration naming a real, uninvolved
+        // column is a faithful stand-in for a genuinely covered segment.
+        segment.fields.push(other_field_id);
+        segment.covering_fields = vec![other_field_id];
+        ds.commit_existing_index_segments("id_idx", "id", vec![segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(ds.load_indices_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            ds.statistics().column_value_range("id").await.unwrap(),
+            Some((ScalarValue::Int64(Some(0)), ScalarValue::Int64(Some(9)))),
+            "covered ZoneMap must still be matched by its keyed column"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_zonemap_index_then_deletion() {
         // Tests the opposite scenario: create index FIRST, then perform deletions
         // Verifies that zonemap index properly handles deletions that occur after index creation
         use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
         use lance_datagen::array;
-        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
         use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
 
         // Create dataset with 10 rows: alternating boolean values
         // Rows 0,2,4,6,8 have value=true, rows 1,3,5,7,9 have value=false
@@ -1588,8 +2479,8 @@ mod tests {
         // After deleting rows and creating a bloom filter index, queries return fewer results than expected
         use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
         use lance_datagen::array;
-        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
         use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
 
         // Create dataset with 10 rows: alternating string values "apple" and "banana"
         // Rows 0,2,4,6,8 have value="apple", rows 1,3,5,7,9 have value="banana"
@@ -1675,8 +2566,8 @@ mod tests {
         // Verifies that bloom filter index properly handles deletions that occur after index creation
         use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
         use lance_datagen::array;
-        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
         use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
 
         // Create dataset with 10 rows: alternating string values "apple" and "banana"
         // Rows 0,2,4,6,8 have value="apple", rows 1,3,5,7,9 have value="banana"
@@ -1806,4 +2697,70 @@ mod tests {
             "Should have 0 rows with value='banana' after deletion"
         );
     }
+
+    // End-to-end: create index → delete a whole fragment → search (via index) →
+    // update index → search again.  No deleted rows should ever appear.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zonemap_search_with_deleted_fragment_before_and_after_update() {
+        use arrow::datatypes::Int32Type;
+        use lance_datagen::array;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+        // 3 fragments × 10 rows: id 0-9 (frag 0), 10-19 (frag 1), 20-29 (frag 2).
+        let mut ds = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(10))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        ds.create_index(&["id"], IndexType::Scalar, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Delete the middle fragment entirely.
+        ds.delete("id >= 10 AND id < 20").await.unwrap();
+
+        // Helper: run a filter scan and return the sorted id values.
+        async fn live_ids(ds: &crate::Dataset) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let batch = ds
+                .scan()
+                .filter("id >= 0")
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut ids: Vec<i32> = batch["id"]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap()
+                .values()
+                .to_vec();
+            ids.sort_unstable();
+            ids
+        }
+
+        // --- Before index update ---
+        let ids = live_ids(&ds).await;
+        assert_eq!(ids.len(), 20, "expected 20 live rows before index update");
+        assert!(
+            ids.iter().all(|&id| !(10..20).contains(&id)),
+            "deleted fragment rows (id 10-19) must not appear before index update; got: {:?}",
+            ids
+        );
+
+        // Update the zone map index to reflect the deletion.
+        ds.optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new()).await.unwrap();
+
+        // --- After index update ---
+        let ids = live_ids(&ds).await;
+        assert_eq!(ids.len(), 20, "expected 20 live rows after index update");
+        assert!(
+            ids.iter().all(|&id| !(10..20).contains(&id)),
+            "deleted fragment rows (id 10-19) must not appear after index update; got: {:?}",
+            ids
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/bitmap.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/bitmap.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c6aa16de12d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/bitmap.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::bitmap::BitmapIndex;
+use lance_index::scalar::index_files_to_table;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::{CreatedIndex, OldIndexDataFilter};
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result, dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt};
+
+/// Open the given bitmap `segments` and k-way merge their postings, together
+/// with `new_data`, into a single bitmap index written to `new_store`.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn open_and_merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    field_path: &str,
+    segments: &[&IndexMetadata],
+    new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    new_store: &LanceIndexStore,
+    old_data_filters: &[Option<OldIndexDataFilter>],
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    let mut source_indices = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    for &segment in segments {
+        let scalar_index = super::open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+            dataset,
+            field_path,
+            segment,
+            staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)),
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let bitmap_index = scalar_index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BitmapIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "Bitmap merge: expected bitmap segment {}, got {:?}",
+                    segment.uuid,
+                    scalar_index.index_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        source_indices.push(Arc::new(bitmap_index.clone()));
+    }
+    BitmapIndex::merge_segments(&source_indices, new_data, new_store, old_data_filters).await
+}
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source bitmap segments into a single segment.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+
+    let segment_refs: Vec<&IndexMetadata> = segments.iter().collect();
+    let (fragment_bitmap, old_data_filters) =
+        crate::index::append::build_per_segment_filters(dataset, &segment_refs, staged).await?;
+
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+    // Pure segment consolidation: no dataset scan, so `new_data` is an empty stream.
+    let empty_new_data = super::btree::empty_value_row_id_stream(dataset, field_id)?;
+    let created_index = open_and_merge_segments(
+        dataset,
+        &field_path,
+        &segment_refs,
+        empty_new_data,
+        &new_store,
+        &old_data_filters,
+        staged,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: new_uuid,
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+        ..segments[0].clone()
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/bloomfilter.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/bloomfilter.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d4d3ff14b70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/bloomfilter.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::bloomfilter::BloomFilterIndex;
+use lance_index::scalar::index_files_to_table;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result, dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt};
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source BloomFilter segments into a single segment.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+    let dataset_version = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| segment.dataset_version)
+        .min()
+        .unwrap_or(dataset.manifest.version);
+    let mut fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let dataset_fragments = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+    let fragment_filters = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| {
+            segment
+                .effective_fragment_bitmap(dataset_fragments)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                        segment.uuid
+                    ))
+                })
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    for effective in &fragment_filters {
+        fragment_bitmap |= effective;
+    }
+
+    let mut scalar_indices = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    for (position, (segment, effective)) in segments.iter().zip(&fragment_filters).enumerate() {
+        if effective.is_empty() && !(fragment_bitmap.is_empty() && position == 0) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let scalar_index = super::open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+            dataset,
+            &field_path,
+            segment,
+            staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)),
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        scalar_indices.push((segment.uuid, scalar_index, effective));
+    }
+
+    let mut source_indices = Vec::with_capacity(scalar_indices.len());
+    for (segment_uuid, scalar_index, fragment_filter) in &scalar_indices {
+        let bloomfilter_index = scalar_index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BloomFilterIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "merge_existing_index_segments: expected bloom filter segment {}, got {:?}",
+                    segment_uuid,
+                    scalar_index.index_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        source_indices.push((bloomfilter_index, *fragment_filter));
+    }
+
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+    let created_index =
+        lance_index::scalar::bloomfilter::merge_bloomfilter_indices(&source_indices, &new_store)
+            .await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: new_uuid,
+        dataset_version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+        ..segments[0].clone()
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/btree.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/btree.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f14e98851ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/btree.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,177 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+#![allow(clippy::redundant_pub_crate)]
+
+//! BTree-specific helpers for the segmented index workflow.
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::pbold::BTreeIndexDetails;
+use lance_index::scalar::btree::BTreeIndex;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
+use lance_index::scalar::{CreatedIndex, OldIndexDataFilter, index_files_to_table};
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result, dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt};
+
+/// Build a row-empty `new_data` stream for the segment-merge APIs.
+pub(super) fn empty_value_row_id_stream(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    field_id: i32,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    let field = dataset.schema().field_by_id(field_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "merge_existing_index_segments: field id {} does not exist",
+            field_id
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, field.data_type(), true),
+        ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ]));
+    Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema,
+        futures::stream::empty(),
+    )))
+}
+
+fn ensure_btree_details(segment: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<()> {
+    if let Some(details) = segment.index_details.as_ref()
+        && !details.type_url.ends_with("BTreeIndexDetails")
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Segment '{}' is not a BTree segment (details type_url = '{}')",
+            segment.uuid, details.type_url
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Open the given BTree `segments` and k-way merge their already-sorted page
+/// data, together with `new_data`, into a single canonical BTree written to
+/// `new_store`.
+pub(crate) async fn open_and_merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    field_path: &str,
+    segments: &[&IndexMetadata],
+    new_data: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    new_store: &LanceIndexStore,
+    old_data_filters: &[Option<OldIndexDataFilter>],
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    let mut source_indices = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    for &segment in segments {
+        let scalar_index = super::open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+            dataset,
+            field_path,
+            segment,
+            staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)),
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let btree = scalar_index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BTreeIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "BTree merge: expected BTree segment {}, got {:?}",
+                    segment.uuid,
+                    scalar_index.index_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        source_indices.push(Arc::new(btree.clone()));
+    }
+    BTreeIndex::merge_segments(&source_indices, new_data, new_store, old_data_filters).await
+}
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source BTree segments into a single
+/// physical segment.
+pub(crate) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    for segment in &segments {
+        ensure_btree_details(segment)?;
+    }
+
+    // All source segments must belong to the same column.
+    let reference_fields = segments[0].fields.as_slice();
+    for segment in segments.iter().skip(1) {
+        if segment.fields.as_slice() != reference_fields {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "BTree merge_segments: segment {} has fields {:?}, expected {:?}",
+                segment.uuid, segment.fields, reference_fields,
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+
+    let segment_refs: Vec<&IndexMetadata> = segments.iter().collect();
+    let (fragment_bitmap, old_data_filters) =
+        crate::index::append::build_per_segment_filters(dataset, &segment_refs, staged).await?;
+
+    let output_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &output_uuid)?;
+    // Pure segment consolidation: no dataset scan, so `new_data` is an empty
+    // stream and the merge is driven entirely by the source page data.
+    let empty_new_data = empty_value_row_id_stream(dataset, field_id)?;
+    let created_index = open_and_merge_segments(
+        dataset,
+        &field_path,
+        &segment_refs,
+        empty_new_data,
+        &new_store,
+        &old_data_filters,
+        staged,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    if !created_index
+        .index_details
+        .type_url
+        .ends_with("BTreeIndexDetails")
+    {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "merge_existing_index_segments: BTree merge produced unexpected details type_url '{}'",
+            created_index.index_details.type_url
+        )));
+    }
+    debug_assert_eq!(
+        created_index.index_details,
+        prost_types::Any::from_msg(&BTreeIndexDetails::default()).unwrap(),
+    );
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: output_uuid,
+        name: segments[0].name.clone(),
+        fields: segments[0].fields.clone(),
+        covering_fields: segments[0].covering_fields.clone(),
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/fmindex.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/fmindex.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b601e54b35c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/fmindex.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use lance_index::scalar::index_files_to_table;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result};
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source FM-Index segments into a single segment.
+///
+/// FM-Index merge requires rebuilding from source text — there is no cheap way
+/// to combine two BWT structures. This function re-reads text data from the
+/// dataset for all fragments covered by the source segments and builds a fresh
+/// FM-Index over the combined data.
+///
+/// As an exception, a single source segment whose fragment coverage is still
+/// fully live is returned as-is: rebuilding it would produce equivalent content
+/// over the same fragments, which makes distributed builds (one uncommitted
+/// segment per worker, merged 1:1 into final segments) pay for every segment
+/// twice. `is_rebuild_required` disables that passthrough when the caller has
+/// moved coverage into the current fragment space and the stored row addresses
+/// must be rebuilt to match it.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    is_rebuild_required: bool,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let column = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+
+    let mut fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for segment in &segments {
+        fragment_bitmap |= segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                segment.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+    }
+
+    // Intersect with the dataset's current live fragments to drop retired/compacted
+    // fragments, mirroring the btree merge behavior. Under a tagged history the
+    // segments' stored bitmaps are provenance; the FM merge rebuilds from the
+    // dataset, so it rebuilds over the live coverage the tagged reader derives
+    // for them instead.
+    let segment_refs: Vec<&IndexMetadata> = segments.iter().collect();
+    match crate::index::append::tagged_segment_coverage(dataset, &segment_refs, staged).await? {
+        Some(coverage) => {
+            fragment_bitmap = coverage
+                .values()
+                .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |acc, bitmap| acc | bitmap);
+        }
+        None => fragment_bitmap &= dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref(),
+    }
+
+    if fragment_bitmap.is_empty() {
+        // All covered fragments have been retired; produce an empty index.
+        let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let created_index = super::build_scalar_index(
+            dataset,
+            &column,
+            new_uuid,
+            &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(
+                lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Fm,
+            ),
+            false,
+            None,
+            None,
+            Arc::new(lance_index::progress::NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        return Ok(IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: new_uuid,
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+            index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+            created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+            base_id: None,
+            files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+            ..segments[0].clone()
+        });
+    }
+
+    if !is_rebuild_required
+        && segments.len() == 1
+        && segments[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref() == Some(&fragment_bitmap)
+    {
+        return Ok(segments.into_iter().next().unwrap());
+    }
+
+    let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = fragment_bitmap.iter().collect();
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+    let created_index = super::build_scalar_index(
+        dataset,
+        &column,
+        new_uuid,
+        &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(
+            lance_index::scalar::BuiltinIndexType::Fm,
+        ),
+        true,
+        Some(fragment_ids),
+        None,
+        Arc::new(lance_index::progress::NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: new_uuid,
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+        ..segments[0].clone()
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/inverted.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/inverted.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d553b50f091
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/inverted.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1364 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+#![allow(clippy::redundant_pub_crate)]
+
+use std::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, LargeStringArray, RecordBatch, StringArray, StringViewArray, UInt32Array,
+    UInt64Array,
+};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use datafusion::error::DataFusionError;
+use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use futures::StreamExt;
+use lance_core::{
+    ROW_ID,
+    datatypes::{Field, LogicalType, Schema, format_field_path, parse_field_path},
+};
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::pbold::InvertedIndexDetails;
+use lance_index::scalar::index_files_to_table;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
+    DocumentGranularity, InvertedIndex, InvertedIndexParams, doc_index_storage_column,
+};
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::registry::VALUE_COLUMN_NAME;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use prost::Message;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{
+    Dataset, Error, Result,
+    dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt,
+    index::{DatasetIndexExt, scalar::fetch_index_details},
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum FtsTraversal {
+    Text,
+    Struct {
+        child_index: usize,
+        child: Box<Self>,
+    },
+    List {
+        child: Box<Self>,
+    },
+}
+
+impl FtsTraversal {
+    fn list_depth(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Self::Text => 0,
+            Self::Struct { child, .. } => child.list_depth(),
+            Self::List { child } => 1 + child.list_depth(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Schema-derived form of an FTS field path.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct ResolvedFtsField {
+    pub final_field_id: i32,
+    pub root_column: String,
+    pub canonical_path: String,
+    pub document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    traversal: FtsTraversal,
+    list_depth: usize,
+}
+
+/// One logical document extracted from a dataset row.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) struct FtsDocument {
+    pub row_index: usize,
+    pub text: String,
+    pub doc_index: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl ResolvedFtsField {
+    pub fn has_lists(&self) -> bool {
+        self.list_depth > 0
+    }
+
+    pub fn coordinate_rank(&self) -> usize {
+        if self.document_granularity.is_list_element() {
+            self.list_depth
+        } else {
+            0
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn documents_from_batch(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Vec<FtsDocument>> {
+        let column = batch.column_by_name(&self.root_column).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS root column '{}' is missing from the input batch",
+                self.root_column
+            ))
+        })?;
+        self.documents_from_array(column, batch.num_rows())
+    }
+
+    fn documents_from_array(&self, column: &ArrayRef, num_rows: usize) -> Result<Vec<FtsDocument>> {
+        let mut documents = Vec::new();
+        match self.document_granularity {
+            DocumentGranularity::Row => {
+                documents.reserve(num_rows);
+                for row_index in 0..num_rows {
+                    let mut text = String::new();
+                    append_row_text(&self.traversal, column.as_ref(), row_index, &mut text)?;
+                    documents.push(FtsDocument {
+                        row_index,
+                        text,
+                        doc_index: Vec::new(),
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+            DocumentGranularity::ListElement => {
+                for row_index in 0..num_rows {
+                    collect_element_documents(
+                        &self.traversal,
+                        column.as_ref(),
+                        row_index,
+                        row_index,
+                        0,
+                        self.list_depth,
+                        &mut Vec::with_capacity(self.list_depth),
+                        &mut documents,
+                    )?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(documents)
+    }
+}
+
+fn string_value(array: &dyn Array, index: usize) -> Result<Option<&str>> {
+    if array.is_null(index) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    match array.data_type() {
+        DataType::Utf8 => Ok(Some(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
+                .expect("Utf8 array type")
+                .value(index),
+        )),
+        DataType::LargeUtf8 => Ok(Some(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<LargeStringArray>()
+                .expect("LargeUtf8 array type")
+                .value(index),
+        )),
+        DataType::Utf8View => Ok(Some(
+            array
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<StringViewArray>()
+                .expect("Utf8View array type")
+                .value(index),
+        )),
+        data_type => Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "FTS traversal expected a string array, got {data_type}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+fn append_text(output: &mut String, text: &str) {
+    if !output.is_empty() {
+        output.push(' ');
+    }
+    output.push_str(text);
+}
+
+fn append_row_text(
+    traversal: &FtsTraversal,
+    array: &dyn Array,
+    index: usize,
+    output: &mut String,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match traversal {
+        FtsTraversal::Text => {
+            if let Some(text) = string_value(array, index)? {
+                append_text(output, text);
+            }
+        }
+        FtsTraversal::Struct { child_index, child } => {
+            if !array.is_null(index) {
+                let structs = array.as_struct();
+                append_row_text(child, structs.column(*child_index).as_ref(), index, output)?;
+            }
+        }
+        FtsTraversal::List { child } => match array.data_type() {
+            DataType::List(_) => {
+                let lists = array.as_list::<i32>();
+                if !lists.is_null(index) {
+                    let offsets = lists.value_offsets();
+                    let start = offsets[index] as usize;
+                    let end = offsets[index + 1] as usize;
+                    for element_index in start..end {
+                        append_row_text(child, lists.values().as_ref(), element_index, output)?;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                let lists = array.as_list::<i64>();
+                if !lists.is_null(index) {
+                    let offsets = lists.value_offsets();
+                    let start = offsets[index] as usize;
+                    let end = offsets[index + 1] as usize;
+                    for element_index in start..end {
+                        append_row_text(child, lists.values().as_ref(), element_index, output)?;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            data_type => {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "FTS traversal expected a list array, got {data_type}"
+                )));
+            }
+        },
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn collect_element_documents(
+    traversal: &FtsTraversal,
+    array: &dyn Array,
+    index: usize,
+    row_index: usize,
+    list_depth: usize,
+    boundary_depth: usize,
+    doc_index: &mut Vec<u32>,
+    documents: &mut Vec<FtsDocument>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    match traversal {
+        FtsTraversal::Text => Err(Error::internal(
+            "ListElement FTS traversal did not encounter its list boundary".to_string(),
+        )),
+        FtsTraversal::Struct { child_index, child } => {
+            if !array.is_null(index) {
+                let structs = array.as_struct();
+                collect_element_documents(
+                    child,
+                    structs.column(*child_index).as_ref(),
+                    index,
+                    row_index,
+                    list_depth,
+                    boundary_depth,
+                    doc_index,
+                    documents,
+                )?;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        FtsTraversal::List { child } => {
+            let mut visit = |values: &ArrayRef, start: usize, end: usize| -> Result<()> {
+                for (ordinal, element_index) in (start..end).enumerate() {
+                    let ordinal = u32::try_from(ordinal).map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "FTS element ordinal overflow for row index {row_index}"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    doc_index.push(ordinal);
+                    if list_depth + 1 == boundary_depth {
+                        let mut text = String::new();
+                        append_row_text(child, values.as_ref(), element_index, &mut text)?;
+                        documents.push(FtsDocument {
+                            row_index,
+                            text,
+                            doc_index: doc_index.clone(),
+                        });
+                    } else {
+                        collect_element_documents(
+                            child,
+                            values.as_ref(),
+                            element_index,
+                            row_index,
+                            list_depth + 1,
+                            boundary_depth,
+                            doc_index,
+                            documents,
+                        )?;
+                    }
+                    doc_index.pop();
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            };
+            match array.data_type() {
+                DataType::List(_) => {
+                    let lists = array.as_list::<i32>();
+                    if !lists.is_null(index) {
+                        let offsets = lists.value_offsets();
+                        visit(
+                            lists.values(),
+                            offsets[index] as usize,
+                            offsets[index + 1] as usize,
+                        )?;
+                    }
+                }
+                DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+                    let lists = array.as_list::<i64>();
+                    if !lists.is_null(index) {
+                        let offsets = lists.value_offsets();
+                        visit(
+                            lists.values(),
+                            offsets[index] as usize,
+                            offsets[index + 1] as usize,
+                        )?;
+                    }
+                }
+                data_type => {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "FTS traversal expected a list array, got {data_type}"
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn find_child_case_insensitive<'a>(field: &'a Field, name: &str) -> Option<(usize, &'a Field)> {
+    field
+        .children
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .find(|(_, child)| child.name == name)
+        .or_else(|| {
+            field
+                .children
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .find(|(_, child)| child.name.eq_ignore_ascii_case(name))
+        })
+}
+
+fn build_fts_traversal(
+    field: &Field,
+    remaining_names: &[String],
+    canonical_names: &mut Vec<String>,
+    final_field_id: &mut i32,
+) -> Result<FtsTraversal> {
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_) => {
+            let child = field.children.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "FTS list field '{}' does not have an item field",
+                    field.name
+                ))
+            })?;
+            Ok(FtsTraversal::List {
+                child: Box::new(build_fts_traversal(
+                    child,
+                    remaining_names,
+                    canonical_names,
+                    final_field_id,
+                )?),
+            })
+        }
+        DataType::Struct(_) => {
+            let Some((name, rest)) = remaining_names.split_first() else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "FTS field path ends at struct '{}'; specify the final text field",
+                    field.name
+                )));
+            };
+            let (child_index, child) =
+                find_child_case_insensitive(field, name).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "FTS field '{}' does not contain child '{}'",
+                        field.name, name
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            canonical_names.push(child.name.clone());
+            *final_field_id = child.id;
+            Ok(FtsTraversal::Struct {
+                child_index,
+                child: Box::new(build_fts_traversal(
+                    child,
+                    rest,
+                    canonical_names,
+                    final_field_id,
+                )?),
+            })
+        }
+        DataType::Utf8 | DataType::LargeUtf8 | DataType::Utf8View if remaining_names.is_empty() => {
+            Ok(FtsTraversal::Text)
+        }
+        _ if field.logical_type == LogicalType::from("json") && remaining_names.is_empty() => {
+            Ok(FtsTraversal::Text)
+        }
+        data_type if !remaining_names.is_empty() => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "FTS field '{}' has type {data_type} and cannot contain child '{}'",
+            field.name, remaining_names[0]
+        ))),
+        data_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "FTS field '{}' must resolve to Utf8, LargeUtf8, Utf8View, or JSON, got {data_type}",
+            field.name
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Resolve a public FTS field path and derive all list traversal from schema.
+pub(crate) fn resolve_fts_field(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    path: &str,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+) -> Result<ResolvedFtsField> {
+    let names = parse_field_path(path)?;
+    let (root_name, remaining_names) = names
+        .split_first()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("FTS field path cannot be empty".to_string()))?;
+    let root = schema
+        .fields
+        .iter()
+        .find(|field| field.name == *root_name)
+        .or_else(|| {
+            schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .find(|field| field.name.eq_ignore_ascii_case(root_name))
+        })
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "FTS field path '{path}' does not exist in the dataset schema"
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+    let mut canonical_names = vec![root.name.clone()];
+    let mut final_field_id = root.id;
+    let traversal = build_fts_traversal(
+        root,
+        remaining_names,
+        &mut canonical_names,
+        &mut final_field_id,
+    )?;
+    let list_depth = traversal.list_depth();
+    if document_granularity.is_list_element() && list_depth == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "FTS field path '{}' has no List layer and cannot use ListElement document granularity",
+            format_field_path(
+                &canonical_names
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(String::as_str)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            )
+        )));
+    }
+    if list_depth > 0 && root.logical_type == LogicalType::from("json") {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "nested List traversal is not supported for JSON FTS sources".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let canonical_path = format_field_path(
+        &canonical_names
+            .iter()
+            .map(String::as_str)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    );
+    Ok(ResolvedFtsField {
+        final_field_id,
+        root_column: root.name.clone(),
+        canonical_path,
+        document_granularity,
+        traversal,
+        list_depth,
+    })
+}
+
+fn find_public_path_by_id(field: &Field, field_id: i32, path: &mut Vec<String>) -> bool {
+    if field.id == field_id {
+        return true;
+    }
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_) => field
+            .children
+            .first()
+            .is_some_and(|child| find_physical_path_by_id(child, field_id, path)),
+        DataType::Struct(_) => field.children.iter().any(|child| {
+            path.push(child.name.clone());
+            let found = find_public_path_by_id(child, field_id, path);
+            if !found {
+                path.pop();
+            }
+            found
+        }),
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+fn find_physical_path_by_id(field: &Field, field_id: i32, path: &mut Vec<String>) -> bool {
+    if field.id == field_id {
+        return false;
+    }
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_) => field
+            .children
+            .first()
+            .is_some_and(|child| find_physical_path_by_id(child, field_id, path)),
+        DataType::Struct(_) => field.children.iter().any(|child| {
+            path.push(child.name.clone());
+            let found = find_public_path_by_id(child, field_id, path);
+            if !found {
+                path.pop();
+            }
+            found
+        }),
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Resolve an indexed final field id against the current schema, preserving
+/// routing across field renames.
+pub(crate) fn resolve_fts_field_by_id(
+    schema: &Schema,
+    field_id: i32,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+) -> Result<ResolvedFtsField> {
+    for root in &schema.fields {
+        let mut path = vec![root.name.clone()];
+        if find_public_path_by_id(root, field_id, &mut path) {
+            let path_refs = path.iter().map(String::as_str).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            return resolve_fts_field(schema, &format_field_path(&path_refs), document_granularity);
+        }
+    }
+    Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+        "FTS index refers to missing or Arrow-internal field id {field_id}"
+    )))
+}
+
+/// Return the persisted FTS document granularity for each logical index on a
+/// public field path. Multiple physical segments with the same index name are
+/// collapsed after validating that their metadata agrees.
+pub(crate) async fn indexed_fts_document_granularities(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<(String, DocumentGranularity)>> {
+    let resolved = resolve_fts_field(dataset.schema(), column, DocumentGranularity::Row)?;
+    let mut by_name = BTreeMap::new();
+
+    for index in dataset.load_indices().await?.iter() {
+        // A covered FTS index still answers for its keyed column; only the
+        // keyed prefix decides whether this index matches, not the full
+        // `fields` vector including carried columns.
+        if index.keyed_field() != Some(resolved.final_field_id) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let details_any = fetch_index_details(dataset, &resolved.canonical_path, index).await?;
+        if !details_any.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails") {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let details =
+            InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details_any.value.as_slice()).map_err(|error| {
+                Error::corrupt_file(
+                    dataset.indices_dir().join(index.uuid.to_string()),
+                    format!(
+                        "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails for FTS index '{}': {error}",
+                        index.name
+                    ),
+                )
+            })?;
+        let document_granularity = DocumentGranularity::try_from(details.document_granularity)?;
+        if let Some(existing) = by_name.insert(index.name.clone(), document_granularity)
+            && existing != document_granularity
+        {
+            return Err(Error::corrupt_file(
+                dataset.indices_dir().join(index.uuid.to_string()),
+                format!(
+                    "FTS index '{}' has inconsistent document granularity across segments: \
+                     {existing:?} and {document_granularity:?}",
+                    index.name
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(by_name.into_iter().collect())
+}
+
+/// The effective [`InvertedIndexParams`] of every persisted FTS index on
+/// `column`, paired with the document granularity it was built for.
+///
+/// The analyzer and positional settings are part of the query contract, not an
+/// implementation detail: a phrase query needs positions, and a stemming or
+/// n-gram tokenizer changes which terms a document produces. Anything that
+/// evaluates the same query over rows an index does not cover — an unindexed
+/// fragment, or a MemWAL active memtable — has to analyze them the same way or
+/// the two disagree about what matches.
+///
+/// Keyed by granularity rather than flattened, because row and list-element
+/// indexes may coexist on one column with *different* settings, and
+/// `load_segments` selects between them by the query's resolved granularity.
+/// Picking the first match instead would rebuild against the wrong contract —
+/// a list-element phrase query could be analyzed with the row index's
+/// positionless settings and silently match nothing.
+pub(crate) async fn indexed_fts_index_params(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<(DocumentGranularity, InvertedIndexParams)>> {
+    let resolved = resolve_fts_field(dataset.schema(), column, DocumentGranularity::Row)?;
+    let mut found = Vec::new();
+    for index in dataset.load_indices().await?.iter() {
+        if index.keyed_field() != Some(resolved.final_field_id) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let details_any = fetch_index_details(dataset, &resolved.canonical_path, index).await?;
+        if !details_any.type_url.ends_with("InvertedIndexDetails") {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let details =
+            InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details_any.value.as_slice()).map_err(|error| {
+                Error::corrupt_file(
+                    dataset.indices_dir().join(index.uuid.to_string()),
+                    format!(
+                        "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails for FTS index '{}': {error}",
+                        index.name
+                    ),
+                )
+            })?;
+        let document_granularity = DocumentGranularity::try_from(details.document_granularity)?;
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&details)?;
+        found.push((document_granularity, params));
+    }
+    Ok(found)
+}
+
+/// Resolve an optional query granularity against persisted FTS index metadata.
+///
+/// A unique indexed granularity is authoritative and also controls flat search
+/// over unindexed fragments. An explicit request selects between coexisting
+/// row and list-element indexes, but cannot contradict the only indexed
+/// granularity. With no index, the established row default is retained.
+pub(crate) async fn resolve_query_document_granularity(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    requested: Option<DocumentGranularity>,
+) -> Result<DocumentGranularity> {
+    let indices = indexed_fts_document_granularities(dataset, column).await?;
+    let mut available = indices
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(_, document_granularity)| *document_granularity)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    available.sort_by_key(|document_granularity| match document_granularity {
+        DocumentGranularity::Row => 0,
+        DocumentGranularity::ListElement => 1,
+    });
+    available.dedup();
+
+    let resolved = match requested {
+        Some(requested) if available.is_empty() || available.contains(&requested) => requested,
+        Some(requested) => {
+            let indexed = indices
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(name, document_granularity)| format!("'{name}' ({document_granularity:?})"))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .join(", ");
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS query for field '{column}' requested {requested:?} document granularity, \
+                 but the existing FTS index uses a different granularity: {indexed}"
+            )));
+        }
+        None if available.is_empty() => DocumentGranularity::Row,
+        None if available.len() == 1 => available[0],
+        None => {
+            let indexed = indices
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(name, document_granularity)| format!("'{name}' ({document_granularity:?})"))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .join(", ");
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS query for field '{column}' is ambiguous because Row and ListElement \
+                 indexes coexist: {indexed}; specify document_granularity"
+            )));
+        }
+    };
+
+    resolve_fts_field(dataset.schema(), column, resolved)?;
+    Ok(resolved)
+}
+
+/// Check that one `combined_fields` target column can take part in a BM25F
+/// blend, and resolve its path.
+///
+/// Cross-field scoring joins the target columns on the row address and sums their
+/// per-row term frequencies and document lengths, so it needs row documents. A
+/// column indexed only at list-element granularity cannot supply them: that index
+/// stores several documents per row, identified by element coordinates a
+/// cross-column scan cannot pair up between columns and the combined result schema
+/// cannot report. A column carrying both granularities is fine; the row index is
+/// the one used.
+///
+/// Any field shape a row-document index accepts is allowed, list nesting included:
+/// the flat sibling scan reaches such a leaf through
+/// [`flatten_fts_document_column`], which uses the same traversal a single-column
+/// match drives through [`FtsDocument`].
+pub(crate) async fn validate_combined_fields_target_column(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let indices = indexed_fts_document_granularities(dataset, column).await?;
+    if !indices.is_empty()
+        && indices
+            .iter()
+            .all(|(_, granularity)| granularity.is_list_element())
+    {
+        let indexed = indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(name, granularity)| format!("'{name}' ({granularity:?})"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(", ");
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "combined_fields (BM25F) scores whole rows and needs a Row document granularity FTS \
+             index on every target column, but '{column}' only has: {indexed}"
+        )));
+    }
+    resolve_fts_field(dataset.schema(), column, DocumentGranularity::Row)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn fts_document_schema(coordinate_rank: usize) -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+    let mut fields = vec![
+        ArrowField::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+    ];
+    fields.extend(
+        (0..coordinate_rank)
+            .map(|rank| ArrowField::new(doc_index_storage_column(rank), DataType::UInt32, false)),
+    );
+    Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields))
+}
+
+/// Add (or replace) a flat `Utf8` column holding each row's document text for a
+/// list-bearing FTS field path, leaving every other column and row untouched.
+///
+/// A Lance projection cannot address a field that continues past a `List`, so a
+/// scan that needs `docs.content` has to project the `docs` root instead. This
+/// walks the traversal down to the leaf per row, joining the elements exactly the
+/// way the index builder does at row granularity.
+///
+/// Row granularity yields one document per input row, in row order, keeping several
+/// such columns aligned for a cross-field blend. Not valid for list-element
+/// granularity, where a row expands to several documents.
+pub(crate) fn flatten_fts_document_column(
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    resolved: ResolvedFtsField,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    if resolved.document_granularity.is_list_element() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "flatten_fts_document_column needs row documents to keep one output row per input row"
+                .to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let input_schema = input.schema();
+    if input_schema
+        .column_with_name(&resolved.root_column)
+        .is_none()
+    {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "FTS document input must contain the root source column '{}'",
+            resolved.root_column
+        )));
+    }
+    let text_field = ArrowField::new(&resolved.canonical_path, DataType::Utf8, false);
+    let replaced = input_schema.column_with_name(&resolved.canonical_path);
+    let mut fields = input_schema.fields().to_vec();
+    match replaced {
+        Some((index, _)) => fields[index] = Arc::new(text_field),
+        None => fields.push(Arc::new(text_field)),
+    }
+    let replaced = replaced.map(|(index, _)| index);
+    let output_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(fields));
+    let stream_schema = output_schema.clone();
+    let stream = input.map(move |batch| {
+        let batch = batch?;
+        let source = batch
+            .column_by_name(&resolved.root_column)
+            .expect("FTS document input schema was validated");
+        let documents = resolved
+            .documents_from_array(source, batch.num_rows())
+            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)?;
+        let texts = Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+            documents.iter().map(|document| document.text.as_str()),
+        )) as ArrayRef;
+        let mut columns = batch.columns().to_vec();
+        match replaced {
+            Some(index) => columns[index] = texts,
+            None => columns.push(texts),
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(stream_schema.clone(), columns).map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+    });
+    Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        output_schema,
+        stream,
+    )))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn transform_fts_document_stream(
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    resolved: ResolvedFtsField,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    let input_schema = input.schema();
+    if (input_schema
+        .column_with_name(&resolved.root_column)
+        .is_none()
+        && input_schema.column_with_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME).is_none())
+        || input_schema.column_with_name(ROW_ID).is_none()
+    {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "FTS document input must contain the root source column and _rowid".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let output_schema = fts_document_schema(resolved.coordinate_rank());
+    let stream_schema = output_schema.clone();
+    let stream = input.map(move |batch| {
+        let batch = batch?;
+        let source = batch
+            .column_by_name(&resolved.root_column)
+            .or_else(|| batch.column_by_name(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME))
+            .expect("FTS document input schema was validated");
+        let documents = resolved
+            .documents_from_array(source, batch.num_rows())
+            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)?;
+        let input_row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt64Type>();
+        let texts =
+            StringArray::from_iter_values(documents.iter().map(|document| document.text.as_str()));
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+            documents
+                .iter()
+                .map(|document| input_row_ids.value(document.row_index)),
+        );
+        let mut columns = vec![Arc::new(texts) as ArrayRef, Arc::new(row_ids) as ArrayRef];
+        for rank in 0..resolved.coordinate_rank() {
+            columns.push(Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(
+                documents.iter().map(|document| document.doc_index[rank]),
+            )) as ArrayRef);
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(stream_schema.clone(), columns).map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+    });
+    Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        output_schema,
+        stream,
+    )))
+}
+
+/// Fill legacy posting-format metadata while leaving protobuf-default row
+/// document granularity untouched.
+pub(crate) fn normalize_inverted_details(
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+    mut details: InvertedIndexDetails,
+) -> Result<InvertedIndexDetails> {
+    if !matches!(index.index_version, 0..=3) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "FTS index '{}' has unsupported index_version {}; expected 0, 1, 2, or 3",
+            index.name, index.index_version
+        )));
+    }
+    if details.posting_format_version.is_none() {
+        let posting_format_version = match index.index_version {
+            0 | 1 => 1,
+            2 => 2,
+            3 => 3,
+            _ => unreachable!("index version was validated above"),
+        };
+        details.posting_format_version = Some(posting_format_version);
+    }
+    Ok(details)
+}
+
+/// Build an empty update stream for the inverted merge API.
+///
+/// `InvertedIndex::merge_segments` is shaped as "merge old segments plus new
+/// rows", so even a pure segment merge needs a stream with the document column
+/// and `_rowid` fields. The stream intentionally contains no batches.
+fn empty_inverted_update_stream(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    resolved: &ResolvedFtsField,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    let field = dataset
+        .schema()
+        .field_by_id(resolved.final_field_id)
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "merge_existing_index_segments: field id {} does not exist",
+                resolved.final_field_id
+            ))
+        })?;
+    let schema = if resolved.has_lists() {
+        fts_document_schema(resolved.coordinate_rank())
+    } else {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new(VALUE_COLUMN_NAME, field.data_type(), true),
+            ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64, false),
+        ]))
+    };
+    Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        schema,
+        futures::stream::empty(),
+    )))
+}
+
+pub(crate) async fn finalize_segment_files_if_needed(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segment: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(segment.uuid.to_string());
+    let metadata_path = index_dir
+        .clone()
+        .join(lance_index::scalar::inverted::METADATA_FILE);
+    if dataset.object_store.as_ref().exists(&metadata_path).await? {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let store = Arc::new(LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(
+        dataset,
+        &segment.uuid,
+    )?);
+    lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::merge_index_files(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &index_dir,
+        store,
+        lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source FTS segments into a single segment.
+pub(crate) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let details = match segments[0].index_details.as_ref() {
+        Some(details_any) => {
+            let details =
+                InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details_any.value.as_slice()).map_err(|error| {
+                    Error::io(format!(
+                        "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails payload: {error}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            normalize_inverted_details(&segments[0], details)?
+        }
+        None => normalize_inverted_details(&segments[0], InvertedIndexDetails::default())?,
+    };
+    let document_granularity = DocumentGranularity::try_from(details.document_granularity)?;
+    let resolved = resolve_fts_field_by_id(dataset.schema(), field_id, document_granularity)?;
+    load_segment_details(dataset, &resolved.canonical_path, &segments).await?;
+
+    let mut source_indices = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    let mut fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for segment in &segments {
+        finalize_segment_files_if_needed(dataset, segment).await?;
+        fragment_bitmap |= segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                segment.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if segment.fields != segments[0].fields {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS index {} has inconsistent fields across segments",
+                segments[0].name
+            )));
+        }
+        let scalar_index = super::open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+            dataset,
+            &resolved.canonical_path,
+            segment,
+            staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)),
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let inverted_index = scalar_index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "merge_existing_index_segments: expected inverted segment {}, got {:?}",
+                    segment.uuid,
+                    scalar_index.index_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        source_indices.push(Arc::new(inverted_index.clone()));
+    }
+
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+    let created_index = InvertedIndex::merge_segments(
+        &source_indices,
+        empty_inverted_update_stream(dataset, &resolved)?,
+        &new_store,
+        None,
+        lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: new_uuid,
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+        ..segments[0].clone()
+    })
+}
+
+/// Load all committed inverted-index segments that belong to the same named
+/// FTS index on `column`.
+///
+/// Returns `Ok(None)` if no FTS index exists on the column. When an index
+/// exists, the returned vector contains every committed segment's
+/// [`IndexMetadata`] (UUID, fragment coverage, index details). All segments
+/// must share the same indexed fields; mismatched fields return an error.
+pub async fn load_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+) -> Result<Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>> {
+    let Some(index_meta) = dataset
+        .load_scalar_index(
+            lance_index::IndexCriteria::default()
+                .for_column(column)
+                .supports_fts()
+                .with_fts_document_granularity(document_granularity),
+        )
+        .await?
+    else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name(&index_meta.name).await?;
+    if indices.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    let expected_fields = indices[0].fields.clone();
+    for meta in &indices {
+        if meta.fields != expected_fields {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "FTS index {} has inconsistent fields across segments",
+                index_meta.name
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(Some(indices))
+}
+
+/// Return the fragment coverage for the logical FTS index selected by `column`
+/// and `document_granularity`.
+///
+/// Returns `None` when no FTS index is available or when any physical segment
+/// has unknown coverage. In either case, callers must not use the result for
+/// pruning.
+pub(crate) async fn fts_index_fragment_bitmap(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+) -> Result<Option<RoaringBitmap>> {
+    let Some(segments) = load_segments(dataset, column, document_granularity).await? else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+
+    let fragment_bitmap =
+        segments
+            .iter()
+            .try_fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut coverage, segment| {
+                coverage |= segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()?.clone();
+                Some(coverage)
+            });
+
+    Ok(fragment_bitmap)
+}
+
+/// Load and validate the shared [`InvertedIndexDetails`] across committed
+/// segments returned by [`load_segments`].
+///
+/// All segments are required to agree on their semantic `InvertedIndexDetails`
+/// payload (tokenizer, position settings, etc.); inconsistent
+/// segments return an error. Details are canonicalized before comparison so
+/// legacy segments that omit default fields remain compatible with newly
+/// written text FTS segments. `posting_format_version` is a physical
+/// per-segment property and may differ when a legacy FTS v1 segment is
+/// combined with a newly written one. Returns the first segment's
+/// canonicalized details for tokenizer construction and query planning.
+pub async fn load_segment_details(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+) -> Result<InvertedIndexDetails> {
+    let mut expected_details: Option<InvertedIndexDetails> = None;
+    for meta in segments {
+        let details_any = fetch_index_details(dataset, column, meta).await?;
+        let details =
+            InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details_any.value.as_slice()).map_err(|err| {
+                Error::io(format!(
+                    "failed to decode InvertedIndexDetails payload: {err}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        let details = canonicalize_inverted_index_details(details)?;
+        match &expected_details {
+            Some(expected) if !inverted_index_details_semantically_equal(expected, &details) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "FTS index {} has inconsistent inverted index details across segments",
+                    meta.name
+                )));
+            }
+            Some(_) => {}
+            None => expected_details = Some(details),
+        }
+    }
+    expected_details.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "FTS index for column {} requires at least one segment",
+            column
+        ))
+    })
+}
+
+fn canonicalize_inverted_index_details(
+    details: InvertedIndexDetails,
+) -> Result<InvertedIndexDetails> {
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::try_from(&details)?;
+    InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&params)
+}
+
+/// Compare canonicalized inverted-index details for shared semantic configuration.
+///
+/// `posting_format_version` records how a single segment physically stores
+/// postings, so mixed-version FTS segments may disagree on it without being
+/// incompatible. Every other field remains part of the equality check.
+fn inverted_index_details_semantically_equal(
+    left: &InvertedIndexDetails,
+    right: &InvertedIndexDetails,
+) -> bool {
+    let mut left = left.clone();
+    let mut right = right.clone();
+    left.posting_format_version = None;
+    right.posting_format_version = None;
+    left == right
+}
+
+/// Read one segment's [`InvertedIndexParams`]
+pub async fn load_segment_params(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segment: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<InvertedIndexParams> {
+    let store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(dataset, segment).await?;
+    InvertedIndex::load_params(&store).await
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    /// A covered FTS index (`fields=[tags, id]`, `id` carried) must still be
+    /// recognized by `indexed_fts_document_granularities`: matching on
+    /// `idx.fields` as a whole (rather than its keyed prefix) would leave
+    /// `available` empty and silently fall back to the `Row` default even
+    /// though a `ListElement` index exists.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_resolve_query_document_granularity_recognizes_covered_index() {
+        use arrow_array::builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder};
+        use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+
+        let mut tags_builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+        for tag in ["alpha", "beta", "gamma", "delta"] {
+            tags_builder.values().append_value(tag);
+            tags_builder.append(true);
+        }
+        let tags: ArrayRef = Arc::new(tags_builder.finish());
+        let ids: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("id", ids), ("tags", tags)]).unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let tags_field_id = dataset.schema().field("tags").unwrap().id;
+        let id_field_id = dataset.schema().field("id").unwrap().id;
+
+        let params =
+            InvertedIndexParams::default().document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+        let segment = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["tags"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name("tags_idx".to_string())
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Nothing writes a covering declaration yet, and read plumbing never
+        // touches covered-column storage, so declaring the uninvolved `id`
+        // column as carried is a faithful stand-in for a genuinely covered
+        // FTS segment.
+        let covered = IndexMetadata {
+            fields: vec![tags_field_id, id_field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![id_field_id],
+            ..segment
+        };
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("tags_idx", "tags", vec![covered])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let resolved = resolve_query_document_granularity(&dataset, "tags", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolved,
+            DocumentGranularity::ListElement,
+            "a covered ListElement FTS index must still be recognized, not silently \
+             skipped in favor of the Row default"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn fts_test_schema() -> Schema {
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "tags",
+                DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Utf8, true))),
+                true,
+            ),
+        ]);
+        Schema::try_from(&schema).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn decode_legacy_inverted_details_type_url() {
+        let mut details_any = prost_types::Any::from_msg(&InvertedIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
+        details_any.type_url = "/lance.index.pb.InvertedIndexDetails".to_string();
+
+        let decoded = InvertedIndexDetails::decode(details_any.value.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(decoded, InvertedIndexDetails::default());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn resolve_element_document_field() {
+        let schema = fts_test_schema();
+        let tags = schema.field("tags").unwrap();
+        let resolved =
+            resolve_fts_field(&schema, "tags", DocumentGranularity::ListElement).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resolved.final_field_id, tags.id);
+        assert_eq!(resolved.root_column, "tags");
+        assert_eq!(resolved.canonical_path, "tags");
+        assert_eq!(resolved.coordinate_rank(), 1);
+
+        let err = resolve_fts_field(&schema, "text", DocumentGranularity::ListElement).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("has no List layer"), "{err}");
+
+        let err =
+            resolve_fts_field(&schema, "tags[*]", DocumentGranularity::ListElement).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("does not exist"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn normalize_legacy_metadata_as_row_document() {
+        let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![1],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "tags_idx".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 3,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let details =
+            normalize_inverted_details(&metadata, InvertedIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            DocumentGranularity::try_from(details.document_granularity).unwrap(),
+            DocumentGranularity::Row
+        );
+        assert_eq!(details.posting_format_version, Some(3));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn normalize_rejects_unreleased_v4_metadata() {
+        let metadata = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![1],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "tags_idx".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 4,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let details = InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap();
+
+        let err = normalize_inverted_details(&metadata, details).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("unsupported index_version 4"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn canonicalize_inverted_details_accepts_legacy_empty_details() {
+        let legacy = InvertedIndexDetails::default();
+        let current = InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap();
+
+        assert_ne!(legacy, current);
+        assert_eq!(
+            canonicalize_inverted_index_details(legacy).unwrap(),
+            canonicalize_inverted_index_details(current).unwrap()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn inverted_details_equal_when_only_posting_format_version_differs() {
+        let left = canonicalize_inverted_index_details(
+            InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut right = left.clone();
+        right.posting_format_version = Some(1);
+
+        assert_ne!(left, right);
+        assert!(inverted_index_details_semantically_equal(&left, &right));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn inverted_details_reject_with_position_mismatch() {
+        let left = canonicalize_inverted_index_details(
+            InvertedIndexDetails::try_from(&InvertedIndexParams::default()).unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut right = left.clone();
+        right.with_position = !left.with_position;
+
+        assert!(!inverted_index_details_semantically_equal(&left, &right));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/label_list.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/label_list.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f8d32634dfc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/label_list.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,156 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::IndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::index_files_to_table;
+use lance_index::scalar::label_list::{
+    BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME, LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY, LABEL_LIST_NULLS_MIN_VERSION, LabelListIndex,
+};
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result, dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt};
+
+async fn validate_nullable_segment_for_merge(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    field_id: i32,
+    segment: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let field = dataset.schema().field_by_id(field_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "merge_existing_index_segments: field id {} does not exist",
+            field_id
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    if !field.nullable {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    if segment.index_version < LABEL_LIST_NULLS_MIN_VERSION {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Cannot merge nullable LabelList segment {} because it was created before list-null metadata was required. Rebuild the segment instead.",
+            segment.uuid
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let index_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(dataset, segment).await?;
+    let reader = index_store.open_index_file(BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME).await?;
+    if !reader
+        .schema()
+        .metadata
+        .contains_key(LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY)
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Cannot merge nullable LabelList segment {} because it is missing required metadata key {}. Rebuild the segment instead.",
+            segment.uuid, LABEL_LIST_NULLS_METADATA_KEY
+        )));
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source LabelList segments into a single segment.
+///
+/// A LabelList index is a bitmap over the unnested list values plus a `list_nulls`
+/// row set, so segments are recombined by unioning the underlying bitmap states and
+/// null sets (see [`lance_index::scalar::label_list::merge_label_list_indices`])
+/// rather than rebuilding from source text.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+
+    let dataset_fragments = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+    let mut effective_old_frags = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let mut deleted_old_frags = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for segment in &segments {
+        if segment.fragment_bitmap.is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                segment.uuid
+            )));
+        }
+        if let Some(effective) = segment.effective_fragment_bitmap(dataset_fragments) {
+            effective_old_frags |= effective;
+        }
+        if let Some(deleted) = segment.deleted_fragment_bitmap(dataset_fragments) {
+            deleted_old_frags |= deleted;
+        }
+    }
+
+    let fragment_bitmap = effective_old_frags.clone();
+    let old_data_filter = if deleted_old_frags.is_empty() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        crate::index::append::build_old_data_filter(
+            dataset,
+            &effective_old_frags,
+            &deleted_old_frags,
+        )
+        .await?
+    };
+
+    let mut source_indices = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    for segment in &segments {
+        validate_nullable_segment_for_merge(dataset, field_id, segment).await?;
+        let scalar_index = super::open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+            dataset,
+            &field_path,
+            segment,
+            staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)),
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let label_list_index = scalar_index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<LabelListIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "merge_existing_index_segments: expected label list segment {}, got {:?}",
+                    segment.uuid,
+                    scalar_index.index_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        source_indices.push(Arc::new(label_list_index.clone()));
+    }
+
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+    let created_index = lance_index::scalar::label_list::merge_label_list_indices(
+        &source_indices,
+        &new_store,
+        old_data_filter,
+        lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: new_uuid,
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+        ..segments[0].clone()
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/minhash_lsh.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/minhash_lsh.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6170c5a57a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/minhash_lsh.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,475 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use futures::future::try_join_all;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::index_files_to_table;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::minhash_lsh::{MinHashLshIndex, merge_minhash_indices};
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::index::append::build_per_segment_filters;
+use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result, dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt};
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of MinHash LSH segments into a single segment.
+///
+/// Rows of fragments that no longer exist are dropped through per-segment
+/// filters; the merged segment is rebuilt from the stored signatures without
+/// tokenizing the column again.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+    let dataset_version = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| segment.dataset_version)
+        .min()
+        .unwrap_or(dataset.manifest.version);
+    let segment_refs: Vec<&IndexMetadata> = segments.iter().collect();
+    let (fragment_bitmap, filters) =
+        build_per_segment_filters(dataset, &segment_refs, staged).await?;
+
+    let scalar_indices = try_join_all(segments.iter().map(|segment| {
+        let field_path = &field_path;
+        async move {
+            let scalar_index = super::open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+                dataset,
+                field_path,
+                segment,
+                staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)),
+                crate::index::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            Ok::<_, Error>((segment.uuid, scalar_index))
+        }
+    }))
+    .await?;
+    let mut sources = Vec::with_capacity(scalar_indices.len());
+    for ((segment_uuid, scalar_index), filter) in scalar_indices.iter().zip(&filters) {
+        let minhash_index = scalar_index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<MinHashLshIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "merge_existing_index_segments: expected MinHash LSH segment {}, got {:?}",
+                    segment_uuid,
+                    scalar_index.index_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        sources.push((minhash_index, filter.as_ref()));
+    }
+
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+    let created_index = merge_minhash_indices(&sources, &new_store).await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: new_uuid,
+        dataset_version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+        ..segments[0].clone()
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+    use lance_index::scalar::minhash_lsh::MinHashQuery;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+    use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+    use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::{CreateIndexBuilder, DatasetIndexExt};
+    use crate::{Dataset, Error};
+
+    const INDEX_NAME: &str = "text_minhash";
+
+    fn schema() -> Arc<Schema> {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    /// Rows form one near-duplicate cluster that differs only in the row number,
+    /// so every row is its own exact match and its neighbors are close.
+    fn row_text(id: i32) -> String {
+        format!(
+            "row number {id} shares one long tail of words alpha beta gamma delta epsilon zeta eta theta iota kappa lambda mu"
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn batch(ids: std::ops::Range<i32>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let texts: Vec<String> = ids.clone().map(row_text).collect();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(ids)) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts)) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn params() -> ScalarIndexParams {
+        ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::MinHashLsh)
+            .with_params(&serde_json::json!({"num_hashes": 32, "num_bands": 8}))
+    }
+
+    async fn write(uri: &str, ids: std::ops::Range<i32>, rows_per_file: usize) -> Dataset {
+        Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch(ids))], schema()),
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: rows_per_file,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn append(uri: &str, ids: std::ops::Range<i32>) -> Dataset {
+        Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch(ids))], schema()),
+            uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn search_ids(dataset: &Dataset, id: i32, limit: usize) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.minhash_search(MinHashQuery::new(row_text(id), "text"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(limit as i64), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>().values().to_vec()
+    }
+
+    async fn explain(dataset: &Dataset) -> String {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.minhash_search(MinHashQuery::new(row_text(0), "text"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(1), None)
+            .unwrap();
+        scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_segments_commit_merge_and_query() {
+        let mut dataset = write("memory://", 0..12, 4).await;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 3);
+
+        let mut staged = Vec::with_capacity(fragments.len());
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            staged.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::MinHashLsh, &params())
+                    .name(INDEX_NAME.to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(INDEX_NAME, "text", staged.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            3
+        );
+        assert!(explain(&dataset).await.contains("segments=3"));
+        for id in [0, 5, 11] {
+            assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, id, 1).await, vec![id]);
+        }
+        let neighbors = search_ids(&dataset, 5, 12).await;
+        assert_eq!(neighbors[0], 5);
+        assert!(
+            neighbors.len() > 1,
+            "cluster rows must be candidates: {neighbors:?}"
+        );
+
+        // A segment built with different parameters cannot join the index
+        let drifted_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::MinHashLsh)
+            .with_params(&serde_json::json!({"num_hashes": 32, "num_bands": 8, "shingle_size": 4}));
+        let drifted = CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+            &mut dataset,
+            &["text"],
+            IndexType::MinHashLsh,
+            &drifted_params,
+        )
+        .name(INDEX_NAME.to_string())
+        .replace(true)
+        .fragments(vec![fragments[1].id() as u32])
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(INDEX_NAME, "text", vec![drifted])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("identical parameters"), "{err}");
+        // Merging the committed segments yields one segment with the same answers
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(staged.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merged
+                .index_details
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .type_url
+                .ends_with("MinHashLshIndexDetails")
+        );
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(INDEX_NAME, "text", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            1
+        );
+        assert!(explain(&dataset).await.contains("segments=1"));
+        assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, 5, 12).await, neighbors);
+        dataset.prewarm_index(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, 11, 1).await, vec![11]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_appends_delta_then_merges() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = write(uri, 0..4, 4).await;
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::MinHashLsh,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.into()),
+                &params(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // append(): the new fragment gets its own delta segment
+        let mut dataset = append(uri, 4..8).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            2
+        );
+        assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, 6, 1).await, vec![6]);
+        assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, 1, 1).await, vec![1]);
+
+        // default optimize: the newest segment absorbs the next fragment
+        let _ = dataset;
+        let mut dataset = append(uri, 8..12).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            segments
+                .iter()
+                .any(|segment| { segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().len() == 2 })
+        );
+        for id in [1, 6, 10] {
+            assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, id, 1).await, vec![id]);
+        }
+
+        // merging every segment rebuilds one segment from the derived params
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .len(),
+            1
+        );
+        for id in [1, 6, 10] {
+            assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, id, 1).await, vec![id]);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 12);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_deferred_compaction_survives_merge_and_optimize() {
+        // A deferred compaction leaves the stored row ids in the old fragments;
+        // merges and updates must remap them the way queries do, otherwise the
+        // rebuilt segment claims the compacted fragment without its rows.
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = write(uri, 0..6, 2).await;
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::MinHashLsh,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.into()),
+                &params(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 10,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // An explicit merge of the deferred segment
+        let mut dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(INDEX_NAME, "text", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for id in 0..6 {
+            assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, id, 1).await, vec![id]);
+        }
+
+        // An append followed by the default optimize updates the segment
+        let mut dataset = append(uri, 6..7).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(segments.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+        );
+        for id in 0..7 {
+            assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, id, 1).await, vec![id]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_remaps_index() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let mut dataset = write(uri, 0..6, 2).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::MinHashLsh,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.into()),
+                &params(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("id = 2").await.unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 10,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0 && metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+        let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(segments.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+        );
+        for id in [0, 3, 5] {
+            assert_eq!(search_ids(&dataset, id, 1).await, vec![id]);
+        }
+        let neighbors = search_ids(&dataset, 2, 6).await;
+        assert!(
+            !neighbors.contains(&2),
+            "deleted row must stay gone: {neighbors:?}"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/ngram.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/ngram.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cd639ff4da5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/ngram.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::CompactFragReuseIndexHandle;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::progress::NoopIndexBuildProgress;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::ngram::NGramIndex;
+use lance_index::scalar::{
+    BuiltinIndexType, CreatedIndex, IndexStore, OldIndexDataFilter, RowIdRemapper,
+    ScalarIndexParams, index_files_to_table,
+};
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{
+    Dataset, Error, Result, dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt, index::DatasetIndexInternalExt,
+};
+
+async fn collect_ngram_segment_stores(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+) -> Result<Vec<Arc<dyn IndexStore>>> {
+    let mut stores: Vec<Arc<dyn IndexStore>> = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    for segment in segments {
+        let store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_existing(dataset, segment).await?;
+        stores.push(Arc::new(store));
+    }
+    Ok(stores)
+}
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source NGram segments into a single segment.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    // All source segments must belong to the same column.
+    let reference_fields = segments[0].fields.as_slice();
+    for segment in segments.iter().skip(1) {
+        if segment.fields.as_slice() != reference_fields {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "NGram merge_segments: segment {} has fields {:?}, expected {:?}",
+                segment.uuid, segment.fields, reference_fields,
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let source_dataset_version = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| segment.dataset_version)
+        .min()
+        .unwrap_or(dataset.manifest.version);
+    let segment_refs = segments.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let frag_reuse_index = dataset.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
+    let has_retired_coverage = segments.iter().any(|segment| {
+        segment
+            .deleted_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap)
+            .is_some_and(|retired| !retired.is_empty())
+    });
+    let requires_rebuild = frag_reuse_index.as_ref().is_some_and(|frag_reuse_index| {
+        crate::index::append::fragment_reuse_affects_segments(
+            frag_reuse_index,
+            segment_refs.iter().copied(),
+        )
+    });
+    if has_retired_coverage && !requires_rebuild {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "NGram merge_segments: source segments cover retired fragments but no applicable \
+             fragment-reuse mapping is available; rebuild the affected segments from the current \
+             dataset"
+                .to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let (created_index, dataset_version, fragment_bitmap) = if requires_rebuild {
+        let mut fragment_bitmap = segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| {
+                segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                        segment.uuid
+                    ))
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+            .into_iter()
+            .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |coverage, segment| coverage | segment);
+        frag_reuse_index
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("requires_rebuild implies a fragment-reuse index")
+            .remap_fragment_bitmap(&mut fragment_bitmap)?;
+        fragment_bitmap &= dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+        (
+            super::build_scalar_index(
+                dataset,
+                &field_path,
+                new_uuid,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::NGram),
+                true,
+                Some(fragment_bitmap.iter().collect()),
+                None,
+                Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
+            )
+            .await?,
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap,
+        )
+    } else {
+        let (fragment_bitmap, old_data_filters) =
+            crate::index::append::build_per_segment_filters(dataset, &segment_refs, staged).await?;
+        let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+        (
+            open_and_merge_segments(
+                dataset,
+                &segment_refs,
+                None,
+                &new_store,
+                &old_data_filters,
+                staged,
+            )
+            .await?,
+            source_dataset_version,
+            fragment_bitmap,
+        )
+    };
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: new_uuid,
+        name: segments[0].name.clone(),
+        fields: segments[0].fields.clone(),
+        covering_fields: segments[0].covering_fields.clone(),
+        dataset_version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Merge the given NGram segments with optional newly appended data into a single
+/// canonical segment. Pass `None` for `new_data` for a pure consolidation.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn open_and_merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: &[&IndexMetadata],
+    new_data: Option<SendableRecordBatchStream>,
+    new_store: &LanceIndexStore,
+    old_data_filters: &[Option<OldIndexDataFilter>],
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+    // The NGram merge reads its sources' spill files directly and translates
+    // them through the synchronous v0 remapper only; a tagged history has no
+    // such remapper, so a segment whose rows need translation would be merged
+    // with stale addresses against filters expressed in the translated
+    // domain. Refuse instead of silently emptying the merge; the segment
+    // keeps translating at query time and a rebuild catches it up.
+    if crate::index::append::tagged_segment_coverage(dataset, segments, staged)
+        .await?
+        .is_some()
+        && let Some(segment) = segments.iter().find(|segment| {
+            use crate::index::frag_reuse::SegmentRemappingPlan;
+            match staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)) {
+                // A staged segment's bitmap already holds its planned live
+                // coverage; the plan says whether its rows translate.
+                Some(SegmentRemappingPlan::Translate { .. }) => true,
+                Some(_) => false,
+                None => segment
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_none_or(|bitmap| !bitmap.is_subset(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())),
+            }
+        })
+    {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+            "NGram segment {} needs address translation under the tagged fragment reuse \
+             history and cannot be merged; rebuild the index instead",
+            segment.uuid
+        )));
+    }
+    let segments = segments.iter().map(|&s| s.clone()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let segment_stores = collect_ngram_segment_stores(dataset, &segments).await?;
+    let frag_reuse_index = dataset.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
+    let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+        .map(|index| Arc::new(CompactFragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+    NGramIndex::merge_segments_with_remapper(
+        &segment_stores,
+        new_data,
+        new_store,
+        old_data_filters,
+        frag_reuse_index,
+    )
+    .await
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/rtree.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/rtree.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..38eef4f75b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/rtree.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::rtree::RTreeIndex;
+use lance_index::scalar::{OldIndexDataFilter, index_files_to_table};
+use lance_select::RowSetOps;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result, dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt};
+
+fn filter_keeps_nothing(filter: &Option<OldIndexDataFilter>) -> bool {
+    match filter {
+        Some(OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments { to_keep, .. }) => to_keep.is_empty(),
+        Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(valid)) => valid.is_empty(),
+        None => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source RTree segments into a single segment.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+    let dataset_version = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| segment.dataset_version)
+        .min()
+        .unwrap_or(dataset.manifest.version);
+    let segment_refs = segments.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let (fragment_bitmap, old_data_filters) =
+        crate::index::append::build_per_segment_filters(dataset, &segment_refs, staged).await?;
+
+    let mut source_indices = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    let mut source_filters = Vec::with_capacity(old_data_filters.len());
+    let all_keep_nothing = old_data_filters.iter().all(filter_keeps_nothing);
+    for (position, (segment, filter)) in segments.iter().zip(&old_data_filters).enumerate() {
+        if filter_keeps_nothing(filter) && !(all_keep_nothing && position == 0) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let scalar_index = super::open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+            dataset,
+            &field_path,
+            segment,
+            staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)),
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let rtree_index = scalar_index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<RTreeIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "merge_existing_index_segments: expected RTree segment {}, got {:?}",
+                    segment.uuid,
+                    scalar_index.index_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        source_indices.push(Arc::new(rtree_index.clone()));
+        source_filters.push(filter.clone());
+    }
+
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+    let created_index = lance_index::scalar::rtree::merge_rtree_indices(
+        &source_indices,
+        &new_store,
+        &source_filters,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: new_uuid,
+        dataset_version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+        ..segments[0].clone()
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/zonemap.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/zonemap.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0206a2bc744
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar/zonemap.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::index_files_to_table;
+use lance_index::scalar::lance_format::LanceIndexStore;
+use lance_index::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapIndex;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::{Dataset, Error, Result, dataset::index::LanceIndexStoreExt};
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source ZoneMap segments into a single segment.
+pub(in crate::index) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    staged: Option<&crate::index::frag_reuse::StagedRemappingPlans>,
+) -> Result<IndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+
+    let field_id = *segments[0].fields.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing field ids",
+            segments[0].uuid
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(field_id)?;
+
+    let mut scalar_indices = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    let mut fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    let dataset_fragments = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref();
+    for segment in &segments {
+        let effective = segment
+            .effective_fragment_bitmap(dataset_fragments)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "CreateIndex: segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                    segment.uuid
+                ))
+            })?;
+        fragment_bitmap |= effective;
+        let scalar_index = super::open_scalar_index_with_plan(
+            dataset,
+            &field_path,
+            segment,
+            staged.and_then(|plans| plans.get(&segment.uuid)),
+            crate::index::frag_reuse::OpenPurpose::Maintenance,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        scalar_indices.push((segment.uuid, scalar_index));
+    }
+
+    let mut source_indices = Vec::with_capacity(scalar_indices.len());
+    for (segment_uuid, scalar_index) in &scalar_indices {
+        let zonemap_index = scalar_index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<ZoneMapIndex>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "merge_existing_index_segments: expected zonemap segment {}, got {:?}",
+                    segment_uuid,
+                    scalar_index.index_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        source_indices.push(zonemap_index);
+    }
+
+    let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let new_store = LanceIndexStore::from_dataset_for_new(dataset, &new_uuid)?;
+    let created_index = lance_index::scalar::zonemap::merge_zonemap_indices(
+        &source_indices,
+        &new_store,
+        &fragment_bitmap,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: new_uuid,
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(created_index.index_details)),
+        index_version: created_index.index_version as i32,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(index_files_to_table(created_index.files)),
+        ..segments[0].clone()
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/scalar_logical.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar_logical.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e04772a100a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/scalar_logical.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2113 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Query-time logical views over scalar index segments.
+
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
+use std::any::Any;
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use futures::future::try_join_all;
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::{
+    AnyQuery, CreatedIndex, ScalarIndex, SearchOptions, SearchResult, UpdateCriteria,
+};
+use lance_index::{Index, IndexType};
+use lance_select::NullableRowAddrSet;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use serde_json::json;
+
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::index::scalar::fetch_index_details;
+use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+
+/// Query-time view that exposes several physical scalar index segments as a single [`ScalarIndex`].
+///
+/// A named scalar index can be built incrementally, producing multiple physical segments that
+/// each cover a disjoint set of fragments. When such an index is opened, the loader bundles
+/// the segments into a `LogicalScalarIndex` so the scanner can treat them as one index: queries
+/// are fanned out to every segment in parallel and the row-address results are unioned together.
+///
+/// All segments must share the same [`IndexType`]; mixing types is rejected at construction.
+/// Per-segment [`SearchResult`] precision is preserved when combining: a union of `Exact`
+/// results stays `Exact`, a union containing `AtMost` results yields `AtMost`, and a union
+/// containing `AtLeast` results yields `AtLeast`. Combining `AtMost` and `AtLeast` segments in
+/// the same query is not supported.
+///
+/// This is a read-only wrapper. [`ScalarIndex::remap`] and [`ScalarIndex::update`] both return
+/// an error — callers must rebuild the index to consolidate segments before mutating it.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct LogicalScalarIndex {
+    name: String,
+    column: String,
+    index_type: IndexType,
+    segments: Vec<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>,
+}
+
+impl LogicalScalarIndex {
+    /// Merge several already-opened segments of one scalar index into a single
+    /// searchable [`ScalarIndex`].
+    ///
+    /// Used internally by `open_named_scalar_index`, and exposed so a
+    /// distributed query engine can open an explicit subset of a scalar
+    /// index's segments and present them as one index.
+    pub fn try_new(
+        name: String,
+        column: String,
+        segments: Vec<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let Some(first) = segments.first() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "LogicalScalarIndex '{}' on column '{}' must contain at least one segment",
+                name, column
+            )));
+        };
+        let index_type = first.index_type();
+        if segments
+            .iter()
+            .any(|segment| segment.index_type() != index_type)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "LogicalScalarIndex '{}' on column '{}' mixes scalar index types",
+                name, column
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            name,
+            column,
+            index_type,
+            segments,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for LogicalScalarIndex {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+        self.name.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.column.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.segments.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl Index for LogicalScalarIndex {
+    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index> {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+        Ok(json!({
+            "index_name": self.name,
+            "column": self.column,
+            "index_type": self.index_type.to_string(),
+            "num_segments": self.segments.len(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        try_join_all(self.segments.iter().map(|segment| segment.prewarm())).await?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
+        self.index_type
+    }
+
+    async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+        let fragment_sets = try_join_all(
+            self.segments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.calculate_included_frags()),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let mut combined = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for fragment_set in fragment_sets {
+            combined |= fragment_set;
+        }
+        Ok(combined)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndex for LogicalScalarIndex {
+    async fn search(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        self.search_with_options(query, SearchOptions::default(), metrics)
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn search_with_options(
+        &self,
+        query: &dyn AnyQuery,
+        options: SearchOptions,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+        let results = try_join_all(
+            self.segments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.search_with_options(query, options, metrics)),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        combine_search_results(results)
+    }
+
+    fn results_are_row_addresses(&self) -> bool {
+        // All segments of a logical index share the same underlying index type,
+        // so they agree on the result domain.
+        self.segments[0].results_are_row_addresses()
+    }
+
+    fn can_remap(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    async fn remap(
+        &self,
+        _mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
+        _dest_store: &dyn lance_index::scalar::IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "LogicalScalarIndex '{}' is a query-time wrapper and does not support remap; rebuild the index to consolidate segments before remapping",
+            self.name
+        )))
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(
+        &self,
+        _translator: &RowAddrTranslator,
+        _dest_store: &dyn lance_index::scalar::IndexStore,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "LogicalScalarIndex '{}' is a query-time wrapper and does not support remap; rebuild the index to consolidate segments before remapping",
+            self.name
+        )))
+    }
+
+    async fn update(
+        &self,
+        _new_data: datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        _dest_store: &dyn lance_index::scalar::IndexStore,
+        _old_data_filter: Option<lance_index::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<CreatedIndex> {
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "LogicalScalarIndex '{}' is a query-time wrapper and does not support update; rebuild the index to consolidate segments before updating",
+            self.name
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn update_criteria(&self) -> UpdateCriteria {
+        self.segments[0].update_criteria()
+    }
+
+    fn derive_index_params(&self) -> Result<lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams> {
+        self.segments[0].derive_index_params()
+    }
+}
+
+fn combine_search_results(results: Vec<SearchResult>) -> Result<SearchResult> {
+    let mut saw_at_most = false;
+    let mut saw_at_least = false;
+    let mut sets = Vec::with_capacity(results.len());
+
+    for result in results {
+        match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(set) => sets.push(set),
+            SearchResult::AtMost(set) => {
+                saw_at_most = true;
+                sets.push(set);
+            }
+            SearchResult::AtLeast(set) => {
+                saw_at_least = true;
+                sets.push(set);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if saw_at_most && saw_at_least {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Logical scalar index cannot combine mixed AtMost and AtLeast segment results",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let combined = NullableRowAddrSet::union_all(&sets);
+    Ok(if saw_at_most {
+        SearchResult::AtMost(combined)
+    } else if saw_at_least {
+        SearchResult::AtLeast(combined)
+    } else {
+        SearchResult::Exact(combined)
+    })
+}
+
+fn index_intersects_dataset(index: &IndexMetadata, dataset: &Dataset) -> bool {
+    index
+        .fragment_bitmap
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|index_bitmap| index_bitmap.intersection_len(&dataset.fragment_bitmap) > 0)
+}
+
+/// List the committed, dataset-intersecting segments of a named scalar index.
+///
+/// Returns one [`IndexMetadata`] per usable segment. The result length is the
+/// segment count: `1` means a single (non-segmented) index, `> 1` means the
+/// index is split across multiple segments that a distributed engine may route
+/// to different executors. All returned segments are validated to share the
+/// same underlying index type.
+pub async fn load_named_scalar_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    index_name: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexMetadata>> {
+    let usable_indices = dataset
+        .load_indices_by_name(index_name)
+        .await?
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|index| index_intersects_dataset(index, dataset))
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let mut index_type_url = None::<String>;
+    for index in &usable_indices {
+        let segment_type_url = match index.index_details.as_ref() {
+            Some(index_details) => index_details.type_url.clone(),
+            None => {
+                // Legacy manifests may omit embedded details, so fetch only the missing ones.
+                fetch_index_details(dataset, column, index)
+                    .await?
+                    .type_url
+                    .clone()
+            }
+        };
+        match &index_type_url {
+            Some(expected) if expected != &segment_type_url => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Scalar index '{}' on column '{}' mixes incompatible segment types",
+                    index_name, column
+                )));
+            }
+            None => index_type_url = Some(segment_type_url),
+            Some(_) => {}
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(usable_indices)
+}
+
+fn union_fragment_bitmaps(indices: &[IndexMetadata], index_name: &str) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+    let mut combined = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for index in indices {
+        let fragment_bitmap = index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Scalar index '{}' segment {} is missing fragment coverage",
+                index_name, index.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+        combined |= fragment_bitmap.clone();
+    }
+    Ok(combined)
+}
+
+/// Return the union of fragment bitmaps across every usable segment of a named scalar index.
+///
+/// Only segments whose fragment bitmap intersects the dataset's current fragment set are
+/// considered. Returns `Ok(None)` when no such segment exists, `Ok(Some(bitmap))` otherwise.
+/// Errors if the segments disagree on their underlying index type.
+pub async fn scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    index_name: &str,
+) -> Result<Option<RoaringBitmap>> {
+    let indices = load_named_scalar_segments(dataset, column, index_name).await?;
+    match indices.len() {
+        0 => Ok(None),
+        1 => Ok(indices
+            .into_iter()
+            .next()
+            .and_then(|index| index.fragment_bitmap)),
+        _ => union_fragment_bitmaps(&indices, index_name).map(Some),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Open a named scalar index, transparently bundling multiple segments when present.
+///
+/// Loads every segment registered under `index_name` whose fragment bitmap intersects the
+/// dataset. If exactly one usable segment exists it is returned directly; if multiple exist
+/// they are wrapped in a [`LogicalScalarIndex`] so the caller sees a single [`ScalarIndex`].
+/// Errors if no usable segment exists (the scanner planned a query against an index that is
+/// not present) or if the segments mix incompatible types.
+pub async fn open_named_scalar_index(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    index_name: &str,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+    open_scalar_index_segments(dataset, column, index_name, None, None, metrics).await
+}
+
+/// Open selected scalar index segments whose coverage intersects `fragments`.
+///
+/// A `None` scope preserves the unscoped behavior for that dimension. UUID selection happens
+/// before any segment is opened.
+pub async fn open_scalar_index_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    index_name: &str,
+    fragments: Option<&RoaringBitmap>,
+    segment_uuids: Option<&HashSet<uuid::Uuid>>,
+    metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+    let mut indices = load_named_scalar_segments(dataset, column, index_name).await?;
+    if let Some(segment_uuids) = segment_uuids {
+        indices.retain(|index| segment_uuids.contains(&index.uuid));
+    }
+    if let Some(fragments) = fragments {
+        indices.retain(|index| {
+            index
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_none_or(|coverage| coverage.intersection_len(fragments) > 0)
+        });
+    }
+    match indices.len() {
+        0 => Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Scanner created plan for index query on index {} for column {} but no usable index exists with that name",
+            index_name, column
+        ))),
+        1 => {
+            dataset
+                .open_scalar_index(column, &indices[0].uuid, metrics)
+                .await
+        }
+        _ => {
+            let segments = try_join_all(indices.iter().map(|index| async move {
+                dataset
+                    .open_scalar_index(column, &index.uuid, metrics)
+                    .await
+            }))
+            .await?;
+
+            Ok(Arc::new(LogicalScalarIndex::try_new(
+                index_name.to_string(),
+                column.to_string(),
+                segments,
+            )?) as Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::BTreeSet;
+    use std::ops::Bound;
+
+    use arrow::datatypes::Int32Type;
+    use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+    use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, array};
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::scalar::bitmap::BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{
+        BuiltinIndexType, SargableQuery, ScalarIndexParams, SearchOptions, SearchResult,
+    };
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
+
+    use crate::Dataset;
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+    use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+    use crate::dataset::write::WriteMode;
+    use crate::index::create::CreateIndexBuilder;
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_named_scalar_index_uses_all_zonemap_segments() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(4), FragmentRowCount::from(16))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::ZoneMap, &params)
+                    .name("value_zonemap".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_zonemap", "value", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("value_zonemap").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), fragments.len());
+
+        let logical =
+            open_named_scalar_index(&dataset, "value", "value_zonemap", &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            logical.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+        );
+
+        let combined_bitmap = scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(&dataset, "value", "value_zonemap")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(combined_bitmap, dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_named_scalar_index_uses_all_btree_segments() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "value",
+                array::fill::<Int32Type>(7).with_nulls(&[true, false, true, true]),
+            )
+            .into_dataset(
+                test_dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(16),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                    .name("value_btree".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_btree", "value", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("value_btree").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), fragments.len());
+
+        let target_fragment = fragments[1].id() as u32;
+        let scope = RoaringBitmap::from_iter([target_fragment]);
+        let scoped = open_scalar_index_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "value",
+            "value_btree",
+            Some(&scope),
+            None,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scoped.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap(), scope);
+
+        let logical =
+            open_named_scalar_index(&dataset, "value", "value_btree", &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(logical.index_type(), IndexType::BTree);
+        assert_eq!(
+            logical.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+        );
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(99)));
+        let tracked = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let SearchResult::Exact(tracked) = tracked else {
+            panic!("BTree search should be exact");
+        };
+        assert!(tracked.true_rows().is_empty());
+        assert!(!tracked.null_rows().is_empty());
+
+        let untracked = logical
+            .search_with_options(
+                &query,
+                SearchOptions::default().with_track_nulls(false),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(untracked, SearchResult::exact(RowAddrTreeMap::default()));
+
+        let combined_bitmap = scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(&dataset, "value", "value_btree")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(combined_bitmap, dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_scalar_index_segments_keeps_partial_overlap() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                test_dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(16),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(2);
+        for pair in fragments.chunks(2) {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                    .name("value_btree_pairs".to_string())
+                    .fragments(pair.iter().map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32).collect())
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_btree_pairs", "value", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let target_fragment = fragments[1].id() as u32;
+        let scoped = open_scalar_index_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "value",
+            "value_btree_pairs",
+            Some(&RoaringBitmap::from_iter([target_fragment])),
+            None,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            scoped.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap(),
+            RoaringBitmap::from_iter([fragments[0].id() as u32, target_fragment])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_btree_segment_search_is_exact_across_fragments() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                test_dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(16),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                    .name("value_btree_search".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_btree_search", "value", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let logical = open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "value",
+            "value_btree_search",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(20))),
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(43))),
+        );
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!(
+                "expected exact result from segmented btree, got {:?}",
+                other
+            ),
+        };
+
+        let searched_fragments = row_addrs
+            .true_rows()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(searched_fragments.len(), 24);
+        assert_eq!(
+            searched_fragments.into_iter().collect::<BTreeSet<_>>(),
+            BTreeSet::from([1, 2])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_bitmap_segments_commit_and_query_as_logical_index() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                test_dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(16),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Bitmap);
+        let mut staged = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment_group in fragments.chunks(2) {
+            let fragment_ids = fragment_group
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::Bitmap, &params)
+                    .name("value_bitmap".to_string())
+                    .fragments(fragment_ids.clone())
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                segment
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                fragment_ids
+            );
+            let files = segment.files.as_ref().unwrap();
+            assert!(files.iter().any(|file| file.path == BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME));
+            assert!(files.iter().all(|file| !file.path.starts_with("part_")));
+            staged.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let staged_uuids = staged
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let merged = dataset.merge_existing_index_segments(staged).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!staged_uuids.contains(&merged.uuid));
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        let files = merged.files.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(files.iter().any(|file| file.path == BITMAP_LOOKUP_NAME));
+        assert!(files.iter().all(|file| !file.path.starts_with("part_")));
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_bitmap", "value", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("value_bitmap").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(&dataset, "value", "value_bitmap")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+        );
+
+        let logical =
+            open_named_scalar_index(&dataset, "value", "value_bitmap", &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(logical.index_type(), IndexType::Bitmap);
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::Equals(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(20)));
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!(
+                "expected exact result from segmented bitmap, got {:?}",
+                other
+            ),
+        };
+
+        let searched_fragments = row_addrs
+            .true_rows()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(searched_fragments, vec![1]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_zonemap_segment_search_keeps_fragment_ids() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(4), FragmentRowCount::from(16))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let target_fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[2].id() as u32;
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+
+        let segment =
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::ZoneMap, &params)
+                .name("value_zonemap_single_fragment".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![target_fragment])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_zonemap_single_fragment", "value", vec![segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let logical = open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "value",
+            "value_zonemap_single_fragment",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            logical
+                .calculate_included_frags()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![target_fragment]
+        );
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(10_000))),
+        );
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let searched_fragments = result
+            .row_addrs()
+            .true_rows()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(!searched_fragments.is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            searched_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .all(|fragment_id| *fragment_id == target_fragment)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_index_segments_supports_zonemap_segments() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(4), FragmentRowCount::from(16))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let zonemap_params = lance_index::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(8);
+        let params_json = serde_json::to_value(&zonemap_params).unwrap();
+        let params =
+            ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap).with_params(&params_json);
+        let mut staged = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::ZoneMap, &params)
+                    .name("value_zonemap_merged".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            staged.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let staged_uuids = staged
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let merged = dataset.merge_existing_index_segments(staged).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!staged_uuids.contains(&merged.uuid));
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            merged
+                .files
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|file| file.path == "zonemap.lance")
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_zonemap_merged", "value", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("value_zonemap_merged")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+
+        let logical = open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "value",
+            "value_zonemap_merged",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(logical.index_type(), IndexType::ZoneMap);
+        assert_eq!(
+            logical.statistics().unwrap()["rows_per_zone"],
+            serde_json::json!(8)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            logical.calculate_included_frags().await.unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+        );
+
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(10_000))),
+        );
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let searched_fragments = result
+            .row_addrs()
+            .true_rows()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            searched_fragments,
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+                .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>()
+        );
+
+        let selective_query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(20))),
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(43))),
+        );
+        let selective_result = logical
+            .search(&selective_query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let selective_fragments = selective_result
+            .row_addrs()
+            .true_rows()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            selective_fragments,
+            fragments[1..=2]
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+                .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_zonemap_segments_drops_retired_fragments() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(64),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        let mut staged = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            staged.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::ZoneMap, &params)
+                    .name("value_zonemap_retired".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_zonemap_retired", "value", staged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset.delete("value < 16").await.unwrap();
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 64,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let live_frags = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone();
+        assert!(!live_frags.contains(0), "compaction should retire frag 0");
+
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(
+                dataset
+                    .load_indices_by_name("value_zonemap_retired")
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let coverage = merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(!coverage.contains(0), "must drop retired frag 0");
+        assert!(coverage.contains(1), "must keep live indexed frag 1");
+
+        let field_path = dataset.schema().field_path(merged.fields[0]).unwrap();
+        let index = crate::index::scalar::open_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            &field_path,
+            &merged,
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let query = SargableQuery::Range(
+            Bound::Included(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(0))),
+            Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(16))),
+        );
+        let searched_fragments = index
+            .search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .true_rows()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|row_addr| RowAddress::from(u64::from(row_addr)).fragment_id())
+            .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+        assert!(
+            searched_fragments.is_empty(),
+            "must filter retired-fragment zones"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_then_commit_zonemap_segment_ignores_retired_fragment_coverage() {
+        let tmpdir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("file://{}", tmpdir.as_str());
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(64),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(2),
+            );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 64,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+        let segment =
+            CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::ZoneMap, &params)
+                .name("value_zonemap_replace_retired".to_string())
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        let original_coverage = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().clone();
+        assert!(original_coverage.contains(0));
+        assert!(original_coverage.contains(1));
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_zonemap_replace_retired", "value", vec![segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset.delete("value < 16").await.unwrap();
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 64,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let live_frags = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone();
+        assert!(!live_frags.contains(0), "compaction should retire frag 0");
+
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(
+                dataset
+                    .load_indices_by_name("value_zonemap_replace_retired")
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged_coverage = merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().clone();
+        let merged_uuid = merged.uuid;
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_zonemap_replace_retired", "value", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("value_zonemap_replace_retired")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(committed[0].uuid, merged_uuid);
+
+        let combined_bitmap =
+            scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(&dataset, "value", "value_zonemap_replace_retired")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(combined_bitmap, merged_coverage);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_index_segments_rejects_mismatched_zonemap_params() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(16))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let mut staged = Vec::new();
+
+        for (fragment, rows_per_zone) in fragments.iter().zip([8, 16]) {
+            let zonemap_params =
+                lance_index::scalar::zonemap::ZoneMapIndexBuilderParams::new(rows_per_zone);
+            let params_json = serde_json::to_value(&zonemap_params).unwrap();
+            let params =
+                ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap).with_params(&params_json);
+            let segment =
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::ZoneMap, &params)
+                    .name("value_zonemap_mismatched".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            staged.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(staged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("different rows_per_zone values"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_existing_zonemap_segments_replaces_overlapping_segments() {
+        let dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(16))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = dataset;
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap);
+
+        let mut first_segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            first_segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::ZoneMap, &params)
+                    .name("value_zonemap_replace".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_zonemap_replace", "value", first_segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut replacement_segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            replacement_segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["value"], IndexType::ZoneMap, &params)
+                    .name("value_zonemap_replace".to_string())
+                    .replace(true)
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        let replacement_uuids = replacement_segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("value_zonemap_replace", "value", replacement_segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("value_zonemap_replace")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), fragments.len());
+        assert_eq!(
+            committed
+                .iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            replacement_uuids
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(&dataset, "value", "value_zonemap_replace")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fmindex_segments_commit_and_query_as_logical_index() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "text",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let write_params = crate::dataset::write::WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = vec![
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "the quick brown fox",
+                    "jumps over the lazy dog",
+                    "hello world from rust",
+                    "pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs",
+                    "how vexingly quick daft zebras jump",
+                    "the five boxing wizards jump quickly",
+                    "sphinx of black quartz judge my vow",
+                    "two driven jocks help fax my big quiz",
+                    "waltz bad nymph for quick jigs vex",
+                    "glib jocks quiz nymph to vex dwarf",
+                    "quick brown fox jumps again here",
+                    "lazy dog sleeps under the tree",
+                ]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let reader =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 3);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let segment = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Fm, &params)
+                .name("text_fmindex".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                segment
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![fragment.id() as u32]
+            );
+            segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_fmindex", "text", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("text_fmindex").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), fragments.len());
+
+        let logical =
+            open_named_scalar_index(&dataset, "text", "text_fmindex", &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(logical.index_type(), IndexType::Fm);
+
+        let query = lance_index::scalar::TextQuery::StringContains("quick".to_string());
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!(
+                "expected exact result from segmented fmindex, got {:?}",
+                other
+            ),
+        };
+        let match_count = row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count();
+        assert_eq!(
+            match_count, 5,
+            "expected exactly 5 matches for 'quick', got {match_count}"
+        );
+
+        // Verify fragment coverage via manifest metadata (not calculate_included_frags,
+        // which derives from row addresses and may not encode fragment IDs for all layouts)
+        assert_eq!(
+            scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(&dataset, "text", "text_fmindex")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fmindex_segments_merge_and_query() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "text",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let write_params = crate::dataset::write::WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = vec![
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "alpha beta gamma delta",
+                    "beta gamma delta epsilon",
+                    "gamma delta epsilon zeta",
+                    "delta epsilon zeta eta",
+                    "epsilon zeta eta theta",
+                    "zeta eta theta iota",
+                    "eta theta iota kappa",
+                    "theta iota kappa lambda",
+                ]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let reader =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm);
+        let mut staged = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let segment = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Fm, &params)
+                .name("text_fmindex_merge".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            staged.push(segment);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(staged.len(), 2);
+
+        let staged_uuids = staged.iter().map(|s| s.uuid).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let merged = dataset.merge_existing_index_segments(staged).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!staged_uuids.contains(&merged.uuid));
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_fmindex_merge", "text", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("text_fmindex_merge")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+
+        let logical = open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            "text_fmindex_merge",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(logical.index_type(), IndexType::Fm);
+
+        let query = lance_index::scalar::TextQuery::StringContains("delta".to_string());
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!("expected exact result from merged fmindex, got {:?}", other),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(), 4);
+
+        let query = lance_index::scalar::TextQuery::StringContains("nonexistent".to_string());
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!("expected exact result from merged fmindex, got {:?}", other),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fmindex_merge_after_compaction_drops_retired_fragments() {
+        use crate::dataset::write::WriteParams;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "text",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        // Create two fragments with 4 rows each so compaction can retire one
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = vec![
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "alpha beta gamma",
+                    "beta gamma delta",
+                    "gamma delta epsilon",
+                    "delta epsilon zeta",
+                    "epsilon zeta eta",
+                    "zeta eta theta",
+                    "eta theta iota",
+                    "theta iota kappa",
+                ]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let reader =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+
+        // Build per-fragment FM-Index segments and commit
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm);
+        let mut staged = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in &fragments {
+            let segment = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Fm, &params)
+                .name("text_fmindex_compact".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            staged.push(segment);
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_fmindex_compact", "text", staged)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Verify initial state: 2 segments, both fragments live
+        let committed = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("text_fmindex_compact")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 2);
+
+        // Delete rows from fragment 0 to trigger compaction retirement
+        dataset.delete("text = 'alpha beta gamma'").await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("text = 'beta gamma delta'").await.unwrap();
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let live_frags: RoaringBitmap = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            !live_frags.contains(0),
+            "compaction should retire fragment 0"
+        );
+
+        // Merge: the retired fragment should be dropped from coverage
+        let segments = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("text_fmindex_compact")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let coverage = merged.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !coverage.contains(0),
+            "merged coverage must drop retired fragment 0"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            coverage.contains(1),
+            "merged coverage must keep live fragment 1"
+        );
+
+        // Commit the merged segment and verify search works
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_fmindex_compact", "text", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("text_fmindex_compact")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+
+        let logical = open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            "text_fmindex_compact",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // "alpha" only existed in the deleted/retired rows
+        let query = lance_index::scalar::TextQuery::StringContains("alpha".to_string());
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!("expected exact result from merged fmindex, got {:?}", other),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(),
+            0,
+            "deleted rows from retired fragment should not appear in merged index"
+        );
+
+        // "theta" exists in fragment 1 rows only
+        let query = lance_index::scalar::TextQuery::StringContains("theta".to_string());
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!("expected exact result from merged fmindex, got {:?}", other),
+        };
+        assert!(
+            row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count() > 0,
+            "rows from live fragment should still be searchable"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ngram_segment_merge_rebuilds_after_deferred_compaction() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "text",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let make_batch = |values| {
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(values))],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let reader = arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(make_batch(vec![Some("alpha needle"), None]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let appended = arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(make_batch(vec![
+                Some("beta needle"),
+                Some("gamma stack"),
+            ]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            appended,
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::NGram);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::NGram, &params)
+                    .name("text_ngram".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        let source_version = segments[0].dataset_version;
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::NGram,
+                Some("compaction_guard".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 10,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.fragments_removed > 0 && metrics.fragments_added > 0);
+        assert!(dataset.version().version > source_version);
+
+        let direct_commit_err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_ngram_direct", "text", segments.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            direct_commit_err
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("must be rebuilt or merged")
+        );
+
+        let rebuild_version = dataset.version().version;
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(merged.dataset_version, rebuild_version);
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_ngram", "text", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("text_ngram").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(committed[0].dataset_version, rebuild_version);
+        assert_eq!(
+            committed[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref()
+        );
+
+        let logical =
+            open_named_scalar_index(&dataset, "text", "text_ngram", &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        let result = logical
+            .search(
+                &lance_index::scalar::TextQuery::StringContains("needle".to_string()),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::AtMost(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!("expected AtMost result from ngram, got {other:?}"),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ngram_segment_merge_rejects_retired_coverage_without_remap() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "text",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let make_batch = |values| {
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(values))],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        let reader = arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(make_batch(vec!["alpha", "beta"]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let appended = arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(make_batch(vec!["gamma", "delta"]))],
+            schema,
+        );
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            appended,
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::NGram);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in dataset.get_fragments() {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::NGram, &params)
+                    .name("text_ngram".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 10,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let direct_err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_ngram", "text", segments.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(direct_err.to_string().contains("must be rebuilt or merged"));
+
+        let merge_err = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            merge_err
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("no applicable fragment-reuse mapping is available")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fmindex_merge_single_segment_passthrough() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "text",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let write_params = crate::dataset::write::WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = vec![
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "alpha beta gamma delta",
+                    "beta gamma delta epsilon",
+                    "gamma delta epsilon zeta",
+                    "delta epsilon zeta eta",
+                    "epsilon zeta eta theta",
+                    "zeta eta theta iota",
+                    "eta theta iota kappa",
+                    "theta iota kappa lambda",
+                ]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let reader =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+        let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect();
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm);
+        let segment = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Fm, &params)
+            .name("text_fmindex_single".to_string())
+            .fragments(fragment_ids.clone())
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let source_uuid = segment.uuid;
+
+        // A single segment whose coverage is fully live is reused, not rebuilt.
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged.uuid, source_uuid,
+            "single-segment merge with unchanged coverage should reuse the segment"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            fragment_ids
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("text_fmindex_single", "text", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let logical = open_named_scalar_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            "text_fmindex_single",
+            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(logical.index_type(), IndexType::Fm);
+
+        let query = lance_index::scalar::TextQuery::StringContains("delta".to_string());
+        let result = logical.search(&query, &NoOpMetricsCollector).await.unwrap();
+        let row_addrs = match result {
+            SearchResult::Exact(row_addrs) => row_addrs,
+            other => panic!("expected exact result from fmindex, got {:?}", other),
+        };
+        assert_eq!(row_addrs.true_rows().row_addrs().unwrap().count(), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_fmindex_merge_single_segment_rebuilds_when_coverage_shrinks() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "text",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Utf8,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let write_params = crate::dataset::write::WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let batches = vec![
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec![
+                    "alpha beta gamma",
+                    "beta gamma delta",
+                    "gamma delta epsilon",
+                    "delta epsilon zeta",
+                    "epsilon zeta eta",
+                    "zeta eta theta",
+                    "eta theta iota",
+                    "theta iota kappa",
+                ]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let reader =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 2);
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::Fm);
+        let segment = CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["text"], IndexType::Fm, &params)
+            .name("text_fmindex_shrink".to_string())
+            .fragments(fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect())
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let source_uuid = segment.uuid;
+
+        // Retire fragment 0: delete its rows and compact it away.
+        dataset.delete("text = 'alpha beta gamma'").await.unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("text = 'beta gamma delta'").await.unwrap();
+        crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let live_frags: RoaringBitmap = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+            .collect();
+        assert!(
+            !live_frags.contains(0),
+            "compaction should retire fragment 0"
+        );
+        assert!(live_frags.contains(1), "fragment 1 should stay live");
+
+        // Coverage shrank, so even a single segment must be rebuilt.
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(
+            merged.uuid, source_uuid,
+            "shrunk coverage must trigger a rebuild"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![1]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Legacy storage counts through MaterializeIndexExec. Deleting the unselected
+    /// segment directory must still leave the selected segment countable.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn legacy_storage_count_opens_only_selected_segment() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("i", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                test_dir.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+        );
+
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect();
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment_id in &fragment_ids {
+            segments.push(
+                CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut dataset, &["i"], IndexType::BTree, &params)
+                    .name("i_idx".to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![*fragment_id])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("i_idx", "i", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let committed = dataset.load_indices_by_name("i_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let selected = committed[0].uuid;
+        let omitted = committed[1].uuid;
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_indexed_rows("i_idx", "i >= 0", Some(&[selected]), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            4
+        );
+
+        let omitted_dir = std::path::Path::new(test_dir.as_str())
+            .join("_indices")
+            .join(omitted.to_string());
+        assert!(omitted_dir.is_dir(), "{}", omitted_dir.display());
+        std::fs::remove_dir_all(&omitted_dir).unwrap();
+        drop(dataset);
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset
+                .count_indexed_rows("i_idx", "i >= 0", Some(&[selected]), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            4
+        );
+        dataset
+            .count_indexed_rows("i_idx", "i >= 0", Some(&[omitted]), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector.rs
index 1dd015f789b..2f17ee88042 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/vector.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector.rs
@@ -4,10 +4,15 @@
 //! Vector Index for Fast Approximate Nearest Neighbor (ANN) Search
 //!
 
+use lance_index::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::{any::Any, collections::HashMap};
 
+mod bounded_partition_stream;
 pub mod builder;
+pub mod dedup;
+pub(crate) mod details;
+pub mod hamming;
 pub mod ivf;
 pub mod pq;
 pub mod utils;
@@ -16,15 +21,22 @@ pub mod utils;
 mod fixture_test;
 
 use self::{ivf::*, pq::PQIndex};
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use builder::IvfIndexBuilder;
+use arrow_array::Array;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema};
+use builder::{IvfIndexBuilder, VectorIndexBuildSummary};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use futures::stream;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir;
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::CompactFragReuseIndex;
 use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+use lance_index::progress::{IndexBuildProgress, noop_progress};
 use lance_index::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
-use lance_index::vector::bq::RQBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::{RQBuildParams, RQRotationType, validate_supported_rq_num_bits};
 use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatBinQuantizer, FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer};
 use lance_index::vector::hnsw::HNSW;
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::builder::recommended_num_partitions;
@@ -34,37 +46,189 @@ use object_store::path::Path;
 use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
 use lance_index::vector::quantizer::QuantizationType;
-use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffler::IvfShuffler;
+use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffler::{Shuffler, create_ivf_shuffler};
 use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::SubIndexType;
 use lance_index::vector::{
+    VectorIndex,
     hnsw::{
         builder::HnswBuildParams,
         index::{HNSWIndex, HNSWIndexOptions},
     },
     ivf::IvfBuildParams,
     pq::PQBuildParams,
-    sq::{builder::SQBuildParams, ScalarQuantizer},
-    VectorIndex,
-};
-use lance_index::{
-    DatasetIndexExt, IndexType, INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
-    VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION,
+    sq::{ScalarQuantizer, builder::SQBuildParams},
 };
+use lance_index::{INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, IndexType};
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use lance_io::traits::Reader;
 use lance_linalg::distance::*;
-use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_table::format::{IndexFile, IndexMetadata};
 use serde::Serialize;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 use utils::get_vector_type;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
-use super::{pb, vector_index_details, DatasetIndexInternalExt, IndexParams};
+use super::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt, IndexParams, pb};
+use crate::dataset::index::dataset_format_version;
 use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-use crate::{dataset::Dataset, index::pb::vector_index_stage::Stage, Error, Result};
+use crate::{Error, Result, dataset::Dataset, index::pb::vector_index_stage::Stage};
 
 pub const LANCE_VECTOR_INDEX: &str = "__lance_vector_index";
 
+/// A materialized snapshot of one logical vector index and all of its segments.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct LogicalVectorIndex {
+    name: String,
+    column: String,
+    segments: Vec<(IndexMetadata, Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)>,
+}
+
+/// An IVF-specific inspection and maintenance view over a [`LogicalVectorIndex`].
+///
+/// Callers must explicitly opt into this view before accessing partition-level
+/// APIs so that IVF semantics stay separated from the generic logical vector
+/// index abstraction.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub struct LogicalIvfView<'a> {
+    logical_index: &'a LogicalVectorIndex,
+}
+
+impl LogicalVectorIndex {
+    pub(crate) fn try_new(
+        name: String,
+        column: String,
+        segments: Vec<(IndexMetadata, Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if segments.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "LogicalVectorIndex '{}' on column '{}' must contain at least one segment",
+                name, column
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            name,
+            column,
+            segments,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the logical index name.
+    pub fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.name
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the vector column that this logical index is built on.
+    pub fn column(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.column
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the number of physical segments in this logical index.
+    pub fn num_segments(&self) -> usize {
+        self.segments.len()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the committed metadata for all physical segments.
+    pub fn metadatas(&self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = &IndexMetadata> + '_ {
+        self.segments.iter().map(|(metadata, _)| metadata)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the indexed row count for each segment.
+    pub fn num_rows_per_segment(&self) -> Vec<(Uuid, u64)> {
+        self.segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(metadata, index)| (metadata.uuid, index.num_rows()))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an IVF view over this logical index.
+    ///
+    /// This is currently fallible only to leave room for future non-IVF vector
+    /// index families. All vector indices currently opened through this path are
+    /// IVF-backed.
+    pub fn as_ivf(&self) -> Result<LogicalIvfView<'_>> {
+        Ok(LogicalIvfView {
+            logical_index: self,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn iter(
+        &self,
+    ) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = (&IndexMetadata, &Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)> + '_ {
+        self.segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(metadata, index)| (metadata, index))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> LogicalIvfView<'a> {
+    pub(crate) fn indices(&self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = &Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> + '_ {
+        self.logical_index.iter().map(|(_, index)| index)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn segments(
+        &self,
+    ) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = (&IndexMetadata, &Arc<dyn VectorIndex>)> + '_ {
+        self.logical_index.iter()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the partition count for each segment in this IVF index.
+    pub fn num_partitions_per_segment(&self) -> Vec<(Uuid, usize)> {
+        self.logical_index
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(metadata, index)| (metadata.uuid, index.ivf_model().num_partitions()))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the partition sizes for each segment in this IVF index.
+    pub fn partition_sizes(&self) -> Vec<(Uuid, Vec<usize>)> {
+        let mut partition_sizes = Vec::with_capacity(self.logical_index.num_segments());
+        for (metadata, index) in self.logical_index.iter() {
+            let num_partitions = index.ivf_model().num_partitions();
+            let mut sizes = Vec::with_capacity(num_partitions);
+            for partition_id in 0..num_partitions {
+                sizes.push(index.partition_size(partition_id));
+            }
+            partition_sizes.push((metadata.uuid, sizes));
+        }
+        partition_sizes
+    }
+
+    /// Reads one IVF partition across all segments in this logical index.
+    ///
+    /// The returned stream preserves segment boundaries only implicitly through
+    /// concatenation order; callers should treat it as a merged partition view.
+    pub async fn read_partition(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        with_vector: bool,
+    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let mut schema: Option<Arc<Schema>> = None;
+        let mut partition_streams = Vec::with_capacity(self.logical_index.num_segments());
+        for index in self.indices() {
+            let stream = index
+                .partition_reader(partition_id, with_vector, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await?;
+            if schema.is_none() {
+                schema = Some(stream.schema());
+            }
+            partition_streams.push(stream);
+        }
+
+        match schema {
+            Some(schema) => {
+                let merged = stream::select_all(partition_streams);
+                let stream = RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, merged);
+                Ok(Box::pin(stream))
+            }
+            None => Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                Arc::new(Schema::empty()),
+                stream::empty(),
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// Parameters of each index stage.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub enum StageParams {
@@ -89,10 +253,10 @@ impl IndexFileVersion {
         match version.to_lowercase().as_str() {
             "legacy" => Ok(Self::Legacy),
             "v3" => Ok(Self::V3),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Invalid index file version: {}", version),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Invalid index file version: {}",
+                version
+            ))),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -107,6 +271,14 @@ pub struct VectorIndexParams {
 
     /// The version of the index file.
     pub version: IndexFileVersion,
+
+    /// Skip transpose / packing for PQ and RQ storage.
+    pub skip_transpose: bool,
+
+    /// Runtime hints: optional build preferences stored in the index manifest.
+    /// Keys use reverse-DNS namespacing (e.g., "lance.ivf.max_iters").
+    /// Populated by the build path and merged into VectorIndexDetails at creation time.
+    pub runtime_hints: HashMap<String, String>,
 }
 
 impl VectorIndexParams {
@@ -115,6 +287,11 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
         self
     }
 
+    pub fn skip_transpose(&mut self, skip_transpose: bool) -> &mut Self {
+        self.skip_transpose = skip_transpose;
+        self
+    }
+
     pub fn ivf_flat(num_partitions: usize, metric_type: MetricType) -> Self {
         let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(num_partitions);
         let stages = vec![StageParams::Ivf(ivf_params)];
@@ -122,6 +299,8 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
             stages,
             metric_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -131,6 +310,8 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
             stages,
             metric_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -164,17 +345,35 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
             stages,
             metric_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
     pub fn ivf_rq(num_partitions: usize, num_bits: u8, distance_type: DistanceType) -> Self {
+        Self::ivf_rq_with_rotation(
+            num_partitions,
+            num_bits,
+            distance_type,
+            RQRotationType::default(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn ivf_rq_with_rotation(
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        num_bits: u8,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        rotation_type: RQRotationType,
+    ) -> Self {
         let ivf = IvfBuildParams::new(num_partitions);
-        let rq = RQBuildParams { num_bits };
+        let rq = RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(num_bits, rotation_type);
         let stages = vec![StageParams::Ivf(ivf), StageParams::RQ(rq)];
         Self {
             stages,
             metric_type: distance_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -189,6 +388,8 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
             stages,
             metric_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -202,6 +403,8 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
             stages,
             metric_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -215,6 +418,8 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
             stages,
             metric_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -228,6 +433,8 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
             stages,
             metric_type: distance_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -248,6 +455,8 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
             stages,
             metric_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -268,6 +477,8 @@ impl VectorIndexParams {
             stages,
             metric_type,
             version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+            skip_transpose: false,
+            runtime_hints: HashMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -297,73 +508,309 @@ impl IndexParams for VectorIndexParams {
     }
 }
 
-/// Build a Distributed Vector Index for specific fragments
-#[instrument(level = "debug", skip(dataset))]
-pub(crate) async fn build_distributed_vector_index(
+/// Whether `column` holds at least `minimum` vectors to train a quantizer from.
+///
+/// The metadata-only row total settles anything already short of the floor, so
+/// the validity count runs only where its answer can change the verdict.
+pub async fn has_vectors_to_train(dataset: &Dataset, column: &str, minimum: usize) -> Result<bool> {
+    let total = dataset.count_rows(None).await?;
+    if total < minimum && !is_multivector(dataset, column)? {
+        return Ok(false);
+    }
+    Ok(count_trainable_vectors(dataset, column, total, minimum).await? >= minimum)
+}
+
+/// Vectors in `column` available to train from.
+///
+/// A multivector row holds a list, so its rows bound the vectors from neither
+/// side — ten rows can carry a thousand, and an empty list carries none. Those
+/// are summed from the lists themselves; everything else counts the rows that
+/// hold a vector. Both callers compare the count with a threshold, so `enough`
+/// stops the walk as soon as the answer is settled.
+pub(crate) async fn count_trainable_vectors(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    total_rows: usize,
+    enough: usize,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let is_multivector = is_multivector(dataset, column)?;
+    if !is_multivector
+        && dataset
+            .schema()
+            .field(column)
+            .is_some_and(|field| !field.nullable)
+    {
+        return Ok(total_rows);
+    }
+    if enough == 0 {
+        return Ok(0);
+    }
+
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.project(&[column])?;
+    // These callers need a threshold, not a full count. Bound prefetch so a
+    // small training floor does not schedule reads from the rest of the table.
+    // Keep batches large enough to also scan sparse or all-null inputs efficiently.
+    scanner
+        .batch_size(1024)
+        .batch_readahead(1)
+        .fragment_readahead(1);
+    let mut batches = scanner.try_into_stream().await?;
+    let mut vectors = 0_usize;
+    while let Some(batch) = batches.try_next().await? {
+        let array = utils::get_column_from_batch(&batch, column)?;
+        if is_multivector {
+            let lists = array.as_list::<i32>();
+            for row in 0..lists.len() {
+                if lists.is_null(row) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                // Null vectors inside a non-null list cannot be trained on.
+                let row_vectors = lists.value(row);
+                vectors = vectors.saturating_add(row_vectors.len() - row_vectors.null_count());
+            }
+        } else {
+            vectors = vectors.saturating_add(array.len() - array.null_count());
+        }
+        if vectors >= enough {
+            return Ok(vectors);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(vectors)
+}
+
+fn is_multivector(dataset: &Dataset, column: &str) -> Result<bool> {
+    let (vector_type, _) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), column)?;
+    Ok(matches!(vector_type, DataType::List(_)))
+}
+
+/// The partition count a whole-table build can train.
+///
+/// A partition's centroid is what search ranks to choose partitions, so one
+/// built from a handful of vectors prunes nothing while still paying the
+/// quantizer's precision loss. The vectors available therefore cap the count,
+/// at `vectors_per_partition` each.
+async fn supported_num_partitions(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    stages: &[StageParams],
+    requested: usize,
+    mode: &str,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let total = dataset.count_rows(None).await?;
+    let enough = vectors_for_partitions(stages, requested);
+    let vectors = count_trainable_vectors(dataset, column, total, enough).await?;
+    if vectors >= enough {
+        return Ok(requested);
+    }
+
+    let supported = match vectors_per_partition(stages) {
+        Some(target) => requested.min(recommended_num_partitions(vectors, target)),
+        None => requested.min(vectors).max(1),
+    };
+    if supported < requested {
+        log::warn!(
+            "{mode}: training {supported} of the {requested} requested IVF partitions; \
+             column '{column}' holds {vectors} vectors"
+        );
+    }
+    Ok(supported)
+}
+
+/// Vectors needed before `partitions` can each train a quantizer of their own.
+///
+/// The upper edge of the reduced-partition band: below this a build trains
+/// fewer partitions than asked for.
+fn vectors_for_partitions(stages: &[StageParams], partitions: usize) -> usize {
+    partitions.saturating_mul(vectors_per_partition(stages).unwrap_or(1))
+}
+
+/// The vectors one partition's centroid should be fitted on, or `None` when the
+/// index stores vectors uncompressed.
+///
+/// A codebook's precision loss is paid on every vector, so a centroid fitted on
+/// a handful prunes nothing and still costs it. Without a codebook there is no
+/// precision to lose, and KMeans needing a vector per centroid is the only
+/// limit.
+fn vectors_per_partition(stages: &[StageParams]) -> Option<usize> {
+    vector_quantizer_minimum_rows(stages)?;
+    // IVF training fits each centroid on `sample_rate` vectors, which is also
+    // where KMeans starts warning (`k * 256` at the default rate). That number
+    // belongs to the IVF stage: an 8-bit codebook holds the same 256 entries by
+    // coincidence, and a 4-bit one asking only 16 vectors per partition would
+    // train centroids that prune nothing.
+    Some(
+        stages
+            .iter()
+            .find_map(|stage| match stage {
+                StageParams::Ivf(ivf) => Some(ivf.sample_rate),
+                _ => None,
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| IvfBuildParams::default().sample_rate)
+            .max(1),
+    )
+}
+
+/// Rows a PQ codebook needs before it can be trained.
+///
+/// One row per code, which is `2^num_bits` — 256 at the default 8 bits, and not
+/// 256 at any other setting. `None` when the width does not fit a `usize`.
+pub fn pq_quantizer_minimum_rows(num_bits: usize) -> Option<usize> {
+    1_usize.checked_shl(num_bits as u32)
+}
+
+/// Rows a vector index's quantizer needs before it can be trained.
+///
+/// `None` for an index type whose stages name no quantizer with a row floor.
+pub(crate) fn vector_quantizer_minimum_rows(stages: &[StageParams]) -> Option<usize> {
+    stages.iter().find_map(|stage| match stage {
+        // A supplied codebook is what training would have produced, so the
+        // build needs no vectors to fit one.
+        StageParams::PQ(pq) if pq.codebook.is_none() => pq_quantizer_minimum_rows(pq.num_bits),
+        _ => None,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Prepare the shared build inputs used by both direct local builds and
+/// staged shard builds.
+///
+/// These paths emit different file layouts, but they follow the same rules for
+/// validating the vector column, deriving the effective index type, sizing IVF
+/// partitions, and constructing the shuffler.
+///
+/// The shuffler carries only the path of its scratch directory, so the returned
+/// [`TempStdDir`] guard owns that directory: hold it until the build finishes.
+async fn prepare_vector_segment_build(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
-    _name: &str,
-    uuid: &str,
     params: &VectorIndexParams,
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-    fragment_ids: &[u32],
-) -> Result<()> {
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+    mode: &str,
+    require_precomputed_ivf: bool,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+) -> Result<(
+    DataType,
+    IndexType,
+    IvfBuildParams,
+    Box<dyn Shuffler>,
+    TempStdDir,
+)> {
     let stages = &params.stages;
 
     if stages.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Build Distributed Vector Index: must have at least 1 stage".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
-    };
+        return Err(Error::index(format!("{mode}: must have at least 1 stage")));
+    }
 
     let StageParams::Ivf(ivf_params0) = &stages[0] else {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
-                stages
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "{mode}: invalid stages: {:?}",
+            stages
+        )));
     };
 
-    if ivf_params0.centroids.is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Build Distributed Vector Index: missing precomputed IVF centroids; \
-please provide IvfBuildParams.centroids \
-for concurrent distributed create_index"
-                .to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+    if require_precomputed_ivf && ivf_params0.centroids.is_none() {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "{mode}: missing precomputed IVF centroids; please provide \
+                 IvfBuildParams.centroids for distributed segment build"
+        )));
     }
 
     let (vector_type, element_type) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), column)?;
-    if let DataType::List(_) = vector_type {
-        if params.metric_type != DistanceType::Cosine {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message:
-                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: multivector type supports only cosine distance"
-                        .to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+    if let DataType::List(_) = vector_type
+        && params.metric_type != DistanceType::Cosine
+    {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "{mode}: multivector type supports only cosine distance"
+        )));
     }
 
-    let num_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await?;
     let index_type = params.index_type();
+    if index_type == IndexType::IvfRq {
+        let Some(StageParams::RQ(rq_params)) = stages.last() else {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "{mode}: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                stages
+            )));
+        };
+        validate_supported_rq_num_bits(rq_params.num_bits)?;
+    }
 
-    let num_partitions = ivf_params0.num_partitions.unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        recommended_num_partitions(
-            num_rows,
-            ivf_params0
-                .target_partition_size
-                .unwrap_or(index_type.target_partition_size()),
-        )
-    });
-
+    let num_partitions = match (ivf_params0.num_partitions, ivf_params0.centroids.as_ref()) {
+        (Some(num_partitions), Some(centroids)) if num_partitions != centroids.len() => {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "{mode}: num_partitions {} does not match precomputed IVF centroids length {}",
+                num_partitions,
+                centroids.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        (Some(num_partitions), Some(_)) => num_partitions,
+        // A partition's centroid is what search ranks to choose partitions, so
+        // one built from a handful of vectors prunes nothing and still costs
+        // the quantizer's precision. So the vectors available cap how many
+        // partitions a whole-table build trains, at the IVF sample rate each.
+        //
+        // A fragment subset keeps the count it was given: the segments of one
+        // logical index have to agree on it.
+        (Some(requested), None) if fragment_ids.is_none() => {
+            supported_num_partitions(dataset, column, stages, requested, mode).await?
+        }
+        (Some(num_partitions), None) => num_partitions,
+        (None, Some(centroids)) => centroids.len(),
+        (None, None) => {
+            let num_rows = match fragment_ids {
+                Some(fragment_ids) => dataset.count_rows_in_fragments(fragment_ids).await?,
+                None => dataset.count_rows(None).await?,
+            };
+            recommended_num_partitions(
+                num_rows,
+                ivf_params0
+                    .target_partition_size
+                    .unwrap_or(index_type.target_partition_size()),
+            )
+        }
+    };
     let mut ivf_params = ivf_params0.clone();
     ivf_params.num_partitions = Some(num_partitions);
 
+    let format_version = dataset_format_version(dataset);
+    let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
+    let temp_dir_path = Path::from_filesystem_path(&temp_dir)?;
+    let shuffler = create_ivf_shuffler(
+        temp_dir_path,
+        num_partitions,
+        format_version,
+        Some(progress),
+    );
+
+    Ok((element_type, index_type, ivf_params, shuffler, temp_dir))
+}
+
+/// Build a Distributed Vector Index for specific fragments
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+#[instrument(level = "debug", skip(dataset))]
+pub(crate) async fn build_distributed_vector_index(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    _name: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
+    params: &VectorIndexParams,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
+    fragment_ids: &[u32],
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<(Uuid, Vec<IndexFile>)> {
+    let (element_type, index_type, ivf_params, shuffler, _shuffle_temp_dir) =
+        prepare_vector_segment_build(
+            dataset,
+            column,
+            params,
+            progress.clone(),
+            "Build Distributed Vector Index",
+            true,
+            Some(fragment_ids),
+        )
+        .await?;
+    let stages = &params.stages;
+
     let ivf_centroids = ivf_params
         .centroids
         .as_ref()
@@ -371,19 +818,10 @@ for concurrent distributed create_index"
         .as_ref()
         .clone();
 
-    let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-    let temp_dir_path = Path::from_filesystem_path(&temp_dir)?;
-    let shuffler = IvfShuffler::new(temp_dir_path, num_partitions);
-
     let filtered_dataset = dataset.clone();
 
-    let out_base = dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid);
-
-    let make_partial_index_dir = |out_base: &Path| -> Path {
-        let shard_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
-        out_base.child(format!("partial_{}", shard_uuid))
-    };
-    let new_index_dir = || make_partial_index_dir(&out_base);
+    let segment_uuid = uuid;
+    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(segment_uuid.to_string());
 
     let fragment_filter = fragment_ids.to_vec();
 
@@ -391,12 +829,11 @@ for concurrent distributed create_index"
 
     let make_global_pq = |pq_params: &PQBuildParams| -> Result<ProductQuantizer> {
         if pq_params.codebook.is_none() {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Build Distributed Vector Index: missing precomputed PQ codebook; \
-please provide PQBuildParams.codebook for distributed indexing"
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "Build Distributed Vector Index: missing precomputed PQ codebook; \
+            please provide PQBuildParams.codebook for distributed indexing"
                     .to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            ));
         }
 
         let dim = crate::index::vector::utils::get_vector_dim(filtered_dataset.schema(), column)?;
@@ -406,6 +843,12 @@ please provide PQBuildParams.codebook for distributed indexing"
             .codebook
             .clone()
             .expect("checked above that PQ codebook is present");
+        lance_index::vector::pq::validate_supplied_codebook(
+            pre_codebook.len(),
+            dim,
+            pq_params.num_sub_vectors,
+            pq_params.num_bits,
+        )?;
         let codebook_fsl =
             arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(pre_codebook, dim as i32)?;
 
@@ -425,15 +868,14 @@ please provide PQBuildParams.codebook for distributed indexing"
     match index_type {
         IndexType::IvfFlat => match element_type {
             DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64 => {
-                let index_dir = new_index_dir();
                 let ivf_model = make_ivf_model();
 
-                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(
+                let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(
                     filtered_dataset,
                     column.to_owned(),
-                    index_dir,
+                    index_dir.clone(),
                     params.metric_type,
-                    Box::new(shuffler),
+                    shuffler,
                     Some(ivf_params),
                     Some(()),
                     (),
@@ -441,19 +883,20 @@ please provide PQBuildParams.codebook for distributed indexing"
                 )?
                 .with_ivf(ivf_model)
                 .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
+                .with_progress(progress.clone())
                 .build()
                 .await?;
+                return Ok((segment_uuid, summary.files));
             }
             DataType::UInt8 => {
-                let index_dir = new_index_dir();
                 let ivf_model = make_ivf_model();
 
-                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new(
+                let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new(
                     filtered_dataset,
                     column.to_owned(),
-                    index_dir,
+                    index_dir.clone(),
                     params.metric_type,
-                    Box::new(shuffler),
+                    shuffler,
                     Some(ivf_params),
                     Some(()),
                     (),
@@ -461,51 +904,44 @@ please provide PQBuildParams.codebook for distributed indexing"
                 )?
                 .with_ivf(ivf_model)
                 .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
+                .with_progress(progress.clone())
                 .build()
                 .await?;
+                return Ok((segment_uuid, summary.files));
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid data type: {:?}",
-                        element_type
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid data type: {:?}",
+                    element_type
+                )));
             }
         },
 
         IndexType::IvfPq => {
             let len = stages.len();
             let StageParams::PQ(pq_params) = &stages[len - 1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
-                        stages
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
 
             match params.version {
                 IndexFileVersion::Legacy => {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: "Distributed indexing does not support legacy IVF_PQ format"
-                            .to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "Distributed indexing does not support legacy IVF_PQ format".to_string(),
+                    ));
                 }
                 IndexFileVersion::V3 => {
-                    let index_dir = new_index_dir();
                     let ivf_model = make_ivf_model();
                     let global_pq = make_global_pq(pq_params)?;
 
-                    IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new(
+                    let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new(
                         filtered_dataset,
                         column.to_owned(),
-                        index_dir,
+                        index_dir.clone(),
                         params.metric_type,
-                        Box::new(shuffler),
+                        shuffler,
                         Some(ivf_params),
                         Some(pq_params.clone()),
                         (),
@@ -513,104 +949,114 @@ please provide PQBuildParams.codebook for distributed indexing"
                     )?
                     .with_ivf(ivf_model)
                     .with_quantizer(global_pq)
-                    // For distributed shards, keep PQ codes in their original layout
-                    // and transpose only after all shards are merged.
+                    // For distributed shards, keep PQ codes in row-major layout.
+                    // A single transpose is performed in the distributed merge stage.
                     .with_transpose(false)
                     .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
+                    .with_progress(progress.clone())
                     .build()
                     .await?;
+                    return Ok((segment_uuid, summary.files));
                 }
             }
         }
 
         IndexType::IvfSq => {
             let StageParams::SQ(sq_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
-                        stages
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
-
-            let index_dir = new_index_dir();
-
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new(
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new(
                 filtered_dataset,
                 column.to_owned(),
-                index_dir,
+                index_dir.clone(),
                 params.metric_type,
-                Box::new(shuffler),
+                shuffler,
                 Some(ivf_params),
                 Some(sq_params.clone()),
                 (),
                 frag_reuse_index,
             )?
             .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
             .build()
             .await?;
+            return Ok((segment_uuid, summary.files));
         }
 
         IndexType::IvfHnswFlat => {
             let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
-                        stages
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
 
-            let index_dir = new_index_dir();
-
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new(
-                filtered_dataset,
-                column.to_owned(),
-                index_dir,
-                params.metric_type,
-                Box::new(shuffler),
-                Some(ivf_params),
-                Some(()),
-                hnsw_params.clone(),
-                frag_reuse_index,
-            )?
-            .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
-            .build()
-            .await?;
+            match element_type {
+                DataType::UInt8 => {
+                    let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatBinQuantizer>::new(
+                        filtered_dataset,
+                        column.to_owned(),
+                        index_dir.clone(),
+                        params.metric_type,
+                        shuffler,
+                        Some(ivf_params),
+                        Some(()),
+                        hnsw_params.clone(),
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    )?
+                    .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
+                    .with_progress(progress.clone())
+                    .build()
+                    .await?;
+                    return Ok((segment_uuid, summary.files));
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new(
+                        filtered_dataset,
+                        column.to_owned(),
+                        index_dir.clone(),
+                        params.metric_type,
+                        shuffler,
+                        Some(ivf_params),
+                        Some(()),
+                        hnsw_params.clone(),
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    )?
+                    .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
+                    .with_progress(progress.clone())
+                    .build()
+                    .await?;
+                    return Ok((segment_uuid, summary.files));
+                }
+            }
         }
 
         IndexType::IvfHnswPq => {
             let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
-                        stages
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
             let StageParams::PQ(pq_params) = &stages[2] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
-                        stages
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
 
-            let index_dir = new_index_dir();
             let ivf_model = make_ivf_model();
             let global_pq = make_global_pq(pq_params)?;
 
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::new(
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::new(
                 filtered_dataset,
                 column.to_owned(),
-                index_dir,
+                index_dir.clone(),
                 params.metric_type,
-                Box::new(shuffler),
+                shuffler,
                 Some(ivf_params),
                 Some(pq_params.clone()),
                 hnsw_params.clone(),
@@ -618,75 +1064,86 @@ please provide PQBuildParams.codebook for distributed indexing"
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model)
             .with_quantizer(global_pq)
-            // For distributed shards, keep PQ codes in their original layout
-            // and transpose only after all shards are merged.
+            // For distributed shards, keep PQ codes in row-major layout.
+            // A single transpose is performed in the distributed merge stage.
             .with_transpose(false)
             .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
             .build()
             .await?;
+            return Ok((segment_uuid, summary.files));
         }
 
         IndexType::IvfHnswSq => {
             let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
-                        stages
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
             let StageParams::SQ(sq_params) = &stages[2] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
-                        stages
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
-
-            let index_dir = new_index_dir();
-
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::new(
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::new(
                 filtered_dataset,
                 column.to_owned(),
-                index_dir,
+                index_dir.clone(),
                 params.metric_type,
-                Box::new(shuffler),
+                shuffler,
                 Some(ivf_params),
                 Some(sq_params.clone()),
                 hnsw_params.clone(),
                 frag_reuse_index,
             )?
             .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
             .build()
             .await?;
+            return Ok((segment_uuid, summary.files));
         }
 
         IndexType::IvfRq => {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid index type: {:?} \
-is not supported in distributed mode; skipping this shard",
-                    index_type
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            let StageParams::RQ(rq_params) = &stages[1] else {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
+            };
+
+            let ivf_model = make_ivf_model();
+
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new(
+                filtered_dataset,
+                column.to_owned(),
+                index_dir.clone(),
+                params.metric_type,
+                shuffler,
+                Some(ivf_params),
+                Some(rq_params.clone()),
+                (),
+                frag_reuse_index,
+            )?
+            .with_ivf(ivf_model)
+            // For distributed shards, keep RQ codes in row-major layout.
+            // A single packing pass is performed in the distributed merge stage.
+            .with_transpose(false)
+            .with_fragment_filter(fragment_filter)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+            return Ok((segment_uuid, summary.files));
         }
 
         _ => {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid index type: {:?}",
-                    index_type
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Build Distributed Vector Index: invalid index type: {:?}",
+                index_type
+            )));
         }
-    };
-
-    Ok(())
+    }
 }
 
 /// Build a Vector Index
@@ -695,104 +1152,143 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
     name: &str,
-    uuid: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
     params: &VectorIndexParams,
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    let stages = &params.stages;
-
-    if stages.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Build Vector Index: must have at least 1 stage".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
-    };
-
-    let StageParams::Ivf(ivf_params) = &stages[0] else {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
-    };
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    build_vector_index_impl(
+        dataset,
+        column,
+        name,
+        uuid,
+        params,
+        frag_reuse_index,
+        progress,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+}
 
-    let (vector_type, element_type) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), column)?;
-    if let DataType::List(_) = vector_type {
-        if params.metric_type != DistanceType::Cosine {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Build Vector Index: multivector type supports only cosine distance"
-                    .to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-    }
+/// Build a standalone vector index segment over a subset of fragments.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+pub(crate) async fn build_filtered_vector_index(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    name: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
+    params: &VectorIndexParams,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
+    fragment_ids: &[u32],
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    build_vector_index_impl(
+        dataset,
+        column,
+        name,
+        uuid,
+        params,
+        frag_reuse_index,
+        progress,
+        Some(fragment_ids),
+    )
+    .await
+}
 
-    let num_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await?;
-    let index_type = params.index_type();
-    let num_partitions = ivf_params.num_partitions.unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        recommended_num_partitions(
-            num_rows,
-            ivf_params
-                .target_partition_size
-                .unwrap_or(index_type.target_partition_size()),
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn build_vector_index_impl(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    name: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
+    params: &VectorIndexParams,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    let (element_type, index_type, ivf_params, shuffler, _shuffle_temp_dir) =
+        prepare_vector_segment_build(
+            dataset,
+            column,
+            params,
+            progress.clone(),
+            "Build Vector Index",
+            false,
+            fragment_ids,
         )
-    });
-    let mut ivf_params = ivf_params.clone();
-    ivf_params.num_partitions = Some(num_partitions);
+        .await?;
+    let stages = &params.stages;
+
+    // RaBitQ encodes against L2 or dot residuals, and its transform rejects
+    // anything else, but only after the IVF model has been trained on a sample.
+    if index_type == IndexType::IvfRq && params.metric_type == DistanceType::Hamming {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Build Vector Index: {} does not support the {} metric",
+            index_type, params.metric_type
+        )));
+    }
 
-    let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
-    let temp_dir_path = Path::from_filesystem_path(&temp_dir)?;
-    let shuffler = IvfShuffler::new(temp_dir_path, num_partitions);
     match index_type {
         IndexType::IvfFlat => match element_type {
             DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64 => {
-                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(
+                let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(
                     dataset.clone(),
                     column.to_owned(),
-                    dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid),
+                    dataset.indices_dir().clone().join(uuid.to_string()),
                     params.metric_type,
-                    Box::new(shuffler),
+                    shuffler,
                     Some(ivf_params),
                     Some(()),
                     (),
                     frag_reuse_index,
                 )?
+                .with_optional_fragment_filter(fragment_ids)
+                .with_progress(progress.clone())
                 .build()
                 .await?;
+                Ok(summary.files)
             }
             DataType::UInt8 => {
-                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new(
+                let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new(
                     dataset.clone(),
                     column.to_owned(),
-                    dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid),
+                    dataset.indices_dir().clone().join(uuid.to_string()),
                     params.metric_type,
-                    Box::new(shuffler),
+                    shuffler,
                     Some(ivf_params),
                     Some(()),
                     (),
                     frag_reuse_index,
                 )?
+                .with_optional_fragment_filter(fragment_ids)
+                .with_progress(progress.clone())
                 .build()
                 .await?;
+                Ok(summary.files)
             }
-            _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid data type: {:?}", element_type),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Build Vector Index: invalid data type: {:?}",
+                element_type
+            ))),
         },
         IndexType::IvfPq => {
             let len = stages.len();
             let StageParams::PQ(pq_params) = &stages[len - 1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
 
             match params.version {
                 IndexFileVersion::Legacy => {
-                    build_ivf_pq_index(
+                    if fragment_ids.is_some() {
+                        return Err(Error::index(
+                            "Build Vector Index: filtered IVF_PQ builds do not support legacy format"
+                                .to_string(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    let files = build_ivf_pq_index(
                         dataset,
                         column,
                         name,
@@ -800,153 +1296,198 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index(
                         params.metric_type,
                         &ivf_params,
                         pq_params,
+                        progress.clone(),
                     )
                     .await?;
+                    Ok(files)
                 }
                 IndexFileVersion::V3 => {
-                    IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new(
+                    let mut builder = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new(
                         dataset.clone(),
                         column.to_owned(),
-                        dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid),
+                        dataset.indices_dir().join(uuid.to_string()),
                         params.metric_type,
-                        Box::new(shuffler),
+                        shuffler,
                         Some(ivf_params),
                         Some(pq_params.clone()),
                         (),
                         frag_reuse_index,
-                    )?
-                    .build()
-                    .await?;
+                    )?;
+
+                    let summary = builder
+                        .with_transpose(!params.skip_transpose)
+                        .with_optional_fragment_filter(fragment_ids)
+                        .with_progress(progress.clone())
+                        .build()
+                        .await?;
+                    Ok(summary.files)
                 }
             }
         }
         IndexType::IvfSq => {
             let StageParams::SQ(sq_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
 
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new(
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 column.to_owned(),
-                dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid),
+                dataset.indices_dir().clone().join(uuid.to_string()),
                 params.metric_type,
-                Box::new(shuffler),
+                shuffler,
                 Some(ivf_params),
                 Some(sq_params.clone()),
                 (),
                 frag_reuse_index,
             )?
+            .with_optional_fragment_filter(fragment_ids)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
             .build()
             .await?;
+            Ok(summary.files)
         }
         IndexType::IvfRq => {
             let StageParams::RQ(rq_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
 
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new(
+            let mut builder = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 column.to_owned(),
-                dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid),
+                dataset.indices_dir().join(uuid.to_string()),
                 params.metric_type,
-                Box::new(shuffler),
+                shuffler,
                 Some(ivf_params),
                 Some(rq_params.clone()),
                 (),
                 frag_reuse_index,
-            )?
-            .build()
-            .await?;
+            )?;
+
+            let summary = builder
+                .with_transpose(!params.skip_transpose)
+                .with_optional_fragment_filter(fragment_ids)
+                .with_progress(progress.clone())
+                .build()
+                .await?;
+            Ok(summary.files)
         }
         IndexType::IvfHnswFlat => {
             let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new(
-                dataset.clone(),
-                column.to_owned(),
-                dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid),
-                params.metric_type,
-                Box::new(shuffler),
-                Some(ivf_params),
-                Some(()),
-                hnsw_params.clone(),
-                frag_reuse_index,
-            )?
-            .build()
-            .await?;
+            match element_type {
+                DataType::UInt8 => {
+                    let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatBinQuantizer>::new(
+                        dataset.clone(),
+                        column.to_owned(),
+                        dataset.indices_dir().clone().join(uuid.to_string()),
+                        params.metric_type,
+                        shuffler,
+                        Some(ivf_params),
+                        Some(()),
+                        hnsw_params.clone(),
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    )?
+                    .with_optional_fragment_filter(fragment_ids)
+                    .with_progress(progress.clone())
+                    .build()
+                    .await?;
+                    Ok(summary.files)
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new(
+                        dataset.clone(),
+                        column.to_owned(),
+                        dataset.indices_dir().clone().join(uuid.to_string()),
+                        params.metric_type,
+                        shuffler,
+                        Some(ivf_params),
+                        Some(()),
+                        hnsw_params.clone(),
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    )?
+                    .with_optional_fragment_filter(fragment_ids)
+                    .with_progress(progress.clone())
+                    .build()
+                    .await?;
+                    Ok(summary.files)
+                }
+            }
         }
         IndexType::IvfHnswPq => {
             let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
             let StageParams::PQ(pq_params) = &stages[2] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::new(
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::new(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 column.to_owned(),
-                dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid),
+                dataset.indices_dir().clone().join(uuid.to_string()),
                 params.metric_type,
-                Box::new(shuffler),
+                shuffler,
                 Some(ivf_params),
                 Some(pq_params.clone()),
                 hnsw_params.clone(),
                 frag_reuse_index,
             )?
+            .with_optional_fragment_filter(fragment_ids)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
             .build()
             .await?;
+            Ok(summary.files)
         }
         IndexType::IvfHnswSq => {
             let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
             let StageParams::SQ(sq_params) = &stages[2] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::new(
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::new(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 column.to_owned(),
-                dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid),
+                dataset.indices_dir().clone().join(uuid.to_string()),
                 params.metric_type,
-                Box::new(shuffler),
+                shuffler,
                 Some(ivf_params),
                 Some(sq_params.clone()),
                 hnsw_params.clone(),
                 frag_reuse_index,
             )?
+            .with_optional_fragment_filter(fragment_ids)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
             .build()
             .await?;
+            Ok(summary.files)
         }
-        _ => {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid index type: {:?}", index_type),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-    };
-    Ok(())
+        _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Build Vector Index: invalid index type: {:?}",
+            index_type
+        ))),
+    }
 }
 
 /// Build a Vector Index incrementally using an existing index's IVF model and quantizer
@@ -955,36 +1496,34 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index(
 pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index_incremental(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
-    uuid: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
     params: &VectorIndexParams,
     existing_index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-) -> Result<()> {
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<VectorIndexBuildSummary> {
     let stages = &params.stages;
 
     if stages.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Build Vector Index: must have at least 1 stage".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "Build Vector Index: must have at least 1 stage".to_string(),
+        ));
     };
 
     let StageParams::Ivf(ivf_params) = &stages[0] else {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}", stages),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Build Vector Index: invalid stages: {:?}",
+            stages
+        )));
     };
 
-    let (vector_type, element_type) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), column)?;
-    if let DataType::List(_) = vector_type {
-        if params.metric_type != DistanceType::Cosine {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Build Vector Index: multivector type supports only cosine distance"
-                    .to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
+    let (vector_type, _) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), column)?;
+    if let DataType::List(_) = vector_type
+        && params.metric_type != DistanceType::Cosine
+    {
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "Build Vector Index: multivector type supports only cosine distance".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     // Extract IVF model and quantizer from existing index
@@ -996,70 +1535,33 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index_incremental(
         .num_partitions
         .unwrap_or(ivf_model.num_partitions());
     if ivf_model.num_partitions() != expected_partitions {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "Number of partitions mismatch: existing index has {} partitions, but params specify {}",
-                ivf_model.num_partitions(),
-                expected_partitions
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Number of partitions mismatch: existing index has {} partitions, but params specify {}",
+            ivf_model.num_partitions(),
+            expected_partitions
+        )));
     }
 
+    let format_version = dataset_format_version(dataset);
+
     let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
     let temp_dir_path = Path::from_filesystem_path(&temp_dir)?;
-    let shuffler = Box::new(IvfShuffler::new(temp_dir_path, ivf_model.num_partitions()));
+    let shuffler = create_ivf_shuffler(
+        temp_dir_path,
+        ivf_model.num_partitions(),
+        format_version,
+        Some(progress.clone()),
+    );
 
-    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid);
+    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(uuid.to_string());
 
     // Determine the index type and build incrementally
     let (sub_index_type, quantization_type) = existing_index.sub_index_type();
 
     match (sub_index_type, quantization_type) {
         // IVF_FLAT
-        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat) => match element_type {
-            DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64 => {
-                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new_incremental(
-                    dataset.clone(),
-                    column.to_owned(),
-                    index_dir,
-                    params.metric_type,
-                    shuffler,
-                    (),
-                    frag_reuse_index,
-                    OptimizeOptions::append(),
-                )?
-                .with_ivf(ivf_model)
-                .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-                .build()
-                .await?;
-            }
-            DataType::UInt8 => {
-                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new_incremental(
-                    dataset.clone(),
-                    column.to_owned(),
-                    index_dir,
-                    params.metric_type,
-                    shuffler,
-                    (),
-                    frag_reuse_index,
-                    OptimizeOptions::append(),
-                )?
-                .with_ivf(ivf_model)
-                .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-                .build()
-                .await?;
-            }
-            _ => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Build Vector Index: invalid data type: {:?}", element_type),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-        },
-        // IVF_PQ
-        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat) => {
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 column.to_owned(),
                 index_dir,
@@ -1071,12 +1573,13 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index_incremental(
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model)
             .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
             .build()
             .await?;
+            return Ok(summary);
         }
-        // IVF_SQ
-        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Scalar) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::FlatBin) => {
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 column.to_owned(),
                 index_dir,
@@ -1088,12 +1591,35 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index_incremental(
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model)
             .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
             .build()
             .await?;
+            return Ok(summary);
         }
-        // IVF_RQ
-        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Rabit) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+        // IVF_PQ
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product) => {
+            let mut builder = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+                dataset.clone(),
+                column.to_owned(),
+                index_dir,
+                params.metric_type,
+                shuffler,
+                (),
+                frag_reuse_index,
+                OptimizeOptions::append(),
+            )?;
+            let summary = builder
+                .with_ivf(ivf_model)
+                .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+                .with_transpose(!params.skip_transpose)
+                .with_progress(progress.clone())
+                .build()
+                .await?;
+            return Ok(summary);
+        }
+        // IVF_SQ
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Scalar) => {
+            let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 column.to_owned(),
                 index_dir,
@@ -1105,24 +1631,62 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index_incremental(
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model)
             .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+            .with_progress(progress.clone())
             .build()
             .await?;
+            return Ok(summary);
+        }
+        // IVF_RQ
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Rabit) => {
+            let mut builder = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+                dataset.clone(),
+                column.to_owned(),
+                index_dir,
+                params.metric_type,
+                shuffler,
+                (),
+                frag_reuse_index,
+                OptimizeOptions::append(),
+            )?;
+            let summary = builder
+                .with_ivf(ivf_model)
+                .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+                .with_transpose(!params.skip_transpose)
+                .with_progress(progress.clone())
+                .build()
+                .await?;
+            return Ok(summary);
         }
         // IVF_HNSW variants
         (SubIndexType::Hnsw, quantization_type) => {
             let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw_params) = &stages[1] else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "Build Vector Index: HNSW index missing HNSW params in stages: {:?}",
-                        stages
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Build Vector Index: HNSW index missing HNSW params in stages: {:?}",
+                    stages
+                )));
             };
 
             match quantization_type {
                 QuantizationType::Flat => {
-                    IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+                    let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+                        dataset.clone(),
+                        column.to_owned(),
+                        index_dir,
+                        params.metric_type,
+                        shuffler,
+                        hnsw_params.clone(),
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                        OptimizeOptions::append(),
+                    )?
+                    .with_ivf(ivf_model)
+                    .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+                    .with_progress(progress.clone())
+                    .build()
+                    .await?;
+                    return Ok(summary);
+                }
+                QuantizationType::FlatBin => {
+                    let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatBinQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                         dataset.clone(),
                         column.to_owned(),
                         index_dir,
@@ -1134,11 +1698,13 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index_incremental(
                     )?
                     .with_ivf(ivf_model)
                     .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+                    .with_progress(progress.clone())
                     .build()
                     .await?;
+                    return Ok(summary);
                 }
                 QuantizationType::Product => {
-                    IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+                    let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                         dataset.clone(),
                         column.to_owned(),
                         index_dir,
@@ -1150,11 +1716,13 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index_incremental(
                     )?
                     .with_ivf(ivf_model)
                     .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+                    .with_progress(progress.clone())
                     .build()
                     .await?;
+                    return Ok(summary);
                 }
                 QuantizationType::Scalar => {
-                    IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+                    let summary = IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                         dataset.clone(),
                         column.to_owned(),
                         index_dir,
@@ -1166,62 +1734,55 @@ pub(crate) async fn build_vector_index_incremental(
                     )?
                     .with_ivf(ivf_model)
                     .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+                    .with_progress(progress.clone())
                     .build()
                     .await?;
+                    return Ok(summary);
                 }
                 QuantizationType::Rabit => {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: "Rabit quantization is not supported for HNSW index".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "Rabit quantization is not supported for HNSW index".to_string(),
+                    ));
                 }
             }
         }
     }
-
-    Ok(())
 }
 
-/// Build an empty vector index without training on data
+/// Create a vector index that carries its definition and no data.
+///
+/// The parameters live in the index's `index_details` and the fragment bitmap
+/// is empty, so it covers no rows and has no file to open. `optimize_indices`
+/// trains it once the column holds enough vectors.
 #[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
 pub(crate) async fn build_empty_vector_index(
     _dataset: &Dataset,
-    column: &str,
-    name: &str,
-    _uuid: &str,
+    _column: &str,
+    _name: &str,
+    _uuid: Uuid,
     _params: &VectorIndexParams,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    // For now, return a NotImplementedError to indicate this functionality
-    // is still being developed
-    Err(Error::NotSupported {
-        source: format!(
-            "Creating empty vector indices with train=False is not yet implemented. \
-            Index '{}' for column '{}' cannot be created without training.",
-            name, column
-        )
-        .into(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    Ok(Vec::new())
 }
 
-#[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all, fields(old_uuid = old_uuid.to_string(), new_uuid = new_uuid.to_string(), num_rows = mapping.len()))]
+#[instrument(level = "debug", skip_all, fields(old_uuid = old_uuid.to_string(), new_uuid = new_uuid.to_string()))]
 pub(crate) async fn remap_vector_index(
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     column: &str,
     old_uuid: &Uuid,
     new_uuid: &Uuid,
     old_metadata: &IndexMetadata,
-    mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
-) -> Result<()> {
+    mapping: &RowAddrTranslator,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
     let old_index = dataset
-        .open_vector_index(column, &old_uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .open_vector_index(column, old_uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
         .await?;
 
     if let Some(ivf_index) = old_index.as_any().downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>() {
-        remap_index_file(
+        let file = remap_index_file(
             dataset.as_ref(),
-            &old_uuid.to_string(),
-            &new_uuid.to_string(),
+            old_uuid,
+            new_uuid,
             old_metadata.dataset_version,
             ivf_index,
             mapping,
@@ -1233,29 +1794,29 @@ pub(crate) async fn remap_vector_index(
             vec![],
         )
         .await?;
+        Ok(vec![file])
     } else {
         // it's v3 index
-        remap_index_file_v3(
+        let files = remap_index_file_v3(
             dataset.as_ref(),
-            &new_uuid.to_string(),
+            new_uuid,
             old_index,
             mapping,
             column.to_string(),
         )
         .await?;
+        Ok(files)
     }
-
-    Ok(())
 }
 
 /// Open the Vector index on dataset, specified by the `uuid`.
 #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(dataset, vec_idx, reader))]
 pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index(
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-    uuid: &str,
+    uuid: &Uuid,
     vec_idx: &lance_index::pb::VectorIndex,
     reader: Arc<dyn Reader>,
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
 ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
     let metric_type = pb::VectorMetricType::try_from(vec_idx.metric_type)?.into();
 
@@ -1268,22 +1829,22 @@ pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index(
             #[allow(unused_variables)]
             Some(Stage::Transform(tf)) => {
                 if last_stage.is_none() {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("Invalid vector index stages: {:?}", vec_idx.stages),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "Invalid vector index stages: {:?}",
+                        vec_idx.stages
+                    )));
                 }
             }
             Some(Stage::Ivf(ivf_pb)) => {
                 if last_stage.is_none() {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("Invalid vector index stages: {:?}", vec_idx.stages),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "Invalid vector index stages: {:?}",
+                        vec_idx.stages
+                    )));
                 }
                 let ivf = IvfModel::try_from(ivf_pb.to_owned())?;
                 last_stage = Some(Arc::new(IVFIndex::try_new(
-                    uuid,
+                    *uuid,
                     ivf,
                     reader.clone(),
                     last_stage.unwrap(),
@@ -1295,10 +1856,10 @@ pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index(
             }
             Some(Stage::Pq(pq_proto)) => {
                 if last_stage.is_some() {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("Invalid vector index stages: {:?}", vec_idx.stages),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "Invalid vector index stages: {:?}",
+                        vec_idx.stages
+                    )));
                 };
                 let pq = ProductQuantizer::from_proto(pq_proto, metric_type)?;
                 last_stage = Some(Arc::new(PQIndex::new(
@@ -1308,41 +1869,55 @@ pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index(
                 )));
             }
             Some(Stage::Diskann(_)) => {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: "DiskANN support is removed from Lance.".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(
+                    "DiskANN support is removed from Lance.".to_string(),
+                ));
             }
             _ => {}
         }
     }
 
     if last_stage.is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Invalid index stages: {:?}", vec_idx.stages),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Invalid index stages: {:?}",
+            vec_idx.stages
+        )));
     }
     let idx = last_stage.unwrap();
     Ok(idx)
 }
 
+/// Open an index file without a HEAD request when the size is already known.
+///
+/// `file_sizes` maps a file name to its size in bytes (see
+/// `IndexMetadata::file_size_map`). If `file_name` is missing, which is the case
+/// for older indices that did not record sizes, this falls back to `open`, which
+/// issues a HEAD to learn the size.
+pub(crate) async fn open_index_file(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    path: &Path,
+    file_name: &str,
+    file_sizes: &HashMap<String, u64>,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn Reader>> {
+    match file_sizes.get(file_name) {
+        Some(&size) => object_store.open_with_size(path, size as usize).await,
+        None => object_store.open(path).await,
+    }
+}
+
 #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(dataset, reader))]
 pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index_v2(
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     column: &str,
-    uuid: &str,
-    reader: PreviousFileReader,
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    uuid: &Uuid,
+    reader: V1FileReader,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
 ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
     let index_metadata = reader
         .schema()
         .metadata
         .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
-        .ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "Index Metadata not found".to_owned(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        .ok_or(Error::index("Index Metadata not found".to_owned()))?;
     let index_metadata: lance_index::IndexMetadata = serde_json::from_str(index_metadata)?;
     let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(index_metadata.distance_type.as_str())?;
 
@@ -1351,16 +1926,24 @@ pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index_v2(
     let index_meta = dataset
         .load_index(uuid)
         .await?
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("Index with id {} does not exist", uuid)))?;
     let index_dir = dataset.indice_files_dir(&index_meta)?;
+    let object_store = dataset.object_store_for_index(&index_meta).await?;
+    let file_sizes = index_meta.file_size_map();
 
     let index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex> = match index_metadata.index_type.as_str() {
         "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => {
-            let aux_path = index_dir.child(uuid).child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-            let aux_reader = dataset.object_store().open(&aux_path).await?;
+            let aux_path = index_dir
+                .clone()
+                .join(uuid.to_string())
+                .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+            let aux_reader = open_index_file(
+                object_store.as_ref(),
+                &aux_path,
+                INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME,
+                &file_sizes,
+            )
+            .await?;
 
             let ivf_data = IvfModel::load(&reader).await?;
             let options = HNSWIndexOptions { use_residual: true };
@@ -1374,7 +1957,7 @@ pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index_v2(
             let ivf = IvfModel::try_from(pb_ivf)?;
 
             Arc::new(IVFIndex::try_new(
-                uuid,
+                *uuid,
                 ivf,
                 reader.object_reader.clone(),
                 Arc::new(hnsw),
@@ -1386,8 +1969,17 @@ pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index_v2(
         }
 
         "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => {
-            let aux_path = index_dir.child(uuid).child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-            let aux_reader = dataset.object_store().open(&aux_path).await?;
+            let aux_path = index_dir
+                .clone()
+                .join(uuid.to_string())
+                .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+            let aux_reader = open_index_file(
+                object_store.as_ref(),
+                &aux_path,
+                INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME,
+                &file_sizes,
+            )
+            .await?;
 
             let ivf_data = IvfModel::load(&reader).await?;
             let options = HNSWIndexOptions {
@@ -1404,7 +1996,7 @@ pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index_v2(
             let ivf = IvfModel::try_from(pb_ivf)?;
 
             Arc::new(IVFIndex::try_new(
-                uuid,
+                *uuid,
                 ivf,
                 reader.object_reader.clone(),
                 Arc::new(hnsw),
@@ -1423,17 +2015,16 @@ pub(crate) async fn open_vector_index_v2(
             {
                 ext.clone()
                     .to_vector()
-                    .ok_or(Error::Internal {
-                        message: "unable to cast index extension to vector".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?
+                    .ok_or(Error::internal(
+                        "unable to cast index extension to vector".to_string(),
+                    ))?
                     .load_index(dataset.clone(), column, uuid, reader)
                     .await?
             } else {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("Unsupported index type: {}", index_metadata.index_type),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Unsupported index type: {}",
+                    index_metadata.index_type
+                )));
             }
         }
     };
@@ -1452,21 +2043,17 @@ pub async fn initialize_vector_index(
     field_names: &[&str],
 ) -> Result<()> {
     if field_names.is_empty() || field_names.len() > 1 {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Unsupported fields for vector index: {:?}", field_names),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Unsupported fields for vector index: {:?}",
+            field_names
+        )));
     }
 
     // Vector indices currently support only single fields, use the first one
     let column_name = field_names[0];
 
     let source_vector_index = source_dataset
-        .open_vector_index(
-            column_name,
-            &source_index.uuid.to_string(),
-            &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-        )
+        .open_vector_index(column_name, &source_index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
         .await?;
 
     let metric_type = source_vector_index.metric_type();
@@ -1476,7 +2063,8 @@ pub async fn initialize_vector_index(
     let ivf_params = derive_ivf_params(ivf_model);
 
     let params = match (sub_index_type, quantization_type) {
-        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat) => {
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat)
+        | (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::FlatBin) => {
             VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(metric_type, ivf_params)
         }
         (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product) => {
@@ -1497,7 +2085,7 @@ pub async fn initialize_vector_index(
         (SubIndexType::Hnsw, quantization_type) => {
             let hnsw_params = derive_hnsw_params(source_vector_index.as_ref());
             match quantization_type {
-                QuantizationType::Flat => {
+                QuantizationType::Flat | QuantizationType::FlatBin => {
                     VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(metric_type, ivf_params, hnsw_params)
                 }
                 QuantizationType::Product => {
@@ -1521,10 +2109,9 @@ pub async fn initialize_vector_index(
                     )
                 }
                 QuantizationType::Rabit => {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: "Rabit quantization is not supported for HNSW index".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index(
+                        "Rabit quantization is not supported for HNSW index".to_string(),
+                    ));
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -1535,46 +2122,38 @@ pub async fn initialize_vector_index(
         .open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector)
         .await?;
 
-    build_vector_index_incremental(
+    let summary = build_vector_index_incremental(
         target_dataset,
         column_name,
-        &new_uuid.to_string(),
+        new_uuid,
         &params,
         source_vector_index,
         frag_reuse_index,
+        noop_progress(),
     )
     .await?;
 
-    let field = target_dataset
-        .schema()
-        .field(column_name)
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Column '{}' not found in target dataset", column_name),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-
-    let fragment_bitmap = if target_dataset.get_fragments().is_empty() {
-        Some(roaring::RoaringBitmap::new())
-    } else {
-        Some(
-            target_dataset
-                .get_fragments()
-                .iter()
-                .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
-                .collect(),
-        )
-    };
+    let field = target_dataset.schema().field(column_name).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "Column '{}' not found in target dataset",
+            column_name
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    let fragment_bitmap = Some(target_dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
 
     let new_idx = IndexMetadata {
         uuid: new_uuid,
         name: source_index.name.clone(),
         fields: vec![field.id],
+        covering_fields: vec![],
         dataset_version: target_dataset.manifest.version,
         fragment_bitmap,
-        index_details: Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details())),
-        index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION as i32,
+        index_details: source_index.index_details.clone(),
+        index_version: source_index.index_version,
         created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
         base_id: None,
+        files: Some(summary.files),
     };
 
     let transaction = Transaction::new(
@@ -1604,6 +2183,9 @@ fn derive_ivf_params(ivf_model: &IvfModel) -> IvfBuildParams {
         #[allow(deprecated)]
         retrain: false, // Don't retrain since we have centroids
         sample_rate: 256, // Default
+        streaming_sample_rate: None,
+        streaming_coreset_rate: None,
+        streaming_refine_passes: 0,
         precomputed_partitions_file: None,
         precomputed_shuffle_buffers: None,
         shuffle_partition_batches: 1024 * 10, // Default
@@ -1612,98 +2194,578 @@ fn derive_ivf_params(ivf_model: &IvfModel) -> IvfBuildParams {
     }
 }
 
-/// Create PQ build parameters from a ProductQuantizer
-/// TODO: support consistently deriving all the original parameters
-fn derive_pq_params(pq_quantizer: &ProductQuantizer) -> PQBuildParams {
-    PQBuildParams {
-        num_sub_vectors: pq_quantizer.num_sub_vectors,
-        num_bits: pq_quantizer.num_bits as usize,
-        max_iters: 50,   // Default
-        kmeans_redos: 1, // Default
-        codebook: Some(Arc::new(pq_quantizer.codebook.clone())),
-        sample_rate: 256, // Default
+/// Create PQ build parameters from a ProductQuantizer
+/// TODO: support consistently deriving all the original parameters
+fn derive_pq_params(pq_quantizer: &ProductQuantizer) -> PQBuildParams {
+    PQBuildParams {
+        num_sub_vectors: pq_quantizer.num_sub_vectors,
+        num_bits: pq_quantizer.num_bits as usize,
+        max_iters: 50,   // Default
+        kmeans_redos: 1, // Default
+        codebook: Some(Arc::new(pq_quantizer.codebook.clone())),
+        sample_rate: 256, // Default
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create SQ build parameters from a ScalarQuantizer
+/// TODO: support consistently deriving all the original parameters
+fn derive_sq_params(sq_quantizer: &ScalarQuantizer) -> SQBuildParams {
+    SQBuildParams {
+        num_bits: sq_quantizer.num_bits(),
+        sample_rate: 256, // Default
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create Rabit build parameters from a RabitQuantizer
+/// TODO: support consistently deriving all the original parameters
+fn derive_rabit_params(rabit_quantizer: &RabitQuantizer) -> RQBuildParams {
+    RQBuildParams {
+        num_bits: rabit_quantizer.num_bits(),
+        rotation_type: rabit_quantizer.rotation_type(),
+        rotation: None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Extract HNSW build parameters from the source vector index statistics.
+/// Returns default parameters if extraction fails.
+/// TODO: support consistently deriving all the original parameters
+pub(crate) fn derive_hnsw_params(source_index: &dyn VectorIndex) -> HnswBuildParams {
+    let default_params = HnswBuildParams {
+        max_level: 4,
+        m: 20,
+        ef_construction: 100,
+        prefetch_distance: None,
+    };
+
+    let Ok(stats) = source_index.statistics() else {
+        return default_params;
+    };
+
+    let Some(sub_index) = stats.get("sub_index") else {
+        return default_params;
+    };
+
+    // Extract HNSW parameters from sub_index.params
+    if let Some(params) = sub_index.get("params") {
+        let max_level = params
+            .get("max_level")
+            .and_then(|v| v.as_u64())
+            .map(|v| v as u16)
+            .unwrap_or(4);
+        let m = params
+            .get("m")
+            .and_then(|v| v.as_u64())
+            .map(|v| v as usize)
+            .unwrap_or(20);
+        let ef_construction = params
+            .get("ef_construction")
+            .and_then(|v| v.as_u64())
+            .map(|v| v as usize)
+            .unwrap_or(100);
+        let prefetch_distance = params
+            .get("prefetch_distance")
+            .and_then(|v| v.as_u64())
+            .map(|v| v as usize);
+
+        return HnswBuildParams {
+            max_level,
+            m,
+            ef_construction,
+            prefetch_distance,
+        };
+    }
+
+    default_params
+}
+
+fn vector_index_type(index: &dyn VectorIndex) -> IndexType {
+    match index.sub_index_type() {
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat | QuantizationType::FlatBin) => {
+            IndexType::IvfFlat
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product) => IndexType::IvfPq,
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Scalar) => IndexType::IvfSq,
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Rabit) => IndexType::IvfRq,
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Flat | QuantizationType::FlatBin) => {
+            IndexType::IvfHnswFlat
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Product) => IndexType::IvfHnswPq,
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Scalar) => IndexType::IvfHnswSq,
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Rabit) => IndexType::Vector,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Derive structural build parameters for a new, independently trained segment.
+///
+/// Learned IVF centroids, quantizer codebooks, and rotations are deliberately
+/// omitted so the new segment is valid for its own fragment set.
+pub(crate) fn fresh_vector_segment_params(
+    metadata: &IndexMetadata,
+    index: &dyn VectorIndex,
+) -> Result<VectorIndexParams> {
+    if let Some(params) = metadata
+        .index_details
+        .as_deref()
+        .and_then(details::vector_params_from_details)
+        && params.metric_type == index.metric_type()
+        && params.index_type() == vector_index_type(index)
+    {
+        return Ok(params);
+    }
+
+    let mut ivf_params = derive_ivf_params(index.ivf_model());
+    ivf_params.centroids = None;
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
+    {
+        ivf_params.retrain = false;
+    }
+
+    let metric_type = index.metric_type();
+    let quantizer = index.quantizer();
+    Ok(match index.sub_index_type() {
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat | QuantizationType::FlatBin) => {
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(metric_type, ivf_params)
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product) => {
+            let quantizer: ProductQuantizer = quantizer.try_into()?;
+            let mut pq_params = derive_pq_params(&quantizer);
+            pq_params.codebook = None;
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(metric_type, ivf_params, pq_params)
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Scalar) => {
+            let quantizer: ScalarQuantizer = quantizer.try_into()?;
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(
+                metric_type,
+                ivf_params,
+                derive_sq_params(&quantizer),
+            )
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Rabit) => {
+            let quantizer: RabitQuantizer = quantizer.try_into()?;
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+                metric_type,
+                ivf_params,
+                derive_rabit_params(&quantizer),
+            )
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Flat | QuantizationType::FlatBin) => {
+            VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(metric_type, ivf_params, derive_hnsw_params(index))
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Product) => {
+            let quantizer: ProductQuantizer = quantizer.try_into()?;
+            let mut pq_params = derive_pq_params(&quantizer);
+            pq_params.codebook = None;
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+                metric_type,
+                ivf_params,
+                derive_hnsw_params(index),
+                pq_params,
+            )
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Scalar) => {
+            let quantizer: ScalarQuantizer = quantizer.try_into()?;
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+                metric_type,
+                ivf_params,
+                derive_hnsw_params(index),
+                derive_sq_params(&quantizer),
+            )
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Rabit) => {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "Cannot build a fresh IVF_HNSW_RQ segment: this index type is unsupported"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::NullBuffer;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType as ArrowDataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+    use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::vector::ivf::builder::IvfBuildParams;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nullable_vector_count_stops_at_threshold() {
+        const ROWS: usize = 16 * 1024;
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..ROWS * DIM).map(|i| i as f32)),
+            DIM as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vec",
+            vectors.data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 1024,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 16);
+
+        dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let counted = count_trainable_vectors(&dataset, "vec", ROWS, 256)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let bounded_reads = dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!((256..ROWS).contains(&counted), "counted {counted}");
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_trainable_vectors(&dataset, "vec", ROWS, usize::MAX)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            ROWS
+        );
+        let full_reads = dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(
+            bounded_reads.read_bytes < full_reads.read_bytes / 2,
+            "threshold check read {} bytes; full count read {} bytes",
+            bounded_reads.read_bytes,
+            full_reads.read_bytes
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::all_valid(64, 1)]
+    #[case::sparse(64, 4)]
+    #[case::all_null(64, 0)]
+    #[case::empty(0, 1)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nullable_vector_count_nulls_and_deletions(
+        #[case] rows: usize,
+        #[case] valid_every: usize,
+    ) {
+        let valid: Vec<bool> = (0..rows)
+            .map(|i| valid_every != 0 && i % valid_every == 0)
+            .collect();
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", ArrowDataType::Float32, false)),
+            2,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                (0..rows * 2).map(|i| i as f32),
+            )),
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(valid.clone())),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", ArrowDataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("vec", vectors.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..rows as i32)),
+                Arc::new(vectors),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 16,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        if rows > 0 {
+            dataset.delete("id % 5 = 0").await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let expected = valid
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter(|(i, valid)| **valid && i % 5 != 0)
+            .count();
+        let total = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        for enough in [0, 1, 8, usize::MAX] {
+            let count = count_trainable_vectors(&dataset, "vec", total, enough)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            if expected < enough {
+                assert_eq!(count, expected);
+            } else {
+                assert!(count >= enough && count <= expected);
+            }
+            assert_eq!(
+                has_vectors_to_train(&dataset, "vec", enough).await.unwrap(),
+                expected >= enough
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// IVF_RQ encodes residuals under L2 or dot; the RQ transform rejects other
+    /// metrics, but only once the IVF model has been trained, so the build spends
+    /// the training pass before failing. Hamming is also contradictory for RQ,
+    /// which requires float vectors while Hamming is a binary-vector metric.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_rejects_hamming_for_rq() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+        use lance_index::vector::bq::RQBuildParams;
+
+        let dim = 16;
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(dim)),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(256))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+            MetricType::Hamming,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+            RQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        let err = dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("IVF_RQ does not support the hamming metric"),
+            "expected the up-front metric rejection, got: {err}"
+        );
     }
-}
 
-/// Create SQ build parameters from a ScalarQuantizer
-/// TODO: support consistently deriving all the original parameters
-fn derive_sq_params(sq_quantizer: &ScalarQuantizer) -> SQBuildParams {
-    SQBuildParams {
-        num_bits: sq_quantizer.num_bits(),
-        sample_rate: 256, // Default
+    /// A build that was handed its codebook has nothing to fit, so the rows
+    /// that fitting would have needed are not required of it.
+    ///
+    /// Without this a caller who supplies both the centroids and the codebook
+    /// -- a fully specified index, needing no training data at all -- has the
+    /// build deferred and gets an empty index back.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_supplied_codebook_needs_no_rows_to_train_on() {
+        use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+        use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+
+        let eight_bit = PQBuildParams {
+            num_bits: 8,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            vector_quantizer_minimum_rows(&[StageParams::PQ(eight_bit.clone())]),
+            Some(256),
+            "fitting an 8-bit codebook needs a row per code"
+        );
+
+        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32; 2 * 256 * 4]);
+        let codebook = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap();
+        let supplied = PQBuildParams {
+            codebook: Some(Arc::new(codebook)),
+            ..eight_bit
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            vector_quantizer_minimum_rows(&[StageParams::PQ(supplied)]),
+            None,
+            "a supplied codebook is the fit, so no rows are needed for it"
+        );
     }
-}
 
-/// Create Rabit build parameters from a RabitQuantizer
-/// TODO: support consistently deriving all the original parameters
-fn derive_rabit_params(rabit_quantizer: &RabitQuantizer) -> RQBuildParams {
-    RQBuildParams {
-        num_bits: rabit_quantizer.num_bits(),
+    /// A null vector inside a multivector row is not one to train on.
+    ///
+    /// The row's list length counts it, so counting lengths reports more
+    /// trainable vectors than exist -- and this count decides whether there is
+    /// enough data to train at all, so erring high is the direction that
+    /// trains an index it should have deferred.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn a_null_vector_inside_a_multivector_row_is_not_trainable() {
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+        use arrow_array::builder::{FixedSizeListBuilder, Float32Builder, ListBuilder};
+
+        const DIM: i32 = 2;
+        let item = Arc::new(Field::new("item", ArrowDataType::Float32, true));
+        let vector = Arc::new(Field::new(
+            "item",
+            ArrowDataType::FixedSizeList(item, DIM),
+            true,
+        ));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vec",
+            ArrowDataType::List(vector),
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        // Three rows: two vectors, then one vector and one null, then a null
+        // list. Four elements are present; three of them are trainable.
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Float32Builder::new(), DIM));
+        for row in [
+            vec![Some([1.0, 2.0]), Some([3.0, 4.0])],
+            vec![Some([5.0, 6.0]), None],
+        ] {
+            for cell in row {
+                match cell {
+                    Some(v) => {
+                        builder.values().values().append_slice(&v);
+                        builder.values().append(true);
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        builder.values().values().append_slice(&[0.0; DIM as usize]);
+                        builder.values().append(false);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        builder.append(false);
+        let array = builder.finish();
+
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap();
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, dir.as_str(), None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let counted = count_trainable_vectors(&dataset, "vec", 3, usize::MAX)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            counted, 3,
+            "the null vector in the second row must not be counted"
+        );
     }
-}
 
-/// Extract HNSW build parameters from the source vector index statistics.
-/// Returns default parameters if extraction fails.
-/// TODO: support consistently deriving all the original parameters
-fn derive_hnsw_params(source_index: &dyn VectorIndex) -> HnswBuildParams {
-    let default_params = HnswBuildParams {
-        max_level: 4,
-        m: 20,
-        ef_construction: 100,
-        prefetch_distance: None,
-    };
+    /// `open_index_file` skips the HEAD when the size is known and still falls
+    /// back to a HEAD for older indices that did not record sizes. A HEAD is
+    /// issued as a `get_opts` call with `head = true`, so a proxy store counts
+    /// those against the index file.
+    ///
+    /// Regression test for <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/6944>.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_open_index_file_skips_head_when_size_known() {
+        use lance_index::INDEX_FILE_NAME;
+        use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
+        use lance_io::object_store::{ObjectStoreParams, ObjectStoreRegistry};
+
+        let (store, base) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            Arc::new(ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            "memory:///",
+            &ObjectStoreParams::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-    let Ok(stats) = source_index.statistics() else {
-        return default_params;
-    };
+        let path = base.join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+        // Larger than the block size so size discovery needs a separate HEAD.
+        let data = vec![7u8; 2 * store.block_size()];
+        store.put(&path, &data).await.unwrap();
 
-    let Some(sub_index) = stats.get("sub_index") else {
-        return default_params;
-    };
+        let file_sizes = HashMap::from([(INDEX_FILE_NAME.to_string(), data.len() as u64)]);
 
-    // Extract HNSW parameters from sub_index.params
-    if let Some(params) = sub_index.get("params") {
-        let max_level = params
-            .get("max_level")
-            .and_then(|v| v.as_u64())
-            .map(|v| v as u16)
-            .unwrap_or(4);
-        let m = params
-            .get("m")
-            .and_then(|v| v.as_u64())
-            .map(|v| v as usize)
-            .unwrap_or(20);
-        let ef_construction = params
-            .get("ef_construction")
-            .and_then(|v| v.as_u64())
-            .map(|v| v as usize)
-            .unwrap_or(100);
+        // Size recorded in the manifest, so reading the size issues no HEAD.
+        let _ = store.io_stats_incremental(); // reset
+        let reader = open_index_file(store.as_ref(), &path, INDEX_FILE_NAME, &file_sizes)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reader.size().await.unwrap(), data.len());
+        let stats = store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            0,
+            "a known file size must not trigger a HEAD request"
+        );
 
-        return HnswBuildParams {
-            max_level,
-            m,
-            ef_construction,
-            prefetch_distance: None,
-        };
+        // Size unknown, as in an older index, so it falls back to a HEAD.
+        let _ = store.io_stats_incremental(); // reset
+        let reader = open_index_file(store.as_ref(), &path, INDEX_FILE_NAME, &HashMap::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reader.size().await.unwrap(), data.len());
+        let stats = store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            1,
+            "an unknown file size must fall back to exactly one HEAD request"
+        );
     }
 
-    default_params
-}
+    /// `open_index_file` looks up sizes in `IndexMetadata::file_size_map()` by
+    /// bare file name. This pins that a freshly created HNSW index records both
+    /// the main and auxiliary files under those exact names with nonzero sizes,
+    /// which is what lets the open path skip the HEAD.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hnsw_index_records_file_sizes() {
+        use lance_index::{INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_FILE_NAME};
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    use crate::dataset::Dataset;
-    use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type};
-    use arrow_array::Array;
-    use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType as ArrowDataType, Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
-    use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
-    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-    use lance_index::DatasetIndexExt;
-    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = format!("{}/ds", test_dir.as_str());
+
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(64), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams {
+                num_partitions: Some(2),
+                max_iters: 2,
+                sample_rate: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            HnswBuildParams::default()
+                .max_level(2)
+                .num_edges(4)
+                .ef_construction(16),
+            PQBuildParams {
+                num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                num_bits: 4,
+                max_iters: 2,
+                sample_rate: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("hnsw".to_string()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let index = indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "hnsw").unwrap();
+        let file_sizes = index.file_size_map();
+
+        assert!(
+            file_sizes.get(INDEX_FILE_NAME).copied().unwrap_or(0) > 0,
+            "manifest should record a nonzero {INDEX_FILE_NAME} size, got {file_sizes:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            file_sizes
+                .get(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME)
+                .copied()
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+                > 0,
+            "manifest should record a nonzero {INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME} size, got {file_sizes:?}"
+        );
+    }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_initialize_vector_index_ivf_pq() {
@@ -1711,11 +2773,11 @@ mod tests {
         let source_uri = format!("{}/source", test_dir.as_str());
         let target_uri = format!("{}/target", test_dir.as_str());
 
-        // Create source dataset with vector column (need at least 256 rows for PQ training)
+        // Ten partitions, each needing a codebook's worth of vectors.
         let source_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
             .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
             .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(32.into()))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(300), BatchCount::from(1));
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(2560), BatchCount::from(1));
         let mut source_dataset = Dataset::write(source_reader, &source_uri, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
@@ -1775,11 +2837,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify the index type and parameters match
         let target_vector_index = target_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let stats = target_vector_index.statistics().unwrap();
@@ -1807,11 +2865,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify centroids are shared between source and target indices
         let source_vector_index = source_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &source_index.uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &source_index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -1920,6 +2974,102 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 10, "Should return 10 nearest neighbors");
     }
 
+    /// The scratch directory the guard owns has to be gone once the build is
+    /// over, or the OS temp dir grows by one shuffled copy of the vector column
+    /// per index build.
+    ///
+    /// The OS temp dir is process-global, so an in-process check cannot
+    /// attribute a leftover directory to our own build. This test re-executes
+    /// itself in a child process with `TMPDIR` pointed at an isolated dir we
+    /// own: the child builds, the parent asserts nothing survives. Same shape as
+    /// `index::vector::ivf::io::tests::test_hnsw_pq_scratch_dir_is_not_leaked`,
+    /// which covers the legacy partition-staging dir.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shuffle_scratch_dir_is_not_leaked() {
+        const ROOT_VAR: &str = "LANCE_SHUFFLE_LEAK_TEST_ROOT";
+
+        // Child half: build under the root the parent handed us and let it do the
+        // leak detection. The dataset goes outside the temp dir's `.tmp*` namespace
+        // so the parent never mistakes it for a leaked scratch directory. Read the
+        // value as an `OsString`: with `env::var`, a root that is not valid UTF-8
+        // would send the child down the parent branch and have it spawn a child of
+        // its own, without end.
+        if let Some(root) = std::env::var_os(ROOT_VAR) {
+            let root = root
+                .into_string()
+                .expect("the isolated root must be valid UTF-8");
+            tokio::runtime::Runtime::new()
+                .unwrap()
+                .block_on(async move {
+                    let uri = format!("{root}/dataset");
+                    let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                        .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                        .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+                        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(256), BatchCount::from(1));
+                    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+                    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+                    for i in 0..2 {
+                        dataset
+                            .create_index(
+                                &["vector"],
+                                IndexType::Vector,
+                                Some(format!("vector_idx_{i}")),
+                                &params,
+                                false,
+                            )
+                            .await
+                            .unwrap();
+                    }
+                });
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let isolated_root = TempStdDir::default();
+        // libtest names the thread after the running test, so the child's filter
+        // cannot drift out of sync with this function's name.
+        let this_test = std::thread::current().name().unwrap().to_string();
+        let output = std::process::Command::new(std::env::current_exe().unwrap())
+            .args([&this_test, "--exact", "--nocapture"])
+            .env("TMPDIR", isolated_root.as_ref())
+            .env(ROOT_VAR, isolated_root.as_ref())
+            .output()
+            .expect("failed to spawn child test process");
+        assert!(
+            output.status.success(),
+            "child build process failed:\n--- stdout ---\n{}\n--- stderr ---\n{}",
+            String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stdout),
+            String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stderr),
+        );
+
+        // A filter that matches nothing also exits 0, so confirm the child did the
+        // work instead of reporting a clean scan of an untouched directory.
+        assert!(
+            isolated_root.join("dataset").is_dir(),
+            "the child process did not run the build; filter was {this_test:?}"
+        );
+
+        // Every scratch dir a build creates sits directly under TMPDIR and is
+        // owned by a guard, so none should survive the child process.
+        let leaked: Vec<std::path::PathBuf> = std::fs::read_dir(&isolated_root)
+            .expect("read isolated temp root")
+            .flatten()
+            .map(|entry| entry.path())
+            .filter(|path| {
+                path.is_dir()
+                    && path
+                        .file_name()
+                        .and_then(|name| name.to_str())
+                        .is_some_and(|name| name.starts_with(".tmp"))
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        assert!(
+            leaked.is_empty(),
+            "vector index build leaked scratch directories under the temp dir: {leaked:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_initialize_vector_index_ivf_flat() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
@@ -1990,11 +3140,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify the index type and parameters match
         let target_vector_index = target_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let stats = target_vector_index.statistics().unwrap();
@@ -2026,11 +3172,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify centroids are shared between source and target indices
         let source_vector_index = source_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &source_index.uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &source_index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -2136,16 +3278,24 @@ mod tests {
         let invalid_id = max_id + 1000;
 
         // let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(4, MetricType::L2);
-        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
+        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
 
         let mut ivf_params = IvfBuildParams {
             num_partitions: Some(4),
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let dim = utils::get_vector_dim(dataset.schema(), "vector").unwrap();
-        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(&dataset, "vector", dim, MetricType::L2, &ivf_params)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            dim,
+            MetricType::L2,
+            &ivf_params,
+            None,
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
         // Attach precomputed global centroids to ivf_params for distributed build.
         ivf_params.centroids = ivf_model.centroids.clone().map(Arc::new);
@@ -2156,10 +3306,11 @@ mod tests {
             &dataset,
             "vector",
             "vector_ivf_flat_dist",
-            &uuid,
+            uuid,
             &params,
             None,
             &[invalid_id],
+            noop_progress(),
         )
         .await;
 
@@ -2181,15 +3332,23 @@ mod tests {
             .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(128), BatchCount::from(1));
         let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
+        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
         let mut ivf_params = IvfBuildParams {
             num_partitions: Some(4),
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let dim = utils::get_vector_dim(dataset.schema(), "vector").unwrap();
-        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(&dataset, "vector", dim, MetricType::L2, &ivf_params)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            dim,
+            MetricType::L2,
+            &ivf_params,
+            None,
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
         // Attach precomputed global centroids to ivf_params for distributed build.
         ivf_params.centroids = ivf_model.centroids.clone().map(Arc::new);
@@ -2200,10 +3359,11 @@ mod tests {
             &dataset,
             "vector",
             "vector_ivf_flat_dist",
-            &uuid,
+            uuid,
             &params,
             None,
             &[],
+            noop_progress(),
         )
         .await;
 
@@ -2214,6 +3374,86 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_train_ivf_progress_is_emitted_before_completion() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
+
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct RecordingProgress {
+            train_ivf_complete: AtomicBool,
+            saw_train_ivf_progress_before_complete: AtomicBool,
+            saw_train_ivf_progress_after_complete: AtomicBool,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait::async_trait]
+        impl IndexBuildProgress for RecordingProgress {
+            async fn stage_start(&self, _: &str, _: Option<u64>, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            async fn stage_progress(&self, stage: &str, _: u64) -> Result<()> {
+                if stage == "train_ivf" {
+                    if self.train_ivf_complete.load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
+                        self.saw_train_ivf_progress_after_complete
+                            .store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    } else {
+                        self.saw_train_ivf_progress_before_complete
+                            .store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            async fn stage_complete(&self, stage: &str) -> Result<()> {
+                if stage == "train_ivf" {
+                    self.train_ivf_complete.store(true, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = format!("{}/ds", test_dir.as_str());
+        let reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(32.into()))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(128), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(4, MetricType::L2);
+        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress {
+            train_ivf_complete: AtomicBool::new(false),
+            saw_train_ivf_progress_before_complete: AtomicBool::new(false),
+            saw_train_ivf_progress_after_complete: AtomicBool::new(false),
+        });
+
+        build_vector_index(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            "vector_ivf_flat_progress",
+            uuid,
+            &params,
+            None,
+            progress.clone(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            progress
+                .saw_train_ivf_progress_before_complete
+                .load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            "expected at least one train_ivf progress event before completion"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !progress
+                .saw_train_ivf_progress_after_complete
+                .load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            "found train_ivf progress after completion"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_build_distributed_training_metadata_missing() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
@@ -2226,16 +3466,22 @@ mod tests {
         let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
         let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(4, MetricType::L2);
-        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
+        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
 
         // Pre-create a malformed global training file that is missing the
         // `lance:global_ivf_centroids` metadata key.
-        let out_base = dataset.indices_dir().child(&*uuid);
-        let training_path = out_base.child("global_training.idx");
+        let out_base = dataset.indices_dir().join(uuid.to_string());
+        let training_path = out_base.clone().join("global_training.idx");
 
-        let writer = dataset.object_store().create(&training_path).await.unwrap();
+        let writer = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .create(&training_path)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
         let arrow_schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new("dummy", ArrowDataType::Int32, true)]);
-        let mut v2w = lance_file::writer::FileWriter::try_new(
+        let mut v2w = lance_file::versions::create_writer(
+            dataset_format_version(&dataset),
             writer,
             lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&arrow_schema).unwrap(),
             FileWriterOptions::default(),
@@ -2256,10 +3502,11 @@ mod tests {
             &dataset,
             "vector",
             "vector_ivf_flat_dist",
-            &uuid,
+            uuid,
             &params,
             None,
             &[valid_id],
+            noop_progress(),
         )
         .await;
 
@@ -2344,20 +3591,12 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Open both indices to compare centroids
         let source_vector_index = source_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &source_index.uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &source_index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
         let target_vector_index = target_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -2471,11 +3710,7 @@ mod tests {
         // Verify that the optimized index still shares centroids with the source
         let target_indices = target_dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
         let target_vector_index = target_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -2581,11 +3816,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify the index type and parameters match
         let target_vector_index = target_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let stats = target_vector_index.statistics().unwrap();
@@ -2617,11 +3848,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify centroids are shared between source and target indices
         let source_vector_index = source_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &source_index.uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &source_index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -2727,29 +3954,33 @@ mod tests {
         let source_uri = format!("{}/source", test_dir.as_str());
         let target_uri = format!("{}/target", test_dir.as_str());
 
-        // Create source dataset with vector column (need at least 256 rows for PQ training)
+        // A 4-bit PQ codebook needs at least 16 training rows.
         let source_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
             .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(32.into()))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(400), BatchCount::from(1));
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(64), BatchCount::from(1));
         let mut source_dataset = Dataset::write(source_reader, &source_uri, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
         // Create IVF_HNSW_PQ index on source with custom HNSW parameters
         let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams {
-            num_partitions: Some(8),
+            num_partitions: Some(2),
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 2,
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams {
-            max_level: 6,
-            m: 24,
-            ef_construction: 120,
+            max_level: 2,
+            m: 4,
+            ef_construction: 16,
             prefetch_distance: None,
         };
         let pq_params = PQBuildParams {
-            num_sub_vectors: 8,
-            num_bits: 8,
+            num_sub_vectors: 2,
+            num_bits: 4,
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 2,
             ..Default::default()
         };
         let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
@@ -2781,8 +4012,8 @@ mod tests {
         // Create target dataset with same schema
         let target_reader = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
             .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
-            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(32.into()))
-            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(100), BatchCount::from(1));
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(32), BatchCount::from(1));
         let mut target_dataset = Dataset::write(target_reader, &target_uri, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
@@ -2807,11 +4038,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify the index type and parameters match
         let target_vector_index = target_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let stats = target_vector_index.statistics().unwrap();
@@ -2833,17 +4060,13 @@ mod tests {
         // Check number of partitions
         assert_eq!(
             stats.get("num_partitions").and_then(|v| v.as_u64()),
-            Some(8),
-            "Should have 8 partitions"
+            Some(2),
+            "Should have 2 partitions"
         );
 
         // Verify centroids are shared between source and target indices
         let source_vector_index = source_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &source_index.uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &source_index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -2899,13 +4122,13 @@ mod tests {
         // Verify PQ parameters
         assert_eq!(
             sub_index.get("nbits").and_then(|v| v.as_u64()),
-            Some(8),
-            "PQ should use 8 bits"
+            Some(4),
+            "PQ should use 4 bits"
         );
         assert_eq!(
             sub_index.get("num_sub_vectors").and_then(|v| v.as_u64()),
-            Some(8),
-            "PQ should have 8 sub vectors"
+            Some(2),
+            "PQ should have 2 sub vectors"
         );
 
         // Verify IVF parameters are correctly derived
@@ -2917,8 +4140,8 @@ mod tests {
         );
         assert_eq!(
             target_ivf_params.num_partitions,
-            Some(8),
-            "Should have 8 partitions as configured"
+            Some(2),
+            "Should have 2 partitions as configured"
         );
 
         // Verify PQ parameters are correctly derived
@@ -2939,29 +4162,29 @@ mod tests {
             "PQ num_bits should match"
         );
         assert_eq!(
-            target_pq_params.num_sub_vectors, 8,
-            "PQ should have 8 sub vectors"
+            target_pq_params.num_sub_vectors, 2,
+            "PQ should have 2 sub vectors"
         );
-        assert_eq!(target_pq_params.num_bits, 8, "PQ should use 8 bits");
+        assert_eq!(target_pq_params.num_bits, 4, "PQ should use 4 bits");
 
         // Verify HNSW parameters are extracted and used correctly
         let derived_hnsw_params = derive_hnsw_params(target_vector_index.as_ref());
         assert_eq!(
-            derived_hnsw_params.max_level, 6,
-            "HNSW max_level should be extracted as 6 from source index"
+            derived_hnsw_params.max_level, 2,
+            "HNSW max_level should be extracted as 2 from source index"
         );
         assert_eq!(
-            derived_hnsw_params.m, 24,
-            "HNSW m should be extracted as 24 from source index"
+            derived_hnsw_params.m, 4,
+            "HNSW m should be extracted as 4 from source index"
         );
         assert_eq!(
-            derived_hnsw_params.ef_construction, 120,
-            "HNSW ef_construction should be extracted as 120 from source index"
+            derived_hnsw_params.ef_construction, 16,
+            "HNSW ef_construction should be extracted as 16 from source index"
         );
 
         // Verify the index is functional
         let query_vector = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .anon_col(array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(32.into()))
+            .anon_col(array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(8.into()))
             .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(1))
             .unwrap()
             .column(0)
@@ -3065,11 +4288,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify the index type and parameters match
         let target_vector_index = target_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &target_indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &target_indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let stats = target_vector_index.statistics().unwrap();
@@ -3097,11 +4316,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         // Verify centroids are shared between source and target indices
         let source_vector_index = source_dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &source_index.uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &source_index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/bounded_partition_stream.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/bounded_partition_stream.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..150a4d72043
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/bounded_partition_stream.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,693 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
+use futures::stream::FuturesUnordered;
+use futures::task::AtomicWaker;
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use tokio::sync::OwnedSemaphorePermit;
+
+/// Work admitted to [`BoundedPartitionStream`].
+type WeightedJobStarter<T> = Box<
+    dyn FnOnce(AdmissionPermit) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<(T, AdmissionPermit)>>
+        + Send
+        + 'static,
+>;
+
+pub(super) struct WeightedJob<T> {
+    weight_bytes: usize,
+    start: WeightedJobStarter<T>,
+}
+
+impl<T> WeightedJob<T> {
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(super) fn new(
+        weight_bytes: usize,
+        future: impl Future<Output = Result<T>> + Send + 'static,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            weight_bytes,
+            start: Box::new(move |permit| {
+                Box::pin(async move { future.await.map(|value| (value, permit)) })
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn with_permit<F, Fut>(weight_bytes: usize, start: F) -> Self
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(AdmissionPermit) -> Fut + Send + 'static,
+        Fut: Future<Output = Result<(T, AdmissionPermit)>> + Send + 'static,
+    {
+        Self {
+            weight_bytes,
+            start: Box::new(move |permit| Box::pin(start(permit))),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A completed job whose admission charge remains held until the result is dropped.
+///
+/// Keeping the permit with a result bounds both active builds and results waiting for
+/// an earlier partition to finish.
+pub(super) struct Budgeted<T> {
+    pub(super) value: T,
+    pub(super) permit: Option<Arc<AdmissionPermit>>,
+    pub(super) entry_permit: Option<OwnedSemaphorePermit>,
+}
+
+impl<T> Budgeted<T> {
+    pub(super) fn untracked(value: T) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            value,
+            permit: None,
+            entry_permit: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Buffers out-of-order partition results and exposes only the next id to write.
+pub(super) struct OrderedPartitionResults<T> {
+    next_partition_id: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    pending: BTreeMap<usize, T>,
+}
+
+impl<T> OrderedPartitionResults<T> {
+    pub(super) fn new(num_partitions: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            next_partition_id: 0,
+            num_partitions,
+            pending: BTreeMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn push(&mut self, partition_id: usize, value: T) -> Result<()> {
+        if partition_id >= self.num_partitions {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "partition build returned out-of-range partition id {} for {} partitions",
+                partition_id, self.num_partitions
+            )));
+        }
+        if partition_id < self.next_partition_id
+            || self.pending.insert(partition_id, value).is_some()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "partition build returned duplicate partition id {}",
+                partition_id
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn pop_next(&mut self) -> Option<(usize, T)> {
+        let partition_id = self.next_partition_id;
+        let value = self.pending.remove(&partition_id)?;
+        self.next_partition_id += 1;
+        Some((partition_id, value))
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn finish(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.next_partition_id != self.num_partitions {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "partition build stream ended before partition {} of {}; buffered partition ids: {:?}",
+                self.next_partition_id,
+                self.num_partitions,
+                self.pending.keys().copied().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) struct AdmissionPermit {
+    budget: Arc<Budget>,
+    charged_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+impl AdmissionPermit {
+    /// Reconcile the pre-decode admission charge to the materialized size.
+    ///
+    /// Oversized values remain charged at the cap. Estimates are conservative,
+    /// so this normally releases capacity; an underestimate is still reflected
+    /// in the budget to prevent admitting additional work against stale usage.
+    pub(super) fn reconcile(&mut self, actual_bytes: usize) {
+        let charged_bytes = actual_bytes.min(self.budget.max_bytes);
+        match charged_bytes.cmp(&self.charged_bytes) {
+            std::cmp::Ordering::Less => {
+                self.budget
+                    .current_bytes
+                    .fetch_sub(self.charged_bytes - charged_bytes, Ordering::AcqRel);
+            }
+            std::cmp::Ordering::Greater => {
+                let additional_bytes = charged_bytes - self.charged_bytes;
+                let current_bytes = self
+                    .budget
+                    .current_bytes
+                    .fetch_add(additional_bytes, Ordering::AcqRel)
+                    + additional_bytes;
+                #[cfg(not(test))]
+                let _ = current_bytes;
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                self.budget
+                    .peak_bytes
+                    .fetch_max(current_bytes, Ordering::AcqRel);
+            }
+            std::cmp::Ordering::Equal => {}
+        }
+        self.charged_bytes = charged_bytes;
+        self.budget.waker.wake();
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for AdmissionPermit {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.budget
+            .current_bytes
+            .fetch_sub(self.charged_bytes, Ordering::AcqRel);
+        self.budget.current_entries.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::AcqRel);
+        self.budget.waker.wake();
+    }
+}
+
+struct Budget {
+    max_bytes: usize,
+    max_entries: usize,
+    current_bytes: AtomicUsize,
+    current_entries: AtomicUsize,
+    waker: AtomicWaker,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    peak_bytes: AtomicUsize,
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    peak_entries: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl Budget {
+    fn can_admit(&self, weight_bytes: usize) -> bool {
+        let current_bytes = self.current_bytes.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        let current_entries = self.current_entries.load(Ordering::Acquire);
+        if current_entries >= self.max_entries {
+            return false;
+        }
+        if weight_bytes > self.max_bytes {
+            // An oversized (hotspot) partition is charged at the cap and must run
+            // alone. It cannot strand the oldest partition behind later work.
+            return current_entries == 0;
+        }
+        current_bytes
+            .checked_add(weight_bytes)
+            .is_some_and(|total| total <= self.max_bytes)
+    }
+
+    fn admit(self: &Arc<Self>, weight_bytes: usize) -> AdmissionPermit {
+        let charged_bytes = weight_bytes.min(self.max_bytes);
+        let current_bytes = self
+            .current_bytes
+            .fetch_add(charged_bytes, Ordering::AcqRel)
+            + charged_bytes;
+        let current_entries = self.current_entries.fetch_add(1, Ordering::AcqRel) + 1;
+        #[cfg(not(test))]
+        let _ = (current_bytes, current_entries);
+        #[cfg(test)]
+        {
+            self.peak_bytes.fetch_max(current_bytes, Ordering::AcqRel);
+            self.peak_entries
+                .fetch_max(current_entries, Ordering::AcqRel);
+        }
+        AdmissionPermit {
+            budget: self.clone(),
+            charged_bytes,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Runs partition jobs out of order while bounding active and completed work.
+///
+/// The input is polled in partition order. A job is admitted only when both its
+/// byte charge and the total number of active/completed entries fit. Oversized
+/// jobs are charged at the byte cap and admitted only when the budget is empty.
+pub(super) struct BoundedPartitionStream<S, T> {
+    input: S,
+    pending: Option<WeightedJob<T>>,
+    in_flight: FuturesUnordered<BoxFuture<'static, Result<Budgeted<T>>>>,
+    budget: Arc<Budget>,
+    max_concurrency: usize,
+    is_input_done: bool,
+    is_failed: bool,
+}
+
+impl<S, T> BoundedPartitionStream<S, T>
+where
+    S: Stream<Item = Result<WeightedJob<T>>> + Unpin,
+{
+    pub(super) fn try_new(
+        input: S,
+        max_concurrency: usize,
+        max_bytes: usize,
+        max_entries: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if max_concurrency == 0 || max_bytes == 0 || max_entries == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "bounded partition stream limits must be non-zero: max_concurrency={}, max_bytes={}, max_entries={}",
+                max_concurrency, max_bytes, max_entries
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            input,
+            pending: None,
+            in_flight: FuturesUnordered::new(),
+            budget: Arc::new(Budget {
+                max_bytes,
+                max_entries,
+                current_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                current_entries: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                waker: AtomicWaker::new(),
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                peak_bytes: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                #[cfg(test)]
+                peak_entries: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            }),
+            max_concurrency,
+            is_input_done: false,
+            is_failed: false,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn fail(&mut self) {
+        self.is_failed = true;
+        self.pending = None;
+        self.in_flight = FuturesUnordered::new();
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    fn stats(&self) -> (usize, usize, usize, usize) {
+        (
+            self.budget.current_bytes.load(Ordering::Acquire),
+            self.budget.peak_bytes.load(Ordering::Acquire),
+            self.budget.current_entries.load(Ordering::Acquire),
+            self.budget.peak_entries.load(Ordering::Acquire),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl<S, T: 'static> Stream for BoundedPartitionStream<S, T>
+where
+    S: Stream<Item = Result<WeightedJob<T>>> + Unpin,
+{
+    type Item = Result<Budgeted<T>>;
+
+    fn poll_next(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        if self.is_failed {
+            return Poll::Ready(None);
+        }
+        self.budget.waker.register(cx.waker());
+
+        loop {
+            if self.in_flight.len() >= self.max_concurrency {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            if let Some(job) = self.pending.take() {
+                if !self.budget.can_admit(job.weight_bytes) {
+                    self.pending = Some(job);
+                    break;
+                }
+                let permit = self.budget.admit(job.weight_bytes);
+                let future = (job.start)(permit);
+                self.in_flight.push(Box::pin(async move {
+                    future.await.map(|(value, permit)| Budgeted {
+                        value,
+                        permit: Some(Arc::new(permit)),
+                        entry_permit: None,
+                    })
+                }));
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            if self.is_input_done {
+                break;
+            }
+            match Pin::new(&mut self.input).poll_next(cx) {
+                Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(job))) => self.pending = Some(job),
+                Poll::Ready(Some(Err(error))) => {
+                    self.fail();
+                    return Poll::Ready(Some(Err(error)));
+                }
+                Poll::Ready(None) => self.is_input_done = true,
+                Poll::Pending => break,
+            }
+        }
+
+        match self.in_flight.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(output))) => Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(output))),
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Err(error))) => {
+                self.fail();
+                Poll::Ready(Some(Err(error)))
+            }
+            Poll::Ready(None) if self.is_input_done && self.pending.is_none() => Poll::Ready(None),
+            Poll::Ready(None) | Poll::Pending => Poll::Pending,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
+    use std::time::Duration;
+
+    use futures::stream;
+    use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn slow_head_does_not_block_later_jobs() {
+        let jobs = (0..4).map(|partition_id| {
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(1, async move {
+                tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(if partition_id == 0 {
+                    40
+                } else {
+                    1
+                }))
+                .await;
+                Ok(partition_id)
+            }))
+        });
+        let mut output = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(stream::iter(jobs), 4, 4, 4).unwrap();
+        let first = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_ne!(first.value, 0);
+        let mut completed = vec![first.value];
+        completed.extend(
+            output
+                .map(|result| result.unwrap().value)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await,
+        );
+        completed.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(completed, vec![0, 1, 2, 3]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn byte_and_entry_caps_include_completed_results() {
+        let jobs =
+            (0..5).map(|partition_id| Ok(WeightedJob::new(3, async move { Ok(partition_id) })));
+        let mut output = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(stream::iter(jobs), 5, 6, 2).unwrap();
+        let first = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let second = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let (_, peak_bytes, current_entries, peak_entries) = output.stats();
+        assert_eq!(peak_bytes, 6);
+        assert_eq!(current_entries, 2);
+        assert_eq!(peak_entries, 2);
+        drop((first, second));
+        let mut remaining = 0;
+        while let Some(result) = output.next().await {
+            drop(result.unwrap());
+            remaining += 1;
+        }
+        assert_eq!(remaining, 3);
+        let (current_bytes, peak_bytes, current_entries, peak_entries) = output.stats();
+        assert_eq!(current_bytes, 0);
+        assert_eq!(peak_bytes, 6);
+        assert_eq!(current_entries, 0);
+        assert_eq!(peak_entries, 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn oversized_job_is_exclusive() {
+        let jobs = vec![
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(2, async { Ok(0) })),
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(20, async { Ok(1) })),
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(2, async { Ok(2) })),
+        ];
+        let mut output = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(stream::iter(jobs), 3, 8, 3).unwrap();
+        let first = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.value, 0);
+        drop(first);
+        let oversized = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(oversized.value, 1);
+        let (current_bytes, peak_bytes, current_entries, _) = output.stats();
+        assert_eq!(current_bytes, 8);
+        assert_eq!(peak_bytes, 8);
+        assert_eq!(current_entries, 1);
+        drop(oversized);
+        assert_eq!(output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap().value, 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn oversized_materialization_starts_only_after_exclusive_admission() {
+        let oversized_materialized = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let marker = oversized_materialized.clone();
+        let jobs = vec![
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(2, async { Ok(0) })),
+            Ok(WeightedJob::with_permit(
+                20,
+                move |mut admission| async move {
+                    marker.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+                    admission.reconcile(20);
+                    Ok((1, admission))
+                },
+            )),
+        ];
+        let mut output = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(stream::iter(jobs), 2, 8, 2).unwrap();
+
+        let first = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.value, 0);
+        assert!(!oversized_materialized.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+
+        drop(first);
+        let oversized = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(oversized.value, 1);
+        assert!(oversized_materialized.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+        let (current_bytes, peak_bytes, current_entries, _) = output.stats();
+        assert_eq!(current_bytes, 8);
+        assert_eq!(peak_bytes, 8);
+        assert_eq!(current_entries, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn actual_size_reconciliation_releases_admission_capacity() {
+        let jobs = vec![
+            Ok(WeightedJob::with_permit(8, |mut admission| async move {
+                admission.reconcile(2);
+                Ok((0, admission))
+            })),
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(6, async { Ok(1) })),
+        ];
+        let mut output = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(stream::iter(jobs), 2, 8, 2).unwrap();
+
+        let first = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.value, 0);
+        let (current_bytes, peak_bytes, current_entries, peak_entries) = output.stats();
+        assert_eq!(current_bytes, 2);
+        assert_eq!(peak_bytes, 8);
+        assert_eq!(current_entries, 1);
+        assert_eq!(peak_entries, 1);
+
+        let second = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.value, 1);
+        let (current_bytes, _, current_entries, peak_entries) = output.stats();
+        assert_eq!(current_bytes, 8);
+        assert_eq!(current_entries, 2);
+        assert_eq!(peak_entries, 2);
+        drop((first, second));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn expanded_window_results_respect_partition_entry_cap() {
+        struct ResidentResult(usize, Arc<AtomicUsize>);
+
+        impl ResidentResult {
+            fn new(value: usize, resident: Arc<AtomicUsize>) -> Self {
+                resident.fetch_add(1, Ordering::AcqRel);
+                Self(value, resident)
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl Drop for ResidentResult {
+            fn drop(&mut self) {
+                self.1.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::AcqRel);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let resident = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let partition_entries = Arc::new(tokio::sync::Semaphore::new(1));
+        let resident_for_job = resident.clone();
+        let entries_for_job = partition_entries.clone();
+        let jobs = vec![Ok(WeightedJob::with_permit(
+            1,
+            move |admission| async move {
+                let builds = stream::iter((0..8).map(move |value| {
+                    let resident = resident_for_job.clone();
+                    let partition_entries = entries_for_job.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        let entry_permit = partition_entries.acquire_owned().await.unwrap();
+                        Ok::<_, Error>((ResidentResult::new(value, resident), entry_permit))
+                    }
+                }))
+                .buffer_unordered(8)
+                .boxed();
+                Ok((builds, admission))
+            },
+        ))];
+        let windows = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(stream::iter(jobs), 1, 1, 1).unwrap();
+        let mut output = windows
+            .map_ok(|window| {
+                let Budgeted {
+                    value: builds,
+                    permit,
+                    entry_permit,
+                } = window;
+                assert!(entry_permit.is_none());
+                builds.map_ok(move |(value, entry_permit)| Budgeted {
+                    value,
+                    permit: permit.clone(),
+                    entry_permit: Some(entry_permit),
+                })
+            })
+            .try_flatten_unordered(Some(1))
+            .boxed();
+
+        let first = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert!(first.value.0 < 8);
+        assert_eq!(resident.load(Ordering::Acquire), 1);
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(10), output.next())
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+
+        drop(first);
+        while let Some(result) = output.next().await {
+            let result = result.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(resident.load(Ordering::Acquire), 1);
+            drop(result);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(resident.load(Ordering::Acquire), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn dropping_a_held_result_wakes_budget_blocked_stream() {
+        let jobs = vec![
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(1, async { Ok(0) })),
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(1, async { Ok(1) })),
+        ];
+        let mut output = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(stream::iter(jobs), 2, 1, 1).unwrap();
+        let first = output.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        let next = output.next();
+        tokio::pin!(next);
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(10), &mut next)
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+        drop(first);
+        let second = tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(100), &mut next)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.value, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn error_drops_pending_work() {
+        let was_dropped = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        struct DropFlag(Arc<AtomicBool>);
+        impl Drop for DropFlag {
+            fn drop(&mut self) {
+                self.0.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let guard = DropFlag(was_dropped.clone());
+        let jobs = vec![
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(1, async {
+                Err::<usize, _>(Error::internal("build failed"))
+            })),
+            Ok(WeightedJob::new(1, async move {
+                let _guard = guard;
+                futures::future::pending::<()>().await;
+                Ok(1)
+            })),
+        ];
+        let mut output = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(stream::iter(jobs), 2, 2, 2).unwrap();
+        let Err(error) = output.next().await.unwrap() else {
+            panic!("expected build failure");
+        };
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("build failed"));
+        assert!(was_dropped.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+        assert!(output.next().await.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn dropping_stream_cancels_in_flight_work() {
+        let was_dropped = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        struct DropFlag(Arc<AtomicBool>);
+        impl Drop for DropFlag {
+            fn drop(&mut self) {
+                self.0.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let guard = DropFlag(was_dropped.clone());
+        let jobs = vec![Ok(WeightedJob::new(1, async move {
+            let _guard = guard;
+            futures::future::pending::<()>().await;
+            Ok(0)
+        }))];
+        let mut output = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(stream::iter(jobs), 1, 1, 1).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(10), output.next())
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+        drop(output);
+        assert!(was_dropped.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ordered_results_drain_in_partition_order_and_include_empty_values() {
+        let mut results = OrderedPartitionResults::new(4);
+        results.push(2, Some(2)).unwrap();
+        assert!(results.pop_next().is_none());
+        results.push(0, Some(0)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.pop_next(), Some((0, Some(0))));
+        results.push(1, None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.pop_next(), Some((1, None)));
+        assert_eq!(results.pop_next(), Some((2, Some(2))));
+        results.push(3, Some(3)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.pop_next(), Some((3, Some(3))));
+        results.finish().unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ordered_results_reject_duplicate_out_of_range_and_missing() {
+        let mut pending_duplicate = OrderedPartitionResults::new(2);
+        pending_duplicate.push(1, 1).unwrap();
+        let error = pending_duplicate.push(1, 1).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("duplicate partition id 1"));
+
+        let mut written_duplicate = OrderedPartitionResults::new(2);
+        written_duplicate.push(0, 0).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(written_duplicate.pop_next(), Some((0, 0)));
+        let error = written_duplicate.push(0, 0).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("duplicate partition id 0"));
+
+        let mut out_of_range = OrderedPartitionResults::new(2);
+        let error = out_of_range.push(2, 2).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("out-of-range partition id 2"));
+
+        let mut missing = OrderedPartitionResults::new(3);
+        missing.push(1, 1).unwrap();
+        let error = missing.finish().unwrap_err();
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("ended before partition 0 of 3"));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("[1]"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/builder.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/builder.rs
index 59300550608..88122af00a3 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/builder.rs
@@ -1,56 +1,67 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
 use std::collections::HashSet;
-use std::future;
-use std::sync::Arc;
-use std::{collections::HashMap, pin::Pin};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+use std::{
+    collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap},
+    pin::Pin,
+};
 
-use arrow::array::{AsArray as _, PrimitiveBuilder, UInt32Builder, UInt64Builder};
+use arrow::array::{AsArray as _, PrimitiveBuilder, UInt64Builder};
 use arrow::compute::sort_to_indices;
 use arrow::datatypes::{self};
-use arrow::datatypes::{Float16Type, Float64Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type};
+use arrow::datatypes::{Float16Type, Float64Type, UInt8Type, UInt64Type};
 use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
 use arrow_array::{
     Array, ArrayRef, ArrowPrimitiveType, BooleanArray, FixedSizeListArray, PrimitiveArray,
     RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
 };
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
+use futures::{FutureExt, SinkExt, stream};
 use futures::{
-    prelude::stream::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt},
     Stream,
+    prelude::stream::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt},
 };
-use futures::{stream, FutureExt};
-use itertools::Itertools;
 use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, RecordBatchExt};
+use lance_core::ROW_ID;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
-use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID_FIELD};
-use lance_file::writer::FileWriter;
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result};
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
+use lance_file::versions as file_versions;
+use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::{CompactFragReuseIndex, CompactFragReuseIndexHandle};
 use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
-use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::{unpack_codes, RABIT_CODE_COLUMN};
+use lance_index::progress::{IndexBuildProgress, NoopIndexBuildProgress};
+use lance_index::scalar::RowIdRemapper;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::{RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, unpack_codes};
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::HNSW;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::remap::{remap_graph_batch, remap_graph_repair};
 use lance_index::vector::kmeans::KMeansParams;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::transpose;
 use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{
     QuantizationMetadata, QuantizationType, QuantizerBuildParams,
 };
 use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{QuantizerMetadata, QuantizerStorage};
-use lance_index::vector::shared::{write_unified_ivf_and_index_metadata, SupportedIvfIndexType};
+use lance_index::vector::shared::{SupportedIvfIndexType, write_unified_ivf_and_index_metadata};
 use lance_index::vector::storage::STORAGE_METADATA_KEY;
 use lance_index::vector::transform::Flatten;
-use lance_index::vector::utils::is_finite;
-use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffler::{EmptyReader, IvfShufflerReader};
+use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffler::{
+    DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES, EmptyReader, IvfShufflerReader, create_ivf_shuffler,
+};
 use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::SubIndexType;
-use lance_index::vector::{ivf::storage::IvfModel, PART_ID_FIELD};
-use lance_index::vector::{VectorIndex, LOSS_METADATA_KEY, PART_ID_COLUMN, PQ_CODE_COLUMN};
+use lance_index::vector::{LOSS_METADATA_KEY, PART_ID_COLUMN, PQ_CODE_COLUMN, VectorIndex};
+use lance_index::vector::{PART_ID_FIELD, ivf::IvfTransformer, ivf::storage::IvfModel};
 use lance_index::{
-    pb,
+    INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_FILE_NAME, pb,
     vector::{
-        ivf::{storage::IVF_METADATA_KEY, IvfBuildParams},
+        DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY,
+        ivf::{IvfBuildParams, storage::IVF_METADATA_KEY},
         quantizer::Quantization,
         storage::{StorageBuilder, VectorStore},
         transform::Transformer,
@@ -58,29 +69,33 @@ use lance_index::{
             shuffler::{ShuffleReader, Shuffler},
             subindex::IvfSubIndex,
         },
-        DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY,
     },
-    INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_FILE_NAME,
 };
 use lance_index::{
-    IndexMetadata, IndexType, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, MAX_PARTITION_SIZE_FACTOR,
-    MIN_PARTITION_SIZE_PERCENT,
+    INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, IndexMetadata, IndexType, MAX_PARTITION_SIZE_FACTOR,
+    MIN_PARTITION_SIZE_PERCENT, scalar::OldIndexDataFilter,
 };
 use lance_io::local::to_local_path;
 use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStream;
 use lance_io::{object_store::ObjectStore, stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter};
-use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, Normalize, L2};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, L2, Normalize};
 use lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl;
+use lance_table::format::IndexFile;
 use log::info;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
-use snafu::location;
-use tracing::{instrument, span, Level};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use tokio::sync::{OnceCell, OwnedSemaphorePermit, Semaphore};
+use tracing::{Level, instrument, span};
 
-use crate::dataset::ProjectionRequest;
-use crate::index::vector::ivf::v2::PartitionEntry;
-use crate::index::vector::utils::{infer_vector_dim, infer_vector_element_type};
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::ProjectionRequest;
+use crate::dataset::index::dataset_format_version;
+use crate::index::append::build_old_data_filter;
+use crate::index::vector::bounded_partition_stream::{
+    BoundedPartitionStream, Budgeted, OrderedPartitionResults, WeightedJob,
+};
+use crate::index::vector::utils::infer_vector_dim;
 
 use super::v2::IVFIndex;
 use super::{
@@ -88,35 +103,235 @@ use super::{
     utils::{self, get_vector_type},
 };
 
-/// Stably sort a RecordBatch by the ROW_ID column in ascending order.
+// the number of partitions to evaluate for reassigning
+const REASSIGN_RANGE: usize = 64;
+/// Training vectors sampled per centroid when a partition is split.
+const SPLIT_SAMPLE_RATE: usize = 256;
+/// Upper bound on the number of partitions one oversized partition is split into
+/// in a single optimize pass; anything still oversized waits for the next pass.
+const MAX_SPLIT_WAYS: usize = 1024;
+/// Decoded bytes of raw vectors a split or join re-reads from the dataset at a
+/// time: rows are fetched and regrouped until a batch reaches this size, so
+/// the working set does not depend on how many rows the adjustment touches or
+/// how many vectors they hold. A single row larger than this is the one batch
+/// that cannot be split further.
+const RAW_VECTOR_FETCH_BYTES: usize = 32 * 1024 * 1024;
+/// Fetches of `RAW_VECTOR_FETCH_BYTES` in flight while re-reading a
+/// fixed-size vector column.
+const RAW_VECTOR_FETCHES_IN_FLIGHT: usize = 2;
+/// Single-row fetches in flight while re-reading a multivector column, whose
+/// row sizes are unknown until read.
+const MULTIVECTOR_FETCHES_IN_FLIGHT: usize = 4;
+/// Vectors a join routes and quantizes at a time before handing them to the
+/// shuffler, whatever the fetched rows expanded to.
+const JOIN_VECTORS_PER_BATCH: usize = 1024;
+
+/// Number of partitions the split partitions' rows now belong to.
+fn new_partition_ids_len(split_partitions: &[(usize, Vec<usize>)]) -> usize {
+    split_partitions.iter().map(|(_, ids)| ids.len()).sum()
+}
+
+/// One oversized partition and the number of partitions it is split into.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct PartitionSplit {
+    partition: usize,
+    ways: usize,
+}
+/// Maximum decoded input bytes admitted across active builds and completed
+/// partitions waiting for their turn to be written.
+const PARTITION_BUILD_BUDGET_BYTES: usize = 512 * 1024 * 1024;
+/// Bound ready-map overhead even when many consecutive partitions are empty.
+const PARTITION_BUILD_ENTRIES_PER_WORKER: usize = 2;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct FreshPartitionBuildLimits {
+    window_bytes: usize,
+    decoded_budget_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+impl Default for FreshPartitionBuildLimits {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            window_bytes: DEFAULT_PARTITION_WINDOW_BYTES,
+            decoded_budget_bytes: PARTITION_BUILD_BUDGET_BYTES,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build a new centroid array that incorporates the results of partition splits.
+///
+/// For each `(part_idx, centroids)` in `splits`, `original[part_idx]` is replaced
+/// by the first new centroid and the remaining ones are appended after all
+/// existing centroids, in split order. Unchanged centroids keep their original
+/// indices.
+fn apply_centroid_splits(
+    original: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    splits: &[(usize, Vec<ArrayRef>)],
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let mut new_centroids: Vec<ArrayRef> = original.iter().map(|v| v.unwrap()).collect();
+    for (part_idx, centroids) in splits {
+        let (first, rest) = centroids.split_first().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "split of partition {part_idx} produced no centroids"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        new_centroids[*part_idx] = first.clone();
+        new_centroids.extend(rest.iter().cloned());
+    }
+    let refs: Vec<&dyn Array> = new_centroids.iter().map(|a| a.as_ref()).collect();
+    let concatenated = arrow::compute::concat(&refs)?;
+    Ok(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        concatenated,
+        original.value_length(),
+    )?)
+}
+
+/// Remap one partition of an IVF_HNSW index.
 ///
-/// If the batch has no ROW_ID column or has fewer than 2 rows, it is
-/// returned unchanged. When sorting, the relative order of rows with the
-/// same ROW_ID is preserved.
-fn stable_sort_batch_by_row_id(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-    if let Some(row_id_col) = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID) {
-        let row_ids = row_id_col.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-        if row_ids.len() > 1 {
-            let mut order: Vec<usize> = (0..row_ids.len()).collect();
-            // Vec::sort_by is stable, so equal ROW_IDs keep their
-            // original relative order.
-            order.sort_by(|&i, &j| row_ids.value(i).cmp(&row_ids.value(j)));
-            let indices = UInt32Array::from_iter_values(order.into_iter().map(|i| i as u32));
-            return Ok(batch.take(&indices)?);
+/// Every quantizer storage `remap` keeps the surviving vectors in their
+/// original order, so when no row was deleted the graph is carried over by
+/// [`remap_graph_batch`] unchanged. The graph is read with all columns because
+/// search loads skip the distances the index file must keep.
+///
+/// A deleted row does not rebuild the graph. Edges between survivors are kept,
+/// and each node that lost a neighbor is reconnected by
+/// [`remap_graph_repair`]: a construction-time beam search over the surviving
+/// graph, then the same neighbor heuristic the builder uses. The graph is
+/// rebuilt only when that repair cannot be applied.
+async fn remap_hnsw_partition<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization>(
+    index: &IVFIndex<S, Q>,
+    partition_id: usize,
+    mapping: &RowAddrRemap,
+) -> Result<(Q::Storage, S)> {
+    let old_storage = index.load_partition_storage(partition_id, None).await?;
+    let storage = old_storage.remap(mapping)?;
+    let graph = index.read_sub_index_batch(partition_id, None, None).await?;
+
+    let mut new_ids = Vec::with_capacity(old_storage.len());
+    let mut num_kept = 0u32;
+    for row_id in old_storage.row_ids() {
+        if matches!(mapping.get(*row_id), Some(None)) {
+            new_ids.push(None);
+        } else {
+            new_ids.push(Some(num_kept));
+            num_kept += 1;
+        }
+    }
+    let num_deleted = old_storage.len() - num_kept as usize;
+    if num_kept as usize == storage.len() {
+        let repaired = if num_deleted == 0 {
+            remap_graph_batch(&graph, &new_ids)
+        } else {
+            remap_graph_repair(&graph, &new_ids, &storage)
+        };
+        match repaired {
+            Ok(graph) => return Ok((storage, S::load(graph)?)),
+            // An index written before graphs were bounded to their storage can
+            // hold fewer nodes than vectors; rebuilding gives it full coverage.
+            Err(e) => log::warn!(
+                "Rebuilding the HNSW graph of partition {partition_id} during remap: {e}"
+            ),
         }
+    } else {
+        log::warn!(
+            "Rebuilding the HNSW graph of partition {partition_id} during remap: {num_kept} \
+             rows survive the remap but the remapped storage has {} rows",
+            storage.len()
+        );
     }
-    Ok(batch.clone())
+    let index = S::load(graph)?.remap(mapping, &storage)?;
+    Ok((storage, index))
 }
 
-// the number of partitions to evaluate for reassigning
-const REASSIGN_RANGE: usize = 64;
+/// An index segment an optimize pass reads existing rows from, paired with the rows
+/// that segment is still allowed to contribute.
+///
+/// A segment's index file keeps every row it was built with, but the rows it may still
+/// contribute shrink afterwards: an update rewrites a row and either prunes its
+/// fragment from the segment's bitmap (in-place column rewrite) or deletion-marks the
+/// old physical row while the rewritten copy reuses its stable row id. Copying such a
+/// row into a merged segment would duplicate it, because the merged coverage also spans
+/// the fresh copy and nothing downstream can tell the two apart.
+///
+/// The filter is resolved on first use rather than up front: under stable row ids
+/// building it loads every covered fragment's row-id sequence, and the common optimize
+/// pass appends a delta without reading a single existing row.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct ExistingIndex {
+    pub index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
+    coverage: Option<Arc<SegmentCoverage>>,
+}
+
+/// The inputs [`ExistingIndex::old_data_filter`] needs, plus the filter once built.
+struct SegmentCoverage {
+    dataset: Dataset,
+    effective_frags: RoaringBitmap,
+    deleted_frags: RoaringBitmap,
+    filter: OnceCell<Option<OldIndexDataFilter>>,
+}
+
+impl ExistingIndex {
+    /// An existing index whose rows are all still valid.
+    pub fn unfiltered(index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index,
+            coverage: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// An existing index that may only contribute rows still live in `effective_frags`.
+    pub fn with_coverage(
+        index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
+        dataset: Dataset,
+        effective_frags: RoaringBitmap,
+        deleted_frags: RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index,
+            coverage: Some(Arc::new(SegmentCoverage {
+                dataset,
+                effective_frags,
+                deleted_frags,
+                filter: OnceCell::new(),
+            })),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the filter has already been built. A pass that reads no existing rows
+    /// must never pay for one.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn filter_is_built(&self) -> bool {
+        self.coverage
+            .as_deref()
+            .is_some_and(|coverage| coverage.filter.initialized())
+    }
+
+    /// The filter to apply to this segment's stored rows, or `None` when every row it
+    /// holds is still valid. Built once and shared by all partitions.
+    pub(crate) async fn old_data_filter(&self) -> Result<Option<&OldIndexDataFilter>> {
+        let Some(coverage) = self.coverage.as_deref() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let filter = coverage
+            .filter
+            .get_or_try_init(|| {
+                build_old_data_filter(
+                    &coverage.dataset,
+                    &coverage.effective_frags,
+                    &coverage.deleted_frags,
+                )
+            })
+            .await?;
+        Ok(filter.as_ref())
+    }
+}
 
 // Builder for IVF index
 // The builder will train the IVF model and quantizer, shuffle the dataset, and build the sub index
 // for each partition.
 // To build the index for the whole dataset, call `build` method.
 // To build the index for given IVF, quantizer, data stream,
-// call `with_ivf`, `with_quantizer`, `shuffle_data`, and `build` in order.
+// call `with_ivf`, `with_quantizer`, `shuffle_data_input`, and `build` in order.
 pub struct IvfIndexBuilder<S: IvfSubIndex, Q: Quantization> {
     store: ObjectStore,
     column: String,
@@ -135,11 +350,15 @@ pub struct IvfIndexBuilder<S: IvfSubIndex, Q: Quantization> {
     ivf: Option<IvfModel>,
     quantizer: Option<Q>,
     shuffle_reader: Option<Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>>,
+    // unindexed input stream attached by callers; consumed during `build`'s
+    // shuffle stage so progress is reported. Wrapped in Mutex so the builder
+    // remains `Sync` (the boxed dyn Stream is not Sync on its own).
+    shuffle_data_input: Mutex<Option<UnindexedStream>>,
 
     // fields for merging indices / remapping
-    existing_indices: Vec<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>>,
+    existing_indices: Vec<ExistingIndex>,
 
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
 
     // fragments for distributed indexing
     fragment_filter: Option<Vec<u32>>,
@@ -148,12 +367,74 @@ pub struct IvfIndexBuilder<S: IvfSubIndex, Q: Quantization> {
     optimize_options: Option<OptimizeOptions>,
     // number of indices merged
     merged_num: usize,
+    // rows per partition the index was created for; `None` falls back to the
+    // index type's default when deciding splits and joins
+    target_partition_size: Option<usize>,
     // whether to transpose codes when building storage
     transpose_codes: bool,
+
+    // lance file version for writing index files
+    format_version: ConcreteFileVersion,
+
+    progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>,
 }
 
 type BuildStream<S, Q> =
-    Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<Option<(<Q as Quantization>::Storage, S, f64)>>> + Send>>;
+    Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<Budgeted<PartitionBuildResult<S, Q>>>> + Send>>;
+
+type FreshWindowBuildStream<S, Q> =
+    Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<(PartitionBuildResult<S, Q>, OwnedSemaphorePermit)>> + Send>>;
+type PartitionInputAdmissionStream<T> =
+    Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<(T, OwnedSemaphorePermit)>> + Send>>;
+
+fn admit_partition_inputs<T: Send + 'static>(
+    inputs: Vec<T>,
+    entry_permits: Arc<Semaphore>,
+) -> PartitionInputAdmissionStream<T> {
+    stream::iter(inputs)
+        .then(move |input| {
+            let entry_permits = entry_permits.clone();
+            async move {
+                let entry_permit = entry_permits
+                    .acquire_owned()
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::internal("partition build entry semaphore was closed"))?;
+                Ok((input, entry_permit))
+            }
+        })
+        .boxed()
+}
+
+fn partition_window_entry_limit(
+    partition_range: &std::ops::Range<usize>,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    max_entries: usize,
+    concurrency: usize,
+) -> usize {
+    if partition_range.start == 0 && partition_range.end == num_partitions {
+        max_entries
+    } else {
+        max_entries.div_ceil(concurrency)
+    }
+}
+
+struct PartitionBuildResult<S: IvfSubIndex, Q: Quantization> {
+    partition_id: usize,
+    built: Option<(Q::Storage, S, f64)>,
+}
+
+struct FreshPartitionInput {
+    partition_id: usize,
+    batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    loss: f64,
+}
+
+type UnindexedStream = Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send + Unpin + 'static>;
+
+pub struct VectorIndexBuildSummary {
+    pub indices_merged: usize,
+    pub files: Vec<IndexFile>,
+}
 
 impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q> {
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
@@ -166,12 +447,13 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         ivf_params: Option<IvfBuildParams>,
         quantizer_params: Option<Q::BuildParams>,
         sub_index_params: S::BuildParams,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_dir_path = Path::from_filesystem_path(&temp_dir)?;
+        let format_version = dataset_format_version(&dataset);
         Ok(Self {
-            store: dataset.object_store().clone(),
+            store: dataset.object_store.as_ref().clone(),
             column,
             index_dir,
             distance_type,
@@ -186,12 +468,16 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
             ivf: None,
             quantizer: None,
             shuffle_reader: None,
+            shuffle_data_input: Mutex::new(None),
             existing_indices: Vec::new(),
             frag_reuse_index,
             fragment_filter: None,
             optimize_options: None,
             merged_num: 0,
+            target_partition_size: None,
             transpose_codes: true,
+            format_version,
+            progress: Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
         })
     }
 
@@ -203,7 +489,7 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         distance_type: DistanceType,
         shuffler: Box<dyn Shuffler>,
         sub_index_params: S::BuildParams,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
         optimize_options: OptimizeOptions,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut builder = Self::new(
@@ -227,19 +513,16 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         index_dir: Path,
         index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let ivf_index =
-            index
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<IVFIndex<S, Q>>()
-                .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "existing index is not IVF index",
-                    location!(),
-                ))?;
+        let ivf_index = index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<IVFIndex<S, Q>>()
+            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input("existing index is not IVF index"))?;
 
         let temp_dir = TempStdDir::default();
         let temp_dir_path = Path::from_filesystem_path(&temp_dir)?;
+        let format_version = dataset_format_version(&dataset);
         Ok(Self {
-            store: dataset.object_store().clone(),
+            store: dataset.object_store.as_ref().clone(),
             column,
             index_dir,
             distance_type: ivf_index.metric_type(),
@@ -253,54 +536,89 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
             ivf: Some(ivf_index.ivf_model().clone()),
             quantizer: Some(ivf_index.quantizer().try_into()?),
             shuffle_reader: None,
-            existing_indices: vec![index],
+            shuffle_data_input: Mutex::new(None),
+            existing_indices: vec![ExistingIndex::unfiltered(index)],
             frag_reuse_index: None,
             fragment_filter: None,
             optimize_options: None,
             merged_num: 0,
+            target_partition_size: None,
             transpose_codes: true,
+            format_version,
+            progress: Arc::new(NoopIndexBuildProgress),
         })
     }
 
-    // build the index with the all data in the dataset,
-    // return the number of indices merged
-    pub async fn build(&mut self) -> Result<usize> {
+    // build the index and return the files created by the writer.
+    pub async fn build(&mut self) -> Result<VectorIndexBuildSummary> {
+        let progress = self.progress.clone();
+
         // step 1. train IVF & quantizer
-        self.with_ivf(self.load_or_build_ivf().await?);
+        let max_iters = self.ivf_params.as_ref().map(|p| p.max_iters as u64);
+        progress
+            .stage_start("train_ivf", max_iters, "iterations")
+            .await?;
+        self.with_ivf(self.load_or_build_ivf().boxed().await?);
+        progress.stage_complete("train_ivf").await?;
 
+        progress.stage_start("train_quantizer", None, "").await?;
         self.with_quantizer(self.load_or_build_quantizer().await?);
+        progress.stage_complete("train_quantizer").await?;
 
         // step 2. shuffle the dataset
         if self.shuffle_reader.is_none() {
-            self.shuffle_dataset().await?;
+            let num_rows = self.num_rows_to_shuffle().await?;
+            progress.stage_start("shuffle", num_rows, "rows").await?;
+            let input = self.shuffle_data_input.lock().unwrap().take();
+            if let Some(input) = input {
+                self.shuffle_data(Some(input)).boxed().await?;
+            } else {
+                self.shuffle_dataset().boxed().await?;
+            }
+            progress.stage_complete("shuffle").await?;
         }
 
-        // step 3. build partitions
+        // step 3. build and merge partitions
+        let num_partitions = self.ivf.as_ref().map(|ivf| ivf.num_partitions() as u64);
+        progress
+            .stage_start("merge_partitions", num_partitions, "partitions")
+            .await?;
         let build_idx_stream = self.build_partitions().boxed().await?;
+        let files = self.merge_partitions(build_idx_stream).await?;
+        progress.stage_complete("merge_partitions").await?;
+
+        Ok(VectorIndexBuildSummary {
+            indices_merged: self.merged_num,
+            files,
+        })
+    }
 
-        // step 4. merge all partitions
-        self.merge_partitions(build_idx_stream).await?;
+    /// Remap through an in-memory mapping (the legacy entry point). The
+    /// per-partition tasks are `'static`, so the map is shared through an
+    /// owned translator (the same clone this method always made).
+    pub async fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        self.remap_with(RowAddrTranslator::sync(mapping.clone()))
+            .await
+    }
 
-        Ok(self.merged_num)
+    /// Remap through a translator whose payload may need reads, one
+    /// partition's addresses at a time.
+    pub async fn remap_streaming(&mut self, mapping: &RowAddrTranslator) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+        self.remap_with(mapping.clone()).await
     }
 
-    pub async fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<()> {
+    async fn remap_with(&mut self, mapping: RowAddrTranslator) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
         if self.existing_indices.is_empty() {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "No existing indices available for remapping",
-                location!(),
             ));
         }
         let Some(ivf) = self.ivf.as_ref() else {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "IVF model not set before remapping",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("IVF model not set before remapping"));
         };
 
         log::info!("remap {} partitions", ivf.num_partitions());
-        let existing_index = self.existing_indices[0].clone();
-        let mapping = Arc::new(mapping.clone());
+        let existing_index = self.existing_indices[0].index.clone();
         let build_iter = (0..ivf.num_partitions()).map(move |part_id| {
             let existing_index = existing_index.clone();
             let mapping = mapping.clone();
@@ -308,33 +626,44 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                 let ivf_index = existing_index
                     .as_any()
                     .downcast_ref::<IVFIndex<S, Q>>()
-                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                        "existing index is not IVF index",
-                        location!(),
-                    ))?;
+                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input("existing index is not IVF index"))?;
                 let part = ivf_index
                     .load_partition(part_id, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
                     .await?;
-                let part = part.as_any().downcast_ref::<PartitionEntry<S, Q>>().ok_or(
-                    Error::Internal {
-                        message: "failed to downcast partition entry".to_string(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    },
-                )?;
 
-                let storage = part.storage.remap(&mapping)?;
-                let index = part.index.remap(&mapping, &storage)?;
-                Result::Ok(Some((storage, index, 0.0)))
+                // One partition's addresses are the unit of translation; the
+                // partition itself is the working set it always was.
+                let row_ids: Vec<u64> = part.storage.row_ids().copied().collect();
+                let mapping = mapping.resolve(row_ids).await?;
+                let (storage, index) = if S::name() == HNSW::name() {
+                    remap_hnsw_partition(ivf_index, part_id, &mapping).await?
+                } else {
+                    let storage = part.storage.remap(&mapping)?;
+                    let index = part.index.remap(&mapping, &storage)?;
+                    (storage, index)
+                };
+                Result::Ok(Budgeted::untracked(PartitionBuildResult {
+                    partition_id: part_id,
+                    built: Some((storage, index, 0.0)),
+                }))
             }
         });
 
-        self.merge_partitions(
-            stream::iter(build_iter)
-                .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
-                .boxed(),
+        // `merge_partitions` is the bulk of this future; `remap_streaming`/`remap`
+        // and the 11-arm v3 dispatch (`remap_index_file_v3`) each carry a copy
+        // otherwise. The eager compaction remap polls that chain under Python's
+        // `block_on` on the calling thread, which overflowed the Windows
+        // main-thread stack in CI (dev-profile wheel, opt-level 0, where every
+        // awaited future is also a separate stack temporary of its caller).
+        let files = Box::pin(
+            self.merge_partitions(
+                stream::iter(build_iter)
+                    .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+                    .boxed(),
+            ),
         )
         .await?;
-        Ok(())
+        Ok(files)
     }
 
     pub fn with_ivf(&mut self, ivf: IvfModel) -> &mut Self {
@@ -347,14 +676,29 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         self
     }
 
+    /// Read existing rows from `indices`, keeping every row they hold.
     pub fn with_existing_indices(&mut self, indices: Vec<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>>) -> &mut Self {
-        self.existing_indices = indices;
+        self.existing_indices = indices.into_iter().map(ExistingIndex::unfiltered).collect();
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Read existing rows from `sources`, keeping only the rows each segment is still
+    /// allowed to contribute. See [`ExistingIndex`].
+    pub fn with_existing_index_sources(&mut self, sources: Vec<ExistingIndex>) -> &mut Self {
+        self.existing_indices = sources;
         self
     }
 
     /// Set fragment filter for distributed indexing
     pub fn with_fragment_filter(&mut self, fragment_ids: Vec<u32>) -> &mut Self {
-        self.fragment_filter = Some(fragment_ids);
+        self.fragment_filter = Some(Dataset::normalize_fragment_ids(&fragment_ids));
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_optional_fragment_filter(&mut self, fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>) -> &mut Self {
+        if let Some(fragment_ids) = fragment_ids {
+            self.fragment_filter = Some(Dataset::normalize_fragment_ids(fragment_ids));
+        }
         self
     }
 
@@ -365,6 +709,22 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         self
     }
 
+    /// Set progress callback for index building
+    /// Rows per partition the index was created for. Split and join thresholds
+    /// are derived from it; without it the index type's default is used.
+    pub fn with_target_partition_size(
+        &mut self,
+        target_partition_size: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> &mut Self {
+        self.target_partition_size = target_partition_size;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_progress(&mut self, progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress>) -> &mut Self {
+        self.progress = progress;
+        self
+    }
+
     #[instrument(name = "load_or_build_ivf", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     async fn load_or_build_ivf(&self) -> Result<IvfModel> {
         match &self.ivf {
@@ -373,16 +733,23 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                 let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
                     return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                         "dataset not set before loading or building IVF",
-                        location!(),
                     ));
                 };
                 let dim = utils::get_vector_dim(dataset.schema(), &self.column)?;
-                let ivf_params = self.ivf_params.as_ref().ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "IVF build params not set",
-                    location!(),
-                ))?;
-                super::build_ivf_model(dataset, &self.column, dim, self.distance_type, ivf_params)
-                    .await
+                let ivf_params = self
+                    .ivf_params
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input("IVF build params not set"))?;
+                super::build_ivf_model(
+                    dataset,
+                    &self.column,
+                    dim,
+                    self.distance_type,
+                    ivf_params,
+                    self.fragment_filter.as_deref(),
+                    self.progress.clone(),
+                )
+                .await
             }
         }
     }
@@ -396,11 +763,10 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "dataset not set before loading or building quantizer",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
         let sample_size_hint = match &self.quantizer_params {
-            Some(params) => params.sample_size(),
+            Some(params) => params.try_sample_size()?,
             None => 256 * 256, // here it must be retrain, let's just set sample size to the default value
         };
 
@@ -409,8 +775,13 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
             "loading training data for quantizer. sample size: {}",
             sample_size_hint
         );
-        let training_data =
-            utils::maybe_sample_training_data(dataset, &self.column, sample_size_hint).await?;
+        let training_data = utils::maybe_sample_training_data(
+            dataset,
+            &self.column,
+            sample_size_hint,
+            self.fragment_filter.as_deref(),
+        )
+        .await?;
         info!(
             "Finished loading training data in {:02} seconds",
             start.elapsed().as_secs_f32()
@@ -419,14 +790,13 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         // If metric type is cosine, normalize the training data, and after this point,
         // treat the metric type as L2.
         let training_data = if self.distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl(&training_data)?
+            lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl_owned(training_data)?
         } else {
             training_data
         };
 
         // we filtered out nulls when sampling, but we still need to filter out NaNs and INFs here
-        let training_data = arrow::compute::filter(&training_data, &is_finite(&training_data))?;
-        let training_data = training_data.as_fixed_size_list();
+        let training_data = utils::filter_finite_training_data(training_data)?;
 
         let training_data = match (self.ivf.as_ref(), Q::use_residual(self.distance_type)) {
             (Some(ivf), true) => {
@@ -436,9 +806,9 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                     vec![],
                 );
                 span!(Level::INFO, "compute residual for PQ training")
-                    .in_scope(|| ivf_transformer.compute_residual(training_data))?
+                    .in_scope(|| ivf_transformer.compute_residual(&training_data))?
             }
-            _ => training_data.clone(),
+            _ => training_data,
         };
 
         info!("Start to train quantizer");
@@ -446,9 +816,10 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         let quantizer = match &self.quantizer {
             Some(q) => q.clone(),
             None => {
-                let quantizer_params = self.quantizer_params.as_ref().ok_or(
-                    Error::invalid_input("quantizer build params not set", location!()),
-                )?;
+                let quantizer_params = self
+                    .quantizer_params
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input("quantizer build params not set"))?;
                 Q::build(&training_data, DistanceType::L2, quantizer_params)?
             }
         };
@@ -490,12 +861,23 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         )
     }
 
+    async fn num_rows_to_shuffle(&self) -> Result<Option<u64>> {
+        let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        match &self.fragment_filter {
+            Some(fragment_ids) => Ok(Some(
+                dataset
+                    .count_rows_in_existing_fragments(fragment_ids)
+                    .await? as u64,
+            )),
+            None => Ok(Some(dataset.count_rows(None).await? as u64)),
+        }
+    }
+
     async fn shuffle_dataset(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
         let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "dataset not set before shuffling",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("dataset not set before shuffling"));
         };
 
         let stream = match self
@@ -526,14 +908,9 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                         "applying fragment filter for distributed indexing: {:?}",
                         fragment_ids
                     );
-                    // Filter fragments by converting fragment_ids to Fragment objects
-                    let all_fragments = dataset.fragments();
-                    let filtered_fragments: Vec<_> = all_fragments
-                        .iter()
-                        .filter(|fragment| fragment_ids.contains(&(fragment.id as u32)))
-                        .cloned()
-                        .collect();
-                    builder.with_fragments(filtered_fragments);
+                    builder.with_fragments(
+                        dataset.get_existing_fragment_metadata_from_ids(fragment_ids),
+                    );
                 }
 
                 let (vector_type, _) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), &self.column)?;
@@ -557,18 +934,37 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    /// Attach an unindexed input stream. The shuffle is deferred until
+    /// `build()` so progress reporting wraps the actual shuffle work.
+    /// Data must have schema | ROW_ID | vector_column |.
+    ///
+    /// Passing `None` records "no unindexed data" by installing an empty
+    /// shuffle reader directly, so `build()` won't fall back to re-scanning
+    /// the dataset.
+    pub fn shuffle_data_input(
+        &mut self,
+        data: Option<impl RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>,
+    ) -> &mut Self {
+        match data {
+            Some(d) => {
+                *self.shuffle_data_input.lock().unwrap() = Some(Box::new(d) as UnindexedStream);
+            }
+            None => {
+                self.shuffle_reader = Some(Arc::new(EmptyReader));
+            }
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
     // shuffle the unindexed data and existing indices
     // data must be with schema | ROW_ID | vector_column |
     // the shuffled data will be with schema | ROW_ID | PART_ID | code_column |
     pub async fn shuffle_data(
         &mut self,
-        data: Option<impl RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>,
+        data: Option<impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Unpin + Send + 'static>,
     ) -> Result<&mut Self> {
         let Some(ivf) = self.ivf.as_ref() else {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "IVF not set before shuffle data",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("IVF not set before shuffle data"));
         };
 
         let Some(data) = data else {
@@ -582,14 +978,10 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         let Some(quantizer) = self.quantizer.clone() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "quantizer not set before shuffle data",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
         let Some(shuffler) = self.shuffler.as_ref() else {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "shuffler not set before shuffle data",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("shuffler not set before shuffle data"));
         };
 
         let code_column = quantizer.column();
@@ -611,6 +1003,7 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         } else {
             HashMap::new()
         };
+
         let partition_map = Arc::new(precomputed_partitions);
         let mut transformed_stream = Box::pin(
             data.map(move |batch| {
@@ -628,9 +1021,18 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                                 .map(|row_id| partition_map.get(row_id).copied()),
                         );
                         let part_ids = UInt32Array::from(part_ids);
+                        // A batch that already carries the column would make
+                        // this a duplicate-name error, so report it instead of
+                        // panicking inside the spawned task.
                         batch = batch
                             .try_with_column(PART_ID_FIELD.clone(), Arc::new(part_ids.clone()))
-                            .expect("failed to add part id column");
+                            .map_err(|e| {
+                                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                                    "could not attach the precomputed partition ids to a batch \
+                                     with schema {}: {e}",
+                                    batch.schema()
+                                ))
+                            })?;
 
                         if part_ids.null_count() > 0 {
                             log::info!(
@@ -647,6 +1049,7 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                             batch = batch.take(&indices)?;
                         }
                     }
+
                     match batch.schema().column_with_name(code_column) {
                         Some(_) => {
                             // this batch is already transformed (in case of GPU training)
@@ -657,7 +1060,9 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                 })
             })
             .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
-            .map(|x| x.unwrap())
+            .map(|x| {
+                x.map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("shuffle transform task failed: {e}")))?
+            })
             .peekable(),
         );
 
@@ -695,25 +1100,21 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         let Some(ivf) = self.ivf.as_ref() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "IVF not set before building partitions",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
         let Some(quantizer) = self.quantizer.clone() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "quantizer not set before building partition",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
         let Some(sub_index_params) = self.sub_index_params.clone() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "sub index params not set before building partition",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
         let Some(reader) = self.shuffle_reader.as_ref() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "shuffle reader not set before building partitions",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
 
@@ -739,60 +1140,87 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                 [self.existing_indices.len().saturating_sub(num_to_merge)..]
                 .to_vec();
 
-            (
-                vec![None; ivf.num_partitions()],
-                Arc::new(indices_to_merge),
-                None,
-            )
+            (ivf.num_partitions(), Arc::new(indices_to_merge), None)
         };
 
-        let (assign_batches, merge_indices, partition_adjustment) = if num_indices_to_merge
+        let (num_partitions, merge_indices, partition_adjustment) = if num_indices_to_merge
             .is_some()
             || self.optimize_options.is_none()
         {
             no_partition_adjustment()
         } else {
-            match Self::check_partition_adjustment(ivf, reader.as_ref(), &self.existing_indices)? {
-                Some(partition_adjustment) => match partition_adjustment {
-                    PartitionAdjustment::Split(partition) => {
-                        // Perform split and record the fact for downstream build/merge
-                        log::info!(
-                            "split partition {}, will merge all {} delta indices",
-                            partition,
-                            self.existing_indices.len()
-                        );
-                        let split_results = self.split_partition(partition, ivf).await?;
-                        let Some(ivf) = self.ivf.as_mut() else {
-                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                                "IVF not set before building partitions",
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
-                        };
-                        ivf.centroids = Some(split_results.new_centroids);
-                        (
-                            split_results.assign_batches,
-                            Arc::new(self.existing_indices.clone()),
-                            Some(partition_adjustment),
-                        )
-                    }
-                    PartitionAdjustment::Join(partition) => {
-                        log::info!("join partition {}", partition);
-                        let results = self.join_partition(partition, ivf).await?;
-                        let Some(ivf) = self.ivf.as_mut() else {
-                            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                                "IVF model not set before joining partition",
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
-                        };
-                        ivf.centroids = Some(results.new_centroids);
-                        (
-                            results.assign_batches,
-                            Arc::new(self.existing_indices.clone()),
-                            Some(partition_adjustment),
-                        )
-                    }
-                },
-                None => no_partition_adjustment(),
+            let target_partition_size = self.effective_target_partition_size()?;
+            let PartitionAdjustmentPlan {
+                splits,
+                joins,
+                partition_sizes,
+            } = Self::check_partition_adjustment(
+                ivf,
+                reader.as_ref(),
+                &self.existing_indices,
+                target_partition_size,
+            )?;
+            let split_result = if splits.is_empty() {
+                None
+            } else {
+                log::info!(
+                    "split partitions {:?} (target partition size {}), will merge all {} delta indices",
+                    splits,
+                    target_partition_size,
+                    self.existing_indices.len()
+                );
+                self.split_partitions_streaming(&splits, ivf)
+                    .boxed()
+                    .await?
+            };
+            if let Some(split_result) = split_result {
+                let Some(ivf) = self.ivf.as_mut() else {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "IVF not set before building partitions",
+                    ));
+                };
+                ivf.centroids = Some(split_result.new_centroids);
+                (
+                    ivf.num_partitions(),
+                    Arc::new(self.existing_indices.clone()),
+                    Some(PartitionAdjustment::Split {
+                        affected_partitions: split_result.affected_partitions,
+                        split_shuffle_reader: split_result.shuffle_reader,
+                    }),
+                )
+            } else if !joins.is_empty() {
+                log::info!(
+                    "join partitions {:?} (target partition size {}), will merge all {} delta indices",
+                    joins,
+                    target_partition_size,
+                    self.existing_indices.len()
+                );
+                let results = self
+                    .join_partitions(
+                        &joins,
+                        ivf,
+                        &partition_sizes,
+                        MAX_PARTITION_SIZE_FACTOR * target_partition_size,
+                    )
+                    .boxed()
+                    .await?;
+                let Some(ivf) = self.ivf.as_mut() else {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                        "IVF model not set before joining partitions",
+                    ));
+                };
+                ivf.centroids = Some(results.new_centroids);
+                (
+                    results.kept_partitions.len(),
+                    Arc::new(self.existing_indices.clone()),
+                    Some(PartitionAdjustment::Join {
+                        kept_partitions: results.kept_partitions,
+                        reindexed_row_ids: results.reindexed_row_ids,
+                        join_shuffle_reader: results.join_shuffle_reader,
+                    }),
+                )
+            } else {
+                no_partition_adjustment()
             }
         };
         self.merged_num = merge_indices.len();
@@ -805,88 +1233,338 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         let distance_type = self.distance_type;
         let column = self.column.clone();
         let frag_reuse_index = self.frag_reuse_index.clone();
-        let build_iter =
-            assign_batches
-                .into_iter()
-                .enumerate()
-                .map(move |(partition, assign_batch)| {
-                    let reader = reader.clone();
-                    let indices = merge_indices.clone();
-                    let distance_type = distance_type;
-                    let quantizer = quantizer.clone();
-                    let sub_index_params = sub_index_params.clone();
-                    let column = column.clone();
-                    let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index.clone();
-                    let skip_existing_batches =
-                        partition_adjustment == Some(PartitionAdjustment::Split(partition));
-                    let partition = match partition_adjustment {
-                        Some(PartitionAdjustment::Join(joined_partition))
-                            if partition >= joined_partition =>
-                        {
-                            partition + 1
-                        }
-                        _ => partition,
-                    };
-                    async move {
-                        let (mut batches, loss) = if skip_existing_batches {
-                            (Vec::new(), 0.0)
-                        } else {
-                            Self::take_partition_batches(
-                                partition,
-                                indices.as_ref(),
-                                Some(reader.as_ref()),
-                            )
-                            .await?
-                        };
-
-                        spawn_cpu(move || {
-                            if let Some((assign_batch, deleted_row_ids)) = assign_batch {
-                                if !deleted_row_ids.is_empty() {
-                                    let deleted_row_ids = HashSet::<u64>::from_iter(
-                                        deleted_row_ids.values().iter().copied(),
-                                    );
-                                    for batch in batches.iter_mut() {
-                                        let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-                                        let mask =
-                                            BooleanArray::from_iter(row_ids.iter().map(|row_id| {
-                                                row_id.map(|row_id| {
-                                                    !deleted_row_ids.contains(&row_id)
-                                                })
-                                            }));
-                                        *batch = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(batch, &mask)?;
-                                    }
-                                }
+        if self.optimize_options.is_none()
+            && self.existing_indices.is_empty()
+            && partition_adjustment.is_none()
+        {
+            return Self::build_fresh_partitions_windowed(
+                reader,
+                num_partitions,
+                distance_type,
+                quantizer,
+                sub_index_params,
+                column,
+                frag_reuse_index,
+                FreshPartitionBuildLimits::default(),
+            );
+        }
+        let partition_adjustment = Arc::new(partition_adjustment);
+        let build_iter = (0..num_partitions).map(move |partition| {
+            let output_partition_id = partition;
+            let reader = reader.clone();
+            let indices = merge_indices.clone();
+            let distance_type = distance_type;
+            let quantizer = quantizer.clone();
+            let sub_index_params = sub_index_params.clone();
+            let column = column.clone();
+            let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index.clone();
+            let partition_adjustment = partition_adjustment.clone();
+            async move {
+                let (is_affected, split_reader) = match partition_adjustment.as_ref() {
+                    Some(PartitionAdjustment::Split {
+                        affected_partitions,
+                        split_shuffle_reader,
+                    }) => (
+                        affected_partitions.contains(&partition),
+                        Some(split_shuffle_reader.clone()),
+                    ),
+                    _ => (false, None),
+                };
+                let partition = match partition_adjustment.as_ref() {
+                    Some(PartitionAdjustment::Join {
+                        kept_partitions, ..
+                    }) => kept_partitions[partition],
+                    _ => partition,
+                };
 
-                                if assign_batch.num_rows() > 0 {
-                                    // Drop PART_ID column from assign_batch to match schema of existing batches
-                                    let assign_batch = assign_batch.drop_column(PART_ID_COLUMN)?;
-                                    batches.push(assign_batch);
-                                }
-                            }
+                // For affected partitions, the split shuffle reader has
+                // all data (existing + new), re-assigned with updated
+                // centroids. For other partitions, read from existing
+                // indices + original shuffle reader as normal.
+                let (mut batches, mut loss) = if is_affected {
+                    Self::take_partition_batches(
+                        partition,
+                        &[],
+                        Some(split_reader.as_ref().unwrap().as_ref()),
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                } else {
+                    Self::take_partition_batches(partition, indices.as_ref(), Some(reader.as_ref()))
+                        .await?
+                };
 
-                            let num_rows = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
-                            if num_rows == 0 {
-                                return Ok(None);
-                            }
+                // For unaffected partitions during a split, vectors from
+                // affected partitions may have been reassigned here.
+                if !is_affected && let Some(sr) = split_reader.as_ref() {
+                    let (extra, extra_loss) =
+                        Self::take_partition_batches(partition, &[], Some(sr.as_ref())).await?;
+                    batches.extend(extra);
+                    loss += extra_loss;
+                }
+                // A join reindexes whole logical rows: their old entries
+                // leave every partition, and their new ones come from the
+                // join shuffler.
+                if let Some(PartitionAdjustment::Join {
+                    reindexed_row_ids,
+                    join_shuffle_reader,
+                    ..
+                }) = partition_adjustment.as_ref()
+                {
+                    if !reindexed_row_ids.is_empty() {
+                        for batch in batches.iter_mut() {
+                            let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+                            let mask = BooleanArray::from_iter(row_ids.iter().map(|row_id| {
+                                row_id.map(|row_id| !reindexed_row_ids.contains(&row_id))
+                            }));
+                            *batch = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(batch, &mask)?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    let (extra, extra_loss) = Self::take_partition_batches(
+                        partition,
+                        &[],
+                        Some(join_shuffle_reader.as_ref()),
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                    batches.extend(extra);
+                    loss += extra_loss;
+                }
 
-                            let (storage, sub_index) = Self::build_index(
-                                distance_type,
-                                quantizer,
-                                sub_index_params,
-                                batches,
-                                column,
-                                frag_reuse_index,
-                            )?;
-                            Ok(Some((storage, sub_index, loss)))
-                        })
-                        .await
+                spawn_cpu(move || {
+                    let num_rows = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
+                    if num_rows == 0 {
+                        return Ok(Budgeted::untracked(PartitionBuildResult {
+                            partition_id: output_partition_id,
+                            built: None,
+                        }));
                     }
-                });
+
+                    let (storage, sub_index) = Self::build_index(
+                        distance_type,
+                        quantizer,
+                        sub_index_params,
+                        batches,
+                        column,
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    )?;
+                    Ok(Budgeted::untracked(PartitionBuildResult {
+                        partition_id: output_partition_id,
+                        built: Some((storage, sub_index, loss)),
+                    }))
+                })
+                .await
+            }
+        });
         Ok(stream::iter(build_iter)
             .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
             .boxed())
     }
 
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn build_fresh_partitions_windowed(
+        reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        quantizer: Q,
+        sub_index_params: S::BuildParams,
+        column: String,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
+        limits: FreshPartitionBuildLimits,
+    ) -> Result<BuildStream<S, Q>> {
+        let concurrency = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1);
+        let max_entries = concurrency.saturating_mul(PARTITION_BUILD_ENTRIES_PER_WORKER);
+        let cpu_permits = Arc::new(Semaphore::new(concurrency));
+        let jobs = stream::try_unfold(0usize, move |next_partition_id| {
+            let reader = reader.clone();
+            let quantizer = quantizer.clone();
+            let sub_index_params = sub_index_params.clone();
+            let column = column.clone();
+            let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index.clone();
+            let cpu_permits = cpu_permits.clone();
+            async move {
+                if next_partition_id == num_partitions {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                let plan = reader.plan_partition_window(
+                    next_partition_id,
+                    limits.window_bytes,
+                )?;
+                if plan.partition_range.start != next_partition_id
+                    || plan.partition_range.end <= plan.partition_range.start
+                    || plan.partition_range.end > num_partitions
+                {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                        "shuffle reader planned invalid partition window {:?}; expected a non-empty window starting at {} within {} partitions",
+                        plan.partition_range, next_partition_id, num_partitions
+                    )));
+                }
+                let next_partition_id = plan.partition_range.end;
+                let planned_range = plan.partition_range;
+                let window_entry_limit = partition_window_entry_limit(
+                    &planned_range,
+                    num_partitions,
+                    max_entries,
+                    concurrency,
+                );
+                let job = WeightedJob::with_permit(
+                    plan.estimated_decoded_bytes,
+                    move |mut admission| async move {
+                        let mut window = reader
+                            .read_partition_window(
+                                planned_range.start,
+                                limits.window_bytes,
+                            )
+                            .await?;
+                        if window.partition_range != planned_range
+                            || window.partitions.len() != planned_range.len()
+                        {
+                            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                                "shuffle reader returned partition window {:?} with {} entries after planning {:?}",
+                                window.partition_range,
+                                window.partitions.len(),
+                                planned_range
+                            )));
+                        }
+                        for (expected_partition_id, partition) in
+                            planned_range.clone().zip(&window.partitions)
+                        {
+                            if partition.partition_id != expected_partition_id {
+                                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                                    "shuffle reader window {:?} returned partition id {} at position {}",
+                                    planned_range,
+                                    partition.partition_id,
+                                    expected_partition_id - planned_range.start
+                                )));
+                            }
+                        }
+
+                        let count_stream_bytes = window.materialized_decoded_bytes.is_none();
+                        let mut decoded_bytes =
+                            window.materialized_decoded_bytes.unwrap_or_default();
+                        let mut inputs = Vec::with_capacity(window.partitions.len());
+                        for mut partition in window.partitions.drain(..) {
+                            let mut batches = Vec::new();
+                            let mut loss = 0.0;
+                            if let Some(mut data) = partition.data.take() {
+                                while let Some(batch) = data.try_next().await? {
+                                    loss += batch
+                                        .metadata()
+                                        .get(LOSS_METADATA_KEY)
+                                        .map(|value| value.parse::<f64>().unwrap_or(0.0))
+                                        .unwrap_or(0.0);
+                                    if count_stream_bytes {
+                                        decoded_bytes = batch.columns().iter().try_fold(
+                                            decoded_bytes,
+                                            |total, array| {
+                                                total
+                                                    .checked_add(array.get_array_memory_size())
+                                                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                                                        Error::internal(format!(
+                                                            "decoded byte count overflow for partition {}",
+                                                            partition.partition_id
+                                                        ))
+                                                    })
+                                            },
+                                        )?;
+                                    }
+                                    batches.push(batch.drop_column(PART_ID_COLUMN)?);
+                                }
+                            }
+                            inputs.push(FreshPartitionInput {
+                                partition_id: partition.partition_id,
+                                batches,
+                                loss,
+                            });
+                        }
+                        admission.reconcile(decoded_bytes);
+
+                        // Multiple windows each own a small FIFO entry budget so a
+                        // later window cannot consume every slot needed for the
+                        // oldest window to make ordered progress. If the whole
+                        // shuffle fits in one window, that window owns the complete
+                        // entry budget and can use the full CPU concurrency.
+                        let entry_permits = Arc::new(Semaphore::new(window_entry_limit));
+                        let builds = admit_partition_inputs(inputs, entry_permits)
+                            .map_ok(move |(input, entry_permit)| {
+                                let quantizer = quantizer.clone();
+                                let sub_index_params = sub_index_params.clone();
+                                let column = column.clone();
+                                let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index.clone();
+                                let cpu_permits = cpu_permits.clone();
+                                async move {
+                                    let partition_id = input.partition_id;
+                                    let loss = input.loss;
+                                    let _cpu_permit =
+                                        cpu_permits.acquire_owned().await.map_err(|_| {
+                                            Error::internal(
+                                                "partition build CPU semaphore was closed",
+                                            )
+                                        })?;
+                                    let built = spawn_cpu(move || -> Result<_> {
+                                        let num_rows = input
+                                            .batches
+                                            .iter()
+                                            .map(|batch| batch.num_rows())
+                                            .sum::<usize>();
+                                        if num_rows == 0 {
+                                            return Ok(None);
+                                        }
+                                        let (storage, sub_index) = Self::build_index(
+                                            distance_type,
+                                            quantizer,
+                                            sub_index_params,
+                                            input.batches,
+                                            column,
+                                            frag_reuse_index,
+                                        )?;
+                                        Ok(Some((storage, sub_index, loss)))
+                                    })
+                                    .await?;
+                                    Ok::<_, Error>((
+                                        PartitionBuildResult {
+                                            partition_id,
+                                            built,
+                                        },
+                                        entry_permit,
+                                    ))
+                                }
+                            })
+                            .try_buffer_unordered(concurrency)
+                            .boxed();
+                        Ok::<(FreshWindowBuildStream<S, Q>, _), Error>((builds, admission))
+                    },
+                );
+                Ok(Some((job, next_partition_id)))
+            }
+        })
+        .boxed();
+
+        let windows = BoundedPartitionStream::try_new(
+            jobs,
+            concurrency,
+            limits.decoded_budget_bytes,
+            // One admission entry per outstanding window. Together with each
+            // window's entry limit above, this bounds partition results by
+            // `max_entries` even after an inner stream has finished.
+            concurrency,
+        )?;
+        Ok(windows
+            .map_ok(|window| {
+                let Budgeted {
+                    value: builds,
+                    permit,
+                    entry_permit,
+                } = window;
+                debug_assert!(entry_permit.is_none());
+                builds.map_ok(move |(value, entry_permit)| Budgeted {
+                    value,
+                    permit: permit.clone(),
+                    entry_permit: Some(entry_permit),
+                })
+            })
+            .try_flatten_unordered(Some(concurrency))
+            .boxed())
+    }
+
     #[instrument(name = "build_index", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     fn build_index(
@@ -895,10 +1573,13 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         sub_index_params: S::BuildParams,
         batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
         column: String,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
     ) -> Result<(Q::Storage, S)> {
-        let storage = StorageBuilder::new(column, distance_type, quantizer, frag_reuse_index)?
-            .build(batches)?;
+        let frag_reuse_index = frag_reuse_index
+            .map(|index| Arc::new(CompactFragReuseIndexHandle(index)) as Arc<dyn RowIdRemapper>);
+        let storage =
+            StorageBuilder::new_with_remapper(column, distance_type, quantizer, frag_reuse_index)?
+                .build(batches)?;
         let sub_index = S::index_vectors(&storage, sub_index_params)?;
 
         Ok((storage, sub_index))
@@ -907,18 +1588,16 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
     #[instrument(name = "take_partition_batches", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     async fn take_partition_batches(
         part_id: usize,
-        existing_indices: &[Arc<dyn VectorIndex>],
+        existing_indices: &[ExistingIndex],
         reader: Option<&dyn ShuffleReader>,
     ) -> Result<(Vec<RecordBatch>, f64)> {
         let mut batches = Vec::new();
-        for existing_index in existing_indices.iter() {
-            let existing_index = existing_index
+        for source in existing_indices.iter() {
+            let existing_index = source
+                .index
                 .as_any()
                 .downcast_ref::<IVFIndex<S, Q>>()
-                .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                    "existing index is not IVF index",
-                    location!(),
-                ))?;
+                .ok_or(Error::invalid_input("existing index is not IVF index"))?;
 
             // Skip if this partition doesn't exist in the existing index
             // This can happen after a split creates a new partition
@@ -926,7 +1605,12 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                 continue;
             }
 
-            let part_storage = existing_index.load_partition_storage(part_id).await?;
+            // Resolved before the partition is decoded: partitions are built
+            // concurrently, so whichever one builds the filter would otherwise hold a
+            // decoded partition per in-flight task while the rest wait on it.
+            let old_data_filter = source.old_data_filter().await?;
+
+            let part_storage = existing_index.load_partition_storage(part_id, None).await?;
             let mut part_batches = part_storage.to_batches()?.collect::<Vec<_>>();
             // for PQ, the PQ codes are transposed, so we need to transpose them back
             match Q::quantization_type() {
@@ -967,12 +1651,16 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
                 _ => {}
             }
 
-            // Normalize each batch for this partition to be stably sorted by ROW_ID.
-            for batch in part_batches.iter_mut() {
-                if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-                    continue;
+            // Drop rows this segment may no longer contribute. They are physically
+            // still in its index file, and the merged segment covers their live copies
+            // again, so keeping them would emit the same row twice.
+            if let Some(filter) = old_data_filter {
+                for batch in part_batches.iter_mut() {
+                    let keep = filter.filter_row_ids(batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>());
+                    if keep.true_count() < batch.num_rows() {
+                        *batch = arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(batch, &keep)?;
+                    }
                 }
-                *batch = stable_sort_batch_by_row_id(batch)?;
             }
 
             batches.extend(part_batches);
@@ -981,26 +1669,24 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         let mut loss = 0.0;
         // Skip if this partition doesn't exist in the reader
         // This can happen after a split creates a new partition
-        if let Some(reader) = reader {
-            if reader.partition_size(part_id)? > 0 {
-                let mut partition_data =
-                    reader
-                        .read_partition(part_id)
-                        .await?
-                        .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                            format!("partition {} is empty", part_id),
-                            location!(),
-                        ))?;
-                while let Some(batch) = partition_data.try_next().await? {
-                    loss += batch
-                        .metadata()
-                        .get(LOSS_METADATA_KEY)
-                        .map(|s| s.parse::<f64>().unwrap_or(0.0))
-                        .unwrap_or(0.0);
-                    let batch = batch.drop_column(PART_ID_COLUMN)?;
-                    let batch = stable_sort_batch_by_row_id(&batch)?;
-                    batches.push(batch);
-                }
+        if let Some(reader) = reader
+            && reader.partition_size(part_id)? > 0
+        {
+            let mut partition_data =
+                reader
+                    .read_partition(part_id)
+                    .await?
+                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "partition {} is empty",
+                        part_id
+                    )))?;
+            while let Some(batch) = partition_data.try_next().await? {
+                loss += batch
+                    .metadata()
+                    .get(LOSS_METADATA_KEY)
+                    .map(|s| s.parse::<f64>().unwrap_or(0.0))
+                    .unwrap_or(0.0);
+                batches.push(batch.drop_column(PART_ID_COLUMN)?);
             }
         }
 
@@ -1008,38 +1694,47 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
     }
 
     #[instrument(name = "merge_partitions", level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    async fn merge_partitions(&mut self, mut build_stream: BuildStream<S, Q>) -> Result<()> {
+    async fn merge_partitions(
+        &mut self,
+        mut build_stream: BuildStream<S, Q>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
         let Some(ivf) = self.ivf.as_ref() else {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "IVF not set before merge partitions",
-                location!(),
-            ));
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("IVF not set before merge partitions"));
         };
         let Some(quantizer) = self.quantizer.clone() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "quantizer not set before merge partitions",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
 
-        let is_pq = Q::quantization_type() == QuantizationType::Product;
+        let quantization_type = Q::quantization_type();
+        let is_pq = quantization_type == QuantizationType::Product;
+        let is_rq = quantization_type == QuantizationType::Rabit;
+        let is_flat = quantization_type == QuantizationType::Flat;
 
         // prepare the final writers
-        let storage_path = self.index_dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let index_path = self.index_dir.child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
-
-        let mut fields = vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(), quantizer.field()];
-        fields.extend(quantizer.extra_fields());
-        let storage_schema: Schema = (&arrow_schema::Schema::new(fields)).try_into()?;
-        let mut storage_writer = FileWriter::try_new(
-            self.store.create(&storage_path).await?,
-            storage_schema.clone(),
-            Default::default(),
-        )?;
-        let mut index_writer = FileWriter::try_new(
+        let storage_path = self.index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let index_path = self.index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+
+        let writer_options = FileWriterOptions::default();
+        let mut storage_writer = if is_flat {
+            None
+        } else {
+            let mut fields = vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(), quantizer.field()];
+            fields.extend(quantizer.extra_fields());
+            let storage_schema: Schema = (&arrow_schema::Schema::new(fields)).try_into()?;
+            Some(file_versions::create_writer(
+                self.format_version,
+                self.store.create(&storage_path).await?,
+                storage_schema,
+                writer_options.clone(),
+            )?)
+        };
+        let mut index_writer = file_versions::create_writer(
+            self.format_version,
             self.store.create(&index_path).await?,
             S::schema().as_ref().try_into()?,
-            Default::default(),
+            writer_options.clone(),
         )?;
 
         // maintain the IVF partitions
@@ -1047,93 +1742,112 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         let mut index_ivf = IvfModel::new(ivf.centroids.clone().unwrap(), ivf.loss);
         let mut partition_index_metadata = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
 
-        let mut part_id = 0;
+        let num_partitions = ivf.num_partitions();
+        let mut ordered_results = OrderedPartitionResults::new(num_partitions);
         let mut total_loss = 0.0;
-        log::info!("merging {} partitions", ivf.num_partitions());
-        while let Some(part) = build_stream.try_next().await? {
-            part_id += 1;
-            let Some((storage, index, loss)) = part else {
-                log::warn!("partition {} is empty, skipping", part_id);
+        let progress = self.progress.clone();
+        log::info!("merging {} partitions", num_partitions);
+        while let Some(result) = build_stream.try_next().await? {
+            let partition_id = result.value.partition_id;
+            ordered_results.push(partition_id, result)?;
+
+            while let Some((partition_id, result)) = ordered_results.pop_next() {
+                let Budgeted {
+                    value: PartitionBuildResult { built: part, .. },
+                    permit: _permit,
+                    entry_permit: _entry_permit,
+                } = result;
+                let completed_partitions = partition_id + 1;
+                progress
+                    .stage_progress("merge_partitions", completed_partitions as u64)
+                    .await?;
+                let Some((storage, index, loss)) = part else {
+                    log::warn!("partition {} is empty, skipping", partition_id);
 
-                storage_ivf.add_partition(0);
-                index_ivf.add_partition(0);
-                partition_index_metadata.push(String::new());
+                    storage_ivf.add_partition(0);
+                    index_ivf.add_partition(0);
+                    partition_index_metadata.push(String::new());
 
-                continue;
-            };
-            total_loss += loss;
+                    continue;
+                };
+                total_loss += loss;
 
-            if storage.len() == 0 {
-                storage_ivf.add_partition(0);
-            } else {
-                let batches = storage.to_batches()?.collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                let mut batch =
-                    arrow::compute::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), batches.iter())?;
-
-                if is_pq && batch.column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN).is_some() {
-                    // The PQ storage keeps codes in a transposed layout (bytes grouped
-                    // across all rows). Convert them back to per-row layout so that a
-                    // stable ROW_ID sort moves PQ_CODE_COLUMN together with ROW_ID.
-                    let codes_fsl = batch
-                        .column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN)
-                        .unwrap()
-                        .as_fixed_size_list();
-                    let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
-                    let bytes_per_code = codes_fsl.value_length() as usize;
-                    let codes = codes_fsl.values().as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt8Type>();
-                    let original_codes = transpose(codes, bytes_per_code, num_rows);
-                    let original_fsl = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-                        original_codes,
-                        bytes_per_code as i32,
-                    )?);
-                    batch = batch.replace_column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN, original_fsl)?;
-                }
+                if storage.len() == 0 {
+                    storage_ivf.add_partition(0);
+                } else {
+                    for mut batch in storage.to_batches()? {
+                        if is_pq
+                            && !self.transpose_codes
+                            && batch.num_rows() > 0
+                            && batch.column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN).is_some()
+                        {
+                            let codes_fsl = batch
+                                .column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN)
+                                .unwrap()
+                                .as_fixed_size_list();
+                            let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+                            let bytes_per_code = codes_fsl.value_length() as usize;
+                            let codes = codes_fsl.values().as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt8Type>();
+                            let original_codes = transpose(codes, bytes_per_code, num_rows);
+                            let original_fsl = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                                original_codes,
+                                bytes_per_code as i32,
+                            )?);
+                            batch = batch.replace_column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN, original_fsl)?;
+                        }
 
-                // Enforce a stable ROW_ID ordering for all auxiliary batches so that the
-                // PQ code column moves together with ROW_ID.
-                batch = stable_sort_batch_by_row_id(&batch)?;
-
-                // For PQ storages, optionally convert codes back to transposed layout
-                // in the unified auxiliary file. This keeps final PQ storage column-major
-                // when `transpose_pq_codes` is enabled.
-                if is_pq && self.transpose_codes && batch.column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN).is_some() {
-                    let codes_fsl = batch
-                        .column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN)
-                        .unwrap()
-                        .as_fixed_size_list();
-                    let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
-                    let bytes_per_code = codes_fsl.value_length() as usize;
-                    let codes = codes_fsl.values().as_primitive::<datatypes::UInt8Type>();
-                    let transposed_codes = transpose(codes, num_rows, bytes_per_code);
-                    let transposed_fsl = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-                        transposed_codes,
-                        bytes_per_code as i32,
-                    )?);
-                    batch = batch.replace_column_by_name(PQ_CODE_COLUMN, transposed_fsl)?;
-                }
+                        if is_rq
+                            && !self.transpose_codes
+                            && batch.num_rows() > 0
+                            && batch.column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN).is_some()
+                        {
+                            let codes_fsl = batch
+                                .column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN)
+                                .unwrap()
+                                .as_fixed_size_list();
+                            let unpacked = Arc::new(unpack_codes(codes_fsl));
+                            batch = batch.replace_column_by_name(RABIT_CODE_COLUMN, unpacked)?;
+                        }
 
-                storage_writer.write_batch(&batch).await?;
-                storage_ivf.add_partition(batch.num_rows() as u32);
-            }
+                        if storage_writer.is_none() {
+                            let storage_schema: Schema = batch.schema_ref().as_ref().try_into()?;
+                            storage_writer = Some(file_versions::create_writer(
+                                self.format_version,
+                                self.store.create(&storage_path).await?,
+                                storage_schema,
+                                writer_options.clone(),
+                            )?);
+                        }
+                        storage_writer
+                            .as_mut()
+                            .expect("storage writer must be initialized before write")
+                            .write_batch(&batch)
+                            .await?;
+                        storage_ivf.add_partition(batch.num_rows() as u32);
+                    }
+                }
 
-            let index_batch = index.to_batch()?;
-            if index_batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-                index_ivf.add_partition(0);
-                partition_index_metadata.push(String::new());
-            } else {
-                index_writer.write_batch(&index_batch).await?;
-                index_ivf.add_partition(index_batch.num_rows() as u32);
-                partition_index_metadata.push(
-                    index_batch
-                        .schema()
-                        .metadata
-                        .get(S::metadata_key())
-                        .cloned()
-                        .unwrap_or_default(),
-                );
+                let index_batch = index.to_batch()?;
+                if index_batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+                    index_ivf.add_partition(0);
+                    partition_index_metadata.push(String::new());
+                } else {
+                    index_writer.write_batch(&index_batch).await?;
+                    index_ivf.add_partition(index_batch.num_rows() as u32);
+                    partition_index_metadata.push(
+                        index_batch
+                            .schema()
+                            .metadata
+                            .get(S::metadata_key())
+                            .cloned()
+                            .unwrap_or_default(),
+                    );
+                }
             }
         }
 
+        ordered_results.finish()?;
+
         match self.shuffle_reader.as_ref() {
             Some(reader) => {
                 // it's building index, the loss is already calculated in the shuffle reader
@@ -1147,16 +1861,47 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
             }
         }
 
+        if storage_writer.is_none() {
+            let Some(centroids) = ivf.centroids.as_ref() else {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "flat storage writer could not infer schema from empty partitions without IVF centroids",
+                ));
+            };
+            let flat_schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+                ROW_ID_FIELD.as_ref().clone(),
+                arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                    lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN,
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                            "item",
+                            centroids.value_type(),
+                            true,
+                        )),
+                        centroids.value_length(),
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+            ]);
+            let storage_schema: Schema = (&flat_schema).try_into()?;
+            storage_writer = Some(file_versions::create_writer(
+                self.format_version,
+                self.store.create(&storage_path).await?,
+                storage_schema,
+                writer_options.clone(),
+            )?);
+        }
+
+        let storage_writer = storage_writer
+            .as_mut()
+            .expect("storage writer must be initialized before final metadata write");
         let storage_ivf_pb = pb::Ivf::try_from(&storage_ivf)?;
         storage_writer.add_schema_metadata(DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY, self.distance_type.to_string());
         let ivf_buffer_pos = storage_writer
             .add_global_buffer(storage_ivf_pb.encode_to_vec().into())
             .await?;
         storage_writer.add_schema_metadata(IVF_METADATA_KEY, ivf_buffer_pos.to_string());
-        let quant_type = Q::quantization_type();
-        let transposed = match quant_type {
-            QuantizationType::Product => self.transpose_codes,
-            QuantizationType::Rabit => true,
+        let transposed = match quantization_type {
+            QuantizationType::Product | QuantizationType::Rabit => self.transpose_codes,
             _ => false,
         };
         // For now, each partition's metadata is just the quantizer,
@@ -1207,12 +1952,21 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
             serde_json::to_string(&partition_index_metadata)?,
         );
 
-        storage_writer.finish().await?;
-        index_writer.finish().await?;
+        let storage_summary = storage_writer.finish().await?;
+        let index_summary = index_writer.finish().await?;
 
         log::info!("merging {} partitions done", ivf.num_partitions());
 
-        Ok(())
+        Ok(vec![
+            IndexFile {
+                path: INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+                size_bytes: storage_summary.size_bytes,
+            },
+            IndexFile {
+                path: INDEX_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+                size_bytes: index_summary.size_bytes,
+            },
+        ])
     }
 
     // take raw vectors from the dataset
@@ -1224,463 +1978,802 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         store: &ObjectStore,
         row_ids: &[u64],
     ) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        Self::take_vectors_stream(
+            dataset,
+            column,
+            row_ids,
+            store.block_size(),
+            store.io_parallelism(),
+        )
+        .await?
+        .try_collect()
+        .await
+    }
+
+    /// The raw vectors of `row_ids` in chunks of `rows_per_chunk` rows with up
+    /// to `prefetch` chunks in flight, each batch with schema | row_id | vector |.
+    async fn take_vectors_stream(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        column: &str,
+        row_ids: &[u64],
+        rows_per_chunk: usize,
+        prefetch: usize,
+    ) -> Result<impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send + 'static> {
         let projection = Arc::new(dataset.schema().project(&[column])?);
         // arrow uses i32 for index, so we chunk the row ids to avoid large batch causing overflow
-        let mut batches = Vec::new();
         let row_ids = dataset.filter_deleted_ids(row_ids).await?;
-        for chunk in row_ids.chunks(store.block_size()) {
-            let batch = dataset
-                .take_rows(chunk, ProjectionRequest::Schema(projection.clone()))
-                .await?;
-            if batch.num_rows() != chunk.len() {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "batch.num_rows() != chunk.len() ({} != {})",
-                        batch.num_rows(),
-                        chunk.len()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
-            }
-            let batch = batch.try_with_column(
-                ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(chunk.to_vec())),
-            )?;
-            batches.push(batch);
-        }
-        Ok(batches)
+        let chunks: Vec<Vec<u64>> = row_ids
+            .chunks(rows_per_chunk.max(1))
+            .map(|chunk| chunk.to_vec())
+            .collect();
+        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+        Ok(stream::iter(chunks)
+            .map(move |chunk| {
+                let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                let projection = projection.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let batch = dataset
+                        .take_rows(&chunk, ProjectionRequest::Schema(projection))
+                        .await?;
+                    if batch.num_rows() != chunk.len() {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                            "batch.num_rows() != chunk.len() ({} != {})",
+                            batch.num_rows(),
+                            chunk.len()
+                        )));
+                    }
+                    Ok(batch.try_with_column(
+                        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+                        Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(chunk)),
+                    )?)
+                }
+            })
+            .buffered(prefetch.max(1)))
     }
 
-    // helper to load row ids and vectors for a partition
-    async fn load_partition_raw_vectors(
+    /// A chunk of raw vectors flattened to one row id per vector (a multivector
+    /// row contributes every one of its vectors).
+    fn flatten_raw_vectors(
         &self,
-        part_idx: usize,
-    ) -> Result<Option<(UInt64Array, FixedSizeListArray)>> {
-        let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
-            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                "dataset not set before split partition",
-                location!(),
-            ));
-        };
-
-        let mut row_ids = self.partition_row_ids(part_idx).await?;
-        if !row_ids.is_sorted() {
-            row_ids.sort();
-        }
-        // dedup is needed if it's multivector
-        row_ids.dedup();
-
-        let batches = Self::take_vectors(dataset, &self.column, &self.store, &row_ids).await?;
-        if batches.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(None);
-        }
-        let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), batches.iter())?;
-        // for multivector, we need to flatten the vectors
-        let batch = Flatten::new(&self.column).transform(&batch)?;
-        // need to retrieve the row ids from the batch because some rows may have been deleted
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+    ) -> Result<(UInt64Array, FixedSizeListArray)> {
+        let batch = Flatten::new(&self.column).transform(batch)?;
         let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().clone();
         let vectors = batch
             .column_by_qualified_name(&self.column)
-            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
-                    "vector column {} not found in batch {}",
-                    self.column,
-                    batch.schema()
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            ))?
+            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "vector column {} not found in batch {}",
+                self.column,
+                batch.schema()
+            )))?
             .as_fixed_size_list()
             .clone();
-        Ok(Some((row_ids, vectors)))
+        Ok((row_ids, vectors))
     }
 
-    // check whether need to split or join partition
-    fn check_partition_adjustment(
-        ivf: &IvfModel,
-        reader: &dyn ShuffleReader,
-        existing_indices: &[Arc<dyn VectorIndex>],
-    ) -> Result<Option<PartitionAdjustment>> {
+    /// Rows per partition that split and join thresholds are derived from: the
+    /// value the index was created with when known, else the type default.
+    fn effective_target_partition_size(&self) -> Result<usize> {
+        if let Some(size) = self.target_partition_size {
+            return Ok(size);
+        }
         let index_type = IndexType::try_from(
             index_type_string(S::name().try_into()?, Q::quantization_type()).as_str(),
         )?;
+        Ok(index_type.target_partition_size())
+    }
 
-        let mut split_partition = None;
-        let mut join_partition = None;
-        let mut max_partition_size = 0;
-        let mut min_partition_size = usize::MAX;
+    /// Decide which partitions to split and which to join away, from the
+    /// partition sizes summed over the new rows and every existing segment.
+    /// See [`plan_partition_adjustment`] for the rules.
+    fn check_partition_adjustment(
+        ivf: &IvfModel,
+        reader: &dyn ShuffleReader,
+        existing_indices: &[ExistingIndex],
+        target_partition_size: usize,
+    ) -> Result<PartitionAdjustmentPlan> {
+        let mut partition_sizes = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
         for partition in 0..ivf.num_partitions() {
             let mut num_rows = reader.partition_size(partition)?;
-            for index in existing_indices.iter() {
-                num_rows += index.partition_size(partition);
-            }
-            if num_rows > max_partition_size
-                && num_rows > MAX_PARTITION_SIZE_FACTOR * index_type.target_partition_size()
-            {
-                max_partition_size = num_rows;
-                split_partition = Some(partition);
+            for source in existing_indices.iter() {
+                num_rows += source.index.partition_size(partition);
             }
-            if ivf.num_partitions() > 1
-                && num_rows < min_partition_size
-                && num_rows < MIN_PARTITION_SIZE_PERCENT * index_type.target_partition_size() / 100
-            {
-                min_partition_size = num_rows;
-                join_partition = Some(partition);
-            }
-        }
-
-        if let Some(partition) = split_partition {
-            Ok(Some(PartitionAdjustment::Split(partition)))
-        } else if let Some(partition) = join_partition {
-            Ok(Some(PartitionAdjustment::Join(partition)))
-        } else {
-            Ok(None)
+            partition_sizes.push(num_rows);
         }
+        let (splits, joins) = plan_partition_adjustment(&partition_sizes, target_partition_size);
+        Ok(PartitionAdjustmentPlan {
+            splits,
+            joins,
+            partition_sizes,
+        })
     }
 
-    // split this partition,
-    // 1. take raw vectors by row ids in this partition
-    // 2. run KMeans with k=2 to get 2 new centroids
-    // 3. reassign the vectors to the 2 new partitions
-    async fn split_partition(&self, part_idx: usize, ivf: &IvfModel) -> Result<AssignResult> {
-        // take the raw vectors from dataset
-        let Some((row_ids, vectors)) = self.load_partition_raw_vectors(part_idx).await? else {
-            return Ok(AssignResult {
-                assign_batches: vec![None; ivf.num_partitions()],
-                new_centroids: ivf.centroids_array().unwrap().clone(),
-            });
+    /// Split oversized partitions using a streaming approach.
+    ///
+    /// 1. Train new centroids by sampling vectors (low memory).
+    /// 2. Compute the set of affected partitions (split targets + their neighbors).
+    /// 3. Stream raw vectors for affected partitions through the IVF+quantizer
+    ///    transform pipeline, writing to temp files via a shuffler.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` when no partition could be split (none had live rows), so
+    /// the caller does not pay for a merge that changes nothing.
+    async fn split_partitions_streaming(
+        &self,
+        splits: &[PartitionSplit],
+        ivf: &IvfModel,
+    ) -> Result<Option<SplitResult>> {
+        let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "dataset not set before split partition",
+            ));
         };
 
-        let element_type = infer_vector_element_type(vectors.data_type())?;
-        match element_type {
+        let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), &self.column)?;
+        let (new_centroids, split_partitions) = match element_type {
             DataType::Float16 => {
-                self.split_partition_impl::<Float16Type>(part_idx, ivf, &row_ids, &vectors)
-                    .await
+                self.compute_split_centroids::<Float16Type>(splits, ivf)
+                    .await?
             }
             DataType::Float32 => {
-                self.split_partition_impl::<Float32Type>(part_idx, ivf, &row_ids, &vectors)
-                    .await
+                self.compute_split_centroids::<Float32Type>(splits, ivf)
+                    .await?
             }
             DataType::Float64 => {
-                self.split_partition_impl::<Float64Type>(part_idx, ivf, &row_ids, &vectors)
-                    .await
+                self.compute_split_centroids::<Float64Type>(splits, ivf)
+                    .await?
             }
             DataType::UInt8 => {
-                self.split_partition_impl::<UInt8Type>(part_idx, ivf, &row_ids, &vectors)
-                    .await
+                self.compute_split_centroids::<UInt8Type>(splits, ivf)
+                    .await?
             }
-            dt => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
+            dt => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
                     "vectors must be float16, float32, float64 or uint8, but got {:?}",
                     dt
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )),
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+
+        if split_partitions.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        // Affected partitions: every partition that received a new centroid plus
+        // the `REASSIGN_RANGE` neighbors of each split partition's old centroid,
+        // whose rows may now be nearer to a new centroid.
+        let mut affected_partitions = HashSet::new();
+        let mut neighbors = 0usize;
+        for (part_idx, new_partitions) in &split_partitions {
+            affected_partitions.extend(new_partitions.iter().copied());
+            let c0 = ivf.centroid(*part_idx).ok_or(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "centroid not found for partition {part_idx}",
+            )))?;
+            let (neighbor_ids, _) = select_reassign_candidates_impl(
+                self.distance_type,
+                ivf,
+                *part_idx,
+                &c0,
+                &HashSet::new(),
+            )?;
+            for id in neighbor_ids.values() {
+                if affected_partitions.insert(*id as usize) {
+                    neighbors += 1;
+                }
+            }
         }
+        log::info!(
+            "split {} partitions into {} partitions; {} neighbor partitions reassigned, {} total affected partitions",
+            split_partitions.len(),
+            new_partition_ids_len(&split_partitions),
+            neighbors,
+            affected_partitions.len(),
+        );
+
+        // Stream raw vectors for affected partitions through the IVF+quantizer
+        // transform, writing to temp files via a second shuffler.
+        let split_shuffle_reader = self
+            .reshuffle_partitions(&affected_partitions, &new_centroids)
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(Some(SplitResult {
+            new_centroids,
+            affected_partitions,
+            shuffle_reader: split_shuffle_reader.into(),
+        }))
     }
 
-    async fn split_partition_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    /// Train new centroids for partitions that need splitting.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the full updated centroids array and, for every partition that was
+    /// actually split (partitions without live rows are skipped), the ids of the
+    /// partitions its rows now belong to: the original id followed by the appended
+    /// ones.
+    async fn compute_split_centroids<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
         &self,
-        part_idx: usize,
+        splits: &[PartitionSplit],
         ivf: &IvfModel,
-        row_ids: &UInt64Array,
-        vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
-    ) -> Result<AssignResult>
+    ) -> Result<(FixedSizeListArray, Vec<(usize, Vec<usize>)>)>
     where
         T::Native: Dot + L2 + Normalize,
         PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
     {
         let centroids = ivf.centroids_array().unwrap();
-        let mut new_centroids: Vec<ArrayRef> = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions() + 1);
-        new_centroids.extend(centroids.iter().map(|vec| vec.unwrap()));
+
+        // Train split centroids in parallel (low memory: only samples).
+        let trained_centroids = stream::iter(splits.iter().copied())
+            .map(|split| async move { self.train_split_centroids::<T>(split, ivf).await })
+            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+
+        let mut applied = Vec::new();
+        let mut split_partitions = Vec::new();
+        let mut next_partition = centroids.len();
+        for (split, trained) in splits.iter().zip(trained_centroids) {
+            let Some(trained) = trained else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let appended = next_partition..next_partition + trained.len() - 1;
+            next_partition = appended.end;
+            let mut partitions = vec![split.partition];
+            partitions.extend(appended);
+            split_partitions.push((split.partition, partitions));
+            applied.push((split.partition, trained));
+        }
+
+        if applied.is_empty() {
+            return Ok((centroids.clone(), vec![]));
+        }
+
+        let new_centroids = apply_centroid_splits(centroids, &applied)?;
+        Ok((new_centroids, split_partitions))
+    }
+
+    /// Stream raw vectors for the given partitions through the IVF+quantizer
+    /// transform, writing to temp files. Returns a ShuffleReader for the results.
+    async fn reshuffle_partitions(
+        &self,
+        affected_partitions: &HashSet<usize>,
+        new_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    ) -> Result<Box<dyn ShuffleReader>> {
+        let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input("dataset not set before reshuffle"));
+        };
+
+        // Collect all row IDs for affected partitions, dedup, sort.
+        let mut all_row_ids = Vec::new();
+        for &part_idx in affected_partitions {
+            let mut row_ids = self.partition_row_ids(part_idx).await?;
+            all_row_ids.append(&mut row_ids);
+        }
+        all_row_ids.sort();
+        all_row_ids.dedup();
+
+        let (transformer, vector_field) = self.assign_transformer(new_centroids)?;
+        let transformer = Arc::new(transformer);
+        let (rows_per_fetch, prefetch) = raw_vector_fetch_shape(
+            is_multivector_column(dataset.schema(), &self.column)?,
+            new_centroids.value_length() as usize,
+            &vector_field,
+            self.store.block_size(),
+        );
+        let fetched = Self::take_vectors_stream(
+            dataset,
+            &self.column,
+            &all_row_ids,
+            rows_per_fetch,
+            prefetch,
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+        // A split can touch most of the index, so the raw vectors are read in
+        // batches of `RAW_VECTOR_FETCH_BYTES`, and each batch is sliced across
+        // the transform workers instead of admitting one whole batch per
+        // worker. The rows held at once are then bounded by the fetch budget,
+        // not by the number of affected rows or CPUs.
+        let column = self.column.clone();
+        let num_workers = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1);
+        let slices = regroup_by_bytes(Box::pin(fetched), RAW_VECTOR_FETCH_BYTES)
+            .map(move |batch| -> Result<_> {
+                // For multivector, flatten
+                let batch = Flatten::new(&column).transform(&batch?)?;
+                Ok(stream::iter(
+                    slice_evenly(batch, num_workers).map(Ok::<_, Error>),
+                ))
+            })
+            .try_flatten();
+        let mut transformed_stream = Box::pin(
+            slices
+                .map(move |slice| {
+                    let transformer = transformer.clone();
+                    async move { spawn_cpu(move || transformer.transform(&slice?)).await }
+                })
+                .buffered(num_workers)
+                .peekable(),
+        );
+
+        // Peek transformed stream to get schema (includes PART_ID + PQ codes)
+        let schema = match transformed_stream.as_mut().peek_mut().await {
+            Some(Ok(b)) => b.schema(),
+            Some(Err(e)) => return Err(std::mem::replace(e, Error::Stop)),
+            None => {
+                log::info!("no vectors to reshuffle");
+                let empty_reader: Box<dyn ShuffleReader> = Box::new(IvfShufflerReader::new(
+                    Arc::new(self.store.clone()),
+                    self.temp_dir.clone().join("split_shuffle"),
+                    vec![0; new_centroids.len()],
+                    0.0,
+                ));
+                return Ok(empty_reader);
+            }
+        };
+
+        let transformed_stream =
+            Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, transformed_stream));
+
+        let split_shuffle_dir = self.temp_dir.clone().join("split_shuffle");
+        let shuffler = create_ivf_shuffler(
+            split_shuffle_dir,
+            new_centroids.len(),
+            self.format_version,
+            None,
+        );
+        shuffler.shuffle(transformed_stream).await
+    }
+
+    /// Sample raw vectors from a partition for kmeans training.
+    ///
+    /// Samples row IDs first, then only loads `sample_size` vectors from disk.
+    async fn sample_partition_raw_vectors(
+        &self,
+        part_idx: usize,
+        sample_size: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Option<FixedSizeListArray>> {
+        let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "dataset not set before sample partition",
+            ));
+        };
+
+        let mut row_ids = self.partition_row_ids(part_idx).await?;
+        if !row_ids.is_sorted() {
+            row_ids.sort();
+        }
+        row_ids.dedup();
+
+        if row_ids.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        // Sample row ids before loading any vectors.
+        if row_ids.len() > sample_size {
+            let step = row_ids.len() / sample_size;
+            row_ids = row_ids
+                .iter()
+                .copied()
+                .step_by(step.max(1))
+                .take(sample_size)
+                .collect();
+        }
+
+        let batches = Self::take_vectors(dataset, &self.column, &self.store, &row_ids).await?;
+        if batches.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), batches.iter())?;
+        let batch = Flatten::new(&self.column).transform(&batch)?;
+        let vectors = batch
+            .column_by_qualified_name(&self.column)
+            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "vector column {} not found in batch",
+                self.column,
+            )))?
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .clone();
+        Ok(Some(vectors))
+    }
+
+    /// Train the centroids that split one partition `split.ways` ways. Only a
+    /// sample of `SPLIT_SAMPLE_RATE` vectors per centroid is read, so this is
+    /// cheap enough to run in parallel.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` when the partition has no live rows, and fewer centroids
+    /// than requested when it has fewer distinct rows than that.
+    async fn train_split_centroids<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        &self,
+        split: PartitionSplit,
+        ivf: &IvfModel,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Vec<ArrayRef>>>
+    where
+        T::Native: Dot + L2 + Normalize,
+        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
+    {
+        let Some(vectors) = self
+            .sample_partition_raw_vectors(split.partition, SPLIT_SAMPLE_RATE * split.ways)
+            .await?
+        else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let ways = split.ways.min(vectors.len());
+        if ways < 2 {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
 
         let dimension = infer_vector_dim(vectors.data_type())?;
-        // train kmeans to get 2 new centroids
         let (normalized_dist_type, normalized_vectors) = match self.distance_type {
             DistanceType::Cosine => {
-                let vectors = normalize_fsl(vectors)?;
+                let vectors = normalize_fsl(&vectors)?;
                 (DistanceType::L2, vectors)
             }
-            _ => (self.distance_type, vectors.clone()),
+            _ => (self.distance_type, vectors),
         };
-        let params = KMeansParams::new(None, 50, 1, normalized_dist_type);
-        let kmeans = lance_index::vector::kmeans::train_kmeans::<T>(
-            normalized_vectors.values().as_primitive::<T>(),
-            params,
+        // Seeded per partition so a rerun trains the same split.
+        let params =
+            KMeansParams::new(None, 50, 1, normalized_dist_type).with_seed(split.partition as u64);
+        let values = normalized_vectors.values().as_primitive::<T>();
+        let kmeans = match lance_index::vector::kmeans::train_kmeans::<T>(
+            values,
+            params.clone(),
             dimension,
-            2,
-            256,
+            ways,
+            SPLIT_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        ) {
+            Ok(kmeans) => kmeans,
+            Err(err) => {
+                // Above 256 ways the trainer goes hierarchical, which refuses a
+                // sample with fewer distinct rows than pieces rather than return
+                // fewer centroids. Flat k-means leaves the surplus centroids
+                // empty instead, and those are dropped below, so the partition
+                // still splits as far as its distinct rows allow.
+                log::info!(
+                    "retrying the {ways}-way split of partition {} with flat k-means: {err}",
+                    split.partition
+                );
+                lance_index::vector::kmeans::train_kmeans::<T>(
+                    values,
+                    params.with_hierarchical_k(1),
+                    dimension,
+                    ways,
+                    SPLIT_SAMPLE_RATE,
+                )?
+            }
+        };
+
+        // The split partition's rows are reassigned among every centroid, so a
+        // new centroid only fills a partition if some sampled row is nearer to
+        // it than to its siblings and to the old centroids around the partition
+        // (the `REASSIGN_RANGE` nearest, the only ones its rows can reach). The
+        // others would produce empty partitions: near-duplicate rows collapse
+        // onto one centroid, and rows that k-means saw but a neighbor already
+        // holds stay there. Keep the centroids that win rows, and leave the
+        // partition alone when fewer than two do: it cannot be split by
+        // clustering. Same assignment routine as the IVF transformer that
+        // places the rows, and an exact tie goes to the old centroid, so the
+        // check never keeps a centroid the transformer would leave empty.
+        let trained_centroids =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(kmeans.centroids.clone(), dimension as i32)?;
+        let (membership, new_dists) = lance_index::vector::kmeans::compute_partitions_arrow_array(
+            &trained_centroids,
+            &normalized_vectors,
+            normalized_dist_type,
         )?;
-        // the original centroid
-        let c0 = ivf.centroid(part_idx).ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-            "original centroid not found",
-            location!(),
-        ))?;
-        // the 2 new centroids
-        let c1 = kmeans.centroids.slice(0, dimension);
-        let c2 = kmeans.centroids.slice(dimension, dimension);
-        // replace the original centroid with the first new one
-        new_centroids[part_idx] = c1.clone();
-        // append the second new one
-        new_centroids.push(c2.clone());
-        let centroid1_part_idx = part_idx;
-        let centroid2_part_idx = new_centroids.len() - 1;
-
-        let new_centroids = new_centroids
-            .iter()
-            .map(|vec| vec.as_ref())
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let new_centroids = arrow::compute::concat(&new_centroids)?;
-
-        // get top REASSIGN_RANGE centroids from c0
-        let (reassign_part_ids, reassign_part_centroids) =
-            self.select_reassign_candidates(ivf, part_idx, &c0)?;
-
-        // compute the distance between the vectors and the 3 centroids (original one and the 2 new ones)
-        let d0 = self.distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(&c0, vectors)?;
-        let d1 = self.distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(&c1, vectors)?;
-        let d2 = self.distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(&c2, vectors)?;
-        let d0 = d0.values();
-        let d1 = d1.values();
-        let d2 = d2.values();
-
-        let mut assign_ops = vec![Vec::new(); ivf.num_partitions() + 1];
-        // assign the vectors in the original partition
-        self.assign_vectors::<T>(
-            part_idx,
-            centroid1_part_idx,
-            centroid2_part_idx,
-            row_ids,
-            vectors,
-            d0,
-            d1,
-            d2,
-            &reassign_part_ids,
-            &reassign_part_centroids,
-            true,
-            &mut assign_ops,
+        let c0 = ivf
+            .centroid(split.partition)
+            .ok_or(Error::invalid_input("original centroid not found"))?;
+        let (_, neighbor_centroids) =
+            self.select_reassign_candidates(ivf, split.partition, &c0, &HashSet::new())?;
+        let (_, old_dists) = lance_index::vector::kmeans::compute_partitions_arrow_array(
+            &neighbor_centroids,
+            &normalized_vectors,
+            normalized_dist_type,
         )?;
-        // assign the vectors in the reassigned partitions
-        let reassign_targets = reassign_part_ids
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .enumerate()
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        if !reassign_targets.is_empty() {
-            let builder = self;
-            let distance_type = self.distance_type;
-            let reassign_part_ids_clone = reassign_part_ids.clone();
-            let reassign_part_centroids_clone = reassign_part_centroids.clone();
-            stream::iter(
-                reassign_targets
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(move |(candidate_idx, part_id)| {
-                        let builder = builder;
-                        let reassign_part_ids = reassign_part_ids_clone.clone();
-                        let reassign_part_centroids = reassign_part_centroids_clone.clone();
-                        let centroid1 = c1.clone();
-                        let centroid2 = c2.clone();
-                        async move {
-                            let part_idx = part_id as usize;
-                            let Some((row_ids, vectors)) =
-                                builder.load_partition_raw_vectors(part_idx).await?
-                            else {
-                                // all vectors in this partition have been deleted
-                                return Ok::<Vec<(usize, AssignOp)>, Error>(Vec::new());
-                            };
-                            let ops = spawn_cpu(move || {
-                                Self::compute_reassign_assign_ops::<T>(
-                                    distance_type,
-                                    part_idx,
-                                    candidate_idx,
-                                    centroid1_part_idx,
-                                    centroid2_part_idx,
-                                    &row_ids,
-                                    &vectors,
-                                    centroid1,
-                                    centroid2,
-                                    &reassign_part_ids,
-                                    &reassign_part_centroids,
-                                )
-                            })
-                            .await?;
-                            Ok(ops)
-                        }
-                    }),
-            )
-            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
-            .try_for_each(|ops| {
-                for (target_idx, op) in ops {
-                    assign_ops[target_idx].push(op);
-                }
-                future::ready(Ok(()))
-            })
-            .await?;
+        let mut attracts_rows = vec![false; ways];
+        for ((cluster, new_dist), old_dist) in membership.into_iter().zip(new_dists).zip(old_dists)
+        {
+            let (Some(cluster), Some(new_dist)) = (cluster, new_dist) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            if old_dist.is_none_or(|old_dist| new_dist < old_dist) {
+                attracts_rows[cluster as usize] = true;
+            }
+        }
+        let centroids: Vec<ArrayRef> = (0..ways)
+            .filter(|&i| attracts_rows[i])
+            .map(|i| kmeans.centroids.slice(i * dimension, dimension))
+            .collect();
+        if centroids.len() < 2 {
+            log::warn!(
+                "partition {} is oversized but its sampled rows are too alike to split; leaving it as is",
+                split.partition
+            );
+            return Ok(None);
         }
+        Ok(Some(centroids))
+    }
 
-        let new_centroids =
-            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(new_centroids, dimension as i32)?;
-        let assign_batches = self.build_assign_batch::<T>(&new_centroids, &assign_ops)?;
+    /// Join undersized partitions away in one pass. Every logical row with an
+    /// entry in a joined partition is reindexed once: its old entries leave
+    /// every partition through `reindexed_row_ids`, and all of its vectors are
+    /// placed anew in their nearest surviving partition with room below
+    /// `split_threshold`, the `REASSIGN_RANGE` nearest neighbors of the old
+    /// centroid first. Room is counted on the survivors' sizes after those
+    /// entries are gone, so the bound holds wherever a multivector row's
+    /// vectors were. The reindexed rows are quantized for their chosen
+    /// partition (old numbering) and streamed to `join_shuffle_reader` chunk by
+    /// chunk, so memory does not grow with the number of joined partitions or
+    /// with the vectors a reindexed row has elsewhere.
+    async fn join_partitions(
+        &self,
+        partitions: &[usize],
+        ivf: &IvfModel,
+        partition_sizes: &[usize],
+        split_threshold: usize,
+    ) -> Result<JoinResult> {
+        let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "dataset not set before joining partitions",
+            ));
+        };
 
-        Ok(AssignResult {
-            assign_batches,
-            new_centroids,
-        })
-    }
+        // The rows to reindex, each under the first joined partition holding it.
+        let mut reindexed_row_ids = HashSet::new();
+        let mut rows_per_partition = Vec::with_capacity(partitions.len());
+        for &partition in partitions {
+            let mut row_ids = self.partition_row_ids(partition).await?;
+            row_ids.sort_unstable();
+            row_ids.dedup();
+            row_ids.retain(|row_id| reindexed_row_ids.insert(*row_id));
+            rows_per_partition.push(row_ids);
+        }
+        let reindexed_row_ids = Arc::new(reindexed_row_ids);
+
+        let removed: HashSet<usize> = partitions.iter().copied().collect();
+        let kept_partitions: Vec<usize> = (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .filter(|partition| !removed.contains(partition))
+            .collect();
+        let centroids = ivf
+            .centroids_array()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("IVF model has no centroids"))?;
+        let kept_ids = UInt32Array::from_iter_values(
+            kept_partitions.iter().map(|&partition| partition as u32),
+        );
+        let new_centroids = arrow::compute::take(centroids, &kept_ids, None)?
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .clone();
 
-    // join the given partition:
-    // 1. delete the original parttion
-    // 2. reasign all vectors of the original partitions
-    async fn join_partition(&self, part_idx: usize, ivf: &IvfModel) -> Result<AssignResult> {
-        let centroids = ivf.centroids_array().unwrap();
-        let mut new_centroids: Vec<ArrayRef> = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions() - 1);
-        new_centroids.extend(centroids.iter().enumerate().filter_map(|(i, vec)| {
-            if i == part_idx {
-                None
-            } else {
-                Some(vec.unwrap())
+        // Rows each survivor can still take below the split threshold once the
+        // reindexed rows' entries are gone. Only a multivector row has entries
+        // outside the joined partitions, so only then are the survivors read.
+        let multivector = is_multivector_column(dataset.schema(), &self.column)?;
+        let mut room = vec![0usize; ivf.num_partitions()];
+        for &partition in &kept_partitions {
+            let mut load = partition_sizes[partition];
+            if multivector {
+                load -= self
+                    .partition_row_ids(partition)
+                    .await?
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|row_id| reindexed_row_ids.contains(row_id))
+                    .count();
             }
-        }));
-        let new_centroids = new_centroids
-            .iter()
-            .map(|vec| vec.as_ref())
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let new_centroids = arrow::compute::concat(&new_centroids)?;
-        let new_centroids =
-            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(new_centroids, centroids.value_length())?;
-
-        // take the raw vectors from dataset
-        let Some((row_ids, vectors)) = self.load_partition_raw_vectors(part_idx).await? else {
-            return Ok(AssignResult {
-                assign_batches: vec![None; ivf.num_partitions() - 1],
-                new_centroids,
-            });
-        };
+            room[partition] = split_threshold.saturating_sub(load);
+        }
 
-        match vectors.value_type() {
+        let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), &self.column)?;
+        let join_shuffle_reader = match element_type {
             DataType::Float16 => {
-                self.join_partition_impl::<Float16Type>(
-                    part_idx,
+                self.join_partitions_impl::<Float16Type>(
+                    partitions,
+                    &rows_per_partition,
                     ivf,
-                    &row_ids,
-                    &vectors,
-                    new_centroids,
+                    &removed,
+                    &mut room,
+                    multivector,
                 )
-                .await
+                .await?
             }
             DataType::Float32 => {
-                self.join_partition_impl::<Float32Type>(
-                    part_idx,
+                self.join_partitions_impl::<Float32Type>(
+                    partitions,
+                    &rows_per_partition,
                     ivf,
-                    &row_ids,
-                    &vectors,
-                    new_centroids,
+                    &removed,
+                    &mut room,
+                    multivector,
                 )
-                .await
+                .await?
             }
             DataType::Float64 => {
-                self.join_partition_impl::<Float64Type>(
-                    part_idx,
+                self.join_partitions_impl::<Float64Type>(
+                    partitions,
+                    &rows_per_partition,
                     ivf,
-                    &row_ids,
-                    &vectors,
-                    new_centroids,
+                    &removed,
+                    &mut room,
+                    multivector,
                 )
-                .await
+                .await?
             }
             DataType::UInt8 => {
-                self.join_partition_impl::<UInt8Type>(
-                    part_idx,
+                self.join_partitions_impl::<UInt8Type>(
+                    partitions,
+                    &rows_per_partition,
                     ivf,
-                    &row_ids,
-                    &vectors,
-                    new_centroids,
+                    &removed,
+                    &mut room,
+                    multivector,
                 )
-                .await
+                .await?
             }
-            dt => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                format!(
+            dt => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
                     "vectors must be float16, float32, float64 or uint8, but got {:?}",
                     dt
-                ),
-                location!(),
-            )),
-        }
-    }
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(JoinResult {
+            new_centroids,
+            kept_partitions,
+            reindexed_row_ids,
+            join_shuffle_reader,
+        })
+    }
 
-    async fn join_partition_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    /// Route and quantize the rows of each joined partition chunk by chunk,
+    /// writing them through a shuffler keyed by old partition id. A single
+    /// vector row is routed within its partition's window; every vector of a
+    /// multivector row gets its own, since it may lie far from the joined
+    /// partition the row was found under.
+    async fn join_partitions_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
         &self,
-        part_idx: usize,
+        partitions: &[usize],
+        rows_per_partition: &[Vec<u64>],
         ivf: &IvfModel,
-        row_ids: &UInt64Array,
-        vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
-        new_centroids: FixedSizeListArray,
-    ) -> Result<AssignResult>
+        removed: &HashSet<usize>,
+        room: &mut [usize],
+        multivector: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>>
     where
         T::Native: Dot + L2 + Normalize,
         PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
     {
-        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), vectors.len());
-
-        // the original centroid
-        let c0 = ivf.centroid(part_idx).ok_or(Error::invalid_input(
-            "original centroid not found",
-            location!(),
-        ))?;
-
-        // get top REASSIGN_RANGE centroids from c0
-        let (reassign_part_ids, reassign_part_centroids) =
-            self.select_reassign_candidates(ivf, part_idx, &c0)?;
-
-        let new_part_id = |idx: usize| -> usize {
-            if idx < part_idx {
-                idx
-            } else {
-                // part_idx has been deleted, so any part id after it should be decremented by 1
-                idx - 1
-            }
+        let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "dataset not set before joining partitions",
+            ));
         };
-        let mut assign_ops = vec![Vec::new(); ivf.num_partitions() - 1];
-        // reassign the vectors in the original partition
-        for (i, &row_id) in row_ids.values().iter().enumerate() {
-            let ReassignPartition::ReassignCandidate(idx) = self.reassign_vectors(
-                vectors.value(i).as_primitive::<T>(),
-                None,
-                &reassign_part_ids,
-                &reassign_part_centroids,
-            )?
-            else {
-                log::warn!("this is a bug, the vector is not reassigned");
-                continue;
+        let old_centroids = ivf
+            .centroids_array()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("IVF model has no centroids"))?;
+        let (transformer, vector_field) = self.assign_transformer(old_centroids)?;
+
+        let num_partitions = ivf.num_partitions();
+        let shuffle_dir = self.temp_dir.clone().join("join_shuffle");
+        let shuffler = create_ivf_shuffler(
+            shuffle_dir.clone(),
+            num_partitions,
+            self.format_version,
+            None,
+        );
+        let store = Arc::new(self.store.clone());
+        let (mut sender, mut receiver) = futures::channel::mpsc::channel::<RecordBatch>(2);
+        let shuffle = async move {
+            let Some(first) = receiver.next().await else {
+                let empty: Box<dyn ShuffleReader> = Box::new(IvfShufflerReader::new(
+                    store,
+                    shuffle_dir,
+                    vec![0; num_partitions],
+                    0.0,
+                ));
+                return Ok(empty);
             };
-
-            assign_ops[new_part_id(idx as usize)].push(AssignOp::Add((row_id, vectors.value(i))));
-        }
-        let assign_batches = self.build_assign_batch::<T>(&new_centroids, &assign_ops)?;
-
-        Ok(AssignResult {
-            assign_batches,
-            new_centroids,
-        })
+            let schema = first.schema();
+            let batches = stream::iter(std::iter::once(Ok(first))).chain(receiver.map(Ok));
+            shuffler
+                .shuffle(Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, batches)))
+                .await
+        };
+        let (rows_per_fetch, prefetch) = raw_vector_fetch_shape(
+            multivector,
+            ivf.dimension(),
+            &vector_field,
+            self.store.block_size(),
+        );
+        let route = async move {
+            for (&part_idx, row_ids) in partitions.iter().zip(rows_per_partition) {
+                if row_ids.is_empty() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let c0 = ivf
+                    .centroid(part_idx)
+                    .ok_or(Error::invalid_input("original centroid not found"))?;
+                let partition_window =
+                    self.select_reassign_candidates(ivf, part_idx, &c0, removed)?;
+                let mut overflowed = 0usize;
+                let fetched = Self::take_vectors_stream(
+                    dataset,
+                    &self.column,
+                    row_ids,
+                    rows_per_fetch,
+                    prefetch,
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let mut chunks = Box::pin(regroup_by_bytes(fetched, RAW_VECTOR_FETCH_BYTES));
+                while let Some(chunk) = chunks.try_next().await? {
+                    let (row_ids, vectors) = self.flatten_raw_vectors(&chunk)?;
+                    for start in (0..row_ids.len()).step_by(JOIN_VECTORS_PER_BATCH) {
+                        let end = (start + JOIN_VECTORS_PER_BATCH).min(row_ids.len());
+                        let mut assign_ops: BTreeMap<u32, Vec<AssignOp>> = BTreeMap::new();
+                        for i in start..end {
+                            let vector = vectors.value(i);
+                            let vector_window;
+                            let (window_ids, window_centroids) = if multivector {
+                                vector_window =
+                                    window_for_vector(self.distance_type, ivf, &vector, removed)?;
+                                &vector_window
+                            } else {
+                                &partition_window
+                            };
+                            let (target, had_room) = choose_join_destination(
+                                self.distance_type,
+                                vector.as_primitive::<T>(),
+                                window_ids,
+                                window_centroids,
+                                ivf,
+                                removed,
+                                room,
+                            )?;
+                            if had_room {
+                                room[target as usize] -= 1;
+                            } else {
+                                overflowed += 1;
+                            }
+                            assign_ops
+                                .entry(target)
+                                .or_default()
+                                .push(AssignOp::Add((row_ids.value(i), vector)));
+                        }
+                        for (target, ops) in assign_ops {
+                            let batch = Self::build_assign_batch::<T>(
+                                &transformer,
+                                &vector_field,
+                                target,
+                                &ops,
+                            )?;
+                            sender.send(batch).await.map_err(|_| {
+                                Error::internal("the join shuffler stopped taking batches")
+                            })?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                if overflowed > 0 {
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "{overflowed} rows of joined partition {part_idx} found no partition below the split threshold and went to the nearest full one"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+            drop(sender);
+            Ok(())
+        };
+        let (reader, ()) = futures::try_join!(shuffle, route)?;
+        Ok(reader.into())
     }
 
-    // Build the assign batch form assign ops for each partition
-    // returns the assign batch and the deleted row ids
-    fn build_assign_batch<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    /// The IVF + quantizer transform that turns reassigned rows into index rows
+    /// of `centroids`, with the vector field its input batches use.
+    fn assign_transformer(
         &self,
         centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
-        assign_ops: &[Vec<AssignOp>],
-    ) -> Result<Vec<Option<(RecordBatch, UInt64Array)>>> {
+    ) -> Result<(IvfTransformer, Field)> {
         let Some(dataset) = self.dataset.as_ref() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "dataset not set before building assign batch",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
         let Some(quantizer) = self.quantizer.clone() else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "quantizer not set before building assign batch",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
 
@@ -1697,100 +2790,58 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         else {
             return Err(Error::invalid_input(
                 "vector field not found in dataset schema",
-                location!(),
             ));
         };
 
-        let transformer = Arc::new(
-            lance_index::vector::ivf::new_ivf_transformer_with_quantizer(
-                centroids.clone(),
-                self.distance_type,
-                vector_field.name().as_str(),
-                quantizer.into(),
-                None,
-            )?,
-        );
+        let transformer = lance_index::vector::ivf::new_ivf_transformer_with_quantizer(
+            centroids.clone(),
+            self.distance_type,
+            vector_field.name().as_str(),
+            quantizer.into(),
+            None,
+        )?;
+        Ok((transformer, vector_field))
+    }
 
-        let num_rows = assign_ops
-            .iter()
-            .map(|ops| {
-                ops.iter()
-                    .map(|op| match op {
-                        AssignOp::Add(_) => 1,
-                        AssignOp::Remove(_) => 0,
-                    })
-                    .sum::<usize>()
-            })
-            .sum::<usize>();
+    /// Quantize `ops`, all bound for partition `part_id` of the transformer's
+    /// centroids, into one index batch.
+    fn build_assign_batch<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        transformer: &IvfTransformer,
+        vector_field: &Field,
+        part_id: u32,
+        ops: &[AssignOp],
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let dimension = infer_vector_dim(vector_field.data_type())?;
+        let num_rows = ops.len();
 
         // build the input batch with schema | row_id | vector | part_id |
         let mut row_ids_builder = UInt64Builder::with_capacity(num_rows);
-        let mut vector_builder =
-            PrimitiveBuilder::<T>::with_capacity(num_rows * centroids.value_length() as usize);
-        let mut part_ids_builder = UInt32Builder::with_capacity(num_rows);
-        let mut deleted_row_ids = UInt64Builder::with_capacity(num_rows);
-
-        let mut ops_count = Vec::with_capacity(assign_ops.len());
-        for (part_idx, ops) in assign_ops.iter().enumerate() {
-            let mut add_count = 0;
-            let mut remove_count = 0;
-            for op in ops {
-                match op {
-                    AssignOp::Add((row_id, vector)) => {
-                        row_ids_builder.append_value(*row_id);
-                        vector_builder.append_array(vector.as_primitive::<T>());
-                        part_ids_builder.append_value(part_idx as u32);
-                        add_count += 1;
-                    }
-                    AssignOp::Remove(row_id) => {
-                        deleted_row_ids.append_value(*row_id);
-                        remove_count += 1;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            ops_count.push((add_count, remove_count));
+        let mut vector_builder = PrimitiveBuilder::<T>::with_capacity(num_rows * dimension);
+        for AssignOp::Add((row_id, vector)) in ops {
+            row_ids_builder.append_value(*row_id);
+            vector_builder.append_array(vector.as_primitive::<T>());
         }
-
         let row_ids = row_ids_builder.finish();
-        let vector = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-            vector_builder.finish(),
-            centroids.value_length(),
-        )?;
-        let part_ids = part_ids_builder.finish();
-        let deleted_row_ids = deleted_row_ids.finish();
+        let vector =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vector_builder.finish(), dimension as i32)?;
+        let part_ids = UInt32Array::from(vec![part_id; num_rows]);
         let schema = arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
             ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
-            vector_field,
+            vector_field.clone(),
             PART_ID_FIELD.clone(),
         ]);
         let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
             Arc::new(schema),
             vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(vector), Arc::new(part_ids)],
         )?;
-        let batch = transformer.transform(&batch)?;
-
-        // slice the batch according to the ops count
-        let mut results = Vec::with_capacity(assign_ops.len());
-        let mut add_offset = 0;
-        let mut remove_offset = 0;
-        for (add_count, remove_count) in ops_count.into_iter() {
-            if add_count == 0 && remove_count == 0 {
-                results.push(None);
-                continue;
-            }
-            let batch = batch.slice(add_offset, add_count);
-            let deleted_row_ids = deleted_row_ids.slice(remove_offset, remove_count);
-            results.push(Some((batch, deleted_row_ids)));
-            add_offset += add_count;
-            remove_offset += remove_count;
-        }
-        Ok(results)
+        transformer.transform(&batch)
     }
 
     async fn partition_row_ids(&self, part_idx: usize) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
         // existing part: read from the existing indices
         let mut row_ids = Vec::new();
-        for index in self.existing_indices.iter() {
+        for source in self.existing_indices.iter() {
+            let index = &source.index;
             if part_idx >= index.ivf_model().num_partitions() {
                 // there was a bug that may cause delta indices have different number of partitions,
                 // it's safe to skip loading the extra partition, and split/join the existing partitions,
@@ -1806,8 +2857,21 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
             let mut reader = index
                 .partition_reader(part_idx, false, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
                 .await?;
+            let old_data_filter = source.old_data_filter().await?;
             while let Some(batch) = reader.try_next().await? {
-                row_ids.extend(batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values());
+                let batch_row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+                match old_data_filter {
+                    // Rows the segment may no longer contribute must not be reassigned
+                    // to a partition; their live copy comes from another source.
+                    Some(filter) => row_ids.extend(
+                        batch_row_ids
+                            .values()
+                            .iter()
+                            .zip(filter.filter_row_ids(batch_row_ids).values().iter())
+                            .filter_map(|(row_id, keep)| keep.then_some(row_id)),
+                    ),
+                    None => row_ids.extend(batch_row_ids.values()),
+                }
             }
         }
 
@@ -1829,232 +2893,258 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>
         ivf: &IvfModel,
         part_idx: usize,
         c0: &ArrayRef,
+        excluded: &HashSet<usize>,
     ) -> Result<(UInt32Array, FixedSizeListArray)> {
-        select_reassign_candidates_impl(self.distance_type, ivf, part_idx, c0)
-    }
-    // assign the vectors of original partition
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn assign_vectors<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        &self,
-        part_idx: usize,
-        centroid1_part_idx: usize,
-        centroid2_part_idx: usize,
-        row_ids: &UInt64Array,
-        vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
-        d0: &[f32],
-        d1: &[f32],
-        d2: &[f32],
-        reassign_part_ids: &UInt32Array,
-        reassign_part_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
-        // the assign ops for each partition
-        // the length must be `old_num_partitions + 1`
-        deleted_original_partition: bool,
-        assign_ops: &mut [Vec<AssignOp>],
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        Self::assign_vectors_impl::<T, _>(
-            self.distance_type,
-            part_idx,
-            centroid1_part_idx,
-            centroid2_part_idx,
-            row_ids,
-            vectors,
-            d0,
-            d1,
-            d2,
-            reassign_part_ids,
-            reassign_part_centroids,
-            deleted_original_partition,
-            |idx, op| assign_ops[idx].push(op),
-        )
+        select_reassign_candidates_impl(self.distance_type, ivf, part_idx, c0, excluded)
     }
+}
 
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn assign_vectors_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType, F: FnMut(usize, AssignOp)>(
-        distance_type: DistanceType,
-        part_idx: usize,
-        centroid1_part_idx: usize,
-        centroid2_part_idx: usize,
-        row_ids: &UInt64Array,
-        vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
-        d0: &[f32],
-        d1: &[f32],
-        d2: &[f32],
-        reassign_part_ids: &UInt32Array,
-        reassign_part_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
-        deleted_original_partition: bool,
-        mut sink: F,
-    ) -> Result<()> {
-        for (i, &row_id) in row_ids.values().iter().enumerate() {
-            if d0[i] <= d1[i] && d0[i] <= d2[i] {
-                if !deleted_original_partition {
-                    // the original partition is not deleted, we just keep the vector in the original partition
-                    continue;
-                }
-                match Self::reassign_vectors_impl(
-                    distance_type,
-                    vectors.value(i).as_primitive::<T>(),
-                    Some((d1[i], d2[i])),
-                    reassign_part_ids,
-                    reassign_part_centroids,
-                )? {
-                    ReassignPartition::NewCentroid1 => {
-                        // replace the original partition with the first new one
-                        sink(
-                            centroid1_part_idx,
-                            AssignOp::Add((row_id, vectors.value(i))),
-                        );
-                    }
-                    ReassignPartition::NewCentroid2 => {
-                        // append the new second one
-                        sink(
-                            centroid2_part_idx,
-                            AssignOp::Add((row_id, vectors.value(i))),
-                        );
-                    }
-                    ReassignPartition::ReassignCandidate(idx) => {
-                        // replace the original partition with the reassigned one
-                        sink(idx as usize, AssignOp::Add((row_id, vectors.value(i))));
-                    }
-                }
-            } else {
-                if !deleted_original_partition {
-                    // the original partition is not deleted, we need to remove the vector from the original partition
-                    sink(part_idx, AssignOp::Remove(row_id));
-                }
-                if d1[i] <= d2[i] {
-                    // centroid 1 is the closest one
-                    sink(
-                        centroid1_part_idx,
-                        AssignOp::Add((row_id, vectors.value(i))),
-                    );
-                } else {
-                    // centroid 2 is the closest one
-                    sink(
-                        centroid2_part_idx,
-                        AssignOp::Add((row_id, vectors.value(i))),
-                    );
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(())
+/// Split every partition above `MAX_PARTITION_SIZE_FACTOR` times the target
+/// straight to the target size (`ceil(rows / target)` ways, capped at
+/// `MAX_SPLIT_WAYS`), so one pass leaves nothing above the threshold. Join away
+/// partitions below `MIN_PARTITION_SIZE_PERCENT` of the target, smallest first,
+/// as long as enough partitions survive for their room below the threshold to
+/// hold every joined row; where each row lands is decided when the join runs
+/// ([`choose_join_destination`]).
+fn plan_partition_adjustment(
+    partition_sizes: &[usize],
+    target_partition_size: usize,
+) -> (Vec<PartitionSplit>, Vec<usize>) {
+    let split_threshold = MAX_PARTITION_SIZE_FACTOR * target_partition_size;
+    let join_threshold = MIN_PARTITION_SIZE_PERCENT * target_partition_size / 100;
+    let num_partitions = partition_sizes.len();
+
+    let splits = partition_sizes
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter(|&(_, &num_rows)| num_rows > split_threshold)
+        .map(|(partition, &num_rows)| PartitionSplit {
+            partition,
+            ways: num_rows
+                .div_ceil(target_partition_size)
+                .clamp(2, MAX_SPLIT_WAYS),
+        })
+        .collect();
+    if num_partitions < 2 {
+        return (splits, Vec::new());
     }
 
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    fn compute_reassign_assign_ops<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        distance_type: DistanceType,
-        part_idx: usize,
-        candidate_idx: usize,
-        centroid1_part_idx: usize,
-        centroid2_part_idx: usize,
-        row_ids: &UInt64Array,
-        vectors: &FixedSizeListArray,
-        centroid1: ArrayRef,
-        centroid2: ArrayRef,
-        reassign_part_ids: &UInt32Array,
-        reassign_part_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<(usize, AssignOp)>>
-    where
-        T::Native: Dot + L2 + Normalize,
-        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
-    {
-        let d0 = distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(
-            reassign_part_centroids.value(candidate_idx).as_ref(),
-            vectors,
-        )?;
-        let d1 = distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(centroid1.as_ref(), vectors)?;
-        let d2 = distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(centroid2.as_ref(), vectors)?;
-        let d0 = d0.values();
-        let d1 = d1.values();
-        let d2 = d2.values();
-
-        let mut ops = Vec::new();
-        Self::assign_vectors_impl::<T, _>(
-            distance_type,
-            part_idx,
-            centroid1_part_idx,
-            centroid2_part_idx,
-            row_ids,
-            vectors,
-            d0,
-            d1,
-            d2,
-            reassign_part_ids,
-            reassign_part_centroids,
-            false,
-            |idx, op| ops.push((idx, op)),
-        )?;
-        Ok(ops)
-    }
+    // Every join removes one partition's room below the threshold and adds its
+    // rows to the rest, so the survivors can take every joined row only while
+    // at least `ceil(total_rows / split_threshold)` of them remain.
+    let total_rows: usize = partition_sizes.iter().sum();
+    let max_joins = num_partitions.saturating_sub(total_rows.div_ceil(split_threshold).max(1));
+    let mut candidates: Vec<(usize, usize)> = partition_sizes
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter(|&(_, &num_rows)| num_rows < join_threshold)
+        .map(|(partition, &num_rows)| (num_rows, partition))
+        .collect();
+    candidates.sort_unstable();
+    let mut joins: Vec<usize> = candidates
+        .into_iter()
+        .take(max_joins)
+        .map(|(_, partition)| partition)
+        .collect();
+    joins.sort_unstable();
+    (splits, joins)
+}
 
-    // assign a vector to the closest partition among:
-    // 1. the 2 new centroids
-    // 2. the closest REASSIGN_RANGE partitions from the original centroid
-    fn reassign_vectors<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        &self,
-        vector: &PrimitiveArray<T>,
-        // the dists to the 2 new centroids
-        split_centroids_dists: Option<(f32, f32)>,
-        reassign_candidate_ids: &UInt32Array,
-        reassign_candidate_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
-    ) -> Result<ReassignPartition> {
-        Self::reassign_vectors_impl(
-            self.distance_type,
+/// The candidate nearest to `vector` among those `accept` allows.
+fn nearest_candidate<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    vector: &PrimitiveArray<T>,
+    candidate_ids: &UInt32Array,
+    candidate_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    accept: impl Fn(u32) -> bool,
+) -> Result<Option<u32>>
+where
+    T::Native: Dot + L2 + Normalize,
+{
+    let dists = distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(vector, candidate_centroids)?;
+    Ok(dists
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter(|&(i, _)| accept(candidate_ids.value(i)))
+        .min_by(|(_, a), (_, b)| a.total_cmp(b))
+        .map(|(i, _)| candidate_ids.value(i)))
+}
+
+/// Where a row of a joined partition goes: the nearest of the `window` (the
+/// `REASSIGN_RANGE` nearest surviving partitions of its old centroid) that
+/// has `room` below the split threshold. When the whole window is full, the
+/// nearest surviving partition anywhere with room, so a join never rebuilds
+/// an oversized partition while any partition has room. The planner keeps
+/// enough total room for every joined row, so only an index that is already
+/// at the threshold everywhere lands a row in a full partition (`false`),
+/// which the next optimize splits.
+fn choose_join_destination<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    vector: &PrimitiveArray<T>,
+    window_ids: &UInt32Array,
+    window_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    ivf: &IvfModel,
+    removed: &HashSet<usize>,
+    room: &[usize],
+) -> Result<(u32, bool)>
+where
+    T::Native: Dot + L2 + Normalize,
+{
+    let has_room = |id: u32| room[id as usize] > 0;
+    if let Some(target) = nearest_candidate(
+        distance_type,
+        vector,
+        window_ids,
+        window_centroids,
+        has_room,
+    )? {
+        return Ok((target, true));
+    }
+    let anywhere_ids = UInt32Array::from(
+        (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .filter(|&id| !removed.contains(&id) && room[id] > 0)
+            .map(|id| id as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+    );
+    if !anywhere_ids.is_empty() {
+        let centroids = ivf
+            .centroids_array()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("IVF model has no centroids"))?;
+        let anywhere_centroids = arrow::compute::take(centroids, &anywhere_ids, None)?
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .clone();
+        if let Some(target) = nearest_candidate(
+            distance_type,
             vector,
-            split_centroids_dists,
-            reassign_candidate_ids,
-            reassign_candidate_centroids,
-        )
+            &anywhere_ids,
+            &anywhere_centroids,
+            |_| true,
+        )? {
+            return Ok((target, true));
+        }
     }
+    let target = nearest_candidate(distance_type, vector, window_ids, window_centroids, |_| {
+        true
+    })?
+    .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("a joined partition has no neighbor to receive its rows"))?;
+    Ok((target, false))
+}
 
-    fn reassign_vectors_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        distance_type: DistanceType,
-        vector: &PrimitiveArray<T>,
-        split_centroids_dists: Option<(f32, f32)>,
-        reassign_candidate_ids: &UInt32Array,
-        reassign_candidate_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
-    ) -> Result<ReassignPartition> {
-        let dists = distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(vector, reassign_candidate_centroids)?;
-        let min_dist_idx = dists.values().iter().position_min_by(|a, b| a.total_cmp(b));
-        let min_dist = min_dist_idx
-            .map(|idx| dists.value(idx))
-            .unwrap_or(f32::INFINITY);
-        match split_centroids_dists {
-            Some((d1, d2)) => {
-                if min_dist <= d1 && min_dist <= d2 {
-                    Ok(ReassignPartition::ReassignCandidate(
-                        reassign_candidate_ids.value(min_dist_idx.unwrap()),
-                    ))
-                } else if d1 <= d2 {
-                    Ok(ReassignPartition::NewCentroid1)
-                } else {
-                    Ok(ReassignPartition::NewCentroid2)
+/// Regroup `batches` so that each yielded batch holds up to `budget` bytes of
+/// decoded rows; a single batch larger than that passes through alone. This
+/// bounds the working set of a consumer that expands every row it holds.
+fn regroup_by_bytes<S>(batches: S, budget: usize) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>>
+where
+    S: Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Unpin,
+{
+    stream::try_unfold(
+        (batches, Vec::<RecordBatch>::new(), 0usize),
+        move |(mut batches, mut pending, mut pending_bytes)| async move {
+            loop {
+                let Some(batch) = batches.try_next().await? else {
+                    if pending.is_empty() {
+                        return Ok(None);
+                    }
+                    let grouped = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&pending[0].schema(), &pending)?;
+                    return Ok(Some((grouped, (batches, Vec::new(), 0))));
+                };
+                let bytes = batch.get_array_memory_size();
+                if !pending.is_empty() && pending_bytes + bytes > budget {
+                    let grouped = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&pending[0].schema(), &pending)?;
+                    return Ok(Some((grouped, (batches, vec![batch], bytes))));
                 }
+                pending.push(batch);
+                pending_bytes += bytes;
             }
-            None => Ok(ReassignPartition::ReassignCandidate(
-                reassign_candidate_ids.value(min_dist_idx.unwrap()),
-            )),
-        }
+        },
+    )
+}
+
+/// Rows per fetch and fetches in flight for re-reading the raw vectors of a
+/// split or join. A fixed-size vector row has a known size, so a fetch is sized
+/// to `RAW_VECTOR_FETCH_BYTES` up front, capped at `max_rows_per_fetch`; a
+/// multivector row does not, so those are fetched one at a time and regrouped
+/// by measured size.
+fn raw_vector_fetch_shape(
+    multivector: bool,
+    dimension: usize,
+    vector_field: &Field,
+    max_rows_per_fetch: usize,
+) -> (usize, usize) {
+    if multivector {
+        return (1, MULTIVECTOR_FETCHES_IN_FLIGHT);
+    }
+    let row_bytes = dimension * vector_field_element_width(vector_field);
+    (
+        (RAW_VECTOR_FETCH_BYTES / row_bytes.max(1)).clamp(1, max_rows_per_fetch.max(1)),
+        RAW_VECTOR_FETCHES_IN_FLIGHT,
+    )
+}
+
+/// `batch` cut into at most `num_slices` zero-copy slices of near-equal rows.
+fn slice_evenly(batch: RecordBatch, num_slices: usize) -> impl Iterator<Item = RecordBatch> {
+    let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
+    let rows_per_slice = num_rows.div_ceil(num_slices.max(1)).max(1);
+    (0..num_rows)
+        .step_by(rows_per_slice)
+        .map(move |offset| batch.slice(offset, rows_per_slice.min(num_rows - offset)))
+}
+
+/// Whether `column` holds a list of vectors per row rather than one vector.
+fn is_multivector_column(schema: &Schema, column: &str) -> Result<bool> {
+    let column_type = schema
+        .field(column)
+        .map(|field| field.data_type())
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("column {column} not found")))?;
+    Ok(matches!(
+        column_type,
+        DataType::List(_) | DataType::LargeList(_)
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Bytes of one element of a fixed-size vector field.
+fn vector_field_element_width(field: &Field) -> usize {
+    match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _) => item.data_type().primitive_width().unwrap_or(4),
+        _ => 4,
     }
 }
 
+/// The `REASSIGN_RANGE` nearest surviving partitions to `vector` itself, for a
+/// vector of a reindexed multivector row: it may belong to a region far from
+/// the joined partition the row was found under, so that partition's window
+/// would place it wrongly.
+fn window_for_vector(
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ivf: &IvfModel,
+    vector: &ArrayRef,
+    removed: &HashSet<usize>,
+) -> Result<(UInt32Array, FixedSizeListArray)> {
+    select_reassign_candidates_impl(distance_type, ivf, usize::MAX, vector, removed)
+}
+
+/// The nearest `REASSIGN_RANGE` partitions to `c0`, skipping `part_idx` itself and
+/// every partition in `excluded` (partitions being joined away cannot receive
+/// vectors). Non-empty whenever a partition outside `excluded` exists.
 fn select_reassign_candidates_impl(
     distance_type: DistanceType,
     ivf: &IvfModel,
     part_idx: usize,
     c0: &ArrayRef,
+    excluded: &HashSet<usize>,
 ) -> Result<(UInt32Array, FixedSizeListArray)> {
-    let reassign_range = std::cmp::min(REASSIGN_RANGE + 1, ivf.num_partitions());
     let centroids = ivf.centroids_array().unwrap();
-    let centroid_dists = distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(&c0, centroids)?;
-    let reassign_range_candidates =
-        sort_to_indices(centroid_dists.as_ref(), None, Some(reassign_range))?;
-    let selection_len = reassign_range.saturating_sub(1);
-    let filtered_ids = reassign_range_candidates
+    let centroid_dists = distance_type.arrow_batch_func()(c0, centroids)?;
+    // Fetch enough neighbors that the exclusions cannot empty the candidate set.
+    let fetch = (REASSIGN_RANGE + excluded.len() + 1).min(ivf.num_partitions());
+    let nearest = sort_to_indices(centroid_dists.as_ref(), None, Some(fetch))?;
+    let filtered_ids = nearest
         .values()
         .iter()
         .copied()
-        .filter(|&idx| idx as usize != part_idx)
-        .take(selection_len)
+        .filter(|&idx| idx as usize != part_idx && !excluded.contains(&(idx as usize)))
+        .take(REASSIGN_RANGE)
         .collect::<Vec<_>>();
     let reassign_candidate_ids = UInt32Array::from(filtered_ids);
     let reassign_candidate_centroids =
@@ -2065,38 +3155,83 @@ fn select_reassign_candidates_impl(
     ))
 }
 
-struct AssignResult {
-    // the batches of new vectors that are assigned to the partition,
-    // and the deleted row ids
-    assign_batches: Vec<Option<(RecordBatch, UInt64Array)>>,
+/// What one optimize pass does to the partitions, from the sizes it saw.
+struct PartitionAdjustmentPlan {
+    splits: Vec<PartitionSplit>,
+    joins: Vec<usize>,
+    partition_sizes: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+struct JoinResult {
     new_centroids: FixedSizeListArray,
+    /// Old ids of the partitions that survive, in output order.
+    kept_partitions: Vec<usize>,
+    /// Logical rows the join reindexed; their old entries leave every partition.
+    reindexed_row_ids: Arc<HashSet<u64>>,
+    /// The reindexed rows, quantized, keyed by old partition id.
+    join_shuffle_reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
+}
+
+struct SplitResult {
+    new_centroids: FixedSizeListArray,
+    affected_partitions: HashSet<usize>,
+    shuffle_reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 enum AssignOp {
-    // (row_id, vector)
-    // TODO: add the distance to the centroid to avoid recomputing it for RQ
     Add((u64, ArrayRef)),
-    // row_id
-    Remove(u64),
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
-enum ReassignPartition {
-    NewCentroid1,
-    NewCentroid2,
-    ReassignCandidate(u32),
+enum PartitionAdjustment {
+    /// Split partitions. Carries the set of all affected partitions (split
+    /// targets, the partitions appended for them and their neighbors) and a
+    /// shuffle reader with re-quantized data.
+    Split {
+        affected_partitions: HashSet<usize>,
+        split_shuffle_reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
+    },
+    /// Join partitions away; `kept_partitions[i]` is the old id of output
+    /// partition `i`. Every entry of a row in `reindexed_row_ids` is dropped
+    /// from the existing partitions, and the rows' new entries come from
+    /// `join_shuffle_reader`, keyed by old partition id.
+    Join {
+        kept_partitions: Vec<usize>,
+        reindexed_row_ids: Arc<HashSet<u64>>,
+        join_shuffle_reader: Arc<dyn ShuffleReader>,
+    },
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
-enum PartitionAdjustment {
-    /// Split partition at given id
-    Split(usize),
-    /// Join partition at given id
-    Join(usize),
+impl std::fmt::Debug for PartitionAdjustment {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Split {
+                affected_partitions,
+                ..
+            } => f
+                .debug_struct("Split")
+                .field("affected_partitions", affected_partitions)
+                .finish(),
+            Self::Join {
+                kept_partitions,
+                reindexed_row_ids,
+                ..
+            } => f
+                .debug_struct("Join")
+                .field("kept_partitions", &kept_partitions.len())
+                .field("reindexed_rows", &reindexed_row_ids.len())
+                .finish(),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn index_type_string(sub_index: SubIndexType, quantizer: QuantizationType) -> String {
+    // FlatBin is a QuantizationType variant used internally for reconstruction,
+    // but the persisted index type string uses "FLAT" (differentiated by DataType).
+    let quantizer = match quantizer {
+        QuantizationType::FlatBin => QuantizationType::Flat,
+        other => other,
+    };
     match (sub_index, quantizer) {
         // ignore FLAT sub index,
         // IVF_FLAT_FLAT => IVF_FLAT
@@ -2116,9 +3251,300 @@ pub(crate) fn index_type_string(sub_index: SubIndexType, quantizer: Quantization
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
     use super::*;
-    use arrow_array::Float32Array;
+    use arrow_array::{Array, Float32Array, NullArray};
     use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer};
+    use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffler::{
+        ShufflePartition, ShufflePartitionWindow, ShufflePartitionWindowPlan,
+    };
+
+    struct SingleBatchReader {
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        partition_id: usize,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl ShuffleReader for SingleBatchReader {
+        async fn read_partition(
+            &self,
+            partition_id: usize,
+        ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>>> {
+            if partition_id != self.partition_id || self.batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+
+            let schema = self.batch.schema();
+            let stream = stream::iter(vec![Ok(self.batch.clone())]);
+            Ok(Some(Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema, stream,
+            ))))
+        }
+
+        fn partition_size(&self, partition_id: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+            Ok(if partition_id == self.partition_id {
+                self.batch.num_rows()
+            } else {
+                0
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn total_loss(&self) -> Option<f64> {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct WindowedBatchReader {
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+        windows_read: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl ShuffleReader for WindowedBatchReader {
+        async fn read_partition(
+            &self,
+            partition_id: usize,
+        ) -> Result<Option<Box<dyn RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>>> {
+            let Some(batch) = self.batches.get(partition_id) else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            Ok(Some(Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                batch.schema(),
+                stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch.clone())]),
+            ))))
+        }
+
+        fn plan_partition_window(
+            &self,
+            start_partition_id: usize,
+            max_decoded_bytes: usize,
+        ) -> Result<ShufflePartitionWindowPlan> {
+            if max_decoded_bytes == 0 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "max_decoded_bytes must be greater than 0",
+                ));
+            }
+            if start_partition_id >= self.batches.len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "start_partition_id={} is out of range [0, {})",
+                    start_partition_id,
+                    self.batches.len()
+                )));
+            }
+            let end_partition_id = start_partition_id
+                .saturating_add(max_decoded_bytes)
+                .min(self.batches.len());
+            Ok(ShufflePartitionWindowPlan {
+                partition_range: start_partition_id..end_partition_id,
+                estimated_decoded_bytes: end_partition_id - start_partition_id,
+            })
+        }
+
+        async fn read_partition_window(
+            &self,
+            start_partition_id: usize,
+            max_decoded_bytes: usize,
+        ) -> Result<ShufflePartitionWindow> {
+            let plan = self.plan_partition_window(start_partition_id, max_decoded_bytes)?;
+            self.windows_read.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            if start_partition_id == 0 {
+                tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(1), async {
+                    while self.windows_read.load(Ordering::Relaxed) < 2 {
+                        tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+                    }
+                })
+                .await
+                .map_err(|_| Error::internal("second partition window was not admitted"))?;
+            }
+            let partitions = plan
+                .partition_range
+                .clone()
+                .map(|partition_id| {
+                    let batch = self.batches[partition_id].clone();
+                    ShufflePartition {
+                        partition_id,
+                        data: Some(Box::new(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                            batch.schema(),
+                            stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+                        ))),
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect();
+            Ok(ShufflePartitionWindow {
+                materialized_decoded_bytes: Some(plan.partition_range.len()),
+                partition_range: plan.partition_range,
+                partitions,
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn partition_size(&self, partition_id: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+            Ok(self
+                .batches
+                .get(partition_id)
+                .map(RecordBatch::num_rows)
+                .unwrap_or(0))
+        }
+
+        fn total_loss(&self) -> Option<f64> {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn flat_partition_batch(partition_id: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![partition_id as f32, partition_id as f32 + 0.5]),
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+                ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+                Field::new("vector", vectors.data_type().clone(), false),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![partition_id as u64])),
+                Arc::new(vectors),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    // Helper to read centroid i from a FixedSizeListArray as a Vec<f32>
+    fn centroid_values(arr: &FixedSizeListArray, i: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+        arr.value(i).as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().to_vec()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn partition_entry_admission_preserves_input_order() {
+        let entry_permits = Arc::new(Semaphore::new(1));
+        let held_permit = entry_permits.clone().acquire_owned().await.unwrap();
+        let mut admitted = admit_partition_inputs(vec![0, 1, 2], entry_permits);
+
+        let first = admitted.next();
+        tokio::pin!(first);
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10), &mut first)
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+
+        drop(held_permit);
+        let (partition_id, first_permit) =
+            tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(100), &mut first)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(partition_id, 0);
+
+        let second = admitted.next();
+        tokio::pin!(second);
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(10), &mut second)
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
+        drop(first_permit);
+        let (partition_id, _second_permit) =
+            tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(100), &mut second)
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(partition_id, 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn single_partition_window_uses_full_entry_budget() {
+        assert_eq!(partition_window_entry_limit(&(0..64), 64, 32, 16), 32);
+        assert_eq!(partition_window_entry_limit(&(0..32), 64, 32, 16), 2);
+        assert_eq!(partition_window_entry_limit(&(32..64), 64, 32, 16), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fresh_partition_build_runs_multiple_windows_end_to_end() {
+        let num_partitions = 6;
+        let windows_read = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let reader = Arc::new(WindowedBatchReader {
+            batches: (0..num_partitions).map(flat_partition_batch).collect(),
+            windows_read: windows_read.clone(),
+        });
+        let mut build_stream =
+            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::build_fresh_partitions_windowed(
+                reader,
+                num_partitions,
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                FlatQuantizer::new(2, DistanceType::L2),
+                (),
+                "vector".to_string(),
+                None,
+                FreshPartitionBuildLimits {
+                    window_bytes: 2,
+                    decoded_budget_bytes: 4,
+                },
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut ordered_results = OrderedPartitionResults::new(num_partitions);
+        let mut merged_partition_ids = Vec::with_capacity(num_partitions);
+        while let Some(result) = build_stream.try_next().await.unwrap() {
+            ordered_results
+                .push(result.value.partition_id, result)
+                .unwrap();
+            while let Some((partition_id, result)) = ordered_results.pop_next() {
+                assert!(result.value.built.is_some());
+                merged_partition_ids.push(partition_id);
+            }
+        }
+        ordered_results.finish().unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(windows_read.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 3);
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged_partition_ids,
+            (0..num_partitions).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn apply_centroid_splits_correct_count_and_ordering() {
+        // 4 original centroids at [0,0], [1,1], [2,2], [3,3].
+        // Split partitions 1 and 3; verify that:
+        //   - result has 6 centroids (4 original + 2 splits)
+        //   - unchanged partition indices 0 and 2 keep their original values
+        //   - split partitions 1 and 3 have centroid1 at their original index
+        //   - centroid2 for each split is appended at the end (indices 4, 5)
+        let original = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32, 0.0, 1.0, 1.0, 2.0, 2.0, 3.0, 3.0]),
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let c1_for_1: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.1_f32, 1.1]));
+        let c2_for_1: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.9_f32, 0.9]));
+        let c3_for_1: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.2_f32, 1.2]));
+        let c1_for_3: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![3.1_f32, 3.1]));
+        let c2_for_3: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![2.9_f32, 2.9]));
+
+        // Partition 1 splits three ways, partition 3 two ways.
+        let splits = vec![
+            (1_usize, vec![c1_for_1, c2_for_1, c3_for_1]),
+            (3_usize, vec![c1_for_3, c2_for_3]),
+        ];
+        let result = apply_centroid_splits(&original, &splits).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 7);
+        // Unchanged partitions
+        assert_eq!(centroid_values(&result, 0), [0.0, 0.0]);
+        assert_eq!(centroid_values(&result, 2), [2.0, 2.0]);
+        // Replaced centroids (first new centroid of each split partition)
+        assert_eq!(centroid_values(&result, 1), [1.1, 1.1]);
+        assert_eq!(centroid_values(&result, 3), [3.1, 3.1]);
+        // Appended centroids, in split order
+        assert_eq!(centroid_values(&result, 4), [0.9, 0.9]);
+        assert_eq!(centroid_values(&result, 5), [1.2, 1.2]);
+        assert_eq!(centroid_values(&result, 6), [2.9, 2.9]);
+    }
 
     #[test]
     fn select_reassign_candidates_skips_deleted_partition() {
@@ -2132,7 +3558,8 @@ mod tests {
 
         let c0 = ivf.centroid(1).unwrap();
         let (reassign_ids, reassign_centroids) =
-            select_reassign_candidates_impl(DistanceType::L2, &ivf, 1, &c0).unwrap();
+            select_reassign_candidates_impl(DistanceType::L2, &ivf, 1, &c0, &HashSet::new())
+                .unwrap();
 
         assert_eq!(reassign_ids.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(reassign_ids.value(0), 0);
@@ -2148,49 +3575,905 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn compute_reassign_assign_ops_moves_vectors_to_new_centroids() {
-        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![1_u64, 2_u64]);
-        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-            Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32, 0.0, 10.0, 10.0]),
-            2,
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn optimize_split_after_append_pushes_partition_over_threshold() {
+        use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+        use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(item_field, 4),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        // Tiny per-row perturbation gives kmeans something to fit while keeping
+        // within-cluster variance negligible relative to the 1000-unit cluster
+        // separation, so kmeans (k=2) reliably places one centroid per cluster.
+        let make_batch = |num_rows: usize, center: f32| -> RecordBatch {
+            let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * 4);
+            for i in 0..num_rows {
+                let p = center + (i as f32) * 0.0001;
+                values.extend_from_slice(&[p, p, p, p]);
+            }
+            let fsl =
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), 4).unwrap();
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // 15k near origin (just under split threshold of 4 * 4096 = 16384) plus
+        // 1.5k far away in cluster B.
+        let initial = vec![Ok(make_batch(15_000, 0.0)), Ok(make_batch(1_500, 1000.0))];
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(initial, schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("idx").await.unwrap();
+        let initial_index = dataset
+            .open_vector_index("vec", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let initial_ivf = initial_index.ivf_model();
+        assert_eq!(initial_ivf.num_partitions(), 2);
+        let max_initial = (0..2).map(|p| initial_ivf.partition_size(p)).max().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            max_initial <= 16_384,
+            "initial max partition size {max_initial} should be at or under split threshold",
+        );
+
+        // Append 3k more cluster-A rows so partition 0 grows past the threshold.
+        let append = make_batch(3_000, 0.0);
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![append])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1, "expected merge-all on split");
+        let optimized = dataset
+            .open_vector_index("vec", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ivf = optimized.ivf_model();
+
+        // 18k rows split ceil(18_000 / 4096) = 5 ways: 2 original + 4 new.
+        assert_eq!(
+            ivf.num_partitions(),
+            6,
+            "expected one 5-way split: 2 original + 4 new = 6 partitions",
+        );
+        let total_rows: usize = (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .map(|p| optimized.partition_size(p))
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 19_500, "all vectors preserved across split");
+    }
+
+    /// Rows of the vector column of the `k` nearest rows to `[center; 4]`,
+    /// probing one partition, so a wrongly placed row shows up as a miss.
+    async fn nearest_first_components(dataset: &crate::Dataset, center: f32, k: usize) -> Vec<f32> {
+        let query = Float32Array::from(vec![center; 4]);
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", &query, k)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(1)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vectors = batch["vec"].as_fixed_size_list();
+        (0..vectors.len())
+            .map(|i| vectors.value(i).as_primitive::<Float32Type>().value(0))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn cluster_batch(
+        schema: &Arc<arrow_schema::Schema>,
+        num_rows: usize,
+        center: f32,
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        // Tiny per-row perturbation gives kmeans something to fit while keeping
+        // within-cluster variance negligible relative to the 1000-unit cluster
+        // separation.
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * 4);
+        for i in 0..num_rows {
+            let p = center + (i as f32) * 0.0001;
+            values.extend_from_slice(&[p, p, p, p]);
+        }
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), 4).unwrap();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// IVF_FLAT params with one fixed 4-d centroid `[c; 4]` per center, so the
+    /// partition layout does not depend on how k-means is seeded.
+    fn ivf_flat_at_centers(
+        centers: &[f32],
+        target_partition_size: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams {
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+        let values: Vec<f32> = centers.iter().flat_map(|&c| [c; 4]).collect();
+        let centroids =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), 4).unwrap();
+        let mut ivf_params =
+            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(centers.len(), Arc::new(centroids)).unwrap();
+        ivf_params.target_partition_size = target_partition_size;
+        VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(MetricType::L2, ivf_params)
+    }
+
+    /// A batch that already carries `__ivf_part_id` used to panic inside the
+    /// spawned transform task (`try_with_column` rejects the duplicate name and
+    /// the call site expected it away), and the panic came back out of the
+    /// stream as a `JoinError` that was itself unwrapped. Both steps now report.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shuffle_data_reports_duplicate_partition_id_column() {
+        use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffler::IvfShuffler;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let dataset = write_clusters(uri, &[(8, 0.0)]).await;
+        let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join("idx");
+
+        // A one-row partition map keyed by a row id the batch below carries.
+        let parts_uri = format!("{uri}_parts");
+        let parts_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("row_id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("partition", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        ]));
+        let parts_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            parts_schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32])),
+            ],
         )
         .unwrap();
-        let reassign_part_ids = UInt32Array::from(vec![0_u32]);
-        let reassign_part_centroids =
-            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![9.0_f32, 9.0]), 2)
+        let reader =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(parts_batch)], parts_schema.clone());
+        crate::Dataset::write(reader, &parts_uri, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let centroids =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4]), 4)
                 .unwrap();
-        let centroid1: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32, 0.0]));
-        let centroid2: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![20.0_f32, 20.0]));
+        let mut ivf_params =
+            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(1, Arc::new(centroids.clone())).unwrap();
+        ivf_params.precomputed_partitions_file = Some(parts_uri);
 
-        let ops = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::compute_reassign_assign_ops::<
-            Float32Type,
-        >(
+        let builder = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(
+            dataset,
+            "vec".to_owned(),
+            index_dir.clone(),
             DistanceType::L2,
-            0,
-            0,
+            Box::new(IvfShuffler::new(index_dir, 1)),
+            Some(ivf_params),
+            Some(()),
+            (),
+            None,
+        );
+        let Ok(mut builder) = builder else {
+            panic!("the builder should accept centroids with a partitions file");
+        };
+        builder
+            .with_ivf(IvfModel::new(centroids, None))
+            .with_quantizer(FlatQuantizer::new(4, DistanceType::L2));
+
+        // The batch arrives with the partition column already attached.
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    4,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            PART_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        ]));
+        let vectors =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32; 4]), 4)
+                .unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64])),
+                Arc::new(vectors),
+                Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0u32])),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let result = builder
+            .shuffle_data(Some(stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)])))
+            .await;
+        let Err(err) = result else {
+            panic!("expected the duplicate partition column to be reported");
+        };
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("precomputed partition ids"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn cluster_schema() -> Arc<arrow_schema::Schema> {
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(item_field, 4),
+            false,
+        )]))
+    }
+
+    async fn write_clusters(uri: &str, clusters: &[(usize, f32)]) -> crate::Dataset {
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+        let schema = cluster_schema();
+        let batches = clusters
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(rows, center)| Ok(cluster_batch(&schema, *rows, *center)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema);
+        crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn append_cluster(dataset: crate::Dataset, rows: usize, center: f32) -> crate::Dataset {
+        use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+        let batch = cluster_batch(&cluster_schema(), rows, center);
+        InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![batch])
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn open_single_segment(dataset: &crate::Dataset) -> Arc<dyn VectorIndex> {
+        use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices.len(),
             1,
-            2,
-            &row_ids,
-            &vectors,
-            centroid1,
-            centroid2,
-            &reassign_part_ids,
-            &reassign_part_centroids,
+            "expected the rebalance to merge into one segment"
+        );
+        dataset
+            .open_vector_index("vec", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn optimize_splits_oversized_partition_to_target_in_one_pass() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = write_clusters(uri, &[(15_000, 0.0), (1_500, 1000.0)]).await;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // 36k rows in partition 0: ceil(36_000 / 4096) = 9 pieces of the target
+        // size, produced by one optimize instead of one halving per call.
+        let mut dataset = append_cluster(dataset, 21_000, 0.0).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let optimized = open_single_segment(&dataset).await;
+        let ivf = optimized.ivf_model();
+        assert_eq!(ivf.num_partitions(), 2 + 8, "one 9-way split");
+        let sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .map(|p| optimized.partition_size(p))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sizes.iter().sum::<usize>(),
+            37_500,
+            "all vectors preserved across split"
+        );
+        let max_size = *sizes.iter().max().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            max_size <= 4 * 4096,
+            "no partition may stay above the split threshold after one pass, got {max_size}"
+        );
+        // Every piece is findable through its own centroid.
+        let found = nearest_first_components(&dataset, 3.0, 5).await;
+        assert_eq!(found.len(), 5);
+        assert!(found.iter().all(|v| (0.0..=3.6).contains(v)), "{found:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn optimize_joins_all_undersized_partitions_in_one_pass() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        // Three partitions under the join threshold (25% of 4096 = 1024 rows).
+        let mut dataset = write_clusters(
+            uri,
+            &[(2_000, 0.0), (100, 1000.0), (100, 2000.0), (100, 3000.0)],
         )
+        .await;
+        let params = ivf_flat_at_centers(&[0.0, 1000.0, 2000.0, 3000.0], None);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = append_cluster(dataset, 10, 0.0).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let optimized = open_single_segment(&dataset).await;
+        let ivf = optimized.ivf_model();
+        let sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .map(|p| optimized.partition_size(p))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(
+            sizes,
+            vec![2_310],
+            "all three undersized partitions joined in one pass"
+        );
+        // Rows of a joined partition are still indexed.
+        let found = nearest_first_components(&dataset, 3000.0, 3).await;
+        assert!(
+            found.iter().all(|v| (3000.0..=3000.1).contains(v)),
+            "{found:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn optimize_steady_state_keeps_small_delta_partitions() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        // Two partitions of 1_500 rows, above the join threshold (25% of 4096).
+        let mut dataset = write_clusters(uri, &[(1_500, 0.0), (1_500, 1000.0)]).await;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // A small append becomes a delta segment whose partitions hold ~100 rows.
+        let dataset = append_cluster(dataset, 100, 0.0).await;
+        let mut dataset = append_cluster(dataset, 100, 1000.0).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2, "the append is a delta segment");
+
+        // Summed over both segments every partition is normal-sized, so a
+        // steady-state optimize must leave the delta's small partitions alone.
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2, "steady state is a no-op");
+        for index in &indices {
+            use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+            let opened = dataset
+                .open_vector_index("vec", &index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                opened.ivf_model().num_partitions(),
+                2,
+                "no partition was joined away"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn optimize_split_threshold_honors_persisted_target_partition_size() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::{StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = write_clusters(uri, &[(5_000, 0.0), (500, 1000.0)]).await;
+        // 5_000 rows exceed 4 x 1024 but not 4 x 4096 (the IVF_FLAT default), so
+        // the split only happens when the recorded target is used.
+        let mut params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
+        let StageParams::Ivf(ivf_params) = &mut params.stages[0] else {
+            panic!("ivf_flat params start with the IVF stage");
+        };
+        ivf_params.target_partition_size = Some(1024);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = append_cluster(dataset, 10, 0.0).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let optimized = open_single_segment(&dataset).await;
+        let ivf = optimized.ivf_model();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ivf.num_partitions(),
+            2 + 4,
+            "5_010 rows split ceil(5010 / 1024) = 5 ways"
+        );
+        let total: usize = (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .map(|p| optimized.partition_size(p))
+            .sum();
+        assert_eq!(total, 5_510);
+    }
+
+    /// Partitions of `sizes` rows with one-dimensional centroids at `positions`.
+    fn ivf_on_a_line(positions: &[f32]) -> IvfModel {
+        let centroids =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(positions.to_vec()), 1)
+                .unwrap();
+        IvfModel::new(centroids, None)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn plan_partition_adjustment_keeps_room_for_every_joined_row() {
+        // Forty partitions of 24 rows at target 100 (threshold 400): 960 rows
+        // need three survivors, so at most 37 may be joined even though every
+        // one is under the join threshold of 25.
+        let (_, joins) = plan_partition_adjustment(&[24; 40], 100);
+        assert_eq!(joins.len(), 37, "{joins:?}");
+        // Five partitions of 20 rows fit in one survivor.
+        let (_, joins) = plan_partition_adjustment(&[20; 5], 100);
+        assert_eq!(joins.len(), 4, "{joins:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn optimize_join_keeps_every_destination_below_the_split_threshold() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        // The 24 rows of the partition at 0 sit at 4.0, nearer to the 390-row
+        // partition at 10 than to the 100-row one at -9. Only ten fit below the
+        // split threshold of 400; the other fourteen must go to -9.
+        let mut dataset = write_clusters(uri, &[(24, 4.0), (100, -9.0), (390, 10.0)]).await;
+        let params = ivf_flat_at_centers(&[0.0, -9.0, 10.0], Some(100));
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = append_cluster(dataset, 1, -9.0).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let optimized = open_single_segment(&dataset).await;
+        let ivf = optimized.ivf_model();
+        let mut sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .map(|p| optimized.partition_size(p))
+            .collect();
+        sizes.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(sizes, vec![115, 400]);
+    }
+
+    /// Rows of 4-d vectors, each row a list with one vector per given center,
+    /// nudged apart along the last dimension so no two rows are identical.
+    fn multivector_batch(rows: &[Vec<[f32; 4]>], first_id: usize) -> RecordBatch {
+        let mut values = Vec::new();
+        for (i, row) in rows.iter().enumerate() {
+            for center in row {
+                let mut vector = *center;
+                vector[3] += (first_id + i) as f32 * 0.0001;
+                values.extend_from_slice(&vector);
+            }
+        }
+        let vectors =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), 4).unwrap();
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", vectors.data_type().clone(), true));
+        let offsets = arrow::buffer::OffsetBuffer::from_lengths(rows.iter().map(|row| row.len()));
+        let list = arrow_array::ListArray::new(item_field, offsets, Arc::new(vectors), None);
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vec",
+            list.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(list)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn optimize_join_counts_room_after_the_reindexed_rows_leave() {
+        use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        const C0: [f32; 4] = [1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0];
+        const C1: [f32; 4] = [0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0];
+        const C2: [f32; 4] = [0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0];
+        // Twenty rows with one vector at c0 and eighteen at c1 make up all but
+        // one of partition 1's 361 entries; 380 single-vector rows sit at c2.
+        // At target 100 partition 0 (20 entries) is joined away, which reindexes
+        // those twenty rows: their 360 entries leave partition 1 first, so all
+        // 380 of their vectors fit below the split threshold of 400, where the
+        // 39 rows of room partition 1 had before could not hold them.
+        let mut rows: Vec<Vec<[f32; 4]>> = (0..20)
+            .map(|_| {
+                std::iter::once(C0)
+                    .chain(std::iter::repeat_n(C1, 18))
+                    .collect()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        rows.extend((0..380).map(|_| vec![C2]));
+        let batch = multivector_batch(&rows, 0);
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let mut dataset = crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        let centroids =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from([C0, C1, C2].concat()), 4)
+                .unwrap();
+        let mut ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(3, Arc::new(centroids)).unwrap();
+        ivf_params.target_partition_size = Some(100);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(MetricType::Cosine, ivf_params);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let append = multivector_batch(&[vec![C1]], rows.len());
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![append])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let optimized = open_single_segment(&dataset).await;
+        let ivf = optimized.ivf_model();
+        let sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .map(|p| optimized.partition_size(p))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(ivf.num_partitions(), 2, "{sizes:?}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            sizes.iter().sum::<usize>(),
+            761,
+            "every vector indexed once"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            sizes.iter().all(|&rows| rows <= 400),
+            "a join destination exceeds the split threshold: {sizes:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn regroup_by_bytes_bounds_each_batch_to_the_budget() {
+        let one_row = |value: f32| {
+            let vectors =
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![value; 4]), 4)
+                    .unwrap();
+            let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "vec",
+                vectors.data_type().clone(),
+                false,
+            )]));
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(vectors)]).unwrap()
+        };
+        let rows: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..5).map(|i| one_row(i as f32)).collect();
+        let row_bytes = rows[0].get_array_memory_size();
+        // Two rows fit the budget, a third would not.
+        let grouped: Vec<RecordBatch> = regroup_by_bytes(
+            stream::iter(rows.clone().into_iter().map(Ok)),
+            2 * row_bytes,
+        )
+        .try_collect()
+        .await
         .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            grouped.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![2, 2, 1]
+        );
+        // A single row over the budget still comes through, on its own.
+        let grouped: Vec<RecordBatch> =
+            regroup_by_bytes(stream::iter(rows.into_iter().map(Ok)), row_bytes / 2)
+                .try_collect()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(grouped.len(), 5);
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(ops.len(), 2);
-        assert!(matches!(ops[0], (0, AssignOp::Remove(1))));
-        match &ops[1] {
-            (1, AssignOp::Add((row_id, vector))) => {
-                assert_eq!(*row_id, 1);
-                assert_eq!(
-                    vector.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
-                    &[0.0_f32, 0.0]
-                );
+    #[test]
+    fn join_window_follows_each_vector_of_a_multivector_row() {
+        // A row found under joined partition 0 has a vector at 100, whose exact
+        // surviving centroid (66) lies outside partition 0's 64-neighbor window
+        // of centroids near 0; routed by its own window it goes to 66.
+        let mut positions: Vec<f32> = (0..65).map(|i| i as f32 * 0.001).collect();
+        positions.extend([100.0, 100.0]);
+        let ivf = ivf_on_a_line(&positions);
+        let removed: HashSet<usize> = [0, 65].into_iter().collect();
+        let vector: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![100.0_f32]));
+        let (window_ids, window_centroids) =
+            window_for_vector(DistanceType::L2, &ivf, &vector, &removed).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(window_ids.value(0), 66);
+        let room = vec![1; positions.len()];
+        let (target, had_room) = choose_join_destination(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            vector.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
+            &window_ids,
+            &window_centroids,
+            &ivf,
+            &removed,
+            &room,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!((target, had_room), (66, true));
+        // Partition 0's own window would have kept it near 0.
+        let c0 = ivf.centroid(0).unwrap();
+        let (partition_window, _) =
+            select_reassign_candidates_impl(DistanceType::L2, &ivf, 0, &c0, &removed).unwrap();
+        assert!(!partition_window.values().contains(&66));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn plan_partition_adjustment_joins_all_undersized_partitions_but_one() {
+        // Four partitions of 66 rows at target 4096 fit in one survivor, and the
+        // smallest ones go first.
+        let (_, joins) = plan_partition_adjustment(&[66, 65, 66, 66], 4096);
+        assert_eq!(joins, vec![0, 1, 2]);
+        assert!(plan_partition_adjustment(&[66], 4096).1.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn optimize_join_leaves_no_partition_above_the_split_threshold() {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        // Twenty clusters of 24 rows: at target 100 every partition is under
+        // the join threshold (25 rows), while all of them together (480 rows)
+        // are above the split threshold (400 rows).
+        let centers: Vec<f32> = (0..20).map(|i| i as f32 * 1000.0).collect();
+        let clusters: Vec<(usize, f32)> = centers.iter().map(|&c| (24, c)).collect();
+        let mut dataset = write_clusters(uri, &clusters).await;
+        let params = ivf_flat_at_centers(&centers, Some(100));
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = append_cluster(dataset, 1, 0.0).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let optimized = open_single_segment(&dataset).await;
+        let ivf = optimized.ivf_model();
+        let sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .map(|p| optimized.partition_size(p))
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(sizes.iter().sum::<usize>(), 481, "all rows preserved");
+        assert!(
+            ivf.num_partitions() < 20,
+            "some partitions were joined: {sizes:?}"
+        );
+        let max_size = *sizes.iter().max().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            max_size <= 4 * 100,
+            "a join must not create a partition above the split threshold, got {sizes:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `distinct` vectors, each repeated `repeats` times, at `center + i`.
+    fn duplicate_batch(
+        schema: &Arc<arrow_schema::Schema>,
+        distinct: usize,
+        repeats: usize,
+        center: f32,
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(distinct * repeats * 4);
+        for i in 0..distinct {
+            let p = center + i as f32;
+            for _ in 0..repeats {
+                values.extend_from_slice(&[p, p, p, p]);
             }
-            other => panic!("unexpected op: {:?}", other),
         }
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), 4).unwrap();
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn optimize_splits_duplicate_heavy_partition_as_far_as_its_distinct_rows_allow() {
+        use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+        let tmp = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = tmp.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        // Five distinct vectors repeated 240 times each. At target 4 the
+        // partition asks for a ceil(1210 / 4) = 303-way split, which is more
+        // than 256 pieces and therefore trained hierarchically. The other
+        // partition stays under the split threshold of 16 rows.
+        let schema = cluster_schema();
+        let batches = vec![
+            Ok(duplicate_batch(&schema, 5, 240, 0.0)),
+            Ok(duplicate_batch(&schema, 1, 10, 1000.0)),
+        ];
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        // Fixed centroids: k-means seeded with two identical duplicate rows would
+        // leave one partition empty, which is not what this test is about.
+        let params = ivf_flat_at_centers(&[2.0, 1000.0], Some(4));
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vec"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let append = duplicate_batch(&schema, 1, 10, 0.0);
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![append])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let optimized = open_single_segment(&dataset).await;
+        let ivf = optimized.ivf_model();
+        let mut sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..ivf.num_partitions())
+            .map(|p| optimized.partition_size(p))
+            .collect();
+        // The five duplicate groups come apart, one partition each, even
+        // though 303 pieces were asked for.
+        sizes.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(sizes, vec![10, 240, 240, 240, 240, 250]);
+        let found = nearest_first_components(&dataset, 3.0, 5).await;
+        assert!(found.iter().all(|v| *v == 3.0), "{found:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn take_partition_batches_preserves_partition_order_for_large_fixed_size_list() {
+        let value_length = 1_073_741_824i32;
+        let num_rows = 5usize;
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![4_u64, 3, 2, 1, 0]);
+        let part_ids = UInt32Array::from(vec![0_u32; num_rows]);
+        let values = Arc::new(NullArray::new(num_rows * value_length as usize));
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Null, true));
+        let codes = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(item_field, value_length, values, None).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+                ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+                PART_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+                Field::new(PQ_CODE_COLUMN, codes.data_type().clone(), true),
+            ])),
+            vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(part_ids), Arc::new(codes)],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = SingleBatchReader {
+            batch,
+            partition_id: 0,
+        };
+
+        let (batches, loss) = IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::take_partition_batches(
+            0,
+            &[],
+            Some(&reader),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(loss, 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        assert!(batches[0].column_by_name(PART_ID_COLUMN).is_none());
+        let row_ids = batches[0][ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.values(), &[4, 3, 2, 1, 0]);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/dedup.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/dedup.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9b2487e2f57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/dedup.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,597 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Streaming embedding duplicate pairs over existing index representations.
+
+use std::collections::BTreeSet;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{SendableRecordBatchStream, stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter};
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::prefilter::PreFilter;
+use lance_index::vector::{
+    VectorIndex,
+    pairwise::{PAIRWISE_MEMORY_LIMIT, PairwisePartition, PairwiseVectorBatch},
+};
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+use tokio::sync::{OwnedSemaphorePermit, Semaphore};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::index::{
+    DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt, prefilter::DatasetPreFilter,
+    segment_has_vector_details,
+};
+
+/// Scoring and output remain bounded even when the staged partition spills.
+/// A multiple of 32 also matches RQ's packed sign-code group size.
+const MAX_VECTOR_BATCH_SIZE: usize = 8192;
+
+/// Anchor rows per scoring job. A job scores these rows against one candidate
+/// batch (at most 32 x 8,192 pairs, a few milliseconds for typical codes), so
+/// jobs are uniform enough for ordered completion and dense output per job
+/// stays near 5 MiB, while each candidate row loaded into cache is reused by
+/// 32 anchors.
+const ANCHOR_BLOCK_ROWS: usize = 32;
+
+/// Jobs touching less staged data than this (anchor rows x candidate rows x
+/// staged row bytes) run inline; a CPU-pool round trip would cost more.
+const MIN_OFFLOAD_WORK_BYTES: usize = 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Lower bound on decoded spilled batches kept alive at once: the current
+/// anchor plus the candidate batches of two consecutive tiles, so loading the
+/// next tile never waits on the previous one when tiles have many jobs.
+const MIN_LIVE_SPILLED_BATCHES: usize = 3;
+
+/// Per-invocation code staging and ordered scoring concurrency.
+///
+/// The staging budget is not a process-wide memory limit. It excludes quantizer
+/// models, row masks, spill metadata and in-flight scoring buffers. Each
+/// in-flight job shares its anchor and candidate batches (at most 8,192 rows
+/// and about 16 MiB of staged codes) with the other jobs of its tile, and
+/// produces at most one output batch of `32 x vector batch size` pairs. A
+/// spilled partition's batches are read back as decoded copies; those alive at
+/// once hold at most `memory_limit` bytes of staged codes (or three batches, if
+/// larger), even when sparse selection leaves only one job per tile.
+///
+/// ```
+/// use lance::index::vector::dedup::DuplicatePairsOptions;
+/// let options = DuplicatePairsOptions::default()
+///     .with_memory_limit(128 * 1024 * 1024)
+///     .with_max_concurrency(4);
+/// ```
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub struct DuplicatePairsOptions {
+    memory_limit: usize,
+    max_concurrency: usize,
+}
+
+impl Default for DuplicatePairsOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            memory_limit: PAIRWISE_MEMORY_LIMIT,
+            max_concurrency: get_num_compute_intensive_cpus(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DuplicatePairsOptions {
+    /// Set the staged code budget in bytes (default 256 MiB).
+    /// Partitions estimated to exceed it spill; zero forces spill. Source reads,
+    /// quantizer preparation and scoring retain additional bounded batches.
+    pub fn with_memory_limit(mut self, memory_limit: usize) -> Self {
+        self.memory_limit = memory_limit;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum number of in-flight scoring jobs. Must be positive.
+    /// The default is the CPU pool size. Output order does not depend on it.
+    pub fn with_max_concurrency(mut self, max_concurrency: usize) -> Self {
+        self.max_concurrency = max_concurrency;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+fn pair_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("row_id_a", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new("row_id_b", DataType::UInt64, false),
+        Field::new("distance", DataType::Float32, false),
+    ]))
+}
+
+/// Enumerate threshold-matching pairs independently in every index partition.
+///
+/// `column` must have exactly one logical, current-format vector index covering
+/// all current fragments. Deleted rows are excluded at the dataset snapshot.
+/// Cross-partition and cross-segment pairs are not evaluated. No top-k limit
+/// is applied. A pair qualifies when its finite distance is `<= threshold`.
+///
+/// Distances are computed natively between the index representations `x̂`
+/// (the vectors the codes reconstruct, exact vectors for IVF_FLAT) without
+/// reconstructing them, using the metric's definition:
+///
+/// | metric  | distance                                          |
+/// |---------|---------------------------------------------------|
+/// | l2      | squared L2 `‖x̂a − x̂b‖²`                           |
+/// | cosine  | `1 − cos(x̂a, x̂b)` in `[0, 2]`; 0 for identical codes |
+/// | dot     | `1 − x̂a·x̂b`                                       |
+/// | hamming | number of differing bits                          |
+///
+/// Cosine renormalizes quantized representations, as exact or refined search
+/// does; unrefined ANN search over quantized cosine indices reports roughly
+/// twice this value. Distances are bit-identical across concurrency, memory
+/// limits and the scoped [`find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition`] API.
+///
+/// Output order is deterministic: segments, partitions ascending, then tiles
+/// of staged vector batches `(I, J >= I)`, row-major within a tile (anchor row,
+/// then candidate row). Each pair appears once with `row_id_a` at the lower
+/// storage position; `row_id_a` values are not contiguous across tiles.
+/// Dropping the stream cancels further reads; only bounded in-flight CPU work
+/// can finish. Each partition's codes are staged once; larger partitions use
+/// session spill storage, reclaimed when advancing partitions or dropping the
+/// stream, and are read O(B²) times for B vector batches.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use std::sync::Arc;
+/// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+/// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+/// let pairs = lance::index::vector::dedup::find_duplicate_pairs(
+///     dataset, "embedding", 0.05,
+/// ).await?;
+/// drop(pairs);
+/// # Ok(()) }
+/// ```
+pub async fn find_duplicate_pairs(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    column: &str,
+    distance_threshold: f32,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    find_duplicate_pairs_with_options(
+        dataset,
+        column,
+        distance_threshold,
+        DuplicatePairsOptions::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Enumerate pairs with explicit resource settings; semantics are identical to
+/// [`find_duplicate_pairs`]. See [`DuplicatePairsOptions`] for memory accounting.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use std::sync::Arc;
+/// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+/// # use lance::index::vector::dedup::{find_duplicate_pairs_with_options, DuplicatePairsOptions};
+/// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> Result<()> {
+/// let pairs = find_duplicate_pairs_with_options(
+///     dataset, "embedding", 0.05, DuplicatePairsOptions::default().with_max_concurrency(4),
+/// ).await?;
+/// # Ok(()) }
+/// ```
+pub async fn find_duplicate_pairs_with_options(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    column: &str,
+    distance_threshold: f32,
+    options: DuplicatePairsOptions,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    plan(dataset, column, None, distance_threshold, options).await
+}
+
+/// Enumerate pairs only within the specified physical segment and partition.
+///
+/// The segment UUID must belong to the index of `column`; `partition_id` is
+/// local to that segment. This uses the same scorer, distances and ordering as
+/// [`find_duplicate_pairs`]. It does not require other fragments to be indexed,
+/// so rows of unindexed fragments are not paired.
+/// The caller must pin the same dataset version on every worker.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use std::sync::Arc;
+/// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+/// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, segment_id: uuid::Uuid) -> Result<()> {
+/// let pairs = lance::index::vector::dedup::find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+///     dataset, "embedding", segment_id, 0, 0.05,
+/// ).await?;
+/// drop(pairs);
+/// # Ok(()) }
+/// ```
+pub async fn find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    column: &str,
+    segment_id: Uuid,
+    partition_id: usize,
+    distance_threshold: f32,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition_with_options(
+        dataset,
+        column,
+        segment_id,
+        partition_id,
+        distance_threshold,
+        DuplicatePairsOptions::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Run one segment/partition with explicit code staging and concurrency.
+/// Uses the snapshot, distance and ordering contract of
+/// [`find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition`].
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use std::sync::Arc;
+/// # use lance::{Dataset, Result};
+/// # use lance::index::vector::dedup::{find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition_with_options, DuplicatePairsOptions};
+/// # async fn example(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, segment: uuid::Uuid) -> Result<()> {
+/// let pairs = find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition_with_options(
+///     dataset, "embedding", segment, 0, 0.05,
+///     DuplicatePairsOptions::default().with_memory_limit(0),
+/// ).await?;
+/// # Ok(()) }
+/// ```
+pub async fn find_duplicate_pairs_in_partition_with_options(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    column: &str,
+    segment_id: Uuid,
+    partition_id: usize,
+    distance_threshold: f32,
+    options: DuplicatePairsOptions,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    plan(
+        dataset,
+        column,
+        Some((segment_id, partition_id)),
+        distance_threshold,
+        options,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+async fn plan(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    column: &str,
+    selection: Option<(Uuid, usize)>,
+    threshold: f32,
+    options: DuplicatePairsOptions,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    if options.max_concurrency == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "max_concurrency must be positive, got 0",
+        ));
+    }
+    if !threshold.is_finite() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "distance_threshold must be finite, got {threshold}"
+        )));
+    }
+    let field = dataset.schema().field_id(column)?;
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await?;
+    let names = indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|m| m.keyed_fields() == [field] && segment_has_vector_details(m))
+        .map(|m| m.name.as_str())
+        .collect::<BTreeSet<_>>();
+    if names.len() != 1 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "column '{column}' requires exactly one vector index, found {}",
+            names.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    let name = names
+        .into_iter()
+        .next()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("missing resolved vector index"))?;
+    if selection.is_none() && !dataset.unindexed_fragments(name).await?.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "vector index on column '{column}' does not cover all fragments; optimize the index first"
+        )));
+    }
+    let segments = indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|meta| meta.name == name && meta.keyed_fields() == [field])
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    if let Some((id, _)) = selection
+        && !segments.iter().any(|m| m.uuid == id)
+    {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "segment_id={id} is not an active segment of column '{column}'"
+        )));
+    }
+    let mut partitions = Vec::new();
+    for meta in segments
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|meta| selection.is_none_or(|(id, _)| id == meta.uuid))
+    {
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_vector_index(column, &meta.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await?;
+        if !index.supports_pairwise_vectors() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "segment {} requires a current-format vector index; rebuild the index",
+                meta.uuid
+            )));
+        }
+        for fragment in dataset.fragments().iter() {
+            if meta
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_none_or(|ids| ids.contains(fragment.id as u32))
+                && fragment.overlays.iter().any(|overlay| {
+                    overlay.committed_version > meta.dataset_version
+                        && overlay.data_file.fields.contains(&field)
+                })
+            {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "column '{column}' has stale index values in segment {} after an overlay update; rebuild the index",
+                    meta.uuid
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        let mask = if dataset.manifest().uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            // Compaction can materialize deletions without rewriting a stable
+            // row-ID index. Its old IDs then survive in storage even though no
+            // fragment has a deletion file: require current row-ID membership.
+            DatasetPreFilter::do_create_deletion_mask_row_id(
+                dataset.clone(),
+                meta.fragment_bitmap.clone(),
+            )
+            .await?
+        } else {
+            let filter = DatasetPreFilter::new(dataset.clone(), std::slice::from_ref(meta), None);
+            filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+            filter.mask()
+        };
+        let count = index.ivf_model().num_partitions();
+        if let Some((_, p)) = selection {
+            if p >= count {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "partition_id={p} out of range 0..{count} for segment {}",
+                    meta.uuid
+                )));
+            }
+            partitions.push(Partition { index, id: p, mask });
+        } else {
+            partitions.extend((0..count).map(|id| Partition {
+                index: index.clone(),
+                id,
+                mask: mask.clone(),
+            }));
+        }
+    }
+    let session = dataset.session();
+    let stream = stream::iter(partitions)
+        .then(move |partition| partition_stream(partition, session.clone(), threshold, options))
+        .map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from)
+        .try_flatten();
+    Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        pair_schema(),
+        stream,
+    )))
+}
+
+struct Partition {
+    index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
+    id: usize,
+    mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+}
+
+async fn partition_stream(
+    partition: Partition,
+    session: Arc<crate::session::Session>,
+    threshold: f32,
+    options: DuplicatePairsOptions,
+) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+    let count = partition.index.partition_size(partition.id);
+    let schema = pair_schema();
+    if count == 0 {
+        return Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::empty(),
+        )));
+    }
+    let prepared = partition
+        .index
+        .prepare_pairwise_partition(
+            partition.id,
+            MAX_VECTOR_BATCH_SIZE,
+            options.memory_limit,
+            session.spill_store(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+    // In-memory reads share the staged buffers; spilled reads decode copies.
+    let live_batches = prepared.is_spilled().then(|| {
+        let batch_bytes = prepared
+            .vector_batch_size()
+            .saturating_mul(prepared.row_bytes())
+            .max(1);
+        Arc::new(Semaphore::new(
+            (options.memory_limit / batch_bytes).max(MIN_LIVE_SPILLED_BATCHES),
+        ))
+    });
+    let state = TileJobs {
+        num_batches: prepared.num_batches(),
+        live_batches,
+        prepared: Arc::new(prepared),
+        filter: partition.mask,
+        threshold,
+        schema: schema.clone(),
+        anchor_batch: 0,
+        candidate_batch: 0,
+        anchor: None,
+        candidates: None,
+        next_row: 0,
+    };
+    let jobs = stream::try_unfold(state, |mut state| async move {
+        state
+            .next_job()
+            .await
+            .map(|job| job.map(|job| (job, state)))
+    });
+    // Ordered completion keeps the tile order independent of concurrency
+    // without collecting a whole tile's matches.
+    let batches = jobs
+        .map_ok(|job| job.score())
+        .try_buffered(options.max_concurrency)
+        .try_filter(|batch| std::future::ready(batch.num_rows() != 0))
+        .map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from);
+    Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, batches)))
+}
+
+/// Produces scoring jobs lazily in tile order: anchor batch `I`, candidate
+/// batch `J >= I`, then blocks of anchor rows. Each batch is read once per
+/// tile side (O(B²) reads for B batches) and shared by that tile's jobs.
+struct TileJobs {
+    prepared: Arc<PairwisePartition>,
+    num_batches: usize,
+    /// Bounds decoded spilled batches held by the generator and in-flight jobs.
+    /// The generator holds at most one permit (its anchor) while waiting, and
+    /// jobs release theirs on completion, so the wait always makes progress.
+    live_batches: Option<Arc<Semaphore>>,
+    filter: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    threshold: f32,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    anchor_batch: usize,
+    candidate_batch: usize,
+    anchor: Option<Arc<LoadedBatch>>,
+    candidates: Option<Arc<LoadedBatch>>,
+    next_row: usize,
+}
+
+/// A loaded batch with its row selection, holding a live-batch permit while
+/// any job still references it.
+struct LoadedBatch {
+    batch: PairwiseVectorBatch,
+    _permit: Option<OwnedSemaphorePermit>,
+}
+
+fn has_selected(selected: &[bool]) -> bool {
+    selected.iter().any(|&selected| selected)
+}
+
+impl TileJobs {
+    /// Read a batch and resolve row selection once for every pair it joins.
+    async fn load(&self, batch_id: usize) -> Result<Arc<LoadedBatch>> {
+        let permit = match &self.live_batches {
+            Some(live) => Some(
+                live.clone()
+                    .acquire_owned()
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::internal("pairwise live batch semaphore closed"))?,
+            ),
+            None => None,
+        };
+        let mut batch = self.prepared.read_vectors(batch_id).await?;
+        batch.filter_rows(|id| self.filter.selected(id));
+        Ok(Arc::new(LoadedBatch {
+            batch,
+            _permit: permit,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    async fn next_job(&mut self) -> Result<Option<ScoreJob>> {
+        loop {
+            tokio::task::consume_budget().await;
+            if self.anchor_batch >= self.num_batches {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let anchor = match &self.anchor {
+                Some(anchor) => anchor.clone(),
+                None => {
+                    let anchor = self.load(self.anchor_batch).await?;
+                    if !has_selected(anchor.batch.selected()) {
+                        self.anchor_batch += 1;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    self.anchor = Some(anchor.clone());
+                    self.candidate_batch = self.anchor_batch;
+                    self.next_row = 0;
+                    anchor
+                }
+            };
+            let is_diagonal = self.candidate_batch == self.anchor_batch;
+            let candidates = match &self.candidates {
+                Some(candidates) => candidates.clone(),
+                None => {
+                    let candidates = if is_diagonal {
+                        anchor.clone()
+                    } else {
+                        self.load(self.candidate_batch).await?
+                    };
+                    self.candidates = Some(candidates.clone());
+                    self.next_row = 0;
+                    candidates
+                }
+            };
+            // The last row of a diagonal tile has no later candidate.
+            let anchor_end = anchor.batch.num_rows() - usize::from(is_diagonal);
+            if self.next_row >= anchor_end || !has_selected(candidates.batch.selected()) {
+                self.candidates = None;
+                self.candidate_batch += 1;
+                if self.candidate_batch >= self.num_batches {
+                    self.anchor = None;
+                    self.anchor_batch += 1;
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            let rows = self.next_row..(self.next_row + ANCHOR_BLOCK_ROWS).min(anchor_end);
+            self.next_row = rows.end;
+            if !has_selected(&anchor.batch.selected()[rows.clone()]) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            return Ok(Some(ScoreJob {
+                prepared: self.prepared.clone(),
+                anchor,
+                rows,
+                candidates,
+                threshold: self.threshold,
+                schema: self.schema.clone(),
+            }));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct ScoreJob {
+    prepared: Arc<PairwisePartition>,
+    anchor: Arc<LoadedBatch>,
+    rows: Range<usize>,
+    candidates: Arc<LoadedBatch>,
+    threshold: f32,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+}
+
+impl ScoreJob {
+    async fn score(self) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let work_bytes = self
+            .rows
+            .len()
+            .saturating_mul(self.candidates.batch.num_rows())
+            .saturating_mul(self.prepared.row_bytes());
+        let score = move || -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            let hits = self.prepared.score_block(
+                &self.anchor.batch,
+                self.rows,
+                &self.candidates.batch,
+                self.threshold,
+            )?;
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                self.schema,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(hits.row_id_a)),
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(hits.row_id_b)),
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(hits.distances)),
+                ],
+            )?)
+        };
+        if work_bytes < MIN_OFFLOAD_WORK_BYTES {
+            score()
+        } else {
+            spawn_cpu(score).await
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/details.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/details.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..836da47adfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/details.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1557 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Serialization and deserialization of [`VectorIndexDetails`] proto messages.
+//!
+//! This module handles:
+//! - Populating `VectorIndexDetails` from build params at index creation time
+//! - Deriving a human-readable index type string (e.g., "IVF_PQ") from details
+//! - Serializing details as JSON for `describe_indices()`
+//! - Inferring details from index files on disk (fallback for legacy indices)
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::str::FromStr;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
+use lance_index::pb::VectorIndexDetails;
+use lance_index::pb::VectorMetricType;
+use lance_index::pb::index::Implementation;
+use lance_index::pb::vector_index_details::{Compression, FlatCompression, rabit_quantization};
+use lance_index::{INDEX_FILE_NAME, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, pb};
+use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_io::traits::Reader;
+use lance_io::utils::{CachedFileSize, read_last_block, read_version};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use serde::Serialize;
+
+use lance_index::vector::bq::{RQBuildParams, RQRotationType};
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
+
+use super::{StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::index::open_index_proto;
+use crate::{Error, Result};
+
+// Private structs for JSON serialization of VectorIndexDetails.
+// Changes to field names or structure are backwards-incompatible for users
+// parsing the JSON output of describe_indices(). See snapshot tests below.
+
+#[derive(Serialize)]
+struct VectorDetailsJson {
+    metric_type: &'static str,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    target_partition_size: Option<u64>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    hnsw: Option<HnswDetailsJson>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    compression: Option<CompressionDetailsJson>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "HashMap::is_empty")]
+    runtime_hints: HashMap<String, String>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize)]
+struct HnswDetailsJson {
+    max_connections: u32,
+    construction_ef: u32,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "is_zero")]
+    max_level: u32,
+}
+
+fn is_zero(v: &u32) -> bool {
+    *v == 0
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize)]
+#[serde(tag = "type", rename_all = "lowercase")]
+enum CompressionDetailsJson {
+    Pq {
+        num_bits: u32,
+        num_sub_vectors: u32,
+    },
+    Sq {
+        num_bits: u32,
+    },
+    Rq {
+        num_bits: u32,
+        rotation_type: &'static str,
+    },
+}
+
+/// Build a `VectorIndexDetails` proto from build params at index creation time.
+pub fn vector_index_details(params: &VectorIndexParams) -> prost_types::Any {
+    let metric_type = match params.metric_type {
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2 => VectorMetricType::L2,
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::Cosine => VectorMetricType::Cosine,
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::Dot => VectorMetricType::Dot,
+        lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::Hamming => VectorMetricType::Hamming,
+    };
+
+    let mut target_partition_size = 0u64;
+    let mut hnsw_index_config = None;
+    let mut compression = None;
+    let mut runtime_hints: HashMap<String, String> = params.runtime_hints.clone();
+
+    for stage in &params.stages {
+        match stage {
+            StageParams::Ivf(ivf) => {
+                if let Some(tps) = ivf.target_partition_size {
+                    target_partition_size = tps as u64;
+                }
+                runtime_hints.insert("lance.ivf.max_iters".to_string(), ivf.max_iters.to_string());
+                runtime_hints.insert(
+                    "lance.ivf.sample_rate".to_string(),
+                    ivf.sample_rate.to_string(),
+                );
+                runtime_hints.insert(
+                    "lance.ivf.shuffle_partition_batches".to_string(),
+                    ivf.shuffle_partition_batches.to_string(),
+                );
+                runtime_hints.insert(
+                    "lance.ivf.shuffle_partition_concurrency".to_string(),
+                    ivf.shuffle_partition_concurrency.to_string(),
+                );
+            }
+            StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw) => {
+                hnsw_index_config = Some(hnsw.into());
+                let val = match hnsw.prefetch_distance {
+                    Some(v) => v.to_string(),
+                    None => "none".to_string(),
+                };
+                runtime_hints.insert("lance.hnsw.prefetch_distance".to_string(), val);
+            }
+            StageParams::PQ(pq) => {
+                compression = Some(Compression::Pq(pq.into()));
+                runtime_hints.insert("lance.pq.max_iters".to_string(), pq.max_iters.to_string());
+                runtime_hints.insert(
+                    "lance.pq.sample_rate".to_string(),
+                    pq.sample_rate.to_string(),
+                );
+                runtime_hints.insert(
+                    "lance.pq.kmeans_redos".to_string(),
+                    pq.kmeans_redos.to_string(),
+                );
+            }
+            StageParams::SQ(sq) => {
+                compression = Some(Compression::Sq(sq.into()));
+                runtime_hints.insert(
+                    "lance.sq.sample_rate".to_string(),
+                    sq.sample_rate.to_string(),
+                );
+            }
+            StageParams::RQ(rq) => {
+                compression = Some(Compression::Rq(rq.into()));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    runtime_hints.insert(
+        "lance.skip_transpose".to_string(),
+        params.skip_transpose.to_string(),
+    );
+
+    let compression = compression.or(Some(Compression::Flat(FlatCompression {})));
+
+    let details = VectorIndexDetails {
+        metric_type: metric_type.into(),
+        target_partition_size,
+        hnsw_index_config,
+        compression,
+        runtime_hints,
+    };
+    prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap()
+}
+
+pub fn vector_index_details_default() -> prost_types::Any {
+    let details = lance_index::pb::VectorIndexDetails::default();
+    prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Apply stored runtime hints from `VectorIndexDetails` back into build params.
+///
+/// Known `lance.*` keys are parsed and applied to the appropriate stage. Unknown
+/// keys (e.g., from other runtimes) are silently ignored. Malformed values are
+/// also silently ignored — the stage keeps its existing default.
+// TODO: wire into a general `Dataset::rebuild_index` method so users can
+// regenerate an index from its stored details (e.g. after file corruption).
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+pub fn apply_runtime_hints(hints: &HashMap<String, String>, params: &mut VectorIndexParams) {
+    fn parse<T: FromStr>(hints: &HashMap<String, String>, key: &str) -> Option<T> {
+        hints.get(key)?.parse().ok()
+    }
+
+    if let Some(v) = parse::<bool>(hints, "lance.skip_transpose") {
+        params.skip_transpose = v;
+    }
+
+    for stage in &mut params.stages {
+        match stage {
+            StageParams::Ivf(ivf) => {
+                if let Some(v) = parse(hints, "lance.ivf.max_iters") {
+                    ivf.max_iters = v;
+                }
+                if let Some(v) = parse(hints, "lance.ivf.sample_rate") {
+                    ivf.sample_rate = v;
+                }
+                if let Some(v) = parse(hints, "lance.ivf.shuffle_partition_batches") {
+                    ivf.shuffle_partition_batches = v;
+                }
+                if let Some(v) = parse(hints, "lance.ivf.shuffle_partition_concurrency") {
+                    ivf.shuffle_partition_concurrency = v;
+                }
+            }
+            StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw) => {
+                if let Some(raw) = hints.get("lance.hnsw.prefetch_distance") {
+                    hnsw.prefetch_distance = if raw == "none" {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        raw.parse().ok()
+                    };
+                }
+            }
+            StageParams::PQ(pq) => {
+                if let Some(v) = parse(hints, "lance.pq.max_iters") {
+                    pq.max_iters = v;
+                }
+                if let Some(v) = parse(hints, "lance.pq.sample_rate") {
+                    pq.sample_rate = v;
+                }
+                if let Some(v) = parse(hints, "lance.pq.kmeans_redos") {
+                    pq.kmeans_redos = v;
+                }
+            }
+            StageParams::SQ(sq) => {
+                if let Some(v) = parse(hints, "lance.sq.sample_rate") {
+                    sq.sample_rate = v;
+                }
+            }
+            StageParams::RQ(_) => {}
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Reconstruct `VectorIndexParams` from a stored `VectorIndexDetails` proto.
+///
+/// Returns `None` for legacy indices (empty details) or if the proto is malformed.
+/// The rows-per-partition target the index was created with, if it was recorded.
+pub fn target_partition_size_from_details(details: &prost_types::Any) -> Option<usize> {
+    let details = details.to_msg::<VectorIndexDetails>().ok()?;
+    (details.target_partition_size > 0).then_some(details.target_partition_size as usize)
+}
+
+/// Runtime hints are applied on top of the reconstructed spec.
+// TODO: wire into a general `Dataset::rebuild_index` method so users can
+// regenerate an index from its stored details (e.g. after file corruption).
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+pub fn vector_params_from_details(details: &prost_types::Any) -> Option<VectorIndexParams> {
+    if details.value.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let d = details.to_msg::<VectorIndexDetails>().ok()?;
+
+    let metric = DistanceType::from(VectorMetricType::try_from(d.metric_type).ok()?);
+
+    let mut ivf = IvfBuildParams::default();
+    if d.target_partition_size > 0 {
+        ivf.target_partition_size = Some(d.target_partition_size as usize);
+    }
+
+    let hnsw = d.hnsw_index_config.map(|h| HnswBuildParams {
+        m: h.max_connections as usize,
+        ef_construction: h.construction_ef as usize,
+        max_level: h.max_level as u16,
+        ..Default::default()
+    });
+
+    let mut params = match (hnsw, d.compression) {
+        (None, Some(Compression::Pq(pq))) => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            metric,
+            ivf,
+            PQBuildParams {
+                num_bits: pq.num_bits as usize,
+                num_sub_vectors: pq.num_sub_vectors as usize,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        ),
+        (None, Some(Compression::Sq(sq))) => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(
+            metric,
+            ivf,
+            SQBuildParams {
+                num_bits: sq.num_bits as u16,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        ),
+        (None, Some(Compression::Rq(rq))) => {
+            let rotation_type =
+                match rabit_quantization::RotationType::try_from(rq.rotation_type).ok()? {
+                    rabit_quantization::RotationType::Matrix => RQRotationType::Matrix,
+                    rabit_quantization::RotationType::Fast => RQRotationType::Fast,
+                };
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+                metric,
+                ivf,
+                RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(rq.num_bits as u8, rotation_type),
+            )
+        }
+        (Some(hnsw), Some(Compression::Pq(pq))) => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+            metric,
+            ivf,
+            hnsw,
+            PQBuildParams {
+                num_bits: pq.num_bits as usize,
+                num_sub_vectors: pq.num_sub_vectors as usize,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        ),
+        (Some(hnsw), Some(Compression::Sq(sq))) => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            metric,
+            ivf,
+            hnsw,
+            SQBuildParams {
+                num_bits: sq.num_bits as u16,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        ),
+        (Some(hnsw), _) => VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(metric, ivf, hnsw),
+        _ => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(metric, ivf),
+    };
+
+    apply_runtime_hints(&d.runtime_hints, &mut params);
+    Some(params)
+}
+
+/// Extract metric type from index metadata without opening the index file.
+///
+/// For newer indices with populated `VectorIndexDetails`, returns the metric type directly.
+/// For legacy indices without details, returns `None` and caller should fall back to opening the index.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+/// * `index` - The index metadata containing serialized VectorIndexDetails
+///
+/// # Returns
+/// * `Some(DistanceType)` if details are present and valid
+/// * `None` if details are absent or empty (legacy index without details)
+pub fn metric_type_from_index_metadata(index: &IndexMetadata) -> Option<DistanceType> {
+    let index_details = index.index_details.as_ref()?;
+
+    // Empty value bytes indicates legacy index that needs to be opened for details
+    if index_details.value.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let details = index_details.to_msg::<VectorIndexDetails>().ok()?;
+
+    // Try to convert the metric_type field. This works even if metric_type is 0 (L2),
+    // since L2 is a valid metric type.
+    let metric_enum = VectorMetricType::try_from(details.metric_type).ok()?;
+    Some(DistanceType::from(metric_enum))
+}
+
+/// Returns true if the proto value represents a "truly empty" VectorIndexDetails
+/// (i.e., a legacy index that was created before we populated this field).
+fn is_empty_vector_details(details: &prost_types::Any) -> bool {
+    details.value.is_empty()
+}
+
+/// Returns true if this is a vector index whose details need to be inferred from disk.
+///
+/// This covers two legacy cases:
+/// - Very old indices (<=0.19.2) where `index_details` is `None` but the indexed
+///   field is a vector type
+/// - Newer pre-details indices where `index_details` has a VectorIndexDetails
+///   type_url but empty value bytes
+pub fn needs_vector_details_inference(
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+    schema: &lance_core::datatypes::Schema,
+) -> bool {
+    match &index.index_details {
+        Some(d) => d.type_url.ends_with("VectorIndexDetails") && d.value.is_empty(),
+        None => index.fields.first().is_some_and(|&field_id| {
+            schema
+                .field_by_id(field_id)
+                .map(|f| matches!(f.data_type(), arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _)))
+                .unwrap_or(false)
+        }),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Infer missing vector index details for all indices that need it.
+///
+/// Runs inference once per unique index name, concurrently across names.
+/// Applies the inferred details back to all matching indices in the slice.
+pub async fn infer_missing_vector_details(dataset: &Dataset, indices: &mut [IndexMetadata]) {
+    let schema = dataset.schema();
+    let needs_inference: HashMap<&str, &IndexMetadata> = indices
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| needs_vector_details_inference(idx, schema))
+        .map(|idx| (idx.name.as_str(), idx))
+        .collect();
+    if needs_inference.is_empty() {
+        return;
+    }
+    let inferred: HashMap<String, Arc<prost_types::Any>> =
+        futures::future::join_all(needs_inference.into_iter().map(
+            |(name, representative)| async move {
+                let result = infer_vector_index_details(dataset, representative).await;
+                (name.to_string(), result)
+            },
+        ))
+        .await
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter_map(|(name, result)| match result {
+            Ok(details) => Some((name, Arc::new(details))),
+            Err(err) => {
+                tracing::warn!("Could not infer vector index details for {}: {}", name, err);
+                None
+            }
+        })
+        .collect();
+    for index in indices.iter_mut() {
+        if let Some(details) = inferred.get(&index.name) {
+            index.index_details = Some(details.clone());
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Derive a human-readable index type string from VectorIndexDetails.
+pub fn derive_vector_index_type(details: &prost_types::Any) -> String {
+    if is_empty_vector_details(details) {
+        return "Vector".to_string();
+    }
+
+    let Ok(d) = details.to_msg::<VectorIndexDetails>() else {
+        return "Vector".to_string();
+    };
+    let mut index_type = "IVF_".to_string();
+    if d.hnsw_index_config.is_some() {
+        index_type.push_str("HNSW_");
+    }
+    match d.compression {
+        None | Some(Compression::Flat(_)) => index_type.push_str("FLAT"),
+        Some(Compression::Pq(_)) => index_type.push_str("PQ"),
+        Some(Compression::Sq(_)) => index_type.push_str("SQ"),
+        Some(Compression::Rq(_)) => index_type.push_str("RQ"),
+    }
+    index_type
+}
+
+/// Serialize VectorIndexDetails as a JSON string.
+pub fn vector_details_as_json(details: &prost_types::Any) -> Result<String> {
+    if is_empty_vector_details(details) {
+        return Ok("{}".to_string());
+    }
+
+    let d = details
+        .to_msg::<VectorIndexDetails>()
+        .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Failed to deserialize VectorIndexDetails: {}", e)))?;
+
+    let metric_type = match VectorMetricType::try_from(d.metric_type) {
+        Ok(VectorMetricType::L2) => "L2",
+        Ok(VectorMetricType::Cosine) => "COSINE",
+        Ok(VectorMetricType::Dot) => "DOT",
+        Ok(VectorMetricType::Hamming) => "HAMMING",
+        Err(_) => "UNKNOWN",
+    };
+
+    let hnsw = d.hnsw_index_config.map(|h| HnswDetailsJson {
+        max_connections: h.max_connections,
+        construction_ef: h.construction_ef,
+        max_level: h.max_level,
+    });
+
+    let compression = d.compression.and_then(|c| match c {
+        Compression::Flat(_) => None,
+        Compression::Pq(pq) => Some(CompressionDetailsJson::Pq {
+            num_bits: pq.num_bits,
+            num_sub_vectors: pq.num_sub_vectors,
+        }),
+        Compression::Sq(sq) => Some(CompressionDetailsJson::Sq {
+            num_bits: sq.num_bits,
+        }),
+        Compression::Rq(rq) => {
+            let rotation_type = match rabit_quantization::RotationType::try_from(rq.rotation_type) {
+                Ok(rabit_quantization::RotationType::Matrix) => "matrix",
+                _ => "fast",
+            };
+            Some(CompressionDetailsJson::Rq {
+                num_bits: rq.num_bits,
+                rotation_type,
+            })
+        }
+    });
+
+    let json = VectorDetailsJson {
+        metric_type,
+        target_partition_size: if d.target_partition_size > 0 {
+            Some(d.target_partition_size)
+        } else {
+            None
+        },
+        hnsw,
+        compression,
+        runtime_hints: d.runtime_hints,
+    };
+
+    serde_json::to_string(&json).map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Failed to serialize: {}", e)))
+}
+
+/// Infer VectorIndexDetails from index files on disk.
+/// Used as a fallback for legacy indices where the manifest doesn't have populated details.
+pub async fn infer_vector_index_details(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<prost_types::Any> {
+    let uuid = index.uuid.to_string();
+    let index_dir = dataset.indice_files_dir(index)?;
+    let file_dir = index_dir.clone().join(uuid.as_str());
+    let index_file = file_dir.clone().join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+    let file_sizes = index.file_size_map();
+    let reader: Arc<dyn Reader> = super::open_index_file(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &index_file,
+        INDEX_FILE_NAME,
+        &file_sizes,
+    )
+    .await?
+    .into();
+
+    let tailing_bytes = read_last_block(reader.as_ref()).await?;
+    let (major_version, minor_version) = read_version(&tailing_bytes)?;
+
+    match (major_version, minor_version) {
+        (0, 1) | (0, 0) => {
+            // Legacy v0.1: read pb::Index, extract VectorIndex stages
+            let proto = open_index_proto(reader.as_ref()).await?;
+            convert_legacy_proto_to_details(&proto)
+        }
+        _ => {
+            // v0.2+/v0.3: read lance file schema metadata
+            convert_v3_metadata_to_details(dataset, &file_dir).await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn convert_legacy_proto_to_details(proto: &pb::Index) -> Result<prost_types::Any> {
+    use lance_index::pb::VectorIndexDetails;
+    use lance_index::pb::vector_index_details::*;
+    use pb::vector_index_stage::Stage;
+
+    let Some(Implementation::VectorIndex(vector_index)) = &proto.implementation else {
+        return Ok(vector_index_details_default());
+    };
+
+    let metric_type = pb::VectorMetricType::try_from(vector_index.metric_type)
+        .unwrap_or(pb::VectorMetricType::L2);
+
+    let mut compression: Option<Compression> = None;
+    for stage in &vector_index.stages {
+        if let Some(Stage::Pq(pq)) = &stage.stage {
+            compression = Some(Compression::Pq(ProductQuantization {
+                num_bits: pq.num_bits,
+                num_sub_vectors: pq.num_sub_vectors,
+            }));
+        }
+    }
+    let compression = compression.or(Some(Compression::Flat(FlatCompression {})));
+
+    let details = VectorIndexDetails {
+        metric_type: metric_type.into(),
+        target_partition_size: 0,
+        hnsw_index_config: None,
+        compression,
+        runtime_hints: Default::default(),
+    };
+    Ok(prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap())
+}
+
+async fn convert_v3_metadata_to_details(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    file_dir: &object_store::path::Path,
+) -> Result<prost_types::Any> {
+    use lance_index::INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME;
+    use lance_index::pb::vector_index_details::*;
+    use lance_index::pb::{HnswParameters, VectorIndexDetails};
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::RabitQuantizationMetadata;
+    use lance_index::vector::hnsw::HnswMetadata;
+    use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HNSW_METADATA_KEY;
+    use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::ProductQuantizationMetadata;
+    use lance_index::vector::shared::partition_merger::SupportedIvfIndexType;
+    use lance_index::vector::sq::storage::ScalarQuantizationMetadata;
+    use lance_index::vector::storage::STORAGE_METADATA_KEY;
+
+    let index_file = file_dir.clone().join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+    let main_reader = open_lance_file(dataset, &index_file).await?;
+    let main_meta = &main_reader.schema().metadata;
+
+    // Index type and distance live in the main file's INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY.
+    let idx_meta: Option<lance_index::IndexMetadata> = main_meta
+        .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
+        .map(|s| serde_json::from_str(s))
+        .transpose()?;
+
+    let metric_type = idx_meta
+        .as_ref()
+        .map(|m| match m.distance_type.to_uppercase().as_str() {
+            "L2" | "EUCLIDEAN" => VectorMetricType::L2,
+            "COSINE" => VectorMetricType::Cosine,
+            "DOT" => VectorMetricType::Dot,
+            "HAMMING" => VectorMetricType::Hamming,
+            _ => VectorMetricType::L2,
+        })
+        .unwrap_or(VectorMetricType::L2);
+
+    // The index_type string drives both whether HNSW is present and which
+    // compression to expect. Falls back to IvfFlat if the metadata is missing
+    // or unrecognized.
+    let supported_type = idx_meta
+        .as_ref()
+        .and_then(|m| SupportedIvfIndexType::from_index_type_str(&m.index_type))
+        .unwrap_or(SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfFlat);
+    let (has_hnsw, compression_kind) = match supported_type {
+        SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfFlat => (false, CompressionKind::Flat),
+        SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfPq => (false, CompressionKind::Pq),
+        SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfSq => (false, CompressionKind::Sq),
+        SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfRq => (false, CompressionKind::Rq),
+        SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswFlat => (true, CompressionKind::Flat),
+        SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswPq => (true, CompressionKind::Pq),
+        SupportedIvfIndexType::IvfHnswSq => (true, CompressionKind::Sq),
+    };
+
+    let hnsw_index_config = if has_hnsw {
+        // HNSW partition metadata is stored as a JSON array of JSON-encoded
+        // strings (one per partition), matching how the builder writes
+        // `partition_index_metadata: Vec<String>`.
+        main_meta
+            .get(HNSW_METADATA_KEY)
+            .map(|s| serde_json::from_str::<Vec<String>>(s))
+            .transpose()?
+            .and_then(|entries| entries.into_iter().next())
+            .map(|s| serde_json::from_str::<HnswMetadata>(&s))
+            .transpose()?
+            .map(|hnsw| HnswParameters {
+                max_connections: hnsw.params.m as u32,
+                construction_ef: hnsw.params.ef_construction as u32,
+                max_level: hnsw.params.max_level as u32,
+            })
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    // For quantized indices, the per-quantizer metadata is in the auxiliary
+    // file under STORAGE_METADATA_KEY (a JSON-encoded Vec<String>, one entry
+    // per partition; all entries currently share the same metadata so we read
+    // the first).
+    let compression = match compression_kind {
+        CompressionKind::Flat => Some(Compression::Flat(FlatCompression {})),
+        CompressionKind::Pq | CompressionKind::Sq | CompressionKind::Rq => {
+            let aux_file = file_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+            let aux_reader = open_lance_file(dataset, &aux_file).await?;
+            let raw = aux_reader
+                .schema()
+                .metadata
+                .get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "auxiliary file missing {STORAGE_METADATA_KEY} metadata"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            let entries: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(raw)?;
+            let first = entries.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index("auxiliary STORAGE_METADATA_KEY was empty".to_string())
+            })?;
+            match compression_kind {
+                CompressionKind::Pq => {
+                    let pq: ProductQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(first)?;
+                    Some(Compression::Pq(ProductQuantization {
+                        num_bits: pq.nbits,
+                        num_sub_vectors: pq.num_sub_vectors as u32,
+                    }))
+                }
+                CompressionKind::Sq => {
+                    let sq: ScalarQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(first)?;
+                    Some(Compression::Sq(ScalarQuantization {
+                        num_bits: sq.num_bits as u32,
+                    }))
+                }
+                CompressionKind::Rq => {
+                    let rq: RabitQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(first)?;
+                    let rotation_type = match rq.rotation_type {
+                        lance_index::vector::bq::RQRotationType::Fast => {
+                            rabit_quantization::RotationType::Fast
+                        }
+                        lance_index::vector::bq::RQRotationType::Matrix => {
+                            rabit_quantization::RotationType::Matrix
+                        }
+                    };
+                    Some(Compression::Rq(RabitQuantization {
+                        num_bits: rq.num_bits as u32,
+                        rotation_type: rotation_type.into(),
+                    }))
+                }
+                CompressionKind::Flat => unreachable!(),
+            }
+        }
+    };
+
+    let details = VectorIndexDetails {
+        metric_type: metric_type.into(),
+        target_partition_size: 0,
+        hnsw_index_config,
+        compression,
+        runtime_hints: Default::default(),
+    };
+    Ok(prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap())
+}
+
+enum CompressionKind {
+    Flat,
+    Pq,
+    Sq,
+    Rq,
+}
+
+async fn open_lance_file(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    path: &object_store::path::Path,
+) -> Result<lance_file::reader::FileReader> {
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+        dataset.object_store.clone(),
+        SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&dataset.object_store),
+    );
+    let file = scheduler
+        .open_file(path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+        .await?;
+    lance_file::reader::FileReader::try_open(
+        file,
+        None,
+        Default::default(),
+        &dataset.metadata_cache.file_metadata_cache(path),
+        FileReaderOptions::default(),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use lance_index::pb::vector_index_details::*;
+    use lance_index::pb::{HnswParameters, VectorIndexDetails};
+
+    fn make_details(
+        metric: VectorMetricType,
+        hnsw: Option<HnswParameters>,
+        compression: Option<Compression>,
+    ) -> prost_types::Any {
+        let details = VectorIndexDetails {
+            metric_type: metric.into(),
+            target_partition_size: 0,
+            hnsw_index_config: hnsw,
+            compression,
+            runtime_hints: Default::default(),
+        };
+        prost_types::Any::from_msg(&details).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_derive_index_type_without_hnsw() {
+        // Note: (None, "IVF_FLAT") is not testable here because a proto with
+        // all defaults serializes to empty bytes, which is treated as a legacy index.
+        let cases: [(Option<Compression>, &str); 3] = [
+            (
+                Some(Compression::Pq(ProductQuantization {
+                    num_bits: 8,
+                    num_sub_vectors: 16,
+                })),
+                "IVF_PQ",
+            ),
+            (
+                Some(Compression::Sq(ScalarQuantization { num_bits: 8 })),
+                "IVF_SQ",
+            ),
+            (
+                Some(Compression::Rq(RabitQuantization {
+                    num_bits: 1,
+                    rotation_type: 0,
+                })),
+                "IVF_RQ",
+            ),
+        ];
+        for (compression, expected) in cases {
+            let details = make_details(VectorMetricType::L2, None, compression);
+            assert_eq!(derive_vector_index_type(&details), expected);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_derive_index_type_with_hnsw() {
+        let hnsw = Some(HnswParameters {
+            max_connections: 20,
+            construction_ef: 150,
+            max_level: 7,
+        });
+        assert_eq!(
+            derive_vector_index_type(&make_details(VectorMetricType::L2, hnsw, None)),
+            "IVF_HNSW_FLAT"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            derive_vector_index_type(&make_details(
+                VectorMetricType::L2,
+                hnsw,
+                Some(Compression::Pq(ProductQuantization {
+                    num_bits: 8,
+                    num_sub_vectors: 16,
+                }))
+            )),
+            "IVF_HNSW_PQ"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            derive_vector_index_type(&make_details(
+                VectorMetricType::L2,
+                hnsw,
+                Some(Compression::Sq(ScalarQuantization { num_bits: 8 }))
+            )),
+            "IVF_HNSW_SQ"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_derive_index_type_empty_details() {
+        let details = vector_index_details_default();
+        assert_eq!(derive_vector_index_type(&details), "Vector");
+    }
+
+    // Snapshot tests for JSON serialization. These guard backwards compatibility
+    // of the JSON format returned by describe_indices().
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_ivf_pq() {
+        let details = make_details(
+            VectorMetricType::L2,
+            None,
+            Some(Compression::Pq(ProductQuantization {
+                num_bits: 8,
+                num_sub_vectors: 16,
+            })),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            vector_details_as_json(&details).unwrap(),
+            r#"{"metric_type":"L2","compression":{"type":"pq","num_bits":8,"num_sub_vectors":16}}"#
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_ivf_hnsw_sq() {
+        let details = make_details(
+            VectorMetricType::Cosine,
+            Some(HnswParameters {
+                max_connections: 30,
+                construction_ef: 200,
+                max_level: 8,
+            }),
+            Some(Compression::Sq(ScalarQuantization { num_bits: 4 })),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            vector_details_as_json(&details).unwrap(),
+            r#"{"metric_type":"COSINE","hnsw":{"max_connections":30,"construction_ef":200,"max_level":8},"compression":{"type":"sq","num_bits":4}}"#
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_ivf_rq_with_rotation() {
+        let details = make_details(
+            VectorMetricType::Dot,
+            None,
+            Some(Compression::Rq(RabitQuantization {
+                num_bits: 1,
+                rotation_type: rabit_quantization::RotationType::Matrix as i32,
+            })),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            vector_details_as_json(&details).unwrap(),
+            r#"{"metric_type":"DOT","compression":{"type":"rq","num_bits":1,"rotation_type":"matrix"}}"#
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_ivf_rq_fast_rotation() {
+        let details = make_details(
+            VectorMetricType::L2,
+            None,
+            Some(Compression::Rq(RabitQuantization {
+                num_bits: 1,
+                rotation_type: rabit_quantization::RotationType::Fast as i32,
+            })),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            vector_details_as_json(&details).unwrap(),
+            r#"{"metric_type":"L2","compression":{"type":"rq","num_bits":1,"rotation_type":"fast"}}"#
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_with_target_partition_size() {
+        let details = {
+            let d = VectorIndexDetails {
+                metric_type: VectorMetricType::L2.into(),
+                target_partition_size: 5000,
+                hnsw_index_config: None,
+                compression: None,
+                runtime_hints: Default::default(),
+            };
+            prost_types::Any::from_msg(&d).unwrap()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            vector_details_as_json(&details).unwrap(),
+            r#"{"metric_type":"L2","target_partition_size":5000}"#
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_json_empty_details() {
+        let details = vector_index_details_default();
+        assert_eq!(vector_details_as_json(&details).unwrap(), "{}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_metric_type_from_index_metadata_populated() {
+        // Test that populated details return the metric type.
+        // Note: We add a non-default compression field so the proto doesn't serialize to empty bytes.
+        let details = make_details(
+            VectorMetricType::L2,
+            None,
+            Some(Compression::Pq(ProductQuantization {
+                num_bits: 8,
+                num_sub_vectors: 16,
+            })),
+        );
+        let index_details = Some(std::sync::Arc::new(details));
+        let index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "test_index".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details,
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let metric = metric_type_from_index_metadata(&index);
+        assert_eq!(metric, Some(DistanceType::L2));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_metric_type_from_index_metadata_empty() {
+        // Test that empty details return None (legacy index)
+        let details = vector_index_details_default();
+        let index_details = Some(std::sync::Arc::new(details));
+        let index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "test_index".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details,
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let metric = metric_type_from_index_metadata(&index);
+        assert_eq!(metric, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_metric_type_from_index_metadata_none() {
+        // Test that missing details return None
+        let index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "test_index".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let metric = metric_type_from_index_metadata(&index);
+        assert_eq!(metric, None);
+    }
+
+    // Schema with a vector column ("vec", FixedSizeList) and a scalar column
+    // ("tag", Utf8). Field ids are assigned by `set_field_id` during conversion,
+    // so look them up by name rather than hardcoding.
+    fn schema_with_vector_and_scalar() -> lance_core::datatypes::Schema {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        let arrow = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    8,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ArrowField::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+        lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&arrow).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn index_over_field(field_id: i32, index_details: Option<prost_types::Any>) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "idx".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: index_details.map(Arc::new),
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_needs_inference_missing_details_on_vector_field() {
+        // Oldest legacy case (<=0.19.2): no details, but the indexed field is a
+        // vector type => must infer.
+        let schema = schema_with_vector_and_scalar();
+        let vec_id = schema.field("vec").unwrap().id;
+        let index = index_over_field(vec_id, None);
+        assert!(needs_vector_details_inference(&index, &schema));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_needs_inference_missing_details_on_scalar_field() {
+        // No details and the indexed field is not a vector type (e.g. an FTS or
+        // scalar index) => nothing to infer, so the load_indices fast path may
+        // skip the clone/infer/compare.
+        let schema = schema_with_vector_and_scalar();
+        let tag_id = schema.field("tag").unwrap().id;
+        let index = index_over_field(tag_id, None);
+        assert!(!needs_vector_details_inference(&index, &schema));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_needs_inference_empty_vector_details() {
+        // Newer pre-details case: a VectorIndexDetails type_url with empty value
+        // bytes => must infer.
+        let schema = schema_with_vector_and_scalar();
+        let vec_id = schema.field("vec").unwrap().id;
+        let index = index_over_field(vec_id, Some(vector_index_details_default()));
+        assert!(needs_vector_details_inference(&index, &schema));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_needs_inference_populated_vector_details() {
+        // Modern vector index with populated details => no inference needed.
+        let schema = schema_with_vector_and_scalar();
+        let vec_id = schema.field("vec").unwrap().id;
+        let details = make_details(
+            VectorMetricType::L2,
+            None,
+            Some(Compression::Pq(ProductQuantization {
+                num_bits: 8,
+                num_sub_vectors: 16,
+            })),
+        );
+        let index = index_over_field(vec_id, Some(details));
+        assert!(!needs_vector_details_inference(&index, &schema));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_metric_type_from_index_metadata_all_metrics() {
+        // Test all supported metric types.
+        // Note: We add a non-default compression field so the proto doesn't serialize to empty bytes.
+        let metrics = [
+            VectorMetricType::L2,
+            VectorMetricType::Cosine,
+            VectorMetricType::Dot,
+            VectorMetricType::Hamming,
+        ];
+        let expected = [
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+            DistanceType::Hamming,
+        ];
+
+        for (metric_enum, expected_distance) in metrics.iter().zip(expected.iter()) {
+            let details = make_details(
+                *metric_enum,
+                None,
+                Some(Compression::Sq(ScalarQuantization { num_bits: 8 })),
+            );
+            let index_details = Some(std::sync::Arc::new(details));
+            let index = IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                fields: vec![0],
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                name: "test_index".to_string(),
+                dataset_version: 1,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+                index_details,
+                index_version: 1,
+                created_at: None,
+                base_id: None,
+                files: None,
+            };
+
+            let metric = metric_type_from_index_metadata(&index);
+            assert_eq!(metric, Some(*expected_distance));
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_runtime_hints_roundtrip() {
+        use crate::index::vector::{StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
+        use lance_index::vector::ivf::builder::IvfBuildParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+        // Non-default values for IVF and PQ hints
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams {
+                max_iters: 100,
+                sample_rate: 512,
+                shuffle_partition_batches: 2048,
+                shuffle_partition_concurrency: 4,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            PQBuildParams {
+                num_sub_vectors: 8,
+                num_bits: 8,
+                max_iters: 75,
+                kmeans_redos: 3,
+                sample_rate: 128,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+
+        let any = vector_index_details(&params);
+        let details = any.to_msg::<VectorIndexDetails>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            details
+                .runtime_hints
+                .get("lance.ivf.max_iters")
+                .map(|s| s.as_str()),
+            Some("100")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            details
+                .runtime_hints
+                .get("lance.ivf.sample_rate")
+                .map(|s| s.as_str()),
+            Some("512")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            details
+                .runtime_hints
+                .get("lance.ivf.shuffle_partition_batches")
+                .map(|s| s.as_str()),
+            Some("2048")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            details
+                .runtime_hints
+                .get("lance.ivf.shuffle_partition_concurrency")
+                .map(|s| s.as_str()),
+            Some("4")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            details
+                .runtime_hints
+                .get("lance.pq.max_iters")
+                .map(|s| s.as_str()),
+            Some("75")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            details
+                .runtime_hints
+                .get("lance.pq.sample_rate")
+                .map(|s| s.as_str()),
+            Some("128")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            details
+                .runtime_hints
+                .get("lance.pq.kmeans_redos")
+                .map(|s| s.as_str()),
+            Some("3")
+        );
+        // No HNSW stage in this IVF+PQ params, so no prefetch_distance hint.
+        assert!(
+            !details
+                .runtime_hints
+                .contains_key("lance.hnsw.prefetch_distance")
+        );
+        // skip_transpose is recorded even when false.
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.runtime_hints.get("lance.skip_transpose"),
+            Some(&"false".to_string())
+        );
+
+        // Roundtrip: apply hints back to a fresh params struct
+        let mut restored = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::default(),
+            PQBuildParams {
+                num_sub_vectors: 8,
+                num_bits: 8,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        apply_runtime_hints(&details.runtime_hints, &mut restored);
+        let StageParams::Ivf(ivf) = &restored.stages[0] else {
+            panic!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(ivf.max_iters, 100);
+        assert_eq!(ivf.sample_rate, 512);
+        assert_eq!(ivf.shuffle_partition_batches, 2048);
+        assert_eq!(ivf.shuffle_partition_concurrency, 4);
+        let StageParams::PQ(pq) = &restored.stages[1] else {
+            panic!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(pq.max_iters, 75);
+        assert_eq!(pq.sample_rate, 128);
+        assert_eq!(pq.kmeans_redos, 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_runtime_hints_roundtrip_hnsw_sq_skip_transpose() {
+        use crate::index::vector::{StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
+        use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::ivf::builder::IvfBuildParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+        // Non-default values for hints that aren't covered by the IVF+PQ test:
+        // hnsw.prefetch_distance, sq.sample_rate, and the top-level skip_transpose.
+        let hnsw = HnswBuildParams {
+            m: 20,
+            ef_construction: 150,
+            max_level: 6,
+            prefetch_distance: Some(4),
+        };
+        let mut params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::default(),
+            hnsw,
+            SQBuildParams {
+                num_bits: 8,
+                sample_rate: 128,
+            },
+        );
+        params.skip_transpose = true;
+
+        let any = vector_index_details(&params);
+        let details = any.to_msg::<VectorIndexDetails>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.runtime_hints.get("lance.hnsw.prefetch_distance"),
+            Some(&"4".to_string())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.runtime_hints.get("lance.sq.sample_rate"),
+            Some(&"128".to_string())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.runtime_hints.get("lance.skip_transpose"),
+            Some(&"true".to_string())
+        );
+
+        // Roundtrip back into a fresh params struct
+        let mut restored = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::default(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        assert!(!restored.skip_transpose);
+        apply_runtime_hints(&details.runtime_hints, &mut restored);
+
+        assert!(restored.skip_transpose);
+        let StageParams::Hnsw(restored_hnsw) = &restored.stages[1] else {
+            panic!("expected HNSW stage");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(restored_hnsw.prefetch_distance, Some(4));
+        let StageParams::SQ(restored_sq) = &restored.stages[2] else {
+            panic!("expected SQ stage");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(restored_sq.sample_rate, 128);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_runtime_hints_prefetch_distance_none_roundtrip() {
+        use crate::index::vector::{StageParams, VectorIndexParams};
+        use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::ivf::builder::IvfBuildParams;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+        // prefetch_distance = None is distinguishable from "default Some(2)"
+        // via the "none" sentinel — verify it round-trips.
+        let hnsw = HnswBuildParams {
+            m: 16,
+            ef_construction: 100,
+            max_level: 5,
+            prefetch_distance: None,
+        };
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(DistanceType::L2, IvfBuildParams::default(), hnsw);
+
+        let any = vector_index_details(&params);
+        let details = any.to_msg::<VectorIndexDetails>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.runtime_hints.get("lance.hnsw.prefetch_distance"),
+            Some(&"none".to_string())
+        );
+
+        let mut restored = VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::default(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        apply_runtime_hints(&details.runtime_hints, &mut restored);
+        let StageParams::Hnsw(restored_hnsw) = &restored.stages[1] else {
+            panic!("expected HNSW stage");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(restored_hnsw.prefetch_distance, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_runtime_hints_in_json() {
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::ivf::builder::IvfBuildParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams {
+                max_iters: 100,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            PQBuildParams {
+                num_sub_vectors: 8,
+                num_bits: 8,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+        let any = vector_index_details(&params);
+        let json = vector_details_as_json(&any).unwrap();
+        let parsed: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(parsed["runtime_hints"]["lance.ivf.max_iters"], "100");
+    }
+
+    /// Matrix of subindex/quantizer combinations we want to round-trip.
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+    #[allow(clippy::enum_variant_names)]
+    enum Combo {
+        IvfFlat,
+        IvfPq,
+        IvfSq,
+        IvfRqMatrix,
+        IvfRqFast,
+        IvfHnswFlat,
+        IvfHnswPq,
+        IvfHnswSq,
+    }
+
+    fn build_roundtrip_params(combo: Combo, metric: DistanceType) -> VectorIndexParams {
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::bq::{RQBuildParams, RQRotationType};
+        use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::ivf::builder::IvfBuildParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::pq::builder::PQBuildParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
+
+        // Non-default values so the round-trip actually checks preservation
+        // rather than coincidentally matching defaults.
+        let ivf = IvfBuildParams {
+            max_iters: 100,
+            sample_rate: 512,
+            target_partition_size: Some(2048),
+            shuffle_partition_batches: 4096,
+            shuffle_partition_concurrency: 4,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let hnsw = HnswBuildParams {
+            m: 30,
+            ef_construction: 200,
+            max_level: 5,
+            prefetch_distance: Some(2),
+        };
+        let pq = PQBuildParams {
+            num_sub_vectors: 8,
+            num_bits: 8,
+            max_iters: 75,
+            sample_rate: 128,
+            kmeans_redos: 3,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let sq = SQBuildParams {
+            num_bits: 8,
+            sample_rate: 128,
+        };
+
+        match combo {
+            Combo::IvfFlat => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(metric, ivf),
+            Combo::IvfPq => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(metric, ivf, pq),
+            Combo::IvfSq => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(metric, ivf, sq),
+            Combo::IvfRqMatrix => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+                metric,
+                ivf,
+                RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(1, RQRotationType::Matrix),
+            ),
+            Combo::IvfRqFast => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+                metric,
+                ivf,
+                RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(1, RQRotationType::Fast),
+            ),
+            Combo::IvfHnswFlat => VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(metric, ivf, hnsw),
+            Combo::IvfHnswPq => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(metric, ivf, hnsw, pq),
+            Combo::IvfHnswSq => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(metric, ivf, hnsw, sq),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::ivf_flat(Combo::IvfFlat)]
+    #[case::ivf_pq(Combo::IvfPq)]
+    #[case::ivf_sq(Combo::IvfSq)]
+    #[case::ivf_rq_matrix(Combo::IvfRqMatrix)]
+    #[case::ivf_rq_fast(Combo::IvfRqFast)]
+    #[case::ivf_hnsw_flat(Combo::IvfHnswFlat)]
+    #[case::ivf_hnsw_pq(Combo::IvfHnswPq)]
+    #[case::ivf_hnsw_sq(Combo::IvfHnswSq)]
+    fn test_vector_index_details_roundtrip(
+        #[case] combo: Combo,
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine)] metric: DistanceType,
+    ) {
+        use crate::index::vector::StageParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::bq::RQRotationType;
+
+        let params = build_roundtrip_params(combo, metric);
+
+        let any = vector_index_details(&params);
+        let restored = vector_params_from_details(&any)
+            .expect("non-empty details should round-trip to params");
+
+        assert_eq!(restored.metric_type, metric);
+        assert_eq!(restored.index_type(), params.index_type());
+
+        let StageParams::Ivf(ivf) = &restored.stages[0] else {
+            panic!("first stage should be IVF for combo {:?}", combo);
+        };
+        assert_eq!(ivf.max_iters, 100);
+        assert_eq!(ivf.sample_rate, 512);
+        assert_eq!(ivf.target_partition_size, Some(2048));
+        assert_eq!(ivf.shuffle_partition_batches, 4096);
+        assert_eq!(ivf.shuffle_partition_concurrency, 4);
+
+        match combo {
+            Combo::IvfFlat => {
+                assert_eq!(restored.stages.len(), 1);
+            }
+            Combo::IvfPq => {
+                let StageParams::PQ(pq) = &restored.stages[1] else {
+                    panic!("expected PQ stage");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(pq.num_sub_vectors, 8);
+                assert_eq!(pq.num_bits, 8);
+                assert_eq!(pq.max_iters, 75);
+                assert_eq!(pq.sample_rate, 128);
+                assert_eq!(pq.kmeans_redos, 3);
+            }
+            Combo::IvfSq => {
+                let StageParams::SQ(sq) = &restored.stages[1] else {
+                    panic!("expected SQ stage");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(sq.num_bits, 8);
+                assert_eq!(sq.sample_rate, 128);
+            }
+            Combo::IvfRqMatrix | Combo::IvfRqFast => {
+                let StageParams::RQ(rq) = &restored.stages[1] else {
+                    panic!("expected RQ stage");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(rq.num_bits, 1);
+                let expected = match combo {
+                    Combo::IvfRqMatrix => RQRotationType::Matrix,
+                    Combo::IvfRqFast => RQRotationType::Fast,
+                    _ => unreachable!(),
+                };
+                assert_eq!(rq.rotation_type, expected);
+            }
+            Combo::IvfHnswFlat => {
+                let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw) = &restored.stages[1] else {
+                    panic!("expected HNSW stage");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(hnsw.m, 30);
+                assert_eq!(hnsw.ef_construction, 200);
+                assert_eq!(hnsw.max_level, 5);
+            }
+            Combo::IvfHnswPq => {
+                let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw) = &restored.stages[1] else {
+                    panic!("expected HNSW stage");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(hnsw.m, 30);
+                assert_eq!(hnsw.ef_construction, 200);
+                assert_eq!(hnsw.max_level, 5);
+                let StageParams::PQ(pq) = &restored.stages[2] else {
+                    panic!("expected PQ stage");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(pq.num_sub_vectors, 8);
+                assert_eq!(pq.num_bits, 8);
+            }
+            Combo::IvfHnswSq => {
+                let StageParams::Hnsw(hnsw) = &restored.stages[1] else {
+                    panic!("expected HNSW stage");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(hnsw.m, 30);
+                assert_eq!(hnsw.ef_construction, 200);
+                assert_eq!(hnsw.max_level, 5);
+                let StageParams::SQ(sq) = &restored.stages[2] else {
+                    panic!("expected SQ stage");
+                };
+                assert_eq!(sq.num_bits, 8);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_apply_runtime_hints_ignores_unknown_keys() {
+        use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+        use lance_index::vector::ivf::builder::IvfBuildParams;
+        use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+        let hints: HashMap<String, String> = [
+            ("lancedb.accelerator".to_string(), "cuda".to_string()),
+            ("unknown.vendor.key".to_string(), "value".to_string()),
+            ("lance.ivf.max_iters".to_string(), "99".to_string()),
+        ]
+        .into();
+
+        let mut params =
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, IvfBuildParams::default());
+        apply_runtime_hints(&hints, &mut params);
+
+        let StageParams::Ivf(ivf) = &params.stages[0] else {
+            panic!()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(ivf.max_iters, 99);
+        // Unknown keys silently ignored — no panic
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/fixture_test.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/fixture_test.rs
index 3445a3cd5d4..2af020e1df2 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/fixture_test.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/fixture_test.rs
@@ -5,10 +5,10 @@
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
+    use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
     use std::{
         any::Any,
         cell::OnceCell,
-        collections::HashMap,
         sync::{Arc, Mutex},
     };
 
@@ -18,16 +18,16 @@ mod test {
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
     use async_trait::async_trait;
     use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-    use deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
     use lance_core::{cache::LanceCache, utils::tempfile::TempStdFile};
     use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::SubIndexType;
+    use lance_index::{Index, IndexType, vector::Query};
     use lance_index::{metrics::MetricsCollector, vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel};
     use lance_index::{
         metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
         vector::quantizer::{QuantizationType, Quantizer},
     };
-    use lance_index::{vector::Query, Index, IndexType};
     use lance_io::{local::LocalObjectReader, traits::Reader};
     use lance_linalg::{distance::MetricType, kernels::normalize_arrow};
     use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
@@ -35,11 +35,11 @@ mod test {
 
     use super::super::VectorIndex;
     use crate::{
+        Result,
         index::{
             prefilter::{DatasetPreFilter, PreFilter},
             vector::ivf::IVFIndex,
         },
-        Result,
     };
 
     #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
@@ -54,7 +54,8 @@ mod test {
 
     impl DeepSizeOf for ResidualCheckMockIndex {
         fn deep_size_of_children(&self, cx: &mut Context) -> usize {
-            self.assert_query_value.deep_size_of_children(cx) + self.ret_val.get_array_memory_size()
+            self.assert_query_value.deep_size_of_children(cx)
+                + self.ret_val.deep_size_of_children(cx)
         }
     }
 
@@ -70,10 +71,6 @@ mod test {
             self
         }
 
-        fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-            Ok(self)
-        }
-
         async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
             Ok(())
         }
@@ -152,7 +149,7 @@ mod test {
             todo!("this method is for only IVF_HNSW_* index");
         }
 
-        async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<()> {
+        async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()> {
             Ok(())
         }
 
@@ -207,11 +204,11 @@ mod test {
                 assert_query_value: assert_query,
                 ret_val: RecordBatch::new_empty(Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
                     Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
-                    Field::new("_distance", DataType::Float32, false),
+                    Field::new("_distance", DataType::Float32, true),
                 ]))),
             });
             IVFIndex::try_new(
-                &Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                Uuid::new_v4(),
                 ivf,
                 reader.into(),
                 mock_sub_index,
@@ -266,7 +263,9 @@ mod test {
                 refine_factor: None,
                 metric_type: Some(metric),
                 use_index: true,
+                query_parallelism: lance_index::vector::DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
                 dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                approx_mode: Default::default(),
             };
             let idx = make_idx.clone()(expected_query_at_subindex, metric).await;
             let (partition_ids, _) = idx.find_partitions(&q).unwrap();
@@ -278,6 +277,8 @@ mod test {
                 Arc::new(DatasetPreFilter {
                     deleted_ids: None,
                     filtered_ids: None,
+                    deleted_fragments: None,
+                    overlay_block: None,
                     final_mask: Mutex::new(OnceCell::new()),
                 }),
                 &NoOpMetricsCollector,
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/hamming.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/hamming.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3240ab3021b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/hamming.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1304 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Hamming distance clustering for IVF_FLAT indices.
+//!
+//! This module provides functionality to perform pairwise hamming distance
+//! computation and clustering on specific partitions of IVF_FLAT indices.
+//!
+//! A logical IVF_FLAT index may consist of multiple physical segments (e.g.
+//! delta segments created by `optimize_indices` in append mode, or segments
+//! committed by distributed index builds). All segments of one logical index
+//! are assumed to share the same global IVF centroids, so one partition id
+//! refers to the same centroid region in every segment; this is validated and
+//! an error is returned if the centroids differ.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::{Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatchReader};
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::vector::VectorIndex;
+use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatBinQuantizer, FlatIndex};
+use lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
+use lance_index::vector::storage::VectorStore;
+use lance_linalg::distance::{
+    BinaryHashValues, ClusteringResult, cluster_pairwise_result,
+    extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list, pairwise_hamming_distance_binary_parallel,
+    pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel,
+};
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use rand::rng;
+use rand::seq::index::sample;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt, filter_index_segments_by_ids};
+
+use super::ivf::v2::IVFIndex;
+
+/// One opened physical segment of a logical IVF_FLAT binary index.
+struct HashIndexSegment {
+    metadata: IndexMetadata,
+    index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
+}
+
+impl HashIndexSegment {
+    fn ivf_flat_bin(&self) -> &IVFIndex<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer> {
+        self.index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<IVFIndex<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>>()
+            .expect("segment type validated in open_hash_index_segments")
+    }
+}
+
+/// Validate that a column stores fixed-width binary hashes as
+/// `FixedSizeList<UInt8, N>`, where `N` is a positive multiple of 8 bytes.
+fn validate_hash_column(column: &str, data_type: &DataType) -> Result<usize> {
+    match data_type {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, size) if *inner.data_type() == DataType::UInt8 => {
+            if *size <= 0 || !(*size as usize).is_multiple_of(8) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Column '{}' must be FixedSizeList<UInt8, N> where N is a positive \
+                     multiple of 8 bytes, got FixedSizeList<UInt8, {}>",
+                    column, size
+                )));
+            }
+            Ok(*size as usize)
+        }
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(inner, size) => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Column '{}' must be FixedSizeList<UInt8, N> where N is a positive \
+             multiple of 8 bytes, got FixedSizeList<{:?}, {}>",
+            column,
+            inner.data_type(),
+            size
+        ))),
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Column '{}' must be FixedSizeList<UInt8, N> where N is a positive \
+             multiple of 8 bytes, got {:?}",
+            column, data_type
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Validate that every segment of a logical IVF index shares the same global
+/// centroids, so one partition id refers to the same centroid region in each
+/// segment. Fails if any segment has no centroids or diverging centroids.
+fn validate_shared_centroids<'a>(
+    index_name: &str,
+    models: impl IntoIterator<Item = (Uuid, &'a IvfModel)>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    struct Reference<'a> {
+        uuid: Uuid,
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        centroids: &'a FixedSizeListArray,
+    }
+
+    let mut reference: Option<Reference<'a>> = None;
+    for (uuid, model) in models {
+        let centroids = model.centroids_array().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Index '{}' segment {} has no IVF centroids; hamming clustering requires \
+                 segments built from a shared global IVF model",
+                index_name, uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+        match &reference {
+            None => {
+                reference = Some(Reference {
+                    uuid,
+                    num_partitions: model.num_partitions(),
+                    centroids,
+                });
+            }
+            Some(reference) => {
+                if centroids.to_data() != reference.centroids.to_data() {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "Index '{}' segments do not share the same global IVF centroids: \
+                         segment {} ({} partitions) differs from segment {} ({} partitions); \
+                         retrain the index to merge segments before hamming clustering",
+                        index_name,
+                        uuid,
+                        model.num_partitions(),
+                        reference.uuid,
+                        reference.num_partitions
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Open the physical segments of a logical IVF_FLAT binary index.
+///
+/// When `segment_ids` is `None` all segments are opened; otherwise only the
+/// requested segments are opened and every requested id must exist. Validates
+/// that all selected segments index the same fixed-width binary hash column,
+/// are IVF_FLAT indices for binary data, and share the same global centroids.
+async fn open_hash_index_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+    segment_ids: Option<&[Uuid]>,
+) -> Result<Vec<HashIndexSegment>> {
+    let metadatas = dataset.load_indices_by_name(index_name).await?;
+    if metadatas.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Index '{}' not found on dataset",
+            index_name
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let metadatas = match segment_ids {
+        None => metadatas,
+        Some(segment_ids) => {
+            if segment_ids.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Segment selection for index '{}' must not be empty; \
+                     omit index_segments to use all segments",
+                    index_name
+                )));
+            }
+            filter_index_segments_by_ids(index_name, metadatas, segment_ids)?
+        }
+    };
+
+    let fields = metadatas[0].fields.clone();
+    if let Some(mismatched) = metadatas.iter().find(|meta| meta.fields != fields) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Index '{}' segments cover different fields: segment {} covers {:?} \
+             while segment {} covers {:?}",
+            index_name, metadatas[0].uuid, fields, mismatched.uuid, mismatched.fields
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let field_id = fields
+        .first()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("Index '{}' has no fields", index_name)))?;
+    let schema = dataset.schema();
+    let field = schema.field_by_id(*field_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Field with id {} not found in schema for index '{}'",
+            field_id, index_name
+        ))
+    })?;
+    validate_hash_column(&field.name, &field.data_type())?;
+
+    let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(metadatas.len());
+    for metadata in metadatas {
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_vector_index(&field.name, &metadata.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await?;
+        if index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<IVFIndex<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>>()
+            .is_none()
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Index '{}' segment {} is not an IVF_FLAT index for binary data",
+                index_name, metadata.uuid
+            )));
+        }
+        segments.push(HashIndexSegment { metadata, index });
+    }
+
+    validate_shared_centroids(
+        index_name,
+        segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| (segment.metadata.uuid, segment.ivf_flat_bin().ivf_model())),
+    )?;
+
+    Ok(segments)
+}
+
+async fn hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_impl(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+    segment_ids: Option<&[Uuid]>,
+    partition_id: usize,
+    hamming_threshold: u32,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>> {
+    let segments = open_hash_index_segments(dataset, index_name, segment_ids).await?;
+
+    // All segments share centroids, so the partition count is uniform.
+    let num_partitions = segments[0].ivf_flat_bin().ivf_model().num_partitions();
+    if partition_id >= num_partitions {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Partition ID {} is out of range (0..{})",
+            partition_id, num_partitions
+        )));
+    }
+
+    // Concatenate the partition's row ids and hashes across segments; identical
+    // hashes land in the same partition of every segment, so one pairwise pass
+    // over the union finds cross-segment duplicates.
+    let mut all_row_ids: Vec<u64> = Vec::new();
+    let mut hash_chunks = Vec::new();
+    let mut num_hashes = 0;
+    for segment in &segments {
+        let storage = segment
+            .ivf_flat_bin()
+            .load_partition_storage(partition_id, None)
+            .await?;
+        all_row_ids.extend(storage.row_ids().copied());
+        for batch in storage.to_batches()? {
+            let vectors = batch
+                .column_by_name(FLAT_COLUMN)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!("Column '{}' not found in storage", FLAT_COLUMN))
+                })?
+                .as_fixed_size_list();
+            let hashes = extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list(vectors)?;
+            num_hashes += hashes.len();
+            hash_chunks.push(hashes);
+        }
+        if all_row_ids.len() != num_hashes {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "Index '{}' segment {} partition {}: row id count {} does not match hash count {}",
+                index_name,
+                segment.metadata.uuid,
+                partition_id,
+                all_row_ids.len(),
+                num_hashes
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    if all_row_ids.is_empty() {
+        let empty = ClusteringResult {
+            clusters: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        return Ok(empty.into_reader(None));
+    }
+    let all_hashes = BinaryHashValues::concat(&hash_chunks)?;
+
+    // Compute pairwise hamming distances with threshold filtering
+    let pairwise_result = pairwise_hamming_distance_binary_parallel(
+        &all_hashes,
+        Some(&all_row_ids),
+        Some(hamming_threshold),
+    );
+
+    // Cluster the results
+    let clustering = cluster_pairwise_result(&pairwise_result);
+
+    Ok(clustering.into_reader(None))
+}
+
+/// Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on a partition of an IVF_FLAT index.
+///
+/// This function loads a specific partition from every segment of an IVF_FLAT
+/// index on a hash column, computes pairwise hamming distances between all
+/// hashes in the combined partition, filters by threshold, and clusters the
+/// results using union-find. See [`hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_segments`]
+/// to restrict the computation to selected segments.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `dataset` - The Lance dataset
+/// * `index_name` - Name of the IVF_FLAT index on the hash column
+/// * `partition_id` - The partition ID within the IVF_FLAT index
+/// * `hamming_threshold` - Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// A `RecordBatchReader` yielding batches with columns:
+/// - `representative`: UInt64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+/// - `duplicates`: `List<UInt64>` - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns an error if:
+/// - The index doesn't exist or is not an IVF_FLAT index
+/// - The indexed column has wrong type (must be `FixedSizeList<UInt8, N>` where
+///   `N` is a positive multiple of 8 bytes)
+/// - The index segments do not share the same global IVF centroids
+/// - The partition ID is out of range
+pub async fn hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+    partition_id: usize,
+    hamming_threshold: u32,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>> {
+    hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_impl(
+        dataset,
+        index_name,
+        None,
+        partition_id,
+        hamming_threshold,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on a partition of selected
+/// segments of an IVF_FLAT index.
+///
+/// Same as [`hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition`] but only the requested
+/// physical segments contribute rows. Segment ids are the index UUIDs reported
+/// by index descriptions; every requested id must belong to the named index and
+/// the selection must not be empty.
+pub async fn hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+    segment_ids: &[Uuid],
+    partition_id: usize,
+    hamming_threshold: u32,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>> {
+    hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_impl(
+        dataset,
+        index_name,
+        Some(segment_ids),
+        partition_id,
+        hamming_threshold,
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+async fn get_ivf_partition_info_impl(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+    segment_ids: Option<&[Uuid]>,
+) -> Result<Vec<PartitionInfo>> {
+    let segments = open_hash_index_segments(dataset, index_name, segment_ids).await?;
+
+    let num_partitions = segments[0].ivf_flat_bin().ivf_model().num_partitions();
+    let mut partition_infos: Vec<PartitionInfo> = (0..num_partitions)
+        .map(|partition_id| PartitionInfo {
+            partition_id,
+            size: 0,
+        })
+        .collect();
+    for segment in &segments {
+        // Sizes come from the partition storage; the IVF model of a v3 index
+        // file does not carry partition lengths.
+        let index = segment.ivf_flat_bin();
+        for info in partition_infos.iter_mut() {
+            info.size += index.partition_size(info.partition_id);
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(partition_infos)
+}
+
+/// Get partition statistics for an IVF_FLAT index.
+///
+/// Partition sizes are aggregated across all segments of the logical index.
+/// See [`get_ivf_partition_info_segments`] to restrict the statistics to
+/// selected segments.
+pub async fn get_ivf_partition_info(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<PartitionInfo>> {
+    get_ivf_partition_info_impl(dataset, index_name, None).await
+}
+
+/// Get partition statistics for selected segments of an IVF_FLAT index.
+///
+/// Same as [`get_ivf_partition_info`] but only the requested physical segments
+/// contribute to the partition sizes.
+pub async fn get_ivf_partition_info_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    index_name: &str,
+    segment_ids: &[Uuid],
+) -> Result<Vec<PartitionInfo>> {
+    get_ivf_partition_info_impl(dataset, index_name, Some(segment_ids)).await
+}
+
+/// Information about an IVF partition.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PartitionInfo {
+    pub partition_id: usize,
+    pub size: usize,
+}
+
+/// Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on sampled rows from a dataset.
+///
+/// This function samples N rows randomly from the dataset, extracts hashes,
+/// computes pairwise hamming distances, and clusters the results.
+/// It's useful for benchmarking and testing without requiring an IVF index.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `dataset` - The Lance dataset
+/// * `column` - Name of the hash column (must be `FixedSizeList<UInt8, N>`
+///   where `N` is a positive multiple of 8 bytes)
+/// * `sample_size` - Number of rows to sample (if None or >= total rows, uses all rows)
+/// * `hamming_threshold` - Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// A `RecordBatchReader` yielding batches with columns:
+/// - `representative`: UInt64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+/// - `duplicates`: `List<UInt64>` - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+pub async fn hamming_clustering_for_sample(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    sample_size: Option<usize>,
+    hamming_threshold: u32,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>> {
+    // Validate column exists and has correct type
+    let schema = dataset.schema();
+    let field = schema.field(column).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!("Column '{}' not found in dataset schema", column))
+    })?;
+    validate_hash_column(column, &field.data_type())?;
+
+    // Get total row count
+    let total_rows: usize = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|f| f.metadata().physical_rows)
+        .sum();
+
+    let use_sampling = sample_size.is_some_and(|s| s < total_rows);
+    let effective_sample = sample_size.unwrap_or(total_rows).min(total_rows);
+
+    // Read data
+    let (hashes, row_ids) = if use_sampling {
+        // Random sample using take() with _rowid (take uses positional indices)
+        let indices: Vec<u64> = sample(&mut rng(), total_rows, effective_sample)
+            .iter()
+            .map(|i| i as u64)
+            .collect();
+
+        let batch = dataset
+            .take(
+                &indices,
+                crate::dataset::ProjectionRequest::from_columns(
+                    [column, "_rowid"],
+                    dataset.schema(),
+                ),
+            )
+            .await?;
+
+        let rowid_col = batch.column_by_name("_rowid").ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("_rowid column not found in take result".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let row_ids = rowid_col.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let row_id_vec: Vec<u64> = row_ids.values().to_vec();
+
+        let hash_col = batch.column_by_name(column).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Column '{}' not found in result", column))
+        })?;
+        let hashes_arr = hash_col.as_fixed_size_list();
+        let hashes = extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list(hashes_arr)?;
+
+        (hashes, row_id_vec)
+    } else {
+        // Full scan
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&[column])?
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await?;
+
+        let rowid_col = batch.column_by_name("_rowid").ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("_rowid column not found in scan result".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let row_ids = rowid_col.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let row_id_vec: Vec<u64> = row_ids.values().to_vec();
+
+        let hash_col = batch.column_by_name(column).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("Column '{}' not found in result", column))
+        })?;
+        let hashes_arr = hash_col.as_fixed_size_list();
+        let hashes = extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list(hashes_arr)?;
+
+        (hashes, row_id_vec)
+    };
+
+    if hashes.len() < 2 {
+        let empty = ClusteringResult {
+            clusters: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        return Ok(empty.into_reader(None));
+    }
+
+    // Compute pairwise hamming distances
+    let pairwise =
+        pairwise_hamming_distance_binary_parallel(&hashes, Some(&row_ids), Some(hamming_threshold));
+
+    // Cluster edges
+    let clustering = cluster_pairwise_result(&pairwise);
+
+    Ok(clustering.into_reader(None))
+}
+
+/// Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on a contiguous range of rows from a fragment.
+///
+/// This function reads a contiguous range of rows from a specific fragment,
+/// extracts hashes, computes pairwise hamming distances, and clusters the results.
+/// Unlike sampling, this reads sequential rows which is useful for distributed
+/// processing where each worker handles a specific range of a fragment.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `dataset` - The Lance dataset
+/// * `column` - Name of the hash column (must be `FixedSizeList<UInt8, N>`
+///   where `N` is a positive multiple of 8 bytes)
+/// * `fragment_id` - The fragment ID to read from
+/// * `start_row` - The starting row offset within the fragment
+/// * `num_rows` - Number of rows to read from the start position
+/// * `hamming_threshold` - Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// A `RecordBatchReader` yielding batches with columns:
+/// - `representative`: UInt64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+/// - `duplicates`: `List<UInt64>` - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns an error if:
+/// - The fragment doesn't exist
+/// - The column has wrong type (must be `FixedSizeList<UInt8, N>` where `N`
+///   is a positive multiple of 8 bytes)
+/// - The row range is out of bounds
+pub async fn hamming_clustering_for_range(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    fragment_id: usize,
+    start_row: usize,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    hamming_threshold: u32,
+) -> Result<Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>> {
+    // Validate column exists and has correct type
+    let schema = dataset.schema();
+    let field = schema.field(column).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!("Column '{}' not found in dataset schema", column))
+    })?;
+    validate_hash_column(column, &field.data_type())?;
+
+    // Get the fragment
+    let fragment = dataset.get_fragment(fragment_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!("Fragment with ID {} not found", fragment_id))
+    })?;
+
+    // Get fragment metadata for physical row count
+    let fragment_meta = fragment.metadata().clone();
+    let physical_rows = fragment_meta
+        .physical_rows
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input("Fragment has no physical_rows metadata"))?;
+
+    // Validate the range
+    if start_row >= physical_rows {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "start_row {} is out of range for fragment with {} physical rows",
+            start_row, physical_rows
+        )));
+    }
+
+    // Adjust num_rows if it exceeds available rows
+    let effective_num_rows = num_rows.min(physical_rows - start_row);
+
+    if effective_num_rows == 0 {
+        let empty = ClusteringResult {
+            clusters: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        return Ok(empty.into_reader(None));
+    }
+
+    // Use scanner with the specific fragment and limit/offset
+    let batch = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .with_fragments(vec![fragment_meta])
+        .project(&[column])?
+        .with_row_id()
+        .limit(Some(effective_num_rows as i64), Some(start_row as i64))?
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await?;
+
+    // Extract row IDs
+    let rowid_col = batch.column_by_name("_rowid").ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input("_rowid column not found in scan result".to_string())
+    })?;
+    let row_ids = rowid_col.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let row_id_vec: Vec<u64> = row_ids.values().to_vec();
+
+    // Extract hashes
+    let hash_col = batch
+        .column_by_name(column)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input(format!("Column '{}' not found in result", column)))?;
+    let hashes_arr = hash_col.as_fixed_size_list();
+    let hashes = extract_binary_hashes_from_fixed_list(hashes_arr)?;
+
+    if hashes.len() < 2 {
+        let empty = ClusteringResult {
+            clusters: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        return Ok(empty.into_reader(None));
+    }
+
+    // Compute pairwise hamming distances
+    let pairwise = pairwise_hamming_distance_binary_parallel(
+        &hashes,
+        Some(&row_id_vec),
+        Some(hamming_threshold),
+    );
+
+    // Cluster edges
+    let clustering = cluster_pairwise_result(&pairwise);
+
+    Ok(clustering.into_reader(None))
+}
+
+/// Perform pairwise hamming distance clustering on provided hashes (no I/O).
+///
+/// This is useful for benchmarking the pure compute performance without I/O.
+/// Logs timing information via tracing.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `hashes` - Vector of 64-bit hash values
+/// * `row_ids` - Optional row IDs (defaults to indices if None)
+/// * `hamming_threshold` - Maximum hamming distance to consider as similar
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// A `RecordBatchReader` yielding batches with columns:
+/// - `representative`: UInt64 - The representative row ID for each cluster
+/// - `duplicates`: `List<UInt64>` - List of duplicate row IDs in each cluster
+pub fn hamming_clustering_from_hashes(
+    hashes: &[u64],
+    row_ids: Option<&[u64]>,
+    hamming_threshold: u32,
+) -> Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send> {
+    let num_rows = hashes.len();
+    if num_rows < 2 {
+        let empty = ClusteringResult {
+            clusters: Vec::new(),
+        };
+        return empty.into_reader(None);
+    }
+
+    let total_pairs = (num_rows as u64) * (num_rows as u64 - 1) / 2;
+
+    // Compute pairwise hamming distances
+    let t_compute_start = Instant::now();
+    let pairwise = pairwise_hamming_distance_parallel(hashes, row_ids, Some(hamming_threshold));
+    let compute_time = t_compute_start.elapsed();
+
+    // Cluster edges
+    let t_cluster_start = Instant::now();
+    let clustering = cluster_pairwise_result(&pairwise);
+    let cluster_time = t_cluster_start.elapsed();
+
+    // Log timing info
+    let pairs_per_sec = if compute_time.as_secs_f64() > 0.0 {
+        total_pairs as f64 / compute_time.as_secs_f64()
+    } else {
+        0.0
+    };
+    tracing::info!(
+        num_rows,
+        total_pairs,
+        edges = pairwise.len(),
+        compute_time_ms = compute_time.as_millis(),
+        cluster_time_ms = cluster_time.as_millis(),
+        pairs_per_sec_millions = pairs_per_sec / 1_000_000.0,
+        num_clusters = clustering.num_clusters(),
+        num_duplicates = clustering.num_duplicates(),
+        "Hamming clustering completed"
+    );
+
+    clustering.into_reader(None)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::Array;
+
+    /// Helper to collect all clusters from a reader.
+    fn collect_clusters(reader: Box<dyn RecordBatchReader + Send>) -> Vec<(u64, Vec<u64>)> {
+        let mut clusters = Vec::new();
+        for batch in reader {
+            let batch = batch.unwrap();
+            let reps = batch
+                .column(0)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let dups = batch
+                .column(1)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::ListArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+
+            for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                let rep = reps.value(i);
+                let dup_arr = dups.value(i);
+                let dup_values = dup_arr
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::UInt64Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                let duplicates: Vec<u64> = dup_values.values().to_vec();
+                clusters.push((rep, duplicates));
+            }
+        }
+        clusters
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_hash_column_generic_widths() {
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+
+        fn hash_type(size: i32) -> DataType {
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)), size)
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(validate_hash_column("hash", &hash_type(8)).unwrap(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(validate_hash_column("hash", &hash_type(16)).unwrap(), 16);
+        assert_eq!(validate_hash_column("hash", &hash_type(32)).unwrap(), 32);
+
+        let err = validate_hash_column("hash", &hash_type(12)).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("12"), "{}", err);
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("multiple of 8 bytes"), "{}", err);
+
+        let err = validate_hash_column("hash", &hash_type(4)).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("4"), "{}", err);
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("multiple of 8 bytes"), "{}", err);
+
+        let err = validate_hash_column("hash", &hash_type(-8)).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("-8"), "{}", err);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hamming_clustering_from_hashes_basic() {
+        // Create some test hashes with known distances
+        let hashes = vec![
+            0b0000u64, // hash 0
+            0b0001u64, // hash 1 - distance 1 from hash 0
+            0b0011u64, // hash 2 - distance 1 from hash 1, distance 2 from hash 0
+            0b1111u64, // hash 3 - distance 2 from hash 2, distance 4 from hash 0
+        ];
+
+        let reader = hamming_clustering_from_hashes(&hashes, None, 1);
+        let clusters = collect_clusters(reader);
+
+        // With threshold 1, pairs (0,1) and (1,2) should be connected
+        // This forms one cluster: {0, 1, 2}
+        assert_eq!(clusters.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(clusters[0].1.len(), 2); // 2 duplicates in the cluster
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hamming_clustering_from_hashes_no_clusters() {
+        // All hashes are far apart
+        let hashes = vec![
+            0x0000000000000000u64,
+            0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFu64,
+            0xAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAu64,
+        ];
+
+        let reader = hamming_clustering_from_hashes(&hashes, None, 5);
+        let clusters = collect_clusters(reader);
+
+        // With threshold 5, no pairs should be connected (min distance is 32)
+        assert_eq!(clusters.len(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hamming_clustering_from_hashes_with_row_ids() {
+        let hashes = vec![0b0000u64, 0b0001u64];
+        let row_ids = vec![100u64, 200u64];
+
+        let reader = hamming_clustering_from_hashes(&hashes, Some(&row_ids), 1);
+        let clusters = collect_clusters(reader);
+
+        assert_eq!(clusters.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(clusters[0].0, 100); // representative
+        assert_eq!(clusters[0].1, vec![200]); // duplicates
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition() {
+        use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatchIterator, UInt8Array};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+        use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+        use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+        // Create test data with hash column (FixedSizeList<UInt8, 8>)
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "hash",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                8,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        // Generate hashes with some duplicates (similar hashes)
+        let num_rows = 100;
+        let mut hash_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * 8);
+        for i in 0..num_rows {
+            // Create groups of similar hashes
+            let base = (i / 10) as u64; // 10 groups
+            let variation = (i % 10) as u64;
+            let hash = base.wrapping_mul(0x123456789) ^ variation;
+            hash_bytes.extend_from_slice(&hash.to_le_bytes());
+        }
+        let values = UInt8Array::from(hash_bytes);
+        let hash_array =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 8).expect("create hash array");
+
+        let batch =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(hash_array)]).unwrap();
+
+        // Write dataset
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Create IVF_FLAT index with 4 partitions
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(4);
+        let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+            lance_linalg::distance::MetricType::Hamming,
+            ivf_params,
+        );
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["hash"],
+                crate::index::IndexType::Vector,
+                None,
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Load and test
+        let dataset = crate::Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let index_name = &indices[0].name;
+
+        // Test clustering on partition 0
+        let reader = hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(&dataset, index_name, 0, 10)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let clusters = collect_clusters(reader);
+
+        // Verify we get valid results (may or may not have clusters depending on data distribution)
+        // At minimum, verify no panics and valid schema
+        for (rep, dups) in &clusters {
+            assert!(*rep < num_rows as u64 * 10); // row IDs should be reasonable
+            for dup in dups {
+                assert!(*dup < num_rows as u64 * 10);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_invalid_index() {
+        use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatchIterator, UInt8Array};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+        use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "hash",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                8,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let values = UInt8Array::from(vec![0u8; 80]); // 10 rows * 8 bytes
+        let hash_array = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 8).unwrap();
+        let batch =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(hash_array)]).unwrap();
+
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Test with non-existent index
+        let result = hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(&dataset, "nonexistent", 0, 10).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let err = result.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("not found"), "Error: {}", err);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_validate_shared_centroids() {
+        use arrow_array::UInt8Array;
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+        fn model_from_bytes(bytes: Vec<u8>) -> IvfModel {
+            let centroids =
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(bytes), 8).unwrap();
+            IvfModel::new(centroids, None)
+        }
+
+        let uuid_a = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let uuid_b = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let model_a = model_from_bytes(vec![0u8; 16]);
+        let model_b = model_from_bytes(vec![0u8; 16]);
+        validate_shared_centroids("idx", [(uuid_a, &model_a), (uuid_b, &model_b)]).unwrap();
+
+        let mut diverged = vec![0u8; 16];
+        diverged[0] = 1;
+        let model_c = model_from_bytes(diverged);
+        let err =
+            validate_shared_centroids("idx", [(uuid_a, &model_a), (uuid_b, &model_c)]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("do not share the same global IVF centroids"),
+            "{}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains(&uuid_b.to_string()), "{}", err);
+
+        let model_d = model_from_bytes(vec![0u8; 24]);
+        let err =
+            validate_shared_centroids("idx", [(uuid_a, &model_a), (uuid_b, &model_d)]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("2 partitions"), "{}", err);
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("3 partitions"), "{}", err);
+
+        let err = validate_shared_centroids("idx", [(uuid_a, &IvfModel::empty())]).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("has no IVF centroids"), "{}", err);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_multi_segment_128_bit() {
+        use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatchIterator, UInt8Array};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+        use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+        use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+        use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+        const HASH_BYTES: i32 = 16;
+
+        fn hash_batch(schema: Arc<Schema>, values: &[u64]) -> arrow_array::RecordBatch {
+            let mut bytes = Vec::with_capacity(values.len() * HASH_BYTES as usize);
+            for value in values {
+                bytes.extend_from_slice(&value.to_le_bytes());
+                let high = value.rotate_left(17) ^ 0xA5A5_A5A5_A5A5_A5A5;
+                bytes.extend_from_slice(&high.to_le_bytes());
+            }
+            let array =
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from(bytes), HASH_BYTES)
+                    .unwrap();
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(array)]).unwrap()
+        }
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "hash",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                HASH_BYTES,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        // 25 distinct hash values, two copies each; the same batch is written to
+        // fragment 0 and appended as fragment 1, so every value has duplicates
+        // in both fragments.
+        let values: Vec<u64> = (0..50)
+            .map(|i| ((i / 2) as u64).wrapping_mul(0x9E3779B97F4A7C15))
+            .collect();
+        let num_values = 25;
+
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(hash_batch(schema.clone(), &values))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let mut dataset = crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+            lance_linalg::distance::MetricType::Hamming,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(4),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["hash"],
+                crate::index::IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("hash_idx".into()),
+                &params,
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(hash_batch(schema.clone(), &values))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let segments = dataset.load_indices_by_name("hash_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            segments.len(),
+            2,
+            "expected a delta segment after optimize append"
+        );
+
+        // Partition sizes aggregate across both segments.
+        let infos = get_ivf_partition_info(&dataset, "hash_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(infos.len(), 4);
+        assert_eq!(infos.iter().map(|info| info.size).sum::<usize>(), 100);
+
+        // Clustering each partition with threshold 0 must group all four copies
+        // of every value, including the copies in the appended fragment.
+        const FRAG1_START: u64 = 1 << 32;
+        let mut clusters = Vec::new();
+        for partition_id in 0..4 {
+            let reader =
+                hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition(&dataset, "hash_idx", partition_id, 0)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            clusters.extend(collect_clusters(reader));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(clusters.len(), num_values);
+        for (representative, duplicates) in &clusters {
+            assert_eq!(duplicates.len(), 3);
+            assert!(*representative < FRAG1_START);
+            assert!(
+                duplicates.iter().any(|row_id| *row_id >= FRAG1_START),
+                "cluster {} should contain rows from the appended fragment",
+                representative
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Selecting only the original segment reproduces the single-segment scope.
+        let first_segment = segments
+            .iter()
+            .find(|meta| meta.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().contains(0))
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut old_clusters = Vec::new();
+        for partition_id in 0..4 {
+            let reader = hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_segments(
+                &dataset,
+                "hash_idx",
+                &[first_segment.uuid],
+                partition_id,
+                0,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            old_clusters.extend(collect_clusters(reader));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(old_clusters.len(), num_values);
+        for (representative, duplicates) in &old_clusters {
+            assert_eq!(duplicates.len(), 1);
+            assert!(*representative < FRAG1_START);
+            assert!(duplicates.iter().all(|row_id| *row_id < FRAG1_START));
+        }
+        let infos = get_ivf_partition_info_segments(&dataset, "hash_idx", &[first_segment.uuid])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(infos.iter().map(|info| info.size).sum::<usize>(), 50);
+
+        // Invalid segment selections are rejected.
+        let err = hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_segments(&dataset, "hash_idx", &[], 0, 0)
+            .await
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("must not be empty"), "{}", err);
+        let missing = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let err =
+            hamming_clustering_for_ivf_partition_segments(&dataset, "hash_idx", &[missing], 0, 0)
+                .await
+                .err()
+                .unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains(&missing.to_string()), "{}", err);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hamming_clustering_for_sample_integration() {
+        use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatchIterator, UInt8Array};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+        use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "hash",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                8,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        // Create 50 rows with some duplicate hashes
+        let num_rows = 50;
+        let mut hash_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * 8);
+        for i in 0..num_rows {
+            // Create some identical hashes (groups of 5)
+            let hash = (i / 5) as u64;
+            hash_bytes.extend_from_slice(&hash.to_le_bytes());
+        }
+        let values = UInt8Array::from(hash_bytes);
+        let hash_array = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 8).unwrap();
+        let batch =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(hash_array)]).unwrap();
+
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = crate::Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Test full scan (no sampling)
+        let reader = hamming_clustering_for_sample(&dataset, "hash", None, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let clusters = collect_clusters(reader);
+
+        // With threshold 0 (exact match) and groups of 5 identical hashes,
+        // we should have 10 clusters with 4 duplicates each
+        assert_eq!(clusters.len(), 10);
+        for (_, dups) in &clusters {
+            assert_eq!(dups.len(), 4);
+        }
+
+        // Test with sampling
+        let reader = hamming_clustering_for_sample(&dataset, "hash", Some(20), 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let clusters = collect_clusters(reader);
+        // With sampling, we may get fewer clusters
+        assert!(clusters.len() <= 10);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hamming_clustering_for_range_integration() {
+        use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatchIterator, UInt8Array};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+        use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "hash",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                8,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        // Create 50 rows with some duplicate hashes (groups of 5 identical hashes)
+        let num_rows = 50;
+        let mut hash_bytes = Vec::with_capacity(num_rows * 8);
+        for i in 0..num_rows {
+            let hash = (i / 5) as u64;
+            hash_bytes.extend_from_slice(&hash.to_le_bytes());
+        }
+        let values = UInt8Array::from(hash_bytes);
+        let hash_array = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 8).unwrap();
+        let batch =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(hash_array)]).unwrap();
+
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = crate::Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Get fragment info
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+        let fragment_id = fragments[0].id() as usize;
+
+        // Test reading range from the fragment
+        // Reading rows 0-25 should cover groups 0-4 (5 groups, each with 5 rows)
+        let reader = hamming_clustering_for_range(&dataset, "hash", fragment_id, 0, 25, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let clusters = collect_clusters(reader);
+
+        // With threshold 0 and 25 rows (groups 0-4), we should have 5 clusters
+        // Each cluster has 4 duplicates (5 identical hashes - 1 representative = 4 duplicates)
+        assert_eq!(clusters.len(), 5);
+        for (_, dups) in &clusters {
+            assert_eq!(dups.len(), 4);
+        }
+
+        // Test reading a different range (rows 25-50)
+        let reader = hamming_clustering_for_range(&dataset, "hash", fragment_id, 25, 25, 0)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let clusters = collect_clusters(reader);
+
+        // Should have 5 clusters (groups 5-9)
+        assert_eq!(clusters.len(), 5);
+        for (_, dups) in &clusters {
+            assert_eq!(dups.len(), 4);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hamming_clustering_for_range_invalid_fragment() {
+        use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatchIterator, UInt8Array};
+        use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+        use std::sync::Arc;
+        use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "hash",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", arrow_schema::DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                8,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let values = UInt8Array::from(vec![0u8; 80]); // 10 rows * 8 bytes
+        let hash_array = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 8).unwrap();
+        let batch =
+            arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(hash_array)]).unwrap();
+
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().unwrap();
+        let uri = temp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        crate::Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = crate::Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Test with non-existent fragment
+        let result = hamming_clustering_for_range(&dataset, "hash", 999, 0, 10, 0).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let err = result.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("not found"), "Error: {}", err);
+
+        // Test with out-of-range start_row
+        let result = hamming_clustering_for_range(&dataset, "hash", 0, 1000, 10, 0).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+        let err = result.err().unwrap();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("out of range"), "Error: {}", err);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf.rs
index c14cdeada81..a7b5aa3cd40 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf.rs
@@ -3,105 +3,143 @@
 
 //! IVF - Inverted File index.
 
-use super::{builder::IvfIndexBuilder, utils::PartitionLoadLock};
+use super::details::target_partition_size_from_details;
 use super::{
-    pq::{build_pq_model, PQIndex},
-    utils::maybe_sample_training_data,
+    LogicalIvfView, derive_hnsw_params,
+    pq::{PQIndex, build_pq_model},
+    utils::{filter_finite_training_data, maybe_sample_training_data},
 };
-use crate::index::vector::utils::{get_vector_dim, get_vector_type};
+use super::{
+    builder::{ExistingIndex, IvfIndexBuilder, index_type_string},
+    utils::PartitionLoadLock,
+};
+use crate::dataset::index::dataset_format_version;
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
-use crate::{dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder, index::vector::IndexFileVersion};
+use crate::index::vector::open_index_file;
+use crate::index::vector::utils::{get_vector_dim, get_vector_type};
 use crate::{
     dataset::Dataset,
-    index::{pb, prefilter::PreFilter, vector::ivf::io::write_pq_partitions, INDEX_FILE_NAME},
+    index::{
+        INDEX_FILE_NAME, pb,
+        prefilter::PreFilter,
+        vector::ivf::io::{write_pq_partition_payload, write_pq_partitions},
+    },
 };
+use crate::{dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder, index::vector::IndexFileVersion};
+use arrow::array::ArrayData;
+use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
 use arrow::datatypes::UInt8Type;
 use arrow_arith::numeric::sub;
 use arrow_array::Float32Array;
 use arrow_array::{
+    Array, ArrayRef, BooleanArray, FixedSizeListArray, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array,
     cast::AsArray,
     types::{ArrowPrimitiveType, Float16Type, Float32Type, Float64Type},
-    Array, FixedSizeListArray, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array,
 };
+use arrow_buffer::MutableBuffer;
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema};
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use futures::TryFutureExt;
 use futures::{
-    stream::{self, StreamExt},
     Stream, TryStreamExt,
+    stream::{self, StreamExt},
 };
 use io::write_hnsw_quantization_index_partitions;
 use lance_arrow::*;
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
 use lance_core::{
-    cache::{LanceCache, UnsizedCacheKey, WeakLanceCache},
+    Error, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result,
+    cache::{CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache, UnsizedCacheKey, WeakLanceCache},
     traits::DatasetTakeRows,
+    utils::parse::parse_env_as_bool,
     utils::tracing::{IO_TYPE_LOAD_VECTOR_PART, TRACE_IO_EVENTS},
-    Error, Result, ROW_ID_FIELD,
 };
+use lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression;
 use lance_file::{
     format::MAGIC,
-    previous::writer::{
-        FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter, FileWriterOptions as PreviousFileWriterOptions,
-    },
     reader::{FileReader as V2Reader, FileReaderOptions as V2ReaderOptions},
+    versions as file_versions,
+    versions::v1::writer::{FileWriter as V1FileWriter, FileWriterOptions as V1FileWriterOptions},
     writer::{FileWriter as V2Writer, FileWriterOptions as V2WriterOptions},
 };
 use lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector;
 use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::prefilter::NoFilter;
+use lance_index::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_index::vector::DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY;
 use lance_index::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
-use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatBinQuantizer, FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer};
-use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HNSW_METADATA_KEY;
+use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatBinQuantizer, FlatIndex, FlatMetadata, FlatQuantizer};
+use lance_index::vector::flat::storage::{FLAT_COLUMN, FlatBinStorage, FlatFloatStorage};
 use lance_index::vector::hnsw::HnswMetadata;
-use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::{IvfModel, IVF_METADATA_KEY};
-use lance_index::vector::kmeans::KMeansParams;
-use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::transpose;
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HNSW_METADATA_KEY;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IVF_METADATA_KEY;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
+use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{KMeans, KMeansParams};
+use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::{
+    PQ_METADATA_KEY, ProductQuantizationMetadata, ProductQuantizationStorage, transpose,
+};
 use lance_index::vector::quantizer::QuantizationType;
-use lance_index::vector::utils::is_finite;
-use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffler::IvfShuffler;
+use lance_index::vector::storage::STORAGE_METADATA_KEY;
+use lance_index::vector::v3::shuffler::create_ivf_shuffler;
 use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::{IvfSubIndex, SubIndexType};
-use lance_index::vector::DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY;
 use lance_index::{
+    INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, Index, IndexMetadata, IndexType,
+    MAX_PARTITION_SIZE_FACTOR, MIN_PARTITION_SIZE_PERCENT,
     optimize::OptimizeOptions,
     vector::{
-        hnsw::{builder::HnswBuildParams, HNSWIndex, HNSW},
+        Query, VectorIndex,
+        hnsw::{HNSW, HNSWIndex, builder::HnswBuildParams},
         ivf::{
-            builder::load_precomputed_partitions, shuffler::shuffle_dataset,
-            storage::IVF_PARTITION_KEY, IvfBuildParams,
+            IvfBuildParams, builder::load_precomputed_partitions, shuffler::shuffle_dataset,
+            storage::IVF_PARTITION_KEY,
         },
         pq::{PQBuildParams, ProductQuantizer},
-        quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizationMetadata, Quantizer},
-        sq::ScalarQuantizer,
-        Query, VectorIndex,
+        quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizationMetadata, Quantizer, QuantizerStorage},
+        sq::{
+            ScalarQuantizer,
+            storage::{SQ_METADATA_KEY, ScalarQuantizationMetadata, ScalarQuantizationStorage},
+        },
     },
-    Index, IndexMetadata, IndexType, INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
 };
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
 use lance_io::{
-    encodings::plain::PlainEncoder,
+    ReadBatchParams,
     local::to_local_path,
     object_store::ObjectStore,
-    object_writer::ObjectWriter,
     stream::RecordBatchStream,
     traits::{Reader, WriteExt, Writer},
 };
-use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, MetricType, L2};
-use lance_linalg::{distance::Normalize, kernels::normalize_fsl};
+use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, Dot, L2, MetricType};
+use lance_linalg::{distance::Normalize, kernels::normalize_fsl_owned};
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use lance_table::format::{IndexFile, IndexMetadata as TableIndexMetadata};
 use log::{info, warn};
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
+use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use serde::Serialize;
 use serde_json::json;
-use snafu::location;
-use std::collections::HashSet;
-use std::{any::Any, collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use std::{
+    any::Any,
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    future::Future,
+    ops::Range,
+    pin::Pin,
+    sync::{Arc, OnceLock},
+};
+use tokio::sync::mpsc;
 use tracing::instrument;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
 pub mod builder;
 pub mod io;
+mod partition_serde;
 pub mod v2;
 
 // Cache wrapper for vector index trait objects
@@ -123,12 +161,24 @@ impl UnsizedCacheKey for LegacyIVFPartitionKey {
     fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
         format!("ivf-{}", self.partition_id).into()
     }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "LegacyIVFPartition"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.legacy-ivf-partition-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.partition_id as u64);
+    }
 }
 
 /// IVF Index.
 /// WARNING: Internal API with no stability guarantees.
 pub struct IVFIndex {
-    uuid: String,
+    uuid: Uuid,
 
     /// Ivf model
     pub ivf: IvfModel,
@@ -143,20 +193,27 @@ pub struct IVFIndex {
     pub metric_type: MetricType,
 
     index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
+    partition_rows: Vec<OnceLock<Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>>>,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for IVFIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
-        self.uuid.deep_size_of_children(context)
-            + self.reader.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // `Uuid` is a fixed 16-byte struct with no heap children, so contributes 0.
+        self.reader.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.sub_index.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .partition_rows
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(OnceLock::get)
+                .map(|rows| rows.deep_size_of_children(context))
+                .sum::<usize>()
     }
 }
 
 impl IVFIndex {
     /// Create a new IVF index.
     pub(crate) fn try_new(
-        uuid: &str,
+        uuid: Uuid,
         ivf: IvfModel,
         reader: Arc<dyn Reader>,
         sub_index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
@@ -164,24 +221,61 @@ impl IVFIndex {
         index_cache: LanceCache,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         if !sub_index.is_loadable() {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("IVF sub index must be loadable, got: {:?}", sub_index),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "IVF sub index must be loadable, got: {:?}",
+                sub_index
+            )));
         }
 
         let num_partitions = ivf.num_partitions();
         Ok(Self {
-            uuid: uuid.to_owned(),
+            uuid,
             ivf,
             reader,
             sub_index,
             metric_type,
             partition_locks: PartitionLoadLock::new(num_partitions),
             index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(&index_cache),
+            partition_rows: (0..num_partitions).map(|_| OnceLock::new()).collect(),
         })
     }
 
+    fn cache_partition_rows(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        partition: &dyn VectorIndex,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>> {
+        let rows = self.partition_rows.get(partition_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "partition id {partition_id} is out of range of {} partitions",
+                self.ivf.num_partitions()
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok(rows
+            .get_or_init(|| Arc::new(partition.row_ids().collect()))
+            .clone())
+    }
+
+    fn prefilter_for_partition(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        partition: &dyn VectorIndex,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn PreFilter>> {
+        if pre_filter.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(NoFilter));
+        }
+        if !pre_filter.needs_partition_row_ids() {
+            return Ok(pre_filter);
+        }
+        let rows = self.cache_partition_rows(partition_id, partition)?;
+        if pre_filter.is_empty_for(rows.as_ref()) {
+            Ok(Arc::new(NoFilter))
+        } else {
+            Ok(pre_filter)
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Load one partition of the IVF sub-index.
     ///
     /// Internal API with no stability guarantees.
@@ -213,14 +307,11 @@ impl IVFIndex {
                 part_idx
             } else {
                 if partition_id >= self.ivf.num_partitions() {
-                    return Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "partition id {} is out of range of {} partitions",
-                            partition_id,
-                            self.ivf.num_partitions()
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "partition id {} is out of range of {} partitions",
+                        partition_id,
+                        self.ivf.num_partitions()
+                    )));
                 }
 
                 let range = self.ivf.row_range(partition_id);
@@ -267,134 +358,454 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for IVFIndex {
     }
 }
 
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+struct SegmentRebalanceCandidate {
+    segment_id: Uuid,
+    score: usize,
+    created_at_ms: i64,
+}
+
+fn candidate_is_better(
+    candidate: SegmentRebalanceCandidate,
+    current_best: Option<SegmentRebalanceCandidate>,
+) -> bool {
+    match current_best {
+        None => true,
+        Some(current_best) => {
+            candidate.score > current_best.score
+                || (candidate.score == current_best.score
+                    && (candidate.created_at_ms, candidate.segment_id.as_bytes())
+                        < (
+                            current_best.created_at_ms,
+                            current_best.segment_id.as_bytes(),
+                        ))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn index_type_for_segmented_optimize(index: &dyn VectorIndex) -> Result<IndexType> {
+    let (sub_index_type, quantization_type) = index.sub_index_type();
+    IndexType::try_from(index_type_string(sub_index_type, quantization_type).as_str())
+}
+
+/// What a steady-state optimize (no new rows) should do to a logical IVF index.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum SteadyStateRebalance {
+    /// Rewrite this one segment alone: it holds oversized partitions.
+    Segment(Uuid),
+    /// Merge every segment: some partitions are undersized across the whole
+    /// logical index, which only a merge can repair.
+    MergeAll,
+}
+
+/// Pick the steady-state rebalance for a logical IVF index.
+///
+/// Splits are decided per segment, since an oversized partition lives in one
+/// segment's file. Joins are decided on the partition sizes summed over all
+/// segments: a delta segment's partitions are small on their own but normal
+/// once merged with the base segment, so joining them per segment would
+/// collapse every delta into a handful of partitions. That merge needs the
+/// segments to share one model, so segments with different centroids (whose
+/// partition ids do not even correspond) are never joined.
+pub(crate) fn select_steady_state_rebalance(
+    logical_index: &LogicalIvfView<'_>,
+    compatibility: VectorSegmentCompatibility,
+) -> Result<Option<SteadyStateRebalance>> {
+    let mut best_split = None;
+    let mut summed_sizes: Vec<usize> = Vec::new();
+    let mut join_threshold = None;
+
+    for (metadata, index) in logical_index.segments() {
+        let index_type = index_type_for_segmented_optimize(index.as_ref())?;
+        let target_partition_size = metadata
+            .index_details
+            .as_deref()
+            .and_then(target_partition_size_from_details)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| index_type.target_partition_size());
+        let split_threshold = MAX_PARTITION_SIZE_FACTOR * target_partition_size;
+        // The builder derives its thresholds from the first segment's target.
+        join_threshold.get_or_insert(MIN_PARTITION_SIZE_PERCENT * target_partition_size / 100);
+        let num_partitions = index.ivf_model().num_partitions();
+        if num_partitions == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        if summed_sizes.len() < num_partitions {
+            summed_sizes.resize(num_partitions, 0);
+        }
+
+        let mut split_partition_count = 0usize;
+        for (partition_id, summed_size) in summed_sizes.iter_mut().enumerate().take(num_partitions)
+        {
+            let partition_size = index.partition_size(partition_id);
+            *summed_size += partition_size;
+            if partition_size > split_threshold {
+                split_partition_count += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let created_at_ms = metadata
+            .created_at
+            .map(|dt| dt.timestamp_millis())
+            .unwrap_or(i64::MIN);
+
+        let split_candidate = (split_partition_count > 0).then_some(SegmentRebalanceCandidate {
+            segment_id: metadata.uuid,
+            score: split_partition_count,
+            created_at_ms,
+        });
+        if let Some(candidate) = split_candidate
+            && candidate_is_better(candidate, best_split)
+        {
+            best_split = Some(candidate);
+        }
+    }
+
+    if let Some(candidate) = best_split {
+        return Ok(Some(SteadyStateRebalance::Segment(candidate.segment_id)));
+    }
+    if compatibility != VectorSegmentCompatibility::SharedModel {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let Some(join_threshold) = join_threshold else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    let has_join_candidate =
+        summed_sizes.len() > 1 && summed_sizes.iter().any(|&size| size < join_threshold);
+    Ok(has_join_candidate.then_some(SteadyStateRebalance::MergeAll))
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum VectorSegmentCompatibility {
+    SharedModel,
+    QueryCompatibleModelsDiffer,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum VectorModelMismatch {
+    StorageFormat,
+    IvfCentroids,
+    QuantizerMetadata,
+}
+
+fn vector_index_dimension(index: &dyn VectorIndex) -> usize {
+    let ivf_dimension = index.ivf_model().dimension();
+    if ivf_dimension != 0 {
+        return ivf_dimension;
+    }
+
+    match index.quantizer() {
+        Quantizer::Flat(quantizer) => quantizer.metadata(None).dim,
+        Quantizer::FlatBin(quantizer) => quantizer.metadata(None).dim,
+        Quantizer::Product(quantizer) => quantizer.dimension,
+        Quantizer::Scalar(quantizer) => quantizer.metadata(None).dim,
+        Quantizer::Rabit(quantizer) => quantizer.metadata(None).rotated_dim(),
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn validate_vector_query_compatibility(
+    indices: &[Arc<dyn VectorIndex>],
+    operation: &str,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let Some(first) = indices.first() else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+
+    let first_metric = first.metric_type();
+    let first_dimension = vector_index_dimension(first.as_ref());
+    let first_index_type = first.sub_index_type();
+    let first_quantizer = first.quantizer();
+    let first_quantizer_type = first_quantizer.quantization_type();
+
+    for (idx, index) in indices.iter().enumerate().skip(1) {
+        if index.metric_type() != first_metric {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "{operation}: vector index segment {idx} has metric {:?}, expected {:?}",
+                index.metric_type(),
+                first_metric
+            )));
+        }
+        let dimension = vector_index_dimension(index.as_ref());
+        if dimension != first_dimension {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "{operation}: vector index segment {idx} has dimension {dimension}, expected {first_dimension}"
+            )));
+        }
+        let index_type = index.sub_index_type();
+        if std::mem::discriminant(&index_type.0) != std::mem::discriminant(&first_index_type.0)
+            || index_type.1 != first_index_type.1
+        {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "{operation}: vector index segment {idx} has type {:?}, expected {:?}",
+                index_type, first_index_type
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let quantizer = index.quantizer();
+        if quantizer.quantization_type() != first_quantizer_type {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "{operation}: vector index segment {idx} has quantizer {:?}, expected {:?}",
+                quantizer.quantization_type(),
+                first_quantizer_type
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn vector_model_mismatch(indices: &[Arc<dyn VectorIndex>]) -> Option<VectorModelMismatch> {
+    let first = indices.first()?;
+    let first_centroids = first.ivf_model().centroids_array();
+    let first_quantizer = first.quantizer();
+
+    for index in indices.iter().skip(1) {
+        if first.as_any().type_id() != index.as_any().type_id() {
+            return Some(VectorModelMismatch::StorageFormat);
+        }
+        match (first_centroids, index.ivf_model().centroids_array()) {
+            (Some(expected), Some(actual)) if expected.to_data() != actual.to_data() => {
+                return Some(VectorModelMismatch::IvfCentroids);
+            }
+            (Some(_), None) | (None, Some(_)) => {
+                return Some(VectorModelMismatch::IvfCentroids);
+            }
+            _ => {}
+        }
+
+        if !shared_quantizer_model(&first_quantizer, &index.quantizer()) {
+            return Some(VectorModelMismatch::QuantizerMetadata);
+        }
+    }
+
+    None
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn vector_segment_compatibility(
+    logical_index: &LogicalIvfView<'_>,
+    operation: &str,
+) -> Result<VectorSegmentCompatibility> {
+    let indices = logical_index.indices().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    validate_vector_query_compatibility(&indices, operation)?;
+    Ok(if vector_model_mismatch(&indices).is_none() {
+        VectorSegmentCompatibility::SharedModel
+    } else {
+        VectorSegmentCompatibility::QueryCompatibleModelsDiffer
+    })
+}
+
+fn validate_shared_vector_model(indices: &[Arc<dyn VectorIndex>], operation: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    validate_vector_query_compatibility(indices, operation)?;
+    match vector_model_mismatch(indices) {
+        Some(VectorModelMismatch::StorageFormat) => Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "{operation}: vector index segments do not share a storage format"
+        ))),
+        Some(VectorModelMismatch::IvfCentroids) => Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "{operation}: vector index segments do not share IVF centroids"
+        ))),
+        Some(VectorModelMismatch::QuantizerMetadata) => Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "{operation}: vector index segments do not share quantizer metadata"
+        ))),
+        None => Ok(()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn shared_quantizer_model(left: &Quantizer, right: &Quantizer) -> bool {
+    match (left, right) {
+        (Quantizer::Flat(left), Quantizer::Flat(right)) => {
+            left.metadata(None).dim == right.metadata(None).dim
+        }
+        (Quantizer::FlatBin(left), Quantizer::FlatBin(right)) => {
+            left.metadata(None).dim == right.metadata(None).dim
+        }
+        (Quantizer::Product(left), Quantizer::Product(right)) => {
+            left.num_sub_vectors == right.num_sub_vectors
+                && left.num_bits == right.num_bits
+                && left.dimension == right.dimension
+                && left.distance_type == right.distance_type
+                && left.codebook.to_data() == right.codebook.to_data()
+        }
+        (Quantizer::Scalar(left), Quantizer::Scalar(right)) => {
+            left.metadata(None) == right.metadata(None)
+        }
+        (Quantizer::Rabit(left), Quantizer::Rabit(right)) => {
+            let left = left.metadata(None);
+            let right = right.metadata(None);
+            left.rotation_type == right.rotation_type
+                && left.code_dim == right.code_dim
+                && left.num_bits == right.num_bits
+                && left.packed == right.packed
+                && left.query_estimator == right.query_estimator
+                && left.fast_rotation_signs == right.fast_rotation_signs
+                && match (&left.rotate_mat, &right.rotate_mat) {
+                    (Some(left), Some(right)) => left.to_data() == right.to_data(),
+                    (None, None) => true,
+                    _ => false,
+                }
+        }
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Pair every segment with the coverage that decides which of its rows this optimize
+/// pass may still copy into the new index.
+///
+/// A segment that predates fragment bitmaps has unknown coverage, so it keeps every
+/// row it holds. Turning coverage into a filter is deferred to the first partition
+/// that actually reads the segment, because under stable row ids it costs a row-id
+/// sequence load per covered fragment and most passes only append a delta.
+fn existing_index_sources(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    logical_index: &LogicalIvfView<'_>,
+) -> Vec<ExistingIndex> {
+    logical_index
+        .segments()
+        .map(|(metadata, index)| {
+            let (Some(effective), Some(deleted)) = (
+                metadata.effective_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap),
+                metadata.deleted_fragment_bitmap(&dataset.fragment_bitmap),
+            ) else {
+                return ExistingIndex::unfiltered(index.clone());
+            };
+            ExistingIndex::with_coverage(index.clone(), dataset.clone(), effective, deleted)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
 // TODO: move to `lance-index` crate.
 ///
-/// Returns (new_uuid, num_indices_merged)
+/// Returns (new_uuid, num_indices_merged, files)
 pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices(
     dataset: Dataset,
     unindexed: Option<impl RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>,
     vector_column: &str,
-    existing_indices: &[Arc<dyn Index>],
+    logical_index: &LogicalIvfView<'_>,
     options: &OptimizeOptions,
-) -> Result<(Uuid, usize)> {
+) -> Result<(Uuid, usize, Vec<IndexFile>)> {
+    let existing_indices = logical_index.indices().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>();
     // Sanity check the indices
     if existing_indices.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "optimizing vector index: no existing index found".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "optimizing vector index: no existing index found".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
+    validate_shared_vector_model(&existing_indices, "optimizing vector index")?;
 
     // try cast to v1 IVFIndex,
     // fallback to v2 IVFIndex if it's not v1 IVFIndex
     if !existing_indices[0].as_any().is::<IVFIndex>() {
+        let sources = existing_index_sources(&dataset, logical_index);
+        let target_partition_size = logical_index
+            .segments()
+            .next()
+            .and_then(|(metadata, _)| metadata.index_details.as_deref())
+            .and_then(target_partition_size_from_details);
         return optimize_vector_indices_v2(
             &dataset,
             unindexed,
             vector_column,
-            existing_indices,
+            &sources,
             options,
+            target_partition_size,
         )
         .await;
     }
 
     let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
-    let object_store = dataset.object_store();
+    let object_store = dataset.object_store.as_ref();
     let index_file = dataset
         .indices_dir()
-        .child(new_uuid.to_string())
-        .child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+        .join(new_uuid.to_string())
+        .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
     let writer = object_store.create(&index_file).await?;
 
     let first_idx = existing_indices[0]
         .as_any()
         .downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>()
-        .ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "optimizing vector index: the first index isn't IVF".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
-
-    let merged = if let Some(pq_index) = first_idx.sub_index.as_any().downcast_ref::<PQIndex>() {
-        optimize_ivf_pq_indices(
-            first_idx,
-            pq_index,
-            vector_column,
-            unindexed,
-            existing_indices,
-            options,
-            writer,
-            dataset.version().version,
-        )
-        .await?
-    } else if let Some(hnsw_sq) = first_idx
-        .sub_index
-        .as_any()
-        .downcast_ref::<HNSWIndex<ScalarQuantizer>>()
-    {
-        let aux_file = dataset
-            .indices_dir()
-            .child(new_uuid.to_string())
-            .child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let aux_writer = object_store.create(&aux_file).await?;
-        optimize_ivf_hnsw_indices(
-            Arc::new(dataset),
-            first_idx,
-            hnsw_sq,
-            vector_column,
-            unindexed,
-            existing_indices,
-            options,
-            writer,
-            aux_writer,
-        )
-        .await?
-    } else {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "optimizing vector index: the sub index isn't PQ or HNSW".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
-    };
+        .ok_or(Error::index(
+            "optimizing vector index: the first index isn't IVF".to_string(),
+        ))?;
+
+    let (merged, files) =
+        if let Some(pq_index) = first_idx.sub_index.as_any().downcast_ref::<PQIndex>() {
+            let (merged, file) = optimize_ivf_pq_indices(
+                first_idx,
+                pq_index,
+                vector_column,
+                unindexed,
+                &existing_indices,
+                options,
+                writer,
+                dataset.version().version,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            (merged, vec![file])
+        } else if let Some(hnsw_sq) = first_idx
+            .sub_index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<HNSWIndex<ScalarQuantizer>>()
+        {
+            let aux_file = dataset
+                .indices_dir()
+                .join(new_uuid.to_string())
+                .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+            let aux_writer = object_store.create(&aux_file).await?;
+            optimize_ivf_hnsw_indices(
+                Arc::new(dataset),
+                first_idx,
+                hnsw_sq,
+                vector_column,
+                unindexed,
+                &existing_indices,
+                options,
+                writer,
+                aux_writer,
+            )
+            .await?
+        } else {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "optimizing vector index: the sub index isn't PQ or HNSW".to_string(),
+            ));
+        };
 
     // never change the index version,
     // because we won't update the legacy vector index format
-    Ok((new_uuid, merged))
+    Ok((new_uuid, merged, files))
 }
 
 pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices_v2(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     unindexed: Option<impl RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>,
     vector_column: &str,
-    existing_indices: &[Arc<dyn Index>],
+    existing_indices: &[ExistingIndex],
     options: &OptimizeOptions,
-) -> Result<(Uuid, usize)> {
+    target_partition_size: Option<usize>,
+) -> Result<(Uuid, usize, Vec<IndexFile>)> {
     // Sanity check the indices
     if existing_indices.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "optimizing vector index: no existing index found".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "optimizing vector index: no existing index found".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
-    let existing_indices = existing_indices
-        .iter()
-        .cloned()
-        .map(|idx| idx.as_vector_index())
-        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    let existing_indices = existing_indices.to_vec();
 
     let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
-    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().child(new_uuid.to_string());
-    let ivf_model = existing_indices[0].ivf_model();
-    let quantizer = existing_indices[0].quantizer();
-    let distance_type = existing_indices[0].metric_type();
+    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(new_uuid.to_string());
+    let reference_index = &existing_indices[0].index;
+    let ivf_model = reference_index.ivf_model();
+    let quantizer = reference_index.quantizer();
+    let distance_type = reference_index.metric_type();
     let num_partitions = ivf_model.num_partitions();
-    let index_type = existing_indices[0].sub_index_type();
+    let index_type = reference_index.sub_index_type();
     let frag_reuse_index = dataset.open_frag_reuse_index(&NoOpMetricsCollector).await?;
 
+    let format_version = dataset_format_version(dataset);
+
     let temp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir::default();
     let temp_dir_path = Path::from_filesystem_path(&temp_dir)?;
-    let shuffler = Box::new(IvfShuffler::new(temp_dir_path, num_partitions));
+    let shuffler = create_ivf_shuffler(temp_dir_path, num_partitions, format_version, None);
 
     let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), vector_column)?;
-    let merged_num = match index_type {
+    let summary = match index_type {
         // IVF_FLAT
         (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat) => {
             if element_type == DataType::UInt8 {
@@ -410,9 +821,10 @@ pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices_v2(
                 )?
                 .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
                 .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-                .with_existing_indices(existing_indices.clone())
-                .shuffle_data(unindexed)
-                .await?
+                .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+                .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+                .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+                .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
                 .build()
                 .await?
             } else {
@@ -428,16 +840,17 @@ pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices_v2(
                 )?
                 .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
                 .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-                .with_existing_indices(existing_indices.clone())
-                .shuffle_data(unindexed)
-                .await?
+                .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+                .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+                .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+                .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
                 .build()
                 .await?
             }
         }
-        // IVF_PQ
-        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+        // IVF_FLAT (binary vectors)
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::FlatBin) => {
+            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 vector_column.to_owned(),
                 index_dir,
@@ -449,15 +862,16 @@ pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices_v2(
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
             .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-            .with_existing_indices(existing_indices.clone())
-            .shuffle_data(unindexed)
-            .await?
+            .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+            .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+            .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+            .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
             .build()
             .await?
         }
-        // IVF_SQ
-        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Scalar) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+        // IVF_PQ
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product) => {
+            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 vector_column.to_owned(),
                 index_dir,
@@ -469,14 +883,16 @@ pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices_v2(
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
             .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-            .with_existing_indices(existing_indices.clone())
-            .shuffle_data(unindexed)
-            .await?
+            .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+            .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+            .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+            .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
             .build()
             .await?
         }
-        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Rabit) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+        // IVF_SQ
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Scalar) => {
+            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 vector_column.to_owned(),
                 index_dir,
@@ -488,32 +904,75 @@ pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices_v2(
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
             .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-            .with_existing_indices(existing_indices.clone())
-            .shuffle_data(unindexed)
-            .await?
+            .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+            .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+            .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+            .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
             .build()
             .await?
         }
-        // IVF_HNSW_FLAT
-        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Flat) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Rabit) => {
+            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new_incremental(
                 dataset.clone(),
                 vector_column.to_owned(),
                 index_dir,
                 distance_type,
                 shuffler,
-                HnswBuildParams::default(),
+                (),
                 frag_reuse_index,
                 options.clone(),
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
             .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-            .with_existing_indices(existing_indices.clone())
-            .shuffle_data(unindexed)
-            .await?
+            .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+            .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+            .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+            .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
             .build()
             .await?
         }
+        // IVF_HNSW_FLAT
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Flat) => {
+            if element_type == DataType::UInt8 {
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatBinQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+                    dataset.clone(),
+                    vector_column.to_owned(),
+                    index_dir,
+                    distance_type,
+                    shuffler,
+                    derive_hnsw_params(reference_index.as_ref()),
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                    options.clone(),
+                )?
+                .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
+                .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+                .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+                .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+                .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+                .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
+                .build()
+                .await?
+            } else {
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new_incremental(
+                    dataset.clone(),
+                    vector_column.to_owned(),
+                    index_dir,
+                    distance_type,
+                    shuffler,
+                    derive_hnsw_params(reference_index.as_ref()),
+                    frag_reuse_index,
+                    options.clone(),
+                )?
+                .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
+                .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
+                .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+                .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+                .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+                .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
+                .build()
+                .await?
+            }
+        }
         // IVF_HNSW_SQ
         (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Scalar) => {
             IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::new_incremental(
@@ -522,15 +981,16 @@ pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices_v2(
                 index_dir,
                 distance_type,
                 shuffler,
-                HnswBuildParams::default(),
+                derive_hnsw_params(reference_index.as_ref()),
                 frag_reuse_index,
                 options.clone(),
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
             .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-            .with_existing_indices(existing_indices.clone())
-            .shuffle_data(unindexed)
-            .await?
+            .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+            .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+            .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+            .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
             .build()
             .await?
         }
@@ -542,15 +1002,16 @@ pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices_v2(
                 index_dir,
                 distance_type,
                 shuffler,
-                HnswBuildParams::default(),
+                derive_hnsw_params(reference_index.as_ref()),
                 frag_reuse_index,
                 options.clone(),
             )?
             .with_ivf(ivf_model.clone())
             .with_quantizer(quantizer.try_into()?)
-            .with_existing_indices(existing_indices.clone())
-            .shuffle_data(unindexed)
-            .await?
+            .with_existing_index_sources(existing_indices.clone())
+            .with_progress(options.progress.clone())
+            .with_target_partition_size(target_partition_size)
+            .shuffle_data_input(unindexed)
             .build()
             .await?
         }
@@ -563,7 +1024,7 @@ pub(crate) async fn optimize_vector_indices_v2(
         }
     };
 
-    Ok((new_uuid, merged_num))
+    Ok((new_uuid, summary.indices_merged, summary.files))
 }
 
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
@@ -572,11 +1033,11 @@ async fn optimize_ivf_pq_indices(
     pq_index: &PQIndex,
     vector_column: &str,
     unindexed: Option<impl RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>,
-    existing_indices: &[Arc<dyn Index>],
+    existing_indices: &[Arc<dyn VectorIndex>],
     options: &OptimizeOptions,
-    mut writer: ObjectWriter,
+    mut writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
     dataset_version: u64,
-) -> Result<usize> {
+) -> Result<(usize, IndexFile)> {
     let metric_type = first_idx.metric_type;
     let dim = first_idx.ivf.dimension();
 
@@ -615,13 +1076,18 @@ async fn optimize_ivf_pq_indices(
     let indices_to_merge = existing_indices[start_pos..]
         .iter()
         .map(|idx| {
-            idx.as_any().downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>().ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "optimizing vector index: it is not a IVF index".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            idx.as_any().downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>().ok_or(Error::index(
+                "optimizing vector index: it is not a IVF index".to_string(),
+            ))
         })
         .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-    write_pq_partitions(&mut writer, &mut ivf_mut, shuffled, Some(&indices_to_merge)).await?;
+    write_pq_partitions(
+        writer.as_mut(),
+        &mut ivf_mut,
+        shuffled,
+        Some(&indices_to_merge),
+    )
+    .await?;
     let metadata = IvfPQIndexMetadata {
         name: format!("_{}_idx", vector_column),
         column: vector_column.to_string(),
@@ -638,9 +1104,16 @@ async fn optimize_ivf_pq_indices(
     // TODO: for now the IVF_PQ index file format hasn't been updated, so keep the old version,
     // change it to latest version value after refactoring the IVF_PQ
     writer.write_magics(pos, 0, 1, MAGIC).await?;
-    writer.shutdown().await?;
-
-    Ok(existing_indices.len() - start_pos)
+    let size_bytes = writer.tell().await? as u64;
+    Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await?;
+
+    Ok((
+        existing_indices.len() - start_pos,
+        IndexFile {
+            path: INDEX_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+            size_bytes,
+        },
+    ))
 }
 
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
@@ -650,11 +1123,11 @@ async fn optimize_ivf_hnsw_indices<Q: Quantization>(
     hnsw_index: &HNSWIndex<Q>,
     vector_column: &str,
     unindexed: Option<impl RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static>,
-    existing_indices: &[Arc<dyn Index>],
+    existing_indices: &[Arc<dyn VectorIndex>],
     options: &OptimizeOptions,
-    writer: ObjectWriter,
-    aux_writer: ObjectWriter,
-) -> Result<usize> {
+    writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
+    aux_writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
+) -> Result<(usize, Vec<IndexFile>)> {
     let distance_type = first_idx.metric_type;
     let quantizer = hnsw_index.quantizer().clone();
     let ivf = lance_index::vector::ivf::new_ivf_transformer_with_quantizer(
@@ -694,20 +1167,16 @@ async fn optimize_ivf_hnsw_indices<Q: Quantization>(
     let indices_to_merge = existing_indices[start_pos..]
         .iter()
         .map(|idx| {
-            idx.as_any().downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>().ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "optimizing vector index: it is not a IVF index".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            idx.as_any().downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>().ok_or(Error::index(
+                "optimizing vector index: it is not a IVF index".to_string(),
+            ))
         })
         .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
 
     // Prepare the HNSW writer
     let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(HNSW::schema().as_ref())?;
-    let mut writer = PreviousFileWriter::with_object_writer(
-        writer,
-        schema,
-        &PreviousFileWriterOptions::default(),
-    )?;
+    let mut writer =
+        V1FileWriter::with_object_writer(writer, schema, &V1FileWriterOptions::default())?;
     writer.add_metadata(
         INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
         json!(IndexMetadata {
@@ -731,11 +1200,8 @@ async fn optimize_ivf_hnsw_indices<Q: Quantization>(
         ),
     ]);
     let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&schema)?;
-    let mut aux_writer = PreviousFileWriter::with_object_writer(
-        aux_writer,
-        schema,
-        &PreviousFileWriterOptions::default(),
-    )?;
+    let mut aux_writer =
+        V1FileWriter::with_object_writer(aux_writer, schema, &V1FileWriterOptions::default())?;
     aux_writer.add_metadata(
         INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
         json!(IndexMetadata {
@@ -792,13 +1258,26 @@ async fn optimize_ivf_hnsw_indices<Q: Quantization>(
     writer.add_metadata(IVF_PARTITION_KEY, &hnsw_metadata_json.to_string());
 
     ivf_mut.write(&mut writer).await?;
-    writer.finish().await?;
+    // `finish` writes the footer and returns the authoritative on-disk size.
+    let index_size = writer.finish().await?.size_bytes;
 
     // Write the aux file
     aux_ivf.write(&mut aux_writer).await?;
-    aux_writer.finish().await?;
-
-    Ok(existing_indices.len() - start_pos)
+    let aux_size = aux_writer.finish().await?.size_bytes;
+
+    Ok((
+        existing_indices.len() - start_pos,
+        vec![
+            IndexFile {
+                path: INDEX_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+                size_bytes: index_size,
+            },
+            IndexFile {
+                path: INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+                size_bytes: aux_size,
+            },
+        ],
+    ))
 }
 
 #[derive(Serialize)]
@@ -815,19 +1294,60 @@ pub struct IvfIndexStatistics {
     num_partitions: usize,
     sub_index: serde_json::Value,
     partitions: Vec<IvfIndexPartitionStatistics>,
-    centroids: Vec<Vec<f32>>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    centroids: Option<Vec<Vec<f32>>>,
     loss: Option<f64>,
     index_file_version: IndexFileVersion,
 }
 
-fn centroids_to_vectors(centroids: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<Vec<Vec<f32>>> {
-    centroids
-        .iter()
-        .map(|v| {
-            if let Some(row) = v {
-                match row.data_type() {
-                    DataType::Float16 => Ok(row
-                        .as_primitive::<Float16Type>()
+/// Environment variable controlling whether vector index statistics include
+/// the centroid vectors. When unset, centroids are still included for
+/// backward compatibility, but a one-time warning is logged. Set to a truthy
+/// value (e.g. `1`, `true`) to keep the current behavior without the warning,
+/// or any other value (e.g. `0`, `false`) to omit centroids from stats.
+pub const LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV: &str = "LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS";
+
+/// Read the centroids for inclusion in index stats, honoring
+/// `LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS`.
+///
+/// - If the env var is set to a truthy value (per `parse_env_as_bool`),
+///   returns the converted centroids.
+/// - If the env var is set to any other value, returns `Ok(None)` without
+///   reading the centroids.
+/// - If unset, returns the converted centroids and logs a one-time
+///   deprecation warning that the default will change in a future release.
+pub(crate) fn maybe_centroids_for_stats(
+    centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
+) -> Result<Option<Vec<Vec<f32>>>> {
+    use std::sync::Once;
+    static WARN_ONCE: Once = Once::new();
+
+    if std::env::var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV).is_err() {
+        WARN_ONCE.call_once(|| {
+            warn!(
+                "Vector index statistics currently include centroids, which can use \
+                 significant memory for large indexes. In a future release, centroids \
+                 will be excluded from statistics by default. Set {}=true to preserve \
+                 the current behavior (and silence this warning), or {}=false to opt \
+                 in to the new behavior now.",
+                LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV, LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV
+            );
+        });
+    }
+    if !parse_env_as_bool(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV, true) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    Ok(Some(centroids_to_vectors(centroids)?))
+}
+
+fn centroids_to_vectors(centroids: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<Vec<Vec<f32>>> {
+    centroids
+        .iter()
+        .map(|v| {
+            if let Some(row) = v {
+                match row.data_type() {
+                    DataType::Float16 => Ok(row
+                        .as_primitive::<Float16Type>()
                         .values()
                         .iter()
                         .map(|v| v.to_f32())
@@ -845,19 +1365,13 @@ fn centroids_to_vectors(centroids: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<Vec<Vec<f32>>>
                         .iter()
                         .map(|v| *v as f32)
                         .collect::<Vec<_>>()),
-                    _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                        message: format!(
-                            "IVF centroids must be FixedSizeList of floating number, got: {}",
-                            row.data_type()
-                        ),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    }),
+                    _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                        "IVF centroids must be FixedSizeList of floating number, got: {}",
+                        row.data_type()
+                    ))),
                 }
             } else {
-                Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: "Invalid centroid".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                Err(Error::index("Invalid centroid".to_string()))
             }
         })
         .collect()
@@ -873,10 +1387,6 @@ impl Index for IVFIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Ok(self)
-    }
-
     fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
         if self.sub_index.as_any().downcast_ref::<PQIndex>().is_some() {
             IndexType::IvfPq
@@ -900,8 +1410,13 @@ impl Index for IVFIndex {
     }
 
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
-        // TODO: We should prewarm the IVF index by loading the partitions into memory
-        Ok(())
+        futures::stream::iter(0..self.ivf.num_partitions())
+            .map(Ok)
+            .try_for_each_concurrent(Some(self.reader.io_parallelism()), |part_id| {
+                self.load_partition(part_id, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                    .map_ok(|_| ())
+            })
+            .await
     }
 
     fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
@@ -911,11 +1426,11 @@ impl Index for IVFIndex {
             })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        let centroid_vecs = centroids_to_vectors(self.ivf.centroids.as_ref().unwrap())?;
+        let centroid_vecs = maybe_centroids_for_stats(self.ivf.centroids.as_ref().unwrap())?;
 
         Ok(serde_json::to_value(IvfIndexStatistics {
             index_type: self.index_type().to_string(),
-            uuid: self.uuid.clone(),
+            uuid: self.uuid.to_string(),
             uri: to_local_path(self.reader.path()),
             metric_type: self.metric_type.to_string(),
             num_partitions: self.ivf.num_partitions(),
@@ -949,7 +1464,9 @@ impl VectorIndex for IVFIndex {
         _pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
         _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        unimplemented!("IVFIndex not currently used as sub-index and top-level indices do partition-aware search")
+        unimplemented!(
+            "IVFIndex not currently used as sub-index and top-level indices do partition-aware search"
+        )
     }
 
     /// find the IVF partitions ids given the query vector.
@@ -977,6 +1494,9 @@ impl VectorIndex for IVFIndex {
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         let part_index = self.load_partition(partition_id, true, metrics).await?;
+        pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+        let pre_filter =
+            self.prefilter_for_partition(partition_id, part_index.as_ref(), pre_filter)?;
 
         let query = self.preprocess_query(partition_id, query)?;
         let batch = part_index.search(&query, pre_filter, metrics).await?;
@@ -1001,10 +1521,7 @@ impl VectorIndex for IVFIndex {
         _offset: usize,
         _length: usize,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Flat index does not support load".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        Err(Error::index("Flat index does not support load".to_string()))
     }
 
     async fn partition_reader(
@@ -1029,17 +1546,23 @@ impl VectorIndex for IVFIndex {
         todo!("this method is for only IVF_HNSW_* index");
     }
 
-    async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<()> {
+    async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()> {
         // This will be needed if we want to clean up IVF to allow more than just
         // one layer (e.g. IVF -> IVF -> PQ).  We need to pass on the call to
         // remap to the lower layers.
 
         // Currently, remapping for IVF is implemented in remap_index_file which
         // mirrors some of the other IVF routines like build_ivf_pq_index
-        Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Remapping IVF in this way not supported".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        Err(Error::index(
+            "Remapping IVF in this way not supported".to_string(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(&mut self, _translator: &RowAddrTranslator) -> Result<()> {
+        // No mapping to materialize: see `remap`.
+        Err(Error::index(
+            "Remapping IVF in this way not supported".to_string(),
+        ))
     }
 
     fn ivf_model(&self) -> &IvfModel {
@@ -1169,26 +1692,22 @@ impl TryFrom<&IvfPQIndexMetadata> for pb::Index {
 
 fn sanity_check_ivf_params(ivf: &IvfBuildParams) -> Result<()> {
     if ivf.precomputed_partitions_file.is_some() && ivf.centroids.is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "precomputed_partitions_file requires centroids to be set".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "precomputed_partitions_file requires centroids to be set".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     if ivf.precomputed_shuffle_buffers.is_some() && ivf.centroids.is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "precomputed_shuffle_buffers requires centroids to be set".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "precomputed_shuffle_buffers requires centroids to be set".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     if ivf.precomputed_shuffle_buffers.is_some() && ivf.precomputed_partitions_file.is_some() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message:
-                "precomputed_shuffle_buffers and precomputed_partitions_file are mutually exclusive"
-                    .to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "precomputed_shuffle_buffers and precomputed_partitions_file are mutually exclusive"
+                .to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     Ok(())
@@ -1197,10 +1716,9 @@ fn sanity_check_ivf_params(ivf: &IvfBuildParams) -> Result<()> {
 fn sanity_check_params(ivf: &IvfBuildParams, pq: &PQBuildParams) -> Result<()> {
     sanity_check_ivf_params(ivf)?;
     if ivf.precomputed_shuffle_buffers.is_some() && pq.codebook.is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "precomputed_shuffle_buffers requires codebooks to be set".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "precomputed_shuffle_buffers requires codebooks to be set".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     Ok(())
@@ -1228,55 +1746,101 @@ pub async fn build_ivf_model(
     dim: usize,
     metric_type: MetricType,
     params: &IvfBuildParams,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+    progress: std::sync::Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
 ) -> Result<IvfModel> {
     let num_partitions = params.num_partitions.unwrap();
     let centroids = params.centroids.clone();
     if let (Some(centroids), false) = (centroids.as_deref(), params.retrain) {
         info!("Pre-computed IVF centroids is provided, skip IVF training");
         if centroids.values().len() != num_partitions * dim {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "IVF centroids length mismatch: {} != {}",
-                    centroids.len(),
-                    num_partitions * dim,
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "IVF centroids length mismatch: {} != {}",
+                centroids.len(),
+                num_partitions * dim,
+            )));
         }
         return Ok(IvfModel::new(centroids.clone(), None));
     }
     let sample_size_hint = num_partitions * params.sample_rate;
 
+    if let Some(streaming_sample_rate) = params.streaming_sample_rate {
+        if streaming_sample_rate == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "streaming_sample_rate must be greater than 0".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if let Some(streaming_coreset_rate) = params.streaming_coreset_rate {
+            if streaming_coreset_rate == 0 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "streaming_coreset_rate must be greater than 0".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            if streaming_coreset_rate > params.sample_rate {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "streaming_coreset_rate ({streaming_coreset_rate}) must be less than or equal to sample_rate ({})",
+                    params.sample_rate
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        if streaming_sample_rate < params.sample_rate {
+            info!(
+                "Start streaming IVF training. Total sample size: {}, per-step sample size: {}",
+                sample_size_hint,
+                num_partitions * streaming_sample_rate
+            );
+            let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+            let ivf = train_streaming_ivf_model(
+                dataset,
+                column,
+                dim,
+                metric_type,
+                params,
+                fragment_ids,
+                progress,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            info!(
+                "Trained streaming IVF model in {:02} seconds",
+                start.elapsed().as_secs_f32()
+            );
+            return Ok(ivf);
+        }
+    }
+
     let start = std::time::Instant::now();
     info!(
         "Loading training data for IVF. Sample size: {}",
         sample_size_hint
     );
-    let training_data = maybe_sample_training_data(dataset, column, sample_size_hint).await?;
+    let training_data =
+        maybe_sample_training_data(dataset, column, sample_size_hint, fragment_ids).await?;
     info!(
         "Finished loading training data in {:02} seconds",
         start.elapsed().as_secs_f32()
     );
     if params.sample_rate >= 1024 && training_data.value_type() == DataType::Float16 {
-        warn!("Large sample_rate ({} >= 1024) for float16 vectors is possible to result in all zeros cluster centroid", params.sample_rate);
+        warn!(
+            "Large sample_rate ({} >= 1024) for float16 vectors is possible to result in all zeros cluster centroid",
+            params.sample_rate
+        );
     }
 
     // If metric type is cosine, normalize the training data, and after this point,
     // treat the metric type as L2.
     let (training_data, mt) = if metric_type == MetricType::Cosine {
-        let training_data = normalize_fsl(&training_data)?;
+        let training_data = normalize_fsl_owned(training_data)?;
         (training_data, MetricType::L2)
     } else {
         (training_data, metric_type)
     };
 
     // we filtered out nulls when sampling, but we still need to filter out NaNs and INFs here
-    let training_data = arrow::compute::filter(&training_data, &is_finite(&training_data))?;
-    let training_data = training_data.as_fixed_size_list();
+    let training_data = filter_finite_training_data(training_data)?;
 
     info!("Start to train IVF model");
     let start = std::time::Instant::now();
-    let ivf = train_ivf_model(centroids, training_data, mt, params).await?;
+    let ivf = train_ivf_model(centroids, &training_data, mt, params, progress).await?;
     info!(
         "Trained IVF model in {:02} seconds",
         start.elapsed().as_secs_f32()
@@ -1290,6 +1854,7 @@ async fn build_ivf_model_and_pq(
     metric_type: MetricType,
     ivf_params: &IvfBuildParams,
     pq_params: &PQBuildParams,
+    progress: std::sync::Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
 ) -> Result<(IvfModel, ProductQuantizer)> {
     sanity_check_params(ivf_params, pq_params)?;
 
@@ -1306,7 +1871,16 @@ async fn build_ivf_model_and_pq(
     get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), column)?;
     let dim = get_vector_dim(dataset.schema(), column)?;
 
-    let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(dataset, column, dim, metric_type, ivf_params).await?;
+    let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(
+        dataset,
+        column,
+        dim,
+        metric_type,
+        ivf_params,
+        None,
+        progress,
+    )
+    .await?;
 
     let ivf_residual = if matches!(metric_type, MetricType::Cosine | MetricType::L2) {
         Some(&ivf_model)
@@ -1349,22 +1923,31 @@ pub async fn load_precomputed_partitions_if_available(
     }
 }
 
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub async fn build_ivf_pq_index(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
     index_name: &str,
-    uuid: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
     metric_type: MetricType,
     ivf_params: &IvfBuildParams,
     pq_params: &PQBuildParams,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    let (ivf_model, pq) =
-        build_ivf_model_and_pq(dataset, column, metric_type, ivf_params, pq_params).await?;
+    progress: std::sync::Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    let (ivf_model, pq) = build_ivf_model_and_pq(
+        dataset,
+        column,
+        metric_type,
+        ivf_params,
+        pq_params,
+        progress,
+    )
+    .await?;
     let stream = scan_index_field_stream(dataset, column).await?;
     let precomputed_partitions = load_precomputed_partitions_if_available(ivf_params).await?;
 
-    write_ivf_pq_file(
-        dataset.object_store(),
+    let file = write_ivf_pq_file(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
         dataset.indices_dir(),
         column,
         index_name,
@@ -1379,7 +1962,8 @@ pub async fn build_ivf_pq_index(
         ivf_params.shuffle_partition_concurrency,
         ivf_params.precomputed_shuffle_buffers.clone(),
     )
-    .await
+    .await?;
+    Ok(vec![file])
 }
 
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
@@ -1387,14 +1971,21 @@ pub async fn build_ivf_hnsw_pq_index(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
     index_name: &str,
-    uuid: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
     metric_type: MetricType,
     ivf_params: &IvfBuildParams,
     hnsw_params: &HnswBuildParams,
     pq_params: &PQBuildParams,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let (ivf_model, pq) =
-        build_ivf_model_and_pq(dataset, column, metric_type, ivf_params, pq_params).await?;
+    let (ivf_model, pq) = build_ivf_model_and_pq(
+        dataset,
+        column,
+        metric_type,
+        ivf_params,
+        pq_params,
+        lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+    )
+    .await?;
     let stream = scan_index_field_stream(dataset, column).await?;
     let precomputed_partitions = load_precomputed_partitions_if_available(ivf_params).await?;
 
@@ -1437,18 +2028,18 @@ impl RemapPageTask {
         mut self,
         reader: Arc<dyn Reader>,
         index: &IVFIndex,
-        mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+        mapping: &RowAddrTranslator,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let mut page = index
             .sub_index
             .load(reader, self.offset, self.length as usize)
             .await?;
-        page.remap(mapping).await?;
+        page.remap_streaming(mapping).await?;
         self.page = Some(page);
         Ok(self)
     }
 
-    async fn write(self, writer: &mut ObjectWriter, ivf: &mut IvfModel) -> Result<()> {
+    async fn write(self, writer: &mut dyn Writer, ivf: &mut IvfModel) -> Result<()> {
         let page = self.page.as_ref().expect("Load was not called");
         let page: &PQIndex = page
             .as_any()
@@ -1462,8 +2053,12 @@ impl RemapPageTask {
             page.pq.code_dim(),
             page.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().len(),
         );
-        PlainEncoder::write(writer, &[&original_pq]).await?;
-        PlainEncoder::write(writer, &[page.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().as_ref()]).await?;
+        write_pq_partition_payload(
+            writer,
+            &[&original_pq],
+            &[page.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().as_ref()],
+        )
+        .await?;
         Ok(())
     }
 }
@@ -1478,87 +2073,143 @@ fn generate_remap_tasks(offsets: &[usize], lengths: &[u32]) -> Result<Vec<RemapP
     Ok(tasks)
 }
 
+/// Runs one specialized builder's remap on the heap.
+///
+/// The eager compaction remap runs under Python's `block_on` on the calling
+/// thread, and in CI (dev-profile wheel, opt-level 0) it overflowed the
+/// Windows main-thread stack. `remap_index_file_v3` dispatches over an 11-arm
+/// match whose arms each await a different monomorphization of
+/// `IvfIndexBuilder::remap_streaming`; without the box the outer future embeds
+/// every specialized builder future, and at opt-level 0 each arm's future is
+/// also materialized as a separate stack temporary while it is polled. Boxing
+/// per arm, in the concrete `Pin<Box<impl Future>>` form (a `dyn Future`
+/// trait object would put a `dyn Send` obligation in front of the solver, see
+/// `DatasetIndexRemapper::remap_indices`), leaves one pointer per arm
+/// on the caller's stack. The builder moves into the heap future too, so the
+/// dispatching future does not hold a builder across the await either.
+fn remap_boxed<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static>(
+    mut builder: IvfIndexBuilder<S, Q>,
+    mapping: &RowAddrTranslator,
+) -> Pin<Box<impl Future<Output = Result<Vec<IndexFile>>> + Send + '_>> {
+    Box::pin(async move { builder.remap_streaming(mapping).await })
+}
+
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub(crate) async fn remap_index_file_v3(
     dataset: &Dataset,
-    new_uuid: &str,
+    new_uuid: &Uuid,
     index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
-    mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+    mapping: &RowAddrTranslator,
     column: String,
-) -> Result<()> {
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
     let dataset = dataset.clone();
-    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().child(new_uuid);
+    let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(new_uuid.to_string());
     let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(dataset.schema(), &column)?;
     match index.sub_index_type() {
         (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat) => match element_type {
             DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float32 | DataType::Float64 => {
-                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new_remapper(
-                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
-                )?
-                .remap(mapping)
+                remap_boxed(
+                    IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                        dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                    )?,
+                    mapping,
+                )
                 .await
             }
             DataType::UInt8 => {
-                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new_remapper(
-                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
-                )?
-                .remap(mapping)
+                remap_boxed(
+                    IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                        dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                    )?,
+                    mapping,
+                )
                 .await
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "the field type {} is not supported for FLAT index",
-                    element_type
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "the field type {} is not supported for FLAT index",
+                element_type
+            ))),
         },
         (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new_remapper(
-                dataset, column, index_dir, index,
-            )?
-            .remap(mapping)
+            remap_boxed(
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                )?,
+                mapping,
+            )
             .await
         }
         (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Scalar) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new_remapper(
-                dataset, column, index_dir, index,
-            )?
-            .remap(mapping)
+            remap_boxed(
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                )?,
+                mapping,
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::FlatBin) => {
+            remap_boxed(
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, FlatBinQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                )?,
+                mapping,
+            )
             .await
         }
         (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Rabit) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new_remapper(
-                dataset, column, index_dir, index,
-            )?
-            .remap(mapping)
+            remap_boxed(
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                )?,
+                mapping,
+            )
             .await
         }
         (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Flat) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new_remapper(dataset, column, index_dir, index)?
-                .remap(mapping)
-                .await
+            remap_boxed(
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                )?,
+                mapping,
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::FlatBin) => {
+            remap_boxed(
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, FlatBinQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                )?,
+                mapping,
+            )
+            .await
         }
         (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Product) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::new_remapper(
-                dataset, column, index_dir, index,
-            )?
-            .remap(mapping)
+            remap_boxed(
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                )?,
+                mapping,
+            )
             .await
         }
 
         (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Scalar) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::new_remapper(
-                dataset, column, index_dir, index,
-            )?
-            .remap(mapping)
+            remap_boxed(
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                )?,
+                mapping,
+            )
             .await
         }
         (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Rabit) => {
-            IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, RabitQuantizer>::new_remapper(
-                dataset, column, index_dir, index,
-            )?
-            .remap(mapping)
+            remap_boxed(
+                IvfIndexBuilder::<HNSW, RabitQuantizer>::new_remapper(
+                    dataset, column, index_dir, index,
+                )?,
+                mapping,
+            )
             .await
         }
     }
@@ -1567,25 +2218,39 @@ pub(crate) async fn remap_index_file_v3(
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub(crate) async fn remap_index_file(
     dataset: &Dataset,
-    old_uuid: &str,
-    new_uuid: &str,
+    old_uuid: &Uuid,
+    new_uuid: &Uuid,
     old_version: u64,
     index: &IVFIndex,
-    mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>,
+    mapping: &RowAddrTranslator,
     name: String,
     column: String,
     transforms: Vec<pb::Transform>,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    let object_store = dataset.object_store();
-    let old_path = dataset.indices_dir().child(old_uuid).child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
-    let new_path = dataset.indices_dir().child(new_uuid).child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+    let object_store = dataset.object_store.as_ref();
+    let old_path = dataset
+        .indices_dir()
+        .join(old_uuid.to_string())
+        .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+    let new_path = dataset
+        .indices_dir()
+        .join(new_uuid.to_string())
+        .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
 
-    let reader: Arc<dyn Reader> = object_store.open(&old_path).await?.into();
+    let file_sizes = dataset
+        .load_index(old_uuid)
+        .await?
+        .map(|index| index.file_size_map())
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+    let reader: Arc<dyn Reader> =
+        open_index_file(object_store, &old_path, INDEX_FILE_NAME, &file_sizes)
+            .await?
+            .into();
     let mut writer = object_store.create(&new_path).await?;
 
     let tasks = generate_remap_tasks(&index.ivf.offsets, &index.ivf.lengths)?;
 
-    let mut task_stream = stream::iter(tasks.into_iter())
+    let mut task_stream = stream::iter(tasks)
         .map(|task| task.load_and_remap(reader.clone(), index, mapping))
         .buffered(object_store.io_parallelism());
 
@@ -1596,17 +2261,14 @@ pub(crate) async fn remap_index_file(
         loss: index.ivf.loss,
     };
     while let Some(write_task) = task_stream.try_next().await? {
-        write_task.write(&mut writer, &mut ivf).await?;
+        write_task.write(writer.as_mut(), &mut ivf).await?;
     }
 
     let pq_sub_index = index
         .sub_index
         .as_any()
         .downcast_ref::<PQIndex>()
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::NotSupported {
-            source: "Remapping a non-pq sub-index".into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::not_supported_source("Remapping a non-pq sub-index".into()))?;
 
     let metadata = IvfPQIndexMetadata {
         name,
@@ -1624,9 +2286,13 @@ pub(crate) async fn remap_index_file(
     // TODO: for now the IVF_PQ index file format hasn't been updated, so keep the old version,
     // change it to latest version value after refactoring the IVF_PQ
     writer.write_magics(pos, 0, 1, MAGIC).await?;
-    writer.shutdown().await?;
+    let size_bytes = writer.tell().await? as u64;
+    Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await?;
 
-    Ok(())
+    Ok(IndexFile {
+        path: INDEX_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+        size_bytes,
+    })
 }
 
 /// Write the index to the index file.
@@ -1637,7 +2303,7 @@ async fn write_ivf_pq_file(
     index_dir: Path,
     column: &str,
     index_name: &str,
-    uuid: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
     dataset_version: u64,
     mut ivf: IvfModel,
     pq: ProductQuantizer,
@@ -1647,14 +2313,17 @@ async fn write_ivf_pq_file(
     shuffle_partition_batches: usize,
     shuffle_partition_concurrency: usize,
     precomputed_shuffle_buffers: Option<(Path, Vec<String>)>,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    let path = index_dir.child(uuid).child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+    let path = index_dir
+        .clone()
+        .join(uuid.to_string())
+        .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
     let mut writer = object_store.create(&path).await?;
 
     let start = std::time::Instant::now();
     let num_partitions = ivf.num_partitions() as u32;
     builder::build_partitions(
-        &mut writer,
+        writer.as_mut(),
         stream,
         column,
         &mut ivf,
@@ -1685,9 +2354,13 @@ async fn write_ivf_pq_file(
     // TODO: for now the IVF_PQ index file format hasn't been updated, so keep the old version,
     // change it to latest version value after refactoring the IVF_PQ
     writer.write_magics(pos, 0, 1, MAGIC).await?;
-    writer.shutdown().await?;
+    let size_bytes = writer.tell().await? as u64;
+    Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await?;
 
-    Ok(())
+    Ok(IndexFile {
+        path: INDEX_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+        size_bytes,
+    })
 }
 
 pub async fn write_ivf_pq_file_from_existing_index(
@@ -1699,13 +2372,13 @@ pub async fn write_ivf_pq_file_from_existing_index(
     pq: ProductQuantizer,
     streams: Vec<impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>>>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let obj_store = dataset.object_store();
+    let obj_store = dataset.object_store.as_ref();
     let path = dataset
         .indices_dir()
-        .child(index_id.to_string())
-        .child("index.idx");
+        .join(index_id.to_string())
+        .join("index.idx");
     let mut writer = obj_store.create(&path).await?;
-    write_pq_partitions(&mut writer, &mut ivf, Some(streams), None).await?;
+    write_pq_partitions(writer.as_mut(), &mut ivf, Some(streams), None).await?;
 
     let metadata = IvfPQIndexMetadata::new(
         index_name.to_string(),
@@ -1720,7 +2393,7 @@ pub async fn write_ivf_pq_file_from_existing_index(
     let metadata = pb::Index::try_from(&metadata)?;
     let pos = writer.write_protobuf(&metadata).await?;
     writer.write_magics(pos, 0, 1, MAGIC).await?;
-    writer.shutdown().await?;
+    Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await?;
 
     Ok(())
 }
@@ -1730,7 +2403,7 @@ async fn write_ivf_hnsw_file(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
     _index_name: &str,
-    uuid: &str,
+    uuid: Uuid,
     mut ivf: IvfModel,
     quantizer: Quantizer,
     distance_type: DistanceType,
@@ -1741,16 +2414,16 @@ async fn write_ivf_hnsw_file(
     shuffle_partition_concurrency: usize,
     precomputed_shuffle_buffers: Option<(Path, Vec<String>)>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let object_store = dataset.object_store();
-    let path = dataset.indices_dir().child(uuid).child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+    let object_store = dataset.object_store.as_ref();
+    let path = dataset
+        .indices_dir()
+        .join(uuid.to_string())
+        .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
     let writer = object_store.create(&path).await?;
 
     let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(HNSW::schema().as_ref())?;
-    let mut writer = PreviousFileWriter::with_object_writer(
-        writer,
-        schema,
-        &PreviousFileWriterOptions::default(),
-    )?;
+    let mut writer =
+        V1FileWriter::with_object_writer(writer, schema, &V1FileWriterOptions::default())?;
     writer.add_metadata(
         INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
         json!(IndexMetadata {
@@ -1763,8 +2436,8 @@ async fn write_ivf_hnsw_file(
 
     let aux_path = dataset
         .indices_dir()
-        .child(uuid)
-        .child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        .join(uuid.to_string())
+        .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
     let aux_writer = object_store.create(&aux_path).await?;
     let schema = Schema::new(vec![
         ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
@@ -1778,11 +2451,8 @@ async fn write_ivf_hnsw_file(
         ),
     ]);
     let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&schema)?;
-    let mut aux_writer = PreviousFileWriter::with_object_writer(
-        aux_writer,
-        schema,
-        &PreviousFileWriterOptions::default(),
-    )?;
+    let mut aux_writer =
+        V1FileWriter::with_object_writer(aux_writer, schema, &V1FileWriterOptions::default())?;
     aux_writer.add_metadata(
         INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
         json!(IndexMetadata {
@@ -1854,30 +2524,220 @@ async fn write_ivf_hnsw_file(
     Ok(())
 }
 
-/// Finalize distributed merge for IVF-based vector indices.
-///
-/// This helper merges partial auxiliary index files produced by distributed
-/// jobs into a unified `auxiliary.idx` and then creates a root `index.idx`
-/// using the v2 index format so that `open_vector_index_v2` can load it.
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source segments into a single segment.
+pub(crate) async fn merge_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    segments: Vec<TableIndexMetadata>,
+) -> Result<TableIndexMetadata> {
+    let mut row_filters = Vec::with_capacity(segments.len());
+    let no_deleted_fragments = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for segment in &segments {
+        let owned_fragments = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "Segment '{}' is missing fragment coverage",
+                segment.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+        row_filters.push(
+            crate::index::append::build_old_data_filter(
+                dataset,
+                owned_fragments,
+                &no_deleted_fragments,
+            )
+            .await?
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal("Vector segment ownership filter is missing".to_string())
+            })?,
+        );
+    }
+    merge_segments_with_row_filters(
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+        &dataset.indices_dir(),
+        segments,
+        row_filters,
+        lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+    )
+    .await
+}
+
+/// Merge one caller-defined group of source segments into a single segment and
+/// report progress through the provided callback.
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(crate) async fn merge_segments_with_progress(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    indices_dir: &Path,
+    segments: Vec<TableIndexMetadata>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<TableIndexMetadata> {
+    let row_filters = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| {
+            let to_keep = segment.fragment_bitmap.clone().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "Segment '{}' is missing fragment coverage",
+                    segment.uuid
+                ))
+            })?;
+            Ok(lance_index::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter::Fragments {
+                to_keep,
+                to_remove: RoaringBitmap::new(),
+            })
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+    merge_segments_with_row_filters(object_store, indices_dir, segments, row_filters, progress)
+        .await
+}
+
+async fn merge_segments_with_row_filters(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    indices_dir: &Path,
+    segments: Vec<TableIndexMetadata>,
+    row_filters: Vec<lance_index::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<TableIndexMetadata> {
+    if segments.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::index("No segment metadata was provided".to_string()));
+    }
+    if segments.len() == 1 {
+        return Ok(segments.into_iter().next().unwrap());
+    }
+
+    let mut merged_segment = segments[0].clone();
+    let mut fragment_bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for segment in &segments {
+        let source_fragment_bitmap = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
+                "Segment '{}' is missing fragment coverage",
+                segment.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+        fragment_bitmap |= source_fragment_bitmap.clone();
+    }
+    let mut index_details = crate::index::vector_index_details_default();
+    for segment in &segments {
+        if let Some(details) = segment.index_details.as_deref() {
+            let details = details.clone();
+            if !details.value.is_empty() {
+                index_details = details;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let index_version = infer_source_index_version(&segments)?;
+    let segment_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let final_dir = indices_dir.clone().join(segment_uuid.to_string());
+    let files = merge_segments_to_dir(
+        object_store,
+        indices_dir,
+        &final_dir,
+        &segments,
+        &row_filters,
+        None,
+        progress,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    merged_segment = TableIndexMetadata {
+        uuid: segment_uuid,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(fragment_bitmap),
+        index_details: Some(Arc::new(index_details)),
+        index_version,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: Some(files),
+        ..merged_segment
+    };
+    Ok(merged_segment)
+}
+
+/// Merge the selected input segments into `final_dir`.
 ///
-/// The caller must pass `index_dir` pointing at the index UUID directory
-/// (e.g. `<table>/indices/<uuid>`). `requested_index_type` is only used as
-/// a fallback when the unified auxiliary file does not contain index
-/// metadata.
-pub async fn finalize_distributed_merge(
+/// The caller defines the source segment group explicitly. This helper reads
+/// those input segments directly from `indices/<segment_uuid>/` and writes the
+/// merged auxiliary/index files into `final_dir`.
+async fn merge_segments_to_dir(
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
-    index_dir: &object_store::path::Path,
-    requested_index_type: Option<IndexType>,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    // Merge per-shard auxiliary files into a unified auxiliary.idx.
-    lance_index::vector::distributed::index_merger::merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files(
+    indices_dir: &Path,
+    final_dir: &Path,
+    segments: &[TableIndexMetadata],
+    row_filters: &[lance_index::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter],
+    _requested_index_type: Option<IndexType>,
+    progress: Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<Vec<IndexFile>> {
+    reset_final_segment_dir(object_store, final_dir).await?;
+
+    debug_assert!(
+        segments.len() > 1,
+        "merge helper should only be used for multi-source groups"
+    );
+
+    let aux_paths = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| {
+            indices_dir
+                .clone()
+                .join(segment.uuid.to_string())
+                .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME)
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let source_index_paths = segments
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| {
+            indices_dir
+                .clone()
+                .join(segment.uuid.to_string())
+                .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME)
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let auxiliary_file = lance_index::vector::distributed::index_merger::merge_partial_vector_auxiliary_files_with_row_filters(
+        object_store,
+        &aux_paths,
+        final_dir,
+        row_filters,
+        progress.clone(),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let index_file = write_root_vector_index_from_auxiliary(
         object_store,
-        index_dir,
+        final_dir,
+        None,
+        &source_index_paths,
+        progress.clone(),
     )
     .await?;
 
-    // Open the unified auxiliary file.
-    let aux_path = index_dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+    Ok(vec![auxiliary_file, index_file])
+}
+
+fn infer_source_index_version(group: &[TableIndexMetadata]) -> Result<i32> {
+    debug_assert!(!group.is_empty());
+    let first = group[0].index_version;
+    if group.iter().any(|segment| segment.index_version != first) {
+        return Err(Error::index(
+            "Distributed vector segments must all have the same index version".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok(first)
+}
+
+/// Best-effort reset of one target directory before rewriting it.
+async fn reset_final_segment_dir(object_store: &ObjectStore, final_dir: &Path) -> Result<()> {
+    match object_store.remove_dir_all(final_dir.clone()).await {
+        Ok(()) => {}
+        Err(Error::NotFound { .. }) => {}
+        Err(err) => return Err(err),
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn write_root_vector_index_from_auxiliary(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    index_dir: &Path,
+    requested_index_type: Option<IndexType>,
+    centroid_source_index_paths: &[Path],
+    progress: Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<IndexFile> {
+    let aux_path = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
     let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
         Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
         SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(object_store),
@@ -1895,65 +2755,46 @@ pub async fn finalize_distributed_merge(
     .await?;
 
     let meta = aux_reader.metadata();
+    // Inherit file format version from the unified auxiliary (which inherited it from shards)
+    let format_version = meta.version();
     let ivf_buf_idx: u32 = meta
         .file_schema
         .metadata
         .get(IVF_METADATA_KEY)
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: "IVF meta missing in unified auxiliary".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("IVF meta missing in unified auxiliary".to_string()))?
         .parse()
-        .map_err(|_| Error::Index {
-            message: "IVF index parse error".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        .map_err(|_| Error::index("IVF index parse error".to_string()))?;
 
     let raw_ivf_bytes = aux_reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_buf_idx).await?;
     let mut pb_ivf: lance_index::pb::Ivf = Message::decode(raw_ivf_bytes.clone())?;
 
     // If the unified IVF metadata does not contain centroids, try to source them
-    // from any partial_* index.idx under this index directory.
+    // from one of the shard index files that fed this merge.
     if pb_ivf.centroids_tensor.is_none() {
-        let mut stream = object_store.list(Some(index_dir.clone()));
-        let mut partial_index_path = None;
-
-        while let Some(item) = stream.next().await {
-            let meta = item?;
-            if let Some(fname) = meta.location.filename() {
-                if fname == INDEX_FILE_NAME {
-                    let parts: Vec<_> = meta.location.parts().collect();
-                    if parts.len() >= 2 {
-                        let parent = parts[parts.len() - 2].as_ref();
-                        if parent.starts_with("partial_") {
-                            partial_index_path = Some(meta.location.clone());
-                            break;
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
+        for partial_index_path in centroid_source_index_paths {
+            if !object_store.exists(partial_index_path).await? {
+                continue;
             }
-        }
-
-        if let Some(partial_index_path) = partial_index_path {
             let fh = scheduler
-                .open_file(&partial_index_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+                .open_file(partial_index_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
                 .await?;
             let partial_reader = V2Reader::try_open(
                 fh,
                 None,
                 Arc::default(),
-                &lance_core::cache::LanceCache::no_cache(),
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
                 V2ReaderOptions::default(),
             )
             .await?;
             let partial_meta = partial_reader.metadata();
-            if let Some(ivf_idx_str) = partial_meta.file_schema.metadata.get(IVF_METADATA_KEY) {
-                if let Ok(ivf_idx) = ivf_idx_str.parse::<u32>() {
-                    let partial_ivf_bytes = partial_reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_idx).await?;
-                    let partial_pb_ivf: lance_index::pb::Ivf = Message::decode(partial_ivf_bytes)?;
-                    if partial_pb_ivf.centroids_tensor.is_some() {
-                        pb_ivf.centroids_tensor = partial_pb_ivf.centroids_tensor;
-                    }
+            if let Some(ivf_idx_str) = partial_meta.file_schema.metadata.get(IVF_METADATA_KEY)
+                && let Ok(ivf_idx) = ivf_idx_str.parse::<u32>()
+            {
+                let partial_ivf_bytes = partial_reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_idx).await?;
+                let partial_pb_ivf: lance_index::pb::Ivf = Message::decode(partial_ivf_bytes)?;
+                if partial_pb_ivf.centroids_tensor.is_some() {
+                    pb_ivf.centroids_tensor = partial_pb_ivf.centroids_tensor;
+                    break;
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -1964,9 +2805,9 @@ pub async fn finalize_distributed_merge(
     let ivf_bytes = pb_ivf.encode_to_vec().into();
 
     // Determine index metadata JSON from auxiliary or requested index type.
-    let index_meta_json =
+    let mut idx_meta: IndexMetadata =
         if let Some(idx_json) = meta.file_schema.metadata.get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY) {
-            idx_json.clone()
+            serde_json::from_str(idx_json)?
         } else {
             let dt = meta
                 .file_schema
@@ -1974,123 +2815,411 @@ pub async fn finalize_distributed_merge(
                 .get(DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY)
                 .cloned()
                 .unwrap_or_else(|| "l2".to_string());
-            let index_type = requested_index_type.ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message:
+            let index_type = requested_index_type.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(
                     "Index type must be provided when auxiliary metadata is missing index metadata"
                         .to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
+                )
             })?;
-            serde_json::to_string(&IndexMetadata {
+            IndexMetadata {
                 index_type: index_type.to_string(),
                 distance_type: dt,
-            })?
+            }
         };
+    if let Some(source_hnsw_index_metadata) =
+        read_hnsw_index_metadata_from_sources(object_store, &scheduler, centroid_source_index_paths)
+            .await?
+    {
+        if idx_meta.index_type.starts_with("IVF_HNSW")
+            && !index_metadata_eq(&idx_meta, &source_hnsw_index_metadata)
+        {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "HNSW index metadata mismatch while merging index segments: expected {:?}, got {:?}",
+                idx_meta, source_hnsw_index_metadata
+            )));
+        }
+        idx_meta = source_hnsw_index_metadata;
+    }
 
     // Write root index.idx via V2 writer so downstream opens through v2 path.
-    let index_path = index_dir.child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+    let index_path = index_dir.clone().join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
     let obj_writer = object_store.create(&index_path).await?;
+    progress
+        .stage_start("write_root_index", Some(1), "files")
+        .await?;
 
     // Schema for HNSW sub-index: include neighbors/dist fields; empty batch is fine.
     let arrow_schema = HNSW::schema();
     let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref())?;
-    let mut v2_writer = V2Writer::try_new(obj_writer, schema, V2WriterOptions::default())?;
-
-    // Attach precise index metadata (type + distance).
-    v2_writer.add_schema_metadata(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, &index_meta_json);
-
-    // Add IVF protobuf as a global buffer and reference via IVF_METADATA_KEY.
-    let pos = v2_writer.add_global_buffer(ivf_bytes).await?;
-    v2_writer.add_schema_metadata(IVF_METADATA_KEY, pos.to_string());
+    let mut v2_writer = file_versions::create_writer(
+        format_version,
+        obj_writer,
+        schema,
+        V2WriterOptions::default(),
+    )?;
 
     // For HNSW variants, attach per-partition metadata list; for FLAT-based
     // variants, attach minimal placeholder metadata.
-    let idx_meta: IndexMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&index_meta_json)?;
     let is_hnsw = idx_meta.index_type.starts_with("IVF_HNSW");
     let is_flat_based = matches!(
         idx_meta.index_type.as_str(),
-        "IVF_FLAT" | "IVF_PQ" | "IVF_SQ"
+        "IVF_FLAT" | "IVF_PQ" | "IVF_SQ" | "IVF_RQ"
     );
 
     if is_hnsw {
-        let default_meta = HnswMetadata::default();
-        let meta_vec: Vec<String> = (0..nlist)
-            .map(|_| serde_json::to_string(&default_meta).unwrap())
-            .collect();
-        let meta_vec_json = serde_json::to_string(&meta_vec)?;
-        v2_writer.add_schema_metadata(HNSW_METADATA_KEY, meta_vec_json);
-    } else if is_flat_based {
-        let meta_vec: Vec<String> = (0..nlist).map(|_| "{}".to_string()).collect();
-        let meta_vec_json = serde_json::to_string(&meta_vec)?;
-        v2_writer.add_schema_metadata("lance:flat", meta_vec_json);
-    }
-
-    let empty_batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(arrow_schema);
-    v2_writer.write_batch(&empty_batch).await?;
-    v2_writer.finish().await?;
+        let hnsw_params = read_hnsw_build_params_from_sources(
+            object_store,
+            &scheduler,
+            centroid_source_index_paths,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        write_hnsw_root_index_from_auxiliary(
+            &mut v2_writer,
+            &aux_reader,
+            &ivf_model,
+            &hnsw_params,
+            &idx_meta,
+            progress.clone(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+    } else {
+        // Attach precise index metadata (type + distance).
+        let index_meta_json = serde_json::to_string(&idx_meta)?;
+        v2_writer.add_schema_metadata(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, &index_meta_json);
+
+        // Add IVF protobuf as a global buffer and reference via IVF_METADATA_KEY.
+        let pos = v2_writer.add_global_buffer(ivf_bytes).await?;
+        v2_writer.add_schema_metadata(IVF_METADATA_KEY, pos.to_string());
+
+        if is_flat_based {
+            let meta_vec: Vec<String> = (0..nlist).map(|_| "{}".to_string()).collect();
+            let meta_vec_json = serde_json::to_string(&meta_vec)?;
+            v2_writer.add_schema_metadata("lance:flat", meta_vec_json);
+        }
 
-    if let Err(err) = cleanup_partial_vector_dirs(object_store, index_dir).await {
-        warn!(
-            "Failed to cleanup partial_* vector index directories under '{}': {}",
-            index_dir.as_ref(),
-            err
-        );
+        let empty_batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(arrow_schema);
+        v2_writer.write_batch(&empty_batch).await?;
     }
 
-    Ok(())
+    let summary = v2_writer.finish().await?;
+    progress.stage_progress("write_root_index", 1).await?;
+    progress.stage_complete("write_root_index").await?;
+
+    Ok(IndexFile {
+        path: INDEX_FILE_NAME.to_string(),
+        size_bytes: summary.size_bytes,
+    })
 }
 
-/// Cleanup for distributed partial vector index directories after
-/// a distributed merge.
-///
-/// This helper scans `index_dir` for direct child directories whose names
-/// start with `partial_` (e.g. `<index_dir>/partial_0`, `<index_dir>/partial_1`)
-/// and attempts to recursively delete them via [`ObjectStore::remove_dir_all`].
-///
-/// Listing and deletion failures are logged with [`warn!`] and ignored so that
-/// index finalization is never blocked by cleanup. The function always returns
-/// `Ok(())`.
-async fn cleanup_partial_vector_dirs(
+async fn read_hnsw_index_metadata_from_sources(
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
-    index_dir: &object_store::path::Path,
-) -> Result<()> {
-    let mut partial_dirs: HashSet<Path> = HashSet::new();
-    let mut list_stream = object_store.list(Some(index_dir.clone()));
-
-    while let Some(item) = list_stream.next().await {
-        match item {
-            Ok(meta) => {
-                if let Some(relative_parts) = meta.location.prefix_match(index_dir) {
-                    let rel_parts: Vec<_> = relative_parts.collect();
-                    // Expect paths like: <index_dir>/partial_*/<file>
-                    if rel_parts.len() >= 2 {
-                        let parent_name = rel_parts[0].as_ref();
-                        if parent_name.starts_with("partial_") {
-                            partial_dirs.insert(index_dir.child(parent_name));
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            Err(e) => {
-                warn!(
-                    "Failed to list index directory '{}' while collecting partial_* dirs: {}",
-                    index_dir.as_ref(),
-                    e
-                );
-            }
+    scheduler: &Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    source_index_paths: &[Path],
+) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+    let mut index_metadata: Option<IndexMetadata> = None;
+
+    for source_index_path in source_index_paths {
+        if !object_store.exists(source_index_path).await? {
+            continue;
         }
-    }
 
-    for dir in partial_dirs {
-        if let Err(e) = object_store.remove_dir_all(dir.clone()).await {
-            warn!(
-                "Failed to remove partial_* directory '{}' after distributed merge: {}",
-                dir.as_ref(),
-                e
-            );
+        let fh = scheduler
+            .open_file(source_index_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await?;
+        let reader = V2Reader::try_open(
+            fh,
+            None,
+            Arc::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            V2ReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let Some(metadata_json) = reader
+            .metadata()
+            .file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
+        else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let metadata: IndexMetadata = serde_json::from_str(metadata_json)?;
+        if !metadata.index_type.starts_with("IVF_HNSW") {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        if let Some(index_metadata) = index_metadata.as_ref() {
+            if !index_metadata_eq(index_metadata, &metadata) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "HNSW index metadata mismatch while merging index segments: \
+                     expected {:?}, got {:?} in {}",
+                    index_metadata, metadata, source_index_path
+                )));
+            }
+        } else {
+            index_metadata = Some(metadata);
         }
     }
 
-    Ok(())
+    Ok(index_metadata)
+}
+
+fn index_metadata_eq(left: &IndexMetadata, right: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    left.index_type == right.index_type && left.distance_type == right.distance_type
+}
+
+async fn read_hnsw_build_params_from_sources(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    scheduler: &Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    source_index_paths: &[Path],
+) -> Result<HnswBuildParams> {
+    let mut build_params: Option<HnswBuildParams> = None;
+
+    for source_index_path in source_index_paths {
+        if !object_store.exists(source_index_path).await? {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let fh = scheduler
+            .open_file(source_index_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await?;
+        let reader = V2Reader::try_open(
+            fh,
+            None,
+            Arc::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            V2ReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let Some(metadata_json) = reader
+            .metadata()
+            .file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .get(HNSW_METADATA_KEY)
+        else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let partition_metadata: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(metadata_json)?;
+        for metadata in partition_metadata {
+            if metadata.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let metadata: HnswMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&metadata)?;
+            if let Some(build_params) = build_params.as_ref() {
+                if !hnsw_build_params_eq(build_params, &metadata.params) {
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "HNSW build parameters mismatch while merging index segments: \
+                         expected {:?}, got {:?} in {}",
+                        build_params, metadata.params, source_index_path
+                    )));
+                }
+            } else {
+                build_params = Some(metadata.params);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(build_params.unwrap_or_default())
+}
+
+fn hnsw_build_params_eq(left: &HnswBuildParams, right: &HnswBuildParams) -> bool {
+    left.max_level == right.max_level
+        && left.m == right.m
+        && left.ef_construction == right.ef_construction
+        && left.prefetch_distance == right.prefetch_distance
+}
+
+async fn write_hnsw_root_index_from_auxiliary(
+    writer: &mut V2Writer,
+    aux_reader: &V2Reader,
+    aux_ivf: &IvfModel,
+    hnsw_params: &HnswBuildParams,
+    index_metadata: &IndexMetadata,
+    progress: Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut index_ivf = if let Some(centroids) = aux_ivf.centroids.clone() {
+        IvfModel::new(centroids, aux_ivf.loss)
+    } else {
+        IvfModel::empty()
+    };
+    let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(index_metadata.distance_type.as_str())?;
+    let mut partition_index_metadata = Vec::with_capacity(aux_ivf.num_partitions());
+
+    progress
+        .stage_start(
+            "rebuild_hnsw_graph",
+            Some(aux_ivf.num_partitions() as u64),
+            "partitions",
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+    for partition_id in 0..aux_ivf.num_partitions() {
+        let row_range = aux_ivf.row_range(partition_id);
+        if row_range.is_empty() {
+            index_ivf.add_partition(0);
+            partition_index_metadata.push(String::new());
+            progress
+                .stage_progress("rebuild_hnsw_graph", partition_id as u64 + 1)
+                .await?;
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        let batch = read_v2_partition_batch(aux_reader, row_range).await?;
+        let hnsw = build_hnsw_from_storage_batch(
+            &index_metadata.index_type,
+            batch,
+            aux_reader,
+            distance_type,
+            hnsw_params,
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let index_batch = hnsw.to_batch()?;
+
+        writer.write_batch(&index_batch).await?;
+        index_ivf.add_partition(index_batch.num_rows() as u32);
+        partition_index_metadata.push(serde_json::to_string(&hnsw.metadata())?);
+        progress
+            .stage_progress("rebuild_hnsw_graph", partition_id as u64 + 1)
+            .await?;
+    }
+
+    progress.stage_complete("rebuild_hnsw_graph").await?;
+
+    write_hnsw_index_metadata(writer, &index_ivf, distance_type, index_metadata).await?;
+    writer.add_schema_metadata(
+        HNSW_METADATA_KEY,
+        serde_json::to_string(&partition_index_metadata)?,
+    );
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn read_v2_partition_batch(reader: &V2Reader, range: Range<usize>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let schema = Arc::new(reader.schema().as_ref().into());
+    let stream = reader
+        .read_stream(
+            ReadBatchParams::Range(range),
+            u32::MAX,
+            4,
+            FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+    let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
+    if batches.is_empty() {
+        Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(schema))
+    } else {
+        Ok(concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?)
+    }
+}
+
+async fn build_hnsw_from_storage_batch(
+    index_type: &str,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    aux_reader: &V2Reader,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    hnsw_params: &HnswBuildParams,
+) -> Result<HNSW> {
+    match index_type {
+        "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => {
+            let metadata = read_storage_metadata::<FlatMetadata>(aux_reader, "")?;
+            let vector_type = batch
+                .column_by_name(FLAT_COLUMN)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "{FLAT_COLUMN} column missing from HNSW_FLAT storage"
+                    ))
+                })?
+                .as_fixed_size_list()
+                .value_type();
+            if vector_type == DataType::UInt8 && distance_type == DistanceType::Hamming {
+                let storage =
+                    FlatBinStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, distance_type, None)?;
+                HNSW::index_vectors(&storage, hnsw_params.clone())
+            } else {
+                let storage =
+                    FlatFloatStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, distance_type, None)?;
+                HNSW::index_vectors(&storage, hnsw_params.clone())
+            }
+        }
+        "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => {
+            let metadata = read_pq_storage_metadata(aux_reader).await?;
+            let storage =
+                ProductQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, distance_type, None)?;
+            HNSW::index_vectors(&storage, hnsw_params.clone())
+        }
+        "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => {
+            let metadata =
+                read_storage_metadata::<ScalarQuantizationMetadata>(aux_reader, SQ_METADATA_KEY)?;
+            let storage =
+                ScalarQuantizationStorage::try_from_batch(batch, &metadata, distance_type, None)?;
+            HNSW::index_vectors(&storage, hnsw_params.clone())
+        }
+        other => Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Cannot rebuild HNSW graph for unsupported index type {other}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn write_hnsw_index_metadata(
+    writer: &mut V2Writer,
+    ivf: &IvfModel,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    index_metadata: &IndexMetadata,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let pb_ivf: lance_index::pb::Ivf = ivf.try_into()?;
+    let pos = writer
+        .add_global_buffer(pb_ivf.encode_to_vec().into())
+        .await?;
+    writer.add_schema_metadata(IVF_METADATA_KEY, pos.to_string());
+    writer.add_schema_metadata(
+        INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
+        serde_json::to_string(&IndexMetadata {
+            index_type: index_metadata.index_type.clone(),
+            distance_type: distance_type.to_string(),
+        })?,
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn read_pq_storage_metadata(reader: &V2Reader) -> Result<ProductQuantizationMetadata> {
+    let mut metadata =
+        read_storage_metadata::<ProductQuantizationMetadata>(reader, PQ_METADATA_KEY)?;
+    if metadata.codebook.is_none() {
+        let tensor_bytes = reader
+            .read_global_buffer(metadata.codebook_position as u32)
+            .await?;
+        let codebook_tensor: lance_index::pb::Tensor = Message::decode(tensor_bytes)?;
+        metadata.codebook = Some(FixedSizeListArray::try_from(&codebook_tensor)?);
+    }
+    Ok(metadata)
+}
+
+fn read_storage_metadata<T>(reader: &V2Reader, storage_metadata_key: &str) -> Result<T>
+where
+    T: serde::de::DeserializeOwned,
+{
+    if !storage_metadata_key.is_empty()
+        && let Some(metadata) = reader
+            .metadata()
+            .file_schema
+            .metadata
+            .get(storage_metadata_key)
+    {
+        return Ok(serde_json::from_str(metadata)?);
+    }
+
+    let storage_metadata = reader
+        .metadata()
+        .file_schema
+        .metadata
+        .get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("{STORAGE_METADATA_KEY} missing from storage file")))?;
+    let metadata_entries: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(storage_metadata)?;
+    let metadata = metadata_entries.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "{STORAGE_METADATA_KEY} did not contain any storage metadata entries"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok(serde_json::from_str(metadata)?)
 }
 
 async fn do_train_ivf_model<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
@@ -2099,934 +3228,3677 @@ async fn do_train_ivf_model<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
     dimension: usize,
     metric_type: MetricType,
     params: &IvfBuildParams,
+    progress: std::sync::Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
 ) -> Result<IvfModel>
 where
     <T as ArrowPrimitiveType>::Native: Dot + L2 + Normalize,
     PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
 {
     const REDOS: usize = 1;
+    let (progress_tx, mut progress_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel::<u64>();
+    let progress_worker = {
+        let progress = progress.clone();
+        tokio::spawn(async move {
+            while let Some(iter) = progress_rx.recv().await {
+                progress.stage_progress("train_ivf", iter).await?;
+            }
+            Result::Ok(())
+        })
+    };
+
+    let on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync> = {
+        let progress_tx = progress_tx.clone();
+        let cumulative_iters = std::sync::atomic::AtomicU64::new(0);
+        Arc::new(move |_iter: u32, _max_iters: u32| {
+            // Track cumulative iterations across all kmeans runs in this stage
+            // (flat and hierarchical both invoke the callback per-iteration).
+            let total = cumulative_iters.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed) + 1;
+            // Non-blocking send from sync kmeans loop into async progress worker.
+            let _ = progress_tx.send(total);
+        })
+    };
     let kmeans_params = KMeansParams::new(centroids, params.max_iters as u32, REDOS, metric_type)
-        .with_balance_factor(1.0);
+        .with_balance_factor(1.0)
+        .with_on_progress(on_progress);
     let kmeans = lance_index::vector::kmeans::train_kmeans::<T>(
         data,
         kmeans_params,
         dimension,
         params.num_partitions.unwrap_or(32),
         params.sample_rate,
+    );
+    drop(progress_tx);
+    progress_worker.await??;
+    let kmeans = kmeans?;
+    let training_data = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        Arc::new(data.clone()) as ArrayRef,
+        dimension as i32,
     )?;
+    let loss = kmeans.compute_loss(&training_data)?;
     Ok(IvfModel::new(
         FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(kmeans.centroids, dimension as i32)?,
-        Some(kmeans.loss),
+        Some(loss),
     ))
 }
 
-/// Train IVF partitions using kmeans.
-async fn train_ivf_model(
-    centroids: Option<Arc<FixedSizeListArray>>,
-    data: &FixedSizeListArray,
-    distance_type: DistanceType,
-    params: &IvfBuildParams,
-) -> Result<IvfModel> {
-    assert!(
-        distance_type != DistanceType::Cosine,
-        "Cosine metric should be done by normalized L2 distance",
-    );
-    let values = data.values();
-    let dim = data.value_length() as usize;
-    match (values.data_type(), distance_type) {
-        (DataType::Float16, _) => {
-            do_train_ivf_model::<Float16Type>(
-                centroids,
-                values.as_primitive::<Float16Type>(),
-                dim,
-                distance_type,
-                params,
-            )
-            .await
-        }
-        (DataType::Float32, _) => {
-            do_train_ivf_model::<Float32Type>(
-                centroids,
-                values.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
-                dim,
-                distance_type,
-                params,
-            )
-            .await
-        }
-        (DataType::Float64, _) => {
-            do_train_ivf_model::<Float64Type>(
-                centroids,
-                values.as_primitive::<Float64Type>(),
-                dim,
-                distance_type,
-                params,
-            )
-            .await
-        }
-        (DataType::Int8, DistanceType::L2)
-        | (DataType::Int8, DistanceType::Dot)
-        | (DataType::Int8, DistanceType::Cosine) => {
-            do_train_ivf_model::<Float32Type>(
-                centroids,
-                data.convert_to_floating_point()?
-                    .values()
-                    .as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
-                dim,
-                distance_type,
-                params,
-            )
-            .await
+async fn sample_ivf_training_chunk(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    sample_size_hint: usize,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+) -> Result<(FixedSizeListArray, MetricType)> {
+    let training_data =
+        maybe_sample_training_data(dataset, column, sample_size_hint, fragment_ids).await?;
+    let (training_data, mt) = if metric_type == MetricType::Cosine {
+        let training_data = normalize_fsl_owned(training_data)?;
+        (training_data, MetricType::L2)
+    } else {
+        (training_data, metric_type)
+    };
+    Ok((filter_finite_training_data(training_data)?, mt))
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct FixedIvfTrainingRanges {
+    ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+    num_rows: usize,
+}
+
+impl FixedIvfTrainingRanges {
+    fn new(ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>) -> Self {
+        let num_rows = ranges.iter().map(range_len).sum();
+        Self { ranges, num_rows }
+    }
+
+    fn num_rows(&self) -> usize {
+        self.num_rows
+    }
+
+    fn chunk(&self, row_offset: usize, row_count: usize) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+        if row_count == 0 || row_offset >= self.num_rows {
+            return Vec::new();
         }
-        (DataType::UInt8, DistanceType::Hamming) => {
-            do_train_ivf_model::<UInt8Type>(
-                centroids,
-                values.as_primitive::<UInt8Type>(),
-                dim,
-                distance_type,
-                params,
-            )
-            .await
+
+        let mut remaining_skip = row_offset;
+        let mut remaining_take = row_count.min(self.num_rows - row_offset);
+        let mut chunk = Vec::new();
+        for range in &self.ranges {
+            let range_len = range_len(range);
+            if remaining_skip >= range_len {
+                remaining_skip -= range_len;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let start = range.start + remaining_skip as u64;
+            let available = range_len - remaining_skip;
+            let take = available.min(remaining_take);
+            chunk.push(start..start + take as u64);
+            remaining_take -= take;
+            remaining_skip = 0;
+            if remaining_take == 0 {
+                break;
+            }
         }
-        _ => Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "Unsupported data type {} with distance type {}",
-                values.data_type(),
-                distance_type
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+        chunk
     }
 }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
+fn range_len(range: &Range<u64>) -> usize {
+    (range.end - range.start) as usize
+}
 
-    use std::collections::HashSet;
-    use std::iter::repeat_n;
-    use std::ops::Range;
+const DEFAULT_STREAMING_IVF_TAKE_RANGE_ROWS: usize = 8192;
+const DEFAULT_STREAMING_IVF_PREFETCH_DEPTH: usize = 1;
+const DEFAULT_STREAMING_IVF_PROGRESS_INTERVAL: u64 = 128;
+const STREAMING_IVF_PREFETCH_DEPTH_ENV: &str = "LANCE_STREAMING_IVF_PREFETCH_DEPTH";
+const STREAMING_IVF_TAKE_RANGE_ROWS_ENV: &str = "LANCE_STREAMING_IVF_TAKE_RANGE_ROWS";
+const STREAMING_IVF_PROGRESS_INTERVAL_ENV: &str = "LANCE_STREAMING_IVF_PROGRESS_INTERVAL";
+
+fn streaming_ivf_prefetch_depth() -> usize {
+    std::env::var(STREAMING_IVF_PREFETCH_DEPTH_ENV)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|value| value.parse::<usize>().ok())
+        .filter(|depth| *depth > 0)
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_STREAMING_IVF_PREFETCH_DEPTH)
+}
 
-    use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
-    use arrow_array::{
-        make_array, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator,
-        RecordBatchReader, UInt64Array,
-    };
-    use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer};
-    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
-    use itertools::Itertools;
-    use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, ArrayGeneratorExt, Dimension, RowCount};
-    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-    use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION;
-    use lance_linalg::distance::l2_distance_batch;
-    use lance_testing::datagen::{
-        generate_random_array, generate_random_array_with_range, generate_random_array_with_seed,
-        generate_scaled_random_array, sample_without_replacement,
-    };
-    use rand::{rng, seq::SliceRandom};
-    use rstest::rstest;
+fn streaming_ivf_take_range_rows() -> usize {
+    std::env::var(STREAMING_IVF_TAKE_RANGE_ROWS_ENV)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|value| value.parse::<usize>().ok())
+        .filter(|rows| *rows > 0)
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_STREAMING_IVF_TAKE_RANGE_ROWS)
+}
 
-    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
-    use crate::index::prefilter::DatasetPreFilter;
-    use crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion;
-    use crate::index::vector_index_details;
-    use crate::index::{vector::VectorIndexParams, DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+fn streaming_ivf_progress_interval() -> u64 {
+    std::env::var(STREAMING_IVF_PROGRESS_INTERVAL_ENV)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|value| value.parse::<u64>().ok())
+        .filter(|interval| *interval > 0)
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_STREAMING_IVF_PROGRESS_INTERVAL)
+}
 
-    const DIM: usize = 32;
+fn should_report_streaming_ivf_progress(total: u64, interval: u64) -> bool {
+    total == 1 || total.is_multiple_of(interval.max(1))
+}
 
-    /// This goal of this function is to generate data that behaves in a very deterministic way so that
-    /// we can evaluate the correctness of an IVF_PQ implementation.  Currently it is restricted to the
-    /// L2 distance metric.
-    ///
-    /// First, we generate a set of centroids.  These are generated randomly but we ensure that is
-    /// sufficient distance between each of the centroids.
-    ///
-    /// Then, we generate 256 vectors per centroid.  Each vector is generated by making a line by
-    /// adding / subtracting [1,1,1...,1] (with the centroid in the middle)
-    ///
-    /// The trained result should have our generated centroids (without these centroids actually being
-    /// a part of the input data) and the PQ codes for every data point should be identical and, given
-    /// any three data points a, b, and c that are in the same centroid then the distance between a and
-    /// b should be different than the distance between a and c.
-    struct WellKnownIvfPqData {
-        dim: u32,
-        num_centroids: u32,
-        centroids: Option<Float32Array>,
-        vectors: Option<Float32Array>,
+fn split_ranges_by_row_count(ranges: &[Range<u64>], max_rows: usize) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+    let max_rows = max_rows.max(1) as u64;
+    let mut split = Vec::new();
+    for range in ranges {
+        let mut start = range.start;
+        while start < range.end {
+            let end = (start + max_rows).min(range.end);
+            split.push(start..end);
+            start = end;
+        }
     }
+    split
+}
 
-    impl WellKnownIvfPqData {
-        // Right now we are assuming 8-bit codes
-        const VALS_PER_CODE: u32 = 256;
-        const COLUMN: &'static str = "vector";
+fn generate_fixed_training_ranges(
+    num_rows: usize,
+    sample_size: usize,
+    block_size: usize,
+    byte_width: usize,
+) -> FixedIvfTrainingRanges {
+    let sample_size = num_rows.min(sample_size);
+    if sample_size == 0 {
+        return FixedIvfTrainingRanges::new(Vec::new());
+    }
+    if sample_size >= num_rows {
+        return FixedIvfTrainingRanges::new(vec![0..num_rows as u64]);
+    }
 
-        fn new(dim: u32, num_centroids: u32) -> Self {
-            Self {
-                dim,
-                num_centroids,
-                centroids: None,
-                vectors: None,
+    let rows_per_range = 1.max(block_size / byte_width);
+    let num_bins = num_rows.div_ceil(rows_per_range);
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0x1a6c_e5eed);
+
+    let bins = if sample_size * 5 >= num_rows {
+        let mut bins = (0..num_bins).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        for i in 0..num_bins {
+            let j = rng.random_range(i..num_bins);
+            bins.swap(i, j);
+        }
+        bins
+    } else {
+        let mut bins = Vec::with_capacity(sample_size.div_ceil(rows_per_range).saturating_add(1));
+        let mut seen = HashSet::with_capacity(bins.capacity());
+        while bins.len() * rows_per_range < sample_size {
+            let bin = rng.random_range(0..num_bins);
+            if seen.insert(bin) {
+                bins.push(bin);
             }
         }
+        bins
+    };
 
-        fn distance_between_points(&self) -> f32 {
-            (self.dim as f32).sqrt()
+    let mut remaining = sample_size;
+    let mut ranges = Vec::new();
+    for bin in bins {
+        if remaining == 0 {
+            break;
+        }
+        let bin_start = bin * rows_per_range;
+        let bin_end = ((bin + 1) * rows_per_range).min(num_rows);
+        let bin_len = bin_end - bin_start;
+        if bin_len == 0 {
+            continue;
         }
 
-        fn generate_centroids(&self) -> Float32Array {
-            const MAX_ATTEMPTS: u32 = 10;
-            let distance_needed =
-                self.distance_between_points() * Self::VALS_PER_CODE as f32 * 2_f32;
-            let mut attempts_remaining = MAX_ATTEMPTS;
-            let num_values = self.dim * self.num_centroids;
-            while attempts_remaining > 0 {
-                // Use some biggish numbers to ensure we get the distance we want but make them positive
-                // and not too big for easier debugging.
-                let centroids: Float32Array =
-                    generate_scaled_random_array(num_values as usize, 0_f32, 1000_f32);
-                let mut broken = false;
-                for (index, centroid) in centroids
-                    .values()
-                    .chunks_exact(self.dim as usize)
-                    .enumerate()
-                {
-                    let offset = (index + 1) * self.dim as usize;
-                    let length = centroids.len() - offset;
-                    if length == 0 {
-                        // This will be true for the last item since we ignore comparison with self
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    let distances = l2_distance_batch(
-                        centroid,
-                        &centroids.values()[offset..offset + length],
-                        self.dim as usize,
-                    );
-                    let min_distance = distances.min_by(|a, b| a.total_cmp(b)).unwrap();
-                    // In theory we could just replace this one vector but, out of laziness, we just retry all of them
-                    if min_distance < distance_needed {
-                        broken = true;
-                        break;
-                    }
-                }
-                if !broken {
-                    return centroids;
-                }
-                attempts_remaining -= 1;
-            }
-            panic!(
-                "Unable to generate centroids with sufficient distance after {} attempts",
-                MAX_ATTEMPTS
-            );
-        }
+        let take = bin_len.min(remaining);
+        let offset = if take < bin_len {
+            rng.random_range(0..=bin_len - take)
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        let start = bin_start + offset;
+        ranges.push(start as u64..(start + take) as u64);
+        remaining -= take;
+    }
 
-        fn get_centroids(&mut self) -> &Float32Array {
-            if self.centroids.is_some() {
-                return self.centroids.as_ref().unwrap();
-            }
-            self.centroids = Some(self.generate_centroids());
-            self.centroids.as_ref().unwrap()
+    ranges.sort_unstable_by_key(|range| range.start);
+    let mut merged: Vec<Range<u64>> = Vec::with_capacity(ranges.len());
+    for range in ranges {
+        if range.is_empty() {
+            continue;
         }
-
-        fn get_centroids_as_list_arr(&mut self) -> Arc<FixedSizeListArray> {
-            Arc::new(
-                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-                    self.get_centroids().clone(),
-                    self.dim as i32,
-                )
-                .unwrap(),
-            )
+        if let Some(last) = merged.last_mut()
+            && last.end >= range.start
+        {
+            last.end = last.end.max(range.end);
+            continue;
         }
+        merged.push(range);
+    }
+    FixedIvfTrainingRanges::new(merged)
+}
 
-        fn generate_vectors(&mut self) -> Float32Array {
-            let dim = self.dim as usize;
-            let num_centroids = self.num_centroids;
-            let centroids = self.get_centroids();
-            let mut vectors: Vec<f32> =
-                vec![0_f32; Self::VALS_PER_CODE as usize * dim * num_centroids as usize];
-            for (centroid, dst_batch) in centroids
-                .values()
-                .chunks_exact(dim)
-                .zip(vectors.chunks_exact_mut(dim * Self::VALS_PER_CODE as usize))
-            {
-                for (offset, dst) in (-128..0).chain(1..129).zip(dst_batch.chunks_exact_mut(dim)) {
-                    for (cent_val, dst_val) in centroid.iter().zip(dst) {
-                        *dst_val = *cent_val + offset as f32;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            Float32Array::from(vectors)
-        }
+fn default_streaming_coreset_rate(total_sample_rate: usize, streaming_sample_rate: usize) -> usize {
+    total_sample_rate.min(streaming_sample_rate).min(64)
+}
 
-        fn get_vectors(&mut self) -> &Float32Array {
-            if self.vectors.is_some() {
-                return self.vectors.as_ref().unwrap();
-            }
-            self.vectors = Some(self.generate_vectors());
-            self.vectors.as_ref().unwrap()
-        }
+fn streaming_coreset_rate(
+    total_sample_rate: usize,
+    streaming_sample_rate: usize,
+    configured_coreset_rate: Option<usize>,
+) -> usize {
+    configured_coreset_rate
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| default_streaming_coreset_rate(total_sample_rate, streaming_sample_rate))
+        .min(total_sample_rate)
+        .max(1)
+}
 
-        fn get_vector(&mut self, idx: u32) -> Float32Array {
-            let dim = self.dim as usize;
-            let vectors = self.get_vectors();
-            let start = idx as usize * dim;
-            vectors.slice(start, dim)
-        }
+fn streaming_local_coreset_k(
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    step_sample_size: usize,
+    coreset_rate: usize,
+    total_steps: usize,
+    decoupled_coreset_budget: bool,
+) -> usize {
+    if !decoupled_coreset_budget {
+        return num_partitions.min(step_sample_size);
+    }
+    num_partitions
+        .saturating_mul(coreset_rate)
+        .div_ceil(total_steps.max(1))
+        .max(num_partitions)
+        .min(step_sample_size)
+}
 
-        fn generate_batches(&mut self) -> impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static {
-            let dim = self.dim as usize;
-            let vectors_array = self.get_vectors();
+fn get_top_level_vector_column(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    batch.column_by_name(column).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "Fixed streaming IVF sampling only supports top-level vector column '{}'",
+            column
+        ))
+    })
+}
 
-            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-                Self::COLUMN,
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                    dim as i32,
-                ),
-                true,
-            )]));
-            let array = Arc::new(
-                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors_array.clone(), dim as i32).unwrap(),
-            );
-            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![array]).unwrap();
-            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema)
-        }
+fn append_fsl_values(
+    values_buf: &mut MutableBuffer,
+    total_rows: &mut usize,
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+    byte_width: usize,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let fsl = array.as_fixed_size_list();
+    let values = fsl.values();
+    let values_data = values.to_data();
+    let elem_size = byte_width / fsl.value_length() as usize;
+    let offset_bytes = values_data.offset() * elem_size;
+    let total_bytes = fsl.len() * byte_width;
+    let buf = &values_data.buffers()[0].as_slice()[offset_bytes..offset_bytes + total_bytes];
+    values_buf.extend_from_slice(buf);
+    *total_rows += fsl.len();
+    Ok(())
+}
 
-        async fn generate_dataset(&mut self, test_uri: &str) -> Result<Dataset> {
-            let batches = self.generate_batches();
-            Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await
-        }
+fn fsl_values_to_fixed_array(
+    vector_type: &DataType,
+    values_buf: MutableBuffer,
+    rows: usize,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let DataType::FixedSizeList(field, dimension) = vector_type else {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "expected FixedSizeList vector type, got {}",
+            vector_type
+        )));
+    };
+    let value_len = rows * *dimension as usize;
+    let values = arrow_array::make_array(
+        ArrayData::builder(field.data_type().clone())
+            .len(value_len)
+            .add_buffer(values_buf.into())
+            .build()?,
+    );
+    Ok(FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+        field.clone(),
+        *dimension,
+        values,
+        None,
+    )?)
+}
 
-        async fn check_index<F: Fn(u64) -> Option<u64>>(
-            &mut self,
-            index: &IVFIndex,
-            prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
-            ids_to_test: &[u64],
-            row_id_map: F,
-        ) {
-            const ROWS_TO_TEST: u32 = 500;
-            let num_vectors = ids_to_test.len() as u32 / self.dim;
-            let num_tests = ROWS_TO_TEST.min(num_vectors);
-            let row_ids_to_test = sample_without_replacement(ids_to_test, num_tests);
-            for row_id in row_ids_to_test {
-                let row = self.get_vector(row_id as u32);
-                let query = Query {
-                    column: Self::COLUMN.to_string(),
-                    key: Arc::new(row),
-                    k: 5,
-                    lower_bound: None,
-                    upper_bound: None,
-                    minimum_nprobes: 1,
-                    maximum_nprobes: None,
-                    ef: None,
-                    refine_factor: None,
-                    metric_type: Some(MetricType::L2),
-                    use_index: true,
-                    dist_q_c: 0.0,
-                };
-                let (partitions, _) = index.find_partitions(&query).unwrap();
-                let nearest_partition_id = partitions.value(0) as usize;
-                let search_result = index
-                    .search_in_partition(
-                        nearest_partition_id,
-                        &query,
-                        prefilter.clone(),
-                        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-                    )
-                    .await
-                    .unwrap();
+struct FixedIvfTrainingSampler<'a> {
+    dataset: &'a Dataset,
+    column: &'a str,
+    vector_type: DataType,
+    projection: Arc<lance_core::datatypes::Schema>,
+    byte_width: usize,
+}
 
-                let found_ids = search_result.column(1);
-                let found_ids = found_ids.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>().unwrap();
-                let expected_id = row_id_map(row_id);
+impl<'a> FixedIvfTrainingSampler<'a> {
+    fn try_new(dataset: &'a Dataset, column: &'a str) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        let vector_field = dataset.schema().field(column).ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+            "Sample training data: column {} does not exist in schema",
+            column
+        )))?;
+        if vector_field.nullable
+            || !matches!(vector_field.data_type(), DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _))
+        {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        Ok(Some(Self {
+            dataset,
+            column,
+            vector_type: vector_field.data_type(),
+            projection: Arc::new(dataset.schema().project(&[column])?),
+            byte_width: vector_field
+                .data_type()
+                .byte_width_opt()
+                .unwrap_or(4 * 1024),
+        }))
+    }
 
-                match expected_id {
-                    // Original id was deleted, results can be anything, just make sure they don't
-                    // include the original id
-                    None => assert!(!found_ids.iter().any(|f_id| f_id.unwrap() == row_id)),
-                    // Original id remains or was remapped, make sure expected id in results
-                    Some(expected_id) => {
-                        assert!(found_ids.iter().any(|f_id| f_id.unwrap() == expected_id))
-                    }
-                };
-                // The invalid row id should never show up in results
-                assert!(!found_ids
-                    .iter()
-                    .any(|f_id| f_id.unwrap() == RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW));
-            }
+    async fn sample_ranges(
+        &self,
+        ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        metric_type: MetricType,
+    ) -> Result<(FixedSizeListArray, MetricType)> {
+        let rows = ranges.iter().map(range_len).sum::<usize>();
+        let mut values_buf = MutableBuffer::with_capacity(rows * self.byte_width);
+        let mut total_rows = 0;
+
+        let read_ranges = split_ranges_by_row_count(ranges, streaming_ivf_take_range_rows());
+        let range_stream = stream::iter(read_ranges.into_iter().map(Ok));
+        let batch_readahead = streaming_ivf_prefetch_depth();
+        let mut batch_stream = self.dataset.take_scan(
+            Box::pin(range_stream),
+            self.projection.clone(),
+            batch_readahead,
+        );
+        while let Some(batch) = batch_stream.try_next().await? {
+            let array = get_top_level_vector_column(&batch, self.column)?;
+            append_fsl_values(&mut values_buf, &mut total_rows, &array, self.byte_width)?;
         }
+
+        let training_data = fsl_values_to_fixed_array(&self.vector_type, values_buf, total_rows)?;
+        let (training_data, mt) = if metric_type == MetricType::Cosine {
+            let training_data = normalize_fsl_owned(training_data)?;
+            (training_data, MetricType::L2)
+        } else {
+            (training_data, metric_type)
+        };
+        Ok((filter_finite_training_data(training_data)?, mt))
     }
+}
 
-    async fn generate_test_dataset(
-        test_uri: &str,
-        range: Range<f32>,
-    ) -> (Dataset, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>) {
-        let vectors = generate_random_array_with_range::<Float32Type>(1000 * DIM, range);
-        let metadata: HashMap<String, String> = vec![("test".to_string(), "ivf_pq".to_string())]
-            .into_iter()
-            .collect();
+type KMeansProgressCallback = Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>;
 
-        let schema = Arc::new(
-            Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-                "vector",
-                DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                    DIM as i32,
-                ),
-                true,
-            )])
-            .with_metadata(metadata),
-        );
-        let array = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, DIM as i32).unwrap());
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![array.clone()]).unwrap();
+struct KMeansStepOptions {
+    dimension: usize,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    sample_rate: usize,
+    max_iters: usize,
+    on_progress: KMeansProgressCallback,
+}
 
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
-        (dataset, array)
+fn train_ivf_kmeans_step<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    centroids: Option<Arc<FixedSizeListArray>>,
+    data: &PrimitiveArray<T>,
+    options: &KMeansStepOptions,
+) -> Result<KMeans>
+where
+    <T as ArrowPrimitiveType>::Native: Dot + L2 + Normalize,
+    PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>>,
+{
+    let has_centroids = centroids.is_some();
+    let mut kmeans_params =
+        KMeansParams::new(centroids, options.max_iters as u32, 1, options.metric_type)
+            .with_balance_factor(1.0)
+            .with_on_progress(options.on_progress.clone());
+    if has_centroids {
+        // Incremental refinement already has the full centroid set.  The
+        // hierarchical trainer bootstraps a smaller tree and is only suitable
+        // for the initial training pass.
+        kmeans_params = kmeans_params.with_hierarchical_k(1);
     }
+    lance_index::vector::kmeans::train_kmeans::<T>(
+        data,
+        kmeans_params,
+        options.dimension,
+        options.num_partitions,
+        options.sample_rate,
+    )
+}
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_with_centroids() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+fn train_ivf_kmeans_step_arrow_array_no_loss(
+    centroids: Option<Arc<FixedSizeListArray>>,
+    data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    sample_rate: usize,
+    max_iters: usize,
+    on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>,
+) -> Result<KMeans> {
+    let dimension = data.value_length() as usize;
+    let values = data.values();
+    let step_options = KMeansStepOptions {
+        dimension,
+        metric_type,
+        num_partitions,
+        sample_rate,
+        max_iters,
+        on_progress,
+    };
+    let kmeans = match (values.data_type(), metric_type) {
+        (DataType::Float16, _) => train_ivf_kmeans_step::<Float16Type>(
+            centroids,
+            values.as_primitive::<Float16Type>(),
+            &step_options,
+        )?,
+        (DataType::Float32, _) => train_ivf_kmeans_step::<Float32Type>(
+            centroids,
+            values.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
+            &step_options,
+        )?,
+        (DataType::Float64, _) => train_ivf_kmeans_step::<Float64Type>(
+            centroids,
+            values.as_primitive::<Float64Type>(),
+            &step_options,
+        )?,
+        (DataType::Int8, DistanceType::L2)
+        | (DataType::Int8, DistanceType::Dot)
+        | (DataType::Int8, DistanceType::Cosine) => {
+            let data = data.convert_to_floating_point()?;
+            train_ivf_kmeans_step::<Float32Type>(
+                centroids,
+                data.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
+                &step_options,
+            )?
+        }
+        (DataType::UInt8, DistanceType::Hamming) => train_ivf_kmeans_step::<UInt8Type>(
+            centroids,
+            values.as_primitive::<UInt8Type>(),
+            &step_options,
+        )?,
+        _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "KMeans: can not train data type {} with distance type: {}",
+            values.data_type(),
+            metric_type
+        )))?,
+    };
+    Ok(kmeans)
+}
 
-        let (mut dataset, vector_array) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+fn accumulate_refine_assignments(
+    data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    cluster_sums: &mut [f32],
+    cluster_weights: &mut [f64],
+) -> Result<f64> {
+    let dimension = data.value_length() as usize;
+    let kmeans = KMeans::with_centroids(
+        centroids.values().clone(),
+        dimension,
+        DistanceType::L2,
+        f64::MAX,
+    );
+    let (membership, distances) = kmeans.compute_membership_and_distances(data)?;
+    let data_values = data.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    let mut loss = 0.0;
 
-        let centroids = generate_random_array(2 * DIM);
-        let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIM as i32).unwrap();
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, Arc::new(ivf_centroids)).unwrap();
+    for row_idx in 0..data.len() {
+        let (Some(cluster_id), Some(distance)) = (membership[row_idx], distances[row_idx]) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let cluster_id = cluster_id as usize;
+        cluster_weights[cluster_id] += 1.0;
+        loss += distance as f64;
+        let vector = &data_values[row_idx * dimension..(row_idx + 1) * dimension];
+        let sum = &mut cluster_sums[cluster_id * dimension..(cluster_id + 1) * dimension];
+        for (sum, value) in sum.iter_mut().zip(vector) {
+            *sum += *value;
+        }
+    }
 
-        let codebook = Arc::new(generate_random_array(256 * DIM));
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::with_codebook(4, 8, codebook);
+    Ok(loss)
+}
 
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(MetricType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params);
+fn update_refined_centroids(
+    centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    cluster_sums: &[f32],
+    cluster_weights: &[f64],
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let dimension = centroids.value_length() as usize;
+    let mut next = centroids
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    for cluster_id in 0..centroids.len() {
+        let weight = cluster_weights[cluster_id];
+        if weight <= 0.0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let centroid = &mut next[cluster_id * dimension..(cluster_id + 1) * dimension];
+        let sum = &cluster_sums[cluster_id * dimension..(cluster_id + 1) * dimension];
+        for (value, sum) in centroid.iter_mut().zip(sum) {
+            *value = *sum / weight as f32;
+        }
+    }
+    f32_fsl_from_values(next, dimension)
+}
 
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+/// The streaming trainers accumulate and re-dispatch in f32, so training
+/// chunks must arrive as Float32. `convert_to_floating_point` cannot do this
+/// on its own: it returns f16 and f64 inputs unchanged, and the trainers'
+/// f32-only kernels hit those as a downcast panic.
+fn cast_training_data_to_f32(training_data: FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let value_type = training_data.value_type();
+    match value_type {
+        DataType::Float32 => Ok(training_data),
+        DataType::Float16 | DataType::Float64 | DataType::Int8 => {
+            let (field, dimension, values, nulls) = training_data.into_parts();
+            let values = arrow::compute::cast(&values, &DataType::Float32)?;
+            let field = Arc::new(field.as_ref().clone().with_data_type(DataType::Float32));
+            let cast = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, dimension, values, nulls)?;
+            if value_type == DataType::Float64 {
+                return drop_rows_that_saturated(cast);
+            }
+            Ok(cast)
+        }
+        value_type => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "streaming IVF training supports f16/f32/f64 and i8 vector columns, got {value_type}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
 
-        let sample_query = vector_array.value(10);
-        let query = sample_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
-        let results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest("vector", query, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(1, results.len());
-        assert_eq!(5, results[0].num_rows());
+/// An f64 above `f32::MAX` saturates to an infinity instead of failing the
+/// cast, and the samplers filter for finite values before the cast runs, so the
+/// invariant has to be re-established here or the trainers accumulate
+/// infinities into their centroids.
+///
+/// This drops exactly the rows the narrowing broke, so null rows pass through
+/// as they do for every other value type.
+fn drop_rows_that_saturated(cast: FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let values = cast.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    if values.iter().all(|value| value.is_finite()) {
+        return Ok(cast);
     }
+    let dimension = cast.value_length() as usize;
+    let keep = BooleanArray::from_iter(
+        values
+            .chunks(dimension)
+            .map(|row| Some(row.iter().all(|value| value.is_finite()))),
+    );
+    let kept = keep.true_count();
+    warn!(
+        "Dropped {} of {} streaming IVF training rows: their f64 values exceed the f32 range the trainers use",
+        cast.len() - kept,
+        cast.len()
+    );
+    let filtered = arrow::compute::filter(&cast, &keep)?;
+    Ok(filtered.as_fixed_size_list().clone())
+}
 
-    fn partition_ids(mut ids: Vec<u64>, num_parts: u32) -> Vec<Vec<u64>> {
-        if num_parts > ids.len() as u32 {
-            panic!("Not enough ids to break into {num_parts} parts");
+async fn refine_streaming_f32_kmeans_with_sampler(
+    sampler: &FixedIvfTrainingSampler<'_>,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    streaming_sample_size: usize,
+    sample_ranges: &FixedIvfTrainingRanges,
+    initial_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    passes: usize,
+    on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let dimension = initial_centroids.value_length() as usize;
+    let mut centroids = initial_centroids.clone();
+    for pass in 1..=passes {
+        let mut cluster_sums = vec![0.0_f32; centroids.len() * dimension];
+        let mut cluster_weights = vec![0.0_f64; centroids.len()];
+        let mut loss = 0.0;
+        let mut row_offset = 0;
+        while row_offset < sample_ranges.num_rows() {
+            let ranges = sample_ranges.chunk(row_offset, streaming_sample_size.max(1));
+            row_offset += ranges.iter().map(range_len).sum::<usize>();
+            let (training_data, mt) = sampler.sample_ranges(&ranges, metric_type).await?;
+            if mt != DistanceType::L2 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "streaming IVF refinement currently supports L2/Cosine training, got {}",
+                    metric_type
+                )));
+            }
+            let training_data = cast_training_data_to_f32(training_data)?;
+            loss += accumulate_refine_assignments(
+                &training_data,
+                &centroids,
+                &mut cluster_sums,
+                &mut cluster_weights,
+            )?;
         }
-        let mut rng = rng();
-        ids.shuffle(&mut rng);
-
-        let values_per_part = ids.len() / num_parts as usize;
-        let parts_with_one_extra = ids.len() % num_parts as usize;
+        centroids = update_refined_centroids(&centroids, &cluster_sums, &cluster_weights)?;
+        on_progress(pass as u32, passes as u32);
+        info!(
+            "Streaming IVF raw-vector refinement pass {} / {} assigned {} vectors; pre-update loss={}",
+            pass,
+            passes,
+            cluster_weights.iter().sum::<f64>() as usize,
+            loss
+        );
+    }
+    Ok(centroids)
+}
 
-        let mut parts = Vec::with_capacity(num_parts as usize);
-        let mut offset = 0;
-        for part_size in (0..num_parts).map(|part_idx| {
-            if part_idx < parts_with_one_extra as u32 {
-                values_per_part + 1
-            } else {
-                values_per_part
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn refine_streaming_f32_kmeans_with_resampling(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    total_sample_rate: usize,
+    streaming_sample_rate: usize,
+    num_partitions: usize,
+    initial_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+    passes: usize,
+    on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let dimension = initial_centroids.value_length() as usize;
+    let mut centroids = initial_centroids.clone();
+    for pass in 1..=passes {
+        let mut cluster_sums = vec![0.0_f32; centroids.len() * dimension];
+        let mut cluster_weights = vec![0.0_f64; centroids.len()];
+        let mut remaining_sample_rate = total_sample_rate;
+        let mut loss = 0.0;
+        while remaining_sample_rate > 0 {
+            let step_sample_rate = remaining_sample_rate.min(streaming_sample_rate);
+            let step_sample_size = num_partitions * step_sample_rate;
+            let (training_data, mt) = sample_ivf_training_chunk(
+                dataset,
+                column,
+                step_sample_size,
+                metric_type,
+                fragment_ids,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            if mt != DistanceType::L2 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "streaming IVF refinement currently supports L2/Cosine training, got {}",
+                    metric_type
+                )));
             }
-        }) {
-            parts.push(Vec::from_iter(
-                ids[offset..(offset + part_size)].iter().copied(),
-            ));
-            offset += part_size;
+            let training_data = cast_training_data_to_f32(training_data)?;
+            loss += accumulate_refine_assignments(
+                &training_data,
+                &centroids,
+                &mut cluster_sums,
+                &mut cluster_weights,
+            )?;
+            remaining_sample_rate -= step_sample_rate;
         }
-
-        parts
+        centroids = update_refined_centroids(&centroids, &cluster_sums, &cluster_weights)?;
+        on_progress(pass as u32, passes as u32);
+        info!(
+            "Streaming IVF resampled raw-vector refinement pass {} / {} assigned {} vectors; pre-update loss={}",
+            pass,
+            passes,
+            cluster_weights.iter().sum::<f64>() as usize,
+            loss
+        );
     }
+    Ok(centroids)
+}
 
-    const BIG_OFFSET: u64 = 10000;
+fn f32_fsl_from_values(values: Vec<f32>, dimension: usize) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    Ok(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+        Float32Array::from(values),
+        dimension as i32,
+    )?)
+}
 
-    fn build_mapping(
-        row_ids_to_modify: &[u64],
-        row_ids_to_remove: &[u64],
-        max_id: u64,
-    ) -> HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> {
-        // Some big number we can add to row ids so they are remapped but don't intersect with anything
-        if max_id > BIG_OFFSET {
-            panic!("This logic will only work if the max row id is less than BIG_OFFSET");
+struct WeightedCoreset {
+    values: Vec<f32>,
+    weights: Vec<f64>,
+    losses: Vec<f64>,
+}
+
+impl WeightedCoreset {
+    fn new(dimension: usize, capacity: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            values: Vec::with_capacity(capacity * dimension),
+            weights: Vec::with_capacity(capacity),
+            losses: Vec::with_capacity(capacity),
         }
-        row_ids_to_modify
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .map(|val| (val, Some(val + BIG_OFFSET)))
-            .chain(row_ids_to_remove.iter().copied().map(|val| (val, None)))
-            .collect()
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn remap_ivf_pq_index() {
-        // Use small numbers to keep runtime down
-        const DIM: u32 = 8;
-        const CENTROIDS: u32 = 2;
-        const NUM_SUBVECTORS: u32 = 4;
-        const NUM_BITS: u32 = 8;
-        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "my_index";
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.weights.len()
+    }
 
-        // In this test we create a sample dataset with reliable data, train an IVF PQ index
-        // remap the rows, and then verify that we can still search the index and will get
-        // back the remapped row ids.
+    fn push(&mut self, centroid: &[f32], weight: f64, loss: f64) {
+        if weight <= 0.0 {
+            return;
+        }
+        self.values.extend_from_slice(centroid);
+        self.weights.push(weight);
+        self.losses.push(loss);
+    }
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+    fn append(&mut self, other: Self) {
+        self.values.extend(other.values);
+        self.weights.extend(other.weights);
+        self.losses.extend(other.losses);
+    }
 
-        let mut test_data = WellKnownIvfPqData::new(DIM, CENTROIDS);
+    fn into_fsl_parts(self, dimension: usize) -> Result<(FixedSizeListArray, Vec<f64>, Vec<f64>)> {
+        Ok((
+            f32_fsl_from_values(self.values, dimension)?,
+            self.weights,
+            self.losses,
+        ))
+    }
 
-        let dataset = Arc::new(test_data.generate_dataset(test_uri).await.unwrap());
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(
-            CENTROIDS as usize,
-            test_data.get_centroids_as_list_arr(),
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(NUM_SUBVECTORS as usize, NUM_BITS as usize);
+    fn reduce_to_budget(&mut self, dimension: usize, budget: usize) {
+        if self.len() <= budget {
+            return;
+        }
+        let total_weight = self.weights.iter().sum::<f64>();
+        if total_weight <= 0.0 {
+            *self = Self::new(dimension, budget);
+            return;
+        }
 
-        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let uuid_str = uuid.to_string();
+        let mut weighted_sums = vec![0.0_f64; dimension];
+        let mut weighted_square_sums = vec![0.0_f64; dimension];
+        for (row_idx, vector) in self.values.chunks_exact(dimension).enumerate() {
+            let weight = self.weights[row_idx];
+            for dim in 0..dimension {
+                let value = vector[dim] as f64;
+                weighted_sums[dim] += weight * value;
+                weighted_square_sums[dim] += weight * value * value;
+            }
+        }
+        let split_dim = (0..dimension)
+            .max_by(|left, right| {
+                let left_mean = weighted_sums[*left] / total_weight;
+                let right_mean = weighted_sums[*right] / total_weight;
+                let left_var = weighted_square_sums[*left] / total_weight - left_mean * left_mean;
+                let right_var =
+                    weighted_square_sums[*right] / total_weight - right_mean * right_mean;
+                left_var
+                    .partial_cmp(&right_var)
+                    .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+
+        let mut indices = (0..self.len()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        indices.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| {
+            self.values[left * dimension + split_dim]
+                .partial_cmp(&self.values[right * dimension + split_dim])
+                .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
+                .then_with(|| left.cmp(right))
+        });
 
-        build_ivf_pq_index(
-            &dataset,
-            WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN,
-            INDEX_NAME,
-            &uuid_str,
-            MetricType::L2,
-            &ivf_params,
-            &pq_params,
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        let mut reduced = Self::new(dimension, budget);
+        for group_idx in 0..budget {
+            let group_start = group_idx * indices.len() / budget;
+            let group_end = (group_idx + 1) * indices.len() / budget;
+            if group_start == group_end {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let mut weight_sum = 0.0;
+            let centroid_start = reduced.values.len();
+            reduced.values.resize(centroid_start + dimension, 0.0);
+            {
+                let centroid = &mut reduced.values[centroid_start..centroid_start + dimension];
+                for &idx in &indices[group_start..group_end] {
+                    let weight = self.weights[idx];
+                    weight_sum += weight;
+                    let vector = &self.values[idx * dimension..(idx + 1) * dimension];
+                    for (sum, value) in centroid.iter_mut().zip(vector) {
+                        *sum += *value * weight as f32;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if weight_sum <= 0.0 {
+                reduced.values.truncate(centroid_start);
+                continue;
+            }
+            {
+                let centroid = &mut reduced.values[centroid_start..centroid_start + dimension];
+                for value in centroid {
+                    *value /= weight_sum as f32;
+                }
+            }
 
-        // After building the index file, we need to register the index metadata
-        // so that the dataset can find it when we try to open it
-        let field = dataset.schema().field(WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN).unwrap();
-        let index_meta = lance_table::format::IndexMetadata {
-            uuid,
-            dataset_version: dataset.version().version,
-            fields: vec![field.id],
-            name: INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
-            fragment_bitmap: Some(
-                dataset
-                    .get_fragments()
+            let mut loss = 0.0;
+            let centroid = &reduced.values[centroid_start..centroid_start + dimension];
+            for &idx in &indices[group_start..group_end] {
+                let vector = &self.values[idx * dimension..(idx + 1) * dimension];
+                let dist = vector
                     .iter()
-                    .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
-                    .collect(),
-            ),
-            index_details: Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details())),
-            index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION as i32,
-            created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
-            base_id: None,
-        };
-
-        // We need to commit this index to the dataset so that it can be found
-        use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
-        let transaction = Transaction::new(
-            dataset.version().version,
-            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices: vec![index_meta.clone()],
-                removed_indices: vec![],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+                    .zip(centroid)
+                    .map(|(left, right)| {
+                        let diff = left - right;
+                        diff * diff
+                    })
+                    .sum::<f32>() as f64;
+                loss += self.losses[idx] + self.weights[idx] * dist;
+            }
+            reduced.weights.push(weight_sum);
+            reduced.losses.push(loss);
+        }
+        *self = reduced;
+    }
+}
 
-        // Apply the transaction to register the index
-        // Since dataset is Arc<Dataset>, we need to create a mutable reference
-        let mut dataset_mut = (*dataset).clone();
-        dataset_mut
-            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+struct WeightedKMeansResult {
+    centroids: Vec<f32>,
+    membership: Vec<Option<u32>>,
+    cluster_weights: Vec<f64>,
+    cluster_losses: Vec<f64>,
+    loss: f64,
+}
 
-        let index = dataset_mut
-            .open_vector_index(WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN, &uuid_str, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+fn initialize_weighted_centroids(
+    data_values: &[f32],
+    dimension: usize,
+    k: usize,
+    n: usize,
+    weights: &[f64],
+) -> Vec<f32> {
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::seed_from_u64(0x1f17_5eed);
+    let mut centroids = Vec::with_capacity(k * dimension);
+    let mut selected = vec![false; n];
+    let total_weight = weights.iter().copied().sum::<f64>();
+    let first = if total_weight > 0.0 {
+        let mut threshold = rng.random::<f64>() * total_weight;
+        let mut row_idx = 0;
+        for (idx, weight) in weights.iter().enumerate() {
+            threshold -= *weight;
+            if threshold <= 0.0 {
+                row_idx = idx;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        row_idx
+    } else {
+        0
+    };
+    selected[first] = true;
+    centroids.extend_from_slice(&data_values[first * dimension..(first + 1) * dimension]);
+
+    let mut min_distances = vec![f64::MAX; n];
+    while centroids.len() / dimension < k {
+        let last_centroid = &centroids[centroids.len() - dimension..centroids.len()];
+        for row_idx in 0..n {
+            if selected[row_idx] {
+                min_distances[row_idx] = 0.0;
+                continue;
+            }
+            let vector = &data_values[row_idx * dimension..(row_idx + 1) * dimension];
+            let distance = vector
+                .iter()
+                .zip(last_centroid)
+                .map(|(left, right)| {
+                    let diff = left - right;
+                    diff * diff
+                })
+                .sum::<f32>() as f64;
+            min_distances[row_idx] = min_distances[row_idx].min(distance);
+        }
 
-        let ivf_index = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>().unwrap();
+        let weighted_distance_sum = min_distances
+            .iter()
+            .zip(weights)
+            .map(|(distance, weight)| distance * weight)
+            .sum::<f64>();
+        let next = if weighted_distance_sum > 0.0 {
+            let mut threshold = rng.random::<f64>() * weighted_distance_sum;
+            let mut row_idx = None;
+            for idx in 0..n {
+                if selected[idx] {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                threshold -= min_distances[idx] * weights[idx];
+                if threshold <= 0.0 {
+                    row_idx = Some(idx);
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            row_idx
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+        .or_else(|| (0..n).find(|idx| !selected[*idx]));
 
-        let index_meta = lance_table::format::IndexMetadata {
-            uuid,
-            dataset_version: 0,
-            fields: Vec::new(),
-            name: INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
-            fragment_bitmap: None,
-            index_details: Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details())),
-            index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION as i32,
-            created_at: None, // Test index, not setting timestamp
-            base_id: None,
+        let Some(next) = next else {
+            break;
         };
+        selected[next] = true;
+        centroids.extend_from_slice(&data_values[next * dimension..(next + 1) * dimension]);
+    }
 
-        let prefilter = Arc::new(DatasetPreFilter::new(dataset.clone(), &[index_meta], None));
+    while centroids.len() / dimension < k {
+        let row_idx = (centroids.len() / dimension) * n / k;
+        centroids.extend_from_slice(&data_values[row_idx * dimension..(row_idx + 1) * dimension]);
+    }
+    centroids
+}
 
-        let is_not_remapped = Some;
-        let is_remapped = |row_id| Some(row_id + BIG_OFFSET);
-        let is_removed = |_| None;
-        let max_id = test_data.get_vectors().len() as u64 / test_data.dim as u64;
-        let row_ids = Vec::from_iter(0..max_id);
+fn assign_weighted_f32_points(
+    data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    weights: &[f64],
+    base_losses: &[f64],
+    centroid_values: &[f32],
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+) -> Result<WeightedKMeansResult> {
+    let dimension = data.value_length() as usize;
+    let k = centroid_values.len() / dimension;
+    let centroids = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(centroid_values.to_vec())) as ArrayRef;
+    let kmeans = KMeans::with_centroids(centroids, dimension, metric_type, f64::MAX);
+    let (membership, distances) = kmeans.compute_membership_and_distances(data)?;
+    let data_values = data.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    let mut centroid_sums = vec![0.0_f32; k * dimension];
+    let mut cluster_weights = vec![0.0; k];
+    let mut cluster_losses = vec![0.0; k];
+
+    for row_idx in 0..data.len() {
+        let Some(cluster_id) = membership[row_idx] else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let Some(distance) = distances[row_idx] else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let cluster_id = cluster_id as usize;
+        let weight = weights[row_idx];
+        cluster_weights[cluster_id] += weight;
+        cluster_losses[cluster_id] += base_losses[row_idx] + weight * distance as f64;
+        let vector = &data_values[row_idx * dimension..(row_idx + 1) * dimension];
+        let centroid_sum = &mut centroid_sums[cluster_id * dimension..(cluster_id + 1) * dimension];
+        for (sum, value) in centroid_sum.iter_mut().zip(vector) {
+            *sum += *value * weight as f32;
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Sanity check to make sure the index we built is behaving correctly.  Any
-        // input row, when used as a query, should be found in the results list with
-        // the same id
-        test_data
-            .check_index(ivf_index, prefilter.clone(), &row_ids, is_not_remapped)
-            .await;
+    let mut next_centroids = vec![0.0_f32; k * dimension];
+    for cluster_id in 0..k {
+        let next_centroid =
+            &mut next_centroids[cluster_id * dimension..(cluster_id + 1) * dimension];
+        if cluster_weights[cluster_id] > 0.0 {
+            let centroid_sum = &centroid_sums[cluster_id * dimension..(cluster_id + 1) * dimension];
+            for (value, sum) in next_centroid.iter_mut().zip(centroid_sum) {
+                *value = *sum / cluster_weights[cluster_id] as f32;
+            }
+        } else {
+            next_centroid.copy_from_slice(
+                &centroid_values[cluster_id * dimension..(cluster_id + 1) * dimension],
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        // When remapping we change the id of 1/3 of the rows, we remove another 1/3,
-        // and we keep 1/3 as they are
-        let partitioned_row_ids = partition_ids(row_ids, 3);
-        let row_ids_to_modify = &partitioned_row_ids[0];
-        let row_ids_to_remove = &partitioned_row_ids[1];
-        let row_ids_to_remain = &partitioned_row_ids[2];
+    let loss = cluster_losses.iter().sum();
+    Ok(WeightedKMeansResult {
+        centroids: next_centroids,
+        membership,
+        cluster_weights,
+        cluster_losses,
+        loss,
+    })
+}
 
-        let mapping = build_mapping(row_ids_to_modify, row_ids_to_remove, max_id);
+fn train_weighted_f32_kmeans(
+    data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    weights: &[f64],
+    base_losses: &[f64],
+    k: usize,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    max_iters: usize,
+    on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>,
+) -> Result<WeightedKMeansResult> {
+    if data.len() < k {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "weighted kmeans requires at least {k} coreset rows, got {}",
+            data.len()
+        )));
+    }
+    if weights.len() != data.len() || base_losses.len() != data.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "weighted kmeans input lengths do not match: data={}, weights={}, losses={}",
+            data.len(),
+            weights.len(),
+            base_losses.len()
+        )));
+    }
 
-        let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let new_uuid_str = new_uuid.to_string();
+    let dimension = data.value_length() as usize;
+    let data_values = data.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    let mut centroids =
+        initialize_weighted_centroids(data_values, dimension, k, data.len(), weights);
+    let mut previous_loss = f64::MAX;
+    let max_iters = max_iters.max(1);
+    for iter in 1..=max_iters {
+        on_progress(iter as u32, max_iters as u32);
+        let mut result =
+            assign_weighted_f32_points(data, weights, base_losses, &centroids, metric_type)?;
+        let converged = (previous_loss - result.loss).abs() < 1e-4 * result.loss.max(1.0);
+        previous_loss = result.loss;
+        if converged || iter == max_iters {
+            return Ok(result);
+        }
+        centroids = std::mem::take(&mut result.centroids);
+    }
+    unreachable!("weighted kmeans runs at least one iteration")
+}
 
-        remap_index_file(
-            &dataset_mut,
-            &uuid_str,
-            &new_uuid_str,
-            dataset_mut.version().version,
-            ivf_index,
-            &mapping,
-            INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
-            WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN.to_string(),
-            vec![],
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+fn refine_weighted_f32_kmeans(
+    data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    weights: &[f64],
+    base_losses: &[f64],
+    initial_centroids: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    max_iters: usize,
+    on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>,
+) -> Result<WeightedKMeansResult> {
+    let mut centroids = initial_centroids
+        .values()
+        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec();
+    let mut previous_loss = f64::MAX;
+    let max_iters = max_iters.max(1);
+    for iter in 1..=max_iters {
+        on_progress(iter as u32, max_iters as u32);
+        let mut result =
+            assign_weighted_f32_points(data, weights, base_losses, &centroids, metric_type)?;
+        let converged = (previous_loss - result.loss).abs() < 1e-4 * result.loss.max(1.0);
+        previous_loss = result.loss;
+        if converged || iter == max_iters {
+            return Ok(result);
+        }
+        centroids = std::mem::take(&mut result.centroids);
+    }
+    unreachable!("weighted kmeans refinement runs at least one iteration")
+}
 
-        // After remapping the index file, we need to register the new index metadata
-        // so that the dataset can find it when we try to open it
-        let field = dataset_mut
-            .schema()
-            .field(WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN)
-            .unwrap();
-        let new_index_meta = lance_table::format::IndexMetadata {
-            uuid: new_uuid,
-            dataset_version: dataset_mut.version().version,
-            fields: vec![field.id],
-            name: format!("{}_remapped", INDEX_NAME),
-            fragment_bitmap: Some(
-                dataset_mut
-                    .get_fragments()
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
-                    .collect(),
-            ),
-            index_details: Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details())),
-            index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION as i32,
-            created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
-            base_id: None,
+fn append_local_coreset(
+    coreset: &mut WeightedCoreset,
+    data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    local_k: usize,
+    max_iters: usize,
+    on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let dimension = data.value_length() as usize;
+    let sample_rate = data.len().div_ceil(local_k).max(1);
+    let kmeans = train_ivf_kmeans_step_arrow_array_no_loss(
+        None,
+        data,
+        metric_type,
+        local_k,
+        sample_rate,
+        max_iters,
+        on_progress,
+    )?;
+    let centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(kmeans.centroids, dimension as i32)?;
+    let kmeans =
+        KMeans::with_centroids(centroids.values().clone(), dimension, metric_type, f64::MAX);
+    let (membership, distances) = kmeans.compute_membership_and_distances(data)?;
+    let mut weights = vec![0.0; centroids.len()];
+    let mut losses = vec![0.0; centroids.len()];
+    for (member, distance) in membership.into_iter().zip(distances) {
+        let (Some(member), Some(distance)) = (member, distance) else {
+            continue;
         };
+        weights[member as usize] += 1.0;
+        losses[member as usize] += distance as f64;
+    }
 
-        // We need to commit this new index to the dataset so it can be found
-        let transaction = Transaction::new(
-            dataset_mut.version().version,
-            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices: vec![new_index_meta],
-                removed_indices: vec![],
-            },
-            None,
+    let centroid_values = centroids.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    for centroid_idx in 0..centroids.len() {
+        coreset.push(
+            &centroid_values[centroid_idx * dimension..(centroid_idx + 1) * dimension],
+            weights[centroid_idx],
+            losses[centroid_idx],
         );
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
 
-        // Apply the transaction to register the new index
-        dataset_mut
-            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+struct WeightedCluster {
+    id: usize,
+    indices: Vec<usize>,
+    centroid: Vec<f32>,
+    weight: f64,
+    loss: f64,
+    finalized: bool,
+}
 
-        let remapped = dataset_mut
-            .open_vector_index(
-                WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN,
-                &new_uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let ivf_remapped = remapped.as_any().downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>().unwrap();
+impl Eq for WeightedCluster {}
 
-        // If the ids were remapped then make sure the new row id is in the results
-        test_data
-            .check_index(
-                ivf_remapped,
-                prefilter.clone(),
-                row_ids_to_modify,
-                is_remapped,
-            )
-            .await;
-        // If the ids were removed then make sure the old row id isn't in the results
-        test_data
-            .check_index(
-                ivf_remapped,
-                prefilter.clone(),
-                row_ids_to_remove,
-                is_removed,
-            )
-            .await;
-        // If the ids were not remapped then make sure they still return the old id
-        test_data
-            .check_index(
-                ivf_remapped,
-                prefilter.clone(),
-                row_ids_to_remain,
-                is_not_remapped,
-            )
-            .await;
+impl PartialEq for WeightedCluster {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.loss == other.loss && self.weight == other.weight
     }
+}
 
-    struct TestPqParams {
-        num_sub_vectors: usize,
-        num_bits: usize,
+impl Ord for WeightedCluster {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+        match (self.finalized, other.finalized) {
+            (false, true) => std::cmp::Ordering::Greater,
+            (true, false) => std::cmp::Ordering::Less,
+            _ => self
+                .loss
+                .partial_cmp(&other.loss)
+                .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
+                .then_with(|| {
+                    self.weight
+                        .partial_cmp(&other.weight)
+                        .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
+                }),
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    impl TestPqParams {
-        fn small() -> Self {
-            Self {
-                num_sub_vectors: 2,
-                num_bits: 8,
-            }
-        }
+impl PartialOrd for WeightedCluster {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
     }
+}
 
-    // Clippy doesn't like that all start with Ivf but we might have some in the future
-    // that _don't_ start with Ivf so I feel it is meaningful to keep the prefix
-    #[allow(clippy::enum_variant_names)]
-    enum TestIndexType {
-        IvfPq { pq: TestPqParams },
-        IvfHnswPq { pq: TestPqParams, num_edges: usize },
-        IvfHnswSq { num_edges: usize },
-        IvfFlat,
+struct WeightedHierarchicalKMeansParams {
+    dimension: usize,
+    target_k: usize,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    max_iters: usize,
+    on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync>,
+}
+
+fn weighted_subset(
+    data_values: &[f32],
+    weights: &[f64],
+    losses: &[f64],
+    indices: &[usize],
+    dimension: usize,
+) -> Result<(FixedSizeListArray, Vec<f64>, Vec<f64>)> {
+    let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len() * dimension);
+    let mut subset_weights = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+    let mut subset_losses = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+    for &idx in indices {
+        values.extend_from_slice(&data_values[idx * dimension..(idx + 1) * dimension]);
+        subset_weights.push(weights[idx]);
+        subset_losses.push(losses[idx]);
     }
+    Ok((
+        f32_fsl_from_values(values, dimension)?,
+        subset_weights,
+        subset_losses,
+    ))
+}
 
-    struct CreateIndexCase {
-        metric_type: MetricType,
-        num_partitions: usize,
-        dimension: usize,
-        index_type: TestIndexType,
+fn train_weighted_hierarchical_f32_kmeans(
+    data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    weights: &[f64],
+    losses: &[f64],
+    params: &WeightedHierarchicalKMeansParams,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    if data.len() == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::index("empty weighted coreset"));
+    }
+    if weights.len() != data.len() || losses.len() != data.len() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "weighted hierarchical kmeans input lengths do not match: data={}, weights={}, losses={}",
+            data.len(),
+            weights.len(),
+            losses.len()
+        )));
     }
 
-    // We test L2 and Dot, because L2 PQ uses residuals while Dot doesn't,
-    // so they have slightly different code paths.
-    #[tokio::test]
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case::ivf_pq_l2(CreateIndexCase {
-        metric_type: MetricType::L2,
-        num_partitions: 2,
-        dimension: 16,
-        index_type: TestIndexType::IvfPq { pq: TestPqParams::small() },
-    })]
-    #[case::ivf_pq_dot(CreateIndexCase {
-        metric_type: MetricType::Dot,
-        num_partitions: 2,
-        dimension: 2000,
-        index_type: TestIndexType::IvfPq { pq: TestPqParams::small() },
-    })]
-    #[case::ivf_flat(CreateIndexCase { num_partitions: 1, metric_type: MetricType::Dot, dimension: 16, index_type: TestIndexType::IvfFlat })]
-    #[case::ivf_hnsw_pq(CreateIndexCase {
-        num_partitions: 2,
-        metric_type: MetricType::Dot,
-        dimension: 16,
-        index_type: TestIndexType::IvfHnswPq { pq: TestPqParams::small(), num_edges: 100 },
-    })]
-    #[case::ivf_hnsw_sq(CreateIndexCase {
-        metric_type: MetricType::Dot,
-        num_partitions: 2,
-        dimension: 16,
-        index_type: TestIndexType::IvfHnswSq { num_edges: 100 },
-    })]
-    async fn test_create_index_nulls(
-        #[case] test_case: CreateIndexCase,
-        #[values(IndexFileVersion::Legacy, IndexFileVersion::V3)] index_version: IndexFileVersion,
-    ) {
-        let mut index_params = match test_case.index_type {
-            TestIndexType::IvfPq { pq } => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
-                test_case.metric_type,
-                IvfBuildParams::new(test_case.num_partitions),
-                PQBuildParams::new(pq.num_sub_vectors, pq.num_bits),
-            ),
-            TestIndexType::IvfHnswPq { pq, num_edges } => {
-                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
-                    test_case.metric_type,
-                    IvfBuildParams::new(test_case.num_partitions),
-                    HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(num_edges),
-                    PQBuildParams::new(pq.num_sub_vectors, pq.num_bits),
-                )
-            }
-            TestIndexType::IvfFlat => {
-                VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(test_case.num_partitions, test_case.metric_type)
+    let dimension = params.dimension;
+    let target_k = params.target_k;
+    let metric_type = params.metric_type;
+    let max_iters = params.max_iters;
+    let initial_k = 16_usize.min(target_k).min(data.len()).max(1);
+    let initial = train_weighted_f32_kmeans(
+        data,
+        weights,
+        losses,
+        initial_k,
+        metric_type,
+        max_iters,
+        params.on_progress.clone(),
+    )?;
+
+    let centroids = initial.centroids;
+    let mut heap = std::collections::BinaryHeap::new();
+    let mut next_cluster_id = 0;
+    for cluster_id in 0..initial_k {
+        let mut indices = Vec::new();
+        for (row_idx, member) in initial.membership.iter().enumerate() {
+            if member.is_some_and(|member| member as usize == cluster_id) {
+                indices.push(row_idx);
             }
-            TestIndexType::IvfHnswSq { num_edges } => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
-                test_case.metric_type,
-                IvfBuildParams::new(test_case.num_partitions),
-                HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(num_edges),
-                SQBuildParams::default(),
-            ),
+        }
+        if !indices.is_empty() {
+            heap.push(WeightedCluster {
+                id: next_cluster_id,
+                indices,
+                centroid: centroids[cluster_id * dimension..(cluster_id + 1) * dimension].to_vec(),
+                weight: initial.cluster_weights[cluster_id],
+                loss: initial.cluster_losses[cluster_id],
+                finalized: false,
+            });
+            next_cluster_id += 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    let data_values = data.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+    while heap.len() < target_k {
+        let mut cluster = heap
+            .pop()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("No weighted cluster can be further split"))?;
+        if cluster.finalized || cluster.indices.len() <= 1 {
+            cluster.finalized = true;
+            heap.push(cluster);
+            break;
+        }
+
+        let remaining_k = target_k - heap.len();
+        let cluster_k = if cluster.indices.len() <= 16 {
+            2.min(remaining_k).min(cluster.indices.len())
+        } else {
+            (cluster.indices.len() / 16).min(remaining_k).clamp(2, 16)
         };
-        index_params.version(index_version);
+        let (sub_data, sub_weights, sub_losses) =
+            weighted_subset(data_values, weights, losses, &cluster.indices, dimension)?;
+        let split = train_weighted_f32_kmeans(
+            &sub_data,
+            &sub_weights,
+            &sub_losses,
+            cluster_k,
+            metric_type,
+            max_iters.min(20),
+            params.on_progress.clone(),
+        )?;
+
+        let mut assignments = vec![Vec::new(); cluster_k];
+        let mut first_member = None;
+        let mut all_same = true;
+        for (local_idx, member) in split.membership.iter().enumerate() {
+            let Some(member) = member else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            if first_member.is_some_and(|first| first != *member) {
+                all_same = false;
+            } else if first_member.is_none() {
+                first_member = Some(*member);
+            }
+            assignments[*member as usize].push(cluster.indices[local_idx]);
+        }
+        if all_same {
+            cluster.finalized = true;
+            heap.push(cluster);
+            continue;
+        }
 
-        let nrows = 2_000;
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(test_case.dimension as u32)),
-            )
-            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(nrows))
-            .unwrap();
+        for (child_id, child_indices) in assignments.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            if child_indices.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            heap.push(WeightedCluster {
+                id: next_cluster_id,
+                indices: child_indices,
+                centroid: split.centroids[child_id * dimension..(child_id + 1) * dimension]
+                    .to_vec(),
+                weight: split.cluster_weights[child_id],
+                loss: split.cluster_losses[child_id],
+                finalized: false,
+            });
+            next_cluster_id += 1;
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Make every other row null
-        let null_buffer = (0..nrows).map(|i| i % 2 == 0).collect::<BooleanBuffer>();
-        let null_buffer = NullBuffer::new(null_buffer);
-        let vectors = data["vec"]
-            .clone()
-            .to_data()
-            .into_builder()
-            .nulls(Some(null_buffer))
-            .build()
-            .unwrap();
-        let vectors = make_array(vectors);
-        let num_non_null = vectors.len() - vectors.logical_null_count();
-        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(data.schema(), vec![vectors]).unwrap();
+    let mut clusters = heap.into_vec();
+    clusters.sort_by_key(|cluster| cluster.id);
+    while clusters.len() < target_k {
+        let duplicate = clusters
+            .iter()
+            .max_by(|left, right| {
+                left.weight
+                    .partial_cmp(&right.weight)
+                    .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
+            })
+            .cloned()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("No weighted clusters were trained"))?;
+        clusters.push(WeightedCluster {
+            id: next_cluster_id,
+            ..duplicate
+        });
+        next_cluster_id += 1;
+    }
+    clusters.truncate(target_k);
 
-        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .execute(vec![data])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(target_k * dimension);
+    for cluster in clusters {
+        values.extend_from_slice(&cluster.centroid);
+    }
+    f32_fsl_from_values(values, dimension)
+}
 
-        // Create index
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, false)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+async fn finish_streaming_ivf_training<T>(
+    training_result: Result<T>,
+    progress_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<u64>,
+    on_progress: KMeansProgressCallback,
+    progress_worker: tokio::task::JoinHandle<Result<()>>,
+    trainer_name: &str,
+) -> Result<T> {
+    drop(progress_tx);
+    drop(on_progress);
+    let progress_result = match progress_worker.await {
+        Ok(result) => result,
+        Err(err) => Err(err.into()),
+    };
 
-        let query = vec![0.0; test_case.dimension]
-            .into_iter()
-            .collect::<Float32Array>();
-        let results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest("vec", &query, 2_000)
-            .unwrap()
-            .ef(100_000)
-            .minimum_nprobes(2)
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), num_non_null);
-        assert_eq!(results["vec"].logical_null_count(), 0);
+    match training_result {
+        Ok(value) => {
+            progress_result?;
+            Ok(value)
+        }
+        Err(training_error) => {
+            if let Err(progress_error) = progress_result {
+                warn!(
+                    "{trainer_name} failed while its progress worker also failed: {progress_error}"
+                );
+            }
+            Err(training_error)
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_index_lifecycle_nulls() {
-        // Generate random data with nulls
-        let nrows = 2_000;
-        let dims = 32;
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dims as u32)).with_random_nulls(0.5),
-            )
-            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(nrows))
-            .unwrap();
-        let num_non_null = data["vec"].len() - data["vec"].logical_null_count();
+async fn train_streaming_coreset_ivf_model(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    dimension: usize,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    params: &IvfBuildParams,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+    progress: std::sync::Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<IvfModel> {
+    let num_partitions = params.num_partitions.unwrap_or(32);
+    let streaming_sample_rate = params.streaming_sample_rate.unwrap();
+    let total_sample_rate = params.sample_rate;
+    let mut remaining_sample_rate = total_sample_rate;
+    let mut max_training_vectors = 0;
+    let mut total_training_vectors = 0;
+    let fixed_sampler = if fragment_ids.is_none() {
+        FixedIvfTrainingSampler::try_new(dataset, column)?
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    let fixed_sample_ranges = if let Some(sampler) = &fixed_sampler {
+        let num_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await?;
+        let sample_size = num_rows.min(num_partitions * total_sample_rate);
+        Some(generate_fixed_training_ranges(
+            num_rows,
+            sample_size,
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref().block_size(),
+            sampler.byte_width,
+        ))
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    let mut sample_offset = 0;
+
+    let (progress_tx, mut progress_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel::<u64>();
+    let progress_worker = {
+        let progress = progress.clone();
+        tokio::spawn(async move {
+            while let Some(iter) = progress_rx.recv().await {
+                progress.stage_progress("train_ivf", iter).await?;
+            }
+            Result::Ok(())
+        })
+    };
 
-        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
-            .execute(vec![data])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    let on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync> = {
+        let progress_tx = progress_tx.clone();
+        let cumulative_iters = std::sync::atomic::AtomicU64::new(0);
+        let progress_interval = streaming_ivf_progress_interval();
+        Arc::new(move |_iter: u32, _max_iters: u32| {
+            let total = cumulative_iters.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed) + 1;
+            if should_report_streaming_ivf_progress(total, progress_interval) {
+                let _ = progress_tx.send(total);
+            }
+        })
+    };
 
-        // Create index
-        let index_params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
-            MetricType::L2,
-            IvfBuildParams::new(2),
-            PQBuildParams::new(2, 8),
+    let training_result = async {
+        let coreset_rate = streaming_coreset_rate(
+            total_sample_rate,
+            streaming_sample_rate,
+            params.streaming_coreset_rate,
         );
+        let coreset_budget = num_partitions
+            .saturating_mul(coreset_rate)
+            .max(num_partitions);
+        let total_steps = total_sample_rate.div_ceil(streaming_sample_rate);
+        let decoupled_coreset_budget = params.streaming_coreset_rate.is_some();
+        let mut coreset = WeightedCoreset::new(dimension, coreset_budget.min(num_partitions * 16));
+        let mut step = 0;
+        while remaining_sample_rate > 0 {
+            let step_sample_rate = remaining_sample_rate.min(streaming_sample_rate);
+            let step_sample_size = num_partitions * step_sample_rate;
+            step += 1;
+            info!(
+                "Streaming coreset IVF training: step {}, sample_rate={}, sample_size={}",
+                step, step_sample_rate, step_sample_size
+            );
+
+            let (training_data, mt) = if let (Some(sample_ranges), Some(sampler)) =
+                (&fixed_sample_ranges, &fixed_sampler)
+            {
+                let ranges = sample_ranges.chunk(sample_offset, step_sample_size);
+                sample_offset += ranges.iter().map(range_len).sum::<usize>();
+                sampler.sample_ranges(&ranges, metric_type).await?
+            } else {
+                sample_ivf_training_chunk(
+                    dataset,
+                    column,
+                    step_sample_size,
+                    metric_type,
+                    fragment_ids,
+                )
+                .await?
+            };
+            if mt != DistanceType::L2 {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "streaming coreset IVF currently supports L2/Cosine training, got {}",
+                    metric_type
+                )));
+            }
+            let training_data = cast_training_data_to_f32(training_data)?;
+            if training_data.len() < num_partitions {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Not enough training vectors for streaming coreset IVF. Requires at least {} rows but sampled {} rows",
+                    num_partitions,
+                    training_data.len()
+                )));
+            }
+
+            max_training_vectors = max_training_vectors.max(training_data.len());
+            total_training_vectors += training_data.len();
+            let local_k = streaming_local_coreset_k(
+                num_partitions,
+                training_data.len(),
+                coreset_rate,
+                total_steps,
+                decoupled_coreset_budget,
+            );
+            let mut chunk_coreset = WeightedCoreset::new(dimension, local_k);
+            append_local_coreset(
+                &mut chunk_coreset,
+                &training_data,
+                mt,
+                local_k,
+                params.max_iters,
+                on_progress.clone(),
+            )?;
+            coreset.append(chunk_coreset);
+            coreset.reduce_to_budget(dimension, coreset_budget);
+            info!(
+                "Streaming coreset IVF step {} compressed {} vectors into {} weighted centroids",
+                step,
+                total_training_vectors,
+                coreset.len()
+            );
+            remaining_sample_rate -= step_sample_rate;
+        }
+
+        let coreset_len = coreset.len();
+        let (coreset_data, coreset_weights, coreset_losses) =
+            coreset.into_fsl_parts(dimension)?;
+        // Scope `weighted_hierarchical_params` so the `on_progress` clone it holds
+        // is dropped before the progress producer is closed below.
+        let mut centroids = {
+            let weighted_hierarchical_params = WeightedHierarchicalKMeansParams {
+                dimension,
+                target_k: num_partitions,
+                metric_type: DistanceType::L2,
+                max_iters: params.max_iters,
+                on_progress: on_progress.clone(),
+            };
+            train_weighted_hierarchical_f32_kmeans(
+                &coreset_data,
+                &coreset_weights,
+                &coreset_losses,
+                &weighted_hierarchical_params,
+            )?
+        };
+        let refine_iters = 3;
+        if refine_iters > 0 {
+            let refined = refine_weighted_f32_kmeans(
+                &coreset_data,
+                &coreset_weights,
+                &coreset_losses,
+                &centroids,
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                refine_iters,
+                on_progress.clone(),
+            )?;
+            centroids = f32_fsl_from_values(refined.centroids, dimension)?;
+        }
+        if params.streaming_refine_passes > 0 {
+            info!(
+                "Running {} streaming raw-vector refinement pass(es)",
+                params.streaming_refine_passes
+            );
+            centroids = if let (Some(sample_ranges), Some(sampler)) =
+                (&fixed_sample_ranges, &fixed_sampler)
+            {
+                refine_streaming_f32_kmeans_with_sampler(
+                    sampler,
+                    metric_type,
+                    num_partitions * streaming_sample_rate,
+                    sample_ranges,
+                    &centroids,
+                    params.streaming_refine_passes,
+                    on_progress.clone(),
+                )
+                .await?
+            } else {
+                refine_streaming_f32_kmeans_with_resampling(
+                    dataset,
+                    column,
+                    metric_type,
+                    total_sample_rate,
+                    streaming_sample_rate,
+                    num_partitions,
+                    &centroids,
+                    fragment_ids,
+                    params.streaming_refine_passes,
+                    on_progress.clone(),
+                )
+                .await?
+            };
+        }
+
+        Ok((IvfModel::new(centroids, None), coreset_len))
+    }
+    .await;
+
+    let (ivf_model, coreset_len) = finish_streaming_ivf_training(
+        training_result,
+        progress_tx,
+        on_progress,
+        progress_worker,
+        "Streaming coreset IVF training",
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    info!(
+        "Streaming coreset IVF sampled {} vectors total; max in-memory training vectors per step: {}; coreset vectors: {}",
+        total_training_vectors, max_training_vectors, coreset_len
+    );
+
+    Ok(ivf_model)
+}
+
+async fn train_streaming_ivf_model(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    dimension: usize,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    params: &IvfBuildParams,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+    progress: std::sync::Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<IvfModel> {
+    let num_partitions = params.num_partitions.unwrap_or(32);
+    if num_partitions > 256 {
+        return train_streaming_coreset_ivf_model(
+            dataset,
+            column,
+            dimension,
+            metric_type,
+            params,
+            fragment_ids,
+            progress,
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+    let streaming_sample_rate = params.streaming_sample_rate.unwrap();
+    let total_sample_rate = params.sample_rate;
+    let mut remaining_sample_rate = total_sample_rate;
+    let mut centroids = params.centroids.clone();
+    let mut max_training_vectors = 0;
+    let mut total_training_vectors = 0;
+
+    let (progress_tx, mut progress_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel::<u64>();
+    let progress_worker = {
+        let progress = progress.clone();
+        tokio::spawn(async move {
+            while let Some(iter) = progress_rx.recv().await {
+                progress.stage_progress("train_ivf", iter).await?;
+            }
+            Result::Ok(())
+        })
+    };
+
+    let on_progress: Arc<dyn Fn(u32, u32) + Send + Sync> = {
+        let progress_tx = progress_tx.clone();
+        let cumulative_iters = std::sync::atomic::AtomicU64::new(0);
+        Arc::new(move |_iter: u32, _max_iters: u32| {
+            let total = cumulative_iters.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed) + 1;
+            let _ = progress_tx.send(total);
+        })
+    };
+
+    let training_result = async {
+        let mut step = 0;
+        while remaining_sample_rate > 0 {
+            let step_sample_rate = remaining_sample_rate.min(streaming_sample_rate);
+            let step_sample_size = num_partitions * step_sample_rate;
+            step += 1;
+            info!(
+                "Streaming IVF training: step {}, sample_rate={}, sample_size={}",
+                step, step_sample_rate, step_sample_size
+            );
+
+            let (training_data, mt) = sample_ivf_training_chunk(
+                dataset,
+                column,
+                step_sample_size,
+                metric_type,
+                fragment_ids,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            if training_data.len() < num_partitions {
+                return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "Not enough training vectors for streaming IVF. Requires at least {} rows but sampled {} rows",
+                    num_partitions,
+                    training_data.len()
+                )));
+            }
+
+            max_training_vectors = max_training_vectors.max(training_data.len());
+            total_training_vectors += training_data.len();
+            if params.sample_rate >= 1024 && training_data.value_type() == DataType::Float16 {
+                warn!(
+                    "Large sample_rate ({} >= 1024) for float16 vectors is possible to result in all zeros cluster centroid",
+                    params.sample_rate
+                );
+            }
+
+            let kmeans = train_ivf_kmeans_step_arrow_array_no_loss(
+                centroids.clone(),
+                &training_data,
+                mt,
+                num_partitions,
+                step_sample_rate,
+                params.max_iters,
+                on_progress.clone(),
+            )?;
+            let trained_centroids = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                kmeans.centroids,
+                dimension as i32,
+            )?);
+            centroids = Some(trained_centroids);
+
+            remaining_sample_rate -= step_sample_rate;
+        }
+
+        let centroids = centroids.ok_or_else(|| Error::index("No IVF centroids trained"))?;
+        Ok(IvfModel::new((*centroids).clone(), None))
+    }
+    .await;
+
+    let ivf_model = finish_streaming_ivf_training(
+        training_result,
+        progress_tx,
+        on_progress,
+        progress_worker,
+        "Streaming IVF training",
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    info!(
+        "Streaming IVF training sampled {} vectors total; max in-memory training vectors per step: {}",
+        total_training_vectors, max_training_vectors
+    );
+
+    Ok(ivf_model)
+}
+
+/// Train IVF partitions using kmeans.
+async fn train_ivf_model(
+    centroids: Option<Arc<FixedSizeListArray>>,
+    data: &FixedSizeListArray,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    params: &IvfBuildParams,
+    progress: std::sync::Arc<dyn lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress>,
+) -> Result<IvfModel> {
+    assert!(
+        distance_type != DistanceType::Cosine,
+        "Cosine metric should be done by normalized L2 distance",
+    );
+    let values = data.values();
+    let dim = data.value_length() as usize;
+    match (values.data_type(), distance_type) {
+        (DataType::Float16, _) => {
+            do_train_ivf_model::<Float16Type>(
+                centroids,
+                values.as_primitive::<Float16Type>(),
+                dim,
+                distance_type,
+                params,
+                progress.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        (DataType::Float32, _) => {
+            do_train_ivf_model::<Float32Type>(
+                centroids,
+                values.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
+                dim,
+                distance_type,
+                params,
+                progress.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        (DataType::Float64, _) => {
+            do_train_ivf_model::<Float64Type>(
+                centroids,
+                values.as_primitive::<Float64Type>(),
+                dim,
+                distance_type,
+                params,
+                progress.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        (DataType::Int8, DistanceType::L2)
+        | (DataType::Int8, DistanceType::Dot)
+        | (DataType::Int8, DistanceType::Cosine) => {
+            do_train_ivf_model::<Float32Type>(
+                centroids,
+                data.convert_to_floating_point()?
+                    .values()
+                    .as_primitive::<Float32Type>(),
+                dim,
+                distance_type,
+                params,
+                progress.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        (DataType::UInt8, DistanceType::Hamming) => {
+            do_train_ivf_model::<UInt8Type>(
+                centroids,
+                values.as_primitive::<UInt8Type>(),
+                dim,
+                distance_type,
+                params,
+                progress.clone(),
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Unsupported data type {} with distance type {}",
+            values.data_type(),
+            distance_type
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+
+    use std::collections::HashSet;
+    use std::iter::repeat_n;
+    use std::ops::Range;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering};
+    use std::time::Duration;
+
+    use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        FixedSizeListArray, Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int8Array, RecordBatch,
+        RecordBatchIterator, RecordBatchReader, UInt16Array, UInt64Array, make_array,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBuffer, NullBuffer};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use half::f16;
+    use itertools::Itertools;
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_index::VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION;
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::progress::noop_progress;
+    use lance_index::scalar::OldIndexDataFilter;
+    use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::l2_distance_batch;
+    use lance_testing::datagen::{
+        generate_random_array, generate_random_array_with_range, generate_random_array_with_seed,
+        generate_scaled_random_array, sample_without_replacement,
+    };
+    use rand::{rng, seq::SliceRandom};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use tokio::sync::Notify;
+
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::prefilter::DatasetPreFilter;
+    use crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion;
+    use crate::index::vector_index_details_default;
+    use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt, vector::VectorIndexParams};
+    use crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp;
+
+    const DIM: usize = 32;
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct BlockingFailingProgress {
+        is_first_call: AtomicBool,
+        is_callback_active: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+        callback_started: Arc<Notify>,
+        release_callback: Arc<Notify>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress for BlockingFailingProgress {
+        async fn stage_start(&self, _: &str, _: Option<u64>, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn stage_progress(&self, _: &str, _: u64) -> Result<()> {
+            if self.is_first_call.swap(false, Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                self.is_callback_active.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                self.callback_started.notify_one();
+                self.release_callback.notified().await;
+                self.is_callback_active.store(false, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                return Err(Error::io("injected progress failure"));
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn stage_complete(&self, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Building a merge filter loads a row-id sequence per covered fragment under
+    /// stable row ids, and an optimize pass that only appends a delta reads no existing
+    /// row at all. Such a pass must therefore build no filter, and a pass that does
+    /// merge must build one and reuse it across partitions.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_builds_merge_filters_only_when_merging() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let make_batch = || {
+            gen_batch()
+                .col(
+                    "vector",
+                    array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(DIM as u32)),
+                )
+                .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(256))
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        let batch = make_batch();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        // A single partition keeps `check_partition_adjustment` from selecting a split
+        // or a join, which would legitimately merge every segment.
         dataset
-            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, false)
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                None,
+                &VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(1, MetricType::L2),
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch())], schema),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let logical_index = dataset
+            .open_logical_vector_index("vector", "vector_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ivf_view = logical_index.as_ivf().unwrap();
+        let new_data = |fragments| async {
+            let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+            scanner
+                .with_fragments(fragments)
+                .with_row_id()
+                .project(&["vector"])
+                .unwrap();
+            scanner.try_into_stream().await.unwrap()
+        };
+        let unindexed = dataset.unindexed_fragments("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            unindexed.len(),
+            1,
+            "the appended fragment must be unindexed"
+        );
+
+        // `ExistingIndex` shares its coverage behind an `Arc`, so the sources handed to
+        // the builder report what the builder actually did with them.
+        let sources = existing_index_sources(&dataset, &ivf_view);
+        optimize_vector_indices_v2(
+            &dataset,
+            Some(new_data(unindexed.clone()).await),
+            "vector",
+            &sources,
+            &OptimizeOptions::new(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            sources.iter().all(|source| !source.filter_is_built()),
+            "a delta append reads no existing row, so it must build no filter"
+        );
+
+        let sources = existing_index_sources(&dataset, &ivf_view);
+        optimize_vector_indices_v2(
+            &dataset,
+            Some(new_data(unindexed).await),
+            "vector",
+            &sources,
+            &OptimizeOptions::merge(1),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            sources.iter().all(|source| source.filter_is_built()),
+            "a merge reads existing rows, so it must build a filter per merged segment"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                sources[0].old_data_filter().await.unwrap(),
+                Some(OldIndexDataFilter::RowIds(_))
+            ),
+            "a stable-row-id segment must filter on exact row-id membership"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shared_quantizer_model_compares_skipped_payloads() {
+        let codebook = |offset| {
+            let values = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..32).map(|v| v as f32 + offset));
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 2).unwrap()
+        };
+        let pq1 = Quantizer::Product(ProductQuantizer::new(
+            1,
+            4,
+            2,
+            codebook(0.0),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+        ));
+        let pq2 = Quantizer::Product(ProductQuantizer::new(
+            1,
+            4,
+            2,
+            codebook(100.0),
+            DistanceType::L2,
+        ));
+        assert!(!shared_quantizer_model(&pq1, &pq2));
+
+        let rq1 = Quantizer::Rabit(RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(
+            1,
+            8,
+            lance_index::vector::bq::RQRotationType::Matrix,
+        ));
+        let rq2 = Quantizer::Rabit(RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(
+            1,
+            8,
+            lance_index::vector::bq::RQRotationType::Matrix,
+        ));
+        assert!(!shared_quantizer_model(&rq1, &rq2));
+    }
+
+    async fn compute_test_ivf_loss(dataset: &Dataset, column: &str, ivf: &IvfModel) -> f64 {
+        let centroids = ivf
+            .centroids_array()
+            .expect("test IVF model should include centroids");
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.project(&[column]).unwrap();
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let data = batch
+            .column_by_name(column)
+            .expect("test vector column should exist")
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .clone();
+        let kmeans = KMeans::with_centroids(
+            centroids.values().clone(),
+            centroids.value_length() as usize,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            f64::MAX,
+        );
+        kmeans.compute_loss(&data).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    // Verifies LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS env var is honored by
+    // maybe_centroids_for_stats. The env var is process-global, so this test
+    // is serialized against any other test that touches the same key.
+    #[test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS)]
+    fn test_maybe_centroids_for_stats_env_var() {
+        let centroids = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0_f32, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]);
+        let centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, 2).unwrap();
+        let expected = Some(vec![vec![1.0, 2.0], vec![3.0, 4.0]]);
+
+        // Save the original value so we can restore it afterwards.
+        let original = std::env::var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV).ok();
+
+        // Unset → centroids included (with one-time warning).
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::remove_var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(maybe_centroids_for_stats(&centroids).unwrap(), expected);
+
+        // Truthy values → centroids included.
+        for truthy in ["1", "true", "TRUE", "on", "yes", "y"] {
+            unsafe {
+                std::env::set_var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV, truthy);
+            }
+            assert_eq!(
+                maybe_centroids_for_stats(&centroids).unwrap(),
+                expected,
+                "expected centroids to be included for {truthy:?}",
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Non-truthy values → centroids omitted.
+        for falsy in ["0", "false", "FALSE", "no", "off"] {
+            unsafe {
+                std::env::set_var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV, falsy);
+            }
+            assert_eq!(
+                maybe_centroids_for_stats(&centroids).unwrap(),
+                None,
+                "expected centroids to be omitted for {falsy:?}",
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Restore original value.
+        unsafe {
+            match original {
+                Some(v) => std::env::set_var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV, v),
+                None => std::env::remove_var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Verifies that when centroids are omitted via the env var, the
+    // serialized stats JSON does not contain the `centroids` field at all
+    // (instead of an explicit null), since downstream code distinguishes
+    // missing from null.
+    #[test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS)]
+    fn test_stats_centroids_omitted_when_disabled() {
+        let original = std::env::var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV).ok();
+
+        unsafe {
+            std::env::set_var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV, "false");
+        }
+        let stats = IvfIndexStatistics {
+            index_type: "IVF_PQ".to_string(),
+            uuid: "uuid".to_string(),
+            uri: "uri".to_string(),
+            metric_type: "l2".to_string(),
+            num_partitions: 0,
+            sub_index: serde_json::Value::Null,
+            partitions: vec![],
+            centroids: None,
+            loss: None,
+            index_file_version: IndexFileVersion::V3,
+        };
+        let json = serde_json::to_value(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert!(json.get("centroids").is_none());
+
+        unsafe {
+            match original {
+                Some(v) => std::env::set_var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV, v),
+                None => std::env::remove_var(LANCE_INCLUDE_VECTOR_CENTROIDS_ENV),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// This goal of this function is to generate data that behaves in a very deterministic way so that
+    /// we can evaluate the correctness of an IVF_PQ implementation.  Currently it is restricted to the
+    /// L2 distance metric.
+    ///
+    /// First, we generate a set of centroids.  These are generated randomly but we ensure that is
+    /// sufficient distance between each of the centroids.
+    ///
+    /// Then, we generate 256 vectors per centroid.  Each vector is generated by making a line by
+    /// adding / subtracting [1,1,1...,1] (with the centroid in the middle)
+    ///
+    /// The trained result should have our generated centroids (without these centroids actually being
+    /// a part of the input data) and the PQ codes for every data point should be identical and, given
+    /// any three data points a, b, and c that are in the same centroid then the distance between a and
+    /// b should be different than the distance between a and c.
+    struct WellKnownIvfPqData {
+        dim: u32,
+        num_centroids: u32,
+        centroids: Option<Float32Array>,
+        vectors: Option<Float32Array>,
+    }
+
+    impl WellKnownIvfPqData {
+        // Right now we are assuming 8-bit codes
+        const VALS_PER_CODE: u32 = 256;
+        const COLUMN: &'static str = "vector";
+
+        fn new(dim: u32, num_centroids: u32) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                dim,
+                num_centroids,
+                centroids: None,
+                vectors: None,
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn generate_centroids(dim: u32, num_centroids: u32) -> Float32Array {
+            const MAX_ATTEMPTS: u32 = 10;
+            let distance_needed = (dim as f32).sqrt() * Self::VALS_PER_CODE as f32 * 2_f32;
+            let mut attempts_remaining = MAX_ATTEMPTS;
+            let num_values = dim * num_centroids;
+            while attempts_remaining > 0 {
+                // Use some biggish numbers to ensure we get the distance we want but make them positive
+                // and not too big for easier debugging.
+                let centroids: Float32Array =
+                    generate_scaled_random_array(num_values as usize, 0_f32, 1000_f32);
+                let mut broken = false;
+                for (index, centroid) in centroids.values().chunks_exact(dim as usize).enumerate() {
+                    let offset = (index + 1) * dim as usize;
+                    let length = centroids.len() - offset;
+                    if length == 0 {
+                        // This will be true for the last item since we ignore comparison with self
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let distances = l2_distance_batch(
+                        centroid,
+                        &centroids.values()[offset..offset + length],
+                        dim as usize,
+                    );
+                    let min_distance = distances.min_by(|a, b| a.total_cmp(b)).unwrap();
+                    // In theory we could just replace this one vector but, out of laziness, we just retry all of them
+                    if min_distance < distance_needed {
+                        broken = true;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+                if !broken {
+                    return centroids;
+                }
+                attempts_remaining -= 1;
+            }
+            panic!(
+                "Unable to generate centroids with sufficient distance after {} attempts",
+                MAX_ATTEMPTS
+            );
+        }
+
+        fn get_centroids(&mut self) -> &Float32Array {
+            let dim = self.dim;
+            let num_centroids = self.num_centroids;
+            self.centroids
+                .get_or_insert_with(|| Self::generate_centroids(dim, num_centroids))
+        }
+
+        fn get_centroids_as_list_arr(&mut self) -> Arc<FixedSizeListArray> {
+            Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                    self.get_centroids().clone(),
+                    self.dim as i32,
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            )
+        }
+
+        fn generate_vectors(
+            dim: u32,
+            num_centroids: u32,
+            centroids: &Float32Array,
+        ) -> Float32Array {
+            let dim = dim as usize;
+            let mut vectors: Vec<f32> =
+                vec![0_f32; Self::VALS_PER_CODE as usize * dim * num_centroids as usize];
+            for (centroid, dst_batch) in centroids
+                .values()
+                .chunks_exact(dim)
+                .zip(vectors.chunks_exact_mut(dim * Self::VALS_PER_CODE as usize))
+            {
+                for (offset, dst) in (-128..0).chain(1..129).zip(dst_batch.chunks_exact_mut(dim)) {
+                    for (cent_val, dst_val) in centroid.iter().zip(dst) {
+                        *dst_val = *cent_val + offset as f32;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            Float32Array::from(vectors)
+        }
+
+        fn get_vectors(&mut self) -> &Float32Array {
+            let dim = self.dim;
+            let num_centroids = self.num_centroids;
+            let centroids = self.get_centroids().clone();
+            self.vectors
+                .get_or_insert_with(|| Self::generate_vectors(dim, num_centroids, &centroids))
+        }
+
+        fn get_vector(&mut self, idx: u32) -> Float32Array {
+            let dim = self.dim as usize;
+            let vectors = self.get_vectors();
+            let start = idx as usize * dim;
+            vectors.slice(start, dim)
+        }
+
+        fn generate_batches(&mut self) -> impl RecordBatchReader + Send + 'static {
+            let dim = self.dim as usize;
+            let vectors_array = self.get_vectors();
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                Self::COLUMN,
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    dim as i32,
+                ),
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let array = Arc::new(
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors_array.clone(), dim as i32).unwrap(),
+            );
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![array]).unwrap();
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema)
+        }
+
+        async fn generate_dataset(&mut self, test_uri: &str) -> Result<Dataset> {
+            let batches = self.generate_batches();
+            Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await
+        }
+
+        async fn check_index<F: Fn(u64) -> Option<u64>>(
+            &mut self,
+            index: &IVFIndex,
+            prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+            ids_to_test: &[u64],
+            row_id_map: F,
+        ) {
+            const ROWS_TO_TEST: u32 = 500;
+            let num_vectors = ids_to_test.len() as u32 / self.dim;
+            let num_tests = ROWS_TO_TEST.min(num_vectors);
+            let row_ids_to_test = sample_without_replacement(ids_to_test, num_tests);
+            for row_id in row_ids_to_test {
+                let row = self.get_vector(row_id as u32);
+                let query = Query {
+                    column: Self::COLUMN.to_string(),
+                    key: Arc::new(row),
+                    k: 5,
+                    lower_bound: None,
+                    upper_bound: None,
+                    minimum_nprobes: 1,
+                    maximum_nprobes: None,
+                    ef: None,
+                    refine_factor: None,
+                    metric_type: Some(MetricType::L2),
+                    use_index: true,
+                    query_parallelism: lance_index::vector::DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
+                    dist_q_c: 0.0,
+                    approx_mode: Default::default(),
+                };
+                let (partitions, _) = index.find_partitions(&query).unwrap();
+                let nearest_partition_id = partitions.value(0) as usize;
+                let search_result = index
+                    .search_in_partition(
+                        nearest_partition_id,
+                        &query,
+                        prefilter.clone(),
+                        &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                let found_ids = search_result.column(1);
+                let found_ids = found_ids.as_any().downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>().unwrap();
+                let expected_id = row_id_map(row_id);
+
+                match expected_id {
+                    // Original id was deleted, results can be anything, just make sure they don't
+                    // include the original id
+                    None => assert!(!found_ids.iter().any(|f_id| f_id.unwrap() == row_id)),
+                    // Original id remains or was remapped, make sure expected id in results
+                    Some(expected_id) => {
+                        assert!(found_ids.iter().any(|f_id| f_id.unwrap() == expected_id))
+                    }
+                };
+                // The invalid row id should never show up in results
+                assert!(
+                    !found_ids
+                        .iter()
+                        .any(|f_id| f_id.unwrap() == RowAddress::TOMBSTONE_ROW)
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn generate_test_dataset(
+        test_uri: &str,
+        range: Range<f32>,
+    ) -> (Dataset, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>) {
+        generate_test_dataset_with_rows(test_uri, range, 1000).await
+    }
+
+    async fn generate_test_dataset_with_rows(
+        test_uri: &str,
+        range: Range<f32>,
+        num_rows: usize,
+    ) -> (Dataset, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>) {
+        let vectors = generate_random_array_with_range::<Float32Type>(num_rows * DIM, range);
+        let metadata: HashMap<String, String> = vec![("test".to_string(), "ivf_pq".to_string())]
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(
+            Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    DIM as i32,
+                ),
+                true,
+            )])
+            .with_metadata(metadata),
+        );
+        let array = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, DIM as i32).unwrap());
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![array.clone()]).unwrap();
+
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        (dataset, array)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_with_centroids() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let (mut dataset, vector_array) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+
+        let centroids = generate_random_array(2 * DIM);
+        let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, Arc::new(ivf_centroids)).unwrap();
+
+        let codebook = Arc::new(generate_random_array(256 * DIM));
+        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::with_codebook(4, 8, codebook);
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(MetricType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params);
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let sample_query = vector_array.value(10);
+        let query = sample_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", query, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(1, results.len());
+        assert_eq!(5, results[0].num_rows());
+    }
+
+    fn partition_ids(mut ids: Vec<u64>, num_parts: u32) -> Vec<Vec<u64>> {
+        if num_parts > ids.len() as u32 {
+            panic!("Not enough ids to break into {num_parts} parts");
+        }
+        let mut rng = rng();
+        ids.shuffle(&mut rng);
+
+        let values_per_part = ids.len() / num_parts as usize;
+        let parts_with_one_extra = ids.len() % num_parts as usize;
+
+        let mut parts = Vec::with_capacity(num_parts as usize);
+        let mut offset = 0;
+        for part_size in (0..num_parts).map(|part_idx| {
+            if part_idx < parts_with_one_extra as u32 {
+                values_per_part + 1
+            } else {
+                values_per_part
+            }
+        }) {
+            parts.push(Vec::from_iter(
+                ids[offset..(offset + part_size)].iter().copied(),
+            ));
+            offset += part_size;
+        }
+
+        parts
+    }
+
+    const BIG_OFFSET: u64 = 10000;
+
+    fn build_mapping(
+        row_ids_to_modify: &[u64],
+        row_ids_to_remove: &[u64],
+        max_id: u64,
+    ) -> HashMap<u64, Option<u64>> {
+        // Some big number we can add to row ids so they are remapped but don't intersect with anything
+        if max_id > BIG_OFFSET {
+            panic!("This logic will only work if the max row id is less than BIG_OFFSET");
+        }
+        row_ids_to_modify
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .map(|val| (val, Some(val + BIG_OFFSET)))
+            .chain(row_ids_to_remove.iter().copied().map(|val| (val, None)))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn remap_ivf_pq_index() {
+        // Use small numbers to keep runtime down
+        const DIM: u32 = 8;
+        const CENTROIDS: u32 = 2;
+        const NUM_SUBVECTORS: u32 = 4;
+        const NUM_BITS: u32 = 8;
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "my_index";
+
+        // In this test we create a sample dataset with reliable data, train an IVF PQ index
+        // remap the rows, and then verify that we can still search the index and will get
+        // back the remapped row ids.
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let mut test_data = WellKnownIvfPqData::new(DIM, CENTROIDS);
+
+        let dataset = Arc::new(test_data.generate_dataset(test_uri).await.unwrap());
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(
+            CENTROIDS as usize,
+            test_data.get_centroids_as_list_arr(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(NUM_SUBVECTORS as usize, NUM_BITS as usize);
+
+        let uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        build_ivf_pq_index(
+            &dataset,
+            WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN,
+            INDEX_NAME,
+            uuid,
+            MetricType::L2,
+            &ivf_params,
+            &pq_params,
+            lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // After building the index file, we need to register the index metadata
+        // so that the dataset can find it when we try to open it
+        let field = dataset.schema().field(WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN).unwrap();
+        let index_meta = lance_table::format::IndexMetadata {
+            uuid,
+            dataset_version: dataset.version().version,
+            fields: vec![field.id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details_default())),
+            index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION as i32,
+            created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        // We need to commit this index to the dataset so that it can be found
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index_meta.clone()],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        // Apply the transaction to register the index
+        // Since dataset is Arc<Dataset>, we need to create a mutable reference
+        let mut dataset_mut = (*dataset).clone();
+        dataset_mut
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index = dataset_mut
+            .open_vector_index(WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN, &uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ivf_index = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>().unwrap();
+
+        let index_meta = lance_table::format::IndexMetadata {
+            uuid,
+            dataset_version: 0,
+            fields: Vec::new(),
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details_default())),
+            index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION as i32,
+            created_at: None, // Test index, not setting timestamp
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        let prefilter = Arc::new(DatasetPreFilter::new(dataset.clone(), &[index_meta], None));
+
+        let is_not_remapped = Some;
+        let is_remapped = |row_id| Some(row_id + BIG_OFFSET);
+        let is_removed = |_| None;
+        let max_id = test_data.get_vectors().len() as u64 / test_data.dim as u64;
+        let row_ids = Vec::from_iter(0..max_id);
+
+        // Sanity check to make sure the index we built is behaving correctly.  Any
+        // input row, when used as a query, should be found in the results list with
+        // the same id
+        test_data
+            .check_index(ivf_index, prefilter.clone(), &row_ids, is_not_remapped)
+            .await;
+
+        // When remapping we change the id of 1/3 of the rows, we remove another 1/3,
+        // and we keep 1/3 as they are
+        let partitioned_row_ids = partition_ids(row_ids, 3);
+        let row_ids_to_modify = &partitioned_row_ids[0];
+        let row_ids_to_remove = &partitioned_row_ids[1];
+        let row_ids_to_remain = &partitioned_row_ids[2];
+
+        let mapping = build_mapping(row_ids_to_modify, row_ids_to_remove, max_id);
+
+        let new_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        remap_index_file(
+            &dataset_mut,
+            &uuid,
+            &new_uuid,
+            dataset_mut.version().version,
+            ivf_index,
+            &RowAddrTranslator::sync(RowAddrRemap::direct(mapping)),
+            INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN.to_string(),
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // After remapping the index file, we need to register the new index metadata
+        // so that the dataset can find it when we try to open it
+        let field = dataset_mut
+            .schema()
+            .field(WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN)
+            .unwrap();
+        let new_index_meta = lance_table::format::IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: new_uuid,
+            dataset_version: dataset_mut.version().version,
+            fields: vec![field.id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: format!("{}_remapped", INDEX_NAME),
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(dataset_mut.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(vector_index_details_default())),
+            index_version: VECTOR_INDEX_VERSION as i32,
+            created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        // We need to commit this new index to the dataset so it can be found
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset_mut.version().version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![new_index_meta],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        // Apply the transaction to register the new index
+        dataset_mut
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let remapped = dataset_mut
+            .open_vector_index(WellKnownIvfPqData::COLUMN, &new_uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ivf_remapped = remapped.as_any().downcast_ref::<IVFIndex>().unwrap();
+
+        // If the ids were remapped then make sure the new row id is in the results
+        test_data
+            .check_index(
+                ivf_remapped,
+                prefilter.clone(),
+                row_ids_to_modify,
+                is_remapped,
+            )
+            .await;
+        // If the ids were removed then make sure the old row id isn't in the results
+        test_data
+            .check_index(
+                ivf_remapped,
+                prefilter.clone(),
+                row_ids_to_remove,
+                is_removed,
+            )
+            .await;
+        // If the ids were not remapped then make sure they still return the old id
+        test_data
+            .check_index(
+                ivf_remapped,
+                prefilter.clone(),
+                row_ids_to_remain,
+                is_not_remapped,
+            )
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    struct TestPqParams {
+        num_sub_vectors: usize,
+        num_bits: usize,
+    }
+
+    impl TestPqParams {
+        fn small() -> Self {
+            Self {
+                num_sub_vectors: 2,
+                num_bits: 8,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn fast_ivf_params(num_partitions: usize) -> IvfBuildParams {
+        IvfBuildParams {
+            num_partitions: Some(num_partitions),
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn fast_pq_params(num_sub_vectors: usize, num_bits: usize) -> PQBuildParams {
+        PQBuildParams {
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            num_bits,
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn fast_hnsw_params() -> HnswBuildParams {
+        HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .max_level(3)
+            .num_edges(8)
+            .ef_construction(32)
+    }
+
+    // Clippy doesn't like that all start with Ivf but we might have some in the future
+    // that _don't_ start with Ivf so I feel it is meaningful to keep the prefix
+    #[allow(clippy::enum_variant_names)]
+    enum TestIndexType {
+        IvfPq { pq: TestPqParams },
+        IvfHnswPq { pq: TestPqParams, num_edges: usize },
+        IvfHnswSq { num_edges: usize },
+        IvfFlat,
+    }
+
+    struct CreateIndexCase {
+        metric_type: MetricType,
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        dimension: usize,
+        index_type: TestIndexType,
+    }
+
+    // We test L2 and Dot, because L2 PQ uses residuals while Dot doesn't,
+    // so they have slightly different code paths.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::ivf_pq_l2(CreateIndexCase {
+        metric_type: MetricType::L2,
+        num_partitions: 2,
+        dimension: 16,
+        index_type: TestIndexType::IvfPq { pq: TestPqParams::small() },
+    })]
+    #[case::ivf_pq_dot(CreateIndexCase {
+        metric_type: MetricType::Dot,
+        num_partitions: 2,
+        dimension: 2000,
+        index_type: TestIndexType::IvfPq { pq: TestPqParams::small() },
+    })]
+    #[case::ivf_flat(CreateIndexCase { num_partitions: 1, metric_type: MetricType::Dot, dimension: 16, index_type: TestIndexType::IvfFlat })]
+    #[case::ivf_hnsw_pq(CreateIndexCase {
+        num_partitions: 2,
+        metric_type: MetricType::Dot,
+        dimension: 16,
+        index_type: TestIndexType::IvfHnswPq { pq: TestPqParams::small(), num_edges: 4 },
+    })]
+    #[case::ivf_hnsw_sq(CreateIndexCase {
+        metric_type: MetricType::Dot,
+        num_partitions: 2,
+        dimension: 16,
+        index_type: TestIndexType::IvfHnswSq { num_edges: 4 },
+    })]
+    async fn test_create_index_nulls(
+        #[case] test_case: CreateIndexCase,
+        #[values(IndexFileVersion::Legacy, IndexFileVersion::V3)] index_version: IndexFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        // Most vector search algorithms are approximate, so they may not return all results.
+        // IvfFlat is exact under this test's parameters.
+        let is_approximate = !matches!(&test_case.index_type, TestIndexType::IvfFlat);
+        let mut index_params = match test_case.index_type {
+            TestIndexType::IvfPq { pq } => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+                test_case.metric_type,
+                fast_ivf_params(test_case.num_partitions),
+                fast_pq_params(pq.num_sub_vectors, pq.num_bits),
+            ),
+            TestIndexType::IvfHnswPq { pq, num_edges } => {
+                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+                    test_case.metric_type,
+                    fast_ivf_params(test_case.num_partitions),
+                    fast_hnsw_params().num_edges(num_edges),
+                    fast_pq_params(pq.num_sub_vectors, pq.num_bits),
+                )
+            }
+            TestIndexType::IvfFlat => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+                test_case.metric_type,
+                fast_ivf_params(test_case.num_partitions),
+            ),
+            TestIndexType::IvfHnswSq { num_edges } => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+                test_case.metric_type,
+                fast_ivf_params(test_case.num_partitions),
+                fast_hnsw_params().num_edges(num_edges),
+                SQBuildParams::default(),
+            ),
+        };
+        index_params.version(index_version);
+
+        let nrows = 512_usize;
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(test_case.dimension as u32)),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(nrows as u64))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Make every other row null
+        let null_buffer = (0..nrows).map(|i| i % 2 == 0).collect::<BooleanBuffer>();
+        let null_buffer = NullBuffer::new(null_buffer);
+        let vectors = data["vec"]
+            .clone()
+            .to_data()
+            .into_builder()
+            .nulls(Some(null_buffer))
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let vectors = make_array(vectors);
+        let num_non_null = vectors.len() - vectors.logical_null_count();
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(data.schema(), vec![vectors]).unwrap();
+
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create index
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query = vec![0.0; test_case.dimension]
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect::<Float32Array>();
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", &query, nrows)
+            .unwrap()
+            .ef(nrows)
+            .minimum_nprobes(2)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Use a relaxed assertion for approximate indexes.
+        if is_approximate {
+            let recall = results.num_rows() as f32 / num_non_null as f32;
+            assert!(
+                recall >= 0.5,
+                "Recall {} below threshold {} ({}/{})",
+                recall,
+                0.5,
+                results.num_rows(),
+                num_non_null,
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), num_non_null);
+        }
+        assert_eq!(results["vec"].logical_null_count(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_lifecycle_nulls() {
+        // Generate random data with nulls
+        let nrows = 2_000;
+        let dims = 32;
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dims as u32)).with_random_nulls(0.5),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(nrows))
+            .unwrap();
+        let num_non_null = data["vec"].len() - data["vec"].logical_null_count();
+
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Create index
+        let index_params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+            PQBuildParams::new(2, 8),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Check that the index is working
+        async fn check_index(dataset: &Dataset, num_non_null: usize, dims: usize) {
+            let query = vec![0.0; dims].into_iter().collect::<Float32Array>();
+            let results = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .nearest("vec", &query, 2_000)
+                .unwrap()
+                .minimum_nprobes(2)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), num_non_null);
+        }
+        check_index(&dataset, num_non_null, dims).await;
+
+        // Append more data
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dims as u32)).with_random_nulls(0.5),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(500))
+            .unwrap();
+        let num_non_null = data["vec"].len() - data["vec"].logical_null_count() + num_non_null;
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        check_index(&dataset, num_non_null, dims).await;
+
+        // Optimize the index
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+        check_index(&dataset, num_non_null, dims).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_cosine() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let (mut dataset, vector_array) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+
+        let centroids = generate_random_array(2 * DIM);
+        let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, Arc::new(ivf_centroids)).unwrap();
+
+        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(4, 8);
+
+        let params =
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(MetricType::Cosine, ivf_params, pq_params);
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let sample_query = vector_array.value(10);
+        let query = sample_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", query, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(1, results.len());
+        assert_eq!(5, results[0].num_rows());
+        for batch in results.iter() {
+            let dist = &batch["_distance"];
+            dist.as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .for_each(|v| {
+                    assert!(
+                        (0.0..2.0).contains(v),
+                        "Expect cosine value in range [0.0, 2.0], got: {}",
+                        v
+                    )
+                });
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_model_l2() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let (dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 1000.0..1100.0).await;
+
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
+        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            DIM,
+            MetricType::L2,
+            &ivf_params,
+            None,
+            lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(2, ivf_model.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().len());
+        assert_eq!(32, ivf_model.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().value_length());
+        assert_eq!(2, ivf_model.num_partitions());
+
+        // All centroids values should be in the range [1000, 1100]
+        ivf_model
+            .centroids
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .for_each(|v| {
+                assert!((1000.0..1100.0).contains(v));
+            });
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_model_cosine() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let (dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 1000.0..1100.0).await;
+
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
+        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            DIM,
+            MetricType::Cosine,
+            &ivf_params,
+            None,
+            lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(2, ivf_model.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().len());
+        assert_eq!(32, ivf_model.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().value_length());
+        assert_eq!(2, ivf_model.num_partitions());
+
+        // All centroids values should be in the range [1000, 1100]
+        ivf_model
+            .centroids
+            .unwrap()
+            .values()
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .for_each(|v| {
+                assert!(
+                    (-1.0..1.0).contains(v),
+                    "Expect cosine value in range [-1.0, 1.0], got: {}",
+                    v
+                );
+            });
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_dot() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let (mut dataset, vector_array) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+
+        let centroids = generate_random_array(2 * DIM);
+        let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, Arc::new(ivf_centroids)).unwrap();
+
+        let codebook = Arc::new(generate_random_array(256 * DIM));
+        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::with_codebook(4, 8, codebook);
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(MetricType::Dot, ivf_params, pq_params);
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let sample_query = vector_array.value(10);
+        let query = sample_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", query, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_stream()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(1, results.len());
+        assert_eq!(5, results[0].num_rows());
+
+        for batch in results.iter() {
+            let dist = &batch["_distance"];
+            dist.as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .for_each(|v| {
+                    assert!(
+                        (-2.0 * DIM as f32..0.0).contains(v),
+                        "Expect dot product value in range [-2.0 * DIM, 0.0], got: {}",
+                        v
+                    )
+                });
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_model_streaming_training() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = format!("{}/ds", test_dir.as_str());
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(32.into()))
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(512), BatchCount::from(2));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut params = IvfBuildParams::new(8);
+        params.sample_rate = 16;
+        params.streaming_sample_rate = Some(4);
+        params.streaming_refine_passes = 1;
+        params.max_iters = 2;
+
+        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            32,
+            MetricType::L2,
+            &params,
+            None,
+            lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(ivf_model.num_partitions(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(ivf_model.dimension(), 32);
+        assert!(ivf_model.loss().is_none());
+        assert!(
+            compute_test_ivf_loss(&dataset, "vector", &ivf_model)
+                .await
+                .is_finite()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_streaming_ivf_error_joins_progress_worker() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = format!("{}/ds", test_dir.as_str());
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>((DIM as u32).into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(128), BatchCount::from(2));
+        let dataset = Arc::new(Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap());
+
+        let mut params = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
+        params.sample_rate = 8;
+        params.streaming_sample_rate = Some(4);
+        params.max_iters = 2;
+
+        let is_callback_active = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let callback_started = Arc::new(Notify::new());
+        let release_callback = Arc::new(Notify::new());
+        let progress = Arc::new(BlockingFailingProgress {
+            is_first_call: AtomicBool::new(true),
+            is_callback_active: is_callback_active.clone(),
+            callback_started: callback_started.clone(),
+            release_callback: release_callback.clone(),
+        });
+        let mut trainer = tokio::spawn({
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            async move {
+                train_streaming_ivf_model(
+                    dataset.as_ref(),
+                    "vector",
+                    DIM - 1,
+                    MetricType::L2,
+                    &params,
+                    None,
+                    progress,
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+        });
+
+        tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), callback_started.notified())
+            .await
+            .expect("streaming IVF did not report progress");
+        assert!(
+            is_callback_active.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            "progress callback should still be active"
+        );
+
+        let returned_while_callback_active =
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_millis(100), &mut trainer).await;
+        release_callback.notify_one();
+        assert!(
+            returned_while_callback_active.is_err(),
+            "streaming IVF returned while its progress callback was still active"
+        );
+
+        let error = tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), trainer)
+            .await
+            .expect("streaming IVF did not return after the callback was released")
+            .expect("streaming IVF trainer task panicked")
+            .expect_err("the mismatched dimension should fail training");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::Arrow { .. }),
+            "expected the primary centroid conversion error, got: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Incorrect length of values buffer for FixedSizeListArray"),
+            "unexpected training error: {error}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !is_callback_active.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            "progress callback remained active after streaming IVF returned"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Regression test for a hang in the streaming *coreset* trainer
+    /// (`train_streaming_coreset_ivf_model`, taken when `num_partitions > 256`).
+    ///
+    /// That function spawns a `progress_worker` task that loops on
+    /// `progress_rx.recv()` and only terminates once every clone of the mpsc
+    /// sender is dropped. The `on_progress` closure owns a sender clone, and
+    /// `WeightedHierarchicalKMeansParams` used to retain an `on_progress` clone
+    /// that outlived the `progress_worker.await` at the end of the function.
+    /// With a live sender remaining, `recv()` never returned `None`, the worker
+    /// never finished, and the trainer hung forever after all compute was done.
+    ///
+    /// The build is wrapped in a timeout so the regression fails fast rather
+    /// than hanging the test process indefinitely.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_streaming_coreset_ivf_training_terminates() {
+        use lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+        use std::time::Duration;
+
+        #[derive(Debug, Default)]
+        struct CountingProgress {
+            progress_calls: AtomicU64,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait::async_trait]
+        impl IndexBuildProgress for CountingProgress {
+            async fn stage_start(&self, _: &str, _: Option<u64>, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            async fn stage_progress(&self, _: &str, _: u64) -> Result<()> {
+                self.progress_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            async fn stage_complete(&self, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+
+        const SMALL_DIM: usize = 8;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = format!("{}/ds", test_dir.as_str());
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>((SMALL_DIM as u32).into()),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(2048), BatchCount::from(4));
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // > 256 partitions routes through `train_streaming_coreset_ivf_model`.
+        let mut params = IvfBuildParams::new(257);
+        params.sample_rate = 8;
+        params.streaming_sample_rate = Some(4);
+        params.streaming_refine_passes = 1;
+        params.max_iters = 2;
+
+        let progress = Arc::new(CountingProgress::default());
+
+        let ivf_model = tokio::time::timeout(
+            Duration::from_secs(120),
+            build_ivf_model(
+                &dataset,
+                "vector",
+                SMALL_DIM,
+                MetricType::L2,
+                &params,
+                None,
+                progress.clone(),
+            ),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect(
+            "streaming coreset IVF training hung: progress worker never terminated after training",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(ivf_model.num_partitions(), 257);
+        assert_eq!(ivf_model.dimension(), SMALL_DIM);
+        // The progress worker must have processed reports and then joined
+        // cleanly (proven by `build_ivf_model` returning at all).
+        assert!(
+            progress.progress_calls.load(Ordering::Relaxed) > 0,
+            "expected the progress worker to receive at least one report"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// f16 and f64 columns used to survive the streaming trainer's dtype
+    /// normalization unchanged (`convert_to_floating_point` only converts
+    /// integer types) and then hit the unconditional Float32 downcast in the
+    /// coreset path, panicking the build instead of training.
+    ///
+    /// The two cases also take different routes into the trainer: a
+    /// non-nullable column gets the fixed-range sampler, a nullable one the
+    /// resampling path, and each has its own normalization site.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_streaming_coreset_ivf_training_float16() {
+        let values = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float16Type>(2048 * 8, [22; 32]);
+        streaming_coreset_training_completes(values, 8, false).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_streaming_coreset_ivf_training_float64_nullable() {
+        let values = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float64Type>(2048 * 8, [22; 32]);
+        streaming_coreset_training_completes(values, 8, true).await;
+    }
+
+    async fn streaming_coreset_training_completes<T: arrow_array::Array + 'static>(
+        values: T,
+        dimension: usize,
+        nullable: bool,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = format!("{}/ds", test_dir.as_str());
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dimension as i32).unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            fsl.data_type().clone(),
+            nullable,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, &uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut params = IvfBuildParams::new(257);
+        params.sample_rate = 8;
+        params.streaming_sample_rate = Some(4);
+        params.streaming_refine_passes = 1;
+        params.max_iters = 2;
+
+        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            dimension,
+            MetricType::L2,
+            &params,
+            None,
+            noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ivf_model.num_partitions(), 257);
+        assert_eq!(ivf_model.dimension(), dimension);
+        let centroids = ivf_model.centroids_array().expect("trained model");
+        assert_eq!(centroids.value_type(), DataType::Float32);
+        let centroid_values = centroids.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        // The generator draws from [0, 1), and a centroid is a weighted mean of
+        // training rows, so anything outside that range means the cast produced
+        // the wrong values rather than the wrong type.
+        assert!(
+            centroid_values
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|v| (0.0..=1.0).contains(v)),
+            "centroid outside the training range: {:?}",
+            centroid_values
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .find(|v| !(0.0..=1.0).contains(*v)),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Read the f32 values of a training chunk row by row.
+    fn f32_rows(array: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Vec<Vec<f32>> {
+        let dimension = array.value_length() as usize;
+        let values = array.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+        values
+            .chunks(dimension)
+            .map(|row| row.to_vec())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    }
+
+    /// `cast_training_data_to_f32` is the only place the streaming trainers
+    /// normalize dtypes, so it has to keep the values, the row boundaries and
+    /// the nulls intact for every type it accepts, and reject the rest with an
+    /// error rather than let a downstream downcast panic.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cast_training_data_to_f32_converts_supported_types() {
+        let expected = vec![vec![1.0f32, 2.0], vec![3.0, 4.0]];
+
+        let f32_input = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from(vec![1.0f32, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]),
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let out = cast_training_data_to_f32(f32_input).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(f32_rows(&out), expected, "Float32 must pass through");
+
+        let f16_input = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float16Array::from(vec![
+                f16::from_f32(1.0),
+                f16::from_f32(2.0),
+                f16::from_f32(3.0),
+                f16::from_f32(4.0),
+            ]),
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let out = cast_training_data_to_f32(f16_input).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(f32_rows(&out), expected, "Float16 must widen exactly");
+        assert_eq!(out.value_type(), DataType::Float32);
+
+        let f64_input = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float64Array::from(vec![1.0f64, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]),
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let out = cast_training_data_to_f32(f64_input).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(f32_rows(&out), expected, "Float64 must narrow exactly");
+
+        let i8_input =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Int8Array::from(vec![1i8, 2, 3, 4]), 2)
+                .unwrap();
+        let out = cast_training_data_to_f32(i8_input).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(f32_rows(&out), expected, "Int8 must convert");
+    }
+
+    /// The samplers hand over sliced chunks, so the cast has to follow the
+    /// slice rather than the whole underlying buffer.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cast_training_data_to_f32_follows_a_slice() {
+        let input = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float64Array::from(vec![10.0f64, 11.0, 20.0, 21.0, 30.0, 31.0, 40.0, 41.0]),
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let out = cast_training_data_to_f32(input.slice(1, 2)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            f32_rows(&out),
+            vec![vec![20.0f32, 21.0], vec![30.0, 31.0]],
+            "a sliced chunk must map to the rows it points at"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cast_training_data_to_f32_keeps_nulls() {
+        let values = Float16Array::from(vec![
+            f16::from_f32(1.0),
+            f16::from_f32(2.0),
+            f16::ZERO,
+            f16::ZERO,
+            f16::from_f32(3.0),
+            f16::from_f32(4.0),
+        ]);
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float16, false));
+        let nulls = NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, true]);
+        let input = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, 2, Arc::new(values), Some(nulls)).unwrap();
+        let out = cast_training_data_to_f32(input).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(out.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(out.null_count(), 1, "the null row must survive the cast");
+        assert!(out.is_null(1), "the null must stay on the same row");
+    }
+
+    /// An f64 above `f32::MAX` saturates to an infinity instead of failing the
+    /// cast, so the samplers' finite filter no longer covers what the trainers
+    /// get and the cast has to drop those rows itself. A null row is not one of
+    /// them, so it stays.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cast_training_data_to_f32_drops_rows_that_overflow_f32() {
+        let values = Float64Array::from(vec![1.0f64, 2.0, 1e39, 4.0, 0.0, 0.0, 5.0, 6.0]);
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float64, false));
+        let nulls = NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, false, true]);
+        let input = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, 2, Arc::new(values), Some(nulls)).unwrap();
+        let out = cast_training_data_to_f32(input).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            f32_rows(&out),
+            vec![vec![1.0f32, 2.0], vec![0.0, 0.0], vec![5.0, 6.0]],
+            "the row that saturated to an infinity must be dropped, the null row must not"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(out.null_count(), 1, "the null row must survive the filter");
+        assert!(
+            out.is_null(1),
+            "the null must land on the row it started on"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_cast_training_data_to_f32_rejects_unsupported_types() {
+        let input =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt16Array::from(vec![1u16, 2, 3, 4]), 2)
+                .unwrap();
+        let error = cast_training_data_to_f32(input).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("UInt16"),
+            "the error must name the rejected type: {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_training_ranges_are_sorted_and_bounded() {
+        let ranges = generate_fixed_training_ranges(10_000, 1_234, 1_024, 16);
+        assert_eq!(ranges.num_rows(), 1_234);
+        assert!(ranges.ranges.iter().all(|range| {
+            range.start < range.end && range.end <= 10_000 && range_len(range) <= 1_234
+        }));
+        assert!(
+            ranges
+                .ranges
+                .windows(2)
+                .all(|pair| pair[0].end < pair[1].start)
+        );
+
+        let all_rows = generate_fixed_training_ranges(128, 256, 1_024, 16);
+        assert_eq!(all_rows.ranges, vec![0..128]);
+        assert_eq!(all_rows.num_rows(), 128);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fixed_training_ranges_chunk_splits_ranges() {
+        let ranges = FixedIvfTrainingRanges::new(vec![10..20, 30..45]);
+        assert_eq!(ranges.num_rows(), 25);
+        assert_eq!(ranges.chunk(0, 5), vec![10..15]);
+        assert_eq!(ranges.chunk(5, 12), vec![15..20, 30..37]);
+        assert_eq!(ranges.chunk(20, 10), vec![40..45]);
+        assert!(ranges.chunk(25, 10).is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_split_ranges_by_row_count() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            split_ranges_by_row_count(&[10..25, 30..33], 8),
+            vec![10..18, 18..25, 30..33]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            split_ranges_by_row_count(&[5..8], 0),
+            vec![5..6, 6..7, 7..8]
+        );
+        assert!(split_ranges_by_row_count(&[], 8).is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_streaming_ivf_progress_throttle() {
+        assert!(should_report_streaming_ivf_progress(1, 64));
+        assert!(!should_report_streaming_ivf_progress(63, 64));
+        assert!(should_report_streaming_ivf_progress(64, 64));
+        assert!(should_report_streaming_ivf_progress(128, 64));
+        assert!(should_report_streaming_ivf_progress(2, 0));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_streaming_coreset_default_rate_is_bounded_by_stream_rate() {
+        assert_eq!(default_streaming_coreset_rate(256, 1), 1);
+        assert_eq!(default_streaming_coreset_rate(256, 16), 16);
+        assert_eq!(default_streaming_coreset_rate(256, 128), 64);
+        assert_eq!(default_streaming_coreset_rate(8, 128), 8);
+        assert_eq!(streaming_coreset_rate(256, 128, Some(16)), 16);
+        assert_eq!(
+            streaming_local_coreset_k(1024, 1024 * 128, 16, 2, true),
+            1024 * 8
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            streaming_local_coreset_k(1024, 1024 * 128, 16, 2, false),
+            1024
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Check that the index is working
-        async fn check_index(dataset: &Dataset, num_non_null: usize, dims: usize) {
-            let query = vec![0.0; dims].into_iter().collect::<Float32Array>();
-            let results = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .nearest("vec", &query, 2_000)
-                .unwrap()
-                .minimum_nprobes(2)
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), num_non_null);
-        }
-        check_index(&dataset, num_non_null, dims).await;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_weighted_coreset_reduction_groups_nearby_centroids() {
+        let mut coreset = WeightedCoreset::new(1, 4);
+        coreset.push(&[0.0], 1.0, 0.0);
+        coreset.push(&[100.0], 1.0, 0.0);
+        coreset.push(&[1.0], 1.0, 0.0);
+        coreset.push(&[101.0], 1.0, 0.0);
+
+        coreset.reduce_to_budget(1, 2);
+
+        assert_eq!(coreset.len(), 2);
+        assert!((coreset.values[0] - 0.5).abs() < 1e-6);
+        assert!((coreset.values[1] - 100.5).abs() < 1e-6);
+        assert_eq!(coreset.weights, vec![2.0, 2.0]);
+        assert!((coreset.losses.iter().sum::<f64>() - 1.0).abs() < 1e-6);
+    }
 
-        // Append more data
-        let data = gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "vec",
-                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dims as u32)).with_random_nulls(0.5),
-            )
-            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(500))
-            .unwrap();
-        let num_non_null = data["vec"].len() - data["vec"].logical_null_count() + num_non_null;
-        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
-            .with_params(&WriteParams {
-                mode: WriteMode::Append,
-                ..Default::default()
-            })
-            .execute(vec![data])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        check_index(&dataset, num_non_null, dims).await;
+    #[test]
+    fn test_weighted_kmeanspp_initialization_selects_distant_centroids() {
+        let values = vec![0.0, 0.1, 100.0, 101.0];
+        let weights = vec![1.0; 4];
+        let centroids = initialize_weighted_centroids(&values, 1, 2, 4, &weights);
 
-        // Optimize the index
-        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
-        check_index(&dataset, num_non_null, dims).await;
+        assert_eq!(centroids.len(), 2);
+        assert!(
+            (centroids[0] - centroids[1]).abs() > 10.0,
+            "weighted kmeans++ should seed distant coreset regions, got {:?}",
+            centroids
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_cosine() {
+    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_f16() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
-        let (mut dataset, vector_array) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
-
-        let centroids = generate_random_array(2 * DIM);
-        let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIM as i32).unwrap();
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, Arc::new(ivf_centroids)).unwrap();
-
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(4, 8);
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                DIM as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        )]));
 
-        let params =
-            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(MetricType::Cosine, ivf_params, pq_params);
+        let arr = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float16Type>(1000 * DIM, [22; 32]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(arr, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+            PQBuildParams::new(4, 8),
+        );
         dataset
             .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let sample_query = vector_array.value(10);
-        let query = sample_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
         let results = dataset
             .scan()
-            .nearest("vector", query, 5)
+            .nearest(
+                "vector",
+                &Float32Array::from_iter_values(repeat_n(0.5, DIM)),
+                5,
+            )
             .unwrap()
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
@@ -3034,109 +6906,67 @@ mod tests {
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(1, results.len());
-        assert_eq!(5, results[0].num_rows());
-        for batch in results.iter() {
-            let dist = &batch["_distance"];
-            dist.as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-                .values()
-                .iter()
-                .for_each(|v| {
-                    assert!(
-                        (0.0..2.0).contains(v),
-                        "Expect cosine value in range [0.0, 2.0], got: {}",
-                        v
-                    )
-                });
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_build_ivf_model_l2() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-
-        let (dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 1000.0..1100.0).await;
-
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
-        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(&dataset, "vector", DIM, MetricType::L2, &ivf_params)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(2, ivf_model.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().len());
-        assert_eq!(32, ivf_model.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().value_length());
-        assert_eq!(2, ivf_model.num_partitions());
-
-        // All centroids values should be in the range [1000, 1100]
-        ivf_model
-            .centroids
-            .unwrap()
-            .values()
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .for_each(|v| {
-                assert!((1000.0..1100.0).contains(v));
-            });
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_build_ivf_model_cosine() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-
-        let (dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 1000.0..1100.0).await;
-
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
-        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(&dataset, "vector", DIM, MetricType::Cosine, &ivf_params)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(2, ivf_model.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().len());
-        assert_eq!(32, ivf_model.centroids.as_ref().unwrap().value_length());
-        assert_eq!(2, ivf_model.num_partitions());
-
-        // All centroids values should be in the range [1000, 1100]
-        ivf_model
-            .centroids
-            .unwrap()
-            .values()
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .for_each(|v| {
-                assert!(
-                    (-1.0..1.0).contains(v),
-                    "Expect cosine value in range [-1.0, 1.0], got: {}",
-                    v
-                );
-            });
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(results[0].num_rows(), 5);
+        let batch = &results[0];
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.schema(),
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new(
+                    "vector",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                        DIM as i32,
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                Field::new("_distance", DataType::Float32, true)
+            ]))
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_dot() {
+    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_f16_with_codebook() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
-        let (mut dataset, vector_array) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
-
-        let centroids = generate_random_array(2 * DIM);
-        let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIM as i32).unwrap();
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, Arc::new(ivf_centroids)).unwrap();
-
-        let codebook = Arc::new(generate_random_array(256 * DIM));
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::with_codebook(4, 8, codebook);
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                DIM as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        )]));
 
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(MetricType::Dot, ivf_params, pq_params);
+        let arr = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float16Type>(1000 * DIM, [22; 32]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(arr, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
+        let codebook = Arc::new(generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float16Type>(
+            256 * DIM,
+            [22; 32],
+        ));
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+            PQBuildParams::with_codebook(4, 8, codebook),
+        );
         dataset
             .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let sample_query = vector_array.value(10);
-        let query = sample_query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
         let results = dataset
             .scan()
-            .nearest("vector", query, 5)
+            .nearest(
+                "vector",
+                &Float32Array::from_iter_values(repeat_n(0.5, DIM)),
+                5,
+            )
             .unwrap()
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
@@ -3144,26 +6974,85 @@ mod tests {
             .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(1, results.len());
-        assert_eq!(5, results[0].num_rows());
+        assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(results[0].num_rows(), 5);
+        let batch = &results[0];
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch.schema(),
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new(
+                    "vector",
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
+                        DIM as i32,
+                    ),
+                    true,
+                ),
+                Field::new("_distance", DataType::Float32, true)
+            ]))
+        );
+    }
 
-        for batch in results.iter() {
-            let dist = &batch["_distance"];
-            dist.as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-                .values()
-                .iter()
-                .for_each(|v| {
-                    assert!(
-                        (-2.0 * DIM as f32..0.0).contains(v),
-                        "Expect dot product value in range [-2.0 * DIM, 0.0], got: {}",
-                        v
-                    )
-                });
-        }
+    /// A codebook whose sub-vector width disagrees with the column used to be
+    /// accepted: the PQ transform derives the width from the column, so an
+    /// oversized codebook had its sub-vector boundaries read at the wrong
+    /// offsets and produced a searchable but wrong index, with no error.
+    ///
+    /// The two index file versions reach the codebook through different
+    /// writers, so both are covered.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v3(IndexFileVersion::V3)]
+    #[case::legacy(IndexFileVersion::Legacy)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_rejects_mismatched_codebook(#[case] version: IndexFileVersion) {
+        const DIM: usize = 32;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                DIM as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let arr = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(1000 * DIM, [22; 32]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(arr, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Twice the required 256 * DIM. Divisible by the column dimension, so
+        // nothing downstream complains on its own.
+        let codebook = Arc::new(generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(
+            256 * DIM * 2,
+            [22; 32],
+        ));
+        let mut params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            fast_ivf_params(2),
+            PQBuildParams::with_codebook(4, 8, codebook),
+        );
+        params.version = version;
+        let error = dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("a codebook that does not match the column must be rejected");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains(&(256 * DIM * 2).to_string())
+                && message.contains(&(256 * DIM).to_string()),
+            "the error must give the supplied and the required size: {message}"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_f16() {
+    async fn test_create_ivf_flat_f16() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
@@ -3183,23 +7072,16 @@ mod tests {
         let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
-            MetricType::L2,
-            IvfBuildParams::new(2),
-            PQBuildParams::new(4, 8),
-        );
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::L2);
         dataset
             .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
+        let query = Float16Array::from_iter_values(repeat_n(f16::from_f32(0.5), DIM));
         let results = dataset
             .scan()
-            .nearest(
-                "vector",
-                &Float32Array::from_iter_values(repeat_n(0.5, DIM)),
-                5,
-            )
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 5)
             .unwrap()
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
@@ -3209,25 +7091,16 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(results[0].num_rows(), 5);
-        let batch = &results[0];
-        assert_eq!(
-            batch.schema(),
-            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-                Field::new(
-                    "vector",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
-                        DIM as i32,
-                    ),
-                    true,
-                ),
-                Field::new("_distance", DataType::Float32, true)
-            ]))
-        );
+        let schema = results[0].schema();
+        let field = schema.field(0);
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _) = field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("vector column should remain fixed size list");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(item.data_type(), &DataType::Float16);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_ivf_pq_f16_with_codebook() {
+    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_flat_f16() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
@@ -3247,27 +7120,20 @@ mod tests {
         let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-        let codebook = Arc::new(generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float16Type>(
-            256 * DIM,
-            [22; 32],
-        ));
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
             MetricType::L2,
             IvfBuildParams::new(2),
-            PQBuildParams::with_codebook(4, 8, codebook),
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
         );
         dataset
             .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
+        let query = Float16Array::from_iter_values(repeat_n(f16::from_f32(0.5), DIM));
         let results = dataset
             .scan()
-            .nearest(
-                "vector",
-                &Float32Array::from_iter_values(repeat_n(0.5, DIM)),
-                5,
-            )
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 5)
             .unwrap()
             .try_into_stream()
             .await
@@ -3277,21 +7143,12 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(results.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(results[0].num_rows(), 5);
-        let batch = &results[0];
-        assert_eq!(
-            batch.schema(),
-            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-                Field::new(
-                    "vector",
-                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float16, true)),
-                        DIM as i32,
-                    ),
-                    true,
-                ),
-                Field::new("_distance", DataType::Float32, true)
-            ]))
-        );
+        let schema = results[0].schema();
+        let field = schema.field(0);
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _) = field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("vector column should remain fixed size list");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(item.data_type(), &DataType::Float16);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -3365,12 +7222,13 @@ mod tests {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
-        let nlist = 4;
-        let (mut dataset, vector_array) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        let nlist = 2;
+        let (mut dataset, vector_array) =
+            generate_test_dataset_with_rows(test_uri, 0.0..1.0, 512).await;
 
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::default();
-        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+        let ivf_params = fast_ivf_params(nlist);
+        let pq_params = fast_pq_params(4, 8);
+        let hnsw_params = fast_hnsw_params();
         let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
             MetricType::L2,
             ivf_params,
@@ -3385,23 +7243,20 @@ mod tests {
 
         let query = vector_array.value(0);
         let query = query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
-        let k = 100;
+        let k = 20;
         let results = dataset
             .scan()
             .with_row_id()
             .nearest("vector", query, k)
             .unwrap()
             .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
-            .try_into_stream()
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .ef(64)
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(1, results.len());
-        assert_eq!(k, results[0].num_rows());
+        assert_eq!(k, results.num_rows());
 
-        let row_ids = results[0]
+        let row_ids = results
             .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
             .unwrap()
             .as_any()
@@ -3410,7 +7265,7 @@ mod tests {
             .iter()
             .map(|v| v.unwrap() as u32)
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let dists = results[0]
+        let dists = results
             .column_by_name("_distance")
             .unwrap()
             .as_any()
@@ -3424,10 +7279,19 @@ mod tests {
 
         let results_set = results.iter().map(|r| r.1).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
         let gt_set = gt.iter().map(|r| r.1).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(results_set.len(), k, "search returned duplicate row ids");
+        assert!(
+            results.iter().all(|(distance, _)| distance.is_finite()),
+            "search returned a non-finite distance: {results:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            results.windows(2).all(|pair| pair[0].0 <= pair[1].0),
+            "search distances are not sorted: {results:?}"
+        );
 
         let recall = results_set.intersection(&gt_set).count() as f32 / k as f32;
         assert!(
-            recall >= 0.9,
+            recall >= 0.5,
             "recall: {}\n results: {:?}\n\ngt: {:?}",
             recall,
             results,
@@ -3545,28 +7409,26 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap();
         let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
         let idx = dataset
-            .open_generic_index(
-                "vector",
-                indices[0].uuid.to_string().as_str(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_generic_index("vector", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let ivf_idx = idx.as_any().downcast_ref::<v2::IvfPq>().unwrap();
 
-        assert!(ivf_idx
-            .ivf_model()
-            .centroids
-            .as_ref()
-            .unwrap()
-            .values()
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .all(|v| (0.0..=1.0).contains(v)));
+        assert!(
+            ivf_idx
+                .ivf_model()
+                .centroids
+                .as_ref()
+                .unwrap()
+                .values()
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|v| (0.0..=1.0).contains(v))
+        );
 
         // PQ code is on residual space
-        let pq_store = ivf_idx.load_partition_storage(0).await.unwrap();
+        let pq_store = ivf_idx.load_partition_storage(0, None).await.unwrap();
         pq_store
             .codebook()
             .values()
@@ -3602,68 +7464,346 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(correct_times >= 9, "correct: {}", correct_times);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_model_progress_callback() {
+        use lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
+        use tokio::sync::Mutex;
+
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct RecordingProgress {
+            calls: Arc<Mutex<Vec<(String, u64)>>>,
+        }
+
+        #[async_trait::async_trait]
+        impl IndexBuildProgress for RecordingProgress {
+            async fn stage_start(&self, _: &str, _: Option<u64>, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            async fn stage_progress(&self, stage: &str, completed: u64) -> Result<()> {
+                self.calls.lock().await.push((stage.to_string(), completed));
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            async fn stage_complete(&self, _: &str) -> Result<()> {
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let (dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset(test_uri, 1000.0..1100.0).await;
+
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
+        let calls: Arc<Mutex<Vec<(String, u64)>>> = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let progress: Arc<dyn IndexBuildProgress> = Arc::new(RecordingProgress {
+            calls: calls.clone(),
+        });
+
+        let ivf_model = build_ivf_model(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            DIM,
+            MetricType::L2,
+            &ivf_params,
+            None,
+            progress,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(2, ivf_model.num_partitions());
+
+        // Let spawned progress tasks complete.
+        tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+
+        let recorded = calls.lock().await;
+        assert!(
+            !recorded.is_empty(),
+            "Expected progress callbacks to be called"
+        );
+        // All calls should be for train_ivf stage
+        for (stage, _) in recorded.iter() {
+            assert_eq!(stage, "train_ivf");
+        }
+        // Completed values should be monotonically increasing
+        for window in recorded.windows(2) {
+            assert!(
+                window[1].1 >= window[0].1,
+                "Expected monotonically increasing progress: {} >= {}",
+                window[1].1,
+                window[0].1,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cleanup_removes_only_partial_dirs() {
-        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
-        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_test_cleanup");
+    async fn test_prewarm_ivf_legacy() {
+        use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let dim = DIM as i32;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), dim),
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let vectors = generate_random_array(512 * DIM);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, dim).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let nlist = 4;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(nlist),
+            PQBuildParams::default(),
+        )
+        .version(IndexFileVersion::Legacy)
+        .clone();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("my_idx".to_owned()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // partial_* directories that should be removed
-        let partial0_file = index_dir.child("partial_0").child("file.bin");
-        let partial_abc_file = index_dir.child("partial_abc").child("file.bin");
+        // Reset IO stats after index creation
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
 
-        // Non-partial paths that must be preserved
-        let partialx_file = index_dir.child("partialX").child("file.bin");
-        let shard_file = index_dir.child("shard_0").child("file.bin");
-        let keep_root_file = index_dir.child("keep_root.txt");
+        // Prewarm should perform IO to load all partitions into cache
+        dataset.prewarm_index("my_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(
+            stats.read_iops > 0,
+            "prewarm should have read from disk, but read_iops was 0"
+        );
 
-        object_store.put(&partial0_file, b"partial0").await.unwrap();
-        object_store
-            .put(&partial_abc_file, b"partial_abc")
+        // Can query index without IO
+        let q = Float32Array::from_iter_values(repeat_n(0.0, DIM));
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &q, 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["_rowid"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        object_store.put(&partialx_file, b"partialx").await.unwrap();
-        object_store.put(&shard_file, b"shard").await.unwrap();
-        object_store.put(&keep_root_file, b"root").await.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            0,
+            "query should not perform IO after prewarm"
+        );
+
+        // Second prewarm should not need IO (already cached)
+        dataset.prewarm_index("my_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_iops, 0, "second prewarm should not perform IO");
+    }
 
-        // Sanity: all files exist before cleanup
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&partial0_file).await.unwrap());
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&partial_abc_file).await.unwrap());
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&partialx_file).await.unwrap());
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&shard_file).await.unwrap());
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&keep_root_file).await.unwrap());
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_prewarm_ivf_legacy_multiple_deltas() {
+        use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
+
+        let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.21.0/bad_index_fragment_bitmap").unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+        let test_uri = &test_uri;
+
+        // Trigger migration to repair legacy corrupt fragment bitmaps.
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        dataset.index_statistics("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Reopen dataset to avoid carrying index state in-memory from migration.
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2, "expected two index deltas for vector_idx");
+        let unique_uuids: HashSet<_> = indices.iter().map(|meta| meta.uuid).collect();
+        assert_eq!(unique_uuids.len(), 2, "expected two unique index UUIDs");
 
-        cleanup_partial_vector_dirs(&object_store, &index_dir)
+        let sample_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .limit(Some(1), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["vector"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let q = sample_batch["vector"]
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<FixedSizeListArray>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .value(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+            .unwrap()
+            .clone();
+
+        // Reset IO stats after migration and sampling.
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+        // Prewarm should perform IO to load all index deltas into cache.
+        dataset.prewarm_index("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(
+            stats.read_iops > 0,
+            "prewarm should have read from disk, but read_iops was 0"
+        );
 
-        // partial_* directories should be removed
-        assert!(!object_store.exists(&partial0_file).await.unwrap());
-        assert!(!object_store.exists(&partial_abc_file).await.unwrap());
+        // Query should not perform index IO after prewarm of all deltas.
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &q, 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["_rowid"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            0,
+            "query should not perform IO after prewarm"
+        );
 
-        // Non-partial directories and root files must be preserved
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&partialx_file).await.unwrap());
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&shard_file).await.unwrap());
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&keep_root_file).await.unwrap());
+        // Second prewarm should not need IO (already cached).
+        dataset.prewarm_index("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_iops, 0, "second prewarm should not perform IO");
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cleanup_idempotent() {
-        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
-        let index_dir = Path::from("index/uuid_test_cleanup_idempotent");
+    async fn test_optimize_ivf_flat_binary_vectors() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        const BIN_DIM: usize = 16;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "bin_vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                BIN_DIM as i32,
+            ),
+            true,
+        )]));
+
+        let arr = arrow_array::UInt8Array::from_iter_values((0..1000 * BIN_DIM).map(|i| i as u8));
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(arr, BIN_DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, MetricType::Hamming);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["bin_vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Append more data so optimize_indices has unindexed fragments to merge
+        let arr2 =
+            arrow_array::UInt8Array::from_iter_values((0..500 * BIN_DIM).map(|i| (i + 7) as u8));
+        let fsl2 = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(arr2, BIN_DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let batch2 = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl2)]).unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![batch2])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // This used to panic with "unsupported index type: FLAT, FLATBIN"
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
 
-        let partial_file = index_dir.child("partial_0").child("file.bin");
-        object_store.put(&partial_file, b"partial").await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!indices.is_empty(), "should have at least one index");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_ivf_hnsw_records_actual_file_sizes() {
+        // Regression test: `optimize_ivf_hnsw_indices` must record the on-disk
+        // file sizes, which are only known after `finish()` writes the footer.
+        const DIM: usize = 16;
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(DIM as u32)),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(1_000))
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = data.schema();
 
-        assert!(object_store.exists(&partial_file).await.unwrap());
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+            .execute(vec![data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        cleanup_partial_vector_dirs(&object_store, &index_dir)
+        // Legacy file version keeps the index on the v1 path that goes through
+        // `optimize_ivf_hnsw_indices`.
+        let mut params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            MetricType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(50),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        params.version(IndexFileVersion::Legacy);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, false)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert!(!object_store.exists(&partial_file).await.unwrap());
 
-        // Second call should succeed even when there are no partial_* directories left.
-        cleanup_partial_vector_dirs(&object_store, &index_dir)
+        // Append unindexed data so `optimize_indices` has something to merge.
+        let more = gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vec",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(DIM as u32)),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(500))
+            .unwrap();
+        let more = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), more.columns().to_vec()).unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![more])
             .await
             .unwrap();
+
+        dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let index = indices.first().expect("should have an index");
+        let files = index
+            .files
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("optimized index should record file sizes");
+        assert!(!files.is_empty(), "index should record at least one file");
+
+        let indices_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(index.uuid.to_string());
+        for file in files {
+            let actual = dataset
+                .object_store
+                .size(&indices_dir.clone().join(file.path.as_str()))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                file.size_bytes, actual,
+                "recorded size for {} must match the on-disk size",
+                file.path
+            );
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/builder.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/builder.rs
index 42cd5569a77..d1961071315 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/builder.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/builder.rs
@@ -13,31 +13,31 @@ use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::{RecordBatchExt, SchemaExt};
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
-use lance_file::previous::writer::FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter;
+use lance_file::versions as file_versions;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::writer::FileWriter as V1FileWriter;
 use lance_file::writer::FileWriterOptions;
+use lance_index::vector::PART_ID_COLUMN;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
 use lance_index::vector::quantizer::Quantizer;
-use lance_index::vector::PART_ID_COLUMN;
 use lance_index::vector::{ivf::storage::IvfModel, transform::Transformer};
-use lance_io::object_writer::ObjectWriter;
 use lance_io::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use lance_table::io::manifest::ManifestDescribing;
 use log::info;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::instrument;
 
-use lance_core::{traits::DatasetTakeRows, Error, Result, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result, traits::DatasetTakeRows};
 use lance_index::vector::{
-    hnsw::{builder::HnswBuildParams, HnswMetadata},
+    hnsw::{HnswMetadata, builder::HnswBuildParams},
     ivf::shuffler::shuffle_dataset,
 };
 use lance_io::{stream::RecordBatchStream, traits::Writer};
 use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
 
+use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+use crate::dataset::index::dataset_format_version;
 use crate::index::vector::ivf::io::write_pq_partitions;
-use crate::Dataset;
 
 use super::io::write_hnsw_quantization_index_partitions;
 
@@ -61,16 +61,15 @@ pub(super) async fn build_partitions(
 ) -> Result<()> {
     let schema = data.schema();
     if schema.column_with_name(column).is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: format!("column {} does not exist in data stream", column),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+            "column {} does not exist in data stream",
+            column
+        )));
     }
     if schema.column_with_name(ROW_ID).is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: "ROW ID is not set when building index partitions".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::schema(
+            "ROW ID is not set when building index partitions".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     let ivf_transformer = lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfTransformer::with_pq(
@@ -146,10 +145,9 @@ fn add_precomputed_partitions(
     partition_map: &[Vec<i32>],
     part_id_field: &ArrowField,
 ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-    let row_ids = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).ok_or(Error::Index {
-        message: "column does not exist".to_string(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
+    let row_ids = batch
+        .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+        .ok_or(Error::index("column does not exist".to_string()))?;
     let part_ids = UInt32Array::from_iter_values(
         row_ids
             .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
@@ -201,7 +199,7 @@ pub async fn write_vector_storage(
     pq: ProductQuantizer,
     distance_type: DistanceType,
     column: &str,
-    writer: ObjectWriter,
+    writer: Box<dyn Writer>,
     precomputed_partitions_ds_uri: Option<&str>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
     info!("Transforming {} vectors for storage", num_rows);
@@ -221,7 +219,11 @@ pub async fn write_vector_storage(
         data.boxed()
     };
 
-    let mut writer = lance_file::writer::FileWriter::new_lazy(writer, FileWriterOptions::default());
+    let mut writer = file_versions::create_lazy_writer(
+        dataset_format_version(dataset),
+        writer,
+        FileWriterOptions::default(),
+    )?;
     let mut transformed_stream = data
         .map_ok(move |batch| {
             let ivf_transformer = ivf_transformer.clone();
@@ -246,8 +248,8 @@ pub async fn write_vector_storage(
 #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(writer, auxiliary_writer, data, ivf, quantizer))]
 pub(super) async fn build_hnsw_partitions(
     dataset: Arc<dyn DatasetTakeRows>,
-    writer: &mut PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
-    auxiliary_writer: Option<&mut PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>>,
+    writer: &mut V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
+    auxiliary_writer: Option<&mut V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>>,
     data: impl RecordBatchStream + Unpin + 'static,
     column: &str,
     ivf: &mut IvfModel,
@@ -262,16 +264,15 @@ pub(super) async fn build_hnsw_partitions(
 ) -> Result<(Vec<HnswMetadata>, IvfModel)> {
     let schema = data.schema();
     if schema.column_with_name(column).is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: format!("column {} does not exist in data stream", column),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::schema(format!(
+            "column {} does not exist in data stream",
+            column
+        )));
     }
     if schema.column_with_name(ROW_ID).is_none() {
-        return Err(Error::Schema {
-            message: "ROW ID is not set when building index partitions".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::schema(
+            "ROW ID is not set when building index partitions".to_string(),
+        ));
     }
 
     let ivf_model = lance_index::vector::ivf::new_ivf_transformer_with_quantizer(
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/io.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/io.rs
index dc06c935521..fd6c0585ee5 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/io.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/io.rs
@@ -8,43 +8,43 @@ use std::{cmp::Reverse, pin::Pin};
 
 use super::IVFIndex;
 use crate::dataset::ROW_ID;
-use crate::index::vector::pq::{build_pq_storage, PQIndex};
+use crate::index::vector::pq::{PQIndex, build_pq_storage};
 use arrow::compute::concat;
-use arrow_array::UInt64Array;
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type, Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array,
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array,
+    cast::AsArray,
+    types::{ArrowPrimitiveType, UInt8Type, UInt64Type},
 };
 use futures::stream::Peekable;
 use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::*;
+use lance_core::Error;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_core::traits::DatasetTakeRows;
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStdDir;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
-use lance_core::Error;
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
-use lance_file::previous::writer::FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::writer::FileWriter as V1FileWriter;
 use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-use lance_index::scalar::IndexWriter;
 use lance_index::vector::hnsw::HNSW;
-use lance_index::vector::hnsw::{builder::HnswBuildParams, HnswMetadata};
+use lance_index::vector::hnsw::{HnswMetadata, builder::HnswBuildParams};
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
-use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::transpose;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::transpose;
 use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{Quantization, Quantizer};
 use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
 use lance_index::vector::{PART_ID_COLUMN, PQ_CODE_COLUMN};
-use lance_io::encodings::plain::PlainEncoder;
+use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
 use lance_io::traits::Writer;
-use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
 use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
 use lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl;
 use lance_table::format::SelfDescribingFileReader;
 use lance_table::io::manifest::ManifestDescribing;
 use object_store::path::Path;
-use snafu::location;
+use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 use tokio::sync::Semaphore;
+use tokio::task::JoinHandle;
 
 use crate::Result;
 
@@ -52,6 +52,75 @@ use crate::Result;
 static HNSW_PARTITIONS_BUILD_PARALLEL: LazyLock<usize> =
     LazyLock::new(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus);
 
+async fn write_primitive_values<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    writer: &mut dyn Writer,
+    array: &PrimitiveArray<T>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let data = array.to_data();
+    let byte_width = std::mem::size_of::<T::Native>();
+    let start = array.offset() * byte_width;
+    let end = start + array.len() * byte_width;
+    writer
+        .write_all(&data.buffers()[0].as_slice()[start..end])
+        .await?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn write_pq_codes(writer: &mut dyn Writer, arrays: &[&dyn Array]) -> Result<()> {
+    for array in arrays {
+        // Loaded legacy partitions expose transposed codes as flat UInt8 arrays,
+        // while newly shuffled partitions supply FixedSizeList<UInt8>.
+        if let Some(values) = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt8Type>>() {
+            write_primitive_values(writer, values).await?;
+        } else if let Some(codes) = array.as_any().downcast_ref::<FixedSizeListArray>() {
+            let value_offset = codes.value_offset(0) as usize;
+            let value_len = codes.len() * codes.value_length() as usize;
+            let values = codes.values().slice(value_offset, value_len);
+            let values = values
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt8Type>>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::index(format!(
+                        "legacy IVF PQ code values must be UInt8, found {}",
+                        values.data_type()
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            write_primitive_values(writer, values).await?;
+        } else {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "legacy IVF PQ codes must be UInt8 or FixedSizeList<UInt8>, found {}",
+                array.data_type()
+            )));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn write_row_ids(writer: &mut dyn Writer, arrays: &[&dyn Array]) -> Result<()> {
+    for array in arrays {
+        let row_ids = array
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
+                    "legacy IVF row ids must be UInt64, found {}",
+                    array.data_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        write_primitive_values(writer, row_ids).await?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub(super) async fn write_pq_partition_payload(
+    writer: &mut dyn Writer,
+    pq_codes: &[&dyn Array],
+    row_ids: &[&dyn Array],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    write_pq_codes(writer, pq_codes).await?;
+    write_row_ids(writer, row_ids).await
+}
+
 /// Merge streams with the same partition id and collect PQ codes and row IDs.
 async fn merge_streams(
     streams_heap: &mut BinaryHeap<(Reverse<u32>, usize)>,
@@ -71,15 +140,11 @@ async fn merge_streams(
         let batch = match stream.next().await {
             Some(Ok(batch)) => batch,
             Some(Err(e)) => {
-                return Err(Error::io(
-                    format!("failed to read batch: {}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::io(format!("failed to read batch: {}", e)));
             }
             None => {
                 return Err(Error::io(
                     "failed to read batch: unexpected end of stream".to_string(),
-                    location!(),
                 ));
             }
         };
@@ -97,10 +162,7 @@ async fn merge_streams(
             let codes = Arc::new(
                 batch
                     .column_by_name(column)
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("code column {} not found", column),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::index(format!("code column {} not found", column)))?
                     .as_fixed_size_list()
                     .clone(),
             );
@@ -118,10 +180,10 @@ async fn merge_streams(
                 }
             }
             Some(Err(e)) => {
-                return Err(Error::io(
-                    format!("IVF Shuffler::failed to read batch: {}", e),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::io(format!(
+                    "IVF Shuffler::failed to read batch: {}",
+                    e
+                )));
             }
             None => {}
         }
@@ -167,16 +229,10 @@ pub(super) async fn write_pq_partitions(
                     new_streams.push(stream);
                 }
                 Some(Err(e)) => {
-                    return Err(Error::io(
-                        format!("failed to read batch: {}", e),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::io(format!("failed to read batch: {}", e)));
                 }
                 None => {
-                    return Err(Error::io(
-                        "failed to read batch: end of stream".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::io("failed to read batch: end of stream".to_string()));
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -192,14 +248,10 @@ pub(super) async fn write_pq_partitions(
                 let sub_index = idx
                     .load_partition(part_id as usize, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
                     .await?;
-                let pq_index =
-                    sub_index
-                        .as_any()
-                        .downcast_ref::<PQIndex>()
-                        .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                            message: "Invalid sub index".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
+                let pq_index = sub_index
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<PQIndex>()
+                    .ok_or(Error::index("Invalid sub index".to_string()))?;
                 if let Some(pq_code) = pq_index.code.as_ref() {
                     let row_ids = pq_index.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap();
                     let num_vectors = row_ids.len();
@@ -240,10 +292,8 @@ pub(super) async fn write_pq_partitions(
         ivf.add_partition_with_offset(writer.tell().await?, total_records as u32);
         if total_records > 0 {
             let pq_refs = pq_array.iter().map(|a| a.as_ref()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            PlainEncoder::write(writer, &pq_refs).await?;
-
             let row_ids_refs = row_id_array.iter().map(|a| a.as_ref()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            PlainEncoder::write(writer, row_ids_refs.as_slice()).await?;
+            write_pq_partition_payload(writer, &pq_refs, &row_ids_refs).await?;
         }
         log::info!(
             "Wrote partition {} in {} ms",
@@ -260,8 +310,8 @@ pub(super) async fn write_hnsw_quantization_index_partitions(
     column: &str,
     distance_type: DistanceType,
     hnsw_params: &HnswBuildParams,
-    writer: &mut PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
-    mut auxiliary_writer: Option<&mut PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>>,
+    writer: &mut V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
+    mut auxiliary_writer: Option<&mut V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>>,
     ivf: &mut IvfModel,
     quantizer: Quantizer,
     streams: Option<Vec<impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>>>>,
@@ -286,176 +336,244 @@ pub(super) async fn write_hnsw_quantization_index_partitions(
                     new_streams.push(stream);
                 }
                 Some(Err(e)) => {
-                    return Err(Error::io(
-                        format!("failed to read batch: {}", e),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::io(format!("failed to read batch: {}", e)));
                 }
                 None => {
-                    return Err(Error::io(
-                        "failed to read batch: end of stream".to_string(),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::io("failed to read batch: end of stream".to_string()));
                 }
             }
         }
     }
 
     let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
-    let mut part_files = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
-    let mut aux_part_files = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
-    let tmp_part_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(TempStdDir::default())?;
-    let mut tasks = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
-    let sem = Arc::new(Semaphore::new(*HNSW_PARTITIONS_BUILD_PARALLEL));
-    for part_id in 0..ivf.num_partitions() {
-        part_files.push(tmp_part_dir.child(format!("hnsw_part_{}", part_id)));
-        aux_part_files.push(tmp_part_dir.child(format!("hnsw_part_aux_{}", part_id)));
-
-        let mut code_array: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = vec![];
-        let mut row_id_array: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = vec![];
+    // Partitions are staged in this scratch dir, then merged into the final index.
+    // Share the guard with every task via `Arc` so its `Drop` removes the dir only
+    // after the last task finishes -- never while one is still writing.
+    let tmp_part_dir_guard = Arc::new(TempStdDir::default());
+    let tmp_part_dir = Path::from_filesystem_path(&**tmp_part_dir_guard)?;
 
-        // We don't transform vectors to SQ codes while shuffling,
-        // so we won't merge SQ codes from the stream.
+    // `Option` per handle so the consume loop can `take()` each one, leaving the
+    // not-yet-consumed handles for the error-path drain.
+    let mut tasks: Vec<Option<JoinHandle<Result<usize>>>> =
+        Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
 
-        if let Some(&previous_indices) = existing_indices.as_ref() {
-            for &idx in previous_indices.iter() {
-                let sub_index = idx
-                    .load_partition(part_id, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-                    .await?;
-                let row_ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(sub_index.row_ids().cloned()));
-                row_id_array.push(row_ids);
-            }
-        }
+    let build_result: Result<(Vec<HnswMetadata>, IvfModel)> = async {
+        let mut part_files = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
+        let mut aux_part_files = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
+        let sem = Arc::new(Semaphore::new(*HNSW_PARTITIONS_BUILD_PARALLEL));
+        for part_id in 0..ivf.num_partitions() {
+            part_files.push(tmp_part_dir.clone().join(format!("hnsw_part_{}", part_id)));
+            aux_part_files.push(
+                tmp_part_dir
+                    .clone()
+                    .join(format!("hnsw_part_aux_{}", part_id)),
+            );
 
-        let code_column = match &quantizer {
-            Quantizer::Product(pq) => Some(pq.column()),
-            _ => None,
-        };
-        merge_streams(
-            &mut streams_heap,
-            &mut new_streams,
-            part_id as u32,
-            code_column,
-            &mut code_array,
-            &mut row_id_array,
-        )
-        .await?;
+            let mut code_array: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = vec![];
+            let mut row_id_array: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = vec![];
 
-        if row_id_array.is_empty() {
-            tasks.push(tokio::spawn(async { Ok(0) }));
-            continue;
-        }
+            // We don't transform vectors to SQ codes while shuffling,
+            // so we won't merge SQ codes from the stream.
 
-        let (part_file, aux_part_file) = (&part_files[part_id], &aux_part_files[part_id]);
-        let part_writer = PreviousFileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
-            &object_store,
-            part_file,
-            Schema::try_from(writer.schema())?,
-            &Default::default(),
-        )
-        .await?;
+            if let Some(&previous_indices) = existing_indices.as_ref() {
+                for &idx in previous_indices.iter() {
+                    let sub_index = idx
+                        .load_partition(part_id, true, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                        .await?;
+                    let row_ids =
+                        Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(sub_index.row_ids().cloned()));
+                    row_id_array.push(row_ids);
+                }
+            }
 
-        let aux_part_writer = match auxiliary_writer.as_ref() {
-            Some(writer) => Some(
-                PreviousFileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
-                    &object_store,
-                    aux_part_file,
-                    Schema::try_from(writer.schema())?,
-                    &Default::default(),
-                )
-                .await?,
-            ),
-            None => None,
-        };
+            let code_column = match &quantizer {
+                Quantizer::Product(pq) => Some(pq.column()),
+                _ => None,
+            };
+            merge_streams(
+                &mut streams_heap,
+                &mut new_streams,
+                part_id as u32,
+                code_column,
+                &mut code_array,
+                &mut row_id_array,
+            )
+            .await?;
 
-        let dataset = dataset.clone();
-        let column = column.to_owned();
-        let hnsw_params = hnsw_params.clone();
-        let quantizer = quantizer.clone();
-        let sem = sem.clone();
-        tasks.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
-            let _permit = sem.acquire().await.expect("semaphore error");
-
-            log::debug!("Building HNSW partition {}", part_id);
-            let result = build_hnsw_quantization_partition(
-                dataset,
-                &column,
-                distance_type,
-                hnsw_params,
-                part_writer,
-                aux_part_writer,
-                quantizer,
-                row_id_array,
-                code_array,
+            if row_id_array.is_empty() {
+                tasks.push(Some(tokio::spawn(async { Ok(0) })));
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let (part_file, aux_part_file) = (&part_files[part_id], &aux_part_files[part_id]);
+            let part_writer = V1FileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
+                &object_store,
+                part_file,
+                Schema::try_from(writer.schema())?,
+                &Default::default(),
             )
-            .await;
-            log::debug!("Finished building HNSW partition {}", part_id);
-            result
-        }));
-    }
+            .await?;
 
-    let mut aux_ivf = IvfModel::empty();
-    let mut hnsw_metadata = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
-    for (part_id, task) in tasks.into_iter().enumerate() {
-        let offset = writer.len();
-        let num_rows = task.await??;
+            let aux_part_writer = match auxiliary_writer.as_ref() {
+                Some(writer) => Some(
+                    V1FileWriter::<ManifestDescribing>::try_new(
+                        &object_store,
+                        aux_part_file,
+                        Schema::try_from(writer.schema())?,
+                        &Default::default(),
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+                ),
+                None => None,
+            };
 
-        if num_rows == 0 {
-            ivf.add_partition(0);
-            aux_ivf.add_partition(0);
-            hnsw_metadata.push(HnswMetadata::default());
-            continue;
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let column = column.to_owned();
+            let hnsw_params = hnsw_params.clone();
+            let quantizer = quantizer.clone();
+            let sem = sem.clone();
+            let tmp_part_dir_guard = tmp_part_dir_guard.clone();
+            tasks.push(Some(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                // Hold a guard clone so the scratch dir stays alive while this task writes.
+                let _tmp_part_dir_guard = tmp_part_dir_guard;
+                let _permit = sem.acquire().await.map_err(|err| {
+                    Error::io(format!(
+                        "failed to acquire HNSW partition build permit: {err}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+
+                log::debug!("Building HNSW partition {}", part_id);
+                let result = build_hnsw_quantization_partition(
+                    dataset,
+                    &column,
+                    distance_type,
+                    hnsw_params,
+                    part_writer,
+                    aux_part_writer,
+                    quantizer,
+                    row_id_array,
+                    code_array,
+                )
+                .await;
+                log::debug!("Finished building HNSW partition {}", part_id);
+                result
+            })));
         }
 
-        let (part_file, aux_part_file) = (&part_files[part_id], &aux_part_files[part_id]);
-        let part_reader =
-            PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, part_file, None).await?;
+        let mut aux_ivf = IvfModel::empty();
+        let mut hnsw_metadata = Vec::with_capacity(ivf.num_partitions());
+        for (part_id, task) in tasks.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+            let task = task
+                .take()
+                .expect("each partition task is consumed exactly once");
+            let offset = writer.len();
+            let num_rows = task.await??;
 
-        let batches = futures::stream::iter(0..part_reader.num_batches())
-            .map(|batch_id| {
-                part_reader.read_batch(
-                    batch_id as i32,
-                    ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
-                    part_reader.schema(),
-                )
-            })
-            .buffered(object_store.io_parallelism())
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await?;
-        writer.write(&batches).await?;
-
-        ivf.add_partition((writer.len() - offset) as u32);
-        hnsw_metadata.push(serde_json::from_str(
-            part_reader.schema().metadata[HNSW::metadata_key()].as_str(),
-        )?);
-        std::mem::drop(part_reader);
-        object_store.delete(part_file).await?;
-
-        if let Some(aux_writer) = auxiliary_writer.as_mut() {
-            let aux_part_reader =
-                PreviousFileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, aux_part_file, None)
-                    .await?;
+            if num_rows == 0 {
+                ivf.add_partition(0);
+                aux_ivf.add_partition(0);
+                hnsw_metadata.push(HnswMetadata::default());
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let (part_file, aux_part_file) = (&part_files[part_id], &aux_part_files[part_id]);
+            let part_reader =
+                V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, part_file, None).await?;
 
-            let batches = futures::stream::iter(0..aux_part_reader.num_batches())
+            let batches = futures::stream::iter(0..part_reader.num_batches())
                 .map(|batch_id| {
-                    aux_part_reader.read_batch(
+                    part_reader.read_batch(
                         batch_id as i32,
                         ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
-                        aux_part_reader.schema(),
+                        part_reader.schema(),
                     )
                 })
                 .buffered(object_store.io_parallelism())
                 .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
                 .await?;
-            std::mem::drop(aux_part_reader);
-            object_store.delete(aux_part_file).await?;
+            writer.write(&batches).await?;
+
+            ivf.add_partition((writer.len() - offset) as u32);
+            hnsw_metadata.push(serde_json::from_str(
+                part_reader.schema().metadata[HNSW::metadata_key()].as_str(),
+            )?);
+            std::mem::drop(part_reader);
+            object_store.delete(part_file).await?;
+
+            if let Some(aux_writer) = auxiliary_writer.as_mut() {
+                let aux_part_reader =
+                    V1FileReader::try_new_self_described(&object_store, aux_part_file, None)
+                        .await?;
+
+                let batches = futures::stream::iter(0..aux_part_reader.num_batches())
+                    .map(|batch_id| {
+                        aux_part_reader.read_batch(
+                            batch_id as i32,
+                            ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                            aux_part_reader.schema(),
+                        )
+                    })
+                    .buffered(object_store.io_parallelism())
+                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .await?;
+                std::mem::drop(aux_part_reader);
+                object_store.delete(aux_part_file).await?;
 
-            aux_writer.write(&batches).await?;
-            aux_ivf.add_partition(num_rows as u32);
+                aux_writer.write(&batches).await?;
+                aux_ivf.add_partition(num_rows as u32);
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok((hnsw_metadata, aux_ivf))
+    }
+    .await;
+
+    // On error, abort and await the partition builds we never consumed so none
+    // keep running in the background; see `drain_partition_tasks`.
+    if build_result.is_err() {
+        for err in drain_partition_tasks(&mut tasks).await {
+            log::warn!(
+                "HNSW partition build task failed while draining after an earlier error: {err}"
+            );
         }
     }
 
-    Ok((hnsw_metadata, aux_ivf))
+    build_result
+}
+
+/// Abort and await every still-outstanding partition-build task, returning the
+/// non-cancellation errors they surfaced.
+///
+/// A dropped [`JoinHandle`] detaches its task, so every handle is aborted up front
+/// before any is awaited: otherwise a task slow to observe its own cancellation
+/// would keep running -- and keep writing into the scratch dir -- while an earlier
+/// handle is still being awaited. Awaiting then resolves only once each task has
+/// actually stopped. Cancellation errors are the expected result of the abort and
+/// dropped; failures and panics from tasks that had already finished before the
+/// abort are returned so the caller can surface them (a task still in flight is
+/// cancelled, so this best-effort drain only reports errors already produced).
+async fn drain_partition_tasks(tasks: &mut [Option<JoinHandle<Result<usize>>>]) -> Vec<Error> {
+    for task in tasks.iter() {
+        if let Some(handle) = task.as_ref() {
+            handle.abort();
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut errors = Vec::with_capacity(tasks.len());
+    for task in tasks.iter_mut() {
+        let Some(handle) = task.take() else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        match handle.await {
+            Ok(Ok(_)) => {}
+            Ok(Err(e)) => errors.push(e),
+            Err(join_err) if join_err.is_cancelled() => {}
+            Err(join_err) => errors.push(Error::io(format!(
+                "HNSW partition build task panicked: {join_err}"
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+    errors
 }
 
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
@@ -464,8 +582,8 @@ async fn build_hnsw_quantization_partition(
     column: &str,
     metric_type: MetricType,
     hnsw_params: Arc<HnswBuildParams>,
-    writer: PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
-    aux_writer: Option<PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>>,
+    writer: V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
+    aux_writer: Option<V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>>,
     quantizer: Quantizer,
     row_ids_array: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>>,
     code_array: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>>,
@@ -486,33 +604,36 @@ async fn build_hnsw_quantization_partition(
     let mut metric_type = metric_type;
     if metric_type == MetricType::Cosine {
         // Normalize vectors for cosine similarity
-        vectors =
-            Arc::new(spawn_cpu(move || Ok(normalize_fsl(vectors.as_fixed_size_list())?)).await?);
+        vectors = Arc::new(spawn_cpu(move || normalize_fsl(vectors.as_fixed_size_list())).await?);
         metric_type = MetricType::L2;
     }
 
     let build_hnsw =
         build_and_write_hnsw(vectors.clone(), (*hnsw_params).clone(), metric_type, writer);
 
+    // Build PQ storage as a child future, joined below: it writes `aux_writer`'s
+    // file into the scratch dir, so it is cancelled together with this task when the
+    // error-path drain aborts it, and the join surfaces its errors.
     let build_store = match quantizer {
         Quantizer::Flat(_) => {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "Flat quantizer is not supported for IVF_HNSW".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "Flat quantizer is not supported for IVF_HNSW".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Quantizer::Product(pq) => {
+            let aux_writer = aux_writer.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index("IVF_HNSW_PQ requires an auxiliary writer for PQ storage".to_string())
+            })?;
+            build_and_write_pq_storage(metric_type, row_ids, code_array, pq, aux_writer)
+        }
+        _ => {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "IVF_HNSW_SQ is not supported in the legacy HNSW partition writer".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
-        Quantizer::Product(pq) => tokio::spawn(build_and_write_pq_storage(
-            metric_type,
-            row_ids,
-            code_array,
-            pq,
-            aux_writer.unwrap(),
-        )),
-
-        _ => unreachable!("IVF_HNSW_SQ has been moved to v2 index builder"),
     };
 
-    let index_rows = futures::join!(build_hnsw, build_store).0?;
+    let (index_rows, ()) = futures::try_join!(build_hnsw, build_store)?;
     assert!(
         index_rows >= num_rows,
         "index rows {} must be greater than or equal to num rows {}",
@@ -526,12 +647,12 @@ async fn build_and_write_hnsw(
     vectors: Arc<dyn Array>,
     params: HnswBuildParams,
     distance_type: DistanceType,
-    mut writer: PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
+    mut writer: V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
 ) -> Result<usize> {
     let batch = params.build(vectors, distance_type).await?.to_batch()?;
     let metadata = batch.schema_ref().metadata().clone();
-    writer.write_record_batch(batch).await?;
-    writer.finish_with_metadata(&metadata).await
+    writer.write(&[batch]).await?;
+    Ok(writer.finish_with_metadata(&metadata).await?.num_rows as usize)
 }
 
 async fn build_and_write_pq_storage(
@@ -539,15 +660,11 @@ async fn build_and_write_pq_storage(
     row_ids: Arc<dyn Array>,
     code_array: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>>,
     pq: ProductQuantizer,
-    mut writer: PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
+    mut writer: V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing>,
 ) -> Result<()> {
-    let storage = spawn_cpu(move || {
-        let storage = build_pq_storage(metric_type, row_ids, code_array, pq)?;
-        Ok(storage)
-    })
-    .await?;
+    let storage = spawn_cpu(move || build_pq_storage(metric_type, row_ids, code_array, pq)).await?;
 
-    writer.write_record_batch(storage.batch().clone()).await?;
+    writer.write(&[storage.batch().clone()]).await?;
     writer.finish().await?;
     Ok(())
 }
@@ -556,16 +673,51 @@ async fn build_and_write_pq_storage(
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
-    use crate::index::vector::ivf::v2;
-    use crate::index::{vector::VectorIndexParams, DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+    use std::path::PathBuf;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
     use crate::Dataset;
-    use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+    use crate::index::vector::ivf::v2;
+    use crate::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt, vector::VectorIndexParams};
+    use arrow_array::{RecordBatchIterator, UInt8Array};
     use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempObjFile, TempStrDir};
     use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
     use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn pq_partition_payload_preserves_sliced_values() {
+        let codes =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(UInt8Array::from_iter_values(0..6), 2).unwrap();
+        let codes = codes.slice(1, 2);
+        let flat_codes = UInt8Array::from_iter_values(6..9).slice(1, 2);
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values([10, 11, 12]).slice(1, 2);
+        let flat_row_id = UInt64Array::from_iter_values([13]);
+
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let mut writer = object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+        write_pq_partition_payload(
+            writer.as_mut(),
+            &[&codes as &dyn Array, &flat_codes as &dyn Array],
+            &[&row_ids as &dyn Array, &flat_row_id as &dyn Array],
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        Writer::shutdown(&mut writer).await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = object_store.open(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let bytes = reader.get_range(0..30).await.unwrap();
+        let mut expected = vec![2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8];
+        expected.extend_from_slice(&11_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        expected.extend_from_slice(&12_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        expected.extend_from_slice(&13_u64.to_le_bytes());
+        assert_eq!(bytes.as_ref(), expected);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_merge_multiple_indices() {
         const DIM: usize = 32;
@@ -605,11 +757,7 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(ds.get_fragments().len(), 2);
 
         let idx = ds
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                &indices[0].uuid.to_string(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-            )
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         let _ivf_idx = idx
@@ -619,4 +767,266 @@ mod tests {
 
         //let indices = /ds.
     }
+
+    /// The scratch dir must outlive every partition task: dropping the caller-side
+    /// guard while tasks are still in flight must not remove it, because each task
+    /// still holds an `Arc` clone of the guard.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+    async fn test_scratch_dir_outlives_partition_tasks() {
+        let tmp_part_dir_guard = Arc::new(TempStdDir::default());
+        let scratch_path = tmp_part_dir_guard.to_path_buf();
+
+        // Park each task until the caller-side guard is dropped, so the dir's
+        // survival is attributable solely to the clones the tasks still hold.
+        let running = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let released = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+
+        const NUM_TASKS: usize = 3;
+        let mut tasks = Vec::with_capacity(NUM_TASKS);
+        for _ in 0..NUM_TASKS {
+            let task_guard = tmp_part_dir_guard.clone();
+            let running = running.clone();
+            let released = released.clone();
+            tasks.push(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                running.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                while !released.load(Ordering::SeqCst) {
+                    tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+                }
+                // Still holding `task_guard`, so the directory must be live.
+                task_guard.exists()
+            }));
+        }
+
+        // Drop the caller-side guard only once every task is parked holding its clone.
+        while running.load(Ordering::SeqCst) < NUM_TASKS {
+            tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+        }
+        drop(tmp_part_dir_guard);
+        assert!(
+            scratch_path.exists(),
+            "scratch dir removed while partition tasks still held the guard"
+        );
+
+        released.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        for task in tasks {
+            assert!(
+                task.await.unwrap(),
+                "a partition task observed its scratch dir already removed"
+            );
+        }
+        assert!(
+            !scratch_path.exists(),
+            "scratch dir was not removed after the last task's guard clone dropped"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The drain step must outlive every spawned task: it aborts and awaits each
+    /// one so that, once it returns, no task is still running against the scratch
+    /// directory. It must also surface late failures rather than swallow them.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+    async fn test_drain_partition_tasks_waits_and_reports_errors() {
+        // Scratch dir guard analogous to the one held by
+        // `write_hnsw_quantization_index_partitions`; tasks read from it, and it
+        // is dropped only after the drain completes.
+        let scratch_guard = TempStdDir::default();
+        let scratch_path = scratch_guard.to_path_buf();
+
+        // Count of live task futures. `LiveGuard` decrements on both completion and
+        // cancellation, so a zero count after the drain proves every task terminated
+        // rather than being detached.
+        let live = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let saw_missing_dir = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+
+        struct LiveGuard(Arc<AtomicUsize>);
+        impl Drop for LiveGuard {
+            fn drop(&mut self) {
+                self.0.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            }
+        }
+
+        const NUM_SLOW: usize = 3;
+        let mut tasks: Vec<Option<JoinHandle<Result<usize>>>> = Vec::with_capacity(NUM_SLOW + 1);
+
+        // Tasks that never resolve on their own: the drain's abort is the only thing
+        // that can stop them, which is exactly what this test exercises.
+        for _ in 0..NUM_SLOW {
+            let live = live.clone();
+            let saw_missing_dir = saw_missing_dir.clone();
+            let scratch_path = scratch_path.clone();
+            tasks.push(Some(tokio::spawn(async move {
+                live.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                let _guard = LiveGuard(live.clone());
+                if !scratch_path.exists() {
+                    saw_missing_dir.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                }
+                futures::future::pending::<()>().await;
+                Ok(0)
+            })));
+        }
+
+        // A task that fails; its error must be returned, not silently dropped.
+        // The drain aborts every handle up front, and an abort only preserves a
+        // task's output if the task has already finished -- an in-flight task is
+        // cancelled and its error lost. So wait until this task has actually
+        // completed before handing it to the drain; otherwise whether its error
+        // surfaces would depend on the scheduler and the test would be flaky.
+        let failing =
+            tokio::spawn(async move { Err(Error::io("late partition failure".to_string())) });
+        while !failing.is_finished() {
+            tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+        }
+        tasks.push(Some(failing));
+
+        // Ensure all slow tasks are actually running before draining, so the
+        // drain has to await their cancellation rather than aborting them before
+        // they ever start.
+        while live.load(Ordering::SeqCst) < NUM_SLOW {
+            tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+        }
+
+        let errors = drain_partition_tasks(&mut tasks).await;
+
+        assert!(tasks.iter().all(Option::is_none), "handles left undrained");
+        assert_eq!(
+            live.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            0,
+            "a task was still running after the drain returned"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !saw_missing_dir.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            "scratch dir was removed while a task was still running"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(errors.len(), 1, "expected exactly the one late failure");
+        assert!(
+            errors[0].to_string().contains("late partition failure"),
+            "late failure was not surfaced: {}",
+            errors[0]
+        );
+
+        // The guard, not the drain, removes the scratch dir.
+        assert!(scratch_path.exists());
+        drop(scratch_guard);
+        assert!(!scratch_path.exists());
+    }
+
+    /// `write_hnsw_quantization_index_partitions` stages each partition in a scratch
+    /// directory owned by a [`TempStdDir`] guard, which must remove it once the build
+    /// finishes so the OS temp dir does not grow without bound across legacy
+    /// IVF_HNSW_* builds.
+    ///
+    /// The OS temp dir is process-global, so an in-process check can't attribute a
+    /// leak to our own build. Instead we run the build in a child process with
+    /// `TMPDIR` pointed at an isolated dir we own, then assert nothing survives.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hnsw_pq_scratch_dir_is_not_leaked() {
+        // Isolated temp root for the child. Owned here so it -- and anything the
+        // child leaks into it -- is removed when this guard drops at test end.
+        let isolated_root = TempStdDir::default();
+
+        let child_test = "index::vector::ivf::io::tests::build_legacy_hnsw_pq_in_child_process";
+        let output = std::process::Command::new(std::env::current_exe().unwrap())
+            .args([child_test, "--exact", "--ignored", "--nocapture"])
+            .env("TMPDIR", isolated_root.as_ref())
+            .env("LANCE_HNSW_LEAK_TEST_ROOT", isolated_root.as_ref())
+            .output()
+            .expect("failed to spawn child test process");
+        assert!(
+            output.status.success(),
+            "child build process failed:\n--- stdout ---\n{}\n--- stderr ---\n{}",
+            String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stdout),
+            String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stderr),
+        );
+
+        // Each build stages its partitions in one `.tmp*` dir directly under TMPDIR.
+        // Every guard removes its dir when it drops, so none should survive.
+        let leaked: Vec<PathBuf> = std::fs::read_dir(&isolated_root)
+            .expect("read isolated temp root")
+            .flatten()
+            .map(|entry| entry.path())
+            .filter(|path| {
+                path.is_dir()
+                    && path
+                        .file_name()
+                        .and_then(|name| name.to_str())
+                        .is_some_and(|name| name.starts_with(".tmp"))
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        assert!(
+            leaked.is_empty(),
+            "legacy IVF_HNSW_PQ build leaked {} scratch director{} under the temp dir; \
+             the TempStdDir guard should remove each one when it drops: {:?}",
+            leaked.len(),
+            if leaked.len() == 1 { "y" } else { "ies" },
+            leaked,
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Child half of [`test_hnsw_pq_scratch_dir_is_not_leaked`]. Ignored so it only
+    /// runs when the parent spawns it with `TMPDIR` and `LANCE_HNSW_LEAK_TEST_ROOT`
+    /// pointed at an isolated dir. Builds a few legacy IVF_HNSW_PQ indices; the
+    /// parent does the leak detection.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[ignore = "spawned as a child process by test_hnsw_pq_scratch_dir_is_not_leaked"]
+    async fn build_legacy_hnsw_pq_in_child_process() {
+        // Only do work when spawned by the parent; a bare `--ignored` run leaves
+        // the variable unset, so no-op rather than fail.
+        let Ok(root) = std::env::var("LANCE_HNSW_LEAK_TEST_ROOT") else {
+            return;
+        };
+
+        const DIM: usize = 8;
+        const ROWS: usize = 256;
+        const NLIST: usize = 2;
+        const NUM_BUILDS: usize = 2;
+
+        // Keep the dataset out of the temp dir's `.tmp*` namespace so the parent
+        // never confuses it with a leaked scratch directory.
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{root}/dataset");
+        let values = generate_random_array(ROWS * DIM);
+        let fsl = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, DIM as i32).unwrap());
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            fsl.data_type().clone(),
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![fsl]).unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let ds = Dataset::write(batches, &dataset_uri, Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams {
+            num_partitions: Some(NLIST),
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .max_level(2)
+            .num_edges(4)
+            .ef_construction(16);
+        let pq_params = PQBuildParams {
+            num_sub_vectors: 2,
+            num_bits: 8,
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        for _ in 0..NUM_BUILDS {
+            crate::index::vector::ivf::build_ivf_hnsw_pq_index(
+                &ds,
+                "vector",
+                "idx",
+                uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                MetricType::L2,
+                &ivf_params,
+                &hnsw_params,
+                &pq_params,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/partition_serde.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/partition_serde.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a1869357980
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/partition_serde.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1158 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Serialization and zero-copy deserialization for IVF partition cache entries.
+//!
+//! Each entry is a protobuf header (see `lance-index/protos-cache/cache.proto`, with the
+//! distance and rotation types as proto enums) followed by 64-byte-aligned
+//! Arrow IPC sections in a fixed, version-keyed order: the sub-index, then any
+//! quantizer-specific arrays (PQ codebook, RabitQ Matrix rotation), then the
+//! quantizer storage batches. Sections decode zero-copy via [`lance_arrow::ipc`].
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::vector::bq::RQRotationType;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::{RabitQuantizationMetadata, RabitQueryEstimator};
+use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatBinQuantizer, FlatMetadata, FlatQuantizer};
+use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::ProductQuantizationMetadata;
+use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizerStorage};
+use lance_index::vector::sq::ScalarQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::storage::VectorStore;
+use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+use lance_index::cache_pb::{
+    DistanceType as PbDistanceType, FlatPartitionHeader, PqPartitionHeader, RabitPartitionHeader,
+    RabitQueryEstimator as PbRabitQueryEstimator, RotationType as PbRotationType,
+    SqPartitionHeader,
+};
+
+use super::v2::PartitionEntry;
+
+/// Returns an erased codec for `PartitionEntry<S, Q>` by matching on the
+/// quantizer's [`QuantizationType`]. Returns `None` for quantizer types
+/// that don't have a `CacheCodecImpl` implementation.
+///
+/// Uses enum dispatch rather than trait bounds to avoid propagating
+/// `CacheCodecImpl` constraints through the `IVFIndex<S, Q>` type hierarchy.
+pub fn partition_entry_codec<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static>()
+-> Option<lance_core::cache::CacheCodec> {
+    use lance_index::vector::quantizer::QuantizationType;
+    match Q::quantization_type() {
+        QuantizationType::Product => Some(codec_for::<S, Q, ProductQuantizer>()),
+        QuantizationType::Flat => Some(codec_for::<S, Q, FlatQuantizer>()),
+        QuantizationType::FlatBin => Some(codec_for::<S, Q, FlatBinQuantizer>()),
+        QuantizationType::Scalar => Some(codec_for::<S, Q, ScalarQuantizer>()),
+        QuantizationType::Rabit => Some(codec_for::<S, Q, RabitQuantizer>()),
+    }
+}
+
+type ArcAny = Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync>;
+
+fn serialize_partition_entry<S, Concrete>(
+    any: &ArcAny,
+    writer: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<()>
+where
+    S: IvfSubIndex + 'static,
+    Concrete: Quantization + 'static,
+    PartitionEntry<S, Concrete>: CacheCodecImpl,
+{
+    let concrete = any
+        .downcast_ref::<PartitionEntry<S, Concrete>>()
+        .expect("quantization_type matched but downcast failed (this is a bug)");
+    concrete.serialize(writer)
+}
+
+fn deserialize_partition_entry<S, Q, Concrete>(
+    reader: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>,
+) -> lance_core::Result<ArcAny>
+where
+    S: IvfSubIndex + 'static,
+    Q: Quantization + 'static,
+    Concrete: Quantization + 'static,
+    PartitionEntry<S, Concrete>: CacheCodecImpl,
+{
+    let concrete = PartitionEntry::<S, Concrete>::deserialize(reader)?;
+    let any: ArcAny = Arc::new(concrete);
+    Ok(any
+        .downcast::<PartitionEntry<S, Q>>()
+        .expect("quantization_type matched but downcast failed (this is a bug)"))
+}
+
+/// Build a CacheCodec for `PartitionEntry<S, Q>` by delegating to the
+/// CacheCodecImpl for `PartitionEntry<S, Concrete>`.
+///
+/// Q and Concrete must be the same type (enforced by the QuantizationType
+/// match in the caller). Uses Any-based downcasting to bridge the types.
+fn codec_for<
+    S: IvfSubIndex + 'static,
+    Q: Quantization + 'static,
+    Concrete: Quantization + 'static,
+>() -> lance_core::cache::CacheCodec
+where
+    PartitionEntry<S, Concrete>: CacheCodecImpl,
+{
+    lance_core::cache::CacheCodec::new(
+        <PartitionEntry<S, Concrete> as CacheCodecImpl>::TYPE_ID,
+        <PartitionEntry<S, Concrete> as CacheCodecImpl>::CURRENT_VERSION,
+        serialize_partition_entry::<S, Concrete>,
+        deserialize_partition_entry::<S, Q, Concrete>,
+    )
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Common helpers
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+// Distance and rotation discriminants travel as proto enums in the header;
+// these map to/from the in-memory Rust enums.
+
+fn distance_type_to_proto(dt: DistanceType) -> PbDistanceType {
+    match dt {
+        DistanceType::L2 => PbDistanceType::L2,
+        DistanceType::Cosine => PbDistanceType::Cosine,
+        DistanceType::Dot => PbDistanceType::Dot,
+        DistanceType::Hamming => PbDistanceType::Hamming,
+    }
+}
+
+fn proto_to_distance_type(dt: PbDistanceType) -> DistanceType {
+    match dt {
+        PbDistanceType::L2 => DistanceType::L2,
+        PbDistanceType::Cosine => DistanceType::Cosine,
+        PbDistanceType::Dot => DistanceType::Dot,
+        PbDistanceType::Hamming => DistanceType::Hamming,
+    }
+}
+
+fn rotation_type_to_proto(rt: RQRotationType) -> PbRotationType {
+    match rt {
+        RQRotationType::Matrix => PbRotationType::Matrix,
+        RQRotationType::Fast => PbRotationType::Fast,
+    }
+}
+
+fn proto_to_rotation_type(rt: PbRotationType) -> RQRotationType {
+    match rt {
+        PbRotationType::Matrix => RQRotationType::Matrix,
+        PbRotationType::Fast => RQRotationType::Fast,
+    }
+}
+
+fn query_estimator_to_proto(qe: RabitQueryEstimator) -> PbRabitQueryEstimator {
+    match qe {
+        RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery => PbRabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery,
+        RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery => PbRabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+    }
+}
+
+fn proto_to_query_estimator(qe: PbRabitQueryEstimator) -> RabitQueryEstimator {
+    match qe {
+        PbRabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery => RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery,
+        PbRabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery => RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Read a storage section expected to hold exactly one batch.
+fn read_single_storage_batch(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut batches = r.read_ipc_batches()?;
+    match batches.len() {
+        1 => Ok(batches.remove(0)),
+        n => Err(Error::io(format!(
+            "expected exactly 1 storage batch, got {n}"
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Wrap a `FixedSizeListArray` in a single-column `RecordBatch` with the given
+/// column name.
+fn fsl_to_batch(arr: &FixedSizeListArray, name: &str) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let field = Field::new(
+        name,
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", arr.value_type(), true)),
+            arr.value_length(),
+        ),
+        false,
+    );
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![field]));
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(arr.clone())])?)
+}
+
+/// Extract a `FixedSizeListArray` from the first column of a `RecordBatch`.
+fn batch_to_fsl(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    batch
+        .column(0)
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<FixedSizeListArray>()
+        .cloned()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::io("column is not FixedSizeListArray".to_string()))
+}
+
+fn codebook_to_batch(codebook: &FixedSizeListArray) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    fsl_to_batch(codebook, "codebook")
+}
+
+fn batch_to_codebook(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    batch_to_fsl(batch)
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// PQ
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+impl<S: IvfSubIndex> CacheCodecImpl for PartitionEntry<S, ProductQuantizer> {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.vector.ivf.PartitionEntry.PQ";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let metadata = self.storage.metadata();
+        let distance_type = self.storage.distance_type();
+
+        let codebook = metadata.codebook.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::io("PQ metadata missing codebook during serialization".to_string())
+        })?;
+
+        let header = PqPartitionHeader {
+            distance_type: distance_type_to_proto(distance_type) as i32,
+            nbits: metadata.nbits,
+            num_sub_vectors: metadata.num_sub_vectors as u64,
+            dimension: metadata.dimension as u64,
+            transposed: metadata.transposed,
+        };
+
+        w.write_header(&header)?;
+        w.write_ipc(&self.index.to_batch()?)?;
+        w.write_ipc(&codebook_to_batch(codebook)?)?;
+        w.write_ipc_batches(self.storage.to_batches()?)?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let header: PqPartitionHeader = r.read_header()?;
+        let distance_type = proto_to_distance_type(header.distance_type());
+
+        let sub_index_batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+        let codebook_batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+        let storage_batch = read_single_storage_batch(r)?;
+
+        let index = S::load(sub_index_batch)?;
+        let codebook = batch_to_codebook(&codebook_batch)?;
+
+        let metadata = ProductQuantizationMetadata {
+            codebook_position: 0,
+            nbits: header.nbits,
+            num_sub_vectors: header.num_sub_vectors as usize,
+            dimension: header.dimension as usize,
+            codebook: Some(codebook),
+            codebook_tensor: Vec::new(),
+            transposed: header.transposed,
+        };
+
+        let storage = <ProductQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage::try_from_batch(
+            storage_batch,
+            &metadata,
+            distance_type,
+            None,
+        )?;
+
+        Ok(Self::new(index, storage))
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Flat (Float32)
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+impl<S: IvfSubIndex> CacheCodecImpl for PartitionEntry<S, FlatQuantizer> {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.vector.ivf.PartitionEntry.Flat";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let metadata = self.storage.metadata();
+        let header = FlatPartitionHeader {
+            distance_type: distance_type_to_proto(self.storage.distance_type()) as i32,
+            dim: metadata.dim as u64,
+        };
+
+        w.write_header(&header)?;
+        w.write_ipc(&self.index.to_batch()?)?;
+        w.write_ipc_batches(self.storage.to_batches()?)?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let header: FlatPartitionHeader = r.read_header()?;
+        let distance_type = proto_to_distance_type(header.distance_type());
+
+        let sub_index_batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+        let storage_batch = read_single_storage_batch(r)?;
+
+        let index = S::load(sub_index_batch)?;
+        let metadata = FlatMetadata {
+            dim: header.dim as usize,
+        };
+        let storage = <FlatQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage::try_from_batch(
+            storage_batch,
+            &metadata,
+            distance_type,
+            None,
+        )?;
+
+        Ok(Self::new(index, storage))
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Flat (Binary / Hamming)
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+impl<S: IvfSubIndex> CacheCodecImpl for PartitionEntry<S, FlatBinQuantizer> {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.vector.ivf.PartitionEntry.FlatBin";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let metadata = self.storage.metadata();
+        let header = FlatPartitionHeader {
+            distance_type: distance_type_to_proto(self.storage.distance_type()) as i32,
+            dim: metadata.dim as u64,
+        };
+
+        w.write_header(&header)?;
+        w.write_ipc(&self.index.to_batch()?)?;
+        w.write_ipc_batches(self.storage.to_batches()?)?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let header: FlatPartitionHeader = r.read_header()?;
+        let distance_type = proto_to_distance_type(header.distance_type());
+
+        let sub_index_batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+        let storage_batch = read_single_storage_batch(r)?;
+
+        let index = S::load(sub_index_batch)?;
+        let metadata = FlatMetadata {
+            dim: header.dim as usize,
+        };
+        let storage = <FlatBinQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage::try_from_batch(
+            storage_batch,
+            &metadata,
+            distance_type,
+            None,
+        )?;
+
+        Ok(Self::new(index, storage))
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// SQ
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+impl<S: IvfSubIndex> CacheCodecImpl for PartitionEntry<S, ScalarQuantizer> {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.vector.ivf.PartitionEntry.SQ";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let metadata = self.storage.metadata();
+        let header = SqPartitionHeader {
+            distance_type: distance_type_to_proto(self.storage.distance_type()) as i32,
+            num_bits: metadata.num_bits as u32,
+            dim: metadata.dim as u64,
+            bounds_start: metadata.bounds.start,
+            bounds_end: metadata.bounds.end,
+        };
+
+        w.write_header(&header)?;
+        w.write_ipc(&self.index.to_batch()?)?;
+        // SQ storage may contain multiple batches; write them all in one section.
+        w.write_ipc_batches(self.storage.to_batches()?)?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let header: SqPartitionHeader = r.read_header()?;
+        let distance_type = proto_to_distance_type(header.distance_type());
+
+        let sub_index_batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+        let storage_batches = r.read_ipc_batches()?;
+
+        let index = S::load(sub_index_batch)?;
+        let num_bits = header.num_bits as u16;
+        let storage = <ScalarQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage::try_new(
+            num_bits,
+            distance_type,
+            header.bounds_start..header.bounds_end,
+            storage_batches,
+            None,
+        )?;
+
+        Ok(Self::new(index, storage))
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// RabitQ
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+impl<S: IvfSubIndex> CacheCodecImpl for PartitionEntry<S, RabitQuantizer> {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.vector.ivf.PartitionEntry.Rabit";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let metadata = self.storage.metadata();
+        let header = RabitPartitionHeader {
+            distance_type: distance_type_to_proto(self.storage.distance_type()) as i32,
+            num_bits: metadata.num_bits as u32,
+            code_dim: metadata.code_dim,
+            rotation_type: rotation_type_to_proto(metadata.rotation_type) as i32,
+            query_estimator: query_estimator_to_proto(metadata.query_estimator) as i32,
+            fast_rotation_signs: metadata.fast_rotation_signs.clone(),
+        };
+
+        w.write_header(&header)?;
+        w.write_ipc(&self.index.to_batch()?)?;
+
+        // Write the rotation matrix IPC section only for Matrix rotation; the
+        // Fast rotation case stores its signs compactly in the proto header.
+        if metadata.rotation_type == RQRotationType::Matrix {
+            let mat = metadata.rotate_mat.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::io(
+                    "RabitQ Matrix metadata missing rotate_mat during serialization".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            w.write_ipc(&fsl_to_batch(mat, "rotate_mat")?)?;
+        }
+
+        w.write_ipc_batches(self.storage.to_batches()?)?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let header: RabitPartitionHeader = r.read_header()?;
+        let distance_type = proto_to_distance_type(header.distance_type());
+        let rotation_type = proto_to_rotation_type(header.rotation_type());
+
+        let sub_index_batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+
+        let rotate_mat = if rotation_type == RQRotationType::Matrix {
+            let mat_batch = r.read_ipc()?;
+            Some(batch_to_fsl(&mat_batch)?)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        let storage_batch = read_single_storage_batch(r)?;
+
+        let index = S::load(sub_index_batch)?;
+        // Read the proto enum accessor before moving fields out of `header`.
+        let query_estimator = proto_to_query_estimator(header.query_estimator());
+        let metadata = RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+            rotate_mat,
+            rotate_mat_position: None,
+            fast_rotation_signs: header.fast_rotation_signs,
+            rotation_type,
+            code_dim: header.code_dim,
+            num_bits: header.num_bits as u8,
+            // The storage batch already has packed codes; skip re-packing.
+            packed: true,
+            query_estimator,
+        };
+        let storage = <RabitQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage::try_from_batch(
+            storage_batch,
+            &metadata,
+            distance_type,
+            None,
+        )?;
+
+        Ok(Self::new(index, storage))
+    }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Tests
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array, UInt8Array, UInt64Array,
+        types::{Float32Type, UInt8Type},
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use half::f16;
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::RABIT_CODE_COLUMN;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::transform::{ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN};
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::{RQRotationType, builder::RabitQuantizer};
+    use lance_index::vector::flat::index::FlatIndex;
+    use lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
+    use lance_index::vector::sq::storage::ScalarQuantizationStorage;
+
+    /// Serialize a codec body (no envelope) for tests.
+    fn ser_body<T: CacheCodecImpl>(entry: &T) -> Vec<u8> {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        entry
+            .serialize(&mut CacheEntryWriter::new(&mut buf))
+            .unwrap();
+        buf
+    }
+
+    /// Deserialize a codec body (no envelope) at the current build's version.
+    fn de_body<T: CacheCodecImpl>(bytes: Vec<u8>) -> Result<T> {
+        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(bytes);
+        T::deserialize(&mut CacheEntryReader::new(&data, 0, T::CURRENT_VERSION))
+    }
+
+    // ----- PQ helpers -------------------------------------------------------
+
+    fn make_test_codebook(dim: usize, num_sub_vectors: usize) -> FixedSizeListArray {
+        let sub_dim = dim / num_sub_vectors;
+        let num_centroids = 256;
+        let total_values = num_sub_vectors * num_centroids * sub_dim;
+        let values: Vec<f32> = (0..total_values).map(|i| i as f32 * 0.01).collect();
+        let values_array = Float32Array::from(values);
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values_array, sub_dim as i32).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn make_test_pq_storage(
+        num_rows: usize,
+        dim: usize,
+        num_sub_vectors: usize,
+    ) -> <ProductQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage {
+        let codebook = make_test_codebook(dim, num_sub_vectors);
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from((0..num_rows as u64).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        let pq_codes_flat: Vec<u8> = (0..num_rows * num_sub_vectors)
+            .map(|i| (i % 256) as u8)
+            .collect();
+        let pq_codes = UInt8Array::from(pq_codes_flat);
+        let pq_codes_fsl =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(pq_codes, num_sub_vectors as i32).unwrap();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(lance_core::ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new(
+                lance_index::vector::PQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                    num_sub_vectors as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(pq_codes_fsl)]).unwrap();
+
+        <ProductQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage::new(
+            codebook,
+            batch,
+            8,
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            dim,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            false,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    // ----- PQ tests ---------------------------------------------------------
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_roundtrip_flat_pq() {
+        let dim = 128;
+        let num_sub_vectors = 16;
+        let num_rows = 100;
+
+        let storage = make_test_pq_storage(num_rows, dim, num_sub_vectors);
+        let entry =
+            PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+        let serialized = ser_body(&entry);
+        let deserialized =
+            de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>>(serialized).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(entry.storage, deserialized.storage);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_roundtrip_preserves_distance_type() {
+        for dt in [DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            let dim = 32;
+            let num_sub_vectors = 4;
+            let codebook = make_test_codebook(dim, num_sub_vectors);
+            let row_ids = UInt64Array::from(vec![0u64, 1, 2]);
+            let pq_codes = UInt8Array::from(vec![0u8; 3 * num_sub_vectors]);
+            let pq_codes_fsl =
+                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(pq_codes, num_sub_vectors as i32).unwrap();
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new(lance_core::ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+                Field::new(
+                    lance_index::vector::PQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                        num_sub_vectors as i32,
+                    ),
+                    false,
+                ),
+            ]));
+            let batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(pq_codes_fsl)])
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            let storage = <ProductQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage::new(
+                codebook,
+                batch,
+                8,
+                num_sub_vectors,
+                dim,
+                dt,
+                false,
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let entry =
+                PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+            let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+            let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                restored.storage.distance_type(),
+                entry.storage.distance_type()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_empty_partition() {
+        let dim = 16;
+        let num_sub_vectors = 2;
+        let storage = make_test_pq_storage(0, dim, num_sub_vectors);
+        let entry =
+            PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+        let serialized = ser_body(&entry);
+        let deserialized =
+            de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>>(serialized).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(entry.storage, deserialized.storage);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_truncated_data_errors() {
+        // Serialize a valid entry, then truncate the bytes and verify that
+        // deserialization fails rather than panicking.
+        let storage = make_test_pq_storage(1, 16, 2);
+        let entry =
+            PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+        let mut bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        bytes.truncate(3);
+        assert!(de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>>(bytes).is_err());
+    }
+
+    // ----- Flat helpers -----------------------------------------------------
+
+    fn make_flat_storage(num_rows: usize, dim: usize) -> FlatFloatStorage {
+        let values: Vec<f32> = (0..num_rows * dim).map(|i| i as f32 * 0.01).collect();
+        let values_array = Float32Array::from(values);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values_array, dim as i32).unwrap();
+        FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::L2)
+    }
+
+    fn make_flat_storage_f16(num_rows: usize, dim: usize) -> FlatFloatStorage {
+        let values: Vec<f16> = (0..num_rows * dim)
+            .map(|i| f16::from_f32(i as f32 * 0.01))
+            .collect();
+        let values_array = Float16Array::from(values);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values_array, dim as i32).unwrap();
+        FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::L2)
+    }
+
+    fn make_flat_storage_f64(num_rows: usize, dim: usize) -> FlatFloatStorage {
+        let values: Vec<f64> = (0..num_rows * dim).map(|i| i as f64 * 0.01).collect();
+        let values_array = Float64Array::from(values);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values_array, dim as i32).unwrap();
+        FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::L2)
+    }
+
+    // ----- Flat tests -------------------------------------------------------
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_roundtrip_flat_flat() {
+        let storage = make_flat_storage(50, 64);
+        let entry = PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+        let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            restored.storage.metadata().dim,
+            entry.storage.metadata().dim
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            restored.storage.distance_type(),
+            entry.storage.distance_type()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(restored.storage.len(), entry.storage.len());
+        let orig_batch = entry.storage.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        let rest_batch = restored.storage.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(orig_batch, rest_batch);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_distance_types() {
+        for dt in [DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            let values = Float32Array::from(vec![1.0f32; 32]);
+            let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, 32).unwrap();
+            let storage = FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, dt);
+            let entry =
+                PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+            let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+            let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(restored.storage.distance_type(), dt);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_roundtrip_flat_flat_f16() {
+        let storage = make_flat_storage_f16(8, 16);
+        let entry = PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+        let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+
+        let restored_batch = restored.storage.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        let schema = restored_batch.schema();
+        let field = schema
+            .field_with_name(lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap();
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _) = field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("flat column should be fixed size list");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(item.data_type(), &DataType::Float16);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_roundtrip_flat_flat_f64() {
+        let storage = make_flat_storage_f64(8, 16);
+        let entry = PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+        let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+
+        let restored_batch = restored.storage.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        let schema = restored_batch.schema();
+        let field = schema
+            .field_with_name(lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FLAT_COLUMN)
+            .unwrap();
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(item, _) = field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("flat column should be fixed size list");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(item.data_type(), &DataType::Float64);
+    }
+
+    // ----- SQ helpers -------------------------------------------------------
+
+    fn make_sq_storage(
+        num_rows: usize,
+        dim: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> ScalarQuantizationStorage {
+        let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64);
+        let sq_codes_flat: Vec<u8> = (0..num_rows * dim).map(|i| (i % 256) as u8).collect();
+        let sq_codes = UInt8Array::from(sq_codes_flat);
+        let sq_codes_fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(sq_codes, dim as i32).unwrap();
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(lance_core::ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new(
+                lance_index::vector::SQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                    dim as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(sq_codes_fsl)]).unwrap();
+
+        ScalarQuantizationStorage::try_new(8, distance_type, -1.0..1.0, [batch], None).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    // ----- SQ tests ---------------------------------------------------------
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_roundtrip_flat_sq() {
+        let storage = make_sq_storage(100, 64, DistanceType::L2);
+        let entry =
+            PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+        let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+
+        let m = entry.storage.metadata();
+        let rm = restored.storage.metadata();
+        assert_eq!(rm.dim, m.dim);
+        assert_eq!(rm.num_bits, m.num_bits);
+        assert_eq!(rm.bounds, m.bounds);
+        assert_eq!(
+            restored.storage.distance_type(),
+            entry.storage.distance_type()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(restored.storage.len(), entry.storage.len());
+
+        let orig_ids: Vec<u64> = entry.storage.row_ids().copied().collect();
+        let rest_ids: Vec<u64> = restored.storage.row_ids().copied().collect();
+        assert_eq!(orig_ids, rest_ids);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sq_distance_types() {
+        for dt in [DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            let storage = make_sq_storage(10, 16, dt);
+            let entry =
+                PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+            let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+            let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(restored.storage.distance_type(), dt);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sq_multiple_chunks_no_copy() {
+        // Build SQ storage with multiple chunks by appending batches separately.
+        let dim = 16usize;
+        let make_batch = |start: u64, n: usize| {
+            let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(start..start + n as u64);
+            let codes = UInt8Array::from(vec![0u8; n * dim]);
+            let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(codes, dim as i32).unwrap();
+            let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new(lance_core::ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, false),
+                Field::new(
+                    lance_index::vector::SQ_CODE_COLUMN,
+                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt8, true)),
+                        dim as i32,
+                    ),
+                    false,
+                ),
+            ]));
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(row_ids), Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap()
+        };
+        // Three chunks with 10 rows each.
+        let storage = ScalarQuantizationStorage::try_new(
+            8,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            -1.0..1.0,
+            [make_batch(0, 10), make_batch(10, 10), make_batch(20, 10)],
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(storage.len(), 30);
+
+        let entry =
+            PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+        let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(restored.storage.len(), 30);
+        let orig_ids: Vec<u64> = entry.storage.row_ids().copied().collect();
+        let rest_ids: Vec<u64> = restored.storage.row_ids().copied().collect();
+        assert_eq!(orig_ids, rest_ids);
+    }
+
+    // ----- RabitQ helpers ---------------------------------------------------
+
+    fn make_rabit_storage_fast(
+        num_rows: usize,
+        code_dim: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> <RabitQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage {
+        make_rabit_storage(
+            num_rows,
+            code_dim,
+            distance_type,
+            RQRotationType::Fast,
+            RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn make_rabit_storage(
+        num_rows: usize,
+        code_dim: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        rotation_type: RQRotationType,
+        query_estimator: RabitQueryEstimator,
+    ) -> <RabitQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage {
+        use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+
+        let quantizer =
+            RabitQuantizer::new_with_rotation::<Float32Type>(1, code_dim as i32, rotation_type);
+        let values: Vec<f32> = (0..num_rows * code_dim)
+            .map(|i| (i % 100) as f32 / 100.0 - 0.5)
+            .collect();
+        let values_arr = Float32Array::from(values);
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values_arr, code_dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let codes = quantizer
+            .quantize(&vectors)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .clone();
+
+        let mut metadata = quantizer.metadata(None);
+        metadata.query_estimator = query_estimator;
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            (
+                lance_core::ROW_ID,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as u64))
+                    as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                RABIT_CODE_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(codes) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|i| i as f32 * 0.1),
+                )) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+            (
+                SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN,
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|i| i as f32 * 0.01 + 0.5),
+                )) as Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array>,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+
+        <RabitQuantizer as Quantization>::Storage::try_from_batch(
+            batch,
+            &metadata,
+            distance_type,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    // ----- RabitQ tests -----------------------------------------------------
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_roundtrip_flat_rabitq_fast() {
+        let num_rows = 50;
+        let code_dim = 64;
+        let storage = make_rabit_storage_fast(num_rows, code_dim, DistanceType::L2);
+        let entry = PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+        let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+
+        let m = entry.storage.metadata();
+        let rm = restored.storage.metadata();
+        assert_eq!(rm.num_bits, m.num_bits);
+        assert_eq!(rm.code_dim, m.code_dim);
+        assert_eq!(rm.rotation_type, m.rotation_type);
+        assert_eq!(rm.query_estimator, m.query_estimator);
+        assert_eq!(rm.fast_rotation_signs, m.fast_rotation_signs);
+        assert!(rm.packed);
+        assert_eq!(
+            restored.storage.distance_type(),
+            entry.storage.distance_type()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(restored.storage.len(), entry.storage.len());
+
+        let orig_ids: Vec<u64> = entry.storage.row_ids().copied().collect();
+        let rest_ids: Vec<u64> = restored.storage.row_ids().copied().collect();
+        assert_eq!(orig_ids, rest_ids);
+
+        let orig_batch = entry.storage.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        let rest_batch = restored.storage.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        let orig_codes = orig_batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list();
+        let rest_codes = rest_batch[RABIT_CODE_COLUMN].as_fixed_size_list();
+        assert_eq!(
+            orig_codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values(),
+            rest_codes.values().as_primitive::<UInt8Type>().values(),
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabitq_distance_types() {
+        for dt in [DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot] {
+            let storage = make_rabit_storage_fast(10, 32, dt);
+            let entry =
+                PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+            let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+            let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+            // The codec round-trips the distance type faithfully.
+            assert_eq!(
+                restored.storage.distance_type(),
+                entry.storage.distance_type()
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_roundtrip_rabitq_raw_query_estimator() {
+        // The query estimator is a non-default value here; it must survive the
+        // round trip so raw-query search keeps working after a cache reload.
+        let storage = make_rabit_storage(
+            40,
+            32,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            RQRotationType::Fast,
+            RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            storage.metadata().query_estimator,
+            RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery
+        );
+        let entry = PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+        let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            restored.storage.metadata().query_estimator,
+            RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Matrix rotation writes an extra `rotate_mat` IPC section between the
+    /// sub-index and storage sections; exercise that the codec preserves it.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_roundtrip_flat_rabitq_matrix() {
+        let storage = make_rabit_storage(
+            40,
+            32,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            RQRotationType::Matrix,
+            RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery,
+        );
+        let entry = PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>::new(FlatIndex::default(), storage);
+
+        let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        let restored = de_body::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, RabitQuantizer>>(bytes).unwrap();
+
+        let m = entry.storage.metadata();
+        let rm = restored.storage.metadata();
+        assert_eq!(rm.rotation_type, RQRotationType::Matrix);
+        assert_eq!(rm.code_dim, m.code_dim);
+        assert_eq!(rm.num_bits, m.num_bits);
+        // The rotation matrix itself must survive the round trip.
+        let orig_mat = m
+            .rotate_mat
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("matrix rotation has rotate_mat");
+        let rest_mat = rm
+            .rotate_mat
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("restored matrix rotation has rotate_mat");
+        assert_eq!(
+            orig_mat.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+            rest_mat.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// SQ storage (a multi-batch IPC section) must decode zero-copy through the
+    /// full envelope even though the proto header and sub-index section push it
+    /// to a non-aligned starting offset.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_partition_storage_is_zero_copy_through_envelope() {
+        use lance_core::cache::CacheCodec;
+        const ALIGN: usize = 64;
+
+        let entry = PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>::new(
+            FlatIndex::default(),
+            make_sq_storage(64, 32, DistanceType::L2),
+        );
+        let codec = CacheCodec::from_impl::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>>();
+        let any: Arc<dyn std::any::Any + Send + Sync> = Arc::new(entry);
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        codec.serialize(&any, &mut buf).unwrap();
+
+        let mut v = vec![0u8; buf.len() + ALIGN];
+        let pad = (ALIGN - (v.as_ptr() as usize % ALIGN)) % ALIGN;
+        v[pad..pad + buf.len()].copy_from_slice(&buf);
+        let data = bytes::Bytes::from(v).slice(pad..pad + buf.len());
+
+        let restored = codec.deserialize(&data).hit().unwrap();
+        let restored = restored
+            .downcast::<PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ScalarQuantizer>>()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let base = data.as_ptr() as usize;
+        let end = base + data.len();
+        let first = restored.storage.to_batches().unwrap().next().unwrap();
+        for col in first.columns() {
+            for buffer in col.to_data().buffers() {
+                let ptr = buffer.as_ptr() as usize;
+                assert!(
+                    ptr >= base && ptr < end,
+                    "storage buffer was realigned out of the input — misaligned IPC section",
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ivf_index_state_roundtrip() {
+        use crate::index::vector::ivf::v2::{
+            IvfIndexState, IvfStateEntryBox, empty_rabit_search_cache_cell,
+        };
+        use lance_index::vector::flat::index::FlatQuantizer;
+        use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
+        use lance_index::vector::quantizer::QuantizationType;
+        use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::SubIndexType;
+
+        // Build a minimal IvfModel (single centroid, dim=2).
+        let centroids =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32, 1.0]), 2)
+                .unwrap();
+        let ivf = IvfModel::new(centroids, None);
+
+        let state = IvfIndexState::<FlatQuantizer> {
+            index_file_path: "my/index.lance".to_string(),
+            uuid: "test-uuid-1234".to_string(),
+            ivf: ivf.clone(),
+            aux_ivf: ivf,
+            distance_type: DistanceType::L2,
+            sub_index_metadata: vec!["meta1".to_string()],
+            metadata: lance_index::vector::flat::index::FlatMetadata { dim: 2 },
+            sub_index_type: SubIndexType::Flat,
+            quantization_type: QuantizationType::Flat,
+            index_file_size: 1024,
+            aux_file_size: 512,
+            rq_search_cache: empty_rabit_search_cache_cell(),
+        };
+
+        let entry = IvfStateEntryBox(Arc::new(state));
+
+        let bytes = ser_body(&entry);
+        let restored = de_body::<IvfStateEntryBox>(bytes.clone()).unwrap();
+
+        // Re-serialize the restored entry and compare bytes — a stronger check
+        // than field-by-field comparison and avoids needing to downcast.
+        let restored_bytes = ser_body(&restored);
+        assert_eq!(bytes, restored_bytes);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/v2.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/v2.rs
index b510c60e41b..a791540f81c 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/v2.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/ivf/v2.rs
@@ -3,68 +3,979 @@
 
 //! IVF - Inverted File index.
 
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
 use std::marker::PhantomData;
-use std::{any::Any, collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
-
-use crate::index::vector::{builder::index_type_string, IndexFileVersion};
-use crate::index::{
-    vector::{utils::PartitionLoadLock, VectorIndex},
-    PreFilter,
+use std::{
+    any::Any,
+    borrow::Cow,
+    collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap},
+    ops::Range,
+    sync::{
+        Arc, LazyLock, Mutex, OnceLock,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+    },
 };
+
+use crate::index::frag_reuse::ResolvedRemapping;
+use crate::index::vector::{IndexFileVersion, builder::index_type_string};
+use crate::index::{PreFilter, vector::VectorIndex};
 use arrow::compute::concat_batches;
 use arrow_arith::numeric::sub;
-use arrow_array::{Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
+use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 use futures::prelude::stream::{self, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::stream::FuturesUnordered;
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
-use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
-use lance_core::utils::tokio::spawn_cpu;
+use lance_core::cache::{
+    CacheCodec, CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter, CacheKey, CacheKeySchema,
+    KeyBuilder, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache,
+};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::{IO_TYPE_LOAD_VECTOR_PART, TRACE_IO_EVENTS};
-use lance_core::{Error, Result, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
 use lance_encoding::decoder::{DecoderPlugins, FilterExpression};
-use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
-use lance_index::metrics::{LocalMetricsCollector, MetricsCollector};
-use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer};
+use lance_file::LanceEncodingsIo;
+use lance_file::reader::{CachedFileMetadata, FileReader, FileReaderOptions, ReaderProjection};
+use lance_index::cache_pb::IvfStateHeader;
+use lance_index::metrics::{IndexTimer, IndexTiming, LocalMetricsCollector, MetricsCollector};
+use lance_index::prefilter::NoFilter;
+use lance_index::vector::VectorIndexCacheEntry;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::builder::RabitQuantizer;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::ex_dot::{blocked_ex_code_bytes, padded_query_len};
+use lance_index::vector::bq::rabit_ex_bits;
+use lance_index::vector::bq::storage::{RabitQueryEstimator, SEGMENT_NUM_CODES};
+use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatBinQuantizer, FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer};
+use lance_index::vector::graph::OrderedNode;
 use lance_index::vector::hnsw::HNSW;
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer;
-use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{QuantizationType, Quantizer};
+use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{
+    QuantizationType, Quantizer, QuantizerMetadata, QuantizerStorage,
+};
 use lance_index::vector::sq::ScalarQuantizer;
-use lance_index::vector::storage::VectorStore;
+use lance_index::vector::storage::{
+    QueryResidual, QueryScratch, QueryScratchCapacity, QueryScratchPool, RabitRawQueryContext,
+    VectorStore,
+};
 use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::SubIndexType;
-use lance_index::vector::VectorIndexCacheEntry;
 use lance_index::{
-    pb,
+    INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_FILE_NAME, Index, IndexType, pb,
     vector::{
-        ivf::storage::IVF_METADATA_KEY, quantizer::Quantization, storage::IvfQuantizationStorage,
-        v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex, Query, DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY,
+        DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY, PartitionSearchControl, PreparedPartitionSearchHandle, Query,
+        VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA, ivf::storage::IVF_METADATA_KEY, quantizer::Quantization,
+        storage::IvfQuantizationStorage, v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex,
     },
-    Index, IndexType, INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, INDEX_FILE_NAME,
 };
-use lance_index::{IndexMetadata, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY};
+use lance_index::{INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, IndexMetadata};
 use lance_io::local::to_local_path;
-use lance_io::scheduler::SchedulerConfig;
+use lance_io::scheduler::{IoStats, ScanStats, SchedulerConfig};
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
 use lance_io::{
-    object_store::ObjectStore, scheduler::ScanScheduler, traits::Reader, ReadBatchParams,
+    ReadBatchParams, object_store::ObjectStore, scheduler::ScanScheduler, traits::Reader,
 };
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
+use std::time::Instant;
+use tokio::sync::mpsc;
+use tokio_stream::wrappers::ReceiverStream;
 use tracing::{info, instrument};
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use super::{IvfIndexPartitionStatistics, IvfIndexStatistics, maybe_centroids_for_stats};
+
+pub(crate) type RabitSearchCacheCell = Arc<Mutex<Option<Option<Arc<RabitSearchCache>>>>>;
+
+/// Serializable state of an IVF index, sufficient to reconstruct the index
+/// without re-reading global buffers from object storage.
+///
+/// Serializable, type-specific state of an IVF index.
+///
+/// Generic over `Q` so that the parsed quantizer metadata (`Q::Metadata`) can
+/// be stored directly, avoiding repeated JSON round-trips on reconstruction.
+/// Produced by [`IVFIndex::to_state_entry`] and wrapped in [`IvfStateEntryBox`]
+/// for storage in the index cache.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct IvfIndexState<Q: Quantization> {
+    pub(crate) index_file_path: String,
+    pub(crate) uuid: String,
+    pub(crate) ivf: IvfModel,
+    /// IvfModel for the auxiliary/storage file (quantizer row layout).
+    /// The index and aux files have independent row layouts, so we must store
+    /// both to avoid using wrong row offsets during reconstruction.
+    pub(crate) aux_ivf: IvfModel,
+    pub(crate) distance_type: DistanceType,
+    pub(crate) sub_index_metadata: Vec<String>,
+    /// Parsed quantizer metadata — stored directly to avoid JSON re-parsing on
+    /// every warm-path reconstruction.
+    pub(crate) metadata: <Q::Storage as QuantizerStorage>::Metadata,
+    pub(crate) sub_index_type: SubIndexType,
+    pub(crate) quantization_type: QuantizationType,
+    /// File sizes for the index and auxiliary files, used to avoid HEAD requests
+    /// when reconstructing from cache.
+    pub(crate) index_file_size: u64,
+    pub(crate) aux_file_size: u64,
+    /// Runtime-only cache, intentionally excluded from the CacheCodec wire format.
+    pub(crate) rq_search_cache: RabitSearchCacheCell,
+}
+
+/// Number of prepared partitions handed to a single `spawn_cpu` dispatch on the
+/// streaming search path.
+///
+/// The streaming path deliberately avoids per-partition CPU-task fan-out (a measured
+/// 14-30% latency win, see #6475). Searching a batch of partitions per `spawn_cpu`
+/// keeps most of that benefit — the per-dispatch overhead is paid once per
+/// `STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE` partitions instead of once per partition — while
+/// keeping the channel `recv`/`send` in async code so no CPU-pool thread ever parks on
+/// a channel (which can deadlock the pool on small hosts, see #7642). `should_stop` is
+/// still checked per partition, so early-stop granularity is unchanged.
+///
+/// This is a tunable knob: larger batches amortize dispatch overhead further and keep
+/// more work on a single CPU thread, at the cost of more prepared partitions held in
+/// memory at once. The batch is an upper bound: the search loop greedily drains
+/// whatever is already prepared rather than waiting for a full batch, so a slow
+/// producer yields small batches (matching the old search-as-it-arrives latency) and
+/// only a fast producer fills whole ones. Override with the
+/// `LANCE_IVF_STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE` environment variable.
+pub(crate) const DEFAULT_STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE: usize = 16;
+
+pub(crate) static STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    let batch_size = std::env::var("LANCE_IVF_STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE")
+        .map(|value| {
+            value
+                .parse()
+                .expect("failed to parse LANCE_IVF_STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE")
+        })
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE);
+    assert!(
+        batch_size > 0,
+        "LANCE_IVF_STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE must be greater than 0, got {batch_size}"
+    );
+    batch_size
+});
+
+/// Prepared partition storage (bytes) handed to a single `spawn_cpu` dispatch on the
+/// global-top-k search path.
+///
+/// That path scores every probed partition into one heap, so it streams prepared
+/// partitions through scoring in chunks; the chunk is what bounds resident partition
+/// memory (together with the prepare window) independently of `nprobes`, see
+/// [`PreparedPartitionTracker`]. Chunking by bytes rather than by partition count
+/// keeps both the memory bound and the dispatch overhead predictable whatever the
+/// partition size: a dispatch costs two thread hops (~100µs), so on a warm cache
+/// the 16-partition streaming batch would spend ~40% of a 1024-probe query on
+/// dispatch overhead for ~800 KiB partitions, while a fixed large partition count
+/// would pin GiBs for the multi-MiB partitions of a billion-row RQ index. 64 MiB is
+/// a few milliseconds of scoring per dispatch across those sizes. Override with the
+/// `LANCE_IVF_GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_BYTES` environment variable.
+pub(crate) const DEFAULT_GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_BYTES: usize = 64 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+pub(crate) static GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_BYTES: LazyLock<usize> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    let chunk_bytes = std::env::var("LANCE_IVF_GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_BYTES")
+        .map(|value| {
+            value
+                .parse()
+                .expect("failed to parse LANCE_IVF_GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_BYTES")
+        })
+        .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_BYTES);
+    assert!(
+        chunk_bytes > 0,
+        "LANCE_IVF_GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_BYTES must be greater than 0, got {chunk_bytes}"
+    );
+    chunk_bytes
+});
+
+/// Upper bound on partitions per global-top-k scoring chunk, so that tiny partitions
+/// (far below [`GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_BYTES`]) still leave the resident-partition bound
+/// expressible as a partition count: at most the prepare window plus two chunks.
+pub(crate) const GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_MAX_PARTITIONS: usize = 128;
+
+/// Largest global-top-k heap converted to the result batch on the async task
+/// instead of a `spawn_cpu` dispatch; see the use site for the rationale.
+const GLOBAL_TOPK_INLINE_HEAP_LEN: usize = 4096;
+
+const IVF_PREWARM_WINDOW_SIZE_ENV: &str = "LANCE_IVF_PREWARM_WINDOW_SIZE_BYTES";
+/// Default encoded-byte target of one prewarm read window.
+///
+/// Measured on one 1B-row IVF_RQ 1-bit segment (147 GB) read from S3 on
+/// r8i.8xlarge with 192 GiB of index cache: 16 MiB windows filled the cache at
+/// 500-526 MB/s regardless of how many windows were in flight (30, 128 or 512)
+/// or of `LANCE_IO_THREADS` (64, 256, 1024), while 64 MiB windows reached
+/// 935 MB/s with the same peak RSS (+1 GB) because the reader issues fewer,
+/// larger object-store requests (3.96 MB vs 2.47 MB average).
+const DEFAULT_IVF_PREWARM_WINDOW_SIZE_BYTES: u64 = 64 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct PartitionWindow {
+    partitions: Range<usize>,
+    estimated_encoded_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+struct PrewarmFileLayout<'a> {
+    ivf: &'a IvfModel,
+    encoded_bytes: u64,
+    num_rows: u64,
+}
+
+fn parse_prewarm_window_size_bytes(value: Option<&str>) -> Result<u64> {
+    let Some(value) = value else {
+        return Ok(DEFAULT_IVF_PREWARM_WINDOW_SIZE_BYTES);
+    };
+    let size = value.parse::<u64>().map_err(|error| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "{IVF_PREWARM_WINDOW_SIZE_ENV} must be a positive byte count, got {value:?}: {error}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    if size == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "{IVF_PREWARM_WINDOW_SIZE_ENV} must be a positive byte count, got {value:?}"
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(size)
+}
+
+fn prewarm_window_size_bytes() -> Result<u64> {
+    let value = std::env::var(IVF_PREWARM_WINDOW_SIZE_ENV).ok();
+    parse_prewarm_window_size_bytes(value.as_deref())
+}
+
+fn estimate_encoded_bytes(num_data_bytes: u64, num_rows: u64, row_count: usize) -> u64 {
+    if row_count == 0 || num_rows == 0 || num_data_bytes == 0 {
+        return 0;
+    }
+    let numerator = u128::from(num_data_bytes) * row_count as u128;
+    numerator
+        .div_ceil(u128::from(num_rows))
+        .min(u64::MAX as u128) as u64
+}
+
+/// Plan adjacent partition windows by a metadata-estimated encoded-I/O target.
+///
+/// The target is measured in bytes, not partition count. It is not a hard
+/// decoded-memory cap: compression/page skew can make a window larger, and a
+/// single oversized partition is deliberately admitted as a singleton.
+fn plan_partition_windows(
+    index: PrewarmFileLayout<'_>,
+    storage: PrewarmFileLayout<'_>,
+    target_bytes: u64,
+    max_partitions: usize,
+) -> Result<Vec<PartitionWindow>> {
+    if target_bytes == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "IVF prewarm window target must be positive",
+        ));
+    }
+    if index.ivf.num_partitions() != storage.ivf.num_partitions() {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "IVF index has {} partitions but auxiliary storage has {}",
+            index.ivf.num_partitions(),
+            storage.ivf.num_partitions()
+        )));
+    }
+    if max_partitions == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "IVF prewarm window partition cap must be positive",
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let mut windows = Vec::new();
+    let mut start = 0;
+    let mut window_bytes = 0_u64;
+    for partition_id in 0..index.ivf.num_partitions() {
+        let partition_bytes = estimate_encoded_bytes(
+            index.encoded_bytes,
+            index.num_rows,
+            index.ivf.partition_size(partition_id),
+        )
+        .checked_add(estimate_encoded_bytes(
+            storage.encoded_bytes,
+            storage.num_rows,
+            storage.ivf.partition_size(partition_id),
+        ))
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("IVF prewarm partition byte estimate overflowed u64"))?;
+
+        let exceeds_target = window_bytes
+            .checked_add(partition_bytes)
+            .is_none_or(|bytes| bytes > target_bytes);
+        let is_discontinuous = partition_id > start
+            && (index.ivf.row_range(partition_id - 1).end
+                != index.ivf.row_range(partition_id).start
+                || storage.ivf.row_range(partition_id - 1).end
+                    != storage.ivf.row_range(partition_id).start);
+        let reached_partition_cap = partition_id - start >= max_partitions;
+        if partition_id > start && (exceeds_target || is_discontinuous || reached_partition_cap) {
+            windows.push(PartitionWindow {
+                partitions: start..partition_id,
+                estimated_encoded_bytes: window_bytes,
+            });
+            start = partition_id;
+            window_bytes = 0;
+        }
+        window_bytes = window_bytes
+            .checked_add(partition_bytes)
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("IVF prewarm window byte estimate overflowed u64"))?;
+        if window_bytes > target_bytes {
+            windows.push(PartitionWindow {
+                partitions: start..partition_id + 1,
+                estimated_encoded_bytes: window_bytes,
+            });
+            start = partition_id + 1;
+            window_bytes = 0;
+        }
+    }
+    if start < index.ivf.num_partitions() {
+        windows.push(PartitionWindow {
+            partitions: start..index.ivf.num_partitions(),
+            estimated_encoded_bytes: window_bytes,
+        });
+    }
+    Ok(windows)
+}
+
+fn split_window_batches(
+    schema: &arrow_schema::SchemaRef,
+    partition_lengths: &[usize],
+    batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>>> {
+    let expected_rows = partition_lengths
+        .iter()
+        .try_fold(0_usize, |total, length| {
+            total
+                .checked_add(*length)
+                .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("IVF prewarm window row count overflowed usize"))
+        })?;
+    let actual_rows = batches.iter().try_fold(0_usize, |total, batch| {
+        total
+            .checked_add(batch.num_rows())
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("IVF prewarm decoded row count overflowed usize"))
+    })?;
+    if actual_rows != expected_rows {
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "IVF prewarm window decoded {actual_rows} rows, expected {expected_rows}"
+        )));
+    }
+
+    let mut output = Vec::with_capacity(partition_lengths.len());
+    let mut batch_id = 0;
+    let mut batch_offset = 0;
+    for &partition_length in partition_lengths {
+        if partition_length == 0 {
+            output.push(vec![RecordBatch::new_empty(schema.clone())]);
+            continue;
+        }
+        let mut remaining = partition_length;
+        let mut slices = Vec::new();
+        while remaining > 0 {
+            let batch = batches.get(batch_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index("IVF prewarm window ended before its partition boundary")
+            })?;
+            let available = batch.num_rows() - batch_offset;
+            let slice_length = available.min(remaining);
+            slices.push(batch.slice(batch_offset, slice_length));
+            batch_offset += slice_length;
+            remaining -= slice_length;
+            if batch_offset == batch.num_rows() {
+                batch_id += 1;
+                batch_offset = 0;
+            }
+        }
+        output.push(slices);
+    }
+    Ok(output)
+}
+
+fn compact_partition_batches(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let schema = batches
+        .first()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("IVF prewarm partition has no decoded batches"))?
+        .schema();
+    if batches.len() == 1 {
+        let batch = batches
+            .into_iter()
+            .next()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("IVF prewarm partition batch unexpectedly missing"))?;
+        if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+            Ok(batch)
+        } else {
+            Ok(batch.shrink_to_fit()?)
+        }
+    } else {
+        Ok(concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?)
+    }
+}
+
+struct PartitionPrewarmBatches {
+    index: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    storage: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+}
+
+async fn read_partition_window_batches(
+    reader: &FileReader,
+    projection: Option<&ReaderProjection>,
+    schema: &arrow_schema::SchemaRef,
+    ivf: &IvfModel,
+    partitions: Range<usize>,
+    io_stats: Option<IoStats>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Vec<RecordBatch>>> {
+    if partitions.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+    let partition_lengths = if reader.num_rows() == 0 {
+        vec![0; partitions.len()]
+    } else {
+        partitions
+            .clone()
+            .map(|partition_id| ivf.partition_size(partition_id))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    };
+    let row_start = if reader.num_rows() == 0 {
+        0
+    } else {
+        ivf.row_range(partitions.start).start
+    };
+    let row_end = if reader.num_rows() == 0 {
+        0
+    } else {
+        ivf.row_range(partitions.end - 1).end
+    };
+    let batches = if row_start == row_end {
+        Vec::new()
+    } else {
+        let reader = match &io_stats {
+            Some(io_stats) => Cow::Owned(reader.with_io_stats(io_stats.recorder())),
+            None => Cow::Borrowed(reader),
+        };
+        let params = ReadBatchParams::Range(row_start..row_end);
+        let stream = match projection {
+            Some(projection) => {
+                reader
+                    .read_stream_projected(
+                        params,
+                        u32::MAX,
+                        1,
+                        projection.clone(),
+                        FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                    )
+                    .await?
+            }
+            None => {
+                reader
+                    .read_stream(params, u32::MAX, 1, FilterExpression::no_filter())
+                    .await?
+            }
+        };
+        stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?
+    };
+    split_window_batches(schema, &partition_lengths, batches)
+}
+
+/// Number of prewarm windows kept in flight. Raising this beyond the CPU pool
+/// size measured no throughput gain (see `DEFAULT_IVF_PREWARM_WINDOW_SIZE_BYTES`);
+/// the window size is the lever.
+fn prewarm_parallelism(io_parallelism: usize, cpu_parallelism: usize) -> usize {
+    io_parallelism.max(1).min(cpu_parallelism.max(1))
+}
+
+struct PreparedPartitionSearch<S: IvfSubIndex, Q: Quantization> {
+    query: Query,
+    pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    partition_id: usize,
+    partition_centroid: Option<ArrayRef>,
+    rq_search_cache: Option<Arc<RabitSearchCache>>,
+    raw_query_context: Option<Arc<RabitRawQueryContext>>,
+    part_entry: Arc<PartitionEntry<S, Q>>,
+    /// Released together with `part_entry`, so the tracker's live count is the
+    /// number of partitions whose storage is pinned by in-flight searches.
+    _in_flight: PreparedPartitionGuard,
+    _marker: PhantomData<(S, Q)>,
+}
+
+/// Live count and high-water mark of [`PreparedPartitionSearch`] values for one
+/// index.
+///
+/// A prepared partition holds a strong reference to its [`PartitionEntry`] — the
+/// partition's whole quantized storage — until it has been scored and dropped, so
+/// the index cache cannot evict it in the meantime. The count is therefore the
+/// partition memory a query holds *outside* the cache's budget. Every search path
+/// must keep it bounded by its prepare window and scoring chunk size rather than
+/// by `nprobes`: a query that probes thousands of partitions of a large RQ index
+/// would otherwise pin hundreds of GiB before scoring the first one.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub(crate) struct PreparedPartitionTracker {
+    in_flight: AtomicUsize,
+    peak: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl PreparedPartitionTracker {
+    fn track(self: &Arc<Self>) -> PreparedPartitionGuard {
+        let now = self.in_flight.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed) + 1;
+        self.peak.fetch_max(now, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        PreparedPartitionGuard(self.clone())
+    }
+
+    /// Prepared partitions currently alive.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn in_flight(&self) -> usize {
+        self.in_flight.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+
+    /// Most prepared partitions alive at once over the index's lifetime.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn peak(&self) -> usize {
+        self.peak.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+    }
+}
+
+struct PreparedPartitionGuard(Arc<PreparedPartitionTracker>);
+
+impl Drop for PreparedPartitionGuard {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.0.in_flight.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct RabitSearchCache {
+    rotated_centroids: Vec<f32>,
+    code_dim: usize,
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn empty_rabit_search_cache_cell() -> RabitSearchCacheCell {
+    Arc::new(Mutex::new(None))
+}
+
+fn rabit_search_cache_cell(cache: Option<Arc<RabitSearchCache>>) -> RabitSearchCacheCell {
+    Arc::new(Mutex::new(Some(cache)))
+}
+
+fn rotated_partition_centroid_slice(
+    cache: Option<&RabitSearchCache>,
+    partition_id: usize,
+) -> Option<&[f32]> {
+    let cache = cache?;
+    let start = partition_id.checked_mul(cache.code_dim)?;
+    let end = start.checked_add(cache.code_dim)?;
+    cache.rotated_centroids.get(start..end)
+}
+
+/// `f32` scratch needed for the ex-bit query state: a zero-padded query copy
+/// when the rotated dim is not a multiple of the 64-dim kernel block (the
+/// FastScan ex LUT is built directly from the query, with no f32 table).
+fn rabit_ex_scratch_len(dim: usize, num_bits: u8) -> usize {
+    let multi_bit = rabit_ex_bits(num_bits)
+        .map(|ex_bits| ex_bits > 0)
+        .unwrap_or(true);
+    if !multi_bit || dim.is_multiple_of(64) {
+        0
+    } else {
+        padded_query_len(dim)
+    }
+}
+
+fn rabit_u8_scratch_len(dim: usize, num_bits: u8) -> usize {
+    let binary_dist_table_len = dim * 4;
+    let ex_dist_table_len = rabit_ex_bits(num_bits)
+        .ok()
+        .and_then(|ex_bits| match ex_bits {
+            2 | 4 | 8 => Some(blocked_ex_code_bytes(dim, ex_bits)),
+            _ => None,
+        })
+        .map(|ex_code_len| ex_code_len * 2 * SEGMENT_NUM_CODES)
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+    binary_dist_table_len.max(ex_dist_table_len)
+}
+
+fn rabit_query_scratch_capacity(
+    dim: usize,
+    max_partition_len: usize,
+    num_bits: u8,
+) -> QueryScratchCapacity {
+    let dist_table_len = dim * 4;
+    let ex_scratch_len = rabit_ex_scratch_len(dim, num_bits);
+    let u8_scratch_len = rabit_u8_scratch_len(dim, num_bits);
+
+    QueryScratchCapacity::new(
+        max_partition_len,
+        dim + dist_table_len + ex_scratch_len,
+        max_partition_len.max(dist_table_len),
+        u8_scratch_len,
+    )
+}
+
+impl<Q: Quantization> DeepSizeOf for IvfIndexState<Q> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.index_file_path.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.uuid.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.ivf.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.aux_ivf.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.sub_index_metadata.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.metadata.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .rq_search_cache
+                .lock()
+                .ok()
+                .and_then(|cache| cache.as_ref().and_then(|cache| cache.as_ref().cloned()))
+                .map(|cache| cache.rotated_centroids.len() * std::mem::size_of::<f32>())
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Object-safe interface for a type-erased `IvfIndexState<Q>`.
+///
+/// Stored as `Arc<dyn IvfStateEntry>` inside [`IvfStateEntryBox`], which is
+/// the concrete type held in the index cache. Splitting the trait from the
+/// wrapper lets the cache infrastructure work with a sized type while the
+/// hot paths call `reconstruct` without knowing `Q`.
+pub(crate) trait IvfStateEntry: DeepSizeOf + Send + Sync + 'static {
+    fn serialize_state(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()>;
+
+    fn reconstruct<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        file_metadata_cache: &'a LanceCache,
+        index_cache: LanceCache,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<ResolvedRemapping>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>>>;
+}
+
+/// Sized wrapper around `Arc<dyn IvfStateEntry>` for use as a cache value.
+///
+/// `IvfStateEntryBox` is the `CacheKey::ValueType` for `IvfIndexStateCacheKey`.
+/// `CacheCodecImpl` on this type holds the full deserialization dispatch
+/// (matching on `quantization_type`) so callers never need to branch on
+/// index type after a cache hit.
+pub(crate) struct IvfStateEntryBox(pub(crate) Arc<dyn IvfStateEntry>);
+
+impl DeepSizeOf for IvfStateEntryBox {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.0.deep_size_of_children(context)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Wire format:
+/// ```text
+/// HEADER   : IvfStateHeader proto (paths, types, quantizer metadata JSON)
+/// RAW_BLOB : IVF model protobuf
+/// RAW_BLOB : quantizer extra-metadata buffer (may be empty)
+/// RAW_BLOB : auxiliary IVF model protobuf
+/// ```
+impl CacheCodecImpl for IvfStateEntryBox {
+    const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "lance.vector.ivf.IvfState";
+    const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+    fn serialize(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.0.serialize_state(w)
+    }
+
+    fn deserialize(r: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+        // Parse the common header, then dispatch on quantization_type to
+        // construct the right IvfIndexState<Q>.
+        let header: IvfStateHeader = r.read_header()?;
 
-use super::{centroids_to_vectors, IvfIndexPartitionStatistics, IvfIndexStatistics};
+        let ivf_bytes = r.read_raw()?;
+        let ivf = IvfModel::try_from(
+            pb::Ivf::decode(ivf_bytes.as_ref())
+                .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("IvfIndexState IVF decode: {e}")))?,
+        )?;
+
+        let extra_bytes = r.read_raw()?;
+
+        let aux_ivf_bytes = r.read_raw()?;
+        let aux_ivf =
+            IvfModel::try_from(pb::Ivf::decode(aux_ivf_bytes.as_ref()).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::io(format!("IvfIndexState aux IVF decode: {e}"))
+            })?)?;
+
+        let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(header.distance_type.as_str())?;
+        let sub_index_type = SubIndexType::try_from(header.sub_index_type.as_str())?;
+        let quantization_type = header.quantization_type.parse::<QuantizationType>()?;
+
+        // Helper: parse Q::Metadata from the JSON+extra_bytes in the header,
+        // then build an IvfStateEntryBox wrapping IvfIndexState<Q>.
+        fn make_entry<Q: Quantization + 'static>(
+            header: IvfStateHeader,
+            ivf: IvfModel,
+            aux_ivf: IvfModel,
+            extra_bytes: bytes::Bytes,
+            distance_type: DistanceType,
+            sub_index_type: SubIndexType,
+            quantization_type: QuantizationType,
+        ) -> Result<IvfStateEntryBox>
+        where
+            <Q::Storage as QuantizerStorage>::Metadata:
+                serde::de::DeserializeOwned + QuantizerMetadata,
+        {
+            let mut metadata: <Q::Storage as QuantizerStorage>::Metadata =
+                serde_json::from_str(&header.quantizer_metadata_json)
+                    .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("IvfIndexState metadata: {e}")))?;
+            if !extra_bytes.is_empty() {
+                metadata.parse_buffer(extra_bytes)?;
+            }
+            Ok(IvfStateEntryBox(Arc::new(IvfIndexState::<Q> {
+                index_file_path: header.index_file_path,
+                uuid: header.uuid,
+                ivf,
+                aux_ivf,
+                distance_type,
+                sub_index_metadata: header.sub_index_metadata,
+                metadata,
+                sub_index_type,
+                quantization_type,
+                index_file_size: header.index_file_size,
+                aux_file_size: header.aux_file_size,
+                rq_search_cache: empty_rabit_search_cache_cell(),
+            })))
+        }
+
+        match quantization_type {
+            QuantizationType::Flat => make_entry::<FlatQuantizer>(
+                header,
+                ivf,
+                aux_ivf,
+                extra_bytes,
+                distance_type,
+                sub_index_type,
+                quantization_type,
+            ),
+            QuantizationType::FlatBin => make_entry::<FlatBinQuantizer>(
+                header,
+                ivf,
+                aux_ivf,
+                extra_bytes,
+                distance_type,
+                sub_index_type,
+                quantization_type,
+            ),
+            QuantizationType::Product => make_entry::<ProductQuantizer>(
+                header,
+                ivf,
+                aux_ivf,
+                extra_bytes,
+                distance_type,
+                sub_index_type,
+                quantization_type,
+            ),
+            QuantizationType::Scalar => make_entry::<ScalarQuantizer>(
+                header,
+                ivf,
+                aux_ivf,
+                extra_bytes,
+                distance_type,
+                sub_index_type,
+                quantization_type,
+            ),
+            QuantizationType::Rabit => make_entry::<RabitQuantizer>(
+                header,
+                ivf,
+                aux_ivf,
+                extra_bytes,
+                distance_type,
+                sub_index_type,
+                quantization_type,
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<Q: Quantization + 'static> IvfStateEntry for IvfIndexState<Q> {
+    fn serialize_state(&self, w: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let quantizer_metadata_json = serde_json::to_string(&self.metadata)
+            .map_err(|e| lance_core::Error::io(format!("IvfIndexState metadata: {e}")))?;
+        let extra = self.metadata.extra_metadata()?;
+        let extra = extra.as_deref().unwrap_or(&[]);
+
+        let header = IvfStateHeader {
+            index_file_path: self.index_file_path.clone(),
+            uuid: self.uuid.to_string(),
+            distance_type: self.distance_type.to_string(),
+            sub_index_metadata: self.sub_index_metadata.clone(),
+            sub_index_type: self.sub_index_type.to_string(),
+            quantization_type: self.quantization_type.to_string(),
+            quantizer_metadata_json,
+            index_file_size: self.index_file_size,
+            aux_file_size: self.aux_file_size,
+        };
+        let ivf_bytes = pb::Ivf::try_from(&self.ivf)?.encode_to_vec();
+        let aux_ivf_bytes = pb::Ivf::try_from(&self.aux_ivf)?.encode_to_vec();
+
+        w.write_header(&header)?;
+        w.write_raw(&ivf_bytes)?;
+        w.write_raw(extra)?;
+        w.write_raw(&aux_ivf_bytes)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn reconstruct<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        file_metadata_cache: &'a LanceCache,
+        index_cache: LanceCache,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<ResolvedRemapping>,
+    ) -> BoxFuture<'a, Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>>> {
+        Box::pin(async move {
+            match self.sub_index_type {
+                SubIndexType::Flat => {
+                    reconstruct_typed::<FlatIndex, Q>(
+                        self,
+                        object_store,
+                        file_metadata_cache,
+                        index_cache,
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                }
+                SubIndexType::Hnsw => {
+                    reconstruct_typed::<HNSW, Q>(
+                        self,
+                        object_store,
+                        file_metadata_cache,
+                        index_cache,
+                        frag_reuse_index,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                }
+            }
+        })
+    }
+}
 
-#[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+struct FileMetadataCacheKey;
+
+impl CacheKey for FileMetadataCacheKey {
+    type ValueType = CachedFileMetadata;
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "CachedFileMetadata"
+    }
+    fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
+        "".into()
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.ivf-file-metadata-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, _builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {}
+}
+
+/// Open a FileReader, reusing cached file metadata if available.
+async fn open_reader_cached(
+    scheduler: &Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    path: &Path,
+    cache: &LanceCache,
+    known_file_size: u64,
+) -> Result<FileReader> {
+    let file_cache = cache.with_key_prefix(path.as_ref());
+    // CachedFileSize::new(0) == CachedFileSize::unknown(); passing the raw
+    // hint directly is safe — the type already encodes 0 as "unknown".
+    let cached_size = CachedFileSize::new(known_file_size);
+
+    if let Some(cached_meta) = file_cache.get_with_key(&FileMetadataCacheKey).await {
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler.open_file(path, &cached_size).await?;
+        let encodings_io = Arc::new(LanceEncodingsIo::new(file_scheduler));
+        FileReader::try_open_with_file_metadata(
+            encodings_io,
+            path.clone(),
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            cached_meta,
+            cache,
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+    } else {
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler.open_file(path, &cached_size).await?;
+        let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            cache,
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        // File metadata is store-free, so it outlives the reader opened here:
+        // cache it to spare later reconstructions the footer read.
+        file_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&FileMetadataCacheKey, reader.metadata().clone())
+            .await;
+        Ok(reader)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct PartitionEntry<S: IvfSubIndex, Q: Quantization> {
     pub index: S,
     pub storage: Q::Storage,
+    partition_rows: OnceLock<Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>>,
+    partition_rows_accounted: AtomicBool,
+    /// Memoized size of the immutable parts (this struct, the sub-index and the
+    /// quantized storage): every query that prepares this partition needs its
+    /// size to budget scoring chunks, and the walk over the storage's arrays
+    /// costs a few microseconds per partition — measurable on a warm
+    /// probe-everything query — while these never change once loaded.
+    immutable_bytes: OnceLock<usize>,
+    /// Memoized size of `partition_rows`, set when the coverage is built. Kept
+    /// apart from `immutable_bytes` because the coverage can appear after an
+    /// earlier query already memoized the size; folding it in later keeps
+    /// [`Self::size_bytes`] equal to [`DeepSizeOf::deep_size_of`].
+    coverage_bytes: OnceLock<usize>,
+}
+
+impl<S: IvfSubIndex, Q: Quantization> PartitionEntry<S, Q> {
+    pub(super) fn new(index: S, storage: Q::Storage) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index,
+            storage,
+            partition_rows: OnceLock::new(),
+            partition_rows_accounted: AtomicBool::new(false),
+            immutable_bytes: OnceLock::new(),
+            coverage_bytes: OnceLock::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Bytes this entry pins in memory, equal to [`DeepSizeOf::deep_size_of`]
+    /// but memoized: the immutable parts are computed on first use and the
+    /// lazily built partition coverage is added once it exists.
+    fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        let immutable = *self.immutable_bytes.get_or_init(|| {
+            let mut context = lance_core::deepsize::Context::new();
+            std::mem::size_of::<Self>()
+                + self.index.deep_size_of_children(&mut context)
+                + self.storage.deep_size_of_children(&mut context)
+        });
+        immutable + self.coverage_bytes.get().copied().unwrap_or_default()
+    }
+
+    fn partition_rows(&self) -> Arc<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+        let rows = self
+            .partition_rows
+            .get_or_init(|| Arc::new(self.storage.row_ids().collect()));
+        self.coverage_bytes
+            .get_or_init(|| rows.deep_size_of_children(&mut lance_core::deepsize::Context::new()));
+        rows.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<S: IvfSubIndex, Q: Quantization> DeepSizeOf for PartitionEntry<S, Q> {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        self.index.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.storage.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .partition_rows
+                .get()
+                .map(|rows| rows.deep_size_of_children(context))
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+    }
 }
 
 impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> VectorIndexCacheEntry
@@ -97,111 +1008,586 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> CacheKey for IVFPartit
     fn key(&self) -> std::borrow::Cow<'_, str> {
         format!("ivf-{}", self.partition_id).into()
     }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "IVFPartition"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.ivf-partition-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_str(S::name());
+        builder.write_variant(match Q::quantization_type() {
+            QuantizationType::Flat => 0,
+            QuantizationType::FlatBin => 1,
+            QuantizationType::Product => 2,
+            QuantizationType::Scalar => 3,
+            QuantizationType::Rabit => 4,
+        });
+        builder.write_u64(self.partition_id as u64);
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<CacheCodec> {
+        super::partition_serde::partition_entry_codec::<S, Q>()
+    }
 }
 
 /// IVF Index.
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct IVFIndex<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> {
+    /// Local display path (via `to_local_path`), used for statistics.
     uri: String,
-    uuid: String,
+    /// Object-store path to the index file (forward-slash separated).
+    /// Used by `cacheable_state()` for cross-platform reconstruction.
+    index_path: String,
+    uuid: Uuid,
 
     /// Ivf model
     ivf: IvfModel,
 
     reader: FileReader,
+    /// Narrowed read of the index file, when the sub-index declares that
+    /// [`IvfSubIndex::load`] consumes only part of what it writes. `None` reads
+    /// every column. Built once here because it is fallible and only depends on
+    /// the file schema.
+    read_projection: Option<ReaderProjection>,
     sub_index_metadata: Vec<String>,
     storage: IvfQuantizationStorage<Q>,
 
-    partition_locks: PartitionLoadLock,
-
     distance_type: DistanceType,
 
     index_cache: WeakLanceCache,
 
+    io_parallelism: usize,
+    /// Cumulative I/O performed while opening this index (file footers, IVF
+    /// centroids, quantization metadata).  Captured once in `try_new`; exposed
+    /// via [`VectorIndex::open_io_stats`] so the opening query can attribute the
+    /// one-time open cost to its plan metrics.
+    open_io_stats: ScanStats,
+    scratch_pool: Arc<QueryScratchPool>,
+    use_query_residual: bool,
+    use_residual_scratch: bool,
+    rq_search_cache: Option<Arc<RabitSearchCache>>,
+    prepared_partitions: Arc<PreparedPartitionTracker>,
+
     _marker: PhantomData<(S, Q)>,
 }
 
 impl<S: IvfSubIndex, Q: Quantization> DeepSizeOf for IVFIndex<S, Q> {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        // `Uuid` is a fixed 16-byte struct with no heap children, so contributes 0.
         self.uri.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.index_path.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.ivf.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.sub_index_metadata.deep_size_of_children(context)
-            + self.uuid.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self.storage.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self.scratch_pool.deep_size_of_children(context)
+            + self
+                .rq_search_cache
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|cache| cache.rotated_centroids.len() * std::mem::size_of::<f32>())
+                .unwrap_or_default()
         // Skipping session since it is a weak ref
     }
 }
 
 impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization> IVFIndex<S, Q> {
-    /// Create a new IVF index.
-    pub(crate) async fn try_new(
-        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
-        index_dir: Path,
-        uuid: String,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
-        file_metadata_cache: &LanceCache,
-        index_cache: LanceCache,
-    ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let scheduler_config = SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store);
-        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, scheduler_config);
-
-        let uri = index_dir.child(uuid.as_str()).child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
-        let index_reader = FileReader::try_open(
-            scheduler
-                .open_file(&uri, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-                .await?,
-            None,
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            file_metadata_cache,
-            FileReaderOptions::default(),
-        )
-        .await?;
-        let index_metadata: IndexMetadata = serde_json::from_str(
-            index_reader
-                .schema()
-                .metadata
-                .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
-                .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!("{} not found", DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?
-                .as_str(),
-        )?;
-        let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(index_metadata.distance_type.as_str())?;
+    fn read_projection(reader: &FileReader) -> Result<Option<ReaderProjection>> {
+        S::read_columns()
+            .map(|columns| {
+                lance_file::versions::reader_projection_from_column_names(
+                    reader.metadata().version(),
+                    reader.schema(),
+                    columns,
+                )
+            })
+            .transpose()
+    }
 
-        let ivf_pos = index_reader
-            .schema()
-            .metadata
-            .get(IVF_METADATA_KEY)
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("{} not found", IVF_METADATA_KEY),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?
-            .parse()
-            .map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Failed to decode IVF position: {}", e),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
-        let ivf_pb_bytes = index_reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_pos).await?;
-        let ivf = IvfModel::try_from(pb::Ivf::decode(ivf_pb_bytes)?)?;
+    async fn cache_partition_rows(
+        index_cache: &WeakLanceCache,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        partition: &Arc<PartitionEntry<S, Q>>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>> {
+        let rows = partition.partition_rows();
+        if !partition.partition_rows_accounted.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            let cache_key = IVFPartitionKey::<S, Q>::new(partition_id);
+            if index_cache
+                .insert_with_key(&cache_key, partition.clone())
+                .await
+            {
+                partition
+                    .partition_rows_accounted
+                    .store(true, Ordering::Release);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(rows)
+    }
+
+    async fn prefilter_for_partition(
+        index_cache: &WeakLanceCache,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        partition: &Arc<PartitionEntry<S, Q>>,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn PreFilter>> {
+        if pre_filter.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(NoFilter));
+        }
+        if !pre_filter.needs_partition_row_ids() {
+            return Ok(pre_filter);
+        }
+        let rows = Self::cache_partition_rows(index_cache, partition_id, partition).await?;
+        if pre_filter.is_empty_for(rows.as_ref()) {
+            Ok(Arc::new(NoFilter))
+        } else {
+            Ok(pre_filter)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn use_query_residual(
+        storage: &IvfQuantizationStorage<Q>,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> bool {
+        if Q::quantization_type() == QuantizationType::Rabit
+            && let Ok(Quantizer::Rabit(rq)) = storage.quantizer()
+        {
+            return rq.metadata_ref().query_estimator == RabitQueryEstimator::ResidualQuery;
+        }
+        Q::use_residual(distance_type)
+    }
+
+    fn build_rq_search_cache(
+        ivf: &IvfModel,
+        storage: &IvfQuantizationStorage<Q>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<RabitSearchCache>>> {
+        if Q::quantization_type() != QuantizationType::Rabit {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let Quantizer::Rabit(rq) = storage.quantizer()? else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if rq.metadata_ref().query_estimator != RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let centroids = ivf
+            .centroids_array()
+            .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("IVF_RQ raw-query search requires centroids"))?;
+        let rotated_centroids = rq.rotate_fsl_to_f32(centroids)?;
+        Ok(Some(Arc::new(RabitSearchCache {
+            rotated_centroids,
+            code_dim: rq.code_dim(),
+        })))
+    }
+
+    fn rq_search_cache_from_state(
+        state: &IvfIndexState<Q>,
+        storage: &IvfQuantizationStorage<Q>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<RabitSearchCache>>> {
+        let mut cache = state
+            .rq_search_cache
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| Error::internal("RQ search cache lock was poisoned".to_string()))?;
+        if let Some(cache) = cache.as_ref() {
+            return Ok(cache.clone());
+        }
+        let built = Self::build_rq_search_cache(&state.ivf, storage)?;
+        *cache = Some(built.clone());
+        Ok(built)
+    }
+
+    fn prepare_rq_raw_query_context(
+        &self,
+        query: &ArrayRef,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<RabitRawQueryContext>>> {
+        if Q::quantization_type() != QuantizationType::Rabit || self.use_query_residual {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        let Quantizer::Rabit(rq) = self.storage.quantizer()? else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        if rq.metadata_ref().query_estimator != RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        Ok(Some(Arc::new(
+            rq.metadata_ref()
+                .prepare_raw_query_context(query.as_ref())?,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    async fn prepare_partition(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        query: &Query,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        raw_query_context: Option<Arc<RabitRawQueryContext>>,
+    ) -> Result<PreparedPartitionSearch<S, Q>> {
+        let _stage_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::PartitionPrepare);
+        let (part_entry, ()) =
+            tokio::try_join!(self.load_partition(partition_id, true, metrics), async {
+                let _wait_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::PrefilterWait);
+                pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await
+            },)?;
+        let pre_filter =
+            Self::prefilter_for_partition(&self.index_cache, partition_id, &part_entry, pre_filter)
+                .await?;
+        Ok(PreparedPartitionSearch {
+            query: query.clone(),
+            pre_filter,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid: self.ivf.centroid(partition_id),
+            rq_search_cache: self.rq_search_cache.clone(),
+            raw_query_context,
+            part_entry,
+            _in_flight: self.prepared_partitions.track(),
+            _marker: PhantomData,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn prepare_partition_without_prefilter_wait(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        query: &Query,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        raw_query_context: Option<Arc<RabitRawQueryContext>>,
+    ) -> Result<PreparedPartitionSearch<S, Q>> {
+        let _stage_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::PartitionPrepare);
+        let part_entry = self.load_partition(partition_id, true, metrics).await?;
+        let pre_filter =
+            Self::prefilter_for_partition(&self.index_cache, partition_id, &part_entry, pre_filter)
+                .await?;
+        Ok(PreparedPartitionSearch {
+            query: query.clone(),
+            pre_filter,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid: self.ivf.centroid(partition_id),
+            rq_search_cache: self.rq_search_cache.clone(),
+            raw_query_context,
+            part_entry,
+            _in_flight: self.prepared_partitions.track(),
+            _marker: PhantomData,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn run_prepared_partition_search(
+        use_query_residual: bool,
+        use_residual_scratch: bool,
+        prepared: PreparedPartitionSearch<S, Q>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+        scratch: &mut QueryScratch,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let _stage_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::Search);
+        let PreparedPartitionSearch {
+            query,
+            pre_filter,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid,
+            rq_search_cache,
+            raw_query_context,
+            part_entry,
+            _in_flight: _,
+            _marker: _,
+        } = prepared;
+        let rotated_partition_centroid =
+            rotated_partition_centroid_slice(rq_search_cache.as_deref(), partition_id);
+        let residual = Self::query_context_for_scratch(
+            use_query_residual,
+            use_residual_scratch,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid.as_ref(),
+            rotated_partition_centroid,
+            raw_query_context.as_deref(),
+        )?;
+        let query = Self::preprocess_partition_query_owned(
+            use_query_residual,
+            use_residual_scratch,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid.as_ref(),
+            query,
+        )?;
+        let param = (&query).into();
+        let refine_factor = query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize;
+        let k = query.k * refine_factor;
+        let batch = part_entry.index.search_with_scratch(
+            query.key,
+            k,
+            param,
+            &part_entry.storage,
+            pre_filter,
+            metrics,
+            residual,
+            scratch,
+        )?;
+        Ok(batch)
+    }
+
+    /// Pull prepared partitions off `prepared` until their pinned storage reaches
+    /// `chunk_bytes` or the chunk holds [`GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_MAX_PARTITIONS`],
+    /// always taking at least one. `None` once the stream is exhausted; a failed
+    /// prepare ends the chunk (and the search) immediately.
+    async fn next_scoring_chunk<St>(
+        prepared: &mut St,
+        chunk_bytes: usize,
+    ) -> Option<Result<Vec<PreparedPartitionSearch<S, Q>>>>
+    where
+        St: Stream<Item = Result<PreparedPartitionSearch<S, Q>>> + Unpin,
+    {
+        let mut chunk = Vec::new();
+        let mut bytes = 0;
+        while bytes < chunk_bytes && chunk.len() < GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_MAX_PARTITIONS {
+            match prepared.next().await {
+                Some(Ok(prepared)) => {
+                    bytes += prepared.part_entry.size_bytes();
+                    chunk.push(prepared);
+                }
+                Some(Err(err)) => return Some(Err(err)),
+                None => break,
+            }
+        }
+        if chunk.is_empty() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(Ok(chunk))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn accumulate_prepared_partition_search(
+        use_query_residual: bool,
+        use_residual_scratch: bool,
+        prepared: PreparedPartitionSearch<S, Q>,
+        heap: &mut BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        scratch: &mut QueryScratch,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let _stage_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::Search);
+        let PreparedPartitionSearch {
+            query,
+            pre_filter,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid,
+            rq_search_cache,
+            raw_query_context,
+            part_entry,
+            _in_flight: _,
+            _marker: _,
+        } = prepared;
+        let rotated_partition_centroid =
+            rotated_partition_centroid_slice(rq_search_cache.as_deref(), partition_id);
+        let residual = Self::query_context_for_scratch(
+            use_query_residual,
+            use_residual_scratch,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid.as_ref(),
+            rotated_partition_centroid,
+            raw_query_context.as_deref(),
+        )?;
+        let query = Self::preprocess_partition_query_owned(
+            use_query_residual,
+            use_residual_scratch,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid.as_ref(),
+            query,
+        )?;
+        let param = (&query).into();
+        let refine_factor = query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize;
+        let k = query.k * refine_factor;
+        part_entry.index.accumulate_topk_with_scratch(
+            query.key,
+            k,
+            param,
+            &part_entry.storage,
+            pre_filter,
+            heap,
+            residual,
+            scratch,
+            metrics,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn query_context_for_scratch<'a>(
+        use_query_residual: bool,
+        use_residual_scratch: bool,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        partition_centroid: Option<&'a ArrayRef>,
+        rotated_partition_centroid: Option<&'a [f32]>,
+        raw_query_context: Option<&'a RabitRawQueryContext>,
+    ) -> Result<Option<QueryResidual<'a>>> {
+        if use_residual_scratch {
+            let partition_centroid = partition_centroid.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!("partition centroid {partition_id} does not exist"))
+            })?;
+            Ok(Some(QueryResidual::Centroid(partition_centroid.as_ref())))
+        } else if !use_query_residual
+            && (rotated_partition_centroid.is_some() || raw_query_context.is_some())
+        {
+            Ok(Some(QueryResidual::RabitRawQuery {
+                rotated_centroid: rotated_partition_centroid,
+                query: raw_query_context,
+            }))
+        } else {
+            Ok(None)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn global_heap_to_batch(
+        heap: BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let _result_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::ResultMaterialize);
+        let (row_ids, dists): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = heap.into_iter().map(|r| (r.id, r.dist.0)).unzip();
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+            VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(dists)),
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
+            ],
+        )?)
+    }
+
+    fn preprocess_partition_query(
+        use_query_residual: bool,
+        use_residual_scratch: bool,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        partition_centroid: Option<&ArrayRef>,
+        query: &Query,
+    ) -> Result<Query> {
+        Self::preprocess_partition_query_owned(
+            use_query_residual,
+            use_residual_scratch,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid,
+            query.clone(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn preprocess_partition_query_owned(
+        use_query_residual: bool,
+        use_residual_scratch: bool,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        partition_centroid: Option<&ArrayRef>,
+        mut query: Query,
+    ) -> Result<Query> {
+        if use_query_residual {
+            let partition_centroid = partition_centroid.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!("partition centroid {partition_id} does not exist"))
+            })?;
+            if use_residual_scratch {
+                return Ok(query);
+            }
+            let residual_key = sub(&query.key, partition_centroid)?;
+            query.key = residual_key;
+        }
+        Ok(query)
+    }
+
+    fn query_scratch_capacity(
+        ivf: &IvfModel,
+        storage: &IvfQuantizationStorage<Q>,
+    ) -> QueryScratchCapacity {
+        if Q::quantization_type() != QuantizationType::Rabit {
+            return QueryScratchCapacity::default();
+        }
+
+        let dim = ivf.dimension();
+        let max_partition_len = ivf.lengths.iter().copied().max().unwrap_or_default() as usize;
+        let num_bits = match storage.quantizer() {
+            Ok(Quantizer::Rabit(rq)) => rq.metadata_ref().num_bits,
+            _ => 9,
+        };
+
+        rabit_query_scratch_capacity(dim, max_partition_len, num_bits)
+    }
+
+    fn use_residual_scratch(ivf: &IvfModel, use_query_residual: bool) -> bool {
+        Q::quantization_type() == QuantizationType::Rabit
+            && use_query_residual
+            && ivf
+                .centroids_array()
+                .map(|centroids| centroids.value_type() == DataType::Float32)
+                .unwrap_or(false)
+    }
+
+    fn query_scratch_pool(ivf: &IvfModel, storage: &IvfQuantizationStorage<Q>) -> QueryScratchPool {
+        QueryScratchPool::with_capacity(
+            get_num_compute_intensive_cpus(),
+            Self::query_scratch_capacity(ivf, storage),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new IVF index.
+    pub(crate) async fn try_new(
+        object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+        index_dir: Path,
+        uuid: Uuid,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<ResolvedRemapping>,
+        file_metadata_cache: &LanceCache,
+        index_cache: LanceCache,
+        file_sizes: HashMap<String, u64>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let io_parallelism = object_store.io_parallelism();
+        let scheduler_config = SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store);
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, scheduler_config);
+
+        let uuid_str = uuid.to_string();
+        let uri = index_dir
+            .clone()
+            .join(uuid_str.as_str())
+            .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+        let cached_size = file_sizes
+            .get(INDEX_FILE_NAME)
+            .map(|&size| CachedFileSize::new(size))
+            .unwrap_or_else(CachedFileSize::unknown);
+        let index_reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            scheduler.open_file(&uri, &cached_size).await?,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            file_metadata_cache,
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await?;
+        let index_metadata: IndexMetadata = serde_json::from_str(
+            index_reader
+                .schema()
+                .metadata
+                .get(INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY)
+                .ok_or(Error::index(format!("{} not found", DISTANCE_TYPE_KEY)))?
+                .as_str(),
+        )?;
+        let distance_type = DistanceType::try_from(index_metadata.distance_type.as_str())?;
+
+        let ivf_pos = index_reader
+            .schema()
+            .metadata
+            .get(IVF_METADATA_KEY)
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!("{} not found", IVF_METADATA_KEY)))?
+            .parse()
+            .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Failed to decode IVF position: {}", e)))?;
+        let ivf_pb_bytes = index_reader.read_global_buffer(ivf_pos).await?;
+        let ivf = IvfModel::try_from(pb::Ivf::decode(ivf_pb_bytes)?)?;
 
         let sub_index_metadata = index_reader
             .schema()
             .metadata
             .get(S::metadata_key())
-            .ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("{} not found", S::metadata_key()),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            .ok_or(Error::index(format!("{} not found", S::metadata_key())))?;
         let sub_index_metadata: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(sub_index_metadata)?;
 
+        let aux_cached_size = file_sizes
+            .get(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME)
+            .map(|&size| CachedFileSize::new(size))
+            .unwrap_or_else(CachedFileSize::unknown);
         let storage_reader = FileReader::try_open(
             scheduler
                 .open_file(
                     &index_dir
-                        .child(uuid.as_str())
-                        .child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME),
-                    &CachedFileSize::unknown(),
+                        .clone()
+                        .join(uuid_str.as_str())
+                        .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME),
+                    &aux_cached_size,
                 )
                 .await?,
             None,
@@ -210,103 +1596,407 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization> IVFIndex<S, Q> {
             FileReaderOptions::default(),
         )
         .await?;
-        let storage =
-            IvfQuantizationStorage::try_new(storage_reader, frag_reuse_index.clone()).await?;
+        let storage = match frag_reuse_index {
+            Some(ResolvedRemapping::V0(remapper)) => {
+                IvfQuantizationStorage::try_new_with_remapper(storage_reader, Some(remapper))
+                    .await?
+            }
+            Some(ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { remapper, .. }) => {
+                IvfQuantizationStorage::try_new_with_remapper(storage_reader, None)
+                    .await?
+                    .with_row_id_remapping(remapper)
+            }
+            // An untouched segment on a tagged dataset decodes the original
+            // way, with no remapper.
+            Some(ResolvedRemapping::V1Identity) | None => {
+                IvfQuantizationStorage::try_new_with_remapper(storage_reader, None).await?
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Cache file metadata so reconstructions from IvfIndexState can skip
+        // footer reads.
+        file_metadata_cache
+            .with_key_prefix(uri.as_ref())
+            .insert_with_key(&FileMetadataCacheKey, index_reader.metadata().clone())
+            .await;
+        let aux_path = index_dir
+            .clone()
+            .join(uuid_str.as_str())
+            .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        file_metadata_cache
+            .with_key_prefix(aux_path.as_ref())
+            .insert_with_key(&FileMetadataCacheKey, storage.reader().metadata().clone())
+            .await;
+
+        let scratch_pool = Arc::new(Self::query_scratch_pool(&ivf, &storage));
+        let use_query_residual = Self::use_query_residual(&storage, distance_type);
+        let use_residual_scratch = Self::use_residual_scratch(&ivf, use_query_residual);
+        let rq_search_cache = Self::build_rq_search_cache(&ivf, &storage)?;
 
-        let num_partitions = ivf.num_partitions();
+        // The scheduler is freshly created above and, at this point, has served
+        // only the open-time reads (file footers, IVF centroids, quantization
+        // metadata) -- partition reads happen later, during queries.  So its
+        // cumulative stats are exactly the one-time index-open I/O.
+        let open_io_stats = scheduler.stats();
+
+        let read_projection = Self::read_projection(&index_reader)?;
         Ok(Self {
             uri: to_local_path(&uri),
+            index_path: uri.as_ref().to_string(),
             uuid,
+            scratch_pool,
+            use_query_residual,
+            use_residual_scratch,
+            rq_search_cache,
             ivf,
             reader: index_reader,
+            read_projection,
+            storage,
+            sub_index_metadata,
+            distance_type,
+            index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(&index_cache),
+            io_parallelism,
+            open_io_stats,
+            prepared_partitions: Arc::default(),
+            _marker: PhantomData,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Reconstruct an IVFIndex from pre-parsed state without any I/O.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(crate) fn from_cached_state(
+        uri: String,
+        index_path: String,
+        uuid: Uuid,
+        ivf: IvfModel,
+        reader: FileReader,
+        storage: IvfQuantizationStorage<Q>,
+        sub_index_metadata: Vec<String>,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        index_cache: LanceCache,
+        io_parallelism: usize,
+        rq_search_cache: Option<Arc<RabitSearchCache>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let scratch_pool = Arc::new(Self::query_scratch_pool(&ivf, &storage));
+        let use_query_residual = Self::use_query_residual(&storage, distance_type);
+        let use_residual_scratch = Self::use_residual_scratch(&ivf, use_query_residual);
+        let read_projection = Self::read_projection(&reader)?;
+        Ok(Self {
+            uri,
+            index_path,
+            uuid,
+            scratch_pool,
+            use_query_residual,
+            use_residual_scratch,
+            rq_search_cache,
+            ivf,
+            reader,
+            read_projection,
             storage,
-            partition_locks: PartitionLoadLock::new(num_partitions),
             sub_index_metadata,
             distance_type,
             index_cache: WeakLanceCache::from(&index_cache),
+            io_parallelism,
+            // Reconstruction from cached state re-opens readers on its own path;
+            // the open-time I/O is not attributed here (it is a one-time cost,
+            // and the first open via `try_new` already accounts for it).
+            open_io_stats: ScanStats::default(),
+            prepared_partitions: Arc::default(),
             _marker: PhantomData,
         })
     }
 
+    /// Prepared-partition accounting for this index instance; see
+    /// [`PreparedPartitionTracker`].
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub(crate) fn prepared_partitions(&self) -> &PreparedPartitionTracker {
+        &self.prepared_partitions
+    }
+
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, metrics))]
     pub async fn load_partition(
         &self,
         partition_id: usize,
         write_cache: bool,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
-    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndexCacheEntry>> {
+    ) -> Result<Arc<PartitionEntry<S, Q>>> {
+        let _stage_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::PartitionLoad);
+        if partition_id >= self.ivf.num_partitions() {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "partition id {} is out of range of {} partitions",
+                partition_id,
+                self.ivf.num_partitions()
+            )));
+        }
+
         let cache_key = IVFPartitionKey::<S, Q>::new(partition_id);
-        let part_entry = if let Some(part_idx) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
-            part_idx
+
+        if write_cache {
+            let result = self
+                .index_cache
+                .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(cache_key, || async {
+                    info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_VECTOR_PART, index_type="ivf", part_id=partition_id);
+                    metrics.record_part_load();
+                    self.load_partition_entry(partition_id, metrics.io_stats())
+                        .await
+                })
+                .await;
+            match &result {
+                Ok((_, true)) => metrics.record_index_cache_hit(),
+                _ => metrics.record_index_cache_miss(),
+            }
+            let (entry, _) = result?;
+            Ok(entry)
         } else {
-            info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_VECTOR_PART, index_type="ivf", part_id=cache_key.key().as_ref());
-            metrics.record_part_load();
-            if partition_id >= self.ivf.num_partitions() {
-                return Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "partition id {} is out of range of {} partitions",
-                        partition_id,
-                        self.ivf.num_partitions()
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+            if let Some(part_idx) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
+                metrics.record_index_cache_hit();
+                return Ok(part_idx);
             }
+            metrics.record_index_cache_miss();
+            info!(target: TRACE_IO_EVENTS, r#type=IO_TYPE_LOAD_VECTOR_PART, index_type="ivf", part_id=partition_id);
+            metrics.record_part_load();
+            Ok(Arc::new(
+                self.load_partition_entry(partition_id, metrics.io_stats())
+                    .await?,
+            ))
+        }
+    }
 
-            let mtx = self.partition_locks.get_partition_mutex(partition_id);
-            let _guard = mtx.lock().await;
+    async fn load_partition_entry(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        io_stats: Option<IoStats>,
+    ) -> Result<PartitionEntry<S, Q>> {
+        let batch = self
+            .read_sub_index_batch(
+                partition_id,
+                self.read_projection.as_ref(),
+                io_stats.clone(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+        let idx = S::load(batch)?;
+        let storage = self.load_partition_storage(partition_id, io_stats).await?;
+        Ok(PartitionEntry::new(idx, storage))
+    }
 
-            // check the cache again, as the partition may have been loaded by another
-            // thread that held the lock on loading the partition
-            if let Some(part_idx) = self.index_cache.get_with_key(&cache_key).await {
-                part_idx
-            } else {
-                let schema = Arc::new(self.reader.schema().as_ref().into());
-                let batch = match self.reader.metadata().num_rows {
-                    0 => RecordBatch::new_empty(schema),
-                    _ => {
-                        let row_range = self.ivf.row_range(partition_id);
-                        if row_range.is_empty() {
-                            RecordBatch::new_empty(schema)
-                        } else {
-                            let batches = self
-                                .reader
-                                .read_stream(
-                                    ReadBatchParams::Range(row_range),
+    /// Read the serialized sub-index of a partition, with its metadata attached.
+    ///
+    /// `projection` narrows the read to the columns search needs; `None` reads
+    /// every column the writer emitted, which a caller rewriting the partition
+    /// has to carry through. Bypasses the partition cache.
+    pub(crate) async fn read_sub_index_batch(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        projection: Option<&ReaderProjection>,
+        io_stats: Option<IoStats>,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        // `concat_batches` indexes the batches by this schema's field positions
+        // without comparing the two, so the schema has to describe exactly what
+        // was read: the full file schema over a projected read would index past
+        // the last column.
+        let schema = Arc::new(match projection {
+            Some(projection) => projection.schema.as_ref().into(),
+            None => self.reader.schema().as_ref().into(),
+        });
+        let batch = match self.reader.metadata().num_rows {
+            0 => RecordBatch::new_empty(schema),
+            _ => {
+                let row_range = self.ivf.row_range(partition_id);
+                if row_range.is_empty() {
+                    RecordBatch::new_empty(schema)
+                } else {
+                    // When I/O is being measured, read through a reader whose
+                    // scheduler also records into the per-query sink (a cheap
+                    // clone sharing all cached metadata, no file re-open).
+                    // Otherwise borrow the shared reader as-is, with no clone.
+                    let reader = match &io_stats {
+                        Some(io_stats) => {
+                            Cow::Owned(self.reader.with_io_stats(io_stats.recorder()))
+                        }
+                        None => Cow::Borrowed(&self.reader),
+                    };
+                    let params = ReadBatchParams::Range(row_range);
+                    let stream = match projection {
+                        Some(projection) => {
+                            reader
+                                .read_stream_projected(
+                                    params,
                                     u32::MAX,
                                     1,
+                                    projection.clone(),
                                     FilterExpression::no_filter(),
-                                )?
-                                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                                .await?;
-                            concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?
+                                )
+                                .await?
                         }
-                    }
-                };
-                let batch = batch.add_metadata(
-                    S::metadata_key().to_owned(),
-                    self.sub_index_metadata[partition_id].clone(),
-                )?;
-                let idx = S::load(batch)?;
-                let storage = self.load_partition_storage(partition_id).await?;
-                let partition_entry = Arc::new(PartitionEntry::<S, Q> {
-                    index: idx,
-                    storage,
-                });
-                if write_cache {
-                    self.index_cache
-                        .insert_with_key(&cache_key, partition_entry.clone())
-                        .await;
+                        None => {
+                            reader
+                                .read_stream(params, u32::MAX, 1, FilterExpression::no_filter())
+                                .await?
+                        }
+                    };
+                    let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
+                    concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter())?
                 }
-
-                partition_entry
             }
         };
+        Ok(batch.add_metadata(
+            S::metadata_key().to_owned(),
+            self.sub_index_metadata[partition_id].clone(),
+        )?)
+    }
+
+    async fn materialize_prewarm_partition(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        batches: PartitionPrewarmBatches,
+    ) -> Result<PartitionEntry<S, Q>>
+    where
+        Q::Metadata: 'static,
+        Q::Storage: 'static,
+    {
+        let sub_index_metadata = self.sub_index_metadata[partition_id].clone();
+        if batches.index.iter().all(|batch| batch.num_rows() == 0) {
+            // IVF-Flat/RQ stores no per-partition sub-index rows. Keep this
+            // trivial construction inline instead of dispatching one CPU task
+            // per partition (hundreds of thousands on large indexes).
+            let batch = compact_partition_batches(batches.index)?
+                .add_metadata(S::metadata_key().to_owned(), sub_index_metadata)?;
+            let index = S::load(batch)?;
+            let storage = self
+                .storage
+                .materialize_partition_for_prewarm(batches.storage)
+                .await?;
+            return Ok(PartitionEntry::new(index, storage));
+        }
+        let index = spawn_cpu(move || {
+            let batch = compact_partition_batches(batches.index)?
+                .add_metadata(S::metadata_key().to_owned(), sub_index_metadata)?;
+            S::load(batch)
+        });
+        let storage = self
+            .storage
+            .materialize_partition_for_prewarm(batches.storage);
+        let (index, storage) = tokio::try_join!(index, storage)?;
+        Ok(PartitionEntry::new(index, storage))
+    }
+
+    async fn prewarm_partition_window(&self, partitions: Range<usize>) -> Result<()>
+    where
+        Q::Metadata: 'static,
+        Q::Storage: 'static,
+    {
+        let index_schema = Arc::new(match &self.read_projection {
+            Some(projection) => projection.schema.as_ref().into(),
+            None => self.reader.schema().as_ref().into(),
+        });
+        let storage_schema = Arc::new(self.storage.reader().schema().as_ref().into());
+        let mut partition_id = partitions.start;
+        while partition_id < partitions.end {
+            let leader_key = IVFPartitionKey::<S, Q>::new(partition_id);
+            if self.index_cache.get_with_key(&leader_key).await.is_some() {
+                partition_id += 1;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Stop at a cached hole. This prevents a warm partition from being
+            // included in a larger contiguous read merely because later
+            // partitions are cold.
+            let mut run_end = partition_id + 1;
+            while run_end < partitions.end {
+                let key = IVFPartitionKey::<S, Q>::new(run_end);
+                if self.index_cache.get_with_key(&key).await.is_some() {
+                    break;
+                }
+                run_end += 1;
+            }
+            let run = partition_id..run_end;
+            let (_, was_cached) = self
+                .index_cache
+                .get_or_insert_with_key_hit(leader_key, || async {
+                    let (index_batches, storage_batches) = tokio::try_join!(
+                        read_partition_window_batches(
+                            &self.reader,
+                            self.read_projection.as_ref(),
+                            &index_schema,
+                            &self.ivf,
+                            run.clone(),
+                            None,
+                        ),
+                        read_partition_window_batches(
+                            self.storage.reader(),
+                            None,
+                            &storage_schema,
+                            self.storage.ivf(),
+                            run.clone(),
+                            None,
+                        )
+                    )?;
+                    if index_batches.len() != run.len() || storage_batches.len() != run.len() {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                            "IVF prewarm run {:?} produced {} index and {} storage partitions",
+                            run,
+                            index_batches.len(),
+                            storage_batches.len()
+                        )));
+                    }
 
-        Ok(part_entry)
+                    let mut payloads = index_batches
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .zip(storage_batches)
+                        .map(|(index, storage)| PartitionPrewarmBatches { index, storage });
+                    let leader_batches = payloads.next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "IVF prewarm run {:?} did not produce its leader partition",
+                            run
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    let mut follower_loads = FuturesUnordered::new();
+                    for (offset, batches) in payloads.enumerate() {
+                        let follower_id = run.start + offset + 1;
+                        follower_loads.push(async move {
+                            let key = IVFPartitionKey::<S, Q>::new(follower_id);
+                            self.index_cache
+                                .get_or_insert_with_key(key, || async move {
+                                    self.materialize_prewarm_partition(follower_id, batches)
+                                        .await
+                                })
+                                .await
+                                .map(|_| ())
+                        });
+                    }
+                    let mut first_error = None;
+                    while let Some(result) = follower_loads.next().await {
+                        if let Err(error) = result
+                            && first_error.is_none()
+                        {
+                            first_error = Some(error);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if let Some(error) = first_error {
+                        return Err(error);
+                    }
+                    self.materialize_prewarm_partition(partition_id, leader_batches)
+                        .await
+                })
+                .await?;
+            partition_id = if was_cached {
+                // A query or another prewarm owned this key. It may not have
+                // populated the remainder of our planned window, so resume at
+                // the next partition instead of skipping the full run.
+                partition_id + 1
+            } else {
+                run_end
+            };
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    pub async fn load_partition_storage(&self, partition_id: usize) -> Result<Q::Storage> {
-        self.storage.load_partition(partition_id).await
+    pub async fn load_partition_storage(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        io_stats: Option<IoStats>,
+    ) -> Result<Q::Storage> {
+        self.storage.load_partition(partition_id, io_stats).await
     }
 
     /// preprocess the query vector given the partition id.
@@ -314,21 +2004,32 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization> IVFIndex<S, Q> {
     /// Internal API with no stability guarantees.
     #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self))]
     pub fn preprocess_query(&self, partition_id: usize, query: &Query) -> Result<Query> {
-        if Q::use_residual(self.distance_type) {
-            let partition_centroids =
-                self.ivf
-                    .centroid(partition_id)
-                    .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                        message: format!("partition centroid {} does not exist", partition_id),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    })?;
-            let residual_key = sub(&query.key, &partition_centroids)?;
-            let mut part_query = query.clone();
-            part_query.key = residual_key;
-            Ok(part_query)
-        } else {
-            Ok(query.clone())
-        }
+        Self::preprocess_partition_query(
+            self.use_query_residual,
+            self.use_residual_scratch,
+            partition_id,
+            self.ivf.centroid(partition_id).as_ref(),
+            query,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Export the index state needed for reconstruction from a disk cache.
+    pub(crate) fn to_state_entry(&self) -> IvfStateEntryBox {
+        let (sub_index_type, quantization_type) = self.sub_index_type();
+        IvfStateEntryBox(Arc::new(IvfIndexState::<Q> {
+            index_file_path: self.index_path.clone(),
+            uuid: self.uuid.to_string(),
+            ivf: self.ivf.clone(),
+            aux_ivf: self.storage.ivf().clone(),
+            distance_type: self.distance_type,
+            sub_index_metadata: self.sub_index_metadata.clone(),
+            metadata: self.storage.metadata().clone(),
+            sub_index_type,
+            quantization_type,
+            index_file_size: self.reader.metadata().file_size(),
+            aux_file_size: self.storage.reader().metadata().file_size(),
+            rq_search_cache: rabit_search_cache_cell(self.rq_search_cache.clone()),
+        }))
     }
 }
 
@@ -342,24 +2043,63 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> Index for IVFIndex<S,
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Ok(self)
-    }
-
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
-        // TODO: We should prewarm the IVF index by loading the partitions into memory
+        let cpu_parallelism = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus();
+        let target_bytes = prewarm_window_size_bytes()?;
+        let parallelism = prewarm_parallelism(self.io_parallelism, cpu_parallelism);
+        let max_partitions = cpu_parallelism.saturating_mul(2).max(1);
+        let windows = plan_partition_windows(
+            PrewarmFileLayout {
+                ivf: &self.ivf,
+                encoded_bytes: self.reader.metadata().num_data_bytes,
+                num_rows: self.reader.num_rows(),
+            },
+            PrewarmFileLayout {
+                ivf: self.storage.ivf(),
+                encoded_bytes: self.storage.reader().metadata().num_data_bytes,
+                num_rows: self.storage.reader().num_rows(),
+            },
+            target_bytes,
+            max_partitions,
+        )?;
+        let planned_bytes: u64 = windows.iter().map(|w| w.estimated_encoded_bytes).sum();
+        info!(
+            uuid = %self.uuid,
+            windows = windows.len(),
+            planned_bytes,
+            window_bytes = target_bytes,
+            parallelism,
+            io_parallelism = self.io_parallelism,
+            "prewarming IVF partitions in byte windows"
+        );
+        let started = std::time::Instant::now();
+        stream::iter(windows)
+            .map(Ok)
+            .try_for_each_concurrent(Some(parallelism), |window| async move {
+                self.prewarm_partition_window(window.partitions).await
+            })
+            .await?;
+        let elapsed = started.elapsed();
+        info!(
+            uuid = %self.uuid,
+            elapsed_ms = elapsed.as_millis() as u64,
+            planned_mb_per_s = planned_bytes as f64 / 1e6 / elapsed.as_secs_f64().max(1e-9),
+            "prewarmed IVF partitions"
+        );
         Ok(())
     }
 
     fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
         match self.sub_index_type() {
-            (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat) => IndexType::IvfFlat,
+            (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat)
+            | (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::FlatBin) => IndexType::IvfFlat,
             (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product) => IndexType::IvfPq,
             (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Scalar) => IndexType::IvfSq,
             (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Rabit) => IndexType::IvfRq,
             (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Product) => IndexType::IvfHnswPq,
             (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Scalar) => IndexType::IvfHnswSq,
-            (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Flat) => IndexType::IvfHnswFlat,
+            (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Flat)
+            | (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::FlatBin) => IndexType::IvfHnswFlat,
             (sub_index_type, quantization_type) => {
                 unimplemented!(
                     "unsupported index type: {}, {}",
@@ -377,7 +2117,7 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> Index for IVFIndex<S,
             })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-        let centroid_vecs = centroids_to_vectors(self.ivf.centroids.as_ref().unwrap())?;
+        let centroid_vecs = maybe_centroids_for_stats(self.ivf.centroids.as_ref().unwrap())?;
 
         let (sub_index_type, quantization_type) = self.sub_index_type();
         let index_type = index_type_string(sub_index_type, quantization_type);
@@ -388,17 +2128,18 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> Index for IVFIndex<S,
                 serde_json::map::Map::new()
             };
         let mut store_stats = serde_json::to_value(self.storage.metadata())?;
-        let store_stats = store_stats.as_object_mut().ok_or(Error::Internal {
-            message: "failed to get storage metadata".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let store_stats = store_stats.as_object_mut().ok_or(Error::internal(
+            "failed to get storage metadata".to_string(),
+        ))?;
 
         sub_index_stats.append(store_stats);
         if S::name() == "FLAT" {
-            sub_index_stats.insert(
-                "index_type".to_string(),
-                Q::quantization_type().to_string().into(),
-            );
+            let qt_label = match Q::quantization_type() {
+                // FlatBin is the Hamming variant of Flat; report as "FLAT".
+                QuantizationType::FlatBin => "FLAT".to_string(),
+                other => other.to_string(),
+            };
+            sub_index_stats.insert("index_type".to_string(), qt_label.into());
         } else {
             sub_index_stats.insert("index_type".to_string(), S::name().into());
         }
@@ -422,7 +2163,7 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> Index for IVFIndex<S,
 
         Ok(serde_json::to_value(IvfIndexStatistics {
             index_type,
-            uuid: self.uuid.clone(),
+            uuid: self.uuid.to_string(),
             uri: self.uri.clone(),
             metric_type: self.distance_type.to_string(),
             num_partitions: self.ivf.num_partitions(),
@@ -449,7 +2190,9 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> VectorIndex for IVFInd
         _pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
         _metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        unimplemented!("IVFIndex not currently used as sub-index and top-level indices do partition-aware search")
+        unimplemented!(
+            "IVFIndex not currently used as sub-index and top-level indices do partition-aware search"
+        )
     }
 
     fn find_partitions(&self, query: &Query) -> Result<(UInt32Array, Float32Array)> {
@@ -476,31 +2219,69 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> VectorIndex for IVFInd
         pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let part_entry = self.load_partition(partition_id, true, metrics).await?;
-        pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+        let (part_entry, pre_filter) = {
+            // Match split preparation without counting CPU queueing or search.
+            let _prepare_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::PartitionPrepare);
+            let part_entry = self.load_partition(partition_id, true, metrics).await?;
+            {
+                let _wait_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics, IndexTiming::PrefilterWait);
+                pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+            }
+            let pre_filter = Self::prefilter_for_partition(
+                &self.index_cache,
+                partition_id,
+                &part_entry,
+                pre_filter,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            (part_entry, pre_filter)
+        };
 
-        let query = self.preprocess_query(partition_id, query)?;
+        let partition_centroid = self.ivf.centroid(partition_id);
+        let rq_search_cache = self.rq_search_cache.clone();
+        let raw_query_context = self.prepare_rq_raw_query_context(&query.key)?;
+        let query = Self::preprocess_partition_query(
+            self.use_query_residual,
+            self.use_residual_scratch,
+            partition_id,
+            partition_centroid.as_ref(),
+            query,
+        )?;
+        let scratch_pool = self.scratch_pool.clone();
+        let use_query_residual = self.use_query_residual;
+        let use_residual_scratch = self.use_residual_scratch;
+        let queued = Instant::now();
         let (batch, local_metrics) = spawn_cpu(move || {
+            let local_metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+            local_metrics.record_timing(IndexTiming::CpuQueueWait, queued.elapsed());
+            let search_timer = IndexTimer::new(&local_metrics, IndexTiming::Search);
             let param = (&query).into();
             let refine_factor = query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize;
             let k = query.k * refine_factor;
-            let local_metrics = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
-            let part = part_entry
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<PartitionEntry<S, Q>>()
-                .ok_or(Error::Internal {
-                    message: "failed to downcast partition entry".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })?;
-            let batch = part.index.search(
-                query.key,
-                k,
-                param,
-                &part.storage,
-                pre_filter,
-                &local_metrics,
+            let rotated_partition_centroid =
+                rotated_partition_centroid_slice(rq_search_cache.as_deref(), partition_id);
+            let residual = Self::query_context_for_scratch(
+                use_query_residual,
+                use_residual_scratch,
+                partition_id,
+                partition_centroid.as_ref(),
+                rotated_partition_centroid,
+                raw_query_context.as_deref(),
             )?;
-            Ok((batch, local_metrics))
+            let batch = scratch_pool.with_scratch(|scratch| {
+                part_entry.index.search_with_scratch(
+                    query.key,
+                    k,
+                    param,
+                    &part_entry.storage,
+                    pre_filter,
+                    &local_metrics,
+                    residual,
+                    scratch,
+                )
+            })?;
+            drop(search_timer);
+            Result::Ok((batch, local_metrics))
         })
         .await?;
 
@@ -509,6 +2290,560 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> VectorIndex for IVFInd
         Ok(batch)
     }
 
+    async fn prepare_partition_search(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        query: &Query,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<PreparedPartitionSearchHandle> {
+        let raw_query_context = self.prepare_rq_raw_query_context(&query.key)?;
+        Ok(Box::new(
+            self.prepare_partition(partition_id, query, pre_filter, metrics, raw_query_context)
+                .await?,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn search_prepared_partition(
+        &self,
+        prepared: PreparedPartitionSearchHandle,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let prepared = prepared
+            .downcast::<PreparedPartitionSearch<S, Q>>()
+            .map_err(|_| Error::internal("failed to downcast prepared partition search"))?;
+        self.scratch_pool.with_scratch(|scratch| {
+            Self::run_prepared_partition_search(
+                self.use_query_residual,
+                self.use_residual_scratch,
+                *prepared,
+                metrics,
+                scratch,
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn supports_prepared_partition_search(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn auto_query_parallelism(&self, cpu_pool_size: usize) -> usize {
+        if S::supports_global_topk_heap() {
+            1
+        } else {
+            cpu_pool_size.max(1)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn search_partitions(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        query: Query,
+        partitions: Arc<UInt32Array>,
+        q_c_dists: Arc<Float32Array>,
+        start_idx: usize,
+        end_idx: usize,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        control: Option<Arc<dyn PartitionSearchControl>>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        if partitions.len() != q_c_dists.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "partition count {} does not match centroid distance count {}",
+                partitions.len(),
+                q_c_dists.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        if start_idx > end_idx || end_idx > partitions.len() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "invalid partition search range [{start_idx}, {end_idx}) for {} partitions",
+                partitions.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let prepare_parallelism = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1);
+        let raw_query_context = self.prepare_rq_raw_query_context(&query.key)?;
+
+        if control.is_none() && S::supports_global_topk_heap() {
+            let heap_capacity = query.k * query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize;
+            {
+                let _wait_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics.as_ref(), IndexTiming::PrefilterWait);
+                pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+            }
+            let prepare_index = self.clone();
+            let prepare_metrics = metrics.clone();
+            let prepare_raw_query_context = raw_query_context.clone();
+            // Stream prepared partitions through scoring in chunks rather than
+            // collecting all of them first. A prepared partition pins its whole
+            // quantized storage, so collecting `nprobes` of them before scoring
+            // makes peak memory scale with `nprobes` (a 4096-probe query over a
+            // large RQ index pinned hundreds of GiB per index segment). Chunking
+            // bounds resident partitions to the prepare window plus two chunks:
+            // one being assembled by `next_scoring_chunk` while another is scored.
+            // `buffered` preserves the probe order, so the heap accumulates
+            // partitions in the same order as before (which decides which of
+            // several rows tied at the k-th distance the capped heap keeps).
+            let mut prepared = stream::iter(start_idx..end_idx)
+                .map(move |idx| {
+                    let part_id = partitions.value(idx);
+                    let mut query = query.clone();
+                    query.dist_q_c = q_c_dists.value(idx);
+                    let index = prepare_index.clone();
+                    let pre_filter = pre_filter.clone();
+                    let metrics = prepare_metrics.clone();
+                    let raw_query_context = prepare_raw_query_context.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        index
+                            .prepare_partition_without_prefilter_wait(
+                                part_id as usize,
+                                &query,
+                                pre_filter,
+                                metrics.as_ref(),
+                                raw_query_context,
+                            )
+                            .await
+                    }
+                })
+                .buffered(prepare_parallelism)
+                .fuse();
+            let chunk_bytes = *GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_BYTES;
+
+            let use_query_residual = self.use_query_residual;
+            let use_residual_scratch = self.use_residual_scratch;
+            let mut heap = BinaryHeap::with_capacity(heap_capacity);
+            // Score each chunk on the CPU pool while the next chunk prepares (the
+            // same overlap `search_partitions_batch` uses): `spawn_cpu` starts the
+            // scoring immediately and the async task, never a CPU-pool thread, does
+            // the waiting (#7642). The heap is threaded through each dispatch so
+            // scoring stays sequential, and a scored chunk is dropped before the
+            // next one is scored.
+            let mut pending = Self::next_scoring_chunk(&mut prepared, chunk_bytes).await;
+            while let Some(chunk) = pending {
+                let chunk = chunk?;
+                let search_metrics = metrics.clone();
+                let scratch_pool = self.scratch_pool.clone();
+                let queued = Instant::now();
+                let score = spawn_cpu(move || -> Result<BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>> {
+                    search_metrics.record_timing(IndexTiming::CpuQueueWait, queued.elapsed());
+                    scratch_pool.with_scratch(|scratch| -> Result<()> {
+                        for prepared in chunk {
+                            Self::accumulate_prepared_partition_search(
+                                use_query_residual,
+                                use_residual_scratch,
+                                prepared,
+                                &mut heap,
+                                scratch,
+                                search_metrics.as_ref(),
+                            )?;
+                        }
+                        Ok(())
+                    })?;
+                    Ok(heap)
+                });
+                let (scored, next) =
+                    futures::join!(score, Self::next_scoring_chunk(&mut prepared, chunk_bytes));
+                heap = scored?;
+                pending = next;
+            }
+
+            // Turning the heap into the result batch is a sort of `k * refine_factor`
+            // entries. Below a few thousand that is well under the ~100µs where a
+            // `spawn_cpu` dispatch pays for itself, so do it inline and keep the
+            // common small-k query at one dispatch (as before the chunked scoring).
+            let batch = if heap.len() <= GLOBAL_TOPK_INLINE_HEAP_LEN {
+                Self::global_heap_to_batch(heap, metrics.as_ref())?
+            } else {
+                let result_metrics = metrics.clone();
+                let queued = Instant::now();
+                spawn_cpu(move || {
+                    result_metrics.record_timing(IndexTiming::CpuQueueWait, queued.elapsed());
+                    Self::global_heap_to_batch(heap, result_metrics.as_ref())
+                })
+                .await?
+            };
+
+            return Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) }),
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // The prepared channel holds a full search batch so that partitions prepared
+        // while the previous batch is being searched are ready for the next greedy
+        // drain, instead of serializing producer and consumer through a single slot.
+        let (prepared_tx, mut prepared_rx) =
+            mpsc::channel::<Result<PreparedPartitionSearch<S, Q>>>(*STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE);
+        let (batch_tx, batch_rx) = mpsc::channel::<DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>(1);
+
+        let prepare_index = self.clone();
+        let prepare_metrics = metrics.clone();
+        let prepare_raw_query_context = raw_query_context.clone();
+        tokio::spawn(async move {
+            let prepare_stream = stream::iter(start_idx..end_idx)
+                .map(move |idx| {
+                    let part_id = partitions.value(idx);
+                    let mut query = query.clone();
+                    query.dist_q_c = q_c_dists.value(idx);
+                    let index = prepare_index.clone();
+                    let pre_filter = pre_filter.clone();
+                    let metrics = prepare_metrics.clone();
+                    let raw_query_context = prepare_raw_query_context.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        index
+                            .prepare_partition(
+                                part_id as usize,
+                                &query,
+                                pre_filter,
+                                metrics.as_ref(),
+                                raw_query_context,
+                            )
+                            .await
+                    }
+                })
+                .buffered(prepare_parallelism);
+
+            futures::pin_mut!(prepare_stream);
+            while let Some(prepared) = prepare_stream.next().await {
+                let has_error = prepared.is_err();
+                if prepared_tx.send(prepared).await.is_err() || has_error {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        });
+
+        let use_query_residual = self.use_query_residual;
+        let use_residual_scratch = self.use_residual_scratch;
+        let search_metrics = metrics.clone();
+        let search_control = control.clone();
+        let scratch_pool = self.scratch_pool.clone();
+        // Search prepared partitions in batches. Each batch is searched in a single
+        // `spawn_cpu` dispatch (amortizing the per-dispatch overhead the single-worker
+        // design in #6475 avoided), but the channel `recv`/`send` stay in async code so
+        // no CPU-pool thread ever parks on a channel — parking one can deadlock the pool
+        // on small hosts (#7642). `should_stop` is checked per partition, so early-stop
+        // granularity is unchanged.
+        //
+        // Batches are formed greedily: wait for one prepared partition, then drain
+        // whatever else is already prepared, up to the batch size. Waiting for a full
+        // batch instead would delay the first search (and the early-stop feedback it
+        // produces) behind up to a whole batch of prepare I/O, which is significant
+        // when prepare parallelism is low.
+        tokio::spawn(async move {
+            loop {
+                // Stop pulling as soon as the search is done — or the receiver of our
+                // results is gone — so the producer stops preparing partitions we
+                // would never search.
+                if search_control
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|control| control.should_stop())
+                    || batch_tx.is_closed()
+                {
+                    return;
+                }
+
+                let mut prepared_batch = Vec::with_capacity(*STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE);
+                let mut prepare_error = None;
+                let mut producer_done = false;
+                match prepared_rx.recv().await {
+                    Some(Ok(prepared)) => prepared_batch.push(prepared),
+                    Some(Err(err)) => prepare_error = Some(DataFusionError::from(err)),
+                    None => producer_done = true,
+                }
+                while prepare_error.is_none()
+                    && !producer_done
+                    && prepared_batch.len() < *STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE
+                {
+                    match prepared_rx.try_recv() {
+                        Ok(Ok(prepared)) => prepared_batch.push(prepared),
+                        Ok(Err(err)) => {
+                            prepare_error = Some(DataFusionError::from(err));
+                        }
+                        // Nothing else is prepared yet; search what we have rather
+                        // than waiting for more.
+                        Err(mpsc::error::TryRecvError::Empty) => break,
+                        Err(mpsc::error::TryRecvError::Disconnected) => {
+                            producer_done = true;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                if !prepared_batch.is_empty() {
+                    let scratch_pool = scratch_pool.clone();
+                    let search_metrics = search_metrics.clone();
+                    let search_control = search_control.clone();
+                    // `is_closed` is synchronously callable, so a sender clone lets the
+                    // CPU loop notice a dropped receiver between partitions instead of
+                    // searching out the whole batch for a cancelled query. (A `select!`
+                    // on `closed()` would not help here: `spawn_cpu` closures are not
+                    // cancellable, so abandoning the await leaves the work running.)
+                    let cancel_probe = batch_tx.clone();
+                    let queued = Instant::now();
+                    let search_output = spawn_cpu(move || {
+                        search_metrics.record_timing(IndexTiming::CpuQueueWait, queued.elapsed());
+                        let mut outputs: Vec<DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> =
+                            Vec::with_capacity(prepared_batch.len());
+                        // `stopped` means the whole search should end (an error, an
+                        // early-stop signal, or cancellation), not just this batch.
+                        let mut stopped = false;
+                        scratch_pool.with_scratch(|scratch| {
+                            for prepared in prepared_batch {
+                                if search_control
+                                    .as_ref()
+                                    .is_some_and(|control| control.should_stop())
+                                    || cancel_probe.is_closed()
+                                {
+                                    stopped = true;
+                                    break;
+                                }
+                                match Self::run_prepared_partition_search(
+                                    use_query_residual,
+                                    use_residual_scratch,
+                                    prepared,
+                                    search_metrics.as_ref(),
+                                    scratch,
+                                )
+                                .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+                                {
+                                    Ok(batch) => {
+                                        if let Some(control) = search_control.as_ref() {
+                                            control.record_batch(&batch);
+                                        }
+                                        outputs.push(Ok(batch));
+                                    }
+                                    Err(err) => {
+                                        outputs.push(Err(err));
+                                        stopped = true;
+                                        break;
+                                    }
+                                }
+                            }
+                        });
+                        Ok::<_, DataFusionError>((outputs, stopped))
+                    })
+                    .await;
+
+                    let (outputs, stopped) = match search_output {
+                        Ok(output) => output,
+                        // Defensive: the closure always returns Ok (search errors are
+                        // captured per partition in `outputs`), so this arm should be
+                        // unreachable. Forward and stop rather than drop silently.
+                        Err(err) => {
+                            let _ = batch_tx.send(Err(err)).await;
+                            return;
+                        }
+                    };
+                    for output in outputs {
+                        if batch_tx.send(output).await.is_err() {
+                            return;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if stopped {
+                        return;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                if let Some(err) = prepare_error {
+                    let _ = batch_tx.send(Err(err)).await;
+                    return;
+                }
+                if producer_done {
+                    return;
+                }
+            }
+        });
+
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            ReceiverStream::new(batch_rx),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_batch_partition_search(&self) -> bool {
+        S::supports_global_topk_heap()
+    }
+
+    async fn search_partitions_batch(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        query: Query,
+        partitions_per_query: Vec<Arc<UInt32Array>>,
+        q_c_dists_per_query: Vec<Arc<Float32Array>>,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
+        if !S::supports_global_topk_heap() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported(
+                "batch partition search requires a global top-k heap sub-index",
+            ));
+        }
+        let query_count = partitions_per_query.len();
+        if q_c_dists_per_query.len() != query_count {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "batch partition search: {query_count} query partition lists but {} distance lists",
+                q_c_dists_per_query.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        if query_count == 0 {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        if !query.key.len().is_multiple_of(query_count) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "batch partition search: query key length {} is not divisible by query count {query_count}",
+                query.key.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let dim = query.key.len() / query_count;
+
+        // Per-query immutable search state: the query vector slice and the
+        // optional Rabit raw-query context both depend only on the query vector,
+        // so compute them once up front rather than per probed partition.
+        let mut base_queries = Vec::with_capacity(query_count);
+        let mut raw_query_contexts = Vec::with_capacity(query_count);
+        for query_index in 0..query_count {
+            if partitions_per_query[query_index].len() != q_c_dists_per_query[query_index].len() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "batch partition search: query {query_index} has {} partitions but {} distances",
+                    partitions_per_query[query_index].len(),
+                    q_c_dists_per_query[query_index].len()
+                )));
+            }
+            let mut single_query = query.clone();
+            single_query.key = query.key.slice(query_index * dim, dim);
+            raw_query_contexts.push(self.prepare_rq_raw_query_context(&single_query.key)?);
+            base_queries.push(single_query);
+        }
+        // Shared across every chunk's scoring dispatch below, so wrap once in an
+        // `Arc` instead of cloning the whole `Vec` per chunk.
+        let base_queries = Arc::new(base_queries);
+        let raw_query_contexts = Arc::new(raw_query_contexts);
+
+        // Invert the per-query partition lists so each distinct partition is
+        // loaded once and scored against every query that probes it.
+        let mut assignments: HashMap<u32, Vec<(usize, f32)>> = HashMap::new();
+        for (query_index, (parts, dists)) in partitions_per_query
+            .iter()
+            .zip(q_c_dists_per_query.iter())
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            for (part_id, dist_q_c) in parts.values().iter().zip(dists.values().iter()) {
+                assignments
+                    .entry(*part_id)
+                    .or_default()
+                    .push((query_index, *dist_q_c));
+            }
+        }
+
+        {
+            let _wait_timer = IndexTimer::new(metrics.as_ref(), IndexTiming::PrefilterWait);
+            pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+        }
+
+        // Score partitions in a deterministic order. `assignments` is a HashMap,
+        // so its iteration order (and hence the order partitions accumulate into
+        // each per-query heap) is otherwise arbitrary. When several rows tie at
+        // the k-th distance, which one the capped heap keeps depends on insertion
+        // order, so a stable partition order is what makes the selected top-k
+        // deterministic across runs. (Any of the tied rows is an equally valid
+        // k-th neighbor, so this does not affect recall.)
+        let mut assignment_list: Vec<(u32, Vec<(usize, f32)>)> = assignments.into_iter().collect();
+        assignment_list.sort_by_key(|(part_id, _)| *part_id);
+
+        // Load each distinct partition's storage exactly once (the shared I/O
+        // that batch search exists to save), but *stream* the loaded partitions
+        // through scoring in chunks rather than materializing them all. A wide
+        // batch probes up to `min(query_count * nprobes, num_partitions)` distinct
+        // partitions, so collecting every loaded partition before scoring would
+        // make peak memory scale with the batch width — up to the whole index.
+        // Streaming bounds resident partition storage to the load window plus one
+        // chunk. `buffered` preserves the sorted load order above, so scoring order
+        // (and thus the k-th-distance tie-break) stays deterministic.
+        let load_parallelism = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1);
+        let load_index = self.clone();
+        let load_metrics = metrics.clone();
+        let mut loaded_chunks = stream::iter(assignment_list)
+            .map(move |(part_id, probing_queries)| {
+                let index = load_index.clone();
+                let metrics = load_metrics.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let part_entry = index
+                        .load_partition(part_id as usize, true, metrics.as_ref())
+                        .await?;
+                    Result::Ok((part_id as usize, part_entry, probing_queries))
+                }
+            })
+            .buffered(load_parallelism)
+            .chunks(*STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE);
+
+        let use_query_residual = self.use_query_residual;
+        let use_residual_scratch = self.use_residual_scratch;
+        let heap_capacity = query.k * query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize;
+        let mut heaps: Vec<BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>> = (0..query_count)
+            .map(|_| BinaryHeap::with_capacity(heap_capacity))
+            .collect();
+
+        // Score each chunk on the CPU pool while the next chunk loads. `spawn_cpu`
+        // dispatches the scoring immediately and only touches CPU-bound state, so
+        // `join!`-ing it with the next `loaded_chunks` pull keeps partition I/O in
+        // flight during scoring: the async task, never a CPU-pool thread, does the
+        // waiting (#7642), and the load stream is not paused (the pairing `spawn_cpu`'s
+        // docs recommend with `buffered`). Scoring stays sequential across chunks —
+        // each mutates the same per-query heaps — so a step costs about
+        // max(load, score) rather than their sum, and a scored chunk's storage is
+        // dropped before the next is scored, keeping peak memory bounded.
+        let mut pending = loaded_chunks.next().await;
+        while let Some(chunk) = pending {
+            let chunk = chunk.into_iter().collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            let index = self.clone();
+            let pre_filter = pre_filter.clone();
+            let base_queries = base_queries.clone();
+            let raw_query_contexts = raw_query_contexts.clone();
+            let scratch_pool = self.scratch_pool.clone();
+            let search_metrics = metrics.clone();
+            let queued = Instant::now();
+            let score = spawn_cpu(move || -> Result<Vec<BinaryHeap<OrderedNode<u64>>>> {
+                search_metrics.record_timing(IndexTiming::CpuQueueWait, queued.elapsed());
+                scratch_pool.with_scratch(|scratch| -> Result<()> {
+                    for (part_id, part_entry, probing_queries) in &chunk {
+                        let partition_centroid = index.ivf.centroid(*part_id);
+                        for (query_index, dist_q_c) in probing_queries {
+                            let mut single_query = base_queries[*query_index].clone();
+                            single_query.dist_q_c = *dist_q_c;
+                            let prepared = PreparedPartitionSearch::<S, Q> {
+                                query: single_query,
+                                pre_filter: pre_filter.clone(),
+                                partition_id: *part_id,
+                                partition_centroid: partition_centroid.clone(),
+                                rq_search_cache: index.rq_search_cache.clone(),
+                                raw_query_context: raw_query_contexts[*query_index].clone(),
+                                part_entry: part_entry.clone(),
+                                _in_flight: index.prepared_partitions.track(),
+                                _marker: PhantomData,
+                            };
+                            Self::accumulate_prepared_partition_search(
+                                use_query_residual,
+                                use_residual_scratch,
+                                prepared,
+                                &mut heaps[*query_index],
+                                scratch,
+                                search_metrics.as_ref(),
+                            )?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                })?;
+                Ok(heaps)
+            });
+            // Load the next chunk while this one is scored on the CPU pool.
+            let (scored, next) = futures::join!(score, loaded_chunks.next());
+            heaps = scored?;
+            pending = next;
+        }
+
+        heaps
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|heap| Self::global_heap_to_batch(heap, metrics.as_ref()))
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
+    }
+
     fn is_loadable(&self) -> bool {
         false
     }
@@ -523,10 +2858,7 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> VectorIndex for IVFInd
         _offset: usize,
         _length: usize,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Flat index does not support load".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+        Err(Error::index("Flat index does not support load".to_string()))
     }
 
     async fn partition_reader(
@@ -536,13 +2868,6 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> VectorIndex for IVFInd
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         let partition = self.load_partition(partition_id, false, metrics).await?;
-        let partition = partition
-            .as_any()
-            .downcast_ref::<PartitionEntry<S, Q>>()
-            .ok_or(Error::Internal {
-                message: "failed to downcast partition entry".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
         let store = &partition.storage;
         let schema = if with_vector {
             store.schema().clone()
@@ -563,6 +2888,37 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> VectorIndex for IVFInd
         Ok(Box::pin(stream))
     }
 
+    fn supports_pairwise_vectors(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    async fn prepare_pairwise_partition(
+        &self,
+        partition_id: usize,
+        batch_size: usize,
+        memory_limit: usize,
+        spill_store: &dyn lance_io::spill::SpillStore,
+    ) -> Result<lance_index::vector::pairwise::PairwisePartition> {
+        if partition_id >= self.ivf.num_partitions() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "partition_id={partition_id} out of range 0..{}",
+                self.ivf.num_partitions()
+            )));
+        }
+        let centroid = self.ivf.centroid(partition_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!("partition_id={partition_id} has no centroid"))
+        })?;
+        self.storage
+            .prepare_pairwise_partition(
+                partition_id,
+                batch_size,
+                memory_limit,
+                centroid,
+                spill_store,
+            )
+            .await
+    }
+
     async fn to_batch_stream(&self, _with_vector: bool) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         unimplemented!("this method is for only sub index");
     }
@@ -575,11 +2931,17 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> VectorIndex for IVFInd
         todo!("this method is for only IVF_HNSW_* index");
     }
 
-    async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<()> {
-        Err(Error::Index {
-            message: "Remapping IVF in this way not supported".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })
+    async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(Error::index(
+            "Remapping IVF in this way not supported".to_string(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn remap_streaming(&mut self, _translator: &RowAddrTranslator) -> Result<()> {
+        // No mapping to materialize for an index that cannot be remapped.
+        Err(Error::index(
+            "Remapping IVF in this way not supported".to_string(),
+        ))
     }
 
     fn ivf_model(&self) -> &IvfModel {
@@ -602,6 +2964,10 @@ impl<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static> VectorIndex for IVFInd
     fn metric_type(&self) -> DistanceType {
         self.distance_type
     }
+
+    fn open_io_stats(&self) -> Option<ScanStats> {
+        Some(self.open_io_stats)
+    }
 }
 
 pub type IvfFlatIndex = IVFIndex<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>;
@@ -609,145 +2975,652 @@ pub type IvfPq = IVFIndex<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>;
 pub type IvfHnswSqIndex = IVFIndex<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer>;
 pub type IvfHnswPqIndex = IVFIndex<HNSW, ProductQuantizer>;
 
+async fn reconstruct_typed<S: IvfSubIndex + 'static, Q: Quantization + 'static>(
+    state: &IvfIndexState<Q>,
+    object_store: Arc<ObjectStore>,
+    file_metadata_cache: &LanceCache,
+    index_cache: LanceCache,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<ResolvedRemapping>,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
+    let io_parallelism = object_store.io_parallelism();
+
+    let index_path = Path::parse(&state.index_file_path)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::io(format!("invalid index path: {e}")))?;
+
+    // Derive aux path from the index path's parent directory.
+    let mut parts: Vec<_> = index_path.parts().collect();
+    parts.pop();
+    let dir: Path = parts.into_iter().collect();
+    let aux_path = dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+
+    // Readers carry a scheduler bound to an object store, so they cannot be
+    // shared across dataset opens. Reuse only portable file metadata and bind
+    // fresh readers to the object store supplied for this reconstruction.
+    let scheduler_config = SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(&object_store);
+    let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(object_store, scheduler_config);
+    let index_reader = open_reader_cached(
+        &scheduler,
+        &index_path,
+        file_metadata_cache,
+        state.index_file_size,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let aux_reader = open_reader_cached(
+        &scheduler,
+        &aux_path,
+        file_metadata_cache,
+        state.aux_file_size,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    let make_storage = |legacy| {
+        IvfQuantizationStorage::from_cached_with_remapper(
+            aux_reader,
+            state.aux_ivf.clone(),
+            state.metadata.clone(),
+            state.distance_type,
+            legacy,
+        )
+    };
+    let storage = match frag_reuse_index {
+        Some(ResolvedRemapping::V0(remapper)) => make_storage(Some(remapper)),
+        Some(ResolvedRemapping::V1Translate { remapper, .. }) => {
+            make_storage(None).with_row_id_remapping(remapper)
+        }
+        Some(ResolvedRemapping::V1Identity) | None => make_storage(None),
+    };
+    let rq_search_cache = IVFIndex::<S, Q>::rq_search_cache_from_state(state, &storage)?;
+
+    let parsed_uuid = Uuid::parse_str(&state.uuid)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Invalid UUID in IvfIndexState: {e}")))?;
+    let index = IVFIndex::<S, Q>::from_cached_state(
+        to_local_path(&index_path),
+        index_path.to_string(),
+        parsed_uuid,
+        state.ivf.clone(),
+        index_reader,
+        storage,
+        state.sub_index_metadata.clone(),
+        state.distance_type,
+        index_cache,
+        io_parallelism,
+        rq_search_cache,
+    )?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(index))
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use std::collections::HashSet;
-    use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+    use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+    use std::iter::repeat_n;
+    use std::{
+        ops::Range,
+        sync::{
+            Arc,
+            atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering},
+        },
+    };
 
-    use all_asserts::{assert_ge, assert_le, assert_lt};
-    use arrow::datatypes::{Float64Type, UInt64Type, UInt8Type};
+    use all_asserts::{assert_ge, assert_lt};
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Float64Type, UInt8Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type};
     use arrow::{array::AsArray, datatypes::Float32Type};
     use arrow_array::{
         Array, ArrayRef, ArrowPrimitiveType, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int64Array,
-        ListArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt64Array,
+        ListArray, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt64Array,
     };
     use arrow_buffer::OffsetBuffer;
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
     use itertools::Itertools;
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
-    use lance_index::vector::bq::RQBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::bq::{
+        RQBuildParams, RQRotationType,
+        ex_dot::{blocked_ex_code_bytes, padded_query_len},
+        storage::{RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN, RabitQuantizationMetadata, RabitQueryEstimator},
+        transform::{EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN, EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN},
+    };
+    use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
     use lance_index::vector::storage::VectorStore;
+    use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::IvfSubIndex;
 
     use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, UpdateBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
-    use crate::index::vector::ivf::finalize_distributed_merge;
-    use crate::index::vector::ivf::v2::IvfPq;
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+    use crate::index::vector::ivf::v2::{
+        IVFPartitionKey, IvfFlatIndex, IvfHnswSqIndex, IvfPq, IvfStateEntryBox, PartitionEntry,
+    };
     use crate::utils::test::copy_test_data_to_tmp;
     use crate::{
-        dataset::optimize::{compact_files, CompactionOptions},
-        index::vector::IndexFileVersion,
+        Dataset,
+        index::vector::{VectorIndex, VectorIndexParams},
     };
     use crate::{
-        index::vector::{VectorIndex, VectorIndexParams},
-        Dataset,
+        dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files},
+        index::vector::IndexFileVersion,
     };
-    use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_core::cache::{CacheBackend, CacheCodecImpl, LanceCache, WeakLanceCache};
+    use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_core::{Result, ROW_ID};
+    use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
+    use lance_core::{ROW_ID, Result};
+    use lance_datagen::{Dimension, RowCount, Seed, array, gen_batch};
     use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderPlugins;
     use lance_file::reader::{FileReader, FileReaderOptions};
-    use lance_file::writer::FileWriter;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+    use lance_index::prefilter::{NoFilter, PreFilter};
+    use lance_index::progress::IndexBuildProgress;
+    use lance_index::vector::DIST_COL;
+    use lance_index::vector::flat::index::{FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer};
+    use lance_index::vector::flat::storage::FlatFloatStorage;
+    use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::{HNSW_METADATA_KEY, HnswBuildParams};
+    use lance_index::vector::hnsw::{HNSW, HnswMetadata};
     use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{train_kmeans, KMeansParams};
-    use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::kmeans::{KMeansParams, train_kmeans};
+    use lance_index::vector::pq::{PQBuildParams, ProductQuantizer};
     use lance_index::vector::quantizer::QuantizerMetadata;
+    use lance_index::vector::sq::ScalarQuantizer;
     use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::vector::DIST_COL;
+    use lance_index::vector::{DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM, Query};
     use lance_index::vector::{
-        pq::storage::ProductQuantizationMetadata, storage::STORAGE_METADATA_KEY,
+        pq::storage::ProductQuantizationMetadata,
+        sq::storage::{SQ_METADATA_KEY, ScalarQuantizationMetadata},
+        storage::STORAGE_METADATA_KEY,
     };
-    use lance_index::{metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector, INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME};
-    use lance_index::{optimize::OptimizeOptions, scalar::IndexReader};
-    use lance_index::{scalar::IndexWriter, vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams};
-    use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
+    use lance_index::{INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME, metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector};
     use lance_io::{
-        object_store::ObjectStore,
+        object_store::{ObjectStore, ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptionsAccessor},
         scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig},
         utils::CachedFileSize,
     };
-    use lance_linalg::distance::{multivec_distance, DistanceType};
+    use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, multivec_distance};
     use lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl;
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+    use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
     use lance_testing::datagen::{generate_random_array, generate_random_array_with_range};
-    use object_store::path::Path;
-    use rand::distr::uniform::SampleUniform;
-    use rand::{rngs::StdRng, Rng, SeedableRng};
+    use rand::distr::{Distribution, StandardUniform, uniform::SampleUniform};
+    use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng, rngs::StdRng};
     use rstest::rstest;
     use uuid::Uuid;
 
     const NUM_ROWS: usize = 512;
     const DIM: usize = 32;
+    // 8-bit PQ needs at least 256 training vectors; 320 leaves a stable margin
+    // while 20 neighbors provide a useful recall oracle.
+    const PQ_MATRIX_NUM_ROWS: usize = 320;
+    const PQ_MATRIX_K: usize = 20;
+    const LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_PARTITIONS: usize = 2;
+    const LIGHTWEIGHT_IVF_SAMPLE_RATE: usize = 16;
+    // An 8-bit PQ codebook has 256 codes and needs a training vector for each,
+    // so this is the smallest valid fixture, shared by the 8-bit and 4-bit
+    // runtime cases.
+    const LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_ROWS: usize = 256;
+    const LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_SUB_VECTORS: usize = 4;
+
+    /// How many partitions `rows` supports when each one is trained on
+    /// `sample_rate` vectors. At least 1, and never more than `requested`.
+    fn supported_partitions(rows: usize, sample_rate: usize, requested: usize) -> usize {
+        requested.min(rows / sample_rate).max(1)
+    }
 
-    async fn generate_test_dataset<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        test_uri: &str,
-        range: Range<T::Native>,
-    ) -> (Dataset, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>)
-    where
-        T::Native: SampleUniform,
-    {
-        let (batch, schema) = generate_batch::<T>(NUM_ROWS, None, range, false);
-        let vectors = batch.column_by_name("vector").unwrap().clone();
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(
-            batches,
-            test_uri,
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Overwrite,
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
+    lance_testing::define_stage_event_progress!(RecordingProgress, IndexBuildProgress, Result<()>);
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prewarm_parallelism_is_bounded_by_io_and_cpu() {
+        assert_eq!(super::prewarm_parallelism(8, 4), 4);
+        assert_eq!(super::prewarm_parallelism(2, 4), 2);
+        assert_eq!(super::prewarm_parallelism(0, 0), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_prewarm_window_size_config() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            super::parse_prewarm_window_size_bytes(None).unwrap(),
+            64 * 1024 * 1024
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            super::parse_prewarm_window_size_bytes(Some("1048576")).unwrap(),
+            1_048_576
+        );
+        for value in ["0", "not-a-byte-count"] {
+            let error = super::parse_prewarm_window_size_bytes(Some(value)).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+            let message = error.to_string();
+            assert!(message.contains("LANCE_IVF_PREWARM_WINDOW_SIZE_BYTES"));
+            assert!(message.contains(value));
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ivf_with_lengths(lengths: &[u32]) -> IvfModel {
+        let mut ivf = IvfModel::empty();
+        for &length in lengths {
+            ivf.add_partition(length);
+        }
+        ivf
+    }
+
+    fn prewarm_layout(
+        ivf: &IvfModel,
+        encoded_bytes: u64,
+        num_rows: u64,
+    ) -> super::PrewarmFileLayout<'_> {
+        super::PrewarmFileLayout {
+            ivf,
+            encoded_bytes,
+            num_rows,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plan_prewarm_windows_uses_combined_encoded_bytes() {
+        let ivf = ivf_with_lengths(&[2, 0, 4, 20, 0, 2]);
+        let windows = super::plan_partition_windows(
+            prewarm_layout(&ivf, 112, 28),
+            prewarm_layout(&ivf, 168, 28),
+            50,
+            100,
         )
-        .await
         .unwrap();
-        (dataset, Arc::new(vectors.as_fixed_size_list().clone()))
-    }
 
-    async fn generate_multivec_test_dataset<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        test_uri: &str,
-        range: Range<T::Native>,
-    ) -> (Dataset, Arc<ListArray>)
-    where
-        T::Native: SampleUniform,
-    {
-        let (batch, schema) = generate_batch::<T>(NUM_ROWS, None, range, true);
-        let vectors = batch.column_by_name("vector").unwrap().clone();
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-        let dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
-        (dataset, Arc::new(vectors.as_list::<i32>().clone()))
+        assert_eq!(
+            windows,
+            vec![
+                super::PartitionWindow {
+                    partitions: 0..2,
+                    estimated_encoded_bytes: 20,
+                },
+                super::PartitionWindow {
+                    partitions: 2..3,
+                    estimated_encoded_bytes: 40,
+                },
+                super::PartitionWindow {
+                    partitions: 3..4,
+                    estimated_encoded_bytes: 200,
+                },
+                super::PartitionWindow {
+                    partitions: 4..6,
+                    estimated_encoded_bytes: 20,
+                },
+            ]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(windows.first().unwrap().partitions.start, 0);
+        assert_eq!(windows.last().unwrap().partitions.end, ivf.num_partitions());
+        for pair in windows.windows(2) {
+            assert_eq!(pair[0].partitions.end, pair[1].partitions.start);
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn append_dataset<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        dataset: &mut Dataset,
-        num_rows: usize,
-        range: Range<T::Native>,
-    ) -> ArrayRef
-    where
-        T::Native: SampleUniform,
-    {
-        let is_multivector = matches!(
-            dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().data_type(),
-            DataType::List(_)
+    #[test]
+    fn test_plan_prewarm_windows_caps_empty_partitions_and_splits_gaps() {
+        let empty_ivf = ivf_with_lengths(&[0, 0, 0, 0, 0]);
+        let windows = super::plan_partition_windows(
+            prewarm_layout(&empty_ivf, 0, 0),
+            prewarm_layout(&empty_ivf, 0, 0),
+            1024,
+            2,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            windows
+                .iter()
+                .map(|window| window.partitions.clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0..2, 2..4, 4..5]
+        );
+
+        let index_ivf = ivf_with_lengths(&[2, 2, 2]);
+        let mut storage_ivf = IvfModel::empty();
+        storage_ivf.add_partition_with_offset(0, 2);
+        storage_ivf.add_partition_with_offset(20, 2);
+        storage_ivf.add_partition_with_offset(22, 2);
+        let windows = super::plan_partition_windows(
+            prewarm_layout(&index_ivf, 6, 6),
+            prewarm_layout(&storage_ivf, 6, 6),
+            1024,
+            100,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            windows
+                .iter()
+                .map(|window| window.partitions.clone())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0..1, 1..3]
         );
-        let row_count = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
-        let (batch, schema) =
-            generate_batch::<T>(num_rows, Some(row_count as u64), range, is_multivector);
-        let vectors = batch["vector"].clone();
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
-        vectors
     }
 
-    fn generate_batch<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        num_rows: usize,
-        start_id: Option<u64>,
-        range: Range<T::Native>,
-        is_multivector: bool,
-    ) -> (RecordBatch, SchemaRef)
-    where
-        T::Native: SampleUniform,
-    {
-        const VECTOR_NUM_PER_ROW: usize = 3;
-        let start_id = start_id.unwrap_or(0);
-        let ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
-            start_id..start_id + num_rows as u64,
+    #[test]
+    fn test_split_prewarm_window_compacts_partition_buffers() {
+        let parent = RecordBatch::try_from_iter([(
+            "value",
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0..100)) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let parent_ptr = parent["value"]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .as_ptr();
+        let parent_size = parent["value"].get_array_memory_size();
+        let mut partitions =
+            super::split_window_batches(&parent.schema(), &[10, 0, 90], vec![parent]).unwrap();
+
+        let shared_ptr = partitions[0][0]["value"]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .as_ptr();
+        assert_eq!(shared_ptr, parent_ptr);
+        let compact = super::compact_partition_batches(partitions.remove(0)).unwrap();
+        let compact_ptr = compact["value"]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .as_ptr();
+        assert_ne!(compact_ptr, parent_ptr);
+        assert_lt!(compact["value"].get_array_memory_size(), parent_size);
+        assert_eq!(compact.num_rows(), 10);
+        assert_eq!(partitions[0][0].num_rows(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(partitions[1][0].num_rows(), 90);
+    }
+
+    struct PartitionCoverageTestFilter {
+        needs_partition_rows: bool,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl PreFilter for PartitionCoverageTestFilter {
+        async fn wait_for_ready(&self) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+            false
+        }
+
+        fn needs_partition_row_ids(&self) -> bool {
+            self.needs_partition_rows
+        }
+
+        fn is_empty_for(&self, _rows: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+
+        fn mask(&self) -> Arc<RowAddrMask> {
+            Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows())
+        }
+
+        fn filter_row_ids<'a>(&self, row_ids: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &'a u64> + 'a>) -> Vec<u64> {
+            row_ids.enumerate().map(|(index, _)| index as u64).collect()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partition_coverage_is_only_built_for_capable_filters() {
+        let vectors =
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0_f32; 16]), 4)
+                .unwrap();
+        let entry = Arc::new(PartitionEntry::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(
+            FlatIndex::default(),
+            FlatFloatStorage::new(vectors, DistanceType::L2),
+        ));
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(1 << 20);
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(
+                &IVFPartitionKey::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::new(0),
+                entry.clone(),
+            )
+            .await;
+        let weak_cache = WeakLanceCache::from(&cache);
+        let size_without_coverage = entry.deep_size_of();
+        // Memoize the chunk-budget size before the coverage exists; it must
+        // still pick the coverage up once a later filter builds it.
+        assert_eq!(entry.size_bytes(), entry.as_ref().deep_size_of());
+        let cache_weight_without_coverage = cache.size_bytes().await;
+
+        let ordinary_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter> = Arc::new(PartitionCoverageTestFilter {
+            needs_partition_rows: false,
+        });
+        let returned = super::IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::prefilter_for_partition(
+            &weak_cache,
+            0,
+            &entry,
+            ordinary_filter.clone(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&returned, &ordinary_filter));
+        assert!(entry.partition_rows.get().is_none());
+        assert_eq!(cache.size_bytes().await, cache_weight_without_coverage);
+
+        let segment_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter> = Arc::new(PartitionCoverageTestFilter {
+            needs_partition_rows: true,
+        });
+        let returned = super::IVFIndex::<FlatIndex, FlatQuantizer>::prefilter_for_partition(
+            &weak_cache,
+            0,
+            &entry,
+            segment_filter,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(returned.is_empty());
+
+        let first_rows = entry.partition_rows();
+        let second_rows = entry.partition_rows();
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&first_rows, &second_rows));
+        assert!(entry.deep_size_of() > size_without_coverage);
+        assert_eq!(entry.size_bytes(), entry.as_ref().deep_size_of());
+        let cache_weight_with_coverage = cache.size_bytes().await;
+        assert!(cache_weight_with_coverage > cache_weight_without_coverage);
+        assert!(cache_weight_with_coverage >= entry.deep_size_of());
+        assert!(entry.partition_rows_accounted.load(Ordering::Acquire));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rotated_partition_centroid_slice_borrows_cache() {
+        let cache = super::RabitSearchCache {
+            rotated_centroids: vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0],
+            code_dim: 2,
+        };
+
+        let centroid = super::rotated_partition_centroid_slice(Some(&cache), 1).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(centroid, &[3.0, 4.0]);
+        assert_eq!(centroid.as_ptr(), cache.rotated_centroids[2..].as_ptr());
+        assert!(super::rotated_partition_centroid_slice(Some(&cache), 3).is_none());
+        assert!(super::rotated_partition_centroid_slice(None, 0).is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_ex_scratch_len_uses_num_bits() {
+        // Block-aligned dims read the rotated query in place.
+        let dim = 960;
+        for num_bits in [1, 3, 5, 7, 9] {
+            assert_eq!(super::rabit_ex_scratch_len(dim, num_bits), 0);
+        }
+
+        // Unaligned multi-bit queries add one padded query copy.
+        let dim = 968;
+        assert_eq!(super::rabit_ex_scratch_len(dim, 1), 0);
+        assert_eq!(super::rabit_ex_scratch_len(dim, 7), padded_query_len(dim));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_u8_scratch_len_includes_ex_fastscan_tables() {
+        let dim = 960;
+
+        assert_eq!(super::rabit_u8_scratch_len(dim, 1), dim * 4);
+        assert_eq!(super::rabit_u8_scratch_len(dim, 3), dim * 8);
+        assert_eq!(super::rabit_u8_scratch_len(dim, 5), dim * 16);
+        assert_eq!(super::rabit_u8_scratch_len(dim, 7), dim * 4);
+        assert_eq!(super::rabit_u8_scratch_len(dim, 9), dim * 32);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rabit_query_scratch_capacity_does_not_preallocate_u32() {
+        let dim = 960;
+        let max_partition_len = 4096;
+
+        let capacity = super::rabit_query_scratch_capacity(dim, max_partition_len, 5);
+
+        assert_eq!(capacity.distances, max_partition_len);
+        assert_eq!(capacity.query_f32, dim + dim * 4);
+        assert_eq!(capacity.u16, max_partition_len);
+        assert_eq!(capacity.u8, dim * 16);
+        assert_eq!(capacity.u32, 0);
+    }
+
+    async fn generate_test_dataset<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        test_uri: &str,
+        range: Range<T::Native>,
+    ) -> (Dataset, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>)
+    where
+        T::Native: SampleUniform,
+    {
+        let (batch, schema) = generate_batch::<T>(NUM_ROWS, None, range, false);
+        let vectors = batch.column_by_name("vector").unwrap().clone();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            batches,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        (dataset, Arc::new(vectors.as_fixed_size_list().clone()))
+    }
+
+    async fn generate_multivec_test_dataset<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        test_uri: &str,
+        range: Range<T::Native>,
+    ) -> (Dataset, Arc<ListArray>)
+    where
+        T::Native: SampleUniform,
+    {
+        let (batch, schema) = generate_batch::<T>(NUM_ROWS, None, range, true);
+        let vectors = batch.column_by_name("vector").unwrap().clone();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        (dataset, Arc::new(vectors.as_list::<i32>().clone()))
+    }
+
+    async fn append_dataset<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        num_rows: usize,
+        range: Range<T::Native>,
+    ) -> ArrayRef
+    where
+        T::Native: SampleUniform,
+    {
+        let is_multivector = matches!(
+            dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().data_type(),
+            DataType::List(_)
+        );
+        let row_count = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
+        let (batch, schema) =
+            generate_batch::<T>(num_rows, Some(row_count as u64), range, is_multivector);
+        let vectors = batch["vector"].clone();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+        vectors
+    }
+
+    async fn open_rq_aux_reader(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+        index_uuid: &str,
+    ) -> FileReader {
+        let index_path = dataset
+            .indices_dir()
+            .join(index_uuid)
+            .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler
+            .open_file(&index_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn get_rq_metadata(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+        index_uuid: &str,
+    ) -> RabitQuantizationMetadata {
+        let reader = open_rq_aux_reader(dataset, scheduler, index_uuid).await;
+        let metadata = reader.schema().metadata.get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY).unwrap();
+        let metadata_entries: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(metadata).unwrap();
+        serde_json::from_str(&metadata_entries[0]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn get_sq_metadata(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+        index_uuid: &str,
+    ) -> ScalarQuantizationMetadata {
+        let index_path = dataset
+            .indices_dir()
+            .join(index_uuid)
+            .join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let file_scheduler = scheduler
+            .open_file(&index_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            file_scheduler,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        if let Some(metadata) = reader.schema().metadata.get(SQ_METADATA_KEY) {
+            serde_json::from_str(metadata).unwrap()
+        } else {
+            let metadata = reader.schema().metadata.get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY).unwrap();
+            let metadata_entries: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(metadata).unwrap();
+            serde_json::from_str(&metadata_entries[0]).unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_rq_rotation_type(dataset: &Dataset, expected: RQRotationType) {
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing());
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!indices.is_empty(), "Expected at least one vector index");
+        for index in indices.iter() {
+            let rq_meta =
+                get_rq_metadata(dataset, scheduler.clone(), &index.uuid.to_string()).await;
+            assert_eq!(
+                rq_meta.rotation_type, expected,
+                "RQ rotation type mismatch for index {}",
+                index.uuid
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn generate_batch<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        num_rows: usize,
+        start_id: Option<u64>,
+        range: Range<T::Native>,
+        is_multivector: bool,
+    ) -> (RecordBatch, SchemaRef)
+    where
+        T::Native: SampleUniform,
+    {
+        const VECTOR_NUM_PER_ROW: usize = 3;
+        let start_id = start_id.unwrap_or(0);
+        let ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+            start_id..start_id + num_rows as u64,
         ));
         let total_floats = match is_multivector {
             true => num_rows * VECTOR_NUM_PER_ROW * DIM,
@@ -826,29 +3699,43 @@ mod tests {
         (batch, schema)
     }
 
+    /// Rows of `vectors_per_row` vectors around their cluster's centroid. The
+    /// `straddling_row`, if any, spreads its vectors over the centroids instead,
+    /// one per vector, so it belongs to several partitions at once.
     fn generate_clustered_multivec_batch(
         cluster_sizes: &[usize],
-        offsets: &[f32],
+        centroids: &[(f32, f32)],
         vectors_per_row: usize,
+        start_id: u64,
+        straddling_row: Option<u64>,
     ) -> (RecordBatch, SchemaRef) {
         assert_eq!(
             cluster_sizes.len(),
-            offsets.len(),
-            "cluster sizes and offsets must match"
+            centroids.len(),
+            "cluster sizes and centroids must match"
         );
         const ITEM_FIELD_NAME: &str = "item";
         let total_rows: usize = cluster_sizes.iter().sum();
         let mut ids = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows);
         let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows * vectors_per_row * DIM);
         let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(12345);
-        let mut current_id = 0u64;
-        for (&rows, &offset) in cluster_sizes.iter().zip(offsets.iter()) {
+        let mut current_id = start_id;
+        for (&rows, &(x, y)) in cluster_sizes.iter().zip(centroids.iter()) {
             for _ in 0..rows {
-                ids.push(current_id);
+                let row_id = current_id;
+                ids.push(row_id);
                 current_id += 1;
-                for _ in 0..vectors_per_row {
+                for vector_idx in 0..vectors_per_row {
+                    let (x, y) = match straddling_row {
+                        Some(id) if id == row_id => centroids[vector_idx % centroids.len()],
+                        _ => (x, y),
+                    };
                     for dim in 0..DIM {
-                        let base = if dim == 0 { offset } else { 0.0 };
+                        let base = match dim {
+                            0 => x,
+                            1 => y,
+                            _ => 0.0,
+                        };
                         let noise = (rng.random::<f32>() - 0.5) * 0.02;
                         values.push(base + noise);
                     }
@@ -900,6 +3787,66 @@ mod tests {
         )
     }
 
+    fn build_centroids_2d(centroids: &[(f32, f32)]) -> Arc<FixedSizeListArray> {
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(centroids.len() * DIM);
+        for &(x, y) in centroids {
+            for dim in 0..DIM {
+                values.push(match dim {
+                    0 => x,
+                    1 => y,
+                    _ => 0.0,
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn make_fragment_offset_batches(
+        rows_per_fragment: usize,
+        offsets: &[f32],
+    ) -> (Arc<Schema>, Vec<RecordBatch>) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new(
+                "vector",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    DIM as i32,
+                ),
+                false,
+            ),
+        ]));
+
+        let mut next_id = 0_u64;
+        let batches = offsets
+            .iter()
+            .map(|offset| {
+                let ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+                    next_id..next_id + rows_per_fragment as u64,
+                ));
+                next_id += rows_per_fragment as u64;
+
+                let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(rows_per_fragment * DIM);
+                for _ in 0..rows_per_fragment {
+                    for dim in 0..DIM {
+                        values.push(*offset + dim as f32);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                let vectors = Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), DIM as i32)
+                        .unwrap(),
+                );
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![ids, vectors]).unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        (schema, batches)
+    }
+
     struct VectorIndexTestContext {
         stats_json: String,
         stats: serde_json::Value,
@@ -927,82 +3874,403 @@ mod tests {
                 .downcast_ref::<IvfPq>()
                 .expect("expected IvfPq index")
         }
+
+        fn ivf_flat(&self) -> &IvfFlatIndex {
+            self.index
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<IvfFlatIndex>()
+                .expect("expected IvfFlat index")
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn load_vector_index_context(
-        dataset: &Dataset,
-        column: &str,
-        index_name: &str,
-    ) -> VectorIndexTestContext {
-        let stats_json = dataset.index_statistics(index_name).await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_json).unwrap();
-        let uuid = stats["indices"][0]["uuid"]
-            .as_str()
-            .expect("Index uuid should be present");
-        let index = dataset
-            .open_vector_index(column, uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    fn lightweight_pq_params() -> PQBuildParams {
+        PQBuildParams {
+            num_sub_vectors: LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_SUB_VECTORS,
+            num_bits: 4,
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 16,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+    }
 
-        VectorIndexTestContext {
-            stats_json,
-            stats,
-            index,
+    fn lightweight_pq_params_with_bits(num_bits: usize) -> PQBuildParams {
+        let num_sub_vectors = if num_bits == 4 {
+            // M4 is only a 2-byte code, so random KMeans/HNSW can leave recall near
+            // the threshold. M32 restores the original 4-bit test capacity.
+            DIM
+        } else {
+            LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_SUB_VECTORS
+        };
+        PQBuildParams {
+            num_sub_vectors,
+            num_bits,
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 16,
+            ..Default::default()
         }
     }
 
-    async fn verify_partition_split_after_append(
-        mut dataset: Dataset,
-        test_uri: &str,
-        params: VectorIndexParams,
-        description: &str,
-    ) {
-        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
-        const APPEND_ROWS: usize = 50_000;
+    fn lightweight_hnsw_params() -> HnswBuildParams {
+        HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .max_level(2)
+            .num_edges(4)
+            .ef_construction(16)
+    }
+
+    fn make_seeded_vector_batch(num_rows: usize) -> (RecordBatch, SchemaRef) {
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(lance_datagen::Seed::from(42))
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>((DIM as u32).into()),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(num_rows as u64))
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        (batch, schema)
+    }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::flat(None)]
+    #[case::pq4(Some(4))]
+    #[case::pq8(Some(8))]
+    #[case::rq5(Some(5))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_pairwise_partition_replay_has_no_source_io(#[case] bits: Option<usize>) {
+        // Cross the 8K source-read boundary with a packed RQ tail. Force both
+        // memory and spill paths, replaying the same index in 1K vector batches.
+        const NUM_ROWS: usize = 8193;
+        const BATCH_SIZE: usize = 1024;
+        let (batch, schema) = make_seeded_vector_batch(NUM_ROWS);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                // Keep this tiny fixture out of the whole-file read cache so
+                // the source-I/O assertion also exercises PQ4 preparation.
+                store_params: Some(ObjectStoreParams {
+                    block_size: Some(64),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut ivf = IvfBuildParams::new(1);
+        ivf.centroids = Some(Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; DIM]), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap(),
+        ));
+        let params = match bits {
+            None => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf),
+            Some(5) => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                ivf,
+                RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(5, RQRotationType::Fast),
+            ),
+            Some(bits) => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                ivf,
+                PQBuildParams::with_codebook(
+                    16,
+                    bits,
+                    Arc::new(generate_random_array(DIM * (1 << bits))),
+                ),
+            ),
+        };
         dataset
             .create_index(
                 &["vector"],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                Some("pairs".into()),
                 &params,
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        let initial_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
+        let meta = dataset.load_indices_by_name("pairs").await.unwrap();
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &meta[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let session = dataset.session();
+        let store = session.spill_store();
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        let memory = index
+            .prepare_pairwise_partition(0, BATCH_SIZE, 16 * 1024 * 1024, store)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let memory_bytes = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .io_stats_incremental()
+            .read_bytes;
+        let spilled = index
+            .prepare_pairwise_partition(0, BATCH_SIZE, 0, store)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let spilled_bytes = dataset
+            .object_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .io_stats_incremental()
+            .read_bytes;
+        assert!(memory_bytes > 0);
+        // Spilled source reads fetch each column's bytes about once; small
+        // tail ranges round up to encoding chunks. Rereading the PQ code
+        // column for every source window used to cost ~2.6x.
+        assert!(
+            spilled_bytes < 2 * memory_bytes,
+            "spilled preparation read {spilled_bytes} bytes, in-memory {memory_bytes}"
+        );
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            for batch_id in 0..NUM_ROWS.div_ceil(BATCH_SIZE) {
+                let expected = memory.read_vectors(batch_id).await.unwrap();
+                let actual = spilled.read_vectors(batch_id).await.unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(actual.row_ids, expected.row_ids);
+                assert_eq!(actual.codes, expected.codes);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    actual.row_ids.len(),
+                    BATCH_SIZE.min(NUM_ROWS - batch_id * BATCH_SIZE)
+                );
+                seen.extend(actual.row_ids.values().iter().copied());
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(seen, (0..NUM_ROWS as u64).collect::<HashSet<u64>>());
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
         assert_eq!(
-            initial_ctx.num_partitions(),
-            2,
-            "Expected {} initial partitions to be 2 before append, got stats: {}",
-            description,
-            initial_ctx.stats_json()
+            stats.read_iops, 0,
+            "replay must not reread the source index"
         );
+        assert_eq!(stats.read_bytes, 0);
+
+        // Spilled and in-memory staging score bit-identically, in every tile.
+        let anchor = memory.read_vectors(0).await.unwrap();
+        let spilled_anchor = spilled.read_vectors(0).await.unwrap();
+        for batch_id in 0..NUM_ROWS.div_ceil(BATCH_SIZE) {
+            let expected = memory
+                .score_block(
+                    &anchor,
+                    0..32,
+                    &memory.read_vectors(batch_id).await.unwrap(),
+                    f32::MAX,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            let actual = spilled
+                .score_block(
+                    &spilled_anchor,
+                    0..32,
+                    &spilled.read_vectors(batch_id).await.unwrap(),
+                    f32::MAX,
+                )
+                .unwrap();
+            let candidates = BATCH_SIZE.min(NUM_ROWS - batch_id * BATCH_SIZE);
+            let pairs = if batch_id == 0 {
+                (0..32).map(|row| candidates - row - 1).sum()
+            } else {
+                32 * candidates
+            };
+            assert_eq!(expected.distances.len(), pairs);
+            assert_eq!(actual, expected);
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Append tightly clustered vectors so data flows into the same partition.
-        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut dataset, APPEND_ROWS, 0.0..0.05).await;
+    async fn search_lightweight_pq_index(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        query: &dyn Array,
+        k: usize,
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        refine_factor: u32,
+        ef: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+    ) -> RecordBatch {
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", query, k)
+            .unwrap()
+            .distance_metric(distance_type)
+            .minimum_nprobes(num_partitions)
+            .ef(ef)
+            .refine(refine_factor)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_lightweight_pq_index(
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        num_bits: usize,
+        use_hnsw: bool,
+    ) {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "test_index";
+        const K: usize = 10;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let (batch, schema) = make_seeded_vector_batch(LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_ROWS);
+        let vectors = batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_dir.as_str(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
+        let mut ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_PARTITIONS);
+        ivf_params.max_iters = 2;
+        ivf_params.sample_rate = LIGHTWEIGHT_IVF_SAMPLE_RATE;
+        let pq_params = lightweight_pq_params_with_bits(num_bits);
+        let expected_num_sub_vectors = pq_params.num_sub_vectors;
+        let params = if use_hnsw {
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+                distance_type,
+                ivf_params,
+                lightweight_hnsw_params(),
+                pq_params,
+            )
+        } else {
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, pq_params)
+        };
         dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_owned()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let final_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
+        let stats_json = dataset.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_json).unwrap();
+        let expected_index_type = if use_hnsw { "IVF_HNSW_PQ" } else { "IVF_PQ" };
+        let expected_sub_index = if use_hnsw { "HNSW" } else { "PQ" };
+        assert_eq!(stats["index_type"], expected_index_type);
+        let expected_partitions = supported_partitions(
+            LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_ROWS,
+            LIGHTWEIGHT_IVF_SAMPLE_RATE,
+            LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_PARTITIONS,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(stats["indices"][0]["num_partitions"], expected_partitions);
         assert_eq!(
-            final_ctx.num_partitions(),
-            3,
-            "Expected partition split to increase partitions from 2 to 3 for {}, got stats: {}",
-            description,
-            final_ctx.stats_json()
+            stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["index_type"],
+            expected_sub_index
+        );
+        assert_eq!(stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["nbits"], num_bits);
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["num_sub_vectors"],
+            expected_num_sub_vectors
+        );
+        if use_hnsw {
+            let hnsw_params = &stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["params"];
+            assert_eq!(hnsw_params["max_level"], 2);
+            assert_eq!(hnsw_params["m"], 4);
+            assert_eq!(hnsw_params["ef_construction"], 16);
+        }
+
+        // A single k=10 query of 4-bit PQ + Dot sits near the 0.5 bar: Windows
+        // CI has landed at 0.4 (4/10). Average over several queries so one
+        // platform-dependent ranking does not fail the contract.
+        const NUM_QUERIES: usize = 10;
+        // 4-bit PQ ranking is coarser; rescoring more candidates is cheap on
+        // this 256-row fixture and keeps mean recall clear of 0.5.
+        let refine_factor = if num_bits == 4 { 8 } else { 4 };
+        // HNSW requires ef >= k * refine. IVF_PQ ignores ef.
+        let ef = 64.max(K * refine_factor as usize);
+        let mut hits = 0usize;
+        let query = vectors.value(0);
+        let before_reopen = search_lightweight_pq_index(
+            &dataset,
+            query.as_ref(),
+            K,
+            LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_PARTITIONS,
+            refine_factor,
+            ef,
+            distance_type,
+        )
+        .await;
+        for query_idx in 0..NUM_QUERIES {
+            let query = vectors.value(query_idx);
+            let ground_truth =
+                ground_truth(&dataset, "vector", query.as_ref(), K, distance_type).await;
+            let result = if query_idx == 0 {
+                before_reopen.clone()
+            } else {
+                search_lightweight_pq_index(
+                    &dataset,
+                    query.as_ref(),
+                    K,
+                    LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_PARTITIONS,
+                    refine_factor,
+                    ef,
+                    distance_type,
+                )
+                .await
+            };
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), K);
+            let row_ids = result[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+            assert_eq!(row_ids.iter().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>().len(), K);
+            let distances = result[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+            assert!(distances.iter().all(|distance| distance.is_finite()));
+            assert!(distances.windows(2).all(|pair| pair[0] <= pair[1]));
+            hits += row_ids
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|row_id| ground_truth.contains(row_id))
+                .count();
+        }
+        let recall = hits as f32 / (NUM_QUERIES * K) as f32;
+        assert_ge!(recall, 0.5, "recall: {recall}");
+
+        drop(dataset);
+        let reopened = Dataset::open(test_dir.as_str()).await.unwrap();
+        let reopened_stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&reopened.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(reopened_stats, stats);
+        assert_eq!(
+            search_lightweight_pq_index(
+                &reopened,
+                query.as_ref(),
+                K,
+                LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_PARTITIONS,
+                refine_factor,
+                ef,
+                distance_type,
+            )
+            .await,
+            before_reopen
         );
     }
 
+    async fn load_vector_index_context(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        column: &str,
+        index_name: &str,
+    ) -> VectorIndexTestContext {
+        let stats_json = dataset.index_statistics(index_name).await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_json).unwrap();
+        let uuid_str = stats["indices"][0]["uuid"]
+            .as_str()
+            .expect("Index uuid should be present");
+        let uuid = Uuid::parse_str(uuid_str).expect("uuid in stats should be a valid UUID");
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_vector_index(column, &uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        VectorIndexTestContext {
+            stats_json,
+            stats,
+            index,
+        }
+    }
+
     async fn shrink_smallest_partition(
         dataset: &mut Dataset,
         index_name: &str,
         expected_after_join: usize,
+        next_id: &mut u64,
     ) -> (usize, usize, usize) {
         const ROWS_TO_APPEND_FOR_JOIN: usize = 32;
         let row_count_before = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
@@ -1040,7 +4308,13 @@ mod tests {
         delete_ids(dataset, &ids[1..]).await;
         compact_after_deletions(dataset).await;
 
-        append_constant_vector(dataset, ROWS_TO_APPEND_FOR_JOIN, &template_values).await;
+        append_template_vector_with_start_id(
+            dataset,
+            ROWS_TO_APPEND_FOR_JOIN,
+            &template_values,
+            next_id,
+        )
+        .await;
         dataset
             .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
             .await
@@ -1066,14 +4340,81 @@ mod tests {
         (deleted_rows, ROWS_TO_APPEND_FOR_JOIN, post_partitions)
     }
 
-    async fn append_constant_vector(dataset: &mut Dataset, rows: usize, template: &[f32]) {
-        append_constant_vector_with_params(dataset, rows, template, None).await;
+    async fn append_template_vector_with_start_id(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        rows: usize,
+        template: &[f32],
+        next_id: &mut u64,
+    ) {
+        append_template_vector_batch(dataset, rows, template, *next_id, None).await;
+        *next_id += rows as u64;
+    }
+
+    async fn append_partition_templates(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        rows_per_template: usize,
+        templates: &[Vec<f32>],
+    ) {
+        assert!(
+            !templates.is_empty(),
+            "at least one template is required for append"
+        );
+        for template in templates {
+            assert_eq!(
+                template.len(),
+                DIM,
+                "Template vector should have {} dimensions",
+                DIM
+            );
+        }
+
+        let start_id = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap() as u64;
+        let total_rows = rows_per_template * templates.len();
+        let ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+            start_id..start_id + total_rows as u64,
+        ));
+        // A tiny per-row drift keeps the appended rows distinct (identical rows
+        // cannot be split by clustering) without moving them off their template's
+        // partition.
+        let mut appended_values = Vec::with_capacity(total_rows * DIM);
+        for template in templates {
+            for row in 0..rows_per_template {
+                let mut values = template.clone();
+                values[0] += row as f32 * 0.0001;
+                appended_values.extend_from_slice(&values);
+            }
+        }
+        let vectors = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(appended_values),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("vector", vectors.data_type().clone(), false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![ids, vectors]).unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        dataset.append(batches, None).await.unwrap();
+    }
+
+    async fn append_template_vector_with_params(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        rows: usize,
+        template: &[f32],
+        write_params: Option<WriteParams>,
+    ) {
+        let start_id = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap() as u64;
+        append_template_vector_batch(dataset, rows, template, start_id, write_params).await;
     }
 
-    async fn append_constant_vector_with_params(
+    async fn append_template_vector_batch(
         dataset: &mut Dataset,
         rows: usize,
         template: &[f32],
+        start_id: u64,
         write_params: Option<WriteParams>,
     ) {
         assert_eq!(
@@ -1083,13 +4424,17 @@ mod tests {
             DIM
         );
 
-        let start_id = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap() as u64;
         let ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
             start_id..start_id + rows as u64,
         ));
+        // The same tiny per-row drift as `append_partition_templates`: a split
+        // into `ceil(rows / target)` pieces needs that many distinct rows, and
+        // identical rows would leave some pieces empty at random.
         let mut appended_values = Vec::with_capacity(rows * DIM);
-        for _ in 0..rows {
-            appended_values.extend_from_slice(template);
+        for row in 0..rows {
+            let mut values = template.to_vec();
+            values[0] += row as f32 * 0.0001;
+            appended_values.extend_from_slice(&values);
         }
         let vectors = Arc::new(
             FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
@@ -1116,13 +4461,14 @@ mod tests {
         dataset: &mut Dataset,
         index_name: &str,
         template: &[f32],
+        next_id: &mut u64,
         rows_to_append: usize,
         expected_partitions: usize,
         expected_total_rows: usize,
         expected_index_count: usize,
         expect_split: bool,
     ) {
-        append_constant_vector(dataset, rows_to_append, template).await;
+        append_template_vector_with_start_id(dataset, rows_to_append, template, next_id).await;
         dataset
             .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
             .await
@@ -1212,7 +4558,18 @@ mod tests {
     async fn load_partition_row_ids(index: &IvfPq, partition_idx: usize) -> Vec<u64> {
         index
             .storage
-            .load_partition(partition_idx)
+            .load_partition(partition_idx, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .row_ids()
+            .copied()
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    async fn load_flat_partition_row_ids(index: &IvfFlatIndex, partition_idx: usize) -> Vec<u64> {
+        index
+            .storage
+            .load_partition(partition_idx, None)
             .await
             .unwrap()
             .row_ids()
@@ -1248,7 +4605,6 @@ mod tests {
         .unwrap();
     }
 
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     async fn ground_truth(
         dataset: &Dataset,
         column: &str,
@@ -1274,7 +4630,6 @@ mod tests {
             .collect()
     }
 
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     fn multivec_ground_truth(
         vectors: &ListArray,
         query: &dyn Array,
@@ -1329,11 +4684,20 @@ mod tests {
         test_uri: &str,
         schema: Arc<Schema>,
         batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+    ) -> Dataset {
+        write_dataset_from_batches_with_max_rows(test_uri, schema, batches, 500).await
+    }
+
+    async fn write_dataset_from_batches_with_max_rows(
+        test_uri: &str,
+        schema: Arc<Schema>,
+        batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+        max_rows_per_file: usize,
     ) -> Dataset {
         let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
 
         let write_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 500,
+            max_rows_per_file,
             mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
             ..Default::default()
         };
@@ -1346,6 +4710,30 @@ mod tests {
     async fn prepare_global_ivf_pq(
         dataset: &Dataset,
         vector_column: &str,
+    ) -> (IvfBuildParams, PQBuildParams) {
+        prepare_ivf_pq(
+            dataset,
+            vector_column,
+            TWO_FRAG_DIM,
+            TWO_FRAG_NUM_PARTITIONS,
+            TWO_FRAG_NUM_SUBVECTORS,
+            TWO_FRAG_NUM_BITS,
+            TWO_FRAG_MAX_ITERS,
+            TWO_FRAG_SAMPLE_RATE,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    async fn prepare_ivf_pq(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        vector_column: &str,
+        expected_dimension: usize,
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        num_sub_vectors: usize,
+        num_bits: usize,
+        max_iters: u32,
+        sample_rate: usize,
     ) -> (IvfBuildParams, PQBuildParams) {
         let batch = dataset
             .scan()
@@ -1360,10 +4748,54 @@ mod tests {
             .as_fixed_size_list();
 
         let dim = vectors.value_length() as usize;
-        assert_eq!(dim, TWO_FRAG_DIM, "unexpected vector dimension");
+        assert_eq!(dim, expected_dimension, "unexpected vector dimension");
 
         let values = vectors.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
 
+        let kmeans_params = KMeansParams::new(None, max_iters, 1, DistanceType::L2);
+        let kmeans =
+            train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(values, kmeans_params, dim, num_partitions, sample_rate)
+                .unwrap();
+
+        let centroids_flat = kmeans.centroids.as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone();
+        let centroids_fsl =
+            Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids_flat, dim as i32).unwrap());
+        let mut ivf_params =
+            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(num_partitions, centroids_fsl).unwrap();
+        ivf_params.max_iters = max_iters as usize;
+        ivf_params.sample_rate = sample_rate;
+
+        let mut pq_train_params = PQBuildParams::new(num_sub_vectors, num_bits);
+        pq_train_params.max_iters = max_iters as usize;
+        pq_train_params.sample_rate = sample_rate;
+
+        let pq = pq_train_params.build(vectors, DistanceType::L2).unwrap();
+        let codebook_flat = pq.codebook.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone();
+        let pq_codebook: ArrayRef = Arc::new(codebook_flat);
+        let mut pq_params = PQBuildParams::with_codebook(num_sub_vectors, num_bits, pq_codebook);
+        pq_params.max_iters = max_iters as usize;
+        pq_params.sample_rate = sample_rate;
+
+        (ivf_params, pq_params)
+    }
+
+    async fn prepare_global_ivf(dataset: &Dataset, vector_column: &str) -> IvfBuildParams {
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&[vector_column.to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vectors = batch
+            .column_by_name(vector_column)
+            .expect("vector column should exist")
+            .as_fixed_size_list();
+
+        let dim = vectors.value_length() as usize;
+        assert_eq!(dim, TWO_FRAG_DIM, "unexpected vector dimension");
+
+        let values = vectors.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
         let kmeans_params = KMeansParams::new(None, TWO_FRAG_MAX_ITERS, 1, DistanceType::L2);
         let kmeans = train_kmeans::<Float32Type>(
             values,
@@ -1381,20 +4813,24 @@ mod tests {
             IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(TWO_FRAG_NUM_PARTITIONS, centroids_fsl).unwrap();
         ivf_params.max_iters = TWO_FRAG_MAX_ITERS as usize;
         ivf_params.sample_rate = TWO_FRAG_SAMPLE_RATE;
+        ivf_params
+    }
 
-        let mut pq_train_params = PQBuildParams::new(TWO_FRAG_NUM_SUBVECTORS, TWO_FRAG_NUM_BITS);
-        pq_train_params.max_iters = TWO_FRAG_MAX_ITERS as usize;
-        pq_train_params.sample_rate = TWO_FRAG_SAMPLE_RATE;
+    async fn build_segments_for_fragment_groups(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        fragment_groups: Vec<Vec<u32>>, // each group is a set of fragment ids
+        params: &VectorIndexParams,
+        index_name: &str,
+    ) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
 
-        let pq = pq_train_params.build(vectors, DistanceType::L2).unwrap();
-        let codebook_flat = pq.codebook.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone();
-        let pq_codebook: ArrayRef = Arc::new(codebook_flat);
-        let mut pq_params =
-            PQBuildParams::with_codebook(TWO_FRAG_NUM_SUBVECTORS, TWO_FRAG_NUM_BITS, pq_codebook);
-        pq_params.max_iters = TWO_FRAG_MAX_ITERS as usize;
-        pq_params.sample_rate = TWO_FRAG_SAMPLE_RATE;
+        for fragments in fragment_groups {
+            let mut builder = dataset.create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, params);
+            builder = builder.name(index_name.to_string()).fragments(fragments);
+            segments.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+        }
 
-        (ivf_params, pq_params)
+        segments
     }
 
     async fn build_ivfpq_for_fragment_groups(
@@ -1404,43 +4840,24 @@ mod tests {
         pq_params: &PQBuildParams,
         index_name: &str,
     ) {
-        let shared_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
         let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
             DistanceType::L2,
             ivf_params.clone(),
             pq_params.clone(),
         );
 
-        for fragments in fragment_groups {
-            let mut builder = dataset.create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params);
-            builder = builder
-                .name(index_name.to_string())
-                .fragments(fragments)
-                .index_uuid(shared_uuid.to_string());
-            // Build partial index shards without committing to manifest.
-            builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap();
-        }
-
-        let index_dir = dataset.indices_dir().child(shared_uuid.to_string());
-        finalize_distributed_merge(dataset.object_store(), &index_dir, Some(IndexType::IvfPq))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        dataset
-            .commit_existing_index(index_name, "vector", shared_uuid)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let segments =
+            build_segments_for_fragment_groups(dataset, fragment_groups, &params, index_name).await;
+        let committed_segments =
+            build_distributed_segments(dataset, segments, params.index_type(), index_name).await;
+        assert!(!committed_segments.is_empty());
     }
 
-    fn assert_ivf_layout_equal(stats_a: &serde_json::Value, stats_b: &serde_json::Value) {
-        let idx_a = &stats_a["indices"][0];
-        let idx_b = &stats_b["indices"][0];
-
-        // Centroids: same shape and values (within tolerance).
-        let centroids_a = idx_a["centroids"]
+    fn assert_centroids_equal(reference: &serde_json::Value, candidate: &serde_json::Value) {
+        let centroids_a = reference["centroids"]
             .as_array()
             .expect("centroids should be an array");
-        let centroids_b = idx_b["centroids"]
+        let centroids_b = candidate["centroids"]
             .as_array()
             .expect("centroids should be an array");
         assert_eq!(
@@ -1467,24 +4884,60 @@ mod tests {
                 );
             }
         }
+    }
+
+    fn sum_partition_sizes(indices: &[serde_json::Value]) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let mut totals = Vec::new();
+        for index in indices {
+            let partitions = index["partitions"]
+                .as_array()
+                .expect("partitions should be an array");
+            if totals.is_empty() {
+                totals.resize(partitions.len(), 0);
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(totals.len(), partitions.len(), "num partitions mismatch");
+            }
+            for (total, partition) in totals.iter_mut().zip(partitions.iter()) {
+                *total += partition["size"].as_u64().expect("partition size");
+            }
+        }
+        totals
+    }
 
-        // Partitions sizes.
-        let parts_a = idx_a["partitions"]
+    fn assert_ivf_layout_compatible(stats_a: &serde_json::Value, stats_b: &serde_json::Value) {
+        let indices_a = stats_a["indices"]
             .as_array()
-            .expect("partitions should be an array");
-        let parts_b = idx_b["partitions"]
+            .expect("indices should be an array");
+        let indices_b = stats_b["indices"]
             .as_array()
-            .expect("partitions should be an array");
-        assert_eq!(parts_a.len(), parts_b.len(), "num partitions mismatch");
-        let sizes_a: Vec<u64> = parts_a
-            .iter()
-            .map(|p| p["size"].as_u64().expect("partition size"))
-            .collect();
-        let sizes_b: Vec<u64> = parts_b
-            .iter()
-            .map(|p| p["size"].as_u64().expect("partition size"))
-            .collect();
-        assert_eq!(sizes_a, sizes_b, "partition sizes mismatch");
+            .expect("indices should be an array");
+        assert!(
+            !indices_a.is_empty() && !indices_b.is_empty(),
+            "indices should not be empty",
+        );
+
+        let reference = &indices_a[0];
+        for index in indices_a.iter().skip(1).chain(indices_b.iter()) {
+            assert_centroids_equal(reference, index);
+        }
+
+        let sizes_a = sum_partition_sizes(indices_a);
+        let sizes_b = sum_partition_sizes(indices_b);
+        assert_eq!(sizes_a, sizes_b, "aggregated partition sizes mismatch");
+    }
+
+    /// Commit caller-defined segment groups as one logical index.
+    async fn build_distributed_segments(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        _index_type: IndexType,
+        index_name: &str,
+    ) -> Vec<IndexMetadata> {
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(index_name, "vector", segments.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        segments
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -1494,7 +4947,6 @@ mod tests {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let base_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
-        // Generate the data once, then write it twice to two independent dataset URIs.
         let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
 
         let ds_single_uri = format!("{}/single", base_uri);
@@ -1504,7 +4956,6 @@ mod tests {
             write_dataset_from_batches(&ds_single_uri, schema.clone(), batches.clone()).await;
         let mut ds_split = write_dataset_from_batches(&ds_split_uri, schema, batches).await;
 
-        // Ensure we have at least 2 fragments.
         let fragments_single = ds_single.get_fragments();
         assert!(
             fragments_single.len() >= 2,
@@ -1518,10 +4969,8 @@ mod tests {
             fragments_split.len()
         );
 
-        // Pretrain global IVF centroids and PQ codebook.
         let (ivf_params, pq_params) = prepare_global_ivf_pq(&ds_single, "vector").await;
 
-        // Build single index using two fragments in one distributed build.
         let group_single = vec![
             fragments_single[0].id() as u32,
             fragments_single[1].id() as u32,
@@ -1535,7 +4984,6 @@ mod tests {
         )
         .await;
 
-        // Build split index: one fragment per distributed build, then merge.
         let group0 = vec![fragments_split[0].id() as u32];
         let group1 = vec![fragments_split[1].id() as u32];
         build_ivfpq_for_fragment_groups(
@@ -1547,35 +4995,16 @@ mod tests {
         )
         .await;
 
-        // Compare IVF layout via index statistics.
         let stats_single_json = ds_single.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
         let stats_split_json = ds_split.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
         let stats_single: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_single_json).unwrap();
         let stats_split: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats_split_json).unwrap();
-        assert_ivf_layout_equal(&stats_single, &stats_split);
-
-        // Compare row id sets per partition.
-        let ctx_single = load_vector_index_context(&ds_single, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
-        let ctx_split = load_vector_index_context(&ds_split, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
-
-        let ivf_single = ctx_single.ivf();
-        let ivf_split = ctx_split.ivf();
-        let total_partitions = ivf_single.total_partitions();
-        assert_eq!(total_partitions, ivf_split.total_partitions());
-
-        for part_id in 0..total_partitions {
-            let row_ids_single = load_partition_row_ids(ivf_single, part_id).await;
-            let row_ids_split = load_partition_row_ids(ivf_split, part_id).await;
-            let set_single: HashSet<u64> = row_ids_single.into_iter().collect();
-            let set_split: HashSet<u64> = row_ids_split.into_iter().collect();
-            assert_eq!(
-                set_single, set_split,
-                "row id set mismatch for partition {}",
-                part_id
-            );
-        }
+        assert_ivf_layout_compatible(&stats_single, &stats_split);
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats_single["num_indexed_rows"],
+            stats_split["num_indexed_rows"]
+        );
 
-        // Compare Top-K row ids on a deterministic set of queries.
         const K: usize = 10;
         const NUM_QUERIES: usize = 10;
 
@@ -1589,6 +5018,7 @@ mod tests {
                     .unwrap()
                     .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), K)
                     .unwrap()
+                    .minimum_nprobes(TWO_FRAG_NUM_PARTITIONS)
                     .try_into_batch()
                     .await
                     .unwrap();
@@ -1604,7 +5034,6 @@ mod tests {
             ids_per_query
         }
 
-        // Collect a deterministic query set from ds_single.
         let query_batch = ds_single
             .scan()
             .project(&["vector"] as &[&str])
@@ -1628,609 +5057,2951 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
-    async fn test_index(
-        params: VectorIndexParams,
-        nlist: usize,
-        recall_requirement: f32,
-        dataset: Option<(Dataset, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>)>,
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::ivf_flat(IndexType::IvfFlat)]
+    #[case::ivf_pq(IndexType::IvfPq)]
+    #[case::ivf_sq(IndexType::IvfSq)]
+    #[case::ivf_rq(IndexType::IvfRq)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_vector_build_commits_multiple_segments_and_preserves_query_results(
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
     ) {
-        match params.metric_type {
-            DistanceType::Hamming => {
-                test_index_impl::<UInt8Type>(params, nlist, recall_requirement, 0..4, dataset)
-                    .await;
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+        const K: usize = 10;
+        const NUM_QUERIES: usize = 10;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        // Generate the data once, then write it twice to two independent dataset URIs.
+        let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+
+        let ds_single_uri = format!("{}/single", base_uri);
+        let ds_split_uri = format!("{}/split", base_uri);
+
+        let mut ds_single =
+            write_dataset_from_batches(&ds_single_uri, schema.clone(), batches.clone()).await;
+        let mut ds_split = write_dataset_from_batches(&ds_split_uri, schema, batches).await;
+
+        // Ensure we have at least 2 fragments.
+        let fragments_single = ds_single.get_fragments();
+        assert!(
+            fragments_single.len() >= 2,
+            "expected at least 2 fragments in ds_single, got {}",
+            fragments_single.len()
+        );
+        let fragments_split = ds_split.get_fragments();
+        assert!(
+            fragments_split.len() >= 2,
+            "expected at least 2 fragments in ds_split, got {}",
+            fragments_split.len()
+        );
+
+        let distributed_params = match index_type {
+            IndexType::IvfFlat => {
+                let ivf_params = prepare_global_ivf(&ds_single, "vector").await;
+                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params)
             }
-            _ => {
-                test_index_impl::<Float32Type>(
-                    params.clone(),
-                    nlist,
-                    recall_requirement,
-                    0.0..1.0,
-                    dataset.clone(),
+            IndexType::IvfPq => {
+                let (ivf_params, pq_params) = prepare_global_ivf_pq(&ds_single, "vector").await;
+                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params)
+            }
+            IndexType::IvfSq => {
+                let ivf_params = prepare_global_ivf(&ds_single, "vector").await;
+                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(
+                    DistanceType::L2,
+                    ivf_params,
+                    SQBuildParams::default(),
+                )
+            }
+            IndexType::IvfRq => {
+                let ivf_params = prepare_global_ivf(&ds_single, "vector").await;
+                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+                    DistanceType::L2,
+                    ivf_params,
+                    RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(1, RQRotationType::Fast),
+                )
+            }
+            other => panic!("unsupported test index type: {}", other),
+        };
+
+        ds_single
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                &distributed_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragment_groups = fragments_split
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected_segment_count = fragment_groups.len();
+        let segments = build_segments_for_fragment_groups(
+            &mut ds_split,
+            fragment_groups,
+            &distributed_params,
+            INDEX_NAME,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let segments =
+            build_distributed_segments(&mut ds_split, segments, index_type, INDEX_NAME).await;
+        assert_eq!(segments.len(), expected_segment_count);
+        for segment in &segments {
+            let segment_index = ds_split
+                .indices_dir()
+                .clone()
+                .join(segment.uuid.to_string())
+                .join(crate::index::INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+            assert!(
+                ds_split
+                    .object_store
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .exists(&segment_index)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                "segment file should exist at {}",
+                segment_index
+            );
+        }
+
+        let committed_segments = ds_split.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed_segments.len(), expected_segment_count);
+        for committed in committed_segments {
+            let covered_fragments = committed
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .expect("distributed segment should have fragment coverage");
+            assert_eq!(covered_fragments.len(), 1);
+        }
+
+        async fn collect_row_ids(ds: &Dataset, queries: &[Arc<dyn Array>]) -> Vec<Vec<u64>> {
+            let mut ids_per_query = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+            for q in queries {
+                let result = ds
+                    .scan()
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .project(&["_rowid"] as &[&str])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), K)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .minimum_nprobes(TWO_FRAG_NUM_PARTITIONS)
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                let row_ids = result[ROW_ID]
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
+                ids_per_query.push(row_ids);
+            }
+            ids_per_query
+        }
+
+        // Collect a deterministic query set from ds_single.
+        let query_batch = ds_single
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["vector"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(NUM_QUERIES as i64), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vectors = query_batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list();
+        let queries: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = (0..vectors.len())
+            .map(|i| vectors.value(i) as Arc<dyn Array>)
+            .collect();
+
+        let ids_single = collect_row_ids(&ds_single, &queries).await;
+        let ids_split = collect_row_ids(&ds_split, &queries).await;
+
+        if index_type == IndexType::IvfRq {
+            for row_ids in &ids_split {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    row_ids.len(),
+                    K,
+                    "distributed IVF_RQ query should still return exactly {K} row ids",
+                );
+            }
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(
+                ids_single, ids_split,
+                "single vs segmented distributed index returned different Top-K row ids",
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::ivf_flat(IndexType::IvfFlat)]
+    #[case::ivf_pq(IndexType::IvfPq)]
+    #[case::ivf_sq(IndexType::IvfSq)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_vector_grouped_build_allows_concurrent_group_execution(
+        #[case] index_type: IndexType,
+    ) {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "grouped_idx";
+        const K: usize = 10;
+        const NUM_QUERIES: usize = 10;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+        let ds_single_uri = format!("{}/grouped_single", base_uri);
+        let ds_split_uri = format!("{}/grouped_split", base_uri);
+
+        let mut ds_single =
+            write_dataset_from_batches(&ds_single_uri, schema.clone(), batches.clone()).await;
+        let mut ds_split = write_dataset_from_batches(&ds_split_uri, schema, batches).await;
+
+        let distributed_params = match index_type {
+            IndexType::IvfFlat => {
+                let ivf_params = prepare_global_ivf(&ds_single, "vector").await;
+                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params)
+            }
+            IndexType::IvfPq => {
+                let (ivf_params, pq_params) = prepare_global_ivf_pq(&ds_single, "vector").await;
+                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params)
+            }
+            IndexType::IvfSq => {
+                let ivf_params = prepare_global_ivf(&ds_single, "vector").await;
+                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(
+                    DistanceType::L2,
+                    ivf_params,
+                    SQBuildParams::default(),
                 )
+            }
+            other => panic!("unsupported test index type: {}", other),
+        };
+
+        ds_single
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                &distributed_params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragment_groups = ds_split
+            .get_fragments()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|fragment| vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let segments = build_segments_for_fragment_groups(
+            &mut ds_split,
+            fragment_groups,
+            &distributed_params,
+            INDEX_NAME,
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        assert!(segments.len() >= 4);
+        let grouped_inputs = segments
+            .chunks(2)
+            .map(|group| group.to_vec())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut expected_fragment_coverage = grouped_inputs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|group| {
+                group
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|partial| {
+                        partial
+                            .fragment_bitmap
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .expect("partial shard should have fragment coverage")
+                            .iter()
+                    })
+                    .sorted()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        expected_fragment_coverage.sort();
+
+        let grouped_segments = futures::future::try_join_all(
+            grouped_inputs
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|group| ds_split.merge_existing_index_segments(group)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let grouped_segments =
+            build_distributed_segments(&mut ds_split, grouped_segments, index_type, INDEX_NAME)
                 .await;
+        assert_eq!(grouped_segments.len(), expected_fragment_coverage.len());
+        let mut actual_fragment_coverage = grouped_segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| {
+                segment
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("segment should have fragment coverage")
+                    .iter()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        actual_fragment_coverage.sort();
+        assert_eq!(
+            actual_fragment_coverage, expected_fragment_coverage,
+            "built segment coverage should equal the union of its source partial shards",
+        );
 
-                let index_type = params.index_type();
-                // *_FLAT doesn't support float16/float64
-                if !(index_type == IndexType::IvfFlat
-                    || (index_type == IndexType::IvfHnswFlat && params.stages.len() == 2)) // IVF_HNSW_FLAT
-                    && dataset.is_none()
-                // if dataset is provided, it has been created, so the data type is already determined, no need to test float64
-                {
-                    test_index_impl::<Float64Type>(
-                        params,
-                        nlist,
-                        recall_requirement,
-                        0.0..1.0,
-                        dataset,
-                    )
-                    .await;
-                }
+        async fn collect_row_ids(ds: &Dataset, queries: &[Arc<dyn Array>]) -> Vec<Vec<u64>> {
+            let mut ids_per_query = Vec::with_capacity(queries.len());
+            for q in queries {
+                let result = ds
+                    .scan()
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .project(&["_rowid"] as &[&str])
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), K)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .minimum_nprobes(TWO_FRAG_NUM_PARTITIONS)
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                ids_per_query.push(
+                    result[ROW_ID]
+                        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                        .values()
+                        .iter()
+                        .copied()
+                        .collect(),
+                );
+            }
+            ids_per_query
+        }
+
+        let query_batch = ds_single
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["vector"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(NUM_QUERIES as i64), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let vectors = query_batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list();
+        let queries: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = (0..vectors.len())
+            .map(|i| vectors.value(i) as Arc<dyn Array>)
+            .collect();
+
+        let ids_single = collect_row_ids(&ds_single, &queries).await;
+        let ids_split = collect_row_ids(&ds_split, &queries).await;
+        if matches!(index_type, IndexType::IvfSq) {
+            for (single, split) in ids_single.iter().zip(ids_split.iter()) {
+                assert_eq!(single.len(), split.len());
+                let overlap = single
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|row_id| split.contains(row_id))
+                    .count();
+                assert!(
+                    overlap >= K / 3,
+                    "single vs segmented distributed SQ index returned too little top-k overlap",
+                );
             }
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(ids_single, ids_split);
         }
     }
 
-    async fn test_index_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        params: VectorIndexParams,
-        nlist: usize,
-        recall_requirement: f32,
-        range: Range<T::Native>,
-        dataset: Option<(Dataset, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>)>,
-    ) where
-        T::Native: SampleUniform,
-    {
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_vector_plan_rejects_overlapping_fragment_coverage() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/overlap_fragments", base_uri);
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_from_batches(&dataset_uri, schema, batches).await;
+
+        let fragment = dataset.get_fragments()[0].id() as u32;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            prepare_global_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await,
+        );
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+
+        for _ in 0..2 {
+            let segment = dataset
+                .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let err = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("overlapping fragment coverage"));
+    }
+
+    async fn build_ivf_flat_segment(
+        dataset: &mut Dataset,
+        metric: DistanceType,
+        fragment_ids: Vec<u32>,
+    ) -> IndexMetadata {
+        // Each segment trains its own IVF model, as distributed workers do.
+        // The build name differs from the committed index name on purpose:
+        // builders may not reuse the name of an existing index.
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(TWO_FRAG_NUM_PARTITIONS, metric);
+        dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+            .name("worker_idx".to_string())
+            .fragments(fragment_ids)
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_index_segments_rejects_mixed_vector_metrics() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/mixed_metric_segments", test_dir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_from_batches(&dataset_uri, schema, batches).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let l2_segment = build_ivf_flat_segment(
+            &mut dataset,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            vec![fragments[0].id() as u32],
+        )
+        .await;
+        let cosine_segment = build_ivf_flat_segment(
+            &mut dataset,
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            vec![fragments[1].id() as u32],
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(
+                "vector_idx",
+                "vector",
+                vec![l2_segment, cosine_segment],
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("metric"),
+            "error should name the metric mismatch: {err}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before);
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .load_indices_by_name("vector_idx")
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_index_segments_rejects_metric_mismatch_with_retained_segment() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/retained_mixed_metric_segments", test_dir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_from_batches(&dataset_uri, schema, batches).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let l2_segment = build_ivf_flat_segment(
+            &mut dataset,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            vec![fragments[0].id() as u32],
+        )
+        .await;
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", vec![l2_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let cosine_segment = build_ivf_flat_segment(
+            &mut dataset,
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            vec![fragments[1].id() as u32],
+        )
+        .await;
+        let err = dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", vec![cosine_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(err, lance_core::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+            "expected InvalidInput, got {err:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("metric"),
+            "error should name the metric mismatch: {err}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version_before);
+        // The retained L2 segment still serves queries, unmodified.
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_index_segments_allows_metric_change_on_full_replacement() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/full_replacement_metric_change", test_dir.as_str());
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_from_batches(&dataset_uri, schema, batches).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let all_fragment_ids = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id() as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let l2_segment = build_ivf_flat_segment(
+            &mut dataset,
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            vec![fragments[0].id() as u32],
+        )
+        .await;
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", vec![l2_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // A new metric is valid when no old segment remains in the index.
+        let cosine_segment =
+            build_ivf_flat_segment(&mut dataset, DistanceType::Cosine, all_fragment_ids).await;
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", vec![cosine_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_vector_build_supports_hnsw_variants() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/distributed_hnsw_supported", base_uri);
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_from_batches(&dataset_uri, schema, batches).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            prepare_global_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await,
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in fragments.iter().take(2) {
+            let segment = dataset
+                .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["vector"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(4), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let q = query_batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["_rowid"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(result.num_rows() > 0);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::flat("IVF_HNSW_FLAT")]
+    #[case::pq("IVF_HNSW_PQ")]
+    #[case::sq("IVF_HNSW_SQ")]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_hnsw_segments_rebuilds_graph(#[case] expected_index_type: &str) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (schema, batches, max_rows_per_file) = if expected_index_type == "IVF_HNSW_PQ" {
+            let (batch, schema) = make_seeded_vector_batch(LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_ROWS * 2);
+            (schema, vec![batch], LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_ROWS)
+        } else {
+            let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+            (schema, batches, 500)
+        };
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/merge_hnsw_rebuilds_graph", base_uri);
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_from_batches_with_max_rows(
+            &dataset_uri,
+            schema,
+            batches,
+            max_rows_per_file,
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+        let params = match expected_index_type {
+            "IVF_HNSW_FLAT" => VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                prepare_global_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await,
+                HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            ),
+            "IVF_HNSW_PQ" => {
+                let (ivf_params, pq_params) = prepare_ivf_pq(
+                    &dataset,
+                    "vector",
+                    DIM,
+                    LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_PARTITIONS,
+                    LIGHTWEIGHT_PQ_SUB_VECTORS,
+                    8,
+                    2,
+                    16,
+                )
+                .await;
+                VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+                    DistanceType::L2,
+                    ivf_params,
+                    lightweight_hnsw_params(),
+                    pq_params,
+                )
+            }
+            "IVF_HNSW_SQ" => VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+                DistanceType::L2,
+                prepare_global_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await,
+                HnswBuildParams::default(),
+                SQBuildParams::default(),
+            ),
+            other => panic!("unexpected HNSW index type {other}"),
+        };
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+
+        for fragment in fragments.iter().take(2) {
+            let segment = dataset
+                .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                .execute_uncommitted()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            segments.push(segment);
+        }
+
+        let merged = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(segments)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("vector_idx", "vector", vec![merged])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&stats).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(), expected_index_type);
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["indices"][0]["sub_index"]["index_type"]
+                .as_str()
+                .unwrap(),
+            "HNSW"
+        );
+
+        let query_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["vector"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(4), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let q = query_batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .project(&["_rowid"] as &[&str])
+            .unwrap()
+            .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(result.num_rows() > 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_existing_hnsw_segments_rejects_mismatched_build_params() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let base_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/merge_hnsw_rejects_mismatched_params", base_uri);
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_from_batches(&dataset_uri, schema, batches).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(fragments.len() >= 2);
+
+        let ivf_params = prepare_global_ivf(&dataset, "vector").await;
+        let default_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ivf_params.clone(),
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        let custom_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ivf_params,
+            HnswBuildParams::default().num_edges(16),
+        );
+
+        let first_segment = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &default_params)
+            .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+            .fragments(vec![fragments[0].id() as u32])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let second_segment = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &custom_params)
+            .name("vector_idx".to_string())
+            .fragments(vec![fragments[1].id() as u32])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let error = dataset
+            .merge_existing_index_segments(vec![first_segment, second_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("HNSW build parameters mismatch while merging index segments"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_index_metadata_reports_progress() {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/progress", test_dir.as_str());
+        let (schema, batches) = make_two_fragment_batches();
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_from_batches(&dataset_uri, schema, batches).await;
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert!(
+            fragments.len() >= 2,
+            "expected at least 2 fragments, got {}",
+            fragments.len()
+        );
+        let expected_rows = fragments[0].physical_rows().await.unwrap() as u64
+            + fragments[1].physical_rows().await.unwrap() as u64;
+        let (ivf_params, pq_params) = prepare_global_ivf_pq(&dataset, "vector").await;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params);
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for fragment in fragments.iter().take(2) {
+            segments.push(
+                dataset
+                    .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+                    .name(INDEX_NAME.to_string())
+                    .fragments(vec![fragment.id() as u32])
+                    .execute_uncommitted()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let progress = Arc::new(RecordingProgress::default());
+        let merged_segment = crate::index::vector::ivf::merge_segments_with_progress(
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+            &dataset.indices_dir(),
+            segments,
+            progress.clone(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments(INDEX_NAME, "vector", vec![merged_segment])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let events = progress.recorded_events();
+        let tags = events
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(kind, stage, _)| format!("{kind}:{stage}"))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let merge_total = events
+            .iter()
+            .find_map(|(kind, stage, value)| {
+                if kind == "start" && stage == "merge_partitions" {
+                    Some(*value)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            })
+            .expect("missing merge_partitions start total");
+        let merged_rows = events
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|(kind, stage, value)| {
+                if kind == "progress" && stage == "merge_partitions" {
+                    Some(*value)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                }
+            })
+            .next_back()
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let read_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:read_shard_metadata")
+            .expect("missing read_shard_metadata start");
+        let read_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:read_shard_metadata")
+            .expect("missing read_shard_metadata complete");
+        let merge_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:merge_partitions")
+            .expect("missing merge_partitions start");
+        let merge_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:merge_partitions")
+            .expect("missing merge_partitions complete");
+        let aux_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:write_auxiliary_index")
+            .expect("missing write_auxiliary_index start");
+        let aux_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:write_auxiliary_index")
+            .expect("missing write_auxiliary_index complete");
+        let root_start = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "start:write_root_index")
+            .expect("missing write_root_index start");
+        let root_complete = tags
+            .iter()
+            .position(|e| e == "complete:write_root_index")
+            .expect("missing write_root_index complete");
+
+        assert!(read_start < read_complete);
+        assert!(read_complete < merge_start);
+        assert!(merge_start < merge_complete);
+        assert!(merge_complete < aux_start);
+        assert!(aux_start < aux_complete);
+        assert!(aux_complete < root_start);
+        assert!(root_start < root_complete);
+        assert_eq!(
+            merge_total, expected_rows,
+            "expected merge_partitions total rows to match dataset rows"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            merged_rows, expected_rows,
+            "expected merge_partitions completed rows to match dataset rows"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tags.iter().any(|e| e == "progress:write_root_index"),
+            "expected write_root_index progress callbacks"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_distributed_ivf_sq_worker_training_respects_fragment_filter() {
+        const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: usize = 64;
+        const FRAGMENT_OFFSETS: [f32; 2] = [0.0, 1000.0];
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset_uri = format!("{}/distributed_sq_fragment_filter", test_dir.as_str());
+        let (schema, batches) = make_fragment_offset_batches(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT, &FRAGMENT_OFFSETS);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            batches,
+            &dataset_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT,
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let fragments = dataset.get_fragments();
+        assert_eq!(fragments.len(), FRAGMENT_OFFSETS.len());
+
+        let ivf_params =
+            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, build_centroids_for_offsets(&FRAGMENT_OFFSETS))
+                .unwrap();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ivf_params,
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+
+        let segment = dataset
+            .create_index_builder(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, &params)
+            .name("sq_fragment_filter".to_string())
+            .fragments(vec![fragments[0].id() as u32])
+            .execute_uncommitted()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(
+            Arc::new(dataset.object_store.as_ref().clone()),
+            SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing(),
+        );
+        let sq_meta = get_sq_metadata(&dataset, scheduler, &segment.uuid.to_string()).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(sq_meta.bounds.start, 0.0);
+        assert_eq!(sq_meta.bounds.end, (DIM - 1) as f64);
+        assert_lt!(sq_meta.bounds.end, FRAGMENT_OFFSETS[1] as f64);
+    }
+
+    async fn test_index(
+        params: VectorIndexParams,
+        nlist: usize,
+        recall_requirement: f32,
+        dataset: Option<(Dataset, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>)>,
+    ) {
+        match params.metric_type {
+            DistanceType::Hamming => {
+                test_index_impl::<UInt8Type>(params, nlist, recall_requirement, 0..4, dataset)
+                    .await;
+            }
+            _ => {
+                test_index_impl::<Float32Type>(
+                    params.clone(),
+                    nlist,
+                    recall_requirement,
+                    0.0..1.0,
+                    dataset.clone(),
+                )
+                .await;
+
+                if dataset.is_none() {
+                    test_index_impl::<Float64Type>(
+                        params,
+                        nlist,
+                        recall_requirement,
+                        0.0..1.0,
+                        dataset,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn pq_matrix_batch<T>(rows: usize) -> RecordBatch
+    where
+        T: ArrowPrimitiveType + 'static,
+        T::Native: Copy + 'static,
+        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<T::Native>> + 'static,
+        StandardUniform: Distribution<T::Native>,
+    {
+        gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(Seed(42))
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col("vector", array::rand_vec::<T>(Dimension::from(DIM as u32)))
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(rows as u64))
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn pq_matrix_params(
+        nlist: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        version: IndexFileVersion,
+    ) -> VectorIndexParams {
+        let mut ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
+        ivf_params.max_iters = 2;
+        ivf_params.sample_rate = PQ_MATRIX_NUM_ROWS;
+        let pq_params = PQBuildParams {
+            num_sub_vectors: 4,
+            num_bits: 8,
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut params =
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, pq_params);
+        params.version(version);
+        params
+    }
+
+    async fn test_pq_matrix_case(
+        nlist: usize,
+        distance_type: DistanceType,
+        version: IndexFileVersion,
+    ) {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "pq_matrix";
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let params = pq_matrix_params(nlist, distance_type, version.clone());
+        let batch = pq_matrix_batch::<Float32Type>(PQ_MATRIX_NUM_ROWS);
+        // `pq_matrix_params` fits each centroid on the whole fixture.
+        let expected_partitions =
+            supported_partitions(PQ_MATRIX_NUM_ROWS, PQ_MATRIX_NUM_ROWS, nlist);
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let query = batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stats: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats["index_type"], "IVF_PQ");
+        let indices = stats["indices"].as_array().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        let index = &indices[0];
+        assert_eq!(index["index_type"], "IVF_PQ");
+        assert_eq!(index["metric_type"], distance_type.to_string());
+        assert_eq!(index["num_partitions"], expected_partitions);
+        assert_eq!(index["sub_index"]["index_type"], "PQ");
+        assert_eq!(
+            index["index_file_version"],
+            match version {
+                IndexFileVersion::Legacy => "Legacy",
+                IndexFileVersion::V3 => "V3",
+            }
+        );
+
+        drop(dataset);
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let ground_truth = ground_truth(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            query.as_ref(),
+            PQ_MATRIX_K,
+            distance_type,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", query.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(), PQ_MATRIX_K)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .maximum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), PQ_MATRIX_K);
+        let row_ids = result[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids.iter().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>().len(),
+            PQ_MATRIX_K
+        );
+        let distances = result[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+        assert!(distances.iter().all(|distance| distance.is_finite()));
+        assert!(
+            distances.windows(2).all(|pair| pair[0] <= pair[1]),
+            "distances are not sorted: {distances:?}"
+        );
+        let recall = row_ids
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|row_id| ground_truth.contains(row_id))
+            .count() as f32
+            / PQ_MATRIX_K as f32;
+        assert_ge!(recall, 0.5, "recall: {recall}, row_ids: {row_ids:?}");
+    }
+
+    async fn test_index_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        params: VectorIndexParams,
+        nlist: usize,
+        recall_requirement: f32,
+        range: Range<T::Native>,
+        dataset: Option<(Dataset, Arc<FixedSizeListArray>)>,
+    ) where
+        T::Native: SampleUniform,
+    {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, vectors) = match dataset {
+            Some((dataset, vectors)) => (dataset, vectors),
+            None => generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await,
+        };
+
+        let vector_column = "vector";
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        test_recall::<T>(
+            params.clone(),
+            nlist,
+            recall_requirement,
+            vector_column,
+            &dataset,
+            vectors.clone(),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        if params.stages.len() > 1
+            && matches!(params.version, IndexFileVersion::V3)
+            && params.index_type() == IndexType::IvfPq
+        {
+            let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+            let old_meta = indices[0].clone();
+            rewrite_pq_storage(&mut dataset, &old_meta).await.unwrap();
+            // do the test again
+            test_recall::<T>(
+                params,
+                nlist,
+                recall_requirement,
+                vector_column,
+                &dataset,
+                vectors.clone(),
+            )
+            .await;
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn test_remap(params: VectorIndexParams, nlist: usize, recall_requirement: f32) {
+        match params.metric_type {
+            DistanceType::Hamming => {
+                Box::pin(test_remap_impl::<UInt8Type>(
+                    params,
+                    nlist,
+                    recall_requirement,
+                    0..4,
+                ))
+                .await;
+            }
+            _ => {
+                let index_type = params.index_type();
+                Box::pin(test_remap_impl::<Float32Type>(
+                    params.clone(),
+                    nlist,
+                    recall_requirement,
+                    0.0..1.0,
+                ))
+                .await;
+                if matches!(index_type, IndexType::IvfFlat | IndexType::IvfHnswFlat) {
+                    Box::pin(test_remap_impl::<Float64Type>(
+                        params,
+                        nlist,
+                        recall_requirement,
+                        0.0..1.0,
+                    ))
+                    .await;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn test_remap_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        params: VectorIndexParams,
+        nlist: usize,
+        recall_requirement: f32,
+        range: Range<T::Native>,
+    ) where
+        T::Native: SampleUniform,
+    {
+        // let recall_requirement = recall_requirement * 0.99;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range.clone()).await;
+
+        let vector_column = "vector";
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query = vectors.value(0);
+        // delete half rows to trigger compact
+        let half_rows = NUM_ROWS / 2;
+        dataset
+            .delete(&format!("id < {}", half_rows))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // update the other half rows
+        let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .update_where(&format!("id >= {} and id<{}", half_rows, half_rows + 50))
+            .unwrap()
+            .set("id", &format!("{}+id", NUM_ROWS))
+            .unwrap()
+            .build()
+            .unwrap()
+            .execute()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(update_result.new_dataset.uri())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let num_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(num_rows, half_rows);
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // query again, the result should not include the deleted row
+        let result = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        assert_eq!(ids.len(), half_rows);
+        ids.values().iter().for_each(|id| {
+            assert!(*id >= half_rows as u64 + 50);
+        });
+
+        // make sure we can still hit the recall
+        let gt = ground_truth(&dataset, vector_column, &query, 100, params.metric_type).await;
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), 100)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_ids = results[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let recall = row_ids.intersection(&gt).count() as f32 / 100.0;
+        // 100 can't be exactly expressed as a float, so we need to use a tolerance
+        assert_ge!(
+            recall,
+            recall_requirement - f32::EPSILON,
+            "num_rows: {}, intersection: {}, recall: {}",
+            row_ids.len(),
+            row_ids.intersection(&gt).count(),
+            recall
+        );
+
+        // delete so that only one row left, to trigger remap and there must be some empty partitions
+        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await;
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+        dataset.delete("id > 0").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), 100)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+    }
+
+    async fn test_delete_all_rows(params: VectorIndexParams) {
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: each typed delete-all future grew past 16 KiB.
+        match params.metric_type {
+            DistanceType::Hamming => {
+                Box::pin(test_delete_all_rows_impl::<UInt8Type>(params, 0..4)).await;
+            }
+            _ => {
+                Box::pin(test_delete_all_rows_impl::<Float32Type>(params, 0.0..1.0)).await;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn test_delete_all_rows_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        params: VectorIndexParams,
+        range: Range<T::Native>,
+    ) where
+        T::Native: SampleUniform,
+    {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range.clone()).await;
+
+        let vector_column = "vector";
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset.delete("id >= 0").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+
+        // optimize after delete all rows
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query = vectors.value(0);
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), 100)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 0);
+
+        // compact after delete all rows
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await;
+
+        let vector_column = "vector";
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset.delete("id >= 0").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+
+        compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), 100)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flat_knn() {
+        test_distance_range(None, 4).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 1.0)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 1.0)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 1.0)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Hamming, 0.9)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_flat(
+        #[case] nlist: usize,
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
+    ) {
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(nlist, distance_type);
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the build-and-search future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None)).await;
+        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+        }
+        test_distance_range(Some(params.clone()), nlist).await;
+        test_remap(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the delete-all future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_delete_all_rows(params)).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2(4, DistanceType::L2)]
+    #[case::cosine(4, DistanceType::Cosine)]
+    #[case::dot(4, DistanceType::Dot)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_pq(#[case] nlist: usize, #[case] distance_type: DistanceType) {
+        test_pq_matrix_case(nlist, distance_type, IndexFileVersion::Legacy).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2_nlist1(1, DistanceType::L2)]
+    #[case::cosine_nlist1(1, DistanceType::Cosine)]
+    #[case::dot_nlist1(1, DistanceType::Dot)]
+    #[case::l2_nlist4(4, DistanceType::L2)]
+    #[case::cosine_nlist4(4, DistanceType::Cosine)]
+    #[case::dot_nlist4(4, DistanceType::Dot)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_pq_v3(#[case] nlist: usize, #[case] distance_type: DistanceType) {
+        test_pq_matrix_case(nlist, distance_type, IndexFileVersion::V3).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::legacy(IndexFileVersion::Legacy)]
+    #[case::v3(IndexFileVersion::V3)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_pq_distance_range(#[case] version: IndexFileVersion) {
+        let params = pq_matrix_params(1, DistanceType::L2, version);
+        test_distance_range(Some(params), 1).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::legacy(IndexFileVersion::Legacy)]
+    #[case::v3(IndexFileVersion::V3)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_pq_f64_smoke(#[case] version: IndexFileVersion) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let batch = pq_matrix_batch::<Float64Type>(PQ_MATRIX_NUM_ROWS);
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let vectors = Arc::new(batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().clone());
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_dir.as_str(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let params = pq_matrix_params(1, DistanceType::L2, version);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        test_recall::<Float64Type>(params, 1, 0.5, "vector", &dataset, vectors).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_legacy_ivf_pq_cosine_multivec_smoke() {
+        let params = pq_matrix_params(1, DistanceType::Cosine, IndexFileVersion::Legacy);
+        test_index_multivec_impl::<Float32Type>(params, 1, 0.5, 0.0..1.0).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_pq_delete_all_rows_lifecycle() {
+        let params = pq_matrix_params(1, DistanceType::L2, IndexFileVersion::V3);
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the delete-all future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_delete_all_rows(params)).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2(DistanceType::L2)]
+    #[case::cosine(DistanceType::Cosine)]
+    #[case::dot(DistanceType::Dot)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_pq_4bit(#[case] distance_type: DistanceType) {
+        assert_lightweight_pq_index(distance_type, 4, false).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.85)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.85)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.75)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_sq(
+        #[case] nlist: usize,
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
+    ) {
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
+        let sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, sq_params);
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the build-and-search future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None)).await;
+        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+        }
+        test_remap(params, nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_sq_dot_with_negative_values() {
+        let nlist = 4;
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
+        let sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
+        let params =
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(DistanceType::Dot, ivf_params, sq_params);
+
+        test_index_impl::<Float32Type>(params, nlist, 0.75, -1.0..1.0, None).await;
+    }
+
+    // These queries probe every partition, so recall here measures RaBitQ quantization
+    // error alone. At 1 bit per dimension it averages ~0.67 on this uniformly random,
+    // L2-normalized data, and each build draws a fresh random rotation, so no bar worth
+    // asserting sits clear of the spread. 5 bits lifts recall to ~0.97; its `ex_bits = 4`
+    // also covers a FastScan ex-code kernel that the multi-bit test below never reaches.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(1, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
+    #[case(1, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
+    #[case(1, DistanceType::Dot, 0.9)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.9)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_rq(
+        #[case] nlist: usize,
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
+        #[values(RQRotationType::Fast, RQRotationType::Matrix)] rotation_type: RQRotationType,
+    ) {
+        let _ = env_logger::try_init();
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
+        let rq_params = RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(5, rotation_type);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, rq_params);
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the build-and-search future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None)).await;
+        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+        }
+        test_remap(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2(DistanceType::L2, 9)]
+    #[case::cosine(DistanceType::Cosine, 9)]
+    // ex_bits=3 and ex_bits=5 have no FastScan support and use the bit-plane
+    // repack, so these searches go through the exact ex-dot rerank kernels
+    // end to end.
+    #[case::l2_plane_repack_3bit(DistanceType::L2, 4)]
+    #[case::l2_plane_repack_5bit(DistanceType::L2, 6)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_ivf_rq_multi_bit_persists_split_codes_and_searches(
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[case] num_bits: u8,
+    ) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(4);
+        let rq_params = RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(num_bits, RQRotationType::Fast);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, rq_params);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing());
+        let index_uuid = indices[0].uuid.to_string();
+        let rq_meta = get_rq_metadata(&dataset, scheduler.clone(), &index_uuid).await;
+        assert_eq!(rq_meta.num_bits, num_bits);
+        assert_eq!(rq_meta.query_estimator, RabitQueryEstimator::RawQuery);
+
+        let reader = open_rq_aux_reader(&dataset, scheduler, &index_uuid).await;
+        let schema = reader.schema();
+        let ex_field = schema.field(RABIT_BLOCKED_EX_CODE_COLUMN).unwrap();
+        let DataType::FixedSizeList(_, ex_code_bytes) = ex_field.data_type() else {
+            panic!("RQ ex-code field should be FixedSizeList");
+        };
+        let expected_ex_code_bytes =
+            blocked_ex_code_bytes(rq_meta.rotated_dim(), num_bits - 1) as i32;
+        assert_eq!(ex_code_bytes, expected_ex_code_bytes);
+        assert!(schema.field(EX_ADD_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_some());
+        assert!(schema.field(EX_SCALE_FACTORS_COLUMN).is_some());
+
+        test_recall::<Float32Type>(params, 4, 0.5, "vector", &dataset, vectors).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::fast(RQRotationType::Fast)]
+    #[case::matrix(RQRotationType::Matrix)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ivf_rq_rotation_type_after_optimize(#[case] rotation_type: RQRotationType) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(4);
+        let rq_params = RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(1, rotation_type);
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params, rq_params);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_rq_rotation_type(&dataset, rotation_type).await;
+
+        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut dataset, 64, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let indices_after_append = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_append.len(),
+            2,
+            "Expected append optimize to create one delta index"
+        );
+        assert_rq_rotation_type(&dataset, rotation_type).await;
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(10))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices_after_merge = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_after_merge.len(),
+            1,
+            "Expected merge optimize to merge indices into one"
+        );
+        assert_rq_rotation_type(&dataset, rotation_type).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.85)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Hamming, 0.9)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_flat(
+        #[case] nlist: usize,
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
+    ) {
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
+        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(distance_type, ivf_params, hnsw_params);
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the build-and-search future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None)).await;
+        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+        }
+        test_remap(params, nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
+    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.85)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_sq(
+        #[case] nlist: usize,
+        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
+        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
+    ) {
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
+        let sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
+        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            distance_type,
+            ivf_params,
+            hnsw_params,
+            sq_params,
+        );
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the build-and-search future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None)).await;
+        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
+            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+        }
+        test_distance_range(Some(params.clone()), nlist).await;
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the delete-all future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_delete_all_rows(params.clone())).await;
+        test_remap(params, nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_sq_dot_with_negative_values() {
+        let nlist = 4;
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
+        let sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
+        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::Dot,
+            ivf_params,
+            hnsw_params,
+            sq_params,
+        );
+
+        test_index_impl::<Float32Type>(params, nlist, 0.75, -1.0..1.0, None).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2(DistanceType::L2)]
+    #[case::cosine(DistanceType::Cosine)]
+    #[case::dot(DistanceType::Dot)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_pq(#[case] distance_type: DistanceType) {
+        assert_lightweight_pq_index(distance_type, 8, true).await;
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2(DistanceType::L2)]
+    #[case::cosine(DistanceType::Cosine)]
+    #[case::dot(DistanceType::Dot)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_pq_4bit(#[case] distance_type: DistanceType) {
+        assert_lightweight_pq_index(distance_type, 4, true).await;
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_pq_multivec() {
+        const NUM_ROWS: usize = 64;
+        const K: usize = 10;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .with_seed(lance_datagen::Seed::from(42))
+            .col("id", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_vec_var(
+                    lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>((DIM as u32).into()),
+                    3_u32.into(),
+                    4_u32.into(),
+                ),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(NUM_ROWS as u64))
+            .unwrap();
+        let vectors = batch["vector"].as_list::<i32>().clone();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_dir.as_str(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let mut ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(1);
+        ivf_params.max_iters = 2;
+        ivf_params.sample_rate = 16;
+        // Multivector search ranks the final candidates by PQ-approximated
+        // scores before refining, so the M4 code of `lightweight_pq_params`
+        // (unseeded KMeans) drops recall below the threshold in a few percent
+        // of runs. The 4-bit M32 code keeps recall at 1.0.
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            ivf_params,
+            lightweight_hnsw_params(),
+            lightweight_pq_params_with_bits(4),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query = vectors.value(0);
+        // Three vectors per query amplify the internal candidate k. This
+        // bounded budget covers all 64 * 3 vector entries in the fixture.
+        let result = search_lightweight_pq_index(
+            &dataset,
+            query.as_ref(),
+            K,
+            1,
+            2,
+            256,
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+        )
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), K);
+        let row_ids = result[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.iter().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>().len(), K);
+        let distances = result[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+        assert!(distances.iter().all(|distance| distance.is_finite()));
+        assert!(distances.windows(2).all(|pair| pair[0] <= pair[1]));
+
+        let ground_truth = multivec_ground_truth(&vectors, query.as_ref(), K, DistanceType::Cosine)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(_, row_id)| row_id)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let recall = row_ids
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|row_id| ground_truth.contains(row_id))
+            .count() as f32
+            / K as f32;
+        assert_ge!(recall, 0.5, "recall: {recall}");
+    }
+
+    // `lance-index` keeps these crate-private; spelling them out here also pins
+    // the on-disk names, which are part of the index file contract.
+    const HNSW_VECTOR_ID_COL: &str = "__vector_id";
+    const HNSW_NEIGHBORS_COL: &str = "__neighbors";
+
+    /// Store wrapper that holds every read open for a measurable window and
+    /// records how many were in flight at once. Instantaneous reads never
+    /// overlap, so a delay is what makes concurrency observable at all.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct ConcurrencyProbeStore {
+        target: Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+        in_flight: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+        max_in_flight: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+    }
+
+    impl std::fmt::Display for ConcurrencyProbeStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "ConcurrencyProbeStore({})", self.target)
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl ConcurrencyProbeStore {
+        async fn enter(&self) {
+            let now = self.in_flight.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst) + 1;
+            self.max_in_flight.fetch_max(now, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(25)).await;
+            self.in_flight.fetch_sub(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl object_store::ObjectStore for ConcurrencyProbeStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &object_store::path::Path,
+            payload: object_store::PutPayload,
+            opts: object_store::PutOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<object_store::PutResult> {
+            self.target.put_opts(location, payload, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &object_store::path::Path,
+            opts: object_store::PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<Box<dyn object_store::MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.target.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &object_store::path::Path,
+            options: object_store::GetOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<object_store::GetResult> {
+            self.enter().await;
+            self.target.get_opts(location, options).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_ranges(
+            &self,
+            location: &object_store::path::Path,
+            ranges: &[Range<u64>],
+        ) -> object_store::Result<Vec<bytes::Bytes>> {
+            self.enter().await;
+            self.target.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: futures::stream::BoxStream<
+                'static,
+                object_store::Result<object_store::path::Path>,
+            >,
+        ) -> futures::stream::BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<object_store::path::Path>>
+        {
+            self.target.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+
+        fn list(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&object_store::path::Path>,
+        ) -> futures::stream::BoxStream<'static, object_store::Result<object_store::ObjectMeta>>
+        {
+            self.target.list(prefix)
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&object_store::path::Path>,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<object_store::ListResult> {
+            self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(
+            &self,
+            from: &object_store::path::Path,
+            to: &object_store::path::Path,
+            opts: object_store::CopyOptions,
+        ) -> object_store::Result<()> {
+            self.target.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Opening the storage reads the IVF protobuf and the quantizer buffer,
+    /// two independent global buffers whose positions both come from the schema
+    /// metadata. Reading them one after the other costs an extra round trip on
+    /// every cold open, so pin that they go out together: with the reads
+    /// serialized this sees one in flight at a time.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+    async fn test_storage_open_fetches_ivf_and_quantizer_buffers_together() {
+        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>("memory://", 0.0..1.0).await;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(16),
+            PQBuildParams::new(4, 8),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+
+        let in_flight = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let max_in_flight = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let mut probed = dataset.object_store.as_ref().clone();
+        probed.inner = Arc::new(ConcurrencyProbeStore {
+            target: probed.inner.clone(),
+            in_flight: in_flight.clone(),
+            max_in_flight: max_in_flight.clone(),
+        });
+        let probed = Arc::new(probed);
+        let scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(probed, SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing());
+        let reader = open_rq_aux_reader(&dataset, scheduler, &indices[0].uuid.to_string()).await;
+        max_in_flight.store(0, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        let _storage = lance_index::vector::storage::IvfQuantizationStorage::<
+            lance_index::vector::pq::ProductQuantizer,
+        >::try_new(reader, None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            max_in_flight.load(Ordering::SeqCst),
+            2,
+            "both global buffer reads should be in flight at once"
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn build_ivf_hnsw_sq(test_uri: &str, nlist: usize) -> Dataset {
+        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(nlist),
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    async fn open_ivf_hnsw_sq(dataset: &Dataset) -> Arc<dyn VectorIndex> {
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_hnsw_columns(dataset: &Dataset, context: &str) {
+        let index = open_ivf_hnsw_sq(dataset).await;
+        let hnsw = index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<IvfHnswSqIndex>()
+            .expect("IVF_HNSW_SQ should open as IvfHnswSqIndex");
+
+        let written = hnsw
+            .reader
+            .schema()
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            written,
+            vec![HNSW_VECTOR_ID_COL, HNSW_NEIGHBORS_COL, DIST_COL],
+            "{context}: the written index file must keep every column"
+        );
+
+        // Every partition, not just the first: a projection that applied
+        // unevenly would leave the partition cache holding mixed schemas.
+        for partition_id in 0..hnsw.ivf.num_partitions() {
+            let entry = hnsw.load_partition_entry(partition_id, None).await.unwrap();
+            let loaded = entry.index.to_batch().unwrap();
+            let loaded_schema = loaded.schema();
+            let read = loaded_schema
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            assert_eq!(
+                read,
+                vec![HNSW_VECTOR_ID_COL, HNSW_NEIGHBORS_COL],
+                "{context}: partition {partition_id} materialized the write-only distance column"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The index file keeps all three HNSW columns while a loaded partition
+    /// carries only the two the graph reads. Both halves matter: shrinking the
+    /// written schema would panic readers older than v8.0.0, and widening the
+    /// read back would undo the saving.
+    ///
+    /// Re-checked after a delta merge, because that is the one path that writes
+    /// a new index file while an already-projected index is open.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hnsw_partition_load_reads_only_graph_columns() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-        let (mut dataset, vectors) = match dataset {
-            Some((dataset, vectors)) => (dataset, vectors),
-            None => generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await,
-        };
+        let mut dataset = build_ivf_hnsw_sq(test_dir.as_str(), 4).await;
+        assert_hnsw_columns(&dataset, "fresh index").await;
 
-        let vector_column = "vector";
+        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut dataset, 64, 0.0..1.0).await;
         dataset
-            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(10))
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_hnsw_columns(&dataset, "after delta merge").await;
+    }
 
-        test_recall::<T>(
-            params.clone(),
-            nlist,
-            recall_requirement,
-            vector_column,
-            &dataset,
-            vectors.clone(),
-        )
+    /// The saving is the point of the change, so pin it: reading a real
+    /// partition range through the declared projection must move strictly fewer
+    /// bytes than the full-schema read the index used to perform.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hnsw_read_projection_moves_fewer_bytes() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt as _;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = build_ivf_hnsw_sq(test_dir.as_str(), 4).await;
+        let index = open_ivf_hnsw_sq(&dataset).await;
+        let hnsw = index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<IvfHnswSqIndex>()
+            .expect("IVF_HNSW_SQ should open as IvfHnswSqIndex");
+
+        let projection = hnsw
+            .read_projection
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("HNSW declares a read projection");
+        assert_eq!(projection.schema.fields.len(), 2);
+
+        let row_range = hnsw.ivf.row_range(0);
+        assert!(!row_range.is_empty(), "partition 0 should hold rows");
+        let store = dataset.object_store.as_ref();
+
+        let read_bytes_for = async |projection: lance_file::reader::ReaderProjection| {
+            let _ = store.io_stats_incremental();
+            hnsw.reader
+                .read_stream_projected(
+                    lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(row_range.clone()),
+                    u32::MAX,
+                    1,
+                    projection,
+                    lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            store.io_stats_incremental().read_bytes
+        };
+
+        // Projected first on purpose: it then pays any first-touch metadata
+        // cost, so the comparison understates rather than flatters the saving.
+        let projected_bytes = read_bytes_for(projection.clone()).await;
+        let full_bytes = read_bytes_for(lance_file::versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(
+            hnsw.reader.schema(),
+            hnsw.reader.metadata().version(),
+        ))
         .await;
 
-        if params.stages.len() > 1
-            && matches!(params.version, IndexFileVersion::V3)
-            && params.index_type() == IndexType::IvfPq
-        {
-            let index = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(index.len(), 1);
-            let index_path = dataset.indices_dir().child(index[0].uuid.to_string());
-            rewrite_pq_storage(index_path).await.unwrap();
-            // do the test again
-            test_recall::<T>(
-                params,
-                nlist,
-                recall_requirement,
-                vector_column,
-                &dataset,
-                vectors.clone(),
+        assert!(
+            projected_bytes > 0,
+            "the projected read still has to fetch the graph"
+        );
+        assert_lt!(projected_bytes, full_bytes);
+    }
+
+    /// The projection selects columns by field id, and `__neighbors` and
+    /// `_distance` are both 4-byte-item lists whose child fields share a name,
+    /// so a wrong column index would reinterpret distances as neighbor ids with
+    /// no type error to catch it. Compare the columns themselves, not just names.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_hnsw_projected_read_matches_full_read() {
+        use futures::TryStreamExt as _;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = build_ivf_hnsw_sq(test_dir.as_str(), 4).await;
+        let index = open_ivf_hnsw_sq(&dataset).await;
+        let hnsw = index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<IvfHnswSqIndex>()
+            .expect("IVF_HNSW_SQ should open as IvfHnswSqIndex");
+        let projection = hnsw
+            .read_projection
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("HNSW declares a read projection");
+
+        let read_range = async |proj: lance_file::reader::ReaderProjection,
+                                range: std::ops::Range<usize>| {
+            let batches = hnsw
+                .reader
+                .read_stream_projected(
+                    lance_io::ReadBatchParams::Range(range),
+                    u32::MAX,
+                    1,
+                    proj,
+                    lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            arrow::compute::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let mut compared = 0;
+        for partition_id in 0..hnsw.ivf.num_partitions() {
+            let range = hnsw.ivf.row_range(partition_id);
+            if range.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let full = read_range(
+                lance_file::versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(
+                    hnsw.reader.schema(),
+                    hnsw.reader.metadata().version(),
+                ),
+                range.clone(),
             )
             .await;
+            let projected = read_range(projection.clone(), range).await;
+
+            assert_eq!(projected.num_columns(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(projected.num_rows(), full.num_rows());
+            for name in [HNSW_VECTOR_ID_COL, HNSW_NEIGHBORS_COL] {
+                assert_eq!(
+                    projected.column_by_name(name).unwrap(),
+                    full.column_by_name(name).unwrap(),
+                    "partition {partition_id}: {name} differs between the projected and full read"
+                );
+            }
+            compared += 1;
         }
+        assert!(compared > 0, "no non-empty partition was compared");
     }
 
-    async fn test_remap(params: VectorIndexParams, nlist: usize, recall_requirement: f32) {
-        match params.metric_type {
-            DistanceType::Hamming => {
-                Box::pin(test_remap_impl::<UInt8Type>(
-                    params,
-                    nlist,
-                    recall_requirement,
-                    0..4,
-                ))
-                .await;
-            }
-            _ => {
-                Box::pin(test_remap_impl::<Float32Type>(
-                    params,
-                    nlist,
-                    recall_requirement,
-                    0.0..1.0,
-                ))
-                .await;
-            }
+    /// Each partition's graph as written, with the row ids of its storage.
+    async fn read_hnsw_graphs(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<(RecordBatch, Vec<u64>)> {
+        let index = open_ivf_hnsw_sq(dataset).await;
+        let hnsw = index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<IvfHnswSqIndex>()
+            .expect("IVF_HNSW_SQ should open as IvfHnswSqIndex");
+        let mut graphs = Vec::with_capacity(hnsw.ivf.num_partitions());
+        for partition_id in 0..hnsw.ivf.num_partitions() {
+            let graph = hnsw
+                .read_sub_index_batch(partition_id, None, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let storage = hnsw
+                .load_partition_storage(partition_id, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            graphs.push((graph, storage.row_ids().copied().collect()));
         }
+        graphs
     }
 
-    async fn test_remap_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        params: VectorIndexParams,
-        nlist: usize,
-        recall_requirement: f32,
-        range: Range<T::Native>,
-    ) where
-        T::Native: SampleUniform,
-    {
-        // let recall_requirement = recall_requirement * 0.99;
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range.clone()).await;
+    fn level0_edges(graph: &RecordBatch) -> HashSet<(u32, u32)> {
+        let metadata: HnswMetadata =
+            serde_json::from_str(&graph.schema_ref().metadata()[HNSW_METADATA_KEY]).unwrap();
+        let neighbors = graph[HNSW_NEIGHBORS_COL].as_list::<i32>();
+        (0..metadata.level_offsets[1])
+            .flat_map(|node| {
+                let neighbors = neighbors.value(node);
+                neighbors
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|neighbor| (node as u32, *neighbor))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
 
-        let vector_column = "vector";
+    /// Compaction copies each HNSW graph when no row is deleted. When rows are
+    /// deleted the surviving edges are kept and the nodes that lost a neighbor
+    /// are reconnected, so the level-0 edges are not just the old edges relabeled.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::no_deletions(None, true)]
+    #[case::few_deletions(Some(20), false)]
+    #[case::many_deletions(Some(2), false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compaction_keeps_hnsw_graph(
+        #[case] delete_every: Option<u64>,
+        #[case] is_graph_kept: bool,
+    ) {
+        const NLIST: usize = 2;
+        const K: usize = 10;
+        const NUM_QUERIES: usize = 20;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let (batch, schema) = generate_batch::<Float32Type>(NUM_ROWS, None, 0.0..1.0, false);
+        let vectors = batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().clone();
+        let mut dataset = write_dataset_from_batches_with_max_rows(
+            test_dir.as_str(),
+            schema,
+            vec![batch],
+            NUM_ROWS / 4,
+        )
+        .await;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(NLIST),
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
         dataset
-            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let query = vectors.value(0);
-        // delete half rows to trigger compact
-        let half_rows = NUM_ROWS / 2;
-        dataset
-            .delete(&format!("id < {}", half_rows))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        // update the other half rows
-        let update_result = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
-            .update_where(&format!("id >= {} and id<{}", half_rows, half_rows + 50))
-            .unwrap()
-            .set("id", &format!("{}+id", NUM_ROWS))
-            .unwrap()
-            .build()
-            .unwrap()
-            .execute()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(update_result.new_dataset.uri())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let num_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(num_rows, half_rows);
+        let search = async |dataset: &Dataset, query: &dyn Array| {
+            dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["id"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_row_id()
+                .nearest("vector", query, K)
+                .unwrap()
+                .minimum_nprobes(NLIST)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        let old_graphs = read_hnsw_graphs(&dataset).await;
+        let mut old_results = Vec::with_capacity(NUM_QUERIES);
+        for i in 0..NUM_QUERIES {
+            old_results.push(search(&dataset, &vectors.value(i)).await);
+        }
+        let old_dataset = dataset.clone();
+        let old_index_id = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].uuid;
+
+        let is_deleted = |id: u64| delete_every.is_some_and(|every| id.is_multiple_of(every));
+        if let Some(every) = delete_every {
+            dataset.delete(&format!("id % {every} = 0")).await.unwrap();
+        }
         compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        // query again, the result should not include the deleted row
-        let result = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-        assert_eq!(ids.len(), half_rows);
-        ids.values().iter().for_each(|id| {
-            assert!(*id >= half_rows as u64 + 50);
-        });
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+        assert_ne!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap()[0].uuid, old_index_id);
+        let new_graphs = read_hnsw_graphs(&dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(new_graphs.len(), old_graphs.len());
+
+        if delete_every.is_none() {
+            for ((old, old_rows), (new, new_rows)) in old_graphs.iter().zip(&new_graphs) {
+                assert_eq!(old_rows.len(), new_rows.len());
+                assert_eq!(old.columns(), new.columns());
+                assert_eq!(
+                    old.schema_ref().metadata()[HNSW_METADATA_KEY],
+                    new.schema_ref().metadata()[HNSW_METADATA_KEY]
+                );
+            }
+            // Same graph, same vectors: same neighbors at the same distances,
+            // reported under the rewritten row addresses.
+            for (i, old_result) in old_results.iter().enumerate() {
+                let new_result = search(&dataset, &vectors.value(i)).await;
+                assert_eq!(&old_result["id"], &new_result["id"], "query {i}");
+                assert_eq!(&old_result[DIST_COL], &new_result[DIST_COL], "query {i}");
+                assert_ne!(&old_result[ROW_ID], &new_result[ROW_ID], "query {i}");
+            }
+            return;
+        }
 
-        // make sure we can still hit the recall
-        let gt = ground_truth(&dataset, vector_column, &query, 100, params.metric_type).await;
-        let results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), 100)
-            .unwrap()
-            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
-            .with_row_id()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let row_ids = results[ROW_ID]
-            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
-            .values()
-            .iter()
-            .copied()
-            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-        let recall = row_ids.intersection(&gt).count() as f32 / 100.0;
-        // 100 can't be exactly expressed as a float, so we need to use a tolerance
-        assert_ge!(
-            recall,
-            recall_requirement - f32::EPSILON,
-            "num_rows: {}, intersection: {}, recall: {}",
-            row_ids.len(),
-            row_ids.intersection(&gt).count(),
-            recall
-        );
+        let id_projection = dataset.schema().project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+        let mut num_rebuilt = 0;
+        for ((old, old_rows), (new, new_rows)) in old_graphs.iter().zip(&new_graphs) {
+            let old_ids = old_dataset
+                .take_rows(old_rows, id_projection.clone())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut new_of_old = Vec::with_capacity(old_rows.len());
+            let mut num_kept = 0;
+            for id in old_ids["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values() {
+                if is_deleted(*id) {
+                    new_of_old.push(None);
+                } else {
+                    new_of_old.push(Some(num_kept));
+                    num_kept += 1;
+                }
+            }
+            assert_eq!(num_kept as usize, new_rows.len());
 
-        // delete so that only one row left, to trigger remap and there must be some empty partitions
-        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await;
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
-        dataset.delete("id > 0").await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap().len(), 1);
-        compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), 100)
-            .unwrap()
-            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
-            .with_row_id()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 1);
+            let new_edges = level0_edges(new);
+            assert!(
+                new_edges
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|(from, to)| (*from as usize) < new_rows.len()
+                        && (*to as usize) < new_rows.len())
+            );
+            let relabeled_old_edges = level0_edges(old)
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter_map(|(from, to)| {
+                    Some((new_of_old[from as usize]?, new_of_old[to as usize]?))
+                })
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+            if is_graph_kept {
+                assert_eq!(new_edges, relabeled_old_edges);
+            } else if !new_edges.is_subset(&relabeled_old_edges) {
+                num_rebuilt += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        // Repair adds links the old graph did not have. A tiny partition can
+        // be fully linked either way, so require that of any one partition.
+        assert_eq!(num_rebuilt > 0, !is_graph_kept);
+
+        let mut hits = 0;
+        for i in 0..NUM_QUERIES {
+            let query = vectors.value(i);
+            let result = search(&dataset, &query).await;
+            let ids = result["id"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+            assert!(ids.values().iter().all(|id| !is_deleted(*id)), "query {i}");
+            // The row addresses search reports must point at the rows it matched.
+            let row_ids = result[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+            let taken = dataset
+                .take_rows(row_ids, id_projection.clone())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(&taken["id"], &result["id"], "query {i}");
+
+            let gt = ground_truth(&dataset, "vector", &query, K, DistanceType::L2).await;
+            hits += row_ids.iter().filter(|id| gt.contains(id)).count();
+        }
+        let recall = hits as f32 / (NUM_QUERIES * K) as f32;
+        assert_ge!(recall, 0.8, "recall after compaction with deletions");
     }
 
-    async fn test_delete_all_rows(params: VectorIndexParams) {
+    async fn test_index_multivec(params: VectorIndexParams, nlist: usize, recall_requirement: f32) {
+        // we introduce XTR for performance, which would reduce the recall a little bit
+        let recall_requirement = recall_requirement * 0.9;
         match params.metric_type {
             DistanceType::Hamming => {
-                test_delete_all_rows_impl::<UInt8Type>(params, 0..4).await;
+                test_index_multivec_impl::<UInt8Type>(params, nlist, recall_requirement, 0..4)
+                    .await;
             }
             _ => {
-                test_delete_all_rows_impl::<Float32Type>(params, 0.0..1.0).await;
+                test_index_multivec_impl::<Float32Type>(
+                    params,
+                    nlist,
+                    recall_requirement,
+                    0.0..1.0,
+                )
+                .await;
             }
         }
     }
 
-    async fn test_delete_all_rows_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+    async fn test_index_multivec_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
         params: VectorIndexParams,
+        nlist: usize,
+        recall_requirement: f32,
         range: Range<T::Native>,
-    ) where
-        T::Native: SampleUniform,
-    {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range.clone()).await;
-
-        let vector_column = "vector";
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+    ) where
+        T::Native: SampleUniform,
+    {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
-        dataset.delete("id >= 0").await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_multivec_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await;
 
-        // optimize after delete all rows
         dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("test_index".to_owned()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
         let query = vectors.value(0);
-        let results = dataset
+        let k = 100;
+
+        let result = dataset
             .scan()
-            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), 100)
+            .nearest("vector", &query, k)
             .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .with_row_id()
             .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 0);
+        let row_ids = result[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.len(), k);
+        assert_eq!(row_ids.iter().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>().len(), k);
+        let dists = result[DIST_COL]
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        let results = dists.into_iter().zip(row_ids.clone()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let row_ids = row_ids.into_iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+
+        let gt = multivec_ground_truth(&vectors, &query, k, params.metric_type);
+        let gt_set = gt.iter().map(|r| r.1).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+
+        let recall = row_ids.intersection(&gt_set).count() as f32 / 100.0;
+        assert!(
+            recall >= recall_requirement,
+            "recall: {}\n results: {:?}\n\ngt: {:?}",
+            recall,
+            results,
+            gt
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_migrate_v1_to_v3() {
+        // only test the case of IVF_PQ
+        // because only IVF_PQ is supported in v1
+        let nlist = 4;
+        let recall_requirement = 0.9;
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
+        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::default();
+        let v1_params =
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(DistanceType::Cosine, ivf_params, pq_params)
+                .version(crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::Legacy)
+                .clone();
+
+        let v3_params = v1_params
+            .clone()
+            .version(crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::V3)
+            .clone();
 
-        // compact after delete all rows
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await;
+        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the build-and-search future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_index(
+            v1_params,
+            nlist,
+            recall_requirement,
+            Some((dataset.clone(), vectors.clone())),
+        ))
+        .await;
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        // retest with v3 params on the same dataset
+        // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the build-and-search future grew past 16 KiB.
+        Box::pin(test_index(
+            v3_params,
+            nlist,
+            recall_requirement,
+            Some((dataset.clone(), vectors)),
+        ))
+        .await;
 
-        let vector_column = "vector";
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1); // v1 index should be replaced by v3 index
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let v3_index = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<super::IvfPq>();
+        assert!(v3_index.is_some());
+    }
 
-        dataset.delete("id >= 0").await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 0);
+    /// The global-top-k path (flat sub-index, no early-stop control) must not
+    /// pin every probed partition before scoring: a prepared partition holds the
+    /// partition's whole quantized storage, so with a high explicit `nprobes`
+    /// that made peak memory scale with `nprobes` instead of with the prepare
+    /// window. Probe every partition of an index with more partitions than the
+    /// window and check the in-flight high-water mark stays within it.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_global_topk_search_bounds_in_flight_prepared_partitions() {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+        const K: usize = 10;
+        const ROWS_PER_PARTITION: usize = 16;
 
-        compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+        // Resident partitions are bounded by the prepare window plus two scoring
+        // chunks (one being scored, one being assembled). The partitions here are
+        // far smaller than the chunk byte budget, so the partition cap is what
+        // ends a chunk. Size the index so that the old collect-everything
+        // behavior would clearly exceed the bound.
+        let in_flight_bound =
+            get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1) + 2 * super::GLOBAL_TOPK_CHUNK_MAX_PARTITIONS;
+        let num_partitions = 2 * in_flight_bound;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let (batch, schema) = make_seeded_vector_batch(num_partitions * ROWS_PER_PARTITION);
+        let query_vector = batch["vector"].as_fixed_size_list().value(0);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_dir.as_str(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(num_partitions);
+        ivf_params.max_iters = 2;
+        ivf_params.sample_rate = 16;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ivf_params,
+            lightweight_pq_params(),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_owned()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let results = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), 100)
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_vector_index("vector", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let tracker = index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<super::IvfPq>()
+            .expect("IVF_PQ index")
+            .prepared_partitions();
+
+        let query = Query {
+            column: "vector".to_string(),
+            key: query_vector,
+            k: K,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            minimum_nprobes: num_partitions,
+            maximum_nprobes: Some(num_partitions),
+            ef: None,
+            refine_factor: None,
+            metric_type: Some(DistanceType::L2),
+            use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: Default::default(),
+        };
+        let (partitions, q_c_dists) = index.find_partitions(&query).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(partitions.len(), num_partitions);
+        let results = index
+            .clone()
+            .search_partitions(
+                query,
+                Arc::new(partitions),
+                Arc::new(q_c_dists),
+                0,
+                num_partitions,
+                Arc::new(NoFilter),
+                None,
+                Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            )
+            .await
             .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 0);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_flat_knn() {
-        test_distance_range(None, 4).await;
-    }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 1.0)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 1.0)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 1.0)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Hamming, 0.9)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_build_ivf_flat(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
-    ) {
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(nlist, distance_type);
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-        }
-        test_distance_range(Some(params.clone()), nlist).await;
-        test_remap(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-        test_delete_all_rows(params).await;
+        let num_results: usize = results.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(num_results, K);
+        assert_eq!(
+            tracker.in_flight(),
+            0,
+            "every prepared partition must be released once the search completes"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tracker.peak() >= 1,
+            "the search must have gone through prepared partitions"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            tracker.peak() <= in_flight_bound,
+            "peak in-flight prepared partitions {} exceeds the bound {} (probed {} partitions)",
+            tracker.peak(),
+            in_flight_bound,
+            num_partitions
+        );
     }
 
     #[rstest]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.85)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_build_ivf_pq(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
+    async fn test_index_stats(
+        #[values(
+            (VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(2, DistanceType::Hamming), IndexType::IvfFlat),
+            (VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 8, DistanceType::L2, 10), IndexType::IvfPq),
+            (VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+                DistanceType::Cosine,
+                IvfBuildParams::new(2),
+                Default::default(),
+                Default::default()
+            ), IndexType::IvfHnswSq),
+        )]
+        index: (VectorIndexParams, IndexType),
     ) {
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::default();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, pq_params)
-            .version(crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::Legacy)
-            .clone();
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-        }
-        test_distance_range(Some(params.clone()), nlist).await;
-        // PQ performs worse on farther vectors, so if we delete the many nearest vectors, the recall will be lower
-        // lower the recall requirement in remap case for PQ, because it deletes half of the vectors
-        test_remap(params, nlist, recall_requirement * 0.9).await;
-    }
+        let (params, index_type) = index;
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case(1, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
-    #[case(1, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
-    #[case(1, DistanceType::Dot, 0.85)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.85)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_build_ivf_pq_v3(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
-    ) {
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::default();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, pq_params);
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-        }
-        test_distance_range(Some(params.clone()), nlist).await;
-        // PQ performs worse on farther vectors, so if we delete the many nearest vectors, the recall will be lower
-        // lower the recall requirement in remap case for PQ, because it deletes half of the vectors
-        test_remap(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement * 0.9).await;
-        test_delete_all_rows(params).await;
-    }
+        let nlist = 2;
+        let (mut dataset, _) = match params.metric_type {
+            DistanceType::Hamming => generate_test_dataset::<UInt8Type>(test_uri, 0..2).await,
+            _ => generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await,
+        };
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("test_index".to_owned()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-    #[rstest]
-    // Temporarily disable recall checks for 4-bit PQ.
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.0)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.0)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.0)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_build_ivf_pq_4bit(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
-    ) {
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(32, 4);
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, pq_params);
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-        }
-        // PQ performs worse on farther vectors, so if we delete the many nearest vectors, the recall will be lower
-        // lower the recall requirement in remap case for PQ, because it deletes half of the vectors
-        test_remap(params, nlist, recall_requirement * 0.9).await;
-    }
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("test_index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(stats.as_str()).unwrap();
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.85)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.85)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.75)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_build_ivf_sq(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
-    ) {
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_sq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, sq_params);
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-        }
-        test_remap(params, nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-    }
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(),
+            index_type.to_string()
+        );
+        for index in stats["indices"].as_array().unwrap() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                index["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(),
+                index_type.to_string()
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                index["num_partitions"].as_number().unwrap(),
+                &serde_json::Number::from(nlist)
+            );
 
-    // RQ doesn't perform well for random data
-    // need to verify recall with real-world dataset (e.g. sift1m)
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case(1, DistanceType::L2, 0.5)]
-    #[case(1, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.5)]
-    #[case(1, DistanceType::Dot, 0.5)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.5)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.5)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.5)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    // #[ignore = "Temporarily skipping flaky 4-bit IVF_RQ tests"]
-    async fn test_build_ivf_rq(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
-    ) {
-        let _ = env_logger::try_init();
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let rq_params = RQBuildParams::new(1);
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(distance_type, ivf_params, rq_params);
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+            let sub_index = match index_type {
+                IndexType::IvfHnswPq | IndexType::IvfHnswSq => "HNSW",
+                IndexType::IvfPq => "PQ",
+                _ => "FLAT",
+            };
+            assert_eq!(
+                index["sub_index"]["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(),
+                sub_index
+            );
         }
-        test_remap(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.85)]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_flat(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
-    ) {
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_hnsw(distance_type, ivf_params, hnsw_params);
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
+    async fn test_index_stats_empty_partition() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let num_rows = 32;
+        let num_partitions = num_rows + 2;
+        let mut vector_values = vec![0.0; num_rows * DIM];
+        for row in 0..num_rows {
+            vector_values[row * DIM + row] = 1.0;
         }
-        test_remap(params, nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-    }
+        let one_hot_vectors = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(vector_values.clone()),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let batch = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col("vector", array::jitter_centroids(one_hot_vectors, 0.0))
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(num_rows as u64))
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.85)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_sq(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
-    ) {
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
+        // Keep partition 0 empty: stats previously failed when the first partition was empty.
+        let mut centroid_values = Vec::with_capacity(num_partitions * DIM);
+        centroid_values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(2.0, DIM));
+        centroid_values.extend(vector_values);
+        centroid_values.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(-2.0, DIM));
+        let centroids = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(centroid_values),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(num_partitions, centroids).unwrap();
         let sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
-        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
+        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default()
+            .max_level(1)
+            .num_edges(4)
+            .ef_construction(4);
         let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
-            distance_type,
+            DistanceType::L2,
             ivf_params,
             hnsw_params,
             sq_params,
         );
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-        }
-        test_distance_range(Some(params.clone()), nlist).await;
-        test_delete_all_rows(params.clone()).await;
-        test_remap(params, nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-    }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.9)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.85)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_pq(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
-    ) {
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::default();
-        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
-            distance_type,
-            ivf_params,
-            hnsw_params,
-            pq_params,
-        );
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-        }
-        // PQ performs worse on farther vectors, so if we delete the many nearest vectors, the recall will be lower
-        // lower the recall requirement in remap case for PQ, because it deletes half of the vectors
-        test_remap(params, nlist, recall_requirement * 0.9).await;
-    }
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("test_index".to_owned()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-    #[rstest]
-    // Temporarily disable recall checks for 4-bit PQ.
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::L2, 0.0)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Cosine, 0.0)]
-    #[case(4, DistanceType::Dot, 0.0)]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_ivf_hnsw_pq_4bit(
-        #[case] nlist: usize,
-        #[case] distance_type: DistanceType,
-        #[case] recall_requirement: f32,
-    ) {
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::new(32, 4);
-        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_pq_params(
-            distance_type,
-            ivf_params,
-            hnsw_params,
-            pq_params,
+        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("test_index").await.unwrap();
+        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(stats.as_str()).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(stats["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(), "IVF_HNSW_SQ");
+        let indices = stats["indices"].as_array().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+        let index = &indices[0];
+        assert_eq!(index["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(), "IVF_HNSW_SQ");
+        assert_eq!(
+            index["num_partitions"].as_number().unwrap(),
+            &serde_json::Number::from(num_partitions)
         );
-        test_index(params.clone(), nlist, recall_requirement, None).await;
-        if distance_type == DistanceType::Cosine {
-            test_index_multivec(params, nlist, recall_requirement).await;
-        }
+        assert_eq!(index["sub_index"]["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(), "HNSW");
+        let partition_sizes = index["partitions"]
+            .as_array()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|partition| partition["size"].as_u64().unwrap())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(partition_sizes.len(), num_partitions);
+        assert_eq!(partition_sizes.iter().sum::<u64>(), num_rows as u64);
+        assert_eq!(partition_sizes[0], 0);
+        assert!(partition_sizes.contains(&0));
     }
 
-    async fn test_index_multivec(params: VectorIndexParams, nlist: usize, recall_requirement: f32) {
-        // we introduce XTR for performance, which would reduce the recall a little bit
-        let recall_requirement = recall_requirement * 0.9;
-        match params.metric_type {
+    async fn test_distance_range(params: Option<VectorIndexParams>, nlist: usize) {
+        match params.as_ref().map_or(DistanceType::L2, |p| p.metric_type) {
             DistanceType::Hamming => {
-                test_index_multivec_impl::<UInt8Type>(params, nlist, recall_requirement, 0..4)
-                    .await;
+                test_distance_range_impl::<UInt8Type>(params, nlist, 0..255).await;
             }
             _ => {
-                test_index_multivec_impl::<Float32Type>(
-                    params,
-                    nlist,
-                    recall_requirement,
-                    0.0..1.0,
-                )
-                .await;
+                test_distance_range_impl::<Float32Type>(params, nlist, 0.0..1.0).await;
             }
         }
     }
 
-    async fn test_index_multivec_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        params: VectorIndexParams,
+    async fn test_distance_range_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        params: Option<VectorIndexParams>,
         nlist: usize,
-        recall_requirement: f32,
         range: Range<T::Native>,
     ) where
         T::Native: SampleUniform,
     {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await;
+
+        let vector_column = "vector";
+        let dist_type = params.as_ref().map_or(DistanceType::L2, |p| p.metric_type);
+        if let Some(params) = params {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let query = vectors.value(0);
+        let k = 10;
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), k)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .ef(100)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), k);
+        let row_ids = result[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+        let dists = result[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+
+        let part_idx = k / 2;
+        let part_dist = dists[part_idx];
+
+        let left_res = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), part_idx)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .ef(100)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .distance_range(None, Some(part_dist))
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let right_res = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), k - part_idx)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .ef(100)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .distance_range(Some(part_dist), None)
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // don't verify the number of results and row ids for hamming distance,
+        // because there are many vectors with the same distance
+        if dist_type != DistanceType::Hamming {
+            // Tolerate a single tied pair at the partition boundary. When
+            // dists[part_idx - 1] == part_dist, the strict-less left filter
+            // excludes both tied vectors and the inclusive right filter
+            // includes both, shifting one row from left to right and dropping
+            // row_ids[k - 1] off right_res's limit. Observed for Dot distance
+            // on ARM where SIMD FMA yields tied float32 dot products that x86
+            // does not. The distance-value assertions below still cover
+            // partition correctness in both cases.
+            let boundary_tie = part_idx > 0 && dists[part_idx - 1] == part_dist;
+            let left_row_ids = left_res[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+            let right_row_ids = right_res[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
+            if boundary_tie {
+                assert_eq!(left_res.num_rows(), part_idx - 1);
+                for i in 0..(part_idx - 1) {
+                    assert_eq!(left_row_ids[i], row_ids[i]);
+                }
+                assert_eq!(right_res.num_rows(), k - part_idx);
+                // right_row_ids[0..2] are the two tied vectors in tiebreaker
+                // order; their identity is not pinned. right_row_ids[i] for
+                // i >= 2 aligns with row_ids[part_idx + i - 1] because the
+                // tie shifts one vector from left to right.
+                for i in 2..(k - part_idx) {
+                    assert_eq!(right_row_ids[i], row_ids[part_idx + i - 1]);
+                }
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(left_res.num_rows(), part_idx);
+                assert_eq!(right_res.num_rows(), k - part_idx);
+                row_ids.iter().enumerate().for_each(|(i, id)| {
+                    if i < part_idx {
+                        assert_eq!(left_row_ids[i], *id,);
+                    } else {
+                        assert_eq!(right_row_ids[i - part_idx], *id,);
+                    }
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        let left_dists = left_res[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+        let right_dists = right_res[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+        left_dists.iter().for_each(|d| {
+            assert!(d < &part_dist);
+        });
+        right_dists.iter().for_each(|d| {
+            assert!(d >= &part_dist);
+        });
+
+        let exclude_last_res = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), k)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .ef(100)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .distance_range(dists.first().copied(), dists.last().copied())
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if dist_type != DistanceType::Hamming {
+            let excluded_count = dists.iter().filter(|d| *d == dists.last().unwrap()).count();
+            assert_eq!(exclude_last_res.num_rows(), k - excluded_count);
+            let res_row_ids = exclude_last_res[ROW_ID]
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                .values();
+            row_ids.iter().enumerate().for_each(|(i, id)| {
+                if i < k - excluded_count {
+                    assert_eq!(res_row_ids[i], *id);
+                }
+            });
+        }
+        let res_dists = exclude_last_res[DIST_COL]
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values();
+        res_dists.iter().for_each(|d| {
+            assert_ge!(*d, dists[0]);
+            assert_lt!(*d, dists[k - 1]);
+        });
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_index_with_zero_vectors() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (batch, schema) = generate_batch::<Float32Type>(256, None, 0.0..1.0, false);
+        let vector_field = schema.field(1).clone();
+        let zero_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![256])),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                        Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; DIM]),
+                        DIM as i32,
+                    )
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch, zero_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            batches,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_multivec_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await;
-
+        let vector_column = vector_field.name();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, DIM / 8, DistanceType::Cosine, 50);
         dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vector"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("test_index".to_owned()),
-                &params,
-                true,
-            )
+            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
+    }
 
+    async fn test_recall<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
+        params: VectorIndexParams,
+        nlist: usize,
+        recall_requirement: f32,
+        vector_column: &str,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        vectors: Arc<FixedSizeListArray>,
+    ) {
         let query = vectors.value(0);
         let k = 100;
-
         let result = dataset
             .scan()
-            .nearest("vector", &query, k)
+            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), k)
             .unwrap()
             .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
+            .maximum_nprobes(nlist)
             .with_row_id()
             .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+
         let row_ids = result[ROW_ID]
             .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
             .values()
@@ -2239,334 +8010,448 @@ mod tests {
             .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
             .values()
             .to_vec();
-        let results = dists
-            .into_iter()
-            .zip(row_ids.clone().into_iter())
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let row_ids = row_ids.into_iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let results = dists.into_iter().zip(row_ids).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let row_ids = results.iter().map(|(_, id)| *id).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert!(row_ids.len() == k);
 
-        let gt = multivec_ground_truth(&vectors, &query, k, params.metric_type);
-        let gt_set = gt.iter().map(|r| r.1).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let gt = ground_truth(dataset, vector_column, &query, k, params.metric_type).await;
 
-        let recall = row_ids.intersection(&gt_set).count() as f32 / 100.0;
+        let recall = row_ids.intersection(&gt).count() as f32 / k as f32;
         assert!(
             recall >= recall_requirement,
             "recall: {}\n results: {:?}\n\ngt: {:?}",
             recall,
             results,
-            gt
+            gt,
         );
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_migrate_v1_to_v3() {
-        // only test the case of IVF_PQ
-        // because only IVF_PQ is supported in v1
-        let nlist = 4;
-        let recall_requirement = 0.9;
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::default();
-        let v1_params =
-            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(DistanceType::Cosine, ivf_params, pq_params)
-                .version(crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::Legacy)
-                .clone();
+    /// Rewrite the auxiliary storage file to the legacy PQ format (codebook
+    /// embedded in schema metadata rather than stored as a global buffer), then
+    /// commit a `CreateIndex` transaction so the manifest records the correct
+    /// new file size.
+    /// Rewrite the auxiliary PQ storage file with the codebook inlined into
+    /// schema metadata (legacy format). Uses a new UUID to avoid cache key
+    /// collisions with the original index.
+    async fn rewrite_pq_storage(dataset: &mut Dataset, old_meta: &IndexMetadata) -> Result<()> {
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
 
-        let v3_params = v1_params
-            .clone()
-            .version(crate::index::vector::IndexFileVersion::V3)
-            .clone();
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let old_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(old_meta.uuid.to_string());
+        let new_uuid = uuid::Uuid::new_v4();
+        let new_dir = dataset.indices_dir().join(new_uuid.to_string());
+
+        // Copy the main index file to the new directory unchanged.
+        obj_store
+            .copy(
+                &old_dir.clone().join(super::INDEX_FILE_NAME),
+                &new_dir.clone().join(super::INDEX_FILE_NAME),
+            )
+            .await?;
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
-        test_index(
-            v1_params,
-            nlist,
-            recall_requirement,
-            Some((dataset.clone(), vectors.clone())),
-        )
-        .await;
-        // retest with v3 params on the same dataset
-        test_index(
-            v3_params,
-            nlist,
-            recall_requirement,
-            Some((dataset.clone(), vectors)),
+        // Read the original auxiliary file.
+        let old_aux_path = old_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let scheduler =
+            ScanScheduler::new(obj_store.clone(), SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing());
+        let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+            scheduler
+                .open_file(&old_aux_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
+                .await?,
+            None,
+            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+            FileReaderOptions::default(),
         )
-        .await;
+        .await?;
 
-        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1); // v1 index should be replaced by v3 index
-        let index = dataset
-            .open_vector_index(
-                "vector",
-                indices[0].uuid.to_string().as_str(),
-                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+        // Rewrite auxiliary file with PQ codebook inlined into schema metadata.
+        let mut metadata = reader.schema().metadata.clone();
+        let projection = lance_file::versions::reader_projection_from_whole_schema(
+            reader.schema(),
+            reader.metadata().version(),
+        );
+        let batches = reader
+            .read_stream_projected(
+                lance_io::ReadBatchParams::RangeFull,
+                u32::MAX,
+                u32::MAX,
+                projection,
+                lance_encoding::decoder::FilterExpression::no_filter(),
             )
+            .await?;
+        use futures::TryStreamExt as _;
+        let batches = batches.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
+        let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&batches[0].schema(), &batches)?;
+        let new_aux_path = new_dir.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
+        let mut writer = lance_file::versions::create_writer(
+            reader.metadata().version(),
+            obj_store.create(&new_aux_path).await?,
+            batch.schema_ref().as_ref().try_into()?,
+            Default::default(),
+        )?;
+        writer.write_batch(&batch).await?;
+        writer
+            .add_global_buffer(reader.read_global_buffer(1).await?)
+            .await?;
+        let codebook = reader.read_global_buffer(2).await?;
+        let pq_metadata: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(&metadata[STORAGE_METADATA_KEY])?;
+        let mut pq_metadata: ProductQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&pq_metadata[0])?;
+        pq_metadata.codebook_position = 0;
+        pq_metadata.codebook_tensor = codebook.to_vec();
+        let pq_metadata = serde_json::to_string(&pq_metadata)?;
+        metadata.insert(
+            STORAGE_METADATA_KEY.to_owned(),
+            serde_json::to_string(&vec![pq_metadata])?,
+        );
+        for (key, value) in metadata {
+            writer.add_schema_metadata(key, value);
+        }
+        writer.finish().await?;
+
+        // Build new IndexMetadata with the new UUID and file sizes.
+        let new_files =
+            lance_table::format::list_index_files_with_sizes(&obj_store, &new_dir).await?;
+        let mut new_meta = old_meta.clone();
+        new_meta.uuid = new_uuid;
+        new_meta.files = Some(new_files);
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![new_meta],
+                removed_indices: vec![old_meta.clone()],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_legacy_non_divisible_pq_search() {
+        const DIM: usize = 64;
+        const PERSISTED_DIM: usize = 56;
+
+        let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq").unwrap();
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(&test_dir.path_str()).await.unwrap();
+        let query = Float32Array::from(
+            (1..=DIM)
+                .map(|value| value as f32 + if value <= PERSISTED_DIM { 1.0 } else { 1_000.0 })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        );
+
+        let result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 1)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let v3_index = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<super::IvfPq>();
-        assert!(v3_index.is_some());
+
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            result[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values(),
+            &[PERSISTED_DIM as f32]
+        );
     }
 
-    #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_index_stats(
-        #[values(
-            (VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(4, DistanceType::Hamming), IndexType::IvfFlat),
-            (VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, 8, DistanceType::L2, 10), IndexType::IvfPq),
-            (VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
-                DistanceType::Cosine,
-                IvfBuildParams::new(4),
-                Default::default(),
-                Default::default()
-            ), IndexType::IvfHnswSq),
-        )]
-        index: (VectorIndexParams, IndexType),
-    ) {
-        let (params, index_type) = index;
+    async fn test_pq_storage_backwards_compat() {
+        let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.27.1/pq_in_schema").unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
+        let test_uri = &test_uri;
+
+        // Just make sure we can query the index.
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let query_vec = Float32Array::from(vec![0_f32; 32]);
+        let search_result = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vec", &query_vec, 5)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(search_result.num_rows(), 5);
+
+        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
+        let scheduler =
+            ScanScheduler::new(obj_store.clone(), SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing());
+
+        async fn get_pq_metadata(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+        ) -> ProductQuantizationMetadata {
+            let index = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+            let index_path = dataset.indices_dir().join(index[0].uuid.to_string());
+            let file_scheduler = scheduler
+                .open_file(
+                    &index_path.clone().join(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME),
+                    &CachedFileSize::unknown(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let reader = FileReader::try_open(
+                file_scheduler,
+                None,
+                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
+                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
+                FileReaderOptions::default(),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let metadata = reader.schema().metadata.get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY).unwrap();
+            serde_json::from_str(&serde_json::from_str::<Vec<String>>(metadata).unwrap()[0])
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+        let pq_meta: ProductQuantizationMetadata =
+            get_pq_metadata(&dataset, scheduler.clone()).await;
+        assert!(pq_meta.buffer_index().is_none());
+
+        // If we add data and optimize indices, then we start using the global
+        // buffer for the PQ index.
+        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::from(dataset.schema())),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![0])),
+                Arc::new(
+                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]), 32)
+                        .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute(vec![new_data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let pq_meta: ProductQuantizationMetadata =
+            get_pq_metadata(&dataset, scheduler.clone()).await;
+        assert!(pq_meta.buffer_index().is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_with_empty_partition() {
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
 
-        let nlist = 4;
-        let (mut dataset, _) = match params.metric_type {
-            DistanceType::Hamming => generate_test_dataset::<UInt8Type>(test_uri, 0..2).await,
-            _ => generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await,
-        };
+        let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
+        let nlist = num_rows + 2;
+        let centroids = generate_random_array(nlist * DIM);
+        let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIM as i32).unwrap();
+        let ivf_params =
+            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(nlist, Arc::new(ivf_centroids)).unwrap();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            ivf_params,
+            PQBuildParams::default(),
+        );
         dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["vector"],
-                IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("test_index".to_owned()),
-                &params,
-                true,
-            )
+            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("test_index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(stats.as_str()).unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(
-            stats["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(),
-            index_type.to_string()
-        );
-        for index in stats["indices"].as_array().unwrap() {
-            assert_eq!(
-                index["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(),
-                index_type.to_string()
-            );
-            assert_eq!(
-                index["num_partitions"].as_number().unwrap(),
-                &serde_json::Number::from(nlist)
-            );
-
-            let sub_index = match index_type {
-                IndexType::IvfHnswPq | IndexType::IvfHnswSq => "HNSW",
-                IndexType::IvfPq => "PQ",
-                _ => "FLAT",
-            };
-            assert_eq!(
-                index["sub_index"]["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(),
-                sub_index
-            );
-        }
+        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut dataset, 1, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_index_stats_empty_partition() {
+    async fn test_compaction_remaps_second_delta_with_shared_partition_topology() {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+        const BASE_ROWS_PER_PARTITION: usize = 2_200;
+        const SMALL_APPEND_ROWS: usize = 64;
+        let offsets = [-50.0, 50.0];
+
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
-        let nlist = 500;
-        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        let (batch, schema) = generate_clustered_batch(BASE_ROWS_PER_PARTITION, offsets);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            batches,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(nlist);
-        let sq_params = SQBuildParams::default();
-        let hnsw_params = HnswBuildParams::default();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+        let centroids = build_centroids_for_offsets(&offsets);
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, centroids).unwrap();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
             DistanceType::L2,
             ivf_params,
-            hnsw_params,
-            sq_params,
+            lightweight_pq_params(),
         );
-
         dataset
             .create_index(
                 &["vector"],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("test_index".to_owned()),
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
                 &params,
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let stats = dataset.index_statistics("test_index").await.unwrap();
-        let stats: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(stats.as_str()).unwrap();
-
-        assert_eq!(stats["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(), "IVF_HNSW_SQ");
-        for index in stats["indices"].as_array().unwrap() {
-            assert_eq!(index["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(), "IVF_HNSW_SQ");
-            assert_eq!(
-                index["num_partitions"].as_number().unwrap(),
-                &serde_json::Number::from(nlist)
-            );
-            assert_eq!(index["sub_index"]["index_type"].as_str().unwrap(), "HNSW");
-        }
-    }
-
-    async fn test_distance_range(params: Option<VectorIndexParams>, nlist: usize) {
-        match params.as_ref().map_or(DistanceType::L2, |p| p.metric_type) {
-            DistanceType::Hamming => {
-                test_distance_range_impl::<UInt8Type>(params, nlist, 0..255).await;
-            }
-            _ => {
-                test_distance_range_impl::<Float32Type>(params, nlist, 0.0..1.0).await;
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    async fn test_distance_range_impl<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        params: Option<VectorIndexParams>,
-        nlist: usize,
-        range: Range<T::Native>,
-    ) where
-        T::Native: SampleUniform,
-    {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<T>(test_uri, range).await;
-
-        let vector_column = "vector";
-        let dist_type = params.as_ref().map_or(DistanceType::L2, |p| p.metric_type);
-        if let Some(params) = params {
-            dataset
-                .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-        }
-
-        let query = vectors.value(0);
-        let k = 10;
-        let result = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), k)
-            .unwrap()
-            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
-            .ef(100)
-            .with_row_id()
-            .try_into_batch()
+        let template_batch = dataset
+            .take_rows(&[0], dataset.schema().clone())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), k);
-        let row_ids = result[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-        let dists = result[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
-
-        let part_idx = k / 2;
-        let part_dist = dists[part_idx];
+        let template_values = template_batch["vector"]
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .value(0)
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        let mut append_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 32,
+            max_rows_per_group: 32,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        append_params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
+        append_template_vector_with_params(
+            &mut dataset,
+            SMALL_APPEND_ROWS,
+            &template_values,
+            Some(append_params),
+        )
+        .await;
 
-        let left_res = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), part_idx)
-            .unwrap()
-            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
-            .ef(100)
-            .with_row_id()
-            .distance_range(None, Some(part_dist))
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let right_res = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), k - part_idx)
-            .unwrap()
-            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
-            .ef(100)
-            .with_row_id()
-            .distance_range(Some(part_dist), None)
-            .try_into_batch()
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        // don't verify the number of results and row ids for hamming distance,
-        // because there are many vectors with the same distance
-        if dist_type != DistanceType::Hamming {
-            assert_eq!(left_res.num_rows(), part_idx);
-            assert_eq!(right_res.num_rows(), k - part_idx);
-            let left_row_ids = left_res[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-            let right_row_ids = right_res[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-            row_ids.iter().enumerate().for_each(|(i, id)| {
-                if i < part_idx {
-                    assert_eq!(left_row_ids[i], *id,);
-                } else {
-                    assert_eq!(right_row_ids[i - part_idx], *id,);
-                }
-            });
-        }
-        let left_dists = left_res[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
-        let right_dists = right_res[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
-        left_dists.iter().for_each(|d| {
-            assert!(d < &part_dist);
-        });
-        right_dists.iter().for_each(|d| {
-            assert!(d >= &part_dist);
-        });
 
-        let exclude_last_res = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), k)
+        let stats_before: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats_before["num_indices"].as_u64().unwrap(), 2);
+        let partitions_before: Vec<usize> = stats_before["indices"]
+            .as_array()
             .unwrap()
-            .minimum_nprobes(nlist)
-            .ef(100)
-            .with_row_id()
-            .distance_range(dists.first().copied(), dists.last().copied())
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        if dist_type != DistanceType::Hamming {
-            let excluded_count = dists.iter().filter(|d| *d == dists.last().unwrap()).count();
-            assert_eq!(exclude_last_res.num_rows(), k - excluded_count);
-            let res_row_ids = exclude_last_res[ROW_ID]
-                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
-                .values();
-            row_ids.iter().enumerate().for_each(|(i, id)| {
-                if i < k - excluded_count {
-                    assert_eq!(res_row_ids[i], *id);
-                }
-            });
-        }
-        let res_dists = exclude_last_res[DIST_COL]
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .values();
-        res_dists.iter().for_each(|d| {
-            assert_ge!(*d, dists[0]);
-            assert_lt!(*d, dists[k - 1]);
-        });
+            .iter()
+            .map(|idx| idx["num_partitions"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(partitions_before.len(), 2);
+        let base_partition_count = partitions_before
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .max()
+            .expect("expected at least one partition count");
+        assert!(base_partition_count >= 2);
+        assert!(
+            partitions_before
+                .iter()
+                .all(|count| *count == base_partition_count)
+        );
+
+        let indices_meta = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices_meta.len(), 2);
+
+        compact_files(
+            &mut dataset,
+            CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 5_000,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let stats_after_compaction: serde_json::Value =
+            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats_after_compaction["num_indices"].as_u64().unwrap(), 2);
+        let mut partitions_after: Vec<usize> = stats_after_compaction["indices"]
+            .as_array()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|idx| idx["num_partitions"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize)
+            .collect();
+        partitions_after.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(
+            partitions_after,
+            vec![base_partition_count, base_partition_count]
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_index_with_zero_vectors() {
+    async fn test_spfresh_join_split() {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+        const NLIST: usize = 2;
+        const NO_SPLIT_APPEND_ROWS: usize = 32;
+        // The joined base and no-split delta contain 2,265 rows. This append
+        // takes the single IVF-PQ partition one row past its 32,768-row limit.
+        const SPLIT_APPEND_ROWS: usize = 30_504;
+
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-        let (batch, schema) = generate_batch::<Float32Type>(256, None, 0.0..1.0, false);
-        let vector_field = schema.field(1).clone();
-        let zero_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![256])),
-                Arc::new(
-                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-                        Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; DIM]),
-                        DIM as i32,
-                    )
-                    .unwrap(),
-                ),
-            ],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch, zero_batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+
+        let cluster_sizes = [100, 2_200];
+        let total_rows: usize = cluster_sizes.iter().sum();
+
+        let mut centroid_values = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..NLIST {
+            for j in 0..DIM {
+                centroid_values.push(if j == 0 { (i as f32) * 10.0 } else { 0.0 });
+            }
+        }
+        let centroids = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+                Float32Array::from(centroid_values),
+                DIM as i32,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let mut ids = Vec::new();
+        let mut vector_values = Vec::new();
+        let mut current_id = 0u64;
+        for (cluster_idx, &size) in cluster_sizes.iter().enumerate() {
+            let centroid_base = (cluster_idx as f32) * 10.0;
+            for _ in 0..size {
+                ids.push(current_id);
+                current_id += 1;
+                for j in 0..DIM {
+                    vector_values.push(if j == 0 {
+                        centroid_base + (current_id % 100) as f32 * 0.005
+                    } else {
+                        (current_id % 50) as f32 * 0.01
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let ids_array = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(ids.clone()));
+        let vectors = Arc::new(
+            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vector_values), DIM as i32)
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
+            Field::new("vector", vectors.data_type().clone(), false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![ids_array, vectors]).unwrap();
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+
         let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
             batches,
             test_uri,
@@ -2578,279 +8463,173 @@ mod tests {
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let vector_column = vector_field.name();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, DIM / 8, DistanceType::Cosine, 50);
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(NLIST, centroids).unwrap();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            ivf_params,
+            lightweight_pq_params(),
+        );
         dataset
-            .create_index(&[vector_column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-    }
 
-    async fn test_recall<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
-        params: VectorIndexParams,
-        nlist: usize,
-        recall_requirement: f32,
-        vector_column: &str,
-        dataset: &Dataset,
-        vectors: Arc<FixedSizeListArray>,
-    ) {
-        let query = vectors.value(0);
-        let k = 100;
-        let result = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest(vector_column, query.as_primitive::<T>(), k)
-            .unwrap()
-            .nprobes(nlist)
-            .with_row_id()
-            .try_into_batch()
+        let template_id = cluster_sizes[0] as u64;
+        let template_batch = dataset
+            .take_rows(&[template_id], dataset.schema().clone())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        let row_ids = result[ROW_ID]
-            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
-            .values()
-            .to_vec();
-        let dists = result[DIST_COL]
+        let template_values = template_batch["vector"]
+            .as_fixed_size_list()
+            .value(0)
             .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
             .values()
             .to_vec();
-        let results = dists
-            .into_iter()
-            .zip(row_ids.into_iter())
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let row_ids = results.iter().map(|(_, id)| *id).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
-        assert!(row_ids.len() == k);
-
-        let gt = ground_truth(dataset, vector_column, &query, k, params.metric_type).await;
-
-        let recall = row_ids.intersection(&gt).count() as f32 / k as f32;
-        assert!(
-            recall >= recall_requirement,
-            "recall: {}\n results: {:?}\n\ngt: {:?}",
-            recall,
-            results,
-            gt,
-        );
-    }
-
-    async fn rewrite_pq_storage(dir: Path) -> Result<()> {
-        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
-        let store_path = dir.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME);
-        let copied_path = dir.child(format!("{}.original", INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME));
-        obj_store.copy(&store_path, &copied_path).await?;
-        obj_store.delete(&store_path).await?;
-        let scheduler =
-            ScanScheduler::new(obj_store.clone(), SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing());
-        let reader = FileReader::try_open(
-            scheduler
-                .open_file(&copied_path, &CachedFileSize::unknown())
-                .await?,
-            None,
-            Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-            &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-            FileReaderOptions::default(),
-        )
-        .await?;
-
-        let mut metadata = reader.schema().metadata.clone();
-        let batch = reader
-            .read_range(0..reader.num_rows() as usize, None)
-            .await?;
-        let mut writer = FileWriter::try_new(
-            obj_store.create(&store_path).await?,
-            batch.schema_ref().as_ref().try_into()?,
-            Default::default(),
-        )?;
-        writer.write_batch(&batch).await?;
-        // write the IVF
-        writer
-            .add_global_buffer(reader.read_global_buffer(1).await?)
-            .await?;
-        // rewrite the PQ to legacy format
-        let codebook = reader.read_global_buffer(2).await?;
-        let pq_metadata: Vec<String> = serde_json::from_str(&metadata[STORAGE_METADATA_KEY])?;
-        let mut pq_metadata: ProductQuantizationMetadata = serde_json::from_str(&pq_metadata[0])?;
-        pq_metadata.codebook_position = 0;
-        pq_metadata.codebook_tensor = codebook.to_vec();
-        let pq_metadata = serde_json::to_string(&pq_metadata)?;
-        metadata.insert(
-            STORAGE_METADATA_KEY.to_owned(),
-            serde_json::to_string(&vec![pq_metadata])?,
+        assert_eq!(
+            template_values.len(),
+            DIM,
+            "Template vector should match DIM"
         );
-        writer.finish_with_metadata(metadata).await?;
-        obj_store.delete(&copied_path).await?;
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_pq_storage_backwards_compat() {
-        let test_dir = copy_test_data_to_tmp("v0.27.1/pq_in_schema").unwrap();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.path_str();
-        let test_uri = &test_uri;
-
-        // Just make sure we can query the index.
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let query_vec = Float32Array::from(vec![0_f32; 32]);
-        let search_result = dataset
-            .scan()
-            .nearest("vec", &query_vec, 5)
-            .unwrap()
-            .try_into_batch()
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(search_result.num_rows(), 5);
 
-        let obj_store = Arc::new(ObjectStore::local());
-        let scheduler =
-            ScanScheduler::new(obj_store.clone(), SchedulerConfig::default_for_testing());
+        let mut next_id = total_rows as u64;
+        let mut expected_rows = total_rows;
 
-        async fn get_pq_metadata(
-            dataset: &Dataset,
-            scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
-        ) -> ProductQuantizationMetadata {
-            let index = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-            let index_path = dataset.indices_dir().child(index[0].uuid.to_string());
-            let file_scheduler = scheduler
-                .open_file(
-                    &index_path.child(INDEX_AUXILIARY_FILE_NAME),
-                    &CachedFileSize::unknown(),
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            let reader = FileReader::try_open(
-                file_scheduler,
-                None,
-                Arc::<DecoderPlugins>::default(),
-                &LanceCache::no_cache(),
-                FileReaderOptions::default(),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-            let metadata = reader.schema().metadata.get(STORAGE_METADATA_KEY).unwrap();
-            serde_json::from_str(&serde_json::from_str::<Vec<String>>(metadata).unwrap()[0])
-                .unwrap()
-        }
-        let pq_meta: ProductQuantizationMetadata =
-            get_pq_metadata(&dataset, scheduler.clone()).await;
-        assert!(pq_meta.buffer_index().is_none());
+        let (deleted_rows, appended_rows, actual_partitions) =
+            shrink_smallest_partition(&mut dataset, INDEX_NAME, 1, &mut next_id).await;
+        expected_rows = expected_rows - deleted_rows + appended_rows;
+        assert_eq!(actual_partitions, 1);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap(), expected_rows);
 
-        // If we add data and optimize indices, then we start using the global
-        // buffer for the PQ index.
-        let new_data = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            Arc::new(Schema::from(dataset.schema())),
-            vec![
-                Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![0])),
-                Arc::new(
-                    FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0; 32]), 32)
-                        .unwrap(),
-                ),
-            ],
+        append_and_verify_append_phase(
+            &mut dataset,
+            INDEX_NAME,
+            &template_values,
+            &mut next_id,
+            NO_SPLIT_APPEND_ROWS,
+            1,
+            expected_rows + NO_SPLIT_APPEND_ROWS,
+            2,
+            false,
         )
-        .unwrap();
-        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
-            .with_params(&WriteParams {
-                mode: WriteMode::Append,
-                ..Default::default()
-            })
-            .execute(vec![new_data])
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(1))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        .await;
+        expected_rows += NO_SPLIT_APPEND_ROWS;
 
-        let pq_meta: ProductQuantizationMetadata =
-            get_pq_metadata(&dataset, scheduler.clone()).await;
-        assert!(pq_meta.buffer_index().is_some());
+        // The oversized partition is split straight to the target size in one
+        // optimize: ceil(rows / target) pieces instead of a single halving.
+        let split_rows = expected_rows + SPLIT_APPEND_ROWS;
+        append_and_verify_append_phase(
+            &mut dataset,
+            INDEX_NAME,
+            &template_values,
+            &mut next_id,
+            SPLIT_APPEND_ROWS,
+            split_rows.div_ceil(IndexType::IvfPq.target_partition_size()),
+            split_rows,
+            1,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await;
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_optimize_with_empty_partition() {
+    async fn test_partition_split_on_append_multivec() {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+        const VECTORS_PER_ROW: usize = 3;
+        // 512 base rows and this append flatten to 33,036 vectors, just over
+        // the 32,768-vector IVF-PQ split threshold.
+        const APPEND_ROWS: usize = 10_500;
+
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
 
-        let num_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
-        let nlist = num_rows + 2;
-        let centroids = generate_random_array(nlist * DIM);
-        let ivf_centroids = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIM as i32).unwrap();
-        let ivf_params =
-            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(nlist, Arc::new(ivf_centroids)).unwrap();
+        let (mut dataset, _) =
+            generate_multivec_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
         let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
             DistanceType::Cosine,
-            ivf_params,
-            PQBuildParams::default(),
+            IvfBuildParams::new(1),
+            lightweight_pq_params(),
         );
         dataset
-            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut dataset, 1, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        let initial_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
+        assert_eq!(initial_ctx.num_partitions(), 1);
+
+        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut dataset, APPEND_ROWS, 0.0..0.05).await;
         dataset
             .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-    }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_index_with_many_invalid_vectors() {
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let expected_rows = NUM_ROWS + APPEND_ROWS;
+        // Every vector of a row counts towards the partition size, and the split
+        // goes straight to the target size: ceil(vectors / target) pieces.
+        let expected_partitions =
+            (expected_rows * VECTORS_PER_ROW).div_ceil(IndexType::IvfPq.target_partition_size());
+        let final_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            final_ctx.num_partitions(),
+            expected_partitions,
+            "Expected the oversized multivector partition to split into {expected_partitions}, stats: {}",
+            final_ctx.stats_json()
+        );
+        let partitions = final_ctx.stats()["indices"][0]["partitions"]
+            .as_array()
+            .expect("partitions should be present");
+        assert_eq!(partitions.len(), expected_partitions);
+        assert_eq!(
+            partitions
+                .iter()
+                .map(|partition| partition["size"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize)
+                .sum::<usize>(),
+            expected_rows * VECTORS_PER_ROW
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap(), expected_rows);
 
-        // we use 8192 batch size by default, so we need to generate 8192 * 3 vectors to get 3 batches
-        // generate 3 batches, and the first batch's vectors are all with NaN
-        let num_rows = 8192 * 3;
-        let mut vectors = Vec::new();
-        for i in 0..num_rows {
-            if i < 8192 {
-                vectors.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(f32::NAN, DIM));
-            } else if i < 8192 * 2 {
-                vectors.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(rand::random::<f32>(), DIM));
-            } else {
-                vectors.extend(std::iter::repeat_n(rand::random::<f32>() * 1e20, DIM));
-            }
-        }
-        let schema = Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
-            "vector",
-            DataType::FixedSizeList(
-                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
-                DIM as i32,
-            ),
-            true,
-        )]);
-        let schema = Arc::new(schema);
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(
-                FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vectors), DIM as i32)
-                    .unwrap(),
-            )],
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-        let params = WriteParams {
-            mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(batches, test_uri, Some(params))
+        let query_batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .limit(Some(1), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
-
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(4, 8, DIM / 8, DistanceType::Dot, 50);
-
-        dataset
-            .create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        let query = query_batch["vector"].as_list::<i32>().value(0);
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .distance_metric(DistanceType::Cosine)
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let mut row_ids = HashSet::new();
+        for row_id in results[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values() {
+            assert!(row_ids.insert(*row_id), "duplicate row id {row_id}");
+        }
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_remap_join_on_second_delta() {
+    async fn test_split_multiple_partitions_in_one_optimize() {
         const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
-        const BASE_ROWS_PER_PARTITION: usize = 3_000;
-        const SMALL_APPEND_ROWS: usize = 64;
+        const BASE_ROWS_PER_PARTITION: usize = 512;
+        // Each IVF-FLAT partition reaches 16,512 rows, just over its 16,384-row
+        // split threshold.
+        const APPEND_ROWS_PER_PARTITION: usize = 16_000;
         let offsets = [-50.0, 50.0];
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
@@ -2871,11 +8650,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let centroids = build_centroids_for_offsets(&offsets);
         let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(2, centroids).unwrap();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
-            DistanceType::L2,
-            ivf_params,
-            PQBuildParams::default(),
-        );
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_flat_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params);
         dataset
             .create_index(
                 &["vector"],
@@ -2887,485 +8662,1203 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let template_batch = dataset
-            .take_rows(&[0], dataset.schema().clone())
+        let initial_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
+        assert_eq!(initial_ctx.num_partitions(), 2);
+        let templates = offsets
+            .iter()
+            .map(|offset| {
+                let mut template = vec![0.0; DIM];
+                template[0] = *offset;
+                template
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        append_partition_templates(&mut dataset, APPEND_ROWS_PER_PARTITION, &templates).await;
+
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let template_values = template_batch["vector"]
-            .as_fixed_size_list()
-            .value(0)
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap();
+
+        // Both partitions hold BASE + APPEND rows and are split straight to the
+        // target size in one optimize: ceil(rows / target) pieces each.
+        let pieces_per_partition = (BASE_ROWS_PER_PARTITION + APPEND_ROWS_PER_PARTITION)
+            .div_ceil(IndexType::IvfFlat.target_partition_size());
+        let final_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            final_ctx.num_partitions(),
+            2 * pieces_per_partition,
+            "Expected both original partitions to split in one optimize, stats: {}",
+            final_ctx.stats_json()
+        );
+
+        let indices = final_ctx.stats()["indices"]
+            .as_array()
+            .expect("indices should be present");
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices.len(),
+            1,
+            "Expected split optimize to merge into one index, stats: {}",
+            final_ctx.stats_json()
+        );
+
+        let partitions = indices[0]["partitions"]
+            .as_array()
+            .expect("partitions should be present");
+        assert_eq!(partitions.len(), 2 * pieces_per_partition);
+        let expected_rows = 2 * BASE_ROWS_PER_PARTITION + 2 * APPEND_ROWS_PER_PARTITION;
+        let total_partition_rows = partitions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|part| part["size"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize)
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        assert_eq!(total_partition_rows, expected_rows);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap(), expected_rows);
+
+        let mut indexed_row_ids = HashSet::with_capacity(expected_rows);
+        for partition_idx in 0..final_ctx.num_partitions() {
+            for row_id in load_flat_partition_row_ids(final_ctx.ivf_flat(), partition_idx).await {
+                assert!(
+                    indexed_row_ids.insert(row_id),
+                    "row id {row_id} appeared in multiple partitions"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(indexed_row_ids.len(), expected_rows);
+        let live_row_ids = dataset.scan().with_row_id().try_into_batch().await.unwrap()[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
             .values()
-            .to_vec();
-        let mut append_params = WriteParams {
-            max_rows_per_file: 32,
-            max_rows_per_group: 32,
-            ..Default::default()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(indexed_row_ids, live_row_ids);
+
+        let nearest = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .nearest("vector", &Float32Array::from(templates[0].clone()), 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ids = nearest[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+        for row_id in ids.values() {
+            assert!(seen.insert(*row_id), "Duplicate row id found: {}", row_id);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_join_partition_on_delete_multivec() {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        const MULTIVEC_PER_ROW: usize = 3;
+        const APPEND_ROWS: usize = 32;
+        let cluster_sizes = [800, 800, 400];
+        // Multivector indices require cosine distance. Unit centroids in three
+        // distinct directions avoid the collinear assignment in the old fixture.
+        let centroids = [(-1.0, 0.0), (0.0, 1.0), (1.0, 0.0)];
+        let total_rows = cluster_sizes.iter().sum::<usize>();
+        // Row 1600, the one retained below, has one vector in each partition.
+        // Joining the partition that holds one of them must reassign only that
+        // vector, not re-add the two the other partitions keep.
+        let mut dataset = {
+            let (batch, schema) = generate_clustered_multivec_batch(
+                &cluster_sizes,
+                &centroids,
+                MULTIVEC_PER_ROW,
+                0,
+                Some(1600),
+            );
+            let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+            Dataset::write(
+                batches,
+                test_uri,
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
         };
-        append_params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
-        append_constant_vector_with_params(
-            &mut dataset,
-            SMALL_APPEND_ROWS,
-            &template_values,
-            Some(append_params),
-        )
-        .await;
 
+        let ivf_params =
+            IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(centroids.len(), build_centroids_2d(&centroids))
+                .unwrap();
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            ivf_params,
+            lightweight_pq_params(),
+        );
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
+        assert_eq!(index_ctx.num_partitions(), 3);
+
+        let mut logical_row_ids = {
+            let ivf = index_ctx.ivf();
+            let mut smallest: Option<HashSet<u64>> = None;
+            for i in 0..ivf.ivf.num_partitions() {
+                let partition_row_ids = load_partition_row_ids(ivf, i)
+                    .await
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                if partition_row_ids.is_empty() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                let is_better = smallest
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|existing| partition_row_ids.len() < existing.len())
+                    .unwrap_or(true);
+                if is_better {
+                    smallest = Some(partition_row_ids);
+                }
+            }
+            smallest
+                .expect("expected a non-empty partition")
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+        logical_row_ids.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(logical_row_ids.len(), cluster_sizes[2]);
+        let retained_id = logical_row_ids[0];
+        delete_ids(&mut dataset, &logical_row_ids[1..]).await;
+        compact_after_deletions(&mut dataset).await;
+
+        let (append_batch, append_schema) = generate_clustered_multivec_batch(
+            &[APPEND_ROWS],
+            &centroids[2..],
+            MULTIVEC_PER_ROW,
+            total_rows as u64,
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(append_batch)], append_schema),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
         dataset
             .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let stats_before: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats_before["num_indices"].as_u64().unwrap(), 2);
-        let partitions_before: Vec<usize> = stats_before["indices"]
-            .as_array()
+        let final_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            final_ctx.num_partitions(),
+            2,
+            "Expected the reduced multivector partition to join, stats: {}",
+            final_ctx.stats_json()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(final_ctx.stats()["num_indices"].as_u64().unwrap(), 1);
+        let expected_rows = total_rows - cluster_sizes[2] + 1 + APPEND_ROWS;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap(), expected_rows);
+
+        let sample_row = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .filter(&format!("id = {retained_id}"))
             .unwrap()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|idx| idx["num_partitions"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize)
-            .collect();
-        assert_eq!(partitions_before.len(), 2);
-        let base_partition_count = partitions_before
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sample_row.num_rows(), 1);
+        let retained_row_id = sample_row[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0);
+        let mut indexed_row_id_counts = HashMap::new();
+        for partition_idx in 0..final_ctx.num_partitions() {
+            for row_id in load_partition_row_ids(final_ctx.ivf(), partition_idx).await {
+                *indexed_row_id_counts.entry(row_id).or_insert(0usize) += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed_row_id_counts.values().sum::<usize>(),
+            expected_rows * MULTIVEC_PER_ROW
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed_row_id_counts.get(&retained_row_id),
+            Some(&MULTIVEC_PER_ROW),
+            "all vectors for the retained logical row should survive the join"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            indexed_row_id_counts
+                .values()
+                .all(|count| *count == MULTIVEC_PER_ROW),
+            "each logical row should have exactly {MULTIVEC_PER_ROW} indexed vectors"
+        );
+        let live_row_ids = dataset.scan().with_row_id().try_into_batch().await.unwrap()[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
             .iter()
             .copied()
-            .max()
-            .expect("expected at least one partition count");
-        assert!(base_partition_count >= 2);
-        assert!(partitions_before
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(live_row_ids.len(), expected_rows);
+        assert_eq!(
+            indexed_row_id_counts
+                .keys()
+                .copied()
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+            live_row_ids
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn row_ids_matching(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str) -> HashSet<u64> {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.with_row_id();
+        scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        batch[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
             .iter()
-            .all(|count| *count == base_partition_count));
+            .copied()
+            .collect()
+    }
 
-        let indices_meta = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices_meta.len(), 2);
+    struct OptimizeAfterDelete {
+        deleted_row_ids: HashSet<u64>,
+        index_row_ids: HashSet<u64>,
+        num_partitions_after: usize,
+        stats_json: String,
+    }
 
-        compact_files(
-            &mut dataset,
-            CompactionOptions {
-                target_rows_per_fragment: 5_000,
+    /// Shared scenario for the issue-7701 regressions: stable-row-id dataset,
+    /// IVF_FLAT index, scattered delete, optimize. Asserts the invariants both
+    /// partition adjustments must hold -- no live row lost, no id that never
+    /// existed -- and returns the state for the mode-specific assertions.
+    async fn optimize_after_delete(
+        total_rows: usize,
+        nlist: usize,
+        delete_predicate: &str,
+        keep_predicate: &str,
+    ) -> OptimizeAfterDelete {
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let (batch, schema) = generate_batch::<Float32Type>(total_rows, None, 0.0..1.0, false);
+        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            batches,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                enable_stable_row_ids: true,
                 ..Default::default()
-            },
-            None,
+            }),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let stats_after_compaction: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats_after_compaction["num_indices"].as_u64().unwrap(), 2);
-        let mut partitions_after: Vec<usize> = stats_after_compaction["indices"]
-            .as_array()
-            .unwrap()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|idx| idx["num_partitions"].as_u64().unwrap() as usize)
-            .collect();
-        partitions_after.sort_unstable();
-        assert_eq!(
-            partitions_after,
-            vec![base_partition_count, base_partition_count]
-        );
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(nlist, DistanceType::L2);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let deleted_row_ids = row_ids_matching(&dataset, delete_predicate).await;
+        let live_row_ids = row_ids_matching(&dataset, keep_predicate).await;
+        dataset.delete(delete_predicate).await.unwrap();
 
-        const LARGE_APPEND_ROWS: usize = 40_000;
-        append_constant_vector(&mut dataset, LARGE_APPEND_ROWS, &template_values).await;
         dataset
             .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
-        let stats_after_split: serde_json::Value =
-            serde_json::from_str(&dataset.index_statistics(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap()).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stats_after_split["num_indices"].as_u64().unwrap(), 1);
-        let final_partition_count = stats_after_split["indices"][0]["num_partitions"]
-            .as_u64()
-            .unwrap() as usize;
-        assert_eq!(
-            final_partition_count,
-            base_partition_count + 1,
-            "expected split to increase partitions beyond {}, got {}",
-            base_partition_count,
-            final_partition_count
-        );
+        let final_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", INDEX_NAME).await;
+        let num_partitions_after = final_ctx.num_partitions();
+        let stats_json = final_ctx.stats_json().to_string();
+        let flat = final_ctx
+            .index
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<IvfFlatIndex>()
+            .expect("expected IvfFlat index");
+        let mut index_row_ids = HashSet::new();
+        for part in 0..flat.ivf.num_partitions() {
+            index_row_ids.extend(load_flat_partition_row_ids(flat, part).await);
+        }
+
+        for row_id in &live_row_ids {
+            assert!(
+                index_row_ids.contains(row_id),
+                "live row id {} missing from index after optimize",
+                row_id
+            );
+        }
+        for row_id in &index_row_ids {
+            assert!(
+                live_row_ids.contains(row_id) || deleted_row_ids.contains(row_id),
+                "unexpected row id {} in index after optimize",
+                row_id
+            );
+        }
+
+        OptimizeAfterDelete {
+            deleted_row_ids,
+            index_row_ids,
+            num_partitions_after,
+            stats_json,
+        }
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_spfresh_join_split() {
-        // Two join cycles followed by three append cycles:
-        // 1. Each deletion shrinks the smallest partition and verifies the partition count.
-        // 2. Append #1 (10k rows) creates a delta index without splitting.
-        // 3. Append #2 and #3 (40k rows each) trigger splits, forcing merges and validating partition sizes.
+    async fn test_optimize_join_after_delete_with_stable_row_ids() {
+        // Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7701:
+        // every partition (400 rows / 4) is under the IVF_FLAT join threshold,
+        // so one optimize joins all of them but the largest after a scattered delete.
+        let run = optimize_after_delete(400, 4, "id % 3 = 0", "id % 3 != 0").await;
 
-        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "vector_idx";
-        const NLIST: usize = 3;
-        const FIRST_APPEND_ROWS: usize = 10_000;
-        const SECOND_APPEND_ROWS: usize = 30_000;
-        const THIRD_APPEND_ROWS: usize = 35_000;
+        assert_eq!(
+            run.num_partitions_after, 1,
+            "optimize should have joined every undersized partition but one, got stats: {}",
+            run.stats_json
+        );
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        // The join reads every partition's stored rows through the merge filter, so
+        // deleted ids are dropped index-wide and not just from the joined partition.
+        for row_id in &run.deleted_row_ids {
+            assert!(
+                !run.index_row_ids.contains(row_id),
+                "deleted row id {} still in index after join",
+                row_id
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Two small clusters (for joins) and two large clusters (for splits).
-        let cluster_sizes = [100, 4_000, 4_000];
-        let total_rows: usize = cluster_sizes.iter().sum();
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_optimize_split_after_delete_with_stable_row_ids() {
+        // Regression test for https://github.com/lance-format/lance/issues/7701:
+        // one partition holds more than 4x the IVF_FLAT target, so optimize
+        // splits it after a scattered delete. This path reaches
+        // filter_deleted_ids through reshuffle_partitions, unlike the join
+        // path's take_vectors.
+        let run = optimize_after_delete(20_000, 1, "id % 5 = 0", "id % 5 != 0").await;
 
-        let mut centroid_values = Vec::new();
-        for i in 0..NLIST {
-            for j in 0..DIM {
-                centroid_values.push(if j == 0 { (i as f32) * 10.0 } else { 0.0 });
-            }
-        }
-        let centroids = Arc::new(
-            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
-                Float32Array::from(centroid_values),
-                DIM as i32,
-            )
-            .unwrap(),
+        assert!(
+            run.num_partitions_after > 1,
+            "optimize should have split the oversized partition, got stats: {}",
+            run.stats_json
         );
 
-        let mut ids = Vec::new();
-        let mut vector_values = Vec::new();
-        let mut current_id = 0u64;
-        for (cluster_idx, &size) in cluster_sizes.iter().enumerate() {
-            let centroid_base = (cluster_idx as f32) * 10.0;
-            for _ in 0..size {
-                ids.push(current_id);
-                current_id += 1;
-                for j in 0..DIM {
-                    vector_values.push(if j == 0 {
-                        centroid_base + (current_id % 100) as f32 * 0.005
-                    } else {
-                        (current_id % 50) as f32 * 0.01
-                    });
-                }
-            }
+        // The split rebuilds the whole partition from live rows: no deleted
+        // ids remain.
+        for row_id in &run.deleted_row_ids {
+            assert!(
+                !run.index_row_ids.contains(row_id),
+                "deleted row id {} still in index after split",
+                row_id
+            );
         }
+    }
 
-        let ids_array = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(ids.clone()));
-        let vectors = Arc::new(
-            FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vector_values), DIM as i32)
-                .unwrap(),
-        );
-        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-            Field::new("id", DataType::UInt64, false),
-            Field::new("vector", vectors.data_type().clone(), false),
-        ]));
-        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![ids_array, vectors]).unwrap();
-        let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::ivf_pq(VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+        DistanceType::L2,
+        IvfBuildParams::new(4),
+        PQBuildParams::new(4, 4),
+    ))]
+    #[case::ivf_rq(VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_rq_params(
+        DistanceType::L2,
+        IvfBuildParams::new(4),
+        RQBuildParams::with_rotation_type(5, RQRotationType::Fast),
+    ))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_prewarm_vector_index(#[case] params: VectorIndexParams) {
+        use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
 
-        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
-            batches,
-            test_uri,
-            Some(WriteParams {
-                mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Overwrite,
-                ..Default::default()
-            }),
-        )
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
+        const INDEX_NAME: &str = "my_idx";
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
 
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(NLIST, centroids).unwrap();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
-            DistanceType::L2,
-            ivf_params,
-            PQBuildParams::default(),
-        );
         dataset
             .create_index(
                 &["vector"],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_string()),
+                Some(INDEX_NAME.to_owned()),
                 &params,
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Template vector from the first large cluster for deterministic appends.
-        let template_id = (cluster_sizes[0] + cluster_sizes[1]) as u64;
-        let template_batch = dataset
-            .take_rows(&[template_id], dataset.schema().clone())
+        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut dataset, 8, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let template_values = template_batch["vector"]
-            .as_fixed_size_list()
-            .value(0)
-            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
-            .values()
-            .to_vec();
-        assert_eq!(
-            template_values.len(),
-            DIM,
-            "Template vector should match DIM"
+
+        // Reopen to avoid carrying index state in memory from index creation.
+        let dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2, "expected two index deltas");
+        let unique_uuids: HashSet<_> = indices.iter().map(|meta| meta.uuid).collect();
+        assert_eq!(unique_uuids.len(), 2, "expected two unique index UUIDs");
+
+        // Reset IO stats after index creation.
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+
+        // Concurrent prewarms should single-flight each partition through the
+        // cache loader and leave a complete warm cache for both callers.
+        let (first, second) = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(30), async {
+            tokio::join!(
+                dataset.prewarm_index(INDEX_NAME),
+                dataset.prewarm_index(INDEX_NAME)
+            )
+        })
+        .await
+        .expect("concurrent prewarms deadlocked");
+        first.unwrap();
+        second.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(
+            stats.read_iops > 0,
+            "prewarm should have read from disk, but read_iops was 0"
         );
 
-        let mut expected_partitions = NLIST;
-        let mut expected_rows = total_rows;
+        // Query should not perform IO after prewarming all deltas.
+        let q = vectors.value(0);
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", q.as_primitive::<Float32Type>(), 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["_rowid"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            0,
+            "query should not perform IO after prewarm"
+        );
 
-        // Two join cycles.
-        for expected_after in [NLIST - 1, NLIST - 2] {
-            let (deleted_rows, appended_rows, actual_partitions) =
-                shrink_smallest_partition(&mut dataset, INDEX_NAME, expected_after).await;
-            expected_rows = expected_rows - deleted_rows + appended_rows;
-            assert_eq!(
-                dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap(),
-                expected_rows,
-                "Row count mismatch after join"
-            );
-            expected_partitions = actual_partitions;
+        // Second prewarm should not need IO (already cached).
+        dataset.prewarm_index(INDEX_NAME).await.unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(stats, read_iops, 0, "second prewarm should not perform IO");
+    }
+
+    /// Index-cache backend that can drop partition entries on demand.
+    ///
+    /// Used to simulate cache invalidation after a credential rotation:
+    /// partition keys are opaque digests, so the test supplies the exact
+    /// [`InternalCacheKey`] set to bypass once the index identity is known
+    /// (see [`ivf_partition_cache_keys`]).
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct PartitionBypassCacheBackend {
+        inner: lance_core::cache::MokaCacheBackend,
+        partition_keys: std::sync::Mutex<HashSet<lance_core::cache::InternalCacheKey>>,
+        bypass_partitions: AtomicBool,
+        partition_hits: AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    impl PartitionBypassCacheBackend {
+        fn new() -> Self {
+            Self {
+                inner: lance_core::cache::MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(256 * 1024 * 1024),
+                partition_keys: std::sync::Mutex::new(HashSet::new()),
+                bypass_partitions: AtomicBool::new(false),
+                partition_hits: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            }
         }
 
-        // Append #1: no split, expect a delta index.
-        let rows = FIRST_APPEND_ROWS;
-        append_and_verify_append_phase(
-            &mut dataset,
-            INDEX_NAME,
-            &template_values,
-            rows,
-            expected_partitions,
-            expected_rows + rows,
-            2,
-            false,
-        )
-        .await;
-        expected_rows += rows;
+        fn set_partition_keys(&self, partition_keys: HashSet<lance_core::cache::InternalCacheKey>) {
+            *self.partition_keys.lock().unwrap() = partition_keys;
+        }
 
-        // Append #2: triggers split and merge.
-        expected_partitions += 1;
-        let rows = SECOND_APPEND_ROWS;
-        append_and_verify_append_phase(
-            &mut dataset,
-            INDEX_NAME,
-            &template_values,
-            rows,
-            expected_partitions,
-            expected_rows + rows,
-            1,
-            true,
-        )
-        .await;
-        expected_rows += rows;
+        fn is_partition(&self, key: &lance_core::cache::InternalCacheKey) -> bool {
+            self.partition_keys.lock().unwrap().contains(key)
+        }
 
-        // Append #3: triggers another split, remains a single merged index.
-        expected_partitions += 1;
-        let rows = THIRD_APPEND_ROWS;
-        append_and_verify_append_phase(
-            &mut dataset,
-            INDEX_NAME,
-            &template_values,
-            rows,
-            expected_partitions,
-            expected_rows + rows,
-            1,
-            true,
-        )
-        .await;
+        fn set_bypass_partitions(&self, bypass_partitions: bool) {
+            self.bypass_partitions
+                .store(bypass_partitions, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+
+        fn should_bypass(&self, key: &lance_core::cache::InternalCacheKey) -> bool {
+            self.bypass_partitions.load(Ordering::Relaxed) && self.is_partition(key)
+        }
+
+        /// Whether the backend currently holds an entry for `key`.
+        async fn contains(&self, key: &lance_core::cache::InternalCacheKey) -> bool {
+            self.inner.get(key, None).await.is_some()
+        }
+
+        fn partition_hits(&self) -> usize {
+            self.partition_hits.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Derive the internal cache keys of the IVF partition entries for an
+    /// index, replicating the namespace path
+    /// `dataset URI -> index UUID -> frag-reuse UUID` used when opening the
+    /// index. V3 partitions use [`IVFPartitionKey`]; legacy (v0.1/v0.2)
+    /// indices use `LegacyIVFPartitionKey`.
+    fn ivf_partition_cache_keys(
+        dataset_uri: &str,
+        uuid: &uuid::Uuid,
+        fri_uuid: Option<&uuid::Uuid>,
+        num_partitions: usize,
+        index_version: &IndexFileVersion,
+    ) -> HashSet<lance_core::cache::InternalCacheKey> {
+        use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheNamespace, KeyBuilder, UnsizedCacheKey};
+
+        let mut namespace = CacheNamespace::root().child(dataset_uri);
+        namespace = namespace.child(uuid.as_hyphenated().to_string().as_str());
+        if let Some(fri_uuid) = fri_uuid {
+            namespace = namespace.child(fri_uuid.as_hyphenated().to_string().as_str());
+        }
+
+        (0..num_partitions)
+            .map(|partition_id| {
+                if matches!(index_version, IndexFileVersion::V3) {
+                    let cache_key =
+                        IVFPartitionKey::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::new(partition_id);
+                    let mut builder = KeyBuilder::new(
+                        namespace,
+                        IVFPartitionKey::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::stable_type_id(),
+                        IVFPartitionKey::<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer>::schema(),
+                    );
+                    cache_key.write_key(&mut builder);
+                    builder.finish()
+                } else {
+                    let cache_key =
+                        crate::index::vector::ivf::LegacyIVFPartitionKey::new(partition_id);
+                    let mut builder = KeyBuilder::new(
+                        namespace,
+                        crate::index::vector::ivf::LegacyIVFPartitionKey::stable_type_id(),
+                        crate::index::vector::ivf::LegacyIVFPartitionKey::schema(),
+                    );
+                    cache_key.write_key(&mut builder);
+                    builder.finish()
+                }
+            })
+            .collect()
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_partition_split_on_append_multivec() {
-        // This test verifies that when we append enough multivector data to a partition
-        // such that it exceeds MAX_PARTITION_SIZE_FACTOR * target_partition_size,
-        // the partition will be split into 2 partitions.
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl lance_core::cache::CacheBackend for PartitionBypassCacheBackend {
+        async fn get(
+            &self,
+            key: &lance_core::cache::InternalCacheKey,
+            codec: Option<lance_core::cache::CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> Option<lance_core::cache::CacheEntry> {
+            if self.should_bypass(key) {
+                None
+            } else {
+                let entry = self.inner.get(key, codec).await;
+                if entry.is_some() && self.is_partition(key) {
+                    self.partition_hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                }
+                entry
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn insert(
+            &self,
+            key: &lance_core::cache::InternalCacheKey,
+            entry: lance_core::cache::CacheEntry,
+            size_bytes: usize,
+            codec: Option<lance_core::cache::CacheCodec>,
+        ) {
+            if !self.should_bypass(key) {
+                self.inner.insert(key, entry, size_bytes, codec).await;
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+            &self,
+            key: &lance_core::cache::InternalCacheKey,
+            loader: std::pin::Pin<
+                Box<
+                    dyn futures::Future<Output = Result<(lance_core::cache::CacheEntry, usize)>>
+                        + Send
+                        + 'a,
+                >,
+            >,
+            codec: Option<lance_core::cache::CacheCodec>,
+        ) -> Result<(lance_core::cache::CacheEntry, bool)> {
+            if self.should_bypass(key) {
+                let (entry, _) = loader.await?;
+                Ok((entry, false))
+            } else {
+                let result = self.inner.get_or_insert(key, loader, codec).await;
+                if result.as_ref().is_ok_and(|(_, is_cache_hit)| *is_cache_hit)
+                    && self.is_partition(key)
+                {
+                    self.partition_hits.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                }
+                result
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn clear(&self) {
+            self.inner.clear().await;
+        }
 
-        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.num_entries().await
+        }
+
+        async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.size_bytes().await
+        }
 
-        // Create initial dataset with multivector data
-        let (dataset, _) = generate_multivec_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        fn approx_num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.approx_num_entries()
+        }
 
-        // Create an IVF-PQ index with 2 partitions
-        // For IvfPq, target_partition_size = 8192
-        // Split triggers when partition_size > 4 * 8192 = 32,768
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, DIM / 8, DistanceType::Cosine, 50);
-        verify_partition_split_after_append(dataset, test_uri, params, "multivector data").await;
+        fn approx_size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+            self.inner.approx_size_bytes()
+        }
     }
 
+    /// Integration test: create a vector index, prewarm it through a
+    /// serializing cache backend, then query. Verifies that entries are
+    /// serialized to bytes and that queries produce correct results after
+    /// deserialization.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::ivf_pq(
+        VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(4),
+            PQBuildParams::default(),
+        ),
+        <PartitionEntry<FlatIndex, ProductQuantizer> as CacheCodecImpl>::TYPE_ID
+    )]
+    #[case::ivf_hnsw_sq(
+        VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_hnsw_sq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(4),
+            HnswBuildParams::default(),
+            SQBuildParams::default(),
+        ),
+        <PartitionEntry<HNSW, ScalarQuantizer> as CacheCodecImpl>::TYPE_ID
+    )]
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_join_partition_on_delete_multivec() {
-        // This test verifies that IVF index with multivector data handles deletions
-        // and compaction correctly, and that partition join works when applicable.
-        //
-        // Due to the complexity of multivector partition assignment, we use a more
-        // flexible verification approach that doesn't require specific partition sizes.
+    async fn test_prewarm_and_query_with_serializing_backend(
+        #[case] params: VectorIndexParams,
+        #[case] partition_type_id: &'static str,
+    ) {
+        use crate::utils::test::serializing_cache::SerializingCacheBackend;
+        use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
 
         let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
         let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
-        const MULTIVEC_PER_ROW: usize = 3;
-        let cluster_sizes = [4000, 4000, 400];
-        let offsets: Vec<f32> = vec![0.0, 10.0, 20.0];
-        let nlist = offsets.len();
-        let mut dataset = {
-            let (batch, schema) =
-                generate_clustered_multivec_batch(&cluster_sizes, &offsets, MULTIVEC_PER_ROW);
-            let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![batch].into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
-            Dataset::write(
-                batches,
-                test_uri,
-                Some(WriteParams {
-                    mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Overwrite,
-                    ..Default::default()
-                }),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-        };
-
-        const SMALL_APPEND_FOR_JOIN: usize = 32;
-        let centroids = build_centroids_for_offsets(&offsets);
-        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::try_with_centroids(nlist, centroids).unwrap();
-        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
-            DistanceType::Cosine,
-            ivf_params,
-            PQBuildParams::default(),
-        );
+        // Create dataset with vector index using default cache
+        let (mut dataset, _) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
         dataset
             .create_index(
                 &["vector"],
                 IndexType::Vector,
-                Some("vector_idx".to_string()),
+                Some("serde_idx".to_owned()),
                 &params,
                 true,
             )
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify initial partition count and record it for later comparison.
-        let index_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", "vector_idx").await;
-        let initial_partitions = index_ctx.num_partitions();
+        let q = Float32Array::from_iter_values(repeat_n(0.5, DIM));
+        let expected = ground_truth(&dataset, "vector", &q, 10, DistanceType::L2).await;
+
+        // Re-open with the serializing backend
+        let backend = Arc::new(SerializingCacheBackend::new());
+        let session = Arc::new(crate::session::Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+            backend.clone(),
+            128 * 1024 * 1024,
+            Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+        ));
+        let dataset = crate::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri)
+            .with_session(session)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Prewarm — this should serialize entries into the backend
+        dataset.prewarm_index("serde_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let serialized = backend.serialized_entry_count().await;
+        let state_type_id = IvfStateEntryBox::TYPE_ID;
+        let state_inserts = backend.serialized_insert_count(state_type_id).await;
+        let partition_inserts = backend.serialized_insert_count(partition_type_id).await;
+        let passthrough = backend.l1_entry_count().await;
         assert!(
-            initial_partitions <= nlist && initial_partitions > 1,
-            "Expected at most {} partitions, got {}",
-            nlist,
-            initial_partitions
+            serialized > 0,
+            "prewarm should have serialized entries into the backend"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            passthrough, 0,
+            "all index cache entries should have codecs (nothing in passthrough), \
+             but found {passthrough} passthrough entries"
         );
 
-        // Find the smallest partition and delete most of its rows
-        let row_ids = {
-            let ivf = index_ctx.ivf();
-            let mut smallest: Option<Vec<u64>> = None;
-            for i in 0..ivf.ivf.num_partitions() {
-                let partition_row_ids = load_partition_row_ids(ivf, i).await;
-                if partition_row_ids.is_empty() {
-                    continue;
-                }
+        drop(dataset);
+        let backend = Arc::new(backend.restart());
+        assert_eq!(
+            backend.l1_entry_count().await,
+            0,
+            "restarting must discard the in-memory L1"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            backend.serialized_entry_count().await,
+            serialized,
+            "restarting must retain the serialized IVF state and partitions"
+        );
+        let session = Arc::new(crate::session::Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+            backend.clone(),
+            128 * 1024 * 1024,
+            Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+        ));
+        let dataset = crate::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri)
+            .with_session(session)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-                let is_better = smallest
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .map(|existing| partition_row_ids.len() < existing.len())
-                    .unwrap_or(true);
-                if is_better {
-                    smallest = Some(partition_row_ids);
-                }
-            }
-            smallest.unwrap_or_default()
-        };
+        // Query — the recreated backend will deserialize entries from bytes.
+        // All index entries are in serialized form, so every cache hit involves
+        // a deserialization round-trip.
+        let results = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .nearest("vector", &q, 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(4)
+            .maximum_nprobes(4)
+            .project(&["_rowid"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            backend.serialized_insert_count(state_type_id).await,
+            state_inserts,
+            "the first restarted query must reuse the serialized IVF state"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            backend.serialized_insert_count(partition_type_id).await,
+            partition_inserts,
+            "the first restarted query must reuse every serialized IVF partition"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 10, "should return 10 nearest neighbors");
 
-        if row_ids.is_empty() {
-            // All partitions might be large - just verify basic functionality
-            let (batch, _) = generate_batch::<Float32Type>(1, None, 0.0..1.0, true);
-            let test_vector = batch["vector"].as_list::<i32>().value(0);
-            let result = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .nearest("vector", &test_vector, 5)
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            assert!(result.num_rows() > 0, "Multivector search should work");
-            return;
+        // Verify distances are sorted (ascending for L2)
+        let distances: Vec<f32> = results
+            .column_by_name("_distance")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .to_vec();
+        for w in distances.windows(2) {
+            assert!(w[1] >= w[0], "distances should be sorted ascending");
         }
 
-        // Keep only a few rows to make partition small
-        let keep_count = 5.min(row_ids.len());
-        let retained_ids: Vec<u64> = row_ids.iter().take(keep_count).copied().collect();
+        let row_ids = results[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let recall = row_ids.intersection(&expected).count() as f32 / expected.len() as f32;
+        assert_ge!(
+            recall,
+            0.5,
+            "serialized IVF query recall is below threshold: {recall}"
+        );
 
-        // Delete all rows except the first keep_count rows
-        delete_ids(&mut dataset, &row_ids[keep_count..]).await;
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &q, 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(4)
+            .maximum_nprobes(4)
+            .project(&["_rowid"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_io_eq!(
+            stats,
+            read_iops,
+            0,
+            "warmed IVF query should not perform IO after backend restart"
+        );
+    }
 
-        // Compact to potentially trigger partition join
-        compact_after_deletions(&mut dataset).await;
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::v3(IndexFileVersion::V3)]
+    #[case::legacy(IndexFileVersion::Legacy)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_vector_cache_uses_current_object_store(#[case] index_version: IndexFileVersion) {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+        let (mut dataset, vectors) = generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(test_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut dataset, NUM_ROWS, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
 
-        // Append a tiny batch and optimize incrementally to trigger the join path.
-        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut dataset, SMALL_APPEND_FOR_JOIN, 0.0..0.01).await;
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(
+            DistanceType::L2,
+            IvfBuildParams::new(4),
+            PQBuildParams::default(),
+        )
+        .version(index_version.clone())
+        .clone();
         dataset
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("credential_rotation_idx".to_owned()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        dataset
-            // A second pass ensures the incremental index sees the reduced
-            // partition sizes and applies the join.
-            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::new())
+        let index_meta = dataset
+            .load_indices_by_name("credential_rotation_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap();
+        let query = vectors.value(0);
+        let ground_truth = ground_truth(&dataset, "vector", &query, 20, DistanceType::L2).await;
+
+        let cache_backend = Arc::new(PartitionBypassCacheBackend::new());
+        let session = Arc::new(crate::session::Session::with_index_cache_backend(
+            cache_backend.clone(),
+            128 * 1024 * 1024,
+            Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+        ));
+        let dataset = crate::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(test_uri)
+            .with_session(session)
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let store_params_a = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([(
+                    "credential_generation".to_owned(),
+                    "secret-generation-a".to_owned(),
+                )]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let (store_a, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            dataset.session().store_registry(),
+            dataset.uri(),
+            &store_params_a,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset_a = dataset.with_object_store(store_a.clone(), Some(store_params_a));
+
+        let store_params_b = ObjectStoreParams {
+            storage_options_accessor: Some(Arc::new(StorageOptionsAccessor::with_static_options(
+                HashMap::from([(
+                    "credential_generation".to_owned(),
+                    "secret-generation-b".to_owned(),
+                )]),
+            ))),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let (store_b, _) = ObjectStore::from_uri_and_params(
+            dataset.session().store_registry(),
+            dataset.uri(),
+            &store_params_b,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(!Arc::ptr_eq(&store_a, &store_b));
+        let dataset_b = dataset.with_object_store(store_b.clone(), Some(store_params_b));
+
+        let _ = store_a.io_stats_incremental();
+        let _ = store_b.io_stats_incremental();
+
+        dataset_a
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 20)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(4)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        // Verify partition count decreased after join
-        let final_ctx = load_vector_index_context(&dataset, "vector", "vector_idx").await;
-        let final_num_partitions = final_ctx.num_partitions();
-        assert_le!(
-            final_num_partitions,
-            initial_partitions,
-            "Partition count should drop after join, was {}, now {}",
-            initial_partitions,
-            final_num_partitions
+        let frag_reuse_uuid = dataset_a.frag_reuse_index_uuid().await;
+        let state_cache_key =
+            crate::index::IvfIndexStateCacheKey::new(&index_meta.uuid, frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref());
+        let cached_state = if matches!(index_version, IndexFileVersion::V3) {
+            Some(
+                dataset_a
+                    .index_cache
+                    .get_with_key(&state_cache_key)
+                    .await
+                    .expect("V3 IVF state should be cached"),
+            )
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let index_path_fragment = format!("_indices/{}", index_meta.uuid);
+        let first_store_stats = store_a.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert!(
+            first_store_stats
+                .requests
+                .iter()
+                .any(|request| request.path.as_ref().contains(&index_path_fragment)),
+            "the first query should read the index through the first object store: {first_store_stats:#?}"
+        );
+        let partition_keys = ivf_partition_cache_keys(
+            dataset.uri(),
+            &index_meta.uuid,
+            frag_reuse_uuid.as_ref(),
+            4,
+            &index_version,
         );
+        cache_backend.set_partition_keys(partition_keys.clone());
+        for partition_key in &partition_keys {
+            assert!(
+                cache_backend.contains(partition_key).await,
+                "the first query should populate portable partition entries"
+            );
+        }
+        let index_entries_after_a = dataset.session().index_cache_stats().await.num_entries;
+        let metadata_entries_after_a = dataset.session().metadata_cache_stats().await.num_entries;
+        let _ = store_b.io_stats_incremental();
 
-        // Verify that multivector search still works after compaction
-        // Get a sample row by scanning and filtering
-        let sample_id = retained_ids[0];
-        let sample_row = dataset
+        cache_backend.set_bypass_partitions(true);
+        let results = dataset_b
             .scan()
-            .filter(&format!("id = {}", sample_id))
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 20)
             .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(4)
+            .with_row_id()
             .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let row_ids = results[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let recall = row_ids.intersection(&ground_truth).count() as f32 / 20.0;
+        assert_ge!(recall, 0.5);
 
-        if sample_row.num_rows() > 0 {
-            let test_vector = sample_row["vector"].as_list::<i32>().value(0);
-            let result = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .nearest("vector", &test_vector, 10)
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
+        let old_store_stats = store_a.io_stats_incremental();
+        let old_store_index_reads = old_store_stats
+            .requests
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|request| request.path.as_ref().contains(&index_path_fragment))
+            .count();
+        let new_store_stats = store_b.io_stats_incremental();
+        let new_store_index_reads = new_store_stats
+            .requests
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|request| request.path.as_ref().contains(&index_path_fragment))
+            .count();
+        if matches!(index_version, IndexFileVersion::V3) {
+            assert_eq!(
+                old_store_index_reads, 0,
+                "the new dataset query must not use readers bound to the old object store: {old_store_stats:#?}"
+            );
+            assert!(
+                new_store_index_reads > 0,
+                "the new dataset query should read the index through the new object store: {new_store_stats:#?}"
+            );
+        } else {
+            // Legacy live indices are shared across dataset opens: their
+            // readers stay bound to the object store that first populated the
+            // cache, so the second dataset keeps reading through the old store.
+            assert!(
+                old_store_index_reads > 0,
+                "the cached legacy index should keep reading through the original object store: {old_store_stats:#?}"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                new_store_index_reads, 0,
+                "the cached legacy index must not reopen through the new object store: {new_store_stats:#?}"
+            );
+        }
+        if let Some(cached_state) = cached_state {
+            let state_after_rotation = dataset_b
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&state_cache_key)
                 .await
-                .unwrap();
+                .expect("V3 IVF state should remain cached after rotation");
             assert!(
-                result.num_rows() > 0,
-                "Multivector search should return results after compaction"
+                Arc::ptr_eq(&cached_state, &state_after_rotation),
+                "store-free IVF state should be reused across object-store generations"
             );
         }
 
-        // Verify the dataset still has rows after deletions and compaction
-        let remaining_rows = dataset.count_all_rows().await.unwrap();
+        // Re-query through the first dataset: V3 portable state is rebound to
+        // the store supplied by each reconstruction, while the cached legacy
+        // index keeps reading through its original store. Either way the second
+        // store must not be touched.
+        let _ = store_a.io_stats_incremental();
+        let _ = store_b.io_stats_incremental();
+        dataset_a
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 20)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(4)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let store_a_stats = store_a.io_stats_incremental();
+        let store_a_index_reads = store_a_stats
+            .requests
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|request| request.path.as_ref().contains(&index_path_fragment))
+            .count();
+        let store_b_stats = store_b.io_stats_incremental();
+        let store_b_index_reads = store_b_stats
+            .requests
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|request| request.path.as_ref().contains(&index_path_fragment))
+            .count();
         assert!(
-            remaining_rows > 0,
-            "Dataset should still have rows after deletions and compaction"
+            store_a_index_reads > 0,
+            "re-querying the first dataset should read the index through its object store: {store_a_stats:#?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            store_b_index_reads, 0,
+            "re-querying the first dataset must not use the second object store: {store_b_stats:#?}"
+        );
+
+        // Cache keys are opaque digests, so they cannot embed credential
+        // material by construction. What rotation must not do is mint new
+        // entries: the same portable state, partitions, and file metadata
+        // serve both object-store generations.
+        let index_entries_after_rotation = dataset.session().index_cache_stats().await.num_entries;
+        let metadata_entries_after_rotation =
+            dataset.session().metadata_cache_stats().await.num_entries;
+        assert_eq!(
+            index_entries_after_rotation, index_entries_after_a,
+            "credential rotation must not create new index cache entries"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metadata_entries_after_rotation, metadata_entries_after_a,
+            "credential rotation must not create new metadata cache entries"
         );
 
-        // Verify we can perform multivector search on remaining data
-        let sample_batch = dataset
+        cache_backend.set_bypass_partitions(false);
+        let partition_hits_before = cache_backend.partition_hits();
+        dataset_b
             .scan()
-            .limit(Some(1), None)
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 20)
             .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(4)
+            .with_row_id()
             .try_into_batch()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            cache_backend.partition_hits() > partition_hits_before,
+            "the second store should reuse portable partitions populated by the first"
+        );
+    }
 
-        if sample_batch.num_rows() > 0 {
-            let test_vector = sample_batch["vector"].as_list::<i32>().value(0);
-            let search_result = dataset
-                .scan()
-                .nearest("vector", &test_vector, 10)
-                .unwrap()
-                .try_into_batch()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            assert!(
-                search_result.num_rows() > 0,
-                "Multivector search should return results with remaining data"
-            );
-        }
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_shallow_clone_ivf_rq_uses_resolved_index_directory() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let source_uri = format!("{}/source", test_dir.as_str());
+        let clone_uri = format!("{}/clone", test_dir.as_str());
+        let (mut source, vectors) =
+            generate_test_dataset::<Float32Type>(&source_uri, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        append_dataset::<Float32Type>(&mut source, NUM_ROWS, 0.0..1.0).await;
+        assert_eq!(source.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_rq(4, 5, DistanceType::L2);
+        source
+            .create_index(
+                &["vector"],
+                IndexType::Vector,
+                Some("ivf_rq_idx".to_owned()),
+                &params,
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let query = vectors.value(0);
+        let ground_truth = ground_truth(&source, "vector", &query, 20, DistanceType::L2).await;
+        source
+            .tags()
+            .create("with_ivf_rq", source.version().version)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let cloned = source
+            .shallow_clone(&clone_uri, "with_ivf_rq", None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_meta = cloned
+            .load_indices_by_name("ivf_rq_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            index_meta.base_id.is_some(),
+            "a shallow-cloned index should reference its source base"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            cloned.indice_files_dir(&index_meta).unwrap(),
+            source.indices_dir(),
+            "the cloned index should resolve its path through the source base"
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            cloned.indice_files_dir(&index_meta).unwrap(),
+            cloned.indices_dir(),
+            "the cloned index should not use the clone's primary index directory"
+        );
+
+        let cloned = crate::DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&clone_uri)
+            .with_session(Arc::new(crate::session::Session::default()))
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let results = cloned
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", &query, 20)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(4)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_ids = results[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let recall = row_ids.intersection(&ground_truth).count() as f32 / 20.0;
+        assert_ge!(recall, 0.5);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/pq.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/pq.rs
index 1b7a6b43076..5faf70f6e84 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/pq.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/pq.rs
@@ -1,14 +1,21 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use lance_index::scalar::RowAddrTranslator;
+use lance_index::scalar::RowAddrTranslatorRef;
+use std::any::Any;
 use std::sync::Arc;
-use std::{any::Any, collections::HashMap};
 
-use arrow::compute::concat;
+use arrow::{
+    array::{ArrayData, make_array},
+    compute::concat,
+};
 use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
 use arrow_array::{
-    cast::{as_primitive_array, AsArray},
-    Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, UInt8Array,
+    Array, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, UInt8Array, UInt64Array,
+    cast::{AsArray, as_primitive_array},
+    new_empty_array,
 };
 use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, UInt32Array};
 use arrow_ord::sort::sort_to_indices;
@@ -17,37 +24,36 @@ use arrow_select::take::take;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_arrow::{BufferExt, DataTypeExt, FixedSizeListArrayExt};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::spawn_cpu;
 use lance_core::{ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD};
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::CompactFragReuseIndex;
 use lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector;
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel;
-use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::{transpose, ProductQuantizationStorage};
+use lance_index::vector::pq::storage::{ProductQuantizationStorage, transpose};
 use lance_index::vector::quantizer::{Quantization, QuantizationType, Quantizer};
 use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::SubIndexType;
 use lance_index::{
-    vector::{pq::ProductQuantizer, Query},
     Index, IndexType,
+    vector::{Query, pq::ProductQuantizer},
 };
-use lance_io::{traits::Reader, utils::read_fixed_stride_array};
+use lance_io::traits::Reader;
 use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
 use log::{info, warn};
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use serde_json::json;
-use snafu::location;
-use tracing::{instrument, span, Level};
+use tracing::{Level, instrument, span};
 // Re-export
 pub use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
-use lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl;
+use lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl_owned;
 
 use super::VectorIndex;
+use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::index::prefilter::PreFilter;
 use crate::index::vector::utils::maybe_sample_training_data;
 use crate::io::exec::knn::KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA;
-use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 
 /// Product Quantization Index.
@@ -68,21 +74,63 @@ pub struct PQIndex {
     /// Metric type.
     metric_type: MetricType,
 
-    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+    frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
+}
+
+async fn read_legacy_index_values(
+    reader: &dyn Reader,
+    data_type: &DataType,
+    offset: usize,
+    length: usize,
+) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+    if length == 0 {
+        return Ok(new_empty_array(data_type));
+    }
+
+    let byte_length = length
+        .checked_mul(data_type.byte_width())
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("legacy IVF page byte length overflow".to_string()))?;
+    let end = offset
+        .checked_add(byte_length)
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::index("legacy IVF page offset overflow".to_string()))?;
+    let bytes = reader.get_range(offset..end).await?;
+    let buffer = if bytes.len() < byte_length {
+        arrow_buffer::Buffer::copy_bytes_bytes(bytes, byte_length)
+    } else {
+        arrow_buffer::Buffer::from_bytes_bytes(bytes, data_type.byte_width() as u64)
+    };
+    let data = ArrayData::builder(data_type.clone())
+        .len(length)
+        .null_count(0)
+        .add_buffer(buffer)
+        .build()?;
+    Ok(make_array(data))
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for PQIndex {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         self.pq.deep_size_of_children(context)
             + self
                 .code
                 .as_ref()
-                .map(|code| code.get_array_memory_size())
+                .map(|code| {
+                    if context.mark_seen(Arc::as_ptr(code) as *const () as usize) {
+                        (code.as_ref() as &dyn arrow_array::Array).deep_size_of_children(context)
+                    } else {
+                        0
+                    }
+                })
                 .unwrap_or(0)
             + self
                 .row_ids
                 .as_ref()
-                .map(|row_ids| row_ids.get_array_memory_size())
+                .map(|row_ids| {
+                    if context.mark_seen(Arc::as_ptr(row_ids) as *const () as usize) {
+                        (row_ids.as_ref() as &dyn arrow_array::Array).deep_size_of_children(context)
+                    } else {
+                        0
+                    }
+                })
                 .unwrap_or(0)
     }
 }
@@ -104,7 +152,7 @@ impl PQIndex {
     pub(crate) fn new(
         pq: ProductQuantizer,
         metric_type: MetricType,
-        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<FragReuseIndex>>,
+        frag_reuse_index: Option<Arc<CompactFragReuseIndex>>,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             code: None,
@@ -169,16 +217,12 @@ impl Index for PQIndex {
         self
     }
 
-    fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-        Ok(self)
-    }
-
     fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
         IndexType::Vector
     }
 
     async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
-        // TODO: Investigate
+        // Nothing is lazily loaded in PQ index, so we can return immediately.
         Ok(())
     }
 
@@ -203,14 +247,55 @@ impl Index for PQIndex {
             frag_ids.dedup();
             Ok(RoaringBitmap::from_sorted_iter(frag_ids).unwrap())
         } else {
-            Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "PQIndex::calculate_included_frags: PQ is not initialized".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            Err(Error::index(
+                "PQIndex::calculate_included_frags: PQ is not initialized".to_string(),
+            ))
         }
     }
 }
 
+impl PQIndex {
+    /// The one remap implementation behind the legacy `remap` and
+    /// `remap_streaming`: this page's addresses are the unit of translation.
+    async fn remap_with(&mut self, mapping: RowAddrTranslatorRef<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+        let num_vectors = self.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().len();
+        // One page's addresses are the unit of translation.
+        let mapping = mapping
+            .resolve(self.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().values().iter().copied())
+            .await?;
+        let row_ids = self.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().values().iter();
+        let transposed_codes = self.code.as_ref().unwrap();
+        let remapped = row_ids
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter_map(|(vec_idx, old_row_id)| {
+                let new_row_id = mapping.get(*old_row_id);
+                // If the row id is not in the mapping then this row is not remapped and we keep as is
+                let new_row_id = new_row_id.unwrap_or(Some(*old_row_id));
+                new_row_id.map(|new_row_id| {
+                    (
+                        new_row_id,
+                        Self::get_pq_codes(transposed_codes, vec_idx, num_vectors),
+                    )
+                })
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        self.row_ids = Some(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+            remapped.iter().map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id),
+        )));
+
+        let pq_codes =
+            UInt8Array::from_iter_values(remapped.into_iter().flat_map(|(_, code)| code));
+        let transposed_codes = transpose(
+            &pq_codes,
+            self.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().len(),
+            self.pq.num_sub_vectors,
+        );
+        self.code = Some(Arc::new(transposed_codes));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
 #[async_trait]
 impl VectorIndex for PQIndex {
     /// Search top-k nearest neighbors for `key` within one PQ partition.
@@ -223,10 +308,9 @@ impl VectorIndex for PQIndex {
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         if self.code.is_none() || self.row_ids.is_none() {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: "PQIndex::search: PQ is not initialized".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "PQIndex::search: PQ is not initialized".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
         pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
 
@@ -238,7 +322,7 @@ impl VectorIndex for PQIndex {
         let pq = self.pq.clone();
         let query = query.clone();
         let num_sub_vectors = self.pq.code_dim() as i32;
-        spawn_cpu(move || {
+        let search = move || {
             let (code, row_ids) = if pre_filter.is_empty() {
                 Ok((code, row_ids))
             } else {
@@ -287,8 +371,8 @@ impl VectorIndex for PQIndex {
                     vec![dists, ids],
                 )?)
             }
-        })
-        .await
+        };
+        spawn_cpu(search).await
     }
 
     fn find_partitions(&self, _: &Query) -> Result<(UInt32Array, Float32Array)> {
@@ -325,24 +409,14 @@ impl VectorIndex for PQIndex {
         length: usize,
     ) -> Result<Box<dyn VectorIndex>> {
         let pq_code_length = self.pq.code_dim() * length;
-        let pq_codes = read_fixed_stride_array(
-            reader.as_ref(),
-            &DataType::UInt8,
-            offset,
-            pq_code_length,
-            ..,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let pq_codes =
+            read_legacy_index_values(reader.as_ref(), &DataType::UInt8, offset, pq_code_length)
+                .await?;
 
         let row_id_offset = offset + pq_code_length /* *1 */;
-        let row_ids = read_fixed_stride_array(
-            reader.as_ref(),
-            &DataType::UInt64,
-            row_id_offset,
-            length,
-            ..,
-        )
-        .await?;
+        let row_ids =
+            read_legacy_index_values(reader.as_ref(), &DataType::UInt64, row_id_offset, length)
+                .await?;
 
         let pq_codes = transpose(
             pq_codes.as_primitive(),
@@ -389,19 +463,17 @@ impl VectorIndex for PQIndex {
     }
 
     async fn to_batch_stream(&self, with_vector: bool) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let row_ids = self.row_ids.clone().ok_or(Error::Index {
-            message: "PQIndex::to_batch_stream: row ids not loaded for PQ".to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+        let row_ids = self.row_ids.clone().ok_or(Error::index(
+            "PQIndex::to_batch_stream: row ids not loaded for PQ".to_string(),
+        ))?;
 
         let num_rows = row_ids.len();
         let mut fields = vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()];
         let mut columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = vec![row_ids];
         if with_vector {
-            let transposed_codes = self.code.clone().ok_or(Error::Index {
-                message: "PQIndex::to_batch_stream: PQ codes not loaded for PQ".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            let transposed_codes = self.code.clone().ok_or(Error::index(
+                "PQIndex::to_batch_stream: PQ codes not loaded for PQ".to_string(),
+            ))?;
             let original_codes = transpose(&transposed_codes, self.pq.num_sub_vectors, num_rows);
             fields.push(Field::new(
                 self.pq.column(),
@@ -431,42 +503,19 @@ impl VectorIndex for PQIndex {
             .map_or(0, |row_ids| row_ids.len() as u64)
     }
 
-    fn row_ids(&self) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &u64>> {
-        todo!("this method is for only IVF_HNSW_* index");
+    fn row_ids(&self) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &u64> + '_> {
+        match self.row_ids.as_ref() {
+            Some(row_ids) => Box::new(row_ids.values().iter()),
+            None => Box::new(std::iter::empty()),
+        }
     }
 
-    async fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<()> {
-        let num_vectors = self.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().len();
-        let row_ids = self.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().values().iter();
-        let transposed_codes = self.code.as_ref().unwrap();
-        let remapped = row_ids
-            .enumerate()
-            .filter_map(|(vec_idx, old_row_id)| {
-                let new_row_id = mapping.get(old_row_id).cloned();
-                // If the row id is not in the mapping then this row is not remapped and we keep as is
-                let new_row_id = new_row_id.unwrap_or(Some(*old_row_id));
-                new_row_id.map(|new_row_id| {
-                    (
-                        new_row_id,
-                        Self::get_pq_codes(transposed_codes, vec_idx, num_vectors),
-                    )
-                })
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        self.row_ids = Some(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
-            remapped.iter().map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id),
-        )));
+    async fn remap(&mut self, mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()> {
+        self.remap_with(mapping.into()).await
+    }
 
-        let pq_codes =
-            UInt8Array::from_iter_values(remapped.into_iter().flat_map(|(_, code)| code));
-        let transposed_codes = transpose(
-            &pq_codes,
-            self.row_ids.as_ref().unwrap().len(),
-            self.pq.num_sub_vectors,
-        );
-        self.code = Some(Arc::new(transposed_codes));
-        Ok(())
+    async fn remap_streaming(&mut self, translator: &RowAddrTranslator) -> Result<()> {
+        self.remap_with(translator.as_ref()).await
     }
 
     fn ivf_model(&self) -> &IvfModel {
@@ -508,9 +557,25 @@ pub async fn build_pq_model(
     params: &PQBuildParams,
     ivf: Option<&IvfModel>,
 ) -> Result<ProductQuantizer> {
-    let num_codes = 2_usize.pow(params.num_bits as u32);
+    build_pq_model_in_fragments(dataset, column, dim, metric_type, params, ivf, None).await
+}
 
+pub async fn build_pq_model_in_fragments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    dim: usize,
+    metric_type: MetricType,
+    params: &PQBuildParams,
+    ivf: Option<&IvfModel>,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+) -> Result<ProductQuantizer> {
     if let Some(codebook) = &params.codebook {
+        lance_index::vector::pq::validate_supplied_codebook(
+            codebook.len(),
+            dim,
+            params.num_sub_vectors,
+            params.num_bits,
+        )?;
         let dt = if metric_type == MetricType::Cosine {
             info!("Normalize training data for PQ training: Cosine");
             MetricType::L2
@@ -529,25 +594,27 @@ pub async fn build_pq_model(
                 )?,
                 dt,
             )),
-            _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!("Wrong codebook data type: {:?}", codebook.data_type()),
-                location: location!(),
-            }),
+            _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Wrong codebook data type: {:?}",
+                codebook.data_type()
+            ))),
         };
     }
     info!(
         "Start to train PQ code: PQ{}, bits={}",
         params.num_sub_vectors, params.num_bits
     );
-    let expected_sample_size =
-        lance_index::vector::pq::num_centroids(params.num_bits as u32) * params.sample_rate;
+    // 2^num_bits panics on an unrepresentable num_bits, so it stays below the
+    // supplied-codebook branch, which rejects that input instead.
+    let num_codes = lance_index::vector::pq::num_centroids(params.num_bits as u32);
+    let expected_sample_size = num_codes * params.sample_rate;
     info!(
         "Loading training data for PQ. Sample size: {}",
         expected_sample_size
     );
     let start = std::time::Instant::now();
     let mut training_data =
-        maybe_sample_training_data(dataset, column, expected_sample_size).await?;
+        maybe_sample_training_data(dataset, column, expected_sample_size, fragment_ids).await?;
     info!(
         "Finished loading training data in {:02} seconds",
         start.elapsed().as_secs_f32()
@@ -561,7 +628,7 @@ pub async fn build_pq_model(
 
     if metric_type == MetricType::Cosine {
         info!("Normalize training data for PQ training: Cosine");
-        training_data = normalize_fsl(&training_data)?;
+        training_data = normalize_fsl_owned(training_data)?;
     }
 
     let training_data = if let Some(ivf) = ivf {
@@ -585,13 +652,10 @@ pub async fn build_pq_model(
             training_data.len(),
             num_codes
         );
-        return Err(Error::Unprocessable {
-            message: format!(
-                "Not enough rows to train PQ. Requires {num_codes} rows but only {available} available",
-                available = training_data.len()
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::unprocessable(format!(
+            "Not enough rows to train PQ. Requires {num_codes} rows but only {available} available",
+            available = training_data.len()
+        )));
     }
 
     info!("Start train PQ: params={:#?}", params);
@@ -632,21 +696,70 @@ pub(crate) fn build_pq_storage(
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
-    use std::ops::Range;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::{ops::Range, sync::Mutex};
 
     use arrow::datatypes::Float32Type;
     use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
     use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempObjFile, TempStrDir};
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+    use lance_io::traits::Writer;
+    use lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_fsl;
+    use object_store::path::Path;
+    use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
 
     use crate::index::vector::ivf::build_ivf_model;
-    use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrMask;
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::vector::DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM;
     use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+    use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
     use lance_testing::datagen::{
         generate_random_array_with_range, generate_random_array_with_seed,
     };
 
     const DIM: usize = 128;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn empty_legacy_ivf_pq_partition_does_not_read_object_store() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let reader = object_store
+            .open(&Path::from("missing-index"))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let codebook_values = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..256).map(|value| value as f32));
+        let codebook = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(codebook_values, 1).unwrap();
+        let index = PQIndex::new(
+            ProductQuantizer::new(1, 8, 1, codebook, DistanceType::L2),
+            MetricType::L2,
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let loaded = index.load(reader.into(), 1, 0).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(loaded.num_rows(), 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn legacy_index_values_are_read_from_the_requested_offset() {
+        let path = TempObjFile::default();
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::local();
+        let mut writer = object_store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_all(&[0xFF]).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_all(&11_u64.to_le_bytes()).await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_all(&12_u64.to_le_bytes()).await.unwrap();
+        Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let reader = object_store.open(&path).await.unwrap();
+        let values = read_legacy_index_values(reader.as_ref(), &DataType::UInt64, 1, 2)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            values.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>(),
+            &UInt64Array::from_iter_values([11, 12])
+        );
+    }
+
     async fn generate_dataset(
         test_uri: &str,
         range: Range<f32>,
@@ -684,7 +797,11 @@ mod tests {
         let centroids = generate_random_array_with_range::<Float32Type>(4 * DIM, -1.0..1.0);
         let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(centroids, DIM as i32).unwrap();
         let ivf = IvfModel::new(fsl, None);
-        let params = PQBuildParams::new(16, 8);
+        let params = PQBuildParams {
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 4,
+            ..PQBuildParams::new(16, 8)
+        };
         let pq = build_pq_model(&dataset, "vector", DIM, MetricType::L2, &params, Some(&ivf))
             .await
             .unwrap();
@@ -713,10 +830,22 @@ mod tests {
         let (dataset, vectors) = generate_dataset(test_uri, 100.0..120.0).await;
 
         let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(4);
-        let ivf = build_ivf_model(&dataset, "vector", DIM, MetricType::Cosine, &ivf_params)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let params = PQBuildParams::new(16, 8);
+        let ivf = build_ivf_model(
+            &dataset,
+            "vector",
+            DIM,
+            MetricType::Cosine,
+            &ivf_params,
+            None,
+            lance_index::progress::noop_progress(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let params = PQBuildParams {
+            max_iters: 2,
+            sample_rate: 4,
+            ..PQBuildParams::new(16, 8)
+        };
         let pq = build_pq_model(
             &dataset,
             "vector",
@@ -797,13 +926,59 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(matches!(err, Error::Unprocessable { .. }));
     }
 
+    /// The supplied codebook is checked before 2^num_bits is derived, so a
+    /// num_bits that does not fit reports the input rather than overflowing.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_build_pq_model_rejects_unrepresentable_num_bits() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let dim = 16;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vector",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                dim as i32,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let vectors = generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(dim * 10, [11u8; 32]);
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(vectors, dim as i32).unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(fsl)]).unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema.clone());
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let codebook = Arc::new(generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(
+            dim, [12u8; 32],
+        ));
+        let params = PQBuildParams::with_codebook(4, usize::BITS as usize, codebook);
+        let err = build_pq_model(&dataset, "vector", dim, MetricType::L2, &params, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "got {err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("not representable"), "got {err}");
+    }
+
     struct TestPreFilter {
         row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+        is_empty_threads: Option<Arc<Mutex<Vec<String>>>>,
     }
 
     impl TestPreFilter {
         fn new(row_ids: Vec<u64>) -> Self {
-            Self { row_ids }
+            Self {
+                row_ids,
+                is_empty_threads: None,
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn with_thread_capture(row_ids: Vec<u64>, threads: Arc<Mutex<Vec<String>>>) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                row_ids,
+                is_empty_threads: Some(threads),
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -814,6 +989,14 @@ mod tests {
         }
 
         fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+            if let Some(threads) = &self.is_empty_threads {
+                threads.lock().unwrap().push(
+                    std::thread::current()
+                        .name()
+                        .unwrap_or("unknown")
+                        .to_string(),
+                );
+            }
             self.row_ids.is_empty()
         }
 
@@ -839,4 +1022,56 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(code.values().is_empty());
         assert!(row_ids.is_empty());
     }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_pq_search_runs_on_cpu_thread_in_sequential_mode() {
+        let codebook_values = Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..256).map(|value| value as f32));
+        let codebook = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(codebook_values, 1).unwrap();
+        let index = PQIndex {
+            pq: ProductQuantizer::new(1, 8, 1, codebook, DistanceType::L2),
+            code: Some(Arc::new(UInt8Array::from(vec![0, 1, 0]))),
+            row_ids: Some(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 11, 12]))),
+            metric_type: MetricType::L2,
+            frag_reuse_index: None,
+        };
+        let query = Query {
+            column: "vector".to_string(),
+            key: Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0])) as ArrayRef,
+            k: 2,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            minimum_nprobes: 1,
+            maximum_nprobes: None,
+            ef: None,
+            refine_factor: None,
+            metric_type: Some(DistanceType::L2),
+            use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: Default::default(),
+        };
+        let is_empty_threads = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let pre_filter = Arc::new(TestPreFilter::with_thread_capture(
+            vec![],
+            is_empty_threads.clone(),
+        ));
+
+        let batch = index
+            .search(&query, pre_filter, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 2);
+        let is_empty_threads = is_empty_threads.lock().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !is_empty_threads.is_empty(),
+            "expected PQ search closure to evaluate the prefilter"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            is_empty_threads
+                .iter()
+                .all(|name| name.contains("lance-cpu")),
+            "expected PQ search closure to run on a lance-cpu thread, got {is_empty_threads:?}"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/utils.rs b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/utils.rs
index 3358f9093d5..503edb6f3cc 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/index/vector/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/index/vector/utils.rs
@@ -1,30 +1,65 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch};
-use futures::StreamExt;
-use lance_arrow::{interleave_batches, DataTypeExt};
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+use arrow::array::ArrayData;
+use arrow::datatypes::DataType;
+use arrow_array::new_empty_array;
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, RecordBatch, cast::AsArray};
+use arrow_buffer::{Buffer, MutableBuffer};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_arrow::DataTypeExt;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use log::{info, warn};
 use rand::rngs::SmallRng;
 use rand::seq::{IteratorRandom, SliceRandom};
-use rand::SeedableRng;
-use snafu::location;
+use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+use roaring::RoaringTreemap;
 use tokio::sync::Mutex;
 
-use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::{Dataset, ProjectionRequest, TakeBuilder, row_offsets_to_row_addresses};
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 
+// Target the vector payload size, independently of the storage block size.
+const TRAINING_SAMPLE_BATCH_BYTES: usize = 64 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Bound each training read to about 64 MiB of fixed-width vector values.
+/// A vector wider than the target still needs one complete row per batch.
+fn training_sample_batch_rows(byte_width: usize) -> Result<usize> {
+    if byte_width == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Training vector byte width must be greater than zero, got 0".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok((TRAINING_SAMPLE_BATCH_BYTES / byte_width).max(1))
+}
+
+/// Budget prefetched vector values to one output sample, separately from the
+/// output buffer itself. A sample smaller than 64 MiB reads one partial batch.
+fn training_sample_readahead(
+    sample_size: usize,
+    byte_width: usize,
+    io_parallelism: usize,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let prefetch_budget = sample_size.checked_mul(byte_width).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Training sample byte size overflows usize: sample_size={sample_size}, byte_width={byte_width}"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    Ok(io_parallelism.min((prefetch_budget / TRAINING_SAMPLE_BATCH_BYTES).max(1)))
+}
+
 /// Helper function to extract a column from a RecordBatch, supporting nested field paths.
 ///
 /// This function handles:
 /// - Simple column names: "column"
 /// - Nested paths: "parent.child" or "parent.child.grandchild"
 /// - Backtick-escaped field names: "parent.`field.with.dots`"
-fn get_column_from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
+pub(crate) fn get_column_from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
     // Try to get the column directly first (fast path for simple columns)
     if let Some(col) = batch.column_by_name(column) {
         return Ok(col.clone());
@@ -32,27 +67,24 @@ fn get_column_from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<ArrayRef>
 
     // Parse the field path using Lance's field path parsing logic
     // This properly handles backtick-escaped field names
-    let parts = lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(column).map_err(|e| Error::Index {
-        message: format!("Failed to parse field path '{}': {}", column, e),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
+    let parts = lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(column)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::index(format!("Failed to parse field path '{}': {}", column, e)))?;
 
     if parts.is_empty() {
-        return Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Invalid empty field path: {}", column),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        return Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Invalid empty field path: {}",
+            column
+        )));
     }
 
     // Get the root column
     let mut current_array: ArrayRef = batch
         .column_by_name(&parts[0])
-        .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::index(format!(
                 "Column '{}' does not exist in batch (looking for root field '{}')",
                 column, parts[0]
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
+            ))
         })?
         .clone();
 
@@ -61,22 +93,20 @@ fn get_column_from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<ArrayRef>
         let struct_array = current_array
             .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
                     "Cannot access nested field '{}' in column '{}': parent is not a struct",
                     part, column
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
+                ))
             })?;
 
         current_array = struct_array
             .column_by_name(part)
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::index(format!(
                     "Nested field '{}' does not exist in column '{}'",
                     part, column
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
+                ))
             })?
             .clone();
     }
@@ -84,10 +114,11 @@ fn get_column_from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<ArrayRef>
     Ok(current_array)
 }
 
-async fn estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row(
+pub(crate) async fn estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
     num_rows: usize,
+    fragments: Option<&[u32]>,
 ) -> Result<usize> {
     if num_rows == 0 {
         return Ok(1030);
@@ -98,7 +129,9 @@ async fn estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row(
     // Try a few random samples first (fast path).
     let sample_batch_size = std::cmp::min(64, num_rows);
     for _ in 0..8 {
-        let batch = dataset.sample(sample_batch_size, &projection).await?;
+        let batch = dataset
+            .sample(sample_batch_size, &projection, fragments)
+            .await?;
         let array = get_column_from_batch(&batch, column)?;
         let list_array = array.as_list::<i32>();
         for i in 0..list_array.len() {
@@ -116,6 +149,9 @@ async fn estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row(
     // flakiness when values are extremely sparse.
     let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
     scanner.project(&[column])?;
+    if let Some(fragments) = fragments {
+        scanner.with_fragments(resolve_scan_fragments(dataset, fragments)?);
+    }
     let column_expr = lance_datafusion::logical_expr::field_path_to_expr(column)?;
     scanner.filter_expr(column_expr.is_not_null());
     scanner.limit(Some(std::cmp::min(num_rows, 1024) as i64), None)?;
@@ -138,10 +174,10 @@ async fn estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row(
 
 /// Get the vector dimension of the given column in the schema.
 pub fn get_vector_dim(schema: &Schema, column: &str) -> Result<usize> {
-    let field = schema.field(column).ok_or(Error::Index {
-        message: format!("Column {} does not exist in schema {}", column, schema),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
+    let field = schema.field(column).ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+        "Column {} does not exist in schema {}",
+        column, schema
+    )))?;
     infer_vector_dim(&field.data_type())
 }
 
@@ -151,10 +187,15 @@ pub fn infer_vector_dim(data_type: &arrow::datatypes::DataType) -> Result<usize>
 }
 
 fn infer_vector_dim_impl(data_type: &arrow::datatypes::DataType, in_list: bool) -> Result<usize> {
-    match (data_type,in_list) {
-        (arrow::datatypes::DataType::FixedSizeList(_, dim),_) => Ok(*dim as usize),
-        (arrow::datatypes::DataType::List(inner), false) => infer_vector_dim_impl(inner.data_type(),true),
-        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!("Data type is not a vector (FixedSizeListArray or List<FixedSizeListArray>), but {:?}", data_type), location!()))
+    match (data_type, in_list) {
+        (arrow::datatypes::DataType::FixedSizeList(_, dim), _) => Ok(*dim as usize),
+        (arrow::datatypes::DataType::List(inner), false) => {
+            infer_vector_dim_impl(inner.data_type(), true)
+        }
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Data type is not a vector (FixedSizeListArray or List<FixedSizeListArray>), but {:?}",
+            data_type
+        ))),
     }
 }
 
@@ -165,10 +206,10 @@ pub fn get_vector_type(
     schema: &Schema,
     column: &str,
 ) -> Result<(arrow_schema::DataType, arrow_schema::DataType)> {
-    let field = schema.field(column).ok_or(Error::Index {
-        message: format!("column {} does not exist in schema {}", column, schema),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
+    let field = schema.field(column).ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+        "column {} does not exist in schema {}",
+        column, schema
+    )))?;
     Ok((
         field.data_type(),
         infer_vector_element_type(&field.data_type())?,
@@ -205,13 +246,10 @@ pub fn validate_distance_type_for(
     if supported {
         Ok(())
     } else {
-        Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
-                "Distance type {} does not support {} vectors",
-                distance_type, element_type
-            ),
-            location!(),
-        ))
+        Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Distance type {} does not support {} vectors",
+            distance_type, element_type
+        )))
     }
 }
 
@@ -237,25 +275,26 @@ fn infer_vector_element_type_impl(
                 | arrow::datatypes::DataType::Float64
                 | arrow::datatypes::DataType::UInt8
                 | arrow::datatypes::DataType::Int8 => Ok(element_field.data_type().clone()),
-                _ => Err(Error::Index {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "vector element is not expected type (Float16/Float32/Float64 or UInt8): {:?}",
-                        element_field.data_type()
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }),
+                _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+                    "vector element is not expected type (Float16/Float32/Float64 or UInt8): {:?}",
+                    element_field.data_type()
+                ))),
             }
         }
         (arrow::datatypes::DataType::List(inner), false) => {
             infer_vector_element_type_impl(inner.data_type(), true)
         }
-        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(
-            format!(
+        _ => Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
             "Data type is not a vector (FixedSizeListArray or List<FixedSizeListArray>), but {:?}",
             data_type
-        ),
-            location!(),
-        )),
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn count_rows(dataset: &Dataset, fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>) -> Result<usize> {
+    match fragment_ids {
+        None => dataset.count_rows(None).await,
+        Some(fragment_ids) => dataset.count_rows_in_fragments(fragment_ids).await,
     }
 }
 
@@ -267,16 +306,27 @@ pub async fn maybe_sample_training_data(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     column: &str,
     sample_size_hint: usize,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
 ) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
-    let num_rows = dataset.count_rows(None).await?;
+    let vector_field = dataset.schema().field(column).ok_or(Error::index(format!(
+        "Sample training data: column {} does not exist in schema",
+        column
+    )))?;
+
+    if sample_size_hint == 0 {
+        info!("No sampling required, skipping sampling and returning empty array");
+        let data_type = vector_field.data_type();
+        let dimension = infer_vector_dim(&data_type)?;
+        let element_type = infer_vector_element_type(&data_type)?;
+        let fsl_type = DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(arrow_schema::Field::new("item", element_type, false)),
+            dimension as i32,
+        );
+        return Ok(new_empty_array(&fsl_type).as_fixed_size_list().clone());
+    }
+
+    let num_rows = count_rows(dataset, fragment_ids).await?;
 
-    let vector_field = dataset.schema().field(column).ok_or(Error::Index {
-        message: format!(
-            "Sample training data: column {} does not exist in schema",
-            column
-        ),
-        location: location!(),
-    })?;
     let is_nullable = vector_field.nullable;
 
     let sample_size_hint = match vector_field.data_type() {
@@ -287,116 +337,52 @@ pub async fn maybe_sample_training_data(
             // Set a minimum sample size of 128 to avoid too small samples,
             // it's not a problem because 128 multivectors is just about 64 MiB
             let vectors_per_row =
-                estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row(dataset, column, num_rows).await?;
+                estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row(dataset, column, num_rows, fragment_ids)
+                    .await?;
             sample_size_hint.div_ceil(vectors_per_row).max(128)
         }
         _ => sample_size_hint,
     };
 
-    let batch = if num_rows > sample_size_hint && !is_nullable {
-        let projection = dataset.schema().project(&[column])?;
-        let batch = dataset.sample(sample_size_hint, &projection).await?;
-        info!(
-            "Sample training data: retrieved {} rows by sampling",
-            batch.num_rows()
-        );
-        batch
-    } else if num_rows > sample_size_hint && is_nullable {
-        // Use min block size + vector size to determine sample granularity
-        // For example, on object storage, block size is 64 KB. A 768-dim 32-bit
-        // vector is 3 KB. So we can sample every 64 KB / 3 KB = 21 vectors.
-        let block_size = dataset.object_store().block_size();
-        // We provide a fallback in case of multi-vector, which will have
-        // a variable size. We use 4 KB as a fallback.
-        let byte_width = vector_field
-            .data_type()
-            .byte_width_opt()
-            .unwrap_or(4 * 1024);
-
-        let ranges = random_ranges(num_rows, sample_size_hint, block_size, byte_width);
-
-        let mut collected = Vec::with_capacity(ranges.size_hint().0);
-        let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(sample_size_hint);
-        let mut num_non_null = 0;
-
-        let mut scan = dataset.take_scan(
-            Box::pin(futures::stream::iter(ranges).map(Ok)),
-            Arc::new(dataset.schema().project(&[column])?),
-            dataset.object_store().io_parallelism(),
-        );
-
-        while let Some(batch) = scan.next().await {
-            let batch = batch?;
-
-            let array = get_column_from_batch(&batch, column)?;
-            let null_count = array.logical_null_count();
-            if null_count < array.len() {
-                num_non_null += array.len() - null_count;
-
-                let batch_i = collected.len();
-                if let Some(null_buffer) = array.nulls() {
-                    for i in null_buffer.valid_indices() {
-                        indices.push((batch_i, i));
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    indices.extend((0..array.len()).map(|i| (batch_i, i)));
-                }
-
-                collected.push(batch);
-            }
-            if num_non_null >= sample_size_hint {
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-
-        let batch = interleave_batches(&collected, &indices).map_err(|err| Error::Index {
-            message: format!("Sample training data: {}", err),
-            location: location!(),
-        })?;
+    let should_sample = num_rows > sample_size_hint;
+    if should_sample {
         info!(
-            "Sample training data: retrieved {} rows by sampling after filtering out nulls",
-            batch.num_rows()
+            "Sample training data: sampling {} rows from {} rows for column {}",
+            sample_size_hint, num_rows, column
         );
-
-        // it's possible that we have more rows than sample_size_hint for this case,
-        // truncate the batch to sample_size_hint
-        if batch.num_rows() > sample_size_hint {
-            batch.slice(0, sample_size_hint)
-        } else {
-            batch
-        }
+        sample_training_data(
+            dataset,
+            column,
+            sample_size_hint,
+            num_rows,
+            vector_field,
+            is_nullable,
+            fragment_ids,
+        )
+        .await
     } else {
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner.project(&[column])?;
-        if is_nullable {
-            let column_expr = lance_datafusion::logical_expr::field_path_to_expr(column)?;
-            scanner.filter_expr(column_expr.is_not_null());
-        }
-        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await?;
+        // too small to require sampling
         info!(
-            "Sample training data: retrieved {} rows scanning full datasets",
-            batch.num_rows()
+            "Sample training data: scanning all {} rows for column {}",
+            num_rows, column
         );
-        batch
-    };
-
-    let array = get_column_from_batch(&batch, column)?;
+        let batch = scan_all_training_data(dataset, column, is_nullable, fragment_ids).await?;
+        vector_column_to_fsl(&batch, column)
+    }
+}
 
-    match array.data_type() {
-        arrow::datatypes::DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => Ok(array.as_fixed_size_list().clone()),
-        // for multivector, flatten the vectors into a FixedSizeListArray
-        arrow::datatypes::DataType::List(_) => {
-            let list_array = array.as_list::<i32>();
-            let vectors = list_array.values().as_fixed_size_list();
-            Ok(vectors.clone())
-        }
-        _ => Err(Error::Index {
-            message: format!(
-                "Sample training data: column {} is not a FixedSizeListArray",
-                column
-            ),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
+/// Filter out non-finite vectors from sampled training data.
+///
+/// This is a no-op when all rows are finite, avoiding an unnecessary copy.
+pub fn filter_finite_training_data(
+    training_data: FixedSizeListArray,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let finite_mask = lance_index::vector::utils::is_finite(&training_data);
+    if finite_mask.true_count() == training_data.len() {
+        Ok(training_data)
+    } else {
+        let filtered = arrow::compute::filter(&training_data, &finite_mask)?;
+        Ok(filtered.as_fixed_size_list().clone())
     }
 }
 
@@ -421,6 +407,718 @@ impl PartitionLoadLock {
     }
 }
 
+/// Extract a vector column from a batch as a flat [`FixedSizeListArray`].
+///
+/// Handles both regular vector columns (FixedSizeList) and multivector columns
+/// (List\<FixedSizeList\>), flattening the latter.
+fn vector_column_to_fsl(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let array = get_column_from_batch(batch, column)?;
+    match array.data_type() {
+        arrow::datatypes::DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => Ok(array.as_fixed_size_list().clone()),
+        arrow::datatypes::DataType::List(_) => {
+            let list_array = array.as_list::<i32>();
+            let vectors = list_array.values().as_fixed_size_list();
+            Ok(vectors.clone())
+        }
+        _ => Err(Error::index(format!(
+            "Sample training data: column {} is not a vector column",
+            column
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Scan the entire dataset to collect training data, optionally filtering nulls.
+///
+/// Used when the dataset is small enough that random sampling is unnecessary.
+async fn scan_all_training_data(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    is_nullable: bool,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.project(&[column])?;
+    if let Some(fragment_ids) = fragment_ids {
+        scanner.with_fragments(resolve_scan_fragments(dataset, fragment_ids)?);
+    }
+    if is_nullable {
+        let column_expr = lance_datafusion::logical_expr::field_path_to_expr(column)?;
+        scanner.filter_expr(column_expr.is_not_null());
+    }
+    let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await?;
+    info!(
+        "Sample training data: retrieved {} rows scanning full dataset",
+        batch.num_rows()
+    );
+    Ok(batch)
+}
+
+/// Sample training data from the dataset.
+///
+/// Dispatches to the most efficient strategy based on column type and nullability:
+/// - Non-nullable FSL: [`sample_fsl_uniform`] — true uniform random row indices via chunked `take`.
+/// - Nullable FSL: [`sample_nullable_fsl`] — batched random row reads with null filtering.
+/// - Non-FSL (multivector): [`sample_nullable_fallback`] — streaming range-based reads.
+async fn sample_training_data(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    sample_size_hint: usize,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    vector_field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+    is_nullable: bool,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let byte_width = vector_field
+        .data_type()
+        .byte_width_opt()
+        .unwrap_or(4 * 1024);
+    let batch_rows = training_sample_batch_rows(byte_width)?;
+    let batch_readahead = training_sample_readahead(
+        sample_size_hint,
+        byte_width,
+        dataset.object_store.io_parallelism(),
+    )?;
+
+    if let Some(fragment_ids) = fragment_ids {
+        if !is_nullable {
+            let projection = dataset.schema().project(&[column])?;
+            let batch = dataset
+                .sample(sample_size_hint, &projection, Some(fragment_ids))
+                .await?;
+            info!(
+                "Sample training data: retrieved {} rows by fragment-limited random sampling",
+                batch.num_rows()
+            );
+            return vector_column_to_fsl(&batch, column);
+        }
+        // Rows the consumer still needs. The fragment producer sizes each
+        // prefetch round to this outstanding demand, keeping reads bounded by
+        // the requested sample size.
+        let still_needed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(sample_size_hint));
+        let scan = sample_training_data_scan_by_indices(
+            dataset,
+            column,
+            num_rows,
+            batch_rows,
+            batch_readahead,
+            Some(fragment_ids),
+            still_needed.clone(),
+        )?;
+        return match vector_field.data_type() {
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => {
+                sample_nullable_fsl(
+                    column,
+                    sample_size_hint,
+                    byte_width,
+                    vector_field,
+                    scan,
+                    Some(still_needed),
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+            _ => {
+                sample_nullable_fallback(
+                    column,
+                    sample_size_hint,
+                    is_nullable,
+                    scan,
+                    Some(still_needed),
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+        };
+    }
+
+    match vector_field.data_type() {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) if !is_nullable && fragment_ids.is_none() => {
+            sample_fsl_uniform(
+                dataset,
+                column,
+                sample_size_hint,
+                num_rows,
+                byte_width,
+                vector_field,
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => {
+            let still_needed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(sample_size_hint));
+            let scan = sample_training_data_scan_by_indices(
+                dataset,
+                column,
+                num_rows,
+                batch_rows,
+                batch_readahead,
+                None,
+                still_needed.clone(),
+            )?;
+            sample_nullable_fsl(
+                column,
+                sample_size_hint,
+                byte_width,
+                vector_field,
+                scan,
+                Some(still_needed),
+            )
+            .await
+        }
+        _ => {
+            let scan =
+                sample_training_data_scan(dataset, column, sample_size_hint, num_rows, byte_width)?;
+            sample_nullable_fallback(column, sample_size_hint, is_nullable, scan, None).await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Create a streaming scan over random ranges for sampling.
+fn sample_training_data_scan(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    sample_size_hint: usize,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    byte_width: usize,
+) -> Result<crate::dataset::scanner::DatasetRecordBatchStream> {
+    let block_size = dataset.object_store.as_ref().block_size();
+    let ranges = random_ranges(num_rows, sample_size_hint, block_size, byte_width);
+    Ok(dataset.take_scan(
+        Box::pin(futures::stream::iter(ranges).map(Ok)),
+        Arc::new(dataset.schema().project(&[column])?),
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_parallelism(),
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Build a batch stream over uniform random rows, optionally within fragments.
+///
+/// Each round is sized to `still_needed` (the consumer's outstanding demand),
+/// sorted, then read in bounded concurrent chunks so storage can coalesce nearby rows.
+/// A round must be consumed before the next one is planned: prefetching another
+/// round would use stale demand and read beyond the sample's memory budget.
+/// Null filtering can request another round without repeating rows. Visited offsets
+/// are tracked in a [`RoaringTreemap`] because sparse or all-null columns
+/// force the stream to visit most selected rows before it can terminate, and
+/// a compressed bitmap keeps that persistent state near `num_rows / 8` bytes
+/// even when fully populated.
+fn sample_training_data_scan_by_indices(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    batch_rows: usize,
+    batch_readahead: usize,
+    fragment_ids: Option<&[u32]>,
+    still_needed: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
+) -> Result<Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send>>> {
+    if fragment_ids.is_some_and(|ids| ids.is_empty()) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+            "Training fragment filter must not be empty".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let selected_fragments = Arc::new(match fragment_ids {
+        Some(ids) => dataset.get_fragments_from_ids(ids)?,
+        None => dataset.get_fragments(),
+    });
+    let dataset = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
+    let projection = Arc::new(
+        ProjectionRequest::from(dataset.schema().project(&[column])?)
+            .into_projection_plan(dataset.clone())?,
+    );
+
+    let stream = stream::try_unfold(
+        (
+            dataset,
+            projection,
+            selected_fragments,
+            RoaringTreemap::new(),
+            SmallRng::from_os_rng(),
+            still_needed,
+        ),
+        move |(
+            dataset,
+            projection,
+            selected_fragments,
+            mut seen_offsets,
+            mut rng,
+            still_needed,
+        )| async move {
+            let still = still_needed.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+            if still == 0 || seen_offsets.len() as usize >= num_rows {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+
+            let remaining = num_rows.saturating_sub(seen_offsets.len() as usize);
+            let target = still.min(remaining);
+            let mut sampled_offsets = if remaining <= target.saturating_mul(4) {
+                // Few offsets remain unseen, so shuffling the unseen set is
+                // cheaper than repeatedly rejecting already-sampled offsets.
+                let mut unseen_indices = (0..num_rows as u64)
+                    .filter(|index| !seen_offsets.contains(*index))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                unseen_indices.shuffle(&mut rng);
+                unseen_indices.truncate(target);
+                seen_offsets.extend(unseen_indices.iter().copied());
+                unseen_indices
+            } else {
+                let mut sampled_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(target);
+                while sampled_offsets.len() < target {
+                    let index = rng.random_range(0..num_rows as u64);
+                    if seen_offsets.insert(index) {
+                        sampled_offsets.push(index);
+                    }
+                }
+                sampled_offsets
+            };
+            sampled_offsets.sort_unstable();
+
+            let chunks =
+                stream::unfold(sampled_offsets.into_iter(), move |mut offsets| async move {
+                    let chunk = offsets.by_ref().take(batch_rows).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    (!chunk.is_empty()).then_some((chunk, offsets))
+                });
+            let read_dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let read_projection = projection.clone();
+            let read_fragments = selected_fragments.clone();
+            let batches = chunks
+                .map(move |offsets| {
+                    let dataset = read_dataset.clone();
+                    let projection = read_projection.clone();
+                    let fragments = read_fragments.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        let mut row_addrs =
+                            row_offsets_to_row_addresses(&fragments, &offsets).await?;
+                        row_addrs.sort_unstable();
+                        TakeBuilder::try_new_from_addresses(dataset, row_addrs, projection)?
+                            .execute()
+                            .await
+                    }
+                })
+                .buffered(batch_readahead);
+
+            Ok::<_, Error>(Some((
+                batches,
+                (
+                    dataset,
+                    projection,
+                    selected_fragments,
+                    seen_offsets,
+                    rng,
+                    still_needed,
+                ),
+            )))
+        },
+    );
+    Ok(Box::pin(stream.try_flatten()))
+}
+
+fn resolve_scan_fragments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment_ids: &[u32],
+) -> Result<Vec<lance_table::format::Fragment>> {
+    dataset.get_fragment_metadata_from_ids(fragment_ids)
+}
+
+/// Build a FixedSizeListArray from raw flat value bytes.
+fn fsl_values_to_array(
+    field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+    mut values_buf: MutableBuffer,
+    num_rows: usize,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let (inner_field, dim) = match field.data_type() {
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(f, d) => (f, d as usize),
+        other => {
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "Expected FixedSizeList, got {:?}",
+                other
+            )));
+        }
+    };
+
+    let elem_size = inner_field.data_type().primitive_width().ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::index(format!(
+            "FixedSizeList inner type {:?} has no fixed width",
+            inner_field.data_type()
+        ))
+    })?;
+
+    let expected_bytes = num_rows * dim * elem_size;
+    debug_assert_eq!(values_buf.len(), expected_bytes);
+    values_buf.truncate(expected_bytes);
+    let buf: Buffer = values_buf.into();
+    let values_array = arrow_array::make_array(ArrayData::try_new(
+        inner_field.data_type().clone(),
+        num_rows * dim,
+        None,
+        0,
+        vec![buf],
+        vec![],
+    )?);
+
+    Ok(FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+        inner_field,
+        dim as i32,
+        values_array,
+        None,
+    )?)
+}
+
+/// Shuffle whole vectors without allocating a second training buffer.
+fn shuffle_training_rows(
+    values: &mut [u8],
+    num_rows: usize,
+    byte_width: usize,
+    rng: &mut impl Rng,
+) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(values.len(), num_rows * byte_width);
+    for i in (1..num_rows).rev() {
+        let j = rng.random_range(0..=i);
+        if i != j {
+            let (left, right) = values.split_at_mut(i * byte_width);
+            left[j * byte_width..(j + 1) * byte_width].swap_with_slice(&mut right[..byte_width]);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Stream-and-compact sampling for nullable FixedSizeList vector columns.
+///
+/// Unlike [`sample_nullable_fallback`], which must collect all source batches
+/// in memory, this exploits the fixed-width layout of FSL columns to
+/// accumulate non-null vector bytes directly into a flat buffer, dropping
+/// each source batch immediately. This keeps peak memory proportional to the
+/// output sample rather than the input scan.
+async fn sample_nullable_fsl<S>(
+    column: &str,
+    sample_size_hint: usize,
+    byte_width: usize,
+    vector_field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+    mut scan: S,
+    still_needed: Option<Arc<AtomicUsize>>,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray>
+where
+    S: Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Unpin,
+{
+    let mut values_buf = MutableBuffer::with_capacity(sample_size_hint * byte_width);
+    let mut num_non_null: usize = 0;
+    let mut batch_count: usize = 0;
+    let mut rows_scanned: usize = 0;
+
+    while num_non_null < sample_size_hint {
+        let remaining_rows = sample_size_hint - num_non_null;
+        // The producer sizes each sampling round to this outstanding demand.
+        if let Some(still_needed) = &still_needed {
+            still_needed.store(remaining_rows, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        let Some(batch) = scan.next().await else {
+            break;
+        };
+        let batch = batch?;
+        batch_count += 1;
+        rows_scanned += batch.num_rows();
+        let array = get_column_from_batch(&batch, column)?;
+        if array.logical_null_count() >= array.len() {
+            info!(
+                "Sample training data: batch {} read {} rows ({} scanned, {}/{} sampled after null filtering)",
+                batch_count,
+                batch.num_rows(),
+                rows_scanned,
+                num_non_null.min(sample_size_hint),
+                sample_size_hint
+            );
+            continue;
+        }
+        let previous_num_non_null = num_non_null;
+        // `remaining_rows` keeps `values_buf` within its pre-allocated
+        // `sample_size_hint * byte_width` capacity.
+        accumulate_fsl_values(
+            &mut values_buf,
+            &mut num_non_null,
+            &array,
+            byte_width,
+            true,
+            remaining_rows,
+        )?;
+        info!(
+            "Sample training data: batch {} read {} rows, accepted {} rows ({} scanned, {}/{} sampled after null filtering)",
+            batch_count,
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            num_non_null - previous_num_non_null,
+            rows_scanned,
+            num_non_null.min(sample_size_hint),
+            sample_size_hint
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Zero the demand so any further poll of the producer terminates instead
+    // of reading another round.
+    if let Some(still_needed) = &still_needed {
+        still_needed.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+    let num_rows_out = num_non_null.min(sample_size_hint);
+    values_buf.truncate(num_rows_out * byte_width);
+
+    // Reads are sorted for locality, but hierarchical k-means trains on a
+    // prefix. Randomize the output so that prefix represents the whole sample.
+    shuffle_training_rows(
+        values_buf.as_slice_mut(),
+        num_rows_out,
+        byte_width,
+        &mut SmallRng::from_os_rng(),
+    );
+
+    info!(
+        "Sample training data: retrieved {} rows by sampling after filtering out nulls",
+        num_rows_out
+    );
+
+    fsl_values_to_array(vector_field, values_buf, num_rows_out)
+}
+/// True uniform random sampling for non-nullable FixedSizeList columns.
+///
+/// Generates truly random row indices, sorts them, and fetches via
+/// `dataset.take()` in chunks. Each chunk's RecordBatch is consumed into a flat
+/// byte buffer and dropped immediately, keeping peak memory proportional to the
+/// output sample.
+async fn sample_fsl_uniform(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    sample_size_hint: usize,
+    num_rows: usize,
+    byte_width: usize,
+    vector_field: &lance_core::datatypes::Field,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    let indices = generate_random_indices(num_rows, sample_size_hint);
+    let projection = Arc::new(dataset.schema().project(&[column])?);
+
+    let batch_rows = training_sample_batch_rows(byte_width)?;
+    let batch_readahead = training_sample_readahead(
+        sample_size_hint,
+        byte_width,
+        dataset.object_store.io_parallelism(),
+    )?;
+    let mut values_buf = MutableBuffer::with_capacity(sample_size_hint * byte_width);
+    let mut total_rows: usize = 0;
+
+    let total_chunks = indices.len().div_ceil(batch_rows);
+    let dataset = Arc::new(dataset.clone());
+    let mut batches = stream::iter(indices.chunks(batch_rows).map(<[u64]>::to_vec))
+        .map(move |chunk| {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let projection = projection.clone();
+            async move { dataset.take(&chunk, projection).await }
+        })
+        .buffered(batch_readahead)
+        .enumerate();
+    while let Some((chunk_idx, batch)) = batches.next().await {
+        let batch = batch?;
+        let array = get_column_from_batch(&batch, column)?;
+        accumulate_fsl_values(
+            &mut values_buf,
+            &mut total_rows,
+            &array,
+            byte_width,
+            false,
+            usize::MAX,
+        )?;
+        info!(
+            "Sample training data: batch {}/{} read {} rows ({}/{} sampled by uniform random sampling)",
+            chunk_idx + 1,
+            total_chunks,
+            batch.num_rows(),
+            total_rows.min(sample_size_hint),
+            sample_size_hint
+        );
+    }
+
+    info!(
+        "Sample training data: retrieved {} rows by uniform random sampling",
+        total_rows,
+    );
+
+    fsl_values_to_array(vector_field, values_buf, total_rows)
+}
+
+/// Append values from a FixedSizeList array into a flat byte buffer.
+///
+/// When `filter_nulls` is false and there are no nulls, copies raw bytes
+/// directly from the FSL values buffer (accounting for child array offset).
+/// When `filter_nulls` is true, uses Arrow's `filter` kernel to remove nulls.
+/// At most `max_rows` rows are appended so callers can stop copying once their
+/// sample is full; otherwise one oversized source batch can grow `values_buf`
+/// far beyond the intended cap.
+fn accumulate_fsl_values(
+    values_buf: &mut MutableBuffer,
+    num_rows: &mut usize,
+    array: &ArrayRef,
+    byte_width: usize,
+    filter_nulls: bool,
+    max_rows: usize,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if max_rows == 0 {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let needs_filter = filter_nulls && array.null_count() > 0;
+
+    if needs_filter {
+        let nulls = array.nulls().unwrap();
+        let mask = arrow_array::BooleanArray::from(nulls.inner().clone());
+        let filtered = arrow::compute::filter(array, &mask)?;
+        let fsl = filtered.as_fixed_size_list();
+        let take = fsl.len().min(max_rows);
+        if take == 0 {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let values_data = fsl.values().to_data();
+        let value_bytes = &values_data.buffers()[0].as_slice()[..take * byte_width];
+        values_buf.extend_from_slice(value_bytes);
+        *num_rows += take;
+    } else {
+        // No nulls: copy raw bytes directly, accounting for child array offset.
+        let fsl = array.as_fixed_size_list();
+        let take = fsl.len().min(max_rows);
+        if take == 0 {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let values = fsl.values();
+        let values_data = values.to_data();
+        let elem_size = byte_width / fsl.value_length() as usize;
+        let offset_bytes = values_data.offset() * elem_size;
+        let total_bytes = take * byte_width;
+        let buf = &values_data.buffers()[0].as_slice()[offset_bytes..offset_bytes + total_bytes];
+        values_buf.extend_from_slice(buf);
+        *num_rows += take;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Fallback sampling for non-FixedSizeList columns (e.g. multivector List
+/// columns). Collects batches and concatenates them. When `is_nullable` is
+/// true, filters null rows from each batch.
+async fn sample_nullable_fallback<S>(
+    column: &str,
+    sample_size_hint: usize,
+    is_nullable: bool,
+    mut scan: S,
+    still_needed: Option<Arc<AtomicUsize>>,
+) -> Result<FixedSizeListArray>
+where
+    S: Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Unpin,
+{
+    let mut schema = None;
+    let mut filtered = Vec::new();
+    let mut num_non_null: usize = 0;
+    let mut batch_count: usize = 0;
+    let mut rows_scanned: usize = 0;
+
+    while num_non_null < sample_size_hint {
+        let remaining_rows = sample_size_hint - num_non_null;
+        // A fragment-limited producer sizes its next prefetch round to this
+        // outstanding demand.
+        if let Some(still_needed) = &still_needed {
+            still_needed.store(remaining_rows, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        let Some(batch) = scan.next().await else {
+            break;
+        };
+        let batch = batch?;
+        batch_count += 1;
+        let batch_rows = batch.num_rows();
+        rows_scanned += batch_rows;
+        let array = get_column_from_batch(&batch, column)?;
+        if is_nullable && array.logical_null_count() >= array.len() {
+            info!(
+                "Sample training data (fallback): batch {} read {} rows ({} scanned, {}/{} sampled after null filtering)",
+                batch_count,
+                batch_rows,
+                rows_scanned,
+                num_non_null.min(sample_size_hint),
+                sample_size_hint
+            );
+            continue;
+        }
+        schema.get_or_insert_with(|| batch.schema());
+        let batch = if is_nullable {
+            filter_non_null_rows(array, batch)?
+        } else {
+            batch
+        };
+        // Slicing to the outstanding demand keeps the retained batches, and
+        // the post-loop `concat_batches`, bounded by the sample size.
+        let accepted_rows = batch.num_rows().min(remaining_rows);
+        let batch = if accepted_rows < batch.num_rows() {
+            batch.slice(0, accepted_rows)
+        } else {
+            batch
+        };
+        num_non_null += accepted_rows;
+        info!(
+            "Sample training data (fallback): batch {} read {} rows, accepted {} rows ({} scanned, {}/{} sampled)",
+            batch_count,
+            batch_rows,
+            accepted_rows,
+            rows_scanned,
+            num_non_null.min(sample_size_hint),
+            sample_size_hint
+        );
+        filtered.push(batch);
+    }
+
+    // Zero the demand so any further poll of the producer terminates instead
+    // of reading another round.
+    if let Some(still_needed) = &still_needed {
+        still_needed.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    }
+
+    let Some(schema) = schema else {
+        return Err(Error::index("No non-null training data found".to_string()));
+    };
+    let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&schema, &filtered)?;
+    let num_rows_out = batch.num_rows().min(sample_size_hint);
+    let batch = batch.slice(0, num_rows_out);
+
+    info!(
+        "Sample training data (fallback): retrieved {} rows by sampling after filtering out nulls",
+        num_rows_out
+    );
+
+    vector_column_to_fsl(&batch, column)
+}
+
+/// Filter a batch to only include rows where `array` is non-null.
+fn filter_non_null_rows(array: ArrayRef, batch: RecordBatch) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    if let Some(nulls) = array.nulls() {
+        let mask = arrow_array::BooleanArray::from(nulls.inner().clone());
+        Ok(arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &mask)?)
+    } else {
+        Ok(batch)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Generate `k` unique sorted random row indices from `[0, num_rows)`.
+///
+/// Uses two strategies depending on sparsity:
+/// - Sparse (`k * 2 < num_rows`): HashSet rejection sampling, O(k) expected.
+/// - Dense: Fisher-Yates partial shuffle, O(num_rows) allocation.
+fn generate_random_indices(num_rows: usize, k: usize) -> Vec<u64> {
+    assert!(k <= num_rows);
+    let mut rng = SmallRng::from_os_rng();
+    let mut indices = if k * 2 < num_rows {
+        let mut set = std::collections::HashSet::with_capacity(k);
+        while set.len() < k {
+            set.insert(rng.random_range(0..num_rows as u64));
+        }
+        set.into_iter().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    } else {
+        let mut all: Vec<u64> = (0..num_rows as u64).collect();
+        // Partial Fisher-Yates: only shuffle first k elements.
+        for i in 0..k {
+            let j = rng.random_range(i..all.len());
+            all.swap(i, j);
+        }
+        all.truncate(k);
+        all
+    };
+    indices.sort_unstable();
+    indices
+}
+
 /// Generate random ranges to sample from a dataset.
 ///
 /// This will return an iterator of ranges that cover the whole dataset. It
@@ -464,16 +1162,18 @@ fn random_ranges(
             .cloned()
             .collect::<std::collections::HashSet<_>>();
 
-        let additional = std::iter::from_fn(move || loop {
-            if seen.len() >= num_bins {
-                break None;
-            }
-            let next = (0..num_bins).choose(&mut rng).unwrap();
-            if seen.contains(&next) {
-                continue;
-            } else {
-                seen.insert(next);
-                return Some(next);
+        let additional = std::iter::from_fn(move || {
+            loop {
+                if seen.len() >= num_bins {
+                    break None;
+                }
+                let next = (0..num_bins).choose(&mut rng).unwrap();
+                if seen.contains(&next) {
+                    continue;
+                } else {
+                    seen.insert(next);
+                    return Some(next);
+                }
             }
         });
 
@@ -492,10 +1192,276 @@ fn random_ranges(
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
 
-    use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, ArrayGeneratorExt, Dimension, RowCount};
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteParams};
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, types::Float32Type,
+    };
+    use arrow_buffer::{BooleanBufferBuilder, NullBuffer};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+    use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::f32_1024(DataType::Float32, 1024, 16_384)]
+    #[case::f32_2048(DataType::Float32, 2048, 8192)]
+    #[case::f64_2048(DataType::Float64, 2048, 4096)]
+    #[case::binary_2048(DataType::UInt8, 2048, 32_768)]
+    #[case::oversized_row(DataType::UInt8, 128 * 1024 * 1024, 1)]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_sample_batch_rows(
+        #[case] element_type: DataType,
+        #[case] dim: i32,
+        #[case] expected_rows: usize,
+    ) {
+        let vector_type =
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", element_type, false)), dim);
+        let byte_width = vector_type.byte_width_opt().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            training_sample_batch_rows(byte_width).unwrap(),
+            expected_rows
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_sample_batch_rows_rejects_zero_width() {
+        let err = training_sample_batch_rows(0).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("byte width must be greater than zero")
+        );
+    }
 
-    use crate::dataset::InsertBuilder;
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::partial_batch(256, 8192, 16, 1)]
+    #[case::one_batch(8192, 8192, 16, 1)]
+    #[case::memory_limited(32_768, 8192, 16, 4)]
+    #[case::io_limited(1_048_576, 8192, 16, 16)]
+    #[case::narrow_vectors(32_768, 4096, 16, 2)]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_sample_readahead(
+        #[case] sample_size: usize,
+        #[case] byte_width: usize,
+        #[case] io_parallelism: usize,
+        #[case] expected: usize,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(
+            training_sample_readahead(sample_size, byte_width, io_parallelism).unwrap(),
+            expected
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_training_sample_readahead_rejects_overflow() {
+        let err = training_sample_readahead(usize::MAX, 2, 16).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("Training sample byte size overflows")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::empty(0)]
+    #[case::single(1)]
+    #[case::ordered_groups(64)]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_shuffle_training_rows_preserves_vectors(#[case] rows: usize) {
+        let mut values = (0..rows as u32)
+            .flat_map(|id| [id.to_le_bytes(), (!id).to_le_bytes()].concat())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        shuffle_training_rows(&mut values, rows, 8, &mut SmallRng::seed_from_u64(42));
+        let ids = values
+            .as_chunks::<8>()
+            .0
+            .iter()
+            .map(|row| {
+                let id = u32::from_le_bytes(row[..4].try_into().unwrap());
+                assert_eq!(u32::from_le_bytes(row[4..].try_into().unwrap()), !id);
+                id
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if rows == 64 {
+            // A training prefix must not remain confined to the first group.
+            assert!(ids[..16].iter().any(|id| *id >= 32));
+            assert!(ids[..16].iter().any(|id| *id < 32));
+        }
+        let mut sorted = ids;
+        sorted.sort_unstable();
+        assert_eq!(sorted, (0..rows as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nullable_vector_sampling_batches_wide_rows() {
+        // Sampling all but one row must coalesce into a few reads. Sparse
+        // random samples can legitimately still need many physical ranges.
+        const ROWS: usize = 512;
+        const SAMPLE_ROWS: usize = ROWS - 1;
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(2048)))
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(ROWS as u64))
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "vec",
+            data.column(0).data_type().clone(),
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), data.columns().to_vec()).unwrap();
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            dir.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 128,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 4);
+
+        let still_needed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(SAMPLE_ROWS));
+        let mut scan = sample_training_data_scan_by_indices(
+            &dataset,
+            "vec",
+            ROWS,
+            training_sample_batch_rows(2048 * 4).unwrap(),
+            1,
+            None,
+            still_needed.clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batch = scan.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), SAMPLE_ROWS);
+        still_needed.store(0, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        assert!(scan.next().await.is_none());
+
+        // Retain the old range-reader path as an I/O control. With an 8 KiB
+        // vector and a 4 KiB local block it returns one row per batch.
+        dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let point_scan =
+            sample_training_data_scan(&dataset, "vec", SAMPLE_ROWS, ROWS, 2048 * 4).unwrap();
+        let point_sample = sample_nullable_fsl(
+            "vec",
+            SAMPLE_ROWS,
+            2048 * 4,
+            dataset.schema().field("vec").unwrap(),
+            point_scan,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(point_sample.len(), SAMPLE_ROWS);
+        let point_reads = dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        let sample = maybe_sample_training_data(&dataset, "vec", SAMPLE_ROWS, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let reads = dataset.object_store.io_stats_incremental();
+        assert_eq!(sample.len(), SAMPLE_ROWS);
+        assert_eq!(sample.null_count(), 0);
+        assert!(
+            reads.read_iops < point_reads.read_iops / 2,
+            "batch sampling issued {} reads; single-row sampling issued {} reads",
+            reads.read_iops,
+            point_reads.read_iops
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::small(256, 8, true)]
+    #[case::exhausted(256, 64, true)]
+    #[case::multiple_batches(256, 63, false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_nullable_vector_sampling_refills_without_duplicates(
+        #[case] rows: usize,
+        #[case] sample_size: usize,
+        #[case] with_nulls_and_deletions: bool,
+        #[values(None, Some(vec![1, 3]))] fragments: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        #[values(1, 4)] batch_readahead: usize,
+    ) {
+        let rows_per_fragment = rows / 4;
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::new(
+            Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, false)),
+            2,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values(
+                (0..rows * 2).map(|i| (i / 2) as f32),
+            )),
+            Some(NullBuffer::from(
+                (0..rows)
+                    .map(|i| !with_nulls_and_deletions || i % 4 == 0)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            )),
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("vec", vectors.data_type().clone(), true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..rows as i32)),
+                Arc::new(vectors),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: rows_per_fragment,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        if with_nulls_and_deletions {
+            dataset.delete("id % 7 = 0").await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let expected: roaring::RoaringBitmap = (0..rows as u32)
+            .filter(|id| !with_nulls_and_deletions || (id % 4 == 0 && id % 7 != 0))
+            .filter(|id| {
+                fragments
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_none_or(|f| f.contains(&(id / rows_per_fragment as u32)))
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // Exercise chunk boundaries with a small budget so the fixture stays
+        // lightweight independently of the production 64 MiB batch target.
+        let still_needed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(sample_size));
+        let scan = sample_training_data_scan_by_indices(
+            &dataset,
+            "vec",
+            count_rows(&dataset, fragments.as_deref()).await.unwrap(),
+            32,
+            batch_readahead,
+            fragments.as_deref(),
+            still_needed.clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let sample = sample_nullable_fsl(
+            "vec",
+            sample_size,
+            2 * 4,
+            dataset.schema().field("vec").unwrap(),
+            scan,
+            Some(still_needed),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(sample.len(), sample_size.min(expected.len() as usize));
+        assert_eq!(sample.null_count(), 0);
+        let values = sample.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        let ids: roaring::RoaringBitmap = (0..sample.len())
+            .map(|i| values.value(i * 2) as u32)
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(ids.len(), sample.len() as u64, "sample contains duplicates");
+        assert!(
+            ids.is_subset(&expected),
+            "sample contains null, deleted, or unselected rows"
+        );
+    }
 
     #[rstest::rstest]
     #[test]
@@ -542,12 +1508,154 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let training_data = maybe_sample_training_data(&dataset, "mv", 1000)
+        let training_data = maybe_sample_training_data(&dataset, "mv", 1000, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(training_data.len(), 1000);
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::f16(arrow::datatypes::DataType::Float16, 2)]
+    #[case::f32(arrow::datatypes::DataType::Float32, 4)]
+    #[case::f64(arrow::datatypes::DataType::Float64, 8)]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fsl_values_to_array_roundtrip(
+        #[case] elem_type: arrow::datatypes::DataType,
+        #[case] elem_size: usize,
+    ) {
+        let dim = 4;
+        let num_rows = 3;
+        // Fill with recognizable byte patterns: each element gets its index as bytes.
+        let num_elems = num_rows * dim;
+        let values_vec: Vec<u8> = (0..num_elems)
+            .flat_map(|i| {
+                let mut bytes = vec![0u8; elem_size];
+                // Write index into the first bytes (little-endian).
+                let i_bytes = (i as u32).to_le_bytes();
+                bytes[..i_bytes.len().min(elem_size)]
+                    .copy_from_slice(&i_bytes[..i_bytes.len().min(elem_size)]);
+                bytes
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let expected_bytes = values_vec.clone();
+        let values_buf = MutableBuffer::from(values_vec);
+
+        let dt = DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(arrow::datatypes::Field::new("item", elem_type, true)),
+            dim as i32,
+        );
+        let field = lance_core::datatypes::Field::new_arrow("vec", dt, true).unwrap();
+        let fsl = fsl_values_to_array(&field, values_buf, num_rows).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fsl.len(), num_rows);
+        assert_eq!(fsl.value_length(), dim as i32);
+
+        // Verify the raw bytes round-tripped correctly.
+        let out_data = fsl.values().to_data();
+        let out_bytes = out_data.buffers()[0].as_slice();
+        assert_eq!(&out_bytes[..expected_bytes.len()], &expected_bytes[..]);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::f32_nullable(array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(8)), true)]
+    #[case::f64_nullable(array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float64Type>(Dimension::from(8)), true)]
+    #[case::f32_non_nullable(array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(8)), false)]
+    #[case::f64_non_nullable(array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float64Type>(Dimension::from(8)), false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_maybe_sample_training_data_fsl(
+        #[case] vec_gen: Box<dyn lance_datagen::ArrayGenerator>,
+        #[case] nullable: bool,
+    ) {
+        let nrows: usize = 2000;
+        let dims: u32 = 8;
+        let sample_size: usize = 500;
+
+        let col_gen = if nullable {
+            vec_gen.with_random_nulls(0.5)
+        } else {
+            vec_gen
+        };
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("vec", col_gen)
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(nrows as u64))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://fsl_sample_test")
+            .execute(vec![data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let training_data = maybe_sample_training_data(&dataset, "vec", sample_size, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(training_data.len() > 0 && training_data.len() <= sample_size);
+        assert_eq!(training_data.null_count(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(training_data.value_length(), dims as i32);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::sparse(1_000_000, 100)]
+    #[case::dense(100, 80)]
+    #[case::exact(100, 100)]
+    #[test]
+    fn test_generate_random_indices(#[case] num_rows: usize, #[case] k: usize) {
+        let indices = generate_random_indices(num_rows, k);
+        assert_eq!(indices.len(), k);
+        assert!(indices.windows(2).all(|w| w[0] < w[1]));
+        assert!(indices.iter().all(|&i| (i as usize) < num_rows));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_accumulate_fsl_values_with_sliced_array() {
+        let dim = 4usize;
+        let values: Vec<f32> = (0..40).map(|i| i as f32).collect();
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            arrow_array::Float32Array::from(values),
+            dim as i32,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let sliced = fsl.slice(3, 4);
+
+        let byte_width = dim * std::mem::size_of::<f32>();
+        let mut buf = MutableBuffer::new(0);
+        let mut num_rows = 0usize;
+        let sliced_ref: ArrayRef = Arc::new(sliced);
+        accumulate_fsl_values(
+            &mut buf,
+            &mut num_rows,
+            &sliced_ref,
+            byte_width,
+            false,
+            usize::MAX,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(num_rows, 4);
+        let result: &[f32] =
+            unsafe { std::slice::from_raw_parts(buf.as_ptr() as *const f32, 4 * dim) };
+        let expected: Vec<f32> = (12..28).map(|i| i as f32).collect();
+        assert_eq!(result, &expected[..]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_filter_finite_training_data() {
+        let values = Float32Array::from_iter_values([
+            1.0,
+            2.0, // finite
+            f32::NAN,
+            0.0, // non-finite
+            3.0,
+            4.0, // finite
+        ]);
+        let field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+        let training_data = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(field, 2, Arc::new(values), None).unwrap();
+
+        let filtered = filter_finite_training_data(training_data).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(filtered.len(), 2);
+        let vals = filtered.values().as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        assert_eq!(vals.values(), &[1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row_fallback_1030() {
         let nrows: usize = 256;
@@ -570,9 +1678,224 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let n = estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row(&dataset, "mv", nrows)
+        let n = estimate_multivector_vectors_per_row(&dataset, "mv", nrows, None)
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(n, 1030);
     }
+
+    // Creates a dataset with three fragments holding 100, 200, and 150 rows.
+    async fn make_three_fragment_dataset() -> Dataset {
+        use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+        use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "x",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Float32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+
+        let make_batch = |n: usize| -> RecordBatch {
+            let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from_iter_values((0..n).map(|i| i as f32)));
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![arr]).unwrap()
+        };
+
+        let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://test_count_rows_util")
+            .execute(vec![make_batch(100)])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(200))], schema.clone()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .append(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(make_batch(150))], schema.clone()),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_count_rows_none() {
+        let dataset = make_three_fragment_dataset().await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(count_rows(&dataset, None).await.unwrap(), 450);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_count_rows_sorted_fragment_ids() {
+        let dataset = make_three_fragment_dataset().await;
+        let ids: Vec<u32> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+            .collect();
+        // Skip the middle fragment (200 rows); expect 100 + 150 = 250.
+        let result = count_rows(&dataset, Some(&[ids[0], ids[2]])).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result, 250);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_count_rows_unsorted_fragment_ids() {
+        let dataset = make_three_fragment_dataset().await;
+        let ids: Vec<u32> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+            .collect();
+        // Pass the same two fragments in reverse (unsorted) order; result must match.
+        let result = count_rows(&dataset, Some(&[ids[2], ids[0]])).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(result, 250);
+    }
+
+    /// Nullable FSL with fragment-limited sampling must fill the requested sample
+    /// size when enough non-null rows exist, and terminate cleanly when all
+    /// selected rows are null.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_maybe_sample_training_data_fsl_nullable_fragment_limited() {
+        let nrows: usize = 2000;
+        let dims: u32 = 8;
+        let sample_size: usize = 500;
+
+        for (case, null_probability, expected_len) in
+            [("partial_nulls", 0.5, sample_size), ("all_nulls", 1.0, 0)]
+        {
+            let col_gen = array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dims))
+                .with_random_nulls(null_probability);
+            let data = gen_batch()
+                .col("vec", col_gen)
+                .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(nrows as u64))
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+                .execute(vec![data])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = dataset
+                .get_fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+                .collect();
+
+            let training_data =
+                maybe_sample_training_data(&dataset, "vec", sample_size, Some(&fragment_ids))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            assert_eq!(training_data.len(), expected_len, "{case}");
+            assert_eq!(training_data.null_count(), 0, "{case}");
+            assert_eq!(training_data.value_length(), dims as i32, "{case}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Scan-side regression: each fragment-limited producer round must read at
+    /// most the consumer's outstanding demand. Driving the producer directly
+    /// with a fixed `still_needed` and inspecting the raw batch size catches
+    /// over-reads that a post-truncation output-length check cannot.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sample_fragment_scan_round_caps_at_still_needed(
+        #[values(1, 4)] batch_readahead: usize,
+    ) {
+        let nrows: usize = 4000;
+        let dims: u32 = 8;
+        let still: usize = 500;
+
+        let col_gen = array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(dims)).with_random_nulls(0.5);
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("vec", col_gen)
+            .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(nrows as u64))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://fsl_scan_round_cap_test")
+            .execute(vec![data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let fragment_ids: Vec<u32> = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id() as u32)
+            .collect();
+        let num_rows = count_rows(&dataset, Some(&fragment_ids)).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Use small batches to exercise prefetch across a round without
+        // allocating the production 64 MiB per batch.
+        let still_needed = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(still));
+        let mut scan = sample_training_data_scan_by_indices(
+            &dataset,
+            "vec",
+            num_rows,
+            128,
+            batch_readahead,
+            Some(&fragment_ids),
+            still_needed.clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut rows_read = 0;
+        while rows_read < still {
+            let batch = scan.next().await.unwrap().unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 128.min(still - rows_read));
+            rows_read += batch.num_rows();
+            still_needed.store(still - rows_read, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        // Queuing the next round ahead of the consumer would use stale demand
+        // and leave extra prefetched rows here after the sample was satisfied.
+        assert!(scan.next().await.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_accumulate_fsl_values_respects_max_rows() {
+        let dim: usize = 4;
+        let total_rows: usize = 100;
+        let max_rows: usize = 16;
+        let byte_width = dim * std::mem::size_of::<f32>();
+
+        let values: Vec<f32> = (0..total_rows * dim).map(|i| i as f32).collect();
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(values), dim as i32)
+            .unwrap();
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(fsl);
+
+        let mut buf = MutableBuffer::new(0);
+        let mut num_rows = 0usize;
+        accumulate_fsl_values(&mut buf, &mut num_rows, &arr, byte_width, true, max_rows).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(num_rows, max_rows);
+        assert_eq!(buf.len(), max_rows * byte_width);
+
+        let values: Vec<f32> = (0..total_rows * dim).map(|i| i as f32).collect();
+        let item_field = Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true));
+
+        // Every other row is null, leaving 50 non-null rows.
+        let mut nulls_builder = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(total_rows);
+        for i in 0..total_rows {
+            nulls_builder.append(i % 2 == 0);
+        }
+        let nulls = NullBuffer::new(nulls_builder.finish());
+
+        let fsl = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+            item_field,
+            dim as i32,
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(values)),
+            Some(nulls),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(fsl);
+
+        let mut buf = MutableBuffer::new(0);
+        let mut num_rows = 0usize;
+        accumulate_fsl_values(&mut buf, &mut num_rows, &arr, byte_width, true, max_rows).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(num_rows, max_rows);
+        assert_eq!(buf.len(), max_rows * byte_width);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/commit.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/commit.rs
index 5900c92fa8d..2a45637995e 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/commit.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/commit.rs
@@ -20,46 +20,57 @@
 //! alternative to [`CommitHandler`].
 
 use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::future::Future;
 use std::num::NonZero;
 use std::sync::Arc;
-use std::time::Instant;
+use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 
 use conflict_resolver::TransactionRebase;
 use lance_core::utils::backoff::{Backoff, SlotBackoff};
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use lance_core::utils::tracing::{AUDIT_MODE_DELETE, AUDIT_TYPE_TRANSACTION, TRACE_FILE_AUDIT};
+#[cfg(test)]
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
 use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
 use lance_io::utils::CachedFileSize;
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use lance_table::feature_flags::ensure_can_write_manifest;
 use lance_table::format::{
-    is_detached_version, pb, DataStorageFormat, DeletionFile, Fragment, IndexMetadata, Manifest,
-    WriterVersion, DETACHED_VERSION_MASK,
+    DETACHED_VERSION_MASK, DeletionFile, Fragment, IndexMetadata, Manifest, ManifestBuildConfig,
+    WriterVersion, is_detached_version, list_index_files_with_sizes, operation_may_change_schema,
+    pb,
 };
 use lance_table::io::commit::{
     CommitConfig, CommitError, CommitHandler, ManifestLocation, ManifestNamingScheme,
 };
-use rand::{rng, Rng};
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest;
+use lance_table::transaction::{FragReuseUpdate, PreparedIndices, has_writer_placed_lineage};
+use rand::{Rng, rng};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 
 use super::ObjectStore;
+use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::dataset::cleanup::auto_cleanup_hook;
 use crate::dataset::fragment::FileFragment;
+use crate::dataset::rowids::load_spilled_row_lineage;
 use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
 use crate::dataset::{
-    load_new_transactions, write_manifest_file, ManifestWriteConfig, NewTransactionResult,
-    TRANSACTIONS_DIR,
+    ManifestWriteConfig, NewTransactionResult, TRANSACTIONS_DIR, load_new_transactions,
+    write_manifest_file,
 };
 use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+use crate::index::vector::details::infer_missing_vector_details;
+use crate::index::{index_is_usable, load_all_indices};
 use crate::io::deletion::read_dataset_deletion_file;
+use crate::session::Session;
 use crate::session::caches::DSMetadataCache;
 use crate::session::index_caches::IndexMetadataKey;
-use crate::session::Session;
-use crate::Dataset;
 use futures::future::Either;
-use futures::{StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
-use lance_index::{is_system_index, DatasetIndexExt};
-use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry;
+use lance_index::is_system_index;
 use log;
+use object_store::ObjectStoreExt;
 use object_store::path::Path;
 use prost::Message;
 
@@ -68,120 +79,505 @@ pub mod conflict_resolver;
 mod dynamodb;
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod external_manifest;
+pub mod namespace_manifest;
 #[cfg(all(feature = "dynamodb_tests", test))]
 mod s3_test;
 
+/// Wall-clock budget for conflict retry backoff when callers do not override it.
+/// It starts once the commit has caught up with the versions committed since
+/// its read version, so how far behind the writer started does not count.
+pub(crate) const DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT: Duration = Duration::from_secs(30);
+
+/// Env var overriding [`DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT`] process-wide, in
+/// (possibly fractional) seconds: the operational escape hatch for callers
+/// that have no explicit-timeout API of their own.
+const COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT_ENV: &str = "LANCE_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT_SECS";
+
+/// The commit conflict-retry budget used when the caller does not set one:
+/// [`COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT_ENV`] if set to a valid positive number of seconds,
+/// otherwise [`DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT`]. Read once per process.
+pub(crate) fn default_commit_retry_timeout() -> Duration {
+    static TIMEOUT: std::sync::OnceLock<Duration> = std::sync::OnceLock::new();
+    *TIMEOUT.get_or_init(|| {
+        parse_commit_retry_timeout(std::env::var(COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT_ENV).ok().as_deref())
+    })
+}
+
+/// Parse [`COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT_ENV`]'s value; `None` means unset. Anything
+/// that is not a finite positive number of seconds warns and falls back to
+/// [`DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT`].
+fn parse_commit_retry_timeout(raw: Option<&str>) -> Duration {
+    let Some(raw) = raw else {
+        return DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT;
+    };
+    match raw.trim().parse::<f64>() {
+        Ok(secs) if secs.is_finite() && secs > 0.0 => Duration::from_secs_f64(secs),
+        _ => {
+            log::warn!(
+                "ignoring invalid {COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT_ENV}={raw:?}; using the {}s default",
+                DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT.as_secs()
+            );
+            DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn timeout_error(retry_timeout: Duration, attempts: u32) -> Error {
+    Error::too_much_write_contention(format!(
+        "Attempted {} times, but failed on retry_timeout of {:.3} seconds.",
+        attempts,
+        retry_timeout.as_secs_f32()
+    ))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn maybe_timeout<T>(
+    attempt: u32,
+    start: Instant,
+    retry_timeout: Duration,
+    future: impl Future<Output = T>,
+) -> impl Future<Output = Result<T>> {
+    if attempt == 0 {
+        // The first attempt establishes the observed latency used by SlotBackoff.
+        Either::Left(future.map(Ok))
+    } else {
+        let remaining = retry_timeout.saturating_sub(start.elapsed());
+        Either::Right(
+            tokio::time::timeout(remaining, future)
+                .map_err(move |_| timeout_error(retry_timeout, attempt + 1)),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+/// Read the raw protobuf transaction from a transaction file.
+async fn read_transaction_file_pb(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    base_path: &Path,
+    transaction_file: &str,
+) -> Result<pb::Transaction> {
+    let path = base_path
+        .clone()
+        .join(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)
+        .join(transaction_file);
+    let result = object_store.inner.get(&path).await?;
+    let data = result.bytes().await?;
+    Ok(pb::Transaction::decode(data)?)
+}
+
 /// Read the transaction data from a transaction file.
-#[allow(dead_code)]
+#[cfg(test)]
 pub(crate) async fn read_transaction_file(
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
     base_path: &Path,
     transaction_file: &str,
 ) -> Result<Transaction> {
-    let path = base_path.child(TRANSACTIONS_DIR).child(transaction_file);
-    let result = object_store.inner.get(&path).await?;
-    let data = result.bytes().await?;
-    let transaction = pb::Transaction::decode(data)?;
-    transaction.try_into()
+    read_transaction_file_pb(object_store, base_path, transaction_file)
+        .await?
+        .try_into()
+}
+
+/// Best-effort delete of a transaction file that is no longer needed.
+///
+/// Logs a warning on failure rather than propagating the error, since the
+/// primary operation has already failed and the orphaned file will eventually
+/// be removed by GC.
+///
+/// Callers must only invoke this for attempts whose commit is confirmed to
+/// have NOT landed (see [`verify_commit_outcome`]): a landed manifest
+/// references its transaction file by path, so deleting it would corrupt the
+/// version.
+async fn cleanup_transaction_file(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    base_path: &Path,
+    transaction_file: &str,
+) {
+    if transaction_file.is_empty() {
+        return;
+    }
+    let path = base_path
+        .clone()
+        .join(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)
+        .join(transaction_file);
+    match object_store.delete(&path).await {
+        Ok(()) => {
+            tracing::info!(
+                target: TRACE_FILE_AUDIT,
+                mode = AUDIT_MODE_DELETE,
+                r#type = AUDIT_TYPE_TRANSACTION,
+                path = transaction_file,
+            );
+        }
+        Err(e) => {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Failed to clean up orphaned transaction file '{}': {}",
+                transaction_file,
+                e
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Best-effort removal of files a shallow clone staged in the target before
+/// its commit conclusively failed (the relocated FRI entry's spilled
+/// `details.binpb`). Never called when the commit outcome is unknown: the
+/// clone may have landed and still need them.
+async fn cleanup_spilled_clone_files(object_store: &ObjectStore, spilled_files: &[Path]) {
+    for path in spilled_files {
+        if let Err(e) = object_store.delete(path).await {
+            log::warn!("Failed to clean up staged clone file '{}': {}", path, e);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Who owns the manifest at a version, checked after a failed commit attempt.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum CommitOutcome {
+    /// The manifest at the version is the one this attempt wrote: the commit
+    /// actually landed even though the store reported a failure (e.g. the
+    /// response to a successful conditional PUT was lost and an internal
+    /// retry surfaced "already exists").
+    Ours {
+        manifest: Box<Manifest>,
+        location: ManifestLocation,
+    },
+    /// A manifest exists at the version and records a different transaction
+    /// file: another writer definitely won the version.
+    Foreign,
+    /// No manifest exists at the version: this attempt definitely did not
+    /// land.
+    Absent,
+    /// The verification reads themselves kept failing; whether the commit
+    /// landed cannot be determined. Callers must not run destructive cleanup
+    /// in this state.
+    Unknown,
+}
+
+/// Maximum verification read attempts in [`verify_commit_outcome`].
+const COMMIT_VERIFICATION_ATTEMPTS: u32 = 3;
+
+/// Determine whether a failed commit attempt actually landed, by comparing
+/// the complete transaction recorded in the manifest at `version` with this
+/// attempt's transaction.
+///
+/// The comparison is done between durable (protobuf) forms: the in-memory
+/// [`Transaction`] can carry state that is intentionally not serialized
+/// (e.g. the frag reuse payload attached to a rewrite), so comparing the
+/// read-back transaction against the in-memory one would misclassify our own
+/// landed commit as foreign.
+///
+/// Never returns an error. Read failures and non-definitive not-found results
+/// are retried briefly, then collapse to [`CommitOutcome::Unknown`].
+async fn verify_commit_outcome(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    commit_handler: &dyn CommitHandler,
+    base_path: &Path,
+    version: u64,
+    transaction: &Transaction,
+) -> CommitOutcome {
+    enum VerificationFailure {
+        NotFound,
+        Read(Error),
+    }
+
+    // Durable form of this attempt's transaction, matching what the commit
+    // path serialized. The commit path already rejected anything that fails
+    // to serialize, so this cannot fail in practice; stay conservative if it does.
+    let Ok(transaction_pb) = pb::Transaction::try_from(transaction) else {
+        return CommitOutcome::Unknown;
+    };
+
+    let mut backoff = Backoff::default();
+    let failure = loop {
+        let failure = match try_read_manifest_at(object_store, commit_handler, base_path, version)
+            .await
+        {
+            Ok(Some((manifest, location))) => {
+                match read_manifest_transaction(object_store, base_path, &manifest, &location).await
+                {
+                    Ok(Some(committed_transaction)) => {
+                        return if committed_transaction == transaction_pb {
+                            CommitOutcome::Ours {
+                                manifest: Box::new(manifest),
+                                location,
+                            }
+                        } else {
+                            CommitOutcome::Foreign
+                        };
+                    }
+                    Ok(None) => return CommitOutcome::Foreign,
+                    Err(error) => VerificationFailure::Read(error),
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(None) if commit_handler.is_version_not_found_definitive() => {
+                return CommitOutcome::Absent;
+            }
+            Ok(None) => VerificationFailure::NotFound,
+            Err(error) => VerificationFailure::Read(error),
+        };
+
+        if backoff.attempt() + 1 >= COMMIT_VERIFICATION_ATTEMPTS {
+            break failure;
+        }
+        tokio::time::sleep(backoff.next_backoff()).await;
+    };
+
+    match failure {
+        VerificationFailure::NotFound => {
+            log::warn!(
+                "The manifest for version {} was not visible after {} commit verification \
+                 attempts, and the commit handler does not guarantee definitive not-found \
+                 results; treating the commit status as unknown",
+                version,
+                COMMIT_VERIFICATION_ATTEMPTS
+            );
+            CommitOutcome::Unknown
+        }
+        VerificationFailure::Read(error) => {
+            log::warn!(
+                "Could not verify the outcome of the commit attempt for version {} after {} \
+                 tries; treating the commit status as unknown: {}",
+                version,
+                COMMIT_VERIFICATION_ATTEMPTS,
+                error
+            );
+            CommitOutcome::Unknown
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+async fn read_manifest_transaction(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    base_path: &Path,
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    location: &ManifestLocation,
+) -> Result<Option<pb::Transaction>> {
+    if let Some(position) = manifest.transaction_section {
+        let reader = if let Some(size) = location.size {
+            object_store
+                .open_with_size(&location.path, size as usize)
+                .await?
+        } else {
+            object_store.open(&location.path).await?
+        };
+        let transaction: pb::Transaction =
+            lance_io::utils::read_message(reader.as_ref(), position).await?;
+        Ok(Some(transaction))
+    } else if let Some(transaction_file) = manifest.transaction_file.as_deref() {
+        read_transaction_file_pb(object_store, base_path, transaction_file)
+            .await
+            .map(Some)
+    } else {
+        Ok(None)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Read the manifest at `version`, distinguishing "no such version"
+/// (`Ok(None)`) from transient read failures (`Err`).
+async fn try_read_manifest_at(
+    object_store: &ObjectStore,
+    commit_handler: &dyn CommitHandler,
+    base_path: &Path,
+    version: u64,
+) -> Result<Option<(Manifest, ManifestLocation)>> {
+    let location = match commit_handler
+        .resolve_version_location(base_path, version, &object_store.inner)
+        .await
+    {
+        Ok(location) => location,
+        Err(Error::NotFound { .. }) => return Ok(None),
+        Err(e) => return Err(e),
+    };
+    match read_manifest(object_store, &location.path, location.size).await {
+        Ok(manifest) => Ok(Some((manifest, location))),
+        Err(Error::NotFound { .. }) => Ok(None),
+        Err(e) => Err(e),
+    }
 }
 
 /// Write a transaction to a file and return the relative path.
 pub(crate) async fn write_transaction_file(
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
     base_path: &Path,
-    transaction: &Transaction,
+    transaction: &pb::Transaction,
 ) -> Result<String> {
     let file_name = format!("{}-{}.txn", transaction.read_version, transaction.uuid);
-    let path = base_path.child(TRANSACTIONS_DIR).child(file_name.as_str());
+    let path = base_path
+        .clone()
+        .join(TRANSACTIONS_DIR)
+        .join(file_name.as_str());
 
-    let message = pb::Transaction::from(transaction);
-    let buf = message.encode_to_vec();
-    object_store.inner.put(&path, buf.into()).await?;
+    let buf = transaction.encode_to_vec();
+    object_store.put(&path, &buf).await?;
 
     Ok(file_name)
 }
 
+/// Transactions serialized above this size are not inlined into the manifest.
+#[cfg(not(test))]
+pub(crate) const MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES: usize = 20 * 1024 * 1024;
+/// Smaller threshold for unit tests so spill coverage does not need
+/// multi-megabyte payloads.
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(crate) const MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES: usize = 64 * 1024;
+
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 async fn do_commit_new_dataset(
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
-    commit_handler: &dyn CommitHandler,
+    source_store: Option<&ObjectStore>,
+    commit_handler: &Arc<dyn CommitHandler>,
     base_path: &Path,
+    uri: &str,
     transaction: &Transaction,
     write_config: &ManifestWriteConfig,
     manifest_naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
     metadata_cache: &DSMetadataCache,
-    store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    session: Arc<Session>,
 ) -> Result<(Manifest, ManifestLocation)> {
-    let transaction_file = if !write_config.disable_transaction_file() {
-        write_transaction_file(object_store, base_path, transaction).await?
-    } else {
-        String::new()
-    };
-
-    let (mut manifest, indices) = if let Operation::Clone {
+    let pb_transaction = pb::Transaction::try_from(transaction)?;
+    let inline_transaction = pb_transaction.encoded_len() <= MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES;
+    // Classified from the operation itself. Reading it back off the inline
+    // copy would tie the verdict to the payload size instead.
+    let may_change_schema = operation_may_change_schema(&pb_transaction);
+
+    // Files a shallow clone writes into the target before the manifest
+    // commit; deleted again when the commit conclusively fails.
+    let mut spilled_clone_files: Vec<Path> = Vec::new();
+    let clone_source = if let Operation::Clone {
         is_shallow,
-        ref_name,
         ref_version,
         ref_path,
-        branch_name,
         ..
     } = &transaction.operation
     {
+        // The source manifest must be read through the source store, which may differ
+        // from the destination store when cloning across object stores/accounts. Falls
+        // back to the destination store for same-store clones.
+        let source_store = source_store.unwrap_or(object_store);
         let source_base_path =
-            ObjectStore::extract_path_from_uri(store_registry, ref_path.as_str())?;
+            ObjectStore::extract_path_from_uri(session.store_registry(), ref_path.as_str())?;
         let source_manifest_location = commit_handler
-            .resolve_version_location(&source_base_path, *ref_version, &object_store.inner)
+            .resolve_version_location(&source_base_path, *ref_version, &source_store.inner)
             .await?;
         let source_manifest = Dataset::load_manifest(
-            object_store,
+            source_store,
             &source_manifest_location,
-            base_path.to_string().as_str(),
-            &Session::default(),
+            ref_path.as_str(),
+            &session,
         )
         .await?;
+        ensure_can_write_manifest(&source_manifest)?;
+
+        // Prepare the cloned index metadata now: an uncloneable tagged FRI
+        // history must be rejected before anything is written to the target.
+        let indices = if let Some(index_section_pos) = source_manifest.index_section {
+            let reader = source_store.open(&source_manifest_location.path).await?;
+            let section: pb::IndexSection =
+                lance_io::utils::read_message(reader.as_ref(), index_section_pos).await?;
+            section
+                .indices
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(IndexMetadata::try_from)
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
+        } else {
+            vec![]
+        };
+        let new_base_id =
+            lance_table::format::BasePath::unused_id(source_manifest.base_paths.keys().copied())?;
+        let mut updated_indices = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+        for mut index in indices {
+            if lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged(&index) {
+                // Restamp the entry's row-map references through the clone's
+                // base mapping and move the entry itself into the clone. A
+                // shallow clone leaves the row-map files where they are; a
+                // deep clone copies them into its own `_fri/` (the copy loop
+                // in `deep_clone`), so every reference becomes local.
+                let base_remap = if *is_shallow {
+                    crate::index::frag_reuse::CloneBaseRemap::Shallow { new_base_id }
+                } else {
+                    crate::index::frag_reuse::CloneBaseRemap::Deep
+                };
+                let (relocated, spilled) =
+                    crate::index::frag_reuse::relocate_tagged_entry_for_clone(
+                        source_store,
+                        &source_base_path,
+                        &source_manifest,
+                        session.store_registry(),
+                        &index,
+                        base_remap,
+                        object_store,
+                        base_path,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                index = relocated;
+                spilled_clone_files.extend(spilled);
+            } else if !*is_shallow {
+                // Deep clone: keep metadata but normalize base to local.
+                index.base_id = None;
+            } else if index.base_id.is_none() {
+                // Same rule as the data files in `Manifest::shallow_clone`:
+                // only the source's own entries get the new base; entries
+                // already stamped keep their ids, which carry over into
+                // the clone's `base_paths` verbatim (a chained clone must
+                // not restamp an origin-based index onto the middle hop).
+                index.base_id = Some(new_base_id);
+            }
+            updated_indices.push(index);
+        }
+        Some((
+            source_manifest,
+            source_manifest_location,
+            new_base_id,
+            updated_indices,
+        ))
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    let transaction_file = if !write_config.disable_transaction_file() {
+        match write_transaction_file(object_store, base_path, &pb_transaction).await {
+            Ok(transaction_file) => transaction_file,
+            Err(err) => {
+                cleanup_spilled_clone_files(object_store, &spilled_clone_files).await;
+                return Err(err);
+            }
+        }
+    } else {
+        String::new()
+    };
 
+    let (mut manifest, indices) = if let (
+        Operation::Clone {
+            is_shallow,
+            ref_name,
+            ref_path,
+            branch_name,
+            ..
+        },
+        Some((source_manifest, source_manifest_location, new_base_id, updated_indices)),
+    ) = (&transaction.operation, clone_source)
+    {
         if *is_shallow {
-            let new_base_id = source_manifest
-                .base_paths
-                .keys()
-                .max()
-                .map(|id| *id + 1)
-                .unwrap_or(0);
             let new_manifest = source_manifest.shallow_clone(
                 ref_name.clone(),
                 ref_path.clone(),
                 new_base_id,
                 branch_name.clone(),
-                transaction_file,
+                transaction_file.clone(),
             );
-
-            let updated_indices = if let Some(index_section_pos) = source_manifest.index_section {
-                let reader = object_store.open(&source_manifest_location.path).await?;
-                let section: pb::IndexSection =
-                    lance_io::utils::read_message(reader.as_ref(), index_section_pos).await?;
-                section
-                    .indices
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|index_pb| {
-                        let mut index = IndexMetadata::try_from(index_pb)?;
-                        index.base_id = Some(new_base_id);
-                        Ok(index)
-                    })
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?
-            } else {
-                vec![]
-            };
             (new_manifest, updated_indices)
         } else {
             // Deep clone: build a manifest that references local files (no external bases)
             let mut new_manifest = source_manifest.clone();
-            new_manifest.base_paths.clear();
+            if !source_manifest.has_managed_blobs() {
+                new_manifest.base_paths.clear();
+            }
             new_manifest.branch = None;
             new_manifest.tag = None;
             new_manifest.index_section = None; // will be rewritten below
+            new_manifest.transaction_file =
+                (!transaction_file.is_empty()).then_some(transaction_file.clone());
             let mut new_frags = new_manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone();
             for f in &mut new_frags {
-                for df in &mut f.files {
+                for df in f.referenced_lance_files_mut() {
                     df.base_id = None;
                 }
                 if let Some(d) = f.deletion_file.as_mut() {
@@ -190,33 +586,46 @@ async fn do_commit_new_dataset(
             }
             new_manifest.fragments = Arc::new(new_frags);
 
-            // Indices: keep metadata but normalize base to local
-            let mut updated_indices = Vec::new();
-            if let Some(index_section_pos) = source_manifest.index_section {
-                let reader = object_store.open(&source_manifest_location.path).await?;
-                let section: pb::IndexSection =
-                    lance_io::utils::read_message(reader.as_ref(), index_section_pos).await?;
-                updated_indices = section
-                    .indices
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|index_pb| {
-                        let mut index = IndexMetadata::try_from(index_pb)?;
-                        index.base_id = None;
-                        Ok(index)
-                    })
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+            if source_manifest.has_managed_blobs() {
+                let source_store = source_store.unwrap_or(object_store);
+                let source = Dataset::checkout_manifest(
+                    Arc::new(source_store.clone()),
+                    ObjectStore::extract_path_from_uri(session.store_registry(), ref_path)?,
+                    ref_path.clone(),
+                    Arc::new(source_manifest.clone()),
+                    source_manifest_location.clone(),
+                    session.clone(),
+                    commit_handler.clone(),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                )?;
+                crate::dataset::blob::clone::copy_blob_columns(
+                    Arc::new(source),
+                    Arc::new(object_store.clone()),
+                    base_path.clone(),
+                    uri,
+                    &mut new_manifest,
+                )
+                .boxed()
+                .await?;
             }
+
             (new_manifest, updated_indices)
         }
     } else {
-        let (manifest, indices) =
-            transaction.build_manifest(None, vec![], &transaction_file, write_config)?;
+        let (manifest, indices) = transaction.build_manifest(
+            None,
+            vec![],
+            &transaction_file,
+            &write_config.to_build_config(),
+        )?;
         (manifest, indices)
     };
 
     let result = write_manifest_file(
         object_store,
-        commit_handler,
+        commit_handler.as_ref(),
         base_path,
         &mut manifest,
         if indices.is_empty() {
@@ -226,7 +635,8 @@ async fn do_commit_new_dataset(
         },
         write_config,
         manifest_naming_scheme,
-        Some(transaction),
+        inline_transaction.then(|| pb_transaction.into()),
+        may_change_schema,
     )
     .await;
 
@@ -234,50 +644,143 @@ async fn do_commit_new_dataset(
     // if there is a conflict.
     match result {
         Ok(manifest_location) => {
-            let tx_key = crate::session::caches::TransactionKey {
-                version: manifest.version,
-            };
-            metadata_cache
-                .insert_with_key(&tx_key, Arc::new(transaction.clone()))
-                .await;
-
-            let manifest_key = crate::session::caches::ManifestKey {
-                version: manifest_location.version,
-                e_tag: manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
-            };
-            metadata_cache
-                .insert_with_key(&manifest_key, Arc::new(manifest.clone()))
+            record_new_dataset_commit(metadata_cache, transaction, &manifest, &manifest_location)
                 .await;
             Ok((manifest, manifest_location))
         }
-        Err(CommitError::CommitConflict) => Err(crate::Error::DatasetAlreadyExists {
-            uri: base_path.to_string(),
-            location: location!(),
-        }),
-        Err(CommitError::OtherError(err)) => Err(err),
+        Err(CommitError::CommitConflict) => {
+            // The dataset may "already exist" because this attempt's own
+            // manifest write landed but returned an ambiguous error. Verify
+            // before reporting a conflict (and before deleting the
+            // transaction file a landed manifest would reference).
+            match verify_commit_outcome(
+                object_store,
+                commit_handler.as_ref(),
+                base_path,
+                manifest.version,
+                transaction,
+            )
+            .await
+            {
+                CommitOutcome::Ours {
+                    manifest: committed_manifest,
+                    location,
+                } => {
+                    let committed_manifest = *committed_manifest;
+                    record_new_dataset_commit(
+                        metadata_cache,
+                        transaction,
+                        &committed_manifest,
+                        &location,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                    return Ok((committed_manifest, location));
+                }
+                CommitOutcome::Foreign | CommitOutcome::Absent => {}
+                CommitOutcome::Unknown => {
+                    return Err(Error::commit_status_unknown_source(
+                        manifest.version,
+                        "dataset creation reported a conflict but the manifest could not \
+                         be read back for verification"
+                            .to_string()
+                            .into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            cleanup_transaction_file(object_store, base_path, &transaction_file).await;
+            cleanup_spilled_clone_files(object_store, &spilled_clone_files).await;
+            Err(crate::Error::dataset_already_exists(base_path.to_string()))
+        }
+        Err(CommitError::OtherError(err)) => {
+            match verify_commit_outcome(
+                object_store,
+                commit_handler.as_ref(),
+                base_path,
+                manifest.version,
+                transaction,
+            )
+            .await
+            {
+                CommitOutcome::Ours {
+                    manifest: committed_manifest,
+                    location,
+                } => {
+                    let committed_manifest = *committed_manifest;
+                    record_new_dataset_commit(
+                        metadata_cache,
+                        transaction,
+                        &committed_manifest,
+                        &location,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                    if commit_handler.propagate_commit_error_after_success() {
+                        return Err(err);
+                    }
+                    return Ok((committed_manifest, location));
+                }
+                CommitOutcome::Foreign | CommitOutcome::Absent => {}
+                CommitOutcome::Unknown => {
+                    return Err(Error::commit_status_unknown_source(
+                        manifest.version,
+                        Box::new(err),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            cleanup_transaction_file(object_store, base_path, &transaction_file).await;
+            cleanup_spilled_clone_files(object_store, &spilled_clone_files).await;
+            Err(err)
+        }
     }
 }
 
+/// Cache bookkeeping for a successful new-dataset commit, shared by the
+/// direct-success and verified-own-commit paths of `do_commit_new_dataset`.
+async fn record_new_dataset_commit(
+    metadata_cache: &DSMetadataCache,
+    transaction: &Transaction,
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    location: &ManifestLocation,
+) {
+    let tx_key = crate::session::caches::TransactionKey {
+        version: manifest.version,
+    };
+    metadata_cache
+        .insert_with_key(&tx_key, Arc::new(transaction.clone()))
+        .await;
+
+    let manifest_key = crate::session::caches::ManifestKey {
+        version: location.version,
+        e_tag: location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+    };
+    metadata_cache
+        .insert_with_key(&manifest_key, Arc::new(manifest.clone()))
+        .await;
+}
+
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub(crate) async fn commit_new_dataset(
     object_store: &ObjectStore,
-    commit_handler: &dyn CommitHandler,
+    source_store: Option<&ObjectStore>,
+    commit_handler: &Arc<dyn CommitHandler>,
     base_path: &Path,
+    uri: &str,
     transaction: &Transaction,
     write_config: &ManifestWriteConfig,
     manifest_naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
     metadata_cache: &crate::session::caches::DSMetadataCache,
-    store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    session: Arc<Session>,
 ) -> Result<(Manifest, ManifestLocation)> {
     do_commit_new_dataset(
         object_store,
+        source_store,
         commit_handler,
         base_path,
+        uri,
         transaction,
         write_config,
         manifest_naming_scheme,
         metadata_cache,
-        store_registry,
+        session,
     )
     .await
 }
@@ -328,48 +831,36 @@ async fn migrate_manifest(
     Ok(())
 }
 
+#[cfg(test)]
 fn check_storage_version(manifest: &mut Manifest) -> Result<()> {
-    let data_storage_version = manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()?;
-    if manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_version()? == LanceFileVersion::Legacy {
-        // Due to bugs in 0.16 it is possible the dataset's data storage version does not
-        // match the file version.  As a result, we need to check and see if they are out
-        // of sync.
-        if let Some(actual_file_version) =
-            Fragment::try_infer_version(&manifest.fragments).map_err(|e| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "The dataset contains a mixture of file versions.  You will need to rollback to an earlier version: {}",
-                    e
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            })? {
-                if actual_file_version > data_storage_version {
-                    log::warn!(
-                        "Data storage version {} is less than the actual file version {}.  This has been automatically updated.",
-                        data_storage_version,
-                        actual_file_version
-                    );
-                    manifest.data_storage_format = DataStorageFormat::new(actual_file_version);
-                }
-            }
-    } else {
-        // Otherwise, if we are on 2.0 or greater, we should ensure that the file versions
-        // match the data storage version.  This is a sanity assertion to prevent data corruption.
-        if let Some(actual_file_version) = Fragment::try_infer_version(&manifest.fragments)? {
-            if actual_file_version != data_storage_version {
-                return Err(Error::Internal {
-                    message: format!(
-                        "The operation added files with version {}.  However, the data storage version is {}.",
-                        actual_file_version,
-                        data_storage_version
-                    ),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
-            }
-        }
+    crate::dataset::versions::check_manifest_storage_version(manifest)
+}
+
+/// Reject a manifest in which two fragments share an id. Per-fragment state is
+/// keyed by fragment id — deletion file paths, cached row id sequences, row
+/// addresses — so a duplicate makes it ambiguous which rows that state describes.
+///
+/// Runs after the legacy fixups above, so a dataset that needs a rollback for some
+/// other reason is diagnosed with that first. Relies on `build_manifest` leaving
+/// the fragments sorted by id.
+fn check_fragment_ids(manifest: &Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    if let Some(pair) = manifest.fragments.windows(2).find(|p| p[0].id == p[1].id) {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "The commit would produce two fragments with id {}. Fragment ids must be \
+             unique. Datasets written by Lance 0.16 and earlier may already contain \
+             duplicate ids; those have to be rewritten, or rolled back to a version \
+             without the duplicate.",
+            pair[0].id
+        )));
     }
     Ok(())
 }
 
+#[cfg(test)]
+fn check_column_indices(manifest: &Manifest) -> Result<()> {
+    crate::dataset::versions::validate_column_indices(manifest)
+}
+
 /// Fix schema in case of duplicate field ids.
 ///
 /// See test dataset v0.10.5/corrupt_schema
@@ -397,13 +888,12 @@ fn fix_schema(manifest: &mut Manifest) -> Result<()> {
     }
 
     // Now, we need to remap the field ids to be unique.
-    let mut field_id_seed = manifest.max_field_id() + 1;
     let mut old_field_id_mapping: HashMap<i32, i32> = HashMap::new();
     let mut fields_with_duplicate_ids = fields_with_duplicate_ids.into_iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
     fields_with_duplicate_ids.sort_unstable();
-    for field_id in fields_with_duplicate_ids {
+    for (field_id_seed, field_id) in (manifest.max_field_id() + 1..).zip(fields_with_duplicate_ids)
+    {
         old_field_id_mapping.insert(field_id, field_id_seed);
-        field_id_seed += 1;
     }
 
     let mut fragments = manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone();
@@ -412,25 +902,36 @@ fn fix_schema(manifest: &mut Manifest) -> Result<()> {
     // We iterate over files in reverse order so that we only map the last field id
     seen_fields.clear();
     for fragment in fragments.iter_mut() {
-        for field_id in fragment
-            .files
-            .iter_mut()
-            .rev()
-            .flat_map(|file| file.fields.iter_mut())
-        {
-            if let Some(new_field_id) = old_field_id_mapping.get(field_id) {
-                if seen_fields.insert(*field_id) {
-                    *field_id = *new_field_id;
-                }
-            }
+        for file in fragment.files.iter_mut().rev() {
+            let new_fields: Arc<[i32]> = file
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|field_id| {
+                    if let Some(new_field_id) = old_field_id_mapping.get(field_id)
+                        && seen_fields.insert(*field_id)
+                    {
+                        *new_field_id
+                    } else {
+                        *field_id
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .into();
+            file.fields = new_fields;
         }
         seen_fields.clear();
     }
 
-    // Apply mapping to the schema
+    // Apply mapping to the schema. Children carry an independent `parent_id`
+    // that is serialized verbatim, so re-parent them onto the new id as well.
+    // A field's children are named by this field's id only, so each entry can
+    // be applied independently of the order the mapping is iterated in.
     for (old_field_id, new_field_id) in &old_field_id_mapping {
         let field = manifest.schema.mut_field_by_id(*old_field_id).unwrap();
         field.id = *new_field_id;
+        for child in field.children.iter_mut() {
+            child.parent_id = *new_field_id;
+        }
     }
 
     // Drop data files that are no longer in use.
@@ -495,21 +996,24 @@ pub(crate) async fn migrate_fragments(
 
             let mut data_files = fragment.files.clone();
 
-            // For each of the data files in the fragment, we need to get the file size
-            let object_store = dataset.object_store();
+            // For each of the data files in the fragment, we need to get the file size.
+            // Resolve each file against its own storage base: multi-base datasets
+            // keep data files outside the dataset root (DataFile.base_id).
             let get_sizes = data_files
                 .iter()
                 .map(|file| {
                     if let Some(size) = file.file_size_bytes.get() {
                         Either::Left(futures::future::ready(Ok(size)))
                     } else {
-                        Either::Right(async {
+                        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                        Either::Right(async move {
+                            let object_store = dataset.object_store_for_data_file(file).await?;
+                            let data_dir = dataset.data_file_dir_for_base(file.base_id)?;
                             object_store
-                                .size(&dataset.base.child("data").child(file.path.clone()))
+                                .size(&data_dir.join(file.path.clone()))
                                 .map_ok(|size| {
-                                    NonZero::new(size).ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                                        message: format!("File {} has size 0", file.path),
-                                        location: location!(),
+                                    NonZero::new(size).ok_or_else(|| {
+                                        Error::internal(format!("File {} has size 0", file.path))
                                     })
                                 })
                                 .await?
@@ -574,38 +1078,137 @@ fn must_recalculate_fragment_bitmap(
 /// Update indices with new fields.
 ///
 /// Indices might be missing `fragment_bitmap`, so this function will add it.
-async fn migrate_indices(dataset: &Dataset, indices: &mut [IndexMetadata]) -> Result<()> {
+/// Indices might also be missing `files` (file sizes), so this function will collect them.
+///
+/// Returns the logical indices whose `fragment_bitmap` this replaced. Those are
+/// the only changes here that alter what an index covers, and the caller has to
+/// withdraw MemWAL catch-up for them: this runs after the coverage derivation,
+/// and it keeps the segment's UUID.
+async fn migrate_indices(dataset: &Dataset, indices: &mut [IndexMetadata]) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    infer_missing_vector_details(dataset, indices).await;
+    let mut recovered_coverage = Vec::new();
     let needs_recalculating = match detect_overlapping_fragments(indices) {
         Ok(()) => vec![],
         Err(BadFragmentBitmapError { bad_indices }) => {
             bad_indices.into_iter().map(|(name, _)| name).collect()
         }
     };
-    for index in indices {
+    for index in indices.iter_mut() {
+        // Migration is skipped for an index this build has no reader for: every
+        // branch below would have to open it to recalculate anything, which is
+        // exactly what this build cannot do, and failing here would fail an
+        // unrelated commit. Skipped, not untouched - `load_all_indices` still
+        // remaps its `fragment_bitmap` through the fragment-reuse index, which
+        // is what keeps its coverage pointing at the fragments its rows live in.
+        if !index_is_usable(index) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        // Also true when the bitmap is missing entirely, so the failure path below
+        // pairs it with `is_some` to mean "written before the 0.8.15 fix".
+        let bitmap_missing_or_legacy =
+            must_recalculate_fragment_bitmap(index, dataset.manifest.writer_version.as_ref());
         if needs_recalculating.contains(&index.name)
-            || must_recalculate_fragment_bitmap(index, dataset.manifest.writer_version.as_ref())
-                && !is_system_index(index)
+            || bitmap_missing_or_legacy && !is_system_index(index)
         {
-            debug_assert_eq!(index.fields.len(), 1);
-            let idx_field = dataset.schema().field_by_id(index.fields[0]).ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal { message: format!("Index with uuid {} referred to field with id {} which did not exist in dataset", index.uuid, index.fields[0]), location: location!() })?;
+            // A covered index still has exactly one keyed field; the trailing
+            // `covering_fields` are carried, not keyed, so counting them
+            // against `fields.len()` would fail this on a legal covered index.
+            debug_assert!(
+                index.keyed_field().is_some(),
+                "migrate_indices expects a single keyed field, got fields {:?} carrying {:?}",
+                index.fields,
+                index.covering_fields,
+            );
+            let idx_field = dataset.schema().field_by_id(index.fields[0]).ok_or_else(|| Error::internal(format!("Index with uuid {} referred to field with id {} which did not exist in dataset", index.uuid, index.fields[0])))?;
             // We need to calculate the fragments covered by the index
-            let idx = dataset
-                .open_generic_index(
-                    &idx_field.name,
-                    &index.uuid.to_string(),
-                    &NoOpMetricsCollector,
-                )
-                .await?;
-            index.fragment_bitmap = Some(idx.calculate_included_frags().await?);
+            let recalculated = async {
+                let idx = dataset
+                    .open_generic_index(&idx_field.name, &index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                    .await?;
+                idx.calculate_included_frags().await
+            }
+            .await;
+            match recalculated {
+                Ok(fragment_bitmap) => {
+                    if index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() != Some(&fragment_bitmap) {
+                        recovered_coverage.push(index.name.clone());
+                    }
+                    index.fragment_bitmap = Some(fragment_bitmap);
+                }
+                Err(e) => {
+                    // Recalculating means opening the index, and failing here fails
+                    // every commit the dataset takes, since migration runs on all of
+                    // them. A missing bitmap and overlapping segment bitmaps are both
+                    // re-derived from the index metadata, so they ask again on their
+                    // own; the pre-0.8.15 trigger reads the previous manifest's writer
+                    // version, which this commit replaces with the current one, and a
+                    // bitmap left in place would look migrated from here on.
+                    let repair_ends_with_this_commit =
+                        index.fragment_bitmap.is_some() && bitmap_missing_or_legacy;
+                    log::warn!(
+                        "Could not recalculate the fragment bitmap for index {} (uuid: {}): {}. {}",
+                        index.name,
+                        index.uuid,
+                        e,
+                        if repair_ends_with_this_commit {
+                            "Dropping its coverage to unknown so a build that can open the index recalculates it."
+                        } else {
+                            "Leaving the repair to a build that can open the index."
+                        }
+                    );
+                    if repair_ends_with_this_commit {
+                        index.fragment_bitmap = None;
+                        // Derivation ran before this and may have credited a
+                        // catch-up position off the bitmap being dropped here.
+                        recovered_coverage.push(index.name.clone());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
         }
         // We can't reliably recalculate the index type for label_list and bitmap indices and so we can't migrate this field.
         // However, we still log for visibility and to help potentially diagnose issues in the future if we grow to rely on the field.
         if index.index_details.is_none() {
-            log::debug!("the index with uuid {} is missing index metadata.  This probably means it was written with Lance version <= 0.19.2.  This is not a problem.", index.uuid);
+            log::debug!(
+                "the index with uuid {} is missing index metadata.  This probably means it was written with Lance version <= 0.19.2.  This is not a problem.",
+                index.uuid
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Migrate file sizes for indices that don't have them.
+        // Use indice_files_dir to handle shallow-cloned indices with base_id.
+        if index.files.is_none() && !is_system_index(index) {
+            let result = async {
+                let index_dir = dataset
+                    .indice_files_dir(index)?
+                    .join(index.uuid.to_string());
+                let object_store = dataset.object_store_for_index(index).await?;
+                list_index_files_with_sizes(&object_store, &index_dir).await
+            }
+            .await;
+            match result {
+                Ok(files) => {
+                    log::debug!(
+                        "Migrated file sizes for index {} (uuid: {}): {} files",
+                        index.name,
+                        index.uuid,
+                        files.len()
+                    );
+                    index.files = Some(files);
+                }
+                Err(e) => {
+                    // Log but don't fail - file sizes are optional
+                    log::debug!(
+                        "Could not collect file sizes for index {} (uuid: {}): {}",
+                        index.name,
+                        index.uuid,
+                        e
+                    );
+                }
+            }
         }
     }
 
-    Ok(())
+    Ok(recovered_coverage)
 }
 
 pub(crate) struct BadFragmentBitmapError {
@@ -617,17 +1220,28 @@ pub(crate) struct BadFragmentBitmapError {
 pub(crate) fn detect_overlapping_fragments(
     indices: &[IndexMetadata],
 ) -> std::result::Result<(), BadFragmentBitmapError> {
-    let index_names: HashSet<&str> = indices.iter().map(|i| i.name.as_str()).collect();
+    let mut bitmaps_by_name: HashMap<&str, Vec<&RoaringBitmap>> = HashMap::new();
+    for index in indices {
+        if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() {
+            bitmaps_by_name
+                .entry(index.name.as_str())
+                .or_default()
+                .push(fragment_bitmap);
+        }
+    }
     let mut bad_indices = Vec::new(); // (index_name, overlapping_fragments)
-    for name in index_names {
+    for (name, fragment_bitmaps) in bitmaps_by_name {
+        // A single segment (the common case) cannot overlap with itself, so
+        // skip it before hashing every fragment id it covers.
+        if fragment_bitmaps.len() < 2 {
+            continue;
+        }
         let mut seen_fragment_ids = HashSet::new();
         let mut overlap = Vec::new();
-        for index in indices.iter().filter(|i| i.name == name) {
-            if let Some(fragment_bitmap) = index.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() {
-                for fragment in fragment_bitmap {
-                    if !seen_fragment_ids.insert(fragment) {
-                        overlap.push(fragment);
-                    }
+        for fragment_bitmap in fragment_bitmaps {
+            for fragment in fragment_bitmap {
+                if !seen_fragment_ids.insert(fragment) {
+                    overlap.push(fragment);
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -649,21 +1263,53 @@ pub(crate) async fn do_commit_detached_transaction(
     transaction: &Transaction,
     write_config: &ManifestWriteConfig,
     commit_config: &CommitConfig,
+    retry_timeout: Duration,
 ) -> Result<(Manifest, ManifestLocation)> {
+    ensure_can_write_manifest(&dataset.manifest)?;
+    // Detached commits skip the rebase pipeline, so a rewrite's transition
+    // intent would never be assembled or validated (a dummy intent plus a
+    // hand-built entry would satisfy the manifest chokepoint unvalidated).
+    // A detached manifest is also outside the main version chain, where an
+    // appended fragment-reuse history has no meaning. Reject both shapes
+    // outright.
+    if let Operation::Rewrite {
+        frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+        ..
+    } = &transaction.operation
+        && lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged(entry)
+    {
+        return Err(Error::not_supported(
+            "Detached commits cannot carry fragment reuse transition intent or a tagged \
+             fragment reuse entry; commit the rewrite on the main version chain",
+        ));
+    }
+    let pb_transaction = pb::Transaction::try_from(transaction)?;
+    let inline_transaction = pb_transaction.encoded_len() <= MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES;
+    // Classified from the operation itself. Reading it back off the inline
+    // copy would tie the verdict to the payload size instead.
+    let may_change_schema = operation_may_change_schema(&pb_transaction);
+
     // We don't strictly need a transaction file but we go ahead and create one for
     // record-keeping if nothing else.
     let transaction_file = if !write_config.disable_transaction_file() {
-        write_transaction_file(object_store, &dataset.base, transaction).await?
+        write_transaction_file(object_store, &dataset.base, &pb_transaction).await?
     } else {
         String::new()
     };
 
+    // The inline copy is moved into the first commit attempt; a retry (only on
+    // a random-version collision) rebuilds it instead of cloning up front.
+    let mut inline_tx: Option<lance_table::format::Transaction> =
+        inline_transaction.then(|| pb_transaction.into());
+
     // We still do a loop since we may have conflicts in the random version we pick
     let mut backoff = Backoff::default();
+    let start = Instant::now();
     while backoff.attempt() < commit_config.num_retries {
         // Pick a random u64 with the highest bit set to indicate it is detached
         let random_version = rng().random::<u64>() | DETACHED_VERSION_MASK;
 
+        let build_config = build_config_for_attempt(dataset, transaction, write_config).await?;
         let (mut manifest, mut indices) = match transaction.operation {
             Operation::Restore { version } => {
                 Transaction::restore_old_manifest(
@@ -671,18 +1317,27 @@ pub(crate) async fn do_commit_detached_transaction(
                     commit_handler,
                     &dataset.base,
                     version,
-                    write_config,
+                    &build_config,
                     &transaction_file,
                     &dataset.manifest,
                 )
                 .await?
             }
-            _ => transaction.build_manifest(
-                Some(dataset.manifest.as_ref()),
-                dataset.load_indices().await?.as_ref().clone(),
-                &transaction_file,
-                write_config,
-            )?,
+            _ => {
+                // Nothing is settled about a tagged fragment reuse entry
+                // on a detached commit: a tagged rewrite entry was refused
+                // above and a trim never commits detached.
+                let prepared =
+                    prepare_attempt(dataset, transaction, &build_config, FragReuseUpdate::None)
+                        .await?;
+                transaction.build_manifest_prepared(
+                    Some(dataset.manifest.as_ref()),
+                    prepared,
+                    &transaction_file,
+                    &build_config,
+                    None,
+                )?
+            }
         };
 
         manifest.version = random_version;
@@ -690,10 +1345,19 @@ pub(crate) async fn do_commit_detached_transaction(
         // recompute_stats is always false so far because detached manifests are newer than
         // the old stats bug.
         migrate_manifest(dataset, &mut manifest, /*recompute_stats=*/ false).await?;
-        // fix_schema and check_storage_version are just for sanity-checking and consistency
+        // Validate before the fragment-id check to preserve legacy migration
+        // diagnostics. Finalization repeats this at the manifest write boundary.
         fix_schema(&mut manifest)?;
-        check_storage_version(&mut manifest)?;
-        migrate_indices(dataset, &mut indices).await?;
+        crate::dataset::versions::check_manifest_storage_version_for_commit(&mut manifest)?;
+        check_fragment_ids(&manifest)?;
+        // Runs after the coverage derivation and can replace a fragment bitmap
+        // while keeping its UUID, so anything it narrowed loses its position.
+        let recovered_coverage = migrate_indices(dataset, &mut indices).await?;
+        Transaction::withdraw_coverage_invalidated_after_build(
+            &mut indices,
+            &recovered_coverage,
+            manifest.version,
+        )?;
 
         // Try to commit the manifest
         let result = write_manifest_file(
@@ -708,7 +1372,8 @@ pub(crate) async fn do_commit_detached_transaction(
             },
             write_config,
             ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
-            Some(transaction),
+            inline_tx.take(),
+            may_change_schema,
         )
         .await;
 
@@ -717,12 +1382,82 @@ pub(crate) async fn do_commit_detached_transaction(
                 return Ok((manifest, location));
             }
             Err(CommitError::CommitConflict) => {
-                // We pick a random u64 for the version, so it's possible (though extremely unlikely)
-                // that we have a conflict. In that case, we just try again.
-                tokio::time::sleep(backoff.next_backoff()).await;
+                // Either an (extremely unlikely) random-version collision, or
+                // our own write landed but returned an ambiguous error.
+                // Verify before retrying with a new random version.
+                match verify_commit_outcome(
+                    object_store,
+                    commit_handler,
+                    &dataset.base,
+                    manifest.version,
+                    transaction,
+                )
+                .await
+                {
+                    CommitOutcome::Ours {
+                        manifest: committed_manifest,
+                        location,
+                    } => {
+                        return Ok((*committed_manifest, location));
+                    }
+                    CommitOutcome::Foreign | CommitOutcome::Absent => {}
+                    CommitOutcome::Unknown => {
+                        return Err(Error::commit_status_unknown_source(
+                            manifest.version,
+                            "detached commit reported a conflict but the manifest could \
+                             not be read back for verification"
+                                .to_string()
+                                .into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+                if start.elapsed() > retry_timeout {
+                    cleanup_transaction_file(object_store, &dataset.base, &transaction_file).await;
+                    return Err(timeout_error(retry_timeout, backoff.attempt() + 1));
+                }
+                let sleep_fut = tokio::time::sleep(backoff.next_backoff());
+                if let Err(error) =
+                    maybe_timeout(backoff.attempt(), start, retry_timeout, sleep_fut).await
+                {
+                    cleanup_transaction_file(object_store, &dataset.base, &transaction_file).await;
+                    return Err(error);
+                }
+                // The inline copy was moved into the failed attempt; rebuild
+                // it for the retry with a new random version.
+                inline_tx = if inline_transaction {
+                    Some(pb::Transaction::try_from(transaction)?.into())
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
             }
             Err(CommitError::OtherError(err)) => {
-                // If other error, return
+                match verify_commit_outcome(
+                    object_store,
+                    commit_handler,
+                    &dataset.base,
+                    manifest.version,
+                    transaction,
+                )
+                .await
+                {
+                    CommitOutcome::Ours {
+                        manifest: committed_manifest,
+                        location,
+                    } => {
+                        if commit_handler.propagate_commit_error_after_success() {
+                            return Err(err);
+                        }
+                        return Ok((*committed_manifest, location));
+                    }
+                    CommitOutcome::Foreign | CommitOutcome::Absent => {}
+                    CommitOutcome::Unknown => {
+                        return Err(Error::commit_status_unknown_source(
+                            manifest.version,
+                            Box::new(err),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+                cleanup_transaction_file(object_store, &dataset.base, &transaction_file).await;
                 return Err(err);
             }
         }
@@ -730,15 +1465,15 @@ pub(crate) async fn do_commit_detached_transaction(
 
     // This should be extremely unlikely.  There should not be *that* many detached commits.  If
     // this happens then it seems more likely there is a bug in our random u64 generation.
-    Err(crate::Error::CommitConflict {
-        version: 0,
-        source: format!(
+    cleanup_transaction_file(object_store, &dataset.base, &transaction_file).await;
+    Err(crate::Error::commit_conflict_source(
+        0,
+        format!(
             "Failed find unused random u64 after {} retries.",
             commit_config.num_retries
         )
         .into(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })
+    ))
 }
 
 pub(crate) async fn commit_detached_transaction(
@@ -748,6 +1483,7 @@ pub(crate) async fn commit_detached_transaction(
     transaction: &Transaction,
     write_config: &ManifestWriteConfig,
     commit_config: &CommitConfig,
+    retry_timeout: Duration,
 ) -> Result<(Manifest, ManifestLocation)> {
     do_commit_detached_transaction(
         dataset,
@@ -756,12 +1492,95 @@ pub(crate) async fn commit_detached_transaction(
         transaction,
         write_config,
         commit_config,
+        retry_timeout,
     )
     .await
 }
 
-/// Load new transactions and sort them by version in ascending order (oldest to newest)
-async fn load_and_sort_new_transactions(
+/// The build config for one commit attempt against `dataset`'s current manifest.
+///
+/// An operation that carries rows' lineage over from existing fragments needs
+/// their sequences at build time, and the build cannot read the ones spilled to
+/// data files; they are read here, per attempt, so a rebase onto a newer
+/// manifest sees that manifest's fragments.
+async fn build_config_for_attempt(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    transaction: &Transaction,
+    write_config: &ManifestWriteConfig,
+) -> Result<ManifestBuildConfig> {
+    let mut config = write_config.to_build_config();
+    let reads_existing_lineage = match &transaction.operation {
+        // An update resolves its new fragments' created-at versions from the
+        // existing fragments unless their writer placed them, and refreshes
+        // the existing last-updated-at versions of the offsets it rewrote in
+        // place (`updated_fragment_offsets`).
+        Operation::Update {
+            new_fragments,
+            updated_fragment_offsets,
+            ..
+        } => {
+            !new_fragments.iter().all(has_writer_placed_lineage)
+                || updated_fragment_offsets
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|offsets| !offsets.0.is_empty())
+        }
+        Operation::DataOverlay { .. } => true,
+        _ => false,
+    };
+    if reads_existing_lineage {
+        config.spilled_row_lineage =
+            load_spilled_row_lineage(dataset, dataset.manifest.fragments.iter()).await?;
+    }
+    Ok(config)
+}
+
+/// Step one of a commit attempt (`Transaction::prepare_indices`): the index
+/// list as read from the manifest current at this attempt, and the prepared
+/// list an in-place column rewrite has already withdrawn or pruned. For such
+/// a rewrite on a table with a tagged fragment reuse history the entry's
+/// history is decoded here, once per attempt, so the preparation can walk
+/// the lineage without guessing; other operations never interpret the
+/// entry: an append, or a merge that only adds columns, must carry a
+/// history a newer writer recorded through untouched. `frag_reuse` is what
+/// the rebase settled about the entry for this attempt. Nothing flows back
+/// into `transaction`.
+async fn prepare_attempt(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    transaction: &Transaction,
+    build_config: &lance_table::format::ManifestBuildConfig,
+    frag_reuse: FragReuseUpdate,
+) -> Result<PreparedIndices> {
+    let indices = load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+    // Same rewrite set the preparation withdraws from; nothing else interprets the entry.
+    let rewrites_in_place = !Transaction::rewritten_physical_columns(
+        &transaction.operation,
+        &dataset.manifest.schema,
+        &dataset.manifest.fragments,
+    )
+    .is_empty();
+    let ledger = if rewrites_in_place {
+        match indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|index| lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged(index))
+        {
+            Some(entry) => Some(Arc::new(
+                crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger(dataset, entry).await?,
+            )),
+            None => None,
+        }
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    transaction.prepare_indices(
+        Some(dataset.manifest.as_ref()),
+        indices.as_ref().clone(),
+        build_config,
+        ledger,
+        frag_reuse,
+    )
+}
+
+pub(crate) async fn load_and_sort_new_transactions(
     dataset: &Dataset,
 ) -> Result<(Dataset, Vec<(u64, Arc<Transaction>)>)> {
     let NewTransactionResult {
@@ -774,6 +1593,57 @@ async fn load_and_sort_new_transactions(
     Ok((new_ds, txns))
 }
 
+/// Success-path bookkeeping shared by the direct-success and
+/// verified-own-commit paths of [`commit_transaction`]: populate the session
+/// caches and run the auto-cleanup hook.
+async fn record_successful_commit(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    transaction: &Transaction,
+    manifest: &Manifest,
+    location: &ManifestLocation,
+    indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    skip_auto_cleanup: bool,
+) {
+    let tx_key = crate::session::caches::TransactionKey {
+        version: manifest.version,
+    };
+    dataset
+        .metadata_cache
+        .insert_with_key(&tx_key, Arc::new(transaction.clone()))
+        .await;
+
+    let manifest_key = crate::session::caches::ManifestKey {
+        version: location.version,
+        e_tag: location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+    };
+    dataset
+        .metadata_cache
+        .insert_with_key(&manifest_key, Arc::new(manifest.clone()))
+        .await;
+    if !indices.is_empty() {
+        let key = IndexMetadataKey {
+            version: manifest.version,
+            store_identity: &dataset.object_store.store_prefix,
+            e_tag: location.e_tag.as_deref(),
+        };
+        dataset
+            .index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&key, Arc::new(indices))
+            .await;
+    }
+
+    if !skip_auto_cleanup {
+        // Note: We're using the old dataset here (before the new manifest is committed).
+        // This means cleanup runs based on the previous version's state, which may affect
+        // which versions are available for cleanup.
+        match auto_cleanup_hook(dataset, manifest).await {
+            Ok(Some(stats)) => log::info!("Auto cleanup triggered: {:?}", stats),
+            Err(e) => log::warn!("Auto cleanup failed after a successful commit: {}", e),
+            _ => {}
+        };
+    }
+}
+
 /// Attempt to commit a transaction, with retries and conflict resolution.
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub(crate) async fn commit_transaction(
@@ -783,10 +1653,11 @@ pub(crate) async fn commit_transaction(
     transaction: &Transaction,
     write_config: &ManifestWriteConfig,
     commit_config: &CommitConfig,
+    retry_timeout: Duration,
     manifest_naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
     affected_rows: Option<&RowAddrTreeMap>,
 ) -> Result<(Manifest, ManifestLocation)> {
-    // Note: object_store has been configured with WriteParams, but dataset.object_store()
+    // Note: object_store has been configured with WriteParams, but dataset.object_store.as_ref()
     // has not necessarily. So for anything involving writing, use `object_store`.
     let read_version = transaction.read_version;
     let mut target_version = read_version + 1;
@@ -807,15 +1678,41 @@ pub(crate) async fn commit_transaction(
             dataset.clone()
         };
 
+    // The version this transaction read, captured before the retry loop moves
+    // `dataset` forward. MemWAL index catch-up is derived from it: an index
+    // covering every fragment live here holds every row compaction had copied
+    // in by then.
+    //
+    // The Arc is kept rather than cloned out: `load_all_indices` returns shared
+    // cached data, so the common case is a cache hit rather than a read.
+    let read_version_dataset = dataset.clone();
+    let read_version_indices = load_all_indices(&read_version_dataset).await?;
+    let read_version_state = Some(crate::dataset::transaction::ReadVersionState {
+        manifest: read_version_dataset.manifest.as_ref(),
+        indices: read_version_indices.as_slice(),
+    });
+
     let mut transaction = transaction.clone();
+    // What a rewrite on a tagged fragment reuse history assembled for the
+    // attempt; handed to the manifest build, never written back into
+    // `transaction`.
+    let mut tagged_rewrite = None;
 
     let num_attempts = std::cmp::max(commit_config.num_retries, 1);
     let mut backoff = SlotBackoff::default();
-    let start = Instant::now();
+    // `retry_timeout` bounds the conflict-retry phase, which starts once the
+    // first attempt has caught up with the versions committed since
+    // `read_version`. A long-running writer (index build, compaction) on a
+    // write-heavy table can be thousands of versions behind, and that initial
+    // catch-up is work the commit must do however many retries it gets.
+    let mut retry_start: Option<Instant> = None;
 
     // Other transactions that may have been committed since the read_version.
     // We keep pair of (version, transaction). No other transactions to check initially
     let mut other_transactions: Vec<(u64, Arc<Transaction>)>;
+    // Track the transaction file written in the current loop iteration so we can
+    // delete it if the commit ultimately fails.
+    let mut current_transaction_file = String::new();
 
     while backoff.attempt() < num_attempts {
         // We are pessimistic here and assume there may be other transactions
@@ -828,6 +1725,8 @@ pub(crate) async fn commit_transaction(
         if !strict_overwrite {
             (dataset, other_transactions) = load_and_sort_new_transactions(&dataset).await?;
 
+            ensure_can_write_manifest(&dataset.manifest)?;
+
             // See if we can retry the commit. Try to account for all
             // transactions that have been committed since the read_version.
             // Use small amount of backoff to handle transactions that all
@@ -835,44 +1734,77 @@ pub(crate) async fn commit_transaction(
 
             let mut rebase =
                 TransactionRebase::try_new(&original_dataset, transaction, affected_rows).await?;
+            rebase.load_current_lineage(&dataset).await?;
 
             for (other_version, other_transaction) in other_transactions.iter() {
                 rebase.check_txn(other_transaction, *other_version)?;
             }
 
-            transaction = rebase.finish(&dataset).await?;
+            let (rebased, assembly) = rebase.finish_with_tagged_rewrite(&dataset).await?;
+            transaction = rebased;
+            tagged_rewrite = assembly;
+        } else {
+            ensure_can_write_manifest(&dataset.manifest)?;
         }
-
-        let transaction_file = if !write_config.disable_transaction_file() {
-            write_transaction_file(object_store, &dataset.base, &transaction).await?
+        let attempt_start = Instant::now();
+        let retry_start = *retry_start.get_or_insert(attempt_start);
+
+        // Recomputed every attempt: the rebase above may have rewritten the
+        // transaction.
+        let pb_transaction = pb::Transaction::try_from(&transaction)?;
+        let inline_transaction = pb_transaction.encoded_len() <= MAX_INLINE_TRANSACTION_BYTES;
+        // Classified from the operation itself. Reading it back off the inline
+        // copy would tie the verdict to the payload size instead.
+        let may_change_schema = operation_may_change_schema(&pb_transaction);
+
+        current_transaction_file = if !write_config.disable_transaction_file() {
+            write_transaction_file(object_store, &dataset.base, &pb_transaction).await?
         } else {
             String::new()
         };
+        let transaction_file = current_transaction_file.as_str();
 
         target_version = dataset.manifest.version + 1;
         if is_detached_version(target_version) {
-            return Err(Error::Internal { message: "more than 2^65 versions have been created and so regular version numbers are appearing as 'detached' versions.".into(), location: location!() });
+            return Err(Error::internal(
+                "more than 2^65 versions have been created and so regular version numbers are appearing as 'detached' versions.",
+            ));
         }
-        // Build an up-to-date manifest from the transaction and current manifest
+        // Build an up-to-date manifest from the transaction and current
+        // manifest: prepare the index list against this attempt's manifest
+        // first, then build from the prepared result.
+        let build_config = build_config_for_attempt(&dataset, &transaction, write_config).await?;
         let (mut manifest, mut indices) = match transaction.operation {
             Operation::Restore { version } => {
+                // A restore reinstates its snapshot's index list and entry
+                // whole; nothing is prepared or withdrawn a second time.
                 Transaction::restore_old_manifest(
                     object_store,
                     commit_handler,
                     &dataset.base,
                     version,
-                    write_config,
-                    &transaction_file,
+                    &build_config,
+                    transaction_file,
                     &dataset.manifest,
                 )
                 .await?
             }
-            _ => transaction.build_manifest(
-                Some(dataset.manifest.as_ref()),
-                dataset.load_indices().await?.as_ref().clone(),
-                &transaction_file,
-                write_config,
-            )?,
+            _ => {
+                let frag_reuse = match tagged_rewrite.take() {
+                    Some(assembly) => FragReuseUpdate::Rewrite(assembly),
+                    None if write_config.tagged_frag_reuse_trim() => FragReuseUpdate::Trim,
+                    None => FragReuseUpdate::None,
+                };
+                let prepared =
+                    prepare_attempt(&dataset, &transaction, &build_config, frag_reuse).await?;
+                transaction.build_manifest_prepared(
+                    Some(dataset.manifest.as_ref()),
+                    prepared,
+                    transaction_file,
+                    &build_config,
+                    read_version_state,
+                )?
+            }
         };
 
         manifest.version = target_version;
@@ -888,9 +1820,17 @@ pub(crate) async fn commit_transaction(
 
         fix_schema(&mut manifest)?;
 
-        check_storage_version(&mut manifest)?;
+        crate::dataset::versions::check_manifest_storage_version_for_commit(&mut manifest)?;
+        check_fragment_ids(&manifest)?;
 
-        migrate_indices(&dataset, &mut indices).await?;
+        // Runs after the coverage derivation and can replace a fragment bitmap
+        // while keeping its UUID, so anything it narrowed loses its position.
+        let recovered_coverage = migrate_indices(&dataset, &mut indices).await?;
+        Transaction::withdraw_coverage_invalidated_after_build(
+            &mut indices,
+            &recovered_coverage,
+            target_version,
+        )?;
 
         // Try to commit the manifest
         let result = write_manifest_file(
@@ -905,85 +1845,163 @@ pub(crate) async fn commit_transaction(
             },
             write_config,
             manifest_naming_scheme,
-            Some(&transaction),
+            inline_transaction.then(|| pb_transaction.into()),
+            may_change_schema,
         )
         .await;
 
         match result {
             Ok(manifest_location) => {
-                // Cache both the transaction file and manifest
-                let tx_key = crate::session::caches::TransactionKey {
-                    version: target_version,
-                };
-                dataset
-                    .metadata_cache
-                    .insert_with_key(&tx_key, Arc::new(transaction.clone()))
-                    .await;
-
-                let manifest_key = crate::session::caches::ManifestKey {
-                    version: manifest_location.version,
-                    e_tag: manifest_location.e_tag.as_deref(),
-                };
-                dataset
-                    .metadata_cache
-                    .insert_with_key(&manifest_key, Arc::new(manifest.clone()))
-                    .await;
-                if !indices.is_empty() {
-                    let key = IndexMetadataKey {
-                        version: target_version,
-                    };
-                    dataset
-                        .index_cache
-                        .insert_with_key(&key, Arc::new(indices))
-                        .await;
-                }
-
-                if !commit_config.skip_auto_cleanup {
-                    // Note: We're using the old dataset here (before the new manifest is committed).
-                    // This means cleanup runs based on the previous version's state, which may affect
-                    // which versions are available for cleanup.
-                    match auto_cleanup_hook(&dataset, &manifest).await {
-                        Ok(Some(stats)) => log::info!("Auto cleanup triggered: {:?}", stats),
-                        Err(e) => log::error!("Error encountered during auto_cleanup_hook: {}", e),
-                        _ => {}
-                    };
-                }
+                record_successful_commit(
+                    &dataset,
+                    &transaction,
+                    &manifest,
+                    &manifest_location,
+                    indices,
+                    commit_config.skip_auto_cleanup,
+                )
+                .await;
                 return Ok((manifest, manifest_location));
             }
             Err(CommitError::CommitConflict) => {
+                // The store may have applied this attempt's write and still
+                // reported a conflict (e.g. the response to a successful
+                // conditional PUT was lost and an internal retry saw
+                // "already exists"). Verify who owns the version before
+                // treating the attempt as lost: deleting the artifacts of a
+                // commit that actually landed corrupts the version.
+                match verify_commit_outcome(
+                    object_store,
+                    commit_handler,
+                    &dataset.base,
+                    target_version,
+                    &transaction,
+                )
+                .await
+                {
+                    CommitOutcome::Ours {
+                        manifest: committed_manifest,
+                        location,
+                    } => {
+                        let committed_manifest = *committed_manifest;
+                        record_successful_commit(
+                            &dataset,
+                            &transaction,
+                            &committed_manifest,
+                            &location,
+                            indices,
+                            commit_config.skip_auto_cleanup,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                        return Ok((committed_manifest, location));
+                    }
+                    // Confirmed loss: another writer owns the version (or,
+                    // for handlers that detect conflicts before writing,
+                    // the attempt never landed). Proceed with the normal
+                    // rebase-and-retry path.
+                    CommitOutcome::Foreign | CommitOutcome::Absent => {}
+                    CommitOutcome::Unknown => {
+                        return Err(Error::commit_status_unknown_source(
+                            target_version,
+                            "commit reported a conflict but the manifest at the target \
+                             version could not be read back for verification"
+                                .to_string()
+                                .into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
                 let next_attempt_i = backoff.attempt() + 1;
 
                 if backoff.attempt() == 0 {
                     // We add 10% buffer here, to allow concurrent writes to complete.
                     // We pass the first attempt's time to the backoff so it's used
-                    // as the unit for backoff time slots.
+                    // as the unit for backoff time slots. The catch-up before the
+                    // attempt is excluded: it is not the window in which concurrent
+                    // writers collide with this one.
                     // See SlotBackoff implementation for more details on how this works.
-                    backoff = backoff.with_unit((start.elapsed().as_millis() * 11 / 10) as u32);
+                    backoff =
+                        backoff.with_unit((attempt_start.elapsed().as_millis() * 11 / 10) as u32);
                 }
 
                 if next_attempt_i < num_attempts {
-                    tokio::time::sleep(backoff.next_backoff()).await;
+                    // The transaction file from this attempt is now stale; clean it up
+                    // before the next attempt writes a new one (possibly rebased).
+                    cleanup_transaction_file(
+                        object_store,
+                        &dataset.base,
+                        &current_transaction_file,
+                    )
+                    .await;
+                    if retry_start.elapsed() > retry_timeout {
+                        return Err(timeout_error(retry_timeout, backoff.attempt() + 1));
+                    }
+                    let sleep_fut = tokio::time::sleep(backoff.next_backoff());
+                    maybe_timeout(backoff.attempt(), retry_start, retry_timeout, sleep_fut).await?;
                     continue;
                 } else {
                     break;
                 }
             }
             Err(CommitError::OtherError(err)) => {
-                // If other error, return
-                return Err(err);
+                match verify_commit_outcome(
+                    object_store,
+                    commit_handler,
+                    &dataset.base,
+                    target_version,
+                    &transaction,
+                )
+                .await
+                {
+                    CommitOutcome::Ours {
+                        manifest: committed_manifest,
+                        location,
+                    } => {
+                        let committed_manifest = *committed_manifest;
+                        record_successful_commit(
+                            &dataset,
+                            &transaction,
+                            &committed_manifest,
+                            &location,
+                            indices,
+                            commit_config.skip_auto_cleanup,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                        if commit_handler.propagate_commit_error_after_success() {
+                            return Err(err);
+                        }
+                        return Ok((committed_manifest, location));
+                    }
+                    CommitOutcome::Foreign | CommitOutcome::Absent => {
+                        // The attempt certainly did not land; its
+                        // transaction file is orphaned.
+                        cleanup_transaction_file(
+                            object_store,
+                            &dataset.base,
+                            &current_transaction_file,
+                        )
+                        .await;
+                        return Err(err);
+                    }
+                    CommitOutcome::Unknown => {
+                        return Err(Error::commit_status_unknown_source(
+                            target_version,
+                            Box::new(err),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
             }
         }
     }
 
-    Err(crate::Error::CommitConflict {
-        version: target_version,
-        source: format!(
+    cleanup_transaction_file(object_store, &dataset.base, &current_transaction_file).await;
+    Err(crate::Error::commit_conflict_source(
+        target_version,
+        format!(
             "Failed to commit the transaction after {} retries.",
             commit_config.num_retries
         )
         .into(),
-        location: location!(),
-    })
+    ))
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -997,21 +2015,66 @@ mod tests {
     use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
     use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, Schema};
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, RowCount};
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
     use lance_index::IndexType;
     use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+    use lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+    use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
     use lance_table::format::{DataFile, DataStorageFormat};
     use lance_table::io::commit::{
-        CommitLease, CommitLock, RenameCommitHandler, UnsafeCommitHandler,
+        CommitLease, CommitLock, ManifestWriter, RenameCommitHandler, UnsafeCommitHandler,
+        commit_handler_from_url,
     };
     use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
 
     use super::*;
 
+    use crate::Dataset;
     use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
     use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
-    use crate::Dataset;
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::unset(None, DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT)]
+    #[case::whole_seconds(Some("600"), Duration::from_secs(600))]
+    #[case::fractional_and_padded(Some(" 2.5 "), Duration::from_secs_f64(2.5))]
+    #[case::empty(Some(""), DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT)]
+    #[case::not_a_number(Some("abc"), DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT)]
+    #[case::zero(Some("0"), DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT)]
+    #[case::negative(Some("-5"), DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT)]
+    #[case::infinite(Some("inf"), DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT)]
+    #[case::nan(Some("NaN"), DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT)]
+    fn test_parse_commit_retry_timeout(#[case] raw: Option<&str>, #[case] expected: Duration) {
+        assert_eq!(parse_commit_retry_timeout(raw), expected);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_auto_cleanup_failure_preserves_successful_commit() {
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .update_config([("lance.auto_cleanup.interval", "invalid")])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.version().version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest.config["lance.auto_cleanup.interval"],
+            "invalid"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 4);
+        let error = auto_cleanup_hook(&dataset, &dataset.manifest)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Cleanup { .. }));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("lance.auto_cleanup.interval"));
+    }
 
     async fn test_commit_handler(handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler>, should_succeed: bool) {
         // Create a dataset, passing handler as commit handler
@@ -1150,9 +2213,13 @@ mod tests {
             Some("hello world".to_string()),
         );
 
-        let file_name = write_transaction_file(&object_store, &base_path, &transaction)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let file_name = write_transaction_file(
+            &object_store,
+            &base_path,
+            &pb::Transaction::try_from(&transaction).unwrap(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
         let read_transaction = read_transaction_file(&object_store, &base_path, &file_name)
             .await
             .unwrap();
@@ -1198,11 +2265,9 @@ mod tests {
             )
             .unwrap(),
         );
-        let batches =
-            vec![
-                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vectors.clone(), vectors.clone()])
-                    .unwrap(),
-            ];
+        let batches = vec![
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vectors.clone(), vectors.clone()]).unwrap(),
+        ];
 
         let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
         let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
@@ -1225,9 +2290,16 @@ mod tests {
             .collect();
 
         let results = join_all(futures).await;
-        for result in results {
-            assert!(matches!(result, Ok(Ok(_))), "{:?}", result);
-        }
+        let success_count = results
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|result| matches!(result, Ok(Ok(_))))
+            .count();
+        let retryable_count = results
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|result| matches!(result, Ok(Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }))))
+            .count();
+        assert_eq!(success_count, 2, "{results:?}");
+        assert_eq!(retryable_count, 1, "{results:?}");
 
         // Validate that each version has the anticipated number of indexes
         let dataset = dataset.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
@@ -1250,12 +2322,118 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(indices[0].fields, vec![0]);
         }
 
-        let dataset = dataset.checkout_version(4).await.unwrap();
-        let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(indices.len(), 2);
-        let mut fields: Vec<i32> = indices.iter().flat_map(|i| i.fields.clone()).collect();
-        fields.sort();
-        assert_eq!(fields, vec![0, 1]);
+        assert!(dataset.checkout_version(4).await.is_err());
+    }
+
+    /// Every commit runs `migrate_indices`, and recalculating a missing
+    /// `fragment_bitmap` there means opening the index. An index this build
+    /// cannot open must not take the write path down with it: the dataset would
+    /// be unwritable, not merely unreadable, and every later commit would fail
+    /// the same way.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_survives_an_index_it_cannot_open() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+        use lance_table::io::manifest::read_manifest_indexes;
+
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
+
+        let reader = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("payload", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The readable companion is what makes the difference visible: with a
+        // single index, "carried through the one it cannot open" and "stopped
+        // recalculating altogether" answer every assertion below the same way.
+        let btree_params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+        for column in ["id", "payload"] {
+            dataset
+                .create_index_builder(&[column], IndexType::BTree, &btree_params)
+                .name(format!("{column}_idx"))
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let broken = dataset.load_index_by_name("id_idx").await.unwrap().unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .object_store
+            .remove_dir_all(dataset.indices_dir().join(broken.uuid.to_string()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // Reopened so the fixture is judged on what is on disk rather than on
+        // what this process still holds from building the index.
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::open(test_uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            dataset
+                .open_generic_index("id", &broken.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .is_err(),
+            "the fixture is supposed to leave an index this build cannot open"
+        );
+
+        // Migration recalculates a bitmap that is missing, and no current writer
+        // emits one - untrained indices get an empty bitmap, not none at all - so
+        // the state an old manifest arrives in is set here by hand.
+        let indices = read_manifest_indexes(
+            &dataset.object_store,
+            &dataset.manifest_location,
+            &dataset.manifest,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let without_bitmaps = indices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|index| IndexMetadata {
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+                ..index.clone()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: without_bitmaps,
+                removed_indices: indices,
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // And an unrelated commit after it, since the missing bitmap is now what
+        // the manifest holds and migration retries on every commit.
+        dataset.delete("false").await.unwrap();
+
+        let migrated = read_manifest_indexes(
+            &dataset.object_store,
+            &dataset.manifest_location,
+            &dataset.manifest,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let coverage = |name: &str| {
+            migrated
+                .iter()
+                .find(|index| index.name == name)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("no index named {name} in the manifest"))
+                .fragment_bitmap
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|bitmap| bitmap.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            coverage("id_idx"),
+            None,
+            "an index that cannot be opened must report unknown coverage"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            coverage("payload_idx"),
+            Some(vec![0]),
+            "an index that opens must still have its coverage recalculated"
+        );
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -1299,74 +2477,58 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_concurrent_writes() {
-        for write_mode in [WriteMode::Append, WriteMode::Overwrite] {
-            // Create an empty table
-            let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
-            let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
-
-            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
-                "i",
-                DataType::Int32,
-                false,
-            )]));
-
-            let dataset = Dataset::write(
-                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone()),
-                test_uri,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-            // Make some sample data
-            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                schema.clone(),
-                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
-            )
-            .unwrap();
+        // Test concurrent appends - all should succeed
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.as_str();
 
-            // Write data concurrently in 5 tasks
-            let futures: Vec<_> = (0..5)
-                .map(|_| {
-                    let batch = batch.clone();
-                    let schema = schema.clone();
-                    let uri = test_uri.to_string();
-                    tokio::spawn(async move {
-                        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
-                        Dataset::write(
-                            reader,
-                            &uri,
-                            Some(WriteParams {
-                                mode: write_mode,
-                                ..Default::default()
-                            }),
-                        )
-                        .await
-                    })
-                })
-                .collect();
-            let results = join_all(futures).await;
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "i",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
 
-            // Assert all succeeded
-            for result in results {
-                assert!(matches!(result, Ok(Ok(_))), "{:?}", result);
-            }
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![].into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone()),
+            test_uri,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-            // Assert final fragments and versions expected
-            let dataset = dataset.checkout_version(6).await.unwrap();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
 
-            match write_mode {
-                WriteMode::Append => {
-                    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 5);
-                }
-                WriteMode::Overwrite => {
-                    assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
-                }
-                _ => unreachable!(),
-            }
+        let futures: Vec<_> = (0..5)
+            .map(|_| {
+                let batch = batch.clone();
+                let schema = schema.clone();
+                let uri = test_uri.to_string();
+                tokio::spawn(async move {
+                    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+                    Dataset::write(
+                        reader,
+                        &uri,
+                        Some(WriteParams {
+                            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                            ..Default::default()
+                        }),
+                    )
+                    .await
+                })
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let results = join_all(futures).await;
 
-            dataset.validate().await.unwrap()
+        for result in results {
+            assert!(matches!(result, Ok(Ok(_))), "{:?}", result);
         }
+
+        let dataset = dataset.checkout_version(6).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 5);
+        dataset.validate().await.unwrap()
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -1512,7 +2674,7 @@ mod tests {
                     if result.is_err() {
                         first_operation_failed = true;
                         assert!(
-                            matches!(&result, &Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
+                            matches!(&result, &Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
                             "{:?}",
                             result,
                         );
@@ -1522,7 +2684,7 @@ mod tests {
                     true => assert!(result.is_ok(), "{:?}", result),
                     false => {
                         assert!(
-                            matches!(&result, &Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
+                            matches!(&result, &Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
                             "{:?}",
                             result,
                         );
@@ -1555,6 +2717,7 @@ mod tests {
                     DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path1", vec![0, 1, 2], None),
                     DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("unused", vec![9], None),
                 ],
+                overlays: vec![],
                 deletion_file: None,
                 row_id_meta: None,
                 physical_rows: None,
@@ -1567,6 +2730,7 @@ mod tests {
                     DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path2", vec![0, 1, 2], None),
                     DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path3", vec![2], None),
                 ],
+                overlays: vec![],
                 deletion_file: None,
                 row_id_meta: None,
                 physical_rows: None,
@@ -1604,6 +2768,7 @@ mod tests {
                     vec![0, 1, 10],
                     None,
                 )],
+                overlays: vec![],
                 deletion_file: None,
                 row_id_meta: None,
                 physical_rows: None,
@@ -1616,6 +2781,7 @@ mod tests {
                     DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path2", vec![0, 1, 2], None),
                     DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path3", vec![10], None),
                 ],
+                overlays: vec![],
                 deletion_file: None,
                 row_id_meta: None,
                 physical_rows: None,
@@ -1625,4 +2791,1253 @@ mod tests {
         ];
         assert_eq!(manifest.fragments.as_ref(), &expected_fragments);
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_fix_schema_nested() {
+        // A duplicated struct field is renumbered, so its children must be
+        // re-parented onto the new id. Otherwise the manifest serializes a
+        // parent_id that no longer exists and can never be read back.
+        let mut field0 = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int64, false)).unwrap();
+        field0.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+
+        let inner = ArrowField::new(
+            "inner",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("ordinal", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
+            false,
+        );
+        let mut outer = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("text", DataType::Utf8, false), inner].into()),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        // ids: s = 1, text = 2, inner = 3, ordinal = 4
+        outer.set_id(-1, &mut 1);
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![field0, outer],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+        // Both the struct (1) and the nested struct (3) have duplicate coverage
+        // within this fragment, so both get renumbered.
+        let fragments = vec![Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![
+                DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path1", vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4], None),
+                DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path2", vec![1, 3], None),
+            ],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: None,
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        }];
+
+        let mut manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(fragments),
+            DataStorageFormat::default(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+
+        fix_schema(&mut manifest).unwrap();
+
+        // max_field_id was 4, so 1 -> 5 and 3 -> 6.
+        let outer = &manifest.schema.fields[1];
+        assert_eq!(outer.id, 5);
+        let text = &outer.children[0];
+        let inner = &outer.children[1];
+        assert_eq!(
+            text.parent_id, 5,
+            "child of a renumbered struct kept a stale parent_id"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            inner.parent_id, 5,
+            "child of a renumbered struct kept a stale parent_id"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(inner.id, 6);
+        assert_eq!(
+            inner.children[0].parent_id, 6,
+            "grandchild of a renumbered struct kept a stale parent_id"
+        );
+
+        // Every non-root field must name a parent that still exists in the schema.
+        let live_ids = manifest
+            .schema
+            .fields_pre_order()
+            .map(|f| f.id)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        for field in manifest.schema.fields_pre_order() {
+            if field.parent_id >= 0 {
+                assert!(
+                    live_ids.contains(&field.parent_id),
+                    "field '{}' (id={}) references parent id {}, which no longer exists",
+                    field.name,
+                    field.id,
+                    field.parent_id
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A CommitHandler that always fails with OtherError, used to simulate
+    /// a manifest write failure so we can verify orphaned transaction files
+    /// are cleaned up.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingCommitHandler;
+
+    #[async_trait::async_trait]
+    impl CommitHandler for FailingCommitHandler {
+        fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+            true
+        }
+
+        async fn commit(
+            &self,
+            _manifest: &mut Manifest,
+            _indices: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+            _base_path: &Path,
+            _object_store: &ObjectStore,
+            _manifest_writer: ManifestWriter,
+            _naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+            _transaction: Option<lance_table::format::Transaction>,
+        ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+            Err(CommitError::OtherError(lance_core::Error::io(
+                "simulated commit failure",
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn count_txn_files(uri: &str) -> usize {
+        let tx_dir = std::path::Path::new(uri).join("_transactions");
+        std::fs::read_dir(&tx_dir)
+            .map(|rd| rd.filter_map(|e| e.ok()).count())
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_transaction_file_cleanup_on_commit_failure() {
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp.as_str();
+
+        // Create initial dataset with a normal commit handler.
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "x",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], schema.clone());
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap();
+
+        let txn_files_before = count_txn_files(uri);
+
+        // Attempt to append with a commit handler that always fails.
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            commit_handler: Some(Arc::new(FailingCommitHandler)),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let result = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "expected commit to fail");
+
+        // The failed commit must not leave any extra transaction files behind.
+        let txn_files_after = count_txn_files(uri);
+        assert_eq!(
+            txn_files_after,
+            txn_files_before,
+            "failed commit left {extra} orphaned transaction file(s)",
+            extra = txn_files_after.saturating_sub(txn_files_before),
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cos_commit_failure_preserves_error_and_cleans_up_transaction() {
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp.as_str();
+        let schema = simple_schema();
+        let batch = simple_batch(&schema, vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        let commit_handler = commit_handler_from_url("cos://bucket/dataset", &None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            commit_handler: Some(commit_handler),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let error = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+            uri,
+            Some(params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("the default Tencent COS handler should reject writes");
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&error, Error::NotSupported { .. }),
+            "expected NotSupported, got: {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("distributed commit_lock"),
+            "unexpected error: {error}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_txn_files(uri),
+            0,
+            "a definitively failed COS commit must clean up its transaction file"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn simple_batch(schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>, values: Vec<i32>) -> RecordBatch {
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(values))]).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn simple_schema() -> Arc<ArrowSchema> {
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "x",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]))
+    }
+
+    /// A commit whose manifest lands but is reported as a conflict (the
+    /// incident shape: successful conditional PUT, response lost, internal
+    /// retry sees "already exists") must be recognized as our own commit and
+    /// returned as success — with the rows appearing exactly once and the
+    /// transaction file left in place.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_succeeds_when_conflict_is_own_commit() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp.as_str();
+        let schema = simple_schema();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            handler.resolve_calls(),
+            0,
+            "an uncontended commit must not perform verification reads"
+        );
+        let txn_files_before = count_txn_files(uri);
+
+        handler.fail_next(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndConflict);
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![4, 5, 6]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let ds = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params))
+            .await
+            .expect("a conflict with our own landed commit must be reported as success");
+
+        assert_eq!(ds.version().version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(),
+            6,
+            "rows must appear exactly once (no duplicate re-commit)"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_txn_files(uri),
+            txn_files_before + 1,
+            "the landed commit's transaction file is referenced by the manifest and must survive"
+        );
+
+        // A fresh reader sees the committed version.
+        let ds2 = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ds2.version().version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(ds2.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 6);
+    }
+
+    /// Same as above, but the landed commit is reported as a plain I/O error
+    /// (e.g. the store's retries all returned 5xx while the first attempt had
+    /// landed). Verification must still recognize the commit as ours.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_succeeds_when_landed_with_other_error() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp.as_str();
+        let schema = simple_schema();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+        let txn_files_before = count_txn_files(uri);
+
+        handler.fail_next(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndError);
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![4, 5, 6]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let ds = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params))
+            .await
+            .expect("an errored commit that actually landed must be reported as success");
+
+        assert_eq!(ds.version().version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 6);
+        assert_eq!(count_txn_files(uri), txn_files_before + 1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_retries_temporarily_invisible_manifest() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp.as_str();
+        let schema = simple_schema();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+
+        handler.fail_next(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndError);
+        handler.fail_next_resolves_with_not_found(2);
+        let calls_before = handler.resolve_calls();
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![4, 5, 6]))], schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params))
+            .await
+            .expect("verification must retry a non-definitive NotFound result");
+
+        assert_eq!(handler.resolve_calls() - calls_before, 3);
+        assert_eq!(dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 6);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_verifies_inline_transaction_without_transaction_file() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp.as_str();
+        let schema = simple_schema();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader =
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![1, 2, 3]))], schema);
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.version().version,
+            Operation::Append { fragments: vec![] },
+            None,
+        );
+        let write_config = ManifestWriteConfig::default().with_transaction_file_disabled();
+
+        handler.fail_next(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndConflict);
+        let (manifest, _) = commit_transaction(
+            &dataset,
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+            handler.as_ref(),
+            &transaction,
+            &write_config,
+            &CommitConfig::default(),
+            DEFAULT_COMMIT_RETRY_TIMEOUT,
+            dataset.manifest_location.naming_scheme,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("the inline transaction must identify the landed commit");
+
+        assert_eq!(manifest.version, 2);
+        assert!(manifest.transaction_file.is_none());
+        assert!(manifest.transaction_section.is_some());
+    }
+
+    /// A commit that errors without landing keeps today's behavior:
+    /// verification finds no manifest at the target version, the original
+    /// error propagates (not status-unknown), and the orphaned transaction
+    /// file is cleaned up.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_definite_failure_cleans_up_and_keeps_error() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp.as_str();
+        let schema = simple_schema();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+        let txn_files_before = count_txn_files(uri);
+
+        handler.fail_next(AmbiguousFailure::FailOutright);
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![4, 5, 6]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let result = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await;
+        let err = result.expect_err("commit that did not land must fail");
+        assert!(
+            !err.is_commit_status_unknown(),
+            "a verified-absent commit is a definite failure, got: {:?}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_txn_files(uri),
+            txn_files_before,
+            "orphaned transaction file of a definitely-failed commit must be cleaned up"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// When the commit errors AND verification itself is unavailable, the
+    /// commit status is unknown: surface `CommitStatusUnknown` and delete
+    /// nothing.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_commit_status_unknown_when_verification_unavailable() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp.as_str();
+        let schema = simple_schema();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+        let txn_files_before = count_txn_files(uri);
+
+        // The commit lands but errors, and verification reads fail too.
+        handler.fail_next(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndError);
+        handler
+            .fail_resolve
+            .store(true, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![4, 5, 6]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let result = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await;
+        let err = result.expect_err("unknown status must not be reported as success");
+        assert!(
+            err.is_commit_status_unknown(),
+            "expected CommitStatusUnknown, got: {:?}",
+            err
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            count_txn_files(uri),
+            txn_files_before + 1,
+            "nothing may be deleted while the commit status is unknown"
+        );
+
+        // The commit did land: a fresh reader must see a consistent v2.
+        handler
+            .fail_resolve
+            .store(false, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+        let ds = Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ds.version().version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 6);
+    }
+
+    /// Dataset creation whose manifest lands but is reported as a conflict
+    /// must succeed instead of returning "dataset already exists".
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_create_dataset_succeeds_when_conflict_is_own_commit() {
+        use crate::utils::test::{AmbiguousCommitHandler, AmbiguousFailure};
+
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp.as_str();
+        let schema = simple_schema();
+        let handler = Arc::new(AmbiguousCommitHandler::default());
+        handler.fail_next(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndConflict);
+
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            commit_handler: Some(handler.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(
+            vec![Ok(simple_batch(&schema, vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let ds = Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params))
+            .await
+            .expect("creation whose commit landed must succeed");
+        assert_eq!(ds.version().version, 1);
+        assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 3);
+    }
+
+    /// Helper to build a simple manifest for check_column_indices tests.
+    fn make_manifest_with_file(
+        schema: Schema,
+        data_file: DataFile,
+        data_storage_version: LanceFileVersion,
+    ) -> Manifest {
+        let fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files: vec![data_file],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(100),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+        Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(data_storage_version.resolve()),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn make_storage_contract_manifest(
+        fallback: ConcreteFileVersion,
+        file_versions: &[ConcreteFileVersion],
+    ) -> Manifest {
+        let files = file_versions
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(index, version)| {
+                DataFile::new(
+                    format!("data-{index}.lance"),
+                    vec![],
+                    vec![],
+                    *version,
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let fragment = Fragment {
+            id: 0,
+            files,
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(0),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+        Manifest::new(
+            Schema::default(),
+            Arc::new(vec![fragment]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(fallback),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn enable_mixed_file_versions(manifest: &mut Manifest) {
+        manifest.reader_feature_flags |= FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+        manifest.writer_feature_flags |= FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS;
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_accepts_all_exact_v2_combinations() {
+        let versions = [
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_3,
+        ];
+        for fallback in versions {
+            for other in versions {
+                let mut manifest = make_storage_contract_manifest(fallback, &[fallback, other]);
+                enable_mixed_file_versions(&mut manifest);
+                check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_requires_capability_for_non_fallback_file() {
+        let mut manifest =
+            make_storage_contract_manifest(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, &[ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1]);
+
+        let err = check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("not enabled"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_finalization_derives_capability() {
+        let mut manifest = make_storage_contract_manifest(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            &[ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2],
+        );
+
+        crate::dataset::versions::finalize_manifest_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap();
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+        assert_ne!(
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+        check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_finalization_rejects_v1_non_fallback() {
+        let mut manifest =
+            make_storage_contract_manifest(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, &[ConcreteFileVersion::V1]);
+
+        let err =
+            crate::dataset::versions::finalize_manifest_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("cannot be mixed"), "{err}");
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest.reader_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest.writer_feature_flags & FLAG_MIXED_DATA_FILE_VERSIONS,
+            0
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_checks_overlay_versions() {
+        let mut manifest =
+            make_storage_contract_manifest(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, &[ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0]);
+        manifest.fragments = Arc::new(vec![Fragment {
+            overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                data_file: DataFile::new(
+                    "overlay.lance",
+                    vec![],
+                    vec![],
+                    ConcreteFileVersion::V2_2,
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                ),
+                coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0])),
+                committed_version: 1,
+            }],
+            ..manifest.fragments[0].clone()
+        }]);
+
+        assert!(check_storage_version(&mut manifest).is_err());
+        enable_mixed_file_versions(&mut manifest);
+        check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_rejects_v1_v2_mixing_even_with_capability() {
+        let mut manifest = make_storage_contract_manifest(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            &[ConcreteFileVersion::V1, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0],
+        );
+        enable_mixed_file_versions(&mut manifest);
+
+        let err = check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("mixes V1 and V2"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_rejects_unknown_file_identity() {
+        let mut manifest =
+            make_storage_contract_manifest(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, &[ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0]);
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut manifest.fragments)[0].files[0].file_major_version = 99;
+        enable_mixed_file_versions(&mut manifest);
+
+        let err = check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("99"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_preserves_uniform_legacy_repair() {
+        let mut manifest = make_storage_contract_manifest(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
+            &[ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1],
+        );
+
+        check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+        );
+
+        crate::dataset::versions::finalize_manifest_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            manifest.data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_does_not_extend_legacy_repair_to_mixed_v2() {
+        let mut manifest = make_storage_contract_manifest(
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1,
+            &[ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1],
+        );
+
+        let err = check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::Internal { .. }));
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("mixture of file versions"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_rejects_v1_files_with_capability() {
+        let mut manifest =
+            make_storage_contract_manifest(ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0, &[ConcreteFileVersion::V1]);
+        enable_mixed_file_versions(&mut manifest);
+
+        let err = check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("references V1"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_rejects_empty_v1_fallback_with_capability() {
+        let mut manifest = make_storage_contract_manifest(ConcreteFileVersion::V1, &[]);
+        enable_mixed_file_versions(&mut manifest);
+
+        let err = check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("requires a V2 default"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn storage_contract_validates_column_indices_per_file_version() {
+        let mut struct_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        struct_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let mut manifest = make_manifest_with_file(
+            Schema {
+                fields: vec![struct_field],
+                metadata: Default::default(),
+            },
+            data_file,
+            LanceFileVersion::V2_0,
+        );
+        enable_mixed_file_versions(&mut manifest);
+
+        let err = check_storage_version(&mut manifest).unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Non-leaf field"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_check_column_indices_rejects_struct_with_column() {
+        // Struct (non-leaf) field with column_index=0 in v2.1 should be rejected.
+        let mut struct_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        struct_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![struct_field],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        // field ids: struct=0, leaf=1; give struct a real column_index (wrong)
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let manifest = make_manifest_with_file(schema, data_file, LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let result = check_column_indices(&manifest);
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Expected error for struct with column_index=0"
+        );
+        let msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains("Non-leaf field"), "{msg}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_check_column_indices_rejects_list_with_column() {
+        // List (non-leaf) field with column_index=0 in v2.1 should be rejected.
+        let mut list_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new(
+            "l",
+            DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Int32, true))),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        list_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![list_field],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        // field ids: list=0, item=1; give list a real column_index (wrong)
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let manifest = make_manifest_with_file(schema, data_file, LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let result = check_column_indices(&manifest);
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Expected error for list with column_index=0"
+        );
+        let msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains("Non-leaf field"), "{msg}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_check_column_indices_allows_correct_v21() {
+        // Non-leaf with column_index=-1 and leaf with column_index>=0 should pass.
+        let mut struct_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        struct_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![struct_field],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        // struct=-1 (correct), leaf=0 (correct)
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![-1, 0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let manifest = make_manifest_with_file(schema, data_file, LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        assert!(check_column_indices(&manifest).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_check_column_indices_allows_packed_struct() {
+        // Packed struct with a real column_index in v2.1 should be allowed.
+        let mut struct_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        struct_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+        struct_field
+            .metadata
+            .insert("lance-encoding:packed".to_string(), "true".to_string());
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![struct_field],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        // packed struct=0 (allowed), leaf=1
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let manifest = make_manifest_with_file(schema, data_file, LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        assert!(check_column_indices(&manifest).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_check_column_indices_skips_v20() {
+        // Non-leaf with column_index>=0 in v2.0 should be allowed (no validation).
+        let mut struct_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        struct_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![struct_field],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_0,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let manifest = make_manifest_with_file(schema, data_file, LanceFileVersion::V2_0);
+        assert!(check_column_indices(&manifest).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_check_column_indices_rejects_mismatched_lengths() {
+        // fields and column_indices must have the same length.
+        let mut leaf_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)).unwrap();
+        leaf_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![leaf_field],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        // 1 field id but 2 column indices
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let manifest = make_manifest_with_file(schema, data_file, LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let result = check_column_indices(&manifest);
+        assert!(result.is_err(), "Expected error for mismatched lengths");
+        let msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains("1 field ids but 2 column indices"), "{msg}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_check_column_indices_skips_unknown_field_id() {
+        // A field id not present in the schema is skipped (schema evolution).
+        let mut leaf_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)).unwrap();
+        leaf_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![leaf_field],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        // field id 99 does not exist in the schema — should be skipped
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0, 99],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let manifest = make_manifest_with_file(schema, data_file, LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        assert!(check_column_indices(&manifest).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_check_column_indices_rejects_leaf_with_negative_one() {
+        // A leaf field with column_index=-1 in v2.1 should be rejected.
+        let mut struct_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        struct_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![struct_field],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        // struct=-1 (correct), but leaf=-1 (wrong — leaf must have a real column)
+        let data_file = DataFile::new(
+            "data.lance",
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![-1, -1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let manifest = make_manifest_with_file(schema, data_file, LanceFileVersion::V2_1);
+        let result = check_column_indices(&manifest);
+        assert!(
+            result.is_err(),
+            "Expected error for leaf with column_index=-1"
+        );
+        let msg = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains("must have a valid column index"), "{msg}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_check_column_indices_rejects_after_dedup() {
+        let mut struct_field = Field::try_from(ArrowField::new(
+            "s",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)].into()),
+            false,
+        ))
+        .unwrap();
+        struct_field.set_id(-1, &mut 0);
+
+        let schema = Schema {
+            fields: vec![struct_field],
+            metadata: Default::default(),
+        };
+
+        // struct=-1, leaf=0: valid layout; clones share the same Arcs.
+        let shared_file = DataFile::new(
+            "shared.lance",
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![-1, 0],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        // Wrongly gives the struct a real column index.
+        let bad_file = DataFile::new(
+            "bad.lance",
+            vec![0, 1],
+            vec![0, 1],
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V2_1,
+            None,
+            None,
+        );
+        let make_fragment = |id: u64, file: DataFile| Fragment {
+            id,
+            files: vec![file],
+            overlays: vec![],
+            deletion_file: None,
+            row_id_meta: None,
+            physical_rows: Some(100),
+            last_updated_at_version_meta: None,
+            created_at_version_meta: None,
+        };
+        let manifest = Manifest::new(
+            schema,
+            Arc::new(vec![
+                make_fragment(0, shared_file.clone()),
+                make_fragment(1, shared_file),
+                make_fragment(2, bad_file),
+            ]),
+            DataStorageFormat::new(LanceFileVersion::V2_1.resolve()),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        );
+        let msg = check_column_indices(&manifest).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(msg.contains("Non-leaf field"), "{msg}");
+        assert!(msg.contains("bad.lance"), "{msg}");
+    }
+
+    /// Reproduces the debug-only panic `migrate_indices`'s fragment-bitmap
+    /// recalculation guard used to contain: a legal covered index
+    /// (`fields=[a,b]`, `covering_fields=[b]`) has `fields.len() == 2`, which
+    /// the old `debug_assert_eq!(index.fields.len(), 1)` rejected outright even
+    /// though the following line only ever reads `fields[0]`.
+    /// `must_recalculate_fragment_bitmap` takes this branch whenever
+    /// `fragment_bitmap` is `None`, so committing with it unset drives the
+    /// assert during the index's own commit.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_covered_index_commit_recalculates_fragment_bitmap_without_panicking() {
+        use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("a", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .col("b", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["a"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let b_id = dataset.schema().field("b").unwrap().id;
+        let current = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let mut covered = current[0].clone();
+        covered.fields.push(b_id);
+        covered.covering_fields = vec![b_id];
+        // Force the fragment-bitmap recalculation branch this guard sits in.
+        covered.fragment_bitmap = None;
+
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![covered],
+                removed_indices: current.to_vec(),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let recomputed = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(recomputed.len(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            recomputed[0].fragment_bitmap.is_some(),
+            "migrate_indices should have recalculated the fragment bitmap for the covered index"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn index_segment(name: &str, fragment_bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap>) -> IndexMetadata {
+        IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: name.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_detect_overlapping_fragments() {
+        let indices = vec![
+            index_segment("idx_a", Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0..5))),
+            index_segment("idx_a", Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([3, 4, 10]))),
+            index_segment("idx_a", None),
+            index_segment("idx_b", Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0..5))),
+        ];
+        let err = detect_overlapping_fragments(&indices).unwrap_err();
+        assert_eq!(err.bad_indices.len(), 1);
+        let (name, overlapping) = &err.bad_indices[0];
+        assert_eq!(name, "idx_a");
+        assert_eq!(overlapping, &vec![3, 4]);
+
+        let disjoint = vec![
+            index_segment("idx_a", Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(0..5))),
+            index_segment("idx_a", Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(5..10))),
+        ];
+        assert!(detect_overlapping_fragments(&disjoint).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    /// Commit-outcome verification must compare durable (protobuf) forms.
+    ///
+    /// A rewrite's frag reuse payload is intentionally dropped by
+    /// serialization and restored as `None` on read, so the in-memory
+    /// transaction never equals its own read-back form. Comparing durable
+    /// forms classifies the landed commit as ours anyway.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_frag_reuse_rewrite_own_commit_comparison_uses_durable_form() {
+        use lance_table::transaction::Operation;
+
+        let entry = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 42,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new(
+            42,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        // What the commit wrote, and what verification reads back.
+        let durable = pb::Transaction::try_from(&transaction).unwrap();
+        let read_back = pb::Transaction::decode(durable.encode_to_vec().as_slice()).unwrap();
+        // The old comparison (read-back deserialized into memory, compared
+        // with `Transaction::eq`) misclassifies our own landed commit: the
+        // round trip loses the payload.
+        assert_ne!(
+            Transaction::try_from(read_back.clone()).unwrap(),
+            transaction,
+            "the round-tripped transaction must differ in memory (frag_reuse_index is not serialized); \
+             if this starts holding, the durable-form comparison is merely redundant"
+        );
+        // The comparison `verify_commit_outcome` performs: read-back durable
+        // form against the regenerated durable form of this attempt.
+        assert_eq!(read_back, pb::Transaction::try_from(&transaction).unwrap());
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver.rs
index bb6f9aae866..e210dd7c19e 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver.rs
@@ -1,24 +1,36 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::index::frag_reuse::{build_frag_reuse_index_metadata, load_frag_reuse_index_details};
+use crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::{
+    TaggedTrimOutcome, derive_superseded_segments, derive_tagged_trim,
+    is_superseded_prune_transaction, is_tagged_trim_operation,
+};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use crate::index::frag_reuse::{
+    build_frag_reuse_index_metadata, build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry, legacy_version_transitions,
+    load_frag_reuse_index_details, load_frag_reuse_records, records_added_since,
+};
 use crate::index::mem_wal::{load_mem_wal_index_details, new_mem_wal_index_meta};
 use crate::io::deletion::read_dataset_deletion_file;
 use crate::{
-    dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction},
     Dataset,
+    dataset::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, Operation, Transaction, UpdateMode},
 };
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowSetOps;
-use lance_core::{
-    utils::{deletion::DeletionVector, mask::RowAddrTreeMap},
-    Error, Result,
-};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result, utils::deletion::DeletionVector};
 use lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME;
-use lance_index::mem_wal::{MergedGeneration, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME};
+use lance_index::mem_wal::{CompactedSsTable, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME};
+use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_table::format::overlay::OverlayCoverage;
+use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::{InlineContent, Transition};
+use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseVersion;
+use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::lineage::TaggedLineage;
+use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged;
+use lance_table::system_index::is_system_index;
+use lance_table::transaction::TaggedRewriteAssembly;
 use lance_table::{format::Fragment, io::deletion::write_deletion_file};
-use snafu::{location, Location};
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use std::{
     borrow::Cow,
     collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
@@ -34,10 +46,194 @@ pub struct TransactionRebase<'a> {
     /// Fragments that have been deleted or modified
     modified_fragment_ids: HashSet<u64>,
     affected_rows: Option<&'a RowAddrTreeMap>,
-    conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
-    /// Merged generations from conflicting UpdateMemWalState transactions.
+    /// Boxed: the commit loop holds the rebase across awaits.
+    frag_reuse_base: Option<Box<FragReuseBase>>,
+    /// Compacted SSTables from conflicting UpdateMemWalState transactions.
     /// Used when rebasing CreateIndex of MemWalIndex.
-    conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec<MergedGeneration>,
+    conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec<CompactedSsTable>,
+    /// The lineage the latest manifest's tagged fragment reuse entry records,
+    /// with its transitions, loaded by [`Self::load_current_lineage`] for a
+    /// CreateIndex; `None` otherwise.
+    current_lineage: Option<TaggedLineage>,
+    /// The latest manifest's live fragments, loaded with `current_lineage`.
+    current_live: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+    /// The latest manifest's schema, loaded with `current_lineage`: a
+    /// rewritten field is expanded to its descendants through it (a packed
+    /// struct is rewritten whole while an index on a child records the
+    /// child's id).
+    current_schema: Option<lance_core::datatypes::Schema>,
+    /// The fragments and schema at the read version, kept for a CreateIndex
+    /// so a concurrent `Merge` can be told which columns it rewrote in place
+    /// and which fields it removed or retyped.
+    read_fragments: Option<Vec<Fragment>>,
+    read_schema: Option<lance_core::datatypes::Schema>,
+    /// For a `Rewrite` carrying a fragment reuse entry: what it adds relative
+    /// to the entry at its read version (`RewriteReuseState`).
+    reuse: RewriteReuseState,
+    /// Set by the staged-segment replay (`replay_staged_segments`): the
+    /// CreateIndex being carried is not about to be committed, so a
+    /// same-name CreateIndex in the window (routine `optimize_indices` on the
+    /// logical index the segments extend) is no conflict; the overlap rules
+    /// settle it at commit time. A same-name CreateIndex that changed what
+    /// the index is (its fields or type) still conflicts.
+    staged_replay: bool,
+}
+
+/// Whether a fragment-reuse index would corrupt `index` rather than repair it.
+///
+/// This happens when we have SRID, FRI, and row-id based indexes
+fn corrupted_by_frag_reuse(index: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    !is_system_index(index) && !index.results_are_row_addrs()
+}
+
+/// A rewrite's fragment reuse intent as the rebase reads it: the entry at
+/// the read version (the base the caller's complete entry is diffed against)
+/// and, for a tagged entry, the transitions the caller's entry adds. Worked
+/// out once per attempt from the same read version and the same transaction,
+/// so every retry merges the same intent onto whatever the current entry has
+/// become; the assembled result never feeds back into the transaction.
+///
+/// Contract: the caller's tagged entry was built from the snapshot at the
+/// transaction's read version (its `dataset_version` says which), so the
+/// base and the entry describe the same history plus this rewrite's own
+/// records. An entry built from a later snapshot is refused.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct RewriteReuseState {
+    /// The fragment reuse entry at the read version, `None` when none existed.
+    read_entry: Option<IndexMetadata>,
+    /// The transitions the rewrite's entry adds relative to `read_entry`, for
+    /// a tagged entry. `None` for a v0 entry, which `finish_rewrite` converts
+    /// only when the table turned out tagged at commit.
+    added_transitions: Option<Vec<Transition>>,
+}
+
+/// The fragment reuse entry of the handle a replacement is committed through, fixed across
+/// attempts. Checked against the latest manifest since a Rewrite's transaction file omits it.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FragReuseBase {
+    version: u64,
+    entry: Option<IndexMetadata>,
+}
+
+impl FragReuseBase {
+    async fn load(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            entry: stored_frag_reuse_entry(dataset).await?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn is_current(&self, current: Option<&IndexMetadata>) -> bool {
+        self.entry.as_ref().map(|entry| entry.uuid) == current.map(|entry| entry.uuid)
+    }
+
+    fn changed_err(
+        &self,
+        operation: &Operation,
+        current: Option<&IndexMetadata>,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        retry: &str,
+    ) -> Error {
+        let describe = |entry: Option<&IndexMetadata>| {
+            entry.map_or_else(
+                || "no entry".to_string(),
+                |entry| format!("entry {}", entry.uuid),
+            )
+        };
+        Error::retryable_commit_conflict_source(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            format!(
+                "This {operation} transaction replaces the fragment reuse index, built from \
+                 {} at version {}, but version {} has {}: a concurrent commit changed the \
+                 fragment reuse history. {retry}",
+                describe(self.entry.as_ref()),
+                self.version,
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                describe(current)
+            )
+            .into(),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+async fn stored_frag_reuse_entry(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Option<IndexMetadata>> {
+    Ok(crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .cloned())
+}
+
+fn is_ordered_subsequence(sub: &[FragReuseVersion], sup: &[FragReuseVersion]) -> bool {
+    let mut sup = sup.iter();
+    sub.iter()
+        .all(|version| sup.any(|candidate| candidate == version))
+}
+
+/// Whether two segments describe the same logical index: the same keyed and
+/// covering fields and the same index type.
+fn same_logical_index(a: &IndexMetadata, b: &IndexMetadata) -> bool {
+    let type_url = |index: &IndexMetadata| {
+        index
+            .index_details
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|details| details.type_url.clone())
+    };
+    a.fields == b.fields && a.covering_fields == b.covering_fields && type_url(a) == type_url(b)
+}
+
+/// Whether `operation` may make a nullability-affecting schema change: a
+/// projection or merge that does not assert `preserves_nullability`. A
+/// tightening projection scanned for nulls at its read version, and a merge
+/// may introduce a field that data staged against an earlier schema cannot
+/// safely omit; either is falsified by a concurrent value-write.
+fn may_alter_nullability(operation: &Operation) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        operation,
+        Operation::Project {
+            preserves_nullability: false,
+            ..
+        } | Operation::Merge {
+            preserves_nullability: false,
+            ..
+        }
+    )
+}
+
+/// Whether `operation` can commit rows that falsify such a change: by writing
+/// a null into a scanned field, or by omitting a required column entirely (a
+/// stale append's fragments read as null for columns they predate). `Delete`
+/// only removes rows and `Rewrite` preserves the values it moves; `Project`
+/// already conflicts with projections and merges elsewhere.
+fn supplies_values(operation: &Operation) -> bool {
+    matches!(
+        operation,
+        Operation::Append { .. }
+            | Operation::Update { .. }
+            | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+            | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
+    )
+}
+
+/// Whether an operation changes schema-level or per-field metadata. A merge
+/// carries the complete schema from its read version, so rebasing either
+/// operation over the other can discard one side's metadata changes.
+fn updates_schema_or_field_metadata(operation: &Operation) -> bool {
+    let Operation::UpdateConfig {
+        schema_metadata_updates,
+        field_metadata_updates,
+        ..
+    } = operation
+    else {
+        return false;
+    };
+
+    schema_metadata_updates
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_some_and(|update| update.replace || !update.update_entries.is_empty())
+        || field_metadata_updates
+            .values()
+            .any(|update| update.replace || !update.update_entries.is_empty())
 }
 
 impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
@@ -57,14 +253,37 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. }
             | Operation::Clone { .. }
             | Operation::Restore { .. }
-            | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(Self {
-                transaction,
-                affected_rows,
-                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
-                modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
-                conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-                conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
-            }),
+            | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => {
+                let is_create_index =
+                    matches!(transaction.operation, Operation::CreateIndex { .. });
+                let read_fragments = is_create_index.then(|| dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone());
+                let read_schema = is_create_index.then(|| dataset.schema().clone());
+                let frag_reuse_base = match &transaction.operation {
+                    Operation::CreateIndex { new_indices, .. }
+                        if new_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME) =>
+                    {
+                        Some(Box::new(FragReuseBase::load(dataset).await?))
+                    }
+                    _ => None,
+                };
+                Ok(Self {
+                    transaction,
+                    affected_rows,
+                    initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                    modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+                    frag_reuse_base,
+                    conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    current_lineage: None,
+                    current_live: None,
+                    current_schema: None,
+                    read_fragments,
+                    read_schema,
+                    reuse: Default::default(),
+                    staged_replay: false,
+                })
+            }
             Operation::Delete {
                 updated_fragments,
                 deleted_fragment_ids,
@@ -90,39 +309,73 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
                         modified_fragment_ids,
                         affected_rows: None,
-                        conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-                        conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
+                        frag_reuse_base: None,
+                        conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                        current_lineage: None,
+                        current_live: None,
+                        current_schema: None,
+                        read_fragments: None,
+                        read_schema: None,
+                        reuse: Default::default(),
+                        staged_replay: false,
                     });
                 }
 
                 let initial_fragments =
                     initial_fragments_for_rebase(dataset, &transaction, &modified_fragment_ids)
-                        .await;
+                        .await?;
                 Ok(Self {
                     transaction,
                     affected_rows,
                     initial_fragments,
                     modified_fragment_ids,
-                    conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-                    conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
+                    frag_reuse_base: None,
+                    conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    current_lineage: None,
+                    current_live: None,
+                    current_schema: None,
+                    read_fragments: None,
+                    read_schema: None,
+                    reuse: Default::default(),
+                    staged_replay: false,
                 })
             }
-            Operation::Rewrite { groups, .. } => {
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups,
+                frag_reuse_index,
+                ..
+            } => {
                 let modified_fragment_ids = groups
                     .iter()
                     .flat_map(|f| f.old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id))
                     .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                let frag_reuse_base = if frag_reuse_index
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|entry| !is_tagged(entry))
+                {
+                    Some(Box::new(FragReuseBase::load(dataset).await?))
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
 
                 let initial_fragments =
                     initial_fragments_for_rebase(dataset, &transaction, &modified_fragment_ids)
-                        .await;
+                        .await?;
+                let reuse = rewrite_reuse_state(dataset, &transaction).await?;
                 Ok(Self {
                     transaction,
                     affected_rows,
                     initial_fragments,
                     modified_fragment_ids,
-                    conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-                    conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
+                    frag_reuse_base,
+                    conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    current_lineage: None,
+                    current_live: None,
+                    current_schema: None,
+                    read_fragments: None,
+                    read_schema: None,
+                    reuse,
+                    staged_replay: false,
                 })
             }
             Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => {
@@ -130,63 +383,133 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                     replacements.iter().map(|r| r.0).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
                 let initial_fragments =
                     initial_fragments_for_rebase(dataset, &transaction, &modified_fragment_ids)
-                        .await;
+                        .await?;
+                Ok(Self {
+                    transaction,
+                    affected_rows,
+                    initial_fragments,
+                    modified_fragment_ids,
+                    frag_reuse_base: None,
+                    conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    current_lineage: None,
+                    current_live: None,
+                    current_schema: None,
+                    read_fragments: None,
+                    read_schema: None,
+                    reuse: Default::default(),
+                    staged_replay: false,
+                })
+            }
+            Operation::DataOverlay { groups } => {
+                let modified_fragment_ids =
+                    groups.iter().map(|g| g.fragment_id).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+                let initial_fragments =
+                    initial_fragments_for_rebase(dataset, &transaction, &modified_fragment_ids)
+                        .await?;
                 Ok(Self {
                     transaction,
                     affected_rows,
                     initial_fragments,
                     modified_fragment_ids,
-                    conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-                    conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
+                    frag_reuse_base: None,
+                    conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    current_lineage: None,
+                    current_live: None,
+                    current_schema: None,
+                    read_fragments: None,
+                    read_schema: None,
+                    reuse: Default::default(),
+                    staged_replay: false,
                 })
             }
             Operation::Merge { fragments, .. } => {
                 let modified_fragment_ids = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<HashSet<_>>();
                 let initial_fragments =
                     initial_fragments_for_rebase(dataset, &transaction, &modified_fragment_ids)
-                        .await;
+                        .await?;
                 Ok(Self {
                     transaction,
                     affected_rows,
                     initial_fragments,
                     modified_fragment_ids,
-                    conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-                    conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
+                    frag_reuse_base: None,
+                    conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    current_lineage: None,
+                    current_live: None,
+                    current_schema: None,
+                    read_fragments: None,
+                    read_schema: None,
+                    reuse: Default::default(),
+                    staged_replay: false,
                 })
             }
+            // An unrecognized operation cannot be rebased: we don't know what it touches.
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "Transaction {} has an operation written by a newer version of Lance \
+                 and cannot be rebased by this version",
+                transaction.uuid
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
-    fn retryable_conflict_err(
-        &self,
-        other_transaction: &Transaction,
-        other_version: u64,
-        location: Location,
-    ) -> Error {
-        Error::RetryableCommitConflict {
-            version: other_version,
-            source: format!(
+    #[track_caller]
+    fn retryable_conflict_err(&self, other_transaction: &Transaction, other_version: u64) -> Error {
+        Error::retryable_commit_conflict_source(
+            other_version,
+            format!(
                 "This {} transaction was preempted by concurrent transaction {} at version {}. Please retry.",
-                self.transaction.operation, other_transaction.operation, other_version).into(),
-            location,
-        }
+                self.transaction.operation, other_transaction.operation, other_version
+            )
+            .into(),
+        )
     }
 
+    #[track_caller]
     fn incompatible_conflict_err(
         &self,
         other_transaction: &Transaction,
         other_version: u64,
-        location: Location,
     ) -> Error {
-        Error::CommitConflict {
-            version: other_version,
-            source: format!(
+        Error::incompatible_transaction_source(
+            format!(
                 "This {} transaction is incompatible with concurrent transaction {} at version {}.",
                 self.transaction.operation, other_transaction.operation, other_version
             )
             .into(),
-            location,
-        }
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    fn data_replacement_target_removed_err(
+        &self,
+        fragment_id: u64,
+        other_transaction: &Transaction,
+        other_version: u64,
+    ) -> Error {
+        Error::incompatible_transaction_source(
+            format!(
+                "DataReplacement target fragment {} was removed by concurrent {} at version {}.",
+                fragment_id, other_transaction.operation, other_version
+            )
+            .into(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[track_caller]
+    fn data_replacement_field_removed_err(
+        &self,
+        field_id: i32,
+        fragment_id: u64,
+        other_transaction: &Transaction,
+        other_version: u64,
+    ) -> Error {
+        Error::incompatible_transaction_source(
+            format!(
+                "DataReplacement target field {} in fragment {} was dropped by concurrent {} at version {}.",
+                field_id, fragment_id, other_transaction.operation, other_version
+            )
+            .into(),
+        )
     }
 
     /// Check whether the transaction conflicts with another transaction.
@@ -195,7 +518,64 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
     ///
     /// Will return an error if the transaction is not valid. Otherwise, it will
     /// return Ok(()).
+    /// Load what a CreateIndex needs from the LATEST manifest before the
+    /// per-version checks run: the lineage its tagged fragment reuse entry
+    /// records. A committed rewrite is read back from its transaction file,
+    /// where `frag_reuse` is never serialized, so the entry is the only
+    /// durable evidence that a rewrite appended a transition (see the Rewrite
+    /// arm of `check_create_index_txn`). A no-op for every other operation.
+    /// Mark this rebase as the staged-segment replay; see `staged_replay`.
+    pub(crate) fn for_staged_replay(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.staged_replay = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub async fn load_current_lineage(&mut self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<()> {
+        if !matches!(self.transaction.operation, Operation::CreateIndex { .. }) {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+        let Some(entry) = indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|index| lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::is_tagged(index))
+        else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let ledger = crate::index::frag_reuse::decode_frag_reuse_ledger(dataset, entry).await?;
+        self.current_lineage = Some(TaggedLineage::new(entry, Some(Arc::new(ledger))));
+        self.current_live = Some(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone());
+        self.current_schema = Some(dataset.schema().clone());
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     pub fn check_txn(&mut self, other_transaction: &Transaction, other_version: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        // Either order: the claim was checked without the write's data.
+        let ours = &self.transaction.operation;
+        let theirs = &other_transaction.operation;
+        if (may_alter_nullability(ours) && supplies_values(theirs))
+            || (supplies_values(ours) && may_alter_nullability(theirs))
+        {
+            return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
+        }
+        // Merge carries a complete schema from its read version. In either
+        // commit order, rebasing it with a metadata update can keep one side's
+        // schema while discarding metadata from the other side.
+        if (matches!(ours, Operation::Merge { .. }) && updates_schema_or_field_metadata(theirs))
+            || (updates_schema_or_field_metadata(ours) && matches!(theirs, Operation::Merge { .. }))
+        {
+            return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
+        }
+        // A restore replaces the manifest with an older one, schema and field
+        // metadata included. Rebasing a metadata update over it reinstates
+        // metadata the restore discarded, and re-reading cannot help: the
+        // update was computed against a schema the table no longer has.
+        if (matches!(ours, Operation::Restore { .. }) && updates_schema_or_field_metadata(theirs))
+            || (updates_schema_or_field_metadata(ours)
+                && matches!(theirs, Operation::Restore { .. }))
+        {
+            return Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
+        }
+
         let op = &self.transaction.operation;
         match op {
             Operation::Delete { .. } => self.check_delete_txn(other_transaction, other_version),
@@ -211,6 +591,9 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             Operation::DataReplacement { .. } => {
                 self.check_data_replacement_txn(other_transaction, other_version)
             }
+            Operation::DataOverlay { .. } => {
+                self.check_data_overlay_txn(other_transaction, other_version)
+            }
             Operation::Merge { .. } => self.check_merge_txn(other_transaction, other_version),
             Operation::Restore { .. } => self.check_restore_txn(other_transaction, other_version),
             Operation::ReserveFragments { .. } => {
@@ -227,6 +610,10 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => {
                 self.check_add_bases_txn(other_transaction, other_version)
             }
+            // An unrecognized operation cannot be checked: assume it conflicts.
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -243,6 +630,10 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                 | Operation::Project { .. }
                 | Operation::Append { .. }
                 | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
+                // A concurrent overlay is inert against the rows we delete
+                // (deletions take precedence over overlays) and otherwise
+                // preserves physical offsets, so it never conflicts.
+                | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
                 | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(()),
                 Operation::Rewrite { groups, .. } => {
                     if groups
@@ -250,11 +641,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         .flat_map(|f| f.old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id))
                         .any(|id| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(&id))
                     {
-                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
@@ -265,11 +652,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         .map(|r| r.0)
                         .any(|id| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(&id))
                     {
-                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
@@ -296,11 +679,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                     if self.affected_rows.is_none() {
                         // We don't have any affected rows, so we can't
                         // do the rebase anyways.
-                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                     }
                     for updated in updated_fragments {
                         if let Some((fragment, needs_rewrite)) =
@@ -309,11 +688,9 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                             // If data files, not just deletion files, are modified,
                             // then we can't rebase.
                             if fragment.files != updated.files {
-                                return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
+                                return Err(
+                                    self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                                );
                             }
 
                             // Mark any modified fragments as needing a rewrite.
@@ -323,25 +700,23 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
 
                     for removed_fragment_id in removed_fragment_ids {
                         if self.initial_fragments.contains_key(removed_fragment_id) {
-                            return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                other_transaction,
-                                other_version,
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
                         }
                     }
                     Ok(())
                 }
                 Operation::Merge { .. } => {
-                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                 }
                 Operation::Overwrite { .. }
                 | Operation::Restore { .. }
-                | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                    other_transaction,
-                    other_version,
-                    location!(),
-                )),
+                | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
+                // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+                Operation::Unknown { .. } => Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)),
             }
         } else {
             Err(wrong_operation_err(&self.transaction.operation))
@@ -355,7 +730,11 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
     ) -> Result<()> {
         if let Operation::Update {
             inserted_rows_filter: self_inserted_rows_filter,
-            merged_generations: self_merged_generations,
+            compacted_sstables: self_compacted_sstables,
+            new_fragments: self_new_fragments,
+            update_mode: self_update_mode,
+            updated_fragments: self_updated_fragments,
+            fields_modified: self_fields_modified,
             ..
         } = &self.transaction.operation
         {
@@ -370,11 +749,9 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                     (Some(self_keys), Some(other_keys)) => {
                         if self_keys.field_ids != other_keys.field_ids {
                             // Different key columns - can't verify conflicts
-                            return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                other_transaction,
-                                other_version,
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
                         }
                         // Check for intersection. If the bloom filter configs don't match
                         // (e.g., different number_of_items or probability), intersects() returns
@@ -383,18 +760,14 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                             self_keys.intersects(other_keys)
                         else {
                             // Bloom filter configs don't match - treat as conflict
-                            return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                other_transaction,
-                                other_version,
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
                         };
                         if has_intersection {
-                            return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                other_transaction,
-                                other_version,
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
                         }
                     }
                     (Some(_), None) => {
@@ -402,11 +775,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         // the already committed transaction doesn't have a filter.
                         // We can't determine what rows were inserted by the other
                         // transaction, so we must fail to be safe.
-                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                     }
                     _ => {}
                 }
@@ -415,20 +784,104 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             match &other_transaction.operation {
                 Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
                 | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
-                | Operation::Project { .. }
                 | Operation::Clone { .. }
                 | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
                 | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(()),
+                Operation::Project { schema, .. } => {
+                    // A project can drop fields, and this update writes
+                    // replacement files for the fields it names. Committing
+                    // over a projection that removed one leaves the fragment
+                    // carrying a data file for a field the schema no longer
+                    // has. Same rule `check_data_replacement_txn` applies to
+                    // the other operation that rewrites a field in place.
+                    for field in self_fields_modified {
+                        if schema.field_by_id(*field as i32).is_none() {
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+                Operation::DataOverlay { groups } => {
+                    // Our update recomputed rows from the pre-overlay base, so if
+                    // it commits over an overlay it would silently undo the
+                    // overlay's values for any cell it recomputed.
+                    //
+                    // An in-place column rewrite (RewriteColumns) writes a
+                    // replacement file covering *every* row of each fragment it
+                    // touches, filled from the snapshot it read. `build_manifest`
+                    // then tombstones every overlay for the fields it rewrote, so
+                    // an overlay value on a row this update never matched is
+                    // dropped and the stale copied value becomes visible. Retry
+                    // whenever the overlay touches a fragment we rewrote and a
+                    // field we rewrote; the retry re-reads the overlaid values.
+                    if matches!(self_update_mode, Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns)) {
+                        let rewritten: HashSet<u64> = self_updated_fragments
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|fragment| fragment.id)
+                            .collect();
+                        for group in groups {
+                            if !rewritten.contains(&group.fragment_id) {
+                                continue;
+                            }
+                            let overlaps_rewritten_field = group.overlays.iter().any(|overlay| {
+                                overlay.data_file.fields.iter().any(|&field| {
+                                    field >= 0 && self_fields_modified.contains(&(field as u32))
+                                })
+                            });
+                            if overlaps_rewritten_field {
+                                return Err(
+                                    self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                                );
+                            }
+                        }
+                        return Ok(());
+                    }
+
+                    // A row-moving update (RewriteRows) relocates the rows it
+                    // touches out to new fragments; only the rows it actually
+                    // moved lose their overlay, so we conflict only when the
+                    // moved rows intersect the overlay's coverage.
+                    let moves_rows = !self_new_fragments.is_empty()
+                        && matches!(self_update_mode, Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows) | None);
+                    if !moves_rows {
+                        return Ok(());
+                    }
+                    // `affected_rows` holds the physical offsets (per fragment)
+                    // this update moved. The overlay's coverage is in the same
+                    // physical-offset space, so we can intersect the two in
+                    // memory. Without affected rows we cannot be precise, so we
+                    // fall back to a fragment-granular conflict.
+                    for group in groups {
+                        if !self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(&group.fragment_id) {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        let Some(affected_rows) = self.affected_rows else {
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
+                        };
+                        let Some(moved) =
+                            affected_rows.get_fragment_bitmap(group.fragment_id as u32)
+                        else {
+                            continue;
+                        };
+                        let coverage = overlay_group_coverage(group);
+                        if !(moved & &coverage).is_empty() {
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }
                 Operation::Append { .. } => {
                     // If current transaction has primary key conflict detection,
                     // we can't safely commit against an Append because we don't
                     // know if the appended rows conflict with inserted rows.
                     if self_inserted_rows_filter.is_some() {
-                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                     }
                     Ok(())
                 }
@@ -438,11 +891,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         .flat_map(|f| f.old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id))
                         .any(|id| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(&id))
                     {
-                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
@@ -453,11 +902,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         .map(|r| r.0)
                         .any(|id| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(&id))
                     {
-                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
@@ -484,11 +929,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                     if self.affected_rows.is_none() {
                         // We don't have any affected rows, so we can't
                         // do the rebase anyways.
-                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                     }
                     for updated in updated_fragments {
                         if let Some((fragment, needs_rewrite)) =
@@ -497,11 +938,9 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                             // If data files, not just deletion files, are modified,
                             // then we can't rebase.
                             if fragment.files != updated.files {
-                                return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
+                                return Err(
+                                    self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                                );
                             }
 
                             // Mark any modified fragments as needing a rewrite.
@@ -511,29 +950,32 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
 
                     for removed_fragment_id in removed_fragment_ids {
                         if self.initial_fragments.contains_key(removed_fragment_id) {
-                            return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                other_transaction,
-                                other_version,
-                                location!(),
-                            ));
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
                         }
                     }
                     Ok(())
                 }
                 Operation::Merge { .. } => {
-                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
+                Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::Restore { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                 }
-                Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::Restore { .. } => Err(
-                    self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!())
-                ),
                 Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                    merged_generations: other_merged_generations,
-                } => self.check_merged_generations_conflict(
-                    other_merged_generations,
-                    self_merged_generations,
+                    compacted_sstables: other_compacted_sstables,
+                    ..
+                } => self.check_compacted_sstables_conflict(
+                    other_compacted_sstables,
+                    self_compacted_sstables,
                     other_transaction,
                     other_version,
                 ),
+                // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+                Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
             }
         } else {
             Err(wrong_operation_err(&self.transaction.operation))
@@ -549,18 +991,37 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             new_indices,
             removed_indices,
             ..
-        } = &self.transaction.operation
+        } = &mut self.transaction.operation
         {
+            let self_is_tagged_trim = is_tagged_trim_operation(new_indices, removed_indices);
             match &other_transaction.operation {
                 Operation::Append { .. }
                 | Operation::Clone { .. }
+                // An overlay committed after this index's version is newer than
+                // the index; the query path excludes its covered cells via the
+                // version gate, so the build does not conflict.
+                | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
                 | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(()),
-                // Indices are identified by UUIDs, so they shouldn't conflict.
-                // unless it is the same frag reuse index or MemWAL index
                 Operation::CreateIndex {
                     new_indices: created_indices,
-                    ..
+                    removed_indices: committed_removed_indices,
                 } => {
+                    if self_is_tagged_trim {
+                        // Two trims of the same entry cannot merge (mirrors the
+                        // v0 cleanup-vs-cleanup conflict); anything else only
+                        // changes the retention inputs, which the re-derivation
+                        // in `finish_create_index` recomputes from the current
+                        // manifest.
+                        return if created_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .chain(committed_removed_indices.iter())
+                            .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                        {
+                            Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                        } else {
+                            Ok(())
+                        };
+                    }
                     let self_has_frag_reuse = new_indices
                         .iter()
                         .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
@@ -572,24 +1033,202 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                     let other_has_mem_wal = created_indices
                         .iter()
                         .any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME);
-
+                    let has_regular_name_conflict = new_indices
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter(|idx| {
+                            idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME && idx.name != MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME
+                        })
+                        .any(|new_index| {
+                            created_indices
+                                .iter()
+                                .any(|created_index| created_index.name == new_index.name)
+                        });
+                    // An appended segment has no removed source UUID to identify the
+                    // logical index it extends, so a concurrent same-name removal
+                    // must conflict. Replacement-style maintenance is handled by
+                    // exact source identity below, allowing disjoint segment changes
+                    // under the same logical name to merge.
+                    let has_append_drop_conflict = new_indices.iter().any(|new_index| {
+                        !removed_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|removed_index| removed_index.name == new_index.name)
+                            && committed_removed_indices
+                                .iter()
+                                .any(|removed_index| removed_index.name == new_index.name)
+                    }) || created_indices.iter().any(|created_index| {
+                        !committed_removed_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|removed_index| removed_index.name == created_index.name)
+                            && removed_indices
+                                .iter()
+                                .any(|removed_index| removed_index.name == created_index.name)
+                    });
+                    // Replacement metadata depends on the exact source segments it
+                    // was built from. If either side removed the same UUID, publishing
+                    // a replacement would undo a drop or use a stale source identity.
+                    // Concurrent pure removals remain idempotent.
+                    let has_replaced_identity_conflict =
+                        removed_indices.iter().any(|removed_index| {
+                            committed_removed_indices.iter().any(|committed_removed| {
+                                committed_removed.uuid == removed_index.uuid
+                                    && (new_indices.iter().any(|new_index| {
+                                        new_index.name == removed_index.name
+                                            || new_index.name == committed_removed.name
+                                    }) || created_indices.iter().any(|created_index| {
+                                        created_index.name == removed_index.name
+                                            || created_index.name == committed_removed.name
+                                    }))
+                            })
+                        });
+
+                    // In the staged replay a same-name CreateIndex is routine
+                    // maintenance of the index the segments extend, no
+                    // conflict, unless it changed what the index is.
+                    let name_conflict = if self.staged_replay {
+                        new_indices.iter().any(|new_index| {
+                            created_indices.iter().any(|created_index| {
+                                created_index.name == new_index.name
+                                    && !same_logical_index(new_index, created_index)
+                            })
+                        })
+                    } else {
+                        has_regular_name_conflict || has_append_drop_conflict
+                    };
                     if (self_has_frag_reuse && other_has_frag_reuse)
                         || (self_has_mem_wal && other_has_mem_wal)
+                        || name_conflict
+                        || has_replaced_identity_conflict
                     {
-                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
                 }
                 // Although some of the rows we indexed may have been deleted / moved,
                 // row ids are still valid, so we allow this optimistically.
-                Operation::Delete { .. } | Operation::Update { .. } => Ok(()),
-                // Merge, reserve, and project don't change row ids, so this should be fine.
-                Operation::Merge { .. } => Ok(()),
+                Operation::Delete { .. } => Ok(()),
+                Operation::Update {
+                    updated_fragments,
+                    fields_modified,
+                    ..
+                } => {
+                    // An in-place column rewrite is withdrawn from an index by
+                    // pruning the rewritten fragment from its bitmap. On a
+                    // tagged table a segment with retired provenance covers
+                    // live fragments through the history, not its bitmap, so
+                    // the withdrawal follows the lineage instead
+                    // (`withdraw_rewritten_coverage`, the manifest build's own
+                    // rule): the transition's sources go and those rows are
+                    // scanned. The build lands; nothing retries.
+                    if let (Some(lineage), Some(live), Some(schema)) = (
+                        self.current_lineage.as_ref(),
+                        self.current_live.as_ref(),
+                        self.current_schema.as_ref(),
+                    ) {
+                        let rewrites = Transaction::rewritten_physical_columns(
+                            &other_transaction.operation,
+                            schema,
+                            &[],
+                        );
+                        Transaction::withdraw_in_place_rewrites(
+                            new_indices,
+                            rewrites,
+                            schema,
+                            live,
+                            Some(lineage),
+                        );
+                    } else {
+                        Transaction::prune_updated_fields_from_indices(
+                            new_indices,
+                            updated_fragments,
+                            fields_modified,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+                // Merge, reserve, and project don't change row ids. The MemWAL
+                // index is the exception: its install validates schema-dependent
+                // state, which a concurrent schema change invalidates.
+                Operation::Merge {
+                    fragments, schema, ..
+                } => {
+                    if new_indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME) {
+                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
+                    }
+                    // A merge that removed or retyped a field our index keys
+                    // on (an `alter_columns` cast rewrites the column under a
+                    // new field id) leaves the index describing a column that
+                    // no longer exists on a tagged table's destinations; the
+                    // build is redone against the new field.
+                    if self.current_lineage.is_some()
+                        && let Some(read_schema) = self.read_schema.as_ref()
+                    {
+                        let gone: HashSet<i32> = read_schema
+                            .fields_pre_order()
+                            .filter(|field| {
+                                schema.field_by_id(field.id).is_none_or(|now| {
+                                    now.data_type() != field.data_type()
+                                })
+                            })
+                            .map(|field| field.id)
+                            .collect();
+                        if new_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|index| index.fields.iter().any(|field| gone.contains(field)))
+                        {
+                            return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
+                        }
+                    }
+                    // A merge can rewrite a column's data file in place (an
+                    // `alter_columns` cast). On a tagged table that is the
+                    // same case as the Update arm above: the withdrawal
+                    // follows the lineage. Which columns the merge rewrote is
+                    // read off the fragments as they were at our read version;
+                    // a fragment that did not exist then (a destination the
+                    // rewrite produced afterwards) shows an in-place rewrite
+                    // by a tombstoned field in its files, and is then treated
+                    // as rewritten in every indexed field.
+                    if let (Some(lineage), Some(live), Some(read_fragments)) = (
+                        self.current_lineage.as_ref(),
+                        self.current_live.as_ref(),
+                        self.read_fragments.as_ref(),
+                    ) {
+                        let mut rewrites = Transaction::rewritten_physical_columns(
+                            &other_transaction.operation,
+                            schema,
+                            read_fragments,
+                        );
+                        let read_ids: HashSet<u64> =
+                            read_fragments.iter().map(|fragment| fragment.id).collect();
+                        let every_indexed: Vec<u32> = new_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .flat_map(|index| index.fields.iter())
+                            .filter_map(|field| u32::try_from(*field).ok())
+                            .collect();
+                        rewrites.extend(
+                            fragments
+                                .iter()
+                                .filter(|fragment| !read_ids.contains(&fragment.id))
+                                .filter(|fragment| {
+                                    fragment.files.iter().any(|file| {
+                                        file.fields.iter().any(|field| {
+                                            *field
+                                                == lance_table::format::overlay::TOMBSTONE_FIELD_ID
+                                        })
+                                    })
+                                })
+                                .map(|fragment| (fragment.id, every_indexed.clone())),
+                        );
+                        Transaction::withdraw_in_place_rewrites(
+                            new_indices,
+                            rewrites,
+                            schema,
+                            live,
+                            Some(lineage),
+                        );
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }
                 Operation::ReserveFragments { .. } => Ok(()),
                 Operation::Project { .. } => Ok(()),
                 // Should be compatible with rewrite if it didn't move the rows
@@ -600,103 +1239,182 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                     frag_reuse_index,
                     ..
                 } => {
-                    // if frag_reuse_index is available, index remapping is deferred and
+                    // A tagged trim carries no state worth defending: the
+                    // rewrite's appended records live in the CURRENT manifest
+                    // entry (whether or not this process can see the in-memory
+                    // reuse update here), and `finish_create_index`
+                    // re-derives the whole trim against that entry, so the
+                    // concurrently appended transition is retained naturally.
+                    if self_is_tagged_trim {
+                        return Ok(());
+                    }
+                    // if a reuse update is present, index remapping is deferred and
                     // there is no conflict with concurrent CreateIndex of column indices.
-                    // The only case that needs rebasing is when the frag_reuse_index cleanup
-                    // triggers a CreateIndex, and it needs to add the new reuse
-                    // version created by the rewrite
-                    if let Some(committed_fri) = frag_reuse_index {
-                        if new_indices
+                    // A frag_reuse_index cleanup is checked against the latest entry in
+                    // `finish_create_index`. A tagged entry (an in-process rewrite on a
+                    // tagged history) takes the durable-evidence path below instead.
+                    if frag_reuse_index
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .is_some_and(|entry| !is_tagged(entry))
+                    {
+                        let ngram_coverage = new_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .filter(|idx| {
+                                idx.index_details.as_ref().is_some_and(|details| {
+                                    details.type_url.ends_with("NGramIndexDetails")
+                                })
+                            })
+                            .filter_map(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+                            .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |coverage, fragments| {
+                                coverage | fragments
+                            });
+                        if groups
+                            .iter()
+                            .flat_map(|group| group.old_fragments.iter())
+                            .any(|fragment| ngram_coverage.contains(fragment.id as u32))
+                        {
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
+                        }
+
+                        if new_indices
                             .iter()
                             .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
                         {
                             // this should not happen today since we don't support committing
                             // a mixture of frag_reuse_index and other indices.
                             if new_indices.len() != 1 || removed_indices.len() != 1 {
-                                return Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
+                                return Err(self
+                                    .incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                             }
-
-                            self.conflicting_frag_reuse_indices
-                                .push(committed_fri.clone());
-                            Ok(())
-                        } else {
-                            Ok(())
                         }
+                        Ok(())
                     } else {
-                        let mut affected_ids = HashSet::new();
+                        // `frag_reuse_index` is in-memory only: a committed
+                        // rewrite read back from its transaction file always
+                        // shows `None` here. On a tagged table the manifest's entry
+                        // is the durable evidence: a rewrite whose sources
+                        // are all on the recorded lineage appended a
+                        // transition (a bare rewrite is only admitted for
+                        // fragments no index, the entry included, covers), so
+                        // it deferred remapping exactly like a v0 rewrite
+                        // carrying an entry: our segment lands with its
+                        // provenance and translates at query time. The
+                        // deferred rules apply per group: a logical index (its
+                        // same-name segments together) covering only some of a
+                        // group's sources lands with that provenance and claims
+                        // nothing for the group, and an NGram
+                        // segment must be rebuilt (its committed-segment
+                        // check refuses retired coverage). A group off the
+                        // lineage (untagged table, trimmed entry, bare
+                        // rewrite) keeps the eager rule: any overlap retries.
+                        // Same-name segments are one logical index: the reader
+                        // derives a transition's coverage from what they hold
+                        // together, so a group's sources may be split across
+                        // them (one staged segment per fragment).
+                        let mut union_by_name: HashMap<&str, RoaringBitmap> = HashMap::new();
                         for index in new_indices.iter() {
-                            if let Some(frag_bitmap) = &index.fragment_bitmap {
-                                affected_ids.extend(frag_bitmap.iter());
-                            } else {
-                                return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
-                            }
+                            let Some(bitmap) = &index.fragment_bitmap else {
+                                return Err(
+                                    self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                                );
+                            };
+                            *union_by_name.entry(index.name.as_str()).or_default() |= bitmap;
                         }
-
-                        if groups
-                            .iter()
-                            .flat_map(|f| f.old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id))
-                            .any(|id| affected_ids.contains(&(id as u32)))
-                        {
-                            Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                other_transaction,
-                                other_version,
-                                location!(),
-                            ))
-                        } else {
-                            Ok(())
+                        for group in groups {
+                            let sources: Vec<u32> =
+                                group.old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+                            let recorded = self.current_lineage.as_ref().is_some_and(|lineage| {
+                                sources.iter().all(|id| lineage.contains(*id))
+                            });
+                            for index in new_indices.iter() {
+                                let union = &union_by_name[index.name.as_str()];
+                                let covered = sources.iter().filter(|id| union.contains(**id)).count();
+                                if covered == 0 {
+                                    continue;
+                                }
+                                let is_ngram = index.index_details.as_ref().is_some_and(|details| {
+                                    details.type_url.ends_with("NGramIndexDetails")
+                                });
+                                // Partial coverage of a recorded group is not a
+                                // conflict: the segment keeps its provenance and
+                                // the reader claims nothing for that transition
+                                // (those rows are scanned), which a later
+                                // optimize repairs. A covered fragment the
+                                // history does not record (a bare rewrite), or
+                                // an NGram segment, needs the rebuild.
+                                if !recorded || is_ngram {
+                                    return Err(
+                                        self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                                    );
+                                }
+                            }
                         }
+                        Ok(())
                     }
                 }
                 Operation::UpdateConfig { .. } => Ok(()),
                 Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => {
-                    // A data replacement only conflicts if it is updating the field that
-                    // is being indexed.
-                    let newly_indexed_fields = new_indices
+                    // A data replacement only conflicts if it is updating a field the
+                    // index depends on -- whether keyed on or merely carried, since
+                    // `fields` lists both (see `IndexMetadata::covering_fields`).
+                    // On a tagged table the replaced column's coverage is
+                    // withdrawn along the lineage instead, like the Update arm.
+                    if let (Some(lineage), Some(live), Some(schema)) = (
+                        self.current_lineage.as_ref(),
+                        self.current_live.as_ref(),
+                        self.current_schema.as_ref(),
+                    ) {
+                        let rewrites = Transaction::rewritten_physical_columns(
+                            &other_transaction.operation,
+                            schema,
+                            &[],
+                        );
+                        Transaction::withdraw_in_place_rewrites(
+                            new_indices,
+                            rewrites,
+                            schema,
+                            live,
+                            Some(lineage),
+                        );
+                        return Ok(());
+                    }
+                    let newly_depended_fields = new_indices
                         .iter()
                         .flat_map(|idx| idx.fields.iter())
                         .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
                     for replacement in replacements {
-                        for field in &replacement.1.fields {
-                            if newly_indexed_fields.contains(&field) {
-                                return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
+                        for field in replacement.1.fields.iter() {
+                            if newly_depended_fields.contains(&field) {
+                                return Err(
+                                    self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                                );
                             }
                         }
                     }
                     Ok(())
                 }
                 Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                    merged_generations: other_merged_gens,
+                    compacted_sstables: other_compacted_sstables,
+                    ..
                 } => {
                     // CreateIndex of MemWalIndex is compatible with UpdateMemWalState
                     // as they can be rebased on each other
                     if new_indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME) {
-                        // Collect merged_generations from UpdateMemWalState for rebasing
-                        self.conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens
-                            .extend(other_merged_gens.iter().cloned());
+                        // Collect compacted_sstables from UpdateMemWalState for rebasing
+                        self.conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables
+                            .extend(other_compacted_sstables.iter().cloned());
                         Ok(())
                     } else {
-                        Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     }
                 }
-                Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::Restore { .. } => Err(
-                    self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!())
-                ),
+                Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::Restore { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
+                // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+                Operation::Unknown { .. } => Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)),
             }
         } else {
             Err(wrong_operation_err(&self.transaction.operation))
@@ -740,40 +1458,78 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         .chain(deleted_fragment_ids.iter().copied())
                         .any(|id| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(&id))
                     {
-                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
                 }
-                Operation::Rewrite {
-                    groups,
-                    frag_reuse_index: committed_fri,
-                    ..
-                } => {
+                Operation::DataOverlay { groups } => {
+                    // Rewriting a fragment changes its physical row addresses, so
+                    // an overlay addressed by physical offset on that fragment is
+                    // invalidated and must be re-applied against the new base.
+                    if groups
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|g| g.fragment_id)
+                        .any(|id| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(&id))
+                    {
+                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                    } else {
+                        Ok(())
+                    }
+                }
+                Operation::Rewrite { groups, .. } => {
+                    // Double consumption: the committed rewrite replaced
+                    // fragments our tagged transitions read from or produce,
+                    // so appending our transitions would record row movement
+                    // out of (or into) fragments that no longer exist. Retry
+                    // rebuilds the transitions against the surviving
+                    // fragments. The committed groups are serialized in the
+                    // transaction file, so this rule is live across
+                    // processes. Disjoint committed rewrites fall through to
+                    // rebase: `finish_rewrite` re-assembles onto the current
+                    // manifest entry (picking up a v0 compaction's legacy
+                    // version or a tagged compaction's transition), and its
+                    // manifest-diff check turns a concurrent stable-partition
+                    // append into a retryable conflict.
+                    if let Some(transitions) = self.reuse.added_transitions.as_ref() {
+                        let touched: HashSet<u64> = transitions
+                            .iter()
+                            .flat_map(|transition| {
+                                transition
+                                    .sources
+                                    .iter()
+                                    .chain(transition.destinations.iter())
+                                    .map(|digest| digest.id)
+                            })
+                            .collect();
+                        if groups
+                            .iter()
+                            .flat_map(|group| group.old_fragments.iter().map(|frag| frag.id))
+                            .any(|id| touched.contains(&id))
+                        {
+                            // Not retryable: the same intent can never
+                            // succeed once its fragments are consumed, so a
+                            // retry loop only wastes attempts. The caller
+                            // must rebuild the transitions (and their row
+                            // maps) against the new dataset state.
+                            return Err(Error::incompatible_transaction_source(
+                                format!(
+                                    "A concurrent {} at version {} consumed fragments this \
+                                     rewrite's transitions read from or produce; this rewrite \
+                                     can never succeed as committed. Rebuild the transitions \
+                                     against the new dataset state.",
+                                    other_transaction.operation, other_version
+                                )
+                                .into(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    }
                     if groups
                         .iter()
                         .flat_map(|f| f.old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id))
                         .any(|id| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(&id))
                     {
-                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
-                    } else if committed_fri.is_some() && frag_reuse_index.is_some() {
-                        // Do not commit concurrent rewrites that could produce conflicting frag_reuse_indexes.
-                        // The other rewrite must retry.
-                        // TODO: could potentially rebase to combine both frag_reuse_indexes,
-                        //   but today it is already rare to run concurrent rewrites.
-                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
@@ -784,11 +1540,8 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         for group in groups {
                             for old_fragment in &group.old_fragments {
                                 if replacement.0 == old_fragment.id {
-                                    return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                        other_transaction,
-                                        other_version,
-                                        location!(),
-                                    ));
+                                    return Err(self
+                                        .retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                                 }
                             }
                         }
@@ -796,67 +1549,119 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                     Ok(())
                 }
                 Operation::Merge { .. } => {
-                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                 }
                 Operation::CreateIndex {
                     new_indices,
                     removed_indices,
                     ..
                 } => {
+                    // A stable-partition rewrite defers index remapping the
+                    // same way a v0 rewrite carrying a frag_reuse_index does:
+                    // the retired source ids stay in the index bitmaps as
+                    // provenance and the tagged entry records the row-level
+                    // translation, so it takes the deferred-remap branches
+                    // below.
+                    let defers_remap = frag_reuse_index.is_some();
                     match (
                         new_indices
                             .iter()
                             .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME),
-                        &frag_reuse_index,
+                        defers_remap,
                     ) {
-                        // If the rewrite produces a frag_reuse_index, but frag_reuse_index was cleaned up
-                        // in the other transaction, the frag_reuse_index produced by the rewrite should
-                        // be cleaned up in the same way as a part of the rebase.
-                        (Some(committed_fri), Some(_)) => {
-                            // this should not happen today since we don't support committing
-                            // a mixture of frag_reuse_index and other indices.
+                        // The other transaction replaced the FRI entry (a v0
+                        // cleanup trim); `finish_rewrite` works from the
+                        // CURRENT manifest entry every attempt.
+                        (Some(_), true) => {
+                            // An FRI replacement commits alone. A CreateIndex
+                            // mixing it with user indices is a shape this
+                            // resolver does not reason about (the user-index
+                            // straddle check below never runs for it), so
+                            // refuse it instead of guessing.
                             if new_indices.len() != 1 || removed_indices.len() != 1 {
-                                return Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
+                                return Err(self
+                                    .incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
+                            }
+                            Ok(())
+                        }
+                        // If rewrite defers index remap, the FRI handles the
+                        // post-commit bitmap update — but only if each rewrite
+                        // group is fully inside or fully outside each new
+                        // index's fragment bitmap. A group that straddles
+                        // would produce a bitmap with a mix of indexed and
+                        // non-indexed fragments, which load_indices rejects.
+                        (None, true) => {
+                            // The compaction planned before this index existed, so
+                            // its own guard could not see it. Refuse the pair here.
+                            //
+                            // This should be relatively rare as we are moving indexes
+                            // away from row ids
+                            //
+                            // `old_fragments` come from the dataset's manifest at the
+                            // rewrite's read version (never freshly constructed, where
+                            // `row_id_meta` would default to `None` regardless of the
+                            // feature flag), so `row_id_meta.is_some()` is equivalent to
+                            // the manifest's stable-row-ids flag being set. This is an
+                            // inference from fragment metadata rather than reading the
+                            // flag directly, and would silently stop detecting the
+                            // conflict below if that equivalence ever broke.
+                            let uses_stable_row_ids = groups
+                                .iter()
+                                .flat_map(|g| &g.old_fragments)
+                                .any(|f| f.row_id_meta.is_some());
+                            if uses_stable_row_ids
+                                && new_indices.iter().any(corrupted_by_frag_reuse)
+                            {
+                                return Err(
+                                    self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                                );
+                            }
+                            for index in new_indices {
+                                let Some(frag_bitmap) = &index.fragment_bitmap else {
+                                    return Err(self
+                                        .retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
+                                };
+                                for group in groups {
+                                    let mut indexed = 0usize;
+                                    let mut unindexed = 0usize;
+                                    for frag in &group.old_fragments {
+                                        if frag_bitmap.contains(frag.id as u32) {
+                                            indexed += 1;
+                                        } else {
+                                            unindexed += 1;
+                                        }
+                                    }
+                                    if indexed > 0 && unindexed > 0 {
+                                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
+                                            other_transaction,
+                                            other_version,
+                                        ));
+                                    }
+                                }
                             }
-
-                            self.conflicting_frag_reuse_indices
-                                .push(committed_fri.clone());
                             Ok(())
                         }
-                        // If rewrite defers index remap,
-                        // then it does not conflict with index creation
-                        (None, Some(_)) => Ok(()),
                         // Rewrite with remapping and frag_reuse_index creation can commit without conflict
-                        (Some(_), None) => {
+                        (Some(_), false) => {
                             // this should not happen today since we don't support committing
                             // a mixture of frag_reuse_index and other indices.
                             if new_indices.len() != 1 || removed_indices.len() != 1 {
-                                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ))
+                                Err(self
+                                    .incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                             } else {
                                 Ok(())
                             }
                         }
                         // Rewrite with remapping will conflict with
                         // index creation that touches overlapping fragments.
-                        (_, None) => {
+                        (_, false) => {
                             let mut affected_ids = HashSet::new();
                             for index in new_indices {
                                 if let Some(frag_bitmap) = &index.fragment_bitmap {
                                     affected_ids.extend(frag_bitmap.iter());
                                 } else {
-                                    return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                        other_transaction,
-                                        other_version,
-                                        location!(),
-                                    ));
+                                    return Err(self
+                                        .retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                                 }
                             }
                             if groups
@@ -864,20 +1669,20 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                                 .flat_map(|f| f.old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id))
                                 .any(|id| affected_ids.contains(&(id as u32)))
                             {
-                                Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ))
+                                Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                             } else {
                                 Ok(())
                             }
                         }
                     }
                 }
-                Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::Restore { .. } => Err(
-                    self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!())
-                ),
+                Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::Restore { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
+                // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+                Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
             }
         } else {
             Err(wrong_operation_err(&self.transaction.operation))
@@ -890,24 +1695,32 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
         other_version: u64,
     ) -> Result<()> {
         match &other_transaction.operation {
-            // Overwrite only conflicts with another operation modifying the same update config
-            Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. } => {
+            Operation::Overwrite { .. } => {
                 if self
                     .transaction
                     .operation
                     .upsert_key_conflict(&other_transaction.operation)
                 {
-                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                        other_transaction,
-                        other_version,
-                        location!(),
-                    ))
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                } else {
+                    // Concurrent overwrites are retryable so user can decide
+                    // if their overwrite should still proceed
+                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
+            }
+            Operation::UpdateConfig { .. } => {
+                if self
+                    .transaction
+                    .operation
+                    .upsert_key_conflict(&other_transaction.operation)
+                {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                 } else {
                     Ok(())
                 }
             }
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => {
-                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
             }
             Operation::Append { .. }
             | Operation::Clone { .. }
@@ -915,12 +1728,17 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             | Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
             | Operation::Rewrite { .. }
             | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+            | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
             | Operation::Merge { .. }
             | Operation::Restore { .. }
             | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
             | Operation::Update { .. }
             | Operation::Project { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(()),
+            // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -935,7 +1753,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             Operation::Overwrite { .. }
             | Operation::Restore { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => {
-                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
             }
             Operation::Append { .. }
             | Operation::Rewrite { .. }
@@ -948,7 +1766,12 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             | Operation::Merge { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
             | Operation::Clone { .. }
-            | Operation::DataReplacement { .. } => Ok(()),
+            | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+            | Operation::DataOverlay { .. } => Ok(()),
+            // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -961,33 +1784,111 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             match &other_transaction.operation {
                 Operation::Append { .. }
                 | Operation::Clone { .. }
-                | Operation::Delete { .. }
-                | Operation::Update { .. }
-                | Operation::Merge { .. }
                 | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
                 | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
-                | Operation::Project { .. }
+                // Both a column replacement and an overlay preserve physical row
+                // addresses; the overlay is newer and wins its covered cells.
+                | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
                 | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(()),
+                Operation::Project { schema, .. } => {
+                    // A project operation can drop fields.  If the project
+                    // dropped a field this operation was replacing then
+                    // we have a conflict.
+                    for replacement in replacements {
+                        for field in replacement.1.fields.iter() {
+                            if *field >= 0 && schema.field_by_id(*field).is_none() {
+                                return Err(self.data_replacement_field_removed_err(
+                                    *field,
+                                    replacement.0,
+                                    other_transaction,
+                                    other_version,
+                                ));
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+                Operation::Merge { .. } => {
+                    // Merge rewrites the whole fragment list; always conflict
+                    // (symmetric with check_merge_txn).
+                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
+                Operation::Delete {
+                    deleted_fragment_ids,
+                    ..
+                } => {
+                    // A delete only tombstones rows (deletion vector); our positional
+                    // file stays aligned and the rebase preserves the deletion vector.
+                    // Conflict only if our target fragment was removed outright.
+                    for replacement in replacements {
+                        if deleted_fragment_ids.contains(&replacement.0) {
+                            return Err(self.data_replacement_target_removed_err(
+                                replacement.0,
+                                other_transaction,
+                                other_version,
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+                Operation::Update {
+                    removed_fragment_ids,
+                    updated_fragments,
+                    new_fragments,
+                    fields_modified,
+                    update_mode,
+                    ..
+                } => {
+                    for replacement in replacements {
+                        if removed_fragment_ids.contains(&replacement.0) {
+                            return Err(self.data_replacement_target_removed_err(
+                                replacement.0,
+                                other_transaction,
+                                other_version,
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        if !updated_fragments.iter().any(|f| f.id == replacement.0) {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        // A row-rewriting update moves the matched rows out to
+                        // new_fragments our positional file does not cover; a horizontal
+                        // update may rewrite one of our fields in place. Either makes the
+                        // file stale. (RewriteColumns new_fragments are unrelated inserts,
+                        // not moved rows, so they stay aligned.)
+                        let moved_rows = !new_fragments.is_empty()
+                            && matches!(update_mode, Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows) | None);
+                        let field_rewritten = replacement
+                            .1
+                            .fields
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|f| *f >= 0 && fields_modified.contains(&(*f as u32)));
+                        if moved_rows || field_rewritten {
+                            return Err(
+                                self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok(())
+                }
                 Operation::CreateIndex { new_indices, .. } => {
-                    // A data replacement only conflicts if it is updating the field that
-                    // is being indexed.
+                    // A data replacement only conflicts if it is updating a field the
+                    // index depends on -- whether keyed on or merely carried, since
+                    // `fields` lists both (see `IndexMetadata::covering_fields`).
                     //
                     // TODO: We could potentially just drop the fragments being replaced from
                     // the index's fragment bitmap, which would lead to fewer conflicts.  However
                     // this would introduce fragment bitmaps with holes which may not be well tested
                     // yet.  For now, we don't allow this case.
-                    let newly_indexed_fields = new_indices
+                    let newly_depended_fields = new_indices
                         .iter()
                         .flat_map(|idx| idx.fields.iter())
                         .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
                     for replacement in replacements {
-                        for field in &replacement.1.fields {
-                            if newly_indexed_fields.contains(&field) {
-                                return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
+                        for field in replacement.1.fields.iter() {
+                            if newly_depended_fields.contains(&field) {
+                                return Err(
+                                    self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                                );
                             }
                         }
                     }
@@ -999,11 +1900,8 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         for group in groups {
                             for old_fragment in &group.old_fragments {
                                 if replacement.0 == old_fragment.id {
-                                    return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                        other_transaction,
-                                        other_version,
-                                        location!(),
-                                    ));
+                                    return Err(self
+                                        .retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                                 }
                             }
                         }
@@ -1021,13 +1919,10 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                                 continue;
                             }
 
-                            for field in &replacement.1.fields {
+                            for field in replacement.1.fields.iter() {
                                 if other_replacement.1.fields.contains(field) {
-                                    return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                                        other_transaction,
-                                        other_version,
-                                        location!(),
-                                    ));
+                                    return Err(self
+                                        .retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                                 }
                             }
                         }
@@ -1036,25 +1931,149 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                 }
                 Operation::Overwrite { .. }
                 | Operation::Restore { .. }
-                | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                    other_transaction,
-                    other_version,
-                    location!(),
-                )),
+                | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
+                // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+                Operation::Unknown { .. } => Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)),
             }
         } else {
             Err(wrong_operation_err(&self.transaction.operation))
         }
     }
 
-    fn check_merge_txn(
+    /// Conflict checks for our DataOverlay transaction against a concurrent one.
+    ///
+    /// Overlays are intentionally permissive (see the Data Overlay Files spec):
+    /// they stack with other overlays and tolerate appends, index builds, data
+    /// replacement, deletes, and in-place column rewrites (Update with
+    /// `RewriteColumns`), because overlay coverage is addressed by physical offset
+    /// and the version gate keeps indexes correct. A concurrent operation
+    /// conflicts when it takes precedence over the overlay for cells the overlay
+    /// covers, dropping the overlay's values: retryably when it rewrites the
+    /// physical layout of one of our fragments (Rewrite, Merge) or re-creates the
+    /// covered rows from the pre-overlay base (a row-moving Update — checked
+    /// row-by-row in `finish_data_overlay`), or removes an overlaid fragment
+    /// outright (a Delete / Update that drops the fragment); and incompatibly for
+    /// whole-dataset replacements (Overwrite / Restore) and MemWAL state updates
+    /// (UpdateMemWalState), which do not rebase against data operations.
+    fn check_data_overlay_txn(
         &mut self,
         other_transaction: &Transaction,
         other_version: u64,
     ) -> Result<()> {
         match &other_transaction.operation {
-            Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
+            Operation::Append { .. }
+            | Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
             | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
+            | Operation::Project { .. }
+            | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
+            | Operation::UpdateBases { .. }
+            | Operation::Clone { .. }
+            | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+            | Operation::DataOverlay { .. } => Ok(()),
+            // A concurrent Delete only tombstones rows via a deletion vector,
+            // which preserves physical offsets; the overlay value for a deleted
+            // offset is simply inert. Conflict only if the whole overlaid
+            // fragment was removed, orphaning the overlay.
+            Operation::Delete {
+                deleted_fragment_ids,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                if deleted_fragment_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|id| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(id))
+                {
+                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+            }
+            // A concurrent Update that removed an overlaid fragment orphans the
+            // overlay outright — conflict. A row-moving update (RewriteRows)
+            // deletes the rows it touches and re-creates them in new fragments;
+            // the update took precedence and the re-created rows were computed
+            // from the pre-overlay base, so the overlay's values for those cells
+            // are lost. That is a per-row problem, not an offset one: only the
+            // moved rows are affected. Comparing the moved rows against the
+            // overlay's coverage needs the update's deletion vectors, so we mark
+            // the fragment here and verify row-by-row in `finish_data_overlay`.
+            // An in-place column rewrite (RewriteColumns) preserves rows and just
+            // tombstones the overlaid fields at build time, so it never conflicts.
+            Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids,
+                updated_fragments,
+                new_fragments,
+                update_mode,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let removed_ours = removed_fragment_ids
+                    .iter()
+                    .any(|id| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(id));
+                if removed_ours {
+                    return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
+                }
+                let moves_rows = !new_fragments.is_empty()
+                    && matches!(update_mode, Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows) | None);
+                if moves_rows {
+                    for updated in updated_fragments {
+                        if let Some((_, needs_row_check)) =
+                            self.initial_fragments.get_mut(&updated.id)
+                        {
+                            *needs_row_check = true;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            Operation::Rewrite { groups, .. } => {
+                // A rewrite (compaction / fold) of a fragment we are overlaying
+                // changes its physical row addresses, so our offsets would be
+                // invalid. Conflict only if it touches one of our fragments.
+                let touches_our_fragment = groups
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|g| g.old_fragments.iter())
+                    .any(|f| self.modified_fragment_ids.contains(&f.id));
+                if touches_our_fragment {
+                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+            }
+            Operation::Merge { .. } => {
+                // Merge rewrites the whole fragment list; always conflict.
+                Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
+            // Overwrite/Restore replace the dataset; UpdateMemWalState does not
+            // rebase against data operations (mirroring check_update_mem_wal_state_txn,
+            // which likewise treats a concurrent DataOverlay as incompatible).
+            Operation::Overwrite { .. }
+            | Operation::Restore { .. }
+            | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => {
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
+            // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn check_merge_txn(
+        &mut self,
+        other_transaction: &Transaction,
+        other_version: u64,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        match &other_transaction.operation {
+            // See the MemWAL exception in check_create_index_txn.
+            Operation::CreateIndex { new_indices, .. } => {
+                if new_indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME) {
+                    Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                } else {
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+            }
+            Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
             | Operation::Clone { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(()),
@@ -1064,14 +2083,19 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             | Operation::Delete { .. }
             | Operation::Rewrite { .. }
             | Operation::Merge { .. }
-            | Operation::DataReplacement { .. } => {
-                Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+            | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+            | Operation::DataOverlay { .. } => {
+                Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
             }
             Operation::Overwrite { .. }
             | Operation::Restore { .. }
             | Operation::Project { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => {
-                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
+            // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
             }
         }
     }
@@ -1088,6 +2112,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             | Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
             | Operation::Rewrite { .. }
             | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+            | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
             | Operation::Merge { .. }
             | Operation::Restore { .. }
             | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
@@ -1097,7 +2122,11 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             | Operation::Clone { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. } => Ok(()),
             Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => {
-                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
+            // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
             }
         }
     }
@@ -1109,13 +2138,14 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
     ) -> Result<()> {
         match &other_transaction.operation {
             Operation::Overwrite { .. } | Operation::Restore { .. } => {
-                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
             }
             Operation::Append { .. }
             | Operation::Delete { .. }
             | Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
             | Operation::Rewrite { .. }
             | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+            | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
             | Operation::Merge { .. }
             | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
             | Operation::Update { .. }
@@ -1124,6 +2154,10 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(()),
+            // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -1140,18 +2174,23 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
             | Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
             | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+            | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
             | Operation::Rewrite { .. }
             | Operation::Clone { .. }
             | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(()),
             Operation::Merge { .. } | Operation::Project { .. } => {
                 // Need to recompute the schema
-                Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
             }
             Operation::Overwrite { .. }
             | Operation::Restore { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => {
-                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version, location!()))
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+            }
+            // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
             }
         }
     }
@@ -1178,11 +2217,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                             .operation
                             .upsert_key_conflict(&other_transaction.operation)
                     {
-                        Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
@@ -1192,16 +2227,12 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         .transaction
                         .operation
                         .upsert_key_conflict(&other_transaction.operation)
-                        | self
+                        || self
                             .transaction
                             .operation
                             .modifies_same_metadata(&other_transaction.operation)
                     {
-                        Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ))
+                        Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
                     } else {
                         Ok(())
                     }
@@ -1212,6 +2243,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                 | Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
                 | Operation::Rewrite { .. }
                 | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+                | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
                 | Operation::Merge { .. }
                 | Operation::Restore { .. }
                 | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
@@ -1219,6 +2251,10 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                 | Operation::Project { .. }
                 | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. }
                 | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(()),
+                // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+                Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
             }
         } else {
             Err(wrong_operation_err(&self.transaction.operation))
@@ -1230,45 +2266,49 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
         other_transaction: &Transaction,
         other_version: u64,
     ) -> Result<()> {
+        // Activation rebases like any other MemWAL state update; its preconditions
+        // are re-checked against the rebased index list when the commit applies.
         if let Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-            merged_generations: self_merged_generations,
+            compacted_sstables: self_compacted_sstables,
+            ..
         } = &self.transaction.operation
         {
             match &other_transaction.operation {
                 Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                    merged_generations: other_merged_generations,
+                    compacted_sstables: other_compacted_sstables,
+                    ..
                 } => {
                     // Two UpdateMemWalState transactions conflict if they're updating
-                    // the same region's merged_generation
-                    self.check_merged_generations_conflict(
-                        other_merged_generations,
-                        self_merged_generations,
+                    // the same shard's compacted SSTable
+                    self.check_compacted_sstables_conflict(
+                        other_compacted_sstables,
+                        self_compacted_sstables,
                         other_transaction,
                         other_version,
                     )
                 }
                 Operation::Update {
-                    merged_generations: other_merged_generations,
+                    compacted_sstables: other_compacted_sstables,
                     ..
                 } => {
-                    // Update transactions with merged_generations can conflict
-                    self.check_merged_generations_conflict(
-                        other_merged_generations,
-                        self_merged_generations,
+                    // Update transactions with compacted_sstables can conflict
+                    self.check_compacted_sstables_conflict(
+                        other_compacted_sstables,
+                        self_compacted_sstables,
                         other_transaction,
                         other_version,
                     )
                 }
                 Operation::CreateIndex { new_indices, .. } => {
-                    // Check if CreateIndex has a MemWalIndex with merged_generations
+                    // Check if CreateIndex has a MemWalIndex with compacted_sstables
                     if let Some(mem_wal_idx) = new_indices
                         .iter()
                         .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
                     {
                         let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(mem_wal_idx.clone())?;
-                        self.check_merged_generations_conflict(
-                            &details.merged_generations,
-                            self_merged_generations,
+                        self.check_compacted_sstables_conflict(
+                            &details.compacted_sstables,
+                            self_compacted_sstables,
                             other_transaction,
                             other_version,
                         )
@@ -1284,14 +2324,17 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                 | Operation::Overwrite { .. }
                 | Operation::Delete { .. }
                 | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
+                | Operation::DataOverlay { .. }
                 | Operation::Merge { .. }
                 | Operation::Restore { .. }
                 | Operation::Clone { .. }
-                | Operation::Project { .. } => Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                    other_transaction,
-                    other_version,
-                    location!(),
-                )),
+                | Operation::Project { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
+                // An unrecognized operation may touch anything: assume it conflicts.
+                Operation::Unknown { .. } => {
+                    Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version))
+                }
             }
         } else {
             Err(wrong_operation_err(&self.transaction.operation))
@@ -1316,27 +2359,18 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                                 && committed_base.id != 0
                                 && new_base.id == committed_base.id
                             {
-                                return Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
+                                return Err(self
+                                    .incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                             }
                             // Check for name conflicts
                             if new_base.name == committed_base.name && new_base.name.is_some() {
-                                return Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
+                                return Err(self
+                                    .incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                             }
                             // Check for path conflicts
                             if new_base.path == committed_base.path {
-                                return Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                                    other_transaction,
-                                    other_version,
-                                    location!(),
-                                ));
+                                return Err(self
+                                    .incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                             }
                         }
                     }
@@ -1350,32 +2384,27 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
         }
     }
 
-    fn check_merged_generations_conflict(
+    fn check_compacted_sstables_conflict(
         &self,
-        committed: &[MergedGeneration],
-        to_commit: &[MergedGeneration],
+        committed: &[CompactedSsTable],
+        to_commit: &[CompactedSsTable],
         other_transaction: &Transaction,
         other_version: u64,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        // Check if any region has conflicting updates
+        // Check if any shard has conflicting updates
         for committed_mg in committed {
             for to_commit_mg in to_commit {
-                if committed_mg.region_id == to_commit_mg.region_id {
-                    // Same region being updated
-                    // If committed >= to_commit, data already merged or superseded - abort without retry
+                if committed_mg.shard_id == to_commit_mg.shard_id {
+                    // Same shard being updated
+                    // If committed >= to_commit, the SSTable is already compacted
+                    // or superseded, so abort without retry.
                     // If committed < to_commit, can retry with new state
                     if committed_mg.generation >= to_commit_mg.generation {
-                        return Err(self.incompatible_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        return Err(
+                            self.incompatible_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version)
+                        );
                     } else {
-                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(
-                            other_transaction,
-                            other_version,
-                            location!(),
-                        ));
+                        return Err(self.retryable_conflict_err(other_transaction, other_version));
                     }
                 }
             }
@@ -1385,12 +2414,33 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
 
     /// Writes
     pub async fn finish(self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Transaction> {
+        Ok(self.finish_with_tagged_rewrite(dataset).await?.0)
+    }
+
+    /// [`Self::finish`], also returning what a rewrite on a tagged fragment
+    /// reuse history assembled for this attempt: the complete entry merged
+    /// against `dataset`'s manifest, which the commit hands to the manifest
+    /// build as `FragReuseUpdate::Rewrite` on the prepared index list. The transaction
+    /// itself keeps the caller's entry, so the next attempt diffs the same
+    /// intent again instead of treating this assembly as its own.
+    pub async fn finish_with_tagged_rewrite(
+        self,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+    ) -> Result<(Transaction, Option<Arc<TaggedRewriteAssembly>>)> {
         match &self.transaction.operation {
-            Operation::Delete { .. } | Operation::Update { .. } => {
-                self.finish_delete_update(dataset).await
-            }
-            Operation::CreateIndex { .. } => self.finish_create_index(dataset).await,
             Operation::Rewrite { .. } => self.finish_rewrite(dataset).await,
+            _ => Ok((self.finish_other(dataset).await?, None)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn finish_other(self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Transaction> {
+        match &self.transaction.operation {
+            Operation::Delete { .. } | Operation::Update { .. } => {
+                self.finish_delete_update(dataset).await
+            }
+            Operation::CreateIndex { .. } => self.finish_create_index(dataset).await,
+            Operation::Rewrite { .. } => unreachable!("finish_with_tagged_rewrite handles Rewrite"),
+            Operation::DataOverlay { .. } => self.finish_data_overlay(dataset).await,
             Operation::Append { .. }
             | Operation::Overwrite { .. }
             | Operation::DataReplacement { .. }
@@ -1402,6 +2452,11 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
             | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. }
             | Operation::UpdateBases { .. } => Ok(self.transaction),
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => Err(Error::not_supported(format!(
+                "Transaction {} has an operation written by a newer version of Lance \
+                 and cannot be committed by this version",
+                self.transaction.uuid
+            ))),
         }
     }
 
@@ -1453,7 +2508,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         .await
                         .map(|dv| (fragment_id, dv))
                     })
-                    .buffered(dataset.object_store().io_parallelism())
+                    .buffered(dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_parallelism())
                     .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
                     .await?;
 
@@ -1470,17 +2525,13 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         .unwrap()
                         .take(5)
                         .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                    return Err(crate::Error::RetryableCommitConflict {
-                        version: dataset.manifest.version,
-                        source: format!(
-                            "This {} transaction was preempted by concurrent transaction {} (both modified rows at addresses {:?}). Please retry",
-                            self.transaction.uuid,
-                            dataset.manifest.version,
-                            sample_addressed.as_slice()
-                        )
-                            .into(),
-                        location: location!(),
-                    });
+                    return Err(crate::Error::retryable_commit_conflict_source(dataset.manifest.version, format!(
+                        "This {} transaction was preempted by concurrent transaction {} (both modified rows at addresses {:?}). Please retry",
+                        self.transaction.uuid,
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        sample_addressed.as_slice()
+                    )
+                        .into()));
                 }
 
                 let merged = existing_deletions.clone() | affected_rows.clone();
@@ -1502,11 +2553,10 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         .initial_fragments
                         .get(fragment_id)
                         .and_then(|(fragment, _)| fragment.physical_rows)
+                        && dv.len() == physical_rows
                     {
-                        if dv.len() == physical_rows {
-                            new_deleted_frag_ids.push(*fragment_id);
-                            continue;
-                        }
+                        new_deleted_frag_ids.push(*fragment_id);
+                        continue;
                     }
 
                     let new_deletion_file = write_deletion_file(
@@ -1514,7 +2564,7 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                         *fragment_id,
                         dataset.manifest.version,
                         &dv,
-                        dataset.object_store(),
+                        dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
                     )
                     .await?;
 
@@ -1560,10 +2610,9 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                 })
             } else {
                 // We shouldn't hit this.
-                Err(crate::Error::Internal {
-                    message: "We have a transaction that needs to be rebased, but we don't have any affected rows.".into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                })
+                Err(crate::Error::internal(
+                    "We have a transaction that needs to be rebased, but we don't have any affected rows.",
+                ))
             }
         } else {
             Ok(Transaction {
@@ -1573,87 +2622,224 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
         }
     }
 
-    async fn finish_create_index(mut self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Transaction> {
-        if let Operation::CreateIndex { new_indices, .. } = &mut self.transaction.operation {
-            // Handle FRAG_REUSE_INDEX rebasing
-            let has_frag_reuse = new_indices
+    /// Verify no concurrent row-moving Update dropped the values of any cell
+    /// this overlay covers. `check_data_overlay_txn` flags (via the
+    /// `initial_fragments` needs-check bool) each overlaid fragment on which a
+    /// concurrent RewriteRows update relocated rows; here we read the deletion
+    /// vectors and conflict only when the moved rows intersect the overlay's
+    /// coverage.
+    ///
+    /// The moved rows are computed as the current deletion vector minus the
+    /// read-time one. In the rare case where both a concurrent Delete and a
+    /// concurrent Update touched the same flagged fragment, the Delete's rows are
+    /// also counted and may trigger an unnecessary retry — never data loss. Pure
+    /// concurrent deletes leave the fragment unflagged and are not examined here.
+    async fn finish_data_overlay(self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Transaction> {
+        let fragments_to_check: HashSet<u64> = self
+            .initial_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|(id, (_, needs_check))| needs_check.then_some(*id))
+            .collect();
+        if fragments_to_check.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(Transaction {
+                read_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+                ..self.transaction
+            });
+        }
+
+        // Coverage (physical offsets, unioned across fields) per flagged fragment.
+        let Operation::DataOverlay { groups } = &self.transaction.operation else {
+            return Err(wrong_operation_err(&self.transaction.operation));
+        };
+        let mut coverage_by_fragment: HashMap<u64, RoaringBitmap> = HashMap::new();
+        for group in groups {
+            if !fragments_to_check.contains(&group.fragment_id) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            *coverage_by_fragment.entry(group.fragment_id).or_default() |=
+                overlay_group_coverage(group);
+        }
+
+        for (fragment_id, coverage) in coverage_by_fragment {
+            let Some(current_fragment) = dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .as_slice()
                 .iter()
-                .any(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
-
-            if has_frag_reuse && !self.conflicting_frag_reuse_indices.is_empty() {
-                // had at least 1 previous rewrite conflict
-                // get the max reuse version from each run to be added to the cleaned up index
-                let mut max_versions =
-                    Vec::with_capacity(self.conflicting_frag_reuse_indices.len());
-                for committed_fri in &self.conflicting_frag_reuse_indices {
-                    let committed_fri_details = Arc::try_unwrap(
-                        load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, committed_fri)
-                            .await
-                            .unwrap(),
+                .find(|f| f.id == fragment_id)
+            else {
+                // The fragment is gone entirely; the overlay is orphaned.
+                return Err(crate::Error::retryable_commit_conflict_source(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    format!(
+                        "This {} transaction was preempted: overlaid fragment {} was removed by a concurrent transaction. Please retry.",
+                        self.transaction.uuid, fragment_id
                     )
-                    .unwrap();
-                    let max_version = committed_fri_details
-                        .versions
-                        .into_iter()
-                        .max_by_key(|v| v.dataset_version)
-                        .unwrap();
-                    max_versions.push(max_version);
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            };
+            let current_deletions =
+                read_fragment_deletion_bitmap(dataset, current_fragment).await?;
+            let initial_deletions = match self.initial_fragments.get(&fragment_id) {
+                Some((initial_fragment, _)) => {
+                    read_fragment_deletion_bitmap(dataset, initial_fragment).await?
                 }
+                None => RoaringBitmap::new(),
+            };
+            let moved_rows = &current_deletions - &initial_deletions;
+            let conflicting = &moved_rows & &coverage;
+            if !conflicting.is_empty() {
+                let sample: Vec<u32> = conflicting.iter().take(5).collect();
+                return Err(crate::Error::retryable_commit_conflict_source(
+                    dataset.manifest.version,
+                    format!(
+                        "This {} transaction was preempted by a concurrent update that moved overlaid rows on fragment {} (offsets {:?}). Please retry.",
+                        self.transaction.uuid, fragment_id, sample.as_slice()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
 
-                // there should be only 1 frag_reuse_index in new indices
-                let new_fri = &new_indices[0];
-                let mut new_fri_details = Arc::try_unwrap(
-                    load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, new_fri)
-                        .await
-                        .unwrap(),
-                )
-                .unwrap();
-                new_fri_details.versions.extend(max_versions);
+        Ok(Transaction {
+            read_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            ..self.transaction
+        })
+    }
 
-                let new_frag_bitmap = new_fri_details.new_frag_bitmap();
+    async fn finish_create_index(mut self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Transaction> {
+        // Computed before the operation is borrowed mutably below.
+        let self_is_superseded_prune = is_superseded_prune_transaction(&self.transaction);
+        if let Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices,
+            removed_indices,
+            ..
+        } = &mut self.transaction.operation
+        {
+            // A tagged trim is re-derived against the CURRENT entry whenever
+            // this attempt builds on a version newer than the one it read,
+            // mirroring the stable-partition rewrite's assemble-at-attempt:
+            // a concurrent append's records are re-filtered in, a concurrent
+            // trim's result is re-trimmed instead of spliced over. When
+            // nothing is left to trim after the rebase (a concurrent commit,
+            // such as an index catching up mid-trim, already satisfied it),
+            // the attempt aborts with a marker conflict instead of writing an
+            // empty no-op version; `cleanup_frag_reuse_index` treats exactly
+            // that conflict as success.
+            if is_tagged_trim_operation(new_indices, removed_indices)
+                && dataset.manifest.version != self.transaction.read_version
+            {
+                match derive_tagged_trim(dataset).await? {
+                    TaggedTrimOutcome::NothingToTrim => {
+                        return Err(Error::retryable_commit_conflict_source(
+                            dataset.manifest.version,
+                            crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::TAGGED_TRIM_REBASED_TO_NOOP.into(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    TaggedTrimOutcome::Replace {
+                        new_entry,
+                        current_entry,
+                    } => {
+                        *new_indices = vec![new_entry];
+                        *removed_indices = vec![current_entry];
+                    }
+                    TaggedTrimOutcome::Delete { current_entry } => {
+                        new_indices.clear();
+                        *removed_indices = vec![current_entry];
+                    }
+                }
+                return Ok(self.transaction);
+            }
 
-                let new_frag_reuse_index_meta = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
-                    dataset,
-                    Some(new_fri),
-                    new_fri_details,
-                    new_frag_bitmap,
-                )
-                .await?;
+            // A superseded-segment prune's removal of a segment is justified
+            // by the coverage of kept same-name siblings, and a concurrent
+            // commit can withdraw exactly that justification without touching
+            // any segment in the removal set (e.g. a remap swap replacing a
+            // kept sibling with a narrower-coverage one), so no conflict
+            // predicate fires. Re-committing the original removal set after
+            // such a rebase would silently drop index coverage. Mirror the
+            // tagged trim: whenever this attempt builds on a version newer
+            // than the one it read, re-derive the removal set wholesale
+            // against the current manifest, and when nothing is superseded
+            // anymore abort with a marker conflict instead of writing an
+            // empty no-op version; `prune_superseded_segments` treats exactly
+            // that conflict as success.
+            if self_is_superseded_prune && dataset.manifest.version != self.transaction.read_version
+            {
+                let rederived = derive_superseded_segments(dataset).await?;
+                if rederived.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(Error::retryable_commit_conflict_source(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::SUPERSEDED_PRUNE_REBASED_TO_NOOP.into(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                *removed_indices = rederived;
+                return Ok(self.transaction);
+            }
 
-                new_indices.retain(|idx| idx.name != FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME);
-                new_indices.push(new_frag_reuse_index_meta);
+            if let Some(base) = self.frag_reuse_base.take() {
+                let current = stored_frag_reuse_entry(dataset).await?;
+                // A tagged history is refused by the commit gate instead.
+                if !current.as_ref().is_some_and(is_tagged) && !base.is_current(current.as_ref()) {
+                    return Err(base.changed_err(
+                        &self.transaction.operation,
+                        current.as_ref(),
+                        dataset,
+                        "Run the cleanup again on the latest version.",
+                    ));
+                }
             }
 
             // Handle MEM_WAL_INDEX rebasing
             let has_mem_wal = new_indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME);
 
-            if has_mem_wal && !self.conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens.is_empty() {
+            if has_mem_wal && !self.conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables.is_empty() {
                 let pos = new_indices
                     .iter()
                     .position(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
                     .unwrap();
 
-                let current_meta = new_indices.remove(pos);
-                let mut details = load_mem_wal_index_details(current_meta)?;
+                let mut details = load_mem_wal_index_details(new_indices[pos].clone())?;
 
-                // Merge conflicting merged_generations - for each region, keep higher generation
-                // We own self so we can consume conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens directly
-                for new_mg in self.conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens {
+                // Reconcile conflicting compacted_sstables by keeping each shard's higher
+                // generation. Both sides are already-committed facts here, so the higher one
+                // is correct; rejecting a stale proposal is the job of apply-time validation
+                // against the latest state, which runs after this rebase.
+                // We own self so we can consume conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables directly
+                for new_sstable in self.conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables {
                     if let Some(existing) = details
-                        .merged_generations
+                        .compacted_sstables
                         .iter_mut()
-                        .find(|mg| mg.region_id == new_mg.region_id)
+                        .find(|sstable| sstable.shard_id == new_sstable.shard_id)
                     {
-                        if new_mg.generation > existing.generation {
-                            existing.generation = new_mg.generation;
+                        if new_sstable.generation > existing.generation {
+                            existing.generation = new_sstable.generation;
                         }
                     } else {
-                        details.merged_generations.push(new_mg);
+                        details.compacted_sstables.push(new_sstable);
                     }
                 }
 
-                let new_meta = new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset.manifest.version, details)?;
-                new_indices.push(new_meta);
+                // Replaced in place so the index list keeps its order.
+                new_indices[pos] = new_mem_wal_index_meta(dataset.manifest.version, details)?;
+            }
+
+            for singleton_name in [FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME] {
+                if new_indices.iter().any(|idx| idx.name == singleton_name) {
+                    for existing_idx in dataset
+                        .load_indices()
+                        .await?
+                        .iter()
+                        .filter(|idx| idx.name == singleton_name)
+                        .cloned()
+                    {
+                        if !removed_indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .any(|removed_idx| removed_idx.uuid == existing_idx.uuid)
+                        {
+                            removed_indices.push(existing_idx);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
             }
 
             Ok(self.transaction)
@@ -1662,66 +2848,183 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
         }
     }
 
-    async fn finish_rewrite(mut self, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Transaction> {
+    async fn finish_rewrite(
+        mut self,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+    ) -> Result<(Transaction, Option<Arc<TaggedRewriteAssembly>>)> {
         if let Operation::Rewrite {
-            frag_reuse_index, ..
+            groups,
+            frag_reuse_index,
+            ..
         } = &mut self.transaction.operation
         {
-            if let Some(new_fri) = frag_reuse_index {
-                if self.conflicting_frag_reuse_indices.is_empty() {
-                    return Ok(self.transaction);
+            let Some(proposed) = frag_reuse_index else {
+                return Ok((self.transaction, None));
+            };
+            // A compaction that shaped itself for a v0 table can lose the
+            // race to a concurrent commit that made the table tagged (a
+            // stable-partition lift, or a tagged compaction). The two record
+            // forms are informationally equivalent -- a legacy reuse group
+            // is exactly an ordered-compaction transition, with the same
+            // digest ordering and changed_row_addrs semantics -- so instead
+            // of dying at the tagged gate, the retry CONVERTS: the legacy
+            // versions this transaction's entry adds relative to the entry
+            // at its read version become ordered-compaction transitions
+            // handed to the tagged assembly below, which appends onto the
+            // CURRENT entry with full revalidation and a refreshed base
+            // version. The stale versions the v0 entry carried are not
+            // re-spliced: the current entry is the authoritative history,
+            // concurrent trims included. The conversion keys on
+            // `uses_tagged_fri` -- the sticky FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX or a
+            // tagged current entry -- so it still fires when a concurrent
+            // trim deleted a fully drained tagged entry: the flag survives
+            // the trim and remains the final authority, and the assembly
+            // then restarts the history tagged. A genuine v0 table never
+            // enters this branch (neither flag nor tagged entry exists
+            // there), keeping pure v0 behavior untouched; writers predating
+            // tagged support are fenced off by the writer feature flag
+            // before this point.
+            if self.reuse.added_transitions.is_none() && proposed.index_version == 0 {
+                let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await?;
+                let current_uses_tagged =
+                    lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::metadata::uses_tagged_fri(
+                        &dataset.manifest,
+                        stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME),
+                    );
+                if current_uses_tagged {
+                    let base = match self.reuse.read_entry.as_ref() {
+                        Some(entry) => load_frag_reuse_records(dataset, entry).await?,
+                        None => InlineContent::default(),
+                    };
+                    let added = records_added_since(
+                        &base,
+                        &load_frag_reuse_records(dataset, proposed).await?,
+                    )?;
+                    if !added.transitions.is_empty() {
+                        return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                            "a v0 fragment reuse entry cannot carry tagged transitions",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    if added.legacy_versions.is_empty() {
+                        return Err(Error::internal(
+                            "a rewrite carrying a fragment reuse entry appended no reuse version"
+                                .to_string(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    self.reuse.added_transitions = Some(
+                        added
+                            .legacy_versions
+                            .iter()
+                            .flat_map(legacy_version_transitions)
+                            .collect(),
+                    );
                 }
+            }
 
-                let mut new_fri_details = Arc::try_unwrap(
-                    load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, new_fri)
-                        .await
-                        .unwrap(),
-                )
-                .unwrap();
-                let mut min_dataset_version = new_fri_details
-                    .versions
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|v| v.dataset_version)
-                    .min()
-                    .unwrap();
-                for committed_fri in self.conflicting_frag_reuse_indices.into_iter() {
-                    let committed_fri_details =
-                        load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, &committed_fri)
-                            .await
-                            .unwrap();
-                    let committed_min_dataset_version = committed_fri_details
+            if let Some(transitions) = self.reuse.added_transitions.as_ref() {
+                // Assembled (and re-assembled after a conflict) against the
+                // FRI entry committed at the version this attempt builds on,
+                // so a rebase appends onto the latest entry instead of a
+                // stale one. This reassembly IS the merge with concurrent
+                // history changes, stable-partition appends included: the
+                // current entry already carries the concurrent writer's
+                // transition (or reflects a concurrent trim), ours is
+                // appended after it, and the assembly validation proves the
+                // result sound -- row-map ids unique across the whole
+                // ledger, per-transition conservation, lineage ordering,
+                // unknown mappings rejected, destinations freshly reserved,
+                // no transition recorded twice, and `build_manifest`'s
+                // base-version guard at splice time.
+                //
+                // No separate concurrent-append detection is needed even
+                // though the intent never enters a transaction file:
+                // overlapping writers are rejected non-retryably by the
+                // double-consumption rule in `check_rewrite_txn` from the
+                // committed groups, the transaction walk cannot silently
+                // skip an intervening commit (a missing transaction file
+                // fails `load_new_transactions`), and even a hypothetically
+                // unseen overlap still fails fragment liveness in
+                // `handle_rewrite_fragments`, because its sources are no
+                // longer in the manifest. What remains at this point is
+                // proven disjoint, and disjoint transitions merge.
+                let (entry, base_entry_version) =
+                    build_frag_reuse_rewrite_entry(dataset, transitions, groups).await?;
+                let assembly = TaggedRewriteAssembly::new(entry, base_entry_version, transitions)?;
+                return Ok((self.transaction, Some(Arc::new(assembly))));
+            }
+
+            // A v0 snapshot on a v0 table: the whole-history replacement contract.
+            {
+                let new_fri = proposed;
+                let base = self.frag_reuse_base.take().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("a v0 fragment reuse entry was rebased without its base")
+                })?;
+                let current = stored_frag_reuse_entry(dataset).await?;
+                let mut new_fri_details =
+                    Arc::unwrap_or_clone(load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, new_fri).await?);
+                let mut own = new_fri_details.versions.pop();
+                let base_versions = match &base.entry {
+                    Some(entry) => load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, entry)
+                        .await?
                         .versions
-                        .iter()
-                        .map(|v| v.dataset_version)
-                        .min();
-
-                    // For example, if we have new_fri has reuse versions [1, 2, 3]
-                    // If committed_fri has versions [2], that means 1 is cleaned up,
-                    // then [2, 3] should be retained in the new_fri.
-                    // If committed_fri is empty, that means everything is cleaned up.
-                    // then only the last item in committed_fri should be retained, which is [3].
-                    // Note that this is under the assumption that the sequence of
-                    // conflicting_frag_reuse_indices all come from frag_reuse_index cleanup rebase.
-                    match committed_min_dataset_version {
-                        Some(committed_min_dataset_version) => {
-                            if committed_min_dataset_version > min_dataset_version {
-                                min_dataset_version = committed_min_dataset_version;
-                            }
-                        }
-                        None => {
-                            min_dataset_version = new_fri_details
+                        .clone(),
+                    None => Vec::new(),
+                };
+                let shape_err = || {
+                    Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "the rewrite's fragment reuse entry must be the entry at version {} \
+                         plus one version of its own",
+                        base.version
+                    ))
+                };
+                let is_trimmed = if base.is_current(current.as_ref()) {
+                    if new_fri_details.versions != base_versions {
+                        return Err(shape_err());
+                    }
+                    false
+                } else {
+                    // A cleanup only drops versions, so publishing the current ones
+                    // plus our own keeps every mapping.
+                    let current_versions = match (&base.entry, &current) {
+                        (Some(_), Some(current_entry)) => {
+                            load_frag_reuse_index_details(dataset, current_entry)
+                                .await?
                                 .versions
-                                .iter()
-                                .map(|v| v.dataset_version)
-                                .max()
-                                .unwrap();
+                                .clone()
                         }
+                        _ => Vec::new(),
+                    };
+                    if base.entry.is_none()
+                        || current.is_none()
+                        || !is_ordered_subsequence(&current_versions, &base_versions)
+                    {
+                        return Err(base.changed_err(
+                            &self.transaction.operation,
+                            current.as_ref(),
+                            dataset,
+                            "Commit the rewrite again through a dataset at the latest version.",
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    if !is_ordered_subsequence(&new_fri_details.versions, &base_versions) {
+                        return Err(shape_err());
+                    }
+                    new_fri_details.versions = current_versions;
+                    true
+                };
+                // Stamp the rewrite's own (last) version with the version this attempt
+                // publishes on top of; a retry may land on a newer one.
+                let is_restamped = match own.as_mut() {
+                    Some(version) if version.dataset_version != dataset.manifest.version => {
+                        version.dataset_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+                        true
                     }
+                    _ => false,
+                };
+                new_fri_details.versions.extend(own);
+                if !is_trimmed && !is_restamped {
+                    return Ok((self.transaction, None));
                 }
 
-                new_fri_details
-                    .versions
-                    .retain(|v| v.dataset_version >= min_dataset_version);
                 let new_frag_bitmap = new_fri_details.new_frag_bitmap();
 
                 let new_frag_reuse_index_meta = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
@@ -1732,10 +3035,8 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
                 )
                 .await?;
 
-                *frag_reuse_index = Some(new_frag_reuse_index_meta);
-                Ok(self.transaction)
-            } else {
-                Ok(self.transaction)
+                *new_fri = new_frag_reuse_index_meta;
+                Ok((self.transaction, None))
             }
         } else {
             Err(wrong_operation_err(&self.transaction.operation))
@@ -1743,27 +3044,89 @@ impl<'a> TransactionRebase<'a> {
     }
 }
 
+/// See `RewriteReuseState`. `dataset` is the handle the transaction is committed
+/// through, not its read version.
+async fn rewrite_reuse_state(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    transaction: &Transaction,
+) -> Result<RewriteReuseState> {
+    let Operation::Rewrite {
+        frag_reuse_index: Some(proposed),
+        ..
+    } = &transaction.operation
+    else {
+        return Ok(RewriteReuseState::default());
+    };
+    let read_version = if dataset.manifest.version != transaction.read_version {
+        // A cleaned-up read version fails here rather than guessing the
+        // base: without it the entry's additions cannot be told apart.
+        Cow::Owned(dataset.checkout_version(transaction.read_version).await?)
+    } else {
+        Cow::Borrowed(dataset)
+    };
+    let read_entry = crate::index::load_all_indices(&read_version)
+        .await?
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .cloned();
+    let added_transitions = if is_tagged(proposed) {
+        // The contract of `Operation::Rewrite::frag_reuse_index`: a tagged
+        // entry is built from the snapshot at the transaction's read
+        // version, the base it is diffed against here. An entry built from
+        // a later snapshot folds transitions other writers appended in
+        // between into this rewrite's additions, so it is refused rather
+        // than misread (a distributed compaction plans at V and must not
+        // build its entry from a driver handle at V+N).
+        if proposed.dataset_version != transaction.read_version {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "the rewrite's fragment reuse entry was built from version {} but the \
+                 transaction reads version {}; build the entry from the read-version \
+                 snapshot (`frag_reuse_entry_appending` on a dataset checked out at the \
+                 read version)",
+                proposed.dataset_version, transaction.read_version
+            )));
+        }
+        let base = match read_entry.as_ref() {
+            Some(entry) => load_frag_reuse_records(&read_version, entry).await?,
+            None => InlineContent::default(),
+        };
+        let added = records_added_since(&base, &load_frag_reuse_records(dataset, proposed).await?)?;
+        if !added.legacy_versions.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "a tagged fragment reuse entry appends transitions; it cannot add legacy \
+                 compaction versions",
+            ));
+        }
+        Some(added.transitions)
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    Ok(RewriteReuseState {
+        read_entry,
+        added_transitions,
+    })
+}
+
 async fn initial_fragments_for_rebase(
     dataset: &Dataset,
     transaction: &Transaction,
     modified_fragment_ids: &HashSet<u64>,
-) -> HashMap<u64, (Fragment, bool)> {
+) -> Result<HashMap<u64, (Fragment, bool)>> {
     if modified_fragment_ids.is_empty() {
-        return HashMap::new();
+        return Ok(HashMap::new());
     }
 
     let dataset = if dataset.manifest.version != transaction.read_version {
-        Cow::Owned(
-            dataset
-                .checkout_version(transaction.read_version)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-        )
+        // The read version may have been garbage-collected by a concurrent
+        // `cleanup_old_versions` between the commit attempt and the rebase.
+        // Propagate the error so the commit fails gracefully instead of
+        // panicking (which aborts the whole process when `panic = "abort"`).
+        Cow::Owned(dataset.checkout_version(transaction.read_version).await?)
     } else {
         Cow::Borrowed(dataset)
     };
 
-    dataset
+    Ok(dataset
         .fragments()
         .iter()
         .filter(|fragment| {
@@ -1771,20 +3134,52 @@ async fn initial_fragments_for_rebase(
             modified_fragment_ids.contains(&fragment.id)
         })
         .map(|fragment| (fragment.id, (fragment.clone(), false)))
-        .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>()
+        .collect())
 }
 
-fn wrong_operation_err(op: &Operation) -> Error {
-    Error::Internal {
-        message: format!("function called against a wrong operation: {}", op),
-        location: location!(),
+/// Read a fragment's deletion vector as a bitmap of physical offsets, or an
+/// empty bitmap when the fragment has no deletion file.
+async fn read_fragment_deletion_bitmap(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment: &Fragment,
+) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+    match &fragment.deletion_file {
+        Some(deletion_file) => {
+            let dv = read_dataset_deletion_file(dataset, fragment.id, deletion_file).await?;
+            Ok(RoaringBitmap::from(dv.as_ref()))
+        }
+        None => Ok(RoaringBitmap::new()),
     }
 }
 
+/// The physical offsets a group's overlays cover, unioned across every overlay
+/// and every field. This is the set of cells whose values the overlay supplies,
+/// used to test whether a concurrent row-moving Update actually invalidates the
+/// overlay.
+fn overlay_group_coverage(group: &DataOverlayGroup) -> RoaringBitmap {
+    let mut union = RoaringBitmap::new();
+    for overlay in &group.overlays {
+        match &overlay.coverage {
+            OverlayCoverage::Shared(bitmap) => union |= bitmap.as_ref(),
+            OverlayCoverage::PerField(bitmaps) => {
+                for bitmap in bitmaps {
+                    union |= bitmap.as_ref();
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    union
+}
+
+fn wrong_operation_err(op: &Operation) -> Error {
+    Error::internal(format!("function called against a wrong operation: {}", op))
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use std::{num::NonZero, sync::Arc};
 
+    use crate::dataset::transaction::UpdateMode::{RewriteColumns, RewriteRows};
     use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch};
     use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
     use lance_core::Error;
@@ -1793,10 +3188,12 @@ mod tests {
     use uuid::Uuid;
 
     use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+    use lance_table::format::{InlineRowIds, RowIdMeta};
     use lance_table::io::deletion::{deletion_file_path, read_deletion_file};
 
     use super::*;
-    use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataReplacementGroup, RewriteGroup};
+    use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataReplacementGroup, RewriteGroup, UpdateMap};
+    use crate::dataset::write::WriteMode;
     use crate::session::caches::DeletionFileKey;
     use crate::{
         dataset::{CommitBuilder, InsertBuilder, WriteParams},
@@ -1822,12 +3219,44 @@ mod tests {
             ],
         )
         .unwrap();
-        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+
+        InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
             .with_params(&write_params)
             .execute(vec![data])
             .await
-            .unwrap();
-        dataset
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn tagged_fri_rebase_returns_error_instead_of_panicking() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(4, 2).await;
+        let tagged = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.into(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 1,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let operation = Operation::Rewrite {
+            groups: vec![],
+            rewritten_indices: vec![],
+            frag_reuse_index: Some(tagged),
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new_from_version(dataset.manifest.version, operation);
+        // A rewrite's tagged entry is read for what it adds relative to the
+        // read version before anything is rebased: an entry without readable
+        // details is an error at that point, never a panic.
+        let Err(error) = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, transaction, None).await else {
+            panic!("a tagged entry without details is refused");
+        };
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::Index { .. }), "{error}");
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains("details"), "{error}");
     }
 
     /// Helper function for tests to create UpdateConfig operations using old-style parameters
@@ -1877,6 +3306,149 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::config(false)]
+    #[case::table_metadata(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_merge_preserves_unrelated_update_config_compatibility(
+        #[case] update_table_metadata: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] merge_commits_first: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dataset = Arc::new(test_dataset(5, 1).await);
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        let mut merged_schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+        merged_schema
+            .metadata
+            .insert("merge.schema".to_string(), "preserved".to_string());
+        let field_id = merged_schema.fields[0].id;
+        merged_schema.fields[0]
+            .metadata
+            .insert("merge.field".to_string(), "preserved".to_string());
+        let merge = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone(),
+                schema: merged_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+        );
+
+        let replacement = UpdateMap {
+            update_entries: vec![("key", Some("value")).into()],
+            replace: true,
+        };
+        let update_config = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::UpdateConfig {
+                config_updates: (!update_table_metadata).then_some(replacement.clone()),
+                table_metadata_updates: update_table_metadata.then_some(replacement),
+                schema_metadata_updates: None,
+                field_metadata_updates: HashMap::new(),
+            },
+        );
+
+        let (first, stale) = if merge_commits_first {
+            (merge, update_config)
+        } else {
+            (update_config, merge)
+        };
+        CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .execute(first)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let latest_dataset = CommitBuilder::new(dataset).execute(stale).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            latest_dataset
+                .schema()
+                .metadata
+                .get("merge.schema")
+                .map(String::as_str),
+            Some("preserved")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            latest_dataset
+                .schema()
+                .field_by_id(field_id)
+                .unwrap()
+                .metadata
+                .get("merge.field")
+                .map(String::as_str),
+            Some("preserved")
+        );
+        let updated_map = if update_table_metadata {
+            &latest_dataset.manifest.table_metadata
+        } else {
+            &latest_dataset.manifest.config
+        };
+        assert_eq!(updated_map.get("key").map(String::as_str), Some("value"));
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::schema_metadata(true)]
+    #[case::field_metadata(false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_merge_and_metadata_update_conflict(
+        #[case] replace_schema_metadata: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] replace: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] merge_commits_first: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dataset = Arc::new(test_dataset(5, 1).await);
+        let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+        let mut merged_schema = dataset.schema().clone();
+        merged_schema
+            .metadata
+            .insert("merge.schema".to_string(), "coordinated".to_string());
+        let field_id = merged_schema.fields[0].id;
+        merged_schema.fields[0]
+            .metadata
+            .insert("merge.field".to_string(), "coordinated".to_string());
+        let merge = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone(),
+                schema: merged_schema,
+                preserves_nullability: true,
+            },
+        );
+
+        let metadata_update = UpdateMap {
+            update_entries: vec![("replacement", Some("coordinated")).into()],
+            replace,
+        };
+        let update_config = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            read_version,
+            Operation::UpdateConfig {
+                config_updates: None,
+                table_metadata_updates: None,
+                schema_metadata_updates: replace_schema_metadata.then_some(metadata_update.clone()),
+                field_metadata_updates: if replace_schema_metadata {
+                    HashMap::new()
+                } else {
+                    HashMap::from_iter([(field_id, metadata_update)])
+                },
+            },
+        );
+
+        let (first, stale) = if merge_commits_first {
+            (merge, update_config)
+        } else {
+            (update_config, merge)
+        };
+        CommitBuilder::new(dataset.clone())
+            .execute(first)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let error = CommitBuilder::new(dataset)
+            .execute(stale)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+
+        assert!(matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }));
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_non_overlapping_rebase_delete_update() {
         let dataset = test_dataset(5, 5).await;
@@ -1885,10 +3457,11 @@ mod tests {
             removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
             new_fragments: vec![],
             fields_modified: vec![],
-            merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
             fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
             update_mode: None,
             inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: None,
         };
         let transaction = Transaction::new_from_version(1, operation);
         let other_operations = [
@@ -1897,10 +3470,11 @@ mod tests {
                 removed_fragment_ids: vec![2],
                 new_fragments: vec![],
                 fields_modified: vec![],
-                merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
                 update_mode: None,
                 inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             },
             Operation::Delete {
                 deleted_fragment_ids: vec![3],
@@ -1912,10 +3486,11 @@ mod tests {
                 updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(4)],
                 new_fragments: vec![],
                 fields_modified: vec![],
-                merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
                 update_mode: None,
                 inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             },
         ];
         let other_transactions = other_operations.map(|op| Transaction::new_from_version(2, op));
@@ -1923,12 +3498,12 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
         for (other_version, other_transaction) in other_transactions.iter().enumerate() {
             rebase
                 .check_txn(other_transaction, other_version as u64)
                 .unwrap();
-            let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+            let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
             assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
             assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 0);
         }
@@ -1942,11 +3517,83 @@ mod tests {
         let rebased_transaction = rebase.finish(&dataset).await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(rebased_transaction, expected_transaction);
         // We didn't need to do any IO, so the stats should be 0.
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 0);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_rebase_errors_when_read_version_was_cleaned_up() {
+        // Regression test: `initial_fragments_for_rebase` used to `unwrap()` the
+        // result of `checkout_version(read_version)`. If a concurrent
+        // `cleanup_old_versions` removed that version between the conflicting
+        // commit and the rebase, this panicked (aborting the whole process when
+        // built with `panic = "abort"`). The rebase should fail with an error
+        // instead so the commit can be retried.
+        let tmp_dir = lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp_dir.as_str().to_string();
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..5)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(0, 5))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Write version 1, then append version 2.
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        InsertBuilder::new(&uri)
+            .with_params(&write_params)
+            .execute(vec![batch.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let append_params = WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(&uri)
+            .with_params(&append_params)
+            .execute(vec![batch])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, 2);
+
+        // A transaction that read version 1 and modified fragment 0.
+        let operation = Operation::Update {
+            updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+            removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+            new_fragments: vec![],
+            fields_modified: vec![],
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+            update_mode: None,
+            inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+        };
+        let transaction = Transaction::new_from_version(1, operation);
+
+        // Simulate a concurrent `cleanup_old_versions` removing version 1.
+        let naming_scheme = dataset.manifest_location().naming_scheme;
+        let v1_manifest = naming_scheme.manifest_path(&dataset.base, 1);
+        dataset.object_store.delete(&v1_manifest).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Rebasing now needs to check out version 1, which no longer exists.
+        // This used to panic; it should return `DatasetNotFound` instead.
+        let err = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, transaction, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::DatasetNotFound { .. }));
+    }
+
     async fn apply_deletion(
         delete_rows: &[u32],
         fragment: &mut Fragment,
@@ -1958,7 +3605,7 @@ mod tests {
                 deletion_file,
                 // Reference deletion file should never enter this apply_deletion. So base path is fine.
                 &dataset.base,
-                dataset.object_store(),
+                dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
             )
             .await
             .unwrap()
@@ -1973,7 +3620,7 @@ mod tests {
             fragment.id,
             dataset.manifest.version,
             &current_deletions,
-            dataset.object_store(),
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
         )
         .await
         .unwrap();
@@ -2004,7 +3651,7 @@ mod tests {
                 "path1",
                 vec![0],
                 vec![0],
-                &LanceFileVersion::Stable,
+                LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
                 NonZero::new(10),
             )
             .with_physical_rows(3);
@@ -2014,10 +3661,11 @@ mod tests {
                 removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
                 new_fragments: vec![sample_file.clone()],
                 fields_modified: vec![],
-                merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
                 update_mode: None,
                 inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             },
             Operation::Delete {
                 updated_fragments: vec![apply_deletion(&[1], &mut fragment, &dataset).await],
@@ -2029,10 +3677,11 @@ mod tests {
                 removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
                 new_fragments: vec![sample_file],
                 fields_modified: vec![],
-                merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
                 update_mode: None,
                 inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             },
         ];
         let transactions =
@@ -2047,12 +3696,12 @@ mod tests {
                     .await
                     .unwrap();
 
-            dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
+            dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
             for (other_version, other_transaction) in previous_transactions.iter().enumerate() {
                 rebase
                     .check_txn(other_transaction, other_version as u64)
                     .unwrap();
-                let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+                let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
                 assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
                 assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 0);
             }
@@ -2063,7 +3712,7 @@ mod tests {
             let rebased_transaction = rebase.finish(&dataset).await.unwrap();
             assert_eq!(rebased_transaction.read_version, dataset.manifest.version);
 
-            let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+            let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
             if expected_rewrite {
                 // Read the current deletion file, and write the new one.
                 assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0, "deletion file should be cached");
@@ -2088,7 +3737,7 @@ mod tests {
                 //     original_fragment.id,
                 //     original_fragment.deletion_file.as_ref().unwrap(),
                 // );
-                // assert!(!dataset.object_store().exists(&old_path).await.unwrap());
+                // assert!(!dataset.object_store.as_ref().exists(&old_path).await.unwrap());
                 // The new deletion file should exist.
                 let final_fragment = match &rebased_transaction.operation {
                     Operation::Update {
@@ -2106,7 +3755,14 @@ mod tests {
                     final_fragment.id,
                     final_fragment.deletion_file.as_ref().unwrap(),
                 );
-                assert!(dataset.object_store().exists(&new_path).await.unwrap());
+                assert!(
+                    dataset
+                        .object_store
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .exists(&new_path)
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap()
+                );
 
                 assert_io_eq!(io_stats, num_stages, 1);
             } else {
@@ -2138,7 +3794,7 @@ mod tests {
                 "path1",
                 vec![0],
                 vec![0],
-                &LanceFileVersion::Stable,
+                LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
                 NonZero::new(10),
             )
             .with_physical_rows(3);
@@ -2151,10 +3807,11 @@ mod tests {
                     removed_fragment_ids: vec![0],
                     new_fragments: vec![sample_file.clone()],
                     fields_modified: vec![],
-                    merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                     fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
                     update_mode: None,
                     inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
                 },
             ),
             (
@@ -2164,10 +3821,11 @@ mod tests {
                     removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
                     new_fragments: vec![sample_file.clone()],
                     fields_modified: vec![],
-                    merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                     fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
                     update_mode: None,
                     inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
                 },
             ),
             (
@@ -2212,12 +3870,12 @@ mod tests {
 
         let affected_rows = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([0]);
 
-        dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
+        dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental(); // reset
         let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn.clone(), Some(&affected_rows))
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 0);
 
@@ -2242,7 +3900,7 @@ mod tests {
             vec![(0, true)],
         );
 
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0);
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 0);
 
@@ -2252,7 +3910,7 @@ mod tests {
             Err(crate::Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })
         ));
 
-        let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+        let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 0, "deletion file should be cached");
         assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 0, "failed before writing");
     }
@@ -2266,18 +3924,20 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_conflicts() {
-        use io::commit::conflict_resolver::tests::{modified_fragment_ids, ConflictResult::*};
+        use io::commit::conflict_resolver::tests::{ConflictResult::*, modified_fragment_ids};
 
         let index0 = IndexMetadata {
             uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
             name: "test".to_string(),
             fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
             dataset_version: 1,
             fragment_bitmap: None,
             index_details: None,
             index_version: 0,
             created_at: None, // Test index, not setting timestamp
             base_id: None,
+            files: None,
         };
         let fragment0 = Fragment::new(0);
         let fragment1 = Fragment::new(1);
@@ -2299,6 +3959,7 @@ mod tests {
             Operation::Merge {
                 fragments: vec![fragment0.clone(), fragment2.clone()],
                 schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema::default(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
             },
             Operation::Overwrite {
                 fragments: vec![fragment0.clone(), fragment2.clone()],
@@ -2323,10 +3984,11 @@ mod tests {
                 updated_fragments: vec![fragment0.clone()],
                 new_fragments: vec![fragment2.clone()],
                 fields_modified: vec![0],
-                merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                 fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
                 update_mode: None,
                 inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             },
             create_update_config_for_test(
                 Some(HashMap::from_iter(vec![(
@@ -2413,19 +4075,29 @@ mod tests {
                     config_upsert_values: None,
                     initial_bases: None,
                 },
-                // No conflicts: overwrite can always happen since it doesn't
-                // depend on previous state of the table.
-                [Compatible; 9],
+                // Concurrent overwrites are retryable so user can decide
+                // if their overwrite should still proceed.
+                [
+                    Compatible, // append
+                    Compatible, // create index
+                    Compatible, // delete
+                    Compatible, // merge
+                    Retryable,  // overwrite
+                    Compatible, // rewrite
+                    Compatible, // reserve
+                    Compatible, // update
+                    Compatible, // update config
+                ],
             ),
             (
                 Operation::CreateIndex {
                     new_indices: vec![index0.clone()],
                     removed_indices: vec![index0],
                 },
-                // Will only conflict with operations that modify row ids.
+                // Conflicts with row-id-changing operations and same-name CreateIndex.
                 [
                     Compatible,    // append
-                    Compatible,    // create index
+                    Retryable,     // create index
                     Compatible,    // delete
                     Compatible,    // merge
                     NotCompatible, // overwrite
@@ -2483,8 +4155,9 @@ mod tests {
                 Operation::Merge {
                     fragments: vec![fragment0.clone(), fragment2.clone()],
                     schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema::default(),
+                    preserves_nullability: true,
                 },
-                // Merge conflicts with everything except CreateIndex and ReserveFragments.
+                // Merge also conflicts with schema and field metadata updates.
                 [
                     Retryable,     // append
                     Compatible,    // create index
@@ -2494,7 +4167,7 @@ mod tests {
                     Retryable,     // rewrite
                     Compatible,    // reserve
                     Retryable,     // update
-                    Compatible,    // update config
+                    Retryable,     // update config
                 ],
             ),
             (
@@ -2519,10 +4192,11 @@ mod tests {
                     removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
                     new_fragments: vec![fragment2],
                     fields_modified: vec![0],
-                    merged_generations: Vec::new(),
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
                     fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
                     update_mode: None,
                     inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
                 },
                 [
                     Compatible,    // append
@@ -2641,7 +4315,7 @@ mod tests {
                     Compatible,    // append
                     Compatible,    // create index
                     Compatible,    // delete
-                    Compatible,    // merge
+                    Retryable,     // merge
                     NotCompatible, // overwrite
                     Compatible,    // rewrite
                     Compatible,    // reserve
@@ -2668,7 +4342,7 @@ mod tests {
                     Compatible,    // append
                     Compatible,    // create index
                     Compatible,    // delete
-                    Compatible,    // merge
+                    Retryable,     // merge
                     NotCompatible, // overwrite
                     Compatible,    // rewrite
                     Compatible,    // reserve
@@ -2694,7 +4368,7 @@ mod tests {
                     Compatible,    // append
                     Compatible,    // create index
                     Compatible,    // delete
-                    Compatible,    // merge
+                    Retryable,     // merge
                     NotCompatible, // overwrite
                     Compatible,    // rewrite
                     Compatible,    // reserve
@@ -2704,6 +4378,15 @@ mod tests {
             ),
         ];
 
+        // An operation written by a newer Lance may touch anything, so every
+        // known operation must treat it as a conflict.
+        let unknown = Transaction::try_from(lance_table::format::pb::Transaction {
+            uuid: "unknown".to_string(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(unknown.operation, Operation::Unknown { .. }));
+
         for (operation, expected_conflicts) in &cases {
             let transaction = Transaction::new(0, operation.clone(), None);
             let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
@@ -2711,10 +4394,25 @@ mod tests {
                 initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
                 modified_fragment_ids: modified_fragment_ids(operation).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
                 affected_rows: None,
-                conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-                conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
             };
 
+            let result = rebase.check_txn(&unknown, 1);
+            assert!(
+                matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+                "Transaction {:?} should be incompatible with an unknown operation, but was {:?}",
+                operation,
+                result
+            );
+
             for (other, expected_conflict) in other_transactions.iter().zip(expected_conflicts) {
                 match expected_conflict {
                     Compatible => {
@@ -2731,7 +4429,7 @@ mod tests {
                     NotCompatible => {
                         let result = rebase.check_txn(other, 1);
                         assert!(
-                            matches!(result, Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
+                            matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
                             "Transaction {:?} should be {:?} with {:?}, but was: {:?}",
                             operation,
                             expected_conflict,
@@ -2755,797 +4453,4987 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_bases_non_conflicting() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
-
-        // Create two transactions adding different bases
-        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 1,
-                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
-            },
-        );
-
-        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 2,
-                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
+    #[test]
+    fn test_data_overlay_conflicts() {
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, UpdateMode};
+        use ConflictResult::*;
+        use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+        // Our transaction overlays fragment 1.
+        let overlay_op = |fragment_id: u64| Operation::DataOverlay {
+            groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                fragment_id,
+                overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                    data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay.lance", vec![0], None),
+                    coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                    committed_version: 0,
                 }],
-            },
-        );
+            }],
+        };
+        let update_removing = |removed_fragment_ids: Vec<u64>| Operation::Update {
+            removed_fragment_ids,
+            updated_fragments: vec![],
+            new_fragments: vec![],
+            fields_modified: vec![],
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+            update_mode: None,
+            inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+        };
+        let delete = |updated: Vec<Fragment>, deleted: Vec<u64>| Operation::Delete {
+            updated_fragments: updated,
+            deleted_fragment_ids: deleted,
+            predicate: "x > 2".to_string(),
+        };
+        // A row-moving update (RewriteRows) relocates the updated rows into
+        // new_fragments; an in-place column rewrite (RewriteColumns) leaves rows
+        // where they are.
+        let update_moving = |updated: Vec<Fragment>, new: Vec<Fragment>| Operation::Update {
+            removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+            updated_fragments: updated,
+            new_fragments: new,
+            fields_modified: vec![],
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+            update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows),
+            inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+        };
+        let update_rewrite_columns = |updated: Vec<Fragment>| Operation::Update {
+            removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+            updated_fragments: updated,
+            new_fragments: vec![],
+            fields_modified: vec![0],
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+            update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+            inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+        };
+        let rewrite_of = |old: &Fragment| Operation::Rewrite {
+            groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments: vec![old.clone()],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+            }],
+            rewritten_indices: vec![],
+            frag_reuse_index: None,
+        };
 
-        // txn1 should not conflict with txn2
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert!(rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2).is_ok());
-    }
+        let fragment0 = Fragment::new(0);
+        let fragment1 = Fragment::new(1);
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_bases_name_conflict() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+        // Each case is checked against our overlay on fragment 1.
+        let cases: Vec<(Operation, ConflictResult)> = vec![
+            // Permissive: preserves physical offsets / leaves fragment 1 in place.
+            (
+                Operation::Append {
+                    fragments: vec![fragment0.clone()],
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(
+                        1,
+                        DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("r.lance", vec![0], None),
+                    )],
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            // Another overlay on the same fragment stacks rather than conflicts.
+            (overlay_op(1), Compatible),
+            // A Delete only tombstones rows (deletion vector) on fragment 1, and
+            // an in-place column rewrite preserves offsets, so both are compatible.
+            (delete(vec![fragment1.clone()], vec![]), Compatible),
+            (update_rewrite_columns(vec![fragment1.clone()]), Compatible),
+            (update_removing(vec![2]), Compatible),
+            // ...but removing our overlaid fragment 1 orphans the overlay -> conflict.
+            (delete(vec![], vec![1]), Retryable),
+            (update_removing(vec![1]), Retryable),
+            // A row-moving update re-creates the rows it touches from the
+            // pre-overlay base. Whether that actually drops any overlaid cell is
+            // a per-row question answered in `finish_data_overlay` (see
+            // test_data_overlay_finish_conflicts_with_row_moving_update), so the
+            // check itself defers rather than conflicting; a moving update on any
+            // fragment is compatible at this stage.
+            (
+                update_moving(vec![fragment1.clone()], vec![fragment0.clone()]),
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                update_moving(vec![fragment0.clone()], vec![fragment0.clone()]),
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            // Rewriting fragment 1 invalidates its physical offsets -> conflict;
+            // a rewrite of a different fragment does not.
+            (rewrite_of(&fragment1), Retryable),
+            (rewrite_of(&fragment0), Compatible),
+            // Merge rewrites the whole fragment list; Restore replaces the dataset.
+            (
+                Operation::Merge {
+                    fragments: vec![fragment1.clone()],
+                    schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema::default(),
+                    preserves_nullability: true,
+                },
+                Retryable,
+            ),
+            (Operation::Restore { version: 1 }, NotCompatible),
+            // Overwrite/Restore replace the dataset, and UpdateMemWalState does
+            // not rebase against data operations — all hard conflicts.
+            (
+                Operation::Overwrite {
+                    fragments: vec![fragment0.clone()],
+                    schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema::default(),
+                    config_upsert_values: None,
+                    initial_bases: None,
+                },
+                NotCompatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                    compacted_sstables: vec![],
+                },
+                NotCompatible,
+            ),
+        ];
 
-        // Create two transactions adding bases with the same name
-        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 1,
-                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("duplicate_name".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
-            },
-        );
+        for (other, expected) in cases {
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                transaction: Transaction::new(0, overlay_op(1), None),
+                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: modified_fragment_ids(&overlay_op(1))
+                    .collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+                affected_rows: None,
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
+            };
+            let other_txn = Transaction::new(0, other.clone(), None);
+            let result = rebase.check_txn(&other_txn, 1);
+            match expected {
+                Compatible => assert!(
+                    result.is_ok(),
+                    "overlay should be compatible with {other:?}, got {result:?}"
+                ),
+                Retryable => assert!(
+                    matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                    "overlay should retryably conflict with {other:?}, got {result:?}"
+                ),
+                NotCompatible => assert!(
+                    matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+                    "overlay should be incompatible with {other:?}, got {result:?}"
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 2,
-                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("duplicate_name".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
+    #[test]
+    fn test_rewrite_conflicts_with_data_overlay() {
+        // Reverse direction of test_data_overlay_conflicts: our transaction is a
+        // Rewrite and a concurrent DataOverlay has already committed. A rewrite
+        // changes the physical row addresses of the fragments it touches, so an
+        // overlay on one of those fragments is invalidated (retryable); an
+        // overlay on any other fragment is unaffected.
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::DataOverlayGroup;
+        use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+        let overlay_on = |fragment_id: u64| Operation::DataOverlay {
+            groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                fragment_id,
+                overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                    data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay.lance", vec![0], None),
+                    coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                    committed_version: 0,
                 }],
-            },
-        );
+            }],
+        };
+        // Our transaction rewrites fragment 1.
+        let rewrite_op = Operation::Rewrite {
+            groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1)],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+            }],
+            rewritten_indices: vec![],
+            frag_reuse_index: None,
+        };
 
-        // txn1 should conflict with txn2 due to duplicate name
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2);
-        assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected CommitConflict error for duplicate name, got {:?}",
-            result
-        );
+        for (other, expect_conflict) in [(overlay_on(1), true), (overlay_on(0), false)] {
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                transaction: Transaction::new(0, rewrite_op.clone(), None),
+                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: modified_fragment_ids(&rewrite_op).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+                affected_rows: None,
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
+            };
+            let other_txn = Transaction::new(0, other.clone(), None);
+            let result = rebase.check_txn(&other_txn, 1);
+            if expect_conflict {
+                assert!(
+                    matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                    "rewrite of fragment 1 should retryably conflict with {other:?}, got {result:?}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                assert!(
+                    result.is_ok(),
+                    "rewrite of fragment 1 should not conflict with {other:?}, got {result:?}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_bases_path_conflict() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
-
-        // Create two transactions adding bases with the same path
-        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 1,
-                    path: "s3://bucket/duplicate_path".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_conflicts_with_data_overlay() {
+        // Reverse direction of test_data_overlay_conflicts: our transaction is an
+        // Update and a concurrent DataOverlay has already committed. A row-moving
+        // update relocates the rows it touches, so an overlay on one of those
+        // fragments can no longer be applied (retryable); an overlay on any other
+        // fragment is compatible. An in-place column rewrite preserves rows but
+        // replaces the whole column from its own snapshot, so it conflicts
+        // whenever the overlay covers a fragment and field it rewrote.
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, UpdateMode};
+        use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+        let overlay_on_field = |fragment_id: u64, field: i32| Operation::DataOverlay {
+            groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                fragment_id,
+                overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                    data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay.lance", vec![field], None),
+                    coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                    committed_version: 0,
                 }],
-            },
-        );
+            }],
+        };
+        let overlay_on = |fragment_id: u64| overlay_on_field(fragment_id, 0);
+        // Our update always touches fragment 1.
+        let update =
+            |update_mode: Option<UpdateMode>, new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>| Operation::Update {
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1)],
+                new_fragments,
+                fields_modified: vec![0],
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode,
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+            };
 
-        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 2,
-                    path: "s3://bucket/duplicate_path".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
-            },
-        );
+        // The overlay covers physical offset 0 of its fragment. Row addresses
+        // pack the fragment id in the high 32 bits and the offset in the low 32.
+        let rows_on = |fragment_id: u64, offsets: &[u32]| {
+            let mut map = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+            map.insert_bitmap(
+                fragment_id as u32,
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter(offsets.iter().copied()),
+            );
+            map
+        };
 
-        // txn1 should conflict with txn2 due to duplicate path
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2);
-        assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected CommitConflict error for duplicate path, got {:?}",
-            result
-        );
+        // (update, committed overlay, moved rows the update carries, expect conflict)
+        let cases = [
+            // Row-moving update whose moved rows include the overlaid cell -> the
+            // update would undo the overlay, so conflict.
+            (
+                update(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows), vec![Fragment::new(2)]),
+                overlay_on(1),
+                Some(rows_on(1, &[0])),
+                true,
+            ),
+            // ...but if the moved rows miss the overlaid cell, the overlay survives.
+            (
+                update(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows), vec![Fragment::new(2)]),
+                overlay_on(1),
+                Some(rows_on(1, &[5])),
+                false,
+            ),
+            // An overlay on a fragment the update did not touch is fine.
+            (
+                update(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows), vec![Fragment::new(2)]),
+                overlay_on(0),
+                Some(rows_on(1, &[0])),
+                false,
+            ),
+            // An in-place column rewrite replaces field 0 across all of fragment
+            // 1 from its own snapshot, and `build_manifest` tombstones the
+            // overlay for that field, so the overlay's value would be lost even
+            // though it sits on a row the update never matched -> conflict.
+            (
+                update(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns), vec![]),
+                overlay_on(1),
+                Some(rows_on(1, &[0])),
+                true,
+            ),
+            // ...and the coverage is irrelevant: an overlay on a row the update
+            // did not match is exactly the case that gets silently dropped.
+            (
+                update(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns), vec![]),
+                overlay_on(1),
+                Some(rows_on(1, &[5])),
+                true,
+            ),
+            // An overlay on a field the rewrite did not touch survives the
+            // tombstoning, so it stays compatible.
+            (
+                update(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns), vec![]),
+                overlay_on_field(1, 7),
+                Some(rows_on(1, &[0])),
+                false,
+            ),
+            // So does an overlay on a fragment the rewrite did not touch.
+            (
+                update(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns), vec![]),
+                overlay_on(0),
+                Some(rows_on(1, &[0])),
+                false,
+            ),
+            // Without affected rows we cannot be precise, so a row-moving update
+            // on the overlaid fragment falls back to a conservative conflict.
+            (
+                update(Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows), vec![Fragment::new(2)]),
+                overlay_on(1),
+                None,
+                true,
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        for (update_op, other, affected_rows, expect_conflict) in cases {
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                transaction: Transaction::new(0, update_op.clone(), None),
+                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: modified_fragment_ids(&update_op).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+                affected_rows: affected_rows.as_ref(),
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
+            };
+            let other_txn = Transaction::new(0, other.clone(), None);
+            let result = rebase.check_txn(&other_txn, 1);
+            if expect_conflict {
+                assert!(
+                    matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                    "update should retryably conflict with {other:?}, got {result:?}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                assert!(
+                    result.is_ok(),
+                    "update should be compatible with {other:?}, got {result:?}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_bases_id_conflict() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+    /// An append is the one value-write that rebases across a committed merge,
+    /// so a merge introducing a required field must claim: the append's
+    /// fragments omit the new column and its rows would read as null. A merge
+    /// without the claim keeps the long-standing behavior of appends passing
+    /// over nullable column adds. The reverse order conflicts regardless of
+    /// the claim, because a rebasing merge rewrites the whole fragment list.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_merge_claim_blocks_stale_append() {
+        for claims in [true, false] {
+            let merge = Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema::default(),
+                preserves_nullability: !claims,
+            };
+            let append = Operation::Append {
+                fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1)],
+            };
 
-        // Create two transactions adding bases with the same non-zero ID
-        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 42,
-                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
-            },
-        );
-
-        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 42,
-                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
-            },
-        );
+            let mut append_rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                transaction: Transaction::new(0, append.clone(), None),
+                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+                affected_rows: None,
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
+            };
+            let result = append_rebase.check_txn(&Transaction::new(0, merge.clone(), None), 1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                claims,
+                "append rebasing over merge/claims={claims}: got {result:?}"
+            );
 
-        // txn1 should conflict with txn2 due to duplicate non-zero ID
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2);
-        assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected CommitConflict error for duplicate ID, got {:?}",
-            result
-        );
+            let mut merge_rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                transaction: Transaction::new(0, merge, None),
+                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::from_iter([0]),
+                affected_rows: None,
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
+            };
+            let result = merge_rebase.check_txn(&Transaction::new(0, append, None), 1);
+            assert!(
+                matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                "merge rebasing over append/claims={claims}: got {result:?}"
+            );
+        }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_bases_no_conflict_with_data_operations() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
-
-        let add_bases_txn = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 1,
-                    path: "s3://bucket/path".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
-            },
-        );
+    /// A claim conflicts with any write that can supply values, either order.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_non_null_claim_barrier() {
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, UpdateMode};
+        use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 
-        // Test against various data operations
-        let data_operations = vec![
-            Operation::Append { fragments: vec![] },
-            Operation::Delete {
-                deleted_fragment_ids: vec![0],
-                updated_fragments: vec![],
-                predicate: "a > 5".to_string(),
-            },
-            Operation::Update {
-                updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
-                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
-                new_fragments: vec![],
-                fields_modified: vec![],
-                merged_generations: Vec::new(),
-                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
-                update_mode: None,
-                inserted_rows_filter: None,
-            },
+        let file = || DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("w.lance", vec![0], None);
+        let writers = [
+            (
+                "append",
+                Operation::Append {
+                    fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1)],
+                },
+            ),
+            (
+                "update",
+                Operation::Update {
+                    removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                    updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                    new_fragments: vec![],
+                    fields_modified: vec![0],
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                    update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+                    inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+                },
+            ),
+            (
+                "replacement",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, file())],
+                },
+            ),
+            (
+                "overlay",
+                Operation::DataOverlay {
+                    groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                        fragment_id: 0,
+                        overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                            data_file: file(),
+                            coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                            committed_version: 0,
+                        }],
+                    }],
+                },
+            ),
         ];
 
-        for operation in data_operations {
-            let data_txn = Transaction::new_from_version(1, operation.clone());
-            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, add_bases_txn.clone(), None)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            assert!(
-                rebase.check_txn(&data_txn, 2).is_ok(),
-                "UpdateBases should not conflict with {:?}",
-                operation
-            );
+        for (writer_name, writer) in &writers {
+            for claims in [true, false] {
+                // Keeps field 0, the one every writer here names: this case
+                // is about the nullability claim, not about dropped fields.
+                let project = Operation::Project {
+                    schema: (&Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)]))
+                        .try_into()
+                        .unwrap(),
+                    preserves_nullability: !claims,
+                };
+                for (order, ours, theirs) in [
+                    ("project-rebasing", project.clone(), writer.clone()),
+                    ("writer-rebasing", writer.clone(), project.clone()),
+                ] {
+                    let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                        transaction: Transaction::new(0, ours.clone(), None),
+                        initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                        modified_fragment_ids: modified_fragment_ids(&ours).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+                        affected_rows: None,
+                        frag_reuse_base: None,
+                        conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                        current_lineage: None,
+                        current_live: None,
+                        current_schema: None,
+                        read_fragments: None,
+                        read_schema: None,
+                        reuse: Default::default(),
+                        staged_replay: false,
+                    };
+                    let result = rebase.check_txn(&Transaction::new(0, theirs, None), 1);
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                        claims,
+                        "{writer_name}/claims={claims}/{order}: got {result:?}"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
         }
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_bases_multiple_bases() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+    /// An in-place column rewrite cannot land on a projection that dropped the
+    /// field it rewrote: the fragment would keep a replacement data file for a
+    /// field the schema no longer has. `check_data_replacement_txn` has always
+    /// refused this for the other operation that rewrites a field in place.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::field_survives_the_projection(0, false)]
+    #[case::field_dropped_by_the_projection(1, true)]
+    fn test_column_rewrite_conflicts_with_a_projection_that_dropped_its_field(
+        #[case] field_modified: u32,
+        #[case] expect_conflict: bool,
+    ) {
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::UpdateMode;
 
-        // txn1 adds two bases
-        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![
-                    lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                        id: 1,
-                        path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
-                        name: Some("base1".to_string()),
-                        is_dataset_root: false,
-                    },
-                    lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                        id: 2,
-                        path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
-                        name: Some("base2".to_string()),
-                        is_dataset_root: false,
-                    },
-                ],
-            },
+        let rewrite = Operation::Update {
+            removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+            updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+            new_fragments: vec![],
+            fields_modified: vec![field_modified],
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+            update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+            inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+        };
+        // The projection keeps field 0 and nothing else.
+        let project = Operation::Project {
+            schema: (&Schema::new(vec![Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, true)]))
+                .try_into()
+                .unwrap(),
+            preserves_nullability: true,
+        };
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: Transaction::new(0, rewrite.clone(), None),
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: modified_fragment_ids(&rewrite).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&Transaction::new(0, project, None), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+            expect_conflict,
+            "got {result:?}"
         );
+    }
 
-        // txn2 adds a base that conflicts with one of txn1's bases
-        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 3,
-                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(), // Same path as txn1's first base
-                    name: Some("base3".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::coverage_overlaps_moved_row(vec![0u32], true)]
+    #[case::coverage_disjoint_from_moved_row(vec![3u32], false)]
+    async fn test_data_overlay_finish_conflicts_with_row_moving_update(
+        #[case] coverage_offsets: Vec<u32>,
+        #[case] expect_conflict: bool,
+    ) {
+        // 5 rows in one fragment. A concurrent RewriteRows update moves row 0 out
+        // to a new fragment (deleting it from fragment 0). Our overlay on fragment
+        // 0 conflicts only when its coverage includes the moved row; the decision
+        // is made in finish, which reads the deletion vectors.
+        use crate::dataset::transaction::{DataOverlayGroup, UpdateMode};
+        use lance_table::format::overlay::{DataOverlayFile, OverlayCoverage};
+        use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+        let dataset = test_dataset(5, 1).await;
+        let mut fragment = dataset.fragments().as_slice()[0].clone();
+
+        let moved_fragment = Fragment::new(0)
+            .with_file(
+                "moved.lance",
+                vec![0],
+                vec![0],
+                LanceFileVersion::Stable.resolve(),
+                NonZero::new(10),
+            )
+            .with_physical_rows(1);
+        let update_op = Operation::Update {
+            updated_fragments: vec![apply_deletion(&[0], &mut fragment, &dataset).await],
+            removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+            new_fragments: vec![moved_fragment],
+            fields_modified: vec![],
+            compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+            update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteRows),
+            inserted_rows_filter: None,
+            updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+        };
+        let update_txn = Transaction::new_from_version(dataset.manifest.version, update_op);
+
+        let overlay_op = Operation::DataOverlay {
+            groups: vec![DataOverlayGroup {
+                fragment_id: 0,
+                overlays: vec![DataOverlayFile {
+                    data_file: DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("overlay.lance", vec![0], None),
+                    coverage: OverlayCoverage::dense(RoaringBitmap::from_iter(coverage_offsets)),
+                    committed_version: 0,
                 }],
-            },
-        );
+            }],
+        };
+        let overlay_txn = Transaction::new_from_version(dataset.manifest.version, overlay_op);
 
-        // Should conflict due to path conflict
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
+        // Commit the update so the latest dataset reflects the moved (deleted) row.
+        let latest_dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+            .execute(update_txn.clone())
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2);
-        assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected CommitConflict error, got {:?}",
-            result
+
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, overlay_txn.clone(), None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // The check defers the row-level decision to finish, flagging fragment 0.
+        rebase.check_txn(&update_txn, 1).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            rebase
+                .initial_fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(id, (_, needs_check))| (*id, *needs_check))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![(0, true)],
         );
-    }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_bases_with_none_name() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+        let res = rebase.finish(&latest_dataset).await;
+        if expect_conflict {
+            assert!(
+                matches!(res, Err(crate::Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                "overlay covering the moved row should conflict, got {res:?}"
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert!(
+                res.is_ok(),
+                "overlay disjoint from the moved row should succeed, got {res:?}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
-        // Bases with None names should not conflict on name
-        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[test]
+    #[case::indexed_field_updated(0, vec![0])]
+    #[case::other_field_updated(1, vec![0, 1])]
+    fn test_create_index_rebase_prunes_updated_field_coverage(
+        #[case] field_modified: u32,
+        #[case] expected_fragment_ids: Vec<u32>,
+    ) {
+        let index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "test".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0, 1])),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: Transaction::new(
+                1,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![index],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+        let update = Transaction::new(
             1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 1,
-                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
-                    name: None,
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
+            Operation::Update {
+                updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1)],
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: vec![field_modified],
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: Some(UpdateMode::RewriteColumns),
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
             },
+            None,
         );
 
-        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 2,
-                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
-                    name: None,
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
-            },
-        );
+        rebase.check_txn(&update, 2).unwrap();
 
-        // Should not conflict despite both having None names
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert!(rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2).is_ok());
+        let Operation::CreateIndex { new_indices, .. } = &rebase.transaction.operation else {
+            panic!("expected CreateIndex operation");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            new_indices[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+            &RoaringBitmap::from_iter(expected_fragment_ids)
+        );
     }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_add_bases_with_zero_id() {
-        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
-
-        // Bases with zero IDs should not conflict on ID
-        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 0,
-                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
-            },
-        );
-
-        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
-            1,
-            Operation::UpdateBases {
-                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
-                    id: 0,
-                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
-                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
-                    is_dataset_root: false,
-                }],
-            },
+    /// A restore rewinds schema and field metadata with the rest of the
+    /// manifest, so a metadata update must not rebase over it; a plain config
+    /// upsert carries no metadata and still rebases.
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::field_metadata(Some(HashMap::from([(0, HashMap::from([("fresh".to_string(), "{}".to_string())]))])), None, true)]
+    #[case::schema_metadata(None, Some(HashMap::from([("owner".to_string(), "refresh".to_string())])), true)]
+    #[case::config_only(None, None, false)]
+    fn test_update_config_conflicts_with_restore(
+        #[case] field_metadata: Option<HashMap<u32, HashMap<String, String>>>,
+        #[case] schema_metadata: Option<HashMap<String, String>>,
+        #[case] conflicts: bool,
+    ) {
+        let restore = Transaction::new(0, Operation::Restore { version: 1 }, None);
+        let update = create_update_config_for_test(
+            Some(HashMap::from([("key".to_string(), "value".to_string())])),
+            None,
+            schema_metadata,
+            field_metadata,
         );
-
-        // Should not conflict despite both having zero IDs
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert!(rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2).is_ok());
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the IDs of fragments that have been modified by this operation.
-    ///
-    /// This does not include new fragments.
-    fn modified_fragment_ids(operation: &Operation) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u64> + '_> {
-        match operation {
-            // These operations add new fragments or don't modify any.
-            Operation::Append { .. }
-            | Operation::Clone { .. }
-            | Operation::Overwrite { .. }
-            | Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
-            | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
-            | Operation::Project { .. }
-            | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
-            | Operation::UpdateBases { .. }
-            | Operation::Restore { .. }
-            | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => Box::new(std::iter::empty()),
-            Operation::Delete {
-                updated_fragments,
-                deleted_fragment_ids,
-                ..
-            } => Box::new(
-                updated_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|f| f.id)
-                    .chain(deleted_fragment_ids.iter().copied()),
-            ),
-            Operation::Rewrite { groups, .. } => Box::new(
-                groups
-                    .iter()
-                    .flat_map(|f| f.old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id)),
-            ),
-            Operation::Merge { fragments, .. } => Box::new(fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id)),
-            Operation::Update {
-                updated_fragments,
-                removed_fragment_ids,
-                ..
-            } => Box::new(
-                updated_fragments
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|f| f.id)
-                    .chain(removed_fragment_ids.iter().copied()),
-            ),
-            Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => {
-                Box::new(replacements.iter().map(|r| r.0))
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_conflicts_data_replacement() {
-        use io::commit::conflict_resolver::tests::{modified_fragment_ids, ConflictResult::*};
-
-        let fragment0 = Fragment::new(0);
-        let fragment1 = Fragment::new(1);
-
-        let data_file_frag0_fields01 =
-            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path0_01", vec![0, 1], None);
-        let data_file_frag0_fields23 =
-            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path0_23", vec![2, 3], None);
-        let data_file_frag1_fields01 =
-            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path1_01", vec![0, 1], None);
-
-        let cases = vec![
-            (
-                "Different fragments",
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
-                },
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(1, data_file_frag1_fields01)],
-                },
-                Compatible,
-            ),
-            (
-                "Same fragment, different fields",
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
-                },
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields23)],
-                },
-                Compatible,
-            ),
-            (
-                "Same fragment, same fields",
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
-                },
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
-                },
-                Retryable,
-            ),
-            (
-                "Same fragment, overlapping fields",
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
-                },
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(
-                        0,
-                        DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path0_12", vec![1, 2], None),
-                    )],
-                },
-                Retryable,
-            ),
-            (
-                "DataReplacement vs Rewrite on same fragment",
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
-                },
-                Operation::Rewrite {
-                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
-                        old_fragments: vec![fragment0.clone()],
-                        new_fragments: vec![fragment1.clone()],
-                    }],
-                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
-                    frag_reuse_index: None,
-                },
-                Retryable,
-            ),
-            (
-                "DataReplacement vs Rewrite on different fragment",
-                Operation::DataReplacement {
-                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01)],
-                },
-                Operation::Rewrite {
-                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
-                        old_fragments: vec![fragment1],
-                        new_fragments: vec![fragment0],
-                    }],
-                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
-                    frag_reuse_index: None,
-                },
-                Compatible,
-            ),
-        ];
-
-        for (description, op1, op2, expected) in cases {
-            let txn1 = Transaction::new(0, op1.clone(), None);
-            let txn2 = Transaction::new(0, op2.clone(), None);
-
+        // Either commit order: the metadata the restore discarded must not
+        // come back, whichever transaction rebases.
+        for (ours, theirs) in [
+            (update.clone(), restore.operation.clone()),
+            (restore.operation, update),
+        ] {
             let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
-                transaction: txn1,
+                transaction: Transaction::new(0, ours, None),
                 initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
-                modified_fragment_ids: modified_fragment_ids(&op1).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
                 affected_rows: None,
-                conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-                conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
             };
-
-            let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 1);
-            match expected {
-                Compatible => {
-                    assert!(
-                        result.is_ok(),
-                        "{}: expected Compatible but got {:?}",
-                        description,
-                        result
-                    );
-                }
-                NotCompatible => {
-                    assert!(
-                        matches!(result, Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-                        "{}: expected NotCompatible but got {:?}",
-                        description,
-                        result
-                    )
-                }
-                Retryable => {
-                    assert!(
-                        matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
-                        "{}: expected Retryable but got {:?}",
-                        description,
-                        result
-                    );
-                }
-            }
+            let result = rebase.check_txn(&Transaction::new(0, theirs, None), 1);
+            assert_eq!(result.is_err(), conflicts, "{result:?}");
         }
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_merged_generations_conflict_lower_generation_fails() {
-        // Test: committed generation >= to_commit generation should be incompatible (no retry)
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
-
-        // Committed has generation 10, we're trying to commit generation 5
-        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
+    fn test_mem_wal_install_conflicts_with_merge() {
+        let mem_wal_index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let column_index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "btree".to_string(),
+            ..mem_wal_index.clone()
+        };
+        let merge = Transaction::new(
             0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
+            Operation::Merge {
+                fragments: vec![],
+                schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema::default(),
+                preserves_nullability: true,
             },
             None,
         );
 
-        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
+        // Install rebasing over a committed Merge conflicts; a column index
+        // stays compatible.
+        for (index, conflicts) in [(mem_wal_index.clone(), true), (column_index, false)] {
+            let txn = Transaction::new(
+                0,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![index],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            );
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                transaction: txn,
+                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+                affected_rows: None,
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
+            };
+            let result = rebase.check_txn(&merge, 1);
+            assert_eq!(result.is_err(), conflicts, "{result:?}");
+        }
+
+        // And the reverse: a Merge rebasing over a committed install conflicts.
+        let install = Transaction::new(
             0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 5)],
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![mem_wal_index],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
             },
             None,
         );
-
         let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
-            transaction: to_commit_txn,
+            transaction: merge,
             initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
             modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
             affected_rows: None,
-            conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-            conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
         };
-
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&install, 1);
         assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected non-retryable CommitConflict for lower generation, got {:?}",
-            result
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+            "{result:?}"
         );
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn test_merged_generations_conflict_equal_generation_fails() {
-        // Test: committed generation == to_commit generation should be incompatible (no retry)
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
+    fn test_create_index_conflicts_only_on_same_name() {
+        let index0 = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "test".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let index1 = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "other".to_string(),
+            ..index0.clone()
+        };
 
-        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
+        let txn = Transaction::new(
             0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index0.clone()],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
             },
             None,
         );
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: txn,
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
 
-        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
+        let same_name = Transaction::new(
             0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![IndexMetadata {
+                    uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                    ..index0
+                }],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+        let different_name = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![index1],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let same_name_result = rebase.check_txn(&same_name, 1);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(same_name_result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+            "Expected retryable conflict for same-name CreateIndex, got {:?}",
+            same_name_result
+        );
+
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: Transaction::new(
+                0,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![IndexMetadata {
+                        uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+                        name: "test".to_string(),
+                        fields: vec![0],
+                        covering_fields: vec![],
+                        dataset_version: 1,
+                        fragment_bitmap: None,
+                        index_details: None,
+                        index_version: 0,
+                        created_at: None,
+                        base_id: None,
+                        files: None,
+                    }],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+        let different_name_result = rebase.check_txn(&different_name, 1);
+        assert!(
+            different_name_result.is_ok(),
+            "Expected compatibility for different-name CreateIndex, got {:?}",
+            different_name_result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::optimize_after_drop(false, true)]
+    #[case::drop_after_optimize(true, true)]
+    #[case::append_segment_after_drop(false, false)]
+    #[case::drop_after_append_segment(true, false)]
+    fn test_create_index_conflicts_with_concurrent_drop(
+        #[case] drop_is_current: bool,
+        #[case] maintenance_replaces_existing: bool,
+    ) {
+        let existing = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "test".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let drop_operation = Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![],
+            removed_indices: vec![existing.clone()],
+        };
+        let maintenance_operation = Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                ..existing.clone()
+            }],
+            removed_indices: maintenance_replaces_existing
+                .then(|| existing.clone())
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+        };
+        let (current_operation, committed_operation) = if drop_is_current {
+            (drop_operation, maintenance_operation)
+        } else {
+            (maintenance_operation, drop_operation)
+        };
+
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: Transaction::new(0, current_operation, None),
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&Transaction::new(0, committed_operation, None), 1);
+
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+            "Expected a retryable conflict between index maintenance and drop, got {result:?}"
+        );
+        let message = result.unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("preempted by concurrent transaction")
+                && message.contains("version 1"),
+            "Unexpected conflict message: {message}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_concurrent_index_drops_are_compatible() {
+        let existing = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "test".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let drop_operation = Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![],
+            removed_indices: vec![existing],
+        };
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: Transaction::new(0, drop_operation.clone(), None),
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&Transaction::new(0, drop_operation, None), 1);
+
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Concurrent drops of the same index should be idempotent, got {result:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_replacement_compatible_with_removing_disjoint_segment() {
+        let index = |uuid| IndexMetadata {
+            uuid,
+            name: "test".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let replaced = index(Uuid::new_v4());
+        let concurrently_removed = index(Uuid::new_v4());
+        let replacement_operation = Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![index(Uuid::new_v4())],
+            removed_indices: vec![replaced],
+        };
+        let removal_operation = Operation::CreateIndex {
+            new_indices: vec![],
+            removed_indices: vec![concurrently_removed],
+        };
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: Transaction::new(0, replacement_operation, None),
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&Transaction::new(0, removal_operation, None), 1);
+
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Replacing one segment should be compatible with removing another, got {result:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_create_ngram_index_conflicts_with_overlapping_deferred_rewrite() {
+        let ngram_index = |fragment_id| IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "text_ngram".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([fragment_id])),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "lance.index.NGramIndexDetails".to_string(),
+                value: Vec::new(),
+            })),
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let frag_reuse_index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 2,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32])),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let rewrite = Transaction::new(
+            1,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                    old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1)],
+                    new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(2)],
+                }],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(frag_reuse_index),
             },
             None,
         );
 
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
-            transaction: to_commit_txn,
-            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
-            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
-            affected_rows: None,
-            conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-            conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
-        };
+        for (covered_fragment, expect_conflict) in [(1u32, true), (3u32, false)] {
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                transaction: Transaction::new(
+                    1,
+                    Operation::CreateIndex {
+                        new_indices: vec![ngram_index(covered_fragment)],
+                        removed_indices: vec![],
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+                affected_rows: None,
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
+            };
+            let result = rebase.check_txn(&rewrite, 2);
+            if expect_conflict {
+                assert!(
+                    matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                    "overlapping staged NGram index should conflict, got {result:?}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                assert!(
+                    result.is_ok(),
+                    "disjoint staged NGram index should remain compatible, got {result:?}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_create_index_conflicts_with_deferred_rewrite_under_stable_row_ids() {
+        let row_id_domain_index = |fragment_id| IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: "vector_ivf".to_string(),
+            fields: vec![0],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([fragment_id])),
+            index_details: Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                type_url: "lance.index.IvfPqIndexDetails".to_string(),
+                value: Vec::new(),
+            })),
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let frag_reuse_index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            name: FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME.to_string(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            dataset_version: 2,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32])),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+
+        // The rewrite's own `old_fragments` are what the SRID inference reads:
+        // `row_id_meta` set means stable row ids were on at the read version.
+        for (row_id_meta, expect_conflict) in [
+            (Some(RowIdMeta::Inline(InlineRowIds::from(vec![7]))), true),
+            (None, false),
+        ] {
+            let mut old_fragment = Fragment::new(1);
+            old_fragment.row_id_meta = row_id_meta;
+
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                transaction: Transaction::new(
+                    1,
+                    Operation::Rewrite {
+                        groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                            old_fragments: vec![old_fragment],
+                            new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(2)],
+                        }],
+                        rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                        frag_reuse_index: Some(frag_reuse_index.clone()),
+                    },
+                    None,
+                ),
+                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+                affected_rows: None,
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+
+                staged_replay: false,
+            };
+            // Disjoint from the rewritten fragment, so this only exercises the
+            // stable-row-ids check and not the group-straddling check below it.
+            let create_index = Transaction::new(
+                1,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![row_id_domain_index(5u32)],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            );
+            let result = rebase.check_txn(&create_index, 2);
+            if expect_conflict {
+                assert!(
+                    matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                    "stable row ids should conflict with a row-id-domain index built \
+                     during a deferred rewrite, got {result:?}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                assert!(
+                    result.is_ok(),
+                    "fragments without row ids should not trip the stable-row-ids \
+                     inference, got {result:?}"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_bases_non_conflicting() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+
+        // Create two transactions adding different bases
+        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 2,
+                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // txn1 should not conflict with txn2
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_bases_name_conflict() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+
+        // Create two transactions adding bases with the same name
+        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("duplicate_name".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 2,
+                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("duplicate_name".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // txn1 should conflict with txn2 due to duplicate name
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected IncompatibleTransaction error for duplicate name, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_bases_path_conflict() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+
+        // Create two transactions adding bases with the same path
+        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    path: "s3://bucket/duplicate_path".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 2,
+                    path: "s3://bucket/duplicate_path".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // txn1 should conflict with txn2 due to duplicate path
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected IncompatibleTransaction error for duplicate path, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_bases_id_conflict() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+
+        // Create two transactions adding bases with the same non-zero ID
+        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 42,
+                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 42,
+                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // txn1 should conflict with txn2 due to duplicate non-zero ID
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected IncompatibleTransaction error for duplicate ID, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_bases_no_conflict_with_data_operations() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+
+        let add_bases_txn = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    path: "s3://bucket/path".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // Test against various data operations
+        let data_operations = vec![
+            Operation::Append { fragments: vec![] },
+            Operation::Delete {
+                deleted_fragment_ids: vec![0],
+                updated_fragments: vec![],
+                predicate: "a > 5".to_string(),
+            },
+            Operation::Update {
+                updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                new_fragments: vec![],
+                fields_modified: vec![],
+                compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                update_mode: None,
+                inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+            },
+        ];
+
+        for operation in data_operations {
+            let data_txn = Transaction::new_from_version(1, operation.clone());
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, add_bases_txn.clone(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                rebase.check_txn(&data_txn, 2).is_ok(),
+                "UpdateBases should not conflict with {:?}",
+                operation
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_bases_multiple_bases() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+
+        // txn1 adds two bases
+        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![
+                    lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                        id: 1,
+                        path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
+                        name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                        is_dataset_root: false,
+                    },
+                    lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                        id: 2,
+                        path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
+                        name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                        is_dataset_root: false,
+                    },
+                ],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // txn2 adds a base that conflicts with one of txn1's bases
+        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 3,
+                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(), // Same path as txn1's first base
+                    name: Some("base3".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // Should conflict due to path conflict
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected IncompatibleTransaction error, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_bases_with_none_name() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+
+        // Bases with None names should not conflict on name
+        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 1,
+                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
+                    name: None,
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 2,
+                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
+                    name: None,
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // Should not conflict despite both having None names
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_add_bases_with_zero_id() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(10, 2).await;
+
+        // Bases with zero IDs should not conflict on ID
+        let txn1 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 0,
+                    path: "s3://bucket1/path1".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("base1".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        let txn2 = Transaction::new_from_version(
+            1,
+            Operation::UpdateBases {
+                new_bases: vec![lance_table::format::BasePath {
+                    id: 0,
+                    path: "s3://bucket2/path2".to_string(),
+                    name: Some("base2".to_string()),
+                    is_dataset_root: false,
+                }],
+            },
+        );
+
+        // Should not conflict despite both having zero IDs
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, txn1, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 2).is_ok());
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the IDs of fragments that have been modified by this operation.
+    ///
+    /// This does not include new fragments.
+    fn modified_fragment_ids(operation: &Operation) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = u64> + '_> {
+        match operation {
+            // These operations add new fragments or don't modify any.
+            Operation::Append { .. }
+            | Operation::Clone { .. }
+            | Operation::Overwrite { .. }
+            | Operation::CreateIndex { .. }
+            | Operation::ReserveFragments { .. }
+            | Operation::Project { .. }
+            | Operation::UpdateConfig { .. }
+            | Operation::UpdateBases { .. }
+            | Operation::Restore { .. }
+            | Operation::UpdateMemWalState { .. } => Box::new(std::iter::empty()),
+            Operation::Delete {
+                updated_fragments,
+                deleted_fragment_ids,
+                ..
+            } => Box::new(
+                updated_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.id)
+                    .chain(deleted_fragment_ids.iter().copied()),
+            ),
+            Operation::Rewrite { groups, .. } => Box::new(
+                groups
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|f| f.old_fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id)),
+            ),
+            Operation::Merge { fragments, .. } => Box::new(fragments.iter().map(|f| f.id)),
+            Operation::Update {
+                updated_fragments,
+                removed_fragment_ids,
+                ..
+            } => Box::new(
+                updated_fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.id)
+                    .chain(removed_fragment_ids.iter().copied()),
+            ),
+            Operation::DataReplacement { replacements } => {
+                Box::new(replacements.iter().map(|r| r.0))
+            }
+            Operation::DataOverlay { groups } => Box::new(groups.iter().map(|g| g.fragment_id)),
+            Operation::Unknown { .. } => unimplemented!("modified_fragment_ids for {operation}"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_conflicts_data_replacement() {
+        use io::commit::conflict_resolver::tests::{ConflictResult::*, modified_fragment_ids};
+
+        let fragment0 = Fragment::new(0);
+        let fragment1 = Fragment::new(1);
+
+        let data_file_frag0_fields01 =
+            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path0_01", vec![0, 1], None);
+        let data_file_frag0_fields23 =
+            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path0_23", vec![2, 3], None);
+        let data_file_frag1_fields01 =
+            DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path1_01", vec![0, 1], None);
+
+        let cases = vec![
+            (
+                "Different fragments",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(1, data_file_frag1_fields01)],
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                "Same fragment, different fields",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields23)],
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                "Same fragment, same fields",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Retryable,
+            ),
+            (
+                "Same fragment, overlapping fields",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(
+                        0,
+                        DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path0_12", vec![1, 2], None),
+                    )],
+                },
+                Retryable,
+            ),
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Rewrite on same fragment",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: vec![fragment0.clone()],
+                        new_fragments: vec![fragment1.clone()],
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: None,
+                },
+                Retryable,
+            ),
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Rewrite on different fragment",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: vec![fragment1],
+                        new_fragments: vec![fragment0],
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: None,
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            // A concurrent Update/Delete only invalidates our positional file when it
+            // removes our target fragment outright, or (a horizontal update) rewrites
+            // one of our fields. A deletion-vector-only change stays aligned.
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Update (RewriteColumns) on a different field",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Update {
+                    updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                    removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                    new_fragments: vec![],
+                    fields_modified: vec![2],
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                    update_mode: Some(RewriteColumns),
+                    inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                // RewriteColumns new_fragments are unrelated inserts, not moved rows.
+                "DataReplacement vs Update (RewriteColumns) with inserts on a different field",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Update {
+                    updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                    removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                    new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(5)],
+                    fields_modified: vec![2],
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                    update_mode: Some(RewriteColumns),
+                    inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Update (RewriteColumns) that rewrote one of our fields",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Update {
+                    updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                    removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                    new_fragments: vec![],
+                    fields_modified: vec![1],
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                    update_mode: Some(RewriteColumns),
+                    inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+                },
+                Retryable,
+            ),
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Update (RewriteRows) that moved our rows",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Update {
+                    updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                    removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                    new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(5)],
+                    fields_modified: vec![],
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                    update_mode: Some(RewriteRows),
+                    inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+                },
+                Retryable,
+            ),
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Update that removed our fragment",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Update {
+                    updated_fragments: vec![],
+                    removed_fragment_ids: vec![0],
+                    new_fragments: vec![],
+                    fields_modified: vec![],
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                    update_mode: None,
+                    inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+                },
+                NotCompatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Update (RewriteRows) that moved a different fragment's rows",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Update {
+                    updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(1)],
+                    removed_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                    new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(5)],
+                    fields_modified: vec![],
+                    compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                    fields_for_preserving_frag_bitmap: vec![],
+                    update_mode: Some(RewriteRows),
+                    inserted_rows_filter: None,
+                    updated_fragment_offsets: None,
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Delete (deletion-vector only) on same fragment",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Delete {
+                    deleted_fragment_ids: vec![],
+                    updated_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                    predicate: "a > 0".to_string(),
+                },
+                Compatible,
+            ),
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Delete that removes the fragment",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01.clone())],
+                },
+                Operation::Delete {
+                    deleted_fragment_ids: vec![0],
+                    updated_fragments: vec![],
+                    predicate: "a > 0".to_string(),
+                },
+                NotCompatible,
+            ),
+            // Merge rewrites the whole fragment list -> always conflicts.
+            (
+                "DataReplacement vs Merge",
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(0, data_file_frag0_fields01)],
+                },
+                Operation::Merge {
+                    fragments: vec![Fragment::new(0)],
+                    schema: lance_core::datatypes::Schema::default(),
+                    preserves_nullability: true,
+                },
+                Retryable,
+            ),
+            (
+                // Unlike every other case here, op1 is CreateIndex and op2 is
+                // DataReplacement. This is deliberate, not an inconsistency:
+                // `check_txn` dispatches on op1's operation type, so only
+                // op1 == CreateIndex reaches `check_create_index_txn`'s
+                // `Operation::DataReplacement` arm, which is the arm this case
+                // targets. Swapping the order to match the other cases would
+                // instead exercise the mirrored `check_data_replacement_txn`'s
+                // `Operation::CreateIndex` arm, leaving the intended arm with
+                // zero coverage.
+                "CreateIndex covering a field vs DataReplacement of that field",
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![IndexMetadata {
+                        uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                        name: "covering_idx".to_string(),
+                        fields: vec![0, 3],
+                        covering_fields: vec![3],
+                        dataset_version: 1,
+                        fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32])),
+                        index_details: None,
+                        index_version: 0,
+                        created_at: None,
+                        base_id: None,
+                        files: None,
+                    }],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                Operation::DataReplacement {
+                    replacements: vec![DataReplacementGroup(
+                        0,
+                        DataFile::new_legacy_from_fields("path0_3", vec![3], None),
+                    )],
+                },
+                Retryable,
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        for (description, op1, op2, expected) in cases {
+            let txn1 = Transaction::new(0, op1.clone(), None);
+            let txn2 = Transaction::new(0, op2.clone(), None);
+
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+                transaction: txn1,
+                initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+                modified_fragment_ids: modified_fragment_ids(&op1).collect::<HashSet<_>>(),
+                affected_rows: None,
+                frag_reuse_base: None,
+                conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+                current_lineage: None,
+                current_live: None,
+                current_schema: None,
+                read_fragments: None,
+                read_schema: None,
+                reuse: Default::default(),
+                staged_replay: false,
+            };
+
+            let result = rebase.check_txn(&txn2, 1);
+            match expected {
+                Compatible => {
+                    assert!(
+                        result.is_ok(),
+                        "{}: expected Compatible but got {:?}",
+                        description,
+                        result
+                    );
+                }
+                NotCompatible => {
+                    // Removal returns a non-retryable IncompatibleTransaction so the
+                    // caller can drop the fragment instead of retrying.
+                    assert!(
+                        matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+                        "{}: expected NotCompatible but got {:?}",
+                        description,
+                        result
+                    )
+                }
+                Retryable => {
+                    assert!(
+                        matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+                        "{}: expected Retryable but got {:?}",
+                        description,
+                        result
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compacted_sstables_conflict_lower_generation_fails() {
+        // Test: committed generation >= to_commit generation should be incompatible (no retry)
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Committed has generation 10, we're trying to commit generation 5
+        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: to_commit_txn,
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected non-retryable IncompatibleTransaction for lower generation, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compacted_sstables_conflict_equal_generation_fails() {
+        // Test: committed generation == to_commit generation should be incompatible (no retry)
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: to_commit_txn,
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected non-retryable IncompatibleTransaction for equal generation, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compacted_sstables_conflict_higher_generation_retryable() {
+        // Test: committed generation < to_commit generation should be retryable
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Committed has generation 5, we're trying to commit generation 10
+        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: to_commit_txn,
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+            "Expected retryable conflict for higher generation, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_compacted_sstables_different_shards_ok() {
+        // Test: different shards should not conflict
+        let shard1 = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let shard2 = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard1, 10)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard2, 5)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: to_commit_txn,
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Expected OK for different shards, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_update_mem_wal_state_vs_create_index_with_compacted_sstables() {
+        use crate::index::mem_wal::new_mem_wal_index_meta;
+        use lance_index::mem_wal::MemWalIndexDetails;
+
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // Create a MemWalIndex with compacted_sstables
+        let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
+            compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mem_wal_index = new_mem_wal_index_meta(1, details).unwrap();
+
+        // CreateIndex with MemWalIndex that has generation 10
+        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![mem_wal_index],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        // UpdateMemWalState trying to set generation 5 (lower than committed)
+        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 5)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: to_commit_txn,
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. })),
+            "Expected non-retryable IncompatibleTransaction when UpdateMemWalState generation is lower than CreateIndex, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+
+        // Now test with higher generation (should be retryable)
+        let to_commit_txn_higher = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 15)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let mut rebase_higher = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: to_commit_txn_higher,
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+
+        let result_higher = rebase_higher.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result_higher, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+            "Expected retryable conflict when UpdateMemWalState generation is higher than CreateIndex, got {:?}",
+            result_higher
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_create_index_vs_update_mem_wal_state_rebase() {
+        use crate::index::mem_wal::new_mem_wal_index_meta;
+        use lance_index::mem_wal::MemWalIndexDetails;
+
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        // CreateIndex with MemWalIndex (no compacted_sstables initially)
+        let details = MemWalIndexDetails::default();
+        let mem_wal_index = new_mem_wal_index_meta(1, details).unwrap();
+
+        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![mem_wal_index],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        // UpdateMemWalState with generation 10
+        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
+            0,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 10)],
+            },
+            None,
+        );
+
+        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
+            transaction: to_commit_txn,
+            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
+            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
+            affected_rows: None,
+            frag_reuse_base: None,
+            conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables: Vec::new(),
+            current_lineage: None,
+            current_live: None,
+            current_schema: None,
+            read_fragments: None,
+            read_schema: None,
+            reuse: Default::default(),
+            staged_replay: false,
+        };
+
+        // CreateIndex of MemWalIndex should be compatible with UpdateMemWalState
+        // and should collect the compacted_sstables for rebasing
+        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
+        assert!(
+            result.is_ok(),
+            "Expected OK for CreateIndex vs UpdateMemWalState, got {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+
+        // Verify that compacted_sstables were collected
+        assert_eq!(rebase.conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            rebase.conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables[0].shard_id,
+            shard
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            rebase.conflicting_mem_wal_compacted_sstables[0].generation,
+            10
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_concurrent_overwrites_retryable() {
+        let dataset = test_dataset(5, 1).await;
+        let dataset_v1_reader1 = Arc::new(dataset.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap());
+        let dataset_v1_reader2 = Arc::new(dataset.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap());
+
+        let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+                Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+                Field::new("b", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ])),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(10..15)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(std::iter::repeat_n(1, 5))),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // First overwrite succeeds
+        let txn1 = InsertBuilder::new(dataset_v1_reader1.clone())
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![data.clone()])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset_v2 = CommitBuilder::new(dataset_v1_reader1)
+            .execute(txn1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset_v2.manifest.version, 2);
+
+        // Second overwrite should fail with retryable conflict
+        let txn2 = InsertBuilder::new(dataset_v1_reader2.clone())
+            .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .execute_uncommitted(vec![data])
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = CommitBuilder::new(dataset_v1_reader2).execute(txn2).await;
+        assert!(
+            matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
+            "Expected RetryableCommitConflict but got: {:?}",
+            result
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(dataset_v2.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 5);
+    }
+
+    /// Concurrent-writer coverage for the stable-partition rows of the
+    /// conflict matrix. Where cross-process behavior matters, the second
+    /// writer reopens the dataset with a fresh session so nothing rides the
+    /// shared in-memory cache: every decision has to come from transaction
+    /// files and the manifests themselves.
+    mod tagged_rewrite_conflicts {
+        mod index_over_committed_sp;
+        mod tagged_mutations;
+
+        use super::*;
+        use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse::{
+            build_frag_reuse_index_metadata, build_new_frag_reuse_index, decode_frag_reuse_ledger,
+            load_raw_frag_reuse_content,
+        };
+        use crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests::{
+            field, persist_fixture, prepare, prepare_partition,
+        };
+        use crate::session::Session;
+        use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+        use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+        use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+        use lance_index::IndexType;
+        use lance_index::frag_reuse::{
+            FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME, FragReuseGroup, FragReuseIndexDetails, FragReuseVersion,
+        };
+        use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+        use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+        use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::{
+            FragmentDigest, StablePartition, Transition, transition,
+        };
+        use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::FragDigest;
+        use lance_table::system_index::frag_reuse::ledger::{FragReuseLedger, Mapping};
+        use prost::Message;
+        use roaring::{RoaringBitmap, RoaringTreemap};
+
+        async fn ram_fixture(frag_count: u32, rows_per_fragment: u32) -> Dataset {
+            lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_ram_dataset(
+                    FragmentCount::from(frag_count),
+                    FragmentRowCount::from(rows_per_fragment),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn disk_fixture(uri: &str, frag_count: u32, rows_per_fragment: u32) -> Dataset {
+            lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+                .into_dataset(
+                    uri,
+                    FragmentCount::from(frag_count),
+                    FragmentRowCount::from(rows_per_fragment),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn fresh_session(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+            DatasetBuilder::from_uri(uri)
+                .with_session(Arc::new(Session::default()))
+                .load()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn reserve(dataset: &mut Dataset, num_fragments: u32) {
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::ReserveFragments { num_fragments },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        /// The rewrite's complete entry is built against `dataset`, the
+        /// version the rewrite reads.
+        async fn tagged_rewrite(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            old_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+            new_fragments: Vec<Fragment>,
+            transitions: Vec<Transition>,
+        ) -> Operation {
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                    old_fragments,
+                    new_fragments,
+                }],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(
+                    crate::index::frag_reuse::frag_reuse_entry_appending(dataset, transitions)
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn commit_sp(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            read_version: u64,
+            operation: Operation,
+        ) -> Result<Dataset> {
+            CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .execute(Transaction::new(read_version, operation, None))
+                .await
+        }
+
+        async fn fri_ledger(dataset: &Dataset) -> (IndexMetadata, FragReuseLedger) {
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .unwrap()
+                .clone();
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(dataset, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            (entry, ledger)
+        }
+
+        /// Row-map ids of the entry's stable-partition transitions.
+        async fn sp_map_ids(dataset: &Dataset) -> std::collections::HashSet<String> {
+            let (_, ledger) = fri_ledger(dataset).await;
+            ledger
+                .transitions()
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|transition| match transition.mapping() {
+                    Mapping::StablePartition(partition) => Some(partition.map_id.clone()),
+                    _ => None,
+                })
+                .collect()
+        }
+
+        /// (stable-partition, ordered-compaction) transition counts.
+        fn count_mappings(ledger: &FragReuseLedger) -> (usize, usize) {
+            ledger
+                .transitions()
+                .iter()
+                .fold((0, 0), |(sp, oc), t| match t.mapping() {
+                    Mapping::StablePartition(_) => (sp + 1, oc),
+                    Mapping::OrderedCompaction(_) => (sp, oc + 1),
+                })
+        }
+
+        async fn sorted_values(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<i32> {
+            let batch = dataset.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+                .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|v| v.unwrap())
+                .collect();
+            values.sort_unstable();
+            values
+        }
+
+        /// Copy the rows of `source_ids` into one fresh fragment and commit
+        /// the deferred-compaction Rewrite exactly as the v0 writer does: the
+        /// legacy FRI entry rides the in-memory `frag_reuse_index` field.
+        async fn commit_v0_compaction(dataset: &mut Dataset, source_ids: &[u64], dest_id: u64) {
+            let transaction = v0_compaction(dataset, source_ids, dest_id).await;
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        async fn v0_compaction(dataset: &Dataset, source_ids: &[u64], dest_id: u64) -> Transaction {
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = source_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| {
+                    dataset
+                        .fragments()
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .clone()
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let batch = {
+                let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+                scan.with_fragments(old_fragments.clone());
+                scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
+            };
+            let txn = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let Operation::Append { mut fragments } = txn.operation else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+            fragments[0].id = dest_id;
+            let mut changed_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            for frag in &old_fragments {
+                for offset in 0..frag.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64 {
+                    changed_row_addrs.insert((frag.id << 32) + offset);
+                }
+            }
+            let mut serialized = Vec::new();
+            changed_row_addrs.serialize_into(&mut serialized).unwrap();
+            let entry = build_new_frag_reuse_index(
+                &mut dataset.clone(),
+                vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs: serialized,
+                    old_frags: old_fragments.iter().map(FragDigest::from).collect(),
+                    new_frags: fragments.iter().map(FragDigest::from).collect(),
+                }],
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([dest_id as u32]),
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 0);
+            Transaction::new(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments,
+                        new_fragments: fragments,
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: Some(entry),
+                },
+                None,
+            )
+        }
+
+        /// With `external`, a history whose details live in their own file, so a
+        /// session that did not build an entry has to read it from storage.
+        async fn reuse_fixture(uri: &str, external: bool) -> (Dataset, usize) {
+            use crate::utils::test::{commit_padding_reuse_history, inline_padding_capacity};
+            let mut dataset = disk_fixture(uri, 2, 4).await;
+            let padding = if external {
+                inline_padding_capacity() + 1
+            } else {
+                0
+            };
+            if external {
+                commit_padding_reuse_history(&mut dataset, padding).await;
+            }
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 5).await;
+            (dataset, padding)
+        }
+
+        fn take_reuse_details_reads(dataset: &Dataset) -> usize {
+            dataset
+                .object_store
+                .io_stats_incremental()
+                .requests
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|request| {
+                    request.method.starts_with("get")
+                        && request
+                            .path
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .ends_with(lance_index::frag_reuse::FRAG_REUSE_DETAILS_FILE_NAME)
+                })
+                .count()
+        }
+
+        #[rstest::rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn v0_compaction_built_in_another_session_commits(
+            #[values(false, true)] external: bool,
+        ) {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let (dataset, padding) = reuse_fixture(dir.as_str(), external).await;
+            let dest_id = dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id.unwrap() as u64;
+            let compaction = v0_compaction(&dataset, &[0], dest_id).await;
+
+            let mut committer = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            take_reuse_details_reads(&committer);
+            committer
+                .apply_commit(compaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(take_reuse_details_reads(&committer) > 0, external);
+            let history = fresh_session(dir.as_str())
+                .await
+                .frag_reuse_index()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(history.details.versions.len(), padding + 1);
+            assert_eq!(history.details.versions[padding].old_frag_ids(), vec![0]);
+        }
+
+        #[rstest::rstest]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn v0_compaction_built_from_an_older_snapshot_is_refused(
+            #[values(false, true)] external: bool,
+        ) {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let (dataset, padding) = reuse_fixture(dir.as_str(), external).await;
+            let dest_id = dataset.manifest.max_fragment_id.unwrap() as u64;
+            let stale = v0_compaction(&dataset, &[0], dest_id - 1).await;
+            let mut other = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            commit_v0_compaction(&mut other, &[1], dest_id).await;
+
+            let mut latest = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let error = latest
+                .apply_commit(stale, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error}");
+            assert!(
+                error.to_string().contains("plus one version of its own"),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            let history = fresh_session(dir.as_str())
+                .await
+                .frag_reuse_index()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(history.details.versions.len(), padding + 1);
+            assert_eq!(history.details.versions[padding].old_frag_ids(), vec![1]);
+        }
+
+        /// Matrix row 1: append, an unrelated delete and a fragment
+        /// reservation land between the rewrite's read version and its
+        /// commit; the retry reassembles against the latest entry and every
+        /// transaction survives.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_lands_over_unrelated_concurrent_ops() {
+            let mut dataset = ram_fixture(2, 4).await;
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            // Writer A: append four rows, delete two of them, reserve ids.
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+            let appended = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema,
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(100..104))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let mut writer_a = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![appended])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            writer_a.delete("i >= 102").await.unwrap();
+            reserve(&mut writer_a, 5).await;
+
+            // Writer B: the stable-partition rewrite reads the old version.
+            let committed = commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&dataset, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let live_ids: Vec<u64> = committed.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            assert_eq!(live_ids.len(), 3);
+            assert_eq!(&live_ids[..2], &[10, 11]);
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..102);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&committed).await, expected);
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (1, 0));
+        }
+
+        /// Matrix row 2 (same session): a v0 deferred compaction of disjoint
+        /// fragments lands first; the stable-partition retry lifts its legacy
+        /// entry to index_version 1 and appends, so both records survive.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_reassembles_over_concurrent_v0_compaction() {
+            let mut dataset = ram_fixture(2, 4).await;
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 30).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            // Writer A: append a fragment, then v0-compact it.
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+            let appended = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema,
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(100..104))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let mut writer_a = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![appended])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let appended_id = writer_a.fragments().last().unwrap().id;
+            reserve(&mut writer_a, 5).await;
+            let dest_id = writer_a.manifest.max_fragment_id.unwrap() as u64;
+            commit_v0_compaction(&mut writer_a, &[appended_id], dest_id).await;
+            let (their_entry, their_ledger) = fri_ledger(&writer_a).await;
+            assert_eq!(their_entry.index_version, 0);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&their_ledger), (0, 1));
+            let their_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&writer_a, &their_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let committed = commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&dataset, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (1, 1));
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(appended_id as u32).is_some());
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(0).is_some());
+            let content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&committed, &entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(content.starts_with(&their_content));
+            let live_ids: Vec<u64> = committed.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            assert_eq!(live_ids, vec![10, 11, dest_id]);
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..104);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&committed).await, expected);
+        }
+
+        /// Matrix row 2 (fresh session): the retrying writer cannot see the
+        /// committed compaction's in-memory `frag_reuse_index` (a fresh
+        /// session decodes the transaction file, where the field is None);
+        /// its legacy record must be picked up from the CURRENT manifest
+        /// entry during reassembly.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_reassembles_over_concurrent_v0_compaction_fresh_session() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let mut writer_a = disk_fixture(dir.as_str(), 2, 4).await;
+            reserve(&mut writer_a, 30).await;
+
+            let writer_b = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = writer_b.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&writer_b).await;
+            let read_version = writer_b.manifest.version;
+
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(writer_a.schema()));
+            let appended = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema,
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(100..104))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let mut writer_a = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(writer_a.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![appended])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let appended_id = writer_a.fragments().last().unwrap().id;
+            reserve(&mut writer_a, 5).await;
+            let dest_id = writer_a.manifest.max_fragment_id.unwrap() as u64;
+            commit_v0_compaction(&mut writer_a, &[appended_id], dest_id).await;
+            let (their_entry, _) = fri_ledger(&writer_a).await;
+            let their_content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&writer_a, &their_entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let committed = commit_sp(
+                &writer_b,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&writer_b, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            // Verify through yet another session: everything below comes from
+            // the committed manifest, not anyone's cache.
+            let verify = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            assert_eq!(verify.manifest.version, committed.manifest.version);
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&verify).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (1, 1));
+            let content = load_raw_frag_reuse_content(&verify, &entry).await.unwrap();
+            assert!(content.starts_with(&their_content));
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..104);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&verify).await, expected);
+        }
+
+        /// Matrix row 3 (fresh session): the committed rewrite consumed our
+        /// transition sources; the conflict must be detected from its
+        /// transaction file alone and rejected outright: the intent can never
+        /// succeed once its fragments are gone.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_double_consumption_is_rejected_fresh_session() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let mut writer_a = disk_fixture(dir.as_str(), 2, 4).await;
+            reserve(&mut writer_a, 40).await;
+
+            let writer_b = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = writer_b.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&writer_b).await;
+            let read_version = writer_b.manifest.version;
+
+            // Writer A rewrites the same fragments (a plain compaction).
+            let batch = writer_a.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+            let txn = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(writer_a.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let Operation::Append { mut fragments } = txn.operation else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            fragments[0].id = 30;
+            writer_a
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        writer_a.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::Rewrite {
+                            groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                                old_fragments: writer_a.fragments().iter().cloned().collect(),
+                                new_fragments: fragments,
+                            }],
+                            rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                            frag_reuse_index: None,
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let error = commit_sp(
+                &writer_b,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&writer_b, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. }),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("consumed fragments"), "{error}");
+        }
+
+        /// Matrix row 3, destination direction: a committed rewrite that
+        /// consumed the fragments our transitions PRODUCE is double
+        /// consumption too. Unit-level because a real writer cannot commit a
+        /// rewrite of fragments that do not exist yet; the rule still has to
+        /// hold for replayed/raced transactions that claim them.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_double_consumption_covers_destinations() {
+            let dataset = test_dataset(8, 2).await;
+            let transitions = vec![Transition {
+                sources: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                    id: 0,
+                    physical_rows: 4,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                }],
+                destinations: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                    id: 10,
+                    physical_rows: 4,
+                    num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                }],
+                mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(StablePartition {
+                    map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                    map_size_bytes: 1,
+                    base_id: None,
+                })),
+            }];
+            let ours = Transaction::new(
+                1,
+                tagged_rewrite(
+                    &dataset,
+                    vec![dataset.fragments()[0].clone()],
+                    vec![Fragment::new(10)],
+                    transitions,
+                )
+                .await,
+                None,
+            );
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, ours, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let theirs = Transaction::new(
+                0,
+                Operation::Rewrite {
+                    groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(10)],
+                        new_fragments: vec![Fragment::new(11)],
+                    }],
+                    rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                    frag_reuse_index: None,
+                },
+                None,
+            );
+            let error = rebase.check_txn(&theirs, 2).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. }),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("consumed fragments"), "{error}");
+        }
+
+        /// Matrix row 4: a v0 FRI trim (cleanup CreateIndex) lands first; the
+        /// stable-partition retry reloads the trimmed entry from the current
+        /// manifest, re-appends its transition and revalidates, so the
+        /// trimmed-away record stays gone and the surviving one is kept.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_rebases_over_concurrent_fri_trim() {
+            let mut dataset = ram_fixture(2, 4).await;
+
+            let digest = |id: u64| FragDigest {
+                id,
+                physical_rows: 4,
+                num_deleted_rows: 0,
+            };
+            let legacy_version = |dataset_version: u64, old_id: u64, new_id: u64| {
+                let mut addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+                for offset in 0..4u64 {
+                    addrs.insert((old_id << 32) + offset);
+                }
+                let mut serialized = Vec::new();
+                addrs.serialize_into(&mut serialized).unwrap();
+                FragReuseVersion {
+                    dataset_version,
+                    groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                        changed_row_addrs: serialized,
+                        old_frags: vec![digest(old_id)],
+                        new_frags: vec![digest(new_id)],
+                    }],
+                }
+            };
+            let full = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+                versions: vec![legacy_version(1, 100, 110), legacy_version(2, 200, 210)],
+            };
+            let entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+                &dataset,
+                None,
+                full,
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([110u32, 210]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            dataset
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        dataset.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![entry],
+                            removed_indices: vec![],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            // Writer A trims the oldest legacy version, as v0 cleanup does.
+            let mut writer_a = dataset.clone();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&writer_a).await.unwrap();
+            let old_entry = stored
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+                .unwrap()
+                .clone();
+            let trimmed = FragReuseIndexDetails {
+                versions: vec![legacy_version(2, 200, 210)],
+            };
+            let new_entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(
+                &writer_a,
+                Some(&old_entry),
+                trimmed,
+                RoaringBitmap::from_iter([210u32]),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            writer_a
+                .apply_commit(
+                    Transaction::new(
+                        writer_a.manifest.version,
+                        Operation::CreateIndex {
+                            new_indices: vec![new_entry],
+                            removed_indices: vec![old_entry],
+                        },
+                        None,
+                    ),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                    &Default::default(),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let committed = commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&dataset, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (1, 1));
+            // The trimmed record stayed gone; the survivor and ours remain.
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(100).is_none());
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(200).is_some());
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(0).is_some());
+        }
+
+        /// Matrix row 5: a user reindex (CreateIndex over the fragments the
+        /// rewrite consumes) is compatible: the rewrite defers remapping, the
+        /// index keeps its retired coverage as provenance, and afterwards the
+        /// tagged trim retains the record that index still needs.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_lands_over_concurrent_user_index_and_blocks_v0_trim() {
+            let mut dataset = ram_fixture(2, 4).await;
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            let mut writer_a = dataset.clone();
+            writer_a
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let mut committed = commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&dataset, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&committed).await.unwrap();
+            let scalar = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                scalar.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+            );
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (1, 0));
+            // The index still answers through the translated coverage.
+            assert_eq!(
+                committed
+                    .count_rows(Some("i = 3".to_string()))
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+                1
+            );
+            // The tagged trim must not release the history out from under
+            // the not-yet-caught-up index: everything is retained, so the
+            // cleanup is a no-op (no commit, entry untouched).
+            let version = committed.manifest.version;
+            crate::dataset::index::frag_reuse::cleanup_frag_reuse_index(&mut committed)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(committed.manifest.version, version);
+            let (entry_after, _) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry_after.uuid, entry.uuid);
+        }
+
+        /// A distributed compaction plans at V and its driver holds a handle
+        /// at V+N. Building the complete entry from that later handle folds
+        /// the transitions other writers appended in between into this
+        /// rewrite's own additions; the commit path refuses such an entry
+        /// with the contract error instead of misreading it (the gatekeeper's
+        /// probe, kept as the proof of the check).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn rewrite_entry_built_from_a_later_handle_is_refused_with_the_contract_error() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let mut main = disk_fixture(dir.as_str(), 4, 4).await;
+            main.create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            reserve(&mut main, 40).await;
+            let planned = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let read_version = planned.manifest.version;
+            let ours_old: Vec<Fragment> = planned
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|fragment| fragment.id < 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (ours_transition, ours_destinations) =
+                prepare_partition(&planned, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+
+            let a_old: Vec<Fragment> = main
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|fragment| fragment.id >= 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (a_transition, a_destinations) = prepare_partition(&main, &[2, 3], 20).await;
+            let a_version = main.manifest.version;
+            let main = commit_sp(
+                &main,
+                a_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&main, a_old, a_destinations, vec![a_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            // The task read V; the entry is built from the latest handle.
+            let operation =
+                tagged_rewrite(&main, ours_old, ours_destinations, vec![ours_transition]).await;
+            let err = commit_sp(&main, read_version, operation)
+                .await
+                .expect_err("an entry built from a later snapshot is refused");
+            assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err:?}");
+            assert!(
+                err.to_string().contains("built from version"),
+                "unexpected error: {err}"
+            );
+            // Nothing landed: the concurrent rewrite's history is intact and
+            // every row is still served from it.
+            let latest = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            assert_eq!(latest.manifest.version, main.manifest.version);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&latest).await, (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        }
+
+        /// The same race with the entry built from the read-version snapshot,
+        /// as the contract requires: both disjoint rewrites land, the history
+        /// holds both transitions and every row stays served.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn rewrite_entry_built_at_the_read_version_merges_with_a_disjoint_concurrent_rewrite()
+        {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let mut main = disk_fixture(dir.as_str(), 4, 4).await;
+            main.create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            reserve(&mut main, 40).await;
+            let planned = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let read_version = planned.manifest.version;
+            let ours_old: Vec<Fragment> = planned
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|fragment| fragment.id < 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (ours_transition, ours_destinations) =
+                prepare_partition(&planned, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            // Built from the snapshot the task read, before the other writer
+            // lands.
+            let operation =
+                tagged_rewrite(&planned, ours_old, ours_destinations, vec![ours_transition]).await;
+
+            let a_old: Vec<Fragment> = main
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|fragment| fragment.id >= 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (a_transition, a_destinations) = prepare_partition(&main, &[2, 3], 20).await;
+            let a_version = main.manifest.version;
+            let main = commit_sp(
+                &main,
+                a_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&main, a_old, a_destinations, vec![a_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let committed = commit_sp(&main, read_version, operation).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&committed).await, (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+            let (_, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (2, 0));
+            assert_eq!(committed.fragments().len(), 4);
+            let indexed = committed
+                .scan()
+                .filter("i = 5")
+                .unwrap()
+                .use_scalar_index(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let scanned = committed
+                .scan()
+                .filter("i = 5")
+                .unwrap()
+                .use_scalar_index(false)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(indexed, scanned);
+            assert_eq!(indexed.num_rows(), 1);
+        }
+
+        /// A retry re-reads the same intent. The rewrite's entry stays what
+        /// the caller supplied across attempts, so a second assembly against
+        /// a manifest that gained more concurrent transitions still adds
+        /// exactly this rewrite's transition: nothing another writer
+        /// recorded is ever taken for our own addition, and nothing of ours
+        /// is recorded twice.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_retry_reassembles_the_same_intent_without_absorbing_others() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let mut main = disk_fixture(dir.as_str(), 6, 4).await;
+            main.create_index(
+                &["i"],
+                IndexType::Scalar,
+                Some("i_idx".into()),
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                false,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            reserve(&mut main, 60).await;
+            let read_version_dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let read_version = read_version_dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            // Ours: F0, F1 -> F10, F11, built against the read version.
+            let ours_old: Vec<Fragment> = read_version_dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id < 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (our_transition, our_destinations) =
+                prepare_partition(&read_version_dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let ours = Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(
+                    &read_version_dataset,
+                    ours_old,
+                    our_destinations,
+                    vec![our_transition.clone()],
+                )
+                .await,
+                None,
+            );
+            let Operation::Rewrite {
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(intent),
+                ..
+            } = &ours.operation
+            else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            let intent_uuid = intent.uuid;
+
+            // Concurrent writer A lands F2, F3 -> F20, F21.
+            let a_old: Vec<Fragment> = main
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id == 2 || f.id == 3)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (a_transition, a_destinations) = prepare_partition(&main, &[2, 3], 20).await;
+            let a_version = main.manifest.version;
+            let main = commit_sp(
+                &main,
+                a_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&main, a_old, a_destinations, vec![a_transition.clone()]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            // First attempt: merged onto A's entry, transaction untouched.
+            let rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&read_version_dataset, ours.clone(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let (after_first, assembly) = rebase.finish_with_tagged_rewrite(&main).await.unwrap();
+            let assembly = assembly.expect("a tagged rewrite assembles an entry");
+            assert_eq!(
+                after_first, ours,
+                "the transaction keeps the caller's entry"
+            );
+            let Operation::Rewrite {
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(kept),
+                ..
+            } = &after_first.operation
+            else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            assert_eq!(kept.uuid, intent_uuid);
+            let ids = |ledger: &FragReuseLedger| -> Vec<Vec<u64>> {
+                ledger
+                    .transitions()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|transition| transition.sources().iter().map(|d| d.id).collect())
+                    .collect()
+            };
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&main, &assembly.entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ids(&ledger), vec![vec![2, 3], vec![0, 1]]);
+
+            // Concurrent writer C lands F4, F5 -> F30, F31 before a retry.
+            let c_old: Vec<Fragment> = main
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id == 4 || f.id == 5)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (c_transition, c_destinations) = prepare_partition(&main, &[4, 5], 30).await;
+            let c_version = main.manifest.version;
+            let main = commit_sp(
+                &main,
+                c_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&main, c_old, c_destinations, vec![c_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            // Second attempt from the same transaction: A's and C's
+            // transitions are the current entry's, ours is added once.
+            let rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&read_version_dataset, after_first, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let (after_second, assembly) = rebase.finish_with_tagged_rewrite(&main).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(after_second, ours);
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&main, &assembly.unwrap().entry)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(ids(&ledger), vec![vec![2, 3], vec![4, 5], vec![0, 1]]);
+
+            // And the real commit lands the same way.
+            let committed = commit_sp(&read_version_dataset, read_version, ours.operation)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let (_, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(ids(&ledger), vec![vec![2, 3], vec![4, 5], vec![0, 1]]);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&committed).await, (0..24).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+        }
+
+        /// Matrix row 6 (fresh session): two DISJOINT stable-partition
+        /// rewrites race and BOTH land. The second writer cannot see the
+        /// first through its transaction file; its in-loop reassembly reads
+        /// the committed entry, appends its own transition, and the merged
+        /// ledger validates. Overlap is rejected earlier and non-retryably
+        /// by the double-consumption rule, so what reaches reassembly is
+        /// proven disjoint.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_vs_sp_disjoint_merges_fresh_session() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let mut writer_a = disk_fixture(dir.as_str(), 4, 4).await;
+            writer_a
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve(&mut writer_a, 40).await;
+            let base_version = writer_a.manifest.version;
+
+            let writer_b = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let b_old: Vec<Fragment> = writer_b
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id < 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (b_transition, b_destinations) = prepare_partition(&writer_b, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let read_version = writer_b.manifest.version;
+            assert_eq!(read_version, base_version);
+
+            let a_old: Vec<Fragment> = writer_a
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id >= 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (a_transition, a_destinations) = prepare_partition(&writer_a, &[2, 3], 20).await;
+            let a_version = writer_a.manifest.version;
+            commit_sp(
+                &writer_a,
+                a_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&writer_a, a_old, a_destinations, vec![a_transition.clone()]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            // No caller-visible error: the in-loop rebase merges.
+            let committed = commit_sp(
+                &writer_b,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&writer_b, b_old, b_destinations, vec![b_transition.clone()]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            // Exactly two commits landed on top of the shared base.
+            assert_eq!(committed.manifest.version, base_version + 2);
+
+            // Verified through yet another session: both transitions and
+            // both row maps are in the committed entry.
+            let verify = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&verify).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (2, 0));
+            let map_id = |transition: &Transition| match transition.mapping.as_ref().unwrap() {
+                transition::Mapping::StablePartition(partition) => partition.map_id.clone(),
+                _ => unreachable!(),
+            };
+            let merged = sp_map_ids(&verify).await;
+            assert!(merged.contains(&map_id(&a_transition)));
+            assert!(merged.contains(&map_id(&b_transition)));
+            let live_ids: Vec<u64> = verify.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect();
+            assert_eq!(live_ids, vec![10, 11, 20, 21]);
+
+            // Both row maps translate: full scan and translated index
+            // queries stay value-identical across both partitions.
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&verify).await, (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+            let filtered = |predicate: &'static str| {
+                let verify = verify.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let mut scan = verify.scan();
+                    scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+                    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+                    let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+                        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|v| v.unwrap())
+                        .collect();
+                    values.sort_unstable();
+                    values
+                }
+            };
+            assert_eq!(filtered("i = 1").await, vec![1]);
+            assert_eq!(filtered("i = 9").await, vec![9]);
+            assert_eq!(filtered("i >= 14").await, vec![14, 15]);
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&verify).await.unwrap();
+            let scalar = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                scalar.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 2, 3])
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Indexed and index-disabled results for `predicate` agree; the
+        /// indexed batch is returned.
+        async fn assert_indexed_agrees(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str) -> RecordBatch {
+            let indexed = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(predicate)
+                .unwrap()
+                .use_scalar_index(true)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let scanned = dataset
+                .scan()
+                .filter(predicate)
+                .unwrap()
+                .use_scalar_index(false)
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(indexed, scanned, "{predicate}");
+            indexed
+        }
+
+        /// A rewrite of two groups: fragments 0 and 1 partitioned onto 10
+        /// and 11 with their transition recorded, fragments 2 and 3 moved
+        /// onto 20 and 21 with no transition (a bare group).
+        async fn mixed_rewrite(dataset: &Dataset) -> Operation {
+            let old = |ids: &[u64]| -> Vec<Fragment> {
+                dataset
+                    .fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter(|fragment| ids.contains(&fragment.id))
+                    .cloned()
+                    .collect()
+            };
+            let (transition, covered_destinations) = prepare_partition(dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let (_, bare_destinations) = prepare_partition(dataset, &[2, 3], 20).await;
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![
+                    RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: old(&[0, 1]),
+                        new_fragments: covered_destinations,
+                    },
+                    RewriteGroup {
+                        old_fragments: old(&[2, 3]),
+                        new_fragments: bare_destinations,
+                    },
+                ],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: Some(
+                    crate::index::frag_reuse::frag_reuse_entry_appending(dataset, vec![transition])
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap(),
+                ),
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// Four fragments of four rows, `i_idx` over all of them.
+        async fn covered_fixture() -> Dataset {
+            let mut dataset = ram_fixture(4, 4).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            dataset
+        }
+
+        /// Two fragments indexed by `i_idx`, then fragments 2 and 3 (values
+        /// 8..16) appended after the index was built: nothing covers them.
+        async fn uncovered_fixture() -> Dataset {
+            let mut dataset = ram_fixture(2, 4).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 8..12).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 12..16).await;
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            dataset
+        }
+
+        /// Attach a MemWAL index (no fragment bitmap by design).
+        async fn with_mem_wal(dataset: Dataset) -> Dataset {
+            use lance_index::mem_wal::{MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME, MemWalIndexDetails};
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let mem_wal = lance_table::system_index::mem_wal::new_mem_wal_index_meta(
+                version,
+                MemWalIndexDetails::default(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let dataset = commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![mem_wal],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = stored
+                .iter()
+                .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(entry.fragment_bitmap.is_none());
+            dataset
+        }
+
+        fn i_idx(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> &IndexMetadata {
+            indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// The mixed rewrite on `dataset` is refused whole: nothing lands,
+        /// `i_idx` is as it was and still agrees with the scan.
+        async fn assert_mixed_rewrite_refused(mut dataset: Dataset) {
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let stored_before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                i_idx(&stored_before).fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 2, 3])
+            );
+
+            let operation = mixed_rewrite(&dataset).await;
+            let error = commit_sp(&dataset, version, operation).await.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error:?}");
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("i_idx"), "{error}");
+
+            assert_eq!(dataset.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(), version);
+            dataset.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![0, 1, 2, 3]
+            );
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stored.len(), stored_before.len());
+            assert_eq!(i_idx(&stored).uuid, i_idx(&stored_before).uuid);
+            assert_eq!(
+                i_idx(&stored).fragment_bitmap,
+                i_idx(&stored_before).fragment_bitmap
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&dataset).await, (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_indexed_agrees(&dataset, "i = 13").await.num_rows(),
+                1
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// The mixed rewrite on `dataset` lands: the transition is recorded,
+        /// `i_idx` translates onto the covered destinations, the bare
+        /// destinations are scanned.
+        async fn assert_mixed_rewrite_lands(dataset: Dataset) {
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let stored_before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                i_idx(&stored_before).fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+            );
+
+            let operation = mixed_rewrite(&dataset).await;
+            let committed = commit_sp(&dataset, version, operation).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                committed
+                    .fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.id)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![10, 11, 20, 21]
+            );
+            let (_, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&committed).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stored.len(), stored_before.len() + 1, "the entry was added");
+            assert_eq!(i_idx(&stored).uuid, i_idx(&stored_before).uuid);
+            assert_eq!(
+                i_idx(&stored).fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]),
+                "stored provenance stays the retired sources"
+            );
+            let derived = committed.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                i_idx(&derived).fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11]),
+                "derived coverage is the covered destinations"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&committed).await, (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_indexed_agrees(&committed, "i = 5").await.num_rows(),
+                1
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_indexed_agrees(&committed, "i = 13").await.num_rows(),
+                1
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_indexed_agrees(&committed, "i >= 6").await.num_rows(),
+                10
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A rewrite carrying a transition for one group and none for another
+        /// is validated group by group: the bare group must pass the rule of a
+        /// bare rewrite (its old fragments outside every index bitmap). Here
+        /// `i_idx` covers the bare group's sources, so the whole transaction
+        /// is refused and nothing partial is published: without this the
+        /// index silently loses coverage of the moved rows.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn mixed_rewrite_with_a_bare_group_over_covered_fragments_is_refused_whole() {
+            assert_mixed_rewrite_refused(covered_fixture().await).await;
+        }
+
+        /// The same shape where no index covers the bare group's sources
+        /// lands: the transition is recorded, the index translates onto the
+        /// covered destinations, the bare destinations are scanned.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn mixed_rewrite_with_a_bare_group_over_uncovered_fragments_lands() {
+            assert_mixed_rewrite_lands(uncovered_fixture().await).await;
+        }
+
+        /// A MemWAL index carries no fragment bitmap by design; it is not
+        /// unknown coverage, so it neither blocks the uncovered bare group
+        /// nor excuses the covered one.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn mixed_rewrite_beside_a_mem_wal_index_follows_the_bare_group_rule() {
+            assert_mixed_rewrite_lands(with_mem_wal(uncovered_fixture().await).await).await;
+            assert_mixed_rewrite_refused(with_mem_wal(covered_fixture().await).await).await;
+        }
+
+        /// A second writer's index over `fragment_ids`, committed after
+        /// `version`.
+        async fn concurrent_index(dataset: &Dataset, fragment_ids: Vec<u32>) -> Dataset {
+            let mut writer_b = dataset.clone();
+            writer_b
+                .create_index_builder(&["i"], IndexType::Scalar, &ScalarIndexParams::default())
+                .name("late_idx".into())
+                .fragments(fragment_ids)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(writer_b.manifest.version, dataset.manifest.version + 1);
+            writer_b
+        }
+
+        fn late_idx(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> &IndexMetadata {
+            indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "late_idx").unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// The bare group is checked against the index list of the attempt,
+        /// not of the read version: an index a concurrent writer built over
+        /// the bare group's fragments refuses the rebased rewrite.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn bare_group_covered_by_a_concurrent_index_is_refused_on_retry() {
+            let mut writer_a = uncovered_fixture().await;
+            let version = writer_a.manifest.version;
+            let operation = mixed_rewrite(&writer_a).await;
+            let writer_b = concurrent_index(&writer_a, vec![2, 3]).await;
+            let stored_b = crate::index::load_all_indices(&writer_b).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                late_idx(&stored_b).fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 3])
+            );
+
+            let error = commit_sp(&writer_a, version, operation).await.unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(error, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{error:?}");
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("late_idx"), "{error}");
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                writer_a.latest_version_id().await.unwrap(),
+                writer_b.manifest.version,
+                "nothing from writer A landed"
+            );
+            writer_a.checkout_latest().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                writer_a
+                    .fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.id)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![0, 1, 2, 3]
+            );
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&writer_a).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stored.len(), stored_b.len());
+            assert_eq!(late_idx(&stored).uuid, late_idx(&stored_b).uuid);
+            assert_eq!(
+                late_idx(&stored).fragment_bitmap,
+                late_idx(&stored_b).fragment_bitmap
+            );
+            assert_eq!(i_idx(&stored).uuid, i_idx(&stored_b).uuid);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&writer_a).await, (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_indexed_agrees(&writer_a, "i = 13").await.num_rows(),
+                1
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_indexed_agrees(&writer_a, "i >= 6").await.num_rows(),
+                10
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// The mirror: the concurrent index covers only the transition
+        /// group's sources, so the rebased rewrite lands and that index
+        /// translates onto the covered destinations.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn bare_group_uncovered_by_a_concurrent_index_lands_on_retry() {
+            let writer_a = uncovered_fixture().await;
+            let version = writer_a.manifest.version;
+            let operation = mixed_rewrite(&writer_a).await;
+            let writer_b = concurrent_index(&writer_a, vec![0, 1]).await;
+            let stored_b = crate::index::load_all_indices(&writer_b).await.unwrap();
+
+            let committed = commit_sp(&writer_a, version, operation).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(committed.manifest.version, writer_b.manifest.version + 1);
+            assert_eq!(
+                committed
+                    .fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.id)
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![10, 11, 20, 21]
+            );
+            let (_, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 1);
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&committed).await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stored.len(), stored_b.len() + 1, "the entry was added");
+            for (name, pick) in [
+                (
+                    "late_idx",
+                    late_idx as fn(&[IndexMetadata]) -> &IndexMetadata,
+                ),
+                ("i_idx", i_idx),
+            ] {
+                assert_eq!(pick(&stored).uuid, pick(&stored_b).uuid, "{name}");
+                assert_eq!(
+                    pick(&stored).fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                    &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]),
+                    "{name}: stored provenance stays the retired sources"
+                );
+            }
+            let derived = committed.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                late_idx(&derived).fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+                &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])
+            );
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&committed).await, (0..16).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_indexed_agrees(&committed, "i = 5").await.num_rows(),
+                1
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_indexed_agrees(&committed, "i = 13").await.num_rows(),
+                1
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                assert_indexed_agrees(&committed, "i >= 6").await.num_rows(),
+                10
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A tagged table with one stable-partition transition (fragments
+        /// 10 and 11) built through the real commit path.
+        async fn make_tagged(mut dataset: Dataset) -> Dataset {
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&dataset, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        async fn tagged_fixture() -> Dataset {
+            make_tagged(ram_fixture(2, 4).await).await
+        }
+
+        /// An on-disk tagged fixture (fragments 10 and 11, four rows each,
+        /// values 0..8) plus two two-row appended fragments (100..102 and
+        /// 102..104): with `target_rows_per_fragment: 4` only the appended
+        /// fragments are compaction candidates, so a real `compact_files`
+        /// stays disjoint from a stable-partition rewrite of 10 and 11.
+        async fn disk_tagged_fixture_with_small_fragments(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+            // Order matters: the two-row fragments are appended and indexed
+            // BEFORE the tagging rewrite, so deferred compaction of them
+            // must record a transition (uncovered fragments would commit a
+            // plain rewrite instead; see
+            // `uncovered_deferred_compaction_commits_plain_rewrite`).
+            let dataset = disk_fixture(uri, 2, 4).await;
+            let dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 100..102).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 102..104).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id < 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let mut dataset = commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&dataset, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            dataset
+        }
+
+        fn deferred_compaction_options() -> crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+            crate::dataset::optimize::CompactionOptions {
+                target_rows_per_fragment: 4,
+                defer_index_remap: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn append_rows(dataset: &Dataset, values: std::ops::Range<i32>) -> Dataset {
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+            let batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(values))])
+                    .unwrap();
+            InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        /// The transition and destination a tagged deferred compaction of
+        /// `source_ids` would carry: the same digests and changed_row_addrs
+        /// the writer records, with an ordered-compaction mapping.
+        async fn oc_parts(
+            dataset: &Dataset,
+            source_ids: &[u64],
+            dest_id: u64,
+        ) -> (Transition, Vec<Fragment>) {
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = source_ids
+                .iter()
+                .map(|id| {
+                    dataset
+                        .fragments()
+                        .iter()
+                        .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .clone()
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let batch = {
+                let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+                scan.with_fragments(old_fragments.clone());
+                scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
+            };
+            let txn = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+                .with_params(&WriteParams {
+                    mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                })
+                .execute_uncommitted(vec![batch])
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let Operation::Append { mut fragments } = txn.operation else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            assert_eq!(fragments.len(), 1);
+            fragments[0].id = dest_id;
+            let mut changed_row_addrs = RoaringTreemap::new();
+            for frag in &old_fragments {
+                for offset in 0..frag.physical_rows.unwrap() as u64 {
+                    changed_row_addrs.insert((frag.id << 32) + offset);
+                }
+            }
+            let mut serialized = Vec::new();
+            changed_row_addrs.serialize_into(&mut serialized).unwrap();
+            let digests = |fragments: &[Fragment]| {
+                fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| FragmentDigest::from(&FragDigest::from(f)))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            };
+            let transition = Transition {
+                sources: digests(&old_fragments),
+                destinations: digests(&fragments),
+                mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::OrderedCompaction(
+                    lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::OrderedCompaction {
+                        changed_row_addrs: serialized,
+                    },
+                )),
+            };
+            (transition, fragments)
+        }
+
+        /// Tagged-compaction row, direction 1: a stable-partition rewrite
+        /// lands while a tagged deferred compaction of disjoint fragments is
+        /// in flight; the compaction rebases onto the appended entry (its
+        /// transitions are ordered compactions, so the SP-vs-SP diff must
+        /// not fire) and both records survive.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn tagged_compaction_rebases_over_concurrent_sp() {
+            let dataset = tagged_fixture().await;
+            let mut dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 100..104).await;
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let appended_id = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().id;
+
+            let b_old = vec![dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().clone()];
+            let (b_transition, b_destinations) = oc_parts(&dataset, &[appended_id], 55).await;
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            let writer_a = dataset.clone();
+            let a_old: Vec<Fragment> = writer_a
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id != appended_id)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (a_transition, a_destinations) = prepare_partition(&writer_a, &[10, 11], 50).await;
+            let a_version = writer_a.manifest.version;
+            commit_sp(
+                &writer_a,
+                a_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&writer_a, a_old, a_destinations, vec![a_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let committed = commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&dataset, b_old, b_destinations, vec![b_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (2, 1));
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(appended_id as u32).is_some());
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..104);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&committed).await, expected);
+        }
+
+        /// Tagged-compaction row, direction 2: a tagged deferred compaction
+        /// lands while a stable-partition rewrite of disjoint fragments is
+        /// in flight; the rewrite rebases onto the entry containing the
+        /// compaction's transition and both records survive.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_rebases_over_concurrent_tagged_compaction() {
+            let dataset = tagged_fixture().await;
+            let mut dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 100..104).await;
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+            let appended_id = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().id;
+
+            let b_old: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id != appended_id)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (b_transition, b_destinations) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[10, 11], 50).await;
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            let writer_a = dataset.clone();
+            let a_old = vec![writer_a.fragments().last().unwrap().clone()];
+            let (a_transition, a_destinations) = oc_parts(&writer_a, &[appended_id], 55).await;
+            let a_version = writer_a.manifest.version;
+            commit_sp(
+                &writer_a,
+                a_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&writer_a, a_old, a_destinations, vec![a_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let committed = commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&dataset, b_old, b_destinations, vec![b_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&committed).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (2, 1));
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(10).is_some());
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(appended_id as u32).is_some());
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..104);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&committed).await, expected);
+        }
+
+        /// A trim racing a concurrent stable-partition rewrite replaced
+        /// transition X with transition Y between the read version and the
+        /// current manifest (same count, different identity). Reassembly
+        /// merges onto the CURRENT entry: the finished rewrite carries Y
+        /// plus ours, and the trimmed-away X stays gone.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_merges_onto_swapped_transition_with_equal_count() {
+            let mut dataset = ram_fixture(2, 4).await;
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+            let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare(&dataset).await;
+            let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            let mut dataset = commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                version,
+                tagged_rewrite(
+                    &dataset,
+                    old_fragments,
+                    destinations,
+                    vec![transition.clone()],
+                )
+                .await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+            // Swap the committed transition's row-map identity directly in
+            // the manifest; trim is not implemented yet, so this simulates
+            // its effect netting a zero count change.
+            let mut swapped = transition;
+            let Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(mapping)) = &mut swapped.mapping else {
+                unreachable!()
+            };
+            mapping.map_id = Uuid::new_v4().to_string();
+            let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = stored
+                .iter()
+                .map(|idx| {
+                    if idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME {
+                        let mut replaced = idx.clone();
+                        replaced.uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+                        replaced.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+                            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+                            value: field(1, &field(2, &swapped.encode_to_vec())),
+                        }));
+                        replaced
+                    } else {
+                        idx.clone()
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect();
+            persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+
+            let read_dataset = dataset.checkout_version(read_version).await.unwrap();
+            let read_ids = sp_map_ids(&read_dataset).await;
+            let current_ids = sp_map_ids(&dataset).await;
+            // Same count, different identity: the swap is real.
+            assert_eq!(read_ids.len(), current_ids.len());
+            assert_ne!(read_ids, current_ids);
+
+            let b_old: Vec<Fragment> = read_dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+            let (b_transition, b_destinations) =
+                prepare_partition(&read_dataset, &[10, 11], 30).await;
+            let b_map_id = match b_transition.mapping.as_ref().unwrap() {
+                transition::Mapping::StablePartition(partition) => partition.map_id.clone(),
+                _ => unreachable!(),
+            };
+            // The intent is built against the read version (transition X
+            // recorded); the current entry holds Y instead.
+            let rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(
+                &read_dataset,
+                Transaction::new(
+                    read_version,
+                    tagged_rewrite(&read_dataset, b_old, b_destinations, vec![b_transition]).await,
+                    None,
+                ),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let (_, assembly) = rebase.finish_with_tagged_rewrite(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+            let entry = &assembly.expect("expected an assembled entry").entry;
+            let ledger = decode_frag_reuse_ledger(&dataset, entry).await.unwrap();
+            let merged: std::collections::HashSet<String> = ledger
+                .transitions()
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|transition| match transition.mapping() {
+                    Mapping::StablePartition(partition) => Some(partition.map_id.clone()),
+                    _ => None,
+                })
+                .collect();
+            // The merge kept the concurrent transition (Y) and appended
+            // ours; the trimmed-away X did not resurface.
+            let mut expected = current_ids.clone();
+            expected.insert(b_map_id);
+            assert_eq!(merged, expected);
+            assert!(read_ids.iter().all(|x| !merged.contains(x)));
+        }
+
+        /// FIX 3a, order 1: a real deferred `compact_files` planned before a
+        /// concurrent stable-partition rewrite landed (fresh sessions, on
+        /// disk) rebases onto the appended entry and both records survive.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn real_deferred_compaction_rebases_over_concurrent_sp_fresh_session() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            disk_tagged_fixture_with_small_fragments(dir.as_str()).await;
+
+            // The compactor opens BEFORE the rewrite commits: its plan and
+            // its commit read-version anchor at the pre-rewrite snapshot.
+            let mut compactor = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+
+            let sp_writer = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let b_old: Vec<Fragment> = sp_writer
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id == 10 || f.id == 11)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (b_transition, b_destinations) = prepare_partition(&sp_writer, &[10, 11], 50).await;
+            let read_version = sp_writer.manifest.version;
+            commit_sp(
+                &sp_writer,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&sp_writer, b_old, b_destinations, vec![b_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let metrics = crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut compactor,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+            assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+
+            let verify = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&verify).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (2, 1));
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..104);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&verify).await, expected);
+        }
+
+        /// FIX 3a, order 2: a stable-partition rewrite whose read version
+        /// predates a real deferred `compact_files` commit (fresh sessions,
+        /// on disk) rebases onto the entry holding the compaction's
+        /// transition and both records survive.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_rebases_over_real_deferred_compaction_fresh_session() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            disk_tagged_fixture_with_small_fragments(dir.as_str()).await;
+
+            let sp_writer = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let b_old: Vec<Fragment> = sp_writer
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id == 10 || f.id == 11)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (b_transition, b_destinations) = prepare_partition(&sp_writer, &[10, 11], 50).await;
+            let read_version = sp_writer.manifest.version;
+
+            let mut compactor = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut compactor,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let committed = commit_sp(
+                &sp_writer,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&sp_writer, b_old, b_destinations, vec![b_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let verify = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            assert_eq!(verify.manifest.version, committed.manifest.version);
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&verify).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (2, 1));
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..104);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&verify).await, expected);
+        }
+
+        /// FIX 3b, disjoint: a real deferred `compact_files` and a
+        /// tagged-compaction rewrite of other fragments both land; the entry
+        /// holds both ordered-compaction transitions.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn tagged_compactions_disjoint_both_land_fresh_session() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            disk_tagged_fixture_with_small_fragments(dir.as_str()).await;
+
+            let oc_writer = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let b_old: Vec<Fragment> = oc_writer
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id == 10 || f.id == 11)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (b_transition, b_destinations) = oc_parts(&oc_writer, &[10, 11], 55).await;
+            let read_version = oc_writer.manifest.version;
+
+            let mut compactor = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut compactor,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let committed = commit_sp(
+                &oc_writer,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&oc_writer, b_old, b_destinations, vec![b_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
-        assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected non-retryable CommitConflict for equal generation, got {:?}",
-            result
-        );
-    }
+            let verify = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            assert_eq!(verify.manifest.version, committed.manifest.version);
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&verify).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (1, 2));
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(10).is_some());
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..104);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&verify).await, expected);
+        }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_merged_generations_conflict_higher_generation_retryable() {
-        // Test: committed generation < to_commit generation should be retryable
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
+        /// FIX 3b, overlapping: two real deferred `compact_files` racing over
+        /// the same candidates; the loser is rejected outright through the
+        /// double-consumption rule (its plan can never succeed as-is).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn tagged_compactions_overlapping_rejected_fresh_session() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            disk_tagged_fixture_with_small_fragments(dir.as_str()).await;
+
+            let mut loser = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let mut winner = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut winner,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // Committed has generation 5, we're trying to commit generation 10
-        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
-            0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 5)],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+            let error = crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut loser,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. }),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("consumed fragments"), "{error}");
+        }
 
-        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
-            0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+        /// FIX 4a: a CreateIndex mixing an FRI replacement with user indices
+        /// is a shape the resolver does not reason about; a stable-partition
+        /// rewrite refuses it as incompatible, same as the v0 arm.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_rejects_mixed_fri_create_index() {
+            let dataset = test_dataset(8, 2).await;
+            let index_meta = |name: &str| IndexMetadata {
+                uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+                name: name.to_string(),
+                fields: vec![],
+                covering_fields: vec![],
+                dataset_version: 1,
+                fragment_bitmap: Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])),
+                index_details: None,
+                index_version: 0,
+                created_at: None,
+                base_id: None,
+                files: None,
+            };
+            let ours = Transaction::new(
+                1,
+                tagged_rewrite(
+                    &dataset,
+                    vec![dataset.fragments()[0].clone()],
+                    vec![Fragment::new(10)],
+                    vec![Transition {
+                        sources: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                            id: 0,
+                            physical_rows: 4,
+                            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                        }],
+                        destinations: vec![FragmentDigest {
+                            id: 10,
+                            physical_rows: 4,
+                            num_deleted_rows: 0,
+                        }],
+                        mapping: Some(transition::Mapping::StablePartition(StablePartition {
+                            map_id: Uuid::new_v4().to_string(),
+                            map_size_bytes: 1,
+                            base_id: None,
+                        })),
+                    }],
+                )
+                .await,
+                None,
+            );
+            let mut rebase = TransactionRebase::try_new(&dataset, ours, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let theirs = Transaction::new(
+                0,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![index_meta(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME), index_meta("u_idx")],
+                    removed_indices: vec![index_meta(FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)],
+                },
+                None,
+            );
+            let error = rebase.check_txn(&theirs, 2).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("incompatible"), "{error}");
+        }
 
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
-            transaction: to_commit_txn,
-            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
-            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
-            affected_rows: None,
-            conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-            conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
-        };
+        /// ITEM 6: a real deferred `compact_files` and a fragment-reuse
+        /// rewrite whose sources are exactly the compaction candidates. The
+        /// compaction lands first; the rewrite is rejected outright (its
+        /// transitions and row map reference consumed fragments and can
+        /// never commit as-is).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn overlapping_compaction_and_sp_rejected_fresh_session() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            disk_tagged_fixture_with_small_fragments(dir.as_str()).await;
+
+            let sp_writer = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let small_ids: Vec<u64> = sp_writer
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap() < 4)
+                .map(|f| f.id)
+                .collect();
+            assert_eq!(small_ids.len(), 2);
+            let b_old: Vec<Fragment> = sp_writer
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| small_ids.contains(&f.id))
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (b_transition, b_destinations) =
+                prepare_partition(&sp_writer, &small_ids, 60).await;
+            let read_version = sp_writer.manifest.version;
+
+            let mut compactor = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut compactor,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
-        assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected retryable conflict for higher generation, got {:?}",
-            result
-        );
-    }
+            let error = commit_sp(
+                &sp_writer,
+                read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&sp_writer, b_old, b_destinations, vec![b_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::IncompatibleTransaction { .. }),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+            assert!(error.to_string().contains("consumed fragments"), "{error}");
+        }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_merged_generations_different_regions_ok() {
-        // Test: different regions should not conflict
-        let region1 = Uuid::new_v4();
-        let region2 = Uuid::new_v4();
+        /// Three disjoint writers race: a stable-partition rewrite, a real
+        /// deferred compaction and another stable-partition rewrite, the
+        /// latter two reading a version predating the first. All three land
+        /// through in-loop reassembly and the ledger holds all three
+        /// records.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sp_compaction_sp_three_way_disjoint_merge() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let dataset = disk_tagged_fixture_with_small_fragments(dir.as_str()).await;
+            // A fourth region for the second stable-partition writer.
+            let mut dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 200..204).await;
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 100).await;
+            let extra_id = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().id;
+
+            // Both racing writers open before the first rewrite commits.
+            let mut compactor = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let sp_writer = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let w3_old = vec![
+                sp_writer
+                    .fragments()
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|f| f.id == extra_id)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .clone(),
+            ];
+            let (w3_transition, w3_destinations) =
+                prepare_partition(&sp_writer, &[extra_id], 90).await;
+            let w3_read_version = sp_writer.manifest.version;
+
+            // Writer 1: stable-partition rewrite of fragments 10 and 11.
+            let w1_old: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id == 10 || f.id == 11)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (w1_transition, w1_destinations) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[10, 11], 80).await;
+            let w1_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+            commit_sp(
+                &dataset,
+                w1_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&dataset, w1_old, w1_destinations, vec![w1_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
-            0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region1, 10)],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+            // Writer 2: real deferred compaction of the indexed two-row
+            // fragments (2 and 3), planned before writer 1 landed.
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut compactor,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
-            0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region2, 5)],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+            // Writer 3: stable-partition rewrite of the appended region,
+            // rebasing over BOTH concurrent commits.
+            commit_sp(
+                &sp_writer,
+                w3_read_version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&sp_writer, w3_old, w3_destinations, vec![w3_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
-            transaction: to_commit_txn,
-            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
-            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
-            affected_rows: None,
-            conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-            conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
-        };
+            let verify = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&verify).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            // Fixture rewrite + writers 1 and 3, plus the compaction.
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (3, 1));
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(10).is_some());
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(2).is_some());
+            assert!(ledger.consumer(extra_id as u32).is_some());
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..104);
+            expected.extend(200..204);
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&verify).await, expected);
+        }
 
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Expected OK for different regions, got {:?}",
-            result
-        );
-    }
+        /// A v0 table with one committed legacy reuse version and two
+        /// indexed two-row fragments left as compaction candidates (the
+        /// four-row fragments are not candidates at target 4).
+        async fn disk_v0_fixture_with_history_and_small_fragments(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+            let dataset = disk_fixture(uri, 2, 4).await;
+            let dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 100..102).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 102..104).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    false,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Real v0 deferred compaction of the first pair: the legacy
+            // history the later lift must preserve.
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut dataset,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&dataset).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 0);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (0, 1));
+            // Fresh candidates, re-indexed (replace) so a deferred
+            // compaction of them must record reuse.
+            let dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 200..202).await;
+            let mut dataset = append_rows(&dataset, 202..204).await;
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &["i"],
+                    IndexType::Scalar,
+                    Some("i_idx".into()),
+                    &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            reserve(&mut dataset, 60).await;
+            dataset
+        }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_update_mem_wal_state_vs_create_index_with_merged_generations() {
-        use crate::index::mem_wal::new_mem_wal_index_meta;
-        use lance_index::mem_wal::MemWalIndexDetails;
+        fn small_fragment_ids(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<u64> {
+            dataset
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.physical_rows.unwrap() < 4)
+                .map(|f| f.id)
+                .collect()
+        }
 
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
+        fn expected_fixture_values() -> Vec<i32> {
+            let mut expected: Vec<i32> = (0..8).collect();
+            expected.extend(100..104);
+            expected.extend(200..204);
+            expected
+        }
 
-        // Create a MemWalIndex with merged_generations
-        let details = MemWalIndexDetails {
-            merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let mem_wal_index = new_mem_wal_index_meta(1, details).unwrap();
+        /// Round 9 (1): a deferred compaction shaped for the v0 table loses
+        /// the race to a concurrent stable-partition lift. The retry
+        /// converts its legacy version into an ordered-compaction transition
+        /// and commits with no caller-visible error; the lifted legacy
+        /// history is preserved and the compaction lands as a transition,
+        /// not a legacy version.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn v0_compaction_converts_over_concurrent_sp_lift() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the fixture future grew past 16 KiB.
+            let main = Box::pin(disk_v0_fixture_with_history_and_small_fragments(
+                dir.as_str(),
+            ))
+            .await;
 
-        // CreateIndex with MemWalIndex that has generation 10
-        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
-            0,
-            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices: vec![mem_wal_index],
-                removed_indices: vec![],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+            // The compactor opens while the table is still v0.
+            let mut compactor = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let small_ids = small_fragment_ids(&compactor);
+            assert_eq!(small_ids.len(), 2);
 
-        // UpdateMemWalState trying to set generation 5 (lower than committed)
-        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
-            0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 5)],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+            // Concurrent stable-partition lift of the four-row originals.
+            let sp_old: Vec<Fragment> = main
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id < 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare_partition(&main, &[0, 1], 30).await;
+            let version = main.manifest.version;
+            commit_sp(
+                &main,
+                version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&main, sp_old, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
-            transaction: to_commit_txn,
-            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
-            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
-            affected_rows: None,
-            conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-            conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
-        };
+            // The stale writer still decides the v0 shape and must convert
+            // during the in-loop rebase.
+            let metrics = crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut compactor,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_removed, 2);
+            assert_eq!(metrics.fragments_added, 1);
+
+            let verify = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&verify).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            // Lifted legacy compaction + converted compaction + the lift.
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 3);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (1, 2));
+            for id in small_ids {
+                assert!(ledger.consumer(id as u32).is_some());
+            }
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&verify).await, expected_fixture_values());
+        }
 
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
-        assert!(
-            matches!(result, Err(Error::CommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected non-retryable CommitConflict when UpdateMemWalState generation is lower than CreateIndex, got {:?}",
-            result
-        );
+        /// Round 9 (2): the same conversion when the commit that tagged the
+        /// table was itself a tagged compaction (an ordered-compaction
+        /// rewrite lifting the entry), not a stable-partition rewrite.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn v0_compaction_converts_over_concurrent_tagged_compaction() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the fixture future grew past 16 KiB.
+            let main = Box::pin(disk_v0_fixture_with_history_and_small_fragments(
+                dir.as_str(),
+            ))
+            .await;
 
-        // Now test with higher generation (should be retryable)
-        let to_commit_txn_higher = Transaction::new(
-            0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 15)],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+            let mut compactor = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let small_ids = small_fragment_ids(&compactor);
 
-        let mut rebase_higher = TransactionRebase {
-            transaction: to_commit_txn_higher,
-            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
-            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
-            affected_rows: None,
-            conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-            conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
-        };
+            // The intervening tagged compaction consumes the four-row
+            // originals through an ordered-compaction transition.
+            let oc_old: Vec<Fragment> = main
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| f.id < 2)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (oc_transition, oc_destinations) = oc_parts(&main, &[0, 1], 40).await;
+            let version = main.manifest.version;
+            commit_sp(
+                &main,
+                version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&main, oc_old, oc_destinations, vec![oc_transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let result_higher = rebase_higher.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
-        assert!(
-            matches!(result_higher, Err(Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. })),
-            "Expected retryable conflict when UpdateMemWalState generation is higher than CreateIndex, got {:?}",
-            result_higher
-        );
-    }
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut compactor,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_create_index_vs_update_mem_wal_state_rebase() {
-        use crate::index::mem_wal::new_mem_wal_index_meta;
-        use lance_index::mem_wal::MemWalIndexDetails;
+            let verify = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&verify).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 1);
+            assert_eq!(ledger.transitions().len(), 3);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (0, 3));
+            for id in small_ids {
+                assert!(ledger.consumer(id as u32).is_some());
+            }
+            assert_eq!(sorted_values(&verify).await, expected_fixture_values());
+        }
 
-        let region = Uuid::new_v4();
+        /// Round 9 (3): the concurrent lift consumed the compaction's own
+        /// candidates; the overlap conflicts before any conversion. The
+        /// class is the v0-legacy retryable conflict: at check time the
+        /// resolver has no dataset state and both committed shapes are
+        /// plain rewrites in their transaction files, so a v0-shaped loser
+        /// cannot be classified differently from a pure v0 race without
+        /// breaking v0 invariance (see the v0 x v0 guard below).
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn v0_compaction_overlap_with_sp_still_conflicts() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the fixture future grew past 16 KiB.
+            let main = Box::pin(disk_v0_fixture_with_history_and_small_fragments(
+                dir.as_str(),
+            ))
+            .await;
 
-        // CreateIndex with MemWalIndex (no merged_generations initially)
-        let details = MemWalIndexDetails::default();
-        let mem_wal_index = new_mem_wal_index_meta(1, details).unwrap();
+            let mut compactor = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let small_ids = small_fragment_ids(&compactor);
 
-        let to_commit_txn = Transaction::new(
-            0,
-            Operation::CreateIndex {
-                new_indices: vec![mem_wal_index],
-                removed_indices: vec![],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+            // The lift rewrites exactly the compaction's candidates.
+            let sp_old: Vec<Fragment> = main
+                .fragments()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| small_ids.contains(&f.id))
+                .cloned()
+                .collect();
+            let (transition, destinations) = prepare_partition(&main, &small_ids, 30).await;
+            let version = main.manifest.version;
+            commit_sp(
+                &main,
+                version,
+                tagged_rewrite(&main, sp_old, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
 
-        // UpdateMemWalState with generation 10
-        let committed_txn = Transaction::new(
-            0,
-            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
-                merged_generations: vec![MergedGeneration::new(region, 10)],
-            },
-            None,
-        );
+            let error = crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut compactor,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+                "{error}"
+            );
+        }
 
-        let mut rebase = TransactionRebase {
-            transaction: to_commit_txn,
-            initial_fragments: HashMap::new(),
-            modified_fragment_ids: HashSet::new(),
-            affected_rows: None,
-            conflicting_frag_reuse_indices: Vec::new(),
-            conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens: Vec::new(),
-        };
+        /// Round 9 (4): a pure v0 x v0 compaction race keeps legacy
+        /// behavior exactly -- the loser fails with the legacy retryable
+        /// conflict, no conversion runs, and the entry stays v0.
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn v0_compaction_race_keeps_legacy_behavior() {
+            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            // Boxed for CI clippy `large_futures`: the fixture future grew past 16 KiB.
+            Box::pin(disk_v0_fixture_with_history_and_small_fragments(
+                dir.as_str(),
+            ))
+            .await;
 
-        // CreateIndex of MemWalIndex should be compatible with UpdateMemWalState
-        // and should collect the merged_generations for rebasing
-        let result = rebase.check_txn(&committed_txn, 1);
-        assert!(
-            result.is_ok(),
-            "Expected OK for CreateIndex vs UpdateMemWalState, got {:?}",
-            result
-        );
+            let mut loser = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let mut winner = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut winner,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let error = crate::dataset::optimize::compact_files(
+                &mut loser,
+                deferred_compaction_options(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(
+                matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+                "{error}"
+            );
 
-        // Verify that merged_generations were collected
-        assert_eq!(rebase.conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(rebase.conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens[0].region_id, region);
-        assert_eq!(rebase.conflicting_mem_wal_merged_gens[0].generation, 10);
+            let verify = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+            let (entry, ledger) = fri_ledger(&verify).await;
+            assert_eq!(entry.index_version, 0);
+            assert_eq!(count_mappings(&ledger), (0, 2));
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver/tests/tagged_rewrite_conflicts/index_over_committed_sp.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver/tests/tagged_rewrite_conflicts/index_over_committed_sp.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1581098626d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver/tests/tagged_rewrite_conflicts/index_over_committed_sp.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,366 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! A user index built at a version before a stable-partition rewrite and
+//! committed after it. The committed rewrite is read back from its
+//! transaction file, where `frag_reuse` is never serialized, so the resolver
+//! cannot see from the transaction that remapping was deferred; the latest
+//! manifest's tagged entry records the lineage and proves it. The index then
+//! lands with its provenance and translates, instead of a retryable conflict
+//! that throws the finished build away. The deferred rules still apply: a
+//! segment covering only part of a rewrite group, or an NGram segment, must
+//! be rebuilt over the destinations; a segment off the lineage keeps the
+//! eager rule.
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+
+/// Two fragments of four rows: `i` 0..8, a constant `text` and a payload
+/// `w` (so a partial-schema in-place rewrite is expressible).
+async fn fixture(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col(
+            "text",
+            lance_datagen::array::fill_utf8("document".to_string()),
+        )
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// A segment built by a session that still reads the pre-rewrite version;
+/// that session is returned so it can commit later, from that read version.
+async fn stage(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    index_type: IndexType,
+    fragments: Vec<u32>,
+) -> (Dataset, IndexMetadata) {
+    let mut stale = dataset.clone();
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(index_type.try_into().unwrap());
+    let segment = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(&mut stale, &[column], index_type, &params)
+        .name("idx".to_string())
+        .fragments(fragments)
+        .execute_uncommitted()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (stale, segment)
+}
+
+/// Sorted `i` values under a predicate, with or without the scalar index.
+async fn i_values(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: Option<&str>, use_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    if let Some(predicate) = predicate {
+        scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+    }
+    scan.use_scalar_index(use_index);
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect();
+    values.sort_unstable();
+    values
+}
+
+/// The index answers `predicate` through the plan and agrees with the
+/// index-disabled scan, for the predicate and for the whole table.
+async fn assert_index_serves(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let plan = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter(predicate)
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    let indexed = i_values(dataset, Some(predicate), true).await;
+    assert_eq!(indexed, i_values(dataset, Some(predicate), false).await);
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_values(dataset, None, true).await,
+        i_values(dataset, None, false).await
+    );
+    indexed
+}
+
+fn stored_bitmap(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> RoaringBitmap {
+    indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == "idx")
+        .unwrap()
+        .fragment_bitmap
+        .clone()
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn index_built_before_a_stable_partition_lands_translating() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let (mut stale, segment) = stage(&dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![0, 1]).await;
+    let tagged = make_tagged(dataset).await;
+
+    stale
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("idx", "i", vec![segment.clone()])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stale.manifest.version, tagged.manifest.version + 1);
+
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "idx").unwrap().uuid,
+        segment.uuid
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        stored_bitmap(&stored),
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]),
+        "provenance: the retired sources it was built from"
+    );
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        stored_bitmap(&derived),
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11]),
+        "it translates to both destinations"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(assert_index_serves(&dataset, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+    assert_eq!(assert_index_serves(&dataset, "i = 6").await, vec![6]);
+}
+
+/// The segment covers fragment 0 but not fragment 1, and the rewrite
+/// consumed both: it lands with that provenance and claims nothing for the
+/// partition (the reader scans it), which a later optimize repairs.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn index_covering_part_of_a_partition_lands_claiming_nothing() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let (mut stale, segment) = stage(&dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![0]).await;
+    let tagged = make_tagged(dataset).await;
+
+    stale
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("idx", "i", vec![segment.clone()])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stale.manifest.version, tagged.manifest.version + 1);
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stored_bitmap(&stored), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32]));
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        derived
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "idx")
+            .and_then(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+            .is_none_or(|bitmap| bitmap.is_empty()),
+        "nothing claimed for the partition"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_values(&dataset, Some("i = 3"), true).await,
+        i_values(&dataset, Some("i = 3"), false).await
+    );
+}
+
+/// An NGram segment over retired sources is refused by the committed-segment
+/// check, so the conflict asks for the rebuild up front.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn ngram_index_built_before_a_stable_partition_retries() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let (mut stale, segment) = stage(&dataset, "text", IndexType::NGram, vec![0, 1]).await;
+    make_tagged(dataset).await;
+
+    let error = stale
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("idx", "text", vec![segment])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+        "{error}"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A segment over a fragment the rewrite never touched lands untouched: the
+/// group is off the segment's bitmap, so neither rule fires.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn index_off_the_rewritten_fragments_lands_directly() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col(
+            "text",
+            lance_datagen::array::fill_utf8("document".to_string()),
+        )
+        .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4))
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 3);
+    let (mut stale, segment) = stage(&dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![2]).await;
+
+    let mut dataset = dataset;
+    reserve(&mut dataset, 20).await;
+    let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| f.id < 2)
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+    let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let tagged = commit_sp(
+        &dataset,
+        version,
+        tagged_rewrite(&dataset, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    stale
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("idx", "i", vec![segment])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stale.manifest.version, tagged.manifest.version + 1);
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stored_bitmap(&stored), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32]));
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(stored_bitmap(&derived), RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32]));
+    assert_eq!(assert_index_serves(&dataset, "i = 9").await, vec![9]);
+}
+
+/// Between the build and the commit, an in-place rewrite of the indexed
+/// column landed on a destination (rows did not move, so the rewrite is
+/// admitted while no committed index covers the column). The index still
+/// lands: the resolver withdraws the transition's sources from it, so it
+/// claims nothing and the rows are scanned until `optimize_indices`
+/// rebuilds it.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn index_built_before_a_stable_partition_and_a_column_rewrite_lands_withdrawn() {
+    use crate::dataset::{MergeInsertBuilder, MergeInsertWriteMode, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched};
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let (mut stale, segment) = stage(&dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![0, 1]).await;
+    let tagged = make_tagged(dataset).await;
+
+    // Patch `text` of the row `i = 3` (fragment 11) in place; the source
+    // carries the key column, so `i` is rewritten in place as well.
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(
+        &tagged.schema().project(&["i", "text"]).unwrap(),
+    ));
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3])),
+            Arc::new(arrow_array::StringArray::from(vec!["patched"])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let (tagged, _) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(tagged), vec!["i".into()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute_batches(vec![source])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        tagged.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![10, 11],
+        "rewritten in place"
+    );
+
+    stale
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("idx", "i", vec![segment.clone()])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "idx").unwrap().uuid,
+        segment.uuid
+    );
+    assert!(
+        stored_bitmap(&stored).is_empty(),
+        "{:?}",
+        stored_bitmap(&stored)
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_values(&dataset, Some("i = 3"), true).await,
+        i_values(&dataset, Some("i = 3"), false).await
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_values(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    );
+
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == "idx")
+            .filter_map(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+            .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |acc, b| acc | b),
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])
+    );
+    assert_eq!(assert_index_serves(&dataset, "i = 3").await, vec![3]);
+}
+
+/// The same race with `alter_columns`: a cast of the indexed column landed
+/// between the build and the commit (admitted, no committed index covered
+/// it yet). A cast rewrites the column under a new field id, so the merge
+/// arm sees the field the index keys on removed from the schema and the
+/// commit retries against the new field.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn index_built_before_a_stable_partition_and_a_cast_retries() {
+    use crate::dataset::ColumnAlteration;
+    use arrow_schema::DataType;
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let (mut stale, segment) = stage(&dataset, "i", IndexType::BTree, vec![0, 1]).await;
+    let mut tagged = make_tagged(dataset).await;
+    tagged
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("i".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        tagged.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![10, 11],
+        "cast in place"
+    );
+
+    let error = stale
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("idx", "i", vec![segment])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        matches!(error, Error::RetryableCommitConflict { .. }),
+        "{error}"
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver/tests/tagged_rewrite_conflicts/tagged_mutations.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver/tests/tagged_rewrite_conflicts/tagged_mutations.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1a8ba899fec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/conflict_resolver/tests/tagged_rewrite_conflicts/tagged_mutations.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,2384 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Normal mutations on a table carrying a tagged fragment reuse history.
+//!
+//! A delete, a row-rewriting update, a merge insert, a config update, an
+//! overwrite, a restore, a schema change and an in-place rewrite of a column
+//! no translating segment indexes all commit: the history and every
+//! segment's stored provenance are untouched (or, for an overwrite, gone with
+//! the old fragments), and the reader applies the current deletion vectors
+//! after translation. An in-place rewrite of a column a translating segment
+//! indexes withdraws that segment's coverage of the transition (the rows are
+//! scanned) instead of being refused. Each test tags the table
+//! first (stable partition of F0, F1 into F10 evens and F11 odds, with `i_idx`
+//! built before), mutates through the public API, reopens from the URI and
+//! checks indexed queries against index-disabled scans, that the segment is
+//! still listed and still translating, and that the history is untouched.
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::dataset::{
+    MergeInsertBuilder, MergeInsertWriteMode, UpdateBuilder, WhenMatched, WhenNotMatched,
+};
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+/// Two fragments of four rows each, columns `i` (indexed key), `v` and `w`
+/// (payloads, initially equal to `i`), with `i_idx` built and not yet tagged.
+async fn indexed_two_column_fixture(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col("v", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_dataset(uri, FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(4))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            Some("i_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+}
+
+/// [`indexed_two_column_fixture`] tagged by a stable partition.
+async fn tagged_two_column_fixture(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let dataset = make_tagged(indexed_two_column_fixture(uri).await).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![10, 11]
+    );
+    dataset
+}
+
+/// Sorted `(i, v)` pairs, optionally under a predicate, with or without the
+/// scalar index.
+async fn rows(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: Option<&str>, use_index: bool) -> Vec<(i32, i32)> {
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    if let Some(predicate) = predicate {
+        scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+    }
+    scan.use_scalar_index(use_index);
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let i = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let v = batch["v"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let mut pairs: Vec<(i32, i32)> = i
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .zip(v.values().iter())
+        .map(|(i, v)| (*i, *v))
+        .collect();
+    pairs.sort_unstable();
+    pairs
+}
+
+/// The indexed plan is used for `predicate`, and indexed and index-disabled
+/// results agree for it and for the full table.
+async fn assert_index_agrees_with_scan(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str) -> Vec<(i32, i32)> {
+    let plan = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter(predicate)
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    let indexed = rows(dataset, Some(predicate), true).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        indexed,
+        rows(dataset, Some(predicate), false).await,
+        "{predicate}"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(dataset, None, true).await,
+        rows(dataset, None, false).await
+    );
+    indexed
+}
+
+fn user_segment(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> &IndexMetadata {
+    indices.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap()
+}
+
+fn fri_entry(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> &IndexMetadata {
+    indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// The stored segment and the history are exactly what they were before the
+/// mutation, and the segment still translates: its derived coverage is the
+/// live destinations, not its stored provenance.
+async fn assert_segment_and_history_untouched(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    before: &[IndexMetadata],
+    live: &[u32],
+) {
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let segment = user_segment(&stored);
+    assert_eq!(segment.uuid, user_segment(before).uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        segment.fragment_bitmap,
+        user_segment(before).fragment_bitmap
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]),
+        "stored provenance stays the retired sources"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(fri_entry(&stored).uuid, fri_entry(before).uuid);
+    assert_eq!(fri_entry(&stored).index_version, 1);
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        user_segment(&derived).fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &live.iter().copied().collect::<RoaringBitmap>(),
+        "derived coverage follows the live destinations"
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_accepts_partial_row_delete() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset.delete("i = 5").await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 5").await,
+        vec![]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 4").await,
+        vec![(4, 4)]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7].map(|i| (i, i))
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// Deleting every row of a destination drops the fragment. The translating
+/// segment's stored bitmap names retired sources, so measuring it against the
+/// live fragments would read as empty: it must be kept, not dropped as an
+/// index with no coverage.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_accepts_whole_fragment_delete() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    // F10 holds the even values.
+    dataset.delete("i % 2 = 0").await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![11]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 2").await,
+        vec![]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 3").await,
+        vec![(3, 3)]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        [1, 3, 5, 7].map(|i| (i, i))
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[11]).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_accepts_row_rewriting_update() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    let result = UpdateBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .update_where("i = 2")
+        .unwrap()
+        .set("v", "999")
+        .unwrap()
+        .build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(result.rows_updated, 1);
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    // The rewritten row lives in a new fragment; the destinations stay live.
+    assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 3);
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 2").await,
+        vec![(2, 999)]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].map(|i| (i, if i == 2 { 999 } else { i }))
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_accepts_merge_insert_rewriting_rows() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    // A full-schema source: `Auto` rewrites rows (delete + new fragment).
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3, 100])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![333, 1000])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3, 100])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let (dataset, stats) = MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["i".into()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::InsertAll)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute_batches(vec![source])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!((stats.num_updated_rows, stats.num_inserted_rows), (1, 1));
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dataset.uri()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 3").await,
+        vec![(3, 333)]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 100").await,
+        vec![(100, 1000)]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, None, true).await.len(), 9);
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// A scalar index on `v`, built before or after the table is tagged: before,
+/// its bitmap is the retired sources and it covers the destinations only
+/// through the history; after, it names the destinations directly.
+async fn create_v_index(dataset: &mut Dataset) {
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["v"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            Some("v_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// A user index is installed on a tagged table like on any other: it covers
+/// the live fragments directly, and the entry is carried through untouched.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_installs_a_new_user_index() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    create_v_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "v = 3").await,
+        vec![(3, 3)]
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// A user index built before a stable partition and committed after it is
+/// rebased across the rewrite by the conflict resolver: it lands with its
+/// provenance (the retired sources) and translates, so it answers for the
+/// destinations without a rebuild.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn user_index_built_before_a_stable_partition_lands_translating() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col("v", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_dataset(
+            dir.as_str(),
+            FragmentCount::from(2),
+            FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let built = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut dataset,
+        &["v"],
+        IndexType::Scalar,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("v_idx".into())
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        built.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+    );
+    let mut dataset = make_tagged(dataset).await;
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![built],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            &Default::default(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]),
+        "the provenance is kept"
+    );
+    let listed = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let derived = listed.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11]),
+        "and translates to the destinations"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "v = 3").await,
+        vec![(3, 3)]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        rows(&dataset, None, false).await
+    );
+}
+
+/// A withdrawal that empties a segment beside a serving sibling of the same
+/// name removes that segment from the manifest in the same commit: the
+/// sibling keeps serving, the rewritten rows are scanned, an older snapshot
+/// still lists and serves the retired segment, and once no retained version
+/// references it the ordinary index cleanup reclaims its files.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_retires_an_emptied_segment_beside_a_serving_sibling() {
+    use crate::dataset::cleanup::{CleanupPolicyBuilder, cleanup_old_versions};
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    // Append a fragment and extend `i_idx` with a delta segment over it.
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col("v", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4))
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let segments: Vec<IndexMetadata> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(segments.len(), 2, "{segments:?}");
+    let appended = dataset
+        .fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+        .find(|id| *id > 11)
+        .unwrap();
+    let translating = segments
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap() == &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1]))
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    let delta = segments
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap() == &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([appended]))
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    let version_before = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+    // Row i = 2 (w = 2) lives in F10: rewriting `i` there withdraws the
+    // translating segment's whole transition, emptying it.
+    rewrite_in_place(dataset, "i", 2, 222).await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let remaining: Vec<IndexMetadata> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(remaining.len(), 1, "{remaining:?}");
+    assert_eq!(remaining[0].uuid, delta.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(remaining[0].fragment_bitmap, delta.fragment_bitmap);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("i = 222"), true).await, vec![(222, 2)]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("i = 2"), true).await, vec![]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 9").await,
+        vec![(9, 9)]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        rows(&dataset, None, false).await
+    );
+
+    // The older snapshot still lists and serves the retired segment.
+    let old = dataset.checkout_version(version_before).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        crate::index::load_all_indices(&old)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|idx| idx.uuid == translating.uuid)
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&old, "i = 2").await,
+        vec![(2, 2)]
+    );
+
+    // Once no retained version references it, cleanup reclaims its files.
+    let index_dir = |uuid: &Uuid| {
+        std::path::Path::new(dir.as_str())
+            .join("_indices")
+            .join(uuid.to_string())
+    };
+    assert!(index_dir(&translating.uuid).exists());
+    assert!(index_dir(&delta.uuid).exists());
+    cleanup_old_versions(
+        &dataset,
+        CleanupPolicyBuilder::default()
+            .before_timestamp(chrono::Utc::now() + chrono::Duration::days(1))
+            .delete_unverified(true)
+            .build(),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !index_dir(&translating.uuid).exists(),
+        "the retired segment's files are reclaimed"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        index_dir(&delta.uuid).exists(),
+        "the serving sibling's files stay"
+    );
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 9").await,
+        vec![(9, 9)]
+    );
+}
+
+/// A packed struct is rewritten as one physical column, but an index on its
+/// child `s.x` records the child's field id: the withdrawal expands the
+/// rewritten parent to its descendants, so the child index loses the
+/// transition's coverage and the indexed query reads the patched value from
+/// the scan.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_withdraws_a_child_index_when_its_packed_parent_is_rewritten() {
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StructArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
+    use lance_encoding::constants::PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY;
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+    async fn i_values(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str, use_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+        scan.use_scalar_index(use_index);
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        values.sort_unstable();
+        values
+    }
+
+    let children = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+    let mut packed = Field::new("s", DataType::Struct(children.clone()), false);
+    packed.set_metadata([(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())].into());
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+        Field::new("w", DataType::Int32, false),
+        packed.clone(),
+    ]));
+    let values = Arc::new(Int32Array::from((0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>())) as ArrayRef;
+    let struct_values = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+        children.clone(),
+        vec![values.clone()],
+        None,
+    )) as ArrayRef;
+    let batch =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![values.clone(), values, struct_values]).unwrap();
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+        dir.as_str(),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["s.x"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            Some("x_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = make_tagged(dataset).await;
+    let x_idx = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == "x_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        x_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+    );
+
+    // Row w = 3 lives in F11 (odd rows); its packed struct is patched whole.
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("w", DataType::Int32, false),
+            packed,
+        ])),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                children,
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![333])) as ArrayRef],
+                None,
+            )) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["w".into()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute_batches(vec![source])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let x_idx = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == "x_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        x_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "the transition's sources are withdrawn from the child index: {:?}",
+        x_idx.fragment_bitmap
+    );
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, "s.x = 333", false).await, vec![3]);
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, "s.x = 333", true).await, vec![3]);
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, "s.x = 3", true).await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_values(&dataset, "s.x >= 0", true).await,
+        (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    );
+}
+
+/// The rebase path of the packed-struct rule: an index on the child `s.x`
+/// is built before the tagging rewrite and before the packed parent `s` is
+/// rewritten in place, and commits after both. Rebasing it over the rewrite
+/// must expand the rewritten parent to its descendants, exactly as the
+/// manifest build does for a rewrite that lands after the index; otherwise
+/// the index keeps the transition's coverage and answers `s.x = 3` with the
+/// row whose value is now 333.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn child_index_built_before_a_packed_parent_rewrite_lands_withdrawn() {
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StructArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Fields};
+    use lance_encoding::constants::PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY;
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+    async fn i_values(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: &str, use_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+        scan.use_scalar_index(use_index);
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .collect();
+        values.sort_unstable();
+        values
+    }
+
+    let children = Fields::from(vec![Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)]);
+    let mut packed = Field::new("s", DataType::Struct(children.clone()), false);
+    packed.set_metadata([(PACKED_STRUCT_META_KEY.to_string(), "true".to_string())].into());
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        Field::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+        Field::new("w", DataType::Int32, false),
+        packed.clone(),
+    ]));
+    let values = Arc::new(Int32Array::from((0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>())) as ArrayRef;
+    let struct_values = Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+        children.clone(),
+        vec![values.clone()],
+        None,
+    )) as ArrayRef;
+    let batch =
+        RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![values.clone(), values, struct_values]).unwrap();
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema.clone()),
+        dir.as_str(),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 4,
+            data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::V2_1),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Built against F0 and F1, committed later.
+    let read_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let built = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut dataset,
+        &["s.x"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("x_idx".into())
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        built.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+    );
+
+    // Meanwhile: the table is tagged (F0, F1 -> F10, F11) and the packed
+    // struct of the row w = 3 (in F11) is patched whole.
+    let dataset = make_tagged(dataset).await;
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("w", DataType::Int32, false),
+            packed,
+        ])),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3])) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(StructArray::new(
+                children,
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![333])) as ArrayRef],
+                None,
+            )) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["w".into()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute_batches(vec![source])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // The build lands by rebasing over the tagging rewrite (provenance
+    // kept) and the packed rewrite (the transition's coverage withdrawn).
+    let mut dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            Transaction::new(
+                read_version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![built],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            &Default::default(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let x_idx = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == "x_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        x_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "the transition's sources are withdrawn from the rebased child index: {:?}",
+        x_idx.fragment_bitmap
+    );
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, "s.x = 333", false).await, vec![3]);
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, "s.x = 333", true).await, vec![3]);
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, "s.x = 3", true).await, Vec::<i32>::new());
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_values(&dataset, "s.x >= 0", true).await,
+        (0..8).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    );
+}
+
+/// Patch `column` of the row `w = key` (`w` equals `i` and no index covers
+/// it) to `value` in place: a partial-schema source keyed on an unindexed
+/// column, in `RewriteColumns` mode, so only `column` and the key are
+/// rewritten.
+async fn rewrite_in_place(
+    dataset: Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    key: i32,
+    value: i32,
+) -> Result<Arc<Dataset>> {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(
+        &dataset.schema().project(&["w", column]).unwrap(),
+    ));
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![key])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![value])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["w".into()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute_batches(vec![source])
+        .await
+        .map(|(dataset, _)| dataset)
+}
+
+/// Rewriting a column in place that no translating segment indexes is an
+/// ordinary in-place update: the `i` segment is untouched and keeps
+/// translating, and the patched value is what the scan reads.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_accepts_in_place_rewrite_of_an_unindexed_column() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![10, 11],
+        "the row was patched in place"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 3").await,
+        vec![(3, 333)]
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// Rewriting in place a column that a translating segment indexes commits.
+/// The segment cannot withdraw the rewritten destination from its bitmap
+/// (it holds the retired sources), so the whole transition's sources are
+/// withdrawn: `v_idx` claims nothing, the new value is answered by the
+/// scan, and `i_idx`, which does not index `v`, is untouched.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_withdraws_a_translated_index_after_an_in_place_rewrite() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    // Built before the rewrite: `v_idx` translates like `i_idx`. Rebuild
+    // the history so the fixture's assumptions (two destinations) hold.
+    let mut untagged = dataset.checkout_version(2).await.unwrap();
+    untagged.restore().await.unwrap();
+    create_v_index(&mut untagged).await;
+    let dataset = make_tagged(untagged).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_before = before
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx")
+        .unwrap()
+        .clone();
+    assert_eq!(
+        v_before.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+    );
+
+    rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_after = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(v_after.uuid, v_before.uuid, "the segment stays listed");
+    assert!(
+        v_after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "the transition's sources were withdrawn: {:?}",
+        v_after.fragment_bitmap
+    );
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        derived
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx")
+            .and_then(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+            .is_none_or(|bitmap| bitmap.is_empty()),
+        "v_idx claims nothing"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 333"), true).await, vec![(3, 333)]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 3"), true).await, vec![]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].map(|i| (i, if i == 3 { 333 } else { i }))
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// The withdrawal is exact when the history can be walked, and the commit
+/// path decodes an external history for that: with two stable partitions
+/// (F0, F1 into F10, F11 and F2, F3 into F20, F21) and `v_idx` built over
+/// all four sources, rewriting `v` on F11 withdraws {0, 1} only; the segment
+/// keeps translating to F20, F21.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_withdraws_exactly_through_an_external_history() {
+    use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::InlineContent;
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col("v", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_dataset(
+            dir.as_str(),
+            FragmentCount::from(4),
+            FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["i"],
+            IndexType::Scalar,
+            Some("i_idx".into()),
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    create_v_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    reserve(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+    let (first, mut destinations) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+    let (second, more) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[2, 3], 20).await;
+    destinations.extend(more);
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![first, second],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests::install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, true)
+        .await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![10, 11, 20, 21]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 3"), true).await, vec![(3, 3)]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 13"), true).await, vec![(13, 13)]);
+
+    // Row i = 3 lives in F11 (odd values of the first partition).
+    rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 3]),
+        "only the first partition's sources were withdrawn"
+    );
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx")
+            .and_then(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.clone()),
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([20u32, 21])),
+        "still translating to the second partition"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 333"), true).await, vec![(3, 333)]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 13"), true).await, vec![(13, 13)]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        (0..16)
+            .map(|i| (i, if i == 3 { 333 } else { i }))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    );
+    let i_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 2, 3]),
+        "an index that does not index v is untouched"
+    );
+}
+
+/// A history the commit path cannot decode fails the commit rather than
+/// guessing at what to withdraw.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_with_corrupt_history_refuses_the_commit() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    let entry = indices
+        .iter_mut()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .unwrap();
+    entry.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+        type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+        value: vec![0x0a, 0x03, 0xff, 0xff],
+    }));
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+
+    let error = rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("FRI details"), "{error}");
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing was committed");
+}
+
+/// The full table's `(i, v, z)` rows, index disabled.
+async fn rows_with_z(dataset: &Dataset) -> Vec<(i32, i32, i32)> {
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.use_scalar_index(false);
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let i = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let v = batch["v"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let z = batch["z"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let mut rows: Vec<(i32, i32, i32)> = i
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .zip(v.values().iter())
+        .zip(z.values().iter())
+        .map(|((i, v), z)| (*i, *v, *z))
+        .collect();
+    rows.sort_unstable();
+    rows
+}
+
+/// Four more rows (`i` 8..12) appended as a new fragment.
+async fn append_four(dataset: Dataset) -> Dataset {
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col("v", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4))
+        .unwrap();
+    InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Rewrite the fixture's entry in place through `persist_fixture`.
+async fn persist_entry(dataset: &mut Dataset, edit: impl FnOnce(&mut IndexMetadata)) {
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    let entry = indices
+        .iter_mut()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == FRAG_REUSE_INDEX_NAME)
+        .unwrap();
+    edit(entry);
+    persist_fixture(dataset, indices).await;
+}
+
+/// The entry is carried through exactly: same identity, same version, and
+/// the `i` segment's stored provenance untouched.
+async fn assert_entry_carried(dataset: &Dataset, before: &[IndexMetadata]) {
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(fri_entry(&stored).uuid, fri_entry(before).uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        fri_entry(&stored).index_version,
+        fri_entry(before).index_version
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        fri_entry(&stored).index_details,
+        fri_entry(before).index_details
+    );
+    assert_eq!(user_segment(&stored).uuid, user_segment(before).uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        user_segment(&stored).fragment_bitmap,
+        user_segment(before).fragment_bitmap
+    );
+}
+
+/// A history a newer writer recorded (`index_version` 2) is not this
+/// writer's to interpret, and an append or an added column rewrites no
+/// existing column in place, so neither decodes it: both commit and carry
+/// the entry through untouched. Rewriting an existing column in place
+/// needs the history to withdraw coverage, so it is still refused.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_with_a_newer_history_admits_append_and_add_columns() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    persist_entry(&mut dataset, |entry| entry.index_version = 2).await;
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(fri_entry(&before).index_version, 2);
+
+    let mut dataset = append_four(dataset).await;
+    dataset
+        .add_columns(
+            crate::dataset::NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![("z".into(), "i * 2".into())]),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows_with_z(&dataset).await,
+        (0..12).map(|i| (i, i, i * 2)).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    );
+    assert_entry_carried(&dataset, &before).await;
+    // Reading through the index still needs the history, which this
+    // writer cannot interpret.
+    let error = dataset.count_rows(Some("i = 3".into())).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("index_version 2"), "{error}");
+
+    let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let error = rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(matches!(error, Error::NotSupported { .. }), "{error}");
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("index_version 2"), "{error}");
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing was committed");
+    assert_entry_carried(&dataset, &before).await;
+}
+
+/// The same for a history this writer cannot decode at all: an append and
+/// an added column never look at it and commit; the in-place rewrite that
+/// must walk it is refused.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_with_corrupt_history_admits_append_and_add_columns() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    persist_entry(&mut dataset, |entry| {
+        entry.index_details = Some(Arc::new(prost_types::Any {
+            type_url: "/lance.table.FragmentReuseIndexDetails".into(),
+            value: vec![0x0a, 0x03, 0xff, 0xff],
+        }));
+    })
+    .await;
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    let mut dataset = append_four(dataset).await;
+    dataset
+        .add_columns(
+            crate::dataset::NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![("z".into(), "i * 2".into())]),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows_with_z(&dataset).await,
+        (0..12).map(|i| (i, i, i * 2)).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    );
+    assert_entry_carried(&dataset, &before).await;
+
+    let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let error = rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("FRI details"), "{error}");
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing was committed");
+    assert_entry_carried(&dataset, &before).await;
+}
+
+/// A segment built after the rewrite names the destinations directly, so an
+/// in-place rewrite of its column is withdrawn from its bitmap as on an
+/// untagged table: the patched fragment leaves the `v` index and is
+/// scanned, the other destination is still served.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_prunes_in_place_rewrite_from_a_direct_index() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    create_v_index(&mut dataset).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_before = before.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        v_before.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])
+    );
+
+    rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_after = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(v_after.uuid, v_before.uuid);
+    assert_eq!(
+        v_after.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32]),
+        "the patched destination (odd values, i = 3) left the v index"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 333"), true).await, vec![(3, 333)]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 3"), true).await, vec![]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 4"), true).await, vec![(4, 4)]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].map(|i| (i, if i == 3 { 333 } else { i }))
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// Sorted `i` values under a predicate, with or without the scalar index;
+/// for tables whose `v` is no longer Int32.
+async fn i_values(dataset: &Dataset, predicate: Option<&str>, use_index: bool) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    if let Some(predicate) = predicate {
+        scan.filter(predicate).unwrap();
+    }
+    scan.use_scalar_index(use_index);
+    scan.project(&["i"]).unwrap();
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let mut values: Vec<i32> = batch["i"]
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .copied()
+        .collect();
+    values.sort_unstable();
+    values
+}
+
+/// Adding a column writes new data files and rewrites none; dropping an
+/// unindexed column projects the schema. Both keep the `i` segment
+/// translating.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_accepts_add_and_drop_columns() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .add_columns(
+            crate::dataset::NewColumnTransform::SqlExpressions(vec![("z".into(), "i * 2".into())]),
+            None,
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset.drop_columns(&["w"]).await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset
+            .schema()
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec!["i", "v", "z"]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 6").await,
+        vec![(6, 6)]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, Some("z = 12"), true).await, vec![6]);
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// Casting an unindexed column rewrites its data file in place (a `Merge`
+/// carrying the new file): admitted, the `i` segment still translates. (A
+/// cast of an indexed column is refused by schema evolution itself, before
+/// any commit, so the merge arm of the in-place rule is pinned at the
+/// manifest level.)
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_alter_columns_follows_the_in_place_rewrite_rule() {
+    use crate::dataset::ColumnAlteration;
+    use arrow_schema::DataType;
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("v".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.schema().field("v").unwrap().data_type(),
+        DataType::Int64
+    );
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, Some("i = 6"), true).await, vec![6]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_values(&dataset, Some("i = 6"), true).await,
+        i_values(&dataset, Some("i = 6"), false).await
+    );
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, Some("v = 5"), false).await, vec![5]);
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// An overwrite replaces the table: every index, the tagged entry included,
+/// is gone with the old fragments, and the sticky flag keeps the tagged
+/// record form for the rewrites to come.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_accepts_overwrite() {
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 101])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 101])),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![100, 101])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert!(
+        crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .is_empty()
+    );
+    assert_ne!(
+        dataset.manifest.reader_feature_flags
+            & lance_table::feature_flags::FLAG_FRAGMENT_REUSE_INDEX,
+        0,
+        "the tagged record form is sticky"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        vec![(100, 100), (101, 101)]
+    );
+}
+
+/// Restore copies a whole earlier manifest: back to the untagged version the
+/// index names live fragments directly, and forward to the tagged version
+/// it translates again through the row maps, which no cleanup removed.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_accepts_restore() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let tagged_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Version 2 is the indexed, untagged table (1 = data, 2 = i_idx).
+    let mut untagged = dataset.checkout_version(2).await.unwrap();
+    untagged.restore().await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, tagged_version + 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![0, 1]
+    );
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    assert!(stored.iter().all(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx"), "{stored:?}");
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 3").await,
+        vec![(3, 3)]
+    );
+
+    let mut tagged = dataset.checkout_version(tagged_version).await.unwrap();
+    tagged.restore().await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, tagged_version + 2);
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 3").await,
+        vec![(3, 3)]
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// Stable row ids replace the row addresses a tagged history translates:
+/// the migration is refused while the entry exists.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_refuses_stable_row_id_migration() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let error = dataset.migrate_to_stable_row_ids().await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        error.to_string().contains("stable row id migration"),
+        "{error}"
+    );
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing was committed");
+    assert!(!dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids());
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_accepts_config_update() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    dataset.update_config([("tenant", "blue")]).await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.manifest.config.get("tenant").map(String::as_str),
+        Some("blue")
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 6").await,
+        vec![(6, 6)]
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+mod mem_wal_state {
+    //! The MemWAL system index and a tagged history coexist: the index is
+    //! installed on a tagged table (or tagged under), and recording SSTable
+    //! compaction progress on it (`UpdateMemWalState`) replaces only the
+    //! MemWAL entry. The history, the user segment and its derived coverage
+    //! are carried through unchanged.
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::index::mem_wal::{load_mem_wal_index_details, new_mem_wal_index_meta};
+    use lance_index::mem_wal::MemWalIndexDetails;
+
+    /// Installs `__lance_mem_wal` through the commit path, as MemWAL
+    /// initialization does.
+    async fn install_mem_wal_index(dataset: Dataset) -> Dataset {
+        let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let mem_wal_index = new_mem_wal_index_meta(version, MemWalIndexDetails::default()).unwrap();
+        commit_sp(
+            &dataset,
+            version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![mem_wal_index],
+                removed_indices: vec![],
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn advance_mem_wal_state(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        shard: Uuid,
+        generation: u64,
+    ) -> Result<Dataset> {
+        commit_sp(
+            dataset,
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::UpdateMemWalState {
+                compacted_sstables: vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, generation)],
+            },
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    fn mem_wal_entry(indices: &[IndexMetadata]) -> &IndexMetadata {
+        indices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == MEM_WAL_INDEX_NAME)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Two state updates land on the tagged table carrying `i_idx` and the
+    /// MemWAL index; each replaces the MemWAL entry only.
+    async fn assert_mem_wal_state_advances_beside_the_history(uri: &str, dataset: Dataset) {
+        let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let derived_before = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let shard = Uuid::new_v4();
+
+        let committed = advance_mem_wal_state(&dataset, shard, 3).await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = fresh_session(uri).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, committed.manifest.version);
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stored.len(), before.len());
+
+        let mem_wal = mem_wal_entry(&stored);
+        let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(mem_wal.clone()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.compacted_sstables,
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 3)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(mem_wal.dataset_version, dataset.manifest.version);
+        assert_ne!(
+            mem_wal.uuid,
+            mem_wal_entry(&before).uuid,
+            "a state update mints a new MemWAL entry identity"
+        );
+
+        let fri = fri_entry(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(fri.uuid, fri_entry(&before).uuid);
+        assert_eq!(fri.index_version, fri_entry(&before).index_version);
+        assert_eq!(fri.dataset_version, fri_entry(&before).dataset_version);
+        assert_eq!(
+            fri.index_details,
+            fri_entry(&before).index_details,
+            "the history's details bytes are carried through unchanged"
+        );
+
+        let segment = user_segment(&stored);
+        assert_eq!(
+            segment.dataset_version,
+            user_segment(&before).dataset_version
+        );
+        assert_eq!(segment.index_version, user_segment(&before).index_version);
+        assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+        let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            user_segment(&derived).fragment_bitmap,
+            user_segment(&derived_before).fragment_bitmap
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 6").await,
+            vec![(6, 6)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+            (0..8).map(|i| (i, i)).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+
+        // The generation keeps advancing on the same shard.
+        let committed = advance_mem_wal_state(&dataset, shard, 4).await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = fresh_session(uri).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, committed.manifest.version);
+        let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        let details = load_mem_wal_index_details(mem_wal_entry(&stored).clone()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            details.compacted_sstables,
+            vec![CompactedSsTable::new(shard, 4)]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(fri_entry(&stored).uuid, fri_entry(&before).uuid);
+        assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 6").await,
+            vec![(6, 6)]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The MemWAL index is installed on an already tagged table, then its
+    /// state is advanced.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+    async fn mem_wal_state_advances_on_a_tagged_table() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+        let installed = install_mem_wal_index(dataset).await;
+        let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, installed.manifest.version);
+        assert_mem_wal_state_advances_beside_the_history(dir.as_str(), dataset).await;
+    }
+
+    /// The table is tagged after the MemWAL index exists, then the state is
+    /// advanced: the same order MemWAL initialization followed by a stable
+    /// partition produces.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+    async fn mem_wal_state_advances_on_a_table_tagged_after_the_index() {
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = indexed_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+        let dataset = install_mem_wal_index(dataset).await;
+        let dataset = make_tagged(dataset).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![10, 11]
+        );
+        let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+        assert_mem_wal_state_advances_beside_the_history(dir.as_str(), dataset).await;
+    }
+}
+
+/// Every commit attempt prepares the index list against the manifest it
+/// builds on. A rewrite that read version V and lands after another writer
+/// installed an index on the rewritten column at V+1 withdraws that index
+/// too: the retry prepared from the list current at the retry, not from
+/// what it saw at first.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn retry_withdraws_an_index_created_concurrently_on_the_rewritten_column() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let stale = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let read_version = stale.manifest.version;
+
+    // Another writer indexes `v` on the live fragments meanwhile.
+    let mut other = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    create_v_index(&mut other).await;
+    assert_eq!(other.manifest.version, read_version + 1);
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&other).await.unwrap();
+    let v_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])
+    );
+
+    // Row i = 3 lives in F11; the rewrite commits from the stale handle and
+    // is rebased over the index creation.
+    rewrite_in_place(stale, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, read_version + 2);
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32]),
+        "the concurrently created index lost the rewritten fragment"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 333"), true).await, vec![(3, 333)]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 3"), true).await, vec![]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        rows(&dataset, None, false).await
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(
+        &dataset,
+        &crate::index::load_all_indices(&other).await.unwrap(),
+        &[10, 11],
+    )
+    .await;
+}
+
+/// A detached commit prepares the index list the same way as the main
+/// chain: an in-place rewrite of an indexed column withdraws the coverage
+/// in the detached manifest it produces.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn detached_in_place_rewrite_on_a_tagged_table_withdraws_like_the_main_chain() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let base_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let base = dataset.clone();
+
+    // Commit the rewrite once on the main chain to obtain its operation
+    // (the rewritten data files it points at stay on disk).
+    rewrite_in_place(dataset, "i", 3, 333).await.unwrap();
+    let committed = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let transaction = committed
+        .read_transaction()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .expect("the rewrite recorded its transaction");
+    assert!(matches!(transaction.operation, Operation::Update { .. }));
+
+    // The same operation, committed detached on top of the base version.
+    let detached = Dataset::commit_detached(
+        Arc::new(base),
+        transaction.operation,
+        Some(base_version),
+        None,
+        None,
+        Arc::new(Session::default()),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert!(lance_table::format::is_detached_version(
+        detached.manifest.version
+    ));
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&detached).await.unwrap();
+    let segment = user_segment(&stored);
+    assert!(
+        segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "the translating segment's coverage of the rewritten transition was withdrawn: {:?}",
+        segment.fragment_bitmap
+    );
+    assert_eq!(fri_entry(&stored).index_version, 1);
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&detached, Some("i = 333"), true).await, vec![333]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_values(&detached, None, true).await,
+        i_values(&detached, None, false).await
+    );
+}
+
+/// Sorted `(i, vector)` rows of a nearest-neighbour search over every row,
+/// with or without the vector index: the two must agree on row identity,
+/// multiplicity and the values read back.
+async fn knn_rows(dataset: &Dataset, query: &[f32], use_index: bool) -> Vec<(i32, Vec<f32>)> {
+    use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+    let total = dataset.count_rows(None).await.unwrap();
+    let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+    scan.nearest("v", &arrow_array::Float32Array::from(query.to_vec()), total)
+        .unwrap();
+    scan.use_index(use_index);
+    scan.project(&["i", "v"]).unwrap();
+    let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let i = batch["i"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    let v = batch["v"].as_fixed_size_list();
+    let mut rows: Vec<(i32, Vec<f32>)> = (0..batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|row| {
+            (
+                i.value(row),
+                v.value(row).as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values().to_vec(),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect();
+    rows.sort_by_key(|row| row.0);
+    assert_eq!(rows.len(), total, "every row is returned");
+    rows
+}
+
+/// Rewrite the vector `v` of the row keyed `w = key` in place.
+async fn rewrite_vector_in_place(dataset: Dataset, key: i32, value: [f32; 4]) -> Arc<Dataset> {
+    use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(
+        &dataset.schema().project(&["w", "v"]).unwrap(),
+    ));
+    let vector = FixedSizeListArray::try_new(
+        Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+        4,
+        Arc::new(Float32Array::from(value.to_vec())),
+        None,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let source = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema,
+        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![key])), Arc::new(vector)],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    MergeInsertBuilder::try_new(Arc::new(dataset), vec!["w".into()])
+        .unwrap()
+        .when_matched(WhenMatched::UpdateAll)
+        .when_not_matched(WhenNotMatched::DoNothing)
+        .write_mode(MergeInsertWriteMode::RewriteColumns)
+        .try_build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .execute_batches(vec![source])
+        .await
+        .map(|(dataset, _)| dataset)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// A vector fixture: `frag_count` fragments of four rows with columns `i`,
+/// `v` (a random 4-vector) and `w` (= `i`), and an exact IVF_FLAT index on
+/// `v` over every fragment, built before any rewrite.
+async fn vector_fixture(uri: &str, frag_count: u32) -> Dataset {
+    use arrow_array::types::Float32Type;
+    let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .col("v", lance_datagen::array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(4.into()))
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step::<Int32Type>())
+        .into_dataset(
+            uri,
+            FragmentCount::from(frag_count),
+            FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["v"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some("vec_idx".into()),
+            &crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams::ivf_flat(
+                1,
+                lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType::L2,
+            ),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+}
+
+async fn vec_segment_bitmap(dataset: &Dataset) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(dataset).await.unwrap();
+    stored
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx")
+        .and_then(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+}
+
+/// Vector twin of the exact withdrawal: with two stable partitions and the
+/// index built over all four sources, rewriting `v` on F11 withdraws {0, 1}
+/// and the segment keeps translating to F20, F21. The nearest-neighbour
+/// search agrees with the index-disabled scan on every row, before and
+/// after `optimize_indices`.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn vector_index_translating_remainder_agrees_with_the_scan() {
+    use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::InlineContent;
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = vector_fixture(dir.as_str(), 4).await;
+    reserve(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+    let (first, mut destinations) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+    let (second, more) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[2, 3], 20).await;
+    destinations.extend(more);
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![first, second],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests::install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, true)
+        .await;
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let query = [0.25f32, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0];
+    assert_eq!(
+        knn_rows(&dataset, &query, true).await,
+        knn_rows(&dataset, &query, false).await
+    );
+
+    // Row w = 3 lives in F11.
+    rewrite_vector_in_place(dataset, 3, [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0]).await;
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        vec_segment_bitmap(&dataset).await,
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([2u32, 3])),
+        "the first partition's sources were withdrawn, the second still translates"
+    );
+    let indexed = knn_rows(&dataset, &query, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(indexed, knn_rows(&dataset, &query, false).await);
+    assert_eq!(indexed[3], (3, vec![9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0]));
+
+    let mut dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    dataset.optimize_indices(&Default::default()).await.unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let indexed = knn_rows(&dataset, &query, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(indexed, knn_rows(&dataset, &query, false).await);
+    assert_eq!(indexed[3], (3, vec![9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0]));
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    for segment in stored.iter().filter(|idx| idx.name == "vec_idx") {
+        let bitmap = segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !bitmap.contains(0) && !bitmap.contains(1),
+            "optimize must not restore the withdrawn provenance: {bitmap:?}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+/// The partial-withdrawal shape the reader would otherwise load as it is:
+/// the index was built over the two sources of the only partition and a
+/// third fragment the history never touched. Rewriting `v` on F11 withdraws
+/// the sources, and the live-only remainder {2} goes with them (the file
+/// still holds the withdrawn rows and would serve them raw), so the search
+/// scans until `optimize_indices` rebuilds the segment. The search agrees
+/// with the index-disabled scan at every step.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn vector_index_live_only_remainder_is_withdrawn_whole_and_agrees_with_the_scan() {
+    use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::InlineContent;
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = vector_fixture(dir.as_str(), 3).await;
+    reserve(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+    let untouched = dataset.fragments()[2].clone();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[0, 1], 10).await;
+    let live: Vec<Fragment> = std::iter::once(untouched)
+        .chain(destinations.iter().cloned())
+        .collect();
+    let content = InlineContent {
+        legacy_versions: vec![],
+        transitions: vec![transition],
+    }
+    .encode_to_vec();
+    crate::index::frag_reuse_reader::tests::install(&mut dataset, content, destinations, false)
+        .await;
+    // Fragment 2 is untouched by the partition and stays live.
+    Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = live.into();
+    dataset.fragment_bitmap = Arc::new(
+        dataset
+            .manifest
+            .fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.id as u32)
+            .collect(),
+    );
+    let indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![2, 10, 11]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        vec_segment_bitmap(&dataset).await,
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 2]))
+    );
+    let query = [0.25f32, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0];
+    assert_eq!(
+        knn_rows(&dataset, &query, true).await,
+        knn_rows(&dataset, &query, false).await
+    );
+
+    // Row w = 3 lives in F11.
+    rewrite_vector_in_place(dataset, 3, [9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0]).await;
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        vec_segment_bitmap(&dataset).await,
+        Some(RoaringBitmap::new()),
+        "the live-only remainder went with the withdrawn sources"
+    );
+    let indexed = knn_rows(&dataset, &query, true).await;
+    assert_eq!(indexed, knn_rows(&dataset, &query, false).await);
+    assert_eq!(indexed[3], (3, vec![9.0, 9.0, 9.0, 9.0]));
+
+    let plan = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .nearest("v", &arrow_array::Float32Array::from(query.to_vec()), 4)
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !plan.contains("ANN"),
+        "an emptied segment is not searched: {plan}"
+    );
+    // Rebuilding the emptied segment through `optimize_indices` is the
+    // maintenance change's job (its `withdrawn_vector_index_is_rebuilt_by_optimize`).
+}
+
+/// A segment staged before the rewrite, committed after a destination's
+/// indexed column was rewritten in place (admitted, since no committed index
+/// covered the column): the addresses still translate but the values do
+/// not. The commit replays the rewrite over the segment and withdraws the
+/// transition's sources, so the segment claims nothing and the rows are
+/// scanned.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_commit_of_a_stale_staged_index_drops_rewritten_destinations() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Staged at the pre-rewrite version (2: data plus i_idx), over F0, F1.
+    let mut pre = dataset.checkout_version(2).await.unwrap();
+    let segment = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut pre,
+        &["v"],
+        IndexType::Scalar,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("v_idx".into())
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        segment.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+    );
+
+    // F11 (odd values) gets v rewritten in place: admitted, no committed
+    // index covers v.
+    rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("v_idx", "v", vec![segment])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    // Both sources feed F11 (the partition splits every source by parity).
+    assert!(
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "{:?}",
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap
+    );
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        derived
+            .iter()
+            .find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx")
+            .and_then(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref())
+            .is_none_or(|bitmap| bitmap.is_empty()),
+        "claims nothing"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 333"), true).await, vec![(3, 333)]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 3"), true).await, vec![]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].map(|i| (i, if i == 3 { 333 } else { i }))
+    );
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// The same sequence with `alter_columns`: a cast rewrites `v` under a NEW
+/// field id, so a segment staged for the old field cannot be carried across
+/// it; the commit says to rebuild and nothing is published.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_refuses_committing_a_staged_index_after_a_cast_of_its_column() {
+    use crate::dataset::ColumnAlteration;
+    use arrow_schema::DataType;
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let mut dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let mut pre = dataset.checkout_version(2).await.unwrap();
+    let segment = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut pre,
+        &["v"],
+        IndexType::Scalar,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("v_idx".into())
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("v".into()).cast_to(DataType::Int64)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let error = dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("v_idx", "v", vec![segment])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("Rebuild"), "{error}");
+
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    assert_eq!(dataset.manifest.version, version, "nothing was committed");
+    assert!(
+        crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .all(|idx| idx.name != "v_idx")
+    );
+    assert_eq!(i_values(&dataset, Some("v = 3"), true).await, vec![3]);
+    assert_segment_and_history_untouched(&dataset, &before, &[10, 11]).await;
+}
+
+/// A merged segment's bitmap is the union of its sources' provenance, so a
+/// segment can name a destination directly (F10) and, through retired
+/// sources (F0, F1), reach it as well. The rewrite commits and both go: the
+/// direct id and the whole transition's sources, so the segment claims
+/// nothing; `optimize_indices` rebuilds the coverage afterwards.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_withdraws_a_mixed_provenance_whole() {
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let mut untagged = dataset.checkout_version(2).await.unwrap();
+    untagged.restore().await.unwrap();
+    create_v_index(&mut untagged).await;
+    let mut dataset = make_tagged(untagged).await;
+
+    let direct = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut dataset,
+        &["v"],
+        IndexType::Scalar,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("v_idx".into())
+    .replace(true)
+    .fragments(vec![10])
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut indices = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_ref()
+        .clone();
+    indices.push(direct);
+    persist_fixture(&mut dataset, indices).await;
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::merge(2))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let merged: Vec<_> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(merged.len(), 1, "{merged:?}");
+    assert_eq!(
+        merged[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1, 10]),
+        "mixed provenance"
+    );
+
+    // Row i = 2 lives in F10, the fragment the segment names directly.
+    rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 2, 222).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "{:?}",
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap
+    );
+    // The withdrawn segment is out of the listing. Opening it by uuid through
+    // the query entry is an error (no scan covers its rows, so an empty
+    // answer would drop them); the maintenance entry opens it as contributing
+    // nothing so it can be rebuilt.
+    {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+        use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        assert!(
+            !dataset
+                .load_indices()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|idx| idx.uuid == v_idx.uuid),
+            "excluded from the listing"
+        );
+        let refused = dataset
+            .open_scalar_index("v", &v_idx.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(refused.to_string().contains("does not exist"), "{refused}");
+        let Err(refused) = dataset
+            .open_generic_index("v", &v_idx.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+        else {
+            panic!("the query entry opened a withdrawn segment")
+        };
+        assert!(refused.to_string().contains("does not exist"), "{refused}");
+        dataset
+            .open_scalar_index_for_maintenance("v", &v_idx.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 222"), true).await, vec![(2, 222)]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 2"), true).await, vec![]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        rows(&dataset, None, true).await,
+        [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].map(|i| (i, if i == 2 { 222 } else { i }))
+    );
+
+    // Optimizing rebuilds the coverage over the live fragments: the withdrawn
+    // segment (kept as the record of what to build) is replaced by a new one
+    // that claims the live fragments and holds their rows.
+    dataset
+        .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let rebuilt: Vec<IndexMetadata> = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx")
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(rebuilt.len(), 1, "{rebuilt:?}");
+    assert_ne!(
+        rebuilt[0].uuid, v_idx.uuid,
+        "the withdrawn segment is replaced"
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        rebuilt[0].fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])
+    );
+    {
+        use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
+        use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+        use lance_index::scalar::{SargableQuery, SearchResult};
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_scalar_index("v", &rebuilt[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let SearchResult::Exact(rows) = index
+            .search(
+                &SargableQuery::Equals(datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue::Int32(Some(222))),
+                &NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+        else {
+            panic!("expected an exact result");
+        };
+        let fragments: Vec<u32> = rows
+            .true_rows()
+            .row_addrs()
+            .unwrap()
+            .map(|addr| lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress::from(u64::from(addr)).fragment_id())
+            .collect();
+        assert_eq!(fragments, vec![10], "the new segment holds the live row");
+    }
+    let derived = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        derived
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx")
+            .filter_map(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.clone())
+            .fold(RoaringBitmap::new(), |acc, b| acc | b),
+        RoaringBitmap::from_iter([10u32, 11])
+    );
+    let plan = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .filter("v = 222")
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"), "{plan}");
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 222"), true).await, vec![(2, 222)]);
+}
+
+/// Two stable partitions around one in-place rewrite: the rewritten
+/// destination is retired again before the staged segment is committed.
+/// The replay carries the segment across both partitions and the rewrite in
+/// order, so the withdrawal happens where the rewrite happened; the segment
+/// claims nothing and the rows are scanned.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_commit_of_a_stale_staged_index_sees_a_rewrite_on_a_retired_destination() {
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let before = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let mut pre = dataset.checkout_version(2).await.unwrap();
+    let segment = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut pre,
+        &["v"],
+        IndexType::Scalar,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("v_idx".into())
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    rewrite_in_place(dataset, "v", 3, 333).await.unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    reserve(&mut dataset, 40).await;
+    let old_fragments: Vec<Fragment> = dataset.fragments().iter().cloned().collect();
+    let (transition, destinations) = prepare_partition(&dataset, &[10, 11], 20).await;
+    let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let mut dataset = commit_sp(
+        &dataset,
+        version,
+        tagged_rewrite(&dataset, old_fragments, destinations, vec![transition]).await,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        vec![20, 21]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        assert_index_agrees_with_scan(&dataset, "i = 3").await,
+        vec![(3, 333)]
+    );
+
+    dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("v_idx", "v", vec![segment])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let dataset = fresh_session(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let stored = crate::index::load_all_indices(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+    let v_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "v_idx").unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap().is_empty(),
+        "{:?}",
+        v_idx.fragment_bitmap
+    );
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 333"), true).await, vec![(3, 333)]);
+    assert_eq!(rows(&dataset, Some("v = 3"), true).await, vec![]);
+    let i_idx = stored.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_idx.uuid,
+        before.iter().find(|idx| idx.name == "i_idx").unwrap().uuid
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        i_idx.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().unwrap(),
+        &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0u32, 1])
+    );
+}
+
+/// A bare rewrite (no transition: only admitted for fragments no committed
+/// index covers) that consumes a fragment a staged segment was built on
+/// leaves the segment nothing to translate through: the commit says to
+/// rebuild it.
+#[tokio::test]
+#[serial_test::serial(frag_reuse_maintenance)]
+async fn tagged_table_commit_of_a_staged_index_over_a_bare_rewritten_source_says_rebuild() {
+    use crate::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+
+    let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+    let dataset = tagged_two_column_fixture(dir.as_str()).await;
+    let batch = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+        .col("i", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col("v", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .col("w", lance_datagen::array::step_custom::<Int32Type>(8, 1))
+        .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(4))
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let appended = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().clone();
+    let segment = crate::index::CreateIndexBuilder::new(
+        &mut dataset,
+        &["v"],
+        IndexType::Scalar,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+    )
+    .name("v_idx".into())
+    .fragments(vec![appended.id as u32])
+    .execute_uncommitted()
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Rewrite the appended fragment in place of itself, bare: no committed
+    // index covers it, so the gate admits the plain rewrite.
+    let rows_of_appended = dataset
+        .scan()
+        .with_fragments(vec![appended.clone()])
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let rewritten = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset.clone()))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute_uncommitted(vec![rows_of_appended])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let Operation::Append { fragments } = rewritten.operation else {
+        unreachable!()
+    };
+    let version = dataset.manifest.version;
+    let dataset = CommitBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .execute(Transaction::new(
+            version,
+            Operation::Rewrite {
+                groups: vec![RewriteGroup {
+                    old_fragments: vec![appended],
+                    new_fragments: fragments,
+                }],
+                rewritten_indices: vec![],
+                frag_reuse_index: None,
+            },
+            None,
+        ))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut dataset = fresh_session(dataset.uri()).await;
+    let error = dataset
+        .commit_existing_index_segments("v_idx", "v", vec![segment])
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(error.to_string().contains("Rebuild"), "{error}");
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/dynamodb.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/dynamodb.rs
index 81275da6d0d..296c436693b 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/dynamodb.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/dynamodb.rs
@@ -25,27 +25,26 @@ mod test {
 
     use aws_credential_types::Credentials;
     use aws_sdk_dynamodb::{
+        Client,
         config::Region,
         types::{
             AttributeDefinition, KeySchemaElement, KeyType, ProvisionedThroughput,
             ScalarAttributeType,
         },
-        Client,
     };
     use futures::future::join_all;
     use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
-    use object_store::local::LocalFileSystem;
-    use object_store::path::Path;
+    use object_store::{ObjectStoreExt, local::LocalFileSystem, path::Path};
 
     use crate::{
-        dataset::{builder::DatasetBuilder, ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams},
         Dataset,
+        dataset::{ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams, builder::DatasetBuilder},
     };
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
     use lance_table::io::commit::{
+        CommitHandler, ManifestNamingScheme,
         dynamodb::DynamoDBExternalManifestStore,
         external_manifest::{ExternalManifestCommitHandler, ExternalManifestStore},
-        CommitHandler, ManifestNamingScheme,
     };
 
     fn read_params(handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler>) -> ReadParams {
@@ -129,28 +128,36 @@ mod test {
         // DNE should return None for latest
         assert_eq!(store.get_latest_version("test").await.unwrap(), None);
         // DNE should return Err for get specific version
-        assert!(store
-            .get("test", 1)
-            .await
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .starts_with("Not found: dynamodb not found: base_uri: test; version: 1"));
+        assert!(
+            store
+                .get("test", 1)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .starts_with("Not found: dynamodb not found: base_uri: test; version: 1")
+        );
         // try to use the API for finalizing should return err when the version is DNE
-        assert!(store
-            .put_if_exists("test", 1, "test", 4, None)
-            .await
-            .is_err());
+        assert!(
+            store
+                .put_if_exists("test", 1, "test", 4, None)
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
 
         // Put a new version should work
-        assert!(store
-            .put_if_not_exists("test", 1, "test.unfinalized", 4, None)
-            .await
-            .is_ok());
+        assert!(
+            store
+                .put_if_not_exists("test", 1, "test.unfinalized", 4, None)
+                .await
+                .is_ok()
+        );
         // put again should get err
-        assert!(store
-            .put_if_not_exists("test", 1, "test.unfinalized_1", 4, None)
-            .await
-            .is_err());
+        assert!(
+            store
+                .put_if_not_exists("test", 1, "test.unfinalized_1", 4, None)
+                .await
+                .is_err()
+        );
 
         // Can get that new version back and is the latest
         assert_eq!(
@@ -160,10 +167,12 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(store.get("test", 1).await.unwrap(), "test.unfinalized");
 
         // Put a new version should work again
-        assert!(store
-            .put_if_not_exists("test", 2, "test.unfinalized_2", 4, None)
-            .await
-            .is_ok());
+        assert!(
+            store
+                .put_if_not_exists("test", 2, "test.unfinalized_2", 4, None)
+                .await
+                .is_ok()
+        );
         // latest should see update
         assert_eq!(
             store.get_latest_version("test").await.unwrap(),
@@ -171,10 +180,12 @@ mod test {
         );
 
         // try to finalize should work on existing version
-        assert!(store
-            .put_if_exists("test", 2, "test", 4, None)
-            .await
-            .is_ok());
+        assert!(
+            store
+                .put_if_exists("test", 2, "test", 4, None)
+                .await
+                .is_ok()
+        );
 
         // latest should see update
         assert_eq!(
@@ -318,8 +329,9 @@ mod test {
         let localfs: Box<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> = Box::new(LocalFileSystem::new());
         // Move version 6 to a temporary location, put that in the store.
         let base_path = Path::parse(ds_uri).unwrap();
-        let version_six_staging_location =
-            base_path.child(format!("6.manifest-{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4()));
+        let version_six_staging_location = base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(format!("6.manifest-{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4()));
         localfs
             .rename(
                 &ManifestNamingScheme::V1.manifest_path(&ds.base, 6),
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/external_manifest.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/external_manifest.rs
index 9e8124d1480..ff9b48df11b 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/external_manifest.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/external_manifest.rs
@@ -4,54 +4,67 @@
 /// Keep the tests in `lance` crate because it has dependency on [Dataset].
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::ops::Range;
     use std::sync::Arc;
-    use std::{collections::HashMap, time::Duration};
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 
     use async_trait::async_trait;
-    use futures::{future::join_all, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+    use bytes::Bytes;
+    use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+    use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, future::join_all};
     use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+    use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
     use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::{
         ExternalManifestCommitHandler, ExternalManifestStore,
     };
-    use lance_table::io::commit::{CommitHandler, ManifestNamingScheme};
+    use lance_table::io::commit::{CommitHandler, ManifestLocation, ManifestNamingScheme};
     use lance_testing::datagen::{BatchGenerator, IncrementingInt32};
-    use object_store::local::LocalFileSystem;
-    use object_store::path::Path;
-    use snafu::location;
-    use tokio::sync::Mutex;
+    use object_store::memory::InMemory;
+    use object_store::{
+        CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta,
+        ObjectStore as OSObjectStore, ObjectStoreExt, PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload,
+        PutResult, RenameOptions, Result as OSResult, local::LocalFileSystem, path::Path,
+    };
+    use tokio::sync::{Barrier, Mutex};
 
     use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
     use crate::{
-        dataset::{ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams},
         Dataset,
+        dataset::{ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams},
     };
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
 
-    // sleep for 1 second to simulate a slow external store on write
     #[derive(Debug)]
-    struct SleepyExternalManifestStore {
+    struct TestExternalManifestStore {
         store: Arc<Mutex<HashMap<(String, u64), String>>>,
+        contention: Option<(u64, Arc<Barrier>)>,
     }
 
-    impl SleepyExternalManifestStore {
+    impl TestExternalManifestStore {
         fn new() -> Self {
             Self {
                 store: Arc::new(Mutex::new(HashMap::new())),
+                contention: None,
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn with_contention(version: u64, participants: usize) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                contention: Some((version, Arc::new(Barrier::new(participants)))),
+                ..Self::new()
             }
         }
     }
 
     #[async_trait]
-    impl ExternalManifestStore for SleepyExternalManifestStore {
+    impl ExternalManifestStore for TestExternalManifestStore {
         /// Get the manifest path for a given uri and version
         async fn get(&self, uri: &str, version: u64) -> Result<String> {
             let store = self.store.lock().await;
             match store.get(&(uri.to_string(), version)) {
                 Some(path) => Ok(path.clone()),
-                None => Err(Error::NotFound {
-                    uri: uri.to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }),
+                None => Err(Error::not_found(uri.to_string())),
             }
         }
 
@@ -81,17 +94,21 @@ mod test {
             _size: u64,
             _e_tag: Option<String>,
         ) -> Result<()> {
-            tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await;
+            if let Some((contended_version, barrier)) = &self.contention
+                && version == *contended_version
+            {
+                // Every writer reaches the external compare-and-set with the same
+                // proposed version before any writer can publish it. This forces
+                // the retry path deterministically instead of relying on sleeps.
+                barrier.wait().await;
+            }
 
             let mut store = self.store.lock().await;
             match store.get(&(uri.to_string(), version)) {
-                Some(_) => Err(Error::io(
-                    format!(
-                        "manifest already exists for uri: {}, version: {}",
-                        uri, version
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                )),
+                Some(_) => Err(Error::io(format!(
+                    "manifest already exists for uri: {}, version: {}",
+                    uri, version
+                ))),
                 None => {
                     store.insert((uri.to_string(), version), path.to_string());
                     Ok(())
@@ -108,25 +125,93 @@ mod test {
             _size: u64,
             _e_tag: Option<String>,
         ) -> Result<()> {
-            tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await;
-
             let mut store = self.store.lock().await;
             match store.get(&(uri.to_string(), version)) {
                 Some(_) => {
                     store.insert((uri.to_string(), version), path.to_string());
                     Ok(())
                 }
-                None => Err(Error::io(
-                    format!(
-                        "manifest already exists for uri: {}, version: {}",
-                        uri, version
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                )),
+                None => Err(Error::io(format!(
+                    "manifest already exists for uri: {}, version: {}",
+                    uri, version
+                ))),
             }
         }
     }
 
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct StaticExternalManifestStore {
+        location: ManifestLocation,
+        verify_store: Option<Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ExternalManifestStore for StaticExternalManifestStore {
+        async fn get(&self, _uri: &str, version: u64) -> Result<String> {
+            if version == self.location.version {
+                Ok(self.location.path.to_string())
+            } else {
+                Err(Error::not_found(format!("version {}", version)))
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn get_manifest_location(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+            version: u64,
+        ) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+            if version == self.location.version {
+                Ok(self.location.clone())
+            } else {
+                Err(Error::not_found(format!("version {}", version)))
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn get_latest_version(&self, _uri: &str) -> Result<Option<(u64, String)>> {
+            Ok(Some((
+                self.location.version,
+                self.location.path.to_string(),
+            )))
+        }
+
+        async fn get_latest_manifest_location(
+            &self,
+            _base_uri: &str,
+        ) -> Result<Option<ManifestLocation>> {
+            Ok(Some(self.location.clone()))
+        }
+
+        async fn put_if_not_exists(
+            &self,
+            _uri: &str,
+            _version: u64,
+            _path: &str,
+            _size: u64,
+            _e_tag: Option<String>,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn put_if_exists(
+            &self,
+            _uri: &str,
+            _version: u64,
+            path: &str,
+            size: u64,
+            e_tag: Option<String>,
+        ) -> Result<()> {
+            if let Some(store) = &self.verify_store {
+                let final_meta = store.head(&Path::from(path)).await?;
+                assert_eq!(size, final_meta.size);
+                assert_eq!(
+                    e_tag, None,
+                    "the generic workflow must not persist a physical generation"
+                );
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
     fn read_params(handler: Arc<dyn CommitHandler>) -> ReadParams {
         ReadParams {
             commit_handler: Some(handler),
@@ -141,6 +226,256 @@ mod test {
         }
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn finalized_external_manifest_location_is_head_checked() {
+        let sleepy_store = TestExternalManifestStore::new();
+        let inner_store = sleepy_store.store.clone();
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(sleepy_store),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("repro");
+        let version = 7;
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+        let body = b"manifest body";
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&final_path, PutPayload::from_static(body))
+            .await
+            .expect("seed finalized manifest");
+        inner_store
+            .lock()
+            .await
+            .insert((base_path.to_string(), version), final_path.to_string());
+
+        let location = handler
+            .resolve_latest_location(&base_path, &object_store)
+            .await
+            .expect("resolve latest finalized manifest");
+
+        assert_eq!(location.path, final_path);
+        assert_eq!(location.size, Some(body.len() as u64));
+        assert_eq!(location.naming_scheme, ManifestNamingScheme::V2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn finalized_external_manifest_location_falls_back_to_v1() {
+        let sleepy_store = TestExternalManifestStore::new();
+        let inner_store = sleepy_store.store.clone();
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(sleepy_store),
+        };
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("repro");
+        let version = 7;
+        let missing_v2_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+        let v1_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V1.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&v1_path, PutPayload::from_static(b"v1 manifest body"))
+            .await
+            .expect("seed V1 manifest");
+        inner_store.lock().await.insert(
+            (base_path.to_string(), version),
+            missing_v2_path.to_string(),
+        );
+
+        let latest_location = handler
+            .resolve_latest_location(&base_path, &object_store)
+            .await
+            .expect("resolve latest should fall back to V1");
+        assert_eq!(latest_location.path, v1_path);
+        assert_eq!(latest_location.naming_scheme, ManifestNamingScheme::V1);
+
+        let version_location = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, version, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("resolve version should fall back to V1");
+        assert_eq!(version_location.path, v1_path);
+        assert_eq!(version_location.naming_scheme, ManifestNamingScheme::V1);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn finalized_external_manifest_location_rejects_size_mismatch() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("repro");
+        let version = 7;
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+        let body = b"manifest body";
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&final_path, PutPayload::from_static(body))
+            .await
+            .expect("seed finalized manifest");
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(StaticExternalManifestStore {
+                location: ManifestLocation {
+                    version,
+                    path: final_path,
+                    size: Some(body.len() as u64 + 1),
+                    naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                    e_tag: None,
+                    identity: None,
+                },
+                verify_store: None,
+            }),
+        };
+
+        let err = handler
+            .resolve_latest_location(&base_path, &object_store)
+            .await
+            .expect_err("stale external manifest size should be rejected");
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::CorruptFile { .. }), "{err:?}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("Manifest size mismatch"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn finalized_external_manifest_location_without_stored_etag_uses_current_etag() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("repro");
+        let version = 7;
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, version);
+        let body = b"manifest body";
+
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&final_path, PutPayload::from_static(body))
+            .await
+            .expect("seed finalized manifest");
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(StaticExternalManifestStore {
+                location: ManifestLocation {
+                    version,
+                    path: final_path,
+                    size: Some(body.len() as u64),
+                    naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                    e_tag: None,
+                    identity: None,
+                },
+                verify_store: None,
+            }),
+        };
+
+        let resolved = handler
+            .resolve_latest_location(&base_path, &object_store)
+            .await
+            .expect("the canonical manifest should resolve from object storage");
+        let current_meta = object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&resolved.path)
+            .await
+            .expect("read current object-store metadata");
+        assert_eq!(resolved.e_tag, current_meta.e_tag);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn external_manifest_store_put_returns_destination_etag() {
+        let object_store: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let base_path = Path::from("repro");
+        let staging_path = Path::from("repro/_versions/1.manifest.staging-abcd");
+        object_store
+            .put(&staging_path, PutPayload::from_static(b"manifest body"))
+            .await
+            .expect("seed staging manifest");
+        let staging_meta = object_store
+            .head(&staging_path)
+            .await
+            .expect("read staging metadata");
+
+        let external_store = StaticExternalManifestStore {
+            location: ManifestLocation {
+                version: 1,
+                path: staging_path.clone(),
+                size: Some(staging_meta.size),
+                naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                e_tag: staging_meta.e_tag.clone(),
+                identity: None,
+            },
+            verify_store: Some(object_store.clone()),
+        };
+        let location = external_store
+            .put(
+                &base_path,
+                1,
+                &staging_path,
+                staging_meta.size,
+                staging_meta.e_tag.clone(),
+                object_store.as_ref(),
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("finalize manifest");
+        let final_meta = object_store
+            .head(&location.path)
+            .await
+            .expect("read finalized metadata");
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            staging_meta.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag,
+            "test store must assign a new ETag to the copied object"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(location.size, Some(final_meta.size));
+        assert_eq!(
+            location.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag,
+            "the caller must receive the finalized physical generation"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn external_manifest_handler_finalize_returns_destination_etag() {
+        let object_store = ObjectStore::memory();
+        let base_path = Path::from("repro");
+        let version = 1;
+        let staging_path = Path::from("repro/_versions/1.manifest.staging-abcd");
+        object_store
+            .inner
+            .put(&staging_path, PutPayload::from_static(b"manifest body"))
+            .await
+            .expect("seed staging manifest");
+        let staging_meta = object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&staging_path)
+            .await
+            .expect("read staging metadata");
+
+        let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(StaticExternalManifestStore {
+                location: ManifestLocation {
+                    version,
+                    path: staging_path,
+                    size: Some(staging_meta.size),
+                    naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+                    e_tag: staging_meta.e_tag.clone(),
+                    identity: None,
+                },
+                verify_store: Some(object_store.inner.clone()),
+            }),
+        };
+
+        let location = handler
+            .resolve_version_location(&base_path, version, object_store.inner.as_ref())
+            .await
+            .expect("finalize manifest");
+        let final_meta = object_store
+            .inner
+            .head(&location.path)
+            .await
+            .expect("read finalized metadata");
+
+        assert_ne!(
+            staging_meta.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag,
+            "test store must assign a new ETag to the copied object"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(location.size, Some(final_meta.size));
+        assert_eq!(
+            location.e_tag, final_meta.e_tag,
+            "the caller must receive the finalized physical generation"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_dataset_can_onboard_external_store() {
         // First write a dataset WITHOUT external store
@@ -152,7 +487,7 @@ mod test {
         Dataset::write(reader, ds_uri, None).await.unwrap();
 
         // Then try to load the dataset with external store handler set
-        let sleepy_store = SleepyExternalManifestStore::new();
+        let sleepy_store = TestExternalManifestStore::new();
         let handler = Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
             external_manifest_store: Arc::new(sleepy_store),
         });
@@ -179,7 +514,7 @@ mod test {
     #[tokio::test]
     #[cfg(not(windows))]
     async fn test_can_create_dataset_with_external_store() {
-        let sleepy_store = SleepyExternalManifestStore::new();
+        let sleepy_store = TestExternalManifestStore::new();
         let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
             external_manifest_store: Arc::new(sleepy_store),
         };
@@ -206,87 +541,96 @@ mod test {
     #[cfg(not(windows))]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_concurrent_commits_are_okay() {
-        // Run test 20 times to have a higher chance of catching race conditions
-        for _ in 0..20 {
-            let sleepy_store = SleepyExternalManifestStore::new();
-            let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
-                external_manifest_store: Arc::new(sleepy_store),
-            };
-            let handler = Arc::new(handler);
-
-            let mut data_gen =
-                BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("x".to_owned())));
-            let dir = TempStrDir::default();
-            let ds_uri = &dir;
-
-            Dataset::write(
-                data_gen.batch(10),
-                ds_uri,
-                Some(write_params(handler.clone())),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        const NUM_WRITERS: usize = 5;
+        const CONTENDED_VERSION: u64 = 2;
+        let external_store =
+            TestExternalManifestStore::with_contention(CONTENDED_VERSION, NUM_WRITERS);
+        let handler = Arc::new(ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
+            external_manifest_store: Arc::new(external_store),
+        });
 
-            // we have 5 retries by default, more than this will just fail
-            let write_futs = (0..5)
-                .map(|_| data_gen.batch(10))
-                .map(|data| {
-                    let mut params = write_params(handler.clone());
-                    params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
-                    Dataset::write(data, ds_uri, Some(params))
-                })
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut data_gen =
+            BatchGenerator::new().col(Box::new(IncrementingInt32::new().named("x".to_owned())));
+        let dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let ds_uri = &dir;
 
-            let res = join_all(write_futs).await;
+        Dataset::write(
+            data_gen.batch(10),
+            ds_uri,
+            Some(write_params(handler.clone())),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-            let errors = res
-                .into_iter()
-                .filter(|r| r.is_err())
-                .map(|r| r.unwrap_err())
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        // All writers first attempt version 2. One succeeds and the rest must
+        // observe the conflict, refresh, and commit distinct later versions.
+        let write_futs = (0..NUM_WRITERS)
+            .map(|_| data_gen.batch(10))
+            .map(|data| {
+                let mut params = write_params(handler.clone());
+                params.mode = WriteMode::Append;
+                Dataset::write(data, ds_uri, Some(params))
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-            assert!(errors.is_empty(), "{:?}", errors);
+        let res = join_all(write_futs).await;
 
-            // load the data and check the content
-            let ds = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(ds_uri)
-                .with_read_params(read_params(handler))
-                .load()
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 60);
+        let errors = res
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|r| r.is_err())
+            .map(|r| r.unwrap_err())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-            // No temporary manifests left over
-            let manifest_path = format!("{}/{}", dir, "_versions/");
-            let unexpected_entries = std::fs::read_dir(manifest_path)
-                .unwrap()
-                .filter(|entry| {
-                    let entry = entry.as_ref().unwrap();
-                    !entry
-                        .file_name()
-                        .as_os_str()
-                        .to_string_lossy()
-                        .ends_with(".manifest")
-                })
-                // There is a bug in local fs where concurrent commits can leave behind
-                // temporary `x.manifest#n` files. This might be a bug in object-store.
-                // TODO: fix this.
-                .filter(|entry| {
-                    let entry = entry.as_ref().unwrap();
-                    !entry
-                        .file_name()
-                        .as_os_str()
-                        .to_string_lossy()
-                        .contains(".manifest#")
-                })
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            assert!(unexpected_entries.is_empty(), "{:?}", unexpected_entries);
-        }
+        assert!(errors.is_empty(), "{:?}", errors);
+
+        let ds = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(ds_uri)
+            .with_read_params(read_params(handler))
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 60);
+        assert_eq!(ds.version().version, (NUM_WRITERS + 1) as u64);
+
+        // No temporary manifests left over.
+        let manifest_path = format!("{}/{}", dir, "_versions/");
+        let unexpected_entries = std::fs::read_dir(manifest_path)
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter(|entry| {
+                let entry = entry.as_ref().unwrap();
+                !entry
+                    .file_name()
+                    .as_os_str()
+                    .to_string_lossy()
+                    .ends_with(".manifest")
+            })
+            // There is a bug in local fs where concurrent commits can leave behind
+            // temporary `x.manifest#n` files. This might be a bug in object-store.
+            // TODO: fix this.
+            .filter(|entry| {
+                let entry = entry.as_ref().unwrap();
+                !entry
+                    .file_name()
+                    .as_os_str()
+                    .to_string_lossy()
+                    .contains(".manifest#")
+            })
+            // The version hint file is expected to be present.
+            .filter(|entry| {
+                let entry = entry.as_ref().unwrap();
+                !entry
+                    .file_name()
+                    .as_os_str()
+                    .to_string_lossy()
+                    .starts_with("latest_version_hint")
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(unexpected_entries.is_empty(), "{:?}", unexpected_entries);
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     #[cfg(not(windows))]
     async fn test_out_of_sync_dataset_can_recover() {
-        let sleepy_store = SleepyExternalManifestStore::new();
+        let sleepy_store = TestExternalManifestStore::new();
         let inner_store = sleepy_store.store.clone();
         let handler = ExternalManifestCommitHandler {
             external_manifest_store: Arc::new(sleepy_store),
@@ -318,8 +662,9 @@ mod test {
         let localfs: Box<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> = Box::new(LocalFileSystem::new());
         // Move version 6 to a temporary location, put that in the store.
         let base_path = Path::parse(ds_uri).unwrap();
-        let version_six_staging_location =
-            base_path.child(format!("6.manifest-{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4()));
+        let version_six_staging_location = base_path
+            .clone()
+            .join(format!("6.manifest-{}", uuid::Uuid::new_v4()));
         localfs
             .rename(
                 &ManifestNamingScheme::V1.manifest_path(&ds.base, 6),
@@ -366,6 +711,32 @@ mod test {
         assert_eq!(ds.version().version, 6);
         assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 60);
 
+        {
+            inner_store.lock().await.remove(&(ds.base.to_string(), 6));
+        }
+        assert!(
+            handler
+                .version_exists(
+                    &ds.base,
+                    6,
+                    ds.object_store.inner.as_ref(),
+                    ds.manifest_location().naming_scheme,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !handler
+                .version_exists(
+                    &ds.base,
+                    7,
+                    ds.object_store.inner.as_ref(),
+                    ds.manifest_location().naming_scheme,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        );
+
         // Open without external store handler again, should see the newly sync'd commit
         let ds = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(ds_uri).load().await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(ds.version().version, 6);
@@ -383,7 +754,304 @@ mod test {
                     .to_string_lossy()
                     .ends_with(".manifest")
             })
+            // The version hint file is expected to be present.
+            .filter(|entry| {
+                let entry = entry.as_ref().unwrap();
+                !entry
+                    .file_name()
+                    .as_os_str()
+                    .to_string_lossy()
+                    .starts_with("latest_version_hint")
+            })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
         assert!(unexpected_entries.is_empty(), "{:?}", unexpected_entries);
     }
+
+    /// S3's `CopyObject` API has a hard 5 GB cap on the source object size.
+    /// Above that, callers must use multipart copy (`UploadPartCopy`) instead.
+    /// `lance-table::io::commit::external_manifest` calls
+    /// `object_store.copy(staging, final)` unconditionally on the manifest
+    /// commit path — which fails for manifests >5 GB.
+    ///
+    /// This wrapper enforces that S3-side cap on top of any inner store, so
+    /// the regression can be reproduced in-process without S3.
+    ///
+    /// It also lets the test override `head().size` for a chosen path, so the
+    /// staging file can *appear* to be 14 GB without actually putting that
+    /// many bytes into the inner store.
+    const S3_COPY_OBJECT_CAP_BYTES: u64 = 5 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct CopyCapStore {
+        inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>,
+        /// path → fake size returned by head(); overrides the inner store.
+        head_size_overrides: Arc<Mutex<HashMap<String, u64>>>,
+        /// Counts calls to `copy_opts` (the fast path). Tests use this to
+        /// assert which branch of `copy_size_aware` was taken — succeeding
+        /// alone is not enough, since the slow path can also succeed for
+        /// small files.
+        copy_calls: AtomicUsize,
+        /// Counts calls to `put_multipart_opts` (the slow read+rewrite path).
+        put_multipart_calls: AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    impl CopyCapStore {
+        fn new(inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore>) -> Self {
+            Self {
+                inner,
+                head_size_overrides: Arc::new(Mutex::new(HashMap::new())),
+                copy_calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+                put_multipart_calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn override_size(&self, path: &Path, size: u64) {
+            self.head_size_overrides
+                .lock()
+                .await
+                .insert(path.to_string(), size);
+        }
+
+        async fn effective_size(&self, location: &Path, real: u64) -> u64 {
+            self.head_size_overrides
+                .lock()
+                .await
+                .get(&location.to_string())
+                .copied()
+                .unwrap_or(real)
+        }
+
+        fn copy_calls(&self) -> usize {
+            self.copy_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+        }
+
+        fn put_multipart_calls(&self) -> usize {
+            self.put_multipart_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl std::fmt::Display for CopyCapStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "CopyCapStore({})", self.inner)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl OSObjectStore for CopyCapStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            bytes: PutPayload,
+            opts: PutOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<PutResult> {
+            self.inner.put_opts(location, bytes, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            opts: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> OSResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.put_multipart_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            self.inner.put_multipart_opts(location, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(&self, location: &Path, options: GetOptions) -> OSResult<GetResult> {
+            // `head()` is a default method on `ObjectStore` that delegates to
+            // `get_opts(location, GetOptions { head: true, .. })`. To make a
+            // staging file *appear* to be 14 GB without holding 14 GB in
+            // memory, we override the size in the returned ObjectMeta here.
+            let mut res = self.inner.get_opts(location, options).await?;
+            let overridden = self.effective_size(location, res.meta.size).await;
+            res.meta.size = overridden;
+            Ok(res)
+        }
+
+        async fn get_ranges(&self, location: &Path, ranges: &[Range<u64>]) -> OSResult<Vec<Bytes>> {
+            self.inner.get_ranges(location, ranges).await
+        }
+
+        // `head` and `delete` are default methods on `ObjectStore`, derived
+        // from `get_opts`/`delete_stream`. We override `head` indirectly by
+        // overriding `get_opts` below — it returns size based on the
+        // overrides table for the chosen path.
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<Path>> {
+            self.inner.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list(prefix)
+        }
+
+        fn list_with_offset(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+            offset: &Path,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, OSResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.inner.list_with_offset(prefix, offset)
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> OSResult<ListResult> {
+            self.inner.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: CopyOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            // Mimic S3's CopyObject 5 GB hard cap: read the (possibly-overridden)
+            // size of the source via head() and reject if it crosses the cap.
+            let meta = self.head(from).await?;
+            if meta.size >= S3_COPY_OBJECT_CAP_BYTES {
+                return Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                    store: "S3",
+                    source: format!(
+                        "EntityTooLarge: ProposedSize {} exceeds CopyObject 5GB cap",
+                        meta.size
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                });
+            }
+            self.copy_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            self.inner.copy_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_opts(&self, from: &Path, to: &Path, opts: RenameOptions) -> OSResult<()> {
+            self.inner.rename_opts(from, to, opts).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Repro for the manifest >5 GB bug.
+    ///
+    /// Drives `ExternalManifestStore::put` (the default impl) against a
+    /// staging file whose `head().size` is reported as 14 GB. That `put`
+    /// calls `object_store.copy(staging, final)` unconditionally — which
+    /// our `CopyCapStore` wrapper rejects with the same `EntityTooLarge`
+    /// error S3 returns in production.
+    ///
+    /// The regression verifies that `copy_size_aware` falls back to the
+    /// multipart-equivalent read+rewrite path instead of calling CopyObject.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn manifest_commit_succeeds_when_staging_exceeds_5gb_copy_cap() {
+        let inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let capped = Arc::new(CopyCapStore::new(inner));
+
+        // Write a small staging file, then lie about its size so the
+        // CopyObject cap fires without holding 14 GB in memory.
+        let base_path = Path::from("repro");
+        let staging_path = Path::from("repro/_versions/1.manifest.staging-abcd");
+        let body = b"fake manifest body";
+        capped
+            .put(&staging_path, PutPayload::from_static(body))
+            .await
+            .expect("seed staging file");
+        capped
+            .override_size(&staging_path, 14_961_429_442) // matches the production failure
+            .await;
+
+        // Spin up an ExternalManifestStore and drive `put` (the same code
+        // path the failing CTAS hits via ExternalManifestCommitHandler).
+        let external = TestExternalManifestStore::new();
+        let head_meta = capped.head(&staging_path).await.unwrap();
+        let final_path = ManifestNamingScheme::V2.manifest_path(&base_path, 1);
+        // The fixture stores only a tiny body, so its source-size override must
+        // also apply to the destination metadata. This keeps the fake object
+        // store internally consistent with the real 14 GB object it models
+        // when finalization verifies that the copy preserved size.
+        capped.override_size(&final_path, head_meta.size).await;
+
+        let location = external
+            .put(
+                &base_path,
+                1,
+                &staging_path,
+                head_meta.size,
+                head_meta.e_tag,
+                capped.as_ref(),
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect(
+                "manifest commit should succeed for a >5 GB staging file via multipart-aware copy",
+            );
+
+        // Branch-taken assertions: the slow read+rewrite path was used.
+        assert_eq!(
+            capped.copy_calls(),
+            0,
+            "CopyObject must not be attempted for >5 GiB sources"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            capped.put_multipart_calls() >= 1,
+            "read+rewrite path must initiate a multipart upload"
+        );
+
+        // End-state assertions: final manifest exists with the original
+        // bytes, and the staging file was deleted.
+        let final_get = capped
+            .inner
+            .get(&location.path)
+            .await
+            .expect("final manifest must exist on the inner store")
+            .bytes()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(final_get.as_ref(), body);
+        let staging_after = capped.inner.head(&staging_path).await;
+        assert!(
+            matches!(staging_after, Err(object_store::Error::NotFound { .. })),
+            "staging file must be cleaned up after commit, got: {:?}",
+            staging_after
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Counterpart to manifest_commit_succeeds_when_staging_exceeds_5gb_copy_cap.
+    /// Confirms that for staging files BELOW the 5 GB cap, the fast-path
+    /// server-side `copy()` is still used — i.e. we haven't accidentally
+    /// regressed every commit to read+rewrite.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn manifest_commit_uses_fast_copy_for_small_staging() {
+        let inner: Arc<dyn OSObjectStore> = Arc::new(InMemory::new());
+        let capped = Arc::new(CopyCapStore::new(inner));
+
+        let base_path = Path::from("repro");
+        let staging_path = Path::from("repro/_versions/1.manifest.staging-abcd");
+        capped
+            .put(
+                &staging_path,
+                PutPayload::from_static(b"small manifest body"),
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("seed staging file");
+        // No size override — the staging file's real size is ~20 bytes,
+        // well below the 5 GB cap, so copy_size_aware must take the fast
+        // path.
+
+        let external = TestExternalManifestStore::new();
+        let head_meta = capped.head(&staging_path).await.unwrap();
+
+        external
+            .put(
+                &base_path,
+                1,
+                &staging_path,
+                head_meta.size,
+                head_meta.e_tag,
+                capped.as_ref(),
+                ManifestNamingScheme::V2,
+            )
+            .await
+            .expect("small manifest commit must succeed via fast-path copy");
+
+        // The branch-taken assertion: fast path was used, slow path was not.
+        assert!(
+            capped.copy_calls() >= 1,
+            "small-file commit must use server-side CopyObject"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            capped.put_multipart_calls(),
+            0,
+            "small-file commit must NOT initiate a multipart upload"
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/namespace_manifest.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/namespace_manifest.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..fb3dffd6c7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/namespace_manifest.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,299 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_namespace::LanceNamespace;
+use lance_namespace::models::{
+    CreateTableVersionRequest, DescribeTableVersionRequest, ListTableVersionsRequest,
+};
+use lance_table::io::commit::external_manifest::ExternalManifestStore;
+use lance_table::io::commit::{ManifestLocation, ManifestNamingScheme};
+use object_store::ObjectStore as OSObjectStore;
+use object_store::path::Path;
+
+use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
+
+use crate::dataset::branch_location::BranchLocation;
+
+/// Whether `e` says the requested chain (table or branch) does not exist, as
+/// opposed to a failure talking to the namespace.
+fn is_chain_not_found(e: &lance_core::Error) -> bool {
+    if let lance_core::Error::Namespace { source, .. } = e
+        && let Some(ns_err) = source.downcast_ref::<NamespaceError>()
+    {
+        return matches!(
+            ns_err,
+            NamespaceError::TableNotFound { .. } | NamespaceError::TableBranchNotFound { .. }
+        );
+    }
+    false
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore {
+    namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
+    table_id: Vec<String>,
+    /// Object-store path of the table root (the main branch). The base path the
+    /// trait methods receive is resolved against this to derive which branch a
+    /// request targets, so a single store serves every branch of the table.
+    table_root: Path,
+}
+
+impl LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore {
+    pub fn new(
+        namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
+        table_id: Vec<String>,
+        table_root: Path,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            namespace_client,
+            table_id,
+            table_root,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build a store for the table rooted at `table_uri`, resolving the root
+    /// path from the uri without initializing an object store.
+    pub fn for_table_uri(
+        namespace_client: Arc<dyn LanceNamespace>,
+        table_id: Vec<String>,
+        table_uri: &str,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let table_root = lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore::extract_path_from_uri(
+            Arc::new(lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry::default()),
+            table_uri,
+        )?;
+        Ok(Self::new(namespace_client, table_id, table_root))
+    }
+
+    /// Derive the branch targeted by `base` (the table root for main, or a
+    /// branch chain produced by `BranchLocation::find_branch`). The branch
+    /// path layout is owned by [`BranchLocation`]; this store never parses or
+    /// constructs it directly.
+    fn branch_for_base(&self, base: &str) -> Result<Option<String>> {
+        BranchLocation::branch_of(self.table_root.as_ref(), base)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ExternalManifestStore for LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore {
+    async fn get(&self, base_uri: &str, version: u64) -> Result<String> {
+        let request = DescribeTableVersionRequest {
+            id: Some(self.table_id.clone()),
+            version: Some(version as i64),
+            branch: self.branch_for_base(base_uri)?,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let response = self
+            .namespace_client
+            .describe_table_version(request)
+            .await?;
+
+        // Namespace returns full path (relative to object store root)
+        Ok(response.version.manifest_path)
+    }
+
+    async fn get_latest_version(&self, base_uri: &str) -> Result<Option<(u64, String)>> {
+        let request = ListTableVersionsRequest {
+            id: Some(self.table_id.clone()),
+            descending: Some(true),
+            limit: Some(1),
+            branch: self.branch_for_base(base_uri)?,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let response = match self.namespace_client.list_table_versions(request).await {
+            Ok(response) => response,
+            // A chain that does not exist yet (e.g. probing a branch location
+            // before the branch is created) has no latest version; the
+            // ExternalManifestStore contract reports that as None, not an
+            // error, so existence checks can treat it as a missing dataset.
+            Err(e) if is_chain_not_found(&e) => return Ok(None),
+            Err(e) => return Err(e),
+        };
+
+        if response.versions.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        let version = &response.versions[0];
+
+        // Namespace returns full path (relative to object store root)
+        Ok(Some((
+            version.version as u64,
+            version.manifest_path.clone(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    /// Put the manifest to the namespace store.
+    async fn put(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &Path,
+        version: u64,
+        staging_path: &Path,
+        size: u64,
+        e_tag: Option<String>,
+        _object_store: &dyn OSObjectStore,
+        naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+    ) -> Result<ManifestLocation> {
+        // create_table_version reads staging manifest and writes to final location
+        let naming_scheme_str = match naming_scheme {
+            ManifestNamingScheme::V1 => "V1",
+            ManifestNamingScheme::V2 => "V2",
+        };
+
+        let request = CreateTableVersionRequest {
+            id: Some(self.table_id.clone()),
+            version: version as i64,
+            manifest_path: staging_path.to_string(),
+            manifest_size: Some(size as i64),
+            e_tag: e_tag.clone(),
+            naming_scheme: Some(naming_scheme_str.to_string()),
+            branch: self.branch_for_base(base_path.as_ref())?,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let response = self.namespace_client.create_table_version(request).await?;
+
+        // Get version info from response
+        let version_info = response.version.ok_or_else(|| {
+            lance_core::Error::internal(
+                "create_table_version response missing version info".to_string(),
+            )
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(ManifestLocation {
+            version: version_info.version as u64,
+            path: Path::parse(&version_info.manifest_path).map_err(|e| {
+                lance_core::Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "Invalid manifest path '{}': {}",
+                    version_info.manifest_path, e
+                ))
+            })?,
+            size: version_info.manifest_size.map(|s| s as u64),
+            naming_scheme,
+            e_tag: version_info.e_tag,
+            identity: None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn put_if_not_exists(
+        &self,
+        _base_uri: &str,
+        _version: u64,
+        _path: &str,
+        _size: u64,
+        _e_tag: Option<String>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported_source(
+            "put_if_not_exists is not supported for namespace-backed stores".into(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    async fn put_if_exists(
+        &self,
+        _base_uri: &str,
+        _version: u64,
+        _path: &str,
+        _size: u64,
+        _e_tag: Option<String>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        Err(lance_core::Error::not_supported_source(
+            "put_if_exists is not supported for namespace-backed stores".into(),
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use lance_namespace::models::ListTableVersionsResponse;
+
+    /// A namespace whose list_table_versions always fails with the configured
+    /// error, to pin how get_latest_version classifies failures.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FailingNamespace {
+        error: fn() -> lance_core::Error,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl LanceNamespace for FailingNamespace {
+        fn namespace_id(&self) -> String {
+            "failing".to_string()
+        }
+
+        async fn list_table_versions(
+            &self,
+            _request: ListTableVersionsRequest,
+        ) -> Result<ListTableVersionsResponse> {
+            Err((self.error)())
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn store_with(error: fn() -> lance_core::Error) -> LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore {
+        LanceNamespaceExternalManifestStore::new(
+            Arc::new(FailingNamespace { error }),
+            vec!["t".to_string()],
+            Path::parse("data/t.lance").unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// A chain that does not exist (missing table or branch) has no latest
+    /// version; everything else is a real failure and must propagate so an
+    /// outage is never mistaken for an absent dataset.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_get_latest_version_error_classification() {
+        use lance_namespace::error::NamespaceError;
+
+        let absent = [
+            store_with(|| {
+                NamespaceError::TableNotFound {
+                    message: "missing table".to_string(),
+                }
+                .into()
+            }),
+            store_with(|| {
+                NamespaceError::TableBranchNotFound {
+                    message: "missing branch".to_string(),
+                }
+                .into()
+            }),
+        ];
+        for store in absent {
+            let latest = store.get_latest_version("data/t.lance/tree/dev").await;
+            assert!(
+                matches!(latest, Ok(None)),
+                "a missing chain must read as no latest version, got: {:?}",
+                latest
+            );
+        }
+
+        let failures = [
+            store_with(|| {
+                NamespaceError::Internal {
+                    message: "server error".to_string(),
+                }
+                .into()
+            }),
+            store_with(|| {
+                NamespaceError::Throttling {
+                    message: "slow down".to_string(),
+                }
+                .into()
+            }),
+            store_with(|| lance_core::Error::io("connection reset".to_string())),
+        ];
+        for store in failures {
+            let latest = store.get_latest_version("data/t.lance/tree/dev").await;
+            assert!(
+                latest.is_err(),
+                "a real failure must propagate, got: {:?}",
+                latest
+            );
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/s3_test.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/s3_test.rs
index 1402fb25d46..b942e12d40c 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/commit/s3_test.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/commit/s3_test.rs
@@ -1,19 +1,20 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
 use arrow::datatypes::Int32Type;
 
 use crate::{
     dataset::{
-        builder::DatasetBuilder, CommitBuilder, InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams,
+        CommitBuilder, InsertBuilder, ReadParams, WriteMode, WriteParams, builder::DatasetBuilder,
     },
     io::{ObjectStoreParams, StorageOptionsAccessor},
 };
 use aws_config::{BehaviorVersion, ConfigLoader, Region, SdkConfig};
-use aws_sdk_s3::{config::Credentials, Client as S3Client};
+use aws_sdk_dynamodb::types::AttributeValue;
+use aws_sdk_s3::{Client as S3Client, config::Credentials};
 use futures::future::try_join_all;
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, RowCount};
+use lance_datagen::{RowCount, array, gen_batch};
 use lance_io::assert_io_eq;
 use lance_io::utils::tracking_store::IOTracker;
 
@@ -149,6 +150,47 @@ impl DynamoDBCommitTable {
         Self(name.to_string())
     }
 
+    async fn item_for_version(&self, expected_version: u64) -> HashMap<String, AttributeValue> {
+        let config = aws_config().await;
+        let client = aws_sdk_dynamodb::Client::new(&config);
+        let expected_version_string = expected_version.to_string();
+        client
+            .scan()
+            .table_name(&self.0)
+            .consistent_read(true)
+            .send()
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .items
+            .unwrap_or_default()
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|item| {
+                item.get("version").and_then(|value| value.as_n().ok())
+                    == Some(&expected_version_string)
+            })
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("DynamoDB row for version {expected_version} not found"))
+    }
+
+    async fn set_legacy_etag(&self, version: u64, e_tag: &str) {
+        let item = self.item_for_version(version).await;
+        let base_uri = item
+            .get("base_uri")
+            .and_then(|value| value.as_s().ok())
+            .expect("DynamoDB row must contain a string base_uri")
+            .clone();
+        let config = aws_config().await;
+        aws_sdk_dynamodb::Client::new(&config)
+            .update_item()
+            .table_name(&self.0)
+            .key("base_uri", AttributeValue::S(base_uri))
+            .key("version", AttributeValue::N(version.to_string()))
+            .update_expression("SET e_tag = :e_tag")
+            .expression_attribute_values(":e_tag", AttributeValue::S(e_tag.to_string()))
+            .send()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
     async fn delete_table(client: aws_sdk_dynamodb::Client, name: &str) {
         match client
             .delete_table()
@@ -217,7 +259,7 @@ async fn test_concurrent_writers() {
         .await
         .unwrap();
     // Commit: 2 IOPs. 1 for transaction file, 1 for manifest file
-    let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+    let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
     assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 2);
     let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
     let old_version = dataset.manifest().version;
@@ -304,9 +346,25 @@ async fn test_ddb_open_iops() {
     //    * write staged file
     //    * copy to final file
     //    * delete staged file
-    let io_stats = committed_ds.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+    // Commit: 2 read IOPs: one to list versions before creating the dataset and
+    // one to HEAD the canonical manifest after COPY. DynamoDB does not persist
+    // that ETag, but the freshly committed Dataset needs the observed physical
+    // generation so downstream caches cannot reuse an older Dataset at the
+    // same URI and version.
+    let io_stats = committed_ds.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
     assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 4);
-    assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 1);
+    assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 2);
+    assert!(committed_ds.manifest_location().e_tag.is_some());
+
+    let committed_row = ddb_table.item_for_version(1).await;
+    assert!(
+        !committed_row.contains_key("e_tag"),
+        "DynamoDB must not persist a physical object generation"
+    );
+    // Simulate a row written by an older Lance version. New DynamoDB readers
+    // ignore this physical-generation token instead of treating it as logical
+    // manifest identity.
+    ddb_table.set_legacy_etag(1, "legacy-stale-etag").await;
 
     let dataset = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&uri)
         .with_read_params(ReadParams {
@@ -316,10 +374,15 @@ async fn test_ddb_open_iops() {
         .load()
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-    // Open dataset can be read with 1 IOP, just to read the manifest.
-    // Looking up latest manifest is handled in dynamodb.
-    assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 1);
+    assert_ne!(
+        dataset.manifest_location().e_tag.as_deref(),
+        Some("legacy-stale-etag")
+    );
+    let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    // Open dataset can be read with 2 IOPs: HEAD verifies that the
+    // finalized path returned by DynamoDB still exists, then the manifest
+    // itself is read. Looking up the latest manifest is handled in DynamoDB.
+    assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 2);
     assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 0);
 
     // Append
@@ -331,17 +394,22 @@ async fn test_ddb_open_iops() {
         .execute(vec![data.clone()])
         .await
         .unwrap();
-    let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
+    let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
     // Append: 5 IOPS: data file, transaction file, 3x manifest file
     assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 5);
+    // Append reads once to list versions and once to observe the canonical
+    // generation after COPY. DDB stores only the stable final path and size;
+    // the returned Dataset retains the observed ETag.
     // TODO: we can reduce this by implementing a specialized CommitHandler::list_manifest_locations()
     // for the DDB commit handler.
-    assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 1);
+    assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 2);
+    assert!(dataset.manifest_location().e_tag.is_some());
 
     // Checkout original version
     dataset.checkout_version(1).await.unwrap();
-    let io_stats = dataset.object_store().io_stats_incremental();
-    // Checkout: 1 IOPS: manifest file
+    let io_stats = dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_stats_incremental();
+    // Checkout: 1 read IOP. Version resolution HEAD-checks the finalized path,
+    // while the manifest body is served from the Session metadata cache.
     assert_io_eq!(io_stats, read_iops, 1);
     assert_io_eq!(io_stats, write_iops, 0);
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/deletion.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/deletion.rs
index 1ccf22d5ba8..40f755a51fb 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/deletion.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/deletion.rs
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use crate::session::caches::DeletionFileKey;
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::session::caches::DeletionFileKey;
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
 use lance_table::format::DeletionFile;
 use lance_table::io::deletion::read_deletion_file;
@@ -22,12 +22,13 @@ pub async fn read_dataset_deletion_file(
     if let Some(cached) = dataset.metadata_cache.get_with_key(&key).await {
         Ok(cached)
     } else {
+        let object_store = dataset.object_store_for_deletion(deletion_file).await?;
         let deletion_vector = Arc::new(
             read_deletion_file(
                 fragment_id,
                 deletion_file,
                 &dataset_dir,
-                dataset.object_store.as_ref(),
+                object_store.as_ref(),
             )
             .await?,
         );
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec.rs
index ca6af3f5e9f..537a5e6025d 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec.rs
@@ -5,29 +5,62 @@
 //!
 //! WARNING: Internal API with no stability guarantees.
 
+#[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
+pub mod ann_proto;
+pub mod count_from_mask;
+pub mod count_pushdown;
 mod filter;
 pub mod filtered_read;
+#[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
+pub mod filtered_read_proto;
 pub mod fts;
 pub(crate) mod knn;
+pub mod minhash;
 mod optimizer;
 mod projection;
 mod pushdown_scan;
+pub(crate) mod row_addr_mask;
 mod rowids;
 pub mod scalar_index;
 mod scan;
+#[cfg(feature = "substrait")]
+pub mod table_identifier;
 mod take;
 #[cfg(test)]
 pub mod testing;
+pub mod topk_late_materialization;
 pub mod utils;
 
 pub use filter::LanceFilterExec;
-pub use knn::{ANNIvfPartitionExec, ANNIvfSubIndexExec, KNNVectorDistanceExec};
+pub use knn::{
+    ANNIvfBatchExec, ANNIvfPartitionExec, ANNIvfSubIndexExec, KNNVectorDistanceExec,
+    QUERY_INDEX_COL,
+};
 pub use lance_datafusion::planner::Planner;
 pub use lance_index::scalar::expression::FilterPlan;
+pub use minhash::{FlatMinHashExec, MinHashSearchExec};
 pub use optimizer::get_physical_optimizer;
 pub use projection::project;
 pub use pushdown_scan::{LancePushdownScanExec, ScanConfig};
+pub use row_addr_mask::RowAddrMaskFilterExec;
 pub use rowids::{AddRowAddrExec, AddRowOffsetExec};
+pub(crate) use scan::LanceStream;
 pub use scan::{LanceScanConfig, LanceScanExec};
 pub use take::TakeExec;
 pub use utils::PreFilterSource;
+
+/// Declares which vesrion of the relational algebra we are producing
+///
+/// In order to enable plan pushdown (executing parts of the physical plan on different nodes)
+/// we must treat the physical plan serialization and the inputs and outputs of phyical plan
+/// nodes as part of the public API surface.
+///
+/// We should attempt to handle as many versions as possible on read paths.  This variable
+/// controls which versions we support producing.
+///
+/// This includes changes to the proto serialization of physical plan nodes themselves or
+/// changes to the format of the inputs or outputs of the nodes.
+///
+/// This does not include changes to the behavior of the nodes unless that behavior is a change
+/// in semantic meaning.
+pub const LANCE_RELATIONAL_ALGEBRA_VERSION: u32 = 1;
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/ann_proto.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/ann_proto.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7a3c0027f75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/ann_proto.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,748 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Protobuf serialization for [`ANNIvfPartitionExec`] and [`ANNIvfSubIndexExec`].
+//!
+//! Proto message definitions live in `crate::pb` (compiled from `ann.proto`).
+//! Conversion functions live here because they need access to `ANNIvfSubIndexExec`
+//! and `Dataset`, which are defined in this crate.
+//!
+//! A DataFusion `PhysicalExtensionCodec` can call these functions in `try_encode`
+//! and `try_decode` to support distributed execution (planner → executor).
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use arrow_schema::{Field, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_index::pb as index_pb;
+use lance_index::vector::{ApproxMode, DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM, Query};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use lance_table::format::pb as table_pb;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::pb;
+
+use super::knn::{ANNIvfPartitionExec, ANNIvfSubIndexExec};
+use super::table_identifier::{resolve_dataset, table_identifier_from_dataset};
+use super::utils::PreFilterSource;
+
+// =============================================================================
+// VectorQueryProto helpers
+// =============================================================================
+
+/// Serialize a query vector array to IPC file-format bytes.
+///
+/// Wraps the array in a single-column RecordBatch so that the IPC format
+/// preserves the full data type (Float16, Float32, Float64, UInt8, etc.).
+pub fn query_vector_to_ipc_bytes(array: &dyn arrow_array::Array) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let field = Field::new("query_vector", array.data_type().clone(), true);
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![field]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![arrow_array::make_array(array.to_data())])
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "Failed to create RecordBatch for query vector: {e}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+
+    let mut buf = Vec::new();
+    {
+        let mut writer = arrow_ipc::writer::FileWriter::try_new(&mut buf, &batch.schema())
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Failed to create IPC writer: {e}")))?;
+        writer
+            .write(&batch)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Failed to write IPC batch: {e}")))?;
+        writer
+            .finish()
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Failed to finish IPC writer: {e}")))?;
+    }
+    Ok(buf)
+}
+
+/// Deserialize a query vector array from IPC file-format bytes.
+pub fn query_vector_from_ipc_bytes(bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<arrow_array::ArrayRef> {
+    let cursor = std::io::Cursor::new(bytes);
+    let reader = arrow_ipc::reader::FileReader::try_new(cursor, None)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Failed to create IPC reader: {e}")))?;
+
+    let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = reader
+        .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Failed to read IPC batches: {e}")))?;
+
+    if batches.is_empty() || batches[0].num_columns() == 0 {
+        return Err(Error::internal(
+            "IPC bytes contain no data for query vector".to_string(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    Ok(batches[0].column(0).clone())
+}
+
+fn approx_mode_to_proto(mode: ApproxMode) -> pb::VectorApproxMode {
+    match mode {
+        ApproxMode::Fast => pb::VectorApproxMode::Fast,
+        ApproxMode::Normal => pb::VectorApproxMode::Normal,
+        ApproxMode::Accurate => pb::VectorApproxMode::Accurate,
+    }
+}
+
+fn approx_mode_from_proto(value: i32) -> ApproxMode {
+    match pb::VectorApproxMode::try_from(value).unwrap_or(pb::VectorApproxMode::Normal) {
+        pb::VectorApproxMode::Fast => ApproxMode::Fast,
+        pb::VectorApproxMode::Normal => ApproxMode::Normal,
+        pb::VectorApproxMode::Accurate => ApproxMode::Accurate,
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn query_to_proto(query: &Query) -> Result<pb::VectorQueryProto> {
+    let query_vector_arrow_ipc = query_vector_to_ipc_bytes(query.key.as_ref())?;
+
+    let metric_type = query
+        .metric_type
+        .map(|dt| index_pb::VectorMetricType::from(dt) as i32);
+
+    Ok(pb::VectorQueryProto {
+        query_vector_arrow_ipc,
+        column: query.column.clone(),
+        k: query.k as u32,
+        lower_bound: query.lower_bound,
+        upper_bound: query.upper_bound,
+        minimum_nprobes: Some(query.minimum_nprobes as u32),
+        maximum_nprobes: query.maximum_nprobes.map(|n| n as u32),
+        ef: query.ef.map(|n| n as u32),
+        refine_factor: query.refine_factor,
+        metric_type,
+        use_index: query.use_index,
+        dist_q_c: Some(query.dist_q_c),
+        query_parallelism: Some(query.query_parallelism),
+        approx_mode: approx_mode_to_proto(query.approx_mode) as i32,
+        // No planner narrows the covering projection yet, so this is always absent:
+        // "materialize every covering column declared". See `CoveringProjection`.
+        covering_projection: None,
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn query_from_proto(proto: pb::VectorQueryProto) -> Result<Query> {
+    let key = query_vector_from_ipc_bytes(&proto.query_vector_arrow_ipc)?;
+
+    let metric_type = proto
+        .metric_type
+        .map(|v| {
+            index_pb::VectorMetricType::try_from(v)
+                .map(DistanceType::from)
+                .map_err(|_| Error::internal(format!("Invalid VectorMetricType value: {v}")))
+        })
+        .transpose()?;
+
+    Ok(Query {
+        column: proto.column,
+        key,
+        k: proto.k as usize,
+        lower_bound: proto.lower_bound,
+        upper_bound: proto.upper_bound,
+        minimum_nprobes: proto.minimum_nprobes.unwrap_or(1) as usize,
+        maximum_nprobes: proto.maximum_nprobes.map(|n| n as usize),
+        ef: proto.ef.map(|n| n as usize),
+        refine_factor: proto.refine_factor,
+        metric_type,
+        use_index: proto.use_index,
+        query_parallelism: proto.query_parallelism.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM),
+        dist_q_c: proto.dist_q_c.unwrap_or(0.0),
+        approx_mode: approx_mode_from_proto(proto.approx_mode),
+    })
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// ANNIvfPartitionExec <-> Proto
+// =============================================================================
+
+/// Convert an [`ANNIvfPartitionExec`] to proto for serialization.
+pub async fn ann_ivf_partition_exec_to_proto(
+    exec: &ANNIvfPartitionExec,
+) -> Result<pb::AnnIvfPartitionExecProto> {
+    let table = table_identifier_from_dataset(&exec.dataset).await?;
+    let query = query_to_proto(&exec.query)?;
+
+    Ok(pb::AnnIvfPartitionExecProto {
+        query: Some(query),
+        table: Some(table),
+        index_uuids: exec.index_uuids.iter().map(Uuid::to_string).collect(),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Reconstruct an [`ANNIvfPartitionExec`] from proto.
+pub async fn ann_ivf_partition_exec_from_proto(
+    proto: pb::AnnIvfPartitionExecProto,
+    dataset: Option<Arc<Dataset>>,
+) -> Result<ANNIvfPartitionExec> {
+    let dataset = resolve_dataset(dataset, proto.table.as_ref()).await?;
+
+    let query_proto = proto.query.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source("Missing VectorQueryProto in ANNIvfPartitionExecProto".into())
+    })?;
+    let query = query_from_proto(query_proto)?;
+
+    if proto.index_uuids.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "ANNIvfPartitionExecProto contains no index UUIDs".into(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let index_uuids: Vec<Uuid> = proto
+        .index_uuids
+        .iter()
+        .map(|s| Uuid::parse_str(s))
+        .collect::<std::result::Result<_, _>>()
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!("Invalid UUID in AnnIvfPartitionExecProto: {e}").into(),
+            )
+        })?;
+    ANNIvfPartitionExec::try_new(dataset, index_uuids, query)
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// ANNIvfSubIndexExec <-> Proto
+// =============================================================================
+
+/// Convert an [`ANNIvfSubIndexExec`] to proto for serialization.
+pub async fn ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_to_proto(
+    exec: &ANNIvfSubIndexExec,
+) -> Result<pb::AnnIvfSubIndexExecProto> {
+    let table = table_identifier_from_dataset(exec.dataset()).await?;
+    let query = query_to_proto(exec.query())?;
+
+    let indices: Vec<table_pb::IndexMetadata> =
+        exec.indices().iter().map(|idx| idx.into()).collect();
+
+    let prefilter_type = match exec.prefilter_source() {
+        PreFilterSource::None => pb::ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_proto::PreFilterType::None as i32,
+        PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(_) => {
+            pb::ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_proto::PreFilterType::FilteredRowIds as i32
+        }
+        PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(_) => {
+            pb::ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_proto::PreFilterType::ScalarIndexQuery as i32
+        }
+    };
+
+    Ok(pb::AnnIvfSubIndexExecProto {
+        query: Some(query),
+        table: Some(table),
+        indices,
+        prefilter_type,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Reconstruct an [`ANNIvfSubIndexExec`] from proto.
+///
+/// The caller (codec) is responsible for providing deserialized child inputs.
+/// The `prefilter_type` field from the proto determines which `PreFilterSource`
+/// variant wraps the optional second child input.
+pub async fn ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_from_proto(
+    proto: pb::AnnIvfSubIndexExecProto,
+    dataset: Option<Arc<Dataset>>,
+    input: Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan>,
+    prefilter_input: Option<Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan>>,
+) -> Result<ANNIvfSubIndexExec> {
+    let dataset = resolve_dataset(dataset, proto.table.as_ref()).await?;
+
+    let query_proto = proto.query.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source("Missing VectorQueryProto in ANNIvfSubIndexExecProto".into())
+    })?;
+    let query = query_from_proto(query_proto)?;
+
+    let indices: Vec<IndexMetadata> = proto
+        .indices
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(IndexMetadata::try_from)
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+
+    if indices.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "ANNIvfSubIndexExecProto contains no indices".into(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    use pb::ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_proto::PreFilterType;
+    let prefilter_type = PreFilterType::try_from(proto.prefilter_type).map_err(|_| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!("Invalid PreFilterType value: {}", proto.prefilter_type).into(),
+        )
+    })?;
+
+    let prefilter_source = match (prefilter_type, prefilter_input) {
+        (PreFilterType::None, None) => PreFilterSource::None,
+        (PreFilterType::FilteredRowIds, Some(plan)) => PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(plan),
+        (PreFilterType::ScalarIndexQuery, Some(plan)) => PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(plan),
+        (PreFilterType::None, Some(_)) => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "ANNIvfSubIndexExecProto: prefilter_type is None but a prefilter child was provided".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        (_, None) => {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "ANNIvfSubIndexExecProto: prefilter_type is {:?} but no prefilter child was provided",
+                    prefilter_type
+                ).into(),
+            ));
+        }
+    };
+
+    ANNIvfSubIndexExec::try_new(input, dataset, indices, query, prefilter_source)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, UInt32Type};
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, Float64Array};
+    use half::f16;
+    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch};
+
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::test::TestMemoryExec;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_vector_ipc_roundtrip_f32() {
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0]));
+        let bytes = query_vector_to_ipc_bytes(arr.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let back = query_vector_from_ipc_bytes(&bytes).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(arr.data_type(), back.data_type());
+        assert_eq!(arr.len(), back.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_vector_ipc_roundtrip_f64() {
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0]));
+        let bytes = query_vector_to_ipc_bytes(arr.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let back = query_vector_from_ipc_bytes(&bytes).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(arr.data_type(), back.data_type());
+        assert_eq!(&*arr, &*back);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_vector_ipc_roundtrip_f16() {
+        let arr: ArrayRef = Arc::new(arrow_array::Float16Array::from(vec![
+            f16::from_f32(1.0),
+            f16::from_f32(2.0),
+        ]));
+        let bytes = query_vector_to_ipc_bytes(arr.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        let back = query_vector_from_ipc_bytes(&bytes).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(arr.data_type(), back.data_type());
+        assert_eq!(arr.len(), back.len());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_roundtrip() {
+        let key: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1, 0.2, 0.3]));
+        let query = Query {
+            column: "vector".to_string(),
+            key,
+            k: 10,
+            lower_bound: Some(0.5),
+            upper_bound: Some(1.5),
+            minimum_nprobes: 4,
+            maximum_nprobes: Some(16),
+            ef: Some(64),
+            refine_factor: Some(2),
+            metric_type: Some(DistanceType::Cosine),
+            use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: -1,
+            dist_q_c: 0.42,
+            approx_mode: ApproxMode::Accurate,
+        };
+
+        let proto = query_to_proto(&query).unwrap();
+        let back = query_from_proto(proto).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(query.column, back.column);
+        assert_eq!(query.k, back.k);
+        assert_eq!(query.lower_bound, back.lower_bound);
+        assert_eq!(query.upper_bound, back.upper_bound);
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, back.minimum_nprobes);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, back.maximum_nprobes);
+        assert_eq!(query.ef, back.ef);
+        assert_eq!(query.refine_factor, back.refine_factor);
+        assert_eq!(query.metric_type, back.metric_type);
+        assert_eq!(query.use_index, back.use_index);
+        assert_eq!(query.query_parallelism, back.query_parallelism);
+        assert_eq!(query.dist_q_c, back.dist_q_c);
+        assert_eq!(query.approx_mode, back.approx_mode);
+        assert_eq!(query.key.len(), back.key.len());
+        assert_eq!(query.key.data_type(), back.key.data_type());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_query_roundtrip_none_metric() {
+        let key: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0]));
+        let query = Query {
+            column: "v".to_string(),
+            key,
+            k: 5,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            minimum_nprobes: 1,
+            maximum_nprobes: None,
+            ef: None,
+            refine_factor: None,
+            metric_type: None,
+            use_index: false,
+            query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: ApproxMode::Normal,
+        };
+
+        let proto = query_to_proto(&query).unwrap();
+        let back = query_from_proto(proto).unwrap();
+        assert!(back.metric_type.is_none());
+        assert!(!back.use_index);
+        assert_eq!(back.approx_mode, ApproxMode::Normal);
+
+        let mut proto = query_to_proto(&query).unwrap();
+        proto.approx_mode = i32::MAX;
+        let back = query_from_proto(proto).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(back.approx_mode, ApproxMode::Normal);
+    }
+
+    async fn make_vector_dataset() -> (Arc<Dataset>, tempfile::TempDir) {
+        let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let batch = gen_batch()
+            .col("id", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(128)),
+            )
+            .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(256))
+            .unwrap();
+        let path = dir.path().join("test_ann.lance");
+        let ds = Dataset::write(
+            arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            path.to_str().unwrap(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        (Arc::new(ds), dir)
+    }
+
+    async fn make_indexed_dataset() -> (Arc<Dataset>, tempfile::TempDir) {
+        let (_dataset, dir) = make_vector_dataset().await;
+        let mut ds = Dataset::open(dir.path().join("test_ann.lance").to_str().unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
+        let pq_params = PQBuildParams::default();
+        let index_params =
+            VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(DistanceType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params);
+
+        ds.create_index(&["vector"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let ds = Dataset::open(dir.path().join("test_ann.lance").to_str().unwrap())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        (Arc::new(ds), dir)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ann_ivf_partition_proto_roundtrip() {
+        let (dataset, _dir) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!indices.is_empty());
+
+        let key: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1f32; 128]));
+        let query = Query {
+            column: "vector".to_string(),
+            key,
+            k: 10,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            minimum_nprobes: 2,
+            maximum_nprobes: Some(4),
+            ef: None,
+            refine_factor: Some(2),
+            metric_type: Some(DistanceType::L2),
+            use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: ApproxMode::Normal,
+        };
+
+        let exec = ANNIvfPartitionExec::try_new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.uuid).collect(),
+            query,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let proto = ann_ivf_partition_exec_to_proto(&exec).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(proto.index_uuids.len(), indices.len());
+
+        let back = ann_ivf_partition_exec_from_proto(proto, Some(dataset.clone()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(back.query.column, "vector");
+        assert_eq!(back.query.k, 10);
+        assert_eq!(back.query.minimum_nprobes, 2);
+        assert_eq!(back.query.refine_factor, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(back.index_uuids.len(), indices.len());
+        assert_eq!(back.dataset.uri(), dataset.uri());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_ann_ivf_sub_index_proto_roundtrip() {
+        let (dataset, _dir) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+
+        // Get real index metadata from the dataset
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!indices.is_empty());
+
+        let key: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1f32; 128]));
+        let query = Query {
+            column: "vector".to_string(),
+            key,
+            k: 10,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            minimum_nprobes: 2,
+            maximum_nprobes: Some(4),
+            ef: None,
+            refine_factor: Some(2),
+            metric_type: Some(DistanceType::L2),
+            use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: ApproxMode::Normal,
+        };
+
+        // Use a TestMemoryExec as a mock input child (provides the KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA)
+        let input: Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan> =
+            TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(
+                &[],
+                super::super::knn::KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let exec = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::try_new(
+            input.clone(),
+            dataset.clone(),
+            indices.clone(),
+            query,
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // Encode
+        let proto = ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_to_proto(&exec).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(proto.indices.len(), indices.len());
+
+        // Decode
+        let back = ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_from_proto(proto, Some(dataset.clone()), input, None)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(back.query().column, "vector");
+        assert_eq!(back.query().k, 10);
+        assert_eq!(back.query().minimum_nprobes, 2);
+        assert_eq!(back.query().refine_factor, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(back.indices().len(), indices.len());
+        for (original, decoded) in indices.iter().zip(back.indices().iter()) {
+            assert_eq!(original.uuid, decoded.uuid);
+            assert_eq!(original.name, decoded.name);
+            assert_eq!(original.dataset_version, decoded.dataset_version);
+            assert_eq!(original.fields, decoded.fields);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Helper: build an ANNIvfSubIndexExec with a given prefilter source.
+    async fn build_sub_index_exec(
+        dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+        prefilter: PreFilterSource,
+    ) -> ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
+        let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("vector_idx").await.unwrap();
+        let key: ArrayRef = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1f32; 128]));
+        let query = Query {
+            column: "vector".to_string(),
+            key,
+            k: 10,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            minimum_nprobes: 2,
+            maximum_nprobes: None,
+            ef: None,
+            refine_factor: None,
+            metric_type: Some(DistanceType::L2),
+            use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: ApproxMode::Normal,
+        };
+        let input: Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan> =
+            TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(
+                &[],
+                super::super::knn::KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        ANNIvfSubIndexExec::try_new(input, dataset.clone(), indices, query, prefilter).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Helper: a dummy execution plan to use as a prefilter child.
+    fn make_dummy_prefilter_plan(
+        schema: arrow_schema::SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan> {
+        TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(&[], schema, None).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sub_index_proto_roundtrip_filtered_row_ids() {
+        let (dataset, _dir) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+        let row_id_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "row_id",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let prefilter_plan = make_dummy_prefilter_plan(row_id_schema.clone());
+        let exec = build_sub_index_exec(
+            &dataset,
+            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(prefilter_plan.clone()),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let proto = ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_to_proto(&exec).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            proto.prefilter_type,
+            pb::ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_proto::PreFilterType::FilteredRowIds as i32
+        );
+
+        let input: Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan> =
+            TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(
+                &[],
+                super::super::knn::KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let back = ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_from_proto(
+            proto,
+            Some(dataset.clone()),
+            input,
+            Some(make_dummy_prefilter_plan(row_id_schema)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            back.prefilter_source(),
+            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(_)
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sub_index_proto_roundtrip_scalar_index_query() {
+        let (dataset, _dir) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+        let scalar_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "result",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Binary,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let prefilter_plan = make_dummy_prefilter_plan(scalar_schema.clone());
+        let exec = build_sub_index_exec(
+            &dataset,
+            PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(prefilter_plan.clone()),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let proto = ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_to_proto(&exec).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            proto.prefilter_type,
+            pb::ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_proto::PreFilterType::ScalarIndexQuery as i32
+        );
+
+        let input: Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan> =
+            TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(
+                &[],
+                super::super::knn::KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let back = ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_from_proto(
+            proto,
+            Some(dataset.clone()),
+            input,
+            Some(make_dummy_prefilter_plan(scalar_schema)),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            back.prefilter_source(),
+            PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(_)
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sub_index_proto_error_type_none_but_child_provided() {
+        let (dataset, _dir) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+        let exec = build_sub_index_exec(&dataset, PreFilterSource::None).await;
+
+        let proto = ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_to_proto(&exec).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            proto.prefilter_type,
+            pb::ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_proto::PreFilterType::None as i32
+        );
+
+        let input: Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan> =
+            TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(
+                &[],
+                super::super::knn::KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let dummy = make_dummy_prefilter_plan(Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty()));
+        let result =
+            ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_from_proto(proto, Some(dataset.clone()), input, Some(dummy))
+                .await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sub_index_proto_error_type_set_but_no_child() {
+        let (dataset, _dir) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+        let scalar_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "result",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::Binary,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let exec = build_sub_index_exec(
+            &dataset,
+            PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(make_dummy_prefilter_plan(scalar_schema)),
+        )
+        .await;
+
+        let proto = ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_to_proto(&exec).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            proto.prefilter_type,
+            pb::ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_proto::PreFilterType::ScalarIndexQuery as i32
+        );
+
+        let input: Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan> =
+            TestMemoryExec::try_new_exec(
+                &[],
+                super::super::knn::KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let result =
+            ann_ivf_sub_index_exec_from_proto(proto, Some(dataset.clone()), input, None).await;
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/count_from_mask.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/count_from_mask.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8181ef4fac8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/count_from_mask.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,706 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Execute-time half of the count-from-mask category of aggregate pushdown.
+//!
+//! [`CountFromMaskExec`] computes a `COUNT(*)`-style aggregate's partial
+//! state directly from index/manifest metadata, without scanning column
+//! data. Conceptually:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! result = | fragments_allow ∩ optional_prefilter_mask − deletion_mask |
+//! ```
+//!
+//! Its output schema matches what `AggregateExec(AggregateMode::Partial)`
+//! would produce for the same `COUNT` aggregates, so a downstream
+//! `AggregateExec(Final)` can combine the result unchanged.
+//!
+//! This is one of four categories of aggregate acceleration we plan to
+//! support; the others (mask-to-answer, zone-aware, dimension-keyed) each
+//! need additional plumbing — see the corresponding design issue.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, BinaryArray, Int64Array, RecordBatch};
+use arrow_schema::{Schema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, Partitioning, PlanProperties,
+    execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType},
+    metrics::{ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet},
+};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::aggregate::AggregateFunctionExpr;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrSelection, RowAddrTreeMap};
+use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+use super::utils::InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::rowids::load_row_id_sequences;
+use crate::index::prefilter::DatasetPreFilter;
+
+/// An execution node that computes a `COUNT(*)`-style aggregate from an
+/// optional row-address mask supplied by an upstream scalar-index search,
+/// combined with the dataset's deletion mask and an optional restriction to
+/// a fragment subset.
+///
+/// The node returns one record batch with one row whose columns are the
+/// partial-state representation of each `COUNT` in `aggregate_funcs` — i.e.
+/// the same shape an `AggregateExec(Partial)` would emit.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct CountFromMaskExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    /// One per output column. Used only for `state_fields()` to build the
+    /// output schema; the actual count is computed identically for all of
+    /// them since every entry is a non-distinct `COUNT(<literal>)`.
+    aggregate_funcs: Vec<Arc<AggregateFunctionExpr>>,
+    /// Optional [`super::scalar_index::ScalarIndexExec`] producing the row-
+    /// address mask to count.
+    prefilter_input: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    /// Restrict the count to this fragment subset. `None` means "every
+    /// fragment in the dataset." The optimizer rule uses this to scope the
+    /// pushdown branch of a partial-coverage split plan to the indexed
+    /// fragments only — the uncovered fragments are handled by a parallel
+    /// scan branch.
+    restrict_to_fragments: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for CountFromMaskExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(f, "CountFromMask")
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => write!(f, "CountFromMask"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl CountFromMaskExec {
+    /// Build a new node.
+    ///
+    /// `aggregate_funcs` must be a non-empty set of non-distinct `COUNT`
+    /// aggregates (the optimizer rule guarantees this). `prefilter_input`,
+    /// if present, must produce a single batch in the scalar-index result
+    /// schema; that mask is intersected with the dataset's covered
+    /// fragments and the active deletion mask.
+    pub fn try_new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        aggregate_funcs: Vec<Arc<AggregateFunctionExpr>>,
+        prefilter_input: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        Self::try_new_restricted(dataset, aggregate_funcs, prefilter_input, None)
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`Self::try_new`] but scopes the count to a fragment subset
+    /// rather than the whole dataset. The optimizer rule uses this for the
+    /// pushdown branch of a partial-coverage split plan, so the count only
+    /// covers the fragments the prefilter's index can answer for.
+    pub fn try_new_restricted(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        aggregate_funcs: Vec<Arc<AggregateFunctionExpr>>,
+        prefilter_input: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+        restrict_to_fragments: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if aggregate_funcs.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "CountFromMaskExec requires at least one aggregate".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let state_fields = aggregate_funcs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|agg| agg.state_fields())
+            .collect::<datafusion::error::Result<Vec<_>>>()
+            .map_err(|e| Error::invalid_input(e.to_string()))?
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let state_fields_owned: Vec<arrow_schema::Field> =
+            state_fields.iter().map(|f| f.as_ref().clone()).collect();
+        let schema: SchemaRef = Arc::new(Schema::new(state_fields_owned));
+
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Incremental,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            dataset,
+            aggregate_funcs,
+            prefilter_input,
+            restrict_to_fragments,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Drain `prefilter_input` (a [`super::scalar_index::ScalarIndexExec`])
+    /// to produce the row-address mask it serialized.
+    async fn load_prefilter(
+        prefilter_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::context::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> Result<RowAddrMask> {
+        let mut stream = prefilter_input.execute(0, context).map_err(Error::from)?;
+        let batch = stream
+            .try_next()
+            .await
+            .map_err(Error::from)?
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(
+                    "CountFromMaskExec: prefilter input produced no batches".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        // Drain any remaining batches so the upstream sees a clean shutdown.
+        while stream.try_next().await.map_err(Error::from)?.is_some() {}
+
+        let result_col = batch
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<BinaryArray>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "CountFromMaskExec: prefilter result column has type {:?}, expected Binary",
+                    batch.column(0).data_type()
+                ))
+            })?;
+        RowAddrMask::from_arrow(result_col)
+    }
+
+    /// Fold the prefilter, fragment allow list, and deletion mask into a
+    /// single `AllowList`-shaped [`RowAddrMask`] suitable for counting.
+    fn combine_masks(
+        fragments_allow: RowAddrTreeMap,
+        prefilter: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+        deletion_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    ) -> RowAddrMask {
+        let base = RowAddrMask::AllowList(fragments_allow);
+        let after_prefilter = match prefilter {
+            None => base,
+            Some(prefilter) => base & prefilter,
+        };
+        match deletion_mask {
+            None => after_prefilter,
+            Some(deletion_mask) => after_prefilter & (*deletion_mask).clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Count the rows selected by `mask`, looking up `Full`-marker fragments
+    /// in the manifest so we never need to materialize a
+    /// `RoaringBitmap::full()`.
+    fn count_from_mask(mask: &RowAddrMask, dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<i64> {
+        let allow = mask.allow_list().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("CountFromMaskExec: combined mask is not an AllowList".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let frag_map: HashMap<u32, &Fragment> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| (f.id as u32, f))
+            .collect();
+        let mut count = 0i64;
+        for (frag_id, sel) in allow.iter() {
+            match sel {
+                RowAddrSelection::Full => {
+                    // The fragment is in the allow list with no deletions
+                    // touching it — its row count is the physical row count.
+                    let frag = frag_map.get(frag_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "CountFromMaskExec: fragment {} not found in manifest",
+                            frag_id
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    let n = frag.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "CountFromMaskExec: physical_rows missing for fragment {}",
+                            frag_id
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    count += n as i64;
+                }
+                RowAddrSelection::Partial(bitmap) => {
+                    count += bitmap.len() as i64;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(count)
+    }
+
+    /// Row-address-space fragments-allow list: concrete `[0..physical_rows)`
+    /// ranges per covered fragment.
+    ///
+    /// Concrete ranges, not `Full` markers: subtracting a `BlockList` from a
+    /// `Full` entry materializes a `RoaringBitmap::full()` (2^32) per fragment,
+    /// which is slow and throws off `len()`.
+    fn address_fragments_allow(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        fragments_covered: &RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+        let frag_map: HashMap<u32, &Fragment> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| (f.id as u32, f))
+            .collect();
+        let mut fragments_allow = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        for frag_id in fragments_covered.iter() {
+            let frag = frag_map.get(&frag_id).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "CountFromMaskExec: fragment {} not in manifest",
+                    frag_id
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let physical = frag.physical_rows.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
+                    "CountFromMaskExec: physical_rows missing for fragment {}",
+                    frag_id
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let mut bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+            bitmap.insert_range(0u32..(physical as u32));
+            fragments_allow.insert_bitmap(frag_id, bitmap);
+        }
+        Ok(fragments_allow)
+    }
+
+    /// Live (non-deleted) row count of the covered fragments, from fragment
+    /// metadata. Used for an unfiltered count: no prefilter to intersect, so no
+    /// need to build the stable-id universe.
+    async fn count_live_rows(dataset: &Dataset, fragments_covered: &RoaringBitmap) -> Result<i64> {
+        let frags = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter(|f| fragments_covered.contains(f.id() as u32));
+        let counts = stream::iter(frags)
+            .map(|f| async move { f.count_rows(None).await })
+            .buffer_unordered(dataset.object_store.as_ref().io_parallelism())
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await?;
+        Ok(counts.iter().sum::<usize>() as i64)
+    }
+
+    /// Count universe in stable-id space: live stable row ids whose current home
+    /// is in `fragments_covered`. Staying in stable-id space lets it intersect
+    /// the index prefilter directly; deletions are already folded in, so the
+    /// caller passes no separate deletion mask.
+    async fn stable_id_universe(
+        dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+        fragments_covered: RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+        // create_restricted_deletion_mask gives a live-id allow list restricted
+        // to `fragments_covered`. It returns None only with no deletions and full
+        // coverage — then the universe is every stable id, loaded below.
+        if let Some(fut) = DatasetPreFilter::create_restricted_deletion_mask(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            fragments_covered.clone(),
+        ) {
+            let mask = fut.await?;
+            return mask.allow_list().cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::internal(
+                    "CountFromMaskExec: stable-row-id deletion mask must be an AllowList"
+                        .to_string(),
+                )
+            });
+        }
+        Self::load_stable_id_universe(dataset, &fragments_covered).await
+    }
+
+    /// Every stable row id in the covered fragments, from their row-id sequences
+    /// (metadata, not column data). Only used with no deletions and full coverage.
+    async fn load_stable_id_universe(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        fragments_covered: &RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Result<RowAddrTreeMap> {
+        let frags: Vec<Fragment> = dataset
+            .fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|f| fragments_covered.contains(f.id as u32))
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+        let mut sequences = load_row_id_sequences(dataset, &frags);
+        let mut universe = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        while let Some((_frag_id, sequence)) = sequences.try_next().await? {
+            universe |= RowAddrTreeMap::from(sequence.as_ref());
+        }
+        Ok(universe)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "count_from_mask", skip_all, level = "debug")]
+    async fn do_execute(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        aggregate_funcs_len: usize,
+        prefilter_input: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+        restrict_to_fragments: Option<RoaringBitmap>,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::context::TaskContext>,
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+        let prefilter = match prefilter_input {
+            None => None,
+            Some(input) => Some(Self::load_prefilter(input, context.clone()).await?),
+        };
+
+        // Anchor the deletion mask against either every dataset fragment or
+        // the caller-supplied restricted subset.
+        let dataset_fragments: RoaringBitmap =
+            dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+        let fragments_covered = match restrict_to_fragments {
+            Some(restrict) => dataset_fragments & restrict,
+            None => dataset_fragments,
+        };
+
+        // Under stable row ids the prefilter and deletion masks are in stable-id
+        // space, so the universe must be too (see `stable_id_universe`); the
+        // default path builds it in row-address space.
+        let count = if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            match prefilter {
+                // No prefilter: just the live row count, from metadata.
+                None => Self::count_live_rows(&dataset, &fragments_covered).await?,
+                Some(prefilter) => {
+                    let universe = Self::stable_id_universe(&dataset, fragments_covered).await?;
+                    let combined = Self::combine_masks(universe, Some(prefilter), None);
+                    Self::count_from_mask(&combined, dataset.as_ref())?
+                }
+            }
+        } else {
+            let fragments_allow = Self::address_fragments_allow(&dataset, &fragments_covered)?;
+            // Load the deletion mask for the covered fragments.
+            let deletion_mask =
+                match DatasetPreFilter::create_deletion_mask(dataset.clone(), fragments_covered) {
+                    Some(fut) => Some(fut.await?),
+                    None => None,
+                };
+            let combined = Self::combine_masks(fragments_allow, prefilter, deletion_mask);
+            Self::count_from_mask(&combined, dataset.as_ref())?
+        };
+
+        // Every aggregate is the same non-distinct COUNT shape — emit the
+        // count once per output column.
+        let arrays: Vec<Arc<dyn Array>> = (0..aggregate_funcs_len)
+            .map(|_| Arc::new(Int64Array::from(vec![count])) as Arc<dyn Array>)
+            .collect();
+        Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, arrays)?)
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for CountFromMaskExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "CountFromMaskExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match &self.prefilter_input {
+            Some(input) => vec![input],
+            None => vec![],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let prefilter_input = match children.len() {
+            0 => None,
+            1 => Some(children.into_iter().next().unwrap()),
+            n => {
+                return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                    "CountFromMaskExec accepts 0 or 1 children, got {}",
+                    n
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            aggregate_funcs: self.aggregate_funcs.clone(),
+            prefilter_input,
+            restrict_to_fragments: self.restrict_to_fragments.clone(),
+            schema: self.schema.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: self.metrics.clone(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::context::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let schema = self.schema.clone();
+        let batch_fut = Self::do_execute(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            self.aggregate_funcs.len(),
+            self.prefilter_input.clone(),
+            self.restrict_to_fragments.clone(),
+            context,
+            schema.clone(),
+        );
+        let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![batch_fut])
+            .then(|fut| async move { fut.await.map_err(|err| err.into()) })
+            .boxed();
+        Ok(Box::pin(InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream,
+            partition,
+            &self.metrics,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn partition_statistics(
+        &self,
+        _partition: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<Arc<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics {
+            num_rows: datafusion::common::stats::Precision::Exact(1),
+            ..datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics::new_unknown(&self.schema)
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::{ops::Bound, sync::Arc};
+
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Int64Type, UInt64Type};
+    use datafusion::common::DFSchema;
+    use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+    use datafusion::functions_aggregate;
+    use datafusion::logical_expr::lit;
+    use datafusion::physical_expr::execution_props::ExecutionProps;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+    use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datagen::gen_batch;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{
+        SargableQuery, ScalarIndexParams,
+        expression::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch},
+    };
+    use lance_select::result::IndexExprResultWireFormat;
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::Dataset;
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use crate::io::exec::scalar_index::ScalarIndexExec;
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+    use datafusion_physical_expr::aggregate::LoweredAggregateBuilder;
+
+    /// Build an `AggregateFunctionExpr` matching `COUNT(*)`.
+    fn count_star_expr(input_schema: &SchemaRef) -> Arc<AggregateFunctionExpr> {
+        let expr = functions_aggregate::count::count(lit(1));
+        let df_schema = DFSchema::try_from(input_schema.as_ref().clone()).unwrap();
+        LoweredAggregateBuilder::new(
+            &expr,
+            &df_schema,
+            input_schema.as_ref(),
+            &ExecutionProps::default(),
+        )
+        .with_name(expr.schema_name().to_string())
+        .with_human_display(expr.human_display().to_string())
+        .build()
+        .unwrap()
+        .aggregate
+    }
+
+    struct Fixture {
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        _tmp: TempStrDir,
+    }
+
+    /// 4 fragments × 10 rows, ascending `ordered` column with a BTree index.
+    async fn make_fixture() -> Fixture {
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("ordered", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                tmp.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["ordered"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        Fixture {
+            dataset: Arc::new(dataset),
+            _tmp: tmp,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn input_schema() -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+            "ordered",
+            arrow_schema::DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )]))
+    }
+
+    async fn run(plan: CountFromMaskExec) -> i64 {
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 1);
+        batches[0]
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<Int64Type>>()
+            .expect("count partial state should be Int64")
+            .value(0)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn try_new_rejects_empty_aggregate_funcs() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let err = CountFromMaskExec::try_new(fixture.dataset, vec![], None).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("at least one aggregate"), "{err}");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn count_from_mask_mixes_full_and_partial() {
+        // Synthesize an AllowList containing one Full-marker fragment and
+        // one Partial bitmap; verify the Full fragment falls back to
+        // physical_rows from the manifest and Partial falls back to
+        // bitmap.len().
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let mut tm = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        // Fragment 0: full (10 physical rows).
+        tm.insert_fragment(0);
+        // Fragment 1: partial with explicit row addrs.
+        let row_addr_for = |frag_id: u32, offset: u32| ((frag_id as u64) << 32) | offset as u64;
+        tm.insert(row_addr_for(1, 0));
+        tm.insert(row_addr_for(1, 1));
+        tm.insert(row_addr_for(1, 2));
+
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::AllowList(tm);
+        let count = CountFromMaskExec::count_from_mask(&mask, fixture.dataset.as_ref()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(count, 10 + 3);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn execute_count_no_prefilter() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let schema = input_schema();
+        let plan = CountFromMaskExec::try_new(
+            fixture.dataset.clone(),
+            vec![count_star_expr(&schema)],
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let count = run(plan).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 40); // 4 fragments × 10 rows
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn execute_count_with_allow_list_prefilter() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let schema = input_schema();
+
+        // `ordered < 25` matches 25 rows across the four fragments.
+        let prefilter_expr = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "ordered".to_string(),
+            index_name: "ordered_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "BTree".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(25))),
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+        let prefilter: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(ScalarIndexExec::new(
+            fixture.dataset.clone(),
+            prefilter_expr,
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::default(),
+        ));
+
+        let plan = CountFromMaskExec::try_new(
+            fixture.dataset.clone(),
+            vec![count_star_expr(&schema)],
+            Some(prefilter),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let count = run(plan).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 25);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn execute_count_with_block_list_prefilter() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let schema = input_schema();
+
+        // NOT(ordered < 25) is a block list of those 25 rows — 40 − 25 = 15.
+        let prefilter_expr =
+            ScalarIndexExpr::Not(Box::new(ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+                column: "ordered".to_string(),
+                index_name: "ordered_idx".to_string(),
+                index_type: "BTree".to_string(),
+                query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                    Bound::Unbounded,
+                    Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(25))),
+                )),
+                needs_recheck: false,
+                fragment_bitmap: None,
+            })));
+        let prefilter: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(ScalarIndexExec::new(
+            fixture.dataset.clone(),
+            prefilter_expr,
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::default(),
+        ));
+
+        let plan = CountFromMaskExec::try_new(
+            fixture.dataset.clone(),
+            vec![count_star_expr(&schema)],
+            Some(prefilter),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let count = run(plan).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 15);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn execute_count_respects_deletions() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let mut dataset = (*fixture.dataset).clone();
+        // Delete the first ten rows of the dataset (which live in fragment 0).
+        dataset.delete("ordered < 10").await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let schema = input_schema();
+        let plan =
+            CountFromMaskExec::try_new(dataset, vec![count_star_expr(&schema)], None).unwrap();
+        let count = run(plan).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 30);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/count_pushdown.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/count_pushdown.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a2e6ea0afe5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/count_pushdown.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,942 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Physical optimizer rule that rewrites a `COUNT(*)`-style aggregate into
+//! [`CountFromMaskExec`], answering the count from index metadata and the
+//! deletion mask without scanning column data.
+//!
+//! This is the "count-from-mask" category of aggregate pushdown — one of
+//! four planned. The other categories (mask-to-answer, zone-aware,
+//! dimension-keyed) will each need their own rule and exec; the surrounding
+//! infrastructure (the `fragment_bitmap` plumbed on each `ScalarIndexSearch`,
+//! the `IndexInformationProvider::fragment_bitmap` lookup) is general
+//! enough to be reused.
+//!
+//! Two rewritten shapes are emitted depending on whether the scalar index
+//! backing the filter covers every fragment targeted by the scan.
+//!
+//! **Full coverage** (index ⊇ targeted fragments, or no filter at all):
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! AggregateExec(Final, aggs=[count(...)], group_by=[])
+//!   └── CountFromMaskExec { prefilter_input = index_input }
+//! ```
+//!
+//! **Partial coverage** (index misses some targeted fragments — typically
+//! appended fragments):
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! AggregateExec(Final, aggs=[count(...)], group_by=[])
+//!   └── UnionExec
+//!         ├── CountFromMaskExec(restrict_to_fragments = indexed)
+//!         └── AggregateExec(Partial)
+//!               └── FilteredReadExec(fragments = unindexed, full_filter = …)
+//! ```
+//!
+//! [`CountFromMaskExec`] emits partial-state, so the outer
+//! `AggregateExec(Final)` performs the final combine in either shape.
+//!
+//! If the prefilter's index coverage is unknown (any leaf is missing
+//! `fragment_bitmap`, e.g. constructed outside scanner planning), the rule
+//! refuses to fire and leaves the existing scan path in place.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use datafusion::common::tree_node::{Transformed, TreeNode};
+use datafusion::config::ConfigOptions;
+use datafusion::error::Result as DFResult;
+use datafusion::physical_optimizer::PhysicalOptimizerRule;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::execution_plan::CardinalityEffect;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    ExecutionPlan, ExecutionPlanProperties,
+    aggregates::{AggregateExec, AggregateMode, PhysicalGroupBy},
+    coalesce_partitions::CoalescePartitionsExec,
+    projection::ProjectionExec,
+    union::UnionExec,
+};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::aggregate::AggregateFunctionExpr;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::expressions::{Column, Literal};
+use lance_index::scalar::expression::ScalarIndexExpr;
+use log::warn;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+
+use super::count_from_mask::CountFromMaskExec;
+use super::filtered_read::{FilteredReadExec, FilteredReadOptions};
+use super::scalar_index::ScalarIndexExec;
+
+/// Physical optimizer rule that rewrites a `COUNT(*)`-style aggregate into
+/// [`CountFromMaskExec`], optionally splitting into a parallel scan branch
+/// when the index has partial coverage of the dataset.
+///
+/// Only fires when the shape is verifiably safe; everything outside that
+/// envelope (GROUP BY, residual filters, scan ranges, etc.) is left alone
+/// for the normal scan path.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct CountPushdown;
+
+impl PhysicalOptimizerRule for CountPushdown {
+    fn optimize(
+        &self,
+        plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        _config: &ConfigOptions,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(plan
+            .transform_down(|plan| {
+                let Some(agg) = plan.downcast_ref::<AggregateExec>() else {
+                    return Ok(Transformed::no(plan));
+                };
+                if let Some(rewritten) = try_rewrite(agg)? {
+                    return Ok(Transformed::yes(rewritten));
+                }
+                Ok(Transformed::no(plan))
+            })?
+            .data)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "count_pushdown"
+    }
+
+    fn schema_check(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+fn try_rewrite(agg: &AggregateExec) -> DFResult<Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> {
+    // We can accelerate Single (Lance scanner shape) and Partial (the shape
+    // DataFusion's SQL planner emits at the leaf of an aggregate pipeline);
+    // both produce results we know how to compute from the index. We will
+    // never accelerate Final or FinalPartitioned — those combine an existing
+    // partial stream, and the value of this rule is replacing the work that
+    // produces the partial stream.
+    let mode = match agg.mode() {
+        AggregateMode::Single => AggregateMode::Single,
+        AggregateMode::Partial => AggregateMode::Partial,
+        _ => return Ok(None),
+    };
+    if !agg.group_expr().is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    if agg.aggr_expr().is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+
+    // Every aggregate must be a `COUNT(<literal>)` shape (i.e. COUNT(*) /
+    // COUNT(1) / etc.) with no per-aggregate `FILTER (WHERE ...)`. This rule
+    // is scoped to the count-from-mask category only; other aggregate
+    // categories (mask-to-answer, zone-aware, dimension-keyed) will need
+    // their own rules with their own gates.
+    for (af, filter) in agg.aggr_expr().iter().zip(agg.filter_expr().iter()) {
+        if !is_count_star(af) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if filter.is_some() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+    }
+
+    // The input must be a FilteredReadExec we can prove is safe to skip.
+    // DataFusion's SQL planner inserts a few row-preserving wrappers above
+    // the leaf — a `RepartitionExec` for parallelism, an empty
+    // `ProjectionExec` once the count expression has been resolved to need
+    // no columns, and `CoalesceBatchesExec` here and there. Walk through
+    // those to reach the FilteredReadExec.
+    let Some(filtered_read) = strip_row_preserving_wrappers(agg.children()[0]) else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+
+    let options = filtered_read.options();
+    // We don't currently support count pushdown when the row selector
+    // is a row stream.
+    if filtered_read.row_stream_input().is_some() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    // A refine filter is a residual the index couldn't fully evaluate — it
+    // needs column data to apply, which we can't.
+    if options.refine_filter.is_some() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    // A full_filter without an index_input means the filter is evaluated by
+    // scanning every row; not pushdownable.
+    if options.full_filter.is_some() && filtered_read.index_input().is_none() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    // LIMIT/OFFSET would change the count.
+    if options.scan_range_before_filter.is_some() || options.scan_range_after_filter.is_some() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    // We rely on the deletion mask being applied; with_deleted_rows changes
+    // that contract. Surfacing as a warning because it shouldn't normally
+    // pair with an aggregate plan — if we see it, the planner produced a
+    // shape we could in principle accelerate but currently can't.
+    if options.with_deleted_rows {
+        warn!(
+            "count_pushdown: skipped because the FilteredReadExec was built \
+             with with_deleted_rows; the count will be computed via a full \
+             scan."
+        );
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let dataset = filtered_read.dataset().clone();
+    let dataset_fragments: RoaringBitmap =
+        dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+    let fragment_scope = if let Some(fragments) = options.fragments.as_ref() {
+        let fragment_scope = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+            .collect::<RoaringBitmap>();
+        // A bitmap cannot preserve duplicate fragments, and CountFromMaskExec
+        // resolves fragment IDs against the current manifest instead of using
+        // the descriptors supplied to FilteredReadExec.
+        let has_duplicate_fragments = fragment_scope.len() != fragments.len() as u64;
+        let descriptors_are_current = fragments.iter().all(|fragment| {
+            let Ok(fragment_id) = u32::try_from(fragment.id) else {
+                return false;
+            };
+            if !dataset.fragment_bitmap.contains(fragment_id) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            let fragment_index = dataset.fragment_bitmap.rank(fragment_id) as usize - 1;
+            dataset.fragments().get(fragment_index) == Some(fragment)
+        });
+        if has_duplicate_fragments || !descriptors_are_current {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        Some(fragment_scope)
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    let target_fragments = fragment_scope
+        .clone()
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| dataset_fragments.clone());
+    let prefilter_input = filtered_read.index_input().cloned();
+
+    // If there is a prefilter, inspect its ScalarIndexExpr leaves:
+    //   - Refuse to fire if any leaf is inexact (`needs_recheck`). The
+    //     prefilter's serialized batch carries an Exact/AtMost/AtLeast
+    //     discriminant but `load_prefilter` only reads the row-address mask
+    //     and would treat AtMost as Exact, silently overcounting (and
+    //     symmetrically AtLeast would undercount).
+    //   - Compute the index's fragment coverage from leaf `fragment_bitmap`s.
+    //     `None` means at least one leaf has no bitmap and we can't reason
+    //     about coverage synchronously — refuse to fire.
+    let index_coverage = match &prefilter_input {
+        None => None,
+        Some(input) => {
+            let scalar_exec = input.downcast_ref::<ScalarIndexExec>().ok_or_else(|| {
+                datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(
+                    "count_pushdown: FilteredReadExec.index_input is not a ScalarIndexExec"
+                        .to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            if scalar_exec.expr().needs_recheck() {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let Some(coverage) = collect_coverage(scalar_exec.expr()) else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            Some(coverage)
+        }
+    };
+
+    let aggr_exprs: Vec<Arc<AggregateFunctionExpr>> = agg.aggr_expr().to_vec();
+
+    // Decide on the plan shape. Three cases:
+    //
+    // 1. No prefilter (no filter at all): single pushdown branch over every
+    //    targeted fragment. Always safe.
+    // 2. Prefilter + index covers every targeted fragment: single pushdown
+    //    branch, prefilter feeds in directly.
+    // 3. Prefilter + index covers a strict subset of the target: split into
+    //    pushdown over indexed fragments + parallel scan over unindexed fragments.
+    let (partial_stream, partial_state_schema): (Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, _) = match index_coverage {
+        None => {
+            // No prefilter at all (verified above): nothing to restrict.
+            let exec = CountFromMaskExec::try_new_restricted(
+                dataset,
+                aggr_exprs.clone(),
+                prefilter_input,
+                fragment_scope,
+            )?;
+            let schema = exec.schema();
+            (Arc::new(exec), schema)
+        }
+        Some(coverage) if (&target_fragments - &coverage).is_empty() => {
+            // Prefilter exists and the index covers every targeted fragment —
+            // safe to push the whole count down.
+            let exec = CountFromMaskExec::try_new_restricted(
+                dataset,
+                aggr_exprs.clone(),
+                prefilter_input,
+                fragment_scope,
+            )?;
+            let schema = exec.schema();
+            (Arc::new(exec), schema)
+        }
+        Some(coverage) => {
+            // Split plan: CountFromMaskExec for the targeted indexed fragments,
+            // a normal scan + AggregateExec(Partial) for the targeted remainder.
+            let covered = &target_fragments & &coverage;
+            if covered.is_empty() {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let uncovered = &target_fragments - &coverage;
+            let pushdown_exec = CountFromMaskExec::try_new_restricted(
+                dataset,
+                aggr_exprs.clone(),
+                prefilter_input,
+                Some(covered),
+            )?;
+            let partial_state_schema = pushdown_exec.schema();
+            let pushdown_branch: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(pushdown_exec);
+            let scan_branch =
+                build_scan_branch(filtered_read, options, &uncovered, aggr_exprs.clone())?;
+            let union: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+                UnionExec::try_new(vec![pushdown_branch, scan_branch])?;
+            (union, partial_state_schema)
+        }
+    };
+
+    match mode {
+        AggregateMode::Partial => {
+            // Caller's parent is already an AggregateExec(Final) that knows
+            // how to consume multi-partition partial state — substitute our
+            // partial stream and we're done.
+            Ok(Some(partial_stream))
+        }
+        AggregateMode::Single => {
+            // The original AggregateExec(Single) produced final output in one
+            // step; our exec emits partial state, so add a Final on top to
+            // recover the original output schema. Final expects a single
+            // partition of partial-state rows, so coalesce when we have a
+            // union producing multiple partitions.
+            let final_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+                if partial_stream.output_partitioning().partition_count() > 1 {
+                    Arc::new(CoalescePartitionsExec::new(partial_stream))
+                } else {
+                    partial_stream
+                };
+            // `AggregateExec::try_new` requires one
+            // `Option<Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>>` per aggregate expression for
+            // the optional per-aggregate `FILTER (WHERE ...)` clause. We
+            // rejected any aggregate carrying a filter back at the gate, so
+            // every slot is `None` here.
+            let filters: Vec<Option<Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_expr::PhysicalExpr>>> =
+                (0..aggr_exprs.len()).map(|_| None).collect();
+            let final_agg = AggregateExec::try_new(
+                AggregateMode::Final,
+                PhysicalGroupBy::default(),
+                aggr_exprs,
+                filters,
+                final_input,
+                partial_state_schema,
+            )?;
+            Ok(Some(Arc::new(final_agg)))
+        }
+        _ => unreachable!("mode was checked at the top of try_rewrite"),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Build the scan branch of a partial-coverage split: a `FilteredReadExec`
+/// restricted to the uncovered fragments (no `index_input`, the original
+/// `full_filter` applied per row) wrapped in `AggregateExec(Partial)` so its
+/// partial state can be unioned with the pushdown branch.
+fn build_scan_branch(
+    filtered_read: &FilteredReadExec,
+    options: &FilteredReadOptions,
+    uncovered: &RoaringBitmap,
+    aggr_exprs: Vec<Arc<AggregateFunctionExpr>>,
+) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    let dataset = filtered_read.dataset().clone();
+    let uncovered_fragments: Vec<_> = dataset
+        .manifest()
+        .fragments
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|f| uncovered.contains(f.id as u32))
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    let mut scan_options = options.clone();
+    scan_options.fragments = Some(Arc::new(uncovered_fragments));
+    let scan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset, scan_options, None)?;
+    let scan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(scan);
+    let scan_schema = scan.schema();
+    // Per-aggregate `FILTER (WHERE ...)` placeholders — see the matching
+    // comment in `try_rewrite`; we've already rejected any aggregate that
+    // carried a filter, so every slot is `None`.
+    let filters: Vec<Option<Arc<dyn datafusion::physical_expr::PhysicalExpr>>> =
+        (0..aggr_exprs.len()).map(|_| None).collect();
+    let partial = AggregateExec::try_new(
+        AggregateMode::Partial,
+        PhysicalGroupBy::default(),
+        aggr_exprs,
+        filters,
+        scan,
+        scan_schema,
+    )?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(partial))
+}
+
+/// Walk through row-preserving wrappers between an `AggregateExec` and the
+/// leaf, and return the underlying `FilteredReadExec` if one is reached.
+///
+/// A wrapper qualifies by reporting [`CardinalityEffect::Equal`] with no fetch:
+/// DataFusion's `RepartitionExec` and `CoalesceBatchesExec`, or a custom node a
+/// `TableProvider` wraps around the scan. `CoalescePartitionsExec` and
+/// `CoalesceBatchesExec` report `Equal` even when a fetch caps their rows,
+/// hence the fetch check. Projections must also be identity-or-empty, so no
+/// expression is skipped.
+fn strip_row_preserving_wrappers(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Option<&FilteredReadExec> {
+    let mut current: &dyn ExecutionPlan = plan.as_ref();
+    loop {
+        if let Some(filtered_read) = current.downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>() {
+            return Some(filtered_read);
+        }
+        if let Some(proj) = current.downcast_ref::<ProjectionExec>() {
+            // Empty projections qualify: DataFusion uses one when a `COUNT(*)`'s
+            // argument no longer needs any columns.
+            let input_schema = proj.input().schema();
+            let identity = proj.expr().iter().all(|projection_expr| {
+                projection_expr
+                    .expr
+                    .downcast_ref::<Column>()
+                    .is_some_and(|c| c.name() == input_schema.field(c.index()).name())
+            });
+            if !identity {
+                return None;
+            }
+        }
+        if current.fetch().is_some()
+            || !matches!(current.cardinality_effect(), CardinalityEffect::Equal)
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let [input] = current.children()[..] else {
+            return None;
+        };
+        current = input.as_ref();
+    }
+}
+
+/// Walk a `ScalarIndexExpr` and intersect the per-leaf `fragment_bitmap`.
+///
+/// Returns `None` if any leaf is missing a bitmap (coverage unknown). All
+/// three combinators (`And`, `Or`, `Not`) reduce to "every leaf must cover the
+/// fragment for us to give a definitive answer about it" — i.e. intersection.
+fn collect_coverage(expr: &ScalarIndexExpr) -> Option<RoaringBitmap> {
+    match expr {
+        ScalarIndexExpr::Not(inner) => collect_coverage(inner),
+        ScalarIndexExpr::And(lhs, rhs) | ScalarIndexExpr::Or(lhs, rhs) => {
+            let l = collect_coverage(lhs)?;
+            let r = collect_coverage(rhs)?;
+            Some(l & r)
+        }
+        ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search) => search.fragment_bitmap.clone(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Returns `true` if `af` is `COUNT(<literal>)` with no DISTINCT.
+fn is_count_star(af: &Arc<AggregateFunctionExpr>) -> bool {
+    if af.fun().name() != "count" {
+        return false;
+    }
+    if af.is_distinct() {
+        return false;
+    }
+    let args = af.expressions();
+    if args.len() != 1 {
+        return false;
+    }
+    let Some(lit) = args[0].downcast_ref::<Literal>() else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    // `COUNT(NULL)` would always return 0; rule it out so we don't accidentally
+    // produce a wrong answer if the planner ever lets it through.
+    !lit.value().is_null()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow::datatypes::{Int64Type, UInt64Type};
+    use datafusion::common::tree_node::{TreeNode, TreeNodeRecursion};
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, displayable};
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datagen::gen_batch;
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::Dataset;
+    use crate::dataset::scanner::AggregateExpr;
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+
+    struct Fixture {
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        _tmp: TempStrDir,
+    }
+
+    /// 4 fragments × 10 rows, ascending `ordered` column with a BTree index.
+    async fn make_fixture() -> Fixture {
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("ordered", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                tmp.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["ordered"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        Fixture {
+            dataset: Arc::new(dataset),
+            _tmp: tmp,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn plan_contains_pushdown(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> bool {
+        let mut found = false;
+        plan.apply(|node| {
+            if node.is::<CountFromMaskExec>() {
+                found = true;
+                Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Stop)
+            } else {
+                Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Continue)
+            }
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+        found
+    }
+
+    fn plan_contains_union(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> bool {
+        let mut found = false;
+        plan.apply(|node| {
+            if node.is::<UnionExec>() {
+                found = true;
+                Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Stop)
+            } else {
+                Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Continue)
+            }
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+        found
+    }
+
+    async fn run_count(
+        scanner: &mut crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner,
+    ) -> (Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, i64) {
+        scanner
+            .aggregate(AggregateExpr::builder().count_star().build())
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let stream = datafusion::physical_plan::execute_stream(
+            plan.clone(),
+            Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default()),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batches.len(),
+            1,
+            "count plan emitted {} batches",
+            batches.len()
+        );
+        let count = batches[0]
+            .column(0)
+            .as_any()
+            .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<Int64Type>>()
+            .expect("count column should be Int64")
+            .value(0);
+        (plan, count)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rule_fires_on_unfiltered_count_star() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let mut scanner = fixture.dataset.scan();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut scanner).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 40);
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "expected CountFromMaskExec in plan: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan_contains_union(&plan),
+            "no union expected for unfiltered count, got: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rule_fires_when_filter_fully_indexed() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let mut scanner = fixture.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("ordered < 25").unwrap();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut scanner).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 25);
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "expected CountFromMaskExec in plan: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan_contains_union(&plan),
+            "no union expected when index covers every fragment, got: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rule_fires_when_filter_is_scoped_to_fragment() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let mut scanner = fixture.dataset.get_fragments()[1].scan();
+        scanner.empty_project().unwrap().with_row_id();
+        scanner.filter("ordered < 25").unwrap();
+
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut scanner).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(count, 10);
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "expected CountFromMaskExec for a fragment-scoped count: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan_contains_union(&plan),
+            "no union expected when the index covers the requested fragment, got: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn count_matches_scan_for_stale_fragment_descriptor() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let mut dataset = fixture.dataset.as_ref().clone();
+        let stale_fragment = dataset.fragments()[0].clone();
+        dataset.delete("ordered = 0").await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.with_fragments(vec![stale_fragment.clone()]);
+        scan.filter("ordered < 10").unwrap();
+        let scanned_rows = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap().num_rows() as i64;
+
+        let mut count_scan = dataset.scan();
+        count_scan.with_fragments(vec![stale_fragment]);
+        count_scan.filter("ordered < 10").unwrap();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut count_scan).await;
+
+        assert_eq!(count, scanned_rows);
+        assert!(
+            !plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "a stale fragment descriptor must retain the original scan plan: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rule_emits_split_plan_for_partial_index_coverage() {
+        // Build index over 4 fragments, then append a 5th — the index now
+        // covers a strict subset of the dataset. The rule must split into a
+        // pushdown branch over the indexed fragments and a scan branch over
+        // the rest, then sum the partials.
+        use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("ordered", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                tmp.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["ordered"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let extra = gen_batch()
+            .col("ordered", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(
+                lance_datagen::RowCount::from(10),
+                lance_datagen::BatchCount::from(1),
+            );
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(
+            extra,
+            tmp.as_str(),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: crate::dataset::WriteMode::Append,
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("ordered < 100").unwrap();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut scanner).await;
+        // 5 fragments × 10 rows, all match `< 100`.
+        assert_eq!(count, 50);
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "expected pushdown branch in split plan: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_union(&plan),
+            "expected UnionExec for partial-coverage split, got: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+
+        let fragments = dataset.fragments();
+        let mut indexed_fragment_scanner = dataset.scan();
+        indexed_fragment_scanner
+            .with_fragments(vec![fragments[1].clone()])
+            .filter("ordered < 100")
+            .unwrap();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut indexed_fragment_scanner).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 10);
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "expected pushdown when the index covers the requested fragment: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !plan_contains_union(&plan),
+            "unindexed fragments outside the requested scope must not add a scan branch: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+
+        let mut mixed_fragment_scanner = dataset.scan();
+        mixed_fragment_scanner
+            .with_fragments(vec![fragments[1].clone(), fragments[4].clone()])
+            .filter("ordered < 100")
+            .unwrap();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut mixed_fragment_scanner).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 20);
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "expected pushdown for the indexed requested fragment: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_union(&plan),
+            "expected a scan branch for the unindexed requested fragment: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rule_fires_with_stable_row_ids() {
+        // Unfiltered count, stable row ids, with a deletion.
+        use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("ordered", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                tmp.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.delete("ordered = 0").await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut scanner).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 19);
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "rule should fire under stable row IDs, got plan: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rule_fires_with_stable_row_ids_and_filter() {
+        // Indexed filter, stable row ids, deletions spread across fragments --
+        // the case the pre-fix code got wrong (dropped rows in fragments > 0).
+        use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("ordered", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_dataset_with_params(
+                tmp.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(3),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                    enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["ordered"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Delete one row from fragment 1 and one from fragment 2.
+        dataset
+            .delete("ordered = 15 OR ordered = 25")
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        // Matches every row across all three fragments; with the two deletions
+        // the live count is 28.
+        scanner.filter("ordered >= 0").unwrap();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut scanner).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 28);
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "rule should fire under stable row IDs with a filter, got plan: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+
+        let mut fragment_scanner = dataset.scan();
+        fragment_scanner
+            .with_fragments(vec![dataset.fragments()[1].clone()])
+            .filter("ordered >= 0")
+            .unwrap();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut fragment_scanner).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 9);
+        assert!(
+            plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "rule should push down a fragment-scoped count under stable row IDs: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rule_skips_when_filter_needs_refine() {
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("ordered", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .col("unindexed", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                tmp.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["ordered"],
+                IndexType::BTree,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("unindexed > 5").unwrap();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut scanner).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 34);
+        assert!(
+            !plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "rule should not fire with non-indexed filter, got plan: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rule_skips_when_index_is_inexact() {
+        // Zonemap-style indices return AtMost (over-approximation) and set
+        // ScalarIndexSearch.needs_recheck = true. CountFromMaskExec
+        // ignores the discriminant on the prefilter batch, so firing the
+        // rule against an inexact index would silently overcount. The rule
+        // must refuse — and the scan path with its recheck still answers
+        // correctly.
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("ordered", lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+            .into_dataset(
+                tmp.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["ordered"],
+                IndexType::ZoneMap,
+                None,
+                &ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::ZoneMap),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner.filter("ordered < 25").unwrap();
+        let (plan, count) = run_count(&mut scanner).await;
+        assert_eq!(count, 25);
+        assert!(
+            !plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "rule must not fire when the index produces inexact (needs_recheck) results, \
+             got plan: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn rule_skips_count_with_group_by() {
+        let fixture = make_fixture().await;
+        let mut scanner = fixture.dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .aggregate(
+                AggregateExpr::builder()
+                    .group_by("ordered")
+                    .count_star()
+                    .build(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+            "rule should not fire for GROUP BY: {}",
+            displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filter.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filter.rs
index bd0c6e28f9d..f6d3005065e 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filter.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filter.rs
@@ -3,12 +3,12 @@
 
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use datafusion::{execution::TaskContext, logical_expr::Expr};
+use datafusion::{catalog::Session, execution::TaskContext, logical_expr::Expr};
 use datafusion_physical_plan::{
-    filter::FilterExec, metrics::MetricsSet, DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan,
-    PlanProperties, SendableRecordBatchStream, Statistics,
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties, SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    Statistics, filter::FilterExec, metrics::MetricsSet,
 };
-use lance_core::{error::DataFusionResult, Result};
+use lance_core::{Result, error::DataFusionResult};
 use lance_datafusion::planner::Planner;
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -31,6 +31,24 @@ impl LanceFilterExec {
     pub fn try_new(expr: Expr, input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Result<Self> {
         let planner = Planner::new(input.schema());
         let predicate = planner.create_physical_expr(&expr)?;
+        Self::try_new_with_predicate(expr, predicate, input)
+    }
+
+    pub fn try_new_with_session(
+        expr: Expr,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        session: &dyn Session,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let planner = Planner::new(input.schema());
+        let predicate = planner.create_physical_expr_with_session(&expr, session)?;
+        Self::try_new_with_predicate(expr, predicate, input)
+    }
+
+    fn try_new_with_predicate(
+        expr: Expr,
+        predicate: Arc<dyn datafusion_physical_plan::PhysicalExpr>,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
         let filter_exec = FilterExec::try_new(predicate.clone(), input)?;
         Ok(Self {
             expr,
@@ -48,11 +66,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LanceFilterExec {
         "LanceFilterExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         self.filter.properties()
     }
 
@@ -71,7 +85,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LanceFilterExec {
         // Rewrap the result in a LanceFilterExec to preserve the logical expression
         let new_filter_plan = self.filter.clone().with_new_children(children)?;
         let new_filter = new_filter_plan
-            .as_any()
             .downcast_ref::<FilterExec>()
             .expect("FilterExec::with_new_children should return FilterExec")
             .clone();
@@ -93,7 +106,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LanceFilterExec {
         self.filter.metrics()
     }
 
-    fn partition_statistics(&self, partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Statistics> {
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
         self.filter.partition_statistics(partition)
     }
 
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filtered_read.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filtered_read.rs
index c7088c1cf3e..413e8fe38cc 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filtered_read.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filtered_read.rs
@@ -1,71 +1,135 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
-use std::any::Any;
 use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap};
-use std::pin::Pin;
-use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 use std::sync::Mutex;
-use std::{ops::Range, sync::Arc};
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::task::Poll;
+use std::{
+    ops::{Range, RangeInclusive},
+    sync::Arc,
+};
 
-use arrow::array::AsArray;
-use arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type;
-use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
-use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::{Array, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchOptions, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_schema::{Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::catalog::Session;
 use datafusion::common::runtime::SpawnedTask;
 use datafusion::common::stats::Precision;
+use datafusion::common::tree_node::{Transformed, TreeNode};
 use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
 use datafusion::execution::{SendableRecordBatchStream, TaskContext};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::ExecutionPlanMetricsSet;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::{RecordBatchReceiverStream, RecordBatchStreamAdapter};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, ExecutionPlanProperties, PlanProperties,
     execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType},
-    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties,
 };
 use datafusion_expr::Expr;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::expressions::Column;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::projection::project_ordering;
 use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning, PhysicalExpr};
+use datafusion_physical_plan::Statistics;
 use datafusion_physical_plan::filter::FilterExec;
 use datafusion_physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, Count, MetricsSet, Time};
-use datafusion_physical_plan::Statistics;
 use futures::stream::BoxStream;
-use futures::{future, FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt, future};
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
-use lance_core::datatypes::OnMissing;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{OnMissing, Schema as LanceSchema};
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
 use lance_core::utils::futures::FinallyStreamExt;
-use lance_core::utils::mask::{bitmap_to_ranges, RowAddrMask, RowAddrSelection, RowAddrTreeMap};
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
-use lance_core::{datatypes::Projection, Error, Result};
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result, datatypes::Projection,
+};
 use lance_datafusion::planner::Planner;
 use lance_datafusion::utils::{
     ExecutionPlanMetricsSetExt, FRAGMENTS_SCANNED_METRIC, RANGES_SCANNED_METRIC,
     ROWS_SCANNED_METRIC, TASK_WAIT_TIME_METRIC,
 };
-use lance_index::scalar::expression::{FilterPlan, IndexExprResult};
+use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
+use lance_index::scalar::expression::FilterPlan;
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
+use lance_select::{
+    IndexExprResult, RowAddrMask, RowAddrSelection, RowAddrTreeMap, bitmap_to_ranges,
+    ranges_to_bitmap, result::IndexExprResultWireFormat,
+};
 use lance_table::format::Fragment;
 use lance_table::rowids::RowIdSequence;
 use lance_table::utils::stream::ReadBatchFut;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
 use tokio::sync::{Mutex as AsyncMutex, OnceCell};
-use tracing::{instrument, Instrument};
+use tracing::{Instrument, instrument};
 
-use crate::dataset::fragment::{FileFragment, FragReadConfig};
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::blob::{BlobMaterializationContext, MaterializedBlobBatch};
+use crate::dataset::fragment::{BaseSchedulers, FileFragment, FragReadConfig};
 use crate::dataset::rowids::load_row_id_sequence;
 use crate::dataset::scanner::{
-    get_default_batch_size, BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK, DEFAULT_FRAGMENT_READAHEAD,
+    BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK, DEFAULT_FRAGMENT_READAHEAD, get_default_batch_size,
+    get_default_io_buffer_size_override,
 };
-use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::versions;
 
 use super::utils::IoMetrics;
 
+type MaterializedReadBatchFut = futures::future::BoxFuture<'static, Result<MaterializedBlobBatch>>;
+type MaterializedReadBatchesFut =
+    futures::future::BoxFuture<'static, Result<Vec<MaterializedBlobBatch>>>;
+
+fn public_blob_v2_binary_projection_schema(projection: &Projection) -> SchemaRef {
+    let schema = projection.to_schema();
+    let schema = crate::dataset::blob::public_blob_v2_binary_output_schema(&schema);
+    let schema: ArrowSchema = (&schema).into();
+    Arc::new(schema)
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct EvaluatedIndex {
     index_result: IndexExprResult,
     applicable_fragments: RoaringBitmap,
 }
 
+// Keep common selective and dense masks single-pass without allowing highly fragmented stable-ID
+// masks to retain unbounded request-scoped range storage before final planning.
+const MAX_RETAINED_STABLE_INDEX_RANGE_BYTES: usize = 16 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+struct StableIndexRouting {
+    row_id_sequence: Arc<RowIdSequence>,
+    upper_ranges: Option<Vec<Range<u64>>>,
+}
+
+enum FragmentMetadataLoad {
+    Skip,
+    Load,
+    LoadWithStableRouting(StableIndexRouting),
+}
+
 impl EvaluatedIndex {
+    fn retain_stable_index_ranges(
+        upper_ranges: Vec<Range<u64>>,
+        retained_range_bytes: &AtomicUsize,
+    ) -> Option<Vec<Range<u64>>> {
+        let allocated_bytes = upper_ranges
+            .capacity()
+            .saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<Range<u64>>());
+        let mut retained_bytes = retained_range_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+        loop {
+            let new_total = retained_bytes
+                .checked_add(allocated_bytes)
+                .filter(|new_total| *new_total <= MAX_RETAINED_STABLE_INDEX_RANGE_BYTES)?;
+            match retained_range_bytes.compare_exchange_weak(
+                retained_bytes,
+                new_total,
+                Ordering::Relaxed,
+                Ordering::Relaxed,
+            ) {
+                Ok(_) => return Some(upper_ranges),
+                Err(actual) => retained_bytes = actual,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Get the row id mask representing which rows matched the index filter.
     pub fn index_result(&self) -> &IndexExprResult {
         &self.index_result
@@ -78,38 +142,75 @@ impl EvaluatedIndex {
     }
 
     pub fn try_from_arrow(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Self> {
-        if batch.num_rows() != 2 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Expected a batch with exactly 2 rows but there are {} rows",
-                    batch.num_rows()
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-        if batch.num_columns() != 3 {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
-                    "Expected a batch with exactly two columns but there are {} columns",
-                    batch.num_columns()
-                )
-                .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
-        }
-        let row_addr_mask = RowAddrMask::from_arrow(batch.column(0).as_binary())?;
-        let match_type = batch.column(1).as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().values()[0];
-        let index_result = IndexExprResult::from_parts(row_addr_mask, match_type)?;
-
-        let applicable_fragments = batch.column(2).as_binary::<i32>();
-        let applicable_fragments = RoaringBitmap::deserialize_from(applicable_fragments.value(0))?;
+        let (index_result, applicable_fragments) = IndexExprResult::deserialize(batch)?;
 
         Ok(Self {
             index_result,
             applicable_fragments,
         })
     }
+
+    /// Block `rows` (stale overlay row addresses) from the index result so the index never
+    /// emits them. Their fragments stay in the covered set, so non-stale rows keep the index;
+    /// the blocked rows are re-evaluated against their current (overlay-merged) values on a
+    /// separate targeted take path built by the scanner.
+    fn without_rows(mut self, block_list: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> Self {
+        self.index_result.upper =
+            std::mem::take(&mut self.index_result.upper).also_block(block_list.clone());
+        self.index_result.lower =
+            std::mem::take(&mut self.index_result.lower).also_block(block_list.clone());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Decide whether planning needs full metadata from `fragment`.
+    ///
+    /// The upper mask contains every row that might match. For address-style row ids its high
+    /// 32 bits identify the fragment directly. Stable row ids need the fragment's row-id
+    /// sequence to make the same decision, but this still avoids opening deletion metadata,
+    /// row counts, and data files for non-candidate fragments.
+    async fn fragment_metadata_load(
+        &self,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        fragment: &Fragment,
+        only_indexed_fragments: bool,
+        retained_range_bytes: &AtomicUsize,
+    ) -> Result<FragmentMetadataLoad> {
+        let fragment_id = fragment.id as u32;
+        if !self.applicable_fragments.contains(fragment_id) {
+            return Ok(if only_indexed_fragments {
+                FragmentMetadataLoad::Skip
+            } else {
+                FragmentMetadataLoad::Load
+            });
+        }
+        let Some(candidate_rows) = self.index_result.upper.allow_list() else {
+            // A block-list may select rows from every fragment.
+            return Ok(FragmentMetadataLoad::Load);
+        };
+        if candidate_rows.iter().next().is_none() {
+            return Ok(FragmentMetadataLoad::Skip);
+        }
+        if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            let row_id_sequence = load_row_id_sequence(dataset, fragment).await?;
+            let upper_ranges = row_id_sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&self.index_result.upper);
+            return Ok(if upper_ranges.is_empty() {
+                FragmentMetadataLoad::Skip
+            } else {
+                FragmentMetadataLoad::LoadWithStableRouting(StableIndexRouting {
+                    row_id_sequence,
+                    upper_ranges: Self::retain_stable_index_ranges(
+                        upper_ranges,
+                        retained_range_bytes,
+                    ),
+                })
+            });
+        }
+        Ok(match candidate_rows.get(&fragment_id) {
+            Some(RowAddrSelection::Full) => FragmentMetadataLoad::Load,
+            Some(RowAddrSelection::Partial(rows)) if !rows.is_empty() => FragmentMetadataLoad::Load,
+            Some(RowAddrSelection::Partial(_)) | None => FragmentMetadataLoad::Skip,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 /// A fragment along with ranges of row offsets to read
@@ -119,22 +220,30 @@ struct ScopedFragmentRead {
     projection: Arc<Projection>,
     with_deleted_rows: bool,
     batch_size: u32,
+    file_reader_options: Option<FileReaderOptions>,
     // An in-memory filter to apply after reading the fragment (whatever couldn't be
     // pushed down into the index query)
     filter: Option<Expr>,
+    physical_filter: Option<Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>>,
     priority: u32,
     scan_scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    base_schedulers: BaseSchedulers,
 }
 
 impl ScopedFragmentRead {
     fn frag_read_config(&self) -> FragReadConfig {
-        FragReadConfig::default()
+        let mut config = FragReadConfig::default()
             .with_row_id(self.with_deleted_rows || self.projection.with_row_id)
             .with_row_address(self.projection.with_row_addr)
             .with_row_last_updated_at_version(self.projection.with_row_last_updated_at_version)
             .with_row_created_at_version(self.projection.with_row_created_at_version)
             .with_scan_scheduler(self.scan_scheduler.clone())
-            .with_reader_priority(self.priority)
+            .with_base_schedulers(self.base_schedulers.clone())
+            .with_reader_priority(self.priority);
+        if let Some(file_reader_options) = &self.file_reader_options {
+            config = config.with_file_reader_options(file_reader_options.clone());
+        }
+        config
     }
 }
 
@@ -142,6 +251,9 @@ impl ScopedFragmentRead {
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 struct LoadedFragment {
     row_id_sequence: Arc<RowIdSequence>,
+    /// Stable row-ID upper ranges computed while routing index candidates.
+    /// Reusing them avoids mapping the same mask again during final planning.
+    index_upper_ranges: Option<Vec<Range<u64>>>,
     deletion_vector: Option<Arc<DeletionVector>>,
     fragment: Arc<FileFragment>,
     // The number of physical rows in the fragment
@@ -333,7 +445,7 @@ struct FilteredReadStream {
     /// The stream of filtered rows, expressed as a stream of tasks (batch futures)
     ///
     /// This stream can be shared by multiple partitions
-    task_stream: Arc<AsyncMutex<BoxStream<'static, Result<ReadBatchFut>>>>,
+    task_stream: Arc<AsyncMutex<BoxStream<'static, Result<MaterializedReadBatchesFut>>>>,
     /// The scan scheduler for the scan
     scan_scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
     /// The global metrics for the scan
@@ -347,6 +459,116 @@ struct FilteredReadStream {
     threading_mode: FilteredReadThreadingMode,
     /// Range to apply to the result stream if not already pushed down in planning phase
     scan_range_after_filter: Option<Range<u64>>,
+    /// Fragments planned non-empty, and their total planned rows; the output
+    /// side uses these to detect take-shaped plans (batch size resolves at
+    /// execute time, so the detection lives there too)
+    touched_fragments: usize,
+    planned_rows: u64,
+}
+
+/// Below this many fragments there are too few handoffs to be worth
+/// consolidating
+const CONSOLIDATE_MIN_FRAGMENTS: usize = 8;
+
+/// Above this per-fragment average, batches are big enough to amortize
+/// their handoff
+const CONSOLIDATE_MAX_AVG_PLANNED_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: u64 = 1024;
+
+/// Pump a take-shaped read on a spawned task, handing the consumer
+/// consolidated batches. Inline polling would otherwise execute the
+/// per-batch pipeline work on the consumer, which serializes concurrent
+/// small reads.
+fn consolidated_stream(
+    inner: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    target: usize,
+) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+    let mut builder = RecordBatchReceiverStream::builder(inner.schema(), 4);
+    let tx = builder.tx();
+    builder.spawn(async move {
+        let mut stream = coalesce_batches(inner, target).boxed();
+        while let Some(item) = stream.next().await {
+            if tx.send(item).await.is_err() {
+                // Receiver dropped: the query was cancelled
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    });
+    builder.build()
+}
+
+/// Merge batches up to `target` rows; batches already at the target pass
+/// through whole (never split). Order is preserved.
+pub fn coalesce_batches(
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    target: usize,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> {
+    struct Coalescer {
+        input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        target: usize,
+        buffered: Vec<RecordBatch>,
+        buffered_rows: usize,
+        exhausted: bool,
+    }
+
+    impl Coalescer {
+        fn ready_to_emit(&self) -> bool {
+            self.buffered_rows >= self.target || (self.exhausted && !self.buffered.is_empty())
+        }
+
+        fn buffer(&mut self, batch: RecordBatch) {
+            self.buffered_rows += batch.num_rows();
+            self.buffered.push(batch);
+        }
+
+        fn emit(&mut self) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+            self.buffered_rows = 0;
+            if self.buffered.len() > 1 {
+                let batch = arrow::compute::concat_batches(&self.schema, self.buffered.iter())?;
+                self.buffered.clear();
+                Ok(batch)
+            } else {
+                self.buffered.pop().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "coalesce_batches emitted with an empty buffer".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let schema = input.schema();
+    let coalescer = Coalescer {
+        input,
+        schema,
+        target,
+        buffered: Vec::new(),
+        buffered_rows: 0,
+        exhausted: false,
+    };
+    futures::stream::try_unfold(coalescer, |mut this| async move {
+        loop {
+            if this.ready_to_emit() {
+                return Ok(Some((this.emit()?, this)));
+            }
+            if this.exhausted {
+                return Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(None);
+            }
+            match this.input.try_next().await? {
+                Some(batch) if batch.num_rows() >= this.target && !this.buffered.is_empty() => {
+                    // Emit the partial buffer on its own; the large batch
+                    // then passes through whole on the next iteration
+                    let out = this.emit()?;
+                    this.buffer(batch);
+                    return Ok(Some((out, this)));
+                }
+                Some(batch) if batch.num_rows() > 0 => this.buffer(batch),
+                Some(_) => {}
+                None => this.exhausted = true,
+            }
+        }
+    })
 }
 
 impl std::fmt::Debug for FilteredReadStream {
@@ -356,16 +578,28 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for FilteredReadStream {
 }
 
 impl FilteredReadStream {
-    /// Create a new FilteredReadStream from a pre-computed internal plan
+    /// Create a new FilteredReadStream from a pre-computed internal plan.
+    /// Fragment handles are constructed I/O-free from the manifest
+    /// descriptors, only for the fragments the plan selects. A `None`
+    /// scheduler is created here; the row-stream path injects its per-query
+    /// shared one and a per-batch priority offset.
     #[instrument(name = "init_filtered_read_stream", skip_all)]
-    async fn try_new(
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn try_new(
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         options: FilteredReadOptions,
-        metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+        global_metrics: Arc<FilteredReadGlobalMetrics>,
         plan: FilteredReadInternalPlan,
-    ) -> DataFusionResult<Self> {
-        let global_metrics = Arc::new(FilteredReadGlobalMetrics::new(metrics));
-
+        scan_scheduler: Option<Arc<ScanScheduler>>,
+        base_schedulers: Option<BaseSchedulers>,
+        priority_offset: Option<u32>,
+        materialization_context: Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+        materialize_blob_v2_binary: bool,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let scan_scheduler =
+            scan_scheduler.unwrap_or_else(|| Self::make_scan_scheduler(&dataset, &options));
+        let base_schedulers =
+            base_schedulers.unwrap_or_else(|| Self::make_base_schedulers(&options));
         let threading_mode = options.threading_mode;
 
         let io_parallelism = dataset.object_store.io_parallelism();
@@ -374,57 +608,42 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
             .unwrap_or_else(|| (*DEFAULT_FRAGMENT_READAHEAD).unwrap_or(io_parallelism * 2))
             .max(1);
 
-        let fragments = options
+        let fragment_descriptors = options
             .fragments
             .clone()
             .unwrap_or_else(|| dataset.fragments().clone());
 
         log::debug!(
             "Filtered read on {} fragments with frag_readahead={} and io_parallelism={}",
-            fragments.len(),
+            fragment_descriptors.len(),
             fragment_readahead,
             io_parallelism
         );
 
-        // Ideally we don't need to collect here but if we don't we get "implementation of FnOnce is
-        // not general enough" false positives from rustc
-        let frag_futs = fragments
-            .iter()
-            .map(|frag| {
-                Result::Ok(Self::load_fragment(
-                    dataset.clone(),
-                    frag.clone(),
-                    options.with_deleted_rows,
-                ))
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let loaded_fragments = futures::stream::iter(frag_futs)
-            // Cannot use unordered because we need to populate logical_offset based on user-provided order
-            .try_buffered(io_parallelism)
-            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .await?;
-
-        let output_schema = Arc::new(options.projection.to_arrow_schema());
-
-        let obj_store = dataset.object_store.clone();
-        let scheduler_config = if let Some(io_buffer_size_bytes) = options.io_buffer_size_bytes {
-            SchedulerConfig::new(io_buffer_size_bytes)
+        let output_schema = if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            public_blob_v2_binary_projection_schema(&options.projection)
         } else {
-            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(obj_store.as_ref())
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(
+                &crate::dataset::blob::blob_v2_descriptor_schema(&options.projection.to_schema()),
+            ))
         };
-        let scan_scheduler = ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, scheduler_config);
-
         // Get scan_range_after_filter from the plan
         let scan_range_after_filter = plan.scan_range_after_filter.clone();
 
         // Convert plan to scoped fragments for I/O
-        let scoped_fragments = Self::plan_to_scoped_fragments(
+        let mut scoped_fragments = Self::plan_to_scoped_fragments(
             &plan,
-            &loaded_fragments,
+            &fragment_descriptors,
             &dataset,
             &options,
             scan_scheduler.clone(),
+            base_schedulers,
         );
+        if let Some(priority_offset) = priority_offset.filter(|offset| *offset != 0) {
+            for scoped in &mut scoped_fragments {
+                scoped.priority = scoped.priority.saturating_add(priority_offset);
+            }
+        }
 
         let global_metrics_clone = global_metrics.clone();
 
@@ -434,8 +653,18 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                 move |scoped_fragment| {
                     let metrics = global_metrics_clone.clone();
                     let limit = scan_range_after_filter.as_ref().map(|r| r.end);
+                    let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                    let materialization_context = materialization_context.clone();
                     SpawnedTask::spawn(
-                        Self::read_fragment(scoped_fragment, metrics, limit).in_current_span(),
+                        Self::read_fragment(
+                            dataset,
+                            scoped_fragment,
+                            metrics,
+                            limit,
+                            materialization_context,
+                            materialize_blob_v2_binary,
+                        )
+                        .in_current_span(),
                     )
                     .map(|thread_result| thread_result.unwrap())
                 }
@@ -443,7 +672,23 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
             .buffered(fragment_readahead);
         let task_stream = fragment_streams.try_flatten().boxed();
 
-        Ok(Self {
+        // A batch never spans fragments, so a plan touching many fragments
+        // with few rows each emits one tiny batch per fragment. Fragments
+        // planned empty produce no batch and don't count. Filtered scans
+        // stay dense here: their planned rows are a pre-refine upper bound.
+        let (touched_fragments, planned_rows) =
+            plan.rows
+                .values()
+                .fold((0usize, 0u64), |(fragments, rows), ranges| {
+                    let fragment_rows: u64 =
+                        ranges.iter().map(|range| range.end - range.start).sum();
+                    if fragment_rows > 0 {
+                        (fragments + 1, rows + fragment_rows)
+                    } else {
+                        (fragments, rows)
+                    }
+                });
+        Self {
             output_schema,
             task_stream: Arc::new(AsyncMutex::new(task_stream)),
             scan_scheduler,
@@ -451,13 +696,82 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
             active_partitions_counter: Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0)),
             threading_mode,
             scan_range_after_filter,
-        })
+            touched_fragments,
+            planned_rows,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Drain the entire read into batches (used by the row-stream path,
+    /// which is the stream's only consumer and records metrics per batch)
+    async fn collect_all(&self, decode_parallelism: usize) -> Result<Vec<MaterializedBlobBatch>> {
+        let mut task_stream = self.task_stream.lock().await;
+        (&mut *task_stream)
+            .try_buffered(decode_parallelism)
+            .try_concat()
+            .await
+    }
+
+    async fn load_all_fragments(
+        dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+        options: &FilteredReadOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<LoadedFragment>> {
+        let io_parallelism = dataset.object_store.io_parallelism();
+        let fragments = options
+            .fragments
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| dataset.fragments().clone());
+        // Ideally we don't need to collect here but if we don't we get "implementation of FnOnce is
+        // not general enough" false positives from rustc
+        let frag_futs = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|frag| {
+                Result::Ok(Self::load_fragment(
+                    dataset.clone(),
+                    frag.clone(),
+                    options.with_deleted_rows,
+                    None,
+                ))
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        futures::stream::iter(frag_futs)
+            // Cannot use unordered because we need to populate logical_offset based on user-provided order
+            .try_buffered(io_parallelism)
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+    }
+
+    /// Create the I/O scheduler for a read (explicit option → env override →
+    /// max bandwidth)
+    fn make_scan_scheduler(dataset: &Dataset, options: &FilteredReadOptions) -> Arc<ScanScheduler> {
+        let obj_store = dataset.object_store.clone();
+        let scheduler_config = if let Some(io_buffer_size_bytes) = options
+            .io_buffer_size_bytes
+            .or_else(get_default_io_buffer_size_override)
+        {
+            SchedulerConfig::new(io_buffer_size_bytes)
+        } else {
+            SchedulerConfig::max_bandwidth(obj_store.as_ref())
+        };
+        ScanScheduler::new(obj_store, scheduler_config)
+    }
+
+    /// Create the per-base scheduler cache for a read, sized like the scan
+    /// scheduler (explicit option → env override → max bandwidth)
+    fn make_base_schedulers(options: &FilteredReadOptions) -> BaseSchedulers {
+        match options
+            .io_buffer_size_bytes
+            .or_else(get_default_io_buffer_size_override)
+        {
+            Some(io_buffer_size_bytes) => BaseSchedulers::new(io_buffer_size_bytes),
+            None => BaseSchedulers::max_bandwidth(),
+        }
     }
 
     async fn load_fragment(
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         frag: Fragment,
         include_deleted_rows: bool,
+        stable_index_routing: Option<StableIndexRouting>,
     ) -> Result<LoadedFragment> {
         let file_fragment = FileFragment::new(dataset.clone(), frag.clone());
         let deletion_vector = if include_deleted_rows {
@@ -467,19 +781,42 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
         };
 
         let num_physical_rows = file_fragment.physical_rows().await? as u64;
-        let (row_id_sequence, num_logical_rows) = if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
-            let row_id_sequence = load_row_id_sequence(dataset.as_ref(), &frag).await?;
-            let num_logical_rows = row_id_sequence.len();
-            (row_id_sequence, num_logical_rows)
+        let num_deleted_rows = deletion_vector
+            .as_ref()
+            .map_or(0_u64, |deletion_vector| deletion_vector.len() as u64);
+        // Row-ID sequences describe physical slots, including tombstoned slots. Scan ranges use
+        // visible ordinals, so ordinary scans must exclude the loaded deletions in either row-ID
+        // mode. When deleted rows are requested the deletion vector is intentionally absent.
+        let num_logical_rows =
+            num_physical_rows
+                .checked_sub(num_deleted_rows)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::corrupt_file(
+                        dataset.base.clone(),
+                        format!(
+                            "Fragment {} has {} physical rows but {} deleted rows",
+                            frag.id, num_physical_rows, num_deleted_rows
+                        ),
+                    )
+                })?;
+        let (row_id_sequence, index_upper_ranges) = if dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            let (row_id_sequence, index_upper_ranges) = if let Some(routing) = stable_index_routing
+            {
+                (routing.row_id_sequence, routing.upper_ranges)
+            } else {
+                (load_row_id_sequence(dataset.as_ref(), &frag).await?, None)
+            };
+            (row_id_sequence, index_upper_ranges)
         } else {
+            debug_assert!(stable_index_routing.is_none());
             let row_ids_start = frag.id << 32;
             let row_ids_end = row_ids_start + num_physical_rows;
-            let num_logical_rows = file_fragment.count_rows(None).await? as u64;
             let addrs_as_ids = Arc::new(RowIdSequence::from(row_ids_start..row_ids_end));
-            (addrs_as_ids, num_logical_rows)
+            (addrs_as_ids, None)
         };
         Ok(LoadedFragment {
             row_id_sequence,
+            index_upper_ranges,
             fragment: Arc::new(file_fragment),
             num_physical_rows,
             num_logical_rows,
@@ -500,22 +837,35 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
     // Returns: FilteredReadInternalPlan
     #[instrument(name = "plan_scan", skip_all)]
     fn plan_scan(
-        fragments: &[LoadedFragment],
+        mut fragments: Vec<LoadedFragment>,
         evaluated_index: &Option<Arc<EvaluatedIndex>>,
         options: &FilteredReadOptions,
     ) -> FilteredReadInternalPlan {
-        // For pushing down scan_range_after_filter
+        // For pushing down scan_range_after_filter.
+        //
+        // This is only valid when there is no refine filter left to evaluate.  An exact scalar
+        // index result is exact for the indexed predicate, but not for the full predicate if a
+        // refine filter can still reject rows.
+        let can_push_down_scan_range_after_filter = options.refine_filter.is_none();
         let mut scan_planned_with_limit_pushed_down = false;
-        let mut to_skip = options
-            .scan_range_after_filter
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|r| r.start)
-            .unwrap_or(0);
-        let mut to_take = options
-            .scan_range_after_filter
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|r| r.end - r.start)
-            .unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+        let mut to_skip = if can_push_down_scan_range_after_filter {
+            options
+                .scan_range_after_filter
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|r| r.start)
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+        let mut to_take = if can_push_down_scan_range_after_filter {
+            options
+                .scan_range_after_filter
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|r| r.end - r.start)
+                .unwrap_or(u64::MAX)
+        } else {
+            u64::MAX
+        };
 
         // Full fragment ranges to read before applying scan_range_after_filter
         let mut fragments_to_read: BTreeMap<u32, Vec<Range<u64>>> = BTreeMap::new();
@@ -529,16 +879,17 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
         let mut range_offset = 0;
         for LoadedFragment {
             row_id_sequence,
+            index_upper_ranges,
             fragment,
             num_logical_rows,
             num_physical_rows,
             deletion_vector,
-        } in fragments.iter()
+        } in fragments.iter_mut()
         {
-            if let Some(range_before_filter) = &options.scan_range_before_filter {
-                if range_offset >= range_before_filter.end {
-                    break;
-                }
+            if let Some(range_before_filter) = &options.scan_range_before_filter
+                && range_offset >= range_before_filter.end
+            {
+                break;
             }
 
             let mut to_read: Vec<Range<u64>> =
@@ -547,11 +898,11 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
             if let Some(range_before_filter) = &options.scan_range_before_filter {
                 let range_start = range_offset;
                 let range_end = if options.with_deleted_rows {
-                    range_offset += num_physical_rows;
-                    range_start + num_physical_rows
+                    range_offset += *num_physical_rows;
+                    range_start + *num_physical_rows
                 } else {
-                    range_offset += num_logical_rows;
-                    range_start + num_logical_rows
+                    range_offset += *num_logical_rows;
+                    range_start + *num_logical_rows
                 };
                 to_read = Self::trim_ranges(to_read, range_start..range_end, range_before_filter);
                 if to_read.is_empty() {
@@ -564,14 +915,16 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                 evaluated_index,
                 fragment,
                 row_id_sequence,
+                index_upper_ranges.take(),
                 to_read,
                 &mut to_skip,
                 &mut to_take,
                 &mut fragments_to_read,
                 &mut scan_push_down_fragments_to_read,
+                options.only_indexed_fragments,
             );
 
-            if to_take == 0 {
+            if can_push_down_scan_range_after_filter && to_take == 0 {
                 scan_planned_with_limit_pushed_down = true;
                 fragments_to_read = scan_push_down_fragments_to_read;
                 break;
@@ -587,14 +940,17 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                     // Resolve filter for this fragment
                     let filter = if let Some(evaluated_index) = evaluated_index {
                         if evaluated_index.applicable_fragments.contains(fragment_id) {
-                            match &evaluated_index.index_result {
-                                IndexExprResult::Exact(_) => options.refine_filter.clone(),
-                                IndexExprResult::AtLeast(_)
-                                    if scan_planned_with_limit_pushed_down =>
-                                {
-                                    options.refine_filter.clone()
-                                }
-                                _ => options.full_filter.clone(),
+                            let r = &evaluated_index.index_result;
+                            // `Exact` results don't need a recheck. `AtLeast`
+                            // results can also skip recheck when the
+                            // skip/take pushdown is in play (we only read the
+                            // guaranteed-match ranges in that case).
+                            let can_skip_recheck = r.is_exact()
+                                || (r.is_at_least() && scan_planned_with_limit_pushed_down);
+                            if can_skip_recheck {
+                                options.refine_filter.clone()
+                            } else {
+                                options.full_filter.clone()
                             }
                         } else {
                             options.full_filter.clone()
@@ -637,23 +993,30 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Handles are constructed here, I/O-free, only for the fragments the
+    /// plan selects; priority is the fragment's position in the candidate
+    /// list so a sparse plan keeps the original I/O order.
     fn plan_to_scoped_fragments(
         plan: &FilteredReadInternalPlan,
-        fragments: &[LoadedFragment],
-        dataset: &Dataset,
+        fragments: &[Fragment],
+        dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
         options: &FilteredReadOptions,
         scan_scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+        base_schedulers: BaseSchedulers,
     ) -> Vec<ScopedFragmentRead> {
         let default_batch_size = options.batch_size.unwrap_or_else(|| {
             get_default_batch_size().unwrap_or_else(|| {
-                std::cmp::max(dataset.object_store().block_size() / 4, BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK)
+                std::cmp::max(
+                    dataset.object_store.as_ref().block_size() / 4,
+                    BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK,
+                )
             }) as u32
         });
         let projection = Arc::new(options.projection.clone());
         let mut scoped_fragments = Vec::new();
 
         for (priority, fragment) in fragments.iter().enumerate() {
-            let fragment_id = fragment.fragment.id() as u32;
+            let fragment_id = fragment.id as u32;
 
             // Check if this fragment is in the plan
             if let Some(ranges) = plan.rows.get(&fragment_id) {
@@ -663,16 +1026,22 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
 
                 // Get filter for this fragment (convert Arc<Expr> back to Expr)
                 let filter = plan.filters.get(&fragment_id).map(|f| (**f).clone());
+                let physical_filter = filter
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .and_then(|filter| options.physical_filter(filter));
 
                 scoped_fragments.push(ScopedFragmentRead {
-                    fragment: fragment.fragment.clone(),
+                    fragment: Arc::new(FileFragment::new(dataset.clone(), fragment.clone())),
                     ranges: ranges.clone(),
                     projection: projection.clone(),
                     with_deleted_rows: options.with_deleted_rows,
                     batch_size: default_batch_size,
+                    file_reader_options: options.file_reader_options.clone(),
                     filter,
+                    physical_filter,
                     priority: priority as u32,
                     scan_scheduler: scan_scheduler.clone(),
+                    base_schedulers: base_schedulers.clone(),
                 });
             }
         }
@@ -686,11 +1055,13 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
         evaluated_index: &Option<Arc<EvaluatedIndex>>,
         fragment: &FileFragment,
         row_id_sequence: &Arc<RowIdSequence>,
+        index_upper_ranges: Option<Vec<Range<u64>>>,
         to_read: Vec<Range<u64>>,
         to_skip: &mut u64,
         to_take: &mut u64,
         fragments_to_read: &mut BTreeMap<u32, Vec<Range<u64>>>,
         scan_push_down_fragments_to_read: &mut BTreeMap<u32, Vec<Range<u64>>>,
+        only_indexed_fragments: bool,
     ) {
         let fragment_id = fragment.id() as u32;
 
@@ -698,35 +1069,61 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
             if evaluated_index.applicable_fragments.contains(fragment_id) {
                 let _span = tracing::span!(tracing::Level::DEBUG, "apply_index_result").entered();
 
-                match &evaluated_index.index_result {
-                    IndexExprResult::Exact(row_addr_mask) => {
-                        let valid_ranges = row_id_sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(row_addr_mask);
-                        let mut matched_ranges = Self::intersect_ranges(&to_read, &valid_ranges);
-                        fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, matched_ranges.clone());
-
-                        Self::apply_skip_take_to_ranges(&mut matched_ranges, to_skip, to_take);
-                        scan_push_down_fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, matched_ranges);
-                    }
-                    IndexExprResult::AtMost(row_addr_mask) => {
-                        // Cannot push down skip/take for AtMost
-                        let valid_ranges = row_id_sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(row_addr_mask);
-                        let matched_ranges = Self::intersect_ranges(&to_read, &valid_ranges);
-                        fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, matched_ranges);
-                    }
-                    IndexExprResult::AtLeast(row_addr_mask) => {
-                        let valid_ranges = row_id_sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(row_addr_mask);
-                        let mut guaranteed_ranges = Self::intersect_ranges(&to_read, &valid_ranges);
-                        fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, guaranteed_ranges.clone());
+                let index_result = &evaluated_index.index_result;
+                if index_result.is_exact() {
+                    // lower == upper; either side gives the precise answer.
+                    let mut matched_ranges = Self::intersect_index_ranges(
+                        &to_read,
+                        row_id_sequence,
+                        &index_result.upper,
+                        index_upper_ranges,
+                    );
+                    fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, matched_ranges.clone());
+
+                    Self::apply_skip_take_to_ranges(&mut matched_ranges, to_skip, to_take);
+                    scan_push_down_fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, matched_ranges);
+                } else if index_result.is_at_least() {
+                    // upper is universe; lower is the guaranteed-match set
+                    // used for the skip/take push-down path.
+                    let mut guaranteed_ranges = Self::intersect_index_ranges(
+                        &to_read,
+                        row_id_sequence,
+                        &index_result.lower,
+                        None,
+                    );
+                    fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, guaranteed_ranges.clone());
 
-                        Self::apply_skip_take_to_ranges(&mut guaranteed_ranges, to_skip, to_take);
-                        scan_push_down_fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, guaranteed_ranges);
-                    }
+                    Self::apply_skip_take_to_ranges(&mut guaranteed_ranges, to_skip, to_take);
+                    scan_push_down_fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, guaranteed_ranges);
+                } else {
+                    // AtMost or true Refined: read everything in `upper`
+                    // and rely on the full-filter recheck for survivors.
+                    //
+                    // For AtMost the index gives no lower bound, so there's
+                    // no skip/take push-down to do. For Refined the lower
+                    // bound *is* a guaranteed-match set, but exploiting it
+                    // requires per-range filter push-down (different filter
+                    // per range within a fragment), which the current plan
+                    // doesn't support. The recheck-skip opportunity on the
+                    // `lower` portion would also be visible up at the
+                    // `can_skip_recheck` block — both are deferred. See
+                    // TODO(refined-pushdown).
+                    let matched_ranges = Self::intersect_index_ranges(
+                        &to_read,
+                        row_id_sequence,
+                        &index_result.upper,
+                        index_upper_ranges,
+                    );
+                    fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, matched_ranges);
                 }
             } else {
-                // Fragment not indexed - add full fragment to unindexed_ranges
-                fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, to_read);
+                // Fragment not indexed.  Normally we add the full fragment to keep
+                // results complete.  Fast search intentionally accepts staleness.
+                if !only_indexed_fragments {
+                    fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, to_read);
+                }
             }
-        } else {
+        } else if !only_indexed_fragments {
             // No index at all - add full fragment to unindexed_ranges
             fragments_to_read.insert(fragment_id, to_read);
         }
@@ -772,7 +1169,7 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
         physical_ranges.truncate(write_idx);
     }
 
-    /// Intersect two sets of sorted ranges
+    /// Intersect two sets of sorted ranges.
     fn intersect_ranges(ranges1: &[Range<u64>], ranges2: &[Range<u64>]) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
         let mut result = Vec::new();
         let mut i = 0;
@@ -801,6 +1198,19 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
         result
     }
 
+    fn intersect_index_ranges(
+        to_read: &[Range<u64>],
+        row_id_sequence: &RowIdSequence,
+        index_mask: &RowAddrMask,
+        precomputed_ranges: Option<Vec<Range<u64>>>,
+    ) -> Vec<Range<u64>> {
+        // Taking routed ranges fragment-by-fragment drops each input as its final intersection is
+        // produced instead of retaining every routed range vector alongside the completed plan.
+        let index_ranges =
+            precomputed_ranges.unwrap_or_else(|| row_id_sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(index_mask));
+        Self::intersect_ranges(to_read, &index_ranges)
+    }
+
     /// Apply skip and take to ranges and update the counters
     fn apply_skip_take_to_ranges(
         to_read: &mut Vec<Range<u64>>,
@@ -957,16 +1367,18 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                     }
                 });
                 let partition_metrics_clone = partition_metrics.clone();
-                let base_batch_stream =
-                    futures_stream
-                        .try_buffered(num_threads)
-                        .try_filter_map(move |batch| {
-                            std::future::ready(Ok(if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
-                                None
-                            } else {
-                                Some(batch)
-                            }))
-                        });
+                let base_batch_stream = futures_stream
+                    .try_buffered(num_threads)
+                    .map_ok(|batches| futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)))
+                    .try_flatten()
+                    .map_ok(MaterializedBlobBatch::into_batch)
+                    .try_filter_map(move |batch| {
+                        std::future::ready(Ok(if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+                            None
+                        } else {
+                            Some(batch)
+                        }))
+                    });
 
                 let batch_stream = if let Some(ref range) = self.scan_range_after_filter {
                     Self::apply_hard_range(base_batch_stream, range.clone()).boxed()
@@ -975,6 +1387,10 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                     base_batch_stream.boxed()
                 };
 
+                // Clone so the finally handler can record a final snapshot even when
+                // no output batches were produced (inspect_ok never fires in that case).
+                let global_metrics_final = global_metrics.clone();
+                let scan_scheduler_final = scan_scheduler.clone();
                 let batch_stream = batch_stream
                     .inspect_ok(move |batch| {
                         partition_metrics_clone
@@ -983,6 +1399,9 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                         global_metrics.io_metrics.record(&scan_scheduler);
                     })
                     .finally(move || {
+                        global_metrics_final
+                            .io_metrics
+                            .record(&scan_scheduler_final);
                         partition_metrics.baseline_metrics.done();
                     })
                     .map_err(|e: lance_core::Error| DataFusionError::External(e.into()))
@@ -1015,14 +1434,16 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                             };
                             if let Some(task) = maybe_task {
                                 let task = task?;
-                                let batch = task.await?;
-                                partition_metrics
-                                    .baseline_metrics
-                                    .record_output(batch.num_rows());
+                                let batches = task.await?;
+                                let batch_rows = batches
+                                    .iter()
+                                    .map(|batch| batch.batch().num_rows())
+                                    .sum::<usize>();
+                                partition_metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(batch_rows);
 
                                 global_metrics.io_metrics.record(&scan_scheduler);
 
-                                Ok(Some((batch, task_stream)))
+                                Ok::<_, lance_core::Error>(Some((batches, task_stream)))
                             } else {
                                 partition_metrics.baseline_metrics.done();
                                 Ok(None)
@@ -1031,6 +1452,9 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                         .instrument(tracing::debug_span!("filtered_read_task"))
                     }
                 })
+                .map_ok(|batches| futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)))
+                .try_flatten()
+                .map_ok(MaterializedBlobBatch::into_batch)
                 .try_filter_map(move |batch| {
                     std::future::ready(Ok(if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
                         None
@@ -1045,13 +1469,28 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
     }
 
     // Reads a single fragment into a stream of batch tasks
-    #[instrument(name = "read_fragment", skip_all)]
+    #[instrument(name = "read_fragment", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     async fn read_fragment(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         mut fragment_read_task: ScopedFragmentRead,
         global_metrics: Arc<FilteredReadGlobalMetrics>,
         fragment_soft_limit: Option<u64>,
-    ) -> Result<impl Stream<Item = Result<ReadBatchFut>>> {
-        let output_schema = Arc::new(fragment_read_task.projection.to_arrow_schema());
+        materialization_context: Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+        materialize_blob_v2_binary: bool,
+    ) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, Result<MaterializedReadBatchesFut>>> {
+        let batch_size_bytes = fragment_read_task
+            .file_reader_options
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|o| o.batch_size_bytes);
+        let output_schema = if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            public_blob_v2_binary_projection_schema(fragment_read_task.projection.as_ref())
+        } else {
+            Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(
+                &crate::dataset::blob::blob_v2_descriptor_schema(
+                    &fragment_read_task.projection.to_schema(),
+                ),
+            ))
+        };
 
         if let Some(filter) = &fragment_read_task.filter {
             let filter_cols = Planner::column_names_in_expr(filter);
@@ -1066,10 +1505,23 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
             }
         }
 
-        let read_schema = fragment_read_task.projection.to_bare_schema();
+        let output_read_schema = Arc::new(fragment_read_task.projection.to_schema());
+        let bare_read_schema = fragment_read_task.projection.to_bare_schema();
+        let has_blob_v2_binary =
+            crate::dataset::blob::schema_has_blob_v2_binary_view(&bare_read_schema);
+        let materialize_blob_v2_binary = materialize_blob_v2_binary && has_blob_v2_binary;
+        let read_schema = if has_blob_v2_binary {
+            crate::dataset::blob::blob_v2_descriptor_schema(&bare_read_schema)
+        } else {
+            bare_read_schema
+        };
+        let mut frag_read_config = fragment_read_task.frag_read_config();
+        if has_blob_v2_binary {
+            frag_read_config = frag_read_config.with_row_address(true);
+        }
         let mut fragment_reader = fragment_read_task
             .fragment
-            .open(&read_schema, fragment_read_task.frag_read_config())
+            .open(&read_schema, frag_read_config)
             .await?;
 
         if fragment_read_task.with_deleted_rows {
@@ -1080,14 +1532,18 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
         // the row ids are not contiguous
         fragment_read_task.ranges.sort_by_key(|r| r.start);
 
-        let physical_filter = fragment_read_task
-            .filter
-            .map(|filter| {
-                let planner =
-                    Planner::new(Arc::new(fragment_read_task.projection.to_arrow_schema()));
-                planner.create_physical_expr(&filter)
-            })
-            .transpose()?;
+        let physical_filter = match fragment_read_task.physical_filter {
+            Some(filter) => Some(filter),
+            None => fragment_read_task
+                .filter
+                .map(|filter| {
+                    let planner = Planner::new(public_blob_v2_binary_projection_schema(
+                        fragment_read_task.projection.as_ref(),
+                    ));
+                    planner.create_physical_expr(&filter)
+                })
+                .transpose()?,
+        };
 
         // We are going to count the fragment as scanned on the first batch we
         // read. This might miss empty fragments, but we assume that wouldn't be
@@ -1101,12 +1557,13 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
             .read_ranges(
                 fragment_read_task.ranges.into(),
                 fragment_read_task.batch_size,
-            )?
+            )
+            .await?
             .map(move |batch_fut: ReadBatchFut| {
                 let global_metrics = global_metrics.clone();
                 let fragment_counted = fragment_counted.clone();
                 let range_tracker = range_tracker.clone();
-                batch_fut
+                let batch_fut = batch_fut
                     .inspect_ok(move |batch| {
                         let num_rows = batch.num_rows();
                         global_metrics.rows_scanned.add(num_rows);
@@ -1121,39 +1578,72 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                             global_metrics.ranges_scanned.add(additional_ranges);
                         }
                     })
-                    .boxed()
+                    .boxed();
+                if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+                    let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                    let output_read_schema = output_read_schema.clone();
+                    let materialization_context = materialization_context.clone();
+                    let admission = materialization_context.admission();
+                    batch_fut
+                        .and_then(move |batch| async move {
+                            crate::dataset::blob::materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch_with_admission(
+                                &dataset,
+                                output_read_schema.as_ref(),
+                                batch,
+                                &materialization_context,
+                                admission,
+                            )
+                            .await
+                        })
+                        .boxed()
+                } else {
+                    batch_fut.map_ok(MaterializedBlobBatch::unreserved).boxed()
+                }
             })
             .zip(futures::stream::repeat((
                 physical_filter.clone(),
                 output_schema.clone(),
             )))
-            .map(|(batch_fut, args)| Self::wrap_with_filter(batch_fut, args.0, args.1));
+            .map(|(batch_fut, args)| Self::wrap_with_filter(batch_fut, args.0, args.1))
+            .map(move |batch_fut_result| {
+                let batch_fut = batch_fut_result?;
+                Ok(batch_fut
+                    .and_then(move |batch| {
+                        futures::future::ready(if let Some(budget) = batch_size_bytes {
+                            batch.split_by_bytes((budget * 2) as usize)
+                        } else {
+                            Ok(vec![batch])
+                        })
+                    })
+                    .boxed())
+            });
 
-        let result: Pin<Box<dyn Stream<Item = Result<ReadBatchFut>> + Send>> =
-            if let Some(limit) = fragment_soft_limit {
-                Box::pin(Self::apply_soft_limit(fragment_stream, limit))
-            } else {
-                Box::pin(fragment_stream)
-            };
+        let result = if let Some(limit) = fragment_soft_limit {
+            Self::apply_soft_limit(fragment_stream, limit).boxed()
+        } else {
+            fragment_stream.boxed()
+        };
         Ok(result)
     }
 
     fn wrap_with_filter(
-        batch_fut: ReadBatchFut,
+        batch_fut: MaterializedReadBatchFut,
         filter: Option<Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>>,
         output_schema: SchemaRef,
-    ) -> Result<ReadBatchFut> {
+    ) -> Result<MaterializedReadBatchFut> {
         if let Some(filter) = filter {
             Ok(batch_fut
                 .map(move |batch| {
                     let batch = batch?;
-                    let batch = datafusion_physical_plan::filter::batch_filter(&batch, &filter)
-                        .map_err(|e| Error::Execution {
-                            message: format!("Error applying filter expression to batch: {e}"),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })?;
+                    let filtered =
+                        datafusion_physical_plan::filter::batch_filter(batch.batch(), &filter)
+                            .map_err(|e| {
+                                Error::execution(format!(
+                                    "Error applying filter expression to batch: {e}"
+                                ))
+                            })?;
                     // Drop any fields loaded purely for the purpose of applying the filter
-                    Ok(batch.project_by_schema(output_schema.as_ref())?)
+                    Ok(batch.with_batch(filtered.project_by_schema(output_schema.as_ref())?))
                 })
                 .boxed())
         } else {
@@ -1161,9 +1651,12 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
         }
     }
 
-    fn apply_soft_limit<S>(stream: S, limit: u64) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<ReadBatchFut>>
+    fn apply_soft_limit<S>(
+        stream: S,
+        limit: u64,
+    ) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<MaterializedReadBatchesFut>>
     where
-        S: Stream<Item = Result<ReadBatchFut>>,
+        S: Stream<Item = Result<MaterializedReadBatchesFut>>,
     {
         let rows_read = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
 
@@ -1177,8 +1670,9 @@ impl FilteredReadStream {
                 batch_fut_result.map(move |batch_fut| {
                     batch_fut
                         .map(move |batch_result| {
-                            batch_result.inspect(|batch| {
-                                let batch_rows = batch.num_rows();
+                            batch_result.inspect(|batches| {
+                                let batch_rows =
+                                    batches.iter().map(|b| b.batch().num_rows()).sum::<usize>();
                                 rows_read.fetch_add(batch_rows, Ordering::Relaxed);
                             })
                         })
@@ -1239,10 +1733,12 @@ pub struct FilteredReadOptions {
     pub scan_range_before_filter: Option<Range<u64>>,
     /// The range of rows to read after applying the filter.
     pub scan_range_after_filter: Option<Range<u64>>,
-    /// Include deleted rows in the scan
+    /// Include deleted rows in the scan; they are returned with a null row id
     pub with_deleted_rows: bool,
     /// The maximum number of rows per batch
     pub batch_size: Option<u32>,
+    /// File reader options to use when reading data files.
+    pub file_reader_options: Option<FileReaderOptions>,
     /// Controls how many fragments to read ahead
     pub fragment_readahead: Option<usize>,
     /// The fragments to read
@@ -1256,10 +1752,21 @@ pub struct FilteredReadOptions {
     /// result to avoid applying this (and instead only apply the refine filter) but in some cases
     /// the index result does not cover all fragments or is not exact.
     pub full_filter: Option<Expr>,
+    physical_filters: Vec<(Expr, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>)>,
     /// The threading mode to use for the scan
     pub threading_mode: FilteredReadThreadingMode,
     /// The size of the I/O buffer to use for the scan
     pub io_buffer_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    /// Total memory budget for asynchronously materialized blob v2 batches
+    pub materialization_readahead_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    /// If true, skip fragments that are not covered by the scalar index result.
+    pub only_indexed_fragments: bool,
+    /// Row addresses whose index entries may be stale because an overlay committed after the
+    /// index was built touches an indexed field. They are blocked from the index result so the
+    /// index never emits them; the scanner re-evaluates just these rows against their current
+    /// (overlay-merged) values on a targeted take path. Their fragments stay in the covered set,
+    /// so non-stale rows keep the index. `None` on the common no-overlay fast path.
+    pub overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
 }
 
 impl FilteredReadOptions {
@@ -1281,18 +1788,30 @@ impl FilteredReadOptions {
             scan_range_after_filter: None,
             with_deleted_rows: false,
             batch_size: None,
+            file_reader_options: None,
             fragment_readahead: None,
             fragments: None,
             projection,
             refine_filter: None,
             full_filter: None,
+            physical_filters: Vec::new(),
             io_buffer_size_bytes: None,
+            materialization_readahead_bytes: None,
+            only_indexed_fragments: false,
+            overlay_block: None,
             threading_mode: FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(
                 get_num_compute_intensive_cpus(),
             ),
         }
     }
 
+    /// Block the given stale overlay row addresses (see the `overlay_block` field) from the
+    /// scalar index result so the index never emits them.
+    pub fn with_overlay_block(mut self, block: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        self.overlay_block = Some(block);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Include deleted rows in the scan
     ///
     /// This is currently only supported if there is no scan_range specified
@@ -1305,10 +1824,9 @@ impl FilteredReadOptions {
     /// entire fragment was deleted, it will not be read by this function.
     pub fn with_deleted_rows(mut self) -> Result<Self> {
         if self.scan_range_before_filter.is_some() || self.scan_range_after_filter.is_some() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "with_deleted_rows is not supported when there is a scan range".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "with_deleted_rows is not supported when there is a scan range".into(),
+            ));
         }
         self.with_deleted_rows = true;
         Ok(self)
@@ -1324,10 +1842,9 @@ impl FilteredReadOptions {
     /// and the range is 100..300, then scan will read rows 100..300 and return rows 200..300
     pub fn with_scan_range_before_filter(mut self, scan_range: Range<u64>) -> Result<Self> {
         if self.with_deleted_rows {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "with_deleted_rows is not supported when there is a scan range".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "with_deleted_rows is not supported when there is a scan range".into(),
+            ));
         }
         self.scan_range_before_filter = Some(scan_range);
         Ok(self)
@@ -1343,10 +1860,9 @@ impl FilteredReadOptions {
     /// We currently do not support setting this when there is more than one partition.
     pub fn with_scan_range_after_filter(mut self, scan_range: Range<u64>) -> Result<Self> {
         if self.with_deleted_rows {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "with_deleted_rows is not supported when there is a scan range".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "with_deleted_rows is not supported when there is a scan range".into(),
+            ));
         }
         self.scan_range_after_filter = Some(scan_range);
         Ok(self)
@@ -1372,6 +1888,12 @@ impl FilteredReadOptions {
         self
     }
 
+    /// Specify the file reader options to use when reading data files.
+    pub fn with_file_reader_options(mut self, file_reader_options: FileReaderOptions) -> Self {
+        self.file_reader_options = Some(file_reader_options);
+        self
+    }
+
     /// Controls how many fragments to read ahead.
     ///
     /// If not set, the default will be 2 * the I/O parallelism.  Generally, reading ahead
@@ -1403,11 +1925,11 @@ impl FilteredReadOptions {
         full_filter: Option<Expr>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         if refine_filter.is_some() && full_filter.is_none() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: "refine_filter is set but full_filter is not".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "refine_filter is set but full_filter is not".into(),
+            ));
         }
+        self.physical_filters.clear();
         self.refine_filter = refine_filter;
         self.full_filter = full_filter;
         Ok(self)
@@ -1415,28 +1937,120 @@ impl FilteredReadOptions {
 
     /// An alternative to [`Self::with_filter`] to set the filters from a FilterPlan if you already have one
     pub fn with_filter_plan(mut self, filter_plan: FilterPlan) -> Self {
+        self.physical_filters.clear();
         self.refine_filter = filter_plan.refine_expr;
         self.full_filter = filter_plan.full_expr;
         self
     }
 
+    /// Plan configured filters with the supplied DataFusion session.
+    pub(crate) fn with_physical_filters(mut self, session: &dyn Session) -> Result<Self> {
+        for filter in [&self.full_filter, &self.refine_filter]
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+        {
+            if self
+                .physical_filters
+                .iter()
+                .any(|(planned_filter, _)| planned_filter == filter)
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let filter_columns = Planner::column_names_in_expr(filter);
+            let projection = self
+                .projection
+                .clone()
+                .union_columns(filter_columns, OnMissing::Error)?;
+            let schema = public_blob_v2_binary_projection_schema(&projection);
+            let physical_filter =
+                Planner::new(schema).create_physical_expr_with_session(filter, session)?;
+            self.physical_filters
+                .push((filter.clone(), physical_filter));
+        }
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    fn physical_filter(&self, filter: &Expr) -> Option<Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>> {
+        self.physical_filters
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(planned_filter, _)| planned_filter == filter)
+            .map(|(_, physical_filter)| physical_filter.clone())
+    }
+
     /// Specify the projection to use for the scan
     ///
     /// If the row id or row address are requested then they will be placed at the end
     /// of the output schema.  If both are requested then the row id will come before
     /// the row address.
     pub fn with_projection(mut self, projection: Projection) -> Self {
+        self.physical_filters.clear();
         self.projection = projection;
         self
     }
 
-    /// Specify the size of the I/O buffer (in bytes) to use for the scan
-    ///
+    /// [`Self::with_projection`], keeping the filters planned by
+    /// [`Self::with_physical_filters`] (and their session bindings) rebound to
+    /// the new projection.
+    pub(crate) fn with_projection_keeping_filters(
+        mut self,
+        projection: Projection,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        self.projection = projection;
+        for (filter, physical_filter) in &mut self.physical_filters {
+            let projection = self
+                .projection
+                .clone()
+                .union_columns(Planner::column_names_in_expr(filter), OnMissing::Error)?;
+            let schema = public_blob_v2_binary_projection_schema(&projection);
+            *physical_filter = physical_filter
+                .clone()
+                .transform(|expr| {
+                    let Some(column) = expr.downcast_ref::<Column>() else {
+                        return Ok(Transformed::no(expr));
+                    };
+                    let index = schema.index_of(column.name())?;
+                    Ok(Transformed::yes(
+                        Arc::new(Column::new(column.name(), index)) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+                    ))
+                })?
+                .data;
+        }
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Specify the size of the I/O buffer (in bytes) to use for the scan
+    ///
     /// See [`crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::io_buffer_size`] for more details.
     pub fn with_io_buffer_size(mut self, io_buffer_size: u64) -> Self {
         self.io_buffer_size_bytes = Some(io_buffer_size);
         self
     }
+
+    /// Specify the memory budget for asynchronous blob v2 materialization.
+    pub fn with_materialization_readahead_bytes(mut self, size: u64) -> Self {
+        self.materialization_readahead_bytes = Some(size);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Only read fragments covered by a scalar index result.
+    pub fn with_only_indexed_fragments(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.only_indexed_fragments = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Specify the threading mode to use for the scan.
+    ///
+    /// This controls how decode work is parallelized.  For the default single-partition
+    /// scan, the parameter of [`FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads`]
+    /// bounds how many batch-decode tasks are buffered in flight (via `try_buffered`).
+    ///
+    /// The parallelism must be greater than 0.  A value of 0 is rejected by
+    /// [`FilteredReadExec::try_new`].
+    pub fn with_threading_mode(mut self, threading_mode: FilteredReadThreadingMode) -> Self {
+        self.threading_mode = threading_mode;
+        self
+    }
 }
 
 /// A plan node that reads a dataset, applying an optional filter and projection.
@@ -1457,16 +2071,64 @@ impl FilteredReadOptions {
 pub struct FilteredReadExec {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     options: FilteredReadOptions,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    materialization_context: Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
-    index_input: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    input: RowSelector,
     // Precomputed internal plan
-    plan: Arc<OnceCell<FilteredReadInternalPlan>>,
+    pub plan: Arc<OnceCell<FilteredReadInternalPlan>>,
     // When execute is first called we will initialize the FilteredReadStream.  In order to support
     // multiple partitions, each partition will share the stream.
     running_stream: Arc<AsyncMutex<Option<FilteredReadStream>>>,
 }
 
+/// Describes which rows a [`FilteredReadExec`] should read
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum RowSelector {
+    /// Every live row of the dataset (no input plan)
+    AllRows,
+    /// A set of rows: one serialized [`IndexExprResult`] batch.  Output is in
+    /// storage order and deduplicated.
+    RowSet(Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>),
+    /// A stream of rows: record batches with a `_rowid`/`_rowaddr` column
+    /// and other payload columns (just carried)
+    RowStream(Arc<RowStreamSource>),
+}
+
+impl RowSelector {
+    fn row_set_plan(&self) -> Option<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::RowSet(plan) => Some(plan),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn child(&self) -> Option<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::AllRows => None,
+            Self::RowSet(plan) => Some(plan),
+            Self::RowStream(source) => Some(&source.plan),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// State derived at construction for a row-stream source
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct RowStreamSource {
+    plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    /// The stream column identifying rows: [`ROW_ID`] or [`ROW_ADDR`]
+    key_column: &'static str,
+    /// Options for the internal fragment read; carries the projection that
+    /// reflects the actual columns to read (plus the alignment key column)
+    read_options: FilteredReadOptions,
+    /// The schema for newly read columns
+    new_fields_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Descriptor-bearing output before Blob v2 payload materialization
+    intermediate_output_schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Final schema used to materialize one complete row-stream output batch
+    materialization_output_schema: Option<Arc<LanceSchema>>,
+}
+
 /// Public plan for distributed execution - uses bitmap for flexibility
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct FilteredReadPlan {
@@ -1484,7 +2146,7 @@ pub struct FilteredReadPlan {
 /// Internal plan representation - uses ranges for efficiency in local execution
 /// This avoids expensive range↔bitmap conversion
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-struct FilteredReadInternalPlan {
+pub struct FilteredReadInternalPlan {
     /// Fragment ID to ranges to read (BTreeMap for deterministic order with scan_range_after_filter)
     rows: BTreeMap<u32, Vec<Range<u64>>>,
     /// Filter to apply per fragment (fragments not here don't need filtering)
@@ -1501,11 +2163,7 @@ impl FilteredReadInternalPlan {
         let mut rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
         for (fragment_id, ranges) in &self.rows {
             if !ranges.is_empty() {
-                let mut bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
-                for range in ranges {
-                    bitmap.insert_range(range.start as u32..range.end as u32);
-                }
-                rows.insert_bitmap(*fragment_id, bitmap);
+                rows.insert_bitmap(*fragment_id, ranges_to_bitmap(ranges, true));
             }
         }
         FilteredReadPlan {
@@ -1517,36 +2175,260 @@ impl FilteredReadInternalPlan {
 }
 
 impl FilteredReadExec {
+    /// Create a new filtered read
     pub fn try_new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        options: FilteredReadOptions,
+        input: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if options.materialization_readahead_bytes == Some(0) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "materialization_readahead_bytes must be greater than 0, got 0".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        match input {
+            Some(input) if Self::is_index_query_schema(input.schema().as_ref()) => {
+                Self::try_new_scan(dataset, options, Some(input))
+            }
+            Some(input) => Self::try_new_row_stream(dataset, options, input),
+            None => Self::try_new_scan(dataset, options, None),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether `schema` is one of the serialized [`IndexExprResult`] wire
+    /// layouts (see [`IndexExprResultWireFormat`])
+    fn is_index_query_schema(schema: &arrow_schema::Schema) -> bool {
+        [
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask,
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::ThreeVariant,
+        ]
+        .iter()
+        .any(|format| schema.fields() == format.schema().fields())
+    }
+
+    /// The input columns that carry through to the output: identity columns
+    /// appear iff their flag is requested, ordinary columns always carry
+    fn carried_schema(input_schema: &arrow_schema::Schema, projection: &Projection) -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(
+            input_schema
+                .fields()
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|f| {
+                    (f.name() != ROW_ID || projection.with_row_id)
+                        && (f.name() != ROW_ADDR || projection.with_row_addr)
+                })
+                .cloned()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    /// Construct a read over a row-stream source
+    fn try_new_row_stream(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        options: FilteredReadOptions,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        versions::validate_row_stream_read(
+            dataset.manifest().data_storage_format.lance_file_format(),
+        )?;
+        if options.refine_filter.is_some() || options.full_filter.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "filters are not supported when taking rows from an input plan".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        // A limit is safer to apply upstream, on the cheap keyed rows
+        if options.scan_range_before_filter.is_some() || options.scan_range_after_filter.is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "scan ranges are not supported when taking rows from an input plan".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        // Row-stream reads do not support deleted rows yet; deleted rows are
+        // excluded from the output by default
+        if options.with_deleted_rows || options.only_indexed_fragments {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "with_deleted_rows / only_indexed_fragments are not supported when taking rows from an input plan".into(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let input_schema = input.schema();
+        let key_column = if input_schema.column_with_name(ROW_ID).is_some() {
+            ROW_ID
+        } else if input_schema.column_with_name(ROW_ADDR).is_some() {
+            ROW_ADDR
+        } else {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
+                    "a row-stream input plan must have a column named '{}' or '{}'",
+                    ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID
+                )
+                .into(),
+            ));
+        };
+
+        let fields_to_read = options
+            .projection
+            .clone()
+            .subtract_arrow_schema(input_schema.as_ref(), OnMissing::Ignore)?;
+        let synthesize_row_id = fields_to_read.with_row_id;
+        let synthesize_row_addr = fields_to_read.with_row_addr;
+        if !fields_to_read.has_data_fields() && !synthesize_row_id && !synthesize_row_addr {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                "the input plan already contains every projected field; there is nothing to read"
+                    .into(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let carried_schema = Self::carried_schema(input_schema.as_ref(), &options.projection);
+
+        // Output = carried columns ⊕ fetched fields ⊕ synthesized identity
+        let materialization_output_schema = super::TakeExec::calculate_output_schema(
+            dataset.schema(),
+            carried_schema.as_ref(),
+            &fields_to_read,
+        );
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::from(
+            &crate::dataset::blob::public_blob_v2_binary_output_schema(
+                &materialization_output_schema,
+            ),
+        ));
+
+        // Row-stream reads preserve input order, but can drop identity columns.
+        // Remap sort expressions to the output schema and retain only valid prefixes.
+        let orderings = input
+            .equivalence_properties()
+            .oeq_class()
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|ordering| project_ordering(ordering, &output_schema));
+        let equivalence_properties =
+            EquivalenceProperties::new_with_orderings(output_schema.clone(), orderings);
+
+        // Partitioning and emission behavior follow the input
+        let properties = Arc::new(
+            input
+                .properties()
+                .as_ref()
+                .clone()
+                .with_eq_properties(equivalence_properties),
+        );
+
+        let bare_lance_schema = fields_to_read.to_bare_schema();
+        let materialize_blob_v2_binary =
+            crate::dataset::blob::schema_has_blob_v2_binary_view(&bare_lance_schema);
+        let read_lance_schema = if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            crate::dataset::blob::blob_v2_descriptor_schema(&bare_lance_schema)
+        } else {
+            bare_lance_schema
+        };
+        let bare_schema = arrow_schema::Schema::from(&read_lance_schema);
+        let mut new_fields = bare_schema.fields().iter().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if synthesize_row_id {
+            new_fields.push(Arc::new(ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()));
+        }
+        if (synthesize_row_addr || materialize_blob_v2_binary)
+            && !new_fields.iter().any(|field| field.name() == ROW_ADDR)
+        {
+            new_fields.push(Arc::new(ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone()));
+        }
+        let new_fields_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(new_fields));
+
+        let intermediate_lance_schema = if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            crate::dataset::blob::blob_v2_descriptor_schema(&materialization_output_schema)
+        } else {
+            materialization_output_schema.clone()
+        };
+        let mut intermediate_fields = arrow_schema::Schema::from(&intermediate_lance_schema)
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        if materialize_blob_v2_binary
+            && !intermediate_fields
+                .iter()
+                .any(|field| field.name() == ROW_ADDR)
+        {
+            intermediate_fields.push(Arc::new(ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone()));
+        }
+        let intermediate_output_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(intermediate_fields));
+
+        let materialization_output_schema =
+            materialize_blob_v2_binary.then(|| Arc::new(materialization_output_schema));
+
+        // fields_to_read keeps the synthesis flags; add the key column on top
+        let mut read_options = options.clone();
+        read_options.projection = if key_column == ROW_ID {
+            fields_to_read.with_row_id()
+        } else {
+            fields_to_read.with_row_addr()
+        };
+        if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            read_options.projection = read_options.projection.with_row_addr();
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            materialization_context: BlobMaterializationContext::new(
+                options.io_buffer_size_bytes,
+                options.materialization_readahead_bytes,
+            ),
+            dataset,
+            options,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+            input: RowSelector::RowStream(Arc::new(RowStreamSource {
+                plan: input,
+                key_column,
+                read_options,
+                new_fields_schema,
+                intermediate_output_schema,
+                materialization_output_schema,
+            })),
+            plan: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
+            running_stream: Arc::new(AsyncMutex::new(None)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn try_new_scan(
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         mut options: FilteredReadOptions,
         index_input: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let input = match index_input {
+            Some(plan) => RowSelector::RowSet(plan),
+            None => RowSelector::AllRows,
+        };
         if options.with_deleted_rows {
             // Ensure we have the row id column if with_deleted_rows is set
             options.projection = options.projection.with_row_id();
         }
 
         if options.projection.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                source:
-                    "no columns were selected and with_row_id / with_row_address is false, there is nothing to scan"
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input_source("no columns were selected and with_row_id / with_row_address is false, there is nothing to scan"
+                .into()));
+        }
+
+        // A parallelism of 0 would cause `try_buffered(0)` to hang forever instead of erroring
+        match options.threading_mode {
+            FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(0) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads must be greater than 0, got 0"
                         .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+                ));
+            }
+            FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(0) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions must be greater than 0, got 0"
+                        .into(),
+                ));
+            }
+            _ => {}
         }
 
         if options.scan_range_after_filter.is_some() {
             // Validate that there's a filter when using scan_range_after_filter
             if options.full_filter.is_none()
                 && options.refine_filter.is_none()
-                && index_input.is_none()
+                && input.row_set_plan().is_none()
             {
-                return Err(Error::InvalidInput {
-                    source: "scan_range_after_filter requires a filter to be applied. Use scan_range_before_filter for unfiltered scans."
-                        .into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input_source("scan_range_after_filter requires a filter to be applied. Use scan_range_before_filter for unfiltered scans."
+                    .into()));
             }
 
             // TODO: support multi partition
@@ -1554,36 +2436,39 @@ impl FilteredReadExec {
                 options.threading_mode,
                 FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(_)
             ) {
-                return Err(Error::NotSupported {
-                    source: "scan_range_after_filter not yet supported with multiple partitions"
+                return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                    "scan_range_after_filter not yet supported with multiple partitions"
                         .to_string()
                         .into(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                });
+                ));
             }
         }
-        let output_schema = Arc::new(options.projection.to_arrow_schema());
+        let output_schema = public_blob_v2_binary_projection_schema(&options.projection);
         let num_partitions = match options.threading_mode {
             FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(_) => 1,
             FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(n) => n,
         };
 
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema),
             Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(num_partitions),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
         let metrics = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
 
         Ok(Self {
+            materialization_context: BlobMaterializationContext::new(
+                options.io_buffer_size_bytes,
+                options.materialization_readahead_bytes,
+            ),
             dataset,
             options,
             properties,
             running_stream: Arc::new(AsyncMutex::new(None)),
             metrics,
-            index_input,
+            input,
             plan: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
         })
     }
@@ -1598,9 +2483,10 @@ impl FilteredReadExec {
                     let fragment = self
                         .dataset
                         .get_fragment(*fragment_id as usize)
-                        .ok_or_else(|| Error::InvalidInput {
-                            source: format!("Fragment {} not found", fragment_id).into(),
-                            location: location!(),
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            Error::invalid_input_source(
+                                format!("Fragment {} not found", fragment_id).into(),
+                            )
                         })?;
                     let num_rows = fragment.physical_rows().await?;
                     vec![0..num_rows as u64]
@@ -1638,14 +2524,18 @@ impl FilteredReadExec {
                 let mut evaluated_index = None;
                 if let Some(index_input) = index_input {
                     let mut index_search = index_input.execute(partition, ctx)?;
-                    let index_search_result =
-                        index_search.next().await.ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Index search did not yield any results".to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })??;
-                    evaluated_index = Some(Arc::new(EvaluatedIndex::try_from_arrow(
-                        &index_search_result,
-                    )?));
+                    let index_search_result = index_search.next().await.ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal("Index search did not yield any results".to_string())
+                    })??;
+                    let mut idx = EvaluatedIndex::try_from_arrow(&index_search_result)?;
+                    // `overlay_block` is always constructed as a block list (see
+                    // `Scanner::stale_rows_block_mask`), so `block_list()` is always `Some`.
+                    if let Some(block_list) =
+                        options.overlay_block.as_ref().and_then(|b| b.block_list())
+                    {
+                        idx = idx.without_rows(block_list);
+                    }
+                    evaluated_index = Some(Arc::new(idx));
                 }
 
                 // Load fragments to compute the plan
@@ -1656,24 +2546,74 @@ impl FilteredReadExec {
                     .unwrap_or_else(|| dataset.fragments().clone());
 
                 let with_deleted_rows = options.with_deleted_rows;
+                // A range before filtering is expressed in dataset/fragment order. Planning it
+                // needs every preceding fragment's logical row count, including fragments that
+                // the index later eliminates. Without that range, discard covered non-candidate
+                // fragments before opening their full metadata.
+                let needs_fragment_offsets = options.scan_range_before_filter.is_some();
+                let only_indexed_fragments = options.only_indexed_fragments;
+                let retained_range_bytes = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
                 let frag_futs = fragments
                     .iter()
-                    .map(|frag| {
-                        Result::Ok(FilteredReadStream::load_fragment(
-                            dataset.clone(),
-                            frag.clone(),
-                            with_deleted_rows,
-                        ))
+                    .map(|fragment| {
+                        let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                        let evaluated_index = evaluated_index.clone();
+                        let retained_range_bytes = retained_range_bytes.clone();
+                        let fragment = fragment.clone();
+                        async move {
+                            let metadata_load = if needs_fragment_offsets {
+                                FragmentMetadataLoad::Load
+                            } else if let Some(index) = evaluated_index {
+                                index
+                                    .fragment_metadata_load(
+                                        dataset.as_ref(),
+                                        &fragment,
+                                        only_indexed_fragments,
+                                        retained_range_bytes.as_ref(),
+                                    )
+                                    .await?
+                            } else if only_indexed_fragments {
+                                FragmentMetadataLoad::Skip
+                            } else {
+                                FragmentMetadataLoad::Load
+                            };
+                            match metadata_load {
+                                FragmentMetadataLoad::Skip => Ok::<_, Error>(None),
+                                FragmentMetadataLoad::Load => Ok(Some(
+                                    FilteredReadStream::load_fragment(
+                                        dataset,
+                                        fragment,
+                                        with_deleted_rows,
+                                        None,
+                                    )
+                                    .await?,
+                                )),
+                                FragmentMetadataLoad::LoadWithStableRouting(routing) => Ok(Some(
+                                    FilteredReadStream::load_fragment(
+                                        dataset,
+                                        fragment,
+                                        with_deleted_rows,
+                                        Some(routing),
+                                    )
+                                    .await?,
+                                )),
+                            }
+                        }
                     })
                     .collect::<Vec<_>>();
                 let loaded_fragments = futures::stream::iter(frag_futs)
-                    .try_buffered(io_parallelism)
-                    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                    .await?;
+                    .buffered(io_parallelism)
+                    .try_collect::<Vec<Option<_>>>()
+                    .await?
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .flatten()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
-                // Plan the scan
+                // Plan the scan; the metadata loaded here drops when planning
+                // finishes — stream construction rebuilds I/O-free handles
+                // from the manifest descriptors
                 Ok(FilteredReadStream::plan_scan(
-                    &loaded_fragments,
+                    loaded_fragments,
                     &evaluated_index,
                     options,
                 ))
@@ -1683,11 +2623,18 @@ impl FilteredReadExec {
 
     /// Get the existing plan or create it if it doesn't exist
     pub async fn get_or_create_plan(&self, ctx: Arc<TaskContext>) -> Result<FilteredReadPlan> {
+        if self.row_stream_input().is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::not_supported_source(
+                "a FilteredReadExec with a row-stream source does not have a precomputable plan"
+                    .to_string()
+                    .into(),
+            ));
+        }
         let internal_plan = Self::get_or_create_plan_impl(
             &self.plan,
             self.dataset.clone(),
             &self.options,
-            self.index_input.as_ref(),
+            self.input.row_set_plan(),
             0,
             ctx,
         )
@@ -1707,17 +2654,27 @@ impl FilteredReadExec {
         // Second, multiple partitions all share the same underlying task stream (see get_stream)
         let running_stream_lock = self.running_stream.clone();
         let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
-        let options = self.options.clone();
+        let target_partitions = context.session_config().target_partitions();
+        let mut options = self.options.clone();
+        if let FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(n) = options.threading_mode {
+            options.threading_mode = FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(
+                n.min(target_partitions).max(1),
+            );
+        }
+        let batch_size_rows = options.batch_size;
+        let batch_size_bytes = options
+            .file_reader_options
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|o| o.batch_size_bytes);
         let metrics = self.metrics.clone();
-        let index_input = self.index_input.clone();
+        let index_input = self.input.row_set_plan().cloned();
         let plan_cell = self.plan.clone();
+        let materialization_context = self.materialization_context.clone();
 
         let stream = futures::stream::once(async move {
             let mut running_stream = running_stream_lock.lock().await;
-            if let Some(running_stream) = &*running_stream {
-                DataFusionResult::<SendableRecordBatchStream>::Ok(
-                    running_stream.get_stream(&metrics, partition),
-                )
+            let inner = if let Some(running_stream) = &*running_stream {
+                running_stream.get_stream(&metrics, partition)
             } else {
                 let plan = Self::get_or_create_plan_impl(
                     &plan_cell,
@@ -1727,13 +2684,61 @@ impl FilteredReadExec {
                     partition,
                     context.clone(),
                 )
-                .await?;
-                let new_running_stream =
-                    FilteredReadStream::try_new(dataset, options, &metrics, plan.clone()).await?;
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::External(e.into()))?;
+                let new_running_stream = FilteredReadStream::try_new(
+                    dataset,
+                    options,
+                    Arc::new(FilteredReadGlobalMetrics::new(&metrics)),
+                    plan.clone(),
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                    None,
+                    materialization_context,
+                    true,
+                );
                 let first_stream = new_running_stream.get_stream(&metrics, partition);
                 *running_stream = Some(new_running_stream);
-                DataFusionResult::Ok(first_stream)
-            }
+                first_stream
+            };
+            // Only masked reads consolidate; plain scans keep their batch
+            // boundaries, and the byte-based rechunk merges on its own
+            let consolidate = if index_input.is_some() && batch_size_bytes.is_none() {
+                running_stream.as_ref().and_then(|running| {
+                    // Explicit option → lance env default → session batch size
+                    let batch_target_rows = batch_size_rows
+                        .map(|batch_size| batch_size as usize)
+                        .or_else(get_default_batch_size)
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| context.session_config().batch_size());
+                    let is_sparse_plan = batch_target_rows > 0
+                        && running.touched_fragments >= CONSOLIDATE_MIN_FRAGMENTS
+                        && running.planned_rows
+                            < running.touched_fragments as u64
+                                * CONSOLIDATE_MAX_AVG_PLANNED_ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT;
+                    is_sparse_plan.then_some(batch_target_rows)
+                })
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+            drop(running_stream);
+
+            let stream = match (consolidate, batch_size_bytes) {
+                (Some(target), _) => consolidated_stream(inner, target),
+                (None, Some(bytes)) => {
+                    let schema = inner.schema();
+                    Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                        schema.clone(),
+                        lance_arrow::stream::rechunk_stream_by_size(
+                            inner,
+                            schema,
+                            0,
+                            bytes as usize,
+                        ),
+                    ))
+                }
+                (None, None) => inner,
+            };
+            DataFusionResult::<SendableRecordBatchStream>::Ok(stream)
         })
         .try_flatten();
 
@@ -1749,223 +2754,814 @@ impl FilteredReadExec {
     }
 
     pub fn index_input(&self) -> Option<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        self.index_input.as_ref()
+        self.input.row_set_plan()
     }
-}
 
-impl DisplayAs for FilteredReadExec {
-    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        let columns = self
-            .options
-            .projection
-            .to_bare_schema()
-            .fields
-            .iter()
-            .map(|f| f.name.as_str())
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .join(", ");
-        match t {
-            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "LanceRead: uri={}, projection=[{}], num_fragments={}, range_before={:?}, range_after={:?}, row_id={}, row_addr={}, full_filter={}, refine_filter={}",
-                    self.dataset.data_dir(),
-                    columns,
-                    self.options.fragments.as_ref().map(|f| f.len()).unwrap_or(self.dataset.fragments().len()),
-                    self.options.scan_range_before_filter,
-                    self.options.scan_range_after_filter,
-                    self.options.projection.with_row_id,
-                    self.options.projection.with_row_addr,
-                    self.options.full_filter.as_ref().map(|i| i.to_string()).unwrap_or("--".to_string()),
-                    self.options.refine_filter.as_ref().map(|i| i.to_string()).unwrap_or("--".to_string()),
-                )
-            }
-            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
-                write!(f, "LanceRead\nuri={}\nprojection=[{}]\nnum_fragments={}\nrange_before={:?}\nrange_after={:?}\nrow_id={}\nrow_addr={}\nfull_filter={}\nrefine_filter={}",
-                self.dataset.data_dir(),
-                columns,
-                self.options.fragments.as_ref().map(|f| f.len()).unwrap_or(self.dataset.fragments().len()),
-                self.options.scan_range_before_filter,
-                self.options.scan_range_after_filter,
-                self.options.projection.with_row_id,
-                self.options.projection.with_row_addr,
-                self.options.full_filter.as_ref().map(|i| i.to_string()).unwrap_or("true".to_string()),
-                self.options.refine_filter.as_ref().map(|i| i.to_string()).unwrap_or("true".to_string()),
-            )
-            }
+    pub fn row_stream_input(&self) -> Option<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match &self.input {
+            RowSelector::RowStream(source) => Some(&source.plan),
+            _ => None,
         }
     }
-}
 
-impl ExecutionPlan for FilteredReadExec {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "FilteredReadExec"
+    /// This read with `projection`, keeping its precomputed plan and
+    /// session-planned filters.
+    pub(crate) fn with_projection(&self, projection: Projection) -> Result<Self> {
+        let options = self
+            .options
+            .clone()
+            .with_projection_keeping_filters(projection)?;
+        let read = Self::try_new(self.dataset.clone(), options, self.index_input().cloned())?;
+        if let Some(plan) = self.plan.get() {
+            let _ = read.plan.set(plan.clone());
+        }
+        Ok(read)
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
+    /// Return the pre-computed plan if one exists, without triggering initialization.
+    pub fn plan(&self) -> Option<FilteredReadPlan> {
+        self.plan.get().map(|p| p.to_external_plan())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
-        &self.properties
+    fn execute_row_stream(
+        &self,
+        source: &Arc<RowStreamSource>,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let input_stream = source.plan.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
+        let source = source.clone();
+        let carried_schema =
+            Self::carried_schema(source.plan.schema().as_ref(), &self.options.projection);
+        let output_schema = self.schema();
+        let metrics = self.metrics.clone();
+        let materialization_context = self.materialization_context.clone();
+
+        let lazy_stream = futures::stream::once(async move {
+            let row_stream_read = Arc::new(RowStreamRead::new(
+                dataset,
+                source,
+                carried_schema,
+                output_schema,
+                &metrics,
+                partition,
+                materialization_context,
+            ));
+            row_stream_read.apply(input_stream)
+        })
+        .flatten();
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema(),
+            lazy_stream,
+        )))
     }
 
-    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        if let Some(index_input) = &self.index_input {
-            vec![index_input]
-        } else {
-            vec![]
-        }
+    fn retained_physical_row_count(&self, fragments: &[Fragment]) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.dataset.manifest().writer_version.as_ref()?;
+        fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.physical_rows)
+            .sum::<Option<usize>>()
+            .map(|physical_rows| physical_rows as u64)
     }
+}
 
-    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
-        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+/// How many batches run concurrently.  Each batch's read already carries
+/// the full fragment-readahead and decode parallelism, so a shallow pipeline
+/// keeps the I/O pipe full; running every batch at once only multiplies that
+/// into lock contention
+const ROW_STREAM_CONCURRENT_BATCHES: usize = 4;
+
+/// Fragment metadata, loaded on the first batch and reused afterwards
+struct StreamFragments {
+    /// All dataset (or scoped) fragments, in dataset order
+    fragments: Vec<LoadedFragment>,
+    /// Fragment id → position in `fragments`
+    positions: HashMap<u32, usize>,
+    /// Each fragment's row-id span, for skipping fragments a batch cannot
+    /// touch (None = empty fragment)
+    id_spans: Vec<Option<RangeInclusive<u64>>>,
+}
+
+impl StreamFragments {
+    fn get(&self, fragment_id: u32) -> Option<&LoadedFragment> {
+        self.positions
+            .get(&fragment_id)
+            .map(|position| &self.fragments[*position])
     }
+}
 
-    fn partition_statistics(
-        &self,
-        partition: Option<usize>,
-    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<Statistics> {
-        let fragments = self
-            .options
-            .fragments
-            .clone()
-            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments().clone());
+/// Executes a [`FilteredReadExec`] over a row-stream source
+struct RowStreamRead {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    source: Arc<RowStreamSource>,
+    /// The input columns that carry through to the output
+    carried_schema: SchemaRef,
+    output_schema: SchemaRef,
+    scan_scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
+    base_schedulers: BaseSchedulers,
+    materialization_context: Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+    loaded_fragments: OnceCell<StreamFragments>,
+    global_metrics: Arc<FilteredReadGlobalMetrics>,
+    baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics,
+}
 
-        if fragments.iter().any(|f| f.num_rows().is_none()) {
-            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
-                "Fragments are missing row count stats".to_string(),
-            ));
+impl RowStreamRead {
+    fn new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        source: Arc<RowStreamSource>,
+        carried_schema: SchemaRef,
+        output_schema: SchemaRef,
+        metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+        partition: usize,
+        materialization_context: Arc<BlobMaterializationContext>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let scan_scheduler =
+            FilteredReadStream::make_scan_scheduler(&dataset, &source.read_options);
+        let base_schedulers = FilteredReadStream::make_base_schedulers(&source.read_options);
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            source,
+            carried_schema,
+            output_schema,
+            scan_scheduler,
+            base_schedulers,
+            materialization_context,
+            loaded_fragments: OnceCell::new(),
+            global_metrics: Arc::new(FilteredReadGlobalMetrics::new(metrics)),
+            baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics::new(metrics, partition),
         }
+    }
 
-        let total_rows: u64 = fragments.iter().map(|f| f.num_rows().unwrap() as u64).sum();
-
-        if self.options.full_filter.is_none() {
-            // If there is no filter, we just return the total number of rows (sans any before-filter range)
-            // divided by the number of partitions.
-            let total_rows =
-                if let Some(scan_range_before_filter) = &self.options.scan_range_before_filter {
-                    total_rows.min(scan_range_before_filter.end - scan_range_before_filter.start)
-                } else {
-                    total_rows
-                };
+    async fn load_fragments(&self) -> Result<&StreamFragments> {
+        self.loaded_fragments
+            .get_or_try_init(|| async {
+                let fragments = FilteredReadStream::load_all_fragments(
+                    &self.dataset,
+                    &self.source.read_options,
+                )
+                .await?;
+                let positions = fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .enumerate()
+                    .map(|(position, fragment)| (fragment.fragment.id() as u32, position))
+                    .collect();
+                let id_spans = fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|fragment| fragment.row_id_sequence.row_id_range())
+                    .collect();
+                Ok(StreamFragments {
+                    fragments,
+                    positions,
+                    id_spans,
+                })
+            })
+            .await
+    }
 
-            let total_rows = if partition.is_some() {
-                match self.options.threading_mode {
-                    FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(num_partitions) => {
-                        total_rows / num_partitions as u64
-                    }
-                    // Pretty sure this shouldn't be encountered in practice
-                    FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(_) => total_rows,
+    /// Build a batch's read ranges directly from physical row addresses
+    fn plan_batch_from_addresses(
+        addrs: &RowAddrTreeMap,
+        fragments: &StreamFragments,
+    ) -> FilteredReadInternalPlan {
+        let mut rows: BTreeMap<u32, Vec<Range<u64>>> = BTreeMap::new();
+        for (fragment_id, requested) in addrs.iter() {
+            // Unknown fragments (e.g. fully deleted) drop like stale keys
+            let Some(fragment) = fragments.get(*fragment_id) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let requested = match requested {
+                RowAddrSelection::Full => vec![0..fragment.num_physical_rows],
+                RowAddrSelection::Partial(bitmap) => bitmap_to_ranges(bitmap),
+            };
+            let valid = FilteredReadStream::full_frag_range(
+                fragment.num_physical_rows,
+                &fragment.deletion_vector,
+            );
+            let matched = FilteredReadStream::intersect_ranges(&valid, &requested);
+            if !matched.is_empty() {
+                rows.insert(*fragment_id, matched);
+            }
+        }
+        FilteredReadInternalPlan {
+            rows,
+            filters: HashMap::new(),
+            scan_range_after_filter: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build a batch's read ranges by resolving stable row ids through the
+    /// fragments' row-id sequences
+    fn plan_batch_from_row_ids(
+        ids: RowAddrTreeMap,
+        keys: &arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
+        fragments: &StreamFragments,
+    ) -> FilteredReadInternalPlan {
+        let mut rows: BTreeMap<u32, Vec<Range<u64>>> = BTreeMap::new();
+        let (Some(min_key), Some(max_key)) = (arrow::compute::min(keys), arrow::compute::max(keys))
+        else {
+            // Every key is null
+            return FilteredReadInternalPlan {
+                rows,
+                filters: HashMap::new(),
+                scan_range_after_filter: None,
+            };
+        };
+        let requested = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(ids);
+        for (fragment, id_span) in fragments.fragments.iter().zip(&fragments.id_spans) {
+            // Only fragments whose id span overlaps the batch's key range
+            // can hold requested rows
+            let Some(id_span) = id_span else { continue };
+            if *id_span.end() < min_key || *id_span.start() > max_key {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let offsets = fragment.row_id_sequence.mask_to_offset_ranges(&requested);
+            if offsets.is_empty() {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let valid = FilteredReadStream::full_frag_range(
+                fragment.num_physical_rows,
+                &fragment.deletion_vector,
+            );
+            let matched = FilteredReadStream::intersect_ranges(&valid, &offsets);
+            if !matched.is_empty() {
+                rows.insert(fragment.fragment.id() as u32, matched);
+            }
+        }
+        FilteredReadInternalPlan {
+            rows,
+            filters: HashMap::new(),
+            scan_range_after_filter: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn key_array<'a>(
+        &self,
+        batch: &'a RecordBatch,
+        producer: &str,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<&'a arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>> {
+        let keys = batch
+            .column_by_name(self.source.key_column)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                    "the row-stream {} is missing the '{}' column",
+                    producer, self.source.key_column
+                ))
+            })?;
+        keys.as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>().ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "expected the row-stream column '{}' to be UInt64 but it was {}",
+                self.source.key_column,
+                keys.data_type()
+            ))
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn plan_batch(
+        &self,
+        keys: &arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<FilteredReadInternalPlan> {
+        let compute_timer = self.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
+        // Null keys are excluded; attach_columns drops their rows
+        let batch_keys = if keys.null_count() == 0 {
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(keys.values().iter().copied())
+        } else {
+            RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(keys.iter().flatten())
+        };
+        drop(compute_timer);
+
+        let fragments = self.load_fragments().await?;
+        // Row ids equal row addresses when the dataset does not use stable
+        // row ids, so either key resolves directly by position
+        if self.source.key_column == ROW_ADDR || !self.dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            Ok(Self::plan_batch_from_addresses(&batch_keys, fragments))
+        } else {
+            Ok(Self::plan_batch_from_row_ids(batch_keys, keys, fragments))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Read the batch's planned ranges through the same executor as a scan,
+    /// returning the rows in storage order, deduplicated, with the key
+    /// column included
+    async fn read_batch(
+        &self,
+        internal_plan: FilteredReadInternalPlan,
+        batch_index: u32,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<MaterializedBlobBatch> {
+        let fragment_count = self.load_fragments().await?.fragments.len();
+        // I/O priority: earlier batches strictly first (output emits in batch
+        // order), fragments keep dataset order within a batch
+        let priority_offset = batch_index.saturating_mul(fragment_count as u32);
+        let read = FilteredReadStream::try_new(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            self.source.read_options.clone(),
+            self.global_metrics.clone(),
+            internal_plan,
+            Some(self.scan_scheduler.clone()),
+            Some(self.base_schedulers.clone()),
+            Some(priority_offset),
+            self.materialization_context.clone(),
+            false,
+        );
+        let decode_parallelism = match self.source.read_options.threading_mode {
+            FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(n) => n,
+            FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(n) => n,
+        };
+        let read_batches = read.collect_all(decode_parallelism.max(1)).await?;
+        Ok(MaterializedBlobBatch::concat(
+            &read.output_schema,
+            read_batches,
+        )?)
+    }
+
+    /// Align the read rows back to the batch's row order and merge the
+    /// fetched columns on
+    fn attach_columns(
+        &self,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        read_data: MaterializedBlobBatch,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<MaterializedBlobBatch> {
+        let _compute_timer = self.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
+        let keys = self.key_array(&batch, "input")?;
+        let read_keys = self.key_array(read_data.batch(), "read")?;
+        let output = attach_read_columns(
+            &batch,
+            keys,
+            read_data.batch(),
+            read_keys,
+            self.carried_schema.as_ref(),
+            self.source.new_fields_schema.as_ref(),
+            &self.source.intermediate_output_schema,
+        )?;
+        Ok(read_data.with_batch(output))
+    }
+
+    async fn execute_batch(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        batch: RecordBatch,
+        batch_index: u32,
+        admission: crate::dataset::blob::BlobMaterializationAdmission,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<MaterializedBlobBatch>> {
+        if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+            return Ok(vec![MaterializedBlobBatch::unreserved(
+                RecordBatch::new_empty(self.output_schema.clone()),
+            )]);
+        }
+        let internal_plan = self.plan_batch(self.key_array(&batch, "input")?).await?;
+        let read_data = self.read_batch(internal_plan, batch_index).await?;
+        let attached = self.attach_columns(batch, read_data)?;
+        let batch_size_bytes = self
+            .source
+            .read_options
+            .file_reader_options
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|o| o.batch_size_bytes);
+        let result = if let Some(output_schema) = &self.source.materialization_output_schema {
+            crate::dataset::blob::materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch_with_admission(
+                &self.dataset,
+                output_schema,
+                attached.into_batch(),
+                &self.materialization_context,
+                admission,
+            )
+            .await?
+        } else {
+            drop(admission);
+            attached
+        };
+        if let Some(budget) = batch_size_bytes {
+            Ok(result.split_by_bytes((budget * 2) as usize)?)
+        } else {
+            Ok(vec![result])
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn apply(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    ) -> impl Stream<Item = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> {
+        let batch_target_rows = self
+            .source
+            .read_options
+            .batch_size
+            .map(|batch_size| batch_size as usize)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| get_default_batch_size().unwrap_or(BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK));
+        let on_result = self.clone();
+        let on_done = self.clone();
+        coalesce_batches(input, batch_target_rows)
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(move |(batch_index, batch)| {
+                let batch = batch?;
+                let this = self.clone();
+                let admission = this.materialization_context.admission();
+                DataFusionResult::Ok(
+                    // SpawnedTask aborts on drop: cancelling the query
+                    // cancels in-flight batches
+                    SpawnedTask::spawn(
+                        this.execute_batch(batch, batch_index as u32, admission)
+                            .in_current_span(),
+                    )
+                    .map(|res| match res {
+                        Ok(result) => result,
+                        Err(join_error) => Err(DataFusionError::External(Box::new(join_error))),
+                    }),
+                )
+            })
+            .boxed()
+            .try_buffered(ROW_STREAM_CONCURRENT_BATCHES)
+            .map_ok(|batches| futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)))
+            .try_flatten()
+            .map_ok(MaterializedBlobBatch::into_batch)
+            .map(move |result| {
+                on_result
+                    .global_metrics
+                    .io_metrics
+                    .record(&on_result.scan_scheduler);
+                match on_result
+                    .baseline_metrics
+                    .record_poll(Poll::Ready(Some(result)))
+                {
+                    Poll::Ready(Some(result)) => result,
+                    _ => unreachable!("record_poll returned a different poll state"),
+                }
+            })
+            .finally(move || {
+                on_done.baseline_metrics.done();
+                on_done
+                    .global_metrics
+                    .io_metrics
+                    .record(&on_done.scan_scheduler);
+            })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Align `read_data` rows back to a keyed batch's row order and merge the
+/// fetched columns on.
+///
+/// `keys` is the row-id-space key of each `batch` row (usually the batch's
+/// own key column; a caller that keys by address passes the resolved ids
+/// instead) and `read_keys` the key of each `read_data` row, which must be
+/// unique. Input rows whose key has no read row — null or stale keys — are
+/// DROPPED; duplicate input keys re-expand through the gather. Output
+/// columns follow `output_schema`: `carried_schema` names come from `batch`,
+/// `new_fields_schema` names from `read_data`.
+pub fn attach_read_columns(
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    keys: &arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
+    read_data: &RecordBatch,
+    read_keys: &arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<UInt64Type>,
+    carried_schema: &arrow_schema::Schema,
+    new_fields_schema: &arrow_schema::Schema,
+    output_schema: &SchemaRef,
+) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+    // Fast path: one read row per input row with an identical key sequence —
+    // already aligned, skip the hash map and the permutation
+    if keys.null_count() == 0
+        && read_data.num_rows() == batch.num_rows()
+        && read_keys.values() == keys.values()
+    {
+        let new_data = read_data.project_by_schema(new_fields_schema)?;
+        let carried = batch.project_by_schema(carried_schema)?;
+        return Ok(carried.merge_with_schema(&new_data, output_schema.as_ref())?);
+    }
+
+    let key_to_index: HashMap<u64, u32> = read_keys
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(index, key)| (*key, index as u32))
+        .collect();
+
+    // Sizes differ only when some input keys have no live row (null or
+    // stale keys): drop those input rows first
+    let (batch, keys) = if read_data.num_rows() != batch.num_rows() {
+        let matched: BooleanArray = keys
+            .iter()
+            .map(|key| key.map(|key| key_to_index.contains_key(&key)))
+            .collect();
+        let keys = arrow::compute::filter(keys, &matched)?
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .clone();
+        (arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(batch, &matched)?, keys)
+    } else {
+        (batch.clone(), keys.clone())
+    };
+    if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+        return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(output_schema.clone()));
+    }
+
+    // Gather the read rows into input order — every remaining key hits
+    let indices = UInt32Array::from_iter_values(keys.values().iter().map(|key| key_to_index[key]));
+    let new_data = arrow_select::take::take_record_batch(read_data, &indices)?;
+    let new_data = new_data.project_by_schema(new_fields_schema)?;
+    let carried = batch.project_by_schema(carried_schema)?;
+    Ok(carried.merge_with_schema(&new_data, output_schema.as_ref())?)
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for FilteredReadExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        if let RowSelector::RowStream(source) = &self.input {
+            let columns = source
+                .new_fields_schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .map(|f| f.name().as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .join(", ");
+            return match t {
+                DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                    write!(
+                        f,
+                        "LanceRead: uri={}, projection=[{}], source=stream({})",
+                        self.dataset.data_dir(),
+                        columns,
+                        source.key_column,
+                    )
+                }
+                DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                    write!(
+                        f,
+                        "LanceRead\nuri={}\nprojection=[{}]\nsource=stream({})",
+                        self.dataset.data_dir(),
+                        columns,
+                        source.key_column,
+                    )
+                }
+            };
+        }
+        let columns = self
+            .options
+            .projection
+            .to_bare_schema()
+            .fields
+            .iter()
+            .map(|f| f.name.as_str())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(", ");
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "LanceRead: uri={}, projection=[{}], num_fragments={}, range_before={:?}, range_after={:?}, row_id={}, row_addr={}, full_filter={}, refine_filter={}",
+                    self.dataset.data_dir(),
+                    columns,
+                    self.options
+                        .fragments
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|f| f.len())
+                        .unwrap_or(self.dataset.fragments().len()),
+                    self.options.scan_range_before_filter,
+                    self.options.scan_range_after_filter,
+                    self.options.projection.with_row_id,
+                    self.options.projection.with_row_addr,
+                    self.options
+                        .full_filter
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|i| i.to_string())
+                        .unwrap_or("--".to_string()),
+                    self.options
+                        .refine_filter
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|i| i.to_string())
+                        .unwrap_or("--".to_string()),
+                )
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "LanceRead\nuri={}\nprojection=[{}]\nnum_fragments={}\nrange_before={:?}\nrange_after={:?}\nrow_id={}\nrow_addr={}\nfull_filter={}\nrefine_filter={}",
+                    self.dataset.data_dir(),
+                    columns,
+                    self.options
+                        .fragments
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|f| f.len())
+                        .unwrap_or(self.dataset.fragments().len()),
+                    self.options.scan_range_before_filter,
+                    self.options.scan_range_after_filter,
+                    self.options.projection.with_row_id,
+                    self.options.projection.with_row_addr,
+                    self.options
+                        .full_filter
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|i| i.to_string())
+                        .unwrap_or("true".to_string()),
+                    self.options
+                        .refine_filter
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|i| i.to_string())
+                        .unwrap_or("true".to_string()),
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for FilteredReadExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "FilteredReadExec"
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if let Some(child) = self.input.child() {
+            vec![child]
+        } else {
+            vec![]
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn benefits_from_input_partitioning(&self) -> Vec<bool> {
+        // Partitioning a row-stream read would create multiple I/O schedulers
+        // (RAM heavy); the other selectors have no row input
+        vec![false; self.children().len()]
+    }
+
+    fn maintains_input_order(&self) -> Vec<bool> {
+        // Row-stream reads realign fetched rows to the incoming keys and emit
+        // concurrent batches in input order. Row-set inputs only select scan rows.
+        vec![self.row_stream_input().is_some(); self.children().len()]
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn partition_statistics(
+        &self,
+        partition: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<Arc<Statistics>> {
+        if let RowSelector::RowStream(source) = &self.input {
+            // At most one output row per input row
+            return Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
+                num_rows: source.plan.partition_statistics(partition)?.num_rows,
+                ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
+            }));
+        }
+        let fragments = self
+            .options
+            .fragments
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.dataset.fragments().clone());
+
+        let total_rows = if self.options.with_deleted_rows {
+            if self.options.scan_range_before_filter.is_some()
+                || self.options.scan_range_after_filter.is_some()
+            {
+                return Ok(Arc::new(Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())));
+            }
+            let Some(total_rows) = self.retained_physical_row_count(fragments.as_ref()) else {
+                return Ok(Arc::new(Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())));
+            };
+            total_rows
+        } else {
+            if fragments.iter().any(|f| f.num_rows().is_none()) {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                    "Fragments are missing row count stats".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            fragments.iter().map(|f| f.num_rows().unwrap() as u64).sum()
+        };
+
+        let Some(filter) = self.options.full_filter.as_ref() else {
+            // If there is no filter, we just return the total number of rows (sans any before-filter range)
+            // divided by the number of partitions.
+            let total_rows =
+                if let Some(scan_range_before_filter) = &self.options.scan_range_before_filter {
+                    // The range slices the scanned fragments end to end, so the scan emits
+                    // the part of it overlapping rows that exist. A range reaching past the
+                    // last of those rows yields the rows up to it, not its full width.
+                    let end = scan_range_before_filter.end.min(total_rows);
+                    end.saturating_sub(scan_range_before_filter.start)
+                } else {
+                    total_rows
+                };
+
+            let total_rows = if partition.is_some() {
+                match self.options.threading_mode {
+                    FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(num_partitions) => {
+                        total_rows / num_partitions as u64
+                    }
+                    // Pretty sure this shouldn't be encountered in practice
+                    FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(_) => total_rows,
                 }
             } else {
                 total_rows
             };
 
-            Ok(Statistics {
+            return Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
                 num_rows: Precision::Exact(total_rows as usize),
                 ..datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
-            })
-        } else {
-            // We could evaluate the indexed filter here but this is still during the planning
-            // phase so we want to avoid that.
-            //
-            // Instead, we create a mock input which is the filtered read (without the filter)
-            // and then use DF's FilterExec logic to calculate the statistics (which uses column
-            // stats and basic filter shape)
-            let filter = self.options.full_filter.as_ref().unwrap();
-
-            // Need to add in filter columns even though they aren't part of the projection
-            let filter_columns = Planner::column_names_in_expr(filter);
-            let read_projection = self
-                .options
-                .projection
-                .clone()
-                .union_columns(filter_columns, OnMissing::Error)?;
+            }));
+        };
+
+        // We could evaluate the indexed filter here but this is still during the planning
+        // phase so we want to avoid that.
+        //
+        // Instead, we create a mock input which is the filtered read (without the filter)
+        // and then use DF's FilterExec logic to calculate the statistics (which uses column
+        // stats and basic filter shape)
+
+        // Need to add in filter columns even though they aren't part of the projection
+        let filter_columns = Planner::column_names_in_expr(filter);
+        let read_projection = self
+            .options
+            .projection
+            .clone()
+            .union_columns(filter_columns, OnMissing::Error)?;
 
-            let read_schema = Arc::new(read_projection.to_arrow_schema());
+        let read_schema = public_blob_v2_binary_projection_schema(&read_projection);
 
-            let planner = Arc::new(Planner::new(read_schema.clone()));
-            let physical_filter = planner.create_physical_expr(filter)?;
+        let physical_filter = match self.options.physical_filter(filter) {
+            Some(physical_filter) => physical_filter,
+            None => Planner::new(read_schema.clone()).create_physical_expr(filter)?,
+        };
 
-            let mock_input = Arc::new(Self::try_new(
-                self.dataset.clone(),
-                FilteredReadOptions {
-                    scan_range_after_filter: None,
-                    refine_filter: None,
-                    full_filter: None,
-                    projection: read_projection,
-                    ..self.options.clone()
-                },
-                None,
-            )?);
-            let df_filter_exec = FilterExec::try_new(physical_filter, mock_input)?;
-            let mut df_stats = df_filter_exec.partition_statistics(partition)?;
-
-            // If we have an after-filter range, we should apply it to the stats (the before-filter range
-            // is applied in the mock input)
-            let total_rows = if let Some(scan_range_after_filter) =
-                &self.options.scan_range_after_filter
-            {
+        let mock_input = Arc::new(Self::try_new(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            FilteredReadOptions {
+                scan_range_after_filter: None,
+                refine_filter: None,
+                full_filter: None,
+                projection: read_projection,
+                ..self.options.clone()
+            },
+            None,
+        )?);
+        let df_filter_exec = FilterExec::try_new(physical_filter, mock_input)?;
+        let mut df_stats = Arc::unwrap_or_clone(df_filter_exec.partition_statistics(partition)?);
+
+        // If we have an after-filter range, we should apply it to the stats (the before-filter range
+        // is applied in the mock input)
+        let total_rows =
+            if let Some(scan_range_after_filter) = &self.options.scan_range_after_filter {
                 df_stats.num_rows.min(&Precision::Exact(
                     scan_range_after_filter.end as usize - scan_range_after_filter.start as usize,
                 ))
             } else {
                 df_stats.num_rows
             };
-            df_stats.num_rows = total_rows;
-
-            let schema = self.schema();
-
-            // We might have added some columns to the schema so the filter compiles but we drop this
-            // columns during the filtered read and they aren't part of the output.  So we need to make
-            // sure and drop them from the column stats as well.
-            assert_eq!(read_schema.fields.len(), df_stats.column_statistics.len());
-            let mut proj_iter = schema.fields.iter().peekable();
-            let mut stats_iter = read_schema.fields.iter();
-            df_stats.column_statistics.retain(|_| {
-                let stats_field = stats_iter.next().unwrap();
-                if let Some(proj_field) = proj_iter.peek() {
-                    if proj_field.name() == stats_field.name() {
-                        proj_iter.next();
-                        true
-                    } else {
-                        false
-                    }
+        df_stats.num_rows = total_rows;
+
+        let schema = self.schema();
+
+        // We might have added some columns to the schema so the filter compiles but we drop this
+        // columns during the filtered read and they aren't part of the output.  So we need to make
+        // sure and drop them from the column stats as well.
+        assert_eq!(read_schema.fields.len(), df_stats.column_statistics.len());
+        let mut proj_iter = schema.fields.iter().peekable();
+        let mut stats_iter = read_schema.fields.iter();
+        df_stats.column_statistics.retain(|_| {
+            let stats_field = stats_iter.next().unwrap();
+            if let Some(proj_field) = proj_iter.peek() {
+                if proj_field.name() == stats_field.name() {
+                    proj_iter.next();
+                    true
                 } else {
                     false
                 }
-            });
+            } else {
+                false
+            }
+        });
 
-            Ok(df_stats)
-        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(df_stats))
     }
 
     fn with_new_children(
         self: Arc<Self>,
         children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        // HSTACK - IF the child list is empty before AND after, we
+        // preserve the prepared selection in the plan
+        // Used for distributed execution
+        if self.input.child().is_none() && children.is_empty() {
+            let rebuilt = Self::try_new(self.dataset.clone(), self.options.clone(), None)
+                .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::External(e.into()))?;
+
+            // Copy into the constructor's fresh cell; do not share execution state.
+            if let Some(plan) = self.plan.get() {
+                let _ = rebuilt.plan.set(plan.clone());
+            }
+
+            return Ok(Arc::new(rebuilt));
+        }
+
         if children.len() > 1 {
             Err(DataFusionError::External(
-                Error::Internal {
-                    message: "A FilteredReadExec cannot have two children".to_string(),
-                    location: location!(),
-                }
-                .into(),
+                Error::internal("A FilteredReadExec cannot have two children".to_string()).into(),
             ))
         } else {
-            let index_input = children.into_iter().next();
-            Ok(Arc::new(Self {
-                dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
-                options: self.options.clone(),
-                properties: self.properties.clone(),
-                metrics: self.metrics.clone(),
-                // Seems unlikely this would already be initialized but clear it
-                // out just in case
-                running_stream: Arc::new(AsyncMutex::new(None)),
-                index_input,
-                plan: Arc::new(OnceCell::new()),
-            }))
+            // Rebuild via try_new so the selector and derived state are
+            // re-derived from the new child's schema
+            let child = children.into_iter().next();
+            let rebuilt = Self::try_new(self.dataset.clone(), self.options.clone(), child)
+                .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::External(e.into()))?;
+            Ok(Arc::new(rebuilt))
         }
     }
 
@@ -1974,10 +3570,40 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FilteredReadExec {
         partition: usize,
         context: Arc<TaskContext>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        Ok(self.obtain_stream(partition, context))
+        let stream = match &self.input {
+            RowSelector::RowStream(source) => self.execute_row_stream(source, partition, context),
+            _ => Ok(self.obtain_stream(partition, context)),
+        }?;
+
+        // Readers can omit the logical schema metadata, while row-stream merges
+        // can retain metadata from their input. Normalize once at the execution
+        // boundary so every selector satisfies RecordBatchStream's exact schema
+        // contract. Rebuilding the batch reuses the arrays without copying them.
+        let output_schema = self.schema();
+        let batch_schema = output_schema.clone();
+        let stream = stream.map(move |batch| {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            if batch.schema_ref() == &batch_schema {
+                return Ok(batch);
+            }
+            let (_, columns, row_count) = batch.into_parts();
+            RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+                batch_schema.clone(),
+                columns,
+                &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(row_count)),
+            )
+            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            output_schema,
+            stream,
+        )))
     }
 
     fn fetch(&self) -> Option<usize> {
+        if self.row_stream_input().is_some() {
+            return None;
+        }
         if self.options.full_filter.is_none() {
             self.options
                 .scan_range_before_filter
@@ -1992,13 +3618,15 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FilteredReadExec {
     }
 
     fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
-        // This is to push the limit through the node and into an upstream node.
-        // The only upstream node is the index search and we can't push the limit
-        // to that node.
-        false
+        // A limit pushes through to a row-stream input (one output row per
+        // input row); the other selectors have no node to push it to
+        self.row_stream_input().is_some()
     }
 
     fn with_fetch(&self, limit: Option<usize>) -> Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if self.row_stream_input().is_some() {
+            return None;
+        }
         // TODO: Support multiple partitions in the future by coordinating limits across partitions
         if matches!(
             self.options.threading_mode,
@@ -2008,10 +3636,19 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FilteredReadExec {
         }
         let limit = limit?;
 
+        if self.dataset.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            return None;
+        }
+
         let mut updated_options = self.options.clone();
 
         if self.options.full_filter.is_none() && self.options.refine_filter.is_none() {
-            if self.options.scan_range_before_filter.is_some() {
+            // A before-filter range trims raw scan positions, which is only valid for
+            // an unindexed full scan. With an index_input (e.g. an external row mask or
+            // a scalar-index result) the rows are selected by that input, so a pre-range
+            // would apply before selection and keep the wrong rows; leave the limit to a
+            // node above the read instead.
+            if self.options.scan_range_before_filter.is_some() || self.index_input().is_some() {
                 return None;
             }
             updated_options.scan_range_before_filter = Some(0..(limit as u64));
@@ -2025,7 +3662,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FilteredReadExec {
         match Self::try_new(
             self.dataset.clone(),
             updated_options,
-            self.index_input.clone(),
+            self.input.row_set_plan().cloned(),
         ) {
             Ok(exec) => Some(Arc::new(exec)),
             Err(e) => {
@@ -2042,23 +3679,34 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for FilteredReadExec {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use std::collections::HashSet;
+    use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use arrow::{
         compute::concat_batches,
         datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type},
     };
     use arrow_array::{
-        cast::AsArray, Array, ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array,
+        Array, ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, UInt32Array, cast::AsArray,
     };
     use itertools::Itertools;
     use lance_core::datatypes::OnMissing;
+    use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount};
+    use lance_datafusion::exec::OneShotExec;
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
     use lance_index::{
+        IndexType,
         optimize::OptimizeOptions,
-        scalar::{expression::PlannerIndexExt, ScalarIndexParams},
-        DatasetIndexExt, IndexType,
+        scalar::{ScalarIndexParams, expression::PlannerIndexExt},
+    };
+    use lance_select::result::IndexExprResultWireFormat;
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use tracing_subscriber::{
+        Layer,
+        layer::{Context, SubscriberExt},
     };
 
     use crate::{
@@ -2070,26 +3718,73 @@ mod tests {
 
     use super::*;
 
-    struct TestFixture {
-        _tmp_path: TempStrDir,
-        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    #[derive(Clone, Default)]
+    struct MaskToOffsetRangesCounter {
+        count: Arc<AtomicUsize>,
     }
 
-    /// The test dataset first creates 200 rows and then 200 more, each
-    /// with 100 rows per fragment, for a total of 4 fragments.  The column
-    /// fully_indexed is indexed on all 4 fragments.  The column partly_indexed
-    /// is only indexed on the first 2 fragments.
-    ///
-    /// The second fragment is then deleted, leaving a gap in the fragment sequence
-    /// The third fragment has a deletion file with 50 rows deleted.
-    ///
-    /// The fragment ids are 0 (values 0..100), 2 (values 250..300), 3 (values 300..400)
-    impl TestFixture {
-        async fn new() -> Self {
-            let tmp_path = TempStrDir::default();
-
-            let mut dataset = gen_batch()
-                .col("fully_indexed", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+    impl<S> Layer<S> for MaskToOffsetRangesCounter
+    where
+        S: tracing::Subscriber,
+    {
+        fn on_new_span(
+            &self,
+            attrs: &tracing::span::Attributes<'_>,
+            _id: &tracing::span::Id,
+            _ctx: Context<'_, S>,
+        ) {
+            if attrs.metadata().name() == "mask_to_offset_ranges" {
+                self.count.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_stable_index_range_retention_is_bounded() {
+        let ranges = vec![0..1];
+        let range_bytes = ranges.capacity() * std::mem::size_of::<Range<u64>>();
+        let retained_range_bytes = AtomicUsize::new(
+            MAX_RETAINED_STABLE_INDEX_RANGE_BYTES
+                .checked_sub(range_bytes)
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        assert!(
+            EvaluatedIndex::retain_stable_index_ranges(ranges, &retained_range_bytes).is_some()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            retained_range_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            MAX_RETAINED_STABLE_INDEX_RANGE_BYTES
+        );
+        assert!(
+            EvaluatedIndex::retain_stable_index_ranges(vec![1..2], &retained_range_bytes).is_none()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            retained_range_bytes.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            MAX_RETAINED_STABLE_INDEX_RANGE_BYTES
+        );
+    }
+
+    struct TestFixture {
+        _tmp_path: TempStrDir,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    }
+
+    /// The test dataset first creates 200 rows and then 200 more, each
+    /// with 100 rows per fragment, for a total of 4 fragments.  The column
+    /// fully_indexed is indexed on all 4 fragments.  The column partly_indexed
+    /// is only indexed on the first 2 fragments.
+    ///
+    /// The second fragment is then deleted, leaving a gap in the fragment sequence
+    /// The third fragment has a deletion file with 50 rows deleted.
+    ///
+    /// The fragment ids are 0 (values 0..100), 2 (values 250..300), 3 (values 300..400)
+    impl TestFixture {
+        async fn new() -> Self {
+            let tmp_path = TempStrDir::default();
+
+            let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+                .col("fully_indexed", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
                 .col("partly_indexed", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
                 .col("not_indexed", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
                 .col(
@@ -2190,6 +3885,7 @@ mod tests {
                     Some(Arc::new(ScalarIndexExec::new(
                         self.dataset.clone(),
                         index_query,
+                        IndexExprResultWireFormat::default(),
                     )))
                 } else {
                     None
@@ -2279,12 +3975,446 @@ mod tests {
         (tmp_path, Arc::new(dataset))
     }
 
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::unfiltered(None)]
+    #[case::filtered(Some("value > 2"))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_output_batches_preserve_schema_metadata(#[case] filter: Option<&str>) {
+        let tmp_path = TempStrDir::default();
+        let metadata = HashMap::from([(
+            "embedding_functions".to_string(),
+            "[{\"name\":\"test\"}]".to_string(),
+        )]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+            vec![arrow_schema::Field::new(
+                "value",
+                arrow_schema::DataType::Int32,
+                true,
+            )],
+            metadata.clone(),
+        ));
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("value", Int32, [1, 2, 3, 4]))
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_schema(schema.clone())
+            .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                reader,
+                tmp_path.as_str(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+
+        let mut options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset);
+        if let Some(filter) = filter {
+            let arrow_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(dataset.schema()));
+            let planner = Planner::new(arrow_schema);
+            let expr = planner.parse_filter(filter).unwrap();
+            options = options.with_filter(Some(expr.clone()), Some(expr)).unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), options, None).unwrap();
+        let expected_schema = plan.schema();
+        assert_eq!(expected_schema.metadata(), &metadata);
+        let batches = plan
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!batches.is_empty());
+        assert!(
+            batches
+                .iter()
+                .all(|batch| batch.schema() == expected_schema),
+            "output schema metadata was not preserved with filter {filter:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
     fn u32s(ranges: Vec<Range<u32>>) -> Arc<dyn Array> {
         Arc::new(UInt32Array::from_iter_values(
             ranges.into_iter().flat_map(|r| r.into_iter()),
         ))
     }
 
+    async fn metadata_pruning_dataset(uses_stable_row_ids: bool) -> (TempStrDir, Arc<Dataset>) {
+        let tmp_path = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            gen_batch()
+                .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+                .into_dataset_with_params(
+                    tmp_path.as_str(),
+                    FragmentCount::from(4),
+                    FragmentRowCount::from(10),
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                        enable_stable_row_ids: uses_stable_row_ids,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dataset.manifest().uses_stable_row_ids(),
+            uses_stable_row_ids
+        );
+        (tmp_path, dataset)
+    }
+
+    fn index_result_input(
+        result: IndexExprResult,
+        fragments: &[Fragment],
+    ) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        let covered: RoaringBitmap = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+            .collect();
+        index_result_input_with_coverage(result, &covered)
+    }
+
+    fn index_result_input_with_coverage(
+        result: IndexExprResult,
+        covered: &RoaringBitmap,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        let batch = result
+            .serialize(covered, IndexExprResultWireFormat::default())
+            .unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let index_stream = futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
+        Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            index_stream,
+        ))))
+    }
+
+    /// An exact empty index result should finish without opening metadata for any covered
+    /// fragment. The invalid file paths are sentinels that make an attempted open fail, turning
+    /// the metadata-I/O behavior into a deterministic regression assertion.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::address(false)]
+    #[case::stable(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_exact_empty_index_skips_fragment_metadata(#[case] uses_stable_row_ids: bool) {
+        let (_tmp_path, dataset) = metadata_pruning_dataset(uses_stable_row_ids).await;
+
+        let mut fragments = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        for fragment in &mut fragments {
+            fragment.physical_rows = None;
+            fragment.files[0].path = "must-not-open.lance".to_string();
+            if uses_stable_row_ids {
+                fragment.row_id_meta = None;
+            }
+        }
+        let index_input = index_result_input(
+            IndexExprResult::exact(RowAddrMask::allow_nothing()),
+            &fragments,
+        );
+
+        let options =
+            FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset).with_fragments(Arc::new(fragments));
+        let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset, options, Some(index_input)).unwrap();
+        let batches = plan
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(batches.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// A sparse non-empty result should only open full metadata for candidate fragments. Stable
+    /// row ids still need the inline row-id sequence to route candidates, but must not open the
+    /// data file or deletion metadata of non-candidate fragments.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::address(false)]
+    #[case::stable(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sparse_index_skips_non_candidate_fragment_metadata(
+        #[case] uses_stable_row_ids: bool,
+    ) {
+        let (_tmp_path, dataset) = metadata_pruning_dataset(uses_stable_row_ids).await;
+
+        let mut fragments = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        for fragment in fragments.iter_mut().skip(1) {
+            fragment.physical_rows = None;
+            fragment.files[0].path = "must-not-open.lance".to_string();
+        }
+        // The initial stable row ids are 0..40, so row id 3 and address (0, 3) select the same
+        // physical row in their respective modes.
+        let candidate = if uses_stable_row_ids {
+            3
+        } else {
+            RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 3).into()
+        };
+        let candidates = RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([candidate]);
+        let index_input = index_result_input(
+            IndexExprResult::exact(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(candidates)),
+            &fragments,
+        );
+
+        let options =
+            FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset).with_fragments(Arc::new(fragments));
+        let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset, options, Some(index_input)).unwrap();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let batch = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batch["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().values(), &[3]);
+    }
+
+    /// Dense stable-ID masks route every fragment. Carry the ranges computed during routing into
+    /// final planning so this case does not map the same IDs to offsets twice.
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_dense_stable_index_reuses_routing_ranges() {
+        let (_tmp_path, dataset) = metadata_pruning_dataset(true).await;
+        let fragments = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        let index_input = index_result_input(
+            IndexExprResult::exact(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from(0_u64..40))),
+            &fragments,
+        );
+        let options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset);
+        let read = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset, options, Some(index_input)).unwrap();
+        let counter = MaskToOffsetRangesCounter::default();
+        let subscriber = tracing_subscriber::registry().with(counter.clone());
+        let _guard = tracing::subscriber::set_default(subscriber);
+
+        let plan = read
+            .get_or_create_plan(Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(counter.count.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 4);
+        assert_eq!(plan.rows.iter().count(), 4);
+        for (_, selection) in plan.rows.iter() {
+            let RowAddrSelection::Partial(offsets) = selection else {
+                panic!("dense stable-ID plan should contain explicit offsets");
+            };
+            assert_eq!(offsets.iter().collect_vec(), (0..10).collect_vec());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Pruning must use the upper bound of an inexact result. The lower bound alone contains row
+    /// 3, while row 13 is only a possible match in the upper bound and must still be read.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::address(false)]
+    #[case::stable(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_refined_index_prunes_from_upper_bound(#[case] uses_stable_row_ids: bool) {
+        let (_tmp_path, dataset) = metadata_pruning_dataset(uses_stable_row_ids).await;
+
+        let mut fragments = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        for fragment in fragments.iter_mut().skip(2) {
+            fragment.physical_rows = None;
+            fragment.files[0].path = "must-not-open.lance".to_string();
+        }
+        let candidate = |fragment_id, offset, stable_row_id| {
+            if uses_stable_row_ids {
+                stable_row_id
+            } else {
+                RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, offset).into()
+            }
+        };
+        let definite_row = candidate(0, 3, 3);
+        let possible_row = candidate(1, 3, 13);
+        let result = IndexExprResult::new(
+            RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([definite_row])),
+            RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([definite_row, possible_row])),
+        );
+        let index_input = index_result_input(result, &fragments);
+
+        let options =
+            FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset).with_fragments(Arc::new(fragments));
+        let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset, options, Some(index_input)).unwrap();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let batch = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            batch["value"].as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().values(),
+            &[3, 13]
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// An empty result only eliminates fragments covered by the index. Uncovered fragments must
+    /// still be scanned for a complete query, while fast search intentionally omits them.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::address_complete(false, false)]
+    #[case::address_fast(false, true)]
+    #[case::stable_complete(true, false)]
+    #[case::stable_fast(true, true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_empty_index_preserves_uncovered_fragments(
+        #[case] uses_stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[case] only_indexed_fragments: bool,
+    ) {
+        let (_tmp_path, dataset) = metadata_pruning_dataset(uses_stable_row_ids).await;
+
+        let mut fragments = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        let covered: RoaringBitmap = fragments
+            .iter()
+            .take(3)
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+            .collect();
+        for fragment in fragments.iter_mut().take(3) {
+            fragment.physical_rows = None;
+            fragment.files[0].path = "must-not-open.lance".to_string();
+            if uses_stable_row_ids {
+                fragment.row_id_meta = None;
+            }
+        }
+        let index_input = index_result_input_with_coverage(
+            IndexExprResult::exact(RowAddrMask::allow_nothing()),
+            &covered,
+        );
+
+        let mut options =
+            FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset).with_fragments(Arc::new(fragments));
+        if only_indexed_fragments {
+            options = options.with_only_indexed_fragments();
+        }
+        let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset, options, Some(index_input)).unwrap();
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let batch = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+
+        let expected = if only_indexed_fragments {
+            UInt32Array::from(Vec::<u32>::new())
+        } else {
+            UInt32Array::from((30..40).collect::<Vec<_>>())
+        };
+        assert_eq!(batch["value"].as_ref(), &expected);
+    }
+
+    /// Take-shaped masked reads consolidate their tiny per-fragment batches;
+    /// few-fragment and dense masked reads keep per-fragment boundaries.
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_take_shaped_mask_consolidation() {
+        // 20 fragments x 2000 rows, value = global row number
+        let tmp_path = TempStrDir::default();
+        let data = gen_batch()
+            .col("value", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(2000), BatchCount::from(20));
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                data,
+                tmp_path.as_str(),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 2000,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let mask_input = |addrs: Vec<u64>| -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+            let covered: RoaringBitmap = dataset.fragments().iter().map(|f| f.id as u32).collect();
+            let batch =
+                IndexExprResult::exact(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(addrs)))
+                    .serialize(&covered, IndexExprResultWireFormat::default())
+                    .unwrap();
+            let schema = batch.schema();
+            let stream = futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(batch) });
+            Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema, stream,
+            ))))
+        };
+        let run = |input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>| {
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            async move {
+                // Pin the batch size so batch-count assertions don't depend
+                // on LANCE_DEFAULT_BATCH_SIZE
+                let options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset).with_batch_size(2000);
+                let plan =
+                    FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), options, Some(input)).unwrap();
+                let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+                stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap()
+            }
+        };
+        let addr = |frag: u32, offset: u32| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(frag, offset));
+
+        // Take shape: 20 fragments, 2 rows each -> one consolidated batch,
+        // rows in fragment order
+        let addrs: Vec<u64> = (0..20u32).flat_map(|f| [addr(f, 3), addr(f, 7)]).collect();
+        let batches = run(mask_input(addrs)).await;
+        assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), 40);
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        let expected =
+            UInt32Array::from_iter_values((0..20u32).flat_map(|f| [f * 2000 + 3, f * 2000 + 7]));
+        assert_eq!(batches[0].column(0).as_ref(), &expected);
+
+        // Too few fragments -> inline path, one batch per fragment
+        let batches = run(mask_input(vec![addr(0, 3), addr(1, 7)])).await;
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 2);
+
+        // Dense (2000 planned rows per fragment) -> inline path
+        let addrs: Vec<u64> = (0..8u32)
+            .flat_map(|f| (0..2000u32).map(move |o| addr(f, o)))
+            .collect();
+        let batches = run(mask_input(addrs)).await;
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), 16000);
+    }
+
+    /// Round-trip every interval shape through the arrow wire format and
+    /// confirm the endpoints survive. Exercises both
+    /// `IndexExprResult::serialize` and `EvaluatedIndex::try_from_arrow`
+    /// so the schema names stay in sync.
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_expr_result_serialize_roundtrip() {
+        use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+        let mk = |rows: &[u64]| RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(rows));
+
+        let mut frags = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        frags.insert(0);
+        frags.insert(7);
+
+        let cases = vec![
+            ("exact", IndexExprResult::exact(mk(&[1, 2, 3]))),
+            ("at_most", IndexExprResult::at_most(mk(&[1, 2, 3]))),
+            ("at_least", IndexExprResult::at_least(mk(&[1, 2]))),
+            // Refined: non-empty lower strictly inside non-universe upper.
+            ("refined", IndexExprResult::new(mk(&[1, 2]), mk(&[1, 2, 3]))),
+        ];
+
+        for (name, original) in cases {
+            let batch = original
+                .serialize(&frags, IndexExprResultWireFormat::default())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("serialize {name}: {e}"));
+            let decoded = EvaluatedIndex::try_from_arrow(&batch)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("try_from_arrow {name}: {e}"));
+
+            // The underlying RowAddrTreeMap is PartialEq; compare via mask
+            // emptiness + symmetric difference being empty would be more
+            // robust, but the canonical builders preserve representation.
+            assert_eq!(
+                decoded.index_result.lower, original.lower,
+                "{name}: lower endpoint changed across batch-trip",
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                decoded.index_result.upper, original.upper,
+                "{name}: upper endpoint changed across batch-trip",
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                decoded.applicable_fragments, frags,
+                "{name}: applicable fragments changed across batch-trip",
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_bloom_filter_is_not_null_prefilter() {
         let (_tmp_path, dataset) = dataset_with_bloom_filter_nulls().await;
@@ -2352,6 +4482,48 @@ mod tests {
         fixture.test_plan(options, &u32s(vec![])).await;
     }
 
+    /// The reported row count steers DataFusion's `COUNT(*)` folding and its limit
+    /// pushdown, so it has to match what the scan emits. `scan_range_before_filter`
+    /// slices the scanned fragments end to end, so a range reaching past the last of
+    /// those rows yields the rows up to it, not the range's full width.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::no_range(None, None, 250)]
+    #[case::within_the_dataset(None, Some(25..125), 100)]
+    #[case::past_the_last_row(None, Some(200..300), 50)]
+    #[case::starting_past_the_last_row(None, Some(300..400), 0)]
+    #[case::past_the_last_row_of_a_fragment_subset(Some(vec![2]), Some(25..125), 25)]
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_range_statistics_match_the_scan(
+        #[case] fragment_ids: Option<Vec<u32>>,
+        #[case] range: Option<Range<u64>>,
+        #[case] expected_rows: usize,
+    ) {
+        let fixture = TestFixture::new().await;
+
+        let mut options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&fixture.dataset);
+        if let Some(fragment_ids) = fragment_ids {
+            options = options.with_fragments(fixture.frags(&fragment_ids));
+        }
+        if let Some(range) = range {
+            options = options.with_scan_range_before_filter(range).unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let plan = fixture.make_plan(options).await;
+
+        let stats = plan.partition_statistics(None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_rows, Precision::Exact(expected_rows));
+
+        // The estimate is only worth anything if it matches what the scan emits.
+        let batches = plan
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let scanned: usize = batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(scanned, expected_rows);
+    }
+
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
     async fn test_batch_size() {
         let fixture = TestFixture::new().await;
@@ -2618,6 +4790,10 @@ mod tests {
             .unwrap()
             .with_projection(fixture.dataset.empty_projection().with_row_id());
         let plan = fixture.make_plan(options).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            plan.partition_statistics(None).unwrap().num_rows,
+            Precision::Exact(300)
+        );
         let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
         let num_rows = stream
             .map_ok(|batch| batch.num_rows())
@@ -2625,6 +4801,63 @@ mod tests {
             .await
             .unwrap();
         assert_eq!(num_rows, 300);
+        let mut scanner = fixture.dataset.scan();
+        scanner.with_row_id().include_deleted_rows();
+        assert_eq!(scanner.count_rows().await.unwrap(), 300);
+
+        let filter = fixture.filter_plan("not_indexed >= 250", false).await;
+        let options = base_options
+            .with_deleted_rows()
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_filter_plan(filter);
+        let plan = fixture.make_plan(options.clone()).await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            plan.partition_statistics(None).unwrap().num_rows,
+            Precision::Inexact(300)
+        );
+        fixture.test_plan(options, &u32s(vec![250..400])).await;
+    }
+
+    /// A stale (not rebuilt after a delete) index hit drops on the live view
+    /// and returns as a null-_rowid tombstone with with_deleted_rows
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_with_deleted_rows_stale_index() {
+        let fixture = Arc::new(TestFixture::new().await);
+        let base_options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&fixture.dataset);
+
+        // Row 220 is deletion-vector-deleted but still in the index
+        let filter_plan = fixture.filter_plan("fully_indexed == 220", true).await;
+
+        // Live view: the stale index hit drops
+        fixture
+            .test_plan(
+                base_options.clone().with_filter_plan(filter_plan),
+                &u32s(vec![]),
+            )
+            .await;
+
+        // Physical view: the tombstone returns
+        let filter_plan = fixture.filter_plan("fully_indexed == 220", true).await;
+        let options = base_options
+            .with_deleted_rows()
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_filter_plan(filter_plan);
+        let plan = fixture.make_plan(options).await;
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 1);
+        let batch = batches.iter().find(|b| b.num_rows() > 0).unwrap();
+        let values = batch
+            .column_by_name("fully_indexed")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt32Type>();
+        assert_eq!(values.value(0), 220);
+        let row_ids = batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        assert!(row_ids.is_null(0));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -2829,10 +5062,7 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(plan.options().scan_range_before_filter, None);
             assert_eq!(plan.fetch(), None);
             let new_plan = plan.with_fetch(Some(100)).unwrap();
-            let new_plan = new_plan
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>()
-                .unwrap();
+            let new_plan = new_plan.downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>().unwrap();
             assert_eq!(new_plan.options().scan_range_before_filter, Some(0..100));
             assert_eq!(new_plan.fetch(), Some(100));
         }
@@ -2860,10 +5090,7 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(plan.options().scan_range_after_filter, None);
             assert_eq!(plan.fetch(), None);
             let new_plan = plan.with_fetch(Some(50)).unwrap();
-            let new_plan = new_plan
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>()
-                .unwrap();
+            let new_plan = new_plan.downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>().unwrap();
             assert_eq!(new_plan.options().scan_range_after_filter, Some(0..50));
             assert_eq!(new_plan.fetch(), Some(50));
         }
@@ -2901,10 +5128,64 @@ mod tests {
             let result = plan.with_fetch(None);
             assert!(result.is_none());
         }
+
+        // Case 7: index_input present with no filter (the external-row-mask
+        // plain-scan shape) - with_fetch must reject before-filter pushdown, since
+        // the index_input selects the rows and a raw before-filter range would trim
+        // scan positions before that selection.
+        {
+            // Build a real scalar-index input, then attach it to options that carry
+            // no filter of their own.
+            let index_filter_plan = fixture.filter_plan("fully_indexed < 200", false).await;
+            let index_input = fixture
+                .index_input(&base_options.clone().with_filter_plan(index_filter_plan))
+                .await;
+            assert!(index_input.is_some(), "expected a scalar-index input");
+
+            let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                fixture.dataset.clone(),
+                base_options.clone(),
+                index_input,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.index_input().is_some());
+            assert!(plan.options().full_filter.is_none() && plan.options().refine_filter.is_none());
+
+            let result = plan.with_fetch(Some(100));
+            assert!(
+                result.is_none(),
+                "with_fetch must reject before-filter pushdown when index_input is present"
+            );
+        }
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_limit_pushdown_comprehensive() {
+    async fn test_with_fetch_limit_after_scalar_index_refine_filter() {
+        let fixture = Arc::new(TestFixture::new().await);
+        let base_options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&fixture.dataset);
+        let filter_plan = fixture
+            .filter_plan("fully_indexed < 50 AND not_indexed >= 10", true)
+            .await;
+        let options = base_options.with_filter_plan(filter_plan);
+        let plan = fixture.make_plan(options).await;
+
+        assert!(plan.index_input().is_some());
+        assert!(plan.options().refine_filter.is_some());
+
+        let limited_plan = plan.with_fetch(Some(10)).unwrap();
+        let limited_plan = limited_plan.downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(limited_plan.options().scan_range_after_filter, Some(0..10));
+
+        let stream = limited_plan
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let actual_values = get_fully_indexed_values(batches).await;
+        assert_eq!(actual_values, (10..20).collect::<Vec<_>>());
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_limit_pushdown_comprehensive() {
         let fixture = Arc::new(TestFixture::new().await);
         let base_options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&fixture.dataset);
 
@@ -3563,9 +5844,58 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(iops > 0, "Should have recorded IO operations");
     }
 
+    // Reproduces a bug where bytes_read (and iops/requests) stay at 0 when a filter matches
+    // no rows. io_metrics.record is only called inside inspect_ok on the output batch stream,
+    // so when the filter produces zero output batches, the I/O that did occur is never counted.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_io_metrics_recorded_when_filter_matches_no_rows() {
+        let fixture = TestFixture::new().await;
+        // not_indexed values in the fixture go up to ~400; this filter matches nothing
+        let filter_plan = fixture.filter_plan("not_indexed > 10000", false).await;
+        let options =
+            FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&fixture.dataset).with_filter_plan(filter_plan);
+        let filtered_read =
+            Arc::new(FilteredReadExec::try_new(fixture.dataset.clone(), options, None).unwrap());
+
+        let batches = filtered_read
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(),
+            0,
+            "filter should match no rows"
+        );
+
+        let metrics = filtered_read.metrics().unwrap();
+
+        let rows_scanned = metrics
+            .sum_by_name("rows_scanned")
+            .map(|v| v.as_usize())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        assert!(
+            rows_scanned > 0,
+            "rows_scanned ({}) should be > 0: data was read even though filter matched nothing",
+            rows_scanned
+        );
+
+        let bytes_read = metrics
+            .sum_by_name("bytes_read")
+            .map(|v| v.as_usize())
+            .unwrap_or(0);
+        assert!(
+            bytes_read > 0,
+            "bytes_read ({}) should be > 0: io_metrics.record is only called when output batches \
+             are produced, so bytes_read stays 0 even though I/O occurred",
+            bytes_read
+        );
+    }
+
     /// Test that direct execution gives the same result as get_plan + execute_with_plan
     #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
-    async fn test_plan_round_trip() {
+    async fn test_plan_batch_trip() {
         let fixture = TestFixture::new().await;
         let ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
 
@@ -3645,4 +5975,1168 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(result1.column(i).as_ref(), result3.column(i).as_ref());
         }
     }
+
+    /// Verify that executing with target_partitions=1 produces the same results as the default
+    /// context and does not panic. This is a regression guard for the parallelism cap.
+    #[test_log::test(tokio::test)]
+    async fn test_target_partitions_cap_produces_correct_results() {
+        use datafusion::prelude::SessionConfig;
+
+        let fixture = TestFixture::new().await;
+
+        let options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&fixture.dataset);
+        let plan =
+            FilteredReadExec::try_new(fixture.dataset.clone(), options.clone(), None).unwrap();
+
+        // Execute with default context (high thread count)
+        let default_ctx = Arc::new(TaskContext::default());
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, default_ctx).unwrap();
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let default_result = concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+
+        // Execute fresh plan with target_partitions=1
+        let plan2 = FilteredReadExec::try_new(fixture.dataset.clone(), options, None).unwrap();
+        let low_ctx = Arc::new(
+            TaskContext::default()
+                .with_session_config(SessionConfig::default().with_target_partitions(1)),
+        );
+        let stream2 = plan2.execute(0, low_ctx).unwrap();
+        let schema2 = stream2.schema();
+        let batches2 = stream2.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let capped_result = concat_batches(&schema2, &batches2).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(default_result.num_rows(), capped_result.num_rows());
+    }
+
+    // Row-stream selector tests
+
+    mod row_stream {
+        use super::*;
+        use arrow_array::{Float32Array, LargeBinaryArray, StringArray, UInt64Array};
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+        use datafusion::physical_expr::{LexOrdering, PhysicalSortExpr, expressions::col};
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlanProperties;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+        use lance_datafusion::exec::OneShotExec;
+        use rstest::rstest;
+
+        use crate::blob::{BlobArrayBuilder, blob_field};
+        use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+        use crate::utils::test::NoContextTestFixture;
+        use lance_core::datatypes::BlobHandling;
+
+        struct TakeFixture {
+            dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+            _tmp_dir: TempStrDir,
+        }
+
+        /// 30 rows across 3 fragments with columns i, s, and struct{x, y}
+        async fn take_fixture_with_metadata(
+            stable_row_ids: bool,
+            metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+        ) -> TakeFixture {
+            let struct_fields = Fields::from(vec![
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)),
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, false)),
+            ]);
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+                vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+                    ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, false),
+                    ArrowField::new("struct", DataType::Struct(struct_fields.clone()), false),
+                ],
+                metadata,
+            ));
+            let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = (0..3)
+                .map(|batch_id| {
+                    let value_range = batch_id * 10..batch_id * 10 + 10;
+                    RecordBatch::try_new(
+                        schema.clone(),
+                        vec![
+                            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(value_range.clone())),
+                            Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                                value_range.clone().map(|v| format!("s-{v}")),
+                            )),
+                            Arc::new(arrow_array::StructArray::new(
+                                struct_fields.clone(),
+                                vec![
+                                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter(value_range.clone())),
+                                    Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter(value_range)),
+                                ],
+                                None,
+                            )),
+                        ],
+                    )
+                    .unwrap()
+                })
+                .collect();
+
+            let tmp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let uri = tmp_dir.as_str();
+            let params = WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 10,
+                enable_stable_row_ids: stable_row_ids,
+                ..Default::default()
+            };
+            let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+            Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+            TakeFixture {
+                dataset: Arc::new(Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap()),
+                _tmp_dir: tmp_dir,
+            }
+        }
+
+        async fn take_fixture(stable_row_ids: bool) -> TakeFixture {
+            take_fixture_with_metadata(stable_row_ids, HashMap::new()).await
+        }
+
+        /// Wrap batches of (payload, key) rows into an input plan
+        fn rows_input(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+            let schema = batches[0].schema();
+            let stream = futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok));
+            let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
+            Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream))
+        }
+
+        fn take_plan(
+            dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+            input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+            columns: &[&str],
+        ) -> Result<FilteredReadExec> {
+            let projection = dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(columns, OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap();
+            FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+                Some(input),
+            )
+        }
+
+        fn take_plan_sized(
+            dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+            input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+            columns: &[&str],
+            batch_size: u32,
+        ) -> Result<FilteredReadExec> {
+            let projection = dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(columns, OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap();
+            FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection).with_batch_size(batch_size),
+                Some(input),
+            )
+        }
+
+        async fn run(plan: &FilteredReadExec) -> Vec<RecordBatch> {
+            plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+                .unwrap()
+                .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+
+        #[rstest]
+        #[case::retain_ordering(true, false)]
+        #[case::remap_and_keep_prefix(false, false)]
+        #[case::retain_key_ordering(true, true)]
+        #[case::drop_missing_leading_key(false, true)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn row_stream_preserves_ordering_properties(
+            #[case] retain_row_id: bool,
+            #[case] order_by_row_id_first: bool,
+        ) {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(false).await;
+            let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+                ("_rowid", UInt64, [2, 0, 1]),
+                ("payload", Float32, [1.0, 3.0, 2.0])
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let input = rows_input(vec![batch]);
+            let columns = if order_by_row_id_first {
+                [ROW_ID, "payload"]
+            } else {
+                ["payload", ROW_ID]
+            };
+            let ordering =
+                LexOrdering::new(columns.iter().map(|name| {
+                    PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col(name, &input.schema()).unwrap())
+                }))
+                .unwrap();
+            let sorted = Arc::new(SortExec::new(ordering, input.clone()));
+            let mut projection = fixture
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_column("i", OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap();
+            projection.with_row_id = retain_row_id;
+            let plan = Arc::new(
+                FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                    fixture.dataset.clone(),
+                    FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+                    Some(sorted),
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(plan.maintains_input_order(), vec![true]);
+
+            let expected = LexOrdering::new(
+                columns
+                    .iter()
+                    .take_while(|name| **name != ROW_ID || retain_row_id)
+                    .map(|name| PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(col(name, &plan.schema()).unwrap()))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(plan.properties().output_ordering(), expected.as_ref());
+
+            // Replacing the input must not leave stale ordering properties.
+            let rebuilt = plan.with_new_children(vec![input]).unwrap();
+            assert!(rebuilt.output_ordering().is_none());
+            assert_eq!(rebuilt.maintains_input_order(), vec![true]);
+
+            let scan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                fixture.dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&fixture.dataset),
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            assert!(scan.maintains_input_order().is_empty());
+            assert!(scan.properties().output_ordering().is_none());
+        }
+
+        #[rstest]
+        #[case::aligned(false, HashMap::new())]
+        #[case::reordered(
+            true,
+            HashMap::from([("input_only".to_string(), "true".to_string())])
+        )]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn row_stream_output_preserves_plan_schema_metadata(
+            #[case] reordered: bool,
+            #[case] input_metadata: HashMap<String, String>,
+        ) {
+            let dataset_metadata = HashMap::from([(
+                "embedding_functions".to_string(),
+                "[{\"name\":\"test\"}]".to_string(),
+            )]);
+            let fixture = take_fixture_with_metadata(false, dataset_metadata.clone()).await;
+            let addr = |frag: u64, off: u64| (frag << 32) | off;
+            let keys = if reordered {
+                vec![addr(1, 0), addr(0, 0)]
+            } else {
+                vec![addr(0, 0), addr(0, 1)]
+            };
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new_with_metadata(
+                vec![
+                    ArrowField::new("payload", DataType::Float32, false),
+                    ArrowField::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, false),
+                ],
+                input_metadata,
+            ));
+            let input = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                input_schema,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.5, 1.5])),
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys)),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let plan = take_plan(&fixture.dataset, rows_input(vec![input]), &["i"]).unwrap();
+            let expected_schema = plan.schema();
+            assert_eq!(expected_schema.metadata(), &dataset_metadata);
+            let batches = run(&plan).await;
+
+            assert!(!batches.is_empty());
+            assert!(
+                batches
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|batch| batch.schema() == expected_schema),
+                "row-stream output did not match the plan schema for reordered={reordered}"
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// A sparse plan constructs fragment handles only for the fragments
+        /// it selects, keeping their candidate-list position as priority —
+        /// no metadata is loaded or retained for unselected fragments
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn sparse_plan_scopes_only_selected_fragments() {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(false).await;
+            let dataset = &fixture.dataset;
+            let descriptors = dataset.fragments().clone();
+            assert_eq!(descriptors.len(), 3);
+
+            let mut rows = BTreeMap::new();
+            rows.insert(2u32, vec![0u64..5]);
+            let plan = FilteredReadInternalPlan {
+                rows,
+                filters: HashMap::new(),
+                scan_range_after_filter: None,
+            };
+            let options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(dataset);
+            let scheduler = FilteredReadStream::make_scan_scheduler(dataset, &options);
+            let base_schedulers = FilteredReadStream::make_base_schedulers(&options);
+
+            let scoped = FilteredReadStream::plan_to_scoped_fragments(
+                &plan,
+                &descriptors,
+                dataset,
+                &options,
+                scheduler,
+                base_schedulers,
+            );
+            assert_eq!(scoped.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(scoped[0].fragment.id(), 2);
+            assert_eq!(scoped[0].priority, 2);
+        }
+
+        /// Fragment reads planned for one scan carry the same base scheduler
+        /// cache, so files on another base (a shallow clone) share one
+        /// scheduler instead of building one per opened file
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn scoped_fragments_share_one_scheduler_per_base() {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(false).await;
+            let mut source = fixture.dataset.as_ref().clone();
+            source
+                .tags()
+                .create("to_clone", source.version().version)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let clone_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let cloned = Arc::new(
+                source
+                    .shallow_clone(&clone_dir, "to_clone", None)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let descriptors = cloned.fragments().clone();
+            assert_eq!(descriptors.len(), 3);
+            assert!(
+                descriptors
+                    .iter()
+                    .all(|frag| frag.files.iter().all(|file| file.base_id.is_some()))
+            );
+
+            let rows = descriptors
+                .iter()
+                .map(|frag| (frag.id as u32, vec![0u64..10]))
+                .collect::<BTreeMap<_, _>>();
+            let plan = FilteredReadInternalPlan {
+                rows,
+                filters: HashMap::new(),
+                scan_range_after_filter: None,
+            };
+            let options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&cloned);
+            let scheduler = FilteredReadStream::make_scan_scheduler(&cloned, &options);
+            let base_schedulers = FilteredReadStream::make_base_schedulers(&options);
+            let scoped = FilteredReadStream::plan_to_scoped_fragments(
+                &plan,
+                &descriptors,
+                &cloned,
+                &options,
+                scheduler,
+                base_schedulers.clone(),
+            );
+            assert_eq!(scoped.len(), 3);
+
+            for scoped_fragment in &scoped {
+                scoped_fragment
+                    .fragment
+                    .open(cloned.schema(), scoped_fragment.frag_read_config())
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+            }
+            assert_eq!(base_schedulers.len(), 1);
+        }
+
+        /// Output preserves the input's row order, duplicates, and payload
+        #[rstest]
+        #[case::by_row_addr(false, ROW_ADDR)]
+        #[case::by_row_id(false, ROW_ID)]
+        #[case::stable_by_row_addr(true, ROW_ADDR)]
+        #[case::stable_by_row_id(true, ROW_ID)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_preserves_order_dups_and_payload(
+            #[case] stable_row_ids: bool,
+            #[case] key: &str,
+        ) {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(stable_row_ids).await;
+
+            // Stable row ids are assigned sequentially on write, so the id of
+            // row `i` is `i`; without them id == address
+            let addr = |frag: u64, off: u64| (frag << 32) | off;
+            let keys: Vec<u64> = if key == ROW_ID && stable_row_ids {
+                vec![21, 3, 15, 21, 0]
+            } else {
+                vec![
+                    addr(2, 1), // i = 21
+                    addr(0, 3), // i = 3
+                    addr(1, 5), // i = 15
+                    addr(2, 1), // i = 21 (duplicate)
+                    addr(0, 0), // i = 0
+                ]
+            };
+            let expected_i: Vec<i32> = vec![21, 3, 15, 21, 0];
+
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("payload", DataType::Float32, false),
+                ArrowField::new(key, DataType::UInt64, true),
+            ]));
+            let payload: Vec<f32> = (0..keys.len()).map(|v| v as f32 * 0.5).collect();
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                input_schema.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(payload.clone())),
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys.clone())),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let batches = vec![batch.slice(0, 3), batch.slice(3, 2)];
+
+            let plan = take_plan(&fixture.dataset, rows_input(batches), &["s", "i"]).unwrap();
+            assert!(plan.row_stream_input().is_some());
+            // Input columns, then new fields; the unrequested key is stripped
+            assert_eq!(
+                plan.schema()
+                    .fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec!["payload", "i", "s"]
+            );
+
+            let result = run(&plan).await;
+            assert_eq!(result.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(result[0].num_rows(), 5);
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &result).unwrap();
+
+            let i_col = result.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                i_col.as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>().values(),
+                &expected_i[..]
+            );
+            let s_col = result.column_by_name("s").unwrap().as_string::<i32>();
+            for (row, i) in expected_i.iter().enumerate() {
+                assert_eq!(s_col.value(row), format!("s-{i}"));
+            }
+            let payload_col = result
+                .column_by_name("payload")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(payload_col.values(), &payload[..]);
+        }
+
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn blob_take_reserves_one_complete_duplicate_expanded_output() {
+            let tmp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+            let first_payload = vec![0x11; 1024];
+            let second_payload = vec![0x22; 1024];
+            let mut blobs = BlobArrayBuilder::new(2);
+            blobs.push_bytes(&first_payload).unwrap();
+            blobs.push_bytes(&second_payload).unwrap();
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![blob_field("blob", false)]));
+            let batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![blobs.finish().unwrap()]).unwrap();
+            let dataset = Arc::new(
+                Dataset::write(
+                    RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+                    tmp_dir.as_str(),
+                    Some(WriteParams {
+                        data_storage_version: Some(lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion::V2_2),
+                        max_rows_per_file: 1,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+            );
+
+            let first = 0_u64;
+            let second = 1_u64 << 32;
+            let mut keys = vec![first; 100];
+            keys.push(second);
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                ROW_ADDR,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                false,
+            )]));
+            let input = RecordBatch::try_new(input_schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys))])
+                .unwrap();
+            let projection = dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(["blob"], OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_blob_handling(BlobHandling::AllBinary);
+            let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                dataset,
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection)
+                    .with_batch_size(101)
+                    .with_materialization_readahead_bytes(512),
+                Some(rows_input(vec![input])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let batches = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(10), async {
+                run(&plan).await
+            })
+            .await
+            .expect("row-stream blob materialization must make progress");
+            let output = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &batches).unwrap();
+            assert!(
+                plan.materialization_context.peak_reserved_bytes()
+                    >= (101 * first_payload.len()) as u64
+            );
+            let blobs = output
+                .column_by_name("blob")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<LargeBinaryArray>()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(blobs.len(), 101);
+            assert!(
+                blobs
+                    .iter()
+                    .take(100)
+                    .all(|value| value == Some(first_payload.as_slice()))
+            );
+            assert_eq!(blobs.value(100), second_payload.as_slice());
+        }
+
+        /// Tiny input batches merge up to the target and oversized ones pass
+        /// through whole, preserving order across the boundaries
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_coalesces_input_to_batch_size() {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(false).await;
+
+            let addr = |frag: u64, off: u64| (frag << 32) | off;
+            let keys: Vec<u64> = vec![
+                addr(2, 3), // i = 23
+                addr(0, 1), // i = 1
+                addr(1, 4), // i = 14
+                addr(0, 7), // i = 7
+                addr(2, 0), // i = 20
+                addr(1, 1), // i = 11
+                addr(0, 2), // i = 2
+            ];
+            let expected_i: Vec<i32> = vec![23, 1, 14, 7, 20, 11, 2];
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                ROW_ADDR,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                input_schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys.clone()))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let assert_batches =
+                |result: Vec<RecordBatch>, schema: SchemaRef, expected_sizes: Vec<usize>| {
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        result.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                        expected_sizes
+                    );
+                    let merged = concat_batches(&schema, &result).unwrap();
+                    let i_col = merged.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+                    assert_eq!(
+                        i_col.as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>().values(),
+                        &expected_i[..]
+                    );
+                };
+
+            // Seven one-row batches merge whenever the buffer reaches 3 rows
+            let tiny = (0..7).map(|i| batch.slice(i, 1)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let plan = take_plan_sized(&fixture.dataset, rows_input(tiny), &["i"], 3).unwrap();
+            assert_batches(run(&plan).await, plan.schema(), vec![3, 3, 1]);
+
+            // One oversized batch passes through whole — never split
+            let plan =
+                take_plan_sized(&fixture.dataset, rows_input(vec![batch.clone()]), &["i"], 3)
+                    .unwrap();
+            assert_batches(run(&plan).await, plan.schema(), vec![7]);
+
+            // A large batch flushes the partial buffer and passes through
+            let mixed = vec![batch.slice(0, 2), batch.slice(2, 5)];
+            let plan = take_plan_sized(&fixture.dataset, rows_input(mixed), &["i"], 3).unwrap();
+            assert_batches(run(&plan).await, plan.schema(), vec![2, 5]);
+        }
+
+        /// Storage-ordered input exercises the aligned fast path
+        #[rstest]
+        #[case::by_row_addr(ROW_ADDR)]
+        #[case::by_row_id(ROW_ID)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_aligned_input_fast_path(#[case] key: &str) {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(false).await;
+
+            let addr = |frag: u64, off: u64| (frag << 32) | off;
+            let keys: Vec<u64> = vec![
+                addr(0, 0), // i = 0
+                addr(0, 3), // i = 3
+                addr(1, 5), // i = 15
+                addr(2, 1), // i = 21
+                addr(2, 9), // i = 29
+            ];
+            let expected_i: Vec<i32> = vec![0, 3, 15, 21, 29];
+
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("payload", DataType::Float32, false),
+                ArrowField::new(key, DataType::UInt64, true),
+            ]));
+            let payload: Vec<f32> = (0..keys.len()).map(|v| v as f32 * 0.5).collect();
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                input_schema,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(payload.clone())),
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys)),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let plan = take_plan(&fixture.dataset, rows_input(vec![batch]), &["i"]).unwrap();
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 5);
+            let i_col = result.column_by_name("i").unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                i_col.as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>().values(),
+                &expected_i[..]
+            );
+            let payload_col = result
+                .column_by_name("payload")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(payload_col.values(), &payload[..]);
+        }
+
+        /// A fragment-scoped take reads from the scoped fragments only; keys
+        /// pointing outside the scope drop like stale rows
+        #[rstest]
+        #[case::by_row_addr(false, ROW_ADDR)]
+        #[case::by_row_id(false, ROW_ID)]
+        #[case::stable_by_row_addr(true, ROW_ADDR)]
+        #[case::stable_by_row_id(true, ROW_ID)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_scoped_to_fragments(#[case] stable_row_ids: bool, #[case] key: &str) {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(stable_row_ids).await;
+            let subset = Arc::new(vec![fixture.dataset.fragments()[1].clone()]);
+
+            let addr = |frag: u64, off: u64| (frag << 32) | off;
+            // i = 12 inside the scoped fragment, i = 3 outside the scope
+            let keys: Vec<u64> = if key == ROW_ID && stable_row_ids {
+                vec![12, 3]
+            } else {
+                vec![addr(1, 2), addr(0, 3)]
+            };
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                key,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(input_schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys))])
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let projection = fixture
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(["i"], OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap();
+            let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                fixture.dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection).with_fragments(subset),
+                Some(rows_input(vec![batch])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+            let i_col = result
+                .column_by_name("i")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(i_col.value(0), 12);
+        }
+
+        /// A batch whose keys span the whole id range but hit only two rows:
+        /// the span prefilter must not misread coverage as membership
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_stable_ids_wide_key_span() {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(true).await;
+            // Last row of the last fragment, first row of the first: every
+            // fragment's span overlaps, only two rows match
+            let keys: Vec<u64> = vec![29, 0];
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                ROW_ID,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(input_schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys))])
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let plan = take_plan(&fixture.dataset, rows_input(vec![batch]), &["i"]).unwrap();
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            let i_col = result
+                .column_by_name("i")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(i_col.values(), &[29, 0]);
+        }
+
+        /// Identity flags: requested-but-missing columns are synthesized,
+        /// carried ones kept, unrequested carried ones stripped
+        #[rstest]
+        #[case::unstable(false)]
+        #[case::stable(true)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_identity_flags(#[case] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(stable_row_ids).await;
+            let addr = |frag: u64, off: u64| (frag << 32) | off;
+
+            let ids: Vec<u64> = if stable_row_ids {
+                vec![21, 3]
+            } else {
+                vec![addr(2, 1), addr(0, 3)]
+            };
+            let expected_addrs: Vec<u64> = vec![addr(2, 1), addr(0, 3)];
+            let expected_i: Vec<i32> = vec![21, 3];
+            let id_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                ROW_ID,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let id_batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(id_schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(ids.clone()))])
+                    .unwrap();
+
+            // Keep the carried _rowid and synthesize _rowaddr
+            let projection = fixture
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(["i"], OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_row_id()
+                .with_row_addr();
+            let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                fixture.dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+                Some(rows_input(vec![id_batch.clone()])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                plan.schema()
+                    .fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![ROW_ID, "i", ROW_ADDR]
+            );
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            let id_col = result
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type>();
+            assert_eq!(id_col.values(), &ids[..]);
+            let addr_col = result
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ADDR)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type>();
+            assert_eq!(addr_col.values(), &expected_addrs[..]);
+            let i_col = result
+                .column_by_name("i")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(i_col.values(), &expected_i[..]);
+
+            // Synthesize _rowaddr but strip the unrequested carried _rowid
+            let projection = fixture
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(["i"], OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_row_addr();
+            let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                fixture.dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+                Some(rows_input(vec![id_batch.clone()])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                plan.schema()
+                    .fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec!["i", ROW_ADDR]
+            );
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            let addr_col = result
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ADDR)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type>();
+            assert_eq!(addr_col.values(), &expected_addrs[..]);
+
+            // Address-keyed input, synthesize _rowid (the reverse direction)
+            let addr_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                ROW_ADDR,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let addr_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                addr_schema,
+                vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(expected_addrs.clone()))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let projection = fixture
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(["i"], OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_row_id();
+            let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                fixture.dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+                Some(rows_input(vec![addr_batch])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                plan.schema()
+                    .fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec!["i", ROW_ID]
+            );
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            let id_col = result
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type>();
+            assert_eq!(id_col.values(), &ids[..]);
+
+            // Fetch nothing, synthesize only (the AddRowAddrExec shape)
+            let projection = fixture
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .with_row_id()
+                .with_row_addr();
+            let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                fixture.dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+                Some(rows_input(vec![id_batch])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(
+                plan.schema()
+                    .fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+                vec![ROW_ID, ROW_ADDR]
+            );
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            let addr_col = result
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ADDR)
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type>();
+            assert_eq!(addr_col.values(), &expected_addrs[..]);
+        }
+
+        /// New sub-fields merge into an existing struct column
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_merges_nested_struct() {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(false).await;
+
+            let data = fixture
+                .dataset
+                .scan()
+                .project(&["struct"])
+                .unwrap()
+                .with_row_id()
+                .try_into_batch()
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            // Rebuild the input with only struct.y so struct.x must be taken
+            let full_struct = data.column_by_name("struct").unwrap().as_struct();
+            let y_only = arrow_array::StructArray::new(
+                Fields::from(vec![Arc::new(ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, false))]),
+                vec![full_struct.column_by_name("y").unwrap().clone()],
+                None,
+            );
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new("struct", y_only.data_type().clone(), false),
+                ArrowField::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true),
+            ]));
+            let data = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                input_schema,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(y_only),
+                    data.column_by_name(ROW_ID).unwrap().clone(),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let projection = fixture
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_column("struct.x", OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap();
+            let plan = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                fixture.dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+                Some(rows_input(vec![data])),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+
+            let expected_struct_type = DataType::Struct(Fields::from(vec![
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)),
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("y", DataType::Int32, false)),
+            ]));
+            assert_eq!(
+                plan.schema().field_with_name("struct").unwrap().data_type(),
+                &expected_struct_type
+            );
+
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 30);
+            let struct_col = result.column_by_name("struct").unwrap().as_struct();
+            assert_eq!(
+                struct_col.column_by_name("x").unwrap(),
+                struct_col.column_by_name("y").unwrap()
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Input rows whose key no longer exists (deleted rows) are dropped
+        #[rstest]
+        #[case::by_row_addr(false, ROW_ADDR)]
+        #[case::by_row_id(false, ROW_ID)]
+        #[case::stable_by_row_addr(true, ROW_ADDR)]
+        #[case::stable_by_row_id(true, ROW_ID)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_drops_stale_keys(#[case] stable_row_ids: bool, #[case] key: &str) {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(stable_row_ids).await;
+            let mut dataset = fixture.dataset.as_ref().clone();
+            dataset.delete("i = 15").await.unwrap();
+            let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+            let addr = |frag: u64, off: u64| (frag << 32) | off;
+            // The pre-delete identifiers of rows 15 (now deleted) and 16
+            let keys: Vec<u64> = if key == ROW_ID && stable_row_ids {
+                vec![15, 16]
+            } else {
+                vec![addr(1, 5), addr(1, 6)]
+            };
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                key,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(input_schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys))])
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let plan = take_plan(&dataset, rows_input(vec![batch]), &["i"]).unwrap();
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+            let i_col = result
+                .column_by_name("i")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(i_col.value(0), 16);
+        }
+
+        /// Keys of a fully deleted fragment (gone from the manifest) are
+        /// dropped like stale rows
+        #[rstest]
+        #[case::by_row_addr(false, ROW_ADDR)]
+        #[case::by_row_id(false, ROW_ID)]
+        #[case::stable_by_row_addr(true, ROW_ADDR)]
+        #[case::stable_by_row_id(true, ROW_ID)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_drops_keys_of_deleted_fragment(
+            #[case] stable_row_ids: bool,
+            #[case] key: &str,
+        ) {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(stable_row_ids).await;
+            let mut dataset = fixture.dataset.as_ref().clone();
+            dataset.delete("i >= 10 and i < 20").await.unwrap();
+            let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+            let addr = |frag: u64, off: u64| (frag << 32) | off;
+            // The pre-delete identifiers of row 15 (fragment 1, now gone
+            // from the manifest) and row 20 (fragment 2, still live)
+            let keys: Vec<u64> = if key == ROW_ID && stable_row_ids {
+                vec![15, 20]
+            } else {
+                vec![addr(1, 5), addr(2, 0)]
+            };
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                key,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(input_schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys))])
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let plan = take_plan(&dataset, rows_input(vec![batch]), &["i"]).unwrap();
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1);
+            let i_col = result
+                .column_by_name("i")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(i_col.value(0), 20);
+        }
+
+        /// After delete + compaction the stable row-id sequences are no
+        /// longer simple contiguous ranges; ids must still resolve to the
+        /// moved rows and deleted ids must still drop
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_stable_ids_after_compaction() {
+            use crate::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+
+            let fixture = take_fixture(true).await;
+            let mut dataset = fixture.dataset.as_ref().clone();
+            // Punch holes, then rewrite all fragments into one
+            dataset.delete("i % 3 = 0").await.unwrap();
+            compact_files(&mut dataset, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+            let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+            assert_eq!(dataset.get_fragments().len(), 1);
+
+            // Survivors in scattered order, plus a compacted-away id (15)
+            let keys: Vec<u64> = vec![25, 1, 15, 14];
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                ROW_ID,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(input_schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys))])
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let plan = take_plan(&dataset, rows_input(vec![batch]), &["i"]).unwrap();
+            let result = concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &run(&plan).await).unwrap();
+            let i_col = result
+                .column_by_name("i")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>();
+            assert_eq!(i_col.values(), &[25, 1, 14]);
+        }
+
+        /// with_deleted_rows is rejected for a row-stream read
+        #[rstest]
+        #[case::unstable(false)]
+        #[case::stable(true)]
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_rejects_with_deleted_rows(#[case] stable_row_ids: bool) {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(stable_row_ids).await;
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                ROW_ADDR,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let batch =
+                RecordBatch::try_new(input_schema, vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0_u64]))])
+                    .unwrap();
+            let projection = fixture
+                .dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(["i"], OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap();
+            let err = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                fixture.dataset,
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection)
+                    .with_deleted_rows()
+                    .unwrap(),
+                Some(rows_input(vec![batch])),
+            )
+            .unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err}");
+            assert!(err.to_string().contains("with_deleted_rows"));
+        }
+
+        /// Construction errors: no key column, nothing to read
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_construction_errors() {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(false).await;
+            let no_key_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                "payload",
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                no_key_schema,
+                vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0_u64]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let err = take_plan(&fixture.dataset, rows_input(vec![batch]), &["s"]).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err}");
+            assert!(err.to_string().contains("must have a column"));
+
+            // Taking fields the input already has: nothing to read
+            let with_s_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+                ArrowField::new(ROW_ADDR, DataType::UInt64, true),
+                ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, false),
+            ]));
+            let with_s_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                with_s_schema,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0_u64])),
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec!["x"])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let err =
+                take_plan(&fixture.dataset, rows_input(vec![with_s_batch]), &["s"]).unwrap_err();
+            assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err}");
+            assert!(err.to_string().contains("nothing to read"));
+        }
+
+        /// with_new_children re-derives the row-stream source and preserves the schema
+        #[tokio::test]
+        async fn take_with_new_children() {
+            let fixture = take_fixture(false).await;
+            let input_schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+                ROW_ID,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                true,
+            )]));
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                input_schema,
+                vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![0_u64, 1]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let input = rows_input(vec![batch]);
+            let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+                Arc::new(take_plan(&fixture.dataset, input.clone(), &["s"]).unwrap());
+            let rebuilt = plan.clone().with_new_children(vec![input]).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(plan.schema(), rebuilt.schema());
+            assert!(
+                rebuilt
+                    .downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .row_stream_input()
+                    .is_some()
+            );
+        }
+
+        /// Take-mode nodes can be created and executed without an active
+        /// tokio runtime (required for DataFusion foreign table providers)
+        #[test]
+        fn no_context_take_rows() {
+            use lance_datafusion::datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt;
+            use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount};
+
+            let fixture = NoContextTestFixture::new();
+            let dataset = Arc::new(fixture.dataset);
+            let input = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+                .col(ROW_ID, lance_datagen::array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+                .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(50), BatchCount::from(2));
+            let plan = take_plan(&dataset, input, &["text"]).unwrap();
+            plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filtered_read_proto.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filtered_read_proto.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e25c3d0ef8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/filtered_read_proto.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,966 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Protobuf serialization for [`FilteredReadExec`] and related types.
+//!
+//! Proto message definitions live in `lance-datafusion` (see `pb`).
+//! Conversion functions live here because they need access to `FilteredReadExec`
+//! and `Dataset`, which are defined in this crate.
+//!
+//! A datafusion `PhysicalExtensionCodec` can call these functions in `try_encode`
+//! and `try_decode` to support distributed execution (planner → executor).
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::io::Cursor;
+use std::ops::Range;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+use datafusion::execution::SessionState;
+use datafusion::logical_expr::Expr;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+use lance_core::datatypes::{BlobHandling, Projection};
+use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+use lance_datafusion::pb;
+use lance_datafusion::substrait::{encode_substrait, parse_substrait, prune_schema_for_substrait};
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+
+use super::filtered_read::{
+    FilteredReadExec, FilteredReadOptions, FilteredReadPlan, FilteredReadThreadingMode,
+};
+use super::table_identifier::{resolve_dataset, table_identifier_from_dataset};
+
+// =============================================================================
+// FilteredReadExec <-> Proto
+// =============================================================================
+
+/// Convert a [`FilteredReadExec`] to proto for serialization.
+///
+/// Uses `table_identifier_from_dataset` by default (no manifest bytes).
+/// The caller can replace the `table` field with
+/// [`table_identifier_from_dataset_with_manifest`] if desired.
+pub async fn filtered_read_exec_to_proto(
+    exec: &FilteredReadExec,
+    state: &SessionState,
+) -> Result<pb::FilteredReadExecProto> {
+    let table = table_identifier_from_dataset(exec.dataset()).await?;
+    // Use the pruned dataset schema for filter encoding — filters can reference columns
+    // outside the projection (e.g. SELECT name WHERE age > 10), and some dataset columns
+    // may have types that Substrait cannot serialize (e.g. FixedSizeList, Float16).
+    let filter_schema = Arc::new(prune_schema_for_substrait(&exec.dataset().schema().into()));
+    let options = fr_options_to_proto(exec.options(), &filter_schema, state)?;
+
+    let plan = match exec.plan() {
+        Some(plan) => Some(plan_to_proto(&plan, &filter_schema, state)?),
+        None => None,
+    };
+
+    Ok(pb::FilteredReadExecProto {
+        table: Some(table),
+        options: Some(options),
+        plan,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Reconstruct a [`FilteredReadExec`] from proto.
+pub async fn filtered_read_exec_from_proto(
+    proto: pb::FilteredReadExecProto,
+    dataset: Option<Arc<Dataset>>,
+    index_input: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    state: &SessionState,
+) -> Result<FilteredReadExec> {
+    let dataset = resolve_dataset(dataset, proto.table.as_ref()).await?;
+
+    let options_proto = proto.options.ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::invalid_input_source("Missing options in FilteredReadExecProto".into())
+    })?;
+
+    let options = fr_options_from_proto(options_proto, &dataset, state).await?;
+    let exec = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), options, index_input)?;
+
+    // Apply pre-computed plan if present
+    if let Some(plan_proto) = proto.plan {
+        let plan = plan_from_proto(plan_proto, &dataset, state).await?;
+        exec.with_plan(plan).await
+    } else {
+        Ok(exec)
+    }
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// FilteredReadOptions <-> Proto
+// =============================================================================
+
+pub fn fr_options_to_proto(
+    options: &FilteredReadOptions,
+    filter_schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    state: &SessionState,
+) -> Result<pb::FilteredReadOptionsProto> {
+    let refine_filter_substrait = match &options.refine_filter {
+        Some(expr) => Some(encode_substrait(
+            expr.clone(),
+            filter_schema.clone(),
+            state,
+        )?),
+        None => None,
+    };
+
+    let full_filter_substrait = match &options.full_filter {
+        Some(expr) => Some(encode_substrait(
+            expr.clone(),
+            filter_schema.clone(),
+            state,
+        )?),
+        None => None,
+    };
+
+    // Serialize the filter schema as Arrow IPC if we have filters
+    let filter_schema_ipc = if refine_filter_substrait.is_some() || full_filter_substrait.is_some()
+    {
+        Some(schema_to_bytes(filter_schema)?)
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+
+    Ok(pb::FilteredReadOptionsProto {
+        scan_range_before_filter: options
+            .scan_range_before_filter
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(range_to_proto),
+        scan_range_after_filter: options.scan_range_after_filter.as_ref().map(range_to_proto),
+        with_deleted_rows: options.with_deleted_rows,
+        batch_size: options.batch_size,
+        fragment_readahead: options.fragment_readahead.map(|v| v as u64),
+        fragment_ids: options
+            .fragments
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|frags| frags.iter().map(|f| f.id).collect())
+            .unwrap_or_default(),
+        projection: Some(projection_to_proto(&options.projection)),
+        refine_filter_substrait,
+        full_filter_substrait,
+        threading_mode: Some(threading_mode_to_proto(&options.threading_mode)),
+        io_buffer_size_bytes: options.io_buffer_size_bytes,
+        filter_schema_ipc,
+        materialization_readahead_bytes: options.materialization_readahead_bytes,
+        batch_size_bytes: options
+            .file_reader_options
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|o| o.batch_size_bytes),
+    })
+}
+
+pub async fn fr_options_from_proto(
+    proto: pb::FilteredReadOptionsProto,
+    dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    state: &SessionState,
+) -> Result<FilteredReadOptions> {
+    let projection = projection_from_proto(
+        proto.projection.as_ref(),
+        dataset.clone() as Arc<dyn lance_core::datatypes::Projectable>,
+    )?;
+    let mut options = FilteredReadOptions::new(projection);
+
+    // Fragments
+    if !proto.fragment_ids.is_empty() {
+        let fragments = fragments_from_proto(&proto.fragment_ids, dataset)?;
+        options = options.with_fragments(Arc::new(fragments));
+    }
+
+    // Scan ranges
+    if let Some(range) = proto.scan_range_before_filter {
+        options = options
+            .with_scan_range_before_filter(range_from_proto(&range))
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(e.to_string()))?;
+    }
+    if let Some(range) = proto.scan_range_after_filter {
+        options = options
+            .with_scan_range_after_filter(range_from_proto(&range))
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(e.to_string()))?;
+    }
+
+    // Deleted rows
+    if proto.with_deleted_rows {
+        options = options
+            .with_deleted_rows()
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(e.to_string()))?;
+    }
+
+    // Performance tuning
+    if let Some(batch_size) = proto.batch_size {
+        options = options.with_batch_size(batch_size);
+    }
+    if let Some(readahead) = proto.fragment_readahead {
+        options = options.with_fragment_readahead(readahead as usize);
+    }
+    if let Some(io_buffer) = proto.io_buffer_size_bytes {
+        options = options.with_io_buffer_size(io_buffer);
+    }
+    if let Some(materialization_readahead_bytes) = proto.materialization_readahead_bytes {
+        options = options.with_materialization_readahead_bytes(materialization_readahead_bytes);
+    }
+    if let Some(batch_size_bytes) = proto.batch_size_bytes {
+        // Merge the scanner-level byte budget into the dataset's existing
+        // file-reader options so that distributed execution preserves
+        // validation and I/O settings such as read_chunk_size.
+        let mut file_reader_options = dataset.file_reader_options.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+        file_reader_options.batch_size_bytes = Some(batch_size_bytes);
+        options = options.with_file_reader_options(file_reader_options);
+    }
+    if let Some(mode) = proto.threading_mode {
+        options.threading_mode = threading_mode_from_proto(&mode)?;
+    }
+
+    // Filters — require filter_schema_ipc when filters are present
+    let has_filters =
+        proto.refine_filter_substrait.is_some() || proto.full_filter_substrait.is_some();
+    if has_filters {
+        let filter_schema =
+            schema_from_bytes(proto.filter_schema_ipc.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    "missing filter_schema_ipc but filters are present".into(),
+                )
+            })?)?;
+
+        if let Some(bytes) = &proto.refine_filter_substrait {
+            options.refine_filter =
+                Some(parse_substrait(bytes, filter_schema.clone(), state).await?);
+        }
+        if let Some(bytes) = &proto.full_filter_substrait {
+            options.full_filter = Some(parse_substrait(bytes, filter_schema, state).await?);
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(options)
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// FilteredReadPlan <-> Proto
+// =============================================================================
+
+/// Convert a [`FilteredReadPlan`] to proto.
+///
+/// Deduplicates filter expressions: many fragments often share the same `Arc<Expr>`.
+/// We detect sharing via `Arc::as_ptr()` and encode each unique expression only once.
+pub fn plan_to_proto(
+    plan: &FilteredReadPlan,
+    filter_schema: &Arc<ArrowSchema>,
+    state: &SessionState,
+) -> Result<pb::FilteredReadPlanProto> {
+    let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(plan.rows.serialized_size());
+    plan.rows.serialize_into(&mut buf)?;
+
+    // Deduplicate filter expressions by Arc pointer identity.
+    let mut ptr_to_id: HashMap<*const Expr, u32> = HashMap::new();
+    let mut filter_expressions: Vec<Vec<u8>> = Vec::new();
+    let mut fragment_filter_ids: HashMap<u32, u32> = HashMap::new();
+
+    for (frag_id, expr) in &plan.filters {
+        let ptr = Arc::as_ptr(expr);
+        let id = match ptr_to_id.get(&ptr) {
+            Some(&id) => id,
+            None => {
+                let id = filter_expressions.len() as u32;
+                let encoded =
+                    encode_substrait(expr.as_ref().clone(), filter_schema.clone(), state)?;
+                filter_expressions.push(encoded);
+                ptr_to_id.insert(ptr, id);
+                id
+            }
+        };
+        fragment_filter_ids.insert(*frag_id, id);
+    }
+
+    let filter_schema_ipc = if fragment_filter_ids.is_empty() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        Some(schema_to_bytes(filter_schema)?)
+    };
+
+    Ok(pb::FilteredReadPlanProto {
+        row_addr_tree_map: buf,
+        scan_range_after_filter: plan.scan_range_after_filter.as_ref().map(range_to_proto),
+        filter_schema_ipc,
+        fragment_filter_ids,
+        filter_expressions,
+    })
+}
+
+async fn plan_from_proto(
+    proto: pb::FilteredReadPlanProto,
+    _dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+    state: &SessionState,
+) -> Result<FilteredReadPlan> {
+    let rows = RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(Cursor::new(&proto.row_addr_tree_map))?;
+
+    let mut filters = HashMap::new();
+    if !proto.fragment_filter_ids.is_empty() {
+        let filter_schema =
+            schema_from_bytes(proto.filter_schema_ipc.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("missing filter_schema_ipc but plan has filters".into())
+            })?)?;
+
+        // Decode each unique expression once, then share via Arc.
+        let mut decoded: Vec<Arc<Expr>> = Vec::with_capacity(proto.filter_expressions.len());
+        for bytes in &proto.filter_expressions {
+            let expr = parse_substrait(bytes, filter_schema.clone(), state).await?;
+            decoded.push(Arc::new(expr));
+        }
+
+        for (frag_id, expr_id) in &proto.fragment_filter_ids {
+            let expr = decoded.get(*expr_id as usize).ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(
+                    format!(
+                        "filter expression index {} out of bounds (have {})",
+                        expr_id,
+                        decoded.len()
+                    )
+                    .into(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            filters.insert(*frag_id, Arc::clone(expr));
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(FilteredReadPlan {
+        rows,
+        filters,
+        scan_range_after_filter: proto.scan_range_after_filter.map(|r| range_from_proto(&r)),
+    })
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Projection <-> Proto
+// =============================================================================
+
+fn projection_to_proto(proj: &Projection) -> pb::ProjectionProto {
+    pb::ProjectionProto {
+        field_ids: proj.field_ids.iter().copied().collect(),
+        with_row_id: proj.with_row_id,
+        with_row_addr: proj.with_row_addr,
+        with_row_last_updated_at_version: proj.with_row_last_updated_at_version,
+        with_row_created_at_version: proj.with_row_created_at_version,
+        blob_handling: Some(blob_handling_to_proto(&proj.blob_handling)),
+    }
+}
+
+fn blob_handling_to_proto(bh: &BlobHandling) -> pb::BlobHandlingProto {
+    use pb::blob_handling_proto::Mode;
+    let mode = match bh {
+        BlobHandling::AllBinary => Some(Mode::AllBinary(true)),
+        BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions => Some(Mode::BlobsDescriptions(true)),
+        BlobHandling::AllDescriptions => Some(Mode::AllDescriptions(true)),
+        BlobHandling::SomeBlobsBinary(ids) => Some(Mode::SomeBlobsBinary(pb::FieldIdSet {
+            field_ids: ids.iter().copied().collect(),
+        })),
+        BlobHandling::SomeBinary(ids) => Some(Mode::SomeBinary(pb::FieldIdSet {
+            field_ids: ids.iter().copied().collect(),
+        })),
+    };
+    pb::BlobHandlingProto { mode }
+}
+
+fn blob_handling_from_proto(proto: Option<&pb::BlobHandlingProto>) -> BlobHandling {
+    use pb::blob_handling_proto::Mode;
+    match proto.and_then(|p| p.mode.as_ref()) {
+        Some(Mode::AllBinary(_)) => BlobHandling::AllBinary,
+        Some(Mode::BlobsDescriptions(_)) => BlobHandling::BlobsDescriptions,
+        Some(Mode::AllDescriptions(_)) => BlobHandling::AllDescriptions,
+        Some(Mode::SomeBlobsBinary(ids)) => {
+            BlobHandling::SomeBlobsBinary(ids.field_ids.iter().copied().collect())
+        }
+        Some(Mode::SomeBinary(ids)) => {
+            BlobHandling::SomeBinary(ids.field_ids.iter().copied().collect())
+        }
+        // Default for backwards compatibility with protos that don't have blob_handling
+        None => BlobHandling::default(),
+    }
+}
+
+fn projection_from_proto(
+    proto: Option<&pb::ProjectionProto>,
+    base: Arc<dyn lance_core::datatypes::Projectable>,
+) -> Result<Projection> {
+    let proto =
+        proto.ok_or_else(|| Error::invalid_input_source("Missing projection in proto".into()))?;
+
+    let mut projection = Projection::empty(base);
+    for field_id in &proto.field_ids {
+        projection.field_ids.insert(*field_id);
+    }
+    if proto.with_row_id {
+        projection = projection.with_row_id();
+    }
+    if proto.with_row_addr {
+        projection = projection.with_row_addr();
+    }
+    if proto.with_row_last_updated_at_version {
+        projection = projection.with_row_last_updated_at_version();
+    }
+    if proto.with_row_created_at_version {
+        projection = projection.with_row_created_at_version();
+    }
+    projection =
+        projection.with_blob_handling(blob_handling_from_proto(proto.blob_handling.as_ref()));
+    Ok(projection)
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Threading mode <-> Proto
+// =============================================================================
+
+fn threading_mode_to_proto(mode: &FilteredReadThreadingMode) -> pb::FilteredReadThreadingModeProto {
+    let mode_oneof = match mode {
+        FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(n) => {
+            pb::filtered_read_threading_mode_proto::Mode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(*n as u64)
+        }
+        FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(n) => {
+            pb::filtered_read_threading_mode_proto::Mode::MultiplePartitions(*n as u64)
+        }
+    };
+    pb::FilteredReadThreadingModeProto {
+        mode: Some(mode_oneof),
+    }
+}
+
+fn threading_mode_from_proto(
+    proto: &pb::FilteredReadThreadingModeProto,
+) -> Result<FilteredReadThreadingMode> {
+    match &proto.mode {
+        Some(pb::filtered_read_threading_mode_proto::Mode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(n)) => Ok(
+            FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(*n as usize),
+        ),
+        Some(pb::filtered_read_threading_mode_proto::Mode::MultiplePartitions(n)) => {
+            Ok(FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(*n as usize))
+        }
+        None => Err(Error::invalid_input_source(
+            "Missing threading mode in proto".into(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Helpers
+// =============================================================================
+
+fn range_to_proto(range: &Range<u64>) -> pb::U64Range {
+    pb::U64Range {
+        start: range.start,
+        end: range.end,
+    }
+}
+
+fn range_from_proto(proto: &pb::U64Range) -> Range<u64> {
+    proto.start..proto.end
+}
+
+fn fragments_from_proto(fragment_ids: &[u64], dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<Vec<Fragment>> {
+    let fragments = dataset.manifest.fragments.as_slice();
+    // Duplicate IDs in legacy manifests must resolve to their first stored fragment.
+    let ids_are_unique = dataset.fragment_bitmap.len() == fragments.len() as u64;
+    fragment_ids
+        .iter()
+        .map(|id| {
+            let fragment = if ids_are_unique && u32::try_from(*id).is_ok() {
+                dataset.find_fragment(*id)
+            } else {
+                fragments.iter().find(|f| f.id == *id)
+            };
+            fragment.cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source(format!("Fragment {} not found in dataset", id).into())
+            })
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+pub fn schema_to_bytes(schema: &ArrowSchema) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let options =
+        arrow_ipc::writer::IpcWriteOptions::try_new(8, false, arrow_ipc::MetadataVersion::V5)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Failed to create IPC write options: {}", e)))?;
+    let generator = arrow_ipc::writer::IpcDataGenerator::default();
+    let mut tracker = arrow_ipc::writer::DictionaryTracker::new(false);
+    let encoded = generator.schema_to_bytes_with_dictionary_tracker(schema, &mut tracker, &options);
+    Ok(encoded.ipc_message.to_vec())
+}
+
+pub fn schema_from_bytes(bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<Arc<ArrowSchema>> {
+    let message = arrow_ipc::root_as_message(bytes)
+        .map_err(|e| Error::internal(format!("Failed to parse IPC schema message: {}", e)))?;
+    let ipc_schema = message
+        .header_as_schema()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("IPC message does not contain a schema".to_string()))?;
+    let schema = arrow_ipc::convert::fb_to_schema(ipc_schema);
+    Ok(Arc::new(schema))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::types::UInt32Type;
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field};
+    use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+    use lance_core::datatypes::OnMissing;
+    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+    use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+    use lance_encoding::decoder::DecoderConfig;
+    use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_range_roundtrip() {
+        let range = 10u64..42u64;
+        let proto = range_to_proto(&range);
+        let back = range_from_proto(&proto);
+        assert_eq!(range, back);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_threading_mode_roundtrip() {
+        let mode = FilteredReadThreadingMode::OnePartitionMultipleThreads(8);
+        let proto = threading_mode_to_proto(&mode);
+        let back = threading_mode_from_proto(&proto).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(mode, back);
+
+        let mode = FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(4);
+        let proto = threading_mode_to_proto(&mode);
+        let back = threading_mode_from_proto(&proto).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(mode, back);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_schema_roundtrip() {
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]);
+        let bytes = schema_to_bytes(&schema).unwrap();
+        let back = schema_from_bytes(&bytes).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(schema, *back);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_projection_roundtrip() {
+        let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(&ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("b", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            Field::new("c", DataType::Float64, true),
+        ]))
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let base: Arc<dyn lance_core::datatypes::Projectable> = Arc::new(schema);
+
+        let mut projection = Projection::empty(base.clone());
+        projection.field_ids = HashSet::from([0, 2]);
+        projection = projection
+            .with_row_id()
+            .with_row_addr()
+            .with_row_last_updated_at_version()
+            .with_row_created_at_version()
+            .with_blob_handling(BlobHandling::SomeBlobsBinary(HashSet::from([1, 3])));
+
+        let proto = projection_to_proto(&projection);
+        let back = projection_from_proto(Some(&proto), base).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(projection.field_ids, back.field_ids);
+        assert_eq!(projection.with_row_id, back.with_row_id);
+        assert_eq!(projection.with_row_addr, back.with_row_addr);
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.with_row_last_updated_at_version,
+            back.with_row_last_updated_at_version
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            projection.with_row_created_at_version,
+            back.with_row_created_at_version
+        );
+        assert_eq!(projection.blob_handling, back.blob_handling);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_addr_tree_map_roundtrip_in_plan_proto() {
+        let mut rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        let mut bitmap = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        bitmap.insert_range(0..100);
+        rows.insert_bitmap(0, bitmap);
+        rows.insert_fragment(1); // Full fragment
+
+        let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(rows.serialized_size());
+        rows.serialize_into(&mut buf).unwrap();
+        let back = RowAddrTreeMap::deserialize_from(Cursor::new(&buf)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(rows, back);
+    }
+
+    async fn make_test_dataset() -> Arc<Dataset> {
+        let dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("y", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(2), FragmentRowCount::from(50))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        Arc::new(dataset)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a test dataset with non-default file-reader options so that
+    /// round-trip tests can verify that scanner-level overrides preserve the
+    /// dataset-level defaults.
+    async fn make_test_dataset_with_file_reader_options() -> Arc<Dataset> {
+        let mut dataset = make_test_dataset().await;
+        if let Some(ds) = Arc::get_mut(&mut dataset) {
+            ds.file_reader_options = Some(FileReaderOptions {
+                read_chunk_size: 1234,
+                decoder_config: DecoderConfig {
+                    validate_on_decode: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+                batch_size_bytes: None,
+            });
+        }
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_options_roundtrip_basic() {
+        let dataset = make_test_dataset_with_file_reader_options().await;
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let state = ctx.state();
+        let filter_schema = Arc::new(prune_schema_for_substrait(&dataset.schema().into()));
+
+        let options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset)
+            .with_scan_range_before_filter(10..90)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_batch_size(64)
+            .with_file_reader_options(FileReaderOptions {
+                batch_size_bytes: Some(4096),
+                ..Default::default()
+            })
+            .with_fragment_readahead(4)
+            .with_io_buffer_size(1024 * 1024)
+            .with_materialization_readahead_bytes(8 * 1024 * 1024);
+
+        let proto = fr_options_to_proto(&options, &filter_schema, &state).unwrap();
+        let back = fr_options_from_proto(proto, &dataset, &state)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            options.scan_range_before_filter,
+            back.scan_range_before_filter
+        );
+        assert_eq!(options.batch_size, back.batch_size);
+        assert_eq!(options.fragment_readahead, back.fragment_readahead);
+        assert_eq!(options.io_buffer_size_bytes, back.io_buffer_size_bytes);
+        assert_eq!(
+            options.materialization_readahead_bytes,
+            back.materialization_readahead_bytes
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            options
+                .file_reader_options
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|o| o.batch_size_bytes),
+            back.file_reader_options
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|o| o.batch_size_bytes)
+        );
+        // The scanner-level byte budget must be merged into the dataset's
+        // existing file-reader options, not replace them.
+        let effective = back.file_reader_options.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(effective.read_chunk_size, 1234);
+        assert!(effective.decoder_config.validate_on_decode);
+        assert_eq!(options.threading_mode, back.threading_mode);
+        assert_eq!(options.with_deleted_rows, back.with_deleted_rows);
+        assert_eq!(options.projection.field_ids, back.projection.field_ids);
+        assert_eq!(options.projection.with_row_id, back.projection.with_row_id);
+        assert_eq!(
+            options.projection.with_row_addr,
+            back.projection.with_row_addr
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_options_roundtrip_with_filter() {
+        let dataset = make_test_dataset().await;
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let state = ctx.state();
+        let filter_schema = Arc::new(prune_schema_for_substrait(&dataset.schema().into()));
+
+        let filter_expr = datafusion_expr::col("x").gt(datafusion_expr::lit(5i32));
+        let refine_expr = datafusion_expr::col("x").lt(datafusion_expr::lit(100i32));
+        let projection = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_column("x", OnMissing::Error)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id();
+        let mut options = FilteredReadOptions::new(projection)
+            .with_deleted_rows()
+            .unwrap();
+        options.full_filter = Some(filter_expr);
+        options.refine_filter = Some(refine_expr);
+        options.threading_mode = FilteredReadThreadingMode::MultiplePartitions(4);
+
+        let proto = fr_options_to_proto(&options, &filter_schema, &state).unwrap();
+
+        // Verify filter schema IPC was generated
+        assert!(proto.filter_schema_ipc.is_some());
+        assert!(proto.full_filter_substrait.is_some());
+        assert!(proto.refine_filter_substrait.is_some());
+
+        let back = fr_options_from_proto(proto, &dataset, &state)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(back.full_filter.is_some());
+        assert!(back.refine_filter.is_some());
+        assert!(back.with_deleted_rows);
+        assert_eq!(options.threading_mode, back.threading_mode);
+        assert_eq!(options.projection.field_ids, back.projection.field_ids);
+        assert!(back.projection.with_row_id);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_options_roundtrip_with_fragments() {
+        let dataset = make_test_dataset().await;
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let state = ctx.state();
+        let filter_schema = Arc::new(prune_schema_for_substrait(&dataset.schema().into()));
+
+        let frags = dataset.get_fragments();
+        let first_frag = vec![frags[0].metadata().clone()];
+        let options =
+            FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset).with_fragments(Arc::new(first_frag));
+
+        let proto = fr_options_to_proto(&options, &filter_schema, &state).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(proto.fragment_ids.len(), 1);
+
+        let back = fr_options_from_proto(proto, &dataset, &state)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(back.fragments.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(back.fragments.as_ref().unwrap().len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            back.fragments.as_ref().unwrap()[0].id,
+            options.fragments.as_ref().unwrap()[0].id
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Physical row counts distinguish fragments with the same ID.
+    async fn make_test_dataset_with_stored_ids(stored_ids: &[u64]) -> Dataset {
+        let fragments: Vec<_> = stored_ids
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(position, id)| {
+                let mut fragment = Fragment::new(*id);
+                fragment.physical_rows = Some(position);
+                fragment
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let mut dataset = (*make_test_dataset().await).clone();
+        dataset.fragment_bitmap = Arc::new(
+            fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.id as u32)
+                .collect(),
+        );
+        Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).fragments = Arc::new(fragments);
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::sorted(&[0, 1, 2, 5, 8])]
+    #[case::unsorted(&[5, 0, 8, 2, 1])]
+    #[case::sorted_repeated(&[0, 1, 2, 2, 5, 8])]
+    // A binary search for 2 lands on the copy at position 3 of this list.
+    #[case::unsorted_repeated(&[2, 0, 1, 2, 5, 8])]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fragments_from_proto_returns_first_stored_fragment_in_request_order(
+        #[case] stored_ids: &[u64],
+    ) {
+        let dataset = make_test_dataset_with_stored_ids(stored_ids).await;
+        let requested_ids = [8, 2, 5, 0, 2, 1];
+
+        let resolved = fragments_from_proto(&requested_ids, &dataset).unwrap();
+
+        let first_stored = requested_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|id| {
+                dataset
+                    .manifest
+                    .fragments
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|f| f.id == *id)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .clone()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(resolved, first_stored);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fragments_from_proto_preserves_wide_fragment_ids() {
+        let id = u64::from(u32::MAX) + 1;
+        let dataset = make_test_dataset_with_stored_ids(&[id]).await;
+        let resolved = fragments_from_proto(&[id], &dataset).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(resolved, dataset.manifest.fragments.as_ref().clone());
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::sorted(&[0, 1, 2, 5, 8])]
+    #[case::unsorted_repeated(&[2, 0, 1, 2, 5, 8])]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn fragments_from_proto_rejects_missing_id(#[case] stored_ids: &[u64]) {
+        let dataset = make_test_dataset_with_stored_ids(stored_ids).await;
+
+        let err = fragments_from_proto(&[1, 3], &dataset).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }));
+
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Fragment 3 not found"),
+            "unexpected error: {err}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_exec_to_proto_roundtrip() {
+        let dataset = make_test_dataset().await;
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let state = ctx.state();
+
+        let options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset)
+            .with_batch_size(32)
+            .with_scan_range_before_filter(0..50)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let exec = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), options, None).unwrap();
+
+        let proto = filtered_read_exec_to_proto(&exec, &state).await.unwrap();
+
+        // Check table identifier
+        let table = proto.table.as_ref().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(table.uri, dataset.uri());
+        assert_eq!(table.version, dataset.manifest.version);
+        assert!(table.serialized_manifest.is_none());
+
+        // Roundtrip back
+        let back = filtered_read_exec_from_proto(proto, Some(dataset.clone()), None, &state)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(exec.options().batch_size, back.options().batch_size);
+        assert_eq!(
+            exec.options().scan_range_before_filter,
+            back.options().scan_range_before_filter
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            exec.options().projection.field_ids,
+            back.options().projection.field_ids
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A row-stream (take) exec serializes like any other: the input plan
+    /// travels as the node's child through the plan codec, and decoding
+    /// re-derives the row-stream selector from the child's schema
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_exec_to_proto_roundtrip_row_stream() {
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+        use lance_core::{ROW_ID, ROW_ID_FIELD};
+        use lance_datafusion::exec::OneShotExec;
+
+        fn keys_input() -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+            let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()]));
+            let batch = arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(arrow_array::UInt64Array::from(vec![3u64, 1, 4]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]);
+            Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema, stream,
+            ))))
+        }
+
+        let dataset = make_test_dataset().await;
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let state = ctx.state();
+
+        let options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset);
+        let exec = FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), options, Some(keys_input())).unwrap();
+        assert!(exec.row_stream_input().is_some());
+
+        let proto = filtered_read_exec_to_proto(&exec, &state).await.unwrap();
+
+        // The codec hands the decoded child back; the selector re-derives
+        // from its schema
+        let back =
+            filtered_read_exec_from_proto(proto, Some(dataset.clone()), Some(keys_input()), &state)
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        assert!(back.row_stream_input().is_some());
+        assert_eq!(exec.schema(), back.schema());
+        assert_eq!(
+            exec.options().projection.field_ids,
+            back.options().projection.field_ids
+        );
+        assert!(
+            back.row_stream_input()
+                .unwrap()
+                .schema()
+                .column_with_name(ROW_ID)
+                .is_some()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_plan_proto_roundtrip() {
+        let dataset = make_test_dataset().await;
+        let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+        let state = ctx.state();
+
+        let mut rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        let mut bitmap0 = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        bitmap0.insert_range(0..25);
+        rows.insert_bitmap(0, bitmap0);
+        let mut bitmap1 = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        bitmap1.insert_range(0..30);
+        rows.insert_bitmap(1, bitmap1);
+
+        // Two fragments share the same Arc<Expr> — dedup should encode it once.
+        let shared_filter = Arc::new(datafusion_expr::col("x").gt(datafusion_expr::lit(10i32)));
+        let mut filters = HashMap::new();
+        filters.insert(0u32, Arc::clone(&shared_filter));
+        filters.insert(1u32, Arc::clone(&shared_filter));
+
+        let plan = FilteredReadPlan {
+            rows,
+            filters,
+            scan_range_after_filter: Some(5..20),
+        };
+
+        let filter_schema = Arc::new(prune_schema_for_substrait(&dataset.schema().into()));
+        let proto = plan_to_proto(&plan, &filter_schema, &state).unwrap();
+
+        // Verify dedup: 2 fragments but only 1 unique expression
+        assert_eq!(proto.fragment_filter_ids.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            proto.filter_expressions.len(),
+            1,
+            "shared Arc<Expr> should be deduplicated into a single expression"
+        );
+
+        let back = plan_from_proto(proto, &dataset, &state).await.unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(plan.rows, back.rows);
+        assert_eq!(plan.scan_range_after_filter, back.scan_range_after_filter);
+        assert_eq!(back.filters.len(), 2);
+        assert!(back.filters.contains_key(&0));
+        assert!(back.filters.contains_key(&1));
+        // After roundtrip, the decoded expressions should be shared via Arc too
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&back.filters[&0], &back.filters[&1]));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/fts.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/fts.rs
index 72ef63846df..ff756632bfc 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/fts.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/fts.rs
@@ -1,710 +1,1253 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::cmp::Ordering;
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
 
-use arrow::array::AsArray;
+use arrow::array::{AsArray, BooleanBuilder, ListBuilder, UInt32Builder};
 use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt64Type};
-use arrow_array::{Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
-use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
-use datafusion::common::Statistics;
+use arrow_array::{Array, BooleanArray, Float32Array, OffsetSizeTrait, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, SchemaRef};
+use datafusion::common::{NullEquality, Statistics};
 use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::empty::EmptyExec;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType};
-use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, Gauge, MetricsSet};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::repartition::RepartitionExec;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::union::UnionExec;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::{DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties};
-use datafusion_physical_expr::{Distribution, EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
-use datafusion_physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, Count};
-use futures::stream::{self};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::expressions::Column;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{Distribution, EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning, PhysicalExpr};
+use datafusion_physical_plan::ExecutionPlanProperties;
+use datafusion_physical_plan::joins::{HashJoinExec, PartitionMode};
+use datafusion_physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, Count, Time};
+use futures::future::try_join_all;
+use futures::stream::{self, FuturesUnordered};
 use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use lance_core::{utils::tracing::StreamTracingExt, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, ROW_ID, Result,
+    utils::{
+        tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu},
+        tracing::StreamTracingExt,
+    },
+};
 use lance_datafusion::utils::{ExecutionPlanMetricsSetExt, MetricsExt, PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC};
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use rustc_hash::FxHashSet;
 
-use super::utils::{build_prefilter, IndexMetrics, InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter};
 use super::PreFilterSource;
-use crate::{index::DatasetIndexInternalExt, Dataset};
+use super::utils::{
+    IndexMetrics, PreFilterMasks, build_prefilter, build_prefilter_restricted_to_fragments,
+};
+use crate::dataset::mem_wal::index::{QueryLocalFtsIndex, QueryLocalFtsStats};
+use crate::index::prefilter::DatasetPreFilter;
+use crate::index::scalar::inverted::{
+    ResolvedFtsField, flatten_fts_document_column, fts_document_schema, load_segment_details,
+    load_segments, transform_fts_document_stream,
+};
+use crate::{Dataset, index::DatasetIndexInternalExt};
 use lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::ScoredDoc;
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::document_input;
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::lance_tokenizer::{DocType, JsonTokenizer, LanceTokenizer};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::document_tokenizer::{DocType, JsonTokenizer, LanceTokenizer};
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
-    collect_query_tokens, BoostQuery, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery, PhraseQuery,
+    BoostQuery, CombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery, FtsQueryNode, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery, Operator,
+    PhraseQuery, Tokens, has_query_token, try_collect_query_tokens, uses_fuzzy_expansion,
 };
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::lance_tokenizer::TextTokenizer;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::tokenizer::document_tokenizer::TextTokenizer;
 use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
-    flat_bm25_search_stream, InvertedIndex, FTS_SCHEMA, SCORE_COL,
+    CombinedCorpusStats, CombinedFieldColumn, CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer, DOC_INDEX_COL,
+    DocumentGranularity, FTS_SCHEMA, FlatBm25SearchOptions, InvertedIndex, MemBM25Scorer,
+    PreparedBm25Query, SCORE_COL, Scorer, build_combined_bm25_scorer, build_global_bm25_scorer,
+    combined_fields_search, compound_search, compound_search_prepared_match,
+    compound_search_prepared_match_with_score_floor, compound_search_with_base_scorer,
+    cross_column_compound_search, exclusive_scaled_score_floor,
+    flat_bm25_search_stream_with_options_and_scorer, flat_combined_fields_search_stream,
+    fts_schema, materialized_compound_top_k, prepare_bm25_query, validate_combined_tokenizers,
 };
 use lance_index::{prefilter::PreFilter, scalar::inverted::query::BooleanQuery};
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexCriteria};
+use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps};
+use lance_tokenizer::{SimpleTokenizer, TextAnalyzer};
 use tracing::instrument;
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
-pub struct FtsIndexMetrics {
-    index_metrics: IndexMetrics,
-    partitions_searched: Count,
-    baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics,
+/// Maximum number of additional kth-score rows retained before exact replay.
+/// One extra probe slot is reserved for the strict lower-score guard.
+const WAND_TIE_COMPLETION_BUDGET: usize = 128;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct TokenWithPosition {
+    text: String,
+    position: u32,
 }
 
-impl FtsIndexMetrics {
-    pub fn new(metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, partition: usize) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            index_metrics: IndexMetrics::new(metrics, partition),
-            partitions_searched: metrics.new_count(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC, partition),
-            baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics::new(metrics, partition),
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct TokenizedQuery(Vec<TokenWithPosition>);
+
+impl TokenizedQuery {
+    fn from_tokens(tokens: &Tokens) -> Self {
+        let mut token_positions = Vec::with_capacity(tokens.len());
+        for index in 0..tokens.len() {
+            token_positions.push(TokenWithPosition {
+                text: tokens.get_token(index).to_string(),
+                position: tokens.position(index),
+            });
         }
+        Self(token_positions)
     }
+}
 
-    pub fn record_parts_searched(&self, num_parts: usize) {
-        self.partitions_searched.add(num_parts);
+impl std::fmt::Display for TokenizedQuery {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "[")?;
+        for (index, token) in self.0.iter().enumerate() {
+            if index > 0 {
+                write!(f, ", ")?;
+            }
+            write!(f, "({:?}, {})", token.text, token.position)?;
+        }
+        write!(f, "]")
     }
 }
 
-impl MetricsCollector for FtsIndexMetrics {
-    fn record_parts_loaded(&self, num_parts: usize) {
-        self.index_metrics.record_parts_loaded(num_parts);
-    }
+fn record_tokenized_query(snapshot: &OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>, tokens: &Tokens) {
+    snapshot.get_or_init(|| TokenizedQuery::from_tokens(tokens));
+}
 
-    fn record_index_loads(&self, num_indexes: usize) {
-        self.index_metrics.record_index_loads(num_indexes);
+fn fmt_tokenized_query(
+    snapshot: &OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>,
+    separator: &str,
+    f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>,
+) -> std::fmt::Result {
+    if let Some(tokens) = snapshot.get() {
+        write!(f, "{separator}tokenized_query={tokens}")?;
     }
+    Ok(())
+}
 
-    fn record_comparisons(&self, num_comparisons: usize) {
-        self.index_metrics.record_comparisons(num_comparisons);
-    }
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum TokenizedLeafKind {
+    Match,
+    Phrase,
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct MatchQueryExec {
-    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-    query: MatchQuery,
-    params: FtsSearchParams,
-    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+impl std::fmt::Display for TokenizedLeafKind {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Match => write!(f, "Match"),
+            Self::Phrase => write!(f, "Phrase"),
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-    properties: PlanProperties,
-    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct TokenizedQueryLeaf {
+    kind: TokenizedLeafKind,
+    column: Option<String>,
+    tokens: TokenizedQuery,
 }
 
-impl DisplayAs for MatchQueryExec {
-    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        match t {
-            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "MatchQuery: column={}, query={}",
-                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
-                    self.query.terms
-                )
-            }
-            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "MatchQuery\ncolumn={}\nquery={}",
-                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
-                    self.query.terms
-                )
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+struct TokenizedCompoundQuery(Vec<TokenizedQueryLeaf>);
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for TokenizedCompoundQuery {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "[")?;
+        for (index, leaf) in self.0.iter().enumerate() {
+            if index > 0 {
+                write!(f, ", ")?;
             }
+            write!(
+                f,
+                "{}(column={:?}, tokens={})",
+                leaf.kind,
+                leaf.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+                leaf.tokens
+            )?;
         }
+        write!(f, "]")
     }
 }
 
-impl MatchQueryExec {
-    pub fn new(
-        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-        query: MatchQuery,
-        params: FtsSearchParams,
-        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
-            EquivalenceProperties::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()),
-            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-            EmissionType::Final,
+fn fmt_tokenized_compound_query(
+    snapshot: &OnceLock<TokenizedCompoundQuery>,
+    separator: &str,
+    f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>,
+) -> std::fmt::Result {
+    if let Some(tokens) = snapshot.get() {
+        write!(f, "{separator}tokenized_query={tokens}")?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Expands a schema-derived nested FTS source into one canonical row per
+/// logical document before flat search or index building consumes it.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FtsDocumentExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    resolved: ResolvedFtsField,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl FtsDocumentExec {
+    pub(crate) fn new(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, resolved: ResolvedFtsField) -> Self {
+        let schema = fts_document_schema(resolved.coordinate_rank());
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema),
+            input.output_partitioning().clone(),
+            EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
         Self {
-            dataset,
-            query,
-            params,
-            prefilter_source,
+            input,
+            resolved,
             properties,
-            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl ExecutionPlan for MatchQueryExec {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "MatchQueryExec"
+impl DisplayAs for FtsDocumentExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, _t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(
+            f,
+            "FtsDocument: column={}, granularity={:?}",
+            self.resolved.canonical_path, self.resolved.document_granularity
+        )
     }
+}
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
+impl ExecutionPlan for FtsDocumentExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "FtsDocumentExec"
     }
 
     fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        match &self.prefilter_source {
-            PreFilterSource::None => vec![],
-            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(src) => vec![&src],
-            PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(src) => vec![&src],
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
-        // Prefilter inputs must be a single partition
-        self.children()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
-            .collect()
+        vec![&self.input]
     }
 
     fn with_new_children(
         self: Arc<Self>,
         mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let plan = match children.len() {
-            0 => {
-                if !matches!(self.prefilter_source, PreFilterSource::None) {
-                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
-                        "Unexpected prefilter source".to_string(),
-                    ));
-                }
-
-                Self {
-                    dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
-                    query: self.query.clone(),
-                    params: self.params.clone(),
-                    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource::None,
-                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
-                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-                }
-            }
-            1 => {
-                let src = children.pop().unwrap();
-                let prefilter_source = match &self.prefilter_source {
-                    PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(_) => {
-                        PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(src.clone())
-                    }
-                    PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(_) => {
-                        PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(src.clone())
-                    }
-                    PreFilterSource::None => {
-                        return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
-                            "Unexpected prefilter source".to_string(),
-                        ));
-                    }
-                };
-
-                Self {
-                    dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
-                    query: self.query.clone(),
-                    params: self.params.clone(),
-                    prefilter_source,
-                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
-                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-                }
-            }
-            _ => {
-                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
-                    "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
-                ));
-            }
-        };
-        Ok(Arc::new(plan))
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "FtsDocumentExec expects one child".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
+            children.pop().unwrap(),
+            self.resolved.clone(),
+        )))
     }
 
-    #[instrument(name = "match_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     fn execute(
         &self,
         partition: usize,
         context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let query = self.query.clone();
-        let params = self.params.clone();
-        let ds = self.dataset.clone();
-        let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.clone();
-        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
-        let column = query.column.ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-            "column not set for MatchQuery {}",
-            query.terms
-        )))?;
-        let stream = stream::once(async move {
-            let _timer = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
-            let index_meta = ds
-                .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column(&column).supports_fts())
-                .await?
-                .ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-                    "No Inverted index found for column {}",
-                    column,
-                )))?;
-            let uuid = index_meta.uuid.to_string();
-            let index = ds
-                .open_generic_index(&column, &uuid, &metrics.index_metrics)
-                .await?;
-
-            let pre_filter = build_prefilter(
-                context.clone(),
-                partition,
-                &prefilter_source,
-                ds,
-                &[index_meta],
-            )?;
+        transform_fts_document_stream(
+            self.input.execute(partition, context)?,
+            self.resolved.clone(),
+        )
+        .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+    }
 
-            let inverted_idx = index
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
-                .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-                        "Index for column {} is not an inverted index",
-                        column,
-                    ))
-                })?;
-            metrics.record_parts_searched(inverted_idx.partition_count());
-
-            let is_fuzzy = matches!(query.fuzziness, Some(n) if n != 0);
-            let params = params
-                .with_fuzziness(query.fuzziness)
-                .with_max_expansions(query.max_expansions)
-                .with_prefix_length(query.prefix_length);
-            let mut tokenizer = match is_fuzzy {
-                false => inverted_idx.tokenizer(),
-                true => {
-                    let tokenizer = tantivy::tokenizer::TextAnalyzer::from(
-                        tantivy::tokenizer::SimpleTokenizer::default(),
-                    );
-                    match inverted_idx.tokenizer().doc_type() {
-                        DocType::Text => {
-                            Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(tokenizer)) as Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>
-                        }
-                        DocType::Json => {
-                            Box::new(JsonTokenizer::new(tokenizer)) as Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            };
-            let tokens = collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer, None);
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+}
 
-            pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
-            let (doc_ids, mut scores) = inverted_idx
-                .bm25_search(
-                    Arc::new(tokens),
-                    params.into(),
-                    query.operator,
-                    pre_filter,
-                    metrics.clone(),
-                )
-                .boxed()
-                .await?;
-            scores.iter_mut().for_each(|s| {
-                *s *= query.boost;
-            });
-            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(doc_ids.len());
+/// Open one FTS segment as an [`InvertedIndex`].
+async fn open_fts_segment(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    segment: &IndexMetadata,
+    metrics: &IndexMetrics,
+) -> Result<Arc<InvertedIndex>> {
+    let index = dataset
+        .open_scalar_index(column, &segment.uuid, metrics)
+        .await?;
+    let inverted = index
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "Index for column {} and segment {} is not an inverted index",
+                column, segment.uuid
+            ))
+        })?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(inverted.clone()))
+}
 
-            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
-                vec![
-                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(doc_ids)),
-                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(scores)),
-                ],
-            )?;
-            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
-        });
+/// Open all committed FTS segments for a column.
+///
+/// Exact multi-segment BM25 still needs every segment's local corpus statistics, so the
+/// current correctness-first path opens each committed segment before scoring.
+async fn open_fts_segments(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+    metrics: &IndexMetrics,
+) -> Result<Vec<Arc<InvertedIndex>>> {
+    try_join_all(
+        segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| open_fts_segment(dataset, column, segment, metrics)),
+    )
+    .await
+}
 
-        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            self.schema(),
-            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
-        )))
+async fn search_prepared_segments(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    prepared: Arc<PreparedMatch>,
+    pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<FtsIndexMetrics>,
+    initial_score_floor: Option<f32>,
+) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+    let limit = prepared.params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+    let mut candidates = std::collections::BinaryHeap::new();
+    let searches = indices
+        .iter()
+        .map(|index| {
+            let index = Arc::clone(index);
+            let prepared = prepared.clone();
+            let pre_filter = pre_filter.clone();
+            let metrics = metrics.clone();
+            async move {
+                if let Some(initial_score_floor) = initial_score_floor {
+                    index
+                        .bm25_search_prepared_documents_with_score_floor(
+                            prepared.query.clone(),
+                            prepared.params.clone(),
+                            prepared.operator,
+                            pre_filter,
+                            metrics,
+                            initial_score_floor,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                } else {
+                    index
+                        .bm25_search_prepared_documents(
+                            prepared.query.clone(),
+                            prepared.params.clone(),
+                            prepared.operator,
+                            pre_filter,
+                            metrics,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                }
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let searches = stream::iter(searches).buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus());
+    let mut searches = searches;
+
+    while let Some(documents) = searches.try_next().await? {
+        for document in documents {
+            if candidates.len() < limit {
+                candidates.push(std::cmp::Reverse(document));
+            } else if candidates.peek().unwrap().0.score < document.score {
+                candidates.pop();
+                candidates.push(std::cmp::Reverse(document));
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> DataFusionResult<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics::new_unknown(&FTS_SCHEMA))
+    Ok(candidates
+        .into_sorted_vec()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|std::cmp::Reverse(document)| document)
+        .collect())
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn search_segments(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    tokens: Arc<Tokens>,
+    params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+    operator: Operator,
+    pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<FtsIndexMetrics>,
+    base_scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+    initial_score_floor: Option<f32>,
+) -> Result<Vec<ScoredDoc>> {
+    let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+    let mut candidates = std::collections::BinaryHeap::new();
+    let searches = indices
+        .iter()
+        .map(|index| {
+            let index = Arc::clone(index);
+            let tokens = tokens.clone();
+            let params = params.clone();
+            let pre_filter = pre_filter.clone();
+            let metrics = metrics.clone();
+            let base_scorer = base_scorer.clone();
+            async move {
+                if let Some(initial_score_floor) = initial_score_floor {
+                    index
+                        .bm25_search_documents_with_score_floor(
+                            tokens,
+                            params,
+                            operator,
+                            pre_filter,
+                            metrics,
+                            Some(base_scorer.as_ref()),
+                            initial_score_floor,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                } else {
+                    index
+                        .bm25_search_documents(
+                            tokens,
+                            params,
+                            operator,
+                            pre_filter,
+                            metrics,
+                            Some(base_scorer.as_ref()),
+                        )
+                        .await
+                }
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let searches = stream::iter(searches).buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus());
+    let mut searches = searches;
+
+    while let Some(documents) = searches.try_next().await? {
+        for document in documents {
+            if candidates.len() < limit {
+                candidates.push(std::cmp::Reverse(document));
+            } else if candidates.peek().unwrap().0.score < document.score {
+                candidates.pop();
+                candidates.push(std::cmp::Reverse(document));
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
-        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    Ok(candidates
+        .into_sorted_vec()
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|std::cmp::Reverse(document)| document)
+        .collect())
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct PreparedMatch {
+    query: Arc<PreparedBm25Query>,
+    params: Arc<FtsSearchParams>,
+    operator: Operator,
+}
+
+impl PreparedMatch {
+    async fn new(
+        indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+        tokens: Tokens,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        operator: Operator,
+        metrics: &FtsIndexMetrics,
+        base_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let query = Arc::new(
+            prepare_bm25_query(indices, tokens, &params, Some(metrics), base_scorer).await?,
+        );
+        Ok(Self {
+            query,
+            params: Arc::new(params),
+            operator,
+        })
     }
+}
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
-        &self.properties
+fn scored_documents_batch(schema: SchemaRef, documents: Vec<ScoredDoc>) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(documents.iter().map(|document| document.row_id));
+    let scores = Float32Array::from_iter_values(documents.iter().map(|document| document.score.0));
+    let mut columns = vec![Arc::new(row_ids) as Arc<dyn Array>];
+    if schema.field_with_name(DOC_INDEX_COL).is_ok() {
+        let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(UInt32Builder::new()).with_field(Field::new(
+            "item",
+            DataType::UInt32,
+            false,
+        ));
+        for document in &documents {
+            builder.values().append_slice(&document.doc_index);
+            builder.append(true);
+        }
+        columns.push(Arc::new(builder.finish()));
     }
+    columns.push(Arc::new(scores));
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(schema, columns)?)
+}
 
-    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
-        false
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Hash)]
+struct DocumentKey {
+    row_id: u64,
+    doc_index: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+fn batch_document_keys(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Vec<DocumentKey>> {
+    let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+    let doc_indices = batch
+        .column_by_name(DOC_INDEX_COL)
+        .map(|column| column.as_list::<i32>());
+    (0..batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|row| {
+            let doc_index = if let Some(doc_indices) = doc_indices {
+                if doc_indices.is_null(row) {
+                    return Err(Error::internal(
+                        "element-document FTS produced a null document coordinate".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                doc_indices
+                    .value(row)
+                    .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::UInt32Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec()
+            } else {
+                Vec::new()
+            };
+            Ok(DocumentKey {
+                row_id: row_ids.value(row),
+                doc_index,
+            })
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn batch_scored_document_keys(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Vec<(DocumentKey, f32)>> {
+    let keys = batch_document_keys(batch)?;
+    let scores = batch[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+    Ok(keys
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(index, key)| (key, scores.value(index)))
+        .collect())
+}
+
+fn batch_scored_document_keys_sum_scores(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Vec<(DocumentKey, f32)>> {
+    let keys = batch_document_keys(batch)?;
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let score_columns = schema
+        .fields()
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .filter(|(_, field)| field.name() == SCORE_COL)
+        .map(|(index, _)| batch.column(index).as_primitive::<Float32Type>())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    if score_columns.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+            "Boolean MUST result is missing required {SCORE_COL} columns"
+        )));
     }
+    keys.into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(row, key)| {
+            let score: f32 = score_columns.iter().map(|scores| scores.value(row)).sum();
+            if !score.is_finite() {
+                return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                    "Boolean MUST score sum must be finite, got {score} for row_id={}",
+                    key.row_id
+                )));
+            }
+            Ok((key, score))
+        })
+        .collect()
 }
 
-/// Calculates the FTS score for each row in the input
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct FlatMatchQueryExec {
-    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-    query: MatchQuery,
-    params: FtsSearchParams,
-    unindexed_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+fn document_key_scores_batch(
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    values: impl IntoIterator<Item = (DocumentKey, f32)>,
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    scored_documents_batch(
+        schema,
+        values
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(key, score)| ScoredDoc::with_doc_index(key.row_id, key.doc_index, score))
+            .collect(),
+    )
+}
 
-    properties: PlanProperties,
-    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+fn compare_scored_documents(
+    (left_key, left_score): &(DocumentKey, f32),
+    (right_key, right_score): &(DocumentKey, f32),
+) -> Ordering {
+    right_score
+        .total_cmp(left_score)
+        .then_with(|| left_key.cmp(right_key))
 }
 
-impl DisplayAs for FlatMatchQueryExec {
-    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        match t {
-            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "FlatMatchQuery: column={}, query={}",
-                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
-                    self.query.terms
-                )
+fn count_fts_leaves(query: &FtsQuery) -> usize {
+    match query {
+        FtsQuery::Match(_) | FtsQuery::Phrase(_) => 1,
+        FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+            count_fts_leaves(&query.positive) + count_fts_leaves(&query.negative)
+        }
+        FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => query.match_queries.len(),
+        // Unreachable while `supports_compound_scorer` rejects BM25F. Counted as
+        // the per-column posting scans anyway, so the arm stays honest if that
+        // changes.
+        FtsQuery::CombinedFields(query) => query.column_names().count(),
+        FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => query
+            .should
+            .iter()
+            .chain(&query.must)
+            .chain(&query.must_not)
+            .map(count_fts_leaves)
+            .sum(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Return every leaf column, including prohibited Boolean leaves.
+///
+/// The repeated, ordered list is useful beyond the distinct set returned by
+/// `FtsQueryNode::columns`: each leaf contributes its own posting-partition
+/// work and must use the tokenizer and statistics of its field.
+fn compound_leaf_columns(query: &FtsQuery) -> Result<Vec<&str>> {
+    fn visit<'a>(query: &'a FtsQuery, columns: &mut Vec<&'a str>) -> Result<()> {
+        let required_column = |column: &'a Option<String>, kind: &str| {
+            column.as_deref().ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cross-column compound FTS {kind} leaf is missing its resolved column"
+                ))
+            })
+        };
+
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(query) => columns.push(required_column(&query.column, "Match")?),
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => columns.push(required_column(&query.column, "Phrase")?),
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                visit(&query.positive, columns)?;
+                visit(&query.negative, columns)?;
             }
-            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "FlatMatchQuery\ncolumn={}\nquery={}",
-                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
-                    self.query.terms
-                )
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                for query in &query.match_queries {
+                    columns.push(required_column(&query.column, "MultiMatch")?);
+                }
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                for query in query
+                    .should
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(&query.must)
+                    .chain(&query.must_not)
+                {
+                    visit(query, columns)?;
+                }
+            }
+            // Unreachable while `supports_compound_scorer` rejects BM25F: a
+            // combined_fields leaf blends statistics across its columns, so it
+            // cannot name one column per leaf the way this list requires.
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "cross-column compound FTS cannot take a combined_fields leaf".to_string(),
+                ));
             }
         }
+        Ok(())
     }
+
+    let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(count_fts_leaves(query));
+    visit(query, &mut columns)?;
+    Ok(columns)
 }
 
-impl FlatMatchQueryExec {
-    pub fn new(
+fn compound_query_uses_fuzzy_expansion(query: &FtsQuery) -> bool {
+    match query {
+        FtsQuery::Match(query) => uses_fuzzy_expansion(query.fuzziness),
+        // combined_fields matches terms exactly; it has no fuzziness setting.
+        FtsQuery::Phrase(_) | FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => false,
+        FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+            compound_query_uses_fuzzy_expansion(&query.positive)
+                || compound_query_uses_fuzzy_expansion(&query.negative)
+        }
+        FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => query
+            .match_queries
+            .iter()
+            .any(|query| uses_fuzzy_expansion(query.fuzziness)),
+        FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => query
+            .should
+            .iter()
+            .chain(&query.must)
+            .chain(&query.must_not)
+            .any(compound_query_uses_fuzzy_expansion),
+    }
+}
+
+/// One DataFusion boundary around a posting-backed compound scorer tree.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct CompoundQueryExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    query: FtsQuery,
+    tokenized_query: Arc<OnceLock<TokenizedCompoundQuery>>,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    /// When set, leaf scorers use this instead of building one from the
+    /// searched segments — see [`MatchQueryExec::with_base_scorer`].
+    base_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+    /// Canonical vocabulary/scorer pair for a root Match query prepared over
+    /// the complete corpus before this exec was restricted to a segment
+    /// subset.
+    prepared_match: Option<Arc<PreparedBm25Query>>,
+    segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection,
+    /// Caller-supplied row-address mask, intersected into the prefilter so the
+    /// compound scorer ranks only surviving rows (see
+    /// [`MatchQueryExec::with_external_mask`]).
+    external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl CompoundQueryExec {
+    pub fn new_with_segments(
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-        query: MatchQuery,
+        query: FtsQuery,
         params: FtsSearchParams,
-        unindexed_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-        schema: SchemaRef,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::new_inner(
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            FtsSegmentSelection::ExactResolved(Arc::from(segments)),
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_segment_uuids(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: FtsQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        segment_uuids: Vec<Uuid>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self::new_inner(
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            FtsSegmentSelection::exact_uuids(segment_uuids),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn new_inner(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: FtsQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection,
     ) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
-            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema),
-            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-            EmissionType::Incremental,
-            Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
         Self {
             dataset,
             query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
             params,
-            unindexed_input,
-            properties,
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            prepared_match: None,
+            segment_selection,
+            external_mask: None,
+            properties: Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+                EquivalenceProperties::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()),
+                Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+                EmissionType::Final,
+                Boundedness::Bounded,
+            )),
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
         }
     }
-}
 
-impl ExecutionPlan for FlatMatchQueryExec {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "FlatMatchQueryExec"
+    /// See [`MatchQueryExec::with_external_mask`].
+    pub fn with_external_mask(mut self, mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>) -> Self {
+        self.external_mask = mask;
+        self
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
+    /// Override locally computed BM25 statistics with a corpus-wide scorer.
+    ///
+    /// The scorer must cover every token in every query leaf, including fuzzy
+    /// expansions. Execution returns an error when any required token is absent.
+    pub fn with_base_scorer(mut self, scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>) -> Self {
+        self.base_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self.prepared_match = None;
         self
     }
 
-    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        vec![&self.unindexed_input]
+    /// Override root-Match preparation with one canonical vocabulary/scorer
+    /// pair built against the complete corpus.
+    ///
+    /// This is required for distributed fuzzy execution over a segment subset;
+    /// a scorer alone cannot preserve the globally capped rewrite.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn with_prepared_match(mut self, prepared: Arc<PreparedBm25Query>) -> Self {
+        self.prepared_match = Some(prepared);
+        self.base_scorer = None;
+        self
     }
 
-    fn with_new_children(
-        self: Arc<Self>,
-        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
-    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        if children.len() != 1 {
-            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
-                "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
-            ));
-        }
-        let unindexed_input = children.pop().unwrap();
-        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &FtsQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn prefilter_source(&self) -> &PreFilterSource {
+        &self.prefilter_source
+    }
+
+    pub fn base_scorer(&self) -> Option<&Arc<MemBM25Scorer>> {
+        self.base_scorer.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Re-cut this scorer at `limit`, keeping its segment selection, prepared
+    /// scorers and masks.
+    ///
+    /// The FTS top-k lives in `FtsSearchParams`, not in an enclosing fetch
+    /// node, so a caller that needs more candidates than the user asked for —
+    /// over-fetching to survive a later dedup, say — has no other way to raise
+    /// it. Everything that decides *which* rows are eligible is carried over
+    /// untouched, so this widens the cut without widening the domain.
+    pub fn with_limit(&self, limit: usize) -> Self {
+        let mut params = self.params.clone();
+        params.limit = Some(limit);
+        Self {
             dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
             query: self.query.clone(),
-            params: self.params.clone(),
-            unindexed_input,
+            tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+            params,
+            prefilter_source: self.prefilter_source.clone(),
+            base_scorer: self.base_scorer.clone(),
+            prepared_match: self.prepared_match.clone(),
+            segment_selection: self.segment_selection.clone(),
+            external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
             properties: self.properties.clone(),
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-        }))
+        }
     }
 
-    #[instrument(name = "flat_match_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
-    fn execute(
-        &self,
-        partition: usize,
-        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
-    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let query = self.query.clone();
-        let ds = self.dataset.clone();
-        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
-        let metrics_clone = metrics.clone();
+    /// See [`MatchQueryExec::explicit_segment_uuids`].
+    pub fn explicit_segment_uuids(&self) -> Option<Vec<Uuid>> {
+        self.segment_selection.explicit_segment_uuids()
+    }
+}
 
-        let column = query.column.ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-            "column not set for MatchQuery {}",
-            query.terms
-        )))?;
-        let unindexed_input =
-            document_input(self.unindexed_input.execute(partition, context)?, &column)?;
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct QueryLocalResidualShard {
+    index: QueryLocalFtsIndex,
+    stats: QueryLocalFtsStats,
+}
 
-        let schema = self.schema();
-        let stream = stream::once(async move {
-            let index_meta = ds
-                .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column(&column).supports_fts())
-                .await?;
-            let inverted_idx = match index_meta {
-                Some(index_meta) => {
-                    let uuid = index_meta.uuid.to_string();
-                    let index = ds
-                        .open_generic_index(&column, &uuid, &metrics.index_metrics)
-                        .await?;
-                    index.as_any().downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>().cloned()
-                }
-                None => None,
-            };
-            if let Some(index) = inverted_idx.as_ref() {
-                metrics.record_parts_searched(index.partition_count());
-            }
+async fn index_query_local_residual_batch(
+    mut residual: QueryLocalResidualShard,
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    allowed_terms: Arc<FxHashSet<String>>,
+) -> Result<QueryLocalResidualShard> {
+    spawn_cpu(move || {
+        let row_ids = batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input(
+                    "hybrid compound FTS residual input is missing _rowid".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+        let stats = residual.index.insert_with_row_ids_for_terms(
+            &batch,
+            row_ids,
+            allowed_terms.as_ref(),
+        )?;
+        residual.stats.checked_add_assign(stats)?;
+        Ok(residual)
+    })
+    .await
+}
 
-            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(flat_bm25_search_stream(
-                unindexed_input,
-                column,
-                query.terms,
-                &inverted_idx,
-                schema,
-            ))
-        })
-        .try_flatten_unordered(None)
-        .map(move |batch| {
-            if let Ok(batch) = &batch {
-                metrics_clone
-                    .baseline_metrics
-                    .record_output(batch.num_rows());
-            }
-            batch
-        });
-        Ok(Box::pin(InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            self.schema(),
-            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
-            partition,
-            &self.metrics,
-        )))
+/// Build a bounded set of independent residual posting shards.
+///
+/// A single [`QueryLocalFtsIndex`] intentionally has one writer. Reusing one
+/// index per CPU worker preserves that contract while allowing different scan
+/// batches to tokenize in parallel. Completed workers immediately take the
+/// next batch, so the entire stream is never collected in memory and the
+/// number of live tokenizers/posting maps is bounded by the CPU pool size.
+async fn index_query_local_residual(
+    residual_input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    seed: QueryLocalFtsIndex,
+    allowed_terms: Arc<FxHashSet<String>>,
+) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<QueryLocalResidualShard>> {
+    // Match flat FTS's CPU-task sizing. Dataset scan batches are normally
+    // row-bounded (often 8,192 rows), which can leave a small residual with
+    // only one or two tokenizer tasks. Byte rechunking keeps tasks substantial
+    // while exposing enough parallelism for variable-width text.
+    const ACCUMULATE_BYTES: usize = 256 * 1024;
+    const SLICE_BYTES: usize = 512 * 1024;
+    let input_schema = residual_input.schema();
+    let mut residual_input = Box::pin(lance_arrow::stream::rechunk_stream_by_size(
+        residual_input,
+        input_schema,
+        ACCUMULATE_BYTES,
+        SLICE_BYTES,
+    ));
+    let parallelism = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1);
+    let mut initial_batches = Vec::with_capacity(parallelism);
+    let mut is_input_exhausted = false;
+
+    while initial_batches.len() < parallelism {
+        let Some(batch) = residual_input.try_next().await? else {
+            is_input_exhausted = true;
+            break;
+        };
+        initial_batches.push(batch);
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> DataFusionResult<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics::new_unknown(&FTS_SCHEMA))
+    if initial_batches.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(vec![QueryLocalResidualShard {
+            index: seed,
+            stats: QueryLocalFtsStats::default(),
+        }]);
     }
 
-    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
-        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    // Construct every shard from the already-loaded seed before dispatching
+    // CPU work. This keeps tokenizer model I/O out of `spawn_cpu` closures.
+    let mut initial_shards = Vec::with_capacity(initial_batches.len());
+    for _ in 1..initial_batches.len() {
+        initial_shards.push(QueryLocalResidualShard {
+            index: seed.empty_sibling(),
+            stats: QueryLocalFtsStats::default(),
+        });
+    }
+    initial_shards.push(QueryLocalResidualShard {
+        index: seed,
+        stats: QueryLocalFtsStats::default(),
+    });
+
+    let mut in_flight = FuturesUnordered::new();
+    for (shard, batch) in initial_shards.into_iter().zip(initial_batches) {
+        in_flight.push(index_query_local_residual_batch(
+            shard,
+            batch,
+            allowed_terms.clone(),
+        ));
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
-        &self.properties
+    let mut shards = Vec::with_capacity(parallelism.min(in_flight.len()));
+    while let Some(shard) = in_flight.try_next().await? {
+        if is_input_exhausted {
+            shards.push(shard);
+            continue;
+        }
+        match residual_input.try_next().await? {
+            Some(batch) => in_flight.push(index_query_local_residual_batch(
+                shard,
+                batch,
+                allowed_terms.clone(),
+            )),
+            None => {
+                is_input_exhausted = true;
+                shards.push(shard);
+            }
+        }
     }
+    Ok(shards)
+}
 
-    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
-        false
+async fn query_local_residual_leaves(
+    shards: Vec<QueryLocalResidualShard>,
+    query: FtsQuery,
+    scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>,
+) -> Result<Vec<Vec<(u64, f32)>>> {
+    let shard_leaves = stream::iter(shards.into_iter().map(|shard| {
+        let query = query.clone();
+        let scorer = scorer.clone();
+        spawn_cpu(move || shard.index.exact_leaf_results(&query, scorer.as_ref()))
+    }))
+    .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1))
+    .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    .await?;
+
+    let leaf_count = shard_leaves.first().map_or(0, Vec::len);
+    let mut merged = vec![Vec::new(); leaf_count];
+    for leaves in shard_leaves {
+        if leaves.len() != leaf_count {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "hybrid compound FTS residual shards produced inconsistent leaf counts: expected {leaf_count}, got {}",
+                leaves.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        for (merged, rows) in merged.iter_mut().zip(leaves) {
+            merged.extend(rows);
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(merged)
+}
+
+fn residual_bm25_scorer(
+    committed_scorer: &MemBM25Scorer,
+    shards: &[QueryLocalResidualShard],
+) -> Result<MemBM25Scorer> {
+    let mut scorer = committed_scorer.clone();
+    for shard in shards {
+        shard.stats.add_to_scorer(&mut scorer)?;
     }
+    Ok(scorer)
 }
 
+/// Compound FTS over committed postings plus a small append-only residual scan.
+///
+/// The residual documents are tokenized once into query-local postings, rather
+/// than once for every compound leaf. The indexed arm uses committed-index
+/// BM25 statistics. The residual arm extends those statistics with the
+/// query-local materialized documents, which matches the established mixed
+/// flat-search approximation without rescanning the residual input or rebuilding
+/// exact corpus statistics.
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct PhraseQueryExec {
+pub struct HybridCompoundQueryExec {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-    query: PhraseQuery,
+    query: FtsQuery,
     params: FtsSearchParams,
-    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    column: String,
+    segments: Arc<[IndexMetadata]>,
+    residual_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
 
-impl DisplayAs for PhraseQueryExec {
-    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        match t {
-            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "PhraseQuery: column={}, query={}",
-                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
-                    self.query.terms
-                )
-            }
-            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "PhraseQuery\ncolumn={}\nquery={}",
-                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
-                    self.query.terms
-                )
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl PhraseQueryExec {
+impl HybridCompoundQueryExec {
     pub fn new(
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-        query: PhraseQuery,
-        mut params: FtsSearchParams,
-        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        query: FtsQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        column: String,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        residual_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
     ) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
-            EquivalenceProperties::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()),
-            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-            EmissionType::Final,
-            Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
-        params = params.with_phrase_slop(Some(query.slop));
-
         Self {
             dataset,
             query,
             params,
-            prefilter_source,
-            properties,
+            column,
+            segments: Arc::from(segments),
+            residual_input,
+            properties: Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+                EquivalenceProperties::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()),
+                Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+                EmissionType::Final,
+                Boundedness::Bounded,
+            )),
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
         }
     }
+
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &FtsQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn column(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.column
+    }
+
+    /// The indexed segments this scorer reads. Paired with
+    /// [`Self::residual_input`] and [`Self::new`], this is what lets a caller
+    /// rebuild the node — the FTS top-k lives in [`Self::params`], not in a
+    /// fetch node, so changing it means reconstruction.
+    pub fn segments(&self) -> &[IndexMetadata] {
+        &self.segments
+    }
+
+    /// The scan over the fragments no segment covers.
+    pub fn residual_input(&self) -> &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        &self.residual_input
+    }
 }
 
-impl ExecutionPlan for PhraseQueryExec {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "PhraseQueryExec"
+impl DisplayAs for HybridCompoundQueryExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, _t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(
+            f,
+            "HybridCompoundFtsScorer: column={}, query={}",
+            self.column, self.query
+        )
     }
+}
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
+impl ExecutionPlan for HybridCompoundQueryExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "HybridCompoundQueryExec"
     }
 
     fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        match &self.prefilter_source {
-            PreFilterSource::None => vec![],
-            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(src) => vec![&src],
-            PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(src) => vec![&src],
-        }
+        vec![&self.residual_input]
     }
 
     fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
-        // Prefilter inputs must be a single partition
-        self.children()
-            .iter()
-            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
-            .collect()
+        vec![Distribution::SinglePartition]
     }
 
     fn with_new_children(
         self: Arc<Self>,
         mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        let plan = match children.len() {
-            0 => Self {
-                dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
-                query: self.query.clone(),
-                params: self.params.clone(),
-                prefilter_source: PreFilterSource::None,
-                properties: self.properties.clone(),
-                metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-            },
-            1 => {
-                let src = children.pop().unwrap();
-                let prefilter_source = match &self.prefilter_source {
-                    PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(_) => {
-                        PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(src.clone())
-                    }
-                    PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(_) => {
-                        PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(src.clone())
-                    }
-                    PreFilterSource::None => {
-                        return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
-                            "Unexpected prefilter source".to_string(),
-                        ));
-                    }
-                };
-                Self {
-                    dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
-                    query: self.query.clone(),
-                    params: self.params.clone(),
-                    prefilter_source,
-                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
-                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-                }
-            }
-            _ => {
-                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
-                    "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
-                ));
-            }
-        };
-        Ok(Arc::new(plan))
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "hybrid compound FTS expected one residual child, got {}",
+                children.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let residual_input = children.pop().ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal("hybrid compound FTS lost its residual child".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            self.query.clone(),
+            self.params.clone(),
+            self.column.clone(),
+            self.segments.to_vec(),
+            residual_input,
+        )))
     }
 
-    #[instrument(name = "phrase_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    #[instrument(name = "hybrid_compound_fts_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     fn execute(
         &self,
         partition: usize,
         context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
         let query = self.query.clone();
         let params = self.params.clone();
-        let ds = self.dataset.clone();
-        let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.clone();
+        let column = self.column.clone();
+        let segments = self.segments.clone();
+        let residual_input = self.residual_input.clone();
+        let metrics_set = self.metrics.clone();
         let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let schema = self.schema();
+
         let stream = stream::once(async move {
             let _timer = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
-            let column = query.column.ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-                "column not set for PhraseQuery {}",
-                query.terms
-            )))?;
-            let index_meta = ds
-                .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column(&column).supports_fts())
-                .await?
-                .ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-                    "No Inverted index found for column {}",
-                    column,
-                )))?;
-            let uuid = index_meta.uuid.to_string();
-            let index = ds
-                .open_generic_index(&column, &uuid, &metrics.index_metrics)
+            let indices =
+                open_fts_segments(&dataset, &column, &segments, &metrics.index_metrics).await?;
+            let first_index = indices.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                    "FTS index for column {column} has no committed segments"
+                ))
+            })?;
+            let field_id = dataset.schema().field_id(&column)?;
+            let tokenizer = first_index.tokenizer();
+            let doc_type = tokenizer.doc_type();
+            let residual_seed = QueryLocalFtsIndex::try_with_loaded_tokenizer(
+                field_id,
+                column.clone(),
+                first_index.params().clone(),
+                tokenizer,
+            )?;
+            let terms = residual_seed.exact_query_terms(&query)?;
+            if terms.is_empty() {
+                metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(0);
+                return scored_documents_batch(schema, Vec::new()).map_err(DataFusionError::from);
+            }
+            let allowed_terms = Arc::new(terms.iter().cloned().collect::<FxHashSet<_>>());
+            let query_tokens = Tokens::new(terms.clone(), doc_type);
+            let exact_params = params
+                .clone()
+                .with_fuzziness(Some(0))
+                .with_phrase_slop(None);
+
+            let residual_context = context.clone();
+            let residual_indexing = async move {
+                let residual_input = residual_input.execute(partition, residual_context)?;
+                index_query_local_residual(residual_input, residual_seed, allowed_terms).await
+            };
+            let scorer_build = async {
+                let scorer = build_global_bm25_scorer(
+                    &indices,
+                    &query_tokens,
+                    &exact_params,
+                    Some(metrics.as_ref()),
+                )
                 .await?;
+                DataFusionResult::<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>::Ok(Arc::new(scorer))
+            };
+            let (residual_shards, committed_scorer) =
+                futures::future::try_join(residual_indexing, scorer_build).await?;
+            let residual_scorer = Arc::new(residual_bm25_scorer(
+                committed_scorer.as_ref(),
+                &residual_shards,
+            )?);
+            let limit = params.limit.ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "hybrid compound FTS requires a bounded result limit".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
 
-            let pre_filter = build_prefilter(
-                context.clone(),
+            let prefilter = build_prefilter(
+                context,
                 partition,
-                &prefilter_source,
-                ds,
-                &[index_meta],
+                &PreFilterSource::None,
+                dataset,
+                &segments,
+                PreFilterMasks {
+                    overlay_block: None,
+                    external_mask: None,
+                },
+                &metrics_set,
             )?;
-
-            let index = index
-                .as_any()
-                .downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>()
-                .ok_or_else(|| {
-                    DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-                        "Index for column {} is not an inverted index",
-                        column,
-                    ))
-                })?;
-            metrics.record_parts_searched(index.partition_count());
-
-            let mut tokenizer = index.tokenizer();
-            let tokens = collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer, None);
-
-            pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
-            let (doc_ids, scores) = index
-                .bm25_search(
-                    Arc::new(tokens),
-                    params.into(),
-                    lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::Operator::And,
-                    pre_filter,
-                    metrics.clone(),
+            let indexed_search = compound_search_with_base_scorer(
+                &indices,
+                &query,
+                &params,
+                prefilter,
+                metrics.clone(),
+                committed_scorer,
+            );
+            let residual_query = query.clone();
+            let residual_search = async move {
+                let residual_leaves = query_local_residual_leaves(
+                    residual_shards,
+                    residual_query.clone(),
+                    residual_scorer,
                 )
-                .boxed()
                 .await?;
-            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(doc_ids.len());
-            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
-                vec![
-                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(doc_ids)),
-                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(scores)),
-                ],
-            )?;
-            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+                spawn_cpu(move || {
+                    materialized_compound_top_k(&residual_query, residual_leaves, limit)
+                })
+                .await
+            };
+            let ((indexed_row_ids, indexed_scores), (residual_row_ids, residual_scores)) =
+                futures::future::try_join(indexed_search, residual_search).await?;
+
+            let mut documents = indexed_row_ids
+                .into_iter()
+                .zip(indexed_scores)
+                .chain(residual_row_ids.into_iter().zip(residual_scores))
+                .map(|(row_id, score)| ScoredDoc::new(row_id, score))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            documents.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| {
+                right
+                    .score
+                    .0
+                    .total_cmp(&left.score.0)
+                    .then_with(|| left.row_id.cmp(&right.row_id))
+            });
+            documents.truncate(limit);
+            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(documents.len());
+            scored_documents_batch(schema, documents).map_err(DataFusionError::from)
         });
         Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
             self.schema(),
@@ -712,95 +1255,126 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for PhraseQueryExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> DataFusionResult<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics::new_unknown(&FTS_SCHEMA))
-    }
-
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
+}
 
-    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
-        false
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum WandExactnessCertificate {
+    Exhaustive,
+    Strict,
+    Ambiguous,
+}
+
+/// Classify a globally merged bounded Match WAND result.
+///
+/// Sorting before classification is essential: per-segment WAND output is not
+/// a final cross-segment ordering. A strict score gap after result k proves
+/// that score-only pruning could not have discarded a row-id tie at the final
+/// boundary. Returning fewer rows than requested proves exhaustion. Merely
+/// observing a lower score during collection is not a proof because other
+/// partitions may still contain kth-score ties.
+fn classify_wand_exactness_certificate(
+    documents: &mut [ScoredDoc],
+    limit: usize,
+    probe_limit: usize,
+) -> WandExactnessCertificate {
+    if limit == 0
+        || probe_limit <= limit
+        || documents.len() > probe_limit
+        || documents
+            .iter()
+            .any(|document| !document.score.0.is_finite())
+    {
+        return WandExactnessCertificate::Ambiguous;
+    }
+    documents.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| {
+        right
+            .score
+            .0
+            .total_cmp(&left.score.0)
+            .then_with(|| left.row_id.cmp(&right.row_id))
+    });
+    if documents.len() < probe_limit {
+        WandExactnessCertificate::Exhaustive
+    } else if documents[limit - 1].score.0.total_cmp(
+        &documents
+            .last()
+            .expect("a full bounded probe has a guard candidate")
+            .score
+            .0,
+    ) == Ordering::Greater
+    {
+        WandExactnessCertificate::Strict
+    } else {
+        WandExactnessCertificate::Ambiguous
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct BoostQueryExec {
-    query: BoostQuery,
-    params: FtsSearchParams,
-    positive: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-    negative: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+fn finish_wand_documents(mut documents: Vec<ScoredDoc>, limit: usize) -> (Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>) {
+    documents.truncate(limit);
+    documents
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|document| (document.row_id, document.score.0))
+        .unzip()
+}
 
-    properties: PlanProperties,
-    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+async fn exact_prepared_match_fallback(
+    indices: &[Arc<InvertedIndex>],
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    params: &FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+    metrics: Arc<FtsIndexMetrics>,
+    prepared_match: Arc<PreparedBm25Query>,
+    score_floor: Option<f32>,
+) -> Result<(Vec<u64>, Vec<f32>)> {
+    if let Some(score_floor) = score_floor {
+        compound_search_prepared_match_with_score_floor(
+            indices,
+            query,
+            params,
+            prefilter,
+            metrics,
+            prepared_match,
+            score_floor,
+        )
+        .await
+    } else {
+        compound_search_prepared_match(indices, query, params, prefilter, metrics, prepared_match)
+            .await
+    }
 }
 
-impl DisplayAs for BoostQueryExec {
+impl DisplayAs for CompoundQueryExec {
     fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
         match t {
             DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "BoostQuery: negative_boost={}",
-                    self.query.negative_boost
-                )
+                write!(f, "CompoundFtsScorer: query={}", self.query)?;
+                fmt_tokenized_compound_query(&self.tokenized_query, ", ", f)
             }
             DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "BoostQuery\nnegative_boost={}",
-                    self.query.negative_boost
-                )
+                write!(f, "CompoundFtsScorer\nquery={}", self.query)?;
+                fmt_tokenized_compound_query(&self.tokenized_query, "\n", f)
             }
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl BoostQueryExec {
-    pub fn new(
-        query: BoostQuery,
-        params: FtsSearchParams,
-        positive: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-        negative: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
-            EquivalenceProperties::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()),
-            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-            EmissionType::Final,
-            Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
-        Self {
-            query,
-            params,
-            positive,
-            negative,
-            properties,
-            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ExecutionPlan for BoostQueryExec {
+impl ExecutionPlan for CompoundQueryExec {
     fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "BoostQueryExec"
-    }
-
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
+        "CompoundQueryExec"
     }
 
     fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        vec![&self.positive, &self.negative]
+        self.prefilter_source.execution_plan().into_iter().collect()
     }
 
     fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
-        // This node fully consumes and re-orders the input rows.
-        // It must be run on a single partition.
         self.children()
             .iter()
             .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
@@ -811,75 +1385,348 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for BoostQueryExec {
         self: Arc<Self>,
         mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        if children.len() != 2 {
-            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
-                "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
-            ));
-        }
-
-        let negative = children.pop().unwrap();
-        let positive = children.pop().unwrap();
+        let prefilter_source = match children.len() {
+            0 if matches!(self.prefilter_source, PreFilterSource::None) => PreFilterSource::None,
+            1 => {
+                let Some(source) = children.pop() else {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "compound FTS lost its prefilter child".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                };
+                self.prefilter_source.with_execution_plan(source)?
+            }
+            count => {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                    "compound FTS expected at most one prefilter child, got {count}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
         Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
             query: self.query.clone(),
+            tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
             params: self.params.clone(),
-            positive,
-            negative,
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: self.base_scorer.clone(),
+            prepared_match: self.prepared_match.clone(),
+            segment_selection: self.segment_selection.clone(),
+            external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
             properties: self.properties.clone(),
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
         }))
     }
 
-    #[instrument(name = "boost_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    #[instrument(name = "compound_fts_scorer_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
     fn execute(
         &self,
         partition: usize,
         context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
         let query = self.query.clone();
+        let tokenized_query = self.tokenized_query.clone();
         let params = self.params.clone();
-        let positive = self.positive.execute(partition, context.clone())?;
-        let negative = self.negative.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.clone();
+        let preset_base_scorer = self.base_scorer.clone();
+        let preset_prepared_match = self.prepared_match.clone();
+        let segment_selection = self.segment_selection.clone();
+        let external_mask = self.external_mask.clone();
+        let metrics_set = self.metrics.clone();
         let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
-        let stream = stream::once(async move {
-            let positive = positive.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
-            let negative = negative.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
 
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
             let _timer = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
-            let mut res = HashMap::new();
-            for batch in positive {
-                let doc_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-                let scores = batch[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
-
-                for (doc_id, score) in std::iter::zip(doc_ids, scores) {
-                    res.insert(*doc_id, *score);
-                }
+            let columns = query.columns();
+            let column = columns.iter().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "compound FTS query does not reference an indexed column".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+            if columns.len() != 1 {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "posting-backed compound FTS requires exactly one column".to_string(),
+                ));
             }
-            for batch in negative {
-                let doc_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-                let scores = batch[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
+            let segments = segment_selection
+                .resolve(
+                    &dataset,
+                    column,
+                    DocumentGranularity::Row,
+                    &metrics.segment_bind_duration,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            if preset_prepared_match.is_some() && !matches!(&query, FtsQuery::Match(_)) {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "CompoundQueryExec prepared vocabulary requires a root Match query".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let scorer_only_fuzzy = preset_prepared_match.is_none()
+                && compound_query_uses_fuzzy_expansion(&query)
+                && preset_base_scorer.is_some();
+            let scorer_override_covers_all = if scorer_only_fuzzy {
+                segment_selection
+                    .covers_all_committed(&dataset, column, DocumentGranularity::Row, &segments)
+                    .await?
+            } else {
+                true
+            };
+            let _details = load_segment_details(&dataset, column, &segments).await?;
+            let indices =
+                open_fts_segments(&dataset, column, &segments, &metrics.index_metrics).await?;
+            if let Some(first_index) = indices.first() {
+                let snapshot = tokenize_compound_query(&query, first_index.as_ref())?;
+                tokenized_query.get_or_init(|| snapshot);
+            }
+            let mut prefilter = build_prefilter(
+                context,
+                partition,
+                &prefilter_source,
+                dataset,
+                &segments,
+                PreFilterMasks {
+                    overlay_block: None,
+                    external_mask,
+                },
+                &metrics_set,
+            )?;
+            let deleted_fragments =
+                indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .fold(roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut deleted, index| {
+                        deleted |= index.deleted_fragments().clone();
+                        deleted
+                    });
+            if !deleted_fragments.is_empty() {
+                let prefilter = Arc::get_mut(&mut prefilter).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "compound FTS prefilter was unexpectedly shared before initialization"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                prefilter.set_deleted_fragments(deleted_fragments);
+            }
+            metrics.record_parts_searched(
+                indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|index| index.partition_count())
+                    .sum::<usize>()
+                    .saturating_mul(count_fts_leaves(&query)),
+            );
+            let base_scorer = match (preset_prepared_match.is_some(), preset_base_scorer) {
+                (true, _) => None,
+                (false, scorer) => scorer,
+            };
+            if base_scorer.is_some() && scorer_only_fuzzy && !scorer_override_covers_all {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "fuzzy CompoundQueryExec cannot use a scorer-only override over a segment subset; prepare the canonical vocabulary with prepare_bm25_query and pass it with with_prepared_match"
+                    .to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+            let certificate_limit = match (&query, params.limit) {
+                (FtsQuery::Match(match_query), Some(limit))
+                    if limit > 0
+                        && params.wand_factor == 1.0
+                        && match_query.boost.is_finite()
+                        && match_query.boost > 0.0
+                        && base_scorer.is_none()
+                        && indices
+                            .iter()
+                            .all(|index| index.supports_wand_exactness_certificate()) =>
+                {
+                    limit
+                        .checked_add(1)
+                        .map(|wand_limit| (match_query.clone(), limit, wand_limit))
+                }
+                _ => None,
+            };
+            let (row_ids, scores) = if let Some((match_query, limit, wand_limit)) =
+                certificate_limit
+            {
+                let wand_params = MatchQueryExec::effective_params(&match_query, params.clone())
+                    .with_phrase_slop(None)
+                    .with_limit(Some(wand_limit));
+                let prepared = if let Some(prepared_match) = preset_prepared_match.clone() {
+                    Arc::new(PreparedMatch {
+                        query: prepared_match,
+                        params: Arc::new(wand_params),
+                        operator: match_query.operator,
+                    })
+                } else {
+                    let first_index = indices.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                            "FTS index for column {column} has no segments"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    let mut tokenizer =
+                        tokenizer_for_match_query(first_index.as_ref(), match_query.fuzziness);
+                    let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&match_query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+                    let scorer_start = std::time::Instant::now();
+                    let prepared = Arc::new(
+                        PreparedMatch::new(
+                            &indices,
+                            tokens,
+                            wand_params,
+                            match_query.operator,
+                            metrics.as_ref(),
+                            None,
+                        )
+                        .await?,
+                    );
+                    metrics.record_scorer_build(scorer_start.elapsed());
+                    prepared
+                };
 
-                for (doc_id, neg_score) in std::iter::zip(doc_ids, scores) {
-                    if let Some(score) = res.get_mut(doc_id) {
-                        *score -= query.negative_boost * neg_score;
+                // Zero-weight terms can match documents without contributing a
+                // positive score. A short score-only WAND result therefore does
+                // not prove exhaustion. Preserve exact membership semantics for
+                // those rare corpora without recording a certificate attempt.
+                if prepared.query.scorer().token_docs.keys().any(|token| {
+                    let weight = prepared.query.scorer().query_weight(token);
+                    !weight.is_finite() || weight <= 0.0
+                }) {
+                    compound_search_prepared_match(
+                        &indices,
+                        &query,
+                        &params,
+                        prefilter,
+                        metrics.clone(),
+                        prepared.query.clone(),
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                } else {
+                    prefilter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+                    let mut documents = search_prepared_segments(
+                        &indices,
+                        prepared.clone(),
+                        prefilter.clone(),
+                        metrics.clone(),
+                        None,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                    documents.iter_mut().for_each(|document| {
+                        document.score.0 *= match_query.boost;
+                    });
+                    match classify_wand_exactness_certificate(&mut documents, limit, wand_limit) {
+                        WandExactnessCertificate::Exhaustive => {
+                            finish_wand_documents(documents, limit)
+                        }
+                        WandExactnessCertificate::Strict => finish_wand_documents(documents, limit),
+                        WandExactnessCertificate::Ambiguous => {
+                            let score_floor = documents
+                                .get(limit - 1)
+                                .map(|document| document.score.0)
+                                .filter(|score| score.is_finite());
+                            let completion_limit = limit
+                                .checked_add(WAND_TIE_COMPLETION_BUDGET)
+                                .and_then(|limit| limit.checked_add(1));
+                            if let (Some(score_floor), Some(completion_limit)) =
+                                (score_floor, completion_limit)
+                            {
+                                let completion_prepared = Arc::new(PreparedMatch {
+                                    query: prepared.query.clone(),
+                                    params: Arc::new(
+                                        prepared
+                                            .params
+                                            .as_ref()
+                                            .clone()
+                                            .with_limit(Some(completion_limit)),
+                                    ),
+                                    operator: prepared.operator,
+                                });
+                                let raw_score_floor =
+                                    exclusive_scaled_score_floor(score_floor, match_query.boost);
+                                let mut completion = search_prepared_segments(
+                                    &indices,
+                                    completion_prepared,
+                                    prefilter.clone(),
+                                    metrics.clone(),
+                                    raw_score_floor,
+                                )
+                                .await?;
+                                completion.iter_mut().for_each(|document| {
+                                    document.score.0 *= match_query.boost;
+                                });
+                                match classify_wand_exactness_certificate(
+                                    &mut completion,
+                                    limit,
+                                    completion_limit,
+                                ) {
+                                    WandExactnessCertificate::Exhaustive => {
+                                        finish_wand_documents(completion, limit)
+                                    }
+                                    WandExactnessCertificate::Strict => {
+                                        finish_wand_documents(completion, limit)
+                                    }
+                                    WandExactnessCertificate::Ambiguous => {
+                                        let seeded_floor = completion
+                                            .iter()
+                                            .all(|document| document.score.0.is_finite())
+                                            .then_some(score_floor);
+                                        exact_prepared_match_fallback(
+                                            &indices,
+                                            &query,
+                                            &params,
+                                            prefilter,
+                                            metrics.clone(),
+                                            prepared.query.clone(),
+                                            seeded_floor,
+                                        )
+                                        .await?
+                                    }
+                                }
+                            } else {
+                                exact_prepared_match_fallback(
+                                    &indices,
+                                    &query,
+                                    &params,
+                                    prefilter,
+                                    metrics.clone(),
+                                    prepared.query.clone(),
+                                    score_floor,
+                                )
+                                .await?
+                            }
+                        }
                     }
                 }
-            }
-
-            let (doc_ids, scores): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = res
-                .into_iter()
-                .sorted_unstable_by(|(_, a), (_, b)| b.total_cmp(a))
-                .take(params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX))
-                .unzip();
-            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(doc_ids.len());
-
-            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            } else {
+                match (preset_prepared_match, base_scorer) {
+                    (Some(prepared_match), _) => {
+                        compound_search_prepared_match(
+                            &indices,
+                            &query,
+                            &params,
+                            prefilter,
+                            metrics.clone(),
+                            prepared_match,
+                        )
+                        .await?
+                    }
+                    (None, Some(base_scorer)) => {
+                        compound_search_with_base_scorer(
+                            &indices,
+                            &query,
+                            &params,
+                            prefilter,
+                            metrics.clone(),
+                            base_scorer,
+                        )
+                        .await?
+                    }
+                    (None, None) => {
+                        compound_search(&indices, &query, &params, prefilter, metrics.clone())
+                            .await?
+                    }
+                }
+            };
+            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(row_ids.len());
+            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(RecordBatch::try_new(
                 FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
                 vec![
-                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(doc_ids)),
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
                     Arc::new(Float32Array::from(scores)),
                 ],
-            )?;
-            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+            )?)
         });
         Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
             self.schema(),
@@ -887,15 +1734,11 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for BoostQueryExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> DataFusionResult<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics::new_unknown(&FTS_SCHEMA))
-    }
-
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -904,90 +1747,187 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for BoostQueryExec {
     }
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct CompoundColumnSelection {
+    column: String,
+    segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection,
+}
+
+/// One DataFusion boundary around a cross-column posting-backed scorer tree.
+///
+/// Each column keeps its own ordered segment selection and tokenizer. The
+/// lower-level scorer joins leaves in the common row-address domain; segment
+/// ordinals are deliberately never paired across columns.
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct BooleanQueryExec {
-    query: BooleanQuery,
+pub struct CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    query: FtsQuery,
+    tokenized_query: Arc<OnceLock<TokenizedCompoundQuery>>,
     params: FtsSearchParams,
-    should: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-    must: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
-    must_not: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    columns: Arc<[CompoundColumnSelection]>,
+    /// Combined into the prefilter so only masked rows are scored (see
+    /// [`MatchQueryExec::with_external_mask`]).
+    external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
 
-impl DisplayAs for BooleanQueryExec {
-    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        match t {
-            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
-                write!(
-                    f,
-                    "BooleanQuery: should={:?}, must={:?}, must_not={:?}",
-                    self.query.should, self.query.must, self.query.must_not,
-                )
+impl CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec {
+    pub fn new_with_segments(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: FtsQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        columns: Vec<(String, Vec<IndexMetadata>)>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if params.limit.is_none() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "cross-column compound FTS requires a bounded result limit",
+            ));
+        }
+        let leaf_columns = compound_leaf_columns(&query)?;
+        let query_columns = leaf_columns.iter().copied().collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        if query_columns.len() < 2 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column compound FTS requires at least two query columns, got {}",
+                query_columns.len()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let mut selected_columns = HashSet::with_capacity(columns.len());
+        for (column, segments) in &columns {
+            if column.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "cross-column compound FTS segment selection has an empty column name",
+                ));
             }
-            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
-                write!(f, "BooleanQuery")?;
-                if !self.query.should.is_empty() {
-                    write!(f, "\nshould={:?}", self.query.should)?;
-                }
-                if !self.query.must.is_empty() {
-                    write!(f, "\nmust={:?}", self.query.must)?;
-                }
-                if !self.query.must_not.is_empty() {
-                    write!(f, "\nmust_not={:?}", self.query.must_not)?;
-                }
-                std::fmt::Result::Ok(())
+            if segments.is_empty() {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cross-column compound FTS requires at least one segment for column {column}"
+                )));
+            }
+            if !selected_columns.insert(column.as_str()) {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "cross-column compound FTS has duplicate segment selections for column {column}"
+                )));
             }
         }
-    }
-}
 
-impl BooleanQueryExec {
-    pub fn new(
-        query: BooleanQuery,
-        params: FtsSearchParams,
-        should: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-        must: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
-        must_not: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
-            EquivalenceProperties::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()),
-            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
-            EmissionType::Final,
-            Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
-        Self {
+        if selected_columns != query_columns {
+            let mut missing = query_columns
+                .difference(&selected_columns)
+                .copied()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let mut unexpected = selected_columns
+                .difference(&query_columns)
+                .copied()
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            missing.sort_unstable();
+            unexpected.sort_unstable();
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column compound FTS segment selections do not match query leaves: \
+                 missing={missing:?}, unexpected={unexpected:?}"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let columns = columns
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(column, segments)| CompoundColumnSelection {
+                column,
+                segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection::ExactResolved(Arc::from(segments)),
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        Ok(Self {
+            dataset,
             query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
             params,
-            must,
-            should,
-            must_not,
-            properties,
+            prefilter_source,
+            columns: Arc::from(columns),
+            external_mask: None,
+            properties: Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+                EquivalenceProperties::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()),
+                Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+                EmissionType::Final,
+                Boundedness::Bounded,
+            )),
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-        }
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// See [`MatchQueryExec::with_external_mask`].
+    pub fn with_external_mask(mut self, mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>) -> Self {
+        self.external_mask = mask;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &FtsQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn prefilter_source(&self) -> &PreFilterSource {
+        &self.prefilter_source
+    }
+
+    /// Re-cut this scorer at `limit`, keeping its segment selection, prepared
+    /// scorers and masks.
+    ///
+    /// The FTS top-k lives in `FtsSearchParams`, not in an enclosing fetch
+    /// node, so a caller that needs more candidates than the user asked for —
+    /// over-fetching to survive a later dedup, say — has no other way to raise
+    /// it. Everything that decides *which* rows are eligible is carried over
+    /// untouched, so this widens the cut without widening the domain.
+    pub fn with_limit(&self, limit: usize) -> Self {
+        let mut params = self.params.clone();
+        params.limit = Some(limit);
+        Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+            params,
+            prefilter_source: self.prefilter_source.clone(),
+            columns: self.columns.clone(),
+            external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
     }
 }
 
-impl ExecutionPlan for BooleanQueryExec {
-    fn name(&self) -> &str {
-        "BooleanQueryExec"
+impl DisplayAs for CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(f, "CrossColumnCompoundFtsScorer: query={}", self.query)?;
+                fmt_tokenized_compound_query(&self.tokenized_query, ", ", f)
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(f, "CrossColumnCompoundFtsScorer\nquery={}", self.query)?;
+                fmt_tokenized_compound_query(&self.tokenized_query, "\n", f)
+            }
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
+impl ExecutionPlan for CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec"
     }
 
     fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        match &self.must {
-            Some(must) => vec![&self.should, &self.must_not, must],
-            None => vec![&self.should, &self.must_not],
-        }
+        self.prefilter_source.execution_plan().into_iter().collect()
     }
 
     fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
-        // This node fully consumes and re-orders the input rows.
-        // It must be run on a single partition.
         self.children()
             .iter()
             .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
@@ -998,143 +1938,183 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for BooleanQueryExec {
         self: Arc<Self>,
         mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
-        match children.len() {
+        let prefilter_source = match children.len() {
+            0 if matches!(self.prefilter_source, PreFilterSource::None) => PreFilterSource::None,
             1 => {
-                let should = children.pop().unwrap();
-                Ok(Arc::new(Self {
-                    query: self.query.clone(),
-                    params: self.params.clone(),
-                    should,
-                    must: None,
-                    must_not: self.must_not.clone(),
-                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
-                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-                }))
-            }
-            2 => {
-                let must_not = children.pop().unwrap();
-                let should = children.pop().unwrap();
-                Ok(Arc::new(Self {
-                    query: self.query.clone(),
-                    params: self.params.clone(),
-                    should,
-                    must: None,
-                    must_not,
-                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
-                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-                }))
+                let Some(source) = children.pop() else {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "cross-column compound FTS lost its prefilter child".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                };
+                self.prefilter_source.with_execution_plan(source)?
             }
-            3 => {
-                let must = children.pop().unwrap();
-                let must_not = children.pop().unwrap();
-                let should = children.pop().unwrap();
-                Ok(Arc::new(Self {
-                    query: self.query.clone(),
-                    params: self.params.clone(),
-                    should,
-                    must: Some(must),
-                    must_not,
-                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
-                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
-                }))
+            count => {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                    "cross-column compound FTS expected at most one prefilter child, got {count}"
+                )));
             }
-            _ => Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
-                "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
-            )),
-        }
+        };
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            prefilter_source,
+            columns: self.columns.clone(),
+            external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }))
     }
 
-    #[instrument(name = "bool_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    #[instrument(
+        name = "cross_column_compound_fts_scorer_exec",
+        level = "debug",
+        skip_all
+    )]
     fn execute(
         &self,
         partition: usize,
         context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let tokenized_query = self.tokenized_query.clone();
         let params = self.params.clone();
-        let should_plan = self.should.clone();
-        let must_plan = self.must.clone();
-        let must_not_plan = self.must_not.clone();
-        let must = self
-            .must
-            .as_ref()
-            .map(|m| m.execute(partition, context.clone()))
-            .transpose()?;
-        let mut should = self.should.execute(partition, context.clone())?;
-        let mut must_not = self.must_not.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.clone();
+        let columns = self.columns.clone();
+        let external_mask = self.external_mask.clone();
+        let metrics_set = self.metrics.clone();
         let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
 
         let stream = stream::once(async move {
-            let elapsed_time = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute();
-
-            let mut res = HashMap::new();
-            let has_must = must.is_some();
-            if let Some(mut must) = must {
-                while let Some(batch) = must.try_next().await? {
-                    let _timer = elapsed_time.timer();
-                    let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-                    let scores = batch[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
-                    res.extend(std::iter::zip(
-                        row_ids.iter().copied(),
-                        scores.iter().copied(),
-                    ));
-                }
+            let _timer = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
+            let selected_segments = columns
+                .iter()
+                .flat_map(|selection| {
+                    selection
+                        .segment_selection
+                        .preset_segments()
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .flatten()
+                        .cloned()
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            if selected_segments.is_empty() {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                    "cross-column compound FTS lost its exact segment selections".to_string(),
+                ));
             }
-
-            // add the scores from the should clause
-            while let Some(batch) = should.try_next().await? {
-                let _timer = elapsed_time.timer();
-                let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-                let scores = batch[SCORE_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values();
-
-                for (row_id, score) in std::iter::zip(row_ids, scores) {
-                    let entry = res.entry(*row_id).and_modify(|e| *e += score);
-                    if !has_must {
-                        entry.or_insert(*score);
-                    }
+            // DatasetPreFilter starts its deletion and filter prerequisites in
+            // the background. Construct it before opening index segments so
+            // both I/O paths can make progress concurrently.
+            let mut prefilter = build_prefilter(
+                context,
+                partition,
+                &prefilter_source,
+                dataset.clone(),
+                &selected_segments,
+                PreFilterMasks {
+                    overlay_block: None,
+                    external_mask,
+                },
+                &metrics_set,
+            )?;
+            let opened_columns = try_join_all(columns.iter().cloned().map(|selection| {
+                let dataset = dataset.clone();
+                let metrics = metrics.clone();
+                async move {
+                    let segments = selection
+                        .segment_selection
+                        .resolve(
+                            &dataset,
+                            &selection.column,
+                            DocumentGranularity::Row,
+                            &metrics.segment_bind_duration,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                    let indices = open_fts_segments(
+                        &dataset,
+                        &selection.column,
+                        &segments,
+                        &metrics.index_metrics,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                    Ok::<_, DataFusionError>((selection.column, indices))
                 }
-            }
+            }))
+            .await?;
 
-            // remove the results from the must_not clause
-            while let Some(batch) = must_not.try_next().await? {
-                let _timer = elapsed_time.timer();
-                let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-                for row_id in row_ids {
-                    res.remove(row_id);
-                }
+            let mut tokenizer_indices = HashMap::with_capacity(opened_columns.len());
+            let mut partition_counts = HashMap::with_capacity(opened_columns.len());
+            for (column, indices) in &opened_columns {
+                let first_index = indices.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                        "cross-column compound FTS opened no segments for column {column}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                tokenizer_indices.insert(column.as_str(), first_index.as_ref());
+                partition_counts.insert(
+                    column.as_str(),
+                    indices
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|index| index.partition_count())
+                        .sum::<usize>(),
+                );
             }
-
-            let mut partitions_searched = 0;
-            for plan in [Some(&should_plan), must_plan.as_ref(), Some(&must_not_plan)] {
-                let Some(plan) = plan else {
-                    continue;
-                };
-                let Some(metrics) = plan.metrics() else {
-                    continue;
-                };
-                for (metric_name, count) in metrics.iter_counts() {
-                    if metric_name.as_ref() == PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC {
-                        partitions_searched += count.value();
-                    }
-                }
+            let tokens = tokenize_cross_column_compound_query(&query, &tokenizer_indices)?;
+            tokenized_query.get_or_init(|| tokens);
+
+            let searched_parts = compound_leaf_columns(&query)?.into_iter().try_fold(
+                0usize,
+                |searched, column| {
+                    let column_parts = partition_counts.get(column).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+                        DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                            "cross-column compound FTS has no opened index for query column \
+                             {column}"
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(searched.saturating_add(column_parts))
+                },
+            )?;
+            metrics.record_parts_searched(searched_parts);
+
+            let deleted_fragments = opened_columns.iter().flat_map(|(_, indices)| indices).fold(
+                roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                |mut deleted, index| {
+                    deleted |= index.deleted_fragments().clone();
+                    deleted
+                },
+            );
+            if !deleted_fragments.is_empty() {
+                let prefilter = Arc::get_mut(&mut prefilter).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "cross-column compound FTS prefilter was unexpectedly shared before \
+                         initialization"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                prefilter.set_deleted_fragments(deleted_fragments);
             }
-            metrics.record_parts_searched(partitions_searched);
 
-            // sort the results and take the top k
-            let _timer = elapsed_time.timer();
-            let (row_ids, scores): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = res
-                .into_iter()
-                .sorted_unstable_by(|(_, a), (_, b)| b.total_cmp(a))
-                .take(params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX))
-                .unzip();
+            let search_columns = opened_columns;
+            let (row_ids, scores) = cross_column_compound_search(
+                &search_columns,
+                &query,
+                &params,
+                prefilter,
+                metrics.clone(),
+            )
+            .await?;
             metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(row_ids.len());
-            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(RecordBatch::try_new(
                 FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
                 vec![
                     Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids)),
                     Arc::new(Float32Array::from(scores)),
                 ],
-            )?;
-            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+            )?)
         });
         Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
             self.schema(),
@@ -1142,276 +2122,5818 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for BooleanQueryExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> DataFusionResult<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics::new_unknown(&FTS_SCHEMA))
-    }
-
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
 }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
-    use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+/// Fall back to the default simple tokenizer when no on-disk FTS segment exists.
+fn default_text_tokenizer() -> Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> {
+    Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(
+        TextAnalyzer::builder(SimpleTokenizer::default()).build(),
+    ))
+}
 
-    use datafusion::{execution::TaskContext, physical_plan::ExecutionPlan};
-    use lance_datafusion::datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt;
-    use lance_datafusion::exec::{ExecutionStatsCallback, ExecutionSummaryCounts};
-    use lance_datafusion::utils::PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC;
-    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
-    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
-    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
-        BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, FtsQuery, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery, Occur, Operator,
-        PhraseQuery,
-    };
-    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{InvertedIndex, FTS_SCHEMA};
-    use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams};
-    use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexCriteria, IndexType};
+fn tokenizer_for_match_query(
+    index: &InvertedIndex,
+    fuzziness: Option<u32>,
+) -> Box<dyn LanceTokenizer> {
+    // Preserve the legacy explicit-fuzzy behavior, while AUTO fuzziness uses
+    // the index analyzer so its source terms share the indexed vocabulary's
+    // normalization and filtering.
+    if !matches!(fuzziness, Some(distance) if distance > 0) {
+        return index.tokenizer();
+    }
 
-    use crate::{
-        index::DatasetIndexInternalExt,
-        io::exec::PreFilterSource,
-        utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, NoContextTestFixture},
-    };
+    let analyzer = TextAnalyzer::from(SimpleTokenizer::default());
+    match index.tokenizer().doc_type() {
+        DocType::Text => Box::new(TextTokenizer::new(analyzer)),
+        DocType::Json => Box::new(JsonTokenizer::new(analyzer)),
+    }
+}
+
+fn tokenize_compound_query(
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    index: &InvertedIndex,
+) -> Result<TokenizedCompoundQuery> {
+    fn visit(
+        query: &FtsQuery,
+        index: &InvertedIndex,
+        leaves: &mut Vec<TokenizedQueryLeaf>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+                let mut tokenizer = tokenizer_for_match_query(index, query.fuzziness);
+                let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+                leaves.push(TokenizedQueryLeaf {
+                    kind: TokenizedLeafKind::Match,
+                    column: query.column.clone(),
+                    tokens: TokenizedQuery::from_tokens(&tokens),
+                });
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
+                let mut tokenizer = index.tokenizer();
+                let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+                leaves.push(TokenizedQueryLeaf {
+                    kind: TokenizedLeafKind::Phrase,
+                    column: query.column.clone(),
+                    tokens: TokenizedQuery::from_tokens(&tokens),
+                });
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                visit(&query.positive, index, leaves)?;
+                visit(&query.negative, index, leaves)?;
+            }
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                for query in &query.match_queries {
+                    let mut tokenizer = tokenizer_for_match_query(index, query.fuzziness);
+                    let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+                    leaves.push(TokenizedQueryLeaf {
+                        kind: TokenizedLeafKind::Match,
+                        column: query.column.clone(),
+                        tokens: TokenizedQuery::from_tokens(&tokens),
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+            // Unreachable: only `CompoundQueryExec` tokenizes this way, and
+            // `supports_compound_scorer` rejects BM25F at any depth. The
+            // combined_fields execs snapshot their own tokens.
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {}
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                for query in query
+                    .should
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(&query.must)
+                    .chain(&query.must_not)
+                {
+                    visit(query, index, leaves)?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-    use super::{BoostQueryExec, FlatMatchQueryExec, MatchQueryExec, PhraseQueryExec};
+    let mut leaves = Vec::with_capacity(count_fts_leaves(query));
+    visit(query, index, &mut leaves)?;
+    Ok(TokenizedCompoundQuery(leaves))
+}
 
-    #[derive(Default)]
-    struct StatsHolder {
-        collected_stats: Arc<Mutex<Option<ExecutionSummaryCounts>>>,
+fn tokenize_cross_column_compound_query(
+    query: &FtsQuery,
+    indices: &HashMap<&str, &InvertedIndex>,
+) -> Result<TokenizedCompoundQuery> {
+    fn index_for_leaf<'a>(
+        column: Option<&str>,
+        kind: &str,
+        indices: &HashMap<&str, &'a InvertedIndex>,
+    ) -> Result<(&'a InvertedIndex, String)> {
+        let column = column.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column compound FTS {kind} leaf is missing its resolved column"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let index = indices.get(column).copied().ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "cross-column compound FTS has no opened index for {kind} column {column}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        Ok((index, column.to_string()))
     }
 
-    impl StatsHolder {
-        fn get_setter(&self) -> ExecutionStatsCallback {
-            let collected_stats = self.collected_stats.clone();
-            Arc::new(move |stats| {
-                *collected_stats.lock().unwrap() = Some(stats.clone());
-            })
+    fn visit(
+        query: &FtsQuery,
+        indices: &HashMap<&str, &InvertedIndex>,
+        leaves: &mut Vec<TokenizedQueryLeaf>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        match query {
+            FtsQuery::Match(query) => {
+                let (index, column) = index_for_leaf(query.column.as_deref(), "Match", indices)?;
+                let mut tokenizer = tokenizer_for_match_query(index, query.fuzziness);
+                let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+                leaves.push(TokenizedQueryLeaf {
+                    kind: TokenizedLeafKind::Match,
+                    column: Some(column),
+                    tokens: TokenizedQuery::from_tokens(&tokens),
+                });
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Phrase(query) => {
+                let (index, column) = index_for_leaf(query.column.as_deref(), "Phrase", indices)?;
+                let mut tokenizer = index.tokenizer();
+                let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+                leaves.push(TokenizedQueryLeaf {
+                    kind: TokenizedLeafKind::Phrase,
+                    column: Some(column),
+                    tokens: TokenizedQuery::from_tokens(&tokens),
+                });
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boost(query) => {
+                visit(&query.positive, indices, leaves)?;
+                visit(&query.negative, indices, leaves)?;
+            }
+            FtsQuery::MultiMatch(query) => {
+                for query in &query.match_queries {
+                    let (index, column) =
+                        index_for_leaf(query.column.as_deref(), "MultiMatch", indices)?;
+                    let mut tokenizer = tokenizer_for_match_query(index, query.fuzziness);
+                    let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+                    leaves.push(TokenizedQueryLeaf {
+                        kind: TokenizedLeafKind::Match,
+                        column: Some(column),
+                        tokens: TokenizedQuery::from_tokens(&tokens),
+                    });
+                }
+            }
+            FtsQuery::Boolean(query) => {
+                for query in query
+                    .should
+                    .iter()
+                    .chain(&query.must)
+                    .chain(&query.must_not)
+                {
+                    visit(query, indices, leaves)?;
+                }
+            }
+            // Unreachable while `supports_compound_scorer` rejects BM25F; see
+            // `compound_leaf_columns`.
+            FtsQuery::CombinedFields(_) => {
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                    "cross-column compound FTS cannot take a combined_fields leaf".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
         }
+        Ok(())
+    }
 
-        fn consume(self) -> ExecutionSummaryCounts {
-            self.collected_stats.lock().unwrap().take().unwrap()
-        }
+    let mut leaves = Vec::with_capacity(count_fts_leaves(query));
+    visit(query, indices, &mut leaves)?;
+    Ok(TokenizedCompoundQuery(leaves))
+}
+
+type SharedScorerResult<S> = std::result::Result<Arc<S>, Arc<str>>;
+
+/// Coordinates BM25 corpus statistics between the indexed and flat branches
+/// of a mixed search. The flat branch extends the indexed statistics with the
+/// unindexed documents, then publishes the resulting corpus-wide scorer.
+///
+/// Generic over the scorer so the single-column path can share a
+/// [`MemBM25Scorer`] and `combined_fields` a [`CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer`]; the
+/// coordination is the same either way.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct SharedFtsScorer<S = MemBM25Scorer> {
+    sender: tokio::sync::watch::Sender<Option<SharedScorerResult<S>>>,
+}
+
+impl<S: Send + Sync + 'static> SharedFtsScorer<S> {
+    pub(crate) fn new() -> Self {
+        let (sender, _) = tokio::sync::watch::channel(None);
+        Self { sender }
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn execute_without_context() {
-        // These tests ensure we can create nodes and call execute without a tokio Runtime
-        // being active.  This is a requirement for proper implementation of a Datafusion foreign
-        // table provider.
-        let fixture = NoContextTestFixture::new();
-        let match_query = MatchQueryExec::new(
-            Arc::new(fixture.dataset.clone()),
-            MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
-            FtsSearchParams::default(),
-            PreFilterSource::None,
-        );
-        match_query
-            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
-            .unwrap();
-        let metrics = match_query.metrics().unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.elapsed_compute().unwrap() > 0);
+    fn publish(&self, scorer: Arc<S>) {
+        self.sender.send_replace(Some(Ok(scorer)));
+    }
 
-        let flat_input = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "text",
-                lance_datagen::array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false),
-            )
-            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(15), BatchCount::from(2));
+    fn publish_error(&self, error: &DataFusionError) {
+        self.sender
+            .send_replace(Some(Err(Arc::from(error.to_string()))));
+    }
 
-        let flat_match_query = FlatMatchQueryExec::new(
-            Arc::new(fixture.dataset.clone()),
-            MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
-            FtsSearchParams::default(),
+    async fn wait(&self) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<S>> {
+        let mut receiver = self.sender.subscribe();
+        loop {
+            let result = receiver.borrow_and_update().clone();
+            if let Some(result) = result {
+                return result.map_err(|message| DataFusionError::Execution(message.to_string()));
+            }
+            receiver.changed().await.map_err(|_| {
+                DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "mixed FTS corpus scorer producer stopped before publishing statistics"
+                        .to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct SharedFtsScorerProducer<S: Send + Sync + 'static = MemBM25Scorer> {
+    scorer: Arc<SharedFtsScorer<S>>,
+    completed: bool,
+}
+
+impl<S: Send + Sync + 'static> SharedFtsScorerProducer<S> {
+    fn new(scorer: Arc<SharedFtsScorer<S>>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            scorer,
+            completed: false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn publish(mut self, scorer: Arc<S>) {
+        self.scorer.publish(scorer);
+        self.completed = true;
+    }
+
+    fn publish_error(mut self, error: &DataFusionError) {
+        self.scorer.publish_error(error);
+        self.completed = true;
+    }
+}
+
+impl<S: Send + Sync + 'static> Drop for SharedFtsScorerProducer<S> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        if !self.completed {
+            self.scorer.sender.send_replace(Some(Err(Arc::from(
+                "mixed FTS corpus scorer producer was cancelled before publishing statistics",
+            ))));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Time spent resolving an exact ordered UUID selection to committed FTS segments.
+pub const FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC: &str = "fts_segment_bind_duration";
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum FtsSegmentSelection {
+    AllCommitted,
+    ExactResolved(Arc<[IndexMetadata]>),
+    ExactUuids(Arc<[Uuid]>),
+}
+
+impl FtsSegmentSelection {
+    fn exact_uuids(mut uuids: Vec<Uuid>) -> Self {
+        let mut seen = HashSet::with_capacity(uuids.len());
+        uuids.retain(|uuid| seen.insert(*uuid));
+        Self::ExactUuids(Arc::from(uuids))
+    }
+
+    fn preset_segments(&self) -> Option<&[IndexMetadata]> {
+        match self {
+            Self::ExactResolved(segments) => Some(segments),
+            Self::AllCommitted | Self::ExactUuids(_) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn searches_all_committed(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, Self::AllCommitted)
+    }
+
+    async fn covers_all_committed(
+        &self,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        column: &str,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+        resolved: &[IndexMetadata],
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<bool> {
+        if self.searches_all_committed() {
+            return Ok(true);
+        }
+        let Some(committed) = load_segments(dataset, column, document_granularity).await? else {
+            return Ok(false);
+        };
+        let selected = resolved
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        let committed = committed
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+        Ok(selected == committed)
+    }
+
+    fn explicit_segment_uuids(&self) -> Option<Vec<Uuid>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::AllCommitted => None,
+            Self::ExactResolved(segments) => {
+                Some(segments.iter().map(|segment| segment.uuid).collect())
+            }
+            Self::ExactUuids(uuids) => Some(uuids.to_vec()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn resolve(
+        &self,
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        column: &str,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+        segment_bind_duration: &Time,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<[IndexMetadata]>> {
+        let segments = match self {
+            Self::AllCommitted => load_segments(dataset, column, document_granularity)
+                .await?
+                .map(Arc::from)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                        "No Inverted index found for column {}",
+                        column,
+                    ))
+                }),
+            Self::ExactResolved(segments) => Ok(segments.clone()),
+            Self::ExactUuids(uuids) => {
+                let _timer = segment_bind_duration.timer();
+                let dataset_version = dataset.version_id();
+                if uuids.is_empty() {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                        "Exact FTS segment selection for column {} at dataset version {} \
+                         requires at least one segment UUID",
+                        column, dataset_version
+                    )));
+                }
+
+                let committed_segments = load_segments(dataset, column, document_granularity)
+                    .await?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                            "Cannot resolve exact FTS segment selection for column {} at dataset \
+                             version {}: no Inverted index found",
+                            column, dataset_version
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                let mut segments_by_uuid = HashMap::with_capacity(committed_segments.len());
+                for segment in committed_segments {
+                    let uuid = segment.uuid;
+                    if segments_by_uuid.insert(uuid, segment).is_some() {
+                        return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                            "FTS metadata for column {} at dataset version {} contains duplicate \
+                             segment UUID {}",
+                            column, dataset_version, uuid
+                        )));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                let mut resolved = Vec::with_capacity(uuids.len());
+                for uuid in uuids.iter() {
+                    let segment = segments_by_uuid.get(uuid).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                            "Requested FTS segment UUID {} for column {} is not committed in \
+                             dataset version {}",
+                            uuid, column, dataset_version
+                        ))
+                    })?;
+                    resolved.push(segment.clone());
+                }
+                Ok(Arc::from(resolved))
+            }
+        }?;
+        let details = load_segment_details(dataset, column, &segments).await?;
+        let indexed_granularity = DocumentGranularity::try_from(details.document_granularity)?;
+        if indexed_granularity != document_granularity {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                "FTS segments selected for column {column} use {indexed_granularity:?} document \
+                 granularity, but the query was resolved as {document_granularity:?}"
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(segments)
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct FtsIndexMetrics {
+    index_metrics: IndexMetrics,
+    partitions_searched: Count,
+    /// Wall time (ms) of the exec-local `build_global_bm25_scorer`
+    /// fallback; zero when a preset base scorer was injected.
+    scorer_build_ms: Gauge,
+    segment_bind_duration: Time,
+    baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics,
+}
+
+impl FtsIndexMetrics {
+    pub fn new(metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, partition: usize) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_metrics: IndexMetrics::new(metrics, partition),
+            partitions_searched: metrics.new_count(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC, partition),
+            scorer_build_ms: metrics.new_gauge("scorer_build_ms", partition),
+            segment_bind_duration: metrics.new_time(FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC, partition),
+            baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics::new(metrics, partition),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn record_parts_searched(&self, num_parts: usize) {
+        self.partitions_searched.add(num_parts);
+    }
+
+    pub fn record_scorer_build(&self, elapsed: std::time::Duration) {
+        self.scorer_build_ms.set(elapsed.as_millis() as usize);
+    }
+}
+
+impl MetricsCollector for FtsIndexMetrics {
+    fn record_parts_loaded(&self, num_parts: usize) {
+        self.index_metrics.record_parts_loaded(num_parts);
+    }
+
+    fn record_index_loads(&self, num_indexes: usize) {
+        self.index_metrics.record_index_loads(num_indexes);
+    }
+
+    fn record_comparisons(&self, num_comparisons: usize) {
+        self.index_metrics.record_comparisons(num_comparisons);
+    }
+
+    fn record_index_cache_hits(&self, num_hits: usize) {
+        self.index_metrics.record_index_cache_hits(num_hits);
+    }
+
+    fn record_index_cache_misses(&self, num_misses: usize) {
+        self.index_metrics.record_index_cache_misses(num_misses);
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct MatchQueryExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    query: MatchQuery,
+    tokenized_query: Arc<OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>>,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    /// When set, `execute()` skips `build_global_bm25_scorer` and threads this
+    /// scorer down to `InvertedIndex::bm25_search`.
+    base_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+    /// Canonical fuzzy vocabulary and corpus-wide scorer prepared against the
+    /// complete distributed corpus. Unlike `base_scorer`, this is safe to
+    /// forward to an exec that searches only a segment subset.
+    prepared_query: Option<Arc<PreparedBm25Query>>,
+    /// Corpus-wide scorer published by the flat branch of a mixed search.
+    shared_scorer: Option<Arc<SharedFtsScorer>>,
+    segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection,
+    /// Rows whose indexed values were superseded by newer data overlays.
+    overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Optional external row-address mask combined (logical AND) with the BM25
+    /// prefilter so only masked rows are scored (see [`Self::with_external_mask`]).
+    external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for MatchQueryExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "MatchQuery: column={}, query=[{}]",
+                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    self.query.terms
+                )?;
+                fmt_tokenized_query(&self.tokenized_query, ", ", f)
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "MatchQuery\ncolumn={}\nquery={}",
+                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    self.query.terms
+                )?;
+                fmt_tokenized_query(&self.tokenized_query, "\n", f)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl MatchQueryExec {
+    /// Merge the fuzzy fields from `query` into `params` so that the stored
+    /// params reflect what BM25 stat collection and search will actually use.
+    fn effective_params(query: &MatchQuery, params: FtsSearchParams) -> FtsSearchParams {
+        params
+            .with_fuzziness(query.fuzziness)
+            .with_max_expansions(query.max_expansions)
+            .with_prefix_length(query.prefix_length)
+    }
+
+    pub fn new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("MatchQuery document granularity must be resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Self::new_with_document_granularity(
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            document_granularity,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_document_granularity(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        let params = Self::effective_params(&query, params);
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            prepared_query: None,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection::AllCommitted,
+            overlay_block: None,
+            document_granularity,
+            schema,
+            external_mask: None,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Construct a `MatchQueryExec` bound to an explicit, pre-resolved set of
+    /// FTS segments. Unlike [`Self::new`], `execute()` will not call
+    /// [`load_segments`] — it will search exactly the segments supplied here.
+    ///
+    /// Useful when a caller has already enumerated segments and wants to scope
+    /// this exec to a strict subset — for example, a distributed query that
+    /// routes per-segment work across hosts, where each per-host leaf should
+    /// only search its own assigned subset of the dataset's committed
+    /// segments.
+    pub fn new_with_segments(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("MatchQuery document granularity must be resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Self::new_with_segments_and_document_granularity(
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            segments,
+            document_granularity,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_segments_and_document_granularity(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        let params = Self::effective_params(&query, params);
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            prepared_query: None,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection::ExactResolved(Arc::from(segments)),
+            overlay_block: None,
+            document_granularity,
+            schema,
+            external_mask: None,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Construct a `MatchQueryExec` bound to an exact ordered set of committed
+    /// FTS segment UUIDs.
+    ///
+    /// The UUIDs are resolved from this exec's dataset snapshot when the output
+    /// stream is polled. Duplicate UUIDs are removed while preserving their
+    /// first-occurrence order. Resolution fails if the list is empty or any UUID
+    /// is not committed for the query column.
+    pub fn new_with_segment_uuids(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        segment_uuids: Vec<Uuid>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("MatchQuery document granularity must be resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        let params = Self::effective_params(&query, params);
+        Ok(Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            prepared_query: None,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection::exact_uuids(segment_uuids),
+            overlay_block: None,
+            external_mask: None,
+            document_granularity,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Override the BM25 scorer used by `execute()`. When set, the local
+    /// `build_global_bm25_scorer` call is skipped and the supplied scorer is
+    /// threaded down to `InvertedIndex::bm25_search`.
+    ///
+    /// The default path builds a scorer from the segments this exec searches,
+    /// which is correct when those segments are the entire corpus. A caller
+    /// would override that scorer to keep BM25 IDFs corpus-wide when the exec
+    /// is searching only a subset — for example, a distributed query that
+    /// routes per-segment work to multiple hosts and aggregates stats
+    /// out-of-band, so each per-host leaf scores against the full corpus
+    /// rather than its local segment subset. See [`build_global_bm25_scorer`]
+    /// for constructing one. For a fuzzy query over an explicit segment
+    /// subset, use [`Self::with_prepared_query`] so the globally selected
+    /// vocabulary travels with the scorer.
+    pub fn with_base_scorer(mut self, scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>) -> Self {
+        self.base_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self.prepared_query = None;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Override local query preparation with one canonical vocabulary/scorer
+    /// pair built against the complete corpus.
+    ///
+    /// Distributed fuzzy callers must use this instead of
+    /// [`Self::with_base_scorer`], because worker-local expansion can select a
+    /// different capped vocabulary from the one used to build the scorer.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    pub fn with_prepared_query(mut self, query: Arc<PreparedBm25Query>) -> Self {
+        self.prepared_query = Some(query);
+        self.base_scorer = None;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_shared_scorer(mut self, scorer: Arc<SharedFtsScorer>) -> Self {
+        self.shared_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Exclude rows whose indexed text was superseded by a newer data overlay.
+    pub(crate) fn with_overlay_block(mut self, overlay_block: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        self.overlay_block = Some(overlay_block);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Restrict BM25 scoring to rows selected by an external row-address mask.
+    /// The mask is combined (logical AND) with the prefilter built by
+    /// `build_prefilter`, so top-k is computed over masked rows only. No-op when
+    /// `mask` is `None`.
+    pub fn with_external_mask(mut self, mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>) -> Self {
+        self.external_mask = mask;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &MatchQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    pub fn prefilter_source(&self) -> &PreFilterSource {
+        &self.prefilter_source
+    }
+
+    pub fn base_scorer(&self) -> Option<&Arc<MemBM25Scorer>> {
+        self.base_scorer.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    pub fn preset_segments(&self) -> Option<&[IndexMetadata]> {
+        self.segment_selection.preset_segments()
+    }
+
+    /// Return the ordered segment UUIDs for an explicit selection.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` when this exec searches all committed segments. UUID-based
+    /// selections omit duplicates while preserving first-occurrence order.
+    /// Pre-resolved selections preserve the supplied metadata order.
+    pub fn explicit_segment_uuids(&self) -> Option<Vec<Uuid>> {
+        self.segment_selection.explicit_segment_uuids()
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for MatchQueryExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "MatchQueryExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        self.prefilter_source.execution_plan().into_iter().collect()
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        // Prefilter inputs must be a single partition
+        self.children()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let plan = match children.len() {
+            0 => {
+                if !matches!(self.prefilter_source, PreFilterSource::None) {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "Unexpected prefilter source".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+
+                Self {
+                    dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+                    query: self.query.clone(),
+                    tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+                    params: self.params.clone(),
+                    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource::None,
+                    base_scorer: self.base_scorer.clone(),
+                    prepared_query: self.prepared_query.clone(),
+                    shared_scorer: self.shared_scorer.clone(),
+                    segment_selection: self.segment_selection.clone(),
+                    overlay_block: self.overlay_block.clone(),
+                    document_granularity: self.document_granularity,
+                    schema: self.schema.clone(),
+                    external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
+                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+                }
+            }
+            1 => {
+                let src = children.pop().unwrap();
+                let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.with_execution_plan(src)?;
+
+                Self {
+                    dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+                    query: self.query.clone(),
+                    tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+                    params: self.params.clone(),
+                    prefilter_source,
+                    base_scorer: self.base_scorer.clone(),
+                    prepared_query: self.prepared_query.clone(),
+                    shared_scorer: self.shared_scorer.clone(),
+                    segment_selection: self.segment_selection.clone(),
+                    overlay_block: self.overlay_block.clone(),
+                    document_granularity: self.document_granularity,
+                    schema: self.schema.clone(),
+                    external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
+                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+                }
+            }
+            _ => {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                    "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(plan))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "match_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let tokenized_query = self.tokenized_query.clone();
+        let params = self.params.clone();
+        let ds = self.dataset.clone();
+        let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.clone();
+        let external_mask = self.external_mask.clone();
+        let preset_base_scorer = self.base_scorer.clone();
+        let preset_prepared_query = self.prepared_query.clone();
+        let shared_scorer = self.shared_scorer.clone();
+        let segment_selection = self.segment_selection.clone();
+        let overlay_block = self.overlay_block.clone();
+        let document_granularity = self.document_granularity;
+        let schema = self.schema.clone();
+        let metrics_set = self.metrics.clone();
+        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let column = query.column.ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+            "column not set for MatchQuery {}",
+            query.terms
+        )))?;
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let _timer = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
+            let segments = segment_selection
+                .resolve(
+                    &ds,
+                    &column,
+                    document_granularity,
+                    &metrics.segment_bind_duration,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            let scorer_only_fuzzy = preset_prepared_query.is_none()
+                && uses_fuzzy_expansion(params.fuzziness)
+                && (preset_base_scorer.is_some() || shared_scorer.is_some());
+            let scorer_override_covers_all = if scorer_only_fuzzy {
+                segment_selection
+                    .covers_all_committed(&ds, &column, document_granularity, &segments)
+                    .await?
+            } else {
+                true
+            };
+            let indices =
+                open_fts_segments(&ds, &column, &segments, &metrics.index_metrics).await?;
+
+            let mut pre_filter = build_prefilter(
+                context.clone(),
+                partition,
+                &prefilter_source,
+                ds,
+                &segments,
+                PreFilterMasks {
+                    overlay_block,
+                    external_mask,
+                },
+                &metrics_set,
+            )?;
+            let deleted_fragments =
+                indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .fold(roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut deleted, index| {
+                        deleted |= index.deleted_fragments().clone();
+                        deleted
+                    });
+            if !deleted_fragments.is_empty() {
+                Arc::get_mut(&mut pre_filter)
+                    .expect("prefilter just created")
+                    .set_deleted_fragments(deleted_fragments);
+            }
+            metrics
+                .record_parts_searched(indices.iter().map(|index| index.partition_count()).sum());
+
+            let first_index = indices.first().ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                "FTS index for column {} has no segments",
+                column
+            )))?;
+            let mut tokenizer = tokenizer_for_match_query(first_index, query.fuzziness);
+            let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+            record_tokenized_query(&tokenized_query, &tokens);
+            let prepared = if let Some(prepared_query) = preset_prepared_query {
+                Arc::new(PreparedMatch {
+                    query: prepared_query,
+                    params: Arc::new(params),
+                    operator: query.operator,
+                })
+            } else {
+                let base_scorer = match (preset_base_scorer, shared_scorer) {
+                    (Some(scorer), _) => Some(scorer),
+                    (None, Some(shared_scorer)) => Some(shared_scorer.wait().await?),
+                    (None, None) => None,
+                };
+                if base_scorer.is_some() && scorer_only_fuzzy && !scorer_override_covers_all {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                        "fuzzy MatchQuery cannot use a scorer-only override; prepare the canonical vocabulary with prepare_bm25_query and pass it with with_prepared_query"
+                            .to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                let builds_local_scorer = base_scorer.is_none();
+                let scorer_start = std::time::Instant::now();
+                let prepared = Arc::new(
+                    PreparedMatch::new(
+                        &indices,
+                        tokens,
+                        params,
+                        query.operator,
+                        metrics.as_ref(),
+                        base_scorer,
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+                );
+                if builds_local_scorer {
+                    metrics.record_scorer_build(scorer_start.elapsed());
+                }
+                prepared
+            };
+
+            pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+            let mut documents =
+                search_prepared_segments(&indices, prepared, pre_filter, metrics.clone(), None)
+                    .await?;
+            documents.iter_mut().for_each(|document| {
+                document.score.0 *= query.boost;
+            });
+            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(documents.len());
+
+            let batch = scored_documents_batch(schema, documents)?;
+            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+        });
+
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema(),
+            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+/// Cross-field BM25F full-text search (`combined_fields`).
+///
+/// Unlike a `MultiMatch` plan (one [`MatchQueryExec`] per column fused by a
+/// `max` aggregate, i.e. `best_fields`), this is a single node: it opens every
+/// target column's segments, blends their corpus statistics, and runs one merged
+/// scan so term statistics are shared across fields. Per-column boosts are baked
+/// into the blended term frequency, so there is no post-scan boost multiplier or
+/// `AggregateExec(max)`. Emits `(ROW_ID, SCORE)` in [`FTS_SCHEMA`].
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct CombinedFieldsQueryExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    query: CombinedFieldsQuery,
+    /// Tokens `execute()` actually produced, for `analyze_plan`. One snapshot
+    /// covers every target column because `validate_combined_tokenizers`
+    /// requires them to share a tokenizer, so the scan tokenizes once.
+    tokenized_query: Arc<OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>>,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    /// When set, `execute()` skips `build_combined_bm25_scorer` and threads this
+    /// blended scorer down to the merged scan (distributed corpus-global stats).
+    base_scorer: Option<Arc<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer>>,
+    /// Waits for the flat sibling's blended scorer; see
+    /// [`Self::with_shared_scorer`].
+    shared_scorer: Option<Arc<SharedFtsScorer<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer>>>,
+    /// When set, restrict this scan to exactly these fragments: the ones every
+    /// target column's index covers. See [`Self::with_covered_fragments`].
+    covered_fragments: Option<roaring::RoaringBitmap>,
+    /// See [`Self::with_overlay_block`].
+    overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+    /// Optional external row-address mask ANDead into the prefilter so only
+    /// masked rows are scored (see [`MatchQueryExec::with_external_mask`]).
+    external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl CombinedFieldsQueryExec {
+    pub fn new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: CombinedFieldsQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            covered_fragments: None,
+            overlay_block: None,
+            external_mask: None,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// See [`MatchQueryExec::with_external_mask`].
+    pub fn with_external_mask(mut self, mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>) -> Self {
+        self.external_mask = mask;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Restrict this scan to `fragments`, the ones every target column's index
+    /// covers.
+    ///
+    /// A BM25F score is only complete when every target column's index covers the
+    /// row's fragment: `dl'` sums each column's document length, and the per-column
+    /// lookup returns 0 for a row that column's index holds no document for, so a
+    /// fragment indexed for some target columns but not others would score with a
+    /// partial `tf'`/`dl'`. The planner routes those fragments to the flat scan and
+    /// passes the remainder here.
+    ///
+    /// This has to be an allow list rather than a fragment block list: the inverted
+    /// index trains with `_rowid`, which is a logical stable row id when the dataset
+    /// uses stable row ids, so a fragment-address block list would match nothing and
+    /// both sides of the union would emit the same row.
+    pub fn with_covered_fragments(mut self, fragments: roaring::RoaringBitmap) -> Self {
+        self.covered_fragments = Some(fragments);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Exclude the rows whose indexed text a newer data overlay superseded in any
+    /// target column. The flat sibling scores them from their current values.
+    pub(crate) fn with_overlay_block(mut self, overlay_block: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        self.overlay_block = Some(overlay_block);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Override the blended BM25F scorer used by `execute()`. When set, the
+    /// local `build_combined_bm25_scorer` call is skipped. Mirrors
+    /// [`MatchQueryExec::with_base_scorer`] for distributed queries that
+    /// aggregate cross-column corpus statistics out-of-band.
+    pub fn with_base_scorer(mut self, scorer: Arc<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer>) -> Self {
+        self.base_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Score against the blended scorer the flat sibling publishes instead of
+    /// building one from this side's index statistics alone.
+    ///
+    /// Only the flat scan sees the rows no index covers, so only it can produce
+    /// the statistics that describe the whole scanned corpus. Without this the two
+    /// children of a mixed plan score against different `docCount'`/`docFreq'`/
+    /// `avgdl'`, which makes their scores incomparable and the union's sort wrong.
+    pub(crate) fn with_shared_scorer(
+        mut self,
+        scorer: Arc<SharedFtsScorer<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.shared_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &CombinedFieldsQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn prefilter_source(&self) -> &PreFilterSource {
+        &self.prefilter_source
+    }
+
+    fn clone_with_prefilter_source(&self, prefilter_source: PreFilterSource) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: self.base_scorer.clone(),
+            shared_scorer: self.shared_scorer.clone(),
+            covered_fragments: self.covered_fragments.clone(),
+            overlay_block: self.overlay_block.clone(),
+            external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for CombinedFieldsQueryExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        fmt_combined_fields(
+            "CombinedFieldsQuery",
+            &self.query,
+            &self.tokenized_query,
+            t,
+            f,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+/// The plan display every `combined_fields` exec uses: the label, the target
+/// columns and the query text, plus the tokens `execute()` produced once it has
+/// run.
+fn fmt_combined_fields(
+    label: &str,
+    query: &CombinedFieldsQuery,
+    tokenized_query: &OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>,
+    t: DisplayFormatType,
+    f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter,
+) -> std::fmt::Result {
+    let columns = query.column_names().collect::<Vec<_>>().join(", ");
+    // The one-line forms label with `: ` and separate fields with `, `; the tree
+    // render puts every field on its own line.
+    let (after_label, separator) = match t {
+        DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => ("\n", "\n"),
+        DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => (": ", ", "),
+    };
+    write!(
+        f,
+        "{label}{after_label}columns=[{columns}]{separator}query={}",
+        query.terms()
+    )?;
+    fmt_tokenized_query(tokenized_query, separator, f)
+}
+
+/// Which target columns of a `combined_fields` scan need an inverted index.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+enum CombinedFieldsIndexRequirement {
+    /// Every column, because the indexed side scores each of them from its
+    /// index.
+    EveryColumn,
+    /// At least one column, for the tokenizer. The flat side reads the document
+    /// text from the scan, so a column without an index only misses out on
+    /// contributing corpus statistics.
+    AtLeastOneColumn,
+}
+
+/// What [`open_combined_fields_scan`] hands back to either `combined_fields` exec.
+struct CombinedFieldsScan {
+    columns: Vec<CombinedFieldColumn>,
+    /// Every segment opened across all target columns, for the indexed side's
+    /// prefilter.
+    segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    tokens: Tokens,
+    tokenizer: Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+}
+
+/// Open every target column's segments, pair each with its boost, and tokenize
+/// the query once.
+///
+/// Always every committed segment at row granularity: BM25F blends the target
+/// columns per row, and query planning rejects a column that only has a
+/// list-element index. The query stores each column together with its weight, so
+/// no column can be dropped here for want of one.
+///
+/// Both sides count the opened segments toward parts searched: the flat side needs
+/// them for the tokenizer and the blended corpus statistics, the indexed side for
+/// scoring.
+///
+/// `stale_rows` is empty, or one entry per target column in query column order.
+/// See [`CombinedFieldColumn::stale_rows`].
+async fn open_combined_fields_scan(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    query: &CombinedFieldsQuery,
+    index_requirement: CombinedFieldsIndexRequirement,
+    stale_rows: &[Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>],
+    tokenized_query: &OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>,
+    metrics: &FtsIndexMetrics,
+) -> DataFusionResult<CombinedFieldsScan> {
+    let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(query.column_names().len());
+    let mut all_segments = Vec::new();
+    for (slot, (column, weight)) in query.weighted_columns().enumerate() {
+        let segments = match index_requirement {
+            CombinedFieldsIndexRequirement::EveryColumn => Some(
+                FtsSegmentSelection::AllCommitted
+                    .resolve(
+                        dataset,
+                        column,
+                        DocumentGranularity::Row,
+                        &metrics.segment_bind_duration,
+                    )
+                    .await?,
+            ),
+            CombinedFieldsIndexRequirement::AtLeastOneColumn => {
+                load_segments(dataset, column, DocumentGranularity::Row)
+                    .await?
+                    .map(Arc::from)
+            }
+        };
+        let indices = match segments {
+            Some(segments) => {
+                let _details = load_segment_details(dataset, column, &segments).await?;
+                let indices =
+                    open_fts_segments(dataset, column, &segments, &metrics.index_metrics).await?;
+                all_segments.extend(segments.iter().cloned());
+                indices
+            }
+            None => Vec::new(),
+        };
+        columns.push(CombinedFieldColumn {
+            column: column.to_string(),
+            weight,
+            indices,
+            stale_rows: stale_rows
+                .get(slot)
+                .filter(|rows| !rows.is_empty())
+                .cloned(),
+        });
+    }
+    validate_combined_tokenizers(&columns)?;
+    metrics.record_parts_searched(
+        columns
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|column| &column.indices)
+            .map(|index| index.partition_count())
+            .sum(),
+    );
+
+    // Fields share a tokenizer (validated above), so tokenize once.
+    let first_index = columns
+        .iter()
+        .find_map(|column| column.indices.first())
+        .ok_or_else(|| match index_requirement {
+            // Not a user error: `EveryColumn` resolution already failed for any
+            // column without an index, and `CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new` rejects
+            // an empty column list, so reaching this means one of those two
+            // guarantees broke.
+            CombinedFieldsIndexRequirement::EveryColumn => DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "combined_fields query reached execution with no target columns".to_string(),
+            ),
+            CombinedFieldsIndexRequirement::AtLeastOneColumn => {
+                DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                    "combined_fields requires an inverted index on at least one of {:?}",
+                    query.column_names().collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                ))
+            }
+        })?;
+    let mut tokenizer = first_index.tokenizer();
+    let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(query.terms(), &mut tokenizer)?;
+    record_tokenized_query(tokenized_query, &tokens);
+
+    Ok(CombinedFieldsScan {
+        columns,
+        segments: all_segments,
+        tokens,
+        tokenizer,
+    })
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for CombinedFieldsQueryExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "CombinedFieldsQueryExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        self.prefilter_source.execution_plan().into_iter().collect()
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        self.children()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let expected = self.children().len();
+        if children.len() != expected {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "CombinedFieldsQueryExec expected {expected} children, got {}",
+                children.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let prefilter_source = match children.pop() {
+            Some(source) => self.prefilter_source.with_execution_plan(source)?,
+            None => PreFilterSource::None,
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(self.clone_with_prefilter_source(prefilter_source)))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "combined_fields_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let tokenized_query = self.tokenized_query.clone();
+        let params = self.params.clone();
+        let ds = self.dataset.clone();
+        let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.clone();
+        let preset_base_scorer = self.base_scorer.clone();
+        let shared_scorer = self.shared_scorer.clone();
+        let covered_fragments = self.covered_fragments.clone();
+        let masks = PreFilterMasks {
+            overlay_block: self.overlay_block.clone(),
+            external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+        };
+        let exec_metrics = self.metrics.clone();
+        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let _timer = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
+
+            let CombinedFieldsScan {
+                columns,
+                segments: all_segments,
+                tokens,
+                ..
+            } = open_combined_fields_scan(
+                &ds,
+                &query,
+                CombinedFieldsIndexRequirement::EveryColumn,
+                // Nothing to subtract: this side either scores against index
+                // statistics alone or against the scorer the flat sibling built,
+                // and only that sibling folds a stale row in.
+                &[],
+                &tokenized_query,
+                metrics.as_ref(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+
+            // With mixed coverage the planner supplies the fragments every target
+            // column indexes, and the scan is restricted to exactly those: the
+            // rest go to the flat sibling. Otherwise the prefilter spans the union
+            // of the target columns' segments.
+            let mut pre_filter = match covered_fragments {
+                Some(covered) => build_prefilter_restricted_to_fragments(
+                    context.clone(),
+                    partition,
+                    &prefilter_source,
+                    ds,
+                    covered,
+                    masks,
+                    &exec_metrics,
+                )?,
+                None => build_prefilter(
+                    context.clone(),
+                    partition,
+                    &prefilter_source,
+                    ds,
+                    &all_segments,
+                    masks,
+                    &exec_metrics,
+                )?,
+            };
+            let deleted_fragments = columns.iter().flat_map(|column| &column.indices).fold(
+                roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(),
+                |mut deleted, index| {
+                    deleted |= index.deleted_fragments().clone();
+                    deleted
+                },
+            );
+            if !deleted_fragments.is_empty() {
+                Arc::get_mut(&mut pre_filter)
+                    .expect("prefilter just created")
+                    .set_deleted_fragments(deleted_fragments);
+            }
+            let scorer = match (preset_base_scorer, shared_scorer) {
+                (Some(scorer), _) => scorer,
+                // A mixed plan routes the rows no index covers to a flat sibling,
+                // so folding only this side's index statistics here would score the
+                // two children against different `docCount'`/`docFreq'`/`avgdl'`.
+                // Wait for the blend that describes the whole scanned corpus.
+                (None, Some(shared_scorer)) => shared_scorer.wait().await?,
+                (None, None) => {
+                    let scorer_start = std::time::Instant::now();
+                    let scorer = Arc::new(
+                        build_combined_bm25_scorer(
+                            &columns,
+                            &tokens,
+                            CombinedCorpusStats::IndexOnly,
+                            Some(metrics.as_ref()),
+                        )
+                        .boxed()
+                        .await?,
+                    );
+                    metrics.record_scorer_build(scorer_start.elapsed());
+                    scorer
+                }
+            };
+
+            pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+            let (doc_ids, scores) = combined_fields_search(
+                &columns,
+                &tokens,
+                &params,
+                query.operator(),
+                scorer.as_ref(),
+                pre_filter,
+                metrics.as_ref(),
+            )
+            .await?;
+            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(doc_ids.len());
+
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(doc_ids)),
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(scores)),
+                ],
+            )?;
+            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+        });
+
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema(),
+            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+/// Filters the input according to a match query's token operator.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FlatMatchFilterExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    query: MatchQuery,
+    tokenized_query: Arc<OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>>,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    /// Optional pre-resolved segment list. See
+    /// [`MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments`]. `FlatMatchFilterExec` only
+    /// uses the first segment's tokenizer, but the full list is preserved so
+    /// the field round-trips through `with_new_children`.
+    preset_segments: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+    document_column: String,
+    resolved_field: Option<ResolvedFtsField>,
+
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+struct FlatMatchFilterStreamOptions {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    query: MatchQuery,
+    tokenized_query: Arc<OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>>,
+    document_column: String,
+    preset_segments: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+    resolved_field: Option<ResolvedFtsField>,
+    metrics_set: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+fn document_matches_query(
+    text: &str,
+    tokenizer: &mut Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+    query_tokens: &Tokens,
+    operator: Operator,
+) -> bool {
+    match operator {
+        Operator::Or => has_query_token(text, tokenizer, query_tokens),
+        Operator::And => {
+            let mut remaining_positions = (0..query_tokens.len())
+                .map(|index| query_tokens.position(index))
+                .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+            if remaining_positions.is_empty() {
+                return false;
+            }
+            let mut stream = tokenizer.token_stream_for_doc(text);
+            while let Some(token) = stream.next() {
+                for index in 0..query_tokens.len() {
+                    if token.text == query_tokens.get_token(index) {
+                        remaining_positions.remove(&query_tokens.position(index));
+                    }
+                }
+                if remaining_positions.is_empty() {
+                    return true;
+                }
+            }
+            false
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for FlatMatchFilterExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "FlatMatchFilter: column={}, query={}",
+                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    self.query.terms
+                )?;
+                fmt_tokenized_query(&self.tokenized_query, ", ", f)
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "FlatMatchFilter\ncolumn={}\nquery={}",
+                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    self.query.terms
+                )?;
+                fmt_tokenized_query(&self.tokenized_query, "\n", f)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl FlatMatchFilterExec {
+    async fn load_tokenizer(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        column: &str,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+        metrics: &IndexMetrics,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>> {
+        if let Some(segments) = load_segments(dataset, column, document_granularity).await? {
+            let index_meta = segments.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                    "FTS index for column {} has no segments",
+                    column
+                ))
+            })?;
+            return Ok(open_fts_segment(dataset, column, index_meta, metrics)
+                .await?
+                .tokenizer());
+        }
+        Ok(default_text_tokenizer())
+    }
+
+    async fn load_tokenizer_from_preset_segments(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        column: &str,
+        segments: &[IndexMetadata],
+        metrics: &IndexMetrics,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>> {
+        let index_meta = segments.first().ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Execution(format!("FTS index for column {} has no segments", column))
+        })?;
+        Ok(open_fts_segment(dataset, column, index_meta, metrics)
+            .await?
+            .tokenizer())
+    }
+
+    pub fn new(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let document_column = query.column.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+        Self::new_with_document_column(input, dataset, query, params, document_column)
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_document_column(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        document_column: String,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            input,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            preset_segments: None,
+            document_column,
+            resolved_field: None,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn new_with_resolved_field(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        resolved_field: ResolvedFtsField,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            input,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            preset_segments: None,
+            document_column: resolved_field.root_column.clone(),
+            resolved_field: Some(resolved_field),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// See [`MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments`]. `FlatMatchFilterExec`
+    /// uses the first segment's tokenizer; the rest are kept for caller-side
+    /// bookkeeping.
+    pub fn new_with_segments(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let document_column = query.column.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            input,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            preset_segments: Some(segments),
+            document_column,
+            resolved_field: None,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &MatchQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    pub fn preset_segments(&self) -> Option<&[IndexMetadata]> {
+        self.preset_segments.as_deref()
+    }
+
+    fn find_matches<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
+        text_col: &dyn Array,
+        tokenizer: &mut Box<dyn LanceTokenizer>,
+        query_tokens: &Tokens,
+        operator: Operator,
+    ) -> BooleanArray {
+        let text_col = text_col.as_string::<O>();
+        let mut predicate = BooleanBuilder::with_capacity(text_col.len());
+        for idx in 0..text_col.len() {
+            predicate.append_value(
+                !text_col.is_null(idx)
+                    && document_matches_query(
+                        text_col.value(idx),
+                        tokenizer,
+                        query_tokens,
+                        operator,
+                    ),
+            );
+        }
+        predicate.finish()
+    }
+
+    async fn build_filter_stream(
+        input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        partition: usize,
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        options: FlatMatchFilterStreamOptions,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let FlatMatchFilterStreamOptions {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query,
+            document_column,
+            preset_segments,
+            resolved_field,
+            metrics_set,
+        } = options;
+        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&metrics_set, partition));
+        let column = query
+            .column
+            .clone()
+            .ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                "column not set for MatchQuery {}",
+                query.terms
+            )))?;
+        if uses_fuzzy_expansion(query.fuzziness) {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::NotImplemented(format!(
+                "Fuzzy MatchQuery is not supported when FTS is used as a post-filter: column={}, fuzziness={:?}",
+                column, query.fuzziness
+            )));
+        }
+        let document_granularity = resolved_field
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|resolved| resolved.document_granularity)
+            .or(query.document_granularity)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "MatchQuery document granularity was not resolved".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?;
+        let mut tokenizer = match preset_segments {
+            Some(segments) => {
+                Self::load_tokenizer_from_preset_segments(
+                    &dataset,
+                    &column,
+                    &segments,
+                    &metrics.index_metrics,
+                )
+                .await?
+            }
+            None => {
+                Self::load_tokenizer(
+                    &dataset,
+                    &column,
+                    document_granularity,
+                    &metrics.index_metrics,
+                )
+                .await?
+            }
+        };
+        let query_tokens = Arc::new(try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?);
+        record_tokenized_query(&tokenized_query, &query_tokens);
+
+        let baseline = BaselineMetrics::new(&metrics_set, partition);
+        let elapsed_compute = baseline.elapsed_compute().clone();
+        let stream = input.then(move |batch_result| {
+            let column = document_column.clone();
+            let query_tokens = query_tokens.clone();
+            let mut tokenizer = tokenizer.box_clone();
+            let elapsed_compute = elapsed_compute.clone();
+            let resolved_field = resolved_field.clone();
+            let query_operator = query.operator;
+            async move {
+                let batch = batch_result?;
+                let _t = elapsed_compute.timer();
+                if let Some(resolved_field) = resolved_field {
+                    let documents = resolved_field
+                        .documents_from_batch(&batch)
+                        .map_err(DataFusionError::from)?;
+                    let mut matches = vec![false; batch.num_rows()];
+                    for document in documents {
+                        if document_matches_query(
+                            &document.text,
+                            &mut tokenizer,
+                            &query_tokens,
+                            query_operator,
+                        ) {
+                            matches[document.row_index] = true;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    let predicate = BooleanArray::from(matches);
+                    return Ok(arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &predicate)?);
+                }
+                let text_column = batch.column_by_name(&column).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Column {} not found in batch", column,))
+                })?;
+                let predicate = match text_column.data_type() {
+                    DataType::Utf8 => {
+                        Self::find_matches::<i32>(
+                            text_column,
+                            &mut tokenizer,
+                            &query_tokens,
+                            query_operator,
+                        )
+                    }
+                    DataType::LargeUtf8 => {
+                        Self::find_matches::<i64>(
+                            text_column,
+                            &mut tokenizer,
+                            &query_tokens,
+                            query_operator,
+                        )
+                    }
+                    _ => {
+                        return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                            "FTS document column {} is not a string; nested List inputs must be expanded before filtering",
+                            column,
+                        )));
+                    }
+                };
+                Ok(arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &predicate)?)
+            }
+        });
+        let stream = stream.map(move |batch| {
+            let poll = baseline.record_poll(std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(batch)));
+            match poll {
+                std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(b)) => b,
+                _ => unreachable!("record_poll preserves Ready(Some) input"),
+            }
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)))
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for FlatMatchFilterExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "FlatMatchFilterExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let input = children.pop().ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal("Unexpected number of children".to_string())
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            input,
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            preset_segments: self.preset_segments.clone(),
+            document_column: self.document_column.clone(),
+            resolved_field: self.resolved_field.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "flat_match_filter_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let input = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let schema = self.schema();
+        let stream_fut = Self::build_filter_stream(
+            input,
+            partition,
+            schema.clone(),
+            FlatMatchFilterStreamOptions {
+                dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+                query: self.query.clone(),
+                tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+                document_column: self.document_column.clone(),
+                preset_segments: self.preset_segments.clone(),
+                resolved_field: self.resolved_field.clone(),
+                metrics_set: self.metrics.clone(),
+            },
+        );
+        let stream = stream::once(stream_fut)
+            .try_flatten()
+            .stream_in_current_span()
+            .boxed();
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)))
+    }
+
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
+        self.input.partition_statistics(partition)
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        self.input.properties()
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+/// Calculates the FTS score for each row in the input
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FlatMatchQueryExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    query: MatchQuery,
+    tokenized_query: Arc<OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>>,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    unindexed_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    /// Optional override for the BM25 scorer normally built locally inside
+    /// `execute()`. See [`MatchQueryExec::with_base_scorer`].
+    base_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+    /// Publishes the scorer extended with this flat branch's documents.
+    shared_scorer: Option<Arc<SharedFtsScorer>>,
+    /// Optional pre-resolved segment list. See
+    /// [`MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments`].
+    preset_segments: Option<Vec<IndexMetadata>>,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    document_column: String,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for FlatMatchQueryExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "FlatMatchQuery: column={}, query={}",
+                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    self.query.terms
+                )?;
+                fmt_tokenized_query(&self.tokenized_query, ", ", f)
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "FlatMatchQuery\ncolumn={}\nquery={}",
+                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    self.query.terms
+                )?;
+                fmt_tokenized_query(&self.tokenized_query, "\n", f)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl FlatMatchQueryExec {
+    pub fn new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        unindexed_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let document_column = query.column.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("MatchQuery document granularity must be resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Self::new_with_document_granularity(
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            params,
+            unindexed_input,
+            document_granularity,
+            document_column,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_document_granularity(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        unindexed_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+        document_column: String,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Incremental,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            unindexed_input,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            preset_segments: None,
+            document_granularity,
+            document_column,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// See [`MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments`].
+    pub fn new_with_segments(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        unindexed_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let document_column = query.column.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("MatchQuery document granularity must be resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Self::new_with_segments_and_document_granularity(
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            params,
+            unindexed_input,
+            segments,
+            document_granularity,
+            document_column,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_segments_and_document_granularity(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MatchQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        unindexed_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+        document_column: String,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Incremental,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            unindexed_input,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            preset_segments: Some(segments),
+            document_granularity,
+            document_column,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Override the local BM25 scorer; see [`MatchQueryExec::with_base_scorer`].
+    pub fn with_base_scorer(mut self, scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>) -> Self {
+        self.base_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_shared_scorer(mut self, scorer: Arc<SharedFtsScorer>) -> Self {
+        self.shared_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &MatchQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    pub fn base_scorer(&self) -> Option<&Arc<MemBM25Scorer>> {
+        self.base_scorer.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    pub fn preset_segments(&self) -> Option<&[IndexMetadata]> {
+        self.preset_segments.as_deref()
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for FlatMatchQueryExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "FlatMatchQueryExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.unindexed_input]
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        // `execute()` only reads `unindexed_input.execute(partition)` for the single
+        // output partition, so the input must be coalesced to one partition. Without
+        // this, EnforceDistribution may round-robin the scan across `target_partitions`
+        // and only partition 0 is consumed, silently dropping the other fragments.
+        vec![Distribution::SinglePartition]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let unindexed_input = children.pop().unwrap();
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            unindexed_input,
+            base_scorer: self.base_scorer.clone(),
+            shared_scorer: self.shared_scorer.clone(),
+            preset_segments: self.preset_segments.clone(),
+            document_granularity: self.document_granularity,
+            document_column: self.document_column.clone(),
+            schema: self.schema.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "flat_match_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let tokenized_query = self.tokenized_query.clone();
+        let ds = self.dataset.clone();
+        let preset_base_scorer = self.base_scorer.clone();
+        let shared_scorer_producer = self.shared_scorer.clone().map(SharedFtsScorerProducer::new);
+        let preset_segments = self.preset_segments.clone();
+        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let metrics_clone = metrics.clone();
+        let target_batch_size = context.session_config().batch_size();
+        let document_granularity = self.document_granularity;
+        let document_column = self.document_column.clone();
+        let phrase_slop = self.params.phrase_slop;
+
+        // Lets `flat_bm25_search_stream_with_metrics` attribute the spawn_cpu
+        // tokenize work and synchronous scoring back onto this node's
+        // `elapsed_compute`. Reusing the handle already inside `FtsIndexMetrics`
+        // avoids registering a duplicate metric.
+        let elapsed_compute = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().clone();
+
+        let column = query.column.ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+            "column not set for MatchQuery {}",
+            query.terms
+        )))?;
+        let unindexed_input = document_input(
+            self.unindexed_input.execute(partition, context)?,
+            &document_column,
+        )?;
+
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let shared_scorer_producer = shared_scorer_producer;
+            let result = async {
+                let segments = match preset_segments {
+                    Some(segments) => Some(segments),
+                    None => load_segments(&ds, &column, document_granularity).await?,
+                };
+                let (tokenizer, base_scorer) = match segments {
+                    Some(segments) => {
+                        let _details = load_segment_details(&ds, &column, &segments).await?;
+                        let indices =
+                            open_fts_segments(&ds, &column, &segments, &metrics.index_metrics)
+                                .await?;
+                        metrics.record_parts_searched(
+                            indices.iter().map(|index| index.partition_count()).sum(),
+                        );
+                        let first_index = indices.first().ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                            format!("FTS index for column {} has no segments", column),
+                        ))?;
+                        let mut tokenizer = first_index.tokenizer();
+                        let query_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+                        record_tokenized_query(&tokenized_query, &query_tokens);
+                        let base_scorer = match preset_base_scorer {
+                            Some(scorer) => (*scorer).clone(),
+                            None => {
+                                let scorer_start = std::time::Instant::now();
+                                let scorer = build_global_bm25_scorer(
+                                    &indices,
+                                    &query_tokens,
+                                    &FtsSearchParams::new(),
+                                    Some(metrics.as_ref()),
+                                )
+                                .boxed()
+                                .await?;
+                                metrics.record_scorer_build(scorer_start.elapsed());
+                                scorer
+                            }
+                        };
+                        (tokenizer, Some(base_scorer))
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        let mut tokenizer = default_text_tokenizer();
+                        let query_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+                        record_tokenized_query(&tokenized_query, &query_tokens);
+                        (tokenizer, preset_base_scorer.map(|s| (*s).clone()))
+                    }
+                };
+
+                flat_bm25_search_stream_with_options_and_scorer(
+                    unindexed_input,
+                    document_column,
+                    query.terms,
+                    tokenizer,
+                    base_scorer,
+                    FlatBm25SearchOptions {
+                        target_batch_size,
+                        elapsed_compute: Some(elapsed_compute),
+                        operator: query.operator,
+                        boost: query.boost,
+                        document_granularity,
+                        phrase_slop,
+                    },
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+            .await;
+
+            match result {
+                Ok((stream, scorer)) => {
+                    if let Some(producer) = shared_scorer_producer {
+                        producer.publish(Arc::new(scorer));
+                    }
+                    Ok(stream)
+                }
+                Err(error) => {
+                    if let Some(producer) = shared_scorer_producer {
+                        producer.publish_error(&error);
+                    }
+                    Err(error)
+                }
+            }
+        })
+        .try_flatten()
+        .map(move |batch| {
+            // Records output_rows, output_bytes, and output_batches on the shared
+            // BaselineMetrics, as DataFusion's own FilterExec does in its
+            // hand-written poll_next.
+            let poll = metrics_clone
+                .baseline_metrics
+                .record_poll(std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(batch)));
+            match poll {
+                std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(b)) => b,
+                _ => unreachable!("record_poll preserves Ready(Some) input"),
+            }
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema(),
+            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+/// The rows of one target column that a flat `combined_fields` scan folds into
+/// that column's corpus statistics: the ones its index does not already count.
+///
+/// The scan reads every target column of every row it scores, but a scanned
+/// fragment can still be indexed for some of those columns. Folding such a row
+/// into that column's statistics as well would count it twice, inflating
+/// `docCount_f`, `sumTotalTermFreq_f` and `docFreq_f`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct FlatStatsCoverage {
+    /// Fragments this column's index does not cover at all.
+    pub fragments: roaring::RoaringBitmap,
+    /// Rows it does cover, but whose entries a newer overlay made stale, in the id
+    /// domain the scan's `_rowid` uses. Their current values are folded in, and
+    /// their pre-overlay values are subtracted from the index statistics (see
+    /// [`CombinedFieldColumn::stale_rows`]), so each counts once.
+    pub stale_rows: Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>,
+}
+
+/// Which corpus statistics a flat `combined_fields` scan contributes.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub enum FlatStatsScope {
+    /// Per target column, in query order, the rows to fold on top of that
+    /// column's index statistics.
+    PerColumn(Vec<FlatStatsCoverage>),
+    /// The scan reads every target fragment and its statistics replace the index
+    /// statistics; see [`CombinedCorpusStats::FlatOnly`].
+    WholeCorpus,
+}
+
+/// The sibling of [`CombinedFieldsQueryExec`] for the fragments that at least one
+/// target column's index is missing. Those rows cannot be scored from the indexes
+/// (`tf'`/`dl'` would omit the unindexed columns), so they are scored straight
+/// from their column values here. The two plans are unioned and re-sorted by the
+/// planner, exactly as the single-column match path does.
+///
+/// The input must carry `_rowid` plus every target column of the query.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FlatCombinedFieldsExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    query: CombinedFieldsQuery,
+    /// Tokens `execute()` actually produced, for `analyze_plan`. Single snapshot
+    /// for the same reason as [`CombinedFieldsQueryExec::tokenized_query`].
+    tokenized_query: Arc<OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>>,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    unindexed_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    /// The fragments `unindexed_input` reads.
+    scanned_fragments: roaring::RoaringBitmap,
+    /// Per target column, in query order: how `execute` turns the scanned column
+    /// into document text.
+    resolved_fields: Vec<ResolvedFtsField>,
+    stats_scope: FlatStatsScope,
+    /// Picks the emitted rows. The planner reads `unindexed_input` unfiltered, so
+    /// that the filter does not change the corpus statistics.
+    emit_prefilter: PreFilterSource,
+    /// Publishes the blended scorer to an indexed sibling; see
+    /// [`Self::with_shared_scorer`].
+    shared_scorer: Option<Arc<SharedFtsScorer<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer>>>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for FlatCombinedFieldsExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        fmt_combined_fields(
+            "FlatCombinedFields",
+            &self.query,
+            &self.tokenized_query,
+            t,
+            f,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl FlatCombinedFieldsExec {
+    /// `resolved_fields` and a [`FlatStatsScope::PerColumn`] scope must hold one
+    /// entry per target column, in query order.
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub(crate) fn try_new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: CombinedFieldsQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        unindexed_input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        scanned_fragments: roaring::RoaringBitmap,
+        resolved_fields: Vec<ResolvedFtsField>,
+        stats_scope: FlatStatsScope,
+        emit_prefilter: PreFilterSource,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let num_columns = query.column_names().len();
+        let num_coverage = match &stats_scope {
+            FlatStatsScope::PerColumn(coverage) => coverage.len(),
+            FlatStatsScope::WholeCorpus => num_columns,
+        };
+        if resolved_fields.len() != num_columns || num_coverage != num_columns {
+            return Err(Error::internal(format!(
+                "combined_fields flat scan got {} resolved fields and {} statistics coverage \
+                 sets for {} target columns",
+                resolved_fields.len(),
+                num_coverage,
+                num_columns
+            )));
+        }
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Incremental,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        Ok(Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            unindexed_input,
+            scanned_fragments,
+            resolved_fields,
+            stats_scope,
+            emit_prefilter,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Publish the blended scorer this scan builds to an indexed sibling.
+    ///
+    /// Only this side sees the unindexed rows, so only it can produce the corpus
+    /// statistics both sides must score against.
+    pub(crate) fn with_shared_scorer(
+        mut self,
+        scorer: Arc<SharedFtsScorer<CombinedFieldsBM25Scorer>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.shared_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for FlatCombinedFieldsExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "FlatCombinedFieldsExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let mut children = vec![&self.unindexed_input];
+        children.extend(self.emit_prefilter.execution_plan());
+        children
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        // `execute()` reads only `unindexed_input.execute(partition)` for the
+        // single output partition, so the input must be coalesced to one
+        // partition or fragments would be silently dropped. Same reasoning as
+        // `FlatMatchQueryExec`.
+        self.children()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != self.children().len() {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        // Reverse order: the optional prefilter child is last, so pop it first.
+        let emit_prefilter = if self.emit_prefilter.execution_plan().is_some() {
+            self.emit_prefilter
+                .with_execution_plan(children.pop().expect("child count checked above"))?
+        } else {
+            // A prefilter source with no child of its own leaves the input last.
+            self.emit_prefilter.clone()
+        };
+        let Some(unindexed_input) = children.pop() else {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "combined_fields flat scan lost its input child".to_string(),
+            ));
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            unindexed_input,
+            scanned_fragments: self.scanned_fragments.clone(),
+            resolved_fields: self.resolved_fields.clone(),
+            stats_scope: self.stats_scope.clone(),
+            emit_prefilter,
+            shared_scorer: self.shared_scorer.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "flat_combined_fields_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let tokenized_query = self.tokenized_query.clone();
+        let ds = self.dataset.clone();
+        let stats_scope = self.stats_scope.clone();
+        let stale_rows_per_column: Vec<Arc<RowAddrTreeMap>> = match &stats_scope {
+            FlatStatsScope::PerColumn(coverage) => coverage
+                .iter()
+                .map(|coverage| coverage.stale_rows.clone())
+                .collect(),
+            FlatStatsScope::WholeCorpus => Vec::new(),
+        };
+        let emit_prefilter = self.emit_prefilter.clone();
+        let scanned_fragments = self.scanned_fragments.clone();
+        let prefilter_context = context.clone();
+        let stats_mask_ds = self.dataset.clone();
+        let metrics_set = self.metrics.clone();
+        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let metrics_clone = metrics.clone();
+        let target_batch_size = context.session_config().batch_size();
+        let elapsed_compute = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().clone();
+
+        let shared_scorer_producer = self.shared_scorer.clone().map(SharedFtsScorerProducer::new);
+
+        let mut input = self.unindexed_input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        for (column, resolved) in query.column_names().zip(&self.resolved_fields) {
+            // A path that continues past a `List` cannot be projected, so the scan
+            // brought its list root instead and the leaf text is derived here.
+            input = if resolved.has_lists() {
+                flatten_fts_document_column(input, resolved.clone())?
+            } else {
+                document_input(input, column)?
+            };
+        }
+
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let shared_scorer_producer = shared_scorer_producer;
+            let result = async {
+                let CombinedFieldsScan {
+                    columns,
+                    tokens,
+                    tokenizer,
+                    ..
+                } = open_combined_fields_scan(
+                    &ds,
+                    &query,
+                    CombinedFieldsIndexRequirement::AtLeastOneColumn,
+                    &stale_rows_per_column,
+                    &tokenized_query,
+                    metrics.as_ref(),
+                )
+                .await?;
+
+                let input_schema = input.schema();
+                let doc_col_indices = query
+                    .column_names()
+                    .map(|column| input_schema.index_of(column))
+                    .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+
+                // One mask per target column over the rows it may fold. Built through
+                // `create_restricted_deletion_mask` so the fragment restriction lands in
+                // the id space the scan's `_rowid` uses; a hand-rolled fragment-address
+                // allow list would match nothing under stable row ids.
+                let fragment_mask = |fragments: roaring::RoaringBitmap| {
+                    let ds = stats_mask_ds.clone();
+                    async move {
+                        match DatasetPreFilter::create_restricted_deletion_mask(ds, fragments) {
+                            Some(mask) => mask.await,
+                            None => Ok(Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows())),
+                        }
+                    }
+                };
+                let stats_masks = match &stats_scope {
+                    FlatStatsScope::PerColumn(coverage) => {
+                        let mut stats_masks = Vec::with_capacity(coverage.len());
+                        for coverage in coverage {
+                            let mask = fragment_mask(coverage.fragments.clone()).await?;
+                            // Stale rows sit in fragments the index does cover, so they
+                            // are allowed by address rather than by fragment.
+                            stats_masks.push(if coverage.stale_rows.is_empty() {
+                                mask
+                            } else {
+                                Arc::new(
+                                    mask.as_ref()
+                                        .clone()
+                                        .also_allow(coverage.stale_rows.as_ref().clone()),
+                                )
+                            });
+                        }
+                        stats_masks
+                    }
+                    FlatStatsScope::WholeCorpus => {
+                        vec![fragment_mask(scanned_fragments.clone()).await?; columns.len()]
+                    }
+                };
+
+                let emit_mask = {
+                    let pre_filter = build_prefilter_restricted_to_fragments(
+                        prefilter_context,
+                        partition,
+                        &emit_prefilter,
+                        stats_mask_ds.clone(),
+                        scanned_fragments,
+                        // The external row-address mask is applied by the
+                        // planner's `RowAddrMaskFilterExec` wrap around this
+                        // node, so it stays out of the corpus statistics.
+                        PreFilterMasks::default(),
+                        &metrics_set,
+                    )?;
+                    pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+                    pre_filter.mask()
+                };
+
+                flat_combined_fields_search_stream(
+                    input,
+                    &columns,
+                    doc_col_indices,
+                    &stats_masks,
+                    Some(emit_mask),
+                    matches!(stats_scope, FlatStatsScope::WholeCorpus),
+                    &tokens,
+                    tokenizer,
+                    query.operator(),
+                    target_batch_size,
+                    Some(elapsed_compute),
+                    Some(metrics.as_ref()),
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+            .await;
+
+            match result {
+                Ok((stream, scorer)) => {
+                    if let Some(producer) = shared_scorer_producer {
+                        producer.publish(scorer);
+                    }
+                    Ok(stream)
+                }
+                Err(error) => {
+                    if let Some(producer) = shared_scorer_producer {
+                        producer.publish_error(&error);
+                    }
+                    Err(error)
+                }
+            }
+        })
+        .try_flatten()
+        .map(move |batch| {
+            let poll = metrics_clone
+                .baseline_metrics
+                .record_poll(std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(batch)));
+            match poll {
+                std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(b)) => b,
+                _ => unreachable!("record_poll preserves Ready(Some) input"),
+            }
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema(),
+            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct PhraseQueryExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    query: PhraseQuery,
+    tokenized_query: Arc<OnceLock<TokenizedQuery>>,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    /// Optional override for the BM25 scorer normally built locally inside
+    /// `execute()`. See [`MatchQueryExec::with_base_scorer`].
+    base_scorer: Option<Arc<MemBM25Scorer>>,
+    /// Corpus-wide scorer published by the flat branch of a mixed search.
+    shared_scorer: Option<Arc<SharedFtsScorer>>,
+    segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection,
+    /// Rows whose indexed values were superseded by newer data overlays.
+    overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+    document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    /// Optional external row-address mask combined (logical AND) with the BM25
+    /// prefilter so only masked rows are scored (see [`MatchQueryExec::with_external_mask`]).
+    external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for PhraseQueryExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "PhraseQuery: column={}, query={}",
+                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    self.query.terms
+                )?;
+                fmt_tokenized_query(&self.tokenized_query, ", ", f)
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "PhraseQuery\ncolumn={}\nquery={}",
+                    self.query.column.as_deref().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    self.query.terms
+                )?;
+                fmt_tokenized_query(&self.tokenized_query, "\n", f)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PhraseQueryExec {
+    pub fn new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: PhraseQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("PhraseQuery document granularity must be resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Self::new_with_document_granularity(
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            document_granularity,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_document_granularity(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: PhraseQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        let params = params.with_phrase_slop(Some(query.slop));
+
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection::AllCommitted,
+            overlay_block: None,
+            document_granularity,
+            schema,
+            external_mask: None,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// See [`MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments`].
+    pub fn new_with_segments(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: PhraseQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("PhraseQuery document granularity must be resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Self::new_with_segments_and_document_granularity(
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            segments,
+            document_granularity,
+        ))
+    }
+
+    pub fn new_with_segments_and_document_granularity(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: PhraseQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        document_granularity: DocumentGranularity,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        let params = params.with_phrase_slop(Some(query.slop));
+
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection::ExactResolved(Arc::from(segments)),
+            overlay_block: None,
+            external_mask: None,
+            document_granularity,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Construct a `PhraseQueryExec` bound to an exact ordered set of committed
+    /// FTS segment UUIDs.
+    ///
+    /// The UUIDs are resolved from this exec's dataset snapshot when the output
+    /// stream is polled. Duplicate UUIDs are removed while preserving their
+    /// first-occurrence order. Resolution fails if the list is empty or any UUID
+    /// is not committed for the query column.
+    pub fn new_with_segment_uuids(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: PhraseQuery,
+        mut params: FtsSearchParams,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        segment_uuids: Vec<Uuid>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let document_granularity = query.document_granularity.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::invalid_input("PhraseQuery document granularity must be resolved".to_string())
+        })?;
+        let schema = fts_schema(document_granularity);
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        params = params.with_phrase_slop(Some(query.slop));
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            tokenized_query: Arc::new(OnceLock::new()),
+            params,
+            prefilter_source,
+            base_scorer: None,
+            shared_scorer: None,
+            segment_selection: FtsSegmentSelection::exact_uuids(segment_uuids),
+            overlay_block: None,
+            document_granularity,
+            schema,
+            external_mask: None,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Override the local BM25 scorer; see [`MatchQueryExec::with_base_scorer`].
+    pub fn with_base_scorer(mut self, scorer: Arc<MemBM25Scorer>) -> Self {
+        self.base_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_shared_scorer(mut self, scorer: Arc<SharedFtsScorer>) -> Self {
+        self.shared_scorer = Some(scorer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Exclude rows whose indexed text was superseded by a newer data overlay.
+    pub(crate) fn with_overlay_block(mut self, overlay_block: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        self.overlay_block = Some(overlay_block);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// See [`MatchQueryExec::with_external_mask`].
+    pub fn with_external_mask(mut self, mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>) -> Self {
+        self.external_mask = mask;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &PhraseQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    pub fn prefilter_source(&self) -> &PreFilterSource {
+        &self.prefilter_source
+    }
+
+    pub fn base_scorer(&self) -> Option<&Arc<MemBM25Scorer>> {
+        self.base_scorer.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    pub fn preset_segments(&self) -> Option<&[IndexMetadata]> {
+        self.segment_selection.preset_segments()
+    }
+
+    /// Return the ordered segment UUIDs for an explicit selection.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` when this exec searches all committed segments. UUID-based
+    /// selections omit duplicates while preserving first-occurrence order.
+    /// Pre-resolved selections preserve the supplied metadata order.
+    pub fn explicit_segment_uuids(&self) -> Option<Vec<Uuid>> {
+        self.segment_selection.explicit_segment_uuids()
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for PhraseQueryExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "PhraseQueryExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        self.prefilter_source.execution_plan().into_iter().collect()
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        // Prefilter inputs must be a single partition
+        self.children()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let plan = match children.len() {
+            0 => {
+                if !matches!(self.prefilter_source, PreFilterSource::None) {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "Unexpected prefilter source".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                Self {
+                    dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+                    query: self.query.clone(),
+                    tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+                    params: self.params.clone(),
+                    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource::None,
+                    base_scorer: self.base_scorer.clone(),
+                    shared_scorer: self.shared_scorer.clone(),
+                    segment_selection: self.segment_selection.clone(),
+                    overlay_block: self.overlay_block.clone(),
+                    document_granularity: self.document_granularity,
+                    schema: self.schema.clone(),
+                    external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
+                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+                }
+            }
+            1 => {
+                let src = children.pop().unwrap();
+                let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.with_execution_plan(src)?;
+                Self {
+                    dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+                    query: self.query.clone(),
+                    tokenized_query: self.tokenized_query.clone(),
+                    params: self.params.clone(),
+                    prefilter_source,
+                    base_scorer: self.base_scorer.clone(),
+                    shared_scorer: self.shared_scorer.clone(),
+                    segment_selection: self.segment_selection.clone(),
+                    overlay_block: self.overlay_block.clone(),
+                    document_granularity: self.document_granularity,
+                    schema: self.schema.clone(),
+                    external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
+                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+                }
+            }
+            _ => {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                    "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(plan))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "phrase_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let tokenized_query = self.tokenized_query.clone();
+        let params = self.params.clone();
+        let ds = self.dataset.clone();
+        let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.clone();
+        let external_mask = self.external_mask.clone();
+        let preset_base_scorer = self.base_scorer.clone();
+        let shared_scorer = self.shared_scorer.clone();
+        let segment_selection = self.segment_selection.clone();
+        let overlay_block = self.overlay_block.clone();
+        let document_granularity = self.document_granularity;
+        let schema = self.schema.clone();
+        let metrics_set = self.metrics.clone();
+        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let _timer = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
+            let column = query.column.ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                "column not set for PhraseQuery {}",
+                query.terms
+            )))?;
+            let segments = segment_selection
+                .resolve(
+                    &ds,
+                    &column,
+                    document_granularity,
+                    &metrics.segment_bind_duration,
+                )
+                .await?;
+            let indices =
+                open_fts_segments(&ds, &column, &segments, &metrics.index_metrics).await?;
+
+            let mut pre_filter = build_prefilter(
+                context.clone(),
+                partition,
+                &prefilter_source,
+                ds,
+                &segments,
+                PreFilterMasks {
+                    overlay_block,
+                    external_mask,
+                },
+                &metrics_set,
+            )?;
+            let deleted_fragments =
+                indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .fold(roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(), |mut deleted, index| {
+                        deleted |= index.deleted_fragments().clone();
+                        deleted
+                    });
+            if !deleted_fragments.is_empty() {
+                Arc::get_mut(&mut pre_filter)
+                    .expect("prefilter just created")
+                    .set_deleted_fragments(deleted_fragments);
+            }
+            metrics
+                .record_parts_searched(indices.iter().map(|index| index.partition_count()).sum());
+
+            let first_index = indices.first().ok_or(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                "FTS index for column {} has no segments",
+                column
+            )))?;
+            let mut tokenizer = first_index.tokenizer();
+            let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer)?;
+            record_tokenized_query(&tokenized_query, &tokens);
+            let base_scorer = match (preset_base_scorer, shared_scorer) {
+                (Some(scorer), _) => scorer,
+                (None, Some(shared_scorer)) => shared_scorer.wait().await?,
+                (None, None) => {
+                    let scorer_start = std::time::Instant::now();
+                    let scorer = Arc::new(
+                        build_global_bm25_scorer(
+                            &indices,
+                            &tokens,
+                            &params,
+                            Some(metrics.as_ref()),
+                        )
+                        .boxed()
+                        .await?,
+                    );
+                    metrics.record_scorer_build(scorer_start.elapsed());
+                    scorer
+                }
+            };
+
+            pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+            let tokens = Arc::new(tokens);
+            let params = Arc::new(params);
+            let documents = search_segments(
+                &indices,
+                tokens,
+                params,
+                lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::Operator::And,
+                pre_filter,
+                metrics.clone(),
+                base_scorer,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await?;
+            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(documents.len());
+            let batch = scored_documents_batch(schema, documents)?;
+            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema(),
+            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct BoostQueryExec {
+    query: BoostQuery,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    positive: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    negative: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for BoostQueryExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "BoostQuery: negative_boost={}",
+                    self.query.negative_boost
+                )
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "BoostQuery\nnegative_boost={}",
+                    self.query.negative_boost
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl BoostQueryExec {
+    pub fn new(
+        query: BoostQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        positive: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        negative: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = positive.schema();
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        Self {
+            query,
+            params,
+            positive,
+            negative,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &BoostQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn positive(&self) -> &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        &self.positive
+    }
+
+    pub fn negative(&self) -> &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        &self.negative
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for BoostQueryExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "BoostQueryExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.positive, &self.negative]
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        // This node fully consumes and re-orders the input rows.
+        // It must be run on a single partition.
+        self.children()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 2 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let negative = children.pop().unwrap();
+        let positive = children.pop().unwrap();
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            positive,
+            negative,
+            schema: self.schema.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "boost_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let params = self.params.clone();
+        let positive = self.positive.execute(partition, context.clone())?;
+        let negative = self.negative.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let schema = self.schema.clone();
+        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let positive = positive.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
+            let negative = negative.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
+
+            let _timer = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
+            let mut res = HashMap::new();
+            for batch in positive {
+                for (key, score) in batch_scored_document_keys(&batch)? {
+                    res.insert(key, score);
+                }
+            }
+            for batch in negative {
+                for (key, neg_score) in batch_scored_document_keys(&batch)? {
+                    if let Some(score) = res.get_mut(&key) {
+                        *score -= query.negative_boost * neg_score;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            let documents = res
+                .into_iter()
+                .sorted_unstable_by(compare_scored_documents)
+                .take(params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(documents.len());
+
+            let batch = document_key_scores_batch(schema, documents)?;
+            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema(),
+            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+/// Identifies which clause of a [`BooleanQuery`] a list of child execs
+/// belongs to. Used by [`build_boolean_query_children`] to pick the
+/// right exec shape per slot.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum BoolSlot {
+    Should,
+    Must,
+    MustNot,
+}
+
+/// Combine N children into the per-slot exec shape that
+/// [`BooleanQueryExec::new`] expects. Used by `Scanner::plan_fts` to
+/// assemble the per-slot exec shape:
+///
+/// | slot      | 0 children                 | 1 child       | N children                                          |
+/// |-----------|----------------------------|---------------|-----------------------------------------------------|
+/// | Should    | `Some(EmptyExec(FTS))`     | `Some(child)` | `Some(Union -> Repartition(RoundRobinBatch(1)))`    |
+/// | Must      | `None`                     | `Some(child)` | `Some(chained HashJoin on row_id)`                  |
+/// | MustNot   | `Some(EmptyExec(FTS))`     | `Some(child)` | `Some(Union -> Repartition(RoundRobinBatch(1)))`    |
+///
+/// Errors only on internal invariants (HashJoin construction, Schema
+/// lookups). Returns `Result<Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>>` so the
+/// `Must` slot's `None` case is naturally expressible.
+pub fn build_boolean_query_children(
+    slot: BoolSlot,
+    children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> {
+    build_boolean_query_children_with_schema(slot, children, FTS_SCHEMA.clone())
+}
+
+pub fn build_boolean_query_children_with_schema(
+    slot: BoolSlot,
+    mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>> {
+    match slot {
+        BoolSlot::Should | BoolSlot::MustNot => {
+            if children.is_empty() {
+                Ok(Some(Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(schema))))
+            } else if children.len() == 1 {
+                Ok(Some(children.pop().unwrap()))
+            } else {
+                let unioned = UnionExec::try_new(children)?;
+                Ok(Some(Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(
+                    unioned,
+                    Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+                )?)))
+            }
+        }
+        BoolSlot::Must => {
+            let mut joined: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> = None;
+            for plan in children {
+                if let Some(left) = joined {
+                    let mut on: Vec<(Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>, Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>)> = vec![(
+                        Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, &schema)?),
+                        Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(ROW_ID, &schema)?),
+                    )];
+                    if schema.field_with_name(DOC_INDEX_COL).is_ok() {
+                        on.push((
+                            Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(DOC_INDEX_COL, &schema)?),
+                            Arc::new(Column::new_with_schema(DOC_INDEX_COL, &schema)?),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    joined = Some(Arc::new(HashJoinExec::try_new(
+                        left,
+                        plan,
+                        on,
+                        None,
+                        &datafusion_expr::JoinType::Inner,
+                        None,
+                        PartitionMode::CollectLeft,
+                        NullEquality::NullEqualsNothing,
+                        false,
+                    )?) as _);
+                } else {
+                    joined = Some(plan);
+                }
+            }
+            Ok(joined)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct BooleanQueryExec {
+    query: BooleanQuery,
+    params: FtsSearchParams,
+    should: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    must: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    must_not: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for BooleanQueryExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "BooleanQuery: should={:?}, must={:?}, must_not={:?}",
+                    self.query.should, self.query.must, self.query.must_not,
+                )
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(f, "BooleanQuery")?;
+                if !self.query.should.is_empty() {
+                    write!(f, "\nshould={:?}", self.query.should)?;
+                }
+                if !self.query.must.is_empty() {
+                    write!(f, "\nmust={:?}", self.query.must)?;
+                }
+                if !self.query.must_not.is_empty() {
+                    write!(f, "\nmust_not={:?}", self.query.must_not)?;
+                }
+                std::fmt::Result::Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl BooleanQueryExec {
+    pub fn new(
+        query: BooleanQuery,
+        params: FtsSearchParams,
+        should: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        must: Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+        must_not: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let schema = should.schema();
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(schema.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        Self {
+            query,
+            params,
+            must,
+            should,
+            must_not,
+            schema,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &BooleanQuery {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &FtsSearchParams {
+        &self.params
+    }
+
+    pub fn should(&self) -> &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        &self.should
+    }
+
+    pub fn must(&self) -> Option<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        self.must.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    pub fn must_not(&self) -> &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        &self.must_not
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for BooleanQueryExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "BooleanQueryExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match &self.must {
+            Some(must) => vec![&self.should, &self.must_not, must],
+            None => vec![&self.should, &self.must_not],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        // This node fully consumes and re-orders the input rows.
+        // It must be run on a single partition.
+        self.children()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match children.len() {
+            1 => {
+                let should = children.pop().unwrap();
+                Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+                    query: self.query.clone(),
+                    params: self.params.clone(),
+                    should,
+                    must: None,
+                    must_not: self.must_not.clone(),
+                    schema: self.schema.clone(),
+                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
+                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+                }))
+            }
+            2 => {
+                let must_not = children.pop().unwrap();
+                let should = children.pop().unwrap();
+                Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+                    query: self.query.clone(),
+                    params: self.params.clone(),
+                    should,
+                    must: None,
+                    must_not,
+                    schema: self.schema.clone(),
+                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
+                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+                }))
+            }
+            3 => {
+                let must = children.pop().unwrap();
+                let must_not = children.pop().unwrap();
+                let should = children.pop().unwrap();
+                Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+                    query: self.query.clone(),
+                    params: self.params.clone(),
+                    should,
+                    must: Some(must),
+                    must_not,
+                    schema: self.schema.clone(),
+                    properties: self.properties.clone(),
+                    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+                }))
+            }
+            _ => Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "Unexpected number of children".to_string(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "bool_query_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let params = self.params.clone();
+        let should_plan = self.should.clone();
+        let must_plan = self.must.clone();
+        let must_not_plan = self.must_not.clone();
+        let must = self
+            .must
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|m| m.execute(partition, context.clone()))
+            .transpose()?;
+        let mut should = self.should.execute(partition, context.clone())?;
+        let mut must_not = self.must_not.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let metrics = Arc::new(FtsIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let schema = self.schema.clone();
+
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let elapsed_time = metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute();
+
+            let mut res = HashMap::new();
+            let has_must = must.is_some();
+            if let Some(mut must) = must {
+                while let Some(batch) = must.try_next().await? {
+                    let _timer = elapsed_time.timer();
+                    res.extend(batch_scored_document_keys_sum_scores(&batch)?);
+                }
+            }
+
+            // add the scores from the should clause
+            while let Some(batch) = should.try_next().await? {
+                let _timer = elapsed_time.timer();
+                for (key, score) in batch_scored_document_keys(&batch)? {
+                    let entry = res.entry(key).and_modify(|value| *value += score);
+                    if !has_must {
+                        entry.or_insert(score);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            // remove the results from the must_not clause
+            while let Some(batch) = must_not.try_next().await? {
+                let _timer = elapsed_time.timer();
+                for key in batch_document_keys(&batch)? {
+                    res.remove(&key);
+                }
+            }
+
+            let mut partitions_searched = 0;
+            for plan in [Some(&should_plan), must_plan.as_ref(), Some(&must_not_plan)] {
+                let Some(plan) = plan else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                let Some(metrics) = plan.metrics() else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                for (metric_name, count) in metrics.iter_counts() {
+                    if metric_name.as_ref() == PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC {
+                        partitions_searched += count.value();
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            metrics.record_parts_searched(partitions_searched);
+
+            // sort the results and take the top k
+            let _timer = elapsed_time.timer();
+            let documents = res
+                .into_iter()
+                .sorted_unstable_by(compare_scored_documents)
+                .take(params.limit.unwrap_or(usize::MAX))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(documents.len());
+            let batch = document_key_scores_batch(schema, documents)?;
+            Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema(),
+            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+        UInt64Array,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::DataType;
+    use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::ExecutionPlanMetricsSet;
+    use datafusion::{execution::TaskContext, physical_plan::ExecutionPlan};
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_core::{ROW_ID, utils::address::RowAddress};
+    use lance_datafusion::datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt;
+    use lance_datafusion::exec::{ExecutionStatsCallback, ExecutionSummaryCounts};
+    use lance_datafusion::utils::{
+        INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC, INDEX_CACHE_MISSES_METRIC, PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC,
+    };
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount};
+    use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::builder::ScoredDoc;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+        BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, CombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery,
+        Occur, Operator, PhraseQuery, collect_query_tokens, has_query_token,
+        try_collect_query_tokens,
+    };
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{
+        CombinedCorpusStats, CombinedFieldColumn, DocumentGranularity, FTS_SCHEMA, InvertedIndex,
+        Language, SCORE_COL, build_combined_bm25_scorer, build_global_bm25_scorer,
+        prepare_bm25_query,
+    };
+    use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams};
+    use lance_index::{IndexCriteria, IndexType};
+    use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+    use uuid::Uuid;
+
+    use crate::{
+        Dataset,
+        dataset::WriteParams,
+        dataset::transaction::{Operation, TransactionBuilder},
+        index::DatasetIndexInternalExt,
+        io::exec::PreFilterSource,
+        utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, NoContextTestFixture},
+    };
+
+    use super::{
+        BoolSlot, BoostQueryExec, CombinedFieldsQueryExec, CompoundQueryExec,
+        CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec, FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC, FlatCombinedFieldsExec,
+        FlatMatchFilterExec, FlatMatchQueryExec, FlatStatsCoverage, FlatStatsScope, MatchQueryExec,
+        PhraseQueryExec, WAND_TIE_COMPLETION_BUDGET, WandExactnessCertificate,
+        build_boolean_query_children, classify_wand_exactness_certificate, default_text_tokenizer,
+        open_fts_segments, tokenizer_for_match_query,
+    };
+    use crate::io::exec::utils::IndexMetrics;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::empty::EmptyExec;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::repartition::RepartitionExec;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::union::UnionExec;
+    use datafusion_physical_plan::joins::HashJoinExec;
+    use lance_datafusion::exec::OneShotExec;
+
+    #[derive(Default)]
+    struct StatsHolder {
+        collected_stats: Arc<Mutex<Option<ExecutionSummaryCounts>>>,
+    }
+
+    impl StatsHolder {
+        fn get_setter(&self) -> ExecutionStatsCallback {
+            let collected_stats = self.collected_stats.clone();
+            Arc::new(move |stats| {
+                *collected_stats.lock().unwrap() = Some(stats.clone());
+            })
+        }
+
+        fn consume(self) -> ExecutionSummaryCounts {
+            self.collected_stats.lock().unwrap().take().unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_wand_exactness_certificate_classification() {
+        let documents = |scores: &[f32]| {
+            scores
+                .iter()
+                .enumerate()
+                .rev()
+                .map(|(row_id, score)| ScoredDoc::new(row_id as u64, *score))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        };
+
+        let mut exhaustive = documents(&[3.0, 2.0]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify_wand_exactness_certificate(&mut exhaustive, 3, 4),
+            WandExactnessCertificate::Exhaustive
+        );
+
+        let mut strict = documents(&[4.0, 3.0, 3.0, 1.0]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify_wand_exactness_certificate(&mut strict, 3, 4),
+            WandExactnessCertificate::Strict
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            strict
+                .iter()
+                .map(|document| document.row_id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 3],
+            "ties wholly inside top-k must use row-id ordering without forcing fallback"
+        );
+
+        let mut ambiguous = documents(&[4.0, 3.0, 2.0, 2.0]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify_wand_exactness_certificate(&mut ambiguous, 3, 4),
+            WandExactnessCertificate::Ambiguous
+        );
+
+        let mut non_finite = documents(&[4.0, f32::INFINITY]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify_wand_exactness_certificate(&mut non_finite, 1, 2),
+            WandExactnessCertificate::Ambiguous
+        );
+
+        let mut zero_limit = documents(&[1.0]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify_wand_exactness_certificate(&mut zero_limit, 0, 1),
+            WandExactnessCertificate::Ambiguous
+        );
+
+        let mut reversed_segments = vec![
+            ScoredDoc::new(99, 2.0),
+            ScoredDoc::new(50, 3.0),
+            ScoredDoc::new(1, 2.0),
+        ];
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify_wand_exactness_certificate(&mut reversed_segments, 2, 4),
+            WandExactnessCertificate::Exhaustive
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            reversed_segments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|document| document.row_id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![50, 1, 99],
+            "completed ties must use final row-id order, not segment arrival order"
+        );
+
+        let completion_limit = 1 + WAND_TIE_COMPLETION_BUDGET + 1;
+        let mut at_budget = (0..=WAND_TIE_COMPLETION_BUDGET)
+            .rev()
+            .map(|row_id| ScoredDoc::new(row_id as u64, 2.0))
+            .chain(std::iter::once(ScoredDoc::new(u64::MAX, 1.0)))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(at_budget.len(), completion_limit);
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify_wand_exactness_certificate(&mut at_budget, 1, completion_limit),
+            WandExactnessCertificate::Strict,
+            "the completion budget includes a slot for a strict lower-score guard"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(at_budget[0].row_id, 0);
+
+        let mut overflow = (0..completion_limit)
+            .rev()
+            .map(|row_id| ScoredDoc::new(row_id as u64, 2.0))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            classify_wand_exactness_certificate(&mut overflow, 1, completion_limit),
+            WandExactnessCertificate::Ambiguous,
+            "a full probe with no lower-score guard must replay exactly"
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn create_segment_selection_fixture() -> (Arc<Dataset>, Vec<IndexMetadata>, Vec<u32>) {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "text",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["quick brown fox"]),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "other",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["not indexed"]),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let fragment_ids = dataset
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(fragment_ids.len(), 3);
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::default().with_position(true);
+        let mut segments = Vec::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+        for fragment_id in &fragment_ids {
+            let mut builder = dataset
+                .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+                .name("segment_selection_fts".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![*fragment_id]);
+            segments.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+        }
+        dataset
+            .commit_existing_index_segments("segment_selection_fts", "text", segments.clone())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let committed = crate::index::scalar::inverted::load_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            DocumentGranularity::Row,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(committed.len(), fragment_ids.len());
+        (Arc::new(dataset), committed, fragment_ids)
+    }
+
+    fn tokenized_query_index_params() -> InvertedIndexParams {
+        InvertedIndexParams::new("simple".to_string(), Language::English)
+            .with_position(true)
+            .lower_case(true)
+            .stem(false)
+            .remove_stop_words(true)
+            .ascii_folding(false)
+    }
+
+    /// Builds a dataset where every column in `columns` holds "first and second"
+    /// and carries its own inverted index. `combined_fields` needs an FTS index
+    /// per target column, so the columns are indexed one at a time rather than
+    /// as a single multi-column index.
+    ///
+    /// With `with_unindexed_append`, extra rows land outside the indices, which
+    /// forces the mixed plan where an indexed exec and its flat sibling both run.
+    async fn create_tokenized_query_fixture(
+        columns: &[&str],
+        with_unindexed_append: bool,
+    ) -> Dataset {
+        let corpus = || {
+            columns
+                .iter()
+                .fold(lance_datagen::gen_batch(), |batch, column| {
+                    batch.col(
+                        *column,
+                        lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["first and second"]),
+                    )
+                })
+        };
+
+        let mut dataset = corpus()
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for column in columns {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &[*column],
+                    IndexType::Inverted,
+                    None,
+                    &tokenized_query_index_params(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+
+        if with_unindexed_append {
+            let appended = corpus().into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(2), BatchCount::from(1));
+            dataset.append(appended, None).await.unwrap();
+        }
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    fn find_plan_line<'a>(analysis: &'a str, node: &str) -> &'a str {
+        analysis
+            .lines()
+            .find(|line| line.trim_start().starts_with(node))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("{node} missing from plan:\n{analysis}"))
+    }
+
+    fn segment_uuid_for_fragment(segments: &[IndexMetadata], fragment_id: u32) -> Uuid {
+        segments
+            .iter()
+            .find(|segment| {
+                segment
+                    .fragment_bitmap
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|fragments| fragments.contains(fragment_id))
+            })
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn expected_row_ids(fragment_ids: &[u32]) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let mut row_ids = fragment_ids
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|fragment_id| {
+                (0..2).map(|offset| u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(*fragment_id, offset)))
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        row_ids.sort_unstable();
+        row_ids
+    }
+
+    async fn execute_results(plan: &dyn ExecutionPlan) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<(u64, f32)>> {
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = plan
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))?
+            .try_collect()
+            .await?;
+        let mut results = Vec::new();
+        for batch in batches {
+            let row_ids = batch[ROW_ID]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            let scores = batch[SCORE_COL]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+                .unwrap();
+            results.extend(
+                row_ids
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .zip(scores.values().iter().copied()),
+            );
+        }
+        results.sort_by_key(|(row_id, _)| *row_id);
+        Ok(results)
+    }
+
+    async fn execute_row_ids(plan: &dyn ExecutionPlan) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<u64>> {
+        Ok(execute_results(plan)
+            .await?
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(row_id, _)| row_id)
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    fn metric_value(plan: &dyn ExecutionPlan, name: &str) -> usize {
+        plan.metrics()
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .find(|metric| metric.value().name() == name)
+            .unwrap()
+            .value()
+            .as_usize()
+    }
+
+    fn assert_execution_error(error: DataFusionError, expected_message: &str) {
+        assert!(
+            matches!(&error, DataFusionError::Execution(_)),
+            "expected execution error, got {error:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(expected_message),
+            "expected error containing {expected_message:?}, got {error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn document_match_filter_respects_document_boundary() {
+        let mut tokenizer = default_text_tokenizer();
+        let query_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens("alpha", &mut tokenizer).unwrap();
+        assert!(super::document_matches_query(
+            "alpha beta",
+            &mut tokenizer,
+            &query_tokens,
+            Operator::Or,
+        ));
+
+        let mut tokenizer = default_text_tokenizer();
+        let query_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens("alpha beta", &mut tokenizer).unwrap();
+        assert!(!super::document_matches_query(
+            "alpha",
+            &mut tokenizer,
+            &query_tokens,
+            Operator::And,
+        ));
+        assert!(super::document_matches_query(
+            "alpha beta",
+            &mut tokenizer,
+            &query_tokens,
+            Operator::And,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn shared_fts_scorer_reports_cancelled_producer() {
+        let scorer = Arc::new(super::SharedFtsScorer::<super::MemBM25Scorer>::new());
+        let producer = super::SharedFtsScorerProducer::new(scorer.clone());
+        drop(producer);
+
+        let error = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(1), scorer.wait())
+            .await
+            .expect("cancelled producer must wake scorer waiters")
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains("producer was cancelled"),
+            "{error}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn execute_without_context() {
+        // These tests ensure we can create nodes and call execute without a tokio Runtime
+        // being active.  This is a requirement for proper implementation of a Datafusion foreign
+        // table provider.
+        let fixture = NoContextTestFixture::new();
+        let match_query = MatchQueryExec::new(
+            Arc::new(fixture.dataset.clone()),
+            MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+            FtsSearchParams::default(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        match_query
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let metrics = match_query.metrics().unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.elapsed_compute().unwrap() > 0);
+
+        let flat_input = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "text",
+                lance_datagen::array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(10), false),
+            )
+            .into_df_exec(RowCount::from(15), BatchCount::from(2));
+
+        let flat_match_query = FlatMatchQueryExec::new(
+            Arc::new(fixture.dataset.clone()),
+            MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+            FtsSearchParams::default(),
             flat_input,
-            FTS_SCHEMA.clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        flat_match_query
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let metrics = flat_match_query.metrics().unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.elapsed_compute().unwrap() > 0);
+
+        let phrase_query = PhraseQueryExec::new(
+            Arc::new(fixture.dataset.clone()),
+            PhraseQuery::new("blah".to_string())
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+            FtsSearchParams::new().with_phrase_slop(Some(0)),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        phrase_query
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let metrics = phrase_query.metrics().unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.elapsed_compute().unwrap() > 0);
+
+        let boost_input_one = MatchQueryExec::new(
+            Arc::new(fixture.dataset.clone()),
+            MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+            FtsSearchParams::default(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let boost_input_two = MatchQueryExec::new(
+            Arc::new(fixture.dataset),
+            MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+            FtsSearchParams::default(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let boost_query = BoostQueryExec::new(
+            BoostQuery::new(
+                FtsQuery::Match(
+                    MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+                ),
+                FtsQuery::Match(
+                    MatchQuery::new("test".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+                ),
+                Some(1.0),
+            ),
+            FtsSearchParams::default(),
+            Arc::new(boost_input_one),
+            Arc::new(boost_input_two),
+        );
+        boost_query
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let metrics = boost_query.metrics().unwrap();
+        assert!(metrics.elapsed_compute().unwrap() > 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_flat_match_filter_find_matches_large_utf8() {
+        use arrow_array::LargeStringArray;
+
+        use super::default_text_tokenizer;
+
+        let mut tokenizer = default_text_tokenizer();
+        let query_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens("hello", &mut tokenizer).unwrap();
+
+        let text_col =
+            LargeStringArray::from(vec!["hello world", "no match here", "say hello there"]);
+
+        let result = FlatMatchFilterExec::find_matches::<i64>(
+            &text_col,
+            &mut tokenizer,
+            &query_tokens,
+            Operator::Or,
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(result.len(), 3);
+        assert!(result.value(0), "expected match in 'hello world'");
+        assert!(!result.value(1), "expected no match in 'no match here'");
+        assert!(result.value(2), "expected match in 'say hello there'");
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_flat_match_filter_load_tokenizer_uses_on_disk_params_when_details_missing() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "text",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["hello", "HELLO"]),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(2))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::new("simple".to_string(), Language::English)
+            .with_position(false)
+            .lower_case(false)
+            .stem(false)
+            .remove_stop_words(false)
+            .ascii_folding(false)
+            .max_token_length(None);
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_meta = dataset
+            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column("text").supports_fts())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let mut legacy_index_meta = index_meta.clone();
+        legacy_index_meta.index_details = None;
+        let transaction = TransactionBuilder::new(
+            dataset.manifest.version,
+            Operation::CreateIndex {
+                new_indices: vec![legacy_index_meta],
+                removed_indices: vec![index_meta],
+            },
+        )
+        .build();
+        dataset
+            .apply_commit(transaction, &Default::default(), &Default::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let metrics = IndexMetrics::new(&ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(), 0);
+        let mut tokenizer = FlatMatchFilterExec::load_tokenizer(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            DocumentGranularity::Row,
+            &metrics,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        let query_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens("hello", &mut tokenizer).unwrap();
+
+        let mut tokenizer = FlatMatchFilterExec::load_tokenizer(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            DocumentGranularity::Row,
+            &metrics,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(has_query_token("hello", &mut tokenizer, &query_tokens));
+        assert!(
+            !has_query_token("HELLO", &mut tokenizer, &query_tokens),
+            "legacy FTS indices should continue using on-disk tokenizer params"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_parts_searched_metrics() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "text",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["hello", "lance", "search"]),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(5))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                None,
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_meta = dataset
+            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column("text").supports_fts())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_generic_index("text", &index_meta.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let inverted_index = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>().unwrap();
+        let expected_parts = inverted_index.partition_count();
+
+        let stats_holder = StatsHolder::default();
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .scan_stats_callback(stats_holder.get_setter())
+            .project(&["text"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_string()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let _ = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        let stats = stats_holder.consume();
+        let parts_searched = stats
+            .all_counts
+            .get(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC)
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        assert_eq!(parts_searched, expected_parts);
+
+        let mut analyze_scanner = dataset.scan();
+        analyze_scanner
+            .project(&["text"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_string()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let analysis = analyze_scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(analysis.contains(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_analyze_plan_shows_indexed_and_flat_match_tokens() {
+        let dataset = create_tokenized_query_fixture(&["text"], true).await;
+        let query = MatchQuery::new("FIRST and SECOND".to_string())
+            .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+            .with_operator(Operator::And);
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let explained = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !explained.contains("tokenized_query="),
+            "explain_plan should not claim runtime tokenization: {explained}"
         );
-        flat_match_query
-            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+
+        let analysis = scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let expected = r#"tokenized_query=[("first", 0), ("second", 2)]"#;
+        assert!(
+            find_plan_line(&analysis, "MatchQuery:").contains(expected),
+            "indexed MatchQuery is missing token positions:\n{analysis}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            find_plan_line(&analysis, "FlatMatchQuery:").contains(expected),
+            "flat MatchQuery is missing token positions:\n{analysis}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_analyze_plan_shows_indexed_and_flat_phrase_tokens() {
+        let dataset = create_tokenized_query_fixture(&["text"], true).await;
+        let query =
+            PhraseQuery::new("FIRST and SECOND".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string()));
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
             .unwrap();
-        let metrics = flat_match_query.metrics().unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.elapsed_compute().unwrap() > 0);
 
-        let phrase_query = PhraseQueryExec::new(
-            Arc::new(fixture.dataset.clone()),
-            PhraseQuery::new("blah".to_string()),
-            FtsSearchParams::new().with_phrase_slop(Some(0)),
+        let analysis = scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let expected = r#"tokenized_query=[("first", 0), ("second", 2)]"#;
+        assert!(
+            find_plan_line(&analysis, "PhraseQuery:").contains(expected),
+            "indexed PhraseQuery is missing token positions:\n{analysis}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            find_plan_line(&analysis, "FlatMatchQuery:").contains(expected),
+            "flat phrase path is missing token positions:\n{analysis}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_analyze_plan_shows_compound_leaf_tokens() {
+        let dataset = create_tokenized_query_fixture(&["text"], false).await;
+        let query = BooleanQuery::new([
+            (
+                Occur::Should,
+                MatchQuery::new("FIRST and SECOND".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+            (
+                Occur::Must,
+                PhraseQuery::new("SECOND FIRST".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                    .with_slop(2)
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let analysis = scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let compound = find_plan_line(&analysis, "CompoundFtsScorer:");
+        assert!(
+            compound.contains(r#"Match(column="text", tokens=[("first", 0), ("second", 2)])"#),
+            "compound Match leaf is missing token positions: {compound}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            compound.contains(r#"Phrase(column="text", tokens=[("second", 0), ("first", 1)])"#),
+            "compound Phrase leaf is missing token positions: {compound}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// A `combined_fields` scan is a leaf FTS node, so `analyze_plan` must show
+    /// its tokens the way it does for `match` and `phrase`. Both children of a
+    /// mixed plan report, or a `Boolean{combined_fields, match}` plan would show
+    /// tokens on the `match` sibling only.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_analyze_plan_shows_combined_fields_tokens() {
+        let dataset = create_tokenized_query_fixture(&["title", "body"], true).await;
+        let query = CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+            "FIRST and SECOND".to_string(),
+            vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let explained = scanner.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            !explained.contains("tokenized_query="),
+            "explain_plan should not claim runtime tokenization: {explained}"
+        );
+
+        let analysis = scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let expected = r#"tokenized_query=[("first", 0), ("second", 2)]"#;
+        assert!(
+            find_plan_line(&analysis, "CombinedFieldsQuery:").contains(expected),
+            "indexed combined_fields is missing token positions:\n{analysis}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            find_plan_line(&analysis, "FlatCombinedFields:").contains(expected),
+            "flat combined_fields is missing token positions:\n{analysis}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_boolean_query_parts_searched_metrics() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "text",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["hello", "lance", "search"]),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(5))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &["text"],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                None,
+                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let index_meta = dataset
+            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column("text").supports_fts())
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let index = dataset
+            .open_generic_index("text", &index_meta.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let inverted_index = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>().unwrap();
+        let expected_parts = inverted_index.partition_count();
+
+        let query = BooleanQuery::new([
+            (
+                Occur::Should,
+                MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string())
+                    .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+            (
+                Occur::Must,
+                MatchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+                    .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+        ]);
+        let expected_total = expected_parts * 2;
+
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .project(&["text"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let analysis = scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let compound_line = analysis
+            .lines()
+            .find(|line| line.contains("CompoundFtsScorer"))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            compound_line.contains(&format!("{PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC}={expected_total}")),
+            "compound FTS scorer metrics missing partitions_searched: {compound_line}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// The cross-field scorer build reads one posting-metadata row per
+    /// (term, column, partition), and both `combined_fields` execs must report
+    /// those to their query's index-cache counters. Unreported, `EXPLAIN ANALYZE`
+    /// on a cold cross-field query undercounts `index_cache_misses`, so its
+    /// `index_cache_hit_ratio` is not comparable with `match`'s on the same data.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_combined_fields_scorer_build_reports_index_cache_metrics() {
+        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "title",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&[
+                    "hello world",
+                    "lance search",
+                    "hello lance",
+                ]),
+            )
+            .col(
+                "body",
+                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["lance", "hello", "search hello"]),
+            )
+            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(1), FragmentRowCount::from(9))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        for column in ["title", "body"] {
+            dataset
+                .create_index(
+                    &[column],
+                    IndexType::Inverted,
+                    None,
+                    &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
+                    true,
+                )
+                .await
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let query = CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+            "hello lance".to_string(),
+            vec!["title".to_string(), "body".to_string()],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10));
+
+        // Open the same segments the execs will, both to size the expected lookup
+        // count and to hand the preset runs a scorer identical to the one they
+        // would have built.
+        let mut columns = Vec::new();
+        for (column, weight) in query.weighted_columns() {
+            let segments = crate::index::scalar::inverted::load_segments(
+                &dataset,
+                column,
+                DocumentGranularity::Row,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("FTS index just created");
+            let metrics_set = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+            let indices = open_fts_segments(
+                &dataset,
+                column,
+                &segments,
+                &IndexMetrics::new(&metrics_set, 0),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+            columns.push(CombinedFieldColumn {
+                column: column.to_string(),
+                weight,
+                indices,
+                stale_rows: None,
+            });
+        }
+        let mut tokenizer = columns[0].indices[0].tokenizer();
+        let tokens = collect_query_tokens(query.terms(), &mut tokenizer);
+        let mut terms = (0..tokens.len())
+            .map(|index| tokens.get_token(index).to_string())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        terms.sort_unstable();
+        terms.dedup();
+        let partitions: usize = columns
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|column| &column.indices)
+            .map(|index| index.partition_count())
+            .sum();
+        // One posting-metadata row per (term, column, partition).
+        let expected_lookups = terms.len() * partitions;
+        assert!(expected_lookups > 0);
+        let scorer = Arc::new(
+            build_combined_bm25_scorer(&columns, &tokens, CombinedCorpusStats::IndexOnly, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // Warm the index cache first: a cold run's counts depend on which entry
+        // each lookup happens to load, while on a warm cache every lookup is a
+        // hit and the two runs below differ only in the scorer build.
+        let warmup = CombinedFieldsQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        );
+        let expected = execute_results(&warmup).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!expected.is_empty());
+
+        let built = CombinedFieldsQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(execute_results(&built).await.unwrap(), expected);
+        let preset = CombinedFieldsQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .with_base_scorer(scorer.clone());
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_results(&preset).await.unwrap(),
+            expected,
+            "the preset scorer must match the one the exec builds",
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&built, INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC)
+                - metric_value(&preset, INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC),
+            expected_lookups,
+            "CombinedFieldsQueryExec must report the scorer build's cache lookups",
+        );
+
+        // The flat sibling builds its own scorer from the same per-column index
+        // statistics. An empty input isolates those reads: the scanned rows
+        // contribute none, so the count is absolute rather than a delta.
+        let flat_schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::new(vec![
+            lance_core::ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("title", DataType::Utf8, true),
+            arrow_schema::Field::new("body", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]));
+        let resolved_fields = query
+            .column_names()
+            .map(|column| {
+                crate::index::scalar::inverted::resolve_fts_field(
+                    dataset.schema(),
+                    column,
+                    DocumentGranularity::Row,
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let num_columns = resolved_fields.len();
+        let flat = FlatCombinedFieldsExec::try_new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(flat_schema)),
+            roaring::RoaringBitmap::new(),
+            resolved_fields,
+            FlatStatsScope::PerColumn(vec![FlatStatsCoverage::default(); num_columns]),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(execute_results(&flat).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&flat, INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC)
+                + metric_value(&flat, INDEX_CACHE_MISSES_METRIC),
+            expected_lookups,
+            "FlatCombinedFieldsExec must report the scorer build's cache lookups",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_match_query_exec_segment_selection() {
+        let (dataset, segments, fragment_ids) = create_segment_selection_fixture().await;
+        let query = MatchQuery::new("quick".to_string())
+            .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+            .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row);
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(20));
+        let committed_uuids = segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let all_committed = MatchQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(all_committed.preset_segments().is_none());
+        assert!(all_committed.explicit_segment_uuids().is_none());
+        let all_results = execute_results(&all_committed).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            all_results
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected_row_ids(&fragment_ids)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&all_committed, FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC),
+            0
+        );
+
+        let exact_resolved = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            segments.clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(exact_resolved.preset_segments(), Some(segments.as_slice()));
+        assert_eq!(
+            exact_resolved.explicit_segment_uuids(),
+            Some(committed_uuids.clone())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(execute_results(&exact_resolved).await.unwrap(), all_results);
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&exact_resolved, FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC),
+            0
+        );
+
+        let mismatched_granularity = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments_and_document_granularity(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            segments.clone(),
+            DocumentGranularity::ListElement,
+        );
+        assert_execution_error(
+            execute_row_ids(&mismatched_granularity).await.unwrap_err(),
+            "use Row document granularity",
+        );
+
+        let selected_fragment = fragment_ids[1];
+        let selected_uuid = segment_uuid_for_fragment(&segments, selected_fragment);
+        let unpolled = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![selected_uuid],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        drop(
+            unpolled
+                .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&unpolled, FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC),
+            0,
+            "UUID binding should not start until the output stream is polled"
+        );
+
+        let exact_uuids = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![selected_uuid],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(exact_uuids.preset_segments().is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            exact_uuids.explicit_segment_uuids(),
+            Some(vec![selected_uuid])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_row_ids(&exact_uuids).await.unwrap(),
+            expected_row_ids(&[selected_fragment])
+        );
+        assert!(
+            metric_value(&exact_uuids, FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC) > 0,
+            "successful UUID binding should record a duration"
+        );
+
+        let input_uuids = vec![
+            segment_uuid_for_fragment(&segments, fragment_ids[2]),
+            segment_uuid_for_fragment(&segments, fragment_ids[0]),
+            segment_uuid_for_fragment(&segments, fragment_ids[2]),
+        ];
+        let deduplicated_uuids = input_uuids[..2].to_vec();
+        let ordered_plan = Arc::new(
+            MatchQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+                dataset.clone(),
+                query.clone(),
+                params.clone(),
+                PreFilterSource::None,
+                input_uuids,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .with_new_children(vec![])
+        .unwrap();
+        let rewritten = ordered_plan.downcast_ref::<MatchQueryExec>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            rewritten.explicit_segment_uuids(),
+            Some(deduplicated_uuids.clone())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_row_ids(rewritten).await.unwrap(),
+            expected_row_ids(&[fragment_ids[2], fragment_ids[0]])
+        );
+        let resolver_metrics_set = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+        let resolver_metrics = super::FtsIndexMetrics::new(&resolver_metrics_set, 0);
+        let resolved = rewritten
+            .segment_selection
+            .resolve(
+                &dataset,
+                "text",
+                DocumentGranularity::Row,
+                &resolver_metrics.segment_bind_duration,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolved
+                .iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            deduplicated_uuids
+        );
+
+        let empty = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_execution_error(
+            execute_row_ids(&empty).await.unwrap_err(),
+            "requires at least one segment UUID",
+        );
+
+        let missing_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let missing = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query,
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![missing_uuid],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_execution_error(
+            execute_row_ids(&missing).await.unwrap_err(),
+            &missing_uuid.to_string(),
+        );
+
+        let wrong_column = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset,
+            MatchQuery::new("quick".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("other".to_string()))
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+            params,
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![selected_uuid],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_execution_error(
+            execute_row_ids(&wrong_column).await.unwrap_err(),
+            "no Inverted index found",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::all_fragments(false)]
+    #[case::restricted_fragments(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_combined_fields_exec_opens_all_committed_segments(
+        #[case] restrict_fragments: bool,
+    ) {
+        let (dataset, _segments, fragment_ids) = create_segment_selection_fixture().await;
+        let query = CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new("quick".to_string(), vec!["text".to_string()])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_with_boosts(vec![2.0])
+            .unwrap();
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(20));
+
+        // One segment per fragment, so a scan that opens every committed segment
+        // returns every fragment's matching row.
+        let exec = CombinedFieldsQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_row_ids(&exec).await.unwrap(),
+            expected_row_ids(&fragment_ids)
+        );
+
+        let selected_row_ids = expected_row_ids(&fragment_ids[..2]);
+        let selected_row_count = selected_row_ids.len();
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(("_rowid", UInt64, selected_row_ids)).unwrap();
+        let source = PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(Arc::new(OneShotExec::from_batch(batch)));
+        let mut filtered = CombinedFieldsQueryExec::new(dataset, query, params, source);
+        let expected = if restrict_fragments {
+            filtered = filtered
+                .with_covered_fragments(roaring::RoaringBitmap::from_iter([fragment_ids[1]]));
+            expected_row_ids(&fragment_ids[1..2])
+        } else {
+            expected_row_ids(&fragment_ids[..2])
+        };
+        assert_eq!(execute_row_ids(&filtered).await.unwrap(), expected);
+        assert_eq!(metric_value(&filtered, "prefilter_loads"), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&filtered, "prefilter_input_rows"),
+            selected_row_count
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&filtered, "prefilter_row_ids"),
+            selected_row_count
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_phrase_query_exec_segment_selection() {
+        let (dataset, segments, fragment_ids) = create_segment_selection_fixture().await;
+        let query = PhraseQuery::new("quick brown".to_string())
+            .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+            .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row);
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(20));
+        let committed_uuids = segments
+            .iter()
+            .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let all_committed = PhraseQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(all_committed.preset_segments().is_none());
+        assert!(all_committed.explicit_segment_uuids().is_none());
+        let all_results = execute_results(&all_committed).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            all_results
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(row_id, _)| *row_id)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            expected_row_ids(&fragment_ids)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&all_committed, FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC),
+            0
+        );
+
+        let exact_resolved = PhraseQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            segments.clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(exact_resolved.preset_segments(), Some(segments.as_slice()));
+        assert_eq!(
+            exact_resolved.explicit_segment_uuids(),
+            Some(committed_uuids)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(execute_results(&exact_resolved).await.unwrap(), all_results);
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&exact_resolved, FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC),
+            0
+        );
+
+        let selected_fragment = fragment_ids[1];
+        let selected_uuid = segment_uuid_for_fragment(&segments, selected_fragment);
+        let unpolled = PhraseQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![selected_uuid],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        drop(
+            unpolled
+                .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            metric_value(&unpolled, FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC),
+            0,
+            "UUID binding should not start until the output stream is polled"
+        );
+
+        let exact_uuids = PhraseQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![selected_uuid],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(exact_uuids.preset_segments().is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            exact_uuids.explicit_segment_uuids(),
+            Some(vec![selected_uuid])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_row_ids(&exact_uuids).await.unwrap(),
+            expected_row_ids(&[selected_fragment])
+        );
+        assert!(
+            metric_value(&exact_uuids, FTS_SEGMENT_BIND_DURATION_METRIC) > 0,
+            "successful UUID binding should record a duration"
+        );
+
+        let input_uuids = vec![
+            segment_uuid_for_fragment(&segments, fragment_ids[2]),
+            segment_uuid_for_fragment(&segments, fragment_ids[0]),
+            segment_uuid_for_fragment(&segments, fragment_ids[2]),
+        ];
+        let deduplicated_uuids = input_uuids[..2].to_vec();
+        let ordered_plan = Arc::new(
+            PhraseQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+                dataset.clone(),
+                query.clone(),
+                params.clone(),
+                PreFilterSource::None,
+                input_uuids,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .with_new_children(vec![])
+        .unwrap();
+        let rewritten = ordered_plan.downcast_ref::<PhraseQueryExec>().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            rewritten.explicit_segment_uuids(),
+            Some(deduplicated_uuids.clone())
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_row_ids(rewritten).await.unwrap(),
+            expected_row_ids(&[fragment_ids[2], fragment_ids[0]])
+        );
+        let resolver_metrics_set = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+        let resolver_metrics = super::FtsIndexMetrics::new(&resolver_metrics_set, 0);
+        let resolved = rewritten
+            .segment_selection
+            .resolve(
+                &dataset,
+                "text",
+                DocumentGranularity::Row,
+                &resolver_metrics.segment_bind_duration,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            resolved
+                .iter()
+                .map(|segment| segment.uuid)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            deduplicated_uuids
+        );
+
+        let empty = PhraseQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
             PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_execution_error(
+            execute_row_ids(&empty).await.unwrap_err(),
+            "requires at least one segment UUID",
         );
-        phrase_query
-            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
-            .unwrap();
-        let metrics = phrase_query.metrics().unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.elapsed_compute().unwrap() > 0);
 
-        let boost_input_one = MatchQueryExec::new(
-            Arc::new(fixture.dataset.clone()),
-            MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
-            FtsSearchParams::default(),
+        let missing_uuid = Uuid::new_v4();
+        let missing = PhraseQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query,
+            params.clone(),
             PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![missing_uuid],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_execution_error(
+            execute_row_ids(&missing).await.unwrap_err(),
+            &missing_uuid.to_string(),
         );
 
-        let boost_input_two = MatchQueryExec::new(
-            Arc::new(fixture.dataset),
-            MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
-            FtsSearchParams::default(),
+        let wrong_column = PhraseQueryExec::new_with_segment_uuids(
+            dataset,
+            PhraseQuery::new("quick brown".to_string())
+                .with_column(Some("other".to_string()))
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+            params,
             PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![selected_uuid],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_execution_error(
+            execute_row_ids(&wrong_column).await.unwrap_err(),
+            "no Inverted index found",
         );
+    }
 
-        let boost_query = BoostQueryExec::new(
-            BoostQuery::new(
-                FtsQuery::Match(
-                    MatchQuery::new("blah".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_match_query_exec_with_base_scorer_matches_baseline() {
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+        // Skewed term distributions across two fragments — "lance" is common in
+        // segment 0 and rare in segment 1 — so any local-IDF computation will
+        // disagree with the global-IDF baseline. That makes the test sensitive
+        // to a bug where `with_base_scorer` is silently ignored.
+        let batches = vec![
+            RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+                ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])) as ArrayRef),
+                (
+                    "text",
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                        Some("lance database"),
+                        Some("lance search"),
+                    ])) as ArrayRef,
                 ),
-                FtsQuery::Match(
-                    MatchQuery::new("test".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string())),
+            ])
+            .unwrap(),
+            RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+                ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 3])) as ArrayRef),
+                (
+                    "text",
+                    Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                        Some("lancd alpha"),
+                        Some("lancd lance"),
+                    ])) as ArrayRef,
                 ),
-                Some(1.0),
-            ),
-            FtsSearchParams::default(),
-            Arc::new(boost_input_one),
-            Arc::new(boost_input_two),
+            ])
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
+        let schema = batches[0].schema();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            test_uri,
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 2,
+                max_rows_per_group: 2,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let params = InvertedIndexParams::new("simple".to_string(), Language::English)
+            .with_position(false)
+            .lower_case(true)
+            .stem(false)
+            .remove_stop_words(true)
+            .ascii_folding(false)
+            .max_token_length(None);
+        let fragment_ids = ds
+            .get_fragments()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert!(
+            fragment_ids.len() >= 2,
+            "test setup should produce >= 2 fragments, got {}",
+            fragment_ids.len()
         );
-        boost_query
-            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
-            .unwrap();
-        let metrics = boost_query.metrics().unwrap();
-        assert!(metrics.elapsed_compute().unwrap() > 0);
-    }
 
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_parts_searched_metrics() {
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "text",
-                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["hello", "lance", "search"]),
-            )
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(5))
+        let mut metadatas = Vec::<IndexMetadata>::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+        for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+            let mut builder = ds
+                .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+                .name("seg_fts".to_string())
+                .fragments(vec![fragment_id]);
+            metadatas.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+        }
+        ds.commit_existing_index_segments("seg_fts", "text", metadatas.clone())
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ds.load_indices_by_name("seg_fts").await.unwrap().len(),
+            metadatas.len(),
+            "expected one committed segment per fragment"
+        );
 
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["text"],
-                IndexType::Inverted,
-                None,
-                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
-                true,
-            )
+        let dataset = Arc::new(ds);
+        let query = MatchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+            .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+            .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row);
+        let search_params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10));
+
+        // Baseline: the existing path that builds the global scorer locally.
+        let baseline_exec = MatchQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let baseline_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = baseline_exec
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect()
             .await
             .unwrap();
+        let baseline = concat_score_batches(&baseline_batches);
+        assert!(
+            !baseline.is_empty(),
+            "baseline should return at least one hit"
+        );
 
-        let index_meta = dataset
-            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column("text").supports_fts())
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let index = dataset
-            .open_generic_index("text", &index_meta.uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        // Override: build the global scorer manually via the public helper, then
+        // construct the exec with the preset segments and the preset scorer.
+        let preset_segments = crate::index::scalar::inverted::load_segments(
+            &dataset,
+            "text",
+            DocumentGranularity::Row,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .expect("FTS index just created");
+        let metrics_set = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+        let metrics = IndexMetrics::new(&metrics_set, 0);
+        let indices = open_fts_segments(&dataset, "text", &preset_segments, &metrics)
             .await
             .unwrap();
-        let inverted_index = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>().unwrap();
-        let expected_parts = inverted_index.partition_count();
+        assert!(
+            indices.len() >= 2,
+            "expected >= 2 segments to exercise global IDF, got {}",
+            indices.len()
+        );
 
-        let stats_holder = StatsHolder::default();
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .scan_stats_callback(stats_holder.get_setter())
-            .project(&["text"])
-            .unwrap()
-            .with_row_id()
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_string()))
-            .unwrap();
-        let _ = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
-        let stats = stats_holder.consume();
-        let parts_searched = stats
-            .all_counts
-            .get(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC)
-            .copied()
-            .unwrap_or_default();
-        assert_eq!(parts_searched, expected_parts);
+        let mut auto_tokenizer = tokenizer_for_match_query(&indices[0], None);
+        let auto_tokens = collect_query_tokens("THE LANCE", &mut auto_tokenizer);
+        assert_eq!(auto_tokens.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(auto_tokens.get_token(0), "lance");
+        let mut explicit_fuzzy_tokenizer = tokenizer_for_match_query(&indices[0], Some(1));
+        let explicit_fuzzy_tokens =
+            collect_query_tokens("THE LANCE", &mut explicit_fuzzy_tokenizer);
+        assert_eq!(explicit_fuzzy_tokens.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(explicit_fuzzy_tokens.get_token(0), "THE");
+        assert_eq!(explicit_fuzzy_tokens.get_token(1), "LANCE");
+
+        let auto_query = |terms: &str| {
+            MatchQuery::new(terms.to_owned())
+                .with_column(Some("text".to_owned()))
+                .with_fuzziness(None)
+                .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row)
+        };
+        let lowercase_auto_exec = MatchQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            auto_query("lance"),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let lowercase_auto_results = execute_results(&lowercase_auto_exec).await.unwrap();
+        assert!(!lowercase_auto_results.is_empty());
+        let normalized_auto_exec = MatchQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            auto_query("THE LANCE"),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_results(&normalized_auto_exec).await.unwrap(),
+            lowercase_auto_results,
+            "AUTO fuzzy Match must preserve index lowercase and stop-word analysis"
+        );
 
-        let mut analyze_scanner = dataset.scan();
-        analyze_scanner
-            .project(&["text"])
+        let mut tokenizer = indices[0].tokenizer();
+        let tokens = try_collect_query_tokens(&query.terms, &mut tokenizer).unwrap();
+        let global_scorer = Arc::new(
+            build_global_bm25_scorer(&indices, &tokens, &search_params, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let override_exec = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            preset_segments.clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_base_scorer(global_scorer);
+        let override_batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = override_exec
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
             .unwrap()
-            .with_row_id()
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("hello".to_string()))
+            .try_collect()
+            .await
             .unwrap();
-        let analysis = analyze_scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
-        assert!(analysis.contains(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC));
+        let overridden = concat_score_batches(&override_batches);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            baseline.len(),
+            overridden.len(),
+            "row count differs: baseline={}, override={}",
+            baseline.len(),
+            overridden.len()
+        );
+        for (i, (b, o)) in baseline.iter().zip(overridden.iter()).enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                b.0, o.0,
+                "row id mismatch at rank {}: baseline={}, override={}",
+                i, b.0, o.0
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                b.1, o.1,
+                "score mismatch at rank {} (row id {}): baseline={}, override={}",
+                i, b.0, b.1, o.1
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Sanity check on FTS schema before extracting columns above.
+        for batch in baseline_batches.iter().chain(override_batches.iter()) {
+            assert!(
+                batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).is_some(),
+                "FTS output is expected to carry a row id column"
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                batch.column_by_name(SCORE_COL).unwrap().data_type(),
+                &DataType::Float32,
+                "FTS score column should be Float32"
+            );
+        }
+
+        // A distributed fuzzy subset must receive the canonical vocabulary
+        // together with its scorer. A scorer-only override cannot reproduce a
+        // globally capped rewrite from worker-local segment vocabularies.
+        let fuzzy_query = MatchQuery::new("lancx".to_string())
+            .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+            .with_max_expansions(1)
+            .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row);
+        let fuzzy_params = search_params
+            .clone()
+            .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
+            .with_max_expansions(1);
+        let mut tokenizer = tokenizer_for_match_query(&indices[0], fuzzy_query.fuzziness);
+        let fuzzy_tokens = collect_query_tokens(&fuzzy_query.terms, &mut tokenizer);
+        let prepared = Arc::new(
+            prepare_bm25_query(&indices, fuzzy_tokens, &fuzzy_params, None, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(prepared.tokens().len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(prepared.tokens().get_token(0), "lancd");
+
+        let prepared_full_exec = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            fuzzy_query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            preset_segments.clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_prepared_query(prepared.clone());
+        let prepared_full_results = execute_row_ids(&prepared_full_exec).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(prepared_full_results.len(), 2);
+
+        let all_committed_scorer_exec = MatchQueryExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            fuzzy_query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_base_scorer(prepared.scorer().clone());
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_row_ids(&all_committed_scorer_exec).await.unwrap(),
+            prepared_full_results
+        );
+
+        let explicit_full_scorer_exec = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            fuzzy_query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            preset_segments.clone(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_base_scorer(prepared.scorer().clone());
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_row_ids(&explicit_full_scorer_exec).await.unwrap(),
+            prepared_full_results
+        );
+
+        let subset_exec = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            fuzzy_query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![preset_segments[0].clone()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_prepared_query(prepared.clone());
+        assert!(execute_row_ids(&subset_exec).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+
+        let scorer_only_exec = MatchQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            fuzzy_query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![preset_segments[0].clone()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .with_base_scorer(prepared.scorer().clone());
+        assert_execution_error(
+            execute_row_ids(&scorer_only_exec).await.unwrap_err(),
+            "fuzzy MatchQuery cannot use a scorer-only override",
+        );
+
+        let compound_query = FtsQuery::Match(fuzzy_query.clone());
+        let compound_subset = CompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            compound_query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![preset_segments[0].clone()],
+        )
+        .with_prepared_match(prepared.clone());
+        assert!(execute_row_ids(&compound_subset).await.unwrap().is_empty());
+
+        let compound_scorer_only_subset = CompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            compound_query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![preset_segments[0].clone()],
+        )
+        .with_base_scorer(prepared.scorer().clone());
+        assert_execution_error(
+            execute_row_ids(&compound_scorer_only_subset)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err(),
+            "fuzzy CompoundQueryExec cannot use a scorer-only override over a segment subset",
+        );
+
+        let compound_full_scorer = CompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            compound_query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            preset_segments.clone(),
+        )
+        .with_base_scorer(prepared.scorer().clone());
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_row_ids(&compound_full_scorer).await.unwrap(),
+            prepared_full_results
+        );
+
+        // With limit=1 the two globally selected `lancd` documents tie. The
+        // WAND probe is ambiguous, so bounded tie completion must retain the
+        // same prepared vocabulary instead of rewriting against this exec's
+        // segments.
+        let compound_wand_replay = CompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset,
+            compound_query,
+            search_params.with_limit(Some(1)),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            preset_segments,
+        )
+        .with_prepared_match(prepared);
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_row_ids(&compound_wand_replay).await.unwrap().len(),
+            1
+        );
+        // Locally-bound helper: collect (row_id, score) pairs sorted by score desc.
+        fn concat_score_batches(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Vec<(u64, f32)> {
+            let mut out: Vec<(u64, f32)> = Vec::new();
+            for batch in batches {
+                let row_ids = batch
+                    .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                let scores = batch
+                    .column_by_name(SCORE_COL)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<Float32Array>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                for i in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+                    out.push((row_ids.value(i), scores.value(i)));
+                }
+            }
+            // Stable order for diffing — descending score, ties broken by row id.
+            out.sort_by(|a, b| b.1.total_cmp(&a.1).then_with(|| a.0.cmp(&b.0)));
+            out
+        }
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_boolean_query_parts_searched_metrics() {
-        let mut dataset = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
-            .col(
-                "text",
-                lance_datagen::array::cycle_utf8_literals(&["hello", "lance", "search"]),
-            )
-            .into_ram_dataset(FragmentCount::from(3), FragmentRowCount::from(5))
+    async fn test_compound_query_exec_validates_base_scorer() {
+        let (dataset, segments, _) = create_segment_selection_fixture().await;
+        let search_params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10));
+        let metrics_set = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+        let metrics = IndexMetrics::new(&metrics_set, 0);
+        let indices = open_fts_segments(&dataset, "text", &segments, &metrics)
             .await
             .unwrap();
 
-        dataset
-            .create_index(
-                &["text"],
-                IndexType::Inverted,
-                None,
-                &InvertedIndexParams::default(),
-                true,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
+        let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+            (
+                Occur::Should,
+                MatchQuery::new("quick".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+            (
+                Occur::Should,
+                MatchQuery::new("brown".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+        ])
+        .into();
 
-        let index_meta = dataset
-            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().for_column("text").supports_fts())
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let index = dataset
-            .open_generic_index("text", &index_meta.uuid.to_string(), &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let inverted_index = index.as_any().downcast_ref::<InvertedIndex>().unwrap();
-        let expected_parts = inverted_index.partition_count();
+        let baseline = CompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            segments.clone(),
+        );
+        let baseline_results = execute_results(&baseline).await.unwrap();
+
+        let mut tokenizer = indices[0].tokenizer();
+        let complete_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens("quick brown", &mut tokenizer).unwrap();
+        let complete_scorer = Arc::new(
+            build_global_bm25_scorer(&indices, &complete_tokens, &search_params, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let complete_override = CompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            segments.clone(),
+        )
+        .with_base_scorer(complete_scorer);
+        assert_eq!(
+            execute_results(&complete_override).await.unwrap(),
+            baseline_results
+        );
 
-        let query = BooleanQuery::new([
+        let mut tokenizer = indices[0].tokenizer();
+        let incomplete_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens("quick", &mut tokenizer).unwrap();
+        let incomplete_scorer = Arc::new(
+            build_global_bm25_scorer(&indices, &incomplete_tokens, &search_params, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let incomplete_override = CompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query,
+            search_params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            segments.clone(),
+        )
+        .with_base_scorer(incomplete_scorer);
+
+        let error = execute_results(&incomplete_override).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("injected BM25 scorer is missing compound FTS token 'brown'"),
+            "unexpected incomplete-scorer error: {error}"
+        );
+
+        let mut tokenizer = indices[0].tokenizer();
+        let brown_tokens = try_collect_query_tokens("brown", &mut tokenizer).unwrap();
+        let scorer_without_fuzzy_expansion = Arc::new(
+            build_global_bm25_scorer(&indices, &brown_tokens, &search_params, None)
+                .await
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let fuzzy_query = BooleanQuery::new([
             (
                 Occur::Should,
-                MatchQuery::new("hello".to_string())
-                    .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                MatchQuery::new("quik".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
+                    .with_fuzziness(Some(1))
                     .into(),
             ),
             (
-                Occur::Must,
-                MatchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
-                    .with_operator(Operator::And)
+                Occur::Should,
+                MatchQuery::new("brown".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("text".to_string()))
                     .into(),
             ),
         ]);
-        let expected_total = expected_parts * 2;
+        let fuzzy_override = CompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset,
+            fuzzy_query.into(),
+            search_params,
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            segments,
+        )
+        .with_base_scorer(scorer_without_fuzzy_expansion);
+        let error = execute_results(&fuzzy_override).await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("injected BM25 scorer is missing compound FTS token 'quick'"),
+            "unexpected fuzzy-scorer error: {error}"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
-        scanner
-            .project(&["text"])
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_cross_column_compound_exec_validates_constructor_inputs() {
+        let (dataset, segments, _) = create_segment_selection_fixture().await;
+        let query: FtsQuery = BooleanQuery::new([
+            (
+                Occur::Must,
+                MatchQuery::new("quick".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("title".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+            (
+                Occur::MustNot,
+                MatchQuery::new("blocked".to_string())
+                    .with_column(Some("body".to_string()))
+                    .into(),
+            ),
+        ])
+        .into();
+        let params = FtsSearchParams::default().with_limit(Some(10));
+
+        let error = CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            params.clone(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![("title".to_string(), segments.clone())],
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error.to_string().contains(r#"missing=["body"]"#),
+            "unexpected missing-column error: {error}"
+        );
+
+        let error = CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            FtsSearchParams::default(),
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![
+                ("title".to_string(), segments.clone()),
+                ("body".to_string(), segments.clone()),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("requires a bounded result limit"),
+            "unexpected unbounded-query error: {error}"
+        );
+
+        let exec = CrossColumnCompoundQueryExec::new_with_segments(
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            params,
+            PreFilterSource::None,
+            vec![
+                ("title".to_string(), segments.clone()),
+                ("body".to_string(), segments),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let display = format!(
+            "{}",
+            datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(&exec).one_line()
+        );
+        assert!(
+            display.contains("CrossColumnCompoundFtsScorer:"),
+            "unexpected display name: {display}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn empty_fts_child() -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        Arc::new(EmptyExec::new(FTS_SCHEMA.clone()))
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn build_boolean_should_empty_returns_empty_exec() {
+        let plan = build_boolean_query_children(BoolSlot::Should, vec![])
             .unwrap()
-            .with_row_id()
-            .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(query.into()))
-            .unwrap();
-        let analysis = scanner.analyze_plan().await.unwrap();
-        let boolean_line = analysis
-            .lines()
-            .find(|line| line.contains("BooleanQuery"))
-            .unwrap();
+            .expect("Should slot always returns Some");
         assert!(
-            boolean_line.contains(&format!("{PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC}={expected_total}")),
-            "BooleanQuery metrics missing partitions_searched: {boolean_line}"
+            plan.downcast_ref::<EmptyExec>().is_some(),
+            "expected EmptyExec for empty Should slot, got {plan:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn build_boolean_should_single_child_passthrough() {
+        let child = empty_fts_child();
+        let child_ptr = Arc::as_ptr(&child);
+        let plan = build_boolean_query_children(BoolSlot::Should, vec![child])
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("Should slot always returns Some");
+        assert_eq!(
+            Arc::as_ptr(&plan),
+            child_ptr,
+            "single-child Should should return the child unchanged"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn build_boolean_should_multi_child_union_repartition() {
+        let plan = build_boolean_query_children(
+            BoolSlot::Should,
+            vec![empty_fts_child(), empty_fts_child()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .expect("Should slot always returns Some");
+        let repartition = plan
+            .downcast_ref::<RepartitionExec>()
+            .expect("multi-child Should should be wrapped in RepartitionExec");
+        let inner = repartition
+            .input()
+            .downcast_ref::<UnionExec>()
+            .expect("RepartitionExec should wrap a UnionExec");
+        assert_eq!(inner.children().len(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn build_boolean_must_empty_returns_none() {
+        let plan = build_boolean_query_children(BoolSlot::Must, vec![]).unwrap();
+        assert!(plan.is_none(), "empty Must slot should return None");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn build_boolean_must_single_child_passthrough_some() {
+        let child = empty_fts_child();
+        let child_ptr = Arc::as_ptr(&child);
+        let plan = build_boolean_query_children(BoolSlot::Must, vec![child])
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("single-child Must should be Some");
+        assert_eq!(
+            Arc::as_ptr(&plan),
+            child_ptr,
+            "single-child Must should return the child unchanged"
         );
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn build_boolean_must_multi_child_chained_hashjoin() {
+        let children = vec![empty_fts_child(), empty_fts_child(), empty_fts_child()];
+        let n = children.len();
+        let plan = build_boolean_query_children(BoolSlot::Must, children)
+            .unwrap()
+            .expect("multi-child Must should be Some");
+
+        // Walk the left spine: each layer is a HashJoinExec whose left child is
+        // either another HashJoinExec or the original leaf. With N children
+        // there are N-1 joins.
+        let mut joins = 0usize;
+        let mut current: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = plan;
+        while let Some(join) = current.clone().downcast_ref::<HashJoinExec>() {
+            joins += 1;
+            current = join.children()[0].clone();
+        }
+        assert_eq!(joins, n - 1, "expected {} joins for {n} children", n - 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn build_boolean_must_not_multi_child_union_repartition() {
+        let plan = build_boolean_query_children(
+            BoolSlot::MustNot,
+            vec![empty_fts_child(), empty_fts_child()],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .expect("MustNot slot always returns Some");
+        let repartition = plan
+            .downcast_ref::<RepartitionExec>()
+            .expect("multi-child MustNot should be wrapped in RepartitionExec");
+        let inner = repartition
+            .input()
+            .downcast_ref::<UnionExec>()
+            .expect("RepartitionExec should wrap a UnionExec");
+        assert_eq!(inner.children().len(), 2);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/knn.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/knn.rs
index f8f8869617a..679a0ed3250 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/knn.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/knn.rs
@@ -1,74 +1,95 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::any::Any;
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+#[cfg(test)]
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
+use std::cmp::Ordering as CmpOrdering;
+use std::collections::{BinaryHeap, HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
 use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock, Mutex};
 use std::time::Instant;
 
-use arrow::array::Float32Builder;
+use arrow::array::{Float32Builder, Int32Builder, UInt64Builder};
 use arrow::datatypes::{Float32Type, UInt32Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::{Array, Float32Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, StringArray,
     builder::{ListBuilder, UInt32Builder},
     cast::AsArray,
-    ArrayRef, BooleanArray, RecordBatch, StringArray,
 };
-use arrow_array::{Array, Float32Array, UInt32Array, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef};
-use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::PlanProperties;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::{
     DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, Partitioning, SendableRecordBatchStream,
     Statistics,
 };
+use datafusion::{common::ColumnStatistics, physical_plan::metrics::ExecutionPlanMetricsSet};
 use datafusion::{
     common::stats::Precision,
     physical_plan::execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType},
 };
-use datafusion::{common::ColumnStatistics, physical_plan::metrics::ExecutionPlanMetricsSet};
 use datafusion::{
     error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult},
     physical_plan::metrics::MetricsSet,
 };
 use datafusion_physical_expr::{Distribution, EquivalenceProperties};
-use datafusion_physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, Count};
-use futures::{future, stream, Stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt};
+use datafusion_physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, Count, Time};
+use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt, future, stream};
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use lance_core::utils::futures::FinallyStreamExt;
 use lance_core::ROW_ID;
-use lance_core::{utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, ROW_ID_FIELD};
+use lance_core::utils::futures::FinallyStreamExt;
+use lance_core::{
+    ROW_ID_FIELD,
+    utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu},
+};
 use lance_datafusion::utils::{
-    ExecutionPlanMetricsSetExt, DELTAS_SEARCHED_METRIC, PARTITIONS_RANKED_METRIC,
-    PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC,
+    DELTAS_SEARCHED_METRIC, ExecutionPlanMetricsSetExt, FIND_PARTITIONS_ELAPSED_METRIC,
+    PARTITIONS_RANKED_METRIC, PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC,
 };
+use lance_index::metrics::{IndexTimer, IndexTiming, MetricsCollector};
 use lance_index::prefilter::PreFilter;
+use lance_index::vector::DIST_Q_C_COLUMN;
 use lance_index::vector::{
-    flat::compute_distance, Query, DIST_COL, INDEX_UUID_COLUMN, PART_ID_COLUMN,
+    DIST_COL, INDEX_UUID_COLUMN, PART_ID_COLUMN, PartitionSearchControl, Query, VectorIndex,
+    flat::compute_distance,
 };
-use lance_index::vector::{VectorIndex, DIST_Q_C_COLUMN};
 use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
 use lance_linalg::kernels::normalize_arrow;
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
-use snafu::location;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
 use tokio::sync::Notify;
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
 use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
 use crate::index::prefilter::{DatasetPreFilter, FilterLoader};
 use crate::index::vector::utils::{get_vector_type, validate_distance_type_for};
-use crate::index::DatasetIndexInternalExt;
 use crate::{Error, Result};
 use lance_arrow::*;
 
+use super::row_addr_mask::MaskAndLoader;
 use super::utils::{
-    FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter, IndexMetrics, InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter, PreFilterSource,
-    SelectionVectorToPrefilter,
+    FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter, IndexMetrics, InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter, PreFilterMasks,
+    PreFilterSource, SelectionVectorToPrefilter,
 };
 
+mod adaptive_probe;
+
+use adaptive_probe::AutoProbePolicy;
+
+pub const QUERY_INDEX_COL: &str = "query_index";
+
+pub fn query_index_field() -> Field {
+    Field::new(QUERY_INDEX_COL, DataType::Int32, false)
+}
+
 pub struct AnnPartitionMetrics {
     index_metrics: IndexMetrics,
     partitions_ranked: Count,
     deltas_searched: Count,
+    find_partitions_elapsed: Time,
     baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics,
 }
 
@@ -78,6 +99,7 @@ impl AnnPartitionMetrics {
             index_metrics: IndexMetrics::new(metrics, partition),
             partitions_ranked: metrics.new_count(PARTITIONS_RANKED_METRIC, partition),
             deltas_searched: metrics.new_count(DELTAS_SEARCHED_METRIC, partition),
+            find_partitions_elapsed: metrics.new_time(FIND_PARTITIONS_ELAPSED_METRIC, partition),
             baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics::new(metrics, partition),
         }
     }
@@ -99,6 +121,111 @@ impl AnnIndexMetrics {
     }
 }
 
+async fn find_partitions_on_cpu(
+    index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
+    query: Query,
+) -> DataFusionResult<(UInt32Array, Float32Array)> {
+    spawn_cpu(move || index.find_partitions(&query))
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to find partitions: {}", e)))
+}
+
+/// Per-query IVF partition rankings: for each query, its probed-partition ids
+/// and the corresponding centroid distances, in query order.
+type BatchPartitionRankings = (Vec<Arc<UInt32Array>>, Vec<Arc<Float32Array>>);
+
+/// Rank every query vector in a batch against the IVF centroids on the CPU
+/// runtime.
+///
+/// [`VectorIndex::find_partitions`] is pure CPU work, and a wide batch over a
+/// large centroid set multiplies it enough to monopolize a Tokio worker and
+/// stall unrelated async progress. Dispatch the whole ranking loop as a single
+/// `spawn_cpu` job -- mirroring the single-query [`find_partitions_on_cpu`] --
+/// so it stays off the async executor threads.
+///
+/// `query.key` holds all `query_count` vectors concatenated and `dim` is the
+/// per-vector width. Returns each query's probed-partition list and the
+/// corresponding centroid distances, in query order.
+async fn find_partitions_batch_on_cpu(
+    index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
+    query: Query,
+    query_count: usize,
+    dim: usize,
+) -> DataFusionResult<BatchPartitionRankings> {
+    spawn_cpu(move || -> Result<BatchPartitionRankings> {
+        let mut partitions_per_query = Vec::with_capacity(query_count);
+        let mut dists_per_query = Vec::with_capacity(query_count);
+        for query_index in 0..query_count {
+            let mut single_query = query.clone();
+            single_query.key = query.key.slice(query_index * dim, dim);
+            // Probe a fixed number of partitions per query. The scanner only
+            // routes here when `minimum_nprobes == maximum_nprobes` and
+            // `minimum_nprobes > 0` (see `Scanner::batch_index_search_supported`),
+            // so this is exactly what the single-query path would search -- no
+            // adaptive `early_pruning` floor or late-search expansion applies,
+            // making the batch result identical to repeated single-query search.
+            // No clamp is needed: the gate rejects `nprobes(0)` (which the
+            // single-query path treats as "probe nothing") rather than silently
+            // searching one partition here.
+            debug_assert!(
+                single_query.minimum_nprobes > 0,
+                "batch node reached with nprobes(0); the scanner gate should have fallen back"
+            );
+            single_query.maximum_nprobes = Some(single_query.minimum_nprobes);
+            let (partitions, q_c_dists) = index.find_partitions(&single_query)?;
+            partitions_per_query.push(Arc::new(partitions));
+            dists_per_query.push(Arc::new(q_c_dists));
+        }
+        Ok((partitions_per_query, dists_per_query))
+    })
+    .await
+    .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to find partitions: {e}")))
+}
+
+fn normalize_query_for_index(index: &dyn VectorIndex, query: Query) -> DataFusionResult<Query> {
+    if index.metric_type() != DistanceType::Cosine {
+        return Ok(query);
+    }
+
+    let mut query = query;
+    let key = normalize_arrow(&query.key)
+        .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to normalize query: {e}")))?
+        .0;
+    query.key = key;
+    Ok(query)
+}
+
+/// Normalize a batch query's concatenated key for a cosine index.
+///
+/// `query.key` holds `query_count` vectors of length `dim` concatenated, so each
+/// vector must be normalized **independently** — normalizing the whole buffer
+/// would divide every vector by a single global norm that depends on the other
+/// queries in the batch, corrupting per-query cosine distances. Returns the
+/// query unchanged for non-cosine metrics.
+fn normalize_batch_query_for_index(
+    index: &dyn VectorIndex,
+    mut query: Query,
+    query_count: usize,
+    dim: usize,
+) -> DataFusionResult<Query> {
+    if index.metric_type() != DistanceType::Cosine {
+        return Ok(query);
+    }
+
+    let normalized: Vec<ArrayRef> = (0..query_count)
+        .map(|i| {
+            normalize_arrow(&query.key.slice(i * dim, dim))
+                .map(|(key, _)| key)
+                .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to normalize query: {e}")))
+        })
+        .collect::<DataFusionResult<_>>()?;
+    let refs: Vec<&dyn Array> = normalized.iter().map(|a| a.as_ref()).collect();
+    query.key = arrow_select::concat::concat(&refs).map_err(|e| {
+        DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to concat normalized query: {e}"))
+    })?;
+    Ok(query)
+}
+
 /// [ExecutionPlan] compute vector distance from a query vector.
 ///
 /// Preconditions:
@@ -113,29 +240,189 @@ pub struct KNNVectorDistanceExec {
 
     /// The vector query to execute.
     pub query: ArrayRef,
+    pub is_batch: bool,
+    pub query_count: usize,
+    pub k: usize,
+    pub lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+    pub upper_bound: Option<f32>,
     pub column: String,
     pub distance_type: DistanceType,
+    retain_vector: bool,
 
+    input_schema: SchemaRef,
     output_schema: SchemaRef,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
 
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
 
+pub struct KnnBatchParams {
+    pub is_batch: bool,
+    pub query_count: usize,
+    pub k: usize,
+    pub lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+    pub upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+    pub distance_type: DistanceType,
+    pub retain_vector: bool,
+}
+
+struct BatchKnnConfig {
+    stored_schema: SchemaRef,
+    output_schema: SchemaRef,
+    column: String,
+    query: ArrayRef,
+    query_count: usize,
+    k: usize,
+    lower_bound: Option<f32>,
+    upper_bound: Option<f32>,
+    distance_type: DistanceType,
+    retain_vector: bool,
+}
+
 impl DisplayAs for KNNVectorDistanceExec {
     fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
         match t {
             DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
-                write!(f, "KNNVectorDistance: metric={}", self.distance_type,)
+                if self.is_batch {
+                    write!(
+                        f,
+                        "KNNVectorDistance: queries={}, k={}, metric={}",
+                        self.query_count, self.k, self.distance_type,
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    write!(f, "KNNVectorDistance: metric={}", self.distance_type,)
+                }
             }
             DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
-                write!(f, "KNNVectorDistance\nmetric={}", self.distance_type,)
+                if self.is_batch {
+                    write!(
+                        f,
+                        "KNNVectorDistance\nqueries={}\nk={}\nmetric={}",
+                        self.query_count, self.k, self.distance_type,
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    write!(f, "KNNVectorDistance\nmetric={}", self.distance_type,)
+                }
             }
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl KNNVectorDistanceExec {
+    fn remove_field_path_from_fields(
+        fields: &[Arc<Field>],
+        path: &[String],
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<Arc<Field>>> {
+        if path.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(fields.to_vec());
+        }
+        let mut removed = false;
+        let mut new_fields = Vec::with_capacity(fields.len());
+        for field in fields {
+            if field.name() != &path[0] {
+                new_fields.push(field.clone());
+                continue;
+            }
+            removed = true;
+            if path.len() == 1 {
+                continue;
+            }
+            match field.data_type() {
+                DataType::Struct(children) => {
+                    let child_fields = children.iter().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                    let projected_children =
+                        Self::remove_field_path_from_fields(&child_fields, &path[1..])?;
+                    if projected_children.is_empty() {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let updated = Field::new(
+                        field.name(),
+                        DataType::Struct(projected_children.into()),
+                        field.is_nullable(),
+                    )
+                    .with_metadata(field.metadata().clone());
+                    new_fields.push(Arc::new(updated));
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                        "batch KNN cannot remove nested path '{}': '{}' is not a struct",
+                        path.join("."),
+                        field.name()
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if !removed {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "batch KNN expected vector column '{}' in scan batch schema",
+                path.join(".")
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(new_fields)
+    }
+
+    fn remove_vector_from_schema(schema: &Schema, column: &str) -> DataFusionResult<Schema> {
+        let path = lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(column).map_err(|err| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "batch KNN failed to parse vector column path '{column}': {err}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let fields = schema.fields().iter().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let updated_fields = Self::remove_field_path_from_fields(&fields, &path)?;
+        Ok(Schema::new_with_metadata(
+            updated_fields,
+            schema.metadata().clone(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn remove_vector_from_batch(
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+        column: &str,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+        let slim_schema = Self::remove_vector_from_schema(batch.schema().as_ref(), column)?;
+        batch
+            .project_by_schema(&slim_schema)
+            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+    }
+
+    fn resolve_vector_column(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str) -> DataFusionResult<ArrayRef> {
+        if let Some(col) = batch.column_by_name(column) {
+            return Ok(col.clone());
+        }
+        let parts = lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(column).map_err(|e| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "batch KNN failed to parse vector column path '{column}': {e}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        if parts.is_empty() {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "batch KNN has invalid empty vector column path '{column}'"
+            )));
+        }
+        let mut current = batch.column_by_name(&parts[0]).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "batch KNN expected vector column '{column}' in scan batch (missing root field '{}')",
+                parts[0]
+            ))
+        })?;
+        for part in &parts[1..] {
+            let struct_array = current
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                        "batch KNN expected struct while resolving '{column}', but parent of '{part}' was not a struct"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            current = struct_array.column_by_name(part).cloned().ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                    "batch KNN expected vector column '{column}' in scan batch (missing nested field '{part}')"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        }
+        Ok(current)
+    }
+
     /// Create a new [`KNNVectorDistanceExec`] node.
     ///
     /// Returns an error if the preconditions are not met.
@@ -145,16 +432,84 @@ impl KNNVectorDistanceExec {
         query: ArrayRef,
         distance_type: DistanceType,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let mut output_schema = input.schema().as_ref().clone();
-        let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(&(&output_schema).try_into()?, column)?;
+        Self::try_new_batch(
+            input,
+            column,
+            query,
+            KnnBatchParams {
+                is_batch: false,
+                query_count: 1,
+                k: 0,
+                lower_bound: None,
+                upper_bound: None,
+                distance_type,
+                retain_vector: false,
+            },
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn try_new_batch(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        column: &str,
+        query: ArrayRef,
+        params: KnnBatchParams,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let KnnBatchParams {
+            is_batch,
+            query_count,
+            k,
+            lower_bound,
+            upper_bound,
+            distance_type,
+            retain_vector,
+        } = params;
+        if query_count == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "query_count must be positive for KNN".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if !query.len().is_multiple_of(query_count) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "query length ({}) must be divisible by query_count ({})",
+                query.len(),
+                query_count
+            )));
+        }
+        if is_batch && k == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "k must be positive for batch KNN".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut input_schema = input.schema().as_ref().clone();
+        let (_, element_type) = get_vector_type(&(&input_schema).try_into()?, column)?;
         validate_distance_type_for(distance_type, &element_type)?;
 
         // FlatExec appends a distance column to the input schema. The input
         // may already have a distance column (possibly in the wrong position), so
         // we need to remove it before adding a new one.
-        if output_schema.column_with_name(DIST_COL).is_some() {
-            output_schema = output_schema.without_column(DIST_COL);
+        if input_schema.column_with_name(DIST_COL).is_some() {
+            input_schema = input_schema.without_column(DIST_COL);
         }
+        if is_batch && input_schema.column_with_name(QUERY_INDEX_COL).is_some() {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "batch KNN cannot run when the input already contains reserved column '{QUERY_INDEX_COL}'"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let stored_schema = if is_batch && !retain_vector {
+            Arc::new(Self::remove_vector_from_schema(&input_schema, column)?)
+        } else {
+            Arc::new(input_schema)
+        };
+
+        let output_schema = if is_batch {
+            stored_schema
+                .as_ref()
+                .try_with_column_at(0, query_index_field())?
+        } else {
+            stored_schema.as_ref().clone()
+        };
         let output_schema = Arc::new(output_schema.try_with_column(Field::new(
             DIST_COL,
             DataType::Float32,
@@ -163,21 +518,431 @@ impl KNNVectorDistanceExec {
 
         // This node has the same partitioning & boundedness as the input node
         // but it destroys any ordering.
-        let properties = input
-            .properties()
-            .clone()
-            .with_eq_properties(EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()));
+        let properties = if is_batch {
+            Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+                EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()),
+                Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
+                EmissionType::Final,
+                Boundedness::Bounded,
+            ))
+        } else {
+            Arc::new(
+                input
+                    .properties()
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .clone()
+                    .with_eq_properties(EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone())),
+            )
+        };
 
         Ok(Self {
             input,
             query,
+            is_batch,
+            query_count,
+            k,
+            lower_bound,
+            upper_bound,
             column: column.to_string(),
             distance_type,
+            retain_vector,
+            input_schema: stored_schema,
             output_schema,
             properties,
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
         })
     }
+
+    /// Rebuild this node with a different per-query `k`.
+    ///
+    /// A batch node bounds every query's candidates by its own `k` and carries no
+    /// enclosing top-k `SortExec`, so a caller that rewrites the plan to widen the
+    /// candidate set has nothing else to move. `k` feeds only the execute-time cut,
+    /// never the schema or plan properties, so the rest of the node carries over.
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error for a zero `k` on a batch node, matching `try_new_batch`.
+    pub fn with_k(&self, k: usize) -> Result<Self> {
+        if self.is_batch && k == 0 {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(
+                "k must be positive for batch KNN".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            input: self.input.clone(),
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            is_batch: self.is_batch,
+            query_count: self.query_count,
+            k,
+            lower_bound: self.lower_bound,
+            upper_bound: self.upper_bound,
+            column: self.column.clone(),
+            distance_type: self.distance_type,
+            retain_vector: self.retain_vector,
+            input_schema: self.input_schema.clone(),
+            output_schema: self.output_schema.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn take_vector_row(vectors: &dyn Array, row_index: u32) -> DataFusionResult<ArrayRef> {
+        let indices = UInt32Array::from_iter([Some(row_index)]);
+        arrow_select::take::take(vectors, &indices, None)
+            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+    }
+
+    fn take_slim_batch_field(
+        results: &[BatchKnnCandidate],
+        field_name: &str,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<ArrayRef> {
+        Self::take_slim_batch_field_if_present(results, field_name)?.ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal(format!("column '{field_name}' missing from slim batch"))
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn take_slim_batch_field_if_present(
+        results: &[BatchKnnCandidate],
+        field_name: &str,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Option<ArrayRef>> {
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        type SlimBatchGroup = (Arc<RecordBatch>, Vec<(usize, u32)>);
+        let mut groups: HashMap<*const RecordBatch, SlimBatchGroup> = HashMap::new();
+        for (result_index, candidate) in results.iter().enumerate() {
+            let BatchKnnExtra::WithSlimBatch {
+                slim_batch,
+                row_index,
+                ..
+            } = &candidate.extra
+            else {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                    "batch KNN expected slim batch in candidate heap".to_string(),
+                ));
+            };
+            groups
+                .entry(Arc::as_ptr(slim_batch))
+                .or_insert_with(|| (Arc::clone(slim_batch), Vec::new()))
+                .1
+                .push((result_index, *row_index));
+        }
+
+        let mut ordered: Vec<Option<ArrayRef>> = vec![None; results.len()];
+        for (_, (slim_batch, entries)) in groups {
+            let indices =
+                UInt32Array::from_iter(entries.iter().map(|(_, row_index)| Some(*row_index)));
+            let taken = arrow_select::take::take_record_batch(slim_batch.as_ref(), &indices)
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), Some("take top-k rows".to_string()))
+                })?;
+            let Some(column) = taken.column_by_name(field_name) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            for (offset, (result_index, _)) in entries.iter().enumerate() {
+                ordered[*result_index] = Some(column.slice(offset, 1));
+            }
+        }
+        if ordered.iter().all(Option::is_none) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if ordered.iter().any(Option::is_none) {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "column '{field_name}' inconsistently present in slim batches"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let row_arrays: Vec<&dyn Array> = ordered
+            .iter()
+            .map(|array| {
+                array
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .expect("every result mapped from slim batch")
+                    .as_ref()
+            })
+            .collect();
+        arrow::compute::concat(&row_arrays)
+            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+            .map(Some)
+    }
+
+    fn build_struct_column_for_path(
+        field: &Field,
+        path: &[String],
+        leaf_column: ArrayRef,
+        slim_column: Option<&dyn Array>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<ArrayRef> {
+        if path.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(leaf_column);
+        }
+        let DataType::Struct(children) = field.data_type() else {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "batch KNN expected struct field '{}' while rebuilding nested vector path '{}'",
+                field.name(),
+                path.join(".")
+            )));
+        };
+        let slim_struct = slim_column
+            .map(|column| {
+                column
+                    .as_any()
+                    .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::StructArray>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                            "batch KNN expected slim column '{}' to be a struct while rebuilding nested vector path '{}'",
+                            field.name(),
+                            path.join(".")
+                        ))
+                    })
+            })
+            .transpose()?;
+        let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(children.len());
+        for child in children.iter() {
+            if child.name() == &path[0] {
+                if path.len() == 1 {
+                    columns.push(leaf_column.clone());
+                } else {
+                    let child_slim_column = slim_struct
+                        .and_then(|struct_array| struct_array.column_by_name(child.name()));
+                    columns.push(Self::build_struct_column_for_path(
+                        child,
+                        &path[1..],
+                        leaf_column.clone(),
+                        child_slim_column.map(|column| column.as_ref()),
+                    )?);
+                }
+            } else if let Some(column) =
+                slim_struct.and_then(|struct_array| struct_array.column_by_name(child.name()))
+            {
+                columns.push(column.clone());
+            } else {
+                columns.push(arrow_array::new_null_array(
+                    child.data_type(),
+                    leaf_column.len(),
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        let struct_array = arrow_array::StructArray::try_new(
+            children.clone(),
+            columns,
+            slim_struct.and_then(|struct_array| struct_array.nulls().cloned()),
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(struct_array))
+    }
+
+    fn take_retained_vector_column(
+        results: &[BatchKnnCandidate],
+        field: &Field,
+        field_path: &[String],
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<ArrayRef> {
+        let vector_rows: Vec<&dyn Array> = results
+            .iter()
+            .map(|candidate| {
+                let BatchKnnExtra::WithSlimBatch {
+                    vector_row: Some(vector_row),
+                    ..
+                } = &candidate.extra
+                else {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "batch KNN expected vector rows in candidate heap".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                };
+                Ok(vector_row.as_ref())
+            })
+            .collect::<DataFusionResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let leaf_column = arrow::compute::concat(&vector_rows)
+            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))?;
+        if field_path.len() <= 1 {
+            Ok(leaf_column)
+        } else {
+            let slim_column = Self::take_slim_batch_field_if_present(results, field.name())?;
+            Self::build_struct_column_for_path(
+                field,
+                &field_path[1..],
+                leaf_column,
+                slim_column.as_deref(),
+            )
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn assemble_batch_output(
+        results: &[BatchKnnCandidate],
+        stored_schema: &Schema,
+        column: &str,
+        retain_vector: bool,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+        let field_path = lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(column).map_err(|e| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "batch KNN failed to parse vector column path '{column}': {e}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+        let mut columns: Vec<ArrayRef> = Vec::with_capacity(stored_schema.fields().len());
+        for field in stored_schema.fields() {
+            if field.name() == ROW_ID {
+                let row_ids =
+                    UInt64Array::from_iter(results.iter().map(|candidate| Some(candidate.row_id)));
+                columns.push(Arc::new(row_ids));
+            } else if retain_vector && !field_path.is_empty() && field.name() == &field_path[0] {
+                columns.push(Self::take_retained_vector_column(
+                    results,
+                    field,
+                    &field_path,
+                )?);
+            } else {
+                columns.push(Self::take_slim_batch_field(results, field.name())?);
+            }
+        }
+        RecordBatch::try_new(Arc::new(stored_schema.clone()), columns)
+            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+    }
+
+    async fn execute_batch(
+        input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        config: BatchKnnConfig,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+        let BatchKnnConfig {
+            stored_schema,
+            output_schema,
+            column,
+            query,
+            query_count,
+            k,
+            lower_bound,
+            upper_bound,
+            distance_type,
+            retain_vector,
+        } = config;
+        let query_dim = query.len() / query_count;
+        let needs_slim_batch = stored_schema.fields().iter().any(|f| f.name() != ROW_ID);
+        let mut heaps = (0..query_count)
+            .map(|_| BinaryHeap::<BatchKnnCandidate>::with_capacity(k))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut input = input;
+
+        while let Some(batch) = input.next().await {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let row_ids = batch
+                .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "KNNVectorDistanceExec batch mode requires _rowid in input".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?
+                .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                .clone();
+
+            let mut slim_batch: Option<Arc<RecordBatch>> = None;
+            let vectors = if retain_vector {
+                Some(Self::resolve_vector_column(&batch, &column)?)
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+            for (query_index, heap) in heaps.iter_mut().enumerate().take(query_count) {
+                let key = query.slice(query_index * query_dim, query_dim);
+                let with_distances = compute_distance(key, distance_type, &column, batch.clone())
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(e)))?;
+                let distances = with_distances[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+                let distance_values = distances.values();
+                for row_index in 0..distances.len() {
+                    if !distances.is_valid(row_index) {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let distance = distance_values[row_index];
+                    if distance.is_nan() {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    // Single-query flat KNN applies distance_range as a plan filter.
+                    // Batch mode filters before insertion so top-k stays per query.
+                    if lower_bound.is_some_and(|lower_bound| distance < lower_bound)
+                        || upper_bound.is_some_and(|upper_bound| distance >= upper_bound)
+                    {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let query_index = query_index as i32;
+                    let row_id = row_ids.value(row_index);
+                    if !would_enter_heap(heap, k, distance, row_id, query_index) {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+
+                    let extra = if retain_vector || needs_slim_batch {
+                        let row_index = row_index as u32;
+                        if slim_batch.is_none() {
+                            let slim = Self::remove_vector_from_batch(&batch, &column)?;
+                            slim_batch = Some(Arc::new(slim));
+                        }
+                        let slim_batch = slim_batch.as_ref().expect("slim batch");
+                        let vector_row = if retain_vector {
+                            Some(Self::take_vector_row(
+                                vectors.as_ref().expect("vectors"),
+                                row_index,
+                            )?)
+                        } else {
+                            None
+                        };
+                        BatchKnnExtra::WithSlimBatch {
+                            slim_batch: Arc::clone(slim_batch),
+                            row_index,
+                            vector_row,
+                        }
+                    } else {
+                        BatchKnnExtra::RowIdOnly
+                    };
+                    let candidate = BatchKnnCandidate {
+                        query_index,
+                        distance,
+                        row_id,
+                        extra,
+                    };
+                    if heap.len() < k {
+                        heap.push(candidate);
+                    } else {
+                        heap.pop();
+                        heap.push(candidate);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut results = heaps
+            .into_iter()
+            .flat_map(BinaryHeap::into_vec)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        results.sort_by(|left, right| {
+            left.query_index
+                .cmp(&right.query_index)
+                .then_with(|| left.distance.total_cmp(&right.distance))
+                .then_with(|| left.row_id.cmp(&right.row_id))
+        });
+
+        if results.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(output_schema));
+        }
+
+        let mut query_indices = Int32Builder::with_capacity(results.len());
+        let mut distances = Float32Builder::with_capacity(results.len());
+        for result in &results {
+            query_indices.append_value(result.query_index);
+            distances.append_value(result.distance);
+        }
+
+        let output =
+            Self::assemble_batch_output(&results, stored_schema.as_ref(), &column, retain_vector)?;
+
+        output
+            .try_with_column_at(0, query_index_field(), Arc::new(query_indices.finish()))
+            .and_then(|batch| {
+                batch.try_with_column(
+                    Field::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
+                    Arc::new(distances.finish()),
+                )
+            })
+            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+    }
 }
 
 impl ExecutionPlan for KNNVectorDistanceExec {
@@ -185,10 +950,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for KNNVectorDistanceExec {
         "KNNVectorDistanceExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     /// Flat KNN inherits the schema from input node, and add one distance column.
     fn schema(&self) -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef {
         self.output_schema.clone()
@@ -208,11 +969,19 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for KNNVectorDistanceExec {
             ));
         }
 
-        Ok(Arc::new(Self::try_new(
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::try_new_batch(
             children.pop().expect("length checked"),
             &self.column,
             self.query.clone(),
-            self.distance_type,
+            KnnBatchParams {
+                is_batch: self.is_batch,
+                query_count: self.query_count,
+                k: self.k,
+                lower_bound: self.lower_bound,
+                upper_bound: self.upper_bound,
+                distance_type: self.distance_type,
+                retain_vector: self.retain_vector,
+            },
         )?))
     }
 
@@ -222,94 +991,227 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for KNNVectorDistanceExec {
         context: Arc<datafusion::execution::context::TaskContext>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         let input_stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        if self.is_batch {
+            let stream = stream::once(Self::execute_batch(
+                input_stream,
+                BatchKnnConfig {
+                    stored_schema: self.input_schema.clone(),
+                    output_schema: self.output_schema.clone(),
+                    column: self.column.clone(),
+                    query: self.query.clone(),
+                    query_count: self.query_count,
+                    k: self.k,
+                    lower_bound: self.lower_bound,
+                    upper_bound: self.upper_bound,
+                    distance_type: self.distance_type,
+                    retain_vector: self.retain_vector,
+                },
+            ));
+            let schema = self.schema();
+            return Ok(Box::pin(InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema,
+                stream.boxed(),
+                partition,
+                &self.metrics,
+            )) as SendableRecordBatchStream);
+        }
         let key = self.query.clone();
         let column = self.column.clone();
         let dt = self.distance_type;
-        let stream = input_stream
-            .try_filter(|batch| future::ready(batch.num_rows() > 0))
-            .map(move |batch| {
+        let schema = self.schema();
+
+        // Empty batches don't have a vector column to score; filter them out
+        // before the transform so it always sees real work.
+        let filtered_input = input_stream.try_filter(|batch| future::ready(batch.num_rows() > 0));
+
+        let baseline = BaselineMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition);
+        let elapsed_compute = baseline.elapsed_compute().clone();
+
+        let stream = filtered_input
+            .map(move |batch_result| {
                 let key = key.clone();
                 let column = column.clone();
+                let elapsed_compute = elapsed_compute.clone();
                 async move {
-                    let batch = compute_distance(key, dt, &column, batch?)
+                    let batch = batch_result?;
+                    // Time around the .await to capture the spawn_blocking
+                    // distance work, which otherwise runs while this future is
+                    // Pending and is missed by a poll-time timer.
+                    let start = Instant::now();
+                    let batch = compute_distance(key, dt, &column, batch)
                         .await
                         .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(e)))?;
+                    elapsed_compute.add_duration(start.elapsed());
 
+                    let _t = elapsed_compute.timer();
                     let distances = batch[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
-                    let mask = BooleanArray::from_iter(
-                        distances
-                            .iter()
-                            .map(|v| Some(v.map(|v| !v.is_nan()).unwrap_or(false))),
-                    );
+                    let distance_values = distances.values();
+                    let mask = BooleanArray::from_iter((0..distances.len()).map(|row_index| {
+                        Some(distances.is_valid(row_index) && !distance_values[row_index].is_nan())
+                    }));
                     arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &mask)
                         .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
                 }
             })
             .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus());
-        let schema = self.schema();
-        Ok(Box::pin(InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            schema,
-            stream.boxed(),
-            partition,
-            &self.metrics,
-        )) as SendableRecordBatchStream)
+
+        let stream = stream.map(move |batch| {
+            let poll = baseline.record_poll(std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(batch)));
+            match poll {
+                std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(b)) => b,
+                _ => unreachable!("record_poll preserves Ready(Some) input"),
+            }
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)))
     }
 
-    fn partition_statistics(&self, partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Statistics> {
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
         let inner_stats = self.input.partition_statistics(partition)?;
-        let schema = self.input.schema();
-        let dist_stats = inner_stats
+        let input_schema = self.input.schema();
+        let input_stats_by_name = inner_stats
             .column_statistics
             .iter()
-            .zip(schema.fields())
-            .find(|(_, field)| field.name() == &self.column)
-            .map(|(stats, _)| ColumnStatistics {
+            .zip(input_schema.fields())
+            .map(|(stats, field)| (field.name().as_str(), stats.clone()))
+            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+        let vector_root = lance_core::datatypes::parse_field_path(&self.column)
+            .ok()
+            .and_then(|parts| parts.first().cloned())
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.column.clone());
+        let dist_stats = input_stats_by_name
+            .get(vector_root.as_str())
+            .map(|stats| ColumnStatistics {
                 null_count: stats.null_count,
                 ..Default::default()
             })
             .unwrap_or_default();
-        let column_statistics = inner_stats
-            .column_statistics
-            .into_iter()
-            .zip(schema.fields())
-            .filter(|(_, field)| field.name() != DIST_COL)
-            .map(|(stats, _)| stats)
-            .chain(std::iter::once(dist_stats))
+        let column_statistics = self
+            .output_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|field| {
+                if field.name() == QUERY_INDEX_COL {
+                    ColumnStatistics::default()
+                } else if field.name() == DIST_COL {
+                    dist_stats.clone()
+                } else {
+                    input_stats_by_name
+                        .get(field.name().as_str())
+                        .cloned()
+                        .unwrap_or_default()
+                }
+            })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        Ok(Statistics {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
             num_rows: inner_stats.num_rows,
             column_statistics,
             ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
-        })
+        }))
     }
 
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
     fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
         false
     }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        // Both batch and non-batch modes execute a single input partition at a time,
+        // so all input must be coalesced to one partition before distance computation.
+        vec![Distribution::SinglePartition]
+    }
 }
 
-pub static KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-        Field::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
-        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
-    ]))
-});
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct BatchKnnCandidate {
+    query_index: i32,
+    distance: f32,
+    row_id: u64,
+    extra: BatchKnnExtra,
+}
 
-pub static KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
-        Field::new(
-            PART_ID_COLUMN,
-            DataType::List(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt32, false).into()),
-            false,
-        ),
+#[derive(Clone)]
+enum BatchKnnExtra {
+    RowIdOnly,
+    WithSlimBatch {
+        slim_batch: Arc<RecordBatch>,
+        row_index: u32,
+        vector_row: Option<ArrayRef>,
+    },
+}
+
+fn would_enter_heap(
+    heap: &BinaryHeap<BatchKnnCandidate>,
+    k: usize,
+    distance: f32,
+    row_id: u64,
+    query_index: i32,
+) -> bool {
+    if heap.len() < k {
+        return true;
+    }
+    let worst = heap.peek().expect("heap non-empty when len >= k");
+    let probe = BatchKnnCandidate {
+        query_index,
+        distance,
+        row_id,
+        extra: BatchKnnExtra::RowIdOnly,
+    };
+    probe.cmp(worst).is_lt()
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for BatchKnnCandidate {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.query_index == other.query_index
+            && self.distance == other.distance
+            && self.row_id == other.row_id
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for BatchKnnCandidate {}
+
+impl PartialOrd for BatchKnnCandidate {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<CmpOrdering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Ord for BatchKnnCandidate {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> CmpOrdering {
+        self.distance
+            .total_cmp(&other.distance)
+            .then_with(|| self.row_id.cmp(&other.row_id))
+            .then_with(|| self.query_index.cmp(&other.query_index))
+    }
+}
+
+pub static KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| knn_empty_result_schema(false));
+
+/// Schema for empty vector-search results (e.g. `fast_search` with no index).
+pub fn knn_empty_result_schema(include_query_index: bool) -> SchemaRef {
+    let mut fields = vec![
+        Field::new(DIST_COL, DataType::Float32, true),
+        ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+    ];
+    if include_query_index {
+        fields.insert(0, query_index_field());
+    }
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(fields))
+}
+
+pub static KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
+    Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+        Field::new(
+            PART_ID_COLUMN,
+            DataType::List(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt32, false).into()),
+            false,
+        ),
         Field::new(
             DIST_Q_C_COLUMN,
             DataType::List(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, false).into()),
@@ -319,25 +1221,81 @@ pub static KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> = LazyLock::new(|| {
     ]))
 });
 
+/// Build the shared [`DatasetPreFilter`] for an ANN search node, executing the
+/// prefilter source (if any) for this partition. Used by both the single-query
+/// [`ANNIvfSubIndexExec`] and the batch [`ANNIvfBatchExec`] so the prefilter is
+/// wired identically (and, for a batch, built once and shared across queries).
+///
+/// `masks.overlay_block`, when `Some`, excludes rows whose index entries may be stale
+/// due to a newer data overlay (see [`DatasetPreFilter::with_overlay_block`]).
+fn build_dataset_prefilter(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
+    partition: usize,
+    context: Arc<datafusion::execution::context::TaskContext>,
+    masks: PreFilterMasks,
+    metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<DatasetPreFilter>> {
+    let prefilter_loader = match prefilter_source {
+        PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(src_node) => {
+            let stream = src_node.execute(partition, context)?;
+            Some(
+                Box::new(FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter::new(stream).with_metrics(metrics, partition))
+                    as Box<dyn FilterLoader>,
+            )
+        }
+        PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(src_node) => {
+            let stream = src_node.execute(partition, context)?;
+            Some(Box::new(SelectionVectorToPrefilter(stream)) as Box<dyn FilterLoader>)
+        }
+        PreFilterSource::None => None,
+    };
+    // AND the external row-address mask into whatever the filter produced.
+    let prefilter_loader = match masks.external_mask {
+        Some(mask) => {
+            Some(Box::new(MaskAndLoader::new(mask, prefilter_loader)) as Box<dyn FilterLoader>)
+        }
+        None => prefilter_loader,
+    };
+    let mut pre_filter = DatasetPreFilter::new(dataset, indices, prefilter_loader);
+    if let Some(overlay_block) = masks.overlay_block {
+        pre_filter = pre_filter.with_overlay_block(overlay_block);
+    }
+    Ok(Arc::new(pre_filter))
+}
+
+/// Create a new ANN execution node. `overlay_block`, when `Some`, excludes rows whose index
+/// entries may be stale due to a newer data overlay (see [`ANNIvfSubIndexExec::with_overlay_block`]).
+/// `external_mask`, when `Some`, additionally restricts the scan to a caller-supplied
+/// allow/block set (see [`ANNIvfSubIndexExec::with_external_mask`]).
 pub fn new_knn_exec(
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     indices: &[IndexMetadata],
     query: &Query,
     prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+    external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
 ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
     let ivf_node = ANNIvfPartitionExec::try_new(
         dataset.clone(),
-        indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.uuid.to_string()).collect_vec(),
+        indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.uuid).collect_vec(),
         query.clone(),
     )?;
 
-    let sub_index = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::try_new(
+    let mut sub_index = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::try_new(
         Arc::new(ivf_node),
         dataset,
         indices.to_vec(),
         query.clone(),
         prefilter_source,
     )?;
+    if let Some(overlay_block) = overlay_block {
+        sub_index = sub_index.with_overlay_block(overlay_block);
+    }
+    if external_mask.is_some() {
+        sub_index = sub_index.with_external_mask(external_mask);
+    }
 
     Ok(Arc::new(sub_index))
 }
@@ -373,31 +1331,30 @@ pub struct ANNIvfPartitionExec {
     pub query: Query,
 
     /// The UUIDs of the indices to search.
-    pub index_uuids: Vec<String>,
+    pub index_uuids: Vec<Uuid>,
 
-    pub properties: PlanProperties,
+    pub properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
 
     pub metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
 
 impl ANNIvfPartitionExec {
-    pub fn try_new(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, index_uuids: Vec<String>, query: Query) -> Result<Self> {
+    pub fn try_new(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, index_uuids: Vec<Uuid>, query: Query) -> Result<Self> {
         let dataset_schema = dataset.schema();
         get_vector_type(dataset_schema, &query.column)?;
         if index_uuids.is_empty() {
-            return Err(Error::Execution {
-                message: "ANNIVFPartitionExec node: no index found for query".to_string(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::execution(
+                "ANNIVFPartitionExec node: no index found for query".to_string(),
+            ));
         }
 
         let schema = KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA.clone();
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(schema),
             Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
         Ok(Self {
             dataset,
@@ -441,23 +1398,19 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfPartitionExec {
         "ANNIVFPartitionExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA.clone()
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> DataFusionResult<Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics {
-            num_rows: Precision::Exact(self.query.minimum_nprobes),
-            ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
-        })
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
-        &self.properties
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<Statistics>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
+            num_rows: Precision::Exact(self.query.minimum_nprobes),
+            ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
+        }))
     }
 
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
@@ -484,10 +1437,11 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfPartitionExec {
     fn execute(
         &self,
         partition: usize,
-        _context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
     ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         let timer = Instant::now();
 
+        let target_partitions = context.session_config().target_partitions();
         let query = self.query.clone();
         let ds = self.dataset.clone();
         let metrics = Arc::new(AnnPartitionMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
@@ -500,20 +1454,21 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfPartitionExec {
                 let ds = ds.clone();
                 let metrics = metrics.clone();
                 async move {
-                    let index = ds
-                        .open_vector_index(&query.column, &uuid, &metrics.index_metrics)
-                        .await?;
-                    let mut query = query.clone();
-                    if index.metric_type() == DistanceType::Cosine {
-                        let key = normalize_arrow(&query.key)?.0;
-                        query.key = key;
+                    let index = {
+                        let _open_timer =
+                            IndexTimer::new(&metrics.index_metrics, IndexTiming::IndexOpen);
+                        ds.open_vector_index(&query.column, &uuid, &metrics.index_metrics)
+                            .await?
                     };
+                    // Normalize cosine queries once before partition ranking.
+                    let query = normalize_query_for_index(index.as_ref(), query.clone())?;
 
                     metrics.partitions_ranked.add(index.total_partitions());
 
-                    let (partitions, dist_q_c) = index.find_partitions(&query).map_err(|e| {
-                        DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to find partitions: {}", e))
-                    })?;
+                    let (partitions, dist_q_c) = {
+                        let _timer = metrics.find_partitions_elapsed.timer();
+                        find_partitions_on_cpu(index, query).await?
+                    };
 
                     let mut part_list_builder = ListBuilder::new(UInt32Builder::new())
                         .with_field(Field::new("item", DataType::UInt32, false));
@@ -525,7 +1480,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfPartitionExec {
                     dist_q_c_list_builder.append_value(dist_q_c.iter());
                     let dist_q_c_col = dist_q_c_list_builder.finish();
 
-                    let uuid_col = StringArray::from(vec![uuid.as_str()]);
+                    let uuid_col = StringArray::from(vec![uuid.to_string()]);
                     let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
                         KNN_PARTITION_SCHEMA.clone(),
                         vec![
@@ -538,8 +1493,11 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfPartitionExec {
                     Ok::<_, DataFusionError>(batch)
                 }
             })
-            .buffered(self.index_uuids.len())
+            .buffered(self.index_uuids.len().min(target_partitions).max(1))
             .finally(move || {
+                // Partition ranking reads centroids from memory, so this is
+                // typically zero; flushed for symmetry with ANNSubIndex.
+                metrics_clone.index_metrics.flush_io();
                 metrics_clone.baseline_metrics.done();
                 metrics_clone
                     .baseline_metrics
@@ -600,8 +1558,16 @@ pub struct ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
     /// Prefiltering input
     prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
 
+    /// Row addresses whose index entries are stale due to a newer data overlay. Blocked from
+    /// index results at execution time via [`DatasetPreFilter::with_overlay_block`].
+    overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+
+    /// Optional external row-address allow/block mask, combined with the
+    /// prefilter using logical AND.
+    external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+
     /// Datafusion Plan Properties
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
 
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
@@ -615,30 +1581,63 @@ impl ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
         prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         if input.schema().field_with_name(PART_ID_COLUMN).is_err() {
-            return Err(Error::Index {
-                message: format!(
-                    "ANNSubIndexExec node: input schema does not have \"{}\" column",
-                    PART_ID_COLUMN
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(Error::index(format!(
+                "ANNSubIndexExec node: input schema does not have \"{}\" column",
+                PART_ID_COLUMN
+            )));
         }
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone()),
             Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
             EmissionType::Final,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
         Ok(Self {
             input,
             dataset,
             indices,
             query,
             prefilter_source,
+            overlay_block: None,
+            external_mask: None,
             properties,
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
         })
     }
+
+    /// Block stale row addresses (see the `overlay_block` field) from index results.
+    pub fn with_overlay_block(mut self, overlay_block: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        self.overlay_block = Some(overlay_block);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Restrict the ANN search to a caller-supplied row-address allow/block set.
+    /// Intersected with the prefilter, so top-k is computed over surviving rows
+    /// rather than filtered afterwards. No-op when `mask` is `None`.
+    pub fn with_external_mask(mut self, mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>) -> Self {
+        self.external_mask = mask;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the vector query.
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &Query {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the dataset.
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the index metadata.
+    pub fn indices(&self) -> &[IndexMetadata] {
+        &self.indices
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the prefilter source.
+    pub fn prefilter_source(&self) -> &PreFilterSource {
+        &self.prefilter_source
+    }
 }
 
 impl DisplayAs for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
@@ -727,15 +1726,228 @@ impl ANNIvfEarlySearchResults {
     }
 }
 
+struct LatePartitionSearchControl {
+    state: Arc<ANNIvfEarlySearchResults>,
+    max_results: usize,
+    seg_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+}
+
+/// A query prefilter restricted to the fragments owned by one physical index segment.
+///
+/// The shared dataset prefilter covers the union of every segment.  When an in-place
+/// update removes a fragment from an older segment's metadata, this additional mask
+/// keeps that segment's stale physical rows out of its local top-k.
+struct SegmentPreFilter {
+    base: Arc<DatasetPreFilter>,
+    ownership_mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    final_mask: Mutex<Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>,
+}
+
+impl SegmentPreFilter {
+    fn new(base: Arc<DatasetPreFilter>, ownership_mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            base,
+            ownership_mask,
+            final_mask: Mutex::new(None),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl PreFilter for SegmentPreFilter {
+    async fn wait_for_ready(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        self.base.wait_for_ready().await?;
+        let mut final_mask = self.final_mask.lock().unwrap();
+        final_mask.get_or_insert_with(|| {
+            Arc::new(self.base.mask().as_ref().clone() & self.ownership_mask.as_ref().clone())
+        });
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn needs_partition_row_ids(&self) -> bool {
+        self.base.is_empty()
+    }
+
+    fn is_empty_for(&self, rows: &RowAddrTreeMap) -> bool {
+        self.base.is_empty() && self.ownership_mask.selects_all(rows)
+    }
+
+    fn mask(&self) -> Arc<RowAddrMask> {
+        self.final_mask
+            .lock()
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("mask called without call to wait_for_ready")
+            .clone()
+    }
+
+    fn filter_row_ids<'a>(&self, row_ids: Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &'a u64> + 'a>) -> Vec<u64> {
+        self.mask().selected_indices(row_ids)
+    }
+}
+
+async fn prefilter_for_segment(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    index: &IndexMetadata,
+    base: Arc<DatasetPreFilter>,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn PreFilter>> {
+    let Some(owned_fragments) = index.fragment_bitmap.clone() else {
+        return Ok(base);
+    };
+    let Some(ownership_mask) =
+        DatasetPreFilter::create_restricted_deletion_mask(dataset, owned_fragments)
+    else {
+        return Ok(base);
+    };
+    let ownership_mask = ownership_mask.await?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(SegmentPreFilter::new(base, ownership_mask)))
+}
+
+impl PartitionSearchControl for LatePartitionSearchControl {
+    fn should_stop(&self) -> bool {
+        self.state.num_results_found.load(Ordering::Relaxed) >= self.max_results
+    }
+
+    fn record_batch(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) {
+        // The batch this sees is the raw partition result; the stream applies the
+        // segment restriction afterwards, so only the rows that survive it may count
+        // towards the shared budget.
+        let num_rows = match self.seg_mask.as_ref() {
+            Some(seg_mask) => num_rows_in_segment(batch, seg_mask),
+            None => batch.num_rows(),
+        };
+        self.state.record_late_batch(num_rows);
+    }
+}
+
+/// How many of `batch`'s rows belong to fragments the segment still owns.
+fn num_rows_in_segment(batch: &RecordBatch, seg_mask: &RowAddrMask) -> usize {
+    batch[ROW_ID]
+        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+        .values()
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|&&id| seg_mask.selected(id))
+        .count()
+}
+
+/// Drop the rows of `batch` whose fragment the segment no longer owns.
+///
+/// A segment's index file can still hold rows for fragments that were pruned from its
+/// `fragment_bitmap`, for example after an in-place column update. Once a newer delta
+/// owns such a fragment, those rows must not reach the query, and they must not reach
+/// the shared search accounting either: a stale row that is counted and only dropped
+/// later can satisfy the `k` budget on its own, so the segment that owns the fresh
+/// copy stops probing and the query returns fewer than `k` current rows.
+fn restrict_to_segment(
+    batch: RecordBatch,
+    seg_mask: Option<&RowAddrMask>,
+) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+    let Some(seg_mask) = seg_mask else {
+        return Ok(batch);
+    };
+    if batch.num_rows() == 0 {
+        return Ok(batch);
+    }
+    let keep = BooleanArray::from_iter(
+        batch[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&id| Some(seg_mask.selected(id))),
+    );
+    if keep.false_count() == 0 {
+        return Ok(batch);
+    }
+    arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &keep)
+        .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+}
+
+fn effective_query_parallelism(
+    query: &Query,
+    index: &dyn VectorIndex,
+    target_partitions: usize,
+) -> usize {
+    let cpu_pool_size = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus()
+        .min(target_partitions)
+        .max(1);
+    effective_query_parallelism_for(
+        query,
+        cpu_pool_size,
+        index.auto_query_parallelism(cpu_pool_size),
+    )
+}
+
+fn effective_query_parallelism_for(
+    query: &Query,
+    cpu_pool_size: usize,
+    auto_parallelism: usize,
+) -> usize {
+    let cpu_pool_size = cpu_pool_size.max(1);
+    match query.query_parallelism {
+        -1 => cpu_pool_size,
+        0 => auto_parallelism.clamp(1, cpu_pool_size),
+        n if n > 0 => (n as usize).min(cpu_pool_size).max(1),
+        _ => 1,
+    }
+}
+
 impl ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
+    async fn search_partition(
+        index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
+        query: Query,
+        part_id: usize,
+        pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        metrics: Arc<AnnIndexMetrics>,
+        seg_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+        let batch = index
+            .search_in_partition(part_id, &query, pre_filter, &metrics.index_metrics)
+            .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to calculate KNN: {}", e)))
+            .await?;
+        let batch = restrict_to_segment(batch, seg_mask.as_deref())?;
+        metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(batch.num_rows());
+        Ok(batch)
+    }
+
+    fn instrument_sequential_partition_stream(
+        stream: stream::BoxStream<'static, DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>,
+        metrics: Arc<AnnIndexMetrics>,
+        state: Arc<ANNIvfEarlySearchResults>,
+        record_initial: bool,
+        record_partition_per_batch: bool,
+        seg_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    ) -> stream::BoxStream<'static, DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> {
+        stream
+            .map(move |batch| {
+                let batch = restrict_to_segment(batch?, seg_mask.as_deref())?;
+                if record_partition_per_batch {
+                    metrics.partitions_searched.add(1);
+                }
+                metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(batch.num_rows());
+                if record_initial {
+                    state.record_batch(&batch);
+                }
+                Ok(batch)
+            })
+            .boxed()
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     fn late_search(
         index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
         query: Query,
         partitions: Arc<UInt32Array>,
         q_c_dists: Arc<Float32Array>,
-        prefilter: Arc<DatasetPreFilter>,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+        global_prefilter: Arc<DatasetPreFilter>,
         metrics: Arc<AnnIndexMetrics>,
         state: Arc<ANNIvfEarlySearchResults>,
+        target_partitions: usize,
+        seg_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
     ) -> impl Stream<Item = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> {
         let stream = futures::stream::once(async move {
             let max_nprobes = query
@@ -743,59 +1955,80 @@ impl ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
                 .unwrap_or(partitions.len())
                 .min(partitions.len());
             let min_nprobes = query.minimum_nprobes.min(max_nprobes);
+
+            // Every delta must reach the barrier, even if it has no partitions left
+            // to search, so that siblings waiting for the initial search can proceed.
+            let found_so_far = state.wait_for_minimum_to_finish().await;
             if max_nprobes <= min_nprobes {
                 // We've already searched all partitions, no late search needed
                 return futures::stream::empty().boxed();
             }
 
-            let found_so_far = state.wait_for_minimum_to_finish().await;
             if found_so_far >= query.k {
                 // We found enough results, no need for late search
                 return futures::stream::empty().boxed();
             }
 
+            if seg_mask
+                .as_ref()
+                .is_some_and(|mask| mask.max_len() == Some(0))
+            {
+                // Every fragment this segment used to own now belongs to a newer delta,
+                // so probing it can neither produce a row nor move the shared budget that
+                // stops the late search. Skip it instead of scanning to maximum_nprobes.
+                return futures::stream::empty().boxed();
+            }
+
             // We know the prefilter should be ready at this point so we shouldn't
             // need to call wait_for_ready
-            let prefilter_mask = prefilter.mask();
+            let prefilter_mask = global_prefilter.mask();
 
             let max_results = prefilter_mask.max_len().map(|x| x as usize);
 
-            if let Some(max_results) = max_results {
-                if found_so_far < max_results && max_results <= query.k {
-                    // In this case there are fewer than k results matching the prefilter so
-                    // just return the prefilter ids and don't bother searching any further
-
-                    // This next if check should be true, because we wouldn't get max_results otherwise
-                    if let Some(iter_addrs) = prefilter_mask.iter_addrs() {
-                        // We only run this on the first delta because the prefilter mask is shared
-                        // by all deltas and we don't want to duplicate the rows.
-                        if state
+            if let Some(max_results) = max_results
+                && found_so_far < max_results
+                && max_results <= query.k
+            {
+                // In this case there are fewer than k results matching the prefilter so
+                // just return the prefilter ids and don't bother searching any further
+
+                // This next if check should be true, because we wouldn't get max_results otherwise
+                if let Some(iter_addrs) = prefilter_mask.iter_addrs() {
+                    // Emit the prefilter rows that the partition search did not reach.
+                    //
+                    // The prefilter mask is shared by all deltas. When a per-segment
+                    // restriction is in effect (`seg_mask` is `Some`) each delta emits only
+                    // the addresses its own segment owns; the segments partition the
+                    // fragments, so each address is emitted by exactly one delta. Without a
+                    // restriction the mask is global, so only the first delta emits (guarded
+                    // by a shared flag) to avoid duplicating rows across deltas.
+                    let should_emit = seg_mask.is_some()
+                        || state
                             .took_no_rows_shortcut
                             .compare_exchange(false, true, Ordering::Relaxed, Ordering::Relaxed)
-                            .is_ok()
-                        {
-                            let initial_addrs = state.initial_ids.lock().unwrap();
-                            let found_addrs =
-                                HashSet::<_>::from_iter(initial_addrs.iter().copied());
-                            drop(initial_addrs);
-                            let mask_addrs = HashSet::from_iter(iter_addrs.map(u64::from));
-                            let not_found_addrs = mask_addrs.difference(&found_addrs);
-                            let not_found_addrs =
-                                UInt64Array::from_iter_values(not_found_addrs.copied());
-                            let not_found_distance =
-                                Float32Array::from_value(f32::INFINITY, not_found_addrs.len());
-                            let not_found_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
-                                KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone(),
-                                vec![Arc::new(not_found_distance), Arc::new(not_found_addrs)],
-                            )
-                            .unwrap();
-                            return futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(not_found_batch) })
-                                .boxed();
-                        } else {
-                            // We meet all the criteria for an early exit, but we aren't first
-                            // delta so we just return an empty stream and skip the late search
-                            return futures::stream::empty().boxed();
-                        }
+                            .is_ok();
+                    if should_emit {
+                        let initial_addrs = state.initial_ids.lock().unwrap();
+                        let found_addrs = HashSet::<_>::from_iter(initial_addrs.iter().copied());
+                        drop(initial_addrs);
+                        let not_found_addrs = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(
+                            iter_addrs.map(u64::from).filter(|addr| {
+                                !found_addrs.contains(addr)
+                                    && seg_mask.as_ref().is_none_or(|m| m.selected(*addr))
+                            }),
+                        );
+                        let not_found_distance =
+                            Float32Array::from_value(f32::INFINITY, not_found_addrs.len());
+                        let not_found_batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                            KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                            vec![Arc::new(not_found_distance), Arc::new(not_found_addrs)],
+                        )
+                        .unwrap();
+                        return futures::stream::once(async move { Ok(not_found_batch) }).boxed();
+                    } else {
+                        // We meet all the criteria for an early exit, but we aren't the first
+                        // delta and the mask is global, so skip to avoid duplicate rows.
+                        return futures::stream::empty().boxed();
                     }
                 }
             }
@@ -806,6 +2039,47 @@ impl ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
 
             let state_clone = state.clone();
 
+            let query_parallelism =
+                effective_query_parallelism(&query, index.as_ref(), target_partitions);
+            if query_parallelism <= 1 {
+                return stream::once(async move {
+                    let prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter> = prefilter;
+                    let index_metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector> =
+                        Arc::new(metrics.index_metrics.clone());
+                    let stream = index
+                        .search_partitions(
+                            query,
+                            partitions,
+                            q_c_dists,
+                            min_nprobes,
+                            max_nprobes,
+                            prefilter,
+                            Some(Arc::new(LatePartitionSearchControl {
+                                state: state.clone(),
+                                max_results,
+                                seg_mask: seg_mask.clone(),
+                            })),
+                            index_metrics,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to search partitions: {e}"))
+                        })?;
+                    Ok::<stream::BoxStream<'static, DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>, DataFusionError>(
+                        Self::instrument_sequential_partition_stream(
+                            stream.boxed(),
+                            metrics,
+                            state,
+                            false,
+                            true,
+                            seg_mask,
+                        ),
+                    )
+                })
+                .try_flatten()
+                .boxed();
+            }
+
             futures::stream::iter(min_nprobes..max_nprobes)
                 .map(move |idx| {
                     let part_id = partitions.value(idx);
@@ -815,29 +2089,18 @@ impl ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
                     let pre_filter = prefilter.clone();
                     let state = state.clone();
                     let index = index.clone();
+                    let seg_mask = seg_mask.clone();
                     async move {
-                        let mut query = query.clone();
-                        if index.metric_type() == DistanceType::Cosine {
-                            let key = normalize_arrow(&query.key)?.0;
-                            query.key = key;
-                        };
-
                         metrics.partitions_searched.add(1);
-                        let batch = index
-                            .search_in_partition(
-                                part_id as usize,
-                                &query,
-                                pre_filter,
-                                &metrics.index_metrics,
-                            )
-                            .map_err(|e| {
-                                DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
-                                    "Failed to calculate KNN: {}",
-                                    e
-                                ))
-                            })
-                            .await?;
-                        metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(batch.num_rows());
+                        let batch = Self::search_partition(
+                            index,
+                            query,
+                            part_id as usize,
+                            pre_filter,
+                            metrics,
+                            seg_mask,
+                        )
+                        .await?;
                         state.record_late_batch(batch.num_rows());
                         Ok(batch)
                     }
@@ -846,24 +2109,65 @@ impl ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
                     let found_so_far = state_clone.num_results_found.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
                     std::future::ready(found_so_far < max_results)
                 })
-                .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+                .buffered(query_parallelism)
                 .boxed()
         });
         stream.flatten()
     }
 
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
     fn initial_search(
         index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
         query: Query,
         partitions: Arc<UInt32Array>,
         q_c_dists: Arc<Float32Array>,
-        prefilter: Arc<DatasetPreFilter>,
+        prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
         metrics: Arc<AnnIndexMetrics>,
         state: Arc<ANNIvfEarlySearchResults>,
+        target_partitions: usize,
+        seg_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
     ) -> impl Stream<Item = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> {
         let minimum_nprobes = query.minimum_nprobes.min(partitions.len());
-        metrics.partitions_searched.add(minimum_nprobes);
 
+        let query_parallelism =
+            effective_query_parallelism(&query, index.as_ref(), target_partitions);
+        if query_parallelism <= 1 {
+            metrics.partitions_searched.add(minimum_nprobes);
+            return stream::once(async move {
+                let prefilter: Arc<dyn PreFilter> = prefilter;
+                let index_metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector> =
+                    Arc::new(metrics.index_metrics.clone());
+                let stream = index
+                    .search_partitions(
+                        query,
+                        partitions,
+                        q_c_dists,
+                        0,
+                        minimum_nprobes,
+                        prefilter,
+                        None,
+                        index_metrics,
+                    )
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|e| {
+                        DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to search partitions: {e}"))
+                    })?;
+                Ok::<stream::BoxStream<'static, DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>, DataFusionError>(
+                    Self::instrument_sequential_partition_stream(
+                        stream.boxed(),
+                        metrics,
+                        state,
+                        true,
+                        false,
+                        seg_mask,
+                    ),
+                )
+            })
+            .try_flatten()
+            .boxed();
+        }
+
+        metrics.partitions_searched.add(minimum_nprobes);
         futures::stream::iter(0..minimum_nprobes)
             .map(move |idx| {
                 let part_id = partitions.value(idx);
@@ -873,30 +2177,23 @@ impl ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
                 let index = index.clone();
                 let pre_filter = prefilter.clone();
                 let state = state.clone();
+                let seg_mask = seg_mask.clone();
                 async move {
-                    let mut query = query.clone();
-                    if index.metric_type() == DistanceType::Cosine {
-                        let key = normalize_arrow(&query.key)?.0;
-                        query.key = key;
-                    };
-
-                    let batch = index
-                        .search_in_partition(
-                            part_id as usize,
-                            &query,
-                            pre_filter,
-                            &metrics.index_metrics,
-                        )
-                        .map_err(|e| {
-                            DataFusionError::Execution(format!("Failed to calculate KNN: {}", e))
-                        })
-                        .await?;
-                    metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(batch.num_rows());
+                    let batch = Self::search_partition(
+                        index,
+                        query,
+                        part_id as usize,
+                        pre_filter,
+                        metrics,
+                        seg_mask,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
                     state.record_batch(&batch);
                     Ok(batch)
                 }
             })
-            .buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .buffered(query_parallelism)
+            .boxed()
     }
 }
 
@@ -905,10 +2202,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
         "ANNSubIndexExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef {
         KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone()
     }
@@ -955,6 +2248,8 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
                 indices: self.indices.clone(),
                 query: self.query.clone(),
                 prefilter_source,
+                overlay_block: self.overlay_block.clone(),
+                external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
                 properties: self.properties.clone(),
                 metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
             }
@@ -973,10 +2268,25 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
     ) -> DataFusionResult<datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         let input_stream = self.input.execute(partition, context.clone())?;
         let schema = self.schema();
+        let target_partitions = context.session_config().target_partitions();
         let query = self.query.clone();
         let ds = self.dataset.clone();
         let column = self.query.column.clone();
         let indices = self.indices.clone();
+        // Per-segment fragment restriction, applied to every partition result before
+        // the shared search accounting sees it. Only enabled when every segment has a
+        // fragment_bitmap, mirroring the `all_have_bitmaps` gate in
+        // DatasetPreFilter::new so we never restrict more aggressively than the
+        // shared prefilter's fallback.
+        let segment_bitmaps: Arc<HashMap<Uuid, RoaringBitmap>> =
+            Arc::new(if indices.iter().all(|idx| idx.fragment_bitmap.is_some()) {
+                indices
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|idx| (idx.uuid, idx.fragment_bitmap.clone().unwrap()))
+                    .collect()
+            } else {
+                HashMap::new()
+            });
         let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.clone();
         let metrics = Arc::new(AnnIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
         let metrics_clone = metrics.clone();
@@ -1011,30 +2321,36 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
                             Arc::new(part_id.unwrap().as_primitive::<UInt32Type>().clone());
                         let dist_q_c =
                             Arc::new(dist_q_c.unwrap().as_primitive::<Float32Type>().clone());
-                        let uuid = uuid.unwrap().to_string();
+                        let uuid = Uuid::parse_str(uuid.unwrap()).map_err(|e| {
+                            DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                                "Invalid UUID in __index_uuid column: {e}"
+                            ))
+                        })?;
                         Ok((partitions, dist_q_c, uuid))
                     })
                     .collect_vec();
                 async move { DataFusionResult::Ok(stream::iter(plan)) }
             })
             .try_flatten();
-        let prefilter_loader = match &prefilter_source {
-            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(src_node) => {
-                let stream = src_node.execute(partition, context)?;
-                Some(Box::new(FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter(stream)) as Box<dyn FilterLoader>)
-            }
-            PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(src_node) => {
-                let stream = src_node.execute(partition, context)?;
-                Some(Box::new(SelectionVectorToPrefilter(stream)) as Box<dyn FilterLoader>)
-            }
-            PreFilterSource::None => None,
-        };
-
-        let pre_filter = Arc::new(DatasetPreFilter::new(
+        let pre_filter = build_dataset_prefilter(
             ds.clone(),
             &indices,
-            prefilter_loader,
-        ));
+            &prefilter_source,
+            partition,
+            context,
+            PreFilterMasks {
+                overlay_block: self.overlay_block.clone(),
+                external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+            },
+            &self.metrics,
+        )?;
+        let indices_by_uuid = Arc::new(
+            indices
+                .iter()
+                .cloned()
+                .map(|index| (index.uuid, index))
+                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+        );
 
         let state = Arc::new(ANNIvfEarlySearchResults::new(indices.len(), query.k));
 
@@ -1046,32 +2362,75 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
                     let column = column.clone();
                     let metrics = metrics.clone();
                     let pre_filter = pre_filter.clone();
+                    let indices_by_uuid = indices_by_uuid.clone();
                     let state = state.clone();
+                    let segment_bitmaps = segment_bitmaps.clone();
                     let mut query = query.clone();
-                    let pruned_nprobes = early_pruning(q_c_dists.values(), query.k);
-                    adjust_probes(&mut query, pruned_nprobes);
                     async move {
-                        let raw_index = ds
-                            .open_vector_index(&column, &index_uuid, &metrics.index_metrics)
-                            .await?;
+                        let index_metadata = indices_by_uuid.get(&index_uuid).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                                "ANNSubIndexExec: input referenced unknown index segment {index_uuid}"
+                            ))
+                        })?;
+                        let segment_pre_filter = prefilter_for_segment(
+                            ds.clone(),
+                            index_metadata,
+                            pre_filter.clone(),
+                        )
+                        .await?;
+                        let raw_index = {
+                            let _open_timer = IndexTimer::new(&metrics.index_metrics, IndexTiming::IndexOpen);
+                            ds.open_vector_index(&column, &index_uuid, &metrics.index_metrics).await?
+                        };
+                        query = normalize_query_for_index(raw_index.as_ref(), query)?;
+                        let (vector_type, _) = crate::index::vector::utils::get_vector_type(ds.schema(), &column)?;
+                        let policy = AutoProbePolicy::from_env(&query, raw_index.as_ref(), &vector_type)?;
+                        policy.apply(&mut query, q_c_dists.values(), raw_index.metric_type());
+
+                        // A segment's index file may still physically contain rows for
+                        // fragments that were pruned from its fragment_bitmap (e.g. after an
+                        // in-place column update via update_columns). Once a newer delta
+                        // segment owns such a fragment, the stale rows in this segment must
+                        // not be returned, otherwise the same row is emitted by two segments.
+                        // Build a per-segment restriction mask, reusing the scheme-aware
+                        // helper so it is correct for both row-address and stable-row-id
+                        // datasets. The shared prefilter is built from the union of all
+                        // segment bitmaps and cannot express this per-segment rule.
+                        let seg_mask = match segment_bitmaps.get(&index_uuid).cloned() {
+                            Some(bitmap) => {
+                                match DatasetPreFilter::create_restricted_deletion_mask(
+                                    ds.clone(),
+                                    bitmap,
+                                ) {
+                                    Some(fut) => Some(fut.await?),
+                                    None => None,
+                                }
+                            }
+                            None => None,
+                        };
 
                         let early_search = Self::initial_search(
                             raw_index.clone(),
                             query.clone(),
                             part_ids.clone(),
                             q_c_dists.clone(),
-                            pre_filter.clone(),
+                            segment_pre_filter.clone(),
                             metrics.clone(),
                             state.clone(),
+                            target_partitions,
+                            seg_mask.clone(),
                         );
                         let late_search = Self::late_search(
                             raw_index.clone(),
                             query,
                             part_ids,
                             q_c_dists,
+                            segment_pre_filter,
                             pre_filter,
                             metrics,
                             state,
+                            target_partitions,
+                            seg_mask,
                         );
                         DataFusionResult::Ok(early_search.chain(late_search).boxed())
                     }
@@ -1081,6 +2440,9 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
                 // will not start until the early search is complete across all deltas.
                 .try_flatten_unordered(None)
                 .finally(move || {
+                    // Publish the exact index-file I/O measured for this query
+                    // (cache misses only) to the iops/requests/bytes_read gauges.
+                    metrics_clone.index_metrics.flush_io();
                     metrics_clone
                         .baseline_metrics
                         .elapsed_compute()
@@ -1094,8 +2456,8 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
     fn partition_statistics(
         &self,
         partition: Option<usize>,
-    ) -> DataFusionResult<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics {
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
             num_rows: Precision::Exact(
                 self.query.k
                     * self.query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize
@@ -1107,14 +2469,14 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
                         .unwrap_or(&1),
             ),
             ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
-        })
+        }))
     }
 
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -1123,46 +2485,412 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfSubIndexExec {
     }
 }
 
-fn adjust_probes(query: &mut Query, pruned_nprobes: usize) {
-    query.minimum_nprobes = query.minimum_nprobes.max(pruned_nprobes);
-    if let Some(maximum) = query.maximum_nprobes {
-        if query.minimum_nprobes > maximum {
-            query.minimum_nprobes = maximum;
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-fn early_pruning(dists: &[f32], k: usize) -> usize {
-    if dists.is_empty() {
-        return 0;
-    }
-
-    const PRUNING_FACTORS: [f32; 3] = [0.6, 7.0, 81.0];
-    let factor = match k {
-        ..=1 => PRUNING_FACTORS[0],
-        2..=10 => PRUNING_FACTORS[1],
-        11.. => PRUNING_FACTORS[2],
-    };
-    let dist_threshold = dists[0] * factor;
-    dists.partition_point(|dist| *dist <= dist_threshold)
+/// Build a batch (multi-query) indexed vector search plan.
+///
+/// `query.key` must hold all `query_count` query vectors concatenated.
+pub fn new_knn_batch_exec(
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    indices: &[IndexMetadata],
+    query: &Query,
+    query_count: usize,
+    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    Ok(Arc::new(ANNIvfBatchExec::try_new(
+        dataset,
+        indices.to_vec(),
+        query.clone(),
+        query_count,
+        prefilter_source,
+    )?))
 }
 
+/// [ExecutionPlan] for batch (multi-query) IVF vector search.
+///
+/// Where the single-query path uses [`ANNIvfPartitionExec`] +
+/// [`ANNIvfSubIndexExec`], this node ranks every query vector against the IVF
+/// centroids and then asks the index to read each probed partition's storage
+/// once, scoring all queries that probe it
+/// (via [`VectorIndex::search_partitions_batch`]). The prefilter is built once
+/// and shared across all queries.
+///
+/// This is a separate node rather than a mode on the two single-query nodes
+/// because the two-node pipeline streams one partition-list per delta through a
+/// per-query top-k, whereas the shared scan must invert queries onto partitions
+/// and keep one heap per query in a single pass. It still reuses the underlying
+/// primitives (partition load, prefilter wiring via `build_dataset_prefilter`,
+/// and the per-partition accumulate the index performs).
+///
+/// Output schema: `{query_index: Int32, _distance: Float32, _rowid: UInt64}`,
+/// sorted by `(query_index, _distance, _rowid)`, with up to `k` rows per query.
+///
+/// Per-query nprobes are honored statically from the ranking; the adaptive
+/// late-search expansion used by the single-query path is not applied, so recall
+/// matches repeated single-query search when `minimum_nprobes == maximum_nprobes`.
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct MultivectorScoringExec {
-    // the inputs are sorted ANN search results
-    inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+pub struct ANNIvfBatchExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+    /// Vector query whose `key` holds all `query_count` vectors concatenated.
     query: Query,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
-}
+    query_count: usize,
+    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl ANNIvfBatchExec {
+    pub fn try_new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        indices: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        query: Query,
+        query_count: usize,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::index(
+                "ANNIvfBatchExec: no index found for query".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if query_count == 0 || !query.key.len().is_multiple_of(query_count) {
+            return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                "ANNIvfBatchExec: query key length {} is not divisible by query count {query_count}",
+                query.key.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(knn_empty_result_schema(true)),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        Ok(Self {
+            dataset,
+            indices,
+            query,
+            query_count,
+            prefilter_source,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the vector query. Its `key` holds all
+    /// [`Self::query_count`] vectors concatenated.
+    pub fn query(&self) -> &Query {
+        &self.query
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the number of query vectors packed into [`Self::query`].
+    pub fn query_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.query_count
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the dataset.
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the index metadata.
+    pub fn indices(&self) -> &[IndexMetadata] {
+        &self.indices
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the prefilter source.
+    pub fn prefilter_source(&self) -> &PreFilterSource {
+        &self.prefilter_source
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for ANNIvfBatchExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "ANNIvfBatch: query_count={}, k={}, deltas={}",
+                    self.query_count,
+                    self.query.k,
+                    self.indices.len()
+                )
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "ANNIvfBatch\nquery_count={}\nk={}\ndeltas={}",
+                    self.query_count,
+                    self.query.k,
+                    self.indices.len()
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for ANNIvfBatchExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "ANNIvfBatchExec"
+    }
+
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        knn_empty_result_schema(true)
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match &self.prefilter_source {
+            PreFilterSource::None => vec![],
+            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(src) => vec![src],
+            PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(src) => vec![src],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        self.children()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let prefilter_source = match (&self.prefilter_source, children.len()) {
+            (PreFilterSource::None, 0) => PreFilterSource::None,
+            (PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(_), 1) => {
+                PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(children.pop().expect("length checked"))
+            }
+            (PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(_), 1) => {
+                PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(children.pop().expect("length checked"))
+            }
+            _ => {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                    "ANNIvfBatchExec given an unexpected number of children".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            indices: self.indices.clone(),
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            query_count: self.query_count,
+            prefilter_source,
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::context::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let schema = self.schema();
+        let ds = self.dataset.clone();
+        let column = self.query.column.clone();
+        let indices = self.indices.clone();
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let query_count = self.query_count;
+        let metrics = Arc::new(AnnIndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let metrics_clone = metrics.clone();
+        let timer = Instant::now();
+
+        let pre_filter = build_dataset_prefilter(
+            ds.clone(),
+            &indices,
+            &self.prefilter_source,
+            partition,
+            context,
+            // Batch queries have no overlay or external row-address mask.
+            PreFilterMasks {
+                overlay_block: None,
+                external_mask: None,
+            },
+            &self.metrics,
+        )?;
+
+        let result_schema = schema.clone();
+        let fut = async move {
+            let dim = query.key.len() / query_count;
+            // Per-query candidate (distance, row_id) pairs accumulated across deltas.
+            let mut candidates: Vec<Vec<(f32, u64)>> = vec![Vec::new(); query_count];
+
+            for index_meta in &indices {
+                let index = {
+                    let _open_timer =
+                        IndexTimer::new(&metrics.index_metrics, IndexTiming::IndexOpen);
+                    ds.open_vector_index(&column, &index_meta.uuid, &metrics.index_metrics)
+                        .await?
+                };
+                // The scanner's `batch_index_search_supported` gate decides which
+                // indices reach this node; this check only guards against that
+                // gate and the index implementation disagreeing (an internal
+                // invariant, not a user-facing error).
+                if !index.supports_batch_partition_search() {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                        "ANNIvfBatchExec reached for index {} that does not support batch \
+                         partition search",
+                        index_meta.uuid
+                    )));
+                }
+                // Normalize each query vector independently (cosine only)
+                // before ranking; see normalize_batch_query_for_index.
+                let normalized = normalize_batch_query_for_index(
+                    index.as_ref(),
+                    query.clone(),
+                    query_count,
+                    dim,
+                )?;
+
+                // Rank every query vector against the IVF centroids on the CPU
+                // runtime rather than inside this async future: the ranking is
+                // pure CPU and the batch width multiplies it, so a wide batch
+                // over a large centroid set could otherwise monopolize a Tokio
+                // worker. See `find_partitions_batch_on_cpu`.
+                let (partitions_per_query, dists_per_query) = find_partitions_batch_on_cpu(
+                    index.clone(),
+                    normalized.clone(),
+                    query_count,
+                    dim,
+                )
+                .await?;
+
+                // Record the partitions this delta actually reads. The batch
+                // node loads each probed partition once and scores every query
+                // that probes it, so the honest "partitions searched" count is
+                // the union across queries -- the shared I/O this node exists to
+                // save -- not the per-query sum. Mirrors the single-query
+                // ANNIvfSubIndexExec, which also records PARTITIONS_SEARCHED.
+                let distinct_partitions: RoaringBitmap = partitions_per_query
+                    .iter()
+                    .flat_map(|parts| parts.values().iter().copied())
+                    .collect();
+                metrics
+                    .partitions_searched
+                    .add(distinct_partitions.len() as usize);
+
+                let index_metrics: Arc<dyn MetricsCollector> =
+                    Arc::new(metrics.index_metrics.clone());
+                let pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter> = pre_filter.clone();
+                let per_query = index
+                    .search_partitions_batch(
+                        normalized,
+                        partitions_per_query,
+                        dists_per_query,
+                        pre_filter,
+                        index_metrics,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+
+                // `search_partitions_batch` must return exactly one result batch
+                // per input query, in order, so `query_index` lines up with the
+                // `candidates` slot below. A mismatch means the index disagreed
+                // with the per-query fan-out and would otherwise silently drop or
+                // misattribute results (or panic on out-of-bounds indexing).
+                if per_query.len() != query_count {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                        "batch partition search returned {} result batches for {} queries",
+                        per_query.len(),
+                        query_count
+                    )));
+                }
+                for (query_index, batch) in per_query.into_iter().enumerate() {
+                    // Access by name rather than position: the result schema is
+                    // `VECTOR_RESULT_SCHEMA` (`_distance`, `_rowid`), and looking
+                    // up by name keeps this correct if that column order changes.
+                    let dists = batch
+                        .column_by_name(DIST_COL)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                                "batch partition search result missing '{DIST_COL}' column"
+                            ))
+                        })?
+                        .as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+                    let row_ids = batch
+                        .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                                "batch partition search result missing '{ROW_ID}' column"
+                            ))
+                        })?
+                        .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+                    candidates[query_index].extend(
+                        dists
+                            .values()
+                            .iter()
+                            .copied()
+                            .zip(row_ids.values().iter().copied()),
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Per-query top-k merge across deltas, tagged with query_index.
+            let mut query_index_builder = Int32Builder::new();
+            let mut distance_builder = Float32Builder::new();
+            let mut row_id_builder = UInt64Builder::new();
+            for (query_index, cands) in candidates.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                cands.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.total_cmp(&b.0).then_with(|| a.1.cmp(&b.1)));
+                cands.truncate(query.k);
+                for (distance, row_id) in cands.iter() {
+                    query_index_builder.append_value(query_index as i32);
+                    distance_builder.append_value(*distance);
+                    row_id_builder.append_value(*row_id);
+                }
+            }
+            let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+                result_schema,
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(query_index_builder.finish()),
+                    Arc::new(distance_builder.finish()),
+                    Arc::new(row_id_builder.finish()),
+                ],
+            )?;
+            metrics.baseline_metrics.record_output(batch.num_rows());
+            DataFusionResult::Ok(batch)
+        };
+
+        let stream = stream::once(fut).finally(move || {
+            metrics_clone.index_metrics.flush_io();
+            metrics_clone
+                .baseline_metrics
+                .elapsed_compute()
+                .add_duration(timer.elapsed());
+            metrics_clone.baseline_metrics.done();
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream.boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct MultivectorScoringExec {
+    // the inputs are sorted ANN search results
+    inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    query: Query,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
 
 impl MultivectorScoringExec {
     pub fn try_new(inputs: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>, query: Query) -> Result<Self> {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone()),
             Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
             EmissionType::Final,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
         Ok(Self {
             inputs,
@@ -1190,10 +2918,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MultivectorScoringExec {
         "MultivectorScoringExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef {
         KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone()
     }
@@ -1328,16 +3052,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MultivectorScoringExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> DataFusionResult<Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics {
-            num_rows: Precision::Inexact(
-                self.query.k * self.query.refine_factor.unwrap_or(1) as usize,
-            ),
-            ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
-        })
-    }
-
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -1348,77 +3063,1260 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MultivectorScoringExec {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use super::adaptive_probe::AutoProbeConfig;
     use super::*;
 
-    use arrow::compute::{concat_batches, sort_to_indices, take_record_batch};
-    use arrow::datatypes::Float32Type;
-    use arrow_array::{
-        ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
-    };
-    use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_datafusion::exec::{ExecutionStatsCallback, ExecutionSummaryCounts};
-    use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
-    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
-    use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
-    use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
-    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
-    use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
-    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::any::Any;
+
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use arrow::compute::{concat_batches, sort_to_indices, take_record_batch};
+    use arrow::datatypes::Float32Type;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator,
+        RecordBatchReader, StringArray, StructArray,
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use datafusion::error::Result as DataFusionResult;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+    use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datafusion::exec::{ExecutionStatsCallback, ExecutionSummaryCounts};
+    use lance_datafusion::utils::FIND_PARTITIONS_ELAPSED_METRIC;
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+    use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+    use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+    use lance_index::vector::quantizer::QuantizationType;
+    use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::SubIndexType;
+    use lance_index::vector::{DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM, PreparedPartitionSearchHandle};
+    use lance_index::{Index, IndexType};
+    use lance_io::traits::Reader;
+    use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+    use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use tokio::sync::mpsc;
+    use tokio_stream::wrappers::ReceiverStream;
+
+    use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+    use crate::index::vector::ivf::v2::STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE;
+    use crate::io::exec::testing::TestingExec;
+
+    fn base_query() -> Query {
+        Query {
+            column: "vec".to_string(),
+            key: Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32])) as ArrayRef,
+            k: 10,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            minimum_nprobes: 1,
+            maximum_nprobes: None,
+            ef: None,
+            refine_factor: None,
+            metric_type: Some(DistanceType::L2),
+            use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: Default::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_effective_query_parallelism_clamps_to_cpu_pool() {
+        let mut query = base_query();
+
+        query.query_parallelism = -1;
+        assert_eq!(effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, 16, 1), 16);
+
+        query.query_parallelism = 0;
+        assert_eq!(effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, 16, 1), 1);
+        assert_eq!(effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, 16, 8), 8);
+        assert_eq!(effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, 16, 128), 16);
+
+        query.query_parallelism = 1;
+        assert_eq!(effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, 16, 8), 1);
+
+        query.query_parallelism = 4;
+        assert_eq!(effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, 16, 1), 4);
+
+        query.query_parallelism = 128;
+        assert_eq!(effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, 16, 1), 16);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_effective_query_parallelism_respects_target_partitions() {
+        // effective_query_parallelism caps cpu_pool_size at target_partitions before
+        // passing it to effective_query_parallelism_for, so the ceiling is
+        // min(cpu_pool_size, target_partitions).
+        let mut query = base_query();
+        let cpu_pool_size = 16;
+
+        // use-all-cpus mode: capped at target_partitions
+        query.query_parallelism = -1;
+        assert_eq!(
+            effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, cpu_pool_size.min(4), 1),
+            4
+        );
+
+        // auto mode: auto_parallelism also clamped to the reduced cpu_pool_size
+        query.query_parallelism = 0;
+        assert_eq!(
+            effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, cpu_pool_size.min(4), 8),
+            4
+        );
+
+        // explicit parallelism > target_partitions: clamped down
+        query.query_parallelism = 16;
+        assert_eq!(
+            effective_query_parallelism_for(&query, cpu_pool_size.min(4), 1),
+            4
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+    struct ThreadCapturingIndex {
+        thread_name: Arc<Mutex<Option<String>>>,
+        row_ids: Vec<u64>,
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+    enum PreparedIndexKind {
+        Flat,
+        Product,
+        Hnsw,
+        Legacy,
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, DeepSizeOf)]
+    struct PreparedThreadCapturingIndex {
+        metric: DistanceType,
+        kind: PreparedIndexKind,
+        prepared_partitions: Arc<Mutex<Vec<usize>>>,
+        searched_partitions: Arc<Mutex<Vec<usize>>>,
+        search_threads: Arc<Mutex<Vec<String>>>,
+        /// The rows each partition returns, indexed by partition id.
+        row_ids: Vec<Vec<u64>>,
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl Index for ThreadCapturingIndex {
+        fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+            self
+        }
+
+        fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index> {
+            self
+        }
+
+        fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+            Ok(serde_json::json!({}))
+        }
+
+        async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
+            IndexType::Vector
+        }
+
+        async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+            Ok(RoaringBitmap::new())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl VectorIndex for ThreadCapturingIndex {
+        async fn search(
+            &self,
+            _query: &Query,
+            _pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+            _metrics: &dyn lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn find_partitions(&self, _query: &Query) -> Result<(UInt32Array, Float32Array)> {
+            let thread_name = std::thread::current()
+                .name()
+                .unwrap_or("unknown")
+                .to_string();
+            *self.thread_name.lock().unwrap() = Some(thread_name);
+            Ok((UInt32Array::from(vec![0]), Float32Array::from(vec![0.0])))
+        }
+
+        fn total_partitions(&self) -> usize {
+            1
+        }
+
+        async fn search_in_partition(
+            &self,
+            _partition_id: usize,
+            _query: &Query,
+            _pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+            _metrics: &dyn lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn is_loadable(&self) -> bool {
+            false
+        }
+
+        fn use_residual(&self) -> bool {
+            false
+        }
+
+        async fn load(
+            &self,
+            _reader: Arc<dyn Reader>,
+            _offset: usize,
+            _length: usize,
+        ) -> Result<Box<dyn VectorIndex>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+            0
+        }
+
+        fn row_ids(&self) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &'_ u64> + '_> {
+            Box::new(self.row_ids.iter())
+        }
+
+        async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn to_batch_stream(&self, _with_vector: bool) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn ivf_model(&self) -> &lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn quantizer(&self) -> lance_index::vector::quantizer::Quantizer {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn partition_size(&self, _part_id: usize) -> usize {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn sub_index_type(
+            &self,
+        ) -> (
+            lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::SubIndexType,
+            lance_index::vector::quantizer::QuantizationType,
+        ) {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn metric_type(&self) -> DistanceType {
+            DistanceType::L2
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl Index for PreparedThreadCapturingIndex {
+        fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
+            self
+        }
+
+        fn as_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Arc<dyn Index> {
+            self
+        }
+
+        fn statistics(&self) -> Result<serde_json::Value> {
+            Ok(serde_json::json!({}))
+        }
+
+        async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        fn index_type(&self) -> IndexType {
+            IndexType::Vector
+        }
+
+        async fn calculate_included_frags(&self) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
+            Ok(RoaringBitmap::new())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl VectorIndex for PreparedThreadCapturingIndex {
+        async fn search(
+            &self,
+            _query: &Query,
+            _pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+            _metrics: &dyn lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn find_partitions(&self, _query: &Query) -> Result<(UInt32Array, Float32Array)> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn total_partitions(&self) -> usize {
+            self.row_ids.len()
+        }
+
+        async fn search_in_partition(
+            &self,
+            partition_id: usize,
+            _query: &Query,
+            _pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+            _metrics: &dyn lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            // Only the parallel path reaches this. Tests that must stay on the sequential
+            // path assert that every partition went through prepare_partition_search,
+            // which this entry point never records.
+            self.search_prepared_partition(
+                Box::new(partition_id),
+                &lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+        }
+
+        async fn prepare_partition_search(
+            &self,
+            partition_id: usize,
+            _query: &Query,
+            _pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+            _metrics: &dyn lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector,
+        ) -> Result<PreparedPartitionSearchHandle> {
+            self.prepared_partitions.lock().unwrap().push(partition_id);
+            Ok(Box::new(partition_id))
+        }
+
+        fn search_prepared_partition(
+            &self,
+            prepared: PreparedPartitionSearchHandle,
+            _metrics: &dyn lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector,
+        ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+            let partition_id = *prepared.downcast::<usize>().unwrap();
+            self.searched_partitions.lock().unwrap().push(partition_id);
+            self.search_threads.lock().unwrap().push(
+                std::thread::current()
+                    .name()
+                    .unwrap_or("unknown")
+                    .to_string(),
+            );
+            let row_ids = &self.row_ids[partition_id];
+            // Distances stay distinct within a partition so a test can tell whether the
+            // distance column survived a filter aligned with its row ids.
+            let dists = (0..row_ids.len())
+                .map(|offset| partition_id as f32 + offset as f32 * 0.5)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+                KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(dists)),
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(row_ids.clone())),
+                ],
+            )?)
+        }
+
+        fn supports_prepared_partition_search(&self) -> bool {
+            !matches!(self.kind, PreparedIndexKind::Legacy)
+        }
+
+        #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+        async fn search_partitions(
+            self: Arc<Self>,
+            _query: Query,
+            partitions: Arc<UInt32Array>,
+            _q_c_dists: Arc<Float32Array>,
+            start_idx: usize,
+            end_idx: usize,
+            _pre_filter: Arc<dyn PreFilter>,
+            control: Option<Arc<dyn PartitionSearchControl>>,
+            _metrics: Arc<dyn lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector>,
+        ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+            let (batch_tx, batch_rx) = mpsc::channel(1);
+            let prepared_partition_ids = (start_idx..end_idx)
+                .map(|idx| partitions.value(idx) as usize)
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            self.prepared_partitions
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .extend(prepared_partition_ids.iter().copied());
+            // Mirror the production streaming path (v2.rs): search prepared partitions
+            // in batches of STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE, one `spawn_cpu` per batch, with
+            // the channel send in async code so no CPU-pool thread parks (#7642).
+            tokio::spawn(async move {
+                for chunk in prepared_partition_ids.chunks(*STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE) {
+                    if control
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .is_some_and(|control| control.should_stop())
+                        || batch_tx.is_closed()
+                    {
+                        return;
+                    }
+                    let chunk = chunk.to_vec();
+                    let index = self.clone();
+                    let control_for_search = control.clone();
+                    let cancel_probe = batch_tx.clone();
+                    let search_output = spawn_cpu(move || {
+                        let mut outputs: Vec<DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>> =
+                            Vec::with_capacity(chunk.len());
+                        let mut stopped = false;
+                        for partition_id in chunk {
+                            if control_for_search
+                                .as_ref()
+                                .is_some_and(|control| control.should_stop())
+                                || cancel_probe.is_closed()
+                            {
+                                stopped = true;
+                                break;
+                            }
+                            match index
+                                .search_prepared_partition(
+                                    Box::new(partition_id),
+                                    &lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+                                )
+                                .map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from)
+                            {
+                                Ok(batch) => {
+                                    if let Some(control) = control_for_search.as_ref() {
+                                        control.record_batch(&batch);
+                                    }
+                                    outputs.push(Ok(batch));
+                                }
+                                Err(err) => {
+                                    outputs.push(Err(err));
+                                    stopped = true;
+                                    break;
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                        Ok::<_, datafusion::error::DataFusionError>((outputs, stopped))
+                    })
+                    .await;
+
+                    let (outputs, stopped) = match search_output {
+                        Ok(output) => output,
+                        Err(err) => {
+                            let _ = batch_tx.send(Err(err)).await;
+                            return;
+                        }
+                    };
+                    for output in outputs {
+                        if batch_tx.send(output).await.is_err() {
+                            return;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if stopped {
+                        return;
+                    }
+                }
+            });
+
+            Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                ReceiverStream::new(batch_rx),
+            )))
+        }
+
+        fn is_loadable(&self) -> bool {
+            false
+        }
+
+        fn use_residual(&self) -> bool {
+            false
+        }
+
+        async fn load(
+            &self,
+            _reader: Arc<dyn Reader>,
+            _offset: usize,
+            _length: usize,
+        ) -> Result<Box<dyn VectorIndex>> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn num_rows(&self) -> u64 {
+            self.row_ids.iter().map(|ids| ids.len() as u64).sum()
+        }
+
+        fn row_ids(&self) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &'_ u64> + '_> {
+            Box::new(self.row_ids.iter().flatten())
+        }
+
+        async fn remap(&mut self, _mapping: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        async fn to_batch_stream(&self, _with_vector: bool) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn ivf_model(&self) -> &lance_index::vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn quantizer(&self) -> lance_index::vector::quantizer::Quantizer {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn partition_size(&self, _part_id: usize) -> usize {
+            unimplemented!()
+        }
+
+        fn sub_index_type(&self) -> (SubIndexType, QuantizationType) {
+            match self.kind {
+                PreparedIndexKind::Flat => (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat),
+                PreparedIndexKind::Product => (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Product),
+                PreparedIndexKind::Hnsw => (SubIndexType::Hnsw, QuantizationType::Flat),
+                PreparedIndexKind::Legacy => panic!("legacy sub-index metadata is unavailable"),
+            }
+        }
+
+        fn metric_type(&self) -> DistanceType {
+            self.metric
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn empty_prefilter() -> Arc<DatasetPreFilter> {
+        static NEXT_PREFILTER_DATASET_ID: AtomicUsize = AtomicUsize::new(0);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            "id",
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3]))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let uri = format!(
+            "memory://sequential-prefilter-{}",
+            NEXT_PREFILTER_DATASET_ID.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed)
+        );
+        let dataset = Arc::new(
+            Dataset::write(
+                RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)].into_iter(), schema),
+                &uri,
+                None,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let mut indexed_fragments = RoaringBitmap::new();
+        for fragment in dataset.manifest.fragments.iter() {
+            indexed_fragments.insert(fragment.id as u32);
+        }
+        let index = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "test".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: 1,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(indexed_fragments),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let prefilter = Arc::new(DatasetPreFilter::new(dataset, &[index], None));
+        prefilter.wait_for_ready().await.unwrap();
+        prefilter
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_append_only_deltas_keep_empty_prefilter_fast_path() {
+        let first = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(4)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        let first_schema = first.schema();
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(first, "memory://", None).await.unwrap();
+        let first_version = dataset.manifest.version;
+        let first_fragments = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone();
+        let field_id = dataset.schema().field("vector").unwrap().id;
+
+        let second = lance_datagen::gen_batch()
+            .col(
+                "vector",
+                array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(lance_datagen::Dimension::from(4)),
+            )
+            .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(20), BatchCount::from(1));
+        assert_eq!(second.schema(), first_schema);
+        dataset.append(second, None).await.unwrap();
+        let appended_fragments = dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref() - &first_fragments;
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        let old_segment = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "vector_idx".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: first_version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(first_fragments.clone()),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        let new_segment = IndexMetadata {
+            uuid: Uuid::new_v4(),
+            fields: vec![field_id],
+            covering_fields: vec![],
+            name: "vector_idx".to_string(),
+            dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+            fragment_bitmap: Some(appended_fragments.clone()),
+            index_details: None,
+            index_version: 0,
+            created_at: None,
+            base_id: None,
+            files: None,
+        };
+        assert!(
+            !appended_fragments.is_empty(),
+            "the append fixture must create at least one new fragment"
+        );
+        let base = Arc::new(DatasetPreFilter::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            &[old_segment.clone(), new_segment.clone()],
+            None,
+        ));
+        base.wait_for_ready().await.unwrap();
+        assert!(base.is_empty(), "the combined delta coverage is unfiltered");
+        let segment_prefilter = prefilter_for_segment(dataset.clone(), &old_segment, base)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        segment_prefilter.wait_for_ready().await.unwrap();
+
+        assert!(
+            !segment_prefilter.is_empty(),
+            "the segment ownership restriction is not globally empty"
+        );
+        assert!(segment_prefilter.needs_partition_row_ids());
+        let old_partition_rows = first_fragments
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|fragment_id| {
+                (0..20_u64).map(move |offset| (u64::from(fragment_id) << 32) | offset)
+            })
+            .collect::<RowAddrTreeMap>();
+        assert!(
+            segment_prefilter.is_empty_for(&old_partition_rows),
+            "an append-only segment must preserve the unfiltered partition fast path"
+        );
+
+        let appended_fragment_id = appended_fragments.iter().next().unwrap();
+        let mut rows_with_unowned_entry = old_partition_rows;
+        rows_with_unowned_entry.insert(u64::from(appended_fragment_id) << 32);
+        assert!(!segment_prefilter.is_empty_for(&rows_with_unowned_entry));
+
+        let ordinary_base = Arc::new(
+            DatasetPreFilter::new(dataset, &[old_segment, new_segment], None)
+                .with_overlay_block(RowAddrMask::allow_nothing()),
+        );
+        let ordinary_segment =
+            SegmentPreFilter::new(ordinary_base, Arc::new(RowAddrMask::all_rows()));
+        assert!(
+            !ordinary_segment.needs_partition_row_ids(),
+            "a user filter cannot take the no-filter fast path, so partition coverage is unused"
+        );
+    }
+
+    fn prepared_metrics() -> Arc<AnnIndexMetrics> {
+        Arc::new(AnnIndexMetrics::new(&ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(), 0))
+    }
+
+    type PreparedIndexState = (
+        Arc<dyn VectorIndex>,
+        Arc<Mutex<Vec<usize>>>,
+        Arc<Mutex<Vec<usize>>>,
+        Arc<Mutex<Vec<String>>>,
+    );
+
+    /// One partition per row id, each returning that single row.
+    fn prepared_index(row_ids: Vec<u64>) -> PreparedIndexState {
+        prepared_index_multi(row_ids.into_iter().map(|row_id| vec![row_id]).collect())
+    }
+
+    /// One partition per entry, each returning the rows in that entry.
+    fn prepared_index_multi(row_ids: Vec<Vec<u64>>) -> PreparedIndexState {
+        let prepared_partitions = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let searched_partitions = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let search_threads = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex> = Arc::new(PreparedThreadCapturingIndex {
+            metric: DistanceType::L2,
+            kind: PreparedIndexKind::Flat,
+            prepared_partitions: prepared_partitions.clone(),
+            searched_partitions: searched_partitions.clone(),
+            search_threads: search_threads.clone(),
+            row_ids,
+        });
+        (
+            index,
+            prepared_partitions,
+            searched_partitions,
+            search_threads,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2("l2", true)]
+    #[case::cosine("cosine", true)]
+    #[case::dot("dot", true)]
+    #[case::fixed_dot("fixed_dot", false)]
+    #[case::bounded_dot("bounded_dot", false)]
+    #[case::large_k_dot("large_k_dot", false)]
+    #[case::hamming("hamming", false)]
+    #[case::float16_column("f16", false)]
+    #[case::float64_query("query_f64", false)]
+    #[case::null_query("null", false)]
+    #[case::nonfinite_query("nonfinite", false)]
+    #[case::multivector("multi", false)]
+    #[case::product("product", false)]
+    #[case::hnsw("hnsw", false)]
+    #[case::legacy("legacy", false)]
+    #[case::bounded("bounded", false)]
+    #[case::fixed("fixed", false)]
+    #[case::large_k("large_k", false)]
+    #[case::refine("refine", false)]
+    fn test_auto_policy_gates_before_reading_experimental_config(
+        #[case] scenario: &str,
+        #[case] reads_config: bool,
+    ) {
+        let mut query = base_query();
+        query.k = if matches!(scenario, "large_k" | "large_k_dot") {
+            101
+        } else {
+            1
+        };
+        query.key = match scenario {
+            "query_f64" => Arc::new(arrow_array::Float64Array::from(vec![0.0])),
+            "null" => Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![None::<f32>])),
+            "nonfinite" => Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![f32::NAN])),
+            _ => Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0])),
+        };
+        if matches!(scenario, "bounded" | "bounded_dot") {
+            query.maximum_nprobes = Some(2);
+        } else if matches!(scenario, "fixed" | "fixed_dot") {
+            query.maximum_nprobes = Some(query.minimum_nprobes);
+        }
+        if scenario == "refine" {
+            query.refine_factor = Some(2);
+        }
+        let element_type = if scenario == "f16" {
+            DataType::Float16
+        } else {
+            DataType::Float32
+        };
+        let mut vector_type =
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", element_type, true)), 1);
+        if scenario == "multi" {
+            vector_type = DataType::List(Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", vector_type, true)));
+        }
+        let index = PreparedThreadCapturingIndex {
+            metric: match scenario {
+                "cosine" => DistanceType::Cosine,
+                "dot" | "fixed_dot" | "bounded_dot" | "large_k_dot" => DistanceType::Dot,
+                "hamming" => DistanceType::Hamming,
+                _ => DistanceType::L2,
+            },
+            kind: match scenario {
+                "product" => PreparedIndexKind::Product,
+                "hnsw" => PreparedIndexKind::Hnsw,
+                "legacy" => PreparedIndexKind::Legacy,
+                _ => PreparedIndexKind::Flat,
+            },
+            prepared_partitions: Arc::default(),
+            searched_partitions: Arc::default(),
+            search_threads: Arc::default(),
+            row_ids: vec![vec![1], vec![2]],
+        };
+        let mut called = false;
+        let result = AutoProbePolicy::select_with_config(&query, &index, &vector_type, |_, _| {
+            called = true;
+            Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                "invalid LANCE_AUTO_PROBE_MARGIN".to_owned(),
+            ))
+        });
+        assert_eq!(called, reads_config);
+        if reads_config {
+            assert!(
+                result
+                    .unwrap_err()
+                    .to_string()
+                    .contains("LANCE_AUTO_PROBE_MARGIN")
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert_eq!(
+                result.unwrap(),
+                if matches!(scenario, "fixed" | "fixed_dot") {
+                    AutoProbePolicy::Fixed
+                } else {
+                    AutoProbePolicy::Legacy
+                }
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_find_partitions_runs_on_cpu_runtime() {
+        let thread_name = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex> = Arc::new(ThreadCapturingIndex {
+            thread_name: thread_name.clone(),
+            row_ids: Vec::new(),
+        });
+
+        let (_partitions, _distances) = find_partitions_on_cpu(index, base_query()).await.unwrap();
+
+        let thread_name = thread_name.lock().unwrap().clone().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            thread_name.contains("lance-cpu"),
+            "expected find_partitions to run on the dedicated cpu runtime, got thread {thread_name}",
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Batch analogue of `test_find_partitions_runs_on_cpu_runtime`: the batch
+    // node's per-query centroid ranking multiplies the CPU cost, so it must also
+    // run on the dedicated cpu runtime rather than a Tokio async worker.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_find_partitions_batch_runs_on_cpu_runtime() {
+        let thread_name = Arc::new(Mutex::new(None));
+        let index: Arc<dyn VectorIndex> = Arc::new(ThreadCapturingIndex {
+            thread_name: thread_name.clone(),
+            row_ids: Vec::new(),
+        });
+
+        // Two query vectors of dim 1 concatenated into one key.
+        let mut query = base_query();
+        query.key = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32, 1.0f32]));
+        let (partitions, dists) = find_partitions_batch_on_cpu(index, query, 2, 1)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(partitions.len(), 2, "one partition list per query");
+        assert_eq!(dists.len(), 2, "one distance list per query");
+
+        let thread_name = thread_name.lock().unwrap().clone().unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            thread_name.contains("lance-cpu"),
+            "expected batch find_partitions to run on the dedicated cpu runtime, got thread {thread_name}",
+        );
+    }
+
+    // All partitions fit in a single search batch, so they are searched in one
+    // `spawn_cpu` dispatch and therefore share one cpu thread. The partition count
+    // adapts to the configured batch size so the single-batch property holds under
+    // any valid `LANCE_IVF_STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE`, including 1.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sequential_initial_search_prepares_all_then_searches_on_one_cpu_thread() {
+        let num_partitions = 3.min(*STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE);
+        let row_ids = (0..num_partitions).map(|i| 10 + i as u64).collect();
+        let (index, prepared_partitions, searched_partitions, search_threads) =
+            prepared_index(row_ids);
+        let mut query = base_query();
+        query.minimum_nprobes = num_partitions;
+        let state = Arc::new(ANNIvfEarlySearchResults::new(1, query.k));
+
+        let partition_idx = (0..num_partitions as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let q_c_dists = (0..num_partitions)
+            .map(|i| i as f32 * 0.1)
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let batches = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::initial_search(
+            index,
+            query,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(partition_idx)),
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(q_c_dists)),
+            empty_prefilter().await,
+            prepared_metrics(),
+            state,
+            usize::MAX,
+            None,
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let expected: Vec<usize> = (0..num_partitions).collect();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), num_partitions);
+        assert_eq!(*prepared_partitions.lock().unwrap(), expected);
+        assert_eq!(*searched_partitions.lock().unwrap(), expected);
+        let search_threads = search_threads.lock().unwrap().clone();
+        assert_eq!(search_threads.len(), num_partitions);
+        assert!(
+            search_threads.iter().all(|name| name.contains("lance-cpu")),
+            "expected prepared searches to run on the cpu runtime, got threads {search_threads:?}",
+        );
+        assert!(
+            search_threads.iter().all(|name| name == &search_threads[0]),
+            "expected all prepared searches to reuse one cpu thread, got threads {search_threads:?}",
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Regression guard for the batched streaming search (#7642): with more partitions
+    // than a single batch, the search spans multiple `spawn_cpu` dispatches. Verify that
+    // every partition is still prepared and searched in order across the batch boundary,
+    // and that all search work stays on the cpu runtime.
+    //
+    // Note: this does not reproduce the single-thread-pool deadlock the async recv/send
+    // fixes -- that requires a 1-thread CPU pool, which is a process-global singleton and
+    // impractical to force in a unit test (same limitation noted for the #7423 fix).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sequential_search_spans_multiple_cpu_batches() {
+        let num_partitions = *STREAMING_SEARCH_BATCH_SIZE + 3;
+        let row_ids = (0..num_partitions).map(|i| i as u64 * 10).collect();
+        let (index, prepared_partitions, searched_partitions, search_threads) =
+            prepared_index(row_ids);
+        let mut query = base_query();
+        query.minimum_nprobes = num_partitions;
+        let state = Arc::new(ANNIvfEarlySearchResults::new(1, query.k));
+
+        let partition_idx = (0..num_partitions as u32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let q_c_dists = (0..num_partitions).map(|i| i as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let batches = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::initial_search(
+            index,
+            query,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(partition_idx.clone())),
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(q_c_dists)),
+            empty_prefilter().await,
+            prepared_metrics(),
+            state,
+            usize::MAX,
+            None,
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let expected: Vec<usize> = (0..num_partitions).collect();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), num_partitions);
+        assert_eq!(*prepared_partitions.lock().unwrap(), expected);
+        assert_eq!(*searched_partitions.lock().unwrap(), expected);
+        let search_threads = search_threads.lock().unwrap().clone();
+        assert_eq!(search_threads.len(), num_partitions);
+        assert!(
+            search_threads.iter().all(|name| name.contains("lance-cpu")),
+            "expected prepared searches to run on the cpu runtime, got threads {search_threads:?}",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::uncapped(false)]
+    #[case::auto_initial_cap(true)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_sequential_late_search_prepares_all_then_stops_search_early(
+        #[case] has_auto_cap: bool,
+    ) {
+        let (index, prepared_partitions, searched_partitions, _search_threads) =
+            prepared_index(vec![21, 22, 23]);
+        let mut query = base_query();
+        query.k = 2;
+        query.minimum_nprobes = 0;
+        query.maximum_nprobes = Some(3);
+        if has_auto_cap {
+            AutoProbeConfig {
+                min_initial_nprobes: 1,
+                margin: 80.0,
+                max_initial_nprobes: Some(1),
+            }
+            .apply(&mut query, &[0.1, 0.2, 0.3], DistanceType::L2);
+            assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 1);
+            assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, Some(3));
+        }
+        let state = Arc::new(ANNIvfEarlySearchResults::new(1, query.k));
+        state.record_batch(
+            &RecordBatch::try_new(
+                KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone(),
+                vec![
+                    Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0])),
+                    Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![999])),
+                ],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        let prefilter = empty_prefilter().await;
+        let batches = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::late_search(
+            index,
+            query,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2])),
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1, 0.2, 0.3])),
+            prefilter.clone(),
+            prefilter,
+            prepared_metrics(),
+            state.clone(),
+            usize::MAX,
+            None,
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        let first_late_partition = usize::from(has_auto_cap);
+        assert_eq!(
+            *prepared_partitions.lock().unwrap(),
+            (first_late_partition..3).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            *searched_partitions.lock().unwrap(),
+            vec![first_late_partition]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(state.num_results_found.load(Ordering::Relaxed), 2);
+    }
+
+    fn row_ids_of(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Vec<u64> {
+        batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch[ROW_ID]
+                    .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn dists_of(batches: &[RecordBatch]) -> Vec<f32> {
+        batches
+            .iter()
+            .flat_map(|batch| {
+                batch[DIST_COL]
+                    .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .iter()
+                    .copied()
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// A probe can reach a row whose fragment the segment no longer owns. Such a row
+    /// must be dropped before the shared accounting sees it: counting it and only
+    /// dropping it downstream lets it consume the `k` budget on its own, so the segment
+    /// stops probing early and the query returns fewer than `k` current rows.
+    ///
+    /// Partitions 0 and 2 hold rows this segment no longer owns and 1 and 3 hold rows
+    /// it does, so the restriction is exercised in both the initial and the late search.
+    /// The two parallelism settings pick different code paths: the sequential one counts
+    /// inside the index via `LatePartitionSearchControl`, the parallel one counts in
+    /// `search_partition`.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_unowned_row_does_not_fill_the_shared_budget(
+        #[values(1, 2)] query_parallelism: i32,
+    ) {
+        // Every partition mixes owned and unowned rows differently: partition 0 loses its
+        // first row, partition 1 its last, partition 2 all of them and partition 3 its
+        // last, so the restriction has to keep part of a batch rather than all or nothing.
+        let (index, prepared_partitions, searched_partitions, _search_threads) =
+            prepared_index_multi(vec![vec![21, 22, 24], vec![25, 26], vec![20], vec![23, 27]]);
+        let seg_mask = Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(
+            lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([22u64, 23, 24, 25]),
+        ));
+        let partitions = Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3]));
+        let q_c_dists = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4]));
+
+        let mut query = base_query();
+        query.k = 4;
+        query.minimum_nprobes = 2;
+        query.maximum_nprobes = Some(4);
+        query.query_parallelism = query_parallelism;
+        let state = Arc::new(ANNIvfEarlySearchResults::new(1, query.k));
+
+        let early = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::initial_search(
+            index.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            partitions.clone(),
+            q_c_dists.clone(),
+            empty_prefilter().await,
+            prepared_metrics(),
+            state.clone(),
+            usize::MAX,
+            Some(seg_mask.clone()),
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids_of(&early),
+            vec![22, 24, 25],
+            "the initial search must emit the owned rows and only those"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            dists_of(&early),
+            vec![0.5, 1.0, 1.0],
+            "the distance column must stay aligned with the surviving row ids"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            *state.initial_ids.lock().unwrap(),
+            vec![22, 24, 25],
+            "unowned rows must not take up the initial result budget"
+        );
 
-    use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
-    use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
-    use crate::io::exec::testing::TestingExec;
+        let prefilter = empty_prefilter().await;
+        let late = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::late_search(
+            index,
+            query,
+            partitions,
+            q_c_dists,
+            prefilter.clone(),
+            prefilter,
+            prepared_metrics(),
+            state.clone(),
+            usize::MAX,
+            Some(seg_mask),
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-    fn base_query() -> Query {
-        Query {
-            column: "vec".to_string(),
-            key: Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0f32])) as ArrayRef,
-            k: 10,
-            lower_bound: None,
-            upper_bound: None,
-            minimum_nprobes: 1,
-            maximum_nprobes: None,
-            ef: None,
-            refine_factor: None,
-            metric_type: Some(DistanceType::L2),
-            use_index: true,
-            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+        assert_eq!(
+            *searched_partitions.lock().unwrap(),
+            vec![0, 1, 2, 3],
+            "the all-unowned partition 2 must not stop the late search"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_ids_of(&late),
+            vec![23],
+            "the late search must emit only rows the segment owns"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            state.num_results_found.load(Ordering::Relaxed),
+            4,
+            "only rows that survive the segment restriction may be counted"
+        );
+        // A parallelism setting the cpu pool cannot honour would silently rerun the
+        // sequential path, leaving `search_partition`'s restriction untested.
+        let prepared_partitions = prepared_partitions.lock().unwrap();
+        if query_parallelism == 1 {
+            assert_eq!(*prepared_partitions, vec![0, 1, 2, 3]);
+        } else {
+            assert!(
+                prepared_partitions.is_empty(),
+                "the parallel path must not prepare partitions, got {prepared_partitions:?}",
+            );
         }
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn test_adjust_probes_rules() {
-        let mut query = base_query();
-        adjust_probes(&mut query, 10);
-        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 10);
-        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, None);
+    /// Every fragment the segment used to own now belongs to a newer delta, so it can
+    /// never contribute a row nor move the shared budget that ends the late search.
+    /// Probing it to `maximum_nprobes` would be pure waste.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_segment_owning_nothing_skips_the_late_search() {
+        let (index, _prepared_partitions, searched_partitions, _search_threads) =
+            prepared_index(vec![21, 22, 23, 24]);
+        let seg_mask = Arc::new(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(
+            lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
+        ));
+        let partitions = Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3]));
+        let q_c_dists = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4]));
 
         let mut query = base_query();
-        query.minimum_nprobes = 20;
-        adjust_probes(&mut query, 10);
-        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 20);
-        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, None);
+        query.k = 4;
+        query.minimum_nprobes = 1;
+        query.maximum_nprobes = Some(4);
+        let state = Arc::new(ANNIvfEarlySearchResults::new(1, query.k));
+
+        ANNIvfSubIndexExec::initial_search(
+            index.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            partitions.clone(),
+            q_c_dists.clone(),
+            empty_prefilter().await,
+            prepared_metrics(),
+            state.clone(),
+            usize::MAX,
+            Some(seg_mask.clone()),
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let mut query = base_query();
-        query.maximum_nprobes = Some(25);
-        adjust_probes(&mut query, 10);
-        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 10);
-        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, Some(25));
+        let prefilter = empty_prefilter().await;
+        let late = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::late_search(
+            index,
+            query,
+            partitions,
+            q_c_dists,
+            prefilter.clone(),
+            prefilter,
+            prepared_metrics(),
+            state.clone(),
+            usize::MAX,
+            Some(seg_mask),
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let mut query = base_query();
-        query.maximum_nprobes = Some(5);
-        adjust_probes(&mut query, 10);
-        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 5);
-        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, Some(5));
+        assert!(late.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(
+            *searched_partitions.lock().unwrap(),
+            vec![0],
+            "only the initial probe may run; the late search must not probe at all"
+        );
+    }
 
-        let mut query = base_query();
-        query.minimum_nprobes = 30;
-        query.maximum_nprobes = Some(50);
-        adjust_probes(&mut query, 10);
-        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 30);
-        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, Some(50));
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_delta_skipping_late_search_releases_sibling() {
+        let prefilter = empty_prefilter().await;
+        let state = Arc::new(ANNIvfEarlySearchResults::new(2, 4));
+
+        let (index_a, _prepared_a, searched_a, _threads_a) = prepared_index(vec![21]);
+        let mut query_a = base_query();
+        query_a.k = 4;
+        query_a.minimum_nprobes = 1;
+        let delta_a = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::late_search(
+            index_a,
+            query_a,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0])),
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1])),
+            prefilter.clone(),
+            prefilter.clone(),
+            prepared_metrics(),
+            state.clone(),
+            usize::MAX,
+            None,
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let (index_b, _prepared_b, searched_b, _threads_b) = prepared_index(vec![31, 32, 33, 34]);
+        let mut query_b = base_query();
+        query_b.k = 4;
+        query_b.minimum_nprobes = 1;
+        query_b.maximum_nprobes = Some(4);
+        let delta_b = ANNIvfSubIndexExec::late_search(
+            index_b,
+            query_b,
+            Arc::new(UInt32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3])),
+            Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4])),
+            prefilter.clone(),
+            prefilter,
+            prepared_metrics(),
+            state,
+            usize::MAX,
+            None,
+        )
+        .try_collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let (result_a, result_b) = tokio::time::timeout(
+            std::time::Duration::from_secs(5),
+            futures::future::join(delta_a, delta_b),
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect("late search deadlocked because one delta skipped the shared barrier");
+
+        result_a.unwrap();
+        result_b.unwrap();
+        assert!(searched_a.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
+        assert!(!searched_b.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
     }
 
     #[tokio::test]
@@ -1547,6 +4445,299 @@ mod tests {
         );
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_batch_with_k_rebuilds_the_cut_and_keeps_the_schema() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    4,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema);
+        let input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(TestingExec::new(vec![batch]));
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![
+            0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0,
+        ])) as ArrayRef;
+        let plan = KNNVectorDistanceExec::try_new_batch(
+            input,
+            "vec",
+            query,
+            KnnBatchParams {
+                is_batch: true,
+                query_count: 2,
+                k: 2,
+                lower_bound: None,
+                upper_bound: None,
+                distance_type: DistanceType::L2,
+                retain_vector: false,
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let widened = plan.with_k(7).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(widened.k, 7);
+        assert_eq!(widened.query_count, 2);
+        assert!(widened.is_batch);
+        assert_eq!(widened.schema(), plan.schema());
+        assert_eq!(plan.k, 2, "the original node is left alone");
+
+        assert!(plan.with_k(0).is_err(), "batch k must stay positive");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_batch_partition_statistics_aligns_with_output_schema() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            ArrowField::new(
+                "vec",
+                DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                    Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                    4,
+                ),
+                true,
+            ),
+            ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::new_empty(schema);
+        let input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(TestingExec::new(vec![batch]));
+        let query = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0])) as ArrayRef;
+        let plan = KNNVectorDistanceExec::try_new_batch(
+            input,
+            "vec",
+            query,
+            KnnBatchParams {
+                is_batch: true,
+                query_count: 1,
+                k: 2,
+                lower_bound: None,
+                upper_bound: None,
+                distance_type: DistanceType::L2,
+                retain_vector: false,
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let stats = plan.partition_statistics(None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.column_statistics.len(),
+            plan.schema().fields().len(),
+            "partition stats must align with output schema"
+        );
+        let schema = plan.schema();
+        let query_index_pos = schema
+            .column_with_name(QUERY_INDEX_COL)
+            .expect("query_index must exist")
+            .0;
+        let dist_pos = schema
+            .column_with_name(DIST_COL)
+            .expect("distance must exist")
+            .0;
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.column_statistics[query_index_pos],
+            ColumnStatistics::default(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            stats.column_statistics[dist_pos].null_count,
+            stats.column_statistics[schema.column_with_name("i").unwrap().0].null_count,
+            "distance null-count should be derived from vector/input nullability and remain aligned"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remove_vector_from_schema_nested_path() {
+        let payload_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "payload",
+            DataType::Struct(
+                vec![
+                    ArrowField::new(
+                        "vec",
+                        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                            4,
+                        ),
+                        true,
+                    ),
+                    ArrowField::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true),
+                ]
+                .into(),
+            ),
+            true,
+        );
+        let schema = ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, true),
+            payload_field,
+            ROW_ID_FIELD.clone(),
+        ]);
+        let without_vec =
+            KNNVectorDistanceExec::remove_vector_from_schema(&schema, "payload.vec").unwrap();
+        let payload = without_vec.field_with_name("payload").unwrap();
+        let DataType::Struct(children) = payload.data_type() else {
+            panic!("payload should remain struct");
+        };
+        assert!(children.iter().all(|f| f.name() != "vec"));
+        assert!(children.iter().any(|f| f.name() == "tag"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_take_vector_row_copies_single_row() {
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from((0..12).map(|v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            4,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let row = KNNVectorDistanceExec::take_vector_row(&vectors, 2).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(row.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            row.to_data().offset(),
+            0,
+            "take/copy should not retain row offset into the full input buffer"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_resolve_vector_column_supports_escaped_nested_path() {
+        let vec_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "vec.with.dot",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                4,
+            ),
+            true,
+        );
+        let payload_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "payload",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![vec_field.clone()].into()),
+            true,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![payload_field]));
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from((0..8).map(|v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            4,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let payload = StructArray::from(vec![(Arc::new(vec_field), Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef)]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(payload)]).unwrap();
+        let vector =
+            KNNVectorDistanceExec::resolve_vector_column(&batch, "payload.`vec.with.dot`").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(vector.len(), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_remove_vector_from_batch_nested_keeps_siblings() {
+        let vec_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "vec.with.dot",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                4,
+            ),
+            true,
+        );
+        let tag_field = ArrowField::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true);
+        let payload_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "payload",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![vec_field.clone(), tag_field.clone()].into()),
+            true,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![payload_field]));
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from((0..8).map(|v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            4,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let tags = StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b"]);
+        let payload = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (Arc::new(vec_field), Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef),
+            (Arc::new(tag_field), Arc::new(tags) as ArrayRef),
+        ]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(payload)]).unwrap();
+
+        let slim =
+            KNNVectorDistanceExec::remove_vector_from_batch(&batch, "payload.`vec.with.dot`")
+                .unwrap();
+        let payload = slim.column_by_name("payload").unwrap().as_struct();
+        assert!(payload.column_by_name("vec.with.dot").is_none());
+        assert!(payload.column_by_name("tag").is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_assemble_batch_output_retained_nested_vector_keeps_sibling_values() {
+        let vec_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "vec",
+            DataType::FixedSizeList(
+                Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+                4,
+            ),
+            true,
+        );
+        let tag_field = ArrowField::new("tag", DataType::Utf8, true);
+        let payload_field = ArrowField::new(
+            "payload",
+            DataType::Struct(vec![vec_field.clone(), tag_field.clone()].into()),
+            true,
+        );
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![payload_field, ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()]));
+        let vectors = FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            Float32Array::from((0..12).map(|v| v as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>()),
+            4,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let tags = StringArray::from(vec!["a", "b", "c"]);
+        let payload = StructArray::from(vec![
+            (Arc::new(vec_field), Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef),
+            (Arc::new(tag_field), Arc::new(tags) as ArrayRef),
+        ]);
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(payload) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![10, 11, 12])) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let slim_batch = Arc::new(
+            KNNVectorDistanceExec::remove_vector_from_batch(&batch, "payload.vec").unwrap(),
+        );
+        let vectors = KNNVectorDistanceExec::resolve_vector_column(&batch, "payload.vec").unwrap();
+        let results = [2, 0]
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|row_index| BatchKnnCandidate {
+                query_index: 0,
+                distance: row_index as f32,
+                row_id: 10 + row_index as u64,
+                extra: BatchKnnExtra::WithSlimBatch {
+                    slim_batch: Arc::clone(&slim_batch),
+                    row_index,
+                    vector_row: Some(
+                        KNNVectorDistanceExec::take_vector_row(vectors.as_ref(), row_index)
+                            .unwrap(),
+                    ),
+                },
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+        let output = KNNVectorDistanceExec::assemble_batch_output(
+            &results,
+            schema.as_ref(),
+            "payload.vec",
+            true,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let payload = output.column_by_name("payload").unwrap().as_struct();
+        let tags = payload.column_by_name("tag").unwrap().as_string::<i32>();
+        assert!(tags.is_valid(0));
+        assert!(tags.is_valid(1));
+        assert_eq!(tags.value(0), "c");
+        assert_eq!(tags.value(1), "a");
+        let vectors = payload.column_by_name("vec").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(vectors.len(), 2);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_multivector_score() {
         let query = Query {
@@ -1561,7 +4752,9 @@ mod tests {
             refine_factor: None,
             metric_type: Some(DistanceType::Cosine),
             use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: DEFAULT_QUERY_PARALLELISM,
             dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: Default::default(),
         };
 
         async fn multivector_scoring(
@@ -1737,6 +4930,17 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    fn assert_find_partitions_elapsed_recorded(stats: &ExecutionSummaryCounts) {
+        assert!(
+            stats
+                .all_times
+                .get(FIND_PARTITIONS_ELAPSED_METRIC)
+                .copied()
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+                > 0
+        );
+    }
+
     #[rstest]
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_no_max_nprobes(#[values(1, 20)] num_deltas: usize) {
@@ -1772,6 +4976,213 @@ mod tests {
         if get_num_compute_intensive_cpus() <= 32 {
             assert!(*stats.all_counts.get(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC).unwrap() < 100 * num_deltas);
         }
+        assert_find_partitions_elapsed_recorded(&stats);
+    }
+
+    /// The ANN operators report the exact index-file I/O performed for a query
+    /// (bytes_read / iops), measured only on cache misses.  A cold search loads
+    /// partitions from storage and reports non-zero I/O; an immediately
+    /// following warm search serves every partition from the index cache and
+    /// reports zero -- which is the cache-effectiveness signal the metric adds.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_io_metrics_cold_vs_warm() {
+        let fixture = NprobesTestFixture::new(100, 1).await;
+        let q = fixture.get_centroid(0);
+
+        let run = |holder: &StatsHolder| {
+            let setter = holder.get_setter();
+            async {
+                fixture
+                    .dataset
+                    .scan()
+                    .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 10)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .minimum_nprobes(10)
+                    .scan_stats_callback(setter)
+                    .project(&Vec::<String>::new())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .with_row_id()
+                    .try_into_batch()
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Cold: a freshly opened dataset has an empty index cache, so the
+        // sub-index search must read partitions (and their quantization storage)
+        // from disk.  Those reads flow through the per-query I/O sink.
+        let cold_holder = StatsHolder::default();
+        run(&cold_holder).await;
+        let cold = cold_holder.consume();
+        assert!(
+            cold.parts_loaded > 0,
+            "cold search should load partitions, got parts_loaded={}",
+            cold.parts_loaded
+        );
+        assert!(
+            cold.bytes_read > 0,
+            "cold search should report index-file I/O, got bytes_read={}",
+            cold.bytes_read
+        );
+        assert!(
+            cold.iops > 0,
+            "cold search should report index-file IOPS, got iops={}",
+            cold.iops
+        );
+
+        // Warm: the same query on the same dataset finds every partition it
+        // needs already cached, so no index-file I/O is performed.
+        let warm_holder = StatsHolder::default();
+        run(&warm_holder).await;
+        let warm = warm_holder.consume();
+        assert_eq!(
+            warm.parts_loaded, 0,
+            "warm search should not reload partitions, got parts_loaded={}",
+            warm.parts_loaded
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            warm.bytes_read, 0,
+            "warm search should report no index-file I/O, got bytes_read={}",
+            warm.bytes_read
+        );
+        // Cache hits eliminate I/O, not query preparation or distance/TopK work.
+        for stats in [&cold, &warm] {
+            for name in [
+                "ANNSubIndexExec_elapsed_compute",
+                "index_partition_load_time",
+                "index_partition_prepare_time",
+                "index_cpu_queue_wait_time",
+                "index_search_time",
+                "index_query_prepare_time",
+                "index_distance_topk_time",
+                "index_result_materialize_time",
+            ] {
+                assert!(
+                    stats.all_times.get(name).is_some_and(|time| *time > 0),
+                    "missing timing {name}: {:?}",
+                    stats.all_times
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_partition_prepare_metrics_cold_vs_warm(#[values(false, true)] is_prepared: bool) {
+        let fixture = NprobesTestFixture::new(100, 1).await;
+        let indices = fixture.dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+        let index = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .open_vector_index(
+                "vector",
+                &indices[0].uuid,
+                &lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let query = Query {
+            column: "vector".to_owned(),
+            key: fixture.get_centroid(0),
+            ..base_query()
+        };
+        let mut previous = None;
+        for is_warm in [false, true] {
+            let metrics = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+            let collector = IndexMetrics::new(&metrics, 0);
+            let prefilter = Arc::new(lance_index::prefilter::NoFilter);
+            // Call both entry points directly so CPU/session limits cannot silently
+            // turn the parallel-path regression into another sequential search.
+            let batch = if is_prepared {
+                let handle = index
+                    .prepare_partition_search(0, &query, prefilter, &collector)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap();
+                index.search_prepared_partition(handle, &collector).unwrap()
+            } else {
+                index
+                    .search_in_partition(0, &query, prefilter, &collector)
+                    .await
+                    .unwrap()
+            };
+            assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), query.k);
+            if let Some(previous) = &previous {
+                assert_eq!(&batch, previous);
+            }
+            previous = Some(batch);
+            let timings = metrics.clone_inner();
+            let prepare = timings
+                .sum_by_name("index_partition_prepare_time")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_usize();
+            let load = timings
+                .sum_by_name("index_partition_load_time")
+                .unwrap()
+                .as_usize();
+            assert!(
+                prepare > 0,
+                "missing preparation time: prepared={is_prepared}, warm={is_warm}"
+            );
+            // DataFusion rounds zero-duration updates up to 1ns, so positivity
+            // alone cannot detect a missing preparation timer.
+            assert!(
+                prepare >= load,
+                "preparation must include partition loading"
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The new I/O metrics must actually surface in `EXPLAIN ANALYZE` text on
+    /// the ANN operators: non-zero on a cold query (partition reads on
+    /// `ANNSubIndex`, index-open reads on `ANNIvfPartition`) and zero on a warm
+    /// query (everything served from the index cache).
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_io_metrics_visible_in_explain_analyze() {
+        // Returns the value of `metric=` from the analyzed-plan line for `node`.
+        fn node_metric<'a>(plan: &'a str, node: &str, metric: &str) -> &'a str {
+            let line = plan
+                .lines()
+                .find(|l| l.trim_start().starts_with(node))
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("plan missing node {node}:\n{plan}"));
+            let after = line
+                .split_once(&format!("{metric}="))
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("node {node} line missing {metric}=:\n{line}"))
+                .1;
+            after.split([',', ']']).next().unwrap().trim()
+        }
+
+        let fixture = NprobesTestFixture::new(100, 1).await;
+        let q = fixture.get_centroid(0);
+
+        // Cold: a freshly opened dataset must show real index-file I/O.
+        let cold = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(10)
+            .analyze_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        // Sub-index partition reads.
+        assert_ne!(node_metric(&cold, "ANNSubIndex", "bytes_read"), "0");
+        assert_ne!(node_metric(&cold, "ANNSubIndex", "iops"), "0");
+        // Index-open reads (centroids/metadata) now attributed to the partition
+        // operator -- the value this part of the change adds.
+        assert_ne!(node_metric(&cold, "ANNIvfPartition", "bytes_read"), "0");
+        assert_ne!(node_metric(&cold, "ANNIvfPartition", "iops"), "0");
+
+        // Warm: same query, everything cache-resident -> zero index-file I/O.
+        let warm = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 10)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(10)
+            .analyze_plan()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(node_metric(&warm, "ANNSubIndex", "bytes_read"), "0");
+        assert_eq!(node_metric(&warm, "ANNIvfPartition", "bytes_read"), "0");
     }
 
     #[rstest]
@@ -1780,6 +5191,7 @@ mod tests {
         let fixture = NprobesTestFixture::new(100, num_deltas).await;
 
         let q = fixture.get_centroid(0);
+        let initial_nprobes = 20;
         let stats_holder = StatsHolder::default();
 
         let results = fixture
@@ -1787,7 +5199,7 @@ mod tests {
             .scan()
             .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 50)
             .unwrap()
-            .minimum_nprobes(10)
+            .minimum_nprobes(initial_nprobes)
             .prefilter(true)
             .scan_stats_callback(stats_holder.get_setter())
             .filter("label = 17 AND label = 18")
@@ -1806,8 +5218,9 @@ mod tests {
         // We skip the late search because by then we know there are no results
         assert_eq!(
             stats.all_counts.get(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC).unwrap(),
-            &(10 * num_deltas)
+            &(initial_nprobes * num_deltas)
         );
+        assert_find_partitions_elapsed_recorded(&stats);
     }
 
     #[rstest]
@@ -1847,6 +5260,7 @@ mod tests {
                 stats.all_counts.get(PARTITIONS_RANKED_METRIC).unwrap(),
                 &(100 * num_deltas)
             );
+            assert_find_partitions_elapsed_recorded(&stats);
         }
     }
 
@@ -1856,13 +5270,33 @@ mod tests {
         let fixture = NprobesTestFixture::new(100, num_deltas).await;
 
         let q = fixture.get_centroid(0);
+        let initial_nprobes = 20;
+        // Use a fixed budget to identify which matching rows the initial search
+        // reaches, independently of centroid tie ordering and Auto calibration.
+        let initial_results = fixture
+            .dataset
+            .scan()
+            .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 50)
+            .unwrap()
+            .minimum_nprobes(initial_nprobes)
+            .maximum_nprobes(initial_nprobes)
+            .prefilter(true)
+            .filter("userid < 20")
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&Vec::<String>::new())
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(initial_results.num_rows() > 0 && initial_results.num_rows() < 20);
         let stats_holder = StatsHolder::default();
         let results = fixture
             .dataset
             .scan()
             .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 50)
             .unwrap()
-            .minimum_nprobes(10)
+            .minimum_nprobes(initial_nprobes)
             .prefilter(true)
             .filter("userid < 20")
             .unwrap()
@@ -1880,20 +5314,35 @@ mod tests {
         // we can cheaply stop early.
         assert_eq!(
             stats.all_counts.get(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC).unwrap(),
-            &(10 * num_deltas)
+            &(initial_nprobes * num_deltas)
         );
+        assert_find_partitions_elapsed_recorded(&stats);
         assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 20);
 
-        // 15 of the results come from beyond the closest 10 partitions and these will have infinite
-        // distance.
-        let num_infinite_results = results
-            .column(0)
+        // Only the rows missing from the fixed-budget search should be emitted
+        // by the cheap prefilter shortcut with a placeholder distance.
+        let initial_ids = initial_results[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values();
+        for (row_id, distance) in results[ROW_ID]
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(results[DIST_COL].as_primitive::<Float32Type>().values())
+        {
+            if initial_ids.contains(row_id) {
+                assert!(distance.is_finite());
+            } else {
+                assert_eq!(*distance, f32::INFINITY);
+            }
+        }
+        let num_infinite_results = results[DIST_COL]
             .as_primitive::<Float32Type>()
             .values()
             .iter()
-            .filter(|val| val.is_infinite())
+            .filter(|distance| distance.is_infinite())
             .count();
-        assert_eq!(num_infinite_results, 15);
+        assert_eq!(num_infinite_results, 20 - initial_results.num_rows());
 
         // If we set a refine factor then the distance should not be infinite.
         let results = fixture
@@ -1901,7 +5350,7 @@ mod tests {
             .scan()
             .nearest("vector", q.as_ref(), 50)
             .unwrap()
-            .minimum_nprobes(10)
+            .minimum_nprobes(initial_nprobes)
             .prefilter(true)
             .refine(1)
             .filter("userid < 20")
@@ -1953,6 +5402,7 @@ mod tests {
             stats.all_counts.get(PARTITIONS_SEARCHED_METRIC).unwrap(),
             &(100 * num_deltas)
         );
+        assert_find_partitions_elapsed_recorded(&stats);
         assert_eq!(results.num_rows(), 10000);
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/knn/adaptive_probe.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/knn/adaptive_probe.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..718176ace75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/knn/adaptive_probe.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,690 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Centroid-based selection of the initial IVF probe budget.
+//!
+//! Auto probing is an empirical heuristic, not a recall guarantee. The initial
+//! budget does not limit subsequent probing when filters leave fewer than k rows.
+//! `LANCE_AUTO_PROBE_MARGIN` overrides the nonnegative relative distance margin;
+//! `LANCE_AUTO_MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES` and `LANCE_AUTO_MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES` override
+//! the positive learned floor and cap. Each override replaces only that profile
+//! field; the resulting floor must not exceed the resulting cap. Override both
+//! bounds when an individual change would conflict with the other profile bound.
+//! The caller minimum takes precedence over the learned cap, while the caller
+//! maximum and available candidate count limit the final initial budget.
+//! Explicit fixed nprobes bypasses both the heuristic and these overrides.
+//! Only ordinary Float32 IVF_FLAT queries using L2, cosine, or dot with k <= 100
+//! use these profiles. Hamming, other index types, and explicitly bounded
+//! Auto queries retain their existing heuristic and ignore these overrides.
+//! Dot uses the magnitude of the best centroid inner product to scale its gap,
+//! rather than the signed `1 - dot` distance. Corpus and query norms are preserved.
+//! No extra index statistics or file-format changes are needed.
+
+use std::env;
+
+use arrow_array::{Array, cast::AsArray};
+use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
+use lance_index::vector::{
+    Query, VectorIndex, quantizer::QuantizationType, v3::subindex::SubIndexType,
+};
+use lance_linalg::distance::DistanceType;
+
+const MARGIN_ENV: &str = "LANCE_AUTO_PROBE_MARGIN";
+const MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV: &str = "LANCE_AUTO_MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES";
+const MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV: &str = "LANCE_AUTO_MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES";
+
+/// Select the probing behavior once, before interpreting experimental overrides.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub(super) enum AutoProbePolicy {
+    Fixed,
+    Legacy,
+    Adaptive(AutoProbeConfig),
+}
+
+impl AutoProbePolicy {
+    pub(super) fn from_env(
+        query: &Query,
+        index: &dyn VectorIndex,
+        vector_type: &DataType,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Self> {
+        Self::select_with_config(query, index, vector_type, AutoProbeConfig::from_env)
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn select_with_config(
+        query: &Query,
+        index: &dyn VectorIndex,
+        vector_type: &DataType,
+        read_config: impl FnOnce(&Query, DistanceType) -> DataFusionResult<Option<AutoProbeConfig>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Self> {
+        if query.maximum_nprobes == Some(query.minimum_nprobes) {
+            return Ok(Self::Fixed);
+        }
+        // Legacy IVF indices do not expose sub-index metadata. Keep their
+        // original probing without calling those unsupported methods.
+        if !index.supports_prepared_partition_search() {
+            return Ok(Self::Legacy);
+        }
+        if query.maximum_nprobes.is_some()
+            || query.key.data_type() != &DataType::Float32
+            || query.key.null_count() != 0
+            || !matches!(vector_type, DataType::FixedSizeList(item, dimension)
+                if item.data_type() == &DataType::Float32 && *dimension as usize == query.key.len())
+            || !matches!(
+                index.sub_index_type(),
+                (SubIndexType::Flat, QuantizationType::Flat)
+            )
+            || !matches!(
+                index.metric_type(),
+                DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot
+            )
+            || query.k > 100
+            || query.refine_factor.is_some_and(|factor| factor > 1)
+            || !query
+                .key
+                .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>()
+                .values()
+                .iter()
+                .all(|x| x.is_finite())
+        {
+            return Ok(Self::Legacy);
+        }
+        Ok(read_config(query, index.metric_type())?.map_or(Self::Fixed, Self::Adaptive))
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn apply(self, query: &mut Query, distances: &[f32], metric: DistanceType) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Fixed => {}
+            Self::Legacy => apply_legacy_probes(query, distances),
+            Self::Adaptive(config) => config.apply(query, distances, metric),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Preserve the pre-experiment f32 heuristic, including signed distances and
+/// overflow behavior. Available partitions are clipped by the search operators.
+fn apply_legacy_probes(query: &mut Query, distances: &[f32]) {
+    let selected = distances.first().map_or(0, |nearest| {
+        let factor = match query.k {
+            ..=1 => 0.6,
+            2..=10 => 7.0,
+            _ => 81.0,
+        };
+        let threshold = *nearest * factor;
+        distances.partition_point(|distance| *distance <= threshold)
+    });
+    query.minimum_nprobes = query.minimum_nprobes.max(selected);
+    if let Some(maximum) = query.maximum_nprobes {
+        query.minimum_nprobes = query.minimum_nprobes.min(maximum);
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub(super) struct AutoProbeConfig {
+    pub(super) min_initial_nprobes: usize,
+    pub(super) margin: f32,
+    pub(super) max_initial_nprobes: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl Default for AutoProbeConfig {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            min_initial_nprobes: 1,
+            margin: 0.0,
+            max_initial_nprobes: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AutoProbeConfig {
+    pub(super) fn from_env(query: &Query, metric: DistanceType) -> DataFusionResult<Option<Self>> {
+        if query.maximum_nprobes == Some(query.minimum_nprobes) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if !matches!(
+            metric,
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot
+        ) {
+            return Ok(Some(Self::default()));
+        }
+        fn read_override(name: &str) -> DataFusionResult<Option<String>> {
+            match env::var(name) {
+                Ok(value) => Ok(Some(value)),
+                Err(env::VarError::NotPresent) => Ok(None),
+                Err(error) => Err(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                    "invalid {name}: {error}"
+                ))),
+            }
+        }
+        let margin = read_override(MARGIN_ENV)?;
+        let minimum = read_override(MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)?;
+        let maximum = read_override(MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)?;
+        Self::parse(
+            query,
+            metric,
+            margin.as_deref(),
+            minimum.as_deref(),
+            maximum.as_deref(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn parse(
+        query: &Query,
+        metric: DistanceType,
+        margin: Option<&str>,
+        minimum: Option<&str>,
+        maximum: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Option<Self>> {
+        if query.maximum_nprobes == Some(query.minimum_nprobes) {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        if !matches!(
+            metric,
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot
+        ) {
+            return Ok(Some(Self::default()));
+        }
+        let bucket = match query.k {
+            ..=1 => 0,
+            2..=10 => 1,
+            _ => 2,
+        };
+        // Profiles depend only on metric and k; every index uses the same values.
+        let (default_margin, default_minimum, cap) = match metric {
+            DistanceType::L2 => (
+                [0.2175, 0.265, 0.33][bucket],
+                [5, 6, 11][bucket],
+                [19, 24, 38][bucket],
+            ),
+            DistanceType::Cosine => (
+                [0.235, 0.2875, 0.38][bucket],
+                [3, 8, 7][bucket],
+                [50, 77, 106][bucket],
+            ),
+            // Calibrated on unnormalized Wiki-Cohere and DPR vectors. An initial
+            // cap controls overscanning without limiting later filtered search.
+            DistanceType::Dot => (
+                [0.14, 0.055, 0.0625][bucket],
+                [56, 144, 200][bucket],
+                [112, 432, 768][bucket],
+            ),
+            _ => return Ok(Some(Self::default())),
+        };
+        let config = Self {
+            min_initial_nprobes: default_minimum,
+            margin: default_margin,
+            max_initial_nprobes: Some(cap),
+        };
+        config.with_overrides(margin, minimum, maximum).map(Some)
+    }
+
+    fn with_overrides(
+        mut self,
+        margin: Option<&str>,
+        minimum: Option<&str>,
+        maximum: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Self> {
+        fn positive_override(name: &str, value: Option<&str>) -> DataFusionResult<Option<usize>> {
+            value
+                .map(|value| {
+                    value
+                        .parse::<usize>()
+                        .ok()
+                        .filter(|value| *value > 0)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                                "invalid {name} value {value:?}: expected a positive integer"
+                            ))
+                        })
+                })
+                .transpose()
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = margin {
+            self.margin = value
+                .parse::<f32>()
+                .ok()
+                .filter(|margin| margin.is_finite() && *margin >= 0.0)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                        "invalid {MARGIN_ENV} value {value:?}: expected a finite number >= 0"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+        }
+        if let Some(minimum) = positive_override(MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV, minimum)? {
+            self.min_initial_nprobes = minimum;
+        }
+        if let Some(maximum) = positive_override(MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV, maximum)? {
+            self.max_initial_nprobes = Some(maximum);
+        }
+        if let Some(maximum) = self.max_initial_nprobes
+            && self.min_initial_nprobes > maximum
+        {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                "invalid Auto probe interval: {MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV} effective minimum {} exceeds {MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV} effective maximum {maximum}",
+                self.min_initial_nprobes
+            )));
+        }
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Select an initial prefix of sorted centroid distances, honoring caller bounds.
+    ///
+    /// L2 and normalized-cosine routing use squared L2 distances. At zero
+    /// distance only best-distance ties qualify; the caller minimum still applies.
+    /// Dot instead scales the gap by `abs(1 - nearest)`, the magnitude of the
+    /// best inner product. Its budget is insensitive to positive query scaling
+    /// apart from floating-point rounding, including when distances change sign.
+    /// f64 arithmetic avoids overflow when subtracting finite f32 distances or
+    /// applying a large finite margin.
+    pub(super) fn apply(self, query: &mut Query, distances: &[f32], metric: DistanceType) {
+        if query.maximum_nprobes == Some(query.minimum_nprobes) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if !matches!(
+            metric,
+            DistanceType::L2 | DistanceType::Cosine | DistanceType::Dot
+        ) {
+            apply_legacy_probes(query, distances);
+            return;
+        }
+        let selected = match distances.first().copied() {
+            Some(nearest) if nearest.is_finite() => {
+                let nearest = f64::from(nearest);
+                let scale = if metric == DistanceType::Dot {
+                    (1.0 - nearest).abs()
+                } else {
+                    nearest
+                };
+                let allowed_gap = f64::from(self.margin) * scale;
+                distances.partition_point(|distance| {
+                    distance.is_finite() && f64::from(*distance) - nearest <= allowed_gap
+                })
+            }
+            // No finite nearest distance is available to estimate a relative
+            // gap. Leave the candidate budget unconstrained by distance pruning.
+            Some(_) => distances.len(),
+            None => 0,
+        };
+        let selected = selected
+            .max(self.min_initial_nprobes)
+            .min(self.max_initial_nprobes.unwrap_or(distances.len()));
+        query.minimum_nprobes = query
+            .minimum_nprobes
+            .max(selected)
+            .min(query.maximum_nprobes.unwrap_or(distances.len()))
+            .min(distances.len());
+        // Keep maximum_nprobes unchanged: late search needs the remaining
+        // candidates when filters or deletions exhaust the initial budget.
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::Float32Array;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    fn query() -> Query {
+        Query {
+            column: "vector".to_string(),
+            key: Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, 0.0])),
+            k: 10,
+            lower_bound: None,
+            upper_bound: None,
+            minimum_nprobes: 1,
+            maximum_nprobes: None,
+            ef: None,
+            refine_factor: None,
+            metric_type: None,
+            use_index: true,
+            query_parallelism: 0,
+            dist_q_c: 0.0,
+            approx_mode: Default::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2_top1(DistanceType::L2, 1, 0.2175, 5, 19)]
+    #[case::l2_top10_lower_boundary(DistanceType::L2, 2, 0.265, 6, 24)]
+    #[case::l2_top10_upper_boundary(DistanceType::L2, 10, 0.265, 6, 24)]
+    #[case::l2_top100_lower_boundary(DistanceType::L2, 11, 0.33, 11, 38)]
+    #[case::l2_top100(DistanceType::L2, 100, 0.33, 11, 38)]
+    #[case::cosine_top1(DistanceType::Cosine, 1, 0.235, 3, 50)]
+    #[case::cosine_top10_lower_boundary(DistanceType::Cosine, 2, 0.2875, 8, 77)]
+    #[case::cosine_top10_upper_boundary(DistanceType::Cosine, 10, 0.2875, 8, 77)]
+    #[case::cosine_top100_lower_boundary(DistanceType::Cosine, 11, 0.38, 7, 106)]
+    #[case::cosine_top100(DistanceType::Cosine, 100, 0.38, 7, 106)]
+    #[case::dot_top1(DistanceType::Dot, 1, 0.14, 56, 112)]
+    #[case::dot_top10_lower_boundary(DistanceType::Dot, 2, 0.055, 144, 432)]
+    #[case::dot_top10_upper_boundary(DistanceType::Dot, 10, 0.055, 144, 432)]
+    #[case::dot_top100_lower_boundary(DistanceType::Dot, 11, 0.0625, 200, 768)]
+    #[case::dot_top100(DistanceType::Dot, 100, 0.0625, 200, 768)]
+    fn test_auto_probe_metric_profiles(
+        #[case] metric: DistanceType,
+        #[case] k: usize,
+        #[case] margin: f32,
+        #[case] minimum: usize,
+        #[case] maximum: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut query = query();
+        query.k = k;
+        let config = AutoProbeConfig::parse(&query, metric, None, None, None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            config,
+            AutoProbeConfig {
+                min_initial_nprobes: minimum,
+                margin,
+                max_initial_nprobes: Some(maximum),
+            }
+        );
+
+        let mut distances = vec![f32::MAX; maximum + 1];
+        distances[0] = 1.0;
+        config.apply(&mut query, &distances, metric);
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, minimum);
+
+        distances.fill(1.0);
+        config.apply(&mut query, &distances, metric);
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, maximum);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, None);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::top1_positive(1, &[4.0, 4.0, 5.0], 1, None, 1)]
+    #[case::top1_zero_ties(1, &[0.0, 0.0, 1.0], 1, None, 2)]
+    #[case::top10_positive(10, &[1.0, 7.0, 8.0], 1, None, 2)]
+    #[case::top10_zero_ties(10, &[0.0, 0.0, 1.0], 1, None, 2)]
+    #[case::top100_positive(100, &[1.0, 81.0, 82.0], 1, None, 2)]
+    #[case::above_learned_cap(10, &[1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0], 1, None, 5)]
+    #[case::maximum(10, &[1.0, 1.0, 1.0], 1, Some(2), 2)]
+    #[case::minimum(1, &[1.0, 1.0], 4, None, 4)]
+    fn test_uncalibrated_metrics_preserve_probe_budget(
+        #[values(DistanceType::Hamming)] metric: DistanceType,
+        #[case] k: usize,
+        #[case] distances: &[f32],
+        #[case] minimum: usize,
+        #[case] maximum: Option<usize>,
+        #[case] expected: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut query = query();
+        query.k = k;
+        query.minimum_nprobes = minimum;
+        query.maximum_nprobes = maximum;
+        // Calibrated Auto overrides must neither reject nor change these metrics.
+        assert_eq!(
+            AutoProbeConfig::parse(&query, metric, Some("invalid"), Some("0"), Some("0")).unwrap(),
+            Some(AutoProbeConfig::default()),
+        );
+        AutoProbeConfig {
+            min_initial_nprobes: 4,
+            margin: 80.0,
+            max_initial_nprobes: Some(4),
+        }
+        .apply(&mut query, distances, metric);
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, expected);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, maximum);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::l2(DistanceType::L2, &[4.0, 6.0, 6.25], 0.5, 2)]
+    #[case::cosine(DistanceType::Cosine, &[0.25, 0.5, 0.75], 1.0, 2)]
+    #[case::dot_positive_inner_product(DistanceType::Dot, &[-3.0, -1.0, 0.0], 0.5, 2)]
+    #[case::dot_negative_inner_product(DistanceType::Dot, &[3.0, 4.0, 5.0], 0.5, 2)]
+    #[case::dot_zero_inner_product(DistanceType::Dot, &[1.0, 1.0, 2.0], 80.0, 2)]
+    #[case::dot_zero_distance(DistanceType::Dot, &[0.0, 0.5, 0.75], 0.5, 2)]
+    #[case::dot_large_gap(DistanceType::Dot, &[-f32::MAX, 0.0, f32::MAX], 1.0, 2)]
+    #[case::dot_nonfinite_tail(DistanceType::Dot, &[-3.0, -1.0, f32::INFINITY], 0.5, 2)]
+    #[case::large_l2_gap(DistanceType::L2, &[f32::MAX / 2.0, f32::MAX], 1.0, 2)]
+    #[case::zero_l2(DistanceType::L2, &[0.0, 0.0, 0.25], 80.0, 2)]
+    #[case::zero_margin(DistanceType::L2, &[1.0, 1.0, 2.0], 0.0, 2)]
+    #[case::empty(DistanceType::L2, &[], 1.0, 0)]
+    #[case::nonfinite_nearest(DistanceType::L2, &[f32::INFINITY, f32::INFINITY], 1.0, 2)]
+    #[case::nan_nearest(DistanceType::L2, &[f32::NAN], 1.0, 1)]
+    #[case::nonfinite_tail(DistanceType::L2, &[1.0, 2.0, f32::INFINITY], 1.0, 2)]
+    fn test_auto_probe_gap(
+        #[case] metric: DistanceType,
+        #[case] distances: &[f32],
+        #[case] margin: f32,
+        #[case] expected: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut query = query();
+        AutoProbeConfig {
+            min_initial_nprobes: 1,
+            margin,
+            max_initial_nprobes: None,
+        }
+        .apply(&mut query, distances, metric);
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, expected);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, None);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_dot_gap_preserves_positive_query_scaling(
+        #[values(0.125, 1.0, 8.0)] scale: f32,
+        #[values(1, 10, 100)] k: usize,
+    ) {
+        let distances = [4.0, 2.0, 1.0, -1.0].map(|inner_product| 1.0 - scale * inner_product);
+        let mut query = query();
+        query.k = k;
+        AutoProbeConfig {
+            min_initial_nprobes: 1,
+            margin: 0.5,
+            max_initial_nprobes: None,
+        }
+        .apply(&mut query, &distances, DistanceType::Dot);
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, 2);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, None);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::positive_inner_product(&[-3.0, -1.0, 0.0, 1.0], 1, 1)]
+    #[case::positive_inner_product_top10(&[-3.0, -1.0, 0.0, 1.0], 10, 1)]
+    #[case::negative_inner_product(&[3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0], 10, 4)]
+    #[case::zero_inner_product(&[1.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0], 100, 4)]
+    fn test_legacy_dot_policy_preserves_signed_distances(
+        #[case] distances: &[f32],
+        #[case] k: usize,
+        #[case] expected: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut query = query();
+        query.k = k;
+        AutoProbePolicy::Legacy.apply(&mut query, distances, DistanceType::Dot);
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, expected);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, None);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::caller_minimum(1, 10.0, 4, None, Some(2), 4)]
+    #[case::caller_maximum(1, 10.0, 1, Some(3), None, 3)]
+    #[case::initial_cap(1, 10.0, 1, None, Some(2), 2)]
+    #[case::fixed(4, 10.0, 3, Some(3), Some(4), 3)]
+    #[case::minimum_exceeds_candidates(1, 10.0, 10, None, None, 5)]
+    #[case::learned_floor(4, 0.0, 1, None, None, 4)]
+    #[case::learned_floor_limited_by_caller(4, 0.0, 1, Some(2), None, 2)]
+    #[case::learned_floor_exceeds_candidates(8, 0.0, 1, None, None, 5)]
+    #[case::selected_above_floor(2, 10.0, 1, None, Some(4), 4)]
+    #[case::learned_floor_equals_cap(3, 0.0, 1, None, Some(3), 3)]
+    fn test_auto_probe_bounds(
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Dot)] metric: DistanceType,
+        #[case] learned_minimum: usize,
+        #[case] margin: f32,
+        #[case] minimum: usize,
+        #[case] maximum: Option<usize>,
+        #[case] cap: Option<usize>,
+        #[case] expected: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut query = query();
+        query.minimum_nprobes = minimum;
+        query.maximum_nprobes = maximum;
+        AutoProbeConfig {
+            min_initial_nprobes: learned_minimum,
+            margin,
+            max_initial_nprobes: cap,
+        }
+        .apply(&mut query, &[2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0], metric);
+        assert_eq!(query.minimum_nprobes, expected);
+        assert_eq!(query.maximum_nprobes, maximum);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_auto_probe_learned_floor_matches_caller_floor(
+        #[values(4, 16, 32)] minimum: usize,
+        #[values(0.0, 5.0, 30.0)] margin: f32,
+    ) {
+        let distances = (1..=64).map(|distance| distance as f32).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mut learned = query();
+        let mut explicit = query();
+        explicit.minimum_nprobes = minimum;
+        AutoProbeConfig {
+            min_initial_nprobes: minimum,
+            margin,
+            max_initial_nprobes: Some(48),
+        }
+        .apply(&mut learned, &distances, DistanceType::L2);
+        AutoProbeConfig {
+            min_initial_nprobes: 1,
+            margin,
+            max_initial_nprobes: Some(48),
+        }
+        .apply(&mut explicit, &distances, DistanceType::L2);
+        assert_eq!(learned.minimum_nprobes, explicit.minimum_nprobes);
+        assert!(learned.minimum_nprobes >= minimum);
+        assert_eq!(learned.maximum_nprobes, None);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::invalid_margin(Some("no"), None, None, MARGIN_ENV)]
+    #[case::negative_margin(Some("-1"), None, None, MARGIN_ENV)]
+    #[case::nan_margin(Some("NaN"), None, None, MARGIN_ENV)]
+    #[case::infinite_margin(Some("inf"), None, None, MARGIN_ENV)]
+    #[case::zero_floor(None, Some("0"), None, MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    #[case::negative_floor(None, Some("-1"), None, MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    #[case::invalid_floor(None, Some("no"), None, MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    #[case::nan_floor(None, Some("NaN"), None, MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    #[case::infinite_floor(None, Some("inf"), None, MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    #[case::zero_cap(None, None, Some("0"), MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    #[case::negative_cap(None, None, Some("-1"), MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    #[case::invalid_cap(None, None, Some("no"), MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    #[case::nan_cap(None, None, Some("NaN"), MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    #[case::infinite_cap(None, None, Some("inf"), MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV)]
+    fn test_auto_probe_invalid_overrides(
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot)] metric: DistanceType,
+        #[case] margin: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] minimum: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] maximum: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] name: &str,
+    ) {
+        let error = AutoProbeConfig::parse(&query(), metric, margin, minimum, maximum).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, DataFusionError::Execution(_)));
+        assert!(error.to_string().contains(name));
+        let mut fixed = query();
+        fixed.maximum_nprobes = Some(fixed.minimum_nprobes);
+        assert_eq!(
+            AutoProbeConfig::parse(&fixed, metric, margin, minimum, maximum).unwrap(),
+            None
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::minimum_above_default_cap(Some("9"), None)]
+    #[case::maximum_below_default_floor(None, Some("2"))]
+    #[case::inverted_overrides(Some("8"), Some("4"))]
+    fn test_auto_probe_inverted_interval(
+        #[case] minimum: Option<&str>,
+        #[case] maximum: Option<&str>,
+    ) {
+        let config = AutoProbeConfig {
+            min_initial_nprobes: 4,
+            margin: 0.5,
+            max_initial_nprobes: Some(8),
+        };
+        let error = config.with_overrides(None, minimum, maximum).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, DataFusionError::Execution(_)));
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains(MIN_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV));
+        assert!(message.contains(MAX_INITIAL_NPROBES_ENV));
+        assert!(message.contains("exceeds"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_auto_probe_partial_overrides_preserve_profile_fields() {
+        let config = AutoProbeConfig {
+            min_initial_nprobes: 4,
+            margin: 0.5,
+            max_initial_nprobes: Some(8),
+        };
+        let floor_only = config.with_overrides(None, Some("6"), None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(floor_only.min_initial_nprobes, 6);
+        assert_eq!(floor_only.margin, config.margin);
+        assert_eq!(floor_only.max_initial_nprobes, config.max_initial_nprobes);
+        let cap_only = config.with_overrides(None, None, Some("6")).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(cap_only.min_initial_nprobes, config.min_initial_nprobes);
+        assert_eq!(cap_only.margin, config.margin);
+        assert_eq!(cap_only.max_initial_nprobes, Some(6));
+        let both = config.with_overrides(None, Some("1"), Some("2")).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(both.min_initial_nprobes, 1);
+        assert_eq!(both.max_initial_nprobes, Some(2));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_auto_probe_valid_overrides() {
+        let config = AutoProbeConfig::parse(
+            &query(),
+            DistanceType::Cosine,
+            Some("0"),
+            Some("4"),
+            Some("7"),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            config,
+            AutoProbeConfig {
+                min_initial_nprobes: 4,
+                margin: 0.0,
+                max_initial_nprobes: Some(7)
+            }
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    fn test_auto_probe_margin_monotonicity(
+        #[values(DistanceType::L2, DistanceType::Cosine, DistanceType::Dot)] metric: DistanceType,
+    ) {
+        let distances = &[2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0];
+        let mut previous = 0;
+        for margin in [0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 6.0, 80.0] {
+            let mut query = query();
+            AutoProbeConfig {
+                min_initial_nprobes: 1,
+                margin,
+                max_initial_nprobes: None,
+            }
+            .apply(&mut query, distances, metric);
+            assert!(query.minimum_nprobes >= previous);
+            previous = query.minimum_nprobes;
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::hamming(DistanceType::Hamming, &[1.0, 2.0, 8.0])]
+    fn test_uncalibrated_metrics_preserve_original_auto(
+        #[case] metric: DistanceType,
+        #[case] distances: &[f32],
+        #[values(1, 10, 100)] k: usize,
+    ) {
+        let mut actual = query();
+        actual.k = k;
+        let mut expected = actual.clone();
+        apply_legacy_probes(&mut expected, distances);
+        let config = AutoProbeConfig::parse(&actual, metric, Some("invalid"), Some("0"), Some("0"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        config.apply(&mut actual, distances, metric);
+        assert_eq!(actual.minimum_nprobes, expected.minimum_nprobes);
+        assert_eq!(actual.maximum_nprobes, expected.maximum_nprobes);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/minhash.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/minhash.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a10d1ecf838
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/minhash.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,852 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Execution node for MinHash LSH similarity search.
+//!
+//! Opens every segment of the MinHash index on the queried column, runs the
+//! query text against each segment under the shared prefilter, and merges the
+//! per-segment top-k hits by Jaccard distance. Distances do not depend on
+//! corpus statistics, so the merge across segments is exact.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::types::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
+use datafusion::execution::{SendableRecordBatchStream, TaskContext};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{Distribution, EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
+use futures::stream::FuturesUnordered;
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, future::try_join_all, stream};
+use lance_arrow::iter_str_array;
+use lance_core::utils::tokio::{get_num_compute_intensive_cpus, spawn_cpu};
+use lance_core::utils::tracing::StreamTracingExt;
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_index::prefilter::PreFilter;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndex;
+use lance_index::scalar::minhash_lsh::{
+    MinHashHit, MinHashLshIndex, MinHashLshIndexParams, MinHashQuery, QuerySignature,
+    SignatureGenerator, SignatureValue, TopHits, estimate_jaccard,
+};
+use lance_index::vector::graph::OrderedFloat;
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
+use tracing::instrument;
+
+use super::PreFilterSource;
+use super::knn::KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA;
+use super::utils::{IndexMetrics, PreFilterMasks, build_prefilter};
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::index::{DatasetIndexInternalExt, validate_segment_params_compatible};
+
+async fn open_minhash_segment(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    column: &str,
+    segment: &IndexMetadata,
+    metrics: &IndexMetrics,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+    let index = dataset
+        .open_scalar_index(column, &segment.uuid, metrics)
+        .await?;
+    if index.as_any().downcast_ref::<MinHashLshIndex>().is_none() {
+        return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+            "Index segment {} on column {column} is a {} index, not a MinHash LSH index",
+            segment.uuid,
+            index.index_type()
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(index)
+}
+
+fn minhash_segment(index: &dyn ScalarIndex) -> DataFusionResult<&MinHashLshIndex> {
+    index
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<MinHashLshIndex>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Execution("opened index is not a MinHash LSH index".to_string())
+        })
+}
+
+/// Searches every segment of a MinHash LSH index and emits the `limit` rows
+/// with the smallest Jaccard distance as `_distance` and `_rowid`, ordered by
+/// ascending distance.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct MinHashSearchExec {
+    dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+    query: MinHashQuery,
+    limit: usize,
+    segments: Arc<[IndexMetadata]>,
+    prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+    /// Rows whose indexed value was replaced by a data overlay after the
+    /// index was built; they are excluded from the results.
+    overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+    external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl MinHashSearchExec {
+    pub fn new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        query: MinHashQuery,
+        limit: usize,
+        segments: Vec<IndexMetadata>,
+        prefilter_source: PreFilterSource,
+        overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+        external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        Self {
+            dataset,
+            query,
+            limit,
+            segments: Arc::from(segments),
+            prefilter_source,
+            overlay_block,
+            external_mask,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for MinHashSearchExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "MinHashSearch: column={}, limit={}, segments={}",
+                    self.query.column,
+                    self.limit,
+                    self.segments.len()
+                )
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "MinHashSearch\ncolumn={}\nlimit={}",
+                    self.query.column, self.limit
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for MinHashSearchExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "MinHashSearchExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        self.prefilter_source.execution_plan().into_iter().collect()
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        self.children()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let prefilter_source = match children.len() {
+            0 => {
+                if !matches!(self.prefilter_source, PreFilterSource::None) {
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                        "MinHashSearchExec with a prefilter requires one child".to_string(),
+                    ));
+                }
+                PreFilterSource::None
+            }
+            1 => {
+                let child = children.pop().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DataFusionError::Internal("child vanished after length check".to_string())
+                })?;
+                self.prefilter_source.with_execution_plan(child)?
+            }
+            other => {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                    "MinHashSearchExec accepts at most one child, got {other}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            dataset: self.dataset.clone(),
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            limit: self.limit,
+            segments: self.segments.clone(),
+            prefilter_source,
+            overlay_block: self.overlay_block.clone(),
+            external_mask: self.external_mask.clone(),
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "minhash_search_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let limit = self.limit;
+        let segments = self.segments.clone();
+        let prefilter_source = self.prefilter_source.clone();
+        let overlay_block = self.overlay_block.clone();
+        let external_mask = self.external_mask.clone();
+        let metrics = self.metrics.clone();
+        let index_metrics = Arc::new(IndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
+        let baseline_metrics = BaselineMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition);
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let _timer = baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
+            let empty = || hits_batch(&[]);
+            // Signatures are only comparable across segments built with the
+            // same parameters; guard against segments that bypassed the
+            // commit-time validation (for example written by external tools).
+            validate_segment_params_compatible(&[], &segments)?;
+            let indices = try_join_all(segments.iter().map(|segment| {
+                open_minhash_segment(&dataset, &query.column, segment, &index_metrics)
+            }))
+            .await?;
+            let Some(first_index) = indices.first() else {
+                return empty();
+            };
+            // One signature serves every segment; the query text can be a whole document.
+            let Some(query_signature) =
+                minhash_segment(first_index.as_ref())?.query_signature(&query.text)
+            else {
+                return empty();
+            };
+            let query_signature = Arc::new(query_signature);
+            let pre_filter = build_prefilter(
+                context,
+                partition,
+                &prefilter_source,
+                dataset,
+                &segments,
+                PreFilterMasks {
+                    overlay_block,
+                    external_mask,
+                },
+                &metrics,
+            )?;
+            pre_filter.wait_for_ready().await?;
+            let mask = pre_filter.mask();
+
+            // Built with a loop rather than `map` so the futures own their
+            // `Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>` without a higher-ranked closure lifetime.
+            let mut searches = Vec::with_capacity(indices.len());
+            for index in &indices {
+                let index: Arc<dyn ScalarIndex> = index.clone();
+                let mask = mask.clone();
+                let query_signature = query_signature.clone();
+                let metrics = index_metrics.clone();
+                searches.push(async move {
+                    minhash_segment(index.as_ref())?
+                        .search_signature(&query_signature, limit, &mask, metrics.as_ref())
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+                });
+            }
+            let mut merged = TopHits::new(limit);
+            let mut per_segment = stream::iter(searches)
+                .buffer_unordered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().min(indices.len().max(1)));
+            while let Some(hits) = per_segment.try_next().await? {
+                for hit in hits {
+                    merged.push(hit);
+                }
+            }
+            let hits = merged.into_sorted();
+            index_metrics.flush_io();
+            baseline_metrics.record_output(hits.len());
+            hits_batch(&hits)
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+fn hits_batch(hits: &[MinHashHit]) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+    let distances = Float32Array::from_iter_values(hits.iter().map(|hit| hit.distance.0));
+    let row_ids = UInt64Array::from_iter_values(hits.iter().map(|hit| hit.row_id));
+    Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
+        KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(distances) as ArrayRef,
+            Arc::new(row_ids) as ArrayRef,
+        ],
+    )?)
+}
+
+/// Score one input batch: rows that share at least one band with the query
+/// (the index's own candidate rule) keep their Jaccard distance; at most
+/// `limit` hits survive so the caller merges only tiny per-batch results.
+fn score_flat_batch(
+    mut generator: SignatureGenerator,
+    query: &QuerySignature,
+    batch: &RecordBatch,
+    column: &str,
+    limit: usize,
+) -> Result<Vec<MinHashHit>> {
+    let row_ids = batch
+        .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+        .and_then(|column| column.as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>())
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal(format!(
+                "flat MinHash input batch has no UInt64 column {ROW_ID}"
+            ))
+        })?;
+    let values = batch.column_by_name(column).ok_or_else(|| {
+        Error::internal(format!("flat MinHash input batch has no column {column}"))
+    })?;
+    let mut hits = TopHits::new(limit);
+    let mut signature = vec![SignatureValue::MAX; generator.num_hashes()];
+    let mut band_keys = Vec::with_capacity(generator.num_bands());
+    for (row, text) in iter_str_array(values.as_ref()).enumerate() {
+        if let Some(text) = text
+            && generator.signature(text, &mut signature)
+            && query.shares_band(&generator, &signature, &mut band_keys)
+        {
+            hits.push(MinHashHit {
+                row_id: row_ids.value(row),
+                distance: OrderedFloat(1.0 - estimate_jaccard(query.signature(), &signature)),
+            });
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(hits.into_sorted())
+}
+
+/// Rows per signing task on the flat path: scan batches are split this fine so
+/// a scan of a few large batches still spreads over every CPU.
+const FLAT_SIGN_CHUNK_ROWS: usize = 1024;
+
+/// Scores rows the index does not cover (unindexed fragments and rows whose
+/// value was replaced by a data overlay) by computing their signatures on the
+/// fly, emitting the `limit` closest rows as `_distance` and `_rowid`.
+///
+/// The input scans only those rows, projected to the text column and
+/// `_rowid`; each batch is signed on the CPU pool with a per-batch top-k so
+/// memory stays bounded by the batches in flight.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FlatMinHashExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    query: MinHashQuery,
+    params: MinHashLshIndexParams,
+    limit: usize,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+    metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+}
+
+impl FlatMinHashExec {
+    pub fn new(
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        query: MinHashQuery,
+        params: MinHashLshIndexParams,
+        limit: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone()),
+            Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
+            EmissionType::Final,
+            Boundedness::Bounded,
+        ));
+        Self {
+            input,
+            query,
+            params,
+            limit,
+            properties,
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for FlatMinHashExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        match t {
+            DisplayFormatType::Default | DisplayFormatType::Verbose => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "MinHashFlatSearch: column={}, limit={}",
+                    self.query.column, self.limit
+                )
+            }
+            DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "MinHashFlatSearch\ncolumn={}\nlimit={}",
+                    self.query.column, self.limit
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for FlatMinHashExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "FlatMinHashExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        // `execute` reads a single input partition; without this the input
+        // could be split across partitions of which only one is consumed.
+        vec![Distribution::SinglePartition]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "FlatMinHashExec requires one child, got {}",
+                children.len()
+            )));
+        }
+        let input = children.pop().ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal("child vanished after length check".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            input,
+            query: self.query.clone(),
+            params: self.params.clone(),
+            limit: self.limit,
+            properties: self.properties.clone(),
+            metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(name = "flat_minhash_exec", level = "debug", skip_all)]
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let mut input = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let query = self.query.clone();
+        let params = self.params.clone();
+        let limit = self.limit;
+        let baseline_metrics = BaselineMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition);
+        let stream = stream::once(async move {
+            let mut generator = SignatureGenerator::try_new(&params)?;
+            let Some(query_signature) = QuerySignature::compute(&mut generator, &query.text) else {
+                return hits_batch(&[]);
+            };
+            let query_signature = Arc::new(query_signature);
+            let column = Arc::new(query.column);
+            let mut hits = TopHits::new(limit);
+            let mut in_flight = FuturesUnordered::new();
+            let concurrency = get_num_compute_intensive_cpus().max(1);
+            while let Some(batch) = input.try_next().await? {
+                for offset in (0..batch.num_rows()).step_by(FLAT_SIGN_CHUNK_ROWS) {
+                    let chunk =
+                        batch.slice(offset, FLAT_SIGN_CHUNK_ROWS.min(batch.num_rows() - offset));
+                    let generator = generator.clone();
+                    let query_signature = query_signature.clone();
+                    let column = column.clone();
+                    in_flight.push(spawn_cpu(move || {
+                        score_flat_batch(generator, &query_signature, &chunk, &column, limit)
+                    }));
+                    if in_flight.len() >= concurrency
+                        && let Some(batch_hits) = in_flight.next().await
+                    {
+                        hits.extend(batch_hits?);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            while let Some(batch_hits) = in_flight.next().await {
+                hits.extend(batch_hits?);
+            }
+            let hits = hits.into_sorted();
+            baseline_metrics.record_output(hits.len());
+            hits_batch(&hits)
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            KNN_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            stream.stream_in_current_span().boxed(),
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn supports_limit_pushdown(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::types::{Float32Type, Int32Type, UInt64Type};
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID};
+    use lance_index::IndexType;
+    use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::MatchQuery;
+    use lance_index::scalar::minhash_lsh::MinHashQuery;
+    use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, FullTextSearchQuery, ScalarIndexParams};
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
+
+    use crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner;
+    use crate::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+    use crate::{Dataset, Result};
+
+    const BASE: &str = "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog and runs away very fast";
+    const NEAR: &str = "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog and runs away very quickly";
+
+    fn texts() -> Vec<&'static str> {
+        vec![
+            BASE,
+            NEAR,
+            "completely unrelated sentence about columnar storage in lance files",
+            BASE,
+            "another unrelated row that talks about vector indices and recall",
+            "yet another unrelated row discussing full text search tokenizers",
+            "a row about fragments compaction and stable row identifiers",
+            "a row about the manifest and transaction commit protocol",
+            "some words about python bindings and pyarrow tables",
+            "some words about java bindings and arrow record batches",
+            "rows describing bloom filters and zone maps for pruning",
+            "rows describing btree pages and bitmap postings for equality",
+        ]
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> Arc<Schema> {
+        Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+            Field::new("text", DataType::Utf8, true),
+        ]))
+    }
+
+    fn batch(first_id: i32, texts: &[&str]) -> RecordBatch {
+        let ids = Int32Array::from_iter_values(first_id..first_id + texts.len() as i32);
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(ids) as ArrayRef,
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts.to_vec())) as ArrayRef,
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Twelve rows split over three fragments with a MinHash index on `text`.
+    async fn indexed_dataset() -> Dataset {
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch(0, &texts()))], schema());
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            "memory://",
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 3);
+        let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::MinHashLsh)
+            .with_params(&serde_json::json!({"num_hashes": 64, "num_bands": 16}));
+        dataset
+            .create_index(&["text"], IndexType::MinHashLsh, None, &params, true)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset
+    }
+
+    /// Append `texts` as one new, unindexed fragment.
+    async fn append(dataset: Dataset, first_id: i32, texts: &[&str]) -> Dataset {
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch(first_id, texts))], schema());
+        Dataset::write(
+            reader,
+            Arc::new(dataset),
+            Some(WriteParams {
+                mode: WriteMode::Append,
+                ..Default::default()
+            }),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn scan(dataset: &Dataset, text: &str, limit: i64) -> Scanner {
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.minhash_search(MinHashQuery::new(text, "text"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(limit), None)
+            .unwrap()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap();
+        scan
+    }
+
+    /// `(id, _distance)` of a MinHash scan configured by `configure`.
+    async fn hits(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        text: &str,
+        limit: i64,
+        configure: impl FnOnce(&mut Scanner),
+    ) -> Result<Vec<(i32, f32)>> {
+        let mut scan = scan(dataset, text, limit);
+        configure(&mut scan);
+        let batch = scan.try_into_batch().await?;
+        let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+        let distances = batch["_distance"].as_primitive::<Float32Type>();
+        Ok(ids
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .copied()
+            .zip(distances.values().iter().copied())
+            .collect())
+    }
+
+    async fn ids(
+        dataset: &Dataset,
+        text: &str,
+        limit: i64,
+        configure: impl FnOnce(&mut Scanner),
+    ) -> Vec<i32> {
+        hits(dataset, text, limit, configure)
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|hit| hit.0)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    async fn plan(dataset: &Dataset, configure: impl FnOnce(&mut Scanner)) -> String {
+        let mut scan = scan(dataset, BASE, 4);
+        configure(&mut scan);
+        scan.explain_plan(false).await.unwrap()
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_minhash_search_end_to_end() {
+        let dataset = indexed_dataset().await;
+        let explained = plan(&dataset, |_| {}).await;
+        assert!(
+            explained.contains("MinHashSearch: column=text, limit=4"),
+            "{explained}"
+        );
+
+        let found = hits(&dataset, BASE, 3, |_| {}).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(found[0], (0, 0.0));
+        assert_eq!(found[1], (3, 0.0));
+        assert_eq!(found[2].0, 1);
+        assert!(found[2].1 > 0.0 && found[2].1 < 0.5, "{found:?}");
+        // A query with no similar rows returns an empty result, not an error
+        assert!(
+            hits(&dataset, "nothing shares any shingle here", 3, |_| {})
+                .await
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_empty()
+        );
+        // Offset rows are skipped after ranking
+        let offset = ids(&dataset, BASE, 2, |scan| {
+            scan.limit(Some(2), Some(1)).unwrap();
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(offset, vec![3, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_minhash_search_applies_filters_and_deletes() {
+        let mut dataset = indexed_dataset().await;
+        let prefiltered = ids(&dataset, BASE, 2, |scan| {
+            scan.filter("id >= 1").unwrap().prefilter(true);
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(prefiltered, vec![3, 1]);
+        // Postfiltering ranks first and filters the ranked rows afterwards
+        let postfiltered = ids(&dataset, BASE, 2, |scan| {
+            scan.filter("id >= 1").unwrap().prefilter(false);
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(postfiltered, vec![3]);
+
+        dataset.delete("id = 3").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(ids(&dataset, BASE, 2, |_| {}).await, vec![0, 1]);
+        // Deleting every row of a fragment drops it from the manifest while
+        // the index still lists it; the prefilter masks those rows too.
+        let dropped = texts()[6];
+        assert_eq!(ids(&dataset, dropped, 2, |_| {}).await, vec![6]);
+        dataset.delete("id >= 4 AND id <= 7").await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 2);
+        assert!(ids(&dataset, dropped, 2, |_| {}).await.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(ids(&dataset, BASE, 3, |_| {}).await, vec![0, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_minhash_search_covers_unindexed_fragments() {
+        let dataset = append(indexed_dataset().await, 12, &[BASE, "unrelated append"]).await;
+        assert_eq!(dataset.fragments().len(), 4);
+
+        // Appended rows are scored on the fly and merged with the index hits
+        let explained = plan(&dataset, |_| {}).await;
+        assert!(
+            explained.contains("MinHashSearch: column=text")
+                && explained.contains("MinHashFlatSearch: column=text, limit=4")
+                && explained.contains("SortExec"),
+            "{explained}"
+        );
+        let found = hits(&dataset, BASE, 4, |_| {}).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            found.iter().map(|hit| hit.0).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![0, 3, 12, 1],
+            "{found:?}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(found[2].1, 0.0);
+        // Prefilters reach the flat path too
+        let filtered = ids(&dataset, BASE, 4, |scan| {
+            scan.filter("id >= 12").unwrap().prefilter(true);
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(filtered, vec![12]);
+
+        // Only the unindexed fragment: the plan has no index branch
+        let appended = dataset.fragments()[3].clone();
+        let explained = plan(&dataset, |scan| {
+            scan.with_fragments(vec![appended.clone()]);
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert!(!explained.contains("MinHashSearch: column"), "{explained}");
+        assert!(explained.contains("MinHashFlatSearch"), "{explained}");
+        let flat_only = ids(&dataset, BASE, 4, |scan| {
+            scan.with_fragments(vec![appended]);
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(flat_only, vec![12]);
+
+        // fast_search searches the index only
+        let explained = plan(&dataset, |scan| {
+            scan.fast_search();
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert!(!explained.contains("MinHashFlatSearch"), "{explained}");
+        let fast = ids(&dataset, BASE, 4, |scan| {
+            scan.fast_search();
+        })
+        .await;
+        assert_eq!(fast, vec![0, 3, 1]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_minhash_search_applies_external_mask_before_flat_top_k() {
+        // Two exact copies of BASE land in an unindexed fragment; with limit 1
+        // the flat branch keeps only the first, so a mask allowing only the
+        // second must be applied before that top-k, not after it.
+        let dataset = append(indexed_dataset().await, 12, &[BASE, BASE]).await;
+        let batch = dataset
+            .scan()
+            .filter("id = 13")
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id()
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_into_batch()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let allowed = batch[ROW_ID].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().value(0);
+        let found = hits(&dataset, BASE, 1, |scan| {
+            scan.with_row_addr_prefilter(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([
+                allowed,
+            ])));
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(found, vec![(13, 0.0)]);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_minhash_search_rejects_invalid_scans() {
+        let dataset = indexed_dataset().await;
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.minhash_search(MinHashQuery::new(BASE, "text"))
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, Error::InvalidInput { .. }), "{err}");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("requires a limit"), "{err}");
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        scan.minhash_search(MinHashQuery::new(BASE, "id"))
+            .unwrap()
+            .limit(Some(3), None)
+            .unwrap();
+        let err = scan.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string()
+                .contains("No MinHash LSH index found for column id"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+
+        let mut scan = dataset.scan();
+        assert!(matches!(
+            scan.minhash_search(MinHashQuery::new(BASE, "")),
+            Err(Error::InvalidInput { .. })
+        ));
+
+        let err = hits(&dataset, BASE, 3, |scan| {
+            scan.full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(
+                MatchQuery::new("nothing".to_owned())
+                    .with_column(Some("text".to_owned()))
+                    .into(),
+            ))
+            .unwrap();
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            err.to_string().contains("Cannot combine a MinHash search"),
+            "{err}"
+        );
+
+        let err = hits(&dataset, BASE, 3, |scan| {
+            scan.with_row_id().include_deleted_rows();
+        })
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("deleted rows"), "{err}");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/optimizer.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/optimizer.rs
index 3f0ee07ddf4..528cc2fa709 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/optimizer.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/optimizer.rs
@@ -6,29 +6,51 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use super::TakeExec;
+use super::filtered_read::FilteredReadExec;
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+#[allow(deprecated)]
+use datafusion::physical_plan::coalesce_batches::CoalesceBatchesExec;
 use datafusion::{
     common::tree_node::{Transformed, TreeNode},
     config::ConfigOptions,
     error::Result as DFResult,
-    physical_optimizer::{optimizer::PhysicalOptimizer, PhysicalOptimizerRule},
-    physical_plan::{
-        coalesce_batches::CoalesceBatchesExec, projection::ProjectionExec, ExecutionPlan,
-    },
+    physical_optimizer::{PhysicalOptimizerRule, optimizer::PhysicalOptimizer},
+    physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, projection::ProjectionExec},
 };
-use datafusion_physical_expr::{expressions::Column, PhysicalExpr};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{PhysicalExpr, expressions::Column};
 
-/// Rule that eliminates [TakeExec] nodes that are immediately followed by another [TakeExec].
+/// Rule that eliminates take nodes that are immediately followed by another
+/// take node, fetching the union of the columns in a single node instead.
+///
+/// A "take" is either a [TakeExec] (legacy storage) or a [FilteredReadExec]
+/// with a row-stream source (see `FilteredReadExec::row_stream_input`); the
+/// scanner emits stacked takes in some plan shapes (e.g. filter columns then
+/// projection columns).
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct CoalesceTake;
 
 impl CoalesceTake {
+    /// Whether `plan` is a take node this rule knows how to collapse
+    fn as_take(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Option<&dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        if plan.downcast_ref::<TakeExec>().is_some() {
+            Some(plan.as_ref())
+        } else if let Some(filtered_read) = plan.downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>() {
+            filtered_read
+                .row_stream_input()
+                .is_some()
+                .then_some(plan.as_ref())
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
     fn field_order_differs(old_schema: &ArrowSchema, new_schema: &ArrowSchema) -> bool {
-        old_schema
-            .fields
-            .iter()
-            .zip(&new_schema.fields)
-            .any(|(old, new)| old.name() != new.name())
+        old_schema.fields.len() != new_schema.fields.len()
+            || old_schema
+                .fields
+                .iter()
+                .zip(&new_schema.fields)
+                .any(|(old, new)| old.name() != new.name())
     }
 
     fn remap_collapsed_output(
@@ -47,29 +69,45 @@ impl CoalesceTake {
         Arc::new(ProjectionExec::try_new(project_exprs, plan).unwrap())
     }
 
+    /// Collapse two stacked takes into one, or return None when the rebuilt
+    /// node would not produce every column of the original output (the
+    /// rebuild re-derives what to fetch from the outer take's projection, so
+    /// a column only the inner take fetched can go missing if the outer
+    /// projection doesn't cover it)
     fn collapse_takes(
-        inner_take: &TakeExec,
-        outer_take: &TakeExec,
+        inner_take: &dyn ExecutionPlan,
+        outer_take: &dyn ExecutionPlan,
         outer_exec: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-    ) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         let inner_take_input = inner_take.children()[0].clone();
         let old_output_schema = outer_take.schema();
-        let collapsed = outer_exec
-            .with_new_children(vec![inner_take_input])
-            .unwrap();
+        let collapsed = outer_exec.with_new_children(vec![inner_take_input]).ok()?;
         let new_output_schema = collapsed.schema();
 
+        if old_output_schema
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .any(|field| new_output_schema.field_with_name(field.name()).is_err())
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+
         // It's possible that collapsing the take can change the field order.  This disturbs DF's planner and
         // so we must restore it.
         if Self::field_order_differs(&old_output_schema, &new_output_schema) {
-            Self::remap_collapsed_output(&old_output_schema, &new_output_schema, collapsed)
+            Some(Self::remap_collapsed_output(
+                &old_output_schema,
+                &new_output_schema,
+                collapsed,
+            ))
         } else {
-            collapsed
+            Some(collapsed)
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl PhysicalOptimizerRule for CoalesceTake {
+    #[allow(deprecated)]
     fn optimize(
         &self,
         plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
@@ -77,26 +115,23 @@ impl PhysicalOptimizerRule for CoalesceTake {
     ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         Ok(plan
             .transform_down(|plan| {
-                if let Some(outer_take) = plan.as_any().downcast_ref::<TakeExec>() {
+                if let Some(outer_take) = Self::as_take(&plan) {
                     let child = outer_take.children()[0];
-                    // Case 1: TakeExec -> TakeExec
-                    if let Some(inner_take) = child.as_any().downcast_ref::<TakeExec>() {
-                        return Ok(Transformed::yes(Self::collapse_takes(
-                            inner_take,
-                            outer_take,
-                            plan.clone(),
-                        )));
-                    // Case 2: TakeExec -> CoalesceBatchesExec -> TakeExec
-                    } else if let Some(exec_child) =
-                        child.as_any().downcast_ref::<CoalesceBatchesExec>()
-                    {
+                    // Case 1: take -> take
+                    if let Some(inner_take) = Self::as_take(child) {
+                        if let Some(collapsed) =
+                            Self::collapse_takes(inner_take, outer_take, plan.clone())
+                        {
+                            return Ok(Transformed::yes(collapsed));
+                        }
+                    // Case 2: take -> CoalesceBatchesExec -> take
+                    } else if let Some(exec_child) = child.downcast_ref::<CoalesceBatchesExec>() {
                         let inner_child = exec_child.children()[0].clone();
-                        if let Some(inner_take) = inner_child.as_any().downcast_ref::<TakeExec>() {
-                            return Ok(Transformed::yes(Self::collapse_takes(
-                                inner_take,
-                                outer_take,
-                                plan.clone(),
-                            )));
+                        if let Some(inner_take) = Self::as_take(&inner_child)
+                            && let Some(collapsed) =
+                                Self::collapse_takes(inner_take, outer_take, plan.clone())
+                        {
+                            return Ok(Transformed::yes(collapsed));
                         }
                     }
                 }
@@ -127,7 +162,7 @@ impl PhysicalOptimizerRule for SimplifyProjection {
     ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
         Ok(plan
             .transform_down(|plan| {
-                if let Some(proj) = plan.as_any().downcast_ref::<ProjectionExec>() {
+                if let Some(proj) = plan.downcast_ref::<ProjectionExec>() {
                     let children = proj.children();
                     if children.len() != 1 {
                         return Ok(Transformed::no(plan));
@@ -144,7 +179,7 @@ impl PhysicalOptimizerRule for SimplifyProjection {
                     }
 
                     if proj.expr().iter().enumerate().all(|(index, proj_expr)| {
-                        if let Some(expr) = proj_expr.expr.as_any().downcast_ref::<Column>() {
+                        if let Some(expr) = proj_expr.expr.downcast_ref::<Column>() {
                             // no renaming, no reordering
                             expr.index() == index && expr.name() == proj_expr.alias
                         } else {
@@ -170,9 +205,209 @@ impl PhysicalOptimizerRule for SimplifyProjection {
 
 pub fn get_physical_optimizer() -> PhysicalOptimizer {
     PhysicalOptimizer::with_rules(vec![
+        // Rewrite `COUNT(*)`-style aggregates into CountFromMaskExec so they
+        // can be answered without scanning column data. Runs before the
+        // generic rules so they don't see the rewritten subtree.
+        Arc::new(crate::io::exec::count_pushdown::CountPushdown),
         Arc::new(crate::io::exec::optimizer::CoalesceTake),
         Arc::new(crate::io::exec::optimizer::SimplifyProjection),
         // Push down limit into FilteredReadExec and other Execs via with_fetch()
         Arc::new(datafusion::physical_optimizer::limit_pushdown::LimitPushdown::new()),
+        // Insert exchange nodes (RepartitionExec, CoalescePartitionsExec) where needed
+        // to satisfy distribution requirements as exec nodes migrate to multi-partition output.
+        Arc::new(datafusion::physical_optimizer::enforce_distribution::EnforceDistribution::new()),
     ])
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, UInt64Array};
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+    use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
+    use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+    use lance_core::datatypes::OnMissing;
+    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datafusion::exec::OneShotExec;
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+
+    use crate::dataset::{Dataset, WriteParams};
+    use crate::io::exec::filtered_read::{FilteredReadExec, FilteredReadOptions};
+
+    /// 20 rows, one fragment, columns i (Int32) and s (Utf8)
+    async fn fixture(storage_version: LanceFileVersion) -> (Arc<Dataset>, TempStrDir) {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+            ArrowField::new("i", DataType::Int32, false),
+            ArrowField::new("s", DataType::Utf8, false),
+        ]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema.clone(),
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..20)),
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter_values(
+                    (0..20).map(|v| format!("s-{v}")),
+                )),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let tmp_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let uri = tmp_dir.as_str();
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            data_storage_version: Some(storage_version),
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+        Dataset::write(reader, uri, Some(params)).await.unwrap();
+        (Arc::new(Dataset::open(uri).await.unwrap()), tmp_dir)
+    }
+
+    /// An input plan producing one batch of `_rowid` keys
+    fn keys_input(keys: Vec<u64>) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![ArrowField::new(
+            ROW_ID,
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(keys))]).unwrap();
+        let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]);
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
+        Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream))
+    }
+
+    fn row_stream_take(
+        dataset: &Arc<Dataset>,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        columns: &[&str],
+    ) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        // Mirror Scanner::take: full target projection, carried identity kept
+        let mut projection = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_columns(columns, OnMissing::Error)
+            .unwrap();
+        projection.with_row_id = true;
+        Arc::new(
+            FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+                dataset.clone(),
+                FilteredReadOptions::new(projection),
+                Some(input),
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    async fn run(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+        let schema = stream.schema();
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        concat_batches(&schema, batches.iter()).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn count_takes(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> usize {
+        let self_count = CoalesceTake::as_take(plan).map(|_| 1).unwrap_or(0);
+        self_count
+            + plan
+                .children()
+                .iter()
+                .map(|child| count_takes(child))
+                .sum::<usize>()
+    }
+
+    /// Stacked row-stream takes collapse into one node fetching both takes'
+    /// columns, preserving the output schema and values
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn collapse_row_stream_takes() {
+        let (dataset, _tmp) = fixture(LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+
+        // OneShotExec inputs are single-use: build the plan fresh per run
+        let build = |dataset: &Arc<Dataset>| {
+            let inner = row_stream_take(dataset, keys_input(vec![3, 1, 4]), &["s"]);
+            row_stream_take(dataset, inner, &["i", "s"])
+        };
+        let outer = build(&dataset);
+        let expected_schema = outer.schema();
+        assert_eq!(count_takes(&outer), 2);
+        let expected = run(&outer).await;
+
+        let optimized = CoalesceTake
+            .optimize(build(&dataset), &ConfigOptions::default())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(count_takes(&optimized), 1);
+        assert_eq!(optimized.schema(), expected_schema);
+
+        let result = run(&optimized).await;
+        assert_eq!(result, expected);
+        let i_col = result
+            .column_by_name("i")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<arrow::datatypes::Int32Type>();
+        assert_eq!(i_col.values(), &[3, 1, 4]);
+    }
+
+    /// When the outer take's projection does not cover a column the inner
+    /// take fetched, the collapse is skipped instead of dropping the column
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn collapse_skipped_when_column_would_drop() {
+        let (dataset, _tmp) = fixture(LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+
+        // Outer target deliberately omits the inner take's "s"
+        let build = |dataset: &Arc<Dataset>| {
+            let inner = row_stream_take(dataset, keys_input(vec![3, 1, 4]), &["s"]);
+            row_stream_take(dataset, inner, &["i"])
+        };
+        let outer = build(&dataset);
+        assert_eq!(count_takes(&outer), 2);
+        let expected = run(&outer).await;
+
+        let optimized = CoalesceTake
+            .optimize(build(&dataset), &ConfigOptions::default())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(count_takes(&optimized), 2);
+        assert_eq!(run(&optimized).await, expected);
+        assert!(expected.column_by_name("s").is_some());
+    }
+
+    /// Legacy TakeExec pairs still collapse (through the CoalesceBatchesExec
+    /// the scanner inserts on that path)
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn collapse_legacy_takes() {
+        let (dataset, _tmp) = fixture(LanceFileVersion::Legacy).await;
+
+        let build = |dataset: &Arc<Dataset>| -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+            let inner_proj = dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(["s"], OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap();
+            let inner: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(
+                TakeExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), keys_input(vec![3, 1, 4]), inner_proj)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .unwrap(),
+            );
+            let outer_proj = dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(["i", "s"], OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap();
+            Arc::new(
+                TakeExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), inner, outer_proj)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .unwrap(),
+            )
+        };
+        let outer = build(&dataset);
+        let expected_schema = outer.schema();
+        assert_eq!(count_takes(&outer), 2);
+        let expected = run(&outer).await;
+
+        let optimized = CoalesceTake
+            .optimize(build(&dataset), &ConfigOptions::default())
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(count_takes(&optimized), 1);
+        assert_eq!(optimized.schema(), expected_schema);
+        assert_eq!(run(&optimized).await, expected);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/projection.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/projection.rs
index 8a74577dd49..06bc0b8de67 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/projection.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/projection.rs
@@ -7,8 +7,8 @@ use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, FieldRef, Fields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use datafusion::config::ConfigOptions;
 use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result};
 use datafusion::logical_expr::ScalarUDF;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::projection::ProjectionExec;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::projection::ProjectionExec;
 use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
 use datafusion_functions::core::getfield::GetFieldFunc;
 use datafusion_functions::core::named_struct::NamedStructFunc;
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ pub fn project(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, projection: &ArrowSchema) -> Resul
 
     let field_names = projection.fields().iter().map(|f| f.name()).cloned();
 
-    for (name, selection) in field_names.zip(selections.into_iter()) {
+    for (name, selection) in field_names.zip(selections) {
         let expr = selection_as_expr(&selection, input_schema.fields(), None);
         exprs.push((expr, name));
     }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/pushdown_scan.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/pushdown_scan.rs
index 00d9806d95e..69b1b31c396 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/pushdown_scan.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/pushdown_scan.rs
@@ -2,19 +2,17 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::{any::Any, sync::Arc};
+use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
 use arrow_array::types::{Int64Type, UInt64Type};
 use arrow_array::{Array, BooleanArray, Int64Array, PrimitiveArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
 use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef};
 use arrow_select::filter::filter_record_batch;
-use datafusion::common::Statistics;
 use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result};
 use datafusion::logical_expr::col;
 use datafusion::logical_expr::interval_arithmetic::{Interval, NullableInterval};
 use datafusion::optimizer::simplify_expressions::{ExprSimplifier, SimplifyContext};
-use datafusion::physical_expr::execution_props::ExecutionProps;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::{ColumnarValue, PlanProperties};
@@ -27,29 +25,30 @@ use datafusion::{
 };
 use datafusion_functions::core::expr_ext::FieldAccessor;
 use datafusion_physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
-use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use futures::stream::BoxStream;
+use futures::{FutureExt, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::{RecordBatchExt, SchemaExt};
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
 use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID_FIELD};
 use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
 use lance_io::ReadBatchParams;
 use lance_table::format::Fragment;
-use snafu::location;
 
+use crate::Error;
 use crate::dataset::fragment::FragReadConfig;
 use crate::dataset::scanner::LEGACY_DEFAULT_FRAGMENT_READAHEAD;
-use crate::Error;
 use crate::{
+    Dataset,
     dataset::{
-        fragment::{FileFragment, FragmentReader},
         ROW_ID,
+        fragment::{FileFragment, V1FragmentReader},
+        versions,
     },
     datatypes::Schema,
-    Dataset,
 };
 
-use super::utils::InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use super::Planner;
+use super::utils::{InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter, buffered_fragment_opens};
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct ScanConfig {
@@ -98,7 +97,7 @@ pub struct LancePushdownScanExec {
     predicate: Expr,
     config: ScanConfig,
     output_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
 
@@ -118,7 +117,7 @@ impl LancePushdownScanExec {
             .collect();
         let dataset_schema = dataset.schema();
         let predicate_projection = Arc::new(dataset_schema.project(&columns)
-            .map_err(|err| Error::invalid_input(format!("Filter predicate '{:?}' references columns {:?}, but some of them were not found in the dataset schema: {}\nInner error: {:?}", predicate, columns, dataset_schema, err), location!()))?);
+            .map_err(|err| Error::invalid_input(format!("Filter predicate '{:?}' references columns {:?}, but some of them were not found in the dataset schema: {}\nInner error: {:?}", predicate, columns, dataset_schema, err)))?);
 
         if config.make_deletions_null && !config.with_row_id {
             return Err(DataFusionError::Configuration(
@@ -135,12 +134,12 @@ impl LancePushdownScanExec {
         }
         let output_schema = Arc::new(output_schema);
 
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()),
             Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
 
         Ok(Self {
             dataset,
@@ -161,10 +160,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LancePushdownScanExec {
         "LancePushdownScanExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         self.output_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -186,10 +181,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LancePushdownScanExec {
         }
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> datafusion::error::Result<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics::new_unknown(self.output_schema.as_ref()))
-    }
-
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
@@ -214,23 +205,24 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LancePushdownScanExec {
             }
         });
 
-        let batch_stream = fragment_stream.map(|(exec, fragment)| async move {
-            let frag_scanner = FragmentScanner::open(
-                fragment,
-                exec.dataset,
-                exec.projection,
-                exec.predicate_projection,
-                exec.predicate,
-                exec.config.clone(),
-            )
-            .await?;
-
-            frag_scanner.scan().await
-        });
+        let batch_stream = buffered_fragment_opens(
+            fragment_stream,
+            self.config.fragment_readahead,
+            |(exec, fragment)| async move {
+                let frag_scanner = FragmentScanner::open(
+                    fragment,
+                    exec.dataset,
+                    exec.projection,
+                    exec.predicate_projection,
+                    exec.predicate,
+                    exec.config.clone(),
+                )
+                .await?;
 
-        let batch_stream = batch_stream
-            .buffered(self.config.fragment_readahead)
-            .try_flatten();
+                frag_scanner.scan()
+            },
+        )
+        .try_flatten();
 
         Ok(Box::pin(InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
             self.schema(),
@@ -240,7 +232,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LancePushdownScanExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 }
@@ -268,7 +260,9 @@ impl DisplayAs for LancePushdownScanExec {
                 )
             }
             DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
-                write!(f, "LancePushdownScan\nuri={}\nprojection=[{}]\npredicate={}\nrow_id={}\nrow_addr={}\nordered={}",
+                write!(
+                    f,
+                    "LancePushdownScan\nuri={}\nprojection=[{}]\npredicate={}\nrow_id={}\nrow_addr={}\nordered={}",
                     self.dataset.data_dir(),
                     columns,
                     self.predicate,
@@ -288,7 +282,7 @@ struct FragmentScanner {
     predicate_projection: Arc<Schema>,
     predicate: Expr,
     config: ScanConfig,
-    reader: FragmentReader,
+    reader: V1FragmentReader,
     stats: Option<RecordBatch>,
 }
 
@@ -309,15 +303,14 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
         if let Some(file_reader_options) = config.file_reader_options.clone() {
             frag_config = frag_config.with_file_reader_options(file_reader_options);
         }
-        let mut reader = fragment.open(dataset.schema(), frag_config).await?;
+        let mut reader =
+            versions::open_v1_fragment_reader(&fragment, dataset.schema(), &frag_config).await?;
         if config.make_deletions_null {
             reader.with_make_deletions_null();
         }
 
         // We only need the statistics for the predicate projection.
-        let stats = reader
-            .legacy_read_page_stats(Some(&predicate_projection))
-            .await?;
+        let stats = reader.read_page_stats(Some(&predicate_projection)).await?;
 
         Ok(Self {
             fragment,
@@ -330,10 +323,15 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
         })
     }
 
-    pub async fn scan(self) -> Result<impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + 'static + Send> {
+    pub fn scan(self) -> Result<BoxStream<'static, Result<RecordBatch>>> {
         let batch_readahead = self.config.batch_readahead;
         let simplified_predicates = self.simplified_predicates()?;
         let ordered_output = self.config.ordered_output;
+        let batch_size_bytes = self
+            .config
+            .file_reader_options
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|o| o.batch_size_bytes);
 
         let scanner = Arc::new(self);
 
@@ -371,6 +369,21 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
                 .boxed()
         };
 
+        let stream = if let Some(budget) = batch_size_bytes {
+            stream
+                .and_then(move |batch| {
+                    futures::future::ready(
+                        crate::dataset::blob::split_batch_by_bytes(batch, (budget * 2) as usize)
+                            .map_err(DataFusionError::from),
+                    )
+                })
+                .map_ok(|batches| futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)))
+                .try_flatten()
+                .boxed()
+        } else {
+            stream
+        };
+
         Ok(stream)
     }
 
@@ -386,7 +399,7 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
                     projection_reader.with_row_address();
                 }
                 let batch = projection_reader
-                    .legacy_read_batch_projected(batch_id, .., &self.projection)
+                    .read_batch_projected(batch_id, .., &self.projection)
                     .await?;
                 let batch = self.final_projection(batch)?;
                 Ok(Some(batch))
@@ -419,7 +432,7 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
                 reader.with_row_address();
 
                 let batch = reader
-                    .legacy_read_batch_projected(batch_id, .., &predicate_projection)
+                    .read_batch_projected(batch_id, .., &predicate_projection)
                     .await?;
 
                 // 2. Evaluate predicate
@@ -473,7 +486,7 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
                         return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
                             "Unexpected result from predicate evaluation: {:?}",
                             result
-                        )))
+                        )));
                     }
                 };
 
@@ -493,7 +506,7 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
                         self.projection.project_by_ids(&remaining_fields, true);
                     Some(
                         self.reader
-                            .legacy_read_batch_projected(
+                            .read_batch_projected(
                                 batch_id,
                                 selection.clone(),
                                 &remaining_projection,
@@ -539,14 +552,13 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
 
         let mut batch = batch
             .project_by_schema(&self.projection.as_ref().into())
-            .map_err(|err| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
+            .map_err(|err| {
+                Error::internal(format!(
                     "Failed to select schema {} from batch with schema {}\nInner error: {}",
                     self.projection,
                     batch.schema(),
                     err
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
+                ))
             })?;
 
         // Row id nor row address weren't part of the projection, so we need to
@@ -664,21 +676,20 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
     }
 
     fn simplified_predicates(&self) -> Result<Vec<Expr>> {
-        let num_batches = self.reader.legacy_num_batches();
+        let num_batches = self.reader.num_batches();
 
         if let Some(stats) = &self.stats {
             let batch_sizes: Vec<usize> = (0..num_batches as u32)
                 .map(|batch_id| {
                     self.reader
-                        .legacy_num_rows_in_batch(batch_id)
+                        .num_rows_in_batch(batch_id)
                         .expect("Operation does not yet support v2 fragments")
                         as usize
                 })
                 .collect();
             let schema =
                 Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(self.predicate_projection.as_ref()).try_into()?);
-            let props = ExecutionProps::new();
-            let context = SimplifyContext::new(&props).with_schema(schema);
+            let context = SimplifyContext::builder().with_schema(schema).build();
             let mut simplifier = ExprSimplifier::new(context);
 
             let mut predicates = Vec::with_capacity(num_batches);
@@ -707,25 +718,287 @@ impl FragmentScanner {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test {
+    use std::collections::HashSet;
+    use std::fmt::Display;
+    use std::sync::Mutex;
+    use std::time::Duration;
+
     use arrow_array::{
-        types::{Float32Type, Int32Type},
         ArrayRef, DictionaryArray, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array,
         RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray, TimestampMicrosecondArray, UInt64Array,
+        types::{Float32Type, Int32Type},
     };
     use arrow_ord::sort::sort_to_indices;
     use arrow_schema::{Field, TimeUnit};
     use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
-    use datafusion::prelude::{lit, Column, SessionContext};
+    use async_trait::async_trait;
+    use datafusion::prelude::{Column, SessionContext, lit};
+    use futures::stream::BoxStream;
     use lance_arrow::{FixedSizeListArrayExt, SchemaExt};
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch};
     use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use lance_io::object_store::WrappingObjectStore;
+    use object_store::list::PaginatedListStore;
+    use object_store::{
+        CopyOptions, GetOptions, GetResult, ListResult, MultipartUpload, ObjectMeta, ObjectStore,
+        PutMultipartOptions, PutOptions, PutPayload, PutResult, RenameOptions,
+        Result as ObjectStoreResult, path::Path,
+    };
     use pretty_assertions::assert_eq;
+    use tokio::sync::{Semaphore, mpsc};
 
     use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
-    use lance_datafusion::logical_expr::ExprExt;
+    use crate::io::exec::{LanceScanConfig, LanceScanExec};
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
 
     use super::*;
 
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct BlockingDataFileReads {
+        release: Semaphore,
+        started_paths: Mutex<HashSet<Path>>,
+        started_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<()>,
+        completed_tx: mpsc::UnboundedSender<()>,
+    }
+
+    impl BlockingDataFileReads {
+        async fn wait_for_release(&self, location: &Path) -> bool {
+            let is_first_data_file_read = location.as_ref().ends_with(".lance")
+                && self.started_paths.lock().unwrap().insert(location.clone());
+            if !is_first_data_file_read {
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            self.started_tx.send(()).unwrap();
+            self.release
+                .acquire()
+                .await
+                .expect("release semaphore was closed")
+                .forget();
+            true
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+    struct BlockingDataFileStoreWrapper {
+        reads: Arc<BlockingDataFileReads>,
+    }
+
+    impl WrappingObjectStore for BlockingDataFileStoreWrapper {
+        fn wrap(&self, _prefix: &str, target: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>) -> Arc<dyn ObjectStore> {
+            Arc::new(BlockingDataFileStore {
+                target,
+                reads: self.reads.clone(),
+            })
+        }
+
+        // Only data file reads are blocked, so a listing can keep the pushdown.
+        fn wrap_paginated(
+            &self,
+            _store_prefix: &str,
+            original: Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>,
+        ) -> Option<Arc<dyn PaginatedListStore>> {
+            Some(original)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct BlockingDataFileStore {
+        target: Arc<dyn ObjectStore>,
+        reads: Arc<BlockingDataFileReads>,
+    }
+
+    impl Display for BlockingDataFileStore {
+        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+            write!(f, "BlockingDataFileStore({})", self.target)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl ObjectStore for BlockingDataFileStore {
+        async fn put_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            payload: PutPayload,
+            options: PutOptions,
+        ) -> ObjectStoreResult<PutResult> {
+            self.target.put_opts(location, payload, options).await
+        }
+
+        async fn put_multipart_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            options: PutMultipartOptions,
+        ) -> ObjectStoreResult<Box<dyn MultipartUpload>> {
+            self.target.put_multipart_opts(location, options).await
+        }
+
+        async fn get_opts(
+            &self,
+            location: &Path,
+            options: GetOptions,
+        ) -> ObjectStoreResult<GetResult> {
+            let is_tracked_read = self.reads.wait_for_release(location).await;
+            let result = self.target.get_opts(location, options).await;
+            if is_tracked_read {
+                self.reads.completed_tx.send(()).unwrap();
+            }
+            result
+        }
+
+        fn delete_stream(
+            &self,
+            locations: BoxStream<'static, ObjectStoreResult<Path>>,
+        ) -> BoxStream<'static, ObjectStoreResult<Path>> {
+            self.target.delete_stream(locations)
+        }
+
+        fn list(&self, prefix: Option<&Path>) -> BoxStream<'static, ObjectStoreResult<ObjectMeta>> {
+            self.target.list(prefix)
+        }
+
+        async fn list_with_delimiter(
+            &self,
+            prefix: Option<&Path>,
+        ) -> ObjectStoreResult<ListResult> {
+            self.target.list_with_delimiter(prefix).await
+        }
+
+        async fn copy_opts(
+            &self,
+            from: &Path,
+            to: &Path,
+            options: CopyOptions,
+        ) -> ObjectStoreResult<()> {
+            self.target.copy_opts(from, to, options).await
+        }
+
+        async fn rename_opts(
+            &self,
+            from: &Path,
+            to: &Path,
+            options: RenameOptions,
+        ) -> ObjectStoreResult<()> {
+            self.target.rename_opts(from, to, options).await
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    enum LegacyScanPath {
+        Regular,
+        Pushdown,
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    #[rstest::rstest]
+    #[case::regular(LegacyScanPath::Regular)]
+    #[case::pushdown(LegacyScanPath::Pushdown)]
+    async fn test_fragment_opens_progress_with_bounded_cancellation(
+        #[case] scan_path: LegacyScanPath,
+    ) {
+        const FRAGMENT_READAHEAD: usize = 2;
+        const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: u32 = 8;
+
+        let dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    data_storage_version: Some(LanceFileVersion::Legacy),
+                    max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as usize,
+                    max_rows_per_group: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as usize,
+                    ..WriteParams::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        dataset.session().file_metadata_cache().clear().await;
+
+        let (started_tx, mut started_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
+        let (completed_tx, mut completed_rx) = mpsc::unbounded_channel();
+        let reads = Arc::new(BlockingDataFileReads {
+            release: Semaphore::new(0),
+            started_paths: Mutex::new(HashSet::new()),
+            started_tx,
+            completed_tx,
+        });
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset.with_object_store_wrappers([Arc::new(
+            BlockingDataFileStoreWrapper {
+                reads: reads.clone(),
+            },
+        )
+            as Arc<dyn WrappingObjectStore>]));
+        let fragments = dataset.fragments().clone();
+        let projection = Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone());
+
+        let exec: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = match scan_path {
+            LegacyScanPath::Regular => Arc::new(LanceScanExec::new(
+                dataset,
+                fragments,
+                None,
+                projection,
+                LanceScanConfig {
+                    fragment_readahead: Some(FRAGMENT_READAHEAD),
+                    ordered_output: true,
+                    ..LanceScanConfig::default()
+                },
+            )),
+            LegacyScanPath::Pushdown => Arc::new(
+                LancePushdownScanExec::try_new(
+                    dataset,
+                    fragments,
+                    projection,
+                    col("x").gt(lit(-1)),
+                    ScanConfig {
+                        fragment_readahead: FRAGMENT_READAHEAD,
+                        ..ScanConfig::default()
+                    },
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ),
+        };
+        let context = SessionContext::new();
+        let mut output = exec.execute(0, context.task_ctx()).unwrap();
+
+        assert!(futures::poll!(output.next()).is_pending());
+        for _ in 0..FRAGMENT_READAHEAD {
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), started_rx.recv())
+                .await
+                .expect("fragment open did not start")
+                .expect("fragment open start channel closed");
+        }
+        tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+        assert!(
+            matches!(started_rx.try_recv(), Err(mpsc::error::TryRecvError::Empty)),
+            "fragment opens exceeded fragment_readahead"
+        );
+
+        // The child task must finish this request even though the output stream
+        // is not polled again.
+        reads.release.add_permits(1);
+        tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(5), completed_rx.recv())
+            .await
+            .expect("fragment open did not progress independently")
+            .expect("fragment open completion channel closed");
+        assert!(
+            matches!(started_rx.try_recv(), Err(mpsc::error::TryRecvError::Empty)),
+            "fragment opens exceeded fragment_readahead"
+        );
+
+        // Dropping the scan must abort the other in-flight open instead of
+        // detaching it from the cancelled query.
+        drop(output);
+        reads.release.add_permits(FRAGMENT_READAHEAD);
+        assert!(
+            tokio::time::timeout(Duration::from_secs(1), completed_rx.recv())
+                .await
+                .is_err(),
+            "fragment open completed after scan cancellation"
+        );
+    }
+
     // TODO: test pushdown with nested column once https://github.com/apache/arrow-datafusion/pull/8256
     // is released.
 
@@ -741,11 +1014,13 @@ mod test {
             false,
         )]));
         let num_rows: usize = 10;
-        let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32))],
-        )
-        .unwrap()];
+        let batches = vec![
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..num_rows as i32))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
         let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
 
         let dataset = Dataset::write(
@@ -795,13 +1070,15 @@ mod test {
         )]));
         let num_rows: usize = 10;
         // Create a batch where every row is null
-        let batches = vec![RecordBatch::try_new(
-            schema.clone(),
-            vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter(
-                (0..num_rows).map(|_| Option::<String>::None),
-            ))],
-        )
-        .unwrap()];
+        let batches = vec![
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from_iter(
+                    (0..num_rows).map(|_| Option::<String>::None),
+                ))],
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        ];
         let batches = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
 
         let dataset = Dataset::write(
@@ -896,9 +1173,9 @@ mod test {
         let projection = Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone().project_by_ids(&[2, 4], true));
 
         let predicate = col("x")
-            .field_newstyle("a")
+            .field("a")
             .lt(lit(8))
-            .and(col("y").field_newstyle("b").gt(lit(3)));
+            .and(col("y").field("b").gt(lit(3)));
 
         let exec = LancePushdownScanExec::try_new(
             dataset.clone(),
@@ -1136,7 +1413,7 @@ mod test {
         let dataset = Arc::new(test_dataset().await);
 
         let predicate = col("struct")
-            .field_newstyle("int")
+            .field("int")
             .gt(lit(4))
             .and(col(Column::from_name("str")).is_not_null());
 
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/row_addr_mask.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/row_addr_mask.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..eb7059098bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/row_addr_mask.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,326 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! RowAddrMask prefilter wiring for vector search.
+//!
+//! An externally supplied [`RowAddrMask`] is applied to a KNN search through two
+//! pieces, because the two search branches consume a prefilter differently:
+//!   - [`MaskAndLoader`] folds the mask into the index-side prefilter loader
+//!     (ANN / IVF branch). The mask, any filter-derived selection vector, and
+//!     the deletion vector are all combined (logical AND) by DatasetPreFilter.
+//!   - [`RowAddrMaskFilterExec`] applies the mask to the flat-KNN branch, which
+//!     scans fragments not covered by the vector index and so never reaches the
+//!     index-side prefilter.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{BooleanArray, RecordBatch};
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use datafusion::error::DataFusionError;
+use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties, SendableRecordBatchStream,
+};
+use futures::StreamExt;
+use lance_core::error::DataFusionResult;
+use lance_core::{ROW_ID, Result};
+use lance_index::prefilter::FilterLoader;
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
+
+/// FilterLoader that combines an external RowAddrMask (logical AND) with an
+/// optional inner loader.
+///
+/// With an inner loader present the two masks are intersected; otherwise the
+/// external mask is used alone. DatasetPreFilter later intersects the result
+/// with the dataset deletion vector.
+pub struct MaskAndLoader {
+    mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    inner: Option<Box<dyn FilterLoader>>,
+}
+
+impl MaskAndLoader {
+    pub fn new(mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>, inner: Option<Box<dyn FilterLoader>>) -> Self {
+        Self { mask, inner }
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl FilterLoader for MaskAndLoader {
+    async fn load(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<RowAddrMask> {
+        match self.inner {
+            Some(inner) => Ok(Arc::unwrap_or_clone(self.mask) & inner.load().await?),
+            None => Ok(Arc::unwrap_or_clone(self.mask)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Execution node that drops rows whose `_rowid` is not selected by `mask`.
+///
+/// The key is read from the `_rowid` column, and `mask` is keyed in that same
+/// `_rowid` space, so this is consistent whether stable row ids are enabled (the
+/// value is the stable row id) or disabled (it is the row address). Schema and
+/// ordering are preserved; only the row count changes.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct RowAddrMaskFilterExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl RowAddrMaskFilterExec {
+    pub fn new(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, mask: Arc<RowAddrMask>) -> Self {
+        // Filtering preserves schema, partitioning and ordering, so the input's
+        // plan properties carry over unchanged.
+        let properties = input.properties().clone();
+        Self {
+            input,
+            mask,
+            properties,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for RowAddrMaskFilterExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, _t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "RowAddrMaskFilter")
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for RowAddrMaskFilterExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "RowAddrMaskFilterExec"
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn maintains_input_order(&self) -> Vec<bool> {
+        vec![true]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        if children.len() != 1 {
+            return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "RowAddrMaskFilterExec must have exactly one child".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        let child = children.pop().ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal("RowAddrMaskFilterExec child unavailable".to_string())
+        })?;
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(child, self.mask.clone())))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let input_stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let schema = input_stream.schema();
+        let mask = self.mask.clone();
+        let stream = input_stream.map(move |batch| apply_mask(&mask, batch?));
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Keep rows whose `_rowid` is selected by the mask (the mask is keyed in the
+/// same `_rowid` space). Null ids are dropped; they cannot be in any allow set.
+fn apply_mask(mask: &RowAddrMask, batch: RecordBatch) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+    let row_id_column = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).ok_or_else(|| {
+        DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+            "RowAddrMaskFilterExec input missing {ROW_ID} column"
+        ))
+    })?;
+    let row_ids = row_id_column
+        .as_primitive_opt::<UInt64Type>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| {
+            DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "{ROW_ID} column must be UInt64 but was {:?}",
+                row_id_column.data_type()
+            ))
+        })?;
+    let keep = BooleanArray::from_iter(
+        row_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|addr| Some(addr.is_some_and(|addr| mask.selected(addr)))),
+    );
+    arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &keep)
+        .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::ArrowError(Box::new(e), None))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow::datatypes::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+    use arrow_array::{Int32Array, UInt64Array};
+    use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+
+    fn batch_with_rowids(ids: Vec<Option<u64>>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let n = ids.len() as i32;
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![
+            Field::new(ROW_ID, DataType::UInt64, true),
+            Field::new("v", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ]));
+        RecordBatch::try_new(
+            schema,
+            vec![
+                Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(ids)),
+                Arc::new(Int32Array::from((0..n).collect::<Vec<_>>())),
+            ],
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn kept_rowids(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<Option<u64>> {
+        batch
+            .column_by_name(ROW_ID)
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .iter()
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn apply_mask_allow_keeps_only_selected() {
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64, 3, 5]));
+        let batch = batch_with_rowids(vec![Some(1), Some(2), Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)]);
+        let out = apply_mask(&mask, batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(kept_rowids(&out), vec![Some(1), Some(3), Some(5)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn apply_mask_block_drops_selected() {
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([2u64, 4]));
+        let batch = batch_with_rowids(vec![Some(1), Some(2), Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)]);
+        let out = apply_mask(&mask, batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(kept_rowids(&out), vec![Some(1), Some(3), Some(5)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn apply_mask_drops_null_rowids() {
+        // A null id cannot be in any allow set, so it is dropped.
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64, 2, 3]));
+        let batch = batch_with_rowids(vec![Some(1), None, Some(3)]);
+        let out = apply_mask(&mask, batch).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(kept_rowids(&out), vec![Some(1), Some(3)]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn apply_mask_missing_rowid_column_errs() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("v", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]))]).unwrap();
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64]));
+        let err = apply_mask(&mask, batch).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, DataFusionError::Internal(_)), "got {err:?}");
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains(ROW_ID) && msg.contains("missing"),
+            "unexpected: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn apply_mask_wrong_type_rowid_column_errs() {
+        // _rowid present but not UInt64 -> Internal error naming the actual type.
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            ROW_ID,
+            DataType::Int32,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema, vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]))]).unwrap();
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64]));
+        let err = apply_mask(&mask, batch).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(err, DataFusionError::Internal(_)), "got {err:?}");
+        let msg = err.to_string();
+        assert!(
+            msg.contains("UInt64") && msg.contains("Int32"),
+            "unexpected: {msg}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    struct FixedLoader(RowAddrMask);
+
+    #[async_trait]
+    impl FilterLoader for FixedLoader {
+        async fn load(self: Box<Self>) -> Result<RowAddrMask> {
+            Ok(self.0)
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn mask_and_loader_without_inner_returns_mask() {
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64, 2, 3]));
+        let loaded = Box::new(MaskAndLoader::new(Arc::new(mask), None))
+            .load()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(loaded.selected(2));
+        assert!(!loaded.selected(4));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn mask_and_loader_with_inner_intersects() {
+        // {1,2,3,4} AND inner {2,4,6} = {2,4}.
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64, 2, 3, 4]));
+        let inner = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([2u64, 4, 6]));
+        let loaded = Box::new(MaskAndLoader::new(
+            Arc::new(mask),
+            Some(Box::new(FixedLoader(inner))),
+        ))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(loaded.selected(2));
+        assert!(loaded.selected(4));
+        assert!(!loaded.selected(1));
+        assert!(!loaded.selected(6));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn mask_and_loader_block_and_allow() {
+        // block{2} AND allow{1,2,3} = allow({1,2,3} - {2}) = allow{1,3}.
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([2u64]));
+        let inner = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64, 2, 3]));
+        let loaded = Box::new(MaskAndLoader::new(
+            Arc::new(mask),
+            Some(Box::new(FixedLoader(inner))),
+        ))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(loaded.selected(1));
+        assert!(loaded.selected(3));
+        assert!(!loaded.selected(2));
+        assert!(!loaded.selected(4));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn mask_and_loader_block_and_block() {
+        // block{1} AND block{2} = block{1,2}: everything except 1 and 2 is selected.
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([1u64]));
+        let inner = RowAddrMask::from_block(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter([2u64]));
+        let loaded = Box::new(MaskAndLoader::new(
+            Arc::new(mask),
+            Some(Box::new(FixedLoader(inner))),
+        ))
+        .load()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        assert!(!loaded.selected(1));
+        assert!(!loaded.selected(2));
+        assert!(loaded.selected(3));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/rowids.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/rowids.rs
index abe8f229157..094bf5bd91e 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/rowids.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/rowids.rs
@@ -4,33 +4,30 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type, Array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type};
 use arrow_schema::{Schema, SchemaRef};
-use datafusion::common::stats::Precision;
 use datafusion::common::ColumnStatistics;
+use datafusion::common::stats::Precision;
 use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result};
 use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{BaselineMetrics, ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::{DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties};
 use datafusion_physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
+use datafusion_physical_plan::Statistics;
 use datafusion_physical_plan::execution_plan::CardinalityEffect;
 use datafusion_physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
-use datafusion_physical_plan::Statistics;
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
 use lance_core::utils::deletion::DeletionVector;
 use lance_core::{
-    Error as LanceError, Result as LanceResult, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID, ROW_OFFSET,
-    ROW_OFFSET_FIELD,
+    Error as LanceError, ROW_ADDR, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID, ROW_OFFSET, ROW_OFFSET_FIELD,
+    Result as LanceResult,
 };
 use lance_table::rowids::RowIdIndex;
-use snafu::location;
 
+use crate::Dataset;
 use crate::dataset::rowids::get_row_id_index;
 use crate::utils::future::SharedPrerequisite;
-use crate::Dataset;
-
-use super::utils::InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 
 /// Add a `_rowaddr` column to a stream of record batches that have a `_rowid`.
 ///
@@ -48,7 +45,7 @@ pub struct AddRowAddrExec {
     /// Position in the output schema where to insert the row address
     rowaddr_pos: usize,
     output_schema: SchemaRef,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
 
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
@@ -107,10 +104,13 @@ impl AddRowAddrExec {
 
         // Is just a simple projections, so it inherits the partitioning and
         // execution mode from parent.
-        let properties = input
-            .properties()
-            .clone()
-            .with_eq_properties(EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()));
+        let properties = Arc::new(
+            input
+                .properties()
+                .as_ref()
+                .clone()
+                .with_eq_properties(EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone())),
+        );
 
         Ok(Self {
             input,
@@ -136,7 +136,9 @@ impl AddRowAddrExec {
                 let mut builder = arrow::array::UInt64Builder::with_capacity(row_id_values.len());
                 for rowid in row_id_values.iter() {
                     if let Some(rowid) = rowid {
-                        if let Some(row_addr) = row_id_index.get(rowid) {
+                        if let Some(row_addr) =
+                            row_id_index.get(rowid).map_err(DataFusionError::from)?
+                        {
                             builder.append_value(row_addr.into());
                         } else {
                             return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
@@ -153,7 +155,9 @@ impl AddRowAddrExec {
                 // Fast path - no branching for null values
                 let mut rowaddrs: Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(row_id_values.len());
                 for rowid in row_id_values.values() {
-                    if let Some(row_addr) = row_id_index.get(*rowid) {
+                    if let Some(row_addr) =
+                        row_id_index.get(*rowid).map_err(DataFusionError::from)?
+                    {
                         rowaddrs.push(row_addr.into());
                     } else {
                         return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
@@ -189,15 +193,19 @@ impl AddRowAddrExec {
         let rowid_pos = self.rowid_pos;
         let rowaddr_pos = self.rowaddr_pos;
         let output_schema = self.output_schema.clone();
-        let stream = input_stream.then(move |batch| {
+        let baseline = BaselineMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition);
+        let elapsed_compute = baseline.elapsed_compute().clone();
+        let stream = input_stream.then(move |batch_result| {
             let output_schema = output_schema.clone();
             let index_prereq = index_prereq.clone();
+            let elapsed_compute = elapsed_compute.clone();
             async move {
-                let batch = batch?;
+                let batch = batch_result?;
                 index_prereq.wait_ready().await?;
                 let row_id_index = index_prereq.get_ready();
                 let index_ref = row_id_index.as_deref();
 
+                let _t = elapsed_compute.timer();
                 let row_addr = Self::compute_row_addrs(batch.column(rowid_pos), index_ref)?;
 
                 let mut columns = Vec::with_capacity(batch.num_columns() + 1);
@@ -209,14 +217,17 @@ impl AddRowAddrExec {
                 Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(output_schema.clone(), columns)?)
             }
         });
-
-        let stream = InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        let stream = stream.map(move |batch| {
+            let poll = baseline.record_poll(std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(batch)));
+            match poll {
+                std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(b)) => b,
+                _ => unreachable!("record_poll preserves Ready(Some) input"),
+            }
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
             self.output_schema.clone(),
-            stream.boxed(),
-            partition,
-            &self.metrics,
-        );
-        Ok(Box::pin(stream))
+            stream,
+        )))
     }
 }
 
@@ -235,10 +246,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for AddRowAddrExec {
         "AddRowAddrExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> Arc<Schema> {
         self.output_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -284,8 +291,8 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for AddRowAddrExec {
     fn partition_statistics(
         &self,
         partition: Option<usize>,
-    ) -> Result<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        let mut stats = self.input.partition_statistics(partition)?;
+    ) -> Result<Arc<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics>> {
+        let mut stats = Arc::unwrap_or_clone(self.input.partition_statistics(partition)?);
 
         let row_id_col_stats = stats.column_statistics.get(self.rowid_pos).ok_or_else(|| {
             DataFusionError::Internal("RowAddrExec: rowid column stats not found".into())
@@ -296,6 +303,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for AddRowAddrExec {
             sum_value: Precision::Absent,
             max_value: Precision::Absent,
             min_value: Precision::Absent,
+            byte_size: Precision::Absent,
         };
 
         let base_size = std::mem::size_of::<UInt64Array>();
@@ -319,14 +327,14 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for AddRowAddrExec {
             .column_statistics
             .insert(self.rowaddr_pos, row_addr_col_stats);
 
-        Ok(stats)
+        Ok(Arc::new(stats))
     }
 
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 }
@@ -347,7 +355,7 @@ pub struct AddRowOffsetExec {
     input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
     row_addr_pos: usize,
     frag_id_to_offset: Arc<HashMap<u32, FragInfo>>,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
 }
 
 impl AddRowOffsetExec {
@@ -356,18 +364,15 @@ impl AddRowOffsetExec {
         frag_id_to_offset: Arc<HashMap<u32, FragInfo>>,
     ) -> LanceResult<Self> {
         let input_schema = input.schema();
-        let row_addr_pos = input_schema
-            .index_of(ROW_ADDR)
-            .map_err(|_| LanceError::Internal {
-                message: format!("Input plan does not have a {} column", ROW_ADDR),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+        let row_addr_pos = input_schema.index_of(ROW_ADDR).map_err(|_| {
+            LanceError::internal(format!("Input plan does not have a {} column", ROW_ADDR))
+        })?;
 
         if input_schema.field_with_name(ROW_OFFSET).is_ok() {
-            return Err(LanceError::Internal {
-                message: format!("Input plan already has a {} column", ROW_OFFSET),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            return Err(LanceError::internal(format!(
+                "Input plan already has a {} column",
+                ROW_OFFSET
+            )));
         }
 
         let mut fields = input.schema().fields().iter().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>();
@@ -379,7 +384,13 @@ impl AddRowOffsetExec {
 
         let new_eq_props =
             EquivalenceProperties::new(schema).extend(input.properties().eq_properties.clone())?;
-        let properties = input.properties().clone().with_eq_properties(new_eq_props);
+        let properties = Arc::new(
+            input
+                .properties()
+                .as_ref()
+                .clone()
+                .with_eq_properties(new_eq_props),
+        );
 
         Ok(Self {
             input,
@@ -431,20 +442,29 @@ impl AddRowOffsetExec {
         frag_id_to_offset: &HashMap<u32, FragInfo>,
     ) -> Result<ArrayRef> {
         let row_addr_values = row_addr.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values();
-        let mut row_offsets = Vec::with_capacity(row_addr_values.len());
+        let mut row_offsets = vec![0; row_addr_values.len()];
+        // The deletion iterator only moves forward, so compute in address order and
+        // scatter the offsets back into input order.
+        let mut sorted_row_indices = (0..row_addr_values.len()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        sorted_row_indices.sort_unstable_by_key(|index| row_addr_values[*index]);
 
         let mut last_frag_id = u32::MAX;
         let mut last_frag_offset = 0;
         let mut last_frag_delete_count = 0;
         let mut dv_iter = None;
 
-        for addr in row_addr_values {
-            let addr = RowAddress::new_from_u64(*addr);
+        for row_index in sorted_row_indices {
+            let addr = RowAddress::new_from_u64(row_addr_values[row_index]);
             let frag_id = addr.fragment_id();
             if frag_id != last_frag_id {
                 last_frag_id = frag_id;
                 let Some(frag_info) = frag_id_to_offset.get(&frag_id) else {
-                    return Err(DataFusionError::External(Box::new(LanceError::Internal { message: format!("A row address referred to a fragment {} that wasn't in the frag_id_to_offset map", frag_id), location: location!() })));
+                    return Err(DataFusionError::External(Box::new(LanceError::internal(
+                        format!(
+                            "A row address referred to a fragment {} that wasn't in the frag_id_to_offset map",
+                            frag_id
+                        ),
+                    ))));
                 };
                 last_frag_offset = frag_info.row_offset;
                 last_frag_delete_count = 0;
@@ -464,10 +484,10 @@ impl AddRowOffsetExec {
                         break;
                     }
                 }
-                row_offsets
-                    .push(last_frag_offset + row_offset as u64 - last_frag_delete_count as u64);
+                row_offsets[row_index] =
+                    last_frag_offset + row_offset as u64 - last_frag_delete_count as u64;
             } else {
-                row_offsets.push(last_frag_offset + row_offset as u64);
+                row_offsets[row_index] = last_frag_offset + row_offset as u64;
             }
         }
 
@@ -490,11 +510,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for AddRowOffsetExec {
         "AddRowOffsetExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -510,7 +526,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for AddRowOffsetExec {
         vec![false]
     }
 
-    fn partition_statistics(&self, partition: Option<usize>) -> Result<Statistics> {
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, partition: Option<usize>) -> Result<Arc<Statistics>> {
         self.input.partition_statistics(partition)
     }
 
@@ -719,4 +735,27 @@ mod test {
             .fold(0, |acc, col| acc + col.get_array_memory_size());
         assert_eq!(stats.total_byte_size, Precision::Exact(actual_byte_size));
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_row_offsets_with_unsorted_addresses() {
+        let row_addrs: ArrayRef = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![
+            u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 100)),
+            u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(0, 50)),
+        ]));
+        let frag_id_to_offset = HashMap::from([(
+            0,
+            FragInfo {
+                row_offset: 1_000,
+                deletion_vector: Some(Arc::new(DeletionVector::from_iter([10, 60]))),
+            },
+        )]);
+
+        let row_offsets =
+            AddRowOffsetExec::compute_row_offsets(&row_addrs, &frag_id_to_offset).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            row_offsets.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>().values(),
+            &[1_098, 1_049]
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/scalar_index.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/scalar_index.rs
index 92c050144cc..d90e26f5816 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/scalar_index.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/scalar_index.rs
@@ -1,38 +1,37 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+use std::collections::HashSet;
 use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock};
 
 use super::utils::{IndexMetrics, InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter};
 use crate::{
-    dataset::rowids::load_row_id_sequences,
-    index::{prefilter::DatasetPreFilter, DatasetIndexInternalExt},
     Dataset,
+    dataset::rowids::{load_row_id_sequences, translate_addr_treemap_to_row_ids},
+    index::{
+        prefilter::DatasetPreFilter,
+        scalar_logical::{
+            open_named_scalar_index, open_scalar_index_segments, scalar_index_fragment_bitmap,
+        },
+    },
 };
-use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch, UInt64Array, cast::AsArray, types::UInt64Type};
 use arrow_schema::{Schema, SchemaRef};
 use async_recursion::async_recursion;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use datafusion::{
-    common::{stats::Precision, Statistics},
+    execution::memory_pool::{MemoryConsumer, MemoryReservation},
     physical_plan::{
+        DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, Partitioning, PlanProperties,
         execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType},
-        metrics::{ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet},
+        metrics::{BaselineMetrics, ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, MetricsSet},
         stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
-        DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, Partitioning, PlanProperties,
     },
     scalar::ScalarValue,
 };
 use datafusion_physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
-use futures::{stream::BoxStream, Stream, StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt};
-use lance_core::utils::mask::RowSetOps;
-use lance_core::{
-    utils::{
-        address::RowAddress,
-        mask::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap},
-    },
-    Error, Result, ROW_ID_FIELD,
-};
+use futures::{StreamExt, TryFutureExt, TryStreamExt, stream::BoxStream};
+use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ID_FIELD, Result, deepsize::DeepSizeOf, utils::address::RowAddress};
 use lance_datafusion::{
     chunker::break_stream,
     utils::{
@@ -42,17 +41,16 @@ use lance_datafusion::{
 use lance_index::{
     metrics::MetricsCollector,
     scalar::{
-        expression::{
-            IndexExprResult, ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexLoader, ScalarIndexSearch,
-            INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA,
-        },
         SargableQuery, ScalarIndex,
+        expression::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexLoader, ScalarIndexSearch},
     },
-    DatasetIndexExt, IndexCriteria,
+};
+use lance_select::{
+    IndexExprResult, NullableIndexExprResult, NullableRowAddrMask, NullableRowAddrSet, RowAddrMask,
+    RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps, result::IndexExprResultWireFormat,
 };
 use lance_table::format::Fragment;
 use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::{debug_span, instrument};
 
 #[async_trait]
@@ -63,18 +61,87 @@ impl ScalarIndexLoader for Dataset {
         index_name: &str,
         metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
-        let idx = self
-            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name(index_name))
-            .await?
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: format!("Scanner created plan for index query on index {} for column {} but no usable index exists with that name", index_name, column),
-                location: location!()
-            })?;
-        self.open_scalar_index(column, &idx.uuid.to_string(), metrics)
-            .await
+        open_named_scalar_index(self, column, index_name, metrics).await
+    }
+
+    async fn row_addr_result_to_row_ids(
+        &self,
+        result: NullableIndexExprResult,
+    ) -> Result<NullableIndexExprResult> {
+        // Addresses and row ids only diverge under stable row ids; otherwise the
+        // address is the row id and there is nothing to translate.
+        if !self.manifest.uses_stable_row_ids() {
+            return Ok(result);
+        }
+
+        let NullableIndexExprResult { lower, upper, .. } = result;
+        let lower = translate_addr_mask_to_row_ids(self, lower).await?;
+        let upper = translate_addr_mask_to_row_ids(self, upper).await?;
+        Ok(NullableIndexExprResult::new(lower, upper))
+    }
+}
+
+struct ScopedScalarIndexLoader<'a> {
+    dataset: &'a Dataset,
+    fragments: Option<&'a RoaringBitmap>,
+    segment_uuids: Option<&'a HashSet<uuid::Uuid>>,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl ScalarIndexLoader for ScopedScalarIndexLoader<'_> {
+    async fn load_index(
+        &self,
+        column: &str,
+        index_name: &str,
+        metrics: &dyn MetricsCollector,
+    ) -> Result<Arc<dyn ScalarIndex>> {
+        open_scalar_index_segments(
+            self.dataset,
+            column,
+            index_name,
+            self.fragments,
+            self.segment_uuids,
+            metrics,
+        )
+        .await
+    }
+
+    async fn row_addr_result_to_row_ids(
+        &self,
+        result: NullableIndexExprResult,
+    ) -> Result<NullableIndexExprResult> {
+        self.dataset.row_addr_result_to_row_ids(result).await
+    }
+}
+
+/// Translate an address-domain [`NullableRowAddrMask`] into the row-id domain
+///
+/// Address-domain index results are always positive allow-lists (`AtMost`), so
+/// a block-list here would mean a boolean op was applied before translation,
+/// which is unsupported.
+async fn translate_addr_mask_to_row_ids(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    mask: NullableRowAddrMask,
+) -> Result<NullableRowAddrMask> {
+    match mask {
+        NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(set) => Ok(NullableRowAddrMask::AllowList(
+            translate_addr_set_to_row_ids(dataset, set).await?,
+        )),
+        NullableRowAddrMask::BlockList(_) => Err(Error::internal(
+            "cannot translate a block-list address mask to the row-id domain",
+        )),
     }
 }
 
+async fn translate_addr_set_to_row_ids(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    set: NullableRowAddrSet,
+) -> Result<NullableRowAddrSet> {
+    let selected = translate_addr_treemap_to_row_ids(dataset, set.selected_rows()).await?;
+    let nulls = translate_addr_treemap_to_row_ids(dataset, set.null_rows()).await?;
+    Ok(NullableRowAddrSet::new(selected, nulls))
+}
+
 /// An execution node that performs a scalar index search
 ///
 /// This does not actually scan any data.  We only look through the index to determine
@@ -86,8 +153,11 @@ impl ScalarIndexLoader for Dataset {
 pub struct ScalarIndexExec {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     expr: ScalarIndexExpr,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+    result_format: IndexExprResultWireFormat,
+    fragment_scope: Option<Arc<RoaringBitmap>>,
+    segment_uuids: Option<Arc<HashSet<uuid::Uuid>>>,
 }
 
 impl DisplayAs for ScalarIndexExec {
@@ -104,23 +174,60 @@ impl DisplayAs for ScalarIndexExec {
 }
 
 impl ScalarIndexExec {
-    pub fn new(dataset: Arc<Dataset>, expr: ScalarIndexExpr) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
-            EquivalenceProperties::new(INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone()),
+    pub fn new(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        expr: ScalarIndexExpr,
+        result_format: IndexExprResultWireFormat,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(result_format.schema().clone()),
             Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
         Self {
             dataset,
-            expr,
+            expr: expr.optimize(),
             properties,
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+            result_format,
+            fragment_scope: None,
+            segment_uuids: None,
         }
     }
 
+    /// Restrict which physical scalar index segments are loaded.
+    ///
+    /// This does not restrict the result mask. The consumer remains responsible for applying
+    /// the exact fragment scope, deletion mask, and any required data-level recheck.
+    pub(crate) fn with_fragment_scope(mut self, fragments: RoaringBitmap) -> Self {
+        self.fragment_scope = Some(Arc::new(fragments));
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Restrict index loading to these physical scalar index segments.
+    pub(crate) fn with_segment_uuids(mut self, segment_uuids: Arc<HashSet<uuid::Uuid>>) -> Self {
+        self.segment_uuids = Some(segment_uuids);
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
+        &self.dataset
+    }
+
+    /// The parsed scalar-index expression this node will evaluate.
+    pub fn expr(&self) -> &ScalarIndexExpr {
+        &self.expr
+    }
+
+    /// Return the wire format used when serializing this exec's
+    /// [`IndexExprResult`] output.
+    pub fn result_format(&self) -> IndexExprResultWireFormat {
+        self.result_format
+    }
+
     #[async_recursion]
-    async fn fragments_covered_by_index_query(
+    pub async fn fragments_covered_by_index_query(
         index_expr: &ScalarIndexExpr,
         dataset: &Dataset,
     ) -> Result<RoaringBitmap> {
@@ -137,13 +244,14 @@ impl ScalarIndexExec {
                 Self::fragments_covered_by_index_query(expr, dataset).await
             }
             ScalarIndexExpr::Query(search_key) => {
-                let idx = dataset
-                    .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name(&search_key.index_name))
+                scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(dataset, &search_key.column, &search_key.index_name)
                     .await?
-                    .expect("Index not found even though it must have been found earlier");
-                Ok(idx
-                    .fragment_bitmap
-                    .expect("scalar indices should always have a fragment bitmap"))
+                    .ok_or_else(|| {
+                        Error::internal(format!(
+                            "Index not found even though it must have been found earlier: {}",
+                            search_key.index_name
+                        ))
+                    })
             }
         }
     }
@@ -152,19 +260,52 @@ impl ScalarIndexExec {
         expr: ScalarIndexExpr,
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         plan_metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+        result_format: IndexExprResultWireFormat,
+        fragment_scope: Option<Arc<RoaringBitmap>>,
+        segment_uuids: Option<Arc<HashSet<uuid::Uuid>>>,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         let metrics = IndexMetrics::new(&plan_metrics, 0);
         let query_result = {
             let search_time = plan_metrics.new_time(SCALAR_INDEX_SEARCH_TIME_METRIC, 0);
             let _timer = search_time.timer();
-            expr.evaluate(dataset.as_ref(), &metrics).await?
+            match (fragment_scope.as_deref(), segment_uuids.as_deref()) {
+                (Some(fragments), _) if fragments.is_empty() => {
+                    IndexExprResult::exact(RowAddrMask::allow_nothing())
+                }
+                (Some(fragments), segment_uuids) => {
+                    expr.evaluate(
+                        &ScopedScalarIndexLoader {
+                            dataset: dataset.as_ref(),
+                            fragments: Some(fragments),
+                            segment_uuids,
+                        },
+                        &metrics,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                }
+                (None, Some(segment_uuids)) => {
+                    expr.evaluate(
+                        &ScopedScalarIndexLoader {
+                            dataset: dataset.as_ref(),
+                            fragments: None,
+                            segment_uuids: Some(segment_uuids),
+                        },
+                        &metrics,
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                }
+                (None, None) => expr.evaluate(dataset.as_ref(), &metrics).await?,
+            }
         };
-        let fragments_covered_by_result =
+        let mut fragments_covered_by_result =
             Self::fragments_covered_by_index_query(&expr, dataset.as_ref()).await?;
+        if let Some(fragment_scope) = fragment_scope {
+            fragments_covered_by_result &= fragment_scope.as_ref();
+        }
         {
             let ser_time = plan_metrics.new_time(SCALAR_INDEX_SER_TIME_METRIC, 0);
             let _timer = ser_time.timer();
-            query_result.serialize_to_arrow(&fragments_covered_by_result)
+            query_result.serialize(&fragments_covered_by_result, result_format)
         }
     }
 }
@@ -174,12 +315,8 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ScalarIndexExec {
         "ScalarIndexExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
-        INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone()
+        self.result_format.schema().clone()
     }
 
     fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
@@ -208,31 +345,37 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ScalarIndexExec {
             self.expr.clone(),
             self.dataset.clone(),
             self.metrics.clone(),
+            self.result_format,
+            self.fragment_scope.clone(),
+            self.segment_uuids.clone(),
         );
         let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![batch_fut])
             .then(|batch_fut| batch_fut.map_err(|err| err.into()))
             .boxed()
             as BoxStream<'static, datafusion::common::Result<RecordBatch>>;
         Ok(Box::pin(InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
-            INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            self.result_format.schema().clone(),
             stream,
             partition,
             &self.metrics,
         )))
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> datafusion::error::Result<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics {
-            num_rows: Precision::Exact(2),
-            ..Statistics::new_unknown(&INDEX_EXPR_RESULT_SCHEMA)
-        })
+    fn partition_statistics(
+        &self,
+        _partition: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<Arc<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics {
+            num_rows: datafusion::common::stats::Precision::Exact(2),
+            ..datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics::new_unknown(self.result_format.schema())
+        }))
     }
 
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -244,16 +387,121 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ScalarIndexExec {
 pub static INDEX_LOOKUP_SCHEMA: LazyLock<SchemaRef> =
     LazyLock::new(|| Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()])));
 
+/// A single scalar-index lookup used by [`MapIndexExec`].
+///
+/// `column` identifies a column whose values will be probed against the
+/// index named `index_name`. Multiple lookups are intersected with logical
+/// AND semantics inside `MapIndexExec`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct IndexLookup {
+    pub column: String,
+    pub index_name: String,
+}
+
+const MAP_INDEX_CANDIDATES_MEMORY_CONSUMER: &str = "MapIndexExecCandidates";
+
+/// Per-address allowance for cooperative pool accounting of the retained map.
+/// This conservatively bounds its approximate [`DeepSizeOf`] growth, but is not
+/// an allocator-level peak-memory bound. The reservation is shrunk to the
+/// measured retained-map size after each input batch.
+const ROW_ADDR_INSERT_RESERVATION_BYTES: usize = 256;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct DistinctRowAddrs {
+    emitted: RowAddrTreeMap,
+    reservation: MemoryReservation,
+}
+
+impl DistinctRowAddrs {
+    fn new(reservation: MemoryReservation) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            emitted: RowAddrTreeMap::new(),
+            reservation,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn retain_unseen(&mut self, row_addrs: &UInt64Array) -> datafusion::error::Result<UInt64Array> {
+        let initial_reservation_size = self.reservation.size();
+        // The first batch also has to account for the empty map's inline size,
+        // which is not part of the initially empty reservation.
+        let retained_size = initial_reservation_size.max(std::mem::size_of::<RowAddrTreeMap>());
+        let unaccounted_candidates = row_addrs
+            .values()
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|row_addr| !self.emitted.contains(**row_addr))
+            .count();
+        let provisional_size = unaccounted_candidates
+            .checked_mul(ROW_ADDR_INSERT_RESERVATION_BYTES)
+            .and_then(|additional| retained_size.checked_add(additional))
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                datafusion::error::DataFusionError::ResourcesExhausted(format!(
+                    "Candidate memory reservation overflowed for {MAP_INDEX_CANDIDATES_MEMORY_CONSUMER}"
+                ))
+            })?;
+        self.reservation.try_resize(provisional_size)?;
+
+        // Allocate output storage only after the complete retained-state
+        // reservation succeeds.
+        let mut unseen = Vec::with_capacity(unaccounted_candidates);
+        for row_addr in row_addrs.values() {
+            if self.emitted.insert(*row_addr) {
+                unseen.push(*row_addr);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let measured_size = self.emitted.deep_size_of();
+        if measured_size > provisional_size {
+            self.rollback_batch(&unseen, initial_reservation_size);
+            return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::ResourcesExhausted(
+                format!(
+                    "MapIndexExecCandidates batch exceeded its {ROW_ADDR_INSERT_RESERVATION_BYTES}-byte per-candidate reservation"
+                ),
+            ));
+        }
+        self.reservation.resize(measured_size);
+        Ok(UInt64Array::from(unseen))
+    }
+
+    fn rollback_batch(&mut self, unseen: &[u64], reservation_size: usize) {
+        for row_addr in unseen {
+            let is_removed = self.emitted.remove(*row_addr);
+            debug_assert!(
+                is_removed,
+                "a newly inserted MapIndexExec candidate must be removable"
+            );
+        }
+        self.reservation.resize(reservation_size);
+    }
+}
+
+impl IndexLookup {
+    pub fn new(column: impl Into<String>, index_name: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            column: column.into(),
+            index_name: index_name.into(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// An execution node that translates index values into row addresses
 ///
-/// This can be combined with TakeExec to perform an "indexed take"
+/// This can be combined with TakeExec to perform an "indexed take".
+///
+/// Multiple `(column, index_name)` lookups can be supplied: the operator
+/// expects one input column per lookup (in matching order) and emits the
+/// row addresses that could match on every column. The result is an upper
+/// bound, not an exact set — the probes are evaluated one key at a time,
+/// most-selective first, and stop as soon as the candidate set is no larger
+/// than the input batch, so a caller must still filter on the full key.
+/// This lets a composite-key join trim the candidate row set before the
+/// downstream take without paying for a probe that prunes nothing. A row
+/// address reached by more than one input batch is emitted only once.
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct MapIndexExec {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-    column_name: String,
-    index_name: String,
+    lookups: Vec<IndexLookup>,
     input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
 
@@ -263,57 +511,283 @@ impl DisplayAs for MapIndexExec {
             DisplayFormatType::Default
             | DisplayFormatType::Verbose
             | DisplayFormatType::TreeRender => {
-                write!(f, "IndexedLookup")
+                write!(f, "IndexedLookup")?;
+                if self.lookups.len() > 1 {
+                    let cols = self
+                        .lookups
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|l| l.column.as_str())
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        .join(", ");
+                    write!(f, " [{cols}]")?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
             }
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl MapIndexExec {
+    /// Convenience constructor for the common single-column case.
     pub fn new(
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         column_name: String,
         index_name: String,
         input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
     ) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        Self::new_multi(
+            dataset,
+            vec![IndexLookup::new(column_name, index_name)],
+            input,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Build a `MapIndexExec` that probes one or more scalar indices and emits
+    /// an upper bound on the row addresses matching every one of them (see the
+    /// type docs). `lookups` must be non-empty and `input` must produce one
+    /// column per lookup, in the same order.
+    pub fn new_multi(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        lookups: Vec<IndexLookup>,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(
+            !lookups.is_empty(),
+            "MapIndexExec requires at least one index lookup"
+        );
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(INDEX_LOOKUP_SCHEMA.clone()),
             Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
         Self {
             dataset,
-            column_name,
-            index_name,
+            lookups,
             input,
             properties,
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
         }
     }
 
+    async fn build_stream(
+        input: datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        partition: usize,
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        lookups: Vec<IndexLookup>,
+        index_metrics: Arc<IndexMetrics>,
+        metrics_set: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+        candidate_reservation: MemoryReservation,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        // A row can be found by the composite probe only if it lives in a
+        // fragment covered by *every* index in `lookups`; restrict the
+        // deletion mask to that intersection so we only filter deletes we
+        // could actually see.
+        //
+        // This loop must keep covering every lookup even though `map_batch`
+        // may skip some probes. A skipped probe leaves candidates from
+        // fragments that its index does not cover, and the restricted mask is
+        // the only thing that then blocks them. Those fragments are read
+        // separately by the unindexed-fragment scan in
+        // `create_indexed_scan_joined_stream`, so letting candidates through
+        // would feed the same target row into the join twice, which the
+        // default `SourceDedupeBehavior::Fail` reports as an error.
+        let mut fragment_bitmap: Option<RoaringBitmap> = None;
+        for lookup in &lookups {
+            let bm = scalar_index_fragment_bitmap(&dataset, &lookup.column, &lookup.index_name)
+                .await?
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                        "IndexedLookupExec: index '{}' on column '{}' disappeared after planning",
+                        lookup.index_name, lookup.column,
+                    ))
+                })?;
+            fragment_bitmap = Some(match fragment_bitmap {
+                None => bm,
+                Some(acc) => acc & bm,
+            });
+        }
+        let fragment_bitmap = fragment_bitmap.expect("MapIndexExec built with no lookups");
+        let deletion_mask_fut =
+            DatasetPreFilter::create_restricted_deletion_mask(dataset.clone(), fragment_bitmap);
+        let deletion_mask = if let Some(fut) = deletion_mask_fut {
+            Some(fut.await?)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        let baseline = BaselineMetrics::new(&metrics_set, partition);
+        let elapsed_compute = baseline.elapsed_compute().clone();
+        let stream = input.then(move |batch_result| {
+            let lookups = lookups.clone();
+            let dataset = dataset.clone();
+            let deletion_mask = deletion_mask.clone();
+            let metrics = index_metrics.clone();
+            let elapsed_compute = elapsed_compute.clone();
+            async move {
+                let batch = batch_result?;
+                // Timer spans `map_batch`'s `.await` on purpose: that await is
+                // the per-batch sargable index evaluation, which is the work
+                // we want attributed here.
+                let _t = elapsed_compute.timer();
+                Self::map_batch(lookups, dataset, deletion_mask, batch, metrics).await
+            }
+        });
+        let mut distinct_row_addrs = DistinctRowAddrs::new(candidate_reservation);
+        let stream = stream.and_then(move |batch| {
+            // Each batch's index result is already a set. Retain first
+            // occurrences here to make the complete candidate stream a set too.
+            let row_addrs = batch.column(0).as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+            let result = distinct_row_addrs
+                .retain_unseen(row_addrs)
+                .and_then(|unseen| {
+                    RecordBatch::try_new(INDEX_LOOKUP_SCHEMA.clone(), vec![Arc::new(unseen)])
+                        .map_err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::from)
+                });
+            futures::future::ready(result)
+        });
+        let stream = stream.map(move |batch| {
+            let poll = baseline.record_poll(std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(batch)));
+            match poll {
+                std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(b)) => b,
+                _ => unreachable!("record_poll preserves Ready(Some) input"),
+            }
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            INDEX_LOOKUP_SCHEMA.clone(),
+            stream,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    /// The values of one input column, deduped when `dedupe` is set.
+    ///
+    /// Deduping earns its keep once there is more than one key: the distinct
+    /// count doubles as the probe-ordering signal in [`Self::map_batch`], and a
+    /// repeated value only adds an `IsIn` entry that re-selects index pages
+    /// already selected. With a single key there is nothing to order, so
+    /// hashing every value would be pure overhead on the most common path.
+    ///
+    /// One NULL survives dedupe on purpose: an index reads a NULL in the list
+    /// as "also match null rows", which is a flag rather than a count.
+    fn key_values(column: &ArrayRef, dedupe: bool) -> datafusion::error::Result<Vec<ScalarValue>> {
+        let mut values = Vec::with_capacity(column.len());
+        let mut seen = HashSet::with_capacity(if dedupe { column.len() } else { 0 });
+        for row in 0..column.len() {
+            let value = ScalarValue::try_from_array(column, row)?;
+            if dedupe {
+                if seen.contains(&value) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                seen.insert(value.clone());
+            }
+            values.push(value);
+        }
+        Ok(values)
+    }
+
+    /// Build the `IsIn` query for one join key against its matching index.
+    fn build_key_query(lookup: &IndexLookup, values: Vec<ScalarValue>) -> ScalarIndexExpr {
+        ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: lookup.column.clone(),
+            index_name: lookup.index_name.clone(),
+            // Internal IndexedLookup-style query — type is unknown at this layer
+            index_type: String::new(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::IsIn(values)),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        })
+    }
+
     async fn map_batch(
-        column_name: String,
-        index_name: String,
+        lookups: Vec<IndexLookup>,
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         deletion_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
         batch: RecordBatch,
         metrics: Arc<IndexMetrics>,
     ) -> datafusion::error::Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let index_vals = batch.column(0);
-        let index_vals = (0..index_vals.len())
-            .map(|idx| ScalarValue::try_from_array(index_vals, idx))
-            .collect::<datafusion::error::Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
-        let query = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
-            column: column_name,
-            index_name,
-            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::IsIn(index_vals)),
-            needs_recheck: false,
-        });
-        let query_result = query.evaluate(dataset.as_ref(), metrics.as_ref()).await?;
-        let IndexExprResult::Exact(mut row_addr_mask) = query_result else {
-            todo!("Support for non-exact query results as input for merge_insert")
-        };
+        // The operator's contract is one input column per lookup, in order (see
+        // `new_multi`). Check it here rather than letting `batch.column` panic
+        // deep inside a DataFusion stream, and check it before the probe loop:
+        // the loop can skip the offending lookup, which would turn a broken
+        // plan into a failure that depends on the data.
+        if lookups.len() != batch.num_columns() {
+            return Err(datafusion::error::DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                "MapIndexExec has {} lookups but its input produced {} columns",
+                lookups.len(),
+                batch.num_columns()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        // Probe the keys one at a time and intersect, rather than evaluating an
+        // AND of every probe at once. A join key whose values repeat across the
+        // target (a bucket or status column) matches most of the table, so its
+        // probe materializes a candidate set the size of the dataset while
+        // pruning almost nothing: on a 10M-row table, probing a 1024-distinct
+        // key asked for 2.4 GB of candidates.
+        // With one key there is nothing to order and nothing a second probe
+        // could intersect away, so that path stays exactly as it was.
+        let several_keys = lookups.len() > 1;
+        let mut values_per_key = Vec::with_capacity(lookups.len());
+        for column in batch.columns() {
+            values_per_key.push(Self::key_values(column, several_keys)?);
+        }
+
+        // Probe the most selective key first. The key with the most distinct
+        // source values partitions the target most finely, so its probe is the
+        // one most likely to leave a candidate set small enough to skip the
+        // rest. Following the caller's `on` order instead would run the
+        // expensive probe first, because the natural way to write a composite
+        // key is coarse-to-fine (`["tenant_id", "row_id"]`). The distinct count
+        // is a source-side proxy for target-side selectivity, and it only knows
+        // how many values a probe will look up, not how many target rows each
+        // of them matches. A skewed batch — many distinct values that each
+        // match many rows, sitting next to few values that each match few —
+        // can therefore be ordered worse than the caller wrote it. The floor is
+        // the old behaviour's probe set — run sequentially, see below — because
+        // the break only ever removes probes.
+        let mut probe_order: Vec<usize> = (0..lookups.len()).collect();
+        if several_keys {
+            // Stable, so keys with equally distinct values keep `on` order.
+            probe_order.sort_by_key(|&idx| std::cmp::Reverse(values_per_key[idx].len()));
+        }
+
+        // Stop once the candidate set is no larger than the source batch. A
+        // further probe could still remove false positives, but what is left to
+        // remove is bounded by the source batch, so it cannot save more work
+        // downstream than the probe itself costs. That bound is the point: per
+        // batch the emitted set is either the full intersection or at most
+        // `batch.num_rows()` rows, which is also what keeps the cross-batch
+        // candidate set in `DistinctRowAddrs` bounded.
+        //
+        // Skipping a probe only leaves extra candidates, never drops a match:
+        // the downstream hash join filters on the full composite key (see
+        // `create_indexed_scan_joined_stream`), the same reason an unindexed
+        // `on` column is allowed to prune nothing. Extra candidates stay inside
+        // the index-covered fragments because the restricted deletion mask
+        // applied below is built from *every* lookup's fragment bitmap.
+        //
+        // The probes run in sequence where the old `ScalarIndexExpr::And` ran
+        // them concurrently. That is the price of being able to stop, and it
+        // shows up only when no probe is skipped and the index cache is cold.
+        let source_rows = batch.num_rows() as u64;
+        // `all_rows()` is the identity for `intersect`, so the first probe
+        // needs no special case.
+        let mut row_addr_mask = RowAddrMask::all_rows();
+        for idx in probe_order {
+            if row_addr_mask
+                .max_len()
+                .is_some_and(|len| len <= source_rows)
+            {
+                break;
+            }
+            let values = std::mem::take(&mut values_per_key[idx]);
+            let query = Self::build_key_query(&lookups[idx], values);
+            let query_result = query.evaluate(dataset.as_ref(), metrics.as_ref()).await?;
+            if !query_result.is_exact() {
+                todo!("Support for non-exact query results as input for merge_insert")
+            }
+            row_addr_mask = row_addr_mask.intersect(query_result.upper);
+        }
 
         if let Some(deletion_mask) = deletion_mask.as_ref() {
             row_addr_mask = row_addr_mask & deletion_mask.as_ref().clone();
@@ -330,43 +804,6 @@ impl MapIndexExec {
             vec![Arc::new(allow_list)],
         )?)
     }
-
-    async fn do_execute(
-        input: datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream,
-        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
-        column_name: String,
-        index_name: String,
-        metrics: Arc<IndexMetrics>,
-    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<
-        impl Stream<Item = datafusion::error::Result<RecordBatch>> + Send + 'static,
-    > {
-        let index = dataset
-            .load_scalar_index(IndexCriteria::default().with_name(&index_name))
-            .await?
-            .unwrap();
-        let deletion_mask_fut =
-            DatasetPreFilter::create_deletion_mask(dataset.clone(), index.fragment_bitmap.unwrap());
-        let deletion_mask = if let Some(deletion_mask_fut) = deletion_mask_fut {
-            Some(deletion_mask_fut.await?)
-        } else {
-            None
-        };
-        Ok(input.and_then(move |res| {
-            let column_name = column_name.clone();
-            let index_name = index_name.clone();
-            let dataset = dataset.clone();
-            let deletion_mask = deletion_mask.clone();
-            let metrics = metrics.clone();
-            Self::map_batch(
-                column_name,
-                index_name,
-                dataset,
-                deletion_mask,
-                res,
-                metrics,
-            )
-        }))
-    }
 }
 
 impl ExecutionPlan for MapIndexExec {
@@ -374,10 +811,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MapIndexExec {
         "MapIndexExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         INDEX_LOOKUP_SCHEMA.clone()
     }
@@ -395,10 +828,9 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MapIndexExec {
                 "MapIndexExec requires exactly one child".to_string(),
             ))
         } else {
-            Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
+            Ok(Arc::new(Self::new_multi(
                 self.dataset.clone(),
-                self.column_name.clone(),
-                self.index_name.clone(),
+                self.lookups.clone(),
                 children.into_iter().next().unwrap(),
             )))
         }
@@ -409,28 +841,28 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MapIndexExec {
         partition: usize,
         context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
     ) -> datafusion::error::Result<datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream> {
-        let index_vals = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
-        let metrics = Arc::new(IndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition));
-        let stream_fut = Self::do_execute(
-            index_vals,
+        // Cross-batch deduplication retains every emitted candidate until the
+        // stream ends, so this state is not covered by per-batch reservations.
+        let candidate_reservation = MemoryConsumer::new(MAP_INDEX_CANDIDATES_MEMORY_CONSUMER)
+            .register(context.memory_pool());
+        let input = self.input.execute(partition, context)?;
+        let stream_fut = Self::build_stream(
+            input,
+            partition,
             self.dataset.clone(),
-            self.column_name.clone(),
-            self.index_name.clone(),
-            metrics,
+            self.lookups.clone(),
+            Arc::new(IndexMetrics::new(&self.metrics, partition)),
+            self.metrics.clone(),
+            candidate_reservation,
         );
-        let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![stream_fut])
-            .then(|stream_fut| stream_fut)
-            .try_flatten()
-            .boxed();
-        Ok(Box::pin(InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+        let stream = futures::stream::once(stream_fut).try_flatten();
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
             INDEX_LOOKUP_SCHEMA.clone(),
             stream,
-            partition,
-            &self.metrics,
         )))
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -452,7 +884,13 @@ pub struct MaterializeIndexExec {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     expr: ScalarIndexExpr,
     fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    /// Physical segments to open. `None` loads the whole logical index.
+    segment_uuids: Option<Arc<HashSet<uuid::Uuid>>>,
+    /// Row addresses blocked from the index result due to data overlay files committed after the
+    /// index was built. ANDead into the candidate mask before row ID materialisation so that stale
+    /// index entries never reach downstream operators.
+    overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
 
@@ -514,29 +952,52 @@ impl MaterializeIndexExec {
         expr: ScalarIndexExpr,
         fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
     ) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(MATERIALIZE_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone()),
             Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
         Self {
             dataset,
             expr,
             fragments,
+            segment_uuids: None,
+            overlay_block: None,
             properties,
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
         }
     }
 
+    /// Restrict index loading to these physical scalar index segments.
+    pub(crate) fn with_segment_uuids(mut self, segment_uuids: Arc<HashSet<uuid::Uuid>>) -> Self {
+        self.segment_uuids = Some(segment_uuids);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Block specific row addresses (see the `overlay_block` field) from the index result.
+    pub fn with_overlay_block(mut self, block: RowAddrMask) -> Self {
+        self.overlay_block = Some(block);
+        self
+    }
+
     #[instrument(name = "materialize_scalar_index", skip_all, level = "debug")]
     async fn do_execute(
         expr: ScalarIndexExpr,
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
+        segment_uuids: Option<Arc<HashSet<uuid::Uuid>>>,
+        overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
         metrics: Arc<IndexMetrics>,
     ) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
-        let expr_result = expr.evaluate(dataset.as_ref(), metrics.as_ref());
+        // Legacy storage materializes index hits here. UUID selection has to be applied at load
+        // time; evaluating against the dataset opens every segment of the logical index.
+        let loader = ScopedScalarIndexLoader {
+            dataset: dataset.as_ref(),
+            fragments: None,
+            segment_uuids: segment_uuids.as_deref(),
+        };
+        let expr_result = expr.evaluate(&loader, metrics.as_ref());
         let span = debug_span!("create_prefilter");
         let prefilter = span.in_scope(|| {
             let fragment_bitmap =
@@ -546,22 +1007,30 @@ impl MaterializeIndexExec {
             // when the index was trained will still be deleted when the index is queried.
             DatasetPreFilter::create_deletion_mask(dataset.clone(), fragment_bitmap)
         });
-        let mask = if let Some(prefilter) = prefilter {
+        // MaterializeIndexExec emits a deterministic set of row ids. The
+        // `upper` mask of the interval is the candidate set (the answer is
+        // a subset of `upper`). For `Exact` results this is the exact
+        // answer; for `AtMost` and Refined results it's a superset that
+        // gets pruned downstream by `LanceFilterExec` (the full filter
+        // runs on the materialized batches via the scan plan, so any
+        // non-matching candidates in `upper` are dropped before they
+        // reach the user). `AtLeast` carries an unbounded upper, so the
+        // candidate set is the whole row space — not actionable here.
+        let take_upper = |result: IndexExprResult| -> Result<RowAddrMask> {
+            if result.is_at_least() && !result.is_exact() {
+                todo!("Support AtLeast in MaterializeIndexExec")
+            }
+            Ok(result.upper)
+        };
+        let mut mask = if let Some(prefilter) = prefilter {
             let (expr_result, prefilter) = futures::try_join!(expr_result, prefilter)?;
-            let mask = match expr_result {
-                IndexExprResult::Exact(mask) => mask,
-                IndexExprResult::AtMost(mask) => mask,
-                IndexExprResult::AtLeast(_) => todo!("Support AtLeast in MaterializeIndexExec"),
-            };
-            mask & (*prefilter).clone()
+            take_upper(expr_result)? & (*prefilter).clone()
         } else {
-            let expr_result = expr_result.await?;
-            match expr_result {
-                IndexExprResult::Exact(mask) => mask,
-                IndexExprResult::AtMost(mask) => mask,
-                IndexExprResult::AtLeast(_) => todo!("Support AtLeast in MaterializeIndexExec"),
-            }
+            take_upper(expr_result.await?)?
         };
+        if let Some(block) = overlay_block {
+            mask = mask & block;
+        }
         let ids = row_ids_for_mask(mask, &dataset, &fragments).await?;
         let ids = UInt64Array::from(ids);
         Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(
@@ -662,10 +1131,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MaterializeIndexExec {
         "MaterializeIndexExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         MATERIALIZE_INDEX_SCHEMA.clone()
     }
@@ -697,6 +1162,8 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MaterializeIndexExec {
             self.expr.clone(),
             self.dataset.clone(),
             self.fragments.clone(),
+            self.segment_uuids.clone(),
+            self.overlay_block.clone(),
             metrics,
         );
         let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![batch_fut])
@@ -716,15 +1183,11 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MaterializeIndexExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> datafusion::error::Result<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics::new_unknown(&MATERIALIZE_INDEX_SCHEMA))
-    }
-
     fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
         Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -737,29 +1200,47 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for MaterializeIndexExec {
 mod tests {
     use std::{ops::Bound, sync::Arc};
 
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
+    use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatchIterator;
+    use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+    use arrow_schema::Schema;
     use datafusion::{
-        execution::TaskContext, physical_plan::ExecutionPlan, prelude::SessionConfig,
+        error::DataFusionError,
+        execution::{
+            TaskContext,
+            memory_pool::{GreedyMemoryPool, MemoryConsumer, MemoryPool},
+        },
+        physical_plan::ExecutionPlan,
+        prelude::SessionConfig,
         scalar::ScalarValue,
     };
     use futures::TryStreamExt;
-    use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+    use lance_core::{
+        deepsize::DeepSizeOf,
+        utils::{address::RowAddress, tempfile::TempStrDir},
+    };
     use lance_datagen::gen_batch;
     use lance_index::{
+        IndexType,
         scalar::{
-            expression::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch},
             SargableQuery, ScalarIndexParams,
+            expression::{ScalarIndexExpr, ScalarIndexSearch},
         },
-        DatasetIndexExt, IndexType,
     };
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps, result::IndexExprResultWireFormat};
 
     use crate::{
+        Dataset,
+        dataset::WriteParams,
         io::exec::scalar_index::MaterializeIndexExec,
         utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, NoContextTestFixture},
-        Dataset,
     };
 
-    use super::{MapIndexExec, ScalarIndexExec};
+    use super::{
+        DistinctRowAddrs, MAP_INDEX_CANDIDATES_MEMORY_CONSUMER, MapIndexExec,
+        ROW_ADDR_INSERT_RESERVATION_BYTES, ScalarIndexExec,
+    };
 
     struct TestFixture {
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
@@ -797,6 +1278,66 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_map_index_candidates_accept_empty_first_batch() {
+        let pool: Arc<dyn MemoryPool> = Arc::new(GreedyMemoryPool::new(1024));
+        let reservation = MemoryConsumer::new(MAP_INDEX_CANDIDATES_MEMORY_CONSUMER).register(&pool);
+        let mut candidates = DistinctRowAddrs::new(reservation);
+
+        let empty = candidates
+            .retain_unseen(&UInt64Array::from(Vec::<u64>::new()))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(empty.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(pool.reserved(), RowAddrTreeMap::new().deep_size_of());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_map_index_candidates_respect_memory_pool() {
+        let mut first_candidate = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        first_candidate.insert(1);
+        let first_candidate_size = first_candidate.deep_size_of();
+        let pool: Arc<dyn MemoryPool> = Arc::new(GreedyMemoryPool::new(
+            ROW_ADDR_INSERT_RESERVATION_BYTES + first_candidate_size,
+        ));
+        let reservation = MemoryConsumer::new(MAP_INDEX_CANDIDATES_MEMORY_CONSUMER).register(&pool);
+        let mut candidates = DistinctRowAddrs::new(reservation);
+
+        let first = candidates
+            .retain_unseen(&UInt64Array::from(vec![1]))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(first.values(), &[1]);
+        assert_eq!(pool.reserved(), first_candidate_size);
+
+        let second = candidates
+            .retain_unseen(&UInt64Array::from(vec![2]))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(second.values(), &[2]);
+        let retained_size = pool.reserved();
+        assert!(retained_size > first_candidate_size);
+
+        let error = candidates
+            .retain_unseen(&UInt64Array::from(vec![3]))
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(matches!(error, DataFusionError::ResourcesExhausted(_)));
+        assert!(
+            error
+                .to_string()
+                .contains(MAP_INDEX_CANDIDATES_MEMORY_CONSUMER)
+        );
+        assert!(candidates.emitted.contains(1));
+        assert!(candidates.emitted.contains(2));
+        assert!(!candidates.emitted.contains(3));
+        assert_eq!(pool.reserved(), retained_size);
+
+        let duplicate = candidates
+            .retain_unseen(&UInt64Array::from(vec![1, 2]))
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(duplicate.values().is_empty());
+
+        drop(candidates);
+        assert_eq!(pool.reserved(), 0);
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_materialize_index_exec() {
         let TestFixture {
@@ -807,13 +1348,14 @@ mod tests {
         let query = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
             column: "ordered".to_string(),
             index_name: "ordered_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "BTree".to_string(),
             query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
                 Bound::Unbounded,
                 Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(47))),
             )),
             needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
         });
-
         let fragments = dataset.fragments().clone();
 
         let plan = MaterializeIndexExec::new(dataset, query, fragments);
@@ -834,6 +1376,108 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(batches[0].num_rows(), 5);
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_translate_addr_treemap_to_stable_row_ids() {
+        let test_dir = TempStrDir::default();
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![(
+            "id",
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from((0..10).collect::<Vec<_>>())) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema());
+        let write_params = WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            max_rows_per_file: 5,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let dataset = Dataset::write(reader, test_dir.as_str(), Some(write_params))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let fragment_id = dataset.get_fragments()[1].id() as u32;
+
+        let mut full_fragment = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        full_fragment.insert_fragment(fragment_id);
+        let translated = super::translate_addr_treemap_to_row_ids(&dataset, &full_fragment)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_ids = translated
+            .get_fragment_bitmap(0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![5, 6, 7, 8, 9]);
+
+        let mut partial_fragment = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+        partial_fragment.insert(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, 1).into());
+        partial_fragment.insert(RowAddress::new_from_parts(fragment_id, 3).into());
+        let translated = super::translate_addr_treemap_to_row_ids(&dataset, &partial_fragment)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let row_ids = translated
+            .get_fragment_bitmap(0)
+            .unwrap()
+            .iter()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(row_ids, vec![6, 8]);
+    }
+
+    /// `ScalarIndexExec::schema()` (and the stream it emits) must advertise
+    /// the same schema the batch actually carries — otherwise downstream
+    /// consumers that trust `ExecutionPlan::schema()` will see a different
+    /// shape than they receive.
+    ///
+    /// The schema depends on the `IndexExprResultWireFormat` passed to `ScalarIndexExec::new`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_scalar_index_exec_advertises_correct_schema() {
+        let TestFixture {
+            dataset,
+            _tmp_dir_guard,
+        } = test_fixture().await;
+
+        let query = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
+            column: "ordered".to_string(),
+            index_name: "ordered_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "BTree".to_string(),
+            query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
+                Bound::Unbounded,
+                Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(47))),
+            )),
+            needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
+        });
+
+        let verify = async |plan: ScalarIndexExec, schema: Arc<Schema>| {
+            assert_eq!(plan.schema(), schema);
+            assert_eq!(
+                plan.partition_statistics(None)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .column_statistics
+                    .len(),
+                schema.fields().len(),
+            );
+
+            let stream = plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(stream.schema(), schema);
+            let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+            assert_eq!(batches[0].schema(), schema);
+        };
+
+        let plan = ScalarIndexExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::ThreeVariant,
+        );
+        let schema = IndexExprResultWireFormat::ThreeVariant.schema().clone();
+
+        verify(plan, schema).await;
+
+        let plan = ScalarIndexExec::new(dataset, query, IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask);
+        let schema = IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask.schema().clone();
+
+        verify(plan, schema).await;
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn no_context_scalar_index() {
         // These tests ensure we can create nodes and call execute without a tokio Runtime
@@ -845,16 +1489,22 @@ mod tests {
         let query = ScalarIndexExpr::Query(ScalarIndexSearch {
             column: "ordered".to_string(),
             index_name: "ordered_idx".to_string(),
+            index_type: "BTree".to_string(),
             query: Arc::new(SargableQuery::Range(
                 Bound::Unbounded,
                 Bound::Excluded(ScalarValue::UInt64(Some(47))),
             )),
             needs_recheck: false,
+            fragment_bitmap: None,
         });
 
         // These plans aren't even valid but it appears we defer all work (even validation) until
         // read time.
-        let plan = ScalarIndexExec::new(arc_dasaset.clone(), query.clone());
+        let plan = ScalarIndexExec::new(
+            arc_dasaset.clone(),
+            query.clone(),
+            IndexExprResultWireFormat::default(),
+        );
         plan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
 
         let plan = MapIndexExec::new(
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/scan.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/scan.rs
index 23e7c62b272..d795a42dba3 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/scan.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/scan.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::any::Any;
 use std::ops::Range;
 use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::sync::Arc;
@@ -21,27 +20,31 @@ use datafusion::physical_plan::{
 use datafusion_physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
 use futures::future::BoxFuture;
 use futures::stream::{BoxStream, Stream};
-use futures::{stream, FutureExt, TryFutureExt};
+use futures::{FutureExt, TryFutureExt, stream};
 use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::SchemaExt;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
 use lance_core::utils::tracing::StreamTracingExt;
-use lance_core::{Error, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_ID_FIELD};
+use lance_core::{
+    Error, ROW_ADDR_FIELD, ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD, ROW_ID_FIELD,
+    ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD,
+};
+use lance_file::reader::FileReaderOptions;
+use lance_file::version::ConcreteFileVersion;
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use lance_table::format::Fragment;
 use log::debug;
-use snafu::location;
 use tracing::Instrument;
 
-use crate::dataset::fragment::{FileFragment, FragReadConfig, FragmentReader};
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::fragment::{BaseSchedulers, FileFragment, FragReadConfig, FragmentReader};
 use crate::dataset::scanner::{
     BATCH_SIZE_FALLBACK, DEFAULT_FRAGMENT_READAHEAD, DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE,
     LEGACY_DEFAULT_FRAGMENT_READAHEAD,
 };
-use crate::dataset::Dataset;
 use crate::datatypes::Schema;
 
-use super::utils::IoMetrics;
+use super::utils::{IoMetrics, buffered_fragment_opens};
 
 async fn open_file(
     file_fragment: FileFragment,
@@ -166,18 +169,10 @@ impl LanceStream {
         metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
         partition: usize,
     ) -> Result<Self> {
-        let is_v2_scan = fragments
-            .iter()
-            .filter_map(|frag| frag.files.first().map(|f| !f.is_legacy_file()))
-            .next()
-            .unwrap_or(false);
-        if is_v2_scan {
-            Self::try_new_v2(
-                dataset, fragments, offsets, projection, config, metrics, partition,
-            )
-        } else {
-            Self::try_new_v1(dataset, fragments, projection, config, metrics, partition)
-        }
+        let version = dataset.manifest().data_storage_format.lance_file_format();
+        crate::dataset::versions::create_scan_stream(
+            version, dataset, fragments, offsets, projection, config, metrics, partition,
+        )
     }
 
     #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
@@ -192,7 +187,36 @@ impl LanceStream {
     ) -> Result<Self> {
         let scan_metrics = ScanMetrics::new(metrics, partition);
         let timer = scan_metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
-        let project_schema = projection.clone();
+        let materialize_blob_v2_binary =
+            crate::dataset::blob::schema_has_blob_v2_binary_view(projection.as_ref());
+        let read_projection = if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            Arc::new(crate::dataset::blob::blob_v2_descriptor_schema(
+                projection.as_ref(),
+            ))
+        } else {
+            projection.clone()
+        };
+        let project_schema = read_projection;
+        let output_projection = if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            let mut output_projection = projection.as_ref().clone();
+            let mut system_fields = Vec::with_capacity(4);
+            if config.with_row_id {
+                system_fields.push(ROW_ID_FIELD.clone());
+            }
+            if config.with_row_address {
+                system_fields.push(ROW_ADDR_FIELD.clone());
+            }
+            if config.with_row_last_updated_at_version {
+                system_fields.push(ROW_LAST_UPDATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD.clone());
+            }
+            if config.with_row_created_at_version {
+                system_fields.push(ROW_CREATED_AT_VERSION_FIELD.clone());
+            }
+            output_projection.extend(&system_fields)?;
+            Arc::new(output_projection)
+        } else {
+            projection.clone()
+        };
         let io_parallelism = dataset.object_store.io_parallelism();
         // First, use the value specified by the user in the call
         // Second, use the default from the environment variable, if specified
@@ -239,11 +263,10 @@ impl LanceStream {
                         .count_rows(None)
                         // count_rows should be a fast operation in v2 files
                         .now_or_never()
-                        .ok_or(Error::Internal {
-                            message: "Encountered fragment without row count metadata in v2 file"
+                        .ok_or(Error::internal(
+                            "Encountered fragment without row count metadata in v2 file"
                                 .to_string(),
-                            location: location!(),
-                        })??;
+                        ))??;
                     if rows_to_skip >= num_rows_in_frag as u64 {
                         rows_to_skip -= num_rows_in_frag as u64;
                     } else {
@@ -273,36 +296,56 @@ impl LanceStream {
             dataset.object_store.clone(),
             SchedulerConfig::new(config.io_buffer_size),
         );
+        // Shared for this scan so every base file reuses one scheduler per base
+        // at the scan's own io_buffer_size, matching the primary scheduler.
+        let base_schedulers = BaseSchedulers::new(config.io_buffer_size);
 
         let scan_scheduler_clone = scan_scheduler.clone();
 
+        let materialize_dataset = dataset;
+        let materialization_context = crate::dataset::blob::BlobMaterializationContext::new(
+            Some(config.io_buffer_size),
+            config.materialization_readahead_bytes,
+        );
+        let config_for_stream = config.clone();
         let batches = stream::iter(file_fragments.into_iter().enumerate())
             .map(move |(priority, file_fragment)| {
                 let project_schema = project_schema.clone();
                 let scan_scheduler = scan_scheduler.clone();
+                let base_schedulers = base_schedulers.clone();
+                let config = config_for_stream.clone();
+                let force_row_address = materialize_blob_v2_binary;
                 #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
                 let frag_task: BoxFuture<
                     Result<BoxStream<Result<BoxFuture<Result<RecordBatch>>>>>,
                 > = tokio::spawn(
                     (async move {
+                        let mut frag_config = FragReadConfig::default()
+                            .with_row_id(config.with_row_id)
+                            .with_row_address(config.with_row_address || force_row_address)
+                            .with_row_last_updated_at_version(
+                                config.with_row_last_updated_at_version,
+                            )
+                            .with_row_created_at_version(config.with_row_created_at_version);
+                        if let Some(file_reader_options) = config.file_reader_options {
+                            frag_config = frag_config.with_file_reader_options(file_reader_options);
+                        }
+                        frag_config = frag_config.with_base_schedulers(base_schedulers);
                         let reader = open_file(
                             file_fragment.fragment,
                             project_schema,
-                            FragReadConfig::default()
-                                .with_row_id(config.with_row_id)
-                                .with_row_address(config.with_row_address)
-                                .with_row_last_updated_at_version(
-                                    config.with_row_last_updated_at_version,
-                                )
-                                .with_row_created_at_version(config.with_row_created_at_version),
+                            frag_config,
                             config.with_make_deletions_null,
                             Some((scan_scheduler, priority as u32)),
                         )
                         .await?;
                         let batch_stream = if let Some(range) = file_fragment.range {
-                            reader.read_range(range, config.batch_size as u32)?.boxed()
+                            reader
+                                .read_range(range, config.batch_size as u32)
+                                .await?
+                                .boxed()
                         } else {
-                            reader.read_all(config.batch_size as u32)?.boxed()
+                            reader.read_all(config.batch_size as u32).await?.boxed()
                         };
                         let batch_stream: BoxStream<Result<BoxFuture<Result<RecordBatch>>>> =
                             batch_stream
@@ -334,9 +377,52 @@ impl LanceStream {
             // TODO: Ideally this will eventually get tied into datafusion as a # of partitions.  This will let
             // us fully fuse decode into the first half of the plan.  Currently there is likely to be a thread
             // transfer between the two steps.
-            .try_buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .try_buffered(
+                get_num_compute_intensive_cpus()
+                    .min(config.parallelism_cap.unwrap_or(usize::MAX))
+                    .max(1),
+            )
             .stream_in_current_span()
             .boxed();
+        let batch_size_bytes = config
+            .file_reader_options
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|o| o.batch_size_bytes);
+        let inner_stream = if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            inner_stream
+                .map_ok(move |batch| {
+                    let dataset = materialize_dataset.clone();
+                    let output_projection = output_projection.clone();
+                    let materialization_context = materialization_context.clone();
+                    let admission = materialization_context.admission();
+                    async move {
+                        crate::dataset::blob::materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch_with_admission(
+                            &dataset,
+                            output_projection.as_ref(),
+                            batch,
+                            &materialization_context,
+                            admission,
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+                    }
+                })
+                .try_buffered(config.batch_readahead)
+                .map_ok(|batch| batch.into_batch())
+                .and_then(move |batch| {
+                    futures::future::ready(if let Some(budget) = batch_size_bytes {
+                        crate::dataset::blob::split_batch_by_bytes(batch, (budget * 2) as usize)
+                            .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+                    } else {
+                        Ok(vec![batch])
+                    })
+                })
+                .map_ok(|batches| futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)))
+                .try_flatten()
+                .boxed()
+        } else {
+            inner_stream
+        };
 
         timer.done();
         Ok(Self {
@@ -352,6 +438,7 @@ impl LanceStream {
     pub fn try_new_v1(
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         fragments: Arc<Vec<Fragment>>,
+        _offsets: Option<Range<u64>>,
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
         config: LanceScanConfig,
         metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
@@ -363,9 +450,13 @@ impl LanceStream {
         let fragment_readahead = config
             .fragment_readahead
             .unwrap_or(LEGACY_DEFAULT_FRAGMENT_READAHEAD);
+        let batch_readahead = config
+            .batch_readahead
+            .min(config.parallelism_cap.unwrap_or(usize::MAX))
+            .max(1);
         debug!(
             "Scanning v1 dataset with frag_readahead={} and batch_readahead={}",
-            fragment_readahead, config.batch_readahead
+            fragment_readahead, batch_readahead
         );
 
         let file_fragments = fragments
@@ -374,9 +465,11 @@ impl LanceStream {
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
         let batches = if config.ordered_output {
-            let readers = stream::iter(file_fragments)
-                .map(move |file_fragment| {
-                    Ok(open_file(
+            let readers = buffered_fragment_opens(
+                stream::iter(file_fragments),
+                fragment_readahead,
+                move |file_fragment| {
+                    open_file(
                         file_fragment,
                         project_schema.clone(),
                         FragReadConfig::default()
@@ -388,28 +481,29 @@ impl LanceStream {
                             .with_row_created_at_version(config.with_row_created_at_version),
                         config.with_make_deletions_null,
                         None,
-                    ))
-                })
-                .try_buffered(fragment_readahead);
-            let tasks = readers.and_then(move |reader| {
-                std::future::ready(
-                    reader
-                        .read_all(config.batch_size as u32)
-                        .map(|task_stream| task_stream.map(Ok))
-                        .map_err(DataFusionError::from),
-                )
+                    )
+                },
+            );
+            let tasks = readers.and_then(move |reader| async move {
+                reader
+                    .read_all(config.batch_size as u32)
+                    .await
+                    .map(|task_stream| task_stream.map(Ok))
+                    .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
             });
             tasks
                 // We must be waiting to finish a file before moving onto thenext. That's an issue.
                 .try_flatten()
                 // We buffer up to `batch_readahead` batches across all streams.
-                .try_buffered(config.batch_readahead)
+                .try_buffered(batch_readahead)
                 .stream_in_current_span()
                 .boxed()
         } else {
-            let readers = stream::iter(file_fragments)
-                .map(move |file_fragment| {
-                    Ok(open_file(
+            let readers = buffered_fragment_opens(
+                stream::iter(file_fragments),
+                fragment_readahead,
+                move |file_fragment| {
+                    open_file(
                         file_fragment,
                         project_schema.clone(),
                         FragReadConfig::default()
@@ -421,23 +515,22 @@ impl LanceStream {
                             .with_row_created_at_version(config.with_row_created_at_version),
                         config.with_make_deletions_null,
                         None,
-                    ))
-                })
-                .try_buffered(fragment_readahead);
-            let tasks = readers.and_then(move |reader| {
-                std::future::ready(
-                    reader
-                        .read_all(config.batch_size as u32)
-                        .map(|task_stream| task_stream.map(Ok))
-                        .map_err(DataFusionError::from),
-                )
+                    )
+                },
+            );
+            let tasks = readers.and_then(move |reader| async move {
+                reader
+                    .read_all(config.batch_size as u32)
+                    .await
+                    .map(|task_stream| task_stream.map(Ok))
+                    .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
             });
             // When we flatten the streams (one stream per fragment), we allow
             // `fragment_readahead` stream to be read concurrently.
             tasks
                 .try_flatten_unordered(config.fragment_readahead)
                 // We buffer up to `batch_readahead` batches across all streams.
-                .try_buffer_unordered(config.batch_readahead)
+                .try_buffer_unordered(batch_readahead)
                 .stream_in_current_span()
                 .boxed()
         };
@@ -468,7 +561,9 @@ impl core::fmt::Debug for LanceStream {
 
 impl RecordBatchStream for LanceStream {
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
-        let mut schema: ArrowSchema = self.projection.as_ref().into();
+        let output_projection =
+            crate::dataset::blob::public_blob_v2_binary_output_schema(self.projection.as_ref());
+        let mut schema: ArrowSchema = (&output_projection).into();
         if self.config.with_row_id {
             schema = schema.try_with_column(ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()).unwrap();
         }
@@ -495,12 +590,17 @@ pub struct LanceScanConfig {
     pub batch_readahead: usize,
     pub fragment_readahead: Option<usize>,
     pub io_buffer_size: u64,
+    pub materialization_readahead_bytes: Option<u64>,
     pub with_row_id: bool,
     pub with_row_address: bool,
     pub with_row_last_updated_at_version: bool,
     pub with_row_created_at_version: bool,
     pub with_make_deletions_null: bool,
     pub ordered_output: bool,
+    pub file_reader_options: Option<FileReaderOptions>,
+    /// Upper bound on frag_parallelism and CPU decode concurrency. Set from
+    /// DataFusion's `target_partitions` session config in `LanceScanExec::execute`.
+    pub parallelism_cap: Option<usize>,
 }
 
 // This is mostly for testing purposes, end users are unlikely to create this
@@ -512,12 +612,15 @@ impl Default for LanceScanConfig {
             batch_readahead: get_num_compute_intensive_cpus(),
             fragment_readahead: None,
             io_buffer_size: *DEFAULT_IO_BUFFER_SIZE,
+            materialization_readahead_bytes: None,
             with_row_id: false,
             with_row_address: false,
             with_row_last_updated_at_version: false,
             with_row_created_at_version: false,
             with_make_deletions_null: false,
             ordered_output: false,
+            file_reader_options: None,
+            parallelism_cap: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -530,7 +633,7 @@ pub struct LanceScanExec {
     range: Option<Range<u64>>,
     projection: Arc<Schema>,
     output_schema: Arc<ArrowSchema>,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     config: LanceScanConfig,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
 }
@@ -582,7 +685,9 @@ impl LanceScanExec {
         projection: Arc<Schema>,
         config: LanceScanConfig,
     ) -> Self {
-        let mut output_schema: ArrowSchema = projection.as_ref().into();
+        let output_projection =
+            crate::dataset::blob::public_blob_v2_binary_output_schema(projection.as_ref());
+        let mut output_schema: ArrowSchema = (&output_projection).into();
 
         if config.with_row_id {
             output_schema = output_schema.try_with_column(ROW_ID_FIELD.clone()).unwrap();
@@ -604,12 +709,12 @@ impl LanceScanExec {
         }
         let output_schema = Arc::new(output_schema);
 
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(output_schema.clone()),
             Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
         Self {
             dataset,
             fragments,
@@ -653,10 +758,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LanceScanExec {
         "LanceScanExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         self.output_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -682,13 +783,17 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LanceScanExec {
     fn execute(
         &self,
         partition: usize,
-        _context: Arc<datafusion::execution::context::TaskContext>,
+        context: Arc<datafusion::execution::context::TaskContext>,
     ) -> Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
         let dataset = self.dataset.clone();
         let fragments = self.fragments.clone();
         let range = self.range.clone();
         let projection = self.projection.clone();
-        let config = self.config.clone();
+        let target_partitions = context.session_config().target_partitions();
+        let config = LanceScanConfig {
+            parallelism_cap: Some(target_partitions),
+            ..self.config.clone()
+        };
         let metrics = self.metrics.clone();
 
         let lance_fut_stream = stream::once(async move {
@@ -703,11 +808,26 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LanceScanExec {
         )))
     }
 
-    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
-        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
-    }
-
-    fn statistics(&self) -> datafusion::error::Result<Statistics> {
+    fn partition_statistics(&self, _partition: Option<usize>) -> Result<Arc<Statistics>> {
+        if self.config.with_make_deletions_null {
+            // Ranges use visible-row offsets. Trust `physical_rows` only with a writer version.
+            if self.range.is_some() || self.dataset.manifest().writer_version.is_none() {
+                return Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
+                    num_rows: Precision::Absent,
+                    ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
+                }));
+            }
+            let num_rows = self
+                .fragments
+                .iter()
+                .map(|fragment| fragment.physical_rows)
+                .sum::<Option<usize>>()
+                .map_or(Precision::Absent, Precision::Exact);
+            return Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
+                num_rows,
+                ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
+            }));
+        }
         // Some fragments from older datasets might have the row count stats missing.
         let (row_count, is_exact) =
             self.fragments
@@ -719,18 +839,41 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LanceScanExec {
                         None => (row_count, false),
                     },
                 );
+        // Only the v2 scan honors `range`. `LanceStream::try_new_v1` takes `_offsets`
+        // and reads every fragment, leaving the limit to a node above it.
+        let honors_range = !matches!(
+            self.dataset
+                .manifest()
+                .data_storage_format
+                .lance_file_format(),
+            ConcreteFileVersion::V1
+        );
+
         let num_rows = match is_exact {
-            true => Precision::Exact(row_count),
+            true => Precision::Exact(match self.range.as_ref().filter(|_| honors_range) {
+                // The range slices the fragments concatenated end to end, so the scan
+                // emits the part of it overlapping rows that exist. A range reaching
+                // past the last row yields the rows up to it, not its full width.
+                Some(range) => {
+                    let end = range.end.min(row_count as u64);
+                    end.saturating_sub(range.start) as usize
+                }
+                None => row_count,
+            }),
             false => Precision::Absent,
         };
 
-        Ok(Statistics {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
             num_rows,
-            ..datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
-        })
+            ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
+        }))
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn metrics(&self) -> Option<MetricsSet> {
+        Some(self.metrics.clone_inner())
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -741,9 +884,16 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for LanceScanExec {
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
     use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+    use datafusion::prelude::SessionConfig;
+    use futures::TryStreamExt;
+    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch};
+    use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use rstest::rstest;
 
-    use crate::utils::test::NoContextTestFixture;
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+    use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount, NoContextTestFixture};
 
     use super::*;
 
@@ -764,4 +914,272 @@ mod tests {
 
         scan.execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default())).unwrap();
     }
+
+    const FRAGMENTS: u32 = 4;
+    const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: u32 = 100;
+    const TOTAL_ROWS: usize = (FRAGMENTS * ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT) as usize;
+
+    async fn ranged_scan_dataset(version: LanceFileVersion) -> Arc<Dataset> {
+        let dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(FRAGMENTS),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT as usize,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        Arc::new(dataset)
+    }
+
+    async fn scanned_rows(scan: &LanceScanExec) -> usize {
+        let batches = scan
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        batches.iter().map(|batch| batch.num_rows()).sum()
+    }
+
+    /// The reported count must match what the scan emits: DataFusion reads it back as a
+    /// result, not just as a plan hint. See `partition_statistics` for the consumers.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::no_range(None, TOTAL_ROWS)]
+    #[case::from_the_start(Some(0..10), 10)]
+    #[case::with_an_offset(Some(350..400), 50)]
+    #[case::spanning_fragments(Some(50..250), 200)]
+    #[case::past_the_last_row(Some(390..500), 10)]
+    #[case::starting_past_the_last_row(Some(500..600), 0)]
+    #[case::empty_range(Some(0..0), 0)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn statistics_follow_the_scan_range(
+        #[case] range: Option<Range<u64>>,
+        #[case] expected_rows: usize,
+    ) {
+        let dataset = ranged_scan_dataset(LanceFileVersion::Stable).await;
+        let scan = LanceScanExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            dataset.fragments().clone(),
+            range,
+            Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+            LanceScanConfig::default(),
+        );
+
+        let stats = scan.partition_statistics(None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_rows, Precision::Exact(expected_rows));
+
+        // The estimate is only worth anything if it matches what the scan emits.
+        assert_eq!(scanned_rows(&scan).await, expected_rows);
+    }
+
+    /// v1 ignores `range` -- `LanceStream::try_new_v1` takes `_offsets` and reads every
+    /// fragment -- so the full count is the honest answer and the limit stays with the
+    /// node above. Clamping here would hand DataFusion the exact zero that lets it
+    /// delete that node, and `limit(0)` over a legacy dataset would return every row.
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::no_range(None)]
+    #[case::from_the_start(Some(0..10))]
+    #[case::empty_range(Some(0..0))]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn legacy_statistics_ignore_the_scan_range(#[case] range: Option<Range<u64>>) {
+        let dataset = ranged_scan_dataset(LanceFileVersion::Legacy).await;
+        let scan = LanceScanExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            dataset.fragments().clone(),
+            range,
+            Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+            LanceScanConfig::default(),
+        );
+
+        let stats = scan.partition_statistics(None).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_rows, Precision::Exact(TOTAL_ROWS));
+        assert_eq!(scanned_rows(&scan).await, TOTAL_ROWS);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::known(None, false, Precision::Exact(TOTAL_ROWS))]
+    #[case::missing_rows(None, true, Precision::Absent)]
+    #[case::ranged(Some(0..10), false, Precision::Absent)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn deletion_null_statistics(
+        #[case] range: Option<Range<u64>>,
+        #[case] has_missing_row_counts: bool,
+        #[case] expected: Precision<usize>,
+    ) {
+        let mut dataset = ranged_scan_dataset(LanceFileVersion::Stable)
+            .await
+            .as_ref()
+            .clone();
+        dataset.delete("x = 0").await.unwrap();
+        let mut fragments = dataset.fragments().clone();
+        if has_missing_row_counts {
+            Arc::make_mut(&mut fragments)[0].physical_rows = None;
+        }
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+        let scan = LanceScanExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            fragments,
+            range.clone(),
+            Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+            LanceScanConfig {
+                with_row_id: true,
+                with_make_deletions_null: true,
+                ..Default::default()
+            },
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(scan.partition_statistics(None).unwrap().num_rows, expected);
+        if range.is_none() {
+            assert_eq!(scanned_rows(&scan).await, TOTAL_ROWS);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    enum PhysicalRowMetadata {
+        Present,
+        Untrusted,
+        Missing,
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::legacy(
+        LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
+        "LanceScan:",
+        PhysicalRowMetadata::Present,
+        true,
+        Precision::Exact(8)
+    )]
+    #[case::stable(
+        LanceFileVersion::Stable,
+        "LanceRead:",
+        PhysicalRowMetadata::Present,
+        true,
+        Precision::Exact(8)
+    )]
+    #[case::legacy_untrusted(
+        LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
+        "LanceScan:",
+        PhysicalRowMetadata::Untrusted,
+        false,
+        Precision::Absent
+    )]
+    #[case::stable_untrusted(
+        LanceFileVersion::Stable,
+        "LanceRead:",
+        PhysicalRowMetadata::Untrusted,
+        false,
+        Precision::Absent
+    )]
+    #[case::legacy_missing_physical_rows(
+        LanceFileVersion::Legacy,
+        "LanceScan:",
+        PhysicalRowMetadata::Missing,
+        false,
+        Precision::Absent
+    )]
+    #[case::stable_missing_physical_rows(
+        LanceFileVersion::Stable,
+        "LanceRead:",
+        PhysicalRowMetadata::Missing,
+        false,
+        Precision::Absent
+    )]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn include_deleted_rows_statistics(
+        #[case] version: LanceFileVersion,
+        #[case] scan_node: &str,
+        #[case] metadata: PhysicalRowMetadata,
+        #[case] deleted: bool,
+        #[case] expected: Precision<usize>,
+    ) {
+        let mut dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<Int32Type>())
+            .into_ram_dataset_with_params(
+                FragmentCount::from(2),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(4),
+                Some(WriteParams {
+                    max_rows_per_file: 4,
+                    data_storage_version: Some(version),
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        if deleted {
+            dataset.delete("x = 0").await.unwrap();
+        }
+        let mut fragments = dataset.fragments().as_ref().clone();
+        match metadata {
+            PhysicalRowMetadata::Present => {}
+            PhysicalRowMetadata::Untrusted => {
+                Arc::make_mut(&mut dataset.manifest).writer_version = None;
+                fragments[0].physical_rows = Some(999);
+            }
+            PhysicalRowMetadata::Missing => {
+                fragments[0].physical_rows = None;
+            }
+        }
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        scanner
+            .with_fragments(fragments)
+            .with_row_id()
+            .include_deleted_rows();
+        let plan = scanner.create_plan().await.unwrap();
+        let description = datafusion::physical_plan::displayable(plan.as_ref())
+            .indent(true)
+            .to_string();
+        assert!(description.contains(scan_node), "{description}");
+        assert_eq!(plan.partition_statistics(None).unwrap().num_rows, expected);
+        let batch = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batch.num_rows(), 8);
+        assert_eq!(batch["_rowid"].null_count(), usize::from(deleted));
+    }
+
+    /// Verify that executing with target_partitions=1 produces the same row count as the
+    /// default context. Regression guard for the parallelism cap.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_target_partitions_cap_produces_correct_results() {
+        use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+        use lance_datagen::{Dimension, array};
+
+        use crate::utils::test::{DatagenExt, FragmentCount, FragmentRowCount};
+
+        let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+        let dataset = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>())
+            .col(
+                "v",
+                array::rand_vec::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>(Dimension::from(4)),
+            )
+            .into_dataset(
+                tmp.as_str(),
+                FragmentCount::from(4),
+                FragmentRowCount::from(100),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        let scan = LanceScanExec::new(
+            dataset.clone(),
+            dataset.fragments().clone(),
+            None,
+            Arc::new(dataset.schema().clone()),
+            LanceScanConfig::default(),
+        );
+
+        let low_ctx = Arc::new(
+            TaskContext::default()
+                .with_session_config(SessionConfig::default().with_target_partitions(1)),
+        );
+        let stream = scan.execute(0, low_ctx).unwrap();
+        let batches = stream.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await.unwrap();
+        let total_rows: usize = batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum();
+        assert_eq!(total_rows, 400);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/table_identifier.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/table_identifier.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9ffd1561bc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/table_identifier.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,186 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Helpers for converting between [`Dataset`] and [`TableIdentifier`](pb::TableIdentifier) proto.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_datafusion::pb;
+use lance_io::object_store::StorageOptions;
+use prost::Message;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
+
+/// Build a [`TableIdentifier`] from a [`Dataset`].
+///
+/// Default: lightweight mode (uri + version + etag only, no serialized manifest).
+/// Includes the dataset's latest storage options (if any) so the remote executor
+/// can open or cache the dataset with the correct storage configuration.
+pub async fn table_identifier_from_dataset(dataset: &Dataset) -> Result<pb::TableIdentifier> {
+    Ok(pb::TableIdentifier {
+        uri: dataset.uri().to_string(),
+        version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        manifest_etag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.clone(),
+        serialized_manifest: None,
+        storage_options: dataset
+            .latest_storage_options()
+            .await?
+            .map(|StorageOptions(m)| m)
+            .unwrap_or_default(),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Build a [`TableIdentifier`] with serialized manifest bytes included.
+///
+/// Fast path: remote executor skips manifest read from storage.
+pub async fn table_identifier_from_dataset_with_manifest(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+) -> Result<pb::TableIdentifier> {
+    let manifest_proto = lance_table::format::pb::Manifest::from(dataset.manifest.as_ref());
+    Ok(pb::TableIdentifier {
+        uri: dataset.uri().to_string(),
+        version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        manifest_etag: dataset.manifest_location.e_tag.clone(),
+        serialized_manifest: Some(manifest_proto.encode_to_vec()),
+        storage_options: dataset
+            .latest_storage_options()
+            .await?
+            .map(|StorageOptions(m)| m)
+            .unwrap_or_default(),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Open a dataset from a table identifier proto.
+pub async fn open_dataset_from_table_identifier(
+    table_id: &pb::TableIdentifier,
+) -> Result<Arc<Dataset>> {
+    let mut builder = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&table_id.uri).with_version(table_id.version);
+    if let Some(manifest_bytes) = &table_id.serialized_manifest {
+        builder = builder.with_serialized_manifest(manifest_bytes)?;
+    }
+    if !table_id.storage_options.is_empty() {
+        builder = builder.with_storage_options(table_id.storage_options.clone());
+    }
+    Ok(Arc::new(builder.load().await?))
+}
+
+/// Resolve a dataset from an optional pre-loaded instance or from a table identifier.
+///
+/// If `dataset` is `Some`, returns it directly. Otherwise, opens the dataset
+/// from the table identifier proto.
+pub async fn resolve_dataset(
+    dataset: Option<Arc<Dataset>>,
+    table_id: Option<&pb::TableIdentifier>,
+) -> Result<Arc<Dataset>> {
+    use lance_core::Error;
+    match dataset {
+        Some(ds) => Ok(ds),
+        None => {
+            let table_id = table_id.ok_or_else(|| {
+                Error::invalid_input_source("Missing TableIdentifier in proto".into())
+            })?;
+            open_dataset_from_table_identifier(table_id).await
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use arrow_array::RecordBatchIterator;
+    use arrow_array::types::UInt32Type;
+    use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch};
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    async fn make_test_dataset() -> (Arc<Dataset>, tempfile::TempDir) {
+        let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let batch = gen_batch()
+            .col("x", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .col("y", array::step::<UInt32Type>())
+            .into_batch_rows(lance_datagen::RowCount::from(100))
+            .unwrap();
+        let path = dir.path().join("test.lance");
+        let ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            path.to_str().unwrap(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        (Arc::new(ds), dir)
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_table_identifier_proto_roundtrip() {
+        let id = pb::TableIdentifier {
+            uri: "s3://bucket/table.lance".to_string(),
+            version: 42,
+            manifest_etag: Some("etag123".to_string()),
+            serialized_manifest: None,
+            storage_options: HashMap::new(),
+        };
+        let bytes = id.encode_to_vec();
+        let back = pb::TableIdentifier::decode(bytes.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(id.uri, back.uri);
+        assert_eq!(id.version, back.version);
+        assert_eq!(id.manifest_etag, back.manifest_etag);
+        assert!(back.serialized_manifest.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_table_identifier_proto_with_storage_options() {
+        let mut opts = HashMap::new();
+        opts.insert("region".to_string(), "us-east-1".to_string());
+        opts.insert("endpoint".to_string(), "https://s3.example.com".to_string());
+
+        let id = pb::TableIdentifier {
+            uri: "s3://bucket/table.lance".to_string(),
+            version: 7,
+            manifest_etag: None,
+            serialized_manifest: None,
+            storage_options: opts.clone(),
+        };
+        let bytes = id.encode_to_vec();
+        let back = pb::TableIdentifier::decode(bytes.as_slice()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(back.storage_options, opts);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_identifier_from_dataset_roundtrip() {
+        let (dataset, _dir) = make_test_dataset().await;
+
+        let id = table_identifier_from_dataset(&dataset).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(id.uri, dataset.uri());
+        assert_eq!(id.version, dataset.manifest.version);
+        assert!(id.serialized_manifest.is_none());
+
+        // Roundtrip: open the dataset back from the identifier
+        let back = open_dataset_from_table_identifier(&id).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(back.uri(), dataset.uri());
+        assert_eq!(back.manifest.version, dataset.manifest.version);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_table_identifier_with_manifest_roundtrip() {
+        let (dataset, _dir) = make_test_dataset().await;
+
+        let id = table_identifier_from_dataset_with_manifest(&dataset)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(id.uri, dataset.uri());
+        assert_eq!(id.version, dataset.manifest.version);
+        assert!(id.serialized_manifest.is_some());
+
+        // Verify the serialized manifest bytes decode
+        let manifest_bytes = id.serialized_manifest.as_ref().unwrap();
+        let _manifest_proto =
+            lance_table::format::pb::Manifest::decode(manifest_bytes.as_slice()).unwrap();
+
+        // Roundtrip: open the dataset back from the identifier (with manifest)
+        let back = open_dataset_from_table_identifier(&id).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(back.uri(), dataset.uri());
+        assert_eq!(back.manifest.version, dataset.manifest.version);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/take.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/take.rs
index d7778b4c51e..592c4710bef 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/take.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/take.rs
@@ -4,11 +4,12 @@
 use std::borrow::Cow;
 use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+use std::task::Poll;
 
 use arrow::array::AsArray;
-use arrow::compute::{concat_batches, TakeOptions};
+use arrow::compute::{TakeOptions, concat_batches};
 use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
-use arrow_array::{Array, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, BooleanArray, UInt32Array};
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::{Schema as ArrowSchema, SchemaRef};
 use datafusion::common::Statistics;
@@ -21,21 +22,24 @@ use datafusion::physical_plan::{
     DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties, SendableRecordBatchStream,
 };
 use datafusion_physical_expr::EquivalenceProperties;
-use futures::stream::{FuturesOrdered, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::projection::ProjectionMapping;
 use futures::FutureExt;
+use futures::stream::{FuturesOrdered, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use lance_core::datatypes::{Field, OnMissing, Projection};
 use lance_core::error::{DataFusionResult, LanceOptionExt};
 use lance_core::utils::address::RowAddress;
+use lance_core::utils::futures::FinallyStreamExt;
 use lance_core::utils::tokio::get_num_compute_intensive_cpus;
 use lance_core::{ROW_ADDR, ROW_ID};
 use lance_io::scheduler::{ScanScheduler, SchedulerConfig};
 use tracing::error;
 
+use crate::dataset::Dataset;
 use crate::dataset::fragment::{FragReadConfig, FragmentReader};
 use crate::dataset::rowids::get_row_id_index;
-use crate::dataset::Dataset;
 use crate::datatypes::Schema;
+use crate::index::prefilter::DatasetPreFilter;
 
 use super::utils::IoMetrics;
 
@@ -68,6 +72,13 @@ struct TakeStream {
     dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
     /// The fields to take from the input stream
     fields_to_take: Arc<Schema>,
+    /// The descriptor-view schema used for storage reads when blob payloads
+    /// must be materialized after take.
+    read_fields: Arc<Schema>,
+    materialize_blob_v2_binary: bool,
+    /// Scanner-level byte budget for output batches. Applied after blob v2
+    /// payloads are materialized so that the final batch size is capped.
+    batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
     /// The output schema, needed for us to merge the new columns
     /// into the input data in the correct order
     output_schema: SchemaRef,
@@ -89,10 +100,23 @@ impl TakeStream {
         scan_scheduler: Arc<ScanScheduler>,
         metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
         partition: usize,
+        batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
     ) -> Self {
+        let materialize_blob_v2_binary =
+            crate::dataset::blob::schema_has_blob_v2_binary_view(fields_to_take.as_ref());
+        let read_fields = if materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            Arc::new(crate::dataset::blob::blob_v2_descriptor_schema(
+                fields_to_take.as_ref(),
+            ))
+        } else {
+            fields_to_take.clone()
+        };
         Self {
             dataset,
             fields_to_take,
+            read_fields,
+            materialize_blob_v2_binary,
+            batch_size_bytes,
             output_schema,
             readers_cache: Arc::new(Mutex::new(HashMap::new())),
             scan_scheduler,
@@ -129,14 +153,12 @@ impl TakeStream {
                 ))
             })?;
 
-        let reader = Arc::new(
-            fragment
-                .open(
-                    &self.fields_to_take,
-                    FragReadConfig::default().with_scan_scheduler(self.scan_scheduler.clone()),
-                )
-                .await?,
-        );
+        let mut read_config =
+            FragReadConfig::default().with_scan_scheduler(self.scan_scheduler.clone());
+        if self.materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            read_config = read_config.with_row_address(true);
+        }
+        let reader = Arc::new(fragment.open(&self.read_fields, read_config).await?);
 
         let mut readers = self.readers_cache.lock().unwrap();
         readers.insert(fragment_id, reader.clone());
@@ -157,33 +179,85 @@ impl TakeStream {
         self.do_open_reader(fragment_id).await
     }
 
-    async fn get_row_addrs(&self, batch: &RecordBatch) -> Result<Arc<dyn Array>> {
+    /// Returns the row addresses for the given batch, plus an optional validity
+    /// mask. Some row IDs from stale index results (e.g. FTS matches for deleted
+    /// rows) may no longer be valid. For stable row IDs, the row ID index detects
+    /// these entries. For physical row IDs, the dataset deletion mask detects
+    /// deleted rows and removed fragments. Invalid entries are excluded from the
+    /// returned addresses, and the mask indicates which input rows are still
+    /// valid so the caller can filter the batch to match.
+    async fn get_row_addrs(
+        &self,
+        batch: &RecordBatch,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<dyn Array>, Option<BooleanArray>)> {
         if let Some(row_addr_array) = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ADDR) {
-            Ok(row_addr_array.clone())
+            Ok((row_addr_array.clone(), None))
         } else {
             let row_id_array = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).expect_ok()?;
 
             if let Some(row_id_index) = get_row_id_index(&self.dataset).await? {
                 let row_id_array = row_id_array.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
-                let addresses = row_id_array
+                Self::resolve_row_addrs(row_id_array, |id| Ok(row_id_index.get(id)?.map(u64::from)))
+            } else {
+                let row_id_array = row_id_array.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
+                let fragments = row_id_array
                     .values()
                     .iter()
-                    .filter_map(|id| row_id_index.get(*id).map(|address| address.into()))
-                    .collect::<Vec<u64>>();
-                Ok(Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(addresses)))
+                    .map(|id| RowAddress::from(*id).fragment_id())
+                    .collect();
+                if let Some(mask) =
+                    DatasetPreFilter::create_deletion_mask(self.dataset.clone(), fragments)
+                {
+                    let mask = mask.await?;
+                    Self::resolve_row_addrs(row_id_array, |id| Ok(mask.selected(id).then_some(id)))
+                } else {
+                    Ok((Arc::new(row_id_array.clone()), None))
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn resolve_row_addrs(
+        row_ids: &UInt64Array,
+        mut resolve: impl FnMut(u64) -> Result<Option<u64>>,
+    ) -> Result<(Arc<dyn Array>, Option<BooleanArray>)> {
+        let mut addresses = Vec::with_capacity(row_ids.len());
+        let mut valid = Vec::with_capacity(row_ids.len());
+
+        for id in row_ids.values().iter() {
+            if let Some(address) = resolve(*id)? {
+                addresses.push(address);
+                valid.push(true);
             } else {
-                Ok(row_id_array.clone())
+                valid.push(false);
             }
         }
+
+        let mask = if addresses.len() < row_ids.len() {
+            Some(BooleanArray::from(valid))
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        Ok((Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(addresses)), mask))
     }
 
     async fn map_batch(
         self: Arc<Self>,
         batch: RecordBatch,
         batch_number: u32,
-    ) -> DataFusionResult<RecordBatch> {
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Vec<RecordBatch>> {
         let compute_timer = self.metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
-        let row_addrs_arr = self.get_row_addrs(&batch).await?;
+        let (row_addrs_arr, validity_mask) = self.get_row_addrs(&batch).await?;
+
+        // Filter stale index entries before reading so the input batch and taken
+        // columns remain aligned. Otherwise, the downstream merge would fail with
+        // a row-count mismatch.
+        let batch = if let Some(mask) = validity_mask {
+            arrow::compute::filter_record_batch(&batch, &mask)?
+        } else {
+            batch
+        };
+
         let row_addrs = row_addrs_arr.as_primitive::<UInt64Type>();
 
         debug_assert!(
@@ -286,7 +360,7 @@ impl TakeStream {
         let batches = futures.try_collect::<Vec<_>>().await?;
 
         if batches.is_empty() {
-            return Ok(RecordBatch::new_empty(self.output_schema.clone()));
+            return Ok(vec![RecordBatch::new_empty(self.output_schema.clone())]);
         }
 
         let _compute_timer = self.metrics.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
@@ -322,19 +396,34 @@ impl TakeStream {
             (None, None) => {}
         }
 
-        self.metrics
-            .baseline_metrics
-            .record_output(new_data.num_rows());
-        self.metrics.batches_processed.add(1);
-        Ok(batch.merge_with_schema(&new_data, self.output_schema.as_ref())?)
+        if self.materialize_blob_v2_binary {
+            new_data = crate::dataset::blob::materialize_blob_v2_binary_batch(
+                &self.dataset,
+                self.fields_to_take.as_ref(),
+                new_data,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        }
+
+        let merged = batch.merge_with_schema(&new_data, self.output_schema.as_ref())?;
+        if let Some(budget) = self.batch_size_bytes {
+            Ok(crate::dataset::blob::split_batch_by_bytes(
+                merged,
+                (budget * 2) as usize,
+            )?)
+        } else {
+            Ok(vec![merged])
+        }
     }
 
     fn apply<S: Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> + Send + 'static>(
         self: Arc<Self>,
         input: S,
     ) -> impl Stream<Item = Result<RecordBatch>> {
-        let scan_scheduler = self.scan_scheduler.clone();
-        let metrics = self.metrics.clone();
+        let result_scan_scheduler = self.scan_scheduler.clone();
+        let final_scan_scheduler = self.scan_scheduler.clone();
+        let result_metrics = self.metrics.clone();
+        let final_metrics = self.metrics.clone();
         let batches = input
             .enumerate()
             .map(move |(batch_index, batch)| {
@@ -347,8 +436,26 @@ impl TakeStream {
             })
             .boxed();
         batches
-            .inspect_ok(move |_| metrics.io_metrics.record(&scan_scheduler))
             .try_buffered(get_num_compute_intensive_cpus())
+            .map_ok(|batches| futures::stream::iter(batches.into_iter().map(Ok)))
+            .try_flatten()
+            .map(move |result| {
+                if result.is_ok() {
+                    result_metrics.batches_processed.add(1);
+                }
+                result_metrics.io_metrics.record(&result_scan_scheduler);
+                match result_metrics
+                    .baseline_metrics
+                    .record_poll(Poll::Ready(Some(result)))
+                {
+                    Poll::Ready(Some(result)) => result,
+                    _ => unreachable!("record_poll returned a different poll state"),
+                }
+            })
+            .finally(move || {
+                final_metrics.baseline_metrics.done();
+                final_metrics.io_metrics.record(&final_scan_scheduler);
+            })
     }
 }
 
@@ -366,8 +473,14 @@ pub struct TakeExec {
     // The schema of the output
     output_schema: SchemaRef,
     input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
     metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+    /// Scanner-level byte budget for output batches.
+    batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
+    /// Whether the input columns lead the output unchanged. A take that adds
+    /// fields to an input struct changes that column, so orderings on it do
+    /// not carry across.
+    has_unchanged_input: bool,
 }
 
 impl DisplayAs for TakeExec {
@@ -415,6 +528,16 @@ impl TakeExec {
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
         projection: Projection,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
+        Self::try_new_with_batch_size(dataset, input, projection, None)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a [`TakeExec`] node with an explicit byte budget for output batches.
+    pub fn try_new_with_batch_size(
+        dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
+        input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        projection: Projection,
+        batch_size_bytes: Option<u64>,
     ) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
         let original_projection = projection.clone();
         let projection =
@@ -440,16 +563,30 @@ impl TakeExec {
             projection
         );
 
-        let output_schema = Arc::new(Self::calculate_output_schema(
-            dataset.schema(),
-            &input.schema(),
-            &projection,
+        let output_schema =
+            Self::calculate_output_schema(dataset.schema(), &input.schema(), &projection);
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(crate::dataset::blob::public_blob_v2_binary_output_schema(
+            &output_schema,
         ));
         let output_arrow = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::from(output_schema.as_ref()));
-        let properties = input
-            .properties()
-            .clone()
-            .with_eq_properties(EquivalenceProperties::new(output_arrow.clone()));
+        let has_unchanged_input = input
+            .schema()
+            .fields()
+            .iter()
+            .zip(output_arrow.fields())
+            .all(|(input_field, output_field)| input_field == output_field);
+        let eq_properties = if has_unchanged_input {
+            Self::output_equivalences(&input, &output_arrow)?
+        } else {
+            EquivalenceProperties::new(output_arrow.clone())
+        };
+        let properties = Arc::new(
+            input
+                .properties()
+                .as_ref()
+                .clone()
+                .with_eq_properties(eq_properties),
+        );
 
         Ok(Some(Self {
             dataset,
@@ -459,9 +596,26 @@ impl TakeExec {
             output_schema: output_arrow,
             properties,
             metrics: ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+            batch_size_bytes,
+            has_unchanged_input,
         }))
     }
 
+    /// The input's orderings and equivalences on `output`, whose leading
+    /// columns are the input's. Rows keep their input order.
+    fn output_equivalences(
+        input: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        output: &SchemaRef,
+    ) -> Result<EquivalenceProperties> {
+        let input_schema = input.schema();
+        let indices = (0..input_schema.fields().len()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let mapping = ProjectionMapping::from_indices(&indices, &input_schema)?;
+        Ok(input
+            .properties()
+            .eq_properties
+            .project(&mapping, output.clone()))
+    }
+
     /// The output of a take operation will be all columns from the input schema followed
     /// by any new columns from the dataset.
     ///
@@ -471,7 +625,7 @@ impl TakeExec {
     ///
     /// If this happens the order of the new nested fields will match the order defined in
     /// the dataset schema.
-    fn calculate_output_schema(
+    pub(crate) fn calculate_output_schema(
         dataset_schema: &Schema,
         input_schema: &ArrowSchema,
         projection: &Projection,
@@ -519,6 +673,8 @@ impl TakeExec {
     pub fn dataset(&self) -> &Arc<Dataset> {
         &self.dataset
     }
+
+    pub fn output_projection(&self) -> &Projection { &self.output_projection }
 }
 
 impl ExecutionPlan for TakeExec {
@@ -526,10 +682,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for TakeExec {
         "TakeExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
         self.output_schema.clone()
     }
@@ -538,6 +690,12 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for TakeExec {
         vec![&self.input]
     }
 
+    fn maintains_input_order(&self) -> Vec<bool> {
+        // Rows keep their order, but a changed input column must not let a
+        // sort above be pushed below the take.
+        vec![self.has_unchanged_input]
+    }
+
     fn benefits_from_input_partitioning(&self) -> Vec<bool> {
         // This is an I/O bound operation and wouldn't really benefit from partitioning
         //
@@ -559,7 +717,12 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for TakeExec {
 
         let projection = self.output_projection.clone();
 
-        let plan = Self::try_new(self.dataset.clone(), children[0].clone(), projection)?;
+        let plan = Self::try_new_with_batch_size(
+            self.dataset.clone(),
+            children[0].clone(),
+            projection,
+            self.batch_size_bytes,
+        )?;
 
         if let Some(plan) = plan {
             Ok(Arc::new(plan))
@@ -579,6 +742,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for TakeExec {
         let schema_to_take = self.schema_to_take.clone();
         let output_schema = self.output_schema.clone();
         let metrics = self.metrics.clone();
+        let batch_size_bytes = self.batch_size_bytes;
 
         // ScanScheduler::new launches the I/O scheduler in the background.
         // We aren't allowed to do work in `execute` and so we defer creation of the
@@ -596,6 +760,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for TakeExec {
                 scan_scheduler,
                 &metrics,
                 partition,
+                batch_size_bytes,
             ));
             take_stream.apply(input_stream)
         });
@@ -613,14 +778,14 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for TakeExec {
     fn partition_statistics(
         &self,
         partition: Option<usize>,
-    ) -> Result<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics {
+    ) -> Result<Arc<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Statistics {
             num_rows: self.input.partition_statistics(partition)?.num_rows,
             ..Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref())
-        })
+        }))
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 
@@ -640,7 +805,7 @@ mod tests {
     use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
     use lance_arrow::SchemaExt;
     use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
-    use lance_core::{datatypes::OnMissing, ROW_ID};
+    use lance_core::{ROW_ID, datatypes::OnMissing};
     use lance_datafusion::{datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt, exec::OneShotExec, utils::MetricsExt};
     use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount};
     use rstest::rstest;
@@ -805,6 +970,144 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_take_filters_stale_physical_row_ids() {
+        let TestFixture {
+            dataset,
+            _tmp_dir_guard,
+        } = test_fixture().await;
+        let mut dataset = dataset.as_ref().clone();
+        dataset.delete("i = 1").await.unwrap();
+        let dataset = Arc::new(dataset);
+
+        // Simulate stale index results for a deleted row and a removed fragment.
+        let missing_fragment_row_id = u64::from(RowAddress::new_from_parts(99, 0));
+        let row_ids = Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![
+            0_u64,
+            1,
+            2,
+            missing_fragment_row_id,
+        ]));
+        let scores = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![10, 11, 12, 13]));
+        let input_batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            (ROW_ID, row_ids as ArrayRef),
+            ("score", scores as ArrayRef),
+        ])
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = input_batch.schema();
+        let input_stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(input_batch)]);
+        let input_stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, input_stream));
+        let input = Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(input_stream));
+
+        let projection = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_column("s", OnMissing::Error)
+            .unwrap();
+        let take_exec = TakeExec::try_new(dataset, input, projection)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let result = take_exec
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let result = concat_batches(&result[0].schema(), &result).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            result[ROW_ID]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
+                .unwrap(),
+            &UInt64Array::from(vec![0_u64, 2])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result["score"]
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+                .unwrap(),
+            &Int32Array::from(vec![10, 12])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            result["s"].as_any().downcast_ref::<StringArray>().unwrap(),
+            &StringArray::from(vec!["str-0", "str-2"])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "current_thread")]
+    async fn test_take_records_output_and_io_metrics() {
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::MetricValue;
+        use lance_datafusion::utils::{BYTES_READ_METRIC, IOPS_METRIC, REQUESTS_METRIC};
+        let TestFixture {
+            dataset,
+            _tmp_dir_guard,
+        } = test_fixture().await;
+
+        let row_addrs = UInt64Array::from(vec![0_u64, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
+        let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            ROW_ADDR,
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(row_addrs)]).unwrap();
+        let stream = futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]);
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream));
+        let input = Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream));
+
+        let projection = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_column("s", OnMissing::Error)
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let take_exec = TakeExec::try_new(dataset, input, projection)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let stream = take_exec
+            .execute(0, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .unwrap();
+        let batches: Vec<RecordBatch> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.iter().map(|b| b.num_rows()).sum::<usize>(), 5);
+
+        let metrics = take_exec.metrics().unwrap();
+
+        let output_batches: usize = metrics
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|m| match m.value() {
+                MetricValue::OutputBatches(count) => Some(count.value()),
+                _ => None,
+            })
+            .sum();
+
+        let output_bytes: usize = metrics
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|m| match m.value() {
+                MetricValue::OutputBytes(count) => Some(count.value()),
+                _ => None,
+            })
+            .sum();
+
+        let gauge = |name: &str| -> usize {
+            metrics
+                .iter_gauges()
+                .find_map(|(metric_name, gauge)| {
+                    (metric_name.as_ref() == name).then(|| gauge.value())
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(0)
+        };
+
+        let bytes_read = gauge(BYTES_READ_METRIC);
+        let iops = gauge(IOPS_METRIC);
+        let requests = gauge(REQUESTS_METRIC);
+
+        assert_eq!(metrics.output_rows(), Some(5));
+        assert_eq!(metrics.find_count("batches_processed").unwrap().value(), 1);
+        assert!(
+            output_batches > 0 && output_bytes > 0 && bytes_read > 0 && iops > 0 && requests > 0,
+            "expected positive TakeExec metrics, got output_batches={output_batches}, output_bytes={output_bytes}, bytes_read={bytes_read}, iops={iops}, requests={requests}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_take_order() {
         let TestFixture {
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/testing.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/testing.rs
index a94569f5111..f979c403431 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/testing.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/testing.rs
@@ -4,17 +4,15 @@
 //! Testing Node
 //!
 
-use std::any::Any;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
 use datafusion::{
-    common::Statistics,
     execution::context::TaskContext,
     physical_plan::{
-        execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType},
         DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties, SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType},
     },
 };
 use datafusion_physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
@@ -23,17 +21,17 @@ use futures::StreamExt;
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct TestingExec {
     pub(crate) batches: Vec<RecordBatch>,
-    properties: PlanProperties,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
 }
 
 impl TestingExec {
     pub(crate) fn new(batches: Vec<RecordBatch>) -> Self {
-        let properties = PlanProperties::new(
+        let properties = Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
             EquivalenceProperties::new(batches[0].schema()),
             Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(1),
             EmissionType::Incremental,
             Boundedness::Bounded,
-        );
+        ));
         Self {
             batches,
             properties,
@@ -52,10 +50,6 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for TestingExec {
         "TestingExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef {
         self.batches[0].schema()
     }
@@ -81,11 +75,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for TestingExec {
         Ok(Box::pin(stream))
     }
 
-    fn statistics(&self) -> datafusion::error::Result<datafusion::physical_plan::Statistics> {
-        Ok(Statistics::new_unknown(self.schema().as_ref()))
-    }
-
-    fn properties(&self) -> &datafusion::physical_plan::PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<datafusion::physical_plan::PlanProperties> {
         &self.properties
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/topk_late_materialization.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/topk_late_materialization.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..61145410ae4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/topk_late_materialization.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,669 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Physical optimizer rule that late-materializes the non-sort columns of a
+//! top-k (`ORDER BY ... LIMIT k`) over a single [`FilteredReadExec`].
+//!
+//! ```text
+//!   [SortPreservingMergeExec]             ProjectionExec (original column order)
+//!     SortExec(TopK)                        TakeExec (every other column)
+//!       [pass-through]*          ==>          [SortPreservingMergeExec]
+//!         FilteredReadExec                      SortExec(TopK)
+//!                                                 [pass-through]*
+//!                                                   FilteredReadExec (sort keys + _rowid)
+//! ```
+//!
+//! A `TableProvider::scan` carries no ordering, so a DataFusion-planned top-k
+//! otherwise reads every projected column for every matching row and then
+//! discards all but `k` of them. [`Scanner::order_by`](crate::dataset::scanner::Scanner::order_by)
+//! makes the same split when it plans the sort itself; this rule does it for
+//! plans built elsewhere, such as SQL over [`LanceTableProvider`](crate::datafusion::LanceTableProvider).
+//!
+//! A pass-through node is one the rule can rebuild over the narrowed read
+//! without changing any value the take later fetches:
+//!
+//! - a [`ProjectionExec`] that only selects columns, narrowed to the columns
+//!   the read still has;
+//! - a [`RepartitionExec`] that does not hash (hash partitioning holds column
+//!   indices into the wide schema);
+//! - a [`CoalescePartitionsExec`] or [`CooperativeExec`];
+//! - a custom node the caller certifies with
+//!   [`TopKLateMaterialization::with_pass_through`], such as one a
+//!   `TableProvider` wraps around the scan. A certified node that rewrites
+//!   schema metadata is applied again above the take, since [`TakeExec`] emits
+//!   the dataset's metadata.
+//!
+//! A [`TakeExec`] or row-stream [`FilteredReadExec`] in the chain (the
+//! scanner's own late materialization behind a filter) is dropped: the take
+//! above the sort fetches its columns instead.
+
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::fmt::{Debug, Formatter};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
+use datafusion::common::tree_node::{Transformed, TreeNode, TreeNodeRecursion};
+use datafusion::config::ConfigOptions;
+use datafusion::error::Result as DFResult;
+use datafusion::physical_optimizer::PhysicalOptimizerRule;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::coalesce_partitions::CoalescePartitionsExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::coop::CooperativeExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::execution_plan::CardinalityEffect;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::projection::ProjectionExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::repartition::RepartitionExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort_preserving_merge::SortPreservingMergeExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{ExecutionPlan, Partitioning};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::expressions::Column;
+use datafusion_physical_expr::utils::{collect_columns, reassign_expr_columns};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{LexOrdering, PhysicalExpr, PhysicalSortExpr};
+use lance_core::ROW_ID;
+use lance_core::datatypes::OnMissing;
+use lance_select::RowSetOps;
+
+use super::TakeExec;
+use super::filtered_read::FilteredReadExec;
+
+/// Decides whether a read may be narrowed. Returning `false` leaves the top-k
+/// over that read unchanged.
+pub type ReadEligibility = Arc<dyn Fn(&FilteredReadExec, &ConfigOptions) -> bool + Send + Sync>;
+
+/// Decides whether a custom node may be walked through. See
+/// [`TopKLateMaterialization::with_pass_through`].
+pub type PassThrough = Arc<dyn Fn(&dyn ExecutionPlan) -> bool + Send + Sync>;
+
+/// Defer every non-sort column of a top-k over a Lance read to a take of the
+/// surviving rows. See the module docs.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use std::sync::Arc;
+/// # use datafusion::execution::SessionStateBuilder;
+/// # use lance::io::exec::topk_late_materialization::TopKLateMaterialization;
+/// let state = SessionStateBuilder::new()
+///     .with_default_features()
+///     .with_physical_optimizer_rule(Arc::new(TopKLateMaterialization::new()))
+///     .build();
+/// ```
+#[derive(Clone, Default)]
+pub struct TopKLateMaterialization {
+    /// `None`: every read qualifies.
+    read_eligibility: Option<ReadEligibility>,
+    /// `None`: only the built-in pass-through nodes.
+    pass_through: Option<PassThrough>,
+}
+
+impl Debug for TopKLateMaterialization {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("TopKLateMaterialization")
+            .field("read_eligibility", &self.read_eligibility.is_some())
+            .field("pass_through", &self.pass_through.is_some())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl TopKLateMaterialization {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::default()
+    }
+
+    /// Only narrow reads for which `eligibility` returns `true`, for callers
+    /// that know a read cannot be served by a take (for example, one unioned
+    /// with rows that have no row id).
+    pub fn with_read_eligibility(
+        mut self,
+        eligibility: impl Fn(&FilteredReadExec, &ConfigOptions) -> bool + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.read_eligibility = Some(Arc::new(eligibility));
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Also walk through custom nodes for which `pass_through` returns `true`.
+    /// Such a node must keep every row, column, and value of its single input
+    /// (it may rewrite schema metadata), and must hold no column indices, as
+    /// it is rebuilt over the narrowed read with `with_new_children`. It must
+    /// also report [`CardinalityEffect::Equal`] and no fetch, or the rule
+    /// declines.
+    pub fn with_pass_through(
+        mut self,
+        pass_through: impl Fn(&dyn ExecutionPlan) -> bool + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.pass_through = Some(Arc::new(pass_through));
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// `Ok(None)`: not a top-k. `Err`: a top-k this rule declines, and why.
+    fn rewrite(
+        &self,
+        node: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        config: &ConfigOptions,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>, String> {
+        let (merge, sort) = if let Some(merge) = node.downcast_ref::<SortPreservingMergeExec>() {
+            match merge.input().downcast_ref::<SortExec>() {
+                Some(sort) if merge.fetch().is_some() && sort.preserve_partitioning() => {
+                    (Some(merge), sort)
+                }
+                _ => return Ok(None),
+            }
+        } else if let Some(sort) = node.downcast_ref::<SortExec>() {
+            if sort.preserve_partitioning() {
+                // The merge above it is the top-k root.
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            (None, sort)
+        } else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+        let Some(fetch) = sort.fetch() else {
+            return Ok(None);
+        };
+
+        let mut chain = Vec::new();
+        let mut dropped_takes = Vec::new();
+        let mut current = sort.input().clone();
+        loop {
+            if let Some(read) = current.downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>() {
+                if read.row_stream_input().is_none() {
+                    break;
+                }
+                // Row-stream reads take every input row: their constructor
+                // rejects filters, scan ranges, and deleted rows.
+                dropped_takes.push(read.dataset().clone());
+            } else if let Some(take) = current.downcast_ref::<TakeExec>() {
+                dropped_takes.push(take.dataset().clone());
+            } else {
+                self.check_pass_through(&current)?;
+                chain.push(current.clone());
+            }
+            let [child] = &current.children()[..] else {
+                return Err(format!(
+                    "{} does not have exactly one child",
+                    current.name()
+                ));
+            };
+            current = (*child).clone();
+        }
+        let read = current
+            .downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>()
+            .ok_or("the loop exits on a FilteredReadExec")?;
+        let dataset = read.dataset().clone();
+        if dropped_takes.iter().any(|take| {
+            take.uri() != dataset.uri() || take.version().version != dataset.version().version
+        }) {
+            return Err("a take in the chain reads a different dataset".into());
+        }
+        if read.options().with_deleted_rows {
+            // Deleted rows carry a null row id, which a take cannot follow.
+            return Err("read includes deleted rows".into());
+        }
+        if let Some(eligibility) = &self.read_eligibility
+            && !eligibility(read, config)
+        {
+            return Err("read is not eligible".into());
+        }
+
+        if max_rows(read).is_some_and(|rows| fetch >= rows) {
+            // The sort drops nothing, so the take would re-read every row.
+            return Err("the limit keeps every row".into());
+        }
+
+        let original = node.schema();
+        let full = &read.options().projection;
+        let wanted = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_arrow_schema(&original, OnMissing::Ignore)
+            .map_err(|e| e.to_string())?
+            .with_blob_handling(full.blob_handling.clone());
+        let mut narrow = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_columns(sort_column_names(sort.expr()), OnMissing::Ignore)
+            .map_err(|e| e.to_string())?
+            .with_row_id();
+        narrow.with_row_addr = full.with_row_addr;
+        narrow.with_row_last_updated_at_version = full.with_row_last_updated_at_version;
+        narrow.with_row_created_at_version = full.with_row_created_at_version;
+        narrow.blob_handling = full.blob_handling.clone();
+        let narrow_read = read.with_projection(narrow).map_err(|e| e.to_string())?;
+        let mut input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(narrow_read);
+        for node in chain.iter().rev() {
+            input = rebuild(node, input)?;
+        }
+
+        let schema = input.schema();
+        let mut top: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(
+            SortExec::new(rebind(sort.expr(), &schema)?, input)
+                .with_preserve_partitioning(sort.preserve_partitioning())
+                .with_fetch(sort.fetch()),
+        );
+        if let Some(merge) = merge {
+            top = Arc::new(
+                SortPreservingMergeExec::new(rebind(merge.expr(), &schema)?, top)
+                    .with_fetch(merge.fetch()),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let take = TakeExec::try_new(dataset, top, wanted)
+            .map_err(|e| e.to_string())?
+            .ok_or("the sort reads every output column")?;
+        let names = original.fields().iter().map(|f| f.name().as_str());
+        let mut output = project(Arc::new(take), names)?;
+        for node in chain.iter().rev().filter(|node| rewrites_metadata(node)) {
+            output = node
+                .clone()
+                .with_new_children(vec![output])
+                .map_err(|e| e.to_string())?;
+        }
+        if output.schema() != original {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "rewritten plan does not reproduce the original schema: expected {original:?}, got {:?}",
+                output.schema()
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(Some(output))
+    }
+
+    /// `Ok` if [`rebuild`] can re-create `node` over the narrowed read.
+    fn check_pass_through(&self, node: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Result<(), String> {
+        let decline = |why: &str| {
+            Err(format!(
+                "{} between the sort and the read {why}",
+                node.name()
+            ))
+        };
+        if node.fetch().is_some() {
+            // `CoalescePartitionsExec` reports `Equal` even when a fetch caps its rows.
+            return decline("has a fetch");
+        }
+        if let Some(projection) = node.downcast_ref::<ProjectionExec>() {
+            let selects_columns = projection.expr().iter().all(|projected| {
+                projected
+                    .expr
+                    .downcast_ref::<Column>()
+                    .is_some_and(|column| column.name() == projected.alias)
+            });
+            return if selects_columns {
+                Ok(())
+            } else {
+                decline("computes or renames columns")
+            };
+        }
+        if let Some(repartition) = node.downcast_ref::<RepartitionExec>() {
+            return if matches!(repartition.partitioning(), Partitioning::Hash(..)) {
+                decline("hash-partitions")
+            } else {
+                Ok(())
+            };
+        }
+        if node.is::<CoalescePartitionsExec>() || node.is::<CooperativeExec>() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        // `Equal` cardinality and unchanged columns do not mean unchanged values.
+        if !self
+            .pass_through
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|pass_through| pass_through(node.as_ref()))
+        {
+            return decline("is not a known pass-through node");
+        }
+        if !matches!(node.cardinality_effect(), CardinalityEffect::Equal) {
+            return decline("may change the row count");
+        }
+        let [input] = &node.children()[..] else {
+            return decline("does not have exactly one child");
+        };
+        if node.schema().fields() != input.schema().fields() {
+            return decline("changes the columns");
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl PhysicalOptimizerRule for TopKLateMaterialization {
+    fn optimize(
+        &self,
+        plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        config: &ConfigOptions,
+    ) -> DFResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(plan
+            .transform_down(|node| match self.rewrite(&node, config) {
+                Ok(Some(rewritten)) => {
+                    Ok(Transformed::new(rewritten, true, TreeNodeRecursion::Jump))
+                }
+                Ok(None) => Ok(Transformed::no(node)),
+                Err(reason) => {
+                    log::debug!("Skipping topk_late_materialization: {reason}");
+                    Ok(Transformed::no(node))
+                }
+            })?
+            .data)
+    }
+
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "topk_late_materialization"
+    }
+
+    fn schema_check(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+fn rewrites_metadata(node: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> bool {
+    !node.is::<ProjectionExec>()
+        && !node.is::<RepartitionExec>()
+        && !node.is::<CoalescePartitionsExec>()
+        && !node.is::<CooperativeExec>()
+        && node
+            .children()
+            .first()
+            .is_some_and(|input| input.schema().metadata() != node.schema().metadata())
+}
+
+/// `node` over the narrowed `input`.
+fn rebuild(
+    node: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, String> {
+    if let Some(projection) = node.downcast_ref::<ProjectionExec>() {
+        // Keep the selected columns the narrowed read still has, plus the row id.
+        let schema = input.schema();
+        let kept = projection
+            .expr()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|projected| projected.alias.as_str())
+            .filter(|name| *name != ROW_ID && schema.index_of(name).is_ok())
+            .chain([ROW_ID])
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        return project(input, kept);
+    }
+    node.clone()
+        .with_new_children(vec![input])
+        .map_err(|e| e.to_string())
+}
+
+/// Select `names` from `input`, in that order.
+fn project<'a>(
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    names: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a str>,
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, String> {
+    let schema = input.schema();
+    let columns = names
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|name| {
+            let index = schema.index_of(name).map_err(|e| e.to_string())?;
+            Ok((
+                Arc::new(Column::new(name, index)) as Arc<dyn PhysicalExpr>,
+                name.to_string(),
+            ))
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, String>>()?;
+    Ok(Arc::new(
+        ProjectionExec::try_new(columns, input).map_err(|e| e.to_string())?,
+    ))
+}
+
+fn sort_column_names(ordering: &LexOrdering) -> Vec<String> {
+    ordering
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|sort| collect_columns(&sort.expr))
+        .map(|column| column.name().to_string())
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>()
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// `ordering` with each column re-resolved by name against `schema`.
+fn rebind(ordering: &LexOrdering, schema: &ArrowSchema) -> Result<LexOrdering, String> {
+    let exprs = ordering
+        .iter()
+        .map(|sort| {
+            let expr =
+                reassign_expr_columns(sort.expr.clone(), schema).map_err(|e| e.to_string())?;
+            Ok(PhysicalSortExpr::new(expr, sort.options))
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, String>>()?;
+    LexOrdering::new(exprs).ok_or_else(|| "empty ordering".into())
+}
+
+/// An upper bound on the rows `read` can produce: the rows its precomputed plan
+/// selects, else the live rows of its fragments.
+fn max_rows(read: &FilteredReadExec) -> Option<usize> {
+    if let Some(rows) = read.plan().and_then(|plan| plan.rows.len()) {
+        return Some(rows as usize);
+    }
+    read.options()
+        .fragments
+        .as_deref()
+        .map(Vec::as_slice)
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| read.dataset().fragments().as_slice())
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.num_rows().or(fragment.physical_rows))
+        .sum()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+    use arrow_schema::SortOptions;
+    use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::collect;
+    use datafusion::prelude::{col as logical_col, lit};
+    use datafusion_physical_expr::expressions::col;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::Dataset;
+    use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
+    use crate::io::exec::filtered_read::FilteredReadOptions;
+
+    /// `wide` and `other` are functions of `key`, so a take that fetched the
+    /// wrong rows shows up as a mismatch against the unrewritten plan. With
+    /// `has_deletions`, the top row (`key = 9`) and one mid row are deleted, so row
+    /// ids have gaps and the answer changes.
+    async fn dataset(has_stable_row_ids: bool, has_deletions: bool) -> Arc<Dataset> {
+        let batch = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+            ("key", Int32, [5, 3, 8, 1, 9, 2, 7, 4, 6, 0]),
+            (
+                "wide",
+                Utf8,
+                ["f", "d", "i", "b", "j", "c", "h", "e", "g", "a"]
+            ),
+            ("other", Int32, [50, 30, 80, 10, 90, 20, 70, 40, 60, 0])
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let params = WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 3,
+            enable_stable_row_ids: has_stable_row_ids,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+        let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            "memory://",
+            Some(params),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+        if has_deletions {
+            dataset.delete("key = 9 OR key = 7").await.unwrap();
+        }
+        Arc::new(dataset)
+    }
+
+    fn read(dataset: &Arc<Dataset>, is_filtered: bool, columns: &[&str]) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        let mut options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(dataset).with_projection(
+            dataset
+                .empty_projection()
+                .union_columns(columns, OnMissing::Error)
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        if is_filtered {
+            options = options
+                .with_filter(None, Some(logical_col("other").gt(lit(20))))
+                .unwrap();
+        }
+        Arc::new(FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), options, None).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    /// `ORDER BY key DESC LIMIT 3`, planned the way DataFusion plans it: a
+    /// per-partition top-k under a merge, or one top-k over coalesced input.
+    fn top_k(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, is_partitioned: bool) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        let ordering = LexOrdering::new([PhysicalSortExpr::new(
+            col("key", &input.schema()).unwrap(),
+            SortOptions {
+                descending: true,
+                nulls_first: false,
+            },
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        if is_partitioned {
+            let input = Arc::new(
+                RepartitionExec::try_new(input, Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(4)).unwrap(),
+            );
+            let sort = SortExec::new(ordering.clone(), input)
+                .with_preserve_partitioning(true)
+                .with_fetch(Some(3));
+            Arc::new(SortPreservingMergeExec::new(ordering, Arc::new(sort)).with_fetch(Some(3)))
+        } else {
+            let input = Arc::new(CoalescePartitionsExec::new(input));
+            Arc::new(SortExec::new(ordering, input).with_fetch(Some(3)))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn optimize(
+        rule: &TopKLateMaterialization,
+        plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        rule.optimize(plan.clone(), &ConfigOptions::default())
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    async fn run(plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> RecordBatch {
+        let schema = plan.schema();
+        let batches = collect(plan, Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn reads(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Vec<Vec<String>> {
+        let mut reads = Vec::new();
+        plan.apply(|node| {
+            if node.is::<FilteredReadExec>() {
+                reads.push(
+                    node.schema()
+                        .fields()
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                        .collect(),
+                );
+            }
+            Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Continue)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+        reads
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn reads_sort_keys_and_takes_the_rest(
+        #[values(true, false)] is_partitioned: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] is_filtered: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] is_projected: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] has_stable_row_ids: bool,
+        #[values(true, false)] has_deletions: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dataset = dataset(has_stable_row_ids, has_deletions).await;
+        let mut scan = read(&dataset, is_filtered, &["key", "wide", "other"]);
+        if is_projected {
+            // `SELECT wide, key`: reordered, and `other` dropped.
+            scan = project(scan, ["wide", "key"]).unwrap();
+        }
+        let plan = top_k(scan, is_partitioned);
+
+        let rewritten = optimize(&TopKLateMaterialization::new(), &plan);
+
+        assert_eq!(reads(&rewritten), [["key", "_rowid"]]);
+        assert_eq!(rewritten.schema(), plan.schema());
+        let expected = run(plan).await;
+        assert_eq!(expected.num_rows(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(run(rewritten).await, expected);
+    }
+
+    /// A take in the chain is the scanner's own late materialization of the
+    /// filter; the rule drops it and takes those columns after the sort.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn drops_a_take_under_the_sort() {
+        let dataset = dataset(false, false).await;
+        let options = FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset)
+            .with_projection(
+                dataset
+                    .empty_projection()
+                    .union_columns(["key", "other"], OnMissing::Error)
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .with_row_id(),
+            )
+            .with_filter(None, Some(logical_col("other").gt(lit(20))))
+            .unwrap();
+        let narrow: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+            Arc::new(FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), options, None).unwrap());
+        let wide = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_columns(["key", "wide", "other"], OnMissing::Error)
+            .unwrap();
+        let take = TakeExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), narrow, wide)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        let scan = project(Arc::new(take), ["key", "wide", "other"]).unwrap();
+        let plan = top_k(scan, true);
+
+        let rewritten = optimize(&TopKLateMaterialization::new(), &plan);
+
+        assert_eq!(reads(&rewritten), [["key", "_rowid"]]);
+        let mut takes = 0;
+        rewritten
+            .apply(|node| {
+                takes += usize::from(node.is::<TakeExec>());
+                Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Continue)
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(takes, 1);
+        assert_eq!(run(rewritten).await, run(plan).await);
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::no_fetch(None, Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(4), &["key", "wide"], true, false)]
+    #[case::limit_keeps_every_row(Some(10), Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(4), &["key", "wide"], true, false)]
+    // 10 physical rows, 8 live.
+    #[case::limit_keeps_every_live_row(Some(8), Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(4), &["key", "wide"], true, true)]
+    #[case::hash_repartition(Some(3), Partitioning::Hash(vec![], 4), &["key", "wide"], true, false)]
+    #[case::sort_reads_everything(Some(3), Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(4), &["key"], true, false)]
+    #[case::read_not_eligible(Some(3), Partitioning::RoundRobinBatch(4), &["key", "wide"], false, false)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn declines(
+        #[case] fetch: Option<usize>,
+        #[case] partitioning: Partitioning,
+        #[case] columns: &[&str],
+        #[case] is_eligible: bool,
+        #[case] has_deletions: bool,
+    ) {
+        let dataset = dataset(false, has_deletions).await;
+        let scan = read(&dataset, false, columns);
+        let partitioning = match partitioning {
+            Partitioning::Hash(_, n) => {
+                Partitioning::Hash(vec![col("key", &scan.schema()).unwrap()], n)
+            }
+            other => other,
+        };
+        let input = Arc::new(RepartitionExec::try_new(scan, partitioning).unwrap());
+        let ordering = LexOrdering::new([PhysicalSortExpr::new_default(
+            col("key", &input.schema()).unwrap(),
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let sort = SortExec::new(ordering.clone(), input)
+            .with_preserve_partitioning(true)
+            .with_fetch(fetch);
+        let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> =
+            Arc::new(SortPreservingMergeExec::new(ordering, Arc::new(sort)).with_fetch(fetch));
+        let rule = TopKLateMaterialization::new().with_read_eligibility(move |_, _| is_eligible);
+
+        assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&optimize(&rule, &plan), &plan));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/utils.rs b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/utils.rs
index 1cfa767d4aa..aa0a90b30e5 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/io/exec/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/io/exec/utils.rs
@@ -2,38 +2,70 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
 use lance_datafusion::utils::{
-    ExecutionPlanMetricsSetExt, BYTES_READ_METRIC, INDEX_COMPARISONS_METRIC, INDICES_LOADED_METRIC,
-    IOPS_METRIC, PARTS_LOADED_METRIC, REQUESTS_METRIC,
+    BYTES_READ_METRIC, ExecutionPlanMetricsSetExt, INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC,
+    INDEX_CACHE_MISSES_METRIC, INDEX_COMPARISONS_METRIC, INDICES_LOADED_METRIC, IOPS_METRIC,
+    PARTS_LOADED_METRIC, REQUESTS_METRIC,
 };
-use lance_index::metrics::MetricsCollector;
-use lance_io::scheduler::ScanScheduler;
+use lance_index::metrics::{IndexTiming, MetricsCollector};
+use lance_io::scheduler::{IoStats, ScanScheduler, ScanStats};
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
 use pin_project::pin_project;
-use std::borrow::Cow;
+use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::pin::Pin;
 use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
-use std::task::Poll;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
 
-use arrow::array::AsArray;
-use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
+use arrow_array::{Array, RecordBatch, UInt64Array};
 use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
 use async_trait::async_trait;
+use datafusion::common::runtime::SpawnedTask;
 use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
 use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::{
-    BaselineMetrics, Count, ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, Gauge, MetricBuilder, MetricValue,
+    BaselineMetrics, Count, ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, Gauge, MetricBuilder, MetricValue, Time,
 };
 use datafusion::physical_plan::{
-    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, RecordBatchStream, SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties, RecordBatchStream,
+    SendableRecordBatchStream,
 };
-use futures::{Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
+use datafusion_physical_expr::{Distribution, EquivalenceProperties, Partitioning};
+use datafusion_physical_plan::execution_plan::{Boundedness, EmissionType};
+use futures::future::{BoxFuture, Shared};
+use futures::stream::FuturesUnordered;
+use futures::{FutureExt, Stream, StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
 use lance_core::error::{CloneableResult, Error};
 use lance_core::utils::futures::{Capacity, SharedStreamExt};
-use lance_core::utils::mask::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap};
-use lance_core::{Result, ROW_ID};
+use lance_core::{ROW_ID, Result};
 use lance_index::prefilter::FilterLoader;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap, result::IndexExprResult};
+use tracing::Instrument;
 
-use crate::index::prefilter::DatasetPreFilter;
+use super::row_addr_mask::MaskAndLoader;
 use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::index::prefilter::DatasetPreFilter;
+
+/// Open fragments on cancellation-safe tasks while preserving the stream's
+/// ordering and readahead bound.
+pub(crate) fn buffered_fragment_opens<S, Open, OpenFuture, Reader>(
+    fragments: S,
+    fragment_readahead: usize,
+    mut open: Open,
+) -> impl Stream<Item = DataFusionResult<Reader>>
+where
+    S: Stream + Send,
+    Open: FnMut(S::Item) -> OpenFuture + Send,
+    OpenFuture: Future<Output = DataFusionResult<Reader>> + Send + 'static,
+    Reader: Send + 'static,
+{
+    fragments
+        .map(move |fragment| {
+            SpawnedTask::spawn(open(fragment).in_current_span()).map(|task_result| {
+                task_result.map_err(|error| DataFusionError::External(Box::new(error)))?
+            })
+        })
+        .buffered(fragment_readahead)
+}
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub enum PreFilterSource {
@@ -45,51 +77,508 @@ pub enum PreFilterSource {
     None,
 }
 
-pub(crate) fn build_prefilter(
+type SharedPreFilterFuture = Shared<BoxFuture<'static, CloneableResult<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>>;
+
+struct SharedPreFilterEntry {
+    context: std::sync::Weak<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    future: SharedPreFilterFuture,
+    waiters: usize,
+    is_complete: bool,
+    generation: u64,
+}
+
+/// Query-plan-local materialization state for a MultiMatch base prefilter.
+///
+/// Entries are keyed by task-context identity and partition. This prevents a
+/// reused physical plan from carrying a mask into a later query and keeps an
+/// accidental multi-partition execution from sharing across input partitions.
+/// It relies on every execution running under its own task context, as
+/// `execute_plan` guarantees.
+/// The mutex is held only while installing or cloning a future; prefilter
+/// execution never runs under it.
+struct SharedPreFilterMaterialization {
+    queries: Mutex<HashMap<(usize, usize), SharedPreFilterEntry>>,
+    next_generation: std::sync::atomic::AtomicU64,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for SharedPreFilterMaterialization {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let queries = self
+            .queries
+            .lock()
+            .map(|queries| queries.len())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        f.debug_struct("SharedPreFilterMaterialization")
+            .field("queries", &queries)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl SharedPreFilterMaterialization {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            queries: Mutex::new(HashMap::new()),
+            next_generation: std::sync::atomic::AtomicU64::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SharedPreFilterExec {
+    source: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    materialization: Arc<SharedPreFilterMaterialization>,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl SharedPreFilterExec {
+    fn new(
+        source: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+        materialization: Arc<SharedPreFilterMaterialization>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            properties: Arc::new(PlanProperties::new(
+                EquivalenceProperties::new(source.schema()),
+                Partitioning::UnknownPartitioning(1),
+                EmissionType::Final,
+                Boundedness::Bounded,
+            )),
+            source,
+            materialization,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for SharedPreFilterExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, _t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "SharedMultiMatchPrefilter")
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for SharedPreFilterExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "SharedPreFilterExec"
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.source]
+    }
+
+    fn required_input_distribution(&self) -> Vec<Distribution> {
+        self.children()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|_| Distribution::SinglePartition)
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        let source = match children.len() {
+            1 => children.pop().ok_or_else(|| {
+                DataFusionError::Internal(
+                    "shared MultiMatch prefilter lost its source child".to_string(),
+                )
+            })?,
+            count => {
+                return Err(DataFusionError::Internal(format!(
+                    "shared MultiMatch prefilter expected one child, got {count}"
+                )));
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(source, self.materialization.clone())))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        _partition: usize,
+        _context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+            "shared MultiMatch prefilter must be materialized by its FTS consumer".to_string(),
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub(crate) struct PreFilterMasks {
+    pub overlay_block: Option<RowAddrMask>,
+    pub external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+}
+
+impl PreFilterSource {
+    /// Return a plan-local shared form for a MultiMatch with multiple fields.
+    /// No-filter and already-shared sources retain their existing identity.
+    pub(crate) fn shared_for_multimatch_fields(&self, field_count: usize) -> Vec<Self> {
+        if field_count <= 1 {
+            return vec![self.clone(); field_count];
+        }
+        match self {
+            Self::FilteredRowIds(source) | Self::ScalarIndexQuery(source) => {
+                let materialization = Arc::new(SharedPreFilterMaterialization::new());
+                (0..field_count)
+                    .map(|_| {
+                        let shared = Arc::new(SharedPreFilterExec::new(
+                            source.clone(),
+                            materialization.clone(),
+                        ));
+                        if matches!(self, Self::FilteredRowIds(_)) {
+                            Self::FilteredRowIds(shared)
+                        } else {
+                            Self::ScalarIndexQuery(shared)
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect()
+            }
+            Self::None => vec![self.clone(); field_count],
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn execution_plan(&self) -> Option<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        match self {
+            Self::FilteredRowIds(source) | Self::ScalarIndexQuery(source) => Some(source),
+            Self::None => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn with_execution_plan(
+        &self,
+        source: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    ) -> DataFusionResult<Self> {
+        match self {
+            Self::FilteredRowIds(_) => Ok(Self::FilteredRowIds(source)),
+            Self::ScalarIndexQuery(_) => Ok(Self::ScalarIndexQuery(source)),
+            Self::None => Err(DataFusionError::Internal(
+                "prefilter source received an unexpected execution-plan child".to_string(),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct SharedPreFilterWaiter {
+    materialization: Arc<SharedPreFilterMaterialization>,
+    key: (usize, usize),
+    generation: u64,
+}
+
+impl SharedPreFilterWaiter {
+    fn mark_complete(&self) {
+        if let Ok(mut queries) = self.materialization.queries.lock()
+            && let Some(entry) = queries.get_mut(&self.key)
+            && entry.generation == self.generation
+        {
+            entry.is_complete = true;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for SharedPreFilterWaiter {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        let Ok(mut queries) = self.materialization.queries.lock() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let should_remove = if let Some(entry) = queries.get_mut(&self.key)
+            && entry.generation == self.generation
+        {
+            let Some(waiters) = entry.waiters.checked_sub(1) else {
+                debug_assert!(false, "shared prefilter waiter count underflowed");
+                return;
+            };
+            entry.waiters = waiters;
+            entry.waiters == 0 && !entry.is_complete
+        } else {
+            false
+        };
+        if should_remove {
+            queries.remove(&self.key);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn shared_prefilter_future(
+    materialization: Arc<SharedPreFilterMaterialization>,
+    source: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    is_scalar_index_query: bool,
+    context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    partition: usize,
+) -> BoxFuture<'static, Result<Arc<RowAddrMask>>> {
+    async move {
+        let context_id = Arc::as_ptr(&context) as usize;
+        let key = (context_id, partition);
+        let (future, generation) = {
+            let mut queries = materialization.queries.lock().map_err(|_| {
+                Error::internal("MultiMatch prefilter materialization lock was poisoned")
+            })?;
+            queries.retain(|_, entry| entry.context.strong_count() > 0);
+            if let Some(entry) = queries.get_mut(&key) {
+                entry.waiters = entry.waiters.checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("MultiMatch prefilter waiter count overflowed")
+                })?;
+                (entry.future.clone(), entry.generation)
+            } else {
+                let generation = materialization
+                    .next_generation
+                    .fetch_update(
+                        std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed,
+                        std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed,
+                        |generation| generation.checked_add(1),
+                    )
+                    .map_err(|_| {
+                        Error::internal("MultiMatch prefilter generation counter overflowed")
+                    })?;
+                let entry = SharedPreFilterEntry {
+                    context: Arc::downgrade(&context),
+                    future: {
+                        async move {
+                            let result = async move {
+                                let stream = source.execute(partition, context)?;
+                                if is_scalar_index_query {
+                                    Box::new(SelectionVectorToPrefilter(stream)).load().await
+                                } else {
+                                    Box::new(FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter::new(stream))
+                                        .load()
+                                        .await
+                                }
+                            }
+                            .await;
+                            CloneableResult::from(result.map(Arc::new))
+                        }
+                        .boxed()
+                        .shared()
+                    },
+                    waiters: 1,
+                    is_complete: false,
+                    generation,
+                };
+                let future = entry.future.clone();
+                queries.insert(key, entry);
+                (future, generation)
+            }
+        };
+        let waiter = SharedPreFilterWaiter {
+            materialization,
+            key,
+            generation,
+        };
+        let CloneableResult(result) = future.await;
+        waiter.mark_complete();
+        result.map_err(|error| error.0)
+    }
+    .boxed()
+}
+
+/// Resolve a prefilter source into the future that yields its mask, ANDing in
+/// the external row-address mask when the scan carries one.
+///
+/// The external mask restricts index-side scoring to the masked rows (mirroring
+/// the ANN path). It is independent of `overlay_block`, which the prefilter
+/// applies separately to drop index entries staled by a data overlay.
+fn prefilter_mask_future(
     context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
     partition: usize,
     prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
-    ds: Arc<Dataset>,
-    index_meta: &[IndexMetadata],
-) -> Result<Arc<DatasetPreFilter>> {
+    external_mask: Option<Arc<RowAddrMask>>,
+    metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+) -> Result<Option<BoxFuture<'static, Result<Arc<RowAddrMask>>>>> {
+    let mut shared_filter = None;
     let prefilter_loader = match &prefilter_source {
         PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(src_node) => {
-            let stream = src_node.execute(partition, context)?;
-            Some(Box::new(FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter(stream)) as Box<dyn FilterLoader>)
+            if let Some(shared) = src_node.downcast_ref::<SharedPreFilterExec>() {
+                shared_filter = Some(shared_prefilter_future(
+                    shared.materialization.clone(),
+                    shared.source.clone(),
+                    false,
+                    context,
+                    partition,
+                ));
+                None
+            } else {
+                let stream = src_node.execute(partition, context)?;
+                // Attribute physical materialization to this FTS node. Shared loaders
+                // need a separate owner so racing consumers do not receive arbitrary metrics.
+                Some(Box::new(
+                    FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter::new(stream).with_metrics(metrics, partition),
+                ) as Box<dyn FilterLoader>)
+            }
         }
         PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(src_node) => {
-            let stream = src_node.execute(partition, context)?;
-            Some(Box::new(SelectionVectorToPrefilter(stream)) as Box<dyn FilterLoader>)
+            if let Some(shared) = src_node.downcast_ref::<SharedPreFilterExec>() {
+                shared_filter = Some(shared_prefilter_future(
+                    shared.materialization.clone(),
+                    shared.source.clone(),
+                    true,
+                    context,
+                    partition,
+                ));
+                None
+            } else {
+                let stream = src_node.execute(partition, context)?;
+                Some(Box::new(SelectionVectorToPrefilter(stream)) as Box<dyn FilterLoader>)
+            }
         }
         PreFilterSource::None => None,
     };
-    Ok(Arc::new(DatasetPreFilter::new(
-        ds,
-        index_meta,
-        prefilter_loader,
-    )))
+    if let Some(shared_filter) = shared_filter {
+        let shared_filter = match external_mask {
+            Some(mask) => async move {
+                Ok(Arc::new(
+                    mask.as_ref().clone() & shared_filter.await?.as_ref().clone(),
+                ))
+            }
+            .boxed(),
+            None => shared_filter,
+        };
+        return Ok(Some(shared_filter));
+    }
+    let prefilter_loader = match external_mask {
+        Some(mask) => {
+            Some(Box::new(MaskAndLoader::new(mask, prefilter_loader)) as Box<dyn FilterLoader>)
+        }
+        None => prefilter_loader,
+    };
+    Ok(prefilter_loader.map(|loader| {
+        async move { loader.load().await.map(Arc::new) }
+            .in_current_span()
+            .boxed()
+    }))
 }
 
-// Utility to convert an input (containing row ids) into a prefilter
-pub(crate) struct FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter(pub SendableRecordBatchStream);
+pub(crate) fn build_prefilter(
+    context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    partition: usize,
+    prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
+    ds: Arc<Dataset>,
+    index_meta: &[IndexMetadata],
+    masks: PreFilterMasks,
+    metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+) -> Result<Arc<DatasetPreFilter>> {
+    let filter = prefilter_mask_future(
+        context,
+        partition,
+        prefilter_source,
+        masks.external_mask,
+        metrics,
+    )?;
+    let mut prefilter = DatasetPreFilter::new_with_filter_future(ds, index_meta, filter);
+    if let Some(overlay_block) = masks.overlay_block {
+        prefilter = prefilter.with_overlay_block(overlay_block);
+    }
+    Ok(Arc::new(prefilter))
+}
+
+/// Build a prefilter restricted to `fragments` rather than to the union of
+/// `index_meta`'s fragment bitmaps. See
+/// [`DatasetPreFilter::new_restricted_to_fragments`].
+pub(crate) fn build_prefilter_restricted_to_fragments(
+    context: Arc<datafusion::execution::TaskContext>,
+    partition: usize,
+    prefilter_source: &PreFilterSource,
+    ds: Arc<Dataset>,
+    fragments: RoaringBitmap,
+    masks: PreFilterMasks,
+    metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+) -> Result<Arc<DatasetPreFilter>> {
+    let filter = prefilter_mask_future(
+        context,
+        partition,
+        prefilter_source,
+        masks.external_mask,
+        metrics,
+    )?;
+    let mut prefilter = DatasetPreFilter::new_restricted_to_fragments(ds, fragments, filter);
+    if let Some(overlay_block) = masks.overlay_block {
+        prefilter = prefilter.with_overlay_block(overlay_block);
+    }
+    Ok(Arc::new(prefilter))
+}
+
+struct RowIdPrefilterMetrics {
+    loads: Count,
+    input_rows: Count,
+    input_batches: Count,
+    row_ids: Count,
+    load_time: Time,
+    input_time: Time,
+    build_time: Time,
+}
+
+// Utility to convert an input (containing row ids) into a prefilter.
+pub(crate) struct FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter {
+    stream: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    metrics: Option<RowIdPrefilterMetrics>,
+}
+
+impl FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter {
+    pub(crate) fn new(stream: SendableRecordBatchStream) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            stream,
+            metrics: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Count physical loader executions: batch ANN shares one loader, whereas
+    // multi-vector ANN can materialize one per query node.
+    pub(crate) fn with_metrics(
+        mut self,
+        metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+        partition: usize,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.metrics = Some(RowIdPrefilterMetrics {
+            loads: metrics.new_count("prefilter_loads", partition),
+            input_rows: metrics.new_count("prefilter_input_rows", partition),
+            input_batches: metrics.new_count("prefilter_input_batches", partition),
+            row_ids: metrics.new_count("prefilter_row_ids", partition),
+            load_time: metrics.new_time("prefilter_load_time", partition),
+            input_time: metrics.new_time("prefilter_input_time", partition),
+            build_time: metrics.new_time("prefilter_build_time", partition),
+        });
+        self
+    }
+}
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl FilterLoader for FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter {
     async fn load(mut self: Box<Self>) -> Result<RowAddrMask> {
+        let metrics = self.metrics.as_ref();
+        let _load_timer = metrics.map(|m| m.load_time.timer());
+        if let Some(metrics) = metrics {
+            metrics.loads.add(1);
+        }
         let mut allow_list = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
-        while let Some(batch) = self.0.next().await {
+        loop {
+            // Input polling can include I/O, decoding and scheduling. Keep it separate
+            // from set insertion, and time batches rather than individual row IDs.
+            let batch = {
+                let _input_timer = metrics.map(|m| m.input_time.timer());
+                self.stream.next().await
+            };
+            let Some(batch) = batch else { break };
             let batch = batch?;
-            let row_ids = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "input batch missing row id column even though it is in the schema for the stream".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })?;
+            let row_ids = batch.column_by_name(ROW_ID).ok_or_else(|| Error::internal("input batch missing row id column even though it is in the schema for the stream"))?;
             let row_ids = row_ids
                 .as_any()
                 .downcast_ref::<UInt64Array>()
-                .expect("row id column in input batch had incorrect type");
-            allow_list.extend(row_ids.iter().flatten())
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    Error::internal("row id column in prefilter input must be UInt64")
+                })?;
+            if let Some(metrics) = metrics {
+                metrics.input_batches.add(1);
+                metrics.input_rows.add(row_ids.len() - row_ids.null_count());
+            }
+            let _build_timer = metrics.map(|m| m.build_time.timer());
+            allow_list.extend(row_ids.iter().flatten());
+        }
+        let mask = RowAddrMask::from_allowed(allow_list);
+        if let Some(metrics) = metrics
+            && let Some(row_ids) = mask.max_len()
+        {
+            metrics.row_ids.add(row_ids as usize);
         }
-        Ok(RowAddrMask::from_allowed(allow_list))
+        Ok(mask)
     }
 }
 
@@ -99,24 +588,19 @@ pub(crate) struct SelectionVectorToPrefilter(pub SendableRecordBatchStream);
 #[async_trait]
 impl FilterLoader for SelectionVectorToPrefilter {
     async fn load(mut self: Box<Self>) -> Result<RowAddrMask> {
-        let batch = self
-            .0
-            .try_next()
-            .await?
-            .ok_or_else(|| Error::Internal {
-                message: "Selection vector source for prefilter did not yield any batches".into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            })
-            .unwrap();
-        RowAddrMask::from_arrow(batch["result"].as_binary_opt::<i32>().ok_or_else(|| {
-            Error::Internal {
-                message: format!(
-                    "Expected selection vector input to yield binary arrays but got {}",
-                    batch["result"].data_type()
-                ),
-                location: location!(),
-            }
-        })?)
+        let batch = self.0.try_next().await?.ok_or_else(|| {
+            Error::internal("Selection vector source for prefilter did not yield any batches")
+        })?;
+        // The vector-search prefilter wants the set of rows the search is
+        // allowed to consider — the `upper` bound of the index expression
+        // result. Rows outside the upper bound are guaranteed not to match,
+        // so the vector search can skip them.
+        //
+        // Use deserialize() here (rather than indexing "upper" directly) to
+        // support both the TwoMask and the legacy ThreeVariant wire formats
+        // that ScalarIndexExec may emit.
+        let (result, _) = IndexExprResult::deserialize(&batch)?;
+        Ok(result.upper)
     }
 }
 
@@ -181,14 +665,16 @@ impl DisplayAs for ReplayExec {
 
 // There's some annoying adapter-work that needs to happen here.  In order
 // to share a stream we need its items to be Clone and DataFusionError is
-// not Clone.  So we wrap the stream in a CloneableResult.  However, in order
-// for that shared stream to be a SendableRecordBatchStream, it needs to be
-// using DataFusionError.  So we need to adapt the stream back to a
-// SendableRecordBatchStream.
+// not Clone.  So we wrap errors in Arc<DataFusionError> (which is Clone).
+// In order for that shared stream to be a SendableRecordBatchStream it must
+// use DataFusionError, so the adapter unwraps the Arc via DataFusionError::Shared,
+// which preserves the typed source chain for both consumers.
 pub struct ShareableRecordBatchStream(pub SendableRecordBatchStream);
 
+type SharedBatchResult = std::result::Result<RecordBatch, std::sync::Arc<DataFusionError>>;
+
 impl Stream for ShareableRecordBatchStream {
-    type Item = CloneableResult<RecordBatch>;
+    type Item = SharedBatchResult;
 
     fn poll_next(
         mut self: std::pin::Pin<&mut Self>,
@@ -197,28 +683,25 @@ impl Stream for ShareableRecordBatchStream {
         match self.0.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
             std::task::Poll::Ready(None) => std::task::Poll::Ready(None),
             std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(res)) => {
-                std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(CloneableResult::from(res.map_err(Error::from))))
+                std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(res.map_err(std::sync::Arc::new)))
             }
             std::task::Poll::Pending => std::task::Poll::Pending,
         }
     }
 }
 
-pub struct ShareableRecordBatchStreamAdapter<S: Stream<Item = CloneableResult<RecordBatch>> + Unpin>
-{
+pub struct ShareableRecordBatchStreamAdapter<S: Stream<Item = SharedBatchResult> + Unpin> {
     schema: SchemaRef,
     stream: S,
 }
 
-impl<S: Stream<Item = CloneableResult<RecordBatch>> + Unpin> ShareableRecordBatchStreamAdapter<S> {
+impl<S: Stream<Item = SharedBatchResult> + Unpin> ShareableRecordBatchStreamAdapter<S> {
     pub fn new(schema: SchemaRef, stream: S) -> Self {
         Self { schema, stream }
     }
 }
 
-impl<S: Stream<Item = CloneableResult<RecordBatch>> + Unpin> Stream
-    for ShareableRecordBatchStreamAdapter<S>
-{
+impl<S: Stream<Item = SharedBatchResult> + Unpin> Stream for ShareableRecordBatchStreamAdapter<S> {
     type Item = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>;
 
     fn poll_next(
@@ -227,16 +710,15 @@ impl<S: Stream<Item = CloneableResult<RecordBatch>> + Unpin> Stream
     ) -> std::task::Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
         match self.stream.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
             std::task::Poll::Ready(None) => std::task::Poll::Ready(None),
-            std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(res)) => std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(
-                res.0
-                    .map_err(|e| DataFusionError::External(e.0.to_string().into())),
-            )),
+            std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(res)) => {
+                std::task::Poll::Ready(Some(res.map_err(DataFusionError::Shared)))
+            }
             std::task::Poll::Pending => std::task::Poll::Pending,
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl<S: Stream<Item = CloneableResult<RecordBatch>> + Unpin> RecordBatchStream
+impl<S: Stream<Item = SharedBatchResult> + Unpin> RecordBatchStream
     for ShareableRecordBatchStreamAdapter<S>
 {
     fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
@@ -264,10 +746,7 @@ impl<S> InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter<S> {
         let batch_count = Count::new();
         MetricBuilder::new(metrics)
             .with_partition(partition)
-            .build(MetricValue::Count {
-                name: Cow::Borrowed("output_batches"),
-                count: batch_count.clone(),
-            });
+            .build(MetricValue::OutputBatches(batch_count.clone()));
         Self {
             schema,
             stream,
@@ -307,15 +786,131 @@ where
     }
 }
 
+/// Stream wrapper for an `ExecutionPlan` node that pulls from a child input and
+/// applies a per-batch async transform.
+///
+/// `elapsed_compute` measures only the time spent driving the transform
+/// futures -- never the time spent polling the child input -- so wrapping a
+/// chain of nodes does not double-count child CPU. `output_rows` and
+/// `output_batches` are recorded as the transform produces batches.
+///
+/// `concurrency` caps how many transform futures may be in flight at once.
+/// Use `1` for sequential transforms; larger values parallelize per-batch
+/// work (e.g., KNN distance computation).
+///
+/// For leaf nodes (no child input), use [`InstrumentedRecordBatchStreamAdapter`]
+/// instead.
+pub struct InstrumentedChildInputStream<F, Fut> {
+    schema: SchemaRef,
+    input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+    transform: F,
+    concurrency: usize,
+    in_flight: FuturesUnordered<Fut>,
+    input_done: bool,
+    baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics,
+    batch_count: Count,
+}
+
+impl<F, Fut> InstrumentedChildInputStream<F, Fut>
+where
+    F: FnMut(RecordBatch) -> Fut,
+    Fut: Future<Output = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>,
+{
+    pub fn new(
+        input: SendableRecordBatchStream,
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        transform: F,
+        concurrency: usize,
+        partition: usize,
+        metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet,
+    ) -> Self {
+        assert!(concurrency >= 1, "concurrency must be >= 1");
+        let batch_count = Count::new();
+        MetricBuilder::new(metrics)
+            .with_partition(partition)
+            .build(MetricValue::OutputBatches(batch_count.clone()));
+        Self {
+            schema,
+            input,
+            transform,
+            concurrency,
+            in_flight: FuturesUnordered::new(),
+            input_done: false,
+            baseline_metrics: BaselineMetrics::new(metrics, partition),
+            batch_count,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<F, Fut> Stream for InstrumentedChildInputStream<F, Fut>
+where
+    F: FnMut(RecordBatch) -> Fut + Unpin,
+    Fut: Future<Output = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>,
+{
+    type Item = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>;
+
+    fn poll_next(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>> {
+        let this = self.get_mut();
+
+        // Fill in-flight transforms up to `concurrency` from the input.
+        // Polling the input does not count toward `elapsed_compute`.
+        while !this.input_done && this.in_flight.len() < this.concurrency {
+            match this.input.poll_next_unpin(cx) {
+                Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch))) => {
+                    this.in_flight.push((this.transform)(batch));
+                }
+                Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e))) => {
+                    return Poll::Ready(Some(Err(e)));
+                }
+                Poll::Ready(None) => {
+                    this.input_done = true;
+                }
+                Poll::Pending => break,
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Drive in-flight transforms; their poll time is counted.
+        if !this.in_flight.is_empty() {
+            let timer = this.baseline_metrics.elapsed_compute().timer();
+            let poll = this.in_flight.poll_next_unpin(cx);
+            timer.done();
+            match poll {
+                Poll::Ready(Some(result)) => {
+                    if result.is_ok() {
+                        this.batch_count.add(1);
+                    }
+                    return this.baseline_metrics.record_poll(Poll::Ready(Some(result)));
+                }
+                // `FuturesUnordered::poll_next` returns `Ready(None)` only
+                // when empty, and we just checked `!is_empty` above.
+                Poll::Ready(None) => unreachable!("non-empty transform queue yielded None"),
+                Poll::Pending => return Poll::Pending,
+            }
+        }
+
+        if this.input_done {
+            return Poll::Ready(None);
+        }
+
+        Poll::Pending
+    }
+}
+
+impl<F, Fut> RecordBatchStream for InstrumentedChildInputStream<F, Fut>
+where
+    F: FnMut(RecordBatch) -> Fut + Unpin,
+    Fut: Future<Output = DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>,
+{
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.schema.clone()
+    }
+}
+
 impl ExecutionPlan for ReplayExec {
     fn name(&self) -> &str {
         "ReplayExec"
     }
 
-    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
-        self
-    }
-
     fn schema(&self) -> arrow_schema::SchemaRef {
         self.input.schema()
     }
@@ -365,7 +960,7 @@ impl ExecutionPlan for ReplayExec {
         }
     }
 
-    fn properties(&self) -> &datafusion::physical_plan::PlanProperties {
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<datafusion::physical_plan::PlanProperties> {
         self.input.properties()
     }
 }
@@ -393,32 +988,64 @@ impl IoMetrics {
     }
 
     pub fn record(&self, scan_scheduler: &ScanScheduler) {
-        let current_stats = scan_scheduler.stats();
+        self.record_stats(scan_scheduler.stats());
+    }
 
-        // Use set_max to ensure gauge always shows the highest value seen
-        self.iops.set_max(current_stats.iops as usize);
-        self.requests.set_max(current_stats.requests as usize);
-        self.bytes_read.set_max(current_stats.bytes_read as usize);
+    /// Record a snapshot of cumulative I/O statistics.
+    ///
+    /// Uses `set_max` because the underlying counters are cumulative; the gauge
+    /// always reflects the highest (i.e. final) value seen.
+    pub fn record_stats(&self, stats: ScanStats) {
+        self.iops.set_max(stats.iops as usize);
+        self.requests.set_max(stats.requests as usize);
+        self.bytes_read.set_max(stats.bytes_read as usize);
     }
 }
 
+#[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct IndexMetrics {
+    timings: [Time; IndexTiming::ALL.len()],
     indices_loaded: Count,
     parts_loaded: Count,
     index_comparisons: Count,
+    index_cache_hits: Count,
+    index_cache_misses: Count,
+    /// Per-query sink that accumulates exact index-file I/O as partitions are
+    /// loaded from storage.  Shared by all clones of this `IndexMetrics`, so
+    /// concurrent partition loads all funnel into the same counters.  Published
+    /// to `io_metrics` for display via [`IndexMetrics::flush_io`].
+    io_stats: IoStats,
+    io_metrics: IoMetrics,
 }
 
 impl IndexMetrics {
     pub fn new(metrics: &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet, partition: usize) -> Self {
         Self {
+            timings: IndexTiming::ALL.map(|stage| metrics.new_time(stage.name(), partition)),
             indices_loaded: metrics.new_count(INDICES_LOADED_METRIC, partition),
             parts_loaded: metrics.new_count(PARTS_LOADED_METRIC, partition),
             index_comparisons: metrics.new_count(INDEX_COMPARISONS_METRIC, partition),
+            index_cache_hits: metrics.new_count(INDEX_CACHE_HITS_METRIC, partition),
+            index_cache_misses: metrics.new_count(INDEX_CACHE_MISSES_METRIC, partition),
+            io_stats: IoStats::new(),
+            io_metrics: IoMetrics::new(metrics, partition),
         }
     }
+
+    /// Publish the I/O accumulated in the per-query sink to the displayed
+    /// `iops`/`requests`/`bytes_read` metrics.  Call once when the operator's
+    /// stream finishes; the sink only accumulates on cache misses, so a fully
+    /// cache-resident query publishes zeros.
+    pub fn flush_io(&self) {
+        self.io_metrics.record_stats(self.io_stats.snapshot());
+    }
 }
 
 impl MetricsCollector for IndexMetrics {
+    fn record_timing(&self, stage: IndexTiming, duration: std::time::Duration) {
+        self.timings[stage as usize].add_duration(duration);
+    }
+
     fn record_parts_loaded(&self, num_shards: usize) {
         self.parts_loaded.add(num_shards);
     }
@@ -428,29 +1055,655 @@ impl MetricsCollector for IndexMetrics {
     fn record_comparisons(&self, num_comparisons: usize) {
         self.index_comparisons.add(num_comparisons);
     }
+    fn record_index_cache_hits(&self, num_hits: usize) {
+        self.index_cache_hits.add(num_hits);
+    }
+    fn record_index_cache_misses(&self, num_misses: usize) {
+        self.index_cache_misses.add(num_misses);
+    }
+    fn io_stats(&self) -> Option<IoStats> {
+        Some(self.io_stats.clone())
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
 
+    use lance_index::metrics::{IndexTiming, LocalMetricsCollector, MetricsCollector};
     use std::sync::Arc;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+    use std::time::Duration;
 
-    use arrow_array::{types::UInt32Type, RecordBatchReader};
-    use arrow_schema::SortOptions;
+    use arrow_array::{
+        ArrayRef, RecordBatch, RecordBatchReader, UInt64Array,
+        cast::AsArray,
+        types::{UInt32Type, UInt64Type},
+    };
+    use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema, SchemaRef, SortOptions};
     use datafusion::common::NullEquality;
+    use datafusion::error::{DataFusionError, Result as DataFusionResult};
+    use datafusion::execution::TaskContext;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::ExecutionPlanMetricsSet;
+    use datafusion::physical_plan::streaming::{PartitionStream, StreamingTableExec};
     use datafusion::{
         logical_expr::JoinType,
         physical_expr::expressions::Column,
         physical_plan::{
-            joins::SortMergeJoinExec, stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter, ExecutionPlan,
+            ExecutionPlan, SendableRecordBatchStream, joins::SortMergeJoinExec,
+            stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter,
         },
     };
-    use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt};
-    use lance_core::utils::futures::Capacity;
-    use lance_datafusion::exec::OneShotExec;
-    use lance_datagen::{array, BatchCount, RowCount};
+    use futures::{StreamExt, TryStreamExt, stream};
+    use lance_core::{ROW_ID, utils::futures::Capacity};
+    use lance_datafusion::exec::{LanceExecutionOptions, OneShotExec, execute_plan};
+    use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array};
+    use lance_index::prefilter::FilterLoader;
+    use lance_select::result::IndexExprResultWireFormat;
+    use lance_select::{RowAddrMask, RowAddrTreeMap, RowSetOps, result::IndexExprResult};
+    use roaring::RoaringBitmap;
+    use rstest::rstest;
+
+    use super::{
+        FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter, InstrumentedChildInputStream, PreFilterSource, ReplayExec,
+        SharedPreFilterExec, SharedPreFilterMaterialization, prefilter_mask_future,
+        shared_prefilter_future,
+    };
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_index_stage_timings() {
+        let metrics = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+        let collector = super::IndexMetrics::new(&metrics, 0);
+        let local = LocalMetricsCollector::default();
+        for stage in IndexTiming::ALL {
+            local.record_timing(stage, Duration::from_nanos(7));
+            collector
+                .clone()
+                .record_timing(stage, Duration::from_nanos(11));
+        }
+        local.dump_into(&collector);
+        for stage in IndexTiming::ALL {
+            assert_eq!(
+                metrics
+                    .clone_inner()
+                    .sum_by_name(stage.name())
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .as_usize(),
+                18
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_row_id_prefilter_metrics() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![(
+            "_rowid",
+            Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![Some(1), None, Some(2), Some(1)])) as ArrayRef,
+        )])
+        .unwrap();
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            batch.schema(),
+            futures::stream::iter(vec![Ok(batch)]),
+        ));
+        let metrics = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+        let loader = FilteredRowIdsToPrefilter::new(stream).with_metrics(&metrics, 0);
+        let mask = Box::new(loader).load().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(mask.max_len(), Some(2));
+        assert!(mask.selected(1));
+        assert!(!mask.selected(3));
+        let collected = metrics.clone_inner();
+        for (name, expected) in [
+            ("prefilter_loads", 1),
+            ("prefilter_input_rows", 3),
+            ("prefilter_input_batches", 1),
+            ("prefilter_row_ids", 2),
+        ] {
+            assert_eq!(collected.sum_by_name(name).unwrap().as_usize(), expected);
+        }
+        for name in [
+            "prefilter_load_time",
+            "prefilter_input_time",
+            "prefilter_build_time",
+        ] {
+            assert!(collected.sum_by_name(name).unwrap().as_usize() > 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn prefilter_source(is_scalar_index_query: bool, is_empty: bool) -> PreFilterSource {
+        let mask = if is_empty {
+            RowAddrMask::allow_nothing()
+        } else {
+            RowAddrMask::from_allowed(RowAddrTreeMap::from_iter(0_u64..4))
+        };
+        let batch = if is_scalar_index_query {
+            IndexExprResult::exact(mask)
+                .serialize(
+                    &RoaringBitmap::from_iter([0_u32]),
+                    IndexExprResultWireFormat::TwoMask,
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        } else {
+            let row_ids = if is_empty {
+                UInt64Array::from(Vec::<u64>::new())
+            } else {
+                UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0_u64..4)
+            };
+            RecordBatch::try_new(
+                Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                    ROW_ID,
+                    DataType::UInt64,
+                    false,
+                )])),
+                vec![Arc::new(row_ids)],
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+        };
+        // A duplicate source execution fails, so successful concurrent
+        // materialization verifies sharing without production metrics.
+        let source = Arc::new(OneShotExec::from_batch(batch));
+        if is_scalar_index_query {
+            PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(source)
+        } else {
+            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(source)
+        }
+    }
 
-    use super::ReplayExec;
+    fn shared_materialization(source: &PreFilterSource) -> Arc<SharedPreFilterMaterialization> {
+        match source {
+            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(source) | PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(source) => {
+                source
+                    .downcast_ref::<SharedPreFilterExec>()
+                    .expect("expected a shared prefilter source")
+                    .materialization
+                    .clone()
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected a shared prefilter source"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn shared_source(source: &PreFilterSource) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+        match source {
+            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(source) | PreFilterSource::ScalarIndexQuery(source) => {
+                source
+                    .downcast_ref::<SharedPreFilterExec>()
+                    .expect("expected a shared prefilter source")
+                    .source
+                    .clone()
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expected a shared prefilter source"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[rstest]
+    #[case::two_fields(2)]
+    #[case::four_fields(4)]
+    #[case::eight_fields(8)]
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn shared_multimatch_prefilter_materializes_once(
+        #[case] field_count: usize,
+        #[values(false, true)] is_scalar_index_query: bool,
+        #[values(false, true)] is_empty: bool,
+    ) {
+        let shared_sources = prefilter_source(is_scalar_index_query, is_empty)
+            .shared_for_multimatch_fields(field_count);
+        assert_eq!(
+            shared_sources
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|source| source.execution_plan().is_some())
+                .count(),
+            field_count,
+            "every field must declare its shared source dependency"
+        );
+        let context = Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default());
+        let masks = futures::future::try_join_all(shared_sources.iter().map(|source| {
+            shared_prefilter_future(
+                shared_materialization(source),
+                shared_source(source),
+                is_scalar_index_query,
+                context.clone(),
+                0,
+            )
+        }))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        assert!(masks.windows(2).all(|pair| Arc::ptr_eq(&pair[0], &pair[1])));
+        assert_eq!(masks[0].allow_list().unwrap().is_empty(), is_empty);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_filter_and_single_field_do_not_install_sharing() {
+        let no_filter = PreFilterSource::None.shared_for_multimatch_fields(8);
+        assert!(
+            no_filter
+                .iter()
+                .all(|source| matches!(source, PreFilterSource::None))
+        );
+
+        let single = prefilter_source(false, false).shared_for_multimatch_fields(1);
+        assert!(matches!(
+            single.as_slice(),
+            [PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(_)]
+        ));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn shared_multimatch_prefilter_caches_source_error() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            ROW_ID,
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::iter(vec![Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                "shared prefilter failure".to_string(),
+            ))]),
+        ));
+        let source = PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream)));
+        let shared_sources = source.shared_for_multimatch_fields(2);
+        let context = Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default());
+        let left = shared_prefilter_future(
+            shared_materialization(&shared_sources[0]),
+            shared_source(&shared_sources[0]),
+            false,
+            context.clone(),
+            0,
+        );
+        let right = shared_prefilter_future(
+            shared_materialization(&shared_sources[1]),
+            shared_source(&shared_sources[1]),
+            false,
+            context,
+            0,
+        );
+        let (left, right) = tokio::join!(left, right);
+
+        assert!(
+            left.unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("shared prefilter failure")
+        );
+        assert!(
+            right
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("shared prefilter failure")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn shared_multimatch_prefilter_survives_waiter_cancellation() {
+        let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+            Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+                ROW_ID,
+                DataType::UInt64,
+                false,
+            )])),
+            vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0_u64..4))],
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let schema = batch.schema();
+        let (started, has_started) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel::<()>();
+        let (release, wait) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel::<()>();
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(async move {
+                started.send(()).map_err(|_| {
+                    DataFusionError::Execution(
+                        "shared prefilter startup receiver dropped".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                wait.await.map_err(|error| {
+                    DataFusionError::Execution(format!(
+                        "shared prefilter release sender dropped: {error}"
+                    ))
+                })?;
+                Ok(batch)
+            }),
+        ));
+        let source = PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream)));
+        let shared_sources = source.shared_for_multimatch_fields(2);
+        let materialization = shared_materialization(&shared_sources[0]);
+        let context = Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default());
+        let first = tokio::spawn(shared_prefilter_future(
+            materialization.clone(),
+            shared_source(&shared_sources[0]),
+            false,
+            context.clone(),
+            0,
+        ));
+        tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), has_started)
+            .await
+            .expect("shared prefilter source should start")
+            .expect("shared prefilter startup sender should remain alive");
+        let second = tokio::spawn(shared_prefilter_future(
+            materialization.clone(),
+            shared_source(&shared_sources[1]),
+            false,
+            context,
+            0,
+        ));
+        loop {
+            let waiters = materialization
+                .queries
+                .lock()
+                .unwrap()
+                .values()
+                .map(|entry| entry.waiters)
+                .sum::<usize>();
+            if waiters == 2 {
+                break;
+            }
+            tokio::task::yield_now().await;
+        }
+        first.abort();
+        release.send(()).unwrap();
+        let mask = tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), second)
+            .await
+            .expect("replacement waiter should resume the shared source")
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(mask.allow_list().unwrap().len(), Some(4));
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn shared_multimatch_prefilter_drops_fully_canceled_query() {
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            ROW_ID,
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let (started, has_started) = tokio::sync::oneshot::channel::<()>();
+        let stream = Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            schema,
+            stream::once(async move {
+                started.send(()).map_err(|_| {
+                    DataFusionError::Execution(
+                        "shared prefilter startup receiver dropped".to_string(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                std::future::pending::<DataFusionResult<RecordBatch>>().await
+            }),
+        ));
+        let source = PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(stream)));
+        let shared_sources = source.shared_for_multimatch_fields(2);
+        let materialization = shared_materialization(&shared_sources[0]);
+        let waiter = tokio::spawn(shared_prefilter_future(
+            materialization.clone(),
+            shared_source(&shared_sources[0]),
+            false,
+            Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default()),
+            0,
+        ));
+        tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_secs(5), has_started)
+            .await
+            .expect("shared prefilter source should start")
+            .expect("shared prefilter startup sender should remain alive");
+        waiter.abort();
+        assert!(waiter.await.unwrap_err().is_cancelled());
+        assert!(materialization.queries.lock().unwrap().is_empty());
+    }
+
+    /// A row-id prefilter source whose first execution fails, like a transient
+    /// object store error.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct FlakyRowIdSource {
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+        executions: AtomicUsize,
+    }
+
+    impl PartitionStream for FlakyRowIdSource {
+        fn schema(&self) -> &SchemaRef {
+            &self.schema
+        }
+
+        fn execute(&self, _ctx: Arc<TaskContext>) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+            let batch = if self.executions.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst) == 0 {
+                Err(DataFusionError::Execution(
+                    "transient prefilter failure".to_string(),
+                ))
+            } else {
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    self.schema.clone(),
+                    vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from_iter_values(0_u64..4))],
+                )
+                .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+            };
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                self.schema.clone(),
+                stream::iter([batch]),
+            ))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Stands in for the FTS leaves of one MultiMatch: every execution loads
+    /// each field's prefilter under the task context it executes with and
+    /// reports how many rows the mask allows.
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct MultiMatchPrefilterConsumer {
+        field_sources: Vec<PreFilterSource>,
+        schema: SchemaRef,
+    }
+
+    impl PartitionStream for MultiMatchPrefilterConsumer {
+        fn schema(&self) -> &SchemaRef {
+            &self.schema
+        }
+
+        fn execute(&self, ctx: Arc<TaskContext>) -> SendableRecordBatchStream {
+            let masks = self
+                .field_sources
+                .iter()
+                .map(|source| {
+                    prefilter_mask_future(
+                        ctx.clone(),
+                        0,
+                        source,
+                        None,
+                        &ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new(),
+                    )
+                    .map(|mask| mask.expect("a filtered MultiMatch field loads a prefilter"))
+                })
+                .collect::<lance_core::Result<Vec<_>>>();
+            let schema = self.schema.clone();
+            let batch = async move {
+                let masks = futures::future::try_join_all(masks?).await?;
+                let allowed_rows = masks[0].allow_list().and_then(|rows| rows.len());
+                RecordBatch::try_new(
+                    schema,
+                    vec![Arc::new(UInt64Array::from(vec![allowed_rows]))],
+                )
+                .map_err(DataFusionError::from)
+            };
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                self.schema.clone(),
+                stream::once(batch),
+            ))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn shared_multimatch_prefilter_reruns_source_for_each_execution() {
+        let row_id_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            ROW_ID,
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            false,
+        )]));
+        let source = Arc::new(FlakyRowIdSource {
+            schema: row_id_schema.clone(),
+            executions: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        });
+        let source_plan = StreamingTableExec::try_new(
+            row_id_schema,
+            vec![source.clone() as Arc<dyn PartitionStream>],
+            None,
+            [],
+            false,
+            None,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let field_sources =
+            PreFilterSource::FilteredRowIds(Arc::new(source_plan)).shared_for_multimatch_fields(2);
+        let output_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+            "allowed_rows",
+            DataType::UInt64,
+            true,
+        )]));
+        let consumer = Arc::new(MultiMatchPrefilterConsumer {
+            field_sources,
+            schema: output_schema.clone(),
+        });
+        let plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(
+            StreamingTableExec::try_new(
+                output_schema,
+                vec![consumer as Arc<dyn PartitionStream>],
+                None,
+                [],
+                false,
+                None,
+            )
+            .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        // A reused plan must load its prefilter again on every execution
+        // instead of replaying the failure of an earlier one.
+        let failure = execute_plan(plan.clone(), LanceExecutionOptions::default())
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap_err();
+        assert!(
+            failure.to_string().contains("transient prefilter failure"),
+            "{failure}"
+        );
+        let batches = execute_plan(plan, LanceExecutionOptions::default())
+            .unwrap()
+            .try_collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            batches[0]["allowed_rows"].as_primitive::<UInt64Type>(),
+            &UInt64Array::from(vec![4])
+        );
+        // Both fields of one execution still share a single source execution.
+        assert_eq!(source.executions.load(Ordering::SeqCst), 2);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 2)]
+    async fn instrumented_child_input_stream_excludes_child_poll_time() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+        use std::task::Poll;
+        use std::time::Duration;
+
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::ExecutionPlanMetricsSet;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+        let n_batches: usize = 3;
+        let child_delay = Duration::from_millis(150);
+
+        let counter = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let s = schema.clone();
+        let child = futures::stream::poll_fn(move |_cx| {
+            let n = counter.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            if n >= n_batches {
+                return Poll::Ready(None);
+            }
+            std::thread::sleep(child_delay);
+            let batch = arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                s.clone(),
+                vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![n as i32]))],
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+            Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch)))
+        });
+        let child: SendableRecordBatchStream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema.clone(), child));
+
+        let metrics = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+        let stream = InstrumentedChildInputStream::new(
+            child,
+            schema,
+            move |batch| async move { Ok(batch) },
+            1,
+            0,
+            &metrics,
+        );
+
+        let batches: Vec<_> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), n_batches);
+
+        let elapsed_ns = metrics
+            .clone_inner()
+            .elapsed_compute()
+            .expect("elapsed_compute should be recorded");
+        let elapsed = Duration::from_nanos(elapsed_ns as u64);
+
+        // The transform is immediate, so `elapsed_compute` should stay well
+        // below even one child poll delay. A version that double-counts child
+        // input time would include roughly `child_delay * n_batches`.
+        let upper = child_delay;
+        assert!(
+            elapsed < upper,
+            "elapsed_compute={:?} >= {:?}; child input time was double-counted",
+            elapsed,
+            upper,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn instrumented_child_input_stream_propagates_child_error() {
+        use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+        use std::task::Poll;
+
+        use arrow_array::Int32Array;
+        use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+        use datafusion::error::DataFusionError;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::metrics::ExecutionPlanMetricsSet;
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)]));
+        let s = schema.clone();
+        let step = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        // Yield one OK batch, then an Err, then None.
+        let child = futures::stream::poll_fn(move |_cx| {
+            let n = step.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+            match n {
+                0 => {
+                    let batch = arrow_array::RecordBatch::try_new(
+                        s.clone(),
+                        vec![Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1]))],
+                    )
+                    .unwrap();
+                    Poll::Ready(Some(Ok(batch)))
+                }
+                1 => Poll::Ready(Some(Err(DataFusionError::Execution("boom".into())))),
+                _ => Poll::Ready(None),
+            }
+        });
+        let child: SendableRecordBatchStream =
+            Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema.clone(), child));
+
+        let metrics = ExecutionPlanMetricsSet::new();
+        let stream = InstrumentedChildInputStream::new(
+            child,
+            schema,
+            move |batch| async move { Ok(batch) },
+            1,
+            0,
+            &metrics,
+        );
+
+        let mut stream = Box::pin(stream);
+        let first = stream.next().await.expect("first item present");
+        assert!(first.is_ok(), "expected first batch ok, got {:?}", first);
+
+        let second = stream.next().await.expect("error item present");
+        let err = second.expect_err("expected propagated error");
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("boom"), "got {}", err);
+    }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_replay() {
@@ -489,4 +1742,61 @@ mod tests {
             assert_eq!(batch.unwrap().num_columns(), 2);
         }
     }
+
+    /// Verify that a typed error survives both consumers of a `ReplayExec`.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_replay_preserves_typed_error() {
+        use datafusion::error::DataFusionError;
+        use datafusion::physical_plan::SendableRecordBatchStream;
+
+        // A marker type that we will look for in the source chain.
+        #[derive(Debug)]
+        struct MarkerError;
+        impl std::fmt::Display for MarkerError {
+            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+                write!(f, "marker error")
+            }
+        }
+        impl std::error::Error for MarkerError {}
+
+        let schema = Arc::new(arrow_schema::Schema::empty());
+
+        // Build a stream that immediately yields a typed external DataFusion error.
+        let typed_err = DataFusionError::External(Box::new(MarkerError));
+        let err_stream: SendableRecordBatchStream = Box::pin(
+            datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+                schema.clone(),
+                futures::stream::once(async move { Err(typed_err) }),
+            ),
+        );
+
+        let input = Arc::new(OneShotExec::new(err_stream));
+        let shared = Arc::new(ReplayExec::new(Capacity::Bounded(4), input));
+
+        let ctx = Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default());
+
+        // Both consumers must receive an error whose source chain includes MarkerError.
+        for partition in 0..2 {
+            let mut stream = shared.execute(partition, ctx.clone()).unwrap();
+            let err = stream
+                .next()
+                .await
+                .expect("stream should yield an error item")
+                .expect_err("expected error");
+
+            let mut found = false;
+            let mut src: Option<&dyn std::error::Error> = Some(&err);
+            while let Some(e) = src {
+                if e.downcast_ref::<MarkerError>().is_some() {
+                    found = true;
+                    break;
+                }
+                src = e.source();
+            }
+            assert!(
+                found,
+                "partition {partition}: MarkerError not found in source chain: {err}"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/lib.rs b/rust/lance/src/lib.rs
index 19ea6e8aebd..cef96bd15ad 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/lib.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,14 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+// The streaming IVF training stack (see index::vector::ivf), awaited whole by
+// its training tests, has a future type that nests past the default limit of
+// 128. `recursion_limit` is a crate-level inner attribute, so it necessarily
+// applies to every build of this crate, not only the test build that currently
+// exercises that future. benches/streaming_ivf_training.rs raises the limit for
+// the same stack.
+#![recursion_limit = "256"]
+
 //! Lance Columnar Data Format
 //!
 //! Lance columnar data format is an alternative to Parquet. It provides 100x faster for random access,
@@ -72,7 +80,7 @@
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use dataset::builder::DatasetBuilder;
 pub use lance_core::datatypes;
-pub use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+pub use lance_core::{Error, Result, cache};
 use std::sync::LazyLock;
 
 pub mod arrow;
@@ -81,11 +89,22 @@ pub mod datafusion;
 pub mod dataset;
 pub mod index;
 pub mod io;
+#[cfg(feature = "metrics")]
+pub mod metrics;
 pub mod session;
 pub mod table;
 pub mod utils;
 
-pub use blob::{blob_field, BlobArrayBuilder};
+pub mod pb {
+    #![allow(clippy::use_self)]
+    include!(concat!(env!("OUT_DIR"), "/lance.pb.rs"));
+}
+
+pub use blob::{
+    BlobArrayBuilder, BlobDescriptor, BlobDescriptorArrayBuilder, BlobDescriptorColumn,
+    BlobFieldOptions, BlobRange, DedicatedBlobWriter, PackedBlobWriter, blob_field,
+    blob_field_with_options,
+};
 pub use dataset::Dataset;
 use lance_index::vector::DIST_COL;
 
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/metrics.md b/rust/lance/src/metrics.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1025c014309
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/metrics.md
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+Lance publishes metrics through the [`metrics`](https://docs.rs/metrics) crate
+facade. Install any recorder (Prometheus, OpenTelemetry, etc.) in your
+application and Lance will emit into it; when no recorder is installed, emission
+is a cheap no-op. Metrics are only emitted when Lance is built with the
+`metrics` feature.
+
+## Object store metrics
+
+These track I/O against the underlying object store. The `base` label
+identifies the store; its cardinality is controlled by the
+`LANCE_OBJECT_STORE_METRICS_LABEL` environment variable:
+
+- `scheme` (default) — the scheme only (`s3`, `gs`, `az`, `file`, `memory`);
+  low, bounded cardinality.
+- `full` — the store's unique prefix (`s3$my-bucket`, `az$container@account`
+  where Azure's account also matters), so multiple buckets on the same cloud
+  can be told apart. Cardinality grows with the number of stores accessed.
+- `dataset` — `base` as in `full`, plus a `dataset` label carrying the URI the
+  store was opened for (`s3://my-bucket/path/table.lance`), so requests can be
+  attributed to a dataset. In this mode each URI gets its own object store and
+  HTTP client instead of sharing one per bucket, while the AIMD throttle budget
+  stays shared per bucket. Cardinality grows with the number of datasets opened.
+- `off` — omit the `base` label entirely.
+
+`operation` is one of `get`, `put`, `put_part`, `head`, `list`, `delete`,
+`copy`, `rename`, `complete_multipart`, or `abort_multipart`.
+
+Request counts are per logical operation: a `list` or `delete` that spans many
+objects is one request, matching how backends batch them.
+
+| Metric | Type | Labels | Description |
+|--------|------|--------|-------------|
+| `lance_object_store_requests_total` | counter | `operation`, `base` | Object store requests issued. |
+| `lance_object_store_request_bytes_total` | counter | `operation`, `base` | Bytes transferred by `get`/`put` requests. A `get` is counted once its response body has been fully read. |
+| `lance_object_store_request_duration_seconds` | histogram | `operation`, `base` | Per-request latency, in seconds. For `get` this covers the full body transfer, not just time-to-first-byte. |
+| `lance_object_store_errors_total` | counter | `operation`, `base` | Requests that returned an error. |
+| `lance_object_store_in_flight_requests` | gauge | `operation`, `base` | Requests currently in flight. |
+| `lance_object_store_throttle_total` | counter | `status`, `base` | Throttle responses (HTTP 429 / 503) seen at the HTTP layer, counted per attempt including retries. The `status` label is the numeric HTTP status. |
+| `lance_object_store_retryable_responses_total` | counter | `status`, `base` | Retryable responses (HTTP 5xx / 429 / 408) seen at the HTTP layer, counted per attempt including retries. A superset of `throttle_total`; 409 (conflict) is excluded so commit conflicts are not counted. |
+
+`lance_object_store_throttle_total` and
+`lance_object_store_retryable_responses_total` are recorded only for the native
+cloud stores (S3, GCS, Azure); Opendal-backed stores bypass the HTTP client
+where the counters are installed, so they report the other object store metrics
+but not throttle/retryable counts.
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/metrics.rs b/rust/lance/src/metrics.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1d48865e859
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/metrics.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Metrics published by Lance.
+#![doc = include_str!("metrics.md")]
+//!
+//! The metrics themselves are emitted from the relevant subsystems (for
+//! example object store I/O is instrumented in
+//! [`lance_io::object_store::metrics`]); this module exists to document the
+//! full catalogue of metric names, types, and labels in one place.
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/session.rs b/rust/lance/src/session.rs
index ca251e7fdef..83cde73be48 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/session.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/session.rs
@@ -4,12 +4,12 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-use lance_core::cache::LanceCache;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheBackend, LanceCache, QuickCacheBackend, QuickCacheShardPolicy};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::{Error, Result};
 use lance_index::IndexType;
 use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreRegistry;
-use snafu::location;
+use lance_io::spill::{LocalSpillStore, SpillStore};
 
 use crate::dataset::{DEFAULT_INDEX_CACHE_SIZE, DEFAULT_METADATA_CACHE_SIZE};
 use crate::session::caches::GlobalMetadataCache;
@@ -17,10 +17,28 @@ use crate::session::index_caches::GlobalIndexCache;
 
 use self::index_extension::IndexExtension;
 
+/// Automatic index caches favor one shared budget because they commonly hold
+/// a small number of large, unequal partition entries.
+const AUTOMATIC_INDEX_CACHE_SHARD_POLICY: QuickCacheShardPolicy = QuickCacheShardPolicy::Single;
+
 pub(crate) mod caches;
-pub(crate) mod index_caches;
+pub mod index_caches;
 pub(crate) mod index_extension;
 
+/// Cache selection for one session cache tier.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub enum CacheSpec {
+    /// Use the Lance-level default capacity for the tier.
+    Default,
+    /// Use the default in-memory backend with this weighted-entry capacity.
+    ///
+    /// This is not an RSS limit: active queries and in-progress loaders can
+    /// retain memory in addition to resident cache entries.
+    Size(usize),
+    /// Use an already constructed backend.
+    Backend(Arc<dyn CacheBackend>),
+}
+
 /// A user session holds the runtime state for a [`crate::Dataset`]
 ///
 /// A session will be created automatically when a Dataset is opened.  However, you
@@ -54,10 +72,12 @@ pub struct Session {
     pub(crate) index_extensions: HashMap<(IndexType, String), Arc<dyn IndexExtension>>,
 
     store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+
+    spill_store: Arc<dyn SpillStore>,
 }
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for Session {
-    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+    fn deep_size_of_children(&self, context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
         let mut size = 0;
         // Measure the actual cache contents through the wrapper types
         size += self.index_cache.deep_size_of_children(context);
@@ -78,11 +98,7 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for Session {
             )
             .field(
                 "file_metadata_cache",
-                &format!(
-                    "LanceCache(items={}, size_bytes={})",
-                    self.metadata_cache.0.approx_size(),
-                    self.metadata_cache.0.approx_size_bytes(),
-                ),
+                &format!("LanceCache(items={})", self.metadata_cache.0.approx_size(),),
             )
             .field(
                 "index_extensions",
@@ -97,8 +113,11 @@ impl Session {
     ///
     /// Parameters:
     ///
-    /// - ***index_cache_size***: the size of the index cache.
-    /// - ***metadata_cache_size***: the size of the metadata cache.
+    /// - ***index_cache_size***: the weighted-entry budget of the index cache,
+    ///   backed by a single-shard [`QuickCacheBackend`]. The budget is shared
+    ///   by all indices in the session and is not a process RSS limit.
+    /// - ***metadata_cache_size***: the size of the metadata cache, backed by
+    ///   [`QuickCacheBackend`].
     /// - ***store_registry***: the object store registry to use when opening
     ///   datasets. This determines which schemes are available, and also allows
     ///   re-using object stores.
@@ -108,13 +127,142 @@ impl Session {
         store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
-            index_cache: GlobalIndexCache(LanceCache::with_capacity(index_cache_size)),
-            metadata_cache: GlobalMetadataCache(LanceCache::with_capacity(metadata_cache_size)),
+            index_cache: GlobalIndexCache(Self::build_automatic_quick_cache(
+                index_cache_size,
+                AUTOMATIC_INDEX_CACHE_SHARD_POLICY,
+            )),
+            metadata_cache: GlobalMetadataCache(Self::build_automatic_quick_cache(
+                metadata_cache_size,
+                QuickCacheShardPolicy::Recommended,
+            )),
+            index_extensions: HashMap::new(),
+            store_registry,
+            spill_store: Arc::new(LocalSpillStore::default()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a session with a custom index cache backend.
+    ///
+    /// The provided backend will be used for caching index data. The metadata
+    /// cache uses a [`QuickCacheBackend`] with the given capacity.
+    pub fn with_index_cache_backend(
+        index_cache_backend: Arc<dyn CacheBackend>,
+        metadata_cache_size: usize,
+        store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            index_cache: GlobalIndexCache(LanceCache::with_backend(index_cache_backend)),
+            metadata_cache: GlobalMetadataCache(Self::build_automatic_quick_cache(
+                metadata_cache_size,
+                QuickCacheShardPolicy::Recommended,
+            )),
+            index_extensions: HashMap::new(),
+            store_registry,
+            spill_store: Arc::new(LocalSpillStore::default()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Replace the spill store used by this session.
+    ///
+    /// This is a builder-style method that consumes and returns `self`, making
+    /// it easy to chain during session construction:
+    ///
+    /// ```rust,no_run
+    /// # use lance::session::Session;
+    /// # use lance_io::spill::LocalSpillStore;
+    /// # use std::sync::Arc;
+    /// let session = Session::default()
+    ///     .with_spill_store(Arc::new(LocalSpillStore::with_cap(1 << 30).unwrap()));
+    /// ```
+    pub fn with_spill_store(mut self, store: Arc<dyn SpillStore>) -> Self {
+        self.spill_store = store;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Return a reference to the session's spill store.
+    ///
+    /// Callers use this to obtain reclaimable scratch space for intermediate
+    /// state that overflows memory (e.g. index builders).
+    pub fn spill_store(&self) -> &dyn SpillStore {
+        &*self.spill_store
+    }
+
+    /// Create a session with custom backends for both caches.
+    ///
+    /// Each [`CacheSpec`] controls one tier. [`CacheSpec::Default`] uses that
+    /// tier's Lance-level default capacity, [`CacheSpec::Size`] uses the
+    /// default in-memory backend with an explicit weighted-entry budget, and
+    /// [`CacheSpec::Backend`] uses a caller-provided backend. This keeps size
+    /// and backend selection mutually exclusive.
+    ///
+    /// This is the recommended constructor when a caller has already resolved
+    /// backend selection through
+    /// [`build_from_config`](lance_core::cache::build_from_config) or
+    /// [`build_from_uri`](lance_core::cache::build_from_uri) — the resulting
+    /// `Arc<dyn CacheBackend>` can be plugged in for either or both caches.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use lance::session::{CacheSpec, Session};
+    /// # use lance_core::cache::build_from_uri;
+    /// # fn example() -> lance_core::Result<()> {
+    /// let index_backend = build_from_uri("moka://?capacity=1048576")?;
+    /// let session = Session::with_cache_backends(
+    ///     CacheSpec::Backend(index_backend),
+    ///     CacheSpec::Default,
+    ///     Default::default(),
+    /// );
+    /// # let _ = session;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn with_cache_backends(
+        index_cache: CacheSpec,
+        metadata_cache: CacheSpec,
+        store_registry: Arc<ObjectStoreRegistry>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let index_cache = Self::build_cache(
+            index_cache,
+            DEFAULT_INDEX_CACHE_SIZE,
+            AUTOMATIC_INDEX_CACHE_SHARD_POLICY,
+        );
+        let metadata_cache = Self::build_cache(
+            metadata_cache,
+            DEFAULT_METADATA_CACHE_SIZE,
+            QuickCacheShardPolicy::Recommended,
+        );
+        Self {
+            index_cache: GlobalIndexCache(index_cache),
+            metadata_cache: GlobalMetadataCache(metadata_cache),
             index_extensions: HashMap::new(),
             store_registry,
+            spill_store: Arc::new(LocalSpillStore::default()),
         }
     }
 
+    fn build_cache(
+        spec: CacheSpec,
+        default_size: usize,
+        shard_policy: QuickCacheShardPolicy,
+    ) -> LanceCache {
+        match spec {
+            CacheSpec::Default => Self::build_automatic_quick_cache(default_size, shard_policy),
+            CacheSpec::Size(size) => Self::build_automatic_quick_cache(size, shard_policy),
+            CacheSpec::Backend(backend) => LanceCache::with_backend(backend),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn build_automatic_quick_cache(
+        capacity: usize,
+        shard_policy: QuickCacheShardPolicy,
+    ) -> LanceCache {
+        LanceCache::with_backend(Arc::new(QuickCacheBackend::with_shard_policy(
+            capacity,
+            shard_policy,
+        )))
+    }
+
     /// Register a new index extension.
     ///
     /// A name can only be registered once per type of index extension.
@@ -134,30 +282,25 @@ impl Session {
                     .index_extensions
                     .contains_key(&(IndexType::Vector, name.clone()))
                 {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("{name} is already registered"),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "{name} is already registered"
+                    )));
                 }
 
                 if let Some(ext) = extension.to_vector() {
                     self.index_extensions
                         .insert((IndexType::Vector, name), ext.to_generic());
                 } else {
-                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                        format!("{name} is not a vector index extension"),
-                        location!(),
-                    ));
+                    return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                        "{name} is not a vector index extension"
+                    )));
                 }
             }
             _ => {
-                return Err(Error::invalid_input(
-                    format!(
-                        "scalar index extension is not support yet: {}",
-                        extension.index_type()
-                    ),
-                    location!(),
-                ));
+                return Err(Error::invalid_input(format!(
+                    "scalar index extension is not support yet: {}",
+                    extension.index_type()
+                )));
             }
         }
 
@@ -188,6 +331,11 @@ impl Session {
         self.store_registry.clone()
     }
 
+    /// Get a reference to the raw metadata cache (for use in index reconstruction).
+    pub fn file_metadata_cache(&self) -> &LanceCache {
+        &self.metadata_cache.0
+    }
+
     /// Fetch statistics for the metadata cache
     pub async fn metadata_cache_stats(&self) -> lance_core::cache::CacheStats {
         self.metadata_cache.0.stats().await
@@ -212,15 +360,227 @@ impl Default for Session {
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, UnsizedCacheKey};
+    use lance_core::deepsize::Context;
     use lance_index::vector::VectorIndex;
+    use std::borrow::Cow;
+    use tokio::io::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+    struct TestKey(&'static str);
+    impl CacheKey for TestKey {
+        type ValueType = Vec<i32>;
+
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            Cow::Borrowed(self.0)
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "Test"
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct TestUnsizedKey(&'static str);
+    impl UnsizedCacheKey for TestUnsizedKey {
+        type ValueType = dyn VectorIndex;
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            Cow::Borrowed(self.0)
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "TestUnsized"
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct DeclaredWeight(usize);
+
+    impl DeepSizeOf for DeclaredWeight {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut Context) -> usize {
+            self.0
+        }
+    }
+
+    struct WeightedKey(u64);
+
+    impl CacheKey for WeightedKey {
+        type ValueType = DeclaredWeight;
+
+        fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+            self.0.to_string().into()
+        }
+
+        fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+            "DeclaredWeight"
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn assert_fitting_working_set_is_resident(session: &Session, gibibytes: &[usize]) {
+        for (index, gibibytes) in gibibytes.iter().copied().enumerate() {
+            session
+                .index_cache
+                .insert_with_key(
+                    &WeightedKey(index as u64),
+                    Arc::new(DeclaredWeight(gibibytes << 30)),
+                )
+                .await;
+        }
+        for index in 0..gibibytes.len() {
+            assert!(
+                session
+                    .index_cache
+                    .get_with_key(&WeightedKey(index as u64))
+                    .await
+                    .is_some(),
+                "entry {index} should remain resident"
+            );
+        }
+    }
 
     #[tokio::test]
     async fn test_disable_index_cache() {
         let no_cache = Session::new(0, 0, Default::default());
-        assert!(no_cache
+        assert!(
+            no_cache
+                .index_cache
+                .get_unsized_with_key(&TestUnsizedKey("abc"))
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn automatic_index_caches_use_one_shared_weight_budget() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            AUTOMATIC_INDEX_CACHE_SHARD_POLICY,
+            QuickCacheShardPolicy::Single
+        );
+
+        let session = Session::new(8 << 30, 0, Default::default());
+        assert_fitting_working_set_is_resident(&session, &[3, 2, 2]).await;
+
+        let session = Session::with_cache_backends(
+            CacheSpec::Size(8 << 30),
+            CacheSpec::Size(0),
+            Default::default(),
+        );
+        assert_fitting_working_set_is_resident(&session, &[3, 2, 2]).await;
+
+        let session = Session::with_cache_backends(
+            CacheSpec::Default,
+            CacheSpec::Size(0),
+            Default::default(),
+        );
+        assert_fitting_working_set_is_resident(&session, &[2, 1, 1]).await;
+
+        let session = Session::default();
+        let shared_session = session.clone();
+        session
+            .index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&TestKey("shared-session"), Arc::new(vec![7]))
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            shared_session
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&TestKey("shared-session"))
+                .await
+                .is_some()
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// `with_cache_backends` should honor whichever tier the caller
+    /// provided a backend for and fall back to that tier's default on the
+    /// other tier.
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_with_cache_backends_uses_provided_and_default() {
+        use lance_core::cache::build_from_uri;
+
+        let index_backend = build_from_uri("moka://?capacity=1048576").unwrap();
+        let session = Session::with_cache_backends(
+            CacheSpec::Backend(index_backend),
+            CacheSpec::Default,
+            Default::default(),
+        );
+
+        let value = Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+        session
             .index_cache
-            .get_unsized::<dyn VectorIndex>("abc")
+            .insert_with_key(&TestKey("injected-index-backend"), value.clone())
+            .await;
+        assert_eq!(
+            session
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&TestKey("injected-index-backend"))
+                .await
+                .as_deref(),
+            Some(value.as_ref())
+        );
+        // Metadata cache fell back to a size-based default. We can only
+        // sanity-check that the session was constructed without panicking.
+        let stats = session.metadata_cache.0.stats().await;
+        assert_eq!(stats.num_entries, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_with_cache_backends_uses_explicit_size() {
+        let session = Session::with_cache_backends(
+            CacheSpec::Size(0),
+            CacheSpec::Size(2048),
+            Default::default(),
+        );
+
+        session
+            .index_cache
+            .insert_with_key(&TestKey("disabled-index-cache"), Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]))
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            session
+                .index_cache
+                .get_with_key(&TestKey("disabled-index-cache"))
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+
+        session
+            .metadata_cache
+            .0
+            .insert_with_key(&TestKey("metadata-cache"), Arc::new(vec![4, 5, 6]))
+            .await;
+        assert!(
+            session
+                .metadata_cache
+                .0
+                .get_with_key(&TestKey("metadata-cache"))
+                .await
+                .is_some()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_default_session_has_spill_store() {
+        let session = Session::default();
+        // Should be able to allocate a spill and write to it without error.
+        let (mut writer, _spill) = session.spill_store().new_spill().await.unwrap();
+        writer.write_all(b"scratch").await.unwrap();
+        lance_io::traits::Writer::shutdown(writer.as_mut())
             .await
-            .is_none());
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_custom_spill_store_injected() {
+        let capped = Arc::new(LocalSpillStore::with_cap(50).unwrap());
+        let session = Session::default().with_spill_store(capped);
+
+        let (mut writer, _spill) = session.spill_store().new_spill().await.unwrap();
+        // Writing 51 bytes exceeds the 50-byte cap; the typed error is wrapped
+        // in an io::Error by the writer and recovered on conversion.
+        let io_err = writer.write_all(&[0u8; 51]).await.unwrap_err();
+        let err: lance_core::Error = io_err.into();
+        assert!(
+            matches!(
+                err,
+                lance_core::Error::DiskCapExceeded { cap_bytes: 50, .. }
+            ),
+            "expected DiskCapExceeded, got {err}"
+        );
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/session/caches.rs b/rust/lance/src/session/caches.rs
index 67c684c98de..e5e0defc29c 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/session/caches.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/session/caches.rs
@@ -12,13 +12,16 @@
 
 use std::{borrow::Cow, ops::Deref};
 
-use deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
 use lance_core::{
-    cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache},
-    utils::{deletion::DeletionVector, mask::RowAddrMask},
+    cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache},
+    utils::deletion::DeletionVector,
 };
+use lance_select::RowAddrMask;
 use lance_table::{
-    format::{DeletionFile, Manifest},
+    format::{
+        DataFile, DeletionFile, DeletionFileType, Manifest, RowDatasetVersionSequence, RowIdMeta,
+    },
     rowids::{RowIdIndex, RowIdSequence},
 };
 use object_store::path::Path;
@@ -34,12 +37,6 @@ impl GlobalMetadataCache {
         // This prevents collisions between different datasets.
         DSMetadataCache(self.0.with_key_prefix(uri))
     }
-
-    /// Create a file-specific metadata cache with the given prefix.
-    /// This is used by file readers and other components that need file-level caching.
-    pub(crate) fn file_metadata_cache(&self, path: &Path) -> LanceCache {
-        self.0.with_key_prefix(path.as_ref())
-    }
 }
 
 impl Clone for GlobalMetadataCache {
@@ -75,7 +72,6 @@ pub struct ManifestKey<'a> {
 
 impl CacheKey for ManifestKey<'_> {
     type ValueType = Manifest;
-
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
         if let Some(e_tag) = self.e_tag {
             Cow::Owned(format!("manifest/{}/{}", self.version, e_tag))
@@ -83,6 +79,23 @@ impl CacheKey for ManifestKey<'_> {
             Cow::Owned(format!("manifest/{}", self.version))
         }
     }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "Manifest"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.dataset.manifest-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.version);
+        if let Some(e_tag) = self.e_tag {
+            builder.write_some();
+            builder.write_str(e_tag);
+        } else {
+            builder.write_none();
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -92,10 +105,20 @@ pub struct TransactionKey {
 
 impl CacheKey for TransactionKey {
     type ValueType = Transaction;
-
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
         Cow::Owned(format!("txn/{}", self.version))
     }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "Transaction"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.dataset.transaction-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.version);
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -106,7 +129,6 @@ pub struct DeletionFileKey<'a> {
 
 impl CacheKey for DeletionFileKey<'_> {
     type ValueType = DeletionVector;
-
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
         Cow::Owned(format!(
             "deletion/{}/{}/{}/{}",
@@ -116,45 +138,209 @@ impl CacheKey for DeletionFileKey<'_> {
             self.deletion_file.file_type.suffix()
         ))
     }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "DeletionVector"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.dataset.deletion-file-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.fragment_id);
+        builder.write_u64(self.deletion_file.read_version);
+        builder.write_u64(self.deletion_file.id);
+        builder.write_variant(match &self.deletion_file.file_type {
+            DeletionFileType::Array => 0,
+            DeletionFileType::Bitmap => 1,
+        });
+        if let Some(base_id) = self.deletion_file.base_id {
+            builder.write_some();
+            builder.write_u32(base_id);
+        } else {
+            builder.write_none();
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct RowAddrMaskKey {
     pub version: u64,
+    /// `Some(hash)` when the mask is restricted to a fragment subset; `None`
+    /// when it covers all fragments in the dataset. Two consumers that ask
+    /// for different subsets must not poison each other's cache entry.
+    pub restrict_hash: Option<u64>,
 }
 
 impl CacheKey for RowAddrMaskKey {
     type ValueType = RowAddrMask;
-
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
-        Cow::Owned(format!("row_addr_mask/{}", self.version))
+        match self.restrict_hash {
+            None => Cow::Owned(format!("row_addr_mask/{}", self.version)),
+            Some(h) => Cow::Owned(format!("row_addr_mask/{}/{:x}", self.version, h)),
+        }
+    }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "RowAddrMask"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.dataset.row-address-mask-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.version);
+        if let Some(restrict_hash) = self.restrict_hash {
+            builder.write_some();
+            builder.write_u64(restrict_hash);
+        } else {
+            builder.write_none();
+        }
     }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct RowIdIndexKey {
+pub struct RowIdIndexKey<'a> {
     pub version: u64,
+    /// A dataset dropped and recreated at the same URI restarts its version
+    /// history at 1, so a long-lived session's cache can otherwise return the
+    /// previous incarnation's index for a version number the new incarnation
+    /// now also holds. The e-tag disambiguates generations the same way
+    /// [`ManifestKey::e_tag`] does. Callers without one must not share the
+    /// cached index at all (see `get_row_id_index`).
+    pub e_tag: Option<&'a str>,
 }
 
-impl CacheKey for RowIdIndexKey {
+impl CacheKey for RowIdIndexKey<'_> {
     type ValueType = RowIdIndex;
-
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
-        Cow::Owned(format!("row_id_index/{}", self.version))
+        Cow::Owned(format!(
+            "row_id_index/{}/{}",
+            self.version,
+            self.e_tag.unwrap_or("")
+        ))
+    }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "RowIdIndex"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.dataset.row-id-index-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.version);
+        match self.e_tag {
+            Some(e_tag) => {
+                builder.write_some();
+                builder.write_str(e_tag);
+            }
+            None => builder.write_none(),
+        }
     }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct RowIdSequenceKey {
+pub struct RowIdSequenceKey<'a> {
     pub fragment_id: u64,
+    /// Where the sequence is stored. A fragment id alone is not enough: this
+    /// cache is namespaced by dataset URI only (see
+    /// [`GlobalMetadataCache::for_dataset`]), and a dataset dropped and
+    /// recreated at the same URI restarts fragment ids at 0, so a reused id
+    /// would otherwise be served the earlier generation's sequence (#7645).
+    /// The `row_id_meta` differentiates generations of dataset fragments.
+    ///
+    /// Any operation that changes which row ids a fragment holds also writes it
+    /// new `row_id_meta`, so generations stay distinct; operations that leave
+    /// row ids alone (deletes, added columns) leave it untouched and keep
+    /// hitting the cache.
+    ///
+    /// For inline metadata the identity of the sequence *is* its encoded bytes,
+    /// so the key uses
+    /// [`InlineRowIds::digest`](lance_table::format::InlineRowIds::digest),
+    /// which those bytes memoize on first use — an array-encoded sequence is
+    /// 8 bytes per row, too much to rehash on every lookup.
+    pub row_id_meta: &'a RowIdMeta,
+    /// The data file the sequence is spilled to, when `row_id_meta` says it
+    /// is one; identifies the contents the way an inline digest does.
+    pub lineage_file: Option<&'a DataFile>,
 }
 
-impl CacheKey for RowIdSequenceKey {
+impl CacheKey for RowIdSequenceKey<'_> {
     type ValueType = RowIdSequence;
-
+    // Only the legacy display form. Identity comes from `write_key` below.
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
         Cow::Owned(format!("row_id_sequence/{}", self.fragment_id))
     }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "RowIdSequence"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.dataset.row-id-sequence-key", 2)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.fragment_id);
+        match self.row_id_meta {
+            RowIdMeta::Inline(data) => {
+                builder.write_variant(0);
+                builder.write_fixed_bytes(data.digest());
+            }
+            // The sequence lives in one of the fragment's data files, which is
+            // named freshly per rewrite; the file identifies the contents the
+            // way the inline digest does.
+            RowIdMeta::Column => {
+                builder.write_variant(1);
+                match self.lineage_file {
+                    Some(file) => {
+                        builder.write_str(&file.path);
+                        builder.write_u64(file.base_id.map_or(u64::MAX, u64::from));
+                    }
+                    None => builder.write_str(""),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Cache key for one of a fragment's per-row version sequences that is spilled
+/// to a data file column.
+///
+/// Inline sequences are not cached: they decode straight from the manifest
+/// bytes the fragment already holds.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct RowVersionSequenceKey<'a> {
+    pub fragment_id: u64,
+    /// Which sequence this is, by the reserved field id of its column.
+    pub field_id: i32,
+    /// The data file carrying the column, named freshly per rewrite, so its
+    /// path identifies the contents the way an inline sequence's digest does.
+    pub data_file: &'a DataFile,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for RowVersionSequenceKey<'_> {
+    type ValueType = RowDatasetVersionSequence;
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        Cow::Owned(format!(
+            "row_version_sequence/{}/{}",
+            self.fragment_id, self.field_id
+        ))
+    }
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "RowDatasetVersionSequence"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.dataset.row-version-sequence-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_u64(self.fragment_id);
+        builder.write_u64(self.field_id as u64);
+        builder.write_str(&self.data_file.path);
+        builder.write_u64(self.data_file.base_id.map_or(u64::MAX, u64::from));
+    }
 }
 
 impl DSMetadataCache {
@@ -164,3 +350,99 @@ impl DSMetadataCache {
         self.0.with_key_prefix(prefix.as_ref())
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    use lance_table::rowids::write_row_ids;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn deletion_file_key_separates_storage_bases() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        let deletion_file = DeletionFile {
+            read_version: 3,
+            id: 4,
+            file_type: DeletionFileType::Bitmap,
+            num_deleted_rows: Some(1),
+            base_id: None,
+        };
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(
+                &DeletionFileKey {
+                    fragment_id: 2,
+                    deletion_file: &deletion_file,
+                },
+                Arc::new(DeletionVector::NoDeletions),
+            )
+            .await;
+
+        let deletion_file_on_other_base = DeletionFile {
+            base_id: Some(7),
+            ..deletion_file
+        };
+        assert!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key(&DeletionFileKey {
+                    fragment_id: 2,
+                    deletion_file: &deletion_file_on_other_base,
+                })
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn row_id_sequence_key_separates_fragment_generations() {
+        // A dataset dropped and recreated at the same URI restarts fragment ids,
+        // so the same id must not resolve to the earlier generation's sequence.
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        let first_generation = RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&(0..100).into()).into());
+        let key = RowIdSequenceKey {
+            fragment_id: 0,
+            row_id_meta: &first_generation,
+            lineage_file: None,
+        };
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&key, Arc::new(RowIdSequence::from(0..100)))
+            .await;
+        assert!(cache.get_with_key(&key).await.is_some());
+
+        let second_generation = RowIdMeta::Inline(write_row_ids(&(100..160).into()).into());
+        assert!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key(&RowIdSequenceKey {
+                    fragment_id: 0,
+                    row_id_meta: &second_generation,
+                    lineage_file: None,
+                })
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn row_id_index_key_separates_manifest_generations() {
+        let cache = LanceCache::with_capacity(4096);
+        let key = RowIdIndexKey {
+            version: 5,
+            e_tag: Some("first-etag"),
+        };
+        cache
+            .insert_with_key(&key, Arc::new(RowIdIndex::new(&[]).unwrap()))
+            .await;
+        assert!(cache.get_with_key(&key).await.is_some());
+
+        assert!(
+            cache
+                .get_with_key(&RowIdIndexKey {
+                    version: 5,
+                    e_tag: Some("second-etag"),
+                })
+                .await
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/session/index_caches.rs b/rust/lance/src/session/index_caches.rs
index d9578d43112..5758f2fe063 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/session/index_caches.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/session/index_caches.rs
@@ -12,9 +12,9 @@
 
 use std::{borrow::Cow, ops::Deref, sync::Arc};
 
-use deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
-use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, LanceCache};
-use lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndex;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheKey, CacheKeySchema, KeyBuilder, LanceCache};
+use lance_core::deepsize::{Context, DeepSizeOf};
+use lance_index::frag_reuse::{CompactFragReuseIndex, FragReuseIndexDetails};
 use lance_table::format::IndexMetadata;
 use uuid::Uuid;
 
@@ -63,46 +63,212 @@ impl Deref for DSIndexCache {
 
 impl DSIndexCache {
     /// Create an index-specific cache with the given UUID prefix.
-    pub fn for_index(&self, uuid: &str, fri_uuid: Option<&Uuid>) -> LanceCache {
+    pub fn for_index(&self, uuid: &Uuid, fri_uuid: Option<&Uuid>) -> LanceCache {
+        let mut uuid_buffer = Uuid::encode_buffer();
+        let cache = self
+            .0
+            .with_key_prefix(uuid.as_hyphenated().encode_lower(&mut uuid_buffer));
         if let Some(fri_uuid) = fri_uuid {
             // If a FRI UUID is provided, use it to create a more specific cache key.
-            let cache_key = format!("{}-{}", uuid, fri_uuid);
-            self.0.with_key_prefix(&cache_key)
+            let mut fri_uuid_buffer = Uuid::encode_buffer();
+            cache.with_key_prefix(fri_uuid.as_hyphenated().encode_lower(&mut fri_uuid_buffer))
         } else {
             // Otherwise, just use the index UUID as the key prefix.
-            self.0.with_key_prefix(uuid)
+            cache
         }
     }
 }
 
+pub(crate) fn write_index_identity(builder: &mut KeyBuilder, uuid: &Uuid, fri_uuid: Option<&Uuid>) {
+    builder.write_fixed_bytes(uuid.as_bytes());
+    if let Some(fri_uuid) = fri_uuid {
+        builder.write_some();
+        builder.write_fixed_bytes(fri_uuid.as_bytes());
+    } else {
+        builder.write_none();
+    }
+}
+
 // Cache key types for type-safe cache access
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct FragReuseIndexKey<'a> {
-    pub uuid: &'a str,
+    pub uuid: &'a Uuid,
 }
 
 impl CacheKey for FragReuseIndexKey<'_> {
-    type ValueType = FragReuseIndex;
+    type ValueType = CompactFragReuseIndex;
 
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
         Cow::Owned(format!("frag_reuse/{}", self.uuid))
     }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "FragReuseIndex"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.fragment-reuse-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_fixed_bytes(self.uuid.as_bytes());
+    }
 }
 
+/// Decoded fragment reuse details of an external `details.binpb`, keyed by where the
+/// file lives: a shallow clone's entry resolves to the source dataset's file. Each file
+/// is written once, under a fresh entry UUID. A hit does not check the file still exists.
 #[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct IndexMetadataKey {
+pub struct FragReuseDetailsKey<'a> {
+    pub store_identity: &'a str,
+    pub path: &'a object_store::path::Path,
+    pub offset: u64,
+    pub size: u64,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for FragReuseDetailsKey<'_> {
+    type ValueType = FragReuseIndexDetails;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        Cow::Owned(format!(
+            "frag_reuse_details/{}:{}/{}/{}/{}",
+            self.store_identity.len(),
+            self.store_identity,
+            self.path,
+            self.offset,
+            self.size
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "FragReuseIndexDetails"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.fragment-reuse-details-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_str(self.store_identity);
+        builder.write_str(self.path.as_ref());
+        builder.write_u64(self.offset);
+        builder.write_u64(self.size);
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub struct IndexMetadataKey<'a> {
     pub version: u64,
+    pub store_identity: &'a str,
+    pub e_tag: Option<&'a str>,
 }
 
-impl CacheKey for IndexMetadataKey {
+impl CacheKey for IndexMetadataKey<'_> {
     type ValueType = Vec<IndexMetadata>;
 
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
-        Cow::Owned(self.version.to_string())
+        Cow::Owned(format!(
+            "{}:{}/{}/{}",
+            self.store_identity.len(),
+            self.store_identity,
+            self.version,
+            self.e_tag.unwrap_or("")
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "Vec<IndexMetadata>"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        // v2 holds every index the manifest names; v1 held only the ones the
+        // writing build could read. The fields are identical, so on a persistent
+        // backend shared with another release nothing but this version stops each
+        // build from reading the other's entry as its own meaning.
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.metadata-key", 2)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_str(self.store_identity);
+        builder.write_u64(self.version);
+        match self.e_tag {
+            Some(e_tag) => {
+                builder.write_some();
+                builder.write_str(e_tag);
+            }
+            None => builder.write_none(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn codec() -> Option<lance_core::cache::CacheCodec> {
+        Some(lance_table::format::index_metadata_codec())
     }
 }
 
+/// Cache key for the query-time index listing DERIVED from a v1 (tagged) FRI:
+/// the coverage-rewritten, filtered listing produced by `frag_reuse_reader`.
+///
+/// Separate namespace from [`IndexMetadataKey`], which caches the raw manifest
+/// listing. This one caches the per-snapshot result of the coverage backtrack so
+/// `load_indices` does not recompute `segment_coverage` and the per-index bitmap
+/// rewrites on every query-planning / merge_insert call. Keyed by the same
+/// snapshot identity: a different table (`store_identity`), a different snapshot
+/// (`version`), or any index add/replace (which commits a new manifest and bumps
+/// `version`/`e_tag`) yields a different key, so a stale derived listing is never
+/// reused.
+///
+/// This cache is MEMORY-ONLY (no `codec`): the derived listing depends on the
+/// READER's translation capability, not only on the snapshot. Different builds
+/// admit different segments for the same snapshot (a build that cannot translate
+/// a segment excludes it; one that can includes it), so a persisted entry
+/// reused across builds could serve a listing the current reader must not use.
+/// Snapshot identity does not capture reader capability, so we never persist
+/// this value; it is cheap to recompute per process.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub struct DerivedIndexListingKey<'a> {
+    pub version: u64,
+    pub store_identity: &'a str,
+    pub e_tag: Option<&'a str>,
+}
+
+impl CacheKey for DerivedIndexListingKey<'_> {
+    type ValueType = Vec<IndexMetadata>;
+
+    fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+        Cow::Owned(format!(
+            "{}:{}/{}/{}",
+            self.store_identity.len(),
+            self.store_identity,
+            self.version,
+            self.e_tag.unwrap_or("")
+        ))
+    }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "Vec<IndexMetadata>"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.derived-listing-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_str(self.store_identity);
+        builder.write_u64(self.version);
+        match self.e_tag {
+            Some(e_tag) => {
+                builder.write_some();
+                builder.write_str(e_tag);
+            }
+            None => builder.write_none(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    // No `codec`: memory-only. See the type doc: the derived listing is
+    // reader-capability dependent and must not be persisted across builds.
+}
+
 pub struct ProstAny(pub Arc<prost_types::Any>);
 
 impl DeepSizeOf for ProstAny {
@@ -119,7 +285,7 @@ impl DeepSizeOf for ProstAny {
 /// what they are.  These we cache.
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct ScalarIndexDetailsKey<'a> {
-    pub uuid: &'a str,
+    pub uuid: &'a Uuid,
 }
 
 impl CacheKey for ScalarIndexDetailsKey<'_> {
@@ -128,4 +294,89 @@ impl CacheKey for ScalarIndexDetailsKey<'_> {
     fn key(&self) -> Cow<'_, str> {
         Cow::Owned(format!("type/{}", self.uuid))
     }
+
+    fn type_name() -> &'static str {
+        "ScalarIndexDetails"
+    }
+
+    fn schema() -> CacheKeySchema {
+        CacheKeySchema::new("lance.index.scalar-details-key", 1)
+    }
+
+    fn write_key(&self, builder: &mut KeyBuilder) {
+        builder.write_fixed_bytes(self.uuid.as_bytes());
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn index_metadata_key_isolates_object_store_identity() {
+        let first = IndexMetadataKey {
+            version: 7,
+            store_identity: "s3$first-options",
+            e_tag: Some("manifest-etag"),
+        };
+        let second = IndexMetadataKey {
+            version: 7,
+            store_identity: "s3$second-options",
+            e_tag: Some("manifest-etag"),
+        };
+
+        assert_ne!(first.key(), second.key());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn index_metadata_key_isolates_manifest_generation() {
+        let first = IndexMetadataKey {
+            version: 7,
+            store_identity: "s3$options",
+            e_tag: Some("first-etag"),
+        };
+        let second = IndexMetadataKey {
+            version: 7,
+            store_identity: "s3$options",
+            e_tag: Some("second-etag"),
+        };
+
+        assert_ne!(first.key(), second.key());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn derived_listing_key_isolates_table_snapshot_and_generation() {
+        let base = DerivedIndexListingKey {
+            version: 7,
+            store_identity: "s3$options",
+            e_tag: Some("etag"),
+        };
+        // Different table (object store identity).
+        let other_table = DerivedIndexListingKey {
+            store_identity: "s3$other-options",
+            ..base
+        };
+        // Different snapshot version (an index add/replace commits a new version).
+        let other_version = DerivedIndexListingKey { version: 8, ..base };
+        // Different manifest generation (e_tag).
+        let other_generation = DerivedIndexListingKey {
+            e_tag: Some("other-etag"),
+            ..base
+        };
+
+        assert_ne!(base.key(), other_table.key());
+        assert_ne!(base.key(), other_version.key());
+        assert_ne!(base.key(), other_generation.key());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn derived_listing_key_does_not_collide_with_raw_metadata_key() {
+        // The derived (coverage-rewritten) listing and the raw manifest listing
+        // share the same snapshot identity but must live in separate cache
+        // namespaces, so the derived listing is never served as the raw one.
+        assert_ne!(
+            DerivedIndexListingKey::schema().id(),
+            IndexMetadataKey::schema().id()
+        );
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/session/index_extension.rs b/rust/lance/src/session/index_extension.rs
index bc3d3e6858d..c93ae3269ef 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/session/index_extension.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/session/index_extension.rs
@@ -1,12 +1,15 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
+#[cfg(test)]
+use lance_core::utils::row_addr_remap::RowAddrRemap;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
 use lance_core::Result;
-use lance_file::previous::reader::FileReader as PreviousFileReader;
-use lance_index::{vector::VectorIndex, IndexParams, IndexType};
+use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
+use lance_file::versions::v1::reader::FileReader as V1FileReader;
+use lance_index::{IndexParams, IndexType, vector::VectorIndex};
+use uuid::Uuid;
 
 use crate::Dataset;
 
@@ -35,7 +38,7 @@ pub trait VectorIndexExtension: IndexExtension {
         // if we wrap into an Arc, the mutable reference is lost
         dataset: &Dataset,
         column: &str,
-        uuid: &str,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
         params: &dyn IndexParams,
     ) -> Result<()>;
 
@@ -44,8 +47,8 @@ pub trait VectorIndexExtension: IndexExtension {
         &self,
         dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
         column: &str,
-        uuid: &str,
-        reader: PreviousFileReader,
+        uuid: &Uuid,
+        reader: V1FileReader,
     ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>>;
 }
 
@@ -61,29 +64,28 @@ mod test {
 
     use std::{
         any::Any,
-        collections::HashMap,
-        sync::{atomic::AtomicBool, Arc},
+        sync::{Arc, atomic::AtomicBool},
     };
 
+    use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
     use arrow_array::{Float32Array, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
     use arrow_schema::Schema;
     use datafusion::execution::SendableRecordBatchStream;
-    use deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
-    use lance_file::previous::writer::{
-        FileWriter as PreviousFileWriter, FileWriterOptions as PreviousFileWriterOptions,
-    };
+    use lance_core::deepsize::DeepSizeOf;
     use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
+    use lance_file::versions::v1::writer::{
+        FileWriter as V1FileWriter, FileWriterOptions as V1FileWriterOptions,
+    };
     use lance_index::vector::v3::subindex::SubIndexType;
+    use lance_index::{
+        INDEX_FILE_NAME, INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY, Index, IndexMetadata, IndexType,
+        vector::{Query, hnsw::VECTOR_ID_FIELD},
+    };
     use lance_index::{
         metrics::MetricsCollector,
         vector::quantizer::{QuantizationType, Quantizer},
     };
     use lance_index::{metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector, vector::ivf::storage::IvfModel};
-    use lance_index::{
-        vector::{hnsw::VECTOR_ID_FIELD, Query},
-        DatasetIndexExt, Index, IndexMetadata, IndexType, INDEX_FILE_NAME,
-        INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
-    };
     use lance_io::traits::Reader;
     use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
     use lance_table::io::manifest::ManifestDescribing;
@@ -95,7 +97,7 @@ mod test {
     struct MockIndex;
 
     impl DeepSizeOf for MockIndex {
-        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
             0
         }
     }
@@ -110,10 +112,6 @@ mod test {
             self
         }
 
-        fn as_vector_index(self: Arc<Self>) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
-            Ok(self)
-        }
-
         async fn prewarm(&self) -> Result<()> {
             Ok(())
         }
@@ -185,7 +183,7 @@ mod test {
             unimplemented!()
         }
 
-        async fn remap(&mut self, _: &HashMap<u64, Option<u64>>) -> Result<()> {
+        async fn remap(&mut self, _: &RowAddrRemap) -> Result<()> {
             Ok(())
         }
 
@@ -230,7 +228,7 @@ mod test {
     }
 
     impl DeepSizeOf for MockIndexExtension {
-        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut deepsize::Context) -> usize {
+        fn deep_size_of_children(&self, _context: &mut lance_core::deepsize::Context) -> usize {
             todo!()
         }
     }
@@ -259,26 +257,22 @@ mod test {
             &self,
             dataset: &Dataset,
             _column: &str,
-            uuid: &str,
+            uuid: &Uuid,
             _params: &dyn IndexParams,
         ) -> Result<()> {
             let store = dataset.object_store.clone();
             let path = dataset
                 .indices_dir()
-                .child(uuid.to_string())
-                .child(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
+                .join(uuid.to_string())
+                .join(INDEX_FILE_NAME);
 
             let writer = store.create(&path).await.unwrap();
 
             let arrow_schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![VECTOR_ID_FIELD.clone()]));
             let schema = lance_core::datatypes::Schema::try_from(arrow_schema.as_ref()).unwrap();
-            let mut writer: PreviousFileWriter<ManifestDescribing> =
-                PreviousFileWriter::with_object_writer(
-                    writer,
-                    schema,
-                    &PreviousFileWriterOptions::default(),
-                )
-                .unwrap();
+            let mut writer: V1FileWriter<ManifestDescribing> =
+                V1FileWriter::with_object_writer(writer, schema, &V1FileWriterOptions::default())
+                    .unwrap();
             writer.add_metadata(
                 INDEX_METADATA_SCHEMA_KEY,
                 json!(IndexMetadata {
@@ -305,8 +299,8 @@ mod test {
             &self,
             _dataset: Arc<Dataset>,
             _column: &str,
-            _uuid: &str,
-            _reader: PreviousFileReader,
+            _uuid: &Uuid,
+            _reader: V1FileReader,
         ) -> Result<Arc<dyn VectorIndex>> {
             self.load_index_called
                 .store(true, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Release);
@@ -348,12 +342,16 @@ mod test {
             .unwrap();
 
         // neither has been called
-        assert!(!idx_ext
-            .create_index_called
-            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire));
-        assert!(!idx_ext
-            .load_index_called
-            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire));
+        assert!(
+            !idx_ext
+                .create_index_called
+                .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !idx_ext
+                .load_index_called
+                .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire)
+        );
 
         let mut ds_with_extension = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_ds.tmp_dir)
             .with_session(Arc::new(session))
@@ -368,12 +366,16 @@ mod test {
             .unwrap();
 
         // create index should have been called
-        assert!(idx_ext
-            .create_index_called
-            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire));
-        assert!(!idx_ext
-            .load_index_called
-            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire));
+        assert!(
+            idx_ext
+                .create_index_called
+                .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !idx_ext
+                .load_index_called
+                .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire)
+        );
 
         // check that the index was created
         let ds_without_extension = DatasetBuilder::from_uri(&test_ds.tmp_dir)
@@ -383,15 +385,17 @@ mod test {
         let idx = ds_without_extension.load_indices().await.unwrap();
         assert_eq!(idx.len(), 1);
         // get the index uuid
-        let index_uuid = idx.first().unwrap().uuid.to_string();
+        let index_uuid = idx.first().unwrap().uuid;
 
         // trying to open the index should fail as there is no extension loader
-        assert!(ds_without_extension
-            .open_vector_index("vec", &index_uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
-            .await
-            .unwrap_err()
-            .to_string()
-            .contains("Unsupported index type: TEST"));
+        assert!(
+            ds_without_extension
+                .open_vector_index("vec", &index_uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+                .await
+                .unwrap_err()
+                .to_string()
+                .contains("Unsupported index type: TEST")
+        );
 
         // trying to open the index should succeed with the extension loader
         let vector_index = ds_with_extension
@@ -400,12 +404,16 @@ mod test {
             .unwrap();
 
         // load index should have been called
-        assert!(idx_ext
-            .create_index_called
-            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire));
-        assert!(idx_ext
-            .load_index_called
-            .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire));
+        assert!(
+            idx_ext
+                .create_index_called
+                .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            idx_ext
+                .load_index_called
+                .load(std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Acquire)
+        );
 
         // should be able to downcast to the mock index
         let _downcasted = vector_index.as_any().downcast_ref::<MockIndex>().unwrap();
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/utils/future.rs b/rust/lance/src/utils/future.rs
index f9c55bbabb0..595d5c2a297 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/utils/future.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/utils/future.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@
 
 use async_cell::sync::AsyncCell;
 use futures::Future;
-use snafu::location;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use tracing::Instrument;
 
@@ -17,20 +16,6 @@ use tracing::Instrument;
 pub struct SharedPrerequisite<T: Clone>(Arc<AsyncCell<std::result::Result<T, String>>>);
 
 impl<T: Clone> SharedPrerequisite<T> {
-    /// Asynchronously get a cloned copy of the output
-    ///
-    /// If the child task failed then a PrerequisiteFailed error is raised.
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
-    pub async fn get_fut(&self) -> crate::Result<T> {
-        self.0
-            .get()
-            .await
-            .map_err(|err| crate::Error::PrerequisiteFailed {
-                message: err,
-                location: location!(),
-            })
-    }
-
     /// Synchronously get a cloned copy of the cached output
     ///
     /// Must be called after a call to `wait_ready`
@@ -51,10 +36,7 @@ impl<T: Clone> SharedPrerequisite<T> {
             .get()
             .await
             .map(|_| ())
-            .map_err(|err| crate::Error::PrerequisiteFailed {
-                message: err,
-                location: location!(),
-            })
+            .map_err(|err| crate::Error::prerequisite_failed(err))
     }
 
     /// Launch a background task (using tokio::spawn) and get a shareable handle to the eventual result
@@ -102,10 +84,7 @@ mod tests {
         }
 
         // On error
-        let fut = future::ready(crate::Result::Err(crate::Error::invalid_input(
-            "xyz",
-            location!(),
-        )));
+        let fut = future::ready(crate::Result::Err(crate::Error::invalid_input("xyz")));
         let prereq = SharedPrerequisite::<u32>::spawn(fut);
 
         let mut tasks = Vec::with_capacity(10);
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/utils/test.rs b/rust/lance/src/utils/test.rs
index dbf0911a68b..6bf9fe337fc 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/utils/test.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/utils/test.rs
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicBool, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 
 use lance_core::utils::tempfile::{TempDir, TempStrDir};
-use snafu::location;
 
 use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
 use arrow_schema::Schema as ArrowSchema;
@@ -13,17 +13,26 @@ use lance_arrow::RecordBatchExt;
 use lance_core::datatypes::Schema;
 use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, BatchGeneratorBuilder, ByteCount, RowCount};
 use lance_file::version::LanceFileVersion;
-use lance_table::format::Fragment;
+use lance_table::format::pb::transaction::Operation as PbOperation;
+use lance_table::format::{Fragment, Transaction as TableTransaction};
+use lance_table::io::commit::{
+    CommitError, CommitHandler, ConditionalPutCommitHandler, ManifestLocation,
+    ManifestNamingScheme, ManifestWriter,
+};
 use rand::prelude::SliceRandom;
 use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
 
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
 use crate::dataset::fragment::write::FragmentCreateBuilder;
 use crate::dataset::transaction::Operation;
-use crate::dataset::WriteParams;
-use crate::Dataset;
 
+pub mod covering;
+mod failing_store;
+pub mod serializing_cache;
 mod throttle_store;
 
+pub use failing_store::FailingProxyStore;
 pub use throttle_store::ThrottledStoreWrapper;
 
 /// A dataset generator that can generate random layouts. This is used to test
@@ -53,7 +62,6 @@ impl TestDatasetGenerator {
     /// Set the seed for the random number generator.
     ///
     /// If not set, a random seed will be generated on each call to [`Self::make_hostile`].
-    #[allow(dead_code)]
     pub fn seed(mut self, seed: u64) -> Self {
         self.seed = Some(seed);
         self
@@ -93,13 +101,14 @@ impl TestDatasetGenerator {
 
                 let fields = field_structure(&fragment);
                 let first_fields = fragments.first().map(field_structure);
-                if let Some(first_fields) = first_fields {
-                    if fields == first_fields && schema.fields.len() > 1 {
-                        // The layout is the same as the first fragment, try again
-                        // If there's only one field, then we can't expect a different
-                        // layout, so there's an exception for that.
-                        continue;
-                    }
+                if let Some(first_fields) = first_fields
+                    && fields == first_fields
+                    && schema.fields.len() > 1
+                {
+                    // The layout is the same as the first fragment, try again
+                    // If there's only one field, then we can't expect a different
+                    // layout, so there's an exception for that.
+                    continue;
                 }
 
                 fragment.id = id;
@@ -242,6 +251,7 @@ impl TestDatasetGenerator {
         Fragment {
             id: 0,
             files,
+            overlays: vec![],
             deletion_file: None,
             row_id_meta: None,
             physical_rows: Some(batch.num_rows()),
@@ -263,7 +273,7 @@ fn field_structure(fragment: &Fragment) -> Vec<Vec<i32>> {
     fragment
         .files
         .iter()
-        .map(|file| file.fields.clone())
+        .map(|file| file.fields.to_vec())
         .collect::<Vec<_>>()
 }
 
@@ -382,7 +392,11 @@ impl Default for NoContextTestFixture {
 
 impl NoContextTestFixture {
     pub fn new() -> Self {
+        // `enable_time` is required because `Dataset::write` runs the commit
+        // through `tokio::time::timeout` (CommitBuilder's default timeout),
+        // which panics without a timer driver.
         let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+            .enable_time()
             .build()
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -481,28 +495,26 @@ pub fn assert_string_matches(actual: &str, expected_pattern: &str) -> lance_core
             _ => remainder.contains(piece),
         };
         if !res {
-            return Err(lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-                source: format!(
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input_source(
+                format!(
                     "Expected string to match:\nExpected: {}\nActual: {}",
                     expected_pattern, actual
                 )
                 .into(),
-                location: location!(),
-            });
+            ));
         }
         let idx = remainder.find(piece).unwrap();
         remainder = &remainder[idx + piece.len()..];
     }
 
     if !remainder.is_empty() {
-        return Err(lance_core::Error::InvalidInput {
-            source: format!(
+        return Err(lance_core::Error::invalid_input_source(
+            format!(
                 "Expected string to match:\nExpected: {}\nActual: {}",
                 expected_pattern, actual
             )
             .into(),
-            location: location!(),
-        });
+        ));
     }
 
     Ok(())
@@ -521,6 +533,90 @@ pub async fn assert_plan_node_equals(
     assert_string_matches(&raw_plan_desc, raw_expected)
 }
 
+/// Fragment reuse versions over fragments no dataset has, to size a stored history
+/// without compacting that much data.
+pub fn padding_reuse_versions(count: u64) -> Vec<lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseVersion> {
+    use lance_index::frag_reuse::{FragDigest, FragReuseGroup, FragReuseVersion};
+    let digest = |id: u64| FragDigest {
+        id,
+        physical_rows: 4,
+        num_deleted_rows: 0,
+    };
+    (0..count)
+        .map(|i| {
+            let old_id = 1_000 + i;
+            let mut changed_row_addrs = Vec::new();
+            roaring::RoaringTreemap::from_iter((old_id << 32)..(old_id << 32) + 4)
+                .serialize_into(&mut changed_row_addrs)
+                .unwrap();
+            FragReuseVersion {
+                dataset_version: 1,
+                groups: vec![FragReuseGroup {
+                    changed_row_addrs,
+                    old_frags: vec![digest(old_id)],
+                    new_frags: vec![digest(100_000 + i)],
+                }],
+            }
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Commits `count` padding versions as the dataset's fragment reuse history.
+pub async fn commit_padding_reuse_history(
+    dataset: &mut Dataset,
+    count: usize,
+) -> lance_table::format::IndexMetadata {
+    use crate::index::frag_reuse::build_frag_reuse_index_metadata;
+    let details = lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndexDetails {
+        versions: padding_reuse_versions(count as u64),
+    };
+    let new_fragments = (0..count as u32).map(|i| 100_000 + i).collect();
+    let entry = build_frag_reuse_index_metadata(dataset, None, details, new_fragments)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            crate::dataset::transaction::Transaction::new(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![entry.clone()],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            &Default::default(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    entry
+}
+
+/// The most padding versions whose details still fit inline.
+pub fn inline_padding_capacity() -> usize {
+    use lance_table::format::pb::fragment_reuse_index_details::InlineContent;
+    use prost::Message;
+    let versions = padding_reuse_versions(5_000);
+    let fits = |count: usize| {
+        InlineContent::from(&lance_index::frag_reuse::FragReuseIndexDetails {
+            versions: versions[..count].to_vec(),
+        })
+        .encoded_len()
+            <= 204_800
+    };
+    let (mut low, mut high) = (0, versions.len());
+    while low < high {
+        let mid = (low + high).div_ceil(2);
+        if fits(mid) {
+            low = mid;
+        } else {
+            high = mid - 1;
+        }
+    }
+    assert!(low < versions.len());
+    low
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use std::sync::Arc;
@@ -629,17 +725,8 @@ mod tests {
                 .flat_map(|file| file.fields.iter())
                 .cloned()
                 .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            let mut field_ids = schema
-                .fields_pre_order()
-                .filter_map(|f| {
-                    if data_storage_version < LanceFileVersion::V2_1 || f.children.is_empty() {
-                        Some(f.id)
-                    } else {
-                        // In 2.1+, struct / list fields don't have their own column
-                        None
-                    }
-                })
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            let (mut field_ids, _) =
+                lance_file::versions::data_file_columns(data_storage_version.resolve(), &schema);
             field_ids_frags.sort_unstable();
             field_ids.sort_unstable();
             assert_eq!(field_ids_frags, field_ids);
@@ -726,3 +813,201 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 }
+
+/// How [`AmbiguousCommitHandler`] should treat the next commit.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum AmbiguousFailure {
+    /// Apply the commit (the manifest lands), then report a conflict — the
+    /// store equivalent of a successful conditional PUT whose response was
+    /// lost and whose internal retry saw "already exists".
+    LandAndConflict,
+    /// Apply the commit, then report an I/O error.
+    LandAndError,
+    /// Do not apply the commit; report an I/O error.
+    FailOutright,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum AmbiguousFailureTarget {
+    Any,
+    Rewrite,
+    ReserveFragments,
+}
+
+/// A commit handler for tests that can make a commit physically land while
+/// reporting a failure, and can make commit-outcome verification unavailable.
+///
+/// Delegates real work to [`ConditionalPutCommitHandler`].
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct AmbiguousCommitHandler {
+    /// Failure to inject into the next commit; taken (reset to `None`) when
+    /// the commit runs.
+    fail_next_commit: Mutex<Option<(AmbiguousFailure, AmbiguousFailureTarget)>>,
+    /// When set, version resolution fails, making commit-outcome verification
+    /// impossible.
+    pub fail_resolve: AtomicBool,
+    /// Number of upcoming resolution calls that should return NotFound.
+    resolve_not_found_remaining: AtomicUsize,
+    /// Whether a persistent NotFound proves that the requested version is
+    /// absent. Tests can disable this to model an eventually visible resolver.
+    not_found_is_definitive: AtomicBool,
+    /// Number of version resolutions requested (a proxy for how often commit
+    /// verification ran).
+    resolve_calls: AtomicUsize,
+}
+
+impl Default for AmbiguousCommitHandler {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            fail_next_commit: Mutex::new(None),
+            fail_resolve: AtomicBool::new(false),
+            resolve_not_found_remaining: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+            not_found_is_definitive: AtomicBool::new(true),
+            resolve_calls: AtomicUsize::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AmbiguousCommitHandler {
+    pub fn fail_next(&self, failure: AmbiguousFailure) {
+        *self.fail_next_commit.lock().unwrap() = Some((failure, AmbiguousFailureTarget::Any));
+    }
+
+    /// Arm the failure for the next Rewrite commit only.
+    pub fn fail_next_rewrite(&self, failure: AmbiguousFailure) {
+        *self.fail_next_commit.lock().unwrap() = Some((failure, AmbiguousFailureTarget::Rewrite));
+    }
+
+    /// Arm the failure for the next ReserveFragments commit only.
+    pub fn fail_next_reserve(&self, failure: AmbiguousFailure) {
+        *self.fail_next_commit.lock().unwrap() =
+            Some((failure, AmbiguousFailureTarget::ReserveFragments));
+    }
+
+    pub fn fail_next_resolves_with_not_found(&self, count: usize) {
+        self.resolve_not_found_remaining
+            .store(count, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        self.not_found_is_definitive.store(false, Ordering::SeqCst);
+    }
+
+    pub fn resolve_calls(&self) -> usize {
+        self.resolve_calls.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl CommitHandler for AmbiguousCommitHandler {
+    fn is_version_not_found_definitive(&self) -> bool {
+        self.not_found_is_definitive.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
+    }
+
+    fn propagate_commit_error_after_success(&self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    async fn commit(
+        &self,
+        manifest: &mut lance_table::format::Manifest,
+        indices: Option<Vec<lance_table::format::IndexMetadata>>,
+        base_path: &object_store::path::Path,
+        object_store: &lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore,
+        manifest_writer: ManifestWriter,
+        naming_scheme: ManifestNamingScheme,
+        transaction: Option<TableTransaction>,
+    ) -> std::result::Result<ManifestLocation, CommitError> {
+        let operation = transaction
+            .as_ref()
+            .and_then(|t| t.as_pb().operation.as_ref())
+            .map(|operation| match operation {
+                PbOperation::Rewrite(_) => AmbiguousFailureTarget::Rewrite,
+                PbOperation::ReserveFragments(_) => AmbiguousFailureTarget::ReserveFragments,
+                _ => AmbiguousFailureTarget::Any,
+            });
+        let failure = {
+            let mut armed = self.fail_next_commit.lock().unwrap();
+            let matches_target = armed.as_ref().is_some_and(|(_, target)| {
+                *target == AmbiguousFailureTarget::Any || operation == Some(*target)
+            });
+            matches_target.then(|| armed.take().unwrap().0)
+        };
+        match failure {
+            None => {
+                ConditionalPutCommitHandler
+                    .commit(
+                        manifest,
+                        indices,
+                        base_path,
+                        object_store,
+                        manifest_writer,
+                        naming_scheme,
+                        transaction,
+                    )
+                    .await
+            }
+            Some(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndConflict) => {
+                ConditionalPutCommitHandler
+                    .commit(
+                        manifest,
+                        indices,
+                        base_path,
+                        object_store,
+                        manifest_writer,
+                        naming_scheme,
+                        transaction,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                Err(CommitError::CommitConflict)
+            }
+            Some(AmbiguousFailure::LandAndError) => {
+                ConditionalPutCommitHandler
+                    .commit(
+                        manifest,
+                        indices,
+                        base_path,
+                        object_store,
+                        manifest_writer,
+                        naming_scheme,
+                        transaction,
+                    )
+                    .await?;
+                Err(CommitError::OtherError(lance_core::Error::io(
+                    "simulated ambiguous commit failure",
+                )))
+            }
+            Some(AmbiguousFailure::FailOutright) => Err(CommitError::OtherError(
+                lance_core::Error::io("simulated outright commit failure"),
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn resolve_version_location(
+        &self,
+        base_path: &object_store::path::Path,
+        version: u64,
+        object_store: &dyn object_store::ObjectStore,
+    ) -> lance_core::Result<ManifestLocation> {
+        self.resolve_calls.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+        if self.fail_resolve.load(Ordering::SeqCst) {
+            return Err(lance_core::Error::io("simulated verification outage"));
+        }
+        let mut remaining = self.resolve_not_found_remaining.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
+        while remaining > 0 {
+            match self.resolve_not_found_remaining.compare_exchange_weak(
+                remaining,
+                remaining - 1,
+                Ordering::SeqCst,
+                Ordering::SeqCst,
+            ) {
+                Ok(_) => {
+                    return Err(lance_core::Error::not_found(
+                        "simulated temporarily invisible manifest",
+                    ));
+                }
+                Err(actual) => remaining = actual,
+            }
+        }
+        ConditionalPutCommitHandler
+            .resolve_version_location(base_path, version, object_store)
+            .await
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/utils/test/covering.rs b/rust/lance/src/utils/test/covering.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bf559663115
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/utils/test/covering.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,266 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Fixtures for tests about covering indexes.
+//!
+//! No index builder writes carried values yet, so there is no API that
+//! produces a covering index. Every covering test has to build a plain index
+//! and then re-commit its metadata with the declaration attached, which is
+//! what [`declare_covering`] does. Once a creation API exists these fixtures
+//! collapse into calls to it.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::{FixedSizeListArray, Int32Array, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Schema as ArrowSchema};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+use lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array;
+
+use crate::Dataset;
+use crate::dataset::transaction::{Operation, Transaction};
+use crate::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use crate::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+
+/// Rows written per fragment by the fixtures in this module.
+pub const ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT: i32 = 512;
+
+/// Vector width used by the fixtures in this module.
+pub const DIMENSION: i32 = 16;
+
+/// Partitions used by [`create_ivf_pq_index`].
+///
+/// Four, not one: with a single partition the probe path is never reached, so
+/// a selection rule that wrongly picks a covered index still looks correct.
+pub const NUM_PARTITIONS: u32 = 4;
+
+fn vector_field(name: &str) -> ArrowField {
+    ArrowField::new(
+        name,
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(
+            Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)),
+            DIMENSION,
+        ),
+        false,
+    )
+}
+
+fn random_vectors(rows: i32) -> Arc<FixedSizeListArray> {
+    Arc::new(
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(
+            generate_random_array(rows as usize * DIMENSION as usize),
+            DIMENSION,
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    )
+}
+
+/// A one-fragment dataset with a `vec` column to key an index on and an
+/// `Int32` `payload` column to declare as carried.
+pub async fn write_vector_payload_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        vector_field("vec"),
+        ArrowField::new("payload", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            random_vectors(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT)),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap()
+}
+
+/// A one-fragment dataset whose carried column is itself a vector, for tests
+/// about which column an index may be *selected* for.
+pub async fn write_two_vector_column_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        vector_field("vec"),
+        vector_field("payload_vec"),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            random_vectors(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT),
+            random_vectors(ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Append a fragment to a [`write_vector_payload_dataset`] dataset, leaving
+/// every index stale.
+///
+/// Tests about maintenance need this so the index group really would be
+/// rebuilt; without it they assert against a group the operation had no work
+/// for, and keep passing if the behavior under test moves behind a no-work
+/// check.
+pub async fn append_vector_payload_rows(dataset: &mut Dataset, rows: i32) {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        vector_field("vec"),
+        ArrowField::new("payload", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            random_vectors(rows),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(
+                ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT..ROWS_PER_FRAGMENT + rows,
+            )),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Build an IVF_PQ index on `column`, with [`NUM_PARTITIONS`] partitions so
+/// the probe path is genuinely reached.
+pub async fn create_ivf_pq_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, column: &str) {
+    let params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(NUM_PARTITIONS as usize, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 50);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&[column], IndexType::Vector, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Build a BTree index on `column`.
+pub async fn create_btree_index(dataset: &mut Dataset, column: &str, name: Option<&str>) {
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &[column],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            name.map(str::to_string),
+            &params,
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// A one-fragment dataset of three `Int32` columns, for tests about covered
+/// *scalar* indexes: `a` and `b` are keyed, `carried` plays the covered column.
+pub async fn write_three_int_column_dataset(uri: &str) -> Dataset {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("carried", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let column = || Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..64)) as _;
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![column(), column(), column()]).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    Dataset::write(reader, uri, None).await.unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Commit a covering declaration for `keyed`/`carried` under `name`, with no
+/// index files behind it.
+///
+/// Unlike [`declare_covering`], this does not need a real index to exist:
+/// guards that only look up an entry in the manifest are reached just as well
+/// by a synthetic one, and building a real index first would cost more than it
+/// proves. Returns the two field ids.
+pub async fn commit_synthetic_covered_index(
+    dataset: &mut Dataset,
+    name: &str,
+    keyed: &str,
+    carried: &str,
+) -> (i32, i32) {
+    let keyed_id = dataset.schema().field_id(keyed).unwrap();
+    let carried_id = dataset.schema().field_id(carried).unwrap();
+
+    let covered = lance_table::format::IndexMetadata {
+        uuid: uuid::Uuid::new_v4(),
+        name: name.to_string(),
+        fields: vec![keyed_id, carried_id],
+        covering_fields: vec![carried_id],
+        dataset_version: dataset.manifest.version,
+        fragment_bitmap: Some(dataset.fragment_bitmap.as_ref().clone()),
+        index_details: None,
+        index_version: 0,
+        created_at: Some(chrono::Utc::now()),
+        base_id: None,
+        files: None,
+    };
+
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            Transaction::new(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![covered],
+                    removed_indices: vec![],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            &Default::default(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    (keyed_id, carried_id)
+}
+
+/// Append a fragment to a [`write_three_int_column_dataset`] dataset, leaving
+/// every index stale.
+pub async fn append_three_int_column_rows(dataset: &mut Dataset, rows: i32) {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("a", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("b", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("carried", DataType::Int32, false),
+    ]));
+    let column = || Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(64..64 + rows)) as _;
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![column(), column(), column()]).unwrap();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    dataset.append(reader, None).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Re-commit the index keyed on `keyed` so that it declares `carried` as a
+/// covering column, and return the two field ids.
+///
+/// Only that index is replaced; any other index on the table is left in place,
+/// which is what tests about one covered index not blocking the others rely
+/// on.
+pub async fn declare_covering(dataset: &mut Dataset, keyed: &str, carried: &str) -> (i32, i32) {
+    let keyed_id = dataset.schema().field_id(keyed).unwrap();
+    let carried_id = dataset.schema().field_id(carried).unwrap();
+
+    let current = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let plain = current
+        .iter()
+        .find(|idx| idx.fields == vec![keyed_id])
+        .cloned()
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("no index keyed on '{keyed}' to declare covering on"));
+
+    let covered = lance_table::format::IndexMetadata {
+        fields: vec![keyed_id, carried_id],
+        covering_fields: vec![carried_id],
+        ..plain.clone()
+    };
+
+    dataset
+        .apply_commit(
+            Transaction::new(
+                dataset.manifest.version,
+                Operation::CreateIndex {
+                    new_indices: vec![covered],
+                    removed_indices: vec![plain],
+                },
+                None,
+            ),
+            &Default::default(),
+            &Default::default(),
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    (keyed_id, carried_id)
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/utils/test/failing_store.rs b/rust/lance/src/utils/test/failing_store.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ca8b6eca419
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/utils/test/failing_store.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Test helper that wraps an object store and injects failures for specific
+//! method/path combinations. Used to exercise cleanup paths in write code that
+//! handle storage failures after partial data files have been written.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::sync::Mutex;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering};
+
+use lance_core::utils::testing::{ProxyObjectStore, ProxyObjectStorePolicy};
+use lance_io::object_store::WrappingObjectStore;
+
+/// Wraps the object store so that calls matching a configured method+path
+/// substring return a synthetic error.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct FailingProxyStore {
+    policy: Arc<Mutex<ProxyObjectStorePolicy>>,
+}
+
+impl Default for FailingProxyStore {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+impl FailingProxyStore {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            policy: Arc::new(Mutex::new(ProxyObjectStorePolicy::new())),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Fail calls to `method` on paths containing `path_substr` only after
+    /// the first `skip` matching calls have passed through. Useful when an
+    /// earlier write to the same prefix must succeed (e.g. `reserve_fragment_ids`)
+    /// before we want a later write to fail.
+    pub fn fail_after_n(
+        &self,
+        method: &'static str,
+        path_substr: &'static str,
+        skip: usize,
+        error_message: &'static str,
+    ) {
+        let mut policy = self.policy.lock().unwrap();
+        let counter = Arc::new(AtomicUsize::new(0));
+        let policy_name = format!("fail_after_{}_{}_{}", method, path_substr, skip);
+        policy.set_before_policy(
+            Box::leak(policy_name.into_boxed_str()),
+            Arc::new(move |called_method, path| {
+                if called_method == method && path.as_ref().contains(path_substr) {
+                    let count = counter.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
+                    if count >= skip {
+                        return Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                            store: "FailingProxyStore",
+                            source: error_message.into(),
+                        }
+                        .into());
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Fail every call to `method` whose path contains `path_substr` with a
+    /// generic store error carrying `error_message`.
+    pub fn fail_when(
+        &self,
+        method: &'static str,
+        path_substr: &'static str,
+        error_message: &'static str,
+    ) {
+        let mut policy = self.policy.lock().unwrap();
+        let policy_name = format!("fail_{}_{}", method, path_substr);
+        policy.set_before_policy(
+            Box::leak(policy_name.into_boxed_str()),
+            Arc::new(move |called_method, path| {
+                if called_method == method && path.as_ref().contains(path_substr) {
+                    Err(object_store::Error::Generic {
+                        store: "FailingProxyStore",
+                        source: error_message.into(),
+                    }
+                    .into())
+                } else {
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+            }),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Stop failing calls configured by [`Self::fail_when`].
+    pub fn clear_fail_when(&self, method: &str, path_substr: &str) {
+        let mut policy = self.policy.lock().unwrap();
+        policy.clear_before_policy(&format!("fail_{}_{}", method, path_substr));
+    }
+}
+
+impl WrappingObjectStore for FailingProxyStore {
+    fn wrap(
+        &self,
+        _storage_prefix: &str,
+        original: Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore>,
+    ) -> Arc<dyn object_store::ObjectStore> {
+        Arc::new(ProxyObjectStore::new(original, self.policy.clone()))
+    }
+
+    // Injects behaviour into every request, so a listing must not go around it.
+    fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        _store_prefix: &str,
+        _original: Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>> {
+        None
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/utils/test/serializing_cache.rs b/rust/lance/src/utils/test/serializing_cache.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..89f2b2cbb74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/src/utils/test/serializing_cache.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,245 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use bytes::Bytes;
+use futures::Future;
+use lance_core::Result;
+use lance_core::cache::{CacheBackend, CacheCodec, CacheEntry, InternalCacheKey, MokaCacheBackend};
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct SerializedEntry {
+    bytes: Bytes,
+    size_bytes: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct SerializedStore {
+    entries: tokio::sync::Mutex<HashMap<InternalCacheKey, SerializedEntry>>,
+    insert_counts: tokio::sync::Mutex<HashMap<&'static str, usize>>,
+}
+
+/// Test-only cache backend that forces codec-backed entries through bytes.
+///
+/// The serialized store can survive [`restart`](Self::restart), while entries
+/// without a codec live only in the in-memory L1. This deliberately models the
+/// persistence boundary, not a production cache:
+/// - it has no capacity limit or eviction policy for serialized entries;
+/// - concurrent serialized misses are not single-flight;
+/// - accounting uses the logical size supplied by the cache layer.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct SerializingCacheBackend {
+    serialized: Arc<SerializedStore>,
+    l1: MokaCacheBackend,
+}
+
+impl SerializingCacheBackend {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            serialized: Arc::new(SerializedStore::default()),
+            l1: MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(256 * 1024 * 1024),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Recreate the backend over the same serialized bytes and an empty L1.
+    pub fn restart(&self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            serialized: self.serialized.clone(),
+            l1: MokaCacheBackend::with_capacity(256 * 1024 * 1024),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub async fn serialized_entry_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.serialized.entries.lock().await.len()
+    }
+
+    pub async fn serialized_insert_count(&self, type_id: &'static str) -> usize {
+        self.serialized
+            .insert_counts
+            .lock()
+            .await
+            .get(type_id)
+            .copied()
+            .unwrap_or(0)
+    }
+
+    pub async fn l1_entry_count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.l1.num_entries().await
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl CacheBackend for SerializingCacheBackend {
+    async fn get(&self, key: &InternalCacheKey, codec: Option<CacheCodec>) -> Option<CacheEntry> {
+        let Some(codec) = codec else {
+            return self.l1.get(key, None).await;
+        };
+        let bytes = self
+            .serialized
+            .entries
+            .lock()
+            .await
+            .get(key)
+            .map(|entry| entry.bytes.clone())?;
+        codec.deserialize(&bytes).hit()
+    }
+
+    async fn insert(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        entry: CacheEntry,
+        size_bytes: usize,
+        codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) {
+        let Some(codec) = codec else {
+            self.l1.insert(key, entry, size_bytes, None).await;
+            return;
+        };
+        let mut bytes = Vec::new();
+        codec
+            .serialize(&entry, &mut bytes)
+            .expect("test cache entry serialization should succeed");
+        let mut insert_counts = self.serialized.insert_counts.lock().await;
+        *insert_counts.entry(codec.type_id()).or_default() += 1;
+        drop(insert_counts);
+        self.serialized.entries.lock().await.insert(
+            *key,
+            SerializedEntry {
+                bytes: Bytes::from(bytes),
+                size_bytes,
+            },
+        );
+    }
+
+    async fn get_or_insert<'a>(
+        &self,
+        key: &InternalCacheKey,
+        loader: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<(CacheEntry, usize)>> + Send + 'a>>,
+        codec: Option<CacheCodec>,
+    ) -> Result<(CacheEntry, bool)> {
+        if let Some(entry) = self.get(key, codec).await {
+            return Ok((entry, true));
+        }
+        let (entry, size_bytes) = loader.await?;
+        self.insert(key, entry.clone(), size_bytes, codec).await;
+        Ok((entry, false))
+    }
+
+    async fn clear(&self) {
+        self.serialized.entries.lock().await.clear();
+        self.l1.clear().await;
+    }
+
+    async fn num_entries(&self) -> usize {
+        self.serialized.entries.lock().await.len() + self.l1.num_entries().await
+    }
+
+    async fn size_bytes(&self) -> usize {
+        let serialized_size = self
+            .serialized
+            .entries
+            .lock()
+            .await
+            .values()
+            .map(|entry| entry.size_bytes)
+            .sum::<usize>();
+        serialized_size.saturating_add(self.l1.size_bytes().await)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use lance_core::cache::{CacheCodecImpl, CacheEntryReader, CacheEntryWriter};
+    use lance_core::{Error, Result};
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[derive(Debug)]
+    struct StoredValue(u32);
+
+    impl CacheCodecImpl for StoredValue {
+        const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "test.LookupCodec";
+        const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+        fn serialize(&self, writer: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+            writer.write_raw(&self.0.to_le_bytes())
+        }
+
+        fn deserialize(_reader: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+            Err(Error::internal(
+                "the codec retained at insert time must not be used for lookup",
+            ))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+    struct LookupValue(u32);
+
+    impl CacheCodecImpl for LookupValue {
+        const TYPE_ID: &'static str = "test.LookupCodec";
+        const CURRENT_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+        fn serialize(&self, writer: &mut CacheEntryWriter<'_>) -> Result<()> {
+            writer.write_raw(&self.0.to_le_bytes())
+        }
+
+        fn deserialize(reader: &mut CacheEntryReader<'_>) -> Result<Self> {
+            let bytes = reader.read_raw()?;
+            let value = u32::from_le_bytes(
+                bytes
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .try_into()
+                    .map_err(|_| Error::internal("invalid test cache value"))?,
+            );
+            Ok(Self(value))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn restart_keeps_bytes_uses_lookup_codec_and_discards_l1() {
+        let backend = SerializingCacheBackend::new();
+        let serialized_key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes([1; 16]);
+        backend
+            .insert(
+                &serialized_key,
+                Arc::new(StoredValue(42)),
+                4,
+                Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<StoredValue>()),
+            )
+            .await;
+        let l1_key = InternalCacheKey::from_bytes([2; 16]);
+        backend.insert(&l1_key, Arc::new(7_u32), 4, None).await;
+
+        let restarted = backend.restart();
+        assert_eq!(restarted.serialized_entry_count().await, 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            restarted
+                .serialized_insert_count(StoredValue::TYPE_ID)
+                .await,
+            1
+        );
+        assert_eq!(restarted.l1_entry_count().await, 0);
+        assert!(restarted.get(&l1_key, None).await.is_none());
+
+        let decoded = restarted
+            .get(
+                &serialized_key,
+                Some(CacheCodec::from_impl::<LookupValue>()),
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .downcast::<LookupValue>()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*decoded, LookupValue(42));
+        assert_eq!(
+            restarted
+                .serialized_insert_count(StoredValue::TYPE_ID)
+                .await,
+            1
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/src/utils/test/throttle_store.rs b/rust/lance/src/utils/test/throttle_store.rs
index c146841e365..cb8159016d6 100644
--- a/rust/lance/src/utils/test/throttle_store.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/src/utils/test/throttle_store.rs
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use lance_io::object_store::WrappingObjectStore;
 use object_store::{
-    throttle::{ThrottleConfig, ThrottledStore},
     ObjectStore,
+    throttle::{ThrottleConfig, ThrottledStore},
 };
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
@@ -19,4 +19,13 @@ impl WrappingObjectStore for ThrottledStoreWrapper {
         let throttle_store = ThrottledStore::new(original, self.config);
         Arc::new(throttle_store)
     }
+
+    // Injects behaviour into every request, so a listing must not go around it.
+    fn wrap_paginated(
+        &self,
+        _store_prefix: &str,
+        _original: Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>,
+    ) -> Option<Arc<dyn object_store::list::PaginatedListStore>> {
+        None
+    }
 }
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/count_pushdown/mod.rs b/rust/lance/tests/count_pushdown/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..061c14c7634
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/count_pushdown/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,367 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! End-to-end integration tests for [`CountPushdown`] when DataFusion
+//! does the planning (i.e. an aggregate built from SQL through the public
+//! [`LanceTableProvider`] surface), as opposed to going through
+//! `Scanner::create_plan`.
+//!
+//! The plan shape DataFusion produces for a SQL aggregate differs from the
+//! scanner's: it emits `AggregateExec(Final) → CoalescePartitionsExec →
+//! AggregateExec(Partial) → LanceTableScan` rather than a single
+//! `AggregateExec(Single)`. This file pins that down so future aggregate-
+//! pushdown categories can be added here with the test scaffolding already
+//! in place.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::datatypes::UInt64Type;
+use arrow_array::types::Int64Type;
+use arrow_schema::SchemaRef;
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use datafusion::catalog::{Session, TableProvider};
+use datafusion::common::tree_node::{Transformed, TreeNode, TreeNodeRecursion};
+use datafusion::config::ConfigOptions;
+use datafusion::datasource::TableType;
+use datafusion::execution::{SendableRecordBatchStream, SessionStateBuilder, TaskContext};
+use datafusion::logical_expr::{Expr, TableProviderFilterPushDown};
+use datafusion::physical_optimizer::PhysicalOptimizerRule;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::aggregates::{AggregateExec, AggregateMode};
+use datafusion::physical_plan::coalesce_partitions::CoalescePartitionsExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::execution_plan::CardinalityEffect;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties, displayable,
+};
+use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+use futures::TryStreamExt;
+use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::datafusion::LanceTableProvider;
+use lance::dataset::WriteParams;
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance::io::exec::count_from_mask::CountFromMaskExec;
+use lance::io::exec::count_pushdown::CountPushdown;
+use lance_core::utils::tempfile::TempStrDir;
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
+use rstest::rstest;
+
+/// Build a 4-fragment, 10-row-per-fragment dataset with a BTREE index on `x`.
+async fn make_indexed_dataset() -> (Arc<Dataset>, TempStrDir) {
+    let tmp = TempStrDir::default();
+    let reader = gen_batch()
+        .col("x", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(10), BatchCount::from(4));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        tmp.as_str(),
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 10,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["x"],
+            IndexType::BTree,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    (Arc::new(dataset), tmp)
+}
+
+/// Build a `SessionContext` configured with the Lance physical optimizer rule
+/// for aggregate pushdown, then register `dataset` under the name `t`.
+fn lance_aware_context(dataset: Arc<Dataset>) -> SessionContext {
+    let state = SessionStateBuilder::new()
+        .with_default_features()
+        .with_physical_optimizer_rule(Arc::new(CountPushdown))
+        .build();
+    let ctx = SessionContext::new_with_state(state);
+    ctx.register_table(
+        "t",
+        Arc::new(LanceTableProvider::new(dataset, false, false)),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    ctx
+}
+
+/// A custom node a `TableProvider` wraps around the Lance scan; it forwards
+/// every row.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct PassThroughExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    keeps_every_row: bool,
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for PassThroughExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, _t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "PassThroughExec")
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for PassThroughExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "PassThroughExec"
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        self.input.properties()
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            input: children.remove(0),
+            keeps_every_row: self.keeps_every_row,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        self.input.execute(partition, context)
+    }
+
+    fn cardinality_effect(&self) -> CardinalityEffect {
+        if self.keeps_every_row {
+            CardinalityEffect::Equal
+        } else {
+            CardinalityEffect::Unknown
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// [`LanceTableProvider`] with its scan wrapped in a [`PassThroughExec`].
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct WrappingTableProvider {
+    inner: LanceTableProvider,
+    keeps_every_row: bool,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl TableProvider for WrappingTableProvider {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        self.inner.schema()
+    }
+
+    fn table_type(&self) -> TableType {
+        TableType::Base
+    }
+
+    async fn scan(
+        &self,
+        state: &dyn Session,
+        projection: Option<&Vec<usize>>,
+        filters: &[Expr],
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> datafusion::common::Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(PassThroughExec {
+            input: self.inner.scan(state, projection, filters, limit).await?,
+            keeps_every_row: self.keeps_every_row,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_filters_pushdown(
+        &self,
+        filters: &[&Expr],
+    ) -> datafusion::common::Result<Vec<TableProviderFilterPushDown>> {
+        self.inner.supports_filters_pushdown(filters)
+    }
+}
+
+fn plan_contains_pushdown(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> bool {
+    let mut found = false;
+    plan.apply(|node| {
+        if node.is::<CountFromMaskExec>() {
+            found = true;
+            Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Stop)
+        } else {
+            Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Continue)
+        }
+    })
+    .unwrap();
+    found
+}
+
+async fn execute_count(plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> i64 {
+    let stream = datafusion::physical_plan::execute_stream(
+        plan,
+        Arc::new(datafusion::execution::TaskContext::default()),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let batches: Vec<_> = stream.try_collect().await.unwrap();
+    let total: i64 = batches
+        .iter()
+        .map(|b| {
+            b.column(0)
+                .as_any()
+                .downcast_ref::<arrow_array::PrimitiveArray<Int64Type>>()
+                .expect("count column should be Int64")
+                .iter()
+                .map(|v| v.unwrap_or(0))
+                .sum::<i64>()
+        })
+        .sum();
+    total
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sql_count_star_with_indexed_filter() {
+    // SELECT COUNT(*) FROM t WHERE x < 25
+    //
+    // The rule should fire on DataFusion's `AggregateExec(Partial)` node at
+    // the leaf of the aggregate pipeline, replacing the column scan with
+    // `CountFromMaskExec` while the outer `AggregateExec(Final)` keeps
+    // doing the cross-partition combine.
+    let (dataset, _tmp) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+    let ctx = lance_aware_context(dataset);
+
+    let df = ctx
+        .sql("SELECT COUNT(*) FROM t WHERE x < 25")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = df.create_physical_plan().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+        "expected CountFromMaskExec in SQL plan, got:\n{}",
+        displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+    );
+    assert_eq!(execute_count(plan).await, 25);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sql_unfiltered_count_star_uses_statistics() {
+    // SELECT COUNT(*) FROM t with no filter is answered by DataFusion
+    // statically from LanceTableProvider's row-count statistic — never
+    // reaches an `AggregateExec` for our rule to look at. Pin that
+    // behaviour: the rule should not fire, and the answer is correct.
+    let (dataset, _tmp) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+    let ctx = lance_aware_context(dataset);
+
+    let df = ctx.sql("SELECT COUNT(*) FROM t").await.unwrap();
+    let plan = df.create_physical_plan().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+        "unfiltered COUNT(*) should be resolved from statistics, got:\n{}",
+        displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+    );
+    assert_eq!(execute_count(plan).await, 40);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sql_count_distinct_does_not_fire_yet() {
+    // SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT x) FROM t WHERE x < 25
+    //
+    // `is_count_star` rejects distinct, so this rule never fires for
+    // distinct counts — they belong to the mask-to-answer category and will
+    // need their own rule (e.g. over a bitmap-index dictionary). This test
+    // pins the not-firing behaviour and the scaffold for the future test.
+    let (dataset, _tmp) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+    let ctx = lance_aware_context(dataset);
+
+    let df = ctx
+        .sql("SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT x) FROM t WHERE x < 25")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = df.create_physical_plan().await.unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        !plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+        "CountFromMaskExec must not fire for COUNT(DISTINCT) yet: \n{}",
+        displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+    );
+    // Correctness via the scan path: values 0..25 are all distinct.
+    assert_eq!(execute_count(plan).await, 25);
+}
+
+/// The rule looks through a custom node only when it reports
+/// `CardinalityEffect::Equal`.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::keeps_every_row(true)]
+#[case::unknown_cardinality(false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sql_count_star_through_a_wrapping_provider(#[case] keeps_every_row: bool) {
+    let (dataset, _tmp) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+    let state = SessionStateBuilder::new()
+        .with_default_features()
+        .with_physical_optimizer_rule(Arc::new(CountPushdown))
+        .build();
+    let ctx = SessionContext::new_with_state(state);
+    ctx.register_table(
+        "t",
+        Arc::new(WrappingTableProvider {
+            inner: LanceTableProvider::new(dataset, false, false),
+            keeps_every_row,
+        }),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let df = ctx
+        .sql("SELECT COUNT(*) FROM t WHERE x < 25")
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let plan = df.create_physical_plan().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        plan_contains_pushdown(&plan),
+        keeps_every_row,
+        "{}",
+        displayable(plan.as_ref()).indent(true)
+    );
+    assert_eq!(execute_count(plan).await, 25);
+}
+
+/// `CoalescePartitionsExec` reports `Equal` even with a fetch; a limit under the
+/// count caps the rows it sees, so the rule must not answer from the index.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn count_star_over_a_limited_coalesce() {
+    let (dataset, _tmp) = make_indexed_dataset().await;
+    let ctx = SessionContext::new();
+    ctx.register_table(
+        "t",
+        Arc::new(LanceTableProvider::new(dataset, false, false)),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let plan = ctx
+        .sql("SELECT COUNT(*) FROM t WHERE x < 25")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .create_physical_plan()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let limited = plan
+        .transform_up(|node| {
+            let Some(agg) = node.downcast_ref::<AggregateExec>() else {
+                return Ok(Transformed::no(node));
+            };
+            if *agg.mode() != AggregateMode::Partial {
+                return Ok(Transformed::no(node));
+            }
+            let input = CoalescePartitionsExec::new(agg.input().clone()).with_fetch(Some(5));
+            Ok(Transformed::yes(
+                node.clone().with_new_children(vec![Arc::new(input)])?,
+            ))
+        })
+        .unwrap()
+        .data;
+
+    let optimized = CountPushdown
+        .optimize(limited, &ConfigOptions::default())
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let shown = displayable(optimized.as_ref()).indent(true).to_string();
+    assert!(!plan_contains_pushdown(&optimized), "{shown}");
+    assert_eq!(execute_count(optimized).await, 5, "{shown}");
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/integration_tests.rs b/rust/lance/tests/integration_tests.rs
index 81c2535dd9c..15b584da4f1 100644
--- a/rust/lance/tests/integration_tests.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/integration_tests.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,10 @@
 
 // NOTE: we only create one integration test binary, to keep compilation overhead down.
 
+mod count_pushdown;
+mod mem_wal;
 #[cfg(feature = "slow_tests")]
 mod query;
+mod topk_late_materialization;
 #[cfg(feature = "slow_tests")]
 mod utils;
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/mem_wal/future_depth.rs b/rust/lance/tests/mem_wal/future_depth.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d39f2879059
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/mem_wal/future_depth.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Compile-time canary for issue #8416.
+//!
+//! A downstream crate awaiting the mem_wal point-lookup futures must prove
+//! their auto traits within rustc's default `recursion_limit` of 128. This
+//! integration-test crate deliberately carries no `recursion_limit`
+//! attribute, so the `Send` obligations below are solved exactly as a
+//! consumer's would be, and the nested frames mirror the downstream call
+//! shape reported in the issue. A depth regression in the scanner's future
+//! nesting fails this crate's build instead of every consumer's.
+
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::ExecutionPlan;
+use datafusion::scalar::ScalarValue;
+use lance::Result;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::scanner::{LsmPointLookupPlanner, LsmScanner};
+
+fn require_send<F: Future + Send>(future: F) -> F {
+    future
+}
+
+async fn lookup_one(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) -> Result<Option<RecordBatch>> {
+    planner.lookup(keys, None).await
+}
+
+async fn lookup_batch(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
+    planner.lookup_many(keys, None).await
+}
+
+async fn lookup_plan(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    planner.plan_point_lookup(keys, None).await
+}
+
+async fn scan_plan(scanner: &LsmScanner) -> Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+    scanner.create_plan().await
+}
+
+async fn service_layer(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    scanner: &LsmScanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    lookup_one(planner, keys).await?;
+    lookup_batch(planner, keys).await?;
+    lookup_plan(planner, keys).await?;
+    scan_plan(scanner).await?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn handler_layer(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    scanner: &LsmScanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    service_layer(planner, scanner, keys).await
+}
+
+async fn middleware_layer(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    scanner: &LsmScanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    handler_layer(planner, scanner, keys).await
+}
+
+async fn request_layer(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    scanner: &LsmScanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    middleware_layer(planner, scanner, keys).await
+}
+
+async fn api_layer(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    scanner: &LsmScanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    request_layer(planner, scanner, keys).await
+}
+
+async fn app_layer(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    scanner: &LsmScanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    api_layer(planner, scanner, keys).await
+}
+
+// The Send proof at this call is the test: it walks every wrapper layer of
+// the six frames above plus the scanner's own nesting. Never executed.
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+fn downstream_futures_fit_default_recursion_limit(
+    planner: &LsmPointLookupPlanner,
+    scanner: &LsmScanner,
+    keys: &[ScalarValue],
+) {
+    std::mem::drop(require_send(app_layer(planner, scanner, keys)));
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/mem_wal/mod.rs b/rust/lance/tests/mem_wal/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..48cc3be4f6c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/mem_wal/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! End-to-end MemWAL tests through the public [`ShardWriter`] surface, as
+//! opposed to the lib-level unit tests that can reach internals directly.
+
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::record_batch;
+use arrow_array::types::Int32Type;
+use lance::dataset::mem_wal::{ShardWriter, ShardWriterConfig};
+use lance_core::FenceReason;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStore;
+use uuid::Uuid;
+
+mod future_depth;
+
+fn durable_writer_config(shard_id: Uuid) -> ShardWriterConfig {
+    ShardWriterConfig {
+        shard_id,
+        durable_write: true,
+        max_wal_buffer_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+        max_wal_flush_interval: Some(Duration::from_millis(10)),
+        max_memtable_size: 64 * 1024 * 1024,
+        manifest_scan_batch_size: 2,
+        ..Default::default()
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn durable_put_is_readable_through_public_scan() {
+    let base_uri = "memory://".to_string();
+    let (store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&base_uri).await.unwrap();
+    let batch = record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1, 2, 3])).unwrap();
+    let writer = ShardWriter::open(
+        store,
+        base_path,
+        base_uri,
+        durable_writer_config(Uuid::new_v4()),
+        batch.schema(),
+        vec![],
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    writer.put(vec![batch]).await.unwrap();
+
+    let scanned = writer.scan().await.unwrap().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let scanned_ids = scanned["id"].as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    assert_eq!(
+        scanned_ids.values(),
+        &[1, 2, 3],
+        "a durable put must be readable through the public scan API"
+    );
+
+    writer.close().await.unwrap();
+}
+
+/// A durable put into a post-rotation MemTable must be acknowledged only by
+/// its own WAL flush, never by a flush from an older generation.
+///
+/// Batch positions restart at 0 in every MemTable generation. A durability
+/// watch keyed on that generation-local position is satisfied by the previous
+/// generation's flush at the same position — so the first durable put after a
+/// rotation used to return success before its own WAL append completed. Here
+/// a peer writer has claimed a higher epoch in between, so the false success
+/// is observable: the put's own flush is fenced, and the put must surface
+/// that fence instead of reporting durability.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn durable_put_does_not_alias_across_memtable_generations() {
+    let base_uri = "memory://".to_string();
+    let (store, base_path) = ObjectStore::from_uri(&base_uri).await.unwrap();
+    let shard_id = Uuid::new_v4();
+    let first_batch = record_batch!(("id", Int32, [1])).unwrap();
+    let schema = first_batch.schema();
+    let config = durable_writer_config(shard_id);
+
+    let writer_a = ShardWriter::open(
+        store.clone(),
+        base_path.clone(),
+        base_uri.clone(),
+        config.clone(),
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![],
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Write and fully flush generation N, then rotate to generation N+1.
+    writer_a.put(vec![first_batch]).await.unwrap();
+    let first_generation = writer_a.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+    writer_a.force_seal_active().await.unwrap();
+    writer_a.wait_for_flush_drain().await.unwrap();
+    let current_generation = writer_a.memtable_stats().await.unwrap().generation;
+    assert_eq!(
+        current_generation,
+        first_generation + 1,
+        "expected rotation from generation {first_generation}, got {current_generation}"
+    );
+
+    // A peer claims a higher epoch, fencing writer A's next WAL append.
+    let writer_b = ShardWriter::open(store, base_path, base_uri, config, schema, vec![])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        writer_b.epoch() > writer_a.epoch(),
+        "expected peer epoch to increase: writer_a={}, writer_b={}",
+        writer_a.epoch(),
+        writer_b.epoch()
+    );
+
+    // Generation N+1's first durable put lands at the same local batch
+    // position (0..1) that generation N already flushed. It must wait for its
+    // own flush and therefore surface the fence, not ack from the stale
+    // generation.
+    let second_batch = record_batch!(("id", Int32, [2])).unwrap();
+    let error = writer_a
+        .put(vec![second_batch])
+        .await
+        .expect_err("generation-2 durable put must wait for its own WAL flush");
+    assert_eq!(
+        error.fence_reason(),
+        Some(FenceReason::PeerClaimedEpoch),
+        "expected a peer-claimed-epoch fence, got: {error}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        error.to_string().contains("Writer fenced"),
+        "expected the writer-fenced error prefix, got: {error}"
+    );
+
+    writer_b.close().await.unwrap();
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/query/inverted.rs b/rust/lance/tests/query/inverted.rs
index c6872447049..f215aefa071 100644
--- a/rust/lance/tests/query/inverted.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/query/inverted.rs
@@ -3,13 +3,31 @@
 
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch, StringArray, UInt32Array};
-use lance::dataset::scanner::ColumnOrdering;
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{
+    ArrayRef, FixedSizeListArray, Float32Array, Int32Array, ListArray, RecordBatch,
+    RecordBatchIterator, StringArray, StructArray, UInt32Array,
+    builder::{ListBuilder, StringBuilder},
+};
+use arrow_buffer::{OffsetBuffer, ScalarBuffer};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field as ArrowField, Fields as ArrowFields, Schema as ArrowSchema};
 use lance::Dataset;
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery, PhraseQuery};
+use lance::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+use lance::dataset::scanner::{ColumnOrdering, QueryFilter};
+use lance::dataset::{ColumnAlteration, InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+use lance_arrow::{ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY, FixedSizeListArrayExt, json::ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+use lance_index::prefilter::NoFilter;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{
+    BooleanQuery, BoostQuery, CombinedFieldsQuery, FtsQuery, FtsSearchParams, MatchQuery,
+    MultiMatchQuery, Occur, Operator, PhraseQuery, collect_query_tokens,
+};
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::{DocumentGranularity, Language};
 use lance_index::scalar::{FullTextSearchQuery, InvertedIndexParams};
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexType};
-use tantivy::tokenizer::Language;
+use lance_table::format::{Fragment, IndexMetadata};
 
 use super::{strip_score_column, test_fts, test_scan, test_take};
 use crate::utils::DatasetTestCases;
@@ -35,6 +53,56 @@ fn params_for(base_tokenizer: &str, lower_case: bool, with_position: bool) -> In
         .max_token_length(None)
 }
 
+fn list_element_params(with_position: bool) -> InvertedIndexParams {
+    base_inverted_params(with_position).document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement)
+}
+
+fn list_element_match_node(column: &str, terms: &str) -> MatchQuery {
+    MatchQuery::new(terms.to_string())
+        .with_column(Some(column.to_string()))
+        .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement)
+}
+
+fn list_element_match(column: &str, terms: &str) -> FullTextSearchQuery {
+    FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(list_element_match_node(column, terms)))
+}
+
+fn list_element_phrase(column: &str, terms: &str) -> FullTextSearchQuery {
+    FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+        PhraseQuery::new(terms.to_string())
+            .with_column(Some(column.to_string()))
+            .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn row_match_node(column: &str, terms: &str) -> MatchQuery {
+    MatchQuery::new(terms.to_string())
+        .with_column(Some(column.to_string()))
+        .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row)
+}
+
+fn row_match(column: &str, terms: &str) -> FullTextSearchQuery {
+    FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(row_match_node(column, terms)))
+}
+
+fn combined_fields(terms: &str, columns: &[&str]) -> FullTextSearchQuery {
+    FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::CombinedFields(
+        CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+            terms.to_string(),
+            columns.iter().map(|column| column.to_string()).collect(),
+        )
+        .unwrap(),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn row_phrase(column: &str, terms: &str) -> FullTextSearchQuery {
+    FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+        PhraseQuery::new(terms.to_string())
+            .with_column(Some(column.to_string()))
+            .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::Row),
+    ))
+}
+
 // Execute a full-text search with optional filter and deterministic id ordering.
 async fn run_fts(ds: &Dataset, query: FullTextSearchQuery, filter: Option<&str>) -> RecordBatch {
     let mut scanner = ds.scan();
@@ -50,6 +118,23 @@ async fn run_fts(ds: &Dataset, query: FullTextSearchQuery, filter: Option<&str>)
     scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()
 }
 
+async fn boolean_fts_ids_on_fragment(
+    dataset: &Dataset,
+    fragment: Fragment,
+    query: BooleanQuery,
+) -> Vec<i32> {
+    let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+    scanner.with_fragments(vec![fragment]);
+    scanner.project(&["id"]).unwrap();
+    scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Boolean(query)))
+        .unwrap();
+    scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap()["id"]
+        .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+        .values()
+        .to_vec()
+}
+
 // Run an FTS query and assert results match a deterministic expected batch.
 async fn assert_fts_expected(
     original: &RecordBatch,
@@ -69,6 +154,1144 @@ async fn assert_fts_expected(
     assert_eq!(&expected, &scanned);
 }
 
+fn string_lists(values: &[Option<Vec<Option<&str>>>]) -> ArrayRef {
+    let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(StringBuilder::new());
+    for value in values {
+        match value {
+            Some(elements) => {
+                for element in elements {
+                    match element {
+                        Some(element) => builder.values().append_value(element),
+                        None => builder.values().append_null(),
+                    }
+                }
+                builder.append(true);
+            }
+            None => builder.append(false),
+        }
+    }
+    Arc::new(builder.finish())
+}
+
+fn element_hits(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<(i32, Vec<u32>)> {
+    let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+    let coordinates = batch["_doc_index"]
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<ListArray>()
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut hits = (0..batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|row| {
+            let coordinate = coordinates.value(row);
+            (
+                ids.value(row),
+                coordinate
+                    .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt32Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec(),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    hits.sort_unstable();
+    hits
+}
+
+fn element_scored_hits(batch: &RecordBatch) -> Vec<(i32, Vec<u32>, f32)> {
+    let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+    let coordinates = batch["_doc_index"].as_list::<i32>();
+    let scores = batch["_score"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>();
+    let mut hits = (0..batch.num_rows())
+        .map(|row| {
+            (
+                ids.value(row),
+                coordinates
+                    .value(row)
+                    .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt32Type>()
+                    .values()
+                    .to_vec(),
+                scores.value(row),
+            )
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    hits.sort_unstable_by(|left, right| (&left.0, &left.1).cmp(&(&right.0, &right.1)));
+    hits
+}
+
+fn assert_same_element_scores(left: &RecordBatch, right: &RecordBatch) {
+    let left = element_scored_hits(left);
+    let right = element_scored_hits(right);
+    assert_eq!(left.len(), right.len());
+    for (left, right) in left.iter().zip(&right) {
+        assert_eq!((&left.0, &left.1), (&right.0, &right.1));
+        assert!((left.2 - right.2).abs() < 1e-5, "{left:?} != {right:?}");
+    }
+}
+
+fn assert_element_coordinates_point_to(batch: &RecordBatch, column: &str, term: &str) {
+    let values = batch[column].as_list::<i32>();
+    let coordinates = batch["_doc_index"].as_list::<i32>();
+    for row in 0..batch.num_rows() {
+        let coordinate = coordinates
+            .value(row)
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::UInt32Type>()
+            .value(0) as usize;
+        let elements = values.value(row);
+        let element = elements.as_string::<i32>().value(coordinate);
+        assert!(
+            element.contains(term),
+            "coordinate {coordinate} selected {element:?}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+fn expected_bm25_score(
+    num_docs: usize,
+    token_docs: usize,
+    total_tokens: u32,
+    doc_tokens: u32,
+) -> f32 {
+    let num_docs = num_docs as f32;
+    let idf = ((num_docs - token_docs as f32 + 0.5) / (token_docs as f32 + 0.5) + 1.0).ln();
+    let avg_doc_length = total_tokens as f32 / num_docs;
+    let doc_norm = 1.2 * (1.0 - 0.75 + 0.75 * doc_tokens as f32 / avg_doc_length);
+    idf * 2.2 / (1.0 + doc_norm)
+}
+
+#[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::match_query(false)]
+#[case::combined_fields(true)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_invalid_json_fts_query_returns_error(#[case] combined_fields: bool) {
+    let schema = Arc::new(ArrowSchema::new(vec![
+        ArrowField::new("id", DataType::Int32, false),
+        ArrowField::new("doc", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(
+            [(
+                ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+                ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+            )]
+            .into(),
+        ),
+        ArrowField::new("other_doc", DataType::Utf8, false).with_metadata(
+            [(
+                ARROW_EXT_NAME_KEY.to_string(),
+                ARROW_JSON_EXT_NAME.to_string(),
+            )]
+            .into(),
+        ),
+    ]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(
+        schema.clone(),
+        vec![
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                r#"{"title":"quick brown fox"}"#,
+                r#"{"title":"lazy dog"}"#,
+            ])),
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                r#"{"title":"quick brown fox"}"#,
+                r#"{"title":"lazy dog"}"#,
+            ])),
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+        test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    for column in ["doc", "other_doc"] {
+        dataset
+            .create_index(
+                &[column],
+                IndexType::Inverted,
+                None,
+                &base_inverted_params(false),
+                true,
+            )
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    for (query, expected_message) in [
+        ("brown", "Invalid triple format: brown"),
+        ("title,string,brown", "Invalid triple type: string"),
+    ] {
+        let mut scanner = dataset.scan();
+        let query = if combined_fields {
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::CombinedFields(
+                CombinedFieldsQuery::try_new(
+                    query.to_string(),
+                    vec!["doc".to_string(), "other_doc".to_string()],
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            ))
+        } else {
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new(query.to_string())
+                .with_column("doc".to_string())
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        scanner.full_text_search(query).unwrap();
+        let error = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+        let message = error.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains(expected_message), "{message}");
+        assert!(!message.contains("Task was aborted"), "{message}");
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_boolean_must_not_uses_all_index_fragment_coverage() {
+    let initial = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, [0]),
+        ("positive_text", Utf8, ["placeholder"]),
+        ("negative_text", Utf8, ["placeholder"])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(initial.clone())], initial.schema()),
+        test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["positive_text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &base_inverted_params(false),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let appended = arrow_array::record_batch!(
+        ("id", Int32, [1, 2]),
+        ("positive_text", Utf8, ["include", "include"]),
+        ("negative_text", Utf8, ["exclude", "keep"])
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let appended_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema());
+    dataset.append(appended_reader, None).await.unwrap();
+    let appended_fragment = dataset.fragments().last().unwrap().clone();
+
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["negative_text"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &base_inverted_params(false),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let query = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (
+            Occur::Must,
+            FtsQuery::Match(row_match_node("positive_text", "include")),
+        ),
+        (
+            Occur::MustNot,
+            FtsQuery::Match(row_match_node("negative_text", "exclude")),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        boolean_fts_ids_on_fragment(&dataset, appended_fragment.clone(), query).await,
+        vec![2]
+    );
+
+    let partially_qualified_query = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (
+            Occur::Must,
+            FtsQuery::Match(MatchQuery::new("include".to_string())),
+        ),
+        (
+            Occur::MustNot,
+            FtsQuery::Match(row_match_node("negative_text", "exclude")),
+        ),
+    ]);
+    assert_eq!(
+        boolean_fts_ids_on_fragment(&dataset, appended_fragment, partially_qualified_query).await,
+        vec![2]
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_row_document_raw_list_is_consistent_across_index_coverage() {
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0])) as ArrayRef),
+        ("tags", string_lists(&[Some(vec![Some("a"), Some("b")])])),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+        test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["tags"],
+        IndexType::Inverted,
+        None,
+        &params_for("raw", false, false),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])) as ArrayRef),
+        ("tags", string_lists(&[Some(vec![Some("a"), Some("b")])])),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    ds = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(ds))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![appended])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let joined = run_fts(&ds, row_match("tags", "a b"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        joined["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0, 1]
+    );
+    let element = run_fts(&ds, row_match("tags", "a"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element.num_rows(), 0);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_element_document_fts_flat_indexed_and_mixed() {
+    let ids = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]));
+    let tags = string_lists(&[
+        Some(vec![
+            Some("alpha beta"),
+            Some("gamma alpha"),
+            None,
+            Some(""),
+            Some("delta"),
+        ]),
+        Some(vec![Some("beta"), Some("gamma")]),
+        None,
+        Some(vec![]),
+        Some(vec![None, None]),
+        Some(vec![Some("!!!"), Some("epsilon")]),
+    ]);
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("id", ids as ArrayRef), ("tags", tags)]).unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+        test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let element_query = list_element_match("tags", "alpha");
+    let element_and_query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+        list_element_match_node("tags", "alpha beta").with_operator(Operator::And),
+    ));
+    let flat = run_fts(&ds, element_query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&flat), vec![(0, vec![0]), (0, vec![1])]);
+    let flat_and = run_fts(&ds, element_and_query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&flat_and), vec![(0, vec![0])]);
+    let flat_phrase = run_fts(&ds, list_element_phrase("tags", "alpha beta"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&flat_phrase), vec![(0, vec![0])]);
+    let flat_cross_element_phrase =
+        run_fts(&ds, list_element_phrase("tags", "beta gamma"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(flat_cross_element_phrase.num_rows(), 0);
+    let row_flat_phrase = run_fts(
+        &ds,
+        FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(
+            PhraseQuery::new("beta gamma".to_string()).with_column(Some("tags".to_string())),
+        )),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_flat_phrase["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0, 1]
+    );
+    assert_element_coordinates_point_to(&flat, "tags", "alpha");
+    let params = list_element_params(true);
+    let err = ds
+        .create_index(&["id"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("must resolve to Utf8"), "{err}");
+    let err = ds
+        .create_index(&["tags[*]"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("tags[*]"), "{err}");
+    ds.create_index(&["tags"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut element_only_auto = ds.scan();
+    element_only_auto
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_string()))
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = element_only_auto.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("unless an INVERTED index has been created"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+    let inferred_element = run_fts(
+        &ds,
+        FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Match(
+            MatchQuery::new("alpha".to_string()).with_column(Some("tags".to_string())),
+        )),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        element_hits(&inferred_element),
+        vec![(0, vec![0]), (0, vec![1])]
+    );
+    let mut mismatched_row = ds.scan();
+    mismatched_row
+        .full_text_search(row_match("tags", "alpha"))
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = mismatched_row.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("requested Row") && err.to_string().contains("ListElement"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+
+    // BM25F sums each target column's contribution for one row and reports no
+    // element coordinates, so a column that only has a list-element index has to
+    // be rejected rather than silently collapsed to a row score.
+    let mut element_only_combined = ds.scan();
+    element_only_combined
+        .full_text_search(combined_fields("alpha", &["tags"]))
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = element_only_combined.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("combined_fields")
+            && err.to_string().contains("Row document granularity"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["tags"],
+        IndexType::Inverted,
+        None,
+        &base_inverted_params(true),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // With a row index alongside the list-element one, combined_fields picks the
+    // row index and scores whole rows, without a `_doc_index` column.
+    let combined = run_fts(&ds, combined_fields("alpha", &["tags"]), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        combined["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0]
+    );
+    assert!(combined.column_by_name("_doc_index").is_none());
+    let names = ds
+        .load_indices()
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|index| index.name.clone())
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    assert!(names.contains(&"tags_idx".to_string()));
+    assert!(names.contains(&"tags_list_element_idx".to_string()));
+
+    let auto_row = run_fts(&ds, FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_string()), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(auto_row.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert!(auto_row.column_by_name("_doc_index").is_none());
+    let mut ambiguous = ds.scan();
+    ambiguous
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_string())
+                .with_column("tags".to_string())
+                .unwrap(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = ambiguous.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("ambiguous")
+            && err.to_string().contains("specify document_granularity"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+    let mut row_projection = ds.scan();
+    row_projection
+        .full_text_search(row_match("tags", "alpha"))
+        .unwrap();
+    row_projection.project(&["_doc_index"]).unwrap();
+    let err = row_projection.try_into_batch().await.unwrap_err();
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("_doc_index"), "{err}");
+
+    let indexed = run_fts(&ds, element_query.clone(), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&indexed), vec![(0, vec![0]), (0, vec![1])]);
+    let indexed_and = run_fts(&ds, element_and_query, None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&indexed_and), vec![(0, vec![0])]);
+    assert_element_coordinates_point_to(&indexed, "tags", "alpha");
+    let element_index = ds
+        .load_indices_by_name("tags_list_element_idx")
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .pop()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        element_index.index_version,
+        lance_index::scalar::inverted::INVERTED_INDEX_VERSION_V3 as i32
+    );
+    let element_index = ds
+        .open_scalar_index("tags", &element_index.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(element_index.statistics().unwrap()["num_docs"], 11);
+    let element_index = element_index
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<lance_index::scalar::inverted::InvertedIndex>()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (total_tokens, num_docs, token_docs) = element_index
+        .bm25_stats_for_terms(&["alpha".to_string()], None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!((total_tokens, num_docs, token_docs), (8, 11, vec![2]));
+    let mut tokenizer = element_index.tokenizer();
+    let tokens = Arc::new(collect_query_tokens("alpha", &mut tokenizer));
+    let documents = element_index
+        .bm25_search_documents(
+            tokens,
+            Arc::new(FtsSearchParams::default()),
+            Operator::Or,
+            Arc::new(NoFilter),
+            Arc::new(NoOpMetricsCollector),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let expected_score = expected_bm25_score(11, 2, 8, 2);
+    assert!(
+        documents
+            .iter()
+            .all(|document| (document.score.0 - expected_score).abs() < 1e-5),
+        "{documents:?}"
+    );
+    assert_same_element_scores(&flat, &indexed);
+    let indexed_phrase = run_fts(&ds, list_element_phrase("tags", "alpha beta"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&indexed_phrase), vec![(0, vec![0])]);
+    let filtered = run_fts(&ds, element_query.clone(), Some("id = 0")).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&filtered), vec![(0, vec![0]), (0, vec![1])]);
+    let ordinal = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match("tags", "delta"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&ordinal), vec![(0, vec![4])]);
+    let punctuation_gap = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match("tags", "epsilon"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&punctuation_gap), vec![(5, vec![1])]);
+    let limited = run_fts(&ds, element_query.clone().limit(Some(1)), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(limited.num_rows(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(
+        limited["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .value(0),
+        0
+    );
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&limited).len(), 1);
+
+    let element_match = |terms: &str| FtsQuery::Match(list_element_match_node("tags", terms));
+    let boolean = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, element_match("alpha")),
+        (Occur::Must, element_match("beta")),
+    ]);
+    let boolean = run_fts(
+        &ds,
+        FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Boolean(boolean)),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&boolean), vec![(0, vec![0])]);
+
+    let boost = BoostQuery::new(element_match("alpha"), element_match("gamma"), Some(0.5));
+    let boost = run_fts(
+        &ds,
+        FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Boost(boost)),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&boost), vec![(0, vec![0]), (0, vec![1])]);
+
+    let phrase = PhraseQuery::new("beta gamma".to_string())
+        .with_column(Some("tags".to_string()))
+        .with_document_granularity(DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+    let element_phrase = run_fts(
+        &ds,
+        FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(phrase)),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(element_phrase.num_rows(), 0);
+
+    let row_phrase = run_fts(&ds, row_phrase("tags", "beta gamma"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_phrase["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0, 1]
+    );
+    assert!(row_phrase.column_by_name("_doc_index").is_none());
+
+    let cross_target = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, element_match("alpha")),
+        (Occur::Must, FtsQuery::Match(row_match_node("tags", "beta"))),
+    ]);
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Boolean(
+            cross_target,
+        )))
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = scanner
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .expect_err("mixed document granularities must be rejected");
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("cannot mix Row and ListElement document granularities"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+
+    let mut multi_match =
+        MultiMatchQuery::try_new("alpha".to_string(), vec!["tags".to_string()]).unwrap();
+    multi_match.match_queries[0].document_granularity = Some(DocumentGranularity::ListElement);
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::MultiMatch(
+            multi_match,
+        )))
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = scanner
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .expect_err("ListElement MultiMatch must be rejected");
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("MultiMatch does not support ListElement document granularity"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+
+    let mut row_multi_match =
+        MultiMatchQuery::try_new("beta".to_string(), vec!["tags".to_string()]).unwrap();
+    row_multi_match.match_queries[0].document_granularity = Some(DocumentGranularity::Row);
+    let mixed_multi_match = BooleanQuery::new([
+        (Occur::Must, element_match("alpha")),
+        (Occur::Must, FtsQuery::MultiMatch(row_multi_match)),
+    ]);
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner
+        .full_text_search(FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Boolean(
+            mixed_multi_match,
+        )))
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = scanner
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .expect_err("mixed document granularities must be rejected");
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string()
+            .contains("cannot mix Row and ListElement document granularities"),
+        "{err}"
+    );
+
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![6])) as ArrayRef),
+        (
+            "tags",
+            string_lists(&[Some(vec![Some("alpha beta"), Some("alpha again")])]),
+        ),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    ds = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(ds))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![appended])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mixed = run_fts(&ds, element_query, None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        element_hits(&mixed),
+        vec![(0, vec![0]), (0, vec![1]), (6, vec![0]), (6, vec![1])]
+    );
+    assert_element_coordinates_point_to(&mixed, "tags", "alpha");
+    let mixed_phrase = run_fts(&ds, list_element_phrase("tags", "alpha beta"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        element_hits(&mixed_phrase),
+        vec![(0, vec![0]), (6, vec![0])]
+    );
+    let all_data = ds.scan().try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    let flat_reference_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let flat_reference_ds = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(all_data.clone())], all_data.schema()),
+        flat_reference_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let flat_reference = run_fts(
+        &flat_reference_ds,
+        list_element_match("tags", "alpha"),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_same_element_scores(&mixed, &flat_reference);
+    let flat_phrase_reference = run_fts(
+        &flat_reference_ds,
+        list_element_phrase("tags", "alpha beta"),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_same_element_scores(&mixed_phrase, &flat_phrase_reference);
+
+    ds.optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        ds.load_indices_by_name("tags_list_element_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .len(),
+        2
+    );
+    let optimized = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match("tags", "alpha"), None).await;
+    assert_same_element_scores(&optimized, &flat_reference);
+    assert_element_coordinates_point_to(&optimized, "tags", "alpha");
+
+    ds.optimize_indices(
+        &OptimizeOptions::merge(2).index_names(vec!["tags_list_element_idx".to_string()]),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        ds.load_indices_by_name("tags_list_element_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .len(),
+        1
+    );
+    let merged = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match("tags", "alpha"), None).await;
+    assert_same_element_scores(&merged, &flat_reference);
+    assert_element_coordinates_point_to(&merged, "tags", "alpha");
+
+    ds.delete("id = 0").await.unwrap();
+    compact_files(&mut ds, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let compacted = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match("tags", "alpha"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&compacted), vec![(6, vec![0]), (6, vec![1])]);
+
+    ds.alter_columns(&[ColumnAlteration::new("tags".into()).rename("labels".into())])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let renamed = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match("labels", "alpha"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&renamed), vec![(6, vec![0]), (6, vec![1])]);
+    let mut old_name_scanner = ds.scan();
+    old_name_scanner
+        .full_text_search(list_element_match("tags", "alpha"))
+        .unwrap();
+    let err = old_name_scanner
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .expect_err("renamed element target must reject the old path");
+    assert!(err.to_string().contains("tags"), "{err}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_element_document_persists_empty_and_zero_token_corpora() {
+    async fn assert_empty_query(tags: ArrayRef, expected_documents: usize, with_position: bool) {
+        let ids = Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..tags.len() as i32));
+        let batch =
+            RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("id", ids as ArrayRef), ("tags", tags)]).unwrap();
+        let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+            test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        ds.create_index(
+            &["tags"],
+            IndexType::Inverted,
+            None,
+            &list_element_params(with_position),
+            true,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let result = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match("tags", "alpha"), None).await;
+        assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 0);
+
+        let metadata = ds
+            .load_indices_by_name("tags_list_element_idx")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .pop()
+            .unwrap();
+        let index = ds
+            .open_scalar_index("tags", &metadata.uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(index.statistics().unwrap()["num_docs"], expected_documents);
+    }
+
+    for with_position in [false, true] {
+        assert_empty_query(string_lists(&[None, Some(vec![])]), 0, with_position).await;
+        assert_empty_query(
+            string_lists(&[Some(vec![None, Some(""), Some("!!!")])]),
+            3,
+            with_position,
+        )
+        .await;
+    }
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_element_document_nested_lists_use_deepest_boundary() {
+    let doc_fields = ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("content", DataType::Utf8, true)]);
+    let doc_values = StructArray::new(
+        doc_fields.clone(),
+        vec![Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+            Some("alpha"),
+            Some("beta"),
+            Some("gamma"),
+            Some("alpha delta"),
+            Some("alpha"),
+        ])) as ArrayRef],
+        None,
+    );
+    let doc_item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new("item", DataType::Struct(doc_fields), true));
+    let docs_type = DataType::List(doc_item.clone());
+    let docs = ListArray::new(
+        doc_item,
+        OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0i32, 2, 4, 4, 5])),
+        Arc::new(doc_values),
+        None,
+    );
+    let group_fields = ArrowFields::from(vec![ArrowField::new("docs", docs_type, true)]);
+    let group_values =
+        StructArray::new(group_fields.clone(), vec![Arc::new(docs) as ArrayRef], None);
+    let group_item = Arc::new(ArrowField::new(
+        "item",
+        DataType::Struct(group_fields),
+        true,
+    ));
+    let groups = ListArray::new(
+        group_item,
+        OffsetBuffer::new(ScalarBuffer::from(vec![0i32, 2, 4])),
+        Arc::new(group_values),
+        None,
+    );
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])) as ArrayRef),
+        ("groups", Arc::new(groups) as ArrayRef),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+        test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let path = "groups.docs.content";
+    let expected = vec![(0, vec![0, 0]), (0, vec![1, 1]), (1, vec![1, 0])];
+    let flat = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match(path, "alpha"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&flat), expected);
+
+    let row_flat = run_fts(
+        &ds,
+        FullTextSearchQuery::new("alpha".to_string())
+            .with_column(path.to_string())
+            .unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        row_flat["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0, 1]
+    );
+    assert!(row_flat.column_by_name("_doc_index").is_none());
+
+    ds.create_index(
+        &[path],
+        IndexType::Inverted,
+        None,
+        &list_element_params(true),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    ds.create_index(
+        &[path],
+        IndexType::Inverted,
+        None,
+        &base_inverted_params(true),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let indexed = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match(path, "alpha"), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(element_hits(&indexed), expected);
+    let indices = ds.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    let row = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == "groups.docs.content_idx")
+        .unwrap();
+    let elements = indices
+        .iter()
+        .find(|index| index.name == "groups.docs.content_list_element_idx")
+        .unwrap();
+    let groups = ds.schema().field("groups").unwrap();
+    let group_item = groups.children.first().unwrap();
+    let docs = group_item
+        .children
+        .iter()
+        .find(|field| field.name == "docs")
+        .unwrap();
+    let doc_item = docs.children.first().unwrap();
+    let content = doc_item
+        .children
+        .iter()
+        .find(|field| field.name == "content")
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(row.fields, elements.fields);
+    assert_eq!(row.fields, vec![content.id]);
+    assert_ne!(row.fields, vec![docs.children[0].id]);
+
+    // A cross-field scan resolves the same path through the row index, and its
+    // flat sibling walks two list levels down to the leaf. Rows 2 and 3 repeat
+    // rows 0 and 1 in a fragment no index covers, so both sides contribute.
+    let combined_indexed = run_fts(&ds, combined_fields("alpha", &[path]), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        combined_indexed["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0, 1]
+    );
+    assert!(combined_indexed.column_by_name("_doc_index").is_none());
+
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 3])) as ArrayRef),
+        ("groups", batch.column_by_name("groups").unwrap().clone()),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut ds = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(ds))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![appended])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let combined_mixed = run_fts(&ds, combined_fields("alpha", &[path]), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        combined_mixed["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0, 1, 2, 3]
+    );
+
+    let mut combined_fast = ds.scan();
+    let indexed_only = combined_fast
+        .full_text_search(combined_fields("alpha", &[path]))
+        .unwrap()
+        .fast_search()
+        .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
+            "id".to_string(),
+        )]))
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        indexed_only["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0, 1]
+    );
+
+    ds.optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let combined_indexed = run_fts(&ds, combined_fields("alpha", &[path]), None).await;
+    assert_eq!(
+        combined_indexed["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0, 1, 2, 3]
+    );
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_element_document_bm25_uses_element_corpus() {
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])) as ArrayRef),
+        (
+            "tags",
+            string_lists(&[
+                Some(vec![
+                    Some("needle"),
+                    Some("filler filler filler filler filler filler filler filler filler"),
+                ]),
+                Some(vec![Some("needle filler")]),
+            ]),
+        ),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+        test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let params = base_inverted_params(false);
+    ds.create_index(&["tags"], IndexType::Inverted, None, &params, true)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["tags"],
+        IndexType::Inverted,
+        None,
+        &list_element_params(false),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let row = run_fts(&ds, row_match("tags", "needle"), None).await;
+    let element = run_fts(&ds, list_element_match("tags", "needle"), None).await;
+    let row_scores = row["_score"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>();
+    let element_scores = element["_score"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Float32Type>();
+
+    let expected_row_long = expected_bm25_score(2, 2, 12, 10);
+    let expected_row_short = expected_bm25_score(2, 2, 12, 2);
+    let expected_element_short = expected_bm25_score(3, 2, 12, 1);
+    let expected_element_long = expected_bm25_score(3, 2, 12, 2);
+    assert!((row_scores.value(0) - expected_row_long).abs() < 1e-5);
+    assert!((row_scores.value(1) - expected_row_short).abs() < 1e-5);
+    assert!((element_scores.value(0) - expected_element_short).abs() < 1e-5);
+    assert!((element_scores.value(1) - expected_element_long).abs() < 1e-5);
+    assert!(row_scores.value(1) > row_scores.value(0));
+    assert!(element_scores.value(0) > element_scores.value(1));
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_element_document_fts_vector_prefilter_deduplicates_parent_rows() {
+    let vectors =
+        FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 1.0]), 2)
+            .unwrap();
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])) as ArrayRef),
+        (
+            "tags",
+            string_lists(&[
+                Some(vec![Some("alpha"), Some("alpha again")]),
+                Some(vec![Some("beta")]),
+            ]),
+        ),
+        ("vector", Arc::new(vectors) as ArrayRef),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema),
+        test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap(),
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["tags"],
+        IndexType::Inverted,
+        None,
+        &list_element_params(false),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let query_vector = Float32Array::from(vec![0.0, 0.0]);
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner
+        .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 10)
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter_query(QueryFilter::Fts(list_element_match("tags", "alpha")))
+        .unwrap()
+        .prefilter(true);
+    let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        result["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0]
+    );
+    assert!(result.column_by_name("_doc_index").is_none());
+
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["tags"],
+        IndexType::Inverted,
+        None,
+        &base_inverted_params(false),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner
+        .nearest("vector", &query_vector, 10)
+        .unwrap()
+        .filter_query(QueryFilter::Fts(FullTextSearchQuery::new(
+            "alpha".to_string(),
+        )))
+        .unwrap()
+        .prefilter(true);
+    let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        result["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[0]
+    );
+    assert!(result.column_by_name("_doc_index").is_none());
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 // Ensure indexed and non-indexed full-text search return the same ids.
 async fn test_inverted_basic_equivalence() {
@@ -144,6 +1367,310 @@ async fn test_inverted_phrase_query_with_positions() {
         .await;
 }
 
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_segmented_inverted_match_query() {
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "text",
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("alpha lance"), Some("beta")])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap(),
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 3])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "text",
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("lance delta"), Some("gamma")])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap(),
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "text",
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("omega"), Some("lance omega")])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+    let schema = batches[0].schema();
+    let original = arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            max_rows_per_group: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let params = base_inverted_params(false);
+    let fragment_ids = ds
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut metadatas = Vec::<IndexMetadata>::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+    for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+        let mut builder = ds
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name("segmented_fts".to_string())
+            .fragments(vec![fragment_id]);
+        metadatas.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+    }
+    ds.commit_existing_index_segments("segmented_fts", "text", metadatas.clone())
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(metadatas.len() >= 2);
+    assert_eq!(
+        ds.load_indices_by_name("segmented_fts")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .len(),
+        metadatas.len()
+    );
+
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+        .with_column("text".to_string())
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_fts_expected(&original, &ds, query.clone(), None, &[0, 2, 5]).await;
+    test_fts(&original, &ds, "text", "lance", None, true, false).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_segmented_inverted_fuzzy_match_uses_global_idf() {
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "text",
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("lance")])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap(),
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![1])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "text",
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("lance lance lance")])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+    let schema = batches[0].schema();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema);
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 1,
+            max_rows_per_group: 1,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let params = base_inverted_params(false);
+    let fragment_ids = ds
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut metadatas = Vec::<IndexMetadata>::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+    for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+        let mut builder = ds
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name("segmented_fuzzy".to_string())
+            .fragments(vec![fragment_id]);
+        metadatas.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+    }
+    ds.commit_existing_index_segments("segmented_fuzzy", "text", metadatas)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let batch = ds
+        .scan()
+        .full_text_search(
+            FullTextSearchQuery::new_fuzzy("lnce".to_string(), Some(1))
+                .with_column("text".to_string())
+                .unwrap()
+                .limit(Some(1)),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let ids = batch["id"].as_primitive::<arrow_array::types::Int32Type>();
+    assert_eq!(ids.values(), &[1]);
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_segmented_inverted_phrase_query() {
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+    let batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "text",
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    Some("lance database"),
+                    Some("database lance"),
+                ])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap(),
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 3])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "text",
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
+                    Some("lance database query"),
+                    Some("lance and database"),
+                ])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+    let schema = batches[0].schema();
+    let original = arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&schema, &batches).unwrap();
+
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            max_rows_per_group: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let params = base_inverted_params(true);
+    let fragment_ids = ds
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut metadatas = Vec::<IndexMetadata>::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+    for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+        let mut builder = ds
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name("segmented_phrase_fts".to_string())
+            .fragments(vec![fragment_id]);
+        metadatas.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+    }
+    ds.commit_existing_index_segments("segmented_phrase_fts", "text", metadatas)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let phrase =
+        PhraseQuery::new("lance database".to_string()).with_column(Some("text".to_string()));
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new_query(FtsQuery::Phrase(phrase));
+    assert_fts_expected(&original, &ds, query, None, &[0, 2]).await;
+    test_fts(&original, &ds, "text", "lance database", None, true, true).await;
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_segmented_inverted_match_query_with_unindexed_fragments() {
+    let test_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let test_uri = test_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+
+    let initial_batches = vec![
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![0, 1])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "text",
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("lance zero"), Some("alpha")])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap(),
+        RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+            ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 3])) as ArrayRef),
+            (
+                "text",
+                Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("beta"), Some("lance three")])) as ArrayRef,
+            ),
+        ])
+        .unwrap(),
+    ];
+    let schema = initial_batches[0].schema();
+    let reader =
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(initial_batches.clone().into_iter().map(Ok), schema.clone());
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        test_uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 2,
+            max_rows_per_group: 2,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let params = base_inverted_params(false);
+    let fragment_ids = ds
+        .get_fragments()
+        .iter()
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let mut metadatas = Vec::<IndexMetadata>::with_capacity(fragment_ids.len());
+    for fragment_id in fragment_ids {
+        let mut builder = ds
+            .create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+            .name("segmented_mixed_fts".to_string())
+            .fragments(vec![fragment_id]);
+        metadatas.push(builder.execute_uncommitted().await.unwrap());
+    }
+    ds.commit_existing_index_segments("segmented_mixed_fts", "text", metadatas)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![4, 5])) as ArrayRef),
+        (
+            "text",
+            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("lance four"), Some("omega")])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let appended_reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(appended.clone())], appended.schema());
+    ds.append(appended_reader, None).await.unwrap();
+
+    let original = arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(
+        &schema,
+        &[
+            initial_batches[0].clone(),
+            initial_batches[1].clone(),
+            appended,
+        ],
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new("lance".to_string())
+        .with_column("text".to_string())
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_fts_expected(&original, &ds, query.clone(), None, &[0, 3, 4]).await;
+    test_fts(&original, &ds, "text", "lance", None, true, false).await;
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 // Validate filters are applied alongside inverted index search results.
 async fn test_inverted_with_filter() {
@@ -266,3 +1793,77 @@ async fn test_inverted_params_combinations() {
             .await;
     }
 }
+
+/// Regression test: FTS query after deleting rows should not crash with
+/// "Attempt to merge two RecordBatch with different sizes".
+///
+/// When stable row IDs are enabled, the FTS index may return row IDs for
+/// deleted rows. The row ID index excludes deleted rows, so get_row_addrs()
+/// must filter the input batch to match. Without this filtering, the
+/// downstream merge in TakeExec fails with a size mismatch.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_fts_after_delete_with_stable_row_ids() {
+    let ids = Arc::new(Int32Array::from((0..20).collect::<Vec<i32>>()));
+    // Give each row a unique word + a common word "shared"
+    let texts: Vec<Option<&str>> = (0..20)
+        .map(|i| match i % 4 {
+            0 => Some("alpha shared"),
+            1 => Some("beta shared"),
+            2 => Some("gamma shared"),
+            _ => Some("delta shared"),
+        })
+        .collect();
+    let text_col = Arc::new(StringArray::from(texts));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", ids as ArrayRef),
+        ("text", text_col as ArrayRef),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Create dataset with stable row IDs
+    let mut ds = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Create FTS index
+    let params = InvertedIndexParams::default();
+    ds.create_index_builder(&["text"], IndexType::Inverted, &params)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Delete some rows — these will still be referenced by the FTS index
+    ds.delete("id IN (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)").await.unwrap();
+
+    // FTS query for "shared" — matches ALL rows including deleted ones.
+    // Before the fix, this would crash with a merge size mismatch.
+    let query = FullTextSearchQuery::new("shared".to_string())
+        .with_column("text".to_string())
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+    scanner.full_text_search(query).unwrap();
+    scanner
+        .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
+            "id".to_string(),
+        )]))
+        .unwrap();
+    let result = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+
+    // Should only have 15 rows (20 - 5 deleted)
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 15);
+
+    // Verify no deleted IDs are present
+    let result_ids = result
+        .column_by_name("id")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_any()
+        .downcast_ref::<Int32Array>()
+        .unwrap();
+    for id in result_ids.values().iter() {
+        assert!(*id >= 5, "Deleted row id {} should not appear", id);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/query/mod.rs b/rust/lance/tests/query/mod.rs
index c9514100a63..9c71765c345 100644
--- a/rust/lance/tests/query/mod.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/query/mod.rs
@@ -3,15 +3,15 @@
 
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
-use arrow_array::{cast::AsArray, RecordBatch, UInt32Array};
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, UInt32Array, cast::AsArray, types::Int32Type};
 use arrow_select::concat::concat_batches;
 use datafusion::datasource::MemTable;
 use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
-use lance::dataset::scanner::ColumnOrdering;
 use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::dataset::scanner::ColumnOrdering;
 use lance_datafusion::udf::register_functions;
-use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery, PhraseQuery};
 use lance_index::scalar::FullTextSearchQuery;
+use lance_index::scalar::inverted::query::{FtsQuery, PhraseQuery};
 
 /// Creates a fresh SessionContext with Lance UDFs registered
 fn create_datafusion_context() -> SessionContext {
@@ -97,6 +97,42 @@ async fn test_filter(original: &RecordBatch, ds: &Dataset, predicate: &str) {
     assert_eq!(&expected, &scanned);
 }
 
+/// Assert a filtered scan returns exactly `expected_ids`, once through whatever
+/// index the dataset has and once with scalar indices turned off.
+///
+/// Use this instead of [`test_filter`] for predicates whose correct answer
+/// differs from what the pinned DataFusion release computes, so there is no
+/// reference implementation to compare against. The un-indexed pass matters
+/// because `DatasetTestCases` never actually generates the no-index variant: its
+/// combination generator drops the empty combination.
+async fn assert_filter_ids(ds: &Dataset, predicate: &str, expected_ids: &[i32]) {
+    for use_scalar_index in [true, false] {
+        let mut scanner = ds.scan();
+        scanner
+            .project(&["id"])
+            .unwrap()
+            .filter(predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .use_scalar_index(use_scalar_index)
+            .order_by(Some(vec![ColumnOrdering::asc_nulls_first(
+                "id".to_string(),
+            )]))
+            .unwrap();
+        let scanned = scanner.try_into_batch().await.unwrap();
+        // Collected as options so a NULL id cannot read back as a real id, and so
+        // a length mismatch fails here rather than silently comparing a prefix.
+        let ids = scanned["id"]
+            .as_primitive::<Int32Type>()
+            .iter()
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let expected = expected_ids.iter().copied().map(Some).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(
+            ids, expected,
+            "predicate: {predicate}, index: {use_scalar_index}"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
 // Rebuild a batch using only columns present in the schema (drops _score from FTS results).
 fn strip_score_column(batch: &RecordBatch, schema: &arrow_schema::Schema) -> RecordBatch {
     let columns = schema
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/query/primitives.rs b/rust/lance/tests/query/primitives.rs
index b2b8b9db5c1..348d86ec8ce 100644
--- a/rust/lance/tests/query/primitives.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/query/primitives.rs
@@ -5,16 +5,22 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow::datatypes::*;
 use arrow_array::{
-    ArrayRef, BinaryArray, BinaryViewArray, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int32Array,
-    LargeBinaryArray, LargeStringArray, RecordBatch, StringArray, StringViewArray,
+    ArrayRef, BinaryArray, BinaryViewArray, Float16Array, Float32Array, Float64Array, Int32Array,
+    LargeBinaryArray, LargeStringArray, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, StringArray,
+    StringViewArray,
 };
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
+use half::f16;
 use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::dataset::optimize::{CompactionOptions, compact_files};
+use lance::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
 
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, ArrayGeneratorExt, RowCount};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
 use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams;
 
-use super::{test_filter, test_scan, test_take};
+use super::{assert_filter_ids, test_filter, test_scan, test_take};
 use crate::utils::DatasetTestCases;
 
 #[tokio::test]
@@ -79,12 +85,63 @@ async fn test_query_integer(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "NOT (value > 20)").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is null").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is not null").await;
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "(value != 0) OR (value < 20)").await;
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "NOT ((value != 0) OR (value < 20))").await;
+            test_filter(
+                &original,
+                &ds,
+                "(value != 5) OR ((value != 52) OR (value IS NULL))",
+            )
+            .await;
+            test_filter(
+                &original,
+                &ds,
+                "NOT ((value != 5) OR ((value != 52) OR (value IS NULL)))",
+            )
+            .await;
         })
         .await
 }
 
+/// Regression test: BTree OR on nullable column with value not in index.
+///
+/// When all non-null values are far from the equality value (e.g. all > 100,
+/// query `!= 0`), the BTree's page lookup finds no pages containing that value.
+/// Previously, null pages were not consulted for non-IsNull queries, so the
+/// null set was empty and `NOT(x = 0)` would incorrectly pass all rows
+/// (including NULLs). See also test_search_tracks_nulls_for_absent_value in
+/// lance-index for a direct unit test of the BTree fix.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_btree_nullable_or_with_absent_value() {
+    // All non-null values are in [100..160], so value 0 never appears in the index.
+    // ~33% of rows are NULL (every 3rd row).
+    let value_array: Int32Array = (0..60)
+        .map(|i| if i % 3 == 0 { None } else { Some(100 + i) })
+        .collect();
+    let id_array = Int32Array::from((0..60).collect::<Vec<i32>>());
+
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        ("id", Arc::new(id_array) as ArrayRef),
+        ("value", Arc::new(value_array) as ArrayRef),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+
+    DatasetTestCases::from_data(batch)
+        .with_index_types("value", [Some(IndexType::BTree)])
+        .run(|ds: Dataset, original: RecordBatch| async move {
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "(value != 0) OR (value < 5)").await;
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "NOT ((value != 0) OR (value < 5))").await;
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value != 0").await;
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "NOT (value = 0)").await;
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is null").await;
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is not null").await;
+        })
+        .await;
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 #[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::float16(DataType::Float16)]
 #[case::float32(DataType::Float32)]
 #[case::float64(DataType::Float64)]
 async fn test_query_float(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
@@ -93,17 +150,20 @@ async fn test_query_float(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
         .col("value", array::rand_type(&data_type).with_random_nulls(0.1))
         .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(60))
         .unwrap();
+    // BloomFilter is left out for Float16 because that index rejects the type
+    // outright. `test_bloom_filter_rejects_float16` pins the rejection so this
+    // skip cannot outlive it.
+    let mut index_types = vec![
+        None,
+        Some(IndexType::BTree),
+        Some(IndexType::Bitmap),
+        Some(IndexType::ZoneMap),
+    ];
+    if data_type != DataType::Float16 {
+        index_types.push(Some(IndexType::BloomFilter));
+    }
     DatasetTestCases::from_data(batch)
-        .with_index_types(
-            "value",
-            [
-                None,
-                Some(IndexType::BTree),
-                Some(IndexType::Bitmap),
-                Some(IndexType::BloomFilter),
-                Some(IndexType::ZoneMap),
-            ],
-        )
+        .with_index_types("value", index_types)
         .run(|ds: Dataset, original: RecordBatch| async move {
             test_scan(&original, &ds).await;
             test_take(&original, &ds).await;
@@ -117,12 +177,63 @@ async fn test_query_float(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
         .await
 }
 
+/// `test_query_float` runs its Float16 case without `IndexType::BloomFilter`
+/// because that index refuses the type. Pin the refusal here so the skip cannot
+/// outlive it: once bloom filters accept Float16 this test fails, and whoever
+/// makes it pass should drop the skip too.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_bloom_filter_rejects_float16() {
+    let batch = gen_batch()
+        .col("value", array::rand_type(&DataType::Float16))
+        .into_batch_rows(RowCount::from(16))
+        .unwrap();
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch.clone())], batch.schema()),
+        "memory://bloom_f16",
+        None,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let err = ds
+        .create_index(
+            &["value"],
+            IndexType::BloomFilter,
+            None,
+            &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .expect_err("bloom filter should still refuse Float16");
+    assert!(
+        matches!(err, lance::Error::InvalidInput { .. }),
+        "unexpected error variant: {err:?}"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        err.to_string().contains("Float16"),
+        "error should name the rejected type: {err}"
+    );
+}
+
 #[tokio::test]
 #[rstest::rstest]
+#[case::float16(DataType::Float16)]
 #[case::float32(DataType::Float32)]
 #[case::float64(DataType::Float64)]
 async fn test_query_float_special_values(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
     let value_array: Arc<dyn arrow_array::Array> = match data_type {
+        DataType::Float16 => Arc::new(Float16Array::from(vec![
+            Some(f16::ZERO),
+            Some(f16::NEG_ZERO),
+            Some(f16::INFINITY),
+            Some(f16::NEG_INFINITY),
+            Some(f16::NAN),
+            Some(f16::ONE),
+            Some(f16::NEG_ONE),
+            Some(f16::MIN),
+            Some(f16::MAX),
+            None,
+        ])),
         DataType::Float32 => Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![
             Some(0.0_f32),
             Some(-0.0_f32),
@@ -156,29 +267,159 @@ async fn test_query_float_special_values(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
         RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("id", id_array as ArrayRef), ("value", value_array)])
             .unwrap();
 
+    // BloomFilter is left out for Float16 for the reason
+    // `test_bloom_filter_rejects_float16` pins: that index refuses the type.
+    let mut index_types = vec![
+        None,
+        Some(IndexType::BTree),
+        Some(IndexType::Bitmap),
+        Some(IndexType::ZoneMap),
+    ];
+    if data_type != DataType::Float16 {
+        index_types.push(Some(IndexType::BloomFilter));
+    }
+
     DatasetTestCases::from_data(batch)
-        .with_index_types(
-            "value",
-            [
-                None,
-                Some(IndexType::BTree),
-                Some(IndexType::Bitmap),
-                Some(IndexType::BloomFilter),
-                Some(IndexType::ZoneMap),
-            ],
-        )
+        .with_index_types("value", index_types)
         .run(|ds: Dataset, original: RecordBatch| async move {
             test_scan(&original, &ds).await;
             test_take(&original, &ds).await;
-            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value > 0.0").await;
-            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value < 0.0").await;
-            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value = 0.0").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is null").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is not null").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "isnan(value)").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "not isnan(value)").await;
+
+            // The remaining predicates compare against zero, where DataFusion
+            // 54 answers by Arrow's total order: it ranks `-0.0` below `+0.0`
+            // instead of treating the two encodings as one number the way
+            // IEEE 754 and SQL do. That makes it useless as the reference, so
+            // assert the rows. Ids are 0: +0.0, 1: -0.0, 2: +inf, 3: -inf,
+            // 4: NaN, 5: 1.0, 6: -1.0, 7: MIN, 8: MAX, 9: NULL.
+            for zero in ["0.0", "-0.0"] {
+                assert_filter_ids(&ds, &format!("value < {zero}"), &[3, 6, 7]).await;
+                assert_filter_ids(&ds, &format!("value <= {zero}"), &[0, 1, 3, 6, 7]).await;
+                assert_filter_ids(&ds, &format!("value = {zero}"), &[0, 1]).await;
+                assert_filter_ids(&ds, &format!("value != {zero}"), &[2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]).await;
+                // NaN is row 4. Arrow sorts it above every other value, so it
+                // survives `>` and `>=`, which IEEE would reject. That gap is
+                // not specific to zero and this rewrite leaves it alone.
+                assert_filter_ids(&ds, &format!("value > {zero}"), &[2, 4, 5, 8]).await;
+                assert_filter_ids(&ds, &format!("value >= {zero}"), &[0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8]).await;
+                // A literal on the left. DataFusion's canonicalizer swaps it back
+                // before the rewrite runs, so this pins the answer rather than the
+                // mirroring branch, which `a_literal_on_the_left_mirrors_the_operator`
+                // owns and which SQL reaches only when the other side is not a
+                // bare column.
+                assert_filter_ids(&ds, &format!("{zero} > value"), &[3, 6, 7]).await;
+                // BETWEEN only works because the simplifier expands it into two
+                // comparisons before the rewrite runs.
+                assert_filter_ids(&ds, &format!("value BETWEEN {zero} AND {zero}"), &[0, 1]).await;
+                assert_filter_ids(
+                    &ds,
+                    &format!("value NOT BETWEEN {zero} AND {zero}"),
+                    &[2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8],
+                )
+                .await;
+                // An IN list gains the encoding it does not spell out.
+                assert_filter_ids(&ds, &format!("value IN ({zero}, 1.0)"), &[0, 1, 5]).await;
+                assert_filter_ids(
+                    &ds,
+                    &format!("value NOT IN ({zero}, 1.0)"),
+                    &[2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8],
+                )
+                .await;
+                // Composed with NULL logic, where this index layer has broken before.
+                assert_filter_ids(
+                    &ds,
+                    &format!("value != {zero} OR value IS NULL"),
+                    &[2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
+                )
+                .await;
+            }
+        })
+        .await
+}
+
+/// A rewritten zero predicate still has to reach a scalar index. Without this,
+/// the rewrite could reshape the predicate into something `maybe_indexed_column`
+/// no longer recognizes, and every zero filter would quietly fall back to a full
+/// scan plus refine while still returning the right rows. Only the default BTree
+/// index is covered here; the other index types are exercised for row equality by
+/// `test_query_float_special_values`, not for pushdown.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_float_zero_predicate_uses_scalar_index() {
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "id",
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..4)) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        (
+            "value",
+            Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![0.0, -0.0, 1.0, -1.0])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://zero_index_pushdown", None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["value"],
+        IndexType::Scalar,
+        None,
+        &ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+        false,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    for predicate in ["value = 0.0", "value < 0.0", "value != 0.0"] {
+        let plan = ds
+            .scan()
+            .filter(predicate)
+            .unwrap()
+            .explain_plan(false)
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+            "`{predicate}` should use the scalar index, got plan:\n{plan}"
+        );
+        // The rewrite's output survives a second `optimize_expr`, which the scan
+        // path does run, so the predicate must not appear twice.
+        assert_eq!(
+            plan.matches("value_idx").count(),
+            1,
+            "`{predicate}` should search the index once, got plan:\n{plan}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Rows appended after the index is built are answered by the unindexed scan
+    // while the rest come from the index. Both halves have to agree.
+    let appended = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![
+        (
+            "id",
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(4..8)) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        (
+            "value",
+            Arc::new(Float64Array::from(vec![0.0, -0.0, 1.0, -1.0])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+    ])
+    .unwrap();
+    let ds = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(ds))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
         })
+        .execute(vec![appended])
         .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_filter_ids(&ds, "value = 0.0", &[0, 1, 4, 5]).await;
+    assert_filter_ids(&ds, "value < 0.0", &[3, 7]).await;
+    assert_filter_ids(&ds, "value >= 0.0", &[0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6]).await;
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
@@ -207,7 +448,9 @@ async fn test_query_date(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
             test_scan(&original, &ds).await;
             test_take(&original, &ds).await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value < current_date()").await;
-            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value > DATE '2024-01-01'").await;
+            // Mid-range literal: rand_type samples dates from the fixed range
+            // [2023-01-01, 2024-01-01), so this splits the generated values
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value > DATE '2023-07-01'").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is null").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is not null").await;
         })
@@ -242,7 +485,9 @@ async fn test_query_timestamp(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
             test_scan(&original, &ds).await;
             test_take(&original, &ds).await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value < current_timestamp()").await;
-            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value > TIMESTAMP '2024-01-01 00:00:00'").await;
+            // Mid-range literal: rand_type samples timestamps from the fixed range
+            // [2023-01-01, 2024-01-01), so this splits the generated values
+            test_filter(&original, &ds, "value > TIMESTAMP '2023-07-01 00:00:00'").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is null").await;
             test_filter(&original, &ds, "value is not null").await;
         })
@@ -389,3 +634,158 @@ async fn test_query_decimal(#[case] data_type: DataType) {
         })
         .await
 }
+
+/// Regression test: filtered scan panics after compaction with SRID when a
+/// RangeWithBitmap segment appears after a Range segment in a fragment's
+/// RowIdSequence. The bitmap iterator was advanced using a global offset
+/// instead of a range-local position, exhausting the iterator.
+///
+/// Sequence: Write(2 frags) → Delete(from frag1) → Compact → CreateIndex → FilteredScan
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_filtered_scan_after_compact_with_srid() {
+    use arrow::record_batch::RecordBatchIterator;
+
+    // Write 100 rows across 2 fragments (50 each) with stable row IDs.
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![(
+        "int_col",
+        Arc::new(Int32Array::from_iter_values(0..100)) as ArrayRef,
+    )])
+    .unwrap();
+    let schema = batch.schema();
+    let reader = RecordBatchIterator::new(vec![Ok(batch)], schema);
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        enable_stable_row_ids: true,
+        max_rows_per_file: 50,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let mut ds = Dataset::write(reader, "memory://compact_srid_test", Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(ds.get_fragments().len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 100);
+
+    // Delete some rows from the second fragment to create holes.
+    // After compaction, this fragment's row_ids become a RangeWithBitmap segment.
+    ds.delete("int_col >= 60 AND int_col < 70").await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(ds.count_rows(None).await.unwrap(), 90);
+
+    // Compact: merges both fragments into one. The output RowIdSequence has
+    // multiple segments: Range(0..50) followed by RangeWithBitmap(50..100).
+    // The RangeWithBitmap segment has offset_start=50 from the preceding Range.
+    compact_files(&mut ds, CompactionOptions::default(), None)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Create a BTree index so filtered scans use mask_to_offset_ranges.
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["int_col"],
+        IndexType::BTree,
+        None,
+        &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // Filtered scan: the index produces a RowAddrMask, which is passed to
+    // mask_to_offset_ranges on the multi-segment RowIdSequence. Before the
+    // fix, this panicked with "called Option::unwrap() on a None value".
+    let results = ds
+        .scan()
+        .filter("int_col < 200")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        results.num_rows(),
+        90,
+        "Expected 90 rows (100 written - 10 deleted) but got {}",
+        results.num_rows()
+    );
+}
+
+/// Verifies that a zone map index on a string column is used (ScalarIndexQuery
+/// in the plan) for both IS NULL and IS NOT NULL predicate filters.
+///
+/// IS NOT NULL must not silently fall back to a full scan when a zone map
+/// index exists — both predicates should leverage the index.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_zone_map_null_index_used() {
+    // 6 non-null strings and 4 null values across 10 rows.
+    let string_values = vec![
+        Some("alpha"),
+        None,
+        Some("beta"),
+        Some("gamma"),
+        None,
+        Some("delta"),
+        None,
+        Some("epsilon"),
+        Some("zeta"),
+        None,
+    ];
+    let value_array = Arc::new(StringArray::from(string_values)) as ArrayRef;
+    let id_array = Arc::new(Int32Array::from((0..10).collect::<Vec<i32>>())) as ArrayRef;
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_from_iter(vec![("id", id_array), ("value", value_array)]).unwrap();
+
+    let mut ds = InsertBuilder::new("memory://")
+        .execute(vec![batch])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    ds.create_index(
+        &["value"],
+        IndexType::ZoneMap,
+        None,
+        &lance_index::scalar::ScalarIndexParams::default(),
+        true,
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    // IS NULL: the zone map index must appear in the plan.
+    let plan = ds
+        .scan()
+        .filter("value IS NULL")
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+        "IS NULL should use zone map index, got plan:\n{}",
+        plan
+    );
+    let null_batch = ds
+        .scan()
+        .filter("value IS NULL")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(null_batch.num_rows(), 4);
+
+    // IS NOT NULL: the zone map index must also appear in the plan.
+    let plan = ds
+        .scan()
+        .filter("value IS NOT NULL")
+        .unwrap()
+        .explain_plan(false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        plan.contains("ScalarIndexQuery"),
+        "IS NOT NULL should use zone map index, got plan:\n{}",
+        plan
+    );
+    let non_null_batch = ds
+        .scan()
+        .filter("value IS NOT NULL")
+        .unwrap()
+        .try_into_batch()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(non_null_batch.num_rows(), 6);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/query/vectors.rs b/rust/lance/tests/query/vectors.rs
index 9d8c640a7e9..601198b5396 100644
--- a/rust/lance/tests/query/vectors.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/query/vectors.rs
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ use crate::utils::DatasetTestCases;
 use arrow::datatypes::{Date32Type, Float32Type, Int32Type};
 use arrow_array::RecordBatch;
 use lance::Dataset;
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, ArrayGeneratorExt, Dimension, RowCount};
+use lance_datagen::{ArrayGeneratorExt, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
 use lance_index::IndexType;
 
 fn date_as_i32(date: &str) -> i32 {
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/mod.rs b/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/mod.rs
index 80ec1ab9d20..15951e92fbd 100644
--- a/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/mod.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/mod.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
 mod utils;
+mod vector;
 mod write;
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/utils.rs b/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/utils.rs
index 4035cddc806..08c50f285e4 100644
--- a/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/utils.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/utils.rs
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@ use std::alloc::System;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::{Arc, LazyLock, Mutex, Once};
 use tracing::Instrument;
-use tracing_subscriber::layer::SubscriberExt;
 use tracing_subscriber::Registry;
+use tracing_subscriber::layer::SubscriberExt;
 use tracking_allocator::{
     AllocationGroupId, AllocationGroupToken, AllocationLayer, AllocationRegistry,
     AllocationTracker, Allocator,
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/vector.rs b/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/vector.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2b641d26bff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/vector.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,209 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use super::utils::AllocTracker;
+use all_asserts::assert_le;
+use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, RecordBatch, RecordBatchIterator, types::Float32Type};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Field, Schema};
+use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+use lance::index::vector::utils::maybe_sample_training_data;
+use lance::index::{DatasetIndexExt, DatasetIndexInternalExt};
+use lance_arrow::FixedSizeListArrayExt;
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::metrics::NoOpMetricsCollector;
+use lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions;
+use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
+use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
+use lance_io::object_store::ObjectStoreParams;
+use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_nullable_fragment_sampling_memory_stays_bounded() {
+    let dim = 1024;
+    let num_fragments = 4;
+    let rows_per_fragment = 8_192;
+    let sample_size = 32;
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "vec",
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), dim),
+        true,
+    )]));
+
+    let batches = (0..num_fragments)
+        .map(|seed| {
+            let values = lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(
+                rows_per_fragment * dim as usize,
+                [seed as u8; 32],
+            );
+            let vectors = Arc::new(
+                arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dim).unwrap(),
+            ) as ArrayRef;
+            RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vectors]).unwrap()
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let tmp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(batches.into_iter().map(Ok), schema),
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: rows_per_fragment,
+            max_rows_per_group: rows_per_fragment,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let fragment_ids = dataset
+        .get_fragments()
+        .into_iter()
+        .take(2)
+        .map(|fragment| fragment.id() as u32)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let alloc_tracker = AllocTracker::new();
+    let training_data = {
+        let _guard = alloc_tracker.enter();
+        maybe_sample_training_data(&dataset, "vec", sample_size, Some(&fragment_ids))
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    };
+    let stats = alloc_tracker.stats();
+
+    assert_eq!(training_data.len(), sample_size);
+
+    // A full scan of the selected fragments would need at least:
+    // 2 fragments * 8192 rows * 1024 dims * 4 bytes = 64 MiB
+    // Keep a generous ceiling well below that lower bound so the test remains
+    // stable while still catching regressions back to eager materialization.
+    assert_le!(
+        stats.max_bytes_allocated,
+        24 * 1024 * 1024,
+        "nullable fragment sampling allocated too much memory: {:?}",
+        stats
+    );
+}
+
+/// Vectors of `dim` f32 values, `num_rows` of them, seeded by `seed`.
+fn random_vector_batch(schema: &Arc<Schema>, num_rows: usize, dim: i32, seed: u8) -> RecordBatch {
+    let values = lance_testing::datagen::generate_random_array_with_seed::<Float32Type>(
+        num_rows * dim as usize,
+        [seed; 32],
+    );
+    let vectors =
+        Arc::new(arrow_array::FixedSizeListArray::try_new_from_values(values, dim).unwrap())
+            as ArrayRef;
+    RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![vectors]).unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_ivf_split_reshuffle_memory_stays_bounded() {
+    // A split re-reads the raw vectors of every partition it touches. With two
+    // partitions of ~64Ki rows each and a target of 8Ki rows, both are split
+    // and every one of the 128Ki rows (512 MiB of vectors) is re-read.
+    let dim = 1024;
+    let rows_per_batch = 8_192;
+    let num_batches = 16;
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "vec",
+        DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::new(Field::new("item", DataType::Float32, true)), dim),
+        false,
+    )]));
+    // Cloud stores report a 64 KiB block size; the re-read must not size its
+    // batches from it.
+    let store_params = ObjectStoreParams {
+        block_size: Some(64 * 1024),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    let tmp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+    let uri = tmp_dir.path().to_str().unwrap();
+    let batches = (0..num_batches).map({
+        let schema = schema.clone();
+        move |seed| {
+            Ok(random_vector_batch(
+                &schema,
+                rows_per_batch,
+                dim,
+                seed as u8,
+            ))
+        }
+    });
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        RecordBatchIterator::new(batches, schema.clone()),
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            store_params: Some(store_params.clone()),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let mut ivf_params = IvfBuildParams::new(2);
+    ivf_params.target_partition_size = Some(8_192);
+    // 4-bit codes keep PQ training and encoding cheap in unoptimized builds.
+    let pq_params = PQBuildParams {
+        num_sub_vectors: 16,
+        num_bits: 4,
+        max_iters: 2,
+        sample_rate: 16,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    dataset
+        .create_index(
+            &["vec"],
+            IndexType::Vector,
+            Some("idx".into()),
+            &VectorIndexParams::with_ivf_pq_params(MetricType::L2, ivf_params, pq_params),
+            false,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    // New rows give the default optimize something to merge, which is when it
+    // rebalances oversized partitions.
+    let mut dataset = InsertBuilder::new(Arc::new(dataset))
+        .with_params(&WriteParams {
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            store_params: Some(store_params),
+            ..Default::default()
+        })
+        .execute(vec![random_vector_batch(&schema, 16, dim, u8::MAX)])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let alloc_tracker = AllocTracker::new();
+    {
+        let _guard = alloc_tracker.enter();
+        dataset
+            .optimize_indices(&OptimizeOptions::default())
+            .await
+            .unwrap();
+    }
+    let stats = alloc_tracker.stats();
+
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices_by_name("idx").await.unwrap();
+    let index = dataset
+        .open_vector_index("vec", &indices[0].uuid, &NoOpMetricsCollector)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        index.ivf_model().num_partitions() > 2,
+        "the optimize must split the oversized partitions"
+    );
+
+    // Re-reading every row at once holds up to 512 MiB of vectors, which this
+    // tracker sees as ~265 MiB since it misses allocations on untracked tasks;
+    // a bounded re-read peaks near 40 MiB. Keep the ceiling far from both.
+    assert_le!(
+        stats.max_bytes_allocated,
+        128 * 1024 * 1024,
+        "split reshuffle allocated too much memory: {:?}",
+        stats
+    );
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/write.rs b/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/write.rs
index 9618dbc366c..da7675d403d 100644
--- a/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/write.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/resource_test/write.rs
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ use all_asserts::assert_le;
 use arrow_schema::DataType;
 use lance::dataset::InsertBuilder;
 use lance_datafusion::datagen::DatafusionDatagenExt;
-use lance_datagen::{array, gen_batch, BatchCount, ByteCount, RoundingBehavior};
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RoundingBehavior, array, gen_batch};
 
 #[tokio::test]
 async fn test_insert_memory() {
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/scalar_index_spill.rs b/rust/lance/tests/scalar_index_spill.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..595e625477e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/scalar_index_spill.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Regression test: training a BTREE scalar index on a large string column
+//! must succeed when the sort spills under a small bounded memory pool.
+//!
+//! Sorting far more data than the pool holds produces many spilled runs; the
+//! external-sort merge phase then needs pool memory on top of the runs.
+//! Before the sort spill reservation was sized to the pool (#7675), the merge
+//! reservation could exceed the whole `FairSpillPool`, failing index creation
+//! with `ResourcesExhausted` unless spilling was bypassed entirely via
+//! `LANCE_BYPASS_SPILLING`.
+//!
+//! This file must stay a single-test integration binary: the training path
+//! only reads the pool size from the process-global `LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE`, so
+//! any sibling test could race the `set_var` or inherit the tiny pool.
+
+use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::dataset::WriteParams;
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance_datafusion::exec::LanceExecutionOptions;
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_index::scalar::{BuiltinIndexType, ScalarIndexParams};
+
+const MEM_POOL_SIZE: u64 = 4 * 1024 * 1024;
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_btree_training_sort_spill_merge_fits_pool() {
+    // 4 MiB pool vs ~36 MiB of sort input (512K rows of 64-byte strings plus
+    // row ids) forces many spilled sort runs.
+    unsafe {
+        std::env::set_var("LANCE_MEM_POOL_SIZE", MEM_POOL_SIZE.to_string());
+        // The historical workaround for this very bug; if it leaks in from the
+        // environment the bounded pool is skipped and the test checks nothing.
+        std::env::remove_var("LANCE_BYPASS_SPILLING");
+    }
+    // The training scan builds its execution options from the env vars above;
+    // fail loudly if that plumbing ever changes, otherwise the sort would run
+    // against the default (much larger) pool and pass vacuously.
+    let options = LanceExecutionOptions {
+        use_spilling: true,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    assert_eq!(options.mem_pool_size(), MEM_POOL_SIZE);
+    assert!(options.use_spilling());
+
+    let data = gen_batch()
+        .col("value", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(64), false))
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(8192), BatchCount::from(64));
+
+    let write_params = WriteParams {
+        max_rows_per_file: 256 * 1024,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(data, "memory://", Some(write_params))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    assert!(dataset.get_fragments().len() > 1);
+
+    let params = ScalarIndexParams::for_builtin(BuiltinIndexType::BTree);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["value"], IndexType::BTree, None, &params, false)
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let indices = dataset.load_indices().await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(indices.len(), 1);
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/topk_late_materialization/mod.rs b/rust/lance/tests/topk_late_materialization/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..db0c882a3bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/topk_late_materialization/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,656 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! End-to-end tests for [`TopKLateMaterialization`] on SQL top-k plans built
+//! through [`LanceTableProvider`], including one wrapped in a custom node, and
+//! on reads the scanner or a distributed planner has already configured.
+
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::datatypes::{Int32Type, UInt64Type};
+use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
+use arrow_array::{RecordBatch, RecordBatchOptions};
+use arrow_schema::{DataType, Schema, SchemaRef, SortOptions};
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+use datafusion::catalog::{Session, TableProvider};
+use datafusion::common::ScalarValue;
+use datafusion::common::tree_node::{TreeNode, TreeNodeRecursion};
+use datafusion::config::ConfigOptions;
+use datafusion::datasource::TableType;
+use datafusion::execution::{SendableRecordBatchStream, SessionStateBuilder, TaskContext};
+use datafusion::logical_expr::var_provider::{VarProvider, VarType};
+use datafusion::logical_expr::{Expr, TableProviderFilterPushDown};
+use datafusion::physical_expr::expressions::col;
+use datafusion::physical_expr::{EquivalenceProperties, LexOrdering, PhysicalSortExpr};
+use datafusion::physical_optimizer::PhysicalOptimizerRule;
+use datafusion::physical_optimizer::sanity_checker::SanityCheckPlan;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::execution_plan::CardinalityEffect;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::sorts::sort::SortExec;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::stream::RecordBatchStreamAdapter;
+use datafusion::physical_plan::{
+    DisplayAs, DisplayFormatType, ExecutionPlan, PlanProperties, collect, displayable,
+};
+use datafusion::prelude::SessionContext;
+use futures::StreamExt;
+use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::datafusion::LanceTableProvider;
+use lance::dataset::WriteParams;
+use lance::io::exec::TakeExec;
+use lance::io::exec::filtered_read::{FilteredReadExec, FilteredReadOptions, FilteredReadPlan};
+use lance::io::exec::topk_late_materialization::TopKLateMaterialization;
+use lance_datafusion::utils::{BYTES_READ_METRIC, MetricsExt};
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, ByteCount, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+use lance_select::RowAddrTreeMap;
+use rstest::rstest;
+
+/// 4 fragments of 250 rows: `id` is the row number, `cat` cycles 0..7, and
+/// `wide` is 1 KB of text per row.
+async fn make_dataset() -> Arc<Dataset> {
+    let reader = gen_batch()
+        .col("id", array::step::<UInt64Type>())
+        .col("cat", array::cycle::<Int32Type>((0..7).collect()))
+        .col("wide", array::rand_utf8(ByteCount::from(1000), false))
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(250), BatchCount::from(4));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        "memory://",
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 250,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    // `TakeExec` emits the dataset's schema metadata, which a wrapping
+    // provider may have erased.
+    dataset
+        .update_schema_metadata([("owner", "test")])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    Arc::new(dataset)
+}
+
+fn rule() -> TopKLateMaterialization {
+    TopKLateMaterialization::new().with_pass_through(|node| node.is::<MetadataEraserExec>())
+}
+
+fn context(provider: Arc<dyn TableProvider>, has_rule: bool) -> SessionContext {
+    let mut state = SessionStateBuilder::new().with_default_features();
+    if has_rule {
+        state = state.with_physical_optimizer_rule(Arc::new(rule()));
+    }
+    let ctx = SessionContext::new_with_state(state.build());
+    ctx.register_table("t", provider).unwrap();
+    ctx
+}
+
+/// Plan and run `sql`, returning the executed plan (with its metrics) and
+/// the result.
+async fn run(ctx: &SessionContext, sql: &str) -> (Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, RecordBatch) {
+    let plan = ctx
+        .sql(sql)
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .create_physical_plan()
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    let result = execute(plan.clone()).await;
+    (plan, result)
+}
+
+async fn execute(plan: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> RecordBatch {
+    let batches = collect(plan.clone(), Arc::new(TaskContext::default()))
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+    arrow_select::concat::concat_batches(&plan.schema(), &batches).unwrap()
+}
+
+/// `ORDER BY id DESC LIMIT 5` over `input`.
+fn top_5_by_id(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> {
+    let ordering = LexOrdering::new([PhysicalSortExpr::new(
+        col("id", &input.schema()).unwrap(),
+        SortOptions {
+            descending: true,
+            nulls_first: false,
+        },
+    )])
+    .unwrap();
+    Arc::new(SortExec::new(ordering, input).with_fetch(Some(5)))
+}
+
+/// The column scans in `plan`: `FilteredReadExec`s that are not fed by a row
+/// stream.
+fn scans(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Vec<Vec<String>> {
+    let mut scans = Vec::new();
+    plan.apply(|node| {
+        if let Some(read) = node.downcast_ref::<FilteredReadExec>()
+            && read.row_stream_input().is_none()
+        {
+            scans.push(
+                read.schema()
+                    .fields()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|f| f.name().clone())
+                    .collect(),
+            );
+        }
+        Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Continue)
+    })
+    .unwrap();
+    scans
+}
+
+/// Rows out of each `TakeExec` in an executed `plan`.
+fn take_output_rows(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> Vec<usize> {
+    let mut rows = Vec::new();
+    plan.apply(|node| {
+        if node.is::<TakeExec>() {
+            rows.push(node.metrics().unwrap().output_rows().unwrap());
+        }
+        Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Continue)
+    })
+    .unwrap();
+    rows
+}
+
+/// Bytes read from storage by every node of an executed `plan`.
+fn bytes_read(plan: &Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>) -> usize {
+    let mut total = 0;
+    plan.apply(|node| {
+        if let Some(metrics) = node.metrics() {
+            total += metrics
+                .iter_gauges()
+                .filter(|(name, _)| name.as_ref() == BYTES_READ_METRIC)
+                .map(|(_, gauge)| gauge.value())
+                .sum::<usize>();
+        }
+        Ok(TreeNodeRecursion::Continue)
+    })
+    .unwrap();
+    total
+}
+
+/// Without a filter the scan reads `wide` directly; with one, the scanner
+/// reads it behind the filter through a row-stream read. Either way the
+/// rewritten plan scans only `id` and takes `wide` for the 5 surviving rows.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::unfiltered("SELECT id, wide FROM t ORDER BY id DESC LIMIT 5")]
+#[case::filtered("SELECT id, wide FROM t WHERE cat = 3 ORDER BY id DESC LIMIT 5")]
+#[case::star("SELECT * FROM t WHERE cat <> 3 ORDER BY id LIMIT 5")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sql_topk_takes_non_sort_columns_after_the_sort(#[case] sql: &str) {
+    let dataset = make_dataset().await;
+    let provider = Arc::new(LanceTableProvider::new(dataset, false, false));
+    let (plain, expected) = run(&context(provider.clone(), false), sql).await;
+    let (rewritten, actual) = run(&context(provider, true), sql).await;
+    let shown = displayable(rewritten.as_ref()).indent(true).to_string();
+
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected, "{shown}");
+    assert_eq!(actual.num_rows(), 5);
+    assert_eq!(scans(&rewritten), [["id", "_rowid"]], "{shown}");
+    assert_eq!(take_output_rows(&rewritten), [5], "{shown}");
+    // `wide` is ~1 KB per row; the unrewritten plan reads it for every row
+    // that passes the filter (at least 143 of them).
+    assert!(
+        bytes_read(&rewritten) * 10 < bytes_read(&plain),
+        "rewritten read {} bytes, unrewritten read {}:\n{shown}",
+        bytes_read(&rewritten),
+        bytes_read(&plain)
+    );
+}
+
+/// The window relies on the top-k's ordering instead of sorting again, so the
+/// take above the sort must keep reporting it.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sql_topk_keeps_its_ordering_for_the_parent() {
+    let dataset = make_dataset().await;
+    let provider = Arc::new(LanceTableProvider::new(dataset, false, false));
+    let sql = "SELECT id, cat, wide, row_number() OVER (PARTITION BY cat ORDER BY id) AS rn \
+               FROM (SELECT id, cat, wide FROM t ORDER BY cat, id LIMIT 20)";
+    let (_, expected) = run(&context(provider.clone(), false), sql).await;
+    let (rewritten, actual) = run(&context(provider, true), sql).await;
+    let shown = displayable(rewritten.as_ref()).indent(true).to_string();
+
+    assert_eq!(take_output_rows(&rewritten), [20], "{shown}");
+    SanityCheckPlan::new()
+        .optimize(rewritten, &ConfigOptions::default())
+        .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("{e}\n{shown}"));
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected, "{shown}");
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sql_limit_covering_the_table_is_left_alone() {
+    let dataset = make_dataset().await;
+    let provider = Arc::new(LanceTableProvider::new(dataset, false, false));
+    let (rewritten, result) = run(
+        &context(provider, true),
+        "SELECT id, wide FROM t ORDER BY id LIMIT 1000",
+    )
+    .await;
+
+    assert_eq!(result.num_rows(), 1000);
+    assert_eq!(scans(&rewritten), [["id", "wide"]]);
+    assert!(take_output_rows(&rewritten).is_empty());
+}
+
+fn erase_metadata(schema: &Schema) -> Schema {
+    schema.clone().with_metadata(Default::default())
+}
+
+/// A node a `TableProvider` wraps around the Lance scan, which drops the
+/// schema metadata, as lancedb's `MetadataEraserExec` does.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct MetadataEraserExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+    is_row_preserving: bool,
+    properties: Arc<PlanProperties>,
+}
+
+impl MetadataEraserExec {
+    fn new(input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>, is_row_preserving: bool) -> Self {
+        let schema = Arc::new(erase_metadata(&input.schema()));
+        let properties = Arc::new(
+            input
+                .properties()
+                .as_ref()
+                .clone()
+                .with_eq_properties(EquivalenceProperties::new(schema)),
+        );
+        Self {
+            input,
+            is_row_preserving,
+            properties,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for MetadataEraserExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, _t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "MetadataEraserExec")
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for MetadataEraserExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "MetadataEraserExec"
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        &self.properties
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self::new(
+            children.remove(0),
+            self.is_row_preserving,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let schema = self.schema();
+        let stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?.map({
+            let schema = schema.clone();
+            move |batch| {
+                let batch = batch?;
+                Ok(RecordBatch::try_new_with_options(
+                    schema.clone(),
+                    batch.columns().to_vec(),
+                    &RecordBatchOptions::new().with_row_count(Some(batch.num_rows())),
+                )?)
+            }
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(schema, stream)))
+    }
+
+    fn cardinality_effect(&self) -> CardinalityEffect {
+        if self.is_row_preserving {
+            CardinalityEffect::Equal
+        } else {
+            CardinalityEffect::Unknown
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// [`LanceTableProvider`] with its scan wrapped in a [`MetadataEraserExec`].
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ErasingTableProvider {
+    inner: LanceTableProvider,
+    is_row_preserving: bool,
+}
+
+#[async_trait]
+impl TableProvider for ErasingTableProvider {
+    fn schema(&self) -> SchemaRef {
+        Arc::new(erase_metadata(&self.inner.schema()))
+    }
+
+    fn table_type(&self) -> TableType {
+        TableType::Base
+    }
+
+    async fn scan(
+        &self,
+        state: &dyn Session,
+        projection: Option<&Vec<usize>>,
+        filters: &[Expr],
+        limit: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> datafusion::common::Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(MetadataEraserExec::new(
+            self.inner.scan(state, projection, filters, limit).await?,
+            self.is_row_preserving,
+        )))
+    }
+
+    fn supports_filters_pushdown(
+        &self,
+        filters: &[&Expr],
+    ) -> datafusion::common::Result<Vec<TableProviderFilterPushDown>> {
+        self.inner.supports_filters_pushdown(filters)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The rule looks through a certified custom node only when it reports
+/// `CardinalityEffect::Equal`, and re-applies a metadata-erasing one above the
+/// take so the plan keeps its schema.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::keeps_every_row(true)]
+#[case::unknown_cardinality(false)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sql_topk_through_a_wrapping_provider(#[case] is_row_preserving: bool) {
+    let sql = "SELECT id, wide FROM t WHERE cat = 3 ORDER BY id DESC LIMIT 5";
+    let dataset = make_dataset().await;
+    let provider = Arc::new(ErasingTableProvider {
+        inner: LanceTableProvider::new(dataset, false, false),
+        is_row_preserving,
+    });
+    let (plain, expected) = run(&context(provider.clone(), false), sql).await;
+    let (rewritten, actual) = run(&context(provider, true), sql).await;
+    let shown = displayable(rewritten.as_ref()).indent(true).to_string();
+
+    assert!(rewritten.schema().metadata().is_empty(), "{shown}");
+    assert_eq!(rewritten.schema(), plain.schema());
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected, "{shown}");
+    let take_rows = take_output_rows(&rewritten);
+    if is_row_preserving {
+        assert_eq!(take_rows, [5], "{shown}");
+        assert_eq!(scans(&rewritten), [["id", "_rowid"]], "{shown}");
+    } else {
+        assert!(take_rows.is_empty(), "{shown}");
+    }
+}
+
+/// A precomputed read selection (a distributed worker's share of the rows)
+/// survives the narrowing.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn topk_keeps_a_precomputed_read_plan() {
+    let dataset = make_dataset().await;
+    let mut rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+    rows.insert_bitmap(0, (0u32..20).collect());
+    let read = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+        dataset.clone(),
+        FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset),
+        None,
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .with_plan(FilteredReadPlan {
+        rows,
+        filters: Default::default(),
+        scan_range_after_filter: None,
+    })
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let plan = top_5_by_id(Arc::new(read));
+    let rewritten = rule().optimize(plan.clone(), &Default::default()).unwrap();
+    let shown = displayable(rewritten.as_ref()).indent(true).to_string();
+
+    assert_eq!(scans(&rewritten), [["id", "_rowid"]], "{shown}");
+    let ids = execute(rewritten).await;
+    assert_eq!(ids, execute(plan).await, "{shown}");
+    assert_eq!(
+        ids.column_by_name("id")
+            .unwrap()
+            .as_primitive::<UInt64Type>()
+            .values(),
+        &[19, 18, 17, 16, 15]
+    );
+}
+
+/// A precomputed selection no larger than the limit keeps every row, so the
+/// read is left alone.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn topk_within_a_precomputed_selection_is_left_alone() {
+    let dataset = make_dataset().await;
+    let mut rows = RowAddrTreeMap::new();
+    rows.insert_bitmap(0, (0u32..5).collect());
+    let read = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+        dataset.clone(),
+        FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset),
+        None,
+    )
+    .unwrap()
+    .with_plan(FilteredReadPlan {
+        rows,
+        filters: Default::default(),
+        scan_range_after_filter: None,
+    })
+    .await
+    .unwrap();
+    let plan = top_5_by_id(Arc::new(read));
+    let rewritten = rule().optimize(plan.clone(), &Default::default()).unwrap();
+
+    assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&rewritten, &plan));
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Target;
+
+impl VarProvider for Target {
+    fn get_value(&self, _: Vec<String>) -> datafusion::error::Result<ScalarValue> {
+        Ok(ScalarValue::Int32(Some(3)))
+    }
+
+    fn get_type(&self, _: &[String]) -> Option<DataType> {
+        Some(DataType::Int32)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A filter planned with session state (here a variable) keeps it.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sql_topk_keeps_session_planned_filters() {
+    let sql = "SELECT id, wide FROM t WHERE cat = @target ORDER BY id DESC LIMIT 5";
+    let dataset = make_dataset().await;
+    let provider = Arc::new(LanceTableProvider::new(dataset, false, false));
+    let plain = context(provider.clone(), false);
+    let optimized = context(provider, true);
+    plain.register_variable(VarType::UserDefined, Arc::new(Target));
+    optimized.register_variable(VarType::UserDefined, Arc::new(Target));
+    let (_, expected) = run(&plain, sql).await;
+    let (rewritten, actual) = run(&optimized, sql).await;
+    let shown = displayable(rewritten.as_ref()).indent(true).to_string();
+
+    assert_eq!(actual, expected, "{shown}");
+    assert_eq!(scans(&rewritten), [["id", "_rowid"]], "{shown}");
+}
+
+/// Keeps every row and column but changes `cat`'s values.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct AdjustCatExec {
+    input: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>,
+}
+
+impl DisplayAs for AdjustCatExec {
+    fn fmt_as(&self, _t: DisplayFormatType, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "AdjustCatExec")
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionPlan for AdjustCatExec {
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        "AdjustCatExec"
+    }
+
+    fn properties(&self) -> &Arc<PlanProperties> {
+        self.input.properties()
+    }
+
+    fn children(&self) -> Vec<&Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        vec![&self.input]
+    }
+
+    fn with_new_children(
+        self: Arc<Self>,
+        mut children: Vec<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>> {
+        Ok(Arc::new(Self {
+            input: children.remove(0),
+        }))
+    }
+
+    fn cardinality_effect(&self) -> CardinalityEffect {
+        CardinalityEffect::Equal
+    }
+
+    fn execute(
+        &self,
+        partition: usize,
+        context: Arc<TaskContext>,
+    ) -> datafusion::error::Result<SendableRecordBatchStream> {
+        let stream = self.input.execute(partition, context)?.map(|batch| {
+            let batch = batch?;
+            let mut columns = batch.columns().to_vec();
+            if let Ok(index) = batch.schema().index_of("cat") {
+                let cat = batch.column(index).as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+                columns[index] = Arc::new(cat.unary::<_, Int32Type>(|v| v + 1000)) as _;
+            }
+            Ok(RecordBatch::try_new(batch.schema(), columns)?)
+        });
+        Ok(Box::pin(RecordBatchStreamAdapter::new(
+            self.schema(),
+            stream,
+        )))
+    }
+}
+
+/// An uncertified node is not walked through, however row-preserving it
+/// claims to be: the take above the sort would bypass it.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn topk_over_an_uncertified_node_is_left_alone() {
+    let dataset = make_dataset().await;
+    let read = FilteredReadExec::try_new(
+        dataset.clone(),
+        FilteredReadOptions::basic_full_read(&dataset),
+        None,
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+    let plan = top_5_by_id(Arc::new(AdjustCatExec {
+        input: Arc::new(read),
+    }));
+    let rewritten = rule().optimize(plan.clone(), &Default::default()).unwrap();
+
+    assert!(Arc::ptr_eq(&rewritten, &plan));
+    let cat = execute(rewritten).await;
+    let cat = cat
+        .column_by_name("cat")
+        .unwrap()
+        .as_primitive::<Int32Type>();
+    assert!(cat.values().iter().all(|v| *v >= 1000));
+}
+
+/// A take that adds `s.x` to an input `s` changes that column, so a sort on
+/// `s` (or a field of it) must stay above the take: below it, the sort would
+/// see only `s.y`.
+#[rstest]
+#[case::existing_field("y")]
+#[case::new_field("x")]
+#[case::whole_struct("all")]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn sort_stays_above_a_take_that_extends_a_struct(#[case] field_name: &str) {
+    use arrow_array::{Array, ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatchIterator, StructArray};
+    use arrow_schema::Field;
+    use datafusion::common::DFSchema;
+    use datafusion::functions::core::expr_fn::get_field;
+    use datafusion::physical_optimizer::enforce_sorting::EnforceSorting;
+    use datafusion::prelude::col as logical_col;
+    use lance_core::datatypes::OnMissing;
+
+    let nested = StructArray::from(vec![
+        (
+            Arc::new(Field::new("x", DataType::Int32, false)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![3, 1, 2])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+        (
+            Arc::new(Field::new("y", DataType::Int32, false)),
+            Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![2, 3, 1])) as ArrayRef,
+        ),
+    ]);
+    let schema = Arc::new(Schema::new(vec![Field::new(
+        "s",
+        nested.data_type().clone(),
+        false,
+    )]));
+    let batch = RecordBatch::try_new(schema.clone(), vec![Arc::new(nested)]).unwrap();
+    let dataset = Arc::new(
+        Dataset::write(
+            RecordBatchIterator::new([Ok(batch)], schema),
+            "memory://",
+            None,
+        )
+        .await
+        .unwrap(),
+    );
+    // Built fresh for each run: executing a read consumes it.
+    let make_plan = || {
+        let projection = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_column("s.y", OnMissing::Error)
+            .unwrap()
+            .with_row_id();
+        let input = Arc::new(
+            FilteredReadExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), FilteredReadOptions::new(projection), None)
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let extra = dataset
+            .empty_projection()
+            .union_column("s.x", OnMissing::Error)
+            .unwrap();
+        let take: Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan> = Arc::new(
+            TakeExec::try_new(dataset.clone(), input, extra)
+                .unwrap()
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+        let logical_expr = if field_name == "all" {
+            logical_col("s")
+        } else {
+            get_field(logical_col("s"), field_name)
+        };
+        let expr = SessionContext::new()
+            .create_physical_expr(
+                logical_expr,
+                &DFSchema::try_from(take.schema().as_ref().clone()).unwrap(),
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let ordering =
+            LexOrdering::new([PhysicalSortExpr::new(expr, SortOptions::default())]).unwrap();
+        Arc::new(SortExec::new(ordering, take)) as Arc<dyn ExecutionPlan>
+    };
+    let expected = execute(make_plan()).await;
+    let optimized = EnforceSorting::new()
+        .optimize(make_plan(), &ConfigOptions::default())
+        .unwrap();
+    let shown = displayable(optimized.as_ref()).indent(true).to_string();
+    SanityCheckPlan::new()
+        .optimize(optimized.clone(), &ConfigOptions::default())
+        .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("{e}\n{shown}"));
+    assert_eq!(execute(optimized).await, expected, "{shown}");
+}
diff --git a/rust/lance/tests/utils/mod.rs b/rust/lance/tests/utils/mod.rs
index 930813ee17c..b8a034a50b0 100644
--- a/rust/lance/tests/utils/mod.rs
+++ b/rust/lance/tests/utils/mod.rs
@@ -7,17 +7,18 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, Int32Array, RecordBatch};
 use futures::FutureExt;
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
 use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
 use lance::{
-    dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteParams},
     Dataset,
+    dataset::{InsertBuilder, WriteParams},
 };
 use lance_index::scalar::{InvertedIndexParams, ScalarIndexParams};
 use lance_index::vector::hnsw::builder::HnswBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::ivf::IvfBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::pq::PQBuildParams;
 use lance_index::vector::sq::builder::SQBuildParams;
-use lance_index::{DatasetIndexExt, IndexParams, IndexType};
+use lance_index::{IndexParams, IndexType};
 use lance_linalg::distance::{DistanceType, MetricType};
 
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
diff --git a/skills/README.md b/skills/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3bc81d019f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/skills/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+# Skills
+
+This directory contains code agent skills for the Lance project.
+
+Each skill is a folder that contains a required `SKILL.md` (with YAML frontmatter) and optional `scripts/`, `references/`, and `assets/`.
+
+## Install
+
+```bash
+npx skills add lance-format/lance
+```
+
+Restart code agents after installing.
diff --git a/skills/lance-user-guide/SKILL.md b/skills/lance-user-guide/SKILL.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4bf7eb515c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/skills/lance-user-guide/SKILL.md
@@ -0,0 +1,227 @@
+---
+name: lance-user-guide
+description: Guide Code Agents to help Lance users write/read datasets and build/choose indices. Use when a user asks how to use Lance (Python/Rust/CLI), how to write_dataset/open/scan, how to build vector indexes (IVF_PQ, IVF_HNSW_*), how to build scalar indexes (BTREE, BITMAP, LABEL_LIST, NGRAM, INVERTED, BLOOMFILTER, RTREE, etc.), how to combine filters with vector search, or how to debug indexing and scan performance.
+---
+
+# Lance User Guide
+
+## Scope
+
+Use this skill to answer questions about:
+
+- Writing datasets (create/append/overwrite) and reading/scanning datasets
+- Vector search (nearest-neighbor queries) and vector index creation/tuning
+- Scalar index creation and choosing a scalar index type for a filter workload
+- Combining filters (metadata predicates) with vector search
+
+Do not use this skill for:
+
+- Contributing to Lance itself (repo development, internal architecture)
+- File format internals beyond what is required to use the API correctly
+
+## Installation (quick)
+
+Python:
+
+```bash
+pip install pylance
+```
+
+Verify:
+
+```bash
+python -c "import lance; print(lance.__version__)"
+```
+
+Rust:
+
+```bash
+cargo add lance
+```
+
+Or add it to `Cargo.toml` (choose an appropriate version for your project):
+
+```toml
+[dependencies]
+lance = "x.y"
+```
+
+From source (this repository):
+
+```bash
+maturin develop -m python/Cargo.toml
+```
+
+## Minimal intake (ask only what you need)
+
+Collect the minimum information required to avoid wrong guidance:
+
+- Language/API surface: Python / Rust / CLI
+- Storage: local filesystem / S3 / other object store
+- Workload: scan-only / filter-heavy / vector search / hybrid (vector + filter)
+- Vector details (if applicable): dimension, metric (L2/cosine/dot), latency target, recall target
+- Update pattern: mostly append / frequent overwrite / frequent deletes/updates
+- Data scale: approximate row count and whether there are many small files
+
+If the user does not specify a language, default to Python examples and provide a short mapping to Rust concepts.
+
+## Workflow decision tree
+
+1. If the question is "How do I write or update data?": use the **Write** playbook.
+2. If the question is "How do I read / scan / filter?": use the **Read** playbook.
+3. If the question is "How do I do kNN / vector search?": use the **Vector search** playbook.
+4. If the question is "Which index should I use?": consult `references/index-selection.md` and confirm constraints.
+5. If the question is "Why is this slow / why are results missing?": use **Troubleshooting** and ask for a minimal reproduction.
+
+## Primary playbooks (Python)
+
+### Write
+
+Prefer `lance.write_dataset` for most user workflows.
+
+```python
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+vectors = pa.array(
+    [[1.0, 2.0, 3.0], [4.0, 5.0, 6.0]],
+    type=pa.list_(pa.float32(), 3),
+)
+table = pa.table({"id": [1, 2], "vector": vectors, "category": ["a", "b"]})
+
+ds = lance.write_dataset(table, "my-data.lance", mode="create")
+ds = lance.write_dataset(table, "my-data.lance", mode="append")
+ds = lance.write_dataset(table, "my-data.lance", mode="overwrite")
+```
+
+Validation checklist:
+
+- Re-open and count rows: `lance.dataset(uri).count_rows()`
+- Confirm schema: `lance.dataset(uri).schema`
+
+Notes:
+
+- Use `storage_options={...}` when writing to an object store URI.
+- If the user mentions non-atomic object stores, mention `commit_lock` and point them to the user guide.
+
+### Read
+
+Use `lance.dataset` + `scanner(...)` for pushdowns (projection, filter, limit, nearest).
+
+```python
+import lance
+
+ds = lance.dataset("my-data.lance")
+tbl = ds.scanner(
+    columns=["id", "category"],
+    filter="category = 'a' and id >= 10",
+    limit=100,
+).to_table()
+```
+
+Validation checklist:
+
+- If performance is the concern, ask for a minimal `scanner(...)` call that reproduces it.
+- If correctness is the concern, ask for the exact `filter` string and whether `prefilter` is enabled (when using `nearest`).
+
+### Vector search (nearest)
+
+Run vector search with `scanner(nearest=...)` or `to_table(nearest=...)`.
+
+```python
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+
+ds = lance.dataset("my-data.lance")
+q = np.array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], dtype=np.float32)
+tbl = ds.to_table(nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 10})
+```
+
+If combining a filter with vector search, decide whether the filter must run before the vector query:
+
+- Use `prefilter=True` when the filter is highly selective and correctness (top-k among filtered rows) matters.
+- Use `prefilter=False` when the filter is not very selective and speed matters, and accept that results can be fewer than `k`.
+
+```python
+tbl = ds.scanner(
+    nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 10},
+    filter="category = 'a'",
+    prefilter=True,
+).to_table()
+```
+
+### Build a vector index
+
+Create a vector index with `LanceDataset.create_index(...)`.
+
+Start with a minimal working configuration:
+
+```python
+ds = lance.dataset("my-data.lance")
+ds = ds.create_index(
+    "vector",
+    index_type="IVF_PQ",
+    target_partition_size=8192,
+    num_sub_vectors=16,
+)
+```
+
+Then verify:
+
+- `ds.describe_indices()` (preferred) or `ds.list_indices()` (can be expensive)
+- A small `nearest` query that uses the index
+
+For parameter selection and tuning, consult `references/index-selection.md`.
+
+### Build a scalar index
+
+Scalar indices speed up scans with filters. Use `create_scalar_index` for a stable entry point.
+
+```python
+ds = lance.dataset("my-data.lance")
+ds.create_scalar_index("category", "BTREE", replace=True)
+```
+
+Then verify:
+
+- `ds.describe_indices()`
+- A representative `scanner(filter=...)` query
+
+To choose a scalar index type (BTREE vs BITMAP vs LABEL_LIST vs NGRAM vs INVERTED, etc.), consult `references/index-selection.md`.
+
+## Troubleshooting patterns
+
+### "Vector search + filter returns fewer than k rows"
+
+- Explain the difference between post-filtering and pre-filtering.
+- Suggest `prefilter=True` if the user expects top-k among filtered rows.
+
+### "Index creation is slow"
+
+- Confirm vector dimension and `num_sub_vectors`.
+- For IVF_PQ, call out the common pitfall: avoid misaligned `dimension / num_sub_vectors` (see `references/index-selection.md`).
+
+### "Scan is slow even with a scalar index"
+
+- Ask whether the filter is compatible with the index (equality vs range vs text search).
+- Suggest checking whether scalar index usage is disabled (`use_scalar_index=False`).
+
+## Local verification (when a repo checkout is available)
+
+When answering API questions, confirm the exact signature and docstrings locally:
+
+- Python I/O entry points: `python/python/lance/dataset.py` (`write_dataset`, `LanceDataset.scanner`)
+- Vector indexing: `python/python/lance/dataset.py` (`create_index`)
+- Scalar indexing: `python/python/lance/dataset.py` (`create_scalar_index`)
+
+Use targeted search:
+
+```bash
+rg -n "def write_dataset\\b|def create_index\\b|def create_scalar_index\\b|def scanner\\b" python/python/lance/dataset.py
+```
+
+## Bundled resources
+
+- Index selection and tuning: `references/index-selection.md`
+- I/O and versioning cheat sheet: `references/io-cheatsheet.md`
+- Runnable minimal example: `scripts/python_end_to_end.py`
diff --git a/skills/lance-user-guide/references/index-selection.md b/skills/lance-user-guide/references/index-selection.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f83764f1a67
--- /dev/null
+++ b/skills/lance-user-guide/references/index-selection.md
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+## Index selection (quick)
+
+Use this file when the user asks "which index should I use" or "how do I tune it".
+
+Always confirm:
+
+- The query pattern (filter-only, vector-only, hybrid)
+- Data scale (rows, vector dimension)
+- Update pattern (append vs frequent updates/deletes)
+- Correctness needs (must return top-k within a filtered subset vs best-effort)
+
+## Decision table
+
+| Workload | Recommended starting point | Notes |
+| --- | --- | --- |
+| Filter-only scans (`scanner(filter=...)`) | Create a scalar index on the filtered column | Choose scalar index type based on predicate shape and cardinality |
+| Vector search only (`nearest=...`) on large data | Build a vector index | Start with `IVF_PQ` if you need compression; tune `nprobes` / `refine_factor` |
+| Vector search + selective filter | Scalar index for filter + vector index for search | Use `prefilter=True` when you need true top-k among filtered rows |
+| Vector search + non-selective filter | Vector index only (or scalar index optional) | Consider `prefilter=False` for speed; accept fewer than k results |
+| Text search | Create an `INVERTED` scalar index | Use `full_text_query=...` when available; note that `FTS` is not a universal alias in all SDK versions |
+
+## Vector index types (user-facing summary)
+
+Vector index names typically follow a pattern like `{clustering}_{sub_index}_{quantization}`.
+
+Common combinations:
+
+- `IVF_PQ`: IVF clustering + PQ compression
+- `IVF_HNSW_SQ`: IVF clustering + HNSW + SQ
+- `IVF_SQ`: IVF clustering + SQ
+- `IVF_RQ`: IVF clustering + RQ
+- `IVF_FLAT`: IVF clustering + no quantization (exact vectors within clusters)
+
+If you are unsure which types are supported in the user's environment, recommend starting with `IVF_PQ` and fall back to "try and see" (the API will error on unsupported types).
+
+## Vector index creation defaults
+
+Start with:
+
+- `index_type="IVF_PQ"`
+- `target_partition_size`: start with 8192 and adjust based on the dataset size and latency/recall needs
+- `num_sub_vectors`: choose a value that divides the vector dimension
+
+Practical warning (performance):
+
+- Avoid misalignment: `(dimension / num_sub_vectors) % 8 == 0` is a common sweet spot for faster index creation.
+
+## Vector search tuning defaults
+
+Tune recall vs latency with:
+
+- `nprobes`: how many IVF partitions to search
+- `refine_factor`: how many candidates to re-rank to improve accuracy
+
+When a user reports "too slow" or "bad recall", ask for:
+
+- Current `nprobes`, `refine_factor`, and index type
+- Whether the query is using `prefilter`
+
+## Scalar index selection (starting guidance)
+
+Choose scalar index type based on the filter expression:
+
+- Equality filters on high-cardinality columns: start with `BTREE`
+- Equality / IN-list filters on low-cardinality columns: start with `BITMAP`
+- List membership filters on list-like columns: start with `LABEL_LIST`
+- Substring / `contains(...)` filters on strings: start with `NGRAM`
+- Full-text search (FTS): start with `INVERTED`
+- Range filters: start with range-friendly options (for example `ZONEMAP` when appropriate)
+- Highly selective negative membership / presence checks: consider `BLOOMFILTER` (inexact)
+- Geospatial queries (if present in your build): use `RTREE`
+
+## JSON fields
+
+Lance scalar indices are created on physical columns. If you want to index a JSON sub-field:
+
+1. Materialize the extracted value into a new column (for example with `add_columns`)
+2. Create a scalar index on that new column
+
+Example (Python, using SQL expressions):
+
+```python
+ds = lance.dataset(uri)
+ds.add_columns({"country": "json_extract(payload, '$.country')"})
+ds.create_scalar_index("country", "BTREE", replace=True)
+```
+
+If you cannot confidently map the filter to an index type, recommend `BTREE` as a safe baseline and confirm via a small benchmark on representative queries.
diff --git a/skills/lance-user-guide/references/io-cheatsheet.md b/skills/lance-user-guide/references/io-cheatsheet.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..acb34ac233a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/skills/lance-user-guide/references/io-cheatsheet.md
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+## I/O cheat sheet (Python)
+
+Use this file when the user asks how to write/read Lance datasets, manage versions, or work with object stores.
+
+## Write a dataset
+
+Use `lance.write_dataset(data, uri, mode=...)`.
+
+Modes:
+
+- `mode="create"`: create new dataset (error if exists)
+- `mode="overwrite"`: create a new version that replaces the latest snapshot
+- `mode="append"`: append data as a new version (or create if missing)
+
+Inputs:
+
+- `pyarrow.Table`
+- `pyarrow.RecordBatchReader`
+- pandas DataFrame
+- other reader-like sources supported by the installed Lance version
+
+## Open a dataset
+
+Use `lance.dataset(uri, version=..., asof=..., storage_options=...)`.
+
+Notes:
+
+- `version` can be a number or a tag (depending on the environment/version).
+- Use `storage_options` for object stores (credentials, endpoint, etc.).
+
+## Read / scan
+
+Use `ds.scanner(...)` for pushdowns:
+
+- `columns=[...]` for projection
+- `filter="..."` for predicate pushdown
+- `limit=...` for limit pushdown
+- `nearest={...}` for vector search
+- `prefilter=True/False` to control filter ordering when combined with `nearest`
+- `use_scalar_index=True/False` to control scalar index usage
+
+Then materialize:
+
+- `scanner(...).to_table()`
+- `scanner(...).to_batches()`
+
+## Hybrid query: vector + filter
+
+Use a scalar index for the filter column when the filter is selective and you set `prefilter=True`.
+
+Example:
+
+```python
+tbl = ds.scanner(
+    nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": 10},
+    filter="category = 'a'",
+    prefilter=True,
+).to_table()
+```
+
+## Inspect indices
+
+Prefer:
+
+- `ds.describe_indices()`
+
+Use with care:
+
+- `ds.list_indices()` can be expensive because it may load index statistics.
diff --git a/skills/lance-user-guide/scripts/python_end_to_end.py b/skills/lance-user-guide/scripts/python_end_to_end.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ec2d02713c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/skills/lance-user-guide/scripts/python_end_to_end.py
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import argparse
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import numpy as np
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+import lance
+
+
+def _build_fixed_size_vectors(num_rows: int, dim: int) -> tuple[pa.FixedSizeListArray, np.ndarray]:
+    vectors = np.random.rand(num_rows, dim).astype("float32")
+    flat = pa.array(vectors.reshape(-1), type=pa.float32())
+    return pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(flat, dim), vectors
+
+
+def main() -> None:
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="Minimal Lance write/index/query example")
+    parser.add_argument("--uri", default="example.lance", help="Dataset URI (directory)")
+    parser.add_argument("--mode", default="overwrite", choices=["create", "append", "overwrite"])
+    parser.add_argument("--rows", type=int, default=1000)
+    parser.add_argument("--dim", type=int, default=32)
+
+    parser.add_argument("--build-scalar-index", action="store_true")
+    parser.add_argument("--build-vector-index", action="store_true")
+
+    parser.add_argument("--vector-index-type", default="IVF_PQ")
+    parser.add_argument("--target-partition-size", type=int, default=8192)
+    parser.add_argument("--num-sub-vectors", type=int, default=8)
+
+    parser.add_argument("--k", type=int, default=10)
+    parser.add_argument("--filter", default="category = 'a'")
+    parser.add_argument("--prefilter", action="store_true")
+
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+
+    uri = str(Path(args.uri))
+    vec_arr, vec_np = _build_fixed_size_vectors(args.rows, args.dim)
+    categories = pa.array(["a" if i % 2 == 0 else "b" for i in range(args.rows)])
+    table = pa.table({"id": pa.array(range(args.rows), pa.int64()), "category": categories, "vector": vec_arr})
+
+    ds = lance.write_dataset(table, uri, mode=args.mode)
+    ds = lance.dataset(uri)
+
+    if args.build_scalar_index:
+        ds.create_scalar_index("category", "BTREE", replace=True)
+
+    if args.build_vector_index:
+        ds = ds.create_index(
+            "vector",
+            index_type=args.vector_index_type,
+            target_partition_size=args.target_partition_size,
+            num_sub_vectors=args.num_sub_vectors,
+        )
+
+    print(f"uri={ds.uri}")
+    print(f"rows={ds.count_rows()}")
+    print("indices=")
+    for idx in ds.describe_indices():
+        print(f"  - {idx}")
+
+    q = vec_np[0]
+    scan = ds.scanner(
+        nearest={"column": "vector", "q": q, "k": args.k},
+        filter=args.filter if args.filter else None,
+        prefilter=args.prefilter,
+    )
+    result = scan.to_table()
+    print("result_schema=")
+    print(result.schema)
+    print("result_preview=")
+    print(result.slice(0, 5).to_pydict())
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/README.md b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f4b6380fdf3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+# `fri_straddle_pre_6610`
+
+A dataset corrupted by the bug fixed in
+[lance-format/lance#6610](https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/6610):
+a deferred-remap compaction commits concurrently with `optimize_indices`
+on a stale handle, leaving a user index whose `fragment_bitmap` straddles
+a fragment-reuse rewrite group. `Dataset::list_indices()` panics with
+"The compaction plan included a rewrite group that was a split of indexed
+and non-indexed data".
+
+Used by `dataset::repair` Rust tests to verify detection,
+`Dataset::validate()` error reporting, and `Dataset::repair()` against a
+real on-disk corrupt manifest.
+
+## Regenerating
+
+The reproduction is deterministic in Rust because we can drive
+`plan_compaction` / `CompactionTask::execute` / `commit_compaction`
+directly with `defer_index_remap=true` and interleave `optimize_indices`
+between them. Python's `Compaction.commit` hardcodes
+`CompactionOptions::default()` (no defer-remap), so a Python datagen
+cannot reach this path without a tight commit race.
+
+The generator is a standalone crate at `datagen/` that pins `lance` to
+the last pre-#6610 release tag (`v6.0.0-beta.3`). It is deliberately not
+part of the parent Cargo workspace so it can compile against the buggy
+build. On a fixed build the conflict resolver rejects the rewrite as a
+retryable conflict and the generator fails loudly. To regenerate:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release \
+    --manifest-path test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/Cargo.toml -- \
+    test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset
+```
+
+Bump the pinned tag in `datagen/Cargo.toml` only to another pre-#6610
+build.
diff --git a/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/Cargo.lock b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/Cargo.lock
new file mode 100644
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+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.117",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "zmij"
+version = "1.0.21"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "b8848ee67ecc8aedbaf3e4122217aff892639231befc6a1b58d29fff4c2cabaa"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "zstd"
+version = "0.13.3"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e91ee311a569c327171651566e07972200e76fcfe2242a4fa446149a3881c08a"
+dependencies = [
+ "zstd-safe",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "zstd-safe"
+version = "7.2.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "8f49c4d5f0abb602a93fb8736af2a4f4dd9512e36f7f570d66e65ff867ed3b9d"
+dependencies = [
+ "zstd-sys",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "zstd-sys"
+version = "2.0.16+zstd.1.5.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "91e19ebc2adc8f83e43039e79776e3fda8ca919132d68a1fed6a5faca2683748"
+dependencies = [
+ "cc",
+ "pkg-config",
+]
diff --git a/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/Cargo.toml b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..257fa383e82
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+# Standalone — deliberately not part of the parent Cargo workspace. This
+# crate must compile against a pre-#6610 build of `lance`, where the conflict
+# resolver still has the buggy `(None, Some(_)) => Ok(())` arm. Pinning here
+# is intentional; do not bump unless you are pinning to another build that
+# also predates #6610.
+[workspace]
+
+[package]
+name = "fri-straddle-datagen"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2021"
+publish = false
+license = "Apache-2.0"
+
+[dependencies]
+arrow = "57"
+chrono = "0.4"
+clap = { version = "4", features = ["derive"] }
+# Pin to v6.0.0-beta.3 — the last tag before PR #6610.
+lance = { git = "https://github.com/lance-format/lance.git", tag = "v6.0.0-beta.3" }
+lance-datagen = { git = "https://github.com/lance-format/lance.git", tag = "v6.0.0-beta.3" }
+lance-index = { git = "https://github.com/lance-format/lance.git", tag = "v6.0.0-beta.3" }
+lance-linalg = { git = "https://github.com/lance-format/lance.git", tag = "v6.0.0-beta.3" }
+tokio = { version = "1", features = ["macros", "rt-multi-thread"] }
diff --git a/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/src/main.rs b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/src/main.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..57afbdc7901
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/src/main.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+//! Generator for the `fri_straddle_pre_6610` test fixture.
+//!
+//! Reproduces the corrupt dataset state caused by the bug fixed in
+//! <https://github.com/lance-format/lance/pull/6610>: a deferred-remap
+//! compaction commits concurrently with `optimize_indices` against an older
+//! dataset version, leaving a user index whose `fragment_bitmap` straddles a
+//! fragment-reuse rewrite group. After this state is reached,
+//! `Dataset::list_indices` panics on pre-fix builds.
+//!
+//! Standalone crate — deliberately not part of the parent workspace because
+//! it must compile against a pre-#6610 `lance` (pinned in `Cargo.toml`).
+//!
+//! ## Usage
+//!
+//! ```bash
+//! cargo run --release --manifest-path test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/datagen/Cargo.toml -- \
+//!     test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset
+//! ```
+//!
+//! On a fixed `lance` the commit is rejected as a retryable conflict and the
+//! generator exits with an error — the desired forward-compat behaviour.
+
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+use arrow::datatypes::Float32Type;
+use chrono::TimeDelta;
+use clap::Parser;
+use lance::Dataset;
+use lance::dataset::index::DatasetIndexRemapperOptions;
+use lance::dataset::optimize::{
+    CompactionOptions, RewriteResult, commit_compaction, plan_compaction,
+};
+use lance::dataset::{WriteMode, WriteParams};
+use lance::index::DatasetIndexExt;
+use lance::index::vector::VectorIndexParams;
+use lance_datagen::{BatchCount, Dimension, RowCount, array, gen_batch};
+use lance_index::IndexType;
+use lance_linalg::distance::MetricType;
+
+#[derive(Parser, Debug)]
+#[command(about = "Generate the fri_straddle_pre_6610 test fixture")]
+struct Args {
+    /// Path to write the generated dataset. Existing contents are removed.
+    output: PathBuf,
+}
+
+async fn append_fragment(uri: &str, rows: u64) -> Dataset {
+    let reader = gen_batch()
+        .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(16)))
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(rows), BatchCount::from(1));
+    Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: rows as usize,
+            mode: WriteMode::Append,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+    let args = Args::parse();
+
+    if args.output.exists() {
+        std::fs::remove_dir_all(&args.output)?;
+    }
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&args.output)?;
+    let uri = format!("file://{}", args.output.canonicalize()?.display());
+
+    // frag0: indexed.
+    let reader = gen_batch()
+        .col("vec", array::rand_vec::<Float32Type>(Dimension::from(16)))
+        .into_reader_rows(RowCount::from(256), BatchCount::from(1));
+    let mut dataset = Dataset::write(
+        reader,
+        &uri,
+        Some(WriteParams {
+            max_rows_per_file: 256,
+            mode: WriteMode::Overwrite,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let index_params = VectorIndexParams::ivf_pq(2, 8, 2, MetricType::L2, 50);
+    dataset
+        .create_index(&["vec"], IndexType::Vector, None, &index_params, true)
+        .await?;
+
+    // Append frag1, snapshot the version before frag2 lands.
+    dataset = append_fragment(&uri, 64).await;
+    let mut stale = dataset.clone();
+
+    // Append frag2 on the up-to-date handle.
+    dataset = append_fragment(&uri, 64).await;
+
+    // Plan + execute deferred-remap compaction of frag1+frag2 against the
+    // up-to-date dataset, but do *not* commit yet.
+    let options = CompactionOptions {
+        defer_index_remap: true,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let plan = plan_compaction(&dataset, &options).await?;
+    if plan.tasks.is_empty() {
+        return Err("plan_compaction produced no tasks; cannot reproduce the bug".into());
+    }
+    let snapshot = dataset.clone();
+    let mut completed: Vec<RewriteResult> = Vec::new();
+    for task in plan.compaction_tasks() {
+        completed.push(task.execute(&snapshot).await?);
+    }
+
+    // Stale optimize_indices commits a CreateIndex covering frag1 only —
+    // frag2 didn't exist at this dataset version. This is the commit that
+    // PR #6610 should have rejected against the still-uncommitted Rewrite,
+    // but doesn't on pre-fix builds.
+    stale
+        .optimize_indices(&lance_index::optimize::OptimizeOptions::append())
+        .await?;
+
+    // Commit the rewrite. On pre-#6610 builds the (None, Some(_)) arm of the
+    // conflict resolver returns COMPATIBLE and the corrupt state is written
+    // to disk. On a fixed build this will return RetryableCommitConflict and
+    // the regenerator will fail loudly — which is the desired behaviour.
+    commit_compaction(
+        &mut dataset,
+        completed,
+        Arc::new(DatasetIndexRemapperOptions::default()),
+        &options,
+    )
+    .await
+    .map_err(|e| {
+        format!(
+            "commit_compaction failed: {e}. \
+             This generator must be run on a Lance build without PR #6610 applied."
+        )
+    })?;
+
+    // Drop intermediate versions so only the latest manifest + its data
+    // files are checked in. Keeps the fixture small. The corrupt manifest
+    // history may reference rewrite artifacts that were never written to
+    // disk; cleanup races with that and can NotFound. Treat as best-effort.
+    let cleaned = Dataset::open(&uri).await?;
+    match cleaned
+        .cleanup_old_versions(TimeDelta::zero(), Some(true), None)
+        .await
+    {
+        Ok(stats) => println!(
+            "Cleaned {} old manifests / {} bytes",
+            stats.old_versions, stats.bytes_removed
+        ),
+        Err(e) => println!("cleanup_old_versions skipped (best-effort): {e}"),
+    }
+
+    println!(
+        "Generated fri_straddle fixture at {}",
+        args.output.display()
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset/_indices/9026cf25-1429-435c-88b1-760f41784b50/auxiliary.idx b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset/_indices/9026cf25-1429-435c-88b1-760f41784b50/auxiliary.idx
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diff --git a/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset/data/0111000011001001001100012f5d8b4bfe8dc9b1dcefba238e.lance b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset/data/0111000011001001001100012f5d8b4bfe8dc9b1dcefba238e.lance
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diff --git a/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset/data/1101010010001101110110003e36734fffa25e4ce82d350e11.lance b/test_data/fri_straddle_pre_6610/fri_straddle_dataset/data/1101010010001101110110003e36734fffa25e4ce82d350e11.lance
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diff --git a/test_data/pre_file_sizes/datagen.py b/test_data/pre_file_sizes/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0967118de02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/pre_file_sizes/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+"""
+Generate test data to simulate a dataset created before the `files` field was added
+to IndexMetadata. This tests backward compatibility for the files field.
+
+To generate this test data:
+1. Check out Lance before the file sizes feature was added (or use a released version)
+2. Run: pip install -e python/
+3. Run: python test_data/pre_file_sizes/datagen.py
+
+The dataset will be created without the `files` field in IndexMetadata,
+which simulates what an older dataset would look like.
+"""
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+import shutil
+import os
+
+assert lance.__version__ == "2.0.0-beta.1"
+
+# Create output directory
+OUTPUT_DIR = os.path.join(os.path.dirname(__file__), "index_without_file_sizes")
+if os.path.exists(OUTPUT_DIR):
+    shutil.rmtree(OUTPUT_DIR)
+
+# Create a simple dataset with a scalar index
+data = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": pa.array(range(100)),
+        "values": pa.array([f"value_{i}" for i in range(100)]),
+    }
+)
+
+# Write dataset
+dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, OUTPUT_DIR)
+
+# Create a scalar index (BTree) using the correct method
+dataset.create_scalar_index("values", index_type="BTREE")
+
+print(f"Created dataset at {OUTPUT_DIR}")
+print(f"Dataset version: {dataset.version}")
+
+# Verify
+dataset = lance.dataset(OUTPUT_DIR)
+indices = dataset.list_indices()
+print(f"Indices: {indices}")
+print("\nTest data created successfully!")
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diff --git a/test_data/pre_file_sizes/index_without_file_sizes/data/1111100111100111100110009777b54c5f953114705fd03f9b.lance b/test_data/pre_file_sizes/index_without_file_sizes/data/1111100111100111100110009777b54c5f953114705fd03f9b.lance
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diff --git a/test_data/readme.md b/test_data/readme.md
index 8d041a96db5..5f34e1108a7 100644
--- a/test_data/readme.md
+++ b/test_data/readme.md
@@ -27,7 +27,22 @@ folder contains a `datagen.py` script that generates one or more lance datasets.
   correctly, so there are duplicate field ids in the schema. There aren't great
   workarounds for readers. Writers should make sure to check the field ids in
   the schema and re-compute them if necessary.
+* `v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq`: This dataset has an 8-bit IVF-PQ index whose
+  64-dimensional vectors were divided into 14 sub-vectors. Writers at this
+  version silently omitted the final eight dimensions from the PQ codebook.
+  Readers should preserve that prefix-only search behavior.
 * `v0.27.1/pq_in_schema`: This dataset uses the old method of storing the PQ
   metadata in the schema metadata in the index file. We switched to storing them
   in a global buffer in https://github.com/lancedb/lance/pull/3829, but still
-  need to be able to read the old format.
\ No newline at end of file
+  need to be able to read the old format.
+* `v3.0.1/fts_v1` and `v4.0.1/fts_v2`: These datasets cover the supported FTS
+  layouts written by stable Lance releases. Each fixture contains posting lists
+  that cross the layout's block boundary and positions used by phrase queries.
+  The v1 fixture also retains the retired `skip_merge` parameter written by Lance
+  3.0.1.
+* `v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap`: This dataset has a Decimal128 ZoneMap whose non-null
+  values have null min/max statistics because Decimal extrema were not computed
+  by Lance 8.0.0.
+* `v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance` and `v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance`: Legacy Blob
+  columns containing a payload, null, and empty bytes. These fixtures cover
+  reading released files alongside newly appended Blob v2 files.
diff --git a/test_data/v0.10.15/datagen.py b/test_data/v0.10.15/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f864cfa0ee8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v0.10.15/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+import shutil
+
+import lance
+import numpy as np
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+# To generate the test file, we should be running this version of lance.
+assert lance.__version__ == "0.10.15"
+
+name = "non_divisible_pq"
+dimension = 64
+num_sub_vectors = 14
+sub_vector_dimension = dimension // num_sub_vectors
+
+shutil.rmtree(name, ignore_errors=True)
+
+vector = np.arange(1, dimension + 1, dtype=np.float32)
+data = pa.table(
+    {
+        "id": pa.array([0]),
+        "vector": pa.FixedSizeListArray.from_arrays(pa.array(vector), dimension),
+    }
+)
+dataset = lance.write_dataset(data, name)
+
+ivf_centroids = np.zeros((1, dimension), dtype=np.float32)
+persisted_prefix = vector[: num_sub_vectors * sub_vector_dimension].reshape(
+    num_sub_vectors, sub_vector_dimension
+)
+pq_codebook = np.repeat(persisted_prefix[:, np.newaxis, :], 256, axis=1)
+dataset.create_index(
+    "vector",
+    "IVF_PQ",
+    metric="l2",
+    num_partitions=1,
+    ivf_centroids=ivf_centroids,
+    num_sub_vectors=num_sub_vectors,
+    pq_codebook=pq_codebook,
+)
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diff --git a/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_transactions/0-573045e8-48b7-4662-941d-d30af281d50f.txn b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_transactions/0-573045e8-48b7-4662-941d-d30af281d50f.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c7a0feb2315
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_transactions/0-573045e8-48b7-4662-941d-d30af281d50f.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_transactions/1-11123412-ba3d-4e23-8edd-5b0d5a1e84f6.txn b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_transactions/1-11123412-ba3d-4e23-8edd-5b0d5a1e84f6.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4a5161722fc
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_transactions/1-11123412-ba3d-4e23-8edd-5b0d5a1e84f6.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_versions/1.manifest b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_versions/1.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..acb27411508
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_versions/1.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_versions/2.manifest b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_versions/2.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3bb9ca51bc7
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/_versions/2.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/data/2f1a33f2-fdcd-40f7-a361-844659965e1e.lance b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/data/2f1a33f2-fdcd-40f7-a361-844659965e1e.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8fda283a059
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v0.10.15/non_divisible_pq/data/2f1a33f2-fdcd-40f7-a361-844659965e1e.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/_transactions/0-d1be0750-43f8-4399-a587-30f496ebf963.txn b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/_transactions/0-d1be0750-43f8-4399-a587-30f496ebf963.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1ff4ca23c37
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/_transactions/0-d1be0750-43f8-4399-a587-30f496ebf963.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..073c62b30d9
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/_versions/latest_version_hint.json b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/_versions/latest_version_hint.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..491d734467a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/_versions/latest_version_hint.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"version":1}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101001100001101001100110024e524e87a2c996cccd0d0f1f.lance b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101001100001101001100110024e524e87a2c996cccd0d0f1f.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..73b8bd155d6
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101001100001101001100110024e524e87a2c996cccd0d0f1f.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101001100001101001100110024e524e87a2c996cccd0d0f1f/10000000000000000000000000000000.blob b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101001100001101001100110024e524e87a2c996cccd0d0f1f/10000000000000000000000000000000.blob
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..00ea360d7cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101001100001101001100110024e524e87a2c996cccd0d0f1f/10000000000000000000000000000000.blob
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101101001100001010100011cadfab455c80f603c31f0f8324.lance b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101101001100001010100011cadfab455c80f603c31f0f8324.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9fe601b78de
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101101001100001010100011cadfab455c80f603c31f0f8324.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101101001100001010100011cadfab455c80f603c31f0f8324/10000000000000000000000000000000.blob b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101101001100001010100011cadfab455c80f603c31f0f8324/10000000000000000000000000000000.blob
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..357ab15b826
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v11.0.0/blob_sidecars/data/101101001100001010100011cadfab455c80f603c31f0f8324/10000000000000000000000000000000.blob
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+pppppppppppppppp
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/test_data/v11.0.0/datagen.py b/test_data/v11.0.0/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..611087c8f5f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v11.0.0/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Generate the released Packed/Dedicated fixture used by Managed adoption tests."""
+
+import shutil
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+assert lance.__version__ == "11.0.0"
+
+field = lance.blob_field("blob").with_metadata(
+    {
+        "lance-encoding:blob-inline-size-threshold": "8",
+        "lance-encoding:blob-dedicated-size-threshold": "24",
+    }
+)
+table = pa.Table.from_arrays(
+    [lance.blob_array([b"p" * 16, b"inline", None, b"", b"d" * 32, b"inline"])],
+    schema=pa.schema([field]),
+)
+dataset_path = Path(__file__).parent / "blob_sidecars"
+shutil.rmtree(dataset_path, ignore_errors=True)
+dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+    table,
+    dataset_path,
+    data_storage_version="2.2",
+    max_rows_per_file=3,
+    max_rows_per_group=3,
+)
+assert [
+    row["blob"]["kind"] if row["blob"] is not None else None
+    for row in dataset.to_table().to_pylist()
+] == [1, 0, None, 0, 2, 0]
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/datagen.py b/test_data/v3.0.1/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2815351490c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v3.0.1/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+import os
+import shutil
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.query import PhraseQuery
+
+EXPECTED_LANCE_VERSION = "3.0.1"
+EXPECTED_FTS_VERSION = 1
+NUM_ROWS = 300
+
+assert lance.__version__ == EXPECTED_LANCE_VERSION
+
+os.environ["LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION"] = str(EXPECTED_FTS_VERSION)
+
+dataset_path = Path(__file__).parent / "fts_v1"
+shutil.rmtree(dataset_path, ignore_errors=True)
+
+row_ids = list(range(NUM_ROWS))
+texts = [
+    "lance database compatibility shared"
+    if row_id % 3 == 0
+    else "database lance compatibility shared"
+    for row_id in row_ids
+]
+dataset = lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"id": row_ids, "text": texts}), dataset_path)
+dataset.create_scalar_index(
+    "text",
+    "INVERTED",
+    with_position=True,
+    skip_merge=True,
+)
+
+index = dataset.describe_indices()[0]
+assert index.segments[0].index_version == EXPECTED_FTS_VERSION
+
+matches = dataset.to_table(full_text_query="compatibility")
+assert set(matches["id"].to_pylist()) == set(row_ids)
+
+phrase_matches = dataset.to_table(full_text_query=PhraseQuery("lance database", "text"))
+assert set(phrase_matches["id"].to_pylist()) == set(range(0, NUM_ROWS, 3))
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/metadata.lance b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/metadata.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..10d6e21f91a
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/metadata.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/part_1_docs.lance b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/part_1_docs.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d7314b6b7c2
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/part_1_docs.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/part_1_invert.lance b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/part_1_invert.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..609d3cbcbb9
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/part_1_invert.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/part_1_tokens.lance b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/part_1_tokens.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..614e7e40872
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_indices/450d1cd4-9eb2-4a11-8eac-ab1b64b1ea31/part_1_tokens.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_transactions/0-0e238eef-4390-4c40-9c7e-3c1437b4735b.txn b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_transactions/0-0e238eef-4390-4c40-9c7e-3c1437b4735b.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2f01cf7c9b2
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_transactions/0-0e238eef-4390-4c40-9c7e-3c1437b4735b.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_transactions/1-d331315a-f1a6-4735-a453-90470239bd60.txn b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_transactions/1-d331315a-f1a6-4735-a453-90470239bd60.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..333e934e259
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_transactions/1-d331315a-f1a6-4735-a453-90470239bd60.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d61e99244a2
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7839e3ac728
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/data/110110010101010101010101b80a6f4c4d804a62b40de56ffb.lance b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/data/110110010101010101010101b80a6f4c4d804a62b40de56ffb.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..96e80c7b9a8
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v3.0.1/fts_v1/data/110110010101010101010101b80a6f4c4d804a62b40de56ffb.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/datagen.py b/test_data/v4.0.1/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..accaa57cadf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v4.0.1/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+import os
+import shutil
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.query import PhraseQuery
+
+EXPECTED_LANCE_VERSION = "4.0.1"
+EXPECTED_FTS_VERSION = 2
+NUM_ROWS = 300
+
+assert lance.__version__ == EXPECTED_LANCE_VERSION
+
+os.environ["LANCE_FTS_FORMAT_VERSION"] = str(EXPECTED_FTS_VERSION)
+
+dataset_path = Path(__file__).parent / "fts_v2"
+shutil.rmtree(dataset_path, ignore_errors=True)
+
+row_ids = list(range(NUM_ROWS))
+texts = [
+    "lance database compatibility shared"
+    if row_id % 3 == 0
+    else "database lance compatibility shared"
+    for row_id in row_ids
+]
+dataset = lance.write_dataset(pa.table({"id": row_ids, "text": texts}), dataset_path)
+dataset.create_scalar_index("text", "INVERTED", with_position=True)
+
+index = dataset.describe_indices()[0]
+assert index.segments[0].index_version == EXPECTED_FTS_VERSION
+
+matches = dataset.to_table(full_text_query="compatibility")
+assert set(matches["id"].to_pylist()) == set(row_ids)
+
+phrase_matches = dataset.to_table(full_text_query=PhraseQuery("lance database", "text"))
+assert set(phrase_matches["id"].to_pylist()) == set(range(0, NUM_ROWS, 3))
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/metadata.lance b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/metadata.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1f3d5698f43
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/metadata.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/part_6_docs.lance b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/part_6_docs.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d7314b6b7c2
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/part_6_docs.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/part_6_invert.lance b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/part_6_invert.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..196ad67f15a
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/part_6_invert.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/part_6_tokens.lance b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/part_6_tokens.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..614e7e40872
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_indices/1fb8e405-43d0-4707-be37-64eadc3d5e97/part_6_tokens.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_transactions/0-fbd896dd-b250-46fa-b60d-9b1474d7fc7b.txn b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_transactions/0-fbd896dd-b250-46fa-b60d-9b1474d7fc7b.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f550fa2c193
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_transactions/0-fbd896dd-b250-46fa-b60d-9b1474d7fc7b.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_transactions/1-ebe80000-4421-4ed6-8072-093abeb55eaf.txn b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_transactions/1-ebe80000-4421-4ed6-8072-093abeb55eaf.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3cbfb8b41cb
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_transactions/1-ebe80000-4421-4ed6-8072-093abeb55eaf.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6fa1d8bb6e7
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cb8ff78ef70
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/data/000100000010011011000110c47acb4569aa4d2c1957105328.lance b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/data/000100000010011011000110c47acb4569aa4d2c1957105328.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..96e80c7b9a8
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v4.0.1/fts_v2/data/000100000010011011000110c47acb4569aa4d2c1957105328.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/datagen.py b/test_data/v6.0.1/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..127eb883f6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v6.0.1/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+import shutil
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+EXPECTED_LANCE_VERSION = "6.0.1"
+NUM_DENSE_ROWS = 513
+VALUES_PER_DENSE_ROW = 32
+NUM_TRAILING_ROWS = 65_536
+
+assert lance.__version__ == EXPECTED_LANCE_VERSION
+
+dataset_path = Path(__file__).parent / "miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance"
+shutil.rmtree(dataset_path, ignore_errors=True)
+
+captions = pa.array(
+    [
+        list(range(row * VALUES_PER_DENSE_ROW, (row + 1) * VALUES_PER_DENSE_ROW))
+        for row in range(NUM_DENSE_ROWS)
+    ]
+    + [([] if row % 2 == 0 else None) for row in range(NUM_TRAILING_ROWS)],
+    type=pa.list_(pa.uint32()),
+)
+table = pa.table(
+    {
+        "mime": ["image/jpeg"] * len(captions),
+        "captions": captions,
+    }
+)
+lance.write_dataset(table, dataset_path, data_storage_version="2.2")
+
+# The v6.0.1 writer truncated a miniblock's structural level count to u16 while
+# retaining the complete RLE payload. Confirm this generator still captures the defect.
+try:
+    lance.dataset(dataset_path).to_table()
+except pa.ArrowInvalid as error:
+    assert 'StructArray field "captions", expected 8192 got 513' in str(error)
+else:
+    raise AssertionError("expected the v6.0.1 miniblock level-count overflow")
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/datagen.py b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b6bd8149a74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+# Generate with:
+# uv run --isolated --no-project --python 3.12 --with pylance==6.0.1 datagen.py
+import shutil
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.namespace import DirectoryNamespace
+from lance_namespace import CreateTableRequest
+
+assert lance.__version__ == "6.0.1"
+
+root = Path(__file__).parent / "namespace"
+shutil.rmtree(root, ignore_errors=True)
+namespace = DirectoryNamespace(
+    root=str(root), manifest_enabled="true", dir_listing_enabled="false"
+)
+batch = pa.record_batch({"id": [1]})
+sink = pa.BufferOutputStream()
+with pa.ipc.new_stream(sink, batch.schema) as writer:
+    writer.write_batch(batch)
+namespace.create_table(CreateTableRequest(id=["t1"]), sink.getvalue().to_pybytes())
+manifest = lance.dataset(root / "__manifest")
+assert manifest.config()["lance.auto_cleanup.interval"] == "20"
+assert manifest.config()["lance.auto_cleanup.older_than"] == "14days"
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/3fd5246b-80ed-4455-a551-49b2cccc138c/page_data.lance b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/3fd5246b-80ed-4455-a551-49b2cccc138c/page_data.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..fd7198b35f7
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/3fd5246b-80ed-4455-a551-49b2cccc138c/page_data.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/3fd5246b-80ed-4455-a551-49b2cccc138c/page_lookup.lance b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/3fd5246b-80ed-4455-a551-49b2cccc138c/page_lookup.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d99fed84900
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/3fd5246b-80ed-4455-a551-49b2cccc138c/page_lookup.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/90a4f46e-95b4-4ad0-b3ae-66c71c9270ad/bitmap_page_lookup.lance b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/90a4f46e-95b4-4ad0-b3ae-66c71c9270ad/bitmap_page_lookup.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1f85d1ccab3
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/90a4f46e-95b4-4ad0-b3ae-66c71c9270ad/bitmap_page_lookup.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/9f61f26d-f349-43e8-8d66-b6ab1d70a513/bitmap_page_lookup.lance b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/9f61f26d-f349-43e8-8d66-b6ab1d70a513/bitmap_page_lookup.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2cf940fadf8
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_indices/9f61f26d-f349-43e8-8d66-b6ab1d70a513/bitmap_page_lookup.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/0-f8b69967-f69b-430b-bd19-6de4ecc6661e.txn b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/0-f8b69967-f69b-430b-bd19-6de4ecc6661e.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b8193dc3e9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/0-f8b69967-f69b-430b-bd19-6de4ecc6661e.txn
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+$f8b69967-f69b-430b-bd19-6de4ecc6661e��U	object_id ���������
*string8R1
+,lance-schema:unenforced-primary-key:position
0`
$object_type
 ���������
*string8#location ���������
*string0
8#metadata ���������
*string0
8%base_objects ���������
*list0
8
	object_id *string0
8"!
+lance.auto_cleanup.interval20"'
+lance.auto_cleanup.older_than14days
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/1-442b76c1-0432-4290-b9a5-0ba180d74a9f.txn b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/1-442b76c1-0432-4290-b9a5-0ba180d74a9f.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ae63945d73d
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/1-442b76c1-0432-4290-b9a5-0ba180d74a9f.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/2-67e892d9-dadf-43d3-bee7-ab6698b37177.txn b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/2-67e892d9-dadf-43d3-bee7-ab6698b37177.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b9c35fb4f4c
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/2-67e892d9-dadf-43d3-bee7-ab6698b37177.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/3-fc6b6d69-d8f2-49ed-88e1-66eedf788abe.txn b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/3-fc6b6d69-d8f2-49ed-88e1-66eedf788abe.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d7112b95219
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/3-fc6b6d69-d8f2-49ed-88e1-66eedf788abe.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/4-28073150-91be-40c6-89de-12d2f3df294b.txn b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/4-28073150-91be-40c6-89de-12d2f3df294b.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5a2974434e3
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_transactions/4-28073150-91be-40c6-89de-12d2f3df294b.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551610.manifest b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551610.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a63257f841d
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551610.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551611.manifest b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551611.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f7f3b0797f5
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551611.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551612.manifest b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551612.manifest
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index 00000000000..18a55c782d9
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551612.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c64725c7bba
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest
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index 00000000000..b5551071aaf
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/data/11111001010111101010011142f3754cac8700dbea13187b61.lance b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/data/11111001010111101010011142f3754cac8700dbea13187b61.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6cf55d44a4f
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/__manifest/data/11111001010111101010011142f3754cac8700dbea13187b61.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/def4bfb4_t1/_transactions/0-0fe569c3-9e67-4e19-8ad5-3892453cfd91.txn b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/def4bfb4_t1/_transactions/0-0fe569c3-9e67-4e19-8ad5-3892453cfd91.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..66e847d432a
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/def4bfb4_t1/_transactions/0-0fe569c3-9e67-4e19-8ad5-3892453cfd91.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/def4bfb4_t1/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/def4bfb4_t1/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ec2c14ec8a4
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/def4bfb4_t1/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/def4bfb4_t1/data/1100011110010100001111006f4e6e40fea5335ff45a638719.lance b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/def4bfb4_t1/data/1100011110010100001111006f4e6e40fea5335ff45a638719.lance
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Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/dir_manifest/namespace/def4bfb4_t1/data/1100011110010100001111006f4e6e40fea5335ff45a638719.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance/_transactions/0-8f7139ed-6394-401a-bad6-d22598894380.txn b/test_data/v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance/_transactions/0-8f7139ed-6394-401a-bad6-d22598894380.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8e4a8a56abe
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance/_transactions/0-8f7139ed-6394-401a-bad6-d22598894380.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest b/test_data/v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..284bfccc89e
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance/data/110111010100010000111011182b1d41469840c6b679aeab55.lance b/test_data/v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance/data/110111010100010000111011182b1d41469840c6b679aeab55.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b16a3cc2826
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v6.0.1/miniblock_level_count_overflow.lance/data/110111010100010000111011182b1d41469840c6b679aeab55.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/datagen.py b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..88a544c7f08
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+"""Generate legacy Blob fixtures with the released pylance 8.0.0 wheel."""
+
+import shutil
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+
+assert lance.__version__ == "8.0.0"
+
+schema = pa.schema(
+    [
+        pa.field("id", pa.uint32(), nullable=False),
+        pa.field(
+            "blob",
+            pa.large_binary(),
+            metadata={
+                "lance-encoding:blob": "true",
+                "lance-encoding:blob-inline-size-threshold": "4",
+                "lance-encoding:blob-dedicated-size-threshold": "12",
+            },
+        ),
+    ]
+)
+table = pa.Table.from_pydict(
+    {"id": [0, 1, 2], "blob": [b"legacy bytes", None, b""]}, schema=schema
+)
+for version in ["2.0", "2.1"]:
+    dataset_path = Path(__file__).parent / f"v{version}.lance"
+    shutil.rmtree(dataset_path, ignore_errors=True)
+    dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+        table,
+        dataset_path,
+        data_storage_version=version,
+    )
+    assert dataset.count_rows() == 3
+    assert dataset.schema == schema
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/_transactions/0-0168bc3a-5f8b-4aed-8e13-ce5e65da2f41.txn b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/_transactions/0-0168bc3a-5f8b-4aed-8e13-ce5e65da2f41.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f751d835ef6
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/_transactions/0-0168bc3a-5f8b-4aed-8e13-ce5e65da2f41.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f2a2037c9e7
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/_versions/latest_version_hint.json b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/_versions/latest_version_hint.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..491d734467a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/_versions/latest_version_hint.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"version":1}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/data/10010111011000111101001172f53a4f73a65a56e2e9eb6c48.lance b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/data/10010111011000111101001172f53a4f73a65a56e2e9eb6c48.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b8d2500a4e0
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.0.lance/data/10010111011000111101001172f53a4f73a65a56e2e9eb6c48.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/_transactions/0-797ca2e7-4d97-47eb-b26c-ce062a471457.txn b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/_transactions/0-797ca2e7-4d97-47eb-b26c-ce062a471457.txn
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a24f74e8e06
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/_transactions/0-797ca2e7-4d97-47eb-b26c-ce062a471457.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4bcb398bdf7
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/_versions/latest_version_hint.json b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/_versions/latest_version_hint.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..491d734467a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/_versions/latest_version_hint.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"version":1}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/data/1101111110111101100001104d82a449ccad92f0a7e590bdbe.lance b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/data/1101111110111101100001104d82a449ccad92f0a7e590bdbe.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..be82a368938
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/blobs/v2.1.lance/data/1101111110111101100001104d82a449ccad92f0a7e590bdbe.lance differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/datagen.py b/test_data/v8.0.0/datagen.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..dea3ca107ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v8.0.0/datagen.py
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright The Lance Authors
+
+import shutil
+from decimal import Decimal
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.indices import IndexConfig
+
+EXPECTED_LANCE_VERSION = "8.0.0"
+
+assert lance.__version__ == EXPECTED_LANCE_VERSION
+
+dataset_path = Path(__file__).parent / "decimal_zonemap"
+shutil.rmtree(dataset_path, ignore_errors=True)
+
+values = pa.array(
+    [Decimal("1.00"), Decimal("2.00"), Decimal("3.00")],
+    type=pa.decimal128(10, 2),
+)
+dataset = lance.write_dataset(
+    pa.table({"id": [1, 2, 3], "value": values}),
+    dataset_path,
+)
+dataset.create_scalar_index("value", IndexConfig("zonemap", {}))
+
+indices = dataset.describe_indices()
+assert len(indices) == 1
+assert indices[0].index_type == "ZoneMap"
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_indices/ac25dab3-5657-4e81-90b8-df2daacdb7ab/zonemap.lance b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_indices/ac25dab3-5657-4e81-90b8-df2daacdb7ab/zonemap.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1d993f7c6a9
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diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_transactions/0-6ba4fa06-16d6-41b4-83cf-cf793c636534.txn b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_transactions/0-6ba4fa06-16d6-41b4-83cf-cf793c636534.txn
new file mode 100644
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Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_transactions/0-6ba4fa06-16d6-41b4-83cf-cf793c636534.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_transactions/1-aba0c0c9-b72c-425a-8fb2-d38e1635659c.txn b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_transactions/1-aba0c0c9-b72c-425a-8fb2-d38e1635659c.txn
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Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_transactions/1-aba0c0c9-b72c-425a-8fb2-d38e1635659c.txn differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0725e4e5d41
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_versions/18446744073709551613.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ee3bc710a99
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_versions/18446744073709551614.manifest differ
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_versions/latest_version_hint.json b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_versions/latest_version_hint.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..218abba1699
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/_versions/latest_version_hint.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"version":2}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/data/010000100111000010010010c5c73f4e94990fd906290a7890.lance b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/data/010000100111000010010010c5c73f4e94990fd906290a7890.lance
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5e6a3d6c6c1
Binary files /dev/null and b/test_data/v8.0.0/decimal_zonemap/data/010000100111000010010010c5c73f4e94990fd906290a7890.lance differ
diff --git a/test_debug.py b/test_debug.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e42798d5ff3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test_debug.py
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+import copy
+import uuid
+import lance
+import pyarrow as pa
+from lance.namespace import DirectoryNamespace
+
+CONFIG = {
+    'allow_http': 'true',
+    'aws_access_key_id': 'ACCESS_KEY',
+    'aws_secret_access_key': 'SECRET_KEY',
+    'aws_endpoint': 'http://localhost:4566',
+    'aws_region': 'us-east-1',
+}
+
+storage_options = copy.deepcopy(CONFIG)
+storage_options_with_refresh = dict(storage_options)
+storage_options_with_refresh['refresh_offset_millis'] = '1000'
+
+dir_props = {f'storage.{k}': v for k, v in storage_options_with_refresh.items()}
+dir_props['root'] = 's3://lance-namespace-integtest/namespace_root'
+dir_props['ops_metrics_enabled'] = 'true'
+dir_props['vend_input_storage_options'] = 'true'
+dir_props['vend_input_storage_options_refresh_interval_millis'] = '3600000'
+
+namespace = DirectoryNamespace(**dir_props)
+
+table1 = pa.Table.from_pylist([{'a': 1, 'b': 2}])
+table_name = 'debug_print3_' + uuid.uuid4().hex
+table_id = ['test_ns', table_name]
+
+print('=== Creating table ===')
+ds = lance.write_dataset(
+    table1,
+    namespace_client=namespace,
+    table_id=table_id,
+    mode='create',
+    storage_options=storage_options,
+)
+print('=== Table created ===')
+print('Describe count after write:', namespace.retrieve_ops_metrics().get('describe_table', 0))
+
+print('')
+print('=== Opening dataset via lance.dataset() ===')
+ds_from_namespace = lance.dataset(
+    namespace_client=namespace,
+    table_id=table_id,
+    storage_options=storage_options,
+)
+print('=== Dataset opened ===')
+print('Describe count after lance.dataset():', namespace.retrieve_ops_metrics().get('describe_table', 0))